af-wikipedia-org-3500	----	Ahasveros - Wikipedia Ahasveros in Wikipedia, die vrye ensiklopedie Jump to navigation Jump to search Ahasveros van Persië Koning van konings van Persië Ahasveros, sjahansjah (keiser) van die Achaimeense ryk, op 'n munt afgebeeld Vorstehuis Achaimeense dinastie Titels Groot Koning (Sjah) van Persië Farao van Egipte Regeer 486 v.C. – 465 v.C. Voorganger Dareios I die Grote Opvolger Artasasta I Gebore 518 v.C.; Persië Oorlede 465 v.C.; Persië Eggenote Amestris, Esther Kinders Vader Dareios I die Grote Moeder Atossa Godsdiens Zoroastrisme Ahasveros, ook bekend as Xerxes I van Persië of Xerxes die Grote, (uitspraak ˈksɛrksɛs; خشایارشا, Ḫšayāršā, uitspraak xʃajaːrʃaː); was die vierde Zoroastriaanse koning van konings van die Achaimeense ryk. Inhoud 1 Ekwivalensie van die name Ahasveros en Xerxes 2 Lewe 2.1 Jeug en bewindsname 3 Dood 4 Veldtogte 4.1 Inval van die Griekse vasteland 4.2 Thermopylai en Athene 5 Bouprojekte 6 In klassieke musiek 7 Kinders 8 Voorstellings in gewilde media 9 Notas 10 Verwysings 10.1 Antieke bronne 10.2 Moderne bronne Ekwivalensie van die name Ahasveros en Xerxes[wysig | wysig bron] Die naam Ahasveros is ekwivalent aan sy Griekse naam Xerxes, aangesien albei afgelei is van Khasjajarsja in die Ou-Persiese taal. Die vorm Xerxes het egter nie tradisioneel in westerse bybels verskyn nie,[1] maar is eerder aangedui as Ahasveros (of Ahasuerus in Engels). Baie ander vertalings en parafrases[2] het wel die naam Xerxes gebruik. Die naam Xerxes is aan ons oorgelewer uit die Grieks, Ξέρξης. Die westerse naam Ahasveros is afgelei van 'n gelatiniseerde vorm van die Hebreeus ʼĂḥašwērôš (אחשורוש), wat 'n Hebreeuse artikulering is van die Babiloniese Agsjijarsjoe: hierdie sowel as die Griekse Ξέρξης is weergawes van die Ou-Persiese Xšajāršā (of Khsajârsjâ).[3] Hierdie transliterasie het dus vorm aangeneem namate die naam oorgedra is van een taal na die ander, in 'n westelike rigting vanuit Persië, totdat dit in westerse bybelvertalings opgeneem is. Lewe[wysig | wysig bron] Jeug en bewindsname[wysig | wysig bron] Onmiddellik na beslaglegging op die koningskap het Dareios I van Persië (seun van Hystaspes) getrou met Atossa, dogter van Kores die Grote. Hulle was albei afstammelinge van Achaimenes uit afsonderlike Achaimeense stamlyne. Deur 'n dogter van Kores as gade te neem, het Dareios sy koningsposisie versterk.[4] Dareios was 'n aktiewe keiser, bedrywig met bouprogramme in Persepolis, Soesa, Egipte en elders. Voor die einde van sy heerskappy het hy voorbereidings getref vir 'n strafekspedisie teen Athene, maar 'n nuwe opstand in Egipte (moontlik deur 'n Persiese satraap) moes ondergesit word. Volgens Persiese wet, is van Achaimeense konings verwag om 'n opvolger aan te dui voordat hulle op omvangryke ekspedisies sou vertrek. Met sy voorneme om te vertrek (487-486 v.C.),[5] het Dareios sy graftombe te Naqsj-e Rostam voorberei en Ahasveros, sy oudste seun by Atossa, as opvolger aangestel. Dareios se kwynende gesondheid het hom toe verhoed om die kampanjes aan te voer,[6] en hy sterf in Oktober 486 v.C..[6] Ahasveros was nie Dareios se oudste seun nie, en volgens ou-Irannese tradisies moes hy nie die koning opgevolg het nie. Ahasveros was egter die oudste seun van Dareios en Atossa, en gevolglik 'n afstammeling van Kores. Dit het van Ahasveros die gekose koning van Persië gemaak.[7] Sekere moderne geleerdes beskou die ongewone keuse van Dareios, om die troon aan Ahasveros oor te laat, in die lig van die unieke ererang wat Kores die Grote en sy dogter Atossa beklee het.[8] Artobazan is gebore as seun van "Dareios die onderdaan ", terwyl Ahasveros die oudste seun was van Dareios na sy troonbestyging, in die purper, terwyl Artobazan se moeder 'n nie-adellike was, teenoor Ahasveros se moeder, wat dogter van die rykstigter was.[9] Ahasveros is gekroon en het sy vader opgevolg in Oktober-Desember 486 v.C.[10] toe hy omtrent 36 jaar oud was.[5] Die oorgang van mag na Ahasveros was onbestrede, en dit weereens deels te danke aan die groot gesag van Atossa.[4] Sy koninklike bewindsname is nie betwis deur enige persoon in die hof, òf onder die Achaimeense familie, òf deur enige van die onderworpe nasies nie.[11] Byna dadelik het hy opstande in Egipte en Babilon ondergesit, wat reeds die vorige jaar uitgebreek het, en het sy broer Achaimenes as goewerneur of satraap (Ou-Persies: khsjathrapavan) oor Egipte aangestel. In 484 v.C., het hy die Babiloniërs onthuts deur gewelddadig beslag te lê op die goue standbeeld van Bel (Mardoek, Merodach), wat dan opgesmelt is.[12] Volgens tradisie moes die regmatige koning oor Babilon die hande van die beeld vashou op elke nuwejaarsdag, en hierdie heiligskending het die Babiloniërs aangevuur tot opstande in 484 v.C. en 482 v.C., aangesien, volgens eietydse Babiloniese dokumente, Ahasveros sy vader se Koningstitel oor Babilon afgewys het, deur eerder as Koning van Persië en Medië bekend te staan, Groot Koning, Koning van Konings (Sjahansjah) en Koning van Nasies (d.w.s. van die wêreld). Alhoewel Herodotos se verslag in die Geskiedenisse sekere vrae opgelewer het betreffende Ahasveros se godsdienstige beskouinge, word hy deur moderne geleerdes gesien as 'n Zoroastriaan.[13] Dood[wysig | wysig bron] In die jaar 465 v.C. is Ahasveros vermoor deur Artabanos, die kommandeur van die koninklike lyfwag en die mees gesaghebbende amptenaar in die Persiese hofhouding (Hazarapat beteken kommandeur van duisend). Artabanos is bevorder na hierdie mees vername amp in die Achaimeense hofhouding ná sy weiering om Mardonios in Plataia by te staan, gevolg deur sy suksesvolle onttrekking van die tweede Persiese weermag uit Griekeland. Alhoewel hy dieselde naam gedra het as die beroemde oom van Ahasveros, 'n Hyrkaniër, was sy opgang na die prominente posisie te danke aan sy gewildheid in godsdienstige kringe van die hofhouding, maar ook danksy harem-intriges. Hy het sy sewe seuns in sleutelposisies aangestel en het 'n doeltreffende meesterplan beraam om die Achaimeners uit die kussings te lig.[14] In Augustus, 465 v.C., het Artabanos vir Ahasveros om die lewe gebring met die hulp van die eunug Aspamitres. Griekse historici lewer teenstrydige verslae van die volle verhaal. Volgens Ctesias (in Persica 20), het Artabanos hierop kroonprins Dareios (Ahasveros se oudste seun) beskuldig van die moord; hy het verder vir Artasasta ('n ander seun van Ahasveros) aangehits om die vadersmoord te wreek. Maar volgens Aristoteles (in Politiek 5.1311b), het Artabanos eers vir Dareios dood gemaak, en toe die koning self. Later, toe die gebeure op die lappe kom, en sy aanslag op die koningskap onthul is, is Artabanos saam met sy seuns dood gemaak deur Artasasta I.[15] 'n Deelnemer aan die harwar was ook generaal Megabyzos (Baghabukhsja) wie se oorlopery miskien die intrige in die guns van die Achaimeners beklink het.[16] Veldtogte[wysig | wysig bron] Inval van die Griekse vasteland[wysig | wysig bron] Die hoofartikel vir hierdie afdeling is: Grieks-Persiese oorloë. Ahasveros laat die Hellespont striem Dareios het aan sy seun die taak nagelaat om 'n strafekspedisie teen die Atheners, Naxiane en Eretriane uit te voer, weens hul bemoeienis met die Ioonse opstand en hul oorwinning oor die Perse te Marathon. Vanaf 483 v.C. het Ahasveros sy ekspedisie voorberei: 'n Kanaal is gegrawe deur die landbrug van die skiereiland van Berg Athos, voorrade is weggelê in die stasies langs die pad deur Thrakië, en twee brue is aangebring oor die Hellespont. Soldate van baie nasionaliteite het in die magte van Ahasveros diens gedoen, insluitend die Assiriërs, Fenisiërs, Babiloniërs, Indiërs, Egiptenare, Jode en Arabiere.[17] Volgens die Griekse historikus Herodotos, het Ahasveros se eerste poging om die Hellespont oor te steek misluk weens 'n storm wat die flas- en papirusbrug laat opbreek het; Ahasveros het opdrag gegee dat die Hellespont (die seestraat self) driehonderd keer gekasty word en het ysterboeie in die water laat werp. Ahasveros se tweede poging om die Hellespont te oorbrug was suksesvol.[18] Ahasveros het 'n bondgenootskap met Kartago aangegaan, en hierdeur vir Griekeland ontsê van ondersteuning van die magtige heersers van Syrakuse en Agrigentum. Baie van die kleiner Griekse state het verder die kant van die Perse gekies, veral Thessalië, Thebe en Argos. Ahasveros het in die lente van 480 v.C. uit Sardis opgeruk met 'n vloot en weermag wat Herodotos beweer meer as twee miljoen sterk was met minstens 10,000 elite krygers, genaamd die Persiese onsterflikes. Ahasveros het die aanvanklike veldslae in sy guns beklink. Thermopylai en Athene[wysig | wysig bron] Met die Veldslag van Thermopylai, het 'n klein mag van Griekse krygers onder aanvoering van Koning Leonidas van Sparta, die veel groter Persiese magte teëgestaan, maar is uiteindelik verslaan. Volgens Herodotos, het die Perse deur die Spartaanse falanks gebreek nadat 'n Griekse man, by name Ephialtes, sy land verraai het deur die Perse van 'n alternatiewe pas oor die berge in te lig. Ná Thermopylai is Athene ingeneem en is die Atheners en Spartane teruggedryf na hul laaste verdedigingslyne by die Landbrug van Korinthe en in die Saroniese Golf. Die vertraging danksy die Spartaanse weerstand, het die Atheners in staat gestel om die stad te ontruim. Wat volgende gebeur het is gehul in 'n mate van omstredenheid. Volgens Herodotos, het Ahasveros by sy aantref van die ontruimde stad, in 'n onkenmerkende woedeuitbarsting, veral vir 'n Persiese koning, gelas dat Athene afgebrand word. Inskripsie van Ahasveros naby die Wan-vesting Anti-Persiese sentiment het hoog geloop onder baie vastelandse Grieke, en die gerug dat Ahasveros die stad sou vernietig was dan ook gewild, of dit was dalk van 'n "verskroeide aarde" beleid om Ahasveros se weermag van enige buit in die stad te ontsê. Groot storms wat Griekse skepe te Artemisium vernietig het, asook die nuus van die neerlaag by Thermopylai, het die terugval van Griekse magte ten gevolg gehad, en 'n vroeë einde aan die konflikte gebring. Ahasveros is genoop deur 'n boodskap van Themistokles om (teen die raad van Artemisia van Halikarnassos) die Griekse vloot onder gunstige omstandighede aan te val, eerder as om 'n afdeling van sy skepe na die Peloponnese te stuur in afwagting van die ontbinding van die Griekse magte. Die Seeslag van Salamis op 29 September, 480 v.C., het uitgeloop op 'n Griekse oorwinning. Weens onrus in Babilon was Ahasveros gedwonge om sy weermag terug te stuur ten einde 'n opstand af te weer. 'n Mag onder aanvoering van Mardonios is in Griekeland agtergelaat, wat die volgende jaar te Plataia verslaan is.[19] Die Grieke het ook die oorblywende Persiese vloot, wat te Mykale op anker gelê het, aangeval en verbrand. Dit het die Perse afgesny van die voorrade wat benodig is vir onderhoud van hul reuse weermag, sodat 'n terugtrekking hul enigste opsie was. Die terugtrekking het op sy beurt gelei tot 'n opruiing van die Griekse stadstate van Asië. Bouprojekte[wysig | wysig bron] Die rotsgekerfde tombe te Naqsj-e Rostam noord van Persepolis, na die voorbeeld van Dareios s'n, word meestal beskou as dié van Ahasveros Ná die militêre blapse in Griekeland, het Ahasveros na Persië teruggekeer en 'n groot getal bouprojekte voltooi wat deur sy vader by Soesa en Persepolis begin is. Hy het die Poort van alle Nasies en die Saal van 'n Honderd Suile by Persepolis opgerig, die grootste en mees indrukwekkende van die paleisstrukture. Hy het die Apadana voltooi, die Paleis van Dareios en die Tessourie, wat almal deur Dareios begin is, maar ook sy paleis opgerig wat twee keer die grote van sy vader s'n was. Sy voorkeure in argitektuur was soortgelyk aan dié van Dareios, alhoewel op 'n selfs meer kolossale skaal.[20] Hy het ook die Koninklike Pad onderhou wat deur sy vader aangelê is, die Soesapoort voltooi, en 'n paleis in Soesa gebou.[21] In klassieke musiek[wysig | wysig bron] Ahasveros is die hoofkarakter in die opera Serse deur die Duits-Engelse Barok-komponis Georg Friedrich Händel. Die opera is die eerste keer opgevoer in die King's Theatre in London op 15 April 1738. Kinders[wysig | wysig bron] By koningin Amestris Amytis, gade van Megabyzus Artasasta I Dareios, die eersgeborene, vermoor deur Artasasta I en Artabanos Hystaspes, vermoor deur Artasasta I Achaimenes, vermoor deur Egiptenare Rhodogune By onbekende gades Artarios, satraap van Babilon Tithraustes Arsames of Arsamenes, of Arxanes, of Sarsamas satraap van Egipte Parysatis[22] Ratasjah[23] Voorstellings in gewilde media[wysig | wysig bron] Latere geslagte se bekoring met antieke Sparta, en spesifiek die Veldslag van Thermopylai, het gelei tot Ahasveros se uitbeelding in 'n aantal werke in die gewilde media. Byvoorbeeld is sy rol vertolk deur David Farrar in die 1962 film The 300 Spartans, waar hy voorgestel is as 'n wrede, magsbehepte despoot en 'n onbekwame aanvoerder. Hy word ook opsigtelik uitgebeeld in die strokiesprentnovelle 300 deur Frank Miller, asook in die verfilming daarvan, waar sy rol vertolk word deur Brasiliaanse akteur Rodrigo Santoro. Ander media wat handel oor die Persiese Ryk of die Bybelverhaal van Ester, verwys ook na Ahasveros, soos byvoorbeeld die videospeletjie Assassin's Creed II en die film One Night with the King, waarin Ahasveros vertolk word deur Britse akteur Luke Goss. Hy is die leier van die Persiese ryk in die videospeletjie Civilization II (tesame met Scheherazade) en III, alhoewel Civilization IV hom vervang met Kores die Grote. Ahasveros Achaimeense dinastie Gebore: 519 v.C. Oorlede: 465 v.C. Voorafgegaan deur Dareios I die Grote Groot Koning (Sjah) van Persië 485 v.C.–465 v.C. Opgevolg deur Artasasta I Farao van Egipte 485 v.C.–465 v.C. Notas[wysig | wysig bron] Gore Vidal, in sy historiese fiksienovelle Creation, beskryf die opgang van die Achaimeners uitvoerig, en veral Dareios I, en bied 'n uitbeelding van die lewens- en sterwensomstandighede van Ahasveros. Sy geskiedenisbeskouing gaan teen die grein van Griekse geskiednisse. Verwysings[wysig | wysig bron] ↑ KJV, NASB, Amplified Bible, ESV, 21st Century KJV, ASV, Young's Literal Translation, Darby Translation, Holman Christian Standard Bible, ens. ↑ NIV, The Message, NLT, CEV, NCV, NIRV, Today's NIV, ens. ↑ Nichol, F.D., Seventh-day Adventist Bible Commentary, Volume 3, Review and Herald Publishing Association, (Washington, D.C., 1954 uitgawe), p.459, "Historical Setting" ↑ 4,0 4,1 Schmitt, R., Atossa in Encyclopaedia Iranica. ↑ 5,0 5,1 Dandamaev, M. A., A political history of the Achaemenid empire, p. 180. ↑ 6,0 6,1 A. Sh. Shahbazi, Darius I the Great, in Encyclopaedia Iranica. ↑ Herodotos Boek 7, Hoofst. 2. Uittreksel: Artabazanes het as oudste van al die kinders aanspraak op die kroon gemaak, aangesien dit 'n gevestigde norm was die wêreld oor, dat die oudste die voorrang sal geniet; met Ahasveros daarteenoor, wat aangedring het dat sy herkoms uit Atossa was, die dogter van Kores, en dat dit Kores was wat vryheid vir die Perse verkry het. ↑ R. Shabani Hoofstuk I, p. 15 ↑ Olmstead: the history of Persian empire ↑ The cambridge history of Iran vol. 2. p. 509. ↑ The Cambridge ancient history vol. V p. 72. ↑ R. Ghirshman, Iran, p.191 ↑ M. Boyce, Achaemenid Religion in Encyclopædia Iranica. Kyk ook Boardman, J. (1988). The Cambridge Ancient History Vol. IV (2 uitg.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521228042. p. 101. ↑ Iran-e-Bastan/Pirnia boek 1 p. 873 ↑ Dandamayev ↑ History of Persian Empire-Olmstead p 289/90 ↑ Farrokh 2007: 77 ↑ Bailkey, Nels, ed. Readings in Ancient History, p. 175. D.C. Heath and Co., USA, 1992. ↑ Battle of Salamis and aftermath ↑ Ghirshman, Iran, p.172 ↑ Herodotos VII.11 ↑ Ctesias ↑ M. Brosius, Women in ancient Persia. Wikimedia Commons bevat media in verband met Ahasveros. Antieke bronne[wysig | wysig bron] Die sesde boek, getiteld Erato in Geskiedenis van Herodotos. Die sewende boek, getiteld Polymnia in Geskiedenis van Herodotos. Moderne bronne[wysig | wysig bron] Dandamaev, M. A. (1989). A political history of the Achaemenid empire. Brill Publishers. p. 373. ISBN 9004091726. Macaulay, G. C. (2004). The Histories. Spark Educational Publishing. ISBN 1593081022. Shabani, Reza (1386). Khshayarsha (Xerxes). What do I know about Iran? No. 75 (in Persian). Cultural Research Burreau. p. 120. ISBN 9643791092.AS1-onderhoud: onerkende taal (link) Shahbazi, A. Sh. "Darius I the Great". Encyclopaedia Iranica vol. 7. Routledge & Kegan Paul.  Schmitt, Rüdiger "Achaemenid dynasty". Encyclopaedia Iranica vol. 3. Routledge & Kegan Paul.  Schmitt, Rüdiger "Atossa". Encyclopaedia Iranica vol. 3. Routledge & Kegan Paul.  McCullough, W. S "Ahasuerus". Encyclopaedia Iranica vol. 1. Routledge & Kegan Paul.  Boyce, Mary "Achaemenid Religion". Encyclopaedia Iranica vol. 1. Routledge & Kegan Paul.  Dandamayev, M. A (1999). "Artabanus". Encyclopædia Iranica. Routledge & Kegan Paul. URL besoek op 2009-02-25.  Frye, Richard N. (1963). The Heritage of Persia. Weidenfeld en Nicolson. p. 301. ISBN 0297167278. Schmeja, H. (1975). "Dareios, Xerxes, Artaxerxes. Drei persische Königsnamen in griechischer Deutung (Zu Herodot 6,98,3)". Die Sprache. 21. pp. 184–88. Gershevitch, Ilya; Bayne Fisher, William; A. Boyle, J. (1985). The Cambridge history of Iran. 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521200911. Boardman, John; al., et (1988). The Cambridge ancient history. V. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521228042. Normdata BNE: XX1153338 BNF: cb150689088 (data) CANTIC: a12318310 GND: 118808109 ISNI: 0000 0000 6300 8852 LCCN: n81070675 LNB: 000054067 NKC: mzk2005313022 NLA: 66228176 NLI: 000437459 NTA: 073636711 SELIBR: 259706 SUDOC: 050588400 Trove: 1808084 ULAN: 500354810 VIAF: 282770127 WorldCat Identities: viaf-19983268 Ontsluit van "https://af.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ahasveros&oldid=2350337" Kategorieë: Konings Mense in die 5de eeu v.C. Mense in die 6de eeu v.C. Monarge uit die Hebreeuse Bybel Persiese Ryk Geboortes in 519 v.C. Sterftes in 475 v.C. 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Die teks is beskikbaar onder die lisensie Creative Commons Erkenning-Insgelyks Deel. Aanvullende voorwaardes kan moontlik ook van toepassing wees. Sien die Algemene Voorwaardes vir meer inligting. Privaatheidsbeleid Inligting oor Wikipedia Vrywaring Selfoonweergawe Ontwikkelaars Statistieke Koekieverklaring 
aleph-nkp-cz-2139	----	AUT - Full View of Record   Databases of the National Library CR Base:  AUT   Logout | Login | Databases | Preferences | Feedback | Help Search / Browse | Results list | Previous searches | My e-Shelf | History |     Add to Basket  |  Save / Mail   AUT - Full View of Record Choose format:   Standard  --  MARC Record 1 out of 1 Control no. mzk2005313022 Heading Xerxés I., perský král, 519 př. Kr.-465 př. Kr. Seen from Assuerus, King of Persia, 519 př. Kr.-465 př. Kr. Ahasuerus, King of Persia, 519 př. Kr.-465 př. Kr. Xerxes I., King of Persia, 519 př. Kr.-465 př. Kr. Biogr./Hist. data Perský král. Source Hébert,B.: Ester - nová královna LC (Names) - odkazy viz, datum narození Všeobecná encyklopedie ve čtyřech svazcích: Diderot - autoritní forma, datum úmrtí Masarykův slovník naučný More info Wikipedie (Xerxés I.)  Permalink http://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000313022&local_base=AUT System no. 000313022 More info: © 2014 Ex Libris, NL CR 
als-wikipedia-org-8513	----	Xerxes I. - Alemannische Wikipedia Xerxes I. Us der alemannische Wikipedia, der freie Dialäkt-Enzyklopedy Zur Navigation springen Zur Suche springen Rölief vom Xerxes am Iigang vo sim Balast z Persepolis Dr Xerxes I. (persisch خشیارشا‎, altpersisch Hšayāŗšā, aramäisch Aḫšeweruš, hebräisch אחשורוש Achašweroš, altgriech. Ξέρξης, latiinisch Xerses; * öbbe 519 v. d. Z.; † 4. August 465 v. d. Z.) het vo 486 bis 465 v. d. Z. as achämenidische Groossköönig und egüptische Farao regiert. Si Naame bedütet „dä wo über Helde herrscht“. Dr Xerxes isch mit dr Amestris verhürootet gsi. Inhaltsverzeichnis 1 Si Lääbe 2 Rezepzioon 3 Familie 3.1 Vorfaare 4 Litratuur 5 Weblingg 6 Fuessnoote Si Lääbe[ändere | Quälltäxt bearbeite] Won er uf e Droon cho isch, het er Ufständ in Egüpte, wo sich under em Psammetich IV. vom Perserriich glööst het, und Babylonie müesse niiderschloo, bevor er 483 v. d. Z. Griecheland ins Aug gfasst het. Er het für d Inwasioon Schiffbrugge über e Hellespont und dr Xerxes-Kanal lo baue. Bi de Thermopyle het er d Spartaner under em Leonidas gschlaage, in dr Seeschlacht vo Salamis aber gegen die griechischi Flotte under em Themistokles en entschäidendi Niiderlaag erlitte. Die antike Kwelle reede von ere persische Armee vo 100'000 Maa, mä nimmt hützudags aber aa, ass es nume öbbe 20'000, sicher aber seer vil weniger as 100'000 gsi si.[1][2] Dr Xerxes sälber isch denn zrugg in si Hauptstadt Susa. Si Armee isch bald druf bi Plataiai besigt worde. 479/478 v. d. Z, het er dr Durm vo Babylon und d Marduk-Statue dörte lo zerstöre und wil vo denn aa d Ritual vo dr Ernennig vom Köönig vo Babylon ummööglig gsi si, het s sälbständige Babylon für immer ufghöört z existiere. Dr Xerxes het Kolossalbaute z Persepolis und z Susa lo baue. Dr Xerxes I. isch vo Befäälshaber vo dinere Garde Artabanos ermordet worde. Dä het dr Verdacht uf im Xerxes si eltiste Soon, Dareios, glänkt und dorum het en si jünger Brueder Artaxerxes I. umbrocht. Dr Artabanos het brobiert, au dr Artaxerxes z ermorde, isch aber sälber umchoo und dr Artaxerxes isch im Xerxes si Noochfolger worde. Rezepzioon[ändere | Quälltäxt bearbeite] Dr Georg Friedrich Händel het dr Xerxes I. für d Gstalt vom Xerxes in sinere Opera seria Xerxes brucht – bekannt au under iirem italiänische Originalditel Serse – (HWV 40). Generell wird dr Xerxes au mit dr Figur vom Ahasveros im biblische Buech Esther identifiziert. Familie[ändere | Quälltäxt bearbeite] Vorfaare[ändere | Quälltäxt bearbeite]       Achaimenes1.Köönig                                                                                         Teispes2.Köönig                                                                                                     Ariaramna I.3.Köönig, Regänt vo dr Persis   Kyros I.4.Köönig, Regänt vo Anschan                                                                                   Arschama I.Regionalregänt   Kambyses I.5.Köönig, Regänt vo Anschan                                                                                   HystaspesBrinz   Kyros II.6. König, Regänt vo Persie                                                                                                                             Dareios I.9.Köönig, Regänt vo Persie   Kambyses II.7.Köönig, Regänt vo Persie   Bardiya8. Köönig, Regänt vo Persie (oder Gaumata als Smerdis)   ArtystoneBrinzässin   AtossaBrinzässin   RoxaneBrinzässin                                                                                                           Xerxes I.10.Köönig, Regänt vo Persie                                                                                         Artaxerxes I.11.Köönig, Regänt vo Persie                       Litratuur[ändere | Quälltäxt bearbeite] Pierre Briant: From Cyrus to Alexander. A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake 2002, ISBN 1-57506-031-0.  Leo Depuydt: Saite and Persian Egypt, 664 BC–332 BC (Dyns. 26–31, Psammetichus I to Alexander's Conquest of Egypt). In: Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss, David A. Warburton (Hrsg.): Ancient Egyptian Chronology (= Handbook of Oriental studies. Section One. The Near and Middle East. Band 83). Brill, Leiden/Boston 2006, ISBN 978-90-04-11385-5, S. 265–283. Heidemarie Koch: Achämeniden-Studien. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1993, ISBN 3-447-03328-2.  Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, S. 312.  Karl-Wilhelm Welwei: Das klassische Athen. Demokratie und Machtpolitik im 5. und 4. Jahrhundert v. Chr. Primus, Darmstadt 1999, ISBN 3-89678-117-0, S. 51 ff.  Josef Wiesehöfer: Das antike Persien. Von 550 v. Chr. bis 650 n. Chr. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2005, ISBN 3-491-96151-3.  Josef Wiesehöfer: Der über Helden herrscht. Xerxes I. (ca. 519–465 v. Chr.). In: Stig Förster (Hrsg.): Kriegsherren der Weltgeschichte. 22 historische Portraits. Beck, München 2006, ISBN 3-406-54983-7, S. 19–33.  Weblingg[ändere | Quälltäxt bearbeite]  Commons: Xerxes I. – Sammlig vo Multimediadateie Fuessnoote[ändere | Quälltäxt bearbeite] ↑ Hans Delbrück: Geschichte der Kriegskunst im Rahmen der politischen Geschichte. 1. Teil: Das Altertum. 3. Kapitel: Die griechischen Heereszahlen. Abschluß. S. 42: Tatsächliche Bevölkerungszahlen und Heeresstärken. ↑ Vgl. allgemäin George Cawkwell: The Greek Wars. The Failure of Persia. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2005, ISBN 0198148712, S. 237ff. Dä Artikel basiert uff ere fräie Übersetzig vum Artikel „Xerxes_I.“ vu de dütsche Wikipedia. E Liste vu de Autore un Versione isch do z finde. Vorgänger Dareios I. Persische Köönig 486–465 v. d. Z. Nochfolger Artaxerxes I. Vorgänger Psammetich IV. Farao vo Egüpte 27. Dünastii Nochfolger Artaxerxes I. Normdate: GND: 118808109 | LCCN: n81070675 | SUDOC/IdRef: 050588400 | SELIBR: 259706 | VIAF: 282770127 Vun "https://als.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I.&oldid=948235" Kategorie: Herrscher vo Persie König Perser Perserchrieg Maa Navigationsmenü Persönlichi Wärkzüg Nit aagmäldet Diskussionssyte vun derre IP Byyträg Nöis Benutzerkonto aalege Aamälde Namensryym Artikel Diskussion Variante Wievylmol agluegt Läse Bearbeite Quälltäxt bearbeite Versionsgschicht Weitere Suech Navigation Houptsyte Gmeinschaftsportal Zuefalls-Artikel Inhaltsverzeichnis Kategorie Mitarbet un Hilf Mach mit! Froge? Kontaktsyte Stammtisch Artikel wo fähle Letschti Änderige Wärchzügchäschtli Was verwyst do druff? Verlinktes prüefe Spezial-Syte Aafüerbari URL Informatione zue dr Syte Sälle Artikel zitiere Wikidata-Datenobjäkt Drucke/exportiere Buech aalege As PDF abelade Druck-Aasicht In andre Projäkt Wikimedia Commons Anderi Sprooche Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Links bearbeite Letschti Bearbeitig vo dere Syte: 17:44, 13. Jänner 2020 Abruefstatistik Tekscht isch verfiegbar unter dr „Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike“-Lizänz. S cha syy, ass es zuesätzligi Bedingige git; lueg d Nutzigsbedingige fir Einzelheite. Wikipedia® Daateschutz Iber Wikipedia Impressum Mobili Aasicht Softwareentwickler Statistiken Stellignahm zue Cookie 
ar-wikipedia-org-3458	----	خشايارشا الأول - ويكيبيديا خشايارشا الأول من ويكيبيديا، الموسوعة الحرة اذهب إلى التنقل اذهب إلى البحث خشايارشا الأول معلومات شخصية الميلاد -519 فارس الوفاة -475 مكان الدفن إيران  قتله ارتبانيس  مواطنة الإمبراطورية الأخمينية  الزوجة استر  أبناء أرتحششتا الأول  الأب دارا الأول  الأم أتوسا  إخوة وأخوات آريابيجنز  الحياة العملية المهنة رجل دولة  تعديل مصدري - تعديل   Xerces Pers.Rex تعنى "زرکسيز [خشايارشا]، ملك فارسي" قبره في نقش رستم خشایار الأول خشایارشا الأول أو أحشويروش الأول (بالفارسية: خشایارشا) (ولد 518 ق.م - توفي 465 ق.م) . ملك فارسي حكم بين 485 ق.م - 465 ق.م . رغم كونه صغير بين اخوته تم اختياره خلفا لابوه داريوس الأول. حكم بين 485 و465 قبل الميلاد الملك الرابع في سلالة الأخمينيين ببلاد فارس. حاول غزو بلاد اليونان وفشل بعد تعرض جيشه لخسارة كبيرة في العدد وتأخر في التحرك رغم فوزه في النهاية في معركة ترموبيل.يظن أن قبره موجود بالصلیب الفارسي بنقش رستم. -قرر خشایارشا الأول، ابن الملك داريوس الأول ، مواصلة الصراع ضد اليونانيين الذين كان يعتبرهم ثائرين، وفي عام 483 ق.م قاد حملة عسكرية ضخمة ضد أثينا ، وكان عليه من أجل الوصول إلى البر الأوروبي لليونان ، أن يبني جسراً ضخماً عبر مضيق هيليسبونت قوامه سفن ربطت بعضها ببعض في صف طويل . ثم اجتاز بجنود إلى تراقيا ومقدونيا ، فهزم اليونانيين بقيادة الملك ليونيداس الأسبرطي في ثرموبايل ، ولكن أسطوله البحري كاد يُدمَّر على بكرة أبيه في معركة سلاميس سنة 480 قبل الميلاد وعاد خشایارشا الأول إلى فارس ووضع الجيش تحت إمرة أبرز قادته ماردونيوس الذي هُزم في السنة التالية سنة 479 قبل الميلاد، وقُتل في بلاتايا ، وفقد خشایارشا الأول كل أهتمام بالحرب، وأنصرف إلى الحياة العابثة، مهملاً شؤون الحكم، وانتهى به الأمر إلى الاغتيال على يد رئيس حرسه ارتبانيس) .[1][2] مراجع[عدل] ^ صانعو التاريخ - سمير شيخاني . ^ 1000 شخصية عظيمة - ترجمة د.مازن طليمات . في كومنز صور وملفات عن: خشايارشا الأول ع ن ت حكام وفراعنة مصر القديمة (قائمة) سلاسل النسب للأسر الحاكمة: 4 12 18 19 20 21 25 26 27 31 البطالمة نقادة الثالثة (قبل 3150 ق.م.) مصر السفلى سكيو خيو تيو تش نيهب وزنر ميخ واش صعيد مصر عقرب الأول إري حور كا عقرب الثاني نارمر الأسرات العتيقة (3150–2686 ق.م.) الأسرة الأولى نارمر (مينا) حور عحا دجر جت دن عج إب سمر خت قاع الأسرة الثانية حتب سخم وى رع نب ني نتجر بر إيب سن خع سخموي المملكة المصرية القديمة (2686–2181 ق.م) الأسرة الثالثة سا ناختي زوسر سخم خت خع با حوني الأسرة الرابعة سنفرو خوفو دجيدف رع خفرع با اف رع منقرع شبسس كاف الأسرة الخامسة أوسركاف ساحو رع نفر إر كا رع شبسس كا رع نفر ف رع ني أوسر رع جد كا رع منكاو حور أوناس الأسرة السادسة تتي أوسر كا رع بيبي الأول مرن رع الأول بيبي الثاني نفر كا رع مرن رع الثاني نفر الفترة الانتقالية الأولى (2181–2040 ق.م) الأسرات السابعة و‌الثامنة نت جر كا رع من كا رع نفر كا رع الثاني دجد كا رع شيماي نفر كا رع نبي نفر كا رع خن دو مرن حور ني كا رع نفر كا رع تي رع رو نفر كا حور نفر كا رع بيبي سن إب نفر كا من أنو قا كا رع ايبي نفر كاو رع الثاني نفر كاو حور نفر إر كا رع الأسرات التاسعة و‌العاشرة خيتي الأول نفر كا رع الثالث خيتي الثاني سيتوت خيتي الثالث خيتي الرابع خيتي الخامس سيي(رع خيتي) خيتي السادس خيتي السابع مري كا رع المملكة المصرية الوسطى (2040–1782 ق.م.) الأسرة الحادية عشر منتوحوتب الأول إنتف الأول إنتف الثاني إنتف الثالث منتوحوتب الثاني منتوحتب الثالث منتوحتب الرابع الأسرة الثانية عشر أمنمحات الأول سنوسرت الأول أمنمحات الثاني سنوسرت الثاني سنوسرت الثالث أمنمحات الثالث أمنمحات الرابع سبك نفرو♀ الفترة الانتقالية الثانية (1782–1550 ق.م) الأسرة الثالثة عشر سوبك حتب الأول حور أويبري سوبك حتب الثاني خنجر اوسركاف سوبك حتب الثالث نفر حتب الأول سوبك حتب الرابع نفر حتب الثاني سع حتب رع سوا دج كا رع وجاف انتف الخامس سوبك حتب الخامس مر نفر رع اى سوبك حتب الثامن أمني انتف الرابع أمنمحات السادس أيفني (Iufni) أمنمحات سنبف سحتب إب رع أموني إنيوتف أمنمحات نقر كارع خنجر الثاني أيع إبي إيي دودي مس الأول نحسي نب فاو رع حتب أب رع (سيامو حور نز حرتف) أمنمحات سبك حتب (سخم رع خوتاوى) سعنخ تاوى (سخم كا رع) سخم رع خوتاوى (بنتن) سخم كا رع (أمنمحات سنبف) سزفا كا رع (كاى أمنمحات) خوتاوى رع سنفراب رع (سنوسرت) حور اب شدت (أمنمحات) ستحب إب رع أمنمحات سا حتحور رع سوبك حتب السادس نفر حتب سبك حتب وسر كا رع (خنزر) واح اب رع اع اب سواز إن رع (نب ارى راو) زد نفر رع ددومس زد حتب رع ددومس سواح إن رع (سنب ميو) زد عنخ رع (منتو امر ساف) نحسى من خعو رع سش اب سانكنري سيوايتو ميرسكيمري إيند سيواكاري حور ميركوير سوبك حتب ميرشابسيرس إيني منتوحتب الخامس ساشنر سانكتباهي الأسرة الرابعة عشر يعقوب حار نحيسي خاتي رع نب فاو رع سي حب رع هيبي هيبو شمسو أوركاي بيبنم سينو هور الثالث نيبف الأسرة الخامسة عشر صكير حار خيان أبوفيس الأول خامودي الأسرة السادسة عشر سنب كاي مونتومحات دجييوتي سوبك حتب الثامن نيفير هوتب الثالث نيبيراو الأول نيبيراو الثاني سيمنري بيبيانخ سيكهمر شيدواست ديدوموس الأول ديدوموس الثاني دجيدانكر مونتمساف ميرانكر منتوحتب السادس سنوسرت الرابع الأسرة السابعة عشر رع حتب سوبك ام ساف سوبك ام ساف الثاني انتف الخامس انتف السابع سقنن رع كامس المملكة المصرية الحديثة (1550–1070 ق.م) الأسرة الثامنة عشر أحمس الأول أمنحتب الأول تحوتمس الأول تحوتمس الثاني حتشبسوت♀ تحتمس الثالث أمنحتب الثاني تحوتمس الرابع أمنحتب الثالث أخناتون سمنخ كا رع توت عنخ آمون آي حورمحب الأسرة التاسعة عشر رمسيس الأول سيتي الأول رمسيس الثاني مرنبتاح سيتي الثاني سبتاح توسرت♀ الأسرة العشرون ست ناختي رمسيس الثالث رمسيس الرابع رمسيس الخامس رمسيس السادس رمسيس السابع رمسيس الثامن رمسيس التاسع رمسيس العاشر رمسيس الحادي عشر الفترة الانتقالية الثالثة (1069–525 ق.م.) الأسرة الحادية والعشرون سمندس أمون أم نسو بسوسنس الأول سي أمون أمون إم اوبت اوسركون الأكبر بسوسنس الثاني باي نزم الأول حريحور الأسرة الثانية والعشرون شيشنق الأول اوسركون الأول اوسركون الثاني شيشنق الثاني تاكيلوت الأول شيشنق الثالث بامي شيشنق الرابع اوسركون الرابع شيشنق الخامس الأسرة الثالثة والعشرون تاكيلوت الثاني بيدوباست الأول شيشنق السادس اوسركون الثالث تاكيلوت الثالث رودامون الأسرة الرابعة والعشرون تف ناخت با كن رع نف (بوخوريس) الأسرة الخامسة والعشرون بعنخي شباكا شبتكو طهارقة تنوت أماني الأسرة السادسة والعشرون تف ناخت الثاني نخاو با نخاو الأول إبسماتيك الأول نخاو الثاني بسماتيك الثاني وح إب رع أحمس الثاني بسماتيك الثالث الفترة المتأخرة (525–332 ق.م) الأسرة السابعة والعشرون قمبيز الثاني دارا الأول خشايارشا الأول أرتحششتا الأول سجديانوس داريوس الثاني بيتوباستيس الأسرة الثامنة والعشرون أميرتايوس الأسرة التاسعة والعشرون نفريتس الأول هاكور بساموثيس نفريتس الثاني الأسرة الثلاثون نخت انبو الأول تيوس نخت انبو الثاني نخت نيف الأول نخت نيف الثاني خبر كارع الأسرة الحادية والثلاثون أردشير الثالث الأخميني أرسيس دارا الثالث المملكة البطلمية (332–30 ق.م) الأسرة الأرغية الإسكندر الأكبر فيليبوس الثالث المقدوني الإسكندر الرابع المقدوني بطالمة بطليموس الأول بطليموس الثاني بطليموس الثالث بطليموس الرابع بطليموس الخامس بطليموس السادس بطليموس السابع بطليموس الثامن بطليموس التاسع بطليموس العاشر بطليموس الحادي عشر بطليموس الثاني عشر برينيكي الرابعة♀ كليوباترا بطليموس الخامس عشر (قيصرون) ♀ يشير للفراعنة الإناث ع ن ت تخت جمشيد قصر قصر تتشر قصر بوابة كل الأمم أقسام أخرى ضريح أردشير الثالث الأخميني بناة دارا الأول خشايارشا الأول أرتحششتا الأول الباحثين هايديماري كوش إريك شميت علي رضا شابور شهبازي ذات صلة Tangeh Bolaghi ذكرى 2500 عام لإنشاء مملكة فارس Sivand Dam Persepolis Administrative Archives Waterskin عمارة أخمينية بوابة الشرق الأوسط القديم بوابة مصر القديمة بوابة الحرب بوابة حضارات قديمة بوابة التاريخ بوابة أعلام بوابة إيران ضبط استنادي WorldCat BNE: XX1153338 BNF: cb150689088 (data) CANTIC: a12318310 GND: 118808109 ISNI: 0000 0000 6300 8852 LCCN: n81070675 LNB: 000054067 NKC: mzk2005313022 NLA: 66228176 NLI: 000437459 NTA: 073636711 SELIBR: 259706 SUDOC: 050588400 Trove: 1808084 ULAN: 500354810 VIAF: 282770127 J9U: 987007276639005171 هذه بذرة مقالة عن حياة شخصية من أخمينيون بحاجة للتوسيع. شارك في تحريرها. هذه بذرة مقالة عن التاريخ بحاجة للتوسيع. شارك في تحريرها. مجلوبة من "https://ar.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=خشايارشا_الأول&oldid=49897645" تصنيفات: تخت جمشيد أسرة مصرية سابعة وعشرون أشخاص من الحرب الفارسية اليونانية إيرانيون في القرن 5 ق م تاريخ فارس حكام في القرن 5 ق م خشايارشا الأول فراعنة مصر الأخمينية فراعنة فرس في الحروب الفارسية اليونانية معركة ترموبيل معركة سالاميس ملكيون قتلوا في القرن 5 ق م ملوك أخمينيين ملوك القرن 5 ق م أخمينيون ملوك الكتاب العبري ملوك فرس مغتالون مواليد 518 ق م مواليد عقد 510 ق م مواليد في إيران وفيات 465 ق م تصنيفات مخفية: صفحات بها بيانات ويكي بيانات صفحات تستخدم خاصية P119 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P157 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P27 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P26 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P40 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P22 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P25 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P3373 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P106 صفحات تستخدم قالب:صندوق معلومات شخص مع وسائط غير معروفة قالب تصنيف كومنز بوصلة كما في ويكي بيانات بوابة الشرق الأوسط القديم/مقالات متعلقة بوابة مصر القديمة/مقالات متعلقة بوابة الحرب/مقالات متعلقة بوابة حضارات قديمة/مقالات متعلقة بوابة التاريخ/مقالات متعلقة بوابة أعلام/مقالات متعلقة بوابة إيران/مقالات متعلقة جميع المقالات التي تستخدم شريط بوابات صفحات تستخدم خاصية P268 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P1273 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P227 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P213 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P244 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P1368 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P691 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P409 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P949 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P1006 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P906 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P1315 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P245 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P214 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P8189 جميع مقالات البذور بذرة أعلام أخمينيون بذرة تاريخ قائمة التصفح أدوات شخصية غير مسجل للدخول نقاش مساهمات إنشاء حساب دخول نطاقات مقالة نقاش المتغيرات معاينة اقرأ عدل تاريخ المزيد بحث الموسوعة الصفحة الرئيسية الأحداث الجارية أحدث التغييرات أحدث التغييرات الأساسية تصفح المواضيع أبجدي بوابات مقالة عشوائية تصفح بدون إنترنت مشاركة تواصل مع ويكيبيديا مساعدة الميدان تبرع أدوات ماذا يصل هنا تغييرات ذات علاقة رفع ملف الصفحات الخاصة وصلة دائمة معلومات الصفحة استشهد بهذه الصفحة عنصر ويكي بيانات طباعة/تصدير إنشاء كتاب تحميل PDF نسخة للطباعة في مشاريع أخرى ويكيميديا كومنز لغات Afrikaans Alemannisch مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 عدل الوصلات آخر تعديل لهذه الصفحة كان يوم 19 أغسطس 2020، الساعة 00:14. النصوص منشورة برخصة المشاع الإبداعي. طالع شروط الاستخدام للتفاصيل. سياسة الخصوصية حول ويكيبيديا إخلاء مسؤولية نسخة المحمول المطورون إحصائيات بيان تعريف الارتباطات 
arz-wikipedia-org-7743	----	خشايارشا الاول - ويكيبيديا خشايارشا الاول من ويكيبيديا، الموسوعه الحره اذهب إلى التنقل اذهب إلى البحث خشايارشا الاول   معلومات شخصيه الميلاد سنة 519 ق م  ايران  الوفاة سنة 475 ق م[1]  مكان الدفن ايران  قتله ارتبانيس  مواطنه الشاهنشاهية الأخمينية  الزوجة اميستريس[2]  ابناء ارتحششتا الاول،  والهستاس  الاب داريوس الاول  اخوه و اخوات ارتازوسترى،  والماسستيز  تعديل مصدري - تعديل   خشايارشا الاول كان ملك من الامبراطوريه الاخمينيه. حياته[تعديل] خشايارشا الاول من مواليد سنه 518 قبل الميلاد فى ايران, مات سنه 474 قبل الميلاد. لينكات[تعديل] خشايارشا الاول – صور وتسجيلات صوتيه و مرئيه على ويكيميديا كومونز خشايارشا الاول على موقع كيورا - Quora خشايارشا الاول معرف مخطط فريبيس للمعارف الحره خشايارشا الاول معرف ملف المرجع للتحكم بالسلطه فى WorldCat خشايارشا الاول معرف النظام الجامعى للتوثيق خشايارشا الاول معرف جران منشورات الموسوعه الكتالانيه 0000 6300 8852 خشايارشا الاول المعرف المعيارى الدولى للاسماء خشايارشا الاول سلطه جامعه برشلونه خشايارشا الاول فايند اجريف خشايارشا الاول ليبريس-مسار مصادر[تعديل] ↑ http://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1200003447 ↑ معرف إستر: http://www.ester.ee/record=ester خشايارشا الاول على مواقع التواصل الاجتماعى خشايارشا الاول   على كورا. فيه فايلات فى تصانيف ويكيميديا كومونز عن: خشايارشا الاول ضبط استنادى BNE: XX1153338 BNF: cb150689088 (data) كانتيك: a12318310 GND: 118808109 ISNI: 0000 0000 6300 8852 LCCN: n81070675 LNB: 000054067 NKC: mzk2005313022 NLA: 66228176 NLI: 000437459 NTA: 073636711 ليبريس: 259706 SUDOC: 050588400 تروڤ: 1808084 ULAN: 500354810 VIAF: 282770127 وورلدكات: viaf-19983268 الصفحه دى فيها تقاوى مقاله, و انت ممكن تساعد ويكيپيديا مصرى علشان تكبرها. اتجابت من "https://arz.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=خشايارشا_الاول&oldid=3475125" تصانيف: مواليد 519 ق م صفحات فيها داتا ويكيداتا وفيات 475 ق م صفحات فيها مراجع ويكيداتا حكام تصنيفات مستخبية: صفحات تستخدم خاصية P18 صفحات بها بيانات ويكي بيانات صفحات تستخدم خاصية P569 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P19 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P570 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P119 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P157 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P27 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P26 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P40 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P22 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P3373 مقالات تستعمل روابط ببيانات من ويكى داتا مقالات تستعمل روابط ب P373 من بيانات محليه مع وجود ويكى داتا صفحات تستخدم خاصيه P3417 صفحات تستخدم خاصيه P646 صفحات تستخدم خاصيه P2163 صفحات تستخدم خاصيه P269 صفحات تستخدم خاصيه P1296 صفحات تستخدم خاصيه P213 صفحات تستخدم خاصيه P1580 صفحات تستخدم خاصيه P535 صفحات تستخدم خاصيه P5587 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P3417 مقالات فيها معرفات BNE مقالات فيها معرفات BNF مقالات فيها معرفات CANTIC مقالات فيها معرفات GND مقالات فيها معرفات ISNI مقالات فيها معرفات LCCN مقالات فيها معرفات LNB مقالات فيها معرفات NKC مقالات فيها معرفات NLA مقالات فيها معرفات NLI مقالات فيها معرفات NTA مقالات فيها معرفات SELIBR مقالات فيها معرفات SUDOC مقالات فيها معرفات Trove مقالات فيها معرفات ULAN مقالات فيها معرفات VIAF Wikipedia articles with WorldCat identifiers لستة التصفح ادوات شخصيه انت مش مسجل دخولك المناقشة مع عنوان الأيبى دا مساهمات افتح حساب دخول النطاقات صفحه مناقشه المتغيرات مناظر قرايه تعديل استعراض التاريخ اكتر تدوير استكشاف الصفحه الرئيسيه بوابات ويكيبيديا مصرى اخر التعديلات صفحة عشوائيه مساعده تواصل صالون المناقشه طريقة الكتابه احداث دلوقتى التبرعات علبة العده ايه بيوصل هنا تعديلات ليها علاقه ارفع فايل (upload file) صفح مخصوصه لينك دايم معلومات عن الصفحه استشهد بالصفحة دى عنصر ويكيداتا اطبع/صدّر إعمل كتاب تنزيل PDF نسخه للطبع مشاريع تانيه ويكيميديا كومنز بلغات تانيه Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 عدل الوصلات الصفحه دى اتعدلت اخر مره فى 22 اكتوبر 2020,‏ 16:47. النصوص متوفرة تحت رخصة التشارك الإبداع العزو/المشاركة بالمثل; ممكن تطبيق شروط إضافية. بص على شروط الاستخدام للتفاصيل. بوليسة الخصوصيه عن ويكيبيديا تنازل عن مسئوليه نسخة المحمول مطورين احصائيات بيان الكوكيز 
ast-wikipedia-org-5667	----	Xerxes I de Persia - Wikipedia Xerxes I de Persia De Wikipedia Saltar a navegación Saltar a la gueta Xerxes I de Persia faraón King of the Kings (en) 485 edC - 465 edC ← Darío I - Artaxerxes I de Persia → Vida Nacimientu Irán, 519 edC Nacionalidá Imperiu aqueménida Muerte Persia, 475 edC [1] (43/44 años) Sepultura Irán Asesín Artabano (cortesano de Jerjes) (es) Familia Padre Darío I Madre Atosa Casáu con Vasti Amestris (es) Ester (es) Fíos/es ver Artaxerxes I de Persia Amitis (es) Artabano (es) Artario (es) Histaspes (es) Darío (hijo de Jerjes I) (es) Rodoguna Hermanos/es ver Artazostra (es) Gobrias (es) Arsames (es) Artobazanes (es) Ariamenes (es) Ariamenes (es) Abrocomes (es) Masistes (es) Aquemenes (es) Arsames (es) Pueblu dinastía aqueménida Oficiu Oficiu estadista Creencies Relixón Zoroastrismu Xerxes I nun relieve en Persépolis. Xerxes I (Persa: خشایارشاه, 'Khashayar Shah') (519 e.C.-465 e.C.), foi rei de reis del Imperiu Persa (Xahanxah) del 485 e.C. al 465 e.C.. Foi miembru de la dinastía aqueménida. "Xerxes" ye la trescripción griega del nome persa emplegáu como rei (Khashayar Shah) que quería dicir Rei d'héroes. Nel llibru d'Ezra y nel llibru d'Ester correspondería a Axašweroš (אֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹשׁ) (Assuer). Yera fíu de Daríu I el grande y de la reina Atosa (fía de Ciriu II el grande) y foi designáu socesor pol so padre con preferencia a los sos hermanastros más grandes, nacíos primero que Daríu fuere coronáu rei. ↑ URL de la referencia: http://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1200003447. Sacáu de «https://ast.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I_de_Persia&oldid=2366377» Categoríes: Homes Persia Categoría anubrida: Wikipedia:Páxines con etiquetes de Wikidata ensin traducir Menú de navegación Ferramientes personales Nun aniciasti sesión Alderique Contribuciones Crear una cuenta Entrar Espacios de nome Páxina Alderique Variantes Vistes Lleer Editar Editar la fonte Ver historial Más Buscar Navegación Portada Portal de la comunidá Fechos actuales Cambeos recientes Páxina al debalu Ayuda Ferramientes Lo qu'enllaza equí Cambios rellacionaos Xubir ficheru Páxines especiales Enllaz permanente Información de la páxina Citar esta páxina Elementu de Wikidata Imprentar/esportar Crear un llibru Descargar como PDF Versión pa imprentar N'otros proyeutos Wikimedia Commons N'otres llingües Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Editar los enllaces La última edición d'esta páxina foi el 22 xnt 2019, a les 09:23. El testu ta disponible baxo la Llicencia Creative Commons Reconocimientu/CompartirIgual 3.0; puen aplicase otres cláusules más. Llei les condiciones d'usu pa más detalles. Política d'intimidá Tocante a Wikipedia Avisu llegal Vista pa móvil Desendolcadores Estadístiques Declaración de cookies 
azb-wikipedia-org-1929	----	خشایارشا - ویکی‌پدیا خشایارشا ویکی‌پدیا، آچیق بیلیک‌لیک‌دن پرش به ناوبری پرش به جستجو Xerxes I King of Persia and Media Great King King of Kings King of Nations Pharaoh of Egypt Rock relief of Xerxes at his tomb in Naqsh-e Rustam King of Persia شاه‌لیق 486–465 BC تاج قویما October 486 BC قاباقکی بیرینجی داریوش واریث Artaxerxes I دوغوم 518 BC ایران اولوم August 465 BC (aged 53 or 54) Persia دفن Persia حیات یولداشی آمستریس, (disputed: وشتی and Queen Esther) اوشاقلار Darius Hystaspes Artaxerxes I Arsames Amytis سولاله هخامنشلر آتا بیرینجی داریوش آنا Atossa دین مزدیسنا[۱] خشایارشا (اینگیلیسی‌جه: Xerxes I) بیر شاهزاده ایدی. ۴۸۶–۴۶۵ میلادان قاباق ایل‌لر آراسیندا حؤکومت ائدیب. آتاسی بیرینجی داریوش دیر. بیرینجی داریوش اؤلوموندن سوْنرا حؤکومتی اله کئچدیب. گؤرونتولر[دَییشدیر] قایناق‌لار[دَییشدیر] ↑ Xerxes made human sacrifice. See Boyce, Mary (1989). A History of Zoroastrianism: The early period, p. 141. «https://azb.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=خشایارشا&oldid=622891»-دن آلینمیش‌دیر بؤلمه: شاهلار دوْلانماق مِنوسو شخصی آراجلار گیرمه‌میسینیز دانیشیق چالیشمالار حساب آچ گیریش ائت آد فضالاری صفحه دانیشیق دئییش‌لر گؤرونوشلر اوْخو دَییشدیر گئچمیشه باخ بیشتر آختار دوْلانماق آنا صفحه کند مئیدانی ایندیکی حادیثه‌لر سوْن دَییشیکلیکلر تصادوفی صفحه کؤمک باغیشلا آلتلر بۇ صفحه‌‌يه باغلانتیلار باغلی دَییشیکلیک‌لر فایل یۆکله‌ اؤزل صفحه‌لر ثابیت لینک صفحه ایطلاعاتی بو صفحه‌دن آلینتی گؤتور ویکی‌دئیتا آیتمی چاپ ائت/ائشیگه چیخارت کیتاب یارات PDF کیمی ائندیر چاپ اۆچون نۆسخه آیری پروژه‌لرده ویکی‌انبار آیری دیل‌لرده Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 باغلانتیلاری دَییشدیر بۇ صفحه‌‌ سوْن دفعه ‏۵ دسامبر ۲۰۱۸، ‏۰۴:۲۳ تاریخینده دَییشدیریلمیشدیر. یازی Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License;آلتیندا‌دیر آرتیق شرطلر آرتیریلا بیلر. آرتیق ایطلاعات اوچون ایشلتمه شرطلرینه باخین. گیزلیلیک سیاستی ویکی‌پدیا-ه گؤره یالانلامالار موبایل نوسخه‌سی‌ گئنیشلدنلر آمار کوکی ایظهارنامه‌سی‌ 
az-wikipedia-org-5240	----	I Kserks — Vikipediya I Kserks Vikipediya, azad ensiklopediya Jump to navigation Jump to search I Kserks Doğum tarixi e.ə. 519 Doğum yeri İran Vəfat tarixi e.ə. 475[1] Dəfn yeri İran Vətəndaşlığı  Əhəmənilər imperiyası Uşağı I Artakserks Atası I Dara Fəaliyyəti dövlət xadimi  Vikianbarda əlaqəli mediafayllar I Kserks (Farsca: Xəşayarşah (خشایارشاه)‎[2])(hökm: MÖ 485–465) — Əhəməni imperiyasının şahıydı. Yunanca Əski fars hökmdar adlarından Xšayāršā (Hşayarşa) sözündən gələn Kserks, "qəhrəmanlar kralı" anlamına gəlir.[3] Fars kralı I Kserks, illərdən bu yana atası I Daranın yunanlılara qarşı başlatdığı savaşı sürdürmək üçün hazırlanırdı. Afinaya qarşı böyük orduyla səfərə çıxdı. Bizim eradan əvvəl E.ə. 484-cü ildə I Kserks başçılığındaki ordu Anadoluya çatdı və Çanaqqalada, Çanaqqala boğazından(Dardanel)in qarşı sahilində yerləşən Abidosa gəmilərdən bir körpü qurub əsgərlərini boğazdan qarşıya keçirdi. Herodot, I Kserksin beş milyondan artıq adamı olduğunu söyləse də, ozan Simon bu sayın üç milyon yaxınlığında olduğunu bildirir. Herodot, ordunun içərək çayları qurutduğunu və iri şəhərlərin ərzağını tükətdiyini də önə sürür. Bu qeydlər çox şişirdilmiş olsa da, dəqiq olan, farsların yunanlardan sayca üstün olduqlarıdır. İstinadlar[redaktə | əsas redaktə] I Kserks yazısı (Van qalası) ↑ http://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1200003447 ↑ Ghias Abadi, R. M. (2004). (Persian) (2nd edition). Tehran: Shiraz Navid Publications. page 107. ISBN 964-358-015-6. (#parameter_ignored) ↑ Strauss, Barry S., The Battle of Salamis: The Naval Encounter That Saved Greece - and Western Civilization, p. 36. Simon & Schuster, New York, 2004. Həmçinin bax[redaktə | əsas redaktə] Əhəməni imperiyası Əhəmənilər sülaləsi Xarici keçidlər[redaktə | əsas redaktə] I Kserks Əhəmənilər sülaləsi Doğum: e.ə. 519 Vəfat: e.ə. 465 Hakimiyyət titulları Sələfləri  I Dara Əhəmənilər imperiyası Şahı e.ə. 486- e.ə. 465 Xələfləri  I Artakserks Əhəməni hökmdarları Sülalənin əcdadları Persey · Pers Parsın və Parsumaş-Anşanın çarları (e.ə. 705(?)-640-cı illər) Əhəmən · Teisp Parsın çarları (e.ə. 640-550-ci illər) Ariaramna · Arşama Parsumaş-Anmanın çarları (e.ə. 640-549-cu illər) I Kir · I Kambiz · II Böyük Kir Əhəmənilər İmperiyasının imperatorları (e.ə. 549-329) II Böyük Kir · II Kambiz · Qaumata (Ljebardiya) · I Böyük Dara · I Kserks · I Artakserks Makroheyr (Longiman) · II Kserks · Soqdian · II Dara Not · II Artakserks Mnemon · III Artakserks Ox · IV Artakserks Arses · III Dara Kodoman · V Artakserks (Bess) Kursivlə mövcudluqları haqqında etibarlı mənbələrin olmadığı şəxslər işarələnib. Bu şəxslər uydurma şəxslər də ola bilər. Mənbə — "https://az.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=I_Kserks&oldid=5451529" Kateqoriyalar: E.ə. 519-cu ildə doğulanlar İranda doğulanlar E.ə. 475-ci ildə vəfat edənlər İranda dəfn olunanlar Hökmdarlar Əhəməni hökmdarları Gizli kateqoriyalar: Vikipediya:Vikiverilənlərdə dəyəri müəyyən olunmuş məqalələr Vikipediya:Vikiverilənlərdə mənbələri olan məqalələr Əlifba sırasına görə şəxslər Şəxs şablonu istifadə olunan məqalələr Naviqasiya menyusu Alətlər sandığı Daxil olmamısınız Müzakirə Fəaliyyətim Hesab yarat Daxil ol Adlar fəzası Məqalə Müzakirə Variantlar Görünüş Oxu Redaktə Əsas redaktə Tarixçə More Axtar Bələdçi Ana Səhifə Kənd meydanı Aktual hadisələr Son dəyişikliklər Təsadüfi səhifə Layihələr Seçilmiş məqalələr Seçilmiş siyahılar Seçilmiş portallar Yaxşı məqalələr Məqalə namizədləri Mövzulu ay Xüsusi Maddi kömək Qaralama dəftəri Kömək Alətlər Səhifəyə keçidlər Əlaqəli redaktələr Fayl yüklə Xüsusi səhifələr Daimi keçid Səhifə məlumatları Bu məqaləyə istinad et Vikiverilənlər elementi Çap et/ixrac Kitab yarat PDF olaraq yüklə Çap variantı Digər layihələrdə Vikianbar Başqa dillərdə Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia İtaliano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Keçidlərin redaktəsi Bu səhifə sonuncu dəfə 13 sentyabr 2020 tarixində, saat 11:41-də redaktə edilib. Mətn Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike lisenziyası altındadır, bəzi hallarda əlavə şərtlər tətbiq oluna bilər. Ətraflı məlumat üçün istifadə şərtlərinə baxın. Məxfilik siyasəti Vikipediya haqqında İmtina etmə Mobil görüntü Tərtibatçılar Statistics Kökə məlumatı 
be-wikipedia-org-5866	----	Ксеркс I — Вікіпедыя Ксеркс I З пляцоўкі Вікіпедыя Jump to navigation Jump to search У Вікіпедыі ёсць артыкулы пра іншых людзей з імем Ксеркс. Ксеркс I стар.-перс. Hšayāŗšā, арам. Aḫšeweruš, стар.-грэч.: Ξέρξης, лац.: Xerses Партрэт Ксеркса сцяг 5-ы цар Ахеменідскай дзяржавы 486 — 465 да н.э. Папярэднік Дарый I Пераемнік Артаксеркс I   Дзейнасць дзяржаўны дзеяч Веравызнанне Зараастрызм Нараджэнне 519 да н.э. Іран Смерць 475 да н.э.[1] Персія[d] Пахаванне Іран Род Ахеменіды Бацька Дарый I Маці Атоса Жонка Васці[d], Аместрыса[d] і Эсфір, дачка Амінавада Дзеці Артаксеркс I Лангіман, Аміціс[d], Артабан, Артарый[d], Гістасп[d], Дарый[d] і Радагуна[d] Ксеркс I на ВікіСховішчы Ксеркс I (513 — 465 да н.э.) — цар персідскі (485—465 да н.э.). Змест 1 Біяграфічныя звесткі 2 Зноскі 3 Літаратура 4 Спасылкі Біяграфічныя звесткі[правіць | правіць зыходнік] З дынастыі Ахеменідаў, сын Дарыя I і Атосы, дачкі Кіра II. Задушыў паўстанне егіпцян (486—484 да н.э.). Пасля пачатку ў 482 да н.э. паўстання вавіланян разбурыў г. Вавілон, а Вавілонію ператварыў у персідскую сатрапію (правінцыю). Няўдачы Ксеркса ў грэка-персідскіх войнах (паражэнні каля Саламіна ў 480, Мікале ў 479, Платэяў у 479 да н.э.) аслабілі магутнасць дзяржавы Ахеменідаў. Каб умацаваць цэнтралізацыю дзяржавы, правёў рэлігійную рэформу. Забіты ў выніку дварцовай змовы. Францішак Смуглевіч. Эсфір перад Ксерксам. 1778 Розныя прамыя і ўскосныя даныя сведчаць, што Ксеркс I пад іменем Агасвер[2] згадваецца ў кнізе «Эсфір», як апякун яўрэяў.[3] Сын Ксеркса I — Артаксеркс I Лангіман. Зноскі ↑ http://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1200003447 ↑ У Ф. Скарыны — Асвер. ↑ Скарына Ф.: Творы… С. 172. Літаратура[правіць | правіць зыходнік] 543. Беларуская энцыклапедыя: У 18 т. / Рэдкал.: Г. П. Пашкоў і інш.. — Мн.: БелЭн, 1999. — Т. 8: Канто — Кулі. — 576 с. — 10 000 экз. — ISBN 985-11-0144-3 (т. 8), ISBN 985-11-0035-8. Скарына Ф. Творы: Прадмовы, сказанні, пасляслоўі, акафісты, пасхалія / Уступ. арт., падрыхт. тэкстаў, камент., слоўнік А. Ф. Коршунава, паказальнікі А. Ф. Коршунава, В. А. Чамярыцкага. — Мн.: Навука і тэхніка, 1990. — С. 172. — 207 с.: іл. ISBN 5-343-00151-3. Спасылкі[правіць | правіць зыходнік] Цары Мідыі і Ахеменіды Дзяржава Ахеменідаў Мідыя (728 – 550 да н.э.) Дэёк · Фраорт · Мадый · Кіяксар · Астыяг Дзяржава Ахеменідаў (550—330 да н.э.) Ахемен† · Арыярамн† · Арсам† · Тэісп · Кір I · Камбіз I · Кір II Вялікі · Камбіз II · Смердыс · Дарый I Вялікі · Ксеркс I · Артаксеркс I Макрахейр (Лангіман) · Ксеркс II · Сагдыян · Дарый II Нот · Артаксеркс II Мнеман · Артаксеркс III Ох · Артаксеркс IV Арсес · Дарый III Кадаман † няма дакладных сведчанняў існавання, можа быць легендарным персанажам Ксеркс I — продкі Дарый I Гістасп Арсам Арыярамн Камбіз I Кір I Ксеркс I Кір II Вялікі Астыяг Атоса Мандана Медыйская[d] Арыеніс[d] Касандана[d] Фарнасп[d]     Слоўнікі і энцыклапедыі Вялікая каталанская · Вялікая расійская · Бракгаўза і Ефрона · Яўрэйская Бракгаўза і Ефрона · Малы Бракгаўза і Ефрона · Рэальны слоўнік класічных старажытнасцяў · Britannica (онлайн) · Brockhaus · Infernal (6e éd.) · Notable Names Database Генеалогія і некрапалістыка Find a Grave Нарматыўны кантроль BNC: a12318310 · BNE: XX1153338 · BNF: 150689088 · GND: 118808109 · ISNI: 0000 0000 6300 8852 · LCCN: n81070675 · LNB: 000054067 · NKC: mzk2005313022 · NLA: 66228176 · NTA: 073636711 · NUKAT: n2006124654 · LIBRIS: 259706 · SUDOC: 050588400 · VIAF: 282770127, 84647018, 19983268, 545159474208227661770, 852159474197427661164, 835154381042230292043, 305065028, 230159474179227661365 · ULAN: 500354810 · WorldCat VIAF: 282770127, 84647018, 19983268, 545159474208227661770, 852159474197427661164, 835154381042230292043, 305065028, 230159474179227661365 Узята з "https://be.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ксеркс_I&oldid=3776421" Катэгорыі: Нарадзіліся ў 519 годзе да н.э. Нарадзіліся ў Іране Памерлі ў 475 годзе да н.э. Асобы Дынастыя Ахеменідаў Забітыя манархі Кіраўнікі V стагоддзя да н.э. 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bg-wikipedia-org-2693	----	Ксеркс I – Уикипедия Ксеркс I от Уикипедия, свободната енциклопедия Направо към навигацията Направо към търсенето Ксеркс I персийски цар Роден 519 г. пр.н.е. Персия Починал 475 г. пр.н.е. (44 г.) Персия (убийство) Погребан Иран Религия Зороастризъм Семейство Род Ахемениди Баща Дарий I Майка Атоса Съпруга Естир Деца Артаксеркс I Ксеркс I в Общомедия Ксеркс I (на персийски: خشایارشا, Khshayarshā, на староперсийски: Xšayârša, „героичен цар“, или „герой сред царете“[1]) е персийски цар от династията на Ахеменидите, царувал в периода 485 – 465 пр.н.е.. Син е на Дарий I и Атоса, дъщеря на Кир Велики. Ксеркс I е най-известен като предводител на големия поход на персийската войска във война с Гърция. Отначало Ксеркс е ангажиран с потушаване на въстанията в Египет 484 пр.н.е. и Вавилон 484 и 482 – 1 пр.н.е. От 483 пр.н.е. Ксеркс насочва усилията си към подготовката на нов голям поход на запад, който да заличи провала на баща му Дарий I в предишната война срещу гърците. Съдържание 1 Гръко-Персийската война 1.1 Похода в Гърция 2 По-късно управление 3 Външни препратки 4 Източници Гръко-Персийската война[редактиране | редактиране на кода]  Основна статия: Гръко-персийски войни Събрана в продължение на няколко години, огромната армия на персийския цар възлизала на 2 или 3 милиона души, според Херодот. Мнозина изследователи приемат, че численост от 300 до 500 000 души изглежда по-реална, а някои смятат, че персийската войска в Гърция едва ли е надвишавала 100 хиляди. В армията на Ксеркс имало войници от десетки подчинени народи, включително и 10 хил. елитни гвардейци, известни като „Безсмъртните“. През 480 пр.н.е. Ксеркс оглавява армията и потегля от Сарди, с което дава началото на похода срещу гърците. Част от армията е транспортирана с кораби по море, но повечето от пехотата и самият Ксеркс преминават в Тракия през Хелеспонта, (протока Дарданели) върху специално построени понтонни мостове. Според разказа на Херодот, когато буря разрушава мостовете, разгневеният Ксеркс заповядва морето да бъде бичувано с камшик за наказание. Бичуването на Хелеспонта (илюстрация от 1909 г.) Когато Ксеркс и многочислената му армия преминават в Европа, превесът на силите е явно на негова страна. Той е сключил съюз с Картаген, а някои от гръцките държави като Тесалия, Тива (Беотия) и Аргос минават на негова страна. Настъплението на персите в Тракия, Македония и Северна Гърция е успешно и почти безпроблемно. Похода в Гърция[редактиране | редактиране на кода]  Основна статия: Битка при Термопилите Първото сражение между перси и гърци е в подножието на теснината Термопили (т. нар. „Горещи порти“) през август 480 пр.н.е. Там армията на Ксеркс се сблъсква с няколкостотин спартанци и аркадци, предвождани от спартанския цар Леонид I. Гърците удържат за известно време прохода Термопили. Предател от гърците издава на персите, че има една овчарска пътека, по която могат да атакуват в гръб. Цар Леонид вижда, че битката е обречена и изпраща повечето от войниците у дома. Той самият остава да се бие заедно с 300 спартанци и отбранява прохода в продължение на три дни непрестанни боеве до смърт. Жертвите от персийска страна са много големи, но тъй като са далеч по-многобройни, персите успяват да надделеят над малката спартанска армия и продължават своето настъпление в Гърция. Изоставената Атина е превзета и опожарена от Ксеркс, наказани са и редица други градове, оказали съпротива. Отбраняваната от гърците територия се свежда до Пелопонес. Въпреки това ходът на кампанията се обръща, след като флотът на персите търпи поражение в опустошителната Битка при Саламин (септември 480 пр.н.е.) срещу гръцкия флот, командван от Темистокъл. Обезпокоен от загубата и прекъснатата връзка по море, Ксеркс се оттегля да зимува с армията си в Северна Гърция. В началото на 479 пр.н.е. Ксеркс научава за избухналия бунт във Вавилония, поради което се връща в Азия и оставя командването на своя приближен Мардоний. В заветната битка при Платея, в Беотия (август 479 пр.н.е.), персийската армия търпи решаващо поражение от обединената армия на двата най-силни гръцки полиса – Атина и Спарта, предвождана от Милтиад. Персите биват разгромени от 30 000 Атинска и 10 000 Спартанска армия, а персийският военачалник загива. Остатъците от персийската армия напускат Гърция. С това приключва втората Гръко-Персийска война. По-късно управление[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Благодарение на гръцката пропаганда се налага мнението за Ксеркс като архетип на ориенталски деспот, жесток вманиачен тиранин и самовеличаещ се мегаломан, неспособен във военното дело. През последната част от управлението си Ксеркс е апатичен и бездеен владетел, подвластен на дворцовите интриги. След неуспеха в Гърция, до края на Ксерксовото царуване, империята не води повече завоевателни походи. Държавата е частично дестабилизирана от серията бунтове на източните сатрапи и от появилия се глад. Ксеркс се опитва да засили зороастризма, потиска местните култове и конфискува големи богатства от храмовете в Египет и Вавилон. Опитът на Ксеркс да реформира корумпираната администрация, като назначава избрани от него чиновници, води до недоволство сред аристократите. През 465 г. пр. Хр. Ксеркс I и най-големият му син Дарий стават жертва на дворцов заговор, начело с началника на охраната Артабан и евнуха Аспамитър, които убиват царя в покоите му. Външни препратки[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Xerxes I livius.org Xerxes (Khashayar Shah) Iran Chamber Society Mark, Joshua J.: Xerxes I Ancient History Encyclopedia Diodorus Siculus: The Library of History, Book XI Източници[редактиране | редактиране на кода] ↑ XERXES i. The Name п б р Мидийски и Ахеменидски царе Ахеменидска империя Мидия (728 – 550 пр.н.е.) Дейок · Фраорт · Мадий · Киаксар · Астиаг Ахеменидска империя (550 – 330 пр.н.е.) Ахемен† · Ариарамн† · Арсам† · Теисп · Кир I · Камбис I · Кир II Велики · Камбис II · Смердис · Дарий I Велики · Ксеркс I · Артаксеркс I Лонгиман · Ксеркс II · Согдиан · Дарий II Нот · Артаксеркс II Мнемон · Артаксеркс III Ох · Артаксеркс IV Арсес · Дарий III Кодоман † няма достоверни източници, вероятно легендарни персонажи Нормативен контрол BNE: XX1153338 BNF: cb150689088 (данни) FAST: 1859099 GND: 118808109 ISNI: 0000 0000 6300 8852 Koninklijke: 073636711 LCCN: n81070675 LNB: 000054067 NKC: mzk2005313022 NLA: 66228176 SELIBR: 259706 SUDOC: 050588400 ULAN: 500354810 VIAF: 282770127 WorldCat: viaf-19983268 Взето от „https://bg.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ксеркс_I&oldid=10092301“. Категории: Монарси на Персия Убити монарси Ахемениди Фараони от Ахеменидската династия Скрити категории: Родени през 519 година пр.н.е. Починали през 475 година пр.н.е. Уикипедия:Статии с нормативен контрол (BNE) Уикипедия:Статии с нормативен контрол (BNF) Уикипедия:Статии с нормативен контрол (FAST) Уикипедия:Статии с нормативен контрол (GND) Уикипедия:Статии с нормативен контрол (ISNI) Уикипедия:Статии с нормативен контрол (Koninklijke) Уикипедия:Статии с нормативен контрол (LCCN) Уикипедия:Статии с нормативен контрол (LNB) Уикипедия:Статии с нормативен контрол (NKC) Уикипедия:Статии с нормативен контрол (NLA) Уикипедия:Статии с нормативен контрол (SELIBR) Уикипедия:Статии с нормативен контрол (SUDOC) Уикипедия:Статии с нормативен контрол (ULAN) Уикипедия:Статии с нормативен контрол (VIAF) Уикипедия:Статии с нормативен контрол (WorldCat) Навигация Лични инструменти Не сте влезли в системата Беседа Приноси Създаване на сметка Влизане Именни пространства Статия Беседа Варианти Прегледи Преглед Редактиране Редактиране на кода История Още Търсене Навигация Начална страница Случайна статия За Уикипедия Блог на общността Фейсбук страница Страница за контакт Направете дарение Участвайте Защо? 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books-google-com-1529	----	The Oxford Bible Commentary - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Get print book No eBook available Oxford University Press Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound Find in a library All sellers » 2 ReviewsWrite review The Oxford Bible Commentary edited by John Barton, John Muddiman   About this book Get Textbooks on Google Play Rent and save from the world's largest eBookstore. Read, highlight, and take notes, across web, tablet, and phone. Go to Google Play Now » Pages displayed by permission of Oxford University Press. Copyright.  Page 325      Restricted Page You have reached your viewing limit for this book (why?). 
books-google-com-2734	----	Xerxes: A Persian Life - Richard Stoneman - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Buy eBook - $38.00 Get this book in print Yale University Press Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound Find in a library All sellers » Xerxes: A Persian Life Richard Stoneman Yale University Press, Aug 15, 2015 - Biography & Autobiography - 288 pages 0 Reviews Xerxes, Great King of the Persian Empire from 486–465 B.C., has gone down in history as an angry tyrant full of insane ambition. The stand of Leonidas and the 300 against his army at Thermopylae is a byword for courage, while the failure of Xerxes’ expedition has overshadowed all the other achievements of his twenty-two-year reign.   In this lively and comprehensive new biography, Richard Stoneman shows how Xerxes, despite sympathetic treatment by the contemporary Greek writers Aeschylus and Herodotus, had his reputation destroyed by later Greek writers and by the propaganda of Alexander the Great. Stoneman draws on the latest research in Achaemenid studies and archaeology to present the ruler from the Persian perspective. This illuminating volume does not whitewash Xerxes’ failings but sets against them such triumphs as the architectural splendor of Persepolis and a consideration of Xerxes’ religious commitments. What emerges is a nuanced portrait of a man who ruled a vast and multicultural empire which the Greek communities of the West saw as the antithesis of their own values.   Preview this book » What people are saying - Write a review XERXES: A Persian Life User Review  - KirkusStoneman (Pindar, 2014, etc.) sorts through millennia of literature and histories to try to reveal Xerxes, the powerful ruler of the Achaemenid Empire. The author sets a difficult task, and he cites a ... Read full review Selected pages Page vii Page vii Page vii Page vii Page vii Contents Introduction 1 chapter one Accession 17 chapter two The Persian Empire 35 chapter three The Image of a King 69 chapter four The Religion of Xerxes 88 The Cornerstone ofGreek Freedom 109 The Wooden Walls 139 chapter seven Persepolis 160 Conclusion 210 Appendix 1 Xerxes in Opera and Drama 219 Appendix 2 The Birth of Persian Kings 223 Appendix 3 The Chronology of Xerxes Advancethrough Greece 226 Abbreviations 229 Notes 230 Bibliography 258 Index 268 More chapter eight Family Romances 181 chapter nine Assassination 195 Copyright Less Other editions - View all Xerxes: A Persian Life Richard Stoneman Limited preview - 2015 Common terms and phrases according to Herodotus Achaemenid Aelian Aelian VH Aeschylus Ahura Mazda Alexander Alexander’s Amestris ancient apadana Artabanus Artaxerxes Artemision Asia Athenian Athens Atossa Babylon Babylonian Bactria battle Book of Esther Briant Brosius brother building Cambyses campaign century Cimon commander Couperus Ctesias Cyrop Cyrus Darius daughter death Demaratus depicted described Diod Diodorus Esfandiyar eunuchs father Ferdowsi FGrH fleet garden Gaumata gods gold Greece Greek Gushtasp harem Hellespont Herodotus Herzfeld historians Hystaspes inscription interpretation Iranian king’s Kuhrt land later Leonidas Llewellyn-Jones Magi magus Mardonius Masistes mother Ottoman palace Pasargadae Pausanias perhaps Persepolis Persian court Persian Empire Persian king Plataea Plut Plutarch queen reign reliefs religion revolt royal ruler Salamis Sancisi-Weerdenburg Sardis Sassanian satrap says seems Shahbazi Shahnameh ships Spartan Stoneman story Strabo Susa temple Themistocles Thermopylae throne tomb tradition tree tribute troops Vidal Wiesehöfer wife women writing Xenophon Xerxes Zoroaster Zoroastrian About the author (2015) Richard Stoneman is Honorary Visiting Professor, University of Exeter, and the author of numerous books. He lives in Devon, UK. Bibliographic information Title Xerxes: A Persian Life Author Richard Stoneman Edition unabridged Publisher Yale University Press, 2015 ISBN 0300216041, 9780300216042 Length 288 pages Subjects History  › Ancient  › General Biography & Autobiography / Historical History / Ancient / General History / Asia / Central Asia     Export Citation BiBTeX EndNote RefMan About Google Books - Privacy Policy - Terms of Service - Information for Publishers - Report an issue - Help - Google Home 
books-google-com-3104	----	Sophene, Gordyene, and Adiabene: Three Regna Minora of Northern Mesopotamia ... - Michał Marciak - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Get print book No eBook available Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound Find in a library All sellers » Get Textbooks on Google Play Rent and save from the world's largest eBookstore. Read, highlight, and take notes, across web, tablet, and phone. Go to Google Play Now » Sophene, Gordyene, and Adiabene: Three Regna Minora of Northern Mesopotamia Between East and West Michał Marciak BRILL, Jul 17, 2017 - History - 598 pages 0 Reviews The monograph Sophene, Gordyene, and Adiabene by M. Marciak offers the first-ever comprehensive study of the history and culture of these three ancient countries located in Northern Mesopotamia from the third century BCE to the seventh century CE.   Preview this book » What people are saying - Write a review We haven't found any reviews in the usual places. Selected pages Table of Contents Index References Contents Introduction 1 Part 1 Sophene 9 Part 2 Gordyene 161 Part 3 Adiabene 255 Bibliography 435 Figures 497 Index of Geographic and Ethnic Names 555 Index of Personal Names 565 Index of Principal Sources 572 Copyright Other editions - View all Sophene, Gordyene, and Adiabene: Three Regna Minora of Northern Mesopotamia ... Michał Marciak No preview available - 2017 Common terms and phrases Adiabene Algaze Amida Ammianus ancient sources Antiochos Anzitene appears Arbela archaeological Armenian sources Arsames Arzanene Assyrian attested Batman River Beth bishop Bohtan border campaign century BCE Chabot Chaumont Christian Cizre coins context Cop‘k cultural Dąbrowa Dillemann 1962 east eastern Eski Euphrates Facella Figure fortress Garsoïan Geog geographical geopolitical Gordyaean Gordyene Greater Armenia Greek Hatra Hellenistic Hewsen Hübschmann 1904 identified II’s Ingilene inscription Iranian Izates Josephus Jullien Kappadokia Karduchoi Kettenhofen king of Adiabene kingdom Kommagene Lightfoot Likewise Lipiński located Marciak Markwart Martyropolis mentioned Mesopotamia modern Monobazos Mosig-Walburg 2009 Mountains Nineveh Nisibis northern Mesopotamia Olbrycht 2010a Osrhoene Parthian Persian Pliny the Elder political Prokopios province Qardū references region reign River Roman Rome route royal rulers Sasanian satraps scholars Seleucid Semitic Severus Shapur Shapur II Sinclair Sophanene Sophene Sophene’s Strabo suggested synod Syriac Tauros territory Tigranes Tigranes II toponyms Trajan Transtigritanae Upper Tigris Zabdikene Zariadres Bibliographic information Title Sophene, Gordyene, and Adiabene: Three Regna Minora of Northern Mesopotamia Between East and West Impact of Empire Author Michał Marciak Publisher BRILL, 2017 ISBN 9004350721, 9789004350724 Length 598 pages Subjects History  › Ancient  › General History / Ancient / General History / Civilization     Export Citation BiBTeX EndNote RefMan About Google Books - Privacy Policy - Terms of Service - Information for Publishers - Report an issue - Help - Google Home 
books-google-com-319	----	King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE ... - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Get print book No eBook available Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound Find in a library All sellers » Get Textbooks on Google Play Rent and save from the world's largest eBookstore. Read, highlight, and take notes, across web, tablet, and phone. Go to Google Play Now » King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE - 651 CE) Touraj Daryaee Kb Studio, Apr 4, 2017 - Elam - 236 pages 0 Reviews In a Middle Persian text known as "Khusro and the Page," one of the most famous kings of the ancient Iranian world, Khusro I Anusheruwan, is called haft kiSwar xawadāy "the King of the Seven Climes." This title harkens back to at least the Achaemenid period when it was in fact used, and even further back to a Zoroastrian/Avestan world view. From the earliest Iranian hymns, those of the Gāthās of Zarathushtra, through the Younger Avesta and later Pahlavi writings, it is known that the ancient Iranians divided the world into seven climes or regions. Indeed, at some point there was even an aspiration that this world should be ruled by a single king. Consequently, the title of the King of the Seven Climes, used by Khusro I in the sixth century CE, suggests the most ambitious imperial vision that one would find in the literary tradition of the ancient Iranian world. Taking this as a point of departure, the present book aims to be a survey of the dynasties and rulers who thought of going beyond their own surroundings to forge larger polities within the Iranian realm. Thus far, in similar discussions of ancient Iranian history, it has been the convention to set the beginnings of a specifically Iranian world at the rise of Cyrus the Great and the establishment of the Achaemenid Empire. But in fact, this notion is only a recent paradigm, which became popular in Iran in the late 1960s owing to traditions of Classical and European historiography. At the same time, there are other narratives that can be given for the history of the Iranian World, including those that take us to 5000 BCE to sites such as Sialk, near Kashan, or other similar archaeological localities. As attractive as an archaeologically based narrative of local powers can be, however, the aim of the present work is to focus on political entities who aimed at the control of a larger domain beyond their own local contexts. As a result, this book starts its narrative with Elam, the influential civilization and kingdom that existed long before the Achaemenids came to power. Elam boasted a writing system and a complex culture and political organization contemporaneous with that of Mesopotamia, and was made up of cities such as Susa and Anshan. As Kamyar Abdi shows in his chapter, the Iranian civilization owes much to the Elamites and their worldview and conception of rulership. Thus, we do not start the present narrative with 550 BCE and Cyrus, but with 3000 BCE, in the proto-Elamite Period, when signs of a long lasting civilization on the Iranian Plateau first appeared. What people are saying - Write a review We haven't found any reviews in the usual places. Other editions - View all King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE ... Touraj Daryaee No preview available - 2017 Bibliographic information Title King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE - 651 CE) Volume 4 of Ancient Iranian Series Editor Touraj Daryaee Edition illustrated Publisher Kb Studio, 2017 ISBN 0692864407, 9780692864401 Length 236 pages     Export Citation BiBTeX EndNote RefMan About Google Books - Privacy Policy - Terms of Service - Information for Publishers - Report an issue - Help - Google Home 
books-google-com-3330	----	A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire - M. A. Dandamaev - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Get print book No eBook available BRILL Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound Find in a library All sellers » 1 ReviewWrite review A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire By M. A. Dandamaev   About this book Get Textbooks on Google Play Rent and save from the world's largest eBookstore. Read, highlight, and take notes, across web, tablet, and phone. Go to Google Play Now » Pages displayed by permission of BRILL. Copyright.  Page 185      Restricted Page You have reached your viewing limit for this book (why?). 
books-google-com-4192	----	The Defence of Greece, 490-479 B.C. - John Francis Lazenby - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Get print book No eBook available Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound Find in a library All sellers » Get Textbooks on Google Play Rent and save from the world's largest eBookstore. Read, highlight, and take notes, across web, tablet, and phone. Go to Google Play Now » The Defence of Greece, 490-479 B.C. John Francis Lazenby Aris & Phillips, 1993 - History - 294 pages 0 Reviews This is a military history of the two Persian invasions of Greece, the first of which came to grief at Marathon, the second at Salamis and Plataia. The conflicts are largely examined in terms of the fifth century BC, avioding modern conceptions, and from the Persian as well as the Greek point of view. The author believes Herodotus should remain central to any attempt to explain the conflicts, and reassesses his skill and insight as a military historian. What people are saying - Write a review We haven't found any reviews in the usual places. About the author (1993) J. F. Lazenby is professor of ancient history emeritus at the University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. He also wrote Hannibal's War (978-0-8061-3004-0). He lives in Newcastle, England. Bibliographic information Title The Defence of Greece, 490-479 B.C. Aris and Phillips Classical Texts Author John Francis Lazenby Edition illustrated, reprint Publisher Aris & Phillips, 1993 ISBN 0856685917, 9780856685910 Length 294 pages Subjects History  › Ancient  › Greece History / Ancient / Greece     Export Citation BiBTeX EndNote RefMan About Google Books - Privacy Policy - Terms of Service - Information for Publishers - Report an issue - Help - Google Home 
books-google-com-769	----	Encyclopedia of Literary Translation Into English: A-L - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Get print book No eBook available Taylor & Francis Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound All sellers » 1 ReviewWrite review Encyclopedia of Literary Translation Into English: A-L edited by O. Classe, [Anonymus AC02468681]   About this book Get Textbooks on Google Play Rent and save from the world's largest eBookstore. Read, highlight, and take notes, across web, tablet, and phone. Go to Google Play Now » Pages displayed by permission of Taylor & Francis. Copyright.  Page 315      Restricted Page You have reached your viewing limit for this book (why?). 
books-google-com-8688	----	From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire - Pierre Briant - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Buy eBook - $39.10 Get this book in print Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound Find in a library All sellers » 1 ReviewWrite review From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire By Pierre Briant   About this book Terms of Service Pages displayed by permission of Eisenbrauns. Copyright.  Page 116      Restricted Page You have reached your viewing limit for this book (why?). 
books-google-com-9209	----	Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices - Mary Boyce - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Get print book No eBook available Psychology Press Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound All sellers » 2 ReviewsWrite review Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices By Mary Boyce   About this book Get Textbooks on Google Play Rent and save from the world's largest eBookstore. Read, highlight, and take notes, across web, tablet, and phone. Go to Google Play Now » Pages displayed by permission of Psychology Press. Copyright.  Page 225      Restricted Page You have reached your viewing limit for this book (why?). 
books-google-com-996	----	Warfare in the Ancient World - Brian Todd Carey, Joshua B. Allfree, John Cairns - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Buy eBook - $1.99 Get this book in print Casemate Publishers Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound Find in a library All sellers » 0 ReviewsWrite review Warfare in the Ancient World By Brian Todd Carey, Joshua B. Allfree, John Cairns   About this book Terms of Service Pages displayed by permission of Pen and Sword. Copyright.  Pages      Restricted Page You have reached your viewing limit for this book (why?). 
br-wikipedia-org-9851	----	Kserses Iañ - Wikipedia Kserses Iañ Eus Wikipedia Aller à la navigation Aller à la recherche Kserses Iañ (Perseg: خشایارشا, Khšāyāršā, Henberseg: Xšayāršā), ganet war-dro -519, marvet e -465[1][2][3], mab Darius Iañ a oa « Roue meur » Impalaeriezh Persia. Ezel e oa eus tierniezh an Ac'haemenided a renas ivez en Henegipt e-doug ar XXVIIvet tierniezh. Manethon a ra anezhañ Kserses Veur hag e kont 21 vloaz ren (Africanus, Eusebios). Trec'het e oa e armeoù pa glaskjont aloubiñ Henc'hres. Taolenn 1 Buhez 1.1 Yaouankiz 2 Brezelioù 2.1 Aloubadeg an douar-bras e Bro-C'hres 2.2 An Termopiloù hag Aten 3 E varv 4 Notennoù 5 Levrlennadur 5.1 Mammennoù kozh 5.2 Levrioù a-vremañ Buhez[kemmañ | kemmañ ar vammenn] Yaouankiz[kemmañ | kemmañ ar vammenn] Diouzhtu goude bezañ deuet da vezañ roue e euredas Darius Iañ (mab Histaspes) gant Atosa (Merc'h Kirus Veur). Diskenn a raent o-daou eus Ac'haemenes dre lignezioù disheñvel. Dimeziñ d'ur verc'h eus Kirus a greñvaas kurun Darius[4]. Kserses ne oa ket mab henañ Darius, hag hervez hengoun Iran gwezhall ne zlee ket kemer lec'h e dad ar roue. Kserses a oa koulskoude mab henañ Darius hag Atossa ha dre-se diskennad da Zarius dre an daou du. Ober a rae anezhañ ar roue da choaz evit Persia[5]. Artobazan a oa bet ganet gant gwreg "Darius ar sujed", e-skoaz Kserses a oa ar mab henañ ganet goude kurunidigezh Darius, ha mamm Artobazan ne oa ket eus an noblañs e-skoaz hini Kserses a oa merc'h saver an impalaeriezh[6]. Kserses a oa kurunennet e miz Here-miz Kerzu 486 kent J.-K. hag e kemeras lec'h e dad war an tron[7] Pa oa e-tro 36 vloaz[8]. Tremen a reas ar galloud da Gserses en un doare aes abalamour da due aotrouniezh vras Atosa evit lod[4] ha den ne enebas ouzh e gurunidigezh el lez pe en e familh[9]. Hogos diouzhtu e vougas un emsavadeg en Henegipt hag e Babilon a oa tarzhet er bloaz kent, hag envel e vreur Ac'haemenes gouarnour pe satrap (henberseg : khshathrapavan) Egipt. E 484 kent J.-K. e feukas Babiloniz o tiberc'hennañ anezhe dre heg[10] eus delwenn aour Bel (Mardouk, Merodac'h) a lakaaas da deuziñ. An taol disakr-se a vountas Babiloniz d'en em sevel e 484 hag e 482 kent J.-K., kement ha ken bihan ma lenner e dielloù kempred Babilon e nac'has Kserses titl e dad, roue Babilon, hag e oa anvet kentoc'h roue Persia ha Media, Roue Veur, Roue ar rouaned (Shahanshah) ha Roue broadoù (da lâret eus ar bed). Daoust ma'z eus savet un nebeud kudennoù diwar-benn e relijion abalamour da zanevell Herodotos en e Istorioù e soñj ar skolveuridi a vremañ e oa Zoroastrad[11] Brezelioù[kemmañ | kemmañ ar vammenn] Aloubadeg an douar-bras e Bro-C'hres[kemmañ | kemmañ ar vammenn] Kserses o sellet ouzh skourjezadur an Hellespontos (skeudenn eus 1909) Aet e oa Darius da anaon a-greiz ma oa o prientiñ un eil arme da aloubiñ Bro-C'hres. Lezet e oa ar c'hefridi d'e vab da gastizañ Ateniz, annezidi Naksos, ha keodediz Eretria evit ar perzh o doa kemeret en Emsavadeg Ionia, tangwall Sardeis hag o zrec'h war ar Bersed en Maraton. Adalek 483 kent J.-K. e prientas Kserses e ergerzhadeg : Kleuzet e voe ur ganol a-dreuz strizh-douar ledenez ar Menez Athos, pourvezioù a oa sanailhet e lec'hioù a-hed an hent a dremene a-dreuz Trakia, savet e oa daou bont dreist an Hellespontos. Bodañ a reas soudarded eus meur a vroad en e armeoù, en o zouez Asirianed, Fenikianed, Babiloniz, Egiptiz ha Yuzevien[12]. Hervez an istorour gresian Herodotos e c'hwitas kentañ esae Kserses da deuler ur pont war an Hellespontos abalamour ma oa distrujet ar pont papiruz gant ur barrad amzer. Kerses a ordrenas neuze e ve skourjezet an Hellespontos (ar strizh-mor e-unan) tri c'hant gwezh ha ma vefe taolet ereoù en dour. Berzh a reas eil esae Kserse da deurel ur pont dreist an Hellespontos[13]. Sevel a reas ur c'hevredad gant Kartada, ar ezh a viras ouzh rieien c'halloudek Sirakusa hag Agrigentum da sikour Bro-C'hres. Kalz Stadoù gresian bihan en em renkas ouzhpenn a-du gant ar Bersed, Tessalia, Tebez hag Argos peurgetket. Loc'hañ a reas Roue ar rouaned en nevezamzer e 480 kent J.-K. diouzh Sardeis gant ur strollad listri hag un arme zo c'hwezet he niver gant Herodotos a gomz eus daou vilion soudarded ha d'an nebeutañ 10 000 brezelour eus ar vegenn anvet ar Re zivarvel. Nerzhioù gwirion ar Bersed a oa war-dro daou pe tri c'hant mill soudard. Trec'h e voe Kserses e-pad an emgannoù kentañ. An Termopiloù hag Aten[kemmañ | kemmañ ar vammenn] En emgann an Termopiloù e enebas ur bagad bihan a vrezelourien c'hresian renet gant ar roue Leonidas Sparta ouzh arme ar Bersed a oa kalz niverusoc'h, a-raok bezañ trec'het. Hervez Herodotos e oa torret falañs ar Spartaiz goude ma oant trubardet gant ur gresian anvet Efialtes a ziskulias d'ar Bersed un hent all da dremen dre ar menezioù. Goude an Termopiloù e oa kemeret Aten hag e oa kaset Ateniz ha brezelourien Sparta betek o linenn difenn diwezhañ e strizh-douar Korintos hag e pleg-mor saronik. Dizemglev zo diwar-benn a c'hoarvezas da c'houde. Hervez Herodotos, pa en em gavas er geoded kuitaet gant hec'h annezidi, e roas Kserses an urzh da zeviñ anezhi. Keuz en defe bet hogos diouzhtu d'e urzh hag e ordrenas e ve adsavet antronoz. Kouskoude, lenneien eus Persia a eneb ouzh an danevell-se evel propaganda a-berzh ar C'hresianed. Sparta an hini, emeze, a oa enebour pennañ Kserses, ket Aten er brezel-se, ha Kserses n'en dije gounezet netra o tistrujañ ur greizenn kenwerzh evel Aten, ur wezh ma oa kemeret. Enskrivadur eus Kserses Veur e-kichen Gwikadell Van D'ar mare-se e oa kreñv ar gas ouzh ar Bersed e-touez ar C'hresianed, hag ar vrud e oa bet distrujet Aten gant Kserses a vije bet degemeret mat gant an holl, daoust ma'z eo gwirheñvel e krogas an tan dre zievezhted pa oa kuitaet ar geoded diwar dizh gant hec'h annezidi, pe e oa heuliet politikerezh an "douar devet" kuit ma vefe preizhet Aten gant arme Kserses. En Artemisium e oa bet distrujet listri gresian gant ur barrad-amzer hag e paouezas an emgann pa glevas ar C'hresianed e oant bet faezhet en Termopiloù ha pa'n em dennjont kuit. Atizet e voe Kserses da dagañ listri ar C'hresianed (a-enep ali Artemisia Halikarnassos(Daveoù a vank)) gant ur ul lizher kaset gant Temistokles dezhañ, kentoc'h evit kas ul lodenn eus e listri en-dro d'ar Peloponnesos ha gortoz e teuzfe armeoù e enebourien. Gounezet e voe Emgann Salamis gant listri ar C'hresianed, d'an 29 a viz Gwengolo, e 480 kent J.-K.. Goude se e kilas Kserses da dremen ar goañv e Tessalia. Abalamour da drubuilhoù e Babilonia e voe rediet Kserses da gas e arme gantañ da viret na vefe un emsavadeg. Lezel a reas un arme a-dreñv dezhañ, dindan urzhioù Mardonios, a oa faezhet bloaz goude en Plataea[14]. Ar C'hresianed a dagas hag a zevas ivez al listri a chome d'ar Bersed e Mikale. Troc'het e oa hentoù pourveziñ arme ar Bersed ha ne chome tra dezhe d'ober met kilañ ha klask distreiñ d'o bro dre hent an douar. Faezhidigezh ar Bersed a vroudas keodedoù gresian Azia d'en em sevel neuze. E varv[kemmañ | kemmañ ar vammenn] E 465 kent J.-K. e oa muntret Kserse gant Artabanos, e vizir pe komandant e ward roueel hag an den gallousañ e lez Persia. Hervez Aristoteles (e Politikerezh 5.1311b), e lazhas Artabanos Darius da gentañ ha goude Kserses. Pa zizoloas Artakserses ar muntr e lazhas Artabanos hag e vibien[15]. Notennoù[kemmañ | kemmañ ar vammenn] ↑ Hervez mammennoù all e vefe marvet Kerses e -475 :Nous avons vu que, d’après la chronologie de Thucydide, Xerxès mourut vers la fin de l’année 475 avant Jésus-Christ, et que, selon le même historien, Thémistocle est arrivé dans l’Asie Mineure peu de temps après l’avènement au trône d’Artaxerce Longue-main, Mémoires présentés par divers savants à l’Académie royale des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres de l’Institut de France ↑ Il faut donc, conformément à la Chronique alexandrine, placer la mort de Xerxès en 475 après onze ans de règne., E. Levesque, Revue apologétique ↑ Hervez Justinus, da vare muntr Kserses, ne oa e vab Artakserses nemet ur bugel, arpezh a oa gwir e -475, dre ma ne oa ken 16 vloaz. ↑ 4,0 ha4,1 Schmitt, R., Atossa in Encyclopaedia Iranica. ↑ Herodotos levrenn 7, Chap. 2. Excerpt: Artabazanes claimed the crown as the eldest of all the children, because it was an established custom all over the world for the eldest to have the pre-eminence; while Kserses, on the other hand, urged that he was sprung from Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus, and that it was Cyrus who had won the Persians their freedom. ↑ Olmstead: the history of Persian empire ↑ The cambridge history of Iran, levrenn 2, p. 509. ↑ Dandamaev, M. A., A political history of the Achaemenid empire, p. 180. ↑ The Cambridge ancient history vol. V p. 72. ↑ R. Ghirshman, Iran, p.191 ↑ M. Boyce, "Achaemenid Religion" in Encyclopædia Iranica. Sellet ivez ouzh (1988) The Cambridge Ancient History Vol. IV, 2, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521228042.  p. 101. ↑ Farrokh 2007: 77 ↑ Bailkey, Nels, ed. Readings in Ancient History, p. 175. D.C. Heath and Co., USA, 1992. ↑ Battle of Salamis and aftermath ↑ Dandamaev, M. A. (1989). A political history of the Achaemenid empire Levrlennadur[kemmañ | kemmañ ar vammenn] Mammennoù kozh[kemmañ | kemmañ ar vammenn] Herodotos, Istorioù, levrenn 6, Erato Herodotos, Istorioù, levrenn 7, Polimnia Levrioù a-vremañ[kemmañ | kemmañ ar vammenn] Dandamaev, M. A. (1989). A political history of the Achaemenid empire. Brill Publishers. 373 p. ISBN 9004091726.  (2004) The Histories. Spark Educational Publishing. ISBN 1593081022.  Shabani, Reza (1386 AP). Khshayarsha (Xerxes), What do I know about Iran? No. 75 (in Persian). Cultural Research Burreau. 120 p. ISBN 9643791092.  Shahbazi, A. Sh., "Darius I the Great" Encyclopaedia Iranica, levrenn 7, Routledge & Kegan Paul Schmitt, Rüdiger, "Achaemenid dynasty", Iranica Encyclopaedia Iranica, levrenn 3, Routledge & Kegan Paul Schmitt, Rüdiger, "Atossa", Iranica, levrenn 3, Routledge & Kegan Paul McCullough, W. S, "Ahasuerus", Iranica, levrenn 1, Routledge & Kegan Paul Boyce, Mary, "Achaemenid Religion", Iranica, levrenn 1, Routledge & Kegan Paul Dandamayev, M. A, Encyclopædia Iranica, "Artabanus", [1], 1999, Routledge & Kegan Paul Frye, Richard N. (1963). The Heritage of Persia. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 301 p. ISBN 0297167278.  Schmeja, H. (1975). "Dareios, Xerxes, Artaxerxes. Drei persische Königsnamen in griechischer Deutung (Zu Herodot 6,98,3)". Die Sprache 21: 184–88 (1985) The Cambridge history of Iran. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521200911.  (1988) The Cambridge ancient history. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521228042.  Adtapet diwar « https://br.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kserses_Iañ&oldid=1862306 » Rummadoù : Pennadoù a c'houlenn daveoù Rouaned Persia Faraoned Testamant Kozh Tud muntret Tud ar brezelioù medek Impalaeriezh Ac'haemenes Rummad kuzhet : Pajennoù a ra gant liammoù burzhudus ISBN Lañser merdeiñ Ostilhoù personel Digevreet Kaozeal Ma degasadennoù Krouiñ ur gont Kevreañ Esaouennoù anv Pajenn Kaozeadenn Adstummoù Gweladennoù Lenn Kemmañ Kemmañ ar vammenn Gwelet an istor Muioc'h Klask Merdeiñ Degemer Kemmoù diwezhañ Ur bajenn dre zegouezh Meneger hollek Kemer perzh Skoazell Porched ar gumuniezh Tavarn Reiñ Ostilhoù Pajennoù liammet Heuliañ ar pajennoù liammet Kargañ war ar servijer Pajennoù dibar Chomlec'h ar stumm-mañ Titouroù ar bajenn Menegiñ ar pennad-mañ Elfenn Wikidata Moullañ/ezporzhiañ Sevel ul levr Pellgargañ evel PDF Stumm da voullañ E raktresoù all Wikimedia Commons Yezhoù all Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Kemmañ al liammoù Kemmoù diwezhañ degaset d'ar bajenn-mañ d'an 5 Gen 2020, da 19:48. Gallout a reer implijout an testennoù zo dindan an Aotre-Implijout Creative Commons Dereiñ/Kenrannañ diouzh an hevelep divizoù; divizoù ouzhpenn a c'hall bezañ ivez. Gwelet an Doareoù Implijout evit gouzout hiroc'h. Reolennoù prevezded Diwar-benn Wikipedia Kemennoù Gwel evit an hezoug Diorroerien Statistiques Diskrêriadur war an toupinoù 
bs-wikipedia-org-4410	----	Kserks I od Perzije - Wikipedia Kserks I od Perzije S Wikipedije, slobodne enciklopedije Idi na navigaciju Idi na pretragu Ovaj članak ili neki od njegovih odlomaka nije dovoljno potkrijepljen izvorima (literatura, veb-sajtovi ili drugi izvori). Ako se pravilno ne potkrijepe pouzdanim izvorima, sporne rečenice i navodi mogli bi biti izbrisani. Pomozite Wikipediji tako što ćete navesti validne izvore putem referenci te nakon toga možete ukloniti ovaj šablon. Kserks I je perzijski vladar (Shahanshah) (vladao od 485. p. n. e.–465. p. n. e.) iz dinastije Ahemenida. Xérxēs (Ξέρξης) ee grčka forma riječi iz staroperzijskog jezika na naziv trona Xšayāršā, što znači "Vladar heroja" (u modenom perzijskom: خشایارشا, Khšāyāršā). Politički život[uredi | uredi izvor] Ovaj odlomak potrebno je proširiti. Djeca[uredi | uredi izvor] Sa kraljicom Amestris Amitis, žena Megabizusova Artakserks I Darije, prvorođene sin, ubijen od strane Artakserksa i Artabanija. Histaspije, ubijen od strane Artakserksa. Rodoginije Sa nepoznatim ženama Artarije, babilonski satrap. Ratašah Commons ima datoteke na temu: Kserks I od Perzije Preuzeto iz "https://bs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kserks_I_od_Perzije&oldid=3225135" Kategorija: Perzijski vladari Sakrivene kategorije: Članci koji trebaju izvor Sekcije koje zahtijevaju proširenje Članci koji koriste male kutije šablona za obavještenje Navigacija Lični alati Niste prijavljeni Razgovor Doprinosi Napravi korisnički račun Prijavi me Imenski prostori Stranica Razgovor Varijante Pregledi Čitaj Uredi Uredi izvor Historija Više Pretraga Navigacija Početna strana Odabrani članci Portali Kategorije Nedavne izmjene Nasumična stranica Interakcija Pomoć Igralište Vrata zajednice Čaršija Novosti Donacije Alati Šta vodi ovamo Srodne izmjene Postavi datoteku Posebne stranice Trajni link Informacije o stranici Citiraj ovu stranicu Na Wikipodacima Štampanje / izvoz Napravi knjigu Preuzmi kao PDF Za štampanje Na drugim projektima Wikimedia Commons Drugi jezici Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Uredi veze Ova stranica je posljednji put izmijenjena na datum 26 septembar 2020 u 14:57. Tekst je dostupan pod slobodnom licencom Autorstvo-Dijeliti pod istim uvjetima; mogu se primijeniti i dodatni uvjeti. Korištenjem ovog sajta slažete se s uvjetima korištenja i pravilima o privatnosti. Wikipedia® je zaštitni znak neprofitne organizacije Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Politika privatnosti O Wikipediji Odricanje odgovornosti Mobilni prikaz Razvojni programeri Statistika Izjava o kolačićima 
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catalogue-bnf-fr-1634	----	Notice de personne "Xerxès Ier (0519-0465 av. J.-C. ; roi des Perses)" | BnF Catalogue général - Bibliothèque nationale de France Aller au contenu Espace personnel Utilisez votre espace personnel pour :   Réserver vos places et documents sur   le site François-Mitterrand.   Réserver vos documents sur les sites  Richelieu-Louvois (y compris les Cartes et plans), Opéra, Arsenal.   Ajouter vos notices et les classer.   Voir vos achats de reproductions. Se connecter Aide Aide à la consultation du catalogue Une question ? Historique Mon panier Tout Gallica Haut-de-jardin Lancer la recherche    Recherche avancée Recherches ciblées Autres recherches Recherches ciblées Auteurs A-Z SUJETS A-Z PÉRIODIQUES COTE  Notices d'autorité dans univers Dans les univers jeunesse images et cartes musique Accueil Nom de personne Notice de personne Notice Au format public Au format Intermarc Au format Unimarc Xerxès Ier (0519-0465 av. J.-C. ; roi des Perses) forme internationale Sexe :  Masculin Responsabilité(s) exercée(s) sur les documents :  Auteur Naissance :  -0519 Mort :  -0465 Roi achéménide de Perse (486-465). - Fils aîné et le successeur de Darius Ier ; par sa mère, Atossa, fille du grand Cyrus, il était le descendant direct du fondateur de l'Empire achéménide. Forme(s) rejetée(s) :  < Khshayarsha (0519-0465 av. J.-C. ; roi des Perses) Source(s) :  Ausgewählte kleine Schriften / M. Mayrhofer, 1979 Petit Larousse illustré, 2005 . - Memo : le site de l'histoire : http://www.memo.fr/Dossier (2006-05-30) Identifiant international :  ISNI 0000 0000 6300 8852 , cf. http://isni.org/isni/0000000063008852 Notice n° :  FRBNF15068908 Création :  06/05/30 Mise à jour :  12/01/03 Fermer ce volet Ouvrir ce volet Outils Citer la notice : Voir la notice dans le catalogue actuel Télécharger/Imprimer Envoyer par courriel Ajouter à mes notices Information Afin de voir une sélection de notices, veuillez sélectionner au moins une notice dans la liste de résultats. Notices bibliographiques liées Voir les notices liées en tant que : auteur (123) sujet (14) Voir toutes les notices liées (137) Ajouter à mes notices Les notices sélectionnées ont bien été ajoutées dans votre espace personnel. > Voir mes notices dans mon espace personnel Haut de page Conditions d'utilisation | À propos | Écrire à la BnF | V 12.1.5 
ca-wikipedia-org-3364	----	Xerxes I de Pèrsia - Viquipèdia, l'enciclopèdia lliure Xerxes I de Pèrsia De Viquipèdia Salta a la navegació Salta a la cerca Xerxes I de Pèrsia Biografia Naixement 519 aC Iran Mort 475 aC (43/44 anys) Pèrsia Sepultura Iran King of the Kings (en) 485 aC – 465 aC (intent d'assassinat) ← Darios I el Gran – Artaxerxes I de Pèrsia → Faraó Dades personals Religió Zoroastrisme Activitat Ocupació Estadista Període Antic Egipte Altres Títol Faraó Família Dinastia Aquemènida Cònjuge Vasti Amastris Ester Fills Artaxerxes I de Pèrsia Histaspes (en) Darius (en) Artario (es) Amitis Artaban de Pèrsia Rodoguna Pares Darios I el Gran  i Atossa Germans Artazostre, Gobryas, Arsàmenes, Artobazanes, Ariamenes, Ariamenes, Abrocomes, Masistes, Aquemenes d'Egipte i Arsames de Pèrsia Tauletes escrites en cuneïforme, atribuïdes a Xerxes I Xerxes I (persa: خشایارشاه, 'Khashayar Shah') (519 aC - 465 aC) fou rei de reis de l'Imperi persa (Xahanxah) del 485 aC al 465 aC. Fou membre de la dinastia aquemènida. Xerxes és la transcripció grega del nom persa usat com a rei (Khashayar Shah) que volia dir 'rei d'herois'. Al llibre d'Ezra i al llibre d'Ester correspondria a Axašweroš (אֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹשׁ) (Assuer). Era fill de Darios I el Gran i de la reina Atossa (filla de Cir II el Gran) i fou designat successor pel seu pare amb preferència als seus germanastres més grans, nascuts abans que Darios fos coronat rei. Després de ser proclamat rei a la mort del seu pare, va sotmetre Egipte, on va nomenar sàtrapa son germà Aquèmenes. El 484 aC es va revoltar a Babilònia Bel Shimani. Xerxes va reprimir la revolta i es va emportar l'estàtua d'or de Marduk, les mans del qual el rei legítim de Babilònia havia de tocar el primer dia de cada any, i va matar el sacerdot que li ho va voler impedir. Una segona rebel·lió es va produir a Babilònia en una data incerta, vers el 482 aC o 479 aC. La va dirigir Shamash Eriba i fou sufocada pel sàtrapa Megabizos. Babilònia fou saquejada per les tropes perses i algunes ciutats que donaven suport a la revolta foren destruïdes. Contingut 1 La Segona Guerra mèdica 1.1 La Batalla de les Termòpiles 2 La Batalla de Salamina 3 Retorn a Pèrsia La Segona Guerra mèdica[modifica] Xerxes va decidir castigar Atenes pel seu suport a la revolta de Jònia del 500 aC i la victòria de Marató (490 aC). L'expedició fou preparada amb gran cura. Un gran exèrcit es va concentrar a Sardes; segons Heròdot, l'exèrcit de terra anava dirigit pel mateix Xerxes i el formaven nou-cents mil soldats, dels quals vuitanta mil eren genets i vint mil conductors indis, libis i àrabs. El primer cos de l'ala esquerra el dirigia Masistes; el segon cos Mardoni; Smerdomes dirigia el primer cos del centre i Magabizos el segon cos; l'ala dreta tenia com a caps Gergis (primer cos) i Tritantecmes (segon cos); la flota anava dirigida pel príncep Aquèmenes, sàtrapa d'Egipte, i disposava de 1.207 vaixells de guerra i 3.000 de transport, amb 36.000 soldats i 250.000 tripulants als vaixells de guerra i 150.000 tripulants als de transport; Aquèmenes també dirigia el contingent egipci; Prexaspes el contingent fenici; Ariabignes (germanastre de Xerxes) els contingents de Jònia i Cària; Magabazos els continents de Cilícia, Pamfília, Lícia i Xipre. Aquestes xifres són evidentment molt exagerades, però probablement Xerxes va mobilitzar més de cent mil guerrers. L'exèrcit va creuar l'Hel·lespont a la primavera (es van construir dos ponts) i es va fer un istme artificial a la península del mont Atos. Provisions abundants foren emmagatzemades en tota la ruta de Tràcia. Una aliança amb Cartago va impedir a Atenes disposar de l'ajut de Siracusa i Agrigent. Alguns estats grecs van prendre partit per Xerxes, especialment Tessàlia (la dinastia Alevada), Tebes i Argos. Els atenencs i els seus aliats van decidir tancar el pas del Tempe a Tessàlia per impedir l'avanç persa, que a l'estiu ja era a Macedònia. La força enviada al pas, per via marina, no va poder sostenir la posició, ja que els perses la podien rodejar per un pas de la comarca de Persebos i també podien desembarcar a la seva esquena, i van evacuar Tempe, deixant el control de Tessàlia a Xerxes. Els grecs de Perràhbia, Magnèsia, Dolòpia, Dòria del Parnasos, Ènia i Màlia (Malis) es van sotmetre al gran rei. Els perses van donar un rodeig cap a les muntanyes de l'Olimp i van entrar a territori grec hostil, originant l'anomenada Segona Guerra mèdica. Els aliats grecs es van fer forts al pas de les Termòpiles. Un grup de la flota persa va xocar amb vaixells de l'atenenca a l'illa de Sciatos, i aquests darrers van fugir i dos dels tres vaixells foren destruïts. Els perses van instal·lar un senyal marítim en una roca anomenada actualment Liptari (entre Sciatos i cap Sèpia) i un temporal que va durar uns dies va destruir una part de la flota persa (unes 400 naus que foren llançades contra la costa de Magnèsia a Tessàlia), mentre que unes 15 naus que es van introduir per error a les línies gregues foren capturades. 200 naus van intentar bloquejar el canal sud que separa l'illa d'Eubea del continent per, en el seu moment, impedir la retirada dels grecs, però un desertor de la flota persa, un grec anomenat Esciles d'Escion, va informar els grecs de la maniobra, que fou avortada. L'exèrcit persa va fer el seu campament a la plana de Traquínia. La Batalla de les Termòpiles[modifica] És ben conegut el resultat de l'atac persa en la Batalla de les Termòpiles, rebutjat reiteradament per l'espartà Leònides fins que un pastor mali, anomenat Efialtes, va ensenyar als perses un pas de muntanya que va permetre als atacants rodejar el pas i deixar assetjat Leònides; aquest va fer retirar el contingent i es va quedar disposat a morir amb només els espartans, i la gent de Tèspies i Tebes, i amb Abronicos de missatger va avisar la flota atenenca, que es va poder retirar al sud pel canal d'Euripos. Els tebans van deposar les armes, però els soldats d'Esparta i Tèspies van morir lluitant. Quan el comandant persa Hidarmes va comunicar la caiguda de les Termòpiles, la flota atenenca ja s'havia pogut retirar. Mentrestant, la flota persa havia atacat les posicions navals atenenques que bloquejaven el pas entre l'illa d'Argironesos i el cap Cefala a Eubea; els atenencs van resistir tres dies i els enfrontaments són coneguts com a Batalla d'Artemísion o de cap Artemísion, sense deixar cap guanyador i amb pèrdues molt elevades per a ambdós bàndols. Els perses van poder avançar cap al centre de Grècia i les ciutats es van sotmetre a Xerxes; alguna va decidir resistir i fou cremada, com Aba a Fòcida, Tèspies i Platees a Beòcia. L'exèrcit persa va entrar a l'Àtica, on la població civil fou evacuada cap a les illes Egina, Salamina i Trezene. La Batalla de Salamina[modifica] La flota grega es va concentrar al golf de Salamina, mentre a l'istme de Corint es va aixecar un mur per cobrir l'accés per aquell costat. Quan els perses van entrar a Atenes, hi van trobar només 500 persones i una petita resistència a l'acròpoli. La flota persa es va estacionar a Faleros i la grega (més de 300 naus de les quals vora 200 eren atenenques, 20 calcídies, 10 d'Ambràcia, 10 de Leucas, 1 de Crotona, i la resta de diverses illes) a Ambelaki al nord de la península de Cinosura; els caps de la flota volien retirar-se a Cenerea per unir-se a l'exèrcit de terra, però l'estrategos atenenc Temístocles volia lliurar la batalla a Salamina i va ordir un estratagema: el seu esclau Sicinos, que era d'origen persa, fou enviat a Xerxes, al qui va comunicar que Temístocles era partidari de reconèixer el rei de reis i que la flota grega es volia escapar i que per això havia d'atacar immediatament; Xerxes el va creure i va ordenar l'atac; els soldats perses van desembarcar a Psitàlia amb la missió de capturar els nàufrags grecs i mentre la flota es va introduir des de l'est a l'estret de Salamina, tancant la sortida per l'est del golf, i el contingent egipci va donar la volta a l'illa pel sud i va tancar la sortida per l'oest; els vaixells perses, potser uns 800, es van situar amb moviments nocturns entre l'illa de Geòrgios i Psitàlia, amb la proa cap al sud, mentre els grecs (amb els atenencs a l'esquerra i naus d'Egina a la dreta) enfilaven la proa cap al nord. La batalla fou inevitable, ja que els grecs no es podien retirar, i es va lliurar el 20 de setembre. La batalla va decantar-se cap als grecs quan va morir el rei de Cilícia Sienesis, que manava el centre; la mort d'Ariabignes que manava l'ala esquerra va obligar els perses a fugir. La batalla va durar 12 hores, des del matí fins al capvespre. Els perses van perdre unes 500 naus i les que van quedar es van retirar cap a l'Hel·lespont. Xerxes es va retirar amb l'exèrcit cap a Tessàlia, on va deixar el comandament a Mardoni i va tornar a Pèrsia. Mardoni va enviar a Atenes el rei de Macedònia amb les seves condicions per a la pau, però Temístocles va rebutjar negociar. Palene i Olint (Olintos) a la Calcídia es van revoltar i els perses van poder reconquerir la segona, però la primera va resistir. Fragment d'un vas on figura un tros del nom de Xerxes I en signes jeroglífics. Museu del Louvre Retorn a Pèrsia[modifica] Quan Xerxes va arribar a Pèrsia es va trobar amb la usurpació del caldeu Samoserba a Babilònia, contra el qual va haver de lluitar i, quan ja havia aconseguit pacificar el país, va arribar la notícia de la derrota de Mardoni en la Batalla de Platea (26 de setembre del 479 aC) seguida de la derrota de la flota en la Batalla de Mícale (al cap Mycale) al novembre del mateix any 479 aC. Aquestes derrotes van provocar que més ciutats i illes es revoltessin contra Pèrsia i moltes van subscriure tractats amb Atenes que garantiria la seva independència, origen de la lliga Marítima Atenenca o lliga Hel·lènica. Xipre es va fer independent i no fou reconquistat per Pèrsia fins al 466 aC. Se sap que Xerxes va construir palaus a Van (Armènia) i a la vora d'Ecbatana; que va enviar Satapes a intentar rodejar Àfrica per mar; i que els darrers anys la cort fou centre d'intrigues de palau entre els seus parents i alguns eunucs. El desembre del 465 aC el capità de la guàrdia reial, Artaban d'Hircània va assassinar el rei. Un dels fills del rei, Artaxerxes I, va matar el seu propi germà Darios, suposat hereu, que es pensava que era l'assassí, i es va fer proclamar rei per l'exèrcit. Histaspes, germà d'Artaxerxes, que era sàtrapa de Bactriana, es va revoltar, però fou sotmès ràpidament. En la Bíblia el rei Ahasuerus, suposadament Xerxes, va repudiar la seva dona Vashti perquè no el va voler obeir i participar en un banquet que havia preparat per als prínceps; llavors, va dictar un decret per aplegar totes les verges joves de l'imperi i va triar la jueva Ester com a muller. El seu visir Haman, un agagita (una nació que déu havia decretat que havia de ser destruïda) es va sentir insultat pel cosí d'Ester, Mordecai, que no volia estar sota el seu control, i va instigar el rei a decretar la destrucció de tots els jueus de l'imperi, però Mordecai i Ester van poder capgirar la situació gràcies a la seva influència davant el rei. Si bé l'historiador jueu Josefus suggereix que Vashti i Ester van existir, Heròdot diu que la dona de Xerxes i reina fou Amestres o Amestris, filla d'Otanes. Precedit per: Darios I el Gran Imperi persa (dinastia Aquemènida) Succeït per: Artaxerxes I de Pèrsia Longimanus A Wikimedia Commons hi ha contingut multimèdia relatiu a: Xerxes I de Pèrsia Faraons de l'antic Egipte  · (llista) P. protodinàstic / Dinastia 0 (abans del 3150 aC) Baix Egipte Hsekiu · Khayu · Tiu · Thesh · Neheb · Wazner · Mekh Alt Egipte Horus Escorpí I · Iri-Hor · Horus-Ka · Horus-Cocodril · Horus Escorpí II · Narmer Període arcaic (3150–2686 aC) Dinastia I Menes o Narmer · Horus-Aha o Narmer · Djer · Djet · Merneith · Den · Anedjib · Semerkhet · Qa'a Dinastia II Hotepsekhemui · Nebre · Ninetjer · Weneg · Sened · Peribsen · Sekhemib · Khasekhemui Imperi Antic (2686–2181 aC) Dinastia III Nebka · Djoser · Sekhemkhet · Khaba · Huni Dinastia IV Snefru · Kheops · Djedefre · Khefren · Bakka · Micerí · Shepseskaf Dinastia V Userkaf · Sahure · Nefererkare · Shepsekare · Neferefre · Niuserre · Menkauhor · Djedkare · Unas Dinastia VI Teti II · Userkare · Pepi I · Merenre I · Pepi 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christermalmberg-se-8494	----	Christer Malmbergs värld - Musik - Klassisk musik - Johann Christian Bach Christer Malmbergs värld Hem | Om mig | Musik | Recept | Foto | Konst | Platser | Kemi | Eget skrivande | Texter | Tänkvärt | Humor | Filmklipp | Ladda ner | Länkar Musik Klassisk musik Johann Christian Bach Verk Verkförteckning Ludwig van Beethoven Franz Berwald Luigi Boccherini Johannes Brahms Antonín Dvořák Joseph Haydn Michael Haydn Joseph Martin Kraus Adolf Fredrik Lindblad Wolfgang Amadé Mozart Carl Orff Johan Helmich Roman Gioacchino Rossini Franz Schubert Pjotr Tjajkovskij Johann Baptist Vaňhal Jan Dismas Zelenka Klassiska kompositörer Mindre kända tonsättare Pop- och rock Jazz-pop Vis-pop Visa Melodifestivalen Eurovision song contest Verk Skivkommentarer Sinfonior (Cpo) Uvertyrer (Cpo) Sinfonia concertanti (Cpo) Klaverkonserter (Cpo) Violinkonsert (Cpo) Blåsarkonserter (Cpo) Johann Christian Bach Orkesterverk Overtures In the mid-eighteenth century the overtures to Italian operas, both comic and serious, were almost always in three short movements – fast, slow, fast – and almost invariably merely had the function of announcing the beginning of the evening’s entertainment, without any attempt being made to reflect the subject material of the opera. Johann Christian Bach’s early overtures for the theatre conformed to type but, in general and unlike many of those by his contemporaries, were carefully and imaginatively composed. Artaserse (G 1) (Teatro Regio, Turin, 1760) Overture: 1. Allegro molto 2. Andante 3. Presto On 3 May 1760 the management committee of the Teatro Regio in Turin met to discuss a letter which had just arrived from Johann Adolf Hasse (1699-1783) in response to its invitation to him to compose the first opera for the forthcoming Carnival season. Hasse was the most successful composer of serious Italian opera at that time and competition for his services by all the major theatres was intense. At the same meeting therefore, the committee resolved to get in touch with Bach and others as a precaution should the Hasse commission fall through. This must have happened later the same month, because at its meeting on 30 May the committee decided to place the commission with Bach. So it was that Bach’s first opera Artaserse (Artaxerxes) reached the stage of the Teatro Regio on 26 December, with Gaetano Guadagni (soon to be Gluck’s first Orfeo) in the cast. However, because of illness both in the royal family of Savoy and in the cast, the opera ran for only seven performances. The overture begins in an arresting fashion – in unison and with a rising figure based on the notes of the common chord. The general mood is one of excited anticipation. The slow movement is in total contrast. The strings, coloured from time to time by two flutes, offer a moment of reflection. The finale is a miniature Rondo, with two Episodes (the second in the minor), bringing back the festive mood of the first movement. Cantata to celebrate the Birthday of King Charles III of Spain (G 11) (Teatro San Carlo, Naples, 1762) Overture: 1. Allegro assai 2. Andante 3. Allegro assai In 1739 the French antiquarian, Charles de Brosses (1709-1777), described Naples as “the capital of the world’s music” and many later visitors confirmed his opinion. Since 1737 the focus of musical activity in this capital, which also happened to be the political capital of the Bourbon Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, had been the Teatro San Carlo. This had been built on the instructions of the kingdom’s energetic 21-year old ruler, Charles III (1716-1788), not because he was especially fond of opera, but because opera was the court entertainment par excellence and a famous theatre reflected great prestige on a monarch and his realm. After a reign of 25 years in Naples, Charles became King of Spain in 1759. However, the custom of performing an annual cantata in the San Carlo in honour of his birthday (20 January) lasted for a number of years after his departure. The 1762 cantata had the usual cast of three, including the veteran castrato Caffarelli (Handel’s first Serse), and music by Bach, who had been working in Naples for some months. The use of repeated chords at the beginning of an operatic overture was a cliché, but here Bach, by placing then over the nervous syncopation in the second violins, produces a delightful and ingenious effect. The texture of the Andante is mostly two parts (violins and bass) but the melody line already displays many of the gestures of Bach’s mature style – the Scotch snap, the longish trill followed by shorter notes, and triplet semiquavers towards the end of a section. Note also the imitation of the violin melody in the bass at the beginning and elsewhere. The finale is another miniature Rondo. Gli uccellatori (G 23) (Regio Ducal Teatro, Milan, 1759) Overture: 1. Allegro con spirito 2. Andante 3. Allegro assai The première of Gli uccellatori (The bird-catchers), the first comic opera (to a text by Carlo Goldoni) by Florian Leopold Gassmann (1729-1774) took place at the Teatro S. Moisè in Venice during the 1759 Carnival. The opera reached the stage of Regio Ducal Teatro in Milan the following autumn, but with a new overture composed by Johann Christian Bach. This was not the first music by Bach to have been performed at the Regio Ducal but it seems to have been his first overture for that (or possibly any other) theatre. Johann Christian Bach’s overture was eventually published (slightly revised) in London in June 1763 as the first number in Robert Bremner’s series The Periodical Overture, but here it is performed according to a copy of the manuscript of the complete opera as performed in Milan made for the King of Portugal and now perserved in the Ajuda Palace in Lisbon. The Allegro con spirito is characterised by the unison passage with which it begins. The rare use of trumpets heightens the general atmosphere of bustle. An elegantly poised Andante follows. The festive mood returns with the vigorous Allegro assai, which like the first movement opens in unison. Alessandro nell’lndie (G 3) (Teatro San Carlo, Naples, 1762) Overture: 1. Allegro con spirito 2. Andante 3. Allegro assai On 20 January 1762 the first performance of the Birthday Cantata was followed by the première of Johann Christian Bach’s third opera, Alessandro nell’Indie (Alexander in the Indies). Alessandro received only three productions (the other two were in the small town of Lodi near Milan), but it included Bach’s most famous aria, Non so donde viene, which Mozart much admired. The first movement of the overture contains a number of imaginative moments, some of which we would now describe as Mozartean, but the real treasure is the Andante. The use of the minor key seems to bring out the best in Bach and here is a fine example of his early style. The finale restores the high spirits of the first movement, but even here as the opening melody cascades down from the first violins to the seconds and then the bass you are aware that a composer of genuine talent is at work. La Giulia (G 22) (Regio Ducale Teatro, Milan, 1760) Overture: 1. Allegro di molto 2. Andante 3. Allegro La Giulia (Julia) was a pasticcio – an opera assembled from the works (existing or newly composed) of a number of composers - compiled by Giovanni Battista Lampugnani (1708-1788), harpsichordist of the Regio Ducal Teatro. The two surviving scores of the complete opera do not name Bach as the composer of the overture (or indeed any of the music), but, since he himself published it in London in 1765, there is no doubt about its authenticity. It is a strange fact that, while most orchestral scores composed in the third quarter of the eighteenth-century have viola parts which spend most of the time merely doubling the bass line, there are others where there are two quite independent parts for significant passages of a movement or even of a complete work. Bach’s overture La Giulia is one of these and his use of divided violas in all three movements gives it its special character. Il tutore e la pupilla (G 24) (King’s Theatre, London, 1762) Overture: 1. Allegro assai 2. Andante 3. Presto Early in 1762 Bach’s successful operatic career in Italy brought him an invitation from the King’s Theatre in London to compose two operas and to act as Musical Director for the 1762-3 season. This was one of the most significant events in his career and led to his making London the centre of his activities until his death nearly 20 years later. Then, as now, London was the largest city in Europe and one of the richest. All the really important people in Britain had a house there and at the centre of society was the German-speaking court of George III. Opera however was not the state-supported activity it was in Naples but a commercial venture which bankrupted many of those foolhardy enough to undertake it. The spielplan contained comic as well as serious operas and when Bach arrived in London the public was beginning to become more interested in the comic. This is perhaps one of the reasons why Bach, who never composed a comic opera in his life, made his debut at the King’s Theatre on 13 November 1762 directing one, the pasticcio Il tutore e la pupilla (The tutor and the girl pupil). In the cast was Anna Lucia de Amicis, later a very famous prima donna indeed and the first Giunia in Mozart’s Lucio Silla, but then merely a member of a family of touring comic opera singers, albeit its star. The overture Bach provided is a reworking of the one to the Birthday Cantata. The Presto is largely unchanged, although there is an attractive new passage over a static bass near the end. The first movement is quite extensively revised, but the Andante is completely new. A commentator in a London newspaper later noted that Bach seemed to have taken note of the English fondness for the music of Handel. Perhaps it is not too fanciful to look upon this movement as one of the earliest pieces of evidence for this opinion. Catone in Utica (G 2) (Teatro San Carlo, Naples, 1761) Overture: 1. Allegro 2. Andante 3. Allegro assai The feast day of St. Charles Borromeo (4 November) was also the name day of Charles III and therefore a day of celebration in Naples. From 1737 it was the pretext for a brilliant new opera production at the San Carlo too. In 1761 the opera was Catone in Utica (Cato in Utica) and the composer Bach. He was already well known in Naples both as a performer and as a composer and this was not the first time he had been considered for an opera commission by the San Carlo. Bach arrived in Naples around the end of September, with a letter of introduction to the Co-Regent of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies from the Austrian Governor of Milan, Count Firmian, in his pocket. In the title role of Catone was the famous tenor Anton Raaff, then 47 and ten years later Mozart’s first Idomeneo. Raaff, in the first of the four major roles Bach composed for him, undoubtedly contributed greatly not only to the success of the opera but to the later dissemination of his music. Catone was revived in Naples in 1764 and in all received nine productions, including one in Brunswick (Braunschweig) in 1768. The overture follows the by now familiar outline: a ceremoniously festive first movement (with trumpets), an Andante and a brisk triple-time finale. The slow movement has certain Handelian characteristics – and that was before Bach went to London. La cascina (G 26) (King’s Theatre, London, 1763) Overture: 1. (Allegro) 2. Andante 3. Presto By the beginning of 1763 Bach still had not presented the first of his two commissioned operas before the London public. Instead on 8 January he directed a new comic pasticcio with a text adapted from Goldoni called La Cascina (The Farm). However, in spite of the charms of Anna Lucia de Amicis and her family, the opera failed and was taken off after its second performance. Bach’s overture alone appears to have survived. This overture is superficially similar but in detail unlike any of the others on this CD. The first movement is the only one in triple- as opposed to quadruple-time, the Andante is rather like a march and the finale is in duple-time. It is performed here in the version published in London by John Walsh in November 1763. La cascina Alternative Andante A number of manuscripts of the overture to La Cascina give a slightly different version of the Andante, a few bars longer and with wind instruments. Whether this version was earlier or later than the one published by Walsh is unclear. La calamita de’cuori (G 27) (King’s Theatre, London, 1762) Overture: 1. Allegro assai 2. Andante grazioso 3. Presto On 3 February 1763, little more than three weeks after the failure of La cascina, Bach directed another comic opera at the King’s Theatre, La calamita de’cuori (The magnet of the hearts). Once again the text was largely by Goldoni but this time most of the music was by Baldassare Galuppi (1706-1785). The overture once again was by Bach, but it was not a new piece and had already been published in Paris in June 1762. The reason why he chose to use o work which already existed is not too difficult to imagine, the première of his own first commissioned opera was only a few days away. The overture was almost certainly composed for on earlier opera which has yet to be identified because it has features generally found only in opera overtures: all three movements are in the same key, the first movement does not end firmly in its home key but inconclusively in the dominant and the last two movements are linked. As usual outer movements strive to generate the excitement expected at the start of a theatrical performance. The Andante is another of Bach’s neo-Handelian movements, rendered more poignant by the use of flutes. Mozart uses the first four bars of this movement (not quite accurately quoted) as the main thematic material of the slow movement of his piano concerto in A major, K 414, of 1782. It would be nice to think (as some writers have done) that Mozart was paying homage to his old friend and teacher in the year of his death, but unfortunately there is not a scrap of evidence to support this idea. Rather the reverse, since Mozart had already used much the same theme in a piano piece (K 315g, no. 4) nine years earlier. Gioas, re di Giuda (D 1) (King’s Theatre, London, 1770) Overture: Grave – Allegro – (Grave) – Andante During Johann Christan Bach’s time in London, one or other and sometimes bath of The Theatres Royal in Covent Garden and Drury Lane presented a series of oratorio performances on the Wednesdays and Fridays beginning after Ash Wednesday and ending the week before Holy Week, when all theatres were closed. The eleven performances of these series, which replaced the regular repertory of plays, English operas and afterpieces, were almost entirely of works by Händel and usually ended with Messiah. In 1770, a year when both Covent Garden and Drury Lane were offering largely Handelian oratorio seasons, Johann Christian Bach mounted a series of Italian oratorios at the King’s Theatre in the Haymarket, the home of Italian opera in London. Since he was already occupied on Wednesdays with the Bach-Abel concerts, he performed the oratorios on Thursdays. The repertory was Nicolò Jommelli’s celebrated La passione di Gesù Cristo of 1749, Pergolesi’s even more famous Stabat Mater of 1736 and a (mostly) new work by Bach himself, Gioas, re di Giuda, based like many of Händel’s oratorios on an Old Testament subject. The story of Joash, King of Judah, related in 2 Kings 11 & 12 and 2 Chronicles 22-24, formed the basis of a libretto Pietro Metastasio wrote for Georg Reutter the younger for performance at the Imperial Chapel in Vienna in 1735. Bach set a version of the some text, heavily revised by the resident poet of the King’s Theatre, Giovanni Gualberto Bottarelli Gioas was performed three times that season and a further three the following January. However, as the music historian Charles Burney wryly reported shortly afterwards “the success” of Bach’s first oratorio season “was neither flattering nor profitable, though the undertaking was patronised and frequently honoured with the presence of their Majesties.” In his second season, in 1775, Bach significantly played safe with a totally Handelian repertory. Even in 1770, however, he was only too well aware of the hold Händel’s music had on the London musical public. Nowhere is this more apparent than in the overture to Gioas. The opening bars of the Grave are Handelian in spirit, the Allegro pays homage to his robust Anglicised-style and the Andante resembles some of his lilting movements. Moreover, the opening Grave, its return after the Allegro and the coda with trumpets and drums which concludes the otherwise lightly-scored Andante, clearly reflect Handelian formal precedents. Nonetheless, it needs to be noted that all these features seem to have been grafted on to the two instrumental movements of a pre-existing work, the overture to a court ode probably composed for George III’s birthday (4 June) in 1768 or 1769. La clemenza di Scipione (G 10) (King’s Theatre, London, 1778) Overture: Allegro assai No. 22, March in E flat major No. 5, March in G major In the last opera he composed for the London stage, Johann Christian Bach broke away from the three-movement form he had previously used in all his Italian opera overtures. He was, of course, well aware of the possibility of composing on opera overture in one movement, since he had made various arrangements for London and Naples of Gluck’s Orfeo ed Euridice, which has one, in the early 1770s. Gluck’s overture of 1762 was a rather formal composition, reflecting the work’s origins as part of the ritual of the Imperial court rather than anticipating the tragic events which were about to unfold. Bach’s overture on the other hand may possibly be regarded (and almost certainly would be by some present-day opera producers) as depicting the fighting between the Romans and the Carthaginians, which Scipio orders to cease with the very first words of the opera. This may, of course, be imposing a late twentieth-century aesthetic on the piece, but its relentless forward movement and sharp dynamic contrasts tempt such an interpretation. The published full score – one of the very few to be issued of an Italian opera composed for London in the second half of the eighteenth century – prints the overture without trumpets and drum parts. Perhaps this is how Bach conceived it, keeping their sound in reserve for the first chorus “S’oda il suon delle trombe guerriere”. In mainstream eighteenth-century Italian opera seria the orchestra’s only solo contribution to the proceedings, apart from the overture, was to play the marches to bring on or take off the processions called for by the drama. These marches were usually routine pieces of utilitarian music, composed with competence but little more. Bach’s two marches in La clemenza di Scipione are among the better examples of the genre, as was recognised at the time by their publication in arrangements for a variety of instrumental combinations The march in E flat major begins the final scene of the opera, when Scipio’s act of clemency resolves all the various conflicts, personal and political, which have formed the basis of the action. It is notable for its use of divided violas and passages for unaccompanied wind band (including clarinets). The march in G major comes from the first act, probably not immediately after the overture (as in the score) but in the middle of scene 4, where the libretto calls for a march to accompany the arrival of the “ambassador” of the defeated Carthaginians under Roman military escort. This is a more conventional piece, but also rich in fine detail. Adriano in Siria (G 6) (King’s Theatre, London, 1765) Overture: 1. Allegro con brio 2. Andante 3. Allegro assai The Mozarts, father and son, were in London during the run of Johann Christian Bach’s third Italian opera for the British capital. No documentary evidence has yet been discovered that they attended any of the performances. However, since they were well acquainted with Bach and the castrato Giovanni Manzuoli, who was that season’s musical sensation and the creator of the opera’s most important role of Farnaspe, their total absence seems unlikely. Certainly the circumstantial evidence is strong. Mozart senior or junior knew and admired Manzuoli’s main aria, “Cara, la dolce fiamma”, sufficiently to compose a set of vocal embellishments for it. More relevant still are the almost identical openings of the Wolfgang’s Symphony in D major, K 45 (January 1768), his overture to La finta semplice (Spring-Summer 1768) and Bach’s overture. Moreover, Bach’s overture, unlike the aria and uniquely among his known London opera overtures, was not published in his lifetime, so Wolfgang would have had difficulty in hearing it except in the opera house. It follows the usual three-movement form of the time, but with the unusual scoring (for then) of flutes, clarinets, bassoons, horns and strings. Zanaida (G 5) (King’s Theatre, London, 1763) Overture: 1. Allegro assai 2. Andante 3. Allegro di molto The original scoring of the overture to Zanaida is even more unusual – flutes, tailles (tenor oboes in F – played here on cors anglais), clarinets, bassoons, horns and strings. Since this is also the original scoring of the overture to Orione but occurs (as far as I know) in no other contemporary works, it may reasonably be assumed that the opera orchestra in London during the 1762-3 season contained some visiting virtuosi, probably from continental Europe. It is difficult in the late twentieth-century to appreciate how rare clarinets were in the 1760s, let alone cors anglais, but it is significant that there are works published in the 1770s in the former French Royal Music Library where the printed clarinet parts have been transcribed for oboes, presumably because clarinets were not available. The musical establishment of the king of France, however, was not the only organisation lacking the necessary instruments, so, when the overtures to Zanaida and Orione were printed by the younger Walsh, he (or possibly even Bach himself) provided an arrangement for more conventional forces. It is in these arrangements that the works have so far been recorded. Indeed, we have recorded the arrangement of the Zanaida overture, better known as the Symphony in B flat major, op. 9, no.3. Here however we offer the original version, initially assembled from printed parts dispersed in various collections and subsequently checked against the recently rediscovered autograph score of the complete opera. Once again the overture follows the usual three-movement plan. Carattaco (G 7) (King’s Theatre, London, 1767) Overture: 1. Allegro di molto 2. Andante 3. Presto No. 20, March in B flat major No. 26, March in G major Caratacus (also known as Caractacus), the British chieftain, who in 43 AD defied the Roman Emperor Claudius, was betrayed to him and paraded through the streets of Rome but subsequently pardoned on account of his dignified behaviour in captivity, was an unusual subject for an Italian opera in 1767 The opera itself is unusual in many respects: it breaks the classic unities of time and place and features large choral scenes, to give just two examples. The overture, however, is conventional enough to serve for any serious Italian opera of the time, if rather better composed than most. Indeed, the first movement (with the addition of trumpets and drums) did subsequently also serve as the opening movement to Bach’s first Mannheim opera Temistocle in 1772. The march in B flat major introduces the last scene in the second act, when Roman soldiers and their prisoners are embarking on the south coast of Britain en route for Rome. The march in G major accompanies the entrance of Caratacus and the Emperor for the final scene and dénoument of the opera. Orione (G 4) (King’s Theatre, London, 1763) Overture: 1. Allegro con brio 2. Andante 3. Allegro The original version of the overture to Orione has always been available but this is its first recording. One contemporary commentator remarked that Bach had adapted his style in this his first London opera to suit the English taste. Certainly, by comparison with the overtures for his first three operas composed for Italy this is a rather more robustly constructed piece. The opening allegro, although marked con brio, has to be taken more slowly than usual in order to let the elaborate instrumental detail register. The use of a Minuet finale, complete with a Trio for unaccompanied wind band would have been inconceivable in an Italian opera written in Italy. Symphony in D major, Schmitt op. 18, no. 1 1. Allegro assai 2. Andante 3. Allegro assai This work is something of a curiosity. The first movement is the overture to La clemenza di Scipione, with additional parts for trumpets and drums. The second movement is the Andante from the overture to Bach’s only completed French opera, Amadis de Gaule, of 1779, but with the horn parts removed and a few extra bars added on at the end. The third movement is a repeat of the second half of the Scipio overture. We have recorded it here from the point where the Schmitt edition indicates. An earlier recording, based on a twentieth-century German edition, presents a cut version of the whole movement. Joseph Schmitt (1734-1791) was a German priest and composer, who was also active in the Netherlands as a music publisher. He had been a pupil of Carl Friedrich Abel in Dresden before 1758 and it is just possible that he came into contact with Bach through him. There is therefore the very slight possibility, I suppose, that Bach himself had some hand in the publication. However, it is much more likely that, as the director of a publishing firm specialising in reprints, Schmitt himself assembled the work recorded here from the printed editions by Welcker and Sieber. Ernest Warburton Endimione (G 15) Overture in D major: 1. Allegro 2. Andante 3. Allegro assai The serenata Endimione was premiered at the King’s Theatre in Haymarket, the theater for which Johann Christian Bach wrote all his London operas, on April 6, 1772. The occasion of its premiere was a concert “for the Benefit of Mr. Wendling”. The flutist Johann Baptist Wendling, a member of the famous Mannheim Orchestra, had taken up residence in London in 1771 together with his wife Dorothea, who was an outstanding singer, and his daughter Elisabeth Augusta. Wendling played an active role in the premiere of the work both as a musician and an organizer. Bach’s later wife, the soprano Cecilia Grassi, sang the demanding part of Diana. Endimione is based on a libretto by Pietro Metastasio from 1721. Giovan Gualberto Bottarelli, the house librettist at the King’s Theatre revised it for the London production. The story concerns the love of Diana, the goddess of the hunt, for the hunter Endimione, with Amor contriving this passion. The nymph Nice, who also loves the hunter, goes away empty-handed. The clever Amor is the one who triumphs from the confusions wrought by love. He is praised in song in the concluding chorus: “Viva Amor, che dolce e lento del suo fuoco ogn’alma accende.” In keeping with the prescriptions of the serenata form, the action is relatively compact, does without the grand gesturing of the heroic-tragic opera seria, and derives its subject matter from the pastoral genre. The first movement of the overture, however, is anything but light fare. One also has the impression that one is hearing anticipations of Mozart’s Haffner Symphony K 385 (1782) in the powerful unison be ginning, energetic octave runs, and cantabile second subject. The symphonic élan of this allegro finds an effective counterbalance in the cheerful peace of the andante. Formally, the andante has a da capo form follow the opening sonata-form movement. With its prominent horn parts the finale in 6/8 time reminds us that Diana, the goddess of the hunt, is the main character of Endimione. The London publisher William Forster included the overture in full as no. 3 in a printed edition issued us Bach’s op. 18 and containing six symphonies by this composer. The work probably came out in the winter of 1781/82. The only change introduced by Forster was the elimination of the timpani and trumpets in the instrumentation. The other overtures included on this recording were also reused in various ways by Forster in op. 18. Whether Bach himself had a direct hand in this publication has not been settled. It is possible that it was issued prior to his death on New Year’s Day 1782 It is interesting to note that in op. 18 Forster also published overtures and instrumental movements from operas by Bach which had not been composed for performance in London and thus could hope to obtain greater attention from the English public: Temistocle, Lucio Silla, and Amadis des Gaules. Temistocle (G 8) Overture in D major: 1. Allegro di molto 2. Andante 3. Presto Bach wrote Temistocle as a commissioned work for Carl Theodor, the Prince Elector of the Palatinate, with Johann Baptist Wendling arranging for the commission. The performance was supposed to take place during the festivities held on the prince’s name day in Mannheim in November 1772. Inasmuch as at the time Carl Theodor’s court was not just any address, this represented a distinguished commission for Bach. Contemporaries, among them Leopold Mozart and Charles Burney, ranked the prince’s orchestra, led by Christian Cannabich, among the best in the whole of Europe. Temistocle is set in Greece end Persia during the Persian Wars of the fifth century B.C.E. The original libretto, again going back to Metastasio, was also set by Caldara, Porpora, and Jommelli. Bach’s setting was based on the version by the Mannheim court poet Mattia Verazi. The central motif of the work is Themistocles’ love for his fatherland. Although Xerxes has taken him into his service, he refuses to march against his native Athens on behalf of this Persian king. It is in a complex finale, set before Xerxes’ throne and stamped by the technique of ensemble writing, that the drama reaches its climax. Themistocles, believing that he can rescue himself from his dilemma only by committing suicide, intends to drink a cup of poison in the king’s presence, but Xerxes is so impressed by the Greek’s heroic courage that he abandons his plans for war against Athens. The premiere of Temistocle on November 5, 1772, opened the new Mannheim opera season. The performance could draw not only on first-class singers such as Anton Raaff in the title role and Dorothea Wendling as Aspasia but also on all the pomp that Mannheim had at its command. The prince was willing to invest his fair share in this performance held in his honor and saw to it that it was filled out in excellent style. Moreover, the whole celebration was accompanied by splendid court ceremony. A great many illustrious guests from the ranks of the high nobility, among them the Margraves of Baden, the Hereditary Prince of Hesse-Kassel, and the Prince of Nassau-Weilburg, were in attendance. The festive pomp and circumstance of the first movement of the overture, an allegro sonata-form movement, seems in particular to measure up to what may have been the greatest success in Bach’s career as an opera composer. Here the sumptuous effect more clearly occupies the foreground than is the case in the first movements of the other overtures heard on this compact disc. The motivic work is based on broken chords to syncopated string chords, double-stop motifs over drum basses, and short melodic formulas – in other words, on the usual ingredients of an effective overture from this period. The opening formed by Bach from this “raw material” hurries forward, aims at grabbing the audience’s attention, and is perhaps not necessarily to be classified as a little symphonic cabinet piece. Three clarinetti d’amore lend the andante a very unique sound. Bach also emphasizes this sound in a number of solo passages The clarinetto d’amore was an only rarely employed variant of the clarinet, with the addition of a Liebesfuß, a pear-shaped bell, serving to extend its tonal range. Bach’s Temistocle is perhaps the most outstanding example of all of the employment of this apocryphal instrument. (Apart from the andante of the overture, the three clarinetti d’amore are employed only in one aria.) When the andante was reused as the middle movement of the Symphony op. 18 no. 4, the three clarinetti d’amore were eliminated from the score. Their parts were distributed among the other orchestral instruments in the symphonic structuring of the work. The allegro and presto of the overture were not included among the Symphonies op 18. Lucio Silla (G 9) Overture in B flat major: 1. Allegro assai 2. Andante 3. Presto Bach’s Temistocle come across very well with its discriminating Mannheim public. As a result, the 1773 season also began with this opera, and further works by Bach, among them Endimione and the cantata Amor vincitore, were also subsequently presented at the Mannheim court. It is thus not surprising that Carl Theodor gave Bach a commission for another opera. The libretto for his Lucio Silla, this time originating with Giovanni De Gamerra, was again revised by the court poet Verazi. (Mozart also composed music for this subject, but his setting was based on Gamerra’s original.) Bach’s opera was premiered at the court theater in November 1775, again on the occasion of the prince’s name day and with almost the some stags cast as for Temistocle. Bach was not able, however, to repeat the great success of his first Mannheim opera with Lucio Silla. Mozart wrote to his father from Mannheim as late as 1777, “Bach wrote two operas here, of which the first was more pleasing than the second. The second was Lucio Silla”. According to the some letter by Mozart, Georg Joseph Vogler, the assistant conductor in Mannheim, had very unfavorable things to say about an aria from Bach’s Lucia Silla: “What kind of aria? – Well, the hideous aria by Bach, the wretched thing – yes, ‘Pupille amate’. He certainly wrote it while punch-drunk.” Mozart did not agree with this judgement. The central figure of Lucio Silla is the Roman dictator Lucius Sulla (Anton Raaff), who at the end of this opera experiences a change of heart much in the manner of the Persian king Xerxes in Temistocle. Instead of executing Giunia (sung by Dorothea Wendling), whom he desires but who remains true to another man, he pardons her and her beloved. Moreover, he relinquishes his political command and makes peace with his political enemies. Although the dramatic parallels to Temistocle are obvious, Bach’s second Mannheim opera is less open to reform than its predecessor in formal matters and musically less remarkable. It is thus that the overture has always attracted much more attention than the opera itself. The overture is regarded as one of Bach’s best orchestral works of all. Forster published it without any changes at all in the printed collection of symphonic works forming Bach’s op. 18. The concentrated allegro with its festive dotted chord beats at the beginning is followed by an andante with an extremely beautiful melody. Its hymnic theme, looking back almost yearningly on a fading idyll, numbers among Bach’s most powerful ideas. Amadis des Gaules (G 39) Overture in D major: 1. Allegro 2. Andante 3. Allegro Ballet Music: 1. Gavotte 2. Ballet 3. Air (lent) 4. Allegro 5. Choeur (Allegro) 6. Ballet (Adagio) 7. Choeur (Allegro) 8. Ballet (Adagio assai) 9. Ballet (Allegro maestoso) 10. Gavotte (Allegretto) 11. Ariette et choeur 12. Tambourin Bach did not conclude his career as an opera composer where one might have expected him to do so, say, in London or Italy. He wrote his last (and perhaps best) opera in 1778/79 for the Académie Royale de Musique in Paris. He received this commission not so much because of his reputation as an opera composer but because his instrumental works enjoyed a wide circulation in Paris. A good many of his symphonies, concertos, sonatas, and chamber compositions were printed by publishers operating in the French capital. Bach’s Amadis des Gaules based on an already quite old libretto by Philippe Quinault got caught up in the midst of the aesthetic debates being carried on by Parisians about the “true form” of the opera, a question bound up with the priority of a national style, by which the French style and the Italian style were meant. One of these controversies, the quarrel between the “Gluck party”, which represented the French tradition, and the “Piccini party”, which preferred the Italian style, created a stir in Paris during the years prior to Bach’s Amadis. The Académie Royale, which had presented Gluck’s operas on the stage, may have thought of drawing Bach too into the conflict. At least the program assigning him the task of composing music for a libretto which had been set by Lully in 1684 cannot simply he disregarded. In any event, the opera had to he shortened from five acts to three (with Alphonse Marie Denis de Vismes doing the editing job), which was already occasion for criticism. Bach himself does not seem to have been fully aware of the fact that he was supposed to become involved in an aesthetic controversy with his new work. He had spent the winter of 1778/79 in London and had completed the opera there. In August 1779 he traveled to Paris, where the press was eagerly awaiting him. When Amadis des Gaules was finally presented before the queen in the Palais Royal of the Opéra on December 14, 1779, it was a failure and was quickly forgotten. The compromise formed by Amadis between the French style and the Italian style at the time would not have made either of the two parties happy. As was obligatory for the French opera, all three acts end with divertissements; they take the form of ballet inserts and are only loosely connected with the action. All the recitatives are accompanied by the orchestra, which also represents a feature corresponding to Gluck’s style. On the other side, however, Bach draws on the aria types of the Italian opera, on their virtuosity and extended da capo form, which normally was not employed in France. The overture with its three interconnected movements also represents the Italian type. For its part, however, the subject matter featuring some fairy-tale elements contrasts with most Italian libretti in that it is set in the world of chivalric romance and goes back to a late-medieval source. Magicians and knights, demons and fairies are the main characters of this love story centering on Amadis, a knight who must defend his love for Oriane against magic intrigues but triumphs in the end. The characterful, colorful overture leaves behind the model of the attention-grabbing opera sinfonia of the mid-eighteenth century, which was composed only with its opening function in mind. The gifted symphonist shows his hand and confirms his lineage as the youngest of Bach’s sons everywhere in the masterful and nuanced design. After the first overture movement has ended on the dominant with a quite unfinished effect, a bucolic andante immediately follows with beautiful solo wind passages. The allegro following it in turn is nothing other than the continuation of the first movement and thus brings the expected completion of the same. The first two movements of the overture are reused in the Symphony op. 18 no. 6, albeit in revised form. In the symphony two dance movements from the opera replace the concluding allegro of the overture. Whether Bach himself undertook this revision or it was supplied by Forster, who may also have put together the whole symphony edition of op. 18, remains an open question. Ten movements from the last scene of Act III and the finale of the opera occupy the center the ballet music compiled for this recording. The lovers Amadis and Oriane have finally been united and are acclaimed by the retinue of the good fairy Urgande in a “Fête de l’Arc des Loyaux Amants”. Dance movements in which the baroque heritage of Rameau is clearly audible and choruses of joy occur in sequence. Prior to this, an A major gavotte from the seventh scene of Act I is heard. (It is the third movement in the Symphony op. 18 no. 6.) An effective D major allegro in rondo form from the end of Act II (superscribed “Tambourin” owing to its instrumentation with piccolo and percussion) forms the conclusion of the suite. Andreas Friesenhagen (C... *) = Thematic Catalogue of JCB’s works by Ernest Warburton New York: Garland Publishing Inc, 1999 © Christer Malmberg 2020 
commons-wikimedia-org-7531	----	Category:Xerxes I - Wikimedia Commons Help Category:Xerxes I From Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository Jump to navigation Jump to search Jerjes I (es); Xerxes I dari Parsi (ms); خشايارشا (ps); Ксеркс І (bg); خشیارشا اول (pnb); 薛西斯一世 (zh-hk); Kserksesy I (mg); Xerxes I. (sk); Ксеркс (uk); 薛西斯一世 (zh-hant); Xeşeyerşa (ku-latn); Xerxes I. (gsw); 크세르크세스 1세 (ko); Ксеркс (kk); Kserkso la 1-a (eo); Xerxés I. (cs); Kserks I od Perzije (bs); Xerxès Ier (fr); Kserkso I. (hr); झेरेक्सिस पहिला (mr); Xerxes I của Ba Tư (vi); Kserkss I (lv); Ahasveros (af); Ксеркс I (sr); 薛西斯一世 (zh-sg); Xerxes I. (lb); Xerxes I (nn); Xerxes I av Persia (nb); I Kserks (az); Xerxes I (en); خشايارشا الأول (ar); Kserses Iañ (br); Ксеркс (ky); Xerxes I.a Persiakoa (eu); Xerxes I de Persia (ast); Xerxes I de Pèrsia (ca); Xerxes I, brenin Persia (cy); Ксеркс I (be); Ксеркс I (sr-ec); 薛西斯一世 (zh); Xerxes 1. af Persien (da); ქსერქსე I (ka); クセルクセス1世 (ja); خشايارشا الاول (arz); חשיארש הראשון (he); Xerxes I (la); क्षयार्षा (hi); 薛西斯一世 (wuu); Kserkses I (fi); خشایارشا (azb); 薛西斯一世 (zh-hans); Քսերքսես I (hy); செர்கஸ் (ta); Serse I di Persia (it); Xerxes I (et); Xerxes I da Pérsia (pt); Kserks I (sh); Ксэркс І (be-tarask); Xerxes I han Persia (war); 薛西斯一世 (zh-cn); Xerxes I (nl); I. Khsajársá perzsa király (hu); Xerxes 1k Pẹ́rsíà (yo); خشیارشا اول (ur); Kserks I (sr-el); Ahasyweros I dari Persia (id); Xerxes I (sv); I. Serhas (tr); Kserksas I (lt); Kserkses I. (sl); Xerxes I ng Persia (tl); خشایارشا (fa); Xerxes I. (de); จักรพรรดิเซอร์ซีสมหาราช (th); Kserkses I (pl); Ксеркс I (ru); 薛西斯一世 (zh-tw); Xeşeyerşa (ku); Xerxes I (sco); Xerxes Ier (oc); Xerxes I (ro); Xerxes I (gl); Kserks I (uz); Ξέρξης Α' της Περσίας (el); خەشەیەرشا (ku-arab) Ahameniş İmparatorluğu'nun beşinci kralı (tr); quinto Gran Rey del Imperio Aqueménida (es); roi de la Perse achéménide entre 485 et 465 avant J.-C. (fr); Xerxes I al Persiei (ro); kung av Persien 486–465 f.Kr. (sv); król perski (pl); Ahemenīdu impērijas (Senās Persijas) valdnieks (lv); staatsman uit Achaemenidrijk (519v Chr-475v Chr) (nl); персидский царь (ru); Ancient Persian king (en); persischer Großkönig (de); Persian kuningas (485–465 eaa.) (fi); rei aqueménida de Persia entre -486 e --465 (gl); ملك فارسي (ar); پنجمین شاهنشاه هخامنشی (fa); பாரசீகத்தின் பழங்கால மன்னர் (ta) Xerxes I, Jerjes, Jerjes el Grande (es); Xerxes I.a (eu); Xerxes I (ca); Xerxes I (cy); خشایارشاه, خشایارشاه هخامنشی, خشايارشا, خشايارشاه هخامنشي, خشايار شاه, امپراتور خشيارشاي اول, خشايارشاه, احشورش اول, خشيارشا, خشیارشا, امپراتور خشيارشاي یکم, احشورش یکم, امپراتور خشيارشاي يكم, خشایار شاه, امپراتور خشیارشای اول, احشورش يكم (fa); Ксеркс I (bg); Xerxes 1., Xerxes I (da); Serhas, Xerxes I, Xerxes, Kserkses I, Kserkses (tr); アハシュエロス, クセルクセス一世 (ja); Xerxes den store, Xerxes 01 (sv); כסרכסס הראשון, קסרקסס הראשון (he); Xerxes (la); Xerxes I (fi); Xerxes, Xerxes I., King of Persia XerxesI., King of Persia Ahasuerus, King of Persia Assuerus (cs); முதலாம் செர்கஸ் (ta); Serse I, Serse, Khsassa (it); Xerxès le Grand, Xerxes Ier (fr); Kserkso, Kserkso Veliki (hr); 아하수에루스, 아하수에로스, 적시스, 아하스에로스, 아하수에로 (ko); خشایارشا (ps); Ксеркс Први, Ксеркс (sr); खशायर शहा, खशायर शाह, झेरेक्सिस (mr); Xerxes I de Persia (gl); Xerxes Đại đế, Xerxes I, Xerxes vĩ đại, Xerxes I, Đại đế, Xerkes, Xerxes (vi); Ксеркс I (uk); Xerxes i (pt); Xerxes I, Xerxes I van Persië, Xerxes, Xerxes die Grote (af); Kserksas (lt); Kserks I. Veliki, Kserks I., Kserks (sl); Asuero I ng Persa, Xerxes I ng Persa, Ahasuerus, Asuero I ng Persiya, Asuero ang Dakila, Jerjes I ng Persya, Jerjes, Jerjes I ng Persia, Xerxes, Asuero I ng Persia, Ahashwerosh, Xerxes I, Khshayarsha, Xerxes the Great, Asuero I, Asuero I ng Persya (tl); Xerxés I. (sk); Heşayer Şah, Xerxes I. (ku); Xerxes I han Persya (war); Xerxes, Chszajarsza, Kserkses (pl); Xerxes I, Xerxes I den store (nb); Kserks I od Persije, Kserkso I, Kserks, Kserkso, Kserkso I od Perzije, Kserkso I., Kserkso Veliki, Kserkso I Veliki (sh); Xerxes i dari persia, Xerxes Agung, Xerxes I, Ahasyweros (id); Xerxes I of Persia, พระเจ้าเซอร์ซีสมหาราช (th); Xerxes (ro); Xerxes I of Persia (yo); Xerxes I of Persia, Xerxes the Great, God King (en); خرخس الأول, أحشويرش, خشايارشاه, أحشويرش الأول, خرخس (ar); Ξέρξης Α΄ (el); 亚哈沙鲁, 泽克西斯大帝, 泽克西斯一世, 薛西斯大帝, 克塞耳克塞斯, 澤克西斯一世 (zh) Xerxes I  Ancient Persian king Upload media   Wikipedia Date of birth 519 BC (statement with Gregorian date earlier than 1584) Iran Date of death 475 BC Q3746183 Killed by Artabanus of Persia Place of burial Iran Country of citizenship Achaemenid Empire Occupation statesperson Position held King of the Kings (485 BC – 465 BC) pharaoh Noble title pharaoh Family Achaemenid dynasty Father Darius I of Persia Mother Atossa Sibling Artazostre Gobryas Arsames Artobazanes Ariamenes Ariabignes Abrocomes Masistes Achaemenes Arsames Child Artaxerxes I of Persia Amytis Artabanus Q3507242 Histaspes Darius Rodoguna Spouse Vasti Amestris Esther Authority control  Q129165 ISNI: 0000 0000 6300 8852 VIAF ID: 282770127 GND ID: 118808109 Library of Congress authority ID: n81070675 Union List of Artist Names ID: 500354810 Bibliothèque nationale de France ID: 150689088 IdRef ID: 050588400 Libraries Australia ID: 66228176 NKCR AUT ID: mzk2005313022 SELIBR ID: 259706 National Library of Israel ID: 000437459 Biblioteca Nacional de España ID: XX1153338 Nationale Thesaurus voor Auteurs ID: 073636711 Reasonator PetScan Scholia Statistics OpenStreetMap Locator tool Search depicted Subcategories This category has the following 16 subcategories, out of 16 total. A ► Ahasuerus‎ (1 C, 24 F) ► Xerxes I in art‎ (1 C, 2 F) E ► Xerxes I in Egypt‎ (1 C, 5 F) F ► Foundation slab of Xerxes (Oriental Institute Museum)‎ (3 F) G ► Ganj Nameh inscriptions‎ (32 F) ► Gate of All Nations‎ (7 C, 192 F) H ► Hadish Palace of Xerxes I‎ (2 C, 32 F) ► Hall of hundred columns‎ (6 C, 154 F) J ► Jar of Xerxes I‎ (6 F) O ► Old Persian inscription of Xerxes on glazed brick, Apadana‎ (2 F) S ► Serse‎ (1 C, 2 F) T ► Tablette of Xerxes from Persepolis‎ (6 F) ► Tomb of Xerxes I‎ (132 F) ► Treasury of Persepolis‎ (1 C, 30 F) ► Trilingual inscription of Xerxes, Van‎ (11 F) ► Tripylon‎ (5 C, 16 F) Media in category "Xerxes I" The following 41 files are in this category, out of 41 total. (Persia) Jerjes I.jpg 264 × 320; 37 KB Adrien Guignet - Xerxes at the Hellespont.jpg 550 × 388; 189 KB Alabaster jar with inscription in four languages- Cuneiform- Persian, Elamitic, Babylonian; Hieroglyphs- Egyptian.jpeg 2,448 × 3,264; 1.73 MB An alphabet of celebrities - X.jpg 700 × 700; 158 KB Anatolian Soldiers of Xerxes army.png 1,007 × 616; 247 KB Artabanus and the Ghost.jpg 1,208 × 719; 906 KB Astronomical tablet BM 32234.jpg 2,595 × 2,106; 1.1 MB Clay tablet. The cuneiform text mentions the murder of Xerxes I (r. 485-465 BCE) by his son and a lunar eclipse (609-447 BCE). From Babylon, Iraq. British Museum.jpg 3,410 × 2,588; 6.48 MB Construction of Xerxes Bridge of boats by Phoenician sailors.jpg 763 × 500; 102 KB Crossing the Hellespont by Xerxes with his huge army.gif 552 × 349; 67 KB D549- le vase de xerxès. -L2-Ch 3.jpg 687 × 1,274; 264 KB Designation of Xerxes I.jpg 550 × 786; 314 KB Egyptian calcite jar from Susa, Iran. The name of the Achaemenid king Xerxes I is inscribed in cuneiform. 485-465 BCE. British Museum.jpg 3,966 × 5,429; 11.37 MB Jar of Xerxes I 1862.jpg 916 × 1,390; 748 KB Jar with the name of Xerxes the Great MET hb14 2 8.jpg 600 × 672; 64 KB Khashayarsha.ogg 1.9 s; 31 KB Preparations of Xerxes.jpg 586 × 478; 241 KB Sakaian soldiers of Xerxes army.png 558 × 593; 169 KB Soldiers of Xerxes army 2.png 936 × 710; 324 KB Soldiers of Xerxes army 3.png 1,108 × 666; 631 KB Soldiers of Xerxes army.png 972 × 741; 508 KB Tableau Général des signes et groupes hieroglyphiques No 125.jpg 950 × 444; 174 KB Tachar-palace (6).tif 332 × 639; 652 KB The Capture of the Acropolis by the Persians.jpg 1,808 × 2,530; 3.1 MB UC Oriental Institute Persian collection item 08.JPG 2,448 × 2,772; 3.54 MB Wrath of Xerxes at Battle of Salamis by Wilhelm von Kaulbach.jpg 942 × 762; 670 KB Writing and drawing made easy, amusing and instructive - containing the whole alphabet in all the characters now us'd, both in printing and penmanship - each illustrated by emblematic devices and (14747832181).jpg 2,236 × 1,580; 822 KB Writing and drawing made easy, amusing and instructive - containing the whole alphabet in all the characters now us'd, both in printing and penmanship - each illustrated by emblematic devices and (14750686952).jpg 2,194 × 1,576; 489 KB Xerxes by A Yakovlev 1911.jpg 1,403 × 1,605; 190 KB Xerxes by Ernest Normand.jpg 1,312 × 1,616; 847 KB Xerxes crossing the Hellespont.jpg 1,174 × 813; 821 KB Xerxes I at the Hadish Palace of Xerxes.jpg 718 × 1,021; 641 KB Xerxes I of Persia (2).jpg 195 × 249; 60 KB Xerxes I.jpg 396 × 396; 83 KB XERXES I.jpg 5,152 × 3,888; 17.53 MB Xerxes Inschrift.JPG 2,560 × 1,920; 2.05 MB Xerxes Jar from the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus (detail).jpg 600 × 433; 33 KB Xerxes Jar from the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus.jpg 343 × 600; 20 KB Xerxes lash sea.JPG 440 × 679; 80 KB Xerxes Text u Uebersetzung.jpg 1,606 × 1,093; 295 KB Xerxes, King of the Persians, Crosses a Bridge with His Army - Google Art Project.jpg 3,053 × 4,581; 3.88 MB Retrieved from "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Xerxes_I&oldid=465875492" Categories: 519 BC births Xerxes (given name) Achaemenid kings 465 BC deaths 6th-century BC people of Iran 5th-century BC people of Iran Monarchs of the Hebrew Bible Book of Esther Old Testament figures by name Non-topical/index: Uses of Wikidata Infobox Uses of Wikidata Infobox providing interwiki links Deceased people by name Uses of Wikidata Infobox with no family name Men by name People by name Navigation menu Personal tools English Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Discussion Variants Views View Edit History More Search Navigate Main page Welcome Community portal Village pump Help center Participate Upload file Recent changes Latest files Random file Contact us Tools What links here Related changes Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikipedia In Wikipedia Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 20 September 2020, at 10:59. 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cs-wikipedia-org-6929	----	Xerxés I. – Wikipedie Xerxés I. Z Wikipedie, otevřené encyklopedie Skočit na navigaci Skočit na vyhledávání Xerxés I. perský velkokrál Xerxův reliéf v Persepoli Doba vlády 486–465 př. n. l. Narození 519 př. n. l. Írán Úmrtí 465 př. n. l. Staroperzská ríša Pohřben Írán Předchůdce Dareios I. Nástupce Artaxerxés I. Manželka Améstris Potomci dcera Amytis Artaxerxés I. Dareios Hystaspés Achaimenés dcera Rhodoguné Dynastie Achaimenovci Otec Dareios I. Matka Atossa Některá data mohou pocházet z datové položky. Xerxés I. (řecky Ξέρξης, staropersky Chšajáršá [  ]; 519–465 př. n. l.) byl perský velkokrál z rodu Achaimenovců vládnoucí od listopadu 486 do srpna 465 př. n. l. Jeho jméno ve staré perštině znamená „vládce hrdinů“.[1] Pojednává o něm biblická kniha Ester,[2] jež ho označuje jménem Achašveróš (hebrejsky אֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹשׁ). V hebrejském textu Bible je o něm též zmínka v knize Ezdráš[3] a v knize Daniel.[4] Obsah 1 Původ 2 Nástup na trůn 3 Válka s evropskými Řeky 4 Poslední roky vlády 5 Stavební činnost 6 Odraz v umění 7 Odkazy 7.1 Reference 7.2 Literatura 7.3 Související články 7.4 Externí odkazy Původ[editovat | editovat zdroj] Xerxés byl synem krále Dareia I. a Atossy, dcery zakladatele perské říše Kýra Velikého. Následníkem trůnu se stal poté, co byly odmítnuty nároky jeho nevlastních starších bratrů, narozených v době, kdy Dareios nebyl dosud králem. Svou roli zde sehrály Dareiovy snahy o legitimitu a udržení moci ve vlastním rodě – těm vyhovoval prvorozený syn Kýrovy dcery Atossy lépe než tři synové z předchozího manželství s dcerou Góbryovou, bez vazeb ke královské dynastii. Nástup na trůn[editovat | editovat zdroj] Po převzetí vlády v listopadu 486 př. n. l. byl Xerxés konfrontován s revoltou v Egyptě, která trvala déle než rok. Svého bratra Achaimena jmenoval satrapou Egypta a zemi důkladně zpacifikoval.[5] Také v Babylonii propukla vzpoura vedená Bel-šimanim a Šamaš-eribou, při níž byl zabit satrapa Zopyros.[6] Na Xerxův příkaz ji utopili v krvi, jak dokládá zkáza tamních archivů. Válka s evropskými Řeky[editovat | editovat zdroj] Po Dareiovi zdědil Xerxés konflikt s evropskými Řeky, konkrétně úkol potrestat Athéňany za jejich vměšování do iónského povstání a vítězství v bitvě u Marathonu. Výpravu proti nim začal chystat již roku 483 př. n. l. Byl prokopán kanál skrze šíji poloostrova Athos. Podél cesty v Thrákii vyrostla síť stanic se zásobami, přes Hellespont nechal král postavit dva mosty. Uzavřel také alianci s Kartágem a připravil Řecko o podporu mocných vládců Syrakus a Agrigenta. Navíc se řada malých řeckých státečků přidala na stranu Peršanů – zejména Thesálie, Théby a Argos. Byla shromážděna rozsáhlá flotila a početná pozemní armáda (Hérodotos tvrdí, že zde bylo téměř dva milióny vojáků,[7] skutečný počet však dosahoval asi kolem dvou set tisíc). Na jaře roku 480 př. n. l. vyrazil Xerxés se svými silami ze Sard, hlavního města Lýdie. Zpočátku se mu vojensky poměrně dařilo. Řecká flotila byla poražena v bitvě u Artemisia, Peršané zvítězili v bitvě u Thermopyl,[8] dobyli Athény a zatlačili Athéňany a Sparťany na jejich poslední linii odporu při korintském Isthmu a Saronském zálivu. Xerxés se ale nechal zlákat Themistoklovou léčkou (navzdory radám Artemisie z Halikarnassu) a zaútočil na řeckou flotilu v nevýhodných podmínkách, místo aby poslal část svého loďstva na Peloponnés a vyčkal rozkladu řecké armády. V bitvě u Salamíny (28. září 480 př. n. l.) zvítězili Athéňané,[9] nicméně válka jako celek rozhodnuta nebyla. Ztráta námořního spojení s Malou Asií však Xerxa přinutila k návratu do Sard. Velká část jeho armády zůstala pod velením Mardonia v Řecku a byla poražena roku 479 př. n. l. ve velké pozemní bitvě u Platají.[10] Stejně nepříznivě skončila i bitva u mysu Mykalé v témže roce, kdy bylo opět zahnáno na ústup královské loďstvo.[11] Pro perskou říši znamenalo odražení tak pečlivě připravované výpravy první vážný nezdar v její dosavadní historii. Zčásti k němu přispělo určité podceňování protivníka, který početně daleko zaostával za mohutnou perskou armádou, zčásti odhodlanost Řeků ubránit svou svobodu a neschopnost Peršanů uplatnit v členitém řeckém terénu přednosti svých elitních jednotek. Každopádně přešli vítězní Řekové brzy do ofenzívy a znepokojovali západní satrapie říše až do konce Xerxovy vlády, aniž jim v tom král mohl zabránit. Poslední roky vlády[editovat | editovat zdroj] O pozdějších Xerxových činech je toho málo známo. Ví se, že na jeho příkaz se Sataspés pokusil obeplout Afriku,[12] ale vítězství Řeků uvrhlo celé impérium do stavu určité apatie, z něhož se vzpamatovávalo jen s obtížemi. Král se osobně angažoval v harémových intrikách a jeho rozhodování se stalo závislým na dvořanech a eunuších. V roce 465 př. n. l. ho nakonec zavraždil vlivný dvořan Artabanos, který dosadil na trůn jeho syna Artaxerxa I.[13] Stavební činnost[editovat | editovat zdroj] Podobně jako Dareios I. měl také Xerxés zálibu v kolosálních stavbách, i když z větší části jen dokončoval komplexy, s jejichž stavbou se započalo již za otcova života (Persepolis, Susy). Dochovaly se i některé jeho nápisy psané klínovým písmem v několika jazycích. Svou lásku k umění projevil král roku 480 př. n. l. v dobytých Athénách, kde nedovolil zničit nejkrásnější umělecké předměty a naopak je dal odvézt do Sus a Persepole (bylo mezi nimi např. známé sousoší tyranovrahů Harmodia a Aristogeitona). Také zmíněný kanál u Athosu a mosty přes Hellespont dokládají Xerxovy sklony k monumentalitě. Odraz v umění[editovat | editovat zdroj] Xerxes, opera Georga Friedricha Händela Xerxes, opera Francesca Cavalliho Odkazy[editovat | editovat zdroj] Reference[editovat | editovat zdroj] Xerxés jako faraon v hieroglyfickém zápisu Transkripce Ḫšyrš ↑ Hérodotovo tvrzení, že jméno Xerxés lze přeložit slovem "bojovník", neodpovídá skutečnosti. Viz Hérodotos 6, 98, 3. ↑ DOUGLAS, J. D. Nový biblický slovník. Praha: Návrat domů, 1996. ISBN 80-85495-65-1. Heslo ACHAŠVERÓŠ.  ↑ Ezd 4, 6 (Kral, ČEP) ↑ Da 9, 1 (Kral, ČEP) ↑ Hérodotos 7, 7. ↑ Ktésiás, frg. 13, 26. ↑ Hérodotos 7, 60, 1; 87, 1; 89, 1. ↑ Hérodotos 7, 202n. ↑ Hérodotos 8, 70–95; Diodóros 11, 16, 1–19, 6. ↑ Hérodotos 9, 19–89. ↑ Hérodotos 9, 98n. ↑ Hérodotos 4, 43, 1–6. ↑ Ktésiás, frg. 13, 33; Diodóros 11, 69, 1–6. Literatura[editovat | editovat zdroj] HÉRODOTOS. Dějiny. Překlad Jaroslav Šonka. Praha: Academia, 2004. 548 s. ISBN 80-200-1192-7. (česky)  HOLLAND, Tom. Perský oheň. První světová velmoc a boj o Západ. Praha: Dokořán, 2007. 415 s. ISBN 978-80-7363-094-2. (česky)  KLÍMA, Otakar. Sláva a pád starého Íránu. Praha: Orbis, 1977. 252 s. (česky)  WIESEHÖFER, Josef. Das antike Persien. Von 550 v. Chr. bis 650 n. Chr.. München ; Zürich: Artemis und Winkler, 1993. 426 s. ISBN 3-7608-1080-2. (německy)  Související články[editovat | editovat zdroj] Řecko-perské války Externí odkazy[editovat | editovat zdroj] Obrázky, zvuky či videa k tématu Xerxés I. na Wikimedia Commons (anglicky) Xerxovy nápisy na serveru Livius (česky) Bitva u Salamíny na serveru Antika Faraoni Pozdního období 26. dynastie (saiská, 664–525) Neko I. • Psammetik I. • Neko II. • Psammetik II. • Haibre • Ahmose II. • Psammetik III. 27. dynastie (perská, 525–401) Kambýsés • Dareios I. • Xerxés I. • Artaxerxés I. • Xerxés II. • Sogdianos • Dareios II. • Artaxerxés II. 28. dynastie (404/401–399) Amenardis 29. dynastie (399–380) Nefaarudž I. • Hakor • Pašerimut • Nefaarudž II. 30. dynastie (380–342) Nachtnebef • Džedhor • Nachthareheb 31. dynastie (perská, 342–332/330) Artaxerxés III. • Arsés • Dareios III. Předchůdce: Dareios I. Perský král 486–465 Nástupce: Artaxerxés I. Předchůdce: Dareios I. Egyptský král 486–465 Nástupce: Artaxerxés I. Autoritní data: AUT: mzk2005313022 | GND: 118808109 | ISNI: 0000 0000 6300 8852 | LCCN: n81070675 | ULAN: 500354810 | VIAF: 282770127 | WorldcatID: lccn-n81070675 Portály: Írán | Starověký Egypt Citováno z „https://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxés_I.&oldid=19197691“ Kategorie: Achaimenovci Úmrtí 5. století př. n. l. Faraoni 27. dynastie Zavraždění panovníci Bibličtí panovníci Narození 6. století př. n. l. 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cy-wikipedia-org-2475	----	Xerxes I, brenin Persia - Wicipedia Xerxes I, brenin Persia Oddi ar Wicipedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Xerxes I Pumed brenin Ymerodraeth Persia oedd Xerxes I, brenin Persia, Hen Berseg: Xšayāršā, Groeg: Ξέρξης, Xérxēs (bu farw 465 CC). Roedd Xerxes yn fab i Darius I, brenin Persia ac Atossa, merch Cyrus Fawr. Daeth yn frenin ar farwolaeth Darius yn 485 CC, a gorchfygodd wrthryfeloedd yn yr Aifft a Babilon. Yn 484 CC, dygodd o ddinas Babilon y ddelw aur o Bel (Marduk, a arweiniodd at wrthryfeloedd gan y Babiloniaid yn 484 CC a 479 CC. Yn 480 CC, arweiniodd fyddin enfawr i wneud Groeg yn rhan o’r ymerodraeth. Roedd ei dad, Darius, wedi methu gwneud hyn ddeng mlynedd ynghynt, pan orchfygwyd ei fyddin gan yr Atheniaid ym Mrwydr Marathon. Roedd byddin Xerxes yn un enfawr; yn ôl Herodotus yn ddwy filiwn a hanner o wŷr, er nad yw haneswyr diweddar yn derbyn hyn. Ceisiodd byddin fechan o 300 o Spartiaid a 700 o Thespiaid dan arweiniad Leonidas, brenin Sparta, atal y Persiaid yn Thermopylae, lle roedd y ffordd tua’r de yn dilyn rhimyn cul o dir rhwng y mynyddoedd a’r môr. Bu ymladd am dri diwrnod a lladdwyd nifer fawr o’r Persiaid, ond yn y diwedd lladdwyd y Groegiaid i gyd pan ddangosodd bradwr i’r Persiaid lwybr trwy’r mynyddoedd a’u galluogodd i ymosod ar y Groegwyr o’r tu cefn. Aeth y Persiaid ymlaen tuag Athen, lle roedd dadl a ddylent ymladd y Persiaid ar y tir ynteu ddibynnu ar eu llynges. Ar gyngor Themistocles, penderfynwyd gadael y ddinas a defnyddio’r llynges i ymladd y Persiaid. Cipiwyd a llosgwyd Athen gan y Persiaid, ond gorchfygwyd llynges Xerxes gan lynges Athen a’i cynghreiriaid ym Mrwydr Salamis. Dychwelodd Xerxes i Asia Leiaf, ond gadawodd Mardonius gyda byddin gref i ymladd y Groegiaid. Y flwyddyn ganlynol, gorchfygwyd a lladdwyd Mardonius gan fyddin o Roegiaid dan arweiniad Pausanias, brenin Sparta ym Mrwydr Plataea. Cred rhai mai Xerxes yw'r cymeriad sy'n ymddangos yn y Beibl dan yr enw "Ahasfferus", enw sy'n tarddu o'r fersiwn Hebraeg o'i enw. Mae'n gymeriad yn Llyfr Esther, lle ceir ei hanes yn priodi Esther. Olynwyd ef ar yr orsedd gan ei fab, Artaxerxes I. Rhagflaenydd : Darius I Brenhinoedd Achaemenid Ymerodraeth Persia Xerxes I Olynydd : Artaxerxes I Wedi dod o "https://cy.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I,_brenin_Persia&oldid=10778913" Categorïau: Marwolaethau 465 CC Ymerodraeth Persia Llywio Offer personol Heb fewngofnodi Sgwrs Cyfraniadau Crëwch gyfrif Mewngofnodi Parthau Erthygl Sgwrs Amrywiolion Golygon Darllen Golygu Golygu cod y dudalen Gweld yr hanes More Chwilio Panel llywio Hafan Porth y Gymuned Y Caffi Materion cyfoes Newidiadau diweddar Erthygl ar hap Cymorth Rhoi Blwch offer Beth sy'n cysylltu yma Newidiadau perthnasol Tudalennau arbennig Dolen barhaol Gwybodaeth am y dudalen Cyfeiriwch at yr erthygl hon Eitem Wikidata Argraffu/allforio Llunio llyfr Lawrlwytho ar ffurf PDF Fersiwn argraffu Mewn prosiectau eraill Wikimedia Commons Ieithoedd eraill Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Golygu cysylltau Newidiwyd y dudalen hon ddiwethaf ar 26 Medi 2020, am 13:43. Mae testun y dudalen ar gael dan drwydded Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike; gall fod telerau ychwanegol perthnasol. Gweler Telerau Defnyddio'r Drwydded am fanylion pellach. Polisi preifatrwydd Ynglŷn â Wicipedia Gwadiadau Golwg symudol Datblygwyr Statistics Cookie statement 
data-bnf-fr-3672	----	Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) Data Télécharger les données Le modèle de données SPARQL Endpoint Contact français english deutsch Œuvres Documents sur Autour de Voir aussi Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) Sexe : masculin Naissance : - 519 Mort : - 465 Note : Roi achéménide de Perse (486-465). - Fils aîné et le successeur de Darius Ier ; par sa mère, Atossa, fille du grand Cyrus, il était le descendant direct du fondateur de l'Empire achéménide Autre forme du nom : Khshayarsha (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) ISNI : ISNI 0000 0000 6300 8852 Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) : œuvres (123 ressources dans data.bnf.fr) Œuvres numismatiques (123) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-485) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-485) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-485) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-485) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-485) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-485) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-485) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-485) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-485) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-485) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-485) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-485) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-485) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-485) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-485) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-485) Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-490) avec Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) comme Autre Monnaie (-620) Monnaie (-620) Monnaie (-620) Documents sur Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) (14 ressources dans data.bnf.fr) Livres (10) Xerxes and Babylonia (2018) The policy of Darius and Xerxes towards Thrace and Macedonia (2015) Imagining Xerxes (2015) Xerxes (2015) A message from the Great King (2015) Resistenza e intesa (2013) From Xerxes' murder (465) to Arridaios' execution (317) (2008) The Greco-Persian wars (1996) Thermopylai (1996) Ausgewählte kleine Schriften (1979) Cartes et plans (3) Persarum imperium in viginti satrapias vectigales distibutum, ut eas ordinaverat Darius Histaspis filius tertius persarum rex, in scripturis sacris Assuerus dictus (1721) Persarum imperium in viginti satrapias vectigales distibutum, ut eas ordinaverat Darius Histaspis filius tertius persarum rex, in scripturis sacris Assuerus dictus (1713) L'empire des Perses sous Darius, fils d'Histaspes connu dans l'écriture sainte sous le nom d'Assuerus, mari d'Esther (1710) Images (1) [Esther devant Assuérus] (1652) Autour de Xerxès Ier (roi des Perses, 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) (12 ressources dans data.bnf.fr) Thèmes liés (10) Bataille de Salamine (Grèce. - 480 av. J.-C.) Bataille des Thermopyles (Grèce. - 480 av. J.-C.) Chronologie Grèce -- 499-449 av. J.-C. (Guerres médiques) Histoire ancienne Iran -- 330 av. J.-C.-224 Iran -- 550-330 av. J.-C. (Achéménides) Langues indo-iraniennes Moyen-Orient -- Jusqu'à 622 Sources Auteurs liés en tant que autorité émettrice de monnaie (2) Achéménides (dynastie) Darius I (roi de Perse, 0548-0486 av. J.-C.) 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da-wikipedia-org-4261	----	Xerxes 1. af Persien - Wikipedia, den frie encyklopædi Xerxes 1. af Persien Fra Wikipedia, den frie encyklopædi Spring til navigation Spring til søgning Xerxes 1. af Persien Khashayathiya Khashayathiyanam, Konge af Kongerne af Persien Regerede 486 f.Kr. - 465 f.Kr Forgænger Dareios 1. Efterfølger Artaxerxes 1. af Persien Ægtefælle Esther Hus Achaemenid Far Dareios 1. Mor Atossa Født 518 f.Kr. Iran Død 465 f.Kr. (54 år) Iran Hvilested Naqsh-e Rustam, Iran Beskæftigelse Konge Religion Zoroastrianisme v d r Xerxes 1. (خشایارشا) persisk konge (485 f.Kr.-465 f.Kr.) af Achæmenide-dynastiet og søn af Dareios I. Xérxēs (Ξέρξης) er den græske form for det oldpersiske Xšayāršā, der betyder "heltenes hersker". Xerxes 1. foretog i 480-479 f.Kr. et mislykket togt mod Grækenland. I 480 f.Kr. lykkedes det at erobre store dele af Grækenland, herunder Athen, men Xerxes 1. blev besejret i søslaget ved Salamis. I 479 f.Kr. led Xerxes 1. det endelige nederlag ved Platæa. Hans grav er udhugget i klippen ved Naqsh-i-Rustam tæt ved Persepolis. Invasionen af det græske hovedland[redigér | redigér wikikode] Dareios I efterlod til sin søn opgaven med at straffe athenerne, naxianerne og eretrianerne for deres indgreb i den joniske opstand og det persiske nederlag ved Marathon. Fra 483 f.Kr. forberedte kong Xerxes sin ekspedition med omhu: En kanal blev gravet gennem landtangen på halvøen Athos, to broer blev bygget over strædet Hellesponten, forsyninger blev samlet i en station ved vejen gennem Thrakien. Ifølge Herodot endte Xerxes' første forsøg på bygge bro over Hellesponten med at en storm ødelagde hør- og papyrusbroen. Xerxes beordrede, at Hellesponten blev pisket 300 gange, og at slavelænker blev kastet i vandet, hvorefter en tjener spottede: "Du bitre vand! Min herre pålægger dig denne straf, fordi du har fornærmet ham, skønt han ikke har gjort dig noget ondt. Men kong Xerxes vil overskride dig, hvad enten du vil eller ej. Det er med god grund, at intet menneske ofrer til dig, du der både er snavset og salt!" Xerxes' andet forsøg på at bygge broen var en succes. Xerxes sluttede forbund med Karthago og fratog Hellas støtten fra de mægtige monarker af Syrakus og Agrigento. Desuden valgte mange mindre hellenske stater persisk side: især Thessalien, Theben og Argos. Xerxes drog med en stor flåde og hær. Herodot hævdede, at der var over to millioner soldater fra Sardes i foråret 480 f.Kr. Xerxes sejrede i de indledende kampe. I slaget ved Thermopylæ kæmpede en lille hærstyrke anført af spartanernes kong Leonidas mod den meget større persiske styrke, men blev nedkæmpet. Efter Thermopylæ blev Athen erobret, og athenerne og spartanerne blev drevet tilbage mod deres sidste forsvarslinje ved Korinths landtange og ud i den Saroniske Bugt. Ved Artemis var udfaldet af kampen tvivlsomt, da store storme havde ødelagt græske skibe. Kampen blev også standset tidligere, da hellenerne hørte om nederlaget ved Thermopylæ og trak sig tilbage. Xerxes var forledt til at angribe den græske flåde under ugunstige forhold. Xerxer er nævnt i Bibel i Esters bog hvor han kaldes Ahasverus. v d r Achæmenidiske konger Kyros 2. Kambyses 2. Smerdis Gaumata Dareios 1. Xerxes 1. Artaxerxes 1. Xerxes 2. Sogdianus Dareios 2. Artaxerxes 2. Artaxerxes 3. Artaxerxes 4. Dareios 3. Bessus Wikimedia Commons har medier relateret til: Xerxes 1. af Persien Autoritetsdata WorldCat VIAF: 282770127 LCCN: n81070675 ISNI: 0000 0000 6300 8852 GND: 118808109 SELIBR: 259706 SUDOC: 050588400 BNF: cb150689088 (data) ULAN: 500354810 NLA: 66228176 NKC: mzk2005313022 BNE: XX1153338 Hentet fra "https://da.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_1._af_Persien&oldid=9955092" Kategorier: Født i 519 f.Kr. Døde i 465 f.Kr. 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de-wikipedia-org-3238	----	Xerxes I. – Wikipedia Xerxes I. aus Wikipedia, der freien Enzyklopädie Zur Navigation springen Zur Suche springen Relief des Xerxes am Eingang seines Palastes in Persepolis Xerxes I. (persisch خشایارشا, altpersisch 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠 Hšayāŗšā, aramäisch Aḫšeweruš, hebräisch אחשורוש Achašweroš, griechisch Ξέρξης, lateinisch Xerses; * um 519 v. Chr.; † 4. August 465 v. Chr.) regierte von 486 bis 465 v. Chr. als achämenidischer Großkönig und ägyptischer Pharao. Sein Name bedeutet „herrschend über Helden“. Xerxes war verheiratet mit Amestris. Inhaltsverzeichnis 1 Leben 2 Rezeption 3 Familie 3.1 Vorfahren 3.2 Nachkommen 3.3 Weitere 4 Literatur 5 Weblinks 6 Einzelnachweise Leben[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Auspeitschung des Meeres nach einem fehlgeschlagenen Brückenschlag über die Dardanellen (Darstellung von 1909) Felsgrab des Großkönigs Xerxes in Naqsch-e Rostam Monumentale Keilschrift-Tafel mit einer Selbstdarstellung des Xerxes als „König der Könige“ Xerxes wurde um 519 v. Chr. als Sohn des persischen Großkönigs Dareios I. und der Atossa, einer Tochter Kyros’ II., geboren. 486 v. Chr. trat er als Großkönig die Nachfolge seines Vaters an,[1] obwohl er drei ältere Brüder aus der Ehe des Dareios mit einer Tochter des Gobryas hatte. Zu Beginn seiner Herrschaft bekämpfte er erfolgreich Aufstände in Ägypten, das sich unter Psammetich IV. vom Perserreich gelöst hatte, und Babylonien, bevor er sich 483 v. Chr. Griechenland zuwandte. Nachdem die Strafexpedition des Dareios gegen Griechenland 490 v. Chr. gescheitert war (siehe Schlacht bei Marathon und Perserkriege), verwirklichte Xerxes dessen Vorstellungen von einem weiteren Feldzug gegen die Griechen. Zu dessen Vorbereitung ließ er die Schiffbrücken über den Hellespont und den Xerxes-Kanal bauen. Nach anfänglichen Erfolgen bei den Thermopylen im Kampf gegen Leonidas erlitt sein Vielvölkerheer, das von Historikern auf maximal 100.000 Soldaten geschätzt wird,[2] in der Seeschlacht von Salamis gegen die von Themistokles geführte griechische Flotte eine entscheidende Niederlage. Die Annahme von 100.000 Soldaten als Heeresstärke ist wahrscheinlich ein Überlieferungsfehler, da in die Kontingente auch Hilfskräfte, Arbeiter, andere Personen und sogar ganze Bevölkerungsgruppen einberechnet wurden. Diese Personengruppen hatten aber mit der tatsächlichen Schlacht nichts zu tun und müssen deshalb herausgerechnet werden. Hans Delbrück, der allerdings generell einen sehr kritischen Ansatz vertrat, ging davon aus, dass es nicht möglich sei, 100.000 Soldaten zu versorgen, zumal die hohe Anzahl der Soldaten nicht der damaligen geringen Bevölkerungszahl entsprochen habe.[3] Delbrück nahm daher an, dass es sich maximal um 20.000 Soldaten handelte, die in die Schlacht zogen. In der modernen Forschung geht man ebenfalls davon aus, dass das persische Heer deutlich kleiner war, als die übertriebenen Angaben in den antiken Quellen vermuten lassen, wenngleich Delbrücks Kalkulation wohl doch zu gering veranschlagt ist.[4] Xerxes zog sich nach der Niederlage von Salamis in seine Hauptstadt Susa zurück und verfolgte die Niederlage seines Landheers bei Plataiai nur noch aus der Ferne, griff aber selbst nicht mehr ins Geschehen ein. Da Xerxes – im Gegensatz zu seinen Vorfahren – nie im Kampf ein Schwert führte, beauftragte er mit der Kriegsführung fähige Strategen, die mit genügend Erfahrung ausgestattet waren, wie beispielsweise Mardonios, dem er das Landheer beim Zug gegen Griechenland anvertraute, oder seinen Halbbruder Achaimenes, der für ihn 484 v. Chr. den Aufstand in Ägypten niederschlug. Zeitgenössische Geschichtsschreiber und Autoren, so zum Beispiel der griechische Dichter Aischylos, führten die Misserfolge des Xerxes unter anderem auf seine mangelnde Besonnenheit und fehlende religiöse Toleranz zurück, deren Ursachen nach heutiger Einschätzung vermutlich die Einflussnahme seiner Mutter Atossa und das Erstarken der Magier waren. Auf seinem Zug nach Griechenland ließ Xerxes I. in Troja haltmachen und sich vom Trojanischen Krieg berichten. Daraufhin sollen – im strengen Gegensatz zur Lehre Zarathustras – 1000 Rinderopfer dargebracht worden sein. Eine Anekdote berichtet davon, dass Xerxes I. bei einem fehlgeschlagenen Brückenbau über die Dardanellen die Meeresenge mit 300 Peitschenhieben bestrafen ließ. Damit wollte er nach Herodot den Hellespont dafür bestrafen, dass seine Brücken kurz nach dem Bau durch ein Unwetter zerstört wurden.[5] 479/478 v. Chr., im achten Regierungsjahr, ließ Xerxes den Turm von Babylon und die Marduk-Statue zerstören. Damit war das Ergreifen der Hände von Marduk unmöglich geworden, welches zur Ernennung als König von Babylon unabdingbar war. Seither gab es das Königsamt und den Kult des Marduk nicht mehr. Babylons endgültiges Ende wurde damit auch rituell vollzogen. Xerxes widmete sich der Errichtung von Kolossalbauten in Persepolis und Susa. In Persepolis vollendete er die von seinem Vater begonnene Apadana und errichtete für sich selbst einen großen Palast, zudem begann er mit dem Bau des Hundertsäulensaals.[6] Nicht nur in den verschiedenen Residenzen war kein Bauauftrag zu kostspielig, auch der entgegen früher oft vertretener Meinung tatsächlich vollendete Landdurchstich am Isthmus von Athos – der Xerxes-Kanal zur Kriegsvorbereitung 483 bis 480 v. Chr. – zeigt seine Leidenschaft für die Bautätigkeit. Bei der Plünderung Athens 480 v. Chr. ließ er die schönsten Exponate nach Persepolis und Susa überführen und dort aufstellen, darunter die Skulpturen der Tyrannenmörder Harmodios und Aristogeiton. Nach inneren Wirren wurde Xerxes I. von seinem Gardebefehlshaber Artabanos ermordet. Dieser lenkte den Verdacht auf den ältesten Sohn des Xerxes, Dareios, welcher daraufhin von seinem jüngeren Bruder Artaxerxes I. ermordet wurde. Ein Anschlag des Artabanos auf Artaxerxes scheiterte jedoch; Artabanos wurde getötet und Artaxerxes trat die Nachfolge des Xerxes an. Das Todesdatum des Xerxes konnte durch die Erwähnung einer partiellen Mondfinsternis in einem keilschriftlichen Fragment auf den 4. August 465 v. Chr. festgelegt werden.[7] Rezeption[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Xerxes I. gibt den historischen Hintergrund für die Gestalt des Xerxes in der gleichnamigen Opera seria – bekannt auch unter ihrem italienischen Originaltitel Serse – von Georg Friedrich Händel (HWV 40) ab. Generell wird Xerxes auch mit der Figur des Ahasveros im biblischen Buch Ester gleichgesetzt. Familie[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Vorfahren[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]     Achaimenes 1. König, Regent von Persien                                                                                         Teispes 2. König, Regent von Persien                                                                                                     Ariaramna I. 3. König, Regent der Persis   Kyros I. 4. König, Regent von Anschan                                                                                   Arschama I. Regionalregent   Kambyses I. 5. König, Regent von Anschan                                                                                   Hystaspes Prinz   Kyros II. 6. König, Regent von Persien                                                                                                                             Dareios I. 9. König, Regent von Persien   Kambyses II. 7. König, Regent von Persien   Bardiya 8. König, Regent von Persien (oder Gaumata als Smerdis)   Artystone Prinzessin   Atossa Prinzessin   Roxane Prinzessin                                                                                                       Xerxes I. 10. König, Regent von Persien                                                                                         Artaxerxes I. 11. König, Regent von Persien                         Nachkommen[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Mit Königin Amestris Dareios Hystaspes, Satrap von Baktrien. Artaxerxes I., Thronfolger. Rhodogune Amytis, Ehefrau des Megabyzos II. Mit unbekannten Ehefrauen Artarios, Satrap von Babylon. Tithraustes, Feldherr. Achaimenes (nach anderen Angaben ein Sohn des Dareios I.), Satrap von Ägypten. Arsames (Filiation möglich, aber unsicher), Satrap von Ägypten. Ratashah[8] Weitere[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Artemisia, Adoptivschwester Ester, Ehefrau (Historizität fraglich; siehe Buch Ester) Literatur[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Pierre Briant: From Cyrus to Alexander. A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake 2002, ISBN 1-57506-031-0.  Susanne Gödde: Xerxes. In: Peter von Möllendorff, Annette Simonis, Linda Simonis (Hrsg.): Historische Gestalten der Antike. Rezeption in Literatur, Kunst und Musik (= Der Neue Pauly. Supplemente. Band 8). Metzler, Stuttgart/Weimar 2013, ISBN 978-3-476-02468-8, Sp. 1049–1056. Heidemarie Koch: Achämeniden-Studien. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1993, ISBN 3-447-03328-2.  Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, S. 312.  Karl-Wilhelm Welwei: Das klassische Athen. Demokratie und Machtpolitik im 5. und 4. Jahrhundert v. Chr. Primus, Darmstadt 1999, ISBN 3-89678-117-0, S. 51 ff.  Josef Wiesehöfer: Das antike Persien. Von 550 v. Chr. bis 650 n. Chr. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2005, ISBN 3-491-96151-3.  Josef Wiesehöfer: Der über Helden herrscht. Xerxes I. (ca. 519–465 v. Chr.). In: Stig Förster (Hrsg.): Kriegsherren der Weltgeschichte. 22 historische Portraits. Beck, München 2006, ISBN 3-406-54983-7, S. 19–33.  Richard Stoneman: Xerxes: A Persian Life. Yale University Press, New Haven & London 2015, ISBN 978-0-300-18007-7 (eingeschränkte Vorschau in der Google-Buchsuche).  Weblinks[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Commons: Xerxes I. – Sammlung von Bildern, Videos und Audiodateien Einzelnachweise[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] ↑ Die erste Urkunde unter Xerxes stammt vom Dezember 486; André Heller: Das Babylonien der Spätzeit (7.-4. Jh.) in den klassischen und keilschriftlichen Quellen (= Oikumene. Bd. 7). Verlag Antike, 2010, ISBN 978-3-938032-38-1, S. 271. ↑ Urs Willmann: Der Einweg-Kanal. In: Die Zeit. Nr. 48, 2001, Zugriff am 25. März 2008. ↑ Hans Delbrück: Geschichte der Kriegskunst im Rahmen der politischen Geschichte. 1. Teil: Das Altertum. 3. Kapitel: Die griechischen Heereszahlen. Abschluß. Stilke, Berlin 1920, S. 42: Tatsächliche Bevölkerungszahlen und Heeresstärken. ↑ Vgl. allgemein George Cawkwell: The Greek Wars. The Failure of Persia. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2005, ISBN 978-0-19-814871-5, S. 237 ff. ↑ Ruth Stepper: Die Darstellung der Naturkatastrophen bei Herodot. In: Eckart Olshausen, Holger Sonnabend (Hrsg.): Stuttgarter Kolloquium zur Historischen Geographie des Altertums 6,1996 : „Naturkatastrophen in der Antiken Welt“ (= Geographica historica. Bd. 10). Steiner, Stuttgart 1998, ISBN 3-515-07252-7, S. 94 f. ↑ Udo Sautter: Die 101 wichtigsten Personen der Weltgeschichte (= Beck'sche Reihe. Bd. 2193, C. H. Beck Wissen). Original-Ausgabe, Beck, München 2002, ISBN 3-406-47993-6, S. 15. ↑ André Heller: Das Babylonien der Spätzeit (7.-4. Jh.) in den klassischen und keilschriftlichen Quellen (= Oikumene. Bd. 7). Verlag Antike (VA), Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-938032-38-1, S. 305. ↑ Maria Brosius: Women in ancient Persia, 559-331 BC. Oxford University Press, New York 1996, ISBN 0-19-815009-1. Vorgänger Amt Nachfolger Dareios I. Persischer König 486–465 v. Chr. Artaxerxes I. Psammetich IV. Pharao von Ägypten 27. Dynastie Artaxerxes I. Normdaten (Person): GND: 118808109 (OGND, AKS) | VIAF: 19983268 | Wikipedia-Personensuche Personendaten NAME Xerxes I. ALTERNATIVNAMEN Ahasveros KURZBESCHREIBUNG persischer Großkönig GEBURTSDATUM um 519 v. Chr. STERBEDATUM 4. August 465 v. Chr. Abgerufen von „https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I.&oldid=202901368“ Kategorien: Xerxes I. König (Achämenidenreich) Altägyptischer König (Perser) Geboren im 6. Jahrhundert v. Chr. Gestorben 465 v. Chr. 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d-nb-info-2564	----	DNB, Katalog der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek Kontakt A-Z Träger / Förderer Datenschutz Impressum Hilfe Mein Konto English Katalog Einfache Suche Erweiterte Suche Browsen (DDC) Suchverlauf Meine Auswahl Hilfe Datenshop Mein Konto Ablieferung von Netzpublikationen Informationsvermittlung Über die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek Katalog der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek Gesamter Bestand Musikarchiv Exilsammlungen Buchmuseum Suchformular zurücksetzen     Expertensuche ?   Aufgrund der Corona-Pandemie bleiben die Benutzungsbereiche der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek bis auf Weiteres, voraussichtlich bis Sonntag, 31. Januar 2021 geschlossen. Bestellungen von Medien werden in dieser Zeit nicht bearbeitet. Alle Informationen dazu finden Sie auf unserer Homepage.   Die mehr als 1,3 Millionen frei zugänglichen Online-Publikationen können in der Trefferliste über "Alle Standorte - Online (frei zugänglich)" gefiltert werden. Zugang erhalten Sie in der Datensatzansicht über den Link "Archivobjekt öffnen" oder über die URN im Label "Persistent Identifier".     Ergebnis der Suche nach: nid=118808109 Treffer 1 von 1  Link zu diesem Datensatz http://d-nb.info/gnd/118808109 Person Xerxes I., Iran, König Adelstitel König Geschlecht männlich Andere Namen Xerxes I., Persien, König Xerxes, Epistolographus Xerxes I., Persia, Rex Xerxes I., Achämenidenreich, König Xerxes, Biblische Person Quelle M ÖVBE Zeit Lebensdaten: -v465 500 - 401 v. Chr. (UDK-Zeitcode v04) Wirkungsdaten: v486-v465 Land Alter Orient (XR); Iran (XB-IR) Sprache(n) Altpersisch (peo) Oberbegriffe Beispiel für: Adel Beispiel für: Biblische Person Beziehungen zu Personen Artaxerxes I., Iran, König (Sohn) Systematik 16.5p Personen der Geschichte (Politiker und historische Persönlichkeiten) ; 3.2p Personen der Bibel Typ Person (piz) Exemplarbezogene Daten stehen derzeit nicht zur Verfügung. Die Online-Bestellung von Medien ist deshalb nicht möglich. Treffer 1 von 1 Aktionen In meine Auswahl übernehmen Druckansicht Versenden MARC21-XML-Repräsentation dieses Datensatzes RDF (Turtle)-Repräsentation dieses Datensatzes Dokumentation RDF (Linked Data Service) Korrekturanfrage Nachweis der Quelle Administration Version 1.7.19.4 / 2021-01-15T14:43:09Seitenanfang 
doi-org-279	----	PEETERS ONLINE JOURNALS home Register Prices and ordering Individual subscribers Contact DOI resolver Open Access Google Scholar this issue   previous article in this issue next article in this issue   Document Details : Title: The Organization of Xerxes' Army Author(s): BARKWORTH, P.R. Journal: Iranica Antiqua Volume: 27    Date: 1992    Pages: 149-167 DOI: 10.2143/IA.27.0.2002126 Abstract : not available 40.76.139.33.     Terms of Agreement - Privacy Statement - Statistics - Disclaimer © Peeters Online Journals 
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el-wikipedia-org-7567	----	Ξέρξης Α΄ της Περσίας - Βικιπαίδεια Ξέρξης Α΄ της Περσίας Από τη Βικιπαίδεια, την ελεύθερη εγκυκλοπαίδεια Μετάβαση στην πλοήγηση Πήδηση στην αναζήτηση Ξέρξης Α' της Περσίας Γενικές πληροφορίες Γέννηση 519 π.Χ. Ιράν Θάνατος 475 π.Χ.[1] Περσία Τόπος ταφής Ιράν Χώρα πολιτογράφησης Αχαιμενική Αυτοκρατορία Θρησκεία Ζωροαστρισμός Πληροφορίες ασχολίας Ιδιότητα κυβερνητικός υπάλληλος Οικογένεια Σύζυγος Αστιν Άμηστρις[2] Esther Τέκνα Αρταξέρξης Α΄ της Περσίας Αμυτίς Artabanus Αρτάριο Υστάσπης Δαρείος Rodoguna Γονείς Δαρείος Α΄ της Περσίας και Άτοσσα της Περσίας Αδέλφια Αρταζώστρη Γοβρύας Αρσάμης Αρτοβαζάνης Αριαμένης Αριαβίγνης Αβροκώμης Μασίστης Αχαιμένης Αρσάμης της Περσίας Οικογένεια δυναστεία των Αχαιμενιδών Αξιώματα και βραβεύσεις Αξίωμα Βασιλεύς των Βασιλέων (485 π.Χ.–465 π.Χ.) Φαραώ  Σχετικά πολυμέσα δεδομένα (π • σ • ε ) Ο Ξέρξης Α' της Περσίας σε ανάγλυφο στην Περσέπολη Επιγραφή του Ξέρξη στη περιοχή Βαν της Τουρκίας Ο Ξέρξης Α΄ ήταν βασιλιάς (Σάχης) της Περσίας και Φαραώ της Αιγύπτου, ένας από τους κορυφαίους βασιλείς από την περσική δυναστεία των Αχαιμενιδών. Το όνομά του είναι παραφθορά του αρχαίου περσικού Χσαγιαρσά (Xšayāršā) και σημαίνει Κυρίαρχος Ηρώων.[3] Βασίλεψε από το 486 π.Χ. έως το 465 π.Χ. Πίνακας περιεχομένων 1 Η άνοδος του Ξέρξη στον περσικό θρόνο 2 Η απόφαση για εισβολή στην Ελλάδα 3 Η εισβολή στην Ελλάδα 4 Το τέλος του Ξέρξη Α΄ 5 Οικογένεια 6 Παραπομπές 7 Πηγές 8 Εξωτερικοί σύνδεσμοι Η άνοδος του Ξέρξη στον περσικό θρόνο[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα] Ο Ξέρξης ήταν γιος του βασιλιά Δαρείου του A' του Υστάσπη και της Άτοσσας, κόρης του Κύρου του πρεσβυτέρου. Διαδέχτηκε στο θρόνο τον πατέρα του το 486 π.Χ. και έγινε Βασιλιάς των Περσών και Μήδων και Φαραώ της Αιγύπτου στα 35 του ενώ προηγουμένως, όσο βασίλευε ο πατέρας του, ήταν σατράπης της Βαβυλώνας. Κανονικά δεν ήταν ο νόμιμος διάδοχος του θρόνου, καθώς ο Δαρείος είχε μεγαλύτερο γιο από τη πρώτη του σύζυγο, τον Αρτοβαζάνη. Όμως ο Ξέρξης κατάφερε να πείσει τον πατέρα του να παραγκωνίσει τον νόμιμο διάδοχο και να ανακηρύξει αυτόν ως διάδοχο πρίγκηπα. Ακολούθως οι πηγές δεν αναφέρουν ξανά τον Αρτοβαζάνη οπότε οι ιστορικοί υποθέτουν ότι δολοφονήθηκε για να μην υπάρξει εμπόδιο στον Ξέρξη. Αυτό μαρτυράει και τη σκληρότητα του Πέρση μονάρχη. Ένα χρόνο μετά την ανάρρησή του στο θρόνο, ο Ξέρξης κατέλαβε την Αίγυπτο που είχε επαναστατήσει και λεηλάτησε τα ιερά που βρισκόντουσαν στο Δέλτα του Νείλου. Ακολούθως υπέταξε την Βαβυλώνα, που είχε επίσης επαναστατήσει, ενώ δεν σεβάστηκε το ιερό του προστάτη θεού της πόλης, του Μαρδούκ. Έκλεψε το χρυσό άγαλμα του θεού των Βαβυλωνίων και σκότωσε τους ιερείς του ναού του. Η απόφαση για εισβολή στην Ελλάδα[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα] Η ακρίβεια αυτής της ενότητας αμφισβητείται. Δείτε στη σελίδα συζήτησης. Ο πατέρας του Ξέρξη του άφησε πριν πεθάνει μια διαταγή: να τιμωρήσει τους Αθηναίους και τους υπόλοιπους Έλληνες για τη ντροπή που προξένησαν στην μεγάλη τους αυτοκρατορία. Ο Ξέρξης βέβαια δεν χρειαζόταν να δεσμευτεί από αυτή την υπόσχεση για να επιτεθεί στην Ελλάδα. Στο τρίτο έτος της βασιλείας του, λοιπόν, συγκάλεσε συνέδριο με τη συμμετοχή των αρχόντων και των ευγενών όλων των επαρχιών της χώρας αλλά και των ξένων ευγενών, που είχαν δηλώσει υποταγή στη Περσία. Στο συνέδριο ακούστηκαν διαφορετικές απόψεις. Ο θείος του αυτοκράτορα, αδελφός του Δαρείου, Αρτάβανος, δεν επιθυμούσε την επίθεση στην Ελλάδα και εκπροσωπούσε τους ευγενείς που δεν επιθυμούσαν άλλη ήττα μετά τον Μαραθώνα. Από την άλλη πλευρά, τη μερίδα των στρατηγών, εκπρόσωπος ήταν ο στρατηγός Μαρδόνιος, ξάδελφος και γαμπρός του αυτοκράτορα. Ακόμα στην αυτοκρατορική αυλή του Ξέρξη υπήρχαν και ορισμένοι ευγενείς από την Ελλάδα που έχασαν τους θρόνους τους και έλπιζαν ότι αν βοηθούσαν τον Πέρση αυτοκράτορα στην εισβολή του, θα κέρδιζαν το θρόνο τους πάλι. Μερικοί από αυτούς ήταν: ο Δημάρατος έκπτωτος βασιλιάς της Σπάρτης, ο Αιαντίδης, γαμπρός του έκπτωτου τυράννου της Αθήνας Ιππία, η οικογένεια των Αλευαδών, έκπτωτη δυναστεία που ηγούνταν του Κοινού των Θεσσαλών, και ο μάντης Ονομάκριτος, ο οποίος είχε πληρωθεί από οικογένειες έκπτωτων ευγενών για να δίνει ευνοϊκούς χρησμούς στο Ξέρξη ώστε να πειστεί να εκστρατεύσει στην Ελλάδα. Το συνέδριο κράτησε έξι μήνες και αποφασίστηκε τελικά η επίθεση κατά της Ελλάδας ενώ στο τέλος του συνεδρίου παρατέθηκε συμπόσιο επτά ημερών. Ο Ξέρξης διέταξε την τότε σύζυγό του Αστίν να εμφανιστεί στο συμπόσιο για επίδειξη σύμφωνα με τα έθιμά τους. Η Αστίν όμως αρνήθηκε και ο Ξέρξης την έδιωξε από το παλάτι. Μετά παντρεύτηκε την Εσθήρ, μια από τις ομορφότερες κοπέλες του χαρεμιού του, ανεψιά τού Ιουδαίου Μαρδοχαίου. Η εισβολή στην Ελλάδα[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα] Ο Ξέρξης ξεκίνησε αμέσως τις προετοιμασίες για να πολεμήσει τους Έλληνες και η εκστρατεία προετοιμαζόταν για τέσσερα ολόκληρα χρόνια. Ο περσικός στρατός, σύμφωνα με τον Ηρόδοτο, αριθμούσε 1.700.000 πεζούς άνδρες και 100.000 βοηθητικό προσωπικό που προέρχονταν από 46 έθνη ενώ ο Κορνήλιος Νέπως αναφέρει 700.000 πεζούς και 400.000 ιππείς. Οι σύγχρονοι μελετητές θεωρούν αυτούς τους αριθμούς εξαιρετικά διογκωμένους. Ο Ηρόδοτος αναφέρει από ποια έθνη αποτελούνταν ο στρατός του Ξέρξη και ποιος διοικούσε τα στρατεύματα κάθε έθνους. Αναλυτικά ήταν: Πέρσες υπό τις διαταγές του Οτάνη, πεθερού του Ξέρξη Μήδοι υπό τις διαταγές του Τιγράνη Κίσσιοι υπό τις διαταγές του Ανάφη, γιου του Οτάνη Ασσύριοι υπό τις διαταγές του Οτάσπη Βάκτριοι και Σάκες υπό τις διαταγές του Υστάσπη, αδελφού του Ξέρξη Ινδοί υπό τις διαταγές του Φαρναζάρθη Άριοι υπό τις διαταγές του Σισάμνη Αιγύπτιοι υπό τις διαταγές του Αρτάβανου Πάρθοι και Χωράσμιοι υπό τις διαταγές του Αρτάβαζου Σόγδοι υπό τις διαταγές του Αζάνη Γανδάριοι και Δαδίκες υπό τις διαταγές του Αρτύφιου Κάσπιοι υπό τις διαταγές του Αριόμαρδου, αδελφού του Αρτύφιου Σαράγγες υπό τις διαταγές του Φερενδάτη Πάκτυες υπό τις διαταγές του Αρτάυνου Ούτιοι και Μύκοι υπό τις διαταγές του Αρσαμένη, αδελφού του Ξέρξη Παρικάνιοι υπό τις διαταγές του Σιρομήτρη Άραβες και Αιθίοπες υπό τις διαταγές του Αρσάμη, αδελφού του Ξέρξη Λίβυοι υπό τις διαταγές του Μασάγη Παφλαγόνες και οι Ματιηνοί υπό τις διαταγές του Δώτου Μαριανδυνοί, Σύροι και Λίγυες υπό τις διαταγές του Γωβρύα, αδελφού του Ξέρξη Φρύγες και Αρμένιοι υπό τις διαταγές του Αρτόχμη, σύζυγος αδελφής του Ξέρξη Λυδοί και Μυσοί υπό τις διαταγές του Αρταφέρνη, γιου του ομώνυμου στρατηγού από τη μάχη του Μαραθώνα Κόλχοι, Θράκες, Λασόνιοι, Μόσχοι, Μιλύες και Πισίδες ήταν υπό την ηγεσία άλλων αρχόντων-συγγενών του Ξέρξη Την ηγεσία όλου του πεζικού είχαν οι Μαρδόνιος και Τριτανταίχμης, εξάδελφοι του Ξέρξη, ο Μασίστης, μικρότερος αδελφός του βασιλιά, ο Μεγαβύζος και ο Σμερδομένης. Το ιππικό διοικούσαν οι αδελφοί Τίθαιος και Αρμαμίθρας, γιοι του στρατηγού Δάτη, που είχε πάρει μέρος στη Μάχη του Μαραθώνα. Την επίλεκτη προσωπική σωματοφυλακή του Ξέρξη, τους 10.000 «Αθάνατους» διοικούσε ο Υδάρνης. Ο περσικός στόλος προερχόταν από τις υποτελείς περιοχές της Περσικής Αυτοκρατορίας, καθώς οι Πέρσες δεν ήταν ναυτικός λαός. Τον στόλο αποτελούσαν μοίρες των Φοινίκων υπό την ηγεσία του Μεγαβάζου, των Κιλίκων, των Σύρων, των Αιγυπτίων υπό την ηγεσία του Αχαιμένη, των Λυκίων, των Ελλησπόντιων, των Παμφύλων, των Κυπρίων, των Ιώνων της Μικράς Ασίας και των Καρών υπό την ηγεσία του Αριαβίγνη. Οι στρατιωτικές δυνάμεις πάνω σε αυτά ήταν όλες ιρανικής καταγωγής, δηλαδή Πέρσες, Μήδοι και Σάκες. Την ανώτερη ηγεσία του στόλου είχε ο Αριαμένης. Ο Ξέρξης με το στρατό του πέρασε χωρίς δυσκολία τον Ελλήσποντο, με γέφυρες που κατασκεύασαν οι μηχανικοί του. Τη πρώτη φορά οι γέφυρες κατέρρευσαν ύστερα από τρικυμία και έτσι ο Ξέρξης αποκεφάλισε τους μηχανικούς του και διέταξε να μαστιγώσουν τη θάλασσα γιατί δεν υπάκουσε στις διαταγές του, ενώ της πέταξε και αλυσίδες για να τη δέσουν. Ακόμα για να περάσει ο στόλος του άνοιξε μια διώρυγα στη χερσόνησο του Άθω και έθεσε επικεφαλής του έργου, τους Βούβαρη του Μεγαβάζου και Αρταχαίη του Αρταίου. Πέρασε χωρίς προβλήματα τη Θράκη, τη Μακεδονία και τη Θεσσαλία και έφτασε στις Θερμοπύλες, όπου αντιμετώπισε τους 300 Σπαρτιάτες του Λεωνίδα και τους 700 Θεσπιείς του Δημόφιλου στην τελική φάση της μάχης. Μετά τη νίκη του στις Θερμοπύλες έφτασε στην Αθήνα και την κατέλαβε. Οι κάτοικοί της είχαν φύγει πρόσφυγες στα γύρω νησιά. Ο τεράστιος στόλος του Ξέρξη, που στο μεταξύ είχε πάθει μεγάλες καταστροφές από τρικυμίες και από τη ναυμαχία στο Αρτεμίσιο με τους Αθηναίους, κατανικήθηκε στην περίφημη ναυμαχία της Σαλαμίνας στα 480 π.Χ. Αφήνοντας το γαμπρό του Μαρδόνιο στην Ελλάδα, που νικήθηκε κι αυτός στη μάχη των Πλαταιών στα 479 π.Χ., ο Ξέρξης γύρισε στις Σάρδεις. Η μάχη της Μυκάλης το 479 π.Χ., ήταν το τελειωτικό χτύπημα για την εκστρατεία του Ξέρξη, καθώς ύστερα από αυτή οι δυνάμεις του αποσύρθηκαν στην Περσία και οι ελληνικές δυνάμεις ξεκίνησαν απελευθερωτικό αγώνα στα παράλια της Μικράς Ασίας. Το τέλος του Ξέρξη Α΄[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα] Ο τύμβος του Ξέρξη Α΄ σκαμμένος μέσα σε βράχο στη Περσέπολη Ο Ξέρξης Α΄ μετά την ήττα στη Σαλαμίνα, αναγκάστηκε να επιστρέψει στη Βαβυλώνα για να καταπνίξει νέα επανάσταση που υποκινούσαν οι ιερείς του Μαρδούκ. Ύστερα από την καταστολή της επανάστασης σκότωσε τους αυλικούς του που, όσο έλειπε, έκλεψαν το βασιλικό θησαυρό του. Τα νέα για τις ήττες στις Πλαταιές και στη Μυκάλη τον συντάραξαν ψυχολογικά, με αποτέλεσμα να κλειστεί στον εαυτό του και να περνάει ώρες μελετώντας πολεοδομικά σχέδια καθώς είχε στο μυαλό του την ανοικοδόμηση της Περσέπολης και τη δημιουργία ενός θαυμαστού πολεοδομικού συγκροτήματος εκεί. Όμως καθώς ήταν κλειστός στον εαυτό του και εύκολος στόχος των ραδιούργων εμφανίστηκαν πολλοί επίδοξοι διάδοχοί του. Αυτός αγανακτισμένος και στα όρια της παράνοιας δολοφόνησε όλους τους επίδοξους διαδόχους, ανάμεσα στους οποίους ήταν και αρκετοί στενοί συγγενείς του. Τελικά έπεσε ο ίδιος θύμα μιας αυλικής συνωμοσίας το 465 π.Χ.. Μετά από εικοσάχρονη βασιλεία, δολοφονήθηκε από τον Αρτάβανο που φιλοδοξούσε να ανέβει στο θρόνο της Περσίας. Ο Αρτάβανος βασίλεψε για ένα χρόνο μέχρι που ο γιος του Ξέρξη Α΄, ο Αρταξέρξης Α΄ ο Μακρόχειρ, τον παραμέρισε για να ανεβεί ο ίδιος στο θρόνο το 464 π.Χ. Οικογένεια[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα] Νυμφεύτηκε 17 συζύγους και είχε πολλά τέκνα. Από την Άμηστρις: Δαρείος, ο πρωτότοκος γιος του Ξέρξη από την γυναίκα του, Άμηστρις, δολοφονήθηκε από τον Αρταξέρξη Α΄. Αρταξέρξης Α΄ ο Μακρόχειρας, διάδοχος του Ξέρξη και δεύτερος γιος του από τη γυναίκα του, Άμηστρις. Αμύτις, παντρεύτηκε τον Μεγάβουζο σατράπη. Υστάσπης, τρίτος γιος του Ξέρξη από τη γυναίκα του, Άμηστρις, επίσης δολοφονήθηκε από τον Αρταξέρξη. Αχαιμένης, σκοτώθηκε από τους Αιγυπτίους. Ροδογούνη. Από αγνώστου ονόματος συζύγους: Αρσάμης ή Αρσαμένης ή Σαρσαμάς, σατράπης της Αιγύπτου. Αρτάριος, γιος από άγνωστη γυναίκα του Ξέρξη, σατράπης της Βαβυλώνας. Τιθραύστης. Παρυσάτις. Ρατάσαχ. Παραπομπές[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα] ↑ wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1200003447. ↑ ester. ↑ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/xerxes-1-name Πηγές[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα] Γαρουφάλης Δ., ΠΕΡΣΙΚΟΙ ΠΟΛΕΜΟΙ, εκδόσεις ΠΕΡΙΣΚΟΠΙΟ, 2003 Ηρόδοτος, Ιστορίαι, βιβλία 1-9, μετάφραση Πανέτσος Ε., εκδόσεις Ζαχαρόπουλος/ βιβλία V-IX, μετάφραση Σπυρόπουλος Η., εκδόσεις Γκοβόστη, 1995 Κωτούλας Ι., Μπελέζος Δ., ΣΤΡΑΤΙΩΤΙΚΗ ΙΣΤΟΡΙΑ, σειρά Μεγάλες Μάχες, ΘΕΡΜΟΠΥΛΕΣ, εκδόσεις ΠΕΡΙΣΚΟΠΙΟ, 2005 Εξωτερικοί σύνδεσμοι[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα] Τα Wikimedia Commons έχουν πολυμέσα σχετικά με το θέμα    Ξέρξης Α΄ της Περσίας Ξέρξης Α΄ της Περσίας Οίκος των Αχαιμενιδών Γέννηση: 518 π.Χ. Θάνατος: 465 π.Χ. Προκάτοχος Δαρείος ο Μέγας Μέγας Βασιλεύς της Περσίας 486 π.Χ. - 465 π.Χ. Διάδοχος Αρτάβανος ο Υρκανός Φαραώ της Αιγύπτου 486 π.Χ. - 465 π.Χ. π • σ • ε Φαραώ ♀ γυναίκα Φαραώ • αβέβαιο Προδυναστική περίοδος (πριν από 3150 π.Χ.) Κάτω Αίγυπτος Χσέκιου Κάγιου Τιου Τες Νεχέμπ Γουάζνερ Μεκ Ώρος Σερέκ Άνω Αίγυπτος Σκορπιός Α΄ Ώρος Ιρύ Ώρος Κα Σκορπιός Β΄ Νάρμερ/Μήνης Πρώιμη δυναστική περίοδος (3150–2686 π.Χ.) 1η Δυναστεία Νάρμερ/Μήνης Ώρος Αχά Ζερ Ώρος Ζετ Μερνείθ♀ Ντεν Ανετζίμπ Σεμερκέτ Ώρος Κάα Σνεφέρκα Ώρος Πουλί 2η Δυναστεία Ώρος Χετέπ Σεχεμουί Καιέχως Ώρος Νινουτέρ Μπα Νουμπνεφέρ Ώρος Σα Τλας Ουατζένες Σεθένης Περιψέν Σέσωχρις Νεφερκάρα Α' Νεφερχέτης Χουνττζέφα Α' Χασεχεμουί Αρχαίο βασίλειο (2686–2181 π.Χ.) 3η Δυναστεία Νέμπκα Ζοζέρ Σεχεμχέτ Σανάχτ Χαμπά Καχετντζέντ Ουνί 4η Δυναστεία Σνεφρού Χέωψ Ρετζεντέφ Χεφρήν Βίχερις Μυκερίνος Σεψεσκάφ Θαμφθίς 5η Δυναστεία Ουζερκάφ Σαχουρέ Νεφεριρκαρέ Νεφερεφρέ Σεψεσκάρε Νιουζερέ Μενκαουχόρ Ζεντκαρέ Ουνίς 6η Δυναστεία Τετί Ουσερκαρέ Πεπί Α΄ Μερενρέ Α΄ Πεπί Β΄ Μερενρέ Β΄ Νετζερκαρέ Σιπτά 1η Μεταβατική περίοδος (2181–2040 π.Χ.) 7η & 8η Δυναστεία Γουαντζκάρε Κακαρέ Ιμπί 9η & 10η Δυναστεία Ουακάρε Χέτι Α' Μεργίμπρε Χέτι Μερικάρε Κανεφέρε Νεμπκάουρε Αχτόι Μέσο βασίλειο (2040–1782 π.Χ.) 11η Δυναστεία Μεντουχοτέπ Α΄ Ιντέφ Α΄ Ιντέφ Β΄ Ιντέφ Γ΄ Μεντουχοτέπ Β΄ Μεντουχοτέπ Γ΄ Μεντουχοτέπ Δ΄ 12η Δυναστεία Αμενεμχέτ Α΄ Σέσωστρις Α΄ Αμενεμχέτ Β΄ Σέσωστρις Β΄ Σέσωστρις Γ΄ Αμενεμχέτ Γ΄ Αμενεμχέτ Δ΄ Νεφρουσομπέκ♀ 2η Μεταβατική περίοδος (1782–1570 π.Χ.) 13η Δυναστεία Ουεγκάφ Αμενεμχέτ Δ΄ Χορ Σομπεκχοτέπ Β΄ Χενζέρ Σομπεκχοτέπ Γ΄ Νεφερχοτέπ Α' Σομπεκχοτέπ Δ΄ Μερνεφέρε Άϊ Μερχοτέπρε Ίνι 14η Δυναστεία Νεχέσι Γιακούμπ-Χαρ 15η Δυναστεία Σακίρ-Χαρ Χιάν Απέπι Χαμούντι 16η Δυναστεία Ντζεχούτι Σομπεκχοτέπ Η' Νεφερχοτέπ Γ' Μεντουχοτέπ ΣΤ' Νεμπιριράου Α' Νεμπιριάου Β' Σεμένρε Σεουσερένρε Μπεμπιάνχ Σεχέμρε Σεντουάστ 17η Δυναστεία Ραχοτέπ Σομπεκεμσάφ Α' Σομπεκεμσάφ Β' Ιντέφ Ε' Ιντέφ Ζ' Σεναχτένρε Τάο Καμόσε Νέο βασίλειο (1570–1070 π.Χ.) 18η Δυναστεία Άμωσις Α΄ Αμένωφις Α΄ Τούθμωσις Α΄ Τούθμωσις Β΄ Τούθμωσις Γ΄ Χατσεψούτ♀ Αμένωφις Β΄ Τούθμωσις Δ΄ Αμένωφις Γ΄ Ακενατόν Σμενκαρέ Νεφερνεφερουατέν♀ Τουταγχαμών Άυ Χορεμχέμπ 19η Δυναστεία Ραμσής Α΄ Σέτι Α΄ Ραμσής Β΄ Μερνεπτά Αμενμεσής Σέτι Β΄ Σιπτά Τουοσρέτ♀ 20η Δυναστεία Σετνακτέ Ραμσής Γ΄ Ραμσής Δ΄ Ραμσής Ε΄ Ραμσής ΣΤ΄ Ραμσής Ζ΄ Ραμσής Η΄ Ραμσής Θ΄ Ραμσής Ι΄ Ραμσής ΙΑ΄ 3η Μεταβατική περίοδος (1069–525 π.Χ.) 21η Δυναστεία Σμένδης Αμενεμνίσου Ψουσέννης Α΄ Αμενεμοπέ Οσορκόν ο Πρεσβύτερος Σιαμών Ψουσέννης Β΄ 22η Δυναστεία Σοσένκ Α΄ Οσορκόν Α΄ Σοσένκ Β΄ Τακελότ Α΄ Οσορκόν Β΄ Σοσένκ Γ΄ Σοσένκ Δ΄ Παμί Σοσένκ Ε΄ Οσορκόν Δ΄ 23η Δυναστεία Αρσιεσέ Τακελότ Β΄ Πεντουμπάστ Σοσένκ ΣΤ΄ Οσορκόν Γ΄ Τακελότ Γ΄ Ρουνταμούν Ινί 24η Δυναστεία Τεφνάκτ Α΄ Βόκχορις 25η Δυναστεία Πιύ Σεμπιτκού Σαμπάκα Ταχάρκα Τανουταμούν (Τεφνάκτ Β΄) 26η Δυναστεία Νεχώ Α΄ Ψαμμήτιχος Α΄ Νεχώ Β΄ Ψαμμήτιχος Β΄ Απρίης Άμωσις Β΄ Ψαμμήτιχος Γ΄ Ύστερη περίοδος (525–332 π.Χ.) 27η Αχαιμενίδες Καμβύσης Β΄ Δαρείος Α΄ Ξέρξης Α΄ Αρταξέρξης Α΄ Δαρείος Β΄ 28η Δυναστεία Αμυρταίος 29η Δυναστεία Νεφερίτης Α΄ Ψαμμύθης Άκορις Νεφερίτης Β΄ 30η Δυναστεία Νεκτανεβώ Α΄ Τέως Νεκτανεβώ Β΄ 31η Αχαιμενίδες Αρταξέρξης Γ΄ Άρσης Δαρείος Γ΄ Ελληνιστική περίοδος (332–30 π.Χ.) 32η Αργεάδες Αλέξανδρος Γ΄ ο Μέγας Φίλιππος Γ΄ Αλέξανδρος Δ΄ 33η Πτολεμαίοι Πτολεμαίος Α΄ Πτολεμαίος Β΄ Πτολεμαίος Γ΄ Πτολεμαίος Δ΄ Πτολεμαίος Ε΄ Πτολεμαίος ΣΤ΄ Πτολεμαίος Ζ΄ Πτολεμαίος Η΄ Πτολεμαίος Θ΄ Πτολεμαίος Ι΄ Πτολεμαίος ΙΑ΄ Πτολεμαίος ΙΒ΄ Βερενίκη Δ΄♀ Κλεοπάτρα♀ Καισαρίων Γενεολογικά δέντρα δυναστειών: 4η 11η 12η 18η 19η 20η 21η-23η 25η 26η 27η 31η Πτολεμαϊκή Σύνδεσμοι σε καταλόγους καθιερωμένων όρων WorldCat VIAF: 282770127 LCCN: n81070675 ISNI: 0000 0000 6300 8852 GND: 118808109 SELIBR: 259706 SUDOC: 050588400 BNF: cb150689088 (data) ULAN: 500354810 NLA: 66228176 NKC: mzk2005313022 BNE: XX1153338 Ανακτήθηκε από "https://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ξέρξης_Α΄_της_Περσίας&oldid=8617574" Κατηγορίες: Δυναστεία των Αχαιμενιδών Πέρσες βασιλείς Πρωταγωνιστές των Περσικών Πολέμων Φαραώ της 27ης Αιγυπτιακής Δυναστείας Κρυμμένες κατηγορίες: Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P569 Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P19 Έλεγχος:Παραπομπές από Wikidata Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P20 Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P119 Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P27 Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P140 Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P106 Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P26 Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P40 Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P22 Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P25 Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P3373 Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P53 Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P39 Σελίδα που χρησιμοποιεί δεδομένα των Wikidata/P373 Κατηγορία Commons με τίτλο σελίδας διαφορετικό από των Wikidata Commonscat που τραβάει δεδομένα από Wikidata Λήμματα Βικιπαίδειας με αναγνωριστικά VIAF Λήμματα Βικιπαίδειας με αναγνωριστικά LCCN Λήμματα Βικιπαίδειας με αναγνωριστικά ISNI Λήμματα Βικιπαίδειας με αναγνωριστικά GND Λήμματα Βικιπαίδειας με αναγνωριστικά SELIBR Λήμματα Βικιπαίδειας με 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en-m-wikipedia-org-3064	----	Xerxes I - Wikipedia Open main menu Home Random Nearby Log in Settings Donate About Wikipedia Disclaimers Search Xerxes I Language Watch Edit Xerxes I (Old Persian: 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠, romanized: Xšaya-ṛšā; c. 518 – August 465 BC), commonly known as Xerxes the Great, was the fourth King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire, ruling from 486 to 465 BC. He was the son and successor of Darius the Great (r. 522 – 486 BC) and his mother was Atossa, a daughter of Cyrus the Great (r. 550 – 530 BC), the first Achaemenid king. Like his father, he ruled the empire at its territorial apex. He ruled from 486 BC until his assassination in 465 BC at the hands of Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard. Xerxes I 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠 King of Kings Great King King of Persia King of Babylon Pharaoh of Egypt King of Countries Rock relief of a Achaemenid king, most likely Xerxes, located in the National Museum of Iran[1] King of kings of the Achaemenid Empire Reign October 486 – August 465 BC Predecessor Darius the Great Successor Artaxerxes I Born c. 518 BC Died August 465 BC (aged approximately 53) Burial Naqsh-e Rostam Spouse Amestris Issue Darius Hystaspes Artaxerxes I Arsames Amytis Dynasty Achaemenid Father Darius the Great Mother Atossa Religion Indo-Iranian religion (possibly Zoroastrianism) Xerxes (Xašayaruša/Ḫašayaruša)[2] in hieroglyphs Xerxes I is notable in Western history for his failed invasion of Greece in 480 BC. His forces temporarily overran mainland Greece north of the Isthmus of Corinth[3][4] until losses at Salamis and Plataea a year later reversed these gains and ended the second invasion decisively. However, Xerxes successfully crushed revolts in Egypt and Babylon. Roman Ghirshman says that, "After this he ceased to use the title of 'king of Babylon', calling himself simply 'king of the Persians and the Medes'."[5] Xerxes also oversaw the completion of various construction projects at Susa and Persepolis. Xerxes is identified with the fictional king Ahasuerus in the biblical Book of Esther.[6] That book is broadly considered to be fictional.[7][8][9] Contents 1 Etymology 2 Historiography 3 Early life 3.1 Parentage and birth 3.2 Upbringing and education 3.3 Accession to the throne 4 Consolidation of power 5 Campaigns 5.1 Invasion of the Greek mainland 5.2 Battle of Thermopylae and destruction of Athens 5.3 Battles of Salamis and Plataea 6 Construction projects 7 Death 8 Government 8.1 Religion 9 Wives and children 10 Cultural depictions 11 See also 12 References 13 Bibliography 13.1 Ancient sources 13.2 Modern sources 14 External links Etymology Xérxēs (Ξέρξης) is the Greek and Latin (Xerxes, Xerses) transliteration of the Old Iranian Xšaya-ṛšā ("ruling over heroes"), which can be seen by the first part xšaya, meaning "ruling", and the second ṛšā, meaning "hero, man".[10] The name of Xerxes was known in Akkadian as Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá and in Aramaic as ḥšyʾrš.[11] Xerxes would become a popular name amongst the rulers of the Achaemenid Empire.[10] Historiography Much of Xerxes' bad reputation is due to propaganda by the Macedonian king Alexander the Great (r. 336–323 BC), who had him vilified.[12] The modern historian Richard Stoneman regards the portrayal of Xerxes as more nuanced and tragic in the work of the contemporary Greek historian Herodotus.[12] However, many modern historians agree that Herodotus recorded spurious information.[13][14] Pierre Briant has accused him of presenting a stereotyped and biased portrayal of the Persians.[15] Many Achaemenid-era clay tablets and other reports written in Elamite, Akkadian, Egyptian and Aramaic are frequently contradictory to the reports of classical authors, i.e. Ctesias, Plutarch and Justin.[16] Early life Parentage and birth Xerxes' father was Darius the Great (r. 522 – 486 BC), the incumbent monarch of the Achaemenid Empire, albeit himself not a member of the family of Cyrus the Great, the founder of the empire.[17][18] Xerxes' mother was Atossa, a daughter of Cyrus.[19] Darius and Atossa had married in 522 BC,[20] with Xerxes being born around 518 BC.[21] Upbringing and education   The "Caylus vase", a quadrilingual alabaster jar with cuneiform and hieroglyphic inscriptions in the name of "Xerxes, the Great King". Cabinet des Médailles, Paris[22] According to the Greek dialogue First Alcibiades, which describes typical upbringing and education of Persian princes; they were raised by eunuchs. When reaching the age of 7, they learn how to ride and hunt; at age 14, they are looked after by four teachers of aristocratic stock, who teach them how to be "wise, just, prudent and brave."[23] Persian princes were also taught on the basics of the Zoroastrian religion, to be truthful, have self-restraint, and to be courageous.[23] The dialogue further adds that "Fear, for a Persian, is the equivalent of slavery."[23] At the age of 16 or 17, they begin their "national service" for 10 years, which included practicing archery and javelin, competing for prizes, and hunting.[24] Afterwards they serve in the military for around 25 years, and are then elevated to the status of elders and advisers of the king.[24] This account of education among the Persian elite is supported by Xenophon's description of the 5th-century BC Achaemenid prince Cyrus the Younger, with whom he was well-acquainted.[24] Stoneman suggests that this was the type of upbringing and education that Xerxes experienced.[25] It is unknown if Xerxes ever learned to read or write, with the Persians favouring oral history over written literature.[25] Stoneman suggests that Xerxes' upbringing and education was possibly not much different from that of the later Iranian kings, such as Abbas the Great, king of the Safavid Empire in the 17th-century AD.[25] Starting from 498 BC, Xerxes resided in the royal palace of Babylon.[26] Accession to the throne While Darius was preparing for another war against Greece, a revolt spurred in Egypt in 486 BC due to heavy taxes and the deportation of craftsmen to build the royal palaces at Susa and Persepolis. Under Persian law, the king was required to choose a successor before setting out on dangerous expeditions. When Darius decided to leave (487–486 BC), he (Darius) prepared his tomb at Naqsh-e Rustam (five kilometers from his royal palace at Persepolis) and appointed Xerxes, his eldest son by Atossa, as his successor. However, Darius could not lead the campaign due to his failing health and died in October 486 BC at the age of 64.[27] Artobazan claimed the crown as the eldest of all the children; while Xerxes, on the other hand, argued that he was sprung from Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus, and that it was Cyrus who had won the Persians their freedom. Xerxes was also helped by a Spartan king in exile who was present in Persia at the time, Eurypontid king Demaratus, who also argued that the eldest son does not universally mean they have claim to the crown, as Spartan law states that the first son born while the father is king is the heir to the kingship.[28] Some modern scholars also view the unusual decision of Darius to give the throne to Xerxes to be a result of his consideration of the unique positions that Cyrus the Great and his daughter Atossa enjoyed.[29] Artobazan was born to "Darius the subject", while Xerxes was the eldest son born in the purple after Darius's rise to the throne, and Artobazan's mother was a commoner while Xerxes's mother was the daughter of the founder of the empire.[30] Xerxes was crowned and succeeded his father in October–December 486 BC[31] when he was about 36 years old.[32] The transition of power to Xerxes was smooth due again in part to the great authority of Atossa[33] and his accession of royal power was not challenged by any person at court or in the Achaemenian family, or any subject nation.[34] Consolidation of power   Engraving of Babylon by H. Fletcher, 1690 At Xerxes' accession, trouble was brewing in some of his domains. A revolt occurred in Egypt, which seems to have been dangerous enough for Xerxes to personally lead the army to restore order (which also gave him the opportunity to begin his reign with a military campaign).[35] Xerxes suppressed the revolt in January 484 BC, and appointed his full-brother Achaemenes as satrap of the country, replacing the previous satrap Pherendates, who was reportedly killed during the revolt.[36][26] The suppression of the Egyptian revolt expended the army, which had been mobilized by Darius over the previous three years.[35] Xerxes thus had to raise another army for his expedition into Greece, which took four years.[35] There was also unrest in Babylon, which revolted at least twice against Xerxes. The first revolt broke out in June or July of 484 BC and was led by a rebel of the name Bel-shimanni. Bel-shimmani's revolt was short-lived, Babylonian documents written during his reign only account for a period of two weeks.[37] Two years later, Babylon produced another rebel leader, Shamash-eriba. Beginning in the summer of 482 BC, Shamash-eriba seized Babylon itself and other nearby cities, such as Borsippa and Dilbat, and was only defeated in March 481 BC after a lengthy siege of Babylon.[37] The precise cause of the unrest in Babylon is uncertain.[35] It may have been due to tax increase.[38] Prior to these revolts, Babylon had occupied a special position within the Achaemenid Empire, the Achaemenid kings had been titled as "King of Babylon" and "King of the Lands", perceiving Babylonia as a somewhat separate entity within their empire, united with their own kingdom in a personal union. Xerxes dropped "King of Babylon" from his titulature and divided the previously large Babylonian satrapy (accounting for most of the Neo-Babylonian Empire's territory) into smaller sub-units.[39] Using texts written by classical authors, it is often assumed that Xerxes enacted a brutal vengeance on Babylon following the two revolts. According to ancient writers, Xerxes destroyed Babylon's fortifications and damaged the temples in the city.[37] The Esagila was allegedly exposed to great damage and Xerxes allegedly carried the statue of Marduk away from the city,[40] possibly bringing it to Iran and melting it down (classical authors held that the statue was entirely made of gold, which would have made melting it down possible).[37] Modern historian Amélie Kuhrt considers it unlikely that Xerxes destroyed the temples, but believes that the story of him doing so may derive from an anti-Persian sentiment among the Babylonians.[41] It is doubtful if the statue was removed from Babylon at all[37] and some have even suggested that Xerxes did remove a statue from the city, but that this was the golden statue of a man rather than the statue of the god Marduk.[42][43] Though mentions of it are lacking considerably compared to earlier periods, contemporary documents suggest that the Babylonian New Year's Festival continued in some form during the Achaemenid period.[44] Because the change in rulership from the Babylonians themselves to the Persians and due to the replacement of the city's elite families by Xerxes following its revolt, it is possible that the festival's traditional rituals and events had changed considerably.[45] Campaigns Invasion of the Greek mainland Main article: Second Persian invasion of Greece   The soldiers of Xerxes I, of all ethnicities,[46] on the tomb of Xerxes I, at Naqsh-e Rostam[47][48] Darius died while in the process of preparing a second army to invade the Greek mainland, leaving to his son the task of punishing the Athenians, Naxians, and Eretrians for their interference in the Ionian Revolt, the burning of Sardis, and their victory over the Persians at Marathon. From 483 BC, Xerxes prepared his expedition: The Xerxes Canal was dug through the isthmus of the peninsula of Mount Athos, provisions were stored in the stations on the road through Thrace, and two pontoon bridges later known as Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges were built across the Hellespont. Soldiers of many nationalities served in the armies of Xerxes from all over his multi-ethnic massive Eurasian-sized empire and beyond, including the Assyrians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Jews,[49] Macedonians, European Thracians, Paeonians, Achaean Greeks, Ionians, Aegean islanders, Aeolians, Greeks from Pontus, Colchians, Indians and many more. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, Xerxes's first attempt to bridge the Hellespont ended in failure when a storm destroyed the flax and papyrus cables of the bridges. In retaliation, Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped three hundred times, and had fetters thrown into the water. Xerxes's second attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful.[50] The Carthaginian invasion of Sicily deprived Greece of the support of the powerful monarchs of Syracuse and Agrigentum; ancient sources assume Xerxes was responsible, modern scholarship is skeptical.[51] Many smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially Thessaly, Thebes and Argos. Xerxes was victorious during the initial battles. Xerxes set out in the spring of 480 BC from Sardis with a fleet and army which Herodotus estimated was roughly one million strong along with 10,000 elite warriors named the Immortals. More recent estimates place the Persian force at around 60,000 combatants.[52] Battle of Thermopylae and destruction of Athens   Achaemenid king killing a Greek hoplite. Impression from a cylinder seal, sculpted c. 500 BC–475 BC, at the time of Xerxes I Metropolitan Museum of Art At the Battle of Thermopylae, a small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas of Sparta resisted the much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated. According to Herodotus, the Persians broke the Spartan phalanx after a Greek man called Ephialtes betrayed his country by telling the Persians of another pass around the mountains. At Artemisium, large storms had destroyed ships from the Greek side and so the battle stopped prematurely as the Greeks received news of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated.   Foundations of the Old Temple of Athena, destroyed by the armies of Xerxes I during the Destruction of Athens in 480 BC After Thermopylae, Athens was captured. Most of the Athenians had abandoned the city and fled to the island of Salamis before Xerxes arrived. A small group attempted to defend the Athenian Acropolis, but they were defeated. Xerxes ordered the Destruction of Athens and burnt the city, leaving an archaeologically attested destruction layer, known as the Perserschutt.[53] The Persians thus gained control of all of mainland Greece to the north of the Isthmus of Corinth.[4] Battles of Salamis and Plataea Xerxes was induced, by the message of Themistocles (against the advice of Artemisia of Halicarnassus), to attack the Greek fleet under unfavourable conditions, rather than sending a part of his ships to the Peloponnesus and awaiting the dissolution of the Greek armies. The Battle of Salamis (September, 480 BC) was won by the Greek fleet, after which Xerxes set up a winter camp in Thessaly. According to Herodotus, fearing that the Greeks might attack the bridges across the Hellespont and trap his army in Europe, Xerxes decided to retreat back to Asia, taking the greater part of the army with him.[54] Another cause of the retreat might have been that the continued unrest in Babylon, a key province of the empire, required the king's personal attention.[55] He left behind a contingent in Greece to finish the campaign under Mardonius, who according to Herodotus had suggested the retreat in the first place. This force was defeated the following year at Plataea by the combined forces of the Greek city states, ending the Persian offensive on Greece for good. Construction projects   The rock-cut tomb at Naqsh-e Rustam north of Persepolis, copying that of Darius, is usually assumed to be that of Xerxes After the military blunders in Greece, Xerxes returned to Persia and oversaw the completion of the many construction projects left unfinished by his father at Susa and Persepolis. He oversaw the building of the Gate of All Nations and the Hall of a Hundred Columns at Persepolis, which are the largest and most imposing structures of the palace. He oversaw the completion of the Apadana, the Tachara (Palace of Darius) and the Treasury, all started by Darius, as well as having his own palace built which was twice the size of his father's. His taste in architecture was similar to that of Darius, though on an even more gigantic scale.[56] He had colorful enameled brick laid on the exterior face of the Apadana.[57] He also maintained the Royal Road built by his father and completed the Susa Gate and built a palace in Susa.[58] Death   This cuneiform text mentions the murder of Xerxes I by his son. From Babylon, Iraq. British Museum In August 465 BC, Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court, assassinated Xerxes with the help of a eunuch, Aspamitres. Although Artabanus bore the same name as the famed uncle of Xerxes, a Hyrcanian, his rise to prominence was due to his popularity in religious quarters of the court and harem intrigues. He put his seven sons in key positions and had a plan to dethrone the Achaemenids.[59] Greek historians give contradicting accounts of events. According to Ctesias (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Crown Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest son, of the murder and persuaded another of Xerxes's sons, Artaxerxes, to avenge the patricide by killing Darius. But according to Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and then killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes discovered the murder, he killed Artabanus and his sons.[60] Participating in these intrigues was the general Megabyzus, whose decision to switch sides probably saved the Achaemenids from losing their control of the Persian throne.[61] Government Religion While there is no general consensus in scholarship whether Xerxes and his predecessors had been influenced by Zoroastrianism,[62] it is well established that Xerxes was a firm believer in Ahura Mazda, whom he saw as the supreme deity.[62] However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped by adherents of the (Indo-)Iranian religious tradition.[62][63] On his treatment of other religions, Xerxes followed the same policy as his predecessors; he appealed to local religious scholars, made sacrifices to local deities, and destroyed temples in cities and countries that caused disorder.[64] Wives and children   Xerxes being designated by Darius I. Tripylon, Persepolis. The ethnicities of the Empire are shown supporting the throne. Ahuramazda crowns the scene. By queen Amestris: Amytis, wife of Megabyzus. Darius, the first born, murdered by Artaxerxes I or Artabanus. Hystaspes, murdered by Artaxerxes I. Artaxerxes I Achaemenes, murdered by Egyptians.[citation needed] Rhodogune By unknown wives or mistresses: Artarius, satrap of Babylon. Tithraustes Arsames or Arsamenes or Arxanes or Sarsamas, satrap of Egypt.[citation needed] Parysatis[65] Ratashah[66] Cultural depictions   Trilingual inscription of Xerxes at Van (present-day Turkey) Xerxes is the central character of the Aeschylus play "The Persians". Xerxes is the protagonist of the opera Serse by the German-English Baroque composer George Frideric Handel. It was first performed in the King's Theatre London on 15 April 1738. The famous aria "Ombra mai fù" opens the opera. The murder of Xerxes by Artabanus (Artabano), execution of crown prince Darius (Dario), revolt by Megabyzus (Megabise), and subsequent succession of Artaxerxes I is romanticised by the Italian poet Metastasio in his opera libretto Artaserse, which was first set to music by Leonardo Vinci, and subsequently by other composers such as Johann Adolf Hasse and Johann Christian Bach.[67][68][69] The historical novel Xerxes of de Hoogmoed (1919) by Dutch writer Louis Couperus describes the Persian wars from the perspective of Xerxes. Though the account is fictionalised, Couperus nevertheless based himself on an extensive study of Herodotus. The English translation Arrogance: The Conquests of Xerxes by Frederick H. Martens appeared in 1930.[70][71]   Queen Esther, a Jewish queen of Xerxes (Edwin Long, 19th century) Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, particularly the Battle of Thermopylae, has led to Xerxes' portrayal in works of popular culture. He was played by David Farrar in the fictional film The 300 Spartans (1962), where he is portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept commander. He also features prominently in the graphic novels 300 and Xerxes: The Fall of the House of Darius and the Rise of Alexander by Frank Miller, as well as the film adaptation 300 (2007) and its sequel 300: Rise of an Empire (2014), as portrayed by Brazilian actor Rodrigo Santoro, in which he is represented as a giant man with androgynous qualities, who claims to be a god-king. This portrayal attracted controversy, especially in Iran.[72] Ken Davitian plays Xerxes in Meet the Spartans, a parody of the first 300 movie replete with sophomoric humour and deliberate anachronisms. Other works dealing with the Persian Empire or the Biblical story of Esther have also featured or alluded to Xerxes, such as the video game Assassin's Creed II and the film One Night with the King (2006), in which Ahasuerus (Xerxes) was portrayed by British actor Luke Goss. He is the leader of the Persian Empire in the video game Civilization II and III (along with Scheherazade), although Civilization IV replaces him with Cyrus the Great and Darius I.[citation needed] In the Age of Empires, Xerxes featured as a short swordsman.   Xerxes (Ahasuerus) by Ernest Normand, 1888 (detail) Gore Vidal, in his historical fiction novel Creation (1981), describes at length the rise of the Achemenids, especially Darius I, and presents the life and death circumstances of Xerxes. Vidal's version of the Persian Wars, which diverges from the orthodoxy of the Greek histories, is told through the invented character of Cyrus Spitama, a half-Greek, half-Persian, and grandson of the prophet Zoroaster. Thanks to his family connection, Cyrus is brought up in the Persian court after the murder of Zoroaster, becoming the boyhood friend of Xerxes, and later a diplomat who is sent to India, and later to Greece, and who is thereby able to gain privileged access to many leading historical figures of the period.[73] Xerxes (Ahasuerus) is portrayed by Richard Egan in the 1960 film Esther and the King and by Joel Smallbone in the 2013 film, The Book of Esther. In at least one of these films, the events of the Book of Esther are depicted as taking place upon Xerxes' return from Greece.[citation needed] Xerxes plays an important background role (never making an appearance) in two short works of alternate history taking place generations after his complete victory over Greece. These are: "Counting Potsherds" by Harry Turtledove in his anthology Departures and "The Craft of War" by Lois Tilton in Alternate Generals volume 1 (edited by Turtledove).[citation needed] See also List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources References ^ According to plate 2 in Stoneman 2015; though it may also be Darius I. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath (1999), Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Mainz am Rhein: von Zabern. ISBN 3-8053-2310-7, pp. 220–221 ^ Lazenby, J.F. (1993). The Defence of Greece, 490–479 B.C. Aris & Phillips. ISBN 978-0856685910. Retrieved 7 September 2016. ^ a b Brian Todd Carey, Joshua Allfree, John Cairns. Warfare in the Ancient World Pen and Sword, 19 Jan. 2006 ISBN 1848846304 ^ Roman Ghirshman, Iran (1954), Penguin Books, p. 191. ^ Stoneman 2015, p. 9. ^ McCullough, W. S. (28 July 2011) [15 December 1984]. "AHASUREUS – Encyclopaedia Iranica". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 3 April 2020. There may be some factual nucleus behind the Esther narrative, but the book in its present form displays such inaccuracies and inconsistencies that it must be described as a piece of historical fiction. ^ Meyers, Carol (2007). Barton, John; Muddiman, John (eds.). The Oxford Bible Commentary. Oxford University Press. p. 325. ISBN 9780199277186. Like the Joseph story in Genesis and the book of Daniel, it is a fictional piece of prose writing involving the interaction between foreigners and Hebrews/Jews. ^ Hirsch, Emil G.; Dyneley Prince, John; Schechter, Solomon (1906). Singer, Isidor; Adler, Cyrus (eds.). "ESTHER". JewishEncyclopedia.com. Retrieved 25 April 2020. The vast majority of modern expositors have reached the conclusion that the book is a piece of pure fiction, although some writers qualify their criticism by an attempt to treat it as a historical romance. ^ a b Marciak 2017, p. 80; Schmitt 2000 ^ Schmitt 2000. ^ a b Stoneman 2015, p. 2. ^ Briant 2002, p. 57. ^ Radner 2013, p. 454. ^ Briant 2002, pp. 158, 516. ^ Stoneman 2015, pp. viii–ix. ^ Llewellyn-Jones 2017, p. 70. ^ Waters 1996, pp. 11, 18. ^ Briant 2002, p. 132. ^ Briant 2002, p. 520. ^ Stoneman 2015, p. 1. ^ "vase (inv.65.4695) - inv.65.4695 , BnF". medaillesetantiques.bnf.fr (in French). ^ a b c Stoneman 2015, p. 27. ^ a b c Stoneman 2015, p. 28. ^ a b c Stoneman 2015, p. 29. ^ a b Dandamayev 1989, p. 183. ^ Dandamayev 1989, pp. 178–179. ^ Herodotus 7.1–5 ^ R. Shabani Chapter I, p. 15 ^ Olmstead: The history of Persian empire ^ The Cambridge History of Iran vol. 2. p. 509. ^ Dandamayev 1989, p. 180. ^ Schmitt, R., "Atossa" in Encyclopaedia Iranica. ^ The Cambridge Ancient History vol. V p. 72. ^ a b c d Briant 2002, p. 525. ^ Dandamayev 1983, p. 414. ^ a b c d e Dandamayev 1993, p. 41. ^ Stoneman 2015, p. 111. ^ Dandamayev 1989, pp. 185–186. ^ Sancisi-Weerdenburg 2002, p. 579. ^ Deloucas 2016, p. 39. ^ Waerzeggers & Seire 2018, p. 3. ^ Briant 2002, p. 544. ^ Deloucas 2016, p. 40. ^ Deloucas 2016, p. 41. ^ Soldiers with names, after Walser ^ The Achaemenid Empire in South Asia and Recent Excavations in Akra in Northwest Pakistan Peter Magee, Cameron Petrie, Robert Knox, Farid Khan, Ken Thomas p. 713 ^ Naqš-e-Rostam – Encyclopaedia Iranica. ^ Farrokh, Kaveh (2007). Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War. Oxford, UK: Osprey. ISBN 1846031087, p. 77 ^ Bailkey, Nels, ed. Readings in Ancient History, p. 175. D.C. Heath and Co., 1992. ^ G. Mafodda, La monarchia di Gelone tra pragmatismo, ideologia e propaganda, (Messina, 1996) pp. 119–136 ^ Barkworth, 1993. "The Organization of Xerxes' Army." Iranica Antiqua Vol. 27, pp. 149–167 ^ Martin Steskal, Der Zerstörungsbefund 480/79 der Athener Akropolis. Eine Fallstudie zum etablierten Chronologiegerüst, Verlag Dr. Kovač, Hamburg, 2004 ^ Herodotus VIII, 97 ^ "Bêl-šimânni and Šamaš-eriba – Livius". livius.org. Retrieved 7 September 2016. ^ Ghirshman, Iran, p. 172 ^ Fergusson, James. A History of Architecture in All Countries, from the Earliest Times to the Present Day: 1. Ancient architecture. 2. Christian architecture. xxxi, 634 p. front., illus. p. 211. ^ Herodotus VII.11 ^ Iran-e-Bastan/Pirnia book 1 p. 873 ^ Dandamayev ^ History of Persian Empire, Olmstead pp. 289/90 ^ a b c Malandra 2005. ^ Boyce 1984, pp. 684–687. ^ Briant 2002, p. 549. ^ Ctesias ^ M. Brosius, Women in ancient Persia. ^ "Johann Adolph Hasse | German composer". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 27 April 2020. ^ "Metastasio's Musicians : Music In The Seventeenth And Eighteenth Centuries". www.oxfordwesternmusic.com. Retrieved 27 April 2020. ^ "Christer Malmbergs värld - Musik - Klassisk musik - Johann Christian Bach". christermalmberg.se. Retrieved 27 April 2020. ^ "Xerxes, of De hoogmoed". www.bibliotheek.nl. Retrieved 27 April 2020. ^ Classe, O.; AC02468681, Anonymus (2000). Encyclopedia of Literary Translation Into English: A-L. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-884964-36-7. ^ Boucher, Geoff "Frank Miller returns to the '300' battlefield with 'Xerxes': 'I make no apologies whatsoever'", The Los Angeles Times, 1 June 2010, accessed 2010-05-14. ^ Gore Vidal, Creation: A Novel (Random House, 1981) Bibliography Ancient sources   The Sixth Book, Entitled Erato in History of Herodotus.   The Seventh Book, Entitled Polymnia in History of Herodotus. Modern sources Barkworth, Peter R. (1993). "The Organization of Xerxes' Army". 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Dandamayev, Muhammad A. (1989). A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire. BRILL. ISBN 978-9004091726. Dandamayev, Muhammad A. (1993). "Xerxes and the Esagila Temple in Babylon". Bulletin of the Asia Institute. 7: 41–45. JSTOR 24048423. Dandamayev, Muhammad A. (1990). "Cambyses II". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IV, Fasc. 7. pp. 726–729. Dandamayev, Muhammad A. (1983). "Achaemenes". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 4. p. 414.* Frye, Richard N. (1963). The Heritage of Persia. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. p. 301. ISBN 0-297-16727-8. Deloucas, Andrew Alberto Nicolas (2016). "Balancing Power and Space: a Spatial Analysis of the Akītu Festival in Babylon after 626 BCE" (PDF). Research Master's Thesis for Classical and Ancient Civilizations (Assyriology). Universiteit Leiden. Gershevitch, Ilya; Bayne Fisher, William; A. Boyle, J. (1985). The Cambridge history of Iran. 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-20091-1. Llewellyn-Jones, Lloyd (2017). "The Achaemenid Empire". In Daryaee, Touraj (ed.). King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE - 651 CE). UCI Jordan Center for Persian Studies. pp. 1–236. ISBN 9780692864401. Malandra, William W. (2005). "Zoroastrianism i. Historical review up to the Arab conquest". Encyclopaedia Iranica.* Macaulay, G.C. (2004). The Histories. Spark Educational Publishing. ISBN 1-59308-102-2. Marciak, Michał (2017). Sophene, Gordyene, and Adiabene: Three Regna Minora of Northern Mesopotamia Between East and West. BRILL. ISBN 9789004350724. McCullough, W.S. "Ahasuerus". Encyclopaedia Iranica. vol. 1. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Schmeja, H. (1975). "Dareios, Xerxes, Artaxerxes. Drei persische Königsnamen in griechischer Deutung (Zu Herodot 6,98,3)". Die Sprache. 21: 184–188. Radner, Karen (2013). "Assyria and the Medes". In Potts, Daniel T. (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199733309. Sancisi-Weerdenburg, Heleen (2002). "The Personality of Xerxes, King of Kings". Brill's Companion to Herodotus. BRILL. pp. 579–590. doi:10.1163/9789004217584_026. ISBN 9789004217584. Schmitt, Rüdiger. "Achaemenid dynasty". Encyclopaedia Iranica. vol. 3. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Schmitt, Rüdiger. "Atossa". Encyclopaedia Iranica. vol. 3. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Schmitt, Rüdiger (2000). "Xerxes i. The Name". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Shabani, Reza (2007). Khshayarsha (Xerxes). What do I know about Iran? No. 75 (in Persian). Cultural Research Bureau. p. 120. ISBN 978-964-379-109-4. Shahbazi, A. Sh. "Darius I the Great". Encyclopaedia Iranica. vol. 7. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Stoneman, Richard (2015). Xerxes: A Persian Life. Yale University Press. pp. 1–288. ISBN 9781575061207. Olmstead, A.T. (1979) [1948]. History of the Persian Empire. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226497648. Waerzeggers, Caroline; Seire, Maarja (2018). Xerxes and Babylonia: The Cuneiform Evidence (PDF). Peeters Publishers. ISBN 978-90-429-3670-6. Waters, Matt (1996). "Darius and the Achaemenid Line". London: 11–18. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Xerxes I. "Xerxes" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. Xerxes I Achaemenid dynasty Born: 519 BC Died: 465 BC Preceded by Darius I King of Kings of Persia 486 BC – 465 BC Succeeded by Artaxerxes I Pharaoh of Egypt 486 BC – 465 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&oldid=993083281" Last edited on 8 December 2020, at 18:19 Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0 unless otherwise noted. This page was last edited on 8 December 2020, at 18:19 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. 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en-m-wikipedia-org-8123	----	Xerxes I - Wikipedia Open main menu Home Random Nearby Log in Settings Donate About Wikipedia Disclaimers Search Xerxes I Language Watch Edit Xerxes I (Old Persian: 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠, romanized: Xšaya-ṛšā; c. 518 – August 465 BC), commonly known as Xerxes the Great, was the fourth King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire, ruling from 486 to 465 BC. He was the son and successor of Darius the Great (r. 522 – 486 BC) and his mother was Atossa, a daughter of Cyrus the Great (r. 550 – 530 BC), the first Achaemenid king. Like his father, he ruled the empire at its territorial apex. He ruled from 486 BC until his assassination in 465 BC at the hands of Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard. Xerxes I 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠 King of Kings Great King King of Persia King of Babylon Pharaoh of Egypt King of Countries Rock relief of a Achaemenid king, most likely Xerxes, located in the National Museum of Iran[1] King of kings of the Achaemenid Empire Reign October 486 – August 465 BC Predecessor Darius the Great Successor Artaxerxes I Born c. 518 BC Died August 465 BC (aged approximately 53) Burial Naqsh-e Rostam Spouse Amestris Issue Darius Hystaspes Artaxerxes I Arsames Amytis Dynasty Achaemenid Father Darius the Great Mother Atossa Religion Indo-Iranian religion (possibly Zoroastrianism) Xerxes (Xašayaruša/Ḫašayaruša)[2] in hieroglyphs Xerxes I is notable in Western history for his failed invasion of Greece in 480 BC. His forces temporarily overran mainland Greece north of the Isthmus of Corinth[3][4] until losses at Salamis and Plataea a year later reversed these gains and ended the second invasion decisively. However, Xerxes successfully crushed revolts in Egypt and Babylon. Roman Ghirshman says that, "After this he ceased to use the title of 'king of Babylon', calling himself simply 'king of the Persians and the Medes'."[5] Xerxes also oversaw the completion of various construction projects at Susa and Persepolis. Xerxes is identified with the fictional king Ahasuerus in the biblical Book of Esther.[6] That book is broadly considered to be fictional.[7][8][9] Contents 1 Etymology 2 Historiography 3 Early life 3.1 Parentage and birth 3.2 Upbringing and education 3.3 Accession to the throne 4 Consolidation of power 5 Campaigns 5.1 Invasion of the Greek mainland 5.2 Battle of Thermopylae and destruction of Athens 5.3 Battles of Salamis and Plataea 6 Construction projects 7 Death 8 Government 8.1 Religion 9 Wives and children 10 Cultural depictions 11 See also 12 References 13 Bibliography 13.1 Ancient sources 13.2 Modern sources 14 External links Etymology Xérxēs (Ξέρξης) is the Greek and Latin (Xerxes, Xerses) transliteration of the Old Iranian Xšaya-ṛšā ("ruling over heroes"), which can be seen by the first part xšaya, meaning "ruling", and the second ṛšā, meaning "hero, man".[10] The name of Xerxes was known in Akkadian as Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá and in Aramaic as ḥšyʾrš.[11] Xerxes would become a popular name amongst the rulers of the Achaemenid Empire.[10] Historiography Much of Xerxes' bad reputation is due to propaganda by the Macedonian king Alexander the Great (r. 336–323 BC), who had him vilified.[12] The modern historian Richard Stoneman regards the portrayal of Xerxes as more nuanced and tragic in the work of the contemporary Greek historian Herodotus.[12] However, many modern historians agree that Herodotus recorded spurious information.[13][14] Pierre Briant has accused him of presenting a stereotyped and biased portrayal of the Persians.[15] Many Achaemenid-era clay tablets and other reports written in Elamite, Akkadian, Egyptian and Aramaic are frequently contradictory to the reports of classical authors, i.e. Ctesias, Plutarch and Justin.[16] Early life Parentage and birth Xerxes' father was Darius the Great (r. 522 – 486 BC), the incumbent monarch of the Achaemenid Empire, albeit himself not a member of the family of Cyrus the Great, the founder of the empire.[17][18] Xerxes' mother was Atossa, a daughter of Cyrus.[19] Darius and Atossa had married in 522 BC,[20] with Xerxes being born around 518 BC.[21] Upbringing and education   The "Caylus vase", a quadrilingual alabaster jar with cuneiform and hieroglyphic inscriptions in the name of "Xerxes, the Great King". Cabinet des Médailles, Paris[22] According to the Greek dialogue First Alcibiades, which describes typical upbringing and education of Persian princes; they were raised by eunuchs. When reaching the age of 7, they learn how to ride and hunt; at age 14, they are looked after by four teachers of aristocratic stock, who teach them how to be "wise, just, prudent and brave."[23] Persian princes were also taught on the basics of the Zoroastrian religion, to be truthful, have self-restraint, and to be courageous.[23] The dialogue further adds that "Fear, for a Persian, is the equivalent of slavery."[23] At the age of 16 or 17, they begin their "national service" for 10 years, which included practicing archery and javelin, competing for prizes, and hunting.[24] Afterwards they serve in the military for around 25 years, and are then elevated to the status of elders and advisers of the king.[24] This account of education among the Persian elite is supported by Xenophon's description of the 5th-century BC Achaemenid prince Cyrus the Younger, with whom he was well-acquainted.[24] Stoneman suggests that this was the type of upbringing and education that Xerxes experienced.[25] It is unknown if Xerxes ever learned to read or write, with the Persians favouring oral history over written literature.[25] Stoneman suggests that Xerxes' upbringing and education was possibly not much different from that of the later Iranian kings, such as Abbas the Great, king of the Safavid Empire in the 17th-century AD.[25] Starting from 498 BC, Xerxes resided in the royal palace of Babylon.[26] Accession to the throne While Darius was preparing for another war against Greece, a revolt spurred in Egypt in 486 BC due to heavy taxes and the deportation of craftsmen to build the royal palaces at Susa and Persepolis. Under Persian law, the king was required to choose a successor before setting out on dangerous expeditions. When Darius decided to leave (487–486 BC), he (Darius) prepared his tomb at Naqsh-e Rustam (five kilometers from his royal palace at Persepolis) and appointed Xerxes, his eldest son by Atossa, as his successor. However, Darius could not lead the campaign due to his failing health and died in October 486 BC at the age of 64.[27] Artobazan claimed the crown as the eldest of all the children; while Xerxes, on the other hand, argued that he was sprung from Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus, and that it was Cyrus who had won the Persians their freedom. Xerxes was also helped by a Spartan king in exile who was present in Persia at the time, Eurypontid king Demaratus, who also argued that the eldest son does not universally mean they have claim to the crown, as Spartan law states that the first son born while the father is king is the heir to the kingship.[28] Some modern scholars also view the unusual decision of Darius to give the throne to Xerxes to be a result of his consideration of the unique positions that Cyrus the Great and his daughter Atossa enjoyed.[29] Artobazan was born to "Darius the subject", while Xerxes was the eldest son born in the purple after Darius's rise to the throne, and Artobazan's mother was a commoner while Xerxes's mother was the daughter of the founder of the empire.[30] Xerxes was crowned and succeeded his father in October–December 486 BC[31] when he was about 36 years old.[32] The transition of power to Xerxes was smooth due again in part to the great authority of Atossa[33] and his accession of royal power was not challenged by any person at court or in the Achaemenian family, or any subject nation.[34] Consolidation of power   Engraving of Babylon by H. Fletcher, 1690 At Xerxes' accession, trouble was brewing in some of his domains. A revolt occurred in Egypt, which seems to have been dangerous enough for Xerxes to personally lead the army to restore order (which also gave him the opportunity to begin his reign with a military campaign).[35] Xerxes suppressed the revolt in January 484 BC, and appointed his full-brother Achaemenes as satrap of the country, replacing the previous satrap Pherendates, who was reportedly killed during the revolt.[36][26] The suppression of the Egyptian revolt expended the army, which had been mobilized by Darius over the previous three years.[35] Xerxes thus had to raise another army for his expedition into Greece, which took four years.[35] There was also unrest in Babylon, which revolted at least twice against Xerxes. The first revolt broke out in June or July of 484 BC and was led by a rebel of the name Bel-shimanni. Bel-shimmani's revolt was short-lived, Babylonian documents written during his reign only account for a period of two weeks.[37] Two years later, Babylon produced another rebel leader, Shamash-eriba. Beginning in the summer of 482 BC, Shamash-eriba seized Babylon itself and other nearby cities, such as Borsippa and Dilbat, and was only defeated in March 481 BC after a lengthy siege of Babylon.[37] The precise cause of the unrest in Babylon is uncertain.[35] It may have been due to tax increase.[38] Prior to these revolts, Babylon had occupied a special position within the Achaemenid Empire, the Achaemenid kings had been titled as "King of Babylon" and "King of the Lands", perceiving Babylonia as a somewhat separate entity within their empire, united with their own kingdom in a personal union. Xerxes dropped "King of Babylon" from his titulature and divided the previously large Babylonian satrapy (accounting for most of the Neo-Babylonian Empire's territory) into smaller sub-units.[39] Using texts written by classical authors, it is often assumed that Xerxes enacted a brutal vengeance on Babylon following the two revolts. According to ancient writers, Xerxes destroyed Babylon's fortifications and damaged the temples in the city.[37] The Esagila was allegedly exposed to great damage and Xerxes allegedly carried the statue of Marduk away from the city,[40] possibly bringing it to Iran and melting it down (classical authors held that the statue was entirely made of gold, which would have made melting it down possible).[37] Modern historian Amélie Kuhrt considers it unlikely that Xerxes destroyed the temples, but believes that the story of him doing so may derive from an anti-Persian sentiment among the Babylonians.[41] It is doubtful if the statue was removed from Babylon at all[37] and some have even suggested that Xerxes did remove a statue from the city, but that this was the golden statue of a man rather than the statue of the god Marduk.[42][43] Though mentions of it are lacking considerably compared to earlier periods, contemporary documents suggest that the Babylonian New Year's Festival continued in some form during the Achaemenid period.[44] Because the change in rulership from the Babylonians themselves to the Persians and due to the replacement of the city's elite families by Xerxes following its revolt, it is possible that the festival's traditional rituals and events had changed considerably.[45] Campaigns Invasion of the Greek mainland Main article: Second Persian invasion of Greece   The soldiers of Xerxes I, of all ethnicities,[46] on the tomb of Xerxes I, at Naqsh-e Rostam[47][48] Darius died while in the process of preparing a second army to invade the Greek mainland, leaving to his son the task of punishing the Athenians, Naxians, and Eretrians for their interference in the Ionian Revolt, the burning of Sardis, and their victory over the Persians at Marathon. From 483 BC, Xerxes prepared his expedition: The Xerxes Canal was dug through the isthmus of the peninsula of Mount Athos, provisions were stored in the stations on the road through Thrace, and two pontoon bridges later known as Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges were built across the Hellespont. Soldiers of many nationalities served in the armies of Xerxes from all over his multi-ethnic massive Eurasian-sized empire and beyond, including the Assyrians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Jews,[49] Macedonians, European Thracians, Paeonians, Achaean Greeks, Ionians, Aegean islanders, Aeolians, Greeks from Pontus, Colchians, Indians and many more. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, Xerxes's first attempt to bridge the Hellespont ended in failure when a storm destroyed the flax and papyrus cables of the bridges. In retaliation, Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped three hundred times, and had fetters thrown into the water. Xerxes's second attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful.[50] The Carthaginian invasion of Sicily deprived Greece of the support of the powerful monarchs of Syracuse and Agrigentum; ancient sources assume Xerxes was responsible, modern scholarship is skeptical.[51] Many smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially Thessaly, Thebes and Argos. Xerxes was victorious during the initial battles. Xerxes set out in the spring of 480 BC from Sardis with a fleet and army which Herodotus estimated was roughly one million strong along with 10,000 elite warriors named the Immortals. More recent estimates place the Persian force at around 60,000 combatants.[52] Battle of Thermopylae and destruction of Athens   Achaemenid king killing a Greek hoplite. Impression from a cylinder seal, sculpted c. 500 BC–475 BC, at the time of Xerxes I Metropolitan Museum of Art At the Battle of Thermopylae, a small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas of Sparta resisted the much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated. According to Herodotus, the Persians broke the Spartan phalanx after a Greek man called Ephialtes betrayed his country by telling the Persians of another pass around the mountains. At Artemisium, large storms had destroyed ships from the Greek side and so the battle stopped prematurely as the Greeks received news of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated.   Foundations of the Old Temple of Athena, destroyed by the armies of Xerxes I during the Destruction of Athens in 480 BC After Thermopylae, Athens was captured. Most of the Athenians had abandoned the city and fled to the island of Salamis before Xerxes arrived. A small group attempted to defend the Athenian Acropolis, but they were defeated. Xerxes ordered the Destruction of Athens and burnt the city, leaving an archaeologically attested destruction layer, known as the Perserschutt.[53] The Persians thus gained control of all of mainland Greece to the north of the Isthmus of Corinth.[4] Battles of Salamis and Plataea Xerxes was induced, by the message of Themistocles (against the advice of Artemisia of Halicarnassus), to attack the Greek fleet under unfavourable conditions, rather than sending a part of his ships to the Peloponnesus and awaiting the dissolution of the Greek armies. The Battle of Salamis (September, 480 BC) was won by the Greek fleet, after which Xerxes set up a winter camp in Thessaly. According to Herodotus, fearing that the Greeks might attack the bridges across the Hellespont and trap his army in Europe, Xerxes decided to retreat back to Asia, taking the greater part of the army with him.[54] Another cause of the retreat might have been that the continued unrest in Babylon, a key province of the empire, required the king's personal attention.[55] He left behind a contingent in Greece to finish the campaign under Mardonius, who according to Herodotus had suggested the retreat in the first place. This force was defeated the following year at Plataea by the combined forces of the Greek city states, ending the Persian offensive on Greece for good. Construction projects   The rock-cut tomb at Naqsh-e Rustam north of Persepolis, copying that of Darius, is usually assumed to be that of Xerxes After the military blunders in Greece, Xerxes returned to Persia and oversaw the completion of the many construction projects left unfinished by his father at Susa and Persepolis. He oversaw the building of the Gate of All Nations and the Hall of a Hundred Columns at Persepolis, which are the largest and most imposing structures of the palace. He oversaw the completion of the Apadana, the Tachara (Palace of Darius) and the Treasury, all started by Darius, as well as having his own palace built which was twice the size of his father's. His taste in architecture was similar to that of Darius, though on an even more gigantic scale.[56] He had colorful enameled brick laid on the exterior face of the Apadana.[57] He also maintained the Royal Road built by his father and completed the Susa Gate and built a palace in Susa.[58] Death   This cuneiform text mentions the murder of Xerxes I by his son. From Babylon, Iraq. British Museum In August 465 BC, Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court, assassinated Xerxes with the help of a eunuch, Aspamitres. Although Artabanus bore the same name as the famed uncle of Xerxes, a Hyrcanian, his rise to prominence was due to his popularity in religious quarters of the court and harem intrigues. He put his seven sons in key positions and had a plan to dethrone the Achaemenids.[59] Greek historians give contradicting accounts of events. According to Ctesias (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Crown Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest son, of the murder and persuaded another of Xerxes's sons, Artaxerxes, to avenge the patricide by killing Darius. But according to Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and then killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes discovered the murder, he killed Artabanus and his sons.[60] Participating in these intrigues was the general Megabyzus, whose decision to switch sides probably saved the Achaemenids from losing their control of the Persian throne.[61] Government Religion While there is no general consensus in scholarship whether Xerxes and his predecessors had been influenced by Zoroastrianism,[62] it is well established that Xerxes was a firm believer in Ahura Mazda, whom he saw as the supreme deity.[62] However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped by adherents of the (Indo-)Iranian religious tradition.[62][63] On his treatment of other religions, Xerxes followed the same policy as his predecessors; he appealed to local religious scholars, made sacrifices to local deities, and destroyed temples in cities and countries that caused disorder.[64] Wives and children   Xerxes being designated by Darius I. Tripylon, Persepolis. The ethnicities of the Empire are shown supporting the throne. Ahuramazda crowns the scene. By queen Amestris: Amytis, wife of Megabyzus. Darius, the first born, murdered by Artaxerxes I or Artabanus. Hystaspes, murdered by Artaxerxes I. Artaxerxes I Achaemenes, murdered by Egyptians.[citation needed] Rhodogune By unknown wives or mistresses: Artarius, satrap of Babylon. Tithraustes Arsames or Arsamenes or Arxanes or Sarsamas, satrap of Egypt.[citation needed] Parysatis[65] Ratashah[66] Cultural depictions   Trilingual inscription of Xerxes at Van (present-day Turkey) Xerxes is the central character of the Aeschylus play "The Persians". Xerxes is the protagonist of the opera Serse by the German-English Baroque composer George Frideric Handel. It was first performed in the King's Theatre London on 15 April 1738. The famous aria "Ombra mai fù" opens the opera. The murder of Xerxes by Artabanus (Artabano), execution of crown prince Darius (Dario), revolt by Megabyzus (Megabise), and subsequent succession of Artaxerxes I is romanticised by the Italian poet Metastasio in his opera libretto Artaserse, which was first set to music by Leonardo Vinci, and subsequently by other composers such as Johann Adolf Hasse and Johann Christian Bach.[67][68][69] The historical novel Xerxes of de Hoogmoed (1919) by Dutch writer Louis Couperus describes the Persian wars from the perspective of Xerxes. Though the account is fictionalised, Couperus nevertheless based himself on an extensive study of Herodotus. The English translation Arrogance: The Conquests of Xerxes by Frederick H. Martens appeared in 1930.[70][71]   Queen Esther, a Jewish queen of Xerxes (Edwin Long, 19th century) Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, particularly the Battle of Thermopylae, has led to Xerxes' portrayal in works of popular culture. He was played by David Farrar in the fictional film The 300 Spartans (1962), where he is portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept commander. He also features prominently in the graphic novels 300 and Xerxes: The Fall of the House of Darius and the Rise of Alexander by Frank Miller, as well as the film adaptation 300 (2007) and its sequel 300: Rise of an Empire (2014), as portrayed by Brazilian actor Rodrigo Santoro, in which he is represented as a giant man with androgynous qualities, who claims to be a god-king. This portrayal attracted controversy, especially in Iran.[72] Ken Davitian plays Xerxes in Meet the Spartans, a parody of the first 300 movie replete with sophomoric humour and deliberate anachronisms. Other works dealing with the Persian Empire or the Biblical story of Esther have also featured or alluded to Xerxes, such as the video game Assassin's Creed II and the film One Night with the King (2006), in which Ahasuerus (Xerxes) was portrayed by British actor Luke Goss. He is the leader of the Persian Empire in the video game Civilization II and III (along with Scheherazade), although Civilization IV replaces him with Cyrus the Great and Darius I.[citation needed] In the Age of Empires, Xerxes featured as a short swordsman.   Xerxes (Ahasuerus) by Ernest Normand, 1888 (detail) Gore Vidal, in his historical fiction novel Creation (1981), describes at length the rise of the Achemenids, especially Darius I, and presents the life and death circumstances of Xerxes. Vidal's version of the Persian Wars, which diverges from the orthodoxy of the Greek histories, is told through the invented character of Cyrus Spitama, a half-Greek, half-Persian, and grandson of the prophet Zoroaster. Thanks to his family connection, Cyrus is brought up in the Persian court after the murder of Zoroaster, becoming the boyhood friend of Xerxes, and later a diplomat who is sent to India, and later to Greece, and who is thereby able to gain privileged access to many leading historical figures of the period.[73] Xerxes (Ahasuerus) is portrayed by Richard Egan in the 1960 film Esther and the King and by Joel Smallbone in the 2013 film, The Book of Esther. In at least one of these films, the events of the Book of Esther are depicted as taking place upon Xerxes' return from Greece.[citation needed] Xerxes plays an important background role (never making an appearance) in two short works of alternate history taking place generations after his complete victory over Greece. These are: "Counting Potsherds" by Harry Turtledove in his anthology Departures and "The Craft of War" by Lois Tilton in Alternate Generals volume 1 (edited by Turtledove).[citation needed] See also List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources References ^ According to plate 2 in Stoneman 2015; though it may also be Darius I. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath (1999), Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Mainz am Rhein: von Zabern. ISBN 3-8053-2310-7, pp. 220–221 ^ Lazenby, J.F. (1993). The Defence of Greece, 490–479 B.C. Aris & Phillips. ISBN 978-0856685910. Retrieved 7 September 2016. ^ a b Brian Todd Carey, Joshua Allfree, John Cairns. Warfare in the Ancient World Pen and Sword, 19 Jan. 2006 ISBN 1848846304 ^ Roman Ghirshman, Iran (1954), Penguin Books, p. 191. ^ Stoneman 2015, p. 9. ^ McCullough, W. S. (28 July 2011) [15 December 1984]. "AHASUREUS – Encyclopaedia Iranica". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 3 April 2020. There may be some factual nucleus behind the Esther narrative, but the book in its present form displays such inaccuracies and inconsistencies that it must be described as a piece of historical fiction. ^ Meyers, Carol (2007). Barton, John; Muddiman, John (eds.). The Oxford Bible Commentary. Oxford University Press. p. 325. ISBN 9780199277186. Like the Joseph story in Genesis and the book of Daniel, it is a fictional piece of prose writing involving the interaction between foreigners and Hebrews/Jews. ^ Hirsch, Emil G.; Dyneley Prince, John; Schechter, Solomon (1906). Singer, Isidor; Adler, Cyrus (eds.). "ESTHER". JewishEncyclopedia.com. Retrieved 25 April 2020. The vast majority of modern expositors have reached the conclusion that the book is a piece of pure fiction, although some writers qualify their criticism by an attempt to treat it as a historical romance. ^ a b Marciak 2017, p. 80; Schmitt 2000 ^ Schmitt 2000. ^ a b Stoneman 2015, p. 2. ^ Briant 2002, p. 57. ^ Radner 2013, p. 454. ^ Briant 2002, pp. 158, 516. ^ Stoneman 2015, pp. viii–ix. ^ Llewellyn-Jones 2017, p. 70. ^ Waters 1996, pp. 11, 18. ^ Briant 2002, p. 132. ^ Briant 2002, p. 520. ^ Stoneman 2015, p. 1. ^ "vase (inv.65.4695) - inv.65.4695 , BnF". medaillesetantiques.bnf.fr (in French). ^ a b c Stoneman 2015, p. 27. ^ a b c Stoneman 2015, p. 28. ^ a b c Stoneman 2015, p. 29. ^ a b Dandamayev 1989, p. 183. ^ Dandamayev 1989, pp. 178–179. ^ Herodotus 7.1–5 ^ R. Shabani Chapter I, p. 15 ^ Olmstead: The history of Persian empire ^ The Cambridge History of Iran vol. 2. p. 509. ^ Dandamayev 1989, p. 180. ^ Schmitt, R., "Atossa" in Encyclopaedia Iranica. ^ The Cambridge Ancient History vol. V p. 72. ^ a b c d Briant 2002, p. 525. ^ Dandamayev 1983, p. 414. ^ a b c d e Dandamayev 1993, p. 41. ^ Stoneman 2015, p. 111. ^ Dandamayev 1989, pp. 185–186. ^ Sancisi-Weerdenburg 2002, p. 579. ^ Deloucas 2016, p. 39. ^ Waerzeggers & Seire 2018, p. 3. ^ Briant 2002, p. 544. ^ Deloucas 2016, p. 40. ^ Deloucas 2016, p. 41. ^ Soldiers with names, after Walser ^ The Achaemenid Empire in South Asia and Recent Excavations in Akra in Northwest Pakistan Peter Magee, Cameron Petrie, Robert Knox, Farid Khan, Ken Thomas p. 713 ^ Naqš-e-Rostam – Encyclopaedia Iranica. ^ Farrokh, Kaveh (2007). Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War. Oxford, UK: Osprey. ISBN 1846031087, p. 77 ^ Bailkey, Nels, ed. Readings in Ancient History, p. 175. D.C. Heath and Co., 1992. ^ G. Mafodda, La monarchia di Gelone tra pragmatismo, ideologia e propaganda, (Messina, 1996) pp. 119–136 ^ Barkworth, 1993. "The Organization of Xerxes' Army." Iranica Antiqua Vol. 27, pp. 149–167 ^ Martin Steskal, Der Zerstörungsbefund 480/79 der Athener Akropolis. Eine Fallstudie zum etablierten Chronologiegerüst, Verlag Dr. Kovač, Hamburg, 2004 ^ Herodotus VIII, 97 ^ "Bêl-šimânni and Šamaš-eriba – Livius". livius.org. Retrieved 7 September 2016. ^ Ghirshman, Iran, p. 172 ^ Fergusson, James. A History of Architecture in All Countries, from the Earliest Times to the Present Day: 1. Ancient architecture. 2. Christian architecture. xxxi, 634 p. front., illus. p. 211. ^ Herodotus VII.11 ^ Iran-e-Bastan/Pirnia book 1 p. 873 ^ Dandamayev ^ History of Persian Empire, Olmstead pp. 289/90 ^ a b c Malandra 2005. ^ Boyce 1984, pp. 684–687. ^ Briant 2002, p. 549. ^ Ctesias ^ M. Brosius, Women in ancient Persia. ^ "Johann Adolph Hasse | German composer". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 27 April 2020. ^ "Metastasio's Musicians : Music In The Seventeenth And Eighteenth Centuries". www.oxfordwesternmusic.com. Retrieved 27 April 2020. ^ "Christer Malmbergs värld - Musik - Klassisk musik - Johann Christian Bach". christermalmberg.se. Retrieved 27 April 2020. ^ "Xerxes, of De hoogmoed". www.bibliotheek.nl. Retrieved 27 April 2020. ^ Classe, O.; AC02468681, Anonymus (2000). Encyclopedia of Literary Translation Into English: A-L. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-884964-36-7. ^ Boucher, Geoff "Frank Miller returns to the '300' battlefield with 'Xerxes': 'I make no apologies whatsoever'", The Los Angeles Times, 1 June 2010, accessed 2010-05-14. ^ Gore Vidal, Creation: A Novel (Random House, 1981) Bibliography Ancient sources   The Sixth Book, Entitled Erato in History of Herodotus.   The Seventh Book, Entitled Polymnia in History of Herodotus. Modern sources Barkworth, Peter R. (1993). "The Organization of Xerxes' Army". Iranica Antiqua. 27: 149–167. doi:10.2143/ia.27.0.2002126. Boardman, John (1988). The Cambridge Ancient History. V. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-22804-2. Boyce, Mary. "Achaemenid Religion". Encyclopaedia Iranica. vol. 1. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Boyce, Mary (1979). Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. Psychology Press. pp. 1–252. ISBN 9780415239028. Boyce, Mary (1984). "Ahura Mazdā". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 7. pp. 684–687. Bridges, Emma (2014). Imagining Xerxes: Ancient Perspectives on a Persian King. Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1472511379 Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. pp. 1–1196. ISBN 9781575061207. Brosius, Maria (2000). "Women i. In Pre-Islamic Persia". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. London et al. Dandamayev, M.A. (1999). "Artabanus". Encyclopædia Iranica. Routledge & Kegan Pau. Retrieved 25 February 2009. Dandamayev, Muhammad A. (2000). "Achaemenid taxation". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Dandamayev, Muhammad A. (1989). A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire. BRILL. ISBN 978-9004091726. Dandamayev, Muhammad A. (1993). "Xerxes and the Esagila Temple in Babylon". Bulletin of the Asia Institute. 7: 41–45. JSTOR 24048423. Dandamayev, Muhammad A. (1990). "Cambyses II". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IV, Fasc. 7. pp. 726–729. Dandamayev, Muhammad A. (1983). "Achaemenes". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 4. p. 414.* Frye, Richard N. (1963). The Heritage of Persia. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. p. 301. ISBN 0-297-16727-8. Deloucas, Andrew Alberto Nicolas (2016). "Balancing Power and Space: a Spatial Analysis of the Akītu Festival in Babylon after 626 BCE" (PDF). Research Master's Thesis for Classical and Ancient Civilizations (Assyriology). Universiteit Leiden. Gershevitch, Ilya; Bayne Fisher, William; A. Boyle, J. (1985). The Cambridge history of Iran. 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-20091-1. Llewellyn-Jones, Lloyd (2017). "The Achaemenid Empire". In Daryaee, Touraj (ed.). King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE - 651 CE). UCI Jordan Center for Persian Studies. pp. 1–236. ISBN 9780692864401. Malandra, William W. (2005). "Zoroastrianism i. Historical review up to the Arab conquest". Encyclopaedia Iranica.* Macaulay, G.C. (2004). The Histories. Spark Educational Publishing. ISBN 1-59308-102-2. Marciak, Michał (2017). Sophene, Gordyene, and Adiabene: Three Regna Minora of Northern Mesopotamia Between East and West. BRILL. ISBN 9789004350724. McCullough, W.S. "Ahasuerus". Encyclopaedia Iranica. vol. 1. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Schmeja, H. (1975). "Dareios, Xerxes, Artaxerxes. Drei persische Königsnamen in griechischer Deutung (Zu Herodot 6,98,3)". Die Sprache. 21: 184–188. Radner, Karen (2013). "Assyria and the Medes". In Potts, Daniel T. (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199733309. Sancisi-Weerdenburg, Heleen (2002). "The Personality of Xerxes, King of Kings". Brill's Companion to Herodotus. BRILL. pp. 579–590. doi:10.1163/9789004217584_026. ISBN 9789004217584. Schmitt, Rüdiger. "Achaemenid dynasty". Encyclopaedia Iranica. vol. 3. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Schmitt, Rüdiger. "Atossa". Encyclopaedia Iranica. vol. 3. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Schmitt, Rüdiger (2000). "Xerxes i. The Name". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Shabani, Reza (2007). Khshayarsha (Xerxes). What do I know about Iran? No. 75 (in Persian). Cultural Research Bureau. p. 120. ISBN 978-964-379-109-4. Shahbazi, A. Sh. "Darius I the Great". Encyclopaedia Iranica. vol. 7. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Stoneman, Richard (2015). Xerxes: A Persian Life. Yale University Press. pp. 1–288. ISBN 9781575061207. Olmstead, A.T. (1979) [1948]. History of the Persian Empire. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226497648. Waerzeggers, Caroline; Seire, Maarja (2018). Xerxes and Babylonia: The Cuneiform Evidence (PDF). Peeters Publishers. ISBN 978-90-429-3670-6. Waters, Matt (1996). "Darius and the Achaemenid Line". London: 11–18. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Xerxes I. "Xerxes" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. Xerxes I Achaemenid dynasty Born: 519 BC Died: 465 BC Preceded by Darius I King of Kings of Persia 486 BC – 465 BC Succeeded by Artaxerxes I Pharaoh of Egypt 486 BC – 465 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&oldid=993083281" Last edited on 8 December 2020, at 18:19 Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0 unless otherwise noted. This page was last edited on 8 December 2020, at 18:19 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. 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en-wikipedia-org-1002	----	Artaxerxes I - Wikipedia Artaxerxes I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Fifth King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire King of Kings Artaxerxes I 𐎠𐎼𐎫𐎧𐏁𐏂 King of Kings Great King King of Persia Pharaoh of Egypt King of Countries Relief of Artaxerxes I, from his tomb in Naqsh-e Rustam King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Reign 465–424 BC Predecessor Xerxes I Successor Xerxes II Born Unknown Died 424 BC, Susa Burial Naqsh-e Rustam, Persepolis Spouse Queen Damaspia Alogyne of Babylon Cosmartidene of Babylon Andia of Babylon Issue Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Arsites Parysatis House Achaemenid Father Xerxes I Mother Amestris Religion Zoroastrianism nomen or birth name Artaxerxes[1] in hieroglyphs Artaxerxes I (/ˌɑːrtəˈzɜːrksiːz/, Old Persian: 𐎠𐎼𐎫𐎧𐏁𐏂 Artaxšaça,[2] "whose rule (xšaça < *xšaϑram) is through arta ("truth");[3] Hebrew: אַרְתַּחְשַׁשְׂתָּא‎, Modern: ʾArtaḥšásta, Tiberian: ʾArtaḥšasetāʾ; Ancient Greek: Ἀρταξέρξης, romanized: Artaxérxēs[4]) was the fifth King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire, from 465 to 424 BC.[5] He was the third son of Xerxes I. He may have been the "Artasyrus" mentioned by Herodotus as being a satrap of the royal satrapy of Bactria. In Greek sources he is also surnamed "long-handed" (Ancient Greek: μακρόχειρ Makrókheir; Latin: Longimanus), allegedly because his right hand was longer than his left.[6] Contents 1 Succession to the throne 2 Egyptian revolt 3 Relations with Greece 4 Portrayal in the Book of Ezra and Nehemiah 5 Interpretations of actions 6 Medical analysis 7 Children 8 See also 9 References 10 External links Succession to the throne[edit] Artaxerxes was probably born in the reign of his grandfather Darius I, to the emperor's son and heir, Xerxes I. In 465 BC, Xerxes I was murdered by Hazarapat ("commander of thousand") Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court, with the help of a eunuch, Aspamitres.[7] Greek historians give contradicting accounts of events. According to Ctesias (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused Crown Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest son, of the murder, and persuaded Artaxerxes to avenge the patricide by killing Darius. But according to Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and then killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes discovered the murder, he killed Artabanus and his sons.[8][9] Egyptian revolt[edit] Inarus, seized by Artaxerxes I in the seal Persian king and the defeated enemies.[10] The ancient Egyptian god Amun-Min in front of Artaxerxes' cartouche. Artaxerxes had to face a revolt in Egypt in 460–454 BC led by Inaros II, who was the son of a Libyan prince named Psamtik, presumably descended from the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt. In 460 BC, Inaros II revolted against the Persians with the help of his Athenian allies, and defeated the Persian army commanded by satrap Akheimenes. The Persians retreated to Memphis, and the Athenians were finally defeated in 454 BC, by the Persian army led by Megabyzus, after a two-year siege. Inaros was captured and carried away to Susa. Relations with Greece[edit] Themistocles stands silently before Artaxerxes After the Achaemenid Empire had been defeated at the Battle of the Eurymedon (c. 469 BC), military action between Greece and Persia was at a standstill. When Artaxerxes I took power, he introduced a new Persian strategy of weakening the Athenians by funding their enemies in Greece. This indirectly caused the Athenians to move the treasury of the Delian League from the island of Delos to the Athenian acropolis. This funding practice inevitably prompted renewed fighting in 450 BC, where the Greeks attacked at the Battle of Cyprus. After Cimon's failure to attain much in this expedition, the Peace of Callias was agreed among Athens, Argos and Persia in 449 BC. Artaxerxes I offered asylum to Themistocles, who was probably his father Xerxes's greatest enemy for his victory at the Battle of Salamis, after Themistocles was ostracized from Athens. Also, Artaxerxes I gave him Magnesia, Myus, and Lampsacus to maintain him in bread, meat, and wine. In addition, Artaxerxes I gave him Skepsis to provide him with clothes, and he also gave him Percote with bedding for his house.[11] Themistocles would go on to learn and adopt Persian customs, Persian language, and traditions.[12][13] Portrayal in the Book of Ezra and Nehemiah[edit] A King Artaxerxes (Hebrew: אַרְתַּחְשַׁשְׂתְּא‎, pronounced [artaχʃast]) is described in the Bible as having commissioned Ezra, a kohen and scribe, by means of a letter of decree (see Cyrus's edict), to take charge of the ecclesiastical and civil affairs of the Jewish nation. Ezra thereby left Babylon in the first month of the seventh year[14] of Artaxerxes' reign, at the head of a company of Jews that included priests and Levites. They arrived in Jerusalem on the first day of the fifth month of the seventh year according to the Hebrew calendar. The text does not specify whether the king in the passage refers to Artaxerxes I (465–424 BCE) or to Artaxerxes II (404–359 BCE).[15][16] Most scholars hold that Ezra lived during the rule of Artaxerxes I, though some have difficulties with this assumption:[17] Nehemiah and Ezra "seem to have no knowledge of each other; their missions do not overlap", however, in Nehemiah 12, both are leading processions on the wall as part of the wall dedication ceremony. So, they clearly were contemporaries working together in Jerusalem at the time the wall and the city of Jerusalem was rebuilt in contrast to the previously stated viewpoint.[18] These difficulties have led many scholars to assume that Ezra arrived in the seventh year of the rule of Artaxerxes II, i.e. some 50 years after Nehemiah. This assumption would imply that the biblical account is not chronological. The last group of scholars regard "the seventh year" as a scribal error and hold that the two men were contemporaries.[17][19] However, Ezra appears for the first time in Nehemiah 8, having probably been at the court for twelve years.[20] The rebuilding of the Jewish community in Jerusalem had begun under Cyrus the Great, who had permitted Jews held captive in Babylon to return to Jerusalem and rebuild Solomon's Temple. Consequently, a number of Jews returned to Jerusalem in 538 BC, and the foundation of this "Second Temple" was laid in 536 BC, in the second year of their return (Ezra 3:8). After a period of strife, the temple was finally completed in the sixth year of Darius, 516 BC (Ezra 6:15). In Artaxerxes' twentieth year, Nehemiah, the king's cup-bearer, apparently was also a friend of the king as in that year Artaxerxes inquired after Nehemiah's sadness. Nehemiah related to him the plight of the Jewish people and that the city of Jerusalem was undefended. The king sent Nehemiah to Jerusalem with letters of safe passage to the governors in Trans-Euphrates, and to Asaph, keeper of the royal forests, to make beams for the citadel by the Temple and to rebuild the city walls.[21] Interpretations of actions[edit] Ethnicities of the Empire on the tomb of Artaxerxes I at Naqsh-e Rostam. Roger Williams, a 17th-century Christian minister and founder of Rhode Island, interpreted several passages in the Old and New Testament to support limiting government interference in religious matters. Williams published The Bloudy Tenent of Persecution for Cause of Conscience, arguing for a separation of church and state based on biblical reasoning. Williams believed that Israel was a unique covenant kingdom and not an appropriate model for New Testament Christians who believed that the Old Testament covenant had been fulfilled. Therefore, the more informative Old Testament examples of civil government were "good" non-covenant kings such as Artaxerxes, who tolerated the Jews and did not insist that they follow his state religion.[22] Medical analysis[edit] According to a paper published in 2011,[23] the discrepancy in Artaxerxes’ limb lengths may have arisen as a result of the inherited disease neurofibromatosis. Children[edit] Quadrilingual inscription of Artaxerxes on an Egyptian alabaster vase (Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian and Egyptian).[24][25] By queen Damaspia Xerxes II By Alogyne of Babylon Sogdianus By Cosmartidene of Babylon Darius II Arsites By Andia of Babylon Bogapaeus Parysatis, wife of Darius II Ochus By another(?) unknown wife An unnamed daughter, wife of Hieramenes, mother of Autoboesaces and Mitraeus[26] By various wives Eleven other children See also[edit] Artoxares Ezra–Nehemiah List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources References[edit] ^ Henri Gauthier, Le Livre des rois d'Égypte, IV, Cairo 1916 (=MIFAO 20), p. 152. ^ Ghias Abadi, R. M. (2004). Achaemenid Inscriptions (کتیبه‌های هخامنشی)‎ (in Persian) (2nd ed.). Tehran: Shiraz Navid Publications. p. 129. ISBN 964-358-015-6. ^ Artaxerxes at Encyclopædia Iranica ^ The Greek form of the name is influenced by Xerxes, Artaxerxes at Encyclopædia Iranica ^ James D. G. Dunn; John William Rogerson (19 November 2003). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 321. ISBN 978-0-8028-3711-0. ^ Plutarch, Artaxerxes, l. 1. c. 1. 11:129 - cited by Ussher, Annals, para. 1179 ^ Pirnia, Iran-e-Bastan book 1, p 873 ^ Dandamayev ^ Olmstead, History of the Persian Empire, pp 289–290 ^ Ancient Seals of the Near East. 1940. p. Plaque 17. ^ Plutarch. "Themistocles, Part II". Archived from the original on 2015-10-01. ^ Thucydides I, 137 ^ Plutarch, Themistocles, 29 ^ The Book of Daniel. Montex Publish Company, By Jim McGuiggan 1978, p. 147. ^ Porter, J.R. (2000). The Illustrated Guide to the Bible. New York: Barnes & Noble Books. pp. 115–16. ISBN 978-0-7607-2278-7. ^ The dates of Nehemiah's and Ezra's respective missions, and their chronological relation to each other, are uncertain, because each mission is dated solely by a regnal year of an Achaemenian King Artaxerxes; and in either case we do not know for certain whether the Artaxerxes in question is Artaxerxes I (465–424 BCE) or Artaxerxes II (404–359 BCE). So we do not know whether the date of Ezra's mission was 458 BCE or 397 BCE' Arnold Toynbee, A Study of History, vol. 12 (1961) Oxford University Press, 1964 pp. 484–85 n.2 ^ a b "Ezra". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. ^ Winn Leith, Mary Joan (2001) [1998]. "Israel among the Nations: The Persian Period". In Michael David Coogan (ed.). The Oxford History of the Biblical World (Google Books). Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. p. 281. ISBN 978-0-19-513937-2. LCCN 98016042. OCLC 44650958. Retrieved 13 December 2007. ^ John Boederman, The Cambridge Ancient History, 2002, p. 272 ^ https://biblehub.com/commentaries/ellicott/nehemiah/8.htm ^ Nehemiah 2:1–9 ^ James P. Byrd, The challenges of Roger Williams: Religious Liberty, Violent Persecution, and the Bible (Mercer University Press, 2002)[1] (accessed on Google Book on July 20, 2009) ^ Ashrafian, Hutan. (2011). "Limb gigantism, neurofibromatosis and royal heredity in the Ancient World 2500 years ago: Achaemenids and Parthians". J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 64 (4): 557. doi:10.1016/j.bjps.2010.08.025. PMID 20832372. ^ Revue archéologique (in French). Leleux. 1844. p. 444-450. ^ The vase is now in the Reza Abbasi Museum in Teheran (inv. 53). image inscription ^ Xenophon, Hellenica, Book II, Chapter 1 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Artaxerxes I. Encyclopedia Iranica ARTAXERXES Encyclopedia Iranica ARTAXERXES I a son of Xerxes I and Amestris Artaxerxes I Achaemenid dynasty Born: ?? Died: 424 BC Preceded by Xerxes I Kings of Persia 464–424 BC Succeeded by Xerxes II Pharaoh of Egypt 465–424 BC v t e Median and Achaemenid kings Family tree Median (728–550 BC) Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Achaemenid (550–330 BC) Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Nothus Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Italics indicate kings not directly attested and so possibly legendary. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC v t e Persepolis Palace Tachara Gate of All Nations Other sections Tomb of Artaxerxes III builders Darius the Great Xerxes I Artaxerxes I of Persia Researchers Heidemarie Koch Erich Schmidt (archaeologist) Alireza Shapour Shahbazi Related Tangeh Bolaghi 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire Sivand Dam Persepolis Administrative Archives Waterskin Achaemenid architecture Category:Persepolis v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 102382026 ISNI: 0000 0000 6701 9487 LCCN: n84233757 LNB: 000258776 NLA: 66228182 NLI: 000211067 NTA: 264805399 SUDOC: 199731594 Trove: 1808112 VcBA: 495/160276 VIAF: 30953676 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n84233757 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en-wikipedia-org-1004	----	Personal union - Wikipedia Personal union From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Situation of two states sharing a monarch without merging This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Personal union" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This article is about the political arrangement. For the Christian theological teaching, see Hypostatic union. Part of a series of articles on Monarchy Central concepts Monarch Monarchism Imperialism Divine right of kings Mandate of Heaven Realm Types Absolute Chinese Legalist Composite Constitutional Crowned republic Diarchy Dual Elective Emirate Ethnarch Federal Hereditary Personal union Non-sovereign Popular Regency Coregency Tetrarch Triarchy Universal History Birth of the Roman Empire Magna Carta Foundation of the Ottoman Empire Glorious Revolution French Revolution Trienio Liberal First French Empire Liberal Wars Second French Empire Italian unification Meiji Restoration Austro-Hungarian Compromise German unification 5 October 1910 Revolution Proclamation of the Republic in Brazil Chinese Revolution Russian Revolution Siamese revolution of 1932 Birth of the Italian Republic Spanish transition to democracy Iranian Revolution Modern Cambodia Nepalese Civil War Related topics Aristocracy Nobility Autocracy Chamberlain Conservatism Despotism Dynasty List Enlightened absolutism Thomas Hobbes Legitimists Orléanist Oligarchy Peerage Philosopher king Primogeniture Rank Royalism Regicide Regnal number Royal bastard Royal family Style Ultra-royalist Politics portal v t e Part of the Politics series Basic forms of government Power source Democracy (rule by many) Demarchy Direct Liberal Representative Social Socialist Others Oligarchy (rule by few) Anocracy Aristocracy Ergatocracy Gerontocracy Kleptocracy Kritarchy Noocracy Particracy Plutocracy Stratocracy Technocracy Autocracy (rule by one) Despotism Dictatorship Military dictatorship Tyranny Anarchism (rule by none) Anarchy Free association Stateless Power ideology Monarchy vs. republic (socio-political ideologies) Absolute Constitutional Directorial Legalist Parliamentary Presidential Semi-presidential Socialist Authoritarian vs. libertarian (socio-economic ideologies) Anarchism Colonialism Communism Despotism Distributism Feudalism Socialism Totalitarianism Tribalism Global vs. local (geo-cultural ideologies) Commune Civilization state City-state Intergovernmental organisation National government World government Nationalism Internationalism Globalism Power structure Unitary Unitary state Empire Principality Client state Associated state Dependent territory Dominion Protectorate Puppet state Puppet monarch Satellite state Self-governing colony Tributary state Vassal state Federalism Confederation Devolution Federation Superstate Supranational union International relations Small power Regional power Middle power Great power Superpower Politics portal v t e A personal union is the combination of two or more states that have the same monarch while their boundaries, laws, and interests remain distinct.[1] A real union, by contrast, would involve the constituent states being to some extent interlinked, such as by sharing some limited governmental institutions. Unlike the personal union, in a federation and a unitary state, a central (federal) government spanning all member states exists, with the degree of self-governance distinguishing the two. The ruler in a personal union does not need to be a hereditary monarch.[2] The term was coined by German jurist Johann Stephan Pütter, introducing it into Elementa iuris publici germanici (Elements of German Public Law) of 1760.[3] Personal unions can arise for several reasons, ranging from coincidence (a woman who is already married to a king becomes queen regnant, and their child inherits the crown of both countries; the King of one country inherits the crown of another country) to virtual annexation (where a personal union sometimes was seen as a means of preventing uprisings). They can also be codified (i.e., the constitutions of the states clearly express that they shall share the same person as head of state) or non-codified, in which case they can easily be broken (e.g., by the death of the monarch when the two states have different succession laws). Because presidents of republics are ordinarily chosen from within the citizens of the state in question, the concept of personal union has almost never crossed over from monarchies into republics, with the rare exception of the president of France being a co-prince of Andorra. In 1860 Marthinus Wessel Pretorius was simultaneously elected as the president of Transvaal and Orange Free State and he tried to unify the two countries but his mission failed and led to the Transvaal Civil War. Contents 1 Albania 2 Andorra 3 Austria 4 Bohemia 5 Brandenburg 6 Brazil 7 Congo Free State and Belgium 8 Croatia 9 Denmark 10 England 11 France 12 Georgia 13 Goryeo 14 Great Britain 15 Hanover 16 Holy Roman Empire 17 Hungary 18 Iceland 19 Ireland 20 Italy 21 Lithuania 22 Luxembourg 23 Naples 24 Navarre 25 Netherlands 26 Norway 27 Poland 28 Portugal 29 Prussia 30 Romania 31 Sardinia 32 Saxe-Coburg and Saxe-Gotha 33 Saxe-Weimar and Saxe-Eisenach 34 Schleswig and Holstein 35 Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt and Schwarzburg-Sondershausen 36 Scotland 37 Sicily 38 Spain 39 Sweden 40 United Kingdom 41 Wales 42 See also 43 References Albania[edit] Personal union with Kingdom of Italy (1939–1943). Andorra[edit] Even though France is now a republic with a president and not a monarchy, it has nevertheless been in personal union with the neighbouring nominal monarchy (non-hereditary) of Andorra since 1278. Austria[edit] Personal union with Lands of the Bohemian Crown (1260–1276, 1306–1307, 1438–1439, 1453–1457, and 1526–1918). Personal union with Lands of the Hungarian Crown (1437–1439, 1444–1457, and 1526–1918). Personal union with Austrian Netherlands (1714–1795). Personal union with Spanish Empire (1519–1521). Personal union with Kingdom of Naples (1714–1735), Kingdom of Sardinia (1714–1720), Kingdom of Sicily (1720–1735), Duchy of Parma (1735–1748), Venetia (1797–1805) and Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia (1814–1859) Personal union with Kingdom of Slavonia (1699–1868), Kingdom of Serbia (1718–1739), Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria (1772–1918), Duchy of Bukovina (1774–1918), New Galicia (1795–1809), Kingdom of Dalmatia (1797–1805 and 1814–1918) and Bosnia and Herzegovina (1878/1908–1918). Bohemia[edit] Personal union with Poland 1003–1004 (Bohemia occupied by Poles) Personal union with Poland 1300–1306 and Hungary 1301–1305 (Wenceslas II and Wenceslas III) Personal union with Luxembourg 1313–1378 and 1383–1388 Personal union with Hungary 1419–1439 (Sigismund of Luxemburg and his son in law) and 1490–1526 (Jagellon dynasty) Personal union with Austria and Hungary 1526–1918 (except years 1619–1620) Brandenburg[edit] Personal union with the Principality of Ansbach from 1415 to 1440 and 1470 to 1486. Personal union with the Duchy of Prussia from 1618, when Albert Frederick, Duke of Prussia, died without male heirs and his son-in-law John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg, became ruler of both countries. Brandenburg and Prussia maintained separate governments and seats of power in Berlin and Königsberg respectively until 1701, when Frederick I consolidated them into one government. Brazil[edit] Personal union with Portugal, under Pedro I of Brazil (Pedro IV of Portugal), from 10 March to 28 May 1826. Pedro was the Prince Royal of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves when he declared the independence of Brazil in 1822, becoming its first emperor. When his father (John VI of Portugal) died, Pedro also became King of Portugal, but abdicated the Portuguese throne 79 days later in favour of his older child Princess Maria da Glória. Congo Free State and Belgium[edit] Personal union with Belgium from 1885 to 1908, when the Congo Free State became a Belgian colony. The only sovereign during this period was Leopold II, who continued as king of Belgium until his death a year later in 1909. Croatia[edit] Main articles: Pacta conventa (Croatia) and Croatia in the union with Hungary Personal union with the Kingdom of Hungary 1102–1918 Denmark[edit] Personal union with Norway (986–995, 1000–1014, 1028–1035, 1042–1047, 1380–1397, 1397–1523 (Kalmar Union) and 1524–1814 (Denmark–Norway)). Personal union with England (1013–1014, 1018–1035 (North Sea Empire) and 1040–1042). Personal union with Sweden (1397–1523 (Kalmar Union)). Personal union with Duchy of Schleswig (1086–1364, 1460–1864) and County/Duchy of Holstein (1460–1864). Personal union with Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg (1814–1864) Personal union with Iceland (1918–1944). England[edit] Personal union, as Kingdom of England, with Denmark (1013–1014, 1018–1035 (North Sea Empire) and 1040–1042). Personal union, as Kingdom of England, with Duchy of Normandy (1066–1087, 1106–1144, 1154-1204/1259). Personal union, as Kingdom of England, with the County of Anjou (1154-1204). Personal union, as Kingdom of England, with much of France (Angevin Empire) (1154–1214). Personal union, as Kingdom of England, with Aquitaine (1154–1453). Personal union, as Kingdom of England, with Principality of Wales (1284-1542). Personal union, as Kingdom of England, with Kingdom of France (1422-1453). See also: Dual monarchy of England and France. Personal union, as Kingdom of England, with Lordship of Ireland (1171–1542) and Kingdom of Ireland (1542–1649, 1660-1707). Personal union, as Kingdom of England, with Kingdom of Scotland (1603–1649, 1660-1707). Personal union, as Kingdom of England, with Principality of Orange (1689–1702). After 1707, see Great Britain below. France[edit] Personal union, as part of the Angevin Empire, with the Kingdom of England (1154–1214). Personal union with the Kingdom of England (1422-1453). See also: Dual monarchy of England and France. Personal union with the Kingdom of Naples under the rule of Charles VIII (1495) and Louis XII (1501–1504). Personal union with the Duchy of Milan under the rule of Louis XII (1499–1500 and 1500–1512) and Francis I (1515–1521 and 1524–1525). Personal union with the Kingdom of Scotland under the rule of Francis II (1559-1560). Personal union with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth under the rule of Henry III (1574–1575). Personal union with the Kingdom of Navarre (1284–1328 and 1589–1620). Partial personal union with Andorra since 1607 (the French head of state is one of the heads of state in Andorra) Personal union under Napoleon with Italy and the Confederation of the Rhine. Note: The point at issue in the War of the Spanish Succession was the fear that the succession to the Spanish throne dictated by Spanish law, which would devolve on Louis, le Grand Dauphin — already heir to the throne of France — would create a personal union that would upset the European balance of power; France had the most powerful military in Europe at the time, and Spain the largest empire. Georgia[edit] Kingdom of Iberia and Colchis were connected power of the monarch in 300–90 years BC (Pharnavazid dynasty). Kingdom of Pontus and Colchis were connected power of the monarch in 109 BC–64 AD. 1000–1010 Kingdom of Abkhazia and Iberia ruled by Bagrat III. In 1010 it united (together with the annexed Kakheti kingdom) into a single Kingdom of Georgia. Kingdom of Kakheti and Hereti were connected power of the monarch in 1020s–1104. Principality of Mingrelia and Principality of Abkhazia in the 1557–1660 years under the rule of the House of Dadiani Kingdom of Kartli and Kingdom of Kakheti united under the rule of a single monarch in 1513–1520 (David X), 1625–1633 (Teimuraz I), 1648–1658 (Rostom), 1660–1664 (Vakhtang V), 1723 (Constantine II/III), to finally unite the Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti in 1762 under the reign of Heraclius II and his descendants. Kingdom of Imereti and Principality of Guria united under the rule of a single monarch in 1681–1683 (George IV/III), 1701–1702, 1713–1714 (Mamia (III)) and 1720 (George VIII/IV). Goryeo[edit] Personal union with Shenyang in the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty of China (1308–1313; King Chungseon) As King of Goryeo (高麗國王) and King of Shenyang (瀋陽王) in 1308–1310 As King of Goryeo and King of Shen (瀋王) in 1310–1313 King Chungseon reigned as King of Goryeo in 1298 and 1308–1313 and as King of Shenyang or King of Shen from 1307 (according to the History of Yuan) or 1308 (according to Goryeosa) to 1316. At that time, Goryeo had already become a vassal of Yuan dynasty and the Yuan imperial family and the Goryeo royal family had close relationship by marriages of convenience. Because he was a very powerful man during Emperor Wuzong's reign, he could become the King of Shenyang where many Korean people lived in China. However, he lost his power in the Yuan imperial court after the death of the Emperor Wuzong. Because the Yuan dynasty made Chungseon abdicate the crown of the Goryeo in 1313, the personal union was ended. King Chungsuk, Chungseon's eldest son, became the new King of Goryeo. In 1316, the Yuan dynasty made Chungseon abdicate the crown of Shen in favour of Wang Go, one of his nephews, resulting in him becoming the new King of Shen. Great Britain[edit] Before 1707, see England and Scotland. Personal union with Kingdom of Ireland (1707–1801). Personal union with Electorate of Hanover (1714–1801). After 1801, see United Kingdom below. Hanover[edit] Personal union with Great Britain and Ireland from 1714 to 1801. Personal union with the United Kingdom from 1801 to 1807 and again from 1814 to 1837, when differing succession laws resulted in Queen Victoria ascending the British throne and her uncle Ernest Augustus that of Hanover. The personal union was interrupted from 1807 to 1813 when Hanover was merged into the Kingdom of Westphalia during the Napoleonic Wars. A few months after the Battle of Leipzig, the Kingdom of Hanover was re-established. Holy Roman Empire[edit] Personal union with the Kingdom of Sicily from 1194 to 1254 under the Hohenstaufen dynasty. Personal union with Spain from 1519 to 1556 under Charles V. Personal union with Hungary 1410–1439, 1556–1608, 1612–1740 and 1780–1806. Personal union with Kingdom of Naples (1714–1735), Kingdom of Sardinia (1714–1720), Kingdom of Sicily (1720–1735) Hungary[edit] Personal union with Croatia 1102–1918 (see § Croatia above for details). Personal union with Poland and Bohemia 1301–1305. Personal union with Poland from 1370 to 1382 under the reign of Louis the Great. This period in Polish history is sometimes known as the Andegawen Poland. Louis inherited the Polish throne from his maternal uncle Casimir III. After Louis' death the Polish nobles (the szlachta) decided to end the personal union, since they did not want to be governed from Hungary, and chose Louis' younger daughter Jadwiga as their new ruler, while Hungary was inherited by his elder daughter Mary. Personal union with Poland for the second time from 1440 to 1444. Personal union with Naples from 1385 to 1386 under the reign of Charles III of Naples. Personal union with Bohemia, 1419–1439 and 1490–1918. Personal union with the Archduchy of Austria, 1437–1439, 1444–1457, and 1526–1806. Personal union with the Holy Roman Empire, 1410–1439, 1556–1608, 1612–1740 and 1780–1806. Real union with Austria, 1867–1918 (the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary) under the reigns of Franz Joseph and Charles IV. Iceland[edit] Personal union with Denmark from 1918 to 1944, when the country became a republic. Ireland[edit] Personal union, as Kingdom of Ireland, with the Kingdom of England (1542–1649 then again following the restoration 1660-1707). Personal union, as Kingdom of Ireland, with the Kingdom of Scotland (1603-1649 then again following the restoration 1660-1707). Personal union, as Kingdom of Ireland, with the Kingdom of Great Britain (1707-1801) Personal union, as Irish Free State (1922-1937) then as Éire (1937-1949), with the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. (The period 1937-1949 is disputed). Italy[edit] Personal union with Kingdom of Albania (1939–1943). Lithuania[edit] Personal union (the Polish-Lithuanian Union) with the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland 1386–1401, 1447–1492 and 1501–1569; then transformed into a federation, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Luxembourg[edit] Personal union with Bohemia, 1313–1378 and 1383–1388. Personal union with the Netherlands from 1815 to 1890, when King and Grand Duke William III died leaving only a daughter, Wilhelmina. Since Luxembourg held to Salic Law, Wilhelmina's distant cousin Adolphe succeeded to the Grand Duchy, ending the personal union. Naples[edit] Personal union with Kingdom of Hungary from 1385 to 1386 under the rule of Charles II of Hungary. Personal union with Crown of Aragon (1442–1458 and 1504–1516). Personal union with Kingdom of France under the rule of Charles VIII (1495) and Louis XII (1501–1504). Personal union with Kingdom of Spain (1516–1714). Personal union with Holy Roman Empire (1714–1735). Personal union with Kingdom of Sicily from 1735 to 1806 under the rule of the House of Bourbon. Navarre[edit] Personal union with France from 1285 to 1328 due to the marriage between Philip IV of France and Joan I of Navarre and the reign of their three sons, and from 1589 to 1620 due to the accession of Henry IV, after which Navarre was formally integrated into France. Netherlands[edit] Personal union with Luxembourg from 1815 to 1890. Norway[edit] Sweyn Forkbeard ruled both Norway and Denmark from 999 to 1014. He also ruled England from 1013 to 1014. Cnut the Great ruled both England and Denmark from 1018 to 1035. He also ruled Norway from 1028 to 1035. Personal union with Denmark 1042–1047 Magnus I of Norway who died of unclear circumstances. Personal union with Sweden from 1319 to 1343. Personal union with Sweden from 1449 to 1450. Personal union with Denmark from 1380 to 1389/97. The Kalmar Union with Denmark and Sweden from 1389/97 to 1521/23 (sometimes defunct).[vague] Personal union with Denmark 1523 to 1814. Personal union with Sweden from 1814 (when Norway declared independence from Denmark and was forced into a union with Sweden) to 1905. Poland[edit] Main articles: Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, Union of Krewo, Union of Lublin, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and Congress Poland Personal union with the Kingdom of Bohemia from 1300 to 1306. Personal union with the Kingdom of Hungary, 1301–1305, 1370–1382 and 1440–1444 (see Hungary section above). Personal union with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from 1386 to 1401, 1447 to 1492, and 1501 to 1569. Personal union with the Kingdom of France from 1574 to 1575. Personal union with the Kingdom of Sweden from 1592 to 1599. Personal union with the Duchy of Ruthenia (Ukraine) in 1658. Personal union with the Electorate of Saxony, 1697–1706, 1709–1733 and 1734–1763. Personal union with the Russian Empire from 1815 to 1831. Portugal[edit] Iberian Union with Spain from 1580 to 1640, under Philip II (also known as Philip I of Portugal), his son and grandson. Personal union with Brazil, under Peter I of Brazil (Peter IV of Portugal), from 10 March 1826 to 28 May 1826. Peter was the Prince Royal of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves when he declared the independence of Brazil in 1822, becoming its first emperor. When his father (John VI of Portugal) died, Peter became also king of Portugal for only a few weeks, after which he abdicated the Portuguese throne in favor of his older daughter, Princess Maria da Glória. Prussia[edit] Brandenburg-Prussia: personal union between the Margraviate of Brandenburg and Duchy of Prussia (1618–1701). Personal union between Kingdom of Prussia and Duchy of Courland and Semigallia (later United Baltic Duchy) (1918). Personal union between Kingdom of Prussia and Principality of Neuchâtel, 1707-1806 and 1814–1848. The King of Prussia exchanged territories with France during the 1806-1814 interim. Romania[edit] Personal union between Wallachia and Transylvania from 1599 to 1600 under the rule of Michael the Brave Personal union between Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania in 1600 under the rule of Michael the Brave Personal union between Wallachia and Moldavia from 1859 to 1862 under the rule of Alexandru Ioan Cuza Sardinia[edit] Personal union with Kingdom of Spain (1516–1708). Personal union with Holy Roman Empire (1714–1720). Personal union with Duchy of Savoy from 1720. Saxe-Coburg and Saxe-Gotha[edit] In 1826, the newly created Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha was initially a double duchy, ruled by Duke Ernest I in a personal union. In 1852, the duchies were bound in a political and real union. They were then a quasi-federal unitary state, even though later attempts to merge the duchies failed. Saxe-Weimar and Saxe-Eisenach[edit] The duchies of Saxe-Weimar and Saxe-Eisenach were in personal union from 1741, when the ruling house of Saxe-Eisenach died out, until 1809, when they were merged into the single duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach. Schleswig and Holstein[edit] Duchies with peculiar rules for succession. See the Schleswig-Holstein Question. The kings of Denmark at the same time being dukes of Schleswig and Holstein 1460–1864. (Holstein being part of the Holy Roman Empire, while Schleswig was a part of Denmark). The situation was complicated by the fact that for some time, the Duchies were divided among collateral branches of the House of Oldenburg (the ruling House in Denmark and Schleswig-Holstein). Besides the "main" Duchy of Schleswig-Holstein-Glückstadt, ruled by the Kings of Denmark, there were states encompassing territory in both Duchies. Notably the Dukes of Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp and the subordinate Dukes of Schleswig-Holstein-Beck, Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg and Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg. Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt and Schwarzburg-Sondershausen[edit] The duchies of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt and Schwarzburg-Sondershausen were in personal union from 1909, when Prince Günther of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt succeeded also to the throne of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, until 1918, when he (and all the other German monarchs) abdicated. Scotland[edit] Personal union, as Kingdom of Scotland, with the Kingdom of France during the reign of Francis II (1559-1560), first husband of Mary, Queen of Scots. Personal union, as Kingdom of Scotland, with the Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Ireland (1603-1707) following the accession of James VI, King of Scots, to the joint English and Irish throne. (All monarchs of Scotland were in a personal union with England and Ireland throughout the period 1603–1707, with the exception of Charles II, reigning solely as King of Scots 1649–1651, and the subsequent interregnum between 1651 and restoration of the House of Stuart in 1660). Personal union, as Kingdom of Scotland, with the Dutch Republic (1689-1702) during the reign of William II of Scotland. After 1707, see Great Britain above. Sicily[edit] Personal union with the Holy Roman Empire from 1194 to 1254 under the rule of the House of Hohenstaufen. Personal union with the Crown of Aragon from 1282 to 1285 and 1409 to 1516 under the rule of the House of Barcelona and the House of Trastámara. Personal union with the Kingdom of Spain from 1516 to 1713 under the rule of the House of Habsburg and the House of Bourbon. Personal union with the Duchy of Savoy from 1713 to 1720 under the rule of Victor Amadeus II of Savoy. Personal union with the Holy Roman Empire from 1720 to 1734 under the rule of Charles VI of Habsburg. Personal union with the Kingdom of Naples from 1735 to 1806 under the rule of the House of Bourbon. Spain[edit] Leon, Castile and Aragon Kingdom of León, Kingdom of Galicia and Kingdom of Asturias (914–924). Kingdom of León and Crown of Castile (1037–1065 and 1072–1230). Crown of Aragon and Kingdom of Navarre (1076–1134). Crown of Aragon and Kingdom of Sicily (1412–1516). Crown of Aragon and Kingdom of Naples (1442–1458 and 1504–1516). Crown of Castile and Duchy of Burgundy (1506) Crown of Castile and Crown of Aragon (1479–1504), resulting in the formation of the Kingdom of Spain under the rule of Charles I Spain Personal union with Archduchy of Austria and Austrian dynastic lands (1519–1521). Personal union with Holy Roman Empire (1519–1556) under Charles I. Personal union with Kingdom of Naples (1516–1714), Kingdom of Sardinia (1516–1708), Kingdom of Sicily (1516–1713) and Duchy of Milan (1540–1706). Personal union with Habsburg Netherlands (1516–1581) and Spanish Netherlands (1581–1714). Personal union with Kingdom of England (1556–1558). Personal union (Iberian Union) with Kingdom of Portugal (1580–1640). Sweden[edit] Main article: Unions of Sweden Personal union with Norway from 1319 to 1343 Personal union with Scania from 1332 to 1360 The Kalmar Union with Denmark and Norway from 1389/97 to 1521/23 (sometimes defunct).[vague] Personal union with Norway from 1449 to 1450 Personal union with the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland from 1592 to 1599. Swedish kings united his kingdom with Estonia (1581–1721), Livonia (1629–1721), Karelia (1617–1721), Scania (1645–1721), Bremen-Verden (1648–1719), Pomerania (1630–1815), Wismar (1648–1803) and Ingria (1583–1595 and 1617–1721). Personal union with Norway from 1814 to 1905 United Kingdom[edit] Personal union with the Electorate of Hanover (1801–1806). Personal union with the Kingdom of Hanover (1814–1837). Personal union with the Irish Free State (1922–1937) and Ireland (de jure) from 1937 to 1949; and the former Dominions and Commonwealth realms of Newfoundland (1907–1934), South Africa (1910–1961), India (1947–1950); Pakistan (1947–1956), Ceylon (1948–1972), Ghana (1957–1960), Nigeria (1960–1963), Sierra Leone (1961–1971), Tanganyika (1961–1962), Trinidad and Tobago (1962–1976), Uganda (1962–1963), Kenya (1963–1964), Malawi (1964–1966), Malta (1964–1974), The Gambia (1965–1970), Guyana (1966–1970), Mauritius (1968–1992), and Fiji (1970–1987). Personal union with the current Commonwealth realms: Canada since 1867, Australia since 1901, New Zealand since 1907, Jamaica since 1962, Barbados since 1966, The Bahamas since 1973, Grenada since 1974, Papua New Guinea since 1975, Solomon Islands since 1978, Tuvalu since 1978, Saint Lucia since 1979, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines since 1979, Antigua and Barbuda since 1981, Belize since 1981, and Saint Kitts and Nevis since 1983. Wales[edit] Personal union, as Principality of Wales, with Kingdom of England (1284-1542). After 1542, see England above. See also[edit] Composite monarchy Confederation Dynastic union King-Emperor Political union Dual mandate References[edit] ^ Oppenheim, Lassa; Roxbrough, Ronald (2005). International Law: A Treatise. The Lawbook Exchange. ISBN 978-1-58477-609-3. Retrieved 13 June 2013. ^ In the Holy Roman Empire, many prince-bishops had themselves elected to separate prince-bishoprics, which they ruled in a personal union. For example, Joseph Clemens von Bayern (1671–1723) was Prince-Bishop of Freising (1685–1694), Prince-Bishop of Regensburg (1685–1694), Prince-Elector of Cologne (1688–1723), Prince-Bishop of Liège (1694–1723) and Prince-Bishop of Hildesheim (1702–1723). ^ Harding, Nick (2007). Hanover and the British Empire, 1700-1837. Boydell & Brewer. 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en-wikipedia-org-1013	----	Persepolis - Wikipedia Persepolis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Tomb of Artaxerxes III) Jump to navigation Jump to search Ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Empire This article is about the ancient city. For other uses, see Persepolis (disambiguation). Persepolis 𐎱𐎠𐎼𐎿 Pārsa (Old Persian) تخت جمشید Takht-e Jamshīd (Persian) Ruins of the Gate of All Nations, Persepolis. Shown within Iran Location Marvdasht, Fars Province, Iran[1] Coordinates 29°56′04″N 52°53′29″E / 29.93444°N 52.89139°E / 29.93444; 52.89139Coordinates: 29°56′04″N 52°53′29″E / 29.93444°N 52.89139°E / 29.93444; 52.89139 Type Settlement History Builder Darius the Great, Xerxes the Great and Artaxerxes I Material Limestone, mud-brick, cedar wood Founded 6th century BC Periods Achaemenid Empire Cultures Persian Events Battle of the Persian Gates Macedonian sack of Persepolis Nowruz The 2,500 Year Celebration of the Persian Empire Site notes Condition in ruins Management Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts and Tourism Organization of Iran Public access open Architecture Architectural styles Achaemenid UNESCO World Heritage Site Official name Persepolis Type Cultural Criteria i, iii, vi Designated 1979 (3rd session) Reference no. 114 State Party Iran Region Asia-Pacific Persepolis (/pərˈsɛpəlɪs/; Old Persian: 𐎱𐎠𐎼𐎿, Pārsa; New Persian: تخت جمشید‎, romanized: Takht-e Jamshīd, lit. 'Throne of Jamshid') was the ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Empire (c. 550–330 BC). It is situated in the plains of Marvdasht, encircled by southern Zagros mountains. Modern day Shiraz is situated 60 kilometres (37 mi) southwest of the ruins of Persepolis. The earliest remains of Persepolis date back to 515 BC. It exemplifies the Achaemenid style of architecture. UNESCO declared the ruins of Persepolis a World Heritage Site in 1979.[2] The complex is raised high on a walled platform, with five "palaces" or halls of varying size, and grand entrances. The function of Persepolis remains quite unclear. It was not one of the largest cities in Persia, let alone the rest of the empire, but appears to have been a grand ceremonial complex that was only occupied seasonally; it is still not entirely clear where the king's private quarters actually were. Until recent challenges, most archaeologists held that it was especially used for celebrating Nowruz, the Persian New Year, held at the spring equinox, and still an important annual festivity in modern Iran. The Iranian nobility and the tributary parts of the empire came to present gifts to the king, as represented in the stairway reliefs.[3] It is also unclear what permanent structures there were outside the palace complex; it may be better to think of Persepolis as just that complex rather than a "city" in the normal sense. The complex was taken by the army of Alexander the Great in 330 BC, and soon after the wooden parts were completely destroyed by fire, very likely deliberately. Contents 1 Name 2 Geography 3 History 3.1 Destruction 3.2 After the fall of the Achaemenid Empire 4 Archaeological research 4.1 Architecture 5 Ruins and remains 5.1 Gate of All Nations 5.2 The Apadana Palace 5.2.1 Apadana Palace coin hoard 5.3 The Throne Hall 5.4 Other palaces and structures 5.5 Tombs 5.6 Ancient texts 6 Modern events 6.1 2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire 6.2 The controversy of the Sivand Dam 7 Museums (outside Iran) that display material from Persepolis 8 General views 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links Name[edit] Persepolis is derived from Ancient Greek: Περσέπολις, romanized: Persepolis, a compound of Pérsēs (Πέρσης) and pólis (πόλις), meaning "the Persian city" or "the city of the Persians". To the ancient Persians, the city was known as Pārsa (Old Persian: 𐎱𐎠𐎼𐎿), which is also the word for the region of Persia.[4][5] As is typical of Achaemenid cities, Persepolis was built on a (partially) artificial platform. An inscription left in AD 311 by Sasanian prince Shapur Sakanshah, the son of Hormizd II, refers to the site as Sad-stūn, meaning "Hundred Pillars".[6] Because medieval Persians attributed the site to Jamshid,[7] a king from Iranian mythology, it has been referred to as Takht-e-Jamshid (Persian: تخت جمشید‎, Taxt e Jamšīd; [ˌtæxtedʒæmˈʃiːd]), literally meaning "Throne of Jamshid". Another name given to the site in the medieval period was Čehel Menār, literally meaning "Forty Minarets".[6] Geography[edit] Persepolis is near the small river Pulvar, which flows into the Kur River. The site includes a 125,000 square meter terrace, partly artificially constructed and partly cut out of a mountain, with its east side leaning on Rahmat Mountain. The other three sides are formed by retaining walls, which vary in height with the slope of the ground. Rising from 5–13 metres (16–43 feet) on the west side was a double stair. From there, it gently slopes to the top. To create the level terrace, depressions were filled with soil and heavy rocks, which were joined together with metal clips. History[edit] Play media Reconstruction of Persepolis, capital of the Persians Archaeological evidence shows that the earliest remains of Persepolis date back to 515 BC. André Godard, the French archaeologist who excavated Persepolis in the early 1930s, believed that it was Cyrus the Great who chose the site of Persepolis, but that it was Darius I who built the terrace and the palaces. Inscriptions on these buildings support the belief that they were constructed by Darius. With Darius I, the scepter passed to a new branch of the royal house. Persepolis probably became the capital of Persia proper during his reign. However, the city's location in a remote and mountainous region made it an inconvenient residence for the rulers of the empire. The country's true capitals were Susa, Babylon and Ecbatana. This may be why the Greeks were not acquainted with the city until Alexander the Great took and plundered it. General view of the ruins of Persepolis Aerial architectural plan of Persepolis. Darius I's construction of Persepolis were carried out parallel to those of the Palace of Susa.[8] According to Gene R. Garthwaite, the Susa Palace served as Darius' model for Persepolis.[9] Darius I ordered the construction of the Apadana and the Council Hall (Tripylon or the "Triple Gate"), as well as the main imperial Treasury and its surroundings. These were completed during the reign of his son, Xerxes I. Further construction of the buildings on the terrace continued until the downfall of the Achaemenid Empire.[10] According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, the Greek historian Ctesias mentioned that Darius I's grave was in a cliff face that could be reached with an apparatus of ropes.[11] Around 519 BC, construction of a broad stairway was begun. The stairway was initially planned to be the main entrance to the terrace 20 metres (66 feet) above the ground. The dual stairway, known as the Persepolitan Stairway, was built symmetrically on the western side of the Great Wall. The 111 steps measured 6.9 metres (23 feet) wide, with treads of 31 centimetres (12 inches) and rises of 10 centimetres (3.9 inches). Originally, the steps were believed to have been constructed to allow for nobles and royalty to ascend by horseback. New theories, however, suggest that the shallow risers allowed visiting dignitaries to maintain a regal appearance while ascending. The top of the stairways led to a small yard in the north-eastern side of the terrace, opposite the Gate of All Nations. Grey limestone was the main building material used at Persepolis. After natural rock had been leveled and the depressions filled in, the terrace was prepared. Major tunnels for sewage were dug underground through the rock. A large elevated water storage tank was carved at the eastern foot of the mountain. Professor Olmstead suggested the cistern was constructed at the same time that construction of the towers began. The uneven plan of the terrace, including the foundation, acted like a castle, whose angled walls enabled its defenders to target any section of the external front. Diodorus Siculus writes that Persepolis had three walls with ramparts, which all had towers to provide a protected space for the defense personnel. The first wall was 7 metres (23 feet) tall, the second, 14 metres (46 feet) and the third wall, which covered all four sides, was 27 metres (89 feet) in height, though no presence of the wall exists in modern times. Destruction[edit] After invading Achaemenid Persia in 330 BC, Alexander the Great sent the main force of his army to Persepolis by the Royal Road. He stormed the "Persian Gates", a pass through modern-day Zagros Mountains. There Ariobarzanes of Persis successfully ambushed Alexander the Great's army, inflicting heavy casualties. After being held off for 30 days, Alexander the Great outflanked and destroyed the defenders. Ariobarzanes himself was killed either during the battle or during the retreat to Persepolis. Some sources indicate that the Persians were betrayed by a captured tribal chief who showed the Macedonians an alternate path that allowed them to outflank Ariobarzanes in a reversal of Thermopylae. After several months, Alexander allowed his troops to loot Persepolis. "The Burning of Persepolis", led by Thaïs, 1890, by Georges-Antoine Rochegrosse Around that time, a fire burned "the palaces" or "the palace". Scholars agree that this event, described in historic sources, occurred at the ruins that have been now re-identified as Persepolis. From Stolze's investigations, it appears that at least one of these, the castle built by Xerxes I, bears traces of having been destroyed by fire. The locality described by Diodorus Siculus after Cleitarchus corresponds in important particulars with the historic Persepolis, for example, in being supported by the mountain on the east. It is believed that the fire which destroyed Persepolis started from Hadish Palace, which was the living quarters of Xerxes I, and spread to the rest of the city.[12] It is not clear if the fire was an accident or a deliberate act of revenge for the burning of the Acropolis of Athens during the second Persian invasion of Greece. Many historians argue that, while Alexander's army celebrated with a symposium, they decided to take revenge against the Persians.[13] If that is so, then the destruction of Persepolis could be both an accident and a case of revenge. The fire may also have had the political purpose of destroying an iconic symbol of the Persian monarchy that might have become a focus for Persian resistance. Several much later Greek and Roman accounts (including Arrian, Diodorus Siculus and Quintus Curtius Rufus) describe that the burning was the idea of Thaïs, mistress of Alexander's general Ptolemy I Soter, and possibly of Alexander himself. She is said to have suggested it during a very drunken celebration, according to some accounts to revenge the destruction of Greek sanctuaries (she was from Athens), and either she or Alexander himself set the fire going.[14] The Book of Arda Wiraz, a Zoroastrian work composed in the 3rd or 4th century, describes Persepolis' archives as containing "all the Avesta and Zend, written upon prepared cow-skins, and with gold ink", which were destroyed. Indeed, in his Chronology of the Ancient Nations, the native Iranian writer Biruni indicates unavailability of certain native Iranian historiographical sources in the post-Achaemenid era, especially during the Parthian Empire. He adds: "[Alexander] burned the whole of Persepolis as revenge to the Persians, because it seems the Persian King Xerxes had burnt the Greek City of Athens around 150 years ago. People say that, even at the present time, the traces of fire are visible in some places."[13][15] Paradoxically, the event that caused the destruction of these texts may have helped in the preservation of the Persepolis Administrative Archives, which might otherwise have been lost over time to natural and man-made events.[16] According to archaeological evidence, the partial burning of Persepolis did not affect what are now referred to as the Persepolis Fortification Archive tablets, but rather may have caused the eventual collapse of the upper part of the northern fortification wall that preserved the tablets until their recovery by the Oriental Institute's archaeologists.[17] A general view of Persepolis. After the fall of the Achaemenid Empire[edit] Ruins of the Western side of the compound at Persepolis. In 316 BC, Persepolis was still the capital of Persia as a province of the great Macedonian Empire (see Diod. xix, 21 seq., 46; probably after Hieronymus of Cardia, who was living about 326). The city must have gradually declined in the course of time. The lower city at the foot of the imperial city might have survived for a longer time;[18] but the ruins of the Achaemenids remained as a witness to its ancient glory. It is probable that the principal town of the country, or at least of the district, was always in this neighborhood. About 200 BC, the city of Estakhr, five kilometers north of Persepolis, was the seat of the local governors. From there, the foundations of the second great Persian Empire were laid, and there Estakhr acquired special importance as the center of priestly wisdom and orthodoxy. The Sasanian kings have covered the face of the rocks in this neighborhood, and in part even the Achaemenid ruins, with their sculptures and inscriptions. They must themselves have been built largely there, although never on the same scale of magnificence as their ancient predecessors. The Romans knew as little about Estakhr as the Greeks had known about Persepolis, despite the fact that the Sasanians maintained relations for four hundred years, friendly or hostile, with the empire. At the time of the Muslim invasion of Persia, Estakhr offered a desperate resistance. It was still a place of considerable importance in the first century of Islam, although its greatness was speedily eclipsed by the new metropolis of Shiraz. In the 10th century, Estakhr dwindled to insignificance, as seen from the descriptions of Estakhri, a native (c. 950), and of Al-Muqaddasi (c. 985). During the following centuries, Estakhr gradually declined, until it ceased to exist as a city. Archaeological research[edit] See also: Nowruz § Achaemenid period Odoric of Pordenone may have passed through Persepolis on his way to China in 1320, although he mentioned only a great, ruined city called "Comerum".[19] In 1474, Giosafat Barbaro visited the ruins of Persepolis, which he incorrectly thought were of Jewish origin.[20] Hakluyt's Voyages included a general account of the ruins of Persepolis attributed to an English merchant who visited Iran in 1568.[21][22] António de Gouveia from Portugal wrote about cuneiform inscriptions following his visit in 1602. His report on the ruins of Persepolis was published as part of his Relaçam in 1611.[23] In 1618, García de Silva Figueroa, King Philip III of Spain's ambassador to the court of Abbas I, the Safavid monarch, was the first Western traveler to link the site known in Iran as "Chehel Minar" as the site known from Classical authors as Persepolis.[24] Pietro Della Valle visited Persepolis in 1621, and noticed that only 25 of the 72 original columns were still standing, due to either vandalism or natural processes.[25] The Dutch traveler Cornelis de Bruijn visited Persepolis in 1704.[26] Sketch of Persepolis from 1704 by Cornelis de Bruijn. Drawing of Persepolis in 1713 by Gérard Jean-Baptiste. Drawing of the Tachara by Charles Chipiez. The Apadana by Charles Chipiez. Apadana detail by Charles Chipiez. The fruitful region was covered with villages until its frightful devastation in the 18th century; and even now it is, comparatively speaking, well cultivated. The Castle of Estakhr played a conspicuous part as a strong fortress, several times, during the Muslim period. It was the middlemost and the highest of the three steep crags which rise from the valley of the Kur, at some distance to the west or northwest of the necropolis of Naqsh-e Rustam. The French voyagers Eugène Flandin and Pascal Coste are among the first to provide not only a literary review of the structure of Persepolis, but also to create some of the best and earliest visual depictions of its structure. In their publications in Paris, in 1881 and 1882, titled Voyages en Perse de MM. Eugene Flanin peintre et Pascal Coste architecte, the authors provided some 350 ground breaking illustrations of Persepolis.[27] French influence and interest in Persia's archaeological findings continued after the accession of Reza Shah, when André Godard became the first director of the archeological service of Iran.[28] In the 1800s, a variety of amateur digging occurred at the site, in some cases on a large scale.[27] The first scientific excavations at Persepolis were carried out by Ernst Herzfeld and Erich Schmidt representing the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. They conducted excavations for eight seasons, beginning in 1930, and included other nearby sites.[29][30][31][32][33] Achaemenid frieze designs at Persepolis. Herzfeld believed that the reasons behind the construction of Persepolis were the need for a majestic atmosphere, a symbol for the empire, and to celebrate special events, especially the Nowruz.[5] For historical reasons, Persepolis was built where the Achaemenid dynasty was founded, although it was not the center of the empire at that time. Excavations of plaque fragments hint at a scene with a contest between Herakles and Apollo, dubbed A Greek painting at Persepolis.[34] Architecture[edit] Persepolitan architecture is noted for its use of the Persian column, which was probably based on earlier wooden columns. Architects resorted to stone only when the largest cedars of Lebanon or teak trees of India did not fulfill the required sizes. Column bases and capitals were made of stone, even on wooden shafts, but the existence of wooden capitals is probable. In 518 BC, a large number of the most experienced engineers, architects, and artists from the four corners of the universe were summoned to engage and with participation, build the first building to be a symbol of universal unity and peace and equality for thousands of years. The buildings at Persepolis include three general groupings: military quarters, the treasury, and the reception halls and occasional houses for the King. Noted structures include the Great Stairway, the Gate of All Nations, the Apadana, the Hall of a Hundred Columns, the Tripylon Hall and the Tachara, the Hadish Palace, the Palace of Artaxerxes III, the Imperial Treasury, the Royal Stables, and the Chariot House.[35] Ruins and remains[edit] Reliefs of lotus flowers are frequently used on the walls and monuments at Persepolis. Ruins of a number of colossal buildings exist on the terrace. All are constructed of dark-grey marble. Fifteen of their pillars stand intact. Three more pillars have been re-erected since 1970. Several of the buildings were never finished. F. Stolze has shown that some of the mason's rubbish remains. So far, more than 30,000 inscriptions have been found from the exploration of Persepolis, which are small and concise in terms of size and text, but they are the most valuable documents of the Achaemenid period. Based on these inscriptions that are currently held in the United States most of the time indicate that during the time of Persepolis, wage earners were paid. Since the time of Pietro Della Valle, it has been beyond dispute that these ruins represent the Persepolis captured and partly destroyed by Alexander the Great. Behind the compound at Persepolis, there are three sepulchers hewn out of the rock in the hillside. The facades, one of which is incomplete, are richly decorated with reliefs. About 13 km NNE, on the opposite side of the Pulvar River, rises a perpendicular wall of rock, in which four similar tombs are cut at a considerable height from the bottom of the valley. Modern-day Iranians call this place Naqsh-e Rustam ("Rustam Relief"), from the Sasanian reliefs beneath the opening, which they take to be a representation of the mythical hero Rostam. It may be inferred from the sculptures that the occupants of these seven tombs were kings. An inscription on one of the tombs declares it to be that of Darius I, concerning whom Ctesias relates that his grave was in the face of a rock, and could only be reached by the use of ropes. Ctesias mentions further, with regard to a number of Persian kings, either that their remains were brought "to the Persians," or that they died there. A bas-relief at Persepolis, representing a symbol in Zoroastrianism for Nowruz.[1] A bas-relief from the Apadana depicting Delegations including Lydians and Armenians[2] bringing their famous wine to the king. Achaemenid plaque from Persepolis, kept at the National Museum, Tehran. Relief of a Median man at Persepolis. Objects from Persepolis kept at the National Museum, Tehran. Gate of All Nations[edit] Main article: Gate of All Nations The Gate of All Nations, referring to subjects of the empire, consisted of a grand hall that was a square of approximately 25 metres (82 ft) in length, with four columns and its entrance on the Western Wall. There were two more doors, one to the south which opened to the Apadana yard and the other opened onto a long road to the east. Pivoting devices found on the inner corners of all the doors indicate that they were two-leafed doors, probably made of wood and covered with sheets of ornate metal. A pair of lamassus, bulls with the heads of bearded men, stand by the western threshold. Another pair, with wings and a Persian Head (Gopät-Shäh), stands by the eastern entrance, to reflect the power of the empire. The name of Xerxes I was written in three languages and carved on the entrances, informing everyone that he ordered it to be built. A lamassu at the Gate of All Nations. Ruins of the Gate of All Nations, Persepolis. The Great Double Staircase at Persepolis. Bas-relief on the staircase of the palace. The Apadana Palace[edit] Main article: Apadana Statue of a Persian Mastiff found at the Apadana, kept at the National Museum, Tehran. Darius I built the greatest palace at Persepolis on the western side of platform. This palace was called the Apadana.[36] The King of Kings used it for official audiences. The work began in 518 BC, and his son, Xerxes I, completed it 30 years later. The palace had a grand hall in the shape of a square, each side 60 metres (200 ft) long with seventy-two columns, thirteen of which still stand on the enormous platform. Each column is 19 metres (62 ft) high with a square Taurus (bull) and plinth. The columns carried the weight of the vast and heavy ceiling. The tops of the columns were made from animal sculptures such as two-headed lions, eagles, human beings and cows (cows were symbols of fertility and abundance in ancient Iran). The columns were joined to each other with the help of oak and cedar beams, which were brought from Lebanon. The walls were covered with a layer of mud and stucco to a depth of 5 cm, which was used for bonding, and then covered with the greenish stucco which is found throughout the palaces. Foundation tablets of gold and silver were found in two deposition boxes in the foundations of the Palace. They contained an inscription by Darius in Old Persian cuneiform, which describes the extent of his Empire in broad geographical terms, and is known as the DPh inscription:[37][38] Gold foundation tablets of Darius I for the Apadana Palace, in their original stone box. The Apadana coin hoard had been deposited underneath. Circa 510 BC. One of the two gold deposition plates. Two more were in silver. They all had the same trilingual inscription (DPh inscription).[39] Darius the great king, king of kings, king of countries, son of Hystaspes, an Achaemenid. King Darius says: This is the kingdom which I hold, from the Sacae who are beyond Sogdia, to Kush, and from Sind (Old Persian: 𐏃𐎡𐎭𐎢𐎺, "Hidauv", locative of "Hiduš", i.e. "Indus valley") to Lydia (Old Persian: "Spardâ") – [this is] what Ahuramazda, the greatest of gods, bestowed upon me. May Ahuramazda protect me and my royal house! — DPh inscription of Darius I in the foundations of the Apadana Palace[40] At the western, northern and eastern sides of the palace, there were three rectangular porticos each of which had twelve columns in two rows of six. At the south of the grand hall, a series of rooms were built for storage. Two grand Persepolitan stairways were built, symmetrical to each other and connected to the stone foundations. To protect the roof from erosion, vertical drains were built through the brick walls. In the four corners of Apadana, facing outwards, four towers were built. The walls were tiled and decorated with pictures of lions, bulls, and flowers. Darius ordered his name and the details of his empire to be written in gold and silver on plates, which were placed in covered stone boxes in the foundations under the Four Corners of the palace. Two Persepolitan style symmetrical stairways were built on the northern and eastern sides of Apadana to compensate for a difference in level. Two other stairways stood in the middle of the building. The external front views of the palace were embossed with carvings of the Immortals, the Kings' elite guards. The northern stairway was completed during the reign of Darius I, but the other stairway was completed much later. The reliefs on the staircases allow one to observe the people from across the empire in their traditional dress, and even the king himself, "down to the smallest detail".[41] Ruins of the Apadana, Persepolis. Depiction of united Medes and Persians at the Apadana, Persepolis. Ruins of the Apadana's columns. Depiction of trees and lotus flowers at the Apadana, Persepolis. Depiction of figures at the Apadana. Apadana Palace coin hoard[edit] Apadana hoard Gold Croeseid minted in the time of Darius, of the type of the eight Croeseids found in the Apadana hoard, c. 545–520 BC. Light series: 8.07 grams, Sardis mint. Type of the Aegina stater found in the Apadana hoard, 550–530 BC. Obv: Sea turtle with large pellets down centre. Rev: incuse square punch with eight sections.[37] Type of the Abdera coin found in the Apadana hoard, c. 540/35–520/15 BC. Obv: Griffin seated left, raising paw. Rev: Quadripartite incuse square.[37] Main articles: Apadana hoard and Achaemenid coinage The Apadana hoard is a hoard of coins that were discovered under the stone boxes containing the foundation tablets of the Apadana Palace in Persepolis.[37] The coins were discovered in excavations in 1933 by Erich Schmidt, in two deposits, each deposit under the two deposition boxes that were found. The deposition of this hoard is dated to c. 515 BC.[37] The coins consisted in eight gold lightweight Croeseids, a tetradrachm of Abdera, a stater of Aegina and three double-sigloi from Cyprus.[37] The Croeseids were found in very fresh condition, confirming that they had been recently minted under Achaemenid rule.[42] The deposit did not have any Darics and Sigloi, which also suggests strongly that these coins typical of Achaemenid coinage only started to be minted later, after the foundation of the Apadana Palace.[42] The Throne Hall[edit] Column base from the Throne Hall in the British Museum Next to the Apadana, second largest building of the Terrace and the final edifices, is the Throne Hall or the Imperial Army's Hall of Honor (also called the Hundred-Columns Palace). This 70x70 square meter hall was started by Xerxes I and completed by his son Artaxerxes I by the end of the fifth century BC. Its eight stone doorways are decorated on the south and north with reliefs of throne scenes and on the east and west with scenes depicting the king in combat with monsters. Two colossal stone bulls flank the northern portico. The head of one of the bulls now resides in the Oriental Institute in Chicago [43] and a column base from one of the columns in the British Museum.[44] At the beginning of the reign of Xerxes I, the Throne Hall was used mainly for receptions for military commanders and representatives of all the subject nations of the empire. Later, the Throne Hall served as an imperial museum. Other palaces and structures[edit] Other palaces included the Tachara, which was built under Darius I, and the Imperial treasury, which was started by Darius I in 510 BC and finished by Xerxes I in 480 BC. The Hadish Palace of Xerxes I occupies the highest level of terrace and stands on the living rock. The Council Hall, the Tryplion Hall, the Palaces of D, G, H, storerooms, stables and quarters, the unfinished gateway and a few miscellaneous structures at Persepolis are located near the south-east corner of the terrace, at the foot of the mountain. Ruins of the Tachara, Persepolis. Huma bird capital at Persepolis. Bull capital at Persepolis. Ruins of the Hall of the Hundred Columns, Persepolis. Tombs[edit] Tomb of Artaxerxes II, Persepolis. It is commonly accepted that Cyrus the Great was buried in Pasargadae, which is mentioned by Ctesias as his own city. If it is true that the body of Cambyses II was brought home "to the Persians," his burying place must be somewhere beside that of his father. Ctesias assumes that it was the custom for a king to prepare his own tomb during his lifetime. Hence, the kings buried at Naghsh-e Rostam are probably Darius I, Xerxes I, Artaxerxes I and Darius II. Xerxes II, who reigned for a very short time, could scarcely have obtained so splendid a monument, and still less could the usurper Sogdianus. The two completed graves behind the compound at Persepolis would then belong to Artaxerxes II and Artaxerxes III. The unfinished tomb, a kilometer away from the city, is debated to who it belongs.[45] It is perhaps that of Artaxerxes IV, who reigned at the longest two years, or, if not his, then that of Darius III (Codomannus), who is one of those whose bodies are said to have been brought "to the Persians." Since Alexander the Great is said to have buried Darius III at Persepolis, then it is likely the unfinished tomb is his. Another small group of ruins in the same style is found at the village of Haji Abad, on the Pulvar River, a good hour's walk above Persepolis. These formed a single building, which was still intact 900 years ago, and was used as the mosque of the then-existing city of Estakhr. Ancient texts[edit] Babylonian version of an inscription of Xerxes I, the "XPc inscription".[46][8] The relevant passages from ancient scholars on the subject are set out below: (Diod. 17.70.1–73.2) 17.70 (1) Persepolis was the capital of the Persian kingdom. Alexander described it to the Macedonians as the most hateful of the cities of Asia, and gave it over to his soldiers to plunder, all but the palaces. (2) It was the richest city under the sun, and the private houses had been furnished with every sort of wealth over the years. The Macedonians raced into it, slaughtering all the men whom they met and plundering the residences; many of the houses belonged to the common people and were abundantly supplied with furniture and wearing apparel of every kind.... 72 (1) Alexander held games in honor of his victories. He performed costly sacrifices to the gods and entertained his friends bountifully. While they were feasting and the drinking was far advanced, as they began to be drunken, a madness took possession of the minds of the intoxicated guests. (2) At this point, one of the women present, Thais by name and Attic by origin, said that for Alexander it would be the finest of all his feats in Asia if he joined them in a triumphal procession, set fire to the palaces, and permitted women's hands in a minute to extinguish the famed accomplishments of the Persians. (3) This was said to men who were still young and giddy with wine, and so, as would be expected, someone shouted out to form up and to light torches, and urged all to take vengeance for the destruction of the Greek temples. (4) Others took up the cry and said that this was a deed worthy of Alexander alone. When the king had caught fire at their words, all leaped up from their couches and passed the word along to form a victory procession [epinikion komon] in honor of Dionysius. (5) Promptly, many torches were gathered. Female musicians were present at the banquet, so the king led them all out for the komos to the sound of voices and flutes and pipes, Thais the courtesan leading the whole performance. (6) She was the first, after the king, to hurl her blazing torch into the palace. As the others all did the same, immediately the entire palace area was consumed, so great was the conflagration. It was most remarkable that the impious act of Xerxes, king of the Persians, against the acropolis at Athens should have been repaid in kind after many years by one woman, a citizen of the land which had suffered it, and in sport. (Curt. 5.6.1–7.12) 5.6 (1) On the following day, the king called together the leaders of his forces and informed them that "no city was more mischievous to the Greeks than the seat of the ancient kings of Persia . . . by its destruction they ought to offer sacrifice to the spirits of their forefathers."... 7 (1) But Alexander's great mental endowments, that noble disposition, in which he surpassed all kings, that intrepidity in encountering dangers, his promptness in forming and carrying out plans, his good faith towards those who submitted to him, merciful treatment of his prisoners, temperance even in lawful and usual pleasures, were sullied by an excessive love of wine. (2) At the very time when his enemy and his rival for a throne was preparing to renew the war, when those whom he had conquered were but lately subdued and were hostile to the new rule, he took part in prolonged banquets at which women were present, not indeed those whom it would be a crime to violate, but, to be sure, harlots who were accustomed to live with armed men with more licence than was fitting. (3) One of these, Thais by name, herself also drunken, declared that the king would win most favor among all the Greeks, if he should order the palace of the Persians to be set on fire; that this was expected by those whose cities the barbarians had destroyed. (4) When a drunken strumpet had given her opinion on a matter of such moment, one or two, themselves also loaded with wine, agreed. The king, too, more greedy for wine than able to carry it, cried: "Why do we not, then, avenge Greece and apply torches to the city?" (5) All had become heated with wine, and so they arose when drunk to fire the city which they had spared when armed. The king was the first to throw a firebrand upon the palace, then the guests and the servants and courtesans. The palace had been built largely of cedar, which quickly took fire and spread the conflagration widely. (6) When the army, which was encamped not far from the city, saw the fire, thinking it accidental, they rushed to bear aid. (7) But when they came to the vestibule of the palace, they saw the king himself piling on firebrands. Therefore, they left the water which they had brought, and they too began to throw dry wood upon the burning building. (8) Such was the end of the capital of the entire Orient... . (10) The Macedonians were ashamed that so renowned a city had been destroyed by their king in a drunken revel; therefore the act was taken as earnest, and they forced themselves to believe that it was right that it should be wiped out in exactly that manner. (Cleitarchus, FGrHist. 137, F. 11 (= Athenaeus 13. 576d-e)) And did not Alexander the Great have with him Thais, the Athenian hetaira? Cleitarchus speaks of her as having been the cause for the burning of the palace at Persepolis. After Alexander's death, this same Thais was married to Ptolemy, the first king of Egypt. There is, however, one formidable difficulty. Diodorus Siculus says that the rock at the back of the palace containing the royal sepulchers is so steep that the bodies could be raised to their last resting-place only by mechanical appliances. This is not true of the graves behind the compound, to which, as F. Stolze expressly observes, one can easily ride up. On the other hand, it is strictly true of the graves at Naqsh-e Rustam. Stolze accordingly started the theory that the royal castle of Persepolis stood close by Naqsh-e Rustam, and has sunk in course of time to shapeless heaps of earth, under which the remains may be concealed. Modern events[edit] 2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire[edit] In 1971, Persepolis was the main staging ground for the 2,500 Year Celebration of the Persian Empire under the reign of the Pahlavi dynasty. It included delegations from foreign nations in an attempt to advance the Iranian culture and history. Abdolreza Ansari was in charge of delivering on the project after Mr Amir Homayoun Boushehri, a prominent government official who had been the Minister of Roads and Government spokesman under the former Prime Minister, Dr Mohammad Mossadeq, fell ill with cancer and underwent treatment in Europe. The controversy of the Sivand Dam[edit] Construction of the Sivand Dam, named after the nearby town of Sivand, began on 19 September 2006. Despite 10 years of planning, Iran's Cultural Heritage Organization was not aware of the broad areas of flooding during much of this time,[47] and there is growing concern about the effects the dam will have on the surrounding areas of Persepolis. Many archaeologists[who?] worry that the dam's placement between the ruins of Pasargadae and Persepolis will flood both. Engineers involved with the construction deny this claim, stating that it is impossible, because both sites sit well above the planned waterline. Of the two sites, Pasargadae is considered the more threatened. Archaeologists are also concerned that an increase in humidity caused by the lake will speed Pasargadae's gradual destruction. However, experts from the Ministry of Energy believe this would be negated by controlling the water level of the dam reservoir. Museums (outside Iran) that display material from Persepolis[edit] One bas-relief from Persepolis is in the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge, England.[48] The largest collection of reliefs is at the British Museum, sourced from multiple British travellers who worked in Iran in the nineteenth century.[49] The Persepolis bull at the Oriental Institute is one of the university's most prized treasures, part of the division of finds from the excavations of the 1930s. New York City's Metropolitan Museum houses objects from Persepolis,[50] as does the Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology of the University of Pennsylvania.[51] The Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon[52] and the Louvre of Paris hold objects from Persepolis as well. A bas-relief of a soldier that had been looted from the excavations in 1935–36 and later purchased by the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts was repatriated to Iran in 2018, after being offered for sale in London and New York.[53] Forgotten Empire Exhibition, the British Museum. Forgotten Empire Exhibition, the British Museum. Persepolitan rosette rock relief, kept at the Oriental Institute. Achaemenid objects at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, including a bas relief from Persepolis. General views[edit] A general view of the ruins at Persepolis. A general view of the ruins at Persepolis. A general view of the ruins at Persepolis. A general view of the ruins at Persepolis. See also[edit] Iran portal Persepolis F.C. Palace of Darius in Susa, similar structure built at the same time Achaemenid architecture Naqsh-e Rustam Pasargadae Behistun Inscription Istakhr Qadamgah (ancient site) Cities of the Ancient Near East Persepolis (comics) Tachara Notes[edit] 1.^ Eternally fighting bull (personifying the moon), and a lion (personifying the sun) representing the spring. 2.^ Known as XPc (Xerxes Persepolis c), from the portico of the Tachara. References[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Persepolis". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ^ Google maps. "Location of Persepolis". Google Maps. Retrieved 24 September 2013. ^ UNESCO World Heritage Centre (2006). "Pasargadae". Retrieved 26 December 2010. ^ Mousavi, Ali, Persepolis: Discovery and Afterlife of a World Wonder, p. 53, 2012, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-1614510338, Google Books ^ Bailey, H.W. (1996) "Khotanese Saka Literature", in Ehsan Yarshater (ed), The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods, Part 2 (reprint edition), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 1230. ^ a b Michael Woods, Mary B. Woods (2008). Seven Wonders of the Ancient Middle East. Twenty-First Century Books. pp. 26–28. ISBN 978-0822575733. Persepolis means. ^ a b Shahbazi, A. Shapur; Bosworth, C. Edmund (1990). "Capital Cities– Encyclopaedia Iranica". Encyclopædia Iranica. IV. pp. 768–774. ^ Holland, Tom (2012). In the Shadow of the Sword. Little, Brown. pp. 118–122. ISBN 978-1408700075. ^ Perrot, Jean (2013). The Palace of Darius at Susa: The Great Royal Residence of Achaemenid Persia. I.B.Tauris. p. 423. ISBN 978-1848856219. ^ Garthwaite, Gene R. (2008). The Persians. John Wiley & Sons. p. 50. ISBN 978-1405144001. ^ 2002. Guaitoli. M.T., & Rambaldi, S. Lost Cities from the Ancient World. White Star, spa. (2006 version published by Barnes & Noble. Darius I founded Persepolis in 500 BC as the residence and ceremonial center of his dynasty. p. 164 ^ "Persepolis". Encyclopedia Britannica. ^ "Persepolis". toiran.com. Archived from the original on 5 February 2015. Retrieved 2 January 2015. ^ a b Sachau, C. Edward (2004). The Chronology of Ancient Nations. Kessinger Publishing. p. 484. ISBN 978-0-7661-8908-9. p. 127 ^ Mark, Joshua J. "Alexander the Great & the Burning of Persepolis", 2018, www.ancient.eu ^ Anonimo (1974). Al-Beruni and Persepolis. Acta Iranica. 1. Leiden: Peeters Publishers. pp. 137–150. ISBN 978-90-04-03900-1. ^ Wiesehöfer 10-11. ^ Henkelman 2008:Ch 2. ^ "Persepolis". Wondermondo. 13 February 2012. ^ Mousavi, Ali (2012). Persepolis: Discovery and Afterlife of a World Wonder. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-1614510338. ^ Murray, Hugh (1820). Historical account of discoveries and travels in Asia. Edinburgh: A. Constable and Co. p. 15. ^ "Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the English Nation, by Richard Hakluyt : chapter11". ebooks.adelaide.edu.au. Retrieved 3 July 2019. ^ Tuplin, Christopher (2007). Persian Responses: Political and Cultural Interaction with(in) the Achaemenid Empire. ISD LLC. ISBN 978-1910589465. ^ Gouveia, António de (1611). Relaçam em que se tratam as Guerras e Grandes Victorias que alcançou o grande Rei da Persia Xá Abbas do grão Turco Mahometto, e seu filho Amethe: as quais resultaram das Embaixadas, que por mando da Catholica e Real Magestade del Rei D. Felippe segundo de Portugal fizeram alguns Religiosos da ordem dos Ermitas de S. Augustinho à Persia. Lisboa: Pedro Crasbeeck. pp. 31–32. ^ C. Wade Meade (1974). Road to Babylon: Development of U.S. Assyriology. Brill Archive. pp. 5–7. ISBN 978-9004038585. ^ M. H. Aminisam (2007). تخت جمشيد (Persepolis). AuthorHouse. pp. 79–81. ISBN 978-1463462529. ^ Ali Mousavi (2012). Persepolis: Discovery and Afterlife of a World Wonder. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 104–107. ISBN 978-1614510284. ^ a b Ali Mousavi, Persepolis in Retrospect: Histories of Discovery and Archaeological Exploration at the ruins of ancient Passch, Ars Orientalis, vol. 32, pp. 209–251, 2002 ^ "Godard, André – Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 3 July 2019. ^ [3] Ernst E Herzfeld, A New Inscription of Xerxes from Persepolis, Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization, vol. 5, 1932 ^ [4] Erich F Schmidt, Persepolis I: Structures, Reliefs, Inscriptions, Oriental Institute Publications, vol. 68, 1953 ^ [5] Erich F Schmidt, Persepolis II: Contents of the Treasury and Other Discoveries, Oriental Institute Publications, vol. 69, 1957 ^ [6] Erich F Schmidt, Persepolis III: The Royal Tombs and Other Monuments, Oriental Institute Publications, vol. 70, 1970 ^ [7] Erich F Schmidt, The Treasury of Persepolis and Other Discoveries in the Homeland of the Achaemenians, Oriental Institute Communications, vol. 21, 1939 ^ Roaf, Michael; Boardman, John (1980). "A Greek painting at Persepolis". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 100: 204–206. doi:10.2307/630751. JSTOR 630751. ^ Pierre Briant (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. pp. 256–258. ISBN 978-1575061207. ^ Penelope Hobhouse (2004). The Gardens of Persia. Kales Press. pp. 177–178. ISBN 978-0967007663. ^ a b c d e f Zournatzi, Antigoni (2003). "The Apadana Coin Hoards, Darius I, and the West". American Journal of Numismatics (1989-). 15: 1–28. JSTOR 43580364. ^ Persepolis : discovery and afterlife of a world wonder. 2012. pp. 171–181. ^ DPh - Livius. ^ DPh inscription, also Photographs of one of the gold plaques ^ Garthwaite, Gene R. (2008). The Persians. John Wiley & Sons. p. 50. ISBN 978-1405144001. ^ a b Fisher, William Bayne; Gershevitch, I.; Boyle, John Andrew; Yarshater, Ehsan; Frye, Richard Nelson (1968). The Cambridge History of Iran. Cambridge University Press. p. 617. ISBN 978-0521200912. ^ "Oriental Institute Highlights". Oi.uchicago.edu. 19 February 2007. Retrieved 30 December 2012. ^ British Museum collection ^ Potts, Daniel T (2012). A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East. ISBN 978-1405189880. ^ "XPc – Livius". www.livius.org. ^ Vidal, John (23 December 2004). "Dam is threat to Iran's heritage". The Guardian. Retrieved 10 June 2018. ^ A Persepolis Relief in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. Richard Nicholls and Michael Roaf. Iran, Vol. 15, (1977), pp. 146–152. Published by: British Institute of Persian Studies. ^ Allen, Lindsay (1 January 2013). ""Come Then Ye Classic Thieves of Each Degree": The Social Context of the Persepolis Diaspora in the Early Nineteenth Century". Iran. 51 (1): 207–234. doi:10.1080/05786967.2013.11834730. ISSN 0578-6967. S2CID 193984848. ^ Harper, Prudence O., Barbara A. Porter, Oscar White Muscarella, Holly Pittman, and Ira Spar. "Ancient Near Eastern Art." The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, v. 41, no. 4 (Spring, 1984). ^ "Relief – B10301 | Collections – Penn Museum". www.penn.museum. ^ "Découvrir les collections | Musée des Beaux Arts". www.mba-lyon.fr. ^ Mashberg, Tom (23 July 2018). "Judge Orders Return of Ancient Limestone Relief to Iran". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 3 July 2019. Further reading[edit] Curtis, J. and Tallis, N. (eds). (2005). Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-24731-0. Wilber, Donald Newton. (1989). Persepolis: The Archaeology of Parsa, Seat of the Persian Kings. Darwin Press. Revised edition ISBN 0-87850-062-6. 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en-wikipedia-org-1041	----	Shoshenq V - Wikipedia Shoshenq V From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Shoshenq V In the background, Shoshenq V standing in front of an Apis bull on a stela of his Year 37. Pharaoh Reign c. 767–730 BC (22nd Dynasty) Predecessor Pami Successor Osorkon IV or Pedubast II Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Aakheperre ˁȝ-ḫpr-Rˁ Great is the Soul of Ra[1] Nomen Shoshenq ššnq Horus name Woserpehty wsr-pḥty Great of Strength[2]:309 Nebty name Woserpehty wsr-pḥty Golden Horus Woserpehty wsr-pḥty Consort Tadibast III? Children Osorkon IV? or Pedubast II? Father Pami Died c. 730 BC Aakheperre Shoshenq V was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the late 22nd Dynasty. Despite having enjoyed one of the longest reigns of the entire dynasty – 38 years – and having left a fair amount of attestations, little is known about Shoshenq's life. His realm underwent an unstoppable shrinking due to the progressive increase of independence of various tribal chiefs, princes and concurrent kings, above all the pharaoh–to–be Tefnakht. Contents 1 Reign 1.1 Overview 1.2 Attestations 1.3 Death and succession 2 References Reign[edit] Overview[edit] The political situation in Egypt around 730 BC; at the end of his reign, Shoshenq V ruled above the North-Eastern territories coloured in grey According to a Serapeum stela dated to his Year 11, Shoshenq was son and successor of Pami.[2]:84–5 He ascended to the throne in ca. 767 BC[2]:Tab.3 and, despite little information about his life, he is well attested by several monuments, dated and not. However, the provenance of such findings is limited to the Eastern Nile Delta – in fact the territory under his authority – and noticeably, he is completely unrecorded in Thebes.[2]:103 Furthermore, it looks that during Shoshenq's reign his lordship above the city of Memphis and the westernmost part of his realms phased out for the benefit of the Libyan chiefs of the Western Delta such as Osorkon C and, ultimately, Tefnakht of Sais.[2]:311;316[3]:571–2 At the end of his long reign – most likely lasting 38 years – Shoshenq ruled little more than the districts of Tanis and Bubastis.[2]:92 Before the discovery of the proper Shoshenq IV, Shoshenq V was often referred to with the "IV" numeral (for example:[4][5]). Attestations[edit] Shoshenq's Year 11 is recorded at Memphis, commemorating the death, burial and replacement of the Apis bull which was installed in the Year 2 of Pami. Shoshenq is also attested in his years 7[6][7] and 15[7] (or 17),[8] 19,[9] 30,[10] and 37[2]:Tab.21A by donation stelae of different Great Chiefs of the Libu, named Tjerpahati, Ker, Rudamun and Ankhhor respectively. Then, his name appears again on a stela from Atfih, dedicated to the goddess Hathor in Shoshenq's Year 22.[5][2]:310–1;521 At Tanis, he ordered a temple for the Theban Triad, with particular emphasis on the god Khonsu. Probably in his Year 30, he also celebrated his Sed festival by adding a jubilee chapel to the aforementioned temple.[2]:315;396[3]:569[11] These buildings were later dismantled and a sacred lake was made in their place. Yet, from the remains of the buildings, it is known that Shoshenq celebrated the festival by adopting brand-new Horus, Nebty and Golden Horus names, and by adding complements to his Throne and personal names, in sharp contrast with the plain and simple titulary used in most of his monuments (the one reported in the box[12]) which was possibly a form of archaism. Undated monuments of Shoshenq V were unearthed at Tell el-Yahudiyeh.[2]:309;315 In Year 37 of Shoshenq, the Apis bull installed in his Year 11 died and was buried. The event is commemorated on several Serapeum stelae, the most famous among these being the Stela of Pasenhor, which also provided a valuable genealogy of the early 22nd Dynasty and its Libyan origin.[2]:84–5[3]:569 This bull eventually outlived Shoshenq, dying in Year 5 of pharaoh Bakenranef of the 24th Dynasty.[2]:147 Shoshenq V's highest Year date is an anonymous Year 38 donation stela from Buto issued by Tefnakht (here boasting several titles, but not yet a pharaoh) which can only belong to his reign since Tefnakht was a late contemporary of this king. This stela, which reads simply as "Regnal Year 38 under the Majesty of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Lord of the Two Lands, [BLANK], Son of Re, [BLANK]," may reflect the growing power of Tefnakht in the Western Delta at the expense of Shoshenq V whose name is omitted from the document. The same argument can be applied to a similar stela, again issued by Tefnakht but in an anonymous Year 36 which again can only belong to Shoshenq's reign.[2]:84;112;316 Death and succession[edit] Shoshenq V died probably in 730 BC. Besides his father Pami, his family relationships are not entirely clear, but it is often assumed that his successor was Osorkon IV who also may have been his son.[11] It is known that Osorkon's mother was queen Tadibast III; thus, she was possibly Shoshenq's queen.[13] However, this reconstruction is complicated by the presence of the poorly known pharaoh Pedubast II who is sometimes placed as Shoshenq's successor.[14] References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Shoshenq V. ^ Clayton, Peter (1994). Chronicle of the Pharaohs. Thames & Hudson Ltd., p. 185 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Kitchen, Kenneth A. (1996). The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100–650 BC). Warminster: Aris & Phillips Limited. ISBN 0-85668-298-5. ^ a b c Edwards, I.E.S. (1982). "Egypt: from the Twenty-second to the Twenty-fourth Dynasty". In Edwards, I.E.S. (ed.). The Cambridge Ancient History (2nd ed.), vol. III, part 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 534–580. ISBN 0 521 22496 9. ^ Gardiner, Alan (1961). Egypt of the Pharaohs: an introduction. Oxford University Press., p. 326 ^ a b Peet, T.E. (1920). "A Stela of the Reign of Sheshonk IV". Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 6: 56–57. ^ Spiegelberg, Wilhelm (1920). "Neue Schenkungsstelen uber Landstiftungen an Tempel". Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde. 56., pp 57–58 ^ a b Jansen-Winkeln, Karl (2014). "Die "Großfürsten der Libu" im westlichen Delta in der späten 22. Dynastie". Journal of Egyptian History. 7: 194–202. ^ Brooklyn Museum 67.119 ^ Müller, Wilhelm Max (1906). Egyptological Researches, vol. I. Carnegie Institution of Washington., pl. 88 ^ Berlandini, Jocelyne (1978). "Une stèlae de donation du dynaste libyen Roudamon". BIFAO. 78: 147–153. ^ a b Grimal, Nicolas (1992). A History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Blackwell Books. p. 512. ISBN 9780631174721., pp. 330-331 ^ von Beckerath, Jürgen (1999). Handbuch der Ägyptischen Königsnamen. Mainz. ISBN 3 8053 2591 6., pp. 190-191 ^ Berlandini, Jocelyne (1979). "Petits monuments royaux de la XXIe à la XXVe dynastie". Hommages à la mémoire de Serge Sauneron, vol. I, Egypte pharaonique. Cairo, Imprimerie de l'Institut d'Archeologie Orientale. pp. 89–114., pp. 100-101 ^ von Beckerath, Jürgen (1997). Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens. Mainz am Rhein: Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46., p. 99 Preceded by Pami Pharaoh of Egypt 767 – 730 BC Twenty-second dynasty of Egypt Succeeded by Osorkon IV or Pedubast II v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shoshenq_V&oldid=991911551" Categories: 8th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt 8th century BC in Egypt 730s BC deaths Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us 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en-wikipedia-org-1044	----	Ramesses IX - Wikipedia Ramesses IX From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ramesses IX Also written Ramses and Rameses Portrait of Ramesses IX from his tomb KV6. Pharaoh Reign 1129–1111 BC (20th Dynasty) Predecessor Ramesses VIII Successor Ramesses X Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Neferkare Setepenre Nfr-k3-Rˁ-stp-n-Rˁ Perfect is the Ka of Ra, the chosen one of Ra Nomen Ramesses Khaemwaset Mereramun Rˁ msj sw ḫˁj m W3s.t mrr Jmn Ra fashioned him, he appears in Waset, beloved of Amun Horus name Kanakht Khaemwaset K3-nḫt-ḫˁ-m-W3s.t Strong bull, he who appears (is enthroned) in Waset Hieroglyphic variant: Nebty name Userkhepesh Sankhtawy Wsr-ḫpš-sˁnḫ-t3.wj He whose blow is powerful, he invigorates the two lands Hieroglyphic variant: Golden Horus Userrenputmiredjet Wsr-rnp.wt-mj-Rˁ-ḏt He who is long-lived litt. rich in years like Ra, forever Variant: wsr-rnpwt mi-ˁnḏti wr-nsyt dr-pḏt-9 He who is long-lived litt. rich in years like Andjety, his kingdom is greater than the nine bows (the ennemies of Egypt) Consort Baketwernel Children Ramesses X?, Montuherkhepeshef, Nebmaatre Father probably Montuherkhopshef Mother probably Takhat Died 1111 BC Burial KV6 Neferkare Ramesses IX (also written Ramses) (originally named Amon-her-khepshef Khaemwaset) (ruled 1129–1111 BC)[1] was the eighth pharaoh of the Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt. He was the third longest serving king of this Dynasty after Ramesses III and Ramesses XI. He is now believed to have assumed the throne on I Akhet day 21 based on evidence presented by Jürgen von Beckerath in a 1984 GM article.[2][3] According to Papyrus Turin 1932+1939, Ramesses IX enjoyed a reign of 18 years and 4 months and died in his 19th Year in the first month of Peret between day 17 and 27.[4] His throne name, Neferkare Setepenre, means "Beautiful Is The Soul of Re, Chosen of Re."[5] Ramesses IX is believed to be the son of Mentuherkhepeshef, a son of Ramesses III since Montuherkhopshef's wife, the lady Takhat bears the prominent title of King's Mother on the walls of tomb KV10 which she usurped and reused in the late 20th Dynasty; no other 20th Dynasty king is known to have had a mother with this name.[6] Ramesses IX was, therefore, probably a grandson of Ramesses III.[7] Contents 1 Tomb robberies 2 Projects 3 Family 4 Burial and rediscovery 5 In modern literature 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links Tomb robberies[edit] Relief of Ramesses IX at Karnak His reign is best known for the year 16 and year 17 tomb robbery trials, recorded in the Abbott Papyrus, the Leopold II-Amherst Papyrus, Papyrus BM 10054 and on the recto of both Papyrus BM 10053 and Papyrus BM 10068. It has been suggested that the undated Papyrus Mayer B, dealing with the plundering of the tomb of Ramesses VI[8] may also stem from his reign but, so far, this remains conjecture.[9] During these trials it became clear that several royal and noble tombs in the Western Theban Necropolis had been robbed, including that of a 17th Dynasty king, Sobekemsaf II. Paser, Mayor of Eastern Thebes or Karnak, accused his subordinate Paweraa, the Mayor of West Thebes responsible for the safety of the necropolis, of being either culpable in this wave of robberies or negligent in his duties of protecting the Valley of the Kings from incursions by tomb robbers. Paweraa played a leading part in the vizierial commission set up to investigate, and, not surprisingly, it proved impossible for Paweraa to be officially charged with any crime due to the circumstantiality of the evidence. Paser disappeared from sight soon after the report was filed.[10] Projects[edit] Interior of Ramesses IX's KV6 royal tomb In the sixth year of his reign, he inscribed his titulature in the Lower Nubian town of Amara West.[11] Most of his building works centre on the sun temple centre of Heliopolis in Lower Egypt where the most significant monumental works of his reign are located.[12] However, he also decorated the wall to the north of the Seventh Pylon in the Temple of Amun-Re at Karnak.[13] Finally, his name has been found at the Dakhla Oasis in Western Egypt and Gezer at Canaan which may suggest a residual Egyptian influence in Asia; the majority of the New Kingdom Empire's possessions in Canaan and Syria had long been lost to the Sea Peoples by his reign. He is also known for having honoured his predecessors Ramesses II, Ramesses III and Ramesses VII. He also paid close attention to Lower Egypt and built a substantial monument at Heliopolis. Family[edit] Relief of the pharaoh Ramesses IX from the Metropolitan Museum of Art Ramesses IX is known to have had two sons: at Heliopolis, "a gateway was reinscribed with texts including the king's names and also those of the prince and High Priest Nebmaatre, who was fairly certainly his son."[14] Ramesses IX's second son, Montuherkhopshef C, perhaps this king's intended heir, who did not live long enough to succeed his father, took over the former KV19 tomb of Sethirkhepsef B in the Valley of the Kings.[15] The throne was instead assumed by Ramesses X whose precise relationship to Ramesses IX is unclear. Ramesses X might have been Ramesses IX's son, but this assumption remains unproven. Tomb KV19, which was one of the most beautifully decorated tombs in the royal valley, had been abandoned by Sethirkhepsef B when the latter assumed the throne as king Ramesses VIII and one of prince Montuherkhopshef's depictions there "bears the prenomen cartouche to Ramesses IX on its belt" thereby establishing the identity of this prince's father.[16] The tomb of Ramesses IX, KV6, has been open since antiquity, as is evidenced by the presence of Roman and Greek graffiti on the tomb walls. It is quite long in the tradition of the 'syringe' tunnels of the later 19th and 20th Dynasties and lies directly opposite the tomb of Ramesses II in the Valley of the Kings; this fact may have influenced Ramesses IX's choice of location for his final resting place due to its proximity to this great Pharaoh.[17] While Ramesses IX's chief queen is not precisely identified in surviving Egyptian inscriptions, she was most likely Baketwernel.[18] Burial and rediscovery[edit] In 1881, the mummy of Ramesses IX (nr. 5209) was found in the Deir el-Bahri cache (DB320) within one of the two coffins of Neskhons—wife of the Theban High Priest Pinedjem II.[19] This pharaoh's mummy was not apparently examined by Grafton Elliot Smith and not included in his 1912 catalogue of the Royal Mummies.[20] When the mummy was unwrapped by Maspero, a bandage was found from a year 5, mentioning the lady Neskhons, most probably from the reign of king Siamun. A further strip of linen from a year 7 identified the mummy as "Ra Khaemwaset" which can be taken as a reference to either Ramesses Khaemwaset Meryamun (IX) or Ramesses Khaemwaset Meryamun Neterheqainu (XI).[21] But since an ivory box of Neferkare Ramesses IX was found in the royal cache itself, and Ramesses XI was probably never buried at Thebes but rather in Lower Egypt, "the [royal] mummy is most likely to be that of Ramesses IX himself."[22] It is estimated that the king was about 50 years old when he died (but it is extremely difficult to correctly establish the age of mummies) and his mummy was found to have broken limbs, a broken neck and damage to its nose, which is missing.[23] In modern literature[edit] The novel Ancient Evenings by Norman Mailer is told from the perspective of characters living during the reign of Ramesses IX, including Ramesses IX himself. See also[edit] Ramesses IX Tomb-plan Ostracon References[edit] ^ R. Krauss & D.A. Warburton "Chronological Table for the Dynastic Period" in Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss & David Warburton (editors), Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies), Brill, 2006. p.493 ^ J. von Beckerath, Drei Thronbesteigungsdaten der XX. Dynastie, (Three accession dates of the 20th Dynasty), Göttinger Miszellen 79 (1984), pp.7-9 Beckerath's article discusses the accession dates of Ramesses VI, IX and X ^ Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss & David Warburton (editors), Handbook of Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies), Brill: 2006, p.216 ^ E.F. Wente & C.C. Van Siclen, "A Chronology of the New Kingdom" in Studies in Honor of George R. Hughes, (SAOC 39) 1976, pp.235 & 261 ^ Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames & Hudson Ltd., 2006 paperback, p.167 ^ Nos ancêtres de l'Antiquité, 1991, Christian Settipani, p.153, 169, 173 & 175 ^ Mummy of Ramesses the Ninth Eternal Egypt ^ T. Eric Peet, The Mayer Papyri A&B, London 1920, 19-20 ^ Ad Thijs, Reconsidering the End of the Twentieth Dynasty Part V, P. Ambras as an advocate of a shorter chronology, GM 179 (2000), 77-78 ^ Michael Rice, Who's Who in Ancient Egypt, Routledge 2001, p.147 ^ Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, Blackwell Books, 1992. p.289 ^ Grimal, p.289 ^ Grimal, p.289 ^ Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton: The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson, 2004. p.191 ^ Dodson & Hilton, p.191 ^ Dodson & Hilton, p.191 ^ Clayton, p.170 ^ Dodson & Hilton, p.191 ^ Dennis C. Forbes, Tombs, Treasures and Mummies, KMT Communications Inc. (1998), pp.646-647 ^ Forbes, pp.646-647 ^ Gaston Maspero, Les momies royales de Deir el-Bahari, Paris: 1889, p.566-568 ^ Dylan Bickerstaffe, Refugees for eternity - The royal mummies of Thebes - part 4 - Identifying the Royal Mummies, Canopus Press, 2009. ^ Mummy of Ramesses the Ninth Eternal Egypt Further reading[edit] Cyril Aldred, A statue of king Neferkarē' Ramesses IX, JEA 41 (1955), 3-8 Amin A. M. A. Amer, Notes on Ramesses IX in Memphis and Karnak, Göttinger Miszellen 57 (1982), 11-16 Jürgen von Beckerath, Drei Thronbesteigungsdaten der XX. Dynastie, Göttinger Miszellen 79 (1984), 7-9 Dylan Bickerstaffe, Refugees for eternity - The royal mummies of Thebes - part 4 - Identifying the Royal Mummies, Canopus Press, 2009 Jac. J. Janssen, Once Again the Accession Date of Ramesses IX, Göttinger Miszellen 191 (2002), 59-65 Gaston Maspero, Les momies royales de Deir el-Bahari, Paris, 1889, 566-568 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ramses IX. The Tomb of Ramesses IX, Valley of the Kings, Egypt Ramesses IX at Find a Grave Preceded by Ramesses VIII Pharaoh of Egypt Twentieth Dynasty Succeeded by Ramesses X v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control BNF: cb15080771z (data) GND: 121435571 VIAF: 281677285 WorldCat Identities: viaf-281677285 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ramesses_IX&oldid=980215864" Categories: Ramesses IX 12th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Ancient Egyptian mummies 1111 BC deaths 12th century BC in Egypt 12th-century BC rulers Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Italiano עברית ქართული Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 September 2020, at 07:41 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1060	----	University of Chicago Press - Wikipedia University of Chicago Press From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search University of Chicago Press Parent company University of Chicago Founded 1890[1] Country of origin United States Headquarters location Chicago Distribution Chicago Distribution Center (US)[2] John Wiley & Sons (UK)[3] Publication types Books, academic journals Official website press.uchicago.edu The University of Chicago Press is the largest and one of the oldest university presses in the United States.[4] It is operated by the University of Chicago and publishes a wide variety of academic titles, including The Chicago Manual of Style, numerous academic journals, and advanced monographs in the academic fields. One of its quasi-independent projects is the BiblioVault, a digital repository for scholarly books. The Press building is located just south of the Midway Plaisance on the University of Chicago campus. Contents 1 History 2 Current status 2.1 Books Division 2.2 Journals Division 2.3 Chicago Distribution Center 3 See also 4 References 5 External links History[edit] University of Chicago, Harper Library The University of Chicago Press was founded in 1890, making it one of the oldest continuously operating university presses in the United States.[5][6] Its first published book was Robert F. Harper's Assyrian and Babylonian Letters Belonging to the Kouyunjik Collections of the British Museum. The book sold five copies during its first two years, but by 1900 the University of Chicago Press had published 127 books and pamphlets and 11 scholarly journals, including the current Journal of Political Economy, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, and American Journal of Sociology. For its first three years, the Press was an entity discrete from the university; it was operated by the Boston publishing house D. C. Heath in conjunction with the Chicago printer R. R. Donnelley. This arrangement proved unworkable, however, and in 1894 the university officially assumed responsibility for the Press. In 1902, as part of the university, the Press started working on the Decennial Publications. Composed of articles and monographs by scholars and administrators on the state of the university and its faculty's research, the Decennial Publications was a radical reorganization of the Press. This allowed the Press, by 1905, to begin publishing books by scholars not of the University of Chicago. A manuscript editing and proofreading department was added to the existing staff of printers and typesetters, leading, in 1906, to the first edition of The Chicago Manual of Style. By 1931, the Press was an established, leading academic publisher. Leading books of that era include Dr. Edgar J. Goodspeed's The New Testament: An American Translation (the Press's first nationally successful title) and its successor, Goodspeed and J. M. Povis Smith's The Complete Bible: An American Translation; Sir William Alexander Craigie's A Dictionary of American English on Historical Principles, published in four volumes in 1943; John Manly and Edith Rickert's The Canterbury Tales, published in 1940; and Kate Turabian's A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations. In 1956, the Press first published paperback-bound books (including the Phoenix Books series)[7] under its imprint. Of the Press's best-known books, most date from the 1950s, including translations of the Complete Greek Tragedies and Richmond Lattimore's The Iliad of Homer. That decade also saw the first edition of A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, which has since been used by students of Biblical Greek worldwide. In 1966, Morris Philipson began his 34-year tenure as director of the University of Chicago Press. He committed time and resources to lengthening the backlist, becoming known for assuming ambitious scholarly projects, among the largest of which was The Lisle Letters — a vast collection of 16th-century correspondence by Arthur Plantagenet, 1st Viscount Lisle, a wealth of information about every aspect of 16th-century life. As the Press's scholarly volume expanded, the Press also advanced as a trade publisher. In 1992, Norman Maclean's books A River Runs Through It and Young Men and Fire were national best sellers, and A River Runs Through It was made into a film directed by and starring Robert Redford. In 1982, Philipson was the first director of an academic press to win the Publisher Citation, one of PEN's most prestigious awards. Shortly before he retired in June 2000, Philipson received the Association of American Publishers' Curtis Benjamin Award for Creative Publishing, awarded to the person whose "creativity and leadership have left a lasting mark on American publishing." Paula Barker Duffy served as director of the Press from 2000 to 2007. Under her administration, the Press expanded its distribution operations and created the Chicago Digital Distribution Center and BiblioVault. Editorial depth in reference and regional books increased with titles such as The Encyclopedia of Chicago, Timothy J. Gilfoyle's Millennium Park, and new editions of The Chicago Manual of Style, the Turabian Manual, and The University of Chicago Spanish Dictionary. The Press also launched an electronic reference work, The Chicago Manual of Style Online. In 2014, the Press received The International Academic and Professional Publisher Award for excellence at the London Book Fair.[8] Current status[edit] University of Chicago Press This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Garrett P. Kiely became the 15th director of the University of Chicago Press on September 1, 2007. He heads one of academic publishing's largest operations, employing more than 300 people across three divisions—books, journals, and distribution—and publishing 81 journal titles and approximately 280 new books and 70 paperback reprints each year. The Press publishes over 50 new trade titles per year, across many subject areas. It also publishes regional titles, such as The Encyclopedia of Chicago (2004), edited by James R. Grossman, Ann Durkin Keating, and Janice Reiff;[9] The Chicagoan: A Lost Magazine of the Jazz Age (2008) by Neil Harris; One More Time: The Best of Mike Royko (1999), a collection of columns by Pulitzer Prize-winning newspaperman Mike Royko of the Chicago Sun-Times and the Chicago Tribune; and many other books about the art, architecture, and nature of Chicago and the Midwest. The Press has recently expanded its digital offerings to include most newly published books as well as key backlist titles. In 2013, Chicago Journals began offering e-book editions of each new issue of each journal, for use on e-reader devices such as smartphones, iPad, and Amazon Kindle. The contents of The Chicago Manual of Style are available online to paid subscribers. The Chicago Distribution Center is recognized as a leading distributor of scholarly works, with over 100 client presses.[10] Books Division[edit] The Books Division of the University of Chicago Press has been publishing books for scholars, students, and general readers since 1892 and has published over 11,000 books since its founding. The Books Division presently[citation needed] has more than 6,000 books in print, including such well-known works as The Chicago Manual of Style (1906); The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), by Thomas Kuhn; A River Runs Through It (1976), by Norman Maclean; and The Road to Serfdom (1944), by F. A. Hayek. In July 2009, the Press announced the Chicago Digital Editions program, which made many of the Press's titles available in e-book form for sale to individuals.[11] As of August 2016, more than 3,500 titles are available in this format. In August 2010, the Press published the 16th Edition of The Chicago Manual of Style simultaneously in print and online editions. The Books Division offers a Free E-book Of The Month program, through which site visitors may provide their e-mail address and receive a link to that month's free, downloadable e-book selection. Journals Division[edit] The Journals Division of the University of Chicago Press publishes and distributes influential scholarly publications on behalf of learned and professional societies and associations, foundations, museums, and other not-for-profit organizations. As of 2016 it publishes 81 titles in a wide range of academic disciplines including the biological and medical sciences, education, the humanities, the physical sciences, and the social sciences.[12] All are peer-reviewed journals of original scholarship, with readerships that include scholars, scientists, and medical practitioners as well as interested, educated laypeople. Since 1974 the Press has published the prestigious humanities journal Critical Inquiry. The Journals Division has been a pioneer in making scholarly and scientific journals available in electronic form in conjunction with their print editions. Electronic publishing efforts were launched in 1995; by 2004 all the journals published by the University of Chicago Press were available online. In 2013, all new journal issues were also made available to subscribers in e-book format. Chicago Distribution Center[edit] The Distribution Services Division provides the University of Chicago Press's customer service, warehousing, and related services. The Chicago Distribution Center (CDC) began providing distribution services in 1991, when the University of Tennessee Press became its first client. Currently[when?] the CDC serves nearly 100 publishers including Northwestern University Press, Stanford University Press, Temple University Press, University of Iowa Press, University of Minnesota Press, and many others. Since 2001, with development funding from the Mellon Foundation, the Chicago Digital Distribution Center (CDDC) has been offering digital printing services and the BiblioVault digital repository services to book publishers. In 2009, the CDC enabled the sales of electronic books directly to individuals and provided digital delivery services for the University of Michigan Press among others. The Chicago Distribution Center has also partnered with an additional 15 presses, including the University of Missouri Press, West Virginia University Press, and publications of the Getty Foundation. See also[edit] Chicago portal Illinois portal Books portal William Terry Couch List of University of Chicago Press journals References[edit] ^ "About the Press". University of Chicago Press. Retrieved 2019-09-02. ^ "Publishers served by the Chicago Distribution Center". University of Chicago Press. Archived from the original on 2017-09-12. Retrieved 2017-09-12. ^ "Third Party Distribution | Wiley". Archived from the original on 2018-05-08. Retrieved 2018-02-08. ^ "The University of Chicago Press Selects Rightslink(R) For Online Copyright Permissions". Business Wire. February 5, 2007. Retrieved 2009-10-21. ^ "About the University of Chicago Press". www.press.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2019-09-02. ^ "History of the University of Chicago Press". www.press.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2019-09-02. ^ Phoenix Books (University of Chicago Press) - Book Series List Archived 2017-10-22 at the Wayback Machine, publishinghistory.com. Retrieved 22 October 2017. ^ "London Book Fair 2014: Excellence Award Winners Revealed". PublishersWeekly.com. Retrieved 2018-11-10. ^ Grossman, Keating, and Reiff, eds. The Encyclopedia of Chicago (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004) Archived 2015-04-24 at the Wayback Machine ^ "About the Press," University of Chicago Press, accessed April 23, 2015. Archived April 15, 2015, at the Wayback Machine ^ "New free e-book every month from the University of Chicago Press". Archived from the original on 2 February 2011. Retrieved 29 September 2014. ^ "The University of Chicago Press: Journals". journals.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 8 May 2018. 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en-wikipedia-org-1079	----	Tantamani - Wikipedia Tantamani From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Kushite King of Napata Tantamani Kushite King of Napata Tantamani, National Museum of Sudan Predecessor Taharqa Successor Atlanersa Burial El-Kurru (K. 16) Spouse Piankharty, [..]salka, possibly Malaqaye, Issue Possibly Atlanersa, Queen Yeturow, Queen Khaliset Full name Tantamani Father Shabaka (or Shebitku?) Mother Queen Qalhata Tantamani (Ancient Egyptian: tnwt-jmn, Neo-Assyrian: 𒁹𒌨𒁕𒄠𒈠𒉌𒀪 tanṭammanē, Ancient Greek: Τεμένθης Teménthēs),[1] also known as Tanutamun or Tanwetamani (d. 653 BC) was a pharaoh of Ancient Egypt and the Kingdom of Kush located in Northern Sudan and a member of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt. His prenomen or royal name was Bakare, which means "Glorious is the Soul of Re."[2] Contents 1 Filiation 2 Conflict with Ashurbanipal of Assyria 3 Later rule 4 Tomb in El-Kurru 5 Artifacts 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading Filiation[edit] See also: Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt family tree He was the son of King Shabaka and the nephew of his predecessor Taharqa.[3] In some sources he is said to be the son of Shebitku.[4] Assyrian records call Tantamani a son of Shabaka and refer to Qalhata as a sister of Taharqa. Some Egyptologists interpreted the Assyrian text as stating that Tantamani was a son of Shebitku, but as he was most likely a son of Shabaka himself, it is now more common to consider Tantamani a son of Shabaka.[5] Conflict with Ashurbanipal of Assyria[edit] Main article: Assyrian conquest of Egypt Portrait of Tantamani, Sudan National Museum. Ashurbanipal's account of his Second Sampaign in Egypt against Tantamani ("Urdamanee"/ "Ruddamon"), in the Rassam cylinder nomen or birth name t n w t ỉmn (Tenutamon) in hieroglyphs Once the Assyrians had appointed Necho I as king and left, Egypt was still seen as vulnerable. Tantamani soon invaded Egypt in hopes of restoring his family to the throne. Tantamani marched down the Nile from Nubia and reoccupied all of Egypt including Memphis. Necho I, the Assyrians' representative, was killed in Tantamani's campaign. This led to a renewed conflict with Ashurbanipal in 663 BCE. In reaction, the Assyrians led by Ashurbanipal returned to Egypt in force. Together with Psamtik I's army, which comprised Carian mercenaries, they fought a pitched battle in north Memphis, close to the temple of Isis, between the Serapeum and Abusir. Tantamani was defeated and fled to Upper Egypt but just forty days after the battle, Ashurbanipal's army arrived in Thebes. Tantamani had already left the city for Kipkipi, a location that remains uncertain but might be Kom Ombo, some 200 km (120 mi) south of Thebes.[6] The city of Thebes was conquered, "smashed (as if by) a floodstorm" and heavily plundered in the Sack of Thebes.[6] The event is not mentioned in Egyptian sources but is known from the Assyrian annals,[7] which report that the inhabitants were deported. The Assyrians took a large booty of gold, silver, precious stones, clothes, horses, fantastic animals, as well as two obelisks covered in electrum weighting 2.500 talents (c. 75.5 tons, or 166,500 lb):[6] Capture of Memphis by the Assyrians. This city, the whole of it, I conquered it with the help of Ashur and Ishtar. Silver, gold, precious stones, all the wealth of the palace, rich cloth, precious linen, great horses, supervising men and women, two obelisks of splendid electrum, weighing 2,500 talents, the doors of temples I tore from their bases and carried them off to Assyria. With this weighty booty I left Thebes. Against Egypt and Kush I have lifted my spear and shown my power. With full hands I have returned to Nineveh, in good health. — Rassam cylinder of Ashurbanipal[8] The sack of Thebes was a momentous event that reverberated throughout the Ancient Near East. It is mentioned in the Book of Nahum chapter 3:8-10: Art thou better than populous No, that was situate among the rivers, that had the waters round about it, whose rampart was the sea, and her wall was from the sea? Ethiopia and Egypt were her strength, and it was infinite; Put and Lubim were thy helpers. Yet was she carried away, she went into captivity: her young children also were dashed in pieces at the top of all the streets: and they cast lots for her honourable men, and all her great men were bound in chains A prophecy in the Book of Isaiah[9] refers to the sack as well: Just as my servant Isaiah has gone stripped and barefoot for three years, as a sign and portent against Egypt and Cush, so the king of Assyria will lead away stripped and barefoot the Egyptian captives and Cushite exiles, young and old, with buttocks bared—to Egypt’s shame. Those who trusted in Cush and boasted in Egypt will be dismayed and put to shame. The Assyrian reconquest effectively ended Nubian control over Egypt although Tantamani's authority was still recognised in Upper Egypt until his 8th Year in 656 BCE when Psamtik I's navy peacefully took control of Thebes and effectively unified all of Egypt. These events marked the start of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt. Later rule[edit] Thereafter, Tantamani ruled only Nubia (Kush). He died in 653 BC and was succeeded by Atlanersa, a son of Taharqa. He was buried in the family cemetery at El-Kurru. The archaeologist Charles Bonnet discovered the statue of Tantamani at Kerma (now called Doukki Gel) in 2003.[10] Tomb in El-Kurru[edit] The tomb of Tantamani was located below a pyramid, now disappeared, at the site of El-Kurru. Only the entrance and the chambers remain, which are beautifully decorated with mural paintings. Exterior of the Nubian tomb of Tantamani.[11] Portrait of Tantamani in his tomb in El-Kurru Tomb of the pyramide of Tantamani, at the site of El-Kurru Burial Chamber of Tantamani Tomb of Tantamani Burial Chamber of Tantamani Tomb of Tantamani Artifacts[edit] Statue of Tantamani, Kerma Museum Yet another statue of Tantamani, Kerma Museum Tanotamun portrait in Kerma Museum Tantamani, in profile. Kerma Museum Tantamani statue, Toledo Museum of Art Painting of Tantamani, in Thebes Statuette of god Amon dedicated by Tantamani Head of Amon-Ram dedicated by Tantamani, Musée du Louvre Stele of the Dream by Tantamani, Jebel Barkal, Sudan Stele of the Dream, Tantamani making offerings to Egyptian Gods See also[edit] List of monarchs of Kush References[edit] ^ "URdammaniʾ [TANUTAMON, PHARAOH OF EGYPT] (RN)". Oracc: The Open Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus. ^ Clayton, Peter A. (1994). Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson. p. 190. ISBN 0-500-05074-0. ^ Dodson, Aidan; Hilton, Dyan (2004). The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05128-3. ^ Dunham, Dows; Macadam, M. F. Laming (1949). "Names and Relationships of the Royal Family of Napata". Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 35: 139–149. doi:10.1177/030751334903500124. ^ Morkot, R. G. (2000). The Black Pharaohs: Egypt's Nubian Rulers. The Rubicon Press. ISBN 0-948695-23-4. ^ a b c Kahn 2006, p. 265. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKahn2006 (help) ^ Robert G. Morkot: The Black Pharaohs, Egypt's Nubian Rulers, London ISBN 0948695234, p. 296 ^ Ashurbanipal (auto) biography cylinder, c. 668 BCE; in James B. Pritchard, ed., Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament with Supplement (Princeton UP, 1950/1969/2014), 294-95. ISBN 9781400882762. Translated earlier in John Pentland Mahaffy et al., eds., A History of Egypt, vol. 3 (London: Scribner, 1905), 307. Google Books partial-view: books.google.com/books?id=04VUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA307; and E. A. Wallis Budge, A History of Ethiopia: Volume I, Nubia and Abyssinia (London: Taylor & Francis, 1928/2014), 38. ISBN 9781317649151 ^ 20:3-5 ^ "Digging into Africa's past". Archived from the original on November 11, 2007. ^ "Sudan National Museum". sudannationalmuseum.com. Further reading[edit] Morkot, Robert (2000). The Black Pharaohs: Egypt's Nubian Rulers. The Rubicon Press. ISBN 0-948695-23-4. Regnal titles Preceded by Taharqa Pharaoh of Egypt 664 – 656 BC Succeeded by Psamtik I King of Kush 664 – 653 BC Succeeded by Atlanersa v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 124966861 ISNI: 0000 0000 1812 6024 LCCN: no2003090998 SUDOC: 083770607 VIAF: 15718441 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 15718441 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tantamani&oldid=1001493111" Categories: 653 BC deaths 7th-century BC Pharaohs 7th-century BC monarchs of Kush Pharaohs of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt Egyptian people of Nubian descent Kingdom of Kush 7th century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles 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en-wikipedia-org-1082	----	Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt 380 BC–343 BC Stele of Nectanebo I Capital Sebennytos Common languages Egyptian language Religion Ancient Egyptian religion Government Absolute monarchy Historical era Classical antiquity • Deposition of Nefaarud II 380 BC • Fall of Pelusium 343 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt The Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt (notated Dynasty XXX, alternatively 30th Dynasty or Dynasty 30) is usually classified as the fifth Dynasty of the Late Period of ancient Egypt. It was founded after the overthrow of Nepherites II in 380 BC by Nectanebo I, and was disestablished upon the invasion of Egypt by the Achaemenid emperor Artaxerxes III in 343 BC. This is the final native dynasty of ancient Egypt; after the deposition of Nectanebo II, Egypt fell under foreign domination. Contents 1 History 2 Pharaohs of the 30th Dynasty 3 Timeline of the 30th Dynasty 4 Family tree[5] 5 References History[edit] A 30th dynasty Egyptian funerary mask Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e Nectanebo I had gained control of all of Egypt by November of 380 BC, but spent much of his reign defending his kingdom from Persian reconquest with the occasional help of Sparta or Athens. In 365 BC, Nectanebo made his son, Teos, co-king and heir, and until his death, in 363 BC father and son reigned together. After his father's death, Teos invaded the Persian territories of modern Syria and Israel and was beginning to meet with some successes when he lost his throne due to the machinations of his own brother Tjahapimu.[1]:377 Tjahepimu took advantage of Teos' unpopularity within Egypt by declaring his son—and Teos' nephew, Nectanebo II—king. The Egyptian army rallied around Nectanebo which forced Teos to flee to the court of the king of Persia.[1]:379 Nectanebo II's reign was dominated by the efforts of the Persian rulers to reconquer Egypt, which they considered a satrapy in revolt. For the first ten years, Nectanebo avoided the Persian reconquest because Artaxerxes III was forced to consolidate his control of the realm. Artaxerxes then attempted an unsuccessful invasion of Egypt in the winter of 351/350 BC; the repercussions of his defeat prompted revolts in Cyprus, Phoenicia, and Cilicia.[1]:379–380 Although Nectanebo gave support to these revolts, Artaxerxes would eventually suppress these rebellions and was once again able to invade Egypt in 343 BC. This second invasion proved successful, and Nectanebo was forced to withdraw from his defenses in the Nile Delta to Memphis, where he saw that his cause was lost. He thereupon fled south to Nubia, where he is assumed to have found refuge at the court of King Nastasen of Napata. Nectanebo, however, may have managed to maintain some form of independent rule in the south of Egypt for 2 more years since a document from Edfu is dated to his eighteenth year.[1]:380–381 Although a shadowy figure named Khababash proclaimed himself king and led a rebellion against the Persians from about 338 to 335 BC, Nectanebo has been considered the last native pharaoh of Egypt. His flight marked the end of Egypt as an independent entity.[1]:381 Pharaohs of the 30th Dynasty[edit] Main article: List of pharaohs Name of Pharaoh Image Reign Throne Name Comments Nectanebo I 380-362 BC Kheperkare Son of a military official named Teos (not to be confused with his own son and successor) and himself a prominent general, he deposed and likely killed Nefaarud II to end the Twenty-ninth Dynasty. The elder Nectanebo moved the capital of Egypt from Mendes to Sebennytos.[2] He also engaged in many building projects across Egypt, perhaps outdoing many of his predecessors; Nectanebo is credited with beginning the construction of the Temple of Isis at Philae, among other things.[2] He respected religion and attempted to bring Egypt closer to the gods by restoring monuments and giving them gifts, as well as defended Egypt from the aggressive Achaemenid Empire.[2] Teos 362-360 BC Irmaatenre Co-regent with his father Nectanebo I from about 365 BC, Teos became unpopular with the Egyptian people because he raised taxes to fund a military campaign to conquer Achaemenid Syria and Palestine, including the satrapies of Eber-Nari and Phoenicia.[2] The king's brother, Tjahapimu, took advantage of this to install his own son, Nectanebo II, on the throne. Nectanebo II 360-343 BC Senedjemibra Setenpeninhur The last native ruler of ancient Egypt, his deposition marked the end of Egyptian hegemony until 1952. Nectanebo, however, was a very competent pharaoh, perhaps the most energetic of the dynasty, as he engaged in building and repairing monuments on a scale exceeding that of his grandfather's, forged alliances with the Greek poleis, and boosted the economy.[3] He was overthrown by Artaxerxes III around 343 BC and fled to Nubia; his subsequent fate is lost to history, although some believe he died shortly after.[4] Timeline of the 30th Dynasty[edit] Family tree[5][edit] Djedhor A [...]mu (♀) Nectanebo I Meryethapi (♀) Nesibanebdjedet A Teos Tjahapimu Udjashu (♀) Tikhabes (♀) Pediamun Khedebneithirbinet II (?) (♀) Nectanebo II Nakhtnebef A unnamed son References[edit] ^ a b c d e Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, Blackwell Books: 1992. ^ a b c d Mark, Joshua J. (2016-10-12). "Late Period of Ancient Egypt - Ancient History Encyclopedia". ancient.eu. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2017-12-21. ^ Ancient History Encyclopedia ^ Emmanuel K. Akyeampong and Henry Louis Gates, Jr (2012). Dictionary of African Biographies - Gooogle Books. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195382075. Retrieved 2017-12-17. ^ * Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson, 2004, p. 256. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Ancient Egypt topics Index Major topics Glossary of artifacts Agriculture Architecture (Egyptian Revival architecture) Art Portraiture Astronomy Chronology Cities (list) Clothing Cuisine Dance Dynasties Funerary practices Geography Great Royal Wives (list) Hieroglyphs History Language Literature Mathematics Medicine Military Music Mythology People Pharaohs (list) Philosophy Religion Sites Technology Trade Writing Egyptology Egyptologists Museums  Ancient Egypt portal Book Category WikiProject Commons Outline Retrieved from 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en-wikipedia-org-1089	----	Papyrus - Wikipedia Papyrus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Writing and implement This article is about the paper-like material. For the plant it is made from, see Cyperus papyrus. For other uses, see Papyrus (disambiguation). Papyrus (P. BM EA 10591 recto column IX, beginning of lines 13–17) Papyrus (/pəˈpaɪrəs/ pə-PYE-rəs) is a material similar to thick paper that was used in ancient times as a writing surface. It was made from the pith of the papyrus plant, Cyperus papyrus, a wetland sedge.[1] Papyrus (plural: papyri) can also refer to a document written on sheets of such material, joined together side by side and rolled up into a scroll, an early form of a book. An official letter on a papyrus of the 3rd century BCE Papyrus is first known to have been used in Egypt (at least as far back as the First Dynasty), as the papyrus plant was once abundant across the Nile Delta. It was also used throughout the Mediterranean region and in the Kingdom of Kush. Apart from a writing material, ancient Egyptians employed papyrus in the construction of other artifacts, such as reed boats, mats, rope, sandals, and baskets.[2] Contents 1 History 2 Etymology 3 Documents written on papyrus 4 Manufacture and use 5 Collections of papyri 6 Papyrus art 7 See also 8 References 8.1 Citations 8.2 Sources 9 Further reading 10 External links History[edit] A section of the Egyptian Book of the Dead written on papyrus Papyrus was first manufactured in Egypt as far back as the fourth millennium BCE.[3][4][5] The earliest archaeological evidence of papyrus was excavated in 2012 and 2013 at Wadi al-Jarf, an ancient Egyptian harbor located on the Red Sea coast. These documents, the Diary of Merer, date from c. 2560–2550 BCE (end of the reign of Khufu).[4] The papyrus rolls describe the last years of building the Great Pyramid of Giza.[6] In the first centuries BCE and CE, papyrus scrolls gained a rival as a writing surface in the form of parchment, which was prepared from animal skins.[7] Sheets of parchment were folded to form quires from which book-form codices were fashioned. Early Christian writers soon adopted the codex form, and in the Græco-Roman world, it became common to cut sheets from papyrus rolls to form codices. Roman portraiture fresco of a young man with a papyrus scroll, from Herculaneum, 1st century AD Codices were an improvement on the papyrus scroll, as the papyrus was not pliable enough to fold without cracking and a long roll, or scroll, was required to create large-volume texts. Papyrus had the advantage of being relatively cheap and easy to produce, but it was fragile and susceptible to both moisture and excessive dryness. Unless the papyrus was of perfect quality, the writing surface was irregular, and the range of media that could be used was also limited. Papyrus was replaced in Europe by the cheaper, locally produced products parchment and vellum, of significantly higher durability in moist climates, though Henri Pirenne's connection of its disappearance with the Muslim conquest of Egypt is contested.[8] Its last appearance in the Merovingian chancery is with a document of 692, though it was known in Gaul until the middle of the following century. The latest certain dates for the use of papyrus are 1057 for a papal decree (typically conservative, all papal bulls were on papyrus until 1022), under Pope Victor II,[9] and 1087 for an Arabic document. Its use in Egypt continued until it was replaced by less expensive paper introduced by the Islamic world who originally learned of it from the Chinese. By the 12th century, parchment and paper were in use in the Byzantine Empire, but papyrus was still an option.[10] Papyrus was made in several qualities and prices. Pliny the Elder and Isidore of Seville described six variations of papyrus which were sold in the Roman market of the day. These were graded by quality based on how fine, firm, white, and smooth the writing surface was. Grades ranged from the superfine Augustan, which was produced in sheets of 13 digits (10 inches) wide, to the least expensive and most coarse, measuring six digits (four inches) wide. Materials deemed unusable for writing or less than six digits were considered commercial quality and were pasted edge to edge to be used only for wrapping.[11] Until the middle of the 19th century, only some isolated documents written on papyrus were known, and museums simply showed them as curiosities.[12] They did not contain literary works.[13] The first modern discovery of papyri rolls was made at Herculaneum in 1752. Until then, the only papyri known had been a few surviving from medieval times.[14][15] Scholarly investigations began with the Dutch historian Caspar Jacob Christiaan Reuvens (1793–1835). He wrote about the content of the Leyden papyrus, published in 1830. The first publication has been credited to the British scholar Charles Wycliffe Goodwin (1817–1878), who published for the Cambridge Antiquarian Society, one of the Papyri Graecae Magicae V, translated into English with commentary in 1853.[12] Etymology[edit] The English word "papyrus" derives, via Latin, from Greek πάπυρος (papyros),[16] a loanword of unknown (perhaps Pre-Greek) origin.[17] Greek has a second word for it, βύβλος (byblos),[18] said to derive from the name of the Phoenician city of Byblos. The Greek writer Theophrastus, who flourished during the 4th century BCE, uses papyros when referring to the plant used as a foodstuff and byblos for the same plant when used for nonfood products, such as cordage, basketry, or writing surfaces. The more specific term βίβλος biblos, which finds its way into English in such words as 'bibliography', 'bibliophile', and 'bible', refers to the inner bark of the papyrus plant. Papyrus is also the etymon of 'paper', a similar substance. In the Egyptian language, papyrus was called wadj (w3ḏ), tjufy (ṯwfy), or djet (ḏt). Documents written on papyrus[edit] Bill of sale for a donkey, papyrus; 19.3 by 7.2 cm, MS Gr SM2223, Houghton Library, Harvard University The word for the material papyrus is also used to designate documents written on sheets of it, often rolled up into scrolls. The plural for such documents is papyri. Historical papyri are given identifying names — generally the name of the discoverer, first owner or institution where they are kept—and numbered, such as "Papyrus Harris I". Often an abbreviated form is used, such as "pHarris I". These documents provide important information on ancient writings; they give us the only extant copy of Menander, the Egyptian Book of the Dead, Egyptian treatises on medicine (the Ebers Papyrus) and on surgery (the Edwin Smith papyrus), Egyptian mathematical treatises (the Rhind papyrus), and Egyptian folk tales (the Westcar papyrus). When, in the 18th century, a library of ancient papyri was found in Herculaneum, ripples of expectation spread among the learned men of the time. However, since these papyri were badly charred, their unscrolling and deciphering is still going on today. Manufacture and use[edit] Men splitting papyrus, Tomb of Puyemré; Metropolitan Museum of Art Different ways of cutting papyrus stem and making of papyrus sheet Papyrus plants near Syracuse, Sicily Papyrus is made from the stem of the papyrus plant, Cyperus papyrus. The outer rind is first removed, and the sticky fibrous inner pith is cut lengthwise into thin strips of about 40 cm (16 in) long. The strips are then placed side by side on a hard surface with their edges slightly overlapping, and then another layer of strips is laid on top at a right angle. The strips may have been soaked in water long enough for decomposition to begin, perhaps increasing adhesion, but this is not certain. The two layers possibly were glued together.[19] While still moist, the two layers are hammered together, mashing the layers into a single sheet. The sheet is then dried under pressure. After drying, the sheet is polished with some rounded object, possibly a stone or seashell or round hardwood.[20] Sheets, or kollema, could be cut to fit the obligatory size or glued together to create a longer roll. The point where the kollema are joined with glue is called the kollesis. A wooden stick would be attached to the last sheet in a roll, making it easier to handle.[21] To form the long strip scrolls required, a number of such sheets were united, placed so all the horizontal fibres parallel with the roll's length were on one side and all the vertical fibres on the other. Normally, texts were first written on the recto, the lines following the fibres, parallel to the long edges of the scroll. Secondarily, papyrus was often reused, writing across the fibres on the verso.[5] Pliny the Elder describes the methods of preparing papyrus in his Naturalis Historia. In a dry climate, like that of Egypt, papyrus is stable, formed as it is of highly rot-resistant cellulose; but storage in humid conditions can result in molds attacking and destroying the material. Library papyrus rolls were stored in wooden boxes and chests made in the form of statues. Papyrus scrolls were organized according to subject or author, and identified with clay labels that specified their contents without having to unroll the scroll.[22] In European conditions, papyrus seems to have lasted only a matter of decades; a 200-year-old papyrus was considered extraordinary. Imported papyrus once commonplace in Greece and Italy has since deteriorated beyond repair, but papyri are still being found in Egypt; extraordinary examples include the Elephantine papyri and the famous finds at Oxyrhynchus and Nag Hammadi. The Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum, containing the library of Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, Julius Caesar's father-in-law, was preserved by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, but has only been partially excavated. Sporadic attempts to revive the manufacture of papyrus have been made since the mid-18th century. Scottish explorer James Bruce experimented in the late 18th century with papyrus plants from the Sudan, for papyrus had become extinct in Egypt. Also in the 18th century, Sicilian Saverio Landolina manufactured papyrus at Syracuse, where papyrus plants had continued to grow in the wild. During the 1920s, when Egyptologist Battiscombe Gunn lived in Maadi, outside Cairo, he experimented with the manufacture of papyrus, growing the plant in his garden. He beat the sliced papyrus stalks between two layers of linen, and produced successful examples of papyrus, one of which was exhibited in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.[23][24] The modern technique of papyrus production used in Egypt for the tourist trade was developed in 1962 by the Egyptian engineer Hassan Ragab using plants that had been reintroduced into Egypt in 1872 from France. Both Sicily and Egypt have centres of limited papyrus production. Papyrus is still used by communities living in the vicinity of swamps, to the extent that rural householders derive up to 75% of their income from swamp goods.[25] Particularly in East and Central Africa, people harvest papyrus, which is used to manufacture items that are sold or used locally. Examples include baskets, hats, fish traps, trays or winnowing mats, and floor mats.[26] Papyrus is also used to make roofs, ceilings, rope and fences. Although alternatives, such as eucalyptus, are increasingly available, papyrus is still used as fuel.[25] Collections of papyri[edit] The Heracles Papyrus Amherst Papyri: this is a collection of William Tyssen-Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst of Hackney. It includes biblical manuscripts, early church fragments, and classical documents from the Ptolemaic, Roman, and Byzantine eras. The collection was edited by Bernard Grenfell and Arthur Hunt in 1900–1901. It is housed at the Pierpont Morgan Library (New York). Archduke Rainer Papyri: one of the world's largest collection of papyri (about 180,000 objects) in the Austrian National Library.[27] Berlin Papyri: housed in the Egyptian Museum and Papyrus Collection.[28] Berliner griechische Urkunden (BGU): a publishing project ongoing since 1895 Bodmer Papyri: this collection was purchased by Martin Bodmer in 1955–1956. Currently it is housed in the Bibliotheca Bodmeriana in Cologny. It includes Greek and Coptic documents, classical texts, biblical books, and writing of the early churches. Brooklyn Papyrus: this papyrus focuses mainly on snakebites and its remedies. It speaks of remedial methods for poisons obtained from snakes, scorpions, and tarantulas. The Brooklyn Papyrus currently resides in the Brooklyn Museum.[29] Chester Beatty Papyri: collection of 11 codices acquired by Alfred Chester Beatty in 1930–1931 and 1935. It is housed at the Chester Beatty Library. The collection was edited by Frederic G. Kenyon. Colt Papyri: housed at the Pierpont Morgan Library (New York). The Herculaneum papyri: these papyri were found in Herculaneum in the eighteenth century, carbonized by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. After some tinkering, a method was found to unroll and to read them. Most of them are housed at the Naples National Archaeological Museum.[30] The Heroninos Archive: a collection of around a thousand papyrus documents, dealing with the management of a large Roman estate, dating to the third century CE, found at the very end of the 19th century at Kasr El Harit, the site of ancient Theadelphia [de], in the Faiyum area of Egypt by Bernard Pyne Grenfell and Arthur Surridge Hunt. It is spread over many collections throughout the world. The Houghton's papyri: the collection at Houghton Library, Harvard University was acquired between 1901 and 1909 thanks to a donation from the Egypt Exploration Fund.[31] Saite Oracle Papyrus: this papyrus located at the Brooklyn Museum records the petition of a man named Pemou on behalf of his father, Harsiese to ask their god for permission to change temples. Martin Schøyen Collection: biblical manuscripts in Greek and Coptic, Dead Sea Scrolls, classical documents Michigan Papyrus Collection: this collection contains above 10 000 papyri fragments. It is housed at the University of Michigan. Oxyrhynchus Papyri: these numerous papyri fragments were discovered by Grenfell and Hunt in and around Oxyrhynchus. The publication of these papyri is still in progress. A large part of the Oxyrhynchus papyri are housed at the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford, others in the British Museum in London, in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, and many other places. Princeton Papyri: it is housed at the Princeton University[32] Papiri della Società Italiana (PSI): a series, still in progress, published by the Società per la ricerca dei Papiri greci e latini in Egitto and from 1927 onwards by the succeeding Istituto Papirologico "G. Vitelli" in Florence. These papyri are situated at the institute itself and in the Biblioteca Laurenziana. Rylands Papyri: this collection contains above 700 papyri, with 31 ostraca and 54 codices. It is housed at the John Rylands University Library. Tebtunis Papyri: housed by the Bancroft Library at the University of California, Berkeley, this is a collection of more than 30,000 fragments dating from the 3rd century BCE through the 3rd century CE, found in the winter 1899–1900 at the site of ancient Tebtunis, Egypt, by an expedition team led by the British papyrologists Bernard P. Grenfell and Arthur S. Hunt.[33] Washington University Papyri Collection: includes 445 manuscript fragments, dating from the first century BCE to the eighth century AD. Housed at the Washington University Libraries. Will of Naunakhte: found at Deir el-Medina and dating to the 20th dynasty, it is notable because it is a legal document for a non-noble woman.[34] Yale Papyrus Collection: numbers over six thousand inventoried items and is cataloged, digitally scanned, and accessible online for close study. It is housed at the Beinecke Library. Papyrus art[edit] Drawing of a greater bird of paradise and the papyrus plant Other ancient writing materials: Palm leaf manuscript (India) Amate (Mesoamerica) Paper Ostracon Wax tablets Clay tablets Birch bark document Parchment See also[edit] Pliny the Elder Papyrology Papyrus sanitary pad Palimpsest For Egyptian papyri: List of ancient Egyptian papyri Other papyri: Elephantine papyri Magdalen papyrus Nag Hammadi library New Testament papyri Strasbourg papyrus The papyrus plant in Egyptian art Palmette References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ "Papyrus definition". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 20 November 2008. ^ "Ebers Papyrus". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 8 March 2014. ^ Houston, Keith, The Book: A Cover-to-Cover Exploration of the Most Powerful Object of our Time, W. W. Norton & Company, 2016, pp.4-8 excerpt [1] ^ a b Tallet, Pierre (2012). "Ayn Sukhna and Wadi el-Jarf: Two newly discovered pharaonic harbours on the Suez Gulf" (PDF). British Museum Studies in Ancient Egypt and Sudan. 18: 147–68. ISSN 2049-5021. Retrieved 21 April 2013. ^ a b H. Idris Bell and T.C. Skeat, 1935. "Papyrus and its uses" (British Museum pamphlet). Archived 18 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine ^ Stille, Alexander. "The World's Oldest Papyrus and What It Can Tell Us About the Great Pyramids". Retrieved 27 September 2015. ^ Černý, Jaroslav. 1952. Paper and Books in Ancient Egypt: An Inaugural Lecture Delivered at University College London, 29 May 1947. London: H. K. Lewis. (Reprinted Chicago: Ares Publishers Inc., 1977). ^ Pirenne, Mohammed and Charlemagne, critiqued by R.S. Lopez, "Mohammed and Charlemagne: a revision", Speculum (1943:14–38.). ^ David Diringer, The Book before Printing: Ancient, Medieval and Oriental, Dover Publications, New York 1982, p. 166. ^ Bompaire, Jacques and Jean Irigoin. La paleographie grecque et byzantine, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1977, 389 n. 6, cited in Alice-Mary Talbot (ed.). Holy women of Byzantium, Dumbarton Oaks, 1996, p. 227. ISBN 0-88402-248-X. ^ Lewis, N (1983). "Papyrus and Ancient Writing: The First Hundred Years of Papyrology". Archaeology. 36 (4): 31–37. ^ a b Hans Dieter Betz (1992). The Greek Magical Papyri in Translation, Including the Demotic Spells, Volume 1. ^ Frederic G. Kenyon, Palaeography of Greek papyri (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1899), p. 1. ^ Frederic G. Kenyon, Palaeography of Greek papyri (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1899), p. 3. ^ Diringer, David (1982). The Book Before Printing: Ancient, Medieval and Oriental. New York: Dover Publications. pp. 250–256. ISBN 0-486-24243-9. ^ πάπυρος, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus ^ R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 1151. ^ βύβλος, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus ^ Introduction to Greek and Latin Palaeography, Maunde Thompson. archive.org ^ Bierbrier, Morris Leonard, ed. 1986. Papyrus: Structure and Usage. British Museum Occasional Papers 60, ser. ed. Anne Marriott. London: British Museum Press. ^ Lyons, Martyn (2011). Books: A Living History. Los Angeles, California: Getty Publications. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-60606-083-4. ^ Murray, Stuart (2009). The Library: An Illustrated History. New York, NY: Skyhorse. pp. 10–12. ISBN 9781602397064. ^ Cerny, Jaroslav (1947). Paper and books in Ancient Egypt. London: H. K. Lewis & Co. Ltd. ^ Lucas, A. (1934). Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries, 2nd Ed. London: Edward Arnold and Co. ^ a b Maclean, I.M.D., R. Tinch, M. Hassall and R.R. Boar. 2003c. "Towards optimal use of tropical wetlands: an economic evaluation of goods derived from papyrus swamps in southwest Uganda." Environmental Change and Management Working Paper No. 2003-10, Centre for Social and Economic Research into the Global Environment, University of East Anglia, Norwich. ^ Langdon, S. 2000. Papyrus and its Uses in Modern Day Russia, Vol. 1, pp. 56–59. ^ "Papyri". Osterreichische Nationalbibliothek. ^ Egyptian Museum and Papyrus Collection ^ "Ancient Egyptian Medical Papyri". Retrieved 17 June 2014. ^ Diringer, David (1982). The Book Before Printing: Ancient, Medieval and Oriental. New York: Dover Publications. p. 252 ff. ISBN 0-486-24243-9. ^ "Digital Papyri at Houghton Library, Harvard University". Archived from the original on 3 April 2012. Retrieved 30 July 2011. ^ Digital Images of Selected Princeton Papyri ^ The Center for the Tebtunis Papyri ^ Černý, Jaroslav. "The Will of Naunakhte and the Related Documents." The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 31 (1945): 29–53. doi:10.1177/030751334503100104. JSTOR 3855381. Sources[edit] Leach, Bridget, and William John Tait. 2000. "Papyrus". In Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology, edited by Paul T. Nicholson and Ian Shaw. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 227–253. Thorough technical discussion with extensive bibliography. Leach, Bridget, and William John Tait. 2001. "Papyrus". In The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, edited by Donald Bruce Redford. Vol. 3 of 3 vols. Oxford, New York, and Cairo: Oxford University Press and The American University in Cairo Press. 22–24. Parkinson, Richard Bruce, and Stephen G. J. Quirke. 1995. Papyrus. Egyptian Bookshelf. London: British Museum Press. General overview for a popular reading audience. Further reading[edit] Horst Blanck: Das Buch in der Antike. Beck, München 1992, ISBN 3-406-36686-4 Rosemarie Drenkhahn: Papyrus. In: Wolfgang Helck, Wolfhart Westendorf (eds.): Lexikon der Ägyptologie. vol. IV, Wiesbaden 1982, Spalte 667–670 David Diringer, The Book before Printing: Ancient, Medieval and Oriental, Dover Publications, New York 1982, pp. 113–169, ISBN 0-486-24243-9. Victor Martin (Hrsg.): Ménandre. Le Dyscolos. Bibliotheca Bodmeriana, Cologny – Genève 1958 Otto Mazal: Griechisch-römische Antike. Akademische Druck- und Verlagsanstalt, Graz 1999, ISBN 3-201-01716-7 (Geschichte der Buchkultur; vol. 1) External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Papyrus. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Papyri. Leuven Homepage of Papyrus Collections Ancient Egyptian Papyrus – Aldokkan Yale Papyrus Collection Database at the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University Lund University Library Papyrus Collection Ghent University Library Papyrus Collection Thompson, Edward Maunde (1911). "Papyrus" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 20 (11th ed.). pp. 743–745. "Papyri.info Resource and Partner Organizations". papyri.info. Archived from the original on 26 October 2018. Retrieved 26 October 2018. Finding aid to the Advanced Papyrological Information System records at Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library. v t e Paper data storage media Antiquity Writing on papyrus (c. 3000 BCE) Paper (105 CE) Modern Index card (1640s) Punched tape (mid-1800s) Punched card (1880s) Edge-notched card (1904) Optical mark recognition (1930s) Barcode (1948) v t e Writing and writing material Enduring Plant-based Palm leaf (Borassus) Ola leaf (Corypha umbraculifera) Birch bark (Betula) Papyrus (Cyperus papyrus) Bamboo and wooden slips Paper Amate Trema micrantha Ficus aurea Parabaik (Streblus asper) Samut khoi (S. asper) Kraing (Morus bark) Other materials Clay tablet Wax tablet Metals Stamping Intaglio Stone Animal skin Parchment Vellum Oracle bone Silk text Textile printing Geoglyph Ink Photographic film Impermanent Electronic paper Screen Skywriting Carrier objects Inscription Bas-relief Scroll Manuscript Palimpsest Codex Book Sign Microform Electronic media Related topics Writing systems History of writing List of writing systems Authority control GND: 4044571-9 NDL: 00616829 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Papyrus&oldid=994353291" Categories: Papyrus Egyptian artefact types Nile Delta Papyrology Textual scholarship Writing media Egyptian inventions Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from July 2012 Commons link is on Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية অসমীয়া Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Luganda Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം مصرى Bahasa Melayu Na Vosa Vakaviti Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Taqbaylit ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 15 December 2020, at 07:58 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-108	----	Wikipedia:Text of Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License - Wikipedia Wikipedia:Text of Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia page explaining the terms under which contributions are licensed. 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en-wikipedia-org-1098	----	Sheneh (pharaoh) - Wikipedia Sheneh (pharaoh) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the village in Iran, see Sheneh. Sheneh Shenes, Shens Scarab Aberdeen 21048 of Sheneh, 1906 drawing by Percy E. Newberry.[1] Pharaoh Reign unknown duration (uncertain, possibly 14th dynasty) Predecessor unknown Successor unknown Royal titulary Nomen Sheneh Š-n-ḥ Sheneh was a ruler of some part of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, possibly during the 17th century BC, and likely belonging to the 14th Dynasty.[2][3] As such he would have ruled from Avaris over the eastern Nile Delta and possibly over the Western Delta as well. His chronological position and identity are unclear. Contents 1 Attestations 2 Identity 3 See also 4 References Attestations[edit] Sheneh is one of the few attested kings of the 14th Dynasty with three scarabs attributable to him. None of those scarabs are of known provenance however,[3] which hampers research on Sheneh's kingdom. One scarab is currently in the British Museum, another in Aberdeen, catalogue number 21048, and the third one is in Moscow cat. nu. 2258.[2][4] The Moscow scarab of Sheneh exhibits a type of border decoration with representation of a rope, which was in use only in scarabs of officials of the 13th Dynasty and for king Sheshi and his son Ipqu of the early 14th Dynasty.[3] Thus Sheneh may have ruled in the early 14th Dynasty as well, under an unknown prenomen which could be listed in the Turin canon. Identity[edit] Scarab of Sheneh, now in the British Museum BM EA 32392.[5] Sheneh is comparatively well attested for a 14th Dynasty ruler and the Egyptologist Kim Ryholt consequently proposes that he may be identifiable to either Sehebre or Merdjefare.[2] Indeed Sehebre and Merdjefare reigned for three to four years each, the longest reigns of the dynasty, and are otherwise poorly attested. The name of Sheneh has sometimes been translated as Shenes due to a misreading of the signs for given life, an epithet commonly given to kings.[3] See also[edit] List of pharaohs References[edit] ^ Percy E. Newberry: Scarabs, an introduction to the study of Egyptian seals and signet rings, with forty-four plates and one hundred and sixteen illustrations in the text, A. Constable and Co., ltd. in London, 1906, available online, see p. 124 and pl. X, num. 28. ^ a b c K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here. ^ a b c d Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 358-359 ^ Olga Tufnell: Studies on Scarab Seals, vol. II, Aris & Philips, Warminster, 1984 ^ Harry Reginald Hall: Catalogue of Egyptian scarabs, etc., in the British museum, 1913, n. 208 p. 50, available online copyright free v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sheneh_(pharaoh)&oldid=977358685" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Italiano ქართული Magyar Slovenščina ไทย Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 8 September 2020, at 10:57 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1122	----	Deioces - Wikipedia Deioces From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The First Legislator Deioces The First Legislator (Median: Paradat) Deioces commands the Medes to set forth on their course of conquest. After a painting by Louis Boulanger (1806-1867).[1] King of the Medes Reign 727 - 675 BC[2] Successor Phraortes Died 675 BC[2] Religion Old Iranian religion Deioces (Ancient Greek: Δηιόκης)[3] or Dia-oku was the founder and the first shah as well as priest of the Median government. His name has been mentioned in different forms in various sources; including Herodotus, who has written his name as Dēiokēs. Deioces' name is derived from the Iranian word Dahyu-ka-, meaning "the lands" (above, on and beneath the earth). The exact date of the era of Deioces' rule is not clear and probably covered most of the first half of the seventh century BC. According to Herodotus, Deioces governed for 53 years. Based on Herodotus's writings, Deioces was the first Median king to have gained independence from the Assyrians. He contemplated the project and plan of forming a single Median government; and in an anarchistic era of the Medes, he tried to enforce justice in his own village and earn a credibility and fame as a neutral judge. Thus, the territory of his activity was expanded and the peoples of other villages also resorted to him until he eventually announced that this place has been troublesome for him and he is not willing to continue working. Following this resignation, theft and chaos increased and the Medians gathered and chose him as the king this time. Deioces' first action after coronation was to appoint guards for himself and also constructing a capital. The city Deioces chose for it was called Hagmatāna in Old Persian and Ecbatana in Greek language, believed to be Hamadan today. Ecbatana means "the gathering place" or "a city for everyone" and indicates the gathering of the Median clans, which were disunited previously. In the late eighth century BC, he had a fortified castle constructed on a hill in the city to run all military, government and treasury affairs within. In 715 BC, Sargon II, the Assyrian king, learned that Deioces had allied with Rusa I, the Urartian king. He started watching Deioces and during his war with the Mannaeans, he entered the Medes again so as to end its "anarchy", as he claimed. He finally captured Deioces and exiled him along with his family to Hama (in Syria today). Some Iranologists consider Deioces the same as Hushang in Shahnameh due to the features Herodotus states for the former and believe the title Paradat or Pishdadian equal to "the first legislator". The religious tradition considers Hushang the first person to found kingship in Iran. After Deioces, his son, Phraortes, succeeded him and ruled for 22 years. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Reign 3 Foundation of the Median kingdom 3.1 Ecbatana 4 Deioces in narrative Iranian history 5 Succession 6 References Etymology[edit] Deioces' name has been mentioned in various forms in different sources. The Greek historian Herodotus has stated his name as Δηϊόκης (Dēiokēs). In Assyrian texts, he has been mentioned as Da-a-a-uk-ku; and in Elamite ones, as Da-a-(hi-)(ú-)uk-ka and Da-a-ya-u(k)-ka.[4] Deioces' name is derived from the Iranian Dahyu-ka, and is the junior noun of the word dahyu-, meaning "the land". The old Iranian name Deioces was not uncommon even in later times. In the Achaemenid period, the Old Persian form of Deioces has been mentioned in several Elamite inscriptions of the mud plates of Persepolis. Those mentions apparently referred to different persons in separate government regions; and one of them was an individual assigned to the food rationing of the horses.[4] Friedrich von Spiegel believes that Dahayuku means "resident and headman of the village" and is in fact the older form of the word dehghan "farmer". Also following Spiegel's theory, Ferdinand Justi believes that Deioces' name is his title and a shortened form of dahyaupati' in Old Persian and danhupaiti in Avestan having acquired the suffix -ka.[5] Reign[edit] The era of Deioces' reign is subject to controversy. Herodotus says that Deioces ruled for 53 years and thus some assumptions have been made about the era of his reign; but it seems that Herodotus's report is based on a verbal narrative. Based on Herodotus's report, the researchers have concluded that Deioces was the founder of the Median empire and also the first Median king having gained independence from the Assyrians. But Herodotus's report is a mixture of Greek and Oriental legends and is not historically reliable. Also, it is assumed that the Median king whom Herodotus's reports are about is the same Deioces, Phraortes' father; thus, it is not possible to clarify the exact date of the period of his rule; but it can be said that it probably covered most of the first half of the 7th century BC[2] Igor Diakonoff says: "The state of the era of Deioces' reign in Herodotus's writings is so different from the picture of that time (745-675 BC) described by the Assyrian sources that some historians have rejected Herodotus's statement."[6] Encyclopædia Iranica mentions the foundation of the Medes in 708 BC centered in Ecbatana and by Deioces.[7] In Assyrian sources, 674 BC, there are mentions of the actions of a person called Kashthrita, whom some researchers believe to be the same Phraortes. Therefore, the year 674 BC can be considered the end of Deioces' rule; and by reckoning his fifty-three-year old reign, the beginning of the era of Deioces' rule should be around 728 BC.[8] Below is a list of the era of Deioces' reign based on the historians' views:[9] Historian Herodotus George Cameron Edvin Grantovsky Igor Diakonoff Era 700-647 BC 728-675 BC[10] 672-640 BC 700-678 BC[6] Therefore, we should search for confirmations of Cuneiform sources; and actually previously in 1869, George Smith realized that in the Neo-Assyrian texts in the period of the reign of Sargon II (721 to 705 BC), a person called Deioces is mentioned several times. In the calendar of the eighth year of this king's reign (i.e. 715 BC) and in the so-called Khersabad demonstrative inscription, Deioces is named as the governor of one of the provinces of Mannae, having somewhat independently ruled a region bordering the kingdoms of Assyria and Mannae. The exact position of his domain is not clear, but has probably been situated in the Zarrin Rud Valley. Deioces, whose son was captured by the Urartians, supported the king of Urartu, Rusa I, against the ruler of Mannae, Ullusunu, but eventually failed for Sargon intervened in the affair and finally captured Deioces and exiled him along with his family to Hama (in Syria today). Deioces was probably involved in a rebellion against the Mannaean king, Iranzu, the preceding year for one of the governors listed in the Assyrian calendar the same year is not named; and he was probably the very Deioces; though the validity of the matter cannot be authenticated with certainty.[2] Foundation of the Median kingdom[edit] A photo of the ancient hill of Ecbatana, Hamadan In the ancient times, the Medes was bounded by the Aras river and the Alborz mountains to the north, Dasht-e Kavir to the east and the Zagros mountains to the west and south.[6] What is learned from the Assyrian texts is that from the ninth to seventh century BC, the Medians had not been able to thrive enough to cause the convergence and alliance and organization of the scattered Median tribes and clans around a superior and single leader and lord who could be called the king of all the Median lands.[11] During their several invasions on the Median settled territories, the Assyrian kings always encountered a large number of "local shahs" and not a single king ruling all of the Median lands.[10] After the death of Sargon II in 705 BC, the Assyrians diverted their attention to another spot far from Iran. The opportunity, along with the everlasting fear of the Assyrian invasion, caused the formation of a union of Median princes and monarchs. The leaders of the movement were Deioces' followers.[12] Based on Herodotus's writings, Deioces, son of Phraortes, was the one who contemplated the idea and plan of forming a single Median government; the Medians lived in separate autonomous villages or small cities.[13] In an anarchistic era in the Medes, Deioces tried to enforce justice in his own village and gained a credit and reputation as a neutral judge; thus the territory of his activities expanded; and the peoples of other villages resorted to him until he eventually announced that the requests of the people are too much and the post is troublesome and difficult for him and he is not ready to continue the work. Following the resignation, theft and chaos increased; and the Medians gathered and chose him as the king in order to settle the disagreements.[4] Assyrian sources mention an independent Median kingdom in 673 BC. for the first time.[6] Probably imitating the Assyrians, Deioces held a ceremony for the first time; Herodotus states that Deioces stayed in his palace; and his connection was by sending to and receiving messages from the outside; and no one was able to contact the king directly; and the petitions and messages were performed only by the messengers; the limitation was in order to make a sense of fear and respect among the people.[14] Besides, it was forbidden to laugh or expectorate in the king's presence.[15] Of his other actions was creating a group called "The King's Eyes and Ears", which consisted of people assigned to spy for the king himself; this organization and group existed until the Achaemenid era.[4][13] Diakonoff believes that Deioces could not have been the king of the whole Medes, and was not even the ruler of a large region, and was just one of the small and numerous Median lords; but the illustrious history of the successors shined on his face and gave him fame in history. In the beginning, Deioces made a wise move and placed his weak and small and new government under the support of Mannae, which was so powerful then, but later struggled to become completely independent, and thus made an alliance with Urartu. The Assyrian sources also call Deioces "a ruler from Mannae" in the events of 715 BC.[6] Ecbatana[edit] Main article: Ecbatana The modern view inside the Ecbatana Palace After coronation, Deioces' first action was to appoint guards for himself and also construct a capital. The city which Deioces chose for it was called Hagmatāna in Old Persian and Ecbatana in Greek language, considered to be Hamadan today.[12] Ecbatana means "the gathering place" or "a city for everyone"[16] and indicates the gathering of Median clans, which had been disunited before. In the late eighth century BC, he had a fortified castle constructed on a hill in the city to run all the military, government and treasury affairs within. Herodotus describes that the royal complex was made of seven concentric walls, with each internal one higher than the external one. Each of the seven walls were decorated with a specific color: the first (external) wall was white, second wall black, third one high red, fourth blue, fifth low red, sixth wall copper, and the seventh and innermost wall gold. Such a coloring was the symbol of the seven planets in Babylon, but was an imitation of Babylon in Ecbatana.[17] The king's palace was situated within the last wall along with its treasures.[14][18] However, this narrative of Herodotus's is not corroborated by what is written in Assyrian sources, which imply the existence of various masters in the Medes until years after Deioces,[19] and the foundation of an independent royal body and constructing several large royal complexes was not something that the Assyrians could easily remain silent against; thus these words from Herodotus seem exaggerative, or depict an adapted and modified picture of the periods after Deioces' reign.[19] Nevertheless, Polybius, a famous Greek historian, has mentioned this palace in his book and description of Hamadan, stating the long age of this palace.[14] According to some historians and archaeologists, the hill that is currently situated in the city and known as the Ecbatana Hill, was the true place of the ancient city of Ecbatana.[20] Some historians, including Henry Rawlinson, believe that the Ecbatana mentioned in Herodotus's writings is not the current Hamadan; and the olden Median capital should be searched in Takht-e Soleymān and in the vicinity of Lake Urmia to the south east. But some researchers, like Jacques de Morgan, believe that Herodotus's Ecbatana is the same Hamadan today; and the places of the seven castles of Fort Ecbatana could be identified by the projections on the land and hills.[17] Deioces in narrative Iranian history[edit] Some Iranologists believe Deioces to be the Hushang in Shahnameh due to the features Herodotus states for him and consider the title "Paradat" or "Pishdadian" equal to "the first legislator". The religious tradition considers Hushang the first person to establish kingship in Iran.[21] Among Herodotus's reports about Deioces and those of Avesta and Middle Persian, Arabic and New Persian texts about Hushang, there are some common features about the identities of Hushang and Deioces; the most important of them can be summarized in three points:[22] According to Herodotus, Deioces was the headman of the village during the time; and the name or title Deioces meaning farmer must have been given to him because of this; and Hushang, according to Arabic and Persian texts, made innovations in agriculture; and thus he probably acquired the title farmer. Deioces and Hushang were the first legislator and the first king; and thus, Hushang was given the title Paradat or Pishdad or Bishdad and Fishdad (Arabic), which was probably an imitation of the name and title of the Assyrian king Sargon of Akkad, meaning "the lawful king". Deioces and Hushang developed housing and urban lifestyle and thus Hushang acquired the name or title Heoshingeh or Hushang or Ushhanj (Arabic). Succession[edit] After Deioces, his son, Phraortes, succeeded him and ruled for 22 years; though some researchers believe that he ruled for fifty-three years (678-625 BC). During his reign, he conquered Persia and went to war with other peoples of the Iranian Plateau. He invaded Assyria; during these attacks, the Medians were defeated and Phraortes was killed in the war.[17][23] References[edit] ^ Ellis, Edward Sylvester; Horne, Charles F. (Charles Francis) (1913). The story of the greatest nations; a comprehensive history, extending from the earliest times to the present, founded on the most modern authorities, and including chronological summaries and pronouncing vocabularies for each nation; and the world's famous events, told in a series of brief sketches forming a single continuous story of history and illumined by a complete series of notable illustrations from the great historic paintings of all lands. New York : Niglutsch. ^ a b c d Schmitt. . "DEIOCES". In Encyclopædia Iranica. ^ Polyaenus, Strategems, 7.1.1 ^ a b c d Schmitt. "Deioces". Encyclopædia Iranica. ^ Khaleghi. "Hushang and Deioces". Iranshenasi. ^ a b c d e Diakonoff. The Median History. ^ "Deioces founding the Median empire". ^ Zarrinkoob. History of the Iranians. ^ Dandamayev and Medvedskaya. "MEDIA". In Encyclopædia Iranica. ^ a b Cameron. Persia in the Dawn of History. ^ Bryan. History of the Achaemenid Empire. ^ a b Frye (1962). The Heritage of Persia. ^ a b "Encyclopædia Britannica Online". ^ a b c Huart. Iran and the Iranian Civilization. ^ Khaleghi Motlag. Iranshenasi. ^ Hinz. Darius and the Persians. ^ a b c Pirnia. History of Ancient Iran. ^ Brown. "ECBATANA". In Encyclopædia Iranica. ^ a b Zarrinkub. History of the Iranian People. ^ Mohajerinezhad. The Median History. ^ Amouzgar. The Real and Narrative History of Iran. ^ Khaleghi Motlag. Hushang and Deioces. ^ Medvedskaya. "PHRAORTES". In Encyclopædia Iranica. Asia portal Deioces  Died: c. 675 BC Regnal titles New title King of Medes ? – c. 675 BC Succeeded by Phraortes v t e Median and Achaemenid kings Family tree Median (728–550 BC) Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Achaemenid (550–330 BC) Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Nothus Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Italics indicate kings not directly attested and so possibly legendary. v t e Median topics Language Median language, Iranian language Cities Ecbatana (Hamadan) Rhagae (Shahre Rey, Tehran) Laodicea (Nahavand) Battles involving Lydia Eclipse of Thales Battles involving Persia Persian Revolt Battle of Hyrba Battle of the Persian Border Siege of Pasargadae Hill Battle of Pasargadae Fall of Ecbatana Kings/Satraps Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Cyaxares II Darius the Mede Other Medians Amytis of Media Artembares Datis Gubaru Mazares Harpagus Aryenis Mandane Authority control GND: 118679260 VIAF: 32790512 WorldCat Identities: viaf-32790512 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Deioces&oldid=1000833832" Categories: Median kings 670s BC deaths 7th-century BC rulers in Asia 7th-century BC Iranian people 8th-century BC Iranian people Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Kurdî Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina کوردی Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Tagalog Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 16 January 2021, at 23:40 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1130	----	Gore Vidal - Wikipedia Gore Vidal From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search American writer Gore Vidal Vidal c. 1978 Born Eugene Louis Vidal (1925-10-03)October 3, 1925 West Point, New York, U.S. Died July 31, 2012(2012-07-31) (aged 86) Los Angeles, California, U.S. Other names Eugene Luther Vidal Jr. Education Phillips Exeter Academy Occupation Writer, novelist, essayist, playwright, screenwriter, actor Known for The City and the Pillar (1948) Julian (1964) Myra Breckinridge (1968) Burr (1973) Lincoln (1984) Political party Democratic People's Party (affiliated non–member) Movement Postmodernism Partner(s) See list Anaïs Nin (1944–1948) Diana Lynn (1949–1950) Joanne Woodward (1950–1951) Howard Austen (1951–2003) Parent(s) Eugene Luther Vidal Nina S. Gore Relatives See list Nina Auchincloss (half-sister) Hugh Steers (half-nephew) Burr Steers (half-nephew) Chairman of the People's Party In office November 27, 1970 – November 7, 1972 Preceded by Party established Served with Benjamin Spock Eugene Luther Gore Vidal (/vɪˈdɑːl/; born Eugene Louis Vidal, October 3, 1925 – July 31, 2012) was an American writer and public intellectual known for his epigrammatic wit, patrician manner, and polished style of writing. Vidal was openly bisexual and his novels often dealt with LGBT characters, which was unusual at the time. Beyond literature, Vidal was heavily involved in politics. He twice sought office—unsuccessfully—as a Democratic Party candidate, first in 1960 to the United States House of Representatives (for New York), and later in 1982 to the U.S. Senate (for California). Vidal was born into an upper class political family. As a political commentator and essayist, Vidal's primary focus was the history and society of the United States, especially how a militaristic foreign policy reduced the country to a decadent empire.[1] His political and cultural essays were published in The Nation, the New Statesman, the New York Review of Books, and Esquire magazines. As a public intellectual, Gore Vidal's topical debates on sex, politics, and religion with other intellectuals and writers occasionally turned into quarrels with the likes of William F. Buckley Jr. and Norman Mailer. As a novelist, Vidal explored the nature of corruption in public and private life. His polished and erudite style of narration readily evoked the time and place of his stories, and perceptively delineated the psychology of his characters.[2] His third novel, The City and the Pillar (1948), offended the literary, political, and moral sensibilities of conservative book reviewers, the plot being about a dispassionately presented male homosexual relationship.[3] In the historical novel genre, Vidal recreated the imperial world of Julian the Apostate (r. AD 361–63) in Julian (1964). Julian was the Roman emperor who used religious tolerance to re-establish pagan polytheism to counter the political subversion of Christian monotheism.[4] In social satire, Myra Breckinridge (1968) explores the mutability of gender roles and sexual orientation as being social constructs established by social mores.[5]:94–100 In Burr (1973) and Lincoln (1984), each protagonist is presented as "A Man of the People" and as "A Man" in a narrative exploration of how the public and private facets of personality affect the national politics of the United States.[6]:439[5]:75–85 Contents 1 Early life 2 Literary career 2.1 Fiction 2.2 Non-fiction 2.3 Hollywood 3 Politics 3.1 Political campaigns 3.2 Criticism of George W. Bush 3.3 Political philosophy 4 Feuds 4.1 The Capote–Vidal feud 4.2 The Buckley–Vidal feud 4.3 The Mailer–Vidal feud 5 Views 5.1 Polanski rape case 5.2 Scientology 5.3 Sexuality 6 Personal life 7 Death 7.1 Legacy 7.2 In popular culture 8 Selected list of works 9 See also 10 References 11 External links Early life[edit] A 23 year old Vidal in 1948 Eugene Louis Vidal was born in the cadet hospital of the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, New York, the only child of Eugene Luther Vidal (1895–1969) and Nina S. Gore (1903–1978).[7][8] Vidal was born there because his first lieutenant father was the first aeronautics instructor of the military academy. The middle name, Louis, was a mistake on the part of his father, "who could not remember, for certain, whether his own name was Eugene Louis or Eugene Luther".[9] In the memoir Palimpsest (1995), Vidal said, "My birth certificate says 'Eugene Louis Vidal': this was changed to Eugene Luther Vidal Jr.; then Gore was added at my christening [in 1939]; then, at fourteen, I got rid of the first two names."[6]:401 Eugene Louis Vidal was not baptized until January 1939, when he was 13 years old, by the headmaster of St. Albans school, where Vidal attended preparatory school. The baptismal ceremony was effected so he "could be confirmed [into the Episcopal faith]" at the Washington Cathedral, in February 1939, as "Eugene Luther Gore Vidal".[10]:xix He later said that, although the surname "Gore" was added to his names at the time of the baptism, "I wasn't named for him [maternal grandfather Thomas Pryor Gore], although he had a great influence on my life."[10]:4 In 1941, Vidal dropped his two first names, because he "wanted a sharp, distinctive name, appropriate for an aspiring author, or a national political leader ... I wasn't going to write as 'Gene' since there was already one. I didn't want to use the 'Jr.'"[9][10]:xx Eugene Luther Vidal Sr. was director (1933–1937) of the Commerce Department's Bureau of Air Commerce during the Roosevelt Administration, and was also the great love of the aviator Amelia Earhart.[11][12] At the U.S. Military Academy, the exceptionally athletic Vidal Sr. had been a quarterback, coach, and captain of the football team; and an all-American basketball player. Subsequently, he competed in the 1920 Summer Olympics and in the 1924 Summer Olympics (seventh in the decathlon, and coach of the U.S. pentathlon).[13][14] In the 1920s and the 1930s, Vidal Sr. co-founded three airline companies and a railroad line; (i) the Ludington Line (later Eastern Airlines); (ii) Transcontinental Air Transport (later Trans World Airlines); (iii) Northeast Airlines; and the Boston and Maine Railroad.[6][15] Gore's great-grandfather Eugen Fidel Vidal was born in Feldkirch, Austria, of Romansh background, and had come to the U.S. with Gore's Swiss great-grandmother, Emma Hartmann.[16] Vidal's mother, Nina Gore, was a socialite who made her Broadway theatre debut as an extra actress in Sign of the Leopard, in 1928.[17] In 1922, Nina married Eugene Luther Vidal, Sr., and thirteen years later, in 1935, divorced him.[18] Nina Gore Vidal then was married two more times; to Hugh D. Auchincloss and to Robert Olds. She also had "a long off-and-on affair" with the actor Clark Gable.[19] As Nina Gore Auchincloss, Vidal's mother was an alternate delegate to the 1940 Democratic National Convention.[20] The subsequent marriages of his mother and father yielded four half-siblings for Gore Vidal – Vance Vidal, Valerie Vidal, Thomas Gore Auchincloss, and Nina Gore Auchincloss – and four step-brothers from his mother's third marriage to Robert Olds, a major general in the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF), who died in 1943, 10 months after marrying Nina.[21] The nephews of Gore Vidal include Burr Steers, a writer and film director, and Hugh Auchincloss Steers (1963–95), a figurative painter.[22][23] Raised in Washington, D.C., Vidal attended the Sidwell Friends School and the St. Albans School. Given the blindness of his maternal grandfather, Senator Thomas Pryor Gore, of Oklahoma, Vidal read aloud to him, and was his Senate page, and his seeing-eye guide.[24] In 1939, during his summer holiday, Vidal went with some colleagues and professor from St. Albans School on his first European trip, to visit Italy and France. He visited for the first time Rome, the city which came to be "at the center of Gore's literary imagination", and Paris. When the Second World War began in early September, the group was forced to an early return home; on his way back, he and his colleagues stopped in Great Britain, and they met the U.S. Ambassador to Great Britain, Joe Kennedy (the father of John Fitzgerald Kennedy, later the President of the United States of America).[25] In 1940 he attended the Los Alamos Ranch School and later transferred to Phillips Exeter Academy, in Exeter, New Hampshire, where he contributed to the Exonian, the school newspaper.[26] Rather than attend university, Vidal enlisted in the U.S. Army and worked as an office clerk within the USAAF. Later, Vidal passed the examinations necessary to become a maritime warrant officer (junior grade) in the Transportation Corps, and subsequently served as first mate of the F.S. 35th, berthed at Dutch Harbor. After three years in service, Warrant Officer Gene Vidal suffered hypothermia, developed rheumatoid arthritis and, consequently, was reassigned to duty as a mess officer.[27] Literary career[edit] The literary works of Gore Vidal were influenced by numerous other writers, poets and playwrights, novelists and essayists. These include, from antiquity, Petronius (d. AD 66), Juvenal (AD 60–140), and Apuleius (fl. c. AD 155); and from the post-Renaissance, Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592), Thomas Love Peacock (1785–1866), and George Meredith (1828–1909). More recent literary influences included Marcel Proust (1871–1922), Henry James (1843–1916), and Evelyn Waugh (1903–66).[28] The cultural critic Harold Bloom has written that Gore Vidal believed that his sexuality had denied him full recognition from the literary community in the United States. Bloom himself contends that such limited recognition more resulted from Vidal's "best fictions" being "distinguished historical novels," a subgenre "no longer available for canonization."[29] Fiction[edit] Vidal at the Los Angeles Times Festival of Books, 2008 The literary career of Gore Vidal began with the success of the military novel Williwaw, a men-at-war story derived from his Alaskan Harbor Detachment duty during the Second World War.[30] His third novel, The City and the Pillar (1948) caused a moralistic furor over his dispassionate presentation of a young protagonist coming to terms with his homosexuality.[31] The novel was dedicated to "J. T."; decades later, Vidal confirmed that the initials were those of James Trimble III, killed in the Battle of Iwo Jima on March 1, 1945 and that Trimble was the only person he ever loved.[32][33] Critics railed against Vidal's presentation of homosexuality in the novel as natural, a life viewed generally at the time as unnatural and immoral.[31] Vidal claimed that New York Times critic Orville Prescott was so offended by it that he refused to review or to permit other critics to review any book by Vidal.[34] Vidal said that upon publication of the book, an editor at E. P. Dutton told him "You will never be forgiven for this book. Twenty years from now, you will still be attacked for it".[31] Today, Vidal is often seen as an early champion of sexual liberation.[35] Vidal took the pseudonym "Edgar Box" and wrote the mystery novels Death in the Fifth Position (1952), Death before Bedtime (1953) and Death Likes it Hot (1954) featuring Peter Cutler Sargeant II, a publicist-turned-private-eye. The Edgar Box genre novels sold well and earned black-listed Vidal a secret living.[36][37] That mystery-novel success led Vidal to write in other genres and he produced the stage play The Best Man: A Play about Politics (1960) and the television play Visit to a Small Planet (1957). Two early teleplays were A Sense of Justice (1955) and Honor.[38] He also wrote the pulp novel Thieves Fall Out under the pseudonym "Cameron Kay" but refused to have it reprinted under his real name during his life.[39] In the 1960s, Vidal published Julian (1964), about the Roman Emperor Julian the Apostate (r. A.D. 361–363), who sought to reinstate polytheistic paganism when Christianity threatened the cultural integrity of the Roman Empire, Washington, D.C. (1967), about political life during the presidential era (1933–45) of Franklin D. Roosevelt and Myra Breckinridge (1968), a satire of the American movie business, by way of a school of dramatic arts owned by a transsexual woman, the eponymous anti-heroine. After publishing the plays Weekend (1968) and An Evening With Richard Nixon (1972) and the novel Two Sisters: A Novel in the Form of a Memoir (1970), Vidal concentrated upon the essay and developed two types of fiction. The first type is about American history, novels specifically about the nature of national politics.[40] The New York Times, quoting critic Harold Bloom about those historical novels, said that Vidal's imagination of American politics "is so powerful as to compel awe."[41] The historical novels formed the seven-book series, Narratives of Empire: (i) Burr (1973), (ii) Lincoln (1984), (iii) 1876 (1976), (iv) Empire (1987), (v) Hollywood (1990), (vi) Washington, D.C. (1967) and (vii) The Golden Age (2000). Besides U.S. history, Vidal also explored and analyzed the history of the ancient world, specifically the Axial Age (800–200 B.C.), with the novel Creation (1981). The novel was published without four chapters that were part of the manuscript he submitted to the publisher; years later, Vidal restored the chapters to the text and re-published the novel Creation in 2002. The second type of fiction is the topical satire, such as Myron (1974) the sequel to Myra Breckinridge; Kalki (1978), about the end of the world and the consequent ennui; Duluth (1983), an alternate universe story; Live from Golgotha (1992), about the adventures of Timothy, Bishop of Macedonia, in the early days of Christianity; and The Smithsonian Institution (1998), a time-travel story. Non-fiction[edit] Vidal's historical novel 1876 (1976) In the United States, Gore Vidal is often considered an essayist rather than a novelist.[42] Even the occasionally hostile literary critic, such as Martin Amis, admitted that "Essays are what he is good at ... [Vidal] is learned, funny, and exceptionally clear-sighted. Even his blind spots are illuminating." For six decades, Vidal applied himself to socio-political, sexual, historical and literary subjects. In the essay anthology Armageddon (1987) he explored the intricacies of power (political and cultural) in the contemporary United States. His criticism of the incumbent U.S. president, Ronald Reagan, as a "triumph of the embalmer's art" communicated that Reagan's provincial worldview, and that of his administration's, was out of date and inadequate to the geopolitical realities of the world in the late twentieth century. In 1993, Vidal won the National Book Award for Nonfiction for the anthology United States: Essays 1952–92 (1993).[43] In 2000, Vidal published the collection of essays, The Last Empire, then such self-described "pamphlets" as Perpetual War for Perpetual Peace, Dreaming War: Blood for Oil and the Cheney-Bush Junta and Imperial America, critiques of American expansionism, the military-industrial complex, the national security state and the George W. Bush administration. Vidal also wrote a historical essay about the U.S. founding fathers, Inventing a Nation. In 1995, he published a memoir Palimpsest and in 2006 its follow-up volume, Point to Point Navigation. Earlier that year, Vidal had published Clouds and Eclipses: The Collected Short Stories. In 2009, he won the annual Medal for Distinguished Contribution to American Letters from the National Book Foundation, which called him a "prominent social critic on politics, history, literature and culture".[44] In the same year, the Man of Letters Gore Vidal was named honorary president of the American Humanist Association.[45][31] Hollywood[edit] Vidal (second from right) supporting the 1981 Writers Guild of America strike In 1956, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer hired Gore Vidal as a screenplay writer with a four-year employment contract. In 1958, the director William Wyler required a script doctor to rewrite the screenplay for Ben-Hur (1959), originally written by Karl Tunberg. As one of several script doctors assigned to the project, Vidal rewrote significant portions of the script to resolve ambiguities of character motivation, specifically to clarify the enmity between the Jewish protagonist, Judah Ben-Hur, and the Roman antagonist, Messala, who had been close boyhood friends. In exchange for rewriting the Ben-Hur screenplay, on location in Italy, Vidal negotiated the early termination (at the two-year mark) of his four-year contract with MGM.[6][46] Thirty-six years later, in the documentary film The Celluloid Closet (1995), Vidal explained that Messala's failed attempt at resuming their homosexual, boyhood relationship motivated the ostensibly political enmity between Ben-Hur (Charlton Heston) and Messala (Stephen Boyd), that Boyd was aware of the homosexual subtext to the scene and that the director, the producer and the screenplay writer agreed to keep Heston ignorant of the subtext, lest he refuse to play the scene.[6][47] In turn, on learning of that script-doctor explanation, Charlton Heston said that Gore Vidal had contributed little to the script of Ben-Hur.[48] Despite Vidal's script-doctor resolution of the character's motivations, the Screen Writers Guild assigned formal screenwriter-credit to Karl Tunberg, in accordance with the WGA screenwriting credit system, which favored the "original author" of a screenplay, rather than the writer of the filmed screenplay.[49] Two plays, The Best Man: A Play about Politics (1960, made into a film in 1964) and Visit to a Small Planet (1955) were theatre and movie successes; Vidal occasionally returned to the movie business, and wrote historically accurate teleplays and screenplays about subjects important to him. Two such movies are the cowboy movie Billy the Kid (1989), about William H. Bonney, a gunman in the New Mexico territory Lincoln County War (1878), and later an outlaw in the U.S. Western frontier; and the Roman Empire movie Caligula (1979), from which Vidal had his screenwriter credit removed, because the producer, Bob Guccione, the director, Tinto Brass and the leading actor, Malcolm McDowell, rewrote the script and added extra sex and violence to increase the commercial success of a movie based upon the life of the Roman Emperor Caligula (AD 12–41).[50] In the 1960s, Vidal migrated to Italy, where he befriended the film director Federico Fellini, for whom he appeared in a cameo role in the film Roma (1972). He also acted in the films Bob Roberts (1992), a serio-comedy about a reactionary populist politician who manipulates youth culture to win votes; With Honors (1994) an Ivy league college-life comedy; Gattaca (1997), a science-fiction drama about genetic engineering; and Igby Goes Down (2002), a coming-of-age serio-comedy directed by his nephew, Burr Steers. Politics[edit] Political campaigns[edit] Vidal speaking for the People's Party in 1972 Gore Vidal began to drift towards the political left after he received his first paycheck, and realized how much money the government took in tax.[51] He reasoned that if the government was taking so much money, then it should at least provide first-rate healthcare and education.[51] As a public intellectual, Gore Vidal was identified with the liberal politicians and the progressive social causes of the old Democratic Party.[52][53] In 1960, Vidal was the Democratic candidate for Congress for the 29th Congressional District of New York, a usually Republican district on the Hudson River but lost to the Republican candidate J. Ernest Wharton, by a margin of 57 percent to 43 percent.[54] Campaigning under the slogan of You'll get more with Gore, Vidal received the most votes any Democratic candidate had received in the district in fifty years. Among his supporters were Eleanor Roosevelt and Paul Newman and Joanne Woodward, friends who spoke on his behalf.[55] In 1982, he campaigned against Jerry Brown, the incumbent Governor of California, in the Democratic primary election for the U.S. Senate; Vidal forecast accurately that the opposing Republican candidate would win the election.[56] That foray into senatorial politics is the subject of the documentary film Gore Vidal: The Man Who Said No (1983), directed by Gary Conklin. In a 2001 article, "The Meaning of Timothy McVeigh", Gore undertook to discover why domestic terrorist Timothy McVeigh perpetrated the Oklahoma City bombing in 1995. He concluded that McVeigh (a politically disillusioned U.S. Army veteran of the First Iraq War, 1990–91) had destroyed the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building as an act of revenge for the FBI's Waco massacre (1993) at the Branch Davidian Compound in Texas, believing that the U.S. government had mistreated Americans in the same manner that he believed that the U.S. Army had mistreated the Iraqis. In concluding the Vanity Fair article, Vidal refers to McVeigh as an "unlikely sole mover," and theorizes that foreign/domestic conspiracies could have been involved.[57] Vidal was very much against any kind of military intervention in the world.[58] In Dreaming War: Blood for Oil and the Cheney-Bush Junta (2002), Vidal drew parallels about how the United States enters wars and said that President Franklin D. Roosevelt provoked Imperial Japan to attack the U.S. in order to justify the American entry to the Second World War (1939–45). He contended that Roosevelt had advance knowledge of the dawn-raid attack on Pearl Harbor (December 7, 1941).[59] In the documentary Why We Fight (2005), Vidal said that, during the final months of the war, the Japanese had tried to surrender: "They were trying to surrender all that summer, but Truman wouldn't listen, because Truman wanted to drop the bombs ... To show off. To frighten Stalin. To change the balance of power in the world. To declare war on communism. Perhaps we were starting a pre-emptive world war".[60] Vidal and ex-senator George McGovern at the Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum, August 26, 2009 Criticism of George W. Bush[edit] As a public intellectual, Vidal criticized what he viewed as political harm to the nation and the voiding of the citizen's rights through the passage of the USA Patriot Act (2001) during the George W. Bush administration (2001–2009). He described Bush as "the stupidest man in the United States" and said that Bush's foreign policy was explicitly expansionist.[61][62] He contended that the Bush Administration and their oil-business sponsors, aimed to control the petroleum of Central Asia, after having gained hegemony over the petroleum of the Persian Gulf in 1991.[63] Vidal became a member of the board of advisors of The World Can't Wait, a political organization which sought to publicly repudiate the foreign-policy program of the Bush Administration (2001–2009) and advocated Bush's impeachment for war crimes, such as the Second Iraq War (2003–2011) and torturing prisoners of war (soldiers, guerrillas, civilians) in violation of international law.[64] In May 2007, while discussing 9/11 conspiracy theories that might explain the "who?" and the "why?" of the 2001 terrorist attacks in New York City and Washington, D.C., Vidal said I'm not a conspiracy theorist, I'm a conspiracy analyst. Everything the Bushites touch is screwed up. They could never have pulled off 9/11, even if they wanted to. Even if they longed to. They could step aside, though, or just go out to lunch while these terrible things were happening to the nation. I believe that of them. — Gore Vidal[65] Political philosophy[edit] In the American Conservative article, "My Pen Pal Gore Vidal" (2012), Bill Kauffman reported that Vidal's favorite American politician, during his lifetime, was Huey Long (1893–1935), the populist Governor (1928–32) and Senator (1932–35) from Louisiana, who also had perceived the essential, one-party nature of U.S. politics and who was assassinated by a lone gunman.[66] Despite that, Vidal said, "I think of myself as a conservative", with a proprietary attitude towards the United States. "My family helped start [this country] ... and we've been in political life ... since the 1690s, and I have a very possessive sense about this country".[67][68] Based upon that background of populism, from 1970 to 1972, Vidal was a chairman of the People's Party of the United States.[69] In 1971, he endorsed the consumer-rights advocate Ralph Nader for U.S. president in the 1972 election.[70] In 2004, he endorsed Democrat Dennis Kucinich in his candidacy for the U.S. presidency (in 2004), because Kucinich was "the most eloquent of the lot" of presidential candidates, from either the Republican or the Democratic parties and that Kucinich was "very much a favorite out there, in the amber fields of grain".[71] In a September 30, 2009 interview with The Times of London, Vidal said that there soon would be a dictatorship in the United States. The newspaper emphasized that Vidal, described as "the Grand Old Man of American belles-lettres", claimed that America is rotting away – and to not expect Barack Obama to save the country and the nation from imperial decay. In this interview, he also updated his views of his life, the United States, and other political subjects.[72] Vidal had earlier described what he saw as the political and cultural rot in the United States in his essay, "The State of the Union" (1975), There is only one party in the United States, the Property Party ... and it has two right wings: Republican and Democrat. Republicans are a bit stupider, more rigid, more doctrinaire in their laissez-faire capitalism than the Democrats, who are cuter, prettier, a bit more corrupt – until recently ... and more willing than the Republicans to make small adjustments when the poor, the black, the anti-imperialists get out of hand. But, essentially, there is no difference between the two parties. — Gore Vidal[73] Feuds[edit] The Capote–Vidal feud[edit] In 1975 Vidal sued Truman Capote for slander over the accusation that he had been thrown out of the White House for being drunk, putting his arm around the first lady and then insulting Mrs. Kennedy's mother.[41] Said Capote of Vidal at the time: "I'm always sad about Gore – very sad that he has to breathe every day".[74] Mutual friend George Plimpton observed "There's no venom like Capote's when he's on the prowl – and Gore's too, I don't know what division the feud should be in." The suit was settled in Vidal's favor when Lee Radziwill refused to testify on Capote's behalf, telling columnist Liz Smith, "Oh, Liz, what do we care; they're just a couple of fags! They're disgusting".[74][75] The Buckley–Vidal feud[edit] The feud between Vidal and Buckley (pictured) lasted until the latter's death in 2008. In 1968, the ABC television network hired the liberal Gore Vidal and the conservative William F. Buckley, Jr. as political analysts of the presidential-nomination conventions of the Republican and Democratic parties.[76] Their commentaries led to Buckley threatening to assault Vidal. After days of bickering, their debates degraded to vitriolic ad hominem attacks. Discussing the 1968 Democratic National Convention protests, the public intellectuals argued about freedom of speech, namely the legality of protesters to display a Viet Cong flag in America, Vidal told Buckley to "shut up a minute". Buckley had likened violent left wing protesters to German National Socialists. Vidal stated "As far as I'm concerned, the only sort of pro-crypto-Nazi I can think of is yourself". Buckley replied, "Now listen, you queer. Stop calling me a crypto-Nazi, or I'll sock you in the goddamn face, and you'll stay plastered". ABC's Howard K. Smith interjected, and the debate resumed without violence.[56][77] Later, Buckley said he regretted having called Vidal a "queer" yet said that Vidal was an "evangelist for bisexuality".[78] In 1969, in Esquire magazine, Buckley continued his cultural feud with Vidal in the essay "On Experiencing Gore Vidal" (August 1969), in which he portrayed Vidal as an apologist for homosexuality; Buckley said, "The man who, in his essays, proclaims the normalcy of his affliction [i.e., homosexuality], and in his art the desirability of it, is not to be confused with the man who bears his sorrow quietly. The addict is to be pitied and even respected, not the pusher." The essay is collected in The Governor Listeth: A Book of Inspired Political Revelations (1970), an anthology of Buckley's writings from the time.[citation needed] Vidal riposted in Esquire with the September 1969 essay "A Distasteful Encounter with William F. Buckley, Jr." and said that Buckley was "anti-black", "anti-semitic" and a "warmonger".[79] Buckley sued Vidal for libel.[80] The feud continued in Esquire, where Vidal implied that in 1944, Buckley and unnamed siblings had vandalized a Protestant church in Sharon, Connecticut, (the Buckley family hometown) after the wife of a pastor had sold a house to a Jewish family. Buckley again sued Vidal and Esquire for libel and Vidal filed a counterclaim for libel against Buckley, citing Buckley's characterization of Myra Breckinridge (1968) as a pornographic novel.[81][82] The court dismissed Vidal's counterclaim.[83] Buckley accepted a money settlement of $115,000 to pay the fee of his attorney and an editorial apology from Esquire, in which the publisher and the editors said that they were "utterly convinced" of the untruthfulness of Vidal's assertions.[84] In a letter to Newsweek magazine, the publisher of Esquire said that "the settlement of Buckley's suit against us" was not "a 'disavowal' of Vidal's article. On the contrary, it clearly states that we published that article because we believed that Vidal had a right to assert his opinions, even though we did not share them".[85] In Gore Vidal: A Biography (1999), Fred Kaplan said that "The court had 'not' sustained Buckley's case against Esquire ... [that] the court had 'not' ruled that Vidal's article was 'defamatory'. It had ruled that the case would have to go to trial in order to determine, as a matter of fact, whether or not it was defamatory. The cash value of the settlement with Esquire represented 'only' Buckley's legal expenses".[85] In 2003, Buckley resumed his complaint of having been libelled by Vidal, this time with the publication of the anthology Esquire's Big Book of Great Writing (2003), which included Vidal's essay, "A Distasteful Encounter with William F. Buckley, Jr." Again, the offended Buckley filed lawsuit for libel and Esquire magazine again settled Buckley's claim with $55,000–65,000 for the fees of his attorney and $10,000 for personal damages suffered by Buckley.[86] In the obituary "RIP WFB – in Hell" (March 20, 2008), Vidal remembered Buckley, who had died on February 27, 2008.[87] Later, in the interview "Literary Lion: Questions for Gore Vidal" (June 15, 2008), New York Times reporter Deborah Solomon asked Vidal, "How did you feel, when you heard that Buckley died this year?" Vidal responded: I thought hell is bound to be a livelier place, as he joins, forever, those whom he served in life, applauding their prejudices and fanning their hatred. — Gore Vidal[88] The Mailer–Vidal feud[edit] On December 15, 1971, during the recording of The Dick Cavett Show, with Janet Flanner, Norman Mailer allegedly head-butted Vidal when they were backstage.[89] When a reporter asked Vidal why Mailer had knocked heads with him, Vidal said, "Once again, words failed Norman Mailer".[90] During the recording of the talk show, Vidal and Mailer insulted each other, over what Vidal had written about him, prompting Mailer to say, "I've had to smell your works from time to time". Apparently, Mailer's umbrage resulted from Vidal's reference to Mailer having stabbed his wife of the time.[91] Views[edit] Polanski rape case[edit] Further information: Roman Polanski sexual abuse case In The Atlantic magazine interview, "A Conversation with Gore Vidal" (October 2009), by John Meroney, Vidal spoke about topical and cultural matters of U.S. society. Asked his opinion about the arrest of the film director Roman Polanski, in Switzerland, in September 2009, in response to an extradition request by U.S. authorities, for having fled the U.S. in 1978 to avoid jail for the statutory rape of a thirteen-year-old girl in Hollywood, Vidal said, "I really don't give a fuck. Look, am I going to sit and weep every time a young hooker feels as though she's been taken advantage of?" Asked for elaboration, Vidal explained the cultural temper of the U.S. and of the Hollywood movie business in the 1970s: The [news] media can't get anything straight. Plus, there's usually an anti-Semitic and anti-fag thing going on with the press – lots of crazy things. The idea that this girl was in her communion dress, a little angel, all in white, being raped by this awful Jew Polacko – that's what people were calling him – well, the story is totally different now [2009] from what it was then [1970s] ... Anti-Semitism got poor Polanski. He was also a foreigner. He did not subscribe to American values, in the least. To [his persecutors], that seemed vicious and unnatural. — Gore Vidal[92] Asked to explain the term "American values", Vidal replied, "Lying and cheating. There's nothing better."[92] In response to Vidal's opinion about the decades-old Polanski rape case, a spokeswoman for the organization Survivors Network of those Abused by Priests, Barbara Dorris, said, "People should express their outrage, by refusing to buy any of his books", called Vidal a "mean-spirited buffoon" and said that, although "a boycott wouldn't hurt Vidal financially", it would "cause anyone else, with such callous views, to keep his mouth shut, and [so] avoid rubbing salt into the already deep [psychological] wounds of (the victims)" of sexual abuse.[93] Scientology[edit] In 1997, Gore Vidal was one of thirty-four public intellectuals and celebrities who signed an open-letter addressed to Helmut Kohl, the Chancellor of Germany, published in the International Herald Tribune, protesting the treatment of Scientologists in Germany.[94] Despite that stance, as a dispassionate intellectual Gore Vidal was fundamentally critical of Scientology as religion.[95] Sexuality[edit] In 1967, Vidal appeared in the CBS documentary, CBS Reports: The Homosexuals, in which he expressed his views on homosexuality in the arts.[96] Commenting on his life's work and his life, he described his style as "Knowing who you are, what you want to say, and not giving a damn."[31] Vidal often rebutted the label of "gay". He maintained that it referred to sexual acts rather than sexuality. Gore did not express a public stance on the HIV-AIDS crisis. According to Vidal's close friend Jay Parini, "Gore didn’t think of himself as a gay guy. It makes him self-hating. How could he despise gays as much as he did? In my company he always used the term 'fags'. He was uncomfortable with being gay. Then again, he was wildly courageous." Biographer Fred Kaplan concluded: "He was not interested in making a difference for gay people, or being an advocate for gay rights. There was no such thing as 'straight' or 'gay' for him, just the body and sex".[97] In the September 1969 edition of Esquire, Vidal wrote We are all bisexual to begin with. That is a fact of our condition. And we are all responsive to sexual stimuli from our own as well as from the opposite sex. Certain societies at certain times, usually in the interest of maintaining the baby supply, have discouraged homosexuality. Other societies, particularly militaristic ones, have exalted it. But regardless of tribal taboos, homosexuality is a constant fact of the human condition and it is not a sickness, not a sin, not a crime ... despite the best efforts of our puritan tribe to make it all three. Homosexuality is as natural as heterosexuality. Notice I use the word 'natural,' not normal.[79][31] Personal life[edit] Vidal as a young man In the multi-volume memoir The Diary of Anaïs Nin (1931–74), Anaïs Nin said she had a love affair with Vidal, who denied her claim in his memoir Palimpsest (1995). In the online article "Gore Vidal's Secret, Unpublished Love Letter to Anaïs Nin" (2013), author Kim Krizan said she found an unpublished love letter from Vidal to Nin, which contradicts his denial of a love affair with Nin. Krizan said she found the love letter while researching Mirages, the latest volume of Nin's uncensored diary, to which Krizan wrote the foreword.[98] Vidal would cruise the streets and bars of New York City and other locales and wrote in his memoir that by age twenty-five, he had had more than a thousand sexual encounters.[99] Vidal also said that he had an intermittent romance with the actress Diana Lynn, and alluded to possibly having fathered a daughter.[6][100][101] He was briefly engaged to the actress Joanne Woodward before she married the actor Paul Newman; after marrying, they briefly shared a house with Vidal in Los Angeles.[102] Vidal enjoyed telling his sexual exploits to friends. Vidal claimed to have slept with Fred Astaire when he first moved to Hollywood. Vidal reportedly told his nephew that Dennis Hopper had a "lovely tuft of hair above his ass".[97] In 1950, Gore Vidal met Howard Austen, who became his partner for the next 53 years, until Austen's death.[103] He said that the secret to his long relationship with Austen was that they did not have sex with each other: "It's easy to sustain a relationship when sex plays no part, and impossible, I have observed, when it does."[104] In Celebrity: The Advocate Interviews (1995), by Judy Wiedner, Vidal said that he refused to call himself "gay" because he was not an adjective, adding "to be categorized is, simply, to be enslaved. Watch out. I have never thought of myself as a victim ... I've said – a thousand times? – in print and on TV, that everyone is bisexual".[105] During their relationship, the two would often hire male prostitutes - the control appealed to Vidal. He was always the top.[97] In the course of his life, Vidal lived at various times in Italy and in the United States. In 2003, as his health began to fail with age, he sold his Italian villa La Rondinaia (The Swallow's Nest) on the Amalfi Coast in the province of Salerno and he and Austen returned to live in their 1929[106] villa in Outpost Estates, Los Angeles.[107] Howard Austen died in November 2003 and in February 2005 his remains were re-buried at Rock Creek Cemetery, in Washington, D.C., in a joint grave plot that Vidal had purchased for himself and Austen.[108] Death[edit] In 2010 Vidal began to suffer from Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome, a neurological disorder.[109] On July 31, 2012 Vidal died of pneumonia at his home in the Hollywood Hills at the age of 86.[109][110][111] A memorial service was held for him at the Gerald Schoenfeld Theatre in New York City on August 23, 2012.[112] He was buried next to Howard Austen in Rock Creek Cemetery, in Washington, D.C.[113] Legacy[edit] Postmortem opinions and assessments of Gore as a writer varied. The New York Times described him as "an Augustan figure who believed himself to be the last of a breed, and he was probably right. Few American writers have been more versatile, or gotten more mileage from their talent".[114] The Los Angeles Times said that he was a literary juggernaut whose novels and essays were considered "among the most elegant in the English language".[115] The Washington Post described him as a "major writer of the modern era ... [an] astonishingly versatile man of letters".[116] The Guardian said that "Vidal's critics disparaged his tendency to formulate an aphorism, rather than to argue, finding in his work an underlying note of contempt for those who did not agree with him. His fans, on the other hand, delighted in his unflagging wit and elegant style".[117] The Daily Telegraph described the writer as "an icy iconoclast" who "delighted in chronicling what he perceived as the disintegration of civilisation around him".[118] The BBC News said that he was "one of the finest post-war American writers ... an indefatigable critic of the whole American system ... Gore Vidal saw himself as the last of the breed of literary figures who became celebrities in their own right. Never a stranger to chat shows; his wry and witty opinions were sought after as much as his writing."[119] In "The Culture of the United States Laments the Death of Gore Vidal", the Spanish on-line magazine Ideal said that Vidal's death was a loss to the "culture of the United States", and described him as a "great American novelist and essayist".[120] In The Writer Gore Vidal is Dead in Los Angeles, the online edition of the Italian newspaper Corriere della Sera described the novelist as "the enfant terrible of American culture" and that he was "one of the giants of American literature".[121] In Gore Vidal: The Killjoy of America, the French newspaper Le Figaro said that the public intellectual Vidal was "the killjoy of America" but that he also was an "outstanding polemicist" who used words "like high-precision weapons".[122] On August 23, 2012, in the program a Memorial for Gore Vidal in Manhattan, the life and works of the writer Gore Vidal were celebrated at the Gerald Schoenfeld Theatre, with a revival of The Best Man: A Play About Politics (1960). The writer and comedian Dick Cavett was host of the Vidalian celebration, which featured personal reminiscences about and performances of excerpts from the works of Gore Vidal by friends and colleagues, such as Elizabeth Ashley, Candice Bergen and Hillary Clinton, Alan Cumming, James Earl Jones and Elaine May, Michael Moore, Susan Sarandon, Cybill Shepherd and Liz Smith.[123] In popular culture[edit] In the 1960s, the weekly American sketch comedy television program Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In featured a running-joke sketch about Vidal; the telephone operator Ernestine (Lily Tomlin) would call him, saying: "Mr. Veedul, this is the Phone Company calling! (snort! snort!)".[124][125] The sketch, titled "Mr. Veedle" also appeared in Tomlin's comedy record album This Is a Recording (1972).[126] In the 1970s, in the stand-up comedy album Reality ... What a Concept, Robin Williams portrayed Vidal as a drunken shill in a Thunderbird wine commercial. Vidal provided his own voice for the animated-cartoon version of himself in The Simpsons episode Moe'N'a Lisa (season 18, episode 6) he was also mentioned in Krusty Gets Busted (season 1, episode 12) by Sideshow Bob voiced by Kelsey Grammer and Summer of 4 Ft. 2 (season 7, episode 25) by Lisa Simpson voiced by Yeardley Smith his picture also appearing a book in the episode. He also voices his animated-cartoon version in Family Guy. Likewise, he portrayed himself in the Da Ali G Show; the Ali G character mistakes him for Vidal Sassoon, a famous hairdresser. In the biographic film Amelia (2009), the child Vidal was portrayed by William Cuddy, a Canadian actor. In the Truman Capote biographic film Infamous (2006), the young adult Vidal was portrayed by the American actor Michael Panes. The Buckley–Vidal debates, their aftermath and cultural significance, were the focus of a 2015 documentary film called Best of Enemies.[127] Selected list of works[edit] Main article: List of works by Gore Vidal The City and the Pillar (1948) Julian (1964) Myra Breckinridge (1968) Burr (1973) Lincoln (1984) See also[edit] List of Venice Film Festival jury presidents Politics in fiction References[edit] ^ Wiener, Jon. I Told You So: Gore Vidal Talks Politics Counter Point Press; Berkeley (2012) pp. 54–55 ^ Murphy, Bruce. Benét's Reader's Encyclopedia (Fourth Edition) HarperCollins Publishers (1996) p. 1,080. ^ Terry, C.V. New York Times Book Review, "The City and the Pillar" January 11, 1948, p. 22. ^ Hornblower, Simon & Spawforth, Editors. The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization Oxford University Press. (1998) pp. 383–84. ^ a b Kiernan, Robert F (1982). Gore Vidal. Frederick Ungar Publishing. ISBN 9780804424615. Retrieved February 16, 2020. ^ a b c d e f Vidal, Gore (1995). Palimpsest: A Memoir. New York: Random House. ISBN 9780679440383. Retrieved February 16, 2020. ^ Vidal, Gore, "West Point and the Third Loyalty Archived July 15, 2014, at the Wayback Machine", The New York Review of Books, Volume 20, Number 16, October 18, 1973. ^ Gore Vidal: Author Biography, Essays, History, Novels, Style, Favorite Books – Interview (2000). August 25, 2013 – via YouTube. ^ a b Kaplan, Fred (1999). "Excerpt: Gore Vidal, A Biography". The New York Times. Archived from the original on May 10, 2013. Retrieved June 12, 2013. ^ a b c Peabody, Richard; Ebersole, Lucinda (February 2005). Conversations with Gore Vidal (Paper ed.). Oxford: University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 9781578066735. Retrieved February 16, 2020. ^ "Aeronautics: $8,073.61", Time, September 28, 1931 ^ "Booknotes". Booknotes. Archived from the original on April 14, 2012. Retrieved December 31, 2011. ^ "Eugene L. Vidal, Aviation Leader". The New York Times. February 21, 1969. p. 43. Archived from the original on July 23, 2018. Retrieved July 23, 2018. ^ South Dakota Sports Hall of Fame Profile: Gene Vidal. Archived October 16, 2007, at the Wayback Machine ^ :12 ^ Parini, Jay (2015). Empire of Self: A Life of Gore Vidal Archived June 13, 2020, at the Wayback Machine. New York: Penguin Random House. ISBN 978-0-385-53757-5. Retrieved December 23, 2015 ^ "General Robert Olds Marries". The New York Times. June 7, 1942. p. 6.[dead link] ^ "Miss Nina Gore Marries". The New York Times. January 12, 1922. Archived from the original on June 10, 2020. Retrieved June 10, 2020. ^ Vidal, Gore. Point to Point Navigation, New York: Doubleday, 2006, p. 135. ^ "Politicians: Aubertine to Austern". The Political Graveyard. 2008. Archived from the original on December 28, 2008. Retrieved October 31, 2008. ^ "Maj. Gen. Olds, 46, of Air Force, Dies". The New York Times. April 29, 1943. Archived from the original on June 10, 2020. Retrieved June 10, 2020. ^ "Hugh Steers, 32, Figurative Painter". The New York Times. March 4, 1995. Archived from the original on April 17, 2017. Retrieved February 8, 2017. ^ Durbin, Karen (September 15, 2002). "A Family's Legacy: Pain and Humor (and a Movie)". The New York Times. Archived from the original on April 21, 2017. Retrieved February 8, 2017. ^ Rutten, Tim. "'The Selected Essays of Gore Vidal' Archived October 4, 2008, at the Wayback Machine", Los Angeles Times, June 18, 2008. ^ Jay Parini, Every time a friend succeeds, something inside me dies: The Life of Gore Vidal (London: Little, Brown, 2015), 27–28. ) ^ Gore Vidal: A Critical Companion, Susan Baker, Curtis S. Gibson. Greenwood Publishing Group, 1997. ISBN 0-313-29579-4. p. 3. ^ Vidal, Gore. Williwaw, "Preface", p. 1. ^ "Paris Review – The Art of Fiction No. 50, Gore Vidal". Archived from the original on October 28, 2010. Retrieved November 29, 2010. ^ Bloom, Harold (1994). The Western Canon: The Books and School of the Ages. Riverhead Books. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-57322-514-4. Archived from the original on September 19, 2015. Retrieved August 1, 2012. ^ Vidal, Gore. The City and the Pillar and Seven Early Stories (NY: Random House), p. xiii. ^ a b c d e f Duke, Barry (August 1, 2012). "Farewell Gore Vidal, Gay Atheist Extraordinary". Freethinker.co.uk. Archived from the original on January 8, 2018. Retrieved December 18, 2015. ^ Roberts, James. "The Legacy of Jimmy Trimble Archived November 5, 2012, at the Wayback Machine", ESPN, March 14, 2002. ^ Chalmers, Robert. "Gore Vidal: Literary feuds, his 'vicious' mother and rumours of a secret love child Archived June 14, 2012, at the Wayback Machine", The Independent, May 25, 2008. ^ Vidal, Gore. Point to Point Navigation (New York: Doubleday, 2006), 245 ^ Décoration de l'écrivain Gore Vidal. Archived October 13, 2008, at the Wayback Machine ^ The Boston Globe: Diane White, "Murder, He Wrote, Before Becoming a Man of Letters", 25 March 2011, Retrieved July 11, 2011 Archived November 27, 2011, at the Wayback Machine ^ Vidal, Gore. "Introduction to Death in the Fifth Position", in Edgar Box, Death in the Fifth Position (Vintage, 2011), pp. 5–6. ^ "Philco Television Playhouse: A Sense of Justice (TV)". The Paley Center for Media. Archived from the original on August 26, 2014. Retrieved January 1, 2013. ^ Bayard, Louis (April 12, 2015), "Review: Gore Vidal's 'Thieves Fall Out', Where Pulp Fiction and Hard Reality Met", The New York Times, archived from the original on April 13, 2015, retrieved April 12, 2015 ^ Leonard, John (July 7, 1970). "Not Enough Blood, Not Enough Gore". The New York Times. Archived from the original on April 10, 2009. Retrieved October 30, 2008. ^ a b "Gore Vidal Dies at 86; Prolific, Elegant, Acerbic Writer". The New York Times. August 1, 2012. 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The San Francisco Chronicle. p. E1. ^ Ned Rorem (December 12, 1999). "Gore Vidal, Aloof in Art and Life". Chicago Sun-Times. p. 18S. ^ "Show Business: Will the Real Caligula Stand Up? Archived October 22, 2010, at the Wayback Machine", Time January 3, 1977. ^ a b Vidal, Gore (2014). The History of the National Security State. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. p. 6. ^ "Gore Vidal". The Nation. Archived from the original on January 16, 2009. Retrieved January 22, 2009. ^ Ira Henry Freeman, "Gore Vidal Conducts Campaign of Quips and Liberal Views" Archived June 29, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, The New York Times, September 15, 1960 ^ "Statistics of the Presidential and Congressional Election of November 8, 1960" (PDF). Office of the Clerk, U.S. House of Representatives. 1960. p. 31, item #29. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 21, 2011. Retrieved August 4, 2012. ^ Freeman, Ira Henry (September 15, 1960). "The Playwright, the Lawyer, and the Voters". New York Times. p. 20. Archived from the original on July 23, 2018. Retrieved July 23, 2018. ^ a b Archived from gorevidalnow.com, in which Gore Vidal corrects his Wikipedia page ^ Gore Vidal, "The Meaning of Timothy McVeigh" Archived May 30, 2010, at the Wayback Machine. Vanity Fair, September 2001. ^ Jackson-Webb, Fron. "Reflections on the life and work of Gore Vidal". The Conversation. Archived from the original on May 6, 2019. Retrieved May 6, 2019. ^ Gore Vidal, "Three Lies to Rule By" and "Japanese Intentions in the Second World War", from Dreaming War: Blood for Oil and the Cheney-Bush Junta, New York, 2002, ISBN 1-56025-502-1 ^ "Why We Fight (9 of 48)". Say2.org (Series of Subtitles for Documentary Video). Archived from the original on July 28, 2011. Retrieved November 7, 2011. ^ Osborne, Kevin. "Obama a Disappointment". City Beat. Archived from the original on May 26, 2010. Retrieved June 2, 2010. ^ "YouTube – The Henry Rollins Show – The Corruption of Election 2008". Youtube.com. January 12, 2008. Archived from the original on November 14, 2008. Retrieved October 20, 2008. ^ "Gore Vidal Interview with Alex Jones Infowars, 29 October 2006 Texas Book Fest". November 1, 2006. Archived from the original on May 19, 2011. Retrieved January 22, 2009. ^ "World Can't Wait Advisory Board". Archived from the original on April 26, 2006. Retrieved July 29, 2002. ^ Close (May 5, 2007). "Vidal salon". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on December 20, 2013. Retrieved August 17, 2009. ^ Kauffman, Bill (September 14, 2012) My Pen Pal Gore Vidal Archived March 28, 2019, at the Wayback Machine, The American Conservative ^ Real Time With Bill Maher, Season 7, Episode 149, April 10, 2009 ^ Gore Vidal, "Sexually Speaking: Collected Sexual Writings", Cleis Press, 1999. ^ "Gore Vidal". Wtp.org. Archived from the original on July 8, 2008. Retrieved October 20, 2008. ^ Vidal, Gore The Best Man/'72 Archived January 5, 2010, at the Wayback Machine, Esquire ^ "Dennis Kucinich". The Nation. November 8, 2007. Archived from the original on August 4, 2012. Retrieved March 25, 2012. ^ Interview Archived November 10, 2013, at the Wayback Machine The Times September 30, 2009 ^ Gore Vidal (1977). Matters of Fact and of Fiction: Essays 1973–76. Random House. pp. 265–85. ISBN 0-394-41128-5. ^ a b "Sued by Gore Vidal and Stung by Lee Radziwill, a Wounded Truman Capote Lashes Back at the Dastardly Duo". Archived from the original on June 14, 2015. Retrieved April 9, 2015. ^ Maer Roshan (April 8, 2015). "At 92, Liz Smith Reveals How Rupert Murdoch Fired Her, What It Felt Like to Be Outed". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on April 9, 2015. Retrieved April 9, 2015. ^ Kloman, Harry. "Political Animals: Vidal, Buckley and the '68 Conventions". University of Pittsburgh. Archived from the original on September 21, 2009. Retrieved November 2, 2009. ^ "William Buckley/Gore Vidal Debate". Archived from the original on January 11, 2021. Retrieved August 3, 2012. ^ "Feuds: Wasted Talent". Time. August 22, 1969. Archived from the original on November 27, 2011. Retrieved November 7, 2011. ^ a b Gore Vidal (September 1969). "A Distasteful Encounter with William F. Buckley Jr". Esquire. p. 140. ^ "Vidal Is Sued by Buckley; A 'Nazi' Libel Is Charged". New York Times. May 7, 1969. Archived from the original on July 16, 2020. Retrieved April 29, 2019. ^ Buckley v. Vidal, 327 F.Supp. 1051 (US S.D.N.Y. 13 May 1971) ("... in August 1968, Buckley made the following statement: 'Let Myra Breckinridge [referring to the novel bearing such name and thereby identifying its author, Gore Vidal, with such novel] go back to his pornography.'"). ^ Athitakis, Mark (February 23, 2018). "Saluting 'Myra Breckinridge' on its 50th anniversary". LA Times. Archived from the original on April 1, 2018. Retrieved March 31, 2018. ^ Buckley v. Vidal Archived January 11, 2021, at the Wayback Machine 327 F. Supp. 1051 (1971) ^ "Buckley Drops Vidal Suit, Settles With Esquire", The New York Times, September 26, 1972, p. 40. ^ a b Kaplan, Fred (1999). Gore Vidal; A Biography. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 9780385477031. Archived from the original on January 11, 2021. Retrieved October 8, 2020. ^ Kloman, Harry. "Political Animals: Vidal, Buckley and the '68 Conventions". University of Pittsburgh. Archived from the original on November 17, 2016. Retrieved December 28, 2016. ^ "Reports – Gore Vidal Speaks Seriously Ill of the Dead". Truthdig. March 20, 2008. Archived from the original on December 4, 2008. Retrieved January 22, 2009. ^ Solomon, Deborah. "Literary Lion: Questions for Gore Vidal" Archived February 6, 2017, at the Wayback Machine. New York Times. 15 June 2008. ^ Veitch, Jonathan (May 24, 1998). "Raging Bull; THE TIME OF OUR TIME. By Norman Mailer". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on July 25, 2012. Retrieved November 7, 2011. ^ Cavett, Dick (January 23, 2003). "Cavett: Gore Vidal Hates Being Dead". cnn.com. Archived from the original on August 7, 2012. ^ "The Guest From Hell: Savoring Norman Mailer's Legendary Appearance on The Dick Cavett Show". Slate.com. Archived from the original on August 2, 2012. Retrieved April 13, 2012. ^ a b John Meroney (October 28, 2009). "A Conversation With Gore Vidal". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on January 4, 2015. Retrieved March 7, 2017. ^ "Gore Vidal rips Roman Polanski rape victim as 'hooker'". Boston Herald. November 1, 2009. Archived from the original on December 28, 2014. Retrieved January 10, 2015. ^ Drozdiak, William (January 14, 1997). U.S. Celebrities Defend Scientology in Germany Archived July 24, 2013, at the Wayback Machine, The Washington Post, p. A-11. ^ Baker, Russ. April 1997. "Clash of the Titans: Scientology vs. Germany", George magazine. ^ CBS/Mike Wallace (March 3, 1967). The Homosexuals (Television). Retrieved March 13, 2016. ^ a b c Teeman, Tim (July 31, 2013). "How Gay Was Gore Vidal?". The Daily Beast. Archived from the original on September 27, 2020. Retrieved July 14, 2020. ^ Krizan, Kim (September 27, 2013). "Gore Vidal's Secret, Unpublished Love Letter to Anaïs Nin". The Huffington Post. Archived from the original on September 27, 2013. Retrieved September 20, 2013. ^ Vidal, Gore (1995). Palimpsest: A Memoir., p. 121. ^ :290 ^ Joy Do Lico and Andrew Johnson, "The Rumours About My Love Child May Be True, says Gore Vidal", The Independent, May 25, 2008. Archived October 9, 2010, at the Wayback Machine ^ Balaban, Judy. "The Gore They Loved". Vanity Fair. Condé Nast. Archived from the original on April 25, 2017. Retrieved December 28, 2016. ^ "What I've Learned", Esquire magazine, June 2008, p. 132. ^ Robinson, Charlotte. "Outtake Blog Author & Gay Icon Gore Vidal Dies". Outtake Blog. Archived from the original on August 4, 2012. Retrieved August 1, 2012. ^ Wieder, Judy (2001). Wieder, Judy (ed.). Celebrity: The Advocate Interviews. New York City, New York: Advocate Books. p. 127. ISBN 1-55583-722-0. ^ Longtime Hollywood Hills estate of late writer Gore Vidal is for sale Archived July 27, 2019, at the Wayback Machine in LA Times on 18 November 2015. ^ Time International (September 28, 1992) described the 5000 ft.2 (460 m2 property as "a massive villa – in every detail of location and layout, designed to enhance concentration". p. 44. ^ Wilson, Scott. Resting Places: The Burial Sites of More Than 14,000 Famous Persons, 3d ed.: 2 (Kindle Locations 48809-48810). McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. Kindle Edition. ^ a b Robson, Leo (October 26, 2015). "Delusions of Candour". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on December 22, 2015. Retrieved December 9, 2015. ^ "Gore Vidal, Celebrated Author, Playwright, Dies" Archived February 29, 2016, at the Wayback Machine by Tina Fineberg, USA Today, August 1, 2012 ^ Hillel Italie and Andrew Dalton, "Gore Vidal, celebrated author, playwright, dies" Archived November 10, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, Associated Press, August 1, 2012. ^ 'Memorial for Gore Vidal in Manhattan', New York Times, August 23, 2012. ^ 'Gore Vidal's Grave', 'Huffington Post', August 1, 2012. ^ Charles McGrath (August 1, 2012). "Prolific, Elegant, Acerbic Writer". The New York Times. Archived from the original on August 1, 2012. Retrieved August 1, 2012. ^ Elaine Woo (August 1, 2012). "Gore Vidal, Iconoclastic Author, Dies at 86". The Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on August 1, 2012. Retrieved August 1, 2012. ^ Michael Dirda (August 1, 2012). "Gore Vidal Dies; imperious gadfly and prolific, graceful writer was 86". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on September 14, 2014. Retrieved August 1, 2012. ^ Jay Parini (August 1, 2012). "Gore Vidal Obituary". Guardian. London. Archived from the original on November 4, 2013. Retrieved August 5, 2012. ^ "Gore Vidal". London: Telegraph.co.uk. August 1, 2012. Archived from the original on August 5, 2012. Retrieved August 5, 2012. ^ Alastair Leithead (August 1, 2012). "Obituary: Gore Vidal". Bbc.co.uk. Archived from the original on August 4, 2012. Retrieved August 5, 2012. ^ "La cultura de Estados Unidos lamenta la muerte de Gore Vidal". Ideal.es. Archived from the original on October 17, 2012. Retrieved August 2, 2012. ^ Redazione online. "Los Angeles, è morto lo scrittore Gore Vidal". Corriere.it. Archived from the original on August 2, 2012. Retrieved August 2, 2012. ^ "Gore Vidal: le trouble-fête de l'Amérique" [Gore Vidal: The Killjoy of America] (in French). Lefigaro.fr. January 8, 2012. Archived from the original on August 1, 2012. Retrieved August 2, 2012. ^ McGrath, Charles (August 23, 2012). "Vidal's Own Wit to Celebrate Him". New York Times. Archived from the original on June 30, 2013. Retrieved June 10, 2013. ^ StarNewsOnline.com (blog) – On "Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In", Lily Tomlin as Ernestine the telephone operator would often call "Mr. Veedle" Archived May 15, 2013, at the Wayback Machine ^ Ernestine the Operator – TV Acres [1] – Lily Tomlin as Ernestine the Telephone Operator – ... a conversation with writer Gore Vidal as Ernestine says "Mr. Veedle, you owe us ..." ^ Record album: This is a Recording, by Lily Tomlin, title: "Mr. Veedle" Archived January 9, 2015, at the Wayback Machine Rhapsody ^ Grynbaum, Michael M. (July 24, 2015). "Buckley vs. Vidal: When Debate Became Bloodsport". The New York Times. Archived from the original on August 21, 2020. Retrieved July 14, 2020. External links[edit] Gore Vidalat Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Data from Wikidata Gore Vidal Index, by Harry Kloman Gore Vidal Pages Gore Vidal on IMDb Gore Vidal at the Internet Broadway Database Gore Vidal at the Internet Off-Broadway Database Gore Vidal at AllMovie Gore Vidal at Find a Grave Appearances on C-SPAN Documentary, Gore Vidal: The United States of Amnesia: Film web site At Internet Movie Database Interview with Director Nicholas Wrathall Gore Vidal – Obituary, New York Times Gore Vidal Biography and Interview with American Academy of Achievement v t e Gore Vidal Plays Visit to a Small Planet (1957) The Best Man (1960) Weekend (1968) An Evening with Richard Nixon (1972) Novels Williwaw (1946) The City and the Pillar (1948) Dark Green, Bright Red (1950) Messiah (1954) Julian (1964) Washington, D.C. (1967) Myra Breckinridge (1968) Two Sisters (1970) Burr (1973) Myron (1974) 1876 (1976) Kalki (1978) Creation (1981) Duluth (1983) Lincoln (1984) Empire (1987) Hollywood (1990) Live from Golgotha: The Gospel According to Gore Vidal (1992) The Smithsonian Institution (1998) The Golden Age (2000) Screenplays The Catered Affair (1956) I Accuse! (1958) The Left Handed Gun (1958) The Scapegoat (1959) Ben Hur (1959) (uncredited) Suddenly, Last Summer (1959) The Best Man (1964) Is Paris Burning? (1966) Last of the Mobile Hot Shots (1970) Caligula (1979) Dress Gray (1986) The Sicilian (1987) (uncredited) Billy the Kid (1989) The Palermo Connection (1989) Teleplays The Telltale Clue Danger Climax! Suspense The Best of Broadway Goodyear Television Playhouse Studio One NBC Matinee Theater General Electric Theater NBC Sunday Showcase Ford Startime People Eugene Luther Vidal (father) Nina Auchincloss Straight (half-sister) Burr Steers (nephew) Hugh Auchincloss Steers (nephew) Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis (stepsister) v t e Venice Film Festival jury presidents 1935–1968 Giuseppe Volpi (1935) Giuseppe Volpi (1936) Giuseppe Volpi (1937) Giuseppe Volpi (1938) Giuseppe Volpi (1939) Vinicio Marinucci (1947) Luigi Chiarini (1948) Mario Gromo (1949) Mario Gromo (1950) Mario Gromo (1951) Mario Gromo (1952) Eugenio Montale (1953) Ignazio Silone (1954) Mario Gromo (1955) John Grierson (1956) René Clair (1957) Jean Grémillon (1958) Luigi Chiarini (1959) Marcel Achard (1960) Filippo Sacchi (1961) Luigi Chiarini (1962) Arturo Lanocita (1963) Mario Soldati (1964) Carlo Bo (1965) Giorgio Bassani (1966) Alberto Moravia (1967) Guido Piovene (1968) 1980–2000 Suso Cecchi d'Amico (1980) Italo Calvino (1981) Marcel Carné (1982) Bernardo Bertolucci (1983) Michelangelo Antonioni (1984) Krzysztof Zanussi (1985) Alain Robbe-Grillet (1986) Irene Papas (1987) Sergio Leone (1988) Andrei Smirnov (1989) Gore Vidal (1990) Gian Luigi Rondi (1991) Dennis Hopper / Jiří Menzel (1992) Peter Weir (1993) David Lynch (1994) Jorge Semprún (1995) Roman Polanski (1996) Jane Campion (1997) Ettore Scola (1998) Emir Kusturica (1999) Miloš Forman (2000) 2001–present Nanni Moretti (2001) Gong Li (2002) Mario Monicelli (2003) John Boorman (2004) Dante Ferretti (2005) Catherine Deneuve (2006) Zhang Yimou (2007) Wim Wenders (2008) Ang Lee (2009) Quentin Tarantino (2010) Darren Aronofsky (2011) Michael Mann (2012) Bernardo Bertolucci (2013) Alexandre Desplat (2014) Alfonso Cuarón (2015) Sam Mendes (2016) Annette Bening (2017) Guillermo del Toro (2018) Lucrecia Martel (2019) Cate Blanchett (2020) Bong Joon-ho (2021) Authority control BIBSYS: 90069693 BNE: XX959388 BNF: cb119282164 (data) CANTIC: a10175155 CiNii: DA01336481 GND: 118804421 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\041949 ISNI: 0000 0001 2283 3466 LCCN: n79040150 LNB: 000021296 NDL: 00459742 NKC: jn19990008780 NLA: 35581562 NLG: 71382 NLI: 000566574 NLK: KAC199628805 NLP: A12032748 NSK: 000041966 NTA: 068576404 PLWABN: 9810666273305606 RERO: 02-A000172575 SELIBR: 275127 SNAC: w6xj0f8p SUDOC: 027184161 Trove: 1003082 ULAN: 500350798 VIAF: 98281411 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79040150 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gore_Vidal&oldid=1000329261" Categories: Gore Vidal 1925 births 2012 deaths 20th-century American dramatists and playwrights 20th-century American essayists 20th-century American journalists 20th-century American male writers 20th-century American novelists 20th-century American short story writers 21st-century American dramatists and playwrights 21st-century American essayists 21st-century American journalists 21st-century American male writers 21st-century American novelists 21st-century American short story writers Activists from California Activists from New York (state) American atheists American historical novelists American humanists American LGBT military personnel American male dramatists and playwrights American male essayists American male journalists American male novelists American male screenwriters American memoirists United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II American people of Austrian descent American people of Romansh descent American people of Swiss descent American political journalists American political writers American tax resisters Bisexual male actors Bisexual writers Burials at Rock Creek Cemetery California Democrats Deaths from pneumonia Edgar Award winners Epigrammatists Infectious disease deaths in California LGBT dramatists and playwrights LGBT memoirists LGBT novelists LGBT people from California LGBT people from New York (state) LGBT screenwriters LGBT writers from the United States Military personnel from New York (state) The Nation (U.S. magazine) people National Book Award winners New York (state) Democrats Non-interventionism Novelists from California Novelists from New York (state) People from Hollywood, Los Angeles People from Ravello People from West Point, New York Phillips Exeter Academy alumni Postmodern writers Screenwriters from California Screenwriters from New York (state) Screenwriters from Washington, D.C. 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en-wikipedia-org-1143	----	Arsames (satrap of Egypt) - Wikipedia Arsames (satrap of Egypt) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other people named Arsames, see Arsames (disambiguation). Arsames Satrap of Egypt Lower half of one of the Elephantine papyri, containing a plea for the reconstruction of the Jewish temple at Elephantine, and dated to "..the Year 17 of King Darius (II), under Arsames..." (407 BCE).[1] Predecessor Achaemenes Successor possibly none (end of the satrapy of Egypt) Dynasty 27th Dynasty Pharaoh Artaxerxes I to Darius II Arsames (also called Sarsamas and Arxanes, from Old Persian Aršāma[2]) was an Achaemenid satrap of ancient Egypt during the 5th century BC, at the time of the 27th Dynasty of Egypt. Contents 1 Career 2 Seal of Arsama 3 References 4 External links Career[edit] According to Ctesias, Sarsamas was appointed satrap by general Megabyzus.[3] Previously, an ancient Egyptian prince called Inaros openly revolted against Artaxerxes I and the Achaemenid rule and slain in battle the late satrap, Achaemenes. In 454 BC, shortly after his appointment, Arsames helped quelling the revolt by defeating Athenian reinforcements sent in the Nile Delta.[4][5] After the revolt, Arsames undertook a conciliatory policy towards the native Egyptians in order to avoid anything that could trigger new revolts; likely for this reason, he allowed Inaros' son Thannyras to maintain his lordship on part of the Delta, as reported by Herodotus.[4][5] While his aforementioned early career is reported only by Greek sources, Arsames' later life is known instead by several letters written in Aramaic, mainly compiled by the Jewish priesthood of Elephantine and belonging to the Elephantine papyri, and which are datable from 428 BC onwards. It is known that in 423 BC he supported Darius II in his successful coup d'état, and later he was called back to Susa in Persia between 410 and 407/6 as reported by other documents, among these some exchange letters with his estate manager Nakhtihor[2][6] and with a man named Artavant who probably acted as satrap of Egypt ad interim.[7] Cylinder seal depicting a Persian king thrusting his lance at an Egyptian pharaoh, while holding four other Egyptian captives on a rope.[8][9][10] In 410 BCE a revolt erupted at Elephantine, where an established Jewish community lived along with the native Egyptians, and where the two communities had their local temple, that of Yahu and Khnum respectively. Jews were well tolerated by Arsames and by the Persian occupants in general; however, it seems that the Jewish practice of sacrificing goats to their god was perceived as an insult by the clergy of the neighbouring temple of the Egyptian ram-headed deity Khnum.[11] Taking advantage of one of Arsames' absences, the clergy of Khnum corrupted a local military commander, Vidaranag, and unimpededly instigated and succeeded into the destruction of the temple of Yahu. Once back, Arsames punished the perpetrators, but he felt himself compelled to avoid any controversy by prohibiting the ritual slaughter of goats.[12][11] The multiple pleas of the Jews for the reconstruction of their temple, however, seem to have remained unheard for some times.[12] Arsames is no longer mentioned after 406 BC, and it is likely that he died shortly before the Egyptian reconquest of Egypt achieved by the native pharaoh Amyrtaios in 404 BC.[2] Seal of Arsama[edit] Arsama is also known from an engraved cylinder seal, in which he is seen killing Saka enemies, with a depiction of the crowns of Lower and Upper Egypt, worn by falcons.[13][14] References[edit] ^ Sachau, Eduard (1907). "Drei aramäische Papyrusurkunden aus Elephantine". Abhandlungen der Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften aus dem Jahre 1907. Berlin: Verlag der Königlichen Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1901-07. 1907. ^ a b c Ray, John D. (2006). "Egypt, 525–404 B.C.". In Boardman, John; Hammond, N.D.L.; Lewis, D.M.; Ostwald, M. (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History (2nd ed.), vol. IV – Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean c. 525 to 479 B.C. Cambridge University Press. p. 266. ISBN 0-521-22804-2. ^ Photius' Excerpt of Ctesias' Persica, see 38 ^ a b Ray, op. cit., p. 276 ^ a b Grimal, Nicolas (1992). A History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Blackwell Books. p. 371. ISBN 9780631174721. ^ Curtis, John (November 2003). "The Achaemenid Period in Northern Iraq" (PDF). L'Archéologie de l'Empire Achéménide. Paris: 3. ^ ARŠĀMA – Encyclopedia Iranica ^ "a Persian hero slaughtering an Egyptian pharaoh while leading four other Egyptian captives" Hartley, Charles W.; Yazicioğlu, G. Bike; Smith, Adam T. (2012). The Archaeology of Power and Politics in Eurasia: Regimes and Revolutions. Cambridge University Press. p. ix, photograph 4.6. ISBN 9781139789387. ^ "Victor, apparently wearing the tall Persian headdress rather than a crown, leads four bareheaded Egyptian captives by a rope tied to his belt. Victor spears a figure wearing Egyptian type crown." in Root, Margaret Cool (1979). The king and kingship in Achaemenid art: essays on the creation of an iconography of empire. Diffusion, E.J. Brill. p. 182. ISBN 9789004039025. ^ "Another seal, also from Egypt, shows a Persian king, his left hand grasping an Egyptian with an Egyptian hairdo (pschent), whom he thrusts through with his lance while holding four prisoners with a rope around their necks." Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. p. 215. ISBN 9781575061207. ^ a b Rice, Michael (1999). Who's Who in Ancient Egypt. Routledge. pp. 42–43. ^ a b Gardiner, Alan (1961). Egypt of the Pharaohs: an introduction. Oxford University Press. p. 371. ^ Newell, Edward Theodore; Osten, Hans Henning von der (1934). Ancient oriental seals in the collection of Mr. Edward T. Newell. Chicago : The University of Chicago Press. p. Plate XXXI, seal Nb 453. ^ Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. p. 216. ISBN 9781575061207. External links[edit] Thus speaks Arshama – Letters of a fifth–century BC Persian prince Preceded by Achaemenes Satrap of Egypt c.454 – c.406 BC Succeeded by possibly none (end of the satrapy) v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arsames_(satrap_of_Egypt)&oldid=1002472154" Categories: 5th-century BC Iranian people Achaemenid satraps of Egypt 5th century BC in Egypt Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt Family of Darius the Great Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Hrvatski Italiano Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 16:50 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1136	----	Phoenicia - Wikipedia Phoenicia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Semitic civilization For other uses, see Phoenicia (disambiguation). Coordinates: 34°07′25″N 35°39′04″E / 34.12361°N 35.65111°E / 34.12361; 35.65111 Phoenicia 𐤐𐤕 / Pūt  (Phoenician) Φοινίκη Phoiníkē  (Greek) 2500 BC[1]–539 BC Map of Phoenicia and its Mediterranean trade routes Capital None; dominant cities were Byblos (2500–1000 BC) and Tyre (900–550 BC)[2] Common languages Phoenician, Punic Religion Canaanite religion Demonym(s) Phoenician Government City-states ruled by kings, with varying degrees of oligarchic or plutocratic elements; oligarchic republic in Carthage after c. 480 BC[3] Well-known kings of Phoenician cities   • c. 1000 BC Ahiram • 969 – 936 BC Hiram I • 820 – 774 BC Pygmalion of Tyre Historical era Classical antiquity • Established 2500 BC[1] • Tyre becomes dominant city-state under the reign of Hiram I 969 BC • Carthage founded (in Roman accounts by Dido) 814 BC • Cyrus the Great conquers Phoenicia 539 BC Area 1000 BC 20,000 km2 (7,700 sq mi) Preceded by Succeeded by Canaanites Hittite Empire Egyptian Empire Achaemenid Phoenicia Ancient Carthage Phoenicia (/fəˈnɪʃə, -ˈniː-/;[4] from Ancient Greek: Φοινίκη, Phoiníkē) was an ancient Semitic-speaking thalassocratic civilization that originated in the Levant region of the eastern Mediterranean, primarily modern Lebanon.[5][6] It was concentrated along the coast of Lebanon and included some coastal areas of modern Syria and Galilee (northern Palestine), reaching as far north as Arwad and as far south as Acre and possibly Gaza.[7][8][9] At its height between 1100 and 200 BC, Phoenician civilization spread across the Mediterranean, from the Levant to the Iberian Peninsula. The term Phoenicia is an exonym from ancient Greek that most likely described a dye also known as Tyrian purple, a major export of Canaanite port towns. The term did not correspond precisely to Phoenician culture or society as it would have been understood natively,[10] and it is debated whether the Phoenicians were actually a distinct civilization from the Canaanites and other residents of the Levant.[11][12] The Phoenicians came to prominence following the collapse (c. 1150 BC) of most major cultures during the Late Bronze Age. They were renowned in antiquity as adept merchants, expert seafarers, and intrepid explorers.[citation needed] They developed an expansive maritime trade network that lasted over a millennium, becoming the dominant commercial power for much of classical antiquity. Phoenician trade also helped facilitate the exchange of cultures, ideas, and knowledge between major cradles of civilization such as Greece, Egypt, and Mesopotamia. After its zenith in the ninth century BC, the Phoenician civilization in the eastern Mediterranean slowly declined in the face of foreign influence and conquest, though its presence would remain in the central and western Mediterranean until the second century BC.[citation needed] Phoenician civilization was organized in city-states, similar to those of ancient Greece, of which the most notable were Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos.[13][14] Each city-state was politically independent, and there is no evidence the Phoenicians viewed themselves as a single nationality.[15] Carthage, a Phoenician settlement in northwest Africa, became a major civilization in its own right in the seventh century BC. Though the Phoenicians were long considered a lost civilization due to the lack of indigenous written records, academic and archaeological developments since the mid-20th century have revealed a complex and influential civilization.[16] Their best known legacy is the world's oldest verified alphabet, which they transmitted across the Mediterranean world.[17][18] The Phoenicians are also credited with innovations in shipbuilding, navigation, industry, agriculture, and government. Their international trade network is believed to have fostered the economic, political, and cultural foundations of Classical Western civilization.[19] Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Origins 2.2 Emergence during the Late Bronze Age (1550–1200 BC) 2.3 Ascendance and high point (1200–800 BC) 2.4 Foundation of Carthage 2.5 Vassalage under the Assyrians & Babylonians (858–538 BC) 2.6 Persian period (539–332 BC) 2.7 Hellenistic period (332–63 BC) 3 Demographics 3.1 Genetic studies 4 Economy 4.1 Trade 4.2 Industry 4.2.1 Tyrian purple 4.2.2 Mining 4.2.3 Viticulture 4.2.4 Shipbuilding 5 Important cities and colonies 5.1 Phoenician colonization 6 Society and culture 6.1 Politics and government 6.2 Law and administration 6.3 Military 6.4 Language 6.4.1 Alphabet 6.5 Art 6.6 Women 7 Religion 8 See also 9 References 9.1 Citations 9.2 Sources 10 Further reading 11 External links Etymology[edit] The name Phoenicians, like Latin Poenī (adj. poenicus, later pūnicus), comes from Greek Φοινίκη (Phoínikē). The word φοῖνιξ phoînix meant variably "Phoenician person", "Tyrian purple, crimson" or "date palm." Homer used it with each of these meanings.[20] (The mythical bird phoenix also carries the same name, but this meaning is not attested until centuries later.) It is difficult to ascertain which meaning came first, but it is understandable how Greeks may have associated the crimson or purple color of dates and dye with the merchants who traded both products. The Greek word may derive directly from the Phoenicians' endonym; the land was natively known as 𐤐𐤕 (Pūt) and its people as the 𐤐𐤍𐤉𐤌 (Pōnnim).[21] History[edit] Main article: History of Phoenicia Since little has survived of Phoenician records or literature, most of what is known about their origins and history comes from the accounts of other civilizations and inferences from their material culture excavated throughout the Mediterranean. Origins[edit] Main articles: Canaan, Retjenu, and Prehistory of the Levant The Canaanite culture that gave rise to the Phoenicians apparently developed in situ from the earlier Ghassulian chalcolithic culture. Ghassulian itself developed from the Circum-Arabian Nomadic Pastoral Complex, which in turn developed from a fusion of their ancestral Natufian and Harifian cultures with Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) farming cultures, practicing the domestication of animals during the 6200 BC climate crisis, which led to the Neolithic Revolution in the Levant.[22] Byblos is attested as an archaeological site from the Early Bronze Age. The Late Bronze Age state of Ugarit is considered quintessentially Canaanite archaeologically,[23] even though the Ugaritic language does not belong to the Canaanite languages proper.[24][25] Some scholars suggest there is evidence for a Semitic dispersal to the fertile crescent circa 2500 BC; others believe the Phoenicians originated from an admixture of previous non-Semitic inhabitants with the Semitic arrivals. Herodotus believed that the Phoenicians originated from Bahrain,[26][27] a view shared centuries later by the historian Strabo.[28] The people of modern Tyre in Lebanon, have particularly long maintained Persian Gulf origins.[29] The Dilmun civilization thrived in Bahrain during the period 2200–1600 BC, as shown by excavations of settlements and the Dilmun burial mounds. However, recent genetic researches have shown that present-day Lebanese derive most of their ancestry from a Canaanite-related population.[30] Emergence during the Late Bronze Age (1550–1200 BC)[edit] The first known account of the Phoenicians relates to the conquests of Pharaoh Thutmose III (1479–1425 BC). The Egyptians targeted coastal cities such as Byblos, Arwad, and Ullasa for their crucial geographic and commercial links with the interior (via the Nahr al-Kabir and the Orontes rivers). The cities provided Egypt with access to Mesopotamian trade as well as abundant stocks of the region's native cedar wood, of which there was no equivalent in the Egyptian homeland.[31] By the mid 14th century, the Phoenician city states were considered "favored cities" to the Egyptians. Tyre, Sidon, Beirut, and Byblos were regarded as the most important. The Phoenicians had considerable autonomy and their cities were fairly well developed and prosperous. Byblos was evidently the leading city outside Egypt proper; it was a major center of bronze-making, and the primary terminus of precious goods such as tin and lapis lazuli from as far east as Afghanistan. Sidon and Tyre also commanded interest among Egyptian officials, beginning a pattern of rivalry that would span the next millennium. The Amarna letters report that from 1350 to 1300 BC, neighboring Amorites and Hittites were capturing Phoenician cities, especially in the north. Egypt subsequently lost its coastal holdings from Ugarit in northern Syria to Byblos near central Lebanon. Ascendance and high point (1200–800 BC)[edit] Some time between 1200 and 1150 BC, the Late Bronze Age collapse severely weakened or destroyed most civilizations in the region, including the Egyptians and Hittites. The Phoenicians appear to have weathered the crisis relatively well, emerging as a distinct and organized civilization in 1230 BC. The period is sometimes described as a "Phoenician renaissance."[32] They filled the power vacuum caused by the Late Bronze Age collapse by becoming the sole mercantile and maritime power in the region, a status they would maintain for the next several centuries.[11] The recovery of the Mediterranean economy can be credited to Phoenician mariners and merchants, who re-established long distance trade between Egypt and Mesopotamia in the 10th century BC.[33] Early into the Iron Age, the Phoenicians established ports, warehouses, markets, and settlement all across the Mediterranean and up to the southern Black Sea. Colonies were established on Cyprus, Sardinia, the Balearic Islands, Sicily, and Malta, as well as the coasts of North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula.[34] Phoenician hacksilver dated to this period bears lead isotope ratios matching ores in Sardinia and Spain, indicating the extent of Phoenician trade networks.[35] By the tenth century BC, Tyre rose to become the richest and most powerful Phoenician city state, particularly during the reign of Hiram I (c. 969–936 BC). During the rule of the priest Ithobaal (887–856 BC), Tyre expanded its territory as far north as Beirut (incorporating its former rival Sidon) and into part of Cyprus; this unusual act of aggression was the closest the Phoenicians ever came to forming a unitary territorial state. Once his realm reached its greatest territorial extent, Ithobaal declared himself "King of the Sidonians", a title that would be used by his successors and mentioned in both Greek and Jewish accounts.[36] The Late Iron Age saw the height of Phoenician shipping, mercantile, and cultural activity, particularly between 750 and 650 BC. Phoenician influence was visible in the "Orientalization" of Greek cultural and artistic conventions.[11] Among their most popular goods were fine textiles, typically dyed with Tyrian purple. Homer's Iliad, which was composed during this period, references the quality of Phoenician clothing and metal goods.[11] Foundation of Carthage[edit] Main articles: Carthage, History of Carthage, and Punic Wars Carthage was founded by Phoenicians coming from Tyre, probably initially as a station in the metal trade with the southern Iberian Peninsula.[37][page needed] The city's name in Punic, Qart-Ḥadašt (𐤒𐤓𐤕 𐤇𐤃𐤔𐤕‎), means "New City".[38] There is a tradition in some ancient sources, such as Philistos of Syracuse, for an "early" foundation date of around 1215 BC—before the fall of Troy in 1180 BC. However, Timaeus, a Greek historian from Sicily c. 300 BC, places the foundation of Carthage in 814 BC, which is the date generally accepted by modern historians.[39] Legend, including Virgil's Aeneid, assigns the founding of the city to Queen Dido. Carthage would grow into a multi-ethnic empire spanning North Africa, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, the Balearic Islands, and southern Iberia, but would ultimately be destroyed by Rome in the Punic Wars (264–146 BC) before being rebuilt as a Roman city.[citation needed] Vassalage under the Assyrians & Babylonians (858–538 BC)[edit] Main article: Phoenicia under Babylonian rule Two bronze fragments from an Assyrian palace gate depicting the collection of tribute from the Phoenician cities of Tyre and Sidon (859–824 BC). British Museum. As a mercantile power concentrated along a narrow coastal strip of land, the Phoenicians lacked the size and population to support a large military. Thus, as neighboring empires began to rise, the Phoenicians increasingly fell under the sway of foreign rulers, who to varying degrees circumscribed their autonomy.[36] The Assyrian conquest of Phoenicia began with King Shalmaneser III, who rose to power in 858 BC and began a series of campaigns against neighboring states. The Phoenician city-states fell under his rule, forced to pay heavy tribute in money, goods, and natural resources. Initially they were not annexed outright—they remained in a state of vassalage, subordinate to the Assyrians but allowed a certain degree of freedom.[36] This changed in 744 BC with the ascension of Tiglath-Pileser III. By 738 BC, most of the Levant, including northern Phoenicia, were annexed; only Tyre and Byblos, the most powerful of the city states, remained as tributary states outside of direct Assyrian control. Tyre, Byblos, and Sidon all rebelled against Assyrian rule. In 721 BC, Sargon II besieged Tyre and crushed the rebellion. His successor Sennacherib suppressed further rebellions across the region. During the seventh century BC, Sidon rebelled and was completely destroyed by Esarhaddon, who enslaved its inhabitants and built a new city on its ruins. By the end of the century, the Assyrians had been weakened by successive revolts, which led to their destruction by the Median Empire. The Babylonians, formerly vassals of the Assyrians, took advantage of the empire's collapse and rebelled, quickly establishing the Neo-Babylonian Empire in its place. Phoenician cities revolted several times throughout the reigns of the first Babylonian king, Nabopolassar (626–605 BC), and his son Nebuchadnezzar II (c. 605–c. 562 BC). In 587 BC Nebuchadnezzar besieged Tyre, which resisted for thirteen years, but ultimately capitulated under "favorable terms".[40] Persian period (539–332 BC)[edit] Main article: Achaemenid Phoenicia Phoenicians constructing Pontoon Bridges for Xerxes I of Persia during the second Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BC. In 539 BC, Cyrus the Great, king and founder of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, took Babylon.[41] As Cyrus began consolidating territories across the Near East, the Phoenicians apparently made the pragmatic calculation of "[yielding] themselves to the Persians."[42] Most of the Levant was consolidated by Cyrus into a single satrapy (province) and forced to pay a yearly tribute of 350 talents, which was roughly half the tribute that was required of Egypt and Libya.[43] The Phoenician area was later divided into four vassal kingdoms—Sidon, Tyre, Arwad and Byblos—which were allowed considerable autonomy. Unlike in other areas of the empire, there is no record of Persian administrators governing the Phoenician city-states. Local Phoenician kings were allowed to remain in power and even given the same rights as Persian satraps (governors), such as hereditary offices and minting their own coins.[41][44] Coin of Abdashtart I of Sidon during the Achaemenid period. He is depicted behind the Persian king on the chariot. The Phoenicians remained a core asset to the Achaemenid Empire, particularly for their prowess in maritime technology and navigation;[41] they furnished the bulk of the Persian fleet during the Greco-Persian Wars of the late fifth century BC.[45] Phoenicians under Xerxes I built the Xerxes Canal and the pontoon bridges that allowed his forces to cross into mainland Greece.[46] Nevertheless, they were harshly punished by the Persian king following his defeat at the Battle of Salamis, which he blamed on Phoenician cowardice and incompetence.[47] In the mid fourth century BC, King Tennes of Sidon led a failed rebellion against Artaxerxes III, enlisting the help of the Egyptians, who were subsequently drawn into a war with the Persians.[48] The resulting destruction of Sidon led to the resurgence of Tyre, which remained the principal Phoenician city for two decades until the arrival of Alexander the Great. Hellenistic period (332–63 BC)[edit] Phoenicia was one of the first areas to be conquered by Alexander the Great during his military campaigns across western Asia. Alexander's main target in the Persian Levant was Tyre, now the region's largest and most important city. It capitulated after a roughly seven month siege, during which many of its citizens fled to Carthage.[49] Tyre's refusal to allow Alexander to visit its temple to Melqart, culminating in the killing of his envoys, led to a brutal reprisal: 2,000 of its leading citizens were crucified and a puppet ruler was installed.[50] The rest of Phoenicia easily came under his control, with Sidon surrendering peacefully.[51] A naval action during Alexander the Great's siege of Tyre (350 BC). Drawing by André Castaigne, 1888–89. Alexander's empire had a policy of Hellenization, whereby Greek culture, religion, and sometimes language were spread or imposed across conquered peoples. This was typically implemented through the founding of new cities, the settlement of a Greek urban elite, and the alteration of native place names to Greek.[49] However, there was evidently no organized Hellenization in Phoenicia, and with one or two minor exceptions, all Phoenician city states retained their native names, while Greek settlement and administration appears to have been limited.[49] The Phoenicians maintained cultural and commercial links with their western counterparts. Polybius recounts how the Seleucid king Demetrius I escaped from Rome by boarding a Carthaginian ship that was delivering goods to Tyre.[49] The adaptation to Macedonian rule was likely aided by the Phoenicians' historical ties with the Greeks, with whom they shared some mythological stories and figures; the two peoples were even sometimes considered "relatives".[49] When Alexander's empire collapsed after his death in 323 BC, the Phoenicians came under the control of the largest of its successors, the Seleucids. The Phoenician homeland was repeatedly contested by the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt during the forty year Syrian Wars, coming under Ptolemaic rule in the third century BC.[40] The Seleucids reclaimed the area the following century, holding it until the mid-first century BC. Under their rule, the Phoenicians were evidently allowed a considerable degree of autonomy.[40] During the Seleucid Dynastic Wars (157–63 BC), the Phoenician cities were fought over by the warring factions of the Seleucid royal family. The Seleucid Kingdom, including Phoenicia, was seized by Tigranes the Great of Armenia in 82 BC. With their strategically valuable buffer state absorbed into a rival power, the Romans were moved to intervene and conquer the territory in 62 BC. Shortly thereafter, the territory was incorporated into the Roman province of Syria. Phoenicia became a separate province in the third century AD.[citation needed] Demographics[edit] The Phoenicians were an offshoot of the Canaanites, a group of ancient Semitic-speaking peoples that emerged at least in the second millennium BC.[11] Though they were often known to outsiders as Canaanites, and continued to self-identify as such, the Phoenicians became a distinct people some time in the Late Bronze Age, between the 14th and 13th centuries. A 2018 study of mitochondrial lineages in Sardinia concluded that the Phoenicians were "inclusive, multicultural and featured significant female mobility", with evidence of indigenous Sardinians integrating "peacefully and permanently" with Phoenician settlers. The study also found evidence suggesting that Europeans may have settled in the area of modern Lebanon.[52] Genetic studies[edit] See also: Archaeogenetics of the Near East Part of a series on the History of Lebanon Prehistory Ancient Canaan/Phoenicia 2500–333 BC Egyptian rule 1550–1077 BC Hittite rule 1600–1178 BC Assyrian rule 883–605 BC Babylonian rule 605–538 BC Persian rule 538–332 BC Classical Hellenistic rule 332–64 BC Roman rule 64 BC–646 AD Sassanid interlude 602–628 AD Medieval Arab rule 636–1099 Rashidun Caliphate 636–661 Umayyad Caliphate 661–750 Abbasid Caliphate 750–1258 Tulunids 868–905 Hamdanid dynasty 890–1004 Fatimid Caliphate 909–1171 Ikhshidid dynasty 935–969 Mirdasid dynasty 1024–1080 Seljuk Empire 1037–1194 County of Tripoli 1099–1291 Kingdom of Jerusalem 1099–1291 Mamluk Sultanate 1291–1515 Ma'anids 1490–1697 Harfushids 1493–1860 Colonial Ottoman rule 1516–1918 Assafs 1516–1591 Shihabs 1697–1842 Allied administration 1918–1920 French rule 1920–1943 Republic of Lebanon (since 1943) 1958 Lebanon crisis Palestinian insurgency Lebanese Civil War Israeli occupation of Southern Lebanon Syrian occupation of Lebanon 2005 Lebanon bombings Cedar Revolution 2006 July War 2006–08 political protests 2007 North Lebanon conflict 2008 conflict in Lebanon Syrian Civil War spillover in Lebanon Liquidity crisis (Reaction) 2020 Beirut explosion Timeline  Lebanon portal v t e Part of a series on the History of Syria Prehistory Levantine corridor Natufian culture Halaf culture Uruk period Abu Hureyra Aswad Yarmukian culture Bronze Age Amorites Akkadian Empire Arameans Canaanites Old Assyrian Empire Middle Assyrian Empire Ebla Yamhad Qatna Mari Ugarit Late Bronze Age collapse Antiquity Aram-Damascus Syro-Hittite states Neo-Assyrian Empire Neo-Babylonian Empire Achaemenid Syria Seleucid Syria Parthian Empire Roman Syria Palmyrene Empire Byzantine Syria Middle Ages Muslim conquest (636) Caliphal Syria (Bilad al-Sham) Tulunid dynasty Ikhshidid dynasty Zengid dynasty Hamdanid dynasty Mirdasid dynasty Fatimid Syria Seljuk Syria Crusader states County of Edessa Principality of Antioch County of Tripoli Ayyubid Syria (1174–1260) Mamluk Syria (1260–1516) Early modern Ottoman Syria (1516–1918) Modern Arab Kingdom of Syria (1920) French Mandate Syrian Federation (1922–25) State of Syria (1925–30) Mandatory Republic (1930–46) Independent First Syrian Republic (1946–50) Second Syrian Republic (1950–58, 1961–63) United Arab Republic (1958–61) Baathist Syria (1963–present) Timeline  Asia portal  History portal v t e A 2008 study led by Pierre Zalloua found that six subclades of Haplogroup J-M172 (J2)—thought to have originated between the Caucasus Mountains, Mesopotamia and the Levant—were of a "Phoenician signature" and present amongst the male populations of the "coastal Lebanese Phoenician Heartland" and wider Levant (the "Phoenician Periphery"), followed by other areas of historic Phoenician settlement, spanning Cyprus through to Morocco. This deliberate sequential sampling was an attempt to develop a methodology to link the documented historical expansion of a population with a particular geographic genetic pattern or patterns. The researchers suggested that the proposed genetic signature stemmed from "a common source of related lineages rooted in Lebanon".[53] Another study in 2006 found evidence for the genetic persistence of Phoenicians in the Spanish island of Ibiza.[54] In 2016, the skeleton of 2,500 year old Carthaginian man was excavated from a Punic tomb in Tunisia, and was found bearing the rare U5b2c1 maternal haplogroup. The lineage of this "Young Man of Byrsa" is believed to represent early gene flow from Iberia to the Maghreb.[55] A series of studies of different populations in the Levant suggest that Levantine Semites—such as Lebanese, Mizrahi Jews, Palestinians, and Syrians—are the closest surviving relatives of ancient Phoenicians. One study found that the Lebanese share 93% of their DNA with Bronze Age Sidonians.[56][57][58] Economy[edit] Trade[edit] Major Phoenician trade networks (c. 1200–800 BC) See also: Phoenicians and wine The Phoenicians served as intermediaries between the disparate civilizations that spanned the Mediterranean and Near East, facilitating the exchange of not only goods, but knowledge, culture, and religious traditions. Their expansive and enduring trade network is credited with laying the foundations of an economically and culturally cohesive Mediterranean, which would be continued by the Greeks and especially the Romans.[33] Phoenician ties with the Greeks ran deep. The earliest verified relationship appears to have begun with the Minoan civilization on Crete (1950–1450 BC), which together with the Mycenaean civilization (1600–1100 BC) is considered the progenitor of classical Greece.[59] Archaeological research suggests that the Minoans gradually imported Near Eastern goods, artistic styles, and customs from other cultures via the Phoenicians. To Egypt the Phoenicians sold logs of cedar for significant sums,[60] and wine beginning in the eighth century. The wine trade with Egypt is vividly documented by shipwrecks discovered in 1997 in the open sea 50 kilometres (30 mi) west of Ascalon, Israel.[61] Pottery kilns at Tyre and Sarepta produced the large terracotta jars used for transporting wine. From Egypt, the Phoenicians bought Nubian gold. Phoenician sarcophagi found in Cádiz, Spain, thought to have been imported from the Phoenician homeland around Sidon.[62] Archaeological Museum of Cádiz. From elsewhere, they obtained other materials, perhaps the most important being silver, mostly from Sardinia and the Iberian Peninsula. Tin for making bronze "may have been acquired from Galicia by way of the Atlantic coast or southern Spain; alternatively, it may have come from northern Europe (Cornwall or Brittany) via the Rhone valley and coastal Massalia".[63] Strabo states that there was a highly lucrative Phoenician trade with Britain for tin via the Cassiterides, whose location is unknown but may have been off the northwest coast of the Iberian Peninsula.[64] Industry[edit] Phoenician bowl with hunting scene (eighth century BC). The clothing and hairstyle of the figures is Egyptian, while the subject matter of the central scene conforms with the Mesopotamian theme of combat between man and beast. Phoenician artisans frequently adapted the styles of neighboring cultures. Phoenicia lacked notable natural resources other than its cedar wood. Timber was probably the earliest and most lucrative source of wealth; neither Egypt nor Mesopotamia had adequate sources of wood. Unable to rely solely on this limited resource, the Phoenicians developed an industrial base manufacturing a variety of goods for both common and luxury use.[11] The Phoenicians developed or mastered techniques such as glass-making, engraved and chased metalwork (including bronze, iron, and gold), ivory carving, and woodwork.[65] The Phoenicians were early pioneers in mass production, and sold a variety of items in bulk. They became the leading source of glassware in antiquity, shipping thousands of flasks, beads, and other glass objects across the Mediterranean.[66] Excavations of colonies in Spain suggest they also utilized the potter's wheel.[67] Their exposure to a wide variety of cultures allowed them to manufacture goods for specific markets.[65] The Iliad suggests Phoenician clothing and metal goods were highly prized by the Greeks.[11] Specialized goods were designed specifically for wealthier clientele, including ivory reliefs and plaques, carved clam shells, sculpted amber, and finely detailed and painted ostrich eggs. Tyrian purple[edit] An Etruscan tomb (c. 350 BC) depicting a man wearing in an all-purple toga picta. The most prized Phoenician goods were fabrics dyed with Tyrian purple, which formed a major part of Phoenician wealth. The violet-purple dye derived from the hypobranchial gland of the Murex sea-snail, once profusely available in coastal waters of the eastern Mediterranean Sea but exploited to local extinction. Phoenicians may have discovered the dye as early as 1750 BC.[68] The Phoenicians established a second production center for the dye in Mogador, in present-day Morocco.[69] The Phoenicians' exclusive command over the production and trade of the dye, combined with the labor-intensive extraction process, made it very expensive. Tyrian purple subsequently became associated with the upper classes and soon became a status symbol in several civilizations, most notably among the Romans. Assyrian records of tribute from the Phoenicians include "garments of brightly colored stuff" that most likely included Tyrian purple. While the designs, ornamentation, and embroidery used in Phoenician textiles were apparently well-regarded, the techniques and specific descriptions are unknown.[65] Mining[edit] Mining operations in the Phoenician homeland were limited; iron was the only metal of any worth. The first large-scale mining operations probably occurred in Cyprus, principally for copper. Sardinia may have been colonized almost exclusively for its mineral resources; Phoenician settlements were concentrated in the southern parts of the island, close to sources of copper and lead. Piles of scoria and copper ingots, which appear to predate Roman occupation, suggest the Phoenicians mined and processed metals on the island. The Iberian Peninsula was known for being the richest source of numerous metals in antiquity, including gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, and lead.[70][page needed] The significant output of these metals during the Phoenician and Carthaginian occupation strongly implied large scale mining operations.[70][page needed] The Carthaginians are documented to have relied on slave labor for mining, though it is unknown if the Phoenicians as a whole did so.[70][page needed] Viticulture[edit] The most notable agricultural product was wine, which the Phoenicians helped propagate across the Mediterranean.[71] The common grape vine may have been domesticated by the Phoenicians or Canaanites, although it most likely arrived from Transcaucasia via trade routes across Mesopotamia or the Black Sea. Vines grew readily in the coastal Levant, and wine was exported to Egypt as early as the Old Kingdom period (2686–2134 BC). Wine played an important part in Phoenician religion, serving as the principal beverage for offerings and sacrifice.[71] An excavation of a small Phoenician town south of Sidon uncovered a wine factory used from at least the seventh century BC, which is believed to have been aimed for an overseas market.[71] To prevent oxidation, vessels were sealed with a layer of olive oil, pinewood, and resin.[citation needed] The Phoenicians established vineyards and wineries in their colonies in North Africa, Sicily, France, and Spain,[71] and may have taught winemaking to some of their trading partners. The ancient Iberians began producing wine from local grape varieties following their encounter with the Phoenicians, and Iberian cultivars subsequently formed the basis of most western European wine.[72] Shipbuilding[edit] As early as 1200 BC, the Phoenicians built large merchant ships.[citation needed] During the Bronze Age, they developed the keel.[citation needed] Pegged mortise-and-tenon joints proved effective enough to serve as a standard until late into the Roman Empire.[citation needed] The Phoenicians were possibly the first to introduce the bireme, around 700 BC.[73] An Assyrian account describes Phoenicians evading capture with these ships.[citation needed] The Phoenicians are also credited with inventing the trireme, which was regarded as the most advanced and powerful vessel in the ancient Mediterranean world, and were eventually adopted by the Greeks.[36] Warship with two rows of oars, in a relief from Nineveh (c. 700 BC). The Timber Transportation relief at the Louvre Two Assyrian representations of ships, which could represent Phoenician vessels The Phoenicians developed several other maritime inventions. The amphora, a type of container used for both dry and liquid goods, was an ancient Phoenician invention that became a standardized measurement of volume for close to two thousand years. The remnants of self-cleaning artificial harbors have been discovered in Sidon, Tyre, Atlit, and Acre.[74] The first example of admiralty law also appears in the Levant.[75] The Phoenicians continued to contribute to cartography into the Iron Age.[76] In 2014, a roughly 50-foot Phoenician trading ship was found near Gozo island in Malta. Dated 700 BC, it is one of the oldest wrecks found in the Mediterranean.[77] Fifty amphorae, used to contain wine and oil, were scattered nearby.[78] Important cities and colonies[edit] Map of Phoenician (in yellow) and Greek colonies around 8th to 6th century BC (with German legend) Main article: List of Phoenician cities The Phoenicians were not a nation in the political sense, but were organized into independent city states that shared a common language and culture. The leading city states were Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos. Rivalries were common, but armed conflict rare. Numerous other cities existed in the Levant alone, many probably unknown, including Berut (modern Beirut) Ampi, Amia, Arqa, Baalbek, Botrys, Sarepta and Tripoli. From the late tenth century BC, the Phoenicians established commercial outposts throughout the Mediterranean, with Tyre founding colonies in Cyprus, Sardinia, Iberia, the Balearic Islands, Sicily, Malta, and North Africa. Later colonies were established beyond the Straits of Gibraltar, particularly on the Atlantic coast of Iberia, and the Phoenicians may have explored the Canary Islands and the British Isles.[11] Phoenician settlement was especially concentrated in Cyprus, Sicily, Sardinia, Malta, northwest Africa, the Balearic Islands, and southern Iberia. Phoenician colonization[edit] To facilitate their commercial ventures, the Phoenicians established numerous colonies and trading posts along the coasts of the Mediterranean. Phoenician city states generally lacked the numbers or even the desire to expand their territory overseas. Few colonies had more than 1,000 inhabitants; only Carthage and some nearby settlements in the western Mediterranean would grow larger.[79] A major motivating factor was competition with the Greeks, who began expanding across the Mediterranean during the same period.[80] Though a largely peaceful rivalry, their respective settlements in Crete and Sicily did clash intermittently.[81] The earliest Phoenician settlements outside the Levant were on Cyprus and Crete, gradually moving westward towards Corsica, the Balearic Islands, Sardinia, and Sicily, as well as on the European mainland in Genoa and Marseilles.[82] The first Phoenician colonies in the western Mediterranean were along the northwest African coast and on Sicily, Sardinia and the Balearic Islands.[83] Tyre led the way in settling or controlling coastal areas.[84] Phoenician colonies were fairly autonomous. At most, they were expected to send annual tribute to their mother city, usually in the context of a religious offering. However, in the seventh century BC the western colonies came under the control of Carthage,[85][86] which was exercised directly through appointed magistrates.[87] Carthage continued to send annual tribute to Tyre for some time after its independence. Society and culture[edit] Since very little of the Phoenicians' own writings have survived, much of what is known about their culture and society comes from accounts by contemporary civilizations or inferences from archaeological discoveries. The Phoenicians had much in common with other Canaanites, including language, religion, social customs, and a monarchical political system centered around city-states. However, by the early Iron Age (roughly 1300 BC) they had emerged as a distinct people, with their culture, economy, and daily life being heavily centered on commerce and maritime trade. Their propensity for seafaring brought them into contact with numerous other civilizations. Politics and government[edit] Tomb of King Hiram I of Tyre, located in the village of Hanawai (Hanawiya or Hanawey) in southern Lebanon. The Phoenician city-states were fiercely independent in both domestic and foreign affairs. Formal alliances between city states were rare. The relative power and influence of city-states varied over time. Sidon was dominant between the 12th and 11th centuries BC, and exercised some influence over its neighbors, but by the tenth century BC, Tyre rose to become the most powerful city. Phoenician society was highly stratified and predominantly monarchical, at least in its earlier stages. Hereditary kings usually governed with absolute power over civic, commercial, and religious affairs. They often relied upon senior officials from the noble and merchant classes; the priesthood was a distinct class, usually of royal lineage or from leading merchant families. The king was considered a representative of the gods and carried many obligations and duties with respect to religious processions and rituals. Priests were thus highly influential and often became intertwined with the royal family. Phoenician kings did not commemorate their reign through sculptures or monuments. Their wealth, power, and accomplishments were usually conveyed through ornate sarcophagi, like that of Ahiram of Byblos. The Phoenicians kept records of their rulers in the form of tomb inscriptions, which are among the few primary sources still available. Historians have been able to determine a clear line of succession over centuries for some city-states, notably Byblos and Tyre. Starting as early as 15th century BC, Phoenician leaders were "advised by councils or assemblies which gradually took greater power".[51] In the sixth century BC, during the period of Babylonian rule, Tyre briefly adopted a system of government consisting of a pair of judges, known as sufetes, who were chosen from the most powerful noble families and served short terms.[51] Nineteenth century depiction of Phoenician sailors and merchants. The importance of trade to the Phoenician economy evidently led to a gradual sharing of power between the king and assemblies of merchant families. In the fourth century BC, when the armies of Alexander the Great approached Tyre, they were met not by its king but by representatives of the commonwealth of the city. Similarly, historians at the time describe the "inhabitants" or "the people" of Sidon making peace with Alexander.[51] When the Macedonians sought to appoint a new king over Sidon, the citizens nominated their own candidate.[51] Law and administration[edit] After the king and council, the two most important political positions in virtually every Phoenician city state were that of governor and commander of the army. Details regarding the duties of these offices are sparse, but it is known that the governor was responsible for collecting taxes, implementing decrees, supervising judges, and ensuring the administration of law and justice.[36] As warfare was rare among the mostly mercantile Phoenicians, the commander of the army was generally responsible for ensuring the defense and security of the city-state and its hinterlands. Stela from Tyre with Phoenician inscriptions (c. fourth century BC). National Museum of Beirut. The Phoenicians had a system of courts and judges that resolved disputes and punished crimes based on a semi-codified body of law and traditional. Laws were implemented by the state and were the responsibility of the ruler and certain designated officials. Like other Levantine societies, laws were harsh and biased, reflecting the social stratification of society. The murder of a commoner was treated as less serious than of a nobleman, and the upper classes had the most rights; the wealthy often escaped punishment by paying a fine. Free men of any class could represent themselves in court and had more rights than women and children, while slaves had no rights at all. Men could often deflect punishment to their wives, children, or slaves, even having them serve his sentence in his place. Lawyers eventually emerged as a profession for those who could not plead their own case. As in neighboring societies at the time, penalties for crimes were often severe, usually reflecting the principle of reciprocity; for example, the killing of a slave would be punished by having the offender's slave killed. Imprisonment was rare, with fines, exile, punishment, and execution were main remedies. Military[edit] As with most aspects of Phoenician civilization, there are few records of their military or approach to warfare. Compared to most of their neighbors, the Phoenicians generally had little interest in conquest and were a relatively peaceful people.[88] The wealth and prosperity of all their city states rested on foreign trade, which required good relations and a certain degree of mutual trust. They also lacked the territory and agricultural base to support a population large enough for anything other than city defense; each city had an army commander in charge of a defensive garrison, but the specifics of the role, or of city defense, are unknown. Language[edit] Main articles: Phoenician language and Punic The Phoenician language was a member of the Canaanite branch of the Semitic languages. Its descendant language spoken in the Carthaginian Empire is termed Punic. Punic was still spoken in the fifth century AD, and known to St. Augustine of Hippo. Alphabet[edit] Main article: Phoenician alphabet Sarcophagus of Ahiram, which bears the oldest inscription of the Phoenician alphabet. National Museum of Beirut Around 1050 BC,[25] the Phoenicians developed a script for writing their own language. The Canaanite-Phoenician alphabet consists of 22 letters, all consonants (and is thus strictly an abjad).[18] It is believed to be a continuation of the Proto-Sinaitic (or Proto-Canaanite) script attested in the Sinai and in Canaan in the Late Bronze Age.[89][90] Through their maritime trade, the Phoenicians spread the use of the alphabet to Anatolia, North Africa, and Europe.[11][91] The name Phoenician is by convention given to inscriptions beginning around 1050 BC, because Phoenician, Hebrew, and other Canaanite dialects were largely indistinguishable before that time.[25][17] Phoenician inscriptions are found in Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Cyprus and other locations, as late as the early centuries of the Christian era. The alphabet was adopted and modified by the Greeks probably in the eighth century BC. This most likely did not occur in a single instance but in a process of commercial exchange.[92] The legendary Phoenician hero Cadmus is credited with bringing the alphabet to Greece, but it is more plausible that it was brought by Phoenician immigrants to Crete,[93] whence it gradually diffused northwards. Art[edit] Phoenician art was largely centered on ornamental objects, particularly jewelry, pottery, glassware, and reliefs.[94] Large sculptures were rare; figurines were more common. Phoenician goods have been found from Spain and Morocco to Russia and Iraq; much of what is known about Phoenician art is based from excavations outside of Phoenicia proper. Phoenician art was highly influenced by the many cultures the Phoenicians traded and interacted with, primarily Egypt, Greece, and Assyria. Greek inspiration was particularly pronounced in pottery, while Egyptian styles were most reflected in ivory work.[94] Phoenician art also differed from its contemporaries in its continuance of Bronze Age conventions well into the Iron Age, such as terracotta masks.[95] Phoenician artisans were known for their skill with wood, ivory, bronze, and textiles.[96] In the Old Testament, a craftsman from Tyre is commissioned to build and decorate the legendary Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem, which "presupposes a well-developed and highly respected craft industry in Phoenicia by the mid-tenth century BC".[95] The Iliad mentions the embroidered robes of Priam’s wife, Hecabe, as "the work of Sidonian women" and describes a mixing bowl of chased silver as "a masterpiece of Sidonian craftsmanship."[citation needed] The Assyrians appeared to have valued Phoenician ivory work in particular, collecting vast quantities in their palaces.[97] Phoenician art appears to have been indelibly tied to Phoenician commercial interests.[65] They appear to have crafted goods to appeal to particular trading partners, distinguishing not only different cultures but even socioeconomic classes.[65] Decorative plaque which depicts a fighting of man and griffin; 900–800 BC; Nimrud ivories; Cleveland Museum of Art (Ohio, US) Oinochoe; 800–700 BC; terracotta; height: 24.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City) Face bead; mid-4th–3rd century BC; glass; height: 2.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art Earring from a pair, each with four relief faces; late 4th–3rd century BC; gold; overall: 3.5 x 0.6 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art Women[edit] Female figurines from Tyre (c.1000–550 BC). National Museum of Beirut. As was common in antiquity, Phoenician women had few rights and were considered the property of their fathers or husbands. Nonetheless, compared to their counterparts in most of the Mediterranean and western Asia, they appeared to have enjoyed some freedoms.[citation needed] They took part in public events and religious processions, with depictions of banquets showing them casually sitting or reclining with men, dancing, and playing music.[98] In most contexts, however, women were expected to dress and behave more modestly than men; female figures are almost always portrayed as draped from head to feet, with the arms sometimes covered as well. Although they rarely had political power, women took part in community affairs and had some voice in the popular assembles that began to emerge in some city states.[99] At least one woman, Unmiashtart, is recorded to have ruled Sidon in the fifth century BC.[36] The two most famous Phoenician women are political figures: Jezebel, portrayed in the Bible as the assertive princess of Sidon, and Dido, the semi-legendary founder and first queen of Carthage. In Virgil's epic poem the Aeneid, Dido is described as having been the co-ruler of Tyre, using cleverness to escape the tyranny of her brother Pygmalion and to secure an ideal site for Carthage. Religion[edit] Main article: Canaanite religion See also: Sanchuniathon The religious practices and beliefs of Phoenicia were generally cognate to those of their neighbours in Canaan, which in turn shared characteristics common throughout the ancient Semitic world.[100][101] Religious rites were primarily for city-state purposes; payment of taxes by citizens was considered in the category of religious sacrifices.[102] Unfortunately, many of the Phoenician sacred writings known to the ancients have been lost.[103] Figure of Ba'al with raised arm, 14th–12th century BC, found at ancient Ugarit (Ras Shamra site), a city at the far north of the Phoenician coast. Musée du Louvre Several Canaanite practices are attested in ancient sources and mentioned by scholars, such as temple prostitution[104] and child sacrifice.[105] Special sites known as "Tophets" were allegedly used by the Phoenicians "to burn their sons and their daughters in the fire", and are condemned by Yahweh in the Hebrew bible, particularly in Jeremiah 7:30–32, and in 2nd Kings 23:10 and 17:17. Notwithstanding these and other important differences, cultural and religious similarities between the ancient Hebrews and the Phoenicians persisted.[106] Canaanite religious mythology does not appear as elaborate as their Semitic cousins in Mesopotamia. In Canaan the supreme god was called El (𐤀𐤋, "god").[107] The son of El was Baal (𐤁𐤏𐤋, "master", "lord"), a powerful dying-and-rising storm god.[108] Other gods were called by royal titles, such as Melqart, meaning "king of the city",[109] or Adonis for "lord".[110] Such epithets may often have been merely local titles for the same deities. The Semitic pantheon was well-populated; which god became primary evidently depended on the exigencies of a particular city-state.[111][112] Melqart was prominent throughout Phoenicia and overseas, as was Astarte, a fertility goddess with regal and matronly aspects. Religious institutions in Tyre, called marzeh (𐤌𐤓𐤆𐤄, "place of reunion"), did much to foster social bonding and "kin" loyalty. Marzeh held banquets for their membership on festival days, and many developed into elite fraternities. Each marzeh nurtured congeniality and community through a series of ritual meals, shared together among trusted kin in honor of deified ancestors.[113] In Carthage, which had developed a complex republican system of government, the marzeh may have played a role in forging social and political ties among citizens; Carthaginians were divided into different institutions that were solidified through communal feasts and banquets. Such festival groups may also have composed the voting cohort for selecting members of the city-state's Assembly.[114][115] The Phoenicians made votive offerings to their gods, namely in the form of figurines and pottery vessels.[116] Hundreds of figurines and fragments have been recovered from the Mediterranean, often spanning centuries between them, suggesting they were cast into the sea to ensure safe travels.[116] Since the Phoenicians were a predominately seafaring people, it is speculated that many of their rituals were performed at sea or aboard ships, though the specific nature of these practices is unknown. See also[edit] Maronites Names of the Levant Phoenicianism Punic language Punics Theory of Phoenician discovery of the Americas Canaan References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Jerry H. Bentley; Herbert F. Ziegler (2000). Traditions & Encounters: From the Beginnings to 1500. McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-004949-9. ^ María Eugenia Aubet (6 September 2001). 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The Secret Lives of Colour. London: John Murray. pp. 162–164. ^ History, Captivating (2019). The Phoenicians: A Captivating Guide to the History of Phoenicia and the Impact Made by One of the Greatest Trading Civilizations of the Ancient World. p. 60. ISBN 978-1647482053. ^ a b c Rawlinson (1889). ^ a b c d "2,600-year-old wine 'factory' unearthed in Lebanon". History & Culture. 2020-09-14. Retrieved 2020-09-15. ^ Sechrist, Robert. Planet of the Grapes: A Geography of Wine. pp. 6–7. ^ "Galley | ship". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-04-19. ^ Haggi, Arad (2010). "Report on Underwater Excavation at the Phoenician Harbour, Atlit, Israel". International Journal of Nautical Archaeology (39): 283. ^ Wachsmann, Shelley (1998). Seagoing Ships & Seamanship in the Bronze Age Levant. College Station, TX: Texas A & M University Press. pp. 300, 51, 323–325, 332. ^ Woolmer, Mark (2011). Ancient Phoenicia: An Introduction. London: Bristol Classical Press. p. 84. ^ Klein, Christopher. "2,700-Year-Old Phoenician Shipwreck Discovered". HISTORY. Retrieved 2020-04-23. ^ "2,700-Year-Old Phoenician Shipwreck Discovered". Seeker. 27 August 2014. ^ Hansen, Mogens Herman (2000). "Conclusion: The Impact of City-State Cultures on World History". A Comparative Study of Thirty City-state Cultures: An Investigation. Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. pp. 601–602. ISBN 978-87-7876-177-4. Retrieved 5 April 2013. ^ Eric H. Cline; Mark W. Graham (27 June 2011). Ancient Empires: From Mesopotamia to the Rise of Islam. Cambridge University Press. p. 70. ISBN 978-0-521-88911-7. Retrieved 24 February 2013. ^ David Sacks; Oswyn Murray; Lisa R. Brody (1 January 2009). Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World. Infobase Publishing. p. 76. ISBN 978-1-4381-1020-2. Retrieved 3 March 2013. ^ Waldman, Carl; Mason, Catherine (2006). Encyclopedia of European Peoples. Infobase Publishing. p. 586. ISBN 978-1-4381-2918-1. Retrieved 23 February 2013. ^ Smith, Richard L. (31 July 2008). 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New York: Time-Life Books. p. 7. ^ Cross, Frank Moore (1980). "Newly Found Inscriptions in Old Canaanite and Early Phoenician Scripts". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. The University of Chicago Press on behalf of The American Schools of Oriental Research. 238 (238 (Spring, 1980)): 1–20. doi:10.2307/1356511. JSTOR 1356511. S2CID 222445150. ^ Millard, A. R. (1986). "The Infancy of the Alphabet". World Archaeology. 17 (3): 390–398. doi:10.1080/00438243.1986.9979978. ^ Beck, Roger B.; Black, Linda; Krieger, Larry S.; Naylor, Phillip C.; Shabaka, Dahia Ibo (1999). World History: Patterns of Interaction. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell. ISBN 978-0-395-87274-1. ^ Moscati (1965). ^ Jeffery, L. H. (1976). The Archaic Greece: The Greek city states 700–500 BC. Ernest Benn Ltd & Tonnbridge. ^ a b "Phoenician Art". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2020-04-19. ^ a b Markoe, Glenn E. (August 1990). "The Emergence of Phoenician Art". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research (279): 13–26. doi:10.2307/1357205. JSTOR 1357205. S2CID 163353156. ^ "The Phoenicians (1500–300 B.C.)". www.metmuseum.org. Retrieved 2020-04-19. ^ "Furniture plaque carved in high relief with two Egyptianizing figures flanking a volute tree, c. 9th–8th century B.C." www.metmuseum.org. Retrieved 2020-04-19. ^ Holst (2011), p. 31. ^ Holst (2011), p. 44. ^ Moscati (1957), e.g., p. 40 & 113. ^ Smith (1956), pp. 1–15. ^ Gaster (1965), pp. 113–143, 114–5. ^ Harden (1962), pp. 83–4. ^ Brandon (1970), pp. 512–513. ^ Brandon (1970), p. 448. ^ Brandon (1970), p. 173. ^ Brandon (1970), p. 258 ("El"). ^ Here, Baal was used instead of the storm god's name Hadad. Brandon (1970), pp. 315, 28, 124 ^ Moscati (1957), pp. 113–4. ^ Brandon (1970), pp. 29–30. ^ Brandon (1970), pp. 173, 501. ^ Carlyon, Richard (1981). A Guide to the Gods. New York. pp. 311–333. ^ Markoe (2000), p. 120. ^ Warmington (1964), p. 148. ^ Smith (1956), pp. 33–43. ^ a b "Long-lost Phoenician figurines could reveal secrets to ancient cult". The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com. Retrieved 2020-09-11. Sources[edit] Aubet, Maria Eugenia (2001). The Phoenicians and the West: Politics, Colonies and Trade. Translated by Turton, Mary. Cambridge University Pres. ISBN 978-0-521-79543-2. See Review by Roger Wright, University of Liverpool. Barton, George Aaron (1934). Semitic and Hamitic Origins. Social and Religious. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania. Bondi, S. F. 1988. "The Course of History." In The Phoenicians, edited by Sabatino Moscati, 38–45. Milan: Gruppo Editoriale Fabbri. Brandon, S.G.F., ed. (1970). Dictionary of Comparative Religion. New York City: Charles Scribner’s Son. Charles-Picard, Gilbert; Picard, Colette (1968). The Life and Death of Carthage. New York City: Taplinger. (Original French ed.: Vie et mort de Carthage Paris: Hatchette 1968) Coulmas, Florian (1996). The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-21481-6. Cross, Frank M. (1973). Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674091764. Cunliffe, Barry (2008). Europe Between the Oceans; 9000 BC-AD 1000. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Elayi, J. 2013. Histoire de la Phénicie. Paris: Perrin Gaster, Theodor H. (1965). "The Religion of the Canaanites". In Ferm, Vergilius (ed.). Ancient Religions. New York City: Citadel Pres. (Original ed.: Philosophical Library 1950) Gordon, C. H. 1966. Ugarit and Minoan Crete. New York: W.W. Norton & Company Harden, Donald (1962). The Phoenicians. New York, NY: Frederick A. Praeger. Heard, C. Yahwism and Baalism in Israel & Judah (3 May 2009) Herodotus (1910). The History of Herodotus. Translated by Rawlinson, George. London: J.M. Dent & Sons. "Online version". Internet Classic Archive. Herodotus (1920). The Histories. Translated by Godley, Alfred D. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. "Online version". Perseus Digital Library. Holst, Sanford (2011). Phoenician Secrets: Exploring the Ancient Mediterranean. Santorini Books. Homer. 6th century BC (perhaps 700 BC). The Odyssey. Translated by Stanley Lombardo. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company. Jung, Carl G. (1969). Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious [sic]. The Collected Works of C. G. Jung. 9-I. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-069109761-9. Lancel, Serge (1995). Carthage. A History. Oxford: Blackwell. (Original ed. in French: Carthage. Paris: Librairie Artheme Fayard 1992) Markoe, Glenn E. (2000). Peoples of the Past: Phoenicians. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-22614-2. Mikalson, J.D. 2005. Ancient Greek Religion. Malden: Blackwell publishing Moscati, Sabatino (1957). Ancient Semitic Civilizations. London, England: Elek Books. Moscati, Sabatino (1965). The World of the Phoenicians. New York, NY: Frederick A. Praeger. Ovid. 1st century AD. Metamorphoses. Translated by Rolfe Humphries. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Quinn, Josephine Crawley (2017). In Search of the Phoenicians. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-8911-2. Patai, Raphael (1990) [1967]. The Hebrew Goddess. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press. Rawlinson, George (1889). The History of Phoenicia. W. Röllig (1995), Phoenician and the Phoenicians in the context of the Ancient Near East, in S. Moscati (ed.), I Fenici ieri oggi domani : ricerche, scoperte, progetti, Roma, p. 203-214 Smith, W. Robertson (1956) [A. & C. Black, Edinburgh, 1889]. Lectures on the Religion of the Semites. New York: Meridian Library. Soren, David; Khader, Aicha B.; Slim, Hedi (1990). Carthage. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. Urquhart, David, "Mount Lebanon"; Google Archives Warmington, Brian H. (1964). Carthage. Penguin (original ed.:Robert Hale 1960). Further reading[edit] Carayon, Nicolas, Les ports phéniciens et puniques, PhD Thesis, 2008, Strasbourg, France. Cerqueiro, Daniel, Las Naves de Tarshis o quiénes fueron los Fenicios, Buenos Aires, Ed. Peq. Venecia, 2002, ISBN 987-9239-13-X. Cioffi, Robert L., "A Palm Tree, a Colour and a Mythical Bird" (review of Josephine Quinn, In Search of the Phoenicians, Princeton, 2017, 360 pp., ISBN 978 0 691 17527 0), London Review of Books, vol. 41, no. 1 (3 January 2019), pp. 15–16. Thiollet, Jean-Pierre, Je m'appelle Byblos, foreword by Guy Gay-Para, H & D, Paris, 2005, ISBN 2-914266-04-9. Todd, Malcolm; Andrew Fleming (1987). The South West to AD 1,000 (Regional history of England series No.:8). Harlow, Essex: Longman. ISBN 978-0-582-49274-5., for a critical examination of the evidence of Phoenician trade with the South West of the U.K. Silva, Diógenes. "La literatura sobre fenicios en el territorio brasileño: orígenes y razones", PhD Thesis, Madrid - 2016. Available in https://eprints.ucm.es/39468/ External links[edit] Library resources about Phoenicia Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries BBC Radio4 – In Our Time: The Phoenicians (audio archive) The quest for the Phoenicians in South Lebanon Phoenician Alphabet Sam Haselby (ed.). "Phoenicia: An imaginary friend to nations in need of ancestors". Josephine Quinn, associate professor in ancient history at Worcester College, University of Oxford. Aeon. v t e Ancient states and regions in the history of the Levant Copper age Kish civilization Ebla Mari Ugarit Byblos Bronze Age Akkadian Empire Alalakh Amurru Amrit Apum Arwad First Babylonian dynasty Bashan Gebal Canaan Kaldu Dur-Katlimmu Ebla Edom Emar Hittite empire Irqata Khana Mari Mitanni Moab Nagar Nuhašše Phoenicia Qatna Sidon Suhum Suteans Tadmor Terqa Tyre Ugarit Urkesh Yamhad Iron Age Achaemenid Empire Ain Dara Ammon Amrit Aram Aram-Damascus Neo-Assyrian Empire Neo-Babylonian Empire Bit-Adini Bit Agusi Bit Bahiani Gebal Canaan Carchemish New Kingdom of Egypt Hamath Hatarikka-Luhuti Kingdom of Israel (Samaria) Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy) Kingdom of Judah Kummuh Palistin Pattin Philistia Phoenicia Qedar Sidon Syro-Hittite states Sam'al Tyre Classical Age Byzantine Empire Kingdom of Commagene Hasmonean dynasty Herodian kingdom Herodian Tetrarchy Iturea Macedonian Empire Nabataean Kingdom Kingdom of Osroene Parthian Empire Palmyrene Empire Roman Empire Roman Republic Sasanian Empire Seleucid Empire Ghassanid Kingdom Tanukh Sources Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions v t e Ancient Syria and Mesopotamia Syria Northern Mesopotamia Southern Mesopotamia c. 3500–2350 BCE Semitic nomads Sumerian city-states c. 2350–2200 BCE Akkadian Empire c. 2200–2100 BCE Gutians c. 2100–2000 BCE Third Dynasty of Ur (Sumerian Renaissance) c. 2000–1800 BCE Mari and other Amorite city-states Old Assyrian Empire (Northern Akkadians) Isin/Larsa and other Amorite city-states c. 1800–1600 BCE Old Hittite Kingdom Old Babylonian Empire (Southern Akkadians) c. 1600–1400 BCE Mitanni (Hurrians) Karduniaš (Kassites) c. 1400–1200 BCE Middle Hittite Kingdom Middle Assyria c. 1200–1150 BCE Bronze Age Collapse ("Sea Peoples") Arameans c. 1150–911 BCE Phoenicia Neo-Hittite city-states Aram- Damascus Arameans Middle Babylonia Chal- de- ans 911–729 BCE Neo-Assyrian Empire 729–609 BCE 626–539 BCE Neo-Babylonian Empire (Chaldeans) 539–331 BCE Achaemenid Empire 336–301 BCE Macedonian Empire (Ancient Greeks and Macedonians) 311–129 BCE Seleucid Empire 129–63 BCE Seleucid Empire Parthian Empire 63 BCE–243 CE Roman Empire/Byzantine Empire (Syria) 243–636 CE Sassanid Empire v t e Phoenician cities and colonies Algeria Camarata Cartennae (Tenes) Hippo Regius Icosium (Algiers) Igilgili (Jijel) Iol (Cherchell) Iomnium (Tigzirt) Kirtan (Constantine) Kissi (Djinet) Macomades Malaca Rachgoun Rusazus (Azeffoun) Rusguniae (Tamentfoust) Rusicade (Skikda) Rusippisir (Taksebt) Rusubbicari (Zemmouri El Bahri) Rusuccuru (Dellys) Sarai (Aïn Oulmene) Thagora (Taoura) Tipasa in Mauretania Tipasa in Numidia Timici Cyprus Dhali Kition (Larnaca) Lapathus Marion Greece Callista (Santorini) Paxi Rhodes Israel Achzib Akka (Acre) Dora Michal Jaffa Reshef Shikmona (Haifa) Strato's Tower (Caesarea) Italy Agrigento Bitan (Chia) Cape Melqart (Cefalù) Drepanum (Trapani) Eryx (Erice) Heraclea Minoa Kapara (Soluntum) Karaly (Cagliari) Lilybaeum Motya Neapolis Nora Olbia Pantelleria Selinunte Sulci (Sant'Antioco) Tharros Ziz (Palermo) Lebanon Amia Ampi Arqa Athar (Tripoli) Baalbek Birut (Beirut) Botrys Gebal (Byblos) Sarepta Sur (Tyre) Sidon Ushu Libya Lepcis (Khoms) Oyat (Tripoli) Tsabratan Malta Maleth (Mdina) Gaulos (Gozo) Għajn Qajjet Mtarfa Ras il-Wardija Tas-Silġ Morocco Azama (Azemmour) Arambys (Mogador) Caricus Murus Heq she Elisha (Ksar es-Seghir) Likush (Larache) Shalat (Chellah) Tamusida Tinga (Tangier) Portugal Portus Hannibalis Portus Magonis (Portimão) Olissipona (Lisbon) Ossonoba (Faro) Spain Abdera (Adra) Abyla (Ceuta) Akra Leuka (Alicante) Gadir (Cadiz) Herna Iboshim (Ibiza) Mahón Malake (Málaga) Onoba Carthage (Cartagena) Rushadir (Melilla) Saguntum Sexi (Almunecar) Tagilit (Tíjola) Toscanos (Velez) Tyreche Syria Aynook (Arwad) Marat (Amrit) Safita Shuksi Sumur Ugarit Tunisia Aspis (Kelibia) Bulla Regia Carthage Hadrumetum (Sousse) Hippo Diarrhytus (Bizerte) Kerkouane Lepcis (Monastir) Maqom Hadesh (Ounga) Meninx (Djerba) Ruspe Ruspina Sicca (El Kef) Tabarka Tayinat (Thyna) Thapsus Thysdrus (El Djem) Utica Other Myriandus Phoenicus  /  Gibraltar v t e Empires Ancient (Colonies) Akkadian Neo-Sumerian Assyrian Old Assyrian Middle Assyrian Neo-Assyrian Babylonian Old Babylonian Kassite Neo-Babylonian Egyptian Old Kingdom Middle Kingdom New Kingdom Phoenician Carthaginian Chinese Shang Qin Han Three Kingdoms Jin North and South Hellenistic Macedonian Seleucid Hittite Indian Nanda Maurya Satavahana Shunga Gupta Harsha Iranian Median Achaemenid Parthian Sasanian Kushan Mongol Xianbei Roman Western Eastern Teotihuacan Post-classical Aksum Arab Rashidun Umayyad Abbasid Fatimid Aragonese Angevin Ayyubid Aztec Benin Bornu Bruneian Bulgarian First Second Byzantine Nicaea Thessalonica Trebizond Calakmul Chinese Sui Tang Liao Song Jīn Yuan Uyghur Ethiopian Zagwe Solomonic Genoese Georgian Holy-Roman Carolingian Huetar Hunnic Hephthalite Inca Indian Chola Gurjara-Pratihara Pala Eastern Ganga dynasty Delhi Vijayanagara Iranian Samanid Saffarid Kanem Khmer Latin Majapahit Malaccan Mali Egyptian Mamluk Mongol Yuan Golden Horde Chagatai Khanate Ilkhanate Moroccan Idrisid Almoravid Almohad Marinid North Sea Oyo Serbian Singhasari Somali Ajuran Ifatite Adalite Mogadishan Songhai Srivijaya Tibetan Tikal Timurid Tiwanku Toltec Turco-Persian Ghaznavid Great Seljuk Khwarezmian Venetian Vietnamese Dai Viet Wagadou Wari Modern Afghan Ashanti Austrian Austro-Hungarian Brazilian Central African Chinese Ming Qing China Manchukuo Ethiopian Haitian First Second French First Second German First/Old Reich Second Reich Third Reich Indian Mughal Mysorean Sikh Maratha British Raj Iranian Safavid Afsharid Qajar Pahlavi Japanese Johor Korean Mexican First Second Moroccan Saadi Alaouite Russian Somali Gobroon Majeerteen Hobyo Swedish Tongan Ottoman Vietnamese Dainam Vietnam Colonial American Belgian British English Scottish Danish Dutch French German Italian Japanese Omani Polish–Lithuanian Couronian Portuguese Sovereign Military Order of Malta Spanish 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en-wikipedia-org-1141	----	Ramesses II - Wikipedia Ramesses II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Egyptian pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt "Ramses II" redirects here. For the armored vehicle, see Ramses II tank. Ramesses II "Ramesses the Great" Bust of one of the four external seated statues of Ramesses II at Abu Simbel Pharaoh Reign 1279–1213 BC (19th Dynasty) Predecessor Seti I Successor Merneptah Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Usermaatre–setepenre "The justice of Rê is powerful – chosen of Rê" [1] Nomen Ramesses meryamun "Ramesses (Rê has fashioned him), beloved of Amun" [1] Horus name Kanakht Merymaat "The strong bull, beloved of right, truth" [2] Nebty name Mekkemetwafkhasut "Protector of Egypt who curbs foreign lands" [2] Golden Horus Userrenput–aanehktu "Rich in years – great in victories" [2] Consort Nefertari, Isetnofret, Maathorneferure, Meritamen, Bintanath, Nebettawy, Henutmire Children Amun-her-khepsef, Ramesses, Pareherwenemef, Khaemwaset, Merneptah, Meryatum, Bintanath, Meritamen, Nebettawy, Henuttawy (List of children of Ramesses II) Father Seti I Mother Tuya Born c. 1303 BC Died 1213 BC (aged c. 90) Burial KV7 Monuments Abu Simbel, Abydos,[3] Ramesseum, Luxor,[4] Karnak[4] Ramesses II (/ˈræməsiːz, ˈræmsiːz, ˈræmziːz/;[5] variously also spelled Rameses[6] or Ramses, Ancient Egyptian: rꜥ-ms-sw, lit. 'Ra is the one who bore him', Koinē Greek: Ῥαμέσσης, romanized: Rhaméssēs, c. 1303 BC – July or August 1213; reigned 1279–1213 BC[7]), also known as Ramesses the Great, was the third pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt. He is often regarded as the greatest, most celebrated, and most powerful pharaoh of the New Kingdom, itself the most powerful period of Ancient Egypt.[8] His successors and later Egyptians called him the "Great Ancestor". He is known as Ozymandias in Greek sources (Koinē Greek: Οσυμανδύας, romanized: Osymandýas),[9] from the first part of Ramesses's regnal name, Usermaatre Setepenre, "The Maat of Ra is powerful, Chosen of Ra".[10] Ramesses II led several military expeditions into the Levant, reasserting Egyptian control over Canaan. He also led expeditions to the south, into Nubia, commemorated in inscriptions at Beit el-Wali and Gerf Hussein. The early part of his reign was focused on building cities, temples, and monuments. He established the city of Pi-Ramesses in the Nile Delta as his new capital and used it as the main base for his campaigns in Syria. At fourteen, he was appointed prince regent by his father, Seti I.[8] He is believed to have taken the throne in his late teens and is known to have ruled Egypt from 1279 to 1213 BC.[11] Manetho attributes Ramesses II a reign of 66 years and 2 months; most Egyptologists today believe he assumed the throne on 31 May 1279 BC, based on his known accession date of III Season of the Harvest, day 27.[12][13] Estimates of his age at death vary; 90 or 91 is considered most likely.[14][15] Ramesses II celebrated an unprecedented thirteen or fourteen Sed festivals (the first held after 30 years of a pharaoh's reign, and then, every three years) during his reign—more than any other pharaoh.[16] On his death, he was buried in a tomb in the Valley of the Kings;[17] his body was later moved to a royal cache where it was discovered in 1881, and is now on display in the Egyptian Museum.[18] Contents 1 Campaigns and battles 1.1 Battle against Sherden sea pirates 1.2 First Syrian campaign 1.3 Second Syrian campaign 1.4 Third Syrian campaign 1.5 Later campaigns in Syria 1.6 Peace treaty with the Hittites 1.7 Campaigns in Nubia 1.8 Campaigns in Libya 2 Sed festival 3 Building activity and monuments 3.1 Pi-Ramesses 3.2 Ramesseum 3.3 Abu Simbel 3.4 Other Nubian monuments 3.5 Colossal statue 3.6 Tomb KV7 3.7 Tomb of Nefertari 3.8 Tomb KV5 3.9 Recent discoveries 4 Death and legacy 5 In popular culture 5.1 As the pharaoh of the Exodus 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links Campaigns and battles Ramesses II as a child (Cairo Museum) Early in his life, Ramesses II embarked on numerous campaigns to restore possession of previously held territories lost to the Nubians and Hittites and to secure Egypt's borders. He was also responsible for suppressing some Nubian revolts and carrying out a campaign in Libya. Though the Battle of Kadesh often dominates the scholarly view of Ramses II's military prowess and power, he nevertheless enjoyed more than a few outright victories over Egypt's enemies. During his reign, the Egyptian army is estimated to have totaled some 100,000 men: a formidable force that he used to strengthen Egyptian influence.[19] Battle against Sherden sea pirates In his second year, Ramesses II decisively defeated the Sherden sea pirates who were wreaking havoc along Egypt's Mediterranean coast by attacking cargo-laden vessels travelling the sea routes to Egypt.[20] The Sherden people probably came from the coast of Ionia, from southwest Anatolia or perhaps, also from the island of Sardinia.[21][22][23] Ramesses posted troops and ships at strategic points along the coast and patiently allowed the pirates to attack their perceived prey before skillfully catching them by surprise in a sea battle and capturing them all in a single action.[24] A stele from Tanis speaks of their having come "in their war-ships from the midst of the sea, and none were able to stand before them". There probably was a naval battle somewhere near the mouth of the Nile, as shortly afterward, many Sherden are seen among the pharaoh's body-guard where they are conspicuous by their horned helmets having a ball projecting from the middle, their round shields, and the great Naue II swords with which they are depicted in inscriptions of the Battle of Kadesh.[25] In that sea battle, together with the Sherden, the pharaoh also defeated the Lukka (L'kkw, possibly the later Lycians), and the Šqrsšw (Shekelesh) peoples. First Syrian campaign A relief of Ramses II from Memphis showing him capturing enemies: a Nubian, a Libyan and a Syrian, circa 1250 BC. Cairo Museum.[26] The immediate antecedents to the Battle of Kadesh were the early campaigns of Ramesses II into Canaan. His first campaign seems to have taken place in the fourth year of his reign and was commemorated by the erection of what became the first of the Commemorative stelae of Nahr el-Kalb near what is now Beirut. The inscription is almost totally illegible due to weathering. Additional records tell us that he was forced to fight a Canaanite prince who was mortally wounded by an Egyptian archer, and whose army subsequently, was routed. Ramesses carried off the princes of Canaan as live prisoners to Egypt. Ramesses then plundered the chiefs of the Asiatics in their own lands, returning every year to his headquarters at Riblah to exact tribute. In the fourth year of his reign, he captured the Hittite vassal state of the Amurru during his campaign in Syria.[27] Second Syrian campaign Main article: Battle of Kadesh The Battle of Kadesh in his fifth regnal year was the climactic engagement in a campaign that Ramesses fought in Syria, against the resurgent Hittite forces of Muwatallis. The pharaoh wanted a victory at Kadesh both to expand Egypt's frontiers into Syria, and to emulate his father Seti I's triumphal entry into the city just a decade or so earlier. He also constructed his new capital, Pi-Ramesses. There he built factories to manufacture weapons, chariots, and shields, supposedly producing some 1,000 weapons in a week, about 250 chariots in two weeks, and 1,000 shields in a week and a half. After these preparations, Ramesses moved to attack territory in the Levant, which belonged to a more substantial enemy than any he had ever faced in war: the Hittite Empire.[28] Ramesses's forces were caught in a Hittite ambush and outnumbered at Kadesh when they counterattacked and routed the Hittites, whose survivors abandoned their chariots and swam the Orontes river to reach the safe city walls.[29] Ramesses, logistically unable to sustain a long siege, returned to Egypt.[30][31] Third Syrian campaign Egypt's sphere of influence was now restricted to Canaan while Syria fell into Hittite hands. Canaanite princes, seemingly encouraged by the Egyptian incapacity to impose their will and goaded on by the Hittites, began revolts against Egypt. In the seventh year of his reign, Ramesses II returned to Syria once again. This time he proved more successful against his Hittite foes. During this campaign he split his army into two forces. One force was led by his son, Amun-her-khepeshef, and it chased warriors of the Šhasu tribes across the Negev as far as the Dead Sea, capturing Edom-Seir. It then marched on to capture Moab. The other force, led by Ramesses, attacked Jerusalem and Jericho. He, too, then entered Moab, where he rejoined his son. The reunited army then marched on Hesbon, Damascus, on to Kumidi, and finally, recaptured Upi (the land around Damascus), reestablishing Egypt's former sphere of influence.[32] Later campaigns in Syria Main article: Siege of Dapur Color reproduction of the relief depicting Ramesses II storming the Hittite fortress of Dapur Ramesses extended his military successes in his eighth and ninth years. He crossed the Dog River (Nahr al-Kalb) and pushed north into Amurru. His armies managed to march as far north as Dapur,[33] where he had a statue of himself erected. The Egyptian pharaoh thus found himself in northern Amurru, well past Kadesh, in Tunip, where no Egyptian soldier had been seen since the time of Thutmose III, almost 120 years earlier. He laid siege to the city before capturing it. His victory proved to be ephemeral. In year nine, Ramesses erected a stele at Beth Shean. After having reasserted his power over Canaan, Ramesses led his army north. A mostly illegible stele near Beirut, which appears to be dated to the king's second year, was probably set up there in his tenth.[34] The thin strip of territory pinched between Amurru and Kadesh did not make for a stable possession. Within a year, they had returned to the Hittite fold, so that Ramesses had to march against Dapur once more in his tenth year. This time he claimed to have fought the battle without even bothering to put on his corslet, until two hours after the fighting began. Six of Ramesses's youthful sons, still wearing their side locks, took part in this conquest. He took towns in Retenu,[35] and Tunip in Naharin,[36] later recorded on the walls of the Ramesseum.[37] This second success at the location was equally as meaningless as his first, as neither power could decisively defeat the other in battle.[38] West Asiatic prisoners of Ramses II at Abu Simbel.[39] Peace treaty with the Hittites Main article: Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty The deposed Hittite king, Mursili III, fled to Egypt, the land of his country's enemy, after the failure of his plots to oust his uncle from the throne. Ḫattušili III responded by demanding that Ramesses II extradite his nephew back to Hatti.[40] Tablet of treaty between Ḫattušili III of Hatti and Ramesses II of Egypt, at the İstanbul Archaeology Museums This demand precipitated a crisis in relations between Egypt and Hatti when Ramesses denied any knowledge of Mursili's whereabouts in his country, and the two empires came dangerously close to war. Eventually, in the twenty-first year of his reign (1258 BC), Ramesses decided to conclude an agreement with the new Hittite king, Ḫattušili III, at Kadesh to end the conflict. The ensuing document is the earliest known peace treaty in world history.[41] The peace treaty was recorded in two versions, one in Egyptian hieroglyphs, the other in Akkadian, using cuneiform script; both versions survive. Such dual-language recording is common to many subsequent treaties. This treaty differs from others, in that the two language versions are worded differently. While the majority of the text is identical, the Hittite version says the Egyptians came suing for peace and the Egyptian version says the reverse.[42] The treaty was given to the Egyptians in the form of a silver plaque, and this "pocket-book" version was taken back to Egypt and carved into the temple at Karnak. The treaty was concluded between Ramesses II and Ḫattušili III in year 21 of Ramesses's reign (c. 1258 BC).[43] Its 18 articles call for peace between Egypt and Hatti and then proceeds to maintain that their respective deities also demand peace. The frontiers are not laid down in this treaty, but may be inferred from other documents. The Anastasy A papyrus describes Canaan during the latter part of the reign of Ramesses II and enumerates and names the Phoenician coastal towns under Egyptian control. The harbour town of Sumur, north of Byblos, is mentioned as the northernmost town belonging to Egypt, suggesting it contained an Egyptian garrison.[44] No further Egyptian campaigns in Canaan are mentioned after the conclusion of the peace treaty. The northern border seems to have been safe and quiet, so the rule of the pharaoh was strong until Ramesses II's death, and the waning of the dynasty.[45] When the King of Mira attempted to involve Ramesses in a hostile act against the Hittites, the Egyptian responded that the times of intrigue in support of Mursili III, had passed. Ḫattušili III wrote to Kadashman-Enlil II, Kassite king of Karduniaš (Babylon) in the same spirit, reminding him of the time when his father, Kadashman-Turgu, had offered to fight Ramesses II, the king of Egypt. The Hittite king encouraged the Babylonian to oppose another enemy, which must have been the king of Assyria, whose allies had killed the messenger of the Egyptian king. Ḫattušili encouraged Kadashman-Enlil to come to his aid and prevent the Assyrians from cutting the link between the Canaanite province of Egypt and Mursili III, the ally of Ramesses. Campaigns in Nubia Ramesses II in his war chariot, charging the Nubians Part of Gerf Hussein temple, originally in Nubia Ramesses II also campaigned south of the first cataract of the Nile into Nubia. When Ramesses was about 22, two of his own sons, including Amun-her-khepeshef, accompanied him in at least one of those campaigns. By the time of Ramesses, Nubia had been a colony for 200 years, but its conquest was recalled in decoration from the temples Ramesses II built at Beit el-Wali[46] (which was the subject of epigraphic work by the Oriental Institute during the Nubian salvage campaign of the 1960s),[47] Gerf Hussein and Kalabsha in northern Nubia. On the south wall of the Beit el-Wali temple, Ramesses II is depicted charging into battle against the Nubians in a war chariot, while his two young sons, Amun-her-khepsef and Khaemwaset, are shown behind him, also in war chariots. A wall in one of Ramesses's temples says he had to fight one battle with the Nubians without help from his soldiers. Campaigns in Libya During the reign of Ramesses II, the Egyptians were evidently active on a 300-kilometre (190 mi) stretch along the Mediterranean coast, at least as far as Zawyet Umm El Rakham.[48] Although the exact events surrounding the foundation of the coastal forts and fortresses is not clear, some degree of political and military control must have been held over the region to allow their construction. There are no detailed accounts of Ramesses II's undertaking large military actions against the Libyans, only generalised records of his conquering and crushing them, which may or may not refer to specific events that were otherwise unrecorded. It may be that some of the records, such as the Aswan Stele of his year 2, are harking back to Ramesses's presence on his father's Libyan campaigns. Perhaps it was Seti I who achieved this supposed control over the region, and who planned to establish the defensive system, in a manner similar to how he rebuilt those to the east, the Ways of Horus across Northern Sinai. Sed festival Main article: Sed festival After reigning for 30 years, Ramesses joined a select group that included only a handful of Egypt's longest-lived rulers. By tradition, in the 30th year of his reign Ramesses celebrated a jubilee called the Sed festival. These were held to honour and rejuvenate the pharaoh's strength.[49] Only halfway through what would be a 66-year reign, Ramesses already had eclipsed all but a few of his greatest predecessors in his achievements. He had brought peace, maintained Egyptian borders, and built great and numerous monuments across the empire. His country was more prosperous and powerful than it had been in nearly a century. Sed festivals traditionally were held again every three years after the 30th year; Ramesses II, who sometimes held them after two years, eventually celebrated an unprecedented 13 or 14.[50] Building activity and monuments This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Ramesses II" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Ramesses II with Amun and Mut, Museo Egizio, Turin, Italy Ramesses built extensively throughout Egypt and Nubia, and his cartouches are prominently displayed even in buildings that he did not construct.[51] There are accounts of his honor hewn on stone, statues, and the remains of palaces and temples—most notably the Ramesseum in western Thebes and the rock temples of Abu Simbel. He covered the land from the Delta to Nubia with buildings in a way no monarch before him had.[52] He also founded a new capital city in the Delta during his reign, called Pi-Ramesses. It previously had served as a summer palace during Seti I's reign.[53] Colossal Statue of Ramses II in the first peristyle court at Luxor His memorial temple, known today as the Ramesseum, was just the beginning of the pharaoh's obsession with building. When he built, he built on a scale unlike almost anything before. In the third year of his reign, Ramesses started the most ambitious building project after the pyramids, which were built almost 1,500 years earlier. The population was put to work changing the face of Egypt. In Thebes, the ancient temples were transformed, so that each one of them reflected honour to Ramesses as a symbol of his putative divine nature and power. Ramesses decided to eternalize himself in stone, and so he ordered changes to the methods used by his masons. The elegant but shallow reliefs of previous pharaohs were easily transformed, and so their images and words could easily be obliterated by their successors. Ramesses insisted that his carvings be deeply engraved into the stone, which made them not only less susceptible to later alteration, but also made them more prominent in the Egyptian sun, reflecting his relationship with the sun deity, Ra. Ramesses constructed many large monuments, including the archaeological complex of Abu Simbel, and the mortuary temple known as the Ramesseum. He built on a monumental scale to ensure that his legacy would survive the ravages of time. Ramesses used art as a means of propaganda for his victories over foreigners, which are depicted on numerous temple reliefs. Ramesses II erected more colossal statues of himself than any other pharaoh, and also usurped many existing statues by inscribing his own cartouche on them. Pi-Ramesses Main article: Pi-Ramesses Ramesses II moved the capital of his kingdom from Thebes in the Nile valley to a new site in the eastern Delta. His motives are uncertain, although he possibly wished to be closer to his territories in Canaan and Syria. The new city of Pi-Ramesses (or to give the full name, Pi-Ramesses Aa-nakhtu, meaning "Domain of Ramesses, Great in Victory")[54] was dominated by huge temples and his vast residential palace, complete with its own zoo. In the 10th century AD the Bible exegete Rabbi Saadia Gaon, believed that the biblical site of Ramesses had to be identified with Ain Shams.[55] For a time, during the early 20th century, the site was misidentified as that of Tanis, due to the amount of statuary and other material from Pi-Ramesses found there, but it now is recognised that the Ramesside remains at Tanis were brought there from elsewhere, and the real Pi-Ramesses lies about 30 km (18.6 mi) south, near modern Qantir.[56] The colossal feet of the statue of Ramesses are almost all that remains above ground today. The rest is buried in the fields.[54] Ramesseum Main article: Ramesseum The Younger Memnon: part of colossal statue of Ramesses from Ramesseum, now in British Museum The temple complex built by Ramesses II between Qurna and the desert has been known as the Ramesseum since the 19th century. The Greek historian Diodorus Siculus marveled at the gigantic temple, now no more than a few ruins.[57] Oriented northwest and southeast, the temple was preceded by two courts. An enormous pylon stood before the first court, with the royal palace at the left and the gigantic statue of the king looming up at the back. Only fragments of the base and torso remain of the syenite statue of the enthroned pharaoh, 17 metres (56 ft) high and weighing more than 1,000 tonnes (980 long tons; 1,100 short tons). Scenes of the great pharaoh and his army triumphing over the Hittite forces fleeing before Kadesh are represented on the pylon. Remains of the second court include part of the internal facade of the pylon and a portion of the Osiride portico on the right. Scenes of war and the alleged rout of the Hittites at Kadesh are repeated on the walls. In the upper registers, feast and honor of the phallic deity Min, god of fertility. Scattered remains displayed in front of Osirid statues On the opposite side of the court the few Osiride pillars and columns still remaining may furnish an idea of the original grandeur.[58] Scattered remains of the two statues of the seated king also may be seen, one in pink granite and the other in black granite, which once flanked the entrance to the temple. Thirty-nine out of the forty-eight columns in the great hypostyle hall (41 × 31 m) still stand in the central rows. They are decorated with the usual scenes of the king before various deities.[59] Part of the ceiling, decorated with gold stars on a blue ground, also has been preserved. Ramesses's children appear in the procession on the few walls left. The sanctuary was composed of three consecutive rooms, with eight columns and the tetrastyle cell. Part of the first room, with the ceiling decorated with astral scenes, and few remains of the second room are all that is left. Vast storerooms built of mud bricks stretched out around the temple.[58] Traces of a school for scribes were found among the ruins.[60] A temple of Seti I, of which nothing remains beside the foundations, once stood to the right of the hypostyle hall.[59] Abu Simbel Main article: Abu Simbel temples Facade of the Great Temple at Abu Simbel In 1255 BC, Ramesses and his queen Nefertari had traveled into Nubia to inaugurate a new temple, the great Abu Simbel. It is an ego cast in stone; the man who built it intended not only to become Egypt's greatest pharaoh, but also one of its deities.[61] The great temple of Ramesses II at Abu Simbel was discovered in 1813 by the Swiss Orientalist and traveler Johann Ludwig Burckhardt. An enormous pile of sand almost completely covered the facade and its colossal statues, blocking the entrance for four more years. The Paduan explorer Giovanni Battista Belzoni reached the interior on 4 August 1817.[62] Other Nubian monuments As well as the temples of Abu Simbel, Ramesses left other monuments to himself in Nubia. His early campaigns are illustrated on the walls of the Temple of Beit el-Wali (now relocated to New Kalabsha). Other temples dedicated to Ramesses are Derr and Gerf Hussein (also relocated to New Kalabsha). Colossal statue Main article: Statue of Ramesses II The colossal statue of Ramesses II dates back 3,200 years, and was originally discovered in six pieces in a temple near Memphis. Weighing some 83-tonne (82-long-ton; 91-short-ton), it was transported, reconstructed, and erected in Ramesses Square in Cairo in 1955. In August 2006, contractors relocated it to save it from exhaust fumes that were causing it to deteriorate.[63] The new site is near the future Grand Egyptian Museum.[64] Tomb KV7 Main article: KV7 Mummy of Ramesses II, now in Cairo Museum Originally Ramesses II was buried in the tomb KV7[65] in the Valley of the Kings, but because of looting, priests later transferred the body to a holding area, re-wrapped it, and placed it inside the tomb of queen Ahmose Inhapy.[66] Seventy-two hours later it was again moved, to the tomb of the high priest Pinedjem II. All of this is recorded in hieroglyphics on the linen covering the body of the coffin of Ramesses II.[67] His mummy was eventually discovered in TT320 inside an ordinary wooden coffin[68] and is now in Cairo's Egyptian Museum. The pharaoh's mummy reveals an aquiline nose and strong jaw. It stands at about 1.7 metres (5 ft 7 in).[69] Gaston Maspero, who first unwrapped the mummy of Ramesses II, writes, "on the temples there are a few sparse hairs, but at the poll the hair is quite thick, forming smooth, straight locks about five centimeters in length. White at the time of death, and possibly auburn during life, they have been dyed a light red by the spices (henna) used in embalming...the moustache and beard are thin...The hairs are white, like those of the head and eyebrows...the skin is of earthy brown, splotched with black... the face of the mummy gives a fair idea of the face of the living king."[70][71] In 1975, Maurice Bucaille, a French doctor, examined the mummy at the Cairo Museum and found it in poor condition. French President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing succeeded in convincing Egyptian authorities to send the mummy to France for treatment. In September 1976, it was greeted at Paris–Le Bourget Airport with full military honours befitting a king, then taken to a laboratory at the Musée de l'Homme.[72][73][74] The mummy of Ramesses the Great The mummy was forensically tested by Professor Pierre-Fernand Ceccaldi, the chief forensic scientist at the Criminal Identification Laboratory of Paris. Professor Ceccaldi determined that: "Hair, astonishingly preserved, showed some complementary data—especially about pigmentation: Ramses II was a ginger haired 'cymnotriche leucoderma'." The description given here refers to a fair-skinned person with wavy ginger hair.[75][76] Subsequent microscopic inspection of the roots of Ramesses II's hair proved that the king's hair originally was red, which suggests that he came from a family of redheads.[77][78] This has more than just cosmetic significance: in ancient Egypt people with red hair were associated with the deity Set, the slayer of Osiris, and the name of Ramesses II's father, Seti I, means "follower of Seth."[79] During the examination, scientific analysis revealed battle wounds, old fractures, arthritis, and poor circulation.[citation needed] Ramesses II's arthritis is believed to have made him walk with a hunched back for the last decades of his life.[80] A 2004 study excluded ankylosing spondylitis as a possible cause and proposed diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis as a possible alternative,[81] which was confirmed by more recent work.[82] A significant hole in the pharaoh's mandible was detected. Researchers observed "an abscess by his teeth (which) was serious enough to have caused death by infection, although this cannot be determined with certainty".[80] After being irradiated in an attempt to eliminate fungi and insects, the mummy was returned from Paris to Egypt in May 1977.[83] Tomb of Nefertari Main article: Tomb of Nefertari Tomb wall depicting Nefertari The tomb of the most important consort of Ramesses was discovered by Ernesto Schiaparelli in 1904.[58][62] Although it had been looted in ancient times, the tomb of Nefertari is extremely important, because its magnificent wall painting decoration is regarded as one of the greatest achievements of ancient Egyptian art. A flight of steps cut out of the rock gives access to the antechamber, which is decorated with paintings based on chapter 17 of the Book of the Dead. This astronomical ceiling represents the heavens and is painted in dark blue, with a myriad of golden five-pointed stars. The east wall of the antechamber is interrupted by a large opening flanked by representation of Osiris at left and Anubis at right; this in turn leads to the side chamber, decorated with offering scenes, preceded by a vestibule in which the paintings portray Nefertari presented to the deities, who welcome her. On the north wall of the antechamber is the stairway down to the burial chamber, a vast quadrangular room covering a surface area of about 90 square metres (970 sq ft), its astronomical ceiling supported by four pillars entirely decorated. Originally, the queen's red granite sarcophagus lay in the middle of this chamber. According to religious doctrines of the time, it was in this chamber, which the ancient Egyptians called the golden hall, that the regeneration of the deceased took place. This decorative pictogram of the walls in the burial chamber drew inspirations from chapters 144 and 146 of the Book of the Dead: in the left half of the chamber, there are passages from chapter 144 concerning the gates and doors of the kingdom of Osiris, their guardians, and the magic formulas that had to be uttered by the deceased in order to go past the doors.[62] Tomb KV5 Main article: KV5 See also: List of children of Ramesses II In 1995, Professor Kent Weeks, head of the Theban Mapping Project, rediscovered Tomb KV5. It has proven to be the largest tomb in the Valley of the Kings, and originally contained the mummified remains of some of this king's estimated 52 sons. Approximately 150 corridors and tomb chambers have been located in this tomb as of 2006 and the tomb may contain as many as 200 corridors and chambers.[84] It is believed that at least four of Ramesses's sons, including Meryatum, Sety, Amun-her-khepeshef (Ramesses's first-born son) and "the King's Principal Son of His Body, the Generalissimo Ramesses, justified" (i.e., deceased) were buried there from inscriptions, ostraca or canopic jars discovered in the tomb.[85] Joyce Tyldesley writes that thus far no intact burials have been discovered and there have been little substantial funeral debris: thousands of potsherds, faience ushabti figures, beads, amulets, fragments of Canopic jars, of wooden coffins ... but no intact sarcophagi, mummies or mummy cases, suggesting that much of the tomb may have been unused. Those burials which were made in KV5 were thoroughly looted in antiquity, leaving little or no remains.[85] Recent discoveries In December 2019, a red granite royal bust of Ramses II was unearthed by an Egyptian archaeological mission in the village of Mit Rahina in Giza. The bust depicted Ramses II wearing a wig with the symbol "Ka" on his head. Its measurements were 55 cm (21.65 in) wide, 45 cm (17.71 in) thick and 105 cm (41.33 in) long. Alongside the bust, limestone blocks appeared showing Ramses II during the Heb-Sed religious ritual.[86] "This discovery is considered one of the rarest archaeological discoveries. It is the first-ever Ka statue made of granite to be discovered. The only Ka statue that was previously found is made of wood and it belongs to one of the kings of the 13th dynasty of ancient Egypt which is displayed at the Egyptian Museum in Tahrir Square," said archaeologist Mostafa Waziri. Death and legacy By the time of his death, aged about 90 years, Ramesses was suffering from severe dental problems and was plagued by arthritis and hardening of the arteries.[87] He had made Egypt rich from all the supplies and riches he had collected from other empires. He had outlived many of his wives and children and left great memorials all over Egypt. Nine more pharaohs took the name Ramesses in his honour. In popular culture Ramesses is the basis for Percy Bysshe Shelley's poem "Ozymandias". Diodorus Siculus gives an inscription on the base of one of his sculptures as: "King of Kings am I, Osymandias. If anyone would know how great I am and where I lie, let him surpass one of my works."[88] This is paraphrased in Shelley's poem. The life of Ramesses II has inspired many fictional representations, including the historical novels of the French writer Christian Jacq, the Ramsès series; the graphic novel Watchmen, in which the character of Adrian Veidt uses Ramesses II to form part of the inspiration for his alter-ego, Ozymandias; Norman Mailer's novel Ancient Evenings, which is largely concerned with the life of Ramesses II, though from the perspective of Egyptians living during the reign of Ramesses IX; and the Anne Rice book The Mummy, or Ramses the Damned (1989), in which Ramesses was the main character. In The Kane Chronicles Ramesses is an ancestor of the main characters Sadie and Carter Kane. The East Village underground rock band The Fugs released their song "Ramses II Is Dead, My Love" on their 1968 album It Crawled into My Hand, Honest. As the pharaoh of the Exodus In entertainment and media, Ramesses II is one of the more popular candidates for the Pharaoh of the Exodus. He is cast in this role in the 1944 novella The Tables of the Law by Thomas Mann. Although not a major character, Ramesses appears in Joan Grant's So Moses Was Born, a first person account from Nebunefer, the brother of Ramoses, which paints a picture of the life of Ramoses from the death of Seti, replete with the power play, intrigue, and assassination plots of the historical record, and depicting the relationships with Bintanath, Tuya, Nefertari, and Moses. In film, Ramesses is played by Yul Brynner in Cecil B. DeMille's classic The Ten Commandments (1956). Here Ramesses is portrayed as a vengeful tyrant as well as the main antagonist of the film, ever scornful of his father's preference for Moses over "the son of [his] body".[89] The animated film The Prince of Egypt (1998) also features a depiction of Ramesses (voiced by Ralph Fiennes), portrays Moses' adoptive brother, and ultimately as the film's villain with essentially the same motivations as in the earlier 1956 film. Joel Edgerton played Ramesses in the 2014 film Exodus: Gods and Kings. Sérgio Marone plays Ramesses in the 2015 Brazilian series Os Dez Mandamentos (English: Moses and the Ten Commandments). See also List of pharaohs Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree References Notes ^ a b Clayton 1994, p. 146. ^ a b c Tyldesly 2001, p. xxiv. ^ "Mortuary temple of Ramesses II at Abydos". Archived from the original on 22 December 2008. Retrieved 28 October 2008. ^ a b Anneke Bart. "Temples of Ramesses II". Archived from the original on 28 April 2008. Retrieved 23 April 2008. ^ "Ramses". Webster's New World College Dictionary. Wiley Publishing. 2004. Archived from the original on 24 January 2012. Retrieved 27 April 2011. ^ "Rameses". Webster's New World College Dictionary. Wiley Publishing. 2004. Archived from the original on 2 October 2011. Retrieved 27 April 2011. ^ Or 1276–1210 BC, according to http://www.9news.com.au/world/2017/10/31/12/35/bible-eclipse-egypt-study-cambridge Archived 31 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine ^ a b Putnam (1990) ^ Diodorus Siculus. "Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica, Books I-V, book 1, chapter 47, section 4". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Archived from the original on 6 May 2011. Retrieved 10 October 2011. ^ "Ozymandias". Archived from the original on 13 December 2007. Retrieved 30 March 2008. ^ Rice (1999), p. 165. ^ von Beckerath (1997), pp. 108, 190 ^ Brand (2000), pp. 302–05 ^ von Beckerath (1997), pp. 108, 190. ^ Brand (2000), pp. 302–05. ^ O'Connor & Cline (1998), p. 16. ^ Christian Leblanc. "Gerard". Archived from the original on 4 December 2007. Retrieved 23 April 2008. ^ Rice (1999), p. 166. ^ R. Gabriel, The Great Armies of Antiquity, 6. ^ Grimal (1992), pp. 250–53. ^ Drews 1995, p. 54: "Already in the 1840s Egyptologists had debated the identity of the "northerners, coming from all lands," who assisted the Libyan King Meryre in his attack upon Merneptah. Some scholars believed that Meryre's auxiliaries were merely his neighbors on the Libyan coast, while others identified them as Indo-Europeans from north of the Caucasus. It was one of Maspero's most illustrious predecessors, Emmanuel de Rougé, who proposed that the names reflected the lands of the northern Mediterranean: the Lukka, Ekwesh, Tursha, Shekelesh, and Shardana were men from Lydia, Achaea, Tyrsenia (western Italy), Sicily, and Sardinia." De Rougé and others regarded Meryre's auxiliaries—these "peoples de la mer Méditerranée"—as mercenary bands, since the Sardinians, at least, were known to have served as mercenaries already in the early years of Ramesses the Great. Thus the only "migration" that the Karnak Inscription seemed to suggest was an attempted encroachment by Libyans upon neighboring territory." ^ Gale, N.H. 2011. ‘Source of the Lead Metal used to make a Repair Clamp on a Nuragic Vase recently excavated at Pyla-Kokkinokremos on Cyprus'. In V. Karageorghis and O. Kouka (eds.), On Cooking Pots, Drinking Cups, Loomweights and Ethnicity in Bronze Age Cyprus and Neighbouring Regions, Nicosia. ^ O'Connor & Cline 2003, pp. 112–13. ^ Tyldesley (2000), p. 53. ^ "The Naue Type II Sword". Archived from the original on 20 July 2008. Retrieved 30 May 2008. ^ Richardson, Dan (2013). Cairo and the Pyramids (Rough Guides Snapshot Egypt). Rough Guides UK. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-4093-3544-3. ^ Grimal (1994), pp. 253 ff. ^ Tyldesley, Ramesses, p. 68. ^ Ancient Discoveries: Egyptian Warfare. History Channel Program: Ancient Discoveries: Egyptian Warfare with panel of three experts. Event occurs at 12:00 EDST, 14 May 2008. Archived from the original on 16 April 2008. Retrieved 15 May 2008. Egyptian monuments and great works of art still astound us today. We will reveal another surprising aspect of Egyptian life—their weapons of war, and their great might on the battlefield. A common perception of the Egyptians is of a cultured civilization, yet there is fascinating evidence that reveals they were also a war faring people, who developed advanced weapon making techniques. Some of these techniques would be used for the very first time in history and some of the battles they fought were on a truly massive scale. ^ The Battle of Kadesh in the context of Hittite history Archived 14 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine ^ 100 Battles, Decisive Battles that Shaped the World, Dougherty, Martin, J., Parragon, pp. 10–11. ^ Grimal (1992), p. 256. ^ Kitchen (1996), p. 26. ^ Kitchen (1979), pp. 223–24. ^ Kitchen (1996), p. 33 ^ Kitchen (1996), p. 47. ^ Kitchen (1996), p. 46. ^ Kitchen (1982), p. 68. ^ Wilkinson, Toby (2007). The Egyptian World. Routledge. pp. 254–257. ISBN 978-1-136-75376-3. ^ Kitchen (1982), p. 74. ^ Grimal, op. cit., p. 256. ^ Kitchen (1983), pp. 62–64, 73–79. ^ Grimal (1992), p. 257. ^ Stieglitz (1991), p. 45. ^ Kitchen (1982), p. 215. ^ "Beit el-Wali". University of Chicago. Archived from the original on 6 September 2008. Retrieved 21 April 2008. ^ Ricke & Wente (1967) ^ Geoff Edwards. "Zawiyet Umm el-Rakham". Archived from the original on 13 September 2005. Retrieved 7 April 2008. ^ "Sed festival". The Global Egyptian Museum. Archived from the original on 6 September 2008. Retrieved 7 April 2008. ^ "Renewal of the kings' Reign : The Sed Heb of Ancient Egypt". Archived from the original on 6 November 2016. Retrieved 5 November 2016. ^ Amelia Ann Blandford Edwards. "Chapter XV: Rameses the Great". Archived from the original on 13 May 2008. Retrieved 23 April 2008. ^ Wolfhart Westendorf, Das alte Ägypten, 1969 ^ Kitchen (1982), p. 119. ^ a b Kitchen (2003), p. 255. ^ Saadia Gaon, Judeo-Arabic Translation of Pentateuch (Tafsir), s.v. Exodus 21:37 and Numbers 33:3 ("רעמסס: "עין שמס); Rabbi Saadia Gaon's Commentaries on the Torah (ed. Yosef Qafih), Mossad Harav Kook: Jerusalem 1984, p. 164 (Numbers 33:3) (Hebrew) ^ Dearman, John Andrew; Graham, Matt Patrick; Miller, James Maxwell, eds. (2001). The Land that I Will Show You: Essays on the History and Archaeology of the Ancient Near East in Honour of J. Maxwell Miller. Sheffield Academic Press. "The Geography of the Exodus", by John Van Seters, p. 265. ISBN 978-1-84127-257-3. Archived from the original on 31 March 2014. Retrieved 27 February 2015. ^ Diodorus Siculus (1814). The Historical Library of Diodorus the Sicilian. Printed by W. MʻDowall for J. Davis. pp. Ch. 11, p. 33. ^ a b c Skliar (2005). ^ a b Guy Lecuyot. "The Ramesseum (Egypt), Recent Archaeological Research" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 May 2008. Retrieved 10 April 2008. ^ "À l'école des Scribes" (in French). Archived from the original on 23 April 2008. Retrieved 21 April 2008. ^ Kitchen (1982), pp. 64–65. ^ a b c Siliotti (1994). ^ "Giant Ramses statue gets new home". BBC NEWS. 25 August 2006. Archived from the original on 20 July 2008. Retrieved 5 July 2008. ^ Hawass, Zahi. "The removal of Ramses II Statue". Archived from the original on 12 March 2007. Retrieved 17 March 2007. ^ "Tomb KV7 (Tomb of Ramesses II)". Madain Project. Archived from the original on 2 May 2020. Retrieved 2 May 2020. ^ Rohl 1995, pp. 72-73, 75. ^ Rohl 1995, pp. 78-79. ^ "Mummy of Ramesses II". Madain Project. Archived from the original on 6 September 2019. Retrieved 6 September 2019. ^ Tyldesley (2000) p. 14. ^ Romer, John. Valley of the Kings. Castle Books. p. 184. ^ Maspero, Gaston (1892). Egyptian Archaeology. Putnam. pp. 76–77. ^ Farnsworth, Clyde H. (28 September 1976). "Paris Mounts Honor Guard For a Mummy". New York Times. p. 5. Retrieved 31 October 2019. ^ Stephanie Pain. "Ramesses rides again". New Scientist. Archived from the original on 15 August 2014. Retrieved 13 December 2013. ^ "Was the great Pharaoh Ramesses II a true redhead?". The University of Manchester. 3 February 2010. ^ Ceccaldi, Pierre-Fernand (1987). "Recherches sur les momies: Ramsès II". Bulletin de l'Académie de Médecine. 171:1 (1): 119. ^ "Bulletin de l'Académie nationale de médecine". Gallica. 6 January 1987. Archived from the original on 15 July 2018. Retrieved 15 July 2018. ^ Tyldesley, Joyce (26 April 2001). Ramesses: Egypt's Greatest Pharaoh. Penguin UK. ISBN 9780141949789. ^ Bob Brier, Egyptian Mummies: Unravelling the Secrets of an Ancient Art, New York: William Morrow & Co. Inc, 1994, p. 153. ^ Brier, Egyptian Mummies (1994), pp. 200–01. ^ a b Bob Brier, The Encyclopedia of Mummies, Checkmark Books, 1998, p. 153. ^ Chhem, RK; Schmit, P; Fauré, C (October 2004). "Did Ramesses II really have ankylosing spondylitis? A reappraisal". Can Assoc Radiol J. 55 (4): 211–7. PMID 15362343. ^ Saleem, Sahar N.; Hawass, Zahi (2014). "Brief Report: Ankylosing Spondylitis or Diffuse Idiopathic Skeletal Hyperostosis in Royal Egyptian Mummies of the 18th–20th Dynasties? Computed Tomography and Archaeology Studies". Arthritis & Rheumatology. 66 (12): 3311–3316. doi:10.1002/art.38864. ISSN 2326-5205. PMID 25329920. S2CID 42296180. ^ "'Cleaned-Up' Mummy Flown Home to Egypt". Los Angeles Times. Associated Press. 11 May 1977. p. 20. Retrieved 30 October 2019. CAIRO (AP)—The 3,212-year-old mummy of Pharaoh Ramses II was returned from Paris Tuesday, hopefully cured by radiation of 60 types of fungi and two strains of insects. ^ "Tomb of Ramses II sons". Archived from the original on 27 February 2015. Retrieved 27 February 2015. ^ a b Tyldesley (2000), pp. 161–62. ^ "Red Granite Bust of Ramesses II Unearthed in Giza - Archaeology Magazine". www.archaeology.org. Retrieved 17 September 2020. ^ "La momie de Ramsès II. Contribution scientifique à l'égyptologie". Archived from the original on 2 June 2010. Retrieved 27 February 2015. ^ RPO Editors. "Percy Bysshe Shelley: Ozymandias". University of Toronto Department of English. University of Toronto Libraries, University of Toronto Press. Archived from the original on 10 October 2006. Retrieved 18 September 2006. ^ John Ray. "Ramesses the Great". BBC history. Archived from the original on 16 October 2012. Retrieved 30 May 2008. Bibliography Balout, L.; Roubet, C.; Desroches-Noblecourt, C. (1985). La Momie de Ramsès II: Contribution Scientifique à l'Égyptologie. Bietak, Manfred (1995). Avaris: Capital of the Hyksos – Recent Excavations. London: British Museum Press. ISBN 978-0-7141-0968-8. von Beckerath, Jürgen (1997). Chronologie des Pharaonischen Ägypten. Mainz: Philipp von Zabern. Brand, Peter J. (2000). The Monuments of Seti I: Epigraphic, Historical and Art Historical Analysis. NV Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-11770-9. Brier, Bob (1998). The Encyclopedia of Mummies. Checkmark Books. Clayton, Peter (1994). Chronology of the Pharaohs. Thames & Hudson. Dodson, Aidan; Dyan Hilton (2004). The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05128-3. Grajetzki, Wolfram (2005). Ancient Egyptian Queens – a hieroglyphic dictionary. London: Golden House Publications. ISBN 978-0-9547218-9-3. Grimal, Nicolas (1992). A History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-17472-1. Kitchen, Kenneth (1983). Pharaoh Triumphant: The Life and Times of Ramesses II, King of Egypt. London: Aris & Phillips. ISBN 978-0-85668-215-5. Kitchen, Kenneth Anderson (2003). On the Reliability of the Old Testament. Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-8028-4960-1. Kitchen, Kenneth Anderson (1996). Ramesside Inscriptions Translated and Annotated: Translations. Volume 2: Ramesses II; Royal Inscriptions. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 978-0-631-18427-0. Translations and (in the 1999 volume below) notes on all contemporary royal inscriptions naming the king. Kitchen, Kenneth Anderson (1999). Ramesside Inscriptions Translated and Annotated: Notes and Comments. Volume 2: Ramesses II; Royal Inscriptions. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Kuhrt, Amelie (1995). The Ancient Near East c. 3000–330 BC. Vol. 1. London: Routledge. O'Connor, David; Eric Cline (1998). Amenhotep III: Perspectives on his reign. University of Michigan Press. Putnam, James (1990). An introduction to Egyptology. Rice, Michael (1999). Who's Who in Ancient Egypt. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-15448-2. Ricke, Herbert; George R. Hughes; Edward F. Wente (1967). The Beit el-Wali Temple of Ramesses II. Rohl, David M. (1995). Pharaohs and Kings: A Biblical Quest (illustrated, reprint ed.). Crown Publishers. ISBN 978-0-517-70315-1. RPO Editors. "Percy Bysshe Shelley: Ozymandias". University of Toronto Department of English. University of Toronto Libraries, University of Toronto Press. Archived from the original on 10 October 2006. Retrieved 18 September 2006. Siliotti, Alberto (1994). Egypt: temples, people, gods. Skliar, Ania (2005). Grosse kulturen der welt-Ägypten. Stieglitz, Robert R. (1991). "The City of Amurru". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 50 (1): 45–48. doi:10.1086/373464. S2CID 161341256. Tyldesley, Joyce (2000). Ramesses: Egypt's Greatest Pharaoh. London: Viking/Penguin Books. Westendorf, Wolfhart (1969). Das alte Ägypten (in German). Chhem, RK; Schmit, P; Fauré, C (October 2004). "Did Ramesses II really have ankylosing spondylitis? A reappraisal". Can Assoc Radiol J. 55 (4): 211–7. PMID 15362343. The Epigraphic Survey, Reliefs and Inscriptions at Karnak III: The Bubastite Portal, Oriental Institute Publications, vol. 74 (Chicago): University of Chicago Press, 1954 Further reading Hasel, Michael G (1994). "Israel in the Merneptah Stela". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. 296 (296): 45–61. doi:10.2307/1357179. JSTOR 1357179. S2CID 164052192. Hasel, Michael G. 1998. Domination and Resistance: Egyptian Military Activity in the Southern Levant, 1300–1185 BC. Probleme der Ägyptologie 11. Leiden: Brill Publishers. ISBN 90-04-10984-6 Hasel, Michael G. 2003. "Merenptah's Inscription and Reliefs and the Origin of Israel" in Beth Alpert Nakhai (ed.), The Near East in the Southwest: Essays in Honor of William G. Dever, pp. 19–44. Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research 58. Boston: American Schools of Oriental Research. ISBN 0-89757-065-0 Hasel, Michael G (2004). "The Structure of the Final Hymnic-Poetic Unit on the Merenptah Stela". Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft. 116: 75–81. doi:10.1515/zatw.2004.005. James, T. G. H. 2000. Ramesses II. New York: Friedman/Fairfax Publishers. A large-format volume by the former Keeper of Egyptian Antiquities at the British Museum, filled with colour illustrations of buildings, art, etc. related to Ramesses II External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ramses II. Egypt's Golden Empire: Ramesses II Ramesses II Ramesses II Usermaatre-setepenre (c. 1279–1213 BC) Egyptian monuments: Temple of Ramesses II Ramesses II at Find a Grave List of Ramesses II's family members and state officials Newly discovered temple Full titulary of Ramesses II including variants v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control BNF: cb11952902j (data) GND: 118598171 ISNI: 0000 0000 8842 369X LCCN: n50054443 NDL: 00621345 NKC: jn20000720239 SUDOC: 027503658 VIAF: 7363190 WorldCat Identities: viaf-7363190 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ramesses_II&oldid=1000149519" Categories: Ramesses II 13th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt 1213 BC deaths 1300s BC births 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en-wikipedia-org-1144	----	Medes - Wikipedia Medes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient iranian people This article is about the ancient Iranian people. For other uses, see Medes (disambiguation). For Medians, see Median (disambiguation). This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in French. (February 2020) Click [show] for important translation instructions. View a machine-translated version of the French article. Machine translation like DeepL or Google Translate is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Wikipedia. Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article. You must provide copyright attribution in the edit summary accompanying your translation by providing an interlanguage link to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary Content in this edit is translated from the existing French Wikipedia article at [[:fr:Mèdes]]; see its history for attribution. You should also add the template {{Translated|fr|Mèdes}} to the talk page. For more guidance, see Wikipedia:Translation. Median Dynasty Mādai c. 678 BC–c. 549 BC A map of the Median Empire at its greatest extent (6th century BC), according to Herodotus Capital Ecbatana Common languages Median Religion Ancient Iranian religion (related to Mithraism, early Zoroastrianism) King   Historical era Iron Age • Established c. 678 BC • Conquered by Cyrus the Great c. 549 BC Area 585 BC[1][2] 2,800,000 km2 (1,100,000 sq mi) Preceded by Succeeded by Neo-Assyrian Empire Urartu Achaemenid Empire Part of a series on the History of Iran Mythological history Pishdadian dynasty Kayanian dynasty Ancient period BC Prehistory of Iran Ancient Times–4000 Kura–Araxes culture 3400–2000 Proto-Elamite 3200–2700 Jiroft culture c. 3100 – c. 2200 Elam 2700–539 Akkadian Empire 2400–2150 Lullubi culture c. 2300-700 Kassites c. 1500 – c. 1155 Neo-Assyrian Empire 911–609 Urartu 860–590 Mannaeans 850–616 Imperial period Median Empire 678–550 BC (Scythian Kingdom) 652–625 BC Anshanite Kingdom 635 BC–550 BC Neo-Babylonian Empire 626 BC–539 BC Achaemenid Empire 550 BC–330 BC Kingdom of Armenia 331 BC–428 AD Atropatene c. 323 BC–226 AD Kingdom of Cappadocia 320s BC–17 AD Seleucid Empire 312 BC–63 BC Kingdom of Pontus 281 BC–62 BC Fratarakas 3rd-century BC–132 BC Parthian Empire 247 BC–224 AD Elymais 147 BC–224 AD Characene 141 BC–222 AD Kings of Persis 132 BC–224 AD Indo-Parthian Kingdom 19 AD–224/5 Paratarajas 125–300 Sasanian Empire 224–651 Zarmihrids 6th century–785 Qarinvandids 550s–11th century Medieval period Rashidun Caliphate 632-661 Umayyad Caliphate 661–750 Abbasid Caliphate 750–1258 Dabuyids 642–760 Bavandids 651–1349 Masmughans of Damavand 651–760 Baduspanids 665–1598 Justanids 791 – 11th century Alid dynasties 864 – 14th century Tahirid dynasty 821–873 Samanid Empire 819–999 Saffarid dynasty 861–1003 Ghurid dynasty pre-879 – 1215 Sajid dynasty 889–929 Sallarid dynasty 919–1062 Ziyarid dynasty 930–1090 Ilyasids 932–968 Buyid dynasty 934–1062 Ghaznavid dynasty 977–1186 Kakuyids 1008–1141 Nasrid dynasty 1029–1236 Shabankara 1030–1355 Seljuk Empire 1037–1194 Khwarazmian dynasty 1077–1231 Eldiguzids 1135–1225 Atabegs of Yazd 1141–1319 Salghurids 1148–1282 Hazaraspids 1155–1424 Pishkinid dynasty 1155–1231 Khorshidi dynasty 1184-1597 Qutlugh-Khanids 1223-1306 Mihrabanids 1236–1537 Kurt dynasty 1244–1396 Ilkhanate Empire 1256–1335 Chobanid dynasty 1335–1357 Muzaffarid dynasty 1335–1393 Jalayirid Sultanate 1337–1376 Sarbadars 1337–1376 Injuids 1335–1357 Afrasiyab dynasty 1349–1504 Mar'ashis 1359–1596 Timurid Empire 1370–1507 Kar-Kiya dynasty 1370s–1592 Kara Koyunlu 1406–1468 Aq Qoyunlu 1468–1508 Early modern period Safavid Iran 1501–1736 (Hotak dynasty) 1722–1729 Afsharid dynasty 1736–1796 Talysh Khanate 1747–1826 Zand dynasty 1751–1794 Qajar Iran 1789–1925 Modern period Pahlavi dynasty 1925–1979 Iranian Revolution, Interim Government 1979 Islamic Republic 1979–present Related articles Name Monarchs Heads of state Economic history Military history Wars Timeline  Iran portal v t e The Apadana Palace, 5th century BC Achaemenid bas-relief shows a Mede soldier behind a Persian soldier, in Persepolis, Iran The Medes /ˈmiːdz/[N 1] (Old Persian Māda-, Ancient Greek: Μῆδοι) were an ancient Iranian people[N 2] who spoke the Median language and who inhabited an area known as Media between western and northern Iran. Around the 11th century BC, they occupied the mountainous region of northwestern Iran and the northeastern and eastern region of Mesopotamia located in the region of Hamadan (Ecbatana). Their emergence in Iran is believed to have occurred during the 8th century BC. In the 7th century BC, all of western Iran and some other territories were under Median rule, but their precise geographic extent remains unknown.[5] Although they are generally recognized as having an important place in the history of the ancient Near East, the Medes have left no written source to reconstruct their history, which is known only from foreign sources such as the Assyrians, Babylonians and Greeks, as well as a few Iranian archaeological sites, which are believed to have been occupied by Medes. The accounts relating to the Medes reported by Herodotus have left the image of a powerful people, who would have formed an empire at the beginning of the 7th century BC that lasted until the 550s BC, played a determining role in the fall of the Assyrian Empire and competed with the powerful kingdoms of Lydia and Babylonia. However, a recent reassessment of contemporary sources from the Mede period has altered scholars' perceptions of the Median state. The state remains difficult to perceive in the documentation, which leaves many doubts about it, some specialists even suggesting that there never was a powerful Median kingdom. In any case, it appears that after the fall of the last Median king against Cyrus the Great of the Persian Empire, Media became an important province and prized by the empires which successively dominated it (Achaemenids, Seleucids, Parthians and Sasanids). Contents 1 Tribes 2 Etymology 3 Mythology 4 Archaeology 5 Geography 6 History 6.1 Prehistory 6.2 Rise and fall 6.3 Median dynasty 7 Culture and society 7.1 Language 7.2 Religion 8 Kurds and Medes 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Sources 13 Further reading 14 External links Tribes[edit] According to the Histories of Herodotus, there were six Median tribes:[6] Thus Deioces collected the Medes into a nation, and ruled over them alone. Now these are the tribes of which they consist: the Busae, the Paretaceni, the Struchates, the Arizanti, the Budii, and the Magi. The six Median tribes resided in Media proper, the triangular area between Rhagae, Aspadana and Ecbatana.[7] In present-day Iran,[8] that is the area between Tehran, Isfahan and Hamadan, respectively. Of the Median tribes, the Magi resided in Rhagae,[9] modern Tehran.[10] They were of a sacred caste which ministered to the spiritual needs of the Medes.[11] The Paretaceni tribe resided in and around Aspadana, modern Isfahan,[7][12][13] the Arizanti lived in and around Kashan (Isfahan Province),[7] and the Busae tribe lived in and around the future Median capital of Ecbatana, near modern Hamadan.[7] The Struchates and the Budii lived in villages in the Median triangle.[14] Etymology[edit] The original source for their name and homeland is a directly transmitted Old Iranian geographical name which is attested as the Old Persian "Māda-" (singular masculine).[15] The meaning of this word is not precisely known.[16] However, the linguist W. Skalmowski proposes a relation with the proto-Indo European word "med(h)-", meaning "central, suited in the middle", by referring to the Old Indic "madhya-" and Old Iranian "maidiia-" which both carry the same meaning.[15] The Latin medium, Greek méso, Armenian mej, and English mid are similarly derived from it. Greek scholars during antiquity would base ethnological conclusions on Greek legends and the similarity of names. According to the Histories of Herodotus (440 BC):[17] The Medes were formerly called by everyone Arians, but when the Colchian woman Medea came from Athens to the Arians, they changed their name, like the Persians [did after Perses, son of Perseus and Andromeda].[18] This is the Medes' own account of themselves. Mythology[edit] In the Greek myth of Jason and the Argonauts, Medea is the daughter of King Aeëtes of Colchis and a paternal granddaughter of the sun-god Helios.[19] Following her failed marriage to Jason while in Corinth, for one of several reasons depending on the version,[20] she marries King Aegeus of Athens and bears a son Medus. After failing to make Aegeus kill his older son Theseus, she and her son fled to Aria, where the Medes take their name from her, according to several Greek and later Roman accounts, including in Pausanias' Description of Greece (1st-century AD).[21] According to other versions, such as in Strabo's Geographica (1st-century AD) and Justin's Epitoma Historiarum Philippicarum (2nd or 3rd century AD), she returned home to conquer neighboring lands with her husband Jason, one of which was named after her; while another version related by Diodorus Siculus in Bibliotheca Historica (1st-century BC) states that after being exiled she married an Asian king and bore Medus, who was greatly admired for his courage, after whom they took their name.[22] Archaeology[edit] Excavation from ancient Ecbatana, Hamadan, Iran The discoveries of Median sites in Iran happened only after the 1960s.[23] Prior to the 1960s, the search for Median archeological sources has mostly focused in an area known as the "Median triangle", defined roughly as the region bounded by Hamadān and Malāyer (in Hamadan Province) and Kangāvar (in Kermanshah Province).[23] Three major sites from central western Iran in the Iron Age III period (i.e. 850–500 BC) are:[24] Tepe Nush-i Jan (a primarily religious site of Median period), The site is located 14 km west of Malāyer in Hamadan province.[23] The excavations started in 1967 with David Stronach as the director.[25] The remains of four main buildings in the site are "the central temple, the western temple, the fort, and the columned hall" which according to Stronach were likely to have been built in the order named and predate the latter occupation of the first half of the 6th century BC.[26] According to Stronach, the central temple, with its stark design, "provides a notable, if mute, expression of religious belief and practice".[26] A number of ceramics from the Median levels at Tepe Nush-i Jan have been found which are associated with a period (the second half of the 7th century BC) of power consolidation in the Hamadān areas. These findings show four different wares known as "common ware" (buff, cream, or light red in colour and with gold or silver mica temper) including jars in various size the largest of which is a form of ribbed pithoi. Smaller and more elaborate vessels were in "grey ware", (these display smoothed and burnished surface). The "cooking ware" and "crumbly ware" are also recognized each in single handmade products.[26] Godin Tepe (its period II: a fortified palace of a Median king or tribal chief), The site is located 13 km east of Kangāvar city on the left bank of the river Gamas Āb". The excavations, started in 1965, were led by T. C. Young, Jr. which according to David Stronach, evidently shows an important Bronze Age construction that was reoccupied sometime before the beginning of the Iron III period. The excavations of Young indicate the remains of part of a single residence of a local ruler which later became quite substantial.[23] This is similar to those mentioned often in Assyrian sources.[24] Babajan (probably the seat of a lesser tribal ruler of Media). The site is located in northeastern Lorestan with a distance of roughly 10 km from Nūrābād in Lorestan province. The excavations were conducted by C. Goff in 1966–69. The second level of this site probably dates to the 7th century BC.[27] These sources have both similarities (in cultural characteristics) and differences (due to functional differences and diversity among the Median tribes).[24] The architecture of these archaeological findings, which can probably be dated to the Median period, show a link between the tradition of columned audience halls often seen in the Achaemenid Empire (for example in Persepolis) and Safavid Iran (for example in Chehel Sotoun from the 17th century AD) and what is seen in Median architecture.[24] The materials found at Tepe Nush-i Jan, Godin Tepe, and other sites located in Media together with the Assyrian reliefs show the existence of urban settlements in Media in the first half of the 1st millennium BC which had functioned as centres for the production of handicrafts and also of an agricultural and cattle-breeding economy of a secondary type.[28] For other historical documentation, the archaeological evidence, though rare, together with cuneiform records by Assyrian make it possible, regardless of Herodotus' accounts, to establish some of the early history of Medians.[29] Geography[edit] An early description of Media from the end of the 9th century BC to the beginning of the 7th century BC comes from the Assyrians. The southern border of Media, in that period, is named as the Elamite region of Simaški in present-day Lorestan Province. To the west and northwest, Media was bounded by the Zagros Mountains and from the east by the Dasht-e Kavir desert. This region of Media was ruled by the Assyrians and for them the region fell "along the Great Khorasan Road from just east of Harhar to Alwand, and probably beyond."[30] The location of Harhar is suggested to be "the central or eastern" Mahidasht District in Kermanshah Province.[31] Its borders were limited in the north by the non-Iranian states of Gizilbunda and Mannea, and to its south by Ellipi and Elam.[30][5] Gizilbunda was located in the Qaflankuh Mountains, and Ellipi was located in the south of modern Lorestan Province.[5] On the east and southeast of Media, as described by the Assyrians, another land with the name of "Patušarra" appears. This land was located near a mountain range which the Assyrians call "Bikni" and describe as "Lapis Lazuli Mountain". There are differing opinions on the location of this mountain. Mount Damavand of Tehran and Alvand of Hamadan are two proposed sites. This location is the most remote eastern area that the Assyrians knew of or reached during their expansion until the beginning of the 7th century BC.[32] In Achaemenid sources, specifically from the Behistun Inscription (2.76, 77–78), the capital of Media is Ecbatana, called "Hamgmatāna-" in Old Persian (Elamite:Agmadana-; Babylonian: Agamtanu-) corresponding to modern-day Hamadan.[33] The other cities existing in Media were Laodicea (modern Nahavand)[34] and the mound that was the largest city of the Medes, Rhages (present-day Rey). The fourth city of Media was Apamea, near Ecbatana, whose precise location is now unknown. In later periods, Medes and especially Mede soldiers are identified and portrayed prominently in ancient archaeological sites such as Persepolis, where they are shown to have a major role and presence in the military of the Achaemenid Empire. History[edit] Prehistory[edit] Timeline of Pre-Achaemenid era. At the end of the 2nd millennium BC, the Iranian tribes emerged in the region of northwest Iran. These tribes expanded their control over larger areas. Subsequently, the boundaries of Media changed over a period of several hundred years.[35] Iranian tribes were present in western and northwestern Iran from at least the 12th or 11th centuries BC. But the significance of Iranian elements in these regions were established from the beginning of the second half of the 8th century BC.[36] By this time the Iranian tribes were the majority in what later become the territory of the Median Kingdom and also the west of Media proper.[36] A study of textual sources from the region shows that in the Neo-Assyrian period, the regions of Media, and further to the west and the northwest, had a population with Iranian speaking people as the majority.[37] This period of migration coincided with a power vacuum in the Near East with the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1020 BC), which had dominated northwestern Iran and eastern Anatolia and the Caucasus, going into a comparative decline. This allowed new peoples to pass through and settle. In addition Elam, the dominant power in Iran, was suffering a period of severe weakness, as was Babylonia to the west. In western and northwestern Iran and in areas further west prior to Median rule, there is evidence of the earlier political activity of the powerful societies of Elam, Mannaea, Assyria and Urartu .[36] There are various and up-dated opinions on the positions and activities of Iranian tribes in these societies and prior to the "major Iranian state formations" in the late 7th century BC.[36] One opinion (of Herzfeld, et al.) is that the ruling class were "Iranian migrants" but the society was "autonomous" while another opinion (of Grantovsky, et al.) holds that both the ruling class and basic elements of the population were Iranian.[38] Rhyton in the shape of a ram's head, gold – western Iran – Median, late 7th–early 6th century BC The neighboring Neo-Babylonian Empire at its greatest extent after the destruction of the Neo-Assyrian Empire Protoma in the form of a bull's head, 8th century BC, gold and filigree, National Museum, Warsaw Rise and fall[edit] From the 10th to the late 7th centuries BC, the western parts of Media fell under the domination of the vast Neo-Assyrian Empire based in northern Mesopotamia, which stretched from Cyprus in the west, to parts of western Iran in the east, and Egypt and the north of the Arabian Peninsula. Assyrian kings such as Tiglath-Pileser III, Sargon II, Sennacherib, Esarhaddon, Ashurbanipal and Ashur-etil-ilani imposed Vassal Treaties upon the Median rulers, and also protected them from predatory raids by marauding Scythians and Cimmerians.[39] During the reign of Sinsharishkun (622–612 BC), the Assyrian empire, which had been in a state of constant civil war since 626 BC, began to unravel. Subject peoples, such as the Medes, Babylonians, Chaldeans, Egyptians, Scythians, Cimmerians, Lydians and Arameans quietly ceased to pay tribute to Assyria. Neo-Assyrian dominance over the Medians came to an end during the reign of Median King Cyaxares, who, in alliance with King Nabopolassar of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, attacked and destroyed the strife-riven Neo-Assyrian empire between 616 and 609 BC.[40] The newfound alliance helped the Medes to capture Nineveh in 612 BC, which resulted in the eventual collapse of the Neo-Assyrian Empire by 609 BC. The Medes were subsequently able to establish their Median Kingdom (with Ecbatana as their royal capital) beyond their original homeland and had eventually a territory stretching roughly from northeastern Iran to the Kızılırmak River in Anatolia. After the fall of Assyria between 616 BC and 609 BC, a unified Median state was formed, which together with Babylonia, Lydia, and ancient Egypt became one of the four major powers of the ancient Near East. Cyaxares was succeeded by his son King Astyages. In 553 BC, his maternal grandson Cyrus the Great, the King of Anshan/Persia, a Median vassal, revolted against Astyages. In 550 BC, Cyrus finally won a decisive victory resulting in Astyages' capture by his own dissatisfied nobles, who promptly turned him over to the triumphant Cyrus.[41] After Cyrus's victory against Astyages, the Medes were subjected to their close kin, the Persians.[42] In the new empire they retained a prominent position; in honour and war, they stood next to the Persians; their court ceremony was adopted by the new sovereigns, who in the summer months resided in Ecbatana; and many noble Medes were employed as officials, satraps and generals. Median dynasty[edit] The list of Median rulers and their period of reign is compiled according to two sources. Firstly, Herodotus who calls them "kings" and associates them with the same family. Secondly, the Babylonian Chronicle which in "Gadd's Chronicle on the Fall of Nineveh" gives its own list. A combined list stretching over 150 years is thus: Deioces (700–647 BC) Phraortes (647–625 BC) Scythian rule (624–597 BC) Cyaxares (624–585 BC) Astyages (585–549 BC)[43] However, not all of these dates and personalities given by Herodotus match the other near eastern sources.[43] In Herodotus (book 1, chapters 95–130), Deioces is introduced as the founder of a centralised Median state. He had been known to the Median people as "a just and incorruptible man" and when asked by the Median people to solve their possible disputes he agreed and put forward the condition that they make him "king" and build a great city at Ecbatana as the capital of the Median state.[44] Judging from the contemporary sources of the region and disregarding[45] the account of Herodotus puts the formation of a unified Median state during the reign of Cyaxares or later.[46] Culture and society[edit] Greek references to "Median" people make no clear distinction between the "Persians" and the "Medians"; in fact for a Greek to become "too closely associated with Iranian culture" was "to become Medianized, not Persianized".[24] The Median Kingdom was a short-lived Iranian state and the textual and archaeological sources of that period are rare and little could be known from the Median culture which nevertheless made a "profound, and lasting, contribution to the greater world of Iranian culture".[47] Language[edit] Main article: Median language Median people spoke the Median language, which was an Old Iranian language. Strabo's Geographica (finished in the early first century) mentions the affinity of Median with other Iranian languages: "The name of Ariana is further extended to a part of Persia and of Media, as also to the Bactrians and Sogdians on the north; for these speak approximately the same language, but with slight variations".[48] No original deciphered text has been proven to have been written in the Median language. It is suggested that similar to the later Iranian practice of keeping archives of written documents in Achaemenid Iran, there was also a maintenance of archives by the Median government in their capital Ecbatana. There are examples of "Median literature" found in later records. One is according to Herodotus that the Median king Deioces, appearing as a judge, made judgement on causes submitted in writing. There is also a report by Dinon on the existence of "Median court poets".[49] Median literature is part of the "Old Iranian literature" (including also Saka, Old Persian, Avestan) as this Iranian affiliation of them is explicit also in ancient texts, such as Herodotus's account[17] that many peoples including Medes were "universally called Iranian".[50] Words of Median origin appear in various other Iranian dialects, including Old Persian. A feature of Old Persian inscriptions is the large number of words and names from other languages and the Median language takes in this regard a special place for historical reasons.[51] The Median words in Old Persian texts, whose Median origin can be established by "phonetic criteria",[51] appear "more frequently among royal titles and among terms of the chancellery, military, and judicial affairs".[51] Words of Median origin include: The Ganj Nameh ("treasure epistle") in Ecbatana. The inscriptions are by Darius I and his son Xerxes I. *čiθra-: "origin".[52] The word appears in *čiθrabṛzana- (med.) "exalting his linage", *čiθramiθra- (med.) "having mithraic origin", *čiθraspāta- (med.) "having a brilliant army", etc.[53] Farnah: Divine glory (Avestan: khvarənah‎) Paridaiza: Paradise Spaka- : The word is Median and means "dog".[54] Herodotus identifies "Spaka-" (Gk. "σπάχα" – female dog) as Median rather than Persian.[55] The word is still used in modern Iranian languages including Talyshi, also suggested as a source to the Russian word for dog sobaka.[56][57][58] vazṛka-: "great" (as Western Persian bozorg)[51] vispa-: "all"[59] (as in Avestan). The component appears in such words as vispafryā (Med. fem.) "dear to all", vispatarva- (med.) "vanquishing all", vispavada- (Median-Old Persian) "leader of all", etc.[60] xšayaθiya- (king)[citation needed] xšaθra- (realm; kingship): This Median word (attested in *xšaθra-pā- and continued by Middle Persian šahr "land, country; city") is an example of words whose Greek form (known as romanized "satrap" from Gk. σατράπης satrápēs) mirrors, as opposed to the tradition,[N 3] a Median rather than an Old Persian form (also attested, as xšaça- and xšaçapāvā) of an Old Iranian word.[61] zūra-: "evil" and zūrakara-: "evil-doer".[51] Religion[edit] Apadana Hall, 5th century BC Achaemenid-era carving of Persian and Median soldiers in traditional costume (Medians are wearing rounded hats and boots), in Persepolis, Iran There are very limited sources concerning the religion of Median people. Primary sources pointing to religious affiliations of Medes found so far include the archaeological discoveries in Tepe Nush-e Jan, personal names of Median individuals, and the Histories of Herodotus. The archaeological source gives the earliest of the temple structures in Iran and the "stepped fire altar" discovered there is linked to the common Iranian legacy of the "cult of fire". Herodotus mentions Median Magi as a Median tribe providing priests for both the Medes and the Persians. They had a "priestly caste" which passed their functions from father to son. They played a significant role in the court of the Median king Astyages who had in his court certain Medians as "advisers, dream interpreters, and soothsayers". Classical historians "unanimously" regarded the Magi as priests of the Zoroastrian faith. From the personal names of Medes as recorded by Assyrians (in 8th and 9th centuries BC) there are examples of the use of the Indo-Iranian word arta- (lit. "truth") which is familiar from both Avestan and Old Persian and also examples of theophoric names containing Maždakku and also the name "Ahura Mazdā".[62] Scholars disagree whether these are indications of Zoroastrian religion amongst the Medes. Diakonoff believes that "Astyages and perhaps even Cyaxares had already embraced a religion derived from the teachings of Zoroaster" and Mary Boyce believes that "the existence of the Magi in Media with their own traditions and forms of worship was an obstacle to Zoroastrian proselytizing there".[62] Boyce wrote that the Zoroastrian traditions in the Median city of Ray probably goes back to the 8th century BC.[63] It is suggested that from the 8th century BC, a form of "Mazdaism with common Iranian traditions" existed in Media and the strict reforms of Zarathustra began to spread in western Iran during the reign of the last Median kings in the 6th century BC.[62] It has also been suggested[by whom?] that Mithra is a Median name and Medes may have practised Mithraism and had Mithra as their supreme deity.[64] Kurds and Medes[edit] Main article: Origin of the Kurds Russian historian and linguist Vladimir Minorsky suggested that the Medes, who widely inhabited the land where currently the Kurds form a majority, might have been forefathers of the modern Kurds. He also states that the Medes who invaded the region in the eighth century BC, linguistically resembled the Kurds. This view was accepted by many Kurdish nationalists in the twentieth century. However, Martin van Bruinessen, a Dutch scholar, argues against the attempt to take the Medes as ancestors of the Kurds.[65] "Though some Kurdish intellectuals claim that their people are descended from the Medes, there is no evidence to permit such a connection across the considerable gap in time between the political dominance of the Medes and the first attestation of the Kurds" - van Bruinessen Contemporary linguistic evidence has challenged the previously suggested view that the Kurds are descendants of the Medes.[66][67] Gernot Windfuhr, professor of Iranian Studies, identified the Kurdish languages as Parthian, albeit with a Median substratum.[68] David Neil MacKenzie, an authority on the Kurdish language, said Kurdish was closer to Persian and questioned the "traditional" view holding that Kurdish, because of its differences from Persian, should be regarded as a Northwestern Iranian language.[69] The Kurdologist and Iranologist Garnik Asatrian stated that "The Central Iranian dialects, and primarily those of the Kashan area in the first place, as well as the Azari dialects (otherwise called Southern Tati) are probably the only Iranian dialects, which can pretend to be the direct offshoots of Median... In general, the relationship between Kurdish and Median is not closer than the affinities between the latter and other North Western dialects – Baluchi, Talishi, South Caspian, Zaza, Gurani, Kurdish(Soranî, Kurmancî, Kelhorî)[70][71] Asatrian also stated that "there is no serious ground to suggest a special genetic affinity within North-Western Iranian between this ancient language [Median] and Kurdish. The latter does not share even the generally ephemeric peculiarity of Median."[72] See also[edit] Asia portal Greater Iran Iranian Plateau Linear Elamite – a script possibly used to write Median language List of monarchs of Persia List of rulers of the pre-Achaemenid kingdoms of Iran Madai Qanat – water management system Notes[edit] ^ According to the OED entry "Mede", the word is from Classical Latin Mēdus (usually as plural, Mēdī) from ancient Greek (Attic and Ionic) Μῆδος Mê̄dos [mɛ̂ːdos] (Cypriot Μᾶδοι Mâdœ [mâdoi̯], plural) from Old Persian Māda.[3] ^ A) "Archaeological evidence for the religion of the Iranian-speaking Medes of the ..." (Diakonoff 1985, p. 140). B) "...and the Medes (Iranians of what is now north-west Iran)..." EIEC (1997:30). C) "... succeeded in uniting into a kingdom the many Median tribes" (from Encyclopædia Britannica[4]). D) "Proto-Iranian split into Western (Median, and others) and Eastern (Scythian, Ossetic, Saka, Pamir and others)..." (Kuz'mina, Elena E. (2007), The origin of the Indo-Iranians, J. P. Mallory (ed.), BRILL, p. 303, ISBN 978-90-04-16054-5) ^ "..a great many Old Persian lexemes...are preserved in a borrowed form in non-Persian languages – the so-called "collateral" tradition of Old Persian (within or outside the Achaemenid Empire).... not every purported Old Iranian form attested in this manner is an actual lexeme of Old Persian."[61] References[edit] ^ Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006). "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires". Journal of World-Systems Research. 12 (2): 223. ISSN 1076-156X. Retrieved 16 September 2016. ^ Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.". Social Science History. 3 (3/4): 121. doi:10.2307/1170959. JSTOR 1170959. ^ OED Online "entry Mede, n.": ^ Encyclopædia Britannica Online Media (ancient region, Iran) ^ a b c "MEDIA". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 17 August 2017. ^ Herodotus 1.101 ^ a b c d Gershevitch, I. (1985). The Cambridge History of Iran. Cambridge University Press. p. 75. ISBN 978-0-521-20091-2. ^ (Diaconus), Leo (2005). The History of Leo the Deacon: Byzantine Military Expansion in the Tenth Century. Dumbarton Oaks. p. 204. ISBN 9780884023241. ^ Boyce, Mary (1982). A History of Zoroastrianism: Volume II: Under the Achaemenians. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-06506-2. ^ Zumerchik, John; Danver, Steven Laurence (2010). Seas and Waterways of the World: An Encyclopedia of History, Uses, and Issues. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-85109-711-1. ^ Sabourin, Leopold (1973). Priesthood. Brill Archive. GGKEY:ZRNUJJQ6GG2. ^ Travels in Luristan and Arabistan. J. Madden and Company. 1845. p. 312. ^ Christensen, Peter (1993). The Decline of Iranshahr: Irrigation and Environments in the History of the Middle East, 500 B.C. to A.D. 1500. Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 131. ISBN 978-87-7289-259-7. ^ Thomson, James Oliver (1948). History of Ancient Geography. Biblo & Tannen Publishers. p. 292. ISBN 978-0-8196-0143-8. ^ a b (Tavernier 2007, p. 27) ^ (Diakonoff 1985, p. 57) ^ a b Herodotus 7.62 ^ Herodotus 7.61 ^ Hesiod, 700 BC: Theogony, pp. 993–1002 ^ Ketevan Nadareishvili (2010–2011). "Madea in the Context of East/West Relationships". ^ "PAUSANIAS, DESCRIPTION OF GREECE 2.1-14 - Theoi Classical Texts Library". ^ "DIODORUS SICULUS, LIBRARY OF HISTORY BOOK 4.40-58 - Theoi Classical Texts Library". ^ a b c d (Stronach1982, p. 288) ^ a b c d e (Young 1997, p. 449) ^ (Stronach 1968, p. 179) ^ a b c (Stronach 1982, p. 290) ^ (Henrickson 1988, p. ?) ^ (Dandamayev & Medvedskaya 2006, p. ?) ^ (Young 1997, p. 448) ^ a b (Levine 1974, p. 119) ^ (Levine 1974, p. 117) ^ (Levine 1974, pp. 118–119) ^ (Levine 1974, p. 118) ^ Ayatollahi, Habibollah (2003). The Book of Iran: The History of Iranian Art. Alhoda UK. ISBN 978-964-94491-4-2., page 93 ^ (Diakonoff 1985, pp. 36–41) ^ a b c d (Dandamaev et al. 2004, pp. 2–3) ^ (Zadok 2002, p. 140) ^ (Dandamaev et al. 2004, p. 3) ^ Georges Roux, Ancient Iraq, 1992[full citation needed] ^ Encyclopaedia Britannica "The last great Assyrian ruler was Ashurbanipal, but his last years and the period following his death, in 627 BCE, are obscure. The state was finally destroyed by a Chaldean-Median coalition in 612–609 bce." ^ Briant, Pierre (2006). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. p. 31. ^ Herodotus, The Histories, p. 93.[full citation needed] ^ a b (Diakonoff 1985, p. 112) ^ (Young 1988, p. 16) ^ (Young 1988, p. 19) ^ (Young 1988, p. 21) ^ (Young 1997, p. 450) ^ Geography, Strab. 15.2.8 ^ (Gershevitch 1968, p. 2) ^ (Gershevitch 1968, p. 1) ^ a b c d e (Schmitt 2008, p. 98) ^ (Tavernier 2007, p. 619) ^ (Tavernier 2007, pp. 157–8) ^ (Tavernier 2007, p. 312) ^ (Hawkins 2010, "Greek and the Languages of Asia Minor to the Classical Period", p. 226) ^ (Gamkrelidze - Ivanov , 1995, "Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical..", p. 505) ^ (Fortson, IV 2009, "Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction", p. 419) ^ (YarShater 2007, "Encyclopaedia Iranica", p. 96) ^ (Tavernier 2007, p. 627) ^ (Tavernier 2007, pp. 352–3) ^ a b (Schmitt 2008, p. 99) ^ a b c (Dandamayev & Medvedskaya 2006, Median Religion) ^ (Boyce & Grenet 1991, p. 81) ^ (Soudavar 2003, p. 84) ^ Hakan Özoğlu, Kurdish notables and the Ottoman state: Evolving Identities, Competing Loyalties, and Shifting Boundaries, SUNY Press, 2004, p. 25. ^ Turkey Foreign Policy and Government Guide. April 2003. ISBN 9780739762820. ^ Division, Federal Research (2004). Turkey. ISBN 9781419191268. ^ Windfuhr, Gernot (1975), "Isoglosses: A Sketch on Persians and Parthians, Kurds and Medes", Monumentum H.S. Nyberg II (Acta Iranica-5), Leiden: 457–471 ^ Paul, Ludwig. "KURDISH LANGUAGE i. HISTORY OF THE KURDISH LANGUAGE". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 31 October 2016. ^ Schmitt, Rüdiger (1989). Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum. Wiesbaden: Reichert. ^ G. Asatrian, Prolegomena to the Study of the Kurds, Iran and the Caucasus, Vol. 13, pp. 1–58, 2009. (p. 21 [1]) ^ Asatrian, Garnik. "Prolegomena to the Study of the Kurds." Iran & the Caucasus 13, no. 1 (2009): 1-57. Accessed September 2, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25597392. Sources[edit] Boyce, Mary; Grenet, Frantz (1991), Zoroastrianism under Macedonian and Roman rule, BRILL, ISBN 978-90-04-09271-6 Bryce, Trevor (2009), The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia. From the Early Bronze Age to the Fall of the Persian Empire, Taylor & Francis Dandamaev, M. A.; Lukonin, V. G.; Kohl, P. L.; Dadson, D. J. (2004), The Culture and Social Institutions of Ancient Iran, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-61191-6 Dandamayev, M.; Medvedskaya, I. (2006), "Media", Encyclopaedia Iranica Online Edition, archived from the original on 30 August 2017 Diakonoff, I. M. (1985), "Media", in Ilya Gershevitch (ed.), The Cambridge History of Iran, 2, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, pp. 36–148, ISBN 978-0-521-20091-2 Gershevitch, I. (1968), "Old Iranian Literature", Iranian Studies, Hanbuch Der Orientalistik – Abeteilung – Der Nahe Und Der Mittlere Osten, 1, Brill, pp. 1–30, ISBN 978-90-04-00857-1 Henrickson, R. C. (1988), "Baba Jan Teppe", Encyclopaedia Iranica, 2, Routledge & Kegan Paul, ISBN 978-0-933273-67-2 Levine, Louis D. (1 January 1973), "Geographical Studies in the Neo-Assyrian Zagros: I", Iran, 11: 1–27, doi:10.2307/4300482, ISSN 0578-6967, JSTOR 4300482 Levine, Louis D. (1 January 1974), "Geographical Studies in the Neo-Assyrian Zagros-II", Iran, 12: 99–124, doi:10.2307/4300506, ISSN 0578-6967, JSTOR 4300506 Schmitt, Rüdiger (2008), "Old Persian", in Woodard, Roger D. (ed.), The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas, Cambridge University Press, pp. 76–100, ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1 Soudavar, Abolala (2003), The aura of kings: legitimacy and divine sanction in Iranian kingship, Mazda Publishers, ISBN 978-1-56859-109-4 Stronach, David (1968), "Tepe Nush-i Jan: A Mound in Media", The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, New Series, 27 (3): 177–186, doi:10.2307/3258384, ISSN 0026-1521, JSTOR 3258384 Stronach, David (1982), "Archeology ii. Median and Achaemenid", in Yarshater, E. (ed.), Encyclopædia Iranica, 2, Routledge & Kegan Paul, pp. 288–296, ISBN 978-0-933273-67-2 Tavernier, Jan (2007), Iranica in the Achaemenid Period (ca. 550-330 B.C.): Linguistic Study of Old Iranian Proper Names and Loanwords, Attested in Non-Iranian Texts, Peeters Publishers, ISBN 978-90-429-1833-7 Van De Mieroop, Marc (2015), A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000-323 BC, Wiley Blackwell Windfuhr, Gernot L. (1991), "Central dialects", in Yarshater, E. (ed.), Encyclopædia Iranica, pp. 242–251, ISBN 978-0-939214-79-2 Young, T. Cuyler, Jr. (1988), "The early history of the Medes and the Persians and the Achaemenid empire to the death of Cambyses", in Boardman, John; Hammond, N. G. L.; Lewis, D. M.; Ostwald, M. (eds.), The Cambridge Ancient History, 4, Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–52, doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521228046.002, ISBN 9781139054317 Young, T. Cuyler (1997), "Medes", in Meyers, Eric M. (ed.), The Oxford encyclopedia of archaeology in the Near East, 3, Oxford University Press, pp. 448–450, ISBN 978-0-19-511217-7 Zadok, Ran (2002), "The Ethno-Linguistic Character of Northwestern Iran and Kurdistan in the Neo-Assyrian Period", Iran, 40: 89–151, doi:10.2307/4300620, ISSN 0578-6967, JSTOR 4300620 Further reading[edit] "Mede." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 16 January 2008. Gershevitch, Ilya (1985), The Cambridge History of Iran, 2, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-20091-2 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Median Empire. Median Empire at Iran Chamber Society website. v t e Ancient Mesopotamia Geography Modern Euphrates Upper Mesopotamia Mesopotamian Marshes Persian Gulf Syrian Desert Taurus Mountains Tigris Zagros Mountains Ancient Akkad Assyria Babylonia Chaldea Elam Hittites Media Mitanni Sumer Urartu Cities History Pre- / Protohistory Acheulean Mousterian Trialetian Zarzian Natufian Nemrikian Khiamian Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) Hassuna/Samarra Halaf Ubaid Uruk Jemdet Nasr Kish civilization History Early Dynastic Akkadian Gutians Simurrum Ur III Isin-Larsa Old Babylonian Kassite Middle Babylonian Neo-Assyrian Neo-Babylonian Achaemenid Seleucid Parthian Roman Sasanian Muslim conquest Timeline of the Assyrian Empire Hakkari Languages Akkadian Amorite Aramaic Eblaite Elamite Gutian Hittite Hurrian Luwian Middle Persian Old Persian Parthian Proto-Armenian Sumerian Urartian Culture / Society Architecture Art Cuneiform Akkadian literature Sumerian literature Music Religion Indus-Mesopotamia relations Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Royal titles Archaeology Looting Destruction by ISIL Tell v t e Median topics Language Median language, Iranian language Cities Ecbatana (Hamadan) Rhagae (Shahre Rey, Tehran) Laodicea (Nahavand) Battles involving Lydia Eclipse of Thales Battles involving Persia Persian Revolt Battle of Hyrba Battle of the Persian Border Siege of Pasargadae Hill Battle of Pasargadae Fall of Ecbatana Kings/Satraps Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Cyaxares II Darius the Mede Other Medians Amytis of Media Artembares Datis Gubaru Mazares Harpagus Aryenis Mandane v t e Median and Achaemenid kings Family tree Median (728–550 BC) Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Achaemenid (550–330 BC) Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Nothus Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Italics indicate kings not directly attested and so possibly legendary. v t e Empires Ancient (Colonies) Akkadian Neo-Sumerian Assyrian Old Assyrian Middle Assyrian Neo-Assyrian Babylonian Old Babylonian Kassite Neo-Babylonian Egyptian Old Kingdom Middle Kingdom New Kingdom Phoenician Carthaginian Chinese Shang Qin Han Three Kingdoms Jin North and South Hellenistic Macedonian Seleucid Hittite Indian Nanda Maurya Satavahana Shunga Gupta Harsha Iranian Median Achaemenid Parthian Sasanian Kushan Mongol Xianbei Roman Western Eastern Teotihuacan Post-classical Aksum Arab Rashidun Umayyad Abbasid Fatimid Aragonese Angevin Ayyubid Aztec Benin Bornu Bruneian Bulgarian First Second Byzantine Nicaea Thessalonica Trebizond Calakmul Chinese Sui Tang Liao Song Jīn Yuan Uyghur Ethiopian Zagwe Solomonic Genoese Georgian Holy-Roman Carolingian Huetar Hunnic Hephthalite Inca Indian Chola Gurjara-Pratihara Pala Eastern Ganga dynasty Delhi Vijayanagara Iranian Samanid Saffarid Kanem Khmer Latin Majapahit Malaccan Mali Egyptian Mamluk Mongol Yuan Golden Horde Chagatai Khanate Ilkhanate Moroccan Idrisid Almoravid Almohad Marinid North Sea Oyo Serbian Singhasari Somali Ajuran Ifatite Adalite Mogadishan Songhai Srivijaya Tibetan Tikal Timurid Tiwanku Toltec Turco-Persian Ghaznavid Great Seljuk Khwarezmian Venetian Vietnamese Dai Viet Wagadou Wari Modern Afghan Ashanti Austrian Austro-Hungarian Brazilian Central African Chinese Ming Qing China Manchukuo Ethiopian Haitian First Second French First Second German First/Old Reich Second Reich Third Reich Indian Mughal Mysorean Sikh Maratha British Raj Iranian Safavid Afsharid Qajar Pahlavi Japanese Johor Korean Mexican First Second Moroccan Saadi Alaouite Russian Somali Gobroon Majeerteen Hobyo Swedish Tongan Ottoman Vietnamese Dainam Vietnam Colonial American Belgian British English Scottish Danish Dutch French German Italian Japanese Omani Polish–Lithuanian Couronian Portuguese Sovereign Military Order of Malta Spanish Swedish Lists Empires largest in India Ancient great powers Medieval great powers Modern great powers European colonialism African empires Miscellaneous The empire on which the sun never sets "Empire" as a description of foreign policy American empire Soviet Empire v t e Provinces of the Achaemenid Empire (Behistun / Persepolis / Naqsh-e Rustam / Susa / Daiva inscriptions) Akaufaka (Quhistan?) 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en-wikipedia-org-1173	----	Narmer - Wikipedia Narmer From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the Early Dynastic Period Narmer Menes Verso of Narmer Palette Pharaoh Reign c. 3100 BC (1st Dynasty) Predecessor Ka Successor Hor-Aha Royal titulary Horus name Hor-Narmer (often show in a serekh with just the catfish) Ḥr-nˁr-mr Fierce catfish of Horus Second Horus name: Hor-Narmer-Tjai (rare-only one example exists) Ḥr-nˁr-mr-ṯ3j Manly catfish of Horus Consort Uncertain: possibly Neithhotep Children Uncertain: probably Hor-Aha ♂ Uncertain: possibly Neithhotep ♀ Burial Chambers B17 and B18, Umm el-Qa'ab Narmer (Ancient Egyptian: nꜥr-mr, meaning "painful, "stinging," "harsh," or "fierce catfish;"[1][2][3] r. c. 3273 – 2987 BC) was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the Early Dynastic Period.[4] He was the successor to the Protodynastic king Ka. Many scholars consider him the unifier of Egypt and founder of the First Dynasty, and in turn the first king of a unified Egypt. A majority of Egyptologists believe that Narmer was the same person as Menes.[a][6][7][8] Contents 1 Historical identity 2 Name 3 Reign 3.1 Possible identification with Menes 3.2 Narmer and the unification of Egypt 3.3 Narmer in Canaan 3.4 Neithhotep 4 Tomb and artefacts 4.1 Tomb 4.2 Artifacts 4.3 Nag el-Hamdulab 5 Popular culture 6 Gallery 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 Bibliography 11 Further reading 12 External links Historical identity[edit] Limestone head of a king. Thought by Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London, to be Narmer, on the basis of the similarity (according to Petrie[9]) to the head of Narmer on the Narmer Palette. This has not been generally accepted. According to Trope, Quirke & Lacovara,[10] the suggestion that it is Narmer is "unlikely". Alternatively, they suggest the Fourth Dynasty king Khufu. Stevenson[11] also identifies it as Khufu. Charron[12] identifies it as a king of the Thinite Period (the first two dynasties), but does not believe it can be assigned to any particular king. Wilkinson[13] describes it as "probably Second Dynasty". Narmer's identity is the subject of ongoing debates, although the dominant opinion among Egyptologists identifies Narmer with the pharaoh Menes, who is renowned in the ancient Egyptian written records as the first king, and the unifier of Ancient Egypt. Narmer's identification with Menes is based on the Narmer Palette (which shows Narmer as the unifier of Egypt) and the two necropolis seals from the Umm el-Qa'ab cemetery of Abydos that show him as the first king of the First Dynasty. The date commonly given for the beginning of Narmer's reign is c. 3100 BC.[14][15] Other mainstream estimates, using both the historical method and radiocarbon dating, are in the range c. 3273–2987 BC.[b] Name[edit] Serekhs bearing the rebus symbols n'r (catfish) and mr (chisel) inside, being the phonetic representation of Narmer's name.[16] The complete spelling of Narmer's name consists of the hieroglyphs for a catfish (nꜥr)[4] and a chisel (mr), hence the reading "Narmer" (using the rebus principle). This word is sometimes translated as "raging catfish".[17] However, there is no consensus on this reading. Other translations include ″angry, fighting, fierceful, painful, furious, bad, evil, biting, menacing″, or "stinging catfish".[1][2][3] Some scholars have taken entirely different approaches to reading the name that do not include "catfish" in the name at all,[18][19][20] but these approaches have not been generally accepted. Rather than incorporating both hieroglyphs, Narmer's name is often shown in an abbreviated form with just the catfish symbol, sometimes stylized, even, in some cases, represented by just a horizontal line.[21] This simplified spelling appears to be related to the formality of the context. In every case that a serekh is shown on a work of stone, or an official seal impression, it has both symbols. But, in most cases, where the name is shown on a piece of pottery or a rock inscription, just the catfish, or a simplified version of it appears. Two alternative spellings of Narmer's name have also been found. On a mud sealing from Tarkhan, the symbol for the ṯꜣj-bird (Gardiner sign G47 "duckling") has been added to the two symbols for ″Narmer″ within the serekh. This has been interpreted as meaning "Narmer the masculine";[22] however, according to Ilona Regulski,[23] "The third sign (the [ṯꜣj]-bird) is not an integral part of the royal name since it occurs so infrequently." Godron[24] suggested that the extra sign is not part of the name, but was put inside the serekh for compositional convenience. In addition, two necropolis seals from Abydos show the name in a unique way: While the chisel is shown conventionally where the catfish would be expected, there is a symbol that has been interpreted by several scholars as an animal skin.[25] According to Dreyer, it is probably a catfish with a bull's tail, similar to the image of Narmer on the Narmer Palette in which he is shown wearing a bull's tail as a symbol of power.[26] Reign[edit] Possible identification with Menes[edit] Comparison of serekhs Name of Narmer in full format. Name of Hor-Aha in full format. Reconstruction of the Narmer-Menes Seal impression from Abydos Naqada Label reconstruction Garstang 1905, p. 62, fig3 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGarstang1905 (help) Although highly interrelated, the questions of "who was Menes?" and "who unified Egypt?" are actually two separate issues. Narmer is often credited with the unification of Egypt by means of the conquest of Lower Egypt by Upper Egypt. While Menes is traditionally considered the first king of Ancient Egypt, Narmer has been identified by the majority of Egyptologists as the same person as Menes. Although vigorously debated (Hor-Aha, Narmer's successor, is the primary alternative identified as Menes by many authorities), the predominant opinion is that Narmer was Menes.[c] The issue is confusing because "Narmer" is a Horus name while "Menes" is a Sedge and Bee name (personal or birth name). All of the King Lists which began to appear in the New Kingdom era list the personal names of the kings, and almost all begin with Menes, or begin with divine and/or semi-divine rulers, with Menes as the first "human king". The difficulty is aligning the contemporary archaeological evidence which lists Horus Names with the King Lists that list personal names. Two documents have been put forward as proof either that Narmer was Menes or alternatively Hor-Aha was Menes. The first is the "Naqada Label" found at the site of Naqada, in the tomb of Queen Neithhotep, often assumed to have been the mother of Horus Aha.[27] The label shows a serekh of Hor-Aha next to an enclosure inside of which are symbols that have been interpreted by some scholars as the name "Menes". The second is the seal impression from Abydos that alternates between a serekh of Narmer and the chessboard symbol, "mn", which is interpreted as an abbreviation of Menes. Arguments have been made with regard to each of these documents in favour of Narmer or Hor-Aha being Menes, but in neither case is the argument conclusive.[d] The second document, the seal impression from Abydos, shows the serekh of Narmer alternating with the gameboard sign (mn) sign, together with its phonetic complement, the n sign, which is always shown when the full name of Menes is written, again representing the name “Menes”. At first glance, this would seem to be strong evidence that Narmer was Menes.[31] However, based on an analysis of other early First Dynasty seal impressions, which contain the name of one or more princes, the seal impression has been interpreted by other scholars as showing the name of a prince of Narmer named Menes, hence Menes was Narmer's successor, Hor-Aha, and thus Hor-Aha was Menes.[32] This was refuted by Cervelló-Autuori 2005, pp. 42–45; but opinions still vary, and the seal impression cannot be said to definitively support either theory.[33] Necropolis seal impression of Qa'a Dreyer 1987, p. 36, fig.3 Two necropolis sealings, found in 1985 and 1991 in Abydos, in or near the tombs of Den[34] and Qa'a,[35] show Narmer as the first king on each list, followed by Hor-Aha. The Qa'a sealing lists all eight of the kings of what scholars now call the First Dynasty in the correct order, starting with Narmer. These necropolis sealings are strong evidence that Narmer was the first king of the First Dynasty—hence is the same person as Menes.[36] Narmer and the unification of Egypt[edit] The famous Narmer Palette, discovered by James E. Quibell in the 1897–1898 season at Hierakonpolis,[37] shows Narmer wearing the crown of Upper Egypt on one side of the palette, and the crown of Lower Egypt on the other side, giving rise to the theory that Narmer unified the two lands.[38] Since its discovery, however, it has been debated whether the Narmer Palette represents an actual historic event or is purely symbolic.[e] Of course, the Narmer Palette could represent an actual historical event while at the same time having a symbolic significance. In 1993, Günter Dreyer discovered a "year label" of Narmer at Abydos, depicting the same event that is depicted on the Narmer Palette. In the First Dynasty, years were identified by the name of the king and an important event that occurred in that year. A "year label" was typically attached to a container of goods and included the name of the king, a description or representation of the event that identified the year, and a description of the attached goods. This year label shows that the Narmer Palette depicts an actual historical event.[39] Support for this conclusion (in addition to Dreyer) includes Wilkinson[40] and Davies & Friedman.[41] Although this interpretation of the year label is the dominant opinion among Egyptologists, there are exceptions including Baines[42] and Wengrow.[43] Narmer Palette Narmer Palette Drawing (front). Drawing (back). Narmer mace-head The Narmer Macehead. Narmer Macehead (drawing). The design shows captives being presented to Pharaoh Narmer enthroned in a naos. Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.[45] The scene depicts a ceremony in which captives and plunder are presented to King Narmer, who is enthroned beneath a canopy on a stepped platform. He wears the Red Crown of Lower Egypt, holds a flail, and is wrapped in a long cloak. To the left, Narmer's name is written inside a representation of the palace facade (the serekh) surmounted by a falcon. At the bottom is a record of animal and human plunder; 400,000 cattle, 1,422,000 goats, and 120,000 captives[44] Archaeological evidence suggests that Egypt was at least partially unified during the reigns of Ka and Iry-Hor (Narmer's immediate predecessors), and perhaps as early as Scorpion I (several generations before Iry-Hor). Tax collection is probably documented for Ka[46] and Iry-Hor.[47] The evidence for a role for Scorpion I in Lower Egypt comes from his tomb Uj in Abydos (Upper Egypt), where labels were found identifying goods from Lower Egypt.[48] These are not tax documents, however, so they are probably indications of trade rather than subjugation. There is a substantial difference in the quantity and distribution of inscriptions with the names of those earlier kings in Lower Egypt and Canaan (which was reached through Lower Egypt), compared to the inscriptions of Narmer. Ka's inscriptions have been found in three sites in Lower Egypt and one in Canaan.[49] Iry-Hor inscriptions have also been found in two sites in Lower Egypt and one in Canaan.[49][50] This must be compared to Narmer, whose serekhs have been found in ten sites in Lower Egypt and nine sites in Canaan (see discussion in "Tomb and Artefacts" section). This demonstrates a qualitative difference between Narmer's role in Lower Egypt compared to his two immediate predecessors. There is no evidence in Lower Egypt of any Upper Egyptian king's presence before Iry-Hor. The archaeological evidence suggest that the unification began before Narmer, but was completed by him through the conquest of a polity in the North-West Delta as depicted on the Narmer Palette.[51] The importance that Narmer attached to his "unification" of Egypt is shown by the fact that it is commemorated not only on the Narmer Palette, but on a cylinder seal,[52] the Narmer Year Label,[39] and the Narmer Boxes;[53] and the consequences of the event are commemorated on the Narmer Macehead.[54] The importance of the unification to ancient Egyptians is shown by the fact that Narmer is shown as the first king on the two necropolis seals, and under the name Menes, the first king in the later King Lists. Although there is archaeological evidence of a few kings before Narmer, none of them is mentioned in any of those sources. It can be accurately said that from the point of view of Ancient Egyptians, history began with Narmer and the unification of Egypt, and that everything before him was relegated to the realm of myth. Narmer in Canaan[edit] According to Manetho (quoted in Eusebius (Fr. 7(a))), "Menes made a foreign expedition and won renown." If this is correct (and assuming it refers to Narmer), it was undoubtedly to the land of Canaan where Narmer's serekh has been identified at nine different sites. An Egyptian presence in Canaan predates Narmer, but after about 200 years of active presence in Canaan,[55] Egyptian presence peaked during Narmer's reign and quickly declined afterwards. The relationship between Egypt and Canaan "began around the end of the fifth millennium and apparently came to an end sometime during the Second Dynasty when it ceased altogether."[56] It peaked during the Dynasty 0 through the reign of Narmer.[57] Dating to this period are 33 Egyptian serekhs found in Canaan,[58] among which 20 have been attributed to Narmer. Prior to Narmer, only one serekh of Ka and one inscription with Iry-Hor's name have been found in Canaan.[59] The serekhs earlier than Iry-Hor are either generic serekhs that do not refer to a specific king, or are for kings not attested in Abydos.[57] Indicative of the decline of Egyptian presence in the region after Narmer, only one serekh attributed to his successor, Hor-Aha, has been found in Canaan.[57] Even this one example is questionable, Wilkinson does not believe there are any serekhs of Hor-Aha outside Egypt[60] and very few serekhs of kings for the rest of the first two dynasties have been found in Canaan.[61] The Egyptian presence in Canaan is best demonstrated by the presence of pottery made from Egyptian Nile clay and found in Canaan,[f] as well as pottery made from local clay, but in the Egyptian style. The latter suggests the existence of Egyptian colonies rather than just trade.[63] The nature of Egypt's role in Canaan has been vigorously debated, between scholars who suggest a military invasion[64] and others proposing that only trade and colonization were involved. Although the latter has gained predominance,[63][65] the presence of fortifications at Tell es-Sakan dating to the Dynasty 0 through early Dynasty 1 period, and built almost entirely using an Egyptian style of construction, demonstrate that there must have also been some kind of Egyptian military presence.[66] Regardless of the nature of Egypt's presence in Canaan, control of trade to (and through) Canaan was important to Ancient Egypt. Narmer probably did not establish Egypt's initial influence in Canaan by a military invasion, but a military campaign by Narmer to re-assert Egyptian authority, or to increase its sphere of influence in the region, is certainly plausible. In addition to the quote by Manetho, and the large number of Narmer serekhs found in Canaan, a recent reconstruction of a box of Narmer's by Dreyer may have commemorated a military campaign in Canaan.[67] It may also represent just the presentation of tribute to Narmer by Canaanites.[67] Neithhotep[edit] Narmer and Hor-Aha's names were both found in what is believed to be Neithhotep's tomb, which led Egyptologists to conclude that she was Narmer's queen and mother of Hor-Aha.[68] Neithhotep's name means "Neith is satisfied". This suggests that she was a princess of Lower Egypt (based on the fact that Neith is the patron goddess of Sais in the Western Delta, exactly the area Narmer conquered to complete the unification of Egypt), and that this was a marriage to consolidate the two regions of Egypt.[68] The fact that her tomb is in Naqada, in Upper Egypt, has led some to the conclusion that she was a descendant of the predynastic rulers of Naqada who ruled prior to its incorporation into a united Upper Egypt.[69] It has also been suggested that the Narmer Macehead commemorates this wedding.[70] However, the discovery in 2012 of rock inscriptions in Sinai by Pierre Tallet[71] raise questions about whether she was really Narmer's wife.[g] Tomb and artefacts[edit] Tomb[edit] Chambers B17 and B18 in the Umm el-Qa'ab, which constitute the tomb of Narmer. Narmer's tomb in Umm el-Qa'ab near Abydos in Upper Egypt consists of two joined chambers (B17 and B18), lined in mud brick. Although both Émile Amélineau and Petrie excavated tombs B17 and B18, it was only in 1964 that Kaiser identified them as being Narmer's.[73][h] Narmer's tomb is located next to the tombs of Ka, who likely ruled Upper Egypt just before Narmer, and Hor-Aha, who was his immediate successor.[i] As the tomb dates back more than 5,000 years, and has been pillaged, repeatedly, from antiquity to modern times, it is amazing that anything useful could be discovered in it. Because of the repeated disturbances in Umm el-Qa'ab, many articles of Narmer's were found in other graves, and objects of other kings, were recovered in Narmer's grave. However, Flinders Petrie during the period 1899–1903,[76][77] and, starting in the 1970s, the German Archaeological Institute (DAI)[j] have made discoveries of the greatest importance to the history of Early Egypt by their re-excavation of the tombs of Umm el-Qa'ab. Despite the chaotic condition of the cemetery, inscriptions on both wood and bone, seal impressions, as well as dozens of flint arrowheads (Petrie says with dismay that "hundreds" of arrowheads were discovered by "the French", presumably Amélineau. What happened to them is not clear, but none ended up in the Cairo Museum.[78]) Flint knives and a fragment of an ebony chair leg were also discovered in Narmer's tomb, all of which might be part of the original funerary assemblage. The flint knives and fragment of a chair leg were not included in any of Petrie's publications, but are now at the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology (University College London), registration numbers UC35679, UC52786, and UC35682. According to Dreyer,[26] these arrowheads are probably from the tomb of Djer, where similar arrowheads were found.[79] It is likely that all of the kings of Ancient Egypt buried in Umm el-Qa'ab had funerary enclosures in Abydos' northern cemetery, near the cultivation line. These were characterized by large mud brick walls that enclosed space in which funerary ceremonies are believed to have taken place. Eight enclosures have been excavated, two of which have not been definitely identified.[80][81] While it has yet to be confirmed, one of these unidentified funerary enclosures may have belonged to Narmer.[k] Artifacts[edit] Narmer serekh on pottery sherd from Nahal Tillah (Canaan) showing stylized catfish and absence of chisel, Courtesy Thomas E. Levy, Levantine and Cyber-Archaeology Laboratory, UC San Diego Narmer is well attested throughout Egypt, southern Canaan and Sinai: altogether 98 inscriptions at 26 sites.[l] At Abydos and Hierakonpolis Narmer's name appears both within a serekh and without reference to a serekh. At every other site except Coptos, Narmer's name appears in a serekh. In Egypt, his name has been found at 17 sites: 4 in Upper Egypt (Hierakonpolis,[87] Naqada,[88][89] Abydos, [76][77] and Coptos[90][91]); ten in Lower Egypt (Tarkhan,[92][93] Helwan,[94][95] Zawyet el'Aryan,[96] Tell Ibrahim Awad,[97] Ezbet el-Tell,[98] Minshat Abu Omar,[99][100] Saqqara,[101][102] Buto,[103] Tell el-Farkha,[104][105] and Kafr Hassan Dawood[106]); one in the Eastern Desert (Wadi el-Qaash[107]); and two in the Western Desert (Kharga Oasis[108][109] and Gebel Tjauti[110][111]). During Narmer's reign, Egypt had an active economic presence in southern Canaan. Pottery sherds have been discovered at several sites, both from pots made in Egypt and imported to Canaan and others made in the Egyptian style out of local materials. Twenty serekhs have been found in Canaan that may belong to Narmer, but seven of those are uncertain or controversial. These serekhs came from eight different sites: Tel Arad,[112][113] En Besor (Ein HaBesor),[114][115] Tel es-Sakan,[116][117] Nahal Tillah (Halif Terrace),[118] Tel Erani (Tel Gat),[119][120] Small Tel Malhata,[121][122] Tel Ma'ahaz,[123] and Tel Lod,[124] Narmer's serekh, along with those of other Predynastic and Early Dynastic kings, has been found at the Wadi 'Ameyra in the southern Sinai, where inscriptions commemorate Egyptian mining expeditions to the area.[125][126] Nag el-Hamdulab[edit] First recorded at the end of the 19th century, an important series of rock carving at Nag el-Hamdulab near Aswan was rediscovered in 2009, and its importance only realized then.[127][128][129] Among the many inscriptions, tableau 7a shows a man wearing a headdress similar to the White Crown of Upper Egypt and carrying a scepter. He is followed by a man with a fan. He is then preceded by two men with standards, and accompanied by a dog. Apart from the dog motif, this scene is similar to scenes on the Scorpion Macehead and the recto of the Narmer Palette. The man—armed with pharaonic regalia (the crown and scepter) can clearly be identified as a king. Although no name appears in the tableau, Darnell[128] attributes it to Narmer, based on the iconography, and suggests that it might represent an actual visit to the region by Narmer for a "Following of Horus" ritual. In an interview in 2012, Gatto[130] also describes the king in the inscription as Narmer. However, Hendricks (2016) places the scene slightly before Narmer, based, in part on the uncharacteristic absence of Narmer's royal name in the inscription. Popular culture[edit] This article appears to contain trivial, minor, or unrelated references to popular culture. Please reorganize this content to explain the subject's impact on popular culture, providing citations to reliable, secondary sources, rather than simply listing appearances. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2018) The First Pharaoh (The First Dynasty Book 1) by Lester Picker is a fictionalized biography of Narmer. The author consulted with Egyptologist Günter Dreyer to achieve authenticity. Murder by the Gods: An Ancient Egyptian Mystery by William G. Collins is a thriller about Prince Aha (later king Hor-Aha), with Narmer included in a secondary role. The Third Gate by Lincoln Child is an adventure story with a dose of the occult about an archaeological expedition in search of the real tomb of Narmer and its mysterious contents. Pharaoh: The boy who conquered the Nile by Jackie French is a children's book (ages 10–14) about the adventures of Prince Narmer. Gallery[edit] A mud jar sealing indicating that the contents came from the estate of Narmer. Originally from Tarkhan, now on display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City Pottery sherd inscribed with the serekh and name of Narmer, on display at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Narmer wearing the Deshret crown of Lower Egypt on the Narmer Palette Incised inscription on a vessel found at Tarkhan (tomb 414), naming Narmer; Petrie Museum UC 16083. Narmer serekh in its full formal format on an alabaster vase from Abydos, Petrie, 1901, RT II, p. 44, fig. 52.359(detail) Alabaster statue of a baboon divinity with the name of Narmer inscribed on its base, on display at the Ägyptisches Museum Berlin Drawing of Narmer serekh on pottery vessel with stylized catfish and without chisel or falcon, copyright Kafr Hassan Dawood Mission Arrowheads from Narmer's tomb, Petrie 1905, Royal Tombs II, pl. IV.14. According to Dreyer,[26] these arrowheads are probably from the tomb of Djer, where similar arrowheads were found[79] See also[edit] List of Pharaohs Notes[edit] ^ Egyptologists have long debated whether Menes was the same person as Narmer or Hor-Aha, Narmer’s successor. A 2014 study by Thomas C. Heagy published in the Egyptological journal Archéo-Nil compiled a list of 69 Egyptologists who took either position. 41 of them have concluded that Menes was Narmer, while 31 have concluded that Menes was Hor-Aha. Three Egyptologists – Flinders Petrie, Kurt Sethe, and Stan Hendrickx – on the list have first concluded that Menes was Hor-Aha, but later concluded that Menes was Narmer.[5] ^ Establishing absolute dating for Ancient Egypt relies on two different methods, each of which is problematic. As a starting point, the Historical Method makes use of astronomical events that are recorded in Ancient Egyptian texts, which establishes a starting point in which an event in Egyptian history is given an unambiguous absolute date. “Dead reckoning” – adding or subtracting the length of each king’s reign (based primarily on Manetho, the Turin King List, and the Palermo Stone) is then used until one gets to the reign of the king in question. However, there is uncertainty about the length of reigns, especially in the Archaic Period and the Intermediate Periods. Two astrological events are available to anchor these estimates, one in the Middle Kingdom and one in the New Kingdom (for a discussion of the problems in establishing absolute dates for Ancient Egypt, see Shaw 2000a, pp. 1–16). Two estimates based on this method are: Hayes 1970, p. 174, who gives the beginning of the reign of Narmer/Menes as 3114 BC, which he rounds to 3100 BC; and, Krauss & Warburton 2006, p. 487 who places the ascent of Narmer to the throne of Egypt as c. 2950 BC. Several estimates of the beginning of the First Dynasty assume that it began with Hor-Aha. Setting aside the question of whether the First Dynasty began with Narmer or Hor-Aha, to calculate the beginning of Narmer’s reign from these estimates, they must be adjusted by the length of Narmer’s reign. Unfortunately, there are no reliable estimates of the length of Narmer’s reign. In the absence of other evidence, scholars use Manetho’s estimate of the length of the reign of Menes, i.e. 62 years. If one assumes that Narmer and Menes are the same person, this places the date for the beginning of Narmer’s reign at 62 years earlier than the date for the beginning of the First Dynasty given by the authors who associate the beginning of the First Dynasty with the start of Hor-Aha’s reign. Estimates of the beginning of Narmer’s reign calculated in this way include von Beckerath 1997, p. 179 (c. 3094–3044 BC); Helck 1986, p. 28 (c. 2987 BC); Kitchen 2000, p. 48 (c. 3092 BC), and Shaw 2000b, p. 480 (c. 3062 BC). Considering all six estimates suggests a range of c. 3114 – 2987 BC based on the Historical Method. The exception to the mainstream consensus, is Mellaart 1979, pp. 9–10 who estimates the beginning of the First Dynasty to be c. 3400 BC. However, since he reached this conclusion by disregarding the Middle Kingdom astronomical date, his conclusion is not widely accepted. Radiocarbon Dating has, unfortunately, its own problems: According to Hendrickx 2006, p. 90, “the calibration curves for the (second half) of the 4th millennium BC show important fluctuations with long possible data ranges as a consequence. It is generally considered a ‘bad period’ for Radiocarbon dating.” Using a statistical approach, including all available carbon 14 dates for the Archaic Period, reduces, but does not eliminate, these inherent problems. Dee & et al., uses this approach, and derive a 65% confidence interval estimate for the beginning of the First Dynasty of c. 3211 – 3045 BC. However, they define the beginning of the First Dynasty as the beginning of the reign of Hor-Aha. There are no radiocarbon dates for Narmer, so to translate this to the beginning of Narmer’s reign one must again adjust for the length of Narmer’s reign of 62 years, which gives a range of c. 3273–3107 BC for the beginning of Narmer’s reign. This is reassuringly close to the range of mainstream Egyptologists using the Historical Method of c. 3114 – 2987 BC. Thus, combining the results of two different methodologies allows to place the accession of Narmer to c. 3273 – 2987 BC. ^ The question of who was Menes – hence, who was the first king of the First Dynasty has been hotly debated. Since 1897, 70 different authors have taken an opinion on whether it is Narmer or Aha.[5] Most of these are only passing references, but there have been several in depth analyses on both sides of the issues. Recent discussions in favor of Narmer include Kinnaer 2001, Cervelló-Autuori 2005, and Heagy 2014. Detailed discussions in favor of Aha include Helck 1953, Emery 1961, pp. 31–37, and Dreyer 2007. For the most part English speaking authors favor Narmer, while German speaking authors favor Hor-Aha. The most important evidence in favor of Narmer are the two necropolis seal impressions from Abydos, which list Narmer as the first king. Since the publication of the first of the necropolis sealings in 1987, 28 authors have published articles identifying Narmer with Menes compared to 14 who identify Narmer with Hor-Aha. ^ In the upper right hand quarter of the Naqada label is a serekh of Hor-Aha. To its right is a hill-shaped triple enclosure with the “mn” sign surmounted by the signs of the “two ladies”, the goddesses of Upper Egypt (Nekhbet) and Lower Egypt (Wadjet). In later contexts, the presence of the “two ladies” would indicate a “nbty” name (one of the five names of the king). Hence, the inscription was interpreted as showing that the “nbty” name of Hor-Aha was “Mn” short for Menes.[28] An alternative theory is that the enclosure was a funeral shrine and it represents Hor-Aha burying his predecessor, Menes. Hence Menes was Narmer.[29] Although the label generated a lot of debate, it is now generally agreed that the inscription in the shrine is not a king’s name, but is the name of the shrine “The Two Ladies Endure,” and provide no evidence for who Menes was.[30] ^ According to Schulman harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSchulman (help) the Narmer Palette commemorates a conquest of Libyans that occurred earlier than Narmer, probably during Dynasty 0. Libyans, in this context, were not people who inhabited what is modern Libya, but rather peoples who lived in the north-west Delta of the Nile, which later became a part of Lower Egypt. Schulman describes scenes from Dynasty V (2 scenes), Dynasty VI, and Dynasty XXV. In each of these, the king is shown defeating the Libyans, personally killing their chief in a classic “smiting the enemy” pose. In three of these post-Narmer examples, the name of the wife and two sons of the chief are named – and they are the same names for all three scenes from vastly different periods. This proves that all, but the first representation, cannot be recording actual events, but are ritual commemorations of an earlier event. The same might also be true of the first example in Dynasty V. The scene on the Narmer Palette is similar, although it does not name the wife or sons of the Libyan chief. The Narmer Palette could represent the actual event on which the others are based. However, Schulman (following Breasted 1931) argues against this on the basis that the Palermo Stone shows predynastic kings wearing the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt suggesting that they ruled a unified Egypt. Hence, the Narmer Palette, rather than showing a historic event during Narmer’s reign commemorates the defeat of the Libyans and the unification of Egypt which occurred earlier. Köhler 2002, p. 505 proposes that the Narmer Palette has nothing to do with the unification of Egypt. Instead she describes it as an example of the “subjecting the enemy” motif which goes back as far as Naqada Ic (about 400 years before Narmer), and which represents the ritual defeat of chaos, a fundamental role of the king. O’Connor 2011 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFO’Connor2011 (help) also argues that it has nothing to do with the unification, but has a (very complicated) religious meaning. ^ During the summer of 1994, excavators from the Nahal Tillah expedition, in southern Israel, discovered an incised ceramic sherd with the serekh sign of Narmer. The sherd was found on a large circular platform, possibly the foundations of a storage silo on the Halif Terrace. Dated to c. 3000 BCE, mineralogical studies conducted on the sherd conclude that it is a fragment of a wine jar which had been imported from the Nile valley to Canaan.[62] ^ In 2012, Pierre Tallet discovered an important new series of rock carvings in Wadi Ameyra. This discovery was reported in Tallet 2015, and in 2016 in two web articles by Owen Jarus[72] These inscriptions strongly suggest that Neithhotep was Djer’s regent for a period of time, but do not resolve the question of whether she was Narmer’s queen. In the first of Jarus’ articles, he quotes Tallet as saying that Neithhotep “was not the wife of Narmer”. However, Tallet, in a personal communication with Thomas C. Heagy explained that he had been misquoted. According to Tallet, she could have been Narmer’s wife (Djer’s grandmother), but that it is more likely (because Narmer and Hor-Aha are both thought to have had long reigns) that she was in the next generation – for example Djer’s mother or aunt. This is consistent with the discussion in Tallet 2015, pp. 28–29. ^ For a discussion of Cemetery B see Dreyer 1999, pp. 110–11, fig. 7 and Wilkinson 2000, pp. 29–32, fig. 2 ^ Narmer’s tomb has much more in common with the tombs of his immediate predecessors, Ka and Iry-Hor, and other late Predynastic tombs in Umm el-Qa’ab than it does with later 1st Dynasty tombs. Narmer’s tomb is 31 sq. meters compared to Hor-Aha, whose tomb is more than three times as large, not counting Hor-Aha's 36 subsidiary graves. According to Deyer,[74] Narmer’s tomb is even smaller than the tomb of Scorpion I (tomb Uj), several generations earlier.[75] In addition, the earlier tombs of Narmer, Ka, and Iry-Hor all have two chambers with no subsidiary chambers, while later tombs in the 1st Dynasty all have more complex structures including subsidiary chambers for the tombs of retainers, who were probably sacrificed to accompany the king in the afterlife.O’Connor 2009, pp. 148–150 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFO’Connor2009 (help) To avoid confusion, it's important to understand that he classifies Narmer as the last king of the 0 Dynasty rather than the first king of the 1st Dynasty, in part because Narmer’s tomb has more in common with the earlier 0 Dynasty tombs than it does with the later 1st Dynasty tombs.Dreyer 2003, p. 64 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFDreyer2003 (help) also makes the argument that the major shift in tomb construction that began with Hor-Aha, is evidence that Hor-Aha, rather than Narmer was the first king of the 1st Dynasty. ^ Numerous publications with either Werner Kaiser or his successor, Günter Dreyer, as the lead author – most of them published in MDAIK beginning in 1977 ^ Next to Hor-Aha’s enclosure is a large, unattributed enclosure referred to as the “Donkey Enclosure” because of the presence of 10 donkeys buried next to the enclosure. No objects were found in the enclosure with a king’s name, but hundreds of seal impressions were found in the gateway chamber of the enclosure, all of which appear to date to the reigns of Narmer, Hor-Aha, or Djer. Hor-Aha and Djer both have enclosures identified, “making Narmer the most attractive candidate for the builder of this monument”.[82] The main objection to its assignment to Narmer is that the enclosure is too big. It is larger than all three of Hor-Aha’s put together, while Hor-Aha’s tomb is much larger than Narmer’s tomb. For all of the clearly identified 1st Dynasty enclosures, there is a rough correlation between the size of the tomb and the size of the enclosure. Identifying the Donkey Enclosure with Narmer would violate that correlation. That leaves Hor-Aha and Djer. The objection to the assignment of the enclosure to Aha is the inconsistency of the subsidiary graves of Hor-Aha’s enclosure, and subsidiary graves of the donkeys. In addition, the seeming completeness of the Aha enclosure without the Donkey Enclosure, argues against Hor-Aha. This leaves Djer, whom Bestock considers the most likely candidate. The problems with this conclusion, as identified by Bestock, are that the Donkey Enclosure has donkeys in the subsidiary graves, whereas Djer has humans in his. In addition, there are no large subsidiary graves at Djer’s tomb complex that would correspond to the Donkey Enclosure.[83] She concludes that, “the interpretation and attribution of the Donkey Enclosure remain speculative.”[84] There are, however, two additional arguments for the attribution to Narmer: First, it is exactly where one would expect to find Narmer’s Funerary Enclosure – immediately next to Hor-Aha’s. Second, all of the 1st Dynasty tombs have subsidiary graves for humans except that of Narmer, and all of the attributed 1st Dynasty enclosures, except the Donkey Enclosure, have subsidiary graves for humans. But neither Narmer’s tomb nor the Donkey Enclosure have known subsidiary graves for humans. The lack of human subsidiary graves at both sites seems important. It is also possible that Narmer had a large funerary enclosure precisely because he had a small tomb.[85][86] In the absence of finding an object with a Narmer’s name on it, any conclusion must be tentative, but it seems that the preponderance of evidence and logic support the identification of the Donkey Enclosure with Narmer. ^ Of these inscriptions, 29 are controversial or uncertain. They include the unique examples from Coptos, En Besor, Tell el-Farkhan, Gebel Tjauti, and Kharga Oasis, as well as both inscriptions each from Buto and Tel Ma'ahaz. Sites with more than one inscription are footnoted with either references to the most representative inscriptions, or to sources that are the most important for that site. All of the inscriptions are included in the Narmer Catalog, which also includes extensive bibliographies for each inscription. Several references discuss substantial numbers of inscriptions. They include: Database of Early Dynastic Inscriptions, Kaplony 1963, Kaplony 1964, Kaiser & Dreyer 1982, Kahl 1994,van den Brink 1996, van den Brink 2001, Jiménez-Serrano 2003, Jiménez-Serrano 2007, and Pätznick 2009. Anđelković 1995 includes Narmer inscriptions from Canaan within the context of the overall relations between Canaan and Early Egypt, including descriptions of the sites in which they were found. References[edit] ^ a b Pätznick 2009, pp. 308, n.8. ^ a b Leprohon 2013, p. 22. ^ a b Clayton 1994, p. 16. sfn error: no target: CITEREFClayton1994 (help) ^ a b Wilkinson 1999, p. 67. ^ a b Heagy 2014, pp. 83–84. ^ Cervelló-Autuori 2003, p. 174. ^ Grimal 1994. ^ Edwards 1971, p. 13. ^ Petrie 1939, p. 78. ^ Trope, Quirke & Lacovara 2005, p. 18. ^ Stevenson 2015, p. 44. sfn error: no target: CITEREFStevenson2015 (help) ^ Charron 1990, p. 97. ^ Wilkinson 1999. ^ Hayes 1970, p. 174. ^ Quirke & Spencer 1992, p. 223. ^ Wengrow, David, The Archaeology of Ancient Egypt Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-83586-2 p.207 ^ Redford 1986, pp. 136, n.10. sfn error: no target: CITEREFRedford1986 (help) ^ Pätznick 2009, p. 287. ^ Ray 2003, pp. 131–138. sfn error: no target: CITEREFRay2003 (help) ^ Wilkinson 2000, pp. 23–32. ^ Raffaele 2003, pp. 110, n. 46. sfn error: no target: CITEREFRaffaele2003 (help) ^ von Beckerath 1999, p. 36. ^ Regulski 2010, p. 126. ^ Godron 1949, p. 218. ^ Pätznick 2009, p. 310. ^ a b c G. Dreyer, personal communication to Thomas C Heagy, 2017 ^ http://www.ancient-egypt.org/history/early-dynastic-period/1st-dynasty/horus-aha/naqada-label.html ^ Borchardt 1897, pp. 1056–1057. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBorchardt1897 (help) ^ Newberry 1929, pp. 47–49. ^ Kinnear 2003, p. 30. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKinnear2003 (help) ^ Newberry 1929, pp. 49–50. ^ Helck 1953, pp. 356–359. ^ Heagy 2014, pp. 77–78. ^ Dreyer 1987. ^ Dreyer et al. 1996, pp. 72–73, fig. 6, pl.4b-c. sfn error: no target: CITEREFDreyer_et_al.1996 (help) ^ Cervelló-Autuori 2008, pp. 887–899. ^ Quibell 1898, pp. 81–84, pl. XII-XIII. ^ Gardiner 1961, pp. 403–404. ^ a b Dreyer 2000. ^ Wilkinson 1999, p. 68. ^ Davies & Friedman 1998, p. 35. ^ Baines 2008, p. 23. ^ Wengrow 2006, p. 204. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFWengrow2006 (help) ^ Millet 1990, pp. 53–59. ^ Wengrow, David (2006). The Archaeology of Early Egypt: Social Transformations in North-East Africa, C.10,000 to 2,650 BC. Cambridge University Press. pp. 41–44. ISBN 9780521835862. ^ Dreyer, Hartung & Pumpenmeier 1993, p. 56, fig. 12. ^ Kahl 2007, p. 13. ^ Dreyer 2011, p. 135. ^ a b Jiménez-Serrano 2007, p. 370, table 8. ^ Ciałowicz 2011, pp. 63–64. ^ Heagy 2014, pp. 73–74. ^ Quibell 1900, p. 7, pl. XV.7. ^ Dreyer 2016. sfn error: no target: CITEREFDreyer_2016 (help) ^ Quibell 1900, pp. 8–9, pls. XXV, XXVIB. ^ Anđelković 1995, p. 72. ^ Braun 2011, p. 105. ^ a b c Anđelković 2011, p. 31. ^ Anđelković 2011, p. 31. sfn error: no target: CITEREFAnđelković_2011 (help) ^ Jiménez-Serrano 2007, p. 370, Table 8. ^ Wilkinson 1999, p. 71. ^ Wilkinson 1999, pp. 71–105. ^ Levy et al. 1995, pp. 26–35. ^ a b Porat 1986–87, p. 109. ^ Yadin 1955. ^ Campagno 2008, pp. 695–696. ^ de Microschedji 2008, pp. 2028–2029. sfn error: no target: CITEREFde_Microschedji2008 (help) ^ a b Dreyer 2016, p. 104. ^ a b Tyldesley 2006, pp. 26–29. ^ Wilkinson 1999, p. 70. ^ Emery 1961, pp. 44–47. ^ Tallet 2015. ^ Owen Jarus: Early Egyptian Queen revealed in 5.000-year-old Hieroglyphs at livescience.com ^ Kaiser 1964, pp. 96–102, fig.2. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKaiser1964 (help) ^ Kaiser et al. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKaiserDreyer1982pp-215,220–221 (help) ^ Dreyer 1988, p. 19. sfn error: no target: CITEREFDreyer1988 (help) ^ a b Petrie 1900. ^ a b Petrie 1901. ^ Petrie 1901, p. 22. ^ a b Petrie 1901, pp. pl.VI.. ^ Adams & O’Connor 2003, pp. 78–85. sfn error: no target: CITEREFAdamsO’Connor2003 (help) ^ O’Connor 2009, pp. 159–181. sfn error: no target: CITEREFO’Connor2009 (help) ^ Bestock 2009, p. 102. ^ Bestock 2009, pp. 102–104. ^ Bestock 2009, p. 104. ^ Dreyer 1998, p. 19. sfn error: no target: CITEREFDreyer1998 (help) ^ Bestock 2009, p. 103, n.1. ^ Quibell 1898, pp. 81–84, pl. XII–XIII. ^ Spencer 1980, p. 64(454), pl. 47.454, pl.64.454. ^ The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/0084 ^ Williams 1988, pp. 35–50, fig. 3a. ^ The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/0085 ^ Petrie, Wainwright & Gardiner 1913. ^ Petrie 1914. ^ Saad 1947, pp. 26–27. ^ The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/0114 ^ Dunham 1978, pp. 25–26, pl. 16A. ^ van den Brink 1992, pp. 52–53. ^ Bakr 1988, pp. 50–51, pl. 1b. ^ Wildung 1981, pp. 35–37. ^ The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/0121 ^ Lacau & Lauer 1959, pp. 1–2, pl. 1.1. ^ The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/0115 ^ von der Way 1989, p. 285-286, n.76, fig. 11.7. ^ Jucha 2008, pp. 132–133, fig. 47.2. ^ The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/6002 ^ Hassan 2000, p. 39. ^ Winkler 1938, pp. 10,25, pl.11.1. sfn error: no target: harv (help) ^ Ikram & Rossi 2004, pp. 211–215, fig. 1-2. ^ The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/6015 ^ Darnell & Darnell 1997, pp. 71–72, fig. 10. ^ The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/4037 ^ Amiran 1974, pp. 4–12, fig. 20, pl.1. ^ The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/0123 ^ Schulman 1976, pp. 25–26. ^ The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/0547 ^ de Miroschedji & Sadeq 2000, pp. 136–137, fig. 9. ^ The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/6009 ^ Levy et al. 1997, pp. 31–33. ^ Yeivin 1960, pp. 193–203, fig. 2, pl. 24a. ^ The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/0124 ^ Amiran, Ilan & Aron 1983, pp. 75–83, fig.7c. ^ The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/6006 ^ Schulman & Gophna 1981. ^ van den Brink & Braun 2002, pp. 167–192. ^ Tallet & Laisney 2012, pp. 383–389. ^ The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/4814 ^ Gatto et al. 2009. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGatto_et_al._2009 (help) ^ a b Darnell 2015. sfn error: no target: CITEREFDarnell2015 (help) ^ The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/6014 ^ Gatto 2012. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGatto_2012 (help) Bibliography[edit] Adams, Matthew; O'Connor, David (2003), "The Royal mortuary enclosures of Abydos and Hierakonpolis", in Hawass, Zahi (ed.), The treasures of the pyramids, Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, pp. 78–85. 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Further reading[edit] Davis, Whitney. 1992. Masking the Blow: The Scene of Representation In Late Prehistoric Egyptian Art. Berkeley: University of California Press. Goldwasser, Orly. 1992. "The Narmer Palette and the 'Triumph of Metaphor'." Lingua Aegyptia 2: 67–85. Muhlestein, Kerry. 2011. Violence In the Service of Order: The Religious Framework for Sanctioned Killing In Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Archaeopress. Ray, John D. 2003. "The Name of King Narmer." Lingua Aegyptia 11: 131–38. Shaw, Ian. 2004. Ancient Egypt: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Takacs, Gabor. 1997. "Note on the Name of King Narmer." Linguistica 37, no. 1: 53–58. Wengrow, David. 2001. "Rethinking 'Cattle Cults' in Early Egypt: Towards a Prehistoric Perspective on the Narmer Palette." Cambridge Archaeological Journal 11, no. 1: 91–104. Wilkinson, Toby A. H. 2000. "What a King Is This: Narmer and the Concept of the Ruler." Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 86: 24–32. Williams, Bruce, Thomas J. Logan, and William J. Murnane. 1987. "The Metropolitan Museum Knife Handle and Aspects of Pharaonic Imagery before Narmer." Journal of Near Eastern Studies 46, no. 4: 245–85. External links[edit] Library resources about Narmer Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries The Narmer Catalog Database of Early Dynastic Inscriptions Early Egyptian Queen Revealed in 5,000-Year Old Hieroglyphs Photos: 5,000-Year Old Hieroglyphs Discovered in Sinai Desert. Hierakonpolis: City of the Hawk v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e First Dynasty of Ancient Egypt Pharaohs Menes/Narmer Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Regents Neithhotep Merneith Queen consorts Benerib Herneith Penebui Nakhtneith (Khenthap) Semat Serethor Seshemetka Betrest Officials Amka Hemaka Sabef Meriiti Other people Ahaneith Artefacts and monuments Narmer macehead Narmer palette Tomb of Anedjib Den seal impressions Abydos boats MacGregor plaque Mastabas S3503 and S3504 Capital Thinis v t e Rulers of the Ancient Near East Territories/ dates [1][2][3][4] Egypt Canaan Ebla Mari Akshak/ Akkad Kish Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period 4000–3200 BCE Naqada culture (4000–3100 BCE) Proto-Cannaanites Sumerian period (4000–2340 BCE) Susa I Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE) Naqada I Naqada II Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests") Legendary ante-deluvian rulers: In Eridu: Alulim, Alalngar, then in Bad-tibira: En-men-lu-ana, En-men-gal-ana, Dumuzid, the Shepherd, then in Larag: En-sipad-zid-ana, then in Zimbir: En-men-dur-ana, then in Shuruppag: Ubara-Tutu "then the flood swept over"[5] Susa II (Uruk influence or control) 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ DenAnedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100-2700 BCE) Great Flood 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) First kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman En-me-barage-si ("made the land of Elam submit")[6] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba Uruk II dynasty Enshakushanna Mug-si Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions (3 kings)[7] Shushuntarana Napilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Urur Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun) Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion of Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[7] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian Empire (Semitic) Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Second Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) (Vassals of UR III) Shakkanakku dynasty (Semitic) Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Neo-Sumerian Period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians) Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (Vassals of Ur III)[8] Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal 2100 BCE Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin Ibbi-Sin 2050 BCE 2000 BCE Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV circa 2000 BCE Amorite invasions Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) 2025-1763 BCE Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ Third Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 1894–1595 BCE Second Intermediate Period Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham (Biblical) Yamhad First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Phoenicia Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Middle Assyrian Empire Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt 626–539 BCE Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116-117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ "The Sumerian king list: translation". etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2008-05-08. ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ a b Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4. Authority control GND: 1139480855 LCCN: n92057273 VIAF: 75508578 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n92057273 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Narmer&oldid=1001829669" Categories: Narmer 32nd-century BC Pharaohs 31st-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the First Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Harv and Sfn multiple-target errors Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Egyptian-language text Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles with trivia sections from May 2018 CS1: long volume value CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) CS1: abbreviated year range Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans አማርኛ العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Català Чӑвашла Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots සිංහල Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Türkmençe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 21 January 2021, at 15:29 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1178	----	Departures (short story collection) - Wikipedia Departures (short story collection) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Departures (collection)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Departures Cover of the first edition Author Harry Turtledove Cover artist Barclay Shaw Country United States Language English Genre Science fiction short stories Publisher Del Rey Books Publication date June 1993 Media type Print (paperback) Pages 342 pp ISBN 0-345-38011-8 LC Class MLC R CP00507 Departures is a collection of alternate history stories by Harry Turtledove,[1][2] first published in paperback by Del Rey Books in June 1993 and reprinted in October 1998; an ebook edition followed from the same publisher in May 2011. The first British edition was published in ebook form by Gateway/Orion in July 2013.[3] The book contains twenty short short stories and novelettes by the author, some originally published under his early pseudonym Eric G. Iverson, together with an introductory author's note. The first edition also includes a short piece about the author and an excerpt from his then-recent novel The Guns of the South.[3] "In the Presence of Mine Enemies" was later expanded into a full-length novel in 2003. Short stories[edit] "Author's Note" "Counting Potsherds" "Death in Vesunna" (with Elaine O'Byrne) "Departures" (prequel to Agent of Byzantium) "Islands in the Sea" "Not All Wolves" "Clash of Arms" "Pillar of Cloud, Pillar of Fire" (part of Agent of Byzantium series) "Report of the Special Committee on the Quality of Life" "Batboy" "The Last Reunion" "Designated Hitter" "Gladly Wolde He Lerne" "The Barbecue, the Movie, and Other Unfortunately Not So Relevant Material" "In the Presence of Mine Enemies" "The R Strain" "Lure" "Secret Names" "Les Mortes D'Arthur" "Last Favour" "Nasty, Brutish, and..." Recognition[edit] The collection placed thirteenth in the 1994 Locus Poll Award for Best Collection.[3] References[edit] ^ http://www.uchronia.net/label/turtdepart.html ^ https://www.fantasticfiction.com/t/harry-turtledove/departures.htm ^ a b c Departures title listing at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database v t e Works by Harry Turtledove Videssos Videssos cycle The Misplaced Legion An Emperor for the Legion The Legion of Videssos The Swords of the Legion The Tale of Krispos Krispos Rising Krispos of Videssos Krispos the Emperor Time of Troubles The Stolen Throne Hammer and Anvil The Thousand Cities Videssos Besieged The Bridge of the Separator The Race or Worldwar Worldwar In the Balance Tilting the Balance Upsetting the Balance Striking the Balance Colonization Second Contact Down to Earth Aftershocks Homeward Bound Southern Victory a.k.a. Timeline-191 Second Mexican War How Few Remain Great War American Front Walk in Hell Breakthroughs American Empire Blood and Iron The Center Cannot Hold The Victorious Opposition Settling Accounts Return Engagement Drive to the East The Grapple In at the Death Darkness a.k.a. World at War Into the Darkness Darkness Descending Through the Darkness Rulers of the Darkness Jaws of Darkness Out of the Darkness War Between the Provinces Sentry Peak Marching Through Peachtree Advance and Retreat Hellenic Traders Over the Wine Dark Sea The Gryphon's Skull The Sacred Land Owls to Athens Salamis Crosstime Traffic Gunpowder Empire Curious Notions In High Places The Disunited States of America The Gladiator The Valley-Westside War Days of Infamy Days of Infamy End of the Beginning Scepter of Mercy The Bastard King The Chernagor Pirates The Scepter's Return Opening of the World Beyond the Gap The Breath of God The Golden Shrine Atlantis Opening Atlantis The United States of Atlantis Liberating Atlantis The War That Came Early Hitler's War West and East The Big Switch Coup d'Etat Two Fronts Last Orders Supervolcano Eruption All Fall Down Supervolcano Maelstrom The Hot War Bombs Away Fallout Armistice State of Jefferson Stories and Three Men and...Stories "Visitor from the East" "Peace is Better" "Typecasting" "Something Fishy" "Always Something New" "Tie a Yellow Ribbon" "Three Men and a Vampire" "Three Men and a Werewolf" "Three Men and a Sasquatch" Alternate Generals Alternate Generals Alternate Generals II Alternate Generals III Non-series books A Different Flesh A World of Difference Agent of Byzantium Between the Rivers The Case of the Toxic Spell Dump Conan of Venarium Down in the Bottomlands Every Inch a King Fort Pillow Give Me Back My Legions! The Guns of the South Hail! Hail! Household Gods The House of Daniel In the Presence of Mine Enemies Joe Steele Justinian The Man with the Iron Heart Noninterference Ruled Britannia Thessalonica The Two Georges Through Darkest Europe Short stories "A Massachusetts Yankee in King Arthur’s Court" "Election Day" "Getting Real" "The House That George Built" "Joe Steele" "Lee at the Alamo" "Liberating Alaska" "The Last Article" "Powerless" "The Road Not Taken" "Topanga and the Chatsworth Lancers" "Uncle Alf" "Vilcabamba" "Zigeuner" Short story collections Atlantis and Other Places Counting Up, Counting Down Departures Earthgrip Kaleidoscope Reincarnations This article about a science fiction book is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Departures_(short_story_collection)&oldid=993255167" Categories: 1993 short story collections Short story collections by Harry Turtledove Science fiction short story collections Del Rey books Alternate history short stories Science fiction book stubs Hidden categories: All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 9 December 2020, at 17:00 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1209	----	Category:5th-century BC Pharaohs - Wikipedia Help Category:5th-century BC Pharaohs From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is for 5th century BC Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt. 10th BC 9th BC 8th BC 7th BC 6th BC 5th BC 4th BC 3rd BC 2nd BC 1st BC 1st Pages in category "5th-century BC Pharaohs" The following 10 pages are in this category, out of 10 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). A Amyrtaeus Artabanus of Persia Artaxerxes I D Darius the Great Darius II I Inaros II P Psammetichus IV S Sogdianus X Xerxes I Xerxes II Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:5th-century_BC_Pharaohs&oldid=951474862" Categories: 5th-century BC Egyptian people 5th-century BC monarchs Pharaohs 1st-millennium BC Pharaohs Hidden categories: CatAutoTOC generates no TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages 한국어 Edit links This page was last edited on 17 April 2020, at 10:18 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1210	----	Eunuch - Wikipedia Eunuch From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Eunuch (disambiguation). castrated male human The Harem Ağası, head of the black eunuchs of the Ottoman Imperial Harem. Generally, a eunuch (/ˈjuːnək/ YOO-nək)[1] is a man who has been castrated[2] to serve a specific social function. The earliest records for intentional castration to produce eunuchs are from the Sumerian city of Lagash in the 21st century BC.[3][4] Over the millennia since, they have performed a wide variety of functions in many different cultures: courtiers or equivalent domestics, treble singers, concubines or sexual partners, religious specialists, soldiers, royal guards, government officials, and guardians of women or harem servants. Eunuchs would usually be servants or slaves who had been castrated to make them reliable servants of a royal court where physical access to the ruler could wield great influence.[5] Seemingly lowly domestic functions—such as making the ruler's bed, bathing him, cutting his hair, carrying him in his litter, or even relaying messages—could in theory, give a eunuch "the ruler's ear" and impart de facto power on the formally humble but trusted servant. Similar instances are reflected in the humble origins and etymology of many high offices. Eunuchs supposedly did not generally have loyalties to the military, the aristocracy, or a family of their own (having neither offspring nor in-laws, at the very least). They were thus seen as more trustworthy and less interested in establishing a private 'dynasty.' Because their condition usually lowered their social status, they could also be easily replaced or killed without repercussion. In cultures that had both harems and eunuchs, eunuchs were sometimes used as harem servants. Contents 1 Etymology 2 By region and epoch 2.1 Ancient Middle East 2.2 Ancient Greece, Rome and Byzantium 2.3 China 2.3.1 Qin dynasty 2.3.2 Han dynasty 2.3.3 Tang dynasty 2.3.4 Liao dynasty 2.3.5 Yuan dynasty 2.3.6 Ming dynasty 2.3.7 The path to the occupation 2.3.8 The daily functions of normal eunuchs 2.3.9 The relationship with other occupations in the royal palace 2.3.10 The power of eunuchs in the palace 2.3.11 The reputation of eunuchs in China 2.3.12 Qing dynasty 2.4 Korea 2.5 Vietnam 2.5.1 Lý Dynasty 2.5.2 Trần Dynasty 2.5.3 Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam (Ming dynasty) 2.5.4 Lê Dynasty 2.5.5 Nguyễn Dynasty 2.6 Thailand 2.7 Burma 2.8 Ottoman Empire 2.8.1 Coptic involvement 2.8.2 Algiers 2.9 Indian subcontinent 2.9.1 Eunuchs in Indian sultanates (before the Mughals) 2.9.2 The hijra of South Asia 3 Religious castration 4 In the Bible 5 Non-castrated eunuchs 6 Castrato singers 7 In popular culture 8 Notable eunuchs 8.1 First millennium BC 8.2 First millennium AD 8.3 Second millennium AD 9 See also 10 Footnotes 11 References 11.1 Citations 11.2 Further reading 12 External links Etymology[edit] Eunuch comes from the Ancient Greek word εὐνοῦχος (eunoukhos), first attested in a fragment of Hipponax,[6] the 6th century BC comic poet and prolific inventor of compound words.[7] The acerbic poet describes a particular lover of fine food having "consumed his estate dining lavishly and at leisure every day on tuna and garlic-honey cheese paté like a Lampsacene eunoukhos."[8] The earliest surviving etymology of the word is from late antiquity. The 5th century (AD) Etymologicon by Orion of Thebes offers two alternative origins for the word eunuch: first, to tēn eunēn ekhein, "guarding the bed", a derivation inferred from eunuchs' established role at the time as "bedchamber attendants" in the imperial palace, and second, to eu tou nou ekhein, "being good with respect to the mind", which Orion explains based on their "being deprived of intercourse (esterēmenou tou misgesthai), the things that the ancients used to call irrational (anoēta, literally: 'mindless')".[9] Orion's second option reflects well-established idioms in Greek, as shown by entries for noos, eunoos and ekhein in Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon, while the first option is not listed as an idiom under eunē in that standard reference work.[10] However, the first option was cited by the late 9th century Byzantine emperor Leo VI in his New Constitution 98 banning the marriage of eunuchs, in which he noted eunuchs' reputation as trustworthy guardians of the marriage bed (eunē) and claimed that the very word eunuch attested to this kind of employment.[11] The emperor also goes further than Orion by attributing eunuchs' lack of male-female intercourse specifically to castration, which he said was performed with the intention "that they will no longer do the things that males do, or at least to extinguish whatever has to do with desire for the female sex".[12] The 11th century Byzantine monk Nikon of the Black Mountain, opting instead for Orion's second alternative, stated that the word came from eunoein (eu "good" + nous "mind"), thus meaning "to be well-minded, well-inclined, well-disposed or favorable", but unlike Orion he argued that this was due to the trust that certain jealous and suspicious foreign rulers placed in the loyalty of their eunuchized servants.[13] Theophylact of Ohrid in a dialogue In Defence of Eunuchs also stated that the origin of the word was from eunoein and ekhein, "to have, hold", since they were always "well-disposed" toward the master who "held" or owned them.[14][15] The 12th century Etymologicum Magnum (s.v. eunoukhos) essentially repeats the entry from Orion, but stands by the first option, while attributing the second option to what "some say". In the late 12th century, Eustathius of Thessalonica (Commentaries on Homer 1256.30, 1643.16) offered an original derivation of the word from eunis + okheuein, "deprived of mating". In translations of the Bible into modern European languages, such as the Luther Bible or the King James Bible, the word eunuchus as found in the Latin Vulgate is usually rendered as an officer, official or chamberlain, consistent with the idea that the original meaning of eunuch was bed-keeper (Orion's first option). Modern religious scholars have been disinclined to assume that the courts of Israel and Judah included castrated men,[16] even though the original translation of the Bible into Greek used the word eunoukhos. The early 17th century scholar and theologian Gerardus Vossius therefore explains that the word originally designated an office, and he affirms the view that it was derived from eunē and ekhein (i.e. "bed-keeper").[17] He says the word came to be applied to castrated men in general because such men were the usual holders of that office. Still, Vossius notes the alternative etymologies offered by Eustathius ("deprived of mating") and others ("having the mind in a good state"), calling these analyses "quite subtle". Then, after having previously declared that eunuch designated an office (i.e., not a personal characteristic), Vossius ultimately sums up his argument in a different way, saying that the word "originally signified continent men" to whom the care of women was entrusted, and later came to refer to castration because "among foreigners" that role was performed "by those with mutilated bodies". Modern etymologists have followed Orion's first option.[18][19] In an influential 1925 essay on the word eunuch and related terms, Ernst Maass suggested that Eustathius's derivation "can or must be laid to rest", and he affirmed the derivation from eunē and ekhein ("guardian of the bed"),[18] without mentioning the other derivation from eunoos and ekhein ("having a well-disposed state of mind"). In Latin, the words eunuchus,[20] spado (Greek: σπάδων spadon),[21][22] and castratus were used to denote eunuchs.[23] By region and epoch[edit] Ancient Middle East[edit] The four-thousand-year-old Egyptian Execration Texts threaten enemies in Nubia and Asia, specifically referencing "all males, all eunuchs, all women."[24] Castration was sometimes punitive; under Assyrian law, homosexual acts were punishable by castration.[25][26] Limestone wall relief depicting an Assyrian royal attendant, a eunuch. From the Central Palace at Nimrud, Iraq, 744–727 BCE. Ancient Orient Museum, Istanbul Eunuchs were familiar figures in the Assyrian Empire (ca. 850 until 622 BCE)[27] and in the court of the Egyptian Pharaohs (down to the Lagid dynasty known as Ptolemies, ending with Cleopatra VII, 30 BCE). Eunuchs sometimes were used as regents for underage heirs to the throne, as it seems to be the case for the Neo-Hittite state of Carchemish.[28] Political eunuchism became a fully established institution among the Achamenide Persians.[29] Eunuchs held powerful positions in the Achaemenide court. The eunuch Bagoas (not to be confused with Alexander's Bagoas) was the Vizier of Artaxerxes III and Artaxerxes IV, and was the primary power behind the throne during their reigns, until he was killed by Darius III.[30] Marmon (1995) writes "Mamluk biographies of the eunuchs often praise their appearance with adjectives such as jamil (beautiful), wasim (handsome), and ahsan (the best, most beautiful) or akmal (the most perfect)."[31] Ancient Greece, Rome and Byzantium[edit] The practice was also well established in other Mediterranean areas among the Greeks and Romans, although a role as court functionary does not arise until Byzantine times. The Galli or Priests of Cybele were eunuchs. In the late period of the Roman Empire, after the adoption of the oriental royal court model by the Emperors Diocletian (r. 284-305) and Constantine (r. 306–337), emperors were surrounded by eunuchs for such functions as bathing, haircutting, dressing, and bureaucratic functions, in effect acting as a shield between the emperor and his administrators from physical contact, thus enjoying great influence in the imperial court (see Eusebius and Eutropius). Julian (r. 361–363) released the eunuchs from their service because he felt they were overpaid, and he subsequently realized how much they had contributed to palace operations.[32] The Roman poet Martial rails against a woman who has sex with partially castrated eunuchs (those whose testicles were removed or rendered inactive only) in the bitter epigram (VI, 67): "Do you ask, Panychus, why your Caelia only consorts with eunuchs? Caelia wants the flowers of marriage – not the fruits."[33] It is up for debate whether this passage is representative of any sort of widely practiced behavior, however. At the Byzantine imperial court, there were a great number of eunuchs employed in domestic and administrative functions, actually organized as a separate hierarchy, following a parallel career of their own. Archieunuchs—each in charge of a group of eunuchs—were among the principal officers in Constantinople, under the emperors.[34] Under Justinian in the 6th century, the eunuch Narses functioned as a successful general in a number of campaigns. By the last centuries of the Empire the number of roles reserved for eunuchs had reduced, and their use may have been all but over. Following the Byzantine tradition, eunuchs had important tasks at the court of the Norman kingdom of Sicily during the middle 12th century. One of them, Philip of Mahdia, has been admiratus admiratorum, and another one, Ahmed es-Sikeli, was prime minister. China[edit] See also: Category:Chinese eunuchs A group of eunuchs. Mural from the tomb of the prince Zhanghuai, 706 AD. In China, castration included removal of the penis as well as the testicles (see emasculation). Both organs were cut off with a knife at the same time.[35] Eunuchs have existed in China since about 4,000 years ago, were imperial servants by 3,000 years ago, and were common as civil servants by the time of the Qin dynasty.[36][37] From those ancient times until the Sui dynasty, castration was both a traditional punishment (one of the Five Punishments) and a means of gaining employment in the Imperial service. Certain eunuchs gained immense power that occasionally superseded that of even the Grand Secretaries such as the Ming dynasty official Zheng He. Self-castration was a common practice, although it was not always performed completely, which led to it being made illegal. It is said that the justification for the employment of eunuchs as high-ranking civil servants was that, since they were incapable of having children, they would not be tempted to seize power and start a dynasty. In many cases, eunuchs were considered more reliable than the scholar officials.[38] As a symbolic assignment of heavenly authority to the palace system, a constellation of stars was designated as the Emperor's, and, to the west of it, four stars were identified as his "eunuchs."[39] The tension between eunuchs in the service of the emperor and virtuous Confucian officials is a familiar theme in Chinese history. In his History of Government, Samuel Finer points out that reality was not always that clear-cut. There were instances of very capable eunuchs who were valuable advisers to their emperor, and the resistance of the "virtuous" officials often stemmed from jealousy on their part. Ray Huang argues that in reality, eunuchs represented the personal will of the Emperor, while the officials represented the alternative political will of the bureaucracy. The clash between them would thus have been a clash of ideologies or political agenda.[40] The number of eunuchs in Imperial employ fell to 470 by 1912, when the practice of using them ceased. The last Imperial eunuch, Sun Yaoting, died in December 1996.[41] Qin dynasty[edit] Men sentenced to castration were turned into eunuch slaves of the Qin dynasty state to perform forced labor for projects such as the Terracotta Army.[42] The Qin government confiscated the property and enslaved the families of rapists who received castration as a punishment.[43] Men punished with castration during the Han dynasty were also used as slave labor.[44] Han dynasty[edit] In Han dynasty China, castration continued to be used as a punishment for various offenses.[45][46] Sima Qian, the famous Chinese historian, was castrated by order of the Han Emperor of China for dissent.[47] In another incident multiple people, including a chief scribe and his underlings, were subjected to castration.[48] Near the end of the Han dynasty in 189, a group of eunuchs known as the Ten Attendants managed to gain considerable power at the imperial court, so that a number of warlords decided they had to be eliminated to restore the Emperor's government.[49] However, the loyalist warlord, He Jin, was lured into a trap inside the palace and killed by the eunuchs.[49] The other warlords led by Yuan Shao then stormed the palace and massacred the Ten Attendants and many other eunuchs.[49][50] In the wake of the fighting, Dong Zhuo seized power.[50] Tang dynasty[edit] Indigenous tribals from southern China were used as eunuchs during the Sui and Tang dynasties.[51] The rebel An Lushan had a Khitan eunuch named Li Zhu'er (李豬兒) (Li Chu-erh) who was working for An Lushan when he was a teenager. An Lushan used a sword to sever his genitals and he almost died, losing multiple pints of blood. An Lushan revived him after smearing ashes on his injury. Li Zhu'er was An Lushan's eunuch after this and highly used and trusted by him. Li Zhu'er and another two men helped carry the obese An Lushan when he dressed and undressed. Li Zhu'er also helped An Lushan dress at the Huaqing (Hua-ch'ing) steam baths granted by Emperor Xuanzang. Later, An Lushan was stricken with a skin disease and became blind and paranoid. He started flogging and murdering his subordinates, and Li Zhuer was approached by people who wanted to assassinate An Lushan. An Lushan was stabbed in the stomach and disemboweled by Li Zhuer and Yan Zhuang (Yen Chuang) (嚴莊), another conspirator whom An Lushan had previously beaten. An Lushan screamed, "This is a thief of my own household!" as he desperately shook his curtains since he could not find his sword to defend himself.[52][53][54] Liao dynasty[edit] The Khitans adopted the practice of using eunuchs from the Chinese, and the eunuchs were non-Khitan prisoners of war. When they founded the Liao dynasty, they developed a harem system with concubines and wives and adopted eunuchs as part of it. The Khitans captured Chinese eunuchs at the Jin court when they invaded the Later Jin. Another source was during their war with the Song dynasty, the Khitan would raid China, capture Han Chinese boys as prisoners of war and emasculate them to become eunuchs. The emasculation of captured Chinese boys guaranteed a continuous supply of eunuchs to serve in the Liao Dynasty harem. The Empress Dowager, Chengtian, played a large role in the raids to capture and emasculate the boys. She personally led her own army and defeated the Song in 986,[55] fighting the retreating Chinese army. She then ordered the castration of around 100 Chinese boys she had captured, supplementing the Khitan's supply of eunuchs to serve at her court, among them was Wang Ji'en. The boys were all under ten years old and were selected for their good looks.[56][57] Yuan dynasty[edit] As with all parts of the Mongol Empire, Goryeo provided eunuchs to the Mongols.[58] One of them was Bak Bulhwa, who caused harm to Goryeo.[59] Ming dynasty[edit] There were eunuchs from China's various ethnic tribes, Mongolia, Korea,[60][61] Vietnam,[62] Cambodia, Central Asia, Thailand, and Okinawa.[63]:14–16 There were Korean, Jurchen, Mongol, Central Asian, and Vietnamese eunuchs under the Yongle Emperor,[64]:36ff[65] including Mongol eunuchs who served him while he was the Prince of Yan.[66] Muslim and Mongol eunuchs were present in the Ming court,[63]:14 such as the ones captured from Mongol-controlled Yunnan in 1381, and among them was the great Ming maritime explorer Zheng He,[63]:14ff[67] who served Yongle.[68] Muslim eunuchs were sent as ambassadors to the Timurids.[69] Vietnamese eunuchs like Ruan Lang, Ruan An, Fan Hong, Chen Wu, and Wang Jin were sent by Zhang Fu to the Ming.[70] During Ming's early contentious relations with Joseon, when there were disputes such as competition for influence over the Jurchens in Manchuria, Korean officials were even flogged by Korean-born Ming eunuch ambassadors when their demands were not met.[71] Some of the ambassadors were arrogant, such as Sin Kwi-saeng who, in 1398, got drunk and brandished a knife at a dinner in the presence of the king.[72] Sino-Korean relations later became amiable, and Korean envoys' seating arrangement in the Ming court was always the highest among the tributaries.[71] Korea stopped sending human tribute after 1435.[71] A total of 198 eunuchs were sent from Korea to Ming.[73] The Ming eunuch hats were similar to the Korean royal hats, indicating the foreign origins of the Ming eunuchs, many of whom came from Southeast Asia and Korea.[74] Yishiha was a Jurchen eunuch in the Ming dynasty. During the Miao Rebellions, the Ming Governor castrated thousands of Miao boys when their tribes revolted, and then gave them as slaves to various officials. The Governor who ordered the castration of the Miao was reprimanded and condemned by the Ming Tianshun Emperor for doing it once the Ming government heard of the event.[63]:16 Zhu Shuang (Prince of Qin), while he was high on drugs, had some Tibetan boys castrated, and Tibetan women seized after a war against minority Tibetan peoples. As a result he was denounced after he died from an overdose.[75] On 30 January 1406, the Yongle Emperor expressed horror when the Ryukyuans castrated some of their own children to become eunuchs to give them to the emperor. The Yongle Emperor said that the boys who were castrated were innocent and did not deserve castration, and he returned the boys to Ryukyu and instructed them not to send eunuchs again.[76] An anti-pig slaughter edict led to speculation that the Zhengde Emperor adopted Islam due to his use of Muslim eunuchs who commissioned the production of porcelain with Persian and Arabic inscriptions in white and blue color.[77] Muslim eunuchs contributed money in 1496 to repairing Niujie Mosque.[78] It is unknown who really was behind the anti-pig slaughter edict.[79] At the end of the Ming dynasty, there were about 70,000 eunuchs (宦官 huànguān, or 太監 tàijiàn) employed by the emperor with some serving inside the imperial palace. There were 100,000 eunuchs at the height of their numbers during the Ming.[63]:34ff[80][81][82] In popular culture texts such as Zhang Yingyu's The Book of Swindles (ca. 1617), eunuchs were often portrayed in starkly negative terms as enriching themselves through excessive taxation and indulging in cannibalism and debauched sexual practices.[83] The path to the occupation[edit] In Ming China, the royal palace acquired eunuchs from both domestic and foreign sources.[84]:126–138 On the one hand, the eunuchs in Ming China came from foreign sources. The enemies of Ming China were castrated as a means of punishment when they are captured by the Ming army as prisoners.[84]:127 For example, the population of Mongol eunuchs in Nanjing increased significantly during Yongle's reign when there was a war between Ming China and the Mongols.[84]:127 The foreign eunuchs also came as tribute from many small countries around China.[84]:127 On the other hand, eunuchs also came from indigenous Chinese. In Ming China, many men castrated themselves in order to be hired in the palace, when the only way for these men to enter into a life of privilege was through eunuchism.[84]:128 Besides the royal palace, bureaucratic elites, such as mandarin officials, also hired eunuchs to be servants in their families.[84]:131 With this demand, many men were willing to castrate themselves to become eunuchs. The daily functions of normal eunuchs[edit] Eunuchs in Ming China also played a critical role in the operation of the imperial palace. Their responsibilities varied in significance with jobs that included almost every aspect of everyday routine in the imperial palace. Some of their responsibilities were procuring copper, tin, wood, and iron. Also, they had to repair and construct ponds, castle gates, and palaces in major cities like Beijing and Nanjing, and the mansions and mausolea in the living spaces of imperial relatives.[84]:131 They prepared meals for a great number of people in the palace. Taking care of the animals in the palace was another one of their jobs. In a word, the eunuchs' work was the cornerstone of the palace's daily operation, and they were responsible for the Emperor and his relatives' comfortable life.[84]:125 The relationship with other occupations in the royal palace[edit] The eunuchs also highly associated with other lower ranking occupations in the royal palace. For example, some eunuchs would have special relationships with serving women in the palace. Some eunuchs would form a partnership with serving women in order to support each other, which was called a "vegetarian couple" (Duishi).[85]:43 In this kind of relationship, both the eunuchs and serving women could be more secure when they encountered conflicts with the those of higher rank such as mandarin bureaucrats.[85]:60 The power of eunuchs in the palace[edit] The eunuchs also had an opportunity to rise to higher ranks. For example, the duties and jobs of eunuchs gradually changed in Ming dynasty. In the Hongwu Emperor's time, the Emperor decreed that the eunuchs were to be kept in small numbers and of minimal literacy to prevent them from seizing power.[64]:64 However, in later generations, the Emperors began to train and educate the eunuchs and made them their personal secretaries.[64]:65 The lack of the restrictions allowed some eunuchs to rise to great power, for example, Wang Zhen, Liu Jin, and Wei Zhongxian especially. There were even an eunuch supervised secret police, which worked for the emperor. It was known as the Eastern Depot and Western Depot.[64]:65 Also, Zheng He, a famous eunuch in China's history, became an early pioneer of seafaring and spread Chinese influence around the world.[86] The reputation of eunuchs in China[edit] However, the reputation of eunuchs was controversial in Ming China, especially considering the way they had their eyes and ears everywhere. Since the Eunuchs served both the haram and the emperors, it was believed that they were able to carry valuable information that could either break or create an emperor's status, so out of fear, Chinese bureaucrat-scholars always depicted eunuchs negatively as greedy, evil, cunning, and duplicitous.[84]:121 The Chinese seemed to have a stereotypical view toward the eunuchs. This bad reputation may be explained by the fact that the eunuchs, in order to get employment in the royal palace or official houses, needed to be castrated. Castration gave the eunuchs the license to work in the palace or official houses in Ming China because the officials and the Emperor in Ming China usually kept many concubines.[84]:133 However, In Chinese society, castration broke with conventional moral rules. A son who could not have a male heir to carry on the family name contradicted Confucian ideology.[84]:132 The eunuchs, despite their awareness of losing the ability to have children, would get castrated in order to have better lives. Another stereotypical view of eunuchs in the palace was that they exceeded their power in areas they did not belong. Or that the eunuchs did unpleasant work. For example, they were spies for emperors or officials. The Yongle emperor gave the eunuchs the authority to be in charge in the implementation of political tasks. As the eunuchs' presence and power grew, they gradually took over the duties of female palace musicians and become the dominant musicians in the Ming palace.[87] When they came to power, eunuchs would even interfere in politics such as the succession to the throne.[84]:125 Qing dynasty[edit] Empress Dowager Cixi carried and accompanied by palace eunuchs, before 1908 While eunuchs were employed in all Chinese dynasties, their number decreased significantly under the Qing, and the tasks they performed were largely replaced by the Imperial Household Department.[88] At the beginning of the 20th century, there were about 2,000 eunuchs working in the Forbidden City.[89][90] The eunuchs at the Forbidden City during the later Qing period were infamous for their corruption, stealing as much as they could.[91] The position of a eunuch in the Forbidden City offered opportunity for theft and corruption. China was such a poor country that countless men willingly became eunuchs in order to live a better life.[91] However, eunuchs as the Emperor's slaves had no rights and could be abused at the Emperor's whim. The Emperor Puyi recalled in his memoirs of growing up in the Forbidden City that: "By the age of 11, flogging eunuchs was part of my daily routine. My cruelty and love of power were already too firmly set for persuasion to have any effect on me... Whenever I was in a bad temper the eunuchs would be in for trouble."[89][92] After the revolution of 1911–12 that toppled the Qing, the last emperor, Puyi, continued to live in the Forbidden City with his eunuchs as if the revolution had never happened while receiving financial support from the new Chinese republic until 1924 when the former Emperor and his entourage were expelled from the Forbidden City by the warlord General Feng Yuxiang. In 1923, after a case of arson that Puyi believed was started to cover the theft of his Imperial treasures, Puyi expelled all of the eunuchs from the Forbidden City.[89] The sons and grandsons of the Tajik rebel, Yaqub Beg, in China were all castrated. Surviving members of Yaqub Beg's family included 4 sons, 4 grandchildren (2 grandsons and 2 granddaughters), and 4 wives. They either mostly died in prison in Lanzhou, Gansu, or were killed. However, his sons, Yima Kuli, K'ati Kuli, Maiti Kuli, and grandson, Aisan Ahung, were the only survivors in 1879. They were all underage children, and put on trial, sentenced to an agonizing death if they were complicit in their father's rebellious "sedition", or if they were innocent of their fathers' crimes, were to be sentenced to castration and serve as eunuch slaves to Chinese troops, when they reached 11 years old. They were handed over to the Imperial Household to be executed or castrated.[93][94][95] In 1879, it was confirmed that the sentence of castration was carried out; Yaqub Beg's son and grandsons were castrated by the Chinese court in 1879 and turned into eunuchs to work in the Imperial Palace.[96] Korea[edit] The eunuchs of Korea, called Naesi (내시, 內侍),[97] were officials to the king and other royalty in traditional Korean society. The first recorded appearance of a Korean eunuch was in Goryeosa ("History of Goryeo"), a compilation about the Goryeo period. In 1392, with the founding of the Joseon Dynasty, the Naesi system was revised, and the department was renamed the "Department of Naesi" (내시부, 內侍府).[98] The Naesi system included two ranks, those of Sangseon (상선, 尙膳, "Chief of Naesi"), who held the official title of senior second rank, and Naegwan (내관, 內官, "Common official naesi"), both of which held rank as officers. 140 naesi in total served the palace in Joseon Dynasty period. They also took the exam on Confucianism every month.[98] The naesi system was repealed in 1894 following Gabo reform. During the Yuan dynasty, eunuchs became a desirable commodity for tributes, and dog bites were replaced by more sophisticated surgical techniques.[99][100] Eunuchs were the only males outside the royal family allowed to stay inside the palace overnight. Court records going back to 1392 indicate that the average lifespan of eunuchs was 70.0 ± 1.76 years, which was 14.4–19.1 years longer than the lifespan of non-castrated men of similar socioeconomic status.[101] Vietnam[edit] The Vietnamese adopted the eunuch system and castration techniques from China. Records show that the Vietnamese performed castration in a painful procedure by removing the entire genitalia with both penis and testicles being cut off with a sharp knife or metal blade. The procedure was agonizing since the entire penis was cut off.[102] The young man's thighs and abdomen would be tied and others would pin him down on a table. The genitals would be washed with pepper water and then cut off. A tube would be then inserted into the urethra to allow urination during healing.[103] Many Vietnamese eunuchs were products of self castration in order to gain access to the palaces and power. In other cases they might be paid to become eunuchs. They served in many capacities, from supervising public works, to investigating crimes, to reading public proclamations.[104] Lý Dynasty[edit] This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2013) Lý Thường Kiệt was a prominent eunuch general during the Lý Dynasty (1009–1225). Trần Dynasty[edit] A boy student was given money in exchange for becoming a eunuch by Tran Canh in 1254 since many men castrated themselves to become eunuchs during the Tran and Ly dynasties.[105] The Trần Dynasty sent Vietnamese boy eunuchs as tribute to Ming dynasty China several times, in 1383, 1384 and 1385[106] Nguyen Dao, Nguyen Toan, Tru Ca, and Ngo Tin were among several Vietnamese eunuchs sent to China.[107] Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam (Ming dynasty)[edit] During the Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam, the Ming Chinese under the Yongle Emperor castrated many young Vietnamese boys, choosing them for their handsomeness and ability, and brought them to Nanjing to serve as eunuchs. Among them were the architect-engineer Nguyễn An[108] and Nguyen Lang (阮浪).[109] Vietnamese were among the many eunuchs of different origins found at the Yongle Emperor's court.[110] Among the eunuchs in charge of the Capital Battalions of Beijing was Xing An, a Vietnamese.[111] Lê Dynasty[edit] In the Lê Dynasty the Vietnamese Emperor Lê Thánh Tông was aggressive in his relations with foreign countries including China. A large amount of trade between Guangdong and Vietnam happened during his reign. Early accounts recorded that the Vietnamese captured Chinese whose ships had blown off course and detained them. Young Chinese men were selected by the Vietnamese for castration to become eunuch slaves to the Vietnamese. It has been speculated by modern historians that the Chinese who were captured and castrated by the Vietnamese were involved in trade between China and Vietnam instead of actually being blown off course by the wind and they were punished as part of a crackdown on foreign trade by Vietnam.[112] Several Malay envoys from the Malacca sultanate were attacked and captured in 1469 by the Lê Dynasty of Annam (Vietnam) as they were returning to Malacca from China. The Vietnamese enslaved and castrated the young from among the captured.[113][114][115] A 1472 entry in the Ming Shilu, reported that some Chinese from Nanhai county escaped back to China after their ship had been blown off course into Vietnam, where they had been forced to serve as soldiers in Vietnam's military. The escapees also reported that they found out that up to 100 Chinese men remained captive in Vietnam after they were caught and castrated by the Vietnamese after their ships were blown off course into Vietnam. The Chinese Ministry of Revenue responded by ordering Chinese civilians and soldiers to stop going abroad to foreign countries.[116][117] China's relations with Vietnam during this period were marked by the punishment of prisoners by castration.[118][119] A 1499 entry in the Ming Shilu recorded that thirteen Chinese men from Wenchang, including a man named Wu Rui (吳瑞), were captured by the Vietnamese after their ship was blown off course while traveling from Hainan to Guangdong's Qin subprefecture (Qinzhou), causing them to end up near the coast of Vietnam during the Chenghua Emperor's rule (1447–1487). Twelve of them were enslaved as agricultural laborers, while Wu Rui, the only one still young, was castrated and became a eunuch attendant at the Vietnamese Imperial Palace in Thang Long. After years of service, upon the death of the Vietnamese ruler in 1497, he was promoted to a military position in northern Vietnam. There, a soldier told him of an escape route back to China through which Wu Rui then escaped to Longzhou. The local chief planned to sell him back to the Vietnamese, but Wu was rescued by the Pingxiang Magistrate, then was sent to Beijing to work as a eunuch in the palace.[120] The Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư records that in 1467 in An Bang province of Dai Viet (now Quảng Ninh Province) a Chinese ship blew off course onto the shore. The Chinese were detained and not allowed to return to China as ordered by Le Thanh Tong.[121] This incident may be the same one where Wu Rui was captured.[122] Nguyễn Dynasty[edit] The poet Hồ Xuân Hương mocked eunuchs in her poem as a stand-in for criticizing the government.[123] Commoners were banned from undergoing castration in Vietnam. Only adult men of high social rank could be castrated. Most eunuchs were born as such with a congenital abnormality. The Vietnamese government mandated that boys born with defective genitalia were to be reported to officials, in exchange for the town being freed from mandatory labor requirements. The boy would have the option of serving as a eunuch official or serving the palace women when he became ten years old.[124] This law was put in place in 1838 during the Nguyễn Dynasty.[125] The only males allowed inside the Forbidden City at Huế were the Emperor and his eunuchs.[126] The presence of eunuchs in Vietnam was used by the French colonizers to degrade the Vietnamese.[127] Thailand[edit] In Siam (modern Thailand) Indian Muslims from the Coromandel Coast served as eunuchs in the Thai palace and court.[128][129] The Thai at times asked eunuchs from China to visit the court in Thailand and advise them on court ritual since they held them in high regard.[130][131] Burma[edit] Sir Henry Yule saw many Muslims serving as eunuchs in the Konbaung Dynasty of Burma (modern Myanmar) while on a diplomatic mission.[132] Ottoman Empire[edit] Chief Eunuch of Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II at the Imperial Palace, 1912. In the Ottoman Empire, eunuchs were typically slaves imported from outside their domains. A fair proportion of male slaves were imported as eunuchs.[133] The Ottoman court harem—within the Topkapı Palace (1465–1853) and later the Dolmabahçe Palace (1853–1909) in Istanbul—was under the administration of the eunuchs. These were of two categories: black eunuchs and white eunuchs. Black eunuchs were African slaves who served the concubines and officials in the Harem together with chamber maidens of low rank. The white eunuchs were Europeans from the Balkans or the Caucasus, either purchased in the slave markets or taken as boys from Christian families in the Balkans who were unable to pay the Jizya tax. They served the recruits at the Palace School and were from 1582 prohibited from entering the Harem. An important figure in the Ottoman court was the Chief Black Eunuch (Kızlar Ağası or Dar al-Saada Ağası). In control of both the Harem and a net of spies among the black eunuchs, the Chief Eunuch was involved in almost every palace intrigue and thereby could gain power over either the sultan or one of his viziers, ministers, or other court officials.[134] One of the most powerful Chief Eunuchs was Beshir Agha in the 1730s, who played a crucial role in establishing the Ottoman version of Hanafi Islam throughout the Empire by founding libraries and schools.[135] Coptic involvement[edit] In the 14th century, the Muslim Egyptian religious scholar Taj-al-Din Abu Nasr 'Abdal-Wahhab al-Subki discussed eunuchs in his book Kitab Mu'id al-Ni'am wa Mubid al-Niqam (كتاب معيد النعم ومبيد النقم), a title that has been translated as Book of the Guide to [Divine] Benefits and Averting of [Divine] Vengeance and also as Book of Tutor of Graces and Annihilator of Misfortunes. In a chapter dedicated to eunuchs, Al-Subki made "the clear implication that 'eunuchness' is itself an office," Shaun Marmon explained, adding that al-Subki had specified occupational subgroups for the tawashiya [eunuchs]: the zimam watched over women, and the muqaddam al-mamalik over adolescent boys.[136] Edmund Andrews of Northwestern University, in an 1898 article called "Oriental Eunuchs" in the American Journal of Medicine, refers to Coptic priests in "Abou Gerhè in Upper Egypt" castrating slave boys.[137] A black eunuch of the Ottoman Sultan. Photograph by Pascal Sebah, 1870s. Coptic castration of slaves was discussed by Peter Charles Remondino, in his book History of Circumcision from the Earliest Times to the Present,[138] published in 1900. He refers to the "Abou-Gerghè" monastery in a place he calls "Mount Ghebel-Eter". He adds details not mentioned by Andrews such as the insertion of bamboo into the victim. Bamboo was used with Chinese eunuchs. Andrews states his information is derived from an earlier work, Les Femmes, les eunuques, et les guerriers du Soudan,[138] published by a French explorer, Count Raoul du Bisson, in 1868, though this detail does not appear in Du Bisson's book.[139] Remondino's claims were repeated in similar form by Henry G. Spooner in 1919, in the American Journal of Urology and Sexology. Spooner, an associate of William J. Robinson, referred to the monastery as "Abou Gerbe in Upper Egypt".[140] According to Remondino, Spooner, and several later sources, the Coptic priests sliced the penis and testicles off Nubian or Abyssinian slave boys around the age of eight. The boys were captured from Abyssinia and other areas in Sudan like Darfur and Kordofan, then brought into Sudan and Egypt. During the operation, the Coptic clergyman chained the boys to tables, then, after slicing off their sexual organs, stuck a piece of bamboo into the urethra and submerged them in neck-high sand under the sun. The survival rate was ten percent. Slave traders made especially large profits off of eunuchs from this region.[141][142][143][144] Algiers[edit] In the 16th century, an Englishman, Samson Rowlie, was captured and castrated to serve the Ottoman governor in Algiers. Indian subcontinent[edit] Eunuchs in Indian sultanates (before the Mughals)[edit] Eunuchs were frequently employed in Imperial palaces by Muslim rulers as servants for female royalty, as guards of the royal harem, and as sexual mates for the nobles. Some of these attained high-status positions in society. An early example of such a high-ranking eunuch was Malik Kafur. Eunuchs in Imperial palaces were organized in a hierarchy, often with a senior or Chief Eunuch (Urdu: Khwaja Saras), directing junior eunuchs below him. Eunuchs were highly valued for their strength and trustworthiness, allowing them to live amongst women with fewer worries. This enabled eunuchs to serve as messengers, watchmen, attendants and guards for palaces. Often, eunuchs also doubled as part of the King's court of advisers.[145][146] The hijra of South Asia[edit] Main article: Hijra (South Asia) Hijras of Delhi, India. Hijra, an Urdu term traditionally translated into English as "eunuch", actually refers to what modern Westerners would call transgender women and effeminate homosexual men (although some of them reportedly identify as belonging to a third sex). The history of this third sex is mentioned in the Ancient Indian Kama Sutra, which refers to people of a "third sex" (triteeyaprakrti).[147] Some of them undergo ritual castration, but the majority do not. They usually dress in saris (traditional Indian garb worn by women) or shalwar kameez (traditional garb worn by women in South Asia) and wear heavy make-up. They typically live on the margins of society and face discrimination.[148][149] However, they are integral to several Hindu ceremonies which is the primary form of their livelihood. They are a part of dance programs (sometimes adult[clarification needed]) in marriage ceremonies. They also perform certain ceremonies for the couple in Hindu tradition. Other means to earn their living are: by coming, uninvited at weddings, births, new shop openings and other major family events, singing until they are paid or given gifts to go away.[150] The ceremony is supposed to bring good luck and fertility, while the curse of an unappeased hijra is feared by many. Hijra often engage in prostitution and begging to earn money; the begging is accompanied by singing and dancing. Some Indian provincial officials have used the assistance of hijras to collect taxes in the same fashion—they knock on the doors of shopkeepers, while dancing and singing, embarrassing them into paying.[151] Recently, hijras have started to found organizations to improve their social condition and fight discrimination, such as the Shemale Foundation Pakistan. Religious castration[edit] Castration as part of religious practice, and eunuchs occupying religious roles, have been established prior to classical antiquity. Archaeological finds at Çatalhöyük in Anatolia indicate worship of a 'Magna Mater' figure, a forerunner of the goddess Cybele found in later Anatolia and other parts of the near East.[152] Later Roman followers of Cybele were called Galli, who practiced ritual self-castration, known as sanguinaria.[152] Eunuch priests also figured prominently in the Atargatis cult in Syria during the first centuries AD.[153] The practice of religious castration continued into the Christian era, with members of the early church practicing celibacy (including castration) for religious purposes,[154] although the extent and even the existence of this practice among Christians is subject to debate.[155] The early theologian Origen found evidence of the practice in Matthew 19:10–12:[156] "His disciples said to him, 'If such is the case of a man with his wife, it is better not to marry.' But he said to them, 'Not everyone can accept this teaching, but only those to whom it is given. For there are eunuchs who have been so from birth, and there are eunuchs who have been made eunuchs by others, and there are eunuchs who have made themselves eunuchs for the sake of the kingdom of heaven. Let anyone accept this who can.'" (NRSV) Tertullian, a 2nd-century Church Father, described Jesus himself and Paul of Tarsus as spadones, which is translated as "eunuchs" in some contexts.[157] Quoting from the cited book:[157] "Tertullian takes 'spado' to mean virgin". The meaning of spado in late antiquity can be interpreted as a metaphor for celibacy. Tertullian even goes so far with the metaphor as to say St. Paul had been "castrated".[157] Eunuch priests have served various goddesses from India for many centuries. Similar phenomena are exemplified by some modern Indian communities of the hijra, which are associated with a deity and with certain rituals and festivals – notably the devotees of Yellammadevi, or jogappas, who are not castrated,[158] and the Ali of southern India, of whom at least some are.[159] The 18th-century Russian Skoptzy (скопцы) sect was an example of a castration cult, where its members regarded castration as a way of renouncing the sins of the flesh.[160] Several members of the 20th-century Heaven's Gate cult were found to have been castrated, apparently voluntarily and for the same reasons.[161] In the Bible[edit] For there are some eunuchs, which were so born from their mother's womb: and there are some eunuchs, which were made eunuchs of men: and there be eunuchs, which have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven's sake. He that is able to receive it, let him receive it. — Matthew 19:12 Rembrandt, The Baptism of the Eunuch, 1626. Eunuchs are mentioned many times in the Bible, such as in the Book of Isaiah (56:4) using the word סריס (saris). Although the Ancient Hebrews did not practice castration, eunuchs were common in other cultures featured in the Bible, such as ancient Egypt, Babylonia, the Persian Empire, and ancient Rome. In the Book of Esther, servants of the harem of Ahasuerus, such as Hegai and Shashgaz, as well as other servants such as Hatach, Harbonah, Bigthan, and Teresh, are referred to as sarisim. Being exposed to the consorts of the king, they would likely have been castrated. There is some confusion regarding eunuchs in Old Testament passages, since the Hebrew word for eunuch, saris (סריס), could also refer to other servants and officials who had not been castrated but served in similar capacities.[162][163] The Egyptian royal servant, Potiphar, is described as a saris in Genesis 39:1, although he was married and hence unlikely to have been a castrated eunuch. One of the earliest converts to Christianity was an Ethiopian eunuch who was a high court official of Candace, the Queen of Ethiopia (Acts 8:27–39). The reference to "eunuchs" in Matthew 19:12 has yielded various interpretations. Non-castrated eunuchs[edit] The term eunuch has sometimes figuratively been used for a wide range of men who were seen to be physically unable to procreate. Hippocrates describes the Scythians as being afflicted with high rates of erectile dysfunction and thus "the most eunuchoid of all nations" (Airs Waters Places 22). In the Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary, the term literally used for impotent males is spado but may also be used for eunuchs. Castrato singers[edit] Main article: Castrato Eunuchs castrated before puberty were also valued and trained in several cultures for their exceptional voices, which retained a childlike and other-worldly flexibility and treble pitch (a high-pitched voice). Such eunuchs were known as castrati. As women were sometimes forbidden to sing in Church, their place was taken by castrati. Castrati became very popular in 18th century opera seria. The practice, known as castratism, remained popular until the 18th century and was known into the 19th century. The last famous Italian castrato, Giovanni Velluti, died in 1861. The sole existing sound recording of a castrato singer documents the voice of Alessandro Moreschi, the last eunuch in the Sistine Chapel choir, who died in 1922. In popular culture[edit] Main article: Eunuchs in popular culture Notable eunuchs[edit] See also: Category:Eunuchs In chronological order. First millennium BC[edit] Mutakkil-Marduk (8th century BC): Assyrian chief eunuch, eponym of the year 798 BC in an Assyrian eponym chronicle.[164] Yariri (8th century BC): regent of Neo-Hittite Carchemish thought likely to be a eunuch.[28] Sin-shumu-lishir (7th century BC): Assyrian eunuch who attempted to usurp power in the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Aspamistres or Mithridates (5th century BC): bodyguard of Xerxes I of Persia, and (with Artabanus) his murderer. Artoxares: an envoy of Artaxerxes I and Darius II of Persia. Bagoas (4th century BC): prime minister of king Artaxerxes III of Persia, and his assassin (Bagoas is an old Persian word meaning eunuch). Bagoas (4th century BC): a favorite of Alexander the Great. Influential in changing Alexander's attitude toward Persians and therefore in the king's policy decision to try to integrate the conquered peoples fully into his Empire as loyal subjects. He thereby paved the way for the relative success of Alexander's Seleucid successors and greatly enhanced the diffusion of Greek culture to the East. Batis (4th century BC): resisted Alexander the Great at the Siege of Gaza. Philetaerus (4th/3rd century BC): founder of the Attalid dynasty of Pergamum Zhao Gao: favourite of Qin Shihuangdi, who plotted against Li Si (died 210 BC). Sima Qian (old romanization Ssu-ma Chi'en; 2nd/1st century BC): the first person to have practiced modern historiography – gathering and analyzing both primary and secondary sources to write his monumental history of the Chinese Empire. Ganymedes (1st century BC): highly capable adviser and general of Cleopatra VII's sister and rival, Princess Arsinoe. Unsuccessfully attacked Julius Caesar three times at Alexandria. Pothinus (1st century BC): regent for pharaoh Ptolemy XII. Sporus (1st century BC): an attractive Roman boy who was castrated by, and later married to, Emperor Nero. First millennium AD[edit] Unidentified eunuch of the Ethiopian court (1st century AD), described in the Acts of the Apostles (chapter 8). Philip the Evangelist, one of the original seven deacons, is directed by the Holy Spirit to catch up to the eunuch's chariot and hears him reading from the Book of Isaiah (chapter 53). Philip explained that the section prophesies Jesus' crucifixion, which Philip described to the eunuch. The eunuch was baptized shortly thereafter. Halotus (c. 20–30 AD – c. 70–80 AD), servant to the Roman Emperor Claudius and suspected of poisoning him. Cai Lun (old romanization Ts'ai Lun; 1st/2nd century AD): Former attribution to Lun as the inventor of paper has been rescinded following discovery of many earlier manuscripts written on paper. It is now highly questionable if he was directly involved in making paper. Dorotheus of Tyre (255–362): A bishop who attended the Council of Nicaea, was exiled by Diocletian and Julian, and was martyred. Origen: early Christian theologian, allegedly castrated himself based on his reading of the Gospel of Matthew 19:12 ("For there are eunuchs, who were born so from their mother's womb: and there are eunuchs, who were made so by men: and there are eunuchs, who have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven. He that can take, let him take it."). Despite the fact that the early Christian theologian Tertullian wrote that Jesus was a eunuch, there is no corroboration in any other early source.[165] (The Skoptsy did, however, believe it to be true.[166]) Chusdazat (d. 341): He served King Shapur II, who killed him for declaring his Christian identity. Eutropius (5th century): only eunuch known to have attained the highly distinguished office of Roman Consul. Chrysaphius: chief minister of Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II, architect of imperial policy towards the Huns. Narses (478–573): general of Byzantine emperor Justinian I, responsible for destroying the Ostrogoths in 552 at the Battle of Taginae in Italy and reconquering Rome for the empire. Solomon: general and governor of Africa under Justinian I. Staurakios: chief associate and minister of the Byzantine empress Irene of Athens. Ignatius of Constantinople (799–877): twice Patriarch of Constantinople during troubled political times (847–858 and 867–877). First absolutely unquestioned eunuch saint, recognized by both the Orthodox and Roman Churches. (There are a great many early saints who were probably eunuchs, though few either as influential nor unquestioned as to their castration.) Yazaman al-Khadim (died 891): Emir of Tarsus and successful commander in the wars against the Byzantine Empire. Mu'nis al-Khadim (845/846–933/934): Commander-in-chief of the Abbasid armies between 908 and his death. Joseph Bringas: chief minister of the Byzantine Empire under Romanos II (959–963). Second millennium AD[edit] Jia Xian (c. 1010 – c. 1070): Chinese mathematician; invented the Jia Xian triangle for the calculation of square roots and cube roots. Ly Thuong Kiet (1019–1105): general during the Lý Dynasty in Vietnam. Penned what is considered the first Vietnamese declaration of independence. Regarded as a Vietnamese national hero. Pierre Abélard (1079–1142): French scholastic philosopher and theologian. Forcibly castrated by his girlfriend's uncle while in bed. Malik Kafur (fl. 1296–1316): a eunuch slave who became a general in the army of Alauddin Khalji, ruler of the Delhi sultanate. Zheng He (1371–1433): famous admiral who led huge Chinese fleets of exploration around the Indian Ocean. Judar Pasha (late 16th century): a Spanish eunuch who became the head of the Moroccan invasion force into the Songhai Empire. Kim Cheo Seon [ko]: one of the most famous eunuchs in Korean Joseon Dynasty, ably served kings in the Joseon dynasty. His life is the subject of a historical drama in South Korea. Mohammad Khan Qajar: chief of the Qajar tribe. He became the King/Shah of Persia in 1794 and established the Qajar dynasty. Zhang Rang: head of the infamous "10 Changshi" (ten attendants) of the Eastern Han dynasty. Huang Hao: eunuch in the state of Shu; also appears in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Cen Hun: eunuch in the state of Wu during the Three Kingdoms Period. Gao Lishi: a loyal and trusted friend of Tang emperor Xuanzong. Le Van Duyet: 18th-century Vietnamese eunuch, military strategist and government official (not a true eunuch, he was born a hermaphrodite). Senesino (1686–1758): Italian contralto castrato singer. Farinelli (1705–1782): Italian soprano castrato singer. Giusto Fernando Tenducci (c. 1736–1790): Italian soprano castrato singer. Li Fuguo: Tang eunuch who began another era of eunuch rule. Yu Chao'en: Tang eunuch who began his career as army supervisor. Wang Zhen: first Ming eunuch with much power; see Tumu Crisis. Gang Bing: patron saint of eunuchs in China who castrated himself to demonstrate his loyalty to the Yongle Emperor. Yishiha: admiral in charge of expeditions down the Amur River under the Yongle and Xuande Emperors. Liu Jin: corrupt eunuch official of the Ming dynasty and de facto emperor, member of the Eight Tigers. Wei Zhongxian: eunuch of the Ming dynasty, considered the most powerful eunuch in Chinese history. Wu Rui: a Chinese eunuch in Lê Dynasty Annam (Vietnam). Li Lianying: a despotic eunuch of the Qing dynasty. Thomas P. Corbett/Boston Corbett (b. 1832; presumed dead 1894): killer of John Wilkes Booth, the assassin of Abraham Lincoln, who castrated himself to avoid temptation from prostitutes. Alessandro Moreschi (1858–1922): Italian castrato singer, the only one to make recordings. Xin Xiuming (1878–1959): Entered Emperor Puyi's service in 1902; left palace service in 1911; became abbot of the Taoist temple at the Babaoshan Revolutionary Cemetery by 1930; wrote memoir Eunuch's Recollection (老太监的回忆). Sun Yaoting (1902–1996): last surviving imperial eunuch of Chinese history. See also[edit] Nullo (body modification) Footnotes[edit] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ εὐνοῦχος. 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"Castration and connection: Kinship organization among Ming Eunuchs". Ming Studies. 2016 (74): 27–47. doi:10.1080/0147037X.2016.1179552. S2CID 152169027. Cooke, Nola; Li, Tana; Anderson, James, eds. (2011). The Tongking Gulf Through History (illustrated ed.). University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0812243369. Retrieved 4 January 2013. Keay, John (2010). China: A History. HarperCollins UK. ISBN 978-0007372089. Retrieved 5 September 2013. Lary, Diana (2007). Diana Lary (ed.). The Chinese State at the Borders (illustrated ed.). UBC Press. ISBN 978-0774813334. Retrieved 4 January 2013. Kutcher, Norman (2018). Eunuch and Emperor in the Great Age of Qing Rule. Oakland, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 9780520297524.</ref> McMahon, Keith (2013). Women Shall Not Rule: Imperial Wives and Concubines in China from Han to Liao. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-1442222908. Retrieved 5 September 2013. Peterson, Barbara Bennett, ed. (2000). Notable Women of China: Shang Dynasty to the Early Twentieth Century (illustrated ed.). M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 0765619296. Retrieved 5 September 2013. Robinson, David (1995). "Notes on Eunuchs in Hebei during the Mid-Ming Period". Ming Studies. 1: 1–16. doi:10.1179/014703795788763645. Tsai, Shih-Shan Henry (1996). The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty (Ming Tai Huan Kuan) (illustrated ed.). SUNY Press. ISBN 0791426874. Tuotuo. Liaoshi [History of Liao]. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1974 (or Tuotuo, Liaoshi (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1974)) Toqto'a; et al. (1344). Liao Shi (宋史) [History of Liao] (in Chinese). Van Derven, H. J., ed. (2000). Warfare in Chinese History. Volume 47 of Sinica Leidensia / Sinica Leidensia (illustrated ed.). BRILL. ISBN 9004117741. Retrieved 5 September 2013. Wade, Geoff (2005). "Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu: an open access resource". Asia Research Institute and the Singapore E-Press, National University of Singapore. Retrieved 6 November 2012. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Wang, Yuan-Kang (2013). Harmony and War: Confucian Culture and Chinese Power Politics (illustrated ed.). Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0231522403. Retrieved 5 September 2013. 祝建龙 (Zhu Jianlong) (April 2009). 辽代后宫制度研究 [Research on the System of Imperial Harem in the Liao Dynasty] (Master's thesis) (in Chinese). Jilin University. Retrieved 4 October 2013. "Hidden Power: The Palace Eunuchs of Imperial China". Brooklyn.cuny.edu. Archived from the original on 27 July 2008. Wilson, Jean D.; Roehrborn, Claus (1 December 1999). "Long-Term consequences of Castration in Men: Lessons from the Skoptzy and the Eunuchs of the Chinese and Ottoman Courts". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. 84 (12): 4324–4331. doi:10.1210/jcem.84.12.6206. PMID 10599682. Tsai, Shih-Shan Henry (1 January 1996). The Eunuchs of Ming Dynasty China. ISBN 9780791426876. "A Eunuch Cooks Boys to Make a Tonic of Male Essence," in Zhang Yingyu, The Book of Swindles: Selections from a Late Ming Collection, translated by Christopher Rea and Bruce Rusk (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 2017), pp. 138–141. English language Abstracts of the thesis Research on the System of Imperial Harem in Liao Dynasty Research on the System of Imperial Harem in Liao Dynasty External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Eunuchs. "38 rare pictures of eunuchs during Qing Dynasty". China Underground. "Born Eunuchs". Well.com. "Eunuchs in Pharaonic Egypt". well.com. "The Ancient Roman and Talmudic Definition of Natural Eunuchs". well.com. "The Eunuch Archive". eunuch.org. "The Perfect Servant: Eunuchs and the Social Construction of Gender in Byzantium". Archived from the original on 29 December 2007 – via Find Articles. v t e Gender and sexual identities Gender identities Genders Man Woman Male Female Androgynos Androgyne Boi Cisgender Cross-dresser Gender bender Gender neutrality Non-binary (or genderqueer) Postgenderism Gender variance Transgender Trans man Trans woman Transsexual Third genders or third sexes Akava'ine Apwint Bakla Bugis genders Bissu Calabai Calalai Chibados Enaree Eunuch Fa'afafine Fakaleitī Femminiello Galli Hijra Kathoey Khanith Köçek Koekchuch Lhamana Māhū Mak nyah Mukhannathun Muxe Nádleehi Nullo Rae-rae Sipiniq Sworn virgin Takatāpui Travesti Tumtum Two-spirit Winkte Sexual orientation identities Sexual orientations Asexual Bisexual Heterosexual Homosexual Alternative labels Banjee Bi-curious Ex-gay Ex-ex-gay Gay Gay men Gray asexual Heteroflexible Lesbian Non-heterosexual Pansexual Polysexual Queer Questioning Same gender loving Social aspects Sociosexuality Antisexuality Monogamy Non-monogamy Polyamorous Asociality Homosociality Heterosociality Other Analloeroticism Androphilia and gynephilia Attraction to transgender people Kinsey scale Monosexuality Romantic orientation See also Gender roles Intersex Queer heterosexuality Sex and gender distinction Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures Social construction of gender Authority control NDL: 00564870 NKC: ph211951 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eunuch&oldid=1000291296" Categories: Eunuchs Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with incomplete citations Articles with incomplete citations from January 2021 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1728 Cyclopaedia Wikipedia articles incorporating text from Cyclopaedia CS1: long volume value CS1 errors: missing periodical CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown Articles with Korean-language sources (ko) CS1 maint: others CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty Webarchive template wayback links CS1 German-language sources (de) Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from March 2020 Articles to be expanded from December 2013 All articles to be expanded Articles using small message boxes Wikipedia articles needing clarification from February 2020 CS1 Chinese-language sources (zh) CS1 uses Chinese-language script (zh) Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية বাংলা Български Brezhoneg Буряад Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Malagasy मराठी Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 January 2021, at 14:36 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1216	----	Nebiriau II - Wikipedia Nebiriau II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Nebiriau II Nebiryerawet, Nebiryraw Statuette of Harpocrates from the Ptolemaic period, believed to bear the throne name of Nebiriau II Pharaoh Reign c.1600 BC (16th Dynasty) Predecessor Nebiryraw I Successor Semenre Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Neferkare(?) Nfr-k3-Rˁ Beautiful is the ka of Ra Nomen Nebiryraw<re> <Rˁ>Nb-jrj-(r)-3w(t) <Ra is> the possessor of all[1] Father Nebiryraw I? Nebiriau II (also Nebiryraw II, Nebiryerawet II) was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the Theban-based 16th Dynasty, during the Second Intermediate Period. Identity[edit] He is commonly assumed by some Egyptologists to be the son of his predecessor Nebiryraw I, given the rarity of the name Nebiriau in Egyptian historical sources.[2] Unlike his presumed father who ruled Upper Egypt for 26 years, he was an obscure king who is completely unattested by contemporary archaeological sources.[3] The only two non-contemporary attestations for Nebiriau II are the mention of his personal name on the Ramesside Turin Canon (position 13.5, his throne name was lost), and a bronze statuette of the god Harpocrates (Cairo 38189). The four sides of the base of the statue were inscribed with the names written into cartouches; these are "Binpu", "Ahmose", "The good god Sewadjenre, deceased" and "The good god Neferkare, deceased" respectively.[4] The first two were likely two princes of the royal family of the 17th Dynasty which would replace the 16th Dynasty shortly thereafter; Sewadjenre was the throne name of Nebiriau I and finally, it is believed that Neferkare is the otherwise unattested throne name of Nebiriau II. The finding is also peculiar because the cult of Harpocrates – and thus the statuette itself – dates back to the Ptolemaic period i.e. about 1500 years after the people named on the statuette had lived.[4] Nebiriau II was succeeded by an equally obscure king named Semenre who is attested by a single axe – inscribed with his throne name – and then by Seuserenre Bebiankh who is given 12 years in the Turin Canon. References[edit] ^ von Beckerath, Jürgen (1999). Handbuch der Ägyptischen Königsnamen. Mainz. ISBN 3 8053 2591 6., pp. 126-127 ^ Kim Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c.1800-1550 B.C, Museum Tusculanum Press, (1997), p.155 ^ Ryholt, p.201 ^ a b Donald B. Redford (1986). Pharaonic king-lists, annals and day-books: a contribution to the study of the Egyptian sense of history. Mississauga: Benben Publications, ISBN 0920168078, p. 55 Preceded by Nebiryraw I Pharaoh of Egypt 16th Dynasty Succeeded by Semenre v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nebiriau_II&oldid=992470094" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs 16th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages አማርኛ العربية Català Español Euskara Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Slovenščina Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 5 December 2020, at 12:43 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1221	----	Xerxes I - Wikipedia Xerxes I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This is the current revision of this page, as edited by HistoryofIran (talk | contribs) at 18:19, 8 December 2020 (rv, you might wanna read WP:RS, WP:CONSENSUS and WP:EDIT WARRING. Next time you will get reported). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this version. Revision as of 18:19, 8 December 2020 by HistoryofIran (talk | contribs) (rv, you might wanna read WP:RS, WP:CONSENSUS and WP:EDIT WARRING. Next time you will get reported) (diff) ← Previous revision | Latest revision (diff) | Newer revision → (diff) Jump to navigation Jump to search Fourth King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire King of Kings Xerxes I 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠 King of Kings Great King King of Persia King of Babylon Pharaoh of Egypt King of Countries Rock relief of a Achaemenid king, most likely Xerxes, located in the National Museum of Iran[1] King of kings of the Achaemenid Empire Reign October 486 – August 465 BC Predecessor Darius the Great Successor Artaxerxes I Born c. 518 BC Died August 465 BC (aged approximately 53) Burial Naqsh-e Rostam Spouse Amestris Issue Darius Hystaspes Artaxerxes I Arsames Amytis Dynasty Achaemenid Father Darius the Great Mother Atossa Religion Indo-Iranian religion (possibly Zoroastrianism) Xerxes (Xašayaruša/Ḫašayaruša)[2] in hieroglyphs Xerxes I (Old Persian: 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠, romanized: Xšaya-ṛšā; c. 518 – August 465 BC), commonly known as Xerxes the Great, was the fourth King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire, ruling from 486 to 465 BC. He was the son and successor of Darius the Great (r. 522 – 486 BC) and his mother was Atossa, a daughter of Cyrus the Great (r. 550 – 530 BC), the first Achaemenid king. Like his father, he ruled the empire at its territorial apex. He ruled from 486 BC until his assassination in 465 BC at the hands of Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard. Xerxes I is notable in Western history for his failed invasion of Greece in 480 BC. His forces temporarily overran mainland Greece north of the Isthmus of Corinth[3][4] until losses at Salamis and Plataea a year later reversed these gains and ended the second invasion decisively. However, Xerxes successfully crushed revolts in Egypt and Babylon. Roman Ghirshman says that, "After this he ceased to use the title of 'king of Babylon', calling himself simply 'king of the Persians and the Medes'."[5] Xerxes also oversaw the completion of various construction projects at Susa and Persepolis. Xerxes is identified with the fictional king Ahasuerus in the biblical Book of Esther.[6] That book is broadly considered to be fictional.[7][8][9] Contents 1 Etymology 2 Historiography 3 Early life 3.1 Parentage and birth 3.2 Upbringing and education 3.3 Accession to the throne 4 Consolidation of power 5 Campaigns 5.1 Invasion of the Greek mainland 5.2 Battle of Thermopylae and destruction of Athens 5.3 Battles of Salamis and Plataea 6 Construction projects 7 Death 8 Government 8.1 Religion 9 Wives and children 10 Cultural depictions 11 See also 12 References 13 Bibliography 13.1 Ancient sources 13.2 Modern sources 14 External links Etymology Xérxēs (Ξέρξης) is the Greek and Latin (Xerxes, Xerses) transliteration of the Old Iranian Xšaya-ṛšā ("ruling over heroes"), which can be seen by the first part xšaya, meaning "ruling", and the second ṛšā, meaning "hero, man".[10] The name of Xerxes was known in Akkadian as Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá and in Aramaic as ḥšyʾrš.[11] Xerxes would become a popular name amongst the rulers of the Achaemenid Empire.[10] Historiography Much of Xerxes' bad reputation is due to propaganda by the Macedonian king Alexander the Great (r. 336–323 BC), who had him vilified.[12] The modern historian Richard Stoneman regards the portrayal of Xerxes as more nuanced and tragic in the work of the contemporary Greek historian Herodotus.[12] However, many modern historians agree that Herodotus recorded spurious information.[13][14] Pierre Briant has accused him of presenting a stereotyped and biased portrayal of the Persians.[15] Many Achaemenid-era clay tablets and other reports written in Elamite, Akkadian, Egyptian and Aramaic are frequently contradictory to the reports of classical authors, i.e. Ctesias, Plutarch and Justin.[16] Early life Parentage and birth Xerxes' father was Darius the Great (r. 522 – 486 BC), the incumbent monarch of the Achaemenid Empire, albeit himself not a member of the family of Cyrus the Great, the founder of the empire.[17][18] Xerxes' mother was Atossa, a daughter of Cyrus.[19] Darius and Atossa had married in 522 BC,[20] with Xerxes being born around 518 BC.[21] Upbringing and education The "Caylus vase", a quadrilingual alabaster jar with cuneiform and hieroglyphic inscriptions in the name of "Xerxes, the Great King". Cabinet des Médailles, Paris[22] According to the Greek dialogue First Alcibiades, which describes typical upbringing and education of Persian princes; they were raised by eunuchs. When reaching the age of 7, they learn how to ride and hunt; at age 14, they are looked after by four teachers of aristocratic stock, who teach them how to be "wise, just, prudent and brave."[23] Persian princes were also taught on the basics of the Zoroastrian religion, to be truthful, have self-restraint, and to be courageous.[23] The dialogue further adds that "Fear, for a Persian, is the equivalent of slavery."[23] At the age of 16 or 17, they begin their "national service" for 10 years, which included practicing archery and javelin, competing for prizes, and hunting.[24] Afterwards they serve in the military for around 25 years, and are then elevated to the status of elders and advisers of the king.[24] This account of education among the Persian elite is supported by Xenophon's description of the 5th-century BC Achaemenid prince Cyrus the Younger, with whom he was well-acquainted.[24] Stoneman suggests that this was the type of upbringing and education that Xerxes experienced.[25] It is unknown if Xerxes ever learned to read or write, with the Persians favouring oral history over written literature.[25] Stoneman suggests that Xerxes' upbringing and education was possibly not much different from that of the later Iranian kings, such as Abbas the Great, king of the Safavid Empire in the 17th-century AD.[25] Starting from 498 BC, Xerxes resided in the royal palace of Babylon.[26] Accession to the throne While Darius was preparing for another war against Greece, a revolt spurred in Egypt in 486 BC due to heavy taxes and the deportation of craftsmen to build the royal palaces at Susa and Persepolis. Under Persian law, the king was required to choose a successor before setting out on dangerous expeditions. When Darius decided to leave (487–486 BC), he (Darius) prepared his tomb at Naqsh-e Rustam (five kilometers from his royal palace at Persepolis) and appointed Xerxes, his eldest son by Atossa, as his successor. However, Darius could not lead the campaign due to his failing health and died in October 486 BC at the age of 64.[27] Artobazan claimed the crown as the eldest of all the children; while Xerxes, on the other hand, argued that he was sprung from Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus, and that it was Cyrus who had won the Persians their freedom. Xerxes was also helped by a Spartan king in exile who was present in Persia at the time, Eurypontid king Demaratus, who also argued that the eldest son does not universally mean they have claim to the crown, as Spartan law states that the first son born while the father is king is the heir to the kingship.[28] Some modern scholars also view the unusual decision of Darius to give the throne to Xerxes to be a result of his consideration of the unique positions that Cyrus the Great and his daughter Atossa enjoyed.[29] Artobazan was born to "Darius the subject", while Xerxes was the eldest son born in the purple after Darius's rise to the throne, and Artobazan's mother was a commoner while Xerxes's mother was the daughter of the founder of the empire.[30] Xerxes was crowned and succeeded his father in October–December 486 BC[31] when he was about 36 years old.[32] The transition of power to Xerxes was smooth due again in part to the great authority of Atossa[33] and his accession of royal power was not challenged by any person at court or in the Achaemenian family, or any subject nation.[34] Consolidation of power Engraving of Babylon by H. Fletcher, 1690 At Xerxes' accession, trouble was brewing in some of his domains. A revolt occurred in Egypt, which seems to have been dangerous enough for Xerxes to personally lead the army to restore order (which also gave him the opportunity to begin his reign with a military campaign).[35] Xerxes suppressed the revolt in January 484 BC, and appointed his full-brother Achaemenes as satrap of the country, replacing the previous satrap Pherendates, who was reportedly killed during the revolt.[36][26] The suppression of the Egyptian revolt expended the army, which had been mobilized by Darius over the previous three years.[35] Xerxes thus had to raise another army for his expedition into Greece, which took four years.[35] There was also unrest in Babylon, which revolted at least twice against Xerxes. The first revolt broke out in June or July of 484 BC and was led by a rebel of the name Bel-shimanni. Bel-shimmani's revolt was short-lived, Babylonian documents written during his reign only account for a period of two weeks.[37] Two years later, Babylon produced another rebel leader, Shamash-eriba. Beginning in the summer of 482 BC, Shamash-eriba seized Babylon itself and other nearby cities, such as Borsippa and Dilbat, and was only defeated in March 481 BC after a lengthy siege of Babylon.[37] The precise cause of the unrest in Babylon is uncertain.[35] It may have been due to tax increase.[38] Prior to these revolts, Babylon had occupied a special position within the Achaemenid Empire, the Achaemenid kings had been titled as "King of Babylon" and "King of the Lands", perceiving Babylonia as a somewhat separate entity within their empire, united with their own kingdom in a personal union. Xerxes dropped "King of Babylon" from his titulature and divided the previously large Babylonian satrapy (accounting for most of the Neo-Babylonian Empire's territory) into smaller sub-units.[39] Using texts written by classical authors, it is often assumed that Xerxes enacted a brutal vengeance on Babylon following the two revolts. According to ancient writers, Xerxes destroyed Babylon's fortifications and damaged the temples in the city.[37] The Esagila was allegedly exposed to great damage and Xerxes allegedly carried the statue of Marduk away from the city,[40] possibly bringing it to Iran and melting it down (classical authors held that the statue was entirely made of gold, which would have made melting it down possible).[37] Modern historian Amélie Kuhrt considers it unlikely that Xerxes destroyed the temples, but believes that the story of him doing so may derive from an anti-Persian sentiment among the Babylonians.[41] It is doubtful if the statue was removed from Babylon at all[37] and some have even suggested that Xerxes did remove a statue from the city, but that this was the golden statue of a man rather than the statue of the god Marduk.[42][43] Though mentions of it are lacking considerably compared to earlier periods, contemporary documents suggest that the Babylonian New Year's Festival continued in some form during the Achaemenid period.[44] Because the change in rulership from the Babylonians themselves to the Persians and due to the replacement of the city's elite families by Xerxes following its revolt, it is possible that the festival's traditional rituals and events had changed considerably.[45] Campaigns Invasion of the Greek mainland Main article: Second Persian invasion of Greece The soldiers of Xerxes I, of all ethnicities,[46] on the tomb of Xerxes I, at Naqsh-e Rostam[47][48] Darius died while in the process of preparing a second army to invade the Greek mainland, leaving to his son the task of punishing the Athenians, Naxians, and Eretrians for their interference in the Ionian Revolt, the burning of Sardis, and their victory over the Persians at Marathon. From 483 BC, Xerxes prepared his expedition: The Xerxes Canal was dug through the isthmus of the peninsula of Mount Athos, provisions were stored in the stations on the road through Thrace, and two pontoon bridges later known as Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges were built across the Hellespont. Soldiers of many nationalities served in the armies of Xerxes from all over his multi-ethnic massive Eurasian-sized empire and beyond, including the Assyrians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Jews,[49] Macedonians, European Thracians, Paeonians, Achaean Greeks, Ionians, Aegean islanders, Aeolians, Greeks from Pontus, Colchians, Indians and many more. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, Xerxes's first attempt to bridge the Hellespont ended in failure when a storm destroyed the flax and papyrus cables of the bridges. In retaliation, Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped three hundred times, and had fetters thrown into the water. Xerxes's second attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful.[50] The Carthaginian invasion of Sicily deprived Greece of the support of the powerful monarchs of Syracuse and Agrigentum; ancient sources assume Xerxes was responsible, modern scholarship is skeptical.[51] Many smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially Thessaly, Thebes and Argos. Xerxes was victorious during the initial battles. Xerxes set out in the spring of 480 BC from Sardis with a fleet and army which Herodotus estimated was roughly one million strong along with 10,000 elite warriors named the Immortals. More recent estimates place the Persian force at around 60,000 combatants.[52] Battle of Thermopylae and destruction of Athens Achaemenid king killing a Greek hoplite. Impression from a cylinder seal, sculpted c. 500 BC–475 BC, at the time of Xerxes I Metropolitan Museum of Art At the Battle of Thermopylae, a small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas of Sparta resisted the much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated. According to Herodotus, the Persians broke the Spartan phalanx after a Greek man called Ephialtes betrayed his country by telling the Persians of another pass around the mountains. At Artemisium, large storms had destroyed ships from the Greek side and so the battle stopped prematurely as the Greeks received news of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated. Foundations of the Old Temple of Athena, destroyed by the armies of Xerxes I during the Destruction of Athens in 480 BC After Thermopylae, Athens was captured. Most of the Athenians had abandoned the city and fled to the island of Salamis before Xerxes arrived. A small group attempted to defend the Athenian Acropolis, but they were defeated. Xerxes ordered the Destruction of Athens and burnt the city, leaving an archaeologically attested destruction layer, known as the Perserschutt.[53] The Persians thus gained control of all of mainland Greece to the north of the Isthmus of Corinth.[4] Battles of Salamis and Plataea Xerxes was induced, by the message of Themistocles (against the advice of Artemisia of Halicarnassus), to attack the Greek fleet under unfavourable conditions, rather than sending a part of his ships to the Peloponnesus and awaiting the dissolution of the Greek armies. The Battle of Salamis (September, 480 BC) was won by the Greek fleet, after which Xerxes set up a winter camp in Thessaly. According to Herodotus, fearing that the Greeks might attack the bridges across the Hellespont and trap his army in Europe, Xerxes decided to retreat back to Asia, taking the greater part of the army with him.[54] Another cause of the retreat might have been that the continued unrest in Babylon, a key province of the empire, required the king's personal attention.[55] He left behind a contingent in Greece to finish the campaign under Mardonius, who according to Herodotus had suggested the retreat in the first place. This force was defeated the following year at Plataea by the combined forces of the Greek city states, ending the Persian offensive on Greece for good. Construction projects The rock-cut tomb at Naqsh-e Rustam north of Persepolis, copying that of Darius, is usually assumed to be that of Xerxes After the military blunders in Greece, Xerxes returned to Persia and oversaw the completion of the many construction projects left unfinished by his father at Susa and Persepolis. He oversaw the building of the Gate of All Nations and the Hall of a Hundred Columns at Persepolis, which are the largest and most imposing structures of the palace. He oversaw the completion of the Apadana, the Tachara (Palace of Darius) and the Treasury, all started by Darius, as well as having his own palace built which was twice the size of his father's. His taste in architecture was similar to that of Darius, though on an even more gigantic scale.[56] He had colorful enameled brick laid on the exterior face of the Apadana.[57] He also maintained the Royal Road built by his father and completed the Susa Gate and built a palace in Susa.[58] Death This cuneiform text mentions the murder of Xerxes I by his son. From Babylon, Iraq. British Museum In August 465 BC, Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court, assassinated Xerxes with the help of a eunuch, Aspamitres. Although Artabanus bore the same name as the famed uncle of Xerxes, a Hyrcanian, his rise to prominence was due to his popularity in religious quarters of the court and harem intrigues. He put his seven sons in key positions and had a plan to dethrone the Achaemenids.[59] Greek historians give contradicting accounts of events. According to Ctesias (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Crown Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest son, of the murder and persuaded another of Xerxes's sons, Artaxerxes, to avenge the patricide by killing Darius. But according to Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and then killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes discovered the murder, he killed Artabanus and his sons.[60] Participating in these intrigues was the general Megabyzus, whose decision to switch sides probably saved the Achaemenids from losing their control of the Persian throne.[61] Government Religion While there is no general consensus in scholarship whether Xerxes and his predecessors had been influenced by Zoroastrianism,[62] it is well established that Xerxes was a firm believer in Ahura Mazda, whom he saw as the supreme deity.[62] However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped by adherents of the (Indo-)Iranian religious tradition.[62][63] On his treatment of other religions, Xerxes followed the same policy as his predecessors; he appealed to local religious scholars, made sacrifices to local deities, and destroyed temples in cities and countries that caused disorder.[64] Wives and children Xerxes being designated by Darius I. Tripylon, Persepolis. The ethnicities of the Empire are shown supporting the throne. Ahuramazda crowns the scene. By queen Amestris: Amytis, wife of Megabyzus. Darius, the first born, murdered by Artaxerxes I or Artabanus. Hystaspes, murdered by Artaxerxes I. Artaxerxes I Achaemenes, murdered by Egyptians.[citation needed] Rhodogune By unknown wives or mistresses: Artarius, satrap of Babylon. Tithraustes Arsames or Arsamenes or Arxanes or Sarsamas, satrap of Egypt.[citation needed] Parysatis[65] Ratashah[66] Cultural depictions Trilingual inscription of Xerxes at Van (present-day Turkey) Xerxes is the central character of the Aeschylus play "The Persians". Xerxes is the protagonist of the opera Serse by the German-English Baroque composer George Frideric Handel. It was first performed in the King's Theatre London on 15 April 1738. The famous aria "Ombra mai fù" opens the opera. The murder of Xerxes by Artabanus (Artabano), execution of crown prince Darius (Dario), revolt by Megabyzus (Megabise), and subsequent succession of Artaxerxes I is romanticised by the Italian poet Metastasio in his opera libretto Artaserse, which was first set to music by Leonardo Vinci, and subsequently by other composers such as Johann Adolf Hasse and Johann Christian Bach.[67][68][69] The historical novel Xerxes of de Hoogmoed (1919) by Dutch writer Louis Couperus describes the Persian wars from the perspective of Xerxes. Though the account is fictionalised, Couperus nevertheless based himself on an extensive study of Herodotus. The English translation Arrogance: The Conquests of Xerxes by Frederick H. Martens appeared in 1930.[70][71] Queen Esther, a Jewish queen of Xerxes (Edwin Long, 19th century) Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, particularly the Battle of Thermopylae, has led to Xerxes' portrayal in works of popular culture. He was played by David Farrar in the fictional film The 300 Spartans (1962), where he is portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept commander. He also features prominently in the graphic novels 300 and Xerxes: The Fall of the House of Darius and the Rise of Alexander by Frank Miller, as well as the film adaptation 300 (2007) and its sequel 300: Rise of an Empire (2014), as portrayed by Brazilian actor Rodrigo Santoro, in which he is represented as a giant man with androgynous qualities, who claims to be a god-king. This portrayal attracted controversy, especially in Iran.[72] Ken Davitian plays Xerxes in Meet the Spartans, a parody of the first 300 movie replete with sophomoric humour and deliberate anachronisms. Other works dealing with the Persian Empire or the Biblical story of Esther have also featured or alluded to Xerxes, such as the video game Assassin's Creed II and the film One Night with the King (2006), in which Ahasuerus (Xerxes) was portrayed by British actor Luke Goss. He is the leader of the Persian Empire in the video game Civilization II and III (along with Scheherazade), although Civilization IV replaces him with Cyrus the Great and Darius I.[citation needed] In the Age of Empires, Xerxes featured as a short swordsman. Xerxes (Ahasuerus) by Ernest Normand, 1888 (detail) Gore Vidal, in his historical fiction novel Creation (1981), describes at length the rise of the Achemenids, especially Darius I, and presents the life and death circumstances of Xerxes. Vidal's version of the Persian Wars, which diverges from the orthodoxy of the Greek histories, is told through the invented character of Cyrus Spitama, a half-Greek, half-Persian, and grandson of the prophet Zoroaster. Thanks to his family connection, Cyrus is brought up in the Persian court after the murder of Zoroaster, becoming the boyhood friend of Xerxes, and later a diplomat who is sent to India, and later to Greece, and who is thereby able to gain privileged access to many leading historical figures of the period.[73] Xerxes (Ahasuerus) is portrayed by Richard Egan in the 1960 film Esther and the King and by Joel Smallbone in the 2013 film, The Book of Esther. In at least one of these films, the events of the Book of Esther are depicted as taking place upon Xerxes' return from Greece.[citation needed] Xerxes plays an important background role (never making an appearance) in two short works of alternate history taking place generations after his complete victory over Greece. These are: "Counting Potsherds" by Harry Turtledove in his anthology Departures and "The Craft of War" by Lois Tilton in Alternate Generals volume 1 (edited by Turtledove).[citation needed] See also List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources References ^ According to plate 2 in Stoneman 2015; though it may also be Darius I. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath (1999), Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Mainz am Rhein: von Zabern. ISBN 3-8053-2310-7, pp. 220–221 ^ Lazenby, J.F. (1993). The Defence of Greece, 490–479 B.C. Aris & Phillips. ISBN 978-0856685910. Retrieved 7 September 2016. ^ a b Brian Todd Carey, Joshua Allfree, John Cairns. Warfare in the Ancient World Pen and Sword, 19 Jan. 2006 ISBN 1848846304 ^ Roman Ghirshman, Iran (1954), Penguin Books, p. 191. ^ Stoneman 2015, p. 9. ^ McCullough, W. S. (28 July 2011) [15 December 1984]. "AHASUREUS – Encyclopaedia Iranica". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 3 April 2020. There may be some factual nucleus behind the Esther narrative, but the book in its present form displays such inaccuracies and inconsistencies that it must be described as a piece of historical fiction. ^ Meyers, Carol (2007). Barton, John; Muddiman, John (eds.). The Oxford Bible Commentary. Oxford University Press. p. 325. ISBN 9780199277186. Like the Joseph story in Genesis and the book of Daniel, it is a fictional piece of prose writing involving the interaction between foreigners and Hebrews/Jews. ^ Hirsch, Emil G.; Dyneley Prince, John; Schechter, Solomon (1906). Singer, Isidor; Adler, Cyrus (eds.). "ESTHER". JewishEncyclopedia.com. Retrieved 25 April 2020. The vast majority of modern expositors have reached the conclusion that the book is a piece of pure fiction, although some writers qualify their criticism by an attempt to treat it as a historical romance. ^ a b Marciak 2017, p. 80; Schmitt 2000 ^ Schmitt 2000. ^ a b Stoneman 2015, p. 2. ^ Briant 2002, p. 57. ^ Radner 2013, p. 454. ^ Briant 2002, pp. 158, 516. ^ Stoneman 2015, pp. viii–ix. ^ Llewellyn-Jones 2017, p. 70. ^ Waters 1996, pp. 11, 18. ^ Briant 2002, p. 132. ^ Briant 2002, p. 520. ^ Stoneman 2015, p. 1. ^ "vase (inv.65.4695) - inv.65.4695 , BnF". medaillesetantiques.bnf.fr (in French). ^ a b c Stoneman 2015, p. 27. ^ a b c Stoneman 2015, p. 28. ^ a b c Stoneman 2015, p. 29. ^ a b Dandamayev 1989, p. 183. ^ Dandamayev 1989, pp. 178–179. ^ Herodotus 7.1–5 ^ R. Shabani Chapter I, p. 15 ^ Olmstead: The history of Persian empire ^ The Cambridge History of Iran vol. 2. p. 509. ^ Dandamayev 1989, p. 180. ^ Schmitt, R., "Atossa" in Encyclopaedia Iranica. ^ The Cambridge Ancient History vol. V p. 72. ^ a b c d Briant 2002, p. 525. ^ Dandamayev 1983, p. 414. ^ a b c d e Dandamayev 1993, p. 41. ^ Stoneman 2015, p. 111. ^ Dandamayev 1989, pp. 185–186. ^ Sancisi-Weerdenburg 2002, p. 579. ^ Deloucas 2016, p. 39. ^ Waerzeggers & Seire 2018, p. 3. ^ Briant 2002, p. 544. ^ Deloucas 2016, p. 40. ^ Deloucas 2016, p. 41. ^ Soldiers with names, after Walser ^ The Achaemenid Empire in South Asia and Recent Excavations in Akra in Northwest Pakistan Peter Magee, Cameron Petrie, Robert Knox, Farid Khan, Ken Thomas p. 713 ^ Naqš-e-Rostam – Encyclopaedia Iranica. ^ Farrokh, Kaveh (2007). Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War. Oxford, UK: Osprey. ISBN 1846031087, p. 77 ^ Bailkey, Nels, ed. Readings in Ancient History, p. 175. D.C. Heath and Co., 1992. ^ G. Mafodda, La monarchia di Gelone tra pragmatismo, ideologia e propaganda, (Messina, 1996) pp. 119–136 ^ Barkworth, 1993. "The Organization of Xerxes' Army." Iranica Antiqua Vol. 27, pp. 149–167 ^ Martin Steskal, Der Zerstörungsbefund 480/79 der Athener Akropolis. Eine Fallstudie zum etablierten Chronologiegerüst, Verlag Dr. Kovač, Hamburg, 2004 ^ Herodotus VIII, 97 ^ "Bêl-šimânni and Šamaš-eriba – Livius". livius.org. Retrieved 7 September 2016. ^ Ghirshman, Iran, p. 172 ^ Fergusson, James. A History of Architecture in All Countries, from the Earliest Times to the Present Day: 1. Ancient architecture. 2. Christian architecture. xxxi, 634 p. front., illus. p. 211. ^ Herodotus VII.11 ^ Iran-e-Bastan/Pirnia book 1 p. 873 ^ Dandamayev ^ History of Persian Empire, Olmstead pp. 289/90 ^ a b c Malandra 2005. ^ Boyce 1984, pp. 684–687. ^ Briant 2002, p. 549. ^ Ctesias ^ M. Brosius, Women in ancient Persia. ^ "Johann Adolph Hasse | German composer". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 27 April 2020. ^ "Metastasio's Musicians : Music In The Seventeenth And Eighteenth Centuries". www.oxfordwesternmusic.com. Retrieved 27 April 2020. ^ "Christer Malmbergs värld - Musik - Klassisk musik - Johann Christian Bach". christermalmberg.se. Retrieved 27 April 2020. ^ "Xerxes, of De hoogmoed". www.bibliotheek.nl. Retrieved 27 April 2020. ^ Classe, O.; AC02468681, Anonymus (2000). Encyclopedia of Literary Translation Into English: A-L. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-884964-36-7. ^ Boucher, Geoff "Frank Miller returns to the '300' battlefield with 'Xerxes': 'I make no apologies whatsoever'", The Los Angeles Times, 1 June 2010, accessed 2010-05-14. ^ Gore Vidal, Creation: A Novel (Random House, 1981) Bibliography Ancient sources The Sixth Book, Entitled Erato in History of Herodotus. The Seventh Book, Entitled Polymnia in History of Herodotus. Modern sources Barkworth, Peter R. (1993). "The Organization of Xerxes' Army". Iranica Antiqua. 27: 149–167. doi:10.2143/ia.27.0.2002126. Boardman, John (1988). The Cambridge Ancient History. V. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-22804-2. Boyce, Mary. "Achaemenid Religion". Encyclopaedia Iranica. vol. 1. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Boyce, Mary (1979). Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. Psychology Press. pp. 1–252. ISBN 9780415239028. Boyce, Mary (1984). "Ahura Mazdā". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 7. pp. 684–687. Bridges, Emma (2014). Imagining Xerxes: Ancient Perspectives on a Persian King. Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1472511379 Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. pp. 1–1196. ISBN 9781575061207. Brosius, Maria (2000). "Women i. In Pre-Islamic Persia". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. London et al. Dandamayev, M.A. (1999). "Artabanus". Encyclopædia Iranica. Routledge & Kegan Pau. Retrieved 25 February 2009. Dandamayev, Muhammad A. (2000). "Achaemenid taxation". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Dandamayev, Muhammad A. (1989). A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire. BRILL. ISBN 978-9004091726. Dandamayev, Muhammad A. (1993). "Xerxes and the Esagila Temple in Babylon". Bulletin of the Asia Institute. 7: 41–45. JSTOR 24048423. Dandamayev, Muhammad A. (1990). "Cambyses II". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IV, Fasc. 7. pp. 726–729. Dandamayev, Muhammad A. (1983). "Achaemenes". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 4. p. 414.* Frye, Richard N. (1963). The Heritage of Persia. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. p. 301. ISBN 0-297-16727-8. Deloucas, Andrew Alberto Nicolas (2016). "Balancing Power and Space: a Spatial Analysis of the Akītu Festival in Babylon after 626 BCE" (PDF). Research Master's Thesis for Classical and Ancient Civilizations (Assyriology). Universiteit Leiden. Gershevitch, Ilya; Bayne Fisher, William; A. Boyle, J. (1985). The Cambridge history of Iran. 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-20091-1. Llewellyn-Jones, Lloyd (2017). "The Achaemenid Empire". In Daryaee, Touraj (ed.). King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE - 651 CE). UCI Jordan Center for Persian Studies. pp. 1–236. ISBN 9780692864401. Malandra, William W. (2005). "Zoroastrianism i. Historical review up to the Arab conquest". Encyclopaedia Iranica.* Macaulay, G.C. (2004). The Histories. Spark Educational Publishing. ISBN 1-59308-102-2. Marciak, Michał (2017). Sophene, Gordyene, and Adiabene: Three Regna Minora of Northern Mesopotamia Between East and West. BRILL. ISBN 9789004350724. McCullough, W.S. "Ahasuerus". Encyclopaedia Iranica. vol. 1. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Schmeja, H. (1975). "Dareios, Xerxes, Artaxerxes. Drei persische Königsnamen in griechischer Deutung (Zu Herodot 6,98,3)". Die Sprache. 21: 184–188. Radner, Karen (2013). "Assyria and the Medes". In Potts, Daniel T. (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199733309. Sancisi-Weerdenburg, Heleen (2002). "The Personality of Xerxes, King of Kings". Brill's Companion to Herodotus. BRILL. pp. 579–590. doi:10.1163/9789004217584_026. ISBN 9789004217584. Schmitt, Rüdiger. "Achaemenid dynasty". Encyclopaedia Iranica. vol. 3. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Schmitt, Rüdiger. "Atossa". Encyclopaedia Iranica. vol. 3. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Schmitt, Rüdiger (2000). "Xerxes i. The Name". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Shabani, Reza (2007). Khshayarsha (Xerxes). What do I know about Iran? No. 75 (in Persian). Cultural Research Bureau. p. 120. ISBN 978-964-379-109-4. Shahbazi, A. Sh. "Darius I the Great". Encyclopaedia Iranica. vol. 7. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Stoneman, Richard (2015). Xerxes: A Persian Life. Yale University Press. pp. 1–288. ISBN 9781575061207. Olmstead, A.T. (1979) [1948]. History of the Persian Empire. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226497648. Waerzeggers, Caroline; Seire, Maarja (2018). Xerxes and Babylonia: The Cuneiform Evidence (PDF). Peeters Publishers. ISBN 978-90-429-3670-6. Waters, Matt (1996). "Darius and the Achaemenid Line". London: 11–18. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Xerxes I. "Xerxes" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. Xerxes I Achaemenid dynasty Born: 519 BC Died: 465 BC Preceded by Darius I King of Kings of Persia 486 BC – 465 BC Succeeded by Artaxerxes I Pharaoh of Egypt 486 BC – 465 BC v t e Median and Achaemenid kings Family tree Median (728–550 BC) Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Achaemenid (550–330 BC) Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Nothus Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Italics indicate kings not directly attested and so possibly legendary. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC v t e Persepolis Palace Tachara Gate of All Nations Other sections Tomb of Artaxerxes III builders Darius the Great Xerxes I Artaxerxes I of Persia Researchers Heidemarie Koch Erich Schmidt (archaeologist) Alireza Shapour Shahbazi Related Tangeh Bolaghi 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire Sivand Dam Persepolis Administrative Archives Waterskin Achaemenid architecture Category:Persepolis Authority control BNE: XX1153338 BNF: cb150689088 (data) CANTIC: a12318310 GND: 118808109 ISNI: 0000 0000 6300 8852 LCCN: n81070675 LNB: 000054067 NKC: mzk2005313022 NLA: 66228176 NLI: 000437459 NTA: 073636711 SELIBR: 259706 SUDOC: 050588400 Trove: 1808084 ULAN: 500354810 VcBA: 495/27255 VIAF: 282770127 WorldCat Identities: viaf-19983268 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&oldid=993083281" Categories: Xerxes I 510s BC births 465 BC deaths 5th-century BC Kings of the Achaemenid Empire 5th-century BC Pharaohs 5th-century BC Babylonian kings Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Pharaohs of the Achaemenid dynasty of Egypt Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt 5th-century BC murdered monarchs Monarchs of the Hebrew Bible Battle of Thermopylae Battle of Salamis Murdered Persian monarchs Ahasuerus Persian people of the Greco-Persian Wars 5th-century BC Iranian people 5th-century BC rulers Family of Darius the Great Hidden categories: CS1 French-language sources (fr) Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced 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en-wikipedia-org-1230	----	Teispes - Wikipedia Teispes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Great King, King of Anshan[1] Teispes Great King, King of Anshan[1] Position of Teispes in the Achaemenid lineage according to Darius the Great in the Behistun inscription. King of Persia Reign 675–640 BC Predecessor Achaemenes Successor Cyrus I Born ? Died 640 BC Issue Ariaramnes Cyrus I House Achaemenid Father Achaemenes Teïspes (from Greek Τεΐσπης; in Old Persian: 𐎨𐎡𐏁𐎱𐎡𐏁[2] Cišpiš; Akkadian: 𒅆𒅖𒉿𒅖 Šîšpîš)[3] ruled Anshan in 675–640 BC. He was the son of Achaemenes of Persis and an ancestor of Cyrus the Great.[4] There is evidence that Cyrus I and Ariaramnes were both his sons.[4] Cyrus I is the grandfather of Cyrus the Great, whereas Ariaramnes is the great-grandfather of Darius the Great. According to 7th-century BC documents, Teispes captured the Elamite city of Anshan, speculated to have occurred after the Persians were freed from Median supremacy, and expanded his small kingdom. His kingdom was, however, a vassal state of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC). He was succeeded by his second son, Cyrus I.[4] The etymology of the name[edit] Schmitt suggests that the name is probably Iranian, but its etymology is unknown. Its connection with either the name of the Mitannian and Urartu storm god Tešup-Theispas, or with the (Elamite) byname 𒍝𒆜𒉿𒆜𒅆𒅀 Zaišpîšiya is likely.[4] References[edit] ^ Cyrus Cylinder ^ Akbarzadeh (2006), page 56 ^ Kent (1384 AP), page 394 ^ a b c d Schmitt, 1992 Bibliography[edit] Akbarzadeh, D.; Yahyanezhad, A. (2006). The Behistun Inscriptions (Old Persian Texts) (in Persian). Khaneye-Farhikhtagan-e Honarhaye Sonati. ISBN 964-8499-05-5. Kent, Ronald Grubb (1384 AP). Old Persian: Grammar, Text, Glossary (in Persian). translated into Persian by S. Oryan. ISBN 964-421-045-X. Check date values in: |year= (help) Schmitt, Rüdiger (1992). "ČIŠPIŠ". Encyclopaedia Iranica. 5. Teispes Achaemenid dynasty Born: ? Died: 640 BC Preceded by Achaemenes King of Anshan Succeeded by Cyrus I v t e Median and Achaemenid kings Family tree Median (728–550 BC) Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Achaemenid (550–330 BC) Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Nothus Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Italics indicate kings not directly attested and so possibly legendary. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC This royalty-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Teispes&oldid=1002216050" Categories: 640 BC deaths 7th-century BC Kings of Anshan (Persia) Achaemenid dynasty Royalty stubs Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text CS1 Persian-language sources (fa) CS1 errors: dates Year of birth unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages تۆرکجه Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego Հայերեն Hrvatski Italiano עברית Kurdî Magyar Malagasy مصرى Bahasa Melayu 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 January 2021, at 11:04 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1256	----	Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Nebefawre) Jump to navigation Jump to search Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt ca. 1725 BC–ca. 1650 BC In orange, the territory possibly under control of the 14th dynasty according to Ryholt.[1] Capital Avaris Common languages Egyptian language Religion ancient Egyptian religion Government Absolute monarchy Historical era Bronze Age • Established ca. 1725 BC • Disestablished ca. 1650 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt was a series of rulers reigning during the Second Intermediate Period over the Nile Delta region of Egypt. It lasted between 75 (c. 1725–1650 BC) and 155 years (c. 1805–1650 BC), depending on the scholar. The capital of the dynasty was probably Avaris.[1] The 14th Dynasty existed concurrently with the 13th Dynasty based in Memphis. The rulers of the 14th Dynasty are commonly identified by Egyptologists as being of Canaanite (Semitic) descent, owing to the distinct origins of the names of some of their kings and princes, like Ipqu (West Semitic for "grace"), Yakbim ("ia-ak-bi-im", an Amorite name), Qareh (West Semitic for "the bald one"), or Yaqub-Har.[1] Names in relation with Nubia are also recorded in two cases, king Nehesy ("The Nubian") and queen Tati. Contents 1 Chronology 2 Seat of power 3 Extent of rule and foreign relations 4 Rulers 5 References 6 Bibliography Chronology[edit] The 14th Dynasty is sometimes combined with the 11th, 12th and 13th Dynasties in the period Middle Kingdom of Egypt, though the 14th Dynasty overlaps at least partially with either (or both of) the 13th Dynasty and the 15th Dynasty. More commonly, the 14th Dynasty is grouped with the 13th, 15th, 16th and 17th in the Second Intermediate Period. Such are the gaps in the knowledge of the 14th Dynasty, that its absolute chronological position is debated and varies by as much as 75 years among authorities. Egyptologist Kim Ryholt proposes that the 14th Dynasty emerged during the late 12th Dynasty, c. 1805 BC, during or shortly after Sobekneferu's rule. He contends that the local Canaanite population residing in the eastern Delta declared its independence and staved off possible attempts from the 13th Dynasty Memphite kings to recover the Delta. According to Ryholt, the 14th Dynasty thus lasted from 1805 BC until its demise under the Hyksos 15th Dynasty, c. 1650 BC, i.e. lasting 155 years. This hypothesis is not shared by some Egyptologists such as Manfred Bietak, Daphna Ben Tor and James and Susan Allen, who argue that the 14th Dynasty cannot have emerged before the mid 13th Dynasty, c. 1720 BC, after the reign of Sobekhotep IV.[2][3] In particular, they argue that the evidence from the strata levels in which 14th Dynasty seals were discovered conclusively establishes that the 14th Dynasty was only contemporary with the 13th Dynasty in the last half century of the latter's existence, i.e. after c. 1700 BC. Additionally, Manfred Bietak has dated the inscriptions and monuments of Nehesy, possibly the second ruler of the dynasty, to around 1700 BC as well.[4] Following the very short reign of Nehesy, most scholars–among them, Manfred Bietak and Kim Ryholt–agree that the Delta region was struck by a prolonged famine and perhaps a plague lasting until the end of the 14th Dynasty.[1][5] The same famine may have affected the 13th Dynasty, which also exhibits instability and numerous ephemeral kings in its last 50 years of existence, from c. 1700 BC until 1650 BC. The weakened state of both kingdoms may explain, in part, why they fell rapidly to the emerging Hyksos power c. 1650 BC.[1] Seat of power[edit] The Manethonian tradition credits the Fourteenth Dynasty with as many as 76 kings ruling from Xois rather than Avaris. However, Egyptologist Kim Ryholt notes that the Turin Canon mentions only c. 56 kings and does not have enough space to have recorded over 70 kings. Ryholt also points to excavations at Avaris which revealed the existence of a large royal palace dating to the second intermediate period. One of its courtyards housed a statue of a king or high-ranking official, over twice life-sized, and wearing non-Egyptian attributes. For these reasons, Ryholt and most Egyptologists share the view that Avaris rather than Xois was the seat of power of the 14th Dynasty.[1] Extent of rule and foreign relations[edit] The precise borders of the 14th Dynasty state are not known due to the general scarcity of monuments left by this dynasty. In his study of the second intermediate period however, the Egyptologist Kim Ryholt concludes that the territory directly controlled by the 14th Dynasty roughly consisted of the Nile delta, with its border located around Athribis in the western Delta and Bubastis in the east.[1] Seals attributable to the 14th Dynasty have been found in Middle and Upper-Egypt, then 13th Dynasty territory, and as far south as Dongola, beyond the third cataract. To the north, seals have been found in the southern Levant, principally along the Mediterranean coast and as far north as Tell Kabri, in modern-day Israel.[1] This indicates the existence of an important trade with the 13th Dynasty, Canaanite city-states, and Nubia.[1] Ryholt further proposes that king Sheshi, whom he sees as a 14th dynasty ruler, married a Nubian princess, queen Tati, to strengthen relations with the Kushite kingdom.[1] Rulers[edit] The order of rulers for this dynasty is established by the Turin Royal Canon and is widely accepted, except for the first five rulers, which are given below after Ryholt.[1] The names of these rulers is not given on the Turin Canon, except possibly for one, and Ryholt proposes that they were mentioned as wsf in the list, which denotes a lacuna in the original document from which the list was copied in the Ramesside period.[1] Rather, Ryholt identifies the first five kings thanks to a seriation of their seals. His conclusions are debated however in Ben Tor's study of the strata levels in which seals attributed to the first five kings have been found. Ben Tor concludes that Sheshi's, 'Ammu's and Yakbim's reigns date to the second half of the Hyksos 15th dynasty and are not contemporary with the 13th dynasty. Thus according to Ben Tor, these kings were most likely minor vassal rulers of the Hyksos kings reigning in the Nile Delta.[2] Dynasty XIV pharaohs of Egypt (contested) Name of King Image Dates Comments Yakbim Sekhaenre 1805 BC – 1780 BC or after 1650 BC Chronological position is contested, maybe a vassal of the 15th dynasty Ya'ammu Nubwoserre 1780 BC – 1770 BC Chronological position is contested Qareh Khawoserre 1770 BC – 1760 BC Chronological position is contested 'Ammu Ahotepre 1760 – 1745 BC or after 1650 BC Chronological position is contested, maybe a vassal of the 15th dynasty Sheshi Maaibre 1745 BC – 1705 BC or after 1650 BC Attested by over 300 scarab-seals, possibly married to queen Tati who was a Kushite. Chronological position is contested, maybe a vassal of the 15th dynasty The following rulers are not controversial, being established by the Turin canon as well as, for a few of them, by contemporary sources: Dynasty XIV pharaohs of Egypt Name of King Image Dates Comments Nehesy Aasehre 1705 BC Best attested king of the dynasty, he left his name on two monuments at Avaris. His name means "The Nubian".[6] Khakherewre 1705 BC - Nebefawre 1704 BC Turin canon: reigned 1 year, 5 months, 15 days Sehebre Turin canon: reigned 3 years [lost] months, 1 day Merdjefare ending 1699 BC Attested by a single stela from Saft el-Hinna, in the Delta[7] Sewadjkare III Turin canon: reigned 1 year Nebdjefare ending 1694 BC - Webenre - Unknown Lost in the Turin kinglist [...]djefare - [...]webenre ending 1690 BC - Awibre II - Heribre - Nebsenre Attested by a jar bearing his prenomen. At least 5 months of reign. Unknown wsf in the Turin kinglist, indicating a lacuna in the document from which the list was copied [...]re Sekheperenre With Nehesy, Nebsenre and Merdjefare, only undisputed king known from contemporary sources Djedkherewre - Sankhibre II - Nefertum[...]re - Sekhem[...]re - Kakemure - Neferibre - I[...]re - Khakare - Akare - Hapu[...] Semenenre - Anati Djedkare - Babnum [...]kare - Unknown Eight lines lost in the Turin kinglist Senefer...re - Men[...]re - Djed[...]re - Unknown Three lines lost in the Turin kinglist Ink [...] - 'A[...] - Apophis I (?) - Unknown Five lines lost in the Turin kinglist Finally, several rulers attested by contemporary artefacts and otherwise unknown from the Turin Canon may be dated to the 14th[1] or 15th Dynasty.[8] Their identities and chronological position remain unclear: Possible dynasty XIV pharaohs of Egypt (unclear) Name of King Image Attestations Nuya 1 scarab-seal Sheneh 3 scarab-seals Shenshek 1 scarab-seal Wazad 5 scarab-seals Khamure 2 scarab-seals Yakareb 2 scarab-seals Merwoserre Yaqub-Har 27 scarab-seals References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Kim Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, Museum Tusculanum Press, (1997) ^ a b Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research (BASOR) 315, 1999, pp.47-73. ^ Janine Bourriau, "The Second Intermediate Period (c.1650-1550 BC)" in Ian Shaw (ed.) The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press, 2000. pp.192 & 194 ^ Bourriau, "The Second Intermediate Period," pp.178-179, 181 ^ Manfred Bietak, "Egypt and Canaan During the Middle Bronze Age," BASOR, 281 (1991), pp. 21-72, esp. p. 38, available online ^ Darrell D. Baker, The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 277 ^ Kenneth Kitchen: Ramesside Inscriptions, Blackwell Publishing 1993, ISBN 0631184279, p.546 ^ Daphna Ben-Tor: Scarabs, Chronology, and Interconnections: Egypt and Palestine in the Second Intermediate Period, Volume 27 of Orbis biblicus et orientalis / Series archaeologica: Series archaeologica, Academic Press Fribourg 2007, ISBN 978-3-7278-1593-5, excerpts available online Bibliography[edit] K.S.B. Ryholt (1998). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C1800-1550 BC. Museum Tusculanum Press. ISBN 8772894210. K.A. Kitchen (1993). Ramesside Inscriptions. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0631184279. Preceded by Thirteenth Dynasty Dynasty of Egypt 1725−1650 BC Succeeded by Fifteenth Dynasty Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fourteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=1001958867" Categories: Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt States and territories established in the 19th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 17th century BC Hyksos Dynasties of ancient Egypt 17th century BC in Egypt 16th century BC in Egypt 2nd-millennium BC establishments in Egypt 2nd-millennium BC disestablishments in Egypt 2nd millennium BC in Egypt Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ქართული Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska தமிழ் Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 January 2021, at 04:12 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1267	----	Senusret III - Wikipedia Senusret III From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Senusret III Sesostris III, Senwosret III Statues of Senusret III in the British Museum Pharaoh Reign 1878 – 1839 BC (Twelfth Dynasty) Predecessor Senusret II Successor Amenemhat III Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Khakaure Ḫˁj-k3w-Rˁ The Kas of Ra have appeared Nomen Senusret S(j)-n-Wsrt Man of Wosret Horus name Netjerkheperu Nṯrj-ḫprw Horus, divine of form Nebty name Netjermesut Nṯrj-mswt The two ladies, divine of birth Golden Horus Kheper Bjk-nbw-ḫpr The golden Horus has been created Consort Neferthenut, Khnemetneferhedjet II, Itakayt, perhaps Meretseger Children Amenemhat III, Khnemet, Menet, Mereret, Senetsenbetes, Sithathor (?) Father Senusret II Mother Khnemetneferhedjet I Died 1839 BC Burial 29°49′9″N 31°13′32″E / 29.81917°N 31.22556°E / 29.81917; 31.22556 Monuments Buhen and Toshka Khakaure Senusret III (also written as Senwosret III or the hellenised form, Sesostris III) was a pharaoh of Egypt. He ruled from 1878 BC to 1839 BC during a time of great power and prosperity,[1] and was the fifth king of the Twelfth Dynasty of the Middle Kingdom. He was a great pharaoh of the Twelfth Dynasty and is considered to be, perhaps, the most powerful Egyptian ruler of the dynasty. Consequently, he is regarded as one of the sources for the legend about Sesostris. His military campaigns gave rise to an era of peace and economic prosperity that reduced the power of regional rulers and led to a revival in craftwork, trade, and urban development.[2] Senusret III was among the few Egyptian kings who were deified and honored with a cult during their own lifetime.[3] Contents 1 Family 2 Initiatives 3 Length of reign 4 Pyramid and complex 5 Royal statuary 6 Gallery 7 Trivia 8 See also 9 References 10 Bibliography 11 External links Family[edit] See also: Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Senusret III was the son of Senusret II and Khenemetneferhedjet I, also called Khenemetneferhedjet I Weret (the elder). Three wives of Senusret III are known for certain. These are Itakayt, Khenemetneferhedjet II and Neferthenut, all three mainly known from their burials next to the pyramid of the king at Dahshur. Several daughters are known, although they also are attested only by the burials around the king's pyramid and their exact relation to the king is disputable. These include Sithathor, Menet, Senetsenebtysy, and Meret. Amenemhat III was most likely a son of the king. Other sons are not known.[4] Initiatives[edit] Granite statue of Senwosret III - he is shown wearing the nemes headcloth with a cobra image of Wadjet at the front, the pleated shendyt kilt, and the bull's tail, visible between his legs; beneath his feet are nine bows, symbolizing Egypt's traditional enemies under his power; unlike his predecessors, who were shown with idealized facial features, Senwosret has heavily lidded eyes, lined and haggard cheeks, and pursed lips; the reason for this stylistic change is not known, but imitations of his features by later kings and private individuals suggest that Senwosret's features were intended to convey his virtuous qualities. Brooklyn Museum Senusret III cleared a navigable canal through the first cataract of the Nile River,[5] (this was different from the Canal of the Pharaohs, which apparently, Senusret III also tried to build). He also relentlessly pushed his kingdom's expansion into Nubia (from 1866 to 1863 BC) where he erected massive river forts including Buhen, Semna, Shalfak and Toshka at Uronarti. He carried out at least four major campaigns into Nubia in his Years 8, 10, 16, and 19.[6] His Year 8 stela at Semna documents his victories against the Nubians, through which he is thought to have made safe the southern frontier, preventing further incursions into Egypt.[7] Another great stela from Semna dated to the third month of Year 16 of his reign mentions his military activities against both Nubia and Canaan. In it, he admonished his future successors to maintain the new border that he had created: Year 16, third month of winter: the king made his southern boundary at Heh. I have made my boundary further south than my fathers. I have added to what was bequeathed me. (...) As for any son (i.e., successor) of mine who shall maintain this border which my Majesty has made, he is my son born to my Majesty. The true son is he who champions his father, who guards the border of his begetter. But he [who] abandons it, who fails to fight for it, he is not my son, he was not born to me. Now my majesty has had an image made of my majesty, at this border which my majesty has made, in order that you maintain it, in order that you fight for it.[8] The Sebek-khu Stele, dated to the reign of Senusret III (reign: 1878 – 1839 BC), records the earliest known Egyptian military campaign in the Levant. The text reads "His Majesty proceeded northward to overthrow the Asiatics. His Majesty reached a foreign country of which the name was Sekmem (...) Then Sekmem fell, together with the wretched Retenu", where Sekmem (s-k-m-m) is thought to be Shechem and "Retenu" or "Retjenu" are associated with ancient Syria.[9] His final campaign, which was in his Year 19, was less successful because the king's forces were caught with the Nile being lower than normal and they had to retreat and abandon their campaign in order to avoid being trapped in hostile Nubian territory.[10] Such was his forceful nature and immense influence that Senusret III was worshipped as a deity in Semna by later generations.[11] Jacques Morgan, in 1894, found rock inscriptions near Sehel Island documenting his digging of a canal. Senusret III erected a temple and town in Abydos, and another temple in Medamud.[12] His court included the viziers Sobekemhat, Nebit, and Khnumhotep. Ikhernofret worked as treasurer for the king at Abydos. Senankh cleared the canal at Sehel for the king. Length of reign[edit] The Year 16 border stela of Senusret III (Altes Museum), Berlin A double-dated papyrus in the Berlin Museum shows Year 20 of his reign next to Year 1 of his son, Amenemhat III; generally, this is presumed to be a proof for a coregency with his son, which should have been started in this year. According to Josef W. Wegner, a Year 39 hieratic control note was recovered on a white limestone block from: ...a securely defined deposit of construction debris produced from the building of the Senwosret III mortuary temple. The fragment itself is part of the remnants of the temple construction. This deposit provides evidence for the date of construction of the mortuary temple of Senwosret III at Abydos.[13] Wegner stresses that it is unlikely that Amenemhat III, Senusret's son and successor, would still be working on his father's temple nearly four decades into his own reign. He notes that the only possible explanation for the block's existence at the project is that Senusret III had a 39-year reign, with the final 20 years in coregency with his son Amenemhat III. Since the project was associated with a project of Senusret III, his Regnal Year was presumably used to date the block, rather than Year 20 of Amenemhat III. Wegner interprets this as an implication that Senusret was still alive in the first two decades of his son's reign. Wegner's hypothesis is rejected by some scholars, such as Pierre Tallet and Harco Willems; according to them, it is more likely that such a coregency never occurred, and that the Year 39 control note still refers to Amenemhat III, who may have ordered some additions to Senusret's monuments.[14][15] Pyramid and complex[edit] Main article: Pyramid of Senusret III Plan of the Pyramid complex at Dashur Senusret's pyramid complex was built north-east of the Red Pyramid of Dashur.[16] It far surpassed those from the early twelfth dynasty in size, grandeur, and underlying religious conceptions. There has been speculation that Senusret was not necessarily buried there, but rather, in his sophisticated funerary complex in Abydos and his pyramid more likely being a cenotaph.[2] Senusret's pyramid is 105 meters square and 78 meters high. The total volume was approximately 288,000 cubic meters. The pyramid was built of a core of mud bricks. They were not made a consistent size implying that standardized moulds were not used. The burial chamber was lined with granite. Above the vaulted burial chamber was a second relieving chamber that was roofed with five pairs of limestone beams each weighing 30 tons. Above this was a third mudbrick vault. The pyramid complex included a small mortuary temple and seven smaller pyramids for his queens. There is also an underground gallery with further burials for royal women. Here were found the treasures of Sithathor and queen Mereret. There was also a southern temple, however this has since been destroyed.[17] Royal statuary[edit] A statue of Senusret III at the British Museum, showing the traits that are peculiar for this king Senusret III is well known for his distinctive statues, which are almost immediately recognizable as his. On them, the king is depicted at different ages and, in particular, on the aged ones he sports a strikingly somber expression: the eyes are protruding from hollow eye sockets with pouches and lines under them, the mouth and lips have a grimace of bitterness, and the ears are enormous and protruding forward. In sharp contrast with the even-exaggerated realism of the head and, regardless of his age, the rest of the body is idealized as forever young and muscular, in the more classical pharaonic fashion.[18][19] Scholars could only make assumptions about the reasons why Senusret III chose to have himself portrayed in such a unique way, and polarized on two diverging opinions.[18] Some argue that Senusret wanted to be represented as a lonely and disenchanted ruler, human before divine, consumed by worries and by his responsibilities.[20][21][22] At the opposite, other scholars suggested that the statues originally would convey the idea of a dreadful tyrant able to see and hear everything under his strict control.[23] More recently, it has been suggested that the purpose of such peculiar portraiture was not to represent realism, but rather, to reveal the perceived nature of royal power at the time of Senusret's reign.[24] Gallery[edit] Senwosret III's name in hieroglyphs Head of Senusret III with youthful features. 12th Dynasty, c. 1870 BC. State Museum of Egyptian Art, Munich Face of a king, probably Senusret III, wearing the nemes royal headdress, Quartzite, Twelfth Dynasty, From Egypt, Presented by Guy Brunton, The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London British Museum Munich, Staatliche Sammlung für Ägyptische Kunst British Museum Louvre Louvre British Museum Berlin Museum Luxor Museum Louvre Walters Art Museum Sebek-khu Stele, describing the campaign to Canaan British Museum British Museum Senwosret's name on belt from the three statues (far right). Senusret III, MET Museum NYC Trivia[edit] Senusret is a major character in Christian Jacq's historical fiction series The Mysteries of Osiris[25] Many conservative biblical scholars consider Senusret the pharaoh mentioned in Genesis 39-47, who elevated Joseph to a high administrative post, answerable directly to him.[26] See also[edit] List of pharaohs References[edit] ^ Kim S. B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800-1550 B.C., Museum Tusculanum Press, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications 20, 1997. p.185 ^ a b "The Pyramids: Their Archeology and History", Miroslav Verner, Translated by Steven Rendall,p386-387 & p416-421, Atlantic, ISBN 1-84354-171-8 ^ "The Oxford Guide: Essential Guide to Egyptian Mythology", Edited by Donald B. Redford, p. 85, Berkley, 2003, ISBN 0-425-19096-X ^ Pierre Tallet: Sesostris III et la fin de la XIIe dynastie, Paris 2005, ISBN 2-85704-851-3, p. 14-30 ^ J. H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, Part One, Chicago 1906, §§642-648 ^ J. H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, Part One, Chicago 1906, §§640-673 ^ J.H. Breasted, §652 ^ Miriam Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian literature: a Book of Readings, Berkeley CA, University of California Press, 1973. pp.119–120 ^ Pritchard, James B. (2016). Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament with Supplement. Princeton University Press. p. 230. ISBN 978-1-4008-8276-2. ^ Ian Shaw, The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press 2003, p.155 ^ Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames & Hudson Ltd, (1994),p.86 ^ "Senusret (III) Khakhaure". Petrie.ucl.ac.uk. Retrieved 2013-12-03. ^ Josef Wegner, The Nature and Chronology of the Senwosret III–Amenemhat III Regnal Succession: Some Considerations based on new evidence from the Mortuary Temple of Senwosret III at Abydos, JNES 55, Vol.4, (1996), p. 251 ^ Tallet, Pierre (2005). Sésostris III et la fin de la XIIe Dynastie. Paris. pp. 28–29. ^ Willems, Harco (2010). "The First Intermediate Period and the Middle Kingdom". In Lloyd, Alan B. (ed.). A companion to Ancient Egypt, volume 1. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 93. ^ Katheryn A. Bard, Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt, Routledge 1999, p.107 ^ Lehner, Mark The Complete Pyramids, London: Thames and Hudson (1997)p.177-9 ISBN 0-500-05084-8. ^ a b Robins, Gay (1997). The Art of Ancient Egypt. London: British Museum Press. p. 113. ISBN 0714109886. ^ Freed, Rita E. (2010). "Sculpture of the Middle Kingdom". In Lloyd, Alan B. (ed.). A companion to Ancient Egypt, volume 2. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 900–902. ISBN 9781405155984. ^ Bothmer, Bernard (1974). Brief Guide to the Department of Egyptian and Classical Art. Brooklyn, NY: The Brooklyn Museum. p. 39. ^ Morkot, Robert G. (2005). The Egyptians: An Introduction. Routledge. p. 14. ^ Cimmino, Franco (2003). Dizionario delle dinastie faraoniche (in Italian). Milano: Bompiani. p. 158. ISBN 88-452-5531-X. ^ Wilkinson, Toby (2010). The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt. London: Bloomsbury. p. 179. ISBN 9781408810026. ^ Laboury, Dimitri, Senwosret III and the Issue of Portraiture in Ancient Egyptian Art, in Andreu-Lanoë, Guillemette & Morfoisse, Fleur (eds.), Sésostris III et la fin du Moyen Empire. Actes du colloque des 12-13 décembre 2014, Louvre-Lens et Palais des Beaux-Arts de Lille. CRIPEL 31 (2016-2017), pp. 71–84. ^ "The Tree of Life (Mysteries of Osiris, book 1) by Christian Jacq". Fantasticfiction.co.uk. Retrieved 2013-12-03. ^ Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton, A Survey of the Old Testament (3rd edition), Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009, p. 187. Bibliography[edit] W. Grajetzki, The Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt: History,Archaeology and Society, Duckworth, London 2006 ISBN 0-7156-3435-6, 51-58 Josef Wegner, The Nature and Chronology of the Senwosret III–Amenemhat III Regnal Succession: Some Considerations based on new evidence from the Mortuary Temple of Senwosret III at Abydos, JNES 55, Vol.4, (1996), pp. 249–279 Jordanes. "VI chapters". The Gothic History. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Senusret III. Stela of Senusret III from Deir el-Bahri (hieroglyphic text in russian web-site)[dead link] Colchis v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 118764780 VIAF: 141474370 WorldCat Identities: viaf-141474370 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Senusret_III&oldid=995719369" Categories: Senusret III 19th-century BC deaths 19th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: CS1 Italian-language sources (it) Commons category link from Wikidata All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from January 2014 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Български Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 December 2020, at 14:55 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1273	----	Isthmus of Corinth - Wikipedia Isthmus of Corinth From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Isthmus of Corinth Aerial photograph of the isthmus of Corinth Coordinates 37°56′29″N 22°59′16″E / 37.94139°N 22.98778°E / 37.94139; 22.98778Coordinates: 37°56′29″N 22°59′16″E / 37.94139°N 22.98778°E / 37.94139; 22.98778 Offshore water bodies Gulf of Corinth and Saronic Gulf Width 6.3 km Isthmus located between the Peloponnese peninsula and mainland Greece Sailing through the isthmus of Corinth, using the Corinth Canal The Isthmus of Corinth is the narrow land bridge which connects the Peloponnese peninsula with the rest of the mainland of Greece, near the city of Corinth. The word "isthmus" comes from the Ancient Greek word for "neck" and refers to the narrowness of the land.[1] The Isthmus was known in the ancient world as the landmark separating the Peloponnese from mainland Greece. In the first century AD the geographer Strabo[2] noted a stele on the Isthmus of Corinth, which bore two inscriptions. One towards the East, i.e. towards Megara, reading: "Here is not Peloponnesus, but Ionia" (τάδ᾽ οὐχὶ Πελοπόννησος, ἀλλ᾽ Ἰωνία) and the one towards the West, i.e. towards the Peloponnese: "Here is Peloponnesus, not Ionia" (τάδ᾽ ἐστὶ Πελοπόννησος, οὐκ Ἰωνία); Plutarch ascribed the erection of the stele to the Attic hero Theseus, on his way to Athens.[3] To the west of the Isthmus is the Gulf of Corinth, to the east the Saronic Gulf. Since 1893 the Corinth Canal has run through the 6.3 km wide isthmus, effectively making the Peloponnese an island. Today, two road bridges, two railway bridges and two submersible bridges at both ends of the canal connect the mainland side of the isthmus with the Peloponnese side. Also a military emergency bridge is located at the west end of the canal. The submersible bridge at the Aegean side of canal Contents 1 History of the canal 1.1 Preservation efforts 2 Hexamilion wall 3 References History of the canal[edit] Main article: Corinth Canal The idea for a shortcut to save boats sailing all round the Peloponnese was long considered by the Ancient Greeks. The first attempt to build a canal there was carried out by the tyrant Periander in the 7th century BC. He abandoned the project owing to technical difficulties, and instead constructed a simpler and less costly overland stone ramp, named Diolkos, as a portage road. Remnants of Diolkos still exist today next to the modern canal. When the Romans took control of Greece, a number of different solutions were tried. Julius Caesar foresaw the advantages of a link for his newly built Colonia Laus Iulia Corinthiensis. By the reign of Tiberius, engineers tried to dig a canal, but were defeated by lack of modern equipment. Instead they built an Ancient Egyptian device: boats were rolled across the isthmus on logs, as the Egyptians had rolled blocks of granite to make their pyramids. This was in use by AD 32. In AD 67, the philhellene Roman emperor Nero ordered 6,000 slaves to dig a canal with spades. Historian Flavius Josephus writes that the 6,000 slaves were Jewish pirates, taken captive by Vespasian during the Jewish wars.[4] According to Pliny the Elder, the work advanced four stadia (about 0.8 kilometers).[5] The following year Nero died, and his successor Galba abandoned the project as being too expensive. In the modern era, the idea was first seriously proposed in 1830, soon after Greece's independence from the Ottoman Empire, and was brought to completion in 1893 after eleven years' work. Preservation efforts[edit] Near the canal runs an ancient stone trackway, the Diolkos, once used for dragging ships overland. There are major concerns about preservation of this path. Greek campaigners are calling for greater effort by the Greek government to protect this archaeological site.[6] Hexamilion wall[edit] The Hexamilion wall is a Roman defensive wall constructed across the Isthmus of Corinth guarding the only land route into the Peloponnese peninsula from mainland Greece. The Peloponnese seen from space, with the Isthmus of Corinth at upper right Isthmus of Corinth Old map of Corinth Canal area References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Isthmus of Corinth. ^ LSJ entry ισθμός ^ Strabo, Geography. 9.1.6. ^ Plutarch, Parallel Lives , Theseus Plut. Thes. 25 ^ Flavius Josephus, The Wars of the Jews, Book 3 Chapter 10 paragraph 10 ^ Pliny the Elder, The Natural History Plin. Nat. 4.5 ^ BBC report Authority control BNF: cb125132076 (data) GND: 4096929-0 LCCN: sh92003490 VIAF: 315942892 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 315942892 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Isthmus_of_Corinth&oldid=950905153" Categories: Isthmuses of Europe Landforms of Greece Landforms of Corinthia Landforms of Peloponnese (region) Hidden categories: Coordinates on Wikidata Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Արեւմտահայերէն Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Boarisch Català Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara Français Frysk 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Русский Simple English Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 April 2020, at 13:26 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1279	----	Battle of Thermopylae - Wikipedia Battle of Thermopylae From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other battles at Thermopylae, see Battle of Thermopylae (disambiguation). "300 Spartans" redirects here. For the 1962 film, see The 300 Spartans. Persians defeated Greek states in 480 BC Battle of Thermopylae Part of the Greco-Persian Wars 19th-century painting by John Steeple Davis, depicting combat during the battle Date 20 August[1] or 8–10 September[2] 480 BC Location Thermopylae, Greece 38°47′48″N 22°32′12″E / 38.796607°N 22.536714°E / 38.796607; 22.536714Coordinates: 38°47′48″N 22°32′12″E / 38.796607°N 22.536714°E / 38.796607; 22.536714 Result Persian victory[a] Territorial changes Persians gain control of Phocis, Boeotia, and Attica[5] Belligerents Greek city-states  Persian Empire Commanders and leaders King Leonidas of Sparta † Demophilus † King Xerxes I of Persia Mardonius Hydarnes II Artapanus[6] Strength Total 7,000[7][8] 70,000–300,000[9][b][10] Casualties and losses 4,000 (Herodotus)[11] c. 20,000 (Herodotus)[7] Location of the battle of Thermopylae v t e Second Persian invasion of Greece Thermopylae Artemisium Athens Salamis Potidea Olynthus Plataea Mycale The Battle of Thermopylae (/θərˈmɒpɪliː/ thər-MOP-i-lee; Greek: Μάχη τῶν Θερμοπυλῶν, Máchē tōn Thermopylōn) was fought between an alliance of Greek city-states, led by King Leonidas I of Sparta, and the Achaemenid Empire of Xerxes I. It was fought over the course of three days, during the second Persian invasion of Greece. The battle took place simultaneously with the naval battle at Artemisium. It was held at the narrow coastal pass of Thermopylae ("The Hot Gates") in August or September 480 BC. The Persian invasion was a delayed response to the defeat of the first Persian invasion of Greece, which had been ended by the Athenian victory at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. By 480 BC, Xerxes had amassed a massive army and navy and set out to conquer all of Greece. The Athenian politician and general Themistocles had proposed that the allied Greeks block the advance of the Persian army at the pass of Thermopylae, while simultaneously blocking the Persian navy at the Straits of Artemisium. A Greek force of approximately 7,000 men marched north to block the pass in the middle of 480 BC. The Persian army was rumoured to have numbered over one million soldiers. Herodotus, a contemporary writer put the Persian army strength as one million and went to great pains to describe how they were counted in groups of Ten thousand at a review of the troops. Simonides went as far as to put the Persian number at Three million. Today, it is considered to have been much smaller. Scholars report various figures ranging between about 100,000 and 150,000 soldiers. [12][13] The Persian army arrived at the pass in late August or early September. The vastly outnumbered Greeks held off the Persians for seven days (including three of battle) before the rear-guard was annihilated in one of history's most famous last stands. During two full days of battle, the small force led by Leonidas blocked the only road by which the massive Persian army could pass. After the second day, a local resident named Ephialtes betrayed the Greeks by revealing a small path used by shepherds. It led the Persians behind the Greek lines. Leonidas, aware that his force was being outflanked, dismissed the bulk of the Greek army and remained to guard their retreat with 300 Spartans and 700 Thespians. It has been reported that others also remained, including up to 900 helots and 400 Thebans. The remaining soldiers fought to the death. Most of the Thebans reportedly surrendered. Themistocles was in command of the Greek Navy at Artemisium when he received news that the Persians had taken the pass at Thermopylae. Since the Greek strategy required both Thermopylae and Artemisium to be held, given their losses, it was decided to withdraw to Salamis. The Persians overran Boeotia and then captured the evacuated city of Athens. The Greek fleet—seeking a decisive victory over the Persian armada—attacked and defeated the invaders at the Battle of Salamis in late 480 BC. Wary of being trapped in Europe, Xerxes withdrew with much of his army to Asia (losing most to starvation and disease), leaving Mardonius to attempt to complete the conquest of Greece. However, the following year saw a Greek army decisively defeat the Persians at the Battle of Plataea, thereby ending the Persian invasion. Both ancient and modern writers have used the Battle of Thermopylae as an example of the power of a patriotic army defending its native soil. The performance of the defenders is also used as an example of the advantages of training, equipment, and good use of terrain as force multipliers and has become a symbol of courage against overwhelming odds. Contents 1 Sources 2 Background 3 Prelude 4 Opposing forces 4.1 Persian army 4.2 Greek army 5 Strategic and tactical considerations 5.1 Topography of the battlefield 6 Battle 6.1 First day 6.2 Second day 6.3 Third day 7 Aftermath 8 Legacy 8.1 Monuments 8.1.1 Epitaph of Simonides 8.1.2 Leonidas monument 8.1.3 Thespian monument 8.2 Associated legends 8.3 In popular culture 8.4 Commemoration 9 Analogues 10 See also 11 References 12 External links Sources[edit] Main article: Herodotus The primary source for the Greco-Persian Wars is the Greek historian Herodotus. The Sicilian historian Diodorus Siculus, writing in the 1st century BC in his Bibliotheca historica, also provides an account of the Greco-Persian wars, partially derived from the earlier Greek historian Ephorus. This account is fairly consistent with Herodotus' writings.[14] The Greco-Persian Wars, are also described in less detail by a number of other ancient historians including Plutarch, Ctesias of Cnidus, and are referred to by other authors, as in Aeschylus in The Persians. Archaeological evidence, such as the Serpent Column (now in the Hippodrome of Constantinople), also supports some of Herodotus' specific claims.[15] George B. Grundy was the first modern historian to do a thorough topographical survey of the narrow pass at Thermopylae, and to the extent that modern accounts of the battle differ from Herodotus' where they usually follow Grundy's.[16] For example, the military strategist Sir Basil Henry Liddell Hart defers to Grundy.[17] Grundy also explored Plataea and wrote a treatise on that battle.[18] On the Battle of Thermopylae itself, two principal sources, Herodotus' and Simonides' accounts, survive.[19] In fact, Herodotus' account of the battle, in Book VII of his Histories, is such an important source that Paul Cartledge wrote: "we either write a history of Thermopylae with [Herodotus], or not at all".[20] Also surviving is an epitome of the account of Ctesias, by the eighth-century Byzantine Photios, though this is "almost worse than useless",[21] missing key events in the battle such as the betrayal of Ephialtes, and the account of Diodorus Siculus in his Universal History. Diodorus' account seems to have been based on that of Ephorus and contains one significant deviation from Herodotus' account: a supposed night attack against the Persian camp, of which modern scholars have tended to be skeptical.[22][23] Background[edit] Main articles: Greco-Persian Wars and Second Persian invasion of Greece A map of almost all the parts of the Greek world that partook in the Persian Wars The Greek city-states of Athens and Eretria had aided the unsuccessful Ionian Revolt against the Persian Empire of Darius I in 499–494 BC. The Persian Empire was still relatively young and prone to revolts amongst its subject peoples.[24][25] Darius, moreover, was a usurper and had spent considerable time extinguishing revolts against his rule.[24] The Ionian revolt threatened the integrity of his empire, and Darius thus vowed to punish those involved, especially the Athenians, "since he was sure that [the Ionians] would not go unpunished for their rebellion".[26] Darius also saw the opportunity to expand his empire into the fractious world of Ancient Greece.[27] A preliminary expedition under Mardonius in 492 BC, secured the lands approaching Greece, re-conquered Thrace and forced Macedon to become a client kingdom of Persia's.[28] The Spartans throw Persian envoys into a well Darius sent emissaries to all the Greek city-states in 491 BC asking for a gift of "earth and water" as tokens of their submission to him.[29] Having had a demonstration of his power the previous year, the majority of Greek cities duly obliged. In Athens, however, the ambassadors were put on trial and then executed by throwing them in a pit; in Sparta, they were simply thrown down a well.[29][30] This meant that Sparta was also effectively at war with Persia.[29] However, in order to appease the Achaemenid king somewhat, two Spartans were voluntarily sent to Susa for execution, in atonement for the death of the Persian heralds.[31] Darius thus put together an amphibious task force under Datis and Artaphernes in 490 BC, which attacked Naxos, before receiving the submission of the other Cycladic Islands. The task force then moved on Eretria, which it besieged and destroyed.[32] Finally, it moved to attack Athens, landing at the bay of Marathon, where it was met by a heavily outnumbered Athenian army. At the ensuing Battle of Marathon, the Athenians won a remarkable victory, which resulted in the withdrawal of the Persian army to Asia.[33] The site of the battle today. Mount Kallidromon on the left, and the wide coastal plain formed by accretion of fluvial deposits over the centuries; the road to the right approximates the 480 BC shoreline. Darius, therefore, began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece; however, in 486 BC, his Egyptian subjects revolted, indefinitely postponing any Greek expedition.[25] Darius then died whilst preparing to march on Egypt, and the throne of Persia passed to his son Xerxes I.[34] Xerxes crushed the Egyptian revolt and very quickly restarted the preparations for the invasion of Greece.[35] Since this was to be a full-scale invasion, it required long-term planning, stockpiling, and conscription.[35] Xerxes decided that the Hellespont would be bridged to allow his army to cross to Europe, and that a canal should be dug across the isthmus of Mount Athos (rounding which headland, a Persian fleet had been destroyed in 492 BC).[36] These were both feats of exceptional ambition, which would have been beyond any other contemporary state.[36] By early 480 BC, the preparations were complete, and the army which Xerxes had mustered at Sardis marched towards Europe, crossing the Hellespont on two pontoon bridges.[37] According to Herodotus, Xerxes' army was so large that, upon arriving at the banks of the Echeidorus River, his soldiers proceeded to drink it dry. In the face of such imposing numbers, many Greek cities capitulated to the Persian demand for a tribute of earth and water.[38] The Athenians had also been preparing for war with the Persians since the mid-480s BC, and in 482 BC the decision was taken, under the guidance of the Athenian politician Themistocles, to build a massive fleet of triremes that would be essential for the Greeks to fight the Persians.[39] However, the Athenians lacked the manpower to fight on both land and sea; therefore, combating the Persians would require an alliance of Greek city-states. In 481 BC, Xerxes sent ambassadors around Greece requesting "earth and water" but very deliberately omitting Athens and Sparta.[40] Support thus began to coalesce around these two leading states. A congress of city-states met at Corinth in late autumn of 481 BC,[41] and a confederate alliance of Greek city-states was formed. It had the power to send envoys to request assistance and dispatch troops from the member states to defensive points, after joint consultation. This was remarkable for the disjointed and chaotic Greek world, especially since many of the city-states in attendance were still technically at war with each other.[42] The "congress" met again in the spring of 480 BC. A Thessalian delegation suggested that the Greeks could muster in the narrow Vale of Tempe, on the borders of Thessaly, and thereby block Xerxes' advance.[43] A force of 10,000 hoplites was dispatched to the Vale of Tempe, through which they believed the Persian army would have to pass. However, once there, being warned by Alexander I of Macedon that the vale could be bypassed through Sarantoporo Pass and that Xerxes' army was overwhelming, the Greeks retreated.[44] Shortly afterwards, they received the news that Xerxes had crossed the Hellespont.[43] Themistocles, therefore, suggested a second strategy to the Greeks: the route to southern Greece (Boeotia, Attica, and the Peloponnesus) would require Xerxes' army to travel through the very narrow pass of Thermopylae, which could easily be blocked by the Greek hoplites, despite the overwhelming numbers of Persians.[45] Furthermore, to prevent the Persians from bypassing Thermopylae by sea, the Athenian and allied navies could block the straits of Artemisium. Congress adopted this dual-pronged strategy.[45] However, the Peloponnesian cities made fall-back plans to defend the Isthmus of Corinth, should it come to that, whilst the women and children of Athens would evacuate en masse to the Peloponnesian city of Troezen.[46] Prelude[edit] Map showing Greek and Persian advances to Thermopylae and Artemisium The Persian army seems to have made slow progress through Thrace and Macedon. News of the imminent Persian approach eventually reached Greece in August thanks to a Greek spy.[47] At this time of year the Spartans, de facto military leaders of the alliance, were celebrating the festival of Carneia. During the Carneia, military activity was forbidden by Spartan law; the Spartans had arrived too late at the Battle of Marathon because of this requirement.[48] It was also the time of the Olympic Games, and therefore the Olympic truce, and thus it would have been doubly sacrilegious for the whole Spartan army to march to war.[48][49] On this occasion, the ephors decided the urgency was sufficiently great to justify an advance expedition to block the pass, under one of its kings, Leonidas I. Leonidas took with him the 300 men of the royal bodyguard, the Hippeis.[50] This expedition was to try to gather as many other Greek soldiers along the way as possible and to await the arrival of the main Spartan army.[49] The legend of Thermopylae, as told by Herodotus, has it that the Spartans had consulted the Oracle at Delphi earlier in the year. The Oracle is said to have made the following prophecy: O ye men who dwell in the streets of broad Lacedaemon! Either your glorious town shall be sacked by the children of Perseus, Or, in exchange, must all through the whole Laconian country Mourn for the loss of a king, descendant of great Heracles.[51] Herodotus tells us that Leonidas, in line with the prophecy, was convinced he was going to certain death since his forces were not adequate for a victory, and so he selected only Spartans with living sons.[50] The Spartan force was reinforced en route to Thermopylae by contingents from various cities and numbered more than 7,000 by the time it arrived at the pass.[52] Leonidas chose to camp at, and defend, the "middle gate", the narrowest part of the pass of Thermopylae, where the Phocians had built a defensive wall some time before.[53] News also reached Leonidas, from the nearby city of Trachis, that there was a mountain track that could be used to outflank the pass of Thermopylae. Leonidas stationed 1,000 Phocians on the heights to prevent such a manoeuvre.[54] Leonidas and his companions devoting themselves to death. Finally, in mid-August, the Persian army was sighted across the Malian Gulf approaching Thermopylae.[55] With the Persian army's arrival at Thermopylae the Greeks held a council of war.[56] Some Peloponnesians suggested withdrawal to the Isthmus of Corinth and blocking the passage to Peloponnesus.[56] The Phocians and Locrians, whose states were located nearby, became indignant and advised defending Thermopylae and sending for more help. Leonidas calmed the panic and agreed to defend Thermopylae.[56] According to Plutarch, when one of the soldiers complained that, "Because of the arrows of the barbarians it is impossible to see the sun", Leonidas replied, "Won't it be nice, then, if we shall have shade in which to fight them?"[57] Herodotus reports a similar comment, but attributes it to Dienekes.[58] Xerxes sent a Persian emissary to negotiate with Leonidas. The Greeks were offered their freedom, the title "Friends of the Persian People", and the opportunity to re-settle on land better than that they possessed.[59] When Leonidas refused these terms, the ambassador carried a written message by Xerxes, asking him to "Hand over your arms". Leonidas' famous response to the Persians was "Molṑn labé" (Μολὼν λαβέ - literally, "having come, take [them]", but usually translated as "come and take them").[60] With the Persian emissary returning empty-handed, battle became inevitable. Xerxes delayed for four days, waiting for the Greeks to disperse, before sending troops to attack them.[61] Opposing forces[edit] Persian army[edit] For a full discussion of the size of the Persian invasion force, see Second Persian invasion of Greece § Size of the Persian forces. Soldiers of the Achaemenid army of Xerxes I at the time of the Battle of Thermopylae. Tomb of Xerxes I, circa 480 BC, Naqsh-e Rustam .[62][63] Top rank: Persian, Median, Elamite, Parthian, Arian, Bactrian, Sogdian, Chorasmian, Zarangian, Sattagydian, Gandharan, Hindush (Indians), Scythian. Bottom rank: Scythian, Babylonian, Assyrian, Arabian, Egyptian, Armenian, Cappadocian, Lydian, Ionian, Scythian, Thracian, Macedonian, Libyan, Ethiopian. The number of troops which Xerxes mustered for the second invasion of Greece has been the subject of endless dispute, most notably between ancient sources, which report very large numbers, and modern scholars, who surmise much smaller figures. Herodotus claimed that there were, in total, 2.6 million military personnel, accompanied by an equivalent number of support personnel.[64] The poet Simonides, who was a near-contemporary, talks of four million; Ctesias gave 800,000 as the total number of the army that was assembled by Xerxes.[6] Modern scholars tend to reject the figures given by Herodotus and other ancient sources as unrealistic, resulting from miscalculations or exaggerations on the part of the victors.[65] Modern scholarly estimates are generally in the range 120,000–300,000.[66][b] These estimates usually come from studying the logistical capabilities of the Persians in that era, the sustainability of their respective bases of operations, and the overall manpower constraints affecting them. Whatever the real numbers were, however, it is clear that Xerxes was anxious to ensure a successful expedition by mustering an overwhelming numerical superiority by land and by sea.[67] The number of Persian troops present at Thermopylae is therefore as uncertain as the number for the total invasion force. For instance, it is unclear whether the whole Persian army marched as far as Thermopylae, or whether Xerxes left garrisons in Macedon and Thessaly. Greek army[edit] According to Herodotus[52][68] and Diodorus Siculus,[69] the Greek army included the following forces: Group Number – Herodotus Numbers – Diodorus Siculus Lacedaemonians/ Perioeci 900?[70] 700 or 1,000 Spartan hoplites 300[70] 300 Mantineans 500 3,000 (other Peloponnesians sent with Leonidas) Tegeans 500 Arcadian Orchomenos 120 Other Arcadians 1,000 Corinthians 400 Phlians 200 Mycenaeans 80 Total Peloponnesians 3,100[52] or 4,000[71] 4,000 or 4,300 Thespians 700 – Malians – 1,000 Thebans 400 400 Phocians 1,000 1,000 Opuntian Locrians "All they had" 1,000 Grand total 5,200 (or 6,100) plus the Opuntian Locrians 7,400 (or 7,700) Notes: The number of Peloponnesians 5th century hoplite. Diodorus suggests that there were 1,000 Lacedemonians and 3,000 other Peloponnesians, totalling 4,000. Herodotus agrees with this figure in one passage, quoting an inscription by Simonides saying there were 4,000 Peloponnesians.[71] However, elsewhere, in the passage summarized by the above table, Herodotus tallies 3,100 Peloponnesians at Thermopylae before the battle.[52] Herodotus also reports that at Xerxes' public showing of the dead, "helots were also there for them to see",[72] but he does not say how many or in what capacity they served. Thus, the difference between his two figures can be squared by supposing (without proof) that there were 900 helots (three per Spartan) present at the battle.[70] If helots were present at the battle, there is no reason to doubt that they served in their traditional role as armed retainers to individual Spartans. Alternatively, Herodotus' "missing" 900 troops might have been Perioeci, and could therefore correspond to Diodorus' 1,000 Lacedemonians.[70] The number of Lacedemonians Further confusing the issue is Diodorus' ambiguity about whether his count of 1,000 Lacedemonians included the 300 Spartans. At one point he says: "Leonidas, when he received the appointment, announced that only one thousand men should follow him on the campaign".[69] However, he then says: "There were, then, of the Lacedemonians one thousand, and with them three hundred Spartiates".[69] It is therefore impossible to be clearer on this point. Pausanias' account agrees with that of Herodotus (whom he probably read) except that he gives the number of Locrians, which Herodotus declined to estimate. Residing in the direct path of the Persian advance, they gave all the fighting men they had - according to Pausanias 6,000 men - which added to Herodotus' 5,200 would have given a force of 11,200.[73] Many modern historians, who usually consider Herodotus more reliable,[74] add the 1,000 Lacedemonians and the 900 helots to Herodotus' 5,200 to obtain 7,100 or about 7,000 men as a standard number, neglecting Diodorus' Melians and Pausanias' Locrians.[75][76] However, this is only one approach, and many other combinations are plausible. Furthermore, the numbers changed later on in the battle when most of the army retreated and only approximately 3,000 men remained (300 Spartans, 700 Thespians, 400 Thebans, possibly up to 900 helots, and 1,000 Phocians stationed above the pass, less the casualties sustained in the previous days).[74] Strategic and tactical considerations[edit] A flow map of the battle From a strategic point of view, by defending Thermopylae, the Greeks were making the best possible use of their forces.[77] As long as they could prevent a further Persian advance into Greece, they had no need to seek a decisive battle and could, thus, remain on the defensive. Moreover, by defending two constricted passages (Thermopylae and Artemisium), the Greeks' inferior numbers became less of a factor.[77] Conversely, for the Persians the problem of supplying such a large army meant they could not remain in the same place for very long.[78] The Persians, therefore, had to retreat or advance, and advancing required forcing the pass of Thermopylae.[78] Tactically, the pass at Thermopylae was ideally suited to the Greek style of warfare.[77] A hoplite phalanx could block the narrow pass with ease, with no risk of being outflanked by cavalry. Moreover, in the pass, the phalanx would have been very difficult to assault for the more lightly armed Persian infantry.[77] The major weak point for the Greeks was the mountain track which led across the highland parallel to Thermopylae, that could allow their position to be outflanked. Although probably unsuitable for cavalry, this path could easily be traversed by the Persian infantry (many of whom were versed in mountain warfare).[79] Leonidas was made aware of this path by local people from Trachis, and he positioned a detachment of Phocian troops there in order to block this route.[80] Topography of the battlefield[edit] Map of Thermopylae area with reconstructed shoreline of 480 BC. It is often claimed that at the time, the pass of Thermopylae consisted of a track along the shore of the Malian Gulf so narrow that only one chariot could pass through at a time.[53] In fact, as noted below, the pass was 100 metres wide, probably wider than the Greeks could have held against the Persian masses. Herodotus reports that the Phocians had improved the defences of the pass by channelling the stream from the hot springs to create a marsh, and it was a causeway across this marsh which was only wide enough for a single chariot to traverse. In a later passage, describing a Gaulish attempt to force the pass, Pausanias states "The cavalry on both sides proved useless, as the ground at the Pass is not only narrow, but also smooth because of the natural rock, while most of it is slippery owing to its being covered with streams...the losses of the barbarians it was impossible to discover exactly. For the number of them that disappeared beneath the mud was great."[81] It is also said that on the southern side of the track stood cliffs that overlooked the pass. However, a glance at any photograph of the pass shows there are no cliffs, only steep slopes covered in thorny bushes and trees. Although no obstacle to individuals, such terrain would not be passable by an army and its baggage train.[citation needed] On the north side of the roadway was the Malian Gulf, into which the land shelved gently. When at a later date, an army of Gauls led by Brennus attempted to force the pass, the shallowness of the water gave the Greek fleet great difficulty getting close enough to the fighting to bombard the Gauls with ship-borne missile weapons. Along the path itself was a series of three constrictions, or "gates" (pylai), and at the centre gate a wall that had been erected by the Phocians, in the previous century, to aid in their defence against Thessalian invasions.[53] The name "Hot Gates" comes from the hot springs that were located there.[82] The terrain of the battlefield was nothing that Xerxes and his forces were accustomed to. Although coming from a mountainous country, the Persians were not prepared for the real nature of the country they had invaded. The pure ruggedness of this area is caused by torrential downpours for four months of the year, combined with an intense summer season of scorching heat that cracks the ground. Vegetation is scarce and consists of low, thorny shrubs. The hillsides along the pass are covered in thick brush, with some plants reaching 10 feet (3.0 m) high. With the sea on one side and steep, impassable hills on the other, King Leonidas and his men chose the perfect topographical position to battle the Persian invaders.[83] Today, the pass is not near the sea, but is several kilometres inland because of sedimentation in the Malian Gulf. The old track appears at the foot of the hills around the plain, flanked by a modern road. Recent core samples indicate that the pass was only 100 metres (330 ft) wide, and the waters came up to the gates: "Little do the visitors realize that the battle took place across the road from the monument."[84] The pass still is a natural defensive position to modern armies, and British Commonwealth forces in World War II made a defence in 1941 against the Nazi invasion mere metres from the original battlefield.[85] Maps of the region:[86][87] Image of the battlefield, from the east[88] Battle[edit] First day[edit] Contemporary depictions: probable Spartan hoplite (Vix crater, c.500 BC),[89] and Scythian warrior of the Achaemenid army[62][90] (tomb of Xerxes I, c.480 BC), at the time of the Second Persian invasion of Greece (480–479 BC). On the fifth day after the Persian arrival at Thermopylae and the first day of the battle, Xerxes finally resolved to attack the Greeks. First, he ordered 5,000 archers to shoot a barrage of arrows, but they were ineffective; they shot from at least 100 yards away, according to modern day scholars, and the Greeks' wooden shields (sometimes covered with a very thin layer of bronze) and bronze helmets deflected the arrows.[91] After that, Xerxes sent a force of 10,000 Medes and Cissians to take the defenders prisoner and bring them before him.[61][92] The Persians soon launched a frontal assault, in waves of around 10,000 men, on the Greek position.[61] The Greeks fought in front of the Phocian wall, at the narrowest part of the pass, which enabled them to use as few soldiers as possible.[93][94] Details of the tactics are scant; Diodorus says, "the men stood shoulder to shoulder", and the Greeks were "superior in valour and in the great size of their shields."[95] This probably describes the standard Greek phalanx, in which the men formed a wall of overlapping shields and layered spear points protruding out from the sides of the shields, which would have been highly effective as long as it spanned the width of the pass.[96] The weaker shields, and shorter spears and swords of the Persians prevented them from effectively engaging the Greek hoplites.[95][97] Herodotus says that the units for each city were kept together; units were rotated in and out of the battle to prevent fatigue, which implies the Greeks had more men than necessary to block the pass.[98] The Greeks killed so many Medes that Xerxes is said to have stood up three times from the seat from which he was watching the battle.[99] According to Ctesias, the first wave was "cut to ribbons", with only two or three Spartans killed in return.[6] According to Herodotus and Diodorus, the king, having taken the measure of the enemy, threw his best troops into a second assault the same day, the Immortals, an elite corps of 10,000 men.[95][97] However, the Immortals fared no better than the Medes, and failed to make any headway against the Greeks.[97] The Spartans apparently used a tactic of feigning retreat, and then turning and killing the enemy troops when they ran after them.[97] Second day[edit] The flank exposed by Ephialtes On the second day, Xerxes again sent in the infantry to attack the pass, "supposing that their enemies, being so few, were now disabled by wounds and could no longer resist."[99] However, the Persians had no more success on the second day than on the first.[99] Xerxes at last stopped the assault and withdrew to his camp, "totally perplexed".[6] Later that day, however, as the Persian king was pondering what to do next, he received a windfall; a Trachinian named Ephialtes informed him of the mountain path around Thermopylae and offered to guide the Persian army.[100] Ephialtes was motivated by the desire for a reward.[100] For this act, the name "Ephialtes" received a lasting stigma; it came to mean "nightmare" in the Greek language and to symbolize the archetypal traitor in Greek culture.[101] Herodotus reports that Xerxes sent his commander Hydarnes that evening, with the men under his command, the Immortals, to encircle the Greeks via the path. However, he does not say who those men were.[102] The Immortals had been bloodied on the first day, so it is possible that Hydarnes may have been given overall command of an enhanced force including what was left of the Immortals; according to Diodorus, Hydarnes had a force of 20,000 for the mission.[103] The path led from east of the Persian camp along the ridge of Mt. Anopaea behind the cliffs that flanked the pass. It branched, with one path leading to Phocis and the other down to the Malian Gulf at Alpenus, the first town of Locris.[54] Third day[edit] Leonidas at Thermopylae, by Jacques-Louis David, 1814. This is a juxtaposition of various historical and legendary elements from the Battle of Thermopylae. At daybreak on the third day, the Phocians guarding the path above Thermopylae became aware of the outflanking Persian column by the rustling of oak leaves. Herodotus says they jumped up and were greatly amazed.[104] Hydarnes was perhaps just as amazed to see them hastily arming themselves as they were to see him and his forces.[105] He feared they were Spartans but was informed by Ephialtes that they were not.[104] The Phocians retreated to a nearby hill to make their stand (assuming the Persians had come to attack them).[104] However, not wishing to be delayed, the Persians merely shot a volley of arrows at them, before bypassing them to continue with their encirclement of the main Greek force.[104] Learning from a runner that the Phocians had not held the path, Leonidas called a council of war at dawn.[106] According to Diodorus, a Persian called Tyrrhastiadas, a Cymaean by birth, warned the Greeks.[107] Some of the Greeks argued for withdrawal, but Leonidas resolved to stay at the pass with the Spartans.[106] Upon discovering that his army had been encircled, Leonidas told his allies that they could leave if they wanted to. While many of the Greeks took him up on his offer and fled, around two thousand soldiers stayed behind to fight and die. Knowing that the end was near, the Greeks marched into the open field and met the Persians head-on. Many of the Greek contingents then either chose to withdraw (without orders) or were ordered to leave by Leonidas (Herodotus admits that there is some doubt about which actually happened).[106][108] The contingent of 700 Thespians, led by their general Demophilus, refused to leave and committed themselves to the fight.[109] Also present were the 400 Thebans and probably the helots who had accompanied the Spartans.[105] Leonidas' actions have been the subject of much discussion. It is commonly stated that the Spartans were obeying the laws of Sparta by not retreating. It has also been proposed that the failure to retreat from Thermopylae gave rise to the notion that Spartans never retreated.[110] It has also been suggested that Leonidas, recalling the words of the Oracle, was committed to sacrificing his life in order to save Sparta.[110] The most likely theory is that Leonidas chose to form a rearguard so that the other Greek contingents could get away.[110][111] If all the troops had retreated, the open ground beyond the pass would have allowed the Persian cavalry to run the Greeks down. If they had all remained at the pass, they would have been encircled and would eventually have all been killed.[105] By covering the retreat and continuing to block the pass, Leonidas could save more than 3,000 men, who would be able to fight again.[111] The Thebans have also been the subject of some discussion. Herodotus suggests they were brought to the battle as hostages to ensure the good behavior of Thebes.[50] However, as Plutarch long ago pointed out, if they were hostages, why not send them away with the rest of the Greeks?[110] The likelihood is that these were the Theban "loyalists", who unlike the majority of their fellow citizens, objected to Persian domination.[110] They thus probably came to Thermopylae of their own free will and stayed to the end because they could not return to Thebes if the Persians conquered Boeotia.[105] The Thespians, resolved as they were not to submit to Xerxes, faced the destruction of their city if the Persians took Boeotia.[110] However, this alone does not explain the fact that they remained; the remainder of Thespiae was successfully evacuated before the Persians arrived there.[110] It seems that the Thespians volunteered to remain as a simple act of self-sacrifice, all the more amazing since their contingent represented every single hoplite the city could muster.[112] This seems to have been a particularly Thespian trait – on at least two other occasions in later history, a Thespian force would commit itself to a fight to the death.[110] Spartans surrounded by Persians, Battle of Thermopylae. 19th century illustration. At dawn, Xerxes made libations, pausing to allow the Immortals sufficient time to descend the mountain, and then began his advance.[94] A Persian force of 10,000 men, comprising light infantry and cavalry, charged at the front of the Greek formation. The Greeks this time sallied forth from the wall to meet the Persians in the wider part of the pass, in an attempt to slaughter as many Persians as they could.[94] They fought with spears, until every spear was shattered, and then switched to xiphē (short swords).[113] In this struggle, Herodotus states that two of Xerxes' brothers fell: Abrocomes and Hyperanthes.[113] Leonidas also died in the assault, shot down by Persian archers, and the two sides fought over his body; the Greeks took possession.[113] As the Immortals approached, the Greeks withdrew and took a stand on a hill behind the wall.[114] The Thebans "moved away from their companions, and with hands upraised, advanced toward the barbarians..." (Rawlinson translation), but a few were slain before their surrender was accepted.[114] The king later had the Theban prisoners branded with the royal mark.[115] Of the remaining defenders, Herodotus says: Crown-wearing Achaemenid king killing a Greek hoplite. Impression from a cylinder seal, sculpted circa 500 BC–475 BC, at the time of Xerxes I. Metropolitan Museum of Art. "Here they defended themselves to the last, those who still had swords using them, and the others resisting with their hands and teeth."[114] Tearing down part of the wall, Xerxes ordered the hill surrounded, and the Persians rained down arrows until every last Greek was dead.[114] In 1939, archaeologist Spyridon Marinatos, excavating at Thermopylae, found large numbers of Persian bronze arrowheads on Kolonos Hill, which changed the identification of the hill on which the Greeks were thought to have died from a smaller one nearer the wall.[116] The pass at Thermopylae was thus opened to the Persian army, according to Herodotus, at the cost to the Persians of up to 20,000 fatalities.[117] The Greek rearguard, meanwhile, was annihilated, with a probable loss of 2,000 men, including those killed on the first two days of battle.[118] Herodotus says, at one point 4,000 Greeks died, but assuming the Phocians guarding the track were not killed during the battle (as Herodotus implies), this would be almost every Greek soldier present (by Herodotus' own estimates), and this number is probably too high.[119] Aftermath[edit] Main articles: Second Persian invasion of Greece and Achaemenid destruction of Athens A Persian soldier at the time of the Second Achaemenid invasion of Greece. When the Persians recovered Leonidas' body, Xerxes, in a rage, ordered that the body be decapitated and crucified. Herodotus observes this was very uncommon for the Persians, as they traditionally treated "valiant warriors" with great honour (the example of Pytheas, captured off Skiathos before the Battle of Artemisium, strengthens this suggestion).[114][120] However, Xerxes was known for his rage. Legend has it that he had the very water of the Hellespont whipped because it would not obey him.[37] After the Persians' departure, the Greeks collected their dead and buried them on the hill. After the Persian invasion was repulsed, a stone lion was erected at Thermopylae to commemorate Leonidas.[121] A full 40 years after the battle, Leonidas' bones were returned to Sparta, where he was buried again with full honours; funeral games were held every year in his memory.[113][122] With Thermopylae now opened to the Persian army, the continuation of the blockade at Artemisium by the Greek fleet became irrelevant. The simultaneous naval Battle of Artemisium had been a tactical stalemate, and the Greek navy was able to retreat in good order to the Saronic Gulf, where they helped to ferry the remaining Athenian citizens to the island of Salamis.[111] The Capture of the Acropolis and the destruction of Athens by the Achaemenids, following the battle of Thermopylae. Following Thermopylae, the Persian army proceeded to sack and burn Plataea and Thespiae, the Boeotian cities that had not submitted, before it marched on the now evacuated city of Athens and accomplished the Achaemenid destruction of Athens.[123] Meanwhile, the Greeks (for the most part Peloponnesians) preparing to defend the Isthmus of Corinth, demolished the single road that led through it and built a wall across it.[124] As at Thermopylae, making this an effective strategy required the Greek navy to stage a simultaneous blockade, barring the passage of the Persian navy across the Saronic Gulf, so that troops could not be landed directly on the Peloponnese.[125] However, instead of a mere blockade, Themistocles persuaded the Greeks to seek a decisive victory against the Persian fleet. Luring the Persian navy into the Straits of Salamis, the Greek fleet was able to destroy much of the Persian fleet in the Battle of Salamis, which essentially ended the threat to the Peloponnese.[126] Fearing the Greeks might attack the bridges across the Hellespont and trap his army in Europe, Xerxes now retreated with much of the Persian army back to Asia,[127] though nearly all of them died of starvation and disease on the return voyage.[128] He left a hand-picked force, under Mardonius, to complete the conquest the following year.[129] However, under pressure from the Athenians, the Peloponnesians eventually agreed to try to force Mardonius to battle, and they marched on Attica.[130] Mardonius retreated to Boeotia to lure the Greeks into open terrain, and the two sides eventually met near the city of Plataea.[130] At the Battle of Plataea, the Greek army won a decisive victory, destroying much of the Persian army and ending the invasion of Greece.[130] Meanwhile, at the near-simultaneous naval Battle of Mycale, they also destroyed much of the remaining Persian fleet, thereby reducing the threat of further invasions.[131] Hidush (Indian soldier of the Achaemenid army), circa 480 BC. Xerxes I tomb. Herodotus explained that Indians participated on the Second Persian invasion of Greece.[132] Thermopylae is arguably the most famous battle in European ancient history, repeatedly referenced in ancient, recent, and contemporary culture. In Western culture at least, it is the Greeks who are lauded for their performance in battle.[133] However, within the context of the Persian invasion, Thermopylae was undoubtedly a defeat for the Greeks.[134] It seems clear that the Greek strategy was to hold off the Persians at Thermopylae and Artemisium;[77] whatever they may have intended, it was presumably not their desire to surrender all of Boeotia and Attica to the Persians.[77] The Greek position at Thermopylae, despite being massively outnumbered, was nearly impregnable.[111] If the position had been held for even a little longer, the Persians might have had to retreat for lack of food and water.[78] Thus, despite the heavy losses, forcing the pass was strategically a Persian victory,[111] but the successful retreat of the bulk of the Greek troops was in its own sense a victory as well. The battle itself had shown that even when heavily outnumbered, the Greeks could put up an effective fight against the Persians, and the defeat at Thermopylae had turned Leonidas and the men under his command into martyrs. That boosted the morale of all Greek soldiers in the second Persian invasion.[111] It is sometimes stated that Thermopylae was a Pyrrhic victory for the Persians[3][4] (i.e., one in which the victor is as damaged by the battle as the defeated party). However, there is no suggestion by Herodotus that the effect on the Persian forces was that. The idea ignores the fact that the Persians would, in the aftermath of Thermopylae, conquer the majority of Greece,[135] and the fact that they were still fighting in Greece a year later.[136] Alternatively, the argument is sometimes advanced that the last stand at Thermopylae was a successful delaying action that gave the Greek navy time to prepare for the Battle of Salamis.[c] However, compared to the probable time (about one month) between Thermopylae and Salamis, the time bought was negligible.[137] Furthermore, this idea also neglects the fact that a Greek navy was fighting at Artemisium during the Battle of Thermopylae, incurring losses in the process.[138] George Cawkwell suggests that the gap between Thermopylae and Salamis was caused by Xerxes' systematically reducing Greek opposition in Phocis and Boeotia, and not as a result of the Battle of Thermopylae; thus, as a delaying action, Thermopylae was insignificant compared to Xerxes' own procrastination.[135] Far from labelling Thermopylae as a Pyrrhic victory, modern academic treatises on the Greco-Persian Wars tend to emphasise the success of Xerxes in breaching the formidable Greek position and the subsequent conquest of the majority of Greece. For instance, Cawkwell states: "he was successful on both land and sea, and the Great Invasion began with a brilliant success. ... Xerxes had every reason to congratulate himself",[139] while Lazenby describes the Greek defeat as "disastrous".[134] The fame of Thermopylae is thus principally derived not from its effect on the outcome of the war but for the inspirational example it set.[137][140] Thermopylae is famous because of the heroism of the doomed rearguard, who, despite facing certain death, remained at the pass.[133] Ever since, the events of Thermopylae have been the source of effusive praise from many sources: "Salamis, Plataea, Mycale and Sicily are the fairest sister-victories which the Sun has ever seen, yet they would never dare to compare their combined glory with the glorious defeat of King Leonidas and his men".[141] A second reason is the example it set of free men, fighting for their country and their freedom: So almost immediately, contemporary Greeks saw Thermopylae as a critical moral and culture lesson. In universal terms, a small, free people had willingly outfought huge numbers of imperial subjects who advanced under the lash. More specifically, the Western idea that soldiers themselves decide where, how, and against whom they will fight was contrasted against the Eastern notion of despotism and monarchy—freedom proving the stronger idea as the more courageous fighting of the Greeks at Thermopylae, and their later victories at Salamis and Plataea attested.[142] While this paradigm of "free men" outfighting "slaves" can be seen as a rather sweeping over-generalization (there are many counter-examples), it is nevertheless true that many commentators have used Thermopylae to illustrate this point.[77] Militarily, although the battle was actually not decisive in the context of the Persian invasion, Thermopylae is of some significance on the basis of the first two days of fighting. The performance of the defenders is used as an example of the advantages of training, equipment, and good use of terrain as force multipliers.[143] Legacy[edit] Monuments[edit] There are several monuments around the battlefield of Thermopylae. One of which is a statue of King Leonidas I, portrayed as bearing a spear, and shield. Epitaph of Simonides[edit] Epitaph with Simonides' epigram A well-known epigram, usually attributed to Simonides, was engraved as an epitaph on a commemorative stone placed on top of the burial mound of the Spartans at Thermopylae. It is also the hill on which the last of them died.[71] The original stone has not survived, but in 1955, the epitaph was engraved on a new stone. The text from Herodotus is:[71] Ὦ ξεῖν', ἀγγέλλειν Λακεδαιμονίοις ὅτι τῇδε κείμεθα, τοῖς κείνων ῥήμασι πειθόμενοι. Ō ksein', angellein Lakedaimoniois hoti tēide keimetha, tois keinōn rhēmasi peithomenoi. Oh stranger, tell the Lacedaemonians that we lie here, obedient to their words.[144] The alternative ancient reading πειθόμενοι νομίμοις (peithomenoi nomίmois) for ῥήμασι πειθόμενοι (rhēmasi peithomenoi) substitutes "laws" or "orders" for "words." In other words, the "orders" are not personal but refer to official and binding phrases (the Ancient Greek term can also refer to a formal speech).[145] The form of this ancient Greek poetry is an elegiac couplet, commonly used for epitaphs. Some English renderings are given in the table below. It is also an example of Laconian brevity, which allows for varying interpretations of the meaning of the poem.[144] Ioannis Ziogas points out that the usual English translations are far from the only interpretation possible, and indicate much about the romantic tendencies of the translators. It was well known in ancient Greece that all the Spartans who had been sent to Thermopylae had been killed there (with the exception of Aristodemus and Pantites), and the epitaph exploits the conceit that there was nobody left to bring the news of their deeds back to Sparta. Greek epitaphs often appealed to the passing reader (always called 'stranger') for sympathy, but the epitaph for the dead Spartans at Thermopylae took this convention much further than usual, asking the reader to make a personal journey to Sparta to break the news that the Spartan expeditionary force had been wiped out. The stranger is also asked to stress that the Spartans died 'fulfilling their orders'. Translation Notes Go tell the Spartans, thou who passest by, That here, obedient to their laws, we lie.[146] William Lisle Bowles Stranger, tell the Spartans that we behaved as they would wish us to, and are buried here.[147] William Golding Stranger! To Sparta say, her faithful band Here lie in death, remembering her command.[148] Francis Hodgson Stranger, report this word, we pray, to the Spartans, that lying Here in this spot we remain, faithfully keeping their laws.[149] George Campbell Macaulay Stranger, bear this message to the Spartans, that we lie here obedient to their laws.[150] William Roger Paton Go tell the Spartans, stranger passing by, that here obedient to their laws we lie.[151] Steven Pressfield Go, stranger, and to Lacedaemon tell That here, obeying her behests, we fell.[152] George Rawlinson Go, way-farer, bear news to Sparta's town that here, their bidding done, we laid us down.[153] Cyril E. Robinson Go tell the Spartans, you who read: We took their orders, and lie here dead.[154] Aubrey de Sélincourt Friend, tell Lacedaemon Here we lie Obedient to our orders.[155] William Shepherd Oh Stranger, tell the Spartans That we lie here obedient to their word.[156] From the 1962 film The 300 Spartans Stranger, when you find us lying here, go tell the Spartans we obeyed their orders.[157] From the 1977 film Go Tell the Spartans Stranger, go tell the Spartans That we lie here True, even to the death To our Spartan way of life.[158] J. Rufus Fears Go tell the Spartans, passerby: That here, by Spartan law, we lie.[159] Frank Miller (subsequently used in the 2007 film, 300) The first line of the epigram was used as the title of the short story "Stranger, Bear Word to the Spartans We…" by German Nobel Prize laureate Heinrich Böll. A variant of the epigram is inscribed on the Polish Cemetery at Monte Cassino. John Ruskin expressed the importance of this ideal to Western civilization as follows: Also obedience in its highest form is not obedience to a constant and compulsory law, but a persuaded or voluntary yielded obedience to an issued command .... His name who leads the armies of Heaven is "Faithful and True"... and all deeds which are done in alliance with these armies ... are essentially deeds of faith, which therefore ... is at once the source and the substance of all known deed, rightly so called ... as set forth in the last word of the noblest group of words ever, so far as I know, uttered by simple man concerning his practice, being the final testimony of the leaders of a great practical nation ... [the epitaph in Greek][160] Cicero recorded a Latin variation in his Tusculanae Disputationes (1.42.101): Dic, hospes, Spartae nos te hic vidisse iacentes dum sanctis patriae legibus obsequimur. Tell, stranger, to Sparta that you saw us lying here since we followed the sacred laws of the fatherland.[144] Leonidas monument[edit] Additionally, there is a modern monument at the site, called the "Leonidas Monument" by Vassos Falireas, in honour of the Spartan king. It features a bronze statue of Leonidas. A sign, under the statue, reads simply: "Μολὼν λαβέ" ("Come and take them!"—as in answer to Xerxes' demand that the Greeks give up their weapons). The metope below depicts battle scenes. The two marble statues on the left and the right of the monument represent, respectively, the river Eurotas and Mount Taygetos, famous landmarks of Sparta.[161] Thespian monument[edit] In 1997, a second monument was officially unveiled by the Greek government, dedicated to the 700 Thespians who fought with the Spartans. The monument is made of marble and features a bronze statue depicting the god Eros, to whom the ancient Thespians accorded particular religious veneration. Under the statue, a sign reads: "In memory of the seven hundred Thespians." A plate below the statue explains its symbolism: The headless male figure symbolizes the anonymous sacrifice of the 700 Thespians to their country. The outstretched chest symbolizes the struggle, the gallantry, the strength, the bravery and the courage. The open wing symbolizes the victory, the glory, the soul, the spirit and the freedom. The broken wing symbolizes the voluntary sacrifice and death. The naked body symbolizes Eros, the most important god of the ancient Thespians, a god of creation, beauty and life. The monument to the Thespians is placed beside the one to the Spartans. Associated legends[edit] The Battle of Thermopylae, 19th century engraving Herodotus' colorful account of the battle has provided history with many apocryphal incidents and conversations away from the main historical events. These accounts are obviously not verifiable, but they form an integral part of the legend of the battle and often demonstrate the laconic speech (and wit) of the Spartans to good effect. For instance, Plutarch recounts, in his Sayings of Spartan Women, upon his departure, Leonidas' wife Gorgo asked what she should do if he did not return, to which Leonidas replied, "Marry a good man and have good children."[162] It is reported that, upon arriving at Thermopylae, the Persians sent a mounted scout to reconnoitre. The Greeks allowed him to come up to the camp, observe them, and depart. Xerxes found the scout's reports of the size of the Greek force, and that the Spartans were indulging in callisthenics and combing their long hair, laughable. Seeking the counsel of Demaratus, an exiled Spartan king in his retinue, Xerxes was told the Spartans were preparing for battle, and it was their custom to adorn their hair when they were about to risk their lives. Demaratus called them "the bravest men in Greece" and warned the Great King they intended to dispute the pass. He emphasized that he had tried to warn Xerxes earlier in the campaign, but the king had refused to believe him. He added that if Xerxes ever managed to subdue the Spartans, "there is no other nation in all the world which will venture to lift a hand in their defence."[163] Herodotus also describes Leonidas' reception of a Persian envoy. The ambassador told Leonidas that Xerxes would offer him the kingship of all Greece if he joined with Xerxes. Leonidas answered: "If you had any knowledge of the noble things of life, you would refrain from coveting others' possessions; but for me to die for Greece is better than to be the sole ruler over the people of my race."[164] Then the ambassador asked him more forcefully to surrender their arms. To this Leonidas gave his famous answer: Μολὼν λαβέ (pronounced Greek pronunciation: [moˈlɔːn laˈbe]) "Come and get them."[165] Such laconic bravery doubtlessly helped to maintain morale. Herodotus writes that when Dienekes, a Spartan soldier, was informed that Persian arrows would be so numerous as "to block out the sun", he retorted, "So much the better...then we shall fight our battle in the shade."[166] After the battle, Xerxes was curious as to what the Greeks had been trying to do (presumably because they had had so few men) and had some Arcadian deserters interrogated in his presence. The answer was: all the other men were participating in the Olympic Games. When Xerxes asked what the prize was for the winner, the answer was: "an olive-wreath". Upon hearing this, Tigranes, a Persian general, said: "Good heavens, Mardonius, what kind of men are these that you have pitted against us? It is not for riches that they contend but for honour!" (Godley translation) or otherwise, "Ye Gods, Mardonius, what men have you brought us to fight against? Men that fight not for gold, but for glory."[167] In popular culture[edit] Main article: Battle of Thermopylae in popular culture The Battle of Thermopylae has remained a cultural icon of western civilization ever since it was fought. The battle is revisited in countless adages and works of popular culture, such as in films (e.g., The 300 Spartans (1962) and 300 (2007), based on the events during and close to the time of the battle), in literature, in song (e.g. "Sparta", the title track of power-metal band Sabaton's 2016 album "The Last Stand"), in television programs, and in video games. The battle is also discussed in many articles and books on the theory and practice of warfare. Main article: Sparta in popular culture Prior to the battle, the Hellenes remembered the Dorians, an ethnic distinction which applied to the Spartans, as the conquerors and displacers of the Ionians in the Peloponnesus. After the battle, Spartan culture became an inspiration and object of emulation, a phenomenon known as Laconophilia. Commemoration[edit] Greece has announced two commemorative coins to mark 2500 years since the historic battle.[168] While this anniversary will take place in 2021, the coins show the dates 2020 and 480 BC and the text "2,500 years since the Battle of Thermopylae." Analogues[edit] There are several analogous battles. The Persian Gates narrow pass Similarities between the Battle of Thermopylae and the Battle of Persian Gate have been recognized by both ancient and modern authors,[169] which describe it as a kind of reversal of the Battle of Thermopylae,[170] calling it "the Persian Thermopylae".[171] Here, on Alexander the Great's campaign against Persia in 330 BC to exact revenge for the Persian invasion of Greece, he faced the same situation, encountering a last stand of the Persian forces (under Ariobarzanes) at a narrow pass near Persepolis who held the invaders for a month, until their fall as the enemy found a path to their rear. There are even accounts that a local shepherd informed Alexander's forces about the secret path, just as a local Greek showed the Persian forces a secret path around the pass at Thermopylae.[170][172] Curtius describes the subsequent battle fought by the surrounded, unarmed Persians as "memorable".[173] Other analogous battles include: Battle of Wizna known as the "Polish Thermopylae" in Polish culture Battle of Kosovo, known as the "Serbian Thermopylae" in Serbian culture Siege of the Alamo, known as "the Texan Thermopylae" in US culture Battle of Tirad Pass, known as the "Philippine Thermopylae" in US culture Three Hundred Aragvians - a similar last stand by a similar number, against the Qajar Empire, in Georgia Battle of Saragarhi known as the "Indian Thermopylae" in Indian history Battle of Rorke's Drift, an engagement in the Anglo-Zulu War. See also[edit] Ancient Greece portal Greece portal War portal Aristodemus of Sparta Battle of Tirad Pass Spartan Army Gates of Fire Battle of Traigh Ghruinneart, where a dwarf betrays the forces that rejected his service Battle of Longewala Battle of Neopatras Battle of Maritsa Great Siege of Malta Battle of St. Jakob an der Birs List of last stands Artapanus (general) Battle of Pavan Khind Battle of The Alamo Shangani Patrol References[edit] Informational notes ^ Although some authors state the result was a Pyrrhic victory for Persia,[3][4] the majority of authors do not apply this label to the result: see § Aftermath. ^ a b A huge number of estimates have been made since the 19th century, ranging from 15,000 to acceptance of Herodotus' 1,800,000. No real consensus exists; even the most recent estimates by academics vary between 120,000 and 300,000. As Holland puts it, "in short...we will never know."[66] ^ "The Battle of Thermopylae was a Pyrrhic victory for [the Persians] but it offered Athens invaluable time to prepare for the decisive naval battle of Salamis one month later."[3] Citations ^ Bradford (1980), p.162 ^ Greswell, p. 374 ^ a b c Tung & Tung, p. 239. ^ a b Marozzi, p. 74. ^ The Persian Empire: A Corpus of Sources of the Achaemenid Period : page 278 ^ a b c d "Photius' excerpt of Ctesias' Persica". Livius.org. Retrieved 26 November 2014. ^ a b Herodotus VIII, 24 ^ "BBC Radio 4 - In Our Time, Thermopylae". BBC. Retrieved 26 November 2014. ^ "Battle of Thermopylae | Date, Location, and Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 30 August 2019. ^ Barkworth, 1993. The Organization of Xerxes' Army. Iranica Antiqua Vol. 27, pp. 149–167 ^ Herodotus VIII, 25 ^ Sacks, Kenneth (2003). Understanding Emerson: "The American Scholar" and his struggle for self-reliance. Princeton University Press. p. 157. ISBN 978-0-691-09982-8. ^ Cassin-Scott, Jack (1977). The Greek and Persian Wars 500-323 B.C. Osprey. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-85045-271-6. ^ Diodorus XI, 28–34, ^ Note to Herodotus IX, 81 ^ The Great Persian War and its Preliminaries; A Study of the Evidence, Literary and Topographical, George B. Grundy, John Murray, Albemarle Street, London, 1901. [1] ^ Chapter II, Strategy, Second Revised Edition, Frederick A. Praeger, New York, 1967 ^ The Topography of the Battle of Plataea: The City of Plataea, the Field of Leuctra, G.B.Grundy [2] ^ Cartledge, Paul (2007). Thermopylae : the battle that changed the world (1. pbk. ed.). London: Pan. p. 215. ISBN 9780330419185. ^ Cartledge, Paul (2007). Thermopylae : the battle that changed the world (1. pbk. ed.). London: Pan. p. 224. ISBN 9780330419185. ^ Cartledge, Paul (2007). Thermopylae : the battle that changed the world (1. pbk. ed.). London: Pan. p. 231. ISBN 9780330419185. ^ Bradford, Ernle (2004). Thermopylae : the battle for the West (1st Da Capo Press pbk. ed.). New York: Da Capo Press. p. 137. ISBN 9780306813603. ^ Cartledge, Paul (2007). Thermopylae : the battle that changed the world (1. pbk. ed.). London: Pan. p. 146. ISBN 9780330419185. ^ a b Holland, p. 47–55 ^ a b Holland, p. 203 ^ Herodotus V, 105 ^ Holland, 171–178 ^ Herodotus VI, 44 ^ a b c Holland, pp. 178–179 ^ Herodotus VII, 133 ^ "Two Spartans of noble birth and great wealth, Sperthias son of Aneristus and Bulis son of Nicolaus, undertook of their own free will that they would make atonement to Xerxes for Darius' heralds who had been done to death at Sparta. Thereupon the Spartans sent these men to Media for execution." in LacusCurtius Herodotus Book VII: Chapter 134. ^ Herodotus VI, 101 ^ Herodotus VI, 113 ^ Holland, pp. 206–206 ^ a b Holland, pp. 208–211 ^ a b Holland, pp. 213–214 ^ a b "VII, 35". Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 26 November 2014. ^ Cox, Jeremy (2016). "They Died the Spartan's Death". Thermopylae, the Alamo, and the Mirrors of Classical Analogy, Advances in the History of Rhetoric. ^ Holland, p. 217–223 ^ Herodotus VII, 32 ^ Herodotus VII, 145 ^ Holland, p. 226 ^ a b Holland, pp. 248–249 ^ Herodotus VII, 173 ^ a b Holland, pp. 255–257 ^ Herodotus VIII, 40 ^ Holland, pp. 255–256 ^ a b Herodotus VII, 206[permanent dead link] ^ a b Holland, pp. 258–259. ^ a b c Herodotus VII, 205 ^ Rawlinson translation of Herodotus VII, 220 ^ a b c d Herodotus, VII, 202 ^ a b c Herodotus VII, 176 ^ a b Herodotus VII, 217[permanent dead link] ^ Holland, pp. 269–270 ^ a b c Herodotus VII, 207 ^ Plutarch, Apophthegmata Laconica, section "Leonidas, son of Anaxandridas", saying 6, Vol. III of the Loeb Classical Library edition, 1931 ^ "Herodotus Book 7: Polymnia, 226". Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 26 November 2014. ^ Holland, pp. 270–271 ^ Plutarch, Apophthegmata Laconica, section "Leonidas, son of Anaxandridas", saying 11 ^ a b c Herodotus VII, 210 ^ a b Naqs-e Rostam – Encyclopaedia Iranica. ^ Naqs-e Rostam – Encyclopaedia Iranica List of nationalities of the Achaemenid military with corresponding drawings. ^ Herodotus VII, 186 ^ Holland, p. 237 ^ a b Holland, p. 394. ^ de Souza, p. 41. ^ Herodotus VII, 203 ^ a b c Diodorus Siculus XI, 4 ^ a b c d Macan, note to Herodotus VIII, 25 ^ a b c d Herodotus VII, 228 ^ Herodotus VIII, 25 ^ Pausanias X, 20 ^ a b Green, p. 140 ^ Bradford, p. 106 ^ Bury, pp. 271–282 ^ a b c d e f g Lazenby, pp. 248–253 ^ a b c Holland, pp. 285–287 ^ Holland, p 288 ^ Holland, pp. 262–264 ^ http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D10%3Achapter%3D21 ^ Herodotus VIII, 201 ^ Bradford, Ernle (1980). The Battle for the West: Thermopylae. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. pp. 68–69. 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Heckel, "Alexander at the Persian Gates", Athenaeum 58, 1980, p. 171 ^ a b J. Prevas, Envy of the Gods: Alexander the Great's Ill-Fated Journey across Asia (USA: Da Capo Press, 2004), ISBN 0-306-81268-1, page 17 ^ A. R. Burn, Alexander the Great and the Middle East, Harmondsworth, 1973, p. 121 ^ Sarathi Bose, Partha (2003). Alexander the Great's Art of Strategy. Gotham. p. 134. ISBN 1-59240-053-1. ^ Shahbazi, A. Sh. "ARIOBARZANES – Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 10 August 2018. Bibliography Bradford, Ernle (2004). Thermopylae: The Battle for the West. Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-81360-2. Bradford, Ernle (1980). The Battle for the West: Thermopylae. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-007062-8. Bury, J. B.; Russell Meiggs (2000). A History of Greece to the Death of Alexander the Great (4th Revised ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. Cawkwell, George (2006). The Greco-Persian Wars. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-929983-8. Crawford, Osbert Guy Stanhope (1955). Said and Done: The Autobiography of an Archaeologist. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. Dore, Lyn (2001). "Once the War Is Over". In Freeman, P.W.M.; Pollard, A. (eds.). Fields of Conflict: Progress and Prospect in Battlefield Archaeology. David Brown Book Co. pp. 285–286. ISBN 978-1-84171-249-9. Archived from the original on 25 February 2012. Eikenberry, Lt. Gen. Karl W. (Summer 1996). "Take No Casualties". Parameters: US Army War College Quarterly. XXVI (2): 109–118. Archived from the original on 16 November 2017. Retrieved 27 January 2018. Archived 9/7/2007. Golding, William (2002). "The Hot Gates". The Sparta pages. Archived from the original on 20 October 2007. Retrieved 20 October 2007. Green, Peter (1996). The Greco-Persian Wars. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-20313-5. Green, Peter; Greek History 480-431 B.C., the Alternative Version, University of Texas Press, (2006). p. 59 ISBN 0-292-71277-4 Greswell, Edward (1827). Origines kalendariæ Hellenicæ. E. Duychinck, Collin & co. 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From the Greek Anthology by the Late Rev. Robert Bland, and Others: A New Edition: Comprising the Fragments of Early Lyric Poetry, With Specimens of All the Poets Included in Meleager's Garland. Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longman; and John Murray. Miller, Frank (w, a). 300 (1999), Dark Horse Comics, ISBN 1569714029 Paton, W.R. (Editor and Translator) (1918). The Greek Anthology. W. Heineman. Plutarch. "Leonidas, Son of Anaxandridas". Moralia: Apophthegmata Laconica: as published in Vol. III of the Loeb Classical Library Edition, 1931. Bill Thayer. Retrieved 26 October 2007. Plutarch. "Gorgo". Moralia: Apophthegmata Lacaenarum: as published in Vol. III of the Loeb Classical Library Edition, 1931. Bill Thayer. Retrieved 26 October 2007. Pressfield, Steven (1998). Gates of Fire: An Epic Novel of the Battle of Thermopylae. Doubleday. ISBN 1407066595. Robinson, C.E. (2007). Hellas – A Short History of Ancient Greece. Pantheon Books. ISBN 1-4067-6699-2. Ruskin, John (1894). "Part VIII: Of Ideas of Relation – I. of Invention Formal: Chapter I: The Law of Help". The Complete Works: Modern Painters: Volume the Fifth. New York: Bryan, Taylor and Company. OCLC 4631131. Strachey, Edward (February 1871). "The Soldiers' Duty". The Contemporary Review. London: Strahan & Co. XVI: 480–485. Tegopoulos, G.; A. Phytrakis (1988). Elliniko Lexico (Greek Dictionary). Athens: Armonia. Tung, Douglas S.; Tung, Teresa K. (2010). 36 Stratagems Plus: Illustrated by International Cases. Trafford Publishing. ISBN 1-4269-2806-8. Further reading Campbell, George (1889). The History of Herodotus: Translated into English: Vol. II. London: MacMillan and Co., Limited. Grundy, George (1901). The Great Persian War and its preliminaries; A Study of the Evidence, Literary and Topographical. London: John Murray, Albemarle Street. Cartledge, Paul (2006). Thermopylae: The Battle That Changed the World. Woodstock, New York: The Overlook Press. ISBN 1-58567-566-0. Matthews, Rupert (2006). The Battle of Thermopylae: A Campaign in Context. Stroud, Gloucestershire, UK: Tempus Publishing. ISBN 1-86227-325-1. Fehling, D. Herodotus and His "Sources": Citation, Invention, and Narrative Art. Translated by J.G. Howie. Arca Classical and Medieval Texts, Papers, and Monographs, 21. Leeds: Francis Cairns, 1989 Kraft, John C.; Rapp, George; Szemler, George J.; Tziavos, Christos; Kase, Edward W. (July 1987). "The pass at Thermopylae, Greece" (PDF). Journal of Field Archaeology. 14 (2): 181–98. doi:10.2307/530139. ISSN 0093-4690. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 October 2014. Retrieved 5 June 2012. Finley, Moses (1972). "Introduction". Thucydides – History of the Peloponnesian War (translated by Rex Warner). Penguin. ISBN 0-14-044039-9. Barkworth, Peter R. (1993). "The Organization of Xerxes' Army" (PDF). Iranica Antiqua. XXVII: 149–167. doi:10.2143/ia.27.0.2002126. Retrieved 18 October 2007. Morris, Ian Macgregor (2000). "To Make a New Thermopylae: Hellenism, Greek Liberation, and the Battle of Thermopylae". Greece & Rome. 47 (2): 211–230. doi:10.1093/gr/47.2.211. Sacks, Kenneth S. (1976). "Herodotus and the Dating of the Battle of Thermopylae". The Classical Quarterly. 26 (2): 232–248. doi:10.1017/S0009838800033127. JSTOR 638269. Ιστορία του Ελληνικού Έθνους = History of the Greek nation volume Β', Athens 1971 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Battle of Thermopylae. EDSITEment Lesson Plan: 300 Spartans at the Battle of Thermopylae: Herodotus' Real History (from the National Endowment for the Humanities) Lendering, Jona (1996–2007). "Herodotus' twenty-second logos: Thermopylae". Livius articles on ancient history. Archived from the original on 11 October 2007. Retrieved 19 October 2007. The Five Great Battles of Antiquity by David L. Smith, Symposion Lectures, 30 June 2006. 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en-wikipedia-org-1293	----	Amenhotep II - Wikipedia Amenhotep II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Amenhotep II Amenophis II Large statue head of Amenhotep II on display at the Brooklyn Museum. Pharaoh Reign 1427–1401 BC or 1427–1397 BC (18th Dynasty) Predecessor Thutmose III Successor Thutmose IV Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Aakheperure Great are the Manifestations of Re[1] Nomen Amenhotep Heka Iunu Amun is Satisfied, Ruler of Heliopolis Horus name Ka Nakht Wer Pekhty Strong Bull, Great of Power Nebty name User Fau Sekha Em Wast Powerful of Splendour, Appearing in Thebes Golden Horus Ity Sekhemef em Tau Neb Who seizes by his strength in all lands Consort Tiaa Children Thutmose IV, Amenhotep, Webensenu, Amenemopet, Nedjem, Khaemwaset?, Aaheperkare? Aakheperure? Iaret, Ahmose (?) Father Thutmose III Mother Merytre-Hatshepsut Died 1401 or 1397 BC Burial KV35 Amenhotep II (sometimes called Amenophis II and meaning 'Amun is Satisfied') was the seventh pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt. Amenhotep inherited a vast kingdom from his father Thutmose III, and held it by means of a few military campaigns in Syria; however, he fought much less than his father, and his reign saw the effective cessation of hostilities between Egypt and Mitanni, the major kingdoms vying for power in Syria. His reign is usually dated from 1427 to 1401 BC. Contents 1 Family and early life 2 Dates and length of reign 3 Foreign affairs 4 Construction projects 4.1 Tomb 5 Personality and later life 6 See also 7 References 7.1 Sources 8 External links Family and early life[edit] See also: Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Foundation tablet. It shows the cartouche of the birth name and epithet "Amenhotep, the god, the Ruler of Thebes". 18th Dynasty. From Kurna, Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London Foundation tablet showing the prenomen cartouche of the throne-name of Amenhotep II. 18th Dynasty. From Temple of Amenhotep II at Kurna (Qurnah, Qurna, Gourna, Gurna), Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London. With thanks to the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, UCL. Head of Amenhotep II. 18th Dynasty, c. 1420 BC. 18th Dynasty. State Museum of Egyptian Art, Munich Amenhotep II was born to Thutmose III and a minor wife of the king: Merytre-Hatshepsut. He was not, however, the firstborn son of this pharaoh; his elder brother Amenemhat, the son of the great king's chief wife Satiah, was originally the intended heir to the throne since Amenemhat was designated the 'king's eldest son" and overseer of the cattle of Amun in Year 24 of Thutmose's reign.[2] However, between Years 24 and 35 of Thutmose III, both queen Satiah and prince Amenemhat died, which prompted the pharaoh to marry the non-royal Merytre-Hatshepsut.[3] She would bear Thutmose III a number of children including the future Amenhotep II. Amenhotep II was born and raised in Memphis in the north, instead of in Thebes, the traditional capital.[4] While a prince, he oversaw deliveries of wood sent to the dockyard of Peru-nūfe in Memphis, and was made the Setem, the high priest over Lower Egypt.[4] Amenhotep has left several inscriptions touting his athletic skills while he was a leader of the army before his crowning. Amenhotep was no less athletic than his powerful father. He claims to have been able to shoot an arrow through a copper target one palm thick, and that he was able to row his ship faster and farther than two hundred members of the navy could row theirs.[4] Accordingly, some skepticism concerning the truth of his claims has been expressed among Egyptologists.[4] Amenhotep acceded to the throne on the first day of the fourth month of Akhet, but his father died on the thirtieth day of the third month of Peret.[5] If an Egyptian crown prince was proclaimed king but did not take the throne on the day after his father's death, it meant that he served as the junior coregent during his father's reign. A coregency with Thutmose III and Amenhotep II is believed to have lasted for two years and four months.[6] Sphinx head of a young Amenhotep II, Musée du Louvre. When he assumed power, Amenhotep II was 18 years old according to an inscription from his great Sphinx stela: "Now his Majesty appeared as king as a fine youth after he had become 'well developed', and had completed eighteen years in his strength and bravery."[7] After becoming pharaoh, Amenhotep married a woman of uncertain parentage named Tiaa.[8] As many as ten sons and one daughter have been attributed to him. Amenhotep's most important son was Thutmose IV, who succeeded him; however, there is significant evidence for him having many more children. Princes Amenhotep, Webensenu, Amenemopet, and Nedjem are all clearly attested, and Amenemhat, Khaemwaset, and Aakheperure as well as a daughter, Iaret, are also possible children. Papyrus B.M. 10056, which dates to sometime after Amenhotep II's tenth year, refers to a king's son and setem-priest Amenhotep.[9] This Amenhotep might also be attested in a stele from Amenhotep II's temple at Giza,[10] however the stele's name has been defaced so that positive identification is impossible.[11] Stele B may belong to another son, Webensenu.[11] Webensenu's name is otherwise attested on a statue of Amenhotep's chief architect, Minmose, and his canopic jars and a funerary statue have been found in Amenhotep II's tomb.[12] Another Giza stele, stele C, records the name of a Prince Amenemopet, whose name is otherwise unattested.[11] The same statue with the name Webensenu on it is also inscribed with the name of prince Nedjem, who is otherwise unattested.[12] There are other references to king's sons from this period who may or may not be sons of Amenhotep II. Two graffiti from Sahel mention a king's son and stable master named Khaemwaset, but specifically which king is his father is unknown.[11] A figure with the name Amenemhet is recorded behind a prince Amenhotep in Theban tomb 64, and assuming this Amenhotep is indeed the king's son from B.M. 10056, Amenemhat would also be Amenhotep II's son.[13] Additionally, a prince Aakheperure is mentioned in a Konosso graffito alongside a prince Amenhotep, and if one again assumes that this Amenhotep was the same person as the one in B.M. 10056, Aakheperure would also have been Amenhotep II's son. However, in both these cases the figure identified as Amenhotep has been identified by some as possible references to the later King Amenhotep III, which would make these two princes sons Thutmose IV.[10] In addition to sons, Amenhotep II may have had a daughter named Iaret, but she could have also been the daughter of Thutmose IV.[11] Two more sons had been attributed to Amenhotep II in the past; however, they have since been proven to be of other parentage. Gauthier catalogued one Usersatet, the "King's son of Kush," (i.e. Viceroy of Nubia) as a son of Amenhotep II, as well as one Re; however, both are now known to be unrelated to the royal family.[14] Usersatet merely served as Amenhotep's chief official in Nubia and was not a blood relative of the king. Dates and length of reign[edit] Amenhotep II's cartouche showing later damage and a variation of his nomen (from Karnak). Amenhotep's coronation can be dated without much difficulty because of a number of lunar dates in the reign of his father, Thutmose III. These sightings limit the date of Thutmose's accession to either 1504 or 1479 BC.[15] Thutmose died after 54 years of reign,[16] at which time Amenhotep would have acceded to the throne. Amenhotep's short coregency with his father would then move his accession two years and four months earlier,[6] dating his accession to either 1427 BC in the low chronology,[17] or in 1454 BC in the high chronology. The length of his reign is indicated by a wine jar inscribed with the king's prenomen found in Amenhotep II's funerary temple at Thebes; it is dated to this king's highest known date—his Year 26—and lists the name of the pharaoh's vintner, Panehsy.[18] Mortuary temples were generally not stocked until the king died or was near death; therefore, Amenhotep could not have lived much later beyond his 26th year.[19] There are alternate theories which attempt to assign him a reign of up to 35 years, which is the absolute maximum length he could have reigned. In this chronology, he reigned from 1454 to 1419.[6] However, there are problems facing these theories which cannot be resolved.[20] In particular, this would mean Amenhotep died when he was 52, but an X-ray analysis of his mummy has shown him to have been about 40 when he died.[21] Accordingly, Amenhotep II is usually given a reign of 26 years and said to have reigned from 1427 to 1401 BC.[17] Foreign affairs[edit] Limestone trial piece showing a king's head, who wears the blue crown. 18th Dynasty. From the Temple of Amenhotep II at Thebes, Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London A stele, originally from Elephantine and now on display at the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, recording Amenhotep II's successful campaign against Syria, and dedicating war booty and prisoners to the Temple of Khnum. Amenhotep's first campaign took place in his third regnal year.[22] It is known that the pharaoh was attacked by the host of Qatna while crossing the Orontes river, but he emerged victorious and acquired rich booty, among which even the equipment of a Mitanni charioteer is mentioned. The king was well known for his physical prowess and is said to have singlehandedly killed 7 rebel Princes at Kadesh, which successfully terminated his first Syrian campaign on a victorious note.[23] After the campaign, the king ordered the bodies of the seven princes to be hung upside down on the prow of his ship.[23] Upon reaching Thebes all but one of the princes were mounted on the city walls.[23] The other was taken to the often rebellious territory of Nubia and hung on the city wall of Napata, as an example of the consequence of rising against Pharaoh and to demoralise any Nubian opponents of Egyptian authority there.[23] Amenhotep called this campaign his first in a Stele from Amada, however he also called his second campaign his first, causing some confusion.[22] The most common solution for this, although not universally accepted, is that this was the first campaign he fought alone before the death of his father and thus before he was the sole king of Egypt, and he counted his second campaign as his first because it was the first that was his and his alone.[24] In April of his seventh year, Amenhotep was faced with a major rebellion in Syria by the vassal states of Naharin and dispatched his army to the Levant to suppress it. This rebellion was likely instigated by Egypt's chief Near Eastern rival, Mitanni.[25] His stele of victory carved after this campaign records no major battles, which has been read a number of ways. It may be that this campaign was more similar to one of the tours of Syria which his father had fought, and he only engaged minor garrisons in battle and forced cities to swear allegiance to him–oaths immediately broken after his departure.[26] Alternatively, it appears that the two weeks when Amenhotep would have been closest to Mitanni are omitted from the stele, thus it is possible that his army was defeated on this campaign.[27] Amenhotep's last campaign took place in his ninth year, however it apparently did not proceed farther north than the Sea of Galilee.[28] According to the list of plunder from this campaign, Amenhotep took 101,128 slaves, which is an obviously exaggerated figure.[29] Some of these slaves may have been recounted from the year 7 campaign, such as 15,070 citizens of Nukhash, since Amenhotep did not campaign anywhere near Nukhash on his year 9 campaign.[30] However, even accounting for this recounting, the numbers still are too high to be realistic, and are probably just exaggerated.[31] Egyptian relief depicting a battle against West Asiatics. Reign of Amenhotep II, Eighteenth Dynasty, c. 1427–1400 BC.[32] After the campaign in Amenhotep's ninth year, Egyptian and Mitannian armies never fought again, and the two kingdoms seem to have reached some sort of peace. Amenhotep records that the kings of Babylon, the Hittites, and Mitanni came to make peace and pay tribute to him after his ninth year, although this may be outlandish boasting.[33] However, a second passage appears on the walls of Karnak, saying that the princes of Mitanni came to seek peace with Amenhotep, and this cannot be so easily explained away.[33] The rising power of the Hittites eventually persuaded Mitanni to seek an ally, and there was definitely a treaty of some sort between Egypt and Mitanni by the time of Amenhotep's successor, but it may be that it was enacted after Amenhotep's campaigns, to try to prevent any more campaigns of mass deportations.[33] Whenever formal peace was enacted, an informal peace was maintained between Amenhotep and the king of Mitanni. Thereafter, Amenhotep concentrated on domestic matters, with one possible exception. A shrine of Amenhotep's Nubian viceroy shows Amenhotep receiving tribute after a Nubian campaign, but it is not possible to date when this happened.[34] Construction projects[edit] Amenhotep II shown at the Temple of Amada, Lake Nasser, Egypt. Since Thutmose III had devoted so much energy to expanding Karnak, Amenhotep's building projects were largely focused on enlarging smaller temples all over Egypt. In the Delta, his father's Overseer of Works, Minmose, is attested from an inscription at Tura as overseeing construction of more temples.[4] In upper Egypt, small shrines are attested at Medamud, el-Tod, and Armant. Karnak, despite not receiving the attention given it by his father, also was not totally neglected.[35] He commissioned a column to stand in the courtyard between the fourth and fifth pylons commemorating the reception of tribute from Mitanni. In Nubia, Amenhotep built at Qasr Ibrim and Semna, and ordered the decoration of the Temple at Kalabsha.[36] However, his most famous Nubian temple was at Amada.[37] Thutmose III had begun constructing a temple which, technically, was dedicated to Horus there, although the presence of Re-Harakhti and Amun-Re is easily observed.[37] Amenhotep completed it and put in it the record of his year 3 campaign on a stele, which was until 1942 the source of most information about Amenhotep's wars.[24] Tomb[edit] Amenhotep's mummy was discovered in March 1898 by Victor Loret in his KV35 tomb in the Valley of the Kings within his original sarcophagus. He had a mortuary temple constructed at the edge of the cultivation in the Theban Necropolis, close to where the Ramesseum was later built, but it was destroyed in ancient times. Amenhotep II's KV35 tomb also proved to contain a mummy cache containing several New Kingdom Pharaohs including Thutmose IV, Seti II, Ramesses III, Ramesses IV, and Ramesses VI. They had been re-buried in Amenhotep II's tomb by the 21st Dynasty High Priest of Amun, Pinedjem II, during Siamun's reign, to protect them from tomb robbers. The most detailed and balanced discussion on the chronology, events, and impact of Amenhotep II's reign was published by Peter Der Manuelian, in a 1987 book on this king. Personality and later life[edit] Black granite, seated statue of Sennefer with cartouche of Amenhotep (Amenophis) II on right arm. From the temple of Seth at Naqqada, Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London A stela from this pharaoh's final years highlights his openly contemptuous attitude towards non-Egyptians. The document, which dates to "Year 23 IV Akhet [day] 1, the day of the festival" of Amenhotep II's accession to power, is a copy of a personal letter which the king composed himself to Usersatet, his viceroy of Kush (Nubia).[38] In it, Amenhotep II reminded Usersatet of their military exploits together in Syria and proceeds to criticise the way this official conducted his office as Viceroy.[39] Amenhotep writes: Copy of the order which His Majesty wrote himself, with his own hand, to the viceroy Usersatet. His Majesty was in the [royal] Residence...he spent a holiday sitting and drinking. Look, this order of the king is brought to you...who are in faraway Nubia, a hero who brought booty from all foreign countries, a charioteer...you (are) master of a wife from Babylon and a maidservant from Byblos, a young girl from Alalakh and an old woman from Arapkha. Now, these people from Tekshi (Syria) are worthless--what are they good for? Another message for the viceroy: Do not trust the Nubians, but beware of their people and their witchcraft. Take this servant of a commoner, for example, whom you made an official although he is not an official whom you should have suggested to His Majesty; or did you want to allude to the proverb: 'If you lack a gold battle-axe inlaid with bronze, a heavy club of acacia wood will do'? So, do not listen to their words and do not heed their messages!"[39] Usersatet was so impressed (or fearful) of Amenhotep's message that he ordered a copy of it to be engraved on a stela "that was once [located] at the Second Cataract [in Nubia] and is now in Boston."[40] Amenhotep II did not openly record the names of his queens; some Egyptologists theorise that he felt that women had become too powerful under titles such as God's Wife of Amun. They point to the fact that he participated in his father's removal of Hatshepsut's name from her monuments and the destruction of her image. The destruction of Hatshepsut's images began during the co-regency of Amenhotep when his father was very old, but stopped during his reign. However, the king may have harboured his father's concern that another woman would sit on the throne. Despite his efforts however it is possible that a female co-regent of Akhenaten ruled as pharaoh before the end of his own 18th dynasty. His cause of death is unknown. See also[edit] Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt Family Tree List of pharaohs History of ancient Egypt References[edit] ^ Clayton, Peter. Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames & Hudson Ltd., 1994. p.112 ^ Eric Cline & David O'Connor, Thutmose III: A New Biography, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 2006. p.415 ^ Cline & O'Connor, p.415 ^ a b c d e Gardiner, Alan. Egypt of the Pharaohs. p. 198. Oxford University Press, 1964. ^ Manuelian 1987, p. 21. ^ a b c Charles C. Van Siclen. "Amenhotep II," The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Ed. Donald Redford. Vol. 1, p.71. Oxford University Press, 2001. ^ Urk. IV. 1279.8-10 ^ Manuelian 1987, p. 171. ^ Manuelian 1987, p. 174. ^ a b Manuelian 1987, p. 175. ^ a b c d e Manuelian 1987, p. 176. ^ a b Manuelian 1987, p. 177. ^ Manuelian 1987, p. 178. ^ Manuelian 1987, p. 181. ^ Edward F. Wente, Thutmose III's Accession and the Beginning of the New Kingdom, p.267. Journal of Near Eastern Studies, The University of Chicago Press, 1975. ^ Breasted, James Henry. Ancient Records of Egypt, Vol. II p. 234. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1906. ^ a b Shaw, Ian; and Nicholson, Paul. The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt. p.28. The British Museum Press, 1995. ^ Der Manuelian, op. cit., pp.42-43 ^ Redford, JNES Chronology, p.119 ^ Manuelian 1987, p. 43. ^ Manuelian 1987, p. 44. ^ a b Gardiner, Alan. Egypt of the Pharaohs. p. 200. Oxford University Press, 1964. ^ a b c d Grimal 1988, p. 218. ^ a b Gardiner, p.200 ^ Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. p. 162. Princeton University Press, Princeton NJ, 1992. ^ Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. p. 163. Princeton University Press, Princeton NJ, 1992. ^ Manuelian 1987, p. 62. ^ Gardiner, Alan. Egypt of the Pharaohs. p.202. Oxford University Press, 1964. ^ Peter Der Manuelian, Studies in the Reign of Amenophis II, p.76. Hildesheimer Ägyptologische Beiträge 26, Gerstenbeg Verlag, Hildesheim, 1987. ^ Gardiner, Alan. op. cit., p. 203. Oxford University Press, 1964. ^ Manuelian 1987, p. 77. ^ "Relief". www.metmuseum.org. ^ a b c Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. p. 164. Princeton University Press, Princeton NJ, 1992. ^ Manuelian 1987, p. 92. ^ Grimal 1988, p. 220. ^ Grimal 1988, p. 219. ^ a b Gardiner, p.199 ^ Urk IV, 1343:10 ^ a b Erik Hornung 'The Pharaoh' in Sergio Donadoni, The Egyptians, The University of Chicago Press, 1997. p. 291 ^ Hornung, pp. 290–291 Sources[edit] Grimal, Nicolas (1988). A History of Ancient Egypt. Blackwell Books.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Reisinger, Magnus (2005). Entwicklung der ägyptischen Königsplastik in der frühen und hohen 18. Dynastie. Münster: Agnus-Verlag. ISBN 3-00-015864-2.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Manuelian, Peter der (1987). Studies in the Reign of Amenophis II. Verlag: Hildesheimer Ägyptologische Beiträge (HÄB).CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Amenhotep II. Amenhotep II - Archaeowiki.org (Dead Link) Panorama view of the tomb of Amenhotep II v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 118502476 ISNI: 0000 0000 9722 3016 LCCN: n88120371 VIAF: 33549664 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n88120371 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amenhotep_II&oldid=1001925411" Categories: Amenhotep II 15th-century BC births 15th-century BC deaths 15th-century BC Pharaohs 14th-century BC Pharaohs Ancient Egyptian mummies Pharaohs of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Children of Thutmose III Hidden categories: CS1 maint: ref=harv Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers 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en-wikipedia-org-1298	----	Orontes II - Wikipedia Orontes II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Satrap of Armenia Orontes II Satrap of Armenia Reign 336 BC – unknown Coronation 336 BC Predecessor Darius III Successor Mithrenes? Issue Mithrenes? Dynasty Orontid Dynasty Father Orontes I? Mother Rodogoune? Orontes II (Old Persian: *Arvanta-, Armenian: Երուանդ , Yervand ) was a Persian noble living in the 4th century BC.[1] He is probably to be identified as the satrap of Armenia under Darius III, and may in fact have succeeded Darius in this position when Darius ascended the throne of Persia in 336 BC.[1] Arrian lists Orontes and a certain Mithraustes as two commanders of Armenian forces in the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC.[2] The interpretation of this passage is controversial, with different historians interpreting it as indicating that Mithraustes commanded the infantry,[3] or that there were two different contingents of Armenian cavalry in this battle,[4] or even that Armenia was divided into two parts ruled by two satraps.[5] Orontes fought at the Battle of Gaugamela on the Persian right flank with 40,000 units of infantry and 7,000 of cavalry under his command,[6] where he died.[citation needed] His son,[citation needed] Mithrenes, Satrap of Lydia, had joined Alexander the Great after being defeated at Sardis in 334 BC, and fought at Gaugamela on the side of Alexander. After the battle, Mithrenes was made Satrap of Armenia by Alexander.[7][8][9] The ultimate fate of Orontes is unknown. Diodorus and Polyaenus mention a man named Orontes, who was a Satrap of Armenia during the Second War of the Diadochi;[10][11] Diodorus adds that this Orontes was a friend of Peucestas.[10] Andrew Burn, Edward Anson and Waldemar Heckel consider this satrap to be the same Orontes who fought for Darius III in the Battle of Gaugamela;[12][1][13] Anson and Heckel state that Mithrenes may have perished in an unsuccessful attempt to wrest Armenia from Orontes.[1][13] Heckel stated that in all likehood Armenia, which was bypassed by the Macedonian army, was never part of Alexander's empire.[1] Anson, on the other hand, considered it likely that at some point after the Battle of Gaugamela Orontes made his submission to Alexander, who later put him in charge of the Greater Armenia.[13] N. G. L. Hammond interpreted the sources as indicating that Armenia was already in submission when Mithrenes was sent there from Babylon late in 331 BC, that Mithrenes took it over as satrap ruling on behalf of the new Macedonian regime, and that he was left as satrap in 323 BC when Perdiccas let some satrapies remain under the existing satraps; in 317 BC Mithrenes was no longer satrap but had been replaced by Orontes.[14] One of the inscriptions from the Mount Nemrut detailing the ancestry of Antiochus I Theos of Commagene mentions an ancestor whose name was incompletely preserved, and who was a son of Aroandas. This Aroandas (Orontes) is inferred to be the second ancestor of Antiochus listed in the inscriptions from Mount Nemrut who bore that name,[15] succeeding the first Aroandas, who in turn was the son of Artasyrus and who married Rhodogune, the daughter of Artaxerxes II of Persia.[16] Friedrich Karl Dörner and John H. Young (1996) interpreted the first preserved letter of the name of the son of Aroandas II as a delta, so that the name ended with -δανης, -danes. The authors considered this reading to be important, because it settled the proposal of Ernst Honigmann's ([Mιθρ]άνην), as well as one of the suggestions presented by Salomon Reinach ([Όστ]άνην).[17] Brijder (2014) also interpreted the inscription as indicating that name of the son of Orontes II ended with -danes.[18] Aroandas II mentioned in an inscription from Mount Nemrut was identified with the Orontes who was a commander in the Battle of Gaugamela by Karl Julius Beloch[19] and Herman Brijder.[20] This Orontes was also inferred to be a descendant of Orontes I and his wife Rhodoghune,[21] possibly their son[19] or grandson.[22][12] On the other hand, Friedrich Karl Dörner was unsure whether ancient citations of connections of the bearers of the name Aroandas/Orontes with Armenia or their status as leaders of Armenian military units are compelling reasons for assuming that they were relatives. Dörner considered it very questionable whether Aroandas II mentioned in an inscription from Mount Nemrut is identical with the Orontes of Alexander's time; the author stressed the need to consider that in the course of the 4th century BC, besides the two ancestors of Antiochus I of Commagene, other bearers of the same name may have played a part in Persian politics.[23] References[edit] ^ a b c d e Waldemar Heckel (2006). "Orontes". Who's who in the age of Alexander the Great: prosopography of Alexander's empire. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4051-1210-9. ^ Arrian, The Anabasis of Alexander, iii. 8 ^ Waldemar Heckel (2006). "Mithraustes". Who's who in the age of Alexander the Great: prosopography of Alexander's empire. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4051-1210-9. ^ Michał Marciak (2017). "Political history of Sophene". Sophene, Gordyene, and Adiabene: Three Regna Minora of Northern Mesopotamia Between East and West. Brill Publishers. p. 115. ISBN 978-90-04-35070-0. ^ Nicholas Adontz (1970). Armenia in the period of Justinian: the political conditions based on the Naxarar system. Translated by Nina G. Garsoïan. p. 306. ^ Lang, David Marshall. "Iran, Armenia and Georgia: Political Contacts". Cambridge History of Iran. 3. ^ Arrian, The Anabasis of Alexander, iii. 16 ^ Curtius, Histories of Alexander the Great, v. 1.44 ^ Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica, xvii. 64.6 ^ a b Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica, xix. 23.3 ^ Polyaenus, Stratagems in War, iv. 8.3 ^ a b A. R. Burn (2003) [1985]. "Persia and the Greeks". In Ilya Gershevitch (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran Volume 2: The Median and Achaemenian periods. Cambridge University Press. p. 384. ^ a b c Edward Anson (2014). "The funeral games begin". Alexander's Heirs: The Age of the Successors. Wiley Blackwell. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-4443-3962-8. ^ N. G. L. Hammond (1996). "Alexander and Armenia". Phoenix. 50 (2): 130–137. doi:10.2307/1192698. JSTOR 1192698. ^ F.K. Dörner (1996). "Epigraphy analysis". In Donald H. Sanders (ed.). Nemrud Daği: The Hierothesion of Antiochus I of Commagene. 1: Text. Eisenbrauns. p. 365. ISBN 978-1-57506-015-6. ^ Herman Brijder (2014). "The East Terrace". In Herman Brijder (ed.). Nemrud Daği: recent archaeological research and conservation activities in the tomb sanctuary on Mount Nemrud. De Gruyter. p. 330. ISBN 978-1-61451-713-9. ^ F.K. Dörner; J.H. Young (1996). "Sculpture and inscription catalogue". In Donald H. Sanders (ed.). Nemrud Daği: The Hierothesion of Antiochus I of Commagene. 1: Text. Eisenbrauns. p. 297. ISBN 978-1-57506-015-6. ^ Herman Brijder (2014). "The West Terrace". In Herman Brijder (ed.). Nemrud Daği: recent archaeological research and conservation activities in the tomb sanctuary on Mount Nemrud. De Gruyter. p. 373. ISBN 978-1-61451-713-9. ^ a b Karl Julius Beloch (1923). Griechische geschichte. Volume 3, part 2. Walter de Gruyter & co. p. 141. ^ Herman Brijder (2014). "The East Terrace". In Herman Brijder (ed.). Nemrud Daği: recent archaeological research and conservation activities in the tomb sanctuary on Mount Nemrud. De Gruyter. p. 331. ISBN 978-1-61451-713-9. ^ David M. Lang (2008) [1983]. "Iran, Armenia and Georgia". In Ehsan Yarshater (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran Volume 3: The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanid Periods, Part 1. Cambridge University Press. p. 506. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521200929.016. ISBN 9781139054942. ^ Walther Judeich (1892). Kleinasiatische Studien. Untersuchungen zur Griechisch-Persischen Geschichte des IV. jahrhunderts v. Chr. N. G. Elwertsche Verlagsbuchhandlung. p. 225. ^ F.K. Dörner (1996). "Epigraphy analysis". In Donald H. Sanders (ed.). Nemrud Daği: The Hierothesion of Antiochus I of Commagene. 1: Text. Eisenbrauns. pp. 365–366. ISBN 978-1-57506-015-6. Bibliography[edit] J. M. Cook, The Persian Empire Richard G. Hovannisian, The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, 2 vols. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997 Professor David Marshall Lang, Iran, Armenia and Georgia: Political Contacts. In Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3 v t e Armenian kings Orontid Dynasty Orontes I Sakavakyats Tigranes Vahagn Hidarnes I Hidarnes II Hidarnes III Artasyrus (satrap) Orontes I (satrap) Darius III (satrap) Orontes II (satrap) Mithrenes (satrap) Orontes III Sames Arsames I Xerxes Orontes IV Abdissares Artaxiad Dynasty Artaxias I Tigranes I Artavasdes I Tigranes the Great Artavasdes II Artaxias II Tigranes III Tigranes IV with Erato Roman and Parthian non-dynastic candidates Ariobarzanes II Artavasdes III Tigranes V Vonones I Artaxias III Arsaces I Orodes Mithridates Rhadamistus Tiridates I Arsacid Dynasty Tigranes VI Sanatruk Axidares Parthamasiris Vologases I Sohaemus Bakur Vologases II Khosrov I Tiridates II Khosrov II Tiridates III Khosrov III Tiran Arshak II Pap Varazdat Arshak III Khosrov IV Vramshapuh Artaxias IV Bagratid Armenia Ashot I Smbat I Ashot II Abas I Ashot III Smbat II Gagik I Hovhannes-Smbat III Ashot IV Gagik II Cilicia Leo I Isabella Hethum I Leo II Hethum II Thoros Sempad Constantine I Leo III Oshin Leo IV Constantine II Constantine III Constantine IV Leo V v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Orontes_II&oldid=1002470219" Categories: 4th-century BC kings of Armenia Orontid dynasty Armenian people of Iranian descent Achaemenid satraps of Armenia 4th-century BC Iranian people Hidden categories: CS1: long volume value Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2018 AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages تۆرکجه Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά فارسی Français Հայերեն Hrvatski ქართული مصرى Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 16:41 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1312	----	Syennesis (5th century) - Wikipedia Syennesis (5th century) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other rulers of the same name, see Syennesis. Coinage of Syennesis III. Circa 425-400 BC. Satrap on horseback galloping right / 'TRZ' in Aramaic right, hoplite kneeling left, wearing crested Corinthian helmet, holding spear in right hand, large round shield decorated with gorgoneion in right. Location of Cilicia within the classical regions of Asia Minor/Anatolia Syennesis, also Syennesis III (Ancient Greek: Συέννεσις, Aramaic:TRZ) was a ruler of ancient Cilicia in the 5th century BCE. Rule[edit] Synnesis was a contemporary of Artaxerxes II of Persia, and when Cyrus the Younger, marching against Artaxerxes in 401 BCE, arrived at the borders of Cilicia, he found the passes guarded by Syennesis, who, however, withdrew his troops on receiving intelligence that the force advanced by Cyrus under Meno had already entered Cilicia, and that the combined fleet of the Lacedaemonians and the prince, under Samius and Tamos, was sailing round from Ionia. When Cyrus reached Tarsus, the Cilician capital, he found that Meno's soldiers had sacked the city, and commanded Synnesis to appear before him. Syennesis had fled for refuge to a stronghold among the mountains, but he was induced by his wife, Epyaxa, to obey the summons of Cyrus. Here he received gifts of honor from the Cyrus, whom he supplied in his turn with a large sum of money and a considerable body of troops under the command of one of his sons. At the same time, however, Syennesis took care to send his other son to Artaxerxes, to represent his meeting with Cyrus as having been something he'd been forced to do, while his heart all the time was with the king, Artaxerxes. From Xenophon's telling it appears that Syennesis at this time, though really a vassal of Persia, affected the tone of an independent sovereign.[1][2][3] Coinage[edit] Possible coin of Syennesis, Tarsos. Circa 425-400 BC. Satrap on horseback riding left; behind, eagle perched left on branch; monogram below / Archer in kneeling-running stance right, drawing bow; monogram behind. Notes[edit] ^ Xenophon, Hellenica iii. 1. § I ^ Xenophon, Anabasis i. 2. §§ 12, 21-27, 4. § 4, vii. 8. § 25 ^ Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica xiv. 20 v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Elder, Edward (1870). "Syennesis". In Smith, William (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 3. p. 949. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Syennesis_(5th_century)&oldid=1001515533" Categories: 5th-century BC rulers Anabasis (Xenophon) People from ancient Cilicia Achaemenid satraps of Cilicia Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Edit links This page was last edited on 20 January 2021, at 01:24 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-133	----	Zazana - Wikipedia Zazana From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Susiana) Jump to navigation Jump to search Susiana[1] (Old Persian: Zâzâna) or Zazana, Zazannu[2] was an ancient Mesopotamian city or town located by the Euphrates river.[3] References[edit] ^ http://www.zazaki.de/zazakide/s-cengiz/dersim-zaza-tarihi-I.htm ^ University, Department Of Classi Harvard; Classics, Harvard University Dept of the; Goold, G. P. (1972-01-01). Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674379220. ^ "Nidintu-Bêl - Livius". www.livius.org. Retrieved 2020-08-11. This Middle Eastern history-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zazana&oldid=995201047" Categories: Middle Eastern history stubs Populated places on the Euphrates River Hidden categories: All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Deutsch Ελληνικά مازِرونی Nederlands Polski Русский Türkçe Українська Zazaki Edit links This page was last edited on 19 December 2020, at 19:51 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1346	----	Huni - Wikipedia Huni From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Huni (disambiguation). Huni Ny-Suteh, Nisut-Hu, Hu-en-nisut, Qahedjet(?), Kerpheris, Aches Pink granite head identified as Huni, Brooklyn Museum Pharaoh Reign 24 years[1] (3rd Dynasty) Predecessor Khaba(?) Successor Sneferu Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Abusir stone bowl Niswt-bitj Hw-en-Niswt Elephantine cone/Palermo stone Hw-en-Niswt Papyrus Prisse Hwj The smiter Saqqara Tablet Hwj The smiter Turin King List King Hw... Consort Djefatnebti(?), Meresankh I(?) Children Hetepheres I(?), Sneferu(?) Monuments Cultic step pyramid and palace at Elephantine Huni (original reading unknown) was an ancient Egyptian king and the last pharaoh of the Third Dynasty of Egypt during the Old Kingdom period. Following the Turin king list, he is commonly credited with a reign of 24 years, ending c. 2613 BC. Huni's chronological position as the last king of the third dynasty is seen as fairly certain, but there is still some uncertainty on the succession order of rulers at the end of the 3rd dynasty. It is also unclear under which Hellenized name the ancient historian Manetho could have listed him in his historical writing Aegyptiacae. Most possibly he is to be identified with the Hellenized name Aches, as Winfried Barta proposes. Many Egyptologists believe that Huni was the father and direct predecessor of king Sneferu, but this is questioned by other scholars. Huni is seen by scholars as a confusing figure in Egyptian history, because he was long remembered in Egyptian traditions, but only very few documents, objects or monuments have endured.[2] Contents 1 Attestations 2 Name and identity 2.1 Huni's cartouche name 2.2 Huni's possible Horus name 3 Family 4 Reign 5 Monuments possibly connected to Huni 5.1 Meidum pyramid 5.2 Layer Pyramid 5.3 Lepsius pyramid – I 5.4 Cultic step pyramids 5.5 Edfu South Pyramid 6 Burial 7 Notes and references 8 External links Attestations[edit] Granite cone uncovered on Elephantine and inscribed with Huni's cartouche[3] Huni is not a well attested pharaoh; most of the attestations only point indirectly to him. There are only two contemporary objects with his name. The first one is a conical stele made of red granite, discovered in 1909 on the island of Elephantine. The object is 62.99 inches (160.0 cm) long, 27.16 inches (69.0 cm) thick and 19.69 inches (50.0 cm) broad. Its shape resembles a typical Benben stele, as known from mastaba tombs of early dynastic kings. At the front, the cone presents a rectangular niche with an incarved inscription inside. The inscription mentions a royal palace named Palace of the headband of Huni and writes Huni's name above inside a royal cartouche. The decorated niche is interpreted by scholars as a so-called "apparition window". The lower part of the window frame is flattened and elongated and shows traces of a second inscription, apparently the same as inside the window. It is not fully clarified, where exactly the object was once on display. Because it was found very close to a stepped pyramid, Egyptologists such as Rainer Stadelmann propose a position on the very front of the monument, or even visibly embedded in one of the steps. Today Huni's dedication cone is on display in the Cairo Museum as object JE 41556.[3][4] The second finding, discovered in 2007, is a polished stone bowl made of magnesite, found at South-Abusir in the mastaba tomb AS-54, belonging to a high official, whose name is yet unknown to archaeologists. The stone vessel inscription mentions Huni's name without a cartouche, but with the Njswt-Bity title. The orthography of the hieroglyphs that form Huni's name makes a reading as Njswt-Hw or Hw-en-Niswt plausible.[5] Huni is also attested in mastaba L6 at Saqqara, attributed to the official Metjen and dating to the end of the 3rd dynasty. There, an inscription was found with the name of a royal domain Hw.t-njswt.-hw ("Hut-nisut-hu") of Huni.[6] Huni is further mentioned on the back of the Palermo stone in the section concerning the reign of the 5th-dynasty king Neferirkare Kakai, who apparently had a mortuary temple built for the cult of Huni. The temple, however, has not yet been located.[2] Finally, Huni is attested in the papyrus Prisse, in the Instructions of Kagemni, probably dating to the 13th dynasty. The papyrus gives an important indication about Huni's succession in column II, line 7: But then the majesty of king Huni died and the majesty of king Snefru was now raised up as beneficient king in this entire land. And Kagemni was raised as the new mayor of the royal capitol and became vizir of the king.[7] Most scholars today think that this extract may strengthen the theory that Huni was the last king of the 3rd dynasty and immediate predecessor of king Snefru (the first ruler of the 4th dynasty).[8] Name and identity[edit] Huni's cartouche name[edit] Huni's identity is difficult to establish, since his name is passed down mostly as cartouche name and in different variations. The earliest mention of his cartouche name may possibly appearing on the granite cone from Elephantine, which might be contemporary. Otherwise, the earliest appearances of Huni's cartouche can be found on the Palermo Stone P1, dating to the 5th dynasty, and on the Prisse Papyrus of the 13th dynasty. Huni's cartouche can also be found in the Saqqara kinglist and the Turin Canon, both dating back to the 19th dynasty. The Abydos kinglist, which also dates to the 19th dynasty, mysteriously omits Huni's name and gives instead a Neferkara I who is unknown to Egyptologists.[2] The reading and translation of his cartouche name is also disputed. In general, two basic versions of his name exist: an old version, which is closest to the (lost) original, and a younger version, which seems to be based on ramesside interpretations and misreadings. Huni's cartouche on the back of the Palermo stone in Neferirkare's register.[9] The older version uses the hieroglyphic signs candle wick (Gardiner sign V28), juncus sprout (Gardiner sign M23), bread loaf (Gardiner sign X1) and water line (Gardiner sign N35). This writing form can be found on Old Kingdom objects such as the Palermo Stone recto (reign of Neferirkare), the tomb inscription of Metjen, the stone vessel found in Abusir and the granite cone from Elephantine. Whilst the stone vessel from Abusir writes Huni's name without a cartouche, but gives the Niswt-Bity-title, all other Old Kingdom writings place the king's name inside an oval cartouche.[9] The ramesside versions use the hieroglyphic signs candle wick (Gardiner sign V28), beating man (Gardiner sign A25), water line (Gardiner sign N35) and arm with a stick (Gardiner sign D40). The cartouche No. 15 in the Kinglist of Saqqara writes two vertical strokes between the water line and the beating arm. The Prisse Papyrus omits the candle wick and the beating arm.[9] Egyptologist Ludwig Borchardt had already proposed by the beginning of the 20th century that the old and ramesside cartouche versions were referring to one and the same king. He proposed that ramesside scribes erroneously took away the juncus sign of the Niswt-Bity title and placed it before the royal cartouche, not realizing that this sign was part of the original birth- or throne-name of Huni. He also proposed that the candle wick was misinterpreted as the sign for "smiting", tempting the ramesside scribes to place the hieroglyph of a beating man behind it.[10] These conclusions are still shared by scholars today.[4] Following his hypothesis, Borchardt reads Huni's cartouche name as Niswt Hw ("king Hu").[10] However, Hans Gödicke instead reads Ny Swteh ("He who belongs to the smiters") and is convinced that Huni's name was theophoric. In particular, he compares Huni's name construction with those of the kings Nynetjer ("He who belongs to the deified of Horus") and Nyuserre ("He who belongs to those of power of Re").[11] Rainer Stadelmann and Wolfgang Helck strongly refute Gödicke's reading, pointing out that no single Egyptian document mentions a deity, person, place or even a single colloquial term named "Swteh". Thus there is no grammatical source that could have been used to make a royal name "Ny Swteh". Helck instead suggests a reading as Hwj-nj-niswt and translates it as "The utterance belongs to the king".[4][9] Huni's possible Horus name[edit] The Horus name of Huni is unknown. There are several theories to connect the cartouche name "Huni" with contemporary Horus names. In the late 1960s, the Louvre Museum bought a stele showing a king whose Horus name is Horus-Qahedjet ("the crown of Horus is raised"). For stylistical reasons the stele may be dated to the late Third Dynasty and it seems possible that it refers to Huni, whose Horus-name it provides.[12] However, dating and authenticity have been put into question several times, and today the stela is believed to be either fake, or dedicated to king Thutmose III (18th dynasty) while imitating the artistic style of Dynasty III.[13] Peter Kaplony promotes an ominous name found in the burial shaft of an unfinished pyramid at Zawyet el'Aryan. The monument is connected with a possible pharaoh named Bikheris. The name in question reads Neb-hedjetnwb ("lord of the golden crown") and is thought by Kaplony to be Huni's possible Horus name. However, Egyptologists such as Aidon Dodson contradict this theory and argue that Neb-hedjetnwb, with its gold hieroglyph, should rather be the Golden Horus name of Bikheris.[14][15] Other Egyptologists, such as Toby Wilkinson and Rainer Stadelmann, identify Huni with the contemporarily well-attested king Horus-Khaba ("the soul of Horus appears"). Their identification is based on the circumstance that both kings' Horus names appear on incised stone vessels without any further guiding notes. It was a fashion that began with the death of king Khasekhemwy (end of 2nd dynasty) and ended under king Sneferu (beginning of the 4th dynasty). Thus, it was a very typical practice of the 3rd dynasty. Additionally, Stadelmann points to the Layer Pyramid at Zawyet el'Aryan. This monument was possibly built by Khaba, since a nearby mastaba contained several stone vessels with his Horus name. Since the Turin Canon credits a reign of 24 years to Huni, Stadelmann argues that this time span would perfectly fit to finish the Layer Pyramid. Furthermore, Stadelmann points to the large amount of discovered mud seal impressions and stone bowls and the widespread finding spots throughout Egypt. In his opinion, the archaeological context also speaks for a longer-lasting reign. Thus, he identifies Khaba with Huni.[2][4] Family[edit] Inscription from mastaba L6 mentioning a royal domain of Huni.[9] The genealogical position of Huni in the family line of ruling kings, during the time when the 3rd dynasty ended and the 4th started, is highly disputed. Contemporary and later documents often mention Huni and his follower Snefru in the same sentence, always in direct succession. Therefore, Egyptologists and historians believe that Huni might have even been related to Snefru. A key figure in this case is queen Meresankh I, the royal mother of Snefru. She definitely bore the title of a queen, but no contemporary source connects her name with the title of a daughter or wife of Huni. This circumstance raises doubts in the family relationship between Huni and Snefru. Today most scholars prefer to believe the historian Manetho, who claims in his Aegyptiacae that with the enthronement of Snefru a different royal house gained power over Egypt and a new dynasty had begun.[16] A possible wife of Huni was instead a queen Djefatnebty, whose name appears in black ink inscriptions on beer vases from Elephantine. Her name is guided by the title great one of the hetes-sceptre, making her definitely a queen consort. According to an interpretation by Günter Dreyer, Djefatnebty's death is mentioned alongside several events during the reign of king Huni, although no king is mentioned in the inscription by his name. Dreyer is convinced that the notations concern the 22nd year of Huni's reign, since the Turin canon credits him with a reign of 24 years and no 3rd dynasty king is archaeologically proven to have ruled so long. Dreyer's interpretation is not commonly accepted, though.[16] Until today, no child or other relative of Huni can be identified and connected to him with certainty. William Stevenson Smith and George Andrew Reisner propose to identify queen Hetepheres I (concubine of Sneferu and mother of king Khufu; 4th dynasty) as the daughter of King Huni. Hetepheres bore the female title Sat-netjer ("daughter of a god"), which led Smith and Reisner to the conclusion that this could be a hint to her family position as the daughter of Huni. In this case, Hetepheres would have been an heir princess and by marrying Snefru, she secured the blood line of the royal dynasty.[17][18] But other scholars, such as Wolfgang Helck and Wilfried Seipel, raise strong doubts against this theory. They argue that the title of Hetepheres does not explicitly reveal to whom she was married in her lifetime.[19] Reign[edit] Next to nothing is known of Huni's time on the throne. Huni is given a reign of 24 years by the Turin canon, which is commonly accepted by scholars. Religious or military activities are not known from his reign.[3] The only contemporary documents, which allow some evaluation of any political and social developments during Huni's time, are the tomb inscriptions of high officials such as Metjen, Khabausokar, A'a-akhty and Pehernefer. These are dated to the time span from the end of 3rd dynasty unto the beginning of the 4th dynasty. They show that the reign of Huni must have been the beginning of the heyday of the Old Kingdom. For the first time inscriptions give explicit insights into the power structure of the state, with nomarchs and viziers exercising important powers. The tomb inscriptions of Metjen also mentions, for the first time in Egyptian history, that titles of high-ranked officials and priests were only passed down by inheritance from father to son.[2] It seems though, that Huni undertook some building projects. The Turin Canon, which is rather modest about additional informations concerning the listed kings, credits Huni with the erection of a certain building, for which Huni must have been honoured in later times. Unfortunately, the papyrus is damaged at the relevant column and the complete name of the building is lost today. Egyptologists Günter Dreyer and Werner Kaiser propose a reading as "he who built Sekhem...". They believe that it could be possible, that the building was part of a building project through the entire land, including the erection of several, small cultic pyramids.[20][21] Another hint of possible building projects and city foundations under Huni might be hidden in the name of the historical city of Ehnas (today better known as Heracleopolis Magna). Wolfgang Helck points out, that the Old Kingdom name of this city was Nenj-niswt and that this name was written with exactly the same hieroglyphs as the cartouche name of Huni. Thus, he proposes Huni as the founder of Ehnas. Additionally, the tomb inscription of Metjen mentions a mortuary domain in the nome of Letopolis. This building hasn't been found by archaeologists yet.[22][23] After his death, Huni seems to have enjoyed a long lasting mortuary cult. The Palermo stone, which was made over a hundred years after Huni's death, mentions donations made to a funerary complex temple of Huni. Huni's name is also mentioned in the Prisse Papyrus, a further evidence that Huni was remembered long after his death since the papyrus was written during the 12th dynasty.[2] Monuments possibly connected to Huni[edit] Meidum pyramid[edit] The Meidum pyramid, initially believed to have been started by Huni, is now thought to be exclusively the work of Snefru. In the early 20th century, the Meidum pyramid was often credited to Huni. One long-held theory posited that Huni had started a stepped pyramid, similar to that of king Djoser, Sekhemkhet and Khaba, but architecturally more advanced and with more and smaller steps. When king Snefru ascended the throne, he would have simply covered the pyramid with polished limestone slabs, making it a "true pyramid". The odd appearance of the pyramid was explained in early publications by a possible building catastrophe, during which the pyramid's covering collapsed and many workmen would have been crushed. The theory seemed to be fostered by the unknown duration of Snefru's reign. At the time, egyptologists and historians couldn't believe that Snefru ruled long enough to have three pyramids built for him.[24][25] Closer examinations of the pyramid surroundings however revealed several tomb inscriptions and pilgrim graffiti praising the "beauty of the white pyramid of king Snefru". They further call for prayers to Snefru and "his great wife Meresankh I". Additionally, the surrounding mastaba tombs date to the reign of King Snefru. Huni's name has yet to be found anywhere near the pyramid. These indices led Egyptologists to the conclusion that the pyramid of Meidum was never Huni's, but rather an achievement of Snefru, planned and constructed as a cenotaph. Ramesside graffiti reveal that the white limestone covering still existed during the 19th dynasty and thus started to collapse slowly after that period. The rest of the limestone covering and the first inner layers were robbed during the New Kingdom period and the Roman period. This practice continued in Christian and Islamic times, in particular during the construction works of the Arabs in the 12th century AD. Arab writers describe the Meidum pyramid as a "mountain with five steps". Finally, several regional earthquakes damaged the monument.[24][25] A third argument against the theory that Snefru completed Huni's project is newer evaluations of Snefru's time on the throne. According to the Turin Canon, Snefru ruled for 24 years. However, during the Old Kingdom the years of rule were counted biennially, when cattle counts and tax collections were performed, which would mean that Snefru may have ruled for 48 years. The compiler of the Turin Canon may not have been aware of this long-gone circumstance when redacting his document and would consequently have attributed 24 years to Snefru. Today it is estimated that 48 years of rule would have allowed Snefru to build three pyramids during his lifetime.[26][27] Additionally, egyptologists such as Rainer Stadelmann point out that it was uncommon for rulers during the Old Kingdom to usurp or finish the tomb of a predecessor; all that a succeeding king did was to bury and seal the tomb of his predecessor.[24][25] Layer Pyramid[edit] The Layer Pyramid, attributed to Khaba, who may be the same person as Huni. As mentioned before, Rainer Stadelmann thinks it could be possible that Huni built the so-called Layer Pyramid at Zawyet el'Aryan. According to Stadelmann and Jean-Phillipe Lauer, this monument was nearly finished, when it was left. It is unknown, though, if the subterranean complex actually was ever used for the burial of the king. The necropolis of the Layer Pyramid is still incompletely investigated. A nearby mastaba (Mastaba Z500), which was integrated into the pyramid complex, contained several stone bowls with the Horus name of king Khaba. Thus, the Layer Pyramid is commonly equally known as the pyramid of Khaba. Rainer Stadelmann proposes an identification of Khaba with Huni. He argues that the finishing of the pyramid lasted a long period of time and since the Turin Canon credits a 24-year reign to Huni, this time span surely covered the building time needed for the pyramid. Thus, both names ("Huni" and "Khaba") might point to one and the same ruler.[4][28] Lepsius pyramid – I[edit] A mysterious mud brick pyramid, originally planned to be the size of that of Khafrâ, was uncovered in Abu Rawash and documented by Karl Richard Lepsius, who listed it in his list of pyramids as Pyramid I. The pyramid was already a heap of rubble at the time his excavations: only a 17-metre-high (56 ft) stump of brick layers was left. Lepsius nonetheless discovered a narrow corridor leading down to a nearly square chamber. In it, he found a roughly hewn stone sarcophagus. Lepsius dated the pyramid to the late 3rd dynasty and proposed a connection to King Huni.[29][30] Today, this theory is no longer accepted. In 1989, Egyptologist Nabil Swelim examined the pyramid more precisely and found that it was made of small mud bricks, with a quarter of its inner core hewn out of a natural bedrock. The rock core itself contained several rock-cut tombs dating back to the 5th and 6th dynasty. Swelim and others Egyptologists, such as Toby Wilkinson, point out that it would be surprising for a royal pyramid to have been completely destroyed less than 300 years after its construction, only to be re-used for simple rock-cut tombs. Additionally, he points to the unusual geographic position of the pyramid: Old Kingdom pyramids were commonly built on high grounds, while the pyramid Lepsius I lies on a flat plain. Thus, the dating of this monument to the late 3rd dynasty no longer seems tenable.[29][31][32] Cultic step pyramids[edit] Several small step pyramids along the Nile river are also credited to Huni. Those small pyramids had a cultic function and marked important royal estates. They contained no internal chambers and were not used for burial purposes. One of them is located at the eastern end of Elephantine island and a granite cone with Huni's name was discovered nearby in 1909. Therefore, this little pyramid is the only one that may be credited to Huni with some certainty.[33] Some scholars such as Andrzej Ćwiek contest this attribution however, pointing out that it might be at least possible that the granite cone of Huni was re-used in later times, when ramesside priests restored cultic places of the Old Kingdom period.[34] The only cultic step pyramid that can be definitively connected to an Old Kingdom ruler is a small step pyramid known as the Seila Pyramid, located at the Faiyum Oasis. Two large stela with the name of Snefru were found in front of the pyramid, thus indicating the king responsible for its construction.[35] Since Snefru was Huni's likely immediate successor, this might indicate however that cultic pyramids were indeed constructed at the transition between the 3rd and 4th dynasties. Edfu South Pyramid[edit] Edfu South Pyramid Burial[edit] Huni's burial site remains unknown. Since the Meidum pyramid can be excluded, egyptologists and archaeologists propose several alternative burial sites. As already pointed out, Rainer Stadelmann and Miroslav Verner propose the Layer-pyramid at Zawyet el-Aryan as Huni's tomb, because they identify Huni with Khaba, who is in turn well connected with the Layer-pyramid, since several stone bowls with his Horus name were found in the surrounding necropolis.[36] Alternatively, Stadelmann proposes a huge mastaba at Meidum as Huni's burial. Mastaba M17 was originally around 100 metres (330 ft) large by 200 metres (660 ft) wide and was approximately 15 to 20 metres (49 to 66 ft) high. The above-ground part was made of unburnt mud bricks and filled with rubble from the second building phase of the Meidum pyramid. The subterranean structure contained a 3.7 metres (12 ft) deep shaft leading into a corridor and several large chapels and niches. The burial chamber was plundered in antiquity, every decoration was destroyed and/or stolen. The large, roughly hewn sarcophagus contained the remains of a violently tattered mummy. Stadelmann and Peter Janosi think that the mastaba was either the tomb of a crown-prince, who died an heir to the throne of king Snefru, or it was the burial of Huni himself.[37] Miroslav Bárta instead proposes mastaba AS-54 in South-Abusir as the most possible burial site. This is promoted by the finding of a polished magnesite bowl, which shows the niswt-bity title of Huni. The mastaba itself was once pretty large and contained large niches and chapels. It also contained a quite large amount of polished dishes, vases and urnes. Contradictorily, nearly all the vessels are undecorated, no ink inscription or carving were found on the objects. Thus, the name of the true owner is yet unknown. Only one vessel clearly shows Huni's name while a few other might show small traces. Bárta thus sees two possibilities for the owner of the mastaba: it was either a very high ranked official, such as a prince of Huni's time, or king Huni himself.[38] Notes and references[edit] ^ according to Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, page 99. ^ a b c d e f Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, London/ New York 1999, ISBN 0-415-18633-1, p. 85–89. ^ a b c Winfried Barta: Zum altägyptischen Namen des Königs Aches. In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo. (MDAIK), vol. 29. von Zabern, Mainz 1973, pages 1–4. ^ a b c d e Rainer Stadelmann: King Huni: His Monuments and His Place in the History of the Old Kingdom. In: Zahi A. Hawass, Janet Richards (Hrsg.): The Archaeology and Art of Ancient Egypt. Essays in Honor of David B. O’Connor. Band II, Conceil Suprême des Antiquités de l’Égypte, Kairo 2007, p. 425–431. ^ M. Barta: An Abusir Mastaba from the Reign of Huni, in: Vivienne Gae Callender (et al., editors): Times, Signs and Pyramids: Studies in Honour of Miroslav Verner on the Occasion of his Seventieth Birthday, Prague: Charles University, Faculty in Art, 2011, ISBN 978-8073082574, p. 41–51 (inscription depicted as fig. 6 on p. 48) ^ Wolfgang Helck: Der Name des letzten Königs der 3. Dynastie und die Stadt Ehnas, in: Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur (SAK), 4, (1976), pp. 125–128. ^ Hellmut Brunner: Altägyptische Erziehung. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1991, ISBN 3447031883, p. 154. ^ Nicolas Grimal: A History of Ancient Egypt, pp. 65–67. ^ a b c d e Wolfgang Helck: Der Name des letzten Königs der 3. Dynastie und die Stadt Ehnas. In: Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur. (SAK); 4th Edition 1976, p. 125-128. ^ a b Ludwig Borchardt: König Hu. In: Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde (ZÄS); 46th edition, Berlin/Cairo 1909, p. 12. ^ Hans Gödicke: Der Name des Huni. In: Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde (ZÄS); 81st edition, Berlin/Cairo 1956, p. 18. ^ Toby Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt, Routledge, London/New York 1999, ISBN 0-415-18633-1, page 104-105. ^ Jean-Pierre Pätznik, Jacques Vandier: L’Horus Qahedjet: Souverain de la IIIe dynastie?. page 1455–1472 ^ Aidan Dodson: On the date of the unfinished pyramid of Zawyet el-Aryan. In: Discussion in Egyptology. University Press, Oxford (UK) 1985, p. 22. ^ Peter Kaplony: Die Rollsiegel des Alten Reichs: Katalog der Rollsiegel (= Monumenta aegyptiaca, vol. 3). Fondation Egypt. Reine Elisabeth, Cairo 1981, p. 146–155. ^ a b Silke Roth: Die Königsmütter des Alten Ägypten von der Frühzeit bis zum Ende der 12. Dynastie. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2001, ISBN 3-447-04368-7, page 68–69 & 385. ^ William Stevenson Smith: Inscriptional Evidence for the History of the Fourth Dynasty. In: Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 11, 1952, p. 113–128. ^ George Andrew Reisner: A History of the Giza Necropolis - Volume II.: The tomb of Hetep-Heres, the mother of Cheops. A Study of Egyptian Civilization in the Old Kingdom. Oxford University Press, Oxford 1955, p. 59–61. ^ Wilfried Seipel: Hetepheres I. In: Wolfgang Helck, Eberhard Otto: Lexikon der Ägyptologie. p. 1172–1173. ^ Rainer Stadelmann: King Huni: His Monuments and His Place in the History of the Old Kingdom. In: Zahi A. Hawass, Janet Richards (Hrsg.): The Archaeology and Art of Ancient Egypt. Essays in Honor of David B. O’Connor; vol. II. Conceil Suprême des Antiquités de l’Égypte, Kairo 2007, p. 425. ^ Günter Dreyer, Werner Kaiser: Zu den kleinen Stufenpyramiden Ober- und Mittelägyptens. In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Abteilung Kairo, vol. 36. Philipp von Zabern, Mainz 1980, p. 55. ^ Wolfgang Helck: Der Name des letzten Königs der 3. Dynastie und die Stadt Ehnas. In: Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur (SAK), vol. 4, 1976, p. 127. ^ Eduard Meyer: Geschichte des Altertums: Band 1. Erweiterte Ausgabe, Jazzybee Verlag, Altenmünster 2012 (Neuauflage), ISBN 3849625168, p. 128. ^ a b c Miroslav Verner: Die Pyramiden. Rowohlt Verlag, Wiesbaden 1999, ISBN 3499608901, p. 185-195. ^ a b c Rainer Stadelmann: Snofru und die Pyramiden von Meidum und Dahschur. in: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Kairo (MDAIK), vol 36. Zabern, Mainz 1980, p. 437–449. ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, p. 278. ^ Rainer Stadelmann: Die großen Pyramiden von Giza. Akad. Druck- u. Verlagsanstalt, Graz 1990, ISBN 320101480X, p. 260. ^ Miroslav Verner: Die Pyramiden. Rowohlt, Wiesbaden 1999, ISBN 3-499-60890-1, p. 174. ^ a b Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, London/New York 1999, ISBN 0-415-18633-1, p. 103–105. ^ Karl Richard Lepsius: Denkmäler aus Ägypten und Äthiopien. p. 21ff. ^ Miroslav Verner: Die Pyramiden. Rowohlt, Wiesbaden 1999, ISBN 3-499-60890-1, p. 177. ^ Nabil M. Swelim: The brick pyramid at Abu Rawash Number "I" by Lepsius. Publications of the Archeological Society of Alexandria, Kairo 1987, p. 113. ^ Günter Dreyer, Werner Kaiser: Zu den kleinen Stufenpyramiden Ober- und Mittelägyptens. In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo (MDAIK), vol. 36, 1980, p. 57. ^ Andrzej Ćwiek: "Date and Function of the so-called Minor Step Pyramids". In: Göttinger Miszellen, 162. Edition 1998. p. 42-44. ^ Rainer Stadelmann: Snofru – Builder and Unique Creator of the Pyramids of Seila and Meidum. In: Ola El-Aguizy, Mohamed Sherif Ali: Echoes of Eternity. Studies presented to Gaballa Aly Gaballa. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2010, ISBN 978-3-447-06215-2, p. 32. ^ Miroslav Verner: Die Pyramiden. Rowohlt, Wiesbaden 1999, ISBN 3-499-60890-1, p.177. ^ Peter Jánosi: Die Gräberwelt der Pyramidenzeit. von Zabern, Mainz 2009, ISBN 3805336225, p. 37-38. ^ Miroslav Bárta: An Abusir Mastaba from the Reign of Huni. In: Vivienne Gae Callender: Times, Signs and Pyramids: Studies in Honour of Miroslav Verner on the Occasion of his Seventieth Birthday. Charles University – Faculty in Art, Praha 2011, ISBN 978-80-7308-257-4, p. 48. External links[edit] Meidum: Site of the Broken Pyramid & Remnants of the First True Pyramid- Virtual-Egypt On pharaoh Huni v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huni&oldid=999487573" Categories: 27th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Third Dynasty of Egypt 27th-century BC deaths Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here 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en-wikipedia-org-1352	----	Satrapy of Armenia - Wikipedia Satrapy of Armenia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the Satrapy of Armenia. For a list of other Armenian Kingdoms, see Kingdom of Armenia. Satrapy of Armenia Սատրապական Հայաստան  (Armenian) Satrapakan Hayastan 570 BC–200 BC Territory of the Orontid Dynasty in IV-II BC Status Satrapy Capital Tushpa Erebuni Common languages Armenian Aramaic (South) Median (East) Religion Armenian polytheism Zoroastrianism Government Monarchy King   History   • Established 570 BC • Disestablished 200 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Urartu Medes Kingdom of Armenia (Antiquity) Lesser Armenia Sophene Commagene History of Armenia Origins Name People Language Prehistory Stone and Copper Age Portasar Civilisation Karahan Tepe Gobelki Tepe Halan Cemi Tepe Shulaveri-Shomu_culture6500-3400 BC Areni-1 Cave Complex Kura–Araxes culturec. 3400–2000 BC Legend of Hayk(?) 2492 BC Armani2400-2000 BC Bronze and Iron Age Trialeti-Vanadzorc. 2200–1600 BC Mitannic. 1600–1350 BC Hayasa-Azzic. 1500–1290 BC Arme-Shupriac. 1300–1190 BC Ararat/Urartu Diauehic. 1100-760 BC Mushki Nairi Tribes 1114–860 BC Kingdom of Van 860–590 BC Scythian and Mede invasions 6th cen. BC Antiquity Achaemenid period Satrapy of Armina 549–331 BC Orontid Dynasty Kingdom of Armenia Armenia Minor 331–72 BC Kingdom of Armenia 321 BC–428 AD Artaxiad dynasty 189 BC–12 AD Empire 84–34 BC Arsacid dynasty 52–428 AD Roman–Parthian War58–63 AD Roman Province of Armenia 114–118 AD Christianization 301 AD Kingdom of Sophene c.200–94 BC Kingdom of Commagene 163 BC–72 AD Marzpanate period Byzantine Armenia 387–536 Persian Armenia 428–646 Mamikonian dynasty Battle of Avarayr 451 Muslim conquest of Armenia 645 Middle Ages Arabic period Emirate of Armenia 653–884 Hamamshen 700s–1300s Amatuni Dynasty Kingdom of Armenia Bagratid Armenia 884–1045 Bagratid dynasty 861–1118 Sajid dynasty 889–929 Kingdom of Vaspurakan 908–1021 Artsruni dynasty Sallarid dynasty 919–1062 Kingdom of Tashir-Dzoraget 979–1118 Kingdom of Syunik 987–1170 Kingdom of Artsakh 1000–1261 House of Hasan-Jalalyan Battle of Manzikert 1071 Cilician and Turko-Mongol Period Seljuk Empire 1071–1201 Kingdom of Georgia Zakarid Armenia 1201–1360 Principality of Khachen 1261–15th cen. Mongol Empire & Ilkhanate Mongol Armenia 1236–1335 Turkomania 14th—15th cen. Timurid Empire 15th cen. Kingdom of Cilicia 1198–1375 Rubenid dynasty 1000–1261 Hethumid dynasty 1226–1373 Lusignan dynasty 1341–1375 Early modern age Perso-Ottoman period Iranian Armenia 1502–1828 Five Melikdoms 15th cen.—1822 Shah Abbas I's deportation 1606 Russo-Persian War 1804–13 Treaty of Gulistan 1813 Russo-Persian War 1826–1828 Treaty of Turkmenchay 1828 Ottoman Empire 1548–1915 Armenian millet Russo-Turkish War 1877–1878 Armenian Question Six Vilayets 1878 Hamidian massacres 1895–1896 Adana massacre 1909 Armenian Genocide 1909–1918 Confiscation of Armenian properties Russian period Russian rule 1828–1918 Armenian Oblast 1828–1840 Western Armenia 1915–1918 Caucasus Campaign 1914–1918 National Liberation Movement Armenakan 1885 S.D. Hunchakian Party 1887 ARF (Dashnaktsutyun) 1890 Modern age Independence First Republic of Armenia 1918–1920 War with Azerbaijan 1918–1920 War with Georgia 1918 Treaty of Sèvres 1920 Wilsonian Armenia 1920 War with Turkey 1920 Treaty of Alexandropol 1920 Soviet period Armenian S.S.R. 1920–1991 February Uprising 1921 Republic of Mountainous Armenia 1921 Treaty of Moscow 1921 Treaty of Kars 1921 Soviet Claims in Turkey 1945–1953 Nagorno-Karabakh A.O. 1923–1991 Diaspora Armenian diaspora Hidden Armenians Repatriation Contemporary Armenia Republic of Armenia since 1991 Post-Soviet transition 1991–1995 Modern era since 1995 Republic of Artsakh since 1994 First Nagorno-Karabakh War 1989–1994 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh War 2020 Timeline v t e The Satrapy of Armenia (Armenian: Սատրապական Հայաստան Satrapakan Hayastan; Old Persian: Armina or Arminiya, a region controlled by the Orontid Dynasty (Armenian: Երվանդունիներ Yervanduniner; 570–201 BC) was one of the satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire in the 6th century BC, which later became an independent kingdom. Its capitals were Tushpa and later Erebuni. Contents 1 History 1.1 Origins 1.2 Orontid Dynasty 2 See also 3 Notes History[edit] Origins[edit] Main article: Origin of the Armenians After the collapse of the Kingdom of Urartu (Ararat), the region was placed under the administration of the Median Empire and the Scythians. Later the territory was conquered by the Achaemenid Empire, which incorporated it as a satrapy, and thus named it the land of "Armina" (in Old Persian; "Harminuya" in Elamite; "Urashtu" in Babylonian). An Armenian tribute bearer carrying a metal vessel with griffin handles. 6th century BC Orontid Dynasty[edit] Main article: Orontid Dynasty The Orontid Dynasty, or known by their native name, Eruandid or Yervanduni, was a hereditary dynasty of ancient Armenia, and the rulers of the successor state to the Iron Age kingdom of Urartu (Ararat).[1][2][3] Historians state that the dynasty was of Iranian origin,[4][5][6][7][8] and suggest, albeit not clearly, that it held dynastic familial linkages to the ruling Achaemenid dynasty.[9] Throughout their existence, the Orontids stressed their lineage from the Achaemenids to strengthen their political legitimacy.[10] Members of the dynasty ruled Armenia intermittently during the period spanning from the 6th to at least the 2nd centuries BC, first as client kings or satraps of the Median and Achaemenid empires and later, after the collapse of the Achaemenid empire, as rulers of an independent kingdom, and later as kings of Sophene and Commagene, which eventually succumbed to the Roman Empire. The Orontids established their supremacy over Armenia around the time of the Scythian and Median invasion in the 6th century BC.[11] Its founder was Orontes I Sakavakyats (Armenian: Երվանդ Ա Սակավակյաց, Yervand I Sakavakyats). His son, Tigranes Orontid, united his forces with Cyrus the Great and killed Media's king. Moses of Chorene called him "the wisest, most powerful and bravest of Armenian kings." From 553 BC to 521 BC, Armenia was a subject kingdom of the Achaemenid Empire, but when Darius I was king, he decided to conquer Armenia. He sent an Armenian named Dâdarši to stop a revolt against Persian rule, later replacing him with the Persian general, Vaumisa, who defeated the Armenians in 521 BC. Around the same time, another Armenian by the name of Arakha, son of Haldita, claimed to be the son of the last king of Babylon, Nabonidus, and renamed himself Nebuchadnezzar IV. His rebellion was short lived and was suppressed by Intaphrenes, Darius' bow carrier. After the Battle of Gaugamela (331 BC), Orontes III was able to regain independence for Armenia. But in 201 BC, Armenia was conquered by Artashes, a general from the Seleucid Empire, and also said to be a member of Orontid dynasty. The last Orontid king Orontes IV was killed, but the Orontids continued to rule in Sophene and Commagene until the 1st century BC. In two inscriptions of king Antiochus I of Commagene on his monument at Mount Nemrut, Orontes I (son of Artasouras and husband of Artaxerxes' daughter Rhodogoune), is reckoned as an ancestor of the Orontids ruling over Commagene, who traced back their family to Darius the Great. See also[edit] Orontid Dynasty Urartu Achaemenid Empire Kingdom of Armenia (Antiquity) Notes[edit] ^ Toumanoff, Cyril (1963). Studies in Christian Caucasian history. Washington D.C.: Georgetown University Press. pp. 278ff. ^ (in Armenian) Tiratsyan, Gevorg. «Երվանդունիներ» (Yerevanduniner). Armenian Soviet Encyclopedia. vol. iii. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1977, p. 640. ^ Krause, Todd B. and John A.C. Greppin, and Jonathan Slocum. "The Yervanduni Dynasty." The A. Richard Diebold Center for Indo-European Language and Culture at the University of Texas. Jan. 22, 2009. ^ Garsoïan, Nina (1997). "The Emergence of Armenia" in The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, Volume I, The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century. Richard G. Hovannisian (ed.) New York: St. Martin's Press, pp. 46-47. ISBN 0-312-10169-4. ^ Babaie, Sussan; Grigor, Talinn (2015). Persian Kingship and Architecture: Strategies of Power in Iran from the Achaemenids to the Pahlavis. I.B.Tauris. p. 80. ISBN 978-1848857513. Iranian culture deeply influenced Armenia, and Iranian dynasties ruled Armenia during several important periods, including the Orontids (c. sixth century - c. early second century BCE) and Arsacids (54-428 CE). ^ Garsoian, N. (2005). "TIGRAN II". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Tigran (Tigranes) II was the most distinguished member of the so-called Artašēsid/Artaxiad dynasty, which has now been identified as a branch of the earlier Eruandid [Orontid] dynasty of Iranian origin attested as ruling in Armenia from at least the 5th century B.C.E ^ Allsen, Thomas T. (2011). The Royal Hunt in Eurasian History. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-0812201079. ^ Sartre, Maurice (2005). The Middle East Under Rome. Harvard University Press. p. 23. ISBN 978-0674016835. ^ Payaslian, Simon (2007). The history of Armenia : from the origins to the present (1st ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 8. ISBN 978-1403974679. Although the origins of the Ervanduni [Orontid] family is not clear, historians suggest dynastic familial linkages to the ruling Achaemenid dynasty in Persia. ^ Payaslian, Simon (2007). The history of Armenia : from the origins to the present (1st ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 8. ISBN 978-1403974679. The Ervandunis certainly stressed their Achaemenian lineage to strengthen their political legitimacy. ^ Tiratsyan, Gevork. «Երվանդունիներ» (Yerevanduniner). Soviet Armenian Encyclopedia. vol. iii. Yerevan, Armenian SSR: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1977, p. 640.[need quotation to verify] v t e Historical states and regions of Armenia Independent Armenian states Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity) (Orontids, Artaxiads and Arsacids, 553 BC–428 AD) Kingdom of Armenia (middle ages) (Bagratunis, 884-1045) Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia (Rubenids, Hethumids and Lusignans, 1080-1375) Republic of Armenia (1918-1920) Republic of Armenia (1991-) Minor or dependent Armenian states Satrapy of Armenia (Orontids, 522-331 BC) Kingdom of Vaspurakan (Artsrunis, 908–1021) Kingdom of Vanand (963–1064) Kingdom of Tashir-Dzoraget (Kiurikians, 979–1118) Kingdom of Syunik (Siunis, 987–1170) Kingdom of Artsakh (Khachen, 1000–1261) Zakarid Principality of Armenia (Zakarians, 1201–1335) Melikdoms of Karabakh (Beglarians, Israelians, Hasan-Jalalians, Shanazarians and Avanians, 1603-1822) Republic of Mountainous Armenia (unrecognized, 1921) Soviet Armenia (1920-1991) Provinces or Ashkhars of Armenia Major Upper Armenia Sophene Arzanene Turuberan Moxoene Corduene Nor Shirakan Vaspurakan Syunik Artsakh Paytakaran Utik Gugark Tayk Ayrarat Other Armenian regions Lesser Armenia (regions: First, Second and Third Armenia) Commagene Armenian Mesopotamia Cilicia (regions: Mountainous, Plain and Rocky Cilicia) Other provinces under Tigranes the Great Syria Atropatene Adiabene Assyria Iberia Albania Cappadocia Judea Osroene v t e Armenia articles History  (timeline) Early Origins Name Kura–Araxes culture Hayk Hayasa-Azzi Mitanni Nairi Mushki Diauehi Kingdom of Urartu Median kingdom Orontid Dynasty Achaemenid Empire Satrapy of Armenia Kingdom of Armenia Roman Armenia Parthian Empire Byzantine Armenia Sasanian Armenia Middle Arminiya Sajids Bagratuni Armenia Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia Sallarids Ilkhanate Chobanids Aq Qoyunlu Kara Koyunlu Ottoman Armenia 1508–1828 Iranian Armenia Safavid Iran Afsharid Iran Qajar Iran Erivan Khanate Karabakh Khanate Treaty of Turkmenchay Russian Armenia Modern First Republic of Armenia Soviet Armenia Independent Armenia By topic Armenian Genocide Nagorno-Karabakh conflict Armenian national liberation movement more... Geography Ararat Plain Armenian Highlands Cities Earthquakes Extreme points Lake Sevan Mountains Municipalities Rivers and lakes Shikahogh State Reserve Shirak Plain more... Politics Administrative divisions Constitution Corruption Elections Foreign relations Government Human rights Judiciary Military National Assembly National Security Service Police Political parties President Prime Minister President of the National Assembly more on government on politics Economy Agriculture Armex (stock exchange) Central Bank Dram (currency) Energy Mining Pension reform Telecommunications Tourism Transport Waste management Culture Alphabet Architecture Art Cinema Cuisine Dance Language Eastern Western Literature Music Sport Theatre more... Demographics Census Crime Education Ethnic minorities Health People diaspora Social issues Women more... Religion Armenian Apostolic Church Armenian Catholic Church Armenian Evangelical Church Armenian Brotherhood Church Judaism Islam more... Symbols Armenian Cross Armenian eternity sign Coat of arms Flag Mount Ararat National anthem Apricot Grape Pomegranate Outline Index Category v t e Provinces of the Achaemenid Empire (Behistun / Persepolis / Naqsh-e Rustam / Susa / Daiva inscriptions) Akaufaka (Quhistan?) Amyrgoi Arabia Arachosia Aria Armenia Assyria Babylonia Bactria Cappadocia Caria Carmania Caucasian Albania Chorasmia Cilicia Colchis Dahae Drangiana 1st Egypt / 2nd Egypt Eber-Nari (Levant) Elam Kush (Nubia) Gandāra (Gandhara) Gedrosia Hyrcania Ionia Hindush Libya Lydia Maka Margiana Media Lesser Media Massagetae Parthia Persia Phoenicia Phrygia Hellespontine Phrygia Greater Phrygia Saka Samaritan Province Sattagydia Skudra (Thrace) Sogdia Yehud See also Tax Districts of the Achaemenid Empire (according to Herodotus) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Satrapy_of_Armenia&oldid=1001412484" Categories: Ancient Armenia Ancient history of Iran Achaemenid satrapies Hidden categories: Articles with Armenian-language sources (hy) Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from April 2011 Articles containing Armenian-language text Asia articles missing geocoordinate data All articles needing coordinates Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية تۆرکجه Čeština Эрзянь Esperanto فارسی Հայերեն ქართული Lietuvių Português Русский Slovenščina Svenska Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 19 January 2021, at 15:38 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1364	----	Semqen - Wikipedia Semqen From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Semqen Šamuqēnu, Sem-qen Drawing of the scarab seal of Semqen.[1][2] Heka-chasut Reign some time between 1649 BC and 1621 BC (Ryholt) (uncertain dynasty, most likely 15th Dynasty, otherwise 16th Dynasty) Predecessor founder of the dynasty (Ryholt) or 'Aper-'Anati (von Beckerath) Successor uncertain, 'Aper-'Anati (Ryholt) or Sakir-Har (von Beckerath) Royal titulary Nomen Heka-chasut Semqen Ḥq3-ḫ3swt-smqn Ruler of the foreign lands, Semqen Semqen (also Šamuqēnu) was an Hyksos ruler of Lower Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period in the mid-17th century BC. According to Jürgen von Beckerath he was the third king of the 16th Dynasty and a vassal of the Hyksos kings of the 15th Dynasty.[3][4] This opinion was shared by William C. Hayes and Wolfgang Helck but recently rejected by Kim Ryholt. In his 1997 study of the Second Intermediate Period, Ryholt argues that the kings of the 16th Dynasty ruled an independent Theban realm c. 1650–1580 BC.[5] Consequently, Ryholt sees Semqen as an early Hyksos king of the 15th Dynasty, perhaps its first ruler. This analysis has convinced some Egyptologists, such as Darrell Baker and Janine Bourriau,[6][7] but not others including Stephen Quirke.[8] Attestations[edit] Semqen's only contemporary attestation is a brown steatite scarab-seal from Tell el-Yahudiyeh in the Nile Delta.[9] Significantly, the seal gives him the title of Heka-chasut, "Ruler of the foreign lands", a title exclusively associated with the early Hyksos rulers.[1][10] Furthermore, the design of the seal indicates that it was likely produced either during the 14th or the 15th Dynasty, the latter being much more probable. "Hyksos" on the seal of king Semqen. The original location of the seal, the title it is inscribed with and its design led Ryholt to propose that Semqen belonged to the early 15th Dynasty, although he also points to the conjectural nature of this proposition. Ryholt further adds that the title Heka-chasut, even if securely dated to the 15th Dynasty, may not have been borne only by the rulers of this dynasty.[6] Once belonging to the Fraser collection,[1] the scarab seal is currently part of a private collection.[9] References[edit] ^ a b c Fraser, G.W., A catalogue of scarabs belonging to George Fraser (cat. no. 179). London, Bernard Quaritch, 1900. ^ Percy E. Newberry: Scarabs an introduction to the study of Egyptian seals and signet rings, with forty-four plates and one hundred and sixteen illustrations in the text, 1906, available online copyright-free see plate XXIII, num 10 and page 152. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz : P. von Zabern, 1999, ISBN 3-8053-2591-6, available online see p. 120–121. ^ William C. Hayes, The Cambridge Ancient History (Fascicle): 6: Egypt: From the Death of Ammenemes III to Seqenenre II, CUP Archive, 1962 p 19 ^ K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here. ^ a b Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 378 ^ Janine Bourriau, Ian Shaw (editor): The Oxford history of ancient Egypt, chapter The Second Intermediate Period, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2003, ISBN 0-19-280458-8, [1] ^ Stephen Quirke, Marcel Maree (editor): The Second Intermediate Period Thirteenth - Seventeenth Dynasties, Current Research, Future Prospects, Leuven 2011, Paris — Walpole, MA. ISBN 978-9042922280, p. 56, n. 6 ^ a b Olga Tufnell: Studies on Scarab Seals Vol. 2, Aris & Phillips 1984, ISBN 978-0856681301, see seal num. 3463 and pl. LXII, p. 382. ^ Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie: Egypt and Israel, London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1911, available online copyright-free v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Semqen&oldid=965331271" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related 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en-wikipedia-org-138	----	Seti I - Wikipedia Seti I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Egyptian pharaoh Seti I Sethi I Image of Seti I from his temple in Abydos Pharaoh Reign 1290–1279 BC (19th Dynasty) Predecessor Ramesses I Successor Ramesses II Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Menmaatre Eternal is the Justice of Re Nomen Seti Merenptah He of the god Seth, beloved of Ptah [1] Horus name Kanakht Khaemwaset-Seankhtawy The strong bull, rising in Waset, he who makes life in the two lands [2][3] Nebty name Wehemmesut Sekhemkhepesh Derpedjetpesdjet He who renews the births, strong with a sword who subjugates the nine bows Golden Horus Wehemkhau Weserpedjutemtawnebu He who renews the crowns, he who subjugates the nine bows in all lands Consort Tuya Children Tia, Ramesses II, Nebchasetnebet, Henutmire (?) Father Ramesses I Mother Sitre Died 1279 BC Burial KV17 Monuments Mortuary Temple of Seti I, Temple at Abydos, Great Hypostyle Hall Menmaatre Seti I (or Sethos I in Greek) was a pharaoh of the New Kingdom Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt, the son of Ramesses I and Sitre, and the father of Ramesses II. As with all dates in Ancient Egypt, the actual dates of his reign are unclear, and various historians claim different dates, with 1294 BC to 1279 BC[4] and 1290 BC to 1279 BC[5] being the most commonly used by scholars today. The name 'Seti' means "of Set", which indicates that he was consecrated to the god Set (also termed "Sutekh" or "Seth"). As with most pharaohs, Seti had several names. Upon his ascension, he took the prenomen "mn-m3‘t-r‘ ", usually vocalized as Menmaatre, in Egyptian, which means "Established is the Justice of Re."[1] His better known nomen, or birth name, is transliterated as "sty mry-n-ptḥ" or Sety Merenptah, meaning "Man of Set, beloved of Ptah". Manetho incorrectly considered him to be the founder of the 19th Dynasty, and gave him a reign length of 55 years, though no evidence has ever been found for so long a reign. Contents 1 Reign 1.1 Duration of reign 1.2 Seti's military campaigns 1.3 Capture of Kadesh 2 Burial 3 Alleged co-regency of Seti I 4 In popular culture 5 See also 6 References 7 Bibliography 8 External links Reign[edit] Hieroglyphs from the tomb of Seti I After the enormous social upheavals generated by Akhenaten's religious reform, Horemheb, Ramesses I and Seti I's main priority was to re-establish order in the kingdom and to reaffirm Egypt's sovereignty over Canaan and Syria, which had been compromised by the increasing external pressures from the Hittite state. Seti, with energy and determination, confronted the Hittites several times in battle. Without succeeding in destroying the Hittites as a potential danger to Egypt, he reconquered most of the disputed territories for Egypt and generally concluded his military campaigns with victories. The memory of Seti I's military successes was recorded in some large scenes placed on the front of the temple of Amun, situated in Karnak. A funerary temple for Seti was constructed in what is now known as Qurna (Mortuary Temple of Seti I), on the west bank of the Nile at Thebes while a magnificent temple made of white limestone at Abydos featuring exquisite relief scenes was started by Seti, and later completed by his son. His capital was at Memphis. He was considered a great king by his peers, but his fame has been overshadowed since ancient times by that of his son, Ramesses II. Duration of reign[edit] Basalt fragment. Part of a necklace, in relief, is shown together with a cartouche of Seti I. 19th Dynasty. From Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London Seti I's reign length was either 11 or 15 full years. Egyptologist Kenneth Kitchen has estimated that it was 15 years, but there are no dates recorded for Seti I after his Year 11 Gebel Barkal stela. As he is otherwise quite well documented in historical records, other scholars suggest that a continuous break in the record for his last four years is unlikely, although it is technically possible simply that no records have been yet discovered. Temple of Seti I at Abydos Peter J. Brand noted that the king personally opened new rock quarries at Aswan to build obelisks and colossal statues in his Year 9.[6] This event is commemorated on two rock stelas in Aswan. However, most of Seti's obelisks and statues such as the Flaminian and Luxor obelisks were only partly finished or decorated by the time of his death, since they were completed early under his son's reign based on epigraphic evidence (they bore the early form of Ramesses II's royal prenomen "Usermaatre"). Ramesses II used the prenomen Usermaatre to refer to himself in his first year and did not adopt the final form of his royal title "Usermaatre Setepenre" until late into his second year.[7] Brand aptly notes that this evidence calls into question the idea of a 15 Year reign for Seti I and suggests that "Seti died after a ten to eleven year reign" because only two years would have passed between the opening of the Rock Quarries and the partial completion and decoration of these monuments.[8] This explanation conforms better with the evidence of the unfinished state of Seti I's monuments and the fact that Ramesses II had to complete the decorations on "many of his father's unfinished monuments, including the southern half of the Great Hypostyle Hall at Karnak and portions of his father's temples at Gurnah and Abydos" during the very first Year of his own reign.[9] Critically, Brand notes that the larger of the two Aswan rock stelas states that Seti I "has ordered the commissioning of multitudinous works for the making of very great obelisks and great and wondrous statues (i.e. colossi) in the name of His Majesty, L.P.H. He made great barges for transporting them, and ships crews to match them for ferrying them from the quarry." (KRI 74:12-14)[10] However, despite this promise, Brand stresses that there are few obelisks and apparently no colossi inscribed for Seti. Ramesses II, however, was able to complete the two obelisks and four seated colossi from Luxor within the first years of his reign, the two obelisks in particular being partly inscribed before he adopted the final form of his prenomen sometime in [his] year two. This state of affairs strongly implies that Seti died after ten to eleven years. Had he ruled on until his fourteenth or fifteenth year, then surely more of the obelisks and colossi he commissioned in [his] year nine would have been completed, in particular those from Luxor. If he in fact died after little more than a decade on the throne, however, then at most two years would have elapsed since the Aswan quarries were opened in year nine, and only a fraction of the great monoliths would have been complete and inscribed at his death, with others just emerging from the quarries so that Ramesses would be able to decorate them shortly after his accession. ... It now seems clear that a long, fourteen-to fifteen-year reign for Seti I can be rejected for lack of evidence. Rather, a tenure of ten or more likely probably eleven, years appears the most likely scenario.[11] Astronomical ceiling of Seti I tomb showing the personified representations of stars and constellations The German Egyptologist Jürgen von Beckerath also accepts that Seti I's reign lasted only 11 Years.[12] Seti's highest known date is Year 11, IV Shemu day 12 or 13 on a sandstone stela from Gebel Barkal[11] but he would have briefly survived for 2 to 3 days into his Year 12 before dying based on the date of Ramesses II's rise to power. Seti I's accession date has been determined by Wolfgang Helck to be III Shemu day 24, which is very close to Ramesses II's known accession date of III Shemu day 27.[13] In 2011, Jacobus van Dijk questioned the "Year 11" stated on the Gebel Barkal stela. This monument is quite badly preserved but still depicts Seti I in erect posture, which is the only case occurring since his Year 4 when he started to be depicted in a stooping posture on his stelae. Furthermore, the glyphs "I ∩" representing the 11 are damaged in the upper part and may just as well be "I I I" instead. Subsequently, Van Dijk proposed that the Gebel Barkal stela is dated to Year 3 of Seti I, and that Seti's highest date more likely is Year 9 as suggested by the wine jars found in his tomb.[14] In a 2012 paper, David Aston analyzed the wine jars and came to the same conclusion since no wine labels higher than his 8th regnal year were found in his tomb.[15] Seti's military campaigns[edit] Seti I fought a series of wars in western Asia, Libya and Nubia in the first decade of his reign. The main source for Seti’s military activities are his battle scenes on the north exterior wall of the Karnak Hypostyle Hall, along with several royal stelas with inscriptions mentioning battles in Canaan and Nubia. In his first regnal year, he led his armies along the "Horus Military road," the coastal road that led from the Egyptian city of Tjaru (Zarw/Sile) in the northeast corner of the Egyptian Nile Delta along the northern coast of the Sinai peninsula ending in the town of "Canaan" in the modern Gaza strip. The Ways of Horus consisted of a series of military forts, each with a well, that are depicted in detail in the king’s war scenes on the north wall of the Karnak Hypostyle Hall. While crossing the Sinai, the king’s army fought local Bedouins called the Shasu. In Canaan, he received the tribute of some of the city states he visited. Others, including Beth-Shan and Yenoam, had to be captured but were easily defeated. A stele in Beth-Shan testifies to that reconquest; according to Grdsseloff, Rowe, Albrecht et Albright,[16] Sethy defeated Asian nomads in war against the Apirus (Hebrews). Dussaud commented Albright’s article: “The interest of Professor Albright’s note is mainly due to the fact that he no longer objects to the identification of “Apiru” with “Ibri” (ie the Hebrews) provided that we grant him that the vocal change has been driven by a popular etymology that brought the term “eber” (formerly ‘ibr), that is to say the man from beyond the river.”[17] It seems that Egypt extends beyond the river. The attack on Yenoam is illustrated in his war scenes, while other battles, such as the defeat of Beth-Shan, were not shown because the king himself did not participate, sending a division of his army instead. The year one campaign continued into Lebanon where the king received the submission of its chiefs who were compelled to cut down valuable cedar wood themselves as tribute. At some unknown point in his reign, Seti I defeated Libyan tribesmen who had invaded Egypt's western border. Although defeated, the Libyans would pose an ever-increasing threat to Egypt during the reigns of Merenptah and Ramesses III. The Egyptian army also put down a minor "rebellion" in Nubia in the 8th year of Seti I. Seti himself did not participate in it although his crown prince, the future Ramesses II, may have. Capture of Kadesh[edit] Seti I in Syria The greatest achievement of Seti I's foreign policy was the capture of the Syrian town of Kadesh and neighboring territory of Amurru from the Hittite Empire. Egypt had not held Kadesh since the time of Akhenaten. Tutankhamun and Horemheb had failed to recapture the city from the Hittites. Seti I was successful in defeating a Hittite army that tried to defend the town. He entered the city in triumph together with his son Ramesses II and erected a victory stela at the site.[citation needed] Kadesh, however, soon reverted to Hittite control because the Egyptians did not or could not maintain a permanent military occupation of Kadesh and Amurru which were close to the Hittite homelands. It is unlikely that Seti I made a peace treaty with the Hittites or voluntarily returned Kadesh and Amurru to them but he may have reached an informal understanding with the Hittite king Muwatalli on the precise boundaries of the Egyptian and Hittite Empires. Five years after Seti I's death, however, his son Ramesses II resumed hostilities and made a failed attempt to recapture Kadesh. Kadesh was henceforth effectively held by the Hittites even though Ramesses temporarily occupied the city in his 8th year. The traditional view of Seti I's wars was that he restored the Egyptian empire after it had been lost in the time of Akhenaten. This was based on the chaotic picture of Egyptian-controlled Syria and Palestine seen in the Amarna letters, a cache of diplomatic correspondence from the time of Akhenaten found at Akhenaten’s capital at el-Amarna in Middle Egypt. Recent scholarship, however, indicates that the empire was not lost at this time, except for its northern border provinces of Kadesh and Amurru in Syria and Lebanon. While evidence for the military activities of Akhenaten, Tutankhamun and Horemheb is fragmentary or ambiguous, Seti I has left us an impressive war monument that glorifies his achievement, along with a number of texts, all of which tend to magnify his personal achievements on the battlefield. Burial[edit] Head of the mummy of Seti I Pharaoh Seti I, detail of a wall painting from the Tomb of Seti I, KV17, at the Valley of the Kings. Neues Museum Seti's well preserved tomb (KV17) was found in 1817 by Giovanni Battista Belzoni, in the Valley of the Kings; it proved to be the longest at 446 feet (136 meters)[18] and deepest of all the New Kingdom royal tombs. It was also the first tomb to feature decorations (including the Book of the Heavenly Cow[19]) on every passageway and chamber with highly refined bas-reliefs and colorful paintings – fragments of which, including a large column depicting Seti I with the goddess Hathor, can be seen in the National Archaeological Museum, Florence. This decorative style set a precedent which was followed in full or in part in the tombs of later New Kingdom kings. Seti's mummy itself was discovered by Émil Brugsch on June 6, 1881 in the mummy cache (tomb DB320) at Deir el-Bahri, and has since been kept at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.[20] His huge sarcophagus, carved in one piece and intricately decorated on every surface (including the goddess Nut on the interior base), is in Sir John Soane's Museum,[21] Soane bought it for exhibition in his open collection in 1824, when the British Museum refused to pay the £2,000 demanded. On its arrival at the museum, the alabaster was pure white and inlaid with blue copper sulphate. Years of the London climate and pollution have darkened the alabaster to a buff colour and absorbed moisture has caused the hygroscopic inlay material to fall out and disappear completely. A small watercolour nearby records the appearance, as it was. The tomb also had an entrance to a secret tunnel hidden behind the sarcophagus, which Belzoni's team estimated to be 100 meters (328 feet) long.[22] However, the tunnel was not truly excavated until 1961, when a team led by Sheikh Ali Abdel-Rasoul began digging in hopes of discovering a secret burial chamber containing hidden treasures.[22] The team failed to follow the original passage in their excavations, and had to call a halt due to instabilities in the tunnel;[23] further issues with permits and finances eventually ended Sheikh Ali's dreams of treasure,[22] though they were at least able to establish that the passage was over 30 meters (98 feet) longer than the original estimate. In June 2010, a team from Egypt's Ministry of Antiquities led by Dr. Zahi Hawass completed excavation of the tunnel, which had begun again after the discovery in 2007 of a downward-sloping passage beginning approximately 136 meters (446 feet) into the previously excavated tunnel. After uncovering two separate staircases, they found that the tunnel ran for 174 meters (571 feet) in total; unfortunately, the last step seemed to have been abandoned prior to completion and no secret burial chamber was found.[23] From an examination of Seti's extremely well-preserved mummy, Seti I appears to have been less than forty years old when he died unexpectedly. This is in stark contrast to the situation with Horemheb, Ramesses I and Ramesses II who all lived to an advanced age. The reasons for his relatively early death are uncertain, but there is no evidence of violence on his mummy. His mummy was found decapitated, but this was likely caused after his death by tomb robbers. The Amun priest carefully reattached his head to his body with the use of linen cloths. It has been suggested that he died from a disease which had affected him for years, possibly related to his heart. The latter was found placed in the right part of the body, while the usual practice of the day was to place it in the left part during the mummification process. Opinions vary whether this was a mistake or an attempt to have Seti's heart work better in his afterlife. Seti I's mummy is about 1.7 metres (5 ft 7 in) tall.[24] Alleged co-regency of Seti I[edit] Around Year 9 of his reign, Seti appointed his son Ramesses II as the crown prince and his chosen successor, but the evidence for a coregency between the two kings is likely illusory. Peter J. Brand who has published an extensive biography on this pharaoh and his numerous works, stresses in his thesis[25] that relief decorations at various temple sites at Karnak, Qurna and Abydos, which associate Ramesses II with Seti I, were actually carved after Seti's death by Ramesses II himself and, hence, cannot be used as source material to support a co-regency between the two monarchs. In addition, the late William Murnane, who first endorsed the theory of a co-regency between Seti I and Ramesses II,[26] later revised his view of the proposed co-regency and rejected the idea that Ramesses II had begun to count his own regnal years while Seti I was still alive.[27] Finally, Kenneth Kitchen rejects the term co-regency to describe the relationship between Seti I and Ramesses II; he describes the earliest phase of Ramesses II's career as a "prince regency" where the young Ramesses enjoyed all the trappings of royalty including the use of a royal titulary and harem but did not count his regnal years until after his father's death.[28] This is due to the fact that the evidence for a co-regency between the two kings is vague and highly ambiguous. Two important inscriptions from the first decade of Ramesses' reign, namely the Abydos Dedicatory Inscription and the Kuban Stela of Ramesses II, consistently give the latter titles associated with those of a crown prince only, namely the "king's eldest son and hereditary prince" or "child-heir" to the throne "along with some military titles."[29] Hence, no clear evidence supports the hypothesis that Ramesses II was a co-regent under his father. Brand stresses that: Ramesses' claim that he was crowned king by Seti, even as a child in his arms [in the Dedicatory Inscription], is highly self-serving and open to question although his description of his role as crown prince is more accurate...The most reliable and concrete portion of this statement is the enumeration of Ramesses' titles as eldest king's son and heir apparent, well attested in sources contemporary with Seti's reign."[30] In popular culture[edit] Seti I was portrayed as the father of Rameses II and adopted uncle of Moses by actor Sir Cedric Hardwicke in the 1956 film The Ten Commandments. In the film, Seti I banishes Moses from Egypt, putting Moses on the path that eventually leads to his return to Egypt and liberation of the slaves after Rameses II ascends the throne. The film establishes the Biblical figure of Bithia (adopted mother of Moses) as Seti's sister. Seti I was portrayed by actor Aharon Ipalé in the films The Mummy and its sequel The Mummy Returns as a pharaoh who is murdered by his high priest Imhotep and his mistress Anck-su-namun. In 2006, Ipalé reprised the role in The Ten Commandments: The Musical.[31] The Mummy also mentions him as the richest of all pharaohs. In The Mummy Returns, Seti is revealed to be Nefertiri's father. In the 1998 film The Prince of Egypt, Seti (voiced by Patrick Stewart) is Moses' adoptive father and is depicted as having been the pharaoh who in the Biblical Book of Exodus ordered the massacre of the Hebrew boys, in order to prevent a feared rebellion. He is also the main antagonist of the film due to his negative influence on his son, Rameses II. Seti I is portrayed by actor John Turturro in the 2014 film Exodus: Gods and Kings. Seti was produced in Germany as a board game with that title in 1979 by the game company Bütehorn Spiele and won an award for the most attractive game of that year. It was republished in 1986 by the German publisher Hexagames, this time with rules also in French and English. Though an abstract game, its backstory included the playing of Seti in ancient Egypt; the rules for the 20th century version have been surmised. "Seti I" is the title of the first track on the Banco de Gaia album Igizeh; portions of the album were recorded at the Mortuary Temple of Seti I.[32] See also[edit] Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree List of colossal sculpture in situ References[edit] ^ a b Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames and Hudson Ltd, 1994. p.140 ^ "Sety I Menmaatre (Sethos I) King Sety I". Digital Egypt. UCL. Retrieved 15 February 2007. ^ "Ancient Egyptian Royalty". Retrieved 21 July 2009. ^ Michael Rice (1999). Who's Who in Ancient Egypt. Routledge. ^ J. von Beckerath (1997). Chronologie des Äegyptischen Pharaonischen (in German). Phillip von Zabern. p. 190. ^ Peter J. Brand, "The 'Lost' Obelisks and Colossi of Seti I", JARCE, 34 (1997), pp. 101-114 ^ Brand, "The 'Lost' Obelisks", pp. 106-107 ^ Brand, "The 'Lost' Obelisks", p. 114 ^ Brand, "The 'Lost' Obelisks", p.107 ^ Brand, "The 'Lost' Obelisks", p.104 ^ a b Peter J. Brand (2000). The Monuments of Seti I: Epigraphic, Historical and Art Historical Analysis. Brill. p. 308. ^ von Beckerath, Chronologie, p.190 ^ Brand, The Monuments of Seti I, pp. 301-302 ^ J. van Dijk, "The date of the Gebel Barkal Stela of Seti I", in D. Aston, B. Bader, C. Gallorini, P. Nicholson & S. Buckingham (eds), Under the Potter's tree. Studies on Ancient Egypt presented to Janine Bourriau on the Occasion of her 70th Birthday (= Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 204), Uitgeverij Peeters en Departement Oosterse Studies, Leuven - Paris - Walpole, MA 2011, pp. 325–32. ^ D. A. Aston, "Radiocarbon, Wine Jars and New Kingdom Chronology", Ägypten und Levante 22-23 (2012-13), pp. 289–315. ^ Albright W. The smaller Beth-Shean stele of Sethos I (1309-1290 B. C.), Bulletin of the American schools of Oriental research, feb 1952, p. 24-32. ^ Dussaud R. Syria, Revue d’art oriental et d’archéologie, 1952, 29-3-4, p. 386. ^ "Pharaoh Seti I's Tomb Bigger Than Thought". Retrieved 19 April 2008. ^ "Legend of the Gods". Kegan Paul. 1912. Archived from the original on 25 April 2012. Retrieved 16 October 2011. ^ Rohl 1995, pp. 71-73. ^ "Egyptian Collection at the Sir John Soane's Museum". Archived from the original on 3 October 2010. Retrieved 15 February 2007. ^ a b c El-Aref, Nevine (29 October 2009). "Secret Tunnels And Ancient Mysteries". Al-Ahram Weekly (970). Retrieved 31 January 2019. ^ a b Williams, Sean (30 June 2010). "No Secret Burial At End Of Seti I Tunnel". The Independent. Retrieved 30 January 2019. ^ Christine Hobson, Exploring the World of the Pharaohs: A Complete Guide to Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson, (1993), p. 97 ^ Peter J. Brand (1998). "The Monuments of Seti I and their Historical Significance" (PDF). Chapter 4. Archived from the original on 10 June 2007. Retrieved 26 February 2011. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: location (link) CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) ^ William Murnane (1977). Ancient Egyptian Coregencies. Seminal book on the Egyptian coregency system ^ W. Murnane (1990). The road to Kadesh: A Historical interpretation of the battle reliefs of King Seti I at Karnak. SAOC. pp. 93 footnote 90. ^ K.A. Kitchen, Pharaoh Triumphant: The Life and Times of Ramesses II, King of Egypt, Benben Publication, (1982), pp. 27-30 ^ Brand, The Monuments of Seti I, pp. 315–316 ^ Brand, The Monuments of Seti I, p. 316 ^ "The Ten Commandments: The Musical". IMDB. Retrieved 16 December 2016. ^ Marks, Toby (Banco de Gaia). Igizeh (album liner notes). Six Degrees Records, 2000. Bibliography[edit] Brand, Peter J. The Monuments of Seti I: Epigraphic, Historical, and Art-Historical Analysis. E. J. Brill, Leiden 2000, ISBN 978-9004117709. Epigraphic Survey, The Battle Reliefs of King Sety I. Reliefs and Inscriptions at Karnak vol. 4. (Chicago, 1985). Caverley, Amice "The Temple of King Sethos I at Abydos", (London, Chicago, 1933–58), 4 volumes. Gaballa, Gaballa A. Narrative in Egyptian Art. (Mainz, 1976) Hasel, Michael G., Domination & Resistance: Egyptian Military Activity in the Southern Levant, 1300-1185 BC, (Leiden, 1998). ISBN 90-04-10984-6 Kitchen, Kenneth, Pharaoh Triumphant: The Life and Times of Ramesses II (Warminster, 1982). ISBN 0-85668-215-2 Liverani, Mario Three Amarna Essays, Monographs on the Ancient Near East 1/5 (Malibu, 1979). Murnane, William J. (1990) The Road to Kadesh, Chicago. Rohl, David M. (1995). Pharaohs and Kings: A Biblical Quest (illustrated, reprint ed.). Crown Publishers. ISBN 9780517703151. Schulman, Alan R. "Hittites, Helmets & Amarna: Akhenaten’s First Hittite War," Akhenaten Temple Project volume II, (Toronto, 1988), 53-79. Spalinger, Anthony J. "The Northern Wars of Seti I: An Integrative Study." Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 16 (1979). 29–46. Spalinger, Anthony J. "Egyptian-Hittite Relations at the Close of the Amarna Age and Some Notes on Hittite Military Strategy in North Syria," Bulletin of the Egyptological Seminar 1 (1979):55-89. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Seti I. Seti I - Archaeowiki.org The Karnak Hypostyle Hall Project website The Monuments of Seti I and their Historical Significance: Epigraphic, Art and Historical Analysis (PDF) 1998 by Peter Brand The complete titulary of Seti I 360° full-screen photospheric visit of Seti I tomb v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Rulers of the Ancient Near East Territories/ dates [1][2][3][4] Egypt Canaan Ebla Mari Akshak/ Akkad Kish Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period 4000–3200 BCE Naqada culture (4000–3100 BCE) Proto-Cannaanites Sumerian period (4000–2340 BCE) Susa I Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE) Naqada I Naqada II Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests") Legendary ante-deluvian rulers: In Eridu: Alulim, Alalngar, then in Bad-tibira: En-men-lu-ana, En-men-gal-ana, Dumuzid, the Shepherd, then in Larag: En-sipad-zid-ana, then in Zimbir: En-men-dur-ana, then in Shuruppag: Ubara-Tutu "then the flood swept over"[5] Susa II (Uruk influence or control) 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ DenAnedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100-2700 BCE) Great Flood 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) First kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman En-me-barage-si ("made the land of Elam submit")[6] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba Uruk II dynasty Enshakushanna Mug-si Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions (3 kings)[7] Shushuntarana Napilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Urur Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun) Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion of Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[7] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian Empire (Semitic) Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Second Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) (Vassals of UR III) Shakkanakku dynasty (Semitic) Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Neo-Sumerian Period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians) Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (Vassals of Ur III)[8] Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal 2100 BCE Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin Ibbi-Sin 2050 BCE 2000 BCE Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV circa 2000 BCE Amorite invasions Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) 2025-1763 BCE Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ Third Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 1894–1595 BCE Second Intermediate Period Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham (Biblical) Yamhad First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Phoenicia Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Middle Assyrian Empire Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt 626–539 BCE Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116-117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ "The Sumerian king list: translation". etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 8 May 2008. ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ a b Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4. Authority control GND: 118613472 ISNI: 0000 0000 9792 6555 LCCN: n82154693 VIAF: 144996654 WorldCat Identities: viaf-33353352 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seti_I&oldid=1000537464" Categories: Seti I 13th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ancient Egyptian mummies 1279 BC deaths 13th-century BC rulers 13th century BC in Egypt Ramesses I Hidden categories: CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 errors: missing periodical CS1 maint: location CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from August 2020 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2016 Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Ænglisc العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Български Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Malagasy مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский සිංහල Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 15 January 2021, at 14:48 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1398	----	Hystaspes (son of Xerxes I) - Wikipedia Hystaspes (son of Xerxes I) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Hystaspes" son of Xerxes I – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Hystaspes was the second son of the Persian king Xerxes I.[1] When his father was assassinated by the vizier Artabanus, Hystaspes' younger brother Artaxerxes I ascended the throne.[2] According to Diodorus of Sicily, Hystaspes was satrap of Bactria at the time of his father's death.[1] This claim of Diodorus conflicts with the version of Ctesias that an Artaban (not to be confused with the murderer of Xerxes I) then led a revolt in Bactria, where he was satrap.[citation needed] It is possible that the true rebel was Hystaspes.[citation needed] Hystaspes was allegedly assassinated by Artaxerxes I.[citation needed] Bibliography[edit] Margaret C. Miller: Athens and Persia in the Fifth Century BC: A Study in Cultural Receptivity. Cambridge University Press, 2004, ISBN 978-0521607582, S. 14. References[edit] ^ a b Diodorus of Sicily, Bibliotheca historica, XI, 69, 2 ^ Diodorus of Sicily, Bibliotheca historica, XI, 69, 6 R. Schmitt, Artaxerxes I, in Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hystaspes_(son_of_Xerxes_I)&oldid=948325652" Categories: Satraps of the Achaemenid Empire 5th-century BC Iranian people Achaemenid dynasty Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from March 2020 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2020 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français مصرى Português Русский 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 31 March 2020, at 12:18 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1392	----	Akhenaten - Wikipedia Akhenaten From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 18th Dynasty pharaoh For other uses, see Akhenaten (disambiguation). Akhenaten Amenhotep IV Amenophis IV, Naphurureya, Ikhnaton[1][2] Statue of Akhenaten in the early Amarna style Pharaoh Reign 1353–1336 BC[3] 1351–1334 BC[4] (18th Dynasty of Egypt) Predecessor Amenhotep III Successor Smenkhkare Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Nefer-kheperu-Re, wa-en-Re (Year 1–17)[5] The perfect one of the manifestations of Re, the unique one of Re[5] Nomen Imen-hetep(u) netjer heqa waset (Year 1–5)[5] Amun is satisfied, god, and ruler of Thebes[5] Akh-en-Iten (after Year 5)[5] The one who is beneficial to the Aten[5] Horus name Ka nakht qai shuti (Year 1–5)[5] Victorious bull, high of plumes[5] Mery Iten (after Year 5)[5] Beloved of the Aten[5] Nebty name Wer nesyt em ipet swt (Year 1–5)[5] Great of kingship in Karnak[5] Wer-nesut-em-Akhetaten (after Year 5)[5] Great of kingship in Akhetaten[5] Golden Horus Wetjes khau em iunu shemay (Year 1–5)[5] Elevated of appearances in southern Heliopolis[5] Wetjes ren en Iten (after Year 5)[5] Who has elevated the name of the Aten[5] Consort Nefertiti Kiya An unidentified sister-wife (most likely) Tadukhipa Children Smenkhkare? Meritaten Meketaten Ankhesenamun Neferneferuaten Tasherit Neferneferure Setepenre Tutankhamun (most likely) Ankhesenpaaten Tasherit? Meritaten Tasherit? Father Amenhotep III Mother Tiye Died 1336 or 1334 BC Burial Royal Tomb of Akhenaten, Amarna (original tomb) KV55 (disputed) [6][7] Monuments Akhetaten, Gempaaten Religion Ancient Egyptian religion Atenism Akhenaten (pronounced /ˌækəˈnɑːtən/),[8] also spelled Echnaton,[9] Akhenaton,[3] Ikhnaton,[2] and Khuenaten[10][11] (Ancient Egyptian: ꜣḫ-n-jtn, meaning "Effective for the Aten"), was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh reigning c. 1353–1336[3] or 1351–1334 BC,[4] the tenth ruler of the Eighteenth Dynasty. Before the fifth year of his reign, he was known as Amenhotep IV (Ancient Egyptian: jmn-ḥtp, meaning "Amun is satisfied", Hellenized as Amenophis IV). Akhenaten is noted for abandoning Egypt's traditional polytheistic religion and introducing Atenism, worship centered on Aten. The views of Egyptologists differ whether Atenism should be considered as absolute monotheism, or whether it was monolatry, syncretism, or henotheism.[12][13] This culture shift away from traditional religion was not widely accepted. After his death, Akhenaten's monuments were dismantled and hidden, his statues were destroyed, and his name excluded from lists of rulers compiled by later pharaohs.[14] Traditional religious practice was gradually restored, notably under his close successor Tutankhamun, who changed his name from Tutankhaten early in his reign.[15] When some dozen years later rulers without clear rights of succession from the Eighteenth Dynasty founded a new dynasty, they discredited Akhenaten and his immediate successors, referring to Akhenaten himself as "the enemy" or "that criminal" in archival records.[16][17] Akhenaten was all but lost to history until the late 19th century discovery of Amarna, or Akhetaten, the new capital city he built for the worship of Aten.[18] Furthermore, in 1907, a mummy that could be Akhenaten's was unearthed from the tomb KV55 in the Valley of the Kings by Edward R. Ayrton. Genetic testing has determined that the man buried in KV55 was Tutankhamun's father,[19] but its identification as Akhenaten has since been questioned.[6][7][20][21][22] Akhenaten's rediscovery and Flinders Petrie's early excavations at Amarna sparked great public interest in the pharaoh and his queen Nefertiti. He has been described as "enigmatic", "mysterious", "revolutionary", "the greatest idealist of the world", and "the first individual in history", but also as a "heretic", "fanatic", "possibly insane", and "mad".[12][23][24][25][26] The interest comes from his connection with Tutankhamun, the unique style and high quality of the pictorial arts he patronized, and ongoing interest in the religion he attempted to establish. Contents 1 Family 2 Early life 3 Reign 3.1 Coregency with Amenhotep III 3.2 Early reign as Amenhotep IV 3.3 Name change 3.4 Founding Amarna 3.5 International relations 3.6 Later years 3.7 Coregency with Smenkhkare or Nefertiti 3.8 Death and burial 3.9 Legacy 4 Atenism 4.1 Implementation and development 4.2 Atenism and other gods 4.3 After Akhenaten 5 Artistic depictions 6 Speculative theories 6.1 Akhenaten and monotheism in Abrahamic religions 6.2 Possible illness 7 Cultural depictions 8 Ancestry 9 See also 10 Notes and references 10.1 Notes 10.2 Bibliography 10.3 Further reading 11 External links Family[edit] Akhenaten, Nefertiti and their children See also: Family tree of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt The future Akhenaten was born Amenhotep, a younger son of pharaoh Amenhotep III and his principal wife Tiye. Crown prince Thutmose, Amenhotep III and Tiye's eldest son and Akhenaten's brother, was recognized as Amenhotep III's heir. Akhenaten also had four or five sisters, Sitamun, Henuttaneb, Iset or Isis, Nebetah, and possibly Beketaten.[27] After Thutmose died relatively young, perhaps around his father's thirtieth regnal year, Akhenaten was next in line for Egypt's throne.[28] Akhenaten was married to Nefertiti, his Great Royal Wife; the exact timing of their marriage is unknown, but evidence from the pharaoh's building projects suggests that this happened either shortly before or after Akhenaten took the throne.[11] Egyptologist Dimitri Laboury suggested that the marriage took place in Akhenaten's fourth regnal year.[29] A secondary wife of Akhenaten named Kiya is also known from inscriptions. Some have theorized that she gained her importance as the mother of Tutankhamun, Smenkhkare, or both. Some Egyptologists, such as William Murnane, proposed that Kiya is a colloqial name of the Mitanni princess Tadukhipa, daughter of the Mitanni king Tushratta, widow of Amenhotep III, and later wife of Akhenaten.[30][31] Akhenaten's other attested consorts are the daughter of Šatiya, ruler of Enišasi, and a daughter of Burna-Buriash II, king of Babylonia.[32] This limestone relief of a royal couple in the Amarna style have variously been attributed as Akhenaten and Nefertiti, Smenkhkare and Meritaten, or Tutankhamun and Ankhesenamun. Akhenaten could have had seven or eight children based on inscriptions. Egyptologists are fairly certain about his six daughters, who are well attested in contemporary depictions.[33] Among his six daughters, Meritaten was born in regnal year one or five; Meketaten in year four or six; Ankhesenpaaten, later queen of Tutankhamun, before year five or eight; Neferneferuaten Tasherit in year eight or nine; Neferneferure in year nine or ten; and Setepenre in year ten or eleven.[34][35][36][37] Tutankhamun, born Tutankhaten, was most likely Akhenaten's son, too, with Nefertiti or another wife.[38][39] There is less certainty around Akhenaten's relationship with Smenkhkare, his coregent or successor,[40] who could have been Akhenaten's eldest son with an unknown wife, and later married Meritaten, his own sister.[41] Some historians, such as Edward Wente and James Allen, have proposed that Akhenaten took some of his daughters as wives or sexual consorts to father a male heir.[42][43] While this is debated, some historical parallels exist: Akhenaten's father Amenhotep III married his daughter Sitamun, while Ramesses II married two or more of his daughters, even though their marriages might simply have been ceremonial.[44][45] In Akhenaten's case, Meritaten, for example, recorded as Great Royal Wife to Smenkhkare, is listed on a box from Tutankhamun's tomb alongside pharaohs Akhenaten and Neferneferuaten as Great Royal Wife. Additionally, letters written to Akhenaten from foreign rulers make reference to Meritaten as "mistress of the house." Egyptologists in the early 20th century also believed that Akhenaten could have fathered a child with his daughter Meketaten. Meketaten's death, at perhaps age ten to twelve, is recorded in the royal tombs at Akhetaten from around regnal years thirteen or fourteen. Early Egyptologists attributed her death possibly to childbirth, because of a depiction of an infant in her tomb. Because no husband is known for Meketaten, the assumption had been that Akhenaten was the father. Aidan Dodson believed this to be unlikely, as no Egyptian tomb has been found that mentions or alludes to the cause of death of the tomb owner, and Jacobus van Dijk proposed that the child is a portrayal of Meketaten's soul.[46] Finally, various monuments, originally for Kiya, were reinscribed for Akhenaten's daughters Meritaten and Ankhesenpaaten. The revised inscriptions list a Meritaten-tasherit ("junior") and an Ankhesenpaaten-tasherit. Some view this to indicate that Akhenaten fathered his own grandchildren. Others hold that, since these grandchildren are not attested to elsewhere, they are fictions invented to fill the space originally filled by Kiya's child.[42][47] Early life[edit] Akhenaten's elder brother Thutmose, shown in his role as High Priest of Ptah. Akhenaten became heir to the throne after Thutmose died during their father's reign. Egyptologists know very little about Akhenaten's life as prince. Donald B. Redford dated his birth before his father Amenhotep III's 25th regnal year, c. 1363–1361 BC, based on the birth of Akhenaten's first daughter, which likely happened fairly early in his own reign.[4][48] The only mention of his name, as "the King's Son Amenhotep," was found on a wine docket at Amenhotep III's Malkata palace, where some historians suggested Akhenaten was born. Others contended that he was born at Memphis, where growing up he was influenced by the worship of the sun god Ra practiced at nearby Heliopolis.[49] Redford and James K. Hoffmeier stated, however, that Ra's cult was so widespread and established throughout Egypt that Akhenaten could have been influenced by solar worship even if he did not grow up around Heliopolis.[50][51] Some historians have tried to determine who was Akhenaten's tutor during his youth, and have proposed scribes Heqareshu or Meryre II, the royal tutor Amenemotep, or the vizier Aperel.[52] The only person we know for certain served the prince was Parennefer, whose tomb mentions this fact.[53] Egyptologist Cyril Aldred suggested that prince Amenhotep might have been a High Priest of Ptah in Memphis, although no evidence supporting this had been found.[54] It is known that Amenhotep's brother, crown prince Thutmose, served in this role before he died. If Amenhotep inherited his brother's roles in preparation for his accession to the throne, he might have become a high priest in Thutmose's stead. Aldred proposed that Akhenaten's unusual artistic inclinations might have been formed during his time serving Ptah, who was the patron god of craftsmen, and whose high priest were sometimes referred to as "The Greatest of the Directors of Craftsmanship."[55] Reign[edit] Coregency with Amenhotep III[edit] There is much controversy around whether Amenhotep IV succeeded to the throne on the death of his father Amenhotep III or whether there was a coregency, lasting perhaps as long as 12 years. Eric Cline, Nicholas Reeves, Peter Dorman, and other scholars have argued strongly against the establishment of a long coregency between the two rulers and in favor of either no coregency or a brief one lasting at most two years.[56] Donald Redford, William Murnane, Alan Gardiner, and Lawrence Berman contested the view of any coregency whatsoever between Akhenaten and his father.[57][58] Most recently, in 2014, archeologists found both pharaohs' names inscribed on the wall of the Luxor tomb of vizier Amenhotep-Huy. The Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities called this "conclusive evidence" that Akhenaten shared power with his father for at least eight years, based on the dating of the tomb.[59] This conclusion was called into question by other Egyptologists, according to whom the inscription only means that construction on Amenhotep-Huy's tomb commenced during Amenhotep III's reign and concluded under Akhenaten's, and Amenhotep-Huy thus simply wanted to pay his respects to both rulers.[60] Early reign as Amenhotep IV[edit] Wooden standing statue of Akhenaten. Currently in the Egyptian Museum of Berlin. Akhenaten took Egypt's throne as Amenhotep IV, most likely in 1353[61] or 1351 BC.[4] It is unknown how old Amenhotep IV was when he did this; estimates range from 10 to 23.[62] He was most likely crowned in Thebes, or perhaps Memphis or Armant.[62] The beginning of Amenhotep IV's reign followed established pharaonic traditions. He did not immediately start redirecting worship toward the Aten and distancing himself from other gods. Egyptologist Donald B. Redford believed this implied that Amenhotep IV's eventual religious policies were not conceived of before his reign, and he did not follow a pre-established plan or program. Redford pointed to three pieces of evidence to support this. First, surving inscriptions show Amenhotep IV worshipping several different gods, including Atum, Osiris, Anubis, Nekhbet, Hathor,[63] and the Eye of Ra, and texts from this era refer to "the gods" and "every god and every goddess." Moreover, the High Priest of Amun was still active in the fourth year of Amenhotep IV's reign.[64] Second, even though he later moved his capital from Thebes to Akhetaten, his initial royal titulary honored Thebes (for example, his nomen was "Amenhotep, god-ruler of Thebes"), and recognizing its importance, he called Thebes "Southern Heliopolis, the first great (seat) of Re (or) the Disc." Third, while his initial building program sought to build new places of worship to the Aten, he did not yet destroy temples to the other gods.[65] Amenhotep IV continued his father's construction projects at Karnak's Precinct of Amun-Re. For example, he decorated the walls of the precinct's Third Pylon with images of himself worshipping Ra-Horakhty, portrayed in the god's traditional form of a falcon-headed man.[66] Tombs built or completed early in Amenhotep IV's reign, such as those of Kheruef, Ramose, and Parennefer, show the pharaoh in the traditional artistic style.[67] In Ramose's tomb, Amenhotep IV appears on the west wall, seated on a throne, with Ramose appearing before the pharaoh. On the other side of the doorway, Amenhotep IV and Nefertiti are shown in the window of appearances, with the Aten depicted as the sun disc. In Parennefer's tomb, Amenhotep IV and Nefertiti are seated on a throne with the sun disc depicted over the pharaoh and his queen.[67] Early in his reign, Amenhotep IV ordered the construction of temples or shrines to the Aten in several cities across the country, such as Bubastis, Tell el-Borg, Heliopolis, Memphis, Nekhen, Kawa, and Kerma.[68] Amenhotep IV also ordered the construction of a large temple complex dedicated to the Aten at Karnak in Thebes, northeast of the parts of the Karnak complex dedicated to Amun. The Aten temple complex, collectively known as the Per Aten ("House of the Aten"), consisted of several temples whose names survive: the Gempaaten ("The Aten is found in the estate of the Aten"), the Hwt benben ("House or Temple of the Benben"), the Rud-menu ("Enduring of monuments for Aten forever"), the Teni-menu ("Exalted are the monuments of the Aten forever"), and the Sekhen Aten ("booth of Aten").[69] Amenhotep IV organized a Sed festival around regnal year two or three. Sed festivals were ritual rejuvenations of an aging pharaoh. They usually took place for the first time around the thirtieth year of a pharaoh's reign, then after every three or so years. Egyptologists only speculate as to why Amenhotep IV organized a Sed festival when he was likely still in his early twenties. Some historians see it as evidence for Amenhotep III and Amenhotep IV's coregency, and believe that Amenhotep IV's Sed festival coincided with one of his father's celebrations. Others speculate that Amenhotep IV chose to hold his festival three years after his father's death, aiming to proclaim his rule a continuation of his father's reign. Yet others believe that the festival was held to honor the Aten on whose behalf the pharaoh ruled Egypt, or, as Amenhotep III was considered to have become one with the Aten following his death, the Sed festival honored both the pharaoh and the god at the same time. It is also possible that the purpose of the ceremony was to figuratively fill Amenhotep IV with strength before his great enterprise: the introduction of the Aten cult and the founding of the new capital Akhetaten. Regardless of the celebration's aim, Egyptologists concluded that during the festivities, Amenhotep IV only made offerings to the Aten rather than the many gods and goddesses, as customary.[55][70][71] Among the discovered documents that refer to Akhenaten as Amenhotep IV the latest in his reign are two copies of a letter to the pharaoh from Ipy, the high steward of Memphis. These letters, found in Gurob and informing the pharaoh that the royal estates in Memphis are "in good order" and the temple of Ptah is "prosperous and flourishing," are dated to regnal year five, day nineteen of the growing season's third month. About a month later, day thirteen of the growing season's fourth month, one of the boundary stela at Akhetaten already had the name Akhenaten carved on it, implying that Akhenaten changed his name between the two inscriptions.[72][73][74][75] Name change[edit] In regnal year five, Amenhotep IV decided to show his devotion to the Aten by changing his royal titulary. No longer would he be known as Amenhotep IV and be associated with the god Amun, but rather he would completely shift his focus to the Aten. Egyptologists debate the exact meaning of Akhenaten, his new personal name. The word "akh" (Ancient Egyptian: ꜣḫ) could have different translations, such as "satisfied," "effective spirit," or "serviceable to," and thus Akhenaten's name could be translated to mean "Aten is satisfied," "Effective spirit of the Aten," or "Serviceable to the Aten," respectively.[76] Gertie Englund and Florence Friedman arrived at the translation "Effective for the Aten" by analyzing contemporary texts and inscriptions, in which Akhenaten often described himself as being "effective for" the sun disc. Englund and Friedman concluded that the frequency with which Akhenaten used this term likely means that his own name meant "Effective for the Aten."[76] Some historians, such as William F. Albright, Edel Elmar, and Gerhard Fecht, proposed that Akhenaten's name is misspelled and mispronounced. These historians believe "Aten" should rather be "Jāti," thus rendering the pharaoh's name Akhenjāti or Aḫanjāti (pronounced /ˌækəˈnjɑːtɪ/), as it could have been pronounced in Ancient Egypt.[77][78] Amenhotep IV Akhenaten Horus name Kanakht-qai-Shuti "Strong Bull of the Double Plumes" Meryaten "Beloved of Aten" Nebty name Wer-nesut-em-Ipet-swt "Great of Kingship in Karnak" Wer-nesut-em-Akhetaten "Great of Kingship in Akhet-Aten" Golden Horus name Wetjes-khau-em-Iunu-Shemay "Crowned in Heliopolis of the South" (Thebes) Wetjes-ren-en-Aten "Exalter of the Name of Aten" Prenomen Neferkheperure-waenre "Beautiful are the Forms of Re, the Unique one of Re" Nomen Amenhotep Netjer-Heqa-Waset "Amenhotep god-ruler of Thebes" Akhenaten "Effective for the Aten" Founding Amarna[edit] One of the stele marking the boundary of the new capital Akhetaten. Main article: Amarna Around the same time he changed his royal titulary, on the thirteenth day of the growing season's fourth month, Akhenaten decreed that a new capital city be built: Akhetaten (Ancient Egyptian: ꜣḫt-jtn, meaning "Horizon of the Aten"), better known today as Amarna. The event Egyptologists know the most about during Akhenaten's life are connected with founding Akhetaten, as several so-called boundary stelae were found around the city to mark its boundary.[79] The pharaoh chose a site about halfway between Thebes, the capital at the time, and Memphis, on the east bank of the Nile, where a wadi and a natural dip in the surrounding cliffs form a silhouette similar to the "horizon" hieroglyph. Additionally, the site had previously been uninhabited. According to inscriptions on one boundary stela, the site was appropriate for Aten's city for "not being the property of a god, nor being the property of a goddess, nor being the property of a ruler, nor being the property of a female ruler, nor being the property of any people able to lay claim to it."[80] Historians do not know for certain why Akhenaten established a new capital and left Thebes, the old capital. The boundary stelae detailing Akhetaten's founding is damaged where it likely explained the pharaoh's motives for the move. Surviving parts claim what happened to Akhenaten was "worse than those that I heard" previously in his reign and worse than those "heard by any kings who assumed the White Crown," and alludes to "offensive" speech against the Aten. Egyptologists believe that Akhenaten could be referring to conflict with the priesthood and followers of Amun, the patron god of Thebes. The great temples of Amun, such as Karnak, were all located in Thebes and the priests there achieved significant power earlier in the Eighteenth Dynasty, especially under Hatshepsut and Thutmose III, thanks to pharaohs offering large amounts of Egypt's growing wealth to the cult of Amun; historians, such as Donald B. Redford, therefore posited that by moving to a new capital, Akhenaten may have been trying to break with Amun's priests and the god.[81][82][83] Talatat blocks from Akhenaten's Aten temple in Karnak Akhetaten was a planned city with the Great Temple of the Aten, Small Aten Temple, royal residences, records office, and government buildings in the city center. Some of these buildings, such as the Aten temples, were ordered to be built by Akhenaten on the boundary stela decreeing the city's founding.[82][84][85] The city was built quickly, thanks to a new construction method that used substantially smaller building blocks than under previous pharaohs. These blocks, called talatats, measured ​1⁄2 by ​1⁄2 by 1 ancient Egyptian cubits (c. 27 by 27 by 54 cm), and because of the smaller weight and standardized size, using them during constructions was more efficient than using heavy building blocks of varying sizes.[86][87] By regnal year eight, Akhetaten reached a state where it could be occupied by the royal family. Only his most loyal subjects followed Akhenaten and his family to the new city. While the city continued to be built, in years five through eight, construction work began to stop in Thebes. The Theban Aten temples that had begun were abandoned, and a village of those working on Valley of the Kings tombs was relocated to the workers' village at Akhetaten. However, construction work continued in the rest of the country, as larger cult centers, such as Heliopolis and Memphis, also had temples built for Aton.[88][89] International relations[edit] Amarna letter EA 362, titled A Commissionner Murdered. In this letter, Rib-Hadda of Byblos informs the pharaoh of the death of Pawura, an Egyptian commissionner. Painted limestone miniature stela. It shows Akhenaten standing before 2 incense stands, Aten disc above. From Amarna, Egypt. 18th Dynasty. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London Head of Akhenaten Further information: Amarna letters The Amarna letters have provided important evidence about Akhenaten's reign and foreign policy. The letters are a cache of 382 diplomatic texts and literary and educational materials discovered between 1887 and 1979[90] and named after Amarna, the modern name for Akhenaten's capital Akhetaten. The diplomatic correspondence comprises clay tablet messages between Amenhotep III, Akhenaten, and Tutankhamun, various subjects through Egyptian military outposts, rulers of vassal states, and the foreign rulers of Babylonia, Assyria, Syria, Canaan, Alashiya, Arzawa, Mitanni, and the Hittites.[91] The Amarna letters portray the international situation in the Eastern Mediterranean that Akhenaten inherited from his predecessors. The kingdom's influence and military might increased greatly before starting to wane in the 200 years preceding Akhenaten's reign, following the expulsion of the Hyksos from Lower Egypt at the end of the Second Intermediate Period. Egypt's power reached new heights under Thutmose III, who ruled approximately 100 years before Akhenaten and led several successful military campaigns into Nubia and Syria. Egypt's expansion led to confrontation with the Mitanni, but this rivalry ended with the two nations becoming allies. Amenhotep III aimed to maintain the balance of power through marriages—such as his marriage to Tadukhipa, daughter of the Mitanni king Tushratta—and vassal states. Yet under Amenhotep III and Akhenaten, Egypt was unable or unwilling to oppose the rise of the Hittites around Syria. The pharaohs seemed to eschew military confrontation at a time when the balance of power between Egypt's neighbors and rivals was shifting, and the Hittites, a confrontational state, overtook the Mitanni in influence.[92][93][94][95] Early in his reign, Akhenaten had conflicts with Tushratta, the king of Mitanni, who had courted favor with his father against the Hittites. Tushratta complains in numerous letters that Akhenaten had sent him gold-plated statues rather than statues made of solid gold; the statues formed part of the bride-price that Tushratta received for letting his daughter Tadukhepa marry Amenhotep III and then later marry Akhenaten. An Amarna letter preserves a complaint by Tushratta to Akhenaten about the situation: I...asked your father Mimmureya for statues of solid cast gold, ... and your father said, 'Don't talk of giving statues just of solid cast gold. I will give you ones made also of lapis lazuli. I will give you too, along with the statues, much additional gold and [other] goods beyond measure.' Every one of my messengers that were staying in Egypt saw the gold for the statues with their own eyes. ... But my brother [i.e., Akhenaten] has not sent the solid [gold] statues that your father was going to send. You have sent plated ones of wood. Nor have you sent me the goods that your father was going to send me, but you have reduced [them] greatly. Yet there is nothing I know of in which I have failed my brother. ... May my brother send me much gold. ... In my brother's country gold is as plentiful as dust. May my brother cause me no distress. May he send me much gold in order that my brother [with the gold and m]any [good]s may honor me.[96] While Akhenaten was certainly not a close friend of Tushratta, he was evidently concerned at the expanding power of the Hittite Empire under its powerful ruler Suppiluliuma I. A successful Hittite attack on Mitanni and its ruler Tushratta would have disrupted the entire international balance of power in the Ancient Middle East at a time when Egypt had made peace with Mitanni; this would cause some of Egypt's vassals to switch their allegiances to the Hittites, as time would prove. A group of Egypt's allies who attempted to rebel against the Hittites were captured, and wrote letters begging Akhenaten for troops, but he did not respond to most of their pleas. Evidence suggests that the troubles on the northern frontier led to difficulties in Canaan, particularly in a struggle for power between Labaya of Shechem and Abdi-Heba of Jerusalem, which required the pharaoh to intervene in the area by dispatching Medjay troops northwards. Akhenaten pointedly refused to save his vassal Rib-Hadda of Byblos—whose kingdom was being besieged by the expanding state of Amurru under Abdi-Ashirta and later Aziru, son of Abdi-Ashirta—despite Rib-Hadda's numerous pleas for help from the pharaoh. Rib-Hadda wrote a total of 60 letters to Akhenaten pleading for aid from the pharaoh. Akhenaten wearied of Rib-Hadda's constant correspondences and once told Rib-Hadda: "You are the one that writes to me more than all the (other) mayors" or Egyptian vassals in EA 124.[97] What Rib-Hadda did not comprehend was that the Egyptian king would not organize and dispatch an entire army north just to preserve the political status quo of several minor city states on the fringes of Egypt's Asiatic Empire.[98] Rib-Hadda would pay the ultimate price; his exile from Byblos due to a coup led by his brother Ilirabih is mentioned in one letter. When Rib-Hadda appealed in vain for aid from Akhenaten and then turned to Aziru, his sworn enemy, to place him back on the throne of his city, Aziru promptly had him dispatched to the king of Sidon, where Rib-Hadda was almost certainly executed.[99] Several Egyptologists in the late 19th and 20th centuries interpretated the Amarna letters to mean that Akhenaten neglected foreign policy and Egypt's foreign territories in favor of his internal reforms. For example, Henry Hall believed Akhenaten "succeeded by his obstinate doctrinaire love of peace in causing far more misery in his world than half a dozen elderly militarists could have done,"[100] while James Henry Breasted said Akhenaten "was not fit to cope with a situation demanding an aggressive man of affairs and a skilled military leader."[101] Others noted that the Amarna letters counter the conventional view that Akhenaten neglected Egypt's foreign territories in favour of his internal reforms. For example, Norman de Garis Davies praised Akhenaten's emphasis on diplomacy over war, while James Baikie said that the fact "that there is no evidence of revolt within the borders of Egypt itself during the whole reign is surely ample proof that there was no such abandonment of his royal duties on the part of Akhenaten as has been assumed."[102][103] Indeed, several letters from Egyptian vassals notified the pharaoh that they have followed his instructions, implying that the pharaoh sent such instructions: To the king, my lord, my god, my Sun, the Sun from the sky: Message of Yapahu, the ruler of Gazru, your servant, the dirt at your feet. I indeed prostrate myself at the feet of the king, my lord, my god, my Sun, the Sun from the sky, 7 times and 7 times, on the stomach and on the back. I am indeed guarding the place of the king, my lord, the Sun of the sky, where I am, and all the things the king, my lord, has written me, I am indeed carrying out—everything! Who am I, a dog, and what is my house, and what is my ..., and what is anything I have, that the orders of the king, my lord, the Sun from the sky, should not obey constantly?[104] The Amarna letters also show that vassal states were told repeatedly to expect the arrival of the Egyptian military on their lands, and provide evidence that these troops were dispatched and arrived at their destination. Dozens of letters detail that Akhenaten—and Amenhotep III—sent Egyptian and Nubian troops, armies, archers, chariots, horses, and ships.[105] Additionally, when Rib-Hadda was killed at the instigation of Aziru,[99] Akhenaten sent an angry letter to Aziru containing a barely veiled accusation of outright treachery on the latter's part.[106] Akhenaten wrote: [Y]ou acted delinquently by taking [Rib-Hadda] whose brother had cast him away at the gate, from his city. He was residing in Sidon and, following your own judgment, you gave him to [some] mayors. Were you ignorant of the treacherousness of the men? If you really are the king's servant, why did you not denounce him before the king, your lord, saying, "This mayor has written to me saying, 'Take me to yourself and get me into my city'"? And if you did act loyally, still all the things you wrote were not true. In fact, the king has reflected on them as follows, "Everything you have said is not friendly." Now the king has heard as follows, "You are at peace with the ruler of Qidsa (Kadesh). The two of you take food and strong drink together." And it is true. Why do you act so? Why are you at peace with a ruler whom the king is fighting? And even if you did act loyally, you considered your own judgment, and his judgment did not count. You have paid no attention to the things that you did earlier. What happened to you among them that you are not on the side of the king, your lord? ... [I]f you plot evil, treacherous things, then you, together with your entire family, shall die by the axe of the king. So perform your service for the king, your lord, and you will live. You yourself know that the king does not fail when he rages against all of Canaan. And when you wrote saying, 'May the king, my Lord, give me leave this year, and then I will go next year to the king, my Lord. If this is impossible, I will send my son in my place'—the king, your lord, let you off this year in accordance with what you said. Come yourself, or send your son [now], and you will see the king at whose sight all lands live.[107] This letter shows that Akhenaten paid close attention to the affairs of his vassals in Canaan and Syria. Akhenaten commanded Aziru to come to Egypt and proceeded to detain him there for at least one year. In the end, Akhenaten was forced to release Aziru back to his homeland when the Hittites advanced southwards into Amki, thereby threatening Egypt's series of Asiatic vassal states, including Amurru.[108] Sometime after his return to Amurru, Aziru defected to the Hittite side with his kingdom.[109] While it is known from an Amarna letter by Rib-Hadda that the Hittites "seized all the countries that were vassals of the king of Mitanni."[110] Akhenaten managed to preserve Egypt's control over the core of her Near Eastern Empire (which consisted of present-day Israel as well as the Phoenician coast) while avoiding conflict with the increasingly powerful Hittite Empire of Suppiluliuma I. Only the Egyptian border province of Amurru in Syria around the Orontes river was permanently lost to the Hittites when its ruler Aziru defected to the Hittites. Only one military campaign is known for certain under Akhenaten's reign. In his second or twelfth year,[111] Akhenaten ordered his Viceroy of Kush Tuthmose to lead a military expedition to quell a rebellion and raids on settlements on the Nile by Nubian nomadic tribes. The victory was commemorated on two stelae, one discovered at Amada and another at Buhen. Egyptologists differ on the size of the campaign: Wolfgang Helck considered it a small-scale police operation, while Alan Schulman considered it a "war of major proportions."[112][113][114] Other Egyptologists suggested that Akhenaten could have waged war in Syria or the Levant, possibly against the Hittites. Cyril Aldred, based on Amarna letters describing Egyptian troop movements, proposed that Akhenaten launched an unsuccessful war around the city of Gezer, while Marc Gabolde argued for an unsuccessful campaign around Kadesh. Either of these could be the campaign referred to on Tutankhamun's Restoration Stela: "if an army was sent to Djahy [southern Canaan and Syria] to broaden the boundaries of Egypt, no success of their cause came to pass."[115][116][117] John Coleman Darnell and Colleen Manassa also argued that Akhenaten fought with the Hittites for control of Kadesh, but was unsuccessful; the city was not recaptured until 60–70 years later, under Seti I.[118] Later years[edit] In regnal year twelve, Akhenaten received tributes and offerings from allied countries and vassal states at Akhetaten, as depicted in the tomb of Meryra II. Egyptologists know little about the last five years of Akhenaten's reign, beginning in c. 1341[3] or 1339 BC.[4] These years are poorly attested and only a few pieces of contemporary evidence survive; the lack of clarity makes reconstructing the latter part of the pharaoh's reign "a daunting task" and a controversial and contested topic of discussion among Egyptologists.[119] Among the newest pieces of evidence is an inscription discovered in 2012 at a limestone quarry in Deir el-Bersha, just north of Akhetaten, from the pharaoh's sixteenth regnal year. The text refers to a building project in Amarna and establishes that Akhenaten and Nefertiti were still a royal couple just a year before Akhenaten's death.[120][121][122] The inscription is dated to Year 16, month 3 of Akhet, day 15 of the reign of Akhenaten.[120] Before the 2012 discovery of the Deir el-Bersha inscription, the last known fixed-date event in Akhenaten's reign was a royal reception in regnal year twelve, in which the pharaoh and the royal family received tributes and offerings from allied countries and vassal states at Akhetaten. Inscriptions show tributes from Nubia, the Land of Punt, Syria, the Kingdom of Hattusa, the islands in the Mediterranean Sea, and Libya. Egyptologists, such as Aidan Dodson, consider this year twelve celebration to be the zenith of Akhenaten's reign.[123] Thanks to reliefs in the tomb of courtier Meryre II, historians know that the royal family, Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and their six daughters, were present at the royal reception in full.[123] However, historians are uncertain about the reasons for the reception. Possibilities include the celebration of the marriage of future pharaoh Ay to Tey, celebration of Akhenaten's twelve years on the throne, the summons of king Aziru of Amurru to Egypt, a military victory at Sumur in the Levant, a successful military campaign in Nubia,[124] Nefertiti's ascendancy to the throne as coregent, or the completion of the new capital city Akhetaten.[125] Following year twelve, Donald B. Redford and other Egyptologists proposed that Egypt was struck by an epidemic, most likely a plague.[126] Contemporary evidence suggests that a plague ravaged through the Middle East around this time,[127] and historians suggested that ambassadors and delegations arriving to Akhenaten's year twelve reception might have brought the disease to Egypt.[128] Alternatively, letters from the Hattians suggested that the epidemic originated in Egypt and was carried throughout the Middle East by Egyptian prisoners of war.[129] Regardless of its origin, the epidemic might account for several deaths in the royal family that occurred in the last five years of Akhenaten's reign, including those of his daughters Meketaten, Neferneferure, and Setepenre.[130][131] Coregency with Smenkhkare or Nefertiti[edit] Akhenaten could have ruled together with Smenkhkare and Nefertiti for several years before his death.[132][133] Based on depictions and artifacts from the tombs of Meryre II and Tutankhamun, Smenkhkare could have been Akhenaten's coregent by regnal year thirteen or fourteen, but died a year or two later. Nefertiti might not have assumed the role of coregent until after year sixteen, when a stela still mentions her as Akhenaten's Great Royal Wife. While Nefertiti's familial relationship with Akhenaten is known, whether Akhenaten and Smenkhkare were related by blood is unclear. Smenkhkare could have been Akhenaten's son or brother, as the son of Amenhotep III with Tiye or Sitamun.[134] Archeological evidence makes it clear, however, that Smenkhkare was married to Meritaten, Akhenaten's eldest daughter.[135] For another, the so-called Coregency Stela, found in a tomb at Akhetaten, might show queen Nefertiti as Akhenaten's coregent, but this is uncertain as stela was recarved to show the names of Ankhesenpaaten and Neferneferuaten.[136] Egyptologist Aidan Dodson proposed that both Smenkhkare and Neferiti were Akhenaten's coregents to ensure the Amarna family's continued rule when Egypt was confronted with an epidemic. Dodson suggested that the two were chosen to rule as Tutankhaten's coregent in case Akhenaten died and Tutankhaten took the throne at a young age, or rule in Tutankhaten's stead if the prince also died in the epidemic.[40] Death and burial[edit] Further information: Amarna succession and KV55 Akhenaten's sarcophagus reconstituted from pieces discovered in his original tomb in Amarna, now in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo. The desecrated royal coffin found in Tomb KV55 Akhenaten died after seventeen years of rule and was initially buried in a tomb in the Royal Wadi east of Akhetaten. The order to construct the tomb and to bury the pharaoh there was commemorated on one of the boundary stela delineating the capital's borders: "Let a tomb be made for me in the eastern mountain [of Akhetaten]. Let my burial be made in it, in the millions of jubilees which the Aten, my father, decreed for me."[137] In the years following the burial, Akhenaten's sarcophagus was destroyed and left in the Akhetaten necropolis; reconstructed in the 20th century, it is in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo as of 2019.[138] Despite leaving the sarcophagus behind, Akhenaten's mummy was removed from the royal tombs after Tutankhamun abandoned Akhetaten and returned to Thebes. It was most likely moved to tomb KV55 in Valley of the Kings near Thebes.[139][140] This tomb was later desecrated, likely during the Ramesside period.[141][142] Whether Smenkhkare also enjoyed a brief independent reign after Akhenaten is unclear.[143] If Smenkhkare outlived Akhenaten, and became sole pharaoh, he likely ruled Egypt for less than a year. The next successor was Nefertiti[144] or Meritaten[145] ruling as Neferneferuaten, reigning in Egypt for about two years.[146] She was, in turn, probably succeeded by Tutankhaten, with the country being administered by the vizier and future pharaoh Ay.[147] Profile view of the skull (thought to be Akhenaten) recovered from KV55 While Akhenaten—along with Smenkhkare—was most likely reburied in tomb KV55,[148] the identification of the mummy found in that tomb as Akhenaten remains controversial to this day. The mummy has repeatedly been examined since its discovery in 1907. Most recently, Egyptologist Zahi Hawass led a team of researchers to examine the mummy using medical and DNA analysis, with the results published in 2010. In releasing their test results, Hawass' team identified the mummy as the father of Tutankhamun and thus "most probably" Akhenaten.[149] However, the study's validity has since been called into question.[6][7][150][151][152] For instance, the discussion of the study results does not discuss that Tutankhamun's father and the father's siblings would share some genetic markers; if Tutankhamun's father was Akhenaten, the DNA results could indicate that the mummy is a brother of Akhenaten, possibly Smenkhkare.[152][153] Legacy[edit] With Akhenaten's death, the Aten cult he had founded fell out of favor: at first gradually, and then with decisive finality. Tutankhaten changed his name to Tutankhamun in Year 2 of his reign (c. 1332 BC) and abandoned the city of Akhetaten.[154] Their successors then attempted to erase Akhenaten and his family from the historical record. During the reign of Horemheb, the last pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty and the first pharaoh after Akhenaten who was not related to Akhenaten's family, Egyptians started to destroy temples to the Aten and reuse the building blocks in new construction projects, including in temples for the newly restored god Amun. Horemheb's successor continued in this effort. Seti I restored monuments to Amun and had the god's name re-carved on inscriptions where it was removed by Akhenaten. Seti I also ordered that Akhenaten, Smenkhkare, Neferneferuaten, Tutankhamun, and Ay be excised from official lists of pharaohs to make it appear that Amenhotep III was immediately succeeded by Horemheb. Under the Ramessides, who succeeded Seti I, Akhetaten was gradually destroyed and the building material reused across the country, such as in constructions at Hermopolis. The negative attitudes toward Akhenaten were illustrated by, for example, inscriptions in the tomb of scribe Mose (or Mes), where Akhenaten's reign is referred to as "the time of the enemy of Akhet-Aten."[155][156][157] Some Egyptologists, such as Jacobus van Dijk and Jan Assmann, believe that Akhenaten's reign and the Amarna period started a gradual decline in the Egyptian government's power and the pharaoh's standing in Egyptian's society and religious life.[158][159] Akhenaten's religious reforms subverted the relationship ordinary Egyptians had with their gods and their pharaoh, as well as the role the pharaoh played in the relationship between the people and the gods. Before the Amarna period, the pharaoh was the representative of the gods on Earth, the son of the god Ra, and the living incarnation of the god Horus, and maintained the divine order through rituals and offerings and by sustaining the temples of the gods.[160] Additionally, even though the pharaoh oversaw all religious activity, Egyptians could access their gods through regular public holidays, festivals, and processions. This led to a seemingly close connection between people and the gods, especially the patron deity of their respective towns and cities.[161] Akhenaten, however, banned the worship of gods beside the Aten, including through festivals. He also declared himself to be the only one who could worship the Aten, and required that all religious devotion previously exhibited toward the gods be directed toward himself. After the Amarna period, during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties—c. 270 years following Akhenaten's death—the relationship between the people, the pharaoh, and the gods did not simply revert to pre-Amarna practices and beliefs. The worship of all gods returned, but the relationship between the gods and the worshipers became more direct and personal,[162] circumventing the pharaoh. Rather than acting through the pharaoh, Egyptians started to believe that the gods intervened directly in their lives, protecting the pious and punishing criminals.[163] The gods replaced the pharaoh as their own representatives on Earth. The god Amun once again became king among all gods.[164] According to van Dijk, "the king was no longer a god, but god himself had become king. Once Amun had been recognized as the true king, the political power of the earthly rulers could be reduced to a minimum."[165] Consequently, the influence and power of the Amun priesthood continued to grow until the Twenty-first Dynasty, c. 1077 BC, by which time the High Priests of Amun effectively became rulers over parts of Egypt.[166][159][167] Akhenaten's reforms also had a longer-term impact on Ancient Egyptian language and hastened the spread of the spoken Late Egyptian language in official writings and speeches. Spoken and written Egyptian diverged early on in Egyptian history and stayed different over time.[168] During the Amarna period, however, royal and religious texts and inscriptions, including the boundary stelae at Akhetaten or the Amarna letters, started to regularly include more vernacular linguistic elements, such as the definite article or a new possessive form. Even though they continued to diverge, these changes brought the spoken and written language closer to one another more systematically than under previous pharaohs of the New Kingdom. While Akhenaten's successors attempted to erase his religious, artistic, and even linguistic changes from history, the new linguistic elements remained a more common part of official texts following the Amarna years, starting with the Nineteenth Dynasty.[169][170][171] Atenism[edit] Further information: Atenism and Aten Relief fragment showing a royal head, probably Akhenaten, and early Aten cartouches. Aten extends Ankh (sign of life) to the figure. Reign of Akhenaten. From Amarna, Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London Pharaoh Akhenaten (center) and his family worshiping the Aten, with characteristic rays seen emanating from the solar disk. Later such imagery was prohibited. Egyptians worshipped a sun god under several names, and solar worship had been growing in popularity even before Akhenaten, especially during the Eighteenth Dynasty and the reign of Amenhotep III, Akhenaten's father.[172] During the New Kingdom, the pharaoh started to be associated with the sun disc; for example, one inscriptions called the pharaoh Hatshepsut the "female Re shining like the Disc," while Amenhotep III was described as "he who rises over every foreign land, Nebmare, the dazzling disc."[173] During the Eighteenth Dynasty, a religious hymn to the sun also appeared and became popular among Egyptians.[174] However, Egyptologists question whether there is a causal relationship between the cult of the sun disc before Akhenaten and Akhenaten's religious policies.[174] Implementation and development[edit] The implementation of Atenism can be traced through gradual changes in the Aten's iconography, and Egyptologist Donald B. Redford divided its development into three stages—earliest, intermediate, and final—in his studies of Akhenaten and Atenism. The earliest stage was associated with a growing number of depictions of the sun disc, though the disc is still seen resting on the head of the falcon-headed sun god Ra-Horakhty, as the god was traditionally represented.[175] The god was only "unique but not exclusive."[176] The intermediate stage was marked by the elevation of the Aten above other gods and the appearance of cartouches around his incribed name—cartouches traditionally indicating that the enclosed text is a royal name. The final stage had the Aten represented as a sun disc with sunrays like long arms terminating in human hands and the introduction of a new epithet for the god: "the great living Disc which is in jubilee, lord of heaven and earth."[177] In the early years of his reign, Amenhotep IV lived at Thebes, the old capital city, and permitted worship of Egypt's traditional deities to continue. However, some signs already pointed to the growing importance of the Aten. For example, inscriptions in the Theban tomb of Parennefer from the early rule of Amenhotep IV state that "one measures the payments to every (other) god with a level measure, but for the Aten one measures so that it overflows," indicating a more favorable attitude to the cult of Aten than the other gods.[176] Additionally, near the Temple of Karnak, Amun-Ra's great cult center, Amenhotep IV erected several massive buildings including temples to the Aten. The new Aten temples had no roof and the god was thus worshipped in the sunlight, under the open sky, rather than in dark temple enclosures as had been the previous custom.[178][179] The Theban buildings were later dismantled by his successors and used as infill for new constructions in the Temple of Karnak; when they were later dismantled by archaeologists, some 36,000 decorated blocks from the original Aton building here were revealed that preserve many elements of the original relief scenes and inscriptions.[180] One of the most important turning points in the early reign of Amenhotep IV is a speech given by the pharaoh at the beginning of his second regnal year. A copy of the speech survives on one of the pylons at the Karnak Temple Complex near Thebes. Speaking to the royal court, scribes or the people, Amenhotep IV said that the gods were ineffective and had ceased their movements, and that their temples had collapsed. The pharaoh contrasted this with the only remaining god, the sun disc Aten, who continued to move and exist forever. Some Egyptologists, such as Donald B. Redford, compared this speech to a proclamation or manifesto, which foreshadowed and explained the pharaoh's later religious reforms centered around the Aten.[181][182][183] In his speech, Akhenaten said: The temples of the gods fallen to ruin, their bodies do not endure. Since the time of the ancestors, it is the wise man that knows these things. Behold, I, the king, am speaking so that I might inform you concerning the appearances of the gods. I know their temples, and I am versed in the writings, specficially, the inventory of their primeval bodies. And I have watched as they [the gods] have ceased their appearances, one after the other. All of them have stopped, except the god who gave birth to himself. And no one knows the mystery of how he performs his tasks. This god goes where he pleases and no one else knows his going. I approach him, the things which he has made. How exalted they are.[184] Akhenaten depicted as a sphinx at Amarna. In Year Five of his reign, Amenhotep IV took decisive steps to establish the Aten as the sole god of Egypt. The pharaoh "disbanded the priesthoods of all the other gods ... and diverted the income from these [other] cults to support the Aten." To emphasize his complete allegiance to the Aten, the king officially changed his name from Amenhotep IV to Akhenaten (Ancient Egyptian: ꜣḫ-n-jtn, meaning "Effective for the Aten").[180] Meanwhile, the Aten was becoming a king itself. Artists started to depict him with the trappings of pharaos, placing his name in cartouches—a rare, but not unique occurrence, as the names of Ra-Horakhty and Amun-Ra had also been found enclosed in cartouches—and wearing a uraeus, a symbol of kingship.[185] The Aten may also have been the subject of Akhenaten's royal Sed festival early in the pharaoh's reign.[186] With Aten becoming a sole deity, Akhenaten started to proclaim himself as the only intermediary between Aten and his people and the subject of their personal worship and attention.[187] Inscribed limestone fragment showing early Aten cartouches, "the Living Ra Horakhty". Reign of Akhenaten. From Amarna, Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London Fragment of a stela, showing parts of 3 late cartouches of Aten. There is a rare intermediate form of god's name. Reign of Akhenaten. From Amarna, Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London By Year Nine of his reign, Akhenaten declared that Aten was not merely the supreme god, but the only worshipable god. He ordered the defacing of Amun's temples throughout Egypt and, in a number of instances, inscriptions of the plural 'gods' were also removed.[188][189] This emphasized the changes encouraged by the new regime, which included a ban on images, with the exception of a rayed solar disc, in which the rays appear to represent the unseen spirit of Aten, who by then was evidently considered not merely a sun god, but rather a universal deity. All life on Earth depended on the Aten and the visible sunlight.[190][191] Representations of the Aten were always accompanied with a sort of hieroglyphic footnote, stating that the representation of the sun as all-encompassing creator was to be taken as just that: a representation of something that, by its very nature as something transcending creation, cannot be fully or adequately represented by any one part of that creation.[192] Aten's name was also written differently starting as early as Year Eight or as late as Year Fourteen, according to some historians.[193] From "Living Re-Horakhty, who rejoices in the horizon in his name Shu-Re who is in Aten," the god's name changed to "Living Re, ruler of the horizon, who rejoices in his name of Re the father who has returned as Aten," removing the Aten's connection to Re-Horakhty and Shu, two other solar deities.[194] The Aten thus became an amalgamation that incorporated the attributes and beliefs around Re-Horakhty, universal sun god, and Shu, god of the sky and manifestation of the sunlight.[195] Siliceous limestone fragment of a statue. There are late Aten cartouches on the draped right shoulder. Reign of Akhenaten. From Amarna, Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London Akhenaten's Atenist beliefs are best distilled in the Great Hymn to the Aten.[196] The hymn was discovered in the tomb of Ay, one of Akhenaten's successors, though Egyptologists believe that it could have been composed by Akhenaten himself.[197][198] The hymn celebrates the sun and daylight and recounts the dangers that abound when the sun sets. It tells of the Aten as a sole god and the creator of all life, who recreates life every day at sunrise, and on whom everything on Earth depends, including the natural world, people's lives, and even trade and commerce.[199] In one passage, the hymn declares: "O Sole God beside whom there is none! You made the earth as you wished, you alone."[200] The hymn also states that Akhenaten is the only intermediary between the god and Egyptians, and the only one who can understand the Aten: "You are in my heart, and there is none who knows you except your son."[201] Atenism and other gods[edit] Some debate has focused on the extent to which Akhenaten forced his religious reforms on his people.[202] Certainly, as time drew on, he revised the names of the Aten, and other religious language, to increasingly exclude references to other gods; at some point, also, he embarked on the wide-scale erasure of traditional gods' names, especially those of Amun.[203] Some of his court changed their names to remove them from the patronage of other gods and place them under that of Aten (or Ra, with whom Akhenaten equated the Aten). Yet, even at Amarna itself, some courtiers kept such names as Ahmose ("child of the moon god", the owner of tomb 3), and the sculptor's workshop where the famous Nefertiti Bust and other works of royal portraiture were found is associated with an artist known to have been called Thutmose ("child of Thoth"). An overwhelmingly large number of faience amulets at Amarna also show that talismans of the household-and-childbirth gods Bes and Taweret, the eye of Horus, and amulets of other traditional deities, were openly worn by its citizens. Indeed, a cache of royal jewelry found buried near the Amarna royal tombs (now in the National Museum of Scotland) includes a finger ring referring to Mut, the wife of Amun. Such evidence suggests that though Akhenaten shifted funding away from traditional temples, his policies were fairly tolerant until some point, perhaps a particular event as yet unknown, toward the end of the reign.[204] Archaeological discoveries at Akhetaten show that many ordinary residents of this city chose to gouge or chisel out all references to the god Amun on even minor personal items that they owned, such as commemorative scarabs or make-up pots, perhaps for fear of being accused of having Amunist sympathies. References to Amenhotep III, Akhenaten's father, were partly erased since they contained the traditional Amun form of his name: Nebmaatre Amunhotep.[205] After Akhenaten[edit] Following Akhenaten's death, Egypt gradually returned to its traditional polytheistic religion, partly because of how closely associated the Aten became with Akhenaten.[206] Atenism likely stayed dominant through the reigns of Akhenaten's immediate successors, Smenkhkare and Neferneferuaten, as well as early in the reign of Tutankhaten.[207] For a period of time the worship of Aten and a resurgent worship of Amun coexisted.[208][209] Over time, however, Akhenaten's successors, starting with Tutankhaten, took steps to distance themselves from Atenism. Tutankhaten and his wife Ankhesenpaaten dropped the Aten from their names and changed them to Tutankhamun and Ankhesenamun, respectively. Amun was restored as the supreme deity. Tutankhamun reestablished the temples of the other gods, as the pharaoh propagated on his Restoration Stela: "He reorganized this land, restoring its customs to those of the time of Re. ... He renewed the gods' mansions and fashioned all their images. ... He raised up their temples and created their statues. ... When he had sought out the gods' precincts which were in ruins in this land, he refounded them just as they had been since the time of the first primeval age."[210] Additionally, Tutankhamun's building projects at Thebes and Karnak used talatat's from Akhenaten's buildings, which implies that Tutankhamun might have started to demolish temples dedicated to the Aten. Aten temples continued to be torn down under Ay and Horemheb, Tutankhamun's successors and the last pharaohs of the Eighteenth Dynasty, too. Horemheb could also have ordered that Akhetaten, Akhenaten's capital city be demolished.[211] To further underpin the break with Aten worship, Horemheb claimed to have been chosen to rule over Egypt by the god Horus. Finally, Seti I, the first pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty, ordered that the name of Amun be restored on inscriptions on which it had been removed or replaced by the name of the Aten.[212] Artistic depictions[edit] Further information: Amarna art Akhenaten in the typical Amarna period style. Styles of art that flourished during the reigns of Akhenaten and his immediate successors, known as Amarna art, are markedly different from the traditional art of ancient Egypt. Representations are more realistic, expressionistic, and naturalistic,[213][214] especially in depictions of animals, plants and people, and convey more action and movement for both non-royal and royal individuals than the traditionally static representations. In traditional art, a pharaoh's divine nature was expressed by repose, even immobility.[215][216][217] The portrayals of Akhenaten himself greatly differ from the depictions of other pharaohs. Traditionally, the portrayal of pharaohs—and the Egyptian ruling class—was idealized, and they were shown in "stereotypically 'beautiful' fashion" as youthful and athletic.[218] However, Akhenaten's portrayals are unconventional and "unflattering" with a sagging stomach; broad hips; thin legs; thick thighs; large, "almost feminine breasts;" a thin, "exaggeratedly long face;" and thick lips.[219] Based on Akhenaten's and his family's unusual artistic representations, including potential depictions of gynecomastia and androgyny, some have argued that the pharaoh and his family have either suffered from aromatase excess syndrome and sagittal craniosynostosis syndrome, or Antley–Bixler syndrome.[220] In 2010, results published from genetic studies on Akhenaten's purported mummy did not find signs of gynecomastia or Antley-Bixler syndrome,[19] although these results have since been questioned.[221] Arguing instead for a symbolic interpretation, Dominic Montserrat in Akhenaten: History, Fantasy and Ancient Egypt states that "there is now a broad consensus among Egyptologists that the exaggerated forms of Akhenaten's physical portrayal... are not to be read literally".[222][205] Because the god Aten was referred to as "the mother and father of all humankind," Montserrat and others suggest that Akhenaten was made to look androgynous in artwork as a symbol of the androgyny of the Aten.[223] This required "a symbolic gathering of all the attributes of the creator god into the physical body of the king himself", which will "display on earth the Aten's multiple life-giving functions".[222] Akhenaten claimed the title "The Unique One of Re", and he may have directed his artists to contrast him with the common people through a radical departure from the idealized traditional pharaoh image.[222] Depictions of other members of the court, especially members of the royal family, are also exaggerated, stylized, and overall different from traditional art.[215] Significantly, and for the only time in the history of Egyptian royal art, the pharaoh's family life is depicted: the royal family is shown mid-action in relaxed, casual, and intimate situations, taking part in decidedly naturalistic activities, showing affection for each other, such as holding hands and kissing.[224][225][226][227] Small statue of Akhenaten wearing the Egyptian Blue Crown of War Nefertiti also appears, both beside the king and alone, or with her daughters, in actions usually reserved for a pharaoh, such as "smiting the enemy," a traditional depiction of male pharaohs.[228] This suggests that she enjoyed unusual status for a queen. Early artistic representations of her tend to be indistinguishable from her husband's except by her regalia, but soon after the move to the new capital, Nefertiti begins to be depicted with features specific to her. Questions remain whether the beauty of Nefertiti is portraiture or idealism.[229] Speculative theories[edit] Sculptor's trial piece of Akhenaten. Akhenaten's status as a religious revolutionary has led to much speculation, ranging from scholarly hypotheses to non-academic fringe theories. Although some believe the religion he introduced was mostly monotheistic, many others see Akhenaten as a practitioner of an Aten monolatry,[230] as he did not actively deny the existence of other gods; he simply refrained from worshiping any but the Aten. Akhenaten and monotheism in Abrahamic religions[edit] The idea that Akhenaten was the pioneer of a monotheistic religion that later became Judaism has been considered by various scholars.[231][232][233][234][235] One of the first to mention this was Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, in his book Moses and Monotheism.[231] Basing his arguments on his belief that the Exodus story was historical, Freud argued that Moses had been an Atenist priest who was forced to leave Egypt with his followers after Akhenaten's death. Freud argued that Akhenaten was striving to promote monotheism, something that the biblical Moses was able to achieve.[231] Following the publication of his book, the concept entered popular consciousness and serious research.[236][237] Freud commented on the connection between Adonai, the Egyptian Aten and the Syrian divine name of Adonis as the primeval unity of languages between the factions;[231] in this he was following the argument of Egyptologist Arthur Weigall. Jan Assmann's opinion is that 'Aten' and 'Adonai' are not linguistically related.[238] There are strong similarities between Akhenaten's Great Hymn to the Aten and the Biblical Psalm 104; however, there has been some debate as to whether the similarities reflect direct or indirect borrowing.[239][240] Others have likened some aspects of Akhenaten's relationship with the Aten to the relationship, in Christian tradition, between Jesus Christ and God, particularly interpretations that emphasize a more monotheistic interpretation of Atenism than a henotheistic one. Donald B. Redford has noted that some have viewed Akhenaten as a harbinger of Jesus. "After all, Akhenaten did call himself the son of the sole god: 'Thine only son that came forth from thy body'."[241] James Henry Breasted likened him to Jesus,[242] Arthur Weigall saw him as a failed precursor of Christ and Thomas Mann saw him "as right on the way and yet not the right one for the way".[243] Redford argued that while Akhenaten called himself the son of the Sun-Disc and acted as the chief mediator between god and creation, kings had claimed the same relationship and priestly role for thousands of years before Akhenaten's time. However Akhenaten's case may be different through the emphasis that he placed on the heavenly father and son relationship. Akhenaten described himself as being "thy son who came forth from thy limbs", "thy child", "the eternal son that came forth from the Sun-Disc", and "thine only son that came forth from thy body". The close relationship between father and son is such that only the king truly knows the heart of "his father", and in return his father listens to his son's prayers. He is his father's image on earth, and as Akhenaten is king on earth, his father is king in heaven. As high priest, prophet, king and divine he claimed the central position in the new religious system. Because only he knew his father's mind and will, Akhenaten alone could interpret that will for all mankind with true teaching coming only from him.[241] Redford concluded: Before much of the archaeological evidence from Thebes and from Tell el-Amarna became available, wishful thinking sometimes turned Akhenaten into a humane teacher of the true God, a mentor of Moses, a christlike figure, a philosopher before his time. But these imaginary creatures are now fading away as the historical reality gradually emerges. There is little or no evidence to support the notion that Akhenaten was a progenitor of the full-blown monotheism that we find in the Bible. The monotheism of the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament had its own separate development—one that began more than half a millennium after the pharaoh's death.[244] Possible illness[edit] Hieratic inscription on a pottery fragment. It records year 17 of Akhenaten's reign and reference to wine of the house of Aten. From Amarna, Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London Limestone trial piece of a king, probably Akhenaten, and a smaller head of uncertain gender. From Amarna, Egypt. 18th Dynasty. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London The unconventional portrayals of Akhenaten—different from the traditional athletic norm in the portrayal of pharaohs—have led Egyptologists in the 19th and 20th centuries to suppose that Akhenaten suffered some kind of genetic abnormality.[219] Various illnesses have been put forward, with Frölich's syndrome or Marfan syndrome being mentioned most commonly.[245] Cyril Aldred,[246] following up earlier arguments of Grafton Elliot Smith[247] and James Strachey,[248] suggested that Akhenaten may have suffered from Frölich's syndrome on the basis of his long jaw and his feminine appearance. However, this is unlikely, because this disorder results in sterility and Akhenaten is known to have fathered numerous children. His children are repeatedly portrayed through years of archaeological and iconographic evidence.[249] Burridge[250] suggested that Akhenaten may have suffered from Marfan syndrome, which, unlike Frölich's, does not result in mental impairment or sterility. Marfan sufferers tend towards tallness, with a long, thin face, elongated skull, overgrown ribs, a funnel or pigeon chest, a high curved or slightly cleft palate, and larger pelvis, with enlarged thighs and spindly calves, symptoms that appear in some depictions of Akhenaten.[251] Marfan syndrome is a dominant characteristic, which means sufferers have a 50% chance of passing it on to their children.[252] However, DNA tests on Tutankhamun in 2010 proved negative for Marfan syndrome.[253] By the early 21st century, most Egyptologists argued that Akhenaten's portrayals are not the results of a genetic or medical condition, but rather should be interpreted through the lens of Atenism.[205][222] Akhenaten was made to look androgynous in artwork as a symbol of the androgyny of the Aten.[222] Cultural depictions[edit] External video House Altar with Akhenaten, Nefertiti and Three Daughters (Amarna Period) (5:03), Smarthistory[254] The Lost Pharaoh: The Search for Akhenaten (56:35), National Film Board of Canada[255] The life of Akhenaten has inspired many fictional representations. On page, Thomas Mann made Akhenaten the "dreaming pharaoh" of Joseph's story in the fictional biblical tetraology Joseph and His Brothers from 1933–1943. Akhenaten appears in Mika Waltari's The Egyptian, first published in Finnish (Sinuhe egyptiläinen) in 1945, translated by Naomi Walford; David Stacton's On a Balcony from 1958; Gwendolyn MacEwen's King of Egypt, King of Dreams from 1971; Allen Drury's A God Against the Gods from 1976 and Return to Thebes from 1976; Naguib Mahfouz's Akhenaten, Dweller in Truth from 1985; Andree Chedid's Akhenaten and Nefertiti's Dream; and Moyra Caldecott's Akhenaten: Son of the Sun from 1989. Additionally, Pauline Gedge's 1984 novel The Twelfth Transforming is set in the reign of Akhenaten, details the construction of Akhetaten and includes accounts of his personal relationships with Nefertiti, Tiye and successor Smenkhkare. Akhenaten inspired the poetry collection Akhenaten by Dorothy Porter. And in comic books, Akhenaten is the major antagonist in the 2008 comic book series (reprinted as a graphic novel) "Marvel: The End" by Jim Starlin and Al Milgrom. In this series, Akhenaten gains unlimited power and, though his stated intentions are benevolent, is opposed by Thanos and essentially all of the other superheroes and supervillains in the Marvel comic book universe. Finally, Akhenaten provides much of the background in the comic book adventure story Blake et Mortimer: Le Mystère de la Grande Pyramide vol. 1+2 by Edgar P. Jacobs from 1950. On stage, the 1937 play Akhnaton by Agatha Christie explores the lives of Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and Tutankhaten.[256] He was portrayed in the Greek play Pharaoh Akhenaton (Greek: Φαραώ Αχενατόν) by Angelos Prokopiou.[257] The pharaoh also inspired the 1983 opera Akhnaten by Philip Glass. In film, Akhenaten is played by Michael Wilding in The Egyptian from 1954 and Amedeo Nazzari in Nefertiti, Queen of the Nile from 1961. In the 2007 animated film La Reine Soleil, Akhenaten, Tutankhaten, Akhesa (Ankhesenepaten, later Ankhesenamun), Nefertiti, and Horemheb are depicted in a complex struggle pitting the priests of Amun against Atenism. Akhenaten also appears in several documentaries, including The Lost Pharaoh: The Search for Akhenaten, a 1980 National Film Board of Canada documentary based on Donald Redford's excavation of one Akhenaten's temples,[255] and episodes of Ancient Aliens, which propose that Akhenaten may have been an extraterrestrial.[258] In video games, for example, Akhenaten is the enemy in the Assassin's Creed Origins "The Curse of the Pharaohs" DLC, and must be defeated to remove his curse on Thebes.[259] His afterlife takes the form of 'Aten', a location that draws heavily on the architecture of the city of Amarna. Additionally, a version of Akhenaten (incorporating elements of H. P. Lovecraft's Black Pharaoh) is the driving antagonist behind the Egypt chapters of The Secret World, where the player must stop a modern-day incarnation of the Atenist cult from unleashing the now-undead pharaoh and the influence of Aten (which is portrayed as a real and extremely powerful malevolent supernatural entity with the ability to strip followers of their free will) upon the world. He is explicitly stated to be the Pharaoh who opposed Moses in the Book of Exodus, diverging from the traditional Exodus narrative in that he retaliates against Moses's 10 Plagues with 10 plagues of his own before being sealed away by the combined forces of both Moses and Ptahmose, the High Priest of Amun. He is also shown to have been an anachronistic alliance with the Roman cult of Sol Invictus, who are strongly implied to be worshiping Aten under a different name. In music, Akhenaten is the subject of several compositions, including the jazz album Akhenaten Suite by Roy Campbell, Jr.,[260] the symphony Akhenaten (Eidetic Images) by Gene Gutchë, the progressive metal song Cursing Akhenaten by After the Burial, and the technical death metal song Cast Down the Heretic by Nile. Ancestry[edit] 16. Thutmose III 8. Amenhotep II 17. Merytre-Hatshepsut 4. Thutmose IV 9. Tiaa 2. Amenhotep III 5. Mutemwiya 1. Akhenaten 6. Yuya 3. Tiye 7. Tjuyu See also[edit] Pharaoh of the Exodus Osarseph Notes and references[edit] Notes[edit] ^ Cohen & Westbrook 2002, p. 6. ^ a b Rogers 1912, p. 252. ^ a b c d Britannica.com 2012. ^ a b c d e von Beckerath 1997, p. 190. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Leprohon 2013, pp. 104–105. ^ a b c Strouhal 2010, pp. 97–112. ^ a b c Duhig 2010, p. 114. ^ Dictionary.com 2008. ^ Montserrat 2003, pp. 105, 111. ^ Kitchen 2003, p. 486. ^ a b Tyldesley 2005. ^ a b Ridley 2019, pp. 13–15. ^ Hart 2000, p. 44. ^ Manniche 2010, p. ix. ^ Zaki 2008, p. 19. ^ Gardiner 1905, p. 11. ^ Trigger et al. 2001, pp. 186–187. ^ Hornung 1992, pp. 43–44. ^ a b Hawass et al. 2010. ^ Marchant 2011, pp. 404–06. ^ Lorenzen & Willerslev 2010. ^ Bickerstaffe 2010. ^ Spence 2011. ^ Sooke 2014. ^ Hessler 2017. ^ Silverman, Wegner & Wegner 2006, pp. 185–188. ^ Ridley 2019, pp. 37–39. ^ Dodson 2018, p. 6. ^ Laboury 2010, pp. 62, 224. ^ Tyldesley 2006, p. 124. ^ Murnane 1995, pp. 9, 90–93, 210–211. ^ Grajetzki 2005. ^ Dodson 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David 1998, p. 125. ^ Aldred 1991, pp. 261–262. ^ Hoffmeier 2015, pp. 160–161. ^ Redford 2013, p. 14. ^ Perry 2019, 03:59. ^ Hornung 2001, pp. 34–36, 54. ^ Hornung 2001, pp. 39, 42, 54. ^ Hornung 2001, pp. 55–57. ^ Ridley 2019, p. 188. ^ Hart 2000, pp. 42–46. ^ Hornung 2001, pp. 55, 84. ^ Najovits 2004, p. 125. ^ Ridley 2019, pp. 211–213. ^ Ridley 2019, pp. 28, 173–174. ^ Dodson 2009, p. 38. ^ Najovits 2004, pp. 123–124. ^ Najovits 2004, p. 128. ^ Hornung 2001, p. 52. ^ Ridley 2019, pp. 129, 133. ^ Ridley 2019, p. 128. ^ Najovits 2004, p. 131. ^ Ridley 2019, pp. 128–129. ^ Hornung 1992, p. 47. ^ Allen 2005, pp. 217–221. ^ Ridley 2019, pp. 187–194. ^ a b c Reeves 2019, pp. 154–155. ^ Hornung 2001, p. 56. ^ Dodson 2018, pp. 47, 50. ^ Redford 1984, p. 207. ^ Silverman, Wegner & Wegner 2006, pp. 165–166. ^ Hoffmeier 2015, pp. 197, 239–242. ^ van Dijk 2003, p. 284. ^ Hoffmeier 2015, pp. 239–242. ^ Hornung 2001, pp. 43–44. ^ Najovits 2004, p. 144. ^ a b Baptista, Santamarina & Conant 2017. ^ Arnold 1996, p. viii. ^ Hornung 2001, pp. 42–47. ^ Sooke 2016. ^ a b Takács & Cline 2015, pp. 5–6. ^ Braverman, Redford & Mackowiak 2009. ^ Braverman & Mackowiak 2010. ^ a b c d e Montserrat 2003. ^ Najovits 2004, p. 145. ^ Aldred 1985, p. 174. ^ Arnold 1996, p. 114. ^ Hornung 2001, p. 44. ^ Najovits 2004, pp. 146–147. ^ Arnold 1996, p. 85. ^ Arnold 1996, pp. 85–86. ^ Montserrat 2003, p. 36. ^ a b c d Freud 1939. ^ Stent 2002, pp. 34–38. ^ Assmann 1997. ^ Shupak 1995. ^ Albright 1973. ^ Chaney 2006a, pp. 62–69. ^ Chaney 2006b. ^ Assmann 1997, pp. 23–24. ^ Hoffmeier 2015, pp. 246–256: "...it seems best to conclude for the present that the “parallels” between Amarna hymns to Aten and Psalm 104 should be attributed to “the common theology” and the “general pattern"..."; Hoffmeier 2005, p. 239: "...There has been some debate whether the similarities direct or indirect borrowing... it is unlikely that "the Israelite who composed Psalm 104 borrowed directly from the sublime Egyptian 'Hymn to the Aten'," as Stager has recently claimed."; Alter 2018, p. 54: "...I think there may be some likelihood, however unprovable, that our psalmist was familiar with at least an intermediate version of Akhenaton's hymn and adopted some elements from it."; Brown 2014, p. 61–73: "the question of the relationship between Egyptian hymns and the Psalms remains open" ^ Assmann 2020, pp. 40–43: "Verses 20–30 cannot be understood as anything other than a loose and abridged translation of the "Great Hymn":..."; Day 2014, pp. 22–23: "...a significant part of the rest Of Psalm 104 (esp. vv. 20–30) is dependent on... Akhenaten's Hymn to the Sun god Aten... these parallels almost all come in the same order:..."; Day 2013, pp. 223–224: "...this dependence is confined to vv. 20–30. Here the evidence is particularly impressive, since we have six parallels with Akhenaten's hymn... occurring in the identical order, with one exception."; Landes 2011, pp. 155, 178: "the hymn to Aten quoted as epigraph to this chapter—replicates the intense religiosity and even the language of the Hebrew Psalm 104. Indeed, most Egyptologists argue that this hymn inspired the psalm...", "...For some, the relationship to Hebraic monotheism seems extremely close, including the nearly verbatim passages in Psalm 104 and the “Hymn to Aten” found in one of the tombs at Akhetaten..."; Shaw 2004, p. 19: "An intriguing direct literary (and perhaps religious) link between Egypt and the Bible is Psalm 104, which has strong similarities with a hymn to the Aten" ^ a b Redford 1987. ^ Levenson 1994, p. 60. ^ Hornung 2001, p. 14. ^ Redford, Shanks & Meinhardt 1997. ^ Ridley 2019, p. 87. ^ Aldred 1991. ^ Smith 1923, pp. 83–88. ^ Strachey 1939. ^ Hawass 2010. ^ Burridge 1995. ^ Lorenz 2010. ^ National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences 2017. ^ Schemm 2010. ^ Khan Academy 2013. ^ a b Kendall 1980. ^ Christie 1973. ^ Prokopiou 1993. ^ History.com 2018. ^ Assassin's Creed Origins 2018. ^ Roy Campbell 2012. Bibliography[edit] "Akhenaten". Dictionary.com. Archived from the original on October 14, 2008. 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L'Égyptologie en 1979: Axes prioritaires de recherches. Colloques internationaux du Centre national de la recherche scientifique. 2. Paris: Editions du Centre national de la recherche scientifique. pp. 299–316. ISBN 978-2222029298. Sethe, Kurt, ed. (1906–1909). Urkunden der 18. Dynastie [Documents of the 18th Dynasty] (PDF). Urkunden des Ägyptischen Altertums (in German). 4. Leipzig, Germany: J.C. Hinrichs'sche Buchhandlung. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 6, 2020. Retrieved June 12, 2020. Shaw, Ian, ed. (2003) [2000]. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (New ed.). Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280458-7. Shaw, Ian (2004). Ancient Egypt: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-157840-3. Shupak, Nili (1995). "The Monotheism of Moses and the Monotheism of Akhenaten". The Bible as a Meeting Point of Cultures through the Ages. Sevivoth. pp. 18–27. Silverman, David P.; Wegner, Josef W.; Wegner, Jennifer Houser (2006). Akhenaten and Tutankhamun: Revolution and Restoration (1st ed.). Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archeology and Anthropology. ISBN 978-1931707909. Smith, Elliot, ed. (1923). Tutankhamen and the discovery of his tomb by the late Earl of Canarvon and Mr Howard Carter. London: Routledge. Sooke, Alastair (January 9, 2014). "Akhenaten: mad, bad, or brilliant?". The Daily Telegraph. Telegraph Media Group. Retrieved May 10, 2020. Sooke, Alastair (February 4, 2016). "How ancient Egypt shaped our idea of beauty". Culture. British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved May 25, 2020. Spence, Kate (February 17, 2011). "Akhenaten and the Amarna Period". BBC.co.uk. BBC. Retrieved May 10, 2020. Stent, Gunther Siegmund (2002). Paradoxes of Free Will. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 92. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: American Philosophical Society. ISBN 0-87169-926-5. OCLC 50773277. Strachey, James (1939). "Preliminary Notes Upon the Problem of Akhenaten". International Journal of Psycho-Analysis. 20: 33–42. ISSN 0020-7578. Retrieved June 12, 2020. Strouhal, Eugen (2010). "Biological age of skeletonized mummy from Tomb KV 55 at Thebes". Anthropologie. Brno, Czech Republic: Moravian Museum. 48 (2): 97–112. JSTOR 26292898. Takács, Sarolta Anna; Cline, Eric H., eds. (2015) [2007]. "Akhenaten (also Akhenaton) (r. ca. 1353–1335 B.C.E.)". The Ancient World. 1–5. London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7656-8082-2. LCCN 2006101384. Trigger, Bruce Graham; Kemp, Barry; O'Connor, David Bourke; Lloyd, Alan Brian (2001) [1983]. Ancient Egypt, A Social History. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521284279. LCCN 82-22196. Tyldesley, Joyce Ann (1998). Nefertiti: Egypt's Sun Queen. London: Viking. ISBN 978-0670869985. OCLC 1153684328. Tyldesley, Joyce A. (2005). Egypt: How a Lost Civilisation was Rediscovered. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520250208. Tyldesley, Joyce A. (2006). Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt: From Early Dynastic Times to the Death of Cleopatra. New York: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05145-3. OCLC 61189103. Van Dyke, John Charles (1887). Principles of Art: Pt. 1. Art in History; Pt. 2. Art in Theory. New York, New York: Fords, Howard, & Hulbert. Retrieved June 19, 2020. Wilkinson, Richard H. (2003). The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05120-8. Wolf, Walther (1951). Die Stellung der ägyptischen Kunst zur antiken und abendländischen und Das Problem des Künstlers in der ägyptischen Kunst (in German). Hildesheim, Germany: Gerstenberg. Zaki, Mey (2008). The Legacy of Tutankhamun: Art and History. Photographs by Farid Atiya. Giza, Egypt: Farid Atiya Press. ISBN 978-977-17-4930-1. Further reading[edit] Aldred, Cyril (1973). Akhenaten and Nefertiti. London: Thames & Hudson. Aldred, Cyril (1984). The Egyptians. London: Thames & Hudson. Bilolo, Mubabinge (2004) [1988]. "Sect. I, vol. 2". Le Créateur et la Création dans la pensée memphite et amarnienne. Approche synoptique du Document Philosophique de Memphis et du Grand Hymne Théologique d'Echnaton (in French) (new ed.). Munich-Paris: Academy of African Thought. El Mahdy, Christine (1999). Tutankhamen: The Life and Death of a Boy King. Headline. Choi B, Pak A (2001). "Lessons for surveillance in the 21st century: a historical perspective from the past five millennia". Soz Praventivmed. 46 (6): 361–368. doi:10.1007/BF01321662. PMID 11851070. S2CID 12263035. Rita E. Freed; Yvonne J. Markowitz (1999). Sue H. D'Auria (ed.). Pharaohs of the Sun: Akhenaten – Nefertiti – Tutankhamen. Bulfinch Press. Gestoso Singer, Graciela (2008). El Intercambio de Bienes entre Egipto y Asia Anterior. Desde el reinado de Tuthmosis III hasta el de Akhenaton Free Access (in Spanish) Ancient Near East Monographs, Volume 2. Buenos Aires, Society of Biblical Literature – CEHAO. Holland, Tom (1998). The Sleeper in the Sands (novel), Abacus – a fictionalised adventure story based closely on the mysteries of Akhenaten's reign Kozloff, Arielle (2006). "Bubonic Plague in the Reign of Amenhotep III?". KMT. 17 (3). McAvoy, S. (2007). "Mummy 61074: a Strange Case of Mistaken Identity". Antiguo Oriente. 5: 183–194. Najovits, Simson. Egypt, Trunk of the Tree, Volume I, The Contexts, Volume II, The Consequences, Algora Publishing, New York, 2003 and 2004. On Akhenaten: Vol. II, Chapter 11, pp. 117–73 and Chapter 12, pp. 205–13 Redford, Donald B. (1984). Akhenaten: The Heretic King. Princeton University Press Shortridge K (1992). "Pandemic influenza: a zoonosis?". Semin Respir Infect. 7 (1): 11–25. PMID 1609163. Stevens, Anna (2012). Akhenaten's workers : the Amarna Stone village survey, 2005–2009. Volume I, The survey, excavations and architecture. Egypt Exploration Society. External links[edit] Akhenatenat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Data from Wikidata Akhenaten on In Our Time at the BBC The City of Akhetaten The Great Hymn to the Aten M.A. Mansoor Amarna Collection Grim secrets of Pharaoh's city BBC Ancestry and Pathology in King Tutankhamun's Family Hawass The Long Coregency Revisited: the Tomb of Kheruef by Peter Dorman, University of Chicago Royal Relations, Tut's father is very likely Akhenaten. National Geographic 09. 2010 v t e Amarna Period Pharaohs Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten Tutankhamun Ay Royal family Tiye Nefertiti Kiya "The Younger Lady" Tey Children Meritaten Meketaten Ankhesenamun Neferneferuaten Tasherit Neferneferure Setepenre Meritaten Tasherit Ankhesenpaaten Tasherit Nobles Officials Mutbenret Aperel Bek Huya Meryre II Nakhtpaaten Panehesy Parennefer Penthu Thutmose Locations Akhetaten Karnak KV55 KV62 Amarna Tombs Other Amarna letters Amarna succession Aten Atenism Dakhamunzu Amarna Art Style v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Tutankhamun Family Akhenaten (father) "The Younger Lady" (mother) Ankhesenamun (wife) 317a and 317b mummies (daughters) Amenhotep III (grandfather) Tiye (grandmother) Discovery Howard Carter George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon KV62 (Tutankhamun's tomb) Mask Mummy Anubis Shrine Head of Nefertem Lotus chalice Trumpets Meteoric iron dagger Other Curse of the pharaohs Exhibitions Popular culture Steve Martin song Of Time, Tombs and Treasures (1977 documentary) The Curse of King Tut's Tomb (1980 film) Mysteries of Egypt (1998 film) Tutenstein (2003 series) The Curse of King Tut's Tomb (2006 film) Tut (2015 miniseries) Tutankhamun (2016 miniseries) v t e Timeline of the Ancient Near East Category Authority control BNF: cb11946297w (data) CiNii: DA14159254 GND: 118502492 ISNI: 0000 0004 0810 6424 LCCN: n80044801 NKC: jn20000700018 NTA: 070972982 ULAN: 500121983 VIAF: 173744907 WorldCat Identities: viaf-173744907 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Akhenaten&oldid=1000729299" Categories: Akhenaten 14th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Amarna Period 14th-century BC births 1330s BC deaths Atenism Egyptian religious leaders Founders of religions Historical negationism in ancient Egypt Children of Amenhotep III Tutankhamun 14th century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Pages using the EasyTimeline extension Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use mdy dates from May 2020 Articles containing Ancient Egyptian-language text Articles containing Greek-language text CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1: long volume value CS1 French-language sources (fr) CS1 Greek-language sources (el) Articles with Spanish-language sources (es) Pages using Sister project links with wikidata namespace mismatch Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata Pages using Sister project links with default search Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles 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en-wikipedia-org-1405	----	Yaqub-Har - Wikipedia Yaqub-Har From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Meruserre Yaqub-Har Yakubher, Yakubhar, Yak-Baal Drawing of a scarab of Yaqub-Har by Flinders Petrie Pharaoh Reign 17th or 16th century BCE (14th dynasty or 15th dynasty, possibly a vassal of the Hyksos king, highly uncertain) Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sa Ra Meruserre Jaqub-Har S3-Rˁ mrj-wsr-Rˁ-jjqb-Hr The son of Ra, strong is the love of Ra, Jaqub-Har Nomen Jaqub-Har Jjkb Hr Jaqub-Har Jjkb Hr Jaqub-Har Jjkb Hr Meruserre Yaqub-Har (other spelling: Yakubher, also known as Yak-Baal[1]) was a pharaoh of Egypt during the 17th or 16th century BCE. As he reigned during Egypt's fragmented Second Intermediate Period, it is difficult to date his reign precisely, and even the dynasty to which he belonged is uncertain. Contents 1 Chronological position 1.1 Fourteenth Dynasty 1.2 Fifteenth Dynasty 2 Popular speculation 3 References 4 External links Chronological position[edit] Scarab with the cartouche of Yaqub-Har in the British Museum (EA 40741). The dynasty to which Yaqub-Har belongs is debated, with Yaqub-Har being seen variously as a 14th Dynasty king, an early Hyksos ruler of the 15th Dynasty or a vassal of the Hyksos kings. Yaqub-Har is attested by no less than 27 scarab seals. Three are from Canaan, four from Egypt, one from Nubia and the remaining 19 are of unknown provenance.[2] The wide geographic repartition of these scarabs indicate the existence of trade relations among the Nile Delta, Canaan, and Nubia during the Second Intermediate Period.[2] Fourteenth Dynasty[edit] The 14th Dynasty of Egypt was a Canaanite dynasty, which ruled the eastern Delta region just prior to the arrival of the Hyksos in Egypt. The Danish specialist Kim Ryholt has suggested that Yaqub-Har was a king of the late 14th Dynasty and the last one of this dynasty to be known from contemporary attestations.[3] First, Ryholt points to a scarab seal of Yaqub-Har which was discovered during excavations in Tel Shikmona in modern-day Israel. The archaeological context of the seal was dated to the MB IIB period (Middle Bronze Age 1750 BC-1650 BC), which means that Yaqub-Har predated the 15th Dynasty.[4][5] Since the name "Yaqub-Har" may have a West Semitic origin, meaning "Protected by Har", Yaqub-Har would then be a 14th Dynasty ruler.[6] Second, Ryholt's argument is based on the observation that while early Hyksos kings of the 15th Dynasty, such as Sakir-Har, used the title Heka-Khawaset, later Hyksos rulers adopted the traditional Egyptian royal titulary. This change happened under Khyan, who ruled as the Heka-Khawaset early in his reign, but later adopted the Egyptian prenomen Seuserenre. Later Hyksos kings, such as Apophis, abandoned the Heka-Khawaset title and retained instead the customary Egyptian prenomen, just like the kings of the 14th Dynasty. Ryholt then notes that Yaqub-Har himself always used a prenomen, Meruserre, which suggests that he either ruled at the end of the 15th Dynasty or was a member of the Asiatic 14th Dynasty. Since the end of the 15th Dynasty is known not to have included a ruler by the name of Meruserre, Ryholt concludes that Yaqub-Har was a 14th Dynasty ruler.[5] Fifteenth Dynasty[edit] On the other hand, Daphna Ben-Tor and Suzanne Allen note that Yaqub-Har's scarab seals are stylistically almost identical with those of the well-attested Hyksos king Khyan.[7] This suggests that Yaqub-Har was either Khyan's immediate 15th Dynasty successor or a vassal of the Hyksos king who ruled a part of the Egyptian Delta under Khyan's authority. As Ben-Tor writes, "Supporting evidence for the Fifteenth Dynasty affiliation of King Yaqubhar is provided by the close stylistic similarity between his scarabs and the scarabs of King Khayan".[8] Additionally, the form of the wsr-sign used in these kings' royal prenomina "argue for a chronological proximity [between Yaqub-Har and Khyan] and against Ryholt's assigning of Yaqub-Har to the Fourteenth Dynasty and Khayan to the Fifteenth Dynasty."[8] Popular speculation[edit] In Exodus Decoded, filmmaker Simcha Jacobovici suggested that Yaqub-Har was the Patriarch Jacob, on the basis of a signet ring found in the Hyksos capital Avaris that read "Yakov/Yakub" (from Yaqub-her), similar to the Hebrew name of the Biblical patriarch Jacob (Ya'aqov). Jacobovici ignores the fact that Yaqub-Har is a well-attested pharaoh of the Second Intermediate Period; and Yakov and its variants are common Semitic names from the period. Furthermore, Jacobovici provides no explanation as to why Joseph would have a signet ring with the name of his father Jacob.[9] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Yaqub-Har. References[edit] ^ Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards, ed. (1970). Cambridge Ancient History. C. J. Gadd, N. G. L. Hammond, E. Sollberger. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 59. ISBN 0-521-08230-7. ^ a b Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 503-504 ^ K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997 ^ A. Kempinski: Syrien und Palästina (Kanaan) in der letzten Phase der Mittelbronze IIB-Zeit (1650-1570 v. Chr.), Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1983 ^ a b K. S. B. Ryholt: The Date of Kings Sheshi and Ya'qub-Har and the Rise of the Fourteenth Dynasty, in: "The Second Intermediate Period: Current Research, Future Prospects", edited by M. Marée, Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 192, Leuven, Peeters, 2010, pp. 109–126. ^ See Ryholt, The Political Situation [...], pp.99-100 ^ Daphna Ben-Tor, Sequence and Chronology of Second Intermediate Period Royal-Name Scarabs, based on excavated series from Egypt and the Levant in Marée, Marcel (Hrsg.): The Second Intermediate Period (Thirteenth - Seventeenth Dynasties). Current Research, Future Projects. Leuven-Paris-Walpole 2010, (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 192) pp.96-97 ^ a b Ben Tor in Marée, 2010, p.97 ^ Higgaion » The Exodus Decoded: An extended review, part 4 External links[edit] 14th Dynasty v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yaqub-Har&oldid=992627422" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs 16th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Pharaohs of the Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page 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en-wikipedia-org-1425	----	Senusret II - Wikipedia Senusret II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Senusret II Senwosret II, Sesostris II Head of a statue of Senusret II from Karnak Pharaoh Reign Co-regent of five years; sole reign of around fifteen years.[1][note 1] (Twelfth Dynasty) Predecessor Amenemhat II Successor Senusret III Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Khakheperre Ḫˁ-ḫpr-Rˁ[10] The Soul of Ra comes into being[5] or The very appearance of the manifestation of Re[10] Nomen Senusret S-n-Wsrt The man belonging to Wosret[10][5] Horus name Seshemtawy Sšm-t3wy The one who has guided the Two Lands[10] Nebty name Sekhamaat Sḫˁ M3ˁt The one who has caused Maat to appear[10] Variant: Sekhainebti Sḫˁ.j-Nb.tj He who causes the two ladies to appear Golden Horus Hetep netjeru Ḥtp-nṯr.w With whom the gods are satisfied[10] Consort Khenemetneferhedjet I, Nofret II, Itaweret (?), Khenmet (?) Children Senusret III, Senusret-sonbe, Itakayt, Neferet, Sithathoryunet Father Amenemhat II Burial 29°14′10″N 30°58′14″E / 29.23611°N 30.97056°E / 29.23611; 30.97056 Khakheperre Senusret II was the fourth pharaoh of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt. He ruled from 1897 BC to 1878 BC. His pyramid was constructed at El-Lahun. Senusret II took a great deal of interest in the Faiyum oasis region and began work on an extensive irrigation system from Bahr Yussef through to Lake Moeris through the construction of a dike at El-Lahun and the addition of a network of drainage canals. The purpose of his project was to increase the amount of cultivable land in that area.[11] The importance of this project is emphasized by Senusret II's decision to move the royal necropolis from Dahshur to El-Lahun where he built his pyramid. This location would remain the political capital for the 12th and 13th Dynasties of Egypt. The king also established the first known workers' quarter in the nearby town of Senusrethotep (Kahun).[12] Unlike his successor, Senusret II maintained good relations with the various nomarchs or provincial governors of Egypt who were almost as wealthy as the pharaoh.[13] His Year 6 is attested in a wall painting from the tomb of a local nomarch named Khnumhotep II at Beni Hasan. Contents 1 Reign 1.1 Co-regency 1.2 Length of reign 1.3 Domestic activities 1.4 Activities outside Egypt 2 Succession 3 Tomb treasure 4 Pyramid 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Sources 9 Further reading 10 External links Reign[edit] Co-regency[edit] Co-regencies are a major issue for Egyptologists' understanding of the history of the Middle Kingdom and the Twelfth Dynasty.[14][15] The French Egyptologist Claude Obsomer wholly rejects the possibility of co-regencies in the Twelfth Dynasty.[16] Author Robert D. Delia,[17] and German Eyptologist Karl Jansen-Winkeln[18] have investigated Obsomer's work and have concluded in favour of co-regencies.[19] Jansen-Winkeln cites a rock stele found at Konosso as irrefutable evidence in favour of a co-regency between Senusret II and Amenemhat II, and by extension proof of co-regencies in the Twelfth Dynasty.[20] The American Egyptologist William J. Murnane states that "the co-regencies of the period are all known ... from double-dated[note 2] documents".[22] The German Egyptologist Schneider concludes that recently discovered documents and archaeological evidence are effectively proof of co-regencies in this period.[23] Some sources ascribe a co-regency period to Senusret II's rule, with his father Amenemhat II as his co-regent. The British Egyptologist Peter Clayton ascribes at least three years of co-regency to Senusret II's reign.[24] The French Egyptologist Nicolas Grimal assigns nearly five years of co-regency prior to sole accession to the throne.[1] Length of reign[edit] The lengths of the reigns of Senusret II and Senusret III are one of the main considerations for discerning the chronology of the Twelfth Dynasty.[15] The Turin Canon is believed to assign a reign of 19 years to Senusret II and 30 years of reign to Senusret III.[25] This traditional view was challenged in 1972 when the American Egyptologist William Kelly Simpson observed that the latest attested regnal year for Senusret II was his 7th, and similarly for Senusret III his 19th.[25] Kim Ryholt, a professor of Egyptology at the University of Copenhagen, suggests the possibility that the names on the canon had been misarranged and offers two possible regnal lengths for Senusret II: 10+ years, or 19 years.[26] Several Egyptologists, such as Thomas Schneider, cite Mark C. Stone's article, published in the Göttinger Miszellen in 1997, as determining that Senusret II's highest recorded regnal year was his 8th, based on Stela Cairo JE 59485.[27] Some scholars prefer to ascribe him a reign of only 10 years and assign the 19-year reign to Senusret III instead. Other Egyptologists, however, such as Jürgen von Beckerath and Frank Yurco, have maintained the traditional view of a longer 19-year reign for Senusret II given the level of activity undertaken by the king during his reign.[citation needed] Yurco notes that reducing Senusret II's regnal length to 6 years poses difficulties because: That pharaoh built a complete pyramid at Kahun, with a solid granite funerary temple and complex of buildings. Such projects optimally took fifteen to twenty years to complete, even with the mudbrick cores used in Middle Kingdom pyramids.[28] At present, the problem concerning the reign length of Senusret II is irresolvable but many Egyptologists today prefer to assign him a reign of 9 or 10 years only given the absence of higher dates attested for him beyond his 8th regnal year. This would entail amending the 19-year figure which the Turin Canon assigns for a 12th dynasty ruler in his position to 9 years instead. However, Senusret II's monthly figure on the throne might be ascertained. According to Jürgen von Beckerath, the temple documents of El-Lahun, the pyramid city of Sesostris/Senusret II often mention the Festival of "Going Forth to Heaven" which might be the date of death for this ruler.[29] These documents state that this Festival occurred on IV Peret day 14.[30][31][32] Domestic activities[edit] The Faiyum Oasis, a region in Middle Egypt, has been inhabited by humans for more than 8000 years.[33] It became an important centre in Egypt during the Middle Kingdom.[33] Throughout the period, rulers undertook developmental projects turning Faiyum into an agricultural, religious, and resort-like centre.[33] The oasis was located 80 km (50 mi) south-west of Memphis offering arable land[1] centred around Lake Moeris, a natural body of water.[33] Senusret II initiated a project to exploit the marshy region's natural resources for hunting and fishing, a project continued by his successors and which "matured" during the reign of his grandson Amenemhat III.[1] To set off this project, Senusret II developed an irrigation system with a dyke and a network of canals which siphoned water from Lake Moeris.[9][1] The land reclaimed in this project was then farmed.[34] Cults honouring the crocodile god Sobek were prominent at the time.[33] Activities outside Egypt[edit] Senusret II's reign ushered in a period of peace and prosperity, with no recorded military campaigns and the proliferation of trade between Egypt and the Near-East.[9] Around the same time, parties of Western Asiatic foreigners visiting the Pharaoh with gifts are recorded, as in the tomb paintings of 12th-dynasty official Khnumhotep II, who also served under Senusret III. These foreigners, possibly Canaanites or Bedouins, are labelled as Aamu (ꜥꜣmw), including the leading man with a Nubian ibex labelled as Abisha the Hyksos (𓋾𓈎𓈉 ḥḳꜣ-ḫꜣsw, Heqa-kasut for "Hyksos"), the first known instance of the name "Hyksos".[35][36][37][38] A group of West Asiatic foreigners bringing gift to the Pharaoh. They are possibly Canaanites, labelled as Aamu (ꜥꜣmw), including the leading man with a Nubian ibex labelled as Abisha the Hyksos (𓋾𓈎𓈉 ḥḳꜣ-ḫꜣsw, Heqa-kasut for "Hyksos"). Tomb of 12th-dynasty official Khnumhotep II, who served under Senusret III, at Beni Hasan (c. 1900 BC).[35][36][37][38] Succession[edit] Pectoral of Senusret II (tomb of Sithathoriunet) There is an absence of serious evidence for a co-regency between Senusret II and Senusret III.[39] Murnane identifies that the only existing evidence for a coregency of Senusret II and III is a scarab with both kings names inscribed on it.[40] The association can be explained as being the result of retroactive dating where Senusret II's final regnal year was absorbed into Senusret III's first one, as would be supported by contemporaneous evidence from the Turin Canon which give Senusret II a regnal duration of 19 full regnal years and a partial one.[41] A dedicatory inscription celebrating the resumption of rituals begun by Senusret II and III, and a papyrus with entries identifying Senusret II's nineteenth regnal year and Senusret III's first regnal year are scant evidence and do not necessitate a coregency.[40] Murnane argues that if there was a coregency, it could not have lasted more than a few months.[40] The evidence from the papyrus document is now obviated by the fact that the document has been securely dated to Year 19 of Senusret III and Year 1 of Amenemhet III.[citation needed] At present, no document from Senusret II's reign has been discovered from Lahun, the king's new capital city. Tomb treasure[edit] Crown of Princess Sithathoriunet. In 1889, the English Egyptologist Flinders Petrie found "a marvellous gold and inlaid royal uraeus" that must have originally formed part of Senusret II's looted burial equipment in a flooded chamber of the king's pyramid tomb.[42] It is now located in the Cairo Museum. The tomb of Princess Sithathoriunet, a daughter of Senusret II, was also discovered by Egyptologists in a separate burial site. Several pieces of jewellery from her tomb including a pair of pectorals and a crown or diadem were found there. They are now displayed at the Metropolitan Museum of New York or the Cairo Museum in Egypt. In 2009, Egyptian archaeologists announced the results of new excavations led by egyptologist Abdul Rahman Al-Ayedi. They described unearthing a cache of pharaonic-era mummies in brightly painted wooden coffins near the Lahun pyramid. The mummies were reportedly the first to be found in the sand-covered desert rock surrounding the pyramid.[43] Pyramid[edit] Main article: Pyramid of Senusret II The pyramid of Senusret II at El-Lahun The pyramid was built around a framework of limestone radial arms, similar to the framework used by Senusret I. Instead of using an infill of stones, mud and mortar, Senusret II used an infill of mud bricks before cladding the structure with a layer of limestone veneer. The outer cladding stones were locked together using dovetail inserts, some of which still remain. A trench was dug around the central core that was filled with stones to act as a French Drain. The limestone cladding stood in this drain, indicating that Senusret II was concerned with water damage. There were eight mastabas and one small pyramid to the north of Senusret's complex and all were within the enclosure wall. The wall had been encased in limestone that was decorated with niches, perhaps as a copy of Djoser's complex at Saqqara. The mastabas were solid and no chambers have found within or beneath, indicating that they were cenotaphs and possibly symbolic in nature. Flinders Petrie investigated the auxiliary pyramid and found no chambers. Limestone slab showing the cartouche of Senusret II and the name and image of the goddess Nekhbet. From Mastaba 4, north side of Senusret II Pyramid at Lahun, Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London. The entrances to the underground chambers were on the southern side of the pyramid, which confused Flinders Petrie for some months as he looked for the entrance on the traditional northern side. The builders' vertical access shaft had been filled in after construction and the chamber made to look like a burial chamber. This was no doubt an attempt to convince tomb robbers to look no further. A secondary access shaft led to a vaulted chamber and a deep well shaft. This may have been an aspect of the cult of Osiris, although it may have been to find the water table. A passage led northwards, past another lateral chamber and turned westwards. This led to an antechamber and vaulted burial chamber, with a sidechamber to the south. The burial chamber was encircled by a unique series of passages that may have reference to the birth of Osiris. A large sarcophagus was found within the burial chamber; it is larger than the doorway and the tunnels, showing that it was put in position when the chamber was being constructed and it was open to the sky. The limestone outer cladding of the pyramid was removed by Rameses II so he could re-use the stone for his own use. He left inscriptions that he had done so. See also[edit] Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt family tree List of Egyptian pyramids List of megalithic sites Notes[edit] ^ Proposed dates for Senusret II's reign: c. 1900–1880 BCE,[2] c. 1897–1878 BCE,[3][4][5] c. 1897–1877 BCE,[6] c. 1895–1878 BCE,[7] c. 1877–1870 BCE.[8][9] ^ A document with regnal dates for two kings. One such double-date is found on the stela from Konosso cited by Jansen-Winkeln,[20] which identifies Senusret II's third regnal year first, and Amenemhat II's thirty-fifth regnal year after it.[21] References[edit] ^ a b c d e Grimal 1992, p. 166. ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 289. ^ Lehner 2008, p. 8. ^ Arnold 2003, p. 267. ^ a b c Clayton 1994, p. 78. ^ Frey 2001, p. 150. ^ Grimal 1992, p. 391. ^ Shaw 2004, p. 483. ^ a b c Callender 2004, p. 152. ^ a b c d e f Leprohon 2013, p. 59. ^ Verner 2002, p. 386. ^ Petrie 1891, p. 5ff. ^ Clayton 1994, p. 83. ^ Callender 2004, pp. 137–138. ^ a b Simpson 2001, p. 453. ^ Schneider 2006, p. 170. ^ Delia 1997, pp. 267–268. ^ Jansen-Winkeln 1997, pp. 115–135. ^ Schneider 2006, pp. 170–171. ^ a b Jansen-Winkeln 1997, pp. 188–189. ^ Schneider 2006, p. 172. ^ Murnane 1977, p. 7. ^ Schneider 2006, p. 171. ^ Clayton 1994, p. 82. ^ a b Ryholt 1997, p. 14. ^ Ryholt 1997, pp. 14–15. ^ Schneider 2006, p. 172 citing Stone (1997, pp. 91–100). ^ Yurco 2014, p. 69 citing Edwards (1985, pp. 98 & 292); and Grimal (1992, pp. 166 & 391). ^ von Beckerath 1995, p. 447. ^ Borchardt 1899, p. 91. ^ Gardiner 1945, pp. 21–22. ^ Simpson n.d., LA V900. ^ a b c d e Wilfong 2001, p. 496. ^ Callender 2004, pp. 152–153. ^ a b Van de Mieroop 2011, p. 131. sfn error: no target: CITEREFVan_de_Mieroop2011 (help) ^ a b Bard 2015, p. 188. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBard2015 (help) ^ a b Kamrin 2009, p. 25. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKamrin2009 (help) ^ a b Curry, Andrew (2018). "The Rulers of Foreign Lands - Archaeology Magazine". www.archaeology.org. ^ Jansen-Winkeln 1997, p. 119. ^ a b c Murnane 1977, p. 9. ^ Murnane 1977, p. 228. ^ Clayton 1994, p. 80. ^ See El-Lahun recent discoveries and online Cache of mummies unearthed at Egypt's Lahun pyramid. Sources[edit] Arnold, Dieter (2003). The Encyclopaedia of Ancient Egyptian Architecture. London: I.B Tauris & Co Ltd. ISBN 978-1-86064-465-8. Borchardt, Ludwig (1899). Erman, A.; Steindorff, G. (eds.). "Der zweite Papyrusfund von Kahun und die zeitliche Festlegung des mittleren Reiches der ägyptische Geschichte". Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde (in German). Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs'sche Buchhandlung (37): 89–103. ISSN 2196-713X. Callender, Gae (2004). "The Middle Kingdom Rennaissance (c.2055–1650 BC)". In Shaw, Ian (ed.). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 137–171. ISBN 978-0-19-815034-3. Clayton, Peter (1994). Chronicle of the Pharaohs. London: Thames & Hudson Ltd. ISBN 978-0-500-05074-3. de Morgan, Jacques; Bouriant, Urbain; Legrain, Georges Albert; Jéquier, Gustave; Barsanti, Alfred (1894). Catalogue des monuments et inscriptions de l'Ègypte (in French). Vienne: Adolphe Holzhausen. OCLC 741162031. Delia, Robert D. (1997). "Sésostris Ier; Étude chronologique et historique de règne. Étude No. 5 by Claude Obsomer". Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt (in French): 267–268. doi:10.2307/40000813. ISSN 0065-9991. Dodson, Aidan; Hilton, Dyan (2004). The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05128-3. Edwards, Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen (1985). The Pyramids of Egypt. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-140-22549-5. Frey, Rosa A. (2001). "Illahun". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 150–151. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5. Gardiner, Alan H. (1945). "Regnal Years and Civil Calendar in Pharaonic Egypt". The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 31 (1): 11–28. doi:10.2307/3855380. ISSN 0307-5133. Grimal, Nicolas (1992). A History of Ancient Egypt. Translated by Ian Shaw. Oxford: Blackwell publishing. ISBN 978-0-631-19396-8. Jansen-Winkeln, Karl (1997). "Zu den Koregenz der 12. Dynastie" (PDF). Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur (in German) (24): 115–135. ISSN 0340-2215. Lehner, Mark (2008). The Complete Pyramids. New York: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-28547-3. Leprohon, Ronald J. (2013). The Great Name: Ancient Egyptian Royal Titulary. Volume 33 of Writings from the ancient world. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature. ISBN 978-1-589-83736-2. Murnane, William J. (1977). "Ancient Egyptian Coregencies". Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization (SAOC). Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago (40). ISBN 978-0-918986-03-0. ISSN 0081-7554. Petrie, W. M. F. (1891). Illahun, Kahun and Gurob. London. Ryholt, Kim Steven Bardrum (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800–1550 B.C. CNI publications, 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press: University of Copenhagen. ISBN 978-87-7289-421-8. Schneider, Thomas (2006). "The relative chronology of the Middle Kingdom and the Hyksos Period (Dyns. 12–17)". In Hornung, Erik; Krauss, Rolf; Warburton, David A. (eds.). Ancient Egyptian Chronology. Leiden, Boston: Brill. pp. 168–196. ISBN 978-90-04-11385-5. Shaw, Ian, ed. (2004). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-815034-3. Simpson, W. K. (n.d.). LA V900. Simpson, William Kelly (2001). "Twelfth Dynasty". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 3. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 453–457. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5. Stone, Mark (1997). "Reading the Highest Attested Date for Senwosret II: Stela Cairo JE 59485". Göttinger Miszellen (159): 91–100. ISSN 0344-385X. Verner, Miroslav (2001e). The Pyramids: The Mystery, Culture and Science of Egypt's Great Monuments. New York: Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-8021-1703-8. Verner, Miroslav (2002). The Pyramids: The Mystery, Culture, and Science of Egypt's Great Monument. New York: Grove Press. von Beckerath, Jürgen (1995). "Nochmals zur Chronologie der XII. Dynastie". Orientalia (in German). Gregorian Biblical Press. 64 (4): 445–449. ISSN 0030-5367. Wilfong (2001). "Faiyum". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 496–497. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5. Yurco, Frank (2014). "Black Athena: An Egyptological Review". In Lefkowitz, Mary; Rogers, Guy Maclean (eds.). Black Athena Revisited. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. pp. 62–100. ISBN 978-0-8078-4555-4. Further reading[edit] W. Grajetzki, The Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt: History, Archaeology and Society, Duckworth, London 2006 ISBN 0-7156-3435-6, 48-51 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Senusret II. Senusret (II) Khakheperre v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 119438178 VIAF: 22951623 WorldCat Identities: viaf-22951623 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Senusret_II&oldid=992384473" Categories: 19th-century BC deaths 19th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2018 Articles containing Ancient Egyptian-language text Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles with unsourced statements from March 2014 CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 French-language sources (fr) CS1: long volume value Commons category link is on 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en-wikipedia-org-143	----	Fifth Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Fifth Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Dynasty of ancient Egypt, during the Old Kingdom Period, in the early 25th to mid 24th centuries BC Fifth Dynasty of Egypt The pyramid of Unas at Saqqara Capital Memphis Common languages Egyptian language Religion ancient Egyptian religion Government Absolute monarchy Pharaoh   • 7–8 years (first) Userkaf • 13 years Sahure • c. 10 years Neferirkare Kakai • c. 2 years Neferefre • Few months Shepseskare • 24–35 years Nyuserre Ini • 8–9 years Menkauhor Kaiu • 33 up to over 44 years Djedkare Isesi • 15–30 years (last) Unas Historical era Old Kingdom of Egypt Preceded by Succeeded by Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Sixth Dynasty of Egypt The Fifth Dynasty of ancient Egypt (notated Dynasty V) is often combined with Dynasties III, IV and VI under the group title the Old Kingdom. The Fifth Dynasty pharaohs reigned for approximately 150 years, from the early 25th century BC until the mid 24th century BC. Contents 1 Chronology 2 Rulers 2.1 Userkaf 2.2 Djedkare Isesi 3 Notes 4 References 5 Bibliography Chronology[edit] The Fifth Dynasty of Egypt is a group of nine kings ruling Egypt for circa 150 years in the 25th and 24th centuries BC.[note 1] The relative succession of kings is not entirely secured as there are contradictions between historical sources and archaeological evidence regarding the reign of the shadowy Shepseskare. Rulers[edit] Known rulers in the Fifth Dynasty are listed below.[7] Manetho assigns 248 years of rule to the Fifth Dynasty; however, the pharaohs of this dynasty more probably ruled for an approximate 150 years.[19] This estimate varies between both scholar and source. The Horus names[18] and most names of the queens[20] are taken from Dodson and Hilton.[21] Dynasty V pharaohs Name of King Horus (throne) Name Images Estimated reign duration Pyramid Queen(s) Userkaf Irimaat 7 years Pyramid in Saqqara Khentkaus I ? Neferhetepes Sahure Nebkhau 13 years, 5 months and 12 days Pyramid in Abusir Meretnebty Neferirkare Kakai Neferirkare 20 years Pyramid in Abusir Khentkaus II Neferefre Neferkhau 2 to 3 years Unfinished Pyramid of Neferefre in Abusir Khentkaus III ? Shepseskare Shepseskare Likely a few months Possibly in Abusir Nyuserre Ini Nyuserre 24 to 35 years Pyramid in Abusir Reptynub Menkauhor Kaiu Menkauhor 8 or 9 years "Headless Pyramid" in Saqqara Meresankh IV? Djedkare Isesi Djedkare 33 to more than 44 years Pyramid in Saqqara Setibhor Unas Wadjtawy 15 to 30 years Pyramid in Saqqara Nebet Khenut Manetho writes that the Dynasty V kings ruled from Elephantine, but archeologists have found evidence clearly showing that their palaces were still located at Ineb-hedj ("White Walls"). As before, expeditions were sent to Wadi Maghareh and Wadi Kharit in the Sinai to mine for turquoise and copper, and to quarries northwest of Abu Simbel for gneiss. Trade expeditions were sent south to Punt to obtain malachite, myrrh, and electrum, and archeological finds at Byblos attest to diplomatic expeditions sent to that Phoenician city. Finds bearing the names of several Dynasty V kings at the site of Dorak, near the Sea of Marmara, may be evidence of trade but remain a mystery. Userkaf[edit] How Pharaoh Userkaf founded this dynasty is not known for certain. The Westcar Papyrus, which was written during the Middle Kingdom, tells a story of how king Khufu of Dynasty IV was given a prophecy that triplets born to the wife of the priest of Ra in Sakhbu would overthrow him and his heirs, and how he attempted to put these children – named Userkaf, Sahure, and Neferirkare – to death; however in recent years, scholars have recognized this story to be at best a legend and admit their ignorance over how the transition from one dynasty to another transpired. During this dynasty, Egyptian religion made several important changes. The earliest known copies of funerary prayers inscribed on royal tombs (known as the Pyramid Texts) appear. The cult of the god Ra gains added importance, and kings from Userkaf through Menkauhor Kaiu built temples dedicated to Ra at or near Abusir. Then late in this dynasty, the cult of the deity Osiris assumes importance, most notably in the inscriptions found in the tomb of Unas. Djedkare Isesi[edit] Amongst non-royal Egyptians of this time, Ptahhotep, vizier to Djedkare Isesi, won fame for his wisdom; The Maxims of Ptahhotep was ascribed to him by its later copyists. Non-royal tombs were also decorated with inscriptions, like the royal ones, but instead of prayers or incantations, biographies of the deceased were written on the walls. Notes[edit] ^ Several dates have been proposed by the scholars for the Fifth Dynasty: 2513–2374,[1][2] 2510–2370,[3] 2510–2460,[4] 2504–2345,[5] 2498–2345,[6] 2494–2345,[7][8][9][10] 2465–2323,[11][12] 2454–2297,[5] 2450–2335,[13][14] 2450–2325,[15] 2435–2306,[16][17] 2392–2282[18] References[edit] ^ Verner 2001b, pp. 588–590. ^ Altenmüller 2001, pp. 597–600. ^ Verner 2001d, p. 473. ^ Grimal 1992, p. 390. ^ a b von Beckerath 1997, p. 188. ^ Clayton 1994, p. 60. ^ a b Shaw 2000, p. 482. ^ Bard 1999, p. xlv, Chronology of Ancient Egypt. ^ Málek 2000, pp. 98 & 100. ^ Rice 1999, p. xlix, Chronoloy. ^ Lehner 2008, p. 8. ^ Allen et al. 1999, p. xx. ^ Verner 2001a, p. 418. ^ Krauss 1998, p. 56. ^ Arnold 2003, p. 267. ^ Hornung 2012, p. 491. ^ Bárta 2017, p. 3. ^ a b Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 288. ^ Altenmüller 2001, p. 597. ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 65. ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004, pp. 65 & 288. Bibliography[edit] Allen, James; Allen, Susan; Anderson, Julie; Arnold, Arnold; Arnold, Dorothea; Cherpion, Nadine; David, Élisabeth; Grimal, Nicolas; Grzymski, Krzysztof; Hawass, Zahi; Hill, Marsha; Jánosi, Peter; Labée-Toutée, Sophie; Labrousse, Audran; Lauer, Jean-Phillippe; Leclant, Jean; Der Manuelian, Peter; Millet, N. B.; Oppenheim, Adela; Craig Patch, Diana; Pischikova, Elena; Rigault, Patricia; Roehrig, Catharine H.; Wildung, Dietrich; Ziegler, Christiane (1999). Egyptian Art in the Age of the Pyramids. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. OCLC 41431623. Altenmüller, Hartwig (2001). "Old Kingdom: Fifth Dynasty". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 597–601. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Arnold, Dieter (2003). The Encyclopaedia of Ancient Egyptian Architecture. London: I.B Tauris & Co Ltd. ISBN 1860644651.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Bard, Kathryn, ed. (1999). Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-98283-9.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Bárta, Miroslav (2017). "Radjedef to the Eighth Dynasty". UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology. San Diego: The University of California. 1 (1). ISBN 978-0-615-21403-0. Clayton, Peter (1994). Chronicle of the Pharaohs. New York: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05074-3.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Dodson, Aidan; Hilton, Dyan (2004). The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05128-3.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Grimal, Nicolas (1992). A History of Ancient Egypt. Translated by Ian Shaw. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-631-19396-8.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Hornung, Erik; Krauss, Rolf; Warburton, David, eds. (2012). Ancient Egyptian Chronology. Handbook of Oriental Studies. Leiden, Boston: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-11385-5. ISSN 0169-9423. Krauss, Rolf (1998). "Wenn und aber: Das Wag-Fest und die Chronologie des Alten Reiches". Göttinger Miszellen (in German). Göttingen: Universität der Göttingen. Seminar für Agyptologie und Koptologie. 162: 53–64. ISSN 0344-385X.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Lehner, Mark (2008). The Complete Pyramids. London: Thames & Hudson Ltd. ISBN 978-0-500-05084-2.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Málek, Jaromir (2000). "The Old Kingdom (c.2160-2055 BC)". In Shaw, Ian (ed.). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. pp. 83–107. ISBN 978-0-19-815034-3.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Rice, Michael (1999). Who is who in Ancient Egypt. Routledge London & New York. ISBN 978-0-203-44328-6.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-815034-2.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Verner, Miroslav (2001a). "Archaeological Remarks on the 4th and 5th Dynasty Chronology" (PDF). Archiv Orientální. 69 (3): 363–418.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Verner, Miroslav (2001b). "Old Kingdom: An Overview". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 585–591. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Verner, Miroslav (2001d). The Pyramids. The Mystery, Culture, and Science of Egypt's Great Monuments. Translated by Steven Rendall. New York: Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-8021-3935-1.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) von Beckerath, Jürgen (1997). Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägypten : die Zeitbestimmung der ägyptischen Geschichte von der Vorzeit bis 332 v. Chr. Münchner ägyptologische Studien (in German). 46. Mainz am Rhein: Philipp von Zabern. ISBN 978-3-8053-2310-9.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Preceded by Fourth Dynasty Dynasty of Egypt c. 2494 – 2345 BC Succeeded by Sixth Dynasty Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=992571082" Categories: Fifth Dynasty of Egypt States and territories established in the 3rd millennium BC States and territories disestablished in the 3rd millennium BC Dynasties of ancient Egypt 3rd millennium BC in Egypt 3rd-millennium BC establishments in Egypt 3rd-millennium BC disestablishments in Egypt Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata CS1 maint: ref=harv CS1 German-language sources (de) Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 5 December 2020, at 23:57 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1471	----	Neferkasokar - Wikipedia Neferkasokar From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Neferkasokar Neferkaseker, Sesochris Seal impression showing the cartouche name of king Neferkasokar Pharaoh Reign 8 years (2nd Dynasty; around 2740 B.C.) Predecessor Neferkara I Successor Hudjefa I Royal titulary Nomen Saqqara King List Neferkasokar Nfr-k3-skr Turin Canon Neferkasokar Nfr-k3-skr Cylinder seal Nisut-bitj-Neferkasokar nsw.t-btj-Nfr-k3-skr Neferkasokar (Ancient Egyptian Nefer-Ka-Seker; which means “beautiful soul of Sokar” or “the soul of Sokar is complete”) was an Ancient Egyptian king (pharaoh) who may have ruled in Egypt during the 2nd Dynasty. Very little is known about him, since no contemporary records about him have been found. Rather his name has been found in later sources.[1] Contents 1 Name sources 2 Reign 3 External links 4 References Name sources[edit] Neferkasokar appears in the Saqqara king list from the tomb of the high priest Tjuneroy, where he is recorded as succeeding king Neferkare I and precedes king Hudjefa I in the ninth cartouche.[2] He also appears in the Royal Canon of Turin as the successor of a king Neferkara I and as the predecessor of king Hudjefa I. His cartouche can be found in column III, line 1. The Turin papyrus records him having a reign of 8 years and 3 months.[3] Furthermore, Neferkasokar's name appears on a steatite cylinder seal of unknown provenance. The inscription bears the king's name twice within royal cartouches. The first cartouche shows the name of the god Sokar on top, whilst the second cartouche places the syllable Neferka above the god's name. A guiding inscription says Meri-netjeru, which means "beloved one of the gods". This titulary was common from the Middle Kingdom onwards, thus the cylinder seal is not likely to originate from the 2nd Dynasty. Most Egyptologists date the object to the 13th Dynasty. Some Egyptologists also question the authenticity of the seal.[4] Neferkasokar also plays an important role in a papyrus originating from the Middle Kingdom. The text was translated around 237 BC into the demotic language and is preserved in papyrus p. Wien D6319. The papyrus gives instructions on how to build temples and how the temple priests should perform their tasks. The papyrus also includes a story that royal scribes under the supervision of prince Djedefhor had discovered an old document in a forgotten chamber, which was sealed by king Neferkasokar. The discovered papyrus contained a report of a famine that affected Egypt for seven years and king Neferkasokar was instructed by a celestial oracle through a dream to restore all Egyptian temples. When the king finished his mission successfully, the Nile started flowing normally again. As a result, Neferkasokar issues a decree which is rediscovered by prince Djedefhor.[5] Egyptologist and linguist Joachim Friedrich Quack later gave this treatise the name "Book of the Temple".[6] Reign[edit] Very little is known about Neferkasokar's reign. Egyptologists such as Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards and Walter Bryan Emery think that Neferkasokar ruled only in Lower Egypt, since his name appeared in the Sakkara king list, but is missing from the Abydos king list while the Sakkara king lists reflect Memphite traditions. Neferkasokar is also thought to have ruled in Lower Egypt around the same time that kings such as Peribsen and Sekhemib-Perenmaat ruled in Upper Egypt. This assumption would be consistent with the view of a number of Egyptologists that at that time Egypt was divided into two parts. The theory of a divided realm since the end of king Nynetjer's reign is based on a study of the name of king Peribsen, whose name is connected to the Ombite deity Seth to show that he came from Ombos and ruled an area that included Ombos. Peribsen himself is contemporaneously documented in materials found in the Thinite region, but was excluded from documentation associated with the Memphites. His case therefore corresponds to Neferkasokar's case, but for Lower Egypt. Neferkasokar's predecessors may have been king Senedj and king Neferkara I; his successor may have been king Hudjefa I.[7][8][9][10] External links[edit] Francesco Raffaele: Nwbnefer, Neferkara and Neferkaseker References[edit] ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, page 175. ^ Jan Assmann, Elke Blumenthal, Georges Posener: Literatur und Politik im pharaonischen und ptolemäischen Ägypten. Institut français d'archéologie orientale, Paris/Kairo 1999, ISBN 2-7247-0251-4, page 277. ^ Alan H. Gardiner: The Royal Canon of Turin. Griffith Institute of Oxford, Oxford (UK) 1997, ISBN 0-900416-48-3; page 15 & Table I. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen. Deutscher Kunstverlag, München-Berlin 1984, ISBN 3-422-00832-2; page 29. ^ Martin A. Stadler: Weiser und Wesir: Studien zu Vorkommen, Rolle und Wesen des Gottes Thot im ägyptischen Totenbuch. Mohr Siebeck, 2009, ISBN 3-16-149854-2; page 84 & 85. ^ Joachim Friedrich Quack: Ein ägyptisches Handbuch des Tempels und seine griechische Übersetzung. Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 119, 1997, S. 297–300. ^ Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards: The Cambridge ancient history Vol. 1, Pt. 2: Early history of the Middle East, 3. Ausgabe (Reprint). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2006, ISBN 0-521-07791-5; page 35. ^ Wolfgang Helck: Untersuchungen zur Thinitenzeit. Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1987, ISBN 3-447-02677-4 page 35. ^ Walter Bryan Emery: Ägypten, Geschichte und Kultur der Frühzeit, 3200-2800 v. Chr. Fourier, Munic 1964; page 19. ^ Herman Alexander Schlögl: Das Alte Ägypten. Beck, Hamburg 2006, ISBN 3-406-54988-8; page 77 - 78. Preceded by Neferkara I Pharaoh of Egypt Succeeded by Hudjefa I v t e Second Dynasty of Ancient Egypt Attested pharaohs Hotepsekhemwy Nebra Weneg Nynetjer Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Khasekhemwy Obscure pharaoh names Horus Ba Ba Horus Sa Hudjefa I Neferkara I Neferkasokar Nubnefer Senedj Sneferka Wadjenes Queen consort Nimaathap Other royals Khenmetptah Satkhnum Sehener Shepset-ipet Wadjitefni (Mesen-ka) Pehen-Ptah Nisuheqet Nefer-Setekh Monument Gisr el-Mudir Capital Thinis v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neferkasokar&oldid=995691125" Categories: 28th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Second Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Svenska Tagalog Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 December 2020, at 10:44 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1412	----	Iran - Wikipedia Iran From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Country in Western Asia "Persia" redirects here. For other uses, see Iran (disambiguation) and Persia (disambiguation). Coordinates: 32°N 53°E / 32°N 53°E / 32; 53 Islamic Republic of Iran جمهوری اسلامی ایران (Persian) Jomhuri-ye Eslāmi-ye Irān Flag Emblem Motto:  استقلال، آزادی، جمهوری اسلامی Esteqlāl, Āzādi, Jomhuri-ye Eslāmi ("Independence, freedom, the Islamic Republic") (de facto)[1] Anthem: سرود ملی جمهوری اسلامی ایران Sorud-e Melli-ye Jomhuri-ye Eslāmi-ye Irān ("National Anthem of the Islamic Republic of Iran") Capital and largest city Tehran 35°41′N 51°25′E / 35.683°N 51.417°E / 35.683; 51.417 Official languages Persian Recognised regional languages List of languages 53% Persian 18% Azerbaijani and other Turkic dialects (incl. Qashqai, Turkmen)[2] 10% Kurdish 7% Gilak and Mazanderani 6% Luri 2% Balochi 2% Arabic 2% other[3] (incl. Armenian, Assyrian, Georgian, Laki, Semnani, Talysh, Tati) Ethnic groups List of ethnicities 61% Persian 16% Azerbaijani 10% Kurd 6% Lur (incl. Bakhtiari) 2% Turkmen and other Turkic peoples 2% Baloch 2% Arab 1% other[3] Religion 99.4% Islam 0.15% Christianity 0.03% Zoroastrianism Demonym(s) Iranian Persian (historically) Government Islamic republic • Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei • President Hassan Rouhani • Vice President Eshaq Jahangiri • Parliament Speaker Mohammad Bagher Ghalibaf • Chief Justice Ebrahim Raisi Legislature Islamic Consultative Assembly Establishment history • Median Empire c. 678 BC • Achaemenid Empire 550 BC • Parthian Empire 247 BC • Sasanian Empire 224 AD[4] • Buyid dynasty 934 • Safavid dynasty 1501[5] • Afsharid dynasty 1736 • Zand dynasty 1751 • Qajar dynasty 1796 • Pahlavi dynasty 15 December 1925 • Islamic Revolution 11 February 1979 • Current constitution 3 December 1979 • Latest amendment 28 July 1989 Area • Total 1,648,195 km2 (636,372 sq mi) (17th) • Water (%) 7.07 Population • 2019 estimate 83,183,741[6] (17th) • Density 48/km2 (124.3/sq mi) (162nd) GDP (PPP) 2020 estimate • Total $1.007 trillion[7] (18th) • Per capita $11,963[7] (66th) GDP (nominal) 2020 estimate • Total $611 billion[7] (21st) • Per capita $7,257[7] (78th) Gini (2017)  40.8[8] medium HDI (2019)  0.783[9] high · 70th Currency Rial (ریال) (IRR) Time zone UTC+3:30 (IRST) • Summer (DST) UTC+4:30 (IRDT) Date format yyyy/mm/dd (SH) Driving side right Calling code +98 ISO 3166 code IR Internet TLD .ir ایران. You may need rendering support to display the Persian text in this article correctly. Iran (Persian: ایران‎ Irān [ʔiːˈɾɒːn] (listen)), also called Persia[10] and officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (Persian: جمهوری اسلامی ایران‎ Jomhuri-ye Eslāmi-ye Irān (listen) [dʒomhuːˌɾije eslɒːˌmije ʔiːˈɾɒn]), is a country in Western Asia. It is bordered to the northwest by Armenia and Azerbaijan,[a] to the north by the Caspian Sea, to the northeast by Turkmenistan, to the east by Afghanistan, to the southeast by Pakistan, to the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, and to the west by Turkey and Iraq. Iran covers an area of 1,648,195 km2 (636,372 sq mi), with a population of 83 million. It is the second-largest country in the Middle East, and its capital and largest city is Tehran. Iran is home to one of the world's oldest civilizations,[11][12] beginning with the formation of the Elamite kingdoms in the fourth millennium BC. It was first unified by the Iranian Medes in the seventh century BC,[13] and reached its territorial height in the sixth century BC, when Cyrus the Great founded the Achaemenid Empire, which became one of the largest empires in history.[14] The empire fell to Alexander the Great in the fourth century BC and was divided into several Hellenistic states. An Iranian rebellion established the Parthian Empire in the third century BC, which was succeeded in the third century AD by the Sasanian Empire, a major world power for the next four centuries.[15][16] Arab Muslims conquered the empire in the seventh century AD, which led to the Islamization of Iran, and it subsequently becoming a major center of Islamic culture and learning, with its art, literature, philosophy, and architecture spreading across the Muslim world and beyond during the Islamic Golden Age. Over the next two centuries, a series of native Muslim dynasties emerged before the Seljuq Turks and the Mongols conquered the region. In the 15th century, the native Safavids re-established a unified Iranian state and national identity,[4] with the country's conversion to Shia Islam marking a turning point in Iranian and Muslim history.[5][17] Under the reign of Nader Shah in the 18th century, Iran once again became a major world power,[18][page needed] though by the 19th century a series of conflicts with the Russian Empire led to significant territorial losses.[19][20] The early 20th century saw the Persian Constitutional Revolution. Efforts to nationalize its fossil fuel supply from Western companies led to an Anglo-American coup in 1953, which resulted in greater autocratic rule under Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and growing Western political influence.[21] He went on to launch a far-reaching series of reforms in 1963.[22] After the Iranian Revolution, the current Islamic Republic was established in 1979.[23] The Government of Iran is an Islamic theocracy which includes elements of a presidential democracy, with the ultimate authority vested in an autocratic "Supreme Leader",[24] a position held by Ali Khamenei since 1989. The Iranian government is widely considered to be authoritarian, and has attracted widespread criticism for its significant constraints and abuses against human rights and civil liberties,[25][26][27][28] including the violent suppression of mass protests, unfair elections, and unequal rights for women and children. Iran is a regional and middle power, with a geopolitically strategic location.[29] Iran is a founding member of the UN, ECO, OIC, and OPEC. It has large reserves of fossil fuels — including the world's second largest natural gas supply and the third largest proven oil reserves.[30] The country's rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 22 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the third largest number in Asia and 10th largest in the world.[31] Historically a multi-ethnic country, Iran remains a pluralistic society comprising numerous ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups, the largest being Persians, Azeris, Kurds, Mazandaranis and Lurs.[3] Contents 1 Name 1.1 Pronunciation 2 History 2.1 Prehistory 2.2 Classical antiquity 2.3 Medieval period 2.4 Early modern period 2.4.1 Safavids 2.4.2 Afsharids 2.4.3 Zands 2.4.4 Qajars 2.4.5 Pahlavi dynasty 2.5 1951–1978: Mosaddegh, Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi 2.6 Since the 1979 Islamic Revolution 3 Geography 3.1 Climate 3.2 Fauna 3.3 Administrative divisions 4 Government and politics 4.1 Supreme Leader 4.2 Guardian Council 4.3 President 4.4 Legislature 4.5 Law 4.6 Foreign relations 4.7 Military 5 Economy 5.1 Tourism 5.2 Energy 6 Education, science and technology 7 Demographics 7.1 Languages 7.2 Ethnic groups 7.3 Religion 8 Culture 8.1 Art 8.2 Architecture 8.3 Weaving 8.4 Literature 8.5 Philosophy 8.6 Mythology 8.7 Music 8.8 Theater 8.9 Cinema and animation 8.10 Observances 8.10.1 Public holidays 8.11 Cuisine 8.12 Sports 8.13 Media 8.14 Fashion and clothing 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Bibliography 13 External links Name Main article: Name of Iran The term Iran derives directly from Middle Persian Ērān, first attested in a third-century inscription at Rustam Relief, with the accompanying Parthian inscription using the term Aryān, in reference to the Iranians.[32] The Middle Iranian ērān and aryān are oblique plural forms of gentilic nouns ēr- (Middle Persian) and ary- (Parthian), both deriving from Proto-Iranian *arya- (meaning "Aryan", i.e. "of the Iranians"),[32][33] recognized as a derivative of Proto-Indo-European *ar-yo-, meaning "one who assembles (skilfully)".[34] In the Iranian languages, the gentilic is attested as a self-identifier, included in ancient inscriptions and the literature of the Avesta,[35][b] and remains also in other Iranian ethnic names Alan (Ossetian: Ир Ir) and Iron (Ирон).[33] According to the Iranian mythology, the country's name comes from the name of Iraj, a legendary prince and shah who was killed by his brothers.[36] Historically, Iran has been referred to as Persia by the West,[10] due mainly to the writings of Greek historians who referred to all of Iran as Persís (Ancient Greek: Περσίς; from Old Persian 𐎱𐎠𐎼𐎿 Pārsa),[37] meaning "land of the Persians", while Persis itself was one of the provinces of ancient Iran that is today defined as Fars.[38] As the most extensive interaction the ancient Greeks had with any outsider was with the Persians, the term persisted, even long after the Greco-Persian Wars (499–449 BC). In 1935, Reza Shah requested the international community to refer to the country by its native name, Iran, effective 22 March that year.[39] Opposition to the name change led to the reversal of the decision in 1959, and Professor Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, propagated a move to use Persia and Iran interchangeably.[40][unreliable source?] Today, both Iran and Persia are used in cultural contexts, while Iran remains irreplaceable in official state contexts.[41] Historical and cultural usage of the word Iran is not restricted to the modern state proper.[42][43][44] "Greater Iran" (Irānzamīn or Irān e Bozorg)[45] refers to territories of the Iranian cultural and linguistic zones. In addition to modern Iran, it includes portions of the Caucasus, Anatolia, Mesopotamia, Afghanistan, and Central Asia.[46][page needed] Pronunciation The Persian pronunciation of Iran is [ʔiːˈɾɒːn]. Common Commonwealth English pronunciations of Iran are listed in the Oxford English Dictionary as /ɪˈrɑːn/ and /ɪˈræn/,[47] while American English dictionaries such as Merriam-Webster's provide pronunciations which map to /ɪˈrɑːn, -ˈræn, aɪˈræn/,[48] or likewise in Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary as /ɪˈræn, ɪˈrɑːn, aɪˈræn/. The Cambridge Dictionary lists /ɪˈrɑːn/ as the British pronunciation and /ɪˈræn/ as the American pronunciation. Similarly, Glasgow-based Collins English Dictionary provides both English English and American English pronunciations. The pronunciation guide from Voice of America also provides /ɪˈrɑːn/.[49] The American English pronunciation /aɪˈræn/ eye-RAN may be heard in U.S. media. Max Fisher in The Washington Post[50] prescribed /iːˈrɑːn/ for Iran, while proscribing /aɪˈræn/. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, in the dictionary's 2014 Usage Ballot, addressed the topic of the pronunciations of Iran and Iraq.[51] According to this survey, the pronunciations /ɪˈrɑːn/ and /ɪˈræn/ were deemed almost equally acceptable, while /ɪˈrɑːn/ was preferred by most panelists participating in the ballot. With regard to the /aɪˈræn/ pronunciation, more than 70% of the panelists deemed it unacceptable. Among the reasons given by those panelists were that /aɪˈræn/ has "hawkish connotations" and sounds "angrier", "xenophobic", "ignorant", and "not ... cosmopolitan". The /aɪˈræn/ pronunciation remains standard and acceptable, reflected in the entry for Iran in the American Heritage Dictionary itself, as well as in each of the other major dictionaries of American English. History Main article: History of Iran See also: Timeline of Iranian history Prehistory Further information: Prehistory of Iran and Archaeological sites in Iran A cave painting in Doushe cave, Lorestan, from the 8th millennium BC[52] The earliest attested archaeological artifacts in Iran, like those excavated at Kashafrud and Ganj Par in northern Iran, confirm a human presence in Iran since the Lower Paleolithic.[53] Iran's Neanderthal artifacts from the Middle Paleolithic have been found mainly in the Zagros region, at sites such as Warwasi and Yafteh.[54][55][page needed] From the 10th to the seventh millennium BC, early agricultural communities began to flourish in and around the Zagros region in western Iran, including Chogha Golan,[56][57] Chogha Bonut,[58][59] and Chogha Mish.[60][61][page needed][62] The occupation of grouped hamlets in the area of Susa, as determined by radiocarbon dating, ranges from 4395–3955 to 3680-3490 BC.[63] There are dozens of prehistoric sites across the Iranian Plateau, pointing to the existence of ancient cultures and urban settlements in the fourth millennium BC.[62][64][65] During the Bronze Age, the territory of present-day Iran was home to several civilizations, including Elam, Jiroft, and Zayanderud. Elam, the most prominent of these civilizations, developed in the southwest alongside those in Mesopotamia, and continued its existence until the emergence of the Iranian empires. The advent of writing in Elam was paralleled to Sumer, and the Elamite cuneiform was developed since the third millennium BC.[66] From the 34th to the 20th century BC, northwestern Iran was part of the Kura-Araxes culture, which stretched into the neighboring Caucasus and Anatolia. Since the earliest second millennium BC, Assyrians settled in swaths of western Iran and incorporated the region into their territories. Classical antiquity Main articles: Median Empire, Achaemenid Empire, Seleucid Empire, Parthian Empire, and Sasanian Empire See also: Indo-European migrations A bas-relief at Persepolis, depicting the united Medes and Persians By the second millennium BC, the ancient Iranian peoples arrived in what is now Iran from the Eurasian Steppe,[67] rivaling the native settlers of the region.[68][69] As the Iranians dispersed into the wider area of Greater Iran and beyond, the boundaries of modern-day Iran were dominated by Median, Persian, and Parthian tribes. From the late 10th to the late seventh century BC, the Iranian peoples, together with the "pre-Iranian" kingdoms, fell under the domination of the Assyrian Empire, based in northern Mesopotamia.[70][page needed] Under king Cyaxares, the Medes and Persians entered into an alliance with Babylonian ruler Nabopolassar, as well as the fellow Iranian Scythians and Cimmerians, and together they attacked the Assyrian Empire. The civil war ravaged the Assyrian Empire between 616 and 605 BC, thus freeing their respective peoples from three centuries of Assyrian rule.[70] The unification of the Median tribes under king Deioces in 728 BC led to the foundation of the Median Empire which, by 612 BC, controlled almost the entire territory of present-day Iran and eastern Anatolia.[71] This marked the end of the Kingdom of Urartu as well, which was subsequently conquered and dissolved.[72][73] Tomb of Cyrus the Great, founder of the Achaemenid Empire, in Pasargadae In 550 BC, Cyrus the Great, the son of Mandane and Cambyses I, took over the Median Empire, and founded the Achaemenid Empire by unifying other city-states. The conquest of Media was a result of what is called the Persian Revolt. The brouhaha was initially triggered by the actions of the Median ruler Astyages, and was quickly spread to other provinces, as they allied with the Persians. Later conquests under Cyrus and his successors expanded the empire to include Lydia, Babylon, Egypt, parts of the Balkans and Eastern Europe proper, as well as the lands to the west of the Indus and Oxus rivers. 539 BC was the year in which Persian forces defeated the Babylonian army at Opis, and marked the end of around four centuries of Mesopotamian domination of the region by conquering the Neo-Babylonian Empire. Cyrus entered Babylon and presented himself as a traditional Mesopotamian monarch. Subsequent Achaemenid art and iconography reflect the influence of the new political reality in Mesopotamia. The Achaemenid Empire (550 BC–330 BC) around the time of Darius I and Xerxes I The Parthian Empire (247 BC–224 AD) in 94 BC at its greatest extent, during the reign of Mithridates II At its greatest extent, the Achaemenid Empire included territories of modern-day Iran, Republic of Azerbaijan (Arran and Shirvan), Armenia, Georgia, Turkey (Anatolia), much of the Black Sea coastal regions, northeastern Greece and southern Bulgaria (Thrace), northern Greece and North Macedonia (Paeonia and Macedon), Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel and the Palestinian territories, all significant population centers of ancient Egypt as far west as Libya, Kuwait, northern Saudi Arabia, parts of the United Arab Emirates and Oman, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and much of Central Asia, making it the largest empire the world had yet seen.[14] It is estimated that in 480 BC, 50 million people lived in the Achaemenid Empire.[74][75] The empire at its peak ruled over 44% of the world's population, the highest such figure for any empire in history.[76] Ruins of the Gate of All Nations, Persepolis The Achaemenid Empire is noted for the release of the Jewish exiles in Babylon,[77] building infrastructures such as the Royal Road and the Chapar (postal service), and the use of an official language, Imperial Aramaic, throughout its territories.[14] The empire had a centralized, bureaucratic administration under the emperor, a large professional army, and civil services, inspiring similar developments in later empires.[78][79] Eventual conflict on the western borders began with the Ionian Revolt, which erupted into the Greco-Persian Wars and continued through the first half of the fifth century BC, and ended with the withdrawal of the Achaemenids from all of the territories in the Balkans and Eastern Europe proper.[80] In 334 BC, Alexander the Great invaded the Achaemenid Empire, defeating the last Achaemenid emperor, Darius III, at the Battle of Issus. Following the premature death of Alexander, Iran came under the control of the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire. In the middle of the second century BC, the Parthian Empire rose to become the main power in Iran, and the century-long geopolitical arch-rivalry between the Romans and the Parthians began, culminating in the Roman–Parthian Wars. The Parthian Empire continued as a feudal monarchy for nearly five centuries, until 224 CE, when it was succeeded by the Sasanian Empire.[81] Together with their neighboring arch-rival, the Roman-Byzantines, they made up the world's two most dominant powers at the time, for over four centuries.[15][16] Sasanian rock reliefs at Taq Bostan, in the heart of the Zagros Mountains The Sasanians established an empire within the frontiers achieved by the Achaemenids, with their capital at Ctesiphon. Late antiquity is considered one of Iran's most influential periods, as under the Sasanians their influence reached the culture of ancient Rome (and through that as far as Western Europe),[82][83] Africa,[84] China, and India,[85] and played a prominent role in the formation of the medieval art of both Europe and Asia.[86] A bas-relief at Naqsh-e Rostam, depicting the victory of Sasanian ruler Shapur I over Roman ruler Valerian Most of the era of the Sasanian Empire was overshadowed by the Roman–Persian Wars, which raged on the western borders at Anatolia, the Western Caucasus, Mesopotamia, and the Levant, for over 700 years. These wars ultimately exhausted both the Romans and the Sasanians and led to the defeat of both by the Muslim invasion.[citation needed] Throughout the Achaemenid, Parthian, and Sasanian eras, several offshoots of the Iranian dynasties established eponymous branches in Anatolia and the Caucasus, including the Pontic Kingdom, the Mihranids, and the Arsacid dynasties of Armenia, Iberia (Georgia), and Caucasian Albania (present-day Republic of Azerbaijan and southern Dagestan).[citation needed] Medieval period Main articles: Muslim conquest of Persia and Medieval Iran The prolonged Byzantine–Sasanian wars, most importantly the climactic war of 602–628, as well as the social conflict within the Sasanian Empire, opened the way for an Arab invasion of Iran in the seventh century.[87][88] The empire was initially defeated by the Rashidun Caliphate, which was succeeded by the Umayyad Caliphate, followed by the Abbasid Caliphate. A prolonged and gradual process of state-imposed Islamization followed, which targeted Iran's then Zoroastrian majority and included religious persecution,[89][90][91] demolition of libraries[92] and fire temples,[93] a special tax penalty ("jizya"),[94][95] and language shift.[96][97] In 750, the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads.[98] Arabs muslims and Persians of all strata made up the rebel army, which was united by the converted Persian Muslim, Abu Muslim.[99][100][101] In their struggle for power, the society in their times gradually became cosmopolitan and the old Arab simplicity and aristocratic dignity, bearing and prestige were lost. Persians and Turks began to replace the Arabs in most fields. The fusion of the Arab nobility with the subject races, the practice of polygamy and concubinage, made for a social amalgam wherein loyalties became uncertain and a hierarchy of officials emerged, a bureaucracy at first Persian and later Turkish which decreased Abbasid prestige and power for good.[102] After two centuries of Arab rule, semi-independent and independent Iranian kingdoms—including the Tahirids, Saffarids, Samanids, and Buyids—began to appear on the fringes of the declining Abbasid Caliphate.[citation needed] Tomb of Hafez, the medieval Persian poet whose works are regarded as a pinnacle in Persian literature and have left a considerable mark on later Western writers, most notably Goethe, Thoreau, and Emerson[103][104][105] The blossoming literature, philosophy, mathematics, medicine, astronomy and art of Iran became major elements in the formation of a new age for the Iranian civilization, during a period known as the Islamic Golden Age.[106][107] The Islamic Golden Age reached its peak by the 10th and 11th centuries, during which Iran was the main theater of scientific activities.[108] The cultural revival that began in the Abbasid period led to a resurfacing of the Iranian national identity; thus, the attempts of Arabization never succeeded in Iran.[citation needed] The Shu'ubiyya movement became a catalyst for Iranians to regain independence in their relations with the Arab invaders.[109] The most notable effect of this movement was the continuation of the Persian language attested to the works of the epic poet Ferdowsi, now considered the most prominent figure in Iranian literature.[citation needed] Tuğrul Tower, a 12th-century monument at Rhages The 10th century saw a mass migration of Turkic tribes from Central Asia into the Iranian Plateau.[110] Turkic tribesmen were first used in the Abbasid army as mamluks (slave-warriors), replacing Iranian and Arab elements within the army.[99] As a result, the Mamluks gained a significant political power. In 999, large portions of Iran came briefly under the rule of the Ghaznavids, whose rulers were of mamluk Turkic origin, and longer subsequently under the Seljuk and Khwarezmian empires.[110] The Seljuks subsequently gave rise to the Sultanate of Rum in Anatolia, while taking their thoroughly Persianized identity with them.[111][112] The result of the adoption and patronage of Persian culture by Turkish rulers was the development of a distinct Turko-Persian tradition. From 1219 to 1221, under the Khwarazmian Empire, Iran suffered a devastating invasion by the Mongol army of Genghis Khan. According to Steven R. Ward, "Mongol violence and depredations killed up to three-fourths of the population of the Iranian Plateau, possibly 10 to 15 million people. Some historians have estimated that Iran's population did not again reach its pre-Mongol levels until the mid-20th century."[113] Following the fracture of the Mongol Empire in 1256, Hulagu Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan, established the Ilkhanate in Iran. In 1370, yet another conqueror, Timur, followed the example of Hulagu, establishing the Timurid Empire which lasted for another 156 years. In 1387, Timur ordered the complete massacre of Isfahan, reportedly killing 70,000 citizens.[114] The Ilkhans and the Timurids soon came to adopt the ways and customs of the Iranians, surrounding themselves with a culture that was distinctively Iranian.[115] Early modern period Safavids Main article: Safavid Iran Venetian portrait, kept at the Uffizi, of Ismail I, the founder of the Safavid Empire By the 1500s, Ismail I of Ardabil established the Safavid Empire,[116] with his capital at Tabriz.[110] Beginning with Azerbaijan, he subsequently extended his authority over all of the Iranian territories, and established an intermittent Iranian hegemony over the vast relative regions, reasserting the Iranian identity within large parts of Greater Iran.[117] Iran was predominantly Sunni,[118] but Ismail instigated a forced conversion to the Shia branch of Islam,[119] spreading throughout the Safavid territories in the Caucasus, Iran, Anatolia, and Mesopotamia. As a result, modern-day Iran is the only official Shia nation of the world, with it holding an absolute majority in Iran and the Republic of Azerbaijan, having there the first and the second highest number of Shia inhabitants by population percentage in the world.[120][121] Meanwhile, the centuries-long geopolitical and ideological rivalry between Safavid Iran and the neighboring Ottoman Empire led to numerous Ottoman–Iranian wars.[113] A portrait of Abbas I, the powerful, pragmatic Safavid ruler who reinforced Iran's military, political, and economic power The Safavid era peaked in the reign of Abbas I (1587–1629),[113][122] surpassing their Turkish archrivals in strength, and making Iran a leading science and art hub in western Eurasia. The Safavid era saw the start of mass integration from Caucasian populations into new layers of the society of Iran, as well as mass resettlement of them within the heartlands of Iran, playing a pivotal role in the history of Iran for centuries onwards. Following a gradual decline in the late 1600s and the early 1700s, which was caused by internal conflicts, the continuous wars with the Ottomans, and the foreign interference (most notably the Russian interference), the Safavid rule was ended by the Pashtun rebels who besieged Isfahan and defeated Sultan Husayn in 1722. Afsharids Main article: Afsharid dynasty In 1729, Nader Shah, a chieftain and military genius from Khorasan, successfully drove out and conquered the Pashtun invaders. He subsequently took back the annexed Caucasian territories which were divided among the Ottoman and Russian authorities by the ongoing chaos in Iran. During the reign of Nader Shah, Iran reached its greatest extent since the Sasanian Empire, reestablishing the Iranian hegemony all over the Caucasus, as well as other major parts of the west and central Asia, and briefly possessing what was arguably the most powerful empire at the time.[18] Statue of Nader Shah, the powerful Afsharid ruler, at Naderi Museum Nader Shah invaded India and sacked far off Delhi by the late 1730s. His territorial expansion, as well as his military successes, went into a decline following the final campaigns in the Northern Caucasus against then revolting Lezgins. The assassination of Nader Shah sparked a brief period of civil war and turmoil, after which Karim Khan of the Zand dynasty came to power in 1750, bringing a period of relative peace and prosperity.[113] Zands Main article: Zand dynasty Compared to its preceding dynasties, the geopolitical reach of the Zand dynasty was limited. Many of the Iranian territories in the Caucasus gained de facto autonomy, and were locally ruled through various Caucasian khanates. However, despite the self-ruling, they all remained subjects and vassals to the Zand king.[123] Another civil war ensued after the death of Karim Khan in 1779, out of which Agha Mohammad Khan emerged, founding the Qajar dynasty in 1794. Qajars Main article: Qajar Iran In 1795, following the disobedience of the Georgian subjects and their alliance with the Russians, the Qajars captured Tbilisi by the Battle of Krtsanisi, and drove the Russians out of the entire Caucasus, reestablishing the Iranian suzerainty over the region. A map showing the 19th-century northwestern borders of Iran, comprising modern-day eastern Georgia, Dagestan, Armenia, and the Republic of Azerbaijan, before being ceded to the neighboring Russian Empire by the Russo-Iranian wars The Russo-Iranian wars of 1804–1813 and 1826–1828 resulted in large irrevocable territorial losses for Iran in the Caucasus, comprising all of Transcaucasia and Dagestan, which made part of the very concept of Iran for centuries,[19] and thus substantial gains for the neighboring Russian Empire. As a result of the 19th-century Russo-Iranian wars, the Russians took over the Caucasus, and Iran irrevocably lost control over its integral territories in the region (comprising modern-day Dagestan, Georgia, Armenia, and Republic of Azerbaijan), which got confirmed per the treaties of Gulistan and Turkmenchay.[20][124] The area to the north of Aras River, among which the contemporary Republic of Azerbaijan, eastern Georgia, Dagestan, and Armenia are located, were Iranian territory until they were occupied by Russia in the course of the 19th century.[20][125][126][127][128][129][130] As Iran shrank, many Transcaucasian and North Caucasian Muslims moved towards Iran,[131][132] especially until the aftermath of the Circassian Genocide,[132] and the decades afterwards, while Iran's Armenians were encouraged to settle in the newly incorporated Russian territories,[133][134][135] causing significant demographic shifts. Around 1.5 million people—20 to 25% of the population of Iran—died as a result of the Great Famine of 1870–1871.[136] The first national Iranian Parliament was established in 1906. Between 1872 and 1905, a series of protests took place in response to the sale of concessions to foreigners by Qajar monarchs Naser-ed-Din and Mozaffar-ed-Din, and led to the Constitutional Revolution in 1905. The first Iranian constitution and the first national parliament of Iran were founded in 1906, through the ongoing revolution. The Constitution included the official recognition of Iran's three religious minorities, namely Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians,[137] which has remained a basis in the legislation of Iran since then. The struggle related to the constitutional movement was followed by the Triumph of Tehran in 1909, when Mohammad Ali Shah was defeated and forced to abdicate. On the pretext of restoring order, the Russians occupied northern Iran in 1911 and maintained a military presence in the region for years to come. But this did not put an end to the civil uprisings and was soon followed by Mirza Kuchik Khan's Jungle Movement against both the Qajar monarchy and foreign invaders. Reza Shah in military uniform Despite Iran's neutrality during World War I, the Ottoman, Russian and British empires occupied the territory of western Iran and fought the Persian Campaign before fully withdrawing their forces in 1921. At least 2 million Persian civilians died either directly in the fighting, the Ottoman perpetrated anti-Christian genocides or the war induced famine of 1917-1919. A large number of Iranian Assyrian and Iranian Armenian Christians, as well as those Muslims who tried to protect them, were victims of mass murders committed by the invading Ottoman troops, notably in and around Khoy, Maku, Salmas, and Urmia.[138][139][140][141][142] Apart from the rule of Agha Mohammad Khan, the Qajar rule is characterized as a century of misrule.[110] The inability of Qajar Iran's government to maintain the country's sovereignty during and immediately after World War I led to the British directed 1921 Persian coup d'état and Reza Shah's establishment of the Pahlavi dynasty. Reza Shah, became the new Prime Minister of Iran and was declared the new monarch in 1925. Pahlavi dynasty Main article: Pahlavi dynasty See also: Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran In the midst of World War II, in June 1941, Nazi Germany broke the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and invaded the Soviet Union, Iran's northern neighbor. The Soviets quickly allied themselves with the Allied countries and in July and August, 1941 the British demanded that the Iranian government expel all Germans from Iran. Reza Shah refused to expel the Germans and on 25 August 1941, the British and Soviets launched a surprise invasion and Reza Shah's government quickly surrendered.[143] The invasion's strategic purpose was to secure a supply line to the USSR (later named the Persian Corridor), secure the oil fields and Abadan Refinery (of the UK-owned Anglo-Iranian Oil Company), prevent a German advance via Turkey or the USSR on Baku's oil fields, and limit German influence in Iran. Following the invasion, on 16 September 1941 Reza Shah abdicated and was replaced by Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, his 21-year-old son.[144][145][146] The Allied "Big Three" at the 1943 Tehran Conference During the rest of World War II, Iran became a major conduit for British and American aid to the Soviet Union and an avenue through which over 120,000 Polish refugees and Polish Armed Forces fled the Axis advance.[147] At the 1943 Tehran Conference, the Allied "Big Three"—Joseph Stalin, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Winston Churchill—issued the Tehran Declaration to guarantee the post-war independence and boundaries of Iran. However, at the end of the war, Soviet troops remained in Iran and established two puppet states in north-western Iran, namely the People's Government of Azerbaijan and the Republic of Mahabad. This led to the Iran crisis of 1946, one of the first confrontations of the Cold War, which ended after oil concessions were promised to the USSR and Soviet forces withdrew from Iran proper in May 1946. The two puppet states were soon overthrown and the oil concessions were later revoked.[148][149] 1951–1978: Mosaddegh, Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi Main article: 1953 Iranian coup d'état Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and the Imperial Family during the coronation ceremony of the Shah of Iran in 1967 In 1951, Mohammad Mosaddegh was appointed as the Prime Minister. He became enormously popular in Iran after he nationalized Iran's petroleum industry and oil reserves. He was deposed in the 1953 Iranian coup d'état, an Anglo-American covert operation that marked the first time the United States had participated in the overthrow of a foreign government during the Cold War.[150] After the coup, the Shah became increasingly autocratic and sultanistic, and Iran entered a phase of decades-long controversial close relations with the United States and some other foreign governments.[151] While the Shah increasingly modernized Iran and claimed to retain it as a fully secular state,[21] arbitrary arrests and torture by his secret police, the SAVAK, were used to crush all forms of political opposition.[152] Ruhollah Khomeini, a radical Muslim cleric,[citation needed] became an active critic of the Shah's far-reaching series of reforms known as the White Revolution. Khomeini publicly denounced the government, and was arrested and imprisoned for 18 months. After his release in 1964, he refused to apologize, and was eventually sent into exile. Due to the 1973 spike in oil prices, the economy of Iran was flooded with foreign currency, which caused inflation. By 1974, the economy of Iran was experiencing double digit inflation, and despite the many large projects to modernize the country, corruption was rampant and caused large amounts of waste. By 1975 and 1976, an economic recession led to increased unemployment, especially among millions of youths who had migrated to the cities of Iran looking for construction jobs during the boom years of the early 1970s. By the late 1970s, many of these people opposed the Shah's regime and began to organize and join the protests against it.[153] Since the 1979 Islamic Revolution Main articles: Iranian Revolution and Iran–Iraq War Ruhollah Khomeini's return to Iran from exile, 1 February 1979 The 1979 Revolution, later known as the Islamic Revolution,[154][155][156] began in January 1978 with the first major demonstrations against the Shah.[157] After a year of strikes and demonstrations paralyzing the country and its economy, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi fled to the United States, and Ruhollah Khomeini returned from exile to Tehran in February 1979, forming a new government.[158] After holding a referendum, Iran officially became an Islamic republic in April 1979.[159] A second referendum in December 1979 approved a theocratic constitution.[160] The immediate nationwide uprisings against the new government began with the 1979 Kurdish rebellion and the Khuzestan uprisings, along with the uprisings in Sistan and Baluchestan and other areas. Over the next several years, these uprisings were subdued in a violent manner by the new Islamic government. The new government began purging itself of the non-Islamist political opposition, as well as of those Islamists who were not considered radical enough. Although both nationalists and Marxists had initially joined with Islamists to overthrow the Shah, tens of thousands were executed by the new regime afterwards.[161] Many former ministers and officials in the Shah's government, including former prime minister Amir-Abbas Hoveyda, were executed following Khomeini's order to purge the new government of any remaining officials still loyal to the exiled Shah. On 4 November 1979, a group of Muslim students seized the United States Embassy and took the embassy with 52 personnel and citizens hostage,[162] after the United States refused to extradite Mohammad Reza Pahlavi to Iran, where his execution was all but assured. Attempts by the Jimmy Carter administration to negotiate for the release of the hostages, and a failed rescue attempt, helped force Carter out of office and brought Ronald Reagan to power. On Jimmy Carter's final day in office, the last hostages were finally set free as a result of the Algiers Accords. Mohammad Reza Pahlavi left the United States for Egypt, where he died of complications from cancer only months later, on 27 July 1980. The Cultural Revolution began in 1980, with an initial closure of universities for three years, in order to perform an inspection and clean up in the cultural policy of the education and training system.[163] An Iranian soldier wearing a gas mask on the front-line during the Iran–Iraq War On 22 September 1980, the Iraqi army invaded the western Iranian province of Khuzestan, launching the Iran–Iraq War. Although the forces of Saddam Hussein made several early advances, by mid 1982, the Iranian forces successfully managed to drive the Iraqi army back into Iraq. In July 1982, with Iraq thrown on the defensive, the regime of Iran took the decision to invade Iraq and conducted countless offensives in a bid to conquer Iraqi territory and capture cities, such as Basra. The war continued until 1988 when the Iraqi army defeated the Iranian forces inside Iraq and pushed the remaining Iranian troops back across the border. Subsequently, Khomeini accepted a truce mediated by the United Nations. The total Iranian casualties in the war were estimated to be 123,220–160,000 KIA, 60,711 MIA, and 11,000–16,000 civilians killed.[164][165] The Green Movement's Silent Demonstration during the 2009–10 Iranian election protests Following the Iran–Iraq War, in 1989, Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani and his administration concentrated on a pragmatic pro-business policy of rebuilding and strengthening the economy without making any dramatic break with the ideology of the revolution. In 1997, Rafsanjani was succeeded by moderate reformist Mohammad Khatami, whose government attempted, unsuccessfully, to make the country more free and democratic.[166] The 2005 presidential election brought conservative populist candidate, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, to power.[167] By the time of the 2009 Iranian presidential election, the Interior Ministry announced incumbent President Ahmadinejad had won 62.63% of the vote, while Mir-Hossein Mousavi had come in second place with 33.75%.[168][169] The election results were widely disputed,[170][171] and resulted in widespread protests, both within Iran and in major cities outside the country,[172][173] and the creation of the Iranian Green Movement. Hassan Rouhani was elected as the president on 15 June 2013, defeating Mohammad Bagher Ghalibaf and four other candidates.[174][175] The electoral victory of Rouhani relatively improved the relations of Iran with other countries.[176] The 2017–18 Iranian protests were initiated on 31 December 2017 and continued for months. The 2017–18 Iranian protests swept across the country against the government and its longtime Supreme Leader in response to the economic and political situation.[177] The scale of protests throughout the country and the number of people participating were significant,[178] and it was formally confirmed that thousands of protesters were arrested.[179] The 2019–20 Iranian protests started on 15 November in Ahvaz, spreading across the country within hours, after the government announced increases in the fuel price of up to 300%.[180] A week-long total Internet shutdown throughout the country marked one of the most severe Internet blackouts in any country, and in the bloodiest governmental crackdown of the protestors in the history of Islamic Republic,[181] tens of thousands were arrested and hundreds were killed within a few days according to multiple international observers, including Amnesty International.[182] On 3 January 2020, the revolutionary guard's general, Qasem Soleimani, was assassinated by the United States in Iraq, which considerably heightened the existing tensions between the two countries.[183] Three days after, Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps launched a retaliatory attack on US forces in Iraq and shot down Ukraine International Airlines Flight 752, killing 176 civilians and leading to nation-wide protests. An international investigation led to the government admitting to the shootdown of the plane by a surface-to-air missile after three days of denial, calling it a "human error".[184][185] Geography Main article: Geography of Iran See also: Borders of Iran, Agriculture in Iran, and Environmental issues in Iran Mount Damavand, Iran's highest point, is located in Amol, Mazenderan. Iran has an area of 1,648,195 km2 (636,372 sq mi).[3] It lies between latitudes 24° and 40° N, and longitudes 44° and 64° E. It is bordered to the northwest by Armenia (35 km or 22 mi), the Azeri exclave of Nakhchivan (179 km or 111 mi),[186] and the Republic of Azerbaijan (611 km or 380 mi); to the north by the Caspian Sea; to the northeast by Turkmenistan (992 km or 616 mi); to the east by Afghanistan (936 km or 582 mi) and Pakistan (909 km or 565 mi); to the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman; and to the west by Iraq (1,458 km or 906 mi) and Turkey (499 km or 310 mi). Iran consists of the Iranian Plateau, with the exception of the coasts of the Caspian Sea and Khuzestan. It is one of the world's most mountainous countries, its landscape dominated by rugged mountain ranges that separate various basins or plateaux from one another. The populous western part is the most mountainous, with ranges such as the Caucasus, Zagros, and Alborz, the last containing Mount Damavand, Iran's highest point at 5,610 m (18,406 ft), which is also the highest mountain in Asia west of the Hindu Kush. The northern part of Iran is covered by the lush lowland Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests, located near the southern shores of the Caspian Sea. The eastern part consists mostly of desert basins, such as the Kavir Desert, which is the country's largest desert, and the Lut Desert, as well as some salt lakes. Iran had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.67/10, ranking it 34th globally out of 172 countries.[187] The only large plains are found along the coast of the Caspian Sea and at the northern end of the Persian Gulf, where the country borders the mouth of the Arvand river. Smaller, discontinuous plains are found along the remaining coast of the Persian Gulf, the Strait of Hormuz, and the Gulf of Oman. Climate Climate map of Iran (Köppen-Geiger)   Hot desert climate   Cold desert climate   Hot semi-arid climate   Cold semi-arid climate   Hot-summer Mediterranean climate   Continental Mediterranean climate Having 11 climates out of the world's 13, Iran's climate is diverse,[188] ranging from arid and semi-arid, to subtropical along the Caspian coast and the northern forests.[189] On the northern edge of the country (the Caspian coastal plain), temperatures rarely fall below freezing and the area remains humid for the rest of the year. Summer temperatures rarely exceed 29 °C (84.2 °F).[190][191] Annual precipitation is 680 mm (26.8 in) in the eastern part of the plain and more than 1,700 mm (66.9 in) in the western part. Gary Lewis, the United Nations Resident Coordinator for Iran, has said that "Water scarcity poses the most severe human security challenge in Iran today".[192] To the west, settlements in the Zagros basin experience lower temperatures, severe winters with below zero average daily temperatures and heavy snowfall. The eastern and central basins are arid, with less than 200 mm (7.9 in) of rain, and have occasional deserts.[193] Average summer temperatures rarely exceed 38 °C (100.4 °F).[190] The coastal plains of the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman in southern Iran have mild winters, and very humid and hot summers. The annual precipitation ranges from 135 to 355 mm (5.3 to 14.0 in).[190] Despite climate change in the region Iran is one of the few countries in the world which has not ratified the Paris Agreement.[194] Fauna See also: Wildlife of Iran Persian leopard, listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. The wildlife of Iran is composed of several animal species, including bears, the Eurasian lynx, foxes, gazelles, gray wolves, jackals, panthers, and wild pigs.[195][196] Other domestic animals of Iran include Asian water buffaloes, camels, cattle, donkeys, goats, horses, and the sheep. Eagles, falcons, partridges, pheasants, and storks are also native to the wildlife of Iran. One of the most famous members of the Iranian wildlife is the critically endangered Asiatic cheetah, also known as the Iranian cheetah, whose numbers were greatly reduced after the 1979 Revolution.[197] The Persian leopard, which is the world's largest leopard subspecies living primarily in northern Iran, is also listed as an endangered species.[198] Iran lost all its Asiatic lions and the now extinct Caspian tigers by the earlier part of the 20th century.[199] At least 74 species of the Iranian wildlife are on the red list of the International Union for Conservation of Nature, a sign of serious threats against the country's biodiversity. The Iranian Parliament has been showing disregard for wildlife by passing laws and regulations such as the act that lets the Ministry of Industries and Mines exploit mines without the involvement of the Department of Environment, and by approving large national development projects without demanding comprehensive study of their impact on wildlife habitats.[200] Administrative divisions Main articles: Regions of Iran, Provinces of Iran, and Counties of Iran See also: List of Iranian cities by population Alborz Ardabil Bushehr Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Isfahan Fars Gilan Golestan Hamadan Hormozgan Ilam Kerman Kermanshah Khuzestan Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad Kurdistan Luristan Markazi Mazandaran Qazvin Qom Razavi Khorasan Semnan Sistan and Baluchestan Tehran Yazd Zanjan North Khorasan South Khorasan West Azerbaijan East Azerbaijan Caspian Sea Persian Gulf Turkmenistan Afghanistan Pakistan Azerbaijan Armenia T u r k e y Iraq Kuwait Saudi Arabia Iran is divided into five regions with thirty-one provinces (ostān),[201] each governed by an appointed governor (ostāndār). The provinces are divided into counties (šahrestān), and subdivided into districts (baxš) and sub-districts (dehestān). The country has one of the highest urban growth rates in the world. From 1950 to 2002, the urban proportion of the population increased from 27% to 60%.[202] The United Nations predicts that by 2030, 80% of the population will be urban.[203][failed verification] Most internal migrants have settled around the cities of Tehran, Isfahan, Ahvaz, and Qom. The listed populations are from the 2006/07 (1385 AP) census.[204][failed verification] Iran's most populated cities (2010) Tehran, with a population of around 8.8 million (2016 census), is the capital and largest city of Iran. It is an economical and cultural center, and is the hub of the country's communication and transport network. The country's second most populous city, Mashhad, has a population of around 3.3 million (2016 census), and is capital of the province of Razavi Khorasan. Being the site of the Imam Reza Shrine, it is a holy city in Shia Islam. About 15 to 20 million pilgrims visit the shrine every year.[205][206] Isfahan has a population of around 2.2 million (2016 census), and is Iran's third most populous city. It is the capital of the province of Isfahan, and was also the third capital of the Safavid Empire. It is home to a wide variety of historical sites, including the famous Shah Square, Siosepol, and the churches at the Armenian district of New Julfa. It is also home to the world's seventh largest shopping mall, Isfahan City Center. The fourth most populous city of Iran, Karaj, has a population of around 1.9 million (2016 census). It is the capital of the province of Alborz, and is situated 20 km west of Tehran, at the foot of the Alborz mountain range. It is a major industrial city in Iran, with large factories producing sugar, textiles, wire, and alcohol. With a population of around 1.7 million (2016 census), Tabriz is the fifth most populous city of Iran, and had been the second most populous until the late 1960s. It was the first capital of the Safavid Empire, and is now the capital of the province of East Azerbaijan. It is also considered the country's second major industrial city (after Tehran). Shiraz, with a population of around 1.8 million (2016 census), is Iran's sixth most populous city. It is the capital of the province of Fars, and was also the capital of Iran under the reign of the Zand dynasty. It is located near the ruins of Persepolis and Pasargadae, two of the four capitals of the Achaemenid Empire.   v t e Largest cities or towns in Iran 2016 census Rank Name Province Pop. Rank Name Province Pop. Tehran Mashhad 1 Tehran Tehran 8,693,706 11 Rasht Gilan 679,995 Isfahan Karaj 2 Mashhad Razavi Khorasan 3,001,184 12 Zahedan Sistan and Baluchestan 587,730 3 Isfahan Isfahan 1,961,260 13 Hamadan Hamadan 554,406 4 Karaj Alborz 1,592,492 14 Kerman Kerman 537,718 5 Shiraz Fars 1,565,572 15 Yazd Yazd 529,673 6 Tabriz East Azarbaijan 1,558,693 16 Ardabil Ardabil 529,374 7 Qom Qom 1,201,158 17 Bandar Abbas Hormozgan 526,648 8 Ahvaz Khuzestan 1,184,788 18 Arak Markazi 520,944 9 Kermanshah Kermanshah 946,651 19 Eslamshahr Tehran 448,129 10 Urmia West Azarbaijan 736,224 20 Zanjan Zanjan 430,871 Government and politics Main article: Politics of Iran Iran's syncretic political system combines elements of an Islamic theocracy with vetted democracy. The political system of the Islamic Republic is based on the 1979 Constitution.[207] According to international reports, Iran's human rights record is exceptionally poor. The regime in Iran is undemocratic,[208][209] has frequently persecuted and arrested critics of the government and its Supreme Leader, and severely restricts the participation of candidates in popular elections as well as other forms of political activity.[210][211] Women's rights in Iran are described as seriously inadequate,[212] and children's rights have been severely violated, with more child offenders being executed in Iran than in any other country in the world.[213][214] Sexual activity between members of the same sex is illegal and is punishable by up to death.[215][216] Since the 2000s, Iran's controversial nuclear program has raised concerns, which is part of the basis of the international sanctions against the country. The Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, an agreement reached between Iran and the P5+1, was created on 14 July 2015, aimed to loosen the nuclear sanctions in exchange for Iran's restriction in producing enriched uranium. Over the past decade, numbers of anti-government protests have broken out throughout Iran (such as the 2019–20 Iranian protests), demanding reforms or the end to the Islamic Republic. However, the IRGC and police often suppressed mass protests by violent means, which resulted in thousands of protesters killed. Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei, the Supreme Leader of Iran, meeting with his counterpart, China's paramount leader Xi Jinping on 23 January 2016. Iran and China are strategic allies.[217][218] The Leader of the Revolution ("Supreme Leader") is responsible for delineation and supervision of the policies of the Islamic Republic of Iran.[219] The Iranian president has limited power compared to the Supreme Leader Khamenei.[220] The current longtime Supreme Leader, Ali Khamenei, has been issuing decrees and making the final decisions on the economy, environment, foreign policy, education, national planning, and everything else in the country.[221][222][223][224][225][226][227][228] Khamenei also outlines elections guidelines and urges for the transparency,[229] and has fired and reinstated presidential cabinet appointments.[230][231] Key ministers are selected with the Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei's agreement and he has the ultimate say on Iran's foreign policy.[220] The president-elect is required to gain the Leader Khamenei's official approval before being sworn in before the Parliament (Majlis). Through this process, known as Tanfiz (validation), the Leader agrees to the outcome of the presidential election.[citation needed] The Supreme Leader is directly involved in ministerial appointments for Defense, Intelligence and Foreign Affairs, as well as other top ministries after submission of candidates from the president.[232] Iran's regional policy is directly controlled by the office of the Supreme Leader with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs' task limited to protocol and ceremonial occasions. All of Iran's ambassadors to Arab countries, for example, are chosen by the Quds Corps, which directly reports to the Supreme Leader.[221] The budget bill for every year, as well as withdrawing money from the National Development Fund of Iran, require Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei's approval and permission.[citation needed] The Supreme Leader Khamenei can and did order laws to be amended.[233] Setad, estimated at $95 billion in 2013 by the Reuters, accounts of which are secret even to the Iranian parliament,[234][235] is controlled only by the Supreme Leader.[236][237] Ali Khamenei voting in the 2017 presidential election The Supreme Leader is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, controls the military intelligence and security operations, and has sole power to declare war or peace.[219] The heads of the judiciary, the state radio and television networks, the commanders of the police and military forces, and six of the twelve members of the Guardian Council are directly appointed by the Supreme Leader.[219] The Assembly of Experts is responsible for electing the Supreme Leader, and has the power to dismiss him on the basis of qualifications and popular esteem.[238] To date, the Assembly of Experts has not challenged any of the Supreme Leader's decisions, nor has it attempted to dismiss him.[239] The previous head of the judicial system, Sadeq Larijani, appointed by the Supreme Leader, said that it is illegal for the Assembly of Experts to supervise the Supreme Leader.[240] Due to Khamenei's very longtime unchallenged rule, many believe the Assembly of Experts has become a ceremonial body without any real power.[241][242][243][244] There have been instances when the current Supreme Leader publicly criticized members of the Assembly of Experts, resulting in their arrest and dismissal. For example, Khamenei publicly called then-member of the Assembly of Experts Ahmad Azari Qomi a traitor, resulting in Qomi's arrest and eventual dismissal from the Assembly of Experts. Another instance is when Khamenei indirectly called Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani a traitor for a statement he made, causing Rafsanjani to retract it.[245] Guardian Council Presidential candidates and parliamentary candidates must be approved by the Guardian Council (all members of which are directly or indirectly appointed by the Leader) or the Leader before running, in order to ensure their allegiance to the Supreme Leader.[246] The Leader very rarely does the vetting himself directly, but has the power to do so, in which case additional approval of the Guardian Council would not be needed. The Leader can also revert the decisions of the Guardian Council.[247] The Guardian Council can, and has dismissed some elected members of the Iranian parliament in the past.[248] For example, Minoo Khaleghi was disqualified by Guardian Council even after winning election, as she had been photographed in a meeting without wearing headscarf.[249] President Iranian President Hassan Rouhani meeting with Russian President Vladimir Putin. Iran and Russia are strategic allies.[250][251][252] After the Supreme Leader, the Constitution defines the President of Iran as the highest state authority.[219][253] The President is elected by universal suffrage for a term of four years, however, the president is still required to gain the Leader's official approval before being sworn in before the Parliament (Majlis). The Leader also has the power to dismiss the elected president anytime.[citation needed] The President can only be re-elected for one term.[253] Rouhani's supporters celebrate his presidential victory on the streets of Tehran The President is responsible for the implementation of the constitution, and for the exercise of executive powers in implementing the decrees and general policies as outlined by the Supreme Leader, except for matters directly related to the Supreme Leader, who has the final say in all matters.[219] Unlike the executive in other countries, the President of Iran does not have full control over anything, as these are ultimately under the control of the Supreme Leader.[207] Chapter IX of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran sets forth the qualifications for presidential candidates. The procedures for presidential election and all other elections in Iran are outlined by the Supreme Leader.[229][254] The President functions as the executive of affairs such as signing treaties and other international agreements, and administering national planning, budget, and state employment affairs, all as approved by the Supreme Leader.[222][223][254][224][225][226][227][255] The President appoints the ministers, subject to the approval of the Parliament, as well as the approval of the Supreme Leader, who can dismiss or reinstate any of the ministers at any time, regardless of the decisions made by the President or the Parliament.[230][231][256] The President supervises the Council of Ministers, coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before the legislature.[257] The current Supreme Leader, Ali Khamenei, has fired as well as reinstated Council of Ministers members.[258][259] Eight Vice Presidents serve under the President, as well as a cabinet of twenty-two ministers, who must all be approved by the legislature.[260] Legislature The Islamic Consultative Assembly, also known as the Iranian Parliament The legislature of Iran, known as the Islamic Consultative Assembly, is a unicameral body comprising 290 members elected for four-year terms.[261] It drafts legislation, ratifies international treaties, and approves the national budget. All parliamentary candidates and all legislation from the assembly must be approved by the Guardian Council.[262] The Guardian Council comprises twelve jurists, including six appointed by the Supreme Leader. Others are elected by the Parliament, from among the jurists nominated by the Head of the Judiciary.[263][264] The Council interprets the constitution and may veto the Parliament. If a law is deemed incompatible with the constitution or Sharia (Islamic law), it is referred back to the Parliament for revision.[253] The Expediency Council has the authority to mediate disputes between the Parliament and the Guardian Council, and serves as an advisory body to the Supreme Leader, making it one of the most powerful governing bodies in the country.[265] Local city councils are elected by public vote to four-year terms in all cities and villages of Iran. Law Main article: Judicial system of Iran The Supreme Leader appoints the head of the country's judiciary, who in turn appoints the head of the Supreme Court and the chief public prosecutor.[239] There are several types of courts, including public courts that deal with civil and criminal cases, and revolutionary courts which deal with certain categories of offenses, such as crimes against national security. The decisions of the revolutionary courts are final and cannot be appealed.[239] The Special Clerical Court handles crimes allegedly committed by clerics, although it has also taken on cases involving laypeople. The Special Clerical Court functions independently of the regular judicial framework, and is accountable only to the Supreme Leader. The Court's rulings are final and cannot be appealed.[239] The Assembly of Experts, which meets for one week annually, comprises 86 "virtuous and learned" clerics elected by adult suffrage for eight-year terms. Foreign relations Main article: Foreign relations of Iran   Major Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict locations Since the time of the 1979 Revolution, Iran's foreign relations have often been portrayed as being based on two strategic principles; eliminating outside influences in the region, and pursuing extensive diplomatic contacts with developing and non-aligned countries.[266] Since 2005, Iran's nuclear program has become the subject of contention with the international community, mainly the United States. Many countries have expressed concern that Iran's nuclear program could divert civilian nuclear technology into a weapons program. This has led the United Nations Security Council to impose sanctions against Iran which had further isolated Iran politically and economically from the rest of the global community. In 2009, the U.S. Director of National Intelligence said that Iran, if choosing to, would not be able to develop a nuclear weapon until 2013.[267] Protest against U.S. recognition of Jerusalem as capital of Israel. Tehran, 11 December 2017. As of 2009[update], the government of Iran maintains diplomatic relations with 99 members of the United Nations,[268] but not with the United States, and not with Israel—a state which Iran's government has derecognized since the 1979 Revolution.[269] Among Muslim nations, Iran has an adversarial relationship with Saudi Arabia due to different political and Islamic ideologies. While Iran is a Shia Islamic Republic, Saudi Arabia is a conservative Sunni monarchy.[270] Regarding the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, the government of Iran has recognized Jerusalem as the capital of the State of Palestine, after Trump recognized Jerusalem as the capital of Israel.[271][272][273] On 14 July 2015, Tehran and the P5+1 came to a historic agreement (Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action) to end economic sanctions after demonstrating a peaceful nuclear research project that would meet the International Atomic Energy Agency standards.[274] High Representative of the European Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, Federica Mogherini, after reaching in Vienna the Iran nuclear deal framework Iran is a member of dozens of international organizations, including the G-15, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, IDA, IDB, IFC, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, OIC, OPEC,[275] WHO, and the United Nations, and currently has observer status at the World Trade Organization. In September 2018, the Iranian ambassador to the United Nations asked the UN to condemn Israeli threats against Tehran and also bring Israel's nuclear program under the International Atomic Energy Agency's supervision.[276] In April 2019 the U.S. threatened to sanction countries continuing to buy oil from Iran after an initial six-month waiver announced in November expired.[277] According to the BBC, U.S. sanctions against Iran "have led to a sharp downturn in Iran's economy, pushing the value of its currency to record lows, quadrupling its annual inflation rate, driving away foreign investors, and triggering protests."[278] On 1 September 2019, the Iranian authorities took a step to enhance its relations with Qatar, and decided to grant Qatari passport holders tourist visas upon arrival at Iranian airports. Besides, Qatari nationals were also permitted to obtain a single or multiple-entry visa from Iran's embassy in Doha.[279] Military Main article: Armed Forces of the Islamic Republic of Iran See also: Iranian involvement in the Syrian Civil War Sophisticated indigeonous long range missile system Bavar-373 paraded in Tehran. The Islamic Republic of Iran has two types of armed forces: the regular forces of the Army, the Air Force, and the Navy, and the Revolutionary Guards, totaling about 545,000 active troops. Iran also has around 350,000 Reserve Force, totaling around 900,000 trained troops.[280] The government of Iran has a paramilitary, volunteer militia force within the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, called the Basij, which includes about 90,000 full-time, active-duty uniformed members. Up to 11 million men and women are members of the Basij who could potentially be called up for service. GlobalSecurity.org estimates Iran could mobilize "up to one million men", which would be among the largest troop mobilizations in the world.[281] In 2007, Iran's military spending represented 2.6% of the GDP or $102 per capita, the lowest figure of the Persian Gulf nations.[282] Iran's military doctrine is based on deterrence.[283] In 2014, the country spent $15 billion on arms, while the states of the Gulf Cooperation Council spent eight times more.[284] The United States under President Donald Trump officially labeled the Revolutionary Guard as a foreign terrorist organization. It is the first time that an element of a foreign state was designated as a terrorist organization.[285][286] The government of Iran supports the military activities of its allies in Syria, Iraq, and Lebanon (Hezbollah) with military and financial aid.[287] Iran and Syria are close strategic allies, and Iran has provided significant support for the Syrian Government in the Syrian Civil War.[288] According to some estimates, Iran controlled over 80,000 pro-Assad Shi'ite fighters in Syria.[288][289] Since the 1979 Revolution, to overcome foreign embargoes, the government of Iran has developed its own military industry, produced its own tanks, armored personnel carriers, missiles, submarines, military vessels, missile destroyer, radar systems, helicopters, and fighter planes.[290] In recent years, official announcements have highlighted the development of weapons such as the Hoot, Kowsar, Zelzal, Fateh-110, Shahab-3, Sejjil, and a variety of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs).[291] Iran has the largest and most diverse ballistic missile arsenal in the Middle East.[292] The Fajr-3, a liquid fuel missile with an undisclosed range which was developed and produced domestically, is currently the most advanced ballistic missile of the country. In June 1925, Reza Shah introduced conscription law at National Consultative Majlis. At that time every male person who had reached 21 years old must serve for military for two years. The conscription exempted women from military service after 1979 revolution. Iranian constitution obliges all men of 18 years old and higher to serve in military or police bases. They cannot leave the country or be employed without completion of the service period.[293] The period varies from 18 to 24 months. Economy Main article: Economy of Iran See also: Iranian subsidy reform plan, Banking and insurance in Iran, Transport in Iran, and Communications in Iran Share of world GDP (PPP)[294] Year Share 1980 1.90% 1990 1.52% 2000 1.33% 2010 1.45% 2017 1.30% Iran's provinces by their contribution to national GDP (2014) Iran's economy is a mixture of central planning, state ownership of oil and other large enterprises, village agriculture, and small-scale private trading and service ventures.[295] In 2017, GDP was $427.7 billion ($1.631 trillion at PPP), or $20,000 at PPP per capita.[3] Iran is ranked as an upper-middle income economy by the World Bank.[296] In the early 21st century, the service sector contributed the largest percentage of the GDP, followed by industry (mining and manufacturing) and agriculture.[297] The Central Bank of the Islamic Republic of Iran is responsible for developing and maintaining the Iranian rial, which serves as the country's currency. The government does not recognize trade unions other than the Islamic labour councils, which are subject to the approval of employers and the security services.[298] The minimum wage in June 2013 was 487 million rials a month ($134).[299] Unemployment has remained above 10% since 1997, and the unemployment rate for women is almost double that of the men.[299] Tehran is the economic center of Iran, hosting 45% of the country's industries.[300] In 2006, about 45% of the government's budget came from oil and natural gas revenues, and 31% came from taxes and fees.[301] As of 2007[update], Iran had earned $70 billion in foreign-exchange reserves, mostly (80%) from crude oil exports.[302] Iranian budget deficits have been a chronic problem, mostly due to large-scale state subsidies, that include foodstuffs and especially gasoline, totaling more than $84 billion in 2008 for the energy sector alone.[303][304] In 2010, the economic reform plan was approved by parliament to cut subsidies gradually and replace them with targeted social assistance. The objective is to move towards free market prices in a five-year period and increase productivity and social justice.[305] The administration continues to follow the market reform plans of the previous one, and indicates that it will diversify Iran's oil-reliant economy. Iran has also developed a biotechnology, nanotechnology, and pharmaceutical industry.[306] However, nationalized industries such as the bonyads have often been managed badly, making them ineffective and uncompetitive with years. Currently, the government is trying to privatize these industries, and, despite successes, there are still several problems to be overcome, such as the lagging corruption in the public sector and lack of competitiveness. Iran has leading manufacturing industries in the fields of automobile manufacture, transportation, construction materials, home appliances, food and agricultural goods, armaments, pharmaceuticals, information technology, and petrochemicals in the Middle East.[307] According to the 2012 data from the Food and Agriculture Organization, Iran has been among the world's top five producers of apricots, cherries, sour cherries, cucumbers and gherkins, dates, eggplants, figs, pistachios, quinces, walnuts, and watermelons.[308] Economic sanctions against Iran, such as the embargo against Iranian crude oil, have affected the economy.[309] Sanctions have led to a steep fall in the value of the rial, and as of April 2013[update], one US dollar is worth 36,000 rial, compared with 16,000 in early 2012.[310] In 2018, after the withdrawal of the US from the JCPOA, the price of dollar hit an all-time high at just over 190,000 rials, which halted the market from trades and stores from selling goods, particularly in the consumer electronics sector[311] until the prices were stable. In 2015, Iran and the P5+1 reached a deal on the nuclear program that removed the main sanctions pertaining to Iran's nuclear program by 2016.[312] Tourism Main article: Tourism in Iran More than a million tourists visit Kish Island each year.[313] Although tourism declined significantly during the war with Iraq, it has been subsequently recovered.[314] About 1,659,000 foreign tourists visited Iran in 2004, and 2.3 million in 2009, mostly from Asian countries, including the republics of Central Asia, while about 10% came from the European Union and North America.[315][316] Since the removal of some sanctions against Iran in 2015, tourism has re-surged in the country. Over five million tourists visited Iran in the fiscal year of 2014–2015, four percent more than the previous year.[317][318] Alongside the capital, the most popular tourist destinations are Isfahan, Mashhad, and Shiraz.[319] In the early 2000s, the industry faced serious limitations in infrastructure, communications, industry standards, and personnel training.[320] The majority of the 300,000 travel visas granted in 2003 were obtained by Asian Muslims, who presumably intended to visit pilgrimage sites in Mashhad and Qom.[citation needed] Several organized tours from Germany, France, and other European countries come to Iran annually to visit archaeological sites and monuments. In 2003, Iran ranked 68th in tourism revenues worldwide.[321] According to the UNESCO and the deputy head of research for Iran's Tourism Organization, Iran is rated fourth among the top 10 destinations in the Middle East.[321] Domestic tourism in Iran is one of the largest in the world.[322][323][324] Weak advertising, unstable regional conditions, a poor public image in some parts of the world, and absence of efficient planning schemes in the tourism sector have all hindered the growth of tourism. Energy Main articles: Energy in Iran, Petroleum industry in Iran, Nuclear program of Iran, and Foreign direct investment in Iran Iran holds 10% of the world's proven oil reserves and 15% of its gas. It is OPEC's second largest exporter and the world's 7th largest oil producer.[325] Iran has the world's second largest proved gas reserves after Russia, with 33.6 trillion cubic metres,[326] and the third largest natural gas production after Indonesia and Russia. It also ranks fourth in oil reserves with an estimated 153,600,000,000 barrels.[327][328] It is OPEC's second largest oil exporter, and is an energy superpower.[329] In 2005, Iran spent US$4 billion on fuel imports, because of contraband and inefficient domestic use.[330] Oil industry output averaged 4 million barrels per day (640,000 m3/d) in 2005, compared with the peak of six million barrels per day reached in 1974. In the early 2000s, industry infrastructure was increasingly inefficient because of technological lags. Few exploratory wells were drilled in 2005. In 2004, a large share of Iran's natural gas reserves were untapped. The addition of new hydroelectric stations and the streamlining of conventional coal and oil-fired stations increased installed capacity to 33,000 megawatts. Of that amount, about 75% was based on natural gas, 18% on oil, and 7% on hydroelectric power. In 2004, Iran opened its first wind-powered and geothermal plants, and the first solar thermal plant was to come online in 2009. Iran is the world's third country to have developed GTL technology.[331] Demographic trends and intensified industrialization have caused electric power demand to grow by 8% per year. The government's goal of 53,000 megawatts of installed capacity by 2010 is to be reached by bringing on line new gas-fired plants, and adding hydropower and nuclear power generation capacity. Iran's first nuclear power plant at Bushire went online in 2011. It is the second nuclear power plant ever built in the Middle East after the Metsamor Nuclear Power Plant in Armenia.[332][333] In 2020 Fatih Birol the head of the International Energy Agency said that fossil fuel subsidies should be redirected, for example to the health system.[334] Education, science and technology Main articles: Education in Iran and Science and technology in Iran Literacy rate of Iran's population plus 15, 1975–2015, according to UNESCO Institute of Statistics Education in Iran is highly centralized. K–12 is supervised by the Ministry of Education, and higher education is under the supervision of the Ministry of Science and Technology. The adult literacy rated 93.0% in September 2015,[335] while it had rated 85.0% in 2008, up from 36.5% in 1976.[336] According to the data provided by UNESCO, Iran's literacy rate among people aged 15 years and older was 85.54% as of 2016, with men (90.35%) being significantly more educated than women (80.79%), with the number of illiterate people of the same age amounting to around 8,700,000 of the country's 85 million population.[337] According to this report, Iranian government's expenditure on education amounts to around 4% of the GDP. The requirement to enter into higher education is to have a high school diploma and pass the Iranian University Entrance Exam (officially known as konkur (کنکور)), which is the equivalent of the SAT and ACT exams of the United States. Many students do a 1–2-year course of pre-university (piš-dānešgāh), which is the equivalent of the GCE A-levels and the International Baccalaureate. The completion of the pre-university course earns students the Pre-University Certificate.[338] Sharif University of Technology is one of Iran's most prestigious higher education institutions. Iran's higher education is sanctioned by different levels of diplomas, including an associate degree (kārdāni; also known as fowq e diplom) delivered in two years, a bachelor's degree (kāršenāsi; also known as lisāns) delivered in four years, and a master's degree (kāršenāsi e aršad) delivered in two years, after which another exam allows the candidate to pursue a doctoral program (PhD; known as doktorā).[339] According to the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities (as of January 2017[update]), Iran's top five universities include Tehran University of Medical Sciences (478th worldwide), the University of Tehran (514th worldwide), Sharif University of Technology (605th worldwide), Amirkabir University of Technology (726th worldwide), and the Tarbiat Modares University (789th worldwide).[340] Iran has increased its publication output nearly tenfold from 1996 through 2004, and has been ranked first in terms of output growth rate, followed by China.[341] According to a study by SCImago in 2012, Iran would rank fourth in the world in terms of research output by 2018, if the current trend persists.[342] The production line for AryoSeven at the Iranian biopharmaceutical company of AryoGen In 2009, a SUSE Linux-based HPC system made by the Aerospace Research Institute of Iran (ARI) was launched with 32 cores, and now runs 96 cores. Its performance was pegged at 192 GFLOPS.[343] The Iranian humanoid robot Sorena 2, which was designed by engineers at the University of Tehran, was unveiled in 2010. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has placed the name of Surena among the five prominent robots of the world after analyzing its performance.[344] In the biomedical sciences, Iran's Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics has a UNESCO chair in biology.[345] In late 2006, Iranian scientists successfully cloned a sheep by somatic cell nuclear transfer, at the Royan Research Center in Tehran.[346] According to a study by David Morrison and Ali Khadem Hosseini (Harvard-MIT and Cambridge), stem cell research in Iran is amongst the top 10 in the world.[347] Iran ranks 15th in the world in nanotechnologies.[348][349][350] Simorgh launch. Iranian Space Agency Iran placed its domestically built satellite Omid into orbit on the 30th anniversary of the 1979 Revolution, on 2 February 2009,[351] through its first expendable launch vehicle Safir, becoming the ninth country in the world capable of both producing a satellite and sending it into space from a domestically made launcher.[352] The Iranian nuclear program was launched in the 1950s. Iran is the seventh country to produce uranium hexafluoride, and controls the entire nuclear fuel cycle.[353][354] Iranian scientists outside Iran have also made some major contributions to science. In 1960, Ali Javan co-invented the first gas laser, and fuzzy set theory was introduced by Lotfi A. Zadeh.[355] Iranian cardiologist Tofigh Mussivand invented and developed the first artificial cardiac pump, the precursor of the artificial heart Furthering research and treatment of diabetes, the HbA1c was discovered by Samuel Rahbar. Iranian physics is especially strong in string theory, with many papers being published in Iran.[356] Iranian American string theorist Kamran Vafa proposed the Vafa–Witten theorem together with Edward Witten. In August 2014, Iranian mathematician Maryam Mirzakhani became the first woman, as well as the first Iranian, to receive the Fields Medal, the highest prize in mathematics.[357] Demographics Main article: Demographics of Iran See also: Healthcare in Iran Iran's population growth (1880–2016) Iran's provinces by population (2014) Iran is a diverse country, consisting of numerous ethnic and linguistic groups that are unified through a shared Iranian nationality.[358] Iran's population grew rapidly during the latter half of the 20th century, increasing from about 19 million in 1956 to more than 84 million by July 2020.[359][360] However, Iran's fertility rate has dropped significantly in recent years, coming down from a fertility rate of 6.5 per woman to less than 2 just two decades later,[361][362] leading to a population growth rate of about 1.39% as of 2018.[363] Due to its young population, studies project that the growth will continue to slow until it stabilizes around 105 million by 2050.[364][365][366] Iran hosts one of the largest refugee populations in the world, with almost one million refugees,[367] mostly from Afghanistan and Iraq.[368] Since 2006, Iranian officials have been working with the UNHCR and Afghan officials for their repatriation.[369] According to estimates, about five million Iranian citizens have emigrated to other countries, mostly since the 1979 Revolution.[370][371] According to the Iranian Constitution, the government is required to provide every citizen of the country with access to social security, covering retirement, unemployment, old age, disability, accidents, calamities, health and medical treatment and care services.[372] This is covered by tax revenues and income derived from public contributions.[373] Languages Main article: Languages of Iran The majority of the population speak Persian, which is also the official language of the country. Others include speakers of a number of other Iranian languages within the greater Indo-European family, and languages belonging to some other ethnicities living in Iran. In northern Iran, mostly confined to Gilan and Mazenderan, the Gilaki and Mazenderani languages are widely spoken, both having affinities to the neighboring Caucasian languages. In parts of Gilan, the Talysh language is also widely spoken, which stretches up to the neighboring Republic of Azerbaijan. Varieties of Kurdish are widely spoken in the province of Kurdistan and nearby areas. In Khuzestan, several distinct varieties of Persian are spoken. Luri and Lari are also spoken in southern Iran. Azerbaijani, which is by far the most spoken language in the country after Persian,[374] as well as a number of other Turkic languages and dialects, is spoken in various regions of Iran, especially in the region of Azerbaijan. Notable minority languages in Iran include Armenian, Georgian, Neo-Aramaic, and Arabic. Khuzi Arabic is spoken by the Arabs in Khuzestan, as well as the wider group of Iranian Arabs. Circassian was also once widely spoken by the large Circassian minority, but, due to assimilation over the many years, no sizable number of Circassians speak the language anymore.[375][376][377][378] Percentages of spoken language continue to be a point of debate, as many opt that they are politically motivated; most notably regarding the largest and second largest ethnicities in Iran, the Persians and Azerbaijanis. Percentages given by the CIA's World Factbook include 53% Persian, 16% Azerbaijani, 10% Kurdish, 7% Mazenderani and Gilaki, 7% Luri, 2% Turkmen, 2% Balochi, 2% Arabic, and 2% the remainder Armenian, Georgian, Neo-Aramaic, and Circassian.[3] Ethnic groups Main article: Ethnicities in Iran Ethnicities and religions in Iran Iran's provinces by population density (2013) As with the spoken languages, the ethnic group composition also remains a point of debate, mainly regarding the largest and second largest ethnic groups, the Persians and Azerbaijanis, due to the lack of Iranian state censuses based on ethnicity. The CIA's World Factbook has estimated that around 79% of the population of Iran are a diverse Indo-European ethno-linguistic group that comprise speakers of various Iranian languages,[379] with Persians (including Mazenderanis and Gilaks) constituting 61% of the population, Kurds 10%, Lurs 6%, and Balochs 2%. Peoples of other ethno-linguistic groups make up the remaining 21%, with Azerbaijanis constituting 16%, Arabs 2%, Turkmens and other Turkic tribes 2%, and others (such as Armenians, Talysh, Georgians, Circassians, Assyrians) 1%.[3] The Library of Congress issued slightly different estimates: 65% Persians (including Mazenderanis, Gilaks, and the Talysh), 16% Azerbaijanis, 7% Kurds, 6% Lurs, 2% Baloch, 1% Turkic tribal groups (incl. Qashqai and Turkmens), and non-Iranian, non-Turkic groups (incl. Armenians, Georgians, Assyrians, Circassians, and Arabs) less than 3%. It determined that Persian is the first language of at least 65% of the country's population, and is the second language for most of the remaining 35%.[380] Other nongovernmental estimates regarding the groups other than Persians and Azerbaijanis are roughly congruent with the World Factbook and the Library of Congress. However, many estimates regarding the number of these two groups differ significantly from the mentioned census; some place the number of ethnic Azerbaijanis in Iran between 21.6 and 30% of the total population, with the majority holding it on 25%.c[381]d[382][383][384][385][386] In any case, the largest population of Azerbaijanis in the world live in Iran. Religion Main articles: Religion in Iran and Irreligion in Iran See also: Islamization of Iran Iranian people by religion, 2011 General Census Results[387] Religion Percent Number Muslim 99.3989% (90–95% Shia) 74,682,938 Christian 0.1566% 117,704 Zoroastrian 0.0336% 25,271 Jewish 0.0117% 8,756 Other 0.0653% 49,101 Undeclared 0.3538% 205,317 Twelver Shia Islam is the official state religion, to which about 90% to 95%[388][389] of the population adhere. About 4% to 8% of the population are Sunni Muslims, mainly Kurds and Baloches. The remaining 2% are non-Muslim religious minorities, including Christians, Jews, Baháʼís, Mandeans, Yarsanis, and Zoroastrians.[3][390] There are a large population of adherents of Yarsanism, a Kurdish indigenous religion, making it the largest (unrecognized) minority religion in Iran. Its followers are mainly Gorani Kurds and certain groups of Lurs. They are based in Kurdistan Province, Kermanshah Province and Lorestan mainly. Christianity, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, and the Sunni branch of Islam are officially recognized by the government, and have reserved seats in the Iranian Parliament.[137] Historically, early Iranian religions such as the Proto-Iranic religion and the subsequent Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism were the dominant religions in Iran, particularly during the Median, Achaemenid, Parthian, and Sasanian eras. This changed after the fall of the Sasanian Empire by the centuries-long Islamization that followed the Muslim Conquest of Iran. Iran was predominantly Sunni until the conversion of the country (as well as the people of what is today the neighboring Republic of Azerbaijan) to Shia Islam by the order of the Safavid dynasty in the 16th century.[118] Judaism has a long history in Iran, dating back to the Achaemenid conquest of Babylonia. Although many left in the wake of the establishment of the State of Israel and the 1979 Revolution, about 8,756[391] to 25,000[392] Jewish people live in Iran. Iran has the largest Jewish population in the Middle East outside of Israel.[393] The Sasanian Zoroastrian Fire Temple of Amol. The 9th-century Monastery of Saint Stepanos in Julfa, part of Iran's Armenian Monastic Ensembles on UNESCO's World Heritage List. Around 250,000 to 370,000 Christians reside in Iran,[394][395] and Christianity is the country's largest recognized minority religion.[396] Most are of Armenian background, as well as a sizable minority of Assyrians.[397] A large number of Iranians have converted to Christianity from the predominant Shia Islam.[398][399][400][401] The Baháʼí Faith is not officially recognized and has been subject to official persecution.[402] According to the United Nations Special Rapporteur on Human Rights in Iran, Baháʼís are the largest non-Muslim religious minority in Iran, with an estimated 350,000 adherents.[403] Since the 1979 Revolution, the persecution of Baháʼís has increased with executions and denial of civil rights, especially the denial of access to higher education and employment.[402][404][405] Culture Main article: Culture of Iran The earliest attested cultures in Iran date back to the Lower Paleolithic. Owing to its geopolitical position, Iran has influenced cultures as far as Greece and Italy to the west, Russia to the north, the Arabian Peninsula to the south, and south and east Asia to the east. Art Main articles: Iranian art and Arts of Iran See also: Achaemenid architecture, Parthian art, Sasanian art, Safavid art, Qajar art, and Iranian modern and contemporary art Iron Age gold cup from Marlik, kept at New York City's Metropolitan Museum of Art The art of Iran encompasses many disciplines, including architecture, stonemasonry, metalworking, weaving, pottery, painting, and calligraphy. Iranian works of art show a great variety in style, in different regions and periods.[406] The art of the Medes remains obscure, but has been theoretically attributed to the Scythian style.[407] The Achaemenids borrowed heavily from the art of their neighboring civilizations,[408] but produced a synthesis of a unique style,[409] with an eclectic architecture remaining at sites such as Persepolis and Pasargadae. Greek iconography was imported by the Seleucids, followed by the recombination of Hellenistic and earlier Near Eastern elements in the art of the Parthians,[410] with remains such as the Temple of Anahita and the Statue of the Parthian Nobleman. By the time of the Sasanians, Iranian art came across a general renaissance.[411] Although of unclear development,[412] Sasanian art was highly influential, and spread into far regions. Taq-e-Bostan, Taq-e-Kasra, Naqsh-e-Rostam, and the Shapur-Khwast Castle are among the surviving monuments from the Sasanian period. During the Middle Ages, Sasanian art played a prominent role in the formation of both European and Asian medieval art,[86] which carried forward to the Islamic world, and much of what later became known as Islamic learning—including medicine, architecture, philosophy, philology, and literature—were of Sasanian basis.[413][414][415][416] A Safavid painting kept at the Abbasi Caravanserai in Isfahan The Safavid era is known as the Golden Age of Iranian art,[417] and Safavid works of art show a far more unitary development than in any other period,[418] as part of a political evolution that reunified Iran as a cultural entity.[418] Safavid art exerted noticeable influences upon the neighboring Ottomans, the Mughals, and the Deccans, and was also influential through its fashion and garden architecture on 11th–17th-century Europe.[418] Kamal-ol-Molk's Mirror Hall, often considered a starting point in Iranian modern art[419] Iran's contemporary art traces its origins back to the time of Kamal-ol-Molk,[420] a prominent realist painter at the court of the Qajar dynasty who affected the norms of painting and adopted a naturalistic style that would compete with photographic works. A new Iranian school of fine art was established by Kamal-ol-Molk in 1928,[420] and was followed by the so-called "coffeehouse" style of painting. Iran's avant-garde modernists emerged by the arrival of new western influences during World War II.[420] The vibrant contemporary art scene originates in the late 1940s, and Tehran's first modern art gallery, Apadana, was opened in September 1949 by painters Mahmud Javadipur, Hosein Kazemi, and Hushang Ajudani.[421][422] The new movements received official encouragement by mid-1950s,[420] which led to the emergence of artists such as Marcos Grigorian, signaling a commitment to the creation of a form of modern art grounded in Iran.[423] Architecture Main articles: Iranian architecture and Persian gardens Ruins of the Tachara, part of the World Heritage site of Persepolis. Isfahan's World Heritage site of Naqsh-e Jahan Square. The history of architecture in Iran goes back to the seventh millennium BC.[424] Iranians were among the first to use mathematics, geometry and astronomy in architecture. Iranian architecture displays great variety, both structural and aesthetic, developing gradually and coherently out of earlier traditions and experience.[425] The guiding motif of Iranian architecture is its cosmic symbolism, "by which man is brought into communication and participation with the powers of heaven".[426] Iran ranks seventh among UNESCO's list of countries with the most archaeological ruins and attractions from antiquity.[427] Traditionally, the guiding formative motif of Iranian architecture has been its cosmic symbolism "by which man is brought into communication and participation with the powers of heaven".[428] This theme has not only given unity and continuity to the architecture of Persia, but has been a primary source of its emotional character as well. According to Persian historian and archaeologist Arthur Pope, the supreme Iranian art, in the proper meaning of the word, has always been its architecture. The supremacy of architecture applies to both pre- and post-Islamic periods.[429] Weaving Main article: Persian carpet Iran's carpet-weaving has its origins in the Bronze Age, and is one of the most distinguished manifestations of Iranian art. Iran is the world's largest producer and exporter of handmade carpets, producing three-quarters of the world's total output and having a share of 30% of world's export markets.[430][431] Literature Main articles: Literature in Iran, Iranian literature, and Persian literature Tomb of the 10th-century Persian poet Ferdowsi, author of Šāhnāme, the classical Persian composition of the Iranian national epics, in Tus Iran's oldest literary tradition is that of Avestan, the Old Iranian sacred language of the Avesta, which consists of the legendary and religious texts of Zoroastrianism and the ancient Iranian religion, with its earliest records dating back to the pre-Achaemenid times.[432] Of the various modern languages used in Iran, Persian, various dialects of which are spoken throughout the Iranian Plateau,[433][434] has the most influential literature. Persian has been dubbed as a worthy language to serve as a conduit for poetry, and is considered one of the four main bodies of world literature.[435] In spite of originating from the region of Persis (better known as Persia) in southwestern Iran, the Persian language was used and developed further through Persianate societies in Asia Minor, Central Asia, and South Asia, leaving massive influences on Ottoman and Mughal literatures, among others. Iran has a number of famous medieval poets, most notably Rumi, Ferdowsi, Hafez, Saadi Shirazi, Omar Khayyam, and Nezami Ganjavi.[436] Iranian literature also inspired writers such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Henry David Thoreau, and Ralph Waldo Emerson.[103][104][105] Philosophy Main articles: Ancient philosophy § Ancient Iranian philosophy, and Iranian philosophy Zoroaster, the founder of Zoroastrianism, depicted on Raphael's The School of Athens Iranian philosophy originates from Indo-European roots, with Zoroaster's reforms having major influences. According to The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, the chronology of the subject and science of philosophy starts with the Indo-Iranians, dating this event to 1500 BC. The Oxford dictionary also states, "Zarathushtra's philosophy entered to influence Western tradition through Judaism, and therefore on Middle Platonism." While there are ancient relations between the Indian Vedas and the Iranian Avesta, the two main families of the Indo-Iranian philosophical traditions were characterized by fundamental differences, especially in their implications for the human being's position in society and their view of man's role in the universe. The Cyrus Cylinder, which is known as "the first charter of human rights", is often seen as a reflection of the questions and thoughts expressed by Zoroaster, and developed in Zoroastrian schools of the Achaemenid era.[437][438] The earliest tenets of Zoroastrian schools are part of the extant scriptures of the Zoroastrian religion in Avestan. Among them are treatises such as the Zatspram, Shkand-gumanik Vizar, and Denkard, as well as older passages of the Avesta and the Gathas.[439] Mythology Main articles: Persian mythology and Iranian folklore Statue of Arash the Archer at the Sa'dabad Complex in Tehran Iranian mythology consists of ancient Iranian folklore and stories, all involving extraordinary beings, reflecting attitudes towards the confrontation of good and evil, actions of the gods, and the exploits of heroes and fabulous creatures. Myths play a crucial part in Iranian culture, and understanding of them is increased when they are considered within the context of actual events in Iranian history. The geography of Greater Iran, a vast area covering present-day Iran, the Caucasus, Anatolia, Mesopotamia and Central Asia, with its high mountain ranges, plays the main role in much of Iranian mythology. Tenth-century Persian poet Ferdowsi's long epic poem Šāhnāme ("Book of Kings"), which is for the most part based on Xwadāynāmag, a Middle Persian compilation of the history of Iranian kings and heroes from mythical times down to the reign of Chosroes II,[440] is considered the national epic of Iran. It draws heavily on the stories and characters of the Zoroastrian tradition, from the texts of the Avesta, the Denkard, and the Bundahishn. Music Main article: Music of Iran Iran is the apparent birthplace of the earliest complex instruments, dating back to the third millennium BC.[441] The use of both vertical and horizontal angular harps have been documented at the sites Madaktu and Kul-e Farah, with the largest collection of Elamite instruments documented at Kul-e Farah. Multiple depictions of horizontal harps were also sculpted in Assyrian palaces, dating back between 865 and 650 BC. Karna, an ancient Iranian musical instrument from the 6th century BC, kept at the Persepolis Museum Xenophon's Cyropaedia mentions a great number of singing women at the court of the Achaemenid Empire. Athenaeus of Naucratis, in his Deipnosophistae, points out to the capture of Achaemenid singing girls at the court of the last Achaemenid king Darius III (336–330 BC) by Macedonian general Parmenion. Under the Parthian Empire, the gōsān (Parthian for "minstrel") had a prominent role in the society.[442] According to Plutarch's Life of Crassus (32.3), they praised their national heroes and ridiculed their Roman rivals. Likewise, Strabo's Geographica reports that the Parthian youth were taught songs about "the deeds both of the gods and of the noblest men".[443] The history of Sasanian music is better documented than the earlier periods, and is especially more evident in Avestan texts.[444] By the time of Chosroes II, the Sasanian royal court hosted a number of prominent musicians, namely Azad, Bamshad, Barbad, Nagisa, Ramtin, and Sarkash. Iranian traditional musical instruments include string instruments such as chang (harp), qanun, santur, rud (oud, barbat), tar, dotar, setar, tanbur, and kamanche, wind instruments such as sorna (zurna, karna) and ney, and percussion instruments such as tompak, kus, daf (dayere), and naqare. Iran's first symphony orchestra, the Tehran Symphony Orchestra, was founded by Qolam-Hoseyn Minbashian in 1933. It was reformed by Parviz Mahmoud in 1946, and is currently Iran's oldest and largest symphony orchestra. Later, by the late 1940s, Ruhollah Khaleqi founded the country's first national music society, and established the School of National Music in 1949.[445] Iranian pop music has its origins in the Qajar era.[446] It was significantly developed since the 1950s, using indigenous instruments and forms accompanied by electric guitar and other imported characteristics. The emergence of genres such as rock in the 1960s and hip hop in the 2000s also resulted in major movements and influences in Iranian music.[447][448][449][450] Theater Main articles: Persian theater and Persian dance The Roudaki Hall, constructed between 1957 and 1967 in Tehran The earliest recorded representations of dancing figures within Iran were found in prehistoric sites such as Tepe Sialk and Tepe Mūsīān.[451] The oldest Iranian initiation of theater and the phenomena of acting can be traced in the ancient epic ceremonial theaters such as Sug-e Siāvuš ("mourning of Siāvaš"), as well as dances and theater narrations of Iranian mythological tales reported by Herodotus and Xenophon. Iran's traditional theatrical genres include Baqqāl-bāzi ("grocer play", a form of slapstick comedy), Ruhowzi (or Taxt-howzi, comedy performed over a courtyard pool covered with boards), Siāh-bāzi (in which the central comedian appears in blackface), Sāye-bāzi (shadow play), Xeyme-šab-bāzi (marionette), and Arusak-bāzi (puppetry), and Ta'zie (religious tragedy plays).[452] Before the 1979 Revolution, the Iranian national stage had become a famous performing scene for known international artists and troupes,[453] with the Roudaki Hall of Tehran constructed to function as the national stage for opera and ballet. Opened on 26 October 1967, the hall is home to the Tehran Symphony Orchestra, the Tehran Opera Orchestra, and the Iranian National Ballet Company, and was officially renamed Vahdat Hall after the 1979 Revolution. Loris Tjeknavorian's Rostam and Sohrab, based on the tragedy of Rostam and Sohrab from Ferdowsi's epic poem Šāhnāme, is an example of opera with Persian libretto. Tjeknavorian, a celebrated Iranian Armenian composer and conductor, composed it in 25 years, and it was finally performed for the first time at Tehran's Roudaki Hall, with Darya Dadvar in the role of Tahmina. Cinema and animation Main articles: Cinema of Iran and History of Iranian animation Reproduction of the 3rd-millennium BC goblet from southeastern Iran, possibly the world's oldest example of animation.[454] A third-millennium BC earthen goblet discovered at the Burnt City, a Bronze Age urban settlement in southeastern Iran, depicts what could possibly be the world's oldest example of animation. The artifact, associated with Jiroft, bears five sequential images depicting a wild goat jumping up to eat the leaves of a tree.[455][456] The earliest attested Iranian examples of visual representations, however, are traced back to the bas-reliefs of Persepolis, the ritual center of the Achaemenid Empire. The figures at Persepolis remain bound by the rules of grammar and syntax of visual language.[457] The Iranian visual arts reached a pinnacle by the Sasanian era, and several works from this period have been found to articulate movements and actions in a highly sophisticated manner. It is even possible to see a progenitor of the cinematic close-up shot in one of these works of art, which shows a wounded wild pig escaping from the hunting ground.[458] Behrouz Vossoughi, a well-known Iranian actor who has appeared in more than 90 films Abbas Kiarostami (1940–2016), an acclaimed Iranian film director By the early 20th century, the five-year-old industry of cinema came to Iran. The first Iranian filmmaker was probably Mirza Ebrahim (Akkas Bashi), the court photographer of Mozaffar-ed-Din Shah of the Qajar dynasty. Mirza Ebrahim obtained a camera and filmed the Qajar ruler's visit to Europe. Later in 1904, Mirza Ebrahim (Sahhaf Bashi), a businessman, opened the first public movie theater in Tehran.[459] After him, several others like Russi Khan, Ardeshir Khan, and Ali Vakili tried to establish new movie theaters in Tehran. Until the early 1930s, there were around 15 cinema theaters in Tehran and 11 in other provinces.[458] The first Iranian feature film, Abi and Rabi, was a silent comedy directed by Ovanes Ohanian in 1930. The first sounded one, Lor Girl, was produced by Ardeshir Irani and Abd-ol-Hosein Sepanta in 1932. Iran's animation industry began by the 1950s, and was followed by the establishment of the influential Institute for the Intellectual Development of Children and Young Adults in January 1965.[460][461] The 1960s was a significant decade for Iranian cinema, with 25 commercial films produced annually on average throughout the early 60s, increasing to 65 by the end of the decade. The majority of the production focused on melodrama and thrillers. With the screening of the films Qeysar and The Cow, directed by Masoud Kimiai and Dariush Mehrjui respectively in 1969, alternative films set out to establish their status in the film industry and Bahram Beyzai's Downpour and Nasser Taghvai's Tranquility in the Presence of Others followed soon. Attempts to organize a film festival, which had begun in 1954 within the framework of the Golrizan Festival, resulted in the festival of Sepas in 1969. The endeavors also resulted in the formation of the Tehran's World Film Festival in 1973.[462] After the Revolution of 1979, and following the Cultural Revolution, a new age emerged in Iranian cinema, starting with Long Live! by Khosrow Sinai and followed by many other directors, such as Abbas Kiarostami and Jafar Panahi. Kiarostami, an acclaimed Iranian director, planted Iran firmly on the map of world cinema when he won the Palme d'Or for Taste of Cherry in 1997.[463] The continuous presence of Iranian films in prestigious international festivals, such as the Cannes Film Festival, the Venice Film Festival, and the Berlin International Film Festival, attracted world attention to Iranian masterpieces.[464] In 2006, six Iranian films, of six different styles, represented Iranian cinema at the Berlin International Film Festival. Critics considered this a remarkable event in the history of Iranian cinema.[465][466] Asghar Farhadi, a well-known Iranian director, has received a Golden Globe Award and two Academy Awards, representing Iran for Best Foreign Language Film in 2012 and 2017. In 2012, he was named as one of the 100 Most Influential People in the world by the American news magazine Time. Observances See also: List of festivals in Iran Haft-Seen, a customary of Nowruz, the Iranian New Year Iran's official New Year begins with Nowruz, an ancient Iranian tradition celebrated annually on the vernal equinox. It is enjoyed by people adhering to different religions, but is considered a holiday for the Zoroastrians. It was registered on the UNESCO's list of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity in 2009,[467] described as the Persian New Year,[468][469][470][471] shared with a number of other countries in which it has historically been celebrated. On the eve of the last Wednesday of the preceding year, as a prelude to Nowruz, the ancient festival of Čāršanbe Suri celebrates Ātar ("fire") by performing rituals such as jumping over bonfires and lighting off firecrackers and fireworks.[472][473] The Nowruz celebrations last by the end of the 13th day of the Iranian year (Farvardin 13, usually coincided with 1 or 2 April), celebrating the festival of Sizdebedar, during which the people traditionally go outdoors to picnic.[citation needed] Yaldā, another nationally celebrated ancient tradition,[474] commemorates the ancient goddess Mithra and marks the longest night of the year on the eve of the winter solstice (čelle ye zemestān; usually falling on 20 or 21 December),[475][476] during which families gather together to recite poetry and eat fruits—particularly the red fruits watermelon and pomegranate, as well as mixed nuts.[477][478] In some regions of the provinces of Mazanderan and Markazi,[479][480][481][482] there is also the midsummer festival of Tirgān,[483] which is observed on Tir 13 (2 or 3 July) as a celebration of water.[484][485] Alongside the ancient Iranian celebrations, Islamic annual events such as Ramezān, Eid e Fetr, and Ruz e Āšurā are marked by the country's large Muslim population, Christian traditions such as Noel,[486] Čelle ye Ruze, and Eid e Pāk[487] are observed by the Christian communities, Jewish traditions such as Purim,[488] Hanukā,[489] and Eid e Fatir (Pesah)[490][491] are observed by the Jewish communities, and Zoroastrian traditions such as Sade[492] and Mehrgān are observed by the Zoroastrians. Public holidays Main article: Public holidays in Iran See also: Iranian calendars Iran's official calendar is the Solar Hejri calendar, beginning at the vernal equinox in the Northern Hemisphere, which was first enacted by the Iranian Parliament on 31 March 1925.[493] Each of the 12 months of the Solar Hejri calendar correspond with a zodiac sign, and the length of each year is absolutely solar.[493] The months are named after the ancient Iranian months,[493] namely Farvardin (Fravaši), Ordibehešt (Aša Vahišta), Xordād (Haurvatāt), Tir (Tištrya), Amordād (Amərətāt), Šahrivar (Xšaθra Vairya), Mehr (Miθra), Ābān (Āpō), Āzar (Ātar), Dey (Daθuš), Bahman (Vohu Manah), and Esfand (Spəntā Ārmaiti). Alternatively, the Lunar Hejri calendar is used to indicate Islamic events, and the Gregorian calendar remarks the international events. Legal public holidays based on the Iranian solar calendar include the cultural celebrations of Nowruz (Farvardin 1–4; 21–24 March) and Sizdebedar (Farvardin 13; 2 April), and the political events of Islamic Republic Day (Farvardin 12; 1 April), the death of Ruhollah Khomeini (Khordad 14; 4 June), the Khordad 15 event (Khordad 15; 5 June), the anniversary of the 1979 Revolution (Bahman 22; 10 February), and Oil Nationalization Day (Esfand 29; 19 March).[494] Lunar Islamic public holidays include Tasua (Muharram 9; 30 September), Ashura (Muharram 10; 1 October), Arba'een (Safar 20; 10 November), the death of Muhammad (Safar 28; 17 November), the death of Ali al-Ridha (Safar 29 or 30; 18 November), the birthday of Muhammad (Rabi-al-Awwal 17; 6 December), the death of Fatimah (Jumada-al-Thani 3; 2 March), the birthday of Ali (Rajab 13; 10 April), Muhammad's first revelation (Rajab 27; 24 April), the birthday of Muhammad al-Mahdi (Sha'ban 15; 12 May), the death of Ali (Ramadan 21; 16 June), Eid al-Fitr (Shawwal 1–2; 26–27 June), the death of Ja'far al-Sadiq (Shawwal 25; 20 July), Eid al-Qurban (Zulhijja 10; 1 September), and Eid al-Qadir (Zulhijja 18; 9 September).[494] Cuisine Main article: Iranian cuisine Chelow kabab (rice and kebab), one of Iran's national dishes[495][496][497] Due to its variety of ethnic groups and the influences from the neighboring cultures, the cuisine of Iran is diverse. Herbs are frequently used, along with fruits such as plums, pomegranate, quince, prunes, apricots, and raisins. To achieve a balanced taste, characteristic flavorings such as saffron, dried lime, cinnamon, and parsley are mixed delicately and used in some special dishes. Onion and garlic are commonly used in the preparation of the accompanying course, but are also served separately during meals, either in raw or pickled form. Iranian cuisine includes a wide range of main dishes, including various types of kebab, pilaf, stew (khoresh), soup and āsh, and omelette. Lunch and dinner meals are commonly accompanied by side dishes such as plain yogurt or mast-o-khiar, sabzi, salad Shirazi, and torshi, and might follow dishes such as borani, Mirza Qasemi, or kashk e bademjan as the appetizer. In Iranian culture, tea (čāy) is widely consumed.[498][499] Iran is the world's seventh major tea producer,[500] and a cup of tea is typically the first thing offered to a guest.[501] One of Iran's most popular desserts is the falude,[502] consisting of vermicelli in a rose water syrup, which has its roots in the fourth century BC.[503][504] There is also the popular saffron ice cream, known as bastani sonnati ("traditional ice cream"),[505] which is sometimes accompanied with carrot juice.[506] Iran is also famous for its caviar.[507] Sports Main article: Sport in Iran Skiers at the Dizin Ski Resort Weightlifter Kianoush Rostami wins gold at the 2016 Summer Olympics. Taekwondo athlete Kimia Alizadeh wins bronze at the 2016 Summer Olympics. With two-thirds of the population under the age of 25, many sports are played in Iran. Iran is most likely the birthplace of polo,[508][509] locally known as čowgān, with its earliest records attributed to the ancient Medes.[510] Freestyle wrestling is traditionally considered the national sport of Iran, and the national wrestlers have been world champions on many occasions. Iran's traditional wrestling, called košti e pahlevāni ("heroic wrestling"), is registered on UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage list. Being a mountainous country, Iran is a venue for skiing, snowboarding, hiking, rock climbing,[511] and mountain climbing.[512][513] It is home to several ski resorts, the most famous being Tochal, Dizin, and Shemshak, all within one to three hours traveling from the capital city Tehran.[514] The resort of Tochal, located in the Alborz mountain rage, is the world's fifth-highest ski resort (3,730 m or 12,238 ft at its highest station). Iran's National Olympic Committee was founded in 1947. Wrestlers and weightlifters have achieved the country's highest records at the Olympics. In September 1974, Iran became the first country in West Asia to host the Asian Games. The Azadi Sport Complex, which is the largest sport complex in Iran, was originally built for this occasion. The Azadi Stadium in Tehran is West Asia's largest football stadium. Football has been regarded as the most popular sport in Iran, with the men's national team having won the Asian Cup on three occasions. The men's national team has maintained its position as Asia's best team, ranking 1st in Asia and 33rd in the world according to the FIFA World Rankings (as of May 2020[update]).[515] Volleyball is the second most popular sport in Iran.[516][517] Having won the 2011 and 2013 Asian Men's Volleyball Championships, the men's national team is currently the strongest team in Asia, and ranks eighth in the FIVB World Rankings (as of July 2017[update]). Basketball is also popular,[518] with the men's national team having won three Asian Championships since 2007. In 2016, Iran made global headlines for international female champions boycotting tournaments in Iran in chess (U.S. Woman Grandmaster Nazí Paikidze)[519][520] and in shooting (Indian world champion Heena Sidhu),[521] as they refused to enter a country where they would be forced to wear a hijab. Media Main article: Media of Iran Iran is one of the countries with the worst freedom of the press situation, ranking 164th out of 180 countries on the Press Freedom Index (as of 2018).[522] The Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance is Iran's main government department responsible for the cultural policy, including activities regarding communications and information.[523] Iran's first newspapers were published during the reign of Naser al-Din Shah of the Qajar dynasty in the mid-19th century.[524] Most of the newspapers published in Iran are in Persian, the country's official language. The country's most widely circulated periodicals are based in Tehran, among which are Etemad, Ettela'at, Kayhan, Hamshahri, Resalat, and Shargh.[323] Tehran Times, Iran Daily, and Financial Tribune are among English-language newspapers based in Iran. Television was introduced in Iran in 1958.[525] Although the 1974 Asian Games were broadcast in color, full color programming began in 1978.[525] Since the 1979 Revolution, Iran's largest media corporation is the Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting (IRIB).[323] Despite the restrictions on non-domestic television, about 65% of the residents of the capital city and about 30 to 40% of the residents outside the capital city access worldwide television channels through satellite dishes, although observers state that the figures are likely to be higher.[526][527] Iran received access to the Internet in 1993. According to Internet World Stats, as of 2017[update], around 69.1% of the population of Iran are Internet users.[528] Iran ranks 17th among countries by number of Internet users. According to the statistics provided by the web information company of Alexa, Google Search is Iran's most widely used search engine and Instagram is the most popular online social networking service.[529] Direct access to many worldwide mainstream websites has been blocked in Iran, including Facebook, which has been blocked since 2009 due to the organization of anti-governmental protests on the website.[530] However, as of 2017[update], Facebook has around 40 million subscribers based in Iran (48.8% of the population) who use virtual private networks and proxy servers to access the website.[528] Some of the officials themselves have verified accounts on the social networking websites that are blocked by the authorities, including Facebook and Twitter.[531] About 90% of Iran's e-commerce takes place on the Iranian online store of Digikala, which has around 750,000 visitors per day and more than 2.3 million subscribers and is the most visited online store in the Middle East.[532][529] Fashion and clothing Main article: Fashion in Iran Fashion in Iran is divided into several historical periods. The exact date of the emergence of weaving in Iran is not yet known, but it is likely to coincide with the emergence of civilization. Clothing in Iran is mentioned in Persian mythology. Ferdowsi and many historians have considered Keyumars to be the inventor of the use of animals' skin and hair as clothing. Some historians have also mentioned Hushang as the first inventor of the use of living skins as clothing.[533] Ferdowsi considers Tahmuras to be a kind of textile initiator in Iran. There are historical discoveries in northern Iran from about 6,000 BC that refer to wool weaving at the time. Other discoveries in central Iran dating back to 4200 BC have shown that the animals' skin has not been the only clothing worn on the Iranian Plateau since those years. The clothing of ancient Iran took an advanced form, and the fabric and color of clothing became very important at that time. Depending on the social status, eminence, climate of the region and the season, Persian clothing during the Achaemenian period took various forms. The philosophy used in this clothing, in addition to being functional, also had an aesthetic role.[533] Beauty pageant festivals inside Iran were not held after the 1979 revolution, and the last selection ceremony of the "beauty queen of Iran" was held in 1978 in this country. Since then, a high number of Iranian girls participated in the Beauty pageant and Miss Universe outside of Iran. Sahar Biniaz (Miss Universe Canada 2012) and Shermineh Shahrivar (Miss Germany and Miss Europe) are examples of Iranian models outside Iran.[534][535] Girls of Enghelab Street was a series of protests in 2017–2019 against a compulsory hijab in Iran.[536] See also List of Iran-related topics Outline of Iran Notes ^ Including the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic ^ In the Avesta, the airiia- are members of the ethnic group of the Avesta-reciters themselves, in contradistinction to the anairiia- (the "non-Arya"). The word also appears four times in Old Persian: One is in the Behistun inscription, where ariya- is the name of a language (DB 4.89). The other three instances occur in Darius I's inscription at Naqsh-e Rustam (DNa 14–15), in Darius I's inscription at Susa (DSe 13–14), and in the inscription of Xerxes I at Persepolis (XPh 12–13). In these, the two Achaemenid dynasties describe themselves as pārsa pārsahyā puça ariya ariyaciça "a Persian, son of a Persian, an Ariya, of Ariya origin."—The phrase with ciça ("origin, descendance") assures that ariya is an ethnic name wider in meaning than pārsa and not a simple adjectival epithet.[35] References ^ Jeroen Temperman (2010). State-Religion Relationships and Human Rights Law: Towards a Right to Religiously Neutral Governance. Brill. pp. 87–. ISBN 978-90-04-18148-9. The official motto of Iran is Takbir ('God is the Greatest' or 'God is Great'). Transliteration Allahu Akbar. As referred to in art. 18 of the constitution of Iran (1979). The de facto motto however is: 'Independence, freedom, the Islamic Republic.' ^ "Iran - Languages". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 9 January 2020. ^ a b c d e f g h "Iran". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency (United States). Retrieved 24 May 2018. ^ a b Sarkhosh Curtis, Vesta; Stewart, Sarah (2005), Birth of the Persian Empire: The Idea of Iran, London: I.B. Tauris, p. 108, ISBN 9781845110628, Similarly the collapse of Sassanian Eranshahr in AD 650 did not end Iranians' national idea. The name 'Iran' disappeared from official records of the Saffarids, Samanids, Buyids, Saljuqs and their successor. But one unofficially used the name Iran, Eranshahr, and similar national designations, particularly Mamalek-e Iran or 'Iranian lands', which exactly translated the old Avestan term Ariyanam Daihunam. On the other hand, when the Safavids (not Reza Shah, as is popularly assumed) revived a national state officially known as Iran, bureaucratic usage in the Ottoman empire and even Iran itself could still refer to it by other descriptive and traditional appellations. ^ a b Andrew J. Newman (2006). Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-86064-667-6. 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ISBN 978-0-19-933550-3. Iran: A Country Study. 2008, Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 354 pp. Mikaberidze, Alexander (2011). Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia. 1. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-59884-336-1. Fisher, William Bayne; Avery, P.; Hambly, G.R.G; Melville, C. (1991). The Cambridge History of Iran. 7. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-20095-0. Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (2011). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-5163-7. External links Iranat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Travel guide from Wikivoyage Resources from Wikiversity The e-office of the Supreme Leader of Iran The President of Iran Iran.ir Iran. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 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en-wikipedia-org-148	----	Qa'a - Wikipedia Qa'a From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the use in Islamic architecture, see Qa'a (room). For other uses, see Qaa (disambiguation). Qa'a Biénechês, Óubiênthis, Víbenthis Restored tomb stele of Qa'a Pharaoh Reign 33 years, ca. 2910 BC (1st Dynasty) Predecessor Semerkhet Successor Hotepsekhemwy (most likely) or Sneferka, Horus Bird Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Nisut-Bity-Nebty-Sen nsw.t-bty-nb.ty-sn King of Lower- and Upper Egypt, he of the two ladies, he is kissed by them Horus name Hor-Qa'a Ḥr-qˁ3 Raised arm of Horus Abydos King List Qebeh qbḥ He from the north Saqqara Tablet Qebehu-khenti qbḥ.w-ḫntj He from the cool north Turin King List ...beh ...bḥ Father Semerkhet (most likely) or Anedjib Burial Tomb Q, Umm el-Qa'ab Qa'a (also Qáa or Ka'a) (literal meaning: "his arm is raised"[1]) was the last king of the First Dynasty of Egypt. He reigned for 33 years at the end of the 30th century BC. Contents 1 Identity 2 Family 3 Reign 4 End of reign 5 Tomb 6 See also 7 References Identity[edit] Qebeh, cartouche name of Qa'a in the Abydos king list. Manetho calls Qa'a Biénechês and gives him a reign of 26 years according to the version preserved by Sextus Julius Africanus .[2] Other versions of copies of Manetho's epitomes give other hellenized names such as Óubiênthis for versions by Eusebius and Víbenthis by armenian versions of Eusebius.[3][4][2] Family[edit] See also: First Dynasty of Egypt family tree The parents of Qa'a are unknown, but it is thought that either his predecessor Anedjib or Semerkhet was his father, since it was tradition to leave the throne to the eldest son. If Manetho suggested correctly (remembering the tradition), Semerkhet was the father.[4] Reign[edit] There is not much known about Qa'a's reign, but it seems that he reigned for a long time (around 33 years). Several stone vessel inscriptions mention a second Sed festival for Qa'a, which points to at least 33 years of reign. The first festival was usually not celebrated before 30 years of reign, and subsequent festivals could be repeated every third year. The Palermo Stone only mentions the year of coronation and some usual cultic events that were celebrated under every king. The numerous ivory tags dating to his reign also mention only typical arrangements, such as depicting and counting burial offerings and personal possessions of the king. Several mastaba tombs of high officials date into Qa'a's reign: Merka (S3505), Henuka (burial unknown), Neferef (burial also unknown) and Sabef (buried in the royal necropolis of Qa'a).[5][6] Ivory label of Qa'a with his serekh and Nebty name sn. End of reign[edit] Despite Qa'a's long and prosperous reign, evidence shows that after his death, a dynastic war between different royal houses began over the newly empty throne. In the tomb of the high official Merka, a stone vessel with the name of a king Sneferka was found. It is unclear whether "Sneferka" was an alternate name of Qa'a or if he was a separate, ephemeral ruler. Egyptologists such as Wolfgang Helck and Toby Wilkinson point to a further mysterious ruler named "Horus Bird", whose name was found on vessel fragments dating to the end of the first dynasty. It is postulated that Sneferka and Horus Bird fought for power and that Hotepsekhemwy ended the fight and finally ascended the throne of Egypt, thus starting the Second Dynasty. Strong clues to that theory are traces of grave robberies and arsons found in the royal tombs of Abydos. Clay seals of Hotepsekhemwy found in Qa'a's tomb suggest that he restored the tomb or buried Qa'a, maybe in an attempt to legitimize his rule.[4][6] Tomb[edit] Map of Qa'a's tomb. Note the subsidiary burial around the main chamber. Qa'a had a fairly large tomb in Abydos which measures 98.5 X 75.5 feet or 30 X 23 meters.[7] A long reign is supported by the large size of this ruler's burial site at Abydos. This tomb was excavated by German archaeologists in 1993 and proved to contain 26 satellite (i.e. sacrificial) burials. A seal impression bearing Hotepsekhemwy's name was found near the entrance of the tomb of Qa'a (Tomb Q) by the German Archaeological Institute in the mid-1990s.[8] The discovery of the seal impression has been interpreted as evidence that Qa'a was buried, and therefore succeeded, by Hotepsekhemwy, the founder of the second dynasty of Egypt, as Manetho states. The beautiful tomb stela of Qa'a is now on display at the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. The tomb of one of Qa'a's state officials at Saqqara—a certain nobleman named Merka—contained a stele with many titles. There is a second Sed festival attested. This fact plus the high quality of a number of royal steles depicting the king implies that Qa'a's reign was a fairly stable and prosperous period of time. A number of year labels have also been discovered dating to his reign at the First Dynasty burial site of Umm el-Qa'ab in Abydos. Qa'a is believed to have ruled Egypt around 2916 BCE. A dish inscribed with the name and titles of Qa'a was discovered in the tomb of Seth-Peribsen (Tomb P of Petrie).[9] See also[edit] List of pharaohs References[edit] ^ https://ancientegyptonline.co.uk/qaa/ ^ a b https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Manetho/History_of_Egypt/1*.html ^ Peter Clayton: Chronicle of the Pharaohs. Thames & Hudson Ltd, 1994. p.25 ^ a b c Wolfgang Helck: Untersuchungen zur Thinitenzeit. In: Ägyptologische Abhandlungen Band 35, Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1987, ISBN 3-447-02677-4, page 124. ^ P. Lacau, J. P. Lauer: La Pyramide a Degeres IV, Inscriptions Gravees sur les Vases. Cairo 1959, page 12. ^ a b Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, London/ New York 1999, ISBN 0-415-18633-1, page 81–83. ^ Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames & Hudson Ltd, 2006 paperback p.25; the tomb is now fully published: Eva-Maria Engel: Das Grab des Qa'a: Architektur und Inventar, Wiesbaden 2017 ISBN 978-3447108768 ^ G. Dreyer et al., MDAIK 52,1996, pp.71-72, fig. 25, pl. 14a ^ B. Porter and R.L.B. Moss. Topographical Bibliography of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphic Texts, Reliefs, and Paintings, V. Upper Egypt: Sites. Oxford, 1937, pg 81 Preceded by Semerkhet Pharaoh of Egypt Succeeded by Sneferka v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e First Dynasty of Ancient Egypt Pharaohs Menes/Narmer Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Regents Neithhotep Merneith Queen consorts Benerib Herneith Penebui Nakhtneith (Khenthap) Semat Serethor Seshemetka Betrest Officials Amka Hemaka Sabef Meriiti Other people Ahaneith Artefacts and monuments Narmer macehead Narmer palette Tomb of Anedjib Den seal impressions Abydos boats MacGregor plaque Mastabas S3503 and S3504 Capital Thinis Authority control GND: 121506738 VIAF: 69786629 WorldCat Identities: viaf-69786629 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Qa%27a&oldid=985625138" Categories: 30th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the First Dynasty of Egypt 30th century BC in Egypt 30th-century BC rulers 29th century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Ripoarisch Русский සිංහල Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 27 October 2020, at 00:16 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1511	----	Dedumose I - Wikipedia Dedumose I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Dedumose I Dudimose, Dudumesu Stele of Djedhotepre Dedumose I, 1908 photography by Alessandro Barsanti.[1] Pharaoh Reign 17th century BC or 16th century BC (16th Dynasty (Ryholt) or 13th Dynasty (J. von Beckerath)) Predecessor uncertain, Bebiankh (new arrangement), Djedankhre Montemsaf (J. Beckerath) Successor Dedumose II Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Djedhotepre Ḏd-ḥtp-Rˁ The peace of Ra is stable Nomen Dedumose Dd-msw (A god) has fashioned him Horus name Wadjkhaw W3ḏ-ḫˁ.w Flourisihing of appearances Nebty name Shedtawy Šd-t3.wj He who rescues of the two lands Golden Horus Inihotep Jnj-ḥtp He who brings peace Children uncertain, possibly Dedumose II, Khonsuemwaset, Sobekhotep[2] Djedhotepre Dedumose I was an Egyptian pharaoh of the Second Intermediate Period. According to egyptologists Kim Ryholt, Darrell Baker, Aidan Dodson and Dyan Hilton, he was a king of the 16th Dynasty.[2][3][4] Alternatively, Jürgen von Beckerath, Thomas Schneider and Detlef Franke see him as a king of the 13th Dynasty.[5][6][7][8] Attestations[edit] Djedhotepre Dedumose is mentioned on stela found in July 1908 in the southern part of the Tell of Edfu.[1] The stele belongs to a king's son and commander Khonsuemwaset ("Khonsu is in Waset"). It is not known whether the latter was indeed the son of the king or if king's son is here only the title, which was not necessarily reserved to the actual children of a king. Another king of the Second Intermediate Period bears the name Dedumose: Djedneferre Dedumose II. Given the rarity of the name Dedumose, it is possible that he was the son of Dedumose I. A number of artefacts name a king Dedumose but without providing the prenomen, it is difficult to decide to which Dedumose they belong.[3] For example, a stela of an official Harsekher from Edfu states that the King's Son Harsekher, son of the King's Son Sobekhotep is related to a king Dedumose,[3] which Aidan Dodson and Dyan Hilton identify as Dedumose I.[2] Chronological position[edit] Precise dates for Dedumose are unknown, but if he was a king of the 13th Dynasty, his reign probably ended around 1690 BC while if he was a king of the 16th Dynasty, he would possibly have reigned between 1588 BC and 1582 BC, in the final years of the 16th Dynasty.[3] Ryholt believes that facing the invasion of his territory by the Hyksos, Dedumose tried to sue them for peace, as indicated by his names "The peace of Ra is stable; He who brings peace; He who rescues the Two Lands".[3] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dedumose Djedhotepre. References[edit] ^ a b A Barsanti: Stèle inédite au nom du roi Radadaouhotep Doudoumes, in: ASAE 9 (1908), pl. 1-2, available copyright-free online ^ a b c Aidan Dodson, Dyan Hilton: The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, Thames and Hudson, 2004, p. 117 ^ a b c d e K. S. B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800 - 1550 BC. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. ISBN 87-7289-421-0, p. 402 ^ Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46, Mainz am Rhein, 1997 ^ Thomas Schneider: Ancient Egyptian Chronology - Edited by Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss, And David a. Warburton, available online, see p. 187 ^ Detlef Franke: Das Heiligtum des Heqaib auf Elephantine. Geschichte eines Provinzheiligtums im Mittleren Reich, Studien zur Archäologie und Geschichte Altägyptens. vol. 9. Heidelberger Orientverlag, Heidelberg 1994, ISBN 3-927552-17-8 (Heidelberg, Universität, Habilitationsschrift, 1991), see p. 77-78 v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dedumose_I&oldid=977661197" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs 16th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Català Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 10 September 2020, at 05:44 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1518	----	Seth Meribre - Wikipedia Seth Meribre From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Seth Meribre Seth Merybre, Set Usurped stele which Ryholt attributed to Seth Meribre (Cairo JE 35256)[1] Pharaoh Reign less than 10 years, probably less than 5 years, ending 1749 BC[1] (13th Dynasty) Predecessor Sehetepkare Intef Successor Sobekhotep III Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Meribre Mr-ib-Rˁ He who is beloved by the heart of Ra Turin canon Seth Meribre Stš-mr-ib-Rˁ Seth, he who is beloved by the heart of Ra Seth Meribre was the twenty-fourth pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. Seth Meribre reigned from Memphis, ending in 1749 BC[1] or c. 1700 BC.[2] The length of his reign is not known for certain; the Egyptologist Kim Ryholt proposes that he reigned for a short time, certainly less than ten years.[1] Attestations[edit] Seth Meribre is only attested for certain on the Turin canon, column 7, line 23 (Alan Gardiner and Jürgen von Beckerath: col. 6 row 23).[3] Ryholt suggests that stele JE35256, discovered in Abydos and now in the Egyptian Museum, was originally inscribed with the nomen, prenomen and Horus name of Seth Meribre. The stele, bearing a date year 4, was later usurped by Neferhotep I.[1] Previously, historian Anthony Leahy[4] has argued that the stele was erected by Wegaf rather than Seth Meribre, an opinion shared by Darrell Baker.[3] At the opposite end, the site of Medamud, northeast of Luxor has yielded many ruined structures and architectural remains which were probably erected by Seth Meribre but were subsequently usurped by his successor Sobekhotep III.[3] In particular, a lintel from Medamud and now in the Egyptian Museum, JE 44944, bears almost-erased signs corresponding to Seth Meribre's nomen.[citation needed] Jürgen von Beckerath believes that Seth Meribre can be identified with a king mentioned on Genealogy of Ankhefensekhmet of the much later 22nd Dynasty. This king bears the name "Aaqen", literally The donkey is strong. Von Beckerath proposes that this refers to Seth Meribre and that the name originally was "Sethqen", that is, Seth is strong. Indeed, since the god Seth had been ostracized during the 22nd Dynasty, the hieroglyph of the Seth-animal had been replaced by the hieroglyph of the donkey, yielding "Aaqen". Chronological position and reign length[edit] The Egyptologists Darrell Baker and Kim Ryholt place Seth Meribre as the twenty-fourth ruler of the 13th Dynasty, while Jürgen von Beckerath sees him as the twentieth king.[5] These authors agree, however, that Seth Meribre probably usurped the throne at the expense of his predecessor, Sehetepkare Intef.[3] The duration of Seth Meribre's reign is lost in a lacuna of the Turin canon, except for the end "... [and] 6 days". Kim Ryholt gives a total of 10 years for the combined reigns of Imyremeshaw, Sehetepkare Intef and Seth Meribre.[1] Furthermore, following Papyrus Boulaq 18, there are reasons to believe that either Imyremeshaw or Sehetepkare Intef reigned for over five years, thus leaving less than 5 years to Seth Meribre. References[edit] ^ a b c d e f K.S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997 ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen, Albatros, 2002 ^ a b c d Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 406 ^ Leahy, Anthony (1989). "A Protective Measure at Abydos in the Thirteenth Dynasty". Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 75: 41–60. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Konigsnamen, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 20, Mainz. Preceded by Sehetepkare Intef Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Sobekhotep III v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seth_Meribre&oldid=977164825" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2015 AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes 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en-wikipedia-org-1513	----	Athens - Wikipedia Athens From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Capital of Greece This article is about a city in Greece. For other uses, see Athens (disambiguation). For other uses of Athina, see Athina (disambiguation). "Agrae" redirects here. For the town of ancient Pisidia, see Agrae (Pisidia). Capital city in Central Greece, Greece Athens Αθήνα Capital city Clockwise from top: Acropolis of Athens, Zappeion Hall, Monastiraki, Aerial view from Lycabettus, Athens Olympic Sports Complex, and Hellenic Parliament Flag Seal Nicknames: Ιοστεφές άστυ (the violet-crowned city) Το κλεινόν άστυ (the glorious city) Athens Location within Greece Show map of Greece Athens Location within Europe Show map of Balkans Athens Athens (Europe) Show map of Europe Coordinates: 37°59′02.3″N 23°43′40.1″E / 37.983972°N 23.727806°E / 37.983972; 23.727806Coordinates: 37°59′02.3″N 23°43′40.1″E / 37.983972°N 23.727806°E / 37.983972; 23.727806 Country  Greece Geographic region Central Greece Administrative region Attica Regional unit Central Athens Districts 7 Government  • Type Mayor–council government  • Mayor Kostas Bakoyannis (New Democracy) Area  • Municipality 38.964 km2 (15.044 sq mi)  • Urban 412 km2 (159 sq mi)  • Metro 2,928.717 km2 (1,130.784 sq mi) Highest elevation 338 m (1,109 ft) Lowest elevation 70.1 m (230.0 ft) Population (2012)[2]  • Municipality 664,046  • Rank 1st urban, 1st metro in Greece  • Urban 3,090,508  • Urban density 7,500/km2 (19,000/sq mi)  • Metro 3,753,783[1] Demonym(s) Athenian GDP PPP (2016)[3]  • Total US$ 102,446 billion  • Per capita US$ 32,461 Time zone UTC+2 (EET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+3 (EEST) Postal codes 10x xx, 11x xx, 120 xx Telephone 21 Vehicle registration Yxx, Zxx, Ixx Patron saint Dionysius the Areopagite (3 October) Website www.cityofathens.gr Athens (/ˈæθɪnz/ ATH-inz;[4] Greek: Αθήνα, romanized: Athína [aˈθina] (listen); Ancient Greek: Ἀθῆναι, romanized: Athênai (pl.) [atʰɛ̂ːnai̯]) is the capital and largest city of Greece. Athens dominates the Attica region and is one of the world's oldest cities, with its recorded history spanning over 3,400 years[citation needed] and its earliest human presence started somewhere between the 11th and 7th millennium BC.[5] Classical Athens was a powerful city-state. A center for the arts, learning and philosophy, home of Plato's Academy and Aristotle's Lyceum,[6][7] it is widely referred to as the cradle of Western civilization and the birthplace of democracy,[8][9] largely because of its cultural and political impact on the European continent, and in particular the Romans.[10] In modern times, Athens is a large cosmopolitan metropolis and central to economic, financial, industrial, maritime, political and cultural life in Greece. Athens is a Beta global city according to the Globalization and World Cities Research Network,[11] and is one of the biggest economic centers in southeastern Europe. It has a large financial sector, and its port Piraeus is both the largest passenger port in Europe,[12][13] and the second largest in the world.[14] The Municipality of Athens (also City of Athens), which actually constitutes a small administrative unit of the entire city, had a population of 664,046 (in 2011)[2] within its official limits, and a land area of 38.96 km2 (15.04 sq mi).[15][16] The Athens Urban Area (Greater Athens and Greater Piraeus) extends beyond its administrative municipal city limits, with a population of 3,090,508 (in 2011)[17] over an area of 412 km2 (159 sq mi).[16] According to Eurostat[18] in 2011, the functional urban area (FUA) of Athens was the 9th most populous FUA in the European Union (the 6th most populous capital city of the EU), with a population of 3.8 million people. Athens is also the southernmost capital on the European mainland and the warmest major city in Europe. The heritage of the classical era is still evident in the city, represented by ancient monuments and works of art, the most famous of all being the Parthenon, considered a key landmark of early Western civilization. The city also retains Roman and Byzantine monuments, as well as a smaller number of Ottoman monuments, while its historical urban core features elements of continuity through its millennia of history.[19] Athens is home to two UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the Acropolis of Athens and the medieval Daphni Monastery. Landmarks of the modern era, dating back to the establishment of Athens as the capital of the independent Greek state in 1834, include the Hellenic Parliament and the so-called "architectural trilogy of Athens", consisting of the National Library of Greece, the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens and the Academy of Athens. Athens is also home to several museums and cultural institutions, such as the National Archeological Museum, featuring the world's largest collection of ancient Greek antiquities, the Acropolis Museum, the Museum of Cycladic Art, the Benaki Museum and the Byzantine and Christian Museum. Athens was the host city of the first modern-day Olympic Games in 1896, and 108 years later it hosted the 2004 Summer Olympics, making it one of the few cities to have hosted the Olympics more than once.[20] Contents 1 Etymology and names 2 History 3 Geography 3.1 Environment 3.2 Safety 3.3 Climate 3.4 Locations 3.4.1 Neighbourhoods of the Center of Athens (Municipality of Athens) 3.4.2 Parks and zoos 3.5 Urban and suburban municipalities 4 Administration 4.1 Athens Urban Area 4.2 Athens Metropolitan Area 5 Demographics 5.1 Population in modern times 5.2 Population of the Athens Metropolitan Area 5.3 Population in ancient times 5.4 Religion 6 Government and politics 6.1 International relations and influence 6.1.1 Twin towns – sister cities 6.1.2 Partnerships 6.1.3 Other locations named after Athens 7 Economy and infrastructure 7.1 Transport 7.1.1 Bus transport 7.1.2 Athens Metro 7.1.3 Commuter/suburban rail (Proastiakos) 7.1.4 Tram 7.1.5 Athens International Airport 7.1.6 Railways and ferry connections 7.1.7 Motorways 8 Education 9 Culture 9.1 Archaeological hub 9.2 Architecture 9.3 Urban sculpture 9.4 Museums 9.5 Tourism 9.6 Entertainment and performing arts 9.6.1 Music 9.7 Sports 9.7.1 Overview 9.7.2 Sports clubs 9.7.3 Olympic Games 9.7.3.1 1896 Summer Olympics 9.7.3.2 1906 Summer Olympics 9.7.3.3 2004 Summer Olympics 10 See also 11 References 12 External links 12.1 Official 12.2 Historical 12.3 Travel 12.4 Visual Etymology and names[edit] Further information: Names of European cities in different languages: A Athena, patron goddess of Athens; (Varvakeion Athena, National Archaeological Museum) In Ancient Greek, the name of the city was Ἀθῆναι (Athênai, pronounced [atʰɛ̂ːnai̯] in Classical Attic) a plural. In earlier Greek, such as Homeric Greek, the name had been current in the singular form though, as Ἀθήνη (Athḗnē).[21] It was possibly rendered in the plural later on, like those of Θῆβαι (Thêbai) and Μυκῆναι (Μukênai). The root of the word is probably not of Greek or Indo-European origin,[22] and is possibly a remnant of the Pre-Greek substrate of Attica.[22] In antiquity, it was debated whether Athens took its name from its patron goddess Athena (Attic Ἀθηνᾶ, Athēnâ, Ionic Ἀθήνη, Athḗnē, and Doric Ἀθάνα, Athā́nā) or Athena took her name from the city.[23] Modern scholars now generally agree that the goddess takes her name from the city,[23] because the ending -ene is common in names of locations, but rare for personal names.[23] According to the ancient Athenian founding myth, Athena, the goddess of wisdom, competed against Poseidon, the God of the Seas, for patronage of the yet-unnamed city;[24] they agreed that whoever gave the Athenians the better gift would become their patron[24] and appointed Cecrops, the king of Athens, as the judge.[24] According to the account given by Pseudo-Apollodorus, Poseidon struck the ground with his trident and a salt water spring welled up.[24] In an alternative version of the myth from Vergil's Georgics, Poseidon instead gave the Athenians the first horse.[24] In both versions, Athena offered the Athenians the first domesticated olive tree.[24][25] Cecrops accepted this gift[24] and declared Athena the patron goddess of Athens.[24][25] Eight different etymologies, now commonly rejected, were proposed during the 17th century.[citation needed] Christian Lobeck proposed as the root of the name the word ἄθος (áthos) or ἄνθος (ánthos) meaning "flower", to denote Athens as the "flowering city". Ludwig von Döderlein proposed the stem of the verb θάω, stem θη- (tháō, thē-, "to suck") to denote Athens as having fertile soil.[26] Athenians were called cicada-wearers (Ancient Greek: Τεττιγοφόροι) because they used to wear pins of golden cicadas. A symbol of being autochthon (earth-born), because the legendary founder of Athens, Erechtheus was an autochthon or of being musicians, because the cicada is a "musician" insect.[27] In classical literature, the city was sometimes referred to as the City of the Violet Crown, first documented in Pindar's ἰοστέφανοι Ἀθᾶναι (iostéphanoi Athânai), or as τὸ κλεινὸν ἄστυ (tò kleinòn ásty, "the glorious city"). During the medieval period, the name of the city was rendered once again in the singular as Ἀθήνα. Variant names included Setines, Satine, and Astines, all derivations involving false splitting of prepositional phrases.[28] King Alphonse X of Castile gives the pseudo-etymology 'the one without death/ignorance'.[29][page needed] In Ottoman Turkish, it was called آتينا Ātīnā,[30] and in modern Turkish, it is Atina. After the establishment of the modern Greek state, and partly due to the conservatism of the written language, Ἀθῆναι [aˈθine] again became the official name of the city and remained so until the abandonment of Katharevousa in the 1970s, when Ἀθήνα, Athína, became the official name. Today it is often simply called η πρωτεύουσα ī protévousa 'the capital'. History[edit] Main articles: History of Athens and Timeline of Athens The oldest known human presence in Athens is the Cave of Schist, which has been dated to between the 11th and 7th millennia BC.[5] Athens has been continuously inhabited for at least 5,000 years.[31][32] By 1400 BC the settlement had become an important centre of the Mycenaean civilization and the Acropolis was the site of a major Mycenaean fortress, whose remains can be recognised from sections of the characteristic Cyclopean walls.[33] Unlike other Mycenaean centers, such as Mycenae and Pylos, it is not known whether Athens suffered destruction in about 1200 BC, an event often attributed to a Dorian invasion, and the Athenians always maintained that they were pure Ionians with no Dorian element. However, Athens, like many other Bronze Age settlements, went into economic decline for around 150 years afterwards. Iron Age burials, in the Kerameikos and other locations, are often richly provided for and demonstrate that from 900 BC onwards Athens was one of the leading centres of trade and prosperity in the region.[34] The leading position of Athens may well have resulted from its central location in the Greek world, its secure stronghold on the Acropolis and its access to the sea, which gave it a natural advantage over inland rivals such as Thebes and Sparta. Delian League, under the leadership of Athens before the Peloponnesian War in 431 BC By the 6th century BC, widespread social unrest led to the reforms of Solon. These would pave the way for the eventual introduction of democracy by Cleisthenes in 508 BC. Athens had by this time become a significant naval power with a large fleet, and helped the rebellion of the Ionian cities against Persian rule. In the ensuing Greco-Persian Wars Athens, together with Sparta, led the coalition of Greek states that would eventually repel the Persians, defeating them decisively at Marathon in 490 BC, and crucially at Salamis in 480 BC. However, this did not prevent Athens from being captured and sacked twice by the Persians within one year, after a heroic but ultimately failed resistance at Thermopylae by Spartans and other Greeks led by King Leonidas,[35] after both Boeotia and Attica fell to the Persians. The decades that followed became known as the Golden Age of Athenian democracy, during which time Athens became the leading city of Ancient Greece, with its cultural achievements laying the foundations for Western civilization. The playwrights Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides flourished in Athens during this time, as did the historians Herodotus and Thucydides, the physician Hippocrates, and the philosopher Socrates. Guided by Pericles, who promoted the arts and fostered democracy, Athens embarked on an ambitious building program that saw the construction of the Acropolis of Athens (including the Parthenon), as well as empire-building via the Delian League. Originally intended as an association of Greek city-states to continue the fight against the Persians, the league soon turned into a vehicle for Athens's own imperial ambitions. The resulting tensions brought about the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), in which Athens was defeated by its rival Sparta. By the mid-4th century BC, the northern Greek kingdom of Macedon was becoming dominant in Athenian affairs. In 338 BC the armies of Philip II defeated an alliance of some of the Greek city-states including Athens and Thebes at the Battle of Chaeronea, effectively ending Athenian independence. Later, under Rome, Athens was given the status of a free city because of its widely admired schools. The Roman emperor Hadrian, in the 2nd century AD, ordered the construction of a library, a gymnasium, an aqueduct which is still in use, several temples and sanctuaries, a bridge and financed the completion of the Temple of Olympian Zeus. By the end of Late Antiquity, Athens had shrunk due to sacks by the Herulians, Visigoths, and Early Slavs which caused massive destruction in the city. In this era, the first Christian churches were built in Athens, and the Parthenon and other temples were converted into churches. Athens expanded its settlement in the second half of the Middle Byzantine Period, in the 9th to 10th centuries AD, and was relatively prosperous during the Crusades, benefiting from Italian trade. After the Fourth Crusade the Duchy of Athens was established. In 1458 it was conquered by the Ottoman Empire and entered a long period of decline. Following the Greek War of Independence and the establishment of the Greek Kingdom, Athens was chosen as the capital of the newly independent Greek state in 1834, largely because of historical and sentimental reasons. At the time, it was reduced to a town of about 4,000 people in a loose swarm of houses along the foot of the Acropolis. The first King of Greece, Otto of Bavaria, commissioned the architects Stamatios Kleanthis and Eduard Schaubert to design a modern city plan fit for the capital of a state. The first modern city plan consisted of a triangle defined by the Acropolis, the ancient cemetery of Kerameikos and the new palace of the Bavarian king (now housing the Greek Parliament), so as to highlight the continuity between modern and ancient Athens. Neoclassicism, the international style of this epoch, was the architectural style through which Bavarian, French and Greek architects such as Hansen, Klenze, Boulanger or Kaftantzoglou designed the first important public buildings of the new capital. In 1896, Athens hosted the first modern Olympic Games. During the 1920s a number of Greek refugees, expelled from Asia Minor after the Greco-Turkish War, swelled Athens's population; nevertheless it was most particularly following World War II, and from the 1950s and 1960s, that the population of the city exploded, and Athens experienced a gradual expansion. In the 1980s it became evident that smog from factories and an ever-increasing fleet of automobiles, as well as a lack of adequate free space due to congestion, had evolved into the city's most important challenge. A series of anti-pollution measures taken by the city's authorities in the 1990s, combined with a substantial improvement of the city's infrastructure (including the Attiki Odos motorway, the expansion of the Athens Metro, and the new Athens International Airport), considerably alleviated pollution and transformed Athens into a much more functional city. In 2004 Athens hosted the 2004 Summer Olympics. Tondo of the Aison Cup, showing the victory of Theseus over the Minotaur in the presence of Athena. Theseus was responsible, according to the myth, for the synoikismos ("dwelling together")—the political unification of Attica under Athens. The earliest coinage of Athens, c. 545–525/15 BC Coat of Arms of the Duchy of Athens during the rule of the de la Roche family (13th century) The Roman Agora and the Gate of Athena in Plaka district. The Temple of Olympian Zeus with river Ilisos by Edward Dodwell, 1821 The Entry of King Otto in Athens, Peter von Hess, 1839. The Stadiou Street in Central Athens in 1908. Geography[edit] Athens sprawls across the central plain of Attica that is often referred to as the Athens Basin or the Attica Basin (Greek: Λεκανοπέδιο Αθηνών/Αττικής). The basin is bounded by four large mountains: Mount Aigaleo to the west, Mount Parnitha to the north, Mount Pentelicus to the northeast and Mount Hymettus to the east.[36] Beyond Mount Aegaleo lies the Thriasian plain, which forms an extension of the central plain to the west. The Saronic Gulf lies to the southwest. Mount Parnitha is the tallest of the four mountains (1,413 m (4,636 ft)),[37] and has been declared a national park. Athens is built around a number of hills. Lycabettus is one of the tallest hills of the city proper and provides a view of the entire Attica Basin. The meteorology of Athens is deemed to be one of the most complex in the world because its mountains cause a temperature inversion phenomenon which, along with the Greek Government's difficulties controlling industrial pollution, was responsible for the air pollution problems the city has faced.[32] This issue is not unique to Athens; for instance, Los Angeles and Mexico City also suffer from similar atmospheric inversion problems.[32] The Cephissus river, the Ilisos and the Eridanos stream are the historical rivers of Athens. Environment[edit] The Lycabettus Hill from the Pedion tou Areos park. By the late 1970s, the pollution of Athens had become so destructive that according to the then Greek Minister of Culture, Constantine Trypanis, "...the carved details on the five the caryatids of the Erechtheum had seriously degenerated, while the face of the horseman on the Parthenon's west side was all but obliterated."[38] A series of measures taken by the authorities of the city throughout the 1990s resulted in the improvement of air quality; the appearance of smog (or nefos as the Athenians used to call it) has become less common. Measures taken by the Greek authorities throughout the 1990s have improved the quality of air over the Attica Basin. Nevertheless, air pollution still remains an issue for Athens, particularly during the hottest summer days. In late June 2007,[39] the Attica region experienced a number of brush fires,[39] including a blaze that burned a significant portion of a large forested national park in Mount Parnitha,[40] considered critical to maintaining a better air quality in Athens all year round.[39] Damage to the park has led to worries over a stalling in the improvement of air quality in the city.[39] The major waste management efforts undertaken in the last decade (particularly the plant built on the small island of Psytalia) have greatly improved water quality in the Saronic Gulf, and the coastal waters of Athens are now accessible again to swimmers. In January 2007, Athens faced a waste management problem when its landfill near Ano Liosia, an Athenian suburb, reached capacity.[41] The crisis eased by mid-January when authorities began taking the garbage to a temporary landfill.[41] Safety[edit] Athens ranks in the lowest percentage for the risk on frequency and severity of terrorist attacks according to the EU Global Terrorism Database (EIU 2007–2016 calculations). The city also ranked 35th in Digital Security, 21st on Health Security, 29th on Infrastructure Security and 41st on Personal Security globally in a 2017 The Economist Intelligence Unit report.[42] It also ranks as a very safe city (39th globally out of 162 cities overall) on the ranking of the safest and most dangerous countries.[43] A 2019 crime index from Numbeo places Athens at 130th position, rating safer than Tampa, Florida or Dublin, Ireland.[44] According to a Mercer 2019 Quality of Living Survey, Athens ranks 89th on the Mercer Quality of Living Survey ranking.[45] Climate[edit] Athens has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: Csa). The dominant feature of Athens' climate is alternation between prolonged hot and dry summers and mild winters with moderate rainfall.[46] With an average of 455 millimetres (17.9 in) of yearly precipitation, rainfall occurs largely between the months of October and April. July and August are the driest months when thunderstorms occur sparsely. Furthermore, some coastal areas of Athens, known as the Athens Riviera have a hot semi-arid climate (BSh) according to the climate atlas published by the Hellenic National Meteorological Service (H.N.M.S).[47] Owing to the rain shadow of the Pindus Mountains, annual precipitation of Athens is lower than most other parts of Greece, especially western Greece. As an example, Ioannina receives around 1,300 mm (51 in) per year, and Agrinio around 800 mm (31 in) per year. Daily average highs for July have been measured around 34 °C or 93 °F in downtown Athens, but some parts of the city may be even hotter for the higher density of buildings, such as the center,[48] in particular, western areas due to a combination of industrialization and a number of natural factors, knowledge of which has existed since the mid-19th century.[49][50][51] Dut to the large area covered by Athens Metropolitan Area, there are notable climatic differences between parts of the urban conglomeration. The northern suburbs tend to be wetter and cooler in winter, whereas the southern suburbs are some of the driest locations in Greece and record very high minimum temperatures in summer. Athens is affected by the urban heat island effect in some areas which is caused by human activity,[52][53] altering its temperatures compared to the surrounding rural areas,[54][55][56][57] and leaving detrimental effects on energy usage, expenditure for cooling,[58][59] and health.[53] The urban heat island of the city has also been found to be partially responsible for alterations of the climatological temperature time-series of specific Athens meteorological stations, because of its impact on the temperatures and the temperature trends recorded by some meteorological stations.[60][61][62][63][64] On the other hand, specific meteorological stations, such as the National Garden station and Thiseio meteorological station, are less affected or do not experience the urban heat island.[54][65] Athens holds the World Meteorological Organization record for the highest temperature ever recorded in Europe, at 48 °C (118.4 °F), which was recorded in the Elefsina and Tatoi suburbs of Athens on 10 July 1977.[66] Climate data for Elliniko, Athens (1981–2010), Extremes (1961–present) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 22.4 (72.3) 24.2 (75.6) 27.0 (80.6) 30.9 (87.6) 35.6 (96.1) 40.0 (104.0) 42.0 (107.6) 41.8 (107.2) 37.2 (99.0) 35.2 (95.4) 27.2 (81.0) 22.9 (73.2) 42.0 (107.6) Average high °C (°F) 13.4 (56.1) 13.6 (56.5) 15.9 (60.6) 19.7 (67.5) 24.7 (76.5) 29.6 (85.3) 32.7 (90.9) 32.7 (90.9) 28.6 (83.5) 23.5 (74.3) 18.3 (64.9) 14.6 (58.3) 22.3 (72.1) Daily mean °C (°F) 10.3 (50.5) 10.6 (51.1) 12.3 (54.1) 15.9 (60.6) 20.7 (69.3) 25.2 (77.4) 28.0 (82.4) 27.8 (82.0) 24.2 (75.6) 19.5 (67.1) 15.4 (59.7) 12.0 (53.6) 18.5 (65.3) Average low °C (°F) 6.7 (44.1) 6.5 (43.7) 8.1 (46.6) 11.2 (52.2) 15.4 (59.7) 20.1 (68.2) 22.9 (73.2) 23.0 (73.4) 19.5 (67.1) 15.6 (60.1) 11.5 (52.7) 8.5 (47.3) 14.1 (57.4) Record low °C (°F) −2.9 (26.8) −4.2 (24.4) −2.0 (28.4) 0.6 (33.1) 8.0 (46.4) 11.4 (52.5) 15.5 (59.9) 12.4 (54.3) 10.4 (50.7) 3.0 (37.4) 1.4 (34.5) −1.8 (28.8) −4.2 (24.4) Average rainfall mm (inches) 48.3 (1.90) 40.9 (1.61) 39.7 (1.56) 26.0 (1.02) 15.2 (0.60) 5.6 (0.22) 5.2 (0.20) 7.0 (0.28) 9.6 (0.38) 47.8 (1.88) 55.4 (2.18) 64.1 (2.52) 364.8 (14.35) Average rainy days 13.2 11.8 11.9 9.7 6.8 3.7 1.6 1.8 3.9 8.9 11.3 13.7 98.3 Average relative humidity (%) 68.8 68.0 65.9 62.6 59.0 52.8 47.0 47.1 53.4 62.1 68.7 70.2 60.5 Mean monthly sunshine hours 130.2 134.4 182.9 231.0 291.4 336.0 362.7 341.0 276.0 207.7 153.0 127.1 2,773.4 Source 1: HNMS (1955–1997 normals)[67] Source 2: Deutscher Wetterdienst (Extremes 1961–1990),[68] Info Climat (Extremes 1991–present)[69][70] Climate data for Nea Filadelfia, Athens (1955–1997) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high °C (°F) 12.5 (54.5) 13.5 (56.3) 15.7 (60.3) 20.2 (68.4) 26.0 (78.8) 31.1 (88.0) 33.5 (92.3) 33.2 (91.8) 29.2 (84.6) 23.3 (73.9) 18.1 (64.6) 14.1 (57.4) 22.5 (72.6) Daily mean °C (°F) 8.7 (47.7) 9.3 (48.7) 11.2 (52.2) 15.3 (59.5) 20.7 (69.3) 25.6 (78.1) 28.0 (82.4) 27.4 (81.3) 23.3 (73.9) 18.1 (64.6) 13.7 (56.7) 10.3 (50.5) 17.6 (63.7) Average low °C (°F) 5.2 (41.4) 5.4 (41.7) 6.7 (44.1) 9.6 (49.3) 13.9 (57.0) 18.2 (64.8) 20.8 (69.4) 20.7 (69.3) 17.3 (63.1) 13.4 (56.1) 9.8 (49.6) 6.8 (44.2) 12.3 (54.2) Average precipitation mm (inches) 56.9 (2.24) 46.7 (1.84) 40.7 (1.60) 30.8 (1.21) 22.7 (0.89) 10.6 (0.42) 5.8 (0.23) 6.0 (0.24) 13.9 (0.55) 52.6 (2.07) 58.3 (2.30) 69.1 (2.72) 414.1 (16.31) Average precipitation days 12.6 10.4 10.2 8.1 6.2 3.7 1.9 1.7 3.3 7.2 9.7 12.1 87.1 Average relative humidity (%) 74.5 72.2 68.8 61.7 53.9 46.1 43.1 45.3 53.7 66.1 74.3 76.1 61.3 Source: HNMS[71] Climate data for Downtown Athens (2001–2019), Extremes (1890–present) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 22.7 (72.9) 25.3 (77.5) 28.9 (84.0) 32.2 (90.0) 38.4 (101.1) 44.8 (112.6) 43.0 (109.4) 42.6 (108.7) 38.6 (101.5) 36.5 (97.7) 30.5 (86.9) 22.9 (73.2) 44.8 (112.6) Average high °C (°F) 13.6 (56.5) 14.5 (58.1) 17.7 (63.9) 21.5 (70.7) 26.8 (80.2) 31.8 (89.2) 34.8 (94.6) 34.8 (94.6) 29.9 (85.8) 24.4 (75.9) 19.4 (66.9) 14.6 (58.3) 23.6 (74.5) Daily mean °C (°F) 10.5 (50.9) 11.1 (52.0) 13.8 (56.8) 17.1 (62.8) 22.2 (72.0) 26.9 (80.4) 29.8 (85.6) 29.9 (85.8) 25.3 (77.5) 20.4 (68.7) 16.0 (60.8) 11.7 (53.1) 19.6 (67.3) Average low °C (°F) 7.4 (45.3) 7.8 (46.0) 10.0 (50.0) 12.8 (55.0) 17.5 (63.5) 22.0 (71.6) 24.8 (76.6) 25.0 (77.0) 20.8 (69.4) 16.4 (61.5) 12.6 (54.7) 8.8 (47.8) 15.5 (59.9) Record low °C (°F) −6.5 (20.3) −5.7 (21.7) −2.6 (27.3) 1.7 (35.1) 6.2 (43.2) 11.8 (53.2) 16 (61) 15.5 (59.9) 8.9 (48.0) 5.9 (42.6) −1.1 (30.0) −4.0 (24.8) −6.5 (20.3) Average rainfall mm (inches) 59.6 (2.35) 52.1 (2.05) 37.6 (1.48) 26.9 (1.06) 19.2 (0.76) 14.3 (0.56) 12.0 (0.47) 4.0 (0.16) 38.4 (1.51) 41.4 (1.63) 70.0 (2.76) 79.6 (3.13) 455.1 (17.92) Source: Meteoclub[72] Locations[edit] Neighbourhoods of the Center of Athens (Municipality of Athens)[edit] Changing of the Greek Presidential Guard in front of the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier at Syntagma Square. The Municipality of Athens, the City Centre of the Athens Urban Area, is divided into several districts: Omonoia, Syntagma, Exarcheia, Agios Nikolaos, Neapolis, Lykavittos, Lofos Strefi, Lofos Finopoulou, Lofos Filopappou, Pedion Areos, Metaxourgeio, Aghios Kostantinos, Larissa Station, Kerameikos, Psiri, Monastiraki, Gazi, Thission, Kapnikarea, Aghia Irini, Aerides, Anafiotika, Plaka, Acropolis, Pnyka, Makrygianni, Lofos Ardittou, Zappeion, Aghios Spyridon, Pangrati, Kolonaki, Dexameni, Evaggelismos, Gouva, Aghios Ioannis, Neos Kosmos, Koukaki, Kynosargous, Fix, Ano Petralona, Kato Petralona, Rouf, Votanikos, Profitis Daniil, Akadimia Platonos, Kolonos, Kolokynthou, Attikis Square, Lofos Skouze, Sepolia, Kypseli, Aghios Meletios, Nea Kypseli, Gyzi, Polygono, Ampelokipoi, Panormou-Gerokomeio, Pentagono, Ellinorosson, Nea Filothei, Ano Kypseli, Tourkovounia-Lofos Patatsou, Lofos Elikonos, Koliatsou, Thymarakia, Kato Patisia, Treis Gefyres, Aghios Eleftherios, Ano Patisia, Kypriadou, Menidi, Prompona, Aghios Panteleimonas, Pangrati, Goudi, Vyronas and Ilisia. Omonoia, Omonoia Square, (Greek: Πλατεία Ομονοίας) is the oldest square in Athens. It is surrounded by hotels and fast food outlets, and contains a metro station, named Omonia station. The square is the focus for celebration of sporting victories, as seen after the country's winning of the Euro 2004 and the EuroBasket 2005 tournaments. Aiolou Street in the centre. On the left is the building of the National Bank of Greece. Metaxourgeio (Greek: Μεταξουργείο) is a neighborhood of Athens. The neighborhood is located north of the historical centre of Athens, between Kolonos to the east and Kerameikos to the west, and north of Gazi. Metaxourgeio is frequently described as a transition neighborhood. After a long period of abandonment in the late 20th century, the area is acquiring a reputation as an artistic and fashionable neighborhood following the opening of art galleries, museums, restaurants and cafés. [1] Local efforts to beautify and invigorate the neighborhood have reinforced a sense of community and artistic expression. Anonymous art pieces containing quotes and statements in both English and Ancient Greek have sprung up throughout the neighborhood, bearing statements such as "Art for art's sake" (Τέχνη τέχνης χάριν). Guerrilla gardening has also helped to beautify the area. Apartment buildings near Kolonaki Square. Psiri – The reviving Psiri (Greek: Ψυρρή) neighbourhood – also known as Athens's "meat packing district" – is dotted with renovated former mansions, artists' spaces, and small gallery areas. A number of its renovated buildings also host fashionable bars, making it a hotspot for the city in the last decade, while live music restaurants known as "rebetadika", after rebetiko, a unique form of music that blossomed in Syros and Athens from the 1920s until the 1960s, are to be found. Rebetiko is admired by many, and as a result rebetadika are often crammed with people of all ages who will sing, dance and drink till dawn. The Gazi (Greek: Γκάζι) area, one of the latest in full redevelopment, is located around a historic gas factory, now converted into the Technopolis cultural multiplex, and also includes artists' areas, small clubs, bars and restaurants, as well as Athens's "Gay village". The metro's expansion to the western suburbs of the city has brought easier access to the area since spring 2007, as the blue line now stops at Gazi (Kerameikos station). Syntagma, Syntagma Square, (Greek: Σύνταγμα/Constitution Square), is the capital's central and largest square, lying adjacent to the Greek Parliament (the former Royal Palace) and the city's most notable hotels. Ermou Street, an approximately one-kilometre-long (5⁄8-mile) pedestrian road connecting Syntagma Square to Monastiraki, is a consumer paradise for both Athenians and tourists. Complete with fashion shops and shopping centres promoting most international brands, it now finds itself in the top five most expensive shopping streets in Europe, and the tenth most expensive retail street in the world.[73] Nearby, the renovated Army Fund building in Panepistimiou Street includes the "Attica" department store and several upmarket designer stores. Neoclassical Houses in the historical neighbourhood of Plaka. Plaka, Monastiraki, and Thission – Plaka (Greek: Πλάκα), lying just beneath the Acropolis, is famous for its plentiful neoclassical architecture, making up one of the most scenic districts of the city. It remains a prime tourist destination with tavernas, live performances and street salesmen. Nearby Monastiraki (Greek: Μοναστηράκι), for its part, is known for its string of small shops and markets, as well as its crowded flea market and tavernas specialising in souvlaki. Another district known for its student-crammed, stylish cafés is Theseum or Thission (Greek: Θησείο), lying just west of Monastiraki. Thission is home to the ancient Temple of Hephaestus, standing atop a small hill. This area also has a picturesque 11th-century Byzantine church, as well as a 15th-century Ottoman mosque. Exarcheia (Greek: Εξάρχεια), located north of Kolonaki, often regarded as the city's anarchist scene and as a student quarter with cafés, bars and bookshops. Exarcheia is home to the Athens Polytechnic and the National Archaeological Museum; it also contains important buildings of several 20th-century styles: Neoclassicism, Art Deco and Early Modernism (including Bauhaus influences).[citation needed] Kolonaki (Greek: Κολωνάκι) is the area at the base of Lycabettus hill, full of boutiques catering to well-heeled customers by day, and bars and more fashionable restaurants by night, with galleries and museums. This is often regarded as one of the more prestigious areas of the capital. Parks and zoos[edit] The entrance of the National Gardens, commissioned by Queen Amalia in 1838 and completed by 1840 Parnitha National Park is punctuated by well-marked paths, gorges, springs, torrents and caves dotting the protected area. Hiking and mountain-biking in all four mountains are popular outdoor activities for residents of the city. The National Garden of Athens was completed in 1840 and is a green refuge of 15.5 hectares in the centre of the Greek capital. It is to be found between the Parliament and Zappeion buildings, the latter of which maintains its own garden of seven hectares. Parts of the City Centre have been redeveloped under a masterplan called the Unification of Archeological Sites of Athens, which has also gathered funding from the EU to help enhance the project.[74][75] The landmark Dionysiou Areopagitou Street has been pedestrianised, forming a scenic route. The route starts from the Temple of Olympian Zeus at Vasilissis Olgas Avenue, continues under the southern slopes of the Acropolis near Plaka, and finishes just beyond the Temple of Hephaestus in Thiseio. The route in its entirety provides visitors with views of the Parthenon and the Agora (the meeting point of ancient Athenians), away from the busy City Centre. The hills of Athens also provide green space. Lycabettus, Philopappos hill and the area around it, including Pnyx and Ardettos hill, are planted with pines and other trees, with the character of a small forest rather than typical metropolitan parkland. Also to be found is the Pedion tou Areos (Field of Mars) of 27.7 hectares, near the National Archaeological Museum. Athens' largest zoo is the Attica Zoological Park, a 20-hectare (49-acre) private zoo located in the suburb of Spata. The zoo is home to around 2000 animals representing 400 species, and is open 365 days a year. Smaller zoos exist within public gardens or parks, such as the zoo within the National Garden of Athens. Urban and suburban municipalities[edit] View of Vila Atlantis, in Kifissia, designed by Ernst Ziller. Beach in the southern suburb of Alimos, one of the many beaches in the southern coast of Athens The Athens Metropolitan Area consists of 58[17] densely populated municipalities, sprawling around the Municipality of Athens (the City Centre) in virtually all directions. For the Athenians, all the urban municipalities surrounding the City Centre are called suburbs. According to their geographic location in relation to the City of Athens, the suburbs are divided into four zones; the northern suburbs (including Agios Stefanos, Dionysos, Ekali, Nea Erythraia, Kifissia, Kryoneri, Maroussi, Pefki, Lykovrysi, Metamorfosi, Nea Ionia, Nea Filadelfeia, Irakleio, Vrilissia, Melissia, Penteli, Chalandri, Agia Paraskevi, Gerakas, Pallini, Galatsi, Psychiko and Filothei); the southern suburbs (including Alimos, Nea Smyrni, Moschato, Tavros, Agios Ioannis Rentis, Kallithea, Piraeus, Agios Dimitrios, Palaio Faliro, Elliniko, Glyfada, Lagonisi, Saronida, Argyroupoli, Ilioupoli, Varkiza, Voula, Vari and Vouliagmeni); the eastern suburbs (including Zografou, Dafni, Vyronas, Kaisariani, Cholargos and Papagou); and the western suburbs (including Peristeri, Ilion, Egaleo, Koridallos, Agia Varvara, Keratsini, Perama, Nikaia, Drapetsona, Chaidari, Petroupoli, Agioi Anargyroi, Ano Liosia, Aspropyrgos, Eleusina, Acharnes and Kamatero). The Athens city coastline, extending from the major commercial port of Piraeus to the southernmost suburb of Varkiza for some 25 km (20 mi),[76] is also connected to the City Centre by tram. In the northern suburb of Maroussi, the upgraded main Olympic Complex (known by its Greek acronym OAKA) dominates the skyline. The area has been redeveloped according to a design by the Spanish architect Santiago Calatrava, with steel arches, landscaped gardens, fountains, futuristic glass, and a landmark new blue glass roof which was added to the main stadium. A second Olympic complex, next to the sea at the beach of Palaio Faliro, also features modern stadia, shops and an elevated esplanade. Work is underway to transform the grounds of the old Athens Airport – named Elliniko – in the southern suburbs, into one of the largest landscaped parks in Europe, to be named the Hellenikon Metropolitan Park.[77] Many of the southern suburbs (such as Alimos, Palaio Faliro, Elliniko, Glyfada, Voula, Vouliagmeni and Varkiza) known as the Athens Riviera, host a number of sandy beaches, most of which are operated by the Greek National Tourism Organisation and require an entrance fee. Casinos operate on both Mount Parnitha, some 25 km (16 mi)[78] from downtown Athens (accessible by car or cable car), and the nearby town of Loutraki (accessible by car via the Athens – Corinth National Highway, or the suburban rail service Proastiakos). Coastline of Palaio Faliro Administration[edit] The former mayor of Athens Giorgos Kaminis (right) with the ex–Prime Minister of Greece, George Papandreou Jr. (left). The large City Centre (Greek: Κέντρο της Αθήνας) of the Greek capital falls directly within the Municipality of Athens or Athens Municipality (Greek: Δήμος Αθηναίων)—also City of Athens. Athens Municipality is the largest in population size in Greece. Piraeus also forms a significant city centre on its own,[79] within the Athens Urban Area and it is the second largest in population size within it, with Peristeri, Kallithea and Kypseli following. Athens Urban Area[edit] View of the Athens Urban Area and the Saronic Gulf. The Athens Urban Area (Greek: Πολεοδομικό Συγκρότημα Αθηνών), also known as Urban Area of the Capital (Greek: Πολεοδομικό Συγκρότημα Πρωτεύουσας), today consists of 40 municipalities, 35 of which make up what is referred to as the Greater Athens municipalities, located within 4 regional units (North Athens, West Athens, Central Athens, South Athens); and a further 5, which make up the Greater Piraeus municipalities, located within the regional unit of Piraeus as mentioned above. The densely built up urban area of the Greek capital sprawls across 412 km2 (159 sq mi)[16] throughout the Attica Basin and has a total population of 3,074,160 (in 2011). View of Neapoli, Athens The Athens Municipality forms the core and center of Greater Athens, which in its turn consists of the Athens Municipality and 34 more municipalities, divided in four regional units (Central, North, South and West Athens), accounting for 2,641,511 people (in 2011)[2] within an area of 361 km2 (139 sq mi).[16] Until 2010, these four regional units made up the abolished Athens Prefecture. The municipality of Piraeus, the historic Athenian port, with 4 other municipalities make up the regional unit of Piraeus. The regional units of Central Athens, North Athens, South Athens, West Athens and Piraeus with part of East[80] and West Attica[81] regional units combined make up the continuous Athens Urban Area,[81][82][83] also called the "Urban Area of the Capital" or simply "Athens" (the most common use of the term), spanning over 412 km2 (159 sq mi),[84] with a population of 3,090,508 people as of 2011. The Athens Urban Area is considered to form the city of Athens as a whole, despite its administrative divisions, which is the largest in Greece and one of the most populated urban areas in Europe. Municipalities of Greater Athens Central Athens: 1. City of Athens 2. Dafni-Ymittos 3. Ilioupoli 4. Vyronas 5. Kaisariani 6. Zografou 7. Galatsi 8. Filadelfeia-Chalkidona West Athens: 29. Egaleo 30. Agia Varvara 31. Chaidari 32. Peristeri 33. Petroupoli 34. Ilion 35. Agioi Anargyroi-Kamatero North Athens: 9. Nea Ionia 10. Irakleio 11. Metamorfosi 12. Lykovrysi-Pefki 13. Kifissia 14. Penteli 15. Marousi 16. Vrilissia 17. Agia Paraskevi 18. Papagou-Cholargos 19. Chalandri 20. Filothei-Psychiko South Athens: 21. Glyfada 22. Elliniko-Argyroupoli 23. Alimos 24. Agios Dimitrios 25. Nea Smyrni 26. Palaio Faliro 27. Kallithea 28. Moschato-Tavros Athens Urban Area Regional units: Central Athens: *     Athens Municipality *     Other municipalities      North Athens      South Athens      West Athens      Piraeus Athens Metropolitan Area[edit] View of Athens and the Saronic Gulf from the Philopappou Hill. The Athens Metropolitan Area (Greek: Μητροπολιτική Περιοχή της Αθήνας), also commonly known in English as Greater Athens,[85] spans 2,928.717 km2 (1,131 sq mi) within the Attica region and includes a total of 58 municipalities, which are organized in seven regional units (those outlined above, along with East Attica and West Attica), having reached a population of 3,737,550 based on the preliminary results of the 2011 census. Athens and Piraeus municipalities serve as the two metropolitan centres of the Athens Metropolitan Area.[86] There are also some inter-municipal centres serving specific areas. For example, Kifissia and Glyfada serve as inter-municipal centres for northern and southern suburbs respectively. Demographics[edit] The Athens Urban Area within the Attica Basin from space Athens population distribution Population in modern times[edit] The seven districts of the Athens Municipality The Municipality of Athens has an official population of 664,046 people.[2] The four regional units that make up what is referred to as Greater Athens have a combined population of 2,640,701. They together with the regional unit of Piraeus (Greater Piraeus) make up the dense Athens Urban Area which reaches a total population of 3,090,508 inhabitants (in 2011).[17] As Eurostat the FUA of Athens had in 2013 3,828,434 inhabitants, being apparently decreasing compared with the pre-economic crisis date of 2009 (4,164,175)[18] The municipality (Center) of Athens is the most populous in Greece, with a population of 664,046 people (in 2011)[2] and an area of 38.96 km2 (15.04 sq mi),[15] forming the core of the Athens Urban Area within the Attica Basin. The incumbent Mayor of Athens is Kostas Bakoyannis of New Democracy. The municipality is divided into seven municipal districts which are mainly used for administrative purposes. As of the 2011 census, the population for each of the seven municipal districts of Athens is as follows:[87] 1st: 75,810 2nd: 103,004 3rd: 46,508 4th: 85,629 5th: 98,665 6th: 130,582 7th: 123,848 For the Athenians the most popular way of dividing the downtown is through its neighbourhoods such as Pagkrati, Ambelokipi, Goudi, Exarcheia, Patissia, Ilissia, Petralona, Plaka, Anafiotika, Koukaki and Kypseli, each with its own distinct history and characteristics. Population of the Athens Metropolitan Area[edit] The Athens Metropolitan Area, with an area of 2,928.717 km2 (1,131 sq mi) and inhabited by 3,753,783 people in 2011,[2] consists of the Athens Urban Area with the addition of the towns and villages of East and West Attica, which surround the dense urban area of the Greek capital. It actually sprawls over the whole peninsula of Attica, which is the best part of the region of Attica, excluding the islands. Classification of regional units within Greater Athens, Athens Urban Area and Athens Metropolitan Area Regional unit Population (2011) Central Athens 1,029,520 Greater Athens 2,641,511 Athens Urban Area 3,090,508 Athens Metropolitan Area 3,753,783 North Athens 592,490 South Athens 529,826 West Athens 489,675 Piraeus 448,997 Greater Piraeus 448,997 East Attica 502,348 West Attica 160,927 Population in ancient times[edit] Mycenean Athens in 1600–1100 BC could have reached the size of Tiryns; that would put the population at the range of 10,000–15,000.[88] During the Greek Dark Ages the population of Athens was around 4,000 people. In 700 BC the population grew to 10,000. In 500 BC the area probably contained 200,000 people. During the classical period the city's population is estimated from 150,000 to 350,000 and up to 610,000 according to Thucydides. When Demetrius of Phalerum conducted a population census in 317 BC the population was 21,000 free citizens, plus 10,000 resident aliens and 400,000 slaves. This suggests a total population of 431,000.[89][90][91][92][93][94][95][96][97] This figure is highly suspect because of the lopsided number of slaves and does not include free women and children and resident foreigners: an estimated based on Thucydides is: 40,000 male citizens, 100,000 family members, 70,000 metics (resident foreigners) and 150,000-400,000 slaves. However the numbers would include all of Athenian territory which consisted almost entirely of modern Attica region expect the territory of the city-state of Megaris and the island section. The ancient site of the main city is centred on the rocky hill of the acropolis. In the whole of Athenian territory they existed many towns. Acharnae, Afidnes, Cytherus, Colonus, Corydallus, Cropia, Decelea, Euonymos, Vravron among others was important towns in Athenian countryside. The new port of Piraeus was a prototype harbour with the infrastructure and housing located in the site between modern passenger section of the port (named Kantharos in ancient times) and the Pasalimani harbour (named Zea in ancient times). The old one Phaliro was in the site of modern Palaio Faliro and gradually declined after the construction of the new prototype port but remained as a minor port and important settlement with historic significance in late Classical times. The rapid expansion of the modern city, which continues to this day, was initiated in the 1950s and 1960s, because of Greece's transition from an agricultural to an industrial nation.[98] The expansion is now particularly toward the East and North East (a tendency greatly related to the new Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport and the Attiki Odos, the freeway that cuts across Attica). By this process Athens has engulfed many former suburbs and villages in Attica, and continues to do so. The table below shows the historical population of Athens in recent times. Year City population Urban population Metro population 1833 4,000[99] – – 1870 44,500[99] – – 1896 123,000[99] – – 1921 (Pre-Population exchange) 473,000[32] – – 1921 (Post-Population exchange) 718,000[99] – – 1971 867,023 – 2,540,241[100] 1981 885,737 – 3,369,443 1991 772,072 3,444,358 3,523,407[101] 2001 745,514[102] 3,165,823[102] 3,761,810[102] 2011 664,046 3,181,872 3,753,783[17] Religion[edit] Religion in Athens[103] Greek Orthodoxy 71% Other Christian 6% Atheism and irreligion 11% Islam 10% Other 2% Government and politics[edit] Athens became the capital of Greece in 1834, following Nafplion, which was the provisional capital from 1829. The municipality (City) of Athens is also the capital of the Attica region. The term Athens can refer either to the Municipality of Athens, to Greater Athens, or to the entire Athens Urban Area. The Hellenic Parliament The Presidential Mansion, formerly the Crown Prince Palace, in Herodou Attikou Street. The Maximos Mansion, official office of the Prime Minister of the Hellenic Republic, in Herodou Attikou Street. The Athens City Hall in Kotzia Square was designed by Panagiotis Kolkas and completed in 1874.[104] The Embassy of France in Vasilissis Sofias Avenue. The Italian Embassy in Vasilissis Sofias Avenue. International relations and influence[edit] See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Greece Twin towns – sister cities[edit] Athens is twinned with:[105] Beijing, China (2005)[105][106] Bethlehem, Palestine (1986)[105] Bucharest, Romania[107][108] Los Angeles, United States (1984)[105][109] Nicosia, Cyprus (1988)[105][110] Famagusta, Cyprus (2005)[105] Partnerships[edit] Belgrade, Serbia (1966)[111] Paris, France (2000)[112] Ljubljana, Slovenia[113] Naples, Italy[114] Yerevan, Armenia (1993)[115] Other locations named after Athens[edit]  United States Athens, Alabama (pop. 24,234) Athens, Arkansas[116] Athens, California West Athens, California (pop. 9,101) Athens, Georgia (pop. 114,983) Athens, Illinois (pop. 1,726) New Athens, Illinois (pop. 2,620) New Athens Township, St. Clair County, Illinois (pop. 2,620)      Athens, Indiana Athens, Kentucky Athens, Louisiana (pop. 262) Athens Township, Jewell County, Kansas (pop. 74) Athens, Maine (pop. 847) Athens, Michigan (pop. 1,111) Athens Township, Michigan (pop. 2,571) Athens, Minnesota Athens Township, Minnesota (pop. 2,322) Athens, Mississippi Athens (town), New York (pop. 3,991) Athens (village), New York (pop. 1,695) Athens, Ohio (pop. 21,909) Athens County, Ohio (pop. 62,223) Athens Township, Athens County, Ohio (pop. 27,714) Athens Township, Harrison County, Ohio (pop. 520) New Athens, Ohio (pop. 342) Athena, Oregon (pop. 1,270) Athens, Pennsylvania (pop. 3,415) Athens Township, Bradford County, Pennsylvania (pop. 5,058) Athens Township, Crawford County, Pennsylvania (pop. 775) Athens, Tennessee (pop. 13,220) Athens, Texas (pop. 11,297) Athens, Vermont (pop. 340) Athens, West Virginia (pop. 1,102) Athens, Wisconsin (pop. 1,095)  Canada Athens Township, Ontario (pop. 3,086)                                   Costa Rica Atenas (pop. 7,716) Atenas (canton) (pop. 23,743)  Germany Athenstedt, Saxony-Anhalt (pop. 431)                  HON Atenas De San Cristóbal, Atlántida[117]  ITA Atena Lucana, Province of Salerno, Campania (pop. 2,344) Atina, Province of Frosinone, Lazio (pop. 4,480)  POL Ateny, Podlaskie Voivodeship (pop. 40)  UKR Afini (Zoria – Зоря), Donetsk (pop. 200) Economy and infrastructure[edit] Ermou street, the main commercial street of Athens, near the Syntagma Square. Athens is the financial capital of Greece. According to data from 2014, Athens as a metropolitan economic area produced 130 billion US-dollars as GDP in PPP, which consists nearly a half of the production for the whole country. In the list with the strongest economic metropoles of the world Athens was ranked that year 102nd, while the GDP per capita for the same year was 32,000 US-dollars.[118] Athens is one of the major economic centres in south-eastern Europe and is considered as a regional economic power in Europe generally. The port of Piraeus, where big investments by COSCO have already been delivered during the recent decade, the completion of the new Cargo Centre in Thriasion,[119] the expansion of the Athens Metro and the Athens Tram, as well as the projected metropolitan park in Elliniko and other economic projects are the economic landmarks of the upcoming years. Important Greek companies such as Hellenic Aerospace Industry, Hellas Sat, Mytilineos Holdings, Titan Cement, Hellenic Petroleum, Papadopoulos E.J., Folli Follie, Jumbo S.A., OPAP, and Cosmote have their headquarters in the metropolitan area of Athens. Multinational companies such as Ericsson, Sony, Siemens, Motorola, Samsung, Microsoft, Novartis, Mondelez, Coca-Cola, etc. have their regional research and development headquarters also there. The 28-storey Athens Tower, which houses offices, was completed in 1971 and is the tallest building in Greece. The banking sector is represented by National Bank of Greece, Alpha Bank, Eurobank, and Piraeus Bank, while the Bank of Greece is also situated in the City Centre. The Athens Stock Exchange, the only in Greece, has been severely hit by the Greek government-debt crisis and the decision of the government to proceed into capital controls during summer 2015. As a whole the economy of Athens and Greece has been severely hit with today's data showing a change from long recession to growth of 1.4% in 2017.[120] Tourism is also a great contributor for the economy of the city, which is considered as one of the top destinations in Europe for city-break tourism and is also the gateway for excursions to the islands or the mainland. Greece attracted 26.5 million visitors in 2015, 30.1 million visitors in 2017 and over 33 million in 2018, making Greece one of the most visited countries in Europe and the world, and contributing 18% to the nation's Gross Domestic Product. Athens welcomed more than 5 million tourists in 2018 and 1,4 million of them were "city-breakers" (in 2013 the city-breakers were only 220.000).[121] Transport[edit] Main article: Public transport in Athens Athens railways network (metro, proastiakós and tram) Athens is the major transportation hub of Greece. The city has the largest airport in Greece and the largest port in Greece, which is also the largest port in Mediterranean in containers transport and the largest passenger port in Europe. It is also a major national hub for Intercity (Ktel) and international buses as well as for domestic and international rail transport. Public transport is serviced by a variety of transportation means, forming the largest mass transit system of Greece. The Athens Mass Transit System consists of a large bus fleet, a trolleybus fleet that mainly serves Athens's city center, the city's Metro, a Proastiakos service[122] and a tram network, connecting the southern suburbs to the City Centre.[123] Bus transport[edit] OSY (Greek: ΟΣΥ) (Odikes Sygkoinonies S.A.) which is subsidiary company of OASA (Athens urban transport organisation), is the main operator of buses and trolleybusses in Athens. Its network consists of about 300 bus lines and 22 trolleybus lines which span the Athens Metropolitan Area,[124] with a fleet of 1,839 buses and 366 trolleybuses.[125] Of those 1,839 buses 416 run on compressed natural gas,[125] making up the largest fleet of natural gas-powered buses in Europe[126] and all trolleybuses are equipped to enable them to run on diesel in case of power failure.[127] International links are provided by a number of private companies. National and regional bus links are provided by KTEL from two InterCity Bus Terminals, Kifissos Bus Terminal A and Liosion Bus Terminal B, both located in the north-western part of the city. Kifissos provides connections towards Peloponnese, North Greece, West Greece and some Ionian Islands, whereas Liosion is used for most of Central Greece. Athens Metro[edit] Main article: Athens Metro Athens Metro train (3rd generation stock) The Athens Metro is operated by STASY S.A (Greek: ΣΤΑΣΥ) (Statheres Sygkoinonies S.A) which is a subsidiary company of OASA (Athens urban transport organisation) and provides public transport throughout the Athens Urban Area. While its main purpose is transport, it also houses Greek artifacts found during construction of the system.[128] The Athens Metro runs three metro lines, namely the line 1 (Green Line), line 2 (Red Line) and line 3 (Blue Line) lines, of which the first was constructed in 1869, and the other two largely during the 1990s, with the initial new sections opened in January 2000. Line 1 mostly runs at ground level and the other two (Line 2 & 3) routes run entirely underground. A fleet of 42 trains, using 252 carriages, operates on the network,[129] with a daily occupancy of 1,353,000 passengers.[130] The line 1 (Green Line) serves 24 stations, and is the oldest line of the Athens metro network. It runs from Piraeus station to Kifissia station and covers a distance of 25.6-kilometre (15.9 mi). There are transfer connections with the Blue Line 3 at Monastiraki station and with the Red Line 2 at Omonia and Attiki stations. The line 2 (Red Line) runs from Anthoupoli station to Elliniko station and covers a distance of 17.5 km (10.9 mi).[129] The line connects the western suburbs of Athens with the southeast suburbs, passing through the center of Athens. The Red Line has transfer connections with the Green Line 1 at Attiki and Omonia stations. There are also transfer connections with the Blue Line 3 at Syntagma station and with the tram at Syntagma, Syngrou Fix and Neos Kosmos stations. The line 3 (Blue Line) runs from Nikaia station, through the central Monastiraki and Syntagma stations to Doukissis Plakentias avenue in the northeastern suburb of Halandri.[129] It then ascends to ground level and continues to Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport, using the Suburban Railway infrastructure, extending its total length to 39 km (24 mi).[129] The spring 2007 extension from Monastiraki westwards to Egaleo connected some of the main night life hubs of the city, namely those of Gazi (Kerameikos station) with Psirri (Monastiraki station) and the City Centre (Syntagma station). Extensions are under construction to the west southwest suburbs of Athens, as far as the port of Piraeus. The new stations will be Maniatika, Piraeus and Dimotiko Theatro. The completed extension will be ready in 2022, connecting the biggest port of Greece, Piraeus Port, with the biggest airport of Greece the Athens International Airport. Commuter/suburban rail (Proastiakos)[edit] Main article: Proastiakos Suburban rail The Athens commuter rail service, referred to as the "Proastiakós", connects Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport to the city of Kiato, 106 km (66 mi)[131] west of Athens, via Larissa station, the city's central rail station and the port of Piraeus. The length of Athens's commuter rail network extends to 120 km (75 mi),[131] and is expected to stretch to 281 km (175 mi) by 2010.[131] Tram[edit] Main article: Athens Tram Vehicle of the Athens Tram. Athens tram is operated by STASY S.A (Statheres Sygkoinonies S.A) which is a subsidiary company of OASA (Athens urban transport organisation). It has a fleet of 35 Sirio type vehicles[132] which serve 48 stations,[132] employ 345 people with an average daily occupancy of 65,000 passengers.[132] The tram network spans a total length of 27 km (17 mi) and covers ten Athenian suburbs.[132] The network runs from Syntagma Square to the southwestern suburb of Palaio Faliro, where the line splits in two branches; the first runs along the Athens coastline toward the southern suburb of Voula, while the other heads toward Neo Faliro. The network covers the majority of the Athens coastline.[133] Further extension is under construction towards the major commercial port of Piraeus.[132] The expansion to Piraeus will include 12 new stations, increase the overall length of tram route by 5.4 km (3 mi), and increase the overall transportation network.[134] Athens International Airport[edit] Main article: Athens International Airport The new Athens International Airport, that replaced the old Hellinikon International Airport, opened in 2001. Athens is served by the Athens International Airport (ATH), located near the town of Spata, in the eastern Messoghia plain, some 35 km (22 mi) east of center of Athens.[135] The airport, awarded the "European Airport of the Year 2004" Award,[136] is intended as an expandable hub for air travel in southeastern Europe and was constructed in 51 months, costing 2.2 billion euros. It employs a staff of 14,000.[136] The airport is served by the Metro, the suburban rail, buses to Piraeus port, Athens' City Centre, Liosion and Kifisos Intercity bus stations and Elliniko metro's line 2 southern terminal, and also taxis. The airport accommodates 65 landings and take-offs per hour,[135] with its 24-passenger boarding bridges,[135] 144 check-in counters and broader 150,000 m2 (1,614,587 sq ft) main terminal;[135] and a commercial area of 7,000 m2 (75,347 sq ft) which includes cafés, duty-free shops,[136] and a small museum. In 2018, the airport handled 24,135,736 passengers, a huge increase over the last 4 years. In 2014, the airport handled 15,196,369 passengers, an increase of 21.2% over the previous year of 2013.[137] Of those 15,196,369 passengers, 5,267,593 passed through the airport for domestic flights,[138] and 9,970,006 passengers travelled through for international flights.[138] Beyond the dimensions of its passenger capacity, ATH handled 205,294 total flights in 2007, or approximately 562 flights per day.[139] Railways and ferry connections[edit] Athens is the hub of the country's national railway system (OSE), connecting the capital with major cities across Greece and abroad (Istanbul, Sofia, Belgrade and Bucharest). The Port of Piraeus is the largest port in Greece and one of the largest in Europe. It is the largest container port in East Mediterranean Sea Basin. It is also the busiest passenger port in Europe and one of the largest passenger ports in the world. It connects Athens to the numerous Greek islands of the Aegean Sea, with ferries departing, while also serving the cruise ships that arrive.[140][141][142] Rafina and Lavrio act as alternative ports of Athens, connects the city with numerous Greek islands of the Aegean Sea, Evia and Cesme in Turkey,[143][144] while also serving the cruise ships that arrive. Motorways[edit] Further information: Highways in Greece Interchange at the Attiki Odos airport entrance View of Hymettus tangent (Periferiaki Imittou) from Kalogeros Hill Two main motorways of Greece begin in Athens, namely the A1/E75, heading north towards Greece's second largest city, Thessaloniki; and the border crossing of Evzones and the A8/E94 heading west, towards Greece's third largest city, Patras, which incorporated the GR-8A. Before their completion much of the road traffic used the GR-1 and the GR-8. Athens' Metropolitan Area is served by the motorway network of the Attiki Odos toll-motorway (code: A6). Its main section extends from the western industrial suburb of Elefsina to Athens International Airport; while two beltways, namely the Aigaleo Beltway (A65) and the Hymettus Beltway (A64) serve parts of western and eastern Athens respectively. The span of the Attiki Odos in all its length is 65 km (40 mi),[145] making it the largest metropolitan motorway network in all of Greece. Motorways: A1/E75 N (Lamia, Larissa, Thessaloniki) A8 (GR-8A)/E94 W (Elefsina, Corinth, Patras) A6 W (Elefsina) E (Airport) National roads: GR-1 Ν (Lamia, Larissa, Thessaloniki) GR-8 W (Corinth, Patras) GR-3 N (Elefsina, Lamia, Larissa) Education[edit] Facade of the Academy of Athens Located on Panepistimiou Street, the old campus of the University of Athens, the National Library, and the Athens Academy form the "Athens Trilogy" built in the mid-19th century. The largest and oldest university in Athens is the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens. Most of the functions of NKUA have been transferred to a campus in the eastern suburb of Zografou. The National Technical University of Athens is located on Patision Street. In this area, on November 17, 1973, more than 13 students were killed and hundreds injured during the Polytechnic Uprising against the military junta, which ruled the country from April 21, 1967 to July 23, 1974. Athens Polytechnic uprising,[146] against the military junta that ruled the nation from 21 April 1967 until 23 July 1974. The National Library of Greece. The University of West Attica is the second largest university in Athens. The seat of the university is located in the Western Sector of Athens where Ancient Athenian Philosophers gave academic lectures. All the activities of UNIWA are carried out in the modern infrastructure of the three University Campuses within the metropolitan region of Athens (Egaleo Park, Ancient Olive Groove and Athens), which offer modern teaching and research spaces, entertainment and support facilities for all students. Other universities that lie within Athens are the Athens University of Economics and Business, the Panteion University, the Agricultural University of Athens and the University of Piraeus. There are overall ten state-supported Institutions of Higher (or Tertiary) education located in the Athens Urban Area, these are by chronological order: Athens School of Fine Arts (1837), National Technical University of Athens (1837), National and Kapodistrian University of Athens (1837), Agricultural University of Athens (1920), Athens University of Economics and Business (1920), Panteion University of Social and Political Sciences (1927), University of Piraeus (1938), Harokopio University of Athens (1990), School of Pedagogical and Technological Education (2002), University of West Attica (2018). There are also several other private colleges, as they called formally in Greece, as the establishment of private universities is prohibited by the constitution. Many of them are accredited by a foreign state or university such as the American College of Greece and the Athens Campus of the University of Indianapolis.[147] Culture[edit] Main article: Culture of Greece Archaeological hub[edit] The Artemision Bronze or God of the Sea, that represents either Zeus or Poseidon, is exhibited in the National Archaeological Museum. The Cathedral of Athens (Athens Metropolis). The Caryatides (Καρυάτιδες), or Maidens of Karyai, as displayed in the new Acropolis Museum. One of the female sculptures was taken away from the Erechteion by Lord Elgin and is kept in the British Museum. The city is a world centre of archaeological research. Along with national institutions, such as the Athens University and the Archaeological Society, there are multiple archaeological Museums including the National Archaeological Museum, the Cycladic Museum, the Epigraphic Museum, the Byzantine & Christian Museum, as well as museums at the ancient Agora, Acropolis, Kerameikos, and the Kerameikos Archaeological Museum. The city is also home to the Demokritos laboratory for Archaeometry, alongside regional and national archaeological authorities that form part of the Greek Department of Culture. Interior of the Academy of Athens, designed by Theophil Hansen. Athens hosts 17 Foreign Archaeological Institutes which promote and facilitate research by scholars from their home countries. As a result, Athens has more than a dozen archaeological libraries and three specialized archaeological laboratories, and is the venue of several hundred specialized lectures, conferences and seminars, as well as dozens of archaeological exhibitions, each year. At any given time, hundreds of international scholars and researchers in all disciplines of archaeology are to be found in the city. Architecture[edit] See also: Modern architecture in Athens The Zappeion Hall Two apartment buildings in central Athens. The left one is a modernist building of the 1930s, while the right one was built in the 1950s. The inner yard, still a feature of thousands of Athenian residences, may reflect a tradition evident since Antiquity.[19][148] Athens incorporates architectural styles ranging from Greco-Roman and Neoclassical to modern times. They are often to be found in the same areas, as Athens is not marked by a uniformity of architectural style. A visitor will quickly notice the absence of tall buildings: Athens has very strict height restriction laws in order to ensure the Acropolis hill is visible throughout the city. Despite the variety in styles, there is evidence of continuity in elements of the architectural environment through the city's history.[19] For the greatest part of the 19th century Neoclassicism dominated Athens, as well as some deviations from it such as Eclecticism, especially in the early 20th century. Thus, the Old Royal Palace was the first important public building to be built, between 1836 and 1843. Later in the mid and late 19th century, Theophil Freiherr von Hansen and Ernst Ziller took part in the construction of many neoclassical buildings such as the Athens Academy and the Zappeion Hall. Ziller also designed many private mansions in the centre of Athens which gradually became public, usually through donations, such as Schliemann's Iliou Melathron. Beginning in the 1920s, modern architecture including Bauhaus and Art Deco began to exert an influence on almost all Greek architects, and buildings both public and private were constructed in accordance with these styles. Localities with a great number of such buildings include Kolonaki, and some areas of the centre of the city; neighbourhoods developed in this period include Kypseli.[149] In the 1950s and 1960s during the extension and development of Athens, other modern movements such as the International style played an important role. The centre of Athens was largely rebuilt, leading to the demolition of a number of neoclassical buildings. The architects of this era employed materials such as glass, marble and aluminium, and many blended modern and classical elements.[150] After World War II, internationally known architects to have designed and built in the city included Walter Gropius, with his design for the US Embassy, and, among others, Eero Saarinen, in his postwar design for the east terminal of the Ellinikon Airport. Urban sculpture[edit] The Old Parliament House, now home to the National History Museum. View from Stadiou Street. All over the city can be found several statues or busts. Apart from the neoclassicals by Leonidas Drosis at the Academy of Athens (Plato, Socrates, Apollo, Athena), other notable include the statue of Theseus by Georgios Fytalis at Thiseion, of philhellenes like Lord Byron, George Canning and William Gladstone, the equestrian statue of Theodoros Kolokotronis by Lazaros Sochos in front of the Old Parliament, statues of Ioannis Kapodistrias, Rigas Feraios and Adamantios Korais at the University, of Evangelos Zappas and Konstantinos Zappas at Zappeion, of Ioannis Varvakis at the National Garden, the "woodbreaker" by Dimitrios Filippotis, the equestrian statue of Alexandros Papagos at Papagou district and various busts of fighters of Greek independence at the Pedion tou Areos. A significant landmark is also the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Syntagma. Museums[edit] Further information: List of museums in Greece The National Archaeological Museum in central Athens The Acropolis Museum Athens' most important museums include: the National Archaeological Museum, the largest archaeological museum in the country, and one of the most important internationally, as it contains a vast collection of antiquities; its artifacts cover a period of more than 5,000 years, from late Neolithic Age to Roman Greece; the Benaki Museum with its several branches for each of its collections including ancient, Byzantine, Ottoman-era, and Chinese art and beyond; the Byzantine and Christian Museum, one of the most important museums of Byzantine art; the Numismatic Museum, housing a major collection of ancient and modern coins; the Museum of Cycladic Art, home to an extensive collection of Cycladic art, including its famous figurines of white marble; the New Acropolis Museum, opened in 2009, and replacing the old museum on the Acropolis. The new museum has proved considerably popular; almost one million people visited during the summer period June–October 2009 alone. A number of smaller and privately owned museums focused on Greek culture and arts are also to be found. the Kerameikos Archaeological Museum, a museum which displays artifacts from the burial site of Kerameikos. Much of the pottery and other artifacts relate to Athenian attitudes towards death and the afterlife, throughout many ages. the Jewish Museum of Greece, a museum which describes the history and culture of the Greek Jewish community. Tourism[edit] Athens has been a destination for travellers since antiquity. Over the past decade, the city's infrastructure and social amenities have improved, in part because of its successful bid to stage the 2004 Olympic Games. The Greek Government, aided by the EU, has funded major infrastructure projects such as the state-of-the-art Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport,[151] the expansion of the Athens Metro system,[74] and the new Attiki Odos Motorway.[74] Athens was voted as the third best European city to visit in 2015 by European Best Destination. More than 240,000 people voted. Entertainment and performing arts[edit] The National Theatre of Greece, near Omonoia Square. Athens is home to 148 theatrical stages, more than any other city in the world, including the ancient Odeon of Herodes Atticus, home to the Athens Festival, which runs from May to October each year.[152][153] In addition to a large number of multiplexes, Athens plays host to open air garden cinemas. The city also supports music venues, including the Athens Concert Hall (Megaro Moussikis), which attracts world class artists.[154] The Athens Planetarium,[155] located in Andrea Syngrou Avenue, in Palaio Faliro[156] is one of the largest and best equipped digital planetaria in the world.[157] The Stavros Niarchos Foundation Cultural Center, inaugurated in 2016, will house the National Library of Greece and the Greek National Opera.[158] Music[edit] The Stavros Niarchos Foundation Cultural Centre, home of the Greek National Opera and the new National Library. The most successful songs during the period 1870–1930 were the so-called Athenian serenades (Αθηναϊκές καντάδες), based on the Heptanesean kantádhes (καντάδες 'serenades'; sing.: καντάδα) and the songs performed on stage (επιθεωρησιακά τραγούδια 'theatrical revue songs') in revues, musical comedies, operettas and nocturnes that were dominating Athens' theatre scene. Notable composers of operettas or nocturnes were Kostas Giannidis, Dionysios Lavrangas, Nikos Hatziapostolou, while Theophrastos Sakellaridis' The Godson remains probably the most popular operetta. Despite the fact that the Athenian songs were not autonomous artistic creations (in contrast with the serenades) and despite their original connection with mainly dramatic forms of Art, they eventually became hits as independent songs. Notable actors of Greek operettas, who made also a series of melodies and songs popular at that time, include Orestis Makris, Kalouta sisters, Vasilis Avlonitis, Afroditi Laoutari, Eleni Papadaki, Marika Nezer, Marika Krevata and others. After 1930, wavering among American and European musical influences as well as the Greek musical tradition. Greek composers begin to write music using the tunes of the tango, waltz, swing, foxtrot, some times combined with melodies in the style of Athenian serenades' repertory. Nikos Gounaris was probably the most renowned composer and singer of the time. In 1923, after the population exchange between Greece and Turkey, many ethnic Greeks from Asia Minor fled to Athens as a result of the Greco-Turkish War. They settled in poor neighborhoods and brought with them Rebetiko music, making it popular also in Greece, which became later the base for the Laïko music. Other forms of song popular today in Greece are elafrolaika, entechno, dimotika, and skyladika.[159] Greece's most notable, and internationally famous, composers of Greek song, mainly of the entechno form, are Manos Hadjidakis and Mikis Theodorakis. Both composers have achieved fame abroad for their composition of film scores.[159] Sports[edit] Overview[edit] Athens has a long tradition in sports and sporting events, serving as home to the most important clubs in Greek sport and housing a large number of sports facilities. The city has also been host to sports events of international importance. Athens has hosted the Summer Olympic Games twice, in 1896 and 2004. The 2004 Summer Olympics required the development of the Athens Olympic Stadium, which has since gained a reputation as one of the most beautiful stadiums in the world, and one of its most interesting modern monuments.[160] The biggest stadium in the country, it hosted two finals of the UEFA Champions League, in 1994 and 2007. Athens' other major stadium, located in the Piraeus area, is the Karaiskakis Stadium, a sports and entertainment complex, host of the 1971 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup Final. Athens has hosted the EuroLeague final three times, the first in 1985 and second in 1993, both at the Peace and Friendship Stadium, most known as SEF, a large indoor arena,[161] and the third time in 2007 at the Olympic Indoor Hall. Events in other sports such as athletics, volleyball, water polo etc., have been hosted in the capital's venues. Athens is home to three European multi-sport clubs: Olympiacos, Panathinaikos, AEK Athens. In football, Olympiacos have dominated the domestic competitions, Panathinaikos made it to the 1971 European Cup Final, while AEK Athens is the other member of the big three. These clubs also have basketball teams; Panathinaikos and Olympiacos are among the top powers in European basketball, having won the Euroleague six times and three respectively, whilst AEK Athens was the first Greek team to win a European trophy in any team sport. Other notable clubs within Athens are Athinaikos, Panionios, Atromitos, Apollon, Panellinios, Egaleo F.C., Ethnikos Piraeus, Maroussi BCE and Peristeri B.C.. Athenian clubs have also had domestic and international success in other sports. The Athens area encompasses a variety of terrain, notably hills and mountains rising around the city, and the capital is the only major city in Europe to be bisected by a mountain range. Four mountain ranges extend into city boundaries and thousands of kilometres of trails criss-cross the city and neighbouring areas, providing exercise and wilderness access on foot and bike. Beyond Athens and across the prefecture of Attica, outdoor activities include skiing, rock climbing, hang gliding and windsurfing. Numerous outdoor clubs serve these sports, including the Athens Chapter of the Sierra Club, which leads over 4,000 outings annually in the area. Sports clubs[edit] Notable sport clubs based inside the boundaries of Athens Municipality Club Founded Sports District Achievements Panellinios G.S. 1891 Basketball, Volleyball, Handball, Track and Field and others Kypseli Panhellenic titles in Basketball, Volleyball, Handball, many honours in Track and Field Apollon Smyrni 1891 (originally in Smyrni) Football, Basketball, Volleyball and others Rizoupoli Earlier long-time presence in A Ethniki Ethnikos G.S. Athens 1893 Track and field, Wrestling, Shooting and others Zappeion Many honours in Athletics and Wrestling Panathinaikos AO 1908 (originally as Football Club of Athens) Football, Basketball, Volleyball, Water Polo, Track and Field and others Ampelokipoi One of the most successful Greek clubs, many titles in many sports. Most successful Greek club in European competitions (football and basketball) Ilisiakos 1927 Football, Basketball Ilisia Earlier presence in A1 Ethniki basketball Asteras Exarchion 1928 (originally as Achilleus Neapoleos) Football, Basketball Exarcheia Earlier presence in A1 Ethniki women basketball Ampelokipoi B.C. 1929 (originally as Hephaestus Athens) Basketball Ampelokipoi Earlier presence in A1 Ethniki basketball Thriamvos Athens 1930 (originally as Doxa Athens) Football, Basketball Neos Kosmos Panhellenic title in women Basketball Sporting B.C. 1936 Basketball Patisia Many Panhellenic titles in women Basketball Pagrati B.C. 1938 Basketball Pagrati Earlier presence in A1 Ethniki Beside the above clubs, inside the boundaries of Athens Municipality there are some more clubs with presence in national divisions or notable action for short periods. Some of them are PAO Rouf (Rouf) with earlier presence in Gamma Ethniki, Petralona F.C.(el) (Petralona), football club founded in 1963, with earlier presence in Beta Ethniki, Attikos F.C.(el) (Kolonos), football club founded in 1919 with short presence in Gamma Ethniki, Athinais Kypselis [es] (Kypseli), football club founded in 1938 with short presence in Gamma Ethniki, Gyziakos (Gyzi), basketball club founded in 1937 with short presence in Beta Ethniki basketball and Aetos B.C.(el) (Agios Panteleimonas), basketball club founded in 1992 with earlier presence in A2 Ethniki Basketball. Another important Athenian sport club is the Athens Tennis Club founded in 1895 with important offer for the Greek tennis.[162] Olympic Games[edit] 1896 Summer Olympics[edit] Main article: 1896 Summer Olympics The revival of the modern Olympic Games was brought forth in 1896, by Frenchman Pierre de Coubertin. Thanks to his efforts, Athens was awarded the first modern Olympic Games. In 1896, the city had a population of 123,000[99] and the event helped boost the city's international profile. Of the venues used for these Olympics, the Kallimarmaro Stadium, and Zappeion were most crucial. The Kallimarmaro is a replica of the ancient Athenian stadiums, and the only major stadium (in its capacity of 60,000) to be made entirely of white marble from Mount Penteli, the same material used for construction of the Parthenon. Fencing before the king of Greece at the 1896 Summer Olympics. The Panathenaic Stadium of Athens (Kallimarmaron) dates back to the 4th century BC and has hosted the first modern Olympic Games in 1896. 1906 Summer Olympics[edit] Main article: 1906 Intercalated Games The 1906 Summer Olympics, or the 1906 Intercalated games, were held in Athens. The intercalated competitions were intermediate games to the internationally organized Olympics, and were meant to be organized in Greece every four years, between the main Olympics. This idea later lost support from the IOC and these games were discontinued. 2004 Summer Olympics[edit] Main article: 2004 Summer Olympics 10,000-meter final during the 2004 Olympic Games Athens was awarded the 2004 Summer Olympics on 5 September 1997 in Lausanne, Switzerland, after having lost a previous bid to host the 1996 Summer Olympics, to Atlanta, United States.[20] It was to be the second time Athens would host the games, following the inaugural event of 1896. After an unsuccessful bid in 1990, the 1997 bid was radically improved, including an appeal to Greece's Olympic history. In the last round of voting, Athens defeated Rome with 66 votes to 41.[20] Prior to this round, the cities of Buenos Aires, Stockholm and Cape Town had been eliminated from competition, having received fewer votes.[20] During the first three years of preparations, the International Olympic Committee had expressed concern over the speed of construction progress for some of the new Olympic venues. In 2000 the Organising Committee's president was replaced by Gianna Angelopoulos-Daskalaki, who was the president of the original Bidding Committee in 1997. From that point forward, preparations continued at a highly accelerated, almost frenzied pace. Although the heavy cost was criticized, estimated at $1.5 billion, Athens was transformed into a more functional city that enjoys modern technology both in transportation and in modern urban development.[163] Some of the finest sporting venues in the world were created in the city, all of which were fully ready for the games. The games welcomed over 10,000 athletes from all 202 countries.[163] The 2004 Games were judged a success, as both security and organization worked well, and only a few visitors reported minor problems mainly concerning accommodation issues. The 2004 Olympic Games were described as Unforgettable, dream Games, by IOC President Jacques Rogge for their return to the birthplace of the Olympics, and for meeting the challenges of holding the Olympic Games.[163] The only observable problem was a somewhat sparse attendance of some early events. Eventually, however, a total of more than 3.5 million tickets were sold, which was higher than any other Olympics with the exception of Sydney (more than 5 million tickets were sold there in 2000).[164] In 2008 it was reported that most of the Olympic venues had fallen into disrepair: according to those reports, 21 of the 22 facilities built for the games had either been left abandoned or are in a state of dereliction, with several squatter camps having sprung up around certain facilities, and a number of venues afflicted by vandalism, graffiti or strewn with rubbish.[165][166] These claims, however, are disputed and likely to be inaccurate, as most of the facilities used for the Athens Olympics are either in use or in the process of being converted for post-Olympics use. The Greek Government has created a corporation, Olympic Properties SA, which is overseeing the post-Olympics management, development and conversion of these facilities, some of which will be sold off (or have already been sold off) to the private sector,[167] while other facilities are still in use just as during the Olympics, or have been converted for commercial use or modified for other sports.[168] Concerts and theatrical shows, such as those by the troupe Cirque du Soleil, have recently been held in the complex.[159] See also[edit] Outline of Athens Athens of the North (disambiguation) References[edit] ^ "Eurostat – Data Explorer". appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu. ^ a b c d e f Απογραφή Πληθυσμού – Κατοικιών 2011. ΜΟΝΙΜΟΣ Πληθυσμός (in Greek). Hellenic Statistical Authority. ^ "Regions and Cities at a Glance 2018 – Greece" (PDF). OECD. ^ Wells, John C. (1990). "Athens". Longman pronunciation dictionary. Harlow, England: Longman. p. 48. 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Retrieved 26 December 2008. ^ "Athens 21st Century – The Olympic Coastal Complex". Athens-today.com. Retrieved 26 December 2008. ^ "Ιστορικό". oaa.gr. Archived from the original on 20 April 2015. Retrieved 13 April 2015. ^ a b c "Athens bids farewell to the Games". CNN. CNN.com. 30 August 2004. Retrieved 29 March 2007. ^ Athens News Agency (27 August 2004). "Olympic ticket sales officially top 3.5-million mark". Embassy of Greece. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 30 March 2007. ^ Rogers, Martin. "Beijing trumps Athens... and then some". Sports.yahoo.com. Archived from the original on 28 September 2009. Retrieved 21 March 2009. ^ Itano, Nicole (21 July 2008). "As Olympic Glow Fades, Athens Questions $15 Billion Cost". Csmonitor.com. Archived from the original on 9 March 2009. Retrieved 21 March 2009. ^ "After The Party: What happens when the Olympics leave town". The Independent. London. 19 August 2008. Archived from the original on 6 September 2008. Retrieved 21 March 2009. ^ "Four years after Athens Greeks have Olympics blues". 30 July 2008. Archived from the original on 6 August 2008. Retrieved 21 March 2009. External links[edit] Athensat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel guide from Wikivoyage Resources from Wikiversity Official[edit] Official website of the Municipality of Athens Historical[edit] EIE.gr – Page on Archaeology of the City of Athens in the National Hellenic Research Foundation website Rg.ancients.info/owls – Athenian owl coins Kronoskaf.com – Simulation of Athens in 421 BC Athens Museums Information – Guide with pictures, visitor comments and reviews Travel[edit] Athens – The Greek National Tourism Organization This is Athens – The official City of Athens guide Athens Urban Transport Organisation Athens travel guide Greek National Tourism Organization Visual[edit] Timelapse video of Athens showing the city in the Attica region Athens 1973 Places adjacent to Athens Peristeri Nea Filadelfeia, Nea Ionia and Galatsi Psychiko, Neo Psychiko and Papagou Aigaleo and Tavros Municipality of Athens Zografou and Kaisariani Kallithea Nea Smyrni Vyronas, Ymittos and Dafni v t e Neighbourhoods in municipality of Athens Agios Eleftherios Agios Panteleimonas Akadimia Akadimia Platonos Acropolis Ampelokipoi (Kountouriotika) Asyrmatos Asteroskopeio Attiki Ellinoroson Erythros Stavros Exarcheia Gazi Girokomeio Gyzi Goudi Gouva Ilisia Keramikos Kolokynthou Kolonaki Kolonos Koukaki Kypriadou Kypseli Kynosargous Metaxourgeio Mets Monastiraki Nea Filothei Neapoli Neos Kosmos Omonoia Pangrati (Kallimarmaro) Patisia Pedion tou Areos Petralona Philopappou Plaka (Aerides, Anafiotika) Polygono Probonas Profitis Daniil Profitis Ilias Psyri Rizoupoli Rouf Sepolia Syntagma Thiseio Thymarakia Treis Gefyres Votanikos (Elaionas) Government v t e   Capitals of regions of Greece Athens (Attica) Corfu (Ionian Islands) Heraklion (Crete) Ioannina (Epirus) Komotini (Eastern Macedonia and Thrace) Kozani (Western Macedonia) Lamia (Central Greece) Larissa (Thessaly) Mytilene (North Aegean) Patras (West Greece) Ermoupoli (South Aegean) Thessaloniki (Central Macedonia) Tripoli (Peloponnese) v t e Administrative division of the Attica Region Area 3,808 km2 (1,470 sq mi) Population 3,827,624 (as of 2011) Municipalities 66 (since 2011) Capital Athens Regional unit of Central Athens Athens Dafni-Ymittos Filadelfeia-Chalkidona Galatsi Ilioupoli Kaisariani Vyronas Zografou Regional unit of North Athens Agia Paraskevi Chalandri Filothei-Psychiko Irakleio Kifissia Lykovrysi-Pefki Marousi Metamorfosi Nea Ionia Papagou-Cholargos Penteli Vrilissia Regional unit of West Athens Agia Varvara Agioi Anargyroi-Kamatero Aigaleo Haidari Ilion Peristeri Petroupoli Regional unit of South Athens Agios Dimitrios Alimos Elliniko-Argyroupoli Glyfada Kallithea Moschato-Tavros Nea Smyrni Palaio Faliro Regional unit of Piraeus Keratsini-Drapetsona Korydallos Nikaia-Agios Ioannis Rentis Perama Piraeus Regional unit of East Attica Acharnes Dionysos Kropia Lavreotiki Marathon Markopoulo Oropos Paiania Pallini Rafina-Pikermi Saronikos Spata-Artemida Vari-Voula-Vouliagmeni Regional unit of West Attica Aspropyrgos Eleusis Fyli Mandra-Eidyllia Megara Regional unit of Islands Aegina Agistri Hydra Kythira Poros Salamis Spetses Troizinia-Methana Regional governor Giorgos Patoulis (since 2019) Decentralized Administration Attica v t e Capital cities of the member states of the European Union Netherlands: Amsterdam Greece: Athens Germany: Berlin Slovakia: Bratislava Belgium: Brussels Romania: Bucharest Hungary: Budapest Denmark: Copenhagen Ireland: Dublin Finland: Helsinki Portugal: Lisbon Slovenia: Ljubljana Luxembourg: Luxembourg Spain: Madrid Cyprus: Nicosia France: Paris Czech Republic: Prague Latvia: Riga Italy: Rome Bulgaria: Sofia Sweden: Stockholm Estonia: Tallinn Malta: Valletta Austria: Vienna Lithuania: Vilnius Poland: Warsaw Croatia: Zagreb Culture and history v t e Major landmarks of Athens Ancient Acropolis Ancient Agora Arch of Hadrian Areopagus Aristotle’s Lyceum Hadrian's Library Kerameikos Monument of Lysicrates Odeon of Herodes Atticus Panathenaic Stadium Philopappos Hill/Monument Platonic Academy Pnyx Remains of the Acharnian Road, Acharnian Gate and Cemetery Site Remains of the Long Walls Roman Agora Stoa of Attalos Temple of Hephaestus Temple of Olympian Zeus Theatre of Dionysus Tower of the Winds Byzantine Little Metropolis Daphni Monastery Holy Apostles Church Kapnikarea Church Pantanassa Church Holy Trinity Church Ottoman Fethiye Mosque House of Saint Philothei/Benizelos-Palaiologos mansion Tzistarakis Mosque Modern Hansen's "Trilogy" Academy Kapodistrian University of Athens National Library of Greece Museums Acropolis Museum Benaki Museum Byzantine and Christian Museum Museum of Cycladic Art Kerameikos Museum National Archaeological Museum National Gallery National Historical Museum Numismatic Museum Churches Metropolitan Cathedral of Athens Cathedral Basilica of St. Dionysius the Areopagite Gardens/Parks Lycabettus Hill National Gardens Pedion tou Areos Squares and Neighbourhoods Anafiotika Kolonaki Square Kotzia Square Monastiraki Omonoia Square Plaka Syntagma Thiseio Tomb of the Unknown Soldier Athens Concert Hall Athens Towers Gennadius Library National Observatory of Athens National Theatre Old Parliament House Old Royal Palace Olympic Sports Complex Presidential Mansion Stavros Niarchos Foundation Cultural Center Zappeion Marinas Agios Kosmas Marina Alimos Marina Athens Marina (formerly Faliro Marina) Glyfada Marina Olympic Marine Marina of Vouliagmeni Marina of Zea Others Dionysiou Areopagitou Street Ermou Street First Cemetery of Athens v t e Museums in Athens Archaeological Acropolis Museum Epigraphical Museum Goulandris Museum of Cycladic Art Kerameikos Kanellopoulou Museum National Archaeological Museum Stoa of Attalos Archaeological Museum of Piraeus Old Acropolis Museum Pieridis Museum Syntagma Metro Station Archaeological Collection Museum of the Center for the Acropolis Studies Athens International Airport Archaeological Collection Byzantine and ecclesiastic Byzantine and Christian Museum Ethnological/historical Athens War Museum Drossinis Museum Eleftherios Venizelos Historical Museum Goulandris Natural History Museum Jewish Museum of Greece Museum of the City of Athens National Historical Museum Folklore Museum of Greek Folk Art Museum of Greek Folk Musical Instruments Centre for the Study of Traditional Pottery Museum of the History of the Greek Costume Art museums/galleries Athinais Cultural Center Benaki Museum Deste Foundation Emfietzoglou Gallery Museum Frissiras Museum Goulandris Museum of Contemporary Art Gounaropoulos Museum Ilias Lalaounis Jewelry Museum Marika Kotopouli Museum Municipal Gallery of Athens National Gallery (Athens) National Glyptotheque National Museum of Contemporary Art Nikos Chatzikyriakos-Gikas Art Gallery Panos Aravantinos Decor Museum Yannis Tsarouchis Foundation Museum Industry/technology Evgenidio Foundation Hellenic Air Force Museum Hellenic Motor Museum Railway Museum of Athens Electric Railways Museum OTE Museum of Telecommunications Technopolis (Gazi) Education/sports/ Special Interests Athens University Museum Hellenic Children's Museum Hellenic Cosmos Hellenic Maritime Museum Mineralogy and Petrology Museum Museum of Anthropology of University of Athens Numismatic Museum of Athens Postal & Philatelic Museum of Greece Spathario Museum Tactual Museum of Athens Theatrical Museum of Greece Zoological Museum of the University of Athens Museum ships Georgios Averof Velos D16 SS Hellas Liberty Olympias v t e Streets in Athens Major streets 3 Septemvriou Street Agiou Konstantinou Street Aiolou Street Akadimias Street Alexandras Avenue Amalias Avenue Andrea Syngrou Avenue Athanasiou Diakou Street Athinas Street Athinon Avenue Acharnon Street Benaki Street Ermou Street Ioanninon Avenue Iera Odos Kallirois Avenue Katechaki Avenue Kifisias Avenue Kifissou Avenue Konstantinoupoleos Avenue Lenormant Street Makri Street Mavromichali Street Mesogeion Avenue Michalopoulou Street Mitropoleos Street Pangratiou Street Panepistimiou Street Patission Street Patsi Street Peiraios Street Petrou Ralli Avenue Rizari Street Sofokleous Street Stadiou Street Vasileos Konstantinou Avenue Vasilissis Sofias Avenue Vouliagmenis Avenue Secondary and local streets Antigonis Street Dionysiou Areopagitou Street Eynardou Street Fokionos Negri Street Herodou Attikou Street Kallirois Street Lykourgou Street Pandrossou Street Petmeza Street Santarosa Street Veikou Street Voukourestiou Street Main squares Kolonaki Square Kotzia Square Monastiraki Square Omonoia Square Syntagma Square Suburban roads Alimou Street Athinas Avenue Ulof Palme Street Doukissis Plakentias Avenue Poseidonos Avenue Thiseos Street Highways Attiki Odos (Aigaleo Beltway Hymettus Beltway) List of streets in Athens List of streets in Attica List of streets in Greece v t e Capitals of European states and territories Capitals of dependent territories and states whose sovereignty is disputed shown in italics. Sovereign states Amsterdam, Netherlands1 Andorra la Vella, Andorra Ankara, Turkey3 Athens, Greece Baku, Azerbaijan3 Belgrade, Serbia Berlin, Germany Bern, Switzerland Bratislava, Slovakia Brussels, Belgium2 Bucharest, Romania Budapest, Hungary Chișinău, Moldova Copenhagen, Denmark Dublin, Ireland Helsinki, Finland Kyiv, Ukraine Lisbon, Portugal Ljubljana, Slovenia London, United Kingdom Luxembourg, Luxembourg Madrid, Spain Minsk, Belarus Monaco5 Moscow, Russia3 Nicosia, Cyprus4 Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan3 Oslo, Norway Paris, France Podgorica, Montenegro Prague, Czech Republic Reykjavík, Iceland Riga, Latvia Rome, Italy San Marino, San Marino Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Skopje, North Macedonia Sofia, Bulgaria Stockholm, Sweden Tallinn, Estonia Tbilisi, Georgia3 Tirana, Albania Vaduz, Liechtenstein Valletta, Malta Vatican City5 Vienna, Austria Vilnius, Lithuania Warsaw, Poland Yerevan, Armenia4 Zagreb, Croatia States with limited recognition North Nicosia, Northern Cyprus4 Pristina, Kosovo Stepanakert, Republic of Artsakh3 Sukhumi, Abkhazia3 Tiraspol, Transnistria Tskhinvali, South Ossetia3 Dependencies United Kingdom Constituent countries Cardiff, Wales Belfast, Northern Ireland Edinburgh, Scotland Crown dependencies Douglas, Isle of Man Episkopi Cantonment, Akrotiri and Dhekelia Gibraltar, Gibraltar Saint Helier, Jersey Saint Peter Port, Guernsey Other Longyearbyen, Svalbard (Norway) Tórshavn, Faroe Islands (Denmark) Federal states Austria Bregenz, Vorarlberg Eisenstadt, Burgenland Graz, Styria Innsbruck, Tyrol Klagenfurt, Carinthia Linz, Upper Austria Salzburg, Salzburg Sankt Pölten, Lower Austria Germany Bremen, Bremen Dresden, Saxony Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf Erfurt, Thuringia Hamburg, Hamburg Hanover, Lower Saxony Kiel, Schleswig-Holstein Magdeburg, Saxony-Anhalt Mainz, Rhineland-Palatinate Munich, Bavaria Potsdam, Brandenburg Saarbrücken, Saarland Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern Stuttgart, Baden-Württemberg Wiesbaden, Wiesbaden Russia Republics Cheboksary, Chuvashia Cherkessk, Karachay-Cherkessia Elista, Kalmykia Grozny, Chechnya Izhevsk, Udmurtia Kazan, Tatarstan Magas, Ingushetia Makhachkala, Dagestan Maykop, Adygea Nalchik, Kabardino-Balkaria Petrozavodsk, Karelia Saransk, Mordovia Simferopol, Crimea (disputed) Syktyvkar, Komi Yoshkar-Ola, Mari El Ufa, Bashkortostan Vladikavkaz, North Ossetia–Alania Federal cities Saint Petersburg, Saint Petersburg Sevastopol, Sevastopol (disputed) Switzerland Aarau, Aargau Altdorf, Uri Appenzell, Appenzell Innerrhoden Basel, Basel-Stadt Bellinzona, Ticino Chur, Grisons Delémont, Jura Frauenfeld, Thurgau Fribourg, Canton of Fribourg Geneva, Republic and canton of Geneva Herisau, Appenzell Ausserrhoden Lausanne, Vaud Liestal, Basel-Landschaft Lucerne, Canton of Lucerne Neuchâtel, Canton of Neuchâtel Sarnen, Obwalden Schaffhausen, Canton of Schaffhausen Schwyz, Canton of Schwyz Sion, Valais Solothurn, Canton of Solothurn Stans, Nidwalden St. Gallen, Canton of St. Gallen Glarus, Canton of Glarus Zug, Canton of Zug Zürich, Zürich Canton Autonomous entities Italy Autonomous regions Cagliari, Sardinia Palermo, Sicily Trento, Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol Aosta, Aosta Valley Trieste, Friuli Venezia Giulia Spain Autonomous communities Barcelona, Catalonia Las Palmas & Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands Logroño, La Rioja Mérida, Extremadura Murcia, Murcia Oviedo, Asturias Palma de Mallorca, Balearic Islands Pamplona, Navarre Santander, Cantabria Santiago de Compostela, Galicia Seville, Andalusia Toledo, Castilla–La Mancha (de facto) Valencia, Valencia Valladolid, Castile and León (de facto) Vitoria-Gasteiz , Basque Country (de facto) Zaragoza, Aragon Other Ajaccio, Corsica Collectivité (France) Banja Luka (de facto), Republika Srpska (Bosnia and Herzegovina) Batumi, Adjara (Georgia) Brčko, Brčko District (Bosnia and Herzegovina) Comrat, Gagauzia (Moldova) Eupen, German Community (Belgium) Karyes, Mount Athos (Greece) Mariehamn, Åland Islands (Finland) Nakhchivan, Nakhchivan (Azerbaijan) Namur, Wallonia (Belgium) Novi Sad, Vojvodina (Serbia) 1 Also the capital of the Kingdom of the Netherlands 2 Also the seat of the European Union, see Institutional seats of the European Union and Brussels and the European Union 3 Spans the conventional boundary between Europe and Asia 4 Entirely in Western Asia but having socio-political connections with Europe 5 A city-state v t e European Capitals of Culture 1985 Athens 1986 Florence 1987 Amsterdam 1988 West Berlin 1989 Paris 1990 Glasgow 1991 Dublin 1992 Madrid 1993 Antwerp 1994 Lisbon 1995 Luxembourg City 1996 Copenhagen 1997 Thessaloniki 1998 Stockholm 1999 Weimar 2000 Reykjavík Bergen Helsinki Brussels Prague Kraków Santiago de Compostela Avignon Bologna 2001 Rotterdam Porto 2002 Bruges Salamanca 2003 Graz Plovdiv 2004 Genoa Lille 2005 Cork 2006 Patras 2007 Luxembourg City Sibiu 2008 Liverpool Stavanger 2009 Linz Vilnius 2010 Essen Istanbul Pécs 2011 Turku Tallinn 2012 Maribor Guimarães 2013 Košice Marseille 2014 Umeå Riga 2015 Mons Plzeň 2016 San Sebastián Wrocław 2017 Aarhus Paphos 2018 Valletta Leeuwarden 2019 Plovdiv Matera 2020 Rijeka Galway 2021 Timișoara Elefsina Novi Sad 2022 Kaunas Esch-sur-Alzette 2023 Veszprém 2024 Tartu Bad Ischl Bodø 2025 Chemnitz v t e Eurovision Song Contest Entries History Host cities Languages Presenters Rules Voting Winners Discography Contests 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 Countries Active Albania Armenia Australia Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Iceland Ireland Israel Italy Latvia Lithuania Malta Moldova Netherlands North Macedonia Norway Poland 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Eurovision Song Contest Previews Songs of Europe (1981) Kvalifikacija za Millstreet (1993) Congratulations: 50 Years of the Eurovision Song Contest (2005) Eurovision Song Contest's Greatest Hits (2015) Eurovision Home Concerts (2020) Eurovision: Europe Shine a Light (2020) National Die Grand Prix Hitliste (2006) Het Grote Songfestivalfeest (2019) Der kleine Song Contest (2020) Eurovision 2020 – das deutsche Finale (2020) Eurovision: Come Together (2020) Sveriges 12:a (2020) Category v t e Olympic Games Ceremonies People who opened the Olympics Keepers of the Olympic flag Charter Participating nations Summer Olympics Winter Olympics Host cities Bids Venues IOC NOCs Country codes Medal Medal tables Medalists Ties Diploma Scandals and controversies Colonialism Doping Sports Symbols Torch relays Pierre de Coubertin medal Women Deaths WWI WWII Olympic video games Summer Games 1896 Athens 1900 Paris 1904 St. Louis 1908 London 1912 Stockholm 1916† 1920 Antwerp 1924 Paris 1928 Amsterdam 1932 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Akra Leuke Alonis Emporion Helike Hemeroscopion Kalathousa Kypsela Mainake Menestheus's Limin Illicitanus Limin/Portus Illicitanus Rhode Salauris Zacynthos Illyria Aspalathos Apollonia Epidamnos Epidauros Issa Melaina Korkyra Nymphaion Orikon Pharos Tragurion Thronion Black Sea north coast Borysthenes Charax Chersonesus Dioscurias Eupatoria Gorgippia Hermonassa Kepoi Kimmerikon Myrmekion Nikonion Nymphaion Olbia Panticapaion Phanagoria Pityus Tanais Theodosia Tyras Tyritake Black Sea south coast Dionysopolis Odessos Anchialos Mesambria Apollonia Salmydessus Heraclea Tium Sesamus Cytorus Abonoteichos Sinope Zaliche Amisos Oinòe Polemonion Thèrmae Cotyora Kerasous Tripolis Trapezous Rhizos Athina Bathus Phasis Lists Cities in Epirus People Place names Stoae Temples Theatres Category Portal Outline v t e Journeys of Paul the Apostle First journey 1. Antioch 2. Seleucia 3. Cyprus 3a. Salamis 3b. Paphos 4. Perga 5. Antioch of Pisidia 6. Konya (Iconium) 7. Derbe 8. Lystra 9. Antalya 10. Antioch (returns to beginning of journey) Second journey 1. Cilicia 2. Derbe 3. Lystra 4. Phrygia 5. Galatia 6. Mysia (Alexandria Troas) 7. Samothrace 8. Neapolis 9. Philippi 9. Amphipolis 10. Apollonia 11. Thessalonica 12. Beroea 13. Athens 14. Corinth 15. Cenchreae 16. Ephesus 17. Syria 18. Caesarea 19. Jerusalem 20. Antioch Third journey 1. Galatia 2. Phrygia 3. Ephesus 4. Macedonia 5. Corinth 6. Cenchreae 7. Macedonia (again) 8. Troas 9. Assos 10. Mytilene 11. Chios 12. Samos 13. Miletus 14. Cos 15. Rhodes 16. Patara 17. Tyre 18. Ptolemais 19. Caesarea 20. Jerusalem Authority control BNF: cb11936474k (data) GND: 4003366-1 LCCN: n79018143 MBAREA: 1876749b-4a07-495b-8b57-9dde0ac39c24 NARA: 10044351 NDL: 00628091 NKC: ge128693 NLG: 289 NLI: 000974493 VIAF: 131280462 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79018143 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Athens&oldid=1002452001" Categories: Athens Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Greece Archaeological sites in Attica Capitals in Europe Capitals of Greek states City-states Greek regional capitals Populated coastal places in Greece Populated places established in the 5th century BC Populated places in ancient Greece Populated places in Central Athens (regional unit) Roman sites in Greece Hidden categories: CS1 uses Greek-language script (el) CS1 Greek-language sources (el) CS1 maint: archived copy as title CS1 Romanian-language sources (ro) CS1 Slovenian-language sources (sl) CS1 Italian-language sources (it) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages Use dmy dates from December 2020 Articles containing Greek-language text Coordinates on Wikidata Instances of Lang-el using second unnamed parameter Articles with hAudio microformats Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2020 Articles with unsourced statements from May 2020 Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from November 2020 Articles with unsourced statements from June 2009 Pages using bar box without float left or float right Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata Pages using Sister project links with default search Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz area identifiers Wikipedia articles with NARA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikinews Wikiquote Wikivoyage Languages Адыгэбзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Ænglisc العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Արեւմտահայերէն Armãneashti Arpetan Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali Bamanankan বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Bikol Central Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona Corsu Cymraeg Dansk Davvisámegiella Deutsch Dolnoserbski डोटेली Eesti Ελληνικά Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî Хальмг 한국어 Hausa Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Ido Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue Ирон IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Коми Kotava Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî Кыргызча Ladino Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. 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en-wikipedia-org-1519	----	Azemilcus, King of Tyre - Wikipedia Azemilcus, King of Tyre From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Phoenician king of Tyre Azemilcus ('zmlk\) was the King of Tyre during its siege by Alexander the Great in 332 BC. Alexander had already peacefully taken Byblos and Sidon, and Tyre sent envoys to Alexander agreeing to do his bidding. His response was to declare that he wished to enter the city to sacrifice to Melqart, known to Alexander as the Tyrian Herakles. Azemilcus was with the Persian fleet at the time, and the Tyrians, unsure who would win the war, responded by saying that they would obey any other command but that neither Persians nor Macedonians could enter the city.[1] When Alexander finally captured the city, Azemilcus and various other notables, including envoys from Carthage, had taken refuge in the temple of Melqart, and Alexander spared their lives. Azemilcus is mostly known by his coins, small 18mm silver staters featuring Melqart riding a hippocamp over the waves on one side and an owl with crook and the Phoenician letter Ayin for Azemilcus surrounded by a series of Phoenician numbers indicating the year of his reign. There are at least 15 known years that these coins were minted between 347 BC and 332 BC, and are some of the earliest dated ancient coins that can be ascribed to a particular ruler.[2] He was replaced by Abdalonymus under the administration of Alexander the Great. Notes[edit] ^ Arrian, The Anabasis of Alexander, together with the Indica, E. J. Chinnock, tr. (London: George Bell and Sons, 1893), bk II, 15-25 http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/ArriCamp.html Archived 2008-05-03 at the Wayback Machine ^ Dated Coins of Antiquity Cohen This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Azemilcus, King of Tyre" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC This Ancient Near East biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Azemilcus,_King_of_Tyre&oldid=981126475" Categories: Kings of Tyre 4th-century BC rulers Alexander the Great Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Ancient Near East people stubs Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles needing additional references from March 2008 All articles needing additional references All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Русский Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 30 September 2020, at 12:52 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-151	----	Roman Ghirshman - Wikipedia Roman Ghirshman From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Roman Ghirshman" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Ghirshman's team in Sialk in 1934: Sitting from R to L: Roman Ghirshman, Tania Ghirshman, and Dr. Contenau. Roman Ghirshman (Russian: Роман Михайлович Гиршман, Roman Mikhailovich Girshman; October 3, 1895 – 5 September 1979) was a Ukrainian-born French archeologist who specialized in ancient Persia. A native of Kharkiv in the Sloboda Ukraine (present-day Ukraine) Ghirshman moved to Paris in 1917 to study Archeology and Ancient Languages. He was mainly interested in the archeological ruins of Iran, specifically Teppe Gian, Teppe Sialk, Bagram in Afghanistan, Bishapur in Fars, and Susa. In the 1930s, Girshman, together with his wife Tania Ghirshman, was the first to excavate Teppe Sialk. His studies on Chogha Zanbil have been printed in 4 volumes, and he also led excavation teams at Kharg Island, Iwan-i Karkheh, and the Parthian platforms in Masjed Soleiman, near Izeh, Khuzestan. With 300 papers and 20 books published, Ghirshman was one of the most prolific and respected experts on ancient Iran. Some of his works on Susa have not even been published yet, but have served other archeologists such as Jean Perrot and Hermann Gasche in subsequent follow-up studies in the 1960s and 1970s in Iran. Honors[edit] Charles Lang Freer Medal Selected works[edit] In a statistical overview derived from writings by and about Roman Ghirshman, OCLC/WorldCat encompasses roughly 300+ works in 600+ publications in 12 languages and 6,000+ library holdings.[1] This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by adding missing items with reliable sources. 1938, Fouilles de Sialk, prés de Kashan, 1933, 1934, 1937. Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner, Paris (in two volumes). 1954, Iran: from the earliest times to the Islamic conquest. Penguin books.(A French version was published in 1951 by Payot, Paris). 1963, Perse. Proto-iraniens, Mèdes, Achéménides. Gallimard, Paris. 1970, Le Pazuzu et les fibules du Luristan. Impr. Catholique, Beirut. 1971, Persia, the immortal kingdom. (Coauthors: Minorsky, V.F., and Sanghvi, R., Greenwich, Conn., New York Graphic Society. 1976, L'Iran des origines à l'islam. Nouv. éd. rev. et mise à jour. Paris. 1977, L'Iran et la migration des Indo-Aryens et des Iraniens. Leiden. 1979, Tombe princière de Ziwiyé et le début de l'art animalier scythe. Soc. Iranienne pour la Conservation du Patrimoine, Paris. Notes[edit] ^ WorldCat Identities: Ghirshman, Roman Authority control BNE: XX834906 BNF: cb124638307 (data) GND: 1028971389 ISNI: 0000 0000 8344 4440 LCCN: n50035093 NDL: 00440824 NTA: 073382078 PLWABN: 9810585347005606 SELIBR: 323432 SNAC: w67208pz SUDOC: 033819475 VcBA: 495/126715 VIAF: 69027847 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n50035093 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_Ghirshman&oldid=981690942" Categories: 1895 births 1979 deaths People from Kharkiv People from Kharkov Governorate Ukrainian Jews Ukrainian emigrants to France French archaeologists French Iranologists Members of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres 20th-century archaeologists Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from December 2009 All articles needing additional references Articles containing Russian-language text Dynamic lists Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages تۆرکجه Deutsch Español فارسی Français Italiano עברית مصرى Русский Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 3 October 2020, at 21:24 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1529	----	Menkaure - Wikipedia Menkaure From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be confused with Menkare. Egyptian pharaoh of the 4th dynasty Menkaure Menkaura, Mykerinos, Menkheres Greywacke statue of Menkaure Egyptian Museum, Cairo Pharaoh Reign 18 to 22 years,[1] starting c. 2530 BC (Fourth Dynasty) Predecessor Khafre (most likely) or Bikheris Successor Shepseskaf Royal titulary Nomen Menkaura mn-k3.w-Rˁ His ka-souls will stay like Ra[1] Alternative spellings: Mn-k3(.w)-Rˁ Horus name Hor-Kakhet ῌr-k3-ḫt Bull of the divine company Nebty name Ka-Nebty Nbt.j-k3 Bull of the two Ladies Golden Horus Netjer-bik-nebu Nṯr-bjk-nb.w The divine golden falcon Abydos King List Menkaure Mn-k3.w-Rˁ His Kas will stay like Ra Saqqara Tablet ...kaure ...k3.w Rˁ Consort Khamerernebty II, Rekhetre ? Children Khuenre, Shepseskaf, Khentkaus I ?, Sekhemre Father Khafre Mother Khamerernebty I Born 2532 Died ca. 2500 BC Burial Pyramid of Menkaure Menkaure (also Menkaura, Egyptian transliteration mn-k3w-Rˁ), was an ancient Egyptian king (pharaoh) of the fourth dynasty during the Old Kingdom, who is well known under his Hellenized names Mykerinos (Greek: Μυκερίνος) (by Herodotus) and Menkheres (by Manetho). According to Manetho, he was the throne successor of king Bikheris, but according to archaeological evidence he rather was the successor of king Khafre. Africanus (from Syncellus) reports as rulers of the fourth dynasty Sôris, Suphis I, Suphis II, Mencherês, Ratoisês, Bicheris, Sebercherês, and Thamphthis in this order.[2] Menkaure became famous for his tomb, the Pyramid of Menkaure, at Giza and his beautiful statue triads, showing the king together with his wives Rekhetre and Khamerernebty and with various deities. Contents 1 Family 2 Reign 3 Pyramid complex 3.1 Valley temple 3.2 Mortuary Temple 3.3 Sarcophagus 4 Records from later periods 5 Trivia 6 Gallery of images 7 References 8 External links Family[edit] See also: Fourth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Menkaure was the son of Khafre and the grandson of Khufu. A flint knife found in the mortuary temple of Menkaure mentioned a king's mother Khamerernebty I, suggesting that Khafre and this queen were the parents of Menkaure. Menkaure is thought to have had at least two wives. Queen Khamerernebty II is the daughter of Khamerernebti I and the mother of a king's son Khuenre. The location of Khuenre's tomb suggests that he was a son of Menkaure, making his mother the wife of this king.[3][4] Queen Rekhetre is known to have been a daughter of Khafre and as such the most likely identity of her husband is Menkaure.[3] Not many children are attested for Menkaure: Khuenre was the son of queen Khamerernebti II. Menkaure was not succeeded by Prince Khuenre, his eldest son, who predeceased Menkaure, but rather by Shepseskaf, a younger son of this king.[5] Shepseskaf was the successor to Menkaure and likely his son. Sekhemre is known from a statue and possibly a son of Menkaure. A daughter who died in early adulthood is mentioned by Herodotus. She was placed at a superbly decorated hall of the palatial area at Sais, in a hollow gold layered wooden zoomorphic burial feature in the shape of a kneeling cow covered externally with a layer of red decoration except the neck area and the horns that were covered with adequate layers of gold.[6] Khentkaus I – possible Menkaure's daughter[7] The royal court included several of Menkaure's half brothers. His brothers Nebemakhet, Duaenre, Nikaure, and Iunmin served as viziers during the reign of their brother. His brother Sekhemkare may have been younger than he was and became vizier after the death of Menkaure.[8] Reign[edit] Menkaura flanked by the goddess Hathor (left) and the goddess Bat (right). Graywacke statue in Cairo Museum. The length of Menkaure's reign is uncertain. The ancient historian Manetho credits him with rulership of 63 years, but this is surely an exaggeration. The Turin Canon is damaged at the spot where it should present the full sum of years, but the remains allow a reconstruction of "..?.. + 8  years of rulership". Egyptologists think that 18-year rulership was meant to be written, which is generally accepted. A contemporary workmen's graffito reports about the "year after the 11th cattle count". If the cattle count was held every second year (as was tradition at least up to king Sneferu), Menkaure might have ruled for 22 years.[9] In 2013, a fragment of the sphinx of Menkaure was discovered at Tel Hazor at the entrance to the city palace.[10] Pyramid complex[edit] Main article: Pyramid of Menkaure Menkaure's pyramid at Giza was called Netjer-er-Menkaure, meaning "Menkaure is Divine". This pyramid is the smallest of the three main pyramids at Giza. This pyramid measures 103.4 m (339 ft) at the base and 65.5 m (215 ft) in height.[11] There are three subsidiary pyramids associated with Menkaure's pyramid. These other pyramids are sometimes labeled G-IIIa (East subsidiary pyramid), G-IIIb (Middle subsidiary pyramid) and G-IIIc (West subsidiary pyramid). In the chapel associated with G-IIIa a statue of a queen was found. It is possible that these pyramids were meant for the queens of Khafre. It may be that Khamerernebti II was buried in one of the pyramids.[4][8] Valley temple[edit] The Valley temple was a mainly brick built structure that was enlarged in the fifth or sixth Dynasty. From this temple come the famous statues of Menkaure with his queen and Menkaure with several deities. A partial list includes:[8] Nome triad, Hathor-Mistress-of-the-Sycomore seated, and King and Hare-nome goddess standing, greywacke, in Boston Mus. 09.200. Nome triad, King, Hathor-Mistress-of-the-Sycomore and Theban nome-god standing, greywacke. (Now in Cairo Mus. Ent. 40678.) Nome triad, King, Hathor-Mistress-of-the-Sycomore and Jackal-nome goddess standing, greywacke. (Now in Cairo Mus. Ent. 40679.) Nome triad, King, Hathor-Mistress-of-the-Sycomore and Bat-fetish nome -goddess standing, greywacke. (Now in Cairo Mus. Ent. 46499.) Nome triad, King, Hathor, and nome-god standing, greywacke. (Middle part in Boston Mus. 11.3147, head of King in Brussels, Mus. Roy. E. 3074.) Double-statue,’ King and wife (Khamerernebti II) standing, uninscribed, greywacke. (Now in Boston Mus. 11.1738.) King seated, life-size, fragmentary, alabaster. (Now in Cairo Mus. Ent. 40703.) King seated, lower part, inscribed seat, alabaster. (Now in Boston Mus. 09.202) Mortuary Temple[edit] At his mortuary temple more statues and statue fragments were found. An interesting find is a fragment of a wand from Queen Khamerernebty I. The piece is now in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. Khamerernebti is given the title King's Mother on the fragment.[8] Sarcophagus[edit] Burial chamber of Menkaure, today, and as discovered with now lost sarcophagus In 1837, English army officer Richard William Howard Vyse, and engineer John Shae Perring began excavations within the pyramid of Menkaure. In the main burial chamber of the pyramid they found a large stone sarcophagus 8 feet 0 inches (244 cm) long, 3 feet 0 inches (91 cm) in width, and 2 feet 11 inches (89 cm) in height, made of basalt. The sarcophagus was not inscribed with hieroglyphs although it was decorated in the style of palace facade. Adjacent to the burial chamber were found wooden fragments of a coffin bearing the name of Menkaure and a partial skeleton wrapped in a coarse cloth. The sarcophagus was removed from the pyramid and was sent by ship to the British Museum in London, but the merchant ship Beatrice carrying it was lost after leaving port at Malta on October 13, 1838. The other materials were sent by a separate ship, and those materials now reside at the museum, with the remains of the wooden coffin case on display. It is now thought that the coffin was a replacement made during the much later Saite period, nearly two millennia after the king's original interment. Radio carbon dating of the bone fragments that were found, place them at an even later date, from the Coptic period in the first centuries AD.[12] Records from later periods[edit] According to Herodotus (430 BC), Menkaure was the son of Khufu (Greek Cheops), and that he alleviated the suffering his father's reign had caused the inhabitants of ancient Egypt. Herodotus adds that he suffered much misfortune: his only daughter, whose corpse was interred in a wooden bull (which Herodotus claims survived to his lifetime), died before him. Subsequently the oracle at Buto predicted he would only rule six more years. The king deemed this unjust, and sent back to the oracle a message of reproach, blaming the god: why must he die so soon who was pious, whereas his father and his uncle had lived long, who shut up the temples, and regarded not the gods, and destroyed men? But a second utterance from the place of divination declared to him that his good deeds were the very cause of shortening his life; for he had done what was contrary to fate; Egypt should have been afflicted for an hundred and fifty years, whereof the two kings before him had been aware, but not Mycerinus. Hearing this, he knew that his doom was fixed. Therefore he caused many lamps to be made, and would light these at nightfall and drink and make merry; by day or night he never ceased from revelling, roaming to the marsh country and the groves and wherever he heard of the likeliest places of pleasure. Thus he planned, that by turning night into day he might make his six years into twelve and so prove the oracle false.[13] Trivia[edit] Menkaure was the subject of a poem by the nineteenth century English poet Matthew Arnold, entitled "Mycerinus". Menkaure, using the Greek version of his name, Mencheres, is a major character in the Night Huntress series of books by Jeaniene Frost, depicted as an extremely old and powerful vampire living in modern times. He is a protagonist of one book in the series. Gallery of images[edit] Colossal alabaster statue of Menkaura at the Boston Museum of Fine Arts Greywacke statue of Menkaura and Queen Khamerernebty II at the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. Menkaure's Pyramid in Giza. Fragmentary statue triad of Menkaura flanked by the goddess Hathor (left) and a male nome god (right), Boston Museum of Fine Arts. Fragmentary alabaster statue head of Menkaura at the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. Drawing of the anthropoid coffin fragment inscribed with the name of the king Menkaura made by excavator Richard Vyse and published in 1840. Menkaura alongside Hathor and the nome goddess Anput Basalt cylinder seal of pharaoh Menkaure, from Egypt. Neues Museum, Berlin References[edit] ^ a b Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, page 163–164. ^ http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Manetho/home.html ^ a b Grajetzki, Ancient Egyptian Queens: A Hieroglyphic Dictionary, Golden House Publications, London, 2005, p13-14 ISBN 978-0-9547218-9-3 ^ a b Tyldesley, Joyce. Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2006. ISBN 0-500-05145-3 ^ Clayton, pp.57-58 ^ Herodotus, Historia, B:129-132 ^ Hassan, Selim: Excavations at Gîza IV. 1932–1933. Cairo: Government Press, Bulâq, 1930. pp 18-62 ^ a b c d Porter, Bertha and Moss, Rosalind, Topographical Bibliography of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphic Texts, Statues, Reliefs and Paintings Volume III: Memphis, Part I Abu Rawash to Abusir. 2nd edition (revised and augmented by Dr Jaromir Malek, 1974). Retrieved from gizapyramids.org ^ Miroslav Verner: Archaeological Remarks on the 4th and 5th Dynasty Chronology. In: Archiv Orientální, Vol. 69. Prague 2001, page 363–418. ^ Ancient Egyptian leader makes a surprise appearance at an archaeological dig in Israel July 9, 2013, sciencedaily.com ^ Guinness Book of World Records 2012. 2011. p. 194. ISBN 978-1-904994-68-8. ^ Boughton, Paul "Menkaura's Anthropoid Coffin: A Case of Mistaken Identity?" Ancient Egypt. August/September 2006. p.30-32. ^ Herodotus, Histories, 2.129-133 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Menkaura. Menkaure and His Queen by Dr. Christopher L.C.E. Witcombe. View photos, videos, current status and other information on the pyramid of Menkaure at Talking Pyramids v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 12315815X ISNI: 0000 0000 3755 2563 LCCN: n99014132 NKC: mzk2006337380 VIAF: 16553808 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n99014132 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Menkaure&oldid=999262554" Categories: Menkaure 26th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt 3rd-millennium BC births 3rd-millennium BC deaths Khafre Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles 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en-wikipedia-org-1550	----	Ptolemy XII Auletes - Wikipedia Ptolemy XII Auletes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Egyptian king Ptolemaic King of Egypt Ptolemy XII Auletes Bust of Ptolemy XII housed at the Department of Greek, Etruscan and Roman Antiquities at the Louvre in Paris Ptolemaic King of Egypt Reign c. 80–58 BC Coronation 76 BC, Memphis Predecessor Ptolemy XI Alexander II Successor Cleopatra V Tryphaena and Berenice IV Epiphaneia Co-ruler Cleopatra V Tryphaena (79–69 BC) Reign c. 55-51 BC Predecessor Berenice IV Epiphaneia Successor Cleopatra VII Philopator and Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) First Praenomens, variants of: iwꜤ-n-pꜢ-nṯr-nḥm stp-n-ptḥ... — Iwa'enpanetjernehem Setepenptah... — The heir of the saviour god, who is the chosen of Ptah... ...iri-mꜢꜤt-n-rꜤ sḫm-Ꜥnḫ-imn ...Irimaatenre Sekhemankhimen ...who brings forth the order of Ra, the living image of Amun ...iri-mꜢꜤt-imn-rꜤ ...Irimaatimenre ...who has brings forth the order of Amun-Ra Second Preanomen: pꜢ nṯr-mri it snt wsiri ḥwnw Pa Netjermery It Senet Usiri Hunu The god who is beloved of his father and brother, the youthful Osiris Nomen ptwlmys Ꜥnḫ-ḏt mri-ptḥ-Ꜣst Petulemis Ankdjet Meriptahaset Ptolemaios, living forever, beloved of Ptah and Isis Horus name ḥwnw-nfr bnr-mrwt ṯni-sw-nbt-rḫyt-ḥnꜤ-kꜢ.f dwꜢ.n.f-ḫnmw-šps-r-šzp-n.f-ḫꜤ(t)-m-nsw snsn.n-sḥnw-m-ḥꜤꜤw-mi-Nḏ-it.f ṯḥn-msw(t)-ḥr-nst-it.f-mi-ḥr-kꜢ-nḫt ity-psḏ-m-tꜢmri-mi-ḥpw-Ꜥnḫ rdi-n.f-ḥꜢbw-sd-ꜤšꜢw-wrw-mi-Ptḥ-tꜢṯnn-it-nṯrw Hununefer Benermerut Tjenisunebtrekhyethenakaf Duaenefkhnmushepesershesepenefkha'emnesu Sensenensehnuemhaawminedjetitef Tjehenmesuthernesetitefmihorkanakht Itypesedjemtamerimihapuankh Redienefhebusedashauwerumiptahtatjenenitnetjeru The perfect youth, pleasant in his popularity, whom the Two Ladies and the common folk have elevated along with his ka, who the wonderful Khnum praises so that he receives the crown of kingship, who unites himself with the works (of his father) in joy like that which his father protects, who is shining at birth on the throne of his father like Horus, the strong bull, the lord who lights up Egypt like the living Apis, to whom many great Sed festivals will be given through Ptah-Tatenen, the father of the Gods Nebty name First Nebty name: wr-pḥti ḫntš-nḥḥ smn-hpw-mi-ḏḥwti-ꜤꜢ-ꜤꜢ Werpehty Khenteshneheh Semenhepumidjehutia'a The one great of strength and foremost one of the sea forever, who has established laws like the twice-great Thoth Second Nebty name:wr-pḥti ḫntš-nḥḥ nfr-ib wṯz-nfrw-mi-ḏḥwti-ꜤꜢ-ꜤꜢ Werpehty Khenteshneheh Neferib Wetjesneferumidjehutia'a The one great of strength and foremost one of the sea forever, perfect of mind, who has raised perfection like the twice-great Thoth Golden Horus First Golden Horus name:ꜤꜢ-ib ity nb-ḳnw-nḫt-mi-zꜢ-Ꜣst A'a-ib Ity Nebqenunakhtmiza'aset The one great of mind, the sovereign, the possessor of bravery and strength like the son of Isis Second Golden Horus name: ꜤꜢ-ib mri-nṯrw-BꜢḳt ity-mi-rꜤ ḥḳꜢ-wꜢḏti A'a-ib Merynetjerubaqet Itimire Heqawadjety The one great of mind who is beloved of the gods of Baqet, a sovereign like Ra and ruler of the two crowns Born c. 117 BC Cyprus? Died before 22 March 51 BC Alexandria Spouse Cleopatra V Tryphaena Issue Detail Berenice IV Epiphaneia Cleopatra VII Philopator Arsinoe IV Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Ptolemy XIV Full name Ptolemy Neos Dionysos Philopator Philadelphos Dynasty Ptolemaic Father Ptolemy IX Soter Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Philopator Philadelphos (Koinē Greek: Πτολεμαῖος Νέος Διόνυσος Φιλοπάτωρ Φιλάδελφος, Ptolemaĩos, "Ptolemy New Dionysus, Father-lover, Sibling-lover"; c. 117 BC – before 22 March 51 BC) was a king of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Ancient Egypt. He was commonly known as Auletes (Αὐλητής, "the Flautist"), referring to the king's love of playing the flute in Dionysian festivals. As a member of the Ptolemaic dynasty, he was a descendant of its founder, Ptolemy I. Ptolemy XII was an illegitimate son of Ptolemy IX by an uncertain mother. In 116 BC Ptolemy IX's father, Ptolemy VIII, died and he became co-regent with his mother, Cleopatra III. However, he was forced into a civil war against his mother and brother, Ptolemy X, leading to his exile in 107 BC. Cleopatra III sent her grandsons to Kos in 103 BC. They were captured by Mithridates VI of Pontus probably in 88 BC, around the time Ptolemy IX returned to the Egyptian throne. After their father died in 81 BC, Ptolemy XII's half-sister Berenice III took the throne. She was soon murdered by her cousin and co-regent, Ptolemy XI, who was then killed. Ptolemy XII was recalled from Pontus and proclaimed king of Egypt, while his brother, also named Ptolemy, became king of Cyprus. By his wife Cleopatra V, Ptolemy XII had at least one child, Berenice IV, and probably Cleopatra VII; he had his three youngest children, Arsinoe IV, Ptolemy XIII, and Ptolemy XIV, with an unknown mother. His uncle, Ptolemy X, had left Egypt to Rome in the event there were no surviving heirs, making Roman annexation of Egypt a possibility. In an effort to prevent this, Ptolemy XII established an alliance with Rome late into his first reign. Rome annexed Cyprus in 58 BC, causing Ptolemy of Cyprus to commit suicide. Shortly afterwards, Ptolemy XII was deposed by the Egyptian people and fled to Rome; his eldest daughter, Berenice IV, took the throne. With Roman funding and military assistance, Ptolemy XII was able to recapture Egypt and have Berenice IV killed in 55 BC. He named his daughter Cleopatra VII as his co-regent in 52 BC. He died the next year and was succeeded by Cleopatra and her brother, Ptolemy XIII, as joint rulers. Contents 1 Background and early life 2 First reign (80–58 BC) 2.1 Relations with Rome 3 Exile in Rome (58-55 BC) 4 Restoration and Second Reign (55–51 BC) 5 Regime 6 Marriage and issue 7 References 8 Notes 8.1 Primary sources 8.2 Secondary sources 9 External links Background and early life[edit] Bust of Ptolemy IX Soter. Bust of Mithridates VI of Pontus. Ptolemy XII was the oldest son of Ptolemy IX Soter. The identity of his mother is uncertain. Ptolemy IX was married twice, to his sister Cleopatra IV from around 119 BC until he was forced to divorce her in 115 BC, and secondly to another sister Cleopatra Selene from 115 BC, until he abandoned her during his flight from Alexandria in 107 BC. However, Cicero and other ancient sources refer to Ptolemy XII as an illegitimate son; Pompeius Trogus called him a "nothos" (bastard), while Pausanias wrote that Ptolemy IX had no legitimate sons at all.[1][2] Some scholars have therefore proposed that his mother was a concubine – probably an Alexandrian Greek,[3][4][5][6] but possibly a member of the Egyptian elite.[7][8][note 1] However, Chris Bennett argues that Ptolemy XII's mother was Cleopatra IV and that he was considered illegitimate simply because she had never been co-regent.[9] This theory is endorsed by the historian Adrian Goldsworthy.[10] The date of Ptolemy XII's birth is thus uncertain.[11] If he was the son of Cleopatra IV, he was probably born around 117 BC and followed around a year later by a brother, known as Ptolemy of Cyprus. In 117 BC, Ptolemy IX was governor of Cyprus, but in 116 BC his father Ptolemy VIII died and he returned to Alexandria, becoming the junior co-regent of his grandmother Cleopatra II and his mother Cleopatra III. Cleopatra II died in 115 BC and shortly afterwards Cleopatra III forced Ptolemy IX to divorce his sister-wife Cleopatra IV, who was sent off to marry the Seleucid king Antiochus IX Cyzicenus. She was murdered by his rival in 114 BC. Ptolemy IX meanwhile had been remarried to Cleopatra Selene, with whom he had a daughter, Berenice III.[12] By 109 BC, Ptolemy IX had begun the process of introducing Ptolemy XII to public life. In that year, Ptolemy XII served as the Priest of Alexander and Ptolemaic kings (an office which Ptolemy IX otherwise held himself throughout his reign) and had a festival established in his honour in Cyrene.[13][14] Relations between Ptolemy IX and his mother deteriorated. In 107 BC she forced him to flee Alexandria for Cyprus and replaced him as co-regent with his younger brother Ptolemy X Alexander.[12] Justin mentions that Ptolemy IX left two sons behind when he fled Alexandria.[15] Chris Bennett argues that these sons should be identified as Ptolemy XII and Ptolemy of Cyprus.[9] Ptolemy IX made an attempt to reclaim the Ptolemaic throne in 103 BC, by invading Judaea. At the start of this war, Cleopatra III sent her grandsons to the island of Kos along with her treasure in order to protect them.[16][17] There, Ptolemy XII and Ptolemy of Cyprus seem to have been captured by Mithridates VI of Pontus in 88 BC, at the outbreak of the First Mithridatic War.[14][18] Ironically, their father had reclaimed the Egyptian throne around the same time. They were held by Mithridates as hostages until 80 BC. At some point during this period, probably in 81 or 80 BC, they were engaged to two of Mithridates' daughters, Mithridatis and Nyssa.[19] Meanwhile, Ptolemy IX died in December 81 BC and was succeeded by Berenice III. In April 80 BC, Ptolemy XI Alexander II, the son of Ptolemy X, was installed as her co-regent, promptly murdered her, and was himself killed by an angry Alexandrian mob. The Alexandrians then summoned Ptolemy XII to return to Egypt and assume the kingship; his brother became king of Cyprus, where he would reign until 58 BC.[7][20][21] First reign (80–58 BC)[edit] Egyptian-style statue of Ptolemy XII found at the Temple of the Crocodile in Fayoum, Egypt. On his arrival in Alexandria, in April 80 BC, Ptolemy XII was proclaimed king. His reign was officially dated as having begun on the death of his father in 81 BC, thereby eliding the reigns of Berenice III and Ptolemy X. Shortly after his accession, Ptolemy married Cleopatra Tryphaena.[22] Her parentage is uncertain – modern scholarship often interprets her as a sister,[22] but Christopher Bennett argues that she was a daughter of Ptolemy X.[23] The couple became co-regents and they were incorporated into the Ptolemaic dynastic cult together as the Theoi Philopatores kai Philadelphoi (Father-loving and Sibling-loving Gods). This title was probably meant to reinforce Ptolemy XII's claim to the throne in the face of claims that his parentage meant that he was an illegitimate son of Ptolemy IX and therefore not entitled to rule.[22] In 76 BC, the High Priest of Ptah in Memphis died and Ptolemy XII travelled to Memphis to appoint his fourteen-year-old son, Pasherienptah III, as the new High Priest. In turn, Pasherienptah III crowned Ptolemy as Pharaoh and then went to Alexandria, where he was appointed as Ptolemy XII's 'prophet'. These encounters are described in detail on Pasherienptah's funerary stela, Stele BM 866, and they demonstrate the extremely close and mutually reinforcing relationship that had developed between the Ptolemaic kings and the Memphite priesthood by this date.[22] In August 69 BC, Cleopatra V ceases to be mentioned as co-regent. The images of her that had been carved on the main pylon of the Temple of Horus at Edfu were covered over at this time. The reason for this sudden shift is unknown, but presumably she was divorced at this time.[22] Ptolemy adopted a new royal epithet Neos Dionysos (New Dionysus) at some time after this; Chris Bennett proposes that the epithet was linked to the break with Cleopatra.[14] Relations with Rome[edit] Pompey, Ptolemy XII's key ally in Rome. Relief of Ptolemy XII from the double temple at Kom Ombo. First pylon at Edfu Temple, which Ptolemy XII decorated with figures of himself smiting the enemy. When Ptolemy X had died in 88 BC, his will had left Egypt to Rome in the event that he had no surviving heirs. Although the Romans had not acted on this, the possibility that they might forced the following Ptolemies to adopt a careful and respectful policy towards Rome.[24][25] Ptolemy XII continued this pro-Roman policy in order to protect himself and secure his dynasty's fate. Egypt came under increasing Roman pressure nevertheless. In 65 BC, the Roman censor, Marcus Licinius Crassus proposed that Rome annex Egypt.[26] This proposal failed in the face of opposition from Quintus Lutatius Catulus and Cicero. In light of this crisis, however, Ptolemy XII began to expend significant resources on bribing Roman politicians to support his interests. In 63 BC, when Pompey was reorganising Syria and Anatolia following his victory in the Third Mithridatic War, Ptolemy sought to form a relationship with Pompey by sending him a golden crown. Ptolemy also provided pay and maintenance for 8,000 cavalry to Pompey for his war with Judaea. He also asked Pompey to come to Alexandria and help to put down a revolt which had apparently broken out in Egypt; Pompey refused.[27][24][28] The money required for these bribes was enormous. Initially, Ptolemy XII funded them by raising taxes. A strike by farmers of royal land in Herakleopolis which is attested in a papyrus document from 61/60 BC has been interpreted as a sign of widespread discontent with this taxation. Increasingly, Ptolemy XII also had recourse to loans from Roman bankers, such as Gaius Rabirius Postumus. This gave the Romans even more leverage over his regime and meant that the fate of Egypt became an increasingly immediate issue in Roman politics.[24] Finally, in 60 BC, Ptolemy XII travelled to Rome, where the First Triumvirate, composed of Pompey, Crassus, and Julius Caesar, had just taken power, in order to negotiate official recognition of his kingship. Ptolemy paid Pompey and Caesar six thousand talents – an enormous sum, equivalent to the total annual revenue of Egypt.[29] In return, a formal alliance or foedus was formed. The Roman Senate recognised Ptolemy as king and Caesar passed a law that added Ptolemy to the list of friends and allies of the people of Rome (amici et socii populi Romani) in 59 BC.[30][31][32] In 58 BC, the Romans took control of Cyprus, causing its ruler, Ptolemy XII's brother, to commit suicide.[33] Ptolemy XII took no action in response to his brother's death and Cyprus remained a Roman province until returned to Ptolemaic control by Julius Caesar in 48 BC.[34] Exile in Rome (58-55 BC)[edit] Further information: Early life of Cleopatra The bribery policy had been unpopular in Egypt for a long time, both because of its obsequiousness and because of the heavy tax burden that it entailed, but the annexation of Cyprus demonstrated its failure and enraged the people of Alexandria. The courtiers in Alexandria forced Ptolemy to step down from the thone and leave Egypt.[35] He was replaced by his daughter Berenice IV, who ruled jointly with Cleopatra Tryphaena, who is probably Ptolemy XII's former wife but may be an otherwise unattested daughter. Following Cleopatra Tryphaena's death a year later, Berenice ruled alone from 57 to 56 BC.[36][34] A denarius of Pompey minted 49-48 BC Taking his daughter Cleopatra with him, Ptolemy fled for the safety of Rome.[37] On the way, he stopped in Rhodes where the exiled Cato the Younger offered him advice on how to approach the Roman aristocracy, but no tangible support. In Rome, Ptolemy XII prosecuted his restitution but met opposition from certain members of the Senate. His old ally Pompey housed the exiled king and his daughter and argued on behalf of Ptolemy's restoration in the Senate.[38][34] During this time, Roman creditors realized that they would not get the return on their loans to the king without his restoration.[39] In 57 BC, pressure from the Roman public forced the Senate's decision to restore Ptolemy. However, Rome did not wish to invade Egypt to restore the king, since the Sibylline books stated that if an Egyptian king asked for help and Rome proceeded with military intervention, great dangers and difficulties would occur.[40] Egyptians heard rumours of Rome's possible intervention and disliked the idea of their exiled king's return. The Roman historian Cassius Dio wrote that a group of one hundred men were sent as envoys from Egypt to make their case to the Romans against Ptolemy XII's restoration. Ptolemy seemingly had their leader Dio of Alexandria poisoned and most of the other protesters killed before they reached Rome.[41] Restoration and Second Reign (55–51 BC)[edit] Further information: Early life of Cleopatra and Reign of Cleopatra Rare drachma of Ptolemy XII minted at Paphos, Cyprus in 53 BC,[42] depicting him instead of Ptolemy I Roman bust of Cleopatra VII, Altes Museum, Antikensammlung Berlin In 55 BC, Ptolemy paid Aulus Gabinius 10,000 talents to invade Egypt and so recovered his throne. Gabinius defeated the Egyptian frontier forces, marched to Alexandria, and attacked the palace, where the palace guards surrendered without fighting.[43] The exact date of Ptolemy XII's restoration is unknown; the earliest possible date of restoration was 4 January 55 BC and the latest possible date was 24 June the same year. Upon regaining power, Ptolemy acted against Berenice, and along with her supporters, she was executed. Ptolemy XII maintained his grip on power in Alexandria with the assistance of around two thousand Roman soldiers and mercenaries, known as the Gabiniani. This arrangement enabled Rome to exert power over Ptolemy, who ruled until he fell ill in 51 BC.[44] On 31 May 52 BC his daughter Cleopatra VII was named as his coregent.[45] At the moment of Ptolemy XII's restoration, Roman creditors demanded the repayment of their loans, but the Alexandrian treasury could not repay the king's debt. Learning from previous mistakes, Ptolemy XII shifted popular resentment of tax increases from himself to a Roman, his main creditor Gaius Rabirius Postumus, whom he appointed dioiketes (minister of finance), and so in charge of debt repayment. Perhaps Gabinius had also put pressure on Ptolemy XII to appoint Rabirius, who now had direct access to the financial resources of Egypt but exploited the land too much. The king had to imprison Rabirius to protect his life from the angry people, then allowed him to escape. Rabirius immediately left Egypt and went back to Rome at the end of 54 BC. There he was accused de repetundis, but defended by Cicero and probably acquitted.[46][47] Ptolemy also permitted a debasing of the coinage as an attempt to repay the loans. Near the end of Ptolemy's reign, the value of Egyptian coinage dropped to about fifty per cent of its value at the beginning of his first reign.[48] Ptolemy XII died sometime before 22 March 51 BC.[49] His will stipulated that Cleopatra VII and her brother Ptolemy XIII should rule Egypt together. To safeguard his interests, he made the people of Rome executors of his will. Since the Senate was busy with its own affairs, his ally Pompey approved the will.[50] According to the author Mary Siani-Davies: Throughout his long-lasting reign the principal aim of Ptolemy was to secure his hold on the Egyptian throne so as to eventually pass it to his heirs. To achieve this goal he was prepared to sacrifice much: the loss of rich Ptolemaic lands, most of his wealth and even, according to Cicero, the very dignity on which the mystique of kingship rested when he appeared before the Roman people as a mere supplicant. — Mary Siani-Davies, "Ptolemy XII Auletes and the Romans", Historia (1997) [50] Regime[edit] Ptolemy Auletes before Hathor and Philae, at the Hathor Temple, Dendera, which he built in 54 BC.[51][52] Ptolemy Auletes before Isis and Osiris, at the Hathor Temple, Dendera.[51][52] Generally, descriptions of Ptolemy XII portray him as weak and self-indulgent, drunk, or a lover of music.[53] According to Strabo, his practice of playing the flute earned him the ridiculing sobriquet Auletes ('flute player'): Now all of the kings after the third Ptolemy, being corrupted by luxurious living, administered the affairs of government badly, but worst of all were the fourth, seventh, and the last, Auletes, who, apart from his general licentiousness, practised the accompaniment of choruses with the flute, and upon this he prided himself so much that he would not hesitate to celebrate contests in the royal palace, and at these contests would come forward to vie with the opposing contestants. — Strabo, XVII, 1, 11, [54] Marriage and issue[edit] Ptolemy married his sister Cleopatra V Tryphaena who was with certainty the mother of his eldest known child, Berenice IV.[55] Cleopatra V disappears from court records a few months after the birth of Ptolemy's second known child,[56] and probably hers, Cleopatra VII in 69 BC.[56][57][58][59][60][61][62] The identity of the mother of the last three of Ptolemy's children, in birth order Arsinoe IV, Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator, and Ptolemy XIV, is also uncertain. One hypothesis contends that possibly they (and perhaps Cleopatra VII) were Ptolemy XII's children with a theoretical half Macedonian Greek, half Egyptian woman belonging to a priestly family from Memphis in northern Egypt,[56] but this is only speculation.[63] The philosopher Porphyry (c. 234 – c. 305 AD) wrote of Ptolemy XII's daughter Cleopatra VI Tryphaena, who reigned alongside her sister Berenice.[64] The Greek historian Strabo (c. 63 BC – c. AD 24) stated that the king had only three daughters of whom the eldest has been referred to as Berenice IV.[65] This suggests that the Cleopatra Tryphaena mentioned by Porphyry may not have been Ptolemy's daughter, but his wife. Many experts now identify Cleopatra VI with Cleopatra V.[55] Name Image Birth Death Notes Berenice IV 79-75 BC early 55 BC Queen of Egypt (June 58 BC – early 55 BC)[66] Cleopatra VII December 70 BC or January 69 BC 12 August 30 BC Queen of Egypt (51 - 30 BC)[67] Arsinoe IV 63-61 BC? 41 BC Queen of Cyprus in 48 BC, claimed queenship of Egypt from late 48 BC until expelled by Julius Caesar in early 47 BC[68] Ptolemy XIII 62-61 BC 13 January 47 BC Co-regent with Cleopatra VII (51 – 47 BC)[69] Ptolemy XIV 60-59 BC June–September 44 BC Co-regent with Cleopatra VII (47 – 44 BC)[70] Ancestors of Ptolemy XII of Egypt 8. Ptolemy V Epiphanes 4. Ptolemy VIII Physcon 9. Cleopatra I of Egypt 2. Ptolemy IX Lathyros 10. Ptolemy VI Philometor (brother of no. 4) 5. Cleopatra III of Egypt 11. Cleopatra II of Egypt (sister of no. 4) 1. Ptolemy XII Auletes 3. uncertain References[edit] ^ Cicero Agr. 2.42; Pausanias 1.9.3 ^ Sullivan 1990, p. 92. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSullivan1990 (help) ^ Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004. ISBN 0-500-05128-3 ^ Ernle Bradford, Classic Biography: Cleopatra (Toronto: The Penguin Groups, 2000), p. 28. ^ Lefkowitz (1997), pp. 44–45, 50. ^ Schiff (2011), pp. 24. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFSchiff2011 (help) ^ a b Hölbl 2001, p. 222. ^ Huß 1990, p. 203. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHuß1990 (help) ^ a b Bennett 1997, p. 46. ^ Goldsworthy 2011, pp. 69–70. ^ Stanwick 2010, p. 60. ^ a b Hölbl 2001, p. 206-207. ^ SEG IX.5. ^ a b c Bennett, Chris. "Ptolemy IX". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 11 November 2019. ^ Justin Epitome of the Philippic History 39.4 ^ Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 13.13.1 ^ Whitehorne 1994, p. 139. ^ Hölbl 2001, p. 211-213. ^ Appian, Mithridatica 16.111 ^ Bradford 2000, p. 33. ^ Roller 2010, p. 17. ^ a b c d e Hölbl 2001, pp. 222-223. ^ Bennett 1997, p. 39. ^ a b c Hölbl 2001, pp. 223-224. ^ Siani-Davies 1997, p. 307. ^ Plutarch, Life of Crassus 13.2 ^ Appian, Mithridatica 114; Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 14.35 ^ Bradford 2000, p. 35. ^ Suetonius Life of Julius Caesar 54.3 ^ Caesar Bellum Civile 3.107; Cicero, Pro Rabirio Postumo 3; Cicero, Letter to Atticus 2.16.2 ^ Siani-Davies 1997, p. 316. ^ Hölbl 2001, pp. 225-226. ^ Roller 2010, p. 22. ^ a b c Hölbl 2001, pp. 226-227. ^ Cassius Dio 39.12; Plutarch, Life of Pompey 49.7. ^ Siani-Davies 1997, p. 324. ^ Bradford 2000, p. 37. ^ Strabo Geography 17.1.11; Cassius Dio 39.14.3 ^ Siani-Davies 1997, p. 323. ^ Bradford 2000, pp. 39–40. ^ Siani-Davies 1997, p. 325. ^ Svoronos 1904, vol. I-II, p=302 (n°1838), & vol. III-IV, plate LXI, n°22, 23.. ^ Bradford 2000, p. 43. ^ Siani-Davies 1997, p. 338. ^ Roller 2010, p. 27. ^ Cicero. ^ Huß 2001, pp. 696–697. ^ Siani-Davies 1997, pp. 332–334. ^ Roller 2010, pp. 53, 56. ^ a b Siani-Davies 1997, p. 339. ^ a b Bard, Kathryn A. (2005). Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. Routledge. p. 252. ISBN 978-1-134-66525-9. ^ a b mondial, UNESCO Centre du patrimoine. "Pharaonic temples in Upper Egypt from the Ptolemaic and Roman periods - UNESCO World Heritage Centre". UNESCO Centre du patrimoine mondial (in French). ^ Bradford 2000, p. 34. ^ Strabo XVII, 1, 11. ^ a b Tyldesley 2006, p. 200. ^ a b c Roller 2010, pp. 16, 19, 159. ^ Grant 1972, p. 4. ^ Preston 2009, p. 22. ^ Jones 2006, p. xiii. ^ Schiff 2010, p. 28. ^ Kleiner 2005, p. 22. ^ Tyldesley 2006, pp. 30, 235–236. ^ Goldsworthy 2011, pp. 127, 128. ^ "Eusebius: Chronicle p. 167, accessed online". Archived from the original on 12 December 2010. Retrieved 31 December 2010. ^ Strabo, Geography, Book XVII, pp. 45–47, accessed online ^ Bennett, Chris. "Berenice IV". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 23 November 2019. ^ Bennett, Chris. "Cleopatra VII". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 23 November 2019. ^ Bennett, Chris. "Arsinoe IV". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 23 November 2019. ^ Bennett, Chris. "Ptolemy XIII". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 23 November 2019. ^ Bennett, Chris. "Ptolemy XIV". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 23 November 2019. Notes[edit] ^ Lefkowtiz (1997) harvtxt error: no target: CITEREFLefkowtiz1997 (help) Mary Lefkowitz rejects the notion of an Egyptian mother to Ptolemy XII. Afrocentric claims that Cleopatra's paternal grandmother was a black Egyptian woman contend that is why Cleopatra spoke Egyptian. Lefkowitz notes, however, that if Cleopatra's paternal grandmother had been Egyptian, it would have been more likely Ptolemy XII was the first speaker of the Egyptian language, instead of his daughter Cleopatra. Primary sources[edit] Cassius Dio 39.12 – 39.14, 39.55 – 39.58 Cicero, Marcus Tullius (2018) [54 BC]. pro Rabirio Postumo [In Defense of Gaius Rabirius Postumus]. Latin Texts & Translations. Strabo 12.3.34 and 17.1.11 Secondary sources[edit] Bennett, Christopher J. (1997). "Cleopatra V Tryphæna and the Genealogy of the Later Ptolemies". Ancient Society. 28: 39–66. doi:10.2143/AS.28.0.630068. ISSN 0066-1619. JSTOR 44079777. (registration required) Bradford, Ernle Dusgate Selby (2000). Cleopatra. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0141390147. (registration required) Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith (2011). Antony and Cleopatra. London: Phoenix. ISBN 978-0-300-16534-0. Grant, Michael (1972). Cleopatra. Edison, NJ: Barnes and Noble Books. ISBN 978-0880297257. Hölbl, Günther (2001). A History of the Ptolemaic Empire. London & New York: Routledge. pp. 222–230. ISBN 0415201454. Huß, Werner (2001). "Ägypten in hellenistischer Zeit 332–30 v. Chr. (Egypt in Hellenistic times 332–30 BC)". The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. Munich. ISSN 0307-5133. (in German) Jones, Prudence J. (2006). Cleopatra: a sourcebook. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 9780806137414. Kleiner, Diana E. E. (2005). Cleopatra and Rome. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674019058. (registration required) Lefkowitz, Mary R. (1997). Not out of Africa: How Afrocentrism became an Excuse to Teach Myth as History. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-09838-5. (registration required) Mahaffy, John Pentland (1899). A History of Egypt under the Ptolemaic Dynasty. IV. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Preston, Diana (2009). Cleopatra and Antony. New York: Walker & Company. ISBN 978-0802710598. Roller, Duane W. (2010). Cleopatra: a Biography. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-195-36553-5. (registration required) Schiff, Stacy (2010). Cleopatra: A Life. New York: Back Bay Books. ISBN 978-0-316-12180-4. Siani-Davies, Mary (1997). "Ptolemy XII Auletes and the Romans". Historia. 46 (3): 306–340. JSTOR 4436474. (registration required) Stanwick, Paul Edmund (2010). Portraits of the Ptolemies: Greek Kings as Egyptian Pharaohs. University of Texas Press. ISBN 9780292777729. Svoronos, Ioannis (1904). Ta nomismata tou kratous ton Ptolemaion. Volumes 1 & 2, and 3 & 4. Athens. OCLC 54869298. (in Greek and German) Tyldesley, Joyce (2006). Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 9780500051450. Whitehorne, John (1994). Cleopatras. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-05806-3. External links[edit] Ptolemy XII by Christopher Bennett (part of his Egyptian Royal Genealogy) Ptolemy XII Auletes from the online Encyclopædia Britannica Strabo The Geography in English translation, ed. H. L. Jones (1924), at LacusCurtius (Bill Thayer's Web Site) Cassius Dio Roman History in English translation by Cary (1914–1927), at LacusCurtius (Bill Thayer's Web Site) The House of Ptolemy, Chapter XII by E. R. Bevan (Bill Thayer's Web Site) Ptolemy XII Auletes (ca. 112 - 51 BCE) entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith Ptolemy XII Auletes Ptolemaic dynasty Born: ca. 117 BC Died: ca. 51 BC Regnal titles Preceded by Ptolemy XI Pharaoh of Egypt 80 BC-58 BC with Cleopatra V/VI Succeeded by Cleopatra V/VI Berenice IV Preceded by Berenice IV Pharaoh of Egypt 55 BC-51 BC with Cleopatra VII Succeeded by Ptolemy XIII Cleopatra VII v t e Hellenistic rulers Argeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Kings of Cyrene Magas Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Kings of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Kings of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Kings of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Kings of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus Kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon (regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces Asander with Dynamis Mithridates II Asander with Dynamis Scribonius’ attempted rule with Dynamis Dynamis with Polemon Polemon with Pythodorida Aspurgus Mithridates III with Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 118793578 LCCN: no2006060997 VcBA: 495/102018 VIAF: 45098366 WorldCat Identities: lccn-no2006060997 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ptolemy_XII_Auletes&oldid=1002384153" Categories: 2nd-century BC births 51 BC deaths 2nd-century BC Egyptian people 1st-century BC Egyptian people 1st-century BC Pharaohs 1st-century BC rulers in Africa Cleopatra Flautists Hellenistic Cyprus Pharaohs of the Ptolemaic dynasty Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors CS1 French-language sources (fr) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Use British English from May 2019 Use dmy dates from November 2018 Articles containing Koinē Greek-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Pages with login required references or sources CS1: long volume value Wikipedia articles 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en-wikipedia-org-1564	----	Pepi II Neferkare - Wikipedia Pepi II Neferkare From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Egyptian pharaoh of the Sixth dynasty for the Old Kingdom Pepi II Pepy, Phiops or Fiops Alabaster statue of Ankhesenmeryre II and her son Pepi II. Pharaoh Reign 2278–after 2247 BC, probably either c. 2216 or c. 2184 BC[1][2] (6th Dynasty) Predecessor Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Successor Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Neferkare Perfect is the soul of Ra Nomen Pepi Horus name Netjerikhaw Divine of apparitions Nebty name Netjerikhaw Divine of apparitions Golden Horus Sekhem Bik-Nebu The golden falcon is powerful [3] Consort Neith, Iput II, Ankhesenpepi III, Ankhesenpepi IV, and Udjebten Father Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Mother Ankhesenpepi II Born 2284 BC Died after 2247 BC, probably c. 2216 BC orc. 2184 BC (older then 37 probably Aged 68-100) Burial Pyramid in South Saqqara Monuments Pyramid in South Saqqara Pepi II (also Pepy II; 2284 BC – after 2247 BC, probably either c. 2216 or c. 2184 BC[2][note 1]) was a pharaoh of the Sixth Dynasty in Egypt's Old Kingdom who reigned from c. 2278 BC. His throne name, Neferkare (Nefer-ka-Re), means "Beautiful is the Ka of Re". He succeeded to the throne at age six, after the death of Merenre I. He was traditionally thought to be the son of Pepi I and Queen Ankhesenpepi II, but the South Saqqara Stone annals record that Merenre had a minimum reign of 11 years. Several 6th Dynasty royal seals and stone blocks – the latter of which were found within the funerary temple of Queen Ankhesenpepi II, the known mother of Pepi II – were discovered in the 1999–2000 excavation season at Saqqara, which demonstrate that she also married Merenre after Pepi I's death and became this king's chief wife.[5] Inscriptions on these stone blocks give Ankhesenpepi II the royal titles of: "King's Wife of the Pyramid of Pepy I, King's Wife of the Pyramid of Merenre, King's Mother of the Pyramid of Pepy II".[6] Therefore, today, many Egyptologists believe that Pepi II was likely Merenre's own son.[7] Pepi II would, therefore, be Pepi I's grandson while Merenre was, most likely, Pepi II's father since he is known to have married Pepi II's known mother, Queen Ankhesenpepi II. This would also conform well with the evidence from the South Saqqara Stone which shows no coregency between the reigns of Pepi I and Merenre thus making it far more likely that Pepi II was Merenre's own son. Pepi II's reign marked a sharp decline of the Old Kingdom. As the power of the nomarchs grew, the power of the pharaoh declined. With no dominant central power, local nobles began raiding each other's territories and the Old Kingdom came to an end within a couple of years after the close of Pepi II's reign. Contents 1 Early years of Pepi II's reign 2 Family 3 Foreign policy 4 King Neferkare and General Sasenet 5 Decline of the Old Kingdom 6 Reign length 7 The Ipuwer Papyrus 8 Pyramid complex 8.1 Excavation 9 Portraiture 10 Successors 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 14 Bibliography 15 External links Early years of Pepi II's reign[edit] Base of a headrest inscribed with Pepi II's titulary. Musée du Louvre. Jar with the cartouches of pharaoh Pepi II, from Egypt. Neues Museum, Berlin His mother Ankhesenpepi II (Ankhesenmeryre II) most likely ruled as regent in the early years of his reign. She may have been helped in turn by her brother Djau, who was a vizier under the previous pharaoh. An alabaster statuette in the Brooklyn Museum depicts a young Pepi II, in full kingly regalia, sitting on the lap of his mother. Despite his long reign, this piece is one of only three known sculptural representations in existence of this particular king. Some scholars have taken the relative paucity of royal statuary to suggest that the royal court was losing the ability to retain skilled artisans. A glimpse of the personality of the pharaoh while he was still a child can be found in a letter he wrote to Harkhuf, a governor of Aswan and the head of one of the expeditions he sent into Nubia. Sent to trade and collect ivory, ebony, and other precious items, he captured a pygmy. News of this reached the royal court, and an excited young king sent word back to Harkhuf that he would be greatly rewarded if the pygmy were brought back alive, where he would have likely served as an entertainer for the court. This letter was preserved[8] as a lengthy inscription on Harkhuf's tomb, and has been called the first travelogue.[9] Family[edit] A plate mentioning Pepi II's first heb sed jubilee. Over his long life Pepi II had several wives, including: Neith – She was the mother of Pepi's successor Merenre Nemtyemsaf II.[10] She may be a daughter of Ankhesenpepi I and hence also Pepi II's cousin and half-sister.[11] Iput II – A half-sister of Pepi II.[10] Ankhesenpepi III She was the daughter of Merenre Nemtyemsaf I and hence a granddaughter of Pepi I.[10][11] Ankhesenpepi IV – The mother of King Neferkare according to texts in her tomb. It is not known which Neferkare as there are several kings with that name during the First Intermediate Period.[10] His name may be Neferkare Nebi.[11] Udjebten [10] She was also a daughter of Pepi I.[11] Of these queens, Neith, Iput, and Udjebten each had their own minor pyramids and mortuary temples as part of the king's own pyramid complex in Saqqara. Queen Ankhesenpepi III was buried in a pyramid near the pyramid of Pepi I Meryre, and Ankhesenpepi IV was buried in a chapel in the complex of Queen Udjebten.[10] Two more sons of Pepi II are known: Nebkauhor-Idu and Ptashepses (D).[10] Foreign policy[edit] Pepi II seems to have carried on foreign policy in ways similar to that of his predecessors. Copper and turquoise were mined at Wadi Maghareh in the Sinai, and alabaster was quarried from Hatnub. He is mentioned in inscriptions found in the Phoenician city of Byblos.[12] In the south the trade relations consist of caravans trading with the Nubians. Harkhuf was a governor of Upper Egypt who led several expeditions under Merenre and Pepi II. His last expedition was a trip to a place called Iam.[13] Harkhuf brought back with him what his correspondence with the young pharaoh referred to as a dwarf, apparently pygmy.[14] Egypt received goods such as incense, ebony, animal skins, and ivory from Nubia.[15] The Western desert was known to have extensive caravan routes. Some of these routes allowed for trade with the Kharga Oasis, the Selima Oasis, and the Dakhla Oasis.[15] King Neferkare and General Sasenet[edit] Only a small number of pharaohs were immortalized in ancient fiction, Pepi II may be among them. In the tale of "King Neferkare and General Sasenet", three fragments of a papyrus dating from the late New Kingdom (although the story may have been composed earlier),[16] report clandestine nocturnal meetings with a military commander – a General Sasenet or Sisene. Some have suggested this reflects a homosexual relationship although it is disputed that the text relates to Pepi II at all.[17] Some, like R. S. Bianchi, think that it is a work of archaizing literature and dates to the 25th Dynasty referring to Shabaka Neferkare, a Kushite pharaoh.[18] Decline of the Old Kingdom[edit] A decree from Pepi II, granting tax immunity to the temple of Min, on display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City The decline of the Old Kingdom arguably began before the time of Pepi II, with nomarchs (regional representatives of the king) becoming more and more powerful and exerting greater influence. Pepi I, for example, married two sisters who were the daughters of a nomarch and later made their brother a vizier. Their influence was extensive, both sisters bearing sons who were chosen as part of the royal succession: Merenre Nemtyemsaf I and Pepi II. Increasing wealth and power appears to have been handed over to high officials during Pepi II's reign. Large and expensive tombs appear at many of the major nomes of Egypt, built for the reigning nomarchs, the priestly class and other administrators. Nomarchs were traditionally free from taxation and their positions became hereditary. Their increasing wealth and independence led to a corresponding shift in power away from the central royal court to the regional nomarchs. Later in his reign it is known that Pepi divided the role of vizier so that there were two viziers: one for Upper Egypt and one for Lower, a further decentralization of power away from the royal capital of Memphis. Further, the seat of vizier of Lower Egypt was moved several times. The southern vizier was based at Thebes. Reign length[edit] Pepi II is often mentioned as the longest reigning monarch in history, due to a 3rd-century BC account of Ancient Egypt by Manetho, which accords the king a reign of 94 years; this has, however, been disputed by some Egyptologists due to the absence of attested dates known for Pepi I after his 31st count (Year 62 if biennial) such as Hans Goedicke and Michel Baud. Ancient sources upon which Manetho's estimate is based are long lost, and could have resulted from a misreading on Manetho's behalf (see von Beckerath).[19] The Turin canon attributes 90+ [X] years of reign to Pepi II, but this document dates to the time of Ramesses II, 1,000 years later, and its accuracy for the reign length of the Old Kingdom king, Pepi II, is uncertain. At the present time, the oldest written source contemporary with Pepi II dates from the "Year after the 31st Count, 1st Month of Shemu, day 20" from Hatnub graffito No.7 (Spalinger, 1994),[20] which implies, assuming a biennial cattle count system, that this king had a reign of at least 62 complete or partial years. Therefore, some Egyptologists suggest instead that Pepi II reigned no more than 64 years.[21] These Egyptologists dispute a reign of 94 years for Pepi II and advocate a shorter reign of not much more than 64 years for this king.[4] This is based on the complete absence of higher attested dates for Pepi beyond his Year after the 31st Count (Year 62 on a biannual cattle count). A previous suggestion by Hans Goedicke that the Year of the 33rd Count appears for Pepi II in a royal decree for the mortuary cult of Queen Udjebten was withdrawn by Goedicke himself in 1988 in favour of a reading of "the Year of the 24th Count" instead, notes Spalinger.[20] Goedicke writes that Pepi II is attested by numerous year dates until the Year of his 31st count which strongly implies that this king died shortly after a reign of about 64 years.[22] Other scholars note that the lack of contemporary sources dated after his 62nd year on the throne does not preclude a much longer reign, in particular since the end of Pepi II's reign was marked by a sharp decline in the fortunes of the Old Kingdom pharaohs who succeeded him.[2] The Egyptologist David Henige states while there have been examples of kinglists where rulers were ascribed reigns as long as that assigned to Pepi II, "often exceeding 100 years, but these are invariably rejected as mythical", the problems inherent in dating Pepi II's reign are many since: ...a hyperextended duration [for Pepi II's reign] is not really necessary to bring Old Kingdom chronology into some equilibrium with other chronologies. For Mesopotamia from at least this early until virtually the Persian conquest, numerous localized synchronisms play vital roles in absolute dating, but seldom affect the duration of individual dynasties. Not only is Old Kingdom Egypt well outside any "synchronism zone" but, as it happens, since Pepy [II] was the last substantive ruler of Egypt before a period of political and chronological chaos...there are no awkward ramifying effects by reducing his reign by twenty or thirty years, a period that can simply be added on to the First Intermediate Period.[23] Henige himself is somewhat skeptical of the 94 year figure assigned to Pepi II[24] and follows Naguib Kanawati's 2003 suggestion that this king's reign was most probably much shorter than 94 years.[25] This situation could have produced a succession crisis and led to a stagnation of the administration, centered on an absolute yet aging ruler who was not replaced because of his perceived divine status. A later, yet better documented, example of this type of problem is the case of the long reigning Nineteenth Dynasty pharaoh Ramesses II and his successors.[citation needed] It has been proposed that the 4.2 kiloyear event be linked to the collapse of the Old Kingdom in Egypt, though current resolution of evidence is not sufficient to make an assertion.[26][27] The Ipuwer Papyrus[edit] In the past it had been suggested that Ipuwer the sage served as a treasury official during the last years of Pepi II Neferkare's reign.[28][29] The Ipuwer Papyrus was thought by some to describe the collapse of the Old Kingdom and the beginning of the Dark Age, known to historians as the First Intermediate Period.[30] It had been claimed that archaeological evidence from Syrian button seals supported this interpretation.[31] The admonitions may not be a discussion with a king at all however. Otto was the first to suggest that the discussion was not between Ipuwer and his king, but that this was a discussion between Ipuwer and a deity. Fecht showed through philological interpretation and revision of the relevant passages that this is indeed a discussion with a deity.[32] Modern research suggests that the papyrus dates to the much later 13th Dynasty, with part of the papyrus now thought to date to the time of Pharaoh Khety, and the admonitions of Ipuwer actually being addressed to the god Atum, not a mortal king.[29] The admonitions are thought to harken back to the First Intermediate Period and record a decline in international relations and a general impoverishment in Egypt.[33] Pyramid complex[edit] Main article: Pyramid of Pepi II The pyramid complex was called [34] "Neferkare Is Established and Living".[35] Ruins of the pyramid complex of Pepi II The complex consists of Pepi's pyramid with its adjacent mortuary temple. The pyramid contained a core made of limestone and clay mortar. The pyramid was encased in white limestone. An interesting feature is that after the north chapel and the wall was completed, the builders tore down these structures and enlarged the base of the pyramid. A band of brickwork reaching to the height of the perimeter wall was then added to the pyramid. The purpose of this band is not known. It has been suggested that the builders wanted the structure to resemble the hieroglyph for pyramid,[35] or that possibly the builders wanted to fortify the base of the structure due to an earthquake.[34] The burial chamber had a gabled ceiling covered by painted stars. Two of the walls consisted of large granite slabs. The sarcophagus was made of black granite and inscribed with the king's name and titles. A canopic chest was sunk in the floor.[35] To the northwest of the pyramid of Pepi II, the pyramids of his consorts Neith and Iput were built. The pyramid of Udjebten is located to the south of Pepi's pyramid. The Queen's pyramids each had their own chapel, temple and a satellite pyramid. Neith's pyramid was the largest and may have been the first to be built. The pyramids of the Queens contained Pyramid Texts.[34][35] The mortuary temple adjacent to the pyramid was decorated with scenes showing the king spearing a hippopotamus and thus triumphing over chaos. Other scenes include the sed festival, a festival of the god Min and scenes showing Pepi executing a Libyan chieftain, who is accompanied by his wife and son. The scene with the Libyan chief is a copy from Sahure's temple.[34][35] A courtyard was surrounded by 18 pillars which were decorated with scenes of the king in the presence of gods.[35] Despite the longevity of Pepi II, his pyramid was no larger than those of his predecessors at 150 cubits (78.5 metres (258 ft)) per side at the base and 100 cubits (52.5 metres (172 ft)) high and followed what had become the 'standard format'. The pyramid was made from small, local stones and infill, covered with a veneer of limestone. The limestone was removed and the core has slumped. The causeway was approximately 400 metres (1,300 ft) long and the valley temple was on the shores of a lake, long since gone. The site is located at 29°50′25″N 31°12′49″E / 29.84028°N 31.21361°E / 29.84028; 31.21361. Excavation[edit] The complex was first investigated by John Shae Perring, but it was Gaston Maspero who first entered the pyramid in 1881. Gustave Jéquier was the first to investigate the complex in detail between 1926 and 1936.[34][36] Jéquier was the first excavator to start actually finding any remains from the tomb reliefs,[37] and he was the first to publish a thorough excavation report on the complex.[38] Portraiture[edit] A statue which is now in the Brooklyn Museum depicts Queen Ankhenesmerire II with her son Pepi II on her lap. Pepi II wears the royal nemes headdress and a kilt. He is shown at a much smaller scale than his mother. This difference in size is atypical because the king is usually shown larger than others. The difference in size may refer to the time period when his mother served as a regent. Alternatively the statue may depict Ankhenesmerire II as the divine mother.[39] Another statue of Pepi II is now in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo (JE 50616). The king is shown as a naked child. The depiction of the king at such a young age may refer to the age he came to the throne.[40] Successors[edit] There are few official contemporary records or inscriptions of Pepi's immediate successors. According to Manetho and the Turin King List, he was succeeded by his son Merenre Nemtyemsaf II, who reigned for just over a year.[41] It is then believed that he was in turn succeeded by the obscure pharaoh Neitiqerty Siptah, though according to popular tradition (as recorded by Manetho two millennia later) he was succeeded by Queen Nitocris, who would be the first female ruler of Egypt.[42] There is considerable doubt that she ever existed, given the absence of contemporary physical evidence in such things as the various Kings Lists attesting to her rule.[citation needed] This was the end of the Old Kingdom of Egypt, a prelude to the roughly 200-year span of Egyptian history known as the First Intermediate Period.[42] See also[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pepi II. List of Pharaohs List of Egyptian pyramids List of megalithic sites List of Horrible Histories episodes, season 1, episode 2 Notes[edit] ^ The year 2247 BC is a conservative lower estimate based on the number of cattle counts (thirty-one) that occurred during the pharaoh's reign, if counts are assumed to have been taken annually. Though Egyptian cattle counts are most often thought to have taken place biennially, late Old Kingdom reigns might have been an exception to the rule.[4] If they indeed were taken every two years, then the pharaoh reigned for about 62 years, till around 2212 BC. Pepi II is often mentioned as the longest-reigning monarch in History based on accounts from the late 2nd millennium BC Turin canon and the 3rd century BC history of Egypt by Manetho. Earlier sources upon which Manetho's estimate and the Turin canon are based are lost. References[edit] ^ Clayton, Peter A. Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. p.64. Thames & Hudson. 2006. ISBN 0-500-28628-0 ^ a b c Darell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I – Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300 – 1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008 ^ "VIth Dynasty". Archived from the original on 2009-04-17. Retrieved 2009-07-22. ^ a b Michel Baud, "The Relative Chronology of Dynasties 6 and 8" in Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Leiden, 2006) pp.152–57 ^ A. Labrousse and J. Leclant, "Une épouse du roi Mérenrê Ier: la reine Ankhesenpépy I", in M. Barta (ed.), Abusir and Saqqara in the Year 2000, Prague, 2000. pp.485–490 ^ Labrousse and J. Leclant, pp.485–490 ^ A. Labrousse and J. Leclant, "Les reines Ânkhesenpépy II et III (fin de l'Ancien Empire): campagnes 1999 et 2000 de la MAFS", Compte-rendu de l'Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres/, (CRAIBL) 2001, pp.367–384 ^ Tomb inscriptions of Harkhuf ^ Omar Zuhdi, Count Harkhuf and The Dancing Dwarf, KMT 16 Vol:1, Spring 2005, pp.74–80 ^ a b c d e f g Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004. pp 70–78, ISBN 0-500-05128-3 ^ a b c d Tyldesley, Joyce, Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2006. pp 61–63, ISBN 0-500-05145-3 ^ G. Edward Brovarski, "First Intermediate Period, overview" in Kathryn A. Bard and Steven Blake Shubert, eds. Encyclopedia of the Archeology of Ancient Egypt(New York: Routledge, 1999), 46. ^ Wente, Edward, Letters from Ancient Egypt, Scholars Press, 1990. ISBN 1-55540-473-1, pp 20–21 ^ Pascal Vernus, Jean Yoyotte, The Book of the Pharaohs, Cornell University Press 2003. ISBN 0-8014-4050-5. p.74 ^ a b Shaw, Ian. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. 2000. ISBN 0-19-280458-8, pp 116–117 ^ Lynn Meskell, Archaeologies of social life: age, sex, class et cetera in ancient Egypt, Wiley-Blackwell, 1999, p.95 ^ Greenberg, David, The Construction of Homosexuality, 1988; Parkinson, R.B.,‘Homosexual’ Desire and Middle Kingdom Literature Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, vol. 81, 1995, p. 57-76 ^ Robert Steven Bianchi, Daily Life Of The Nubians, Greenwood Press, 2004. p.164 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath, Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägypten (Mainz 1997), p151 ^ a b Anthony Spalinger, Dated Texts of the Old Kingdom, SAK 21, 1994, p.308 ^ Hans Goedicke, The Death of Pepi II-Neferkare" in Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur 15, (1988), pp.111–121 ^ Goedicke, 1988, pp.111–121 ^ David Henige (University of Wisconsin), How long did Pepy II reign?, GM 221 (2009), p. 44 ^ Henige, GM 221, p.48 ^ Naguib Kanawati, Conspiracies in the Egyptian Palace, Unis to Pepy I (London: Routledge, 2003), 4.170. ^ Ann Gibbons, How the Akkadian Empire Was Hung Out to Dry, Science 20 August 1993: 985. Online citation ^ Jean-Daniel Stanley, Michael D. Krom, Robert A. Cliff, Jamie C. Woodward, Short contribution: Nile flow failure at the end of the Old Kingdom, Egypt: Strontium isotopic and petrologic evidence, Geoarchaeology, Volume 18, Issue 3, pages 395–402, March 2003 Online citation ^ Encyclopaedia Britannica, inc (2002). The new encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica. ISBN 978-0-85229-787-2. ^ a b Williams, R. J. (1981), "The Sages of Ancient Egypt in the Light of Recent Scholarship", Journal of the American Oriental Society, 101 (1): 1–19, doi:10.2307/602161, JSTOR 602161 ^ Barbara Bell, The Dark Ages in Ancient History. I. The First Dark Age in Egypt, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 75, No. 1 (Jan., 1971), pp. 1–26 JSTOR ^ Thomas L. Thompson (2002). The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives: The Quest for the Historical Abraham. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-56338-389-2. ^ Winfried Barta, Das Gespräch des Ipuwer mit dem Schöpfergott, Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur, Bd. 1 (1974), pp. 19–33 ^ Mumford, Gregory (2006), "Tell Ras Budran (Site 345): Defining Egypt's Eastern Frontier and Mining Operations in South Sinai during the Late Old Kingdom (Early EB IV/MB I)", Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, 342 (342): 13–67, doi:10.1086/BASOR25066952, JSTOR 25066952 ^ a b c d e Verner, Miroslav. The Pyramids: The Mystery, Culture, and Science of Egypt's Great Monuments. Grove Press. 2001 (1997). pp 362 – 372, ISBN 0-8021-3935-3 ^ a b c d e f Lehner, Mark. The Complete Pyramids. Thames & Hudson. 2008 (reprint). pp 161–163, ISBN 978-0-500-28547-3 ^ Shaw, Ian. and Nicholson, Paul. The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt. p. 220. The British Museum Press, 1995. ^ Shaw and Nicholson, p.220 ^ Jéqier, Gustav. Le monument funéraire de Pepi II. 3 volumes, Cairo, 1936–41. ^ Gay Robins, The Art of Ancient Egypt, Harvard University Press, 1997, pp 66–67, ISBN 978-0-674-00376-7 ^ N. Grimal, A history of ancient Egypt, Wiley-Blackwell, 1994, pg 98 ^ Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004. p 288, ISBN 0-500-05128-3 ^ a b Shaw, Ian. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. 2000. pp 116–117, ISBN 0-19-280458-8 Bibliography[edit] Dodson, Aidan. Hilton, Dyan. 2004. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson Dodson, Aidan. "An Eternal Harem: Tombs of the Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Part One: In the Beginning". KMT. Summer 2004. Shaw, Ian. Nicholson, Paul. 1995. The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt, Harry N. Abrams, Inc. Publishers. Spalinger, Anthony. Dated Texts of the Old Kingdom, SAK 21, (1994), pp. 307–308 Oakes, Lorna and Lucia Gahlun. 2005. Ancient Egypt. Anness Publishing Limited. Perelli, Rosanna, "Statuette of Pepi II" in Francesca Tiradriti (editor), The Treasures of the Egyptian Museum, American University in Cairo Press, 1999, p. 89. External links[edit] A Short History of Egypt Part I: From the Predynastic Period to the Old Kingdom Saqqara: Pyramid of Pepi 2, from LexicOrient Preceded by Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pharaoh of Egypt Sixth Dynasty Succeeded by Merenre Nemtyemsaf II v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 119140217 VIAF: 77119062 WorldCat Identities: viaf-77119062 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pepi_II_Neferkare&oldid=1001249956" Categories: Pepi II Neferkare 23rd-century BC Pharaohs 22nd-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Sixth Dynasty of Egypt 23rd-century BC rulers 23rd century BC in Egypt Ancient child rulers Egyptian centenarians 22nd-century BC deaths Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short 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en-wikipedia-org-157	----	Qakare Ini - Wikipedia Qakare Ini From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be confused with Qakare Ibi. Qakare Ini Kakare, Qaikare; In(tef), Ini(tef), Sa-Ra-Ini Drawing of an inscription depicting Qakare's full titulary. Pharaoh Reign early 20th century BCE (11th–12th Dynasty) Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Qakare[1] Q3j-k3-rˁ Mighty is the ka of Ra Nomen Sa-Ra Ini S3-rˁ Jni The son of Ra, Ini Horus name Senefertawyef S-nfr-t3wj.f He who makes the Two Lands beautiful Nebty name Senefertawyef S-nfr-t3wj.f He who makes the Two Lands beautiful Golden Horus Bik-nebu-nefer Bjk-nbw-nfr Beautiful golden falcon Qakare Ini (also Intef) was an ancient Egyptian or Nubian ruler who most likely reigned at the end of the 11th and beginning of the 12th Dynasty over Lower Nubia. Although he is the best attested Nubian ruler of this time period, nothing is known of his activities. Contents 1 Attestations 2 Name 3 Datation 4 References Attestations[edit] Qakare Ini is the best attested of a series of coeval Nubian rulers including Segerseni and Iyibkhentre.[2] Indeed, his full pharaonic royal titulary is known thanks to 16 rock inscriptions found in Umbarakab, Mudenejar, Guthnis, Taifa, Abu Simbel and Toshka, all in Lower Nubia.[3][4] These inscriptions record Qakare Ini's titulary, sometimes only a cartouche, and never give any more details. In the case of the inscription from Toshka, Qakare Ini's name is inscribed next to that of Iyibkhentre. However, the Egyptologist Darrell Baker proposed that this was due to the lack of space on the rock rather than pointing to a connection between the two rulers.[3] Thus, the relationships between Qakare Ini and the other two Nubian rulers of the period, Segerseni and Iyibkhentre, remain unknown. Qakare Ini is not attested on any Egyptian king list.[3] Name[edit] Qakare's personal name is Ini although in literature he is sometimes reported as Intef or Initef; curiously, the epithet son of Ra is placed inside the cartouche, thus rendering his name Sa-Ra-Ini. Datation[edit] Qakare Ini could have been a pretender to the Egyptian throne headquartered in Lower Nubia, during the politically troubled period spanning the reign of Mentuhotep IV of the 11th Dynasty and the early reign of Amenemhat I of the 12th Dynasty.[1][5] In fact, both those rulers seem to have had problems in being universally recognized as legitimate pharaohs. As Nubia had gained its independence from Egypt during the First Intermediate Period, it is possible that Qakare Ini was one of the last Nubian chieftains to resist the return of the Egyptians at the beginning of the 12th Dynasty. Hungarian Egyptologist László Török suggested a much more recent dating for Qakare Ini (as well as for the other two related rulers mentioned above), some time after the reign of pharaoh Neferhotep I of the 13th Dynasty, that during the Second Intermediate Period, between 1730 and 1650 BCE.[6] This is rejected by Darrell Baker and the Czech archeologist Zbyněk Žába who believe that Qakare Ini lived concurrently with the end of the 11th Dynasty in the late 20th century BCE.[3][7] References[edit] ^ a b Jürgen von Beckerath, Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen (= Münchner ägyptologische Studien, vol 46), Mainz am Rhein: Verlag Philipp von Zabern, 1999. ISBN 3-8053-2310-7, pp. 80-81. ^ Robert G. Morkot, The Black Pharaohs. Egypt's Nubian Rulers. Rubicon Press, London 2000, ISBN 0-948695-24-2, pp. 54–55. ^ a b c d Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 140–141 ^ Günther Roeder, Debod bis Bab Kalabsche, II, Institut Français d'Archaeologie Orientale, Cairo 1911, pls. 118-121, available online here ^ Wolfram Grajetzki, The Middle Kingdom of ancient Egypt: history, archaeology and society. London, Duckworth Egyptology, 2006, pp. 27-28. ^ László Török, Between Two Worlds: The Frontier Region Between Ancient Nubia and Egypt 3700 BC - 500 AD, Brill, 2008, ISBN 978-90-04-17197-8, pp. 100–102. ^ Zbyněk Žába: Rock Inscriptions of Lower Nubia (Czechoslovak Concession), Czechoslovak Institute of Egyptology, Prague, 1974. Henri Gauthier, "Nouvelles remarques sur la XIe dynastie", BIFAO 9 (1911), pp. 99–136. Thomas Schneider, Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, p. 74. Arthur Weigall, A Report on the Antiquities of Lower Nubia. Cairo 1907, pls. 64-65. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Qakare_Ini&oldid=954561719" Categories: 20th-century BC Pharaohs People of the Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt People of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Non-dynastic pharaohs 20th-century BC rulers History of Nubia Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file 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en-wikipedia-org-1616	----	Sobekneferu - Wikipedia Sobekneferu From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Sobekneferu" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Sobekneferu Neferusobek Skemiophris (in Manetho) Statue of Sobekneferu, Pharaoh of Egypt Pharaoh Reign 1806–1802 BC (Twelfth Dynasty) Predecessor Amenemhat IV Successor uncertain, Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep[1] or, in older studies, Wegaf Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sobek-ka-re Sobek is the kꜣ of Ra Nomen Sobekneferu The beauty of Sobek Horus name Meritra Beloved of Re Nebty name Satsekhem Nebettawy Daughter of the powerful one, Mistress of the two lands Golden Horus Djedetkhau Established of crowns Father Amenemhat III Died 1802 BC Burial Northern Mazghuna pyramid (?) Sobekneferu (sometimes written "Neferusobek") reigned as Pharaoh of Egypt after the death of Amenemhat IV. She was the last ruler of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt and ruled Egypt for approximately four years from 1806 to 1802 BC.[1] Her name means "the beauty of Sobek". Contents 1 Family 2 Reign 3 Monuments and tomb 4 See also 5 References 6 Bibliography Family[edit] See also: Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Sobekneferu was the daughter of Pharaoh Amenemhat III. Manetho's Aegyptiaca states that she also was the sister of Amenemhat IV, but this claim is unproven. Researchers have yet to find proof of Manetho's claim and none of Sobekneferu's documented titles support the claim. Sobekneferu had an older sister named Neferuptah, who was the heir next in line after Amenemhat IV. Neferuptah's name was enclosed in a cartouche and she had her own pyramid at Hawara. Neferuptah died at an early age, however, putting Sobekneferu as be next in line.[2] Reign[edit] Sobekneferu is the first woman for whom there is confirmed proof that she reigned as Pharaoh of Egypt.[3] There are earlier women who are known to have ruled, as early as the First Dynasty, such as Neithhotep and Meritneith, but there is no definitive proof they ruled in their own right. Another candidate, Nitocris, would have ruled in the Sixth Dynasty; however, there is little proof of her historicity. Some scholars believe the kingship of Nitocris is merely a legend derived from an incorrect translation of Pharaoh Neitiqerty Siptah's name. Amenemhat IV most likely died without a male heir; consequently, Amenemhat III's daughter, Sobekneferu, assumed the throne as the heir of her father. According to the Turin Canon, she ruled for three years, ten months, and 24 days[4] in the late nineteenth century BC. Sobekneferu died without an heir and the end of her reign concluded Egypt's Twelfth Dynasty and the Golden Age of the Middle Kingdom. Her death inaugurated the Thirteenth Dynasty. Sobekneferu's name appears on multiple King Lists, namely the Karnak, Saqqara and Turin King Lists, making her the only female Pharaoh to appear on these lists. Later female rulers, namely Hatshepsut, Neferneferuaten and Twosret were all omitted from official King Lists for a number of reasons. Sobekneferu is however absent from the Abydos King List, the only king from the 12th Dynasty who was not included. The reason for this is unknown. Monuments and tomb[edit] Bust of Sobekneferu (Louvre) Drawing by Flinders Petrie of the cylinder seal of Sobekneferu in the British Museum [5] Few monuments have been discovered for Sobekneferu, although many (headless) statues of her have been preserved, including the base of a statue that bears her name and is identified as the representation of a king's royal daughter. It was discovered in Gezer.[6] One statue with her head is known. A bust in the Egyptian Museum of Berlin (Inv. no. 14476), lost in World War II, could be identified as belonging to her, as well. Today, the sculpture is known only from photographic images and plaster casts. It came to the museum in 1899. The head fits on top of the lower part of a royal statue discovered at Semna. The latter can definitely be identified as royal because the royal symbol "unification of the two countries" appears on the side of her throne.[7] It is known that Sobekneferu made additions to the funerary complex of Amenemhat III at Hawara (called a "labyrinth" by Herodotus) and also, that she built structures at Heracleopolis Magna. A fine cylinder seal bearing her name and royal titulary is located in the British Museum.[8] A Nile graffito, at the Nubian fortress of Kumma records the Nile inundation height of 1.83 meters in Year 3 of her reign.[9] Another inscription discovered in the Eastern Desert records "year 4, second month of the Season of the Emergence".[10] Her monumental works consistently associate her with Amenemhat III rather than Amenemhat IV, supporting the theory that she was the royal daughter of Amenemhat III and perhaps, only a stepsister to Amenemhat IV, whose mother was not royal.[6] The Danish Egyptologist, Kim Ryholt, notes that the contemporary sources from her reign show that Sobekneferu never adopted the title of King's Sister-only "King's Daughter", which further supports this hypothesis.[6] Her tomb has not been identified positively, although Sobekneferu may have been interred in a pyramid complex in Mazghuna that lacks inscriptions. It is immediately north of a similar complex ascribed to Amenemhat IV. A place called Sekhemneferu is mentioned in a papyrus found at Harageh. This might be the name of her pyramid. See also[edit] Hatshepsut References[edit] ^ a b Ryholt, Kim S. B., The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800-1550 BCE, Museum Tusculanum Press, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications 20, Museum Tusculanum Press (1997), p. 185, ISBN 87-7289-421-0. ^ Dodson, Hilton, The Complete Royal Families of Egypt, 2004, p. 98. ^ Wilkinson, Toby (2010). The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt. London: Bloomsbury. pp. 181, 230. ISBN 978-1-4088-1002-6. ^ Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period (1997), p. 15. ^ Petrie, Flinders: Scarabs and cylinders with names (1927), available copyright-free here, pl. XIV. ^ a b c Ryholt, p. 213. ^ Fay, B., R. E. Freed, T. Schelper, F. Seyfried: "Neferusobek Project: Part I", in: G. Miniaci, W. Grajetzki: The World of Middle Kingdom Egypt (2000-1550 BC), Vol. I, London, 2015, ISBN 978-1906137434, pp. 89–91 ^ Callender, Gae, "The Middle Kingdom Renaissance", in Ian Shaw, The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (Oxford University Press: 2003), paperback, p. 159. ^ Callender (203), p. 159. ^ Almásy, A., Catalogue of Inscriptions, in U. Luft (ed.), Bi'r Minayh, Report on the Survey 1998-2004, Budapest, 2011, ISBN 978-9639911116, pp. 174–175. Bibliography[edit] Dodson, Aidan, and Dyan Hilton. 2004. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, London: Thames & Hudson W. Grajetzki, The Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt: History, Archaeology and Society, London: Duckworth, 2006 ISBN 0-7156-3435-6, 61-63 Shaw, Ian, and Paul Nicholson. 1995. The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt. Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publishers. Shaw, Ian, ed. 2000. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press. Graffito ref. p. 170. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Queens of Ancient Egypt Early Dynastic Period to First Intermediate Period  (3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Neithhotep Benerib Khenthap Herneith Nakhtneith Penebui Merneith Seshemetka Semat Serethor Betrest II Nimaathap Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Hetephernebti Djeseretnebti Djefatnebti Meresankh I IV Hetepheres I Meritites I Henutsen Khentetka Meresankh II Hetepheres II Meresankh III Khamerernebty I Persenet Hekenuhedjet Khamerernebty II Rekhetre Bunefer V Khentkaus I Neferhetepes Meretnebty Khentkaus II Khentkaus III Reptynub Khuit I Meresankh IV Setibhor Nebet Khenut VI Iput I Khuit II Ankhesenpepi I Ankhesenpepi II Nubwenet Meritites IV Inenek-Inti Nedjeftet Neith Iput II Udjebten Ankhesenpepi III Ankhesenpepi IV Nitocris Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Neferu I Neferukayet Iah Tem Neferu II Ashayet Henhenet Sadeh Kawit Kemsit XII Neferitatjenen Neferu III Keminub Khenemetneferhedjet I Nofret II Itaweret Khenmet Sithathoriunet Khenemetneferhedjet II Neferthenut Meretseger Aat Khenemetneferhedjet III Sobekneferu 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Nofret Nubhetepti Senebhenas Neni Tjan Ineni Nubkhaes Aya XIV Tati XVI Mentuhotep XVII Nubemhat Sobekemsaf Haankhes Tetisheri Ahhotep I Ahmose Inhapy Sitdjehuti Ahhotep II New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose-Nefertari Ahmose-Sitkamose Ahmose-Henuttamehu Ahmose-Meritamun Ahmose Mutnofret Hatshepsut Iset Satiah Merytre-Hatshepsut Nebtu Menhet, Menwi and Merti Nebsemi Tiaa Nefertari Iaret Mutemwiya Tiye Gilukhipa Sitamun Iset Tadukhipa / Kiya Nefertiti Meritaten Neferneferuaten Ankhesenamun Tey Mutnedjmet Nebetnehat XIX Sitre Tuya Tanedjemet Nefertari Isetnofret Henutmire Maathorneferure Meritamen Bintanath Nebettawy Merytre Isetnofret II Takhat Twosret Tiaa XX Tiy-Merenese Iset Ta-Hemdjert Tyti Tiye Duatentopet Henutwati Tawerettenru Nubkhesbed Baketwernel Tentamun 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Tentamun Mutnedjmet Karimala XXII Karomama Patareshnes Maatkare Tashedkhonsu Nesitaudjatakhet Nesitanebetashru Kapes Karomama I Tadibast III XXIII Karomama II XXV Pebatjma Tabiry Abar Khensa Peksater Arty Qalhata Tabekenamun Takahatenamun Naparaye Atakhebasken Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Mehytenweskhet Khedebneithirbinet I Takhuit Tentkheta Nakhtubasterau Ladice XXVII Atossa Artystone Parmys Amestris Damaspia Parysatis XXXI Stateira I Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Roxana Stateira II Parysatis II Eurydice II of Macedon Ptolemaic Eurydice Berenice I Arsinoe I Arsinoe II Berenice II Arsinoe III Cleopatra I Cleopatra II Cleopatra III Cleopatra IV Cleopatra Selene Berenice III Cleopatra V Cleopatra VI Berenice IV Cleopatra VII Arsinoe IV Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic Authority control GND: 11881026X VIAF: 54944821 WorldCat Identities: viaf-54944821 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sobekneferu&oldid=997887005" Categories: 19th-century BC Pharaohs 19th-century BC women rulers Pharaohs of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Female pharaohs 19th-century BC deaths 19th-century BC births Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from October 2020 All articles needing additional references Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Asturianu Bân-lâm-gú Български Català Чӑвашла Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar മലയാളം مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский සිංහල Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 2 January 2021, at 18:47 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1647	----	Bikheris - Wikipedia Bikheris From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Bikheris Baka, Bakare, Biuris Inscribed limestone fragment possibly showing Bikheris' name Pharaoh Reign ca. 2570 BC (4th Dynasty) Predecessor Khafre (?) Successor Menkaure (?) Royal titulary Nomen Baka b3-k3 Ba and Ka Bakarê b3-k3-rˁ His soul is the Ka of Rê Father Djedefra (?) Bikheris is the Hellenized name of an ancient Egyptian pharaoh, who may have ruled during the 4th Dynasty (Old Kingdom period) around 2570 BC. Next to nothing is known about this ruler and some Egyptologists even believe him to be fictitious.[1] Contents 1 Identity 1.1 Possible name sources 1.2 Identifications 2 Historical figure 3 Reign 4 Burial 5 References Identity[edit] Possible name sources[edit] In attempts to reconstruct Ancient Egyptian king lists, Egyptologists and historians face several problems. As already mentioned, Bikheris is a Hellenized name variation. The name appears in the book Aegyptiaca written by Manetho around 300 BC. In a Latin copy of Manetho, written by Eratosthenes, a king named Biuris is placed at the date when Bikheris allegedly ruled. Scholars wonder if both names actually derive from one and the same Egyptian source.[2] However, ancient Egyptian sources are scarce. The oldest possible royal name source may come from an unfinished pyramid shaft at Zawyet el'Aryan. The shaft was excavated in 1904 by Italian Egyptologist Alessandro Barsanti. He discovered several black ink inscriptions inside the shaft, some of which actually show a royal cartouche name. Unfortunately, Barsanti made no facsimile, but sloppy drawings and all but the cartouche name remains illegible. At least the second (lower) hieroglyph can be identified as a Ka-symbol, thus making the king's name a ...ka.[1][3] The temporally next possible source appears in the famous Westcar Papyrus of the 13th Dynasty. The text mentions a king's son, Bau-ef-Ra. Scholars wonder if this Bauefre may be identical with Bikheris. A very similar name from the New Kingdom period can be found in a rock inscription at Wadi Hammamat. The inscription consists of an honorary prayer surmounted by a short king list. The list contains the names Khufu, Djedefra, Khafre, Djedefhor, and Baefra.[4] Identifications[edit] Alan B. Lloyd is convinced that the names Baka, Bakare, Baefra, Bauefra and Biuris are all identical to Manetho's Bikheris.[2] This, in turn, is doubted by Kim Ryholt, who points out that the names Baefra and Bauefra contain no syllable that would phonetically fit to "Bikheris". Thus, Ba(u)efra and Bikheris might be two different kings.[5] This view is strengthened by the fact that Bauefra is entitled in contemporary documents only as "king's son", which is the title of a prince, not that of a ruler.[6] The only Old Kingdom name that could indeed fit is the now incomplete name X-ka, as found at Zawyet el'Aryan. According to Peter Jánosi, the mysterious name could be a Baka, written with a ram symbol. A son of Djedefra was actually named Baka, his name was indeed written with a ram- and a ka-symbol. It might be possible that prince Baka was meant to become king on the royal throne, but then he died unexpectedly during his coronation year, leaving an unfinished tomb shaft. Maybe Baka changed his name from "Baka" into "Baka-Re" after his coronation, or perhaps it was done posthumously. If the theory is correct, Bikheris was the hellenized variant of Baka(re).[6] Historical figure[edit] Some scholars suspect that the line of throne successions during the 4th Dynasty of Egypt may have been much less smooth than mainstream Egyptologists believe. In support of this, they point out that it was already suspicious that king Djedefra broke with the family tradition of building royal tombs at Giza. In fact, Djedefra had left the Giza necropolis in an attempt to found a new royal cemetery at Abu Rawash instead. Alan B. Lloyd also points out that Djedefra dared another break with royal traditions by introducing the cult of Ra and placing Ra over all other deities. If Djedefra broke with family traditions, then Bikheris, as his son, may have done the same thing. This, and the obviously very short reign, may have led to Bikheris' exclusion from official records.[2][4] Another problem is how later historians depict the 4th Dynasty: Manetho and Eratosthenes both describe Bikheris as the sixth ruler of the 4th Dynasty and as the son and successor of king Djedefra. However, both authors chronologically misplace the kings completely since they give the succession Snofru → Khufu → Khafre → Menkaure → Djedefra → Shepseskaf → Thamphthis; archaeological records however give the correct succession Snofru → Khufu → Djedefra → Khafre → Menkaure → Shepseskaf. The reason for the numerous misplacements of kings in Hellenistic documents may be caused by the ancient authors' erroneous idea that the three builders of the Giza pyramids (Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure) automatically must have been direct throne successors. Also, the Hellenistic authors seem to have built the king list on the historical importance of each king: first the "famous pyramid builders" everyone knew at their time (because of their still practiced mortuary cults and their impressive monuments), then the "lesser important" followers.[2][4] Thus, most scholars are convinced that Bikheris, should he have existed, must have ruled either between Djedefra and Khafre, or between Khafre and Menkaure. Since Bikheris is described as the son and follower of Djedefra, a chronological position between Djedefra and Khafre seems possible. However, the Ramesside king lists provide evidence for placing Bikheris' reign between Khafre and Menkaure. The Saqqara king list provides a very odd sequence of succeeding kings for the 4th Dynasty: after king Khafre, the cartouches from him up to king Userkaf (the first ruler of the 5th Dynasty) are destroyed and thus illegible today. But their number is puzzling, since between Khafre and Userkaf only two kings are archaeologically detected: Menkaure and Shepseskaf. On the other hand, the Saqqara king list gives five cartouches between Khafre and Userkaf: Khafre → ??? → (Menkaure) → (Shepseskaf) → (Thamphthis) → ??? → Userkaf. One was possibly preserved for Bikheris, whilst the second may have been reserved for a king Thamphthis. The third cartouche (the one before Userkaf) remains a mystery.[2] Jürgen von Beckerath proposes king Nyuserre as the holder of the third cartouche; he thinks it is possible that Nyuserre was simply misplaced to the beginning of the 5th Dynasty. The Saqqara king list would therefore give the following succession: Khafre → Bikheris → Menkaure → Shepseskaf → Thamphthis → Nyuserrê → Userkaf.[1] The Royal Canon of Turin also provides an unusual sequence: after king Khafre, the papyrus on which the king list was written is damaged, and only a few year notes have survived. According to the numbers of preserved year notes, between Khafre and Menkaure a further king must have been listed, because an additional line starts with "king of Upper- and Lower Egypt" (the year notes here are damaged and illegible, though). The following year note about "18 years of rulership" must belong to king Menkaure. After Menkaure, 4 years of rulership are mentioned, this line was surely reserved for king Shepseskaf. After Shepseskaf, however, a further, additional year note gives "2 years of rulership" before starting the 5th Dynasty with Userkaf. Egyptologists think that the gap between Khafre and Menkaure once named either Bauefra or Bikheris and the gap between Shepseskaf and Userkaf may have mentioned Thamphthis.[2][4] Reign[edit] The length of Bikheris' reign is subject to some dispute. Manetho credits Bikheris with 22 years of rulership, Eratosthenes gives Biuris 10 years and the Royal Canon of Turin provides 2 years. Modern Egyptologists and historians believe Manetho's and Eratosthenes' year numbers to be exaggerations or misinterpretations. They credit Bikheris with a reign of either 2 years (likewise to the Turin Canon) or even less than one year (as Peter Jánosi suggests). Such a short reign would explain why Bikheris left virtually no monuments and/or documents.[2][4] Burial[edit] The tomb of Bikheris is unknown. If he is indeed identical to the archaeologically attested prince Baka, he might have been buried in the Unfinished Northern Pyramid of Zawyet el'Aryan. This tomb was left unfinished right after the foundation was completed--only an oval-shaped, imbedded sarcophagus was found. The condition of the tomb suggests the sudden death of the king, which forced the tomb workers to leave the necropolis behind. The unfinished tomb would therefore fit well to a supposed short-lived ruler such as Bikheris.[4][6] References[edit] ^ a b c Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägypten. Die Zeitbestimmung der ägyptischen Geschichte von der Vorzeit bis 332 v. Chr. (= Münchner ägyptologische Studien, vol. 46). von Zabern, Mainz 1997, ISBN 3-8053-2310-7, p. 158. ^ a b c d e f g Alan B. Lloyd: Commentary. In: Herodotus, Book II (= Etudes préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l'empire romain, vol. 43). BRILL, Leiden 1993, ISBN 9004077375, p.76-78. ^ Miroslav Verner: Archaeological Remarks on the 4th and 5th Dynasty Chronology. In: Archiv Orientální, Vol. 69. Prag 2001, p. 363–418. ^ a b c d e f Peter Jánosi: Giza in der 4. Dynastie. Die Baugeschichte und Belegung einer Nekropole des Alten Reiches. Bd. I: Die Mastabas der Kernfriedhöfe und die Felsgräber. Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien 2005, ISBN 3-7001-3244-1, p. 64-65. ^ K. S. B. Ryholt, Adam Bülow-Jacobsen: The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800 – 1550 B.C (= CNI publications, Carsten Niebuhr Institut København, vol. 20). Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, ISBN 8772894210, p. 17-18. ^ a b c George Andrew Reisner: A History of the Giza Necropolis, Vol. I. Harvard University Press, Harvard 1942, p. 28. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bikheris&oldid=998795150" Categories: 26th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara Français Italiano עברית ქართული Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands Occitan Polski Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 7 January 2021, at 02:06 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1662	----	Abydos Dynasty - Wikipedia Abydos Dynasty From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The Abydos Dynasty is hypothesized to have been a short-lived local dynasty ruling over parts of Middle and Upper Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period in Ancient Egypt. The Abydos Dynasty would have been contemporaneous with the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Dynasties, from approximately 1650 to 1600 BC.[1] It would have been based in or around Abydos and its royal necropolis might have been located at the foot of the Mountain of Anubis, a hill resembling a pyramid in the Abydene desert, close to a rock-cut tomb built for pharaoh Senusret III. Contents 1 Debate over existence 1.1 Evidence in favor 1.2 Evidence against 2 Territory 3 Rulers 4 References Debate over existence[edit] Evidence in favor[edit] The cartouche of pharaoh Woseribre Senebkay, inside the king's burial tomb. The existence of an Abydos Dynasty was first proposed by Detlef Franke[2] and later elaborated on by Kim Ryholt in 1997. Ryholt observes that two attested kings of this period, Wepwawetemsaf (Wepwawet is his protection) and Pantjeny (He of Thinis), bore names in connection with Abydos: Wepwawet being an important Abydene god and Thinis being a prominent city, located a few miles north of Abydos. Additionally, Wepwawetemsaf, Pantjeny and Snaaib, another king of the period, are each known from single stelae discovered in Abydos, which could be a sign that this was their seat of power.[3] Finally, Ryholt argues that the existence of an Abydos Dynasty would explain 16 entries of the Turin canon at the end of the 16th Dynasty. The Abydos Dynasty may have come into existence in the time lapse between the fall of the 13th Dynasty with the conquest of Memphis by the Hyksos and the southward progression of the Hyksos to Thebes.[3] The existence of the dynasty may have been vindicated in January 2014, when the tomb of the previously unknown pharaoh Senebkay was discovered in the southern part of Abydos, an area called "Anubis Mountain" in ancient times. If Senebkay indeed belongs to the Abydos Dynasty, his tomb might signal the royal necropolis of this dynasty, adjacent to the tombs of the Middle Kingdom rulers.[1] Since then, excavations have revealed no less than eight anonymous royal tombs dating to the Second Intermediate Period similar in style and size to Senebkay's burial, as well as two tombs, possibly pyramids, dating to the mid 13th-Dynasty, S9 and S10, which may belong to Neferhotep I and his brother Sobekhotep IV.[4] Evidence against[edit] The existence of an Abydos Dynasty is not agreed by all scholars. For example, Marcel Marėe observes that a workshop operating from Abydos and producing stelae for two kings associated with the Abydos Dynasty, Pantjeny and Wepwawetemsaf, also likely produced the stela of Rahotep of the 17th Dynasty. Thus if the Abydos Dynasty did exist, this workshop would have been producing stelae for two enemy dynasties, something which he judges to be rather unlikely.[5] It remains unclear, however, whether these two dynasties coexisted at any one time: for instance, in Ryholt's reconstruction of the Second Intermediate Period, they are separated by c. 20 years.[3] Countering the argument in favor of the Abydos Dynasty based on the tomb of Senebkay, Alexander Ilin-Tomich argues that certain Middle Kingdom pharaohs, such as Senusret III and Sobekhotep IV, also have their tombs at Abydos, yet nobody places these kings into an Abydos-based dynasty. At the opposite, he wonders whether Senebkay might be a king of the Theban 16th Dynasty.[6] Territory[edit] In red, the possible extent of power of the Abydos Dynasty If the Abydos Dynasty was indeed a dynasty, the seat of its power would probably have been either Abydos or Thinis. A possible graffito of Wepwawetemsaf was discovered by Karl Richard Lepsius in the tomb BH2 of the 12th Dynasty nomarch Amenemhat at Beni Hasan, about 250 km North of Abydos, in Middle Egypt. If the attribution of this graffito is correct and if Wepwawetemsaf did belong to the Abydos Dynasty, then its territory might have extended that far north.[3] Since the dynasty was contemporaneous with the 16th Dynasty, the territory under Abydene control could not have extended farther than Hu, 50 km south of Abydos.[3] Rulers[edit] The following 16 entries of the Turin canon are attributed to the Abydos Dynasty by Kim Ryholt:[3] Pharaohs of the Abydos Dynasty Prenomen of the King Entry of the Turin canon Transliteration Woser[...]re Col 11. Line 16 Wsr-[...]-Rˁ Woser[...]re Col 11. Line 17 Wsr-[...]-Rˁ Eight kings lost Col 11. Lines 18-25 [...]hebre Col 11. Line 26 [...]-hb-[Rˁ] Three kings lost Col 11. Lines 27-29 [...]hebre (uncertain) Col 11. Line 30 [...]-ḥb-[Rˁ] [...]webenre Col 11. Line 31 [...]-wbn-[Rˁ] Some of the above rulers may identify with the four attested kings tentatively attributable to the Abydos Dynasty, given here without regard for their (unknown) chronological order: Pharaohs of the Abydos Dynasty Name of king Image Comment Sekhemraneferkhau Wepwawetemsaf May belong to the late 16th Dynasty[5] Sekhemrekhutawy Pantjeny May belong to the late 16th Dynasty[5] Menkhaure Snaaib May belong to the late 13th Dynasty[7][8][9] Woseribre Senebkay Perhaps identifiable with a Woser[...]re of the Turin canon References[edit] ^ a b "Giant Sarcophagus Leads Penn Museum Team in Egypt To the Tomb of a Previously Unknown Pharaoh". Penn Museum. January 2014. Retrieved 16 Jan 2014. ^ Detlef Franke: Zur Chronologie des Mittleren Reiches. Teil II: Die sogenannte Zweite Zwischenzeit Altägyptens, In Orientalia 57 (1988), p. 259 ^ a b c d e f Ryholt, K.S.B. (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C. Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 164. ISBN 8772894210. ^ Josef W., Wegner (2015). "A royal necropolis at south Abydos: New Light on Egypt's Second Intermediate Period". Near Eastern Archaeology. 78 (2): 68–78. ^ a b c Marcel Marée: A sculpture workshop at Abydos from the late Sixteenth or early Seventeenth Dynasty, in: Marcel Marée (editor): The Second Intermediate period (Thirteenth-Seventeenth Dynasties), Current Research, Future Prospects, Leuven, Paris, Walpole, MA. 2010 ISBN 978-90-429-2228-0. p. 247, 268 ^ Alexander Ilin-Tomich: The Theban Kingdom of Dynasty 16: Its Rise, Administration and Politics, in: Journal of Egyptian History 7 (2014), 146; Ilin-Tomich, Alexander, 2016, Second Intermediate Period. In Wolfram Grajetzki and Willeke Wendrich (eds.), UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, Los Angeles. http://digital2.library.ucla.edu/viewItem.do?ark=21198/zz002k7jm9 p. 9-10 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46. Mainz am Rhein, 1997 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien 49, Mainz 1999. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abydos_Dynasty&oldid=997039164" Categories: Abydos Dynasty States and territories established in the 17th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 16th century BC Dynasties of ancient Egypt Abydos, Egypt 17th century BC in Egypt Pharaohs of the Abydos Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt 17th-century BC establishments in Egypt 2nd-millennium BC disestablishments in Egypt 2nd millennium BC in Egypt Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ Català Ελληνικά Español Français Italiano ქართული Magyar Русский Slovenščina தமிழ் Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 29 December 2020, at 18:54 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1670	----	Darius the Great - Wikipedia Darius the Great From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Darius I) Jump to navigation Jump to search Third King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Darius the Great 𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁 King of Kings Great King King of Persia King of Babylon Pharaoh of Egypt King of Countries The relief stone of Darius the Great in the Behistun Inscription King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Reign 29 September 522 BCE – October 486 BCE Coronation Pasargadae Predecessor Bardiya Successor Xerxes I Pharaoh of Egypt Reign September 522 BCE – October 486 BCE Predecessor Bardiya Successor Xerxes I Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) rꜤ-sttw Seteture Progeny of Ra Nomen drjwš Deriush Darius Horus name mnḫ-jb Menekhib The one of splendid mind Second Horus name: wr-nb-mrj-šmꜤw Wernebmeryshemau Chieftain and Lord, beloved of Upper Egypt Nebty name zꜣ-jmn... Zamun... Son of Amun.. Golden Horus ? ? ? ? [1] Born 550 BCE Died October 486 BCE (aged approximately 64) Burial Naqsh-e Rostam Spouse Atossa Artystone Parmys Phratagone Phaidime a daughter of Gobryas Issue Artobazanes Xerxes I Ariabignes Arsamenes Masistes Achaemenes Arsames Gobryas Ariomardus Abriokomas Hyperantes Artazostre Full name Dārayava(h)uš Dynasty Achaemenid Father Hystaspes Mother Rhodogune or Irdabama Religion Indo-Iranian religion (possibly Zoroastrianism) Darius I (Old Persian: 𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁, romanized: Dārayava(h)uš; New Persian: داریوش‎; Hebrew: דָּרְיָוֶשׁ‎, Modern: Darəyaveš, Tiberian: Dārǝyāweš; c. 550 – 486 BCE), commonly known as Darius the Great, was the third Persian King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire, reigning from 522 BCE until his death in 486 BCE. He ruled the empire at its peak, when it included much of West Asia, parts of the Caucasus, parts of the Balkans (Thrace-Macedonia, and Paeonia), most of the Black Sea coastal regions, Central Asia, as far as the Indus Valley in the far east and portions of north and northeast Africa including Egypt (Mudrâya), eastern Libya, and coastal Sudan.[2][3] Darius ascended the throne by overthrowing the legitimate Achaemenid monarch Bardiya, whom he later fabricated to be an imposter named Gaumata. The new king met with rebellions throughout his kingdom and quelled them each time. A major event in Darius's life was his expedition to punish Athens and Eretria for their aid in the Ionian Revolt and subjugate Greece. Although ultimately ending in failure at the Battle of Marathon, Darius succeeded in the re-subjugation of Thrace, expansion of the empire through the conquest of Macedon, the Cyclades and the island of Naxos and the sacking of the city of Eretria. Darius organized the empire by dividing it into provinces and placing satraps to govern it. He organized Achaemenid coinage as a new uniform monetary system, along with making Aramaic the official language of the empire. He also put the empire in better standing by building roads and introducing standard weights and measures. Through these changes, the empire was centralized and unified.[4] Darius also worked on construction projects throughout the empire, focusing on Susa, Pasargadae, Persepolis, Babylon, and Egypt. He had the cliff-face Behistun Inscription carved to record his conquests, an important testimony of the Old Persian language. Darius is mentioned in the biblical books of Haggai, Zechariah, and Ezra–Nehemiah. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Primary sources 3 Early life 3.1 Accession 4 Early reign 4.1 Early revolts 4.2 Elimination of Intaphernes 5 Military campaigns 5.1 Egyptian campaign 5.2 Invasion of the Indus Valley 5.3 Babylonian revolt 5.4 European Scythian campaign 5.5 Persian invasion of Greece 6 Family 7 Death 8 Government 8.1 Organization 8.2 Economy 8.3 Religion 8.4 Building projects 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Bibliography 13 Further reading 14 External links Etymology[edit] Main article: Darius (given name) The name of Darius I in Old Persian cuneiform on the DNa inscription of his tomb: Dārayavauš (𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁) Dārīus and Dārēus are the Latin forms of the Greek Dareîos (Δαρεῖος), itself from Old Persian Dārayauš (𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎢𐏁, d-a-r-y-uš), which is a shortened form of Dārayavaʰuš (𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁, d-a-r-y-v-u-š).[5] The longer form is also seen to have been reflected in the Elamite Da-ri-(y)a-ma-u-iš, Babylonian Da-(a-)ri-ia-(a-)muš, Aramaic drywhwš (𐡃𐡓𐡉𐡅𐡄𐡅𐡔), and possibly the longer Greek form Dareiaîos (Δαρειαῖος).[5] The name is a nominative form meaning "he who holds firm the good(ness)", which can be seen by the first part dāraya, meaning "holder", and the adverb vau, meaning "goodness".[5] Primary sources[edit] See also: Behistun Inscription, DNa inscription, and Herodotus Apadana foundation tablets of Darius the Great Gold foundation tablets of Darius I for the Apadana Palace, in their original stone box. The Apadana coin hoard had been deposited underneath. Circa 510 BC. One of the two gold deposition plates. Two more were in silver. They all had the same trilingual inscription (DPh inscription). At some time between his coronation and his death, Darius left a tri-lingual monumental relief on Mount Behistun, which was written in Elamite, Old Persian and Babylonian. The inscription begins with a brief autobiography including his ancestry and lineage. To aid the presentation of his ancestry, Darius wrote down the sequence of events that occurred after the death of Cyrus the Great.[6][7] Darius mentions several times that he is the rightful king by the grace of the supreme deity Ahura Mazda. In addition, further texts and monuments from Persepolis have been found, as well as a clay tablet containing an Old Persian cuneiform of Darius from Gherla, Romania (Harmatta) and a letter from Darius to Gadates, preserved in a Greek text of the Roman period.[8][9][10][11] In the foundation tablets of Apadana Palace, Darius described in Old Persian cuneiform the extent of his Empire in broad geographical terms:[12][13] Darius the great king, king of kings, king of countries, son of Hystaspes, an Achaemenid. King Darius says: This is the kingdom which I hold, from the Sacae who are beyond Sogdia to Kush, and from Sind (Old Persian: 𐏃𐎡𐎭𐎢𐎺, "Hidauv", locative of "Hiduš", i.e. "Indus valley") to Lydia (Old Persian: "Spardâ") – [this is] what Ahuramazda, the greatest of gods, bestowed upon me. May Ahuramazda protect me and my royal house! — DPh inscription of Darius I in the foundations of the Apadana Palace Herodotus, a Greek historian and author of The Histories, provided an account of many Persian kings and the Greco-Persian Wars. He wrote extensively on Darius, spanning half of Book 3 along with Books 4, 5 and 6. It begins with the removal of the alleged usurper Gaumata and continues to the end of Darius's reign.[8] Early life[edit] The predecessor of Darius: Dariya/ Gaumata "Gaumata" being trampled upon by Darius the Great, Behistun inscription. The Old Persian inscription reads "This is Gaumâta, the Magian. He lied, saying "I am Smerdis, the son of Cyrus, I am king"."[14] Portrait of Achaemenid King Bardiya, or "Gaumata", from the reliefs at Behistun (detail). Darius toppled the previous Achaemenid ruler (here depicted in the reliefs of the Behistun inscription) to acquire the throne. Darius was the eldest of five sons to Hystaspes.[8] The identity of his mother is uncertain. According to the modern historian Alireza Shapour Shahbazi (1994), Darius' mother was a certain Rhodogune.[8] However, according to Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones (2013), recently uncovered texts in Persepolis indicates that his mother was Irdabama, an affluent landowner descended from a family of local Elamite rulers.[15] Richard Stoneman likewise refers Irdabama to as the mother of Darius.[16] The Behistun Inscription of Darius states that his father was satrap of Bactria in 522 BCE.[a] According to Herodotus (III.139), Darius, prior to seizing power and "of no consequence at the time", had served as a spearman (doryphoros) in the Egyptian campaign (528–525 BCE) of Cambyses II, then the Persian Great King;[19] this is often interpreted to mean he was the king's personal spear-carrier, an important role. Hystaspes was an officer in Cyrus' army and a noble of his court.[20] Before Cyrus and his army crossed the Aras River to battle with the Armenians, he installed his son Cambyses II as king in case he should not return from battle.[21] However, once Cyrus had crossed the Aras River, he had a vision in which Darius had wings atop his shoulders and stood upon the confines of Europe and Asia (the known world). When Cyrus awoke from the dream, he inferred it as a great danger to the future security of the empire, as it meant that Darius would one day rule the whole world. However, his son Cambyses was the heir to the throne, not Darius, causing Cyrus to wonder if Darius was forming treasonable and ambitious designs. This led Cyrus to order Hystaspes to go back to Persis and watch over his son strictly, until Cyrus himself returned.[22] Darius did not seem to have any treasonous thoughts as Cambyses II ascended the throne peacefully; and, through promotion, Darius was eventually elevated to be Cambyses's personal lancer. Accession[edit] Lineage of Darius the Great according to the Behistun Inscription. There are different accounts of the rise of Darius to the throne from both Darius himself and Greek historians. The oldest records report a convoluted sequence of events in which Cambyses II lost his mind, murdered his brother Bardiya, and was killed by an infected leg wound. After this, Darius and a group of six nobles traveled to Sikayauvati to kill an usurper, Gaumata, who had taken the throne by pretending to be Bardiya during the true king's absence. Darius's account, written at the Behistun Inscription, states that Cambyses II killed his own brother Bardiya, but that this murder was not known among the Iranian people. A would-be usurper named Gaumata came and lied to the people, stating he was Bardiya.[23] The Iranians had grown rebellious against Cambyses's rule and on 11 March 522 BCE a revolt against Cambyses broke out in his absence. On 1 July, the Iranian people chose to be under the leadership of Gaumata, as "Bardiya". No member of the Achaemenid family would rise against Gaumata for the safety of their own life. Darius, who had served Cambyses as his lance-bearer until the deposed ruler's death, prayed for aid and in September 522 BCE, along with Otanes, Intaphrenes, Gobryas, Hydarnes, Megabyzus and Aspathines, killed Gaumata in the fortress of Sikayauvati.[23] Cylinder seal of Darius the Great Impression of a cylinder seal of King Darius the Great hunting in a chariot, reading "I am Darius, the Great King" in Old Persian (𐎠𐎭𐎶𐏐𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁𐎴 𐏋, "adam Dārayavaʰuš xšāyaθiya"), Elamite and Babylonian. The word 'great' only appears in Babylonian. British Museum, excavated in Thebes, Egypt.[24][25][26] Herodotus provides a dubious account of Darius's ascension: Several days after Gaumata had been assassinated, Darius and the other six nobles discussed the fate of the empire. At first, the seven discussed the form of government; a democratic republic (Isonomia) was strongly pushed by Otanes, an oligarchy was pushed by Megabyzus, while Darius pushed for a monarchy. After stating that a republic would lead to corruption and internal fighting, while a monarchy would be led with a single-mindedness not possible in other governments, Darius was able to convince the other nobles. To decide who would become the monarch, six of them decided on a test, with Otanes abstaining, as he had no interest in being king. They were to gather outside the palace, mounted on their horses at sunrise, and the man whose horse neighed first in recognition of the rising sun would become king. According to Herodotus, Darius had a slave, Oebares, who rubbed his hand over the genitals of a mare that Darius's horse favored. When the six gathered, Oebares placed his hands beside the nostrils of Darius' horse, who became excited at the scent and neighed. This was followed by lightning and thunder, leading the others to dismount and kneel before Darius in recognition of his apparent divine providence.[27] In this account, Darius himself claimed that he achieved the throne not through fraud, but cunning, even erecting a statue of himself mounted on his neighing horse with the inscription: "Darius, son of Hystaspes, obtained the sovereignty of Persia by the sagacity of his horse and the ingenious contrivance of Oebares, his groom."[28] According to the accounts of Greek historians, Cambyses II had left Patizeithes in charge of the kingdom when he headed for Egypt. He later sent Prexaspes to murder Bardiya. After the killing, Patizeithes put his brother Gaumata, a Magian who resembled Bardiya, on the throne and declared him the Great King. Otanes discovered that Gaumata was an impostor, and along with six other Iranian nobles including Darius, created a plan to oust the pseudo-Bardiya. After killing the impostor along with his brother Patizeithes and other Magians, Darius was crowned king the following morning.[8] The details regarding Darius' rise to power is generally acknowledged as forgery and was in reality used as a concealment of his overthrow and murder of Cyrus' rightful successor, Bardiya.[29] To legitimize his rule, Darius had a common origin fabricated between himself and Cyrus by designating Achaemenes as the eponymous founder of their dynasty.[29] In reality, Darius was not from the same house as Cyrus and his forebears, the rulers of Anshan.[29][30] Early reign[edit] Early revolts[edit] Following his coronation at Pasargadae, Darius moved to Ecbatana. He soon learned that support for Bardiya was strong, and revolts in Elam and Babylonia had broken out.[31] Darius ended the Elamite revolt when the revolutionary leader Aschina was captured and executed in Susa. After three months the revolt in Babylonia had ended. While in Babylonia, Darius learned a revolution had broken out in Bactria, a satrapy which had always been in favour of Darius, and had initially volunteered an army of soldiers to quell revolts. Following this, revolts broke out in Persis, the homeland of the Persians and Darius and then in Elam and Babylonia, followed by in Media, Parthia, Assyria, and Egypt.[32] By 522 BCE, there were revolts against Darius in most parts of the Achaemenid Empire leaving the empire in turmoil. Even though Darius did not seem to have the support of the populace, Darius had a loyal army, led by close confidants and nobles (including the six nobles who had helped him remove Gaumata). With their support, Darius was able to suppress and quell all revolts within a year. In Darius's words, he had killed a total of nine "lying kings" through the quelling of revolutions.[33] Darius left a detailed account of these revolutions in the Behistun Inscription.[33] Elimination of Intaphernes[edit] One of the significant events of Darius's early reign was the slaying of Intaphernes, one of the seven noblemen who had deposed the previous ruler and installed Darius as the new monarch.[34] The seven had made an agreement that they could all visit the new king whenever they pleased, except when he was with a woman.[34] One evening, Intaphernes went to the palace to meet Darius, but was stopped by two officers who stated that Darius was with a woman.[34] Becoming enraged and insulted, Intaphernes drew his sword and cut off the ears and noses of the two officers.[34] While leaving the palace, he took the bridle from his horse, and tied the two officers together. The officers went to the king and showed him what Intaphernes had done to them. Darius began to fear for his own safety; he thought that all seven noblemen had banded together to rebel against him and that the attack against his officers was the first sign of revolt. He sent a messenger to each of the noblemen, asking them if they approved of Intaphernes's actions. They denied and disavowed any connection with Intaphernes's actions, stating that they stood by their decision to appoint Darius as King of Kings. Darius' choice to ask the noblemen indicates that he was not yet completely sure of his authority.[34] Taking precautions against further resistance, Darius sent soldiers to seize Intaphernes, along with his son, family members, relatives and any friends who were capable of arming themselves. Darius believed that Intaphernes was planning a rebellion, but when he was brought to the court, there was no proof of any such plan. Nonetheless, Darius killed Intaphernes's entire family, excluding his wife's brother and son. She was asked to choose between her brother and son. She chose her brother to live. Her reasoning for doing so was that she could have another husband and another son, but she would always have but one brother. Darius was impressed by her response and spared both her brother's and her son's life.[35] Military campaigns[edit] Egyptian alabaster vase of Darius I with quadrilingual hieroglyphic and cuneiform inscriptions. The hieroglyph on the vase reads: "King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Lord of the Two Lands, Darius, living forever, year 36".[36][37] Egyptian campaign[edit] Main article: Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt After securing his authority over the entire empire, Darius embarked on a campaign to Egypt where he defeated the armies of the Pharaoh and secured the lands that Cambyses had conquered while incorporating a large portion of Egypt into the Achaemenid Empire.[38] Through another series of campaigns, Darius I would eventually reign over the territorial apex of the empire, when it stretched from parts of the Balkans (Thrace-Macedonia, Bulgaria-Paeonia) in the west, to the Indus Valley in the east. Invasion of the Indus Valley[edit] Eastern border of the Achaemenid Empire Main article: Achaemenid invasion of the Indus Valley In 516 BCE, Darius embarked on a campaign to Central Asia, Aria and Bactria and then marched into Afghanistan to Taxila in modern-day Pakistan. Darius spent the winter of 516–515 BCE in Gandhara, preparing to conquer the Indus Valley. Darius conquered the lands surrounding the Indus River in 515 BCE. Darius I controlled the Indus Valley from Gandhara to modern Karachi and appointed the Greek Scylax of Caryanda to explore the Indian Ocean from the mouth of the Indus to Suez. Darius then marched through the Bolan Pass and returned through Arachosia and Drangiana back to Persia. Babylonian revolt[edit] After Bardiya was murdered, widespread revolts occurred throughout the empire, especially on the eastern side. Darius asserted his position as king by force, taking his armies throughout the empire, suppressing each revolt individually. The most notable of all these revolts was the Babylonian revolt which was led by Nebuchadnezzar III. This revolt occurred when Otanes withdrew much of the army from Babylon to aid Darius in suppressing other revolts. Darius felt that the Babylonian people had taken advantage of him and deceived him, which resulted in Darius gathering a large army and marching to Babylon. At Babylon, Darius was met with closed gates and a series of defences to keep him and his armies out.[39] Darius encountered mockery and taunting from the rebels, including the famous saying "Oh yes, you will capture our city, when mules shall have foals." For a year and a half, Darius and his armies were unable to retake the city, though he attempted many tricks and strategies—even copying that which Cyrus the Great had employed when he captured Babylon. However, the situation changed in Darius's favour when, according to the story, a mule owned by Zopyrus, a high-ranking soldier, foaled. Following this, a plan was hatched for Zopyrus to pretend to be a deserter, enter the Babylonian camp, and gain the trust of the Babylonians. The plan was successful and Darius's army eventually surrounded the city and overcame the rebels.[40] During this revolt, Scythian nomads took advantage of the disorder and chaos and invaded Persia. Darius first finished defeating the rebels in Elam, Assyria, and Babylon and then attacked the Scythian invaders. He pursued the invaders, who led him to a marsh; there he found no known enemies but an enigmatic Scythian tribe.[41] European Scythian campaign[edit] Ethnicities of the Achaemenid Army, on the tomb of Darius I. The nationalities mentioned in the DNa inscription are also depicted on the upper registers of all the tombs at Naqsh-e Rustam, starting with the tomb of Darius I.[42] The ethnicities on the tomb of Darius further have trilingual labels on the lintel directly over them for identification, collectively known as the DNe inscription. One of the best preserved friezes, identical in content, is that of Xerxes I. Main article: European Scythian campaign of Darius I The Scythians were a group of north Iranian nomadic tribes, speaking an Iranian language (Scythian languages) who had invaded Media, killed Cyrus in battle, revolted against Darius and threatened to disrupt trade between Central Asia and the shores of the Black Sea as they lived between the Danube River, River Don and the Black Sea.[8][43] Darius crossed the Black Sea at the Bosphorus Straits using a bridge of boats. Darius conquered large portions of Eastern Europe, even crossing the Danube to wage war on the Scythians. Darius invaded European Scythia in 513 BC,[44] where the Scythians evaded Darius's army, using feints and retreating eastwards while laying waste to the countryside, by blocking wells, intercepting convoys, destroying pastures and continuous skirmishes against Darius's army.[45] Seeking to fight with the Scythians, Darius's army chased the Scythian army deep into Scythian lands, where there were no cities to conquer and no supplies to forage. In frustration Darius sent a letter to the Scythian ruler Idanthyrsus to fight or surrender. The ruler replied that he would not stand and fight with Darius until they found the graves of their fathers and tried to destroy them. Until then, they would continue their strategy as they had no cities or cultivated lands to lose.[46] Despite the evading tactics of the Scythians, Darius' campaign was so far relatively successful.[47] As presented by Herodotus, the tactics used by the Scythians resulted in the loss of their best lands and of damage to their loyal allies.[47] This gave Darius the initiative.[47] As he moved eastwards in the cultivated lands of the Scythians in Eastern Europe proper, he remained resupplied by his fleet and lived to an extent off the land.[47] While moving eastwards in the European Scythian lands, he captured the large fortified city of the Budini, one of the allies of the Scythians, and burnt it.[47] Darius eventually ordered a halt at the banks of Oarus, where he built "eight great forts, some eight miles distant from each other", no doubt as a frontier defence.[47] In his Histories, Herodotus states that the ruins of the forts were still standing in his day.[48] After chasing the Scythians for a month, Darius's army was suffering losses due to fatigue, privation and sickness. Concerned about losing more of his troops, Darius halted the march at the banks of the Volga River and headed towards Thrace.[49] He had conquered enough Scythian territory to force the Scythians to respect the Persian forces.[8][50] Persian invasion of Greece[edit] Main article: First Persian invasion of Greece See also: Ionian Revolt Map showing key sites during the Persian invasions of Greece Darius's European expedition was a major event in his reign, which began with the invasion of Thrace. Darius also conquered many cities of the northern Aegean, Paeonia, while Macedonia submitted voluntarily, after the demand of earth and water, becoming a vassal kingdom.[51] He then left Megabyzus to conquer Thrace, returning to Sardis to spend the winter. The Greeks living in Asia Minor and some of the Greek islands had submitted to Persian rule already by 510 BCE. Nonetheless, there were certain Greeks who were pro-Persian, although these were largely based in Athens. To improve Greek-Persian relations, Darius opened his court and treasuries to those Greeks who wanted to serve him. These Greeks served as soldiers, artisans, statesmen and mariners for Darius. However, the increasing concerns amongst the Greeks over the strength of Darius's kingdom along with the constant interference by the Greeks in Ionia and Lydia were stepping stones towards the conflict that was yet to come between Persia and certain of the leading Greek city states. The "Darius Vase" at the Achaeological Museum of Naples. Circa 340–320 BC. Detail of Darius, with a label in Greek (ΔΑΡΕΙΟΣ, top right) giving his name. When Aristagoras organized the Ionian Revolt, Eretria and Athens supported him by sending ships and troops to Ionia and by burning Sardis. Persian military and naval operations to quell the revolt ended in the Persian reoccupation of Ionian and Greek islands, as well as the re-subjugation of Thrace and the conquering of Macedonia in 492 BC under Mardonius.[52] Macedon had been a vassal kingdom of the Persians since the late 6th century BC, but retained autonomy. Mardonius' 492 campaign made it a fully subordinate part of the Persian kingdom.[51] These military actions, coming as a direct response to the revolt in Ionia, were the beginning of the First Persian invasion of (mainland) Greece. At the same time, anti-Persian parties gained more power in Athens, and pro-Persian aristocrats were exiled from Athens and Sparta. Darius responded by sending troops led by his son-in-law across the Hellespont. However, a violent storm and harassment by the Thracians forced the troops to return to Persia. Seeking revenge on Athens and Eretria, Darius assembled another army of 20,000 men under his Admiral, Datis, and his nephew Artaphernes, who met success when they captured Eretria and advanced to Marathon. In 490 BCE, at the Battle of Marathon, the Persian army was defeated by a heavily armed Athenian army, with 9,000 men who were supported by 600 Plataeans and 10,000 lightly armed soldiers led by Miltiades. The defeat at Marathon marked the end of the first Persian invasion of Greece. Darius began preparations for a second force which he would command, instead of his generals; however, before the preparations were complete, Darius died, thus leaving the task to his son Xerxes.[8] Family[edit] Darius was the son of Hystaspes and the grandson of Arsames.[53] Darius married Atossa, daughter of Cyrus, with whom he had four sons: Xerxes, Achaemenes, Masistes and Hystaspes. He also married Artystone, another daughter of Cyrus, with whom he had two sons, Arsames and Gobryas. Darius married Parmys, the daughter of Bardiya, with whom he had a son, Ariomardus. Furthermore, Darius married Phratagune, with whom he had two sons, Abrokomas and Hyperantes. He also married another woman of the nobility, Phaidyme, the daughter of Otanes. It is unknown if he had any children with her. Before these royal marriages, Darius had married an unknown daughter of his good friend and lance carrier Gobryas from an early marriage, with whom he had three sons, Artobazanes, Ariabignes and Arsamenes.[54] Any daughters he had with her are not known. Although Artobazanes was Darius's first-born, Xerxes became heir and the next king through the influence of Atossa; she had great authority in the kingdom as Darius loved her the most of all his wives. Death[edit] Tomb of Darius at Naqsh-e Rostam After becoming aware of the Persian defeat at the Battle of Marathon, Darius began planning another expedition against the Greek-city states; this time, he, not Datis, would command the imperial armies.[8] Darius had spent three years preparing men and ships for war when a revolt broke out in Egypt. This revolt in Egypt worsened his failing health and prevented the possibility of his leading another army.[8] Soon afterwards, Darius died. In October 486 BCE, his body was embalmed and entombed in the rock-cut tomb at Naqsh-e Rostam, which he had been preparing.[8] A inscription on his tomb introduces him as "Great King, King of Kings, King of countries containing all kinds of men, King in this great earth far and wide, son of Hystaspes, an Achaemenian, a Persian, son of a Persian, an Aryan [Iranian], having Aryan lineage."[8] A relief under his tomb portraying an equestrian combat was later carved during the reign of the Sasanian King of Kings, Bahram II (r. 274–293 CE).[55] Xerxes, the eldest son of Darius and Atossa, succeeded to the throne as Xerxes I; before his accession, he had contested the succession with his elder half-brother Artobarzanes, Darius's eldest son, who was born to his first wife before Darius rose to power.[56] With Xerxes' accession, the empire was again ruled by a member of the house of Cyrus.[8] Government[edit] Organization[edit] Further information: Districts of the Achaemenid Empire Volume of annual tribute per district, in the Achaemenid Empire.[57][58][59] Early in his reign, Darius wanted to reorganize the structure of the empire and reform the system of taxation he inherited from Cyrus and Cambyses. To do this, Darius created twenty provinces called satrapies (or archi) which were each assigned to a satrap (archon) and specified fixed tributes that the satrapies were required to pay.[8] A complete list is preserved in the catalogue of Herodotus, beginning with Ionia and listing the other satrapies from west to east excluding Persis which was the land of the Persians and the only province which was not a conquered land.[8] Tributes were paid in both silver and gold talents. Tributes in silver from each satrap were measured with the Babylonian talent.[8] Those paid in gold were measured with the Euboic talent.[8] The total tribute from the satraps came to an amount less than 15,000 silver talents.[8] The majority of the satraps were of Persian origin and were members of the royal house or the six great noble families.[8] These satraps were personally picked by Darius to monitor these provinces. Each of these provinces were divided into sub-provinces with their own governors which were chosen either by the royal court or by the satrap.[8] To assess tributes, a commission evaluated the expenses and revenues of each satrap.[8] To ensure that one person did not gain too much power, each satrap had a secretary who observed the affairs of the state and communicated with Darius, a treasurer who safeguarded provincial revenues and a garrison commander who was responsible for the troops.[8] Additionally, royal inspectors who were the "eyes and ears" of Darius completed further checks on each satrap.[8] The imperial administration was coordinated by the chancery with headquarters at Persepolis, Susa, and Babylon with Bactria, Ecbatana, Sardis, Dascylium and Memphis having branches.[8] Darius kept Aramaic as the common language, which soon spread throughout the empire.[8] However, Darius gathered a group of scholars to create a separate language system only used for Persis and the Persians, which was called Aryan script and was only used for official inscriptions.[8] Before this, the accomplishments of the king were addressed in Persian solely through narration and hymns and through the "masters of memory".[60] Indeed, oral history continued to play an important role throughout the history of Iran.[60] Economy[edit] See also: Achaemenid coinage Gold daric, minted at Sardis Darius introduced a new universal currency, the daric, sometime before 500 BCE.[8] Darius used the coinage system as a transnational currency to regulate trade and commerce throughout his empire. The Daric was also recognized beyond the borders of the empire, in places such as Celtic Central Europe and Eastern Europe. There were two types of darics, a gold daric and a silver daric. Only the king could mint gold darics. Important generals and satraps minted silver darics, the latter usually to recruit Greek mercenaries in Anatolia. The daric was a major boost to international trade. Trade goods such as textiles, carpets, tools and metal objects began to travel throughout Asia, Europe and Africa. To further improve trade, Darius built the Royal Road, a postal system and Phoenician-based commercial shipping. The daric also improved government revenues as the introduction of the daric made it easier to collect new taxes on land, livestock and marketplaces. This led to the registration of land which was measured and then taxed. The increased government revenues helped maintain and improve existing infrastructure and helped fund irrigation projects in dry lands. This new tax system also led to the formation of state banking and the creation of banking firms. One of the most famous banking firms was Murashu Sons, based in the Babylonian city of Nippur.[61] These banking firms provided loans and credit to clients.[62] In an effort to further improve trade, Darius built canals, underground waterways and a powerful navy.[8] He further improved and expanded the network of roads and way stations throughout the empire, so that there was a system of travel authorization for the King, satraps and other high officials, which entitled the traveller to draw provisions at daily stopping places.[63][8] Religion[edit] "By the grace of Ahuramazda am I king; Ahuramazda has granted me the kingdom." — Darius, on the Behistun Inscription Darius at Behistun Darius on the Behistun Inscription reliefs. Crowned head of Darius at Behistun. While there is no general consensus in scholarship whether Darius and his predecessors had been influenced by Zoroastrianism,[64] it is well established that Darius was a firm believer in Ahura Mazda, whom he saw as the supreme deity.[64][65] However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped by adherents of the (Indo-)Iranian religious tradition.[64][66] As can be seen at the Behistun Inscription, Darius believed that Ahura Mazda had appointed him to rule the Achaemenid Empire.[8] Darius had dualistic philosophical convictions and believed that each rebellion in his kingdom was the work of druj, the enemy of Asha. Darius believed that because he lived righteously by Asha, Ahura Mazda supported him.[67] In many cuneiform inscriptions denoting his achievements, he presents himself as a devout believer, perhaps even convinced that he had a divine right to rule over the world.[68] In the lands that were conquered by his empire, Darius followed the same Achaemenid tolerance that Cyrus had shown and later Achaemenid kings would show.[8] He supported faiths and religions that were "alien" as long as the adherents were "submissive and peaceable", sometimes giving them grants from his treasury for their purposes.[8][69] He had funded the restoration of the Israelite temple which had originally been decreed by Cyrus, was supportive towards Greek cults which can be seen in his letter to Gadatas, and supported Elamite priests.[8] He had also observed Egyptian religious rites related to kingship and had built the temple for the Egyptian god, Amun.[8] Building projects[edit] Reconstruction drawing of the Palace of Darius in Susa The ruins of Tachara palace in Persepolis During Darius's Greek expedition, he had begun construction projects in Susa, Egypt and Persepolis. He had linked the Red Sea to the river Nile by building a canal (Darius Canal) which ran from modern Zaqāzīq to modern Suez. To open this canal, he travelled to Egypt in 497 BCE, where the inauguration was carried out with great fanfare and celebration. Darius also built a canal to connect the Red Sea and Mediterranean.[8][70] On this visit to Egypt he erected monuments and executed Aryandes on the charge of treason. When Darius returned to Persis, he found that the codification of Egyptian law had been finished.[8] Additionally, Darius sponsored large construction projects in Susa, Babylon, Egypt, and Persepolis. In Susa, Darius built a new palace complex in the north of the city. An inscription states that the palace was destroyed during the reign of Artaxerxes I, but was rebuilt. Today only glazed bricks of the palace remain, the majority of them in the Louvre. In Pasargadae Darius finished all incomplete construction projects from the reign of Cyrus the Great. A palace was also built during the reign of Darius, with an inscription in the name of Cyrus the Great. It was previously believed that Cyrus had constructed this building, however due to the cuneiform script being used, the palace is believed to have been constructed by Darius. In Egypt Darius built many temples and restored those that had previously been destroyed. Even though Darius was a believer of Ahura Mazda, he built temples dedicated to the Gods of the Ancient Egyptian religion. Several temples found were dedicated to Ptah and Nekhbet. Darius also created several roads and routes in Egypt. The monuments that Darius built were often inscribed in the official languages of the Persian Empire, Old Persian, Elamite and Babylonian and Egyptian hieroglyphs. To construct these monuments Darius employed a large number of workers and artisans of diverse nationalities. Several of these workers were deportees who had been employed specifically for these projects. These deportees enhanced the empire's economy and improved inter-cultural relations.[8] At the time of Darius's death construction projects were still under way. Xerxes completed these works and in some cases expanded his father's projects by erecting new buildings of his own.[71] Darius as Pharaoh of Egypt at the Temple of Hibis Relief showing Darius I offering lettuces to the Egyptian deity Amun-Ra Kamutef, Temple of Hibis See also[edit] Darius the Mede List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources Notes[edit] ^ According to Herodotus, Hystaspes was the satrap of Persis, although the French Iranologist Pierre Briant states that this is an error.[17] Richard Stoneman likewise considers Herodotus' account to be incorrect.[18] References[edit] ^ Jürgen von Beckerath, Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen (= Münchner ägyptologische Studien, vol 46), Mainz am Rhein: Verlag Philipp von Zabern, 1999. ISBN 3-8053-2310-7, pp. 220–21. ^ "DĀḠESTĀN". Retrieved 29 December 2014. ^ Suny, Ronald Grigor (1994). The Making of the Georgian Nation. ISBN 978-0253209153. Retrieved 29 December 2014. ^ Pollard, Elizabeth (2015). Worlds Together, Worlds Apart concise edition vol.1. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. p. 132. ISBN 978-0-393-25093-0. ^ a b c Schmitt 1994, p. 40. ^ Duncker 1882, p. 192. ^ Egerton 1994, p. 6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak Shahbazi 1994, pp. 41–50. ^ Kuhrt 2013, p. 197. ^ Frye 1984, p. 103. ^ Schmitt 2000, p. 53. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSchmitt2000 (help) ^ Zournatzi, Antigoni (2003). "The Apadana Coin Hoards, Darius I, and the West". American Journal of Numismatics (1989–). 15: 1–28. JSTOR 43580364. ^ Persepolis : discovery and afterlife of a world wonder. 2012. pp. 171–181. ^ Behistun, minor inscriptions DBb inscription- Livius. ^ Llewellyn-Jones 2013, p. 112. ^ Stoneman 2015, p. 189. ^ Briant 2002, p. 467. ^ Stoneman 2015, p. 20. ^ Cook 1985, p. 217. ^ Abbott 2009, p. 14. ^ Abbott 2009, p. 14–15. ^ Abbott 2009, p. 15–16. ^ a b Boardman 1988, p. 54. ^ The Darius Seal. ^ Darius' seal: photo – Livius. ^ "The Darius Seal". British Museum. ^ Poolos 2008, p. 17. ^ Abbott 2009, p. 98. ^ a b c Llewellyn-Jones 2017, p. 70. ^ Waters 1996, pp. 11, 18. ^ Briant 2002, p. 115. ^ Briant 2002, pp. 115–116. ^ a b Briant 2002, p. 116. ^ a b c d e Briant 2002, p. 131. ^ Abbott 2009, p. 99–101. ^ Goodnick Westenholz, Joan (2002). "A Stone Jar with Inscriptions of Darius I in Four Languages" (PDF). ARTA: 2. ^ Qahéri, Sépideh. "Alabastres royaux d'époque achéménide". L’Antiquité à la BnF (in French). ^ Del Testa 2001, p. 47. ^ Abbott 2009, p. 129. ^ Sélincourt 2002, p. 234–235. ^ Siliotti 2006, p. 286–287. ^ The Achaemenid Empire in South Asia and Recent Excavations in Akra in Northwest Pakistan Peter Magee, Cameron Petrie, Robert Knox, Farid Khan, Ken Thomas p.713-714 ^ Woolf et al. 2004, p. 686. ^ Miroslav Ivanov Vasilev. "The Policy of Darius and Xerxes towards Thrace and Macedonia" ISBN 90-04-28215-7 p 70 ^ Ross & Wells 2004, p. 291. ^ Beckwith 2009, p. 68–69. ^ a b c d e f Boardman 1982, pp. 239–243. ^ Herodotus 2015, pp. 352. ^ Chaliand 2004, p. 16. ^ Grousset 1970, pp. 9–10. ^ a b Joseph Roisman, Ian Worthington. "A companion to Ancient Macedonia" John Wiley & Sons, 2011. ISBN 1-4443-5163-X pp 135–138, p 343 ^ Joseph Roisman; Ian Worthington (2011). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 135–138. ISBN 978-1-4443-5163-7. ^ Briant 2002, p. 16. ^ Briant 2002, p. 113. ^ Shahbazi 1988, pp. 514–522. ^ Briant 2002, p. 136. ^ Herodotus Book III, 89–95 ^ Archibald, Zosia; Davies, John K.; Gabrielsen, Vincent (2011). The Economies of Hellenistic Societies, Third to First Centuries BC. Oxford University Press. p. 404. ISBN 9780199587926. ^ "INDIA RELATIONS: ACHAEMENID PERIOD – Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org. ^ a b Briant 2002, pp. 126–127. ^ Farrokh 2007, p. 65. ^ Farrokh 2007, p. 65–66. ^ Konecky 2008, p. 86. ^ a b c Malandra 2005. ^ Briant 2002, p. 126. ^ Boyce 1984, pp. 684–687. ^ Boyce 1979, p. 55. ^ Boyce 1979, p. 54–55. ^ Boyce 1979, p. 56. ^ Spielvogel 2009, p. 49. ^ Boardman 1988, p. 76. Bibliography[edit] Abbott, Jacob (2009), History of Darius the Great: Makers of History, Cosimo, Inc., ISBN 978-1-60520-835-0 Abott, Jacob (1850), History of Darius the Great, New York: Harper & Bros Balentine, Samuel (1999), The Torah's vision of worship, Minneapolis: Fortress Press, ISBN 978-0-8006-3155-0 Beckwith, Christopher (2009), Empires of the Silk Road: a history of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the present (illustrated ed.), Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-13589-2 Bedford, Peter (2001), Temple restoration in early Achaemenid Judah (illustrated ed.), Leiden: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-11509-5 Bennett, Deb (1998), Conquerors: The Roots of New World horsemanship, Solvang, CA: Amigo Publications, Inc., ISBN 978-0-9658533-0-9 Boardman, John (1988), The Cambridge Ancient History, IV (II ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-22804-6 Boardman, John, ed. (1982). The Cambridge Ancient History. 10: Persia, Greece, and the Western Mediterranean. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 239–243. ISBN 978-0-521-22804-6. Boyce, Mary (1979). Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. Psychology Press. pp. 1–252. ISBN 9780415239028. Boyce, M. (1984). "Ahura Mazdā". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 7. pp. 684–687. Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. pp. 1–1196. ISBN 9781575061207. Chaliand, Gérard (2004), Nomadic empires: from Mongolia to the Danube (illustrated, annotated ed.), Transaction Publishers, ISBN 978-0-7658-0204-0 Cook, J. M. (1985), "The Rise of the Achaemenids and Establishment of their Empire", The Median and Achaemenian Periods, Cambridge History of Iran, 2, London: Cambridge University Press Del Testa, David (2001), Government leaders, military rulers, and political activists (illustrated ed.), Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN 978-1-57356-153-2 Duncker, Max (1882), Evelyn Abbott (ed.), The history of antiquity (Volume 6 ed.), R. Bentley & son Egerton, George (1994), Political memoir: essays on the politics of memory, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-7146-3471-5 Frye, Richard Nelson (1984). The History of Ancient Iran. C.H.Beck. pp. 1–411. ISBN 9783406093975. Farrokh, Kaveh (2007), Shadows in the desert: ancient Persia at war, Osprey Publishing, ISBN 978-1-84603-108-3 Grousset, René (1970). The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia. Rutgers University Press. pp. 1–687. ISBN 9780813513041. Herodotus, ed. (2015). The Histories. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 352. ISBN 978-0-375-71271-5. Konecky, Sean (2008), Gidley, Chuck (ed.), The Chronicle of World History, Old Saybrook, CT: Grange Books, ISBN 978-1-56852-680-5 Kuhrt, A. (2013). The Persian Empire: A Corpus of Sources from the Achaemenid Period. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-01694-3. Llewellyn-Jones, Lloyd (2013). King and Court in Ancient Persia 559 to 331 BCE. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 1–272. ISBN 9780748677115. Llewellyn-Jones, Lloyd (2017). "The Achaemenid Empire". In Daryaee, Touraj (ed.). King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE - 651 CE). UCI Jordan Center for Persian Studies. pp. 1–236. ISBN 9780692864401. Malandra, William W. (2005). "Zoroastrianism i. Historical review up to the Arab conquest". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Moulton, James (2005), Early Zoroastrianism, Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4179-7400-9 Poolos, J (2008), Darius the Great (illustrated ed.), Infobase Publishing, ISBN 978-0-7910-9633-8 Ross, William; Wells, H. G. (2004), The Outline of History: Volume 1 (Barnes & Noble Library of Essential Reading): Prehistory to the Roman Republic (illustrated ed.), Barnes & Noble Publishing, ISBN 978-0-7607-5866-3, retrieved 28 July 2011 Safra, Jacob (2002), The New Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica Inc, ISBN 978-0-85229-787-2 Schmitt, Rudiger (1994). "DARIUS i. The Name". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VII, Fasc. 1. p. 40. Sélincourt, Aubrey (2002), The Histories, London: Penguin Classics, ISBN 978-0-14-044908-2 Shahbazi, A. Shapur (1988). "Bahrām II". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. III, Fasc. 5. pp. 514–522. Shahbazi, Shapur (1994), "Darius I the Great", Encyclopedia Iranica, 7, New York: Columbia University, pp. 41–50 Siliotti, Alberto (2006), Hidden Treasures of Antiquity, Vercelli, Italy: VMB Publishers, ISBN 978-88-540-0497-9 Spielvogel, Jackson (2009), Western Civilization: Seventh edition, Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth, ISBN 978-0-495-50285-2 Stoneman, Richard (2015). Xerxes: A Persian Life. Yale University Press. pp. 1–288. ISBN 9781575061207. Tropea, Judith (2006), Classic Biblical Baby Names: Timeless Names for Modern Parents, New York: Bantam Books, ISBN 978-0-553-38393-5 Van De Mieroop, Marc (2003), A History of the Ancient Near East: Ca. 3000–323 BC, "Blackwell History of the Ancient World" series, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-0-631-22552-2 Waters, Matt (1996). "Darius and the Achaemenid Line". The Ancient History Bulletin. London. 10 (1): 11–18. Waters, Matt (2014). Ancient Persia: A Concise History of the Achaemenid Empire, 550–330 BCE. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–272. ISBN 9781107652729. Woolf, Alex; Maddocks, Steven; Balkwill, Richard; McCarthy, Thomas (2004), Exploring Ancient Civilizations (illustrated ed.), Marshall Cavendish, ISBN 978-0-7614-7456-2 Further reading[edit] Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Darius. Burn, A.R. (1984). Persia and the Greeks : the defence of the West, c. 546–478 B.C (2nd ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-1235-4. Ghirshman, Roman (1964). The Arts of Ancient Iran from Its Origins to the Time of Alexander the Great. New York: Golden Press. Klotz, David (2015). "Darius I and the Sabaeans: Ancient Partners in Red Sea Navigation". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 74 (2): 267–280. doi:10.1086/682344. Olmstead, Albert T. (1948). History of the Persian Empire, Achaemenid Period. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Vogelsang, W.J. (1992). The rise and organisation of the Achaemenid Empire : the eastern Iranian evidence. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-09682-0. Warner, Arthur G. (1905). The Shahnama of Firdausi. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner and Co. Wiesehöfer, Josef (1996). Ancient Persia : from 550 BC to 650 AD. Azizeh Azodi, trans. London: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-85043-999-8. Wilber, Donald N. (1989). Persepolis : the archaeology of Parsa, seat of the Persian kings (Rev. ed.). Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press. ISBN 978-0-87850-062-8. External links[edit] Darius the Greatat Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Darius the Great Achaemenid Empire Born: 550 BCE Died: 486 BCE Preceded by Bardiya King of Kings of Persia 522 BCE–486 BCE Succeeded by Xerxes I Pharaoh of Egypt 522–486 BCE v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC v t e Rulers of the Ancient Near East Territories/ dates [1][2][3][4] Egypt Canaan Ebla Mari Akshak/ Akkad Kish Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period 4000–3200 BCE Naqada culture (4000–3100 BCE) Proto-Cannaanites Sumerian period (4000–2340 BCE) Susa I Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE) Naqada I Naqada II Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests") Legendary ante-deluvian rulers: In Eridu: Alulim, Alalngar, then in Bad-tibira: En-men-lu-ana, En-men-gal-ana, Dumuzid, the Shepherd, then in Larag: En-sipad-zid-ana, then in Zimbir: En-men-dur-ana, then in Shuruppag: Ubara-Tutu "then the flood swept over"[5] Susa II (Uruk influence or control) 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ DenAnedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100-2700 BCE) Great Flood 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) First kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman En-me-barage-si ("made the land of Elam submit")[6] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba Uruk II dynasty Enshakushanna Mug-si Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions (3 kings)[7] Shushuntarana Napilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Urur Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun) Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion of Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[7] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian Empire (Semitic) Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Second Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) (Vassals of UR III) Shakkanakku dynasty (Semitic) Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Neo-Sumerian Period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians) Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (Vassals of Ur III)[8] Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal 2100 BCE Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin Ibbi-Sin 2050 BCE 2000 BCE Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV circa 2000 BCE Amorite invasions Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) 2025-1763 BCE Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ Third Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 1894–1595 BCE Second Intermediate Period Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham (Biblical) Yamhad First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Phoenicia Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Middle Assyrian Empire Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt 626–539 BCE Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116-117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ "The Sumerian king list: translation". etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 8 May 2008. ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ a b Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4. v t e Darius the Great Related figures Family Bardiya Darius the Mede Campaigns Revolts Indus Valley European Scythia Greece Constructions Susa Palace Pasargadae Persepolis Tachara Egypt Canal of the Pharaohs Monuments Tomb Second Temple Behistun Inscription Foundations Satrap Daric Imperial Aramaic Royal Road Angarium Waterways Category v t e Median and Achaemenid kings Family tree Median (728–550 BC) Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Achaemenid (550–330 BC) Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Nothus Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Italics indicate kings not directly attested and so possibly legendary. v t e Persepolis Palace Tachara Gate of All Nations Other sections Tomb of Artaxerxes III builders Darius the Great Xerxes I Artaxerxes I of Persia Researchers Heidemarie Koch Erich Schmidt (archaeologist) Alireza Shapour Shahbazi Related Tangeh Bolaghi 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire Sivand Dam Persepolis Administrative Archives Waterskin Achaemenid architecture Category:Persepolis v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control BNF: cb126902644 (data) CiNii: DA16665217 GND: 118523791 ISNI: 0000 0001 2095 6470 LCCN: n50066820 LNB: 000181087 NKC: mzk2004252107 NLA: 35033388 NLG: 322011 NLI: 000037016 NLP: A27095034 NTA: 070875618 PLWABN: 9810592289305606 SUDOC: 050127276 Trove: 805973 ULAN: 500116533 VcBA: 495/29935 VIAF: 15560660 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n50066820 Retrieved from 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en-wikipedia-org-1673	----	Second Intermediate Period of Egypt - Wikipedia Second Intermediate Period of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Second Intermediate Period of Egypt c. 1650 BC – c. 1550 BC The political situation in the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt (c. 1650 — c. 1550 BC) Thebes was briefly conquered by the Hyksos c. 1580 BC Capital Avaris (c. 1674 – c. 1535 BC, Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt) Thebes (c. 1660 – c. 1600 BC, 16th Dynasty) Abydos (c. 1650 – c. 1600 BC, Abydos Dynasty) Kerma (c. 2500 – c. 1500 BC, Kingdom of Kerma) Common languages Ancient Egyptian Religion Ancient Egyptian religion Government Monarchy Pharaoh   • c. 1648 BC Salitis (first) • c. 1555 – c. 1550 BC Kamose (last) History   • Established c. 1650 BC  • Disestablished  c. 1550 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Middle Kingdom of Egypt New Kingdom of Egypt Today part of  Egypt Part of a series on the History of Egypt Prehistoric Egypt pre–3150 BC Ancient Egypt Early Dynastic Period 3150–2686 BC Old Kingdom 2686–2181 BC 1st Intermediate Period 2181–2055 BC Middle Kingdom 2055–1650 BC 2nd Intermediate Period 1650–1550 BC New Kingdom 1550–1069 BC 3rd Intermediate Period 1069–664 BC Late Period 664–332 BC Greco-Roman Egypt Argead and Ptolemaic dynasties 332–30 BC Roman and Byzantine Egypt 30 BC–641 AD Sasanian Egypt 619–629 Medieval Egypt Rashidun Egypt 641–661 Umayyad Egypt 661–750 Abbasid Egypt 750–935 Tulunid dynasty 868–905 Ikhshidid dynasty 935–969 Fatimid dynasty 969–1171 Ayyubid dynasty 1171–1250 Mamluk dynasties 1250–1517 Early modern Egypt Ottoman Egypt 1517–1867 French occupation 1798–1801 Muhammad Ali dynasty 1805–1853 Khedivate of Egypt 1867–1914 Late Modern Egypt British occupation 1882–1922 Sultanate of Egypt 1914–1922 Kingdom of Egypt 1922–1953 Republic 1953–present  Egypt portal v t e Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The Second Intermediate Period marks a period when ancient Egypt fell into disarray for a second time, between the end of the Middle Kingdom and the start of the New Kingdom. The concept of a "Second Intermediate Period" was coined in 1942 by German Egyptologist Hanns Stock.[1] It is best known as the period when the Hyksos people of West Asia made their appearance in Egypt and whose reign comprised the 15th Dynasty founded by Salitis. Contents 1 History 1.1 End of the Middle Kingdom 1.2 Hyksos rule 1.2.1 15th dynasty 1.2.2 16th dynasty 1.2.3 Abydos dynasty 1.2.4 17th dynasty 2 References 3 Bibliography History[edit] End of the Middle Kingdom[edit] Main articles: Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt and Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt The 12th Dynasty of Egypt came to an end at the end of the 19th century BC with the death of Queen Sobekneferu (1806–1802 BC).[2] Apparently she had no heirs, causing the 12th Dynasty to come to a sudden end, and, with it, the Golden Age of the Middle Kingdom; it was succeeded by the much weaker 13th Dynasty. Retaining the seat of the 12th Dynasty, the 13th Dynasty ruled from Itjtawy ("Seizer-of-the-Two-Lands") for most of its existence, switching to Thebes in the far south possibly since the reign of Merneferre Ay. The 13th Dynasty is notable for the accession of the first formally recognised Semitic-speaking king, Khendjer ("Boar"). The 13th Dynasty proved unable to hold on to the entire territory of Egypt however, and a provincial ruling family of Western Asian descent in Avaris, located in the marshes of the eastern Nile Delta, broke away from the central authority to form the 14th Dynasty.[2] Hyksos rule[edit] Main article: Hyksos 15th dynasty[edit] Main article: Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt The 15th Dynasty dates approximately from 1650 to 1550 BC.[3] Known rulers of the Fifteenth Dynasty are as follows:[3] Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Apophis, c. 1590? BC–1550 BC Khamudi, c. 1550–1540 BC The 15th Dynasty of Egypt was the first Hyksos dynasty. It ruled from Avaris but did not control the entire land. The Hyksos preferred to stay in northern Egypt since they infiltrated from the northeast. The names and order of their kings is uncertain. The Turin King list indicates that there were six Hyksos kings, with an obscure Khamudi listed as the final king of the 15th Dynasty.[4] Some scholars argue there were two Apophis kings named Apepi I and Apepi II, but this is primarily due to the fact there are two known prenomens for this king: Awoserre and Aqenenre. However, the Danish Egyptologist Kim Ryholt maintains in his study of the Second Intermediate Period that these prenomens all refer to one man, Apepi, who ruled Egypt for 40 or more years.[5] This is also supported by the fact that this king employed a third prenomen during his reign: Nebkhepeshre.[6] Apepi likely employed several different prenomens throughout various periods of his reign. This scenario is not unprecedented, as later kings, including the famous Ramesses II and Seti II, are known to have used two different prenomens in their own reigns. 16th dynasty[edit] Main article: Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt The 16th Dynasty ruled the Theban region in Upper Egypt[7] for 70 years.[8] Of the two chief versions of Manetho's Aegyptiaca, Dynasty XVI is described by the more reliable[9] Africanus (supported by Syncellus)[10] as "shepherd [hyksos] kings", but by Eusebius as Theban.[9] Ryholt (1997), followed by Bourriau (2003), in reconstructing the Turin canon, interpreted a list of Thebes-based kings to constitute Manetho's Dynasty XVI, although this is one of Ryholt's "most debatable and far-reaching" conclusions.[9] For this reason other scholars do not follow Ryholt and see only insufficient evidence for the interpretation of the 16th Dynasty as Theban.[11] The continuing war against Dynasty XV dominated the short-lived 16th dynasty. The armies of the 15th dynasty, winning town after town from their southern enemies, continually encroached on the 16th dynasty territory, eventually threatening and then conquering Thebes itself. In his study of the second intermediate period, the egyptologist Kim Ryholt has suggested that Dedumose I sued for a truce in the latter years of the dynasty,[8] but one of his predecessors, Nebiryraw I, may have been more successful and seems to have enjoyed a period of peace in his reign.[8] Famine, which had plagued Upper Egypt during the late 13th dynasty and the 14th dynasty, also blighted the 16th dynasty, most evidently during and after the reign of Neferhotep III.[8] Thebes (Luxor Temple pictured) was the capital of many of the Dynasty XVI pharaohs. From Ryholt's reconstruction of the Turin canon, 15 kings of the dynasty can now be named, five of whom appear in contemporary sources.[7] While they were most likely rulers based in Thebes itself, some may have been local rulers from other important Upper Egyptian towns, including Abydos, El Kab and Edfu.[7] By the reign of Nebiriau I, the realm controlled by the 16th dynasty extended at least as far north as Hu and south to Edfu.[8][12] Not listed in the Turin canon (after Ryholt) is Wepwawetemsaf, who left a stele at Abydos and was likely a local kinglet of the Abydos Dynasty.[7] Ryholt gives the list of kings of the 16th dynasty as shown in the table below.[13] Others, such as Helck, Vandersleyen, Bennett combine some of these rulers with the Seventeenth dynasty of Egypt. The estimated dates come from Bennett's publication.[14] Abydos dynasty[edit] Main article: Abydos Dynasty The Abydos Dynasty may have been a short-lived local dynasty ruling over part of Upper Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period in Ancient Egypt and was contemporary with the 15th and 16th Dynasties, approximately from 1650 to 1600 BC.[15] The existence of an Abydos Dynasty was first proposed by Detlef Franke[16] and later elaborated on by Egyptologist Kim Ryholt in 1997. The existence of the dynasty may have been vindicated in January 2014, when the tomb of the previously unknown pharaoh Seneb Kay was discovered in Abydos.[15] The dynasty tentatively includes four rulers: Wepwawetemsaf, Pantjeny, Snaaib,[17] and Seneb Kay. The royal necropolis of the Abydos Dynasty was found in the southern part of Abydos, in an area called Anubis Mountain in ancient times. The rulers of the Abydos Dynasty placed their burial ground adjacent to the tombs of the Middle Kingdom rulers.[15] 17th dynasty[edit] Main article: Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt Around the time Memphis and Itj-tawy fell to the Hyksos, the native Egyptian ruling house in Thebes declared its independence from Itj-tawy, becoming the 17th Dynasty. This dynasty would eventually lead the war of liberation that drove the Hyksos back into Asia. The Theban-based 17th Dynasty restored numerous temples throughout Upper Egypt while maintaining peaceful trading relations with the Hyksos kingdom in the north. Indeed, Senakhtenre Ahmose, the first king in the line of Ahmoside kings, even imported white limestone from the Hyksos-controlled region of Tura to make a granary door at the Temple of Karnak. However, his successors — the final two kings of this dynasty — Seqenenre Tao and Kamose are traditionally credited with defeating the Hyksos in the course of the wars of liberation. With the creation of the 18th Dynasty around 1550 BC the New Kingdom period of Egyptian history begins with Ahmose I, its first pharaoh, completing the expulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt and placing the country, once again, under centralised administrative control. References[edit] ^ Schneider, Thomas (27 August 2008). "Periodizing Egyptian History: Manetho, Convention, and Beyond". In Klaus-Peter Adam (ed.). Historiographie in der Antike. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 181–197. ISBN 978-3-11-020672-2. ^ a b Kim S. B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800–1550 B.C., Museum Tusculanum Press, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications 20. 1997, p.185 ^ a b Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. p. 481. ISBN 0-19-815034-2. ^ Turin Kinglist Archived 2006-09-27 at the Wayback Machine Accessed July 26, 1006 (line X.21 of the cited web link clearly provides this summary for the dynasty: "6 kings functioning 100+X years"). The surviving traces on the X figure appears to give the figure 8 which suggests that the summation should be read as 6 kings ruling 108 years. ^ Kim Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c. 1800–1550 B.C." by Museum Tuscalanum Press. 1997. p.125 ^ Kings of the Second Intermediate Period University College London; scroll down to the 15th dynasty ^ a b c d Bourriau 2003: 191 ^ a b c d e Ryholt 1997: 305 ^ a b c Bourriau 2003: 179 ^ Cory 1876 ^ see for example, Quirke, in Maree: The Second Intermediate Period (Thirteenth – Seventeenth Dynasties, Current Research, Future Prospects, Leuven 2011, Paris — Walpole, MA. ISBN 978-9042922280, p. 56, n. 6 ^ Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I – Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, pp. 256–257 ^ Kings of the Second Intermediate Period 16th dynasty (after Ryholt 1997) ^ Chris Bennet, A Genealogical Chronology of the Seventeenth Dynasty, Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, Vol. 39 (2002), pp. 123–155 ^ a b c "Giant Sarcophagus Leads Penn Museum Team in Egypt To the Tomb of a Previously Unknown Pharaoh". Penn Museum. January 2014. Retrieved 16 Jan 2014. ^ Detlef Franke: Zur Chronologie des Mittleren Reiches. Teil II: Die sogenannte Zweite Zwischenzeit Altägyptens, In Orientalia 57 (1988), p. 259 ^ Ryholt, K.S.B. (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800–1550 B.C. Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 164. ISBN 8772894210. Bibliography[edit] Von Beckerath, Jürgen. "Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten," Ägyptologische Forschungen, Heft 23. Glückstadt, 1965. Gardiner, Sir Alan. Egypt of the Pharaohs. Oxford, 1964, 1961. Hayes, William C. "Egypt: From the Death of Ammenemes III to Seqenenre II." Chapter 2, Volume II of The Cambridge Ancient History. Revised Edition, 1965. James, T.G.H. "Egypt: From the Expulsion of the Hyksos to Amenophis I." Chapter 8, Volume II of The Cambridge Ancient History. Revised Edition, 1965. Kitchen, Kenneth A., "Further Notes on New Kingdom Chronology and History," Chronique d'Égypte, 63 (1968), pp. 313–324. Oren, Eliezer D. The Hyksos: New Historical and Archaeological Perspectives Philadelphia, 1997. Ryholt, Kim. The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c. 1800–1550 B.C., Museum Tuscalanum Press, 1997. ISBN 87-7289-421-0 Van Seters, John. The Hyksos: A New Investigation. New Haven, 1966. Preceded by Middle Kingdom Time Periods of Egypt 1650–1550 BC Succeeded by New Kingdom Authority control LCCN: sh2010013155 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Second_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt&oldid=994991000" Categories: Second Intermediate Period of Egypt States and territories established in the 17th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 16th century BC Dynasties of ancient Egypt 17th century BC 16th century BC 2nd millennium BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ العربية Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano Lietuvių Magyar Malagasy Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 18 December 2020, at 16:39 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1676	----	Third Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Third Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Third Dynasty" redirects here. For the Sumerian Renaissance, see Third Dynasty of Ur. Third Dynasty of Egypt ca. 2686 BC–ca. 2613 BC Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara Capital Memphis Common languages Egyptian language Religion ancient Egyptian religion Government Absolute monarchy Historical era Bronze Age • Established ca. 2686 BC • Disestablished ca. 2613 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Second Dynasty of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e Funerary temple of Djoser at Saqqara The Third Dynasty of ancient Egypt is the first dynasty of the Old Kingdom. Other dynasties of the Old Kingdom include the Fourth, Fifth and Sixth. The capital during the period of the Old Kingdom was at Memphis. Contents 1 Overview 2 Rulers 3 Third Dynasty timeline 4 References Overview[edit] After the turbulent last years of the Second Dynasty, which might have included civil war, Egypt came under the rule of Djoser, marking the beginning of the Third Dynasty.[1] Both the Turin King List and the Abydos King List record five kings,[2] while the Saqqara Tablet only records four, and Manetho records nine,[3] many of whom did not exist or are simply the same king under multiple names. The Turin King List gives Nebka, Djoser, Djoserti, Hudjefa I, and Huni. The Abydos King List gives Nebka, Djoser, Teti, Sedjes, and Neferkare. The Saqqara Tablet gives Djoser, Djoserteti, Nebkare, and Huni. Manetho gives Necheróphes (Nebka), Tosorthrós (Djoser), Týreis (Djoserti/Sekhemkhet), Mesôchris (Sanakht, probably the same person as Nebka), Sôÿphis (also Djoser), Tósertasis (also Djoserti/Sekhemkhet), Achês (Nebtawy Nebkare; unlikely Khaba, perhaps nonexistent), Sêphuris (Qahedjet), and Kerpherês (Huni). The archaeological evidence shows that Khasekhemwy, the last ruler of the Second Dynasty, was succeeded by Djoser, who at the time was only attested by his presumed Horus name Netjerikhet. Djoser's successor was Sekhemkhet, who had the Nebty name Djeserty. The last king of the dynasty is Huni, who may be the same person as Qahedjet or, less likely, Khaba. There are three remaining Horus names of known 3rd dynasty kings: Sanakht, Khaba, and perhaps Qahedjet. One of these three, by far most likely Sanakht, went by the nebty name Nebka.[2] Dating the Third Dynasty is similarly challenging. Shaw gives the dates as being approximately from 2686 to 2613 BC.[4] The Turin King List suggests a total of 75 years for the third dynasty. Baines and Malek have placed the third dynasty as spanning the years 2650–2575 BC,[2] while Dodson and Hilton date the dynasty to 2584–2520 BC. It is not uncommon for these estimates to differ by more than a century.[1] Rulers[edit] The pharaohs of the Third Dynasty ruled for approximately seventy-five years. Due to recent archaeological findings in Abydos revealing that Djoser was the one who buried Khasekhemwy, the last king of the Second Dynasty, it is now widely believed that Djoser is the founder of the Third Dynasty, as the direct successor of Khasekhemwy and the one responsible for finishing his tomb.[5] These findings contradict earlier writings, like Wilkinson 1999, which proposed that Nebka/Sanakht was the founder of the dynasty. However, the two were not very far apart temporally; they may have been brothers, along with Sekhemkhet,[6][7] as the sons of Khasekhemwy and his favoured consort Nimaathap. Dynasty III pharaohs Horus-name Personal Name Regnal years Burial Consort(s) Netjerikhet Djoser 19 or 28 Saqqara Hetephernebti Sekhemkhet Djoserty 6-7 Saqqara: Buried Pyramid Djeseretnebti Sanakht Nebka 6-28 years, depending on identification; most likely six, 18, or 19 years Possibly mastaba K2 at Beit Khallaf Khaba Teti 6 ? 24, if identical to Huni Zawyet el'Aryan: Layer Pyramid Uncertain, Qahedjet ? Huni 24 Meidum ? Djefatnebti Meresankh I While Manetho names Necherophes, and the Turin King List names Nebka (a.k.a. Sanakht), as the first pharaoh of the Third Dynasty,[2] many contemporary Egyptologists believe Djoser was the first king of this dynasty, pointing out the order in which some predecessors of Khufu are mentioned in the Papyrus Westcar suggests that Nebka should be placed between Djoser and Huni, and not before Djoser. More importantly, seals naming Djoser were found at the entrance to Khasekhemwy's tomb at Abydos, which demonstrates that it was Djoser, rather than Sanakht, who buried and succeeded this king.[2] The Turin King List scribe wrote Djoser's name in red ink, which indicates the Ancient Egyptians' recognition of this king's historical importance in their culture. In any case, Djoser is the best known king of this dynasty, for commissioning his vizier Imhotep to build the earliest surviving pyramids, the Step Pyramid. Nebka's identification with Sanakht is uncertain; though many Egyptologists continue to support the theory that the two kings were one and the same man, opposition exists because this opinion rests on a single fragmentary clay seal discovered in 1903 by John Garstang. Though damaged, the seal displays the serekh of Sanakht, together with a cartouche containing a form of the sign for "ka," with just enough room for the sign for "Neb." Nebka's reign length is given as eighteen years by both Manetho and the Turin Canon, though it is important to note that these sources write over 2,300 and 1,400 years after his lifetime, so their accuracy is uncertain. In contrast to Djoser, both Sanakht and Nebka are attested in considerably few relics for a ruler of nearly two decades; the Turin Canon gives a reign of only six years to an unnamed immediate predecessor of Huni. Toby Wilkinson suggests that this number fits Sanakht (whom he identifies concretely with Nebka), given the sparsity of archaeological evidence for him, but it could also be the reign length of Khaba or even Qahedjet, kings whose identities are uncertain. (Wilkinson places Nebka as the penultimate king of the Third Dynasty, before Huni, but this is by no means definitively known or even overwhelmingly supported among Egyptologists.) Some authorities believe that Imhotep lived into the reign of the Pharaoh Huni. Little is known for certain of Sekhemkhet, but his reign is considered to have been only six or seven years, according to the Turin Canon and Palermo Stone, respectively. Attempts to equate Sekhemkhet with Tosertasis, a king assigned nineteen years by Manetho, find almost no support given the unfinished state of his tomb, the Buried Pyramid. It is believed that Khaba possibly built the Layer Pyramid at Zawyet el'Aryan; the pyramid is far smaller than it was intended to be, but it is not known whether this is due to natural erosion or because it, like Sekhemkhet's own tomb, was never completed to begin with. In any case, the duration of Khaba's reign is uncertain; a few Egyptologists believe Khaba was identical to Huni, but if Khaba is the same person as the Ramesside names Hudjeta II and Sednes, he could have reigned for six years. Third Dynasty timeline[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to 3rd dynasty of Egypt. References[edit] ^ a b Dodson, Hilton, The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, 2004 ^ a b c d e Toby A.H. Wilkinson, Early Dynastic Egypt, Routledge, 2001 ^ Aidan Dodson: The Layer Pyramid of Zawiyet el-Aryan: Its Layout and Context. In: Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt (JARCE), No. 37 (2000). American Research Center (Hg.), Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake/Bristol 2000, ISSN 0065-9991, pp. 81–90. ^ Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. p. 480. ISBN 0-19-815034-2. ^ Bard, Kathryn (2015). An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt (2 ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 140–145. ISBN 1-118-89611-4.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) ^ Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, London 2001, ISBN 0415260116, p. 80 - 82, 94 - 97. ^ Silke Roth: Die Königsmütter des Alten Ägypten von der Frühzeit bis zum Ende der 12. Dynastie (= Ägypten und Altes Testament, vol. 46). Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2001, ISBN 3-447-04368-7, p. 59-61 & 65–67. Preceded by Second Dynasty Dynasties of Egypt c. 2686 – 2613 BC Succeeded by Fourth Dynasty v t e Third Dynasty of Ancient Egypt Pharaohs Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Khaba Huni (Qahedjet) (Nebka) Queen consorts Djefatnebti Djeseretnebti Hetephernebti Meresankh I Nimaathap Other royals Inetkaes Mesen-ka Officials Imhotep Akhetaa Hesy-Ra Hetepi Kagemni I Khabawsokar Metjen Nefer-Setekh (Pehen-Ptah) Pehernefer Other people Sepa (Merit-Ptah) Pyramids Pyramid of Djoser Buried Pyramid Layer Pyramid Edfu South Pyramid Pyramid of Elephantine Pyramid of Naqada Mastabas Beit Khallaf Mastaba of Hesy-Re Artefact Famine Stela Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Third_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=978847705" Categories: Third Dynasty of Egypt States and territories established in the 3rd millennium BC States and territories disestablished in the 3rd millennium BC Dynasties of ancient Egypt 27th century BC in Egypt 3rd-millennium BC establishments in Egypt 3rd-millennium BC disestablishments in Egypt 3rd millennium BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Pages using the EasyTimeline extension CS1 maint: ref=harv Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca বাংলা Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ქართული Latina Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 17 September 2020, at 08:19 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1678	----	Waterskin - Wikipedia Waterskin From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Waterskin" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Waterskin bearer. in Persepolis A waterskin is a receptacle used to hold water. Normally made of a sheep or goat skin, it retains water naturally and therefore was very useful in desert crossings until the invention of the canteen, though waterskins are still used in some parts of the world. Though it may have been used over 5000 years ago by tribal peoples, the first pictures of it are from ancient Assyrians, who used the bladders as floats in 3000 B.C. It also was used by large ancient empires such as Rome before the advent of the canteen. Modern waterskins are often made of various plastic or rubber impregnated canvases, or sometimes simply thicker transparent plastics, and are often called water-pouches, water bags, or water bladders. Such modern waterskins offer many features, such as detachable straw-hoses, valves, refill openings of various widths, various closures and handles, styles of covering or cases, and removable cases or carry pouches. See also[edit] Bota bag Colambre Media related to Waterskin at Wikimedia Commons This water supply–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e v t e Persepolis Palace Tachara Gate of All Nations Other sections Tomb of Artaxerxes III builders Darius the Great Xerxes I Artaxerxes I of Persia Researchers Heidemarie Koch Erich Schmidt (archaeologist) Alireza Shapour Shahbazi Related Tangeh Bolaghi 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire Sivand Dam Persepolis Administrative Archives Waterskin Achaemenid architecture Category:Persepolis Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Waterskin&oldid=999949006" Categories: Containers Packaging Bottles Water supply stubs Hidden categories: Articles lacking sources from March 2009 All articles lacking sources Commons category link is on Wikidata All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Azərbaycanca فارسی עברית کوردی Suomi Türkçe اردو Edit links This page was last edited on 12 January 2021, at 19:35 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-168	----	Hudjefa I - Wikipedia Hudjefa I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Hudjefa I in hieroglyphs Reign: possibly 2 years Predecessor: Neferkasokar Successor: Khasekhemwy Hudjefa Ḥw-ḏf3 Turin canon Hudjefa Ḥw-ḏf3 Sakkara kinglist Hudjefa (Ancient Egyptian for "erased" or "missing") is the pseudonym for a 2nd Dynasty pharaoh as reported on the Turin canon, a list of kings written during the reign of Ramses II. Hudjefa is now understood to mean that the name of the king was already missing from the document from which the Turin canon was copied. The length of the reign associated to Hudjefa on the canon is 11 years.[1] Because of the position of Hudjefa on the Turin list, he is sometimes identified with a king Sesochris reported in the Aegyptiaca, a history of Egypt written by the Egyptian priest Manetho in the 3rd century BC. Manetho credits this pharaoh with 48 years of reign. Egyptologists have attempted to relate Hudjefa with archaeologically attested kings of the period, in particular Seth Peribsen. Contents 1 Name sources 2 Identity 3 Reign 4 References Name sources[edit] The name "Hudjefa" appears only in the Royal Table of Sakkara and in the Royal Canon of Turin. Both king lists describe Hudjefa I as the immediate successor of king Neferkasokar and as the predecessor of king Khasekhemwy (here named Bebty).[2][3][4] Identity[edit] Egyptologists and historians have had great difficulty linking Hudjefa I to any archaeologically identified ruler. The problem is that "Hudjefa" is not a personal name in the conventional sense. Hudjefa means "erased" and might reveal that the original king's name, originally listed in a document or inscribed on some object, was unreadable when the scribe tried to compile the king list. It is thought that a scribe simply noted "erased", but then erroneously put the word into a cartouche, thus making it look like a personal name. Later scribes and students of Egyptian history misinterpreted the arrangement and adopted it into their documents as a king's name.[2][5] The ancient Greek historian Manetho probably called Hudjefa I "Sésôchris" and reported that this king's body had a measurement of "five cubits in its height and three hands in its breadth". Egyptologists doubt the basis of this observation as no burial site for Hudjefa I has ever been found.[4][6] Egyptologists such as T. Dautzenberg and Wolfgang Helck once considered that Hudjefa I might be identical with king Seth-Peribsen. To support their theory, they pointed out that an 11-year reign – as noted in the Royal Canon of Turin – would be inconsistent with a king whose name has been lost. Rather, in their opinion, it would make sense if the ruler's name was not allowed to be mentioned in later times. This was already considered to be the case of king Peribsen, whose birth name was banished from Ramesside king lists.[7] Reign[edit] Egyptologists such as Wolfgang Helck, Nicolas Grimal, Hermann Alexander Schlögl and Francesco Tiradritti believe that king Nynetjer, the third ruler of 2nd dynasty and a predecessor of Peribsen, left a realm that was suffering from an overly complex state administration and that Nynetjer decided to split Egypt to leave it to his two sons (or, at least, two chosen successors) who would rule two separate kingdoms, in the hope that the two rulers could better administer the states.[8][9] In contrast, Egyptologists such as Barbara Bell believe that an economic catastrophe such as a famine or a long lasting drought affected Egypt. Therefore, to better address the problem of feeding the Egyptian population, Ninetjer split the realm into two and his successors founded two independent realms, until the famine came to an end. Bell points to the inscriptions of the Palermo stone, where, in her opinion, the records of the annual Nile floods show constantly low levels during this period.[10] Bell's theory is refuted today by Egyptologists such as Stephan Seidlmayer, who corrected Bell's calculations. Seidlmayer has shown that the annual Nile floods were at usual levels at Nynetjer's time up to the period of the Old Kingdom. Bell had overlooked that the heights of the Nile floods in the Palermo stone inscription only takes into account the measurements of the nilometers around Memphis, but not elsewhere along the river. Any long-lasting drought can therefore be excluded.[11] It is accepted amongst a number of Egyptologists that Hudjefa I had to share his throne with another ruler although it is unclear as to who that ruler was. Later king lists such as the Sakkara list and the Turin Canon list the kings Neferkara I and Neferkasokar as his predecessors and king Khasekhemwy as immediate successors. The Abydos list skips the rulers Neferkara I, Neferkasokar and Hudjefa I completely and name a king Djadjay (identical with king Khasekhemwy). If Egypt was already divided when Hudjefa I gained the throne, kings like Sekhemib and Peribsen would have ruled Upper Egypt, whilst Hudjefa I and his predecessors would have ruled Lower Egypt. The division of Egypt was brought to an end by king Khasekhemwy.[12] References[edit] ^ Alan H. Gardiner: The royal canon of Turin. Griffith Institute of Oxford, Oxford (UK) 1997, ISBN 0-900416-48-3; page 15 & Table I. ^ a b Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards: The Cambridge Ancient History Vol. 1, Pt. 2: Early history of the Middle East, 3rd volume (Reprint). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2006, ISBN 0-521-07791-5, page 35. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen. Deutscher Kunstverlag, München/Berlin 1984, page 49. ^ a b Winfried Bartha in: Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde (ZAS), volume 108. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1981, ISSN 0044-216X, page 12–14. ^ Herman Alexander Schlögl: Das Alte Ägypten: Geschichte und Kultur von der Frühzeit bis zu Kleopatra. Beck, Hamburg 2006, ISBN 3-406-54988-8, page 78. ^ Walter Bryan Emery: Ägypten, Geschichte und Kultur der Frühzeit, 3200-2800 v. Chr. page 19. ^ Wolfgang Helck: Untersuchungen zur Thinitenzeit: Ägyptologische Abhandlungen., Volume 45. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden 1987, ISBN 3-447-02677-4, page 125. ^ Nicolas Grimal: A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley-Blackwell, Weinheim 1994, ISBN 978-0-631-19396-8, page 55. ^ Francesco Tiradritti & Anna Maria Donadoni Roveri: Kemet: Alle Sorgenti Del Tempo. Electa, Milano 1998, ISBN 88-435-6042-5, page 80–85. ^ Barbara Bell: Oldest Records of the Nile Floods, In: Geographical Journal, No. 136. 1970, page 569–573; M. Goedike: Journal of Egypt Archaeology, No. 42. 1998, page 50. ^ Stephan Seidlmayer: Historische und moderne Nilstände: Historische und moderne Nilstände: Untersuchungen zu den Pegelablesungen des Nils von der Frühzeit bis in die Gegenwart. Achet, Berlin 2001, ISBN 3-9803730-8-8, page 87–89. ^ Hermann Alexander Schlögl: Das Alte Ägypten: Geschichte und Kultur von der Frühzeit bis zu Kleopatra. Beck, Hamburg 2006, ISBN 3-406-54988-8, page 77-78 & 415. Preceded by Neferkasokar Pharaoh of Egypt Succeeded by Khasekhemwy v t e Second Dynasty of Ancient Egypt Attested pharaohs Hotepsekhemwy Nebra Weneg Nynetjer Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Khasekhemwy Obscure pharaoh names Horus Ba Ba Horus Sa Hudjefa I Neferkara I Neferkasokar Nubnefer Senedj Sneferka Wadjenes Queen consort Nimaathap Other royals Khenmetptah Satkhnum Sehener Shepset-ipet Wadjitefni (Mesen-ka) Pehen-Ptah Nisuheqet Nefer-Setekh Monument Gisr el-Mudir Capital Thinis v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hudjefa_I&oldid=995691071" Categories: 28th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Second Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands Polski Português Slovenščina Svenska Tagalog ไทย Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 December 2020, at 10:43 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1693	----	Category:Articles with short description - Wikipedia Help Category:Articles with short description From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a hidden category. It is not shown on its member pages, unless the corresponding user preference (appearance → show hidden categories) is set. See also: Wikipedia:WikiProject Short descriptions This category is for articles with short descriptions defined on Wikipedia by {{short description}} (either within the page itself or via another template). 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en-wikipedia-org-1695	----	Sheshi - Wikipedia Sheshi From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Egyptian pharaoh Maaibre Sheshi Sheshy, Shesha, Mayebre Scarab seal inscribed with "the son of Ra, Sheshi, given life"[1] Pharaoh Reign duration highly uncertain: three years,[note 1] 19 years,[note 2] c. 40 years.[note 3] (14th dynasty or 15th dynasty) Coregency Conjectural coregency with Nehesy (Ryholt) Predecessor uncertain, Ammu Aahotepre[5] Successor uncertain, Nehesy Aasehre,[5] Yaqub-Har[6] Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Maaibre M3ˁ-jb-Rˁ The righteous one is the heart of Ra[7] Nomen Sheshi Ššj Consort uncertain, Tati (Ryholt) Children uncertain, Nehesy ♂, Ipqu ♂ (Ryholt) Maaibre Sheshi (also Sheshy) was a ruler of areas of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period. The dynasty, chronological position, duration and extent of his reign are uncertain and subject to ongoing debate. The difficulty of identification is mirrored by problems in determining events from the end of the Middle Kingdom to the arrival of the Hyksos in Egypt. Nonetheless, Sheshi is, in terms of the number of artifacts attributed to him, the best-attested king of the period spanning the end of the Middle Kingdom and the Second Intermediate period; roughly from c. 1800 BC until 1550 BC. Hundreds of scaraboid seals bearing his name have been found throughout Canaan, Egypt, Nubia, and as far away as Carthage, where some were still in use 1,500 years after his death. Three competing hypotheses have been put forth for the dynasty to which Sheshi belonged. Egyptologists such as Nicolas Grimal, William C. Hayes, and Donald B. Redford believe he should be identified with Salitis, founder of the 15th Dynasty according to historical sources and king of the Hyksos during their invasion of Egypt. Salitis is credited with 19 years of reign and would have lived sometime between c. 1720 BC and 1650 BC. The Egyptologist William Ayres Ward and the archaeologist Daphna Ben-Tor propose that Sheshi was a Hyksos king and belongs to the second half of the 15th Dynasty, reigning between Khyan and Apophis. Alternatively, Manfred Bietak has proposed that Sheshi was a vassal of the Hyksos, ruling over some part of Egypt or Canaan. The very existence of such vassals is debated. Finally, Sheshi could be a ruler of the early 14th Dynasty, a line of kings of Canaanite descent ruling over of the Eastern Nile Delta immediately before the arrival of the Hyksos. Proponents of this theory, such as Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, credit Sheshi with 40 years of reign starting ca. 1745 BC. Ryholt proposed that Sheshi allied his kingdom with the Kushites in Nubia via a dynastic marriage with the Nubian princess Tati. Ryholt further posits that the son of Sheshi and Tati was Nehesy, whose name means "The Nubian", whom he believes succeeded Sheshi to the throne as the pharaoh Nehesy Aasehre. Contents 1 Attestations 1.1 Nomen and prenomen on seals 1.2 Location of the finds 1.3 Historical sources 2 Dynasty 2.1 Hyksos ruler 2.2 Vassal of the Hyksos 2.3 King of the 14th Dynasty 3 Dating 3.1 Mid-18th century BC 3.2 Mid- to late-17th century BC 3.3 Reign length 4 Family 5 Notes, references and sources 5.1 Notes 5.2 References 5.3 Sources 6 External links Attestations[edit] Nomen and prenomen on seals[edit] The nomen of Sheshi[note 4] is inscribed on over two hundred scarab seals, which constitute the sole attestations of his reign. The number of scarabs attributed to Sheshi is paralleled in number only by those bearing the prenomen Maaibre,[9] meaning "The righteous one is the heart of Ra".[7] Based on the close stylistic similarities between both groups of scarabs as well as their otherwise unmatched numbers,[10] the consensus among Egyptologists is that Maaibre was the prenomen of Sheshi.[8][9][11] Provenance of some of the scarabs of Maaibre Sheshi[12] Consequently, Maaibre Sheshi is the best attested ruler of the Second Intermediate Period in terms of the number of artefacts attributed to him, with 396 seals and two seal impressions showing his nomen or prenomen.[13] This figure is three times higher than the 123 seals attributed to the next best attested king of the period, Yakbim Sekhaenre.[note 5][14] In addition to these seals, Manfred Bietak has suggested that a scarab discovered in Avaris and inscribed with the name of a king "Shenshek" should probably be attributed to Sheshi.[15] This conclusion is rejected by Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, who believe that Shenshek was a separate king.[16][17] Location of the finds[edit] Over 80 percent of the seals attributed to Maaibre Sheshi are of unknown provenance,[note 6] but the remaining 20 percent have been found throughout Egypt, Nubia and Canaan, indicating widespread trade and diplomatic contacts during Sheshi's reign.[19] Important finds include seals from Lachish, Gezer, Jericho, Tel Michal,[20] Amman and Tell el-Ajjul[21] in Canaan. In Lower Egypt, three seals have been unearthed in Tell el-Yahudiya and Tell el-Mashkuta and a further eight are from the wider Delta region.[22] Four seals originate from Saqqara[23] and a further five from the Middle Egyptian sites of Abusir el-Melek, Kom Medinet Ghurab, Kom el-Ahmar and Deir Rifa. To the south, in Upper Egypt, a total of twenty seals are known from Abydos, Hu, Thebes, Elephantine, Esna and Edfu,[24] In Nubia, seals of Sheshi have been found in the Egyptian fortresses of Uronarti and Mirgissa and otherwise in Dakka, Kerma, Sayala, Aniba, Masmas, Faras, Ukma, Akasha and Sai.[18] Finally, two seal impressions of Sheshi have been found in Carthage,[25][26] in a context dated archeologically to the 2nd-century BC.[27] The seals of Sheshi are now scattered in many different museums, including the Israel Museum,[28] Petrie Museum,[note 7][30] Ashmolean, British Museum, Louvre, Walters Art Museum,[31] Metropolitan Museum of Art[32] and the Egyptian Museum of Cairo.[33] Historical sources[edit] No historical attestation of Sheshi is known for certain. Sheshi is absent from the Turin canon, a list of kings written on papyrus during the Ramesside period and which serves as the primary historical source for the Second Intermediate Period.[34] This is because the section of the papyrus covering the 13th to 17th Dynasties is heavily damaged[35] and the problem of Sheshi's chronological position cannot be resolved from the document. It is unclear whether Sheshi is mentioned in the Aegyptiaca, a history of Egypt written in the 3rd century BC during the reign of Ptolemy II (283–246 BC) by the Egyptian priest Manetho. Indeed, the Aegyptiaca only reports Hellenized names for Egyptian pharaohs and the identification of Sheshi with any particular name remains controversial.[36] Finally, Aharon Kempinski and Donald B. Redford have proposed that Sheshi is the historical figure who gave rise to the Biblical Sheshai, one of the Anakim living in Hebron at the time of the conquest of Canaan by the Hebrews according to Numbers 13:22.[37][38] David Rohl goes even further and explicitly equates Sheshi with Sheshai.[39] Dynasty[edit] Seal reading "the Son of Ra, Sheshi, living for ever", Walters Art Museum[40] Three competing hypotheses have been proposed regarding the dynasty to which Sheshi belonged. Hyksos ruler[edit] William C. Hayes, Nicolas Grimal, Redford, and Peter Clayton identify Sheshi with Salitis (also known as Saites).[3][41][42][43][44] According to the Aegyptiaca, Salitis was the founder of the Hyksos 15th Dynasty.[45] Alternatively, Bietak and Janine Bourriau have proposed that Salitis should be identified with Sakir-Har,[46] a poorly known ruler of the Second Intermediate Period who, in contrast to Sheshi,[47] is known to have borne the title of "Hyksos".[48] If Sheshi is to be equated with Salitis, then the seals of Sheshi discovered in Nubia suggest that the Hyksos allied themselves with the Nubians against the native Egyptian 13th Dynasty as soon as they arrived in the Nile Delta,[42] an event which Grimal places at c. 1720 BC.[42] Grimal envisions Sheshi's kingdom as comprising the entire Nile Delta and the Nile valley north of Gebelein. According to Manetho as reported by Josephus in Against Apion,[49] Salitis reigned from Memphis,[8][50] and fortified the existing town of Avaris,[51] which was to become the Hyksos' seat of power.[43] Grimal and Hayes further equate Sheshi with Sharek,[42] a king whose sole attestation is found on a stone slab detailing the genealogy of Ankhefensekhmet, a priest who lived at the end of the 22nd Dynasty c. 750 BC, some 900 years after Sheshi's estimated lifetime.[note 8][52] William Ayres Ward and the archaeologist Daphna Ben-Tor rely on seriations of the seals of Sheshi and other kings of the Second Intermediate Period to date Sheshi to the second half of the 15th Dynasty, between the great Hyksos pharaohs Khyan and Apophis.[53][54] Vassal of the Hyksos[edit] Jürgen von Beckerath is less assertive about Sheshi's identity and assigns him to his combined 15th/16th Dynasty, where he regroups Hyksos rulers whose chronological position is uncertain together with kings whom he sees as vassals of the Hyksos.[55] Von Beckerath's analysis relies on the hypothesis that Manetho's 16th Dynasty comprised minor rulers of the Nile Delta region, called lesser Hyksos, who served the great Hyksos kings of the 15th Dynasty such as Khyan and Apophis.[56] For Manfred Bietak, the large number of attestations of Sheshi suggests that he was an important Hyksos ruler,[8] yet his inclusion in the 15th Dynasty may be doubtful given the total absence of monuments attributable to him.[57] Thus, Bietak concludes that Sheshi should be placed in a group of West Semitic rulers who coexisted with the 15th Dynasty, possibly as vassals or partly independently from it, and some of whom even bore the title of "Hyksos".[58] The existence of lesser Hyksos kings in Egypt is currently debated.[59] Ryholt has shown that a statement in Eusebius' epitome of the Aegyptiaca indicating that the Hyksos had vassals contains a corruption of Manetho's original text.[59][60] Thus, he rejects the hypothesis that the 16th Dynasty comprised vassals of the Hyksos and maintains instead that it was a native Egyptian dynasty independently reigning over the Theban region between the fall of the 13th Dynasty and the advent of the 17th Dynasty.[61] These conclusions on the 16th Dynasty have been accepted by many scholars, including Ben-Tor, James Peter Allen, Susan Allen,[62] Baker and Redford.[63] Yet, for both Redford[64] and Bietak "without doubt, there were, under the umbrella of the fifteenth dynasty rulers, a series of vassals in southern and coastal Palestine, in Middle Egypt, and in Thebes. ... Such was the political system of the Hyksos, and typical of the Amorite kingdoms in Syria and the city-states in Palestine".[58] King of the 14th Dynasty[edit] Seal reading "the son of Ra, Sheshi, living forever", Walters Art Museum.[65] Ryholt and Baker reject the identification of Sheshi as a 15th Dynasty ruler.[66][67] Ryholt observes that early Hyksos kings, such as Sakir-Har and Khyan, are known to have adopted the title Heqa khasewet meaning "ruler of the foreign lands",[note 9] a title which Sheshi did not bear.[47] In addition, the later of these two kings, Khyan, only adopted an Egyptian prenomen during the second half of his reign—a practice that was followed by subsequent Hyksos kings.[47] In contrast, if Sheshi is to be identified with Maaibre, then Sheshi bore a prenomen. This implies either that he was a Hyksos king reigning after Khyan, in contradiction with Khyan's known successors Apophis and Khamudi and the fact that Sheshi did not bear the title of Heqa khasewet;[69] or that he belonged to another dynasty.[47] Consequently, Ryholt suggests that Sheshi was actually a 14th Dynasty ruler,[5] the 14th Dynasty being a line of kings of Canaanite descent possibly ruling over the Eastern Nile Delta immediately before the arrival of the Hyksos 15th Dynasty. Many Egyptologists accept the existence of the 14th Dynasty based on archaeological evidence[70][71] and on the fact that about 50 kings are recorded in the Turin canon between the 13th Dynasty and the later Hyksos rulers.[71][72] On the other hand, Redford proposed that these 50 kings constitute the genealogy of the Hyksos rulers and that the 14th Dynasty is chimerical.[73] Based on a seriation of the scarab seals of the Second Intermediate Period available in 1900 AD, George Willoughby Fraser was able to date Sheshi's reign to "a short dynasty before the Hyksos invasion". More recently, Ryholt obtained a similar result using his own seriation[74] and places Sheshi before Yaqub-Har and the great Hyksos rulers Khyan and Apophis and after Yakbim Sekhaenre, Ya'ammu Nubwoserre, Qareh Khawoserre and 'Ammu Ahotepre.[75] Rolf Krauss independently reached the same conclusion.[76] Given that the earliest 14th Dynasty ruler mentioned on the Turin canon is Nehesy, a king who left several attestations of his reign in the Delta region, and that there is only space for one predecessor for Nehesy on the canon, Ryholt concludes that the earlier document from which the canon was copied had a lacuna preceding Nehesy.[77] Such lacunae are noted as wsf on the canon and could cover any number of kings.[note 10][79] Thus, Ryholt sees no obstacle with having Sheshi succeed 'Ammu Ahotepre and immediately precede Nehesy.[5] Dating[edit] Scarab of Sheshi reading "The good god Maaibre, given life".[80] Mid-18th century BC[edit] Ryholt dates Sheshi's reign to the mid-18th century BC. His main argument is the presence of seals of Sheshi and of two kings of the mid 13th Dynasty Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw and Djedkheperew in the Egyptian fort of Uronarti in Nubia. The fort of Uronarti was abandoned at some point in the 13th Dynasty, an event which Ryholt dates to the reign of Djedkheperew given the lack of seals attributable to subsequent kings. Ryholt thus proposes that Sheshi reigned from c. 1745 BC until 1705 BC and was a contemporary of Khabaw and Djedkheperew.[5] Ryholt's hypothesis regarding Sheshi comes with his dating the start of the 14th Dynasty around 1805 BC,[5] over 90 years earlier than accepted by most Egyptologists.[note 11][82] They propose instead that the 14th Dynasty emerged during the two decades of Merneferre Ay's reign,[83] which is dated to between 1700 BC[5] and 1660 BC, depending on the scholar.[84] Ay is the last 13th Dynasty pharaoh to be attested in Lower Egypt, and most scholars, therefore, contend that he abandoned Itjtawy, the capital of Egypt since the reign of Amenemhat I (c. 1980 BC), in favor of Thebes, as he lost control of the Delta region to the 14th Dynasty.[note 12][83][87] Mid- to late-17th century BC[edit] If Sheshi is to be identified with Salitis, the founder of the 15th Dynasty, according to Manetho, then he would have lived around 1650 BC, the date agreed upon by most Egyptologists, including Ryholt, for the arrival of the Hyksos in Egypt.[88][89][90][91][92] If Sheshi lived during the second half of the 15th Dynasty between the reigns of Khyan and Apophis as Ben-Tor and Ward favor[53][93] then Sheshi would have reigned c. 1600 BC.[88] Reign length[edit] The Egyptologists identifying Sheshi with Salitis follow Josephus, Sextus Julius Africanus and Eusebius who report that Manetho credited Salitis with 19 years of reign in his Aegyptiaca.[4][45] Ryholt relies instead on a statistical method and estimates the duration of Sheshi's reign to have been between 20 and 53 years. The method consists in tallying the seals of Yakbim Sekhaenre, Ya'ammu Nubwoserre, Qareh Khawoserre and 'Ammu Ahotepre with those of Sheshi. Then, knowing that the first four of these kings reigned for at least 30 years,[note 13][96] implies that they have left between 7.5 and 20 seals per year while on throne. Consequently, Sheshi's nearly 400 scarabs would correspond to 20 to 53 years,[96] which Ryholt gives as about 40 years.[97] Family[edit] Ryholt proposes that Sheshi had at least two consorts; Tati with whom he fathered his successor pharaoh Nehesy, and an unknown queen with whom he fathered a prince Ipqu.[98] Ryholt reached this conclusion on noting that scarabs of queen Tati and Princes Ipqu and Nehesy bear stylistic markers which are found on those of Sheshi and thus that they must have been contemporaries.[99] In addition, "Tati" is attested as a feminine Nubian name in earlier execration texts,[98] which would explain the peculiar name of Nehesy meaning "the Nubian". For Ryholt, Sheshi's motivation behind a dynastic marriage with a Kushite princess was to ally his kingdom with the Nubians.[100] Ryholt's hypothesis concerning Nehesy may be vindicated by a number of scarabs giving Nehesy the titles of "king's son" and of "eldest king son", indicating that Nehesy's father was a king as well. In addition, both Nehesy and Ipqu bore the titles of "king's son of Ra", a conflation of the titles "son of Ra" and "king's son", which could indicate that they were appointed junior coregents by Sheshi.[101] These conclusions are shared by Baker[102] but rejected by Ben-Tor, who argues not only that Nehesy reigned before Sheshi but also that the Nehesy referred to as "king's son" was a later Hyksos prince. In 2005 a stele of Nehesy was discovered in the fortress city of Tjaru, the starting point of the Way of Horus, the major road leading out of Egypt into Canaan. The stele shows a "king's son Nehesy" offering oil to the god Banebdjedet and also bears an inscription mentioning the "king's sister Tany". A woman with this name and title is known from other sources around the time of the Hyksos pharaoh Apophis c. 1570 BC.[103] This suggests that the "king's son Nehesy" of the stela lived c. 1570 BC as well, over 100 years after King Nehesy's estimated lifetime. This could be confirmed by Ben-Tor's observation that the scarabs referring to the "king's son Nehesy" are different in style from those referring to king Nehesy. In this situation, the "king's son Nehesy" would be a Hyksos prince different from the better-known king Nehesy.[104] Notes, references and sources[edit] Notes[edit] ^ William C. Hayes gives the reign of Sheshi as three years c. 1675 BC.[2] ^ Identifying Sheshi with Salitis/Saites,[3] founder of the 15th Dynasty according to the Aegyptiaca.[4] ^ Ryholt dates the reign of Sheshi to 1745–1705 BC.[5] ^ The meaning of Sheshi is uncertain, it could be the diminutive of another name.[8] ^ The dynasty and chronological position of Yakbim Sekhaenre are highly uncertain.[14] ^ On the 396 seals of Sheshi catalogued by Ryholt, 325 are of unknown provenance—having possibly been dug up illegally.[18] ^ The Petrie Museum houses over 25 seals with catalog numbers UC 11682, 11683, 11684, 11685, 11986, 11687, 11688, 11689, 11690, 11692, 11693, 11694, 11695, 11696, 11697, 11698, 11699, 11700, 11701, 11702, 11703, 11704, 11705, 11706, 11825 and 16595.[29] ^ Sharek's existence is doubted by Ryholt.[52] ^ This title is also often rendered as Heka-chasut, from the Egyptian Ḥq3-ḫ3swt.[68] ^ Ryholt's theory concerning the meaning of wsf on the Turin canon has been accepted by other scholars including Allen and Ben-Tor.[78] ^ The 14th dynasty is traditionally dated to 1710–1650 BC.[81] ^ Most Egyptologists consider Nehesy to have been either the founder[85] or the second king of this dynasty.[86] ^ This 30 year figure is strongly dependent on Ryholt's controversial reconstruction of the early 14th Dynasty. First, Ryholt uses a seriation of the seals of Yakbim, Ya'ammu, Qareh and 'Ammu to posit that they were Sheshi's predecessors,[94] a conclusion rejected by S. and J. Allen and Ben-Tor.[95] Then, Ryholt observes that the abandonment of the Egyptian fortress at Uronarti suggests that Sheshi and Djedkheperew were contemporaries, something which is also contested by Allen, Allen and Ben-Tor.[95] Finally, Ryholt uses his reconstruction of the 13th Dynasty to date Djedkheperew's reign to c. 1770, leaving around 30 years for Sheshi's four predecessors.[96] References[edit] ^ Walters Art Museum 2015, Online catalog Seal 29621. ^ Hayes 1978, p. xiv. ^ a b Redford 1992, p. 110. ^ a b Redford 1992, p. 107. ^ a b c d e f g h Ryholt 1997, p. 409. ^ Hayes 1978, p. 6. ^ a b Leprohon 2013, p. 75. ^ a b c d Bietak 1999, p. 453. ^ a b Ben-Tor 2010, p. 97. ^ Ben-Tor 2007, p. 107. ^ Ben-Tor, Allen & Allen 1999, p. 55. ^ Ryholt 1997, pp. 367–369. ^ Ryholt 1997, pp. 252–254, 366–376. ^ a b Ryholt 1997, p. 199, table 38. ^ Bietak 1991, p. 52, fig. 18. ^ Ryholt 1997, pp. 52, 60. ^ Ryholt 2010, p. 121. ^ a b Ryholt 1997, p. 369. ^ Ryholt 1997, pp. 114–115. ^ Bryce 2009. ^ Ryholt 1997, p. 367. ^ Ryholt 1997, pp. 367–368. ^ Ryholt 1997, p. 368. ^ Ryholt 1997, pp. 368–369. ^ Redissi 1999, pp. 7, 61–62, pl. 3. ^ Ryholt 1997, p. 366. ^ Ryholt 2010, p. 122. ^ Israel Museum 2015, Scarab of Sheshi, reading "the son of Ra, Sheshi, living for ever". ^ Digital Egypt for Universities 2015, King Sheshi Maaibre. ^ Petrie Museum 2015, Online catalog. ^ Walters Art Museum 2015, Seals of Seshi, online catalog. ^ Met. Museum of Art 2015, Seal impression of Sheshi, the central column reading "the good god, Maaibre, given life". ^ Ryholt 1997, pp. 366–376. ^ Ryholt 1997, pp. 9–18. ^ Ryholt 1997, pp. 94–97. ^ Ryholt 2010, pp. 109–110. ^ Kempinski 1983, pp. 69–74. ^ Redford 1992, p. 257. ^ Rohl 2007, p. 77. ^ Walters Art Museum 2015, Online catalog Seal 14091. ^ Hayes 1978, pp. 5, 8. ^ a b c d Grimal 1992, p. 185. ^ a b Clayton 1994, p. 94. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica 2015, Salitis. ^ a b Waddell 1971, pp. 90–91. ^ Bourriau 2003, p. 179. ^ a b c d Ryholt 2010, p. 120. ^ Ryholt 1997, p. 123. ^ Waddell 1971, pp. 79–82. ^ Grimal 1992, p. 187. ^ Redford 1992, p. 98. ^ a b Ryholt 1997, p. 402. ^ a b Ward 1984, p. 168. ^ Ben-Tor 2007, p. 106. ^ von Beckerath 1999, pp. 116–117, king f.. ^ von Beckerath 1999, p. 116, footnote 1. ^ Bietak 2001, p. 138. ^ a b Bietak 2001, p. 139. ^ a b Ryholt 2010, p. 110. ^ Ryholt 1997, pp. 323, 325. ^ Ryholt 1997, pp. 151–159. ^ Ben-Tor, Allen & Allen 1999, pp. 48, 65–66. ^ Redford 1997, pp. 8, 27–28. ^ Redford 1992, p. 111. ^ Walters Art Museum 2015, Online catalog Seal 9619. ^ Willoughby Fraser 1900, p. 21. ^ Baker 2008, pp. 428–429. ^ Hannig 2006, pp. 606, 628–629. ^ von Beckerath 1999, pp. 114–115. ^ Ryholt 1997, p. 103. ^ a b Bourriau 2003, p. 178. ^ Ryholt 1997, p. 97. ^ Redford 1992, pp. 106–107, also footnote 46. ^ Ryholt 1997, pp. 57, 59. ^ Ryholt 2010, p. 124. ^ Krauss 1998, p. 41. ^ Ryholt 1997, p. 12, See the comment on entry 8/29 of the Turin canon. ^ Ben-Tor, Allen & Allen 1999, p. 50. ^ Ryholt 1997, pp. 10–11. ^ Hall 1913, p. 26. ^ Bietak 1997, p. 90, fig. 4.3. ^ Ben-Tor, Allen & Allen 1999, pp. 55–58. ^ a b Ben-Tor 2010, p. 92. ^ Hornung 2012, p. 492. ^ Quirke 2001, p. 261. ^ von Beckerath 1999, pp. 108–109. ^ Bourriau 2003, pp. 186–187. ^ a b Bourriau 2003, p. 484. ^ Ryholt 1997, p. 410. ^ von Beckerath 1999, p. 285. ^ Bietak 2001, p. 136. ^ Rice 1999, p. 174. ^ Ben-Tor 2010, pp. 103, 106. ^ Ryholt 1997, p. 50. ^ a b Ben-Tor, Allen & Allen 1999, p. 52. ^ a b c Ryholt 1997, p. 199. ^ Ryholt 1997, p. 200. ^ a b Ryholt 1997, p. 253. ^ Ryholt 1997, pp. 51, 53, 57. ^ Ryholt 1997, p. 115. ^ Ryholt 1997, p. 288. ^ Baker 2008, p. 277. ^ 'Abd El-Maksoud & Valbelle 2005. ^ Ben-Tor 2007, p. 110. Sources[edit] 'Abd El-Maksoud, Mohamed; Valbelle, Dominique (2005). "Tell Héboua-Tjarou. L'apport de l'épigraphie". Revue d'Égyptologie (in French). 56. pp. 1–44. Baker, Darrell D. (2008). The Encyclopedia of the Egyptian Pharaohs. Volume I: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty (3300–1069 BC). London: Bannerstone Press. ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9. Ben-Tor, Daphna; Allen, Susan; Allen, James Peter (1999). "Seals and Kings". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. 315. pp. 47–74. Ben-Tor, Daphna (2007). Scarabs, Chronology, and Interconnections: Egypt and Palestine in the Second Intermediate Period. Orbis biblicus et orientalis, Series Archaeologica 27. Fribourg: Academic Press. ISBN 978-3-7278-1593-5. Ben-Tor, Daphna (2010). "Sequence and chronology of Second Intermediate Period royal-name scarabs, based on excavated series from Egypt and the Levant". In Marée, Marcel (ed.). The Second Intermediate Period (Thirteenth-Seventeenth Dynasties). Current Research, Future Prospects. Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 192. Leuven; Walpole, MA: Peeters. ISBN 978-90-429-2228-0. Bietak, Manfred (1991). "Egypt and Canaan during the Middle Bronze Age". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. 281. JSTOR 1357163. Bietak, Manfred (1997). "The Center of Hyksos Rule: Avaris (Tell el-Dab'a)". In Oren, Eliezer D. (ed.). The Hyksos: New Historical and Archaeological Perspectives. University Museum monograph 96; University Museum symposium series, vol. 8. Philadelphia: University Museum. pp. 87–139. ISBN 978-0-924171-46-8. Bietak, Manfred (1999). "Hyksos". In Bard, Kathryn (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt (3rd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-18589-9. Bietak, Manfred (2001). "Hyksos". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 2. Oxford University Press. pp. 136–143. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5. Bourriau, Janine (2003). "The Second Intermediate Period (c. 1650–1550 BC)". In Shaw, Ian (ed.). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (new ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280458-7. Clayton, Peter (1994). Chronicle of the Pharaohs. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05074-3. Grimal, Nicolas (1992). A History of Ancient Egypt. Translated by Ian Shaw. Oxford: Blackwell publishing. ISBN 978-0-631-19396-8. Hayes, William (1978). The Scepter of Egypt: A Background for the Study of the Egyptian Antiquities in The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Vol. 2, The Hyksos Period and the New Kingdom (1675–1080 B.C.). The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0-87099-191-2. Hall, Harry Reginald (1913). Catalogue of Egyptian scarabs, etc., in the British Museum. London: British Museum, Department of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities. OCLC 494841105. Hannig, Rainer (2006). Grosses Handwörterbuch Ägyptisch-Deutsch (2800–950 v. Chr.): die Sprache der Pharaonen. Kulturgeschichte der antiken Welt, Bd. 64 (in German). Mainz: Philip von Zabern. ISBN 978-3-8053-1771-9. Hornung, Erik; Krauss, Rolf; Warburton, David, eds. (2012). Ancient Egyptian Chronology. Handbook of Oriental Studies. Leiden, Boston: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-11385-5. ISSN 0169-9423. Kempinski, Aharon (1983). Syrien und Palästina (Kanaan) in der letzten Phase der Mittelbronze IIB – Zeit (1650–1570 v. Chr.). Ägypten und Altes Testament, Bd. 4 (in German). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 978-3-447-02295-8. Krauss, Rolf (1998). "An Examination of Khyan's Place in W. A. Ward's Seriation of Royal Hyksos Scarabs". Ägypten und Levante. 7. pp. 39–42. Leprohon, Ronald J. (2013). The Great Name: Ancient Egyptian Royal Titulary. Writings from the ancient world, no. 33. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature. ISBN 978-1-58983-736-2. "Maaibre Sheshi". Digital Egypt for Universities. University College London. Retrieved 18 October 2015. Quirke, Stephen (2001). "Second Intermediate Period". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 3. Oxford University Press. pp. 260–265. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5. Redford, Donald (1992). Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-03606-9. Redford, Donald B. (1997). "Textual Sources for the Hyksos Period". In Oren, Eliezer D. (ed.). The Hyksos: New Historical and Archaeological Perspectives. University Museum monograph 96, University Museum symposium series vol. 8. Philadelphia: University Museum, University of Pennsylvania. pp. 1–44. ISBN 978-0-924171-46-8. Redissi, Taoufik (1999). "Étude des empreintes de sceaux de Carthage". In Rakob, Friedrich (ed.). Karthago, III. Die deutschen Ausgrabungen in Karthago. Mainz: Philipp von Zabern. pp. 4–92. ISBN 978-3-8053-1679-8. Rice, Michael (1999). Who's Who in Ancient Egypt. Routledge London & New York. ISBN 978-0-203-44328-6. Rohl, David (2007). The Lords of Avaris: Uncovering the Legendary Origins of Western Civilization. London: Century. ISBN 978-0-7126-7762-2. Ryholt, Kim (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800–1550 B.C. CNI publications, 20. Carsten Niebuhr Institute of Near Eastern Studies, University of Copenhagen : Museum Tusculanum Press. ISBN 978-87-7289-421-8. Ryholt, Kim (2010). "The date of kings Sheshi and Yaqubhar and the rise of the fourteenth dynasty". In Marée, Marcel (ed.). The Second Intermediate Period (Thirteenth-Seventeenth Dynasties). Current Research, Future Prospects. Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 192. Leuven; Walpole, MA: Peeters. ISBN 978-90-429-2228-0. "Salitis". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2015. Retrieved 12 November 2015. "Scarab of Sheshi". The Israel Museum. Archived from the original on 2015-11-18. Retrieved 18 October 2015. "Sheshi, MMA online catalog". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 18 October 2015. "Sheshi, Petrie Museum online catalog". Petrie Museum. Retrieved 18 October 2015. von Beckerath, Jürgen (1999). Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen (in German). Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz : Philip von Zabern. ISBN 978-3-8053-2591-2. Waddell, William Gillan (1971). Manetho. Loeb classical library, 350. Cambridge, Massachusetts; London: Harvard University Press; W. Heinemann. OCLC 6246102. "Walters Art Museum, Online Collection". Walters Art Museum. Retrieved October 11, 2015. Ward, William A. (1984). "Royal-Name Scarabs". In Tufnell, Olga (ed.). Scarab Seals and their Contribution to History in the Early Second Millennium B.C. Studies on Scarab Seals 2. Warminster: Aris & Phillips. pp. 151–192. Willoughby Fraser, George (1900). A Catalogue of the Scarabs belonging to George Fraser. London: B. Quaritch. OCLC 1119018. External links[edit] Sheshiat Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons Data from Wikidata Egyptology at Curlie Ancient Egypt at Curlie v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sheshi&oldid=1000223681" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Pharaohs of the Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt 2nd-millennium BC deaths 2nd-millennium BC births Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Featured articles CS1 French-language sources (fr) CS1 German-language sources (de) Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata Articles with Curlie links AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Place of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ Català Deutsch فارسی Français Italiano עברית ქართული Magyar مصرى 日本語 Norsk bokmål Português Русский Slovenščina Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá Edit links This page was last edited on 14 January 2021, at 05:10 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-169	----	Oxford University Press - Wikipedia Oxford University Press From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Publishing arm of the University of Oxford "OUP" redirects here. For other uses, see OUP (disambiguation). Oxford University Press Parent company University of Oxford Founded 1586; 435 years ago (1586) Country of origin United Kingdom Headquarters location Oxford, England Key people Nigel Portwood, CEO Publication types Books, journals, sheet music Imprints Clarendon Press No. of employees 6,000 Official website global.oup.com Oxford University Press from Somerville College Oxford University Press (OUP) is the university press of University of Oxford. It is the largest university press in the world, and the second oldest after Cambridge University Press.[1][2][3] It is a department of the University of Oxford and is governed by a group of 15 academics appointed by the vice-chancellor known as the delegates of the press. They are headed by the secretary to the delegates, who serves as OUP's chief executive and as its major representative on other university bodies. Oxford University Press has had a similar governance structure since the 17th century.[4] The Press is located on Walton Street, Oxford, opposite Somerville College, in the inner suburb of Jericho. Contents 1 Early history 2 17th century: William Laud and John Fell 3 18th century: Clarendon Building and Blackstone 4 19th century: Price and Cannan 4.1 London business 4.2 Conflict over secretaryship 5 20th–21st century 5.1 Development of overseas trade 5.1.1 North America 5.1.2 South America 5.1.3 Indian branch 5.1.4 East and South East Asia 5.1.5 Africa 5.2 Establishment of Music Department 6 Museum 6.1 Clarendon Press 7 Important series and titles 7.1 Dictionaries 7.2 Bibliographies 7.3 Indology 7.4 Classics 7.5 Literature 7.6 History 7.7 English language teaching 7.8 English language tests 7.9 Online teaching 7.10 Bibles 7.11 Atlases 7.12 Music 8 Scholarly journals 9 Clarendon Scholarships 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 12.1 Citations 12.2 Sources 13 Further reading 14 External links Early history[edit] The university became involved in the print trade around 1480, and grew into a major printer of Bibles, prayer books, and scholarly works.[5] OUP took on the project that became the Oxford English Dictionary in the late 19th century, and expanded to meet the ever-rising costs of the work.[6] As a result, the last hundred years has seen Oxford publish further English and bilingual dictionaries, children's books, school textbooks, music, journals, the World's Classics series, and a range of English language teaching texts. Moves into international markets led to OUP opening its own offices outside the United Kingdom, beginning with New York City in 1896.[7] With the advent of computer technology and increasingly harsh trading conditions, the Press's printing house at Oxford was closed in 1989, and its former paper mill at Wolvercote was demolished in 2004. By contracting out its printing and binding operations, the modern OUP publishes some 6,000 new titles around the world each year. The first printer associated with Oxford University was Theoderic Rood. A business associate of William Caxton, Rood seems to have brought his own wooden printing press to Oxford from Cologne as a speculative venture, and to have worked in the city between around 1480 and 1483. The first book printed in Oxford, in 1478,[8] an edition of Rufinus's Expositio in symbolum apostolorum, was printed by another, anonymous, printer. Famously, this was mis-dated in Roman numerals as "1468", thus apparently pre-dating Caxton. Rood's printing included John Ankywyll's Compendium totius grammaticae, which set new standards for teaching of Latin grammar.[9] After Rood, printing connected with the university remained sporadic for over half a century. Records of surviving work are few, and Oxford did not put its printing on a firm footing until the 1580s; this succeeded the efforts of Cambridge University, which had obtained a licence for its press in 1534. In response to constraints on printing outside London imposed by the Crown and the Stationers' Company, Oxford petitioned Elizabeth I of England for the formal right to operate a press at the university. The chancellor, Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, pleaded Oxford's case. Some royal assent was obtained, since the printer Joseph Barnes began work, and a decree of Star Chamber noted the legal existence of a press at "the universitie of Oxforde" in 1586.[10] 17th century: William Laud and John Fell[edit] Oxford's chancellor, Archbishop William Laud, consolidated the legal status of the university's printing in the 1630s. Laud envisaged a unified press of world repute. Oxford would establish it on university property, govern its operations, employ its staff, determine its printed work, and benefit from its proceeds. To that end, he petitioned Charles I for rights that would enable Oxford to compete with the Stationers' Company and the King's Printer, and obtained a succession of royal grants to aid it. These were brought together in Oxford's "Great Charter" in 1636, which gave the university the right to print "all manner of books".[11] Laud also obtained the "privilege" from the Crown of printing the King James or Authorized Version of Scripture at Oxford.[12] This "privilege" created substantial returns in the next 250 years, although initially it was held in abeyance. The Stationers' Company was deeply alarmed by the threat to its trade and lost little time in establishing a "Covenant of Forbearance" with Oxford. Under this, the Stationers paid an annual rent for the university not to exercise its full printing rights – money Oxford used to purchase new printing equipment for smaller purposes.[13] Laud also made progress with internal organization of the Press. Besides establishing the system of Delegates, he created the wide-ranging supervisory post of "Architypographus": an academic who would have responsibility for every function of the business, from print shop management to proofreading. The post was more an ideal than a workable reality, but it survived (mostly as a sinecure) in the loosely structured Press until the 18th century. In practice, Oxford's Warehouse-Keeper dealt with sales, accounting, and the hiring and firing of print shop staff.[14] Laud's plans, however, hit terrible obstacles, both personal and political. Falling foul of political intrigue, he was executed in 1645, by which time the English Civil War had broken out. Oxford became a Royalist stronghold during the conflict, and many printers in the city concentrated on producing political pamphlets or sermons. Some outstanding mathematical and Orientalist works emerged at this time—notably, texts edited by Edward Pococke, the Regius Professor of Hebrew—but no university press on Laud's model was possible before the Restoration of the Monarchy in 1660.[15] Matrices for casting type collected by Bishop Fell, part of his collection now known as the "Fell Types", shown in the OUP Museum It was finally established by the vice-chancellor, John Fell, Dean of Christ Church, Bishop of Oxford, and Secretary to the Delegates. Fell regarded Laud as a martyr, and was determined to honour his vision of the Press. Using the provisions of the Great Charter, Fell persuaded Oxford to refuse any further payments from the Stationers and drew all printers working for the university onto one set of premises. This business was set up in the cellars of the new Sheldonian Theatre, where Fell installed printing presses in 1668, making it the university's first central print shop.[16] A type foundry was added when Fell acquired a large stock of typographical punches and matrices from the Dutch Republic—the so-called "Fell Types". He also induced two Dutch typefounders, Harman Harmanz and Peter de Walpergen, to work in Oxford for the Press.[17] Finally, defying the Stationers' demands, Fell personally leased the right to print from the university in 1672, in partnership with Thomas Yate, Principal of Brasenose, and Sir Leoline Jenkins, Principal of Jesus College.[18] Fell's scheme was ambitious. Besides plans for academic and religious works, in 1674 he began to print a broadsheet calendar, known as the Oxford Almanack. Early editions featured symbolic views of Oxford, but in 1766 these gave way to realistic studies of the city or university.[19] The Almanacks have been produced annually without interruption from Fell's time to the present day.[20] Following the start of this work, Fell drew up the first formal programme for the university's printing. Dating from 1675, this document envisaged hundreds of works, including the Bible in Greek, editions of the Coptic Gospels and works of the Church Fathers, texts in Arabic and Syriac, comprehensive editions of classical philosophy, poetry, and mathematics, a wide range of medieval scholarship, and also "a history of insects, more perfect than any yet Extant."[21] Though few of these proposed titles appeared during Fell's life, Bible printing remained at the forefront of his mind. A full variant Greek text of Scripture proved impossible, but in 1675 Oxford printed a quarto King James edition, carrying Fell's own textual changes and spellings. This work only provoked further conflict with the Stationers' Company. In retaliation, Fell leased the university's Bible printing to three rogue Stationers, Moses Pitt, Peter Parker, and Thomas Guy, whose sharp commercial instincts proved vital to fomenting Oxford's Bible trade.[22] Their involvement, however, led to a protracted legal battle between Oxford and the Stationers, and the litigation dragged on for the rest of Fell's life. He died in 1686.[23] 18th century: Clarendon Building and Blackstone[edit] Yate and Jenkins predeceased Fell, leaving him with no obvious heir to oversee the print shop. As a result, his will left the partners' stock and lease in trust to Oxford University, and charged them with keeping together "my founding Materialls of the Press."[24] Fell's main trustee was the Delegate Henry Aldrich, Dean of Christ Church, who took a keen interest in the decorative work of Oxford's books. He and his colleagues presided over the end of Parker and Guy's lease, and a new arrangement in 1691 whereby the Stationers leased the whole of Oxford's printing privilege, including its unsold scholarly stock. Despite violent opposition from some printers in the Sheldonian, this ended the friction between Oxford and the Stationers, and marked the effective start of a stable university printing business.[25] In 1713, Aldrich also oversaw the Press moving to the Clarendon Building. This was named in honour of Oxford University's Chancellor, Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon. Oxford lore maintained its construction was funded by proceeds from his book The History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England (1702–04). In fact, most of the money came from Oxford's new Bible printer John Baskett—and the Vice-Chancellor William Delaune defaulted with much of the proceeds from Clarendon's work. In any event, the result was Nicholas Hawksmoor's beautiful but impractical structure beside the Sheldonian in Broad Street. The Press worked here until 1830, with its operations split into the so-called Learned Side and Bible Side in different wings of the building.[26] Generally speaking, the early 18th century marked a lull in the Press's expansion. It suffered from the absence of any figure comparable to Fell, and its history was marked by ineffectual or fractious individuals such as the Architypographus and antiquary Thomas Hearne, and the flawed project of Baskett's first Bible, a gorgeously designed volume strewn with misprints, and known as the Vinegar Bible after a glaring typographical error in St. Luke. Other printing during this period included Richard Allestree's contemplative texts, and Thomas Hanmer's six-volume edition of Shakespeare, (1743–44).[27] In retrospect, these proved relatively minor triumphs. They were products of a university press that had come to embody increasing muddle, decay, and corrupt practice, and relied increasingly on leasing of its Bible and prayer book work to survive. The business was rescued by the intervention of a single Delegate, William Blackstone. Disgusted by the chaotic state of the Press, and antagonized by the Vice-Chancellor George Huddesford, Blackstone subjected the print shop to close scrutiny, but his findings on its confused organization and sly procedures met with only "gloomy and contemptuous silence" from his colleagues, or "at best with a languid indifference." In disgust, Blackstone forced the university to confront its responsibilities by publishing a lengthy letter he had written to Huddesford's successor, Thomas Randolph in May 1757. Here, Blackstone characterized the Press as an inbred institution that had given up all pretence of serving scholarship, "languishing in a lazy obscurity … a nest of imposing mechanics." To cure this disgraceful state of affairs, Blackstone called for sweeping reforms that would firmly set out the Delegates' powers and obligations, officially record their deliberations and accounting, and put the print shop on an efficient footing.[28] Nonetheless, Randolph ignored this document, and it was not until Blackstone threatened legal action that changes began. The university had moved to adopt all of Blackstone's reforms by 1760.[29] By the late 18th century, the Press had become more focused. Early copyright law had begun to undercut the Stationers, and the university took pains to lease out its Bible work to experienced printers. When the American War of Independence deprived Oxford of a valuable market for its Bibles, this lease became too risky a proposition, and the Delegates were forced to offer shares in the Press to those who could take "the care and trouble of managing the trade for our mutual advantage." Forty-eight shares were issued, with the university holding a controlling interest.[30] At the same time, classical scholarship revived, with works by Jeremiah Markland and Peter Elmsley, as well as early 19th-century texts edited by a growing number of academics from mainland Europe – perhaps the most prominent being August Immanuel Bekker and Karl Wilhelm Dindorf. Both prepared editions at the invitation of the Greek scholar Thomas Gaisford, who served as a Delegate for 50 years. During his time, the growing Press established distributors in London, and employed the bookseller Joseph Parker in Turl Street for the same purposes in Oxford. Parker also came to hold shares in the Press itself.[31] This expansion pushed the Press out of the Clarendon building. In 1825 the Delegates bought land in Walton Street. Buildings were constructed from plans drawn up by Daniel Robertson and Edward Blore, and the Press moved into them in 1830.[32] This site remains the main office of OUP in the 21st century, at the corner of Walton Street and Great Clarendon Street, northwest of Oxford city centre. 19th century: Price and Cannan[edit] Oxford University Press early logo The Press now entered an era of enormous change. In 1830, it was still a joint-stock printing business in an academic backwater, offering learned works to a relatively small readership of scholars and clerics. The Press was the product of "a society of shy hypochondriacs," as one historian put it.[33] Its trade relied on mass sales of cheap Bibles, and its Delegates were typified by Gaisford or Martin Routh. They were long-serving classicists, presiding over a learned business that printed 5 or 10 titles each year, such as Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon (1843), and they displayed little or no desire to expand its trade.[34] Steam power for printing must have seemed an unsettling departure in the 1830s.[35] At this time, Thomas Combe joined the Press and became the university's Printer until his death in 1872. Combe was a better business man than most Delegates, but still no innovator: he failed to grasp the huge commercial potential of India paper, which grew into one of Oxford's most profitable trade secrets in later years.[36] Even so, Combe earned a fortune through his shares in the business and the acquisition and renovation of the bankrupt paper mill at Wolvercote. He funded schooling at the Press and the endowment of St. Barnabas Church in Oxford.[37] Combe's wealth also extended to becoming the first patron of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, and he and his wife Martha bought most of the group's early work, including The Light of the World by William Holman Hunt.[38] Combe showed little interest, however, in producing fine printed work at the Press.[39] The most well-known text associated with his print shop was the flawed first edition of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, printed by Oxford at the expense of its author Lewis Carroll (Charles Lutwidge Dodgson) in 1865.[40] It took the 1850 Royal Commission on the workings of the university and a new Secretary, Bartholomew Price, to shake up the Press.[41] Appointed in 1868, Price had already recommended to the university that the Press needed an efficient executive officer to exercise "vigilant superintendence" of the business, including its dealings with Alexander Macmillan, who became the publisher for Oxford's printing in 1863 and in 1866 helped Price to create the Clarendon Press series of cheap, elementary school books – perhaps the first time that Oxford used the Clarendon imprint.[42] Under Price, the Press began to take on its modern shape. By 1865 the Delegacy had ceased to be 'perpetual,' and evolved into five perpetual and five junior posts filled by appointment from the university, with the Vice Chancellor a Delegate ex officio: a hothouse for factionalism that Price deftly tended and controlled.[43] The university bought back shares as their holders retired or died.[44] Accounts' supervision passed to the newly created Finance Committee in 1867.[45] Major new lines of work began. To give one example, in 1875, the Delegates approved the series Sacred Books of the East under the editorship of Friedrich Max Müller, bringing a vast range of religious thought to a wider readership.[46] Equally, Price moved OUP towards publishing in its own right. The Press had ended its relationship with Parker's in 1863 and in 1870 bought a small London bindery for some Bible work.[47] Macmillan's contract ended in 1880, and wasn't renewed. By this time, Oxford also had a London warehouse for Bible stock in Paternoster Row, and in 1880 its manager Henry Frowde (1841–1927) was given the formal title of Publisher to the University. Frowde came from the book trade, not the university, and remained an enigma to many. One obituary in Oxford's staff magazine The Clarendonian admitted, "Very few of us here in Oxford had any personal knowledge of him."[48] Despite that, Frowde became vital to OUP's growth, adding new lines of books to the business, presiding over the massive publication of the Revised Version of the New Testament in 1881[49] and playing a key role in setting up the Press's first office outside Britain, in New York City in 1896.[50] Price transformed OUP. In 1884, the year he retired as Secretary, the Delegates bought back the last shares in the business.[51] The Press was now owned wholly by the university, with its own paper mill, print shop, bindery, and warehouse. Its output had increased to include school books and modern scholarly texts such as James Clerk Maxwell's A Treatise on Electricity & Magnetism (1873), which proved fundamental to Einstein's thought.[52] Simply put, without abandoning its traditions or quality of work, Price began to turn OUP into an alert, modern publisher. In 1879, he also took on the publication that led that process to its conclusion: the huge project that became the Oxford English Dictionary (OED).[53] Offered to Oxford by James Murray and the Philological Society, the "New English Dictionary" was a grand academic and patriotic undertaking. Lengthy negotiations led to a formal contract. Murray was to edit a work estimated to take 10 years and to cost approximately £9,000.[54] Both figures were wildly optimistic. The Dictionary began to appear in print in 1884, but the first edition was not completed until 1928, 13 years after Murray's death, at a cost of around £375,000.[55] This vast financial burden and its implications landed on Price's successors. The next Secretary struggled to address this problem. Philip Lyttelton Gell was appointed by the Vice-Chancellor Benjamin Jowett in 1884. Despite his education at Balliol and a background in London publishing, Gell found the operations of the Press incomprehensible. The Delegates began to work around him, and the university finally dismissed Gell in 1897.[56] The Assistant Secretary, Charles Cannan, took over with little fuss and even less affection for his predecessor: "Gell was always here, but I cannot make out what he did."[57] Cannan had little opportunity for public wit in his new role. An acutely gifted classicist, he came to the head of a business that was successful in traditional terms but now moved into uncharted terrain.[58] By themselves, specialist academic works and the undependable Bible trade could not meet the rising costs of the Dictionary and Press contributions to the University Chest. To meet these demands, OUP needed much more revenue. Cannan set out to obtain it. Outflanking university politics and inertia, he made Frowde and the London office the financial engine for the whole business. Frowde steered Oxford rapidly into popular literature, acquiring the World's Classics series in 1906. The same year saw him enter into a so-called "joint venture" with Hodder & Stoughton to help with the publication of children's literature and medical books.[59] Cannan insured continuity to these efforts by appointing his Oxford protégé, the Assistant Secretary Humphrey S. Milford, to be Frowde's assistant. Milford became Publisher when Frowde retired in 1913, and ruled over the lucrative London business and the branch offices that reported to it until his own retirement in 1945.[60] Given the financial health of the Press, Cannan ceased to regard scholarly books or even the Dictionary as impossible liabilities. "I do not think the University can produce enough books to ruin us," he remarked.[61] His efforts were helped by the efficiency of the print shop. Horace Hart was appointed as Controller of the Press at the same time as Gell, but proved far more effective than the Secretary. With extraordinary energy and professionalism, he improved and enlarged Oxford's printing resources, and developed Hart's Rules as the first style guide for Oxford's proofreaders. Subsequently, these became standard in print shops worldwide.[62] In addition, he suggested the idea for the Clarendon Press Institute, a social club for staff in Walton Street. When the Institute opened in 1891, the Press had 540 employees eligible to join it, including apprentices.[63] Finally, Hart's general interest in printing led to him cataloguing the "Fell Types", then using them in a series of Tudor and Stuart facsimile volumes for the Press, before ill health led to his death in 1915.[64] By then, OUP had moved from being a parochial printer into a wide-ranging, university-owned publishing house with a growing international presence. London business[edit] Frowde had no doubt that the Press's business in London could be very largely increased and was appointed on contract with a commission on sales. Seven years later, as Publisher to the University, Frowde was using his own name as an imprint as well as 'Oxford University Press'. This style persisted till recent times, with two kinds of imprints emanating from the Press's London offices. The last man known as 'Publisher to the University' was John Gilbert Newton Brown, known to his colleagues as 'Bruno'. The distinctions implied by the imprints were subtle but important. Books that London issued on commission (paid for by their authors or by some learned body) were styled 'Henry Frowde', or 'Humphrey Milford' with no mention of OUP, as if the Publisher were issuing them himself, while books that the Publisher issued under the rubric of the university bore the imprint 'Oxford University Press'. Both these categories were mostly handled by London, while Oxford (in practice the Secretary) looked after the Clarendon Press books. Commission books were intended as cash cows to fund the London Business's overheads, since the Press did not lay aside any resources for this purpose. Nevertheless, Frowde was especially careful to see that all commission books he published met with the Delegates' approval. This was not an uncommon arrangement for scholarly or antiquarian presses.[citation needed] Price quickly primed Frowde for the imminent publication jointly with Cambridge University Press of the Revised Version of the Bible, which promised to be a 'bestseller' on a scale that would require the employment of all the Press's resources to keep up with the demand. This was to be a complete retranslation of the text of the Bible from the oldest original Greek and Hebrew versions, superseding the Authorized Version of 1611. Frowde's agency was set up just in time, for the Revised Version, published on 17 May 1881, sold a million copies before publication and at a breakneck rate thenceforth, though overproduction ultimately made a dent in the profits.[citation needed] Though Frowde was by no means an Oxford man and had no social pretensions of being one, he was a sound businessman who was able to strike the magic balance between caution and enterprise. From quite early on he had ideas of advancing the Press's overseas trade, at first in Europe and increasingly in America, Canada, India, and Africa. He was more or less singlehandedly responsible for setting up the American Branch as well as depots in Edinburgh, Toronto, and Melbourne. Frowde dealt with most of the logistics for books carrying the OUP imprint, including handling authors, binding, dispatching, and advertising, and only editorial work and the printing itself were carried out at or supervised from Oxford.[citation needed] Frowde regularly remitted money back to Oxford, but he privately felt that the business was undercapitalized and would pretty soon become a serious drain on the university's resources unless put on a sound commercial footing. He himself was authorized to invest money up to a limit in the business but was prevented from doing so by family troubles. Hence his interest in overseas sales, for by the 1880s and 1890s there was money to be made in India, while the European book market was in the doldrums. But Frowde's distance from the Press's decision-making meant he was incapable of influencing policy unless a Delegate spoke for him. Most of the time Frowde did whatever he could within the mandate given him by the Delegates. In 1905, when applying for a pension, he wrote to J. R. Magrath, the then Vice Chancellor, that during the seven years when he had served as manager of the Bible Warehouse the sales of the London Business had averaged about £20,000 and the profits £1,887 per year. By 1905, under his management as Publisher, the sales had risen to upwards of £200,000 per year and the profits in that 29 years of service averaged £8,242 per year. Conflict over secretaryship[edit] Price, trying in his own way to modernize the Press against the resistance of its own historical inertia, had become overworked and by 1883 was so exhausted as to want to retire. Benjamin Jowett had become vice chancellor of the university in 1882. Impatient of the endless committees that would no doubt attend the appointment of a successor to Price, Jowett extracted what could be interpreted as permission from the delegates and headhunted Philip Lyttelton Gell, a former student acolyte of his, to be the next secretary to the delegates. Gell was making a name for himself at the publishing firm of Cassell, Petter and Galpin, a firm regarded as scandalously commercial by the delegates. Gell himself was a patrician who was unhappy with his work, where he saw himself as catering to the taste of "one class: the lower middle",[citation needed] and he grasped at the chance of working with the kind of texts and readerships OUP attracted. Jowett promised Gell golden opportunities, little of which he actually had the authority to deliver. He timed Gell's appointment to coincide with both the Long Vacation (from June to September) and the death of Mark Pattison, so potential opposition was prevented from attending the crucial meetings. Jowett knew the primary reason why Gell would attract hostility was that he had never worked for the Press nor been a delegate, and he had sullied himself in the city with raw commerce. His fears were borne out. Gell immediately proposed a thorough modernising of the Press with a marked lack of tact, and earned himself enduring enemies. Nevertheless, he was able to do a lot in tandem with Frowde, and expanded the publishing programmes and the reach of OUP until about 1898. Then his health broke down under the impossible work conditions he was being forced to endure by the Delegates' non-cooperation. The delegates then served him with a notice of termination of service that violated his contract. However, he was persuaded not to file suit and to go quietly.[65][full citation needed] The delegates were not opposed primarily to his initiatives, but to his manner of executing them and his lack of sympathy with the academic way of life. In their view the Press was, and always would be, an association of scholars. Gell's idea of "efficiency" appeared to violate that culture, although subsequently a very similar programme of reform was put into practice from the inside. 20th–21st century[edit] A conference booth (2008). Charles Cannan, who had been instrumental in Gell's removal, succeeded Gell in 1898, and Humphrey S. Milford, his younger colleague, effectively succeeded Frowde in 1907. Both were Oxford men who knew the system inside out, and the close collaboration with which they worked was a function of their shared background and worldview. Cannan was known for terrifying silences, and Milford had an uncanny ability, testified to by Amen House employees, to 'disappear' in a room rather like a Cheshire cat, from which obscurity he would suddenly address his subordinates and make them jump. Whatever their reasons for their style of working, both Cannan and Milford had a very hardnosed view of what needed to be done, and they proceeded to do it. Indeed, Frowde knew within a few weeks of Milford's entering the London office in [1904] that he would be replaced. Milford, however, always treated Frowde with courtesy, and Frowde remained in an advisory capacity till 1913. Milford rapidly teamed up with J. E. Hodder Williams of Hodder and Stoughton, setting up what was known as the Joint Account for the issue of a wide range of books in education, science, medicine and also fiction. Milford began putting in practice a number of initiatives, including the foundations of most of the Press's global branches. Development of overseas trade[edit] Milford took responsibility for overseas trade almost at once, and by 1906 he was making plans to send a traveller to India and the Far East jointly with Hodder and Stoughton. N. Graydon (first name unknown) was the first such traveller in 1907, and again in 1908 when he represented OUP exclusively in India, the Straits and the Far East. A.H. Cobb replaced him in 1909, and in 1910 Cobb functioned as a travelling manager semi-permanently stationed in India. In 1911, E. V. Rieu went out to East Asia via the Trans-Siberian Railway, had several adventures in China and Russia, then came south to India and spent most of the year meeting educationists and officials all over India. In 1912, he arrived again in Bombay, now known as Mumbai. There he rented an office in the dockside area and set up the first overseas Branch. In 1914, Europe was plunged into turmoil. The first effects of the war were paper shortages and losses and disturbances in shipping, then quickly a dire lack of hands as the staff were called up and went to serve on the field. Many of the staff including two of the pioneers of the Indian branch were killed in action. Curiously, sales through the years 1914 to 1917 were good and it was only towards the end of the war that conditions really began pinching. Rather than bringing relief from shortages, the 1920s saw skyrocketing prices of both materials and labour. Paper especially was hard to come by, and had to be imported from South America through trading companies. Economies and markets slowly recovered as the 1920s progressed. In 1928, the Press's imprint read 'London, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Leipzig, Toronto, Melbourne, Cape Town, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras and Shanghai'. Not all of these were full-fledged branches: in Leipzig there was a depot run by H. Bohun Beet, and in Canada and Australia there were small, functional depots in the cities and an army of educational representatives penetrating the rural fastnesses to sell the Press's stock as well as books published by firms whose agencies were held by the Press, very often including fiction and light reading. In India, the Branch depots in Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta were imposing establishments with sizable stock inventories, for the Presidencies themselves were large markets, and the educational representatives there dealt mostly with upcountry trade. The Depression of 1929 dried profits from the Americas to a trickle, and India became 'the one bright spot' in an otherwise dismal picture. Bombay was the nodal point for distribution to the Africas and onward sale to Australasia, and people who trained at the three major depots moved later on to pioneer branches in Africa and South East Asia.[66] The Press's experience of World War II was similar to World War I except that Milford was now close to retirement and 'hated to see the young men go'. The London blitz this time was much more intense and the London Business was shifted temporarily to Oxford. Milford, now extremely unwell and reeling under a series of personal bereavements, was prevailed upon to stay till the end of the war and keep the business going. As before, everything was in short supply, but the U-boat threat made shipping doubly uncertain, and the letterbooks are full of doleful records of consignments lost at sea. Occasionally an author, too, would be reported missing or dead, as well as staff who were now scattered over the battlefields of the globe. DORA, the Defence of the Realm Act, required the surrender of all nonessential metal for the manufacture of armaments, and many valuable electrotype plates were melted down by government order. With the end of the war Milford's place was taken by Geoffrey Cumberlege. This period saw consolidation in the face of the breakup of the Empire and the post-war reorganization of the Commonwealth. In tandem with institutions like the British Council, OUP began to reposition itself in the education market. Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o in his book Moving the Centre: The Struggle for Cultural Freedom records how the Oxford Readers for Africa with their heavily Anglo-centric worldview struck him as a child in Kenya.[67] The Press has evolved since then to be one of the largest players in a globally expanding scholarly and reference book market. North America[edit] The North American branch was established in 1896 at 91 Fifth Avenue in New York City primarily as a distribution branch to facilitate the sale of Oxford Bibles in the United States. Subsequently, it took over marketing of all books of its parent from Macmillan. Its very first original publication, The Life of Sir William Osler, won the Pulitzer Prize in 1926. Since that time, OUP USA published fourteen more Pulitzer Prize–winning books. The North American branch grew in sales between 1928 and 1936, eventually becoming one of the leading university presses in the United States. It is focused on scholarly and reference books, Bibles, and college and medical textbooks. In the 1990s, this office moved from 200 Madison Avenue (a building it shared with Putnam Publishing) to 198 Madison Avenue, the former B. Altman and Company Building.[68] South America[edit] In December 1909 Cobb returned and rendered his accounts for his Asia trip that year. Cobb then proposed to Milford that the Press join a combination of firms to send commercial travellers around South America, to which Milford in principle agreed. Cobb obtained the services of a man called Steer (first name unknown) to travel through Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, Chile and possibly other countries as well, with Cobb to be responsible for Steer. Hodder & Stoughton opted out of this venture, but OUP went ahead and contributed to it. Steer's trip was a disaster, and Milford remarked gloomily that it 'bid fair to be the most costly and least productive on record' of all traveller's trips. Steer returned before he had covered more than half of his itinerary, and on returning failed to have his customs payments refunded, with the result that a hefty sum of £210 was lost to the Press. The Press was obliged to disburse 80 percent of the value of the books he had carried as 'incidental expenses', so even if they had got substantial orders they would still have made a loss. Few orders did in fact come out of the trip, and when Steer's box of samples returned, the London office found that they had not been opened further down than the second layer.[citation needed] Indian branch[edit] When OUP arrived on Indian shores, it was preceded by the immense prestige of the Sacred Books of the East, edited by Friedrich Max Müller, which had at last reached completion in 50 ponderous volumes. While actual purchase of this series was beyond the means of most Indians, libraries usually had a set, generously provided by the government of India, available on open reference shelves, and the books had been widely discussed in the Indian press. Although there had been plenty of criticism of them, the general feeling was that Max Müller had done India a favour by popularising ancient Asian (Persian, Arabic, Indian and Sinic) philosophy in the West.[69][full citation needed] This prior reputation was useful, but the Indian Branch was not primarily in Bombay to sell Indological books, which OUP knew already sold well only in America. It was there to serve the vast educational market created by the rapidly expanding school and college network in British India. In spite of disruptions caused by war, it won a crucial contract to print textbooks for the Central Provinces in 1915 and this helped to stabilize its fortunes in this difficult phase. E. V. Rieu could not longer delay his callup and was drafted in 1917, the management then being under his wife Nellie Rieu, a former editor for the Athenaeum 'with the assistance of her two British babies.' It was too late to have important electrotype and stereotype plates shipped to India from Oxford, and the Oxford printing house itself was overburdened with government printing orders as the empire's propaganda machine got to work. At one point non-governmental composition at Oxford was reduced to 32 pages a week. By 1919, Rieu was very ill and had to be brought home. He was replaced by Geoffrey Cumberlege and Noel Carrington. Noel was the brother of Dora Carrington, the artist, and even got her to illustrate his Stories Retold edition of Don Quixote for the Indian market. Their father Charles Carrington had been a railway engineer in India in the nineteenth century. Noel Carrington's unpublished memoir of his six years in India is in the Oriental and India Office Collections of the British Library. By 1915 there were makeshift depots at Madras and Calcutta. In 1920, Noel Carrington went to Calcutta to set up a proper branch. There he became friendly with Edward Thompson who involved him in the abortive scheme to produce the 'Oxford Book of Bengali Verse'.[70][full citation needed] In Madras, there was never a formal branch in the same sense as Bombay and Calcutta, as the management of the depot there seems to have rested in the hands of two local academics. East and South East Asia[edit] OUP's interaction with this area was part of their mission to India, since many of their travellers took in East and South East Asia on their way out to or back from India. Graydon on his first trip in 1907 had travelled the 'Straits Settlements' (largely the Federated Malay States and Singapore), China, and Japan, but was not able to do much. In 1909, A. H. Cobb visited teachers and booksellers in Shanghai, and found that the main competition there was cheap books from America, often straight reprints of British books.[71] The copyright situation at the time, subsequent to the Chace Act of 1891, was such that American publishers could publish such books with impunity although they were considered contraband in all British territories. To secure copyright in both territories publishers had to arrange for simultaneous publication, an endless logistical headache in this age of steamships. Prior publication in any one territory forfeited copyright protection in the other.[72] Cobb mandated Henzell & Co. of Shanghai (which seems to have been run by a professor) to represent OUP in that city.[citation needed] The Press had problems with Henzell, who were irregular with correspondence. They also traded with Edward Evans, another Shanghai bookseller. Milford observed, 'we ought to do much more in China than we are doing' and authorized Cobb in 1910 to find a replacement for Henzell as their representative to the educational authorities.[citation needed] That replacement was to be Miss M. Verne McNeely, a redoubtable lady who was a member of the Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge, and also ran a bookshop. She looked after the affairs of the Press very capably and occasionally sent Milford boxes of complimentary cigars. Her association with OUP seems to date from 1910, although she did not have exclusive agency for OUP's books. Bibles were the major item of trade in China, unlike India where educational books topped the lists, even if Oxford's lavishly produced and expensive Bible editions were not very competitive beside cheap American ones. In the 1920s, once the Indian Branch was up and running, it became the custom for staff members going out or returning to take a tour of East and South East Asia. Milford's nephew R. Christopher Bradby went out in 1928. He returned to Britain just in time, for on 18 October 1931, the Japanese invaded Manchuria. Miss M. Verne McNeely wrote a letter of protest to the League of Nations and one of despair to Milford, who tried to comfort her.[citation needed] Japan was a much less well-known market to OUP, and a small volume of trade was carried out largely through intermediaries. The Maruzen company was by far the largest customer, and had a special arrangement regarding terms. Other business was routed through H. L. Griffiths, a professional publishers' representative based in Sannomiya, Kobe. Griffiths travelled for the Press to major Japanese schools and bookshops and took a 10 percent commission. Edmund Blunden had been briefly at the University of Tokyo and put the Press in touch with the university booksellers, Fukumoto Stroin. One important acquisition did come from Japan, however: A. S. Hornby's Advanced Learner's Dictionary. It also publishes textbooks for the primary and secondary education curriculum in Hong Kong. The Chinese-language teaching titles are published with the brand Keys Press (啟思出版社). Africa[edit] Some trade with East Africa passed through Bombay.[73] Following a period of acting mostly as a distribution agent for OUP titles published in the UK, in the 1960s OUP Southern Africa started publishing local authors, for the general reader, but also for schools and universities, under its Three Crowns Books imprint. Its territory includes Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland and Namibia, as well as South Africa, the biggest market of the five. OUP Southern Africa is now one of the three biggest educational publishers in South Africa, and focuses its attention on publishing textbooks, dictionaries, atlases and supplementary material for schools, and textbooks for universities. Its author base is overwhelmingly local, and in 2008 it entered into a partnership with the university to support scholarships for South Africans studying postgraduate degrees. Establishment of Music Department[edit] Prior to the twentieth century, the Press at Oxford had occasionally printed a piece of music or a book relating to musicology. It had also published the Yattendon Hymnal in 1899 and, more significantly, the first edition of The English Hymnal in 1906, under the editorship of Percy Dearmer and the then largely unknown Ralph Vaughan Williams. Sir William Henry Hadow's multi-volume Oxford History of Music had appeared between 1901 and 1905. Such musical publishing enterprises, however, were rare: "In nineteenth-century Oxford the idea that music might in any sense be educational would not have been entertained",[74] and few of the Delegates or former Publishers were themselves musical or had extensive music backgrounds. In the London office, however, Milford had musical taste, and had connections particularly with the world of church and cathedral musicians. In 1921, Milford hired Hubert J. Foss, originally as an assistant to Educational Manager V. H. Collins. In that work, Foss showed energy and imagination. However, as Sutcliffe says, Foss, a modest composer and gifted pianist, "was not particularly interested in education; he was passionately interested in music."[74] When shortly thereafter Foss brought to Milford a scheme for publishing a group of essays by well-known musicians on composers whose works were frequently played on the radio, Milford may have thought of it as less music-related than education-related. There is no clear record of the thought process whereby the Press would enter into the publishing of music for performance. Foss's presence, and his knowledge, ability, enthusiasm, and imagination may well have been the catalyst bringing hitherto unconnected activities together in Milford's mind, as another new venture similar to the establishment of the overseas branches.[75] Milford may not have fully understood what he was undertaking. A fiftieth anniversary pamphlet published by the Music Department in 1973 says that OUP had "no knowledge of the music trade, no representative to sell to music shops, and—it seems—no awareness that sheet music was in any way a different commodity from books."[76] However intentionally or intuitively, Milford took three steps that launched OUP on a major operation. He bought the Anglo-French Music Company and all its facilities, connections, and resources. He hired Norman Peterkin, a moderately well-known musician, as full-time sales manager for music. And in 1923 he established as a separate division the Music Department, with its own offices in Amen House and with Foss as first Musical Editor. Then, other than general support, Milford left Foss largely to his own devices.[77] Foss responded with incredible energy. He worked to establish "the largest possible list in the shortest possible time",[78] adding titles at the rate of over 200 a year; eight years later there were 1750 titles in the catalogue. In the year of the department's establishment, Foss began a series of inexpensive but well edited and printed choral pieces under the series title "Oxford Choral Songs". This series, under the general editorship of W. G. Whittaker, was OUP's first commitment to the publishing of music for performance, rather than in book form or for study. The series plan was expanded by adding the similarly inexpensive but high-quality "Oxford Church Music" and "Tudor Church Music" (taken over from the Carnegie UK Trust); all these series continue today. The scheme of contributed essays Foss had originally brought to Milford appeared in 1927 as the Heritage of Music (two more volumes would appear over the next thirty years). Percy Scholes's Listener's Guide to Music (originally published in 1919) was similarly brought into the new department as the first of a series of books on music appreciation for the listening public.[75] Scholes's continuing work for OUP, designed to match the growth of broadcast and recorded music, plus his other work in journalistic music criticism, would be later comprehensively organized and summarized in the Oxford Companion to Music. Perhaps most importantly, Foss seemed to have a knack for finding new composers of what he regarded as distinctively English music, which had broad appeal to the public. This concentration provided OUP two mutually reinforcing benefits: a niche in music publishing unoccupied by potential competitors, and a branch of music performance and composition that the English themselves had largely neglected. Hinnells proposes that the early Music Department's "mixture of scholarship and cultural nationalism" in an area of music with largely unknown commercial prospects was driven by its sense of cultural philanthropy (given the Press's academic background) and a desire to promote "national music outside the German mainstream."[79] In consequence, Foss actively promoted the performance and sought publication of music by Ralph Vaughan Williams, William Walton, Constant Lambert, Alan Rawsthorne, Peter Warlock (Philip Heseltine), Edmund Rubbra and other English composers. In what the Press called "the most durable gentleman's agreement in the history of modern music,"[78] Foss guaranteed the publication of any music that Vaughan Williams would care to offer them. In addition, Foss worked to secure OUP's rights not only to music publication and live performance, but the "mechanical" rights to recording and broadcast. It was not at all clear at the time how significant these would become. Indeed, Foss, OUP, and a number of composers at first declined to join or support the Performing Right Society, fearing that its fees would discourage performance in the new media. Later years would show that, to the contrary, these forms of music would prove more lucrative than the traditional venues of music publishing.[80] Whatever the Music Department's growth in quantity, breadth of musical offering, and reputation amongst both musicians and the general public, the whole question of financial return came to a head in the 1930s. Milford as London publisher had fully supported the Music Department during its years of formation and growth. However, he came under increasing pressure from the Delegates in Oxford concerning the continued flow of expenditures from what seemed to them an unprofitable venture. In their mind, the operations at Amen House were supposed to be both academically respectable and financially remunerative. The London office "existed to make money for the Clarendon Press to spend on the promotion of learning."[81] Further, OUP treated its book publications as short-term projects: any books that did not sell within a few years of publication were written off (to show as unplanned or hidden income if in fact they sold thereafter). In contrast, the Music Department's emphasis on music for performance was comparatively long-term and continuing, particularly as income from recurring broadcasts or recordings came in, and as it continued to build its relationships with new and upcoming musicians. The Delegates were not comfortable with Foss's viewpoint: "I still think this word 'loss' is a misnomer: is it not really capital invested?" wrote Foss to Milford in 1934.[82] Thus it was not until 1939 that the Music Department showed its first profitable year.[83] By then, the economic pressures of the Depression as well as the in-house pressure to reduce expenditures, and possibly the academic background of the parent body in Oxford, combined to make OUP's primary musical business that of publishing works intended for formal musical education and for music appreciation—again the influence of broadcast and recording.[83] This matched well with an increased demand for materials to support music education in British schools, a result of governmental reforms of education during the 1930s.[note 1] The Press did not cease to search out and publish new musicians and their music, but the tenor of the business had changed. Foss, suffering personal health problems, chafing under economic constraints plus (as the war years drew on) shortages in paper, and disliking intensely the move of all the London operations to Oxford to avoid The Blitz, resigned his position in 1941, to be succeeded by Peterkin.[84] Museum[edit] The Oxford University Press Museum is located on Great Clarendon Street, Oxford. Visits must be booked in advance and are led by a member of the archive staff. Displays include a 19th-century printing press, the OUP buildings, and the printing and history of the Oxford Almanack, Alice in Wonderland and the Oxford English Dictionary. Clarendon Press[edit] OUP came to be known as "(The) Clarendon Press" when printing moved from the Sheldonian Theatre to the Clarendon Building in Broad Street in 1713. The name continued to be used when OUP moved to its present site in Oxford in 1830. The label "Clarendon Press" took on a new meaning when OUP began publishing books through its London office in the early 20th century. To distinguish the two offices, London books were labelled "Oxford University Press" publications, while those from Oxford were labelled "Clarendon Press" books. This labelling ceased in the 1970s, when the London office of OUP closed. Today, OUP reserves "Clarendon Press" as an imprint for Oxford publications of particular academic importance.[85] Important series and titles[edit] Seven of the twenty volumes of the Oxford English Dictionary (second edition, 1989). Dictionaries[edit] Oxford English Dictionary Shorter Oxford English Dictionary Compact Oxford English Dictionary Compact Editions of the Oxford English Dictionary Compact Oxford English Dictionary of Current English Concise Oxford English Dictionary Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Oxford Dictionary of Marketing Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary Bibliographies[edit] Oxford Bibliographies Online[86] Indology[edit] The Religious Books of the Sikhs Sacred Books of the East Rulers of India series The Early History of India Classics[edit] Scriptorum Classicorum Bibliotheca Oxoniensis, also known as the Oxford Classical Texts Literature[edit] Oxford World's Classics Oxford English Drama Oxford English Novels Oxford Authors History[edit] Oxford History of Art Oxford History of England New Oxford History of England Oxford History of the United States Oxford History of Islam The Oxford History of the British Empire The Oxford History of South Africa The Short Oxford History of the Modern World Oxford History of Wales The Oxford History of Early Modern Europe The Oxford History of Modern Europe Oxford Encyclopedia of Maritime History Oxford Historical Monographs series This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2008) English language teaching[edit] Headway Streamline English File English Plus Everybody Up Let's Go Potato Pals Read with Biff, Chip & Kipper English language tests[edit] Oxford Test of English Oxford Placement Test Oxford Placement Test for Young Learners Online teaching[edit] My Oxford English Bibles[edit] Oxford Annotated Bible Oxford Hebrew Bible Oxford Lectern Bible Scofield Reference Bible Atlases[edit] Atlas of the World Deluxe Atlas of the World New Concise World Atlas Essential World Atlas Pocket World Atlas Music[edit] Carols for Choirs Oxford Book of Carols The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians The Oxford Companion to Music Oxford Book of English Madrigals Oxford Book of Tudor Anthems Oxford History of Western Music Scholarly journals[edit] OUP as Oxford Journals has also been a major publisher of academic journals, both in the sciences and the humanities; as of 2016[update] it publishes over 200 journals on behalf of learned societies around the world.[87] It has been noted as one of the first university presses to publish an open access journal (Nucleic Acids Research), and probably the first to introduce Hybrid open access journals, offering "optional open access" to authors to allow all readers online access to their paper without charge.[88] The "Oxford Open" model applies to the majority of their journals.[89] The OUP is a member of the Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association. Clarendon Scholarships[edit] Since 2001, Oxford University Press has financially supported the Clarendon bursary, a University of Oxford graduate scholarship scheme.[90] See also[edit] Category:Oxford University Press academic journals List of Oxford University Press journals Hachette Hart's Rules for Compositors and Readers at the University Press, Oxford List of largest UK book publishers Cambridge University Press v. Patton, a copyright infringement suit in which OUP is a plaintiff Blackstone Press Harvard University Press University of Chicago Press Edinburgh University Press Express Publishing Blavatnik School of Government (opened in 2015), opposite the OUP on Walton Street Notes[edit] ^ Under various commissions chaired by Hadow. References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Balter, Michael (16 February 1994). "400 Years Later, Oxford Press Thrives". The New York Times. Retrieved 28 June 2011. ^ "About Oxford University Press". OUP Academic. Retrieved 3 August 2018. ^ "A Brief History of the Press". Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 3 August 2018. ^ Carter p. 137 ^ Carter, passim ^ Peter Sutcliffe, The Oxford University Press: an informal history (Oxford 1975; re-issued with corrections 2002) pp. 53, 96–97, 156. ^ Sutcliffe, passim ^ "Company Overview of Oxford University Press Ltd". Bloomberg BusinessWeek. Archived from the original on 7 May 2013. Retrieved 25 September 2012. ^ Barker p. 4; Carter pp. 7–11. ^ Carter pp. 17–22 ^ Sutcliffe p. xiv ^ Carter ch. 3 ^ Barker p. 11 ^ Carter pp. 31, 65 ^ Carter ch. 4 ^ Carter ch. 5 ^ Carter pp. 56–58, 122–27 ^ Barker p. 15 ^ Helen M. Petter, The Oxford Almanacks (Oxford, 1974) ^ Barker p. 22 ^ Carter p. 63 ^ Barker p. 24 ^ Carter ch. 8 ^ Barker p. 25 ^ Carter pp. 105–09 ^ Carter p. 199 ^ Barker p. 32 ^ I.G. Phillip, William Blackstone and the Reform of the Oxford University Press (Oxford, 1957) pp. 45–72 ^ Carter, ch. 21 ^ Sutcliffe p. xxv ^ Barker pp. 36–39, 41. Sutcliffe p. 16 ^ Barker p. 41. Sutcliffe pp. 4–5 ^ Sutcliffe, pp. 1–2, 12 ^ Sutcliffe pp. 2–4 ^ Barker p. 44 ^ Sutcliffe pp. 39–40, 110–111 ^ Harry Carter, Wolvercote Mill ch. 4 (second edition, Oxford, 1974) ^ Jeremy Maas, Holman Hunt and the Light of the World (Scholar Press, 1974) ^ Sutcliffe p. 6 ^ Sutcliffe p. 36 ^ Barker pp. 45–47 ^ Sutcliffe pp. 19–26 ^ Sutcliffe pp 14–15 ^ Barker p. 47 ^ Sutcliffe p. 27 ^ Sutcliffe pp. 45–46 ^ Sutcliffe pp. 16, 19. 37 ^ The Clarendonian, 4, no. 32, 1927, p. 47 ^ Sutcliffe pp. 48–53 ^ Sutcliffe pp. 89–91 ^ Sutcliffe p. 64 ^ Barker p. 48 ^ Sutcliffe pp. 53–58 ^ Sutcliffe pp. 56–57 ^ Simon Winchester, The Meaning of Everything: The Story of the Oxford English Dictionary (Oxford, 2003) ^ Sutcliffe pp. 98–107 ^ Sutcliffe p. 66 ^ Sutcliffe p. 109 ^ Sutcliffe pp. 141–48 ^ Sutcliffe pp. 117, 140–44, 164–68 ^ Sutcliffe p. 155 ^ Sutcliffe pp. 113–14 ^ Sutcliffe p. 79 ^ Sutcliffe pp. 124–28, 182–83 ^ See chapter two of Rimi B. Chatterjee, Empires of the Mind: A History of the Oxford University Press in India During the Raj (New Delhi: OUP, 2006) for the whole story of Gell's removal. ^ Milford's Letterbooks ^ Ngugi wa Thiongo, 'Imperialism of Language', in Moving the Centre: The Struggle for Cultural Freedom translated from the Gikuyu by Wangui wa Goro and Ngugi wa Thiong'o (London: Currey, 1993), p. 34. ^ Jackson, Kenneth T., ed. (1995). The Encyclopedia of New York City. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 870. ISBN 0300055366. ^ For an account of the Sacred Books of the East and their handling by OUP, see chapter 7 of Rimi B. Chatterjee's Empires of the Mind: a history of the Oxford University Press in India during the Raj; New Delhi: OUP, 2006 ^ Rimi B. Chatterjee, 'Canon Without Consensus: Rabindranath Tagore and the "Oxford Book of Bengali Verse"'. Book History 4: 303–33. ^ See Rimi B. Chatterjee, 'Pirates and Philanthropists: British Publishers and Copyright in India, 1880–1935'. In Print Areas 2: Book History in India edited by Swapan Kumar Chakravorty and Abhijit Gupta (New Delhi: Permanent Black, forthcoming in 2007) ^ See Simon Nowell-Smith, International Copyright Law and the Publisher in the Reign of Queen Victoria: The Lyell Lectures, University of Oxford, 1965–66 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968). ^ Beachey, RW (1976). "The East Africa ivory trade in the nineteenth century". The Journal of African History. 8 (2): 269–290. doi:10.1017/S0021853700007052. ^ a b Sutcliffe p. 210 ^ a b Hinnells p. 6 ^ Oxford p. 4 ^ Sutcliffe p. 211 ^ a b Oxford p. 6 ^ Hinnells p. 8 ^ Hinnells pp. 18–19; OUP joined in 1936. ^ Sutcliffe p. 168 ^ Hinnells p. 17 ^ a b Sutcliffe p. 212 ^ Hinnells p. 34 ^ Oxford University Press website, Archives ^ "About". Oxfordbibliographies.com. ^ "Oxford Journals". OUP. Retrieved 19 April 2016. ^ "Optional Open Access Experiment". Journal of Experimental Botany. Oxford Journals. Retrieved 19 April 2016. ^ "Oxford Open". Oxford Journals. Retrieved 19 April 2016. ^ "History of the Clarendon Fund". University of Oxford. Retrieved 12 February 2018. Sources[edit] Barker, Nicolas (1978). The Oxford University Press and the Spread of Learning. Oxford. Carter, Harry Graham (1975). A History of the Oxford University Press. Oxford: Clarendon Press. OCLC 955872307. Chatterjee, Rimi B. (2006). Empires of the Mind: A History of the Oxford University Press in India During the Raj. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195674743. Hinnells, Duncan (1998). An Extraordinary Performance: Hubert Foss and the Early Years of Music Publishing at the Oxford University Press. Oxford: OUP. ISBN 978-0-19-323200-6. Oxford Music: The First Fifty Years '23−'73. London: Oxford University Press Music Department. 1973. Sutcliffe, Peter (1978). The Oxford University Press: An Informal History. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-951084-9. Sutcliffe, Peter (1972). An Informal History of the OUP. Oxford: OUP. Further reading[edit] Gadd, Ian, ed. (2014). The History of Oxford University Press: Volume I: Beginnings to 1780. Oxford: OUP. ISBN 9780199557318. Eliot, Simon, ed. (2014). The History of Oxford University Press: Volume II: 1780 to 1896. Oxford: OUP. ISBN 9780199543151. Louis, Wm. Roger, ed. (2014). The History of Oxford University Press: Volume III: 1896 to 1970. Oxford: OUP. ISBN 9780199568406. Also online doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199568406.001.0001. Robbins, Keith, ed. (2017). The History of Oxford University Press: Volume IV: 1970 to 2004. Oxford: OUP. ISBN 9780199574797. External links[edit] Wikisource has original works published by or about: Oxford University Press Wikimedia Commons has media related to Oxford University Press. 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en-wikipedia-org-1718	----	Meryhathor - Wikipedia Meryhathor From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Meryhathor Meryt-Hathor, Mery-Hathor, Neferkare-Meryibre The nomarch Djehutynakht II (left) and Meryhathor's cartouche (right), from Hatnub Pharaoh of Egypt Reign c. 2130 BCE - ? (10th Dynasty) Predecessor H-, the last king of the 9th Dynasty Successor Neferkare VIII Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Meryhathor mr.j-j-ḥwt-ḥr Beloved of Hathor [1] Father H- (possibly) Meryhathor or Meryt-Hathor,[2] was a pharaoh of the 10th Dynasty of Egypt, during the First Intermediate Period. Identification[edit] Regarded as the founder of the dynasty, Meryhathor should have begun his reign in c. 2130 BCE.[3][2] His name is not mentioned in the Turin King List but Djehutynakht II, a nomarch of the Hare nome residing in Hermopolis, ordered an ink graffito mentioning Meryhathor in the alabaster quarries at Hatnub: this is so far the only attestation of this king.[4] There is a dispute regarding his name: since the "Hathor" sign (C9 in Gardiner's sign list) is partially damaged, some authors such as Edward Brovarski[5] believe that the real name of this pharaoh could be Meryibre ("Beloved of the heart of Ra") which is somewhat closer to the Memphite tradition. Furthermore, some Egyptologists who support the alternative reading also combine this king with his successor Neferkare VIII; thus, it is not uncommon to find a pharaoh Neferkare-Meryibre as the founder of the 10th Dynasty.[6] References[edit] ^ Rudolph Anthes, "Die Felseninschriften von Hatnub", Untersuchungen zur Geschichte und Altertumskunde Aegyptens 9, Leipzig 1928, pl. VII. ^ a b Jean Vercoutter, L'Egypte jusq'à la fin du Nouvel Empire, in Pierre Lévêque, Le premieres civilisations, Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, 1987, p. 143. ^ William C. Hayes, in The Cambridge Ancient History, vol 1, part 2, 1971 (2008), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-077915, p. 996. ^ William C. Hayes, op. cit., p. 470. ^ Royal Titulary of Mery... on Eglyphica.net (search in the Tenth Dynasty) ^ Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford, Blackwell Books, 1992, p. 141. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Meryhathor&oldid=974671545" Categories: 22nd-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Tenth Dynasty of Egypt 22nd-century BC rulers 22nd century BC in Egypt Ancient Egypt people stubs Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Español Bahasa Indonesia ქართული Magyar Slovenščina ไทย Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 24 August 2020, at 09:38 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1740	----	Cleopatra IV - Wikipedia Cleopatra IV From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Cleopatra IV Queen of Egypt Reign 116–115 BC Coronation 116 BC Predecessor Ptolemy VIII Cleopatra III Successor Ptolemy IX Cleopatra III Co-rulers Ptolemy IX Cleopatra III Seleucid Queen (Queen Consort of Syria) Tenure 114–112 BC (in opposition to queen consort Tryphaena) Coronation 114 BC Predecessor Tryphaena Successor Cleopatra Selene Born c. 138 – 135 BC Died 112 BC (aged 22–26) Spouse Ptolemy IX (c. 119/118 BC–c. 115 BC) Antiochus IX (married c. 115–12 BC) Issue Ptolemy XII (possibly) Ptolemy of Cyprus (possibly) Antiochus X (possibly) Cleopatra V (possibly) Dynasty Ptolemaic Father Ptolemy VIII Physcon Mother Cleopatra III of Egypt Cleopatra IV (Greek: Κλεοπάτρα) was Queen of Egypt briefly from 116 to 115 BC, jointly with her husband Ptolemy IX Lathyros. She later became queen consort of Syria as the wife of Antiochus IX Cyzicenus.[1][2] Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Queen of Egypt 1.2 Queen of Syria and death 2 Ancestry 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Biography[edit] Queen of Egypt[edit] Cleopatra IV was the daughter of Ptolemy VIII Physcon and Cleopatra III of Egypt. She was born between 138 and 135 BC. She was the sister of Ptolemy IX, Ptolemy X, Cleopatra Selene I and Tryphaena. Cleopatra IV married her brother Ptolemy IX when he was still a prince in c. 119/118 BC. Cleopatra IV may be the mother of Ptolemy XII Auletes and Ptolemy of Cyprus, although an unnamed concubine could be the mother of these two men as well.[1] In c. 115 BC Cleopatra III forced Cleopatra IV and Ptolemy IX to divorce. She replaced Cleopatra IV with her sister Cleopatra Selene.[3] Queen of Syria and death[edit] After her forced divorce, Cleopatra IV fled Egypt and went to Cyprus, where she married Antiochus IX Cyzicenus and brought him the army of his half brother Seleucid King Antiochus VIII Grypus of Syria, which she had convinced to follow her. Grypus fought Cyzicenus and eventually chased him to Antioch. Grypus was married to Cleopatra IV's sister Tryphaena. Tryphaena decided that Cleopatra IV should die and over the protests of her husband summoned some soldiers and had Cleopatra IV murdered in the sanctuary of Daphne in Antioch.[2][4] In his comprehensive website about Ptolemaic genealogy, Christopher Bennett also notes the possibility that Cleopatra IV, from her brief marriage to Antiochus IX Cyzicenus, may have been the mother of the later Seleucid monarch, Antiochus X Eusebes ("the Pious").[5] Antiochus X would go on to marry Cleopatra IV's younger sister, Cleopatra Selene, thus making him the spouse of a woman who was his stepmother (Selene married both of her sisters' widowers, Grypus and Cyzicenus, before marrying Eusebes) and perhaps his maternal aunt. Ancestry[edit] Ancestors of Cleopatra IV 16. Ptolemy III Euergetes 8. Ptolemy IV Philopator 17. Berenice II of Egypt 4. Ptolemy V Epiphanes[2] 18. =16. Ptolemy III Euergetes 9. Arsinoe III of Egypt 19. =17. Berenice II of Egypt 2. Ptolemy VIII Physcon[2] 20. Seleucus II Callinicus 10. Antiochus III the Great 21. Laodice II 5. Cleopatra I of Egypt[2] 22. Mithridates II of Pontus 11. Laodice III 23. Laodice (wife of Mithridates II of Pontus) (Sister of No. 20) 1. Ptolemy IX Lathyros 24. =8. Ptolemy IV Philopator 12. =4. Ptolemy V Epiphanes[2] 25. =9. Arsinoe III of Egypt 6. Ptolemy VI Philometor[2] 26. =10. Antiochus III the Great 13. =5. Cleopatra I of Egypt[2] 27. =11. Laodice III 3. Cleopatra III of Egypt[2] 28. =8/24. Ptolemy IV Philopator 14. =4/12. Ptolemy V Epiphanes[2] 29. =9/25. Arsinoe III of Egypt 7. Cleopatra II of Egypt[2] 30. =10/26. Antiochus III the Great 15. =5/13. Cleopatra I of Egypt[2] 31. =11/27. Laodice III See also[edit] Asia portal List of Syrian monarchs Timeline of Syrian history References[edit] ^ a b Cleopatra IV by Chris Bennett. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Aidan Dodson, Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, 2004 ^ Justin 39, 3, 2. ^ Justin 39, 3, 3-11. ^ http://www.tyndalehouse.com/Egypt/ptolemies/cleopatra_iv_fr.htm External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cleopatra IV. Cleopatra IV, at Livius.org Cleopatra IV Ptolemaic dynasty Born: c. 138 – 135 BC Died: 112 BC Regnal titles Preceded by Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III Ptolemaic Queen of Egypt 116–115 BC with Ptolemy IX and Cleopatra III Succeeded by Ptolemy IX and Cleopatra III Preceded by Tryphaena Seleucid Queen (Queen Consort of Syria) 114–112 BC with Tryphaena Succeeded by Tryphaena v t e Hellenistic rulers Argeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Kings of Cyrene Magas Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Kings of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Kings of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Kings of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Kings of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus Kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon (regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces Asander with Dynamis Mithridates II Asander with Dynamis Scribonius’ attempted rule with Dynamis Dynamis with Polemon Polemon with Pythodorida Aspurgus Mithridates III with Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Queens of Ancient Egypt Early Dynastic Period to First Intermediate Period  (3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Neithhotep Benerib Khenthap Herneith Nakhtneith Penebui Merneith Seshemetka Semat Serethor Betrest II Nimaathap Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Hetephernebti Djeseretnebti Djefatnebti Meresankh I IV Hetepheres I Meritites I Henutsen Khentetka Meresankh II Hetepheres II Meresankh III Khamerernebty I Persenet Hekenuhedjet Khamerernebty II Rekhetre Bunefer V Khentkaus I Neferhetepes Meretnebty Khentkaus II Khentkaus III Reptynub Khuit I Meresankh IV Setibhor Nebet Khenut VI Iput I Khuit II Ankhesenpepi I Ankhesenpepi II Nubwenet Meritites IV Inenek-Inti Nedjeftet Neith Iput II Udjebten Ankhesenpepi III Ankhesenpepi IV Nitocris Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Neferu I Neferukayet Iah Tem Neferu II Ashayet Henhenet Sadeh Kawit Kemsit XII Neferitatjenen Neferu III Keminub Khenemetneferhedjet I Nofret II Itaweret Khenmet Sithathoriunet Khenemetneferhedjet II Neferthenut Meretseger Aat Khenemetneferhedjet III Sobekneferu 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Nofret Nubhetepti Senebhenas Neni Tjan Ineni Nubkhaes Aya XIV Tati XVI Mentuhotep XVII Nubemhat Sobekemsaf Haankhes Tetisheri Ahhotep I Ahmose Inhapy Sitdjehuti Ahhotep II New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose-Nefertari Ahmose-Sitkamose Ahmose-Henuttamehu Ahmose-Meritamun Ahmose Mutnofret Hatshepsut Iset Satiah Merytre-Hatshepsut Nebtu Menhet, Menwi and Merti Nebsemi Tiaa Nefertari Iaret Mutemwiya Tiye Gilukhipa Sitamun Iset Tadukhipa / Kiya Nefertiti Meritaten Neferneferuaten Ankhesenamun Tey Mutnedjmet Nebetnehat XIX Sitre Tuya Tanedjemet Nefertari Isetnofret Henutmire Maathorneferure Meritamen Bintanath Nebettawy Merytre Isetnofret II Takhat Twosret Tiaa XX Tiy-Merenese Iset Ta-Hemdjert Tyti Tiye Duatentopet Henutwati Tawerettenru Nubkhesbed Baketwernel Tentamun 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Tentamun Mutnedjmet Karimala XXII Karomama Patareshnes Maatkare Tashedkhonsu Nesitaudjatakhet Nesitanebetashru Kapes Karomama I Tadibast III XXIII Karomama II XXV Pebatjma Tabiry Abar Khensa Peksater Arty Qalhata Tabekenamun Takahatenamun Naparaye Atakhebasken Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Mehytenweskhet Khedebneithirbinet I Takhuit Tentkheta Nakhtubasterau Ladice XXVII Atossa Artystone Parmys Amestris Damaspia Parysatis XXXI Stateira I Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Roxana Stateira II Parysatis II Eurydice II of Macedon Ptolemaic Eurydice Berenice I Arsinoe I Arsinoe II Berenice II Arsinoe III Cleopatra I Cleopatra II Cleopatra III Cleopatra IV Cleopatra Selene Berenice III Cleopatra V Cleopatra VI Berenice IV Cleopatra VII Arsinoe IV Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cleopatra_IV&oldid=988040834" Categories: 112 BC deaths 2nd-century BC births 2nd-century BC Pharaohs 2nd-century BC rulers in Africa 2nd-century BC women rulers 2nd-century BC Egyptian people Pharaohs of the Ptolemaic dynasty Ancient Egyptian queens regnant Ptolemaic princesses Ancient queens consort Seleucid royal consorts Female pharaohs Remarried royal consorts 2nd-century BC Egyptian women Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation 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en-wikipedia-org-1742	----	Setut - Wikipedia Setut From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Setut Senen... Pharaoh Reign between 2160 and 2130 BCE (9th Dynasty) Predecessor uncertain Nebkaure Khety or Wahkare Khety Successor [name lost] Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Senen[...][1] z-nn... Setut[2] or Senen...[1] was a pharaoh of the 9th Dynasty of ancient Egypt (between 2160 and 2130 BCE, during the First Intermediate Period).[2] There is no contemporary archaeological find attesting the existence of this ruler since he is definitely known only by the Turin King List, where his incomplete name Senen[...] appears in position 4.22. He should have reigned from Herakleopolis after Nebkaure Khety or Wahkare Khety,[3] being one of the ephemeral rulers of the late 9th Dynasty. He was succeeded by an unknown king of the same dynasty.[2][4] References[edit] ^ a b Jürgen von Beckerath, Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen (= Münchner ägyptologische Studien, vol 46), Mainz am Rhein: Verlag Philipp von Zabern, 1999. ISBN 3-8053-2310-7, pp. 72-73. ^ a b c William C. Hayes, in The Cambridge Ancient History, vol 1, part 2, 1971 (2008), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-077915. p. 996. ^ Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 389-390 ^ Hayes, op. cit., p. 465-66. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs This biography of a member of an African royal house is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Setut&oldid=977185301" Categories: 22nd-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Ninth Dynasty of Egypt 22nd-century BC rulers 22nd century BC in Egypt African royalty stubs Ancient Egypt people stubs Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Čeština Español Euskara Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Slovenščina ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 7 September 2020, at 11:48 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1748	----	Portal:Current events - Wikipedia Portal:Current events From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Portal maintenance status: (October 2020) This portal's subpages have been checked by an editor, and are needed. Please take care when editing, especially if using automated editing software. Learn how to update the maintenance information here. Wikipedia's portal for exploring content related to Current events Edit instructions Worldwide current events Sports events Recent deaths Topics in the news COVID-19 pandemic Disease Virus By location Impact Vaccines Portal Hank Aaron in 1974 In Russia, protests against the arrest of Alexei Navalny occur in more than 100 towns and cities. American baseball player Hank Aaron (pictured) dies at the age of 86. Faustin-Archange Touadéra is elected for a second term as President of the Central African Republic. LauncherOne becomes the first liquid-fueled aircraft-launched rocket to reach orbit. Ongoing: Indian farmers' protest Recent deaths: Walter Bernstein F. X. Sudjasmin Meherzia Labidi Maïza Nathalie Delon Aslan Byutukayev Dave Bolton Nominate an article Current events of January 25, 2021 (2021-01-25) (Monday) edithistorywatch Health and environment COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in Australia, COVID-19 vaccine Australia approves the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine. (Reuters) Current events of January 24, 2021 (2021-01-24) (Sunday) edithistorywatch Armed conflicts and attacks Mali War Six Malian troops are killed and 18 others are injured in simultaneous jihadist attacks in the central Mopti Region. The military state that around 30 militants were also killed in the clashes. (Al Jazeera) Disasters and accidents Gold mining in China Eleven of the miners who went missing two weeks ago in Qixia, Shandong, China, after the gold mine where they worked collapsed, are rescued alive. Another miner is found dead, while ten others are still missing. (BBC) 2021 Tocantinense aviation disaster A plane crashes in Palmas, Tocantins, Brazil, killing four Palmas Futebol e Regatas footballers, their team's president, and the pilot. (CNN Brasil) Health and environment COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in North America COVID-19 pandemic in the United States COVID-19 pandemic in Washington, D.C., Aftermath of the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol Around 38 United States Capitol Police officers have tested positive for COVID-19 since the storming of the United States Capitol. (CNN) The United States surpasses 25 million cases of COVID-19. (NPR) COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico Mexican President Andrés Manuel López Obrador announces that he has tested positive for COVID-19 and is receiving medical treatment. (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic in Europe COVID-19 pandemic in France, Travel restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic France imposes new border restrictions that require travellers from other European Union countries arriving by air or sea to present negative PCR test results obtained in the previous 72 hours. (France 24) COVID-19 pandemic in Portugal Portugal reports a record 275 deaths in the past 24 hours, bringing the nationwide death toll to 10,469. (DGS) COVID-19 pandemic in Serbia Serbia reports their first case of the B.1.1.7 variant in a person who travelled from London and later began experiencing mild symptoms. (N1) COVID-19 pandemic in Asia COVID-19 pandemic in Israel Travel restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic The Israeli cabinet agrees to close Ben Gurion International Airport and ban all incoming and outgoing international passengers from the airport, beginning at midnight tomorrow. Cargo flights, medical evacuations and firefighting flights are exempted from this rule. (The Washington Post) Israel reports their first case of a faster-spreading variant of SARS-CoV-2, which was recently discovered in the United States, in a person who travelled from Los Angeles. (The Jerusalem Post) COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia Malaysia reports a record 4,427 recoveries in the past 24 hours, bringing the nationwide total of recoveries to 141,446. (The Edge Markets MY) COVID-19 pandemic in Egypt Egypt launches a vaccination campaign against COVID-19 with the first doses of Sinopharm's vaccine given to healthcare workers in Ismailia. (AP) COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand New Zealand health officials reports the first community case of COVID-19 in more than two months in a person who travelled from Europe. (Sydney Morning Herald) International relations Russia–United States relations, 2021 Russian protests The Russian government accuses the United States of "interfering in Russian domestic affairs" after some U.S. officials criticized the police crackdown on protests backing jailed opposition leader Alexei Navalny. (RFERL) Cross-Strait relations For the second consecutive day, Taiwan reports an incursion of its air defense identification zone by China's People's Liberation Army Air Force. The incursion involved 12 fighter jets, two anti-submarine aircraft and a reconnaissance plane. Taiwan deployed air defence missile systems in response, according to a statement from the Ministry of National Defense. (BBC) Law and crime List of mass shootings in the United States in 2021 A mass shooting in Indianapolis, Indiana, leaves six dead and one injured. (WXIN-TV) Politics and elections 2021 Portuguese presidential election Portuguese President Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa is reelected with 61.5% of the vote in Sunday's election. (ABC News) (DW) Proposed second Scottish independence referendum Scottish First Minister Nicola Sturgeon says she intends to hold a "legal referendum" on independence since Brexit removed Scotland from the European Union against its will. Another referendum would require the approval of the United Kingdom's government, which Prime Minister Boris Johnson opposes. (ABC News) (Bloomberg) Science and technology SpaceX successfully launches a record 143 satellites into orbit on a single rocket in its Transporter-1 mission. It is also the maiden flight of the SHERPA-FX satellite dispenser. (BBC) Sports 2020 NFL season, 2020–21 NFL playoffs In American football, the Tampa Bay Buccaneers advance to Super Bowl LV after a 31-26 victory against the the Green Bay Packers. With the Super Bowl being played at Tampa's Raymond James Stadium, this will be the first time an NFL team plays the Super Bowl on their home field. (BBC) Current events of January 23, 2021 (2021-01-23) (Saturday) edithistorywatch Armed conflicts and attacks ISIL insurgency in Iraq Eleven Popular Mobilization Forces members are killed, including a brigade commander, and ten others wounded in an ambush by suspected Islamic State militants east of Tikrit. (The Arab Weekly) Health and environment COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in North America COVID-19 pandemic in the United States COVID-19 pandemic in Michigan, Variant of Concern 202012/01 The University of Michigan shuts down all sports activities for two weeks after the B.1.1.7 variant of SARS-CoV-2 is discovered in five people with ties to the school. (MLive.com), (MLive.com 2) COVID-19 pandemic in North Carolina, Variant of Concern 202012/01 North Carolina reports their first case of the B.1.1.7 variant of SARS-CoV-2 in a person in Mecklenburg County. (Raleigh News and Observer) COVID-19 pandemic in Washington, D.C. Federal officials announce that all indoor portions of the National Mall and memorial parks will be closed to the public to combat the spread of COVID-19. (NBC News) COVID-19 pandemic in Washington (state), Variant of Concern 202012/01 Washington reports their first cases of the B.1.1.7 variant of SARS-CoV-2 in two people residing in Snohomish County. (MyNorthwest.com) COVID-19 pandemic in Canada COVID-19 pandemic in New Brunswick New Brunswick's Edmundston region begins a 14-day lockdown. Non-essential travel is prohibited in and out of the area. In addition, all non-essential businesses, schools and public spaces are closed, and all indoor and outdoor gatherings among people of different households are prohibited. (The Toronto Star) COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario A teen in London, Ontario, dies from COVID-19, making him the youngest person in the area to die from the disease. (CBC) COVID-19 pandemic in Asia COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia Indonesia reports a record 9,912 recoveries in the past 24 hours, bringing the nationwide total of recoveries to 791,059. (detikHealth) Indonesian COVID-19 Task Force chairman and Chairman of the National Disaster Management Agency Doni Monardo announces that he has tested positive for COVID-19. (Xinhua) COVID-19 pandemic in Japan Japan surpasses 5,000 deaths from COVID-19. (The Japan Times) COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia Malaysia reports a record 4,275 new confirmed cases and 4,313 recoveries in the past 24 hours, bringing the nationwide totals to 180,455 confirmed cases and 137,019 recoveries. (Malay Mail) COVID-19 pandemic in Sri Lanka Health Minister Pavithra Wanniarachchi tests positive for COVID-19 after previously endorsing sorcery and magic potions. (France 24) COVID-19 pandemic in Europe COVID-19 pandemic in Norway, Variant of Concern 202012/01 Health authorities impose tougher lockdowns in Oslo and nine neighbouring municipalities due to an increase in cases of a more contagious variant from the UK that also caused two deaths in care home residents yesterday. (VG) (Financial Times) COVID-19 pandemic in Portugal Portugal reports a record 15,333 new confirmed cases in the past 24 hours, bringing the nationwide total of confirmed cases to 624,469. The country also reports a record 274 deaths in the past 24 hours, surpassing 10,000 deaths from COVID-19. (SIC Notícias) COVID-19 pandemic in Spain, Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the military Chief of the Defence Staff Miguel Ángel Villarroya resigns after he admitted to receiving a dose of the COVID-19 vaccine while not being on the priority list. (AFP via SBS News) COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey Turkey signs a deal with the Russian Direct Investment Fund for the production of its Sputnik V vaccine. (Daily Sabah) COVID-19 pandemic in Africa COVID-19 pandemic in Egypt, COVID-19 vaccine President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi announces that the country will begin vaccinations tomorrow. Medical staff will be the first to receive the vaccine. (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic in Tunisia Tunisia bans gatherings including demonstrations and extends their curfew to between 8:00 pm and 5:00 am local time until February 14 in an attempt to reduce the spread of COVID-19. (The Washington Post) COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil COVID-19 vaccine Brazil begins distribution of the AstraZeneca-Oxford University vaccine. (The Hill) Amazonas Governor Wilson Lima announces new, tougher restrictions to curb the spread of COVID-19, beginning January 25. People will only be allowed to leave their homes for essential purposes such grocery shopping. (CNN Brasil) Law and crime 2021 Russian protests, aftermath of the poisoning of Alexei Navalny Over 3,500 people are detained in Russia amid nationwide protests in support of jailed opposition leader Alexei Navalny. Moscow officials say 29 people have received medical assistance in hospitals, while a female protester in Saint Petersburg is currently in intensive care after being kicked by a riot police officer. (DW) (Sky News) (The Moscow Times) Aftermath of the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol Garret Miller, a Texas man who participated in the storming of the United States Capitol, is charged for threatening to assassinate U.S. Rep. Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez. (The Guardian) Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest Brazilian indigenous leaders Raoni Metuktire of the Kayapo tribe and Almir Narayamoga Surui of the Paiter Surui tribe call for the International Criminal Court to investigate President Jair Bolsonaro for "crimes against humanity" such as environmental damage to the Amazon rainforest. (France 24) Current events of January 22, 2021 (2021-01-22) (Friday) edithistorywatch Armed conflicts and attacks Syrian civil war, Israel's role in the Syrian Civil War Syria missile strikes (January 2021) An Israeli airstrike in the city of Hama, Syria, destroys five Syrian military sites. According to SANA, four people from the same family, including two children, are killed in the strikes. (Deutsche Welle) Somali Civil War African Union Mission to Somalia The Uganda People's Defence Force says it has killed 189 al-Shabaab militants in a military operation, southwest of the Somali capital Mogadishu, and also destroyed a number of military hardware used by the terror group. (Reuters) Business and economy The World Trade Organization rules that the United States violated the organization's rules when it significantly raised the tariff on some South Korean goods, from 9.49% to 59.72%, in May 2016. (Korean Herald) Health and environment COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in North America COVID-19 pandemic in the United States COVID-19 pandemic in California California reports a record 764 deaths in the past 24 hours. (U.S. News and World Report) COVID-19 pandemic in Florida Florida reports 277 deaths in the past 24 hours, tying their previous state record set in August of last year. (WJXT-TV) COVID-19 pandemic in New Jersey, Variant of Concern 202012/01 New Jersey reports their first two cases of the UK variant of SARS-CoV-2. Neither had travelled. (NJ.com) COVID-19 pandemic in Belize The number of recoveries in Belize surpasses 11,000. (Breaking Belize News) COVID-19 pandemic in Cuba, 501.V2 variant Cuba reports their first case of a variant from South Africa in an asymptomatic person who travelled from the country. (Explica) COVID-19 pandemic in Panama, 501.V2 variant Panama reports their first case of a variant from South Africa in a 40-year-old Zimbabwe native who entered the country from there. (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic in Europe COVID-19 pandemic in Belgium, Travel restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic Belgium declares a ban on non-essential travel in and out of the country from January 27 through March 1 in order to curb the spread of SARS-CoV-2 variants. (VRT) (France 24) COVID-19 pandemic in Germany Germany surpasses 50,000 deaths from COVID-19. (Deutsche Welle) (ABC News) Germany reports their first case of the more contagious B.1.1.248 variant in a person who travelled from Brazil to Hesse. (MedicalXpress) COVID-19 pandemic in Portugal Portugal reports a record of 234 deaths in the past 24 hours, bringing the nationwide death toll to 9,920. (DGS) Portugal also reports their first case of the 501.V2 variant that originated in South Africa. They do not indicate whether the individual travelled. (RTP) (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom, Variant of Concern 202012/01 A panel of scientists that advises the British government announces that a variant first discovered in the United Kingdom is 30% more deadly than the original SARS-CoV-2 virus. (Forbes) COVID-19 pandemic in Asia COVID-19 pandemic in Hong Kong For the first time since the beginning of the pandemic, Hong Kong will impose a lockdown in the Yau Tsim Mong District beginning this weekend. Negative COVID-19 testing results will be required in order to leave one's residence. (South China Morning Post) COVID-19 pandemic in Japan Japan reports a record 108 deaths in the past 24 hours. (The Japan Times) COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia Malaysia reports a record of 18 deaths in the past 24 hours, bringing the nationwide death toll to 660. (Malay Mail) COVID-19 pandemic in Myanmar Myanmar receives its first 1.5 million doses of the Oxford-AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine manufactured by the Serum Institute of India. (CNA) COVID-19 pandemic in Botswana Botswana surpasses 100 deaths from COVID-19. (ANI) COVID-19 vaccine Pfizer says that they will supply 40 million doses of their vaccine to lower- and middle-income countries. (Business Insider) International relations Nuclear disarmament The Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons enters into force, banning the development, testing, production, stockpiling, stationing, transfer, use and threat of use of nuclear weapons in 51 countries. However, the world's major nuclear powers have not endorsed this international agreement. (Voice of America) Law and crime Cannabis in the United States Cannabis in Arizona, 2020 Arizona Proposition 207 Arizona begins legal sales of recreational cannabis, making it the 15th state to do so. (AP) Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, COVID-19 pandemic in Israel In Bnei Brak, an ultra-Orthodox town near Tel Aviv, ultra-Orthodox Jews attack an unmarked police vehicle while officers were inside it, causing a riot in which at least six people were arrested. Israel is currently in a lockdown. (South China Morning Post) Indian farmers' protest Farmer leaders allege a conspiracy to kill four of them and create disturbance during their proposed tractor rally on Republic Day in Delhi. (Business Standard) Aftermath of the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol A magistrate judge orders Oath Keepers member Donovan Crowl to be detained on charges for his role during the storming of the United States Capitol. (Reuters) Essex lorry deaths Seven culprits involved in the deaths of 39 Vietnamese unlawful immigrants smuggled in a refrigerator lorry in Grays, Essex in 2019 have been sentenced on multiple counts of manslaughter. Five people received sentences of between 3 to 18 years in prison, while the two main leaders of the smuggling operation received 20 and 27 years respectively. (The Guardian) Corruption in the mining industry of Guinea Israeli businessman Beny Steinmetz is sentenced by a Geneva court to five years in prison for corruption in obtaining mining rights to an iron ore deposit in Guinea, and is ordered to pay a fine of CHF 50 million (US$56 million) to the canton of Geneva. (AFP via CTV News) Former Bosnian Army general and deputy Minister of Defense Sakib Mahmuljin is sentenced to ten years in prison for failing to prevent or punish foreign Islamist fighters who murdered and tortured Serbian prisoners during the Bosnian War. (Reuters) Police in Russia arrest five aides of Alexei Navalny ahead of planned protests. Navalny has been under arrest since returning to Russia on January 17. (Politico) Sam Gor drug lord Tse Chi Lop is arrested by police at Amsterdam Airport Schiphol in Amsterdam. The Australian Federal Police are seeking to extradite him to face trial. Twenty law enforcement agencies assisted the operation, known as "Operation Kungur".(The Independent) Politics and elections Cabinet of Joe Biden The U.S. Senate votes 93–2 to confirm Lloyd Austin as Secretary of Defense, making him the first African-American to lead the The Pentagon. (The Guardian) Science and technology Mass media in Australia In response to a bill proposed by parliament to require dot-com companies to compensate local news outlets for hosting their content, Google threatens to block Australians from using its web search engine should the current draft of the bill become law. (AFP via The Jakarta Post) Twitter suspensions Twitter suspends an account linked to Iran's Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei after Khamenei threatened to assassinate former U.S. President Donald Trump in revenge for the assassination of Qasem Soleimani in 2020. (Reuters) Aftermath of the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol TikTok announces that they have banned Baked Alaska, the far-right activist who was arrested by the FBI for participating in the storming of the United States Capitol. (Newsweek) Alphabet Inc. announces that it will shut down its subsidiary Loon, which provides an aerial wireless network through high-altitude balloons, saying that it is not "commercially viable". (AFP via Barron's) Sports Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on sports British Athletics cancels its annual indoor championships that were set to begin in Glasgow in February due to the COVID-19 pandemic. (ESPN) Organisers of the Tour de Normandie cancel the annual seven-day bicycle race that was scheduled for May due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. This is the second year that it has been cancelled. (Cycling News) Real Madrid announces that their coach Zinedine Zidane has tested positive for COVID-19. (CBS Sports) Current events of January 21, 2021 (2021-01-21) (Thursday) edithistorywatch Armed conflicts and attacks Syrian civil war American-led intervention in the Syrian Civil War A United States convoy consisting of 40 trucks and armored vehicles enters northeastern Syria from Iraq via the Al Waleed crossing. (i24 News) ISIL insurgency in Iraq 2021 Baghdad bombings A suicide attack at an open market in Baghdad, Iraq, kills at least 32 people and injures 110 others. Attacks have been rare in the country since the 2017 military defeat of ISIL, making this incident one of the deadliest since then. (Reuters) Central African Republic Civil War The Central African Republic government declares a 15-day state of emergency after rebels attempt to surround and blockade the capital Bangui. Pro-François Bozizé loyalists and anti-balaka militias now control around two-thirds of the war torn nation. (Al Jazeera) Arts and culture Events affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom COVID-19 pandemic in England Organisers announce that the Glastonbury Festival has been cancelled for the second consecutive year due to the COVID-19 pandemic. (The Guardian) Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on entertainment, COVID-19 pandemic in the United Arab Emirates Dubai suspends all entertainment permits issued by the emirate for establishments due to an increase in violations of COVID-19 health protocols. (Khaleej Times) Disasters and accidents Sriwijaya Air Flight 182 Indonesian authorities, led by Transportation Minister Budi Karya Sumadi, officially end the search for remaining victims and debris from Sriwijaya Air Flight 182, which crashed into the Java Sea on January 9, killing all 62 people on board. (The Washington Post) 2021 Shivamogga explosion A truck carrying sticks of gelatin explodes at a boulder-crushing facility in Abbalagere in Shivamogga district, Karnataka, India, killing eight workers. (India Today) 2021 Kharkiv fire Fifteen people are killed and eleven others wounded in a fire at a nursing home in Kharkiv, Ukraine. (BBC) Five people are killed in a fire at a Serum Institute of India facility in Pune, Maharashtra, India. (BBC) Health and environment COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in North America COVID-19 pandemic in the United States COVID-19 pandemic in Alabama Alabama Governor Kay Ivey extends the statewide mask mandate to March 5. (San Francisco Chronicle) COVID-19 pandemic in Tennessee, Variant of Concern 202012/01 Tennessee reports their first two cases of a more contagious variant of SARS-CoV-2 that was first identified in the United Kingdom. (WSMV-TV) Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States President Joe Biden signs an executive order requiring usage of masks in airports and on airplanes, trains and buses. (AP) COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico Mexico reports a record 22,339 newly confirmed cases and 1,809 deaths in the past 24 hours. (ABC News) COVID-19 pandemic in Trinidad and Tobago, Variant of Concern 202012/01 Trinidad and Tobago reports their first case of the B.1.1.7 variant in a person returning from the United Kingdom. (Trinidad Express) COVID-19 pandemic in Europe COVID-19 pandemic in Portugal Portugal reports a record of 221 deaths in the past 24 hours, bringing the nationwide death toll to 9,686. (DGS) The government announces the closure of all schools, kindergartens and universities for two weeks beginning tomorrow due to an increase in COVID-19 cases, as well as the emergence of the Variant of Concern 202012/01. (The Portugal News) COVID-19 pandemic in Hungary, COVID-19 vaccine Hungary approves the use of the Oxford–AstraZeneca vaccine and Russia's Sputnik V vaccine, becoming the first European Union member state to approve the Russian vaccine. (BBC) COVID-19 pandemic in the Netherlands The Dutch House of Representatives votes to impose a curfew from 9.00 pm to 4.30 am beginning January 23. (Euronews) (RTL Nieuws) COVID-19 pandemic in Russia Moscow Mayor Sergei Sobyanin announces that as part of an easing of COVID-19 restrictions, museums and libraries will reopen beginning tomorrow, while theatres and cinemas will be allowed to accommodate more patrons. In addition, colleges, sports schools and children's clubs will resume in-person attendance, but university students will continue studying remotely. (The Moscow Times) COVID-19 pandemic in Spain Spain reports a record 44,357 new confirmed cases in the past 24 hours, bringing the nationwide total of confirmed cases to 2,456,675. (La Vanguardia) COVID-19 pandemic in Asia COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia Indonesia reports a record 346 deaths in the past 24 hours, bringing the nationwide death toll to 27,203. (detikHealth) COVID-19 pandemic in Sri Lanka Sri Lanka reopens to foreign tourists after a nearly 10-month pandemic closure, however tourists are required to receive multiple testings and follow quarantine measures that have been put in place. (AP) COVID-19 pandemic in Thailand Thailand's Food and Drug Administration approves the emergency use of the Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine. 50,000 doses of the vaccine are expected to arrive in February. (Bangkok Post) COVID-19 pandemic in Argentina President Alberto Fernández receives a dose of the Russian-made Sputnik V vaccine, a day after the usage of vaccines for people over the age of 60 was approved by the country's health regulator. (La Nacion) COVID-19 pandemic in South Africa South African Minister in the Presidency Jackson Mthembu dies due to COVID-19. (CNN) International relations European Union–Russia relations The European Court of Human Rights rules that Russia was responsible for a series of human rights violations during its 2008 war with Georgia. (The Guardian) Syria–United States relations Bashar al-Jaafari, Permanent Representative of Syria to the United Nations, called on Biden to change US foreign policy in Syria, which is nearing 10 years of civil war. During a session of the UN Security Council, Jaafari accused the United States of using the multi-sided war to steal the country's oil reserves and other natural resources. (Middle East Eye) Law and crime Japanese nationality law The Tokyo District Court upholds a ban on dual citizenship of Japan and another country, rejecting appeals for damages claiming that the law was unconstitutional. (AFP via Japan Today) Politics and elections Presidency of Joe Biden, Efforts to impeach Joe Biden Georgia Representative Marjorie Taylor Greene introduces six articles of impeachment against newly-inaugurated President of the United States Joe Biden, alleging an "abuse of power" when Biden served as Barack Obama's Vice President. (The Independent) Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on politics, COVID-19 pandemic in Mongolia Mongolian Prime Minister Ukhnaagiin Khürelsükh resigns a day after thousands in Ulaanbaatar protested against the way authorities behaved with a COVID-19-infected mother and her newborn baby. (CNA) 2020–21 Rideau Hall workplace review Julie Payette resigns as Governor General of Canada following a review that cites allegations of a toxic work environment at Rideau Hall. Chief Justice of Canada Richard Wagner will carry out the duties of that office as Administrator of Canada until the Crown appoints a new Governor General. (CBC) Politics of Palau Surangel Whipps Jr. assumes the office of President of Palau succeeding Thomas Remengesau Jr.. (The Guardian) Science and technology Aftermath of the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol United States District Judge for the Western District of Washington Barbara Jacobs Rothstein rejects a lawsuit filed by Parler requesting reinstatement on Amazon. (Reuters) House Oversight Committee chairwoman Carolyn Maloney calls for the FBI to investigate Parler for their role in the storming of the United States Capitol. (The Independent) Sports Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on sports 2020 Summer Olympics, COVID-19 pandemic in Japan International Olympic Committee President Thomas Bach says that the Summer Olympics will be held in July, despite a state of emergency currently being declared in Tokyo. (The Guardian) FIFA warns top-division European football clubs and their players against participating in the proposed European Super League, threatening them with a ban from all FIFA-sanctioned competitions. (AFP via Scroll) Current events of January 20, 2021 (2021-01-20) (Wednesday) edithistorywatch Armed conflicts and attacks War in Afghanistan 2021 Afghanistan attacks Three Afghan soldiers are killed and four others are wounded in an attack on their vehicle by unidentified gunmen in Herat Province. (Tolo News) Arts and culture Events affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland Dublin cancels their annual Saint Patrick's Day festival for the second year due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The event will instead be held virtually on a special online TV channel. (RTÉ) Cork, Limerick, and Ennis have all cancelled their respective Saint Patrick's Day parades for the second year due to the COVID-19 pandemic. (RTÉ) Disasters and accidents 2021 Madrid explosion An explosion caused by a gas leak at a residence for priests in Madrid, Spain results in four fatalities and injures ten others. It also partially destroys the residence. (Reuters) A boat carrying migrants from West Africa capsizes in the Mediterranean Sea off the coast of Libya, resulting in 43 fatalities. (France24) An explosion caused by coal dust and air in a thermal power plant in Angren, Uzbekistan kills three workers and leaves three others injured. (Xinhua) Health and environment COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in Europe COVID-19 pandemic in the Netherlands The Netherlands bans all flights from the United Kingdom, South Africa and all South American countries beginning January 23 in order to reduce the spread of more contagious variants of SARS-CoV-2. (NL Times) Prime Minister Mark Rutte issues a statement that would ask the parliament to vote regarding a weekend curfew from 8.30 pm to 4.30 am in a parliamentary debate that will begin tomorrow. (Dutch News) COVID-19 pandemic in Andorra Andorra begins its vaccination campaign against COVID-19. (Periòdic d'Andorra) COVID-19 pandemic in Portugal Portugal reports a record 14,647 new confirmed cases and 219 deaths in the past 24 hours, bringing the nationwide totals to 581,605 confirmed cases and 9,465 deaths. (Bloomberg) (SIC Notícias) COVID-19 pandemic in Russia The Russian Direct Investment Fund files the registration of the Sputnik V vaccine with the European Medicines Agency with the first review expected in February. (The Moscow Times) COVID-19 pandemic in Spain Spain reports a record 41,576 new confirmed cases in the past 24 hours, bringing the nationwide total of confirmed cases to 2,412,318. (Eldiario.es) COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom The United Kingdom reports a record 1,820 deaths in the past 24 hours, bringing the nationwide death toll to 93,290. (ITV) COVID-19 pandemic in Asia COVID-19 pandemic in India India begins exporting the Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine to Bhutan and Maldives. (Hindustan Times) COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia Indonesia reports a record 9,755 recoveries in the past 24 hours, bringing the nationwide total of recoveries to 763,703. (Okezone) COVID-19 pandemic in Lebanon Lebanon reports a record 61 new deaths in the past 24 hours, bringing the nationwide death toll to 2,084. (The961) COVID-19 pandemic in Japan The government reaches an agreement with Pfizer for an additional 12 million doses of their vaccine. (The Japan Times) COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China, Variant of Concern 202012/01 Beijing impose a partial lockdown in five neighbourhoods after two cases in Daxing were linked to B.1.1.7 variant found in the United Kingdom. (AFP via Barron's) COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines The Philippines surpasses 10,000 deaths from COVID-19. (GMA News) COVID-19 pandemic in Africa COVID-19 pandemic in Kenya, 501.V2 variant Acting Health Director-General Patrick Amoth confirms the first cases of the variant found in South Africa. The patients are two people who had traveled to that country. (Kenyans.co.ke) COVID-19 pandemic in Zimbabwe Zimbabwe's International Trade and Foreign Minister Sibusiso Moyo dies due to complications from COVID-19. (News24) COVID-19 pandemic in the United States Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States President Joe Biden signs a executive order mandating face masks on federal property and during interstate travel. (Reuters) The United States reports a record 4,409 deaths in the past 24 hours. (Financial Times) COVID-19 pandemic in Chile Chile approves the CoronaVac vaccine developed by Sinovac for emergency use in the country. (MedicalXpress) 2020–21 H5N8 outbreak Iraq reports an outbreak of highly pathogenic H5N8 bird flu in the city of Samarra. (Reuters) International relations China–United States relations The Chinese foreign ministry places sanctions on 28 members of the outgoing Trump administration, including former Secretary of State Mike Pompeo, former National Security Advisor John Bolton, and former White House Chief Strategist Steve Bannon. The sanctions are believed to be in response to Pompeo's announcement on Tuesday that the internment of Muslim Uyghurs constitutes genocide. (Reuters) Politics and elections Presidency of Joe Biden Inauguration of Joe Biden Joe Biden is officially sworn in as the 46th President of the United States. (BBC) Kamala Harris is officially sworn in as the 49th Vice President of the United States, making her the first woman, first Indian American in United States history to hold the office. (The Washington Post) Donald Trump becomes the first outgoing president to refuse to attend his successor's inauguration since Andrew Johnson, who did not attend Ulysses S. Grant's inauguration in 1869. (The New York Times) Cabinet of Joe Biden The Senate votes to confirm Avril Haines, Biden's nominee for United States Director of National Intelligence (DNI), 84-10. Haines is the first Biden appointee to be confirmed by the Senate, and the first woman to serve in the DNI. (CBS News) Biden signs his first executive orders reversing several Trump administration decisions, including rejoining the Paris Agreement and the World Health Organization, repealing 2017 travel bans, ending funding for the United States–Mexico border wall, and revoking the permit for the Keystone XL pipeline. (BBC) (NBC News) (The Guardian) 117th United States Congress 2020 United States Senate election in Georgia, 2020 United States Senate special election in Georgia Jon Ossoff and Raphael Warnock of Georgia are officially sworn in as Senators of the United States Senate. (USA Today) Alex Padilla of California is officially sworn in as Senator of the United States Senate, as an appointee replacing Kamala Harris. (LA Times) Current events of January 19, 2021 (2021-01-19) (Tuesday) edithistorywatch Arts and culture Events affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, COVID-19 pandemic in Taiwan Taiwan cancels the upcoming Taiwan Lantern Festival for the first time since 1990, due to an increase in COVID-19 cases on the island. (The Straits Times) Business and economy The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration of the United States orders Ford Motor Company to recall about three million of its vehicles containing airbags manufactured by Takata, citing "potential future rupture risks". (AFP via Business Times) Health and environment COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in North America COVID-19 pandemic in the United States COVID-19 pandemic in New York (state) COVID-19 pandemic in New York City Andrew Yang, a candidate for Mayor of New York City in the upcoming mayoral election, will quarantine after one of his staffers tested positive for COVID-19. (The New York Times) COVID-19 pandemic in Vermont Vermont Governor Phil Scott, Health Commissioner Mark Levine, and other officials quarantine after a contractor that Levine was in contact with tested positive for COVID-19. (WPTZ-TV) COVID-19 pandemic in Washington, D.C. A memorial at the Lincoln Memorial Reflecting Pool is held, honoring the 400,000 Americans who have died as a result of COVID-19. Additionally, bells are rung at the Washington National Cathedral and a moment of silence is held. (Reuters) (NBC News) The United States surpasses 400,000 deaths from COVID-19, just five weeks after passing 300,000 deaths. (CBS News) (NPR) COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico Mexico reports a record 1,584 deaths from COVID-19 in the past 24 hours, bringing the nationwide death toll to nearly 143,000. (The Washington Post) COVID-19 pandemic in Europe COVID-19 pandemic in Portugal Portugal reports a new record for the second consecutive day, of 218 deaths, bringing the nationwide death toll to 9,246. At the same time, the nationwide number of ICU patients reaches a record 670, just below the maximum allocation capacity of 672 ICU beds set the day before. (DGS) (Reuters) Portuguese Economy Minister Pedro Siza Vieira tested positive for COVID-19. (TSF) COVID-19 pandemic in Andorra The first 30,000 doses of the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine are sent from Spain to Andorra after both governments reached an agreement earlier today. (Euro Weekly News) COVID-19 pandemic in Germany Chancellor Angela Merkel and the leaders of all 16 states agree to extend the nationwide lockdown until February 14, due to the threat of new variants of SARS-CoV-2. They also agree to mandate medical masks for all passengers on public transport. (Taggeschau) COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland Ireland reports a record 93 deaths in the past 24 hours, bringing the nationwide death toll to 2,708. (Irish Examiner) COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom The United Kingdom reports a record 1,610 deaths in the past 24 hours, bringing the nationwide death toll to 91,470. (ITV) COVID-19 pandemic in Asia COVID-19 pandemic in Hong Kong Hong Kong extends their work from home arrangements for civil servants until January 27, as the city attempts to reduce the number of COVID-19 cases. (Reuters via Financial Post) COVID-19 pandemic in Israel Israel extends their third nationwide lockdown until January 31 as the country reports its highest number of cases since the pandemic began. They will also require all travelers to present a negative COVID-19 test result within 72 hours of arrival or face a fine of NIS 2,500 ($772). (The Times of Israel) COVID-19 pandemic in Japan, Variant of Concern 202012/01 The Shizuoka prefectural government issues an emergency alert after three cases of the more contagious variant from the UK are reported in people with no known travel history. (Kyodo News) COVID-19 pandemic in Kuwait, Variant of Concern 202012/01 Kuwait reports their first cases of the B.1.1.7 variant of SARS-CoV-2 in two women who travelled from the United Kingdom. (Gulf News) COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia Malaysia's Senior Minister Ismail Sabri Yaakob announces the extension of the second movement control order to six states from January 22 at 12:01 am. local time until February 4. This means that all states and federal territories except Sarawak will be placed under tighter restrictions. (CNA) COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand, Travel restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic The New Zealand government imposes a mandatory requirement for all travellers to present a negative COVID-19 test result before departing for New Zealand, beginning January 25. This requirement does not include residents of Australia, Antarctica and most Pacific Island countries. (NZ Herald) International relations Uganda–United States relations A Ugandan government spokesman accuses the U.S. government of "subversion" after ambassador Natalie E. Brown tried to visit opposition leader Bobi Wine at his home, where he is under house arrest. Brown said that she wanted to check on the "health and safety" of Wine. (Reuters) China–United States relations, Uyghur genocide The outgoing Trump administration declares that China has committed genocide against Uyghur Muslims and other ethnic minority groups. (CBS News) Law and crime COVID-19 pandemic in the United States Grafton vaccine incident, COVID-19 pandemic in Wisconsin Wisconsin pharmacist Steven Brandenburg is charged with attempted misdemeanor property damage for deliberately trying to defrost doses of Moderna's vaccine. (AP) Aftermath of the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol Three members of the Oath Keepers far-right militia group are arrested by federal prosecutors for conspiring to breach the United States Capitol. (New York Daily News) (CNN) 2020 congressional insider trading scandal The United States Department of Justice closes an insider trading probe into U.S. Senator Richard Burr of North Carolina without making him face any criminal charges. (MarketWatch) Protests against Rodrigo Duterte The Philippine Department of National Defense terminates a 32-year-old accord with the University of the Philippines, the country's national university, that limits the access of police and military personnel into the university's campuses. Faculty members, students, and activists protest the move, calling it "a violation of academic freedom" and claiming that it would aid the government's attempts at red-tagging people. (South China Morning Post) A 65-year-old Thai woman is sentenced to 43 years in prison for insulting the Thai monarchy in online posts in 2014. Her sentence, initially for 87 years, was reduced after she plead guilty to the charges. It is the longest punishment for lèse-majesté handed down in Thai history. (Reuters on MSN) Bishop Daniel Thomas of the Diocese of Toledo issues statements on the deaths of a suspect and police officer, and the vandalism and arson at Our Lady, Queen of the Most Holy Rosary Cathedral in Toledo, Ohio. (CNS) Science and technology Internet regulation in Turkey Turkey's Information and Communication Technologies Authority bans advertisements on Twitter, Periscope and Pinterest after these companies failed to appoint local representatives under a new social media law. (Reuters) Discoveries of exoplanets Scientists discover that WASP-107b is a super-puff. WASP-107b is an exoplanet the same size as Jupiter but with one tenth the mass, located 212 light years away from Earth. (CBS News) (Sci-News) More January 2021 events... Time: 02:37 UTC|Day: 25 January ◀ January 2021 ▶ S M T W T F S           1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18   19     20     21     22     23     24     25   26 27 28 29 30 31             More January 2021 events...    About this page Report a dispute • News about Wikipedia Ongoing events Business COVID-19 recession Disasters COVID-19 pandemic 2020–21 European windstorm season 2020–21 H5N8 outbreak 2018–20 Southern Africa drought Yemeni famine Politics Afghan peace process Armenian protests Belarusian protests Bulgarian protests Hong Kong protests Indian farmers protests Indonesia omnibus law protests Kashmir lock-down Libyan peace process Nicaraguan protests Nigerian protests Persian Gulf crisis Russian Protests Second Arab Spring Sudanese protests Thai protests United States election protests United States racial unrest Venezuelan presidential crisis Yellow vests movement edit section Elections and referendums Recent January 10: Kazakhstan, Majilis 10: Kyrgyzstan, President, Constitutional referendum 14: Uganda, President, Parliament 24: Portugal, President Upcoming February 7: Ecuador, President (1st), National Assembly 7: Liechtenstein, Landtag edit section Trials Recently concluded France: Charlie Hebdo shooting Vanuatu: Charlot Salwai Ongoing Argentina: Rodolfo Martín Villa Armenia: Serzh Sargsyan Colombia: Álvaro Uribe France: Nicolas Sarkozy Israel: Benjamin Netanyahu Kyrgyzstan: Almazbek Atambayev Malta: Yorgen Fenech South Africa: Jacob Zuma Spain: 2017 Catalonia attacks Sudan: Omar al-Bashir United States: Varsity Blues scandal International: The Gambia v. Myanmar Upcoming Indonesia: Edhy Prabowo, Juliari Batubara, Muhammad Rizieq Shihab Kosovo: Hashim Thaçi, Kadri Veseli Lesotho: Maesiah Thabane Rwanda: Paul Rusesabagina United States: Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, Elizabeth Holmes, Meng Wanzhou, R. Kelly, Ghislaine Maxwell Zimbabwe: Ignatius Chombo edit section Sport Association football 2020–21 Premier League 2020 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A 2020–21 UEFA Nations League 2020 Copa Libertadores 2020–21 UEFA Champions League group stage 2020–21 UEFA Europa League group stage Women's association football 2020–21 Champions League 2020–21 Division 1 Féminine 2020–21 FA WSL American football 2020 NFL season 2020 NCAA Division I FBS Baseball 2021 MLB season Basketball 2020–21 NBA season 2020–21 NCAA Division I men's basketball season 2020–21 NCAA Division I women's basketball season Golf 2020–21 PGA Tour Ice hockey 2020–21 KHL season 2020–21 NHL season Motorsport 2020 Formula One Championship 2020 Rally Championship Rugby union 2020–21 Premiership Rugby 2020–21 Pro14 2019–20 Top 14 Other sports seasons 2020–21 international cricket season 2020–21 snooker season 2020–21 curling season More details – current sports events edit section Recent deaths January 2021 24: George Armstrong 24: Gunnel Lindblom 23: Walter Bernstein 23: Tony Ferrer 23: Larry King 22: Hank Aaron 21: Henry Chmielewski 20: Mira Furlan 20: Sibusiso Moyo 20: Peter Swan 20: Ted Thompson 19: V. Shanta 18: Jean-Pierre Bacri 18: Lubomir Kavalek 18: Jimmie Rodgers 18: Don Sutton 17: Nikolay Antoshkin 17: Sammy Nestico 16: Salleh Abas 16: Michael Bryce 16: Chris Murphy 16: Phil Spector 15: Benjamin de Rothschild 14: Peter Mark Richman 14: Joanne Rogers 13: Tim Bogert 13: Siegfried Fischbacher 13: Sylvain Sylvain 13: Philip Tartaglia 12: Khalid bin Abdullah Al Saud 11: Sheldon Adelson 11: Eve Branson 11: Shashikumar Chitre 11: Don Miller 11: Prentice E. Sanders 11: Stacy Title 10: Nancy Walker Bush Ellis 10: Theo English 9: John Lutz 9: Ved Mehta 9: Ezra Nawi 9: John Reilly 8: Ed Bruce 8: Steve Carver 8: Diana Millay 7: Michael Apted 7: Tommy Lasorda 7: Jamie O'Hara 7: Marion Ramsey 7: Neil Sheehan 6: Bobby Few 6: Danilo Lim 5: John Richardson 4: Jonas Neubauer 4: Alexi Laiho 4: Lee Heung-kam 4: Tanya Roberts 4: M. R. Schunker 4: Barbara Shelley 4: Gregory Sierra 4: Gordon "Butch" Stewart 3: Dick Kulpa 3: Gerry Marsden edit section Ongoing conflicts Africa Algeria, Libya and Tunisia Maghreb insurgency Cameroon Anglophone Crisis Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and Nigeria Boko Haram insurgency Central African Republic Civil War Democratic Republic of the Congo Kivu conflict Allied Democratic Forces insurgency Ituri conflict Lord's Resistance Army insurgency Ethiopia Tigray conflict Mali Mali War Mozambique Insurgency in Cabo Delgado Nigeria Communal conflicts in Nigeria Somalia Civil war Sudan War in Darfur South Kordofan conflict Sudanese nomadic conflicts (incl. 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en-wikipedia-org-1753	----	Gongylos - Wikipedia Gongylos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Gongylos (disambiguation). Gongylos Likely portrait of one of the Gongylid rulers, from a 5th century coin of Pergamon.[1] Native name Γογγύλος Allegiance Achaemenid Empire Rank Governor Battles/wars Second Persian invasion of Greece in 479 BCE Possible coinage of Gongylos, with Apollo on the obverse, and Gongylos wearing the Persian cap on the reverse, as ruler of Pergamon for the Achaemenid Empire. Pergamon, Mysia, circa 450 BCE. The name of the city ΠΕΡΓ ("PERG"), appears for the first time on this coinage, the first evidence for the name of the city.[2] Pergamon Location of Pergamon and nearby Gambrium, Palaegambrium, Myrina and Grynium, where the Gongylids ruled. Gongylos (Γογγύλος), from Eretria in Euboea, was a 5th-century Greek statesman who served as an intermediary between the Spartans and Xerxes I of the Achaemenid Empire, and was a supporter of the latter.[2][3] After the defeat of the Second Persian invasion of Greece in 479 BCE, Gongylos was forced to flee and take refuge in the Achaemenid Empire.[4] There, Xerxes granted him the territory of Pergamon in Asia Minor from circa 470-460 BCE as a reward.[2] His descendants ruled over the city until at least 400 BCE, forming the Gongylid dynasty of satraps.[4] Gongylos was one of the several Greek aristocrats who took refuge in the Achaemenid Empire following reversals at home, other famous ones being Hippias, Demaratos, and Themistocles.[3] In general, those were generously welcomed by the Achaemenid kings, and received land grants to support them, and ruled over various cities of Asia Minor.[3] According to Xenophon (Anabasis, 7.8.8-17), when he arrived in Mysia in 399, he met Hellas, the widow of Gongylos and probable daughter of Themistocles,[5] who was living at Pergamon. His two sons, Gorgion and Gongylos the younger, ruled respectively over the cities of Gambrium and Palaegambrium for Gorgion, and Myrina and Grynium for Gongylos. Xenophon received some support from the descendants of Gongylos for his campaign into Asia Minor, as well as from the descendants of Demaratos, a Spartan exile who also had become a satrap for the Achaemenids, in the person of his descendant Prokles.[4][6] It is thought that the Greek dynasts of Pergamon were punished following the Peace of Antalcidas in 386 BCE for their support of the Greeks against the Achaemenids.[4] However, by the mid-4th century BCE, the Achaemenid satrap Orontes again allowed the people of Pergamon to settle on the acropolis of their city.[4] This lasted until the conquests of Alexander the Great, when Pergamon became part of the Macedonian Empire.[4] References[edit] ^ CNG: MYSIA, Pergamon. Mid 5th century BC. AR Diobol (11mm, 1.72 g, 10h). ^ a b c Dreyfus, Renée (1996). Pergamon: The Telephos Friez from the Great Altar; [exhibition, The Metrolopitan Museum of Art, New York, N. Y., 16 January - 14 April 1996...]. University of Texas Press. p. 104. ISBN 9780884010890. ^ a b c Miller, Margaret C. (2004). Athens and Persia in the Fifth Century BC: A Study in Cultural Receptivity. Cambridge University Press. p. 98. ISBN 9780521607582. ^ a b c d e f Dignas, Beate; Smith, R. R. R. (2012). Historical and Religious Memory in the Ancient World. OUP Oxford. pp. 120–122. ISBN 9780199572069. ^ Harvey, David; Wilkins, John (2002). The Rivals of Aristophanes: Studies in Athenian Old Comedy. ISD LLC. p. 199-201. ISBN 9781910589595. ^ Roller, Duane W. (2018). Cleopatra's Daughter: and Other Royal Women of the Augustan Era. Oxford University Press. p. 29. ISBN 9780190618841. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gongylos&oldid=951709375" Categories: 5th-century BC Greek people Satraps of the Achaemenid Empire Ancient Greek emigrants to the Achaemenid Empire People of the Greco-Persian Wars Medism Ancient Eretrians Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Edit links This page was last edited on 18 April 2020, at 13:22 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1754	----	Neferkare Tereru - Wikipedia Neferkare Tereru From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Neferkare Tereru Neferkare V The cartouche of Neferkare Tereru on the Abydos King List. Pharaoh Reign Unknown (Eighth Dynasty?) Predecessor Nikare? Successor Neferkahor? Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Neferkare Tereru nfr k3 rˁ tr(r)rw Neferkare Tereru (also Neferkare V) may have been an Eighth Dynasty king of ancient Egypt during the First Intermediate Period. His name is only attested on the Abydos King List (no. 49). References[edit] VIIth Dynasty 2175 - 2165, Accessed November 9, 2006. Abydos King List, Accessed November 9, 2006. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neferkare_Tereru&oldid=973453025" Categories: 22nd-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Ancient Egypt people stubs Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano ქართული Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands Português Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 17 August 2020, at 08:54 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1783	----	Sicilian Wars - Wikipedia Sicilian Wars From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Series of wars between Carthage and some Greek city-states in Magna Graecia Sicilian Wars Symbolic portrait of Greek-Carthaginian mingling in Sicily: to the left the Greek Gorgon and to the right the Phoenician-Punic "grinning" mask. Date 580–265 BC Location Sicily, North Africa, Sardinia, Tyrrhenian Sea, Ionian Sea, Strait of Sicily, southern Italy Result Inconclusive Territorial changes Carthage retains Western Sicily and the Greeks the eastern part until the Punic Wars Belligerents Carthage Greek city-states of Magna Graecia, led by Syracuse Commanders and leaders Hamilcar Mago † Hannibal Mago † Himilco Mago II Gelo Dionysius I Timoleon Agathocles of Syracuse v t e Sicilian Wars 1st Lilybaeum 1st Himera Selinus 2nd Himera 1st Akragas Gela Camarina Motya Segesta Messene Catana 1st Syracuse Tauromenium Abacaenum Chrysas Cabala Cronium 2nd Lilybaeum Drepana 2nd Syracuse Crimissus Himera River 3rd Syracuse 1st White Tunis 2nd White Tunis 4th Syracuse 3rd Lilybaeum Strait of Messina The Sicilian Wars, or Greco-Punic Wars, were a series of conflicts fought between Ancient Carthage and the Greek city-states led by Syracuse, Sicily, over control of Sicily and the western Mediterranean between 580–265 BC. Carthage's economic success and its dependence on seaborne trade led to the creation of a powerful navy to discourage both pirates and rival nations. They had inherited their naval strength and experience from their forebearers, the Phoenicians, but had increased it because, unlike the Phoenicians, the Punics did not want to rely on a foreign nation's aid. This, coupled with its success and growing hegemony, brought Carthage into increasing conflict with the Greeks, the other major power contending for control of the central Mediterranean. The Greeks, like the Phoenicians, were expert sailors who had established thriving colonies throughout the Mediterranean. These two rivals fought their wars on the island of Sicily, which lay close to Carthage. From their earliest days, both the Greeks and Phoenicians had been attracted to the large island, establishing a large number of colonies and trading posts along its coasts. Small battles had been fought between these settlements for centuries. No Carthaginian records of the war exist today because when the city was destroyed in 146 BC by the Romans, the books from Carthage's library were distributed among the nearby African tribes. None remain on the topic of Carthaginian history. As a result, most of what we know about the Sicilian Wars comes from Greek historians. Contents 1 Background 1.1 Carthaginian hegemony 1.2 Greek settlement 1.2.1 Carthage joins the fight 1.3 Sicilian Greek tyrants 1.3.1 Dorian Greeks become dominant in Sicily 1.3.2 Ionian Greeks call on Carthage 2 The First Sicilian War (480 BC) 3 The Second Sicilian War (410 BC–404 BC) 4 The Third Sicilian War (398 BC–393 BC) 5 The Fourth Sicilian War (383 BC–376 BC) 6 The Fifth Sicilian War (368 BC–367 BC) 7 The Sixth Sicilian War (345 BC–341 BC) 8 The Seventh Sicilian War (311 BC–306 BC) 9 Pyrrhic War (278 BC–276 BC) 10 Notes Background[edit] The Phoenicians had established trading posts all over the coast of Sicily after 900 BC, but had never penetrated far inland. They had traded with the Elymians, Sicani and Sicels and had ultimately withdrawn without resistance to Motya, Panormus and Soluntum in the western part of the island when the Greek colonists arrived after 750 BC.[1] These Phoenician cities remained independent until becoming part of the Carthaginian hegemony some time after 540 BC.[2] Carthaginian hegemony[edit] Carthage created its hegemony in part to resist Greek encroachments in the established Phoenician sphere of influence. Phoenicians initially (750–650 BC) did not resist the Greek colonists, but after the Greeks had reached Iberia sometime after 638 BC, Carthage emerged as the leader of Phoenician resistance. During the 6th century BC, mostly under the leadership of the Magonid dynasty, Carthage established an empire which would commercially dominate the western Mediterranean until the 2nd century BC.[3] The Phoenicians in Sicily and the Elymians had united to defeat the Greeks of Selinus and Rhodes near Lilybaeum in 580 BC, the first such recorded incident in Sicily. The next known Greek incursion took place 70 years later. Greek settlement[edit] The Greek-colonized zone encompassing Sicily and southern Italy came to be known as Magna Graecia. The Greeks living in this area behaved pretty much like the mainland Greeks, expanding their political and commercial domain at the expense of their neighbors while keeping the feud between the Ionians and the Dorians alive. In Sicily, the Ionian Greeks on the whole had friendly relations with native Sicilians and the Phoenicians, but the Dorian Greek colonies were comparatively more aggressive, expanding inland from the coast at the expense of the natives to expand their domain. Conflicts among the Greek colonies and between the natives and Greeks had erupted, but these were mostly localized affairs. Trade also flourished between the natives, the Greeks and the Phoenicians, and the Greek colonies became prosperous. This prosperity enabled some of the Greek cities to start to expand their territories again, ultimately leading to the events known as the First Sicilian War. Carthage joins the fight[edit] The Carthaginian Malchus is said to have "conquered all Sicily" and sent captured booty to Tyre some time after 540 BC, which probably meant that Motya, Panormus and Solus had fallen under Carthaginian control. The growth of Selinus and Himera during this period indicates the Carthaginians and Greeks did not confront one another at this time. Thirty years later Prince Dorieus, having lost the Spartan throne, showed up to colonize Eryx – after being expelled from Libya by Carthage in 511 BC following a three-year struggle. Carthage aided Segesta to defeat the expedition of Dorieus in 510 BC – Greek survivors then founded Heraclea Minoa.[4] Sicilian Greeks (probably the cities of Akragas, Gela and Selinus) fought an undated war of revenge against Carthage, which led to the destruction of Minoa and a treaty which brought economic benefits for the Greeks.[5] An appeal for aid to avenge the death of Dorieus was ignored by mainland Greece, even by the brother of Dorieus Leonidas of Sparta, famous for his role at Thermopylae in 480 BC. This episode possibly demonstrated the futility of opposing Carthage by single Greek cities[6] or the unreliability of aid from mainland Greece, a situation that would change with the rise of the Greek tyrants in Sicily. Two Greeks from Gela, Cleander and Gelo, had been involved in this war and they would become the catalysts of the events that followed. Sicilian Greek tyrants[edit] While the events in western Sicily played out and Carthage remained engaged in Sardinia, most of the Greek colonies in Sicily fell under the rule of tyrants. The tyrants of Gela, Akragas and Rhegion, successfully expanded their respective dominions at the expense of native Sicilians and other Greek cities between 505 and 480 BC, with the Dorian city of Gela being the most successful. Dorian Greeks become dominant in Sicily[edit] Cleander of Gela (505-498 BC) and his brother Hippocrates (498-491) successfully took over both Ionian and Dorian Greek territory, and by 490 BC, Zankle, Leontini, Catana, Naxos, besides neighboring Sicel lands and Camarina had fallen under Gelan control. Gelo, successor of Hippocrates, captured Syracuse in 485 BC and made the city his capital. By using ethnic cleansing, deportation and enslavement,[7] Gelo transformed the former Ionian cities into Dorian ones and made Syracuse the dominant power in Sicily. Meanwhile, Akragas had successfully taken over Sikan and Sicel lands under the tyrant Theron of Acragas (488-472 BC). To forestall any conflicts between Akragas and Syracuse, Gelo and Theron married into each other's families, creating a united front against the Sicels and Ionian Greeks of Sicily. The major part of the resources and manpower of Greek Sicily was thus concentrated in the hands of these two aggressive tyrants, a threat to all other Sicilian powers. Ionian Greeks call on Carthage[edit] To counter this Doric threat, Anaxilas of Rhegion from Italy, who had captured Zankle from Gelo in 490 BC, allied himself with Terrilus, the tyrant of Himera, and married his daughter.[8] Himera and Rhegion next became allies of Carthage, the nearest foreign power strong enough to provide support. Selinunte, a Doric city whose territory bordered Theron's domain, also became a Carthaginian ally – perhaps the fear of Theron and the destruction of Megara Hyblaea (mother city of Selinus) by Gelo in 483 BC, had played a part in this decision. Thus, three blocs of power were delicately balanced in Sicily by 483 BC – Ionians dominating the north, Carthage the west, Dorians the east and south. The Sicels and Sikans, sandwiched in the middle, remained passive, but the Elymians joined the Carthaginian alliance. The First Sicilian War (480 BC)[edit] Romanticised representation of the Battle of Himera (480 BC). Painted by Giuseppe Sciuti in 1873. Carthage responded to the call for aid by Terrilus, tyrant of Himera, after Theron deposed him in 483 BC to set up an expedition to Sicily. Carthage could not ignore this imminent threat because the Gelo-Theron alliance was about to take over the whole of Sicily, and Hamilcar was a guest friend of Terrilus. Carthage may have also chosen this time to attack because a Persian fleet attacked mainland Greece in the same year. The theory that there was an alliance with Persia is disputed, because Carthage neither liked foreign involvement in their wars, nor wanted to contribute to foreign wars, unless they had strong reasons to do so. But because control of Sicily was a valuable prize for Carthage and because Carthage fielded its largest military force to date, under the leadership of the general Hamilcar, Carthage was eager for war. Traditional accounts give Hamilcar's army a strength of 300,000 men; this number seems unlikely because, even at its peak, the Carthaginian Empire would have only been able to muster a force of about 50,000 to 100,000 men.[citation needed] If Carthage had allied with Persia, they might have supplied Carthage mercenaries and aid, which the Persians undoubtedly had, but there is no evidence to support this cooperation between the Carthaginians and the Persians. En route to Sicily, the Punic fleet suffered losses, possibly severe, due to poor weather. After landing at Ziz, the Punic name for Panormus, modern-day Palermo, Hamilcar was then decisively defeated by Gelo at the Battle of Himera, which was said to have occurred on the same day as the Battle of Salamis.[9] Hamilcar was either killed during the battle or committed suicide in shame. The loss caused changes in the political and economic landscape of Carthage, the old government of entrenched nobility was ousted, replaced by the Carthaginian Republic. The king still remained, but he had very little power and most power was entrusted to the Council of Elders. Carthage paid 2,000 talents as reparations to the Greeks, and did not intervene in Sicily for 70 years. In Sicily, Carthage lost no territory and the Greeks gained none. Syracuse did not attack Rhegion or Selinus, allies of Carthage. The booty from the war helped to fund a public building program in Sicily, Greek culture flourishing as a result. Trading activity saw the prosperity of the Greek cities increase and the wealth of Akragas began to rival that of Sybaris. Gelo died in 478 BC and, within the next 20 years, the Greek tyrants were overthrown and the Syracuse-Akragas alliance fragmented into 11 feuding commonwealths under oligarchs and democracies. Their bickering and future expansionist policies led to the Second Sicilian war. The Second Sicilian War (410 BC–404 BC)[edit] While the Greek cities in Sicily bickered and prospered for 70 years after Himera, Carthage had conquered the northern fertile half of modern-day Tunisia, and strengthened and founded new colonies in North Africa, such as Leptis and Oea, modern Tripoli. Carthage had also sponsored the journey of Mago Barca (not to be confused with Mago Barca, Hannibal Barca's brother) across the Sahara Desert to Cyrenaica, and Hanno the Navigator's journey down the African coast. The Iberian colonies had seceded in that year with the help of the Iberians, cutting off Carthage's major supply of silver and copper. In Sicily, Dorian-Greek Selinus and Ionian-Greek (former Elymian) Segesta renewed their rivalry. Selinus encroached on Segestan land and defeated the Segestians in 416 BC. Carthage turned down their plea for help, but Athens responded to the Segestan plea and the Sicilian Expedition sent by Athens was destroyed in 413 BC by the joint effort of the Sicilian cities with Spartan aid. Selinus again defeated Segesta in 411 BC. This time Segesta submitted to Carthage, and a Carthaginian relief force sent by Hannibal Mago helped Segesta defeat Selinus in 410 BC. Carthage sought to end the matter diplomatically while assembling a larger force. After a round of diplomacy involving Carthage, Segesta, Selinus, and Syracuse failed to bring about a reconciliation between Segesta and Selinus, Hannibal Mago set out for Sicily with a larger force. He succeeded in capturing Selinus after winning the Battle of Selinus, then destroyed Himera after winning the Second Battle of Himera despite Syracusan intervention. Hannibal did not press on to attack Akragas or Syracuse, but returned triumphantly to Carthage with the spoils of war in 409 BC. While Syracuse and Akragas, the strongest and richest cities of Sicily, took no action against Carthage, the renegade Syracusan general Hermocrates raised a small army and raided Punic territory from his base Selinus. He managed to defeat the forces of Motya and Panormus before losing his life in a coup attempt in Syracuse. In retaliation Hannibal Mago led a second Carthaginian expedition in 406 BC. This time the Carthaginians met with fierce resistance and ill-fortune. During the Siege of Akragas the Carthaginian forces were ravaged by plague, and Hannibal Mago himself succumbed to it. Himilco, his successor, captured and sacked Akragas, then captured the city of Gela, sacked Camarina and repeatedly defeated the army of Dionysius I, the new tyrant of Syracuse. The plague struck the Carthaginian army again, and Himilco agreed to a peace treaty that left the Carthaginians in control of all the recent conquests, with Selinus, Thermae, Akragas, Gela and Camarina as tributary vassals. Carthaginian power was at its peak in Sicily. The Third Sicilian War (398 BC–393 BC)[edit] By 398 BC, Dionysius had consolidated his strength and broke the peace treaty, commencing the Siege of Motya and capturing the city. Himilco responded decisively, leading an expedition which not only reclaimed Motya, but also captured Messina. Ancient catapult used in the siege of Motya Finally, he laid siege to Syracuse itself after decisively defeating the Greeks in the naval Battle of Catana. The siege met with great success throughout 397 BC, but in 396 BC plague again ravaged the Carthaginian forces, and they collapsed. Carthage lost her new Greek conquests but retained control over the western territories and the Elymians. No treaty was signed between the belligerents to signal the end of the war. Dionysius soon rebuilt his power and sacked Solus in 396 BC. He was engaged in eastern Sicily during 396-393 BC, including the Siege of Tauromenium (394 BC). At this time, Carthage was occupied in Africa dealing with a rebellion. In 393 BC, Mago, successor of Himilco, led an attack on Messina, but was defeated near Abacaenum by Dionysius. Reinforced by Carthage, Mago led another expedition through central Sicily, but ran into trouble near the River Chrysas. Dionysius also faced difficulties of his own, and a peace treaty was concluded that basically ensured Carthage and Syracuse left each other alone in their respective spheres of influence. The Fourth Sicilian War (383 BC–376 BC)[edit] Dionysius opened hostilities again in 383 BC. Mago allied with the Italiot league led by Taras and landed in force at Bruttium, forcing Syracuse into a two front war. Details of the first four years of campaigns are sketchy, but in 378 BC Dionysius defeated Mago in Sicily in the Battle of Cabala. Carthage, also faced with rebellions in Africa and Sardinia, sued for peace. Dionysius asked Carthage to evacuate all Sicily, so war was again renewed, and Himilco, son of Mago, destroyed the Syracusan army at the Battle of Cronium in 376 BC. The subsequent peace treaty forced Dionysius to pay 1000 talents as reparations and left Carthage in control of Western Sicily. The Fifth Sicilian War (368 BC–367 BC)[edit] Dionysius again attacked Punic possessions in 368 BC, and laid siege to Lilybaeum. The defeat of his fleet was a severe setback. After his death in 367 BC, his son Dionysius II made peace with Carthage, and Carthage retained her Sicilian possessions west of the Halcyas and Himeras rivers. The Sixth Sicilian War (345 BC–341 BC)[edit] Carthage became embroiled in Syracusan politics in 345 BC, and her forces managed to enter the city at the invitation of one of the political contenders. The commander Mago bungled the affair, retreated to Africa and killed himself to escape punishment. Timoleon assumed power in Syracuse in 343 BC and started raiding Carthaginian possessions in Sicily. The Carthaginian expedition to Sicily was destroyed in the Battle of the Crimissus in 341 BC. The following peace treaty left Carthage in control of territories west of the Halcyas river. The Seventh Sicilian War (311 BC–306 BC)[edit] In 315 BC Agathocles, the tyrant of Syracuse, seized the city of Messana, present-day Messina. In 311 BC, he invaded the last Carthaginian holdings on Sicily, which broke the terms of the current peace treaty, and he laid siege to Akragas. Hamilcar, grandson of Hanno the Navigator, successfully led the Carthaginian counterattack. He defeated Agathocles in the Battle of the Himera River in 311 BC. Agathocles had to retreat to Syracuse while Hamilcar won control over the rest of Sicily. In the same year, he laid siege to Syracuse itself. Carthaginian hoplite (4th century BC) In desperation, Agathocles secretly led an expedition of 14,000 men to the mainland of Africa, hoping to save his rule by leading a counterstrike against Carthage itself. In this, he was successful: Carthage was forced to recall Hamilcar and most of his army from Sicily to face the new and unexpected threat. The two armies met in the first Battle of White Tunis outside Carthage. The Carthaginian army, under Hanno and Hamilcar, was defeated. Agathocles and his forces laid siege to Carthage, but it was too strongly fortified for them to assault. Instead, the Greeks slowly occupied the whole of northern Tunisia until they were defeated two years later in 307 BC. Agathocles himself escaped back to Sicily and negotiated a peace treaty with the Carthaginians in 306, in which Agathokles retained control of the eastern half of the island. Pyrrhic War (278 BC–276 BC)[edit] Main article: Pyrrhic War After Agathocles sued for peace, Carthage enjoyed a brief, unchallenged period of control of Sicily, which ended with the Pyrrhic War. The Sicilian Pyrrhic expedition, the second phase of the Pyrrhic War (280-265 BC), which ultimately led to the Punic Wars, can be considered the ultimate part of the Greek-Punic wars. Pyrrhus of Epirus arrived in Sicily to rescue the island from the Carthaginians. He conquered Palermo, Eryx and Iaitias but his siege of Lilybaeum failed. So he returned to Italy. Rome, despite its close proximity to Sicily, was not involved in the Sicilian Wars of the 5th and 4th centuries BC because of its focus on local conflicts in Latium during the 5th century BC and its conquest of Italy proper during the 4th century BC. Rome's later involvement in Sicily ended the indecisive warfare on the island. Notes[edit] ^ Thucydides VI.2.6 ^ Freeman, Edward A., History of Sicily, Volume 1, pp. 283–297 – public domain book ^ Markoe, Glenn E., "Phoenicians", pp. 54–55 ISBN 0-520-22614-3 ^ Diodorus Siculus IV.23 ^ Freeman, Edward A., History of Sicily, Volume 2, p. 97-100 ^ Baker, G.P., Hannibal, p. 15 ^ Freeman, Edward A., History of Sicily, Volume 2, pp. 130-31 – public domain book ^ Herodotus, VII.163 ^ Herodotus, 7.166 v t e Ancient Greek wars Mycenaean Trojan War Archaic First Messenian War Lelantine War Second Messenian War First Sacred War Sicilian Wars Classical Greco-Persian Wars Aeginetan War Wars of the Delian League Third Messenian War First Peloponnesian War Second Sacred War Samian War Second Peloponnesian War Phyle Campaign Corinthian War Boeotian War Wars of the Theban hegemony Theban–Spartan War Social War (357–355 BC) Third Sacred War Foreign War Expansion of Macedonia Wars of Alexander the Great Hellenistic Lamian War Wars of the Diadochi Antigonid–Nabataean confrontations Seleucid–Mauryan war Pyrrhic War Syrian Wars Pyrrhus' invasion of the Peloponnese Chremonidean War Seleucid–Parthian wars Cleomenean War Lyttian War Social War (220–217 BC) First Macedonian War Cretan War Second Macedonian War Roman–Seleucid War Aetolian War War against Nabis Galatian War Third Macedonian War Maccabean Revolt Seleucid Dynastic Wars Fourth Macedonian War Achaean War Mithridatic Wars (First, Second, Third) Last war of the Roman Republic Military history v t e Ancient Roman wars Wars of the Roman Republic Roman–Etruscan Wars Roman-Aequian wars Roman–Latin wars Roman–Hernician wars Roman-Volscian wars Samnite Wars Pyrrhic War Punic Wars (First, Second, Third) Illyrian Wars (First, Second, Third) Macedonian Wars (First, Second, Third, Fourth) Roman–Seleucid War Aetolian War Galatian War Roman conquest of Hispania (Celtiberian Wars, Lusitanian War, Numantine War, Sertorian War, Cantabrian Wars) Achaean War Jugurthine War Cimbrian War Servile Wars (First, Second, Third) Social War Sulla's civil wars (First, Second) Mithridatic Wars (First, Second, Third) Gallic Wars Invasions of Britain Caesar's Civil War End of the Republic (Post-Caesarian, Liberators', Sicilian, Perusine, Last) Wars of the Roman Empire Germanic wars (Teutoburg, Marcomannic, Alemannic, Gothic, Visigothic) Wars in Britain Boudica's revolt Armenian War Civil War of 69 Jewish–Roman wars Domitian's Dacian War Trajan's Dacian Wars Persian Wars Civil Wars of the Third Century Wars of the Fall of the Western Roman Empire Military history of ancient Rome Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sicilian_Wars&oldid=993104403" Categories: Sicilian Wars Ancient Sicily Military history of Sicily 4th-century BC conflicts 5th-century BC conflicts Wars involving Carthage Wars involving city-states of Magna Graecia 4th century BC in the Roman Republic 5th century BC in the Roman Republic Invasions of Europe Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2008 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه Български Català Čeština Español Euskara Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina Nederlands 日本語 Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Türkçe 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 8 December 2020, at 20:27 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1792	----	Darius the Great - Wikipedia Darius the Great From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Artobazan) Jump to navigation Jump to search Third King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Darius the Great 𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁 King of Kings Great King King of Persia King of Babylon Pharaoh of Egypt King of Countries The relief stone of Darius the Great in the Behistun Inscription King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Reign 29 September 522 BCE – October 486 BCE Coronation Pasargadae Predecessor Bardiya Successor Xerxes I Pharaoh of Egypt Reign September 522 BCE – October 486 BCE Predecessor Bardiya Successor Xerxes I Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) rꜤ-sttw Seteture Progeny of Ra Nomen drjwš Deriush Darius Horus name mnḫ-jb Menekhib The one of splendid mind Second Horus name: wr-nb-mrj-šmꜤw Wernebmeryshemau Chieftain and Lord, beloved of Upper Egypt Nebty name zꜣ-jmn... Zamun... Son of Amun.. Golden Horus ? ? ? ? [1] Born 550 BCE Died October 486 BCE (aged approximately 64) Burial Naqsh-e Rostam Spouse Atossa Artystone Parmys Phratagone Phaidime a daughter of Gobryas Issue Artobazanes Xerxes I Ariabignes Arsamenes Masistes Achaemenes Arsames Gobryas Ariomardus Abriokomas Hyperantes Artazostre Full name Dārayava(h)uš Dynasty Achaemenid Father Hystaspes Mother Rhodogune or Irdabama Religion Indo-Iranian religion (possibly Zoroastrianism) Darius I (Old Persian: 𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁, romanized: Dārayava(h)uš; New Persian: داریوش‎; Hebrew: דָּרְיָוֶשׁ‎, Modern: Darəyaveš, Tiberian: Dārǝyāweš; c. 550 – 486 BCE), commonly known as Darius the Great, was the third Persian King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire, reigning from 522 BCE until his death in 486 BCE. He ruled the empire at its peak, when it included much of West Asia, parts of the Caucasus, parts of the Balkans (Thrace-Macedonia, and Paeonia), most of the Black Sea coastal regions, Central Asia, as far as the Indus Valley in the far east and portions of north and northeast Africa including Egypt (Mudrâya), eastern Libya, and coastal Sudan.[2][3] Darius ascended the throne by overthrowing the legitimate Achaemenid monarch Bardiya, whom he later fabricated to be an imposter named Gaumata. The new king met with rebellions throughout his kingdom and quelled them each time. A major event in Darius's life was his expedition to punish Athens and Eretria for their aid in the Ionian Revolt and subjugate Greece. Although ultimately ending in failure at the Battle of Marathon, Darius succeeded in the re-subjugation of Thrace, expansion of the empire through the conquest of Macedon, the Cyclades and the island of Naxos and the sacking of the city of Eretria. Darius organized the empire by dividing it into provinces and placing satraps to govern it. He organized Achaemenid coinage as a new uniform monetary system, along with making Aramaic the official language of the empire. He also put the empire in better standing by building roads and introducing standard weights and measures. Through these changes, the empire was centralized and unified.[4] Darius also worked on construction projects throughout the empire, focusing on Susa, Pasargadae, Persepolis, Babylon, and Egypt. He had the cliff-face Behistun Inscription carved to record his conquests, an important testimony of the Old Persian language. Darius is mentioned in the biblical books of Haggai, Zechariah, and Ezra–Nehemiah. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Primary sources 3 Early life 3.1 Accession 4 Early reign 4.1 Early revolts 4.2 Elimination of Intaphernes 5 Military campaigns 5.1 Egyptian campaign 5.2 Invasion of the Indus Valley 5.3 Babylonian revolt 5.4 European Scythian campaign 5.5 Persian invasion of Greece 6 Family 7 Death 8 Government 8.1 Organization 8.2 Economy 8.3 Religion 8.4 Building projects 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Bibliography 13 Further reading 14 External links Etymology[edit] Main article: Darius (given name) The name of Darius I in Old Persian cuneiform on the DNa inscription of his tomb: Dārayavauš (𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁) Dārīus and Dārēus are the Latin forms of the Greek Dareîos (Δαρεῖος), itself from Old Persian Dārayauš (𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎢𐏁, d-a-r-y-uš), which is a shortened form of Dārayavaʰuš (𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁, d-a-r-y-v-u-š).[5] The longer form is also seen to have been reflected in the Elamite Da-ri-(y)a-ma-u-iš, Babylonian Da-(a-)ri-ia-(a-)muš, Aramaic drywhwš (𐡃𐡓𐡉𐡅𐡄𐡅𐡔), and possibly the longer Greek form Dareiaîos (Δαρειαῖος).[5] The name is a nominative form meaning "he who holds firm the good(ness)", which can be seen by the first part dāraya, meaning "holder", and the adverb vau, meaning "goodness".[5] Primary sources[edit] See also: Behistun Inscription, DNa inscription, and Herodotus Apadana foundation tablets of Darius the Great Gold foundation tablets of Darius I for the Apadana Palace, in their original stone box. The Apadana coin hoard had been deposited underneath. Circa 510 BC. One of the two gold deposition plates. Two more were in silver. They all had the same trilingual inscription (DPh inscription). At some time between his coronation and his death, Darius left a tri-lingual monumental relief on Mount Behistun, which was written in Elamite, Old Persian and Babylonian. The inscription begins with a brief autobiography including his ancestry and lineage. To aid the presentation of his ancestry, Darius wrote down the sequence of events that occurred after the death of Cyrus the Great.[6][7] Darius mentions several times that he is the rightful king by the grace of the supreme deity Ahura Mazda. In addition, further texts and monuments from Persepolis have been found, as well as a clay tablet containing an Old Persian cuneiform of Darius from Gherla, Romania (Harmatta) and a letter from Darius to Gadates, preserved in a Greek text of the Roman period.[8][9][10][11] In the foundation tablets of Apadana Palace, Darius described in Old Persian cuneiform the extent of his Empire in broad geographical terms:[12][13] Darius the great king, king of kings, king of countries, son of Hystaspes, an Achaemenid. King Darius says: This is the kingdom which I hold, from the Sacae who are beyond Sogdia to Kush, and from Sind (Old Persian: 𐏃𐎡𐎭𐎢𐎺, "Hidauv", locative of "Hiduš", i.e. "Indus valley") to Lydia (Old Persian: "Spardâ") – [this is] what Ahuramazda, the greatest of gods, bestowed upon me. May Ahuramazda protect me and my royal house! — DPh inscription of Darius I in the foundations of the Apadana Palace Herodotus, a Greek historian and author of The Histories, provided an account of many Persian kings and the Greco-Persian Wars. He wrote extensively on Darius, spanning half of Book 3 along with Books 4, 5 and 6. It begins with the removal of the alleged usurper Gaumata and continues to the end of Darius's reign.[8] Early life[edit] The predecessor of Darius: Dariya/ Gaumata "Gaumata" being trampled upon by Darius the Great, Behistun inscription. The Old Persian inscription reads "This is Gaumâta, the Magian. He lied, saying "I am Smerdis, the son of Cyrus, I am king"."[14] Portrait of Achaemenid King Bardiya, or "Gaumata", from the reliefs at Behistun (detail). Darius toppled the previous Achaemenid ruler (here depicted in the reliefs of the Behistun inscription) to acquire the throne. Darius was the eldest of five sons to Hystaspes.[8] The identity of his mother is uncertain. According to the modern historian Alireza Shapour Shahbazi (1994), Darius' mother was a certain Rhodogune.[8] However, according to Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones (2013), recently uncovered texts in Persepolis indicates that his mother was Irdabama, an affluent landowner descended from a family of local Elamite rulers.[15] Richard Stoneman likewise refers Irdabama to as the mother of Darius.[16] The Behistun Inscription of Darius states that his father was satrap of Bactria in 522 BCE.[a] According to Herodotus (III.139), Darius, prior to seizing power and "of no consequence at the time", had served as a spearman (doryphoros) in the Egyptian campaign (528–525 BCE) of Cambyses II, then the Persian Great King;[19] this is often interpreted to mean he was the king's personal spear-carrier, an important role. Hystaspes was an officer in Cyrus' army and a noble of his court.[20] Before Cyrus and his army crossed the Aras River to battle with the Armenians, he installed his son Cambyses II as king in case he should not return from battle.[21] However, once Cyrus had crossed the Aras River, he had a vision in which Darius had wings atop his shoulders and stood upon the confines of Europe and Asia (the known world). When Cyrus awoke from the dream, he inferred it as a great danger to the future security of the empire, as it meant that Darius would one day rule the whole world. However, his son Cambyses was the heir to the throne, not Darius, causing Cyrus to wonder if Darius was forming treasonable and ambitious designs. This led Cyrus to order Hystaspes to go back to Persis and watch over his son strictly, until Cyrus himself returned.[22] Darius did not seem to have any treasonous thoughts as Cambyses II ascended the throne peacefully; and, through promotion, Darius was eventually elevated to be Cambyses's personal lancer. Accession[edit] Lineage of Darius the Great according to the Behistun Inscription. There are different accounts of the rise of Darius to the throne from both Darius himself and Greek historians. The oldest records report a convoluted sequence of events in which Cambyses II lost his mind, murdered his brother Bardiya, and was killed by an infected leg wound. After this, Darius and a group of six nobles traveled to Sikayauvati to kill an usurper, Gaumata, who had taken the throne by pretending to be Bardiya during the true king's absence. Darius's account, written at the Behistun Inscription, states that Cambyses II killed his own brother Bardiya, but that this murder was not known among the Iranian people. A would-be usurper named Gaumata came and lied to the people, stating he was Bardiya.[23] The Iranians had grown rebellious against Cambyses's rule and on 11 March 522 BCE a revolt against Cambyses broke out in his absence. On 1 July, the Iranian people chose to be under the leadership of Gaumata, as "Bardiya". No member of the Achaemenid family would rise against Gaumata for the safety of their own life. Darius, who had served Cambyses as his lance-bearer until the deposed ruler's death, prayed for aid and in September 522 BCE, along with Otanes, Intaphrenes, Gobryas, Hydarnes, Megabyzus and Aspathines, killed Gaumata in the fortress of Sikayauvati.[23] Cylinder seal of Darius the Great Impression of a cylinder seal of King Darius the Great hunting in a chariot, reading "I am Darius, the Great King" in Old Persian (𐎠𐎭𐎶𐏐𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁𐎴 𐏋, "adam Dārayavaʰuš xšāyaθiya"), Elamite and Babylonian. The word 'great' only appears in Babylonian. British Museum, excavated in Thebes, Egypt.[24][25][26] Herodotus provides a dubious account of Darius's ascension: Several days after Gaumata had been assassinated, Darius and the other six nobles discussed the fate of the empire. At first, the seven discussed the form of government; a democratic republic (Isonomia) was strongly pushed by Otanes, an oligarchy was pushed by Megabyzus, while Darius pushed for a monarchy. After stating that a republic would lead to corruption and internal fighting, while a monarchy would be led with a single-mindedness not possible in other governments, Darius was able to convince the other nobles. To decide who would become the monarch, six of them decided on a test, with Otanes abstaining, as he had no interest in being king. They were to gather outside the palace, mounted on their horses at sunrise, and the man whose horse neighed first in recognition of the rising sun would become king. According to Herodotus, Darius had a slave, Oebares, who rubbed his hand over the genitals of a mare that Darius's horse favored. When the six gathered, Oebares placed his hands beside the nostrils of Darius' horse, who became excited at the scent and neighed. This was followed by lightning and thunder, leading the others to dismount and kneel before Darius in recognition of his apparent divine providence.[27] In this account, Darius himself claimed that he achieved the throne not through fraud, but cunning, even erecting a statue of himself mounted on his neighing horse with the inscription: "Darius, son of Hystaspes, obtained the sovereignty of Persia by the sagacity of his horse and the ingenious contrivance of Oebares, his groom."[28] According to the accounts of Greek historians, Cambyses II had left Patizeithes in charge of the kingdom when he headed for Egypt. He later sent Prexaspes to murder Bardiya. After the killing, Patizeithes put his brother Gaumata, a Magian who resembled Bardiya, on the throne and declared him the Great King. Otanes discovered that Gaumata was an impostor, and along with six other Iranian nobles including Darius, created a plan to oust the pseudo-Bardiya. After killing the impostor along with his brother Patizeithes and other Magians, Darius was crowned king the following morning.[8] The details regarding Darius' rise to power is generally acknowledged as forgery and was in reality used as a concealment of his overthrow and murder of Cyrus' rightful successor, Bardiya.[29] To legitimize his rule, Darius had a common origin fabricated between himself and Cyrus by designating Achaemenes as the eponymous founder of their dynasty.[29] In reality, Darius was not from the same house as Cyrus and his forebears, the rulers of Anshan.[29][30] Early reign[edit] Early revolts[edit] Following his coronation at Pasargadae, Darius moved to Ecbatana. He soon learned that support for Bardiya was strong, and revolts in Elam and Babylonia had broken out.[31] Darius ended the Elamite revolt when the revolutionary leader Aschina was captured and executed in Susa. After three months the revolt in Babylonia had ended. While in Babylonia, Darius learned a revolution had broken out in Bactria, a satrapy which had always been in favour of Darius, and had initially volunteered an army of soldiers to quell revolts. Following this, revolts broke out in Persis, the homeland of the Persians and Darius and then in Elam and Babylonia, followed by in Media, Parthia, Assyria, and Egypt.[32] By 522 BCE, there were revolts against Darius in most parts of the Achaemenid Empire leaving the empire in turmoil. Even though Darius did not seem to have the support of the populace, Darius had a loyal army, led by close confidants and nobles (including the six nobles who had helped him remove Gaumata). With their support, Darius was able to suppress and quell all revolts within a year. In Darius's words, he had killed a total of nine "lying kings" through the quelling of revolutions.[33] Darius left a detailed account of these revolutions in the Behistun Inscription.[33] Elimination of Intaphernes[edit] One of the significant events of Darius's early reign was the slaying of Intaphernes, one of the seven noblemen who had deposed the previous ruler and installed Darius as the new monarch.[34] The seven had made an agreement that they could all visit the new king whenever they pleased, except when he was with a woman.[34] One evening, Intaphernes went to the palace to meet Darius, but was stopped by two officers who stated that Darius was with a woman.[34] Becoming enraged and insulted, Intaphernes drew his sword and cut off the ears and noses of the two officers.[34] While leaving the palace, he took the bridle from his horse, and tied the two officers together. The officers went to the king and showed him what Intaphernes had done to them. Darius began to fear for his own safety; he thought that all seven noblemen had banded together to rebel against him and that the attack against his officers was the first sign of revolt. He sent a messenger to each of the noblemen, asking them if they approved of Intaphernes's actions. They denied and disavowed any connection with Intaphernes's actions, stating that they stood by their decision to appoint Darius as King of Kings. Darius' choice to ask the noblemen indicates that he was not yet completely sure of his authority.[34] Taking precautions against further resistance, Darius sent soldiers to seize Intaphernes, along with his son, family members, relatives and any friends who were capable of arming themselves. Darius believed that Intaphernes was planning a rebellion, but when he was brought to the court, there was no proof of any such plan. Nonetheless, Darius killed Intaphernes's entire family, excluding his wife's brother and son. She was asked to choose between her brother and son. She chose her brother to live. Her reasoning for doing so was that she could have another husband and another son, but she would always have but one brother. Darius was impressed by her response and spared both her brother's and her son's life.[35] Military campaigns[edit] Egyptian alabaster vase of Darius I with quadrilingual hieroglyphic and cuneiform inscriptions. The hieroglyph on the vase reads: "King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Lord of the Two Lands, Darius, living forever, year 36".[36][37] Egyptian campaign[edit] Main article: Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt After securing his authority over the entire empire, Darius embarked on a campaign to Egypt where he defeated the armies of the Pharaoh and secured the lands that Cambyses had conquered while incorporating a large portion of Egypt into the Achaemenid Empire.[38] Through another series of campaigns, Darius I would eventually reign over the territorial apex of the empire, when it stretched from parts of the Balkans (Thrace-Macedonia, Bulgaria-Paeonia) in the west, to the Indus Valley in the east. Invasion of the Indus Valley[edit] Eastern border of the Achaemenid Empire Main article: Achaemenid invasion of the Indus Valley In 516 BCE, Darius embarked on a campaign to Central Asia, Aria and Bactria and then marched into Afghanistan to Taxila in modern-day Pakistan. Darius spent the winter of 516–515 BCE in Gandhara, preparing to conquer the Indus Valley. Darius conquered the lands surrounding the Indus River in 515 BCE. Darius I controlled the Indus Valley from Gandhara to modern Karachi and appointed the Greek Scylax of Caryanda to explore the Indian Ocean from the mouth of the Indus to Suez. Darius then marched through the Bolan Pass and returned through Arachosia and Drangiana back to Persia. Babylonian revolt[edit] After Bardiya was murdered, widespread revolts occurred throughout the empire, especially on the eastern side. Darius asserted his position as king by force, taking his armies throughout the empire, suppressing each revolt individually. The most notable of all these revolts was the Babylonian revolt which was led by Nebuchadnezzar III. This revolt occurred when Otanes withdrew much of the army from Babylon to aid Darius in suppressing other revolts. Darius felt that the Babylonian people had taken advantage of him and deceived him, which resulted in Darius gathering a large army and marching to Babylon. At Babylon, Darius was met with closed gates and a series of defences to keep him and his armies out.[39] Darius encountered mockery and taunting from the rebels, including the famous saying "Oh yes, you will capture our city, when mules shall have foals." For a year and a half, Darius and his armies were unable to retake the city, though he attempted many tricks and strategies—even copying that which Cyrus the Great had employed when he captured Babylon. However, the situation changed in Darius's favour when, according to the story, a mule owned by Zopyrus, a high-ranking soldier, foaled. Following this, a plan was hatched for Zopyrus to pretend to be a deserter, enter the Babylonian camp, and gain the trust of the Babylonians. The plan was successful and Darius's army eventually surrounded the city and overcame the rebels.[40] During this revolt, Scythian nomads took advantage of the disorder and chaos and invaded Persia. Darius first finished defeating the rebels in Elam, Assyria, and Babylon and then attacked the Scythian invaders. He pursued the invaders, who led him to a marsh; there he found no known enemies but an enigmatic Scythian tribe.[41] European Scythian campaign[edit] Ethnicities of the Achaemenid Army, on the tomb of Darius I. The nationalities mentioned in the DNa inscription are also depicted on the upper registers of all the tombs at Naqsh-e Rustam, starting with the tomb of Darius I.[42] The ethnicities on the tomb of Darius further have trilingual labels on the lintel directly over them for identification, collectively known as the DNe inscription. One of the best preserved friezes, identical in content, is that of Xerxes I. Main article: European Scythian campaign of Darius I The Scythians were a group of north Iranian nomadic tribes, speaking an Iranian language (Scythian languages) who had invaded Media, killed Cyrus in battle, revolted against Darius and threatened to disrupt trade between Central Asia and the shores of the Black Sea as they lived between the Danube River, River Don and the Black Sea.[8][43] Darius crossed the Black Sea at the Bosphorus Straits using a bridge of boats. Darius conquered large portions of Eastern Europe, even crossing the Danube to wage war on the Scythians. Darius invaded European Scythia in 513 BC,[44] where the Scythians evaded Darius's army, using feints and retreating eastwards while laying waste to the countryside, by blocking wells, intercepting convoys, destroying pastures and continuous skirmishes against Darius's army.[45] Seeking to fight with the Scythians, Darius's army chased the Scythian army deep into Scythian lands, where there were no cities to conquer and no supplies to forage. In frustration Darius sent a letter to the Scythian ruler Idanthyrsus to fight or surrender. The ruler replied that he would not stand and fight with Darius until they found the graves of their fathers and tried to destroy them. Until then, they would continue their strategy as they had no cities or cultivated lands to lose.[46] Despite the evading tactics of the Scythians, Darius' campaign was so far relatively successful.[47] As presented by Herodotus, the tactics used by the Scythians resulted in the loss of their best lands and of damage to their loyal allies.[47] This gave Darius the initiative.[47] As he moved eastwards in the cultivated lands of the Scythians in Eastern Europe proper, he remained resupplied by his fleet and lived to an extent off the land.[47] While moving eastwards in the European Scythian lands, he captured the large fortified city of the Budini, one of the allies of the Scythians, and burnt it.[47] Darius eventually ordered a halt at the banks of Oarus, where he built "eight great forts, some eight miles distant from each other", no doubt as a frontier defence.[47] In his Histories, Herodotus states that the ruins of the forts were still standing in his day.[48] After chasing the Scythians for a month, Darius's army was suffering losses due to fatigue, privation and sickness. Concerned about losing more of his troops, Darius halted the march at the banks of the Volga River and headed towards Thrace.[49] He had conquered enough Scythian territory to force the Scythians to respect the Persian forces.[8][50] Persian invasion of Greece[edit] Main article: First Persian invasion of Greece See also: Ionian Revolt Map showing key sites during the Persian invasions of Greece Darius's European expedition was a major event in his reign, which began with the invasion of Thrace. Darius also conquered many cities of the northern Aegean, Paeonia, while Macedonia submitted voluntarily, after the demand of earth and water, becoming a vassal kingdom.[51] He then left Megabyzus to conquer Thrace, returning to Sardis to spend the winter. The Greeks living in Asia Minor and some of the Greek islands had submitted to Persian rule already by 510 BCE. Nonetheless, there were certain Greeks who were pro-Persian, although these were largely based in Athens. To improve Greek-Persian relations, Darius opened his court and treasuries to those Greeks who wanted to serve him. These Greeks served as soldiers, artisans, statesmen and mariners for Darius. However, the increasing concerns amongst the Greeks over the strength of Darius's kingdom along with the constant interference by the Greeks in Ionia and Lydia were stepping stones towards the conflict that was yet to come between Persia and certain of the leading Greek city states. The "Darius Vase" at the Achaeological Museum of Naples. Circa 340–320 BC. Detail of Darius, with a label in Greek (ΔΑΡΕΙΟΣ, top right) giving his name. When Aristagoras organized the Ionian Revolt, Eretria and Athens supported him by sending ships and troops to Ionia and by burning Sardis. Persian military and naval operations to quell the revolt ended in the Persian reoccupation of Ionian and Greek islands, as well as the re-subjugation of Thrace and the conquering of Macedonia in 492 BC under Mardonius.[52] Macedon had been a vassal kingdom of the Persians since the late 6th century BC, but retained autonomy. Mardonius' 492 campaign made it a fully subordinate part of the Persian kingdom.[51] These military actions, coming as a direct response to the revolt in Ionia, were the beginning of the First Persian invasion of (mainland) Greece. At the same time, anti-Persian parties gained more power in Athens, and pro-Persian aristocrats were exiled from Athens and Sparta. Darius responded by sending troops led by his son-in-law across the Hellespont. However, a violent storm and harassment by the Thracians forced the troops to return to Persia. Seeking revenge on Athens and Eretria, Darius assembled another army of 20,000 men under his Admiral, Datis, and his nephew Artaphernes, who met success when they captured Eretria and advanced to Marathon. In 490 BCE, at the Battle of Marathon, the Persian army was defeated by a heavily armed Athenian army, with 9,000 men who were supported by 600 Plataeans and 10,000 lightly armed soldiers led by Miltiades. The defeat at Marathon marked the end of the first Persian invasion of Greece. Darius began preparations for a second force which he would command, instead of his generals; however, before the preparations were complete, Darius died, thus leaving the task to his son Xerxes.[8] Family[edit] Darius was the son of Hystaspes and the grandson of Arsames.[53] Darius married Atossa, daughter of Cyrus, with whom he had four sons: Xerxes, Achaemenes, Masistes and Hystaspes. He also married Artystone, another daughter of Cyrus, with whom he had two sons, Arsames and Gobryas. Darius married Parmys, the daughter of Bardiya, with whom he had a son, Ariomardus. Furthermore, Darius married Phratagune, with whom he had two sons, Abrokomas and Hyperantes. He also married another woman of the nobility, Phaidyme, the daughter of Otanes. It is unknown if he had any children with her. Before these royal marriages, Darius had married an unknown daughter of his good friend and lance carrier Gobryas from an early marriage, with whom he had three sons, Artobazanes, Ariabignes and Arsamenes.[54] Any daughters he had with her are not known. Although Artobazanes was Darius's first-born, Xerxes became heir and the next king through the influence of Atossa; she had great authority in the kingdom as Darius loved her the most of all his wives. Death[edit] Tomb of Darius at Naqsh-e Rostam After becoming aware of the Persian defeat at the Battle of Marathon, Darius began planning another expedition against the Greek-city states; this time, he, not Datis, would command the imperial armies.[8] Darius had spent three years preparing men and ships for war when a revolt broke out in Egypt. This revolt in Egypt worsened his failing health and prevented the possibility of his leading another army.[8] Soon afterwards, Darius died. In October 486 BCE, his body was embalmed and entombed in the rock-cut tomb at Naqsh-e Rostam, which he had been preparing.[8] A inscription on his tomb introduces him as "Great King, King of Kings, King of countries containing all kinds of men, King in this great earth far and wide, son of Hystaspes, an Achaemenian, a Persian, son of a Persian, an Aryan [Iranian], having Aryan lineage."[8] A relief under his tomb portraying an equestrian combat was later carved during the reign of the Sasanian King of Kings, Bahram II (r. 274–293 CE).[55] Xerxes, the eldest son of Darius and Atossa, succeeded to the throne as Xerxes I; before his accession, he had contested the succession with his elder half-brother Artobarzanes, Darius's eldest son, who was born to his first wife before Darius rose to power.[56] With Xerxes' accession, the empire was again ruled by a member of the house of Cyrus.[8] Government[edit] Organization[edit] Further information: Districts of the Achaemenid Empire Volume of annual tribute per district, in the Achaemenid Empire.[57][58][59] Early in his reign, Darius wanted to reorganize the structure of the empire and reform the system of taxation he inherited from Cyrus and Cambyses. To do this, Darius created twenty provinces called satrapies (or archi) which were each assigned to a satrap (archon) and specified fixed tributes that the satrapies were required to pay.[8] A complete list is preserved in the catalogue of Herodotus, beginning with Ionia and listing the other satrapies from west to east excluding Persis which was the land of the Persians and the only province which was not a conquered land.[8] Tributes were paid in both silver and gold talents. Tributes in silver from each satrap were measured with the Babylonian talent.[8] Those paid in gold were measured with the Euboic talent.[8] The total tribute from the satraps came to an amount less than 15,000 silver talents.[8] The majority of the satraps were of Persian origin and were members of the royal house or the six great noble families.[8] These satraps were personally picked by Darius to monitor these provinces. Each of these provinces were divided into sub-provinces with their own governors which were chosen either by the royal court or by the satrap.[8] To assess tributes, a commission evaluated the expenses and revenues of each satrap.[8] To ensure that one person did not gain too much power, each satrap had a secretary who observed the affairs of the state and communicated with Darius, a treasurer who safeguarded provincial revenues and a garrison commander who was responsible for the troops.[8] Additionally, royal inspectors who were the "eyes and ears" of Darius completed further checks on each satrap.[8] The imperial administration was coordinated by the chancery with headquarters at Persepolis, Susa, and Babylon with Bactria, Ecbatana, Sardis, Dascylium and Memphis having branches.[8] Darius kept Aramaic as the common language, which soon spread throughout the empire.[8] However, Darius gathered a group of scholars to create a separate language system only used for Persis and the Persians, which was called Aryan script and was only used for official inscriptions.[8] Before this, the accomplishments of the king were addressed in Persian solely through narration and hymns and through the "masters of memory".[60] Indeed, oral history continued to play an important role throughout the history of Iran.[60] Economy[edit] See also: Achaemenid coinage Gold daric, minted at Sardis Darius introduced a new universal currency, the daric, sometime before 500 BCE.[8] Darius used the coinage system as a transnational currency to regulate trade and commerce throughout his empire. The Daric was also recognized beyond the borders of the empire, in places such as Celtic Central Europe and Eastern Europe. There were two types of darics, a gold daric and a silver daric. Only the king could mint gold darics. Important generals and satraps minted silver darics, the latter usually to recruit Greek mercenaries in Anatolia. The daric was a major boost to international trade. Trade goods such as textiles, carpets, tools and metal objects began to travel throughout Asia, Europe and Africa. To further improve trade, Darius built the Royal Road, a postal system and Phoenician-based commercial shipping. The daric also improved government revenues as the introduction of the daric made it easier to collect new taxes on land, livestock and marketplaces. This led to the registration of land which was measured and then taxed. The increased government revenues helped maintain and improve existing infrastructure and helped fund irrigation projects in dry lands. This new tax system also led to the formation of state banking and the creation of banking firms. One of the most famous banking firms was Murashu Sons, based in the Babylonian city of Nippur.[61] These banking firms provided loans and credit to clients.[62] In an effort to further improve trade, Darius built canals, underground waterways and a powerful navy.[8] He further improved and expanded the network of roads and way stations throughout the empire, so that there was a system of travel authorization for the King, satraps and other high officials, which entitled the traveller to draw provisions at daily stopping places.[63][8] Religion[edit] "By the grace of Ahuramazda am I king; Ahuramazda has granted me the kingdom." — Darius, on the Behistun Inscription Darius at Behistun Darius on the Behistun Inscription reliefs. Crowned head of Darius at Behistun. While there is no general consensus in scholarship whether Darius and his predecessors had been influenced by Zoroastrianism,[64] it is well established that Darius was a firm believer in Ahura Mazda, whom he saw as the supreme deity.[64][65] However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped by adherents of the (Indo-)Iranian religious tradition.[64][66] As can be seen at the Behistun Inscription, Darius believed that Ahura Mazda had appointed him to rule the Achaemenid Empire.[8] Darius had dualistic philosophical convictions and believed that each rebellion in his kingdom was the work of druj, the enemy of Asha. Darius believed that because he lived righteously by Asha, Ahura Mazda supported him.[67] In many cuneiform inscriptions denoting his achievements, he presents himself as a devout believer, perhaps even convinced that he had a divine right to rule over the world.[68] In the lands that were conquered by his empire, Darius followed the same Achaemenid tolerance that Cyrus had shown and later Achaemenid kings would show.[8] He supported faiths and religions that were "alien" as long as the adherents were "submissive and peaceable", sometimes giving them grants from his treasury for their purposes.[8][69] He had funded the restoration of the Israelite temple which had originally been decreed by Cyrus, was supportive towards Greek cults which can be seen in his letter to Gadatas, and supported Elamite priests.[8] He had also observed Egyptian religious rites related to kingship and had built the temple for the Egyptian god, Amun.[8] Building projects[edit] Reconstruction drawing of the Palace of Darius in Susa The ruins of Tachara palace in Persepolis During Darius's Greek expedition, he had begun construction projects in Susa, Egypt and Persepolis. He had linked the Red Sea to the river Nile by building a canal (Darius Canal) which ran from modern Zaqāzīq to modern Suez. To open this canal, he travelled to Egypt in 497 BCE, where the inauguration was carried out with great fanfare and celebration. Darius also built a canal to connect the Red Sea and Mediterranean.[8][70] On this visit to Egypt he erected monuments and executed Aryandes on the charge of treason. When Darius returned to Persis, he found that the codification of Egyptian law had been finished.[8] Additionally, Darius sponsored large construction projects in Susa, Babylon, Egypt, and Persepolis. In Susa, Darius built a new palace complex in the north of the city. An inscription states that the palace was destroyed during the reign of Artaxerxes I, but was rebuilt. Today only glazed bricks of the palace remain, the majority of them in the Louvre. In Pasargadae Darius finished all incomplete construction projects from the reign of Cyrus the Great. A palace was also built during the reign of Darius, with an inscription in the name of Cyrus the Great. It was previously believed that Cyrus had constructed this building, however due to the cuneiform script being used, the palace is believed to have been constructed by Darius. In Egypt Darius built many temples and restored those that had previously been destroyed. Even though Darius was a believer of Ahura Mazda, he built temples dedicated to the Gods of the Ancient Egyptian religion. Several temples found were dedicated to Ptah and Nekhbet. Darius also created several roads and routes in Egypt. The monuments that Darius built were often inscribed in the official languages of the Persian Empire, Old Persian, Elamite and Babylonian and Egyptian hieroglyphs. To construct these monuments Darius employed a large number of workers and artisans of diverse nationalities. Several of these workers were deportees who had been employed specifically for these projects. These deportees enhanced the empire's economy and improved inter-cultural relations.[8] At the time of Darius's death construction projects were still under way. Xerxes completed these works and in some cases expanded his father's projects by erecting new buildings of his own.[71] Darius as Pharaoh of Egypt at the Temple of Hibis Relief showing Darius I offering lettuces to the Egyptian deity Amun-Ra Kamutef, Temple of Hibis See also[edit] Darius the Mede List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources Notes[edit] ^ According to Herodotus, Hystaspes was the satrap of Persis, although the French Iranologist Pierre Briant states that this is an error.[17] Richard Stoneman likewise considers Herodotus' account to be incorrect.[18] References[edit] ^ Jürgen von Beckerath, Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen (= Münchner ägyptologische Studien, vol 46), Mainz am Rhein: Verlag Philipp von Zabern, 1999. ISBN 3-8053-2310-7, pp. 220–21. ^ "DĀḠESTĀN". Retrieved 29 December 2014. ^ Suny, Ronald Grigor (1994). The Making of the Georgian Nation. ISBN 978-0253209153. Retrieved 29 December 2014. ^ Pollard, Elizabeth (2015). Worlds Together, Worlds Apart concise edition vol.1. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. p. 132. ISBN 978-0-393-25093-0. ^ a b c Schmitt 1994, p. 40. ^ Duncker 1882, p. 192. ^ Egerton 1994, p. 6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak Shahbazi 1994, pp. 41–50. ^ Kuhrt 2013, p. 197. ^ Frye 1984, p. 103. ^ Schmitt 2000, p. 53. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSchmitt2000 (help) ^ Zournatzi, Antigoni (2003). "The Apadana Coin Hoards, Darius I, and the West". American Journal of Numismatics (1989–). 15: 1–28. JSTOR 43580364. ^ Persepolis : discovery and afterlife of a world wonder. 2012. pp. 171–181. ^ Behistun, minor inscriptions DBb inscription- Livius. ^ Llewellyn-Jones 2013, p. 112. ^ Stoneman 2015, p. 189. ^ Briant 2002, p. 467. ^ Stoneman 2015, p. 20. ^ Cook 1985, p. 217. ^ Abbott 2009, p. 14. ^ Abbott 2009, p. 14–15. ^ Abbott 2009, p. 15–16. ^ a b Boardman 1988, p. 54. ^ The Darius Seal. ^ Darius' seal: photo – Livius. ^ "The Darius Seal". British Museum. ^ Poolos 2008, p. 17. ^ Abbott 2009, p. 98. ^ a b c Llewellyn-Jones 2017, p. 70. ^ Waters 1996, pp. 11, 18. ^ Briant 2002, p. 115. ^ Briant 2002, pp. 115–116. ^ a b Briant 2002, p. 116. ^ a b c d e Briant 2002, p. 131. ^ Abbott 2009, p. 99–101. ^ Goodnick Westenholz, Joan (2002). "A Stone Jar with Inscriptions of Darius I in Four Languages" (PDF). ARTA: 2. ^ Qahéri, Sépideh. "Alabastres royaux d'époque achéménide". L’Antiquité à la BnF (in French). ^ Del Testa 2001, p. 47. ^ Abbott 2009, p. 129. ^ Sélincourt 2002, p. 234–235. ^ Siliotti 2006, p. 286–287. ^ The Achaemenid Empire in South Asia and Recent Excavations in Akra in Northwest Pakistan Peter Magee, Cameron Petrie, Robert Knox, Farid Khan, Ken Thomas p.713-714 ^ Woolf et al. 2004, p. 686. ^ Miroslav Ivanov Vasilev. "The Policy of Darius and Xerxes towards Thrace and Macedonia" ISBN 90-04-28215-7 p 70 ^ Ross & Wells 2004, p. 291. ^ Beckwith 2009, p. 68–69. ^ a b c d e f Boardman 1982, pp. 239–243. ^ Herodotus 2015, pp. 352. ^ Chaliand 2004, p. 16. ^ Grousset 1970, pp. 9–10. ^ a b Joseph Roisman, Ian Worthington. "A companion to Ancient Macedonia" John Wiley & Sons, 2011. ISBN 1-4443-5163-X pp 135–138, p 343 ^ Joseph Roisman; Ian Worthington (2011). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 135–138. ISBN 978-1-4443-5163-7. ^ Briant 2002, p. 16. ^ Briant 2002, p. 113. ^ Shahbazi 1988, pp. 514–522. ^ Briant 2002, p. 136. ^ Herodotus Book III, 89–95 ^ Archibald, Zosia; Davies, John K.; Gabrielsen, Vincent (2011). The Economies of Hellenistic Societies, Third to First Centuries BC. Oxford University Press. p. 404. ISBN 9780199587926. ^ "INDIA RELATIONS: ACHAEMENID PERIOD – Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org. ^ a b Briant 2002, pp. 126–127. ^ Farrokh 2007, p. 65. ^ Farrokh 2007, p. 65–66. ^ Konecky 2008, p. 86. ^ a b c Malandra 2005. ^ Briant 2002, p. 126. ^ Boyce 1984, pp. 684–687. ^ Boyce 1979, p. 55. ^ Boyce 1979, p. 54–55. ^ Boyce 1979, p. 56. ^ Spielvogel 2009, p. 49. ^ Boardman 1988, p. 76. Bibliography[edit] Abbott, Jacob (2009), History of Darius the Great: Makers of History, Cosimo, Inc., ISBN 978-1-60520-835-0 Abott, Jacob (1850), History of Darius the Great, New York: Harper & Bros Balentine, Samuel (1999), The Torah's vision of worship, Minneapolis: Fortress Press, ISBN 978-0-8006-3155-0 Beckwith, Christopher (2009), Empires of the Silk Road: a history of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the present (illustrated ed.), Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-13589-2 Bedford, Peter (2001), Temple restoration in early Achaemenid Judah (illustrated ed.), Leiden: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-11509-5 Bennett, Deb (1998), Conquerors: The Roots of New World horsemanship, Solvang, CA: Amigo Publications, Inc., ISBN 978-0-9658533-0-9 Boardman, John (1988), The Cambridge Ancient History, IV (II ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-22804-6 Boardman, John, ed. (1982). The Cambridge Ancient History. 10: Persia, Greece, and the Western Mediterranean. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 239–243. ISBN 978-0-521-22804-6. Boyce, Mary (1979). Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. Psychology Press. pp. 1–252. ISBN 9780415239028. Boyce, M. (1984). "Ahura Mazdā". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 7. pp. 684–687. Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. pp. 1–1196. ISBN 9781575061207. Chaliand, Gérard (2004), Nomadic empires: from Mongolia to the Danube (illustrated, annotated ed.), Transaction Publishers, ISBN 978-0-7658-0204-0 Cook, J. M. (1985), "The Rise of the Achaemenids and Establishment of their Empire", The Median and Achaemenian Periods, Cambridge History of Iran, 2, London: Cambridge University Press Del Testa, David (2001), Government leaders, military rulers, and political activists (illustrated ed.), Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN 978-1-57356-153-2 Duncker, Max (1882), Evelyn Abbott (ed.), The history of antiquity (Volume 6 ed.), R. Bentley & son Egerton, George (1994), Political memoir: essays on the politics of memory, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-7146-3471-5 Frye, Richard Nelson (1984). The History of Ancient Iran. C.H.Beck. pp. 1–411. ISBN 9783406093975. Farrokh, Kaveh (2007), Shadows in the desert: ancient Persia at war, Osprey Publishing, ISBN 978-1-84603-108-3 Grousset, René (1970). The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia. Rutgers University Press. pp. 1–687. ISBN 9780813513041. Herodotus, ed. (2015). The Histories. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 352. ISBN 978-0-375-71271-5. Konecky, Sean (2008), Gidley, Chuck (ed.), The Chronicle of World History, Old Saybrook, CT: Grange Books, ISBN 978-1-56852-680-5 Kuhrt, A. (2013). The Persian Empire: A Corpus of Sources from the Achaemenid Period. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-01694-3. Llewellyn-Jones, Lloyd (2013). King and Court in Ancient Persia 559 to 331 BCE. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 1–272. ISBN 9780748677115. Llewellyn-Jones, Lloyd (2017). "The Achaemenid Empire". In Daryaee, Touraj (ed.). King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE - 651 CE). UCI Jordan Center for Persian Studies. pp. 1–236. ISBN 9780692864401. Malandra, William W. (2005). "Zoroastrianism i. Historical review up to the Arab conquest". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Moulton, James (2005), Early Zoroastrianism, Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4179-7400-9 Poolos, J (2008), Darius the Great (illustrated ed.), Infobase Publishing, ISBN 978-0-7910-9633-8 Ross, William; Wells, H. G. (2004), The Outline of History: Volume 1 (Barnes & Noble Library of Essential Reading): Prehistory to the Roman Republic (illustrated ed.), Barnes & Noble Publishing, ISBN 978-0-7607-5866-3, retrieved 28 July 2011 Safra, Jacob (2002), The New Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica Inc, ISBN 978-0-85229-787-2 Schmitt, Rudiger (1994). "DARIUS i. The Name". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VII, Fasc. 1. p. 40. Sélincourt, Aubrey (2002), The Histories, London: Penguin Classics, ISBN 978-0-14-044908-2 Shahbazi, A. Shapur (1988). "Bahrām II". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. III, Fasc. 5. pp. 514–522. Shahbazi, Shapur (1994), "Darius I the Great", Encyclopedia Iranica, 7, New York: Columbia University, pp. 41–50 Siliotti, Alberto (2006), Hidden Treasures of Antiquity, Vercelli, Italy: VMB Publishers, ISBN 978-88-540-0497-9 Spielvogel, Jackson (2009), Western Civilization: Seventh edition, Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth, ISBN 978-0-495-50285-2 Stoneman, Richard (2015). Xerxes: A Persian Life. Yale University Press. pp. 1–288. ISBN 9781575061207. Tropea, Judith (2006), Classic Biblical Baby Names: Timeless Names for Modern Parents, New York: Bantam Books, ISBN 978-0-553-38393-5 Van De Mieroop, Marc (2003), A History of the Ancient Near East: Ca. 3000–323 BC, "Blackwell History of the Ancient World" series, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-0-631-22552-2 Waters, Matt (1996). "Darius and the Achaemenid Line". The Ancient History Bulletin. London. 10 (1): 11–18. Waters, Matt (2014). Ancient Persia: A Concise History of the Achaemenid Empire, 550–330 BCE. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–272. ISBN 9781107652729. Woolf, Alex; Maddocks, Steven; Balkwill, Richard; McCarthy, Thomas (2004), Exploring Ancient Civilizations (illustrated ed.), Marshall Cavendish, ISBN 978-0-7614-7456-2 Further reading[edit] Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Darius. Burn, A.R. (1984). Persia and the Greeks : the defence of the West, c. 546–478 B.C (2nd ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-1235-4. Ghirshman, Roman (1964). The Arts of Ancient Iran from Its Origins to the Time of Alexander the Great. New York: Golden Press. Klotz, David (2015). "Darius I and the Sabaeans: Ancient Partners in Red Sea Navigation". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 74 (2): 267–280. doi:10.1086/682344. Olmstead, Albert T. (1948). History of the Persian Empire, Achaemenid Period. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Vogelsang, W.J. (1992). The rise and organisation of the Achaemenid Empire : the eastern Iranian evidence. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-09682-0. Warner, Arthur G. (1905). The Shahnama of Firdausi. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner and Co. Wiesehöfer, Josef (1996). Ancient Persia : from 550 BC to 650 AD. Azizeh Azodi, trans. London: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-85043-999-8. Wilber, Donald N. (1989). Persepolis : the archaeology of Parsa, seat of the Persian kings (Rev. ed.). Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press. ISBN 978-0-87850-062-8. External links[edit] Darius the Greatat Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Darius the Great Achaemenid Empire Born: 550 BCE Died: 486 BCE Preceded by Bardiya King of Kings of Persia 522 BCE–486 BCE Succeeded by Xerxes I Pharaoh of Egypt 522–486 BCE v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC v t e Rulers of the Ancient Near East Territories/ dates [1][2][3][4] Egypt Canaan Ebla Mari Akshak/ Akkad Kish Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period 4000–3200 BCE Naqada culture (4000–3100 BCE) Proto-Cannaanites Sumerian period (4000–2340 BCE) Susa I Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE) Naqada I Naqada II Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests") Legendary ante-deluvian rulers: In Eridu: Alulim, Alalngar, then in Bad-tibira: En-men-lu-ana, En-men-gal-ana, Dumuzid, the Shepherd, then in Larag: En-sipad-zid-ana, then in Zimbir: En-men-dur-ana, then in Shuruppag: Ubara-Tutu "then the flood swept over"[5] Susa II (Uruk influence or control) 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ DenAnedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100-2700 BCE) Great Flood 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) First kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman En-me-barage-si ("made the land of Elam submit")[6] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba Uruk II dynasty Enshakushanna Mug-si Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions (3 kings)[7] Shushuntarana Napilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Urur Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun) Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion of Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[7] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian Empire (Semitic) Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Second Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) (Vassals of UR III) Shakkanakku dynasty (Semitic) Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Neo-Sumerian Period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians) Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (Vassals of Ur III)[8] Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal 2100 BCE Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin Ibbi-Sin 2050 BCE 2000 BCE Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV circa 2000 BCE Amorite invasions Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) 2025-1763 BCE Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ Third Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 1894–1595 BCE Second Intermediate Period Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham (Biblical) Yamhad First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Phoenicia Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Middle Assyrian Empire Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt 626–539 BCE Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116-117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ "The Sumerian king list: translation". etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 8 May 2008. ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ a b Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4. v t e Darius the Great Related figures Family Bardiya Darius the Mede Campaigns Revolts Indus Valley European Scythia Greece Constructions Susa Palace Pasargadae Persepolis Tachara Egypt Canal of the Pharaohs Monuments Tomb Second Temple Behistun Inscription Foundations Satrap Daric Imperial Aramaic Royal Road Angarium Waterways Category v t e Median and Achaemenid kings Family tree Median (728–550 BC) Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Achaemenid (550–330 BC) Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Nothus Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Italics indicate kings not directly attested and so possibly legendary. v t e Persepolis Palace Tachara Gate of All Nations Other sections Tomb of Artaxerxes III builders Darius the Great Xerxes I Artaxerxes I of Persia Researchers Heidemarie Koch Erich Schmidt (archaeologist) Alireza Shapour Shahbazi Related Tangeh Bolaghi 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire Sivand Dam Persepolis Administrative Archives Waterskin Achaemenid architecture Category:Persepolis v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control BNF: cb126902644 (data) CiNii: DA16665217 GND: 118523791 ISNI: 0000 0001 2095 6470 LCCN: n50066820 LNB: 000181087 NKC: mzk2004252107 NLA: 35033388 NLG: 322011 NLI: 000037016 NLP: A27095034 NTA: 070875618 PLWABN: 9810592289305606 SUDOC: 050127276 Trove: 805973 ULAN: 500116533 VcBA: 495/29935 VIAF: 15560660 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n50066820 Retrieved from 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en-wikipedia-org-182	----	Pericles, Dynast of Lycia - Wikipedia Pericles, Dynast of Lycia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Perikles of Lycia Portrait of Perikles of Lycia, from his coinage. Circa 380-360 BC Allegiance Lycia, Achaemenid Empire Years of service 380 to 360 BC Rank King of Lycia Location of Lycia. Anatolia/Asia Minor in the Greco-Roman period. The classical regions, including Lycia, and their main settlements Perikles (Perikle in Lycian), was the last known dynast of Lycia. He ruled c. 380–360 BCE over eastern Lycia from Limyra, at a time when Western Lycia was directly under Persian domination.[1] Contents 1 Rule 2 Tomb 3 Coinage 4 References 5 Bibliography Rule[edit] He was a victor over his predecessor Arttum̃para (Aetembares). Perikles took an active part in the Revolt of the Satraps against Achaemenid power, but lost his territory when defeated.[1][2][3] After Perikles, Persian rule was reestablished firmly in Lycia in 366 or 362 BCE. Control was taken by Mausolus, the satrap of nearby Caria, who moved the satrap's residence to Halicarnassus.[1] Tomb[edit] A monumental tomb was erected to Perikles in Limyra, decorated with frieze showing Pericles going to war. The tomb was in the form of a Greek Ionic temple.[3] Several friezes from the tomb are now visible in the Antalya Archeological Museum.[3] Frieze on the tomb of Pericles, cavalry. Frieze on the tomb of Pericles. Frieze on the tomb of Perikles, phalanx. Tomb of Pericles, fleeing Gorgo. Coinage[edit] Coin of Perikles. Coin of Perikles (Lion scalp facing and Triskeles) Coin of Perikles (Horned head of Pan, and Triskeles) References[edit] ^ a b c Houwink ten Cate, Philo Hendrik Jan (1961). The Luwian Population Groups of Lycia and Cilicia Aspera During the Hellenistic Period. Brill Archive. p. 12–13. ^ Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. p. 673. ISBN 9781575061207. ^ a b c Bryce, Trevor (2009). The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia: The Near East from the Early Bronze Age to the fall of the Persian Empire. Routledge. p. 419. ISBN 9781134159079. Bibliography[edit] Şare, Tuna (2013). "The sculpture of the Heroon of Perikle at Limyra: the making of a Lycian king". Anatolian Studies. 63: 55–74. doi:10.1017/S0066154613000045. JSTOR 42657426. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pericles,_Dynast_of_Lycia&oldid=964638803" Categories: 4th-century BC rulers in Asia Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Lycians Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Français Edit links This page was last edited on 26 June 2020, at 17:55 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1832	----	Takelot III - Wikipedia Takelot III From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Takelot III Relief of Takelot III from Karnak temple Pharaoh Reign 774 B.C. -759 B.C. (23rd Dynasty) Predecessor Osorkon III Successor Rudamun Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Usermaatre Setepenamun Wsr-Mȝˁt-Rˁ-stp-n-Jmn Powerful is the Maat of Ra, the chosen one of Amun Shorter form: Usermaatre Wsr-Mȝˁt-Rˁ Powerful is the Maat of Ra Nomen Takelot Meriamun Siese Tklt-sȝ-ȝst-mrj-Jmn Takelot, beloved of Amun, son of Isis Hieroglyphic variant: Horus name Hor Wadjtawy Ḥr-wȝḏ-tȝwj Horus, flourishing of the two lands Nebty name Wadjtawy Wȝḏ-tȝwj Flourishing of the two lands Golden Horus Wadjtawy Wȝḏ-tȝwj Flourishing of the two lands Consorts Irtiubast, Kakat, Betjet Father Osorkon III Mother Tentsai Usimare Setepenamun Takelot III Si-Ese (reigned 774–759 BC) was Osorkon III's eldest son and successor. Takelot III ruled the first five years of his reign in a coregency with his father, according to the evidence from Nile Quay Text No.14 (which equates Year 28 of Osorkon III to Year 5 of Takelot III), and succeeded his father as king the following year. He served previously as the High Priest of Amun at Thebes. He was previously thought to have ruled Egypt for only 7 years until his 13th Year was found on a stela from Ahmeida in the Dakhla Oasis in 2005.[1] Contents 1 Reign length 2 Papyrus Berlin 3048 3 Successor 4 References 5 Bibliography Reign length[edit] Takelot is attested by several documents: a donation stela from Gurob which calls him "The First Prophet of Amun-Re, General and Commander Takelot," a stone block from Herakleopolis which calls him 'the Chief of Pi-Sekhemkheperre' and king's son by Tentsai, Quay Text No.13, as noted above, and Quay Text No.4 which records his Year 6.[1] A graffito on the roof of the Temple of Khonsu which records his Year 7, was long believed to be his Highest Year date. However, in February 2005, a hieratic stela from Year 13 of his reign was discovered by a Columbia University archaeological expedition in the ruins of a Temple at the Dakhla Oasis.[2] Their subsequent analysis of this dated document conclusively established this king's identity as Takelot III.[3] This document—which measures "between 42-48 cm wide; between 47-51 cm high; [and] between 10-16 cm thick"—has now been published in JEOL 39 (2006) by Dr. Olaf Kaper and Robert Demarée.[4] Part of the abstract for their article is given below: ...The stela belongs to a group of finds documenting the temple of the God Thoth...[in the western part of the Dakhla Oasis]...during the Third Intermediate Period. One block of temple decoration was found in the name of king Petubastis (I), and the stela under discussion was set up in the temple to which this block belonged. The stela's principal text has five lines, in which the date of the stela is given as Year 13 of Takeloth III (c. 740 BCE), as well as the name of the god Thoth of SA-wHAt, the local deity. The stela records a land donation to the temple on the part of the local governor, chief of a Libyan tribe, and it concludes with a list of eleven priests who are beneficiaries of this donation....Another donation stela erected by the same governor is known from the temple of Seth in Mut (Dakhleh).[5] The governor mentioned here is Nes-Djehuti or Esdhuti who appears as the Chief of the Shamin Libyans in both the aforementioned Year 13 stela of Takelot III and also in the Smaller Dakhla Stela.[6][7] The smaller Dakla stela dates to Year 24 of the Nubian king Piye.[8] This could mean that Takelot III and Piye were near contemporaries during their respective reigns. It suggested that an important graffito at Wadi Gasus—which apparently links the God's Wife Amenirdis I (hence Shabaka here) to Year 19 of a God's Wife Shepenupet—is a synchronism between a Nubian ruler and an Upper Egyptian Libyan king thereby equating Year 12 of Shabaka to Takelot III (rather than the short-lived Rudamun). This graffito would have been carved prior to Piye's Nubian conquest of Egypt in his 20th Year—by which time both Takelot III and Rudamun had already died. However, new evidence on the Wadi Gasus graffito published by Claus Jurman in 2006 has now redated the carving to the 25th dynastic Nubian period entirely—to Year 12 of Shabaka and Year 19 of Taharqa rather than to the 23rd dynastic Libyan era—and demonstrates that they instead pertain to Amenirdis I and Shepenupet II respectively based on palaegraphic and other evidence collated by Jurman at Karnak rather than the Nubian Amenirdis I and the Libyan Shepenupet I, daughter of Osorkon III.[9] The God's Wife Shepenupet II was Piye's daughter and Taharqa's sister. Jurman notes that no evidence from the innermost sanctuary of the chapel of Osiris Heqadjet at Karnak shows Shepenupet I associated with Piye's daughter, Amenirdis I.[10] The Wadi Gasus graffiti were written in 2 separate handstyles and the year date formulas for '12' and '19' were also written differently which suggests that they are unlikely to have been composed at the same time.[10] This means that the Year 19 date cannot be assigned to Takelot III and likely belongs to the Nubian king Taharqa instead. Papyrus Berlin 3048[edit] Frederic Payraudeau once noted that Takelot III likely ruled Egypt for a minimum of 14 Years and was presumably the unknown Year 19 Egyptian monarch recorded at Wadi Gasus. He based his interpretation on the evidence of Papyrus Berlin 3048, the only surviving administrative document on papyri for the entire Libyan period. This document, which is explicitly dated to Year 14 of a Takelot Si-Ese Meryamun (i.e., either Takelot II or III), records a marriage contract which was witnessed by Vizier Hor, and 2 Royal Treasurers: Bakenamun and Djedmontuiufankh, respectively. The papyrus has traditionally been assigned to Takelot II since this ruler's highest date is his Year 25, whereas Takelot III's highest unequivocal date was only thought to be his Year 7. The author observed 3 pieces of evidence which, taken together, could have supported the attribution of this papyrus to Takelot III instead. Firstly, Payraudeau stressed that P. Berlin 3048 specifically mentions two Royal treasurers. The fact that 2 treasurers served Pharaoh at the same time is inconsistent with the known facts for the period from the reign of Osorkon II until the early years of Osorkon III at Thebes, when only a single person from one influential family served in this office. They were the descendants of Djedkhonsuiufankh A, who was the Fourth Prophet of Amun under Takelot I: Nakhtefmut A, Harsiese C and Djedkhonsuiufankh C. Djedkhonsuiufankh A's son, Nakhtefmut A, first assumed the office of Royal Treasurer under Osorkon II; then Nakhtefmut A's son, Harsiese C, in turn succeeded him (likely under Takelot II). Finally, Harsiese C's son, Djedkhonsuiufankh C, occupied this office from the end of Takelot II's reign until the early years of Osorkon III's reign under whom he is attested. Since three direct descendants of one powerful family held the office of Royal Treasurer in the period around Takelot II's reign, it is unlikely that Djedmontuiufankh could have intervened in office as early as Year 14 of Takelot II since he was not even connected to this family. Hence, the only other viable candidate for Djedmontuiufankh's master is Takelot III for whom no Royal Treasurer is known with certainty. Secondly, the Vizier Hor who is mentioned in Papyrus Berlin 3048 was thought to be the same person who is named as the father of Vizier Nebneterou in several Nubian and Saite era genealogical documents.[11] This also makes it far more plausible that P. Berlin 3048 belongs to Takelot III since Hor would have served as Vizier only a few years prior to the start of the Nubian Dynasty in Egypt under Piye and would explain his son's later attestations in Nubian and Saite documents. In contrast, Takelot II died long before Piye conquered Egypt in his 20th Year. Finally, the author noted that the Royal Treasurer Djedmontuiufankh, son of Aafenmut II, lists his family genealogy on the opposite side of this papyrus. (Payraudeau: 84-85) This specific list of his family tree is given: Harsiese-->Bakenkhonsu-->Harsiese-->Aafenmut I-->Merkhonsu-->Harsiese--> (name lost) -->Harsiese-->Aafenmut II-->Djedmontuiufankh-->Harsiese. An Aafenmut, a scribe of the Chief Treasurer, was buried under Osorkon I (bracelets on his Mummy bore this king's prenomen). Frederic notes that an identification of this person with one of the listed predecessors of Djedmontuiufankh is certain here since this person functioned as a 'scribe of the Treasury'--a state office with which Djedmontuiufankh's family was intimately linked. However, this Aafenmut was probably Aafenmut I rather than Aafenmut II, Djedmontuiufankh's father, since this person's son could not have lived beyond three family generations (under Takelot I, Osorkon II and the High Priest Nimlot C) from the reign of Osorkon I into Year 14 of Takelot II, as the author notes. Payraudeau also highlights the existence of the funerary stela of a certain Harsiese, son of Merkhonsu, which was found at the Ramesseum and has been stylistically dated to the 9th Century BC in the period around Takelot I or Osorkon II's reign to support his hypothesis that both Aafenmut I and Merkhonsu were direct ancestors of Djedmontuiufankh. As an aside, the author believed that Nile Quay Text No.45—which, according to Gerardus Broekman in JEA 88(2002), records either Year 17, 18 or 25 of an anonymous Theban king who ruled after Shoshenq III—may perhaps be ascribed to Takelot III based on the evidence of Papyrus Berlin 3048.[12] Since Year 13 of Takelot III is now attested, it was possible that the Year 14 date in this document also belongs to his reign, rather than that of Takelot II. However, Payraudeau has since changed his views here and instead assigns this papyrus to Takelot II based on the mention of a certain Harsiese—designated the fourth prophet of Amun—in this document, who is known to have served in office during king Takelot II's reign.[13] This means that Takelot III's highest date is his 13th year. The fact that the chief of the Shamin-Libyans, a Nes-Djehuti, is attested in the same office in both Year 13 of Takelot III and Year 24 of Piye also shows that the interval between these two kings' dates was close in time; also, it is unlikely that Takelot III ruled Egypt for 19 years since his brother Rudamun succeeded him at Thebes and Rudamun, in turn, was succeeded in this city by king Ini who ruled here for at least 5 years before Thebes fell permanently under Kushite control during Piye's reign.[14] Successor[edit] Takelot III was the husband of Irtiubast who is named "as a King's Daughter on the coffin of their son, Osorkon G."[15] Another Irtiubast ("B") appears to be a daughter of the king.[16] He was ultimately succeeded in power by his younger brother Rudamun, who was another son of Osorkon III rather than by any of his 3 known sons: the Prince/High Priest Osorkon F, a Prince Ihtesamun who is known from the stela of his grandson Ankhfenmut in Croydon Central Library and, finally, the Second Prophet of Amun, Djedptahefankh D who is attested in statue Tübingen 1734 and in stela CG 41006 of his great-granddaughter Nakhtbasteru.[17] This development suggests that Takelot III must have reached an advanced age to have outlived all of his sons since it was unusual for a brother of a king to assume the throne if the king still had a son who was living.[18] Traditional Egyptian custom required that the son of a king directly succeed his father. References[edit] ^ a b Frédéric Payraudeau, "Le règne de Takélot III et les débuts de la domination Koushite," GM 198(2004) pp.79-80 ^ Olaf Kaper and Robert Demarée, "A Donation Stela in the Name of Takeloth III from Amheida, Dakhleh Oasis," Jaarbericht Ex Oriente Lux(JEOL) 39 [2006], pp.19-37 ^ Kaper & Demarée, pp.29, 31-33 ^ Kaper & Demarée, p.22 ^ Kaper & Demarée, JEOL 39 abstract ^ Kaper & Demaree, pp.31-32 ^ K.A. Kitchen, The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (c.1100--650 BC), 3rd ed., Warminster: 1996. p.371 ^ Jac Janssen, The Smaller Dakhla Stele JEA 54 (1968) pp.166-71 ^ Claus Jurman, Die Namen des Rudjamun in der Kapelle des Osiris-Hekadjet. Bemerkungen der 3. Zwischenzeit un dem Wadi Gasus-Graffito, GM 210 (2006), pp.69-91 ^ a b Jurman, GM 210, pp.68-91 ^ Herman De Meulenaere, Le Vizir Nebneterou, BIFAO 86(1986), pp.143-149 ^ Broekman, pp.170-178 ^ Frédéric Payraudeau, Takeloth III: Considerations on Old and New Documents in 'The Libyan Period in Egypt.' Historical and Cultural Studies into the 21st-24th Dynasties: Proceedings of a Conference at Leiden University 25–27 October 2007, G. Broekman, RJ Demaree & O.E. Kaper (eds), Peeters Leuven 2009, p.294 ^ Payraudeau, The Libyan Period in Egypt, p.296 ^ Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson, 2004. p.227 ^ Helmut Brandl, with a contribution by Joachim Friedrich Quack, A Bichrome Faience Statuette of Bastet from the Reign of Takeloth III, Tuna el Gebel IV (= Festschrift für Dieter Kessler), Munich 2013, 67-89. https://www.academia.edu/9342683/A_Bichrome_Faience_Statuette_of_Bastet_from_the_Reign_of_Takeloth_III ^ Aston & Taylor, pp.132-136 ^ Payraudeau, GM 198, pp.87-88 Bibliography[edit] D.A. Aston & J.H. Taylor, "The Family of Takelot III and the "Theban" Twenty-Third Dynasty," in M.A. Leahy, 'Libya and Egypt c.1300–750 BC.' London: School of Oriental and African Studies, Centre of Near and Middle Eastern Studies, and The Society for Libyan Studies (1990) Gerard Broekman, "The Nile Level Records of the Twenty-Second and Twenty-Third Dynasties in Karnak: A Reconsideration of their Chronological Order," JEA 88(2002), pp. 165–178. Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson (2004) J.P. Elias, "A Northern Member of the 'Theban' Twenty-Third Dynasty", Discussions in Egyptology 31 (1995), 57-67. K.A. Kitchen, The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (c.1100—650 BC), 3rd ed., Warminster: 1996. Frédéric Payraudeau, "Le règne de Takélot III et les débuts de la domination Koushite," GM 198(2004) pp. 79–90.1. Olaf Kaper and Robert Demarée, "A Donation Stela in the Name of Takeloth III from Amheida, Dakhleh Oasis," Jaarbericht Ex Oriente Lux(JEOL) 39 [2006], pp. 19–37 v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Takelot_III&oldid=983718846" Categories: 8th-century BC Pharaohs 8th-century BC clergy Pharaohs of the Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Theban High Priests of Amun 8th century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Tagalog Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá Edit links This page was last edited on 15 October 2020, at 21:03 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1835	----	Neferkare VIII - Wikipedia Neferkare VIII From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Neferkare VIII Pharaoh Reign between 2130 and 2040 BCE (10th Dynasty) Predecessor Meryhathor Successor Wahkare Khety Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Neferkare nfr-k3-rˁ Beautiful is the ka of Ra Neferkare VIII was the second pharaoh of the 10th Dynasty of ancient Egypt (between 2130 and 2040 BCE, during the First Intermediate Period).[1] The praenomen "Neferkare" suggests he considered himself a legitimate successor of Pepi II Neferkare of the 6th Dynasty, much like the many namesake Memphite kings of the Eighth Dynasty. He likely was the eighth king to bear this name – hence the "VIII" – although many of his predecessors are sometimes called by a combination of their praenomen and nomen (for example, Neferkare Tereru, or Neferkare Khendu).[2] He is definitely attested only on the Turin King List, since he is not known by any archaeological find. It is highly unlikely that Neferkare VIII and the enigmatic king Ka-nefer-re mentioned in the tomb of the nomarch Ankhtifi are the same person, and it is somewhat more likely that Kaneferre should rather be identified with Neferkare VII of the previous 9th Dynasty.[2] References[edit] ^ William C. Hayes, in The Cambridge Ancient History, vol 1, part 2, 1971 (2008), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-077915, p. 996. ^ a b William C. Hayes, op. cit., p. 466. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e This biography of a member of an African royal house is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neferkare_VIII&oldid=974671721" Categories: 22nd-century BC Pharaohs 21st-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Tenth Dynasty of Egypt 22nd-century BC rulers 21st-century BC rulers 22nd century BC in Egypt 21st century BC in Egypt Ancient Egypt people stubs African royalty stubs Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Bahasa Indonesia ქართული Magyar مصرى Slovenščina Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 August 2020, at 09:40 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1836	----	Atossa - Wikipedia Atossa From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Atossa (disambiguation). Queen of Achaemenid Empire Atossa Queen of Achaemenid Empire Born c. 550 BC Died 475 BC Burial Naqsh-e Rostam Spouse Cambyses II Bardiya Darius the Great Issue Xerxes I Hystaspes Masistes Achaemenes House Achaemenid Father Cyrus the Great Mother Cassandane (?) Religion Zoroastrianism Atossa (Old Persian: Utauθa, or Old Iranian: Hutauθa) was an Achaemenid empress and daughter of Cyrus the Great. She lived from 550 BC to 475 BC and was a sister-wife[1] of the Persian king of kings Cambyses II[2] and wife of Darius I. Contents 1 Name 2 Life 3 Literary references 4 Legacy 5 References 6 Sources Name[edit] The name "Atossa" (or "Atusa") means "bestowing very richly" or "well trickling" or "well granting". Atossa is the Greek (Ancient Greek: Ἄτοσσα) transliteration of the Old Persian name Utauθa. Her name in Avestan is Hutaosā.[3] Life[edit] Atossa was born in c. 550 BC.[3] She was eldest daughter of Cyrus the Great; her mother may have been Cassandane.[3] Atossa married her brother Cambyses II, probably after death of her father. When Darius I defeated the followers of a man claiming to be Bardiya (Smerdis), the younger brother of Cambyses II in 522 BC, he married Atossa.[3] Atossa played an important role in the Achaemenid royal family, as she bore Darius the Great the next Achaemenid king, Xerxes I. Atossa had a "great authority" in the Achaemenid royal house and her marriage with Darius I is likely due to her power, influence and the fact that she was a direct descendant of Cyrus.[3] Herodotus records in The Histories that Atossa was troubled by a bleeding lump in her breast. A Greek slave, Democedes, excised the tumor.[4] This is the first recorded case of mastitis,[5] sometimes interpreted as a sign of an inflammatory breast cancer.[4] Xerxes I was the eldest son of Atossa and Darius. Atossa lived to see Xerxes invade Greece. Being a direct descendant of Cyrus the Great, Atossa had a great authority within Achamenian imperial house and court. Atossa's special position enabled Xerxes, who was not the eldest son of Darius, to succeed his father.[3] Literary references[edit] The ghost of Darius appears to Atossa in a scene from The Persians. Aeschylus included her as a central character in his tragedy The Persians. Atossa is also one of the major characters in the Gore Vidal novel Creation. Atossa is also included in Herodotus' The Histories and is shown to be a strong woman with a lot of influence. He even goes as far as to suggest that her wanting a Greek maiden was a reason for why Darius the Great decided to begin his campaign to Greece. In his history of cancer, The Emperor of All Maladies, Siddhartha Mukherjee imagines Atossa traveling through time, encountering different diagnoses and treatments for her breast cancer. Atossa becomes emblematic of cancer sufferers through history.[6] Legacy[edit] Minor planet 810 Atossa discovered by Max Wolf, is named in her honor. The poet Matthew Arnold named his Persian cat ‘Atossa’. She is celebrated in his poem of 1882 called ‘Poor Matthias’, about the death of a pet canary. References[edit] ^ Boyce 1982. ^ Boyce 1982, p. 78. ^ a b c d e f Schmitt 1987, pp. 13–14. ^ a b Mukherjee 2011, p. 41. ^ Sandison, A. T. (1959). "The First Recorded Case of Inflammatory Mastitis— Queen Atossa of Persia and the Physician Democêdes". Medical History. 3 (4): 317–322. doi:10.1017/s0025727300024820. PMC 1034507. PMID 14441415. ^ Mukherjee 2011, pp. 463–467. Sources[edit] Boyce, Mary (1982). A History of Zoroastrianism: Volume II: Under the Achaemenians. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9789004065062. Mukherjee, Siddhartha (2011). The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer. Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-00-725092-9. Schmitt, R. (1987). "Atossa". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. III, Fasc. 1. pp. 13–14. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atossa&oldid=1002344469" Categories: 6th-century BC women 5th-century BC women Queens of the Achaemenid Empire 6th-century BC Iranian people 5th-century BC Iranian people Remarried royal consorts Breast cancer survivors Family of Darius the Great Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Lietuvių Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 00:13 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1851	----	Category:Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is for articles with CANTIC identifiers. Please do not add subcategories. For more information, see Wikipedia:Authority control. Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. They are not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. 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en-wikipedia-org-1854	----	Gate of All Nations - Wikipedia Gate of All Nations From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Gate of All Nations View of the Gate of All Nations palace Religion Province Fars province Region 70 km northeast of the modern city of Shiraz in the Fars Province of modern Iran Location Location Persepolis, Marvdasht, Iran Municipality Marvdasht State Marvdasht Sector Persepolis Territory Iran Geographic coordinates 29°56′04″N 52°53′29″E / 29.934444°N 52.891389°E / 29.934444; 52.891389Coordinates: 29°56′04″N 52°53′29″E / 29.934444°N 52.891389°E / 29.934444; 52.891389 Architecture Type Achaemenid architecture Materials stone Website https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/114 The Gate of All Nations (Old Persian: duvarthim visadahyum) also known as the Gate of Xerxes, is located in the ruins of the ancient city of Persepolis, Iran. The construction of the Stairs of All Nations and the Gate of All Nations was ordered by the Achaemenid king Xerxes I (486-465 BC), the successor of the founder of Persepolis, Darius I the Great.[1] Contents 1 Building 2 Gallery 3 References 4 External links Building[edit] The structure consisted of one large room whose roof was supported by four stone columns with bell-shaped bases. Parallel to the inner walls of this room ran a stone bench, interrupted at the doorways. The outside walls, made of broad mud block, were bedecked with frequent niches. Each of the three walls, on the east, west, and south, had a very large stone doorway. A pair of massive bulls secured the western entrance; two Lamassu in the Assyrian style, albeit, of colossal proportions, stood at the eastern doorway. Engraved above each of the four colossi is a trilingual inscription attesting to Xerxes having built and fulfilled the gate. The doorway on the south, opening toward the Apadana, is the widest of the three. Pivoting devices found on the inner corners of all the doors indicate that they must have had two-leaved doors, which were possibly made of wood and covered with sheets of ornamented metal. Gallery[edit] View of front View with visitors References[edit] ^ "Gate of All Nations". Archived from the original on 2014-03-07. Retrieved 2014-02-16. External links[edit] Media related to Gate of All Nations at Wikimedia Commons Gate of Xerxes The Gate of All Nations at Wikimapia The Grand Stairway and the Gate of All Nations Shiraz Persepolis Persepolis: Gate of All Nations v t e Iranian architecture Styles Parsian Achaemenid pre-Parsian Parthian Khorasani Sasanian Other Azeri Isfahani Razi Types Bazaars Caravanserais Khaneqah Mosques Tekyeh Elements Ab anbar Andaruni Biruni Burj Chahartaq Dalan e Vorudi Gonbad Hashti Howz Imamzadeh Iwan Kariz Kucheh Panjdari Persian Garden (hayāt) Qanat Sahn Shabestan Talar Windcatchers Yakhchal Traditional cities Amol Andijan Baku Bam Bukhara Ctesiphon Derbent Ganja Gur-e-Amir Hatra Herat Isfahan Kashan Kashmar Khiva Khorramabad Mashhad Merv Nakhchivan Nishapur Persepolis Qazvin Qom Samarkand Shahrisabz Shiraz Susa Tabriz Takht-e Soleymān Tehran Yazd Theory and analysis Islamic architecture Traditional Persian residential architecture Traditional water sources of Persian antiquity Lists Architects of Iran Args, castles, and ghal'ehs List of ab anbars of Qazvin List of mosques List of ziyarat-gahs v t e Fars Province Capital Shiraz Counties and cities Abadeh County Abadeh Bahman Izadkhvast Soghad Surmaq Abadeh Tashk County Abadeh Tashk Arsanjan County Arsanjan Beyza County Beyza Bavanat County Surian Chenar Shahijan County Qaemiyeh Darab County Darab Jannat Shahr Eqlid County Eqlid Sedeh Estahban County Estahban Ij Runiz Evaz County Evaz Fishvar Farashband County Farashband Dehram Nujin Fasa County Fasa Now Bandegan Sheshdeh Zahedshahr Firuzabad County Firuzabad Meymand Gerash County Gerash Arad Jahrom County Jahrom Duzeh Qotbabad Kavar County Kavar Kazerun County Kazerun Baladeh Khesht Konartakhteh Nowdan Kharameh County Kharameh Khonj County Khonj Khorrambid County Safashahr Qaderabad Lamerd County Lamerd Ahel Alamarvdasht Eshkanan Larestan County Lar Beyram Banaruiyeh Juyom Khur Latifi Mamasani County Nurabad Khumeh Zar Marvdasht County Marvdasht Kamfiruz Ramjerd Seyyedan Mohr County Mohr Asir Galleh Dar Varavi Neyriz County Neyriz Meshkan Qatruyeh Pasargad County Saadat Shahr Qir and Karzin County Qir Efzar Karzin Rostam County Masiri Sarchehan County Korehi Sarvestan County Sarvestan Sepidan County Ardakan Hamashahr Zarqan County Lapui Zarqan Shiraz County Shiraz Darian Zarrin Dasht County Hajjiabad Dowbaran Shahr-e Pir Khafr County Bab Anar Khavaran Landmarks Afif-Abad Garden Amir's dam Arg of Karim Khan Barmdelak lagoon Bishapur Delgosha Garden Eram Garden Istakhr Ghal'eh Dokhtar Ka'ba-ye Zartosht Kazerun fire temple Lake Parishan Naqsh-e Rajab Naqsh-e Rustam Palace of Ardashir Sangtarashan cave Pars Museum Pasargadae Persepolis Qavam House Qur'an Gate Saadi's mausoleum Sarvestan Sassanian palace Shah Cheragh Colossal Statue of Shapur I in Shapur cave Tangeh Bolaghi Hāfezieh Tounbbot Vakil Bath Vakil Bazaar Vakil Mosque Populated places List of cities, towns and villages in Fars Province v t e Persepolis Palace Tachara Gate of All Nations Other sections Tomb of Artaxerxes III builders Darius the Great Xerxes I Artaxerxes I of Persia Researchers Heidemarie Koch Erich Schmidt (archaeologist) Alireza Shapour Shahbazi Related Tangeh Bolaghi 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire Sivand Dam Persepolis Administrative Archives Waterskin Achaemenid architecture Category:Persepolis v t e World Heritage Sites in Iran List of World Heritage Sites in Iran The Armenian Monastic Ensembles St. Thaddeus Monastery St. Stepanos Monastery Chapel of Dzordzor Chapel of Chupan Church of the Holy Mother of God Bam and its cultural landscape Behistun Chogha Zanbil Cultural landscape of Maymand Golestan Palace Gonbad-e Qabus Hyrcanian Forests Jameh Mosque of Isfahan Naqsh-e Jahan Square Pasargadae Persepolis The Persian gardens Pasargadae Chehel Sotoun Fin Eram Shazdeh Dolatabad Abbasabad Akbarieh Pahlevanpour Shahr-e Sukhteh Sheikh Safi's Tomb Dome of Soltaniyeh Shushtar Historical Hydraulic System Susa Bazaar of Tabriz Takht-e Soleymān The Persian Qanat Gonabad Baladeh Zarch Hassan Abad Moshir Goharriz Akbarabad Ghasemabad Moun Vazvan Mozdabad Ebrahimabad Dasht-e Loot Historic city of Yazd Sassanid Archaeological Landscape of Fars Region Qal'eh Dokhtar Ardashir Investiture Relief Victory Relief of Ardashir Ardashir Khurreh Palace of Ardashir City of Bishapur Shapur cave Sarvestan Palace Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gate_of_All_Nations&oldid=975895790" Categories: Persepolis Xerxes I Hidden categories: Coordinates on Wikidata Infobox religious building with unknown affiliation Commons category link from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Español فارسی Հայերեն Italiano Македонски Português Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 31 August 2020, at 01:02 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-185	----	Category:5th-century BC Iranian people - Wikipedia Help Category:5th-century BC Iranian people From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 10th BC 9th BC 8th BC 7th BC 6th BC 5th BC 4th BC 3rd BC 2nd BC 1st BC 1st Subcategories This category has the following 5 subcategories, out of 5 total. A ► Artaxerxes II of Persia‎ (1 C, 8 P) ► Artaxerxes I of Persia‎ (6 P) D ► Darius the Great‎ (4 C, 21 P) ► Darius II‎ (5 P) X ► Xerxes I‎ (1 C, 14 P) Pages in category "5th-century BC Iranian people" The following 68 pages are in this category, out of 68 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). A Abrocomas Abrocomes Achaemenes (satrap) Adusius Amestris Amorges Amyntas II (son of Bubares) Amytis Apollophanes of Cyzicus Ariabignes Ariaeus Ariaspes Ariobarzanes of Phrygia Ariomardus Arsames (satrap of Egypt) Artabanus of Persia Artabazos I of Phrygia Artapanus (general) Artaphernes Artasyrus Artaxerxes I Artaxerxes II Artayctes Artaynte Artazostre Artyphius Aryandes Aspathines Atossa B Bubares C Cyrus the Younger D Damaspia Darius (son of Xerxes I) Darius II Datis E Esther H Hermotimus of Pedasa Hydarnes Hydarnes II Hyperanthes Hystaspes (son of Xerxes I) I Irdabama M Mardonius (general) Mascames Masistes Masistius Megabates Megabazus Megabyzus Mithridates (soldier) O Oebares Oebares II Orontes I Ostanes P Parmys Parysatis Pharnabazus II Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II of Phrygia Pherendates Pherendatis Pissuthnes S Sogdianus Stateira (wife of Artaxerxes II) T Tissaphernes X Xenagoras of Halicarnassus Xerxes I Xerxes II Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:5th-century_BC_Iranian_people&oldid=950734163" Categories: 5th-century BC Asian people Iranian people by century 5th century BC in Iran 5th-century BC people by nationality Hidden categories: CatAutoTOC generates no TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Español فارسی 한국어 Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 13 April 2020, at 15:26 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-187	----	Achaemenid dynasty - Wikipedia Achaemenid dynasty From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search House of Achaemenes Falcon Standard Country Persis Founded 730 BC Founder Achaemenes Final ruler Darius III Titles Shah of Persia Pharaoh of Egypt King of Babylon King of the Four Corners of the World Estate(s) Persian Empire Anshan Parsumash Dissolution 330 BC Cadet branches Kingdom of Pontus (Mithridatic dynasty) Kingdom of Cappadocia (Ariarathid dynasty) Kingdom of Armenia (Orontid dynasty) The Achaemenid dynasty (Greek: Ἀχαιμενίδαι; Achaimenídai, in Old Persian Hakhāmanišiya; Persian: دودمان هخامنشی‎)[1] was an ancient Persian royal house. They were the ruling dynasty of Achaemenid Empire from about 700 to 330 BC.[2] The rulers from the Achaemenid dynasty, starting with Cambyses II, who conquered Egypt, the historian Manetho placed as pharaohs in the Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt.[3][4] Contents 1 Origins 2 Dynasty 3 Family tree 4 See also 5 References 6 Sources Origins[edit] The history of the Achaemenid dynasty is mainly known thanks to Greek historians as Herodotus, Ctesias and Xenophon, tales of Old Testament books, and native Iranian sources. According to Herodotus, Achaemenids were a clan from the tribe of the Pasargadae and probably settled surrounding the sites of Pasargadae. They possibly ruled over other Persian tribes in the 9th century B.C. Darius traced his genealogy to Achaemenes, an unknown lineage named after Haxāmaniš. However, there's no evidence about a king called Achaemenes.[5] Dynasty[edit] Kingship was hereditary within the Achaemenid dynasty. The last element of the King's title was always "an Achaemenid". Succession was designated by the King (usually the first-born son). From Darius I to Artaxerxes II, it was usual a synarchy between the father and the son.[5] Achaemenid rulers King Reign (BC) Comments Achaemenes 730–650 BC Founder of the Achaemenid dynasty and first King of Persia. Teispes 650–625 BC Cyrus I 625–580 BC Cambyses I 580–559 BC Cyrus II 559–530 BC Cyrus the Great was the most notable ancient Persian king and one of the most celebrated strategists and rulers of all time. Cyrus at the height of his reign was simultaneously King of Persia, King of Babylon, King of Media and "King of the Four Corners of the World". Cambyses II 530–522 BC Conquered Egypt at the Battle of Pelusium, thus adding Pharaoh of Egypt to the titles of Persian kings. Smerdis 522 BC Might have been an imposter named Gaumata during his short reign. Darius I 522–486 BC Brought the empire to its greatest extent; launched initial foray into Greece. Xerxes I 486–465 BC Launched failed invasion of Greece. Artaxerxes I 465–424 BC Xerxes II 424 BC Sogdianus 424–423 BC Darius II 423–404 BC Artaxerxes II 404–358 BC Persia loses Egypt. Artaxerxes III 358–338 BC Persia regains Egypt. Artaxerxes IV 338–336 BC Darius III 336–330 BC Defeated by Alexander of Macedon; Persia conquered; dynasty falls. Artaxerxes V 330–329 BC Attempted to lead resistance against Alexander; captured and executed. Family tree[edit] AchaemenesKing of Persia[*] 705–675 TeispesKing of Persia 675–640 AriaramnesPrince[*] Cyrus IKing of Persia 640–600 ArsamesPrince[*] Cambyses IKing of Persia 600–559 HystaspesPrince[*] Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II)King of Persia 559–530/28 Darius the Great (Darius I)King of Persia 522–486 AtossaPrincess Cambyses IIKing of Persia 530–522 Smerdis (Bardiya)Prince (imposter Gaumata ruled as Smerdis[*]) 522 ArtystonePrincess Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I)King of Persia 485–465 Artaxerxes IKing of Persia 465–424 Xerxes IIKing of Persia 424 SogdianusKing of Persia 424–423 Darius IIKing of Persia 423–404 ArsitesPrince ParysatisPrincess BagapaiosPrince Artaxerxes IIKing of Persia 404–358 AmestrisPrincess Cyrus the YoungerPrince Cyrus (IV)Prince OstanesPrince Artaxerxes IIIKing of Persia 358–338 OchaPrince RodrogunePrincess ApamaPrincess SisygambisPrincess Arsames (II)Prince Artaxerxes IVKing of Persia 338–336 Parysatis (II) Princess Darius IIIKing of Persia 336–330 OxathresPrince Artaxerxes VKing of Persia 330–329 Stateira IIPrincess Alexander the Great (Alexander III)King of Macedon and Persia 329–323 See also[edit] Achaemenid Empire Argead dynasty Teispids Kingdom of Cappadocia References[edit] ^ Kuhrt & Sancisi-Weerdenburg 2006. ^ "ACHAEMENID DYNASTY". www.iranicaonline.org. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 5 February 2020. ^ Bresciani, Edda (1998). "EGYPT i. Persians in Egypt in the Achaemenid period". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol VIII, Fasc. 3. pp. 247–249. ^ Eusebius. Chronicle. p. 149. ^ a b "ACHAEMENID DYNASTY – Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2020-11-13. Sources[edit] Kuhrt, Amélie; Sancisi-Weerdenburg, Helen (2006). "Achaemenids". In Salazar, Christine F.; Landfester, Manfred; Gentry, Francis G. (eds.). Brill’s New Pauly. Brill Online. v t e Achaemenid Empire History Kingdom Family tree Timeline History of democracy Art Achaemenid Persian Lion Rhyton Achaemenid coinage Danake Persian daric Architecture Achaemenid architecture Persepolis Pasargadae Tomb of Cyrus Naqsh-e Rostam Ka'ba-ye Zartosht Mausoleum at Halicarnassus Tombs at Xanthos Harpy Tomb Nereid Monument Tomb of Payava Culture Persepolis Administrative Archives Old Persian cuneiform Old Persian Behistun Inscription Xerxes I's inscription at Van Ganjnameh Warfare Persian Revolt Battle of Hyrba Battle of the Persian Border Lydian-Persian Wars Battle of Pteria Battle of Thymbra Siege of Sardis (547 BC) Battle of Opis First conquest of Egypt Battle of Cunaxa Conquest of the Indus Valley Scythian campaign of Darius I Greco-Persian Wars Ionian Revolt Battle of Thermopylae Battle of Artemisium Battle of Salamis Battle of Plataea Battle of Mycale Battle of Marathon Delian League Battle of Lade Siege of Eretria Siege of Naxos (499 BC) Wars of the Delian League Battle of the Eurymedon Peloponnesian War Battle of Cyzicus Corinthian War Battle of Cnidus Great Satraps' Revolt Second conquest of Egypt Wars of Alexander the Great Battle of Gaugamela Battle of the Granicus Battle of the Persian Gate Battle of Issus Siege of Gaza Siege of Halicarnassus Siege of Miletus Siege of Perinthus Siege of Tyre (332 BC) Related Achaemenid dynasty Pharnacid dynasty Peace of Antalcidas Peace of Callias Kingdom of Pontus Mithridatic dynasty Kingdom of Cappadocia Ariarathid dynasty 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire Districts of the Empire Royal Road Xanthian Obelisk Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_dynasty&oldid=1001993321" Categories: Achaemenid dynasty Iranian dynasties Monarchy in Persia and Iran Hidden categories: Articles containing Persian-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Буряад Čeština Dansk Español Esperanto Galego Հայերեն Hrvatski Italiano Кыргызча Latina Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Тоҷикӣ Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 22 January 2021, at 08:54 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1881	----	Nikare - Wikipedia Nikare From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the pharaoh of the 16th Dynasty, see Nikare II. Nikare I Nykare The cartouche of Nikare on the Abydos King List. Pharaoh Reign Unknown (Eighth Dynasty) Predecessor Neferkamin Successor Neferkare Tereru Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Nikare N-k3-rˁ He belongs to the Ka of Ra Nikare (also Nikare I) was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the Eighth Dynasty during the early First Intermediate Period (2181–2055 BC), at a time when Egypt was possibly divided between several polities. According to the Egyptologists Kim Ryholt, Jürgen von Beckerath and Darrell Baker he was the ninth king of the Eighth Dynasty.[1][2][3] As such, Nikare's seat of power would have been Memphis. Attestations[edit] Nikare is only known for certain thanks to the Abydos King List, a king list redacted during the reign of Seti I, where his name appears on the 48th entry. Nikare may also have been mentioned on the Turin canon but his name and duration of reign are lost to a large lacuna affecting kings 2 through 11 of the Eighth Dynasty.[1] Artefacts[edit] According to the Egyptologist Peter Kaplony, a single faience cylinder-seal may possibly bear Nikare's name, and could thus be the only contemporary attestation of this king.[2][4] A gold plaque, now in the British Museum, is inscribed with his name along with that of Neferkamin, however it is now believed that this object is a modern forgery.[5] References[edit] ^ a b Kim Ryholt: "The Late Old Kingdom in the Turin King-list and the Identity of Nitocris", Zeitschrift für ägyptische, 127, 2000, p. 99 ^ a b Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 280-281 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz : P. von Zabern, 1999, ISBN 3-8053-2591-6, available online Archived 2015-12-22 at the Wayback Machine see p. 66-67 ^ Peter Kaplony: Die Rollsiegel des Alten Reichs, vol. 2: Katalog der Rollsiegel, (= Monumenta Aegyptiaca. Vol. 3), La Fondation Égyptologique Reine Élisabeth, Brüssel 1981, issue 144. ^ Gold plaque EA 8444 in the British Museum. Preceded by Neferkamin Pharaoh of Egypt Eighth Dynasty Succeeded by Neferkare Tereru v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nikare&oldid=973808992" Categories: 22nd-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages 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en-wikipedia-org-1884	----	Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator - Wikipedia Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Πτολεμαῖος Φιλοπάτωρ Iwaennetjerwymenkhwy Setepptah Userkare Sekhemankhamun[1] Gold octadrachm issued by Ptolemy VII King of Egypt Coregency Arsinoe III Predecessor Ptolemy VI Philometor Successor Ptolemy VIII Physcon Royal titulary Father Ptolemy VI Philometor Mother Cleopatra II of Egypt Born 2nd c. BC Died 2nd c. BC Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator[note 1] (Greek: Πτολεμαῖος Νέος Φιλοπάτωρ, Ptolemaĩos Néos Philopátōr "Ptolemy the New Beloved of his Father") was an Egyptian king of the Ptolemaic period. His reign is controversial, and it is possible that he did not reign at all, but was only granted royal dignity posthumously. He was a son of Ptolemy VI Philometor and Cleopatra II of Egypt. Contents 1 Identity 2 Notes 3 References 4 External links Identity[edit] Ptolemy VII's identity is unclear. According to one reconstruction, he was the son of Ptolemy VI Philometor and Cleopatra II of Egypt, he reigned briefly with his father in 145 BC, and for a short time after that, and was murdered by his uncle, Ptolemy VIII Physcon, who succeeded him. Alternatively, some scholars identify Ptolemy Neos Philopator with Ptolemy Memphites, a son of Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra II who was murdered by his father about 132/131 BC after his mother had tried to depose Physcon and proclaim their son king; yet others point to a number of minor co-regents – all of whom were named Ptolemy as was the tradition in the dynasty. By tradition, though, the numbering of the Ptolemies is kept intact. Occasionally, the numbering is reversed, and Ptolemy VIII Physcon is numbered as Ptolemy VII, with a boy-king – the one named Ptolemy Memphites, most likely – numbered Ptolemy VIII; in some older sources, Ptolemy VII is omitted altogether. This lowers the numbering of all the later Ptolemies, until Caesarion is Ptolemy XV Caesar; the nicknames are unaffected. Notes[edit] ^ Numbering the Ptolemies is a modern convention. Older sources may give a number one higher or lower. The most reliable way of determining which Ptolemy is being referred to in any given case is by epithet (e.g. "Philopator"). References[edit] ^ Clayton (2006) p. 208. External links[edit] Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemaic Dynasty Born: ? Died: 144 BC Preceded by Ptolemy VI Pharaoh of Egypt 145 BC–144 BC with Ptolemy VI and Cleopatra II Succeeded by Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra II v t e Hellenistic rulers Argeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Kings of Cyrene Magas Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Kings of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Kings of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Kings of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Kings of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus Kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon (regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces Asander with Dynamis Mithridates II Asander with Dynamis Scribonius’ attempted rule with Dynamis Dynamis with Polemon Polemon with Pythodorida Aspurgus Mithridates III with Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control BNF: cb15620710j (data) SUDOC: 123994071 VIAF: 316445511 WorldCat Identities: viaf-316445511 This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e This biography of a member of an African royal house is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ptolemy_VII_Neos_Philopator&oldid=992688544" Categories: 145 BC deaths 2nd-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Ptolemaic dynasty 2nd-century BC rulers 2nd-century BC Egyptian people Ancient Egypt people stubs African royalty stubs Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Ancient Egyptian-language text Articles containing Greek-language text Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Malagasy مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Русский සිංහල Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Українська Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 December 2020, at 16:10 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1887	----	Tiribazus - Wikipedia Tiribazus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Tiribazus Portrait of Tiribazos wearing the Satrapal cap, from his coinage. Born c.440 BC Died c.370 BC Allegiance Achaemenid Empire Rank Satrap Battles/wars Corinthian War Tiribazus was satrap of Lydia, including Ionia. Tiribazus, Tiribazos or Teribazus (Old Iranian: Tīrībāzu) (c.440 BC-370 BC) was an Achaemenid satrap of Western Armenia and later satrap of Lydia in western Anatolia. Contents 1 Satrap of Western Armenia 2 Satrap of Lydia 3 Coinage 4 References Satrap of Western Armenia[edit] He was highly regarded by the Persian King Artaxerxes II, and when he was present, so Xenophon tells us, no one else had the honour of helping the sovereign to mount his horse.[1] At the time of the retreat of the 10,000 in 401 BC, Tiribazus was satrap of Western Armenia. Satrap of Lydia[edit] He succeeded Tithraustes as satrap of Western Asia (Sardis). He was holding this office when, in 393 BC, Antalcidas was sent to negotiate, through him, a peace for Sparta with the Persian king.[2] In 392 BC, while the Corinthian War was being contested amongst the Greek states, Tiribazus received envoys from the major belligerents of that war, and held a conference in which a proposal for ending the war was discussed. That discussion failed, but Tiribazus, convinced that Athens was becoming a threat to Persia in the Aegean, secretly provided funds to rebuild the Spartan fleet. When the Persian king Artaxerxes II learned of this, Tiribazus was removed from power and replaced by Struthas, who pursued an anti-Spartan policy. However, five years later, in 387 BC, Tiribazus was again in power, and worked together with the Spartan general Antalcidas to rebuild the Spartan fleet as a threat to Athenian interests in the region. This action brought the Athenians and their allies to the negotiating table. Tiribazus represented Artaxerxes at the ensuing negotiations, which led to the Peace of Antalcidas.[3] In 386 BC, he was appointed to command the Persian fleet against Evagoras, the king of Salamis in Cyprus, with the land forces being entrusted to the Persian satrap of Armenia, Orontes. They defeated Evagoras and lay siege to Salamis. However, in 385 BC Tiribazus was impeached by Orontes, and was recalled to court to answer for his conduct. Tiribazus was detained in prison until the return of Artaxerxes from his expedition against the Cadusii. Before three judges, Tiribazus was able to have the charges against him dismissed, and he was honourably acquitted with the full support of King Artaxerxes, in consideration not only of his innocence in regard to the special charges, but also of the great services he had rendered to his master. Tiribazus now stood higher than ever in the royal favour, and received a promise of the hand of Amestris, the king's daughter. Artaxerxes, however, reneged on this arrangement, and married Amestris himself. When King Artaxerxes reneged on a pledge to Tiribazus once more, this time with respect to Atossa, the youngest of the king's princesses, Tiribazus could no longer remain loyal to the king and incited Darius, the son of Artaxerxes, to join him in a plot against the king's life. Tiribazus' plans were betrayed to Artaxerxes by a eunuch, and the conspirators were found out. Tiribazus offered a desperate resistance to the guards who endeavored to arrest him, and was slain with a javelin.[2] Coinage[edit] Coinage of Tiribazos. Satrap of Lydia, 388-380 BC Coinage of Tiribazus, Satrap of Lydia, with Ahuramazda on the obverse. 388-380 BCE. Western Asia Satrap of the Achaemenid Period. Probably Tiribazos. Early 4th century BC. Coinage of Tiribazos. Klazomenai mint. References[edit] ^ Garsoïan, ‘The Emergence’, pp. 42-44; Xenophon, Anabasis, 4.4, 4. ^ a b Smith, William. "TIRIBAZUS". Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Retrieved 2009-04-17. ^ Fine, John V.A. The Ancient Greeks: A critical history (Harvard University Press, 1983) ISBN 0-674-03314-0 Xenophon (1890s) [original 4th century BC]. Hellenica . Translated by Henry Graham Dakyns – via Wikisource. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tiribazus&oldid=1001261571" Categories: 4th-century BC rulers 4th-century BC Iranian people Achaemenid satraps of Armenia Achaemenid satraps of Ionia Achaemenid satraps of Lydia People of the Corinthian War Military leaders of the Achaemenid Empire Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Español فارسی Hrvatski Italiano עברית ქართული مصرى Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 18 January 2021, at 22:56 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1902	----	Bibliothèque nationale de France - Wikipedia Bibliothèque nationale de France From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from BNF (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search "BnF" and "Gallica" redirect here. For the compound abbreviated as "BnF", see Benzyl fluoride. For other uses, see Gallica (disambiguation). National Library of France Coordinates: 48°50′01″N 2°22′33″E / 48.83361°N 2.37583°E / 48.83361; 2.37583 National Library of France Bibliothèque nationale de France Established 1461; 560 years ago (1461)[1] Location Paris, France Collection Items collected books, journals, newspapers, magazines, sound and music recordings, patents, databases, maps, stamps, prints, drawings and manuscripts Size 40M items 14M books and publications[2] Access and use Access requirements Open to anyone with a need to use the collections and services Other information Budget €254 million[2] Director Laurence Engel Staff 2,300 Website www.bnf.fr Map The Bibliothèque nationale de France (French: [biblijɔtɛk nɑsjɔnal də fʁɑ̃s], "National Library of France"; BnF) is the national library of France, located in Paris. It is the national repository of all that is published in France and also holds extensive historical collections. Contents 1 History 2 New buildings 3 Mission 4 Manuscript collection 5 Digital library 6 List of directors 6.1 1369–1792 6.2 1792–present 7 Films about the library 8 Famous patrons 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links History[edit] The National Library of France traces its origin to the royal library founded at the Louvre Palace by Charles V in 1368. Charles had received a collection of manuscripts from his predecessor, John II, and transferred them to the Louvre from the Palais de la Cité. The first librarian of record was Claude Mallet, the king's valet de chambre, who made a sort of catalogue, Inventoire des Livres du Roy nostre Seigneur estans au Chastel du Louvre. Jean Blanchet made another list in 1380 and Jean de Bégue one in 1411 and another in 1424. Charles V was a patron of learning and encouraged the making and collection of books. It is known that he employed Nicholas Oresme, Raoul de Presle and others to transcribe ancient texts. At the death of Charles VI, this first collection was unilaterally bought by the English regent of France, the Duke of Bedford, who transferred it to England in 1424. It was apparently dispersed at his death in 1435.[3][4] Charles VII did little to repair the loss of these books, but the invention of printing resulted in the starting of another collection in the Louvre inherited by Louis XI in 1461. Charles VIII seized a part of the collection of the kings of Aragon.[5] Louis XII, who had inherited the library at Blois, incorporated the latter into the Bibliothèque du Roi and further enriched it with the Gruthuyse collection and with plunder from Milan. Francis I transferred the collection in 1534 to Fontainebleau and merged it with his private library. During his reign, fine bindings became the craze and many of the books added by him and Henry II are masterpieces of the binder's art.[4] Under librarianship of Amyot, the collection was transferred to Paris during which process many treasures were lost. Henry IV again moved it to the Collège de Clermont and in 1604 it was housed in the Rue de la Harpe. The appointment of Jacques Auguste de Thou as librarian initiated a period of development that made it the largest and richest collection of books in the world. He was succeeded by his son who was replaced, when executed for treason, by Jérôme Bignon, the first of a line of librarians of the same name. Under de Thou, the library was enriched by the collections of Queen Catherine de Medici. The library grew rapidly during the reigns of Louis XIII and Louis XIV, due in great part to the interest of the Minister of Finance, Colbert, an indefatigable collectors of books.[4] The quarters in the Rue de la Harpe becoming inadequate, the library was again moved, in 1666, to a more spacious house in Rue Vivienne. The minister Louvois took quite as much interest in the library as Colbert and during his administration a magnificent building to be erected in the Place Vendôme was planned. The death of Louvois, however, prevented the realization of this plan. Louvois employed Mabillon, Thévenot and others to procure books from every source. In 1688, a catalogue in eight volumes was compiled.[4] The library opened to the public in 1692, under the administration of Abbé Louvois, Minister Louvois's son. Abbé Louvois was succeeded by Jean-Paul Bignon, who instituted a complete reform of the library's system. Catalogues were made which appeared from 1739 to 1753 in 11 volumes. The collections increased steadily by purchase and gift to the outbreak of the French Revolution, at which time it was in grave danger of partial or total destruction, but owing to the activities of Antoine-Augustin Renouard and Joseph Van Praet it suffered no injury.[4] The library's collections swelled to over 300,000 volumes during the radical phase of the French Revolution when the private libraries of aristocrats and clergy were seized. After the establishment of the French First Republic in September 1792, "the Assembly declared the Bibliotheque du Roi to be national property and the institution was renamed the Bibliothèque Nationale. After four centuries of control by the Crown, this great library now became the property of the French people."[3] Reading room, Richelieu site A new administrative organization was established. Napoleon took great interest in the library and among other things issued an order that all books in provincial libraries not possessed by the Bibliothèque Nationale should be forwarded to it, subject to replacement by exchanges of equal value from the duplicate collections, making it possible, as Napoleon said, to find a copy of any book in France in the National Library. Napoleon furthermore increased the collections by spoil from his conquests. A considerable number of these books were restored after his downfall. During the period from 1800 to 1836, the library was virtually under the control of Joseph Van Praet. At his death it contained more than 650,000 printed books and some 80,000 manuscripts.[4] Following a series of regime changes in France, it became the Imperial National Library and in 1868 was moved to newly constructed buildings on the Rue de Richelieu designed by Henri Labrouste. Upon Labrouste's death in 1875 the library was further expanded, including the grand staircase and the Oval Room, by academic architect Jean-Louis Pascal. In 1896, the library was still the largest repository of books in the world, although it has since been surpassed by other libraries for that title.[6] By 1920, the library's collection had grown to 4,050,000 volumes and 11,000 manuscripts.[4] M. Henri Lemaître, a vice-president of the French Library Association and formerly librarian of the Bibliothèque Nationale ... outlined the story of French libraries and librarians during the German occupation, a record of destruction and racial discrimination. During 1940–1945, more than two million books were lost through the ravages of war, many of them forming the irreplaceable local collections in which France abounded. Many thousands of books, including complete libraries, were seized by the Germans. Yet French librarians stood firm against all threats, and continued to serve their readers to the best of their abilities. In their private lives and in their professional occupations they were in the van of the struggle against the Nazis, and many suffered imprisonment and death for their devotion. Despite Nazi opposition they maintained a supply of books to French prisoners of war. They continued to supply books on various proscribed lists to trustworthy readers; and when liberation came, they were ready with their plans for rehabilitation with the creation of new book centres for the French people on lines of the English county library system.[7] New buildings[edit] View of the Bibliothèque nationale de France, François-Mitterrand site On 14 July 1988, President François Mitterrand announced "the construction and the expansion of one of the largest and most modern libraries in the world, intended to cover all fields of knowledge, and designed to be accessible to all, using the most modern data transfer technologies, which could be consulted from a distance, and which would collaborate with other European libraries". Book and media logistics inside the whole library was planned with an automated 6.6 km (4.1 mi) Telelift system. Only with this high level of automation, the library can comply with all demands fully in time. Due to initial trade union opposition, a wireless network was fully installed only in August 2016. In July 1989, the services of the architectural firm of Dominique Perrault were retained. The design was recognized with the European Union Prize for Contemporary Architecture in 1996. The construction was carried out by Bouygues.[8] Construction of the library ran into huge cost overruns and technical difficulties related to its high-rise design, so much so that it was referred to as the "TGB" or "Très Grande Bibliothèque" (i.e. "Very Large Library", a sarcastic allusion to France's successful high-speed rail system, the TGV).[9] After the move of the major collections from the Rue de Richelieu, the National Library of France was inaugurated on 15 December 1996.[10] As of 2016[update], the BnF contained roughly 14 million books at its four Parisian sites (Tolbiac, i.e. Bibliothèque François-Mitterrand, and Richelieu, Arsenal and Opéra) as well as printed documents, manuscripts, prints, photographs, maps and plans, scores, coins, medals, sound documents, video and multimedia documents, scenery elements..."[11] The library retains the use of the Rue de Richelieu complex for some of its collections. Plan of the Bibliothèque François-Mitterrand ___ Located near the Métro station: Bibliothèque François Mitterrand. Mission[edit] The National Library of France is a public establishment under the supervision of the Ministry of Culture. Its mission is to constitute collections, especially the copies of works published in France that must, by law, be deposited there, conserve them, and make them available to the public. It produces a reference catalogue, cooperates with other national and international establishments, and participates in research programs. Manuscript collection[edit] The Manuscripts department houses the largest collection of medieval and modern manuscripts worldwide. The collection includes medieval chansons de geste and chivalric romances, eastern literature, eastern and western religions, ancient history, scientific history, and literary manuscripts by Pascal, Diderot, Apollinaire, Proust, Colette, Sartre, etc. The collection is organised: according to language (Ancient Greek, Latin, French and other European languages, Arabic, Coptic, Ethiopian, Hebrew, Persian, Turkish, Near- and Middle-Eastern languages, Chinese, Japanese, Tibetan, Sanskrit,Tamil,Indian languages, Vietnamese, etc.) The library holds about 5,000 Ancient Greek manuscripts, which are divided into three fonds: Ancien fonds grec, fonds Coislin, and Fonds du Supplément grec. according to content: learned and bibliophilic, collections of learned materials, Library Archives, genealogical collections, French provinces, Masonic collection, etc. Digital library[edit] Gallica is the digital library for online users of the Bibliothèque nationale de France and its partners. It was established in October 1997. Today it has more than 6 million digitized materials of various types: books, magazines, newspapers, photographs, cartoons, drawings, prints, posters, maps, manuscripts, antique coins, scores, theater costumes and sets, audio and video materials. All library materials are freely available. On February 10, 2010, a digitized copy of Scenes from Bohemian Life by Henri Murger (1913) became Gallica's millionth document. And in February 2019, the five millionth document was a copy of the manuscript "Record of an Unsuccessful Trip to the West Indies" stored in the Bibliothèque Inguimbertine. As of 1 January 2020[update], Gallica had made available on the Web about: 6 million documents 690,311 books 176,341 maps 144,859 manuscripts 1,468,952 images 3,968,841 newspapers and magazines 51,055 sheets of music 51,170 audio recordings 510,807 objects 1,705 video recordings Most of Gallica's collections have been converted into text format using optical character recognition (OCR-processing), which allows full-text search in the library materials. Each document has a digital identifier, the so-called ARK (Archival Resource Key) of the National Library of France and is accompanied by a bibliographic description. List of directors[edit] 1369–1792[edit] 1369–1411: Gilles Mallet [fr] (fr) 1522–1540: Guillaume Budé 1540–1552: Pierre Duchâtel [fr] 1552–1567: Pierre de Montdoré [fr] 1567–1593: Jacques Amyot 1593–1617: Jacques-Auguste de Thou 1617–1642: François Auguste de Thou 1642–1656: Jérôme Bignon 1656–1684: Jérôme II Bignon [fr] 1560–1604: Jean Gosselin [fr] 1604–1614: Isaac Casaubon 1614–1645: Nicolas Rigault 1645–1651: Pierre Dupuy 1651–1656: Jacques Dupuy [fr] 1656–1676: Nicolas Colbert [fr]; Pierre de Carcavi (1663-1683) 1676–1684: Louis Colbert [fr]; Melchisédech Thévenot (1684-1691) 1684–1718: Camille Le Tellier de Louvois; Nicolas Clément [fr] (1691-1712) 1719–1741: Jean-Paul Bignon 1741–1743: Jérôme Bignon de Blanzy [fr] 1743–1772: Armand-Jérôme Bignon 1770–1784: Jérôme-Frédéric Bignon [fr]; Grégoire Desaunays [fr] (from 1775 to 1793) 1784–1789: Jean-Charles-Pierre Le Noir (démission) 1789–1792: Louis Le Fèvre d'Ormesson de Noyseau [fr] 1792–present[edit] 1792–1793: Jean-Louis Carra [fr] and Sébastien-Roch Nicolas de Chamfort (fr) 1793: Jean-Baptiste Cœuilhe [fr] (interim) 1793–1795: Jean Baptiste Lefebvre de Villebrune 1795–1796: André Barthélemy de Courcay [fr] 1796–1798: Jean-Augustin Capperonnier [fr] 1798–1799: Adrien-Jacques Joly [fr] 1799–1800: Aubin-Louis Millin de Grandmaison 1800–1803: Jean-Augustin Capperonnier 1803–1806: Pascal-François-Joseph Gossellin [fr] 1806–1829: Bon-Joseph Dacier 1830–1831: Joseph Van Praet 1832: Joseph Van Praet 1832: Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat 1832–1837: Jean-Antoine Letronne 1838–1839: Edmé François Jomard 1839: Charles Dunoyer 1839–1840: Antoine Jean Letronne 1840–1858: Joseph Naudet 1858–1874: Jules-Antoine Taschereau [fr]; the Paris Commune appointed Élie Reclus (29 April to 24 May 1871) 1874–1905: Léopold Delisle 1905–1913: Henry Marcel 1913–1923: Théophile Homolle 1923–1930: Pierre-René Roland-Marcel [fr] 1930–1940: Julien Cain 1940–1944: Bernard Faÿ 1944–1945: Jean Laran [fr] (interim) 1945–1964: Julien Cain 1964–1975: Étienne Dennery 1975–1981: Georges Le Rider 1981–1984: Alain Gourdon [fr] 1984–1987: André Miquel 1987–1993: Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie 1989–1994: Dominique Jamet [fr] 1994–1997: Jean Favier 1997–2002: Jean-Pierre Angremy 2002–2007: Jean-Noël Jeanneney 2007–2016: Bruno Racine 2016–present: Laurence Engel [fr] Films about the library[edit] Alain Resnais directed Toute la mémoire du monde, a 1956 short film about the library and its collections. Famous patrons[edit] Raoul Rigault, leader during the Paris Commune, was known for habitually occupying the library and reading endless copies of the newspaper Le Père Duchesne.[12] See also[edit] Arcade (blinkenlights) Bibliothèque de l'Arsenal Bibliothèque-Musée de l'Opéra National de Paris Books in France Cabinet des Médailles Dossiers Secrets d'Henri Lobineau Les Enfers, a department within the Bibliothèque nationale Legal deposit National electronic library References[edit] ^ Jack A. Clarke. "French Libraries in Transition, 1789–95." The Library Quarterly, Vol. 37, No. 4 (Oct., 1967) ^ a b "La BnF en chiffres". Archived from the original on 2007-11-28. ^ a b Priebe, Paul M. (1982). "From Bibliothèque du Roi to Bibliothèque Nationale: The Creation of a State Library, 1789–1793". The Journal of Library History. 17 (4): 389–408. JSTOR 25541320. ^ a b c d e f g This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Rines, George Edwin, ed. (1920). "National Library of France" . Encyclopedia Americana. ^ Konstantinos Staikos (2012), History of the Library in Western Civilization: From Petrarch to Michelangelo, New Castle, DE: Oak Knoll Press, ISBN 978-1-58456-182-8 ^ Dunton, Larkin (1896). The World and Its People. Silver, Burdett. p. 38. ^ "University and Research Libraries". Nature. 156 (3962): 417. 6 October 1945. doi:10.1038/156417a0. ^ Bouygues website: Bibliothèque nationale de France Archived November 27, 2006, at the Wayback Machine ^ Fitchett, Joseph (30 March 1995). "New Paris Library: Visionary or Outdated?". The New York Times. Retrieved 10 April 2013. ^ Ramsay, Raylene L. (2003). French women in politics: writing power, paternal legitimization, and maternal legacies. Berghahn Books. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-57181-082-3. Retrieved 21 May 2011. ^ "Welcome to the BnF". BnF (Bibliothèque nationale de France). Archived from the original on 25 January 2016. Retrieved 17 January 2016. ^ Horne, Alistair (1965). The Fall of Paris: The Siege and the Commune 1870-1. St. Martin's Press, New York. pp. 29–30. Further reading[edit] Bibliothèque nationale (France), Département de la Phonothèque nationale et de l'Audiovisuel. The National [Sound] Record[ings] and Audiovisual Department of the National Library [of France]. [Paris]: Bibliothèque nationale, [1986]. 9 p. David H. Stam, ed. (2001). International Dictionary of Library Histories. Fitzroy Dearborn. ISBN 1-57958-244-3. Riding, Alan. "France Detects a Cultural Threat in Google," The New York Times. April 11, 2005. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bibliothèque nationale de France. 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en-wikipedia-org-1909	----	Alexander IV of Macedon - Wikipedia Alexander IV of Macedon From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Alexander IV Basileus of Macedon Hegemon of the Hellenic League Shahanshah of Persia Pharaoh of Egypt Lord of Asia Reign 323–309 BC Predecessor Philip III Successor Cassander Born August 323 BC Babylon Died Late summer 309 BC (aged 13 or 14) Macedon, Ancient Greece Dynasty Argead Father Alexander III of Macedon Mother Roxana of Bactria Religion Ancient Greek Religion Royal titulary Nomen Khaibre Setepenamun Ra makes the heart rejoice, elected by Amun [1] Horus name Khounou Ouserpehti The young, imposing force Nebty name Merinetjerou Redinefjaoutenitef The Beloved of the Gods, His Father's Throne Given to Him Golden Horus Bik Nebou Heqaemtadjeref Golden Hawk reigns around the world Alexander IV (Greek: Ἀλέξανδρος Δ΄; 323 – 309 BC), erroneously called sometimes in modern times Aegus,[2] was the son of Alexander the Great (Alexander III of Macedon) and Princess Roxana of Bactria. Contents 1 Birth 2 Regents 3 Civil war 4 Death 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Birth[edit] Alexander IV was the son of Alexander the Great (a Macedonian) and Alexander's wife Roxana (a Sogdian).[3][4][5] He was the grandson of Philip II of Macedon. Because Roxana was pregnant when Alexander the Great died on 11 June 323 BC and the sex of the baby was unknown, there was dissension in the Macedonian army regarding the order of succession. While the infantry supported Alexander the Great's half-brother Philip III (who had some unknown cognitive disability present throughout his life[6]), the chiliarch Perdiccas, commander of the elite Companion cavalry, persuaded them to wait in the hope that Roxana's child would be male. The factions compromised, deciding that Perdiccas would rule the Empire as regent while Philip would reign, but only as a figurehead with no real power. If the child was male, then he would be king. Alexander IV was born in August, 323 BC. Regents[edit] After a severe regency, military failure in Egypt, and mutiny in the army, Perdiccas was assassinated by his senior officers in May or June 321 or 320 BC (problems with Diodorus's chronology have made the year uncertain[7]), after which Antipater was named as the new regent at the Partition of Triparadisus. He brought with him Roxana and the two kings to Macedon and gave up the pretence of ruling Alexander's Empire, leaving former provinces in Egypt and Asia under the control of the satraps. When Antipater died in 319 BC he left Polyperchon, a Macedonian general who had served under Philip II and Alexander the Great, as his successor, passing over his own son, Cassander. Civil war[edit] Cassander allied himself with Ptolemy Soter, Antigonus and Eurydice, the ambitious wife of king Philip Arrhidaeus, and declared war upon the Regency. Polyperchon was allied with Eumenes and Olympias. Although Polyperchon was successful at first, taking control of the Greek cities, his fleet was destroyed by Antigonus in 318 BC. When, after the battle, Cassander assumed full control of Macedon, Polyperchon was forced to flee to Epirus, followed by Roxana and the young Alexander. A few months later, Olympias was able to persuade her relative Aeacides of Epirus to invade Macedon with Polyperchon. When Olympias took the field, Eurydice's army refused to fight against the mother of Alexander and defected to Olympias, after which Polyperchon and Aeacides retook Macedon. Philip and Eurydice were captured and executed on December 25, 317 BC, leaving Alexander IV king, and Olympias in effective control, as she was his regent. Cassander returned in the following year (316 BC), conquering Macedon once again. Olympias was immediately executed, while the king and his mother were taken prisoner and held in the citadel of Amphipolis under the supervision of Glaucias. When the general peace between Cassander, Antigonus, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus put an end to the Third Diadoch War in 311 BC, the peace treaty recognized Alexander IV's rights and explicitly stated that when he came of age he would succeed Cassander as ruler. Death[edit] Tomb III in Vergina, which probably belonged to Alexander IV Following the treaty, defenders of the Argead dynasty began to declare that Alexander IV should now exercise full power and that a regent was no longer needed, since he had almost reached the significant age of 14, the age at which a Macedonian noble could become a court page. Cassander's response was definitive: to secure his rule, in 309 BC he commanded Glaucias to secretly assassinate the 14-year-old Alexander IV and his mother. The orders were carried out, and they were both poisoned. There is controversy about the exact year of Alexander IV's death because of conflicting sources but the consensus of Hammond and Walbank in A History of Macedonia Vol. 3 is that Alexander was killed late in the summer of 309 BC, shortly after his alleged half-brother Heracles. However, Green thinks that Heracles was killed after Alexander IV's assassination.[8] One of the royal tombs discovered by the archaeologist Manolis Andronikos in the so-called "Great Tumulus" in Vergina in 1977/8 is believed to belong to Alexander IV.[9] References[edit] ^ Lepsius, Denkmäler aus Ägypten und Äthiopien (1849) ^ The error was caused by a modern misreading, ΑΙΓΟΥ for ΑΛΛΟΥ, of the text of Ptolemy's Canon of Kings. See e.g. Chrisholm, Hugh (1911). "s.v. Alexander the Great". Encyclopædia Britannica. 1. p. 549. Chugg, Andrew Michael (2007). The Quest for the Tomb of Alexander the Great. Lulu. p. 42. ISBN 9780955679001. At Google Books. ^ Ahmed, S. Z. (2004), Chaghatai: the Fabulous Cities and People of the Silk Road, West Conshokoken: Infinity Publishing, p. 61. ^ Strachan, Edward and Roy Bolton (2008), Russia and Europe in the Nineteenth Century, London: Sphinx Fine Art, p. 87, ISBN 978-1-907200-02-1. ^ Livius.org. "Roxane." Articles on Ancient History. Page last modified 17 August 2015. Retrieved on 29 August 2016. ^ Habicht, Christian (1998). Hellēnistikē Athēna (1. ekdosē ed.). Ekdoseis Odysseas. p. 69. ISBN 960-210-310-8. ^ Anson, Edward M (Summer 1986). "Diodorus and the Date of Triparadeisus". The American Journal of Philology. The Johns Hopkins University Press. 107 (2): 208–217. doi:10.2307/294603. JSTOR 294603. ^ Green, Peter. Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age. p44, 2007 Ed. ^ "Royal Tombs: Vergina". Macedonian Heritage. Retrieved 9 July 2013. Further reading[edit] Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, "Alexander IV", Boston, (1867). External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Alexander IV of Macedon. Livius.org: Alexander IV Wiki Classical Dictionary: Alexander IV Alexander IV of Macedon Argead dynasty Born: 323 BC Died: 309 BC Regnal titles Preceded by Philip III King of Macedon 323–311 BC Succeeded by Cassander King of Asia 323–311 BC Succeeded by Seleucus I Nicator Pharaoh of Egypt 323–311 BC Succeeded by Ptolemy I Soter v t e Kings of Macedon Argead Caranus Coenus Tyrimmas Perdiccas I Argaeus I Philip I Aeropus I Alcetas I Amyntas I Alexander I Alcetas II Perdiccas II Archelaus I Craterus Orestes / Aeropus II Archelaus II Amyntas II Pausanias Argaeus II Amyntas III Alexander II Perdiccas III Amyntas IV Philip II Alexander III (Alexander the Great) Philip III Alexander IV Regents Ptolemy of Aloros Perdiccas Peithon and Arrhidaeus Antipater Polyperchon Cassander Antipatrid Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Antigonid Demetrius I Antigonus II Demetrius II Antigonus III Philip V Perseus Andriscus (Philip VI) Non-dynastic Lysimachus Pyrrhus Ptolemy Keraunos Meleager v t e Hellenistic rulers Argeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Kings of Cyrene Magas Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Kings of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Kings of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Kings of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Kings of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III 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Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexander_IV_of_Macedon&oldid=996236026" Categories: 323 BC births 309 BC deaths 4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs 4th-century BC Pharaohs 4th-century BC Babylonian kings Family of Alexander the Great Argead kings of Macedonia Greek people of Iranian descent Monarchs of Persia 4th-century BC murdered monarchs Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty Rulers who died as children Ancient child rulers 4th-century BC rulers People who died under the regency of Cassander Murdered royalty of Macedonia (ancient kingdom) 4th-century BC Macedonians Deaths by poisoning Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Commons category link from Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Беларуская Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Lietuvių Magyar Македонски मराठी مصرى Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Scots සිංහල Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 Yorùbá 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 December 2020, at 10:06 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1913	----	Cappadocia (satrapy) - Wikipedia Cappadocia (satrapy) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Cappadocia" satrapy – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (November 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Achaemenid Cappadocia Cappadocian soldier of the Achaemenid army circa 470 BCE. Xerxes I tomb relief. Location of Achaemenid Cappadocia. Cappadocia (from Old Persian Katpatuka) was a satrapy (province) of the Achaemenid Empire used by the Achaemenids to administer the regions beyond the Taurus Mountains and the Euphrates river. Contents 1 The Satrapy 2 Satraps of Cappadocia (c. 380–331 BC) 3 See also 4 References The Satrapy[edit] The Satrapy belonged to the third tax district and paid an estimated 360 talents a year in tribute. The first satrap (governor) known by name is Ariaramnes, who ruled sometime at the beginning of the reign of the Achaemenid king Darius the Great. His successors are unknown, although Gobryas, the half brother of Xerxes, commanded the Cappadocians in 480 BCE. During the reign of Artaxerxes II, Cappadocia was divided, becoming Paphlagonia and Cappadocia Proper. Datames (abridged from Datamithra) then became the satrap of southern Cappadocia; he led a revolt and was later assassinated in 362 BCE. The last Achaemenid satrap of Cappadocia was Mithrobuzanes, who died in 334 BCE at the Battle of the Granicus fighting Alexander's invading army.[1] Satraps of Cappadocia (c. 380–331 BC)[edit] Ariaramnes, c.500 BCE Datames, c. 380–362 BC Ariamnes I, 362–350 BC Mithrobuzanes (died 334) Ariarathes I, 350–331 BC See also[edit] Cappadocian calendar List of rulers of Cappadocia Kingdom of Cappadocia Cappadocia References[edit] ^ Livius.org: Cappadocia v t e Provinces of the Achaemenid Empire (Behistun / Persepolis / Naqsh-e Rustam / Susa / Daiva inscriptions) Akaufaka (Quhistan?) Amyrgoi Arabia Arachosia Aria Armenia Assyria Babylonia Bactria Cappadocia Caria Carmania Caucasian Albania Chorasmia Cilicia Colchis Dahae Drangiana 1st Egypt / 2nd Egypt Eber-Nari (Levant) Elam Kush (Nubia) Gandāra (Gandhara) Gedrosia Hyrcania Ionia Hindush Libya Lydia Maka Margiana Media Lesser Media Massagetae Parthia Persia Phoenicia Phrygia Hellespontine Phrygia Greater Phrygia Saka Samaritan Province Sattagydia Skudra (Thrace) Sogdia Yehud See also Tax Districts of the Achaemenid Empire (according to Herodotus) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cappadocia_(satrapy)&oldid=999444082" Categories: Achaemenid Cappadocia Achaemenid satrapies Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from November 2019 All articles needing additional references Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages فارسی Galego Italiano Polski Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 10 January 2021, at 05:42 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1919	----	Sewadjare Mentuhotep - Wikipedia Sewadjare Mentuhotep From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sewadjare Mentuhotep Sewedjare Mentuhotep V Photography of a relief showing the cartouches of Sewadjare Mentuhotep from the mortuary temple of Mentuhotep II at Deir el-Bahri.[1] Pharaoh Reign very short reign, some time between 1662 BC and 1649 BC, most probably 1655 BC[2] (13th Dynasty) Predecessor unknown Successor uncertain, "[...]mosre" Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sewadjare Swḏˁ-Rˁ Nomen Mentuhotep Mn-ṯw-ḥtp Montu is content Consort Sitmut (?) Children Herunefer (?) Sewadjare Mentuhotep (also known as Mentuhotep V or Mentuhotep VI depending on the scholar) is a poorly attested Egyptian pharaoh of the late 13th Dynasty, who reigned for a short time c. 1655 BC during the Second Intermediate Period.[2] The Egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker respectively believe that he was the fiftieth and forty-ninth king of the dynasty, thereby making him Mentuhotep V.[2][3] Thus, Sewadjare Mentuhotep most likely reigned shortly before the arrival of Hyksos over the Memphite region and concurrently with the last rulers of the 14th Dynasty. Contents 1 Name 2 Attestations 3 Coffin of Herunefer 4 References Name[edit] Ryholt, Baker and Jacques Kinnaer refer to Sewadjare Mentuhotep as Mentuhotep V because they believe that he lived at the very end of the 13th Dynasty. On the other hand, in his studies of the Second Intermediate Period, Jürgen von Beckerath leaves Sewadjare Mentuhotep's position within the 13th Dynasty completely undetermined, but names him Mentuhotep VI nonetheless.[4][5][6] Attestations[edit] Sewadjare Mentuhotep is a poorly attested pharaoh. Unfortunately, the Turin canon is severely damaged after the record of Sobekhotep VII and the identity and chronological order of the last nineteen kings of the 13th Dynasty are impossible to ascertain from the document.[2] According to Nobert Dautzenberg and Ryholt, Mentuhotep's prenomen Sewadjare is nonetheless partially preserved on column 8, line 20 of the papyrus, which reads [...]dj[are].[2][7] The only contemporary attestation safely attributable to Sewadjare Mentuhotep V is a single fragment of a relief showing his cartouches.[3] The relief was found in the ruins of the mortuary temple of Mentuhotep II during the excavation of Édouard Naville at the beginning of the 20th century.[1] Coffin of Herunefer[edit] Another possible attestation of Sewedjare Mentuhotep V is given by a fragment of a wooden coffin, now in the British Museum under the catalog number BM EA 29997. The coffin bears the following text:[2] The Patrician, Royal Representative, Eldest King's son, the Senior Commander Herunefer, true of voice, who was begotten by king Mentuhotep, true of voice, and borne by the senior Queen Sitmut. The prenomen of the king Mentuhotep is missing and the identification of this Mentuhotep remains problematic. Kim Ryholt notes however that the coffin is also inscribed with an early version of passages of the Book of the Dead, which is one of only two pre-New Kingdom inscriptions of this text. Thus, Ryholt argues that this Mentuhotep must have reigned during the late Second Intermediate Period. Thus, three kings could possibly be the one mentioned on the coffin: Seankhenre Mentuhotepi, Merankhre Mentuhotep VI and Sewadjare Mentuhotep. Although it sounds similar to Mentuhotep, Ryholt has shown that Mentuhotepi is a different name than Mentuhotep and would therefore not have been reported as Mentuhotep. To decide between the two remaining kings, Ryholt notes that the other instance of the Book of the Dead is found on the coffin of queen Mentuhotep, wife of Djehuti, the second pharaoh of the 16th Dynasty who reigned c. 1645 BC. In this case, the text is almost identical to that found on Herunefer's coffin, which argues for a close proximity in time between the two. While Sewadjare Mentuhotep reigned c. 10 years before Djehuti, Merankhre Mentuhotep is believed to have reigned 60 years after him. Hence, Ryholt concludes that Sewadjare Mentuhotep is the Mentuhotep of the coffin, Sitmut his queen and Herunefer his son. This identification is far from certain however, and Aidan Dodson and Dyan Hilton have instead dated the coffin to the end of the 16th dynasty, thereby giving Herunefer as the son of Merankhre Mentuhotep VI.[8] References[edit] ^ a b Édouard Naville: The XI Dynasty Temple at Deir el-Bahri, Part I, 1907, available copyright-free online, see p. 68 and pl. XII [i] ^ a b c d e f K.S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here. ^ a b Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 231-232 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46. Mainz am Rhein, 1997 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der Ägyptischen Königsnamen, MÄS 49, Philip Von Zabern. (1999) ^ Norbert Dautzenberg: Plazierungvorshläge zu zwei Königen der 13. Dynastie, GM 127, (1992), 17-19 ^ Aidan Dodson, Dyan Hilton: The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, Thames and Hudson, 2004. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sewadjare_Mentuhotep&oldid=977193319" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Español فارسی Français Italiano ქართული Magyar Русский Slovenščina Tagalog ไทย Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 7 September 2020, at 12:54 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1927	----	Iyibkhentre - Wikipedia Iyibkhentre From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Iyibkhentre Drawing of an inscription depicting Iyibkhentre's titulary. Pharaoh Reign early 20th century BCE (11th–12th Dynasty) Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Iyibkhentre[1][2] Jj jb ḫnt Rˁ (Reading is uncertain) Horus name Geregtaw(y)ef Grg-t3w(j)f He who established its Two Lands Iyibkhentre was an ancient Egyptian or Nubian ruler who most likely reigned at the end of the 11th and beginning of the 12th Dynasty. Biography[edit] He could have been a pretender to the Egyptian throne headquartered in Lower Nubia, during the politically sensitive period within the reign of Mentuhotep IV of the 11th Dynasty and the early reign of Amenemhat I of the 12th Dynasty.[1][3] In fact, both those rulers seem to have had problems in being universally recognized as legitimate pharaohs. Hungarian Egyptologist László Török suggested a much more recent dating for Iyibkhentre (as well as for the other related rulers mentioned below), some time after the reign of pharaoh Neferhotep I of the 13th Dynasty (Second Intermediate Period).[4] Iyibkhentre adopted the pharaonic royal titulary, although only the Horus name and the Throne name are known from rock inscriptions at Abu Hor, Mediq and Toshka, all in Lower Nubia.[5] Like Iyibkhentre, two other rulers based in Nubia, Segerseni and Qakare Ini, likely were pretenders to the Egyptian throne, but the eventual relationships among the trio are unknown. References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Iyibkhentre. ^ a b Jürgen von Beckerath, Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Deutscher Kunstverlag, München/ Berlin 1984, ISBN 3-422-00832-2, pp. 64, 195. ^ Arthur Weigall, A Report on the Antiquities of Lower Nubia. Cairo 1907, pls. 49–50. ^ Wolfram Grajetzki, The Middle Kingdom of ancient Egypt: history, archaeology and society. London, Duckworth Egyptology, 2006, pp. 27-28. ^ László Török, Between Two Worlds: The Frontier Region Between Ancient Nubia and Egypt 3700 BC - 500 AD, Brill, 2008, ISBN 978-90-04-17197-8, pp. 100–102. ^ Thomas Schneider, Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, p. 137. Henri Gauthier, "Nouvelles remarques sur la XIe dynastie", BIFAO 9 (1911), pp. 99–136. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Iyibkhentre&oldid=994637801" Categories: 20th-century BC Pharaohs People of the Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt People of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Non-dynastic pharaohs 20th-century BC rulers History of Nubia Ancient Egypt people stubs Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Deutsch Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar Русский Slovenščina Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 16 December 2020, at 19:20 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1929	----	Alternate history - Wikipedia Alternate history From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be confused with Counterfactual history or Secret history. Genre of speculative fiction, where one or more historical events occur differently Part of a series on Alternate history Notable examples Abraham Lincoln: Vampire Hunter Atlantis: The Lost Empire Bring the Jubilee Command & Conquer: Red Alert District 9 Fallout Fatherland The Good Dinosaur The Guns of the South Inglourious Basterds The Man in the High Castle The Plot Against America Red Dawn The Russian Sleep Experiment Snowpiercer Southern Victory Utopia Wolfenstein Worldwar The Yiddish Policemen's Union People Dick Harris More Stirling Turtledove Elements Alien space bats Butterfly effect Hypothetical Axis victory Multiple universes Parallel timeline Point of divergence Retrofuturism Time travel Related topics Counterfactual history Fantasy Historical fiction Science fiction Sidewise Award for Alternate History Speculative fiction  Speculative fiction portal  History portal v t e Speculative fiction Alternate history List of alternate history fiction Retrofuturism Sidewise Award Writers Fantasy fiction Anime Fandom Fantasy art Fiction magazines Films Genres History Legendary creatures Literature Quests Artifacts Races Superheroes Television Themes Worlds Writers Science fiction Anime Artists Awards Climate fiction Editors Fandom conventions fanzine Fiction magazines Genres History Organizations Film Television Themes Writers Horror fiction Anime Awards Conventions Fiction magazines Films Genres Podcasts Television Writers Miscellaneous Fictional universe Internet Speculative Fiction Database List of Japanese SF writers The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction The Encyclopedia of Fantasy  Portal v t e Alternate history, alternative history (in Commonwealth English),[1][2] or simply althist,[3] sometimes abbreviated as AH,[4] is a genre of speculative fiction consisting of stories in which one or more historical events occur differently. These stories usually contain "what if" scenarios at crucial points in history and present outcomes other than those in the historical record. The stories are conjectural but are sometimes based on fact. Alternate history has been seen as a subgenre of literary fiction, science fiction, or historical fiction; alternate history works may use tropes from any or all of these genres. Another term occasionally used for the genre is "allohistory" (literally "other history").[5] Since the 1950s, this type of fiction has, to a large extent, merged with science fiction tropes involving time travel between alternate histories, psychic awareness of the existence of one universe by the people in another, or time travel that results in history splitting into two or more timelines. Cross-time, time-splitting, and alternate history themes have become so closely interwoven that it is impossible to discuss them fully apart from one another. In Spanish, French, German, Portuguese, Italian, Catalan and Galician, the genre of alternate history is called uchronie / ucronia / ucronía / Uchronie, which has given rise to the term Uchronia in English. This neologism is based on the prefix ου- (which in Ancient Greek means "not/not any/no") and the Greek χρόνος (chronos), meaning "time". A uchronia means literally "(in) no time," by analogy to utopia, etymologically "(in) no place." This term apparently also inspired the name of the alternate history book list, uchronia.net.[6] Contents 1 Definition 2 History of literature 2.1 Antiquity and medieval 2.2 19th century 2.3 Early 20th century and the era of the pulps 2.3.1 Time travel as a means of creating historical divergences 2.4 Cross-time stories 2.4.1 Quantum theory of many worlds 2.4.2 Rival paratime worlds 2.5 Major writers explore alternate histories 2.6 Contemporary alternate history in popular literature 2.7 In the contemporary fantasy genre 2.8 Video games 3 Online 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Definition[edit] The Collins English Dictionary defines alternative history as "a genre of fiction in which the author speculates on how the course of history might have been altered if a particular historical event had had a different outcome."[1] According to Steven H Silver, an American science fiction editor, alternate history requires three things: a point of divergence from the history of our world prior to the time at which the author is writing, a change that would alter history as it is known, and an examination of the ramifications of that change.[7] Several genres of fiction have been misidentified as alternate history. Science fiction set in what was the future but is now the past, like Arthur C. Clarke's 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) or George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949), is not alternate history because the author did not make the choice to change the past at the time of writing.[7] Secret history, which can take the form of fiction or nonfiction, documents events that may or may not have happened historically but did not have an effect on the overall outcome of history, and so is not to be confused with alternate history.[7] and a different definition of "secret history" by the same writer is also searchable.[8] --> Alternate history is related to, but distinct from, counterfactual history. This term is used by some professional historians to describe the practice of using thoroughly researched and carefully reasoned speculations on "what might have happened if..." as a tool of academic historical research, as opposed to a literary device.[9] History of literature[edit] This section has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This section may contain indiscriminate, excessive, or irrelevant examples. Please improve the article by adding more descriptive text and removing less pertinent examples. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for further suggestions. (May 2019) This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (May 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Antiquity and medieval[edit] Title page of the first Castilian-language translation of Joanot Martorell's Tirant lo Blanch The earliest example of alternate (or counterfactual) history is found in Livy's Ab Urbe Condita Libri (book IX, sections 17–19). Livy contemplated an alternative 4th century BC in which Alexander the Great had survived to attack Europe as he had planned; asking, "What would have been the results for Rome if she had been engaged in a war with Alexander?"[10][11][12] Livy concluded that the Romans would likely have defeated Alexander.[10][13][14] Another example of counterfactual history was posited by cardinal and Doctor of the Church Peter Damian in the 11th century. In his famous work De Divina Omnipotentia, a long letter in which he discusses God's omnipotence, he treats questions related to the limits of divine power, including the question of whether God can change the past,[15] for example, bringing about that Rome was never founded:[16][17][18] I see I must respond finally to what many people, on the basis of your holiness’s [own] judgment, raise as an objection on the topic of this dispute. For they say: If, as you assert, God is omnipotent in all things, can he manage this, that things that have been made were not made? He can certainly destroy all things that have been made, so that they do not exist now. But it cannot be seen how he can bring it about that things that have been made were not made. To be sure, it can come about that from now on and hereafter Rome does not exist; for it can be destroyed. But no opinion can grasp how it can come about that it was not founded long ago...[19] One early work of fiction detailing an alternate history is Joanot Martorell's 1490 epic romance Tirant lo Blanch, which was written when the loss of Constantinople to the Turks was still a recent and traumatic memory for Christian Europe. It tells the story of the knight Tirant the White from Brittany who travels to the embattled remnants of the Byzantine Empire. He becomes a Megaduke and commander of its armies and manages to fight off the invading Ottoman armies of Mehmet II. He saves the city from Islamic conquest, and even chases the Turks deeper into lands they had previously conquered. 19th century[edit] One of the earliest works of alternate history published in large quantities for the reception of a large audience may be Louis Geoffroy's Histoire de la Monarchie universelle: Napoléon et la conquête du monde (1812–1832) (History of the Universal Monarchy: Napoleon and the Conquest of the World) (1836), which imagines Napoleon's First French Empire emerging victorious in the French invasion of Russia in 1811 and in an invasion of England in 1814, later unifying the world under Bonaparte's rule.[11] In the English language, the first known complete alternate history is Nathaniel Hawthorne's short story "P.'s Correspondence", published in 1845. It recounts the tale of a man who is considered "a madman" due to his perceptions of a different 1845, a reality in which long-dead famous people, such as the poets Robert Burns, Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley and John Keats, the actor Edmund Kean, the British politician George Canning, and Napoleon Bonaparte, are still alive. The first novel-length alternate history in English would seem to be Castello Holford's Aristopia (1895). While not as nationalistic as Louis Geoffroy's Napoléon et la conquête du monde, 1812–1823, Aristopia is another attempt to portray a Utopian society. In Aristopia, the earliest settlers in Virginia discover a reef made of solid gold and are able to build a Utopian society in North America. Early 20th century and the era of the pulps[edit] In 1905, H. G. Wells published A Modern Utopia. As explicitly noted in the book itself, Wells's main aim in writing it was to set out his social and political ideas, the plot serving mainly as a vehicle to expound them. This book introduced the idea of a person being transported from a point in our familiar world to the precise geographical equivalent point in an alternate world, where history had gone differently. The protagonists undergo various adventures in the alternate world, and are then finally transported back to our world - again to the precise geographical equivalent point. Since then, this had become - and remains - a staple of the alternate history genre. A number of alternate history stories and novels appeared in the late 19th and early 20th centuries (see, for example, Charles Petrie's If: A Jacobite Fantasy [1926]).[20] In 1931, British historian Sir John Squire collected a series of essays from some of the leading historians of the period for his anthology If It Had Happened Otherwise. In this work, scholars from major universities (as well as important non-academic authors) turned their attention to such questions as "If the Moors in Spain Had Won" and "If Louis XVI Had Had an Atom of Firmness". The essays range from serious scholarly efforts to Hendrik Willem van Loon's fanciful and satiric portrayal of an independent 20th century Dutch city state on the island of Manhattan. Among the authors included were Hilaire Belloc, André Maurois, and Winston Churchill. A 1952 world map from the universe of Ward Moore's Bring the Jubilee, where the Confederacy wins the "War of Southern Independence"—the counterfactual American Civil War One of the entries in Squire's volume was Churchill's "If Lee Had Not Won [sic] the Battle of Gettysburg", written from the viewpoint of a historian in a world where the Confederate States of America had won the American Civil War. The entry considers what would have happened if the North had been victorious (in other words, a character from an alternate world imagines a world more like the real one we live in, although not identical in every detail). Speculative work that narrates from the point of view of an alternate history is variously known as "recursive alternate history", a "double-blind what-if", or an "alternate-alternate history".[21] Churchill's essay was one of the influences behind Ward Moore's alternate history novel Bring the Jubilee,[citation needed] in which General Robert E. Lee won the Battle of Gettysburg, paving the way for the eventual victory of the Confederacy in the American Civil War (named the "War of Southron Independence" in this timeline). The protagonist, autodidact Hodgins Backmaker, travels back to the aforementioned battle and inadvertently changes history, resulting in the emergence of our own timeline and the consequent victory of the Union instead. American humorist author James Thurber parodied alternate history stories about the American Civil War in his 1930 story "If Grant Had Been Drinking at Appomattox", which he accompanied with this very brief introduction: "Scribner's magazine is publishing a series of three articles: 'If Booth Had Missed Lincoln', 'If Lee Had Won the Battle of Gettysburg', and 'If Napoleon Had Escaped to America'. This is the fourth." Another example of alternate history from this period (and arguably[22] the first to explicitly posit cross-time travel from one universe to another as anything more than a visionary experience) is H.G. Wells' Men Like Gods (1923), in which London-based journalist Mr. Barnstable along with two cars and their passengers is mysteriously teleported into "another world", which the "Earthlings" call Utopia. Being far more advanced than Earth, Utopia is some three thousand years ahead of humanity in its development. Wells describes a multiverse of alternative worlds, complete with the paratime travel machines that would later become popular with US pulp writers. However, since his hero experiences only a single alternate world, this story is not very different from conventional alternate history.[23] In the 1930s, alternate history moved into a new arena. The December 1933 issue of Astounding published Nat Schachner's "Ancestral Voices", which was quickly followed by Murray Leinster's "Sidewise in Time". While earlier alternate histories examined reasonably straightforward divergences, Leinster attempted something completely different. In his "World gone mad", pieces of Earth traded places with their analogs from different timelines. The story follows Professor Minott and his students from a fictitious Robinson College as they wander through analogues of worlds that followed a different history. The world in 1964 in the novel Fatherland where the Nazis won World War II. A somewhat similar approach was taken by Robert A. Heinlein in his 1941 novelette Elsewhen, in which a professor trains his mind to move his body across timelines. He then hypnotizes his students so they can explore more of them. Eventually each settles into the reality most suitable for him or her. Some of the worlds they visit are mundane, some very odd; others follow science fiction or fantasy conventions. World War II produced alternate history for propaganda: both British and American[24] authors wrote works depicting Nazi invasions of their respective countries as cautionary tales. Time travel as a means of creating historical divergences[edit] The period around World War II also saw the publication of the time travel novel Lest Darkness Fall by L. Sprague de Camp, in which an American academic travels to Italy at the time of the Byzantine invasion of the Ostrogoths. De Camp's time traveler, Martin Padway, is depicted as making permanent historical changes and implicitly forming a new time branch, thereby making the work an alternate history. Time travel as the cause of a point of divergence (POD), which can denote either the bifurcation of a historical timeline or a simple replacement of the future that existed before the time traveling event, has continued to be a popular theme. In Ward Moore's Bring the Jubilee, the protagonist lives in an alternate history in which the Confederacy has won the American Civil War; he travels backward through time, and brings about a Union victory in the Battle of Gettysburg. When a story's assumptions about the nature of time travel lead to the complete replacement of the visited time's future rather than just the creation of an additional time line, the device of a "time patrol" is often used where guardians move through time to preserve the "correct" history. A more recent example is Making History by Stephen Fry, in which a time machine is used to alter history so that Adolf Hitler was never born. This ironically results in a more competent leader of the Third Reich, resulting in the country's ascendancy and longevity in this altered timeline. Cross-time stories[edit] This section may stray from the topic of the article. Please help improve this section or discuss this issue on the talk page. (May 2019) H.G. Wells' "cross-time" or "many universes" variant (see above) was fully developed by Murray Leinster in his 1934 short story "Sidewise in Time", in which sections of the Earth's surface begin changing places with their counterparts in alternate timelines. Fredric Brown employed this subgenre to satirize the science fiction pulps and their adolescent readers—and fears of foreign invasion—in the classic What Mad Universe (1949). In Clifford D. Simak's Ring Around the Sun (1953), the hero ends up in an alternate earth of thick forests in which humanity never developed but a band of mutants is establishing a colony; the story line appears to frame the author's anxieties regarding McCarthyism and the Cold War.[citation needed] Quantum theory of many worlds[edit] While many justifications for alternate histories involve a multiverse, the "many world" theory would naturally involve many worlds, in fact a continually exploding array of universes. In quantum theory, new worlds would proliferate with every quantum event, and even if the writer uses human decisions, every decision that could be made differently would result in a different timeline. A writer's fictional multiverse may, in fact, preclude some decisions as humanly impossible, as when, in Night Watch, Terry Pratchett depicts a character informing Vimes that while anything that can happen, has happened, nevertheless there is no history whatsoever in which Vimes has ever murdered his wife. When the writer explicitly maintains that all possible decisions are made in all possible ways, one possible conclusion is that the characters were neither brave, nor clever, nor skilled, but simply lucky enough to happen on the universe in which they did not choose the cowardly route, take the stupid action, fumble the crucial activity, etc.; few writers focus on this idea, although it has been explored in stories such as Larry Niven's story All the Myriad Ways, where the reality of all possible universes leads to an epidemic of suicide and crime because people conclude their choices have no moral import. In any case, even if it is true that every possible outcome occurs in some world, it can still be argued that traits such as bravery and intelligence might still affect the relative frequency of worlds in which better or worse outcomes occurred (even if the total number of worlds with each type of outcome is infinite, it is still possible to assign a different measure to different infinite sets). The physicist David Deutsch, a strong advocate of the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics, has argued along these lines, saying that "By making good choices, doing the right thing, we thicken the stack of universes in which versions of us live reasonable lives. When you succeed, all the copies of you who made the same decision succeed too. What you do for the better increases the portion of the multiverse where good things happen."[25] This view is perhaps somewhat too abstract to be explored directly in science fiction stories, but a few writers have tried, such as Greg Egan in his short story The Infinite Assassin, where an agent is trying to contain reality-scrambling "whirlpools" that form around users of a certain drug, and the agent is constantly trying to maximize the consistency of behavior among his alternate selves, attempting to compensate for events and thoughts he experiences, he guesses are of low measure relative to those experienced by most of his other selves. Many writers—perhaps the majority—avoid the discussion entirely. In one novel of this type, H. Beam Piper's Lord Kalvan of Otherwhen, a Pennsylvania State Police officer, who knows how to make gunpowder, is transported from our world to an alternate universe where the recipe for gunpowder is a tightly held secret and saves a country that is about to be conquered by its neighbors. The paratime patrol members are warned against going into the timelines immediately surrounding it, where the country will be overrun, but the book never depicts the slaughter of the innocent thus entailed, remaining solely in the timeline where the country is saved. The cross-time theme was further developed in the 1960s by Keith Laumer in the first three volumes of his Imperium sequence, which would be completed in Zone Yellow (1990). Piper's politically more sophisticated variant was adopted and adapted by Michael Kurland and Jack Chalker in the 1980s; Chalker's G.O.D. Inc trilogy (1987–89), featuring paratime detectives Sam and Brandy Horowitz, marks the first attempt at merging the paratime thriller with the police procedural.[citation needed] Kurland's Perchance (1988), the first volume of the never-completed "Chronicles of Elsewhen", presents a multiverse of secretive cross-time societies that utilize a variety of means for cross-time travel, ranging from high-tech capsules to mutant powers. Harry Turtledove has launched the Crosstime Traffic series for teenagers featuring a variant of H. Beam Piper's paratime trading empire. Rival paratime worlds[edit] The concept of a cross-time version of a world war, involving rival paratime empires, was developed in Fritz Leiber's Change War series, starting with the Hugo Award winning The Big Time (1958); followed by Richard C. Meredith's Timeliner trilogy in the 1970s, Michael McCollum's A Greater Infinity (1982) and John Barnes' Timeline Wars trilogy in the 1990s. Such "paratime" stories may include speculation that the laws of nature can vary from one universe to the next, providing a science fictional explanation—or veneer—for what is normally fantasy. Aaron Allston's Doc Sidhe and Sidhe Devil take place between our world, the "grim world" and an alternate "fair world" where the Sidhe retreated to. Although technology is clearly present in both worlds, and the "fair world" parallels our history, about fifty years out of step, there is functional magic in the fair world. Even with such explanation, the more explicitly the alternate world resembles a normal fantasy world, the more likely the story is to be labelled fantasy, as in Poul Anderson's "House Rule" and "Loser's Night". In both science fiction and fantasy, whether a given parallel universe is an alternate history may not be clear. The writer might allude to a POD only to explain the existence and make no use of the concept, or may present the universe without explanation of its existence. Major writers explore alternate histories[edit] Isaac Asimov's short story "What If—" (1952) is about a couple who can explore alternate realities by means of a television-like device. This idea can also be found in Asimov's novel The End of Eternity (1955), in which the "Eternals" can change the realities of the world, without people being aware of it. Poul Anderson's Time Patrol stories feature conflicts between forces intent on changing history and the Patrol who work to preserve it. One story, Delenda Est, describes a world in which Carthage triumphed over the Roman Republic. The Big Time, by Fritz Leiber, describes a Change War ranging across all of history. Keith Laumer's Worlds of the Imperium is one of the earliest alternate history novels; it was published by Fantastic Stories of the Imagination in 1961, in magazine form, and reprinted by Ace Books in 1962 as one half of an Ace Double. Besides our world, Laumer describes a world ruled by an Imperial aristocracy formed by the merger of European empires, in which the American Revolution never happened, and a third world in post-war chaos ruled by the protagonist's doppelganger. A map of the contiguous United States as depicted in The Man in the High Castle TV series, based on Philip K. Dick's The Man in the High Castle Philip K. Dick's novel, The Man in the High Castle (1962), is an alternate history in which Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan won World War II. This book contains an example of "alternate-alternate" history, in that one of its characters authored a book depicting a reality in which the Allies won the war, itself divergent from real-world history in several aspects. The several characters live within a divided United States, in which the Empire of Japan takes the Pacific states, governing them as a puppet, Nazi Germany takes the East Coast of the United States and parts of the Midwest, with the remnants of the old United States' government as the Neutral Zone, a buffer state between the two superpowers. The book has inspired an Amazon series of the same name. Vladimir Nabokov's novel, Ada or Ardor: A Family Chronicle (1969), is a story of incest that takes place within an alternate North America settled in part by Czarist Russia and that borrows from Dick's idea of "alternate-alternate" history (the world of Nabokov's hero is wracked by rumors of a "counter-earth" that apparently is ours). Some critics[who?] believe that the references to a counter-earth suggest that the world portrayed in Ada is a delusion in the mind of the hero (another favorite theme of Dick's novels[citation needed]). Strikingly, the characters in Ada seem to acknowledge their own world as the copy or negative version, calling it "Anti-Terra", while its mythical twin is the real "Terra". Like history, science has followed a divergent path on Anti-Terra: it boasts all the same technology as our world, but all based on water instead of electricity; e.g., when a character in Ada makes a long-distance call, all the toilets in the house flush at once to provide hydraulic power. Guido Morselli described the defeat of Italy (and subsequently France) in World War I in his novel, Past Conditional (1975; Contro-passato prossimo), wherein the static Alpine front line which divided Italy from Austria during that war collapses when the Germans and the Austrians forsake trench warfare and adopt blitzkrieg twenty years in advance. Kingsley Amis set his novel, The Alteration (1976), in the 20th century, but major events in the Reformation did not take place, and Protestantism is limited to the breakaway Republic of New England. Martin Luther was reconciled to the Roman Catholic Church and later became Pope Germanian I. Kim Stanley Robinson's novel, The Years of Rice and Salt (2002), starts at the point of divergence with Timur turning his army away from Europe, and the Black Death has killed 99% of Europe's population, instead of only a third. Robinson explores world history from that point in AD 1405 (807 AH) to about AD 2045 (1467 AH). Rather than following the great man theory of history, focusing on leaders, wars, and major events, Robinson writes more about social history, similar to the Annales School of history theory and Marxist historiography, focusing on the lives of ordinary people living in their time and place. Philip Roth's novel, The Plot Against America (2004), looks at an America where Franklin D. Roosevelt is defeated in 1940 in his bid for a third term as President of the United States, and Charles Lindbergh is elected, leading to a US that features increasing fascism and anti-Semitism. Michael Chabon, occasionally an author of speculative fiction, contributed to the genre with his novel The Yiddish Policemen's Union (2007), which explores a world in which the State of Israel was destroyed in its infancy and many of the world's Jews instead live in a small strip of Alaska set aside by the US government for Jewish settlement. The story follows a Jewish detective solving a murder case in the Yiddish-speaking semi-autonomous city state of Sitka. Stylistically, Chabon borrows heavily from the noir and detective fiction genres, while exploring social issues related to Jewish history and culture. Apart from the alternate history of the Jews and Israel, Chabon also plays with other common tropes of alternate history fiction; in the book, Germany actually loses the war even harder than they did in reality, getting hit with a nuclear bomb instead of just simply losing a ground war (subverting the common "what if Germany won WWII?" trope). Contemporary alternate history in popular literature[edit] The world of 1942, as depicted at the start of S. M. Stirling's The Domination series World War I from Harry Turtledove's Southern Victory ("Timeline 191") series The late 1980s and the 1990s saw a boom in popular-fiction versions of alternate history, fueled by the emergence of the prolific alternate history author Harry Turtledove, as well as the development of the steampunk genre and two series of anthologies—the What Might Have Been series edited by Gregory Benford and the Alternate ... series edited by Mike Resnick. This period also saw alternate history works by S. M. Stirling, Kim Stanley Robinson, Harry Harrison, Howard Waldrop, Peter Tieryas,[26] and others. In 1986, a sixteen-part epic comic book series called Captain Confederacy began examining a world where the Confederate States of America won the American Civil War. In the series, the Captain and others heroes are staged government propaganda events featuring the feats of these superheroes.[27] Since the late 1990s, Harry Turtledove has been the most prolific practitioner of alternate history and has been given the title "Master of Alternate History" by some.[28] His books include those of Timeline 191 (a.k.a. Southern Victory, also known as TL-191), in which, while the Confederate States of America won the American Civil War, the Union and Imperial Germany defeat the Entente Powers in the two "Great War"s of the 1910s and 1940s (with a Nazi-esque Confederate government attempting to exterminate its Black population), and the Worldwar series, in which aliens invaded Earth during World War II. Other stories by Turtledove include A Different Flesh, in which America was not colonized from Asia during the last ice age; In the Presence of Mine Enemies, in which the Nazis won World War II; and Ruled Britannia, in which the Spanish Armada succeeded in conquering England in the Elizabethan era, with William Shakespeare being given the task of writing the play that will motivate the Britons to rise up against their Spanish conquerors. He also co-authored a book with actor Richard Dreyfuss, The Two Georges, in which the United Kingdom retained the American colonies, with George Washington and King George III making peace. He did a two-volume series in which the Japanese not only bombed Pearl Harbor but also invaded and occupied the Hawaiian Islands. Perhaps the most incessantly explored theme in popular alternate history focuses on worlds in which the Nazis won World War Two. In some versions, the Nazis and/or Axis Powers conquer the entire world; in others, they conquer most of the world but a "Fortress America" exists under siege; while in others, there is a Nazi/Japanese Cold War comparable to the US/Soviet equivalent in 'our' timeline. Fatherland (1992), by Robert Harris, is set in Europe following the Nazi victory. The novel Dominion by C.J. Sansom (2012) is similar in concept but is set in England, with Churchill the leader of an anti-German Resistance and other historic persons in various fictional roles.[29] In the Mecha Samurai Empire series (2016), Peter Tieryas focuses on the Asian-American side of the alternate history, exploring an America ruled by the Japanese Empire while integrating elements of Asian pop culture like mechas and videogames.[30] Several writers have posited points of departure for such a world but then have injected time splitters from the future or paratime travel, for instance James P. Hogan's The Proteus Operation. Norman Spinrad wrote The Iron Dream in 1972, which is intended to be a science fiction novel written by Adolf Hitler after fleeing from Europe to North America in the 1920s. In Jo Walton's "Small Change" series, the United Kingdom made peace with Hitler before the involvement of the United States in World War II, and slowly collapses due to severe economic depression. Former House Speaker Newt Gingrich and William R. Forstchen have written a novel, 1945, in which the US defeated Japan but not Germany in World War II, resulting in a Cold War with Germany rather than the Soviet Union. Gingrich and Forstchen neglected to write the promised sequel; instead, they wrote a trilogy about the American Civil War, starting with Gettysburg: A Novel of the Civil War, in which the Confederates win a victory at the Battle of Gettysburg - however, after Lincoln responds by bringing Grant and his forces to the eastern theater, the Army of Northern Virginia is soon trapped and destroyed in Maryland, and the war ends within weeks. Also from that general era, Martin Cruz Smith, in his first novel, posited an independent American Indian nation following the defeat of Custer in The Indians Won (1970).[31] Beginning with The Probability Broach in 1980, L. Neil Smith wrote several novels that postulated the disintegration of the US Federal Government after Albert Gallatin joins the Whiskey Rebellion in 1794 and eventually leads to the creation of a libertarian utopia.[32] A recent time traveling splitter variant involves entire communities being shifted elsewhere to become the unwitting creators of new time branches. These communities are transported from the present (or the near-future) to the past or to another time-line via a natural disaster, the action of technologically advanced aliens, or a human experiment gone wrong. S. M. Stirling wrote the Island in the Sea of Time trilogy, in which Nantucket Island and all its modern inhabitants are transported to Bronze Age times to become the world's first superpower. In Eric Flint's 1632 series, a small town in West Virginia is transported to 17th century central Europe and drastically changes the course of the Thirty Years' War, which was then underway. John Birmingham's Axis of Time trilogy deals with the culture shock when a United Nations naval task force from 2021 finds itself back in 1942 helping the Allies against the Empire of Japan and the Germans (and doing almost as much harm as good in spite of its advanced weapons). Similarly, Robert Charles Wilson's Mysterium depicts a failed US government experiment which transports a small American town into an alternative version of the US run by believers in a form of Christianity known as Gnosticism, who are engaged in a bitter war with the "Spanish" in Mexico (the chief scientist at the laboratory where the experiment occurred is described as a Gnostic, and references to Christian Gnosticism appear repeatedly in the book).[33] In Time for Patriots by retired astronomer Thomas Wm. Hamilton (4897 Tomhamilton) a town and military academy on Long Island are transported back to 1770, where they shorten the American Revolution, rewrite the Constitution, prolong Mozart's life, battle Barbary pirates, and have other adventures. Although not dealing in physical time travel, in his alt-history novel Marx Returns, Jason Barker introduces anachronisms into the life and times of Karl Marx, such as when his wife Jenny sings a verse from the Sex Pistols's song "Anarchy in the U.K.", or in the games of chess she plays with the Marxes' housekeeper Helene Demuth, which on one occasion involves a Caro–Kann Defence.[34] In her review of the novel, Nina Power writes of "Jenny’s 'utopian' desire for an end to time", an attitude which, according to Power, is inspired by her husband's co-authored book The German Ideology. However, in keeping with the novel's anachronisms, the latter was not published until 1932.[35] By contrast, the novel's timeline ends in 1871. In the contemporary fantasy genre[edit] The Angevin Empire in 1172, before the point of divergence of Randall Garrett's "Lord Darcy" series Many fantasies and science fantasies are set in a world that has a history somewhat similar to our own world, but with magic added. Some posit points of divergence, but some also feature magic altering history all along. One example of a universe that is in part historically recognizable but also obeys different physical laws is Poul Anderson's Three Hearts and Three Lions in which the Matter of France is history, and the fairy folk are real and powerful. A partly familiar European history for which the author provides a point of divergence is Randall Garrett's "Lord Darcy" series: a monk systemizing magic rather than science, so the use of foxglove to treat heart disease is called superstition. The other great point of divergence in this timeline occurs in 1199, when Richard the Lionheart survives the Siege of Chaluz and returns to England, making the Angevin Empire so strong it survives into the 20th century. Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell takes place in an alternative version of England where a separate Kingdom ruled by the Raven King and founded on magic existed in Northumbria for over 300 years. In Patricia Wrede's Regency fantasies, Great Britain has a Royal Society of Wizards, and in Poul Anderson's A Midsummer Tempest William Shakespeare is remembered as the Great Historian, with the novel itself taking place in the era of Oliver Cromwell and Charles I, with an alternate outcome for the English Civil War and an earlier Industrial Revolution. The Tales of Alvin Maker series by Orson Scott Card (a parallel to the life of Joseph Smith, founder of the Latter Day Saint movement) takes place in an alternate America, beginning in the early 19th century. Prior to that time, a POD occurred: England, under the rule of Oliver Cromwell, had banished "makers", or anyone else demonstrating "knacks" (an ability to perform seemingly supernatural feats) to the North American continent. Thus the early American colonists embraced as perfectly ordinary these gifts, and counted on them as a part of their daily lives. The political division of the continent is considerably altered, with two large English colonies bookending a smaller "American" nation, one aligned with England, and the other governed by exiled Cavaliers. Actual historical figures are seen in a much different light: Ben Franklin is revered as the continent's finest "maker", George Washington was executed after being captured, and "Tom" Jefferson is the first president of "Appalachia", the result of a compromise between the Continentals and the Crown.[citation needed] On the other hand, when the "Old Ones" still manifest themselves in England in Keith Roberts's Pavane, which takes place in a technologically backward world after a Spanish assassination of Elizabeth I allowed the Spanish Armada to conquer England, the possibility that the fairies were real but retreated from modern advances makes the POD possible: the fairies really were present all along, in a secret history. Again, in the English Renaissance fantasy Armor of Light by Melissa Scott and Lisa A. Barnett, the magic used in the book, by Dr. John Dee and others, actually was practiced in the Renaissance; positing a secret history of effective magic makes this an alternate history with a POD, Sir Philip Sidney's surviving the Battle of Zutphen in 1586, and shortly thereafter saving the life of Christopher Marlowe. Many works of fantasy posit a world in which known practitioners of magic were able to make it function, and where the consequences of such reality would not, in fact, disturb history to such an extent as to make it plainly alternate history. Many ambiguous alternate/secret histories are set in Renaissance or pre-Renaissance times, and may explicitly include a "retreat" from the world, which would explain the current absence of such phenomena. When the magical version of our world's history is set in contemporary times, the distinction becomes clear between alternate history on the one hand and contemporary fantasy, using in effect a form of secret history (as when Josepha Sherman's Son of Darkness has an elf living in New York City, in disguise) on the other. In works such as Robert A. Heinlein's Magic, Incorporated where a construction company can use magic to rig up stands at a sporting event and Poul Anderson's Operation Chaos and its sequel Operation Luna, where djinns are serious weapons of war—with atomic bombs—the use of magic throughout the United States and other modern countries makes it clear that this is not secret history—although references in Operation Chaos to degaussing the effects of cold iron make it possible that it is the result of a POD. The sequel clarifies this as the result of a collaboration of Einstein and Planck in 1901, resulting in the theory of "rhea tics". Henry Moseley applies this theory to "degauss the effects of cold iron and release the goetic forces." This results in the suppression of ferromagnetism and the re-emergence of magic and magical creatures. Alternate history shades off into other fantasy subgenres when the use of actual, though altered, history and geography decreases, although a culture may still be clearly the original source; Barry Hughart's Bridge of Birds and its sequels take place in a fantasy world, albeit one clearly based on China, and with allusions to actual Chinese history, such as the Empress Wu. Richard Garfinkle's Celestial Matters incorporates ancient Chinese physics and Greek Aristotelian physics, using them as if factual. A fantasy version of the paratime police was developed by children's writer Diana Wynne Jones in her Chrestomanci quartet (1977–1988), with wizards taking the place of high tech secret agents. Among the novels in this series, Witch Week stands out for its vivid depiction of a history alternate to that of Chrestomanci's own world rather than our own (and yet with a specific POD that turned it away from the "normal" history of most worlds visited by the wizard). Terry Pratchett's works include several references to alternate histories of Discworld. Men At Arms observes that in millions of universes, Edward d'Eath became an obsessive recluse rather than the instigator of the plot that he is in the novel. In Jingo, Vimes accidentally picks up a pocket organizer that should have gone down another leg of the Trousers of Time, and so can hear the organizer reporting on the deaths that would have occurred had his decision gone otherwise. Indeed, Discworld contains an equivalent of the Time Patrol in its History Monks. Night Watch revolves around a repair of history after a time traveller's murder of an important figure in Vimes's past. Thief of Time presents them functioning as a full-scale Time Patrol, ensuring that history occurs at all. Alternate history has long been a staple of Japanese speculative fiction with such authors as Futaro Yamada and Ryō Hanmura writing novels set in recognizable historical settings with supernatural or science fiction elements present. In 1973, Ryō Hanmura wrote Musubi no Yama Hiroku which recreated 400 years of Japan's history from the perspective of a secret magical family with psychic abilities. The novel has since come to be recognized as a masterpiece of Japanese speculative fiction.[36] Twelve years later, author Hiroshi Aramata wrote the groundbreaking Teito Monogatari which reimagined the history of Tokyo across the 20th century in a world heavily influenced by the supernatural.[37] The TV show Sliders explores different possible alternate realities by having the protagonist "slide" into different parallel dimensions of the same planet Earth. Another TV show Motherland: Fort Salem explores a female-dominated world in which witchcraft is real. Its world diverged from our timeline when the Salem witch trials are resolved by an agreement between witches and non witches. The two-part play Harry Potter and the Cursed Child contains alternate timelines set within the world of Harry Potter. In World of Winx, the seven fairies- Bloom, Stella, Musa, Tecna, Flora, Aisha and Roxy- live on Earth, where humans are ignorant of the existence of fairies or belief in magic; much unlike the fourth season of Winx Club, where they had brought all magic back to Earth by releasing its terrestrial fairies. Video games[edit] For the same reasons that this genre is explored by role-playing games, alternate history is also an intriguing backdrop for the storylines of many video games. A famous example of an alternate history game is Command & Conquer: Red Alert. Released in 1996, the game presents a point of divergence in 1946 where Albert Einstein goes back in time to prevent World War II from ever taking place by erasing Adolf Hitler from time after he is released from Landsberg Prison in 1924. He is successful in his mission, but in the process allows Joseph Stalin and the Soviet Union to become powerful enough to launch a massive campaign to conquer Europe. In the Civilization series, the player guides a civilization from prehistory to the present day, creating radically altered versions of history on a long time-scale. Several scenarios recreate a particular period which becomes the "point of divergence" in an alternate history shaped by the player's actions. Popular examples in Sid Meier's Civilization IV include Desert War, set in the Mediterranean theatre of World War II and featuring scripted events tied to possible outcomes of battles; Broken Star, set in a hypothetical Russian civil war in 2010; and Rhye's and Fall of Civilization, an 'Earth simulator' designed to mirror a history as closely as possible but incorporating unpredictable elements to provide realistic alternate settings. In some games such as the Metal Gear and Resident Evil series, events that were originally intended to represent the near future at the time the games were originally released later ended up becoming alternate histories in later entries in those franchises. For example, Metal Gear 2: Solid Snake (1990), set in 1999, depicted a near future that ended up becoming an alternate history in Metal Gear Solid (1998). Likewise, Resident Evil (1996) and Resident Evil 2 (1998), both set in 1998, depicted near-future events that had later become an alternative history by the time Resident Evil 4 (2005) was released. In the 2009 steampunk shooter, Damnation is set on an alternate version of planet Earth, in the early part of the 20th century after the American Civil War, which had spanned over several decades, where steam engines replace combustion engines. The game sees the protagonists fighting off a rich industrialist who wants to do away with both the Union and Confederacy in one swift movement and turn the United States of America into a country called the "American Empire" with a totalitarian dictatorship. A balkanized 1930s North America from the Crimson Skies franchise Crimson Skies is one example of an alternate history spawning multiple interpretations in multiple genres. The stories and games in Crimson Skies take place in an alternate 1930s United States, where the nation crumbled into many hostile states following the effects of the Great Depression, the Great War, and Prohibition. With the road and railway system destroyed, commerce took to the skies, which led to the emergence of air pirate gangs who plunder the aerial commerce. The game Freedom Fighters portrays a situation similar to that of the movie Red Dawn and Red Alert 2, though less comically than the latter. The point of divergence is during World War II, where the Soviet Union develops an atomic bomb first and uses it on Berlin. With the balance of power and influence tipped in Russia's favor, history diverges; brief summaries at the beginning of the game inform the player of the Communist bloc's complete takeover of Europe by 1953, a different ending to the Cuban Missile Crisis, and the spread of Soviet influence into South America and Mexico. Similarly, the 2007 video game World in Conflict is set in 1989, with the Soviet Union on the verge of collapse. The point of divergence is several months before the opening of the game, when Warsaw Pact forces staged a desperate invasion of Western Europe. As the game begins, a Soviet invasion force lands in Seattle, taking advantage of the fact that most of the US military is in Europe. The game Battlestations: Pacific, released in 2008, offered in alternate history campaign for the Imperial Japanese Navy, wherein Japan destroys all three carriers in the Battle of Midway, which follows with a successful invasion of the island. Because of this, the United States lacked any sort of aerial power to fight the Japanese, and is continuously forced into the defense. Turning Point: Fall of Liberty, released in February 2008, is an alternate history first person shooter where Winston Churchill died in 1931 from being struck by a taxi cab. Because of this, Great Britain lacks the charismatic leader needed to keep the country together and Nazi Germany successfully conquers Great Britain via Operation Sea Lion in 1940. Germany later conquers the rest of Europe, North Africa and the Middle East while mass-producing their wunderwaffe. The Axis launch a surprise invasion of an isolationist United States' Eastern Seaboard in 1953, which forces the country to surrender and submit to a puppet government. Promotional booth for Fallout: New Vegas from PAX 2010 Another alternate history game involving Nazis is War Front: Turning Point in which Hitler died during the early days of World War II and thus, a much more effective leadership rose to power. Under the command of a new Führer (who is referred to as "Chancellor", and his real name is never revealed), Operation Sealion succeeds and the Nazis successfully conquer Britain, sparking a cold war between the Allied Powers and Germany. The Fallout series of computer role-playing games is set in a divergent America, where history after World War II diverges from the real world to follow a retro-futuristic timeline. For example, fusion power was invented quite soon after the end of the war, but the transistor was never developed. The result was a future that has a 1950s 'World of Tomorrow' feel to it, with extremely high technology such as artificial intelligence implemented with thermionic valves and other technologies now considered obsolete. Many game series by Swedish developer Paradox Interactive start off at a concise point in history, allowing the player to immerse in the role of a contemporary leader and alter the course of in-game history. The most prominent game with this setting is Crusader Kings II. S.T.A.L.K.E.R. games have an alternate history at the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone, where a special area called "The Zone" is formed. Wolfenstein: The New Order is set in an alternate 1960 in which the Nazis won the Second World War, also thanks to their acquisition of high technology. The sequel Wolfenstein II: The New Colossus continues this, although being set in the conquered United States of America. Online[edit] Fans of alternate history have made use of the internet from a very early point to showcase their own works and provide useful tools for those fans searching for anything alternate history, first in mailing lists and usenet groups, later in web databases and forums. The "Usenet Alternate History List" was first posted on April 11, 1991, to the Usenet newsgroup rec.arts.sf-lovers. In May 1995, the dedicated newsgroup soc.history.what-if was created for showcasing and discussing alternate histories.[38] Its prominence declined with the general migration from unmoderated usenet to moderated web forums, most prominently AlternateHistory.com, the self-described "largest gathering of alternate history fans on the internet" with over 10,000 active members.[39][40] In addition to these discussion forums, in 1997 Uchronia: The Alternate History List was created as an online repository, now containing over 2,900 alternate history novels, stories, essays, and other printed materials in several different languages. Uchronia was selected as the Sci Fi Channel's "Sci Fi Site of the Week" twice.[41][42] See also[edit] 20th century in science fiction Alien space bats Alternate ending Alternative future American Civil War alternate histories Dieselpunk Dystopian Fictional universe Future history The Garden of Forking Paths Historical revisionism Hypothetical Axis victory in World War II Invasion literature Jonbar hinge List of alternate history fiction Pulp novels Ruritanian romance References[edit] ^ a b "Definition of "alternative history" | Collins English Dictionary". www.collinsdictionary.com. Retrieved 2016-01-15. ^ Brave New Words: The Oxford Dictionary of Science Fiction (Oxford University Press, 2007) notes the preferred usage of "Alternate History" as well as its primacy in coinage, "Alternate History" was coined in 1954 and "Alternative History" was first used in 1977, pp.4–5. ^ Morton, Alison (2014). "Alternative history (AH/althist) handout" (PDF). alison-morton.com/. ^ "AH". The Free Dictionary. Archived from the original on 3 February 2013. Retrieved 2 January 2009. ^ "Allohistory". World Wide Words. 2002-05-04. Retrieved 2012-11-25. ^ Schmunk, Robert B. (1991-04-11). "Introduction". Uchronia. Retrieved 2012-11-25. ^ a b c Steven H Silver (2006-07-01). "Uchronicle". Helix. Retrieved 2009-05-26.[permanent dead link] ^ "Jorge Luis Borges Reviews by Evelyn C. Leeper". Leepers.us. Retrieved 2012-11-25. ^ Bunzl, Martin (June 2004). "Counterfactual History: A User's Guide". American Historical Review. 109 (3): 845–858. doi:10.1086/530560. Archived from the original on 2004-10-13. Retrieved 2009-06-02. ^ a b Titus Livius (Livy). The History of Rome, Book 9. Marquette University. Archived from the original on 2007-02-28. ^ a b Dozois, Gardner; Stanley Schmidt (1998). Roads Not Taken: Tales of Alternate History. New York: Del Rey. pp. 1–5. ISBN 0-345-42194-9. ^ Turtledove, Harry; Martin H. Greenberg (2001). The Best Alternate History Stories of the 20th Century. New York: Del Rey. pp. 1–5. ISBN 978-0-345-43990-1. ^ Morello, Ruth (2002). "Livy's Alexander Digression (9.17–19): Counterfactuals and Apologetics". Journal of Roman Studies. 92: 62–85. doi:10.2307/3184860. JSTOR 3184860. ^ Overtoom, Nikolaus (2012). "A Roman tradition of Alexander the Great counterfactual history". Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 52 (3): 203–212. doi:10.1556/AAnt.52.2012.3.2. ^ Holopainen, Toivo J. (2016). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2016 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. ^ Migne, Jacques-Paul (1853). "De divina omnipotentia in reparatione, et factis infectis redendis". Petrus Damianus. Patrologia Latina (in Latin). 145. Paris: Ateliers catholiques du Petit-Montrouge. pp. 595–622. ^ Damien, Pierre (1972). Lettre sur la toute-puissance divine. Introduction, texte critique, traduction et notes. Sources chrétiennes (in French). 191. Translated by Cantin, André. Paris: Les Éditions du Cerf. ^ Damian, Pierre (2013) [1998]. Letters of Peter Damian 91-120. The Fathers of the Church. Mediaeval Continuation. Translated by Blum, Owen J. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press. pp. 344–386. ISBN 978-0813226392. OCLC 950930030. ^ Spade, Paul Vincent (1995). "Selections from Peter Damian's Letter on Divine Omnipotence" (PDF). ^ Petrie, Charles (1934). The Stuart Pretenders: A History of the Jacobite Movement, [1688-1807]. Houghton Mifflin. pp. Appendix VI. ^ "If Lee Had Not Won the Battle of Gettysburg - The Churchill Centre". 2006-12-06. Archived from the original on December 6, 2006. Retrieved 2016-01-26. ^ "Vaughan, Herbert M". SFE: The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction. — Herbert Millingchamp Vaughan's The Dial of Ahaz (1917) posits a multiverse filled with alternate versions of planet Earth. ^ "Project Gutenberg; Australia". Gutenberg.net.au. Retrieved 2012-11-25. ^ Rosenfeld, Gavriel D. (2005). The World Hitler Never Made: Alternate History and the Memory of Nazism (1. publ. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. pp. 39, 97–99. ISBN 0-521-84706-0. ^ "Taming the Multiverse". KurzweilAI. Retrieved 2015-11-14. ^ Liptak, Andrew. "The United States of Japan Shows What Happens When Ideology Crumbles". io9. Retrieved 2020-12-03. ^ Shetterly, Will (15 September 2016). "The posts that were at this blog..." Archived from the original on 2 February 2006. Retrieved 10 October 2019. ^ » MORE. "Master of Alternate History - 4/7/2008 - Publishers Weekly". Archived from the original on May 18, 2008. Retrieved 2016-01-26. ^ Lawson, Mark (6 December 2012). "Dominion by CJ Sansom – review". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. ^ Liptak, Andrew (2018-02-01). "Mecha Samurai Empire imagines that America lost WWII — also there are giant robots". The Verge. Retrieved 2020-12-03. ^ Wroe, Nicholas. "Profile: Martin Cruz Smith | Books". The Guardian. Retrieved 2015-11-14. ^ Brown, Alan (2018-09-27). "Throw Out the Rules: The Probability Broach by L. Neil Smith". Tor.com. Retrieved 2020-12-03. ^ Wagner, Thomas W. "SF REVIEWS.NET: Mysterium / Robert Charles Wilson ☆☆☆½". www.sfreviews.net. Retrieved 2020-12-03. ^ Barker, Jason (2018). Marx Returns. Winchester, UK: Zero Books. pp. 19 & 165. ISBN 978-1-78535-660-5. ^ Power, Nina (16 March 2018). "Time and Freedom in Jason Barker's 'Marx Returns'". Los Angeles Review of Books. Retrieved 2020-11-30. ^ "Top Ten Japan All Time Best SF Novels". SFWA. 2011-09-17. Retrieved 2015-11-14. ^ Clute, John; Grant, John; Ashley, Mike; Hartwell, David G.; Westfahl, Gary (1999). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy. New York: St. Martin's Griffin. p. 515. ISBN 0312198698. ^ "soc.history.what-if Frequently Asked Questions". Anthonymayer.net. 2002-03-08. Retrieved 2012-11-25. ^ "AlternateHistory.com". AlternateHistory.com. Archived from the original on 2015-11-13. Retrieved 2015-11-14. ^ "Considered Alternatives — Real Life". Real Life. Retrieved 2018-04-02. ^ Berkwits, Jeff. "Sci-Fi Site of the Week: Uchronia: The Alternate History List". SciFi.com. Archived from the original on 1 December 2008. Retrieved 20 November 2008. ^ McGowan, Matthew (2000-09-25). "Sci-Fi Site of the Week: Uchronia: The Alternate History List". SciFi.com. Archived from the original on 17 May 2008. Retrieved 20 November 2008. Further reading[edit] Chapman, Edgar L., and Carl B. Yoke (eds.). Classic and Iconoclastic Alternate History Science Fiction. Mellen, 2003. Collins, William Joseph. Paths Not Taken: The Development, Structure, and Aesthetics of the Alternative History. University of California at Davis 1990. Darius, Julian. "58 Varieties: Watchmen and Revisionism". In Minutes to Midnight: Twelve Essays on Watchmen. Sequart Research & Literacy Organization, 2010. Focuses on Watchmen as alternate history. Robert Cowley (ed.), What If? Military historians imagine what might have been. Pan Books, 1999. Gevers, Nicholas. Mirrors of the Past: Versions of History in Science Fiction and Fantasy. University of Cape Town, 1997 Hellekson, Karen. The Alternate History: Refiguring Historical Time. Kent State University Press, 2001 Keen, Antony G. "Alternate Histories of the Roman Empire in Stephen Baxter, Robert Silverberg and Sophia McDougall". Foundation: The International Review of Science Fiction 102, Spring 2008. McKnight, Edgar Vernon, Jr. Alternative History: The Development of a Literary Genre. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1994. Nedelkovh, Aleksandar B. British and American Science Fiction Novel 1950–1980 with the Theme of Alternative History (an Axiological Approach). 1994 (in Serbian), 1999 (in English). Rosenfeld, Gavriel David. The World Hitler Never Made. Alternate History and the Memory of Nazism. 2005 Rosenfeld, Gavriel David. "Why Do We Ask 'What If?' Reflections on the Function of Alternate History." History and Theory 41, Theme Issue 41 (December 2002), 90–103 Schneider-Mayerson, Matthew. "What Almost Was: The Politics of the Contemporary Alternate History Novel." American Studies 30, 3–4 (Summer 2009), 63–83. Singles, Kathleen. Alternate History: Playing With Contingency and Necessity. De Gruyter, Inc., 2013. External links[edit] Look up alternate history in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Alternate history Wikimedia Commons has media related to Alternate history. v t e Time travel General terms and concepts Chronology protection conjecture Closed timelike curve Novikov self-consistency principle Self-fulfilling prophecy Quantum mechanics of time travel Time travel in fiction Timelines in fiction in science fiction in games Temporal paradoxes Grandfather paradox Causal loop Parallel timelines Alternative future Alternate history Many-worlds interpretation Multiverse Parallel universes in fiction Philosophy of space and time Butterfly effect Determinism Eternalism Fatalism Free will Predestination Spacetimes in general relativity that can contain closed timelike curves Alcubierre metric BTZ black hole Gödel metric Kerr metric Krasnikov tube Misner space Tipler cylinder van Stockum dust Traversable wormholes v t e Historical fiction Fiction Novel List Subgenres Historical mystery Historical romance Family saga Nautical fiction (Pirate 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en-wikipedia-org-1936	----	Megabyzus - Wikipedia Megabyzus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Megabyzus (disambiguation). Megabyzus Achaemenid nobleman, 520-480 BCE. Allegiance Achaemenid Empire Years of service fl. c.485 – 440 BCE Rank Genera, satrap of Syria Battles/wars Egyptian campaign Spouse(s) Amytis Children Zopyrus II Megabyzus (Ancient Greek: Μεγάβυζος, a folk-etymological alteration of Old Persian Bagabuxša, meaning "God saved") was an Achaemenid Persian general, son of Zopyrus, satrap of Babylonia, and grandson of Megabyzus I, one of the seven conspirators who had put Darius I on the throne. His father was killed when the satrapy rebelled in 482 BCE, and Megabyzus led the forces that recaptured the city, after which the statue of the god Marduk was destroyed to prevent future revolts. Megabyzus subsequently took part in the Second Persian invasion of Greece (480-479 BCE). Herodotus claims that he refused to act on orders to pillage Delphi, but it is doubtful such orders were ever given. Contents 1 Revolt 2 Egyptian campaign 2.1 Origin of the Egyptian campaign 2.2 Siege of Memphis (459-455 BCE) 2.3 Siege of Prosopitis (455 BCE) 3 Cyprus campaign 4 Revolt 5 References 6 External links 7 See also Revolt[edit] According to Ctesias, who is not especially reliable but is often our only source, Amytis, wife of Megabyzus and daughter of Xerxes, was accused of adultery shortly afterwards. As such, Megabyzus took part in the conspiracy of Artabanus to assassinate the emperor, but betrayed him before he could kill the new emperor Artaxerxes as well. In a battle, Artabanus' sons were killed and Megabyzus was wounded, but Amytis interceded on his behalf and he was cured. Egyptian campaign[edit] Main article: Wars of the Delian League Megabyzus fought against the Athenians and the Egyptians in the Siege of Memphis (459-455 BCE) and the Siege of Prosopitis (455 BCE). Egyptian soldier, circa 470 BCE. Xerxes I tomb relief. After this Megabyzus became satrap of Syria. Together with Artabazus, satrap of Phrygia, he had command of the Persian armies sent to put down the revolt of Inarus in Egypt. They arrived in 456 BC, and within two years had put down the revolt, capturing Inarus and various Athenians supporting him.[1] Origin of the Egyptian campaign[edit] When Xerxes I was assassinated in 465 BCE, he was succeeded by his son Artaxerxes I, but several parts of the Achaemenid empire soon revolted, foremost of which were Bactria and Egypt. The Egyptian Inarus defeated the Persian satrap of Egypt Achaemenes, a brother of Artaxerxes, and took control of Lower Egypt. He contacted the Greeks, who were also officially still at war with Persia, and in 460 BCE, Athens sent an expeditionary force of 200 ships and 6000 heavy infantry to support Inarus. The Egyptian and Athenian troops defeated the local Persian troops of Egypt, and captured the city of Memphis, except for the Persian citadel which they besieged for several years. Siege of Memphis (459-455 BCE)[edit] The Athenians and Egyptians had settled down to besiege the local Persian troops in Egypt, at the White Castle. The siege evidently did not progress well, and probably lasted for at least four years, since Thucydides says that their whole expedition lasted 6 years,[2] and of this time the final 18 months was occupied with the Siege of Prosoptis.[3] According to Thucydides, at first Artaxerxes sent Megabazus to try and bribe the Spartans into invading Attica, to draw off the Athenian forces from Egypt. When this failed, he instead assembled a large army under Megabyzus, and dispatched it to Egypt.[3] Diodorus has more or less the same story, with more detail; after the attempt at bribery failed, Artaxerxes put Megabyzus and Artabazus in charge of 300,000 men, with instructions to quell the revolt. They went first from Persia to Cilicia and gathered a fleet of 300 triremes from the Cilicians, Phoenicians and Cypriots, and spent a year training their men. Then they finally headed to Egypt.[4] Modern estimates, however, place the number of Persian troops at the considerably lower figure of 25,000 men given that it would have been highly impractical to deprive the already strained satrapies of any more man power than that.[5] Thucydides does not mention Artabazus, who is reported by Herodotus to have taken part in the second Persian invasion; Diodorus may be mistaken about his presence in this campaign.[6] It is clearly possible that the Persian forces did spend some prolonged time in training, since it took four years for them to respond to the Egyptian victory at Papremis. Although neither author gives many details, it is clear that when Megabyzus finally arrived in Egypt, he was able to quickly lift the Siege of Memphis, defeating the Egyptians in battle, and driving the Athenians from Memphis.[3][7] Siege of Prosopitis (455 BCE)[edit] The Athenians now fell back to the island of Prosopitis in the Nile delta, where their ships were moored.[3][7] There, Megabyzus laid siege to them for 18 months, until finally he was able to drain the river from around the island by digging canals, thus "joining the island to the mainland".[3] In Thucydides's account the Persians then crossed over to the former island, and captured it.[3] Only a few of the Athenian force, marching through Libya to Cyrene survived to return to Athens.[2] In Diodorus's version, however, the draining of the river prompted the Egyptians (whom Thucydides does not mention) to defect and surrender to the Persians. The Persians, not wanting to sustain heavy casualties in attacking the Athenians, instead allowed them to depart freely to Cyrene, whence they returned to Athens.[7] Since the defeat of the Egyptian expedition caused a genuine panic in Athens, including the relocation of the Delian treasury to Athens, Thucydides's version is probably more likely to be correct.[8] Cyprus campaign[edit] They then turned their attention to Cyprus, which was under attack by the Athenians, led by Cimon. Shortly afterwards hostilities between Persia and Athens ceased, called the peace of Callias. Revolt[edit] Some time later Megabyzus himself revolted. Ctesias tells us the reason was that Amestris had the captives from the Egyptian revolt executed, though Megabyzus had given his word that they would not be harmed. Armies under Usiris of Egypt and then prince Menostanes, a nephew of the king, were sent against him, both foregoing battle for (non-fatal) duels between the generals, and in both cases Megabyzus was victorious. The king resolved to send his brother Artarius, the eunuch Artoxares and Amytis in a peace embassy. His honour restored, Megabyzus agreed to surrender and was pardoned, retaining his position. Some time later, Megabyzus saved Artaxerxes from a lion in a hunt and was subsequently exiled to Cyrtae for violating the royal prerogative to make the first kill, but he returned to Susa by pretending to be a leper and was pardoned. Megabyzus died shortly afterwards, at age 76. His son Zopyrus II is known to have lived as an exile in Athens, and aided in its assault on Caunus during his father's exile, where he was killed by a rock. References[edit] ^ Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, I.104, 109. ^ a b Thucydides I, 110 ^ a b c d e f Thucydides I, 109 ^ Diodorus XI, 74–75 ^ Ray, Fred (1949). Land Battles in 5th Century BC Greece: A History and Analysis of 173 Engagements. McFarland & Company, Inc. pp. 109–110. ^ Herodotus VIII, 126 ^ a b c Diodorus XI, 77 ^ Holland, p. 363. External links[edit] Jona Lendering - Megabyzus See also[edit] Megabazus Megabates v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Megabyzus&oldid=997317063" Categories: 5th-century BC deaths Persian people of the Greco-Persian Wars Military leaders of the Achaemenid Empire 5th-century BC Iranian people Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano Norsk bokmål Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 30 December 2020, at 23:37 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-193	----	Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. They are not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. This category tracks pages tagged with {{Cite EB1911}} (or including it via {{EB1911}} that use the wstitle parameter. 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en-wikipedia-org-1940	----	Neferefre - Wikipedia Neferefre From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the daughter of Pharaoh Hatshepsut, see Neferure. Pharaoh of Egypt Neferefre Raneferef, Neferefra, Noufirre, Noufirefre, Cherês Statuette of Neferefre, painted limestone[1] Pharaoh Reign Probably two years or less[2] in the early to mid 25th century BC [note 1] (Fifth Dynasty) Predecessor Neferirkare Kakai (most likely) or Shepseskare Successor Shepseskare (most likely) or Nyuserre Ini Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Neferefra nfr.f Rˁ He is perfect (in the manner of) Ra[16] Beautiful is Ra[17] Ra, he is beautiful[18] Hieroglyphic variants:[19] Nefera or Ranefer nfr-Rˁ or Rˁ-nfr The (very) perfection of Ra[16] or Ra is beautiful[18] Saqqara kinglist: Neferkhare Hˁj-nfr-Rˁ Ra is perfect in appearance Nomen Isi Jzj[note 2] Horus name Neferkhau Hꜥw-nfr Perfect of appearances[16] Nebty name Neferemnebti Nfr-m-nb.tj Who is perfect by means of the Two Ladies[16] Golden Horus Biknebunefer Nfr-bjk-nb.w The perfect golden falcon[16] Consort likely Khentkaus III Children uncertain, either Menkauhor Kaiu ♂ or Shepseskare ♂ Nakhtsare ♂ Conjectural: Kakaibaef ♂ Father Neferirkare Kakai Mother Khentkaus II Died aged 20–23[21] Burial Pyramid of Neferefre Monuments Pyramid Netjeribau Raneferef Sun temple Hotep-Re Neferefre Isi (fl. 25th century BC; also known as Raneferef, Ranefer and in Greek as Χέρης, Cherês) was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the Fifth Dynasty during the Old Kingdom period. He was most likely the eldest son of pharaoh Neferirkare Kakai and queen Khentkaus II. He was known as prince Ranefer before he ascended to the throne. Neferefre started a pyramid for himself in the royal necropolis of Abusir called Netjeribau Raneferef, which means "The bas of Neferefre are divine". The pyramid was never finished, with a mason's inscription showing that works on the stone structure were abandoned during or shortly after the king's second year of reign. Together with the sparsity of attestations contemporaneous with his reign, this is taken by Egyptologists as evidence that Neferefre died unexpectedly after two to three years on the throne. Neferefre was nonetheless buried in his pyramid, hastily completed in the form of a mastaba by his second successor and presumably younger brother, pharaoh Nyuserre Ini. Fragments of his mummy were uncovered there, showing that he died in his early twenties. Little is known of Neferefre's activities beyond laying the foundations of his pyramid and attempting to finish that of his father. A single text shows that Neferefre had planned or just started to build a sun temple called Hotep-Re, meaning "Ra is content" or "Ra's offering table", which possibly never functioned as such given the brevity of the king's reign. After his death, Neferefre might have been succeeded by an ephemeral and little-known pharaoh, Shepseskare, whose relation with Neferefre remains highly uncertain and debated. Contents 1 Sources 1.1 Contemporaneous 1.2 Historical 2 Family 2.1 Parents and siblings 2.2 Consort and children 3 Reign 3.1 Accession to the throne 3.2 Reign duration 4 Building activities 4.1 Pyramid complex 4.1.1 Pyramid 4.1.2 Mortuary temple 4.1.3 Mummy of Neferefre 4.2 Sun temple 4.3 Pyramid of Neferirkare Kakai 5 Funerary cult 6 Notes, references and sources 6.1 Notes 6.2 References 6.3 Sources Sources[edit] Contemporaneous[edit] There are very few archaeological sources contemporaneous with Neferefre, a fact which is now seen by Egyptologists, including Miroslav Verner, to imply a very short reign.[22] Verner knew of only one inscription dated to his rule. It was left by the builders of his pyramid on a corner block at the end of the corridor leading to the pyramid substructures.[23] The inscription was written on the fourth day of the Akhet season in the year of first occurrence of the cattle count, an event consisting of counting the livestock throughout the country to evaluate the amount of taxes to be levied. It is traditionally believed that such counts occurred every two years during the Old Kingdom[24] although recent reappraisals have led Egyptologists to posit a less regular and somewhat more frequent count.[25] Therefore, the inscription must refer to Neferefre's first or second year on the throne, and his third year at the very latest.[note 3][26] Finally, a few artefacts dated to Neferefre's rule or shortly after have been uncovered in his mortuary complex and elsewhere in Abusir,[note 4] such as clay seals bearing his Horus name.[28] Some of the Abusir Papyri discovered in Khentkhaus II's temple and dating to the mid- to late Fifth Dynasty mention the mortuary temple and funerary cult of Neferefre. They constitute a written source near-contemporaneous with his reign, which not only confirmed the existence of Neferefre's pyramid complex at a time when it had not yet been identified,[29] but also gives details regarding the administrative organisation and importance of the funerary cult of the king in Ancient Egyptian society.[30] Historical[edit] Cartouche of Neferefre on the Abydos king list Neferefre is present on several Ancient Egyptian king lists, all dating to the New Kingdom period. The earliest such list mentioning Neferefre is the Abydos King List, written during the reign of Seti I (fl. 1290–1279 BC), and where his prenomen occupies the 29th entry, between those of Neferirkare Kakai and Nyuserre Ini.[31] During the subsequent reign of Ramses II (fl. 1279–1213 BC), Neferefre appears on the Saqqara Tablet,[32] this time after Shepseskare, that is as a second successor to Neferirkare Kakai. Owing to a scribal error, Neferefre's name on this list is given as "Khanefere" or "Neferkhare".[33] Neferefre's prenomen was in all probability also given on the Turin canon (third column, 21st row), which dates to the same period as the Saqqara tablet, but it has since been lost in a large lacuna affecting the document. Nonetheless, the part of the reign length attributed to Neferefre by the canon is still legible, with a single stroke sign indicating one year of reign to which a decade could in principle be added, as the corresponding sign would be effectively lost in the lacuna of the document.[23] Neferefre was also likely mentioned in the Aegyptiaca, a history of Egypt written in the 3rd century BC during the reign of Ptolemy II (283–246 BC) by the Egyptian priest Manetho. No copies of the Aegyptiaca have survived to this day and it is now known only through later writings by Sextus Julius Africanus and Eusebius. Africanus relates that the Aegyptiaca mentioned the succession "Nefercherês → Sisirês → Cherês" for the mid-Fifth Dynasty. Nefercherês, Sisirês and Cherês are believed to be the hellenized forms for Neferirkare, Shepseskare and Neferkhare (that is Neferefre), respectively. Thus, Manetho's reconstruction of the Fifth Dynasty is in good agreement with the Saqqara tablet.[31] In Africanus' epitome of the Aegyptiaca, Cherês is reported to have reigned for 20 years.[34] Family[edit] Parents and siblings[edit] Menkauhor Kaiu could be a son of Neferefre and Khentkaus III. Neferefre was, in all likelihood, the eldest son of his predecessor pharaoh Neferirkare Kakai with queen Khentkaus II.[3][5][35] This is shown by a relief on a limestone slab discovered in a house in the village near Abusir[36] and depicting Neferirkare and his wife Khentkaus with "the king's eldest son Ranefer",[note 5][37] a name identical with some variants of Neferefre's own.[38] This indicates that Ranefer was Neferefre's name when he was still only a crown prince, that is, before his accession to the throne.[39] Neferirkare and Khentkaus had at least another son, the future king Nyuserre Ini. In addition, since the relation between Shepseskare and Neferefre remains uncertain, it is possible that the two were brothers too, as suggested by the Egyptologist Silke Roth,[40] although other hypotheses on the matter have been proposed: Verner sees Shepseskare as a son of Sahure and hence Neferefre's uncle, while Jaromír Krejčí believes Shepseskare was Neferefre's son.[41] Finally, yet another brother,[42] possibly younger[43] than both Neferefre and Nyuserre has also been proposed: Iryenre, a prince iry-pat[note 6] whose filiation is suggested by the fact that his funerary cult was associated with that of his mother, both having taken place in the temple of Khentkaus II.[45][46] Consort and children[edit] Until 2014, no consort of Neferefre was known.[41][47] Late in that year, the mastaba of Khentkaus III was discovered by archaeologists from the Czech Institute of Egyptology working in Abusir, south east of Neferefre's pyramid.[48][49][50] The location and date of the tomb as well as inscriptions found in it strongly suggest that Khentkaus III was Neferefre's queen.[51] Indeed, not only was Khentkaus III presumably buried during the few decades following Neferefre's reign, but her mastaba is also in close proximity to his pyramid,[note 7] and she bore the title of "king's wife", proving that she was a queen.[48] In addition, Khentkaus III was also called "king's mother" by inscriptions in her tomb, indicating that her son had become pharaoh. Since Neferefre's second successor Nyuserre Ini is known to have been his brother rather than his son, and since Khentkaus III might have been buried during Nyuserre's reign, as indicated by mud seals,[48] this only leaves either Neferefre's ephemeral successor Shepseskare or Nyuserre's successor Menkauhor Kaiu as possibilities.[48] There is an ongoing debate in Egyptology concerning these two alternatives. Verner posits that Shepseskare was an uncle of Neferefre and therefore that Menkauhor Kaiu was Neferefre's son. Meanwhile, Krejčí views the opposite hypothesis, that Shepseskare was Neferefre's son with Khentkaus III, as more probable.[41] Two further sons of Neferefre and Khentkaus III have been proposed by Verner: the "king's son" Nakhtsare,[54] whose filiation is supported by the general date and location of his tomb,[41] and Kakaibaef, a member of the elite buried in Abusir.[54] Krejčí notes the lack of the titular "king's son" in relation to Kakaibaef, thereby emphasizing the conjectural nature of Verner's assertion.[41] Reign[edit] Accession to the throne[edit] Drawing of the impression of a cylinder seal of Shepseskare Two competing hypotheses exist in Egyptology to describe the succession of events running from the death of Neferirkare Kakai, third king of the Fifth Dynasty, to the coronation of Nyuserre Ini, sixth ruler of the dynasty. Relying on historical sources, most notably the Saqqara king list and Manetho's Aegyptiaca, where Neferefre is said to have succeeded Shepseskare,[34] many Egyptologists such as Jürgen von Beckerath and Hartwig Altenmüller have traditionally believed[55] that the following royal succession took place: Neferirkare Kakai → Shepseskare → Neferefre Isi → Nyuserre Ini.[5][56] In this scenario, Neferefre would be the father of Nyuserre, who would have become pharaoh after the former's unexpected death.[5][57] This view was challenged at the turn of the millennium, most notably by Verner,[58][59][60] who has been responsible for the archaeological excavations of the Fifth Dynasty royal necropolis of Abusir since 1976. Firstly, there is the relief, mentioned earlier, showing that Neferefre was in all likelihood Neferirkare's eldest son.[39][61] Secondly, excavations of Neferefre's pyramid have yielded his mummy, which showed that he was 18 to 20 years of age at the death of Neferirkare.[62] Consequently, as the previous king's eldest son, in his late teens to early twenties, Neferefre was in optimal position to ascend the throne. Positing that Shepseskare reigned between Neferefre and his father would thus require an explanation as to why and how Shepseskare's claim to the throne could have been stronger than Neferefre's.[63] Map of the necropolis of Abusir.[64] The unfinished pyramid is attributed to Shepseskare.[65] The red line points to Heliopolis.[66] Thirdly, archaeological evidences indicate that Shepseskare most likely reigned for only a few weeks to a few months at the most rather than seven years as credited to him in the Aegyptiaca,[13][55] a hypothesis already supported by Nicolas Grimal as early as 1988.[67] Indeed, Shepseskare is the least known Fifth Dynasty king, with only two seals[68][69] and a few seal impressions bearing his name known as of 2017,[70][71][72][73] a paucity of attestations suggesting a very short reign. This is also supported by the state of Shepseskare's unfinished pyramid, which "was interrupted [and] corresponds to the work of several weeks, perhaps no more than one or two months".[74] Fourthly, archaeological evidence also favors dating Shepseskare's reign to after Neferefre's.[75] Some of the few seal impressions bearing Shepseskare's name have been discovered in the oldest part of Neferefre's mortuary temple,[76] which was not built until Neferefre's death.[77] This seems to indicate that Shepseskare made offerings for the funerary cult of Neferefre, who must therefore have reigned before him.[77][78] Another argument concerns the alignment of pyramids of Sahure, Neferirkare Kakai and Neferefre: they form a line pointing to Heliopolis, just as the three pyramids of Giza do.[note 8][66] In contrast, Shepseskare's unfinished pyramid does not fall on the line to Heliopolis, which strongly suggests that Neferefre's pyramid had already been in place when Shepseskare started to build his.[79] Lastly, while Shepseskare is noted as the immediate predecessor of Neferefre in the Saqqara king list, Verner notes that "this slight discrepancy can be attributed to the [political] disorders of the time and its dynastic disputes."[78] Verner's arguments have convinced a number of Egyptologists, including Darrell Baker, Erik Hornung and Iorwerth Edwards.[13][55][80] Reign duration[edit] Schist[6] statue of Neferefre wearing the white crown of Upper Egypt discovered in his pyramid complex at Abusir, Egyptian Museum[81] While Neferefre is given a reign of some 20 years in epitomes of Manetho's Aegyptiaca,[34] the current academic view is that this number is an overestimation of his true reign length, which must have been significantly shorter. Before the results of the extensive excavations in Abusir were fully published, Egyptologists following the traditional succession hypothesis credited Neferefre with around a decade of rule, based on the paucity of attestations contemporaneous with his reign. For example, von Beckerath and Winfried Barta gave him 11 and 10 years on the throne, respectively.[82][83] This view now has few supporters.[33] Indeed, since then, Verner has set forth the hypothesis of a reign of no more than two years.[23] His conclusion is based on archaeological evidence: the unfinished state of his intended pyramid, and the general paucity of documents datable to his rule. Verner writes that: The shape of the tomb of Neferefra...as well as a number of other archaeological finds clearly indicate that the construction of the king's funerary monument was interrupted, owing to the unexpected early death of the king. The plan of the unfinished building had to be basically changed and a decision was taken to hastily convert the unfinished pyramid, (of which only the incomplete lowest step of the core was built), into a "square-shaped mastaba" or, more precisely, a stylized primeval hill. At the moment of the king's death neither the burial apartment was built, nor was the foundation of the mortuary temple laid.[23] Furthermore, two historical sources conform with the hypothesis of a short reign: the mason's inscription in Neferefre's pyramid was discovered "at about two thirds of the height of the extant core of the monument"[23] and probably refers to Neferefre's first or second year on the throne; and the Turin canon which credits Neferefre with less than two full years of reign.[23] The combination of archaeological and historical evidence led to the consensus that Neferefre's reign lasted "not longer than about two years".[23] Building activities[edit] Pyramid complex[edit] Main article: Pyramid of Neferefre Structure of the first step of Neferefre's pyramid. A: External wall, B: Internal wall, C: Stepping fill, D: Pit for the underground chambers, E: Pit for entry. Pyramid[edit] Neferefre started the construction of a pyramid for himself in the royal necropolis of Abusir, where his father and grandfather had built their own pyramids. It was known to the Ancient Egyptians as Netjeribau Raneferef meaning "The bas of Neferefre are divine".[note 9][84] Planned with a square base of 108 m (354 ft), the pyramid of Neferefre was to be larger than those of Userkaf and Sahure, but smaller than that of his father Neferirkare.[85] Upon the unexpected death of Neferefre, only its lower courses had been completed,[9] reaching a height of c. 7 m (23 ft).[86] Subsequently, Nyuserre hastily completed the monument by filling its central part with poor quality limestone, mortar and sand.[87] The external walls of the building were given a smooth and nearly vertical covering of gray limestone at an angle of 78° with the ground so as to give it the form of a mastaba, albeit with a square plan rather than with the usual rectangular shape.[88] Finally, the roof terrace was covered with clay into which local desert gravels were pressed, giving it the appearance of a mound in the surrounding desert,[88] and indeed it was by the name "the Mound"[note 10] that the monument was subsequently called by the Ancient Egyptians.[90] Verner has proposed that the monument was completed this way so as to give it the form of the primeval mound, the mound that arose from the primordial waters Nu in the creation myth of the Heliopolitan form of Ancient Egyptian religion.[89] The monument was used as a stone quarry from the New Kingdom period onwards,[90] but was later preserved from further damages as its appearance of a rough unfinished and abandoned pyramid did not attract the attention of tomb robbers.[88] Mortuary temple[edit] Works on the mortuary temple in which the funerary cult of the deceased king was to take place had not even started when Neferefe died. In the short 70-day period allowed between a king's death and his burial,[91] Neferefre's successor—possibly the ephemeral Shepseskare[55]—built a small limestone chapel. It was located on the pyramid base platform, in the 5 m (16 ft) gap left between the masonry and the platform edge, where the pyramid casing would have been put in the original plans.[91] This small chapel was completed during Nyuserre's reign.[92] This pharaoh also built a larger mortuary temple for his brother Neferefre, extending over the whole 65 m (213 ft) length of the pyramid side but built of cheaper mudbrick.[93] The ruins of the mortuary temple of Neferefre The temple entrance comprised a courtyard adorned with two stone and 24 wooden columns.[92] Behind was the earliest hypostyle hall of Ancient Egypt the remains of which can still be detected, its roof supported by wooden columns in the shape of lotus-clusters resting on limestone bases.[80] This hall was possibly inspired by the royal palaces of the time.[94][95] The structure housed a large wooden statue of the king as well as statues of prisoners of war.[92] Storage rooms for the offerings were located to the north of the hall. In these rooms several statues of Neferefre were discovered, including six heads of the kings,[80] making Neferefre the Fifth Dynasty king with the most surviving statues.[96] East of the main hall was the "Sanctuary of the Knife" which served as a slaughterhouse for the rituals. Two narrow rooms on either sides of the central altar in front of the false door in the main hall may have housed 30 m (98 ft) long[80] solar boats similar to Khufu's.[91] A significant cache of administrative papyri, comparable in size to the Abusir Papyri found in the temples of Neferirkare and Khentkaus II,[97] was discovered in a storeroom of the mortuary temple of Neferere during a 1982 University of Prague Egyptological Institute excavation.[67] The presence of this cache is due to the peculiar historical circumstances of the mid-Fifth Dynasty.[97] As both Neferirkare and Neferefre died before their pyramid complexes could be finished, Nyuserre altered their planned layout, diverting the causeway leading to Neferirkare's pyramid to his own. This meant that Neferefre's and Neferirkare's mortuary complexes became somewhat isolated on the Abusir plateau. Their priests therefore had to live next to the temple premises in makeshift dwellings,[98] and they stored the administrative records onsite.[97] In contrast, the records of other temples were kept in the pyramid town close to Sahure's or Nyuserre's pyramid, where the current level of ground water means any papyrus has long since disappeared.[99] Mummy of Neferefre[edit] Fragments of mummy wrappings and cartonnage, as well as scattered pieces of human remains, were discovered on the east side of the burial chamber of the pyramid.[100] The remains amounted to a left hand, a left clavicle still covered with skin, fragments of skin probably from the forehead, upper eyelid and the left foot and a few bones.[101] These remains were in the same archaeological layer as broken pieces from a red granite sarcophagus[100] as well as what remained of the funerary equipment of the king,[note 11] hinting that they could indeed belong to Neferefre.[15] This was further corroborated by subsequent studies of the embalming techniques used on the mummy, found to be compatible with an Old Kingdom date.[15] The body of the king was probably dried by means of natron and then covered with a thin layer of resin, before being given a white calcareous coating. There is no evidence of brain removal as expected from post-Old Kingdom mummification techniques.[15] A final confirmation of the identity of the mummy is provided by radiocarbon dating, which yielded a 2628–2393 BC interval for the human remains in close correspondence with estimated dates for the Fifth Dynasty.[102] Thus, Neferefre is, with Djedkare Isesi, one of the very few Old Kingdom pharaohs whose mummy has been identified.[62] A bioarchaeological analysis of Neferefre's remains revealed that the king did not partake in strenuous work,[15] died in his early twenties at between 20 and 23 years old and that he may have stood 1.67 m (5.5 ft) to 1.69 m (5.5 ft) in height.[103] The remains of a second individual were discovered in the burial chamber, but those proved to belong to an individual from the Late Middle Ages, who likely lived during the 14th century AD. He had simply been laid on rags and covered with sand for his burial.[15] Sun temple[edit] The mastaba of Ti, where the only attestations of the Hotep-Re have been found Following a tradition established by Userkaf, founder of the Fifth Dynasty, Neferefre planned or built a temple to the sun god Ra. Called Hotep-Re[note 12] by the Ancient Egyptians, meaning "Ra is content"[5] or "Ra's offering table",[104] the temple has not yet been located but is presumably in the vicinity of Neferefre's pyramid in Abusir.[5] It is known solely[105][106] from inscriptions discovered in the mastaba of Ti in North Saqqara,[107][108] where it is mentioned four times.[105] Ti served as an administration official in the pyramid and sun temples of Sahure, Neferirkare and Nyuserre.[108][109] Given Neferefre's very short reign, the lack of attestations of the Hotep-Re beyond the mastaba of Ti, as well as the lack of priests having served in the temple, Verner proposes that the temple might never have been completed and therefore never functioned as such. Rather it might have been integrated to or its materials reused for the Shesepibre, the sun temple built by Neferefre's probable younger brother, Nyuserre.[110] Incidentally, an earlier discovery by the German archaeological expedition of 1905 under the direction of Friedrich Wilhelm von Bissing may vindicate Verner's theory. This expedition uncovered the ruins of large buildings of mudbricks beneath the sun temple of Nyuserre in Abu Gorab.[111] It is possible that these represent the remains of the sun temple of Neferefre, although in the absence of inscriptions confirming this identification, it remains conjectural.[106] Pyramid of Neferirkare Kakai[edit] The pyramid of Neferirkare in Abusir Main article: Pyramid of Neferirkare When he ascended the throne, Neferefre faced the task of completing the pyramid of his father which, with a square base side of 105 m (344 ft) and a height of 72 m (236 ft), is the largest built during the Fifth Dynasty.[112] Although well underway at the death of Neferirkare, the pyramid was lacking its external limestone cladding and the accompanying mortuary temple still had to be built. Neferefre thus started to cover the pyramid surface with limestone and build the foundation of a stone temple on the pyramid's eastern side. His plans were cut short by his death and the duty of finishing the monument fell on Nyuserre's shoulders, who abandoned the task of covering the pyramid face and instead concentrated on building the mortuary temple in bricks and wood.[113] Funerary cult[edit] Like other pharaohs of the Old Kingdom period, Neferefre benefited from a funerary cult established at his death. Some details of this cult as it occurred during the Fifth Dynasty have survived in the Abusir Papyri. A 10-day yearly festival was held in honor of the deceased ruler during which, on at least one occasion, no less than 130 bulls were sacrificed in the slaughter house of his mortuary temple.[30] The act of mass animal sacrifice testifies to the importance that royal funerary cults had in Ancient Egyptian society, and also shows that vast agricultural resources were devoted to an activity judged unproductive by Verner, something they propose possibly contributed to the decline of the Old Kingdom.[30] The main beneficiaries of these sacrifices were the cult's priests, who consumed the offerings after the required ceremonies.[30] The funerary cult of Neferefre seems to have ceased at the end of the Old Kingdom or during the First Intermediate Period.[114] Traces of a possible revival of the cult during the later Middle Kingdom are scant and ambiguous. During the Twelfth Dynasty, a certain Khuyankh was buried in the funerary temple of Neferefre. It remains unclear if this was to associate himself closely with the deceased ruler or because other cultic activities in the area constrained the choice of location for Khuyankh's tomb.[115] Notes, references and sources[edit] Notes[edit] ^ Proposed dates for Neferefre's reign: 2475–2474 BC,[3][4][5][6] 2460–2455 BC,[7] 2460–2453 BC,[8] 2448–2445 BC,[9][10] 2456–2445 BC,[11] 2431–2420 BC,[12] 2404 BC,[13] 2399 BC.[14] Finally, the radiocarbon dating of a skin fragment from the mummy of Neferefre has yielded the dates 2628–2393 BC.[15] ^ Uncertain translation, might be a diminutive.[16][20] ^ The inscription reads rnpt sp tpy, 3bd 4 3ḫt.[23] ^ For example, the mastaba of princess Hedjetnebu, a daughter of Djedkare Isesi, yielded clay seals of Neferefre.[27] ^ The transliteration of the inscription is [s3-nswt] smsw Rˁ-nfr.[35] ^ That is Jrj-pˁt. Often translated as "hereditary prince" or "hereditary noble" and more precisely "concerned with the nobility", this title denotes a highly exalted position.[44] ^ Miroslav Bárta, the head of the team of archeologists who made the discovery states that "The unearthed tomb is a part of a small cemetery to the south east of the pyramid complex of King Neferefre which led the team to think that Queen Khentkaus could be the wife of Neferefre hence she was buried close to his funerary complex".[52][53] ^ Heliopolis housed the main temple of Ra, which was the most important religious center in the country at the time.[66] The temple was visible from both Abusir and Giza[63] and was probably located where the lines from the Abusir and Giza necropolises intersected.[66] ^ Ancient Egyptian transliteration of the name of the pyramid, Nṯr.j-b3w-Rˁ-nfr f. ^ The original Ancient Egyptian term iat, used to describe the monument in the Abusir papyri, has also been translated by "hill".[86][89] ^ That is fragments from four alabaster canopic jars and pieces from three calcite cases.[100] ^ Transcription from the Ancient Egyptian Ḥtp-Rˁ. References[edit] ^ Verner 1985b, pp. 272–273, pl. XLV–XLVIII. ^ Hornung 2012, p. 484. ^ a b Verner 2001b, p. 589. ^ Hawass & Senussi 2008, p. 10. ^ a b c d e f Altenmüller 2001, p. 599. ^ a b El-Shahawy & Atiya 2005, pp. 61–62. ^ Schneider 1996, pp. 261–262. ^ Clayton 1994, p. 60. ^ a b Málek 2000a, p. 100. ^ Rice 1999, p. 141. ^ Strudwick 2005, p. xxx. ^ von Beckerath 1999, p. 285. ^ a b c Hornung 2012, p. 491. ^ Strudwick 1985, p. 3. ^ a b c d e f Strouhal & Vyhnánek 2000, p. 558. ^ a b c d e f Leprohon 2013, p. 39. ^ Clayton 1994, p. 61. ^ a b Verner 1985a, p. 284. ^ Verner 1985a, pp. 282–283. ^ Scheele-Schweitzer 2007, pp. 91–94. ^ Strouhal & Vyhnánek 2000, p. 558 & 560. ^ Verner 2001a, p. 401. ^ a b c d e f g h Verner 2001a, p. 400. ^ Kanawati 2001, pp. 1–2. ^ Verner 2001a, p. 414. ^ Verner 1999a, p. 76, fig. 6. ^ Verner, Callender & Strouhal 2002, p. 91 & 95. ^ Verner, Callender & Strouhal 2002, p. 91. ^ Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 135 & 166. ^ a b c d Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 152. ^ a b Verner 2000, p. 581. ^ Mariette 1864, p. 4, pl. 17. ^ a b Baker 2008, p. 251. ^ a b c Waddell 1971, p. 51. ^ a b Verner 1985a, p. 282. ^ Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 135. ^ Posener-Kriéger 1976, vol. II, p. 530. ^ Verner 1980, p. 261. ^ a b Verner 1985a, pp. 281–284. ^ Roth 2001, p. 106. ^ a b c d e Krejčí, Arias Kytnarová & Odler 2015, p. 40. ^ Schmitz 1976, p. 29. ^ Verner, Posener-Kriéger & Jánosi 1995, p. 171. ^ Strudwick 2005, p. 27. ^ Baud 1999b, p. 418, see n. 24. ^ Verner, Posener-Kriéger & Jánosi 1995, p. 70. ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004, pp. 64–69. ^ a b c d Discovery of the tomb of Khentkaus III 2015, Charles University website. ^ Krejčí, Arias Kytnarová & Odler 2015, pp. 28–42. ^ The Express Tribune 2015. ^ Krejčí, Arias Kytnarová & Odler 2015, p. 34. ^ Luxor Times 2015. ^ Conservation and Archaeology 2016. ^ a b Verner 2014, p. 58. ^ a b c d Baker 2008, pp. 427–428. ^ von Beckerath 1999, pp. 58–59. ^ von Beckerath 1999, pp. 56–59. ^ Verner 2000. ^ Verner 2001a. ^ Verner 2001b. ^ Baud 1999a, p. 208. ^ a b Strouhal & Vyhnánek 2000, p. 559. ^ a b Verner 2001a, p. 397. ^ Verner 2000, p. 602. ^ Lehner 2008, p. 142. ^ a b c d Verner 2000, p. 586. ^ a b Grimal 1992, p. 77. ^ Daressy 1915, p. 94. ^ Verner 2000, p. 583. ^ Verner 2001a, p. 396. ^ Verner 2000, p. 582. ^ Verner 2000, pp. 584–585 & fig. 1 p. 599. ^ Kaplony 1981, A. Text pp. 289–294 and B. Tafeln, 8lf. ^ Verner 2001a, p. 399. ^ Verner 2000, p. 585. ^ Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 85. ^ a b Verner 2003, p. 58. ^ a b Verner 2002, p. 310. ^ Verner 2000, p. 587. ^ a b c d Edwards 1999, p. 98. ^ Verner 1985b, pp. 274–275, pl. XLIX–LI. ^ von Beckerath 1997, p. 155. ^ Barta 1981, p. 23. ^ Grimal 1992, p. 116. ^ Grimal 1992, p. 117. ^ a b Lehner 2008, pp. 146–148. ^ Lehner 1999, p. 784. ^ a b c Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 138. ^ a b Verner 1999b, p. 331. ^ a b Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 139. ^ a b c Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 140. ^ a b c Lehner 2008, p. 148. ^ Verner & Zemina 1994, pp. 141. ^ Verner 2010, p. 91. ^ Verner & Bárta 2006, pp. 146–152. ^ Sourouzian 2010, p. 82. ^ a b c Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 169. ^ Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 79 & 170. ^ Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 79 & 169. ^ a b c Strouhal & Vyhnánek 2000, p. 552. ^ Baker 2008, p. 250. ^ Strouhal & Vyhnánek 2000, pp. 558–559. ^ Strouhal & Vyhnánek 2000, p. 555. ^ Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 110. ^ a b Verner 1987, p. 294. ^ a b Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 111. ^ Épron et al. 1939–1966, vol. I pl. 37 & 44, vol. 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Preceded by Neferirkare Kakai or Shepseskare Pharaoh of Egypt Fifth Dynasty Succeeded by Shepseskare or Nyuserre Ini v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control LCCN: no2007093640 NKC: mzk2007377556 VIAF: 138752718 WorldCat Identities: lccn-no2007093640 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neferefre&oldid=998669318" Categories: 25th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Ancient Egyptian mummies Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from February 2020 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Featured articles Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 French-language sources (fr) Commons category link from Wikidata 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en-wikipedia-org-1951	----	Pietro Metastasio - Wikipedia Pietro Metastasio From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Metastasio) Jump to navigation Jump to search Italian poet and librettist This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (May 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Pietro Metastasio Born Pietro Antonio Domenico Trapassi 3 January 1698 Rome, Papal States Died 12 April 1782 (aged 84) Vienna, Holy Roman Empire Pen name Pietro Metastasio Occupation writer, poet Pietro Antonio Domenico Trapassi, better known by his pseudonym of Pietro Metastasio (Italian pronunciation: [metaˈstaːzjo]; 3 January 1698 – 12 April 1782), was an Italian poet and librettist, considered the most important writer of opera seria libretti. Contents 1 Early life 2 Roman fame 3 Vienna 4 Works 4.1 Operas 4.2 Other stage works 4.3 Oratorios 4.4 Cantatas 4.5 Canzonettas 4.6 Other works 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Early life[edit] Opere drammatiche, oratorj sacri e poesie liriche (1737) Metastasio was born in Rome, where his father, Felice Trapassi, a native of Assisi, had taken service in the Corsican regiment of the papal forces. Felice married a Bolognese woman, Francesca Galasti, and became a grocer in the Via dei Cappellari. The couple had two sons and two daughters; Pietro was the younger son. Pietro, while still a child, is said to have attracted crowds by reciting impromptu verses on a given subject. On one such occasion in 1709, two men of distinction stopped to listen: Giovanni Vincenzo Gravina, famous for legal and literary erudition as well as his directorship of the Arcadian Academy, and Lorenzini, a critic of some note. Gravina was attracted by the boy's poetic talent and personal charm, and made Pietro his protégé; in the course of a few weeks he adopted him. Felice Trapassi was glad to give his son the chance of a good education and introduction into society. Gravina hellenized the boy's name Trapassi into Metastasio, and intended his adopted son to be a jurist like himself. He therefore made the boy learn Latin and law. At the same time he cultivated his literary gifts, and displayed the youthful prodigy both at his own house and in the Roman coteries. Metastasio soon found himself competing with the most celebrated improvvisatori of his time in Italy. However, his days full of study and evenings devoted to improvising poetry took a toll on Pietro's health. Gravina, making a business trip to Calabria, exhibited Metastasio in the literary circles of Naples, then placed him in the care of his kinsman Gregorio Caroprese at Scaléa. In country air and the quiet of the southern seashore Metastasio's health revived. Gravina decided that he should never improvise again, but should be reserved for nobler efforts, when, having completed his education, he might enter into competition with the greatest poets. Metastasio responded to his patron's wishes. At the age of twelve he translated the Iliad into octave stanzas; and two years later he composed a Senecan tragedy on a subject from Gian Giorgio Trissino's Italia liberata – Gravina's favourite epic. It was called Giustino, and was printed in 1713; forty-two years later, Metastasio told his publisher that he would willingly suppress this juvenilia. Caroprese died in 1714, leaving Gravina his heir; and in 1718 Gravina also died. Metastasio inherited a fortune of 15,000 scudi. At a meeting of the Arcadian Academy, he recited an elegy to his patron, and then settled down to enjoy his wealth. Roman fame[edit] Metastasio was now twenty. During the last four years he had worn the costume of abbé, having taken the minor orders without which it was then useless to expect advancement in Rome. His romantic history, personal beauty, charming manners and distinguished talents made him fashionable. Within two years he had spent his money and increased his reputation. He decided to apply himself seriously to the work of his profession. He migrated to Naples, and entered the office of an eminent lawyer named Castagnola, who exercised severe control over his time and energies. While slaving at the law, Metastasio in 1721 composed an epithalamium, and probably also his first musical serenade, Endimione (Endymion), on the occasion of the marriage of his patroness Donna Anna Francesca Ravaschieri Pinelli di Sangro (later 6th Principessa di Belmonte) to the Marchese Don Antonio Pignatelli (later His Serene Highness Prince of Belmonte). In 1722, while Naples was under Austrian rule, the birthday of Empress Elisabeth Christine had to be celebrated with more than ordinary honours, and the viceroy asked Metastasio to compose a serenata for the occasion. Metastasio accepted, but kept his authorship secret. He wrote "Gli orti esperidi", which was set to music by Nicola Porpora, and sung by Porpora's pupil, the castrato Farinelli, making a spectacular début, it won the most enthusiastic applause. The Roman prima donna, Marianna Bulgarelli, who played Venus in this opera, spared no pains until she had discovered its author. Bulgarelli persuaded the poet to give up the law, and promised to secure for him fame and independence if he would devote his talents to the musical drama. In her house Metastasio became acquainted with the greatest composers of the day: Johann Adolph Hasse, Giovanni Battista Pergolesi, Alessandro Scarlatti, Leonardo Vinci, Leonardo Leo, Francesco Durante, and Benedetto Marcello, all of whom would later set his plays to melody. Here too he studied the art of singing, and learned to appreciate the style of such men as Farinelli. Metastasio wrote quickly and his plays were enhanced by being set to music and sung by the greatest singers of the day. On paper, his plots may seem conventional, his situations absurd; he takes liberties with historical fact and is obsessed with the topic of love. Yet the music helps negate these criticisms[who?]. Statue of Metastasio in Rome, Piazza della Chiesa Nuova Metastasio lived with Bulgarelli and her husband in Rome. Moved by an affection half maternal, half romantic, and by admiration for his talent, she adopted him more passionately even than Gravina had done. She took the whole Trapassi family – father, mother, brother, sisters – into her own house. She fostered the poet's genius and pampered his caprices. Under her influence he wrote in rapid succession Didone abbandonata, Catone in Utica, Ezio, Alessandro nell' Indie, Semiramide riconosciuta, Siroe and Artaserse. These dramas were set to music by the chief composers of the day, and performed in the chief towns of Italy. But meanwhile Bulgarelli was growing older; she had ceased to sing in public; and the poet increasingly felt his dependence upon her kindness irksome. He gained 300 scudi for each opera; this pay, though good, was precarious and he longed for some fixed engagement. In September 1729 he received the offer of the post of court poet to the theatre at Vienna, succeeding Pietro Pariati, with a stipend of 3000 florins. This he at once accepted. Bulgarelli unselfishly sped him on his way to glory. She took charge of his family in Rome and he set off for Austria. Vienna[edit] In the early summer of 1730, Metastasio settled at Vienna in an apartment in the so-called 'Michaelerhaus'. This date marks a new period in his artistic activity. Between the years 1730 and 1740 his finest dramas, Adriano in Siria, Demetrio, Issipile, Demofoonte, Olimpiade, Clemenza di Tito, Achille in Sciro, Temistocle and Attilio Regolo, were produced for the imperial theatre. Some of them had to be composed for special occasions, with almost incredible rapidity: Achille in eighteen days, Ipermestra in nine. Poet, composer, musical copyist and singer did their work together in frantic haste. Metastasio understood the technique of his peculiar art in its minutest details. The experience gained at Naples and Rome, quickened by the excitement of his new career at Vienna, enabled him almost instinctively, and as it were by inspiration, to hit the exact mark aimed at in the opera. The libretto Adriano in Siria was used by more than 60 other composers in the 18th and early 19th century: Antonio Caldara (1732), Giovanni Battista Pergolesi (1734), Francesco Maria Veracini (1735), Baldassare Galuppi (1740), Carl Heinrich Graun (1746), Johann Adolph Hasse (1752), Johann Christian Bach (1765), Luigi Cherubini (1782) and in Adriano in Siria (Mysliveček) from (1776). In Vienna Metastasio met with no marked social success. His plebeian birth excluded him from aristocratic circles. To make up in some measure for this comparative failure, he enjoyed the intimacy of the Countess Althann [it], sister-in-law of his old patroness the Princess Belmonte Pignatelli. She had lost her husband, and had some while occupied the post of chief favourite to the emperor. Metastasio's liaison with her became so close that it was believed they had been privately married. Bulgarelli tired of his absence, and asked Metastasio to get her an engagement at the court theatre. He was ashamed of her and tired of her, and wrote dissuading her from the projected visit. The tone of his letters alarmed and irritated her. She seems to have set out from Rome, but died suddenly upon the road. All we know is that she left him her fortune after her husband's life interest in it had expired, and that Metastasio, overwhelmed with grief and remorse, immediately renounced the legacy. This disinterested act plunged the Bulgarelli-Metastasio household at Rome into confusion. Bulgarelli's widower married again. Metastasio's brother, Leopoldo Trapassi, and his father and sister, were thrown upon their own resources. As time advanced, the life which Metastasio led at Vienna, together with the climate, told on his health and spirits. From about the year 1745 onward he wrote little, though the cantatas which belong to this period, and the canzonetta Ecco quel fiero istante, which he sent to his friend Farinelli, rank among the most popular of his productions. It was clear, as Vernon Lee has phrased it, that "what ailed him was mental and moral ennui". In 1755 the Countess Althann died, and Metastasio's social contacts were reduced to the gatherings round him in the bourgeois house of his friend Nicolo Martinez, the secretary to the papal Nuncio in Vienna. He sank rapidly into the habits of old age; and, though he lived till the year 1782, he was very inactive. He died on 12 April,[1] bequeathing his whole fortune of some 130,000 florins to the six children of Nicolo Martinez. He had survived all his Italian relatives. Throughout the forty years of his career in Vienna, in the course of which Metastasio eventually outlived his own originality and creative powers, his fame went on increasing. In his library he counted as many as forty editions of his own works. They had been translated into French, English, German, Spanish, and modern Greek. They had been set to music over and over again by every composer of distinction. They had been sung by the best virtuosi in every capital, and there was not a literary academy of note which had not conferred on him the honour of membership. Strangers of distinction passing through Vienna made a point of paying their respects to the old poet at his lodgings in the Kohlmarkt Gasse. But his poetry was intended for a certain style of music – for the music of omnipotent vocalists, of exceedingly skilled sopranos and castrati. When the operas of Christoph Willibald Gluck and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart—focusing more on psychology and less on virtuoso singing—came into vogue, a new style of libretto was needed. (Mozart did use an old Metastasio libretto for his renowned opera La clemenza di Tito, but, it was substantially re-written for the purpose.) The demise of castrato singing meant that Metastasio's operas dropped out of the repertory. Metastasio's poetry is emotional, lyrical, and romantic. His chief dramatic situations are expressed by lyrics for two or three voices, embodying the several contending passions of the agents brought into conflict by the circumstances of the plot. The total result is not pure literature, but literature fit for musical effect. Language in Metastasio's hands is musical, lucid, and songlike, perhaps due to his experience as an improvisatory poet. He was an admirer of Torquato Tasso, Giambattista Marino, Giovanni Battista Guarini, and Ovid. Works[edit] Operas[edit] The names of the first composers to set the respective texts to music is indicated next to the title [2] Siface, re di Numidia (1723) – Francesco Feo Didone abbandonata[3] (1724) – Domenico Sarro L'impresario delle Isole Canarie (1724) – Domenico Sarro Siroe rè di Persia (1726) – Leonardo Vinci Catone in Utica (1728) – Leonardo Vinci Ezio (1728) – Pietro Auletta Alessandro nell'Indie (1729) – Leonardo Vinci Semiramide riconosciuta (1729) – Leonardo Vinci Artaserse (1730) – Leonardo Vinci Demetrio (1731) – Antonio Caldara Adriano in Siria (1732) – Antonio Caldara Issipile (1732) – Francesco Conti Demofoonte (1733) – Antonio Caldara L'Olimpiade (1733) – Antonio Caldara La clemenza di Tito (1734) – Antonio Caldara Achille in Sciro (1736) – Antonio Caldara Ciro riconosciuto (1736) – Antonio Caldara Temistocle (1736) – Antonio Caldara Zenobia (1740) – Luca Antonio Predieri Antigono (1743) – Johann Adolph Hasse Ipermestra (1744) – Johann Adolph Hasse Attilio Regolo (1750) – Johann Adolph Hasse Il re pastore (1751) – Giuseppe Bonno L'eroe cinese (1752) – Giuseppe Bonno Nitteti (1756) – Nicola Conforto Il trionfo di Clelia (1762) – Johann Adolph Hasse Romolo ed Ersilia (1765) – Johann Adolph Hasse Ruggiero (1771) – Johann Adolph Hasse Other stage works[edit] Giustino (1712) Angelica (1720) Endimione (1721) Gli orti esperdi (1721) La Galatea (1722) La contesa de' numi (1729) Il tempio dell'Eternità (1731) Amor prigioniero (1732) L'asilo d'Amore (1732) Il palladio conservato (1735) Il sogno di Scipione (1735) Le cinesi (1735) Le grazie vendicate (1735) Il Parnaso accusato e difeso (1738) La pace fra la virtù e la bellezza (1738) Astrea placata (1739) Il natale di Giove (1740) Il vero omaggio (1743) Augurio di felicità (1749) La rispettosa tenerezza (1750) L'isola disabitata (1753) Tributo di rispetto e d'amore (1754) La gara (1755) Il sogno (1756) La ritrosia disarmata (1759) Alcide al bivio (1760) L'Atenaide (Gli affetti generosi) (1762) Egeria (1764) Il Parnaso confuso (1765) Il trionfo d'Amore (1765) La corona (1765) La pace fra le tre dee (1765) Partenope (1767) L'ape (n.d.) Oratorios[edit] Per la festività del santo natale (1727) La passione di Gesù Cristo (1730) Sant'Elena al Calvario (1731) La morte d'Abel (1732) Giuseppe riconosciuto (1733) Betulia liberata (1734) Gioas re di Giuda (1735) Isacco figura del Redentore (1740) Cantatas[edit] Il ciclope La danza Il quadro animato Amor timido Il consiglio Il nido degli amor Il nome Il primo amore Il ritorno Il sogno Il tabacco Il trionfo della gloria Irene La cacciatrice La cioccolata La gelosia La Pesca La primavera L'Armonica La scusa La tempesta L'Aurora L'estate L'inciampo L'inverno Pel giorno natalizio di Francesco I Pel giorno natalizio di Maria Teresa Pel nome glorioso di Maria Teresa Primo omaggio del canto Altre cantate Canzonettas[edit] A Nice Canzonetta La libertà La partenza La primavera L'estate Palinodia Other works[edit] 9 complimenti 33 strofe per musica 32 sonetti 4 poemi sacri Numerosi testi per arie References[edit] Notes ^ Otto Erich Deutsch (1 June 1966). Mozart: A Documentary Biography. Stanford University Press. p. 199. ISBN 978-0-8047-0233-1. ^ List of the works of Pietro Metastasio on publish.uwo.ca. ( The list is arranged alphabetically by title) ^ Complete libretto in Italian Sources  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Symonds, John Addington (1911). "Metastasio". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Aluigi, Metastasio's Life, (Assisi, 1783), London: Charles Burney, 1796, and others. Maeder, Costantino (1993). Metastasio, L'olimpiade e l'opera del Settecento (in Italian). Bologna: Il Mulino. ISBN 978-88-15-04221-7. OCLC 30592360. Kirkpatrick, David A. (2009), The Role of Metastasio's Libretti in the Eighteenth Century: Opera as Propaganda, VDM Verlag Dr. Müller and Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations. Paper 2883 Florida State University, 2005. ISBN 3639050959 ISBN 978-3639050950 Metastasio: His works were published in numerous editions, but his personal favourites were those published under his own supervision by Calzabigi (Paris, 1755, 5 vols.). The posthumous works were printed in Vienna in 1795. Neville, Don (1990). Frontier Research in Opera and Multimedia Preservation: a Project Involving the Documentation and Full Text Retrieval of the Libretti of Pietro Metastasio. London (Ontario): Faculty of Music, University of Western Ontario. Without ISBN Stendhal, Vie de Haydn, Mozart et Métastase, 1817. Further reading[edit] Opera portal Blichmann, Diana (2015). "The Temple of Jupiter Stator in La Clemenza di Tito by Pietro Metastasio". Music in Art: International Journal for Music Iconography. 40 (1–2): 139–156. ISSN 1522-7464. Blichmann, Diana (2017). "Atlas with the Celestial Globe in the Stage Design of La clemenza di Tito as a Symbol of Historical power: The Portuguese Exploration of Brazil and the Political Propaganda at the Lisbon Court Opera in 1755". Music in Art: International Journal for Music Iconography. 42 (1–2): 141–159. ISSN 1522-7464. Robert Torre, "Operatic Twins & Musical Rivals: Two Settings of Artaserse (1730)", Discourses in Music, vol. 6 no. 1, (Summer 2006). External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pietro Metastasio. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Pietro Metastasio Drammi of Metastasio (in Italian) Pietro Metastasio: Drammi per musica (in Italian) Handbook for Metastasio Research Pietro Metastasio: Poeta dell'Unità culturale europea (in Italian) Metastasio's works: text, concordances and frequency list "Biography: Pietre Metastasio", The Every-day Book and Table Book; or, Everlasting Calendar of Popular Amusements, Sports, Pastimes, Ceremonies, Manners, Customs, and Events, Each of the Three Hundred and Sixty-Five Days, in Past and Present Times; Forming a Complete History of the Year, Months, and Seasons, and a Perpetual Key to the Almanac, Including Accounts of the Weather, Rules for Health and Conduct, Remarkable and Important Anecdotes, Facts, and Notices, in Chronology, Antiquities, Topography, Biography, Natural History, Art, Science, and General Literature; Derived from the Most Authentic Sources, and Valuable Original Communication, with Poetical Elucidations, for Daily Use and Diversion. Vol III., ed. William Hone, (London: 1838) pp. 421–24. Article: Torre, Robert. "Operatic Twins and Musical Rivals: Two Settings of Artaserse (1730)" Discourses in Music: Volume 6 Number 1 (Summer 2006) Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Pietro Metastasio" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Works by Pietro Metastasio at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Pietro Metastasio at Internet Archive Works by or about Pietro Antonio Domenico Trapassi at Internet Archive v t e Libretti by Pietro Metastasio Gli orti esperidi (1721) Siface, re di Numidia (1723) Didone abbandonata (1724) L'impresario delle Isole Canarie (1724) Siroe re di Persia (1726) Catone in Utica (1728) Ezio (1728) Alessandro nell’Indie (1729) La passione di Gesù Cristo (1730) Artaserse (1730) Demetrio (1731) Demofonte (1731) Adriano in Siria (1732) L'Olimpiade (1733) Betulia liberata (1734) La clemenza di Tito (1734) Gioas re di Giuda (1735) Achille in Sciro (1736) Ciro riconosciuto (1736) Ipermestra (1744) Il re pastore (1751) Il trionfo di Clelia (1762) Authority control BIBSYS: 98012099 BNE: XX878014 BNF: cb138974478 (data) CANTIC: a1632125x CiNii: DA03481244 GND: 118733141 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\110134 ISNI: 0000 0001 2136 7061 LCCN: n80030808 LNB: 000091185 MBA: 39d7ae56-6b3e-46ea-8179-e32a3abb2420 NKC: jn20011018040 NLA: 35253700 NLG: 166572 NLI: 000092643 NTA: 069104395 PLWABN: 9810616147505606 RERO: 02-A003587618 SELIBR: 207610 SNAC: w64t6j3k SUDOC: 026664232 Trove: 883483 ULAN: 500354377 VcBA: 495/20056 VIAF: 64192672 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80030808 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pietro_Metastasio&oldid=978209830" Categories: 1698 births 1782 deaths 18th-century Italian poets Italian male poets Writers from Rome Italian opera librettists Members of the Academy of Arcadians Italian expatriates in Austria Italian male dramatists and playwrights Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's librettists 18th-century Italian dramatists and playwrights 18th-century male writers Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles lacking in-text citations from May 2016 All articles lacking in-text citations Use dmy dates from January 2014 All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from May 2016 Articles containing Italian-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica CS1 Italian-language sources (it) Commons category link is on Wikidata Articles with Italian-language sources (it) Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers AC with 25 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages Alemannisch العربية تۆرکجه Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Italiano עברית Қазақша Latina Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Sicilianu Simple English Slovenščina Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Vèneto Edit links This page was last edited on 13 September 2020, at 15:28 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1953	----	Shoshenq IV - Wikipedia Shoshenq IV From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Shoshenq IV Stela of the "Chief of the Libu" Niumateped, likely issued in regnal year 8 of Shoshenq IV[1] Pharaoh Reign 798–785 BC (22nd Dynasty) Predecessor Shoshenq III Successor Pami Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Hedjkheperre Setepenre ḥḏ-ḫpr-Rˁ stp.n-Rˁ Radiant is the manifestation of Ra, the chosen one of Ra Nomen Shoshenq, Meryamun Sabast Netjerheqaiunu Ššnq mrj-Jmn zȝ-Bȝstt nṯr hqȝ Iwnw[2] Shoshenq, beloved of Amun, son of Bast, divine ruler of Iunu Hedjkheperre Setepenre Shoshenq IV was an ancient Egyptian ruler of the 22nd Dynasty, between the reigns of Shoshenq III and Pami. In 1986, David Rohl proposed that there were two king Shoshenqs bearing the prenomen Hedjkheperre – (i) the well-known founder of the dynasty, Hedjkheperre Shoshenq I, and (ii) a later pharaoh from the second half of the dynasty, whom Rohl called Hedjkheperre Shoshenq (b) due to his exact position in the dynasty being unknown.[3] Following Rohl's proposal (first suggested to him by Pieter Gert van der Veen in 1984), the British Egyptologist Aidan Dodson supported the new king's existence by demonstrating that the earlier Hedjkheperre Shoshenq bore simple epithets in his titulary, whereas the later Hedjkheperre Shoshenq's epithets were more complex.[4] Dodson suggested that the ruler that Kenneth Kitchen, in his standard work on Third Intermediate Period chronology,[5] had numbered Shoshenq IV – bearing the prenomen Usermaatre – should be removed from the 22nd Dynasty and replaced by Rohl's Hedjkheperre Shoshenq (b), renumbering the latter as Shoshenq IV. At the same time the old Usermaatre Shoshenq IV was renumbered as Shoshenq VI. Dodson's historical summary of the new King Shoshenq IV's discovery and his supportive evidence for that king's independent existence from Hedjkheperre Shoshenq I appeared in a seminal article entitled ‘A New King Shoshenq Confirmed?’ which appeared in 1993.[4] Rohl and Dodson's combined arguments for the existence of a new 22nd Dynasty Tanite king called Hedjkheperre Shoshenq IV are accepted by Egyptologists today, including Jurgen von Beckerath and Kitchen – the latter in the preface to the third edition of his book on The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt.[6] As Dodson pointed out, while Shoshenq IV shared the same prenomen as his illustrious ancestor Shoshenq I, he is distinguished from Shoshenq I by his use of an especially long nomen – Shoshenq-meryamun-sibast-netjerheqaon which featured both the sibast ('son of Bast') and netjerheqaon ('god-ruler of Heliopolis') epithets.[7] These two epithets were only gradually employed by the 22nd Dynasty pharaohs, starting from the reign of Osorkon II. By contrast, Shoshenq I's nomen simply reads ‘Shoshenq-meryamun’. Shoshenq I's immediate successors, Osorkon I and Takelot I also never used epithets beyond the standard ‘meryamun’ (beloved of Amun). In his 1994 book on the Canopic Equipment of the Kings of Egypt, Dodson perceptively observes that when the sibast epithet ‘appears during the dynasty of Osorkon II’, it is rather infrequent, while the netjerheqawaset ('god-ruler of Thebes') and netjerheqaon epithets are only exclusively attested ‘in the reigns of that monarch’s successors’ – that is Shoshenq III, Pami and Shoshenq V.[8] This suggests that the newly identified Hedjkhperre Shoshenq IV was a late Tanite-era king who ruled in Egypt either during or after the reign of Shoshenq III. Rohl had already pointed out in 1989 that the cartouches of a Hedjkheperre Shoshenq appear on a stela (St. Petersburg Hermitage 5630) dated to Year 10 of the king.[9] This stela mentions a Great Chief of the Libu, Niumateped, who is also attested in a Year 8, usually attributed to Shoshenq V. Since the title ‘Chief of the Libu’ is only documented from Year 31 of Shoshenq III onwards, it seems this new king must have ruled contemporary with or after Shoshenq III. Dodson noted that the Hedjkheperre Shoshenq on the stela bore the long form titulary, now attributed to Hedjkhperre Shoshenq IV, thus confirming that the stela cannot be dated to Hedjkheperre Shoshenq I.[10] In his 1993 paper, Dodson proposed to place Shoshenq IV's reign after the last attested regnal date for Shoshenq III in Year 39, arguing that the discovery of Shoshenq IV's burial in the tomb of Shoshenq III at Tanis makes it likely that he was part of the 22nd Dynasty Tanite line. Dodson would therefore place Hedjkheperre Shoshenq IV between Shoshenq III and Pami. Burial[edit] A rendering of the tomb NRT V, showing the two sarcophagi. Excavation work in the looted NRT V Tanite tomb of Shoshenq III revealed the presence of two sarcophagi: one inscribed for Usermaatre-setepenre Shoshenq III and the other being an anonymous sarcophagus. The unmarked sarcophagus, however, ‘was clearly a secondary introduction’ according to its position in the tomb.[11] In the Tanite tomb's debris, several fragments were found from one or two canopic jars bearing the cartouches of a Hedjkheperre Shoshenq. Rohl had pointed out that the Staatliche Museum in Berlin possessed a canopic chest for Hedjkheperre Shoshenq I and that these jars from the tomb of Shoshenq III were too large to fit inside the Berlin canopic chest. Rohl ‘used the evidence of the jars as the key element of his theory that there were indeed two Hedjkheperre Shoshenqs’.[7] Dodson noted that the Tanite canopic vessels bear the name ‘Hedjkheperre-Setpenre-meryamun-sibast-netjerheqaon’ and, since the epithet netjerheqaon ('god ruler of Heliopolis') was never employed by the 22nd Dynasty kings until the reign of Shoshenq III, this is clear evidence that the new Shoshenq IV was buried in Shoshenq III's Tanite tomb and must have succeeded this king.[12] It also establishes that the king buried in the second sarcophagus in Shoshenq III's tomb was certainly not Shoshenq I. Dodson was initially reluctant to accept Rohl's proposal for a second Hedjkheperre Shoshenq but his own research into the archaeological evidence led him to revise his opinion: Having implicitly rejected such a conclusion in 1986, further study of the canopic fragments as part of my general treatment of royal canopics has now led me rather to support the existence of two Shoshenqs with the prenomen Hedjkheperre.[7] This is now the mainstream consensus view within Egyptology. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Shoshenq IV. References[edit] ^ Jansen-Winkeln, Karl (2014). "Die "Großfürsten der Libu" im westlichen Delta in der späten 22. Dynastie". Journal of Egyptian History. 7: 194–202. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath, Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen (= Münchner ägyptologische Studien, vol 46), Mainz am Rhein: Verlag Philipp von Zabern, 1999. ISBN 3-8053-2310-7, pp.190-91. ^ D. Rohl: ‘Questions and Answers on the Chronology of Rohl and James’, Chronology & Catastrophism Workshop 1986:1, p. 22. ^ a b A. Dodson: ‘A new King Shoshenq confirmed?’, Göttinger Miszellen 137 (1993), pp.53-58. ^ K. A. Kitchen, The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100-650 BC), 1st edition (1973), p. 87. ^ K. A. Kitchen, The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100-650 BC), 3rd edition (1996), § Y p.xxvi ^ a b c A. Dodson, op. cit. (1993), p.55. ^ A. Dodson, The Canopic Equipment of the Kings of Egypt (1994), p. 93. ^ D. Rohl: ‘The Early Third Intermediate Period: Some Chronological Considerations’, Journal of the Ancient Chronology Forum 3 (1989), pp.66-67. ^ A. Dodson, op.cit. (1993), pp.55-56. ^ A. Dodson, op.cit. (1994), p. 93. ^ A. Dodson, op. cit. (1993), pp.54-55 Preceded by Shoshenq III Pharaoh of Egypt 798 – 785 BC Twenty-second dynasty of Egypt Succeeded by Pami v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shoshenq_IV&oldid=991968794" Categories: 785 BC deaths 8th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt 8th century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community 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en-wikipedia-org-1975	----	Netjerkare Siptah - Wikipedia Netjerkare Siptah From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Netjerkare Siptah Neitiqerty Siptah, Nitocris, Siptah I, Netjerkare The cartouche of Netjerkare on the Abydos King List. Pharaoh Reign c. 3 years, 2184–2181 BC[1] (Sixth Dynasty or Eighth Dynasty) Predecessor Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Successor Menkare (Eighth Dynasty) Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Abydos king list Netjerkare Nṯr-k3-Rˁ Divine is the Ka of Ra Nomen Turin canon Neitiqerty Siptah Nt-iḳrti s3-ptḥ Neith is excellent, the son of Ptah Netjerkare Siptah (also Neitiqerty Siptah and possibly the origin of the legendary figure Nitocris) was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh, the seventh and last ruler of the Sixth Dynasty. Alternatively some scholars classify him as the first king of the Seventh or Eighth Dynasty.[2] As the last king of the 6th Dynasty, Netjerkare Siptah is considered by some Egyptologists to be the last king of the Old Kingdom period. Netjerkare Siptah enjoyed a short reign in the early 22nd century BC, at a time when the power of the pharaoh was crumbling and that of the local nomarchs was on the rise. Although he was male, Netjerkare Siptah is most likely the same person as the female ruler Nitocris mentioned by Herodotus and Manetho.[3] Attestation[edit] The prenomen Netjerkare is inscribed on the 40th entry of the Abydos King List, a king list redacted during the reign of Seti I. Netjerkare immediately follows Merenre Nemtyemsaf II on the list.[2] The prenomen Netjerkare is also attested on a single copper tool of unknown provenance and now in the British Museum.[2][4] The nomen Neitiqerty Siptah is inscribed on the Turin canon, on the 5th column, 7th row (4th column, 7th row in Gardiner's reconstruction of the canon).[2] Identification with Nitocris[edit] In his Histories, the Greek historian Herodotus records a legend according to which an Egyptian queen Nitocris took revenge on the murder of her brother and husband by a rioting mob. She diverted the Nile to drown all of the murderers during a banquet where she had gathered them.[2] This story is also reported by the Egyptian priest Manetho, who wrote an history of Egypt called Aegyptiaca in the 3rd century BC. Manetho writes of Nitocris that she was "... braver than all the men of her time, the most beautiful of all women, fair-skinned with red cheeks".[5] Manetho goes further and credits her with the construction of the Pyramid of Menkaure "By her, it is said, the third pyramid was reared, with the aspect of a mountain".[5] Although the murdered king is not named by Herodotus, Nitocris follows immediately Merenre Nemtyemsaf II in Manetho's Aegyptiaca and so he is often identified as this king. Since the king following Merenre Nemtyemsaf II in the Abydos king list is "Netjerkare", the German egyptologist Ludwig Stern proposed in 1883 that Netjerkare and Nitocris are the same person.[3][6] The Danish Egyptologist Kim Ryholt confirmed Stern's hypothesis in a recent study of the matter. Ryholt argues that the name "Nitocris" is a result of conflation and distortion from the name "Netjerkare".[3] Confirming this analysis, the Turin canon, another king list redacted during the early Ramesside period lists a Neitiqerti Siptah at an uncertain position. Ryholt's microscopic analyses of the fibers of the papyrus suggest that the fragment where this name appears belongs to the end of the 6th Dynasty, immediately after Merenre Nemtyemsaf II. Since on the Abydos king list, Netjerkare is placed in the equivalent spot that Neitiqerti Siptah holds on the Turin canon, the two are to be identified. Additionally, the nomen "Siptah" is masculine indicating that Nitocris was in fact a male pharaoh. The name "Nitocris" probably originates from the prenomen "Neitiqerti", which itself either comes from a corruption of "Netjerkare", or else "Neitiqerti Siptah" was the nomen of the king and "Netjerkare" his prenomen.[3] References[edit] ^ Michael Rice: Who is who in Ancient Egypt, Routledge London & New York 1999, ISBN 0-203-44328-4, see "Nitiqret" p. 140 ^ a b c d e Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 279–280 ^ a b c d Ryholt, Kim Steven Bardrum. 2000. "The Late Old Kingdom in the Turin King-list and the Identity of Nitocris." Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 127:87–100. ^ T. G. H. James: A Group of Inscribed Egyptian Tools, The British Museum Quarterly Vol. 24, No. 1/2 (Aug., 1961), pp. 36–43 ^ a b W. G. Waddell: Manetho, London (1940), p. 55–57 ^ L Stern: Die XXII. manethonische Dynastie, ZAS 21 (1883), p. 23, n. 2. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Netjerkare_Siptah&oldid=969403287" Categories: 22nd-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Sixth Dynasty of Egypt 22nd-century BC rulers 22nd century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Português Română Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 July 2020, at 06:14 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-198	----	Aegean Islands - Wikipedia Aegean Islands From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Group of islands Region of Greece Aegean Islands (Greece) Νήσοι Αιγαίου Region of Greece Aegean Islands (blue) within Greece Country  Greece Place in Turkey Aegean Islands (Turkey) Ege Adaları Aegean Islands (blue) within Turkey Country  Turkey Aegean Sea Islands map showing island groups Satellite view of the Aegean Sea and Islands The Aegean Islands (Greek: Νησιά Αιγαίου, romanized: Nisiá Aigaíou; Turkish: Ege Adaları) are the group of islands in the Aegean Sea, with mainland Greece to the west and north and Turkey to the east; the island of Crete delimits the sea to the south, those of Rhodes, Karpathos and Kasos to the southeast. The ancient Greek name of the Aegean Sea, Archipelago (ἀρχιπέλαγος, archipelagos) was later applied to the islands it contains and is now used more generally, to refer to any island group. The vast majority of the Aegean Islands belong to Greece, being split among nine administrative regions. The only sizable possessions of Turkey in the Aegean Sea are Imbros (Gökçeada) and Tenedos (Bozcaada), in the northeastern part of the Sea. Various smaller islets off Turkey's western coast are also under Turkish sovereignty. The islands have hot summers and mild winters, a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Cfa in the Köppen climate classification). Contents 1 Groups of Islands 2 Episcopal sees 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Groups of Islands[edit] The Aegean Islands are traditionally subdivided into seven groups, from north to south: Northeastern Aegean Islands (Thracian Sea) West Aegean Islands (Euboea) Sporades (Northern) Cyclades Saronic Islands (Argo-Saronic Islands) Dodecanese (Southern Sporades) Crete The term Italian Islands of the Aegean (Italian: Isole Italiane dell’Egeo) is sometimes used to refer to the Aegean islands conquered by Italy during the Italo-Turkish War in 1912 and annexed (through the Treaty of Lausanne) from 1923 until 1947: the Dodecanese, including Rhodes and Kastellorizo. In the Treaty of Peace in 1947, these Italian-controlled islands were ceded to Greece. Episcopal sees[edit] Ancient episcopal sees of the Roman province of Insulae (the Aegean Islands) listed in the Annuario Pontificio as titular sees :[1] Astypalaea Carpathus Cos Ios Lemnus Lerus Nisyrus Parus Samos Scyrus Ancient episcopal sees of the Roman province of Lesbos (the Aegean Islands) listed in the Annuario Pontificio as titular sees:[1] Eressus Methymna Mitylene Strongyle Tenedus See also[edit] List of Aegean Islands List of islands of Greece List of islands of Turkey References[edit] ^ a b Annuario Pontificio 2013 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2013 ISBN 978-88-209-9070-1), "Sedi titolari", pp. 819-1013 Aegean Sea, The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-05. External links[edit] Media related to Islands of the Aegean Sea at Wikimedia Commons v t e Traditional geographic regions of Greece Aegean Islands Central Greece (Attica) Crete Epirus Ionian Islands Macedonia Peloponnese Thessaly Thrace v t e Aegean Sea General Countries  Greece  Turkey Other Aegean civilizations Aegean dispute Aegean Islands Aegean Islands Cyclades Ananes Amorgos Anafi Andros Antimilos Antiparos Delos Despotiko Donousa Folegandros Gyaros Ios Irakleia Kardiotissa Kea Keros Kimolos Koufonisia Kythnos Milos Mykonos Naxos Paros Polyaigos Rineia Santorini Schoinoussa Serifopoula Serifos Sifnos Sikinos Syros Therasia Tinos Vous Dodecanese Agathonisi Arkoi Armathia Alimia Astakida Astypalaia Çatalada Chamili Farmakonisi Gaidaros Gyali Halki Imia/Kardak Kalolimnos Kalymnos Kandelioussa Kara Ada Karpathos Kasos Kinaros Kos Küçük Tavşan Adası Leipsoi (Lipsi) Leros Levitha (Lebynthos) Nimos Nisyros Pacheia Patmos Platy Pserimos Rhodes Salih Ada Saria Symi Syrna Telendos Tilos Zaforas North Aegean Agios Efstratios Agios Minas Ammouliani Ayvalık Islands Büyük Ada Chios Chryse Cunda Foça Islands Fournoi Korseon Icaria Imbros Koukonesi Lemnos Lesbos Megalonisi (Nisiopi) Metalik Ada Oinousses Pasas Psara Samiopoula Samos Samothrace Tenedos Thasos Thymaina Uzunada Zourafa Saronic Aegina Agios Georgios Agistri Dokos Hydra Poros Psyttaleia Salamis Spetses Sporades Adelfoi Islets Agios Georgios Skopelou Alonnisos Argos Skiathou Dasia Erinia Gioura Grammeza Kyra Panagia Lekhoussa Peristera Piperi Psathoura Repi Sarakino Skandili Skantzoura Skiathos Skopelos Skyropoula Skyros Tsoungria Valaxa Cretan Afentis Christos Agia Varvara Agioi Apostoloi Agioi Pantes Agioi Theodoroi Agios Nikolaos Anavatis Arnaouti Aspros Volakas Avgo Crete Daskaleia Dia Diapori Dionysades Elasa Ftena Trachylia Glaronisi Gramvousa Grandes Kalydon (Spinalonga) Karavi Karga Katergo Kavallos Kefali Kolokythas Koursaroi Kyriamadi Lazaretta Leon Mavros Mavros Volakas Megatzedes Mochlos Nikolos Palaiosouda Peristeri Peristerovrachoi Petalida Petalouda Pontikaki Pontikonisi Praso (Prasonisi) Prosfora Pseira Sideros Souda Valenti Vryonisi Other Antikythera Euboea Kythira Makronisos Authority control LCCN: sh85001233 NARA: 10044382 NDL: 00561768 NKC: ge139351 VIAF: 252680661 WorldCat Identities: viaf-252680661 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aegean_Islands&oldid=982832300" Categories: Aegean islands Mediterranean islands Traditional geographic divisions of Greece Archipelagoes of Greece Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Pages using infobox settlement with bad settlement type Articles containing Greek-language text Pages using infobox settlement with no coordinates Articles containing Turkish-language text Instances of Lang-el using second unnamed parameter Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Italian-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NARA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Беларуская Български Cebuano Dansk Eesti Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Jawa Lietuvių Magyar Македонски മലയാളം 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча پنجابی Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 October 2020, at 16:50 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2010	----	Help:Category - Wikipedia Help:Category From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For guidelines on the use of categories in Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Categorization. For a basic readers' guide see Help:Categories. For quick answers, see the readers' FAQ or the editors' FAQ on categories. For a list of categories, see Special:Categories. Wikipedia information page This is an information page. It is not one of Wikipedia's policies or guidelines, but rather intends to describe some aspect(s) of Wikipedia's norms, customs, technicalities, or practices. It may reflect varying levels of consensus and vetting. Shortcut H:CAT Wikipedia data structure Namespaces Subject namespaces Talk namespaces 0 (Main/Article) Talk 1 2 User User talk 3 4 Wikipedia Wikipedia talk 5 6 File File talk 7 8 MediaWiki MediaWiki talk 9 10 Template Template talk 11 12 Help Help talk 13 14 Category Category talk 15 100 Portal Portal talk 101 118 Draft Draft talk 119 710 TimedText TimedText talk 711 828 Module Module talk 829 Currently unused 108 Book Book talk 109 446 Education Program Education Program talk 447 2300 Gadget Gadget talk 2301 2302 Gadget definition Gadget definition talk 2303 Virtual namespaces -1 Special -2 Media Categories are intended to group together pages on similar subjects. They are implemented by a MediaWiki feature that adds any page with a text like [[Category:XYZ]] in its wikimarkup to the automated listing that is the category with name XYZ. Categories help readers to find, and navigate around, a subject area, to see pages sorted by title, and to thus find article relationships. Categories are normally found at the bottom of an article page. Clicking a category name brings up a category page listing the articles (or other pages) that have been added to that particular category. There may also be a section listing the subcategories of that category. The subcategorization feature makes it possible to organize categories into tree-like structures to aid navigation. The term category does refer to both the title of a category page—the category pagename—and the category itself. Keeping this in mind while reading about categorization, plus learning a category page layout is a worthwhile investment in research techniques. (See also the search box parameter "incategory".) The layout of a category page is mostly text, but see about displaying category trees below. Contents 1 Summary 2 Category page definition 2.1 Putting pages into categories 3 Working with category pages 3.1 Linking to category pages 3.2 Retrieving raw category information 3.3 Sorting category pages 3.3.1 Default sort key 3.4 Searching for pages in categories 3.5 Listing all categories 3.6 Displaying category trees and page counts 3.7 Moving and redirecting category pages 3.8 Hiding categories 4 Finding articles for a category 5 Categorizing 5.1 Categorizing templates 5.2 Categories and templates 5.3 Categorizing redirect pages 5.4 "Related Changes" with categories 5.5 Watching category additions and removals 6 See also 7 Notes Summary The MediaWiki software maintains tables of categories, to which any editable page can be added. To add a page to a category, include "[[Category:Category name]]" or "[[Category:Category name|Sortkey]]" in that page's wikimarkup. The categories to which a page belongs appear in a box at the bottom of the page. A category is usually associated with a category page in the "Category:" namespace.[1] A category page contains text that can be edited, like any other page, but when the page is displayed, the last part of what is displayed is an automatically generated list of all pages in that category, in the form of links. Other category pages which appear in this list are treated separately, as subcategories. The bottom of a Wikipedia article on Chicken eyeglasses. At the very bottom of the page, below the References, navigation templates and external links are a series of links. These links are the categories used on the page, which include: Category:Animal Welfare, Category:Animal equipment, Category:Eyewear, and Category:Poultry farming. By clicking on the category link at the bottom of the page, readers can navigate the Category tree. Category page definition A category page is any page in the Category namespace. They each act as a category, and are termed a "category". The category page has one section titled Subcategories listing other "categories", and one section titled Pages, listing pages as categorized (in other namespaces). New categories are created by creating a page in the Category namespace. A category page can be edited like any other page. However, when it is displayed, the editable part of the page is followed by automatically generated lists of pages belonging to the category, as follows: First a count and list of subcategories (other category pages belonging to the category) is shown, if any exist. The name of each subcategory is followed by counts like "(6 C, 38 P, 2 F)", meaning this subcategory contains 6 subcategories, 38 pages, and 2 files. Counts of 0 are omitted. The further subcategories are expanded in the display if the ► sign alongside the subcategory is clicked (but this "widget" is only visible if your browser has JavaScript enabled). Note: ► is shown if there are no further subcategories. The subcategory is collapsed again if ▼ is clicked. Next a count and list of pages in the category (excluding subcategories and images) is shown. If the category has no members, a message to that effect is displayed. Next a count and list of image and other media files in the category appears, if any exist. These are shown with thumbnails. The first 20 characters of the file name are shown, with an ellipsis if that is not the full name; also the file size is shown. The items in the lists all link to the pages concerned; in the case of the images this applies both to the image itself and to the text below it (the name of the image). For the way in which the lists are ordered, see Sorting category pages below. The first and second lists are divided into sections, according to the first character of the sort key. These initial characters are displayed above the sections. To suppress these, make all sort keys start with a space. A category page can only display a limited number of items (currently 200). If more pages belong to the category, there will be a link to the next ones. The categories box for the category page appears at the bottom, in the same place as for other pages. This contains the categories to which the current category page has been added, i.e. its parent categories (the categories of which it is a subcategory). Add a category page to other categories in the normal way, using the "[[Category:Category name]]" or "[[Category:Category name|Sortkey]]" syntax. Putting pages into categories Shortcut WP:PAGECAT A page belongs to a category if the page's wikimarkup contains a declaration for that category. A category declaration takes the form [[Category:Category name]] or [[Category:Category name|Sortkey]]. The declaration must be processed, i.e. it will not work if it appears between <nowiki>...</nowiki> or <includeonly>...</includeonly> tags, or in a comment. The declaration may however come from a transcluded page; see Categories and templates below. A category name can be any string that would be a legitimate page title. If the category name begins with a lower-case letter it will be capitalized. In Wikipedia, it is customary to place category declarations at the end of the wikimarkup, but before any stub templates (which themselves transclude categories) and interlanguage links. When a page has been added to one or more categories, a categories box appears at the bottom of the page (or possibly elsewhere, if a non-default skin is being used). This box contains a list of the categories the page belongs to, in the order in which the category declarations appear in the processed wikimarkup. The category names are linked to the corresponding category pages. They appear as redlinks if the corresponding category page does not exist. If a user has enabled the HotCat gadget, the categories box will also provide links to quickly add, remove, or modify category declarations on the page, without having to edit the whole page. Hidden categories are not displayed, except as described below under Hiding categories. Working with category pages The following subsections are ordered from simple actions to more elaborate or rarer actions. Linking to category pages To link to a category page without putting the current page in that category, precede the link with a colon: [[:Category:Category name]]. Such a link can be piped like a normal wikilink. (The {{cl}} template, and others listed on its documentation page, may sometimes be helpful.) Retrieving raw category information Raw information about the members of a category, their sortkeys and timestamps (time when last added to the category) can be obtained from the API, using a query of the form: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?cmtitle=Category:Category_name&action=query&list=categorymembers&cmlimit=500&cmprop=title|sortkey|timestamp Listings of up to 500 members are possible. If there are more members then the results will include text near the end like this: <categorymembers cmcontinue="page|NNNN|TITLE" />. This can be added to the previous one, without quotation marks, for the next page of members: ...&cmcontinue=page|NNNN|TITLE Sorting category pages See also: Help:Sorting Shortcut WP:SORTCAT By default, a page is sorted under the first character of its name, without the namespace. English Wikipedia groups accented characters together with their unaccented version, so pages starting with À, Á, Ä, will be listed under heading A. Sorting is case-insensitive, so "ABC" comes after "Abacus". Unlike at Special:Allpages and Special:Prefixindex, a space is treated as a space (coming before all other characters), not as an underscore. The English Wikipedia has numerical sorting in categories. This means a page whose title begins with a number will be sorted according to the numeric value of the number (even if it is multiple digits). Thus "9 dogs", "25 dogs", and "112 dogs" will all appear under the "0–9" heading in numeric order. If the number includes a comma, space, or period, the sorting algorithm will only consider the part of the number before the separator. Each of the three lists (subcategories, pages, media files) is arranged in the order explained above (except that, in the subcategories list, the namespace indicator "Category:" is not considered). If an item ought to be positioned within a list on the basis of an alternative name (sort key) for that item, then this can be specified in the category tag that places the item in the list: [[Category:Category name|Sortkey]] For example, to add an article called Albert Einstein to the category "People" and have the article sorted by "Einstein, Albert", you would type: [[Category:People|Einstein, Albert]] Unlike a piped link (which uses the same syntax), the sort key itself is not displayed to readers. It affects only the order in which pages are listed on the category page. It is useful to document the system being used for sort keys on the category page. For guidelines about the use of sort keys on Wikipedia, see WP:SORTKEY. Default sort key Shortcut WP:DEFAULTSORT See also: WP:NAMESORT and WP:SORTKEY It is possible to set a default sort key which is different from {{PAGENAME}} by using the magic word {{DEFAULTSORT}}: {{DEFAULTSORT:new key}} In the case of multiple default sort key tags, the last DEFAULTSORT on the final rendering of a page applies for all categories, regardless of the position of the category tags. This also means that a DEFAULTSORT tag included from a template is not effective if another DEFAULTSORT tag occurs later on the page, even if the later DEFAULTSORT tag is also "hidden" (included by another template). If a category is added inside <ref>...</ref> then DEFAULTSORT may be ignored. Searching for pages in categories Further information: Help:Searching § Syntax See also: § Searching for articles in categories, Wikipedia:Category intersection, and Wikimedia bug T3497 "Hierarchical category system is urgently needed" In addition to browsing through hierarchies of categories, it is possible to use the search tool to find specific articles in specific categories. To search for articles in a specific category, type incategory:"CategoryName" in the search box. An "OR" can be added to join the contents of one category with the contents of another. For example, enter incategory:"Suspension bridges" OR incategory:"Bridges in New York City" to return all pages that belong to either (or both) of the categories, as here. Note that using search to find categories will not find articles which have been categorized using templates. This feature also doesn't return pages in subcategories. Listing all categories Special:Categories provides an alphabetic list of all categories, with the number of members of each; this number does not include the content of the subcategories, but it includes the subcategories themselves, i.e., each counting as one. The above list contains all categories that have members, regardless of whether they have corresponding category pages. To list all existing category pages (regardless of whether they have members), use Special:AllPages/Category:. Displaying category trees and page counts As described at mw:Help:Magic words, {{PAGESINCATEGORY:Example}} or {{PAGESINCAT:Example}} returns the number of pages in "Category:Example". Each subcategory counts as one page; pages in subcategories are not counted. The page Special:CategoryTree enables you to see the tree structure of a category (its subcategories, their subcategories and so on; the display of files and other member pages is optional). The CategoryTree extension can be used to display such a tree on any page. (This is sometimes done on the category page itself, if the category is split over multiple screens, to make all subcategories available on every screen.) The basic syntax is <categorytree>Category name</categorytree> to display just the subcategory tree, and <categorytree mode=pages>Category name</categorytree> to display member pages as well. They will be indicated by italics. Dapete's category-visualizer vCat will render charts of the tree structure. You may also use Template:Category tree or Template:Category tree all, instead. Warning: The following code {{PAGESINCATEGORY:{{PAGENAME}}}} will not work as expected when used in the wikitext or in a transcluded template in a category page whose title contains some ASCII punctuations. For legacy reasons, {{PAGENAME}} may return the page name with these characters being HTML-encoded using numeric character entities : this still works for generating derived wikilinks or displaying page names, or when HTML-encoded this page name is used in a conditional "#switch", but PAGESINCATEGORY does not recognize the category name given in parameter if some characters are HTML-encoded (this is the case notably when the category name contains ASCII apostrophes ' and a few other ASCII punctuations. (The same HTML-encoding is also applied to the values returned by {{FULLPAGENAME}}, {{SUBPAGENAME}}, or {{NAMESPACE}}). In that case, as the category is not found by its HTML-encoded pagename, PAGESINCATEGORY will unexpectedly return 0 and not its effective number of member pages. A simple workaround is to transform these HTML-encoded characters back into standard UTF-8-encoded characters, by using the {{titleparts:}} parser function, like this: {{PAGESINCATEGORY:{{titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}}}}} Moving and redirecting category pages Categories can be moved in the same way as an ordinary page; but a certain amount of cleanup may be necessary. A redirect is left at the old category name, and this is not a normal #REDIRECT [[...]] but a {{category redirect}}. Once all the pages have been moved out of the old category, it may be left as a category redirect or deleted. For categories entirely populated through templates (see above), modifying the templates enables all affected articles to be moved to another category, but with the refresh problem mentioned. Almost all category name changes are made pursuant to a consensus decision at Wikipedia:Categories for discussion. Do not create intercategory redirects other than with a {{category redirect}} template. See Wikipedia:Categories for discussion#Redirecting categories for more on category redirects. Hiding categories When the magic word __HIDDENCAT__ is placed on a category page, that category becomes hidden, meaning that it will not be displayed on the pages belonging to that category. On Wikipedia, the magic word is not normally used explicitly, but is applied through the {{hidden category}} template. The feature is mostly used to prevent project maintenance categories from showing up to ordinary readers on article pages. However, hidden categories are displayed (although listed as hidden): on category pages (whether as parent categories or subcategories); at preview during editing; if the user has selected "Show hidden categories" in user preferences. Hidden categories are automatically added to Category:Hidden categories. For guidelines on the hiding of categories on Wikipedia, see WP:HIDDENCAT. 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Other ways to find relevant articles include searching Wikipedia for the category's topic and searching the Web for the topic in quotes " (with synonyms also in quotes and appended after an OR) and appending the word wiki or Wikipedia or site:Wikipedia.org to them. Categorizing Main page: Wikipedia:Categorization Categorizing templates Templates are categorized the same way as articles, except that [[Category: Some-topic templates]] should be placed on the template's documentation page (or inside <noinclude>...</noinclude> tags, if there is no documentation page), this is necessary to avoid categorizing pages by template inclusion (see below). Categories and templates A template can be used to add pages to a category, usually by placing the category link inside <includeonly></includeonly> tags on the template (e.g. <includeonly>[[Category:category name]]</includeonly>). 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Calling the template with "cat=" (equal to nothing) disables putting the page in any category. Excluding non-article pages <includeonly>{{#if:{{NAMESPACE}} | | [[Category:XXX]]}}</includeonly> the variable NAMESPACE is null for mainspace articles. For any space other than mainspace, this ParserFunction will produce an empty string, but for regular articles this will include the article in Category:XXX. On Wikipedia it is not recommended that templates be used to populate ordinary content categories of articles. See Categorization using templates in the categorization guideline. Categorizing redirect pages Main page: Wikipedia:Categorizing redirects Redirect pages can be categorized and there are conventions how to do it. The redirect link must be first on the page. On a category page, redirects are listed in italics. 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The DynamicPageList (third-party) extension provides a list of last edits to the pages in a category, or optionally, just the list of pages; the simpler DynamicPageList (Wikimedia) is installed on Meta, Wikinews, Wikibooks and Wikiversity; the extension mw:Extension:DPLforum is installed on Wikia. Watching category additions and removals Since 2016, additions and removals from categories are available via the "Category changes" filter on recent changes pages, including watchlists and Special:RecentChangesLinked. For example, category changes to articles in Category:Cannabis stubs can be found here. You can monitor additions and removals from specific categories by adding the categories to your watchlist and making sure the "Category changes" filter is active. You can view changes to categories in your watchlist by clicking here. Additional scripts with similar functionality are User:CategoryWatchlistBot and User:Ais523/catwatch. 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Kbdank71/Wikiproject notification Category:Wikipedia categorization Category:Contents WikiProject Categories Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Help:Category&oldid=1002346765" Categories: Wikipedia information pages Wikipedia categorization Wikipedia how-to Wikipedia page help Hidden categories: Wikipedia semi-protected project pages Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages Help pages with short description Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Help page Talk Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons MediaWiki Meta-Wiki Wikibooks Wikinews Wikiquote Wikisource Wikiversity Wiktionary Languages Alemannisch Bân-lâm-gú Башҡортса Беларуская भोजपुरी Boarisch Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego Հայերեն Ilokano Íslenska Italiano Lëtzebuergesch मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پښتو ភាសាខ្មែរ Polski Português Ripoarisch Română Русский Scots Shqip Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Svenska தமிழ் Татарча/tatarça Türkçe Українська اردو Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 00:28 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2039	----	Megabates - Wikipedia Megabates From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Megabates was son of Arsames, and brother of Hystaspes. Megabates (Old Iranian Bagapāta, Greek: Μεγαβάτης; dates unknown) was a Persian military leader in the late 6th and early 5th centuries BC. According to Herodotus he was a cousin of Darius the Great and his brother Artaphernes, satrap of Lydia. Based on the writings of Herodotus, Megabates is most notable for his joint participation in the failed 499 BC siege of Naxos. With Aristagoras and 200 ships, he was sent by Darius the Great to annex the small Aegean island to the Persian Empire.[1] Herodotus is of the view that this venture failed after a siege of four months because of the mutual dislike between Aristagoras and Megabates. As a result, Herodotus states that it was Megabates who forewarned the Naxians of the ensuing Persian siege, as he and Aristagoras argued after Megabates punished a captain for not setting up a watch. As a result, the people of Naxos gathered supplies and fortified their city to withstand a four-month-long siege. It is believed that Megabates sought to shame Aristagoras at the Persian court because of their dispute during the voyage to Naxos.[citation needed] Megabates followed in his older brother's footsteps and was appointed satrap of Phrygia, with his residence at Dascylium. One of his sons was Megabazus. Sources[edit] ^ Herodotus. (2003). The Histories. Trans. Aubrey De Selincourt. Rev. John Marincola. London: Penguin Group. ISBN 0-14-044908-6 See also[edit] Megabyzus Megabazus v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC This biographical article related to an Asian military person is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e This article on military history is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Megabates&oldid=1001260196" Categories: 6th-century BC births 5th-century BC deaths 5th-century BC Iranian people Admirals of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenid satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Ionian Revolt Persian people of the Greco-Persian Wars Officials of Darius the Great Family of Darius the Great Asian military personnel stubs Military history stubs Hidden categories: Articles containing Greek-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2008 All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Magyar 日本語 Polski Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 18 January 2021, at 22:49 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2036	----	Anatolia - Wikipedia Anatolia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Asia Minor) Jump to navigation Jump to search Asian part of Turkey For other uses, see Anatolia (disambiguation). "Asia Minor" redirects here. For other uses, see Asia Minor (disambiguation). "Asian Turkey" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Turkey in Asia. Anatolia The traditional definition of Anatolia within modern Turkey, excluding most of Southeastern and Eastern Anatolia Region[1][2] Geography Location Western Asia Coordinates 39°N 35°E / 39°N 35°E / 39; 35Coordinates: 39°N 35°E / 39°N 35°E / 39; 35 Area 756,000 km2 (292,000 sq mi)[3] (incl. Southeastern and Eastern Anatolia Region) Administration Turkey Largest city Ankara (pop. 5,700,000[4]) Demographics Demonym Anatolian Languages Turkish, Kurdish, Armenian, Greek, Kabardian, various others Ethnic groups Turks, Kurds, Armenians, Greeks, Assyrian people, Laz, various others Additional information Time zone TRT (UTC+3) The Library of Celsus in Ephesus was built by the Romans in 114–117.[5] The Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, built by king Croesus of Lydia in the 6th century BC, was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.[6] Anatolia[a] is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent. It makes up the majority of modern-day Turkey. The region is bounded by the Turkish Straits to the northwest, the Black Sea to the north, the Armenian Highlands to the east, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and the Aegean Sea to the west. The Sea of Marmara forms a connection between the Black and Aegean seas through the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits and separates Anatolia from Thrace on the Balkan peninsula of Southeast Europe. The eastern border of Anatolia has been held to be a line between the Gulf of Alexandretta and the Black Sea, bounded by the Armenian Highlands to the east and Mesopotamia to the southeast. By this definition Anatolia comprises approximately the western two-thirds of the Asian part of Turkey. Today, Anatolia is sometimes considered to be synonymous with Asian Turkey, thereby including the western part of Armenian Highland and northern Mesopotamia;[7] its eastern and southern borders are coterminous with Turkey's borders.[8][9][10] The ancient Anatolian peoples spoke the now-extinct Anatolian languages of the Indo-European language family, which were largely replaced by the Greek language from classical antiquity and during the Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine periods. Major Anatolian languages included Hittite, Luwian, and Lydian, while other, poorly attested local languages included Phrygian and Mysian. Hurro-Urartian languages were spoken in the southeastern kingdom of Mitanni, while Galatian, a Celtic language, was spoken in Galatia, central Anatolia. The Turkification of Anatolia began under the Seljuk Empire in the late 11th century and continued under the Ottoman Empire between the late 13th and early 20th centuries and under today's Republic of Turkey. However, various non-Turkic languages continue to be spoken by minorities in Anatolia today, including Kurdish, Neo-Aramaic, Armenian, Arabic, Laz, Georgian and Greek. Other ancient peoples in the region included Galatians, Hurrians, Assyrians, Hattians, Cimmerians, as well as Ionian, Dorian and Aeolic Greeks. Contents 1 Geography 2 Etymology 3 Names 4 Prehistory 5 History 5.1 Ancient Anatolia 5.1.1 Hattians and Hurrians 5.1.2 Hittite Anatolia (18th–12th century BCE) 5.1.3 Post-Hittite Anatolia (12th–6th century BCE) 5.2 Classical Anatolia 5.3 Early Christian Period 5.4 Medieval Period 5.5 Ottoman Empire 5.6 Modern times 6 Geology 6.1 Climate 6.2 Ecoregions 7 Demographics 8 Cuisine 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Sources 13 Further reading 14 External links Geography[edit] Geographic overview (composite satellite image) of Anatolia, roughly corresponding to the Asian part of modern Turkey Main article: Geography of Turkey Traditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in the east to an indefinite line running from the Gulf of Alexandretta to the Black Sea,[11] coterminous with the Anatolian Plateau. This traditional geographical definition is used, for example, in the latest edition of Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary.[1] Under this definition, Anatolia is bounded to the east by the Armenian Highlands, and the Euphrates before that river bends to the southeast to enter Mesopotamia.[2] To the southeast, it is bounded by the ranges that separate it from the Orontes valley in Syria and the Mesopotamian plain.[2] Following the Armenian genocide, Western Armenia was renamed "Eastern Anatolia" by the newly established Turkish government.[12][13] Vazken Davidian terms the expanded use of "Anatolia" to apply to territory formerly referred to as Armenia an "ahistorical imposition", and notes that a growing body of literature is uncomfortable with referring to the Ottoman East as "Eastern Anatolia".[14] The highest mountain in "Eastern Anatolia" (on the Armenian Plateau) is Mount Ararat (5123 m).[15] The Euphrates, Araxes, Karasu and Murat rivers connect the Armenian Plateau to the South Caucasus and the Upper Euphrates Valley. Along with the Çoruh, these rivers are the longest in "Eastern Anatolia".[16] Etymology[edit] 1907 map of Asia Minor, showing the local ancient kingdoms, including the East Aegean Islands and the island of Cyprus.[dubious – discuss] The English-language name Anatolia derives from the Greek Ἀνατολή (Anatolḗ) meaning "the East", and designating (from a Greek point of view) eastern regions in general. The Greek word refers to the direction where the sun rises, coming from ἀνατέλλω anatello '(Ι) rise up', comparable to terms in other languages such as "levant" from Latin levo 'to rise', "orient" from Latin orior 'to arise, to originate', Hebrew מִזְרָח mizraḥ 'east' from זָרַח zaraḥ 'to rise, to shine', Aramaic מִדְנָח midnaḥ from דְּנַח denaḥ 'to rise, to shine'.[17][18] The use of Anatolian designations has varied over time, perhaps originally referring to the Aeolian, Ionian and Dorian colonies situated along the eastern coasts of the Aegean Sea, but also encompassing eastern regions in general. Such use of Anatolian designations was employed during the reign of Roman emperor Diocletian (284-305), who created the Diocese of the East, known in Greek as the Eastern (Ανατολής / Anatolian) Diocese, but completely unrelated to the regions of Asia Minor. In their widest territorial scope, Anatolian designations were employed during the reign of Roman emperor Constantine I (306-337), who created the Praetorian prefecture of the East, known in Greek as the Eastern (Ανατολής / Anatolian) Prefecture, encompassing all eastern regions of the Late Roman Empire, and spaning from Thrace to Egypt. Only after the loss of other eastern regions during the 7th century, and the reduction of Byzantine eastern domains to Asia Minor, that region became the only remaining part of the Byzantine East, and thus commonly referred to (in Greek) as the Eastern (Ανατολής / Anatolian) part of the Empire. In the same time, the Anatolic Theme (Ἀνατολικὸν θέμα / "the Eastern theme") was created, as a province (theme) covering the western and central parts of Turkey's present-day Central Anatolia Region, centered around Iconium, but ruled from the city of Amorium.[19][20] The Latinized form "Anatolia", with its -ia ending, is probably a Medieval Latin innovation.[18] The modern Turkish form Anadolu derives directly from the Greek name Aνατολή (Anatolḗ). The Russian male name Anatoly, the French Anatole and plain Anatol, all stemming from saints Anatolius of Laodicea (d. 283) and Anatolius of Constantinople (d. 458; the first Patriarch of Constantinople), share the same linguistic origin. Names[edit] The Theatre of Hierapolis The oldest known name for any region within Anatolia is related to its central area, known as the "Land of Hatti" – a designation that was initially used for the land of ancient Hattians, but later became the most common name for the entire territory under the rule of ancient Hittites.[21] The first recorded name the Greeks used for the Anatolian peninsula, though not particularly popular at the time, was Ἀσία (Asía),[22] perhaps from an Akkadian expression for the "sunrise", or possibly echoing the name of the Assuwa league in western Anatolia.[citation needed] The Romans used it as the name of their province, comprising the west of the peninsula plus the nearby Aegean Islands. As the name "Asia" broadened its scope to apply to the vaster region east of the Mediterranean, some Greeks in Late Antiquity came to use the name Asia Minor (Μικρὰ Ἀσία, Mikrà Asía), meaning "Lesser Asia", to refer to present-day Anatolia, whereas the administration of the Empire preferred the description Ἀνατολή (Anatolḗ "the East"). The endonym Ῥωμανία (Rhōmanía "the land of the Romans, i.e. the Eastern Roman Empire") was understood as another name for the province by the invading Seljuq Turks, who founded a Sultanate of Rûm in 1077. Thus (land of the) Rûm became another name for Anatolia. By the 12th century Europeans had started referring to Anatolia as Turchia.[23] The Sebasteion of Aphrodisias During the era of the Ottoman Empire, mapmakers outside the Empire referred to the mountainous plateau in eastern Anatolia as Armenia. Other contemporary sources called the same area Kurdistan.[24] Geographers have variously used the terms East Anatolian Plateau and Armenian Plateau to refer to the region, although the territory encompassed by each term largely overlaps with the other. According to archaeologist Lori Khatchadourian, this difference in terminology "primarily result[s] from the shifting political fortunes and cultural trajectories of the region since the nineteenth century."[25] Turkey's First Geography Congress in 1941 created two geographical regions of Turkey to the east of the Gulf of Iskenderun-Black Sea line, the Eastern Anatolia Region and the Southeastern Anatolia Region,[26] the former largely corresponding to the western part of the Armenian Highlands, the latter to the northern part of the Mesopotamian plain. According to Richard Hovannisian, this changing of toponyms was "necessary to obscure all evidence" of the Armenian presence as part of the policy of Armenian genocide denial embarked upon by the newly established Turkish government and what Hovannisian calls its "foreign collaborators".[27] Further information: Geographical name changes in Turkey Prehistory[edit] Mural of aurochs, a deer, and humans in Çatalhöyük, which is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date. It was registered as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2012.[28] Main article: Prehistory of Anatolia Human habitation in Anatolia dates back to the Paleolithic.[29] Neolithic Anatolia has been proposed as the homeland of the Indo-European language family, although linguists tend to favour a later origin in the steppes north of the Black Sea. However, it is clear that the Anatolian languages, the earliest attested branch of Indo-European, have been spoken in Anatolia since at least the 19th century BC.[citation needed] History[edit] Main article: History of Anatolia Ancient Anatolia[edit] One of the Alaca Höyük bronze standards from a pre-Hittite tomb dating to the third millennium BCE, from the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara. The earliest historical data related to Anatolia appear during the Bronze Age, and continue throughout the Iron Age. The most ancient period in the history of Anatolia spans from the emergence of ancient Hattians, up to the conquest of Anatolia by the Achaemenid Empire in the 6th century BCE. Hattians and Hurrians[edit] Main articles: Hattians and Hurrians The earliest historically attested populations of Anatolia were the Hattians in central Anatolia, and Hurrians further to the east. The Hattians were an indigenous people, whose main center was the city of Hattush. Affiliation of Hattian language remains unclear, while Hurrian language belongs to a distinctive family of Hurro-Urartian languages. All of those languages are extinct; relationships with indigenous languages of the Caucasus have been proposed,[30] but are not generally accepted. The region became famous for exporting raw materials. Organized trade between Anatolia and Mesopotamia started to emerge during the period of the Akkadian Empire, and was continued and intensified during the period of the Old Assyrian Empire, between the 21st and the 18th centuries BCE. Assyriand traders were bringing tin and textiles in exchange for copper, silver or gold. Cuneiform records, dated circa 20th century BCE, found in Anatolia at the Assyrian colony of Kanesh, use an advanced system of trading computations and credit lines.[31][32][33] Hittite Anatolia (18th–12th century BCE)[edit] The Sphinx Gate at Hattusha Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East during the 14th century BCE Main article: Hittites Unlike the Akkadians and Assyrians, whose Anatolian trading posts were peripheral to their core lands in Mesopotamia, the Hittites were centered at Hattusa (modern Boğazkale) in north-central Anatolia by the 17th century BC. They were speakers of an Indo-European language, the Hittite language, or nesili (the language of Nesa) in Hittite. The Hittites originated from local ancient cultures that grew in Anatolia, in addition to the arrival of Indo-European languages. Attested for the first time in the Assyrian tablets of Nesa around 2000 BCE, they conquered Hattusa in the 18th century BCE, imposing themselves over Hattian- and Hurrian-speaking populations. According to the widely accepted Kurgan theory on the Proto-Indo-European homeland, however, the Hittites (along with the other Indo-European ancient Anatolians) were themselves relatively recent immigrants to Anatolia from the north. However, they did not necessarily displace the population genetically; they assimilated into the former peoples' culture, preserving the Hittite language. The Hittites adopted the Mesopotamian cuneiform script. In the Late Bronze Age, Hittite New Kingdom (c. 1650 BC) was founded, becoming an empire in the 14th century BC after the conquest of Kizzuwatna in the south-east and the defeat of the Assuwa league in western Anatolia. The empire reached its height in the 13th century BC, controlling much of Asia Minor, northwestern Syria, and northwest upper Mesopotamia. However, the Hittite advance toward the Black Sea coast was halted by the semi-nomadic pastoralist and tribal Kaskians, a non-Indo-European people who had earlier displaced the Palaic-speaking Indo-Europeans.[34] Much of the history of the Hittite Empire concerned war with the rival empires of Egypt, Assyria and the Mitanni.[35] The Egyptians eventually withdrew from the region after failing to gain the upper hand over the Hittites and becoming wary of the power of Assyria, which had destroyed the Mitanni Empire.[35] The Assyrians and Hittites were then left to battle over control of eastern and southern Anatolia and colonial territories in Syria. The Assyrians had better success than the Egyptians, annexing much Hittite (and Hurrian) territory in these regions.[36] Post-Hittite Anatolia (12th–6th century BCE)[edit] Lycian rock cut tombs of Kaunos (Dalyan) Ancient Greek Theater in Miletus After 1180 BC, during the Late Bronze Age collapse, the Hittite empire disintegrated into several independent Syro-Hittite states, subsequent to losing much territory to the Middle Assyrian Empire and being finally overrun by the Phrygians, another Indo-European people who are believed to have migrated from the Balkans. The Phrygian expansion into southeast Anatolia was eventually halted by the Assyrians, who controlled that region.[36] Luwians Another Indo-European people, the Luwians, rose to prominence in central and western Anatolia circa 2000 BC. Their language belonged to the same linguistic branch as Hittite.[37] The general consensus amongst scholars is that Luwian was spoken across a large area of western Anatolia, including (possibly) Wilusa (Troy), the Seha River Land (to be identified with the Hermos and/or Kaikos valley), and the kingdom of Mira-Kuwaliya with its core territory of the Maeander valley.[38] From the 9th century BC, Luwian regions coalesced into a number of states such as Lydia, Caria and Lycia, all of which had Hellenic influence. Arameans Arameans encroached over the borders of south-central Anatolia in the century or so after the fall of the Hittite empire, and some of the Syro-Hittite states in this region became an amalgam of Hittites and Arameans. These became known as Syro-Hittite states. Neo-Assyrian Empire Greek gymnasium in Sardes From the 10th to late 7th centuries BCE, much of Anatolia (particularly the southeastern regions) fell to the Neo-Assyrian Empire, including all of the Syro-Hittite states, Tabal, Kingdom of Commagene, the Cimmerians and Scythians and swathes of Cappadocia. The Neo-Assyrian empire collapsed due to a bitter series of civil wars followed by a combined attack by Medes, Persians, Scythians and their own Babylonian relations. The last Assyrian city to fall was Harran in southeast Anatolia. This city was the birthplace of the last king of Babylon, the Assyrian Nabonidus and his son and regent Belshazzar. Much of the region then fell to the short-lived Iran-based Median Empire, with the Babylonians and Scythians briefly appropriating some territory. Cimmerian and Scythian invasions From the late 8th century BC, a new wave of Indo-European-speaking raiders entered northern and northeast Anatolia: the Cimmerians and Scythians. The Cimmerians overran Phrygia and the Scythians threatened to do the same to Urartu and Lydia, before both were finally checked by the Assyrians. Early Greek presence Aphrodisias was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage Site List in 2017 The north-western coast of Anatolia was inhabited by Greeks of the Achaean/Mycenaean culture from the 20th century BC, related to the Greeks of southeastern Europe and the Aegean.[39] Beginning with the Bronze Age collapse at the end of the 2nd millennium BC, the west coast of Anatolia was settled by Ionian Greeks, usurping the area of the related but earlier Mycenaean Greeks. Over several centuries, numerous Ancient Greek city-states were established on the coasts of Anatolia. Greeks started Western philosophy on the western coast of Anatolia (Pre-Socratic philosophy).[39] Classical Anatolia[edit] Zeus Temple in Aizanoi Asia Minor in the early 2nd century AD. The Roman provinces under Trajan. The temple of Athena (funded by Alexander the Great) in the ancient Greek city of Priene In classical antiquity, Anatolia was described by Herodotus and later historians as divided into regions that were diverse in culture, language and religious practices.[40] The northern regions included Bithynia, Paphlagonia and Pontus; to the west were Mysia, Lydia and Caria; and Lycia, Pamphylia and Cilicia belonged to the southern shore. There were also several inland regions: Phrygia, Cappadocia, Pisidia and Galatia.[40] Languages spoken included the late surviving Anatolic languages Isaurian[41] and Pisidian, Greek in Western and coastal regions, Phrygian spoken until the 7th century AD,[42] local variants of Thracian in the Northwest, the Galatian variant of Gaulish in Galatia until the 6th century AD,[43][44][45] Cappadocian[46] and Armenian in the East, and Kartvelian languages in the Northeast. The Dying Galatian was a famous statue commissioned some time between 230–220 BC by King Attalos I of Pergamon to honor his victory over the Celtic Galatians in Anatolia. Anatolia is known as the birthplace of minted coinage (as opposed to unminted coinage, which first appears in Mesopotamia at a much earlier date) as a medium of exchange, some time in the 7th century BC in Lydia. The use of minted coins continued to flourish during the Greek and Roman eras.[47][48] During the 6th century BC, all of Anatolia was conquered by the Persian Achaemenid Empire, the Persians having usurped the Medes as the dominant dynasty in Iran. In 499 BC, the Ionian city-states on the west coast of Anatolia rebelled against Persian rule. The Ionian Revolt, as it became known, though quelled, initiated the Greco-Persian Wars, which ended in a Greek victory in 449 BC, and the Ionian cities regained their independence. By the Peace of Antalcidas (387 BC), which ended the Corinthian War, Persia regained control over Ionia.[49][50] In 334 BC, the Macedonian Greek king Alexander the Great conquered the peninsula from the Achaemenid Persian Empire.[51] Alexander's conquest opened up the interior of Asia Minor to Greek settlement and influence. Following the death of Alexander and the breakup of his empire, Anatolia was ruled by a series of Hellenistic kingdoms, such as the Attalids of Pergamum and the Seleucids, the latter controlling most of Anatolia. A period of peaceful Hellenization followed, such that the local Anatolian languages had been supplanted by Greek by the 1st century BC. In 133 BC the last Attalid king bequeathed his kingdom to the Roman Republic, and western and central Anatolia came under Roman control, but Hellenistic culture remained predominant. Further annexations by Rome, in particular of the Kingdom of Pontus by Pompey, brought all of Anatolia under Roman control, except for the eastern frontier with the Parthian Empire, which remained unstable for centuries, causing a series of wars, culminating in the Roman-Parthian Wars. Early Christian Period[edit] The 'terrace houses' at Ephesus, showing how the wealthy lived during the Roman period. Sanctuary of Commagene Kings on Mount Nemrut (1st century BC) After the division of the Roman Empire, Anatolia became part of the East Roman, or Byzantine Empire. Anatolia was one of the first places where Christianity spread, so that by the 4th century AD, western and central Anatolia were overwhelmingly Christian and Greek-speaking. For the next 600 years, while Imperial possessions in Europe were subjected to barbarian invasions, Anatolia would be the center of the Hellenic world.[citation needed] It was one of the wealthiest and most densely populated places in the Late Roman Empire. Anatolia's wealth grew during the 4th and 5th centuries thanks, in part, to the Pilgrim's Road that ran through the peninsula. Literary evidence about the rural landscape stems from the hagiographies of 6th century Nicholas of Sion and 7th century Theodore of Sykeon. Large urban centers included Ephesus, Pergamum, Sardis and Aphrodisias. Scholars continue to debate the cause of urban decline in the 6th and 7th centuries variously attributing it to the Plague of Justinian (541), and the 7th century Persian incursion and Arab conquest of the Levant.[52] In the ninth and tenth century a resurgent Byzantine Empire regained its lost territories, including even long lost territory such as Armenia and Syria (ancient Aram).[citation needed] Medieval Period[edit] Byzantine Anatolia and the Byzantine-Arab frontier zone in the mid-9th century A map of independent Turkic beyliks in Anatolia during the 14th century. In the 10 years following the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, the Seljuk Turks from Central Asia migrated over large areas of Anatolia, with particular concentrations around the northwestern rim.[53] The Turkish language and the Islamic religion were gradually introduced as a result of the Seljuk conquest, and this period marks the start of Anatolia's slow transition from predominantly Christian and Greek-speaking, to predominantly Muslim and Turkish-speaking (although ethnic groups such as Armenians, Greeks, and Assyrians remained numerous and retained Christianity and their native languages). In the following century, the Byzantines managed to reassert their control in western and northern Anatolia. Control of Anatolia was then split between the Byzantine Empire and the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm, with the Byzantine holdings gradually being reduced.[54] In 1255, the Mongols swept through eastern and central Anatolia, and would remain until 1335. The Ilkhanate garrison was stationed near Ankara.[54][55] After the decline of the Ilkhanate from 1335 to 1353, the Mongol Empire's legacy in the region was the Uyghur Eretna Dynasty that was overthrown by Kadi Burhan al-Din in 1381.[56] By the end of the 14th century, most of Anatolia was controlled by various Anatolian beyliks. Smyrna fell in 1330, and the last Byzantine stronghold in Anatolia, Philadelphia, fell in 1390. The Turkmen Beyliks were under the control of the Mongols, at least nominally, through declining Seljuk sultans.[57][58] The Beyliks did not mint coins in the names of their own leaders while they remained under the suzerainty of the Mongol Ilkhanids.[59] The Osmanli ruler Osman I was the first Turkish ruler who minted coins in his own name in 1320s; they bear the legend "Minted by Osman son of Ertugrul".[60] Since the minting of coins was a prerogative accorded in Islamic practice only to a sovereign, it can be considered that the Osmanli, or Ottoman Turks, had become formally independent from the Mongol Khans.[61] Ottoman Empire[edit] Civil architecture of Safranbolu is an example of Ottoman Architecture Among the Turkish leaders, the Ottomans emerged as great power under Osman I and his son Orhan I.[62][63] The Anatolian beyliks were successively absorbed into the rising Ottoman Empire during the 15th century.[64] It is not well understood how the Osmanlı, or Ottoman Turks, came to dominate their neighbours, as the history of medieval Anatolia is still little known.[65] The Ottomans completed the conquest of the peninsula in 1517 with the taking of Halicarnassus (modern Bodrum) from the Knights of Saint John.[66] Modern times[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Ethnographic map of Anatolia from 1911. With the acceleration of the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the early 19th century, and as a result of the expansionist policies of the Russian Empire in the Caucasus, many Muslim nations and groups in that region, mainly Circassians, Tatars, Azeris, Lezgis, Chechens and several Turkic groups left their homelands and settled in Anatolia. As the Ottoman Empire further shrank in the Balkan regions and then fragmented during the Balkan Wars, much of the non-Christian populations of its former possessions, mainly Balkan Muslims (Bosnian Muslims, Albanians, Turks, Muslim Bulgarians and Greek Muslims such as the Vallahades from Greek Macedonia), were resettled in various parts of Anatolia, mostly in formerly Christian villages throughout Anatolia. A continuous reverse migration occurred since the early 19th century, when Greeks from Anatolia, Constantinople and Pontus area migrated toward the newly independent Kingdom of Greece, and also towards the United States, the southern part of the Russian Empire, Latin America, and the rest of Europe. Following the Russo-Persian Treaty of Turkmenchay (1828) and the incorporation of Eastern Armenia into the Russian Empire, another migration involved the large Armenian population of Anatolia, which recorded significant migration rates from Western Armenia (Eastern Anatolia) toward the Russian Empire, especially toward its newly established Armenian provinces. Anatolia remained multi-ethnic until the early 20th century (see the rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire). During World War I, the Armenian Genocide, the Greek genocide (especially in Pontus), and the Assyrian genocide almost entirely removed the ancient indigenous communities of Armenian, Greek, and Assyrian populations in Anatolia and surrounding regions. Following the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922, most remaining ethnic Anatolian Greeks were forced out during the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey. Of the remainder, most have left Turkey since then, leaving fewer than 5,000 Greeks in Anatolia today. Geology[edit] View of Cappadocia landscape Travertine terrace formations in Pamukkale Main article: Geology of Turkey Anatolia's terrain is structurally complex. A central massif composed of uplifted blocks and downfolded troughs, covered by recent deposits and giving the appearance of a plateau with rough terrain, is wedged between two folded mountain ranges that converge in the east. True lowland is confined to a few narrow coastal strips along the Aegean, Mediterranean, and the Black Sea coasts. Flat or gently sloping land is rare and largely confined to the deltas of the Kızıl River, the coastal plains of Çukurova and the valley floors of the Gediz River and the Büyük Menderes River as well as some interior high plains in Anatolia, mainly around Lake Tuz (Salt Lake) and the Konya Basin (Konya Ovasi). There are two mountain ranges in southern Anatolia: the Taurus and the Zagros mountains.[67] Climate[edit] Main article: Climate of Turkey Temperatures of Anatolia Ankara (central Anatolia) Antalya (southern Anatolia) Van (eastern Anatolia) Anatolia has a varied range of climates. The central plateau is characterized by a continental climate, with hot summers and cold snowy winters. The south and west coasts enjoy a typical Mediterranean climate, with mild rainy winters, and warm dry summers.[68] The Black Sea and Marmara coasts have a temperate oceanic climate, with cool foggy summers and much rainfall throughout the year. Ecoregions[edit] View of Dilek Peninsula-Büyük Menderes Delta National Park There is a diverse number of plant and animal communities. The mountains and coastal plain of northern Anatolia experience a humid and mild climate. There are temperate broadleaf, mixed and coniferous forests. The central and eastern plateau, with its drier continental climate, has deciduous forests and forest steppes. Western and southern Anatolia, which have a Mediterranean climate, contain Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub ecoregions. Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests: These temperate broadleaf and mixed forests extend across northern Anatolia, lying between the mountains of northern Anatolia and the Black Sea. They include the enclaves of temperate rainforest lying along the southeastern coast of the Black Sea in eastern Turkey and Georgia.[69] Northern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forests: These forests occupy the mountains of northern Anatolia, running east and west between the coastal Euxine-Colchic forests and the drier, continental climate forests of central and eastern Anatolia.[70] Central Anatolian deciduous forests: These forests of deciduous oaks and evergreen pines cover the plateau of central Anatolia.[71] Central Anatolian steppe: These dry grasslands cover the drier valleys and surround the saline lakes of central Anatolia, and include halophytic (salt tolerant) plant communities.[72] Eastern Anatolian deciduous forests: This ecoregion occupies the plateau of eastern Anatolia. The drier and more continental climate is beneficial for steppe-forests dominated by deciduous oaks, with areas of shrubland, montane forest, and valley forest.[73] Anatolian conifer and deciduous mixed forests: These forests occupy the western, Mediterranean-climate portion of the Anatolian plateau. Pine forests and mixed pine and oak woodlands and shrublands are predominant.[74] Aegean and Western Turkey sclerophyllous and mixed forests: These Mediterranean-climate forests occupy the coastal lowlands and valleys of western Anatolia bordering the Aegean Sea. The ecoregion has forests of Turkish pine (Pinus brutia), oak forests and woodlands, and maquis shrubland of Turkish pine and evergreen sclerophyllous trees and shrubs, including Olive (Olea europaea), Strawberry Tree (Arbutus unedo), Arbutus andrachne, Kermes Oak (Quercus coccifera), and Bay Laurel (Laurus nobilis).[75] Southern Anatolian montane conifer and deciduous forests: These mountain forests occupy the Mediterranean-climate Taurus Mountains of southern Anatolia. Conifer forests are predominant, chiefly Anatolian black pine (Pinus nigra), Cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus libani), Taurus fir (Abies cilicica), and juniper (Juniperus foetidissima and J. excelsa). Broadleaf trees include oaks, hornbeam, and maples.[76] Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests: This ecoregion occupies the coastal strip of southern Anatolia between the Taurus Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea. Plant communities include broadleaf sclerophyllous maquis shrublands, forests of Aleppo Pine (Pinus halepensis) and Turkish Pine (Pinus brutia), and dry oak (Quercus spp.) woodlands and steppes.[77] Demographics[edit] Main article: Demographics of Turkey This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (September 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Almost 80% of the people currently residing in Anatolia are Turks. Kurmanjis and Zazas constitute a major community in southeastern Anatolia,[78] and are the largest ethnic minority. Abkhazians, Albanians, Arabs, Arameans, Armenians, Assyrians, Azerbaijanis, Bosniaks, Circassians, Gagauz, Georgians, Serbs, Greeks, Hemshin, Jews, Laz, Levantines, Pomaks, and a number of other ethnic groups also live in Anatolia in smaller numbers.[79] Cuisine[edit] Bamia is a traditional Anatolian-era stew dish prepared using lamb, okra, onion and tomatoes as primary ingredients.[80] See also[edit] Aeolis Anatolian hypothesis Anatolianism Anatolian leopard Anatolian Plate Anatolian Shepherd Ancient kingdoms of Anatolia Antigonid dynasty Doris (Asia Minor) Empire of Nicaea Empire of Trebizond Gordium Lycaonia Midas Miletus Myra Pentarchy Pontic Greeks Rumi Saint Anatolia Saint John Saint Nicholas Saint Paul Seleucid Empire Seven churches of Asia Seven Sleepers Tarsus Troad Turkic migration  Turkey portal Notes[edit] ^ From Greek: Ἀνατολή, Anatolḗ, meaning east or [sun]rise; Turkish: Anadolu. Other names includes: Asia Minor (Medieval and Modern Greek: Μικρὰ Ἀσία, Mikrá Asía; Turkish: Küçük Asya), Asian Turkey, the Anatolian peninsula (Greek: Χερσόνησος της Ανατολίας, romanized: Chersónisos tis Anatolías, Turkish: Anadolu Yarımadası), and the Anatolian plateau. References[edit] ^ a b Hopkins, Daniel J.; Staff, Merriam-Webster; 편집부 (2001). Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary. p. 46. ISBN 0-87779-546-0. Retrieved 18 May 2001. ^ a b c Stephen Mitchell, Anatolia: Land, Men, and Gods in Asia Minor. The Celts in Anatolia and the impact of Roman rule. Clarendon Press, 24 August 1995 – 266 pages. ISBN 978-0198150299 [1] ^ Sansal, Burak. "History of Anatolia". ^ "Turkish Statistical Institute The Results of Address Based Population Registration System 2017". www.turkstat.gov.tr. ^ Mark Cartwright. "Celsus Library". Ancient.eu. Retrieved 2 February 2017. ^ "The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus: The Un-Greek Temple and Wonder". ancient.eu. Retrieved 17 February 2017. ^ Hooglund, Eric (2004). "Anatolia". Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa. Macmillan/Gale – via Encyclopedia.com. Anatolia comprises more than 95 percent of Turkey's total land area. ^ Khatchadourian, Lori (5 September 2011). McMahon, Gregory; Steadman, Sharon (eds.). "The Iron Age in Eastern Anatolia". The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia. 1. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0020. Retrieved 5 December 2018. ^ Adalian, Rouben Paul (2010). Historical dictionary of Armenia (2nd ed.). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. pp. 336–8. ISBN 978-0810874503. ^ Grierson, Otto Mørkholm ; edited by Philip; Westermark, Ulla (1991). Early Hellenistic coinage : from the accession of Alexander to the Peace of Apamea (336–188 B.C.) (Repr. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 175. ISBN 978-0521395045. ^ Philipp Niewohner (17 March 2017). The Archaeology of Byzantine Anatolia: From the End of Late Antiquity until the Coming of the Turks. Oxford University Press. pp. 18–. ISBN 978-0-19-061047-0. ^ Sahakyan, Lusine (2010). Turkification of the Toponyms in the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Turkey. Montreal: Arod Books. ISBN 978-0969987970. ^ Hovannisian, Richard (2007). The Armenian genocide cultural and ethical legacies. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers. p. 3. ISBN 978-1412835923. ^ Vazken Khatchig Davidian, "Imagining Ottoman Armenia: Realism and Allegory in Garabed Nichanian's Provincial Wedding in Moush and Late Ottoman Art Criticism", p7 & footnote 34, in Études arméniennes contemporaines volume 6, 2015. ^ Fevzi Özgökçe; Kit Tan; Vladimir Stevanović (2005). "A new subspecies of Silene acaulis (Caryophyllaceae) from East Anatolia, Turkey". Annales Botanici Fennici. 42 (2): 143–149. JSTOR 23726860. ^ Palumbi, Giulio (5 September 2011). McMahon, Gregory; Steadman, Sharon (eds.). "The Chalcolithic of Eastern Anatolia". The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia. 1. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0009. Retrieved 6 May 2018. ^ Henry George Liddell; Robert Scott. "A Greek-English Lexicon". ^ a b "Online Etymology Dictionary". ^ "On the First Thema, called Anatolikón. This theme is called Anatolikón or Theme of the Anatolics, not because it is above and in the direction of the east where the sun rises, but because it lies to the East of Byzantium and Europe." Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, De Thematibus, ed. A. Pertusi. Vatican: Vatican Library, 1952, p. 59 ff. ^ John Haldon, Byzantium, a History, 2002, p. 32. ^ Bryce 2009, p. 297-298. ^ Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, Ἀσία, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus ^ Everett-Heath, John (20 September 2018). "Anatolia". The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names. 1. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780191866326.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-186632-6. Retrieved 5 December 2018. ^ Suny, Ronald Grigor (22 March 2015). "They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else": A History of the Armenian Genocide. Princeton University Press. p. 31. ISBN 978-1-4008-6558-1. ^ Khatchadourian, Lori (5 September 2011). McMahon, Gregory; Steadman, Sharon (eds.). "The Iron Age in Eastern Anatolia". The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia. 1. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0020. Retrieved 6 May 2018. ^ Ali Yiğit, "Geçmişten Günümüze Türkiye'yi Bölgelere Ayıran Çalışmalar ve Yapılması Gerekenler", Ankara Üniversitesi Türkiye Coğrafyası Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi, IV. Ulural Coğrafya Sempozyumu, "Avrupa Birliği Sürecindeki Türkiye'de Bölgesel Farklılıklar", pp. 34–35. ^ Hovannisian, Richard G. (1998). Remembrance and Denial: The Case of the Armenian Genocide. Wayne State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8143-2777-7. ^ "Çatalhöyük added to UNESCO World Heritage List". Global Heritage Fund. 3 July 2012. Archived from the original on 17 January 2013. Retrieved 9 February 2013. ^ Stiner, Mary C.; Kuhn, Steven L.; Güleç, Erksin (2013). "Early Upper Paleolithic shell beads at Üçağızlı Cave I (Turkey): Technology and the socioeconomic context of ornament life-histories". Journal of Human Evolution. 64 (5): 380–398. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.01.008. ISSN 0047-2484. PMID 23481346. ^ Bryce 2005, p. 12. ^ Freeman, Charles (1999). Egypt, Greece and Rome: Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-872194-9. ^ Akurgal 2001. ^ Barjamovic 2011. ^ Carruba, O. Das Palaische. Texte, Grammatik, Lexikon. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1970. StBoT 10 ^ a b Georges Roux – Ancient Iraq ^ a b Georges Roux, Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books, 1966. ^ Melchert 2003 ^ Watkins 1994; id. 1995:144–51; Starke 1997; Melchert 2003; for the geography Hawkins 1998 ^ a b Carl Roebuck, The World of Ancient Times ^ a b Yavuz, Mehmet Fatih (2010). "Anatolia". The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195170726.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-517072-6. Retrieved 5 December 2018. ^ Honey, Linda (5 December 2016). "Justifiably Outraged or Simply Outrageous? The Isaurian Incident of Ammianus Marcellinus". Violence in Late Antiquity: Perceptions and Practices. p. 50. ISBN 9781351875745. ^ Swain, Simon; Adams, J. Maxwell; Janse, Mark (2002). Bilingualism in Ancient Society: Language Contact and the Written Word. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. pp. 246–266. ISBN 0-19-924506-1. ^ Freeman, Philip, The Galatian Language, Edwin Mellen, 2001, pp. 11–12. ^ Clackson, James. "Language maintenance and language shift in the Mediterranean world during the Roman Empire." Multilingualism in the Graeco-Roman Worlds (2012): 36–57. Page 46: The second testimonium for the late survival of Galatian appears in the Life of Saint Euthymius, who died in ad 487. ^ Norton, Tom. [2] | A question of identity: who were the Galatians?. University of Wales. Page 62: The final reference to Galatian comes two hundred years later in the sixth century AD when Cyril of Scythopolis attests that Galatian was still being spoken eight hundred years after the Galatians arrived in Asia Minor. Cyril tells of the temporary possession of a monk from Galatia by Satan and rendered speechless, but when he recovered he spoke only in his native Galatian when questioned: ‘If he were pressed, he spoke only in Galatian’.180 After this, the rest is silence, and further archaeological or literary discoveries are awaited to see if Galatian survived any later. In this regard, the example of Crimean Gothic is instructive. It was presumed to have died out in the fifth century CE, but the discovery of a small corpus of the language dating from the sixteenth century altered this perception. ^ J. Eric Cooper, Michael J. Decker, Life and Society in Byzantine Cappadocia ISBN 0230361064, p. 14 ^ Howgego, C. J. (1995). Ancient History from Coins. ISBN 978-0-415-08992-0. ^ Asia Minor Coins - an index of Greek and Roman coins from Asia Minor (ancient Anatolia) ^ Dandamaev, M. A. (1989). A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire. Brill. p. 294. ISBN 978-9004091726. ^ Schmitt, R. (1986). "ARTAXERXES II". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 6. pp. 656–658. ^ Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (2010). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2. ^ Thonemann, Peter ThonemannPeter (22 March 2018). "Anatolia". The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity. 1. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8. Retrieved 6 December 2018. ^ Angold, Michael (1997). The Byzantine Empire 1025–1204. p. 117. ISBN 978-0-582-29468-4. ^ a b H. M. Balyuzi Muḥammad and the course of Islám, p. 342 ^ John Freely Storm on Horseback: The Seljuk Warriors of Turkey, p. 83 ^ Clifford Edmund Bosworth-The new Islamic dynasties: a chronological and genealogical manual, p. 234 ^ Mehmet Fuat Köprülü, Gary Leiser-The origins of the Ottoman Empire, p. 33 ^ Peter Partner God of battles: holy wars of Christianity and Islam, p. 122 ^ Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire, p. 13 ^ Artuk – Osmanli Beyliginin Kurucusu, 27f ^ Pamuk – A Monetary History, pp. 30–31 ^ "Osman I | Ottoman sultan". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 23 April 2018. ^ "Orhan | Ottoman sultan". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 23 April 2018. ^ Fleet, Kate (2010). "The rise of the Ottomans". The rise of the Ottomans (Chapter 11) – The New Cambridge History of Islam. Cambridge Core. pp. 313–331. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521839570.013. ISBN 9781139056151. Retrieved 23 April 2018. ^ Finkel, Caroline (2007). Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire. Basic Books. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-465-00850-6. Retrieved 6 June 2013. ^ electricpulp.com. "HALICARNASSUS – Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 23 April 2018. ^ Cemen, Ibrahim; Yilmaz, Yucel (3 March 2017). Active Global Seismology: Neotectonics and Earthquake Potential of the Eastern Mediterranean Region. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-94501-8. ^ Prothero, W.G. (1920). Anatolia. London: H.M. Stationery Office. ^ "Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 25 May 2008. ^ "Northern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forests". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 25 May 2008. ^ "Central Anatolian deciduous forests". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 25 May 2008. ^ "Central Anatolian steppe". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 25 May 2008. ^ "Eastern Anatolian deciduous forests". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 25 May 2008. ^ "Anatolian conifer and deciduous mixed forests". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 25 May 2008. ^ "Aegean and Western Turkey sclerophyllous and mixed forests". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 25 May 2008. ^ "Southern Anatolian montane conifer and deciduous forests". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 25 May 2008. ^ "Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 25 May 2008. ^ "A Kurdish Majority in Turkey Within One Generation?". 6 May 2012. ^ Turkey Population 2020 (Live) ^ Webb, L.S.; Roten, L.G. (2009). The Multicultural Cookbook for Students. EBL-Schweitzer. ABC-CLIO. pp. 286–287. ISBN 978-0-313-37559-0. Sources[edit] Akurgal, Ekrem (2001). The Hattian and Hittite Civilizations. Ankara: Ministry of Culture. Barjamovic, Gojko (2011). A Historical Geography of Anatolia in the Old Assyrian Colony Period. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. Bryce, Trevor R. (2005) [1998]. The Kingdom of the Hittites (2nd revised ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. Bryce, Trevor R. (2009). The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia: The Near East from the Early Bronze Age to the fall of the Persian Empire. London-New York: Routledge. Steadman, Sharon R.; McMahon, Gregory (2011). McMahon, Gregory; Steadman, Sharon (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia:(10,000–323 BCE). Oxford University Press Inc. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.001.0001. hdl:11693/51311. ISBN 9780195376142. Further reading[edit] Akat, Uücel, Neşe Özgünel, and Aynur Durukan. 1991. Anatolia: A World Heritage. Ankara: Kültür Bakanliǧi. Brewster, Harry. 1993. Classical Anatolia: The Glory of Hellenism. London: I.B. Tauris. Donbaz, Veysel, and Şemsi Güner. 1995. The Royal Roads of Anatolia. Istanbul: Dünya. Dusinberre, Elspeth R. M. 2013. Empire, Authority, and Autonomy In Achaemenid Anatolia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Gates, Charles, Jacques Morin, and Thomas Zimmermann. 2009. Sacred Landscapes In Anatolia and Neighboring Regions. Oxford: Archaeopress. Mikasa, Takahito, ed. 1999. Essays On Ancient Anatolia. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. Takaoğlu, Turan. 2004. Ethnoarchaeological Investigations In Rural Anatolia. İstanbul: Ege Yayınları. Taracha, Piotr. 2009. Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. Taymaz, Tuncay, Y. Yilmaz, and Yildirim Dilek. 2007. The Geodynamics of the Aegean and Anatolia. London: Geological Society. 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en-wikipedia-org-2052	----	Scorpion I - Wikipedia Scorpion I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Predynastic Egyptian king Scorpion I Weha, Serk Pharaoh Reign c. early–mid-32nd century BC (Naqada III) Predecessor Bull ? owner of tomb U-k ? Successor Double Falcon ? owner of tomb U-i ? Later on Iry-Hor Royal titulary Horus name Weha / Serk Wḥˁ / Srq Scorpion ? Born c. 3250 BC Burial Tomb U-j, Umm El Qa'ab, Abydos Scorpion I was a ruler of Upper Egypt during Naqada III. His name may refer to the scorpion goddess Serket, though evidence suggests Serket's rise in popularity to be in the Old Kingdom, bringing doubt to whether Scorpion actually took his name from her. He was one of the first rulers of Ancient Egypt. Scorpion is believed to have lived in Thinis one or two centuries before the rule of the better-known Scorpion II of Nekhen and is presumably the first true king of Upper Egypt. To him belongs the U-j tomb found in the royal cemetery of Abydos, where Thinite kings were buried. That tomb was plundered in antiquity, but in it were found many small ivory plaques, each with a hole for tying it to something, and each marked with one or more hieroglyph-type scratched images which are thought to be names of towns, perhaps to tie the offerings and tributes to keep track of which came from which town. Two of those plaques seem to name the towns Baset and Buto, showing that Scorpion's armies had penetrated the Nile Delta. It may be that the conquests of Scorpion started the Egyptian hieroglyphic system by starting a need to keep records in writing.[1] In 1995, a 5,000-year-old graffito was discovered in the Theban Desert Road Survey that also bears the symbols of Scorpion and depicts his victory over another protodynastic ruler (possibly Naqada's king). The defeated king or place named in the graffito was "Bull's Head", a marking also found in U-j. It is believed that Scorpion I unified Upper Egypt following the defeat of Naqada's king.[1][2] Scorpion's tomb is known in archaeology circles for its possible evidence of ancient wine consumption. In a search of the tomb, archaeologists discovered dozens of imported ceramic jars containing a yellow residue consistent with wine, dated to about 3150 BC. Chemical residues of herbs, tree resins, and other natural substances were found in the jars. Grape seeds, skins and dried pulp were also found in the tomb.[3][4] References[edit] ^ a b Secrets of Egypt, Channel 5 TV program 2/8, "Scorpion King," 20 November 2008. ^ "Before the Pharaohs: Ancient Egypt Was Ruled by a Scorpion King, Reveals Ancient Text". Curiosmos. April 3, 2019. ^ Kaufman, Marc (January 11, 2011). "Ancient winemaking operation unearthed". The Washington Post. ^ "Scorpion King's Wines--Egypt's Oldest--Spiked With Meds". nationalgeographic.com. Preceded by Bull? Pharaoh of Egypt Succeeded by Iry-Hor? v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scorpion_I&oldid=990866264" Categories: 32nd-century BC Pharaohs Predynastic pharaohs Ancient Egypt people stubs Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Беларуская Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Lëtzebuergesch Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Occitan Polski Português Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Suomi Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 26 November 2020, at 23:32 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2056	----	Wazad - Wikipedia Wazad From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wazad Uazed, Wadjed, Wasa, Uatched Scarab of pharaoh Wazad, drawing by Flinders Petrie.[1] Pharaoh Reign c. 1700 BC, possibly 3–4 years (Ryholt) (14th dynasty) Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Unknown, possibly Sehebre or Merdjefare (Ryholt) Nomen Wazad Nṯr-nfr W3ḏ-d di-ˁnḫ The good god, Wazad, given life Wazad was an Egyptian pharaoh during the Second Intermediate Period. According to the Egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, Wazad was a member of the 14th Dynasty of Egypt reigning c. 1700 BC.[2] As a king of the 14th Dynasty, he would have reigned from Avaris over the eastern Nile Delta and possibly over the western Delta as well.[2] The Memphis-based 13th Dynasty reigned over Middle and Upper Egypt at the same time. Alternatively, according to Jürgen von Beckerath and Wolfgang Helck, Wazad was a ruler of the 16th Dynasty and a vassal of the Hyksos 15th Dynasty.[3] This view is debated in Egyptology, in particular because Ryholt and others have argued that the 16th Dynasty was an independent Theban kingdom rather than a vassal dynasty of the Hyksos. Contents 1 Attestations 2 Chronological position 3 References Attestations[edit] Wazad is known from five scarabs, all bearing his nomen Wazad and none giving his prenomen. For this reason, Wazad is difficult to relate to the rulers mentioned on the Turin canon, where only the prenomina subsist for the kings of the 14th Dynasty.[4] The scarabs of Wazad are now in the Egyptian Museum of Berlin (19/64), in the British Museum (BM EA 32319), in the Egyptian Museum (CG 36029) and in a private collection. The last one was stolen in the early 20th century. Finally, a scarab, now in the Petrie Museum (UC 11617) has been attributed to Wazad in the past, but is now believed to be non-royal.[2][5] Chronological position[edit] Since only Wazad's nomen is attested, attempts at attributing to him any given prenomen remain conjectural. Ryholt, however, proposes that a seriation of 14th Dynasty seals shows that Wazad reigned after Nehesy.[2] Since furthermore "only few of the kings who ruled between Nehesy and Yaqub-Har are attested by contemporary sources", Ryholt posits that Wazad may be identifiable with one of the successors of Nehesy with the longest reign, either Sehebre or Merdjefare (Turin Canon column 9, lines 4 and 5). Both of these kings reigned three to four years.[2] In previous studies, Jürgen von Beckerath believed Wazad was a "little Hyksos", a member of the 16th Dynasty and a vassal of the 15th Dynasty.[4][6][7] Ryholt has shown however that the 16th Dynasty comprised kings ruling over Thebes and its region from c. 1650 BC until the brief conquest of the city by the Hyksos c. 1580 BC.[2] References[edit] ^ Flinders Petrie: A history of Egypt from the earliest times to the 16th dynasty,(1897), available copyright-free here ^ a b c d e f K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz: P. von Zabern, 1999, ISBN 3-8053-2591-6, available online see p. 120–121. ^ a b Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 489-490 ^ Scarab UC 11617 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46, Mainz am Rhein, 1997 v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wazad&oldid=982102941" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Pharaohs of the Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages አማርኛ Italiano ქართული Magyar Slovenščina ไทย Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 6 October 2020, at 05:34 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-205	----	Salamis Island - Wikipedia Salamis Island From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Salamis. Island in the Saronic Gulf, Greece Place in Greece Salamis Σαλαμίνα View of Salamina Salamis Location within the region Coordinates: 37°56′N 23°30′E / 37.933°N 23.500°E / 37.933; 23.500Coordinates: 37°56′N 23°30′E / 37.933°N 23.500°E / 37.933; 23.500 Country Greece Administrative region Attica Regional unit Islands Government  • Mayor Isidora Nannou (Ind.) Area  • Municipality 96.16 km2 (37.13 sq mi) Population (2011)[1]  • Municipality 39,283  • Municipality density 410/km2 (1,100/sq mi) Time zone UTC+2 (EET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+3 (EEST) Postal code 189 xx Area code(s) 21 Vehicle registration Y Website www.salamina.gr Salamis (/ˈsæləmɪs/ SAL-ə-miss; Greek: Σαλαμίνα, romanized: Salamína, Ancient and Katharevousa: Σαλαμίς, romanized: Salamís),[2] is the largest Greek island in the Saronic Gulf, about 2 km (1 nmi) off-coast from Piraeus and about 16 km (10 mi) west of central Athens. The chief city, Salamina, lies in the west-facing core of the crescent on Salamis Bay, which opens into the Saronic Gulf. On the Eastern side of the island is its main port, Paloukia, in size second in Greece only to Piraeus, the port of Athens. Contents 1 Name 2 History 3 Geography 4 Municipality 5 Population 6 Villages in the municipal unit of Salamina 6.1 Paloukia 6.2 Aianteio 6.3 Batsi 6.4 Kaki Vigla 6.5 Agios Georgios 6.6 Peristeria 6.7 Psili Ammos 6.8 Steno 6.9 Vasilika 6.10 Xeno 7 Villages in the municipal unit of Ampelakia 7.1 Kynosoura 7.2 Selinia 8 Culture 8.1 Education 8.2 Recreational areas 8.3 Clubs, activities and organizations 8.4 Sports 8.5 Local newspapers and magazines 9 Landmarks 10 Noted people 10.1 Mythological and ancient people 10.2 Modern people 11 Twin towns / sister cities 12 Gallery 13 See also 14 References 15 External links Name[edit] The traditional etymology of Salamis derives it from the eponymous nymph Salamis, the mother of Cychreus, the legendary first king of the island. A more modern theory considers "Salamis" to come from the root sal 'salt' and -amis 'middle'; thus Salamis would be the place amid salt water.[2] Some scholars connect it to the Semitic root Š-L-M 'health, safety, peace', because of the well-sheltered harbor.[3] From at least the 13th century until the 19th century, the town, the island, and the bay of Salamis were called Koulouri (Κούλουρη),[4] because of its round shape (κόλουρο). The ancient name was revived in the 19th century.[5] The name Koulouri is still used informally for the town. History[edit] Coin of Salamis, 339–318 BC. Obverse: Female head. Reverse: Boeotian shield (shield of Ajax) and sword in sheath Salamis was probably first colonised by Aegina and later occupied by Megara, but became an Athenian possession in the time of Solon or Peisistratos, following the war between Athens and Megara around 600 BC.[6] According to Strabo, the ancient capital was at the south of the island; in classical times it was to the east, on the Kamatero Peninsula overlooking the Strait of Salamis; in modern times it is on the west.[7] According to Homer's Iliad, Salamis took part in the Trojan War with twelve ships under the leadership of Ajax (Aias).[8] Salamis island is known for the Battle of Salamis, the decisive naval victory of the allied Greek fleet, led by Themistocles, over the Persian Empire in 480 BC. It is said to be the birthplace of Ajax and Euripides, the latter's birth being popularly placed on the day of the battle. In modern times, it is home to Salamis Naval Base, headquarters for the Hellenic Navy. The oldest known counting board was discovered on Salamis Island in 1899.[9] It is thought to have been used by the Babylonians in about 300 BC and is more of a gaming board rather than a calculating device. It is marble, about 150 cm × 75 cm × 4.5 cm (59 in × 30 in × 2 in), and has carved Greek symbols and parallel grooves. During the German invasion of Greece in World War II, the harbor was bombed by the Luftwaffe on April 23, 1941, sinking the Greek battleships Kilkis and Lemnos.[10][11] In the 1960s and 1970s, during the military junta period, changes in land legislation allowed the subdivision of land plots.[12] This opened the island to massive unplanned and unregulated urban and suburban development, including many weekend homes, especially along the northern and eastern coasts. The lack of corresponding investment in infrastructure, combined with heavy industry, has led to sea and beach pollution on this side of the island. There are, however, ongoing initiatives such as help from the European Union’s Cohesion Fund toward improving sewerage by 2008.[13] Salamis island map An oil spill occurred off the coast of Salamis Island in September 2017.[14] Geography[edit] Salamis has an area of 93 km2 (36 sq mi); its highest point is Mavrovouni at 404 m (1,325 ft). A significant part of Salamis Island is rocky and mountainous. On the southern part of the island a pine forest is located, which is unusual for western Attica. Unfortunately, this forest is often a target for fires.[13] While the inland inhabitants are mainly employed within the agricultural sector, the majority of Salamis' inhabitants work in maritime occupations (fishing, ferries, and the island's shipyards) or commute to work in Athens.[15][16] The maritime industry is focused on the north-east coast of the island at the port of Paloukia (Παλούκια), where ferries to mainland Greece are based, and in the dockyards of Ampelakia and the north side of the Kynosoura peninsula. Salamis Island is very popular for holiday and weekend visits from Athens mainland; its population rises to 300,000 in peak season of which c. 31,000 are permanent inhabitants.[13] This supports a strong service industry sector, with many cafes, bars, ouzeries, tavernas and consumer goods shops throughout the island. On the south of the island, away from the port, there are a number of less developed areas with good swimming beaches including those of Aianteio, Maroudi, Perani, Peristeria, Kolones, Saterli, Selenia, and Kanakia.[17] Municipality[edit] Salamis Island belongs to the Islands regional unit of the Attica region. Since the 2011 local government reform the island is administered as one municipality. Before, the island was divided into two municipalities, that became municipal units at the reform:[18] Salamina Ampelakia In the municipal unit of Salamina, which has a land area of 80.992 km2 (31.271 sq mi)[19] and a 2011 census population of 31,776, the chief population centre is the city of Salamina (also called Salamis, Salamis City or Koulouris, pop. 25,888 in 2011), consisting of the districts Alonia, Agios Minas, Agios Dimitrios, Agios Nikolaos, Boskos, Nea Salamina, Tsami and Vourkari.[citation needed] Its second-largest town is Aiánteio (pop. 5,888). In the municipal unit of Ampelakia, which has a land area of 15.169 km2 (5.857 sq mi)[19] and a population of 7,507, the largest towns are Ampelakia (pop. 4,998) and Selinia (2,509). Population[edit] As of the mid-20th century, the majority of the inhabitants were Arvanite; a thing that changed during the past 20 years due to settlement of a lot of Athenians on the island to the degree that nowadays Arvanites are a fraction of the population, living mainly in the towns of Salamina, Ampelakia, and Moulki (Aianteion).[20] The island is known in Arvanitika as Κȣλλȣρι ("Koullouri"). Year Salamina (town) Salamina (municipal unit) Salamis (island) 1981 20,807 25,215 30,402 1991 22,567 27,582 34,342 2001 25,730 30,962 38,022 2011 25,888 31,776 39,283 Villages in the municipal unit of Salamina[edit] Salamis Naval Base Batsi beach Paloukia[edit] Paloukia (Greek: Παλούκια, population 1,695) is located in the northeast of the island. Many ferryboats, fishing vessels and port police craft dock in this harbor. Paloukia is the base for the port police department of Salamina. Most visitors who come to Salamina first arrive at Paloukia via ferryboats that run between Paloukia and Perama or Piraeus. The area is adjacent to the Salamis Naval Base (in Greek Nafstathmos), which is a major base of the Hellenic Navy. Aianteio[edit] Aianteio (Αιάντειο; population 4,860 as of 2011)[21] is a large village in the southwestern part of Salamis Island and is named after Ajax, the leader of the Salamineans from Homer's Iliad. The village was known as Moulki (Μούλκι) until 1915.[22] In the region, there are churches from the 11th and 12th centuries such as Saint John and Saint Dimitrios. Interesting places to visit are: the oldest church in the island, Saint John the "Kalyvitis", which dates back to the 10th century and has remarkable hagiographies the monastery of Saint Nicolas which dates back to the 18th century and is situated in a forest. Batsi[edit] Batsi (Μπατσί; pop. 212) is a little community in the north of Salamis, in the municipality of Salamis, located at the foot of a piney mountain, about 6 to 8 km (4 to 5 mi) east of Megara. In the mountain, there is a cave of archeological interest that has not been investigated yet. In the winter there are few tourists; it is more popular with vacationers from Athens during the summer months. Kaki Vigla[edit] The Stone Lighthouse, 1901, Peristeria Kaki Vigla (Κακή Βίγλα; pop. 236) is a small community located at the south of Salamis Island, near Aianteio. The beaches of Kaki Vigla are relatively clean and the area has pine and olive trees near the shore. Agios Georgios[edit] A new village, founded in 1960. Peristeria[edit] Peristeria (Περιστέρια; pop. 456) is a small village in the southeast of the island 45 km (28 mi) from Salamis City. It took its name from the bird of peace, the dove (Greek: περιστέρι), because it is a calm, peaceful and isolated place, away from the cars and from noise. Another interpretation says that its name may be derived from the doves which were living and had nests in the area. View of Salamina The area has a marina, which has yachts and fishing boats. The beaches of Peristeria are the cleanest of Salamis. The village is near the Cave of Euripides, associated with the famous ancient playwright. Psili Ammos[edit] Psili Ammos (Ψιλή Άμμος; pop. 271), which means Fine Sand is so named because it is covered with sand. The area is located at the northwest of the island opposite of Elefsina. In the area there is one of the oldest landmarks, the chantry of Saint Grigorios (Saint Gregory). Steno[edit] Steno (Στενό, lit. 'narrow'; pop. 985), is a small community in the northwest of Salamis Island. The area is separated from Fanaromeni Monastery by a hill with shrubs and pine trees. The area is adjacent to the bay of Agios Georgios. Steno has wide and well-planned roads. Aianteio Beach Vasilika[edit] Vasilika (Βασιλικά; pop. 4,264) which means Royal is a big village located in the northwest of the island. Vasilika is the third largest area in Salamis by population after Salamis City and Aianteio. Vasilika has a sandy large beach apt for swimming. Xeno[edit] Xeno (Ξένο, lit. 'foreign'; pop. 786) is located in the northwest corner of the island. The area was so named because the first residents were not from Salamis but from nearby Piraeus. Villages in the municipal unit of Ampelakia[edit] Ruins of ancient classical city and the port of Salamis (5th to 2nd BC) Ampelakia Main article: Ampelakia Kynosoura[edit] Kynosoura (Κυνόσουρα, lit. 'dog's tail'; pop. 69) is a small peninsula located in the east of the island. The name probably comes from the shape of the peninsula, long and thin and pointed at the end. In the south are a few houses. In the north are the remains of an ancient tumulus thought to be the burial site of Greek warriors in the Battle of Salamis. Nearby is a dockyard, which constructs and fixes ships including oil tankers and containers. Selinia[edit] Selinia (Σελήνια; pop. 2,523) is a resort located a few kilometers southeast of Salamis city. Selinia is the weekend resort of many Athenians due to its proximity to Athens. Selinia also features restaurants and taverns. Folklore Museum & Salamina Municipal Library. In the Municipal building. (Town Hall) Culture[edit] Education[edit] Salamis island has eleven primary schools (ten public and one private), four high schools, and four lycees. The majority of students are proficient in school, and the pupils (above 13 years) usually have acquired diplomas and certificates in English, in French, or in German such as ECCE, FCE, CPE, and ECPE. Many students from Salamis island also possess many computer skills. Many students also study abroad in countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, and France. In the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, the pupils went to Italy for studies since it was close to Greece. Recreational areas[edit] In Salamis Bay, a visitor can find many bars, cafeterias, beaches, and shops. The main cafeterias and bars are based in Agios Nikolaos, which is located in the western suburbs of Salamis city. The district is named for the church. Taverns and inns, which are located throughout the island, feature local food and dishes. The shops—which sell appliances, computers, clothing, souvenirs, and vehicles—are opened from 8:00 a.m. to 2:00 p.m. and from 5:30 p.m. to 9:00 p.m. on weekdays; from 9:00 a.m. to 1:30 p.m. and 6:00 p.m to 8:30 p.m. on Saturdays. Clubs, activities and organizations[edit] The cultural activities that take place and the cultural organizations that operate in Salamina include: a Museum of Folklore Art and History, a Public Municipal Library, a Drama Club "Euripides" and a Dance Group "Erevna". Also, regional, traditional and seasonal festivals are organized throughout the year, indicatively: the Annual Festival, "Salaminia" (to commemorate the Naval Battle of Salamis), the "Fisherman's Festival" and the Carnival. Sports[edit] Salamis island has four football teams: Aias (Ajax) Salaminas, Ampelakiakos F.C., A.E. Salaminas and Salaminomachoi. In 2019 the Nautical Club "AGIOS NIKOLAOS" Yalas, became the Champion Sprint Canoeing Club of Greece, during the 23rd Greek National Development Sprint Canoeing Championship, winning 4 gold, 4 silver and 4 bronze medals. Local newspapers and magazines[edit] Salamina-Press 30 Imeres tis Salaminas (30 Days of Salamina) Anatropes (Tippings) Apopsi (Opinion) Athlitikoi Palmoi (Athletic Vibrations) I Enotita tis Salaminas (The Unity of Salamis) I Nea Salamina (The New Salamis) I Foni tis Salaminas (The Voice of Salamis) Neo Ithos tis Salaminas (New Morale of Salamis) Palmos tis Salaminas (Pulse of Salamis) Politis me dikaioma (Citizen With Rights) Salaminiaki Protoporia (Salaminian Vanguard) Sports Week Salamina Mycenaean acropolis at Kanakia 13th century BC Source:[23] Landmarks[edit] Monument for the Battle of Salamis, Kynosoura peninsula by sculptor Achilles Vasileiou. Archaeological Museum of Salamis Circular funerary, 4th century BC in Kolones Landmark Year of construction Location Faneromeni Monastery 15th century Faneromeni Chantry of Saint George 1250 Agios Georgios Mycenaean city of Salamis 13th century BC Kanakia Ancient city and port of Salamis 5th – 1st centuries BC Ampelakia Fighters tomb of the naval Battle of Salamis 5th century BC Ampelakia, Kynosoura Circular funerary 4th century BC Kolones Euripideio Theatre 1993 in suburbs of Salamis City (in hill Patris) Church of Saint Dimitrios 1806 center of Salamis City (in hononymous district) The Cave of Euripides 450 BC at south Salamis Island (near Peristeria) The Cottage of Angelos Sikelianos 1935 Faneromeni The Stone Lighthouse 1901 Peristeria The bust of Georgios Karaiskakis 1982 center of Salamis City (in Vourkari district) The Windmills 19th century in suburbs of Salamis City (in a hill) Chantry of Prophet Elias early 20th century Salamis City (in a stone hill) Chantry of Saint Grygorios 12th century Psili Ammos The Stony small Theater 1990 Selinia The City Hall of Salamis 2000 Salamis City The Monastery of Saint Nicolaos 17th century at south Salamis Island (near Kanakia) The Church of Saint John the Kalyvitis 11th century at south Salamis Island (near Kanakia) The Folklore Museum 2000 lodging at Salamis City Hall Archaeological museum of Salamis 2013 Salamis City The Mansion of Galeos Family 19th century at Salamis center (at Agios Minas district) The Church of Saint Minas 1869 at Salamis City (at Agios Minas district) Noted people[edit] Ajax the Great Euripides Mythological and ancient people[edit] Ajax the Great, the legendary king of Salamis island, son of Telamon and half-brother of Teucer Cychreus, the first king of Salamis Island Euripides, tragedian (480 BC – 406 BC) Moerocles, orator (4th century BC) Telamon, the king of Salamis Island, father of Ajax the Great and Teucer Teucer, the half-brother of Ajax the Great, son of Telamon, warrior of Trojan War, and founder of the city-state of Salamis, Cyprus. Modern people[edit] Dimitra Fimi (1978-), academic and writer Georgios Karaiskakis (c. 1780–1827), Greek War of Independence hero, is buried on Salamis. Polychronis Lempesis (1848–1913), painter Anastasios Koulouriotis, publisher Theodoros Pangalos (general) Memos Mpegnis (1974- ), actor Dimitrios Mpogris (1890–1964), playwright Giorgos Papasideris (1902–1977), country singer, composer and lyricist Angelos Sikelianos (1884–1951), poet and playwright, whose cottage was near the Monastery of Faneromeni. Twin towns / sister cities[edit] See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Greece Salamis Island is twinned with Famagusta, Cyprus (1998) Gallery[edit] Kaki Vigla beach Kaki Vigla beach Kaki Vigla Gulf The historic monastery of Faneromeni Nicolas Lemonia monastery 17th century AD, on the road between the villages Aianteio and Kanakia Kanakia beach See also[edit] Trojan War Greek Revolution Aeacus References[edit] ^ a b "Απογραφή Πληθυσμού - Κατοικιών 2011. ΜΟΝΙΜΟΣ Πληθυσμός" (in Greek). Hellenic Statistical Authority. ^ a b Bell, Robert E. (1988). Place Names in Classical Mythology: Greece. ABC-CLIO Ltd. ISBN 978-0-87436-507-8. ^ Martin Bernal, Black Athena, p. 492 ^ William Miller, The Latins in the Levant, a history of Frankish Greece (1204–1566), New York, 1908, p. 18 ^ Peter Mackridge, Language and National Identity in Greece, 1766-1976, Oxford University Press, 2010, p. 22 ^ "Salamis", Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World, Ed. John Roberts. Oxford University Press, 2007. ^ Rossiter, Stuart; Benn, Ernest (1981). Greece – Blue Guide series. ^ Homer. The Iliad. ^ "salamis". Archived from the original on January 3, 2008. ^ "Kilkis (Battleship, 1914–1941)". Naval Historical Center. Archived from the original on October 16, 2012. ^ "Lemnos (Battleship, 1914–1941)". Naval Historical Center. Archived from the original on July 6, 2014. ^ "One-sixth of houses are for vacation use". Kathimerini. April 19, 2006. Archived from the original on March 18, 2008. ^ a b c Polyxeni Athanassoulia (September 7, 2006). "Salamina, so near yet so unknown". Kathimerini. Archived from the original on March 18, 2008. ^ https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/greek-island-bay-black-oil-spill-salamis-selinia-taker-sinks-ecological-disaster-athens-a7944291.html ^ "Salamis". Howstuffworks. Archived from the original on March 11, 2008. ^ "Salamis official website". Archived from the original on February 22, 2009. ^ "Salamina" (in Greek). Anatropes. Archived from the original on August 20, 2010. ^ "Kallikratis law" (PDF) (in Greek). Greece Ministry of Interior. ^ a b "Population & housing census 2001 (incl. area and average elevation)" (PDF) (in Greek). National Statistical Service of Greece. ^ Jochalas, Titos P. (1971): Über die Einwanderung der Albaner in Griechenland: Eine zusammenfassene Betrachtung ["On the immigration of Albanians to Greece: A summary"]. München: Trofenik. ^ "Settlements (Dímos Salamínas, Municipality)". citypopulation.de. ^ "Name changes of settlements in Greece". ^ Εφημερίδες & Περιοδικά (in Greek). Archived from the original on 30 April 2009. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Salamis Island" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Salamis. Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Salamis (Greece). Official website of Municipality of Salamina (in English and Greek) Official website of Municipality of Ampelakia (in Greek) Articles and topics related to Salamis Island v t e Argo-Saronic Islands Major islands Salamina Aegina Hydra Poros Spetses Agistri Dokos Minor islands Psyttaleia Atalanti Leros Salaminos Revythoussa Moni Aiginas Spetsopoula Romvi Plateia Agios Georgios Patroklos Fleves Agios Georgios Salaminos Ypsili Diaporion Ypsili Argolidos Agios Thomas Diaporion Agios Ioannis Diaporion Plateia Aiginis Laousses Islets Kyra Aiginis Trikeri Hydras Alexandros Hydras Stavronisi Hydras Velopoula Falkonera Psili v t e Administrative division of the Attica Region Area 3,808 km2 (1,470 sq mi) Population 3,827,624 (as of 2011) Municipalities 66 (since 2011) Capital Athens Regional unit of Central Athens Athens Dafni-Ymittos Filadelfeia-Chalkidona Galatsi Ilioupoli Kaisariani Vyronas Zografou Regional unit of North Athens Agia Paraskevi Chalandri Filothei-Psychiko Irakleio Kifissia Lykovrysi-Pefki Marousi Metamorfosi Nea Ionia Papagou-Cholargos Penteli Vrilissia Regional unit of West Athens Agia Varvara Agioi Anargyroi-Kamatero Aigaleo Haidari Ilion Peristeri Petroupoli Regional unit of South Athens Agios Dimitrios Alimos Elliniko-Argyroupoli Glyfada Kallithea Moschato-Tavros Nea Smyrni Palaio Faliro Regional unit of Piraeus Keratsini-Drapetsona Korydallos Nikaia-Agios Ioannis Rentis Perama Piraeus Regional unit of East Attica Acharnes Dionysos Kropia Lavreotiki Marathon Markopoulo Oropos Paiania Pallini Rafina-Pikermi Saronikos Spata-Artemida Vari-Voula-Vouliagmeni Regional unit of West Attica Aspropyrgos Eleusis Fyli Mandra-Eidyllia Megara Regional unit of Islands Aegina Agistri Hydra Kythira Poros Salamis Spetses Troizinia-Methana Regional governor Giorgos Patoulis (since 2019) Decentralized Administration Attica v t e Subdivisions of the municipality of Salamis Municipal unit of Ampelakia Ampelakia Selinia Municipal unit of Salamina (city) Aianteio Salamina (city) v t e Aegean Sea General Countries  Greece  Turkey Other Aegean civilizations Aegean dispute Aegean Islands Aegean Islands Cyclades Ananes Amorgos Anafi Andros Antimilos Antiparos Delos Despotiko Donousa Folegandros Gyaros Ios Irakleia Kardiotissa Kea Keros Kimolos Koufonisia Kythnos Milos Mykonos Naxos Paros Polyaigos Rineia Santorini Schoinoussa Serifopoula Serifos Sifnos Sikinos Syros Therasia Tinos Vous Dodecanese Agathonisi Arkoi Armathia Alimia Astakida Astypalaia Çatalada Chamili Farmakonisi Gaidaros Gyali Halki Imia/Kardak Kalolimnos Kalymnos Kandelioussa Kara Ada Karpathos Kasos Kinaros Kos Küçük Tavşan Adası Leipsoi (Lipsi) Leros Levitha (Lebynthos) Nimos Nisyros Pacheia Patmos Platy Pserimos Rhodes Salih Ada Saria Symi Syrna Telendos Tilos Zaforas North Aegean Agios Efstratios Agios Minas Ammouliani Ayvalık Islands Büyük Ada Chios Chryse Cunda Foça Islands Fournoi Korseon Icaria Imbros Koukonesi Lemnos Lesbos Megalonisi (Nisiopi) Metalik Ada Oinousses Pasas Psara Samiopoula Samos Samothrace Tenedos Thasos Thymaina Uzunada Zourafa Saronic Aegina Agios Georgios Agistri Dokos Hydra Poros Psyttaleia Salamis Spetses Sporades Adelfoi Islets Agios Georgios Skopelou Alonnisos Argos Skiathou Dasia Erinia Gioura Grammeza Kyra Panagia Lekhoussa Peristera Piperi Psathoura Repi Sarakino Skandili Skantzoura Skiathos Skopelos Skyropoula Skyros Tsoungria Valaxa Cretan Afentis Christos Agia Varvara Agioi Apostoloi Agioi Pantes Agioi Theodoroi Agios Nikolaos Anavatis Arnaouti Aspros Volakas Avgo Crete Daskaleia Dia Diapori Dionysades Elasa Ftena Trachylia Glaronisi Gramvousa Grandes Kalydon (Spinalonga) Karavi Karga Katergo Kavallos Kefali Kolokythas Koursaroi Kyriamadi Lazaretta Leon Mavros Mavros Volakas Megatzedes Mochlos Nikolos Palaiosouda Peristeri Peristerovrachoi Petalida Petalouda Pontikaki Pontikonisi Praso (Prasonisi) Prosfora Pseira Sideros Souda Valenti Vryonisi Other Antikythera Euboea Kythira Makronisos Authority control GND: 4105212-2 LCCN: sh90004185 NKC: ge347528 VIAF: 173744562 WorldCat Identities: viaf-173744562 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Salamis_Island&oldid=1001158334" Categories: Salamis Island Aegean islands Islands of Attica Landforms of Islands (regional unit) Municipalities of Attica Ports and harbours of Greece Athenian colonies Megarian colonies Islands of Greece Saronic Gulf Greek city-states Populated places in Islands (regional unit) Hidden categories: CS1 Greek-language sources (el) CS1 uses Greek-language script (el) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Instances of Lang-el using second unnamed parameter Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2007 Articles containing Arvanitika Albanian-language text Articles needing additional references from July 2012 All 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en-wikipedia-org-2062	----	Seankhenre Mentuhotepi - Wikipedia Seankhenre Mentuhotepi From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Seankhenre Mentuhotepi Montuhotepi, Mentuhotep VII Drawing of a sphinx of Mentuhotepi, bearing the prenomen Seankhenre between the legs[1] Pharaoh Reign 1 year, 1628-1627 BC [2] (16th Dynasty or 17th Dynasty) Predecessor Neferhotep III (Ryholt), Djehuti (von Beckerath) Successor Nebiryraw I (Ryholt & von Beckerath) Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Seankhenre S-ˁnḫ-n-Rˁ He whom Ra causes to live Nomen Mentuhotepi Mn-ṯw-ḥtpi Montu is content Variant: Burial unknown, probably in Dra' Abu el-Naga' [3] Seankhenre Mentuhotepi was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh during the fragmented Second Intermediate Period. According to egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, he was the fifth king of the 16th Dynasty reigning over the Theban region in Upper Egypt.[2] Alternatively, Jürgen von Beckerath sees him as the fifth king of the 17th Dynasty.[4][5] Contents 1 Attestations 2 Name 3 Reign 4 References Attestations[edit] Mentuhotepi is attested by a stela from Karnak[2] and a scarab seal of unknown provenance bearing a prenomen variously read Sewahenre, Sewadjenre and Seankhenre. Furthermore, two limestone sphinxes of Mentuhotepi were discovered in 1924 in the ruins of the Temple of Horus in Edfu, one bearing the prenomen Seankhenre and the other the nomen Mentuhotepi.[1][3] Finally, Mentuhotepi is attested in the Turin canon under the prenomen Seankhenre.[3] Name[edit] The identification of Mentuhotepi has evolved over the years: Jürgen von Beckerath lists Mentuhotepi as a king of the 17th Dynasty under the name Mentuhotep VII and Wolfgang Helck as Mentuhotep VI. The recent reconstruction of the Turin canon by Ryholt established this king as Seankhenre Mentuhotepi.[3] Reign[edit] If Ryholt's identification of Mentuhotepi in the Turin canon is correct, then he took the throne following Sekhemre Sankhtawy Neferhotep III and reigned for only 1 year. Mentuhotepi's short reign was probably marked by the constant conflict with the Hyksos kingdom of the 15th Dynasty. At the time, the 16th Dynasty was already in a weakened position and reigned over little more than Thebes itself. In his stela from Karnak, Mentuhotepi emphatically states: "I am the king within Thebes, this is my city"[2] and calls Thebes the "mistress of the entire land, city of triumph". He reports driving back the "foreign lands", probably a euphemism for the Hyksos or possibly for the Nubians.[3] Mentuhotepi's military might is emphasized, the king being likened to Sekhmet who kills his enemies with his "flaming breath".[3] Mentuhotepi was succeeded by Nebiryraw I, who ruled Upper Egypt for over 25 years. References[edit] ^ a b Henri Gauthier (1931), "Deux sphinx du Moyen Empire originaires d'Edfou", ASAE 31 ^ a b c d Kim Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c.1800-1550 B.C, Museum Tusculanum Press, (1997), pp. 154, 160, 202 ^ a b c d e f Darell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300 - 1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 233 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46, Mainz am Rhein, 1997 Preceded by Neferhotep III Pharaoh of Egypt Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt Succeeded by Nebiryraw I v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seankhenre_Mentuhotepi&oldid=954561778" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages አማርኛ العربية Català Deutsch Español Euskara Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى 日本語 Slovenščina ไทย Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 3 May 2020, at 02:53 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-206	----	Histiaeus - Wikipedia Histiaeus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Late 6th century BC tyrant of Miletus and an instigator of the Ionian Revolt Electrum coinage of Miletus, around the birth of Histiaeus. Circa 600-550 BC. Coinage of Miletus at the time of Histiaeus. AR Obol (9mm, 1.07 g). Forepart of lion left, head right. Stellate and floral design within incuse square. Late 6th-early 5th century BC. Histiaeus (Ancient Greek: Ἱστιαῖος, died 493 BC), the son of Lysagoras, was a Greek ruler of Miletus in the late 6th century BC. Histiaeus was a Tyrant under Darius I, king of Persia, who had subjugated Miletus and the other Ionian states in Asia Minor, and was in the habit of appointing Greek tyrants to rule the Greek cities of Ionia in his territory.[1] Contents 1 Scythian campaign of Darius I (circa 513 BC) 2 Ionian revolt (499-494 BC) 3 See also 4 Sources 5 External links Scythian campaign of Darius I (circa 513 BC)[edit] The Greeks under Histiaeus preserve the bridge of Darius I across the Danube river. 19th century illustration. According to Herodotus,[2] Histiaeus, along with the other Chiefs/Tyrants under Darius' rule, took part in the Persian expedition against the Scythians, and was put in charge of defending the bridge that Darius' troops had placed across the Danube River. The Scythians attempted to persuade Histiaeus and the others to abandon the bridge; one faction, led by Miltiades of Athens, at that time tyrant of the Chersonese, wanted to follow the Scythians' advice. However, Histiaeus argued that they should stay, as they owed their positions as tyrants to Darius and would surely be overthrown if he were killed. Instead, according to Herodotus, Histiaeus suggested that they pretend to follow the Scythian plan. So Histiaeus was sent as an ambassador to the Scythians to tell them that the tyrants would accept the Scythian plan, while the rest of the tyrants acted as if they were demolishing the bridge. Histiaeus persuaded the Scythians to look for the Persian forces. Herodotus writes that while the Scythians were away, the Persians returned to the Danube and Histiaeus organized the ships to successfully ferry them across the river. During the expedition, Histiaeus' troops had started building a settlement at Myrcinus (site of the later Amphipolis) on the Strymon River. After returning with Darius to Sardis, Darius asked Histiaeus what he wanted in return for his service. Histiaeus responded that he wanted to be given control over Myrcinus, to which Darius agreed. However, the Persian commander Megabazus suspected Histiaeus' interest in the strategically important area, which controlled key roads from Persian controlled territory into Europe, as well as known sources of silver and timber. Nevertheless, Darius considered Histiaeus to be loyal, and asked him to come back to Susa with him as a friend and advisor. Histiaeus' nephew and son-in-law Aristagoras was left in control of Miletus.[3] Ionian revolt (499-494 BC)[edit] However, according to Herodotus, Histiaeus was unhappy having to stay in Susa, and made plans to return to his position as King of Miletus by instigating a revolt in Ionia.[3] In 499 BC, he shaved the head of his most trusted slave, tattooed a message on his head, and then waited for his hair to grow back. The slave was then sent to Aristagoras, who was instructed to shave the slave's head again and read the message, which told him to revolt against the Persians. Aristagoras, who was disliked by his own subjects after an expedition to Naxos ended in failure, followed Histiaeus' command, and with help from the Athenians and Eretrians, attacked and burned Sardis.[3] When Darius learned of the revolt, he sent for Histiaeus, who pretended to have no knowledge of its origins, but asked to be sent back to Miletus to put down the revolt. Herodotus writes that Darius permitted him to leave. On his way back, Histiaeus went to Sardis, where the satrap Artaphernes suspected Histiaeus' role in the revolt, forcing Histiaeus to flee to Chios. Histiaeus tried unsuccessfully to build a fleet while on Chios. He then returned to Miletus with the aim of becoming tyrant once more. However, the Miletians did not want a return to tyranny and exiled him to Lesbos. There, he gathered some ships and, according to Herodotus, began committing acts of piracy in the Black Sea and the Aegean Sea from a base in Byzantium. Meanwhile, the Persians defeated the leaders of the Ionian revolt at the Battle of Lade in 494 BC. When Histiaeus learned of this he left Byzantium, and his troops attacked Chios, blockaded Thasos and then attempted to land on the mainland to attack the Persians. After joining a Greek force in battle against the Persians, he was captured by the Persian general, Harpagus in 493 BC. The satrap Artaphernes did not want to send him back to Susa, where he suspected that Darius would pardon him, so he executed him by impaling, and sent his head to Darius.[3] According to Herodotus, Darius still did not believe Histiaeus was a traitor and gave his head an honourable burial. See also[edit] Tyrants of Miletus Late 8th or 7th c.BCE Amphitres 7th century BCE Thrasybulus 6th century BCE Thoas 6th century BCE Damasanor c. 518-514 BCE Histiaeus c. 513-499 BCE Aristagoras 3rd century BCE Timarchus v t e Istiea (Ancient: Histiaea) Sources[edit] ^ Waters, Matt (2014). Ancient Persia: A Concise History of the Achaemenid Empire, 550–330 BCE. Cambridge University Press. p. 83. ISBN 9781107009608. ^ Herodotus. (2003). "The Histories, Book 5." Trans. Aubrey De Selincourt. Rev. John Marincola. London: Penguin Group. ISBN 0-14-044908-6 ^ a b c d Waters, Matt (2014). Ancient Persia: A Concise History of the Achaemenid Empire, 550–330 BCE. Cambridge University Press. p. 85-86. ISBN 9781107009608. External links[edit] Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Histiaeus" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Histiaeus&oldid=994662679" Categories: 493 BC deaths Ancient Milesians Archaic tyrants Ionian Revolt 6th-century BC Greek people 5th-century BC Greek people Ancient Greek rulers Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire People of the Greco-Persian Wars People executed by the Achaemenid Empire Ancient Greeks from the Achaemenid Empire Military personnel of the Achaemenid Empire Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Azərbaycanca Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 16 December 2020, at 21:52 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-209	----	Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt 945 BC–720 BC Pendant bearing the cartouche of Osorkon II seated King Osorkon flanked by Horus and Isis Common languages Egyptian language Religion Ancient Egyptian Religion Government Absolute monarchy Historical era Classical antiquity • Established 945 BC • Disestablished 720 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt is also known as the Bubastite Dynasty, since the pharaohs originally ruled from the city of Bubastis.[1] It was founded by Shoshenq I. The Twenty-first, Twenty-second, Twenty-third, Twenty-fourth, and Twenty-fifth dynasties of ancient Egypt are often combined under the group designation of the Third Intermediate Period. Contents 1 Rulers 1.1 Pharaohs 2 See also 3 References Rulers[edit] The pharaohs of the Twenty-second Dynasty were a series of Meshwesh ancient Libyans, who ruled from c. 943 BC until 716 BC. They had settled in Egypt since the Twentieth Dynasty. Manetho states that this Berber dynasty originated at Bubastis, but its rulers almost certainly governed from Tanis, which was their capital and the city where their tombs have been excavated. Another pharaoh who belongs to this group is Tutkheperre Shoshenq. His period of rule within this dynasty is currently uncertain, although he is now thought to have governed Egypt early in the 9th century BC for a short time between Osorkon I and Takelot I. The next ruler at Tanis after Shoshenq V was Osorkon IV. This pharaoh is sometimes not believed to be a member of the 22nd Dynasty since he only controlled a small portion of Lower Egypt together with Tefnakhte of Sais, whose authority was recognised at Memphis—and Iuput II of Leontopolis. Pharaohs[edit] The known rulers during the Twenty-second Dynasty include: Twenty-Second Dynasty pharaohs Pharaoh Throne name Image Reign (BC) Consort(s) Comments Shoshenq I Hedjkheperre-Setepenre 943–922 BC Patareshnes Karomama A Possibly to be identified with the biblical Shishak Osorkon I Sekhemkheperre-Setepenre 922–887 BC Maatkare B Tashedkhonsu Shepensopdet A Shoshenq II Heqakheperre-Setepenre 887–885 BC Nesitanebetashru Nesitaudjatakhet Enjoyed an independent reign of two years at Tanis according to Von Beckerath Takelot I Hedjkheperre-Setepenre 885–872 BC Kapes Osorkon II Usermaatre-Setepenamun 872–837 BC Isetemkheb G Karomama B Djedmutesankh An ally of Israel who fought Shalmaneser III of Assyria at the battle of Qarqar in 853 BC. Shoshenq III Usermaatre-Setepenre 837–798 BC Tadibast II Tentamenopet Djedbastiusankh Shoshenq (IV)"quartus" Hedjkheperre-Setepenre 798–785 BC Not to be confused with Shoshenq VI; the original Shoshenq IV in publications before 1993 Pami Usermaatre-Setepenamun 785–778 BC Buried two Apis bulls in his reign Shoshenq V Akheperre 778–740 BC Tadibast III? Successor of Shoshenq V was often stated as Osorkon IV;some say it is Pedubast II Pedubast II Sehetepibenre 740–730 BC Tadibast III? Not mentioned in all Pharaoh lists, placement disputed Osorkon IV Usermaatre 730–716 BC Not always listed as a true member of the XXII Dynasty, but succeeded Shoshenq V at Tanis. Perhaps the biblical Pharaoh So (2 Kings 17:4). Twenty-Third Dynasty The so-called Twenty-Third Dynasty was an offshoot of this dynasty perhaps based in Upper Egypt, though there is much debate concerning this issue. All of its kings reigned in Middle and Upper Egypt including the Western Desert Oases. See also[edit] Twenty-second dynasty of Egypt Family Tree References[edit] ^ "The geographic origins of the Bubastite Dynasty and possible locations for the royal residence and burial place of Shoshenq I" v t e Ancient Egypt topics Index Major topics Glossary of artifacts Agriculture Architecture (Egyptian Revival architecture) Art Portraiture Astronomy Chronology Cities (list) Clothing Cuisine Dance Dynasties Funerary practices Geography Great Royal Wives (list) Hieroglyphs History Language Literature Mathematics Medicine Military Music Mythology People Pharaohs (list) Philosophy Religion Sites Technology Trade Writing Egyptology Egyptologists Museums  Ancient Egypt portal Book Category WikiProject Commons Outline Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Twenty-second_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=990714995" Categories: Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt 10th century BC in Egypt 10th century BC 10th-century BC establishments in Egypt 1st millennium BC in Egypt 8th century BC in Egypt 8th-century BC disestablishments in Egypt 9th century BC in Egypt Ancient Libya Berber Egyptians Berbers in Egypt Dynasties of ancient Egypt Nile Delta States and territories disestablished in the 8th century BC States and territories established in the 10th century BC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 26 November 2020, at 02:49 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2109	----	Nepherites I - Wikipedia Nepherites I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Nepherites I Nefaarud I, Nayfaurud I Sphinx of pharaoh Nepherites I in the Louvre Museum Pharaoh Reign 399–393 BC (29th Dynasty) Predecessor Amyrtaeus Successor Hakor Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Ba-en-re Mery-netjeru Soul of Re, Beloved of the Gods[1] Nomen Nef-aa-rud The Great Ones prosper[1] Horus name Aa-ib Of Great Mind[1] Golden Horus Setep-netjeru Chosen by the gods[1] Children Hakor Died 393 BC[2] Burial Mendes? Nefaarud I or Nayfaurud I, better known with his hellenised name Nepherites I, was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh, the founder of the 29th Dynasty in 399 BC. Contents 1 Reign 1.1 Accession 1.2 Activities 1.3 Death and succession 2 Possible tomb 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Reign[edit] Accession[edit] It is believed that Nepherites was a general from the deltaic city of Mendes who, in the autumn of 399 BC, rose against pharaoh Amyrtaeus, defeated him in open battle,[2] and then executed him at Memphis.[3] Nepherites then crowned himself pharaoh at Memphis and possibly also at Sais, before shifting the capital from Sais to his hometown Mendes.[4] The fact that Nepherites I chose the same Horus name of Psamtik I and the Golden Horus name of Amasis II – both relevant rulers of the earlier 26th Dynasty - is thought to demonstrate that he wanted to associate his rule with an earlier 'golden age' of Egyptian history.[5] Activities[edit] According to Manetho, Nepherites I ruled for six years, although his highest archaeologically attested date is his regnal year 4.[4] Evidence of Nepherites' building work has been found in a number of locations across the country. In Lower Egypt, he is attested at Thmuis, Tell Roba, Buto (where a statue of him has been found[6]), Memphis, Saqqara (where an Apis burial took place in his regnal year 2) and his capital and hometown Mendes. In Middle and Upper Egypt, he ordered a chapel at Akoris while at Akhmim, near Sohag, there is evidence of the worship of a statue of him which was placed inside a naos. He also added some buildings at Karnak such as a storeroom and a shrine meant to house a sacred bark.[5][4] A basalt sphinx with his name is now located in the Louvre, but it was known to have been brought to Europe as early as the 16th century, having adorned a fountain at the Villa Borghese, Rome.[7] In foreign affairs, he resumed the policy of Egyptian intervention in the Middle East. As reported by Diodorus Siculus, in 396 BC he supported the Spartan king Agesilaus in his war against the Persians; the Spartans had conquered Cyprus and Rhodes and were attempting to extend their influence further east. Nepherites supplied the Spartans with 500,000 measures of grain and material for 100 triremes. However, the cargo reached Rhodes just after the Persians managed to retake the island, so it was entirely seized by the philo-Persian admiral Conon of Athens.[8][9] Death and succession[edit] A shabti of Nepherites I Nepherites I died during the winter of 394/393 BC after a six year reign.[4] The Demotic Chronicle simply states that "his son" was allowed to succeed him, without providing any name. Nowadays it is generally believed that Nepherites' son was Hakor, who ruled after him for only a year before being overthrown by an apparently unrelated claimant, Psammuthes; Hakor, however, was able to retake the throne the following year.[10] Possible tomb[edit] A tomb believed to be that of Nepherites was discovered by a joint team from the University of Toronto and the University of Washington in 1992-93.[11] Possible ownership of the tomb was identified by the presence of a shabti bearing the name of Nepherites I; however, definitive proof has not been found.[12] Although still containing funerary objects and a large limestone sarcophagus, the tomb was believed to have been destroyed by the Persians in 343 BC.[11] Ceramic vessels containing fish specimens and fish-covered stelae have been found on the site of Nepherites's funerary complex. The presence of the fish, often interpreted as votive offerings, could be an indication that the site was previously occupied by a temple of the fish-goddess Hatmehyt.[13] See also[edit] Muthis – A conjectural pharaoh, once believed to be Nepherites I's son. References[edit] ^ a b c d Clayton, Peter A. Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. p.203 Thames & Hudson. 2006. ISBN 0-500-28628-0 ^ a b Redford, Donald B. (2004). Excavations at Mendes: The Royal Necropolis. 1. Leiden, Germany: Brill. p. 33. ISBN 978-90-04-13674-8. ^ Dodson, Aidan (2000) [2000]. Monarchs of the Nile (2 ed.). Cairo, Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 196. ISBN 978-0-9652457-8-4. ^ a b c d Grimal, Nicolas (1992). A History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Blackwell Books. pp. 372–3. ISBN 978-0-631-17472-1. ^ a b Shaw, Ian (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 378. ISBN 978-0-19-280458-7. ^ Gabra, G. (1981). "A lifesize statue of Nepherites I from Buto", SAK 9, pp. 119-23 ^ Royal Sphinx with the name of the Pharaoh Achoris. The Louvre. n.d. Retrieved 4 July 2014. ^ Sweeney, Emmet John (2008). The Ramessides, Medes, and Persians. Ages in Alignment. 4. USA: Algora. p. 147. ISBN 978-0-87586-544-7. ^ Gardiner, Alan (1961). Egypt of the Pharaohs: an introduction. Oxford: University Press. p. 374. ^ Ray, John D. (1986). "Psammuthis and Hakoris", The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 72: 149-158. ^ a b Arnold, Dieter (1999). Temples of the last Pharaohs. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 102. ISBN 978-0-19-512633-4. ^ Dodson, Aidan (2009) [1994]. "6". The Canopic Equipment of the Kings of Egypt. Studies in Egyptology. Oxford, UK: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7103-0460-5. ^ Riggs, Christina, ed. (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Roman Egypt. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-19-957145-1. Retrieved 4 July 2014. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nepherites I. Livius.org: Nepherites I Nepherites I 29th Dynasty Born: ? Died: 393 BC Preceded by Amyrtaeus Pharaoh of Egypt 399–393 BC Succeeded by Hakor v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nepherites_I&oldid=999871236" Categories: 4th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt 5th-century BC births 393 BC deaths Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands Polski Русский සිංහල Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Tagalog Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 12 January 2021, at 10:50 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2112	----	Autophradates - Wikipedia Autophradates From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For 3rd-century BC Persian sub-king of the Parthian Empire, see Autophradates I. Autophradates Autophradates, from his coinage. Native name Vadfradad Allegiance Achaemenid Empire Rank Satrap Autophradates was satrap of Lydia, including Ionia. Autophradates (Greek: Aὐτoφραδάτης, Persian: Vātafradāta, lived 4th century BC) was a Persian Satrap of Lydia, who also distinguished himself as a general in the reign of Artaxerxes III and Darius III. Contents 1 Rule as a satrap of Lydia 1.1 Resistance to Alexander the Great 2 Tomb of Payava 3 Coinage 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References Rule as a satrap of Lydia[edit] During the reign of the Artaxerxes II, Autophradates captured Artabazus, the satrap of Lydia and Ionia who had revolted against the Persian king, and made him his prisoner, but afterwards was forced to set him free.[1] Autophradates was also directed by Artaxerxes to put down the rebellion of the satrap of Cappadocia Datames. He went with a large army, but was obliged to retreat with heavy loss.[1] Autophradates later joined the Revolt of the Satraps.[1] Resistance to Alexander the Great[edit] Autophradates participated to the Achaemenid resistance against the campaigns of Alexander the Great in Asia Minor. Together with Pharnabazus III he supported militarily and financial the king of Sparta Agis III who was organizing resistance against the Macedians. After the death of the Persian admiral, Memnon, in 333 BC, Autophradates and Pharnabazus III, satrap of neighbouring Hellespontine Phrygia, undertook the command of the fleet, and reduced Mytilene, the siege of which had been begun by Memnon. Pharnabazus now sailed with his prisoners to Lycia, and Autophradates attacked the other islands in the Aegean sea which supported Alexander the Great. But Pharnabazus soon after joined Autophradates again, and both sailed against Tenedos, which was induced by fear to surrender to the Persians.[2] During these expeditions Autophradates also laid siege to the town of Atarneus in Mysia, but without success.[3] Tomb of Payava[edit] Achaemenid Satrap Autophradates with visitors, on the Tomb of Payava, circa 375 BC. "Satrap Autophradates" is mentioned on the inscription on top of the frieze.[4][5] Satrap Autophradates sitting for an audience, on the Tomb of Payava, circa 375 BC. "Satrap Autophradates" is mentioned on the inscription above the frieze.[6][7] Main article: Tomb of Payava Autophradates appears as a seated satrap in audience on the tomb of the Lycian dignitary Payava, now visible in the British Museum. Arthur Hamilton Smith in the British Museum catalogue describes the scene as follows: "A Persian figure is seated to the right; he wears a long-sleeved tunic girt at the waist, a Persian cap and a mantle, and has a sheathed dagger by the right thigh, according to the Persian habit. He is seated on a stool covered with a cloth, and having legs with knobs of a common Persian form; his right hand is raised as if stroking his beard. On the left an attendant stands with his hands folded across his breast in Oriental manner; he wears a sleeved tunic girt at the waist. On the right are four standing figures turned towards the Persian; a male figure, much mutilated, a bearded and long-haired figure similar to that on the short side, in tunic and himation; two younger male figures. Above is the Lycian inscription, which has been read: dhdiya : [hryivata : mdiyd piydtq. : vat[apr]data : kssadrapa : pa[rzz\a : pddq, : tdlqzi ; dpattd : trmmilisd : ma .... It contains the name of "Autophradates, Persian Satrap", and may record the granting of an authorization for the tomb." — Arthur Hamilton Smith in the British Museum catalogue.[8] Coinage[edit] The coinage of Autophradates shows the portrait of the satrap, and uses the legend "ΟΑΤΑ" in Greek script as an abbreviation for his name in Greek (ΟΑΤΑΦΡΑΔΑΤΗΣ).[9] Coin of Autophradates. Satrap of Sparda (Lydia and Ionia), circa 380s-350s BC. Coinage of Autophradates. See also[edit] List of satraps of Lydia Notes[edit] ^ a b c Demosthenes, Speeches, "Against Aristocrates" ^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri, ii. 1 ^ Aristotle, Politics, 1267a ^ The Payava Tomb. British Museum. ^ Smith, A. H. (Arthur Hamilton). A catalogue of sculpture in the Department of Greek and Roman antiquities, British museum. London : Printed by order of the Trustees. pp. 51–52. ^ The Payava Tomb. British Museum. ^ Smith, A. H. (Arthur Hamilton). A catalogue of sculpture in the Department of Greek and Roman antiquities, British museum. London : Printed by order of the Trustees. pp. 51–52. ^ Public Domain text Smith, A. H. (Arthur Hamilton) (1904). A catalogue of sculpture in the Department of Greek and Roman antiquities, British museum. London : Printed by order of the Trustees. pp. 50–51. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. ^ Moysey, Robert (1989). Observations on the numismatic evidence relating to the great satrapal revolt of 362/1 B.C. p. 125. References[edit] Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, "Autophradates", Boston (1867) v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autophradates&oldid=1001256129" Categories: Alexander the Great 4th-century BC people 4th-century BC Iranian people Military leaders of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenid satraps of Lydia Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Hrvatski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 18 January 2021, at 22:26 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2114	----	Caylus vase - Wikipedia Caylus vase From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Caylus vase The Caylus vase, with cuneiform script and Egyptian hieroglyph cartouche.[2] First publication of the Caylus vase in 1762.[3] The quadrilingual "Caylus Vase of Xerxes" confirmed the decipherment of cuneiform by Grotefend, once Champollion was able to read Egyptian hieroglyphs.[1] The Caylus vase is a jar in alabaster dedicated in the name of the Achaemenid king Xerxes I in Egyptian hieroglyph and Old Persian cuneiform. It was the key element in confirming the decipherment of Old Persian cuneiform by Grotefend, through the reading of the hieroglyphic part by Champollion in 1823. It also confirmed the antiquity of phonetical hieroglyphs before the time of Alexander the Great, thus corroborating the phonetical decipherment of the names of ancient Egyptian pharaos. The vase was named after Anne Claude de Tubières, count of Caylus, an early French collector, who had acquired the vase in the 18th century, between 1752 and 1765.[2] It is now located in the Cabinet des Médailles, Paris (inv. 65.4695).[2] Contents 1 Description 2 Contribution to the decipherment of cuneiform 2.1 Grotefend hypothesis (1802-1815) 2.2 Champollion decipherment and confirmation (1823) 2.3 Confirmation of the antiquity of phonetical hieroglyphs 3 Similar jars 4 References Description[edit] The vase is made in alabaster, with a height of 29.2 cm, and a diameter of 16 cm.[2] Several similar vase, probably made in Egypt in the name of Xerxes I, have since been found, such as the Jar of Xerxes I, found in the ruins of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. The quadrilingual inscription on the vase (transcription by Georges Albert Legrain). The vase has a quadri-lingual inscription, in Old Persian, Babylonian, and Elamite cuneiforms, and in Egyptian hieroglyphs.[2] All three inscriptions have the same meaning "Xerxes : The Great King". The Old Persian cuneiform inscription in particular, comes first in the series of languages, and reads: 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠 𐏐 𐏋 𐏐 𐎺𐏀𐎼𐎣 ( Xšayāršā : XŠ : vazraka) "Xerxes : The Great King." The line in Egyptian hieroglyph has the same meaning, and critically uses the cartouche for the name of Xerxes. The vase remained undeciphered for a long time after its acquisition by Caylus, but Caylus had already announced in 1762, in his publication of the vase, that the inscription combined the Egyptian script with the cuneiform script found in the monuments of Persepolis.[4] Upon Caylus's death in 1765, the vase was given to the Cabinet des Médailles collection in Paris.[5][2] Contribution to the decipherment of cuneiform[edit] Grotefend hypothesis (1802-1815)[edit] The early attempts at deciphering Old Persian cuneiform were made by Münter and Grotefend by guesswork only, using Achaemenid cuneiform inscriptions found in Persepolis. In 1802, Friedrich Münter realized that recurring groups of characters must be the word for “king” (𐎧𐏁𐎠𐎹𐎰𐎡𐎹, now known to be pronounced xšāyaϑiya). Georg Friedrich Grotefend extended this work by realizing a king's name is often followed by “great king, king of kings” and the name of the king's father.[6][7] This, related to the known chronology of the Achaemenid and the relative sizes of each royal names, allowed Grotefend to figure out the cuneiform characters that are part of Darius, Darius's father Hystaspes, and Darius's son Xerxes. Grotefend's contribution to Old Persian is unique in that he did not have comparisons between Old Persian and known languages, as opposed to the decipherment of the Egyptian hieroglyphics and the Rosetta Stone. All his decipherments were done by comparing the texts with known history.[7] Grotefend presented his deductions in 1802, but they were dismissed by the Academic community, and denied publication.[7] Grotefend has proposed a reading of the cuneiform inscriptions on the Caylus vase since 1805, translating it quite accurately as "Xerxes rex fortis" ("Xerxes, the Strong King", although it is actually "Xerxes, the Great King").[8][9][10][11] He was the first to make this suggestion.[9] Caylus vase inscription according to Grotefend, with proposed translation "Xerxes, the strong King" (Xerxes rex fortis, column to the far right) now read "Xerxes, the Great King". Initially published in German in 1815.[12] Champollion decipherment and confirmation (1823)[edit] Reading of "Xerxes" on the Caylus vase by Champollion, confirming the hypothesis of Grotefend.[13] The vase, in a 1905 engraving It was only in 1823 that Grotefend's discovery was confirmed, when Champollion, who had just deciphered hieroglyphs, had the idea of trying to decrypt the quadrilingual hieroglyph-cuneiform inscription on a famous alabaster vase in the Cabinet des Médailles, the "Caylus vase".[14][1][15] The Egyptian inscription on the vase turned out to be in the name of King Xerxes I, and the orientalist Antoine-Jean Saint-Martin, who accompanied Champollion, was able to confirm that the corresponding words in the cuneiform script (𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠 𐏐 𐏋 𐏐 𐎺𐏀𐎼𐎣, Xšayāršā : XŠ : vazraka, "Xerxes : The Great King") were indeed using the words which Grotefend had identified as meaning "king" and "Xerxes" through guesswork.[14][1][15] The findings were published by A.J. Saint-Martin in Extrait d'un mémoire relatif aux antiques inscriptions de Persépolis lu à l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres.[16][17] Saint-Martin attempted to define an Old Persian cuneiform alphabet, of which 10 letters were correct, on a total of 39 signs he had identified.[18] Caylus vase, transcription by Saint-Martin in 1823.[14] Persepolitan alphabet by Saint-Martin, 1823.[14] Old Persian cuneiform translation by Saint-Martin, 1823.[14] The Caylus vase was key in confirming the validity of the first decipherments of Old Persian cuneiform, and opened the door to the subsequent decipherment of all cuneiform inscriptions as far back as the oldest Akkadian and Sumerian inscriptions.[7] In effect the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs was decisive in confirming the first steps of the decipherment of the cuneiform script.[15] More advances were made on Grotefend's work and by 1847, most of the symbols were correctly identified. The decipherment of the Old Persian Cuneiform script was at the beginning of the decipherment of all the other cuneiform scripts, as various multi-lingual inscriptions between the various cuneiform scripts were obtained form archaeological discoveries.[7] The decipherment of Old Persian was notably useful to the decipherment of Elamite, Babylonian and ultimately Akkadian (predecessor of Babylonian), through the multi-lingual Behistun Inscription. Confirmation of the antiquity of phonetical hieroglyphs[edit] Equivalence between the hieroglyph and cuneiform signs for "Xerxes", made by Champollion, in Tableau Général des signes et groupes hieroglyphiques.[19] The cuneiform script is inverted, probably a typographical error. Main article: Decipherment of ancient Egyptian scripts Champollion had been confronted to the doubts of various scholars regarding the existence of phonetical hieroglyphs before the time of the Greeks and the Romans in Egypt, especially since Champollion had only proved his phonetic system on the basis of the names of Greek and Roman rulers found in hieroglyphs on Egyptian monuments.[20][21] Until his decipherment of the Caylus vase, he hadn't found any foreign names earlier than Alexander the Great that were transliterated through alphabetic hieroglyphs, which led to suspicions that they were invented at the time of the Greeks and Romans, and fostered doubts whether phonetical hieroglyphs could be applied to decipher the names of ancient Egyptian Pharaos.[20][21] For the first time, here was a foreign name ("Xerxes the Great") transcribed phonetically with Egyptians hieroglyphs, already 150 years before Alexander the Great, thereby essentially proving Champollion's thesis.[20] In his Précis du système hiéroglyphique published in 1824, Champollion wrote of this discovery: "It has thus been proved that Egyptian hieroglyphs included phonetic signs, at least since 460 BCE".[22] Similar jars[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Caylus vase. A few similar alabaster jar exist, from the time of Darius I to Xerxes, and to some later Achaemenid rulers, especially Artaxerxes I.[23] Egyptian alabaster vase of Darius I with quadrilingual hieroglyphic and cuneiform inscriptions The Jar of Xerxes I from the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, at time of discovery in 1857. The same jar in the British Museum. Another jar of Xerxes I, at the Metropolitan Museum of Art.[24] The same jar in black and white photography.[25] Fragment of a jar of Xerxes I. Louvre Museum Jar of Xerxes I, year 2. Louvre Museum.[26] Quadrilingual inscription of Artaxerxes I on an Egyptian alabaster vase.[27][28] References[edit] ^ a b c Pages 10-14, note 1 on page 13 Sayce, Archibald Henry (2019). The Archaeology of the Cuneiform Inscriptions. Cambridge University Press. pp. 10–14. ISBN 978-1-108-08239-6. ^ a b c d e f "vase (inv.65.4695) - inv.65.4695 , BnF". medaillesetantiques.bnf.fr (in French). ^ Recueil d'antiquités égyptiennes, étrusques, grecques, romaines et gauloises : Tome cinquième. Bibliothèque de l'Institut National d'Histoire de l'Art, collections Jacques Doucet. 1762. p. Plaque XXX. ^ Caylus (1762). Recueil d'antiquités égyptiennes, étrusques, grecques, romaines et gauloises. Tome 5. p. 80. ^ Hasselbach-Andee, Rebecca (2020). A Companion to Ancient Near Eastern Languages. John Wiley & Sons. p. 10. ISBN 978-1-119-19389-0. ^ Kent, R. G.: "Old Persian: Grammar Texts Lexicon", page 10. American Oriental Society, 1950. ^ a b c d e Sayce, Archibald Henry (2019). The Archaeology of the Cuneiform Inscriptions. Cambridge University Press. pp. 10–14. ISBN 978-1-108-08239-6. ^ Heeren, A. H. L. (Arnold Hermann Ludwig) (1857). Vol. 2: Historical researches into the politics, intercourse, and trade of the principal nations of antiquity. / By A.H.L. Heeren. Tr. from the German. H.G. Bohn. p. 318, plate. ^ a b Pauthier, Guillaume (1842). Sinico-aegyptica: essai sur l'origine et la formation similaire des écritures figuratives chinoise et égyptienne... (in French). Firmin Didot frères. pp. 123–124. ^ Heeren, Arnold Hermann Ludwig (1815). Ideen über die Politik, den Verkehr und den Handel der vornehmsten Völker der alten Welt (in German). Bey Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht. p. 565, plates. ^ Heeren, A. H. L. (Arnold Hermann Ludwig) (1857). Vol. 2: Historical researches into the politics, intercourse, and trade of the principal nations of antiquity. / By A.H.L. Heeren. Tr. from the German. H.G. Bohn. p. 324. ^ Heeren, Arnold Hermann Ludwig (1815). Ideen über die Politik, den Verkehr und den Handel der vornehmsten Völker der alten Welt (in German). Bey Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht. p. 562. ^ Recueil des publications de la Société Havraise d'Études Diverses (in French). Société Havraise d'Etudes Diverses. 1869. p. 423. ^ a b c d e Saint-Martin, Antoine-Jean (January 1823). "Extrait d'un mémoire relatif aux antiques inscriptions de Persépolis lu à l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres". Journal asiatique (in French). Société asiatique (France): 86. ^ a b c Bulletin des sciences historiques, antiquités, philologie (in French). Treuttel et Würtz. 1825. p. 135. ^ Saint-Martin, Antoine-Jean (January 1823). "Extrait d'un mémoire relatif aux antiques inscriptions de Persépolis lu à l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres". Journal asiatique (in French). Société asiatique (France): 65-90. ^ In Journal asiatique II, 1823, PI. II, pp. 65—90 AAGE PALLIS, SVEND. "EARLY EXPLORATION IN MESOPOTAMIA" (PDF): 36. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ The Persian Cuneiform Inscription at Behistun: Decyphered and Tr.; with a Memoir on Persian Cuneiform Inscriptions in General, and on that of Behistun in Particular. J.W. Parker. 1846. p. 6. ^ Champollion, Jean-François (1790-1832) Auteur du texte (1824). Précis du système hiéroglyphique des anciens Égyptiens, ou Recherches sur les éléments premiers de cette écriture sacrée, sur leurs diverses combinaisons, et sur les rapports de ce système avec les autres méthodes graphiques égyptiennes. Planches / . Par Champollion le jeune... ^ a b c Revue archéologique (in French). Leleux. 1844. p. 444. ^ a b Champollion, Jean-François (1790-1832) Auteur du texte (1828). Précis du système hiéroglyphique des anciens Égyptiens, ou Recherches sur les éléments premiers de cette écriture sacrée, sur leurs diverses combinaisons, et sur les rapports de ce système avec les autres méthodes graphiques égyptiennes , par M. Champollion le jeune. Seconde édition... augmentée de la lettre à M. Dacier relative à l'alphabet des hiéroglyphes phonétiques employés par les Égyptiens sur leurs monumens de l'époque grecque et de l'époque romaine,... pp. 225–233. ^ Champollion, Jean-François (1790-1832) Auteur du texte (1828). Précis du système hiéroglyphique des anciens Égyptiens, ou Recherches sur les éléments premiers de cette écriture sacrée, sur leurs diverses combinaisons, et sur les rapports de ce système avec les autres méthodes graphiques égyptiennes , par M. Champollion le jeune. Seconde édition... augmentée de la lettre à M. Dacier relative à l'alphabet des hiéroglyphes phonétiques employés par les Égyptiens sur leurs monumens de l'époque grecque et de l'époque romaine,... pp. 231–233. ^ Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge University Press. 1924. p. 282-283. ISBN 9780521228046. ^ Metropolitan Museum of Art. ^ Metropolitan Museum of Art. ^ "Site officiel du musée du Louvre". cartelfr.louvre.fr. ^ Revue archéologique (in French). Leleux. 1844. p. 444-450. ^ The vase is now in the Reza-Abbasi Museum in Teheran (inv. 53). image inscription Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Caylus_vase&oldid=997834320" Categories: Archaeology of the Achaemenid Empire Xerxes I Achaemenid inscriptions Akkadian inscriptions Elamite language Alabaster Egyptian inscriptions Hidden categories: CS1 French-language sources (fr) CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 errors: missing periodical Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Slovenščina Edit links This page was last edited on 2 January 2021, at 13:09 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2136	----	Intef I - Wikipedia Intef I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Intef I Antef, Inyotef, Anjotef, Anyotef, Enyotef Serekh of Intef I reading "Horus Sehertawy", inscribed posthumously for him by Mentuhotep II in the Temple of Montu at Tod, now in the Egyptian Museum. Pharaoh Reign 4 to 16 years, 2134—2118 BC,[1] c. 2120 BC or c. 2070 BC[2] (11th Dynasty) Predecessor Mentuhotep I Successor Intef II Royal titulary Nomen Sa-Re Intef Sȝ-rˁ-in-it.f Son of Ra, Intef (litt. His father brought him)[3] Horus name Sehertawy Shr-tȝ.wy Maker of peace in the two lands[3] Father uncertain, most probably Mentuhotep I[4] Mother Neferu I Burial Saff tomb at El-Tarif known as "Saff el-Dawba"[4] Sehertawy Intef I was a local nomarch at Thebes during the early First Intermediate Period and the first member of the 11th Dynasty to lay claim to a Horus name. Intef reigned from 4 to 16 years c. 2120 BC or c. 2070 BC[2] during which time he probably waged war with his northern neighbor, the Coptite nomarch Tjauti. Intef was buried in a saff tomb at El-Tarif, known today as Saff el-Dawaba.[4] Contents 1 Sources 2 Reign 3 Tomb 4 References Sources[edit] See also: Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt family tree Intef is known for certain from only one near-contemporary monument: two inscribed blocks from the temple of Montu at Tod which were erected during Mentuhotep II's reign. The blocks represent Mentuhotep II facing the names of three of his ancestors which are identified by their proper name (nomen) and Horus name. These are Intef (I) Sehertawy, Intef (II) Wahankh and Intef (III) Nakht-neb-tep-nefer (although in this case only the Horus names Sehertawy and Wahankh are preserved).[5] This relief establishes the succession of kings of the 11th Dynasty. There are no contemporary monuments which can be positively attributed to Intef I.[6] A possible exception is a short inscription discovered in the western desert: "the assault troops of the son of Re, Intef". In the original publication of the inscription this king Intef is identified with Intef I, although Intef II has also been proposed as a possibility.[4] The inscription is located in the vicinity of an inscription commissioned by the contemporary Coptite nomarch named Tjauti (see below).[7] Intef I is most likely attested on later king lists, but this remains uncertain as his name is either lost or damaged. In the Karnak king list a king Intef appears next to "Men...", most likely Mentuhotep I, as part of the latter's Horus name, "the ancestor", is still visible. The few remains of Intef I's Horus name fit to Sehertawy. The name and duration of the reign of Intef I are not preserved in the Turin Canon, although from an analysis of the available space, it is possible that Intef I was mentioned in what is now a lacuna affecting entry 5.13. The durations of the reigns of the other 11th Dynasty kings are preserved in the Turin Canon and add up to 127 years. Furthermore, the summary of reigns of this Dynasty is also preserved in the Turin Canon and is given as 143 years. On the strength of these much later fragments, the two lost reigns of Mentuhotep I and Intef I have been calculated to add up to 16 years, further implying that Intef's reign lasted for less than 16 years. Thus the duration of Intef's reign is often reported to be between 4 and 16 years.[4] Intef I was succeeded by his brother Intef II who pursued the war with the northern neighbors of the Theban kingdom. Reign[edit] Court of the saff tomb of Intef I, at Saff el-Dawaba Sehertawy Intef I was the first member of his Dynasty to assume a pharaonic title with the Horus name of Sehertawy variously rendered as "Maker of peace in the two lands", "He who has brought calm to the two Lands" and "Pacifier of the two lands".[3][4][8] Intef's parents may possibly have been Mentuhotep I and Neferu I.[4] By taking a Horus name with both crowns, Intef declared himself ruler of all Egypt.[4] However, his authority was contested by the other nomarchs of Egypt, chief among them being the 10th Dynasty rulers at Herakleopolis Magna who also laid claim to the title of pharaoh and their powerful ally Ankhtifi, nomarch of Hierakonpolis, and a faithful follower of the Herakleopolitan Dynasty.[9] On his accession to the Theban throne, Intef probably ruled only the Theban (fourth) nome, but it is conjectured that after defeating Ankhtifi or one of his successors, Intef acquired the three nomes to the south of Thebes, down to Elephantine, and to the north all territories south of the border with the Coptite nome. Alternatively, this may have been achieved by Intef's predecessor Mentuhotep I.[4] Both hypotheses remain conjectural given the paucity of historical records on this period. Intef I got rapidly embroiled in a war with his northern neighbors. A graffito discovered by the Theban Desert Road Survey in the Gebel Tjauti northwest of Thebes reports the presence there of "the assault troops of the son of Ra, Intef".[4][10] It has been posited that this inscription refers to Intef I whose soldiers were fighting the Coptite nomarch Tjauti. In support of this hypothesis is a nearby worn out stele erected by Tjauti reporting the construction of a road to allow his people to cross the desert "which the ruler of another nome had sealed off [when he came in order to] fight with my nome...".[4] Although not named explicitly, Darell Baker and other Egyptologists contend that this ruler must either be Intef I or his successor Intef II.[4] In any case, the subsequent defeat of Tjauti ultimately put Koptos, Dendera and the three nomes of Hierakonpolis under Theban control, expanding the Theban kingdom 250 km northward with a border near Abydos.[4] Tomb[edit] Intef's funerary complex was dug in a hill side at El-Tarif on the opposite bank of the Nile at Thebes and is known today as Saff el-Dawaba. The site of El-Tarif comprises three monumental royal tombs, known as saff tombs. Inscriptions found in one tomb indicate that it belonged to Wahankh Intef II, Intef I's successor. At the opposite, the Saff el-Dawaba is devoid of inscriptions but yielded the earliest type of pottery found at El-Tarif and, for this reason, is most often assigned to Intef I.[2][11] The Saff el-Dawaba comprises a large 300 by 75 metres (984 ft × 246 ft) sunken courtyard backed by a colonnade leading to a mortuary chapel carved into the hill and flanked by two chambers. The burial chamber of Intef I was dug beneath the mortuary chapel.[4] Court of the tomb of Intef I. Portico of the tomb, columns half buried in the sand. Pillared gallery in front of the burial chamber. Burial chamber. References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Intef I. ^ Redford, Donald B., ed. (2001). "Egyptian King List". The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 2. Oxford University Press. pp. 626–628. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) ^ a b c Thomas Schneider: Ancient Egyptian Chronology - Edited by Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss, And David a. Warburton, available online, see p. 491 ^ a b c Clayton, Peter A. Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. p72. 2006. ISBN 0-500-28628-0 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, pp. 143-144 ^ Labib Habachi: King Nebhepetre Menthuhotep: his monuments, place in history, deification and unusual representations in the form of gods, in Mitteilungen des deutschen Archaeologischen Instituts, Kairo 19 (1963), fig. 22) ^ Schneider, op. cit. p. 161 ^ John Coleman Darnell: Theban Desert Road Survey in the Egyptian Western Desert, Volume I, Chicago 2002, ISBN 1-885923-17-1, 38-46 ^ Nicholas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt (Oxford: Blackwell Books, 1992), p. 143 ^ Grimal, p.142 ^ Theban Desert Road Survey website Archived 2013-12-01 at the Wayback Machine ^ Rasha Soliman: Old and Middle Kingdom Theban Tombs, London 2009 ISBN 978-1-906137-09-0, 31-35 Preceded by Mentuhotep I Pharaoh of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty Succeeded by Intef II v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intef_I&oldid=999879683" Categories: 22nd-century BC Pharaohs 21st-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Nomarchs Mentuhotep I Hidden categories: CS1 maint: ref=harv Webarchive template wayback links Commons category link from Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans አማርኛ العربية Azərbaycanca Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 12 January 2021, at 12:00 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2140	----	Hotepibre - Wikipedia Hotepibre From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Hotepibre Qemau Siharnedjheritef Sehotepibre Hornedjheritef Drawing of the ceremonial mace handle with Hotepibre's name, from Ebla Pharaoh Reign 1 to 5 years possible,[1] 1791 BC - 1788 BC (Ryholt)[2] (13th dynasty) Predecessor Ameny Qemau Successor Iufni Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Qemau Siharnedjheritef Qm3.w s3 Ḥr.(w)-nḏ-hr-jt=f[3] Qemau's son, Horus he who seizes his power Nomen Hotepibre Ḥtp-jb-Rˁ Satisfied is the heart of Ra Turin canon: Sehotepibre Sḥtp-jb-Rˁ He who satisfies the heart of Ra Father Ameny Qemau? Hotepibre Qemau Siharnedjheritef (also Sehetepibre I or Sehetepibre II depending on the scholar) was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. According to egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, he was the sixth king of the dynasty, reigning for one to five years, possibly three years, from 1791 BC until 1788 BC.[1][2] Alternatively, Jürgen von Beckerath and Detlef Franke see him as the ninth king of the dynasty.[4][5][6] Family[edit] Qemau Siharnedjheritef complete nomen means "Qemau's son, Horus he who seizes his power" and from this it is likely that he was the son of his predecessor Ameny Qemau and the grandson of king Amenemhat V. Ryholt further proposes that he was succeeded by a king named Iufni, who may have been his brother or uncle. After the short reign of Iufni, the throne went to another grandson of Amenemhat V named Ameny Antef Amenemhat VI.[7] Attestations[edit] A statue dedicated to Ptah and bearing the name of Hotepibre was found in Khatana, but its location of origin is unknown. A Temple-block from el-Atawla with his name is now in the Cairo Museum (Temp 25.4.22.3).[8] This pharaoh is also known by a ceremonial mace found inside the so-called "Tomb of the Lord of the Goats" in Ebla, in modern northern Syria;[9] the mace was a gift from Hotepibre to the Eblaite king Immeya who was his contemporary.[10] Hotepibre is sometimes also credited as the founder of a palace recently rediscovered at Tell El-Dab'a (the ancient Avaris).[11] References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hotepibre. ^ a b Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 120-121 ^ a b K.S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800-1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997 ^ Labib Habachi: Khatâ'na-Qantîr: Importance in Annales du Service des Antiquités de l'Égypte, Nr. 52 (1952), p. 460 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt 1964, p. 39–40, 231–32 (XIII 8) ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46, Mainz am Rhein (1997) ^ Detlef Franke: Zur Chronologie des Mittleren Reiches. Teil II: Die sogenannte Zweite Zwischenzeit Altägyptens, in Orientalia 57 (1988) ^ See Ryholt (1997), pp. 73, 208, 214-215 and 284 ^ See Ryholt (1997), p. 338, File 13/6 ^ Ryholt, K. "Hotepibre - A Supposed Asiatic King in Egypt with Relations to Ebla", Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 311, 1998, pp. 1–6. ^ Matthiae, Paolo (2010). Ebla. La città del trono (in Italian). Einaudi. pp. 218, 303, 349. ISBN 978-88-06-20258-3. ^ Matthiae, Paolo (1997). "Ebla and Syria in the Middle Bronze Age". In Oren, Eliezer D. (ed.). The Hyksos: new historical and archaeological perspectives. The University of Philadelphia, The University Museum. ISBN 0924171464., pp. 397-398. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hotepibre&oldid=994171745" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ebla Hidden categories: CS1 Italian-language sources (it) Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Català Deutsch Español Euskara Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands Português Русский Slovenščina ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 14 December 2020, at 12:45 (UTC). 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Special:BookSources in other language Wikipedias ISBN Prefix Ranges Wikipedia 0 1 English (this page) 2 979-10 French 3 German 4 (Japan) Japanese 5 (Russia, former USSR) Russian 7 (China, PR) 957/986 (Taiwan, ROC) 962/988 (Hong Kong, SAR) 981 (Singapore) 99937 (Macau, SAR) Chinese 80 (Czech Republic) Czech 83 (Poland) Polish 84 (Spain) 950 (Argentina) 956 (Chile) 958 (Colombia) 959 (Cuba) 968/970 (Mexico) 980 (Venezuela) 9942/9978 (Ecuador) Spanish 85 (Brasil) 972 (Portugal) Portuguese 86 (Serbia, Montenegro) Serbian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 953 (Croatia) Croatian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 961 (Slovenia) Slovenian 87 Danish 88 Italian 89 Korean 90 Dutch 91 Swedish 92 International organizations (multilingual) 93 (India) Hindi 93 (India) 955 (Sri Lanka) Tamil 951/952 (Finland) Finnish 953 Bulgarian 955 (Sri Lanka) Sinhalese 960 Greek 963 Hungarian 964/600 (Iran) Persian 965 (Israel) Hebrew 966 (Ukraine) Ukrainian 967 (Malaysia) Malay 969 (Pakistan) Pashto 971 (Philippines) Tagalog 973 (Romania) Romanian 974 (Thailand) Thai 975/9944/605 (Turkey) Turkish 976 (Caribbean Community) See English, Spanish... 977 (Egypt) 978 (Nigeria) 9960/603 (Saudi Arabia) 9931/9947/9961(Algeria) Arabic 979 (Indonesia) Indonesian 982 (South Pacific) See English, French, ... 984 (Bangladesh) Bangla Welsh Bibliographical information These links produce citations in various referencing styles. 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See also Wikipedia:Book sources – "Wikipedia:Book sources" will be clickable in the non-editable version of this page, and will take one to the editable version of this page. Wikipedia talk:Book sources – For questions and discussion about this page. Wikipedia:ISBN – Explanation of MediaWiki software treatment of ISBN numbers. List of academic databases and search engines List of digital library projects List of online encyclopedias List of online databases Wikipedia:List of bibliographies The Wikipedia Library (talk | e) Apply for free access to research! 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en-wikipedia-org-2151	----	Old Persian - Wikipedia Old Persian From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Old Persian language) Jump to navigation Jump to search Language of Achaemenid Empire and ancestor of Middle Persian Old Persian 𐎠𐎼𐎹 Ariya Region Ancient Iran Era Evolved into Middle Persian by c. 300 BCE Language family Indo-European Indo-Iranian Iranian Western Southwestern Old Persian Writing system Old Persian cuneiform Language codes ISO 639-2 peo ISO 639-3 peo Linguist List peo Glottolog oldp1254 This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. Old Persian is one of the two directly attested Old Iranian languages (the other being Avestan) and it is the ancestor of Middle Persian (the language of Sasanian Empire). Like other Old Iranian languages, it was known to its native speakers as ariya (Iranian).[1][2] Old Persian appears primarily in the inscriptions, clay tablets and seals of the Achaemenid era (c. 600 BCE to 300 BCE). Examples of Old Persian have been found in what is now Iran, Romania (Gherla),[3][4][5] Armenia, Bahrain, Iraq, Turkey and Egypt,[6][7] with the most important attestation by far being the contents of the Behistun Inscription (dated to 525 BCE). Recent research (2007) into the vast Persepolis Fortification Archive at the Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago have unearthed Old Persian tablets, which suggest Old Persian was a written language in use for practical recording and not only for royal display.[8] Contents 1 Origin and overview 2 Classification 3 Language evolution 4 Substrates 5 Script 6 Phonology 7 Grammar 7.1 Nouns 7.2 Verbs 8 Lexicon 9 See also 10 Notes 11 Bibliography 12 Further reading Origin and overview[edit] As a written language, Old Persian is attested in royal Achaemenid inscriptions. It is an Iranian language and as such a member of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. The oldest known text written in Old Persian is from the Behistun Inscriptions.[9] Old Persian is one of the oldest Indo-European languages which are attested in original texts.[10] The oldest date of use of Old Persian as a spoken language is not precisely known. According to certain historical assumptions about the early history and origin of ancient Persians in Southwestern Iran (where Achaemenids hailed from), Old Persian was originally spoken by a tribe called Parsuwash, who arrived in the Iranian Plateau early in the 1st millennium BCE and finally migrated down into the area of present-day Fārs province. Their language, Old Persian, became the official language of the Achaemenid kings.[10] Assyrian records, which in fact appear to provide the earliest evidence for ancient Iranian (Persian and Median) presence on the Iranian Plateau, give a good chronology but only an approximate geographical indication of what seem to be ancient Persians. In these records of the 9th century BCE, Parsuwash (along with Matai, presumably Medians) are first mentioned in the area of Lake Urmia in the records of Shalmaneser III.[11] The exact identity of the Parsuwash is not known for certain, but from a linguistic viewpoint the word matches Old Persian pārsa itself coming directly from the older word *pārćwa.[11] Also, as Old Persian contains many words from another extinct Iranian language, Median, according to P. O. Skjærvø it is probable that Old Persian had already been spoken before the formation of the Achaemenid Empire and was spoken during most of the first half of the first millennium BCE.[10] Xenophon, a Greek general serving in some of the Persian expeditions, describes many aspects of Armenian village life and hospitality in around 401 BCE, which is when Old Persian was still spoken and extensively used. He relates that the Armenian people spoke a language that to his ear sounded like the language of the Persians.[12] Classification[edit] Main article: Old Iranian languages Old Persian belongs to the Iranian language family which is a branch of the Indo-Iranian language family, itself within the large family of Indo-European languages. The common ancestors of Indo-Iranians came from Central Asia sometime in the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE. The extinct and unattested Median language is another Old Iranian language related to Old Persian (for example, both are classified as Western Iranian languages and many Median names appeared in Old Persian texts)[13] The group of Old Iranian languages was presumably a large group; however knowledge of it is restricted mainly to Old Persian, Avestan and Median. The former are the only languages in that group which have left written original texts while Median is known mostly from loanwords in Old Persian.[14] Language evolution[edit] By the 4th century BCE, the late Achaemenid period, the inscriptions of Artaxerxes II and Artaxerxes III differ enough from the language of Darius' inscriptions to be called a "pre-Middle Persian," or "post-Old Persian."[15] Old Persian subsequently evolved into Middle Persian, which is in turn the ancestor of New Persian. Professor Gilbert Lazard, a famous Iranologist and the author of the book Persian Grammar states:[16] The language known as New Persian, which usually is called at this period (early Islamic times) by the name of Parsi-Dari, can be classified linguistically as a continuation of Middle Persian, the official religious and literary language of Sassanian Iran, itself a continuation of Old Persian, the language of the Achaemenids. Unlike the other languages and dialects, ancient and modern, of the Iranian group such as Avestan, Parthian, Soghdian, Kurdish, Pashto, etc., Old, Middle and New Persian represent one and the same language at three states of its history. It had its origin in Fars and is differentiated by dialectical features, still easily recognizable from the dialect prevailing in north-western and eastern Iran. Middle Persian, also sometimes called Pahlavi, is a direct continuation of Old Persian and was used as the written official language of the country.[17][18] Comparison of the evolution at each stage of the language shows great simplification in grammar and syntax. However, New Persian is a direct descendant of Middle and Old Persian.[19] Substrates[edit] Old Persian "presumably"[15] has a Median language substrate. The Median element is readily identifiable because it did not share in the developments that were peculiar to Old Persian. Median forms "are found only in personal or geographical names [...] and some are typically from religious vocabulary and so could in principle also be influenced by Avestan." "Sometimes, both Median and Old Persian forms are found, which gave Old Persian a somewhat confusing and inconsistent look: 'horse,' for instance, is [attested in Old Persian as] both asa (OPers.) and aspa (Med.)."[15] Script[edit] Main article: Old Persian cuneiform Close-up of the Behistun inscription An Old Persian inscription in Persepolis Old Persian texts were written from left to right in the syllabic Old Persian cuneiform script and had 36 phonetic characters and 8 logograms. The usage of logograms is not obligatory.[20] The script was surprisingly[21] not a result of evolution of the script used in the nearby civilisation of Mesopotamia.[22] Despite the fact that Old Persian was written in cuneiform script, the script was not a direct continuation of Mesopotamian tradition and in fact, according to Schmitt, was a "deliberate creation of the sixth century BCE".[22] The origin of the Old Persian cuneiform script and the identification of the date and process of introduction are a matter of discussion among Iranian scholars with no general agreement having been reached. The factors making the consensus difficult are, among others, the difficult passage DB (IV lines 88–92) from Darius the Great who speaks of a new "form of writing" being made by himself which is said to be "in Aryan": King Darius says: By the grace of Ahuramazda this is the inscription which I have made. Besides, it was in Aryan ("ariyâ") script, and it was composed on clay tablets and on parchment. Besides, a sculptured figure of myself I made. — Behistun Inscription (IV lines 88–92)[23] Also, the analysis of certain Old Persian inscriptions are "supposed or claimed" to predate Darius the Great. Although it is true that the oldest attested Old Persian inscriptions are from Behistun monument from Darius, the creation of this "new type of writing" seems, according to Schmitt, "to have begun already under Cyrus the Great".[9] The script shows a few changes in the shape of characters during the period it was used. This can be seen as a standardization of the heights of wedges, which in the beginning (i.e. in DB) took only half the height of a line.[24] Phonology[edit] The following phonemes are expressed in the Old Persian script: Vowels Long: /aː/ /iː/ /uː/ Short: /a/ /i/ /u/ Consonants Labial Dental/ Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal Nasal m n Plosive p b t d k ɡ Fricative f θ x h Affricate t͡s t͡ʃ d͡ʒ Sibilant s z ʃ Rhotic r Approximant l j w Notes: Lycian 𐊋𐊆𐊈𐊈𐊀𐊓𐊕𐊑𐊏𐊀 Kizzaprñna ~ 𐊈𐊆𐊖𐊀𐊓𐊕𐊑𐊏𐊀 Zisaprñna for (genuine) Old Persian *Ciçafarnā (besides the Median form *Ciθrafarnah) = Tissaphernes suggests /t͡s/ as the pronunciation of ç (compare [2] and Kloekhorst 2008, p. 125 in [3] for this example, who, however, mistakenly writes Çiçafarnā, which contradicts the etymology [PIIr. *Čitra-swarnas-] and the Middle Persian form Čehrfar [ç gives Middle Persian s]). The phoneme /l/ does not occur in native Iranian vocabulary, only in borrowings from Akkadian (a new /l/ develops in Middle Persian from Old Persian /rd/ and the change of /rθ/ to /hl/). The phoneme /r/ can also form a syllable peak; both the way Persian names with syllabic /r/ (such as Brdiya) are rendered in Elamite and its further development in Middle Persian suggest that before the syllabic /r/, an epenthetic vowel [i] had developed already in the Old Persian period, which later became [u] after labials. For example, Old Persian Vᵃ-rᵃ-kᵃ-a-nᵃ /wr̩kaːna/ is rendered in Elamite as Mirkānu-,[25] rendering transcriptions such as V(a)rakāna, Varkāna or even Vurkāna questionable and making Vrkāna or Virkāna much more realistic (and equally for vrka- "wolf", Brdiya and other Old Persian words and names with syllabic /r/). While v usually became /v/ in Middle Persian, it became /b/ word-initially, except before [u] (including the epenthetic vowel mentioned above), where it became /g/. This suggests that it was really pronounced as [w]. Grammar[edit] Nouns[edit] Old Persian stems: a-stems (-a, -am, -ā) i-stems (-iš, iy) u- (and au-) stems (-uš, -uv) consonantal stems (n, r, h) -a -am -ā Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural Nominative -a -ā -ā, -āha -am -ā -ā -ā -ā -ā Vocative -ā -ā Accusative -am -ām Instrumental/ Ablative -ā -aibiyā -aibiš -ā -aibiyā -aibiš -āyā -ābiyā -ābiš Dative -ahyā, -ahya -ahyā, -ahya Genitive -āyā -ānām -āyā -ānām -āyā -ānām Locative -aiy -aišuvā -aiy -aišuvā -āšuvā -iš -iy -uš -uv Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural Nominative -iš -īy -iya -iy -in -īn -uš -ūv -uva -uv -un -ūn Vocative -i -u Accusative -im -iš -um -ūn Instrumental/ Ablative -auš -ībiyā -ībiš -auš -ībiyā -ībiš -auv -ūbiyā -ūbiš -auv -ūbiyā -ūbiš Dative -aiš -aiš -auš -auš Genitive -īyā -īnām -īyā -īnām -ūvā -ūnām -ūvā -ūnām Locative -auv -išuvā -auv -išuvā -āvā -ušuvā -āvā -ušuvā Adjectives are declinable in similar way. Verbs[edit] Voices Active, Middle (them. pres. -aiy-, -ataiy-), Passive (-ya-). Mostly the forms of first and third persons are attested. The only preserved Dual form is ajīvatam 'both lived'. Present, Active Athematic Thematic 'be' 'bring' Sg. 1.pers. aʰmiy barāmiy 3.pers. astiy baratiy Pl. 1.pers. aʰmahiy barāmahiy 3.pers. hatiy baratiy Imperfect, Active Athematic Thematic 'do, make' 'be, become' Sg. 1.pers. akunavam abavam 3.pers. akunauš abava Pl. 1.pers. akumā abavāmā 3.pers. akunava abava Present participle Active Middle -nt- -amna- Past participle -ta- Infinitive -tanaiy Lexicon[edit] Proto-Indo-Iranian Old Persian Middle Persian Modern Persian meaning *Hasura MazdʰaH Ahura Mazda Ohrmazd 𐭠𐭥𐭧𐭥𐭬𐭦𐭣 Ormazd اورمزد Ahura Mazda *Haĉwas aspa asp asb اسب/asp اسپ horse *kaHmas kāma (𐎣𐎠𐎶) kām kām کام desire *daywas daiva (𐎭𐎡𐎺) dēw div دیو devil *ĵrayas drayah (𐎭𐎼𐎹) drayā daryā دریا sea *ĵʰastas dasta (𐎭𐎿𐎫) dast 𐭩𐭣𐭤 dast دست hand *bʰagas bāji bāj bāj باج/باژ toll *bʰraHtā brātar (𐎲𐎼𐎠𐎫𐎠) brâdar barādar برادر brother *bʰuHmiš būmi (𐏏) būm 𐭡𐭥𐭬 būm بوم region, land *martyas martya (𐎶𐎼𐎫𐎡𐎹) mard mard مرد man *māHas māha (𐎶𐎠𐏃) māh 𐭡𐭩𐭥𐭧 māh ماه moon, month *wasr̥ vāhara wahār bahār بهار spring *stʰuHnaH stūnā (𐎿𐎬𐎢𐎴𐎠) stūn sotūn ستون stand (column) *ĉyaHtas šiyāta (𐏁𐎡𐎹𐎠𐎫) šād šād شاد happy *Hr̥tas arta ard ord ارد order, truth *dʰrawgʰas druj (𐎭𐎼𐎢𐎥) drugh dorugh دروغ lie *ĉwáHdʰaH spada spah 𐭮𐭯𐭠𐭧 sepah سپاه army See also[edit] Asia portal Category:Old Persian language Notes[edit] ^ cf. Gershevitch, Ilya (1968). "Old Iranian Literature". Handbuch der Orientalistik, Literatur I. Leiden: Brill. pp. 1–31., p. 2. ^ Gnoli, Gherardo (2006). "Iranian Identity ii. Pre-Islamic Period". Encyclopædia Iranica. 13. New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. ... in the Old Persian version, whose language was called "Iranian" or ariya. ^ Kuhrt 2013, p. 197. ^ Frye 1984, p. 103. ^ Schmitt 2000, p. 53. ^ "Old Persian Texts". ^ Kent, R. G.: "Old Persian: Grammar Texts Lexicon", page 6. American Oriental Society, 1950. ^ "Everyday text shows that Old Persian was probably more commonly used than previously thought". Accessed September 2010 from [1] ^ a b (Schmitt 2008, pp. 80–1) harv error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFSchmitt2008 (help) ^ a b c (Skjærvø 2006, vi(2). Documentation. Old Persian.) ^ a b (Skjærvø 2006, vi(1). Earliest Evidence) ^ Xenophon. Anabasis. pp. IV.v.2–9. ^ (Schmitt 2008, p. 76) harv error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFSchmitt2008 (help) ^ ((Skjærvø 2006) harv error: no target: CITEREF(Skjærvø2006 (help) ^ a b c Skjærvø, Prods Oktor (2005), An Introduction to Old Persian (PDF) (2nd ed.), Cambridge: Harvard ^ (Lazard, Gilbert 1975, “The Rise of the New Persian Language” in Frye, R. N., The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 4, pp. 595-632, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ^ Ulrich Ammon, Norbert Dittmar, Klaus J. Mattheier, Peter Trudgill, "Sociolinguistics Hsk 3/3 Series Volume 3 of Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society", Walter de Gruyter, 2006. 2nd edition. pg 1912: "Middle Persian, also called Pahlavi is a direct continuation of old Persian, and was used as the written official language of the country." "However, after the Moslem conquest and the collapse of the Sassanids, Arabic became the dominant language of the country and Pahlavi lost its importance, and was gradually replaced by Dari, a variety of Middle Persian, with considerable loan elements from Arabic and Parthian." ^ Bo Utas, "Semitic on Iranian", in "Linguistic convergence and areal diffusion: case studies from Iranian, Semitic and Turkic" editors (Éva Ágnes Csató, Bo Isaksson, Carina Jahani),Routledge, 2005. pg 71: "As already mentioned, it is not likely that the scribes of Sassanian chanceries had any idea about the Old Persian cuneiform writing and the language couched in it. Still, the Middle Persian language that appeared in the third century AD may be seen as a continuation of Old Persian ^ Skjærvø, Prods Oktor (2006), "Iran, vi. Iranian languages and scripts", Encyclopaedia Iranica, 13. ^ (Schmitt 2008, p. 78) harv error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFSchmitt2008 (help) ^ (Schmitt 2008, p. 78) harv error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFSchmitt2008 (help) Excerpt: "It remains unclear why the Persians did not take over the Mesopotamian system in earlier times, as the Elamites and other peoples of the Near East had, and, for that matter, why the Persians did not adopt the Aramaic consonantal script.." ^ a b (Schmitt 2008, p. 77) harv error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFSchmitt2008 (help) ^ Behistun T 42 - Livius. ^ (Schmitt 2008, p. 79) harv error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFSchmitt2008 (help) ^ Stolper, M. W. (1997), "Mirkānu", in Ebeling, Erich; Meissner, Bruno; Edzard, Dietz Otto (eds.), Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologie: Meek – Mythologie, 8, Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter, p. 221, ISBN 978-3-11-014809-1, retrieved 15 August 2013 Bibliography[edit] Brandenstein, Wilhelm (1964), Handbuch des Altpersischen, Wiesbaden: O. Harrassowitz Hinz, Walther (1966), Altpersischer Wortschatz, Nendeln, Liechtenstein: Kraus Frye, Richard Nelson (1984). Handbuch der Altertumswissenschaft: Alter Orient-Griechische Geschichte-Römische Geschichte. Band III,7: The History of Ancient Iran. C.H.Beck. ISBN 978-3406093975. Kent, Roland G. (1953), Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon, New Haven: American Oriental Society Kuhrt, A. (2013). The Persian Empire: A Corpus of Sources from the Achaemenid Period. Routledge. ISBN 978-1136016943. Sims-Williams, Nicholas (1996), "Iranian languages", Encyclopedia Iranica, 7, Costa Mesa: Mazda: 238-245 Schmitt, Rüdiger (1989), "Altpersisch", in R. Schmitt (ed.), Compendium linguarum Iranicarum, Wiesbaden: Reichert: 56–85 Schmitt, Rüdiger (2000). The Old Persian Inscriptions of Naqsh-i Rustam and Persepolis. Corpus Inscriptionum Iranicarum by School of Oriental and African Studies. ISBN 978-0728603141. Schmitt, R. (2008), "Old Persian", in Roger D. Woodard (ed.), The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas (illustrated ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 76–100, ISBN 978-0521684941 Skjærvø, Prods Oktor (2006), "Iran, vi. Iranian languages and scripts", Encyclopaedia Iranica, 13 Tolman, Herbert Cushing (1908), Ancient Persian Lexicon and the Texts of the Achaemenidan Inscriptions Transliterated and Translated with Special Reference to Their Recent Re-examination, New York/Cincinnati: American Book Company Further reading[edit] Edwin Lee Johnson (1917), Historical grammar of the ancient Persian language, Volume 8 of Vanderbilt oriental series, American book company, p. 251, retrieved 2011-07-06 Edwin Lee Johnson (1917), Historical grammar of the ancient Persian language, Volume 8 of Vanderbilt oriental series, American book company, p. 251, retrieved 2011-07-06 Herbert Cushing Tolman (1892), Grammar of the Old Persian language: with the inscriptions of the Achaemenian kings and vocabulary, Ginn, p. 55, retrieved 2011-07-06 Herbert Cushing Tolman (1893), A guide to the Old Persian inscriptions, American book company, p. 186, retrieved 2011-07-06 Edwin Lee Johnson (1910), Herbert Cushing Tolman (ed.), Cuneiform supplement (autographed) to the author's Ancient Persian lexicon and texts: with brief historical synopsis of the language, Volume 7 of Vanderbilt oriental series, American Book Co., p. 122, retrieved 2011-07-06 translated by Herbert Cushing Tolman (1908), Ancient Persian lexicon and the texts of the Achaemenidan inscriptions transliterated and translated with special reference to their recent re-examination, by Herbert Cushing Tolman .., Volume 6 of Vanderbilt oriental series, American Book Company, p. 134, retrieved 2011-07-06 Herbert Cushing Tolman (1908), Ancient Persian lexicon and the texts of the Achaemenidan inscriptions transliterated and translated with special reference to their recent re-examination, by Herbert Cushing Tolman .., Volume 6 of Vanderbilt oriental series, American Book Company, p. 134, retrieved 2011-07-06 Darius I (King of Persia) (1908), Translated by Herbert Cushing Tolman (ed.), The Behistan inscription of King Darius: translation and critical notes to the Persian text with special reference to recent re-examinations of the rock, Volume 1, Issue 1 of Vanderbilt University studies ATLA monograph preservation program Volume 3384 of Harvard College Library preservation microfilm program (reprint ed.), Vanderbilt University, p. 39, retrieved 2011-07-06 Darius I (King of Persia) (1908), Herbert Cushing Tolman (ed.), The Behistan inscription of King Darius: translation and critical notes to the Persian text with special reference to recent re-examinations of the rock, Volume 1, Issue 1 of Vanderbilt University studies, Vanderbilt university, p. 39, retrieved 2011-07-06 Skjærvø, Prods Oktor (2005), An Introduction to Old Persian (PDF) (2nd ed.), Cambridge: Harvard Peterson, Joseph H. (2006), Old Persian Texts, Herndon, VA: avesta.org Harvey, Scott L., Old Iranian Online Windfuhr, Gernot L. (1995), "Cases in Iranian languages and dialects", Encyclopedia Iranica, 5, Costa Mesa: Mazda, pp. 25–37, archived from the original on 2007-11-04 Stolper, Matthew W. & Jan Tavernier (1995), "From the Persepolis Fortification Archive Project, 1: An Old Persian Administrative Tablet from the Persepolis Fortification", Arta, 2007:1, Paris: Achemenet.com Schmitt, R. (2008), "Old Persian", in Roger D. Woodard (ed.), The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas (illustrated ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 76–100, ISBN 978-0521684941 Asatrian, Garnik (2010), Etymological Dictionary of Persian, Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series, 12, Brill Academic Publishers, ISBN 978-90-04-18341-4 v t e Achaemenid Empire History Kingdom Family tree Timeline History of democracy Art Achaemenid Persian Lion Rhyton Achaemenid coinage Danake Persian daric Architecture Achaemenid architecture Persepolis Pasargadae Tomb of Cyrus Naqsh-e Rostam Ka'ba-ye Zartosht Mausoleum at Halicarnassus Tombs at Xanthos Harpy Tomb Nereid Monument Tomb of Payava Culture Persepolis Administrative Archives Old Persian cuneiform Old Persian Behistun Inscription Xerxes I's inscription at Van Ganjnameh Warfare Persian Revolt Battle of Hyrba Battle of the Persian Border Lydian-Persian Wars Battle of Pteria Battle of Thymbra Siege of Sardis (547 BC) Battle of Opis First conquest of Egypt Battle of Cunaxa Conquest of the Indus Valley Scythian campaign of Darius I Greco-Persian Wars Ionian Revolt Battle of Thermopylae Battle of Artemisium Battle of Salamis Battle of Plataea Battle of Mycale Battle of Marathon Delian League Battle of Lade Siege of Eretria Siege of Naxos (499 BC) Wars of the Delian League Battle of the Eurymedon Peloponnesian War Battle of Cyzicus Corinthian War Battle of Cnidus Great Satraps' Revolt Second conquest of Egypt Wars of Alexander the Great Battle of Gaugamela Battle of the Granicus Battle of the Persian Gate Battle of Issus Siege of Gaza Siege of Halicarnassus Siege of Miletus Siege of Perinthus Siege of Tyre (332 BC) Related Achaemenid dynasty Pharnacid dynasty Peace of Antalcidas Peace of Callias Kingdom of Pontus Mithridatic dynasty Kingdom of Cappadocia Ariarathid dynasty 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire Districts of the Empire Royal Road Xanthian Obelisk v t e Persian language History Proto-Indo-European (c. 3000 BCE) Proto-Indo-Iranian (c. 2000 BCE) Proto-Iranian (c. 1500 BCE) Old Persian (c. 525 – 300 BCE) Middle Persian (c. 300 BCE – 800 CE) Modern Persian (from 800) Language families Indo-Iranian languages Iranian languages Western Iranian languages Dialects and varieties Western (Iranian) Dari (Afghanistan) Tajik Hazaragi Aimaq Kuwaiti Persian Tat Judeo-Persian Judeo-Tat (Juhuri) Bukhori Sistani Dehwari Standard Persian Language features Vocabulary Nouns Verbs Phonology Grammar Persian grammar Ezāfe Tajik grammar Writing system Old Persian cuneiform Pahlavi scripts Persian alphabet Persian calligraphy Tajik alphabet Romanized Persian alphabet Persian Braille Literature Persian literature Middle Persian literature Tajik literature Other topics List of English words of Persian origin List of French loanwords in Persian List of territorial entities where Persian is an official language Persian language in South Asia v t e Iranian languages Old Eastern Avestan Old Scythian Western Median Old Persian Middle Eastern 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en-wikipedia-org-2152	----	Harry Turtledove - Wikipedia Harry Turtledove From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search American science fiction writer This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize its key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (May 2020) Harry Turtledove Turtledove at the 2005 Worldcon Born (1949-06-14) June 14, 1949 (age 71) Los Angeles, California, United States Pen name Dan Chernenko, Eric G. Iverson, Mark Gordian, H. N. Turteltaub Occupation Novelist, short story author, essayist, historian Alma mater California Institute of Technology (dropped out) University of California, Los Angeles Genre Science fiction, fantasy, alternate history, historical fiction, history Notable works Southern Victory Worldwar Crosstime Traffic The Guns of the South The Two Georges Website www.sfsite.com/~silverag/turtledove.html Harry Norman Turtledove (born June 14, 1949) is an American author who is best known for his work in the genres of alternate history, historical fiction, fantasy, science fiction, and mystery fiction. Contents 1 Early life 2 Career 3 Bibliography 3.1 Writing as Eric Iverson 3.1.1 Elabon 3.2 Writing as H. N. Turteltaub 3.2.1 Hellenic Traders 3.3 Writing as Harry Turtledove 3.3.1 Videssos 3.3.2 Worldwar / Colonization 3.3.3 Southern Victory 3.3.4 Darkness / Derlavai 3.3.5 War Between the Provinces 3.3.6 Crosstime Traffic 3.3.7 Days of Infamy 3.3.8 Atlantis 3.3.9 Opening of the World 3.3.10 The War That Came Early 3.3.11 Supervolcano 3.3.12 The Hot War 3.3.13 State of Jefferson Stories 3.3.14 Standalone books 3.3.15 Short stories 3.4 Nonfiction 3.5 Web publishing 4 References 5 External links Early life[edit] Turtledove was born in Los Angeles, California on June 14, 1949 and grew up in Gardena, California. His paternal grandparents, who were Romanian Jews, had first emigrated to Winnipeg, Manitoba, before they moved to California, United States.[1][2] He was educated in local public schools during his early life. After dropping out during his freshman year at Caltech, Turtledove attended UCLA, where he completed his undergraduate degree and received a Ph.D. in Byzantine history in 1977. His dissertation was The Immediate Successors of Justinian: A Study of the Persian Problem and of Continuity and Change in Internal Secular Affairs in the Later Roman Empire During the Reigns of Justin II and Tiberius II Constantine (AD 565–582).[3][4] Career[edit] Part of a series on Alternate history Notable examples Abraham Lincoln: Vampire Hunter Atlantis: The Lost Empire Bring the Jubilee Command & Conquer: Red Alert District 9 Fallout Fatherland The Good Dinosaur The Guns of the South Inglourious Basterds The Man in the High Castle The Plot Against America Red Dawn The Russian Sleep Experiment Snowpiercer Southern Victory Utopia Wolfenstein Worldwar The Yiddish Policemen's Union People Dick Harris More Stirling Turtledove Elements Alien space bats Butterfly effect Hypothetical Axis victory Multiple universes Parallel timeline Point of divergence Retrofuturism Time travel Related topics Counterfactual history Fantasy Historical fiction Science fiction Sidewise Award for Alternate History Speculative fiction  Speculative fiction portal  History portal v t e Turtledove published his first two novels, Wereblood and Werenight, in 1979 under the pseudonym "Eric G. Iverson." He later explained that his editor at Belmont Tower did not think that people would believe the author's real name was "Turtledove" and came up with something more Nordic.[5] He continued to use "Iverson" until 1985. Another early pseudonym was "Mark Gordian." That year, he published Herbig-Haro and And So to Bed under his real name. Turtledove has recently begun publishing historical novels under the pseudonym "H. N. Turteltaub" (Turteltaube means turtle dove in German).[6] He published three books as "Dan Chernenko" (the Scepter of Mercy series). He has written several works in collaboration, including The Two Georges with Richard Dreyfuss, "Death in Vesunna" with his first wife, Betty Turtledove (pen name: Elaine O'Byrne); Household Gods with Judith Tarr; and others with Susan Shwartz, S.M. Stirling, and Kevin R. Sandes. Turtledove won the Homer Award for Short Story in 1990 for "Designated Hitter," the John Esten Cooke Award for Southern Fiction in 1993 for "The Guns of the South," and the Hugo Award for Novella in 1994 for "Down in the Bottomlands." Must and Shall was nominated for the 1996 Hugo Award and Nebula Award for Best Novelette and received an honorable mention for the 1995 Sidewise Award for Alternate History. The Two Georges also received an honorable mention for the 1995 Sidewise Award for Alternate History. His Worldwar series received a Sidewise Award for Alternate History Honorable Mention in 1996. In 1998, his novel How Few Remain won the Sidewise Award for Alternate History. He won his second Sidewise Award in 2003 for his novel Ruled Britannia.[7] He won his third Sidewise Award for his short story "Zigeuner."[8] On August 1, 1998, Turtledove was named honorary Kentucky Colonel as Guest of Honor at Rivercon XXIII in Louisville, Kentucky. His The Gladiator was the cowinner of the 2008 Prometheus Award. Turtledove served as the toastmaster for Chicon 2000, the 58th World Science Fiction Convention.[9] He is married to the mystery and science fiction writer Laura Frankos. His brother-in-law is the fantasy author Steven Frankos. Publishers Weekly dubbed Turtledove "The Master of Alternate History."[10] Within the genre, he is known for creating original alternate history scenarios, such as survival of the Byzantine Empire or an alien invasion during the middle of the Second World War. In addition, he has been credited with giving original treatment to alternate themes that had been dealt with by many others, such as the victory of the South in the American Civil War or the victory of Nazi Germany during the Second World War. His novels have been credited with bringing alternate history into the mainstream.[11] Bibliography[edit] Writing as Eric Iverson[edit] Elabon[edit] Wereblood (1979) Werenight (1979, revised in 1994 to include Wereblood) Prince of the North (1994) (as by Harry Turtledove) King of the North (1996) (as by Harry Turtledove) Fox and Empire (1998) (as by Harry Turtledove) Wisdom of the Fox (1999, collects the revised Werenight and Prince of the North) (as by Harry Turtledove) Tale of the Fox (2000, collects King of the North and Fox and Empire) (as by Harry Turtledove) Writing as H. N. Turteltaub[edit] Justinian (1998) Hellenic Traders[edit] The historical fiction series is about two cousins who are traveling merchants in the 4th-century BC Mediterranean. Over the Wine Dark Sea (2001) The Gryphon's Skull (2002) The Sacred Land (2003) Owls to Athens (2004) Salamis (2020) Writing as Harry Turtledove[edit] Videssos[edit] The series is set in a world analogous to the real-life Byzantine Empire. The Videssos cycle: One of Julius Caesar's legions is transported to a world that resembles the then-future Byzantine Empire but with magic. The Misplaced Legion (1987) An Emperor for the Legion (1987) The Legion of Videssos (1987) Swords of the Legion (1987) The Tale of Krispos series Krispos Rising (1991) Krispos of Videssos (1991) Krispos the Emperor (1994) The Time of Troubles series The Stolen Throne (1995) Hammer and Anvil (1996) The Thousand Cities (1997) Videssos Besieged (1998) The Bridge of the Separator (2005) Worldwar / Colonization[edit] The series incorporates elements of both science fiction and alternate history. In Worldwar, aliens invade during World War II in 1941. The Colonization trilogy deals with the course of history a generation after the initial series, as the humans and aliens work to share Earth. Homeward Bound follows a human spaceship that brings a delegation to the alien homeworld. Worldwar tetralogy In the Balance (1994) Tilting the Balance (1995) Upsetting the Balance (1996) Striking the Balance (1996) Colonization trilogy Second Contact (1999) Down to Earth (2000) Aftershocks (2001) Homeward Bound (2004) Southern Victory[edit] Order 191 is never found by Union troops during the Maryland Campaign and so the Battle of Antietam never occurs. Instead, the Army of Northern Virginia, under Robert E. Lee, marches into Pennsylvania, crushes George B. McClellan's Army of the Potomac at Camp Hill, and proceeds to capture the city of Philadelphia. As a result, the Confederacy wins the War of Secession in 1862 with official recognition as an independent nation from Britain and France. Another popular moniker for the series is Timeline-191. How Few Remain (1997) The Great War trilogy American Front (1998) Walk in Hell (1999) Breakthroughs (2000) The American Empire trilogy Blood and Iron (2001) The Center Cannot Hold (2002) The Victorious Opposition (2003) The Settling Accounts tetralogy Return Engagement (2004) Drive to the East (2005) The Grapple (2006) In at the Death (2007) Darkness / Derlavai[edit] The fantasy series is about a global war that occurs in a world related to medieval Europe in which magic exists. Many plot elements are analogous to elements of World War II, with kingdoms and sorceries that are comparable to the historical nations and technologies. Into the Darkness (1999) Darkness Descending (2000) Through the Darkness (2001) Rulers of the Darkness (2002) Jaws of Darkness (2003) Out of the Darkness (2004) War Between the Provinces[edit] The fantasy series is based heavily on the American Civil War except that magic exists, the geography of the North and South have been reversed, and blond-haired serfs are featured rather than black slaves. Sentry Peak (2000) Marching Through Peachtree (2001) Advance and Retreat (2002) Crosstime Traffic[edit] Travel between parallel timelines, for the purpose of harvesting resources, has become possible in the late 21st century. It is a young adult fiction series and so racial slurs, profanity, and sex are considerably muted, compared to Turtledove's other work. Gunpowder Empire (2003) - the Roman Empire won an analog of the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest and still goes strong, but technology never advanced beyond the discovery of gunpowder. Curious Notions (2004) - the German Empire won a Blitzkrieg version of World War I in 1914. In High Places (2006) - the effects of the 14th century's bubonic plagues were doubled, so that the world never left the Middle Ages. The Disunited States of America (2006) - the United States did not form a federal government in 1787, and North America balkanized into several dozen nation-states who have periodic border wars. The Gladiator (2007) - the Soviet Union won the Cold War, and Italy became an inefficient impoverished communist nation. The Valley-Westside War (2008) - civilization remains at a quasi-medieval level since the nuclear world war of 1967. Days of Infamy[edit] The Japanese Empire gains the initiative in the Pacific War by invading and occupying Hawaii immediately following the attack on Pearl Harbor. Days of Infamy (2004) End of the Beginning (2005) Atlantis[edit] The trilogy describes a world in which the American East Coast, from the tip of Florida to Nova Scotia, broke away from the mainland around 85 million years ago and has an island biota that is similar to New Zealand's. It was discovered in 1452 by a Breton fisherman, François Kersauzon, it was named Atlantis. The seventh continent becomes a focal point in a gradually-diverging timeline. Two short stories, "Audubon in Atlantis" and "The Scarlet Band," have been set in the milieu. Opening Atlantis (2007) The United States of Atlantis (2008) Liberating Atlantis (2009) Atlantis and Other Places (2010) contains "Audubon in Atlantis" and "The Scarlet Band" (a Sherlock Holmes pastiche of A Study in Scarlet and "The Adventure of the Speckled Band" in which the Dr. Watson analog repeatedly voices racial concepts common to that time) among ten other unrelated stories. Opening Atlantis was nominated for the 2009 Prometheus Award.[12] Opening of the World[edit] The trilogy describes a fantasy world in which inhabitants of an empire that is of the Iron Age but has Pleistocene wildlife explore a land uncovered by a receding glacier and then discover a threat to their national security. Beyond the Gap (2007) Breath of God (2008) The Golden Shrine (2009) The War That Came Early[edit] A hexalogy describing an alternate World War II which begins in 1938 over Czechoslovakia. The first volume, Hitler's War, was released in hardcover in 2009 without a series title. Hitler's War (2009); published in paperback as The War That Came Early: Hitler's War (2010). West and East (2010)[13] The Big Switch (2011)[14] Coup d'Etat (2012) Two Fronts (2013) Last Orders (2014)[15] Supervolcano[edit] The trilogy has the Yellowstone Caldera erupt at some unspecified point in the future and covers the decade following the Eruption. Supervolcano: Eruption (2011) Supervolcano: All Fall Down (2012) Supervolcano: Things Fall Apart (2013)[16] The Hot War[edit] Point of divergence: 1950. The Korean War escalates into World War III after Harry Truman allows Douglas MacArthur to use atomic bombs as he had wanted to, leading to a chain reaction of nuclear bomb attacks throughout Asia, Europe, and North America. Bombs Away (2015) Fallout (2016) Armistice (2017) State of Jefferson Stories[edit] First published in May 2016, the stories are set in a world in which Sasquatch, Yeti, Indonesian Hobbits, merfolk, and other cryptids are real or not extinct. Unlike common popular depictions of such creatures as less evolved primates, they are integrated into a world designed for ordinary humans ("little people"). Like other ethnic minorities cryptids experience cultural assimilation and racial stereotyping, become less familiar with ancestral customs and languages, and interbreed with the majority. In 1919 several counties in northern California and southern Oregon seceded, forming the State of Jefferson. Neither the new state nor the earlier discovery of cryptids greatly affected United States or world history, with events such as the Chinese invasion of Tibet, 1973 oil crisis, and Iranian hostage crisis still occurring. Most American Sasquatch live in the state; although they are still a small minority, size is a protected class in Jefferson, with anti-discrimination law guaranteeing reasonable accommodation. Most stories depict Governor Bill Williamson, Jefferson's second Sasquatch leader, who during the late 1970s and early 1980s meets Charles Kuralt, Jerry Turner, Nobuo Fujita and a Yeti Dalai Lama. From the state capital of Yreka he promotes his small, rural, and obscure state to the nation and world as an example of how different species can peacefully cooperate. "Visitor from the East" (May 2016) "Peace is Better" (May 2016) "Typecasting" (June 2016; set at the 1980 Ashland Shakespeare Festival) "Three Men and a Sasquatch" (January 2019) "Something Fishy" (January 2020) "Always Something New" (January 2020; set the day of the 1980 United States presidential election) "Tie a Yellow Ribbon" (January 2020; set after the Iranian hostage crisis) Standalone books[edit] Agent of Byzantium (1987): Imperial Byzantine special agent Basil Argyros is sent on various missions in a world in which Muhammad became a Christian saint and so Islam never existed and the Byzantine Empire never declined. A Different Flesh (1988): A related set of short stories spanning the 17th to 20th centuries set in a universe in which the ancestors of the Native Americans never crossed into the New World, and only Homo erectus, who become known as "sims" to the colonists of English descent, did so. Suggested by Turtledove's reading of Stephen Jay Gould, the novel's main theme is what effect the proximity of a closely-related but significantly-different species would have on how humans view themselves, one another, and the great chain of life. Noninterference (1988): A human interstellar survey team violates a directive to avoid interference with alien civilizations, with disastrous long-term consequences. Republished in the collection 3xT. Kaleidoscope (1990): A short-story collection, including "The Road Not Taken". Re-published in the collection 3xT. A World of Difference (1990): In this alternative history story, the fourth planet of our solar system is larger, and named Minerva instead of Mars. The Viking space probe of the 1970s sends back one picture—that of an alien creature swinging a stick—before losing contact. A U.S. mission and a Soviet mission are sent to explore the planet; both missions back rival primitive groups in a tribal war. Earthgrip (1991): A woman whose desire is to teach a university course in Middle English Science Fiction joins a trader ship's crew, just to get something different on her curriculum vitae. Re-published in the collection 3xT. The Guns of the South (1992): A science fiction/alternate history in which the Confederate army is supplied with AK-47s by time traveling members of the Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging from the year 2014 and win the Civil War in 1864. The Case of the Toxic Spell Dump (1993): EPA agent David Fisher battles displaced magical powers in a very creative sorcerous equivalent to late-20th century Los Angeles. He follows the evidence to a toxic spell dump, where dangerous remnants of industrial sorcery are stored. Departures (1993): A short story collection Down in the Bottomlands (1993, reprinted in 2015 in We Install and Other Stories): At the end of the Miocene period, the Mediterranean Sea stays dry to the present day. The dry sea basin is a large canyon containing a national park, and a strongbrow who works as a park ranger must race to stop terrorists from letting in the Atlantic and flooding the area. The Two Georges (1995) alternate history/mystery, co-authored with Richard Dreyfuss: Set in 1995 in a world in which the American Revolution was peacefully avoided. The painting that symbolizes the union between North America and the United Kingdom is stolen by the terrorist group known as the Sons of Liberty, who want independence from the British Empire. Officers of the Royal American Mounted Police must find it before it is destroyed. Thessalonica (1997): Early Christians in the Greek city of Thessalonica deal with barbarian invaders on both physical and metaphysical levels (the book was inspired by the Medieval Miracles of Saint Demetrius). Between the Rivers (1998): Taking place in a fantasy realm equivalent to ancient Mesopotamia, city-states ruled by different gods fight for dominance. Justinian (1998): Fictionalized account (with some speculation involved) of the life of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian II—using H. N. Turteltaub pseudonym. Household Gods (1999); co-written with Judith Tarr; science fiction/alternate history: A modern California lawyer finds herself in the Roman Empire of Marcus Aurelius. Counting Up, Counting Down (2002): A short story collection. The Daimon (2002): A novella included in the alternate history collections Worlds That Weren't and Atlantis and Other Places. It describes a world in which the philosopher Socrates aids the Athenian general Alcibiades in defeating the Sicilians and Spartans, allowing him to unite the city-states of ancient Greece and to contemplate war on the Persian Empire about 80 or 90 years before it happened in our history. Ruled Britannia (2002) alternate history: The Spanish Armada conquers England and forces Shakespeare to write a play about Philip II. At the same time, he is secretly writing a play for the English underground resistance about Boudica's rebellion, with Boudica meant to be analogous to the imprisoned Elizabeth I. In the Presence of Mine Enemies (2003) alternate history: Follows the struggles of a family of secret Jews in Berlin, nearly 70 years after a Nazi victory in World War II. The events in the story follow a common theme of Turtledove's work by transplanting one set of historical events into another setting (the most prominent example being Southern Victory Series moving European history onto the American continent). In this case, the decline of the Soviet Union in the 1990s is translated to the Third Reich in the 21st century, and the secret Jews' way of life is reminiscent of that of Marranos in Spain. Conan of Venarium (2003): An authorized prequel to Robert E. Howard's tales of Conan the Barbarian depicts a 14-year-old Conan's resistance to the imperialist legions who occupy his village. Every Inch a King (ISFiC Press) (2005): An acrobat becomes king of a small country. Although set in a fantasy world, it is analogous to the real-world, this time in the Balkans between the First and the Second Balkan Wars. Shqiperi is modeled on Albania, and the story itself is modeled on the story of Otto Witte. Fort Pillow (2006): A historical novel detailing the Battle of Fort Pillow. "Under Saint Peter's" (2007): Short story found in The Secret History of Vampires (Edited by Darrell Schweitzer) and We Install and Other Stories. This is Turtledove's rare concession to the secret history genre, which he professes to have little interest in writing. In 2005, viewpoint character Pope Benedict XVI (unnamed but recognizable) is led by an eccentric priest to a secret bunker under the Vatican for a little-known initiation that is undertaken by each new pontiff since the days of Saint Peter. The Man with the Iron Heart (2008): Reinhard Heydrich survives an assassination attempt in Czechoslovakia by partisans and later goes on to lead an insurgent movement against the Allied occupation of Germany. Turtledove mixes information gleaned from authentic German documents and intentions with another historical transplant, which in this case is the Iraqi insurgency of 2003 being transplanted to mid-1940s Germany. After the Downfall (2008): A Wehrmacht officer is transported into a fantasy world during the Fall of Berlin at the end of World War II. The story resembles the formula of Edgar Rice Burroughs and L. Sprague de Camp, mixed with Turtledove's usual allegorism as the central character sees parallels between the politics and notions of his new world and those of the world he just left. Reincarnations (2009): A limited edition hardcover containing eight stories, including six never before reprinted and one original story. Give Me Back My Legions! (2009): A historical novel detailing the events leading up to the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, as well as the battle itself. Joe Steele (2015): Expanded from the short story of the same name, the alternative history deals with Joseph Stalin, whose Americanized name is the title character, having been born and raised in America. When the life of New York State Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt is ended by a fire at the New York State Executive Mansion, the Democratic Party has little choice but to nominate the upcoming Steele as its candidate for the 1932 Presidential election. The novel mirrors Stalin's real world acts with actions taken by Steele through the depression, the lead-up to World War II, and the ensuing Cold War through the eyes of a president with the soul of a tyrant. The House of Daniel (2016). Historical fantasy: during the Great Depression, a young "Okie" joins the roving church-sponsored baseball team of the title. As the team travels to play against the home teams of various western American towns, the young man learns about the culture of the towns they visit and has passing encounters with vampires, werewolves, zombies, and other magical beings. Through Darkest Europe (2018): Set in modern times in which Islam developed science, technology, and enlightenment, but Western Europe remained a hotbed of Christian fundamentalism. The working title for the book was God Wills It. Alpha and Omega (2019): A depiction of the End of Days, based on Judeo-Christian legend. Short stories[edit] A Massachusetts Yankee in King Arthur’s Court (1992): John F. Kennedy is briefly transported back in time to ancient Britain, where he meets up King Arthur of Camelot. The story is collected in Mike Resnick's 1992 alternate history anthology Alternate Kennedys. Uncle Alf (2002, now readable on line): A novella included in the collections Alternate Generals II and Atlantis and Other Places. The German Empire has won World War I when Alfred von Schlieffen lived to see his Schlieffen Plan executed successfully and Germany occupies France and Belgium. In 1929, Feldgendarmerie Sergeant Adolf Hitler is sent to occupied France to hunt down Jacques Doriot, an agitator against the German occupation of France. Nonfiction[edit] The Chronicle of Theophanes, Harry Turtledove editor and translator, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982. A translation of an important Byzantine historical text, completed soon after Harry Turtledove's PhD studies. Web publishing[edit] Winter of Our Discontent: The Impeachment and Trial of John F. Kennedy (2007), fragment of a novel, co-written with the television series creator Bryce Zabel. After John Kennedy survives the attack at Dealey Plaza unharmed, the resulting investigation sets events in motion that tear apart his administration. Zabel eventually published the final work as a solo project entitled Surrounded by Enemies: What If Kennedy Had Survived Dallas? in 2013. Turtledove, Harry (2009). "The House That George Built". Babe Ruth remains a minor league player for most of his career until he retires and opens a Baltimore pub. In 1941, Ruth reminisces about what could have been with a skeptical H. L. Mencken. Vilcabamba (February 3, 2010), After an alien race known as the Krolp subjugates most of the world in the 22nd century, a rump United States and Canada that run along the Rocky Mountains and the Wasatch Range must decide how to respond to the aliens' plans to violate the treaty that guarantees the country's sovereignty. The story is told from the perspective of US President and Canadian Prime Minister Harris Moffatt III, and parallels the treatment of indigenous peoples of the Americas. The title is a reference to the city of Vilcabamba, Peru, the site of the last Inca resistance to Spanish colonization.[17] Turtledove, Harry (April 14, 2011). "Shtetl Days". Tor Books. Macmillan. After a Nazi victory in the Second World War, Aryan historical reenactors portray the prewar lifestyle of the exterminated Jews at a tourist attraction. However, many of the actors come to identify more with the Jews than with their German heritage. Lee at the Alamo (September 7, 2011), When Texas secedes from the Union in 1861, Lieutenant-Colonel Robert E. Lee, acting commander of the Department of Texas, decides to defend US munitions at the Alamo and launches the first battle of a slightly-different American Civil War.[18] Turtledove, Harry (January 8, 2014). "The Eighth-Grade History Class Visits the Hebrew Home for the Aging". Tor Books. Macmillan. Retrieved January 28, 2014. In 2013, an elderly Jewish woman shares stories of her life with a group of eighth-graders. Hail! Hail! (2018), Shortly after the release of their film Duck Soup in mid-1934, the Marx Brothers visit Nacogdoches, Texas, where all four of them are struck by lightning and are transported back in time to December 15, 1826; arrive in the same town; and interfere with the Fredonian Rebellion.[19] References[edit] ^ Something About the Author: Volume 176. Thomson-Gale (Ktav Publishing House). April 2007. p. 212. ISBN 978-0-7876-8800-4. ^ "Harry's War of the Worlds". Sfsite.com. Retrieved 2017-04-12. ^ The immediate successors of Justinian: a study of the Persian problem and of continuity and change in internal secular affairs in the later Roman empire during the reigns of Justin II and Tiberius II Constantine (A.D. 565-582); Harry Norman Turtledove, Thesis (Ph.D.), UCLA, 1977. Reproduction: University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1979 ^ "The immediate successors of Justinian: a study of the Persian problem and of continuity and change in internal secular affairs in the later Roman empire during the reigns of Justin II and Tiberius II Constantine (A.D. 565-582) in SearchWorks". Searchworks.stanford.edu. Retrieved 2017-04-12. ^ "Interviews". Barnesandnoble.com. Retrieved 12 April 2017. ^ Richter, Frank. "turtledove: Dictionary / Wörterbuch (BEOLINGUS, TU Chemnitz)". Dict.tu-chemnitz.de. Retrieved 12 April 2017. ^ "Sidewise: Past Winners and Finalists". Uchronia.net. Retrieved 2017-04-12. ^ "2017 Sidewise Award Finalists". Locus. 2018-08-20. Retrieved 2018-10-13. ^ "Chicon 2000, Guests of Honor". 2000-07-23. Archived from the original on July 8, 2008. Retrieved 2008-09-03. ^ Hall, Melissa Mia (April 7, 2008). "Master of Alternate History". Publishers Weekly. Retrieved January 28, 2011. ^ Graeme Blundell (2008-10-18). "On lowbrow street". The Australian. Archived from the original on 2009-02-05. Retrieved 2008-10-20. ^ "Prometheus Finalists". Science Fiction Awards Watch. March 24, 2009. Retrieved 2009-03-26. ^ Turtledove, Harry (27 July 2010). The War That Came Early: West and East. Del Rey. ISBN 978-0345491848. ^ Turtledove, Harry (19 July 2011). The Big Switch: The War That Came Early. Del Rey. ISBN 978-0345491862. ^ Turtledove, Harry (2014). Last Orders (The War That Came Early, Book Six): Harry Turtledove: 9780345524713: Amazon.com: Books. ISBN 978-0345524713. ^ "Supervolcano: Things Fall Apart (Supervolcano, #3) by Harry Turtledove". Risingshadow.net. Retrieved 2017-04-12. ^ "www.tor.com". ^ "www.tor.com". ^ "www.fantasticfiction.com". External links[edit] Harry Turtledoveat Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Official website, a complete bibliography of Turtledove's work, including a list of his various series. Fantastic Fiction Author Page Harry Turtledove's page at Tor Books Official Turtledove YahooGroup Harry Turtledove page on the Internet Book List Harry Turtledove at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database National Review Online audio interview with Harry Turtledove An audio interview with Harry Turtledove (MP3 format) from Hour 25 v t e Works by Harry Turtledove Videssos Videssos cycle The Misplaced Legion An Emperor for the Legion The Legion of Videssos The Swords of the Legion The Tale of Krispos Krispos Rising Krispos of Videssos Krispos the Emperor Time of Troubles The Stolen Throne Hammer and Anvil The Thousand Cities Videssos Besieged The Bridge of the Separator The Race or Worldwar Worldwar In the Balance Tilting the Balance Upsetting the Balance Striking the Balance Colonization Second Contact Down to Earth Aftershocks Homeward Bound Southern Victory a.k.a. Timeline-191 Second Mexican War How Few Remain Great War American Front Walk in Hell Breakthroughs American Empire Blood and Iron The Center Cannot Hold The Victorious Opposition Settling Accounts Return Engagement Drive to the East The Grapple In at the Death Darkness a.k.a. 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en-wikipedia-org-2158	----	Pontus (region) - Wikipedia Pontus (region) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Region in the eastern Black Sea Region of Turkey This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Pontus" region – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (August 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Pontos (Πόντος) Ancient region of Anatolia Region of Pontus Location North-eastern Anatolia Ethnic Groups Chalybes, Leukosyroi, Makrones, Mossynoikoi, Muški, Tibarenoi, Laz, Georgians, Armenians, Cimmerians, Pontic Greeks, Persians (from 6th c. BC), Jews, Hemshin, Chepni (from 11th c.) Historical capitals Amasya, Neocaesarea, Sinope, Trabzon Notable rulers Mithradates Eupator The modern definition of the Pontus: the area claimed for the "Republic of Pontus" after World War I, based on the extent of the six local Greek Orthodox bishoprics. Pontus or Pontos (/ˈpɒntəs/; Greek: Πόντος, romanized: Póntos, "Sea"[1]) is a region on the southern coast of the Black Sea, located in modern-day eastern Black Sea Region of Turkey. The name was applied to the coastal region and its mountainous hinterland (rising to the Pontic Alps in the east) by the Greeks who colonized the area in the Archaic period and derived from the Greek name of the Black Sea: Εύξεινος Πόντος (Eúxinos Póntos), "Hospitable Sea",[2] or simply Pontos (ὁ Πόντος) as early as the Aeschylean Persians (472 BC) and Herodotus' Histories (c. 440 BC). Having originally no specific name, the region east of the river Halys was spoken of as the country Ἐν Πόντῳ (En Póntō), lit. "on the [Euxinos] Pontos", and hence it acquired the name of Pontus, which is first found in Xenophon's Anabasis (c. 370 BC). The extent of the region varied through the ages but generally extended from the borders of Colchis (modern western Georgia) until well into Paphlagonia in the west, with varying amounts of hinterland. Several states and provinces bearing the name of Pontus or variants thereof were established in the region in the Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine periods, culminating in the late Byzantine Empire of Trebizond. Pontus is sometimes considered as the original home of the Amazons, in ancient Greek mythology and historiography (e. g. by Herodotus and Strabo). Contents 1 History 1.1 Early inhabitants 1.2 Ancient Greek colonization 1.3 Persian Empire expansion 1.4 Kingdom of Pontus 1.5 Roman province 1.6 Byzantine province and theme 1.7 Empire of Trebizond 1.8 Ottoman vilayet 1.9 Republic of Pontus 1.10 Present 2 Religion 3 Notable Pontians 4 See also 5 Footnotes 6 Sources 7 External links History[edit] Traditional rural Pontic house. From the Classical and Hellenistic periods into the Byzantine and Ottoman, Pontus became important as a bastion of ancient Greek, Byzantine and Greek Orthodox civilization and attracted Greeks from all backgrounds (scholars, traders, mercenaries, refugees) from all over Anatolia and the southern Balkans. These Greeks of Pontus are generally referred to as Pontic Greeks.[citation needed] Early inhabitants[edit] Pontus remained outside the reach of the Bronze Age empires, of which the closest was Great Hatti. The region went further uncontrolled by Hatti's eastern neighbors, Hurrian states like Azzi and (or) Hayasa. In those days, the best any outsider could hope from this region was temporary alliance with a local strongman. The Hittites called the unorganized groups on their northeastern frontier the Kaška. As of 2004 little had been found of them archaeologically.[3] In the wake of the Hittite empire's collapse, the Assyrian court noted that the "Kašku" had overrun its territory in conjunction with a hitherto unknown group whom they labeled the Muški.[4] Iron Age visitors to the region, mostly Greek, noted that the hinterlands remained disunited, and they recorded the names of tribes: Moskhians (often associated with those Muški),[5] Leucosyri,[6] Mares, Makrones, Mossynoikoi, Tibarenoi,[7] Tzans[8] and Chalybes or Chaldoi.[9] The Armenian language went unnoted by the Hittites, the Assyrians, and all the post-Hittite nations; an ancient theory – first conjectured by Herodotus – is that its speakers migrated from Phrygia, past literary notice, across Pontus during the early Iron Age. The Greeks, who spoke a closely related Indo-European tongue, followed them along the coast. The Greeks are the earliest long-term inhabitants of the region from whom written records survive. During the late 8th century BC, Pontus further became a base for the Cimmerians, another Indo-European speaking people; however, these were defeated by the Lydians, and became a distant memory after the campaigns of Alyattes.[10] Since there was so little literacy in northeastern Anatolia until the Persian and Hellenistic era, one can only speculate as to the other languages spoken here. Given that Kartvelian languages remain spoken to the east of Pontus, some are suspected to have been spoken in eastern Pontus during the Iron Age: the Tzans are usually associated with today's Laz.[8] Anatolia or Asia Minor in the Greco-Roman period: The classical regions, including Pontus, and their main settlements. Ancient Greek colonization[edit] Main article: Greek colonisation The first travels of Greek merchants and adventurers to the Pontus region occurred probably from around 1000 BC, whereas their settlements would become steady and solidified cities only by the 8th and 7th centuries BC as archaeological findings document. This fits in well with a foundation date of 731 BC as reported by Eusebius of Caesarea for Sinope, perhaps the most ancient of the Greek colonies in what was later to be called Pontus.[11] The epical narratives related to the travels of Jason and the Argonauts to Colchis, the tales of Heracles' navigating the Black Sea, and Odysseus' wanderings into the land of the Cimmerians, as well as the myth of Zeus constraining Prometheus to the Caucasus mountains as a punishment for his outwitting the Gods, can all be seen as reflections of early contacts between early Greek colonists and the local, probably Caucasian, peoples. The earliest known written description of Pontus, however, is that of Scylax of Korianda, who in the 7th century BC described Greek settlements in the area.[12] Map of Pontus in antiquity, 1901 Persian Empire expansion[edit] By the 6th century BC, Pontus had become officially a part of the Achaemenid Empire, which probably meant that the local Greek colonies were paying tribute to the Persians. When the Athenian commander Xenophon passed through Pontus around a century later in 401-400 BC, in fact, he found no Persians in Pontus.[13] The peoples of this part of northern Asia Minor were incorporated into the third and nineteenth satrapies of the Persian empire.[14] Iranian influence ran deep, illustrated most famously by the temple of the Persian deities Anaitis, Omanes, and Anadatos at Zela, founded by victorious Persian generals in the 6th century BCE.[15] Kingdom of Pontus[edit] Main article: Kingdom of Pontus Map of Asia minor, 89 BC showing Roman provinces and client states as well as Pontic territory. The Kingdom of Pontus, under Mithridates VI the Great, is in green. The Kingdom of Pontus extended generally to the east of the Halys River. The Persian dynasty which was to found this kingdom had during the 4th century BC ruled the Greek city of Cius (or Kios) in Mysia, with its first known member being Ariobarzanes I of Cius and the last ruler based in the city being Mithridates II of Cius. Mithridates II's son, also called Mithridates, would proclaim himself later Mithridates I Ktistes of Pontus. As the Encyclopaedia Iranica states, the most famous member of the family, Mithradates VI Eupator, although undoubtedly presenting himself to the Greek world as a civilized philhellene and new Alexander, also paraded his Iranian background: he maintained a harem and eunuchs in true Oriental fashion; he gave all his sons Persian names; he sacrificed spectacularly in the manner of the Persian kings at Pasargadae (Appian, Mith. 66, 70); and he appointed “satraps” (a Persian title) as his provincial governors.[16] Iranica further states, and although there is only one inscription attesting it, he seems to have adopted the title “king of kings.” The very small number of Hellenistic Greek inscriptions that have been found anywhere in Pontus suggest that Greek culture did not substantially penetrate beyond the coastal cities and the court.[16] During the troubled period following the death of Alexander the Great, Mithridates Ktistes was for a time in the service of Antigonus, one of Alexander's successors,[17] and successfully maneuvering in this unsettled time managed, shortly after 302 BC, to create the Kingdom of Pontus which would be ruled by his descendants mostly bearing the same name, until 64 BC. Thus, this Persian dynasty managed to survive and prosper in the Hellenistic world while the main Persian Empire had fallen. This kingdom reached its greatest height under Mithridates VI or Mithridates Eupator, commonly called the Great, who for many years carried on war with the Romans. Under him, the realm of Pontus included not only Pontic Cappadocia but also the seaboard from the Bithynian frontier to Colchis, part of inland Paphlagonia, and Lesser Armenia.[17] Despite ruling Lesser Armenia, King Mithridates VI was an ally of Armenian King Tigranes the Great, to whom he married his daughter Cleopatra.[18] Eventually, however, the Romans defeated both King Mithridates VI and his son-in-law, Armenian King Tigranes the Great, during the Mithridatic Wars, bringing Pontus under Roman rule.[19] Roman province[edit] Main article: Bithynia et Pontus The Roman client kingdom of Pontus (in union with Colchis), c. 50 AD With the subjection of this kingdom by Pompey in 64 BC, in which little changed in the structuring of life, neither for the oligarchies that controlled the cities nor for the common people in city or hinterland, the meaning of the name Pontus underwent a change.[17] Part of the kingdom was now annexed to the Roman Empire, being united with Bithynia in a double province called Pontus and Bithynia: this part included only the seaboard between Heraclea (today Ereğli) and Amisus (Samsun), the ora Pontica.[17] The larger part of Pontus, however, was included in the province of Galatia.[19] Hereafter the simple name Pontus without qualification was regularly employed to denote the half of this dual province, especially by Romans and people speaking from the Roman point of view; it is so used almost always in the New Testament.[17] The eastern half of the old kingdom was administered as a client kingdom together with Colchis. Its last king was Polemon II. In AD 62, the country was constituted by Nero a Roman province. It was divided into the three districts: Pontus Galaticus in the west, bordering on Galatia; Pontus Polemoniacus in the centre, so called from its capital Polemonium; and Pontus Cappadocicus in the east, bordering on Cappadocia (Armenia Minor). Subsequently, the Roman Emperor Trajan moved Pontus into the province of Cappadocia itself in the early 2nd century AD.[19] In response to a Gothic raid on Trebizond in 287 AD, the Roman Emperor Diocletian decided to break up the area into smaller provinces under more localized administration.[8] The Diocese of Pontus and its provinces, c. 400 AD With the reorganization of the provincial system under Diocletian (about AD 295), the Pontic districts were divided up between three smaller, independent provinces within the Dioecesis Pontica:[8][17] Galatian Pontus, also called Diospontus, later renamed Helenopontus by Constantine the Great after his mother. It had its capital at Amisus, and included the cities of Sinope, Amasia, Andres, Ibora, and Zela as well. Pontus Polemoniacus, with its capital at Polemonium (also called Side), and including the cities of Neocaesarea, Argyroupolis, Comana, and Cerasus as well. Cappadocian Pontus, with its capital at Trebizond, and including the small ports of Athanae and Rhizaeon. This province extended all the way to Colchis. Byzantine province and theme[edit] The Byzantine Emperor Justinian further reorganized the area in 536: Pontus Polemoniacus was dissolved, with the western part (Polemonium and Neocaesarea) going to Helenopontus, Comana going to the new province of Armenia II, and the rest (Trebizond and Cerasus) joining the new province of Armenia I Magna with its capital at Justinianopolis.[8] Helenopontus gained Polemonium and Neocaesarea, and lost Zela to Armenia II. The provincial governor was relegated to the rank of moderator. Paphlagonia absorbed Honorias and was put under a praetor. By the time of the early Byzantine Empire, Trebizond became a center of culture and scientific learning. In the 7th century, an individual named Tychicus returned from Constantinople to establish a school of learning. One of his students was the early Armenian scholar Anania of Shirak.[20] Under the Byzantine Empire, the Pontus came under the Armeniac Theme, with the westernmost parts (Paphlagonia) belonging to the Bucellarian Theme. Progressively, these large early themes were divided into smaller ones, so that by the late 10th century, the Pontus was divided into the themes of Chaldia, which was governed by the Gabrades family,[20] and Koloneia. After the 8th century, the area experienced a period of prosperity, which was brought to an end only by the Seljuk conquest of Asia Minor in the 1070s and 1080s. Restored to the Byzantine Empire by Alexios I Komnenos, the area was governed by effectively semi-autonomous rulers, like the Gabras family of Trebizond. The region was secured militarily from the 11th through the 15th centuries with a vast network of sophisticated coastal fortresses.[21] Empire of Trebizond[edit] Following Constantinople's loss of sovereignty to the Fourth Crusade in 1204, the Pontus retained independence as the Empire of Trebizond under the Komnenos dynasty. Through a combination of geographic remoteness and adroit diplomacy, this remnant managed to survive, until it was conquered by the Ottomans in 1461 after the Fall of Constantinople itself. This political adroitness included becoming a vassal state at various times to both Georgia and to various inland Turkic rulers. In addition, the Empire of Trebizond became a renowned center of culture under its ruling Komnenos dynasty.[22] Ottoman vilayet[edit] Further information: Pontic Greeks and Greek genocide Distribution of Millets in Trebizond Vilayet[23] Source Muslims Greeks Armenians Total Official Ottoman Statistics, 1910 1,047,889 72.56% 351,104 24.31% 45,094 3.12% 1,444,087 Ecumenical Patriarchate Statistics, 1912 957,866 70.33% 353,533 25.96% 50,624 3.72% 1,362,026 Christian population in 1896 Under the subsequent Ottoman rule which began with the fall of Trebizond, particularly starting from the 17th century, some of the region's Pontic Greeks became Muslim through the Devşirme system. But at the same time some valleys inhabited by Greeks converted voluntarily, most notably those in the Of valley. Large communities (around 25% of the population) of Christian Pontic Greeks remained throughout the area (including Trabezon and Kars in northeastern Turkey/the Russian Caucasus) until the 1920s, and in parts of Georgia and Armenia until the 1990s, preserving their own customs and dialect of Greek. One group of Islamicized Greeks were called the Kromli, but were suspected of secretly having remained Christians. They numbered between 12,000 and 15,000 and lived in villages including Krom, Imera, Livadia, Prdi, Alitinos, Mokhora, and Ligosti.[24] Many of the Islamized Greeks continued speaking their language, known for its unique preservation of characteristics of Ancient Greek and still today there are some in the Of valley that still speak the local Ophitic dialect. Republic of Pontus flag Republic of Pontus[edit] The Republic of Pontus ( Greek: Δημοκρατία του Πόντου, romanized: Dimokratía tou Póntou) was a proposed Pontic Greek state on the southern coast of the Black Sea. Its territory would have encompassed much of historical Pontus and today forms part of Turkey's Black Sea Region. The proposed state was discussed at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, but the Greek government of Eleftherios Venizelos feared the precarious position of such a state and so it was included instead in the larger proposed state of Wilsonian Armenia. Neither state came into existence and the Pontic Greek population was subject to genocide and expelled from Turkey after 1922 and resettled in the Soviet Union or in Macedonia. This state of affairs was later formally recognized as part of the population exchange between Greece and Turkey in 1923. The Black Sea Region in today's Turkey Administrative subdivisions of today's Black Sea Region Present[edit] Main article: Black Sea Region The Black Sea Region (Turkish: Karadeniz Bölgesi), comprising all or parts of 22 provinces, is one of Turkey's seven census-defined geographical regions. Religion[edit] Mentioned thrice in the New Testament, inhabitants of Pontus were some of the very first converts to Christianity. Acts 2:9 mentions them present in Jerusalem on the Day of Pentecost; Acts 18:2 mentions a Jewish tentmaker from Pontus, Aquila, who was then living in Corinth with his wife Priscilla, who had both converted to Christianity, and in 1 Peter 1:1, Peter the Apostle addresses the Pontians in his letter as the "elect" and "chosen ones". As early as the First Council of Nicea, Trebizond had its own bishop. Subsequently, the Bishop of Trebizond was subordinated to the Metropolitan Bishop of Poti. Then during the 9th century, Trebizond itself became the seat of the Metropolitan Bishop of Lazica.[9] Notable Pontians[edit] Further information: List of Pontic Greeks Diogenes of Sinope (c. 408–323 BC), Greek philosopher from Sinope, one of founders of Cynic philosophy Strabo (c. 64 BC – 24 AD), Greek historian, geographer, and philosopher, native from Amaseia Evagrius Ponticus (345–399 AD), Greek theologian and monk Basilios Bessarion (1403–1472), Greek scholar, Roman Catholic cardinal and titular Latin Patriarch of Constantinople Alexander Ypsilantis (1792–1828), Greek military commander and national hero of the 19th century A. I. Bezzerides (1908–2007), American novelist and screenwriter, born in Samsun Stelios Kazantzidis (1931–2001), Greek singer of Greek popular music, or Laïkó Chrysanthos Theodoridis (1933–2005), singer Pantelis Pantelidis (1983–2016), Greek singer Melina Aslanidou (1974 - Present), Greek Singer Mike Lazaridis (b. 1961), CEO of Research in Motion and creator of BlackBerry phones See also[edit] Ancient regions of Anatolia Republic of Pontus Greek genocide Pontic Greek Caucasus Greeks Amaseia, Ancient capital of Pontus Footnotes[edit] ^ πόντος, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus. ^ Εὔξεινος, William J. Slater, Lexicon to Pindar, on Perseus. ^ Roger Matthews (December 2004). "Landscapes of Terror and Control: Imperial Impacts in Paphlagonia". Near Eastern Archaeology. 67 (4): 200–211. doi:10.2307/4132387. JSTOR 4132387. S2CID 161960753. ^ Records of Tiglath-Pileser I apud RD Barnett (1975). "30". The Cambridge Ancient History. pp. 417f., 420. ^ So the 1877 translation of "Sargon's Great Inscription in the Palace of Khorsabad", http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/Sargon.html Archived 2015-06-19 at the Wayback Machine ^ Meyer, Geschichte d. Königr. Pontos (Leipzig: 1879)[dead link] ^ Hewsen, Robert H. (2009). "Armenians on the Black Sea: The Province of Trebizond". In Richard G. Hovannisian (ed.). Armenian Pontus: The Trebizond-Black Sea Communities. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, Inc. pp. 40 f. ISBN 978-1-56859-155-1. ^ a b c d e Hewsen, 43. ^ a b Hewsen, 46. ^ Kristensen, Anne Katrine Gade (1988). Who were the Cimmerians, and where did they come from?: Sargon II, and the Cimmerians, and Rusa I. Copenhagen Denmark: The Royal Danish Academy of Science and Letters. ^ Hewsen, 39 f. ^ Hewsen, 39. ^ Hewsen, 40. ^ Herodotus 3.90-94. ^ Strabo 11.8.4 C512; 12.3.37 C559. ^ a b electricpulp.com. "PONTUS – Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org. Archived from the original on 2015-07-24. Retrieved 2015-07-28. ^ a b c d e f  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Anderson, John George Clark (1911). "Pontus". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 70–71. ^ Hewsen, 41 f. ^ a b c Hewsen, 42. ^ a b Hewsen, 47. ^ Robert W. Edwards, “The Garrison Forts of the Pontos: A Case for the Diffusion of the Armenian Paradigm,” Revue des Études Arméniennes 19, 1985, pp.181-284, pls.1-51b. ^ Hewsen, 48 f. ^ Pentzopoulos, Dimitri (2002). The Balkan exchange of minorities and its impact on Greece. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. pp. 29–30. ISBN 978-1-85065-702-6. ^ Hewsen, 54. Sources[edit] Bryer, Anthony A. M. (1980), The Empire of Trebizond and the Pontos, London: Variorum Reprints, ISBN 0-86078-062-7 Ramsay MacMullen, 2000. Romanization in the Time of Augustus (Yale University Press) External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pontus. History of Pontus The term Euxinus Pontus Where East meets West Coordinates: 40°36′N 38°00′E / 40.6°N 38.0°E / 40.6; 38.0 v t e Historical regions of Anatolia Aeolis Bithynia Cappadocia Caria Cilicia Doris Galatia Ionia Isauria Lycaonia Lycia Lydia Mysia Pamphylia Paphlagonia Phrygia Pisidia Pontus Troad v t e Provinces of the early Roman Empire (117 AD) Achaea Aegyptus Africa proconsularis Alpes Cottiae Alpes Maritimae Alpes Graiae et Poeninae Arabia Petraea Armenia Asia Assyria Bithynia and Pontus Britannia Cappadocia Cilicia Corsica and Sardinia Crete and Cyrenaica Cyprus Dacia Dalmatia Epirus Galatia Gallia Aquitania Gallia Belgica Gallia Lugdunensis Gallia Narbonensis Germania Inferior Germania Superior Hispania Baetica Hispania Lusitania Hispania Tarraconensis Italia † Iudaea Lycia et Pamphylia Macedonia Mauretania Caesariensis Mauretania Tingitana Mesopotamia Moesia Inferior Moesia Superior Noricum Pannonia Inferior Pannonia Superior Raetia Sicilia Syria Thracia † Italy was never constituted as a province, instead retaining a special juridical status until Diocletian's reforms. v t e Late Roman and Byzantine provinces (4th–7th centuries AD) History As found in the Notitia Dignitatum. Provincial administration reformed and dioceses established by Diocletian, c. 293. Permanent praetorian prefectures established after the death of Constantine I. Empire permanently partitioned after 395. Exarchates of Ravenna and Africa established after 584. After massive territorial losses in the 7th century, the remaining provinces were superseded by the theme system in c. 640–660, although in Asia Minor and parts of Greece they survived under the themes until the early 9th century. Western Roman Empire (395–476) Praetorian Prefecture of Gaul Diocese of Gaul Alpes Poeninae et Graiae Belgica I Belgica II Germania I Germania II Lugdunensis I Lugdunensis II Lugdunensis III Lugdunensis IV Maxima Sequanorum Diocese of Vienne1 Alpes Maritimae Aquitanica I Aquitanica II Narbonensis I Narbonensis II Novempopulania Viennensis Diocese of Spain Baetica Balearica Carthaginensis Gallaecia Lusitania Mauretania Tingitana Tarraconensis Diocese of the Britains Britannia I Britannia II Flavia Caesariensis Maxima Caesariensis Valentia (?) Praetorian Prefecture of Italy Diocese of Suburbicarian Italy Apulia et Calabria Campania Corsica Lucania et Bruttii Picenum Suburbicarium Samnium Sardinia Sicilia Tuscia et Umbria Valeria Diocese of Annonarian Italy Alpes Cottiae Flaminia et Picenum Annonarium Liguria et Aemilia Raetia I Raetia II Venetia et Histria Diocese of Africa2 Africa proconsularis (Zeugitana) Byzacena Mauretania Caesariensis Mauretania Sitifensis Numidia (divided as Cirtensis and Militiana during the Tetrarchy) Tripolitania Eastern Roman/Byzantine Empire (395–c. 640) Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum Diocese of Pannonia3 Dalmatia Noricum mediterraneum Noricum ripense Pannonia I Pannonia II Savia Valeria ripensis Diocese of Dacia Dacia Mediterranea Dacia Ripensis Dardania Moesia I Praevalitana Diocese of Macedonia Achaea Creta Epirus Nova Epirus Vetus Macedonia Prima Macedonia II Salutaris Thessalia Praetorian Prefecture of the East Diocese of Thrace5 Europa Haemimontus Moesia II4 Rhodope Scythia4 Thracia Diocese of Asia5 Asia Caria4 Hellespontus Islands4 Lycaonia (370) Lycia Lydia Pamphylia Pisidia Phrygia Pacatiana Phrygia Salutaris Diocese of Pontus5 Armenia I5 Armenia II5 Armenia Maior5 Armenian Satrapies5 Armenia III (536) Armenia IV (536) Bithynia Cappadocia I5 Cappadocia II5 Galatia I5 Galatia II Salutaris5 Helenopontus5 Honorias5 Paphlagonia5 Pontus Polemoniacus5 Diocese of the East5 Arabia Cilicia I Cilicia II Cyprus4 Euphratensis Isauria Mesopotamia Osroene Palaestina I Palaestina II Palaestina III Salutaris Phoenice I Phoenice II Libanensis Syria I Syria II Salutaris Theodorias (528) Diocese of Egypt5 Aegyptus I Aegyptus II Arcadia Augustamnica I Augustamnica II Libya Superior Libya Inferior Thebais Superior Thebais Inferior Other territories Taurica Quaestura exercitus (536) Spania (552) 1 Later the Septem Provinciae 2 Re-established after reconquest by the Eastern Empire in 534 as the separate Prefecture of Africa 3 Later the Diocese of Illyricum 4 Placed under the 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en-wikipedia-org-2176	----	Pharaoh - Wikipedia Pharaoh From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Pharaoh of Egypt) Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Pharaoh (disambiguation). For a list of the pharaohs, see List of pharaohs. Title of Ancient Egyptian rulers Pharaoh of Egypt The Pschent combined the Red Crown of Lower Egypt and the White Crown of Upper Egypt A typical depiction of a pharaoh usually depicted the king wearing the nemes headdress, a false beard, and an ornate shendyt (skirt) (after Djoser of the Third Dynasty) Details Style Five-name titulary First monarch King Narmer or King Menes (by tradition) (first use of the term pharaoh for a king, rather than the royal palace, was c.1210 B.C. with Merneptah during the nineteenth dynasty) Last monarch Nectanebo II (last native)[1] Caesarion (last actual) Maximinus Daia (last to be referred to as pharaoh) [2] Formation c. 3150 BC Abolition 343 BC (last native pharaoh)[1] 30 BC (last Greek pharaohs) 314 AD (last Roman Emperor to be called pharaoh)[2] Residence Varies by era Appointer Divine right pr-ˤ3 "Great house" in hieroglyphs nswt-bjt "King of Upper and Lower Egypt" in hieroglyphs Pharaoh (/ˈfɛəroʊ/, US also /ˈfeɪ.roʊ/;[3] Coptic: ⲡⲣ̅ⲣⲟ Pǝrro) is the common title now used for the monarchs of ancient Egypt from the First Dynasty (c. 3150 BCE) until the annexation of Egypt by the Roman Empire in 30 BCE,[4] although the term "pharaoh" was not used contemporaneously for a ruler until Merneptah, c. 1210 BCE, during the Nineteenth dynasty, "king" being the term used most frequently until the middle of the Eighteenth Dynasty. In the early dynasties, ancient Egyptian kings used to have up to three titles: the Horus, the Sedge and Bee (nswt-bjtj), and the Two Ladies or Nebty (nbtj) name. The Golden Horus as well as the nomen and prenomen titles were added later. In Egyptian society, religion was central to everyday life. One of the roles of the pharaoh was as an intermediary between the deities and the people. The pharaoh thus deputised for the deities in a role that was both as civil and religious administrator. The pharaoh owned all of the land in Egypt, enacted laws, collected taxes, and defended Egypt from invaders as the commander-in-chief of the army.[5] Religiously, the pharaoh officiated over religious ceremonies and chose the sites of new temples. The pharaoh was responsible for maintaining Maat (mꜣꜥt), or cosmic order, balance, and justice, and part of this included going to war when necessary to defend the country or attacking others when it was believed that this would contribute to Maat, such as to obtain resources.[6] During the early days prior to the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, the Deshret or the "Red Crown", was a representation of the kingdom of Lower Egypt, while the Hedjet, the "White Crown", was worn by the kings of the kingdom of Upper Egypt. After the unification of both kingdoms into one united Egypt, the Pschent, the combination of both the red and white crowns was the official crown of kings. With time new headdresses were introduced during different dynasties such as the Khat, Nemes, Atef, Hemhem crown, and Khepresh. At times, it was depicted that a combination of these headdresses or crowns would be worn together. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Regalia 2.1 Scepters and staves 2.2 The Uraeus 3 Crowns and headdresses 3.1 Deshret 3.2 Hedjet 3.3 Pschent 3.4 Khat 3.5 Nemes 3.6 Atef 3.7 Hemhem 3.8 Khepresh 3.9 Physical evidence 4 Titles 4.1 Horus name 4.2 Nesu Bity name 4.3 Nebty name 4.4 Golden Horus 4.5 Nomen and prenomen 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Etymology The word pharaoh ultimately derives from the Egyptian compound pr ꜥꜣ, */ˌpaɾuwˈʕaʀ/ "great house", written with the two biliteral hieroglyphs pr "house" and ꜥꜣ "column", here meaning "great" or "high". It was used only in larger phrases such as smr pr-ꜥꜣ "Courtier of the High House", with specific reference to the buildings of the court or palace.[7] From the Twelfth Dynasty onward, the word appears in a wish formula "Great House, May it Live, Prosper, and be in Health", but again only with reference to the royal palace and not the person. Sometime during the era of the New Kingdom, Second Intermediate Period, pharaoh became the form of address for a person who was king. The earliest confirmed instance where pr ꜥꜣ is used specifically to address the ruler is in a letter to Akhenaten (reigned c. 1353–1336 BCE) that is addressed to "Great House, L, W, H, the Lord".[8][9] However, there is a possibility that the title pr ꜥꜣ was applied to Thutmose III (c. 1479–1425 BCE), depending on whether an inscription on the Temple of Armant can be confirmed to refer to that king.[10] During the Eighteenth dynasty (sixteenth to fourteenth centuries BCE) the title pharaoh was employed as a reverential designation of the ruler. About the late Twenty-first Dynasty (tenth century BCE), however, instead of being used alone as before, it began to be added to the other titles before the ruler's name, and from the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty (eighth to seventh centuries BCE) it was, at least in ordinary usage, the only epithet prefixed to the royal appellative.[11] From the Nineteenth dynasty onward pr-ꜥꜣ on its own, was used as regularly as ḥm, "Majesty".[12][note 1] The term, therefore, evolved from a word specifically referring to a building to a respectful designation for the ruler presiding in that building, particularly by the Twenty-Second Dynasty and Twenty-third Dynasty.[citation needed] For instance, the first dated appearance of the title pharaoh being attached to a ruler's name occurs in Year 17 of Siamun on a fragment from the Karnak Priestly Annals. Here, an induction of an individual to the Amun priesthood is dated specifically to the reign of Pharaoh Siamun.[13] This new practice was continued under his successor Psusennes II and the subsequent kings of the twenty-second dynasty. For instance, the Large Dakhla stela is specifically dated to Year 5 of king "Pharaoh Shoshenq, beloved of Amun", whom all Egyptologists concur was Shoshenq I—the founder of the Twenty-second Dynasty—including Alan Gardiner in his original 1933 publication of this stela.[14] Shoshenq I was the second successor of Siamun. Meanwhile, the old custom of referring to the sovereign simply as pr-ˤ3 continued in traditional Egyptian narratives.[citation needed] By this time, the Late Egyptian word is reconstructed to have been pronounced *[parʕoʔ] whence Herodotus derived the name of one of the Egyptian kings, Koinē Greek: Φερων.[15] In the Hebrew Bible, the title also occurs as Hebrew: פרעה‎ [parʕoːh];[16] from that, in the Septuagint, Koinē Greek: φαραώ, romanized: pharaō, and then in Late Latin pharaō, both -n stem nouns. The Qur'an likewise spells it Arabic: فرعون‎ firʿawn with n (here, always referring to the one evil king in the Book of Exodus story, by contrast to the good king in surah Yusuf's story). The Arabic combines the original ayin from Egyptian along with the -n ending from Greek. In English, the term was at first spelled "Pharao", but the translators of the King James Bible revived "Pharaoh" with "h" from the Hebrew. Meanwhile, in Egypt itself, *[par-ʕoʔ] evolved into Sahidic Coptic ⲡⲣ̅ⲣⲟ pərro and then ərro by mistaking p- as the definite article "the" (from ancient Egyptian pꜣ).[17] Other notable epithets are nswt, translated to "king"; ḥm, "Majesty"; jty for "monarch or sovereign"; nb for "lord";[12][note 2] and ḥqꜣ for "ruler". Regalia Scepters and staves Beaded scepter of Khasekhemwy (Museum of Fine Arts in Boston) Sceptres and staves were a general sign of authority in ancient Egypt.[18] One of the earliest royal scepters was discovered in the tomb of Khasekhemwy in Abydos.[18] Kings were also known to carry a staff, and Pharaoh Anedjib is shown on stone vessels carrying a so-called mks-staff.[19] The scepter with the longest history seems to be the heqa-sceptre, sometimes described as the shepherd's crook.[20] The earliest examples of this piece of regalia dates to prehistoric Egypt. A scepter was found in a tomb at Abydos that dates to Naqada III. Another scepter associated with the king is the was-sceptre.[20] This is a long staff mounted with an animal head. The earliest known depictions of the was-scepter date to the First Dynasty. The was-scepter is shown in the hands of both kings and deities. The flail later was closely related to the heqa-scepter (the crook and flail), but in early representations the king was also depicted solely with the flail, as shown in a late pre-dynastic knife handle that is now in the Metropolitan museum, and on the Narmer Macehead.[21] The Uraeus The earliest evidence known of the Uraeus—a rearing cobra—is from the reign of Den from the first dynasty. The cobra supposedly protected the pharaoh by spitting fire at its enemies.[22] Crowns and headdresses Main article: Crowns of Egypt Narmer Palette Narmer wearing the white crown Narmer wearing the red crown Deshret The red crown of Lower Egypt, the Deshret crown, dates back to pre-dynastic times and symbolised chief ruler. A red crown has been found on a pottery shard from Naqada, and later, Narmer is shown wearing the red crown on both the Narmer Macehead and the Narmer Palette. Hedjet The white crown of Upper Egypt, the Hedjet, was worn in the Predynastic Period by Scorpion II, and, later, by Narmer. Pschent This is the combination of the Deshret and Hedjet crowns into a double crown, called the Pschent crown. It is first documented in the middle of the First Dynasty of Egypt. The earliest depiction may date to the reign of Djet, and is otherwise surely attested during the reign of Den.[23] Khat Den The khat headdress consists of a kind of "kerchief" whose end is tied similarly to a ponytail. The earliest depictions of the khat headdress comes from the reign of Den, but is not found again until the reign of Djoser. Nemes The Nemes headdress dates from the time of Djoser. It is the most common type of crown that has been depicted throughout Pharaonic Egypt. Any other type of crown, apart from the Khat headdress, has been commonly depicted on top of the Nemes. The statue from his Serdab in Saqqara shows the king wearing the nemes headdress.[23] Statuette of Pepy I (ca. 2338-2298 B.C.E.) wearing a nemes headdress Brooklyn Museum Atef Osiris is shown to wear the Atef crown, which is an elaborate Hedjet with feathers and disks. Depictions of pharaohs wearing the Atef crown originate from the Old Kingdom. Hemhem The Hemhem crown is usually depicted on top of Nemes, Pschent, or Deshret crowns. It is an ornate triple Atef with corkscrew sheep horns and usually two uraei. The usage (depiction) of this crown begins during the Early Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt. Khepresh Also called the blue crown, the Khepresh crown has been depicted in art since the New Kingdom. It is often depicted being worn in battle, but it was also frequently worn during ceremonies. It used to be called a war crown by many, but modern historians refrain from defining it thus. Physical evidence Egyptologist Bob Brier has noted that despite their widespread depiction in royal portraits, no ancient Egyptian crown has ever been discovered. Tutankhamun's tomb, discovered largely intact, did contain such regalia as his crook and flail, but no crown was found among the funerary equipment. Diadems have been discovered.[24] It is presumed that crowns would have been believed to have magical properties. Brier's speculation is that crowns were religious or state items, so a dead pharaoh likely could not retain a crown as a personal possession. The crowns may have been passed along to the successor.[25] Titles Main article: Ancient Egyptian royal titulary During the Early Dynastic Period kings had three titles. The Horus name is the oldest and dates to the late pre-dynastic period. The Nesu Bity name was added during the First Dynasty. The Nebty name (Two Ladies) was first introduced toward the end of the First Dynasty.[23] The Golden falcon (bik-nbw) name is not well understood. The prenomen and nomen were introduced later and are traditionally enclosed in a cartouche.[26] By the Middle Kingdom, the official titulary of the ruler consisted of five names; Horus, Nebty, Golden Horus, nomen, and prenomen[27] for some rulers, only one or two of them may be known. Horus name The Horus name was adopted by the king, when taking the throne. The name was written within a square frame representing the palace, named a serekh. The earliest known example of a serekh dates to the reign of king Ka, before the First Dynasty.[28] The Horus name of several early kings expresses a relationship with Horus. Aha refers to "Horus the fighter", Djer refers to "Horus the strong", etc. Later kings express ideals of kingship in their Horus names. Khasekhemwy refers to "Horus: the two powers are at peace", while Nebra refers to "Horus, Lord of the Sun".[23] Nesu Bity name The Nesu Bity name, also known as prenomen, was one of the new developments from the reign of Den. The name would follow the glyphs for the "Sedge and the Bee". The title is usually translated as king of Upper and Lower Egypt. The nsw bity name may have been the birth name of the king. It was often the name by which kings were recorded in the later annals and king lists.[23] Nebty name The earliest example of a Nebty (Two Ladies) name comes from the reign of king Aha from the First Dynasty. The title links the king with the goddesses of Upper and Lower Egypt Nekhbet and Wadjet.[23][26] The title is preceded by the vulture (Nekhbet) and the cobra (Wadjet) standing on a basket (the neb sign).[23] Golden Horus The Golden Horus or Golden Falcon name was preceded by a falcon on a gold or nbw sign. The title may have represented the divine status of the king. The Horus associated with gold may be referring to the idea that the bodies of the deities were made of gold and the pyramids and obelisks are representations of (golden) sun-rays. The gold sign may also be a reference to Nubt, the city of Set. This would suggest that the iconography represents Horus conquering Set.[23] Nomen and prenomen The prenomen and nomen were contained in a cartouche. The prenomen often followed the King of Upper and Lower Egypt (nsw bity) or Lord of the Two Lands (nebtawy) title. The prenomen often incorporated the name of Re. The nomen often followed the title Son of Re (sa-ra) or the title Lord of Appearances (neb-kha).[26] Nomen and prenomen of Ramesses III See also Ancient Egypt portal Monarchy portal List of pharaohs Roman pharaoh Coronation of the pharaoh Curse of the pharaohs Egyptian chronology Pharaohs in the Bible Notes ^ The Bible refers to Egypt as the "Land of Ham". ^ nb.f means "his lord", the monarchs were introduced with (.f) for his, (.k) for your.[12] References ^ a b Clayton 1995, p. 217. "Although paying lip-service to the old ideas and religion, in varying degrees, pharaonic Egypt had in effect died with the last native pharaoh, Nectanebo II in 343 BC" ^ a b von Beckerath, Jürgen (1999). Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen. Verlag Philipp von Zabern. pp. 266–267. ISBN 978-3422008328. ^ Wells, John C. (2008), Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.), Longman, ISBN 9781405881180 ^ Clayton, Peter A. Chronicle of the Pharaohs the Reign-by-reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames & Hudson, 2012. Print. ^ "Pharaoh". AncientEgypt.co.uk. The British Museum. 1999. Retrieved 20 December 2017. ^ Mark, Joshua (2 September 2009). "Pharaoh - Ancient History Encyclopedia". ancient.eu. Ancient History Encyclopedia Limited. Retrieved 20 December 2017. ^ A. Gardiner, Ancient Egyptian Grammar (3rd edn, 1957), 71–76. ^ Hieratic Papyrus from Kahun and Gurob, F. LL. Griffith, 38, 17. ^ Petrie, W. M. (William Matthew Flinders); Sayce, A. H. (Archibald Henry); Griffith, F. Ll (Francis Llewellyn) (1891). Illahun, Kahun and Gurob : 1889-1890. Cornell University Library. London : D. Nutt. pp. 50. ^ Robert Mond and O.H. Meyers. Temples of Armant, a Preliminary Survey: The Text, The Egypt Exploration Society, London, 1940, 160. ^ "pharaoh" in Encyclopædia Britannica. Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008. ^ a b c Doxey, Denise M. (1998). Egyptian Non-Royal Epithets in the Middle Kingdom: A Social and Historical Analysis. BRILL. p. 119. ISBN 90-04-11077-1. ^ J-M. Kruchten, Les annales des pretres de Karnak (OLA 32), 1989, pp. 474–478. ^ Alan Gardiner, "The Dakhleh Stela", Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, Vol. 19, No. 1/2 (May, 1933) pp. 193–200. ^ Herodotus, Histories 2.111.1. See Anne Burton (1972). Diodorus Siculus, Book 1: A Commentary. Brill., commenting on ch. 59.1. ^ Elazar Ari Lipinski: "Pesach – A holiday of questions. About the Haggadah-Commentary Zevach Pesach of Rabbi Isaak Abarbanel (1437–1508). Explaining the meaning of the name Pharaoh." Published first in German in the official quarterly of the Organization of the Jewish Communities of Bavaria: Jüdisches Leben in Bayern. Mitteilungsblatt des Landesverbandes der Israelitischen Kultusgemeinden in Bayern. Pessach-Ausgabe Nr. 109, 2009, ZDB-ID 2077457-6, S. 3–4. ^ Walter C. Till: "Koptische Grammatik". VEB Verläg Enzyklopädie, Leipzig, 1961. p. 62. ^ a b Wilkinson, Toby A.H. Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, 2001, p. 158. ^ Wilkinson, Toby A.H. Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, 2001, p. 159. ^ a b Wilkinson, Toby A.H. Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, 2001, p. 160. ^ Wilkinson, Toby A.H. Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, 2001, p. 161. ^ Wilkinson, Toby A.H. Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, 2001, p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g h Wilkinson, Toby A.H. Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, 2001 ISBN 978-0-415-26011-4 ^ Shaw, Garry J. The Pharaoh, Life at Court and on Campaign. Thames and Hudson, 2012, pp. 21, 77. ^ Bob Brier, The Murder of Tutankhamen, 1998, p. 95. ^ a b c Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004. ISBN 0-500-05128-3 ^ Ian Shaw, The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press 2000, p. 477 ^ Toby A. H. Wilkinson, Early Dynastic Egypt, Routledge 1999, pp. 57f. Bibliography Shaw, Garry J. The Pharaoh, Life at Court and on Campaign, Thames and Hudson, 2012. Sir Alan Gardiner Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs, Third Edition, Revised. London: Oxford University Press, 1964. Excursus A, pp. 71–76. Jan Assmann, "Der Mythos des Gottkönigs im Alten Ägypten," in Christine Schmitz und Anja Bettenworth (hg.), Menschen - Heros - Gott: Weltentwürfe und Lebensmodelle im Mythos der Vormoderne (Stuttgart, Franz Steiner Verlag, 2009), pp. 11–26. External links Pharaohat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Digital Egypt for Universities Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Pharaohs. v t e Ancient Egypt topics Index Major topics Glossary of artifacts Agriculture Architecture (Egyptian Revival architecture) Art Portraiture Astronomy Chronology Cities (list) Clothing Cuisine Dance Dynasties Funerary practices Geography Great Royal Wives (list) Hieroglyphs History Language Literature Mathematics Medicine Military Music Mythology People Pharaohs (list) Philosophy Religion Sites Technology Trade Writing Egyptology Egyptologists Museums  Ancient Egypt portal Book Category WikiProject Commons Outline v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 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en-wikipedia-org-2178	----	Category:5th-century BC rulers - Wikipedia Help Category:5th-century BC rulers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search History portal Biography portal Politics portal 10th BC 9th BC 8th BC 7th BC 6th BC 5th BC 4th BC 3rd BC 2nd BC 1st BC 1st Subcategories This category has the following 10 subcategories, out of 10 total. * ► 5th-century BC women rulers‎ (2 P) A ► Artaxerxes II of Persia‎ (1 C, 8 P) ► Artaxerxes I of Persia‎ (6 P) ► 5th-century BC rulers in Asia‎ (3 C, 4 P) D ► Darius the Great‎ (4 C, 21 P) ► Darius II‎ (5 P) M ► 5th-century BC monarchs‎ (9 C) P ► Pharaohs of the Achaemenid dynasty of Egypt‎ (5 C, 10 P) ► Pharaohs of the Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt‎ (1 P) X ► Xerxes I‎ (1 C, 14 P) Pages in category "5th-century BC rulers" The following 69 pages are in this category, out of 69 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). A Abdemon Admetus of Epirus Áed Rúad, Díthorba, and Cimbáeth Agis II Alcetas II of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Amadocus I Amaniastabarqa Amyntas I of Macedon Amyntas II of Macedon Amyrtaeus Aramatle-qo Archelaus I of Macedon Archidamus II Ariapeithes Aridolis Ariobarzanes of Phrygia Aristagoras of Cyme Arsames Artabazos I of Phrygia Artas of Messapia Artasyrus Artaxerxes I Artaxerxes II B Bardylis Battus IV of Cyrene Bodbchad C Cleomenes I Cyrus the Younger D Darius (son of Xerxes I) Darius II Demaratus H Hamilcar I of Carthage Hannibal Mago Hidarnes II Hidarnes III I Emperor Itoku K Kherei Emperor Kōshō Kuprilli L Leonidas I Leotychidas List of state leaders in the 5th century BC Lóegaire Lorc O Opis of Messapia P Pausanias of Sparta Perdiccas II of Macedon Pharnabazus II Pleistarchus Pleistoanax Psammetichus IV Q Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus R Rechtaid Rígderg S Satyros I Seuthes I Seuthes II Sirras Sitalces Sogdianus Sparatocos Spartokos I Syennesis Syennesis (5th century) T Teres I Tharrhypas Lars Tolumnius U Úgaine Mór X Xerxes I Xerxes II Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:5th-century_BC_rulers&oldid=950684066" Categories: Rulers by century 5th-century BC people by occupation 1st-millennium BC rulers Ancient rulers Hidden categories: CatAutoTOC generates no TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Беларуская Español فارسی 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Русский Slovenščina Svenska Türkçe اردو Edit links This page was last edited on 13 April 2020, at 09:53 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-217	----	Masistes - Wikipedia Masistes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in Spanish. (December 2009) Click [show] for important translation instructions. View a machine-translated version of the Spanish article. Machine translation like DeepL or Google Translate is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Wikipedia. Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article. You must provide copyright attribution in the edit summary accompanying your translation by providing an interlanguage link to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary Content in this edit is translated from the existing Spanish Wikipedia article at [[:es:Masistes]]; see its history for attribution. You should also add the template {{Translated|es|Masistes}} to the talk page. For more guidance, see Wikipedia:Translation. Location of Bactria within the Persian Empire. Masistes (Old Persian 𐎶𐎰𐎡𐏁𐎫, Maθišta; Greek Μασίστης, Masístēs; Old Iranian *Masišta[1]) (?- c. 478 BC) was a Persian prince of the Achaemenid Dynasty, son of king Darius I (reign: 520-486 BC) and of his wife Atossa, and full brother of king Xerxes I (reign: 486-465 BC). He was satrap (governor) of Bactria during his brother's reign, where he attempted to start a revolt in 478 BC. Contents 1 Chief marshal 2 Love affairs and Masistes' revolt 2.1 The tale 2.2 Historical background 3 Masistes and mathishta 4 Notes 5 References Chief marshal[edit] Map of Xerxes' invasion of Greece, showing the Persian march through Thrace (yellow) and the battle of Mycale (circled in blue). Masistes was one of the six chief marshals of the Greek campaigns of Xerxes (480-479 BC). Along with general Mardonius, he commanded the army column that crossed Thrace along the coast;[2] however, he was almost completely absent during the course of the war, including the battles of Salamis and Plataea. He reappeared close to the end of the war, when he fought in the Battle of Mycale (479 BC). According to Herodotus, the battle was just about to take place at sea, but the Persians decided to come ashore in Ionia, Asia Minor, and fight on land.[3] The Greek and the Persian armies finally fought in Mycale, and the Persians were completely defeated. Commanders Tigranes and Mardontes died during the battle, but Artayntes and Itamithres, as well as Masistes, managed to escape. According to Herodotus, on their way to Sardis, where the king stayed, Masistes accused Artayntes of cowardice and blamed him of being "worse than a woman". In response, Artayntes unsheathed his sword and tried to kill Masistes, but was stopped by a Carian named Xenagoras of Halicarnassus.[4] Masistes' family stayed near the battle, in Sardis, Lydia, which was a common practice of the nobility of the Persian Empire.[5] In Herodotus' Histories, he comments that while Masistes was fighting, his brother, king Xerxes, seduced Masistes' wife (see below).[6] Love affairs and Masistes' revolt[edit] The tale[edit] Masistes is one of the main characters in a bloody episode in Herodotus' Histories (IX 108-110). Herodotus relates that, after his defeat in Greece, Xerxes fell in love with the wife of Masistes, but failed in all attempts to win her favour. In order to be closer to his sister-in-law, Xerxes married his son Darius to his niece Artaynte, a daughter of Masistes. The wedding was celebrated in Sardis, but when the court returned to Susa, Xerxes decided that he wanted the daughter rather than the mother, and Artaynte became his lover. One day, Xerxes visited Artaynte wearing a robe that had been woven by queen Amestris. He offered Artaynte to grant her whatever wish she desired. She chose the robe, and when she wore it in public, the affair was discovered. When Amestris heard the news she sought revenge, not from Artaynte, strangely enough, but from her mother, the wife of Masistes. It was customary in Persia that on the king's birthday he had to grant all the wishes he was asked, so Amestris waited until that date to ask Xerxes to have Masistes' wife killed. Under Amestris' orders, Masistes' wife was tortured and mutilated: her breasts, nose, ears, lips and tongue were cut out. In the meantime, Xerxes offered Masistes the hand of one of his daughters. Masistes refused, and when he saw his mutilated wife he fled to Bactria to start a revolt; however, he was intercepted on his way by troops sent by the king, and put to death along with his followers and his three sons. Historical background[edit] The tale refers to an ill-fated attempt of Masistes to lead a revolt against his brother Xerxes. Although the exact date is unknown, it could not have happened too long after the battle of Mycale (479 BC), perhaps in 478 BC.[7] It was originally considered that Xerxes, affected by his defeats in Greece, became involved in harem intrigues that would cause turmoil in the court and eventually result in the decadence and ruin of the Empire.[8] This view is widely criticised by more modern authors.[9] Many of the episode's themes appear in many legendary tales of Persian origin - the plot is the same, only the names of the characters are changed. Thus, although the tale is based on Persian oral accounts of Masistes' revolt, it is impossible to consider it as a historical fact and to derive literal conclusions from it.[10] Relating to this, it has been argued that the royal robe (which Amestris wove for Xerxes in the story) was not just a piece of clothing but a symbol of the Persian monarchy.[11] According to this reasoning, and within the symbolic context of Persian culture of this period, when Artaynte asked Xerxes for his robe she was actually asking for the throne, although not for her, as she was married to the heir, prince Darius, but perhaps for her father Masistes. This could explain why Amestris punished Masistes' wife instead of her daughter Artaynte. It has also been noted that the punishment that Masistes' wife received was usually reserved for rebels.[12] Other legendary Persian episodes share the theme of the royal robe, amongst these: Cyrus the Great receives the royal Mede robe when he marries the daughter of Mede king Astyages (Xenophon, Cyropaedia VIII 5 18). Cyrus the Younger is just about to kill his brother, king Artaxerxes II, but stops when he sees him dressing himself with the royal robe (Plutarch, Artoxerxes III 1-4). During a hunting expedition, nobleman Tiribazus wears the royal robe of king Artaxerxes II, causing disgust amongst his courtiers, as it is forbidden (Plutarch, Artoxerxes V 2).[13] Masistes and mathishta[edit] It has been noted that the name Masistes (which the Greek sources give) is related to the Old Persian title mathishta (maθišta, "the greatest", "the highest", "the longest"; "chief [of the troop]"; as a title, "the greatest after the king", "the second after the king") given to the royal heir designated by the king.[14] The problem lies in that the heir designated by Darius I is Xerxes, not Masistes, although the succession was not free of conflict. According to Herodotus, the eldest son by Darius was Artabazanes, but he had been born prior to Darius' ascent to the throne. Xerxes was the first-born son of Darius after he was crowned king, and he was also son of Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus the Great, founder of the empire. After many disputes in the court, Darius finally chose Xerxes. This is corroborated by Xerxes himself, who in his "Harem Inscription" of Persepolis states that his father designated him mathishta despite having other sons.[15] Pompeius Trogus, a later author, relates the same story, but refers to Artabazanes as Ariamenes.[16] On the other hand, Plutarch states that Xerxes, when he is chosen as heir, offers Ariamenes the position of "second after the king".[17] The Ariamenes who appears in Plutarch, although he plays the role of the Artabazanes referred to by Herodotus and the Ariamenes referred to by Trogus, has similarities with Masistes. First, Ariamenes governs over Bactria in Plutarch's version, just as Masistes does in Herodotus. Also, the phrase "second after the king" coincides with the meaning of the title mathishta, which seems to be related to the name of Masistes.[18] However, in Plutarch, the "second after the king" refers to the most powerful person after the king himself, but not to the heir, as occurs with the title mathishta.[19] It is possible, as it has been argued, that Masistes was not the real name of the younger brother of Xerxes, but simply his title, (mathishta).[20] Facing this possibility, it is important to note that Masistes was in fact a given name used at the time. In a clay cuneiform tablet ( a commercial document, specifically) from the Babylonian city of Nippur dated to 429 BC (during Artaxerxes I's reign) mention is made of a certain Masishtu (Masištu), whose name has been identified as the Akkadian form of Masistes.[21] Notes[edit] ^ Zadok & Zadok 1997, p. 5; Briant 1997, pp. 54, 91-92. The asterisk indicates that the name was reconstructed by modern scholars, and the sign "š" indicates the sound "sh". According to Ran Zadok, the name is of a non-Persic dialect origin. ^ Histories VII 121 ^ Histories IX 107 ^ Burn 1962, pp. 333, 336, 337, 351; Dandamaev 1989, p. 253.; Green 1998, p. 283. ^ Brosius 1998, p. 90 ^ Shrimpton 1997, p. 208. ^ Lendering, a. ^ Olmstead 1959 [1948], pp. 266-267. ^ Such as, Sancisi-Weerdenburg 2005 [1983], pp. 28-30; Dandamaev 1989, p. 232; Brosius 1998, pp. 8-9; Wiesehöfer 2006 [2001], pp. 52-53. ^ Sancisi-Weerdenburg 2005 [1983], pp. 28-30; Sancisi-Weerdenburg 2002. ^ Eddy 1961, p. 93; Sancisi-Weerdenburg 2005 [1983] pp. 28-30. ^ Sancisi-Weerdenburg 2005 [1983], p. 29. For example, in the Behistun Inscription: "Thereupon that Phraortes fled thence with a few horseman to a district in Media called Rhagae. Then I sent an army in pursuit. Phraortes was taken and brought unto me. I cut off his nose, his ears, and his tongue..." (quoted from Kent's translation [1]) ^ Eddy 1961, p. 93. ^ Lendering b, with previous bibliography; García Sánchez 2005, pp. 8-9. ^ Lendering, Jona. "Achaemenid Royal Inscriptions: XPf ("Harem inscription")". Livius.org Articles on ancient history. Livius.org. Retrieved 11 March 2015. ^ Justin, Epitome of Philippic Histories of Pompeius Trogus, II 10 1-10 ^ Plutarch, Apophthegmata regum et imperatorum 1; De amore fraterno 18. ^ Briant 2002, p. 524. ^ García Sánchez 2005, pp. 7-8 ^ Lendering a. ^ Zadok & Zadok 1997, p. 5; Briant 1997, pp. 54, 91-92. References[edit] Briant, P (1997): "Bulletin d'Histoire Achéménide", in Topoi 1. Briant, P. (2002): From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire, Eisenbrauns. Brosius, M (1998): Woman in Ancient Persia, Clarendon Press. Burn, AR (1962): Persia and the Greeks, St. Martin's Press. Dandamaev, M (1989): A Political History of the Persian Empire, Brill Academic Publishers, Leiden, trad. de W. Vogelsang. Eddy, SK (1961): The King Is Dead: Studies in the Near Eastern Resistance to Hellenism, 334-31 B. C, University of Nebraska Press. García Sánchez, M (2005): "La figura del sucesor del Gran Rey en la Persia Aqueménida[permanent dead link]", in V. Troncoso (ed.), Anejos Gerión 9, La figura del sucesor en las monarquías de época helenística. Green, P (1998): The Greco-Persian Wars, University of California Press. Shrimpton, GS (1997): History and Memory in Ancient Greece, McGill-Queens University Press. Lendering, J (a): "Atossa", in Livius.org Lendering, J (b): "Mathišta", in Livius.org Olmstead, ATE (1959) [1948]: History of the Persian Empire, University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Sancisi-Weerdenburg, H. (2002): "The Personality of Xerxes, King of Kings ", in Brill's Companion to Herodotus, Brill Academic Publishers, Leiden, originally published in L. de Meyer & E. Haerinck (eds.) Archaeologia Iranica et Orientalis Miscellanea in Honorem Louis Vanden Berghe Peeters, Gent, 1989, pp. 549–560. Sancisi-Weerdemburg, H (2005) [1983]: "Exit Atossa: Images of Woman in Greek Historiography on Persia", in A. Kuhrt & A. Cameron (eds.) Images of Woman in Antiquity, Routledge. Wiesehöfer, J (2006) [2001]: Ancient Persia from 550 BC to 650 AD, I. B. Tauris, translated by A. Azodi. Zadok, R; & T. Zadok (1997): "LB texts from the Yale Babylonian Collection", in NABU 1997-13. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Masistes&oldid=1001253041" Categories: Achaemenid satraps of Bactria 5th-century BC Iranian people Family of Darius the Great Hidden categories: Articles to be expanded from December 2009 All articles to be expanded History articles needing translation from Spanish Wikipedia All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from June 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Hrvatski Italiano مصرى Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 18 January 2021, at 22:10 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2201	----	Category:Xerxes I - Wikipedia Help Category:Xerxes I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The main article for this category is Xerxes I. See also: Category:Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Wikimedia Commons has media related to Xerxes I. Subcategories This category has only the following subcategory. C ► Cultural depictions of Xerxes I‎ (12 P) Pages in category "Xerxes I" The following 14 pages are in this category, out of 14 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more).   Xerxes I B Babylonian revolts (484 BC) Bubares C Caylus vase G Ganjnameh Gate of All Nations H Hermotimus of Pedasa J Jar of Xerxes I M Mascames P Palace of Darius in Susa S Second Persian invasion of Greece X Xerxes Canal Xerxes I inscription at Van Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Xerxes_I&oldid=1002211905" Categories: Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Pharaohs of the Achaemenid dynasty of Egypt Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt Battle of Thermopylae Battle of Salamis Persian people of the Greco-Persian Wars 5th-century BC Iranian people 5th-century BC rulers Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia categories named after royalty Wikipedia categories named after Iranian people Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه Deutsch Español فارسی 한국어 日本語 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 January 2021, at 10:29 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2221	----	Category:Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is for articles with BNE identifiers. Please do not add subcategories. For more information, see Wikipedia:Authority control. Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. They are not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. 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en-wikipedia-org-2225	----	Arsites - Wikipedia Arsites From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Location of Hellespontine Phrygia, and the provincial capital of Dascylium, in the Achaemenid Empire, c. 500 BC. Achaemenid Dynast of Hellespontine Phrygia attacking a Greek psiloi, Altıkulaç Sarcophagus, early 4th century BCE. Arsites (Old Persian: Ṛšita, modern Persian: آرستیس, Greek: Ἀρσίτης) was Persian satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia in Achaemenid dinesty in the 4th century BC.[1] His satrapy also included the region of Paphlagonia. In 340 BC, he sent a mercenary force under the leadership of the Athenian Apollodorus to defend Perinthos, which was besieged by Philip II of Macedon, possibly at Artaxerxes III's request. The operation was successful and prevented a further advance of Philip into Asia Minor.[2][3] In the spring of 334 BC, however, Alexander the Great, after crossing the Hellespont, set foot in Asia Minor in the dominion of Arsites. Arsites then took part in the satrap coalition to counter the attacker. In the consequent war-council of Zelea he was foremost in opposing the scorched earth plan presented by the mercenary Memnon.[4] In the battle of the Granicus, he commanded the Paphlagonian cavalry in the left Persian wing just to the right of Arsames and Memnon of Rhodes.[5] Arsites fled from the battlefield at Granicus, but shortly afterwards committed suicide feeling that the blame for the defeat should fall on him.[6] His province was the first on Asian soil to fall into the hands of Alexander. Alexander then appointed one of his generals, Calas, as the new satrap of the province. Arsites had a son named Mithropastes who fled to an island in the Persian Gulf after his father's death. In 325/4 BC he was taken from the island by the naval commander Nearchos, whom he accompanied on the rest of his voyage.[7] References[edit] ^ Arrian, Anabasis 1.12.8. ^ Pausanias, 1.29.10 ^ Griffith, HMac ii.563 n. 2 ^ Arrian, Anabasis 1.12.8, 10. ^ Diodorus 17.19.4. ^ Arrian, Anabasis 1.16.3. ^ Nearchos, FrGrHist 133 F28. Sources[edit] Smith, William (1878). A New Classical Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography Mythology and Geography Partly Based Upon the Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Harper. Heckel, Waldemar (2006). Who’s Who in the Age of Alexander the Great: Prosopography of Alexander’s Empire. Blackwell Publishing. Cartledge, P. (2004). Alexander the Great. Vintage Books. p. 300. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arsites&oldid=1001250274" Categories: Achaemenid satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia 4th-century BC Iranian people 334 BC deaths Military leaders of the Achaemenid Empire Persian people of the Greco-Persian Wars Hidden categories: Articles containing Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text Articles containing Greek-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Hrvatski Italiano 日本語 Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 18 January 2021, at 21:56 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2259	----	Category:Rulers - Wikipedia Help Category:Rulers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Subcategories This category has the following 35 subcategories, out of 35 total.   ► Heads of government‎ (37 C, 47 P) ► Heads of state‎ (34 C, 97 P) ' ► Children of national leaders‎ (29 C, 366 P) ► Families of national leaders‎ (11 C, 2 P) ► Official social partners of national leaders‎ (3 C, 6 P) * ► Child rulers‎ (8 C, 2 P) ► Legendary rulers‎ (9 C, 54 P) ► Lists of rulers‎ (9 C, 14 P) ► Women rulers‎ (15 C, 6 P) + ► Rulers by continent‎ (6 C) ► Rulers by religion‎ (3 C) ► Rulers by century‎ (60 C) ► Rulers by millennium‎ (7 C) A ► Rulers of the Regency of Algiers‎ (1 C, 11 P) ► Kings of Ayutthaya‎ (34 P) C ► Communist rulers‎ (10 C, 117 P) F ► Fascist rulers‎ (5 C, 43 P) ► Former Liang rulers‎ (9 P) G ► Göktürk rulers‎ (46 P) J ► Jurchen rulers‎ (1 C, 1 P) M ► Mahan confederacy rulers‎ (9 P) ► Middle-earth rulers‎ (45 P, 2 F) R ► Rulers of Azcapotzalco‎ (6 P) ► Rulers of Iximche‎ (3 P) ► Rulers of Ladakh‎ (8 P) ► Rulers of Lampang‎ (1 P) ► Rulers of Marwar‎ (29 P) ► Rulers of Tikal‎ (28 P) ► Rulers of Yaxchilan‎ (6 P) ► Rulers of Yemen‎ (12 C, 14 P) S ► Socialist rulers‎ (2 C, 7 P) T ► Totalitarian rulers‎ (5 C, 28 P) ► Tungus rulers‎ (2 C) W ► Western Yan rulers‎ (1 C, 3 P) X ► Xueyantuo rulers‎ (4 P) Pages in category "Rulers" This category contains only the following page. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). S Sudarshan Shah Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Rulers&oldid=1002400111" Categories: Leaders Government Sovereignty Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية অসমীয়া Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Башҡортса Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Boarisch Català Чӑвашла Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia ქართული Қазақша Kurdî La .lojban. Magyar Македонски മലയാളം مصرى Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ 日本語 Нохчийн Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Qırımtatarca Română Русский Scots Slovenčina Slovenščina Ślůnski Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски தமிழ் Татарча/tatarça ไทย Тоҷикӣ Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 07:00 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2262	----	Ahmose I - Wikipedia Ahmose I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt Ahmose I Amosis, according to Manetho,[1] also Amasis[2] A fragmentary statue of Ahmose I, Metropolitan Museum of Art. Pharaoh Reign c. 1549–1524 BC (Egyptian chronology) (disputed) 25 years and 4 months in Manetho (18th Dynasty) Predecessor Kamose (Upper Egypt), Khamudi (Lower Egypt) Successor Amenhotep I Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Nebpehtire[3] The Lord of Strength is Re Nomen Ahmose[3] Iah is born Horus name Aakheperu[3] Great of Developments[4] Nebty name Tutmesut[3] Perfect of Birth[4] Golden Horus Tjestawy[3] He who Knots Together the Two Lands[4] Consort Ahmose-Nefertari, God's Wife of Amun, Ahmose-Sitkamose, Ahmose-Henuttamehu, Kasmut, Thenthapi Children Ahmose-Meritamun Ahmose-Sitamun Siamun Ahmose-ankh Amenhotep I Ramose Tair possibly Mutnofret Father Seqenenre Tao Mother Ahhotep I Died c. 1525 BC Burial Mummy found in Deir el-Bahri cache, but was likely originally buried in Abydos Monuments Palace at Avaris, Temple of Amun at Karnak, Temple of Montu at Hermonthis Ahmose I (Ancient Egyptian: jꜥḥ ms(j.w), reconstructed /ʔaʕaħ'ma:sjə/ (MK), Egyptological pronunciation Ahmose, sometimes written as Amosis or Aahmes, meaning "Iah (the Moon) is born"[5][6]) was a pharaoh and founder of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt, classified as the first dynasty of the New Kingdom of Egypt, the era in which ancient Egypt achieved the peak of its power. He was a member of the Theban royal house, the son of pharaoh Seqenenre Tao and brother of the last pharaoh of the Seventeenth dynasty, Kamose. During the reign of his father or grandfather, Thebes rebelled against the Hyksos, the rulers of Lower Egypt. When he was seven years old, his father was killed,[7] and he was about ten when his brother died of unknown causes after reigning only three years. Ahmose I assumed the throne after the death of his brother,[8] and upon coronation became known as nb-pḥtj-rꜥ "The Lord of Strength is Ra". During his reign, Ahmose completed the conquest and expulsion of the Hyksos from the Nile Delta, restored Theban rule over the whole of Egypt and successfully reasserted Egyptian power in its formerly subject territories of Nubia and Canaan.[8] He then reorganized the administration of the country, reopened quarries, mines and trade routes and began massive construction projects of a type that had not been undertaken since the time of the Middle Kingdom. This building program culminated in the construction of the last pyramid built by native Egyptian rulers. Ahmose's reign laid the foundations for the New Kingdom, under which Egyptian power reached its peak. His reign is usually dated to the mid-16th century BC. Contents 1 Family 2 Dates and length of reign 3 Campaigns 3.1 Conquest of the Hyksos 3.2 Foreign campaigns 4 Art and monumental constructions 4.1 Pyramid 5 Mummy 6 Succession 7 See also 8 References 8.1 Citations 8.2 Bibliography 9 Sources 10 External links Family[edit] Further information: Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Ahmose descended from the Theban Seventeenth Dynasty. His grandfather and grandmother, Senakhtenre Ahmose and Tetisheri, had at least twelve children, including Seqenenre Tao and Ahhotep I. The brother and sister, according to the tradition of Egyptian queens, married; their children were Kamose, Ahmose I, and several daughters.[9] Ahmose I followed in the tradition of his father and married several of his sisters, making Ahmose-Nefertari his chief wife.[10] They had several children including daughters Meritamun B, Sitamun A and sons Siamun A, Ahmose-ankh,[11] Amenhotep I and Ramose A[12] (the "A" and "B" designations after the names are a convention used by Egyptologists to distinguish between royal children and wives that otherwise have the same name). They may also have been the parents of Mutnofret, who would become the wife of later successor Thutmose I. Ahmose-ankh was Ahmose's heir apparent, but he preceded his father in death sometime between Ahmose's 17th and 22nd regnal year.[13] Ahmose was succeeded instead by his eldest surviving son, Amenhotep I, with whom he might have shared a short coregency.[14] There was no distinct break in the line of the royal family between the 17th and 18th dynasties. The historian Manetho, writing much later during the Ptolemaic Kingdom, considered the final expulsion of the Hyksos after nearly a century and the restoration of native Egyptian rule over the whole country a significant enough event to warrant the start of a new dynasty.[15] Dates and length of reign[edit] Ahmose's reign can be fairly accurately dated using the Heliacal rise of Sirius in his successor's reign, but because of disputes over from where the observation was made, he has been assigned a reign from 1570–1546, 1560–1537, 1551–1527 and 1539–1514 by various sources.[16][17][18] Manetho supposedly gives Ahmose a reign of 25 years and 4 months[16] (but, as Manetho called the first ruler of his dynasty "Tethmosis", he probably intended someone else). This figure is seemingly supported by a 'Year 22' inscription from his reign at the stone quarries of Tura.[19] A medical examination of his mummy indicates that he died when he was about thirty-five, supporting a 25-year reign if he came to the throne at the age of 10.[16] The radiocarbon date range for the start of his reign is 1570–1544 BC, the mean point of which is 1557 BC.[20] Alternative dates for his reign (1194 to 1170 BC) were suggested by David Rohl,[21] but these were rejected by the majority of Egyptologists.[22] A radiocarbon study published in 2010 suggested minor revisions in the traditional chronology but did not support Rohl's theory.[20] Campaigns[edit] Dagger bearing the name Ahmose I on display at the Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto Cartouche of Ahmose I on the dagger pommel, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto The conflict between the local kings of Thebes and the Hyksos king Apepi had started during the reign of Ahmose's father, Seqenenre Tao, and would be concluded, after almost 30 years of intermittent conflict and war, during his own reign. Seqenenre Tao was possibly killed in a battle against the Hyksos, as his much-wounded mummy gruesomely suggests, and his successor Kamose (likely Ahmose's elder brother) is known to have attacked and raided the lands around the Hyksos capital, Avaris (modern Tell el-Dab'a).[7] Kamose evidently had a short reign, as his highest attested regnal year is year 3, and was succeeded by Ahmose I.[23] Apepi died around a decade later.[24] Ahmose ascended the throne when he was still a child, so his mother, Ahhotep, reigned as regent until he was of age. Judging by some of the descriptions of her regal roles while in power, including the general honorific "carer for Egypt", she effectively consolidated the Theban power base in the years before Ahmose assumed full control. If in fact Apepi II was a successor to Apepi I, then he is thought to have remained bottled up in the delta during Ahhotep's regency, because his name does not appear on any monuments or objects south of Bubastis.[9] Conquest of the Hyksos[edit] Ahmose began the conquest of Lower Egypt held by the Hyksos starting around the 11th year of Khamudi's reign, but the sequence of events is not universally agreed upon.[25] Analyzing the events of the conquest prior to the siege of the Hyksos capital of Avaris is extremely difficult. Almost everything known comes from a brief but invaluable military commentary on the back of the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, consisting of brief diary entries,[26] one of which reads[27] Regnal year 11, second month of shomu, Heliopolis was entered. First month of akhet, day 23, this southern prince broke into Tjaru.[27] While in the past this regnal year date was assumed to refer to Ahmose, it is today believed instead to refer to Ahmose's Hyksos opponent Khamudi since the Rhind papyrus document refers to Ahmose by the inferior title of 'Prince of the South' rather than king or pharaoh, as a Theban supporter of Ahmose surely would have called him.[28] Anthony Spalinger, in a JNES 60 (2001) book review of Kim Ryholt's 1997 book, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, notes that Ryholt's translation of the middle portion of the Rhind text chronicling Ahmose's invasion of the Delta reads instead as the "1st month of Akhet, 23rd day. He-of-the-South (i.e. Ahmose) strikes against Sile."[29] Spalinger stresses in his review that he does not question Ryholt's translation of the Rhind text but instead asks whether: Copper axe blade inscribed with the titulary of pharaoh Ahmose I, Ashmolean Museum. it is reasonable to expect a Theban-oriented text to describe its Pharaoh in this manner? For if the date refers to Ahmose, then the scribe must have been an adherent of that ruler. To me, the very indirect reference to Ahmose—it must be Ahmose—ought to indicate a supporter of the Hyksos dynasty; hence, the regnal years should refer to this monarch and not the Theban.[30] The Rhind Papyrus illustrates some of Ahmose's military strategy when attacking the Delta. Entering Heliopolis in July, he moved down the eastern delta to take Tjaru, the major border fortification on the Horus Road, the road from Egypt to Canaan, in October, totally avoiding Avaris. In taking Tjaru[27] he cut off all traffic between Canaan and Avaris. This indicates he was planning a blockade of Avaris, isolating the Hyksos capital from help or supplies coming from Canaan.[31] Records of the latter part of the campaign were discovered on the tomb walls of a participating soldier, Ahmose, son of Ebana. These records indicate that Ahmose I led three attacks against Avaris, the Hyksos capital, but also had to quell a small rebellion further south in Egypt. After this, in the fourth attack, he conquered the city.[32] He completed his victory over the Hyksos by conquering their stronghold Sharuhen near Gaza after a three-year siege.[16][33] Ahmose would have conquered Avaris by the 18th or 19th year of his reign at the very latest. This is suggested by "a graffito in the quarry at Tura whereby 'oxen from Canaan' were used at the opening of the quarry in Ahmose's regnal year 22."[34] Since the cattle would probably have been imported after Ahmose's siege of the town of Sharuhen which followed the fall of Avaris, this means that the reign of Khamudi must have terminated by Year 18 or 19 of Ahmose's 25-year reign at the very latest.[34] Foreign campaigns[edit] After defeating the Hyksos, Ahmose began campaigning in Syria and Nubia. A campaign during his 22nd year reached Djahy in the Levant and perhaps as far as the Euphrates, although the later Pharaoh Thutmose I is usually credited with being the first to campaign that far. Ahmose did, however, reach at least as far as Kedem (thought to be near Byblos), according to an ostracon in the tomb of his wife, Ahmose-Nefertari.[35] Details on this particular campaign are scarce, as the source of most of the information, Ahmose, son of Ebana, served in the Egyptian navy and did not take part in this land expedition. However, it can be inferred from archaeological surveys of southern Canaan that during the late 16th century BC Ahmose and his immediate successors intended only to break the power of the Hyksos by destroying their cities and not to conquer Canaan. Many sites there were completely laid waste and not rebuilt during this period—something a Pharaoh bent on conquest and tribute would not be likely to do.[36] Ahmose I's campaigns in Nubia are better documented. Soon after the first Nubian campaign, a Nubian named Aata rebelled against Ahmose, but was crushed. After this attempt, an anti-Theban Egyptian named Tetian gathered many rebels in Nubia, but he too was defeated. Ahmose restored Egyptian rule over Nubia, which was controlled from a new administrative center established at Buhen.[10] When re-establishing the national government, Ahmose appears to have rewarded various local princes who supported his cause and that of his dynastic predecessors.[37] Art and monumental constructions[edit] Fragments of an armband of Ahmose I, Musée du Louvre. With the re-unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under Ahmose, a renewal of royal support for the arts and monumental construction occurred. Ahmose reportedly devoted a tenth of all the productive output towards the service of the traditional gods,[38] reviving massive monumental constructions as well as the arts. However, as the defeat of the Hyksos occurred relatively late in Ahmose's reign, his subsequent building program likely lasted no more than seven years,[39] and much of what was started was probably finished by his son and successor Amenhotep I.[40] Work from Ahmose's reign is made of much finer material than anything from the Second Intermediate Period, though the craftsmanship from his reign does not always match the best work from either the Old or Middle Kingdoms.[41] With the Delta and Nubia under Egyptian control once more, access was gained to resources not available in Upper Egypt. Gold and silver were received from Nubia, Lapis Lazuli from distant parts of central Asia, cedar from Byblos,[42] and in the Sinai the Serabit el-Khadim turquoise mines were reopened.[43] Although the exact nature of the relationship between Egypt and Crete is uncertain, at least some Minoan designs have been found on objects from this period, and Egypt considered the Aegean to be part of its empire.[42] Ahmose reopened the Tura limestone quarries to provide stone for monuments and used Asiatic cattle from Phoenicia to haul the stone, according to his quarry inscription.[44] Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a probable Hyksos. Detail of a ceremonial axe in the name of Ahmose I, treasure of Queen Ahhotep II. Luxor Museum[45][46][47] The art during Ahmose I's reign was similar to the Middle Kingdom royal Theban style,[48] and stelae from this period were once more of the same quality.[43] This reflects a possibly natural conservative tendency to revive fashions from the pre-Hyksos era. Despite this, only three positively identified statuary images of Ahmose I survive: a single shabti kept at the British Museum, presumably from his tomb (which has never been positively located), and two life-size statues; one of which resides in the New York Metropolitan Museum, the other in the Khartoum Museum.[48] All display slightly bulging eyes, a feature also present on selected stelae depicting the pharaoh. Based on style, a small limestone sphinx that resides at the National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh, has also been tentatively identified as representing Ahmose I.[49] The art of glass making is thought to have developed during Ahmose's reign. The oldest samples of glass appear to have been defective pieces of faience, but intentional crafting of glass did not occur until the beginning of the 18th dynasty.[50] One of the earliest glass beads found contains the names of both Ahmose and Amenhotep I, written in a style dated to about the time of their reigns.[51] If glassmaking was developed no earlier than Ahmose's reign and the first objects are dated to no later than his successor's reign, it is quite likely that it was one of his subjects who developed the craft.[51] The jewels and ceremonial weaponry found in the burial of Queen Ahhotep, including an axe whose blade depicts Ahmose I striking down a Hyksos soldier, and the golden flies awarded to the Queen for her supportive role against the Hyksos Ahmose resumed large construction projects like those before the Second Intermediate Period. In the south of the country he began constructing temples mostly built of brick, one of them in the Nubian town of Buhen. In Upper Egypt he made additions to the existing temple of Amun at Karnak and to the temple of Montu at Armant.[43] According to an inscription at Tura,[44] he used white limestone to build a temple to Ptah and the southern harem of Amun, but did not finish either project.[43] He built a cenotaph for his grandmother, Queen Tetisheri, at Abydos.[43] Excavations at the site of Avaris by Manfred Bietak have shown that Ahmose had a palace constructed on the site of the former Hyksos capital city's fortifications. Bietak found fragmentary Minoan-style remains of the frescoes that once covered the walls of the palace; there has subsequently been much speculation as to what role this Aegean civilization may have played in terms of trade and in the arts.[52] Under Ahmose's reign, the city of Thebes became the capital for the whole of Egypt, as it had been under the 11th Dynasty in the early Middle Kingdom. It also became the center for a newly established professional civil service, where there was a greater demand for scribes and the literate as the royal archives began to fill with accounts and reports.[53] Having Thebes as the capital was probably a strategic choice as it was located at the center of the country, the logical conclusion from having had to fight the Hyksos in the north as well as the Nubians to the south. Any future opposition at either border could be met easily.[38] Perhaps the most important shift was a religious one: Thebes effectively became the religious as well as the political center of the country, its local god Amun credited with inspiring Ahmose in his victories over the Hyksos. The importance of the temple complex at Karnak (on the east bank of the Nile north of Thebes) grew and the importance of the previous cult of Ra based in Heliopolis diminished.[54] Several stelae detailing the work done by Ahmose were found at Karnak, two of which depict him as a benefactor to the temple. In one of these stelae, known as the "Tempest Stele", he claims to have rebuilt the pyramids of his predecessors at Thebes that had been destroyed by a major storm.[55] The Thera eruption in the Aegean has been implicated by some scholars as the source of the damages described in the Tempest Stele.[56] Pyramid[edit] Main article: Pyramid of Ahmose The ruins of the Pyramid of Ahmose The remains of Ahmose's pyramid in Abydos were discovered in 1899 and identified as his in 1902.[57] Most of its outer casing stones had been robbed for use in other building projects over the years, and the mound of rubble upon which it was built has collapsed. However, two rows of intact casing stones were found by Arthur Mace, who estimated its steep slope as about 60 degrees, based on the evidence of the limestone casing (compare to the less acute 51 degrees of the Great Pyramid of Giza).[58] Adjacent to the main pyramid temple and to its east, Harvey has identified two temples constructed by Ahmose's queen, Ahmose-Nefertary. One of these structures also bears bricks stamped with the name of Chief Treasurer Neferperet, the official responsible for re-opening the stone quarries at el-Ma'asara (Tura) in Ahmose's year 22. A third, larger temple (Temple C) is similar to the pyramid temple in form and scale, but its stamped bricks and details of decoration reinforce that it was a cult place for Ahmose-Nefertary.[citation needed] The axis of the pyramid complex may be associated with a series of monuments strung out along a kilometer of desert. Along this axis are several key structures: 1) a large pyramid dedicated to his grandmother Tetisheri which contained a stele depicting Ahmose providing offerings to her; 2) a rockcut underground complex which may either have served as a token representation of an Osirian underworld or as an actual royal tomb;[59] and 3) a terraced temple built against the high cliffs, featuring massive stone and brick terraces. These elements reflect in general a similar plan undertaken for the cenotaph of Senwosret III and in general its construction contains elements which reflect the style of both Old and Middle Kingdom pyramid complexes.[59] Dagger of Ahmose I, Luxor Museum There is some dispute as to if this pyramid was Ahmose's burial place, or if it was a cenotaph. Although earlier explorers Mace and Currelly were unable to locate any internal chambers, it is unlikely that a burial chamber would have been located in the midst of the pyramid's rubble core. In the absence of any mention of a tomb of King Ahmose in the tomb robbery accounts of the Abbott Papyrus, and in the absence of any likely candidate for the king's tomb at Thebes, it is possible that the king was interred at Abydos, as suggested by Harvey. Certainly the great number of cult structures located at the base of the pyramid located in recent years, as well as the presence at the base of the pyramid of a cemetery used by priests of Ahmose's cult, argue for the importance of the king's Abydos cult. However, other Egyptologists believe that the pyramid was constructed (like Tetisheri's pyramid at Abydos) as a cenotaph and that Ahmose may have originally been buried in the southern part of Dra' Abu el-Naga' with the rest of the late 17th and early 18th Dynasties.[43] This pyramid was the last pyramid ever built as part of a mortuary complex in Egypt. The pyramid would be abandoned by subsequent pharaohs of the New Kingdom, for both practical and religious reasons. The Giza plateau offered plenty of room for building pyramids; but this was not the case with the confined, cliff-bound geography of Thebes and any burials in the surrounding desert were vulnerable to flooding. The pyramid form was associated with the sun god Re, who had been overshadowed by Amun in importance. One of the meanings of Amun's name was the hidden one, which meant that it was now theologically permissible to hide the Pharaoh's tomb by fully separating the mortuary template from the actual burial place. This provided the added advantage that the resting place of the pharaoh could be kept hidden from necropolis robbers. All subsequent pharaohs of the New Kingdom would be buried in rock-cut shaft tombs in the Valley of the Kings.[60] Mummy[edit] The mummified head of Ahmose I at the Luxor Museum. Ceremonial Axe in the name of Ahmose I, found in the tomb of queen Ahhotep II. This axe celebrates the victories of Ahmose. It bears the kings titulary, along with images of the king smiting an Asiatic enemy, and prayers for many years of rule. 18th dynasty, from Dra Abu el-Naga. CG 52645 / JE4673 Luxor Museum. Ahmose I's mummy was discovered in 1881 within the Deir el-Bahri Cache, located in the hills directly above the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut. He was interred along with the mummies of other 18th and 19th dynasty leaders Amenhotep I, Thutmose I, Thutmose II, Thutmose III, Ramesses I, Seti I, Ramesses II and Ramesses IX, as well as the 21st dynasty pharaohs Pinedjem I, Pinedjem II and Siamun.[61] Ahmose I's mummy was unwrapped by Gaston Maspero on June 9, 1886. It was found within a coffin that bore his name in hieroglyphs, and on his bandages his name was again written in hieratic script. While the cedarwood coffin's style dates it squarely to the time of the 18th dynasty, it was neither of royal style nor craftsmanship, and any gilding or inlays may have been stripped in antiquity.[62] He had evidently been moved from his original burial place, re-wrapped and placed within the cache at Deir el-Bahri during the reign of the 21st dynasty priest-king Pinedjem II, whose name also appeared on the mummy's wrappings. Around his neck a garland of Delphinium flowers had been placed. The body bore signs of having been plundered by ancient grave-robbers, his head having been broken off from his body and his nose smashed.[63] The body was 1.63 m (64.17 in) in height. The mummy had a small face with no defining features, though he had slightly prominent front teeth; this may have been an inherited family trait, as this feature can be seen in some female mummies of the same family, as well as the mummy of his descendant, Thutmose II.[citation needed] A short description of the mummy by Gaston Maspero sheds further light on familial resemblances: ...he was of medium height, as his body when mummified measured only 5 feet 6 inches (1.68 m) in length, but the development of the neck and chest indicates extraordinary strength. The head is small in proportion to the bust, the forehead low and narrow, the cheek-bones project and the hair is thick and wavy. The face exactly resembles that of Tiûâcrai [Seqenenre Tao] and the likeness alone would proclaim the affinity, even if we were ignorant of the close relationship which united these two Pharaohs.[38] Initial studies of the mummy were first thought to reveal a man in his 50s,[38] but subsequent examinations have shown that he was instead likely to have been in his mid-30s when he died.[37] The identity of this mummy (Cairo Museum catalog n° 61057) was called into question in 1980 by the published results of Dr. James Harris, a professor of orthodontics, and Egyptologist Edward Wente. Harris had been allowed to take x-rays of all of the supposed royal mummies at the Cairo Museum. While history records Ahmose I as being the son or possibly the grandson of Seqenenre Tao, the craniofacial morphology of the two mummies are quite different. It is also different from that of the female mummy identified as Ahmes-Nefertari, thought to be his sister. These inconsistencies, and the fact that this mummy was not posed with arms crossed over chest, as was the fashion of the period for male royal mummies, led them to conclude that this was likely not a royal mummy, leaving the identity of Ahmose I unknown.[64] The mummy is now in the Luxor Museum alongside the purported one of Ramesses I, as part of a permanent exhibition called "The Golden Age of the Egyptian Military".[65] Succession[edit] Osiride statue of Amenhotep I, currently housed in the British Museum Ahmose I was succeeded by his son, Amenhotep I. A minority of scholars have argued that Ahmose had a short co-regency with Amenhotep, potentially lasting up to six years. If there was a co-regency, Amenhotep could not have been made king before Ahmose's 18th regnal year, the earliest year in which Ahmose-ankh, the heir apparent, could have died.[13] There is circumstantial evidence indicating a co-regency may have occurred, although definitive evidence is lacking.[citation needed] The first piece of evidence consists of three small objects which contain both of their praenomen next to one another: the aforementioned small glass bead, a small feldspar amulet and a broken stele, all of which are written in the proper style for the early 18th dynasty.[51] The last stele said that Amenhotep was "given life eternally", which is an Egyptian idiom meaning that a king is alive, but the name of Ahmose does not have the usual epithet "true of voice" which is given to dead kings.[51] Since praenomen are only assumed upon taking the throne, and assuming that both were in fact alive at the same time, it is indicated that both were reigning at the same time. There is, however, the possibility that Amenhotep I merely wished to associate himself with his beloved father, who reunited Egypt.[citation needed] Second, Amenhotep I appears to have nearly finished preparations for a sed festival, or even begun celebrating it; but Amenhotep I's reign is usually given only 21 years and a sed festival traditionally cannot be celebrated any earlier than a ruler's 30th year. If Amenhotep I had a significant co-regency with his father, some have argued that he planned to celebrate his Sed Festival on the date he was first crowned instead of the date that he began ruling alone. This would better explain the degree of completion of his Sed Festival preparations at Karnak.[66] There are two contemporary New Kingdom examples of the breaking of this tradition; Hatshepsut celebrated her Heb Sed Festival in her 16th year and Akhenaten celebrated a Sed Festival near the beginning of his 17-year reign.[67] Third, Ahmose's wife, Ahmose Nefertari, was called both "King's Great Wife" and "King's Mother" in two stelae which were set up at the limestone quarries of Ma`sara in Ahmose's 22nd year. For her to literally be a "King's Mother," Amenhotep would already have to be a king. It is possible that the title was only honorific, as Ahhotep II assumed the title without being the mother of any known king;[68] though there is a possibility that her son Amenemhat was made Amenhotep I's co-regent, but preceded him in death.[13] Because of this uncertainty, a co-regency is currently impossible to prove or disprove. Both Redford's and Murnane's works on the subject are undecided on the grounds that there is too little conclusive evidence either for or against a coregency. Even if there was one, it would have made no difference to the chronology of the period because in this kind of institution Amenhotep would have begun counting his regnal dates from his first year as sole ruler.[69][70] However, co-regency supporters note that since at least one rebellion had been led against Ahmose during his reign, it would certainly have been logical to crown a successor before one's death to prevent a struggle for the crown.[71] See also[edit] List of Pharaohs References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Gardiner (1964) p. 168. ^ The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition (2008) ^ a b c d e Clayton (2006) p. 100. ^ a b c Wiener and Allen (1998) p. 3. ^ Ranke, Hermann (1935) Die ägyptischen Personennamen, Glückstadt: Verlag von J. J. Augustin, volume 1, page 12.19 ^ Leprohon, Ronald (2013), Denise Doxey, editor, The Great Name: Ancient Egyptian Royal Titulary, Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, page 96 ^ a b Shaw. (2000) p. 199. ^ a b Grimal. (1988) p. 192. ^ a b Grimal. (1988) p. 194. ^ a b Grimal. (1988) p. 190. ^ Dodson. (1990) p. 91. ^ Dodson, Aidan; Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, p. 126. Thames & Hudson, 2004. ^ a b c Wente (1975) p. 271. ^ Gordon, Andrew H. A Glass Bead of Ahmose and Amenhotep I. pp. 296–297. Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 41, no. 4, October 1982. ^ Redford. (1965) p. 28. ^ a b c d Grimal. (1988) p. 193. ^ Helk, Wolfgang. Schwachstellen der Chronologie-Diskussion pp. 47–49. Göttinger Miszellen, Göttingen, 1983. ^ Encyclopaedia Britannica Ahmose I | Accomplishments & Facts | Britannica.com ^ Breasted, James Henry. Ancient Records of Egypt, Vol. II p. 12. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1906. ^ a b Christopher Bronk Ramsey et al., Radiocarbon-Based Chronology for Dynastic Egypt, Science 18 June 2010: Vol. 328. no. 5985, pp. 1554–1557. ^ David Rohl, Pharaohs and Kings (1995), ISBN 0-609-80130-9 ^ Bennett, Chris. Temporal Fugues. Journal of Ancient and Medieval Studies. vol. 13. 1996. ^ Dodson, Aidan. Kamose, Wiley Online Library. 2012. ^ Grimal. (1988) p. 189. ^ Shaw. (2000) p. 203. ^ Spalinger, Anthony J. War in Ancient Egypt: The New Kingdom, p. 23. Blackwell Publishing, 2005. ^ a b c Redford. (1992) p. 71. ^ Thomas Schneider, The Relative Chronology of the Middle Kingdom and the Hyksos Period (Dyns. 12–17)' in Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss & David Warburton (editors), Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies), Brill: 2006, p.195 ^ Anthony Spalinger, book review, Vol.60, No.4. October 2001, p.299 ^ Spalinger. JNES 60, op. cit., p.299 ^ Ahram (2005) Accessed August 23, 2006. ^ Breasted, James Henry. Ancient Records of Egypt, Vol. II, pp. 7–8. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1906. ^ Redford. (1967) pp. 46–49. ^ a b Redford. (1992) p. 195. ^ Weinstein, James M. The Egyptian Empire in Palestine, A Reassessment, p. 6. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, n° 241. Winter 1981.) ^ Weinstein, James M. The Egyptian Empire in Palestine, A Reassessment, p. 7. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, n° 241. Winter 1981. ^ a b Shaw and Nicholson. (1995) ^ a b c d Maspero, Gaston. History Of Egypt, Chaldaea, Syria, Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 4 (of 12), Project Gutenberg EBook, Release Date: December 16, 2005. EBook #17324. ^ Shaw. (2000) p. 209. ^ Shaw. (2000) p. 213. ^ Rice. (2001) p. 3. ^ a b Catalogue Général 34001, Egyptian Museum, Cairo. ^ a b c d e f Grimal. (1988) p. 200 ^ a b Quarry Inauguration Archived 2010-06-05 at the Wayback Machine, accessed July 28, 2006. ^ Daressy, George (1906). Annales du Service des antiquités de l'Egypte. Le Caire : Impr. de l'Institut français d'archéologie orientale. p. 117. ^ "Others were later added to them, things which came from the pharaoh Ahmose, like the axe decorated with a griffin and a likeness of the king slaying a Hyksos, with other axes and daggers." in Montet, Pierre (1968). Lives of the pharaohs. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. p. 80. ^ Morgan, Lyvia (2010). "AN AEGEAN GRIFFIN IN EGYPT: THE HUNT FRIEZE AT TELL EL-DABcA". Ägypten und Levante / Egypt and the Levant. 20: 308. ISSN 1015-5104. JSTOR 23789943. ^ a b Edna R. Russman et al. Eternal Egypt: Masterworks of Ancient Art from the British Museum, pp. 210–211. ^ Russman, Edna A. "Art in Transition: The Rise of the Eighteenth Dynasty and the Emergence of the Thutmoside Style in Sculpture and Relief", Hatshepsut: From Queen to Pharaoh. p.24–25. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2005. ISBN 1-58839-173-6 ^ Cooney, J. D. Glass Sculpture in Ancient Egypt. Journal of Glass Studies 2 (1960):11 ^ a b c d Gordon, Andrew H. A Glass Bead of Ahmose and Amenhotep I. p. 296. Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 41, no. 4, October 1982. ^ Shaw. (2000) p. 208. ^ Tyldesley, Joyce. Egypt's Golden Empire: The Age of the New Kingdom, pp. 18–19. Headline Book Publishing Ltd., 2001. ^ Tyldesley, Joyce. The Private Lives of the Pharaohs, p. 100. Channel 4 Books, 2004. ^ Shaw. (2000) p. 210. ^ Ritner, Robert and Moeller, Nadine. The Ahmose ‘Tempest Stela’, Thera and Comparative Chronology. pp. 1–19. Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 73, no. 1, April 2014. ^ Egyptian Pharaohs: Ahmose I, accessed July 19, 2006. ^ Lehner, Mark. The Complete Pyramids, p. 190. Thames & Hudson Ltd, 1997. ^ a b Lehner, Mark. The Complete Pyramids, p. 191. Thames & Hudson Ltd, 1997. ^ Tyldesley, Joyce. The Private Lives of the Pharaohs, p. 101. Channel 4 Books, 2004. ^ Aston, David. TT 358, TT 320 and KV 39. Three early Eighteenth Dynasty Queen’s tombs in the vicinity of Deir el-Bahari, p. 24. Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean. 2015. ^ Forbes, Dennis C. Tombs, Treasures, Mummies: Seven Great Discoveries of Egyptian Archaeology, p. 614. KMT Communications, Inc. 1998. ^ Smith, G Elliot. The Royal Mummies, pp. 15–17. Duckworth, 2000 (reprint). ^ Forbes, Dennis C. Tombs, Treasures, Mummies: Seven Great Discoveries of Egyptian Archaeology, p. 699. KMT Communications, Inc. 1998. ^ Bickerstaff, Dylan. Examining the Mystery of the Niagara Falls Mummy, KMT, p. 31. Vol. 17 Number 4, Winter 2006–07. ^ Wente (1975) p. 272. ^ Ancient Egypt. ^ Gordon, Andrew H. A Glass Bead of Ahmose and Amenhotep I p.297. Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 41, no. 4, October 1982. ^ Redford. (1967) p. 51. ^ Murnane, William J. Ancient Egyptian Coregencies, Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization, N° 40, p.114. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 1977. ^ Gordon, Andrew H., A Glass Bead of Ahmose and Amenhotep I, JNES 41, no. 4, October 1982, p.297 Bibliography[edit] "Amasis I". The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2008. Retrieved 2010-08-13. Clayton, Peter (2006). Chronicle of the Pharaohs. Thames and Hudson Ltd. ISBN 978-0-500-28628-9. Dodson, Aidan (1990). "Crown Prince Djhutmose and the Royal Sons of the Eighteenth Dynasty". The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 76: 87–96. doi:10.2307/3822009. JSTOR 3822009. El-Aref, Nevine. "King of the Wild Frontier". Al-Ahram. Archived from the original on 31 July 2010. Retrieved 2010-08-13. Gardiner, Alan (1964). Egypt of the Pharaohs. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-500267-6. Grimal, Nicolas (1988). A History of Ancient Egypt. Librairie Arthéme Fayard. Redford, Donald (1992). Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-00086-2. Redford, Donald (1967). History and Chronology of the 18th Dynasty of Egypt: Seven Studies. University of Toronto Press. Rice, Michael (2001). Who's Who in Ancient Egypt. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-15449-9. Shaw, Ian (2000). The Oxford history of ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280458-7. Shaw, Ian; Nicholson, Paul (1995). The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt. Harry N. Abrams, Inc. ISBN 978-0-8109-9096-8. Wente, Edward F. (1975). "Thutmose III's Accession and the Beginning of the New Kingdom". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 57 (1): 265–272. doi:10.1086/372429. Wiener, Malcolm H.; Allen, James P. (1998). "Separate Lives: The Ahmose Tempest Stela and the Thera Eruption". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 57 (1): 1–28. doi:10.1086/468596. Sources[edit] Aston, David. TT 358, TT 320 and KV 39. Three early Eighteenth Dynasty Queen’s tombs in the vicinity of Deir el-Bahari. Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean. 2015. Bennett, Chris. Temporal Fugues. Journal of Ancient and Medieval Studies. vol. 13. 1996. Breasted, James Henry. Ancient Records of Egypt, Vol. II University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1906. ISBN 90-04-12989-8. Catalogue Gènèral 34001, Egyptian Museum, Cairo. Clayton, Peter. Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames and Hudson Ltd, paperback 2006. Cooney, J. D. Glass Sculpture in Ancient Egypt. Journal of Glass Studies 2 vol. 11, 1960. Dodson, Aidan. Crown Prince Djhutmose and the Royal Sons of the Eighteenth Dynasty The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, vol. 76, 1990. Dodson, Aidan. Dyan, Hilton. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt Thames & Hudson, 2004. ISBN 0-500-05128-3. Dodson, Aidan. Kamose, Wiley Online Library. 2012. Edna R. Russman, et al. Eternal Egypt: Masterworks of Ancient Art from the British Museum. 2001. ISBN 0-520-23086-8. Gardiner, Alan (Sir). Egypt of the Pharaohs, Oxford University Press, 1964. ISBN 0-19-500267-9 Gordon, Andrew H. A Glass Bead of Ahmose and Amenhotep I. Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 41, no. 4, October 1982. Grimal, Nicolas. A History of Ancient Egypt. Librairie Arthéme Fayard, 1988. ISBN 90-04-12989-8. Helk, Wolfgang. Schwachstellen der Chronologie-Diskussion. Göttinger Miszellen, Göttingen, 1983. Lehner, Mark. The Complete Pyramids. Thames & Hudson Ltd, 1997. ISBN 0-500-05084-8. Maspero, Gaston. History Of Egypt, Chaldaea, Syria, Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 4 (of 12), Project Gutenberg EBook, Release Date: December 16, 2005. EBook #17324. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/17324/17324.txt Murnane, William J. Ancient Egyptian Coregencies, Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization. No. 40. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 1977. Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. Princeton University Press, Princeton NJ, 1992. ISBN 0-691-00086-7. Redford, Donald B. History and Chronology of the 18th Dynasty of Egypt: Seven Studies. University of Toronto Press, 1967. Ritner, Robert and Moeller, Nadine. The Ahmose ‘Tempest Stela’, Thera and Comparative Chronology. Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 73, no. 1, April 2014. Shaw, Ian. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-19-815034-2. Smith, G. Elliot. The Royal Mummies, Gerald Duckworth & Co Ltd., 2000. ISBN 0-7156-2959-X. Spalinger, Anthony J. War in Ancient Egypt: The New Kingdom. Blackwell Publishing, 2005. ISBN 1-4051-1372-3 Tyldesley, Joyce. Egypt's Golden Empire: The Age of the New Kingdom. Headline Book Publishing Ltd., 2001. ISBN 0-7472-5160-6. Tyldesley, Joyce. The Private Lives of the Pharaohs. Channel 4 Books, 2004. ISBN 0-7522-1903-0. Weinstein, James M. The Egyptian Empire in Palestine, A Reassessment. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research: No 241. Winter, 1981. Wente, Edward F. Thutmose III's Accession and the Beginning of the New Kingdom. Journal of Near Eastern Studies, University of Chicago Press, 1975. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ahmose I. Ahmose accessed 19 July 2006. Egyptian Pharaohs: Ahmose I accessed 19 July 2006. King of the Wild Frontier accessed 23 August 2006 Quarry Inauguration accessed 28 July 2006. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Rulers of the Ancient Near East Territories/ dates [1][2][3][4] Egypt Canaan Ebla Mari Akshak/ Akkad Kish Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period 4000–3200 BCE Naqada culture (4000–3100 BCE) Proto-Cannaanites Sumerian period (4000–2340 BCE) Susa I Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE) Naqada I Naqada II Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests") Legendary ante-deluvian rulers: In Eridu: Alulim, Alalngar, then in Bad-tibira: En-men-lu-ana, En-men-gal-ana, Dumuzid, the Shepherd, then in Larag: En-sipad-zid-ana, then in Zimbir: En-men-dur-ana, then in Shuruppag: Ubara-Tutu "then the flood swept over"[5] Susa II (Uruk influence or control) 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ DenAnedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100-2700 BCE) Great Flood 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) First kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman En-me-barage-si ("made the land of Elam submit")[6] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba Uruk II dynasty Enshakushanna Mug-si Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions (3 kings)[7] Shushuntarana Napilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Urur Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun) Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion of Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[7] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian Empire (Semitic) Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Second Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) (Vassals of UR III) Shakkanakku dynasty (Semitic) Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Neo-Sumerian Period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians) Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (Vassals of Ur III)[8] Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal 2100 BCE Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin Ibbi-Sin 2050 BCE 2000 BCE Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV circa 2000 BCE Amorite invasions Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) 2025-1763 BCE Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ Third Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 1894–1595 BCE Second Intermediate Period Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham (Biblical) Yamhad First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Phoenicia Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Middle Assyrian Empire Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt 626–539 BCE Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116-117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ "The Sumerian king list: translation". etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2008-05-08. ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ a b Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4. Authority control GND: 118889400 LCCN: n95066217 NKC: jn20030320006 VIAF: 59882356 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n95066217 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ahmose_I&oldid=1000568879" Categories: Ahmose I 1525 BC deaths 16th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ancient child rulers Ancient Egyptian mummies Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Egyptian-language text Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2020 Commons category link is on Wikidata Featured articles Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans አማርኛ العربية Asturianu Авар Azərbaycanca Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots සිංහල Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 15 January 2021, at 17:50 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2263	----	Mekh - Wikipedia Mekh From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Mekh Closeup of the Palermo Stone. Mekh is the no. 8 Pharaoh Reign Unknown (Predynastic Period) Predecessor Wazner? Royal titulary Mekh in hieroglyphs Mekh Mekh is mentioned in the Palermo Stone as a Predynastic Egyptian king who ruled in Lower Egypt. As there is no other evidence of such a ruler, he may be a mythical king preserved through oral tradition,[1] or may even be completely fictitious.[2][3] References[edit] ^ Helck, Untersuchungen zu Manetho und den ägyptischen Königslisten 1956, Berlin: Akademie-Verlag. Untersuchungen zur Geschichte und Altertumskunde Ägyptens 18 ^ O'Mara, Was there an Old Kingdom historiography? Is it datable? 1996, Orientalia 65: 197-208 ^ Wilkinson, Toby A. H. (2000). Royal Annals of Ancient Egypt. p.85 New York: Columbia University Press). ISBN 0-7103-0667-9. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mekh&oldid=993411165" Categories: Pharaohs only mentioned in the Palermo Stone People whose existence is disputed Ancient Egypt people stubs Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Deutsch Español Bahasa Indonesia ქართული Magyar مصرى Polski Português Русский Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Suomi Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 December 2020, at 13:53 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2274	----	Category:Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is for articles with ULAN identifiers. Please do not add subcategories. For more information, see Wikipedia:Authority control. Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. They are not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. 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Acke (previous page) (next page) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_ULAN_identifiers&oldid=846549337" Categories: Pages with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with authority control information Hidden categories: Hidden categories Tracking categories Template Large category TOC via CatAutoTOC on category with over 20,000 pages CatAutoTOC generates Large category TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans Asturianu تۆرکجه বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú भोजपुरी Български Dansk Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 हिन्दी Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Jawa Lëtzebuergesch Македонски मराठी Bahasa Melayu Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ 日本語 Nordfriisk ଓଡ଼ିଆ Português Română Sardu Scots සිංහල Simple English Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Tagalog ไทย Türkçe اردو Vèneto Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 June 2018, at 12:52 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2277	----	File:Tomb of Xerxes.JPG - Wikipedia File:Tomb of Xerxes.JPG From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this preview: 450 × 600 pixels. Other resolutions: 180 × 240 pixels | 360 × 480 pixels | 1,000 × 1,333 pixels. Original file ‎(1,000 × 1,333 pixels, file size: 249 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary DescriptionTomb of Xerxes.JPG English: Tomb of Xerxes I in Naghsh-e Rostam, Iran. فارسی: آرامگاه خشایارشا در نقش رستم. Date 24 October 2008 Source Own work Author Roodiparse Licensing Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse I, the copyright holder of this work, release this work into the public domain. This applies worldwide. In some countries this may not be legally possible; if so: I grant anyone the right to use this work for any purpose, without any conditions, unless such conditions are required by law. Captions EnglishAdd a one-line explanation of what this file represents Items portrayed in this file depicts creator some value Wikimedia username: Roodiparse URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Roodiparse author name string: Roodiparse copyright status copyrighted, dedicated to the public domain by copyright holder copyright license released into the public domain by the copyright holder inception 24 October 2008 source of file original creation by uploader File history Click on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 04:51, 20 May 2009 1,000 × 1,333 (249 KB) Roodiparse {{Information |Description={{en|1=own work عکاس خودم هستم }} |Source=Own work by uploader |Author=Roodiparse |Date= |Permission= |other_versions= }} <!--{{ImageUpload|full}}--> File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Tomb of Xerxes I Xerxes I Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on af.wikipedia.org Ahasveros Usage on ar.wikipedia.org خشايارشا الأول مستخدم:Faisalmh1/ملعب ضريح خشايارشا الأول Usage on azb.wikipedia.org خشایارشا Usage on bs.wikipedia.org Ahemenidsko Carstvo Usage on es.wikipedia.org Jerjes I Usage on et.wikipedia.org Xerxes I Usage on fa.wikipedia.org خشایارشا فهرست شاهنشاهان هخامنشی معماری هخامنشیان آرامگاه خشایارشا کاربر:Amssirani/صفحه تمرین بحث ویکی‌پدیا:گزیدن فهرست‌های برگزیده/فهرست شاهنشاهان هخامنشی کاربر:Amssirani/فهرست Usage on hr.wikipedia.org Kserkso I. Ahemenidsko Perzijsko Carstvo Usage on id.wikipedia.org Ahasyweros I dari Persia Usage on la.wikipedia.org Xerxes I (rex Persarum) Usage on pt.wikipedia.org Arte persa Usage on sh.wikipedia.org Ahemenidska Monarhija Kserks I Usage on sl.wikipedia.org Ahemenidsko cesarstvo Usage on ta.wikipedia.org முதலாம் செர்கஸ் Usage on www.wikidata.org Q5952863 Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. If the file has been modified from its original state, some details may not fully reflect the modified file. Camera model Canon IXY DIGITAL 910 IS Exposure time 1/200 sec (0.005) F-number f/8 ISO speed rating 80 Date and time of data generation 23:57, 24 October 2008 Lens focal length 4.6 mm Orientation Normal Horizontal resolution 300 dpi Vertical resolution 300 dpi Software used Adobe Photoshop CS Windows File change date and time 21:48, 19 May 2009 Y and C positioning Centered Exif version 2.2 Color space sRGB Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tomb_of_Xerxes.JPG" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces File Talk Variants Views Read View on Commons More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Upload file Special pages Printable version Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2299	----	Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt family tree - Wikipedia Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt family tree From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The family tree of the 26th Dynasty is just as complex and unclear as earlier dynasties. This dynasty possibly traced its origins to the Saite 24th Dynasty, and scholars now start the dynasty with the reign of Psamtik I, sometimes referrings to the previous rulers – Ammeris to Necho I – as "proto-Saites". The rule of the family of Necho I and Psamtik I ends with the death of Apries, who was replaced by Amasis II, originally a general, and not of the royal house at all. Amasis and his son Psamtik III are the final rulers of the 26th Dynasty. (24th Dynasty) Ammeris Tefnakht II Nekauba Necho I Istemabet Mehytenweskhet Psamtik I Takheredentaihetweret? Nitocris I Necho II Khedebneithirbinet I? Takhuit Psamtik II Tjenmuteti Ankhnesneferibre Apries Tashereniset B Tadiasir? Tentkheta Amasis II Nakhtubasterau Psamtik III Nitocris II Ahmose D Pasenenkhonsu References[edit] Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004. ISBN 0-500-05128-3. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Royal or noble family trees Monarchies by region Africa Egypt House of Muhammad Ali Ethiopia Solomonic dynasty Madagascar Morocco Tunisia Americas Aztec Brazil Mexico Asia Brunei Cambodia China Ancient Warring States Early Middle Late India Mughal Mughal-Mongol Iran Pre-Islamic: Achaemenid Arsacid Sasanian post-Islamic dynasties Modern: Safavid Afsharid Zand Qajar Pahlavi Japan Shōgun: Kamakura Ashikaga Tokugawa Jerusalem Korea Silla Goryeo Joseon Kuwait Malaysia Johor Kedah Kelantan Negeri Sembilan Pahang Perak Perlis Selangor Terengganu Mongol Borjigin Yuan Ilkhanate Timurid Myanmar Ottoman simplified Seljuk Anatolian Seljuk Sri Lanka Thailand Vietnam Europe Aragon Belgium Bohemia Bosnia Castile Croatia Denmark France simplified House of Bonaparte Greece Hungary Leon Luxembourg Monaco Naples Navarre Netherlands Norway Orange-Nassau Poland Portugal Holy Roman Empire/Germany House of Habsburg (incl. Holy Roman Empire after 1440) Romania Russia Serbia Medieval: Vlastimirović Vojislavljević Vukanović Nemanjić Lazarević Branković Modern: Karađorđević Obrenović Sicily Spain Sweden United Kingdom England simplified) (Wessex Mercia Northumbria Scotland Wales after 1603 Visigoths Oceania Hawaii Kamehameha Lunalilo Kalākaua Huahine Mangareva Samoa Malietoa Tui Manua Tupua Tamasese Tahiti Tonga Dukes, princes and counts Artois Brittany Aquitaine Brabant Lorraine Burgundy Bourbon Condé Conti Flanders Fujiwara Hainault Holland Jagiello La Fayette Lithuania Norfolk Swabia Monarchies of the ancient world Egypt 1st 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st, 22nd & 23rd 25th 26th Near East Yamhad Israel/Judah Georgia Iberia Bagrationi of Tao-Klarjeti and Georgia Kartli Kakheti Imereti Greece and Hellenistic World House of Atreus Erechtheids of Athens Alcmaeonids of Athens Heraclidae Kings of Sparta Argead dynasty Ptolemies Attalid Seleucids Rome Roman Emperors Caecilii Metelli Cornelii Scipiones Julio-Claudian dynasty Severan dynasty Flavian dynasty Constantinian dynasty Valentinianic dynasty Eastern Roman/Byzantine Emperors See also Family tree Ahnentafel Genealogical numbering systems Quarters of nobility Seize quartiers Royal descent Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Twenty-sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree&oldid=981097154" Categories: People of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Ancient Egyptian family trees Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Français ქართული Magyar Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 30 September 2020, at 08:02 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
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en-wikipedia-org-2314	----	Category:Murdered Persian monarchs - Wikipedia Help Category:Murdered Persian monarchs From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is being considered for deletion. This nomination is part of a discussion of several related categories. This does not mean that any of the pages in the category will be deleted. They may, however, be recategorized. Please share your thoughts on the matter at this category's entry on the Categories for discussion page. Please do not empty the category or remove this notice while the discussion is in progress. add entry: {{subst:cfd2|Murdered Persian monarchs|header=Category:Murdered royalty|text=Your reason(s) for the proposed deletion. ~~~~}} Administrators: If this category is empty, and all incoming links have been cleaned up, click here to delete.%5B%5BWikipedia%3ACategories+for+discussion%2FLog%2F2021+January+17%23Category%3AMurdered+royalty%5D%5D Pages in category "Murdered Persian monarchs" The following 43 pages are in this category, out of 43 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). A Abbas III Adel Shah Adur Narseh Ahmad Samani Ardashir III Arses of Persia Artaxerxes III B Bahram IV Bardiya Boran D Darius III E Ebrahim Afshar F Farrukhzad G Ghiyath al-Din Mahmud H Hormizd II Hormizd IV Farrukh Hormizd K Ali-Morad Khan Zand Jafar Khan Zaki Khan Zand Khosrow III M Mardavij Muhammad of Ghor N Nader Shah O Orodes II Orodes III of Parthia P Phraates IV Q Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar Naser al-Din Shah Qajar Quhyar R Rustam I Rustam V S Sayed Morad Khan Shahrbaraz Shapur III Shapur IV Sogdianus V Vardanes I Vistahm X Xerxes I Xerxes II Y Yazdegerd I Yazdegerd III Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Murdered_Persian_monarchs&oldid=1000980211" Categories: Murdered monarchs Monarchs of Persia Hidden categories: Categories for deletion Categories for discussion from January 2021 All categories for discussion Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية فارسی ქართული Српски / srpski اردو Edit links This page was last edited on 17 January 2021, at 17:45 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2317	----	Snaaib - Wikipedia Snaaib From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Snaaib Senaaib, Sena'aib, Sennaib, Snaiib Stele of Snaaib, on display at the Egyptian Museum, Cairo Pharaoh Reign Uncertain, 17th century BCE (possibly the Abydos Dynasty or near the end of the 13th Dynasty[1] or late 16th dynasty[2]) Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Menkhaure Mn-ḫˁw-Rˁ Established are the apparitions of Ra Nomen Snaaib Snˁˁ-ib Calm of heart Horus name Sewadjtawy S.w3ḏ-t3wy He who causes the two lands to flourish Menkhaure Snaaib was an Egyptian pharaoh during the Second Intermediate Period. According to Egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker he was a king of the Abydos Dynasty, although they leave his position within the dynasty undetermined.[3][4] Alternatively, Jürgen von Beckerath sees Snaaib as a king reigning near the end of the 13th Dynasty.[5][6][7] Contents 1 Attestations 2 Dynasty 3 References Attestations[edit] The only contemporary attestation of Snaaib's reign is a painted limestone stele "of exceptionally crude quality"[4] discovered in Abydos and now in the Egyptian Museum (CG 20517). The stele gives the nomen, prenomen, and Horus names of the king and shows him wearing the Khepresh crown and adoring the god Min.[3][4] Dynasty[edit] In his study of the Second Intermediate Period, Ryholt elaborates on the idea originally proposed by Detlef Franke that following the collapse of the 13th Dynasty with the conquest of Memphis by the Hyksos, an independent kingdom centered on Abydos arose in Middle Egypt.[8] The Abydos Dynasty thus designates a group of local kinglets reigning for a short time in central Egypt. Ryholt notes that Snaaib is only attested by his stele from Abydos and may thus belong to this dynasty.[4] This conclusion is shared by Darrell Baker but not by von Beckerath, who places Snaaib near the end of the 13th Dynasty.[7] References[edit] ^ Jürgen von Beckerath, kings of the second intermediate period, available online ^ Daphna Ben Tor, James and Susan Allen: Seals and Kings, BASOR 315, (1999) ^ a b Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 379 ^ a b c d K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800 – 1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46. Mainz am Rhein, 1997 ^ a b Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien 49, Mainz 1999. ^ Detlef Franke: Zur Chronologie des Mittleren Reiches. Teil II: Die sogenannte Zweite Zwischenzeit Altägyptens, in Orientalia 57 (1988), p. 259 v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Snaaib&oldid=954562038" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Abydos Dynasty Egyptian Museum Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page 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en-wikipedia-org-2320	----	Babylonian revolts (484 BC) - Wikipedia Babylonian revolts (484 BC) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Bel-shimanni) Jump to navigation Jump to search For other Babylonian revolts, see Revolt of Babylon. Babylonian revolts (484 BC) Part of the Babylonian revolts against the Persian Empire The Daiva inscription of Xerxes I (c. 480 BC), which records the suppression of a religious revolt somewhere in the Achaemenid Empire. It might be a reference to the revolts of Bel-shimanni and Shamash-eriba.[1] Date July – October 484 BC (3 months) Location Babylonia Result Decisive Achaemenid victory Babylon and other cities punished; extent of punishment unclear Division of the large Babylonian satrapy into smaller units Targeted revenge against supporters of the revolts Persians encourage local cults in Babylonia to diminish the religious hegemony of Babylon in the region Belligerents Babylon Sippar Borsippa Kish Dilbat Other Babylonian cities Achaemenid Empire Commanders and leaders Shamash-eriba Bel-shimanni Xerxes I Strength Unknown Unknown The Babylonian revolts of 484 BC were revolts of two rebel kings of Babylon, Bel-shimanni (Akkadian: Bêl-šimânni)[1] and Shamash-eriba (Akkadian: Šamaš-eriba),[1] against Xerxes I, king of the Persian Achaemenid Empire. Babylonia had been conquered by the Persians in 539 BC, but through the fifty-five years of Persian rule, the Babylonians had grown dissatisfied with their foreign overlords. Babylon's prestige and significance had diminished as the Persian kings did not become absorbed by the native Babylonian culture and continued to rule from capitals outside of Babylonia. Furthermore, the Persian kings failed in the traditional duties of the Babylonian king in that they rarely partook in Babylon's rituals (which required the presence of a king) and rarely gave cultic gifts in Babylonian temples. Babylonian letters written shortly before the revolt paint a picture of dissatisfaction and concern, as the Persians withdrew the income of Babylonian temple officials without explanation and tax pressures and exploitation of resources increased throughout Babylonia. It is possible that the revolts were not just motivated by a wish to re-establish an independent Babylonian kingdom, but that the revolts also had religious undertones, something which might connect them to a religious uprising somewhere in the Persian Empire written about in Xerxes's inscriptions. The revolt began in July 484 BC, the fourth month of Xerxes's second year as king. The citizens of Sippar (north of Babylon) proclaimed Shamash-eriba as king of Babylon and he also took for himself the title king of the Lands. In the same month, a second rebel king, Bel-shimanni, was recognised in Borsippa and Dilbat (south of Babylon). Shamash-eriba was still in control of Sippar at this point, which means that the two rebels were contemporaries, either allies or, more likely, rivals. Bel-shimanni's revolt was brief, only lasting about two weeks, most probably either being defeated by Shamash-eriba or willingly giving up his claim and joining with the northern rebel. By September, Shamash-eriba was recognised not only in Sippar and Borsippa, but also in Kish and Babylon itself. The Persians defeated him in October and re-established control of Babylonia. The extent to which Babylon and the Babylonians were reprimanded by Xerxes is unclear. Traditionally, historians have ascribed widespread destruction to the aftermath of the revolts, with Xerxes supposedly having greatly damaged the temples of Babylon and removing the Statue of Marduk, Babylon's main cult image, from the city. The veracity of such claims is unclear, as no evidence exists whatsoever of any damage being done to the cities of Babylonia in 484 BC. Other forms of retribution are evident from the historical evidence; the text archives of a majority of Babylonia's most prominent families end in 484 BC, suggesting targeted revenge against the supporters of the revolts. Additionally, the Persians appear to have worked on dismantling the religious hegemony Babylon held over Babylonia by encouraging the rise of local cults in other Mesopotamian cities, most notably in Uruk. Contents 1 Background 2 Historical evidence and chronology 3 Reconstruction of events 4 Aftermath 4.1 Xerxes as a "destroyer of Babylon" 4.2 End of the Babylonian archives 4.3 Religious reorganisation of Uruk 5 Notes 6 References 6.1 Bibliography 6.2 Web sources Background[edit] The Neo-Babylonian Empire, the last great Mesopotamian empire to be ruled by monarchs native to Mesopotamia itself[2] and the final and most spectacular era in Babylonian history, was ended through the Persian Achaemenid conquest of Babylon under Cyrus the Great in 539 BC. After its conquest, Babylon would never again rise to become the single capital of an independent kingdom, much less a great empire. The city, owing to its prestigious and ancient history, continued to be an important site, however, with a large population, defensible walls and a functioning local cult for centuries.[3] The Babylonians worshipped the gods of the Mesopotamian pantheon and the citizens of Babylon above all others revered the god Marduk, the patron deity of the city. Though worship of Marduk never meant the denial of the existence of the other gods, it has sometimes been compared to monotheism.[4] Though Babylon did become one of the Achaemenid Empire's capitals (alongside Pasargadae, Ecbatana and Susa), retaining some importance through not being relegated to just a provincial city,[5] the Persian conquest introduced a ruling class which was not absorbed by the native Babylonian culture, instead maintaining their own additional political centers outside of Mesopotamia. Since the new rulers did not rely on Babylon's significance for their continued rule, the city's prestige had been irreversibly diminished.[5] Although the Persian kings continued to stress Babylon's importance through their titulature, using the royal title king of Babylon and king of the Lands,[6] the Babylonians became less and less enthusiastic in regards to Persian rule as time went on. That the Persians were foreigners probably had very little to do with this resentment; none of the traditional duties and responsibilities[n 1] of the Babylonian kings required them to be ethnically or even culturally Babylonian; many foreign rulers had enjoyed Babylonian support in the past and many native kings had been despised.[7] More important than a king's origin was whether they fulfilled their royal duties in line with established Babylonian royal tradition.[8] The Persian kings had capitals elsewhere in their empire, rarely partook in Babylon's traditional rituals (meaning that these rituals could not be celebrated in their traditional form since the presence of the king was typically required) and rarely performed their traditional duties to the Babylonian cults through the construction of temples and giving of cultic gifts to the city's gods. As such, the Babylonians might have interpreted them as failing in their duties as kings and thus not having the necessary divine endorsement to be considered true kings of Babylon.[9] Babylon revolted several times against Persian rule in an attempt to regain its independence and the revolts of 484 BC against Xerxes I were not the first time the city rebelled.[10] Xerxes's father and predecessor Darius I (r. 522–486 BC) faced the rebellions of Nebuchadnezzar III (522 BC) and Nebuchadnezzar IV (521 BC), both of whom claimed to be sons of Nabonidus, Babylon's last independent king.[11][12] Historical evidence and chronology[edit] Locations of some major Mesopotamian cities The Babylonian revolts against Darius are easily dated to 522 and 521 BC due to the number of contemporary sources. The revolts of Nebuchadnezzar III and Nebuchadnezzar IV were part of a wider series of uprisings throughout the Persian Empire due to unrest and dissent following the deaths of Persian rulers Cambyses II and Bardiya. The large number of uprisings were only suppressed by Darius with great difficulty and as a result his victory widely commemorated in texts and monuments.[10] Although there was contemporary dissent within the Persian Empire in the 480s BC as well, notably an ongoing revolt in Egypt, the resistance against Persian rule was not as widespread as it had been forty years earlier. Perhaps as a result of this, the Babylonian revolts against Xerxes were not as widely commemorated as those against Darius I. There are no known documents or monuments made by Xerxes that speak of his Babylonian victory and no contemporary Babylonian chroniclers recorded the events of the year. No known later Babylonian documents reflect on what transpired either and though a handful of later Greek historians, such as Herodotus, wrote of a Babylonian uprising against Xerxes, they appear to have lacked precise knowledge of the events that transpired and their dates.[10] In general, evidence in regards to the revolts is sparse and whether all of historical evidence traditionally associated with them is actually related and how it fits together is unclear. The most important evidence are contemporary Babylonian documents that date themselves to the reign of the rebel kings of 484 BC; Bel-shimanni and Shamash-eriba, confirming the existence of the rebels, their names, and their revolt against Persian rule. In addition to these documents, the Daiva inscription by Xerxes, which records the suppression of a religious revolt somewhere in his empire, could be a reference to the revolts, though the inscription does not specify where the revolt took place or who partook in it. Other evidence comes in the form of the works of later Greek and Roman historians. Herodotus wrote that Xerxes captured Babylon after an uprising and removed a statue from the Esagila (Babylon's main temple) as punishment. The Greek historian Ctesias (typically considered unreliable) wrote that Xerxes dealt with two different Babylonian revolts on two separate occasions, the first one being defeated by his general Megabyzus and the second one being defeated by Xerxes himself. The Greco-Roman historian Arrian wrote that Xerxes faced a Babylonian revolt on his way back from Greece in 479 BC and punished the Babylonians for their uprising by closing the Esagila.[1] As Babylonian tablets do not record years in relation to anything other than the first year of a king,[13] the tablets dated to the reigns of Bel-shimanni and Shamash-eriba do not in of themselves provide enough evidence to determine when their revolts took place. As the tablets are dated to the summer months, one method to determine when the revolts took place would be to examine which of the regnal years of Xerxes are missing tablets dated to the summer. However, several different possibilities are then available as there are no known tablets dated to Xerxes's reign from the summers of 484 BC, 479 BC, 477 BC, 475 BC, 473 BC, 472 BC, 468 BC or 466 BC.[1] The first attempt to date Bel-shimanni and Shamash-eriba was made by Arthur Ungnad in 1907, who suggested that they had rebelled during the late reign of Darius I or early reign of Xerxes. He based this on the names of the people mentioned in the legal contracts dated to the two rebels, since these figures were also mentioned in legal contracts written during the reigns of Darius and Xerxes. Based on information contained in the tablets recognising Bel-shimanni, Mariane San Nicolò was in 1934 confidently able to pinpoint his reign to Xerxes's second year as king (484 BC).[13] In 1941, George Glenn Cameron suggested that Shamash-eriba's revolt had taken place in Xerxes's fourth year (482 BC), coinciding with Xerxes supposedly dropping the title king of Babylon.[13] In 1992, Pierre Briant proposed that a better fit would be Xerxes's sixth year (480 BC), since a rebellion in Babylon could help explain why Xerxes mismanaged his ongoing war in Greece. Shamash-eriba's uprising also taking place in 484 BC was not suggested until 2004 by Caroline Waerzeggers, who partly based her date on the archival context of several of the contracts dated to his reign and evidence from previously unpublished cuneiform material. John Oelsner examined her evidence in 2007 and also agreed with 484 BC as the most probable date. Since 2007, 484 BC has been the near-universally accepted date for both revolts.[14] Further evidence examined since then, such as an abrupt end to many Babylonian archives in 484 BC, makes it clear that something remarkable occurred during this year.[1] Reconstruction of events[edit] The cuneiform tablets dated to the reigns of Bel-shimanni (green) and Shamash-eriba (purple) and the locations of their discovery presented in a timeline.[1] Through examination of the cuneiform evidence, it is possible to approximately reconstruct the events of 484 BC.[14] It is apparent that the Babylonians were dissatisfied with Persian rule; preserved letters from the Babylonian city of Borsippa, written shortly before 484 BC, suggest a generally worried atmosphere in the city. The incomes of the city's temple officials had been withdrawn by Persian officials without any explanation. Although it is unclear whether this type of sudden and unexplained interference by imperial authorities was restricted to Borsippa or widespread throughout Babylonia, it might have been what allowed the rebel leaders to gather significant enough support to revolt. In addition to this specific example, tax pressures and a general exploitation of Babylonian resources had gradually increased throughout the reign of Xerxes's predecessor, Darius.[15] As the Babylonian establishment was closely linked to religious matters and the Daiva inscription refers to a religious revolt, it is possible that the Babylonian revolts were religious in nature.[1] The contents of Babylonian text archives deposited in 484 BC prove the existence of a large interconnected network of urban elites throughout Babylonia prior to the revolts. Texts deposited in the archives of different families and individuals overlap significantly in style and several figures appear in texts from different archives, proving the existence of inter-personal relationships among Babylonia's elites. These archives implicate several figures as supporters of Bel-shimanni's and Shamash-eriba's revolts, including the governor (šākinṭēmi) of Babylon itself, prebendaries of temples in Sippar (with frequently mentioned figures being the archive owners Marduk-rēmanni and Bēl-rēmanni) as well as the powerful Ša-nāšišu family, which controlled the most important religious and civic offices of both Babylon and Sippar in the reign of Darius.[16] Caroline Waerzeggers identified the Ša-nāšišu family in the years leading up to 484 BC as "ideally positioned to facilitate coordinated action".[17] Though contemporary Babylonian documents offer little in regards to events transpiring at a political stage, they can be used to establish a sequence of events as they allow researchers to determine which cities recognised the rule of Bel-shimanni and Shamash-eriba and on what days their rules were recognised.[13] After the death of Darius, Xerxes's rule was initially accepted in Babylonia, despite mounting unrest in the region and an ongoing revolt in Egypt. In the fourth month of Xerxes's second year as king,[14] July 484 BC,[1] the citizens of the city of Sippar proclaimed Shamash-eriba, of unclear origin, as king.[14] He took the title king of Babylon and of the lands.[15] Shamash-eriba's proclamation as king, though he did not yet control Babylon itself, was the first open act of revolt from the Babylonians since the uprising of Nebuchadnezzar IV in 521 BC. Tablets recognising Bel-shimanni in Borsippa and Dilbat, cities south of Sippar, are known from just ten days after the earliest tablets recognising Shamash-eriba.[14] As most Babylonian names did, the names of both rebels incorporate the names of Mesopotamian deities. Shamash-eriba's name incorporates the deity Shamash, a sun god and the patron deity of Sippar[18] (where Shamash-eriba's rebellion began).[14] Bel-shimanni's name incorporates Bêl, meaning "lord", a common designation for Marduk.[19] As Shamash-eriba was still recognised by the citizens of Sippar at this point, there was suddenly two contemporary Babylonian rebels. Though both fought against the Persians, Waerzeggers speculated in 2018 that they, as rival claimants, might also have fought against each other.[14] As the ruler of Sippar, Shamash-eriba's revolt initially gained ground in northern Babylonia whereas Bel-shimanni power-base was south of Babylon, in Borsippa and Dilbat.[1] Nothing is known of the background of either of the rebel leaders. Caroline Waerzeggers suggested a number of possibilities in 2018, writing that the most likely possibilities were that they were army officers, local governors or religious leaders. As their names are Babylonian, both were probably native Babylonians.[20] As tablets dated to the reign of Bel-shimanni only cover a period of about two weeks,[21] it is clear that his reign was terminated through some means and Shamash-eriba later remained as the only contender facing Xerxes.[14] Bel-shimanni might have been defeated by Shamash-eriba or willingly merged his uprising with that of his northern contender.[1] Halfway through September, the cities of Sippar, Babylon, Borsippa and Kish are known to have supported Shamash-eriba's rule.[14] As no documents recognise Shamash-eriba's rule after October, it is likely that the Persians defeated him in that month.[1] Aftermath[edit] Though the revolts themselves were only brief interruptions of Persian dominion, their aftermath saw large-scale and significant changes to political institutions and society in Babylonia as the Persians cemented their control of the region.[22] Xerxes as a "destroyer of Babylon"[edit] 9th century BC depiction from a cylinder seal of the Statue of Marduk, Babylon's patron deity Marduk's main cult image in the city It is disputed and unclear whether Xerxes's response in Babylonia was measured or violent and what its long-term effects were on Babylonian society.[23] The orthodox view, most clearly expressed by George Glenn Cameron in 1941 and Franz Marius Theodor de Liagre Böhl in 1962, is that Babylon was harshly reprimanded, with Xerxes ruining the city, taking away the Statue of Marduk (Babylon's main cult image of Marduk), which in turn prevented the celebration of Akitu (the Babylonian New Year's festival, which required the statue's presence), splitting the large Babylonian satrapy ("Babylon-and-across-the-River") into two smaller provinces, and removing the title king of Babylon from his royal titulature. Other researchers, such as Hans-Jörg Schmid in 1981, further embellished the details of this supposed retribution, considering it possible the Esagila was destroyed and that the river Euphrates was diverted.[22] Evidence to support Xerxes unleashing heavy retribution upon Babylon include that Daiva inscription, which supposedly encapsulates Xerxes I's intolerant religious policy, as well as the decreasing number of clay tablets from Babylonia after his reign, perhaps illustrating the region's decline. Other researchers, such as Amélie Kuhrt and Susan Sherwin-White in 1987, consider the ideas forwarded by Böhl and others as being "based on a careless reading of Herodotus combined with incomplete Babylonian evidence and an implicit wish to make very disparate types of material harmonize with a presumed “knowledge” of Xerxes’ actions, policies and character".[22] The primary evidence that the Statue of Marduk was removed from the Esagila comes from Herodotus, but the relevant passage in his text only reads that the "statue of a man" was removed, with no indication that this is supposed to be the statue of the god. Xerxes cannot be responsible for suspending the Babylonian Akitu festival since the festival had already been suspended for quite some time before Xerxes became king. Furthermore, the title king of Babylon was not abruptly dropped by Xerxes, who continued to use it (albeit less often) in the years after the Babylonian revolts. There is even evidence that Xerxes's successor, Artaxerxes I, used the title at times.[24] The gradual disappearance of the title might reflect the stabilisation of the Persian Empire into a more integrated political unit, rather than some instant punishment against Babylon.[25] Following re-assessments in the 1990s, most modern scholars agree that viewing Xerxes as the "destroyer of Babylonian temples" would be erroneous and based on uncritical misreadings of classical sources alongside an attempt to forcefully fit sparse Babylonian references into the hypothesis.[24] The lesser number of clay tablets from the reign of Xerxes and later might be attributable not to Persian oppression but to a multitude of other factors, such as accidents, the appearance of new forms of recordkeeping and new writing technologies or the further spread the Aramaic language.[25] The ruins of major cities in Babylonia show no evidence of having suffered any destruction whatsoever in the 480s BC.[24] End of the Babylonian archives[edit] The Neo-Babylonian Text Corpus is a collection of documents and texts which document the history of Babylonia under Assyrian, Babylonian and subsequent Persian rule. Two-thirds of the large number of tablets were deposited in a single year, 484 BC. The texts are relatively decentralised and organic in content up until documents written in 484 BC, which are more homogenised and politicised. This suggests widespread support of Bel-shimanni and Shamash-eriba among many of the authors. Caroline Waerzeggers wrote in 2004 that the archives were probably abandoned (or otherwise deposited) in the aftermath of the revolts, possible as the result of Persian intervention[26] as an effect of targeted revenge against those who supported the revolts.[27] Those archives that continue beyond 484 BC were written by local clients of the Persian governing elite in Babylonia, such as managers and caretakers of estates owned by Persian landlords.[26] Many of them were of rural origin, tied to the Persian state through its systems of governance.[28] In contrast, those whose archives cease in 484 BC were overwhelmingly people who lived in the cities, their ideology not rooted in their relationship to the new Persian overlords but to the political tradition of Babylonia in the form of the country's temples and cities; urban institutions had been established long before the Persian conquest and were run by a small number of families intimately connected through status, education, employment and marriage.[29] Most of the closed archives are from the main rebel centers of 484 BC; Babylon, Borsippa and Sippar,[30] whereas surviving archives are mainly from cities such as Ur, Uruk and Kutha, which may not have supported the uprising.[1] The contrasting origins and status of the people whose archives survived 484 BC and those whose archives did not point to a clear political division between the two groups. Waerzeggers argued in 2004 that the former group represented a pro-Babylonian faction aspiring to overthrow Persian rule whilst the latter represented a pro-Persian faction content with Persian dominion. The end of the archives coincides with the disappearance of elite families with roots in Babylon from southern Babylonia, suggesting that the Persian retribution at least partially focused on dismantling what remained of the pro-Babylonian faction in the aftermath of the revolts.[28] It is probable that repercussions against these individuals was not limited to just closing their archives and probably reflected the removal of previously enjoyed privileges in several areas.[29] The end of the archives does not appear to have been unexpected for their owners. The most precious and valuable types of tablets, such as property deeds, are not found among the contents of the corpus, the owners probably having taken these with them.[1] Religious reorganisation of Uruk[edit] It is unclear whether the city of Uruk supported the 484 BC revolts. No evidence exists that any city in southern Babylonia supported the revolts,[1][14] but this might be attributable to poor documentation, since it is clear that cities in the south suffered from the effects of Persian retribution in the aftermath of Shamash-eriba's defeat.[14] Evidence from Uruk in particular demonstrates that the city experienced a dramatic series of societal changes in 484 BC.[30] By 484 BC, a small number of prominent families of Babylonian origin had dominated the local politics of Uruk for generations. These were all driven out from the city after the end of the revolts and replaced with a new group of locals. As noted by Waerzeggers and Karlheinz Kessler in 2004, this shift in the elites of the city had considerable effects on local culture and politics as the new families implemented their own cultural and political programs separate from those of Babylon. Perhaps most dramatically, the city's most prominent place of worship, the Eanna temple, was closed and dismantled; replaced with new temples and new theological leanings distinct from those that had previously been imposed through influence from Babylon.[31] The most prominent of these new temples were the Rēš and the Irigal (or Ešgal), both of which would survive for centuries thereafter.[32] By this time, Uruk's principal deities were the goddesses Ishtar and Nanaya, typically described in inscriptions as the "owners" of Uruk's primary temples.[33] In the aftermath of the Babylonian defeat, Ishtar and Nanaya were replaced at the top of the local pantheon by the god Anu, with the city's civic religion being reorganised into a nearly hegemonic cult of this god.[30] Evidence for Anu's rise include the shift of naming patterns to names that more frequently incorporate Anu,[30] as well as Anu from 484 BC onwards being described as the owner of Uruk's temples instead of Ishtar and Nanaya.[33] Anu had been important in Uruk for some time but was also the ancestral head of the Mesopotamian pantheon. His rise to the top of the pantheon at Uruk might have been a symbolic assertion by the city to counter the central religious authority of Babylon. A collection of texts describing the Esagila and rituals dedicated to Anu in Uruk might be an example of the priests of Uruk being influenced by the priests dedicated to Marduk in Babylon, meaning that they might have viewed their new main temple, the Rēš as a counterpart to the Esagila in Babylon.[34] Architecturally, the Rēš was very similar to the Esagila and in cuneiform signs, its name was inscribed as É.SAG, conspicuously similar to the rendering of the Esagila's name, É.SAG.ÍL.[35] Paul-Alain Beaulieu believes that it is possible that Anu's rise was either imposed or encouraged by the Persians in the aftermath of the defeat of the Babylonian revolts. Persian authorities might have perceived the cult in Uruk as a counterweight to the religious hegemony exerted by Babylon. Encouraging the new elite families of Uruk to create a renewed local civic cult independent of the theology advocated by Babylon might have been a step in working against unity among the Babylonian cities.[35] Notes[edit] ^ Babylonian kings were expected to establish peace and security, uphold justice, honour civil rights, refrain from unlawful taxation, respect religious traditions and maintain cultic order. Any foreigner sufficiently familiar with the royal customs of Babylonia could become its king, though they might then have required the assistance of the native priesthood and the native scribes.[7] References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Lendering 1998. ^ Hanish 2008, p. 32. ^ Nielsen 2015, p. 53. ^ Mark 2016. ^ a b Nielsen 2015, p. 54. ^ Dandamaev 1989, pp. 185–186. ^ a b Zaia 2019, pp. 3–4. ^ Zaia 2019, p. 7. ^ Zaia 2019, pp. 6–7. ^ a b c Waerzeggers 2018, p. 1. ^ Nielsen 2015, pp. 55–57. ^ Lendering 1998b. ^ a b c d Waerzeggers 2018, p. 11. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Waerzeggers 2018, p. 12. ^ a b Waerzeggers 2018, p. 6. ^ Waerzeggers 2018b, p. 108. ^ Waerzeggers 2018b, p. 112. ^ Walker & Dick 1999, p. 58. ^ Cole & Machinist 1998, pp. 11–13. ^ Waerzeggers 2018b, p. 107. ^ Dandamaev 1993, p. 41. ^ a b c Waerzeggers 2018, p. 2. ^ Waerzeggers 2018b, p. 92. ^ a b c Waerzeggers 2018, p. 3. ^ a b Waerzeggers 2018, p. 4. ^ a b Waerzeggers 2018b, p. 89. ^ Waerzeggers 2018, p. 5. ^ a b Waerzeggers 2018b, p. 90. ^ a b Waerzeggers 2018b, p. 91. ^ a b c d Beaulieu 2018, p. 189. ^ Waerzeggers 2018, pp. 4–7. ^ Beaulieu 2018, p. 192. ^ a b Beaulieu 2018, p. 190. ^ Beaulieu 2018, p. 204. ^ a b Beaulieu 2018, p. 205. Bibliography[edit] Beaulieu, Paul-Alain (2018). "Uruk Before and After Xerxes: The Onomastic and Institutional Rise of the God Anu". In Waerzeggers, Caroline; Seire, Maarja (eds.). Xerxes and Babylonia: The Cuneiform Evidence (PDF). Peeters Publishers. ISBN 978-90-429-3670-6. Cole, Steven W.; Machinist, Peter (1998). Letters From Priests to the Kings Esarhaddon and Assurbanipal (PDF). Helsinki University Press. ISBN 978-1575063294. Dandamaev, Muhammad A. (1989). A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire. BRILL. ISBN 978-9004091726. Dandamaev, Muhammad A. (1993). "Xerxes and the Esagila Temple in Babylon". Bulletin of the Asia Institute. 7: 41–45. JSTOR 24048423. Hanish, Shak (2008). "The Chaldean Assyrian Syriac people of Iraq: an ethnic identity problem". Digest of Middle East Studies. 17 (1): 32–47. doi:10.1111/j.1949-3606.2008.tb00145.x. Nielsen, John P. (2015). ""I Overwhelmed the King of Elam": Remembering Nebuchadnezzar I in Persian Babylonia". In Silverman, Jason M.; Waerzeggers, Caroline (eds.). Political Memory in and After the Persian Empire. SBL Press. ISBN 978-0884140894. Waerzeggers, Caroline (2018). "Introduction: Debating Xerxes' Rule in Babylonia". In Waerzeggers, Caroline; Seire, Maarja (eds.). Xerxes and Babylonia: The Cuneiform Evidence (PDF). Peeters Publishers. ISBN 978-90-429-3670-6. Waerzeggers, Caroline (2018). "The Network of Resistance: Archives and Political Action in Babylonia Before 484 BCE". In Waerzeggers, Caroline; Seire, Maarja (eds.). Xerxes and Babylonia: The Cuneiform Evidence (PDF). Peeters Publishers. ISBN 978-90-429-3670-6. Walker, Christopher; Dick, Michael Brennan (1999). "The Induction of the Cult Image in Ancient Mesopotamia: The Mesopotamian mīs pî Ritual". In Dick, Michael Brennan (ed.). Born in Heaven, Made on Earth: The Making of the Cult Image in the Ancient Near East. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1575063423. Zaia, Shana (2019). "Going Native: Šamaš-šuma-ukīn, Assyrian King of Babylon". IRAQ. 81: 247–268. doi:10.1017/irq.2019.1. Web sources[edit] Lendering, Jona (1998). "Arakha (Nebuchadnezzar IV)". Livius. Retrieved 11 August 2020. Lendering, Jona (1998). "Bêl-šimânni and Šamaš-eriba". Livius. Retrieved 14 August 2020. Mark, Joshua J. (2016). "The Marduk Prophecy". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 9 December 2019. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Babylonian_revolts_(484_BC)&oldid=993035912" Categories: 5th century BC 5th-century BC conflicts 484 BC Rebellions against the Achaemenid Empire Xerxes I Religion-based wars Hidden categories: Good articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 8 December 2020, at 13:15 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. 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en-wikipedia-org-2326	----	Khaba - Wikipedia Khaba From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Khaba Hudjefa II.?, Sedjes?, Huni? Serekh of Khaba on a stone bowl of unknown provenance, Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, UC 15800. Pharaoh Reign duration unknown; ca. 2670 BC[1] (Later 3rd Dynasty) Predecessor Sekhemkhet or Sanakht Successor Huni (if not identical to him), Sanakht, Qahedjet Royal titulary Horus name Hor-Khaba Ḥr-ḫˁj-b3 The soul of Horus appears Golden Horus Netjer-nub Nṯr-nwb Golden falcon Abydos King List: Sedjes Sḏṣ Omitted Burial Layer Pyramid at Zawyet el'Aryan Monuments Layer Pyramid Khaba (also read as Hor-Khaba) was a pharaoh of Ancient Egypt, active during the 3rd Dynasty of the Old Kingdom period.[2][3] The exact time during which Khaba ruled is unknown[2][3] but may have been around 2670 BC,[1] and almost definitely towards the end of the dynasty. King Khaba is considered to be difficult to assess as a figure of ancient Egypt. His name is archaeologically well-attested by stone bowls and mud seal impressions. Khaba's reign is securely dated to the Third Dynasty. Because of the contradictions within Ramesside king lists and the lack of contemporary, festive inscriptions, his exact chronological position within the dynasty remains disputed.[2][3] These problems originate in part from contradictory king lists, which were all compiled long after Khaba's death, especially during the Ramesside era[4] (which is separated from the Third Dynasty by 1,400 years). It is also a matter of debate as to where Khaba might have been buried. Many Egyptologists and archaeologists propose that an unfinished Layer Pyramid at Zawyet el'Aryan belongs to him. Others believe instead that his tomb is a large mastaba close to the Layer Pyramid, where numerous stone vessels bearing Khaba's serekh have been found.[5][6] Contents 1 Attestations 2 Identity 2.1 Royal name 2.2 Identification with Ramesside kinglists 2.3 Identification with Manetho's king list 3 Reign 3.1 Chronology 3.2 Duration 3.3 Events 4 Tomb 5 Other buildings from Khaba's reign 5.1 Mastaba Z500 5.2 Quesna Tomb 6 References Attestations[edit] Khaba's name appears on nine polished stone bowls, variously made of magnesite, travertine, and diorite, which were found at the archaeological locales of Zawyet el'Aryan, Abusir, and Naga-ed-Deir. The bowls were found mostly intact; they show only the king's serekh name on their polished surfaces. As was conventional at the time they were made, they contain no additional inscriptions for context.[3][7] His name also appears on several mud seal impressions found at Quesna (in the Delta),[8] Zawyet el'Aryan, Hierakonpolis, and Elephantine. Most of the mud seals were excavated at modern-day Elephantine; it is possible that more of them lie under the garden of the current museum of Elephantine. These seal impressions bear more inscriptions than the stone bowls, however most of the seals are only preserved as small fragments and their surfaces have been roughened over the years.[3][7] Only one seal bears a well-preserved complete row of names or titles; the seal, numbered UC-11755, is undated and is now on display in the Petrie Museum, London. The inscription alternates between Horus and Golden Horus names.[3][7] Identity[edit] Royal name[edit] Khaba is known by his serekh and Golden Horus name only. His Nisut-Bity title and his Nebty name are unknown.[3] Additionally, Khaba is one of the very few kings from Early Dynastic and Old Kingdom times with an archaeologically proven Gold name, a likely predecessor to the Golden Horus name, which Khaba may also have introduced. Aside from Khaba, the only kings with Gold names who lived before king Sneferu, founder of the 4th dynasty, were Djer, Den, Nynetjer, Khasekhemwy, and Djoser.[3] From Snefru onward, the Golden Horus name became a fixed royal title to any ruling king, no matter how long the king ruled. Khaba's Golden Horus name can be found on several seal impressions, although its correct reading and translation are disputed. Peter Kaplony interprets it as Nub-iret or Nub iret-djedef, though he is unsure whether the syllable djedef was an inherent part of the name or an additional honorary title.[9] Thomas Schneider and Jürgen von Beckerath, in contrast, see Khaba's Golden Horus as Netjer-nub, which means "golden falcon". Khaba's Gold name is the first to show the infinitive form of the royal Gold name.[1] Identification with Ramesside kinglists[edit] Scholars face several problems in attempting to connect Khaba to royal names known from the Ramesside era (the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties). Unfortunately, these lists offer no clear consensus about the number or names of the kings of the 3rd dynasty. The Abydos king list gives Nebka, Djoser, Teti, Sedjes, and Neferkarê, while the Turin Canon offers Nebka, Djoser, Djoserteti, Hudjefa, and Huni. The kinglist of Saqqara lists Djoser, Djoserteti, Nebkarê, and Huni. The ancient historian Manetho gives nine names: Necheróphes, Tosorthrós, Týreis, Mesôchris, Sôÿphis, Tósertasis, Achês, Sêphuris, and Kerpherês.[2] Egyptologist Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards, for example, identifies Khaba with the Ramesside cartouche name Teti.[10] In contrast, Egyptologists Wolfgang Helck and Aidan Dodson suggest that Khaba could have been identical to the Ramesside names Sedjes and Hudjefa II. Both "names" are actually pseudonyms for a royal title that was illegible when the Ramesside scribes compiled the kinglists. This would match a king who ruled only a short time. The Turin Canon gives a short reign of 6 years for Hudjefa II.[2][11] A minority of modern Egyptologists think that Khaba might be identical to a Ramesside cartouche name known as Huni. This name can be credited to a king who is handed down by the Ramesside scribes as the last ruler of the 3rd dynasty. Rainer Stadelmann, Nicolas Grimal, Wolfgang Helck, and Toby Wilkinson point to a step pyramid at Zawyet el'Aryan, called the Layer Pyramid. This monument is assigned to Khaba (see section below) and since Stadelmann and Wilkinson hold that the pyramid was finished, they believe that a long-reigning king, such as king Huni, would have been necessary to oversee the project. Huni is attested in the Turin Canon to have reigned for 24 years. In addition, Stadelmann points to the seal impressions found at Elephantine: they come from a site very close to a stepped pyramid which is said to have been built by Huni.[5] Identification with Manetho's king list[edit] It is also unknown under which Hellenized name the ancient historian Manetho listed Khaba. He might have been the same person as the listed Mesôchris or Sôÿphis,[2][4] but this in turn is doubted by Wolfgang Helck and Eberhard Otto. They connect both names with king Sanakht.[12] Reign[edit] Chronology[edit] Because of the contradictions within Ramesside king lists and the lack of contemporary, festive inscriptions, the exact chronological position of Khaba remains disputed.[2] Egyptologist Nabil Swelim believes that Khaba could have been the direct successor to King Khasekhemwy, the last ruler of the 2nd dynasty. He bases his assumptions on similarities between the two's names: both begin with the syllable kha. As a comparison, he points to the names Netjerikhet (Djoser) and Sekhemkhet (Djoserteti), which also display such similarity and are widely assumed to have ruled back-to-back.[4] However, Swelim's theory is not widely accepted.[2][11] Grimal, Helck, Wilkinson and Stadelmann point out that during the 3rd dynasty it became a fashion that royal stone bowls with polished surfaces showed only Horus names, without any guiding inscriptions. This is also the case for the stone bowls of king Khaba. This decor style was practiced still under Sneferu, the founder of the 4th dynasty. Thus, Khaba is thought to have reigned close to the end of the Third Dynasty.[5][11][13] Duration[edit] The correct duration of Khaba's reign is also unknown. Should he be identical to the Ramesside cartouche names Sedjes (meaning "omitted") and Hudjefa (meaning "erased"), he might have ruled for six years, as the Turin Canon suggests. If Khaba was identical to king Huni, he might have ruled for 24 years.[11][14] Events[edit] The current archaeological situation allows no closer evaluation of Khaba's reign. The seal impressions from Elephantine only prove that this island seems to have been an important place to visit in Khaba's time. The inscriptions reveal that the seals and their belonging vessels originated from Thinis and that they were registered by the governor of Elephantine. Other seals show the depiction of the goddess Bastet. The Hierakonpolis seal was found in early dynastic ruins of a local Horus temple. It shows traces of the image of a god, possibly Ash.[3][7] Tomb[edit] Layer Pyramid at Zawyet el'Aryan. Main article: Layer Pyramid Khaba is commonly thought to have built the Layer Pyramid, located at Zawyet el'Aryan, about 8 km south-west of Giza. The pyramid's construction is typical of Third Dynasty masonry with mudbricks arranged in layers around a core made of rough blocks from the local bedrock. The pyramid was planned to be about 42 to 45 metres (138 to 148 ft) tall, but is now only 17 metres (56 ft). It is unclear whether part of the pyramid has been eroded over time or its construction was never finished. While there are no inscriptions directly relating the pyramid to Khaba, his serekh appears on stone bowls that were discovered in a nearby mastaba, known as Mastaba Z500.[5][6] Alternatively, Khaba could have been interred in the aforementioned mastaba, which is located about 200 m (660 ft) north of the pyramid. Indeed, excavations of the mastaba yielded several stone bowls inscribed with Khaba's Horus name as well as two seal fragments of him. Although this is generally taken as a proof that Khaba was the pyramid owner, it could equally imply that the mastaba was Khaba's tomb and the pyramid that of another, yet unknown king.[5][6] Other buildings from Khaba's reign[edit] Mastaba Z500[edit] Only two large mastaba tombs can be securely dated into Khaba's reign. The first one is known as Mastaba Z500, which is located at Zawyet el'Aryan. It lies around 200m north of the Layer Pyramid and has a south–north-orientation.[15] The mastaba ist made of mudbricks, its outer wall is niched and it contains only two large chambers without any typical tomb architecture elements. Because of this, Egyptologists such as Nabil Swelim believe that Mastaba Z500 was in fact a mortuary temple, belonging to the funerary complex of the Layer Pyramid. The datation of the building into Khaba's reign is based on numerous diorite and dolomite vessels and mud seal fragments, bearing the serekh name of king Khaba.[16] Quesna Tomb[edit] In 2010, an unknown mudbrick mastaba was discovered in Quesna, an archaeological site located in the Monufia Governorate (in the Nile Delta). The mastaba was once 14m in length and 6m in width. Its substructure contains a 3m wide corridor chapel, divided into three architectural sections: the first (northern) section is filled with rubble, the second (central) section contains a double room as the burial chamber and the third (southern) section has a burial shaft in its center. In 2014, a tiny mud seal fragment with the king's name was discovered inside. The true owner of the tomb, however, is unknown and archaeological excavations are still on-going.[17] References[edit] ^ a b c Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, p. 97. ^ a b c d e f g h Aidan Dodson: The Layer Pyramid of Zawiyet el-Aryan: Its Layout and Context. In: Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt (JARCE), No. 37 (2000). American Research Center (Hg.), Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake/Bristol 2000, ISSN 0065-9991, pp. 81–90. ^ a b c d e f g h i Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt, Routledge, London (UK) 2002, ISBN 1-134-66420-6, p. 84–86, 171, 172 & 177. ^ a b c Nabil Swelim: Some Problems on the History of the Third Dynasty - Archaeological and Historical Studies, vol. 7. The Archaeological Society of Alexandria, Alexandria 1983, p. 199–202. ^ a b c d e Rainer Stadelmann: King Huni: His Monuments and His Place in the History of the Old Kingdom. In: Zahi A. Hawass, Janet Richards (Hrsg.): The Archaeology and Art of Ancient Egypt. Essays in Honor of David B. O'Connor, vol. II. Conceil Suprême des Antiquités de l'Égypte, Kairo 2007, p. 425–431. ^ a b c Miroslav Verner: Die Pyramiden. Rowohlt, Wiesbaden 1999, ISBN 3-499-60890-1, p. 174–177. ^ a b c d Jean-Pierre Pätznik: Die Siegelabrollungen und Rollsiegel der Stadt Elephantine im 3. Jahrtausend v. Chr. p. 73–75. ^ Luxor Times: British archaeologists discovered an Old Kingdom Mastaba in Delta ^ Peter Kaplony: Inschriften der ägyptischen Frühzeit. Band III, Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1963, ISBN 3-447-00052-X, p. 173–174. ^ Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards u.a.: The Cambridge ancient history, vol.1, p. 156. ^ a b c d Wolfgang Helck: Untersuchungen zur Thinitenzeit (= Ägyptologische Abhandlungen (ÄA), vol. 45). Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1987, ISBN 3-447-02677-4, p.109. ^ Wolfgang Helck, Eberhard Otto: Lexikon der Ägyptologie, Vol. 5. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden 1984, ISBN 3-447-02489-5, p. 250. ^ Nicolas-Christophe Grimal: A history of ancient Egypt. Wiley & Blackwell, London (UK) 1994, ISBN 0-631-19396-0, p. 66. ^ Gerald P. Verbrugghe, John Moore Wickersham: Berossos and Manetho, Introduced and Translated: Native Traditions in Ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt. University of Michigan Press, 2001, ISBN 0-472-08687-1, p. 189. ^ Mark Lehner: Z500 and The Layer Pyramid of Zawiyet el-Aryan. In: Studies in honor of William Kelly Simpson vol. II. (PDF), Boston 1997, p. 507-522. ^ Nabil Swelim: Some Problems on the History of the Third Dynasty - Archaeological and Historical Studies, volume 7. The Archaeological Society of Alexandria, Alexandria 1983, S. 27-32, 180 & 219. ^ Mada Masr: Tomb of little-known pharaoh unearthed in Nile Delta, press release in April 23, 2015 (English) Archived July 15, 2015, at the Wayback Machine. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khaba&oldid=976211844" Categories: 27th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Third Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Good articles AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Català Čeština Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Occitan Polski Português Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 1 September 2020, at 19:41 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-233	----	Category:5th-century BC Kings of the Achaemenid Empire - Wikipedia Help Category:5th-century BC Kings of the Achaemenid Empire From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 5th-century BC Kings of the Achaemenid Empire. 10th BC 9th BC 8th BC 7th BC 6th BC 5th BC 4th BC 3rd BC 2nd BC 1st BC 1st Pages in category "5th-century BC Kings of the Achaemenid Empire" The following 7 pages are in this category, out of 7 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). A Artaxerxes I Artaxerxes II D Darius the Great Darius II S Sogdianus X Xerxes I Xerxes II Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:5th-century_BC_Kings_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire&oldid=951474113" Categories: 5th-century BC monarchs Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Hidden categories: CatAutoTOC generates no TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Edit links This page was last edited on 17 April 2020, at 10:12 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2357	----	Cambyses II - Wikipedia Cambyses II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Second King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire King of Kings Cambyses II 𐎣𐎲𐎢𐎪𐎡𐎹 King of Kings Great King King of Persia King of Babylon Pharaoh of Egypt King of Countries Cambyses (left, kneeling) as pharaoh while worshipping an Apis bull (524 BC) King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Reign 530 – July 522 BC Predecessor Cyrus the Great Successor Bardiya Co-ruler Cyrus the Great (530 BC) Pharaoh of Egypt Reign 525 – July 522 BC Predecessor Psamtik III Successor Bardiya Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) mswt-rꜤ… Mesutre… The offspring of Ra, lord of the Two Lands Nomen kmbyḏt Kembydjet Cambyses Horus name smꜢ-tꜢwj Sematawy The one who has united the Two Lands [1] Died July 522 BC Hamag, Eber-Nari Consort See below House Achaemenid Father Cyrus the Great Mother Cassandane Religion Indo-Iranian religion (possibly Zoroastrianism) Cambyses II (Old Persian: 𐎣𐎲𐎢𐎪𐎡𐎹 Kabūjiya) was the second King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire from 530 to 522 BC. He was the son and successor of Cyrus the Great (r. 550 – 530 BC) and his mother was Cassandane. Before his accession, Cambyses had briefly served as the governor of northern Babylonia under his father from April 539 BC to December 538 BC. Afterwards, he continued to roam in the Babylonian cities of Babylon and Sippar, before being appointed by his father as co-ruler in 530 BC, who set off to mount an expedition against the Massagetae of Central Asia, where he met his end. Cambyses thus became the sole ruler of the vast Achaemenid Empire, facing no noticeable opposition. His relatively brief reign was marked by his conquests in Africa, notably Egypt, which he conquered after his victory over the Egyptian pharaoh Psamtik III (r. 526–525 BC) at the battle of Pelusium in 525 BC. After having established himself in Egypt, he expanded his holdings in Africa even further, such as his conquest of Cyrenaica. In the spring of 522 BC, Cambyses hurriedly left Egypt to deal with a rebellion in Persia. While en route in Syria (Eber-Nari), he received a wound to the thigh, which was soon affected by gangrene. Cambyses died three weeks later at a location called Agbatana, which is most likely the modern city of Hama. He died childless, and was thus succeeded by his younger brother Bardiya, who ruled for a short period before being overthrown by Darius the Great (r. 522–486 BC), who went on to increase the power of the Achaemenids even further. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Background 3 Early life 4 Military campaigns 4.1 Preparations against Egypt and the conquest of Cyprus 4.2 Conquest of Egypt and its surroundings 4.3 Further conquests 5 Policies in Egypt 6 Administration 7 Personality 8 Marriages 9 Death and succession 10 Notes 11 References 12 Sources Etymology[edit] The origins of the name of "Cambyses" (Old Persian: 𐎣𐎲𐎢𐎪𐎡𐎹 Kabūjiya)[2] is disputed in scholarship; according to some scholars, the name is of Elamite origin, whilst others associate it with Kambojas, an Iranian people who inhabited northwestern India.[3] The name of Cambyses is known in other languages as; Elamite Kanbuziya; Akkadian Kambuziya; Aramaic Kanbūzī.[3] Background[edit] Cambyses was the eldest son of Cyrus the Great (r. 550–530 BC) and Cassandane.[3][a] Cambyses had a younger brother named Bardiya, and three sisters named Artystone, Atossa and Roxane.[4] Cambyses' paternal grandfather was his namesake Cambyses I, the king of Persis from 600 to 559 BC.[3] The family was descended from a line of rulers of Persian tribes, who starting with Cyrus, expanded their reach over Persis, subjugating the Median Empire, the Neo-Babylonian Empire, Lydia and Central Asia, thus establishing the Achaemenid Empire.[4] Early life[edit] Overview of the ruins of Babylon. In April 538 BC, Cambyses was appointed by his father as the governor of the northern part of Babylonia, including its city Babylon, whilst the central and southern part continued to be directly supervised by Cyrus and his bureaucrats. Before his appointment, Cambyses had taken part in the ritual that was arbitrary for the king at the regular New Year festival on 27 March 538 BC, where he received the royal sceptre in Esagila, a temple dedicated to the god Marduk. His governorship, however, lasted only 9 months, when Cyrus had dismissed him from the post in December 538 BC for unknown reasons. After his dismissal, Cambyses continued to reside in the Babylonian cities of Babylon and Sippar the majority of his time.[3] According to Babylonian records, both Cambyses and Cyrus carried the title of "King of Babylon, King of the lands" in 538/7 BC, which indicates that Cyrus had appointed him as co-ruler some years before his campaign against the Massagetae.[3][5] Cyrus' younger son, Bardiya, was given his own powerful realm in Central Asia, which was exempted to pay tribute.[6] Cambyses reportedly took part in the expedition against the Massagetae, but due to being the heir of the throne, he was sent back to Persia, before Cyrus fell to the Massagetae.[3] Cambyses had his father's body carried to Pasargadae in Persis, where he was buried in a tomb that had been prepared for him earlier.[6] Military campaigns[edit] Preparations against Egypt and the conquest of Cyprus[edit] Evolution of the Achaemenid Empire. Cambyses' accession to the Achaemenid throne was relatively smooth.[6] Ruling over a vast but young empire, Cambyses was to preserve his authority over the subjugated lands, but also expand his dominion over Egypt, the last prominent power in the Near East. According to the French Iranologist Pierre Briant, "this must not be seen as a more or less irrational and uncontrollable desire to take over the entire inhabited world."[7] On the contrary, Cambyses' plan was in reality already planned by his father, who wanted to unify Babylonia with the lands of the Trans-Euphrates (an area that stretched from Posideium to Egypt).[8] This meant that it would eventually demand the conquest of the lands that was situated between the Euphrates and the Nile river, and therefore made it necessary for conflict with Egypt, a kingdom, that had prior, and also lately, shown aspirations in the area.[7] The incumbent pharaoh of Egypt was Amasis II, who had been ruling since 570.[7] His ally, Polycrates, a Greek ruler of Samos, posed a considerable threat to the Achaemenids, launching several raids that jeopardized Achaemenid authority.[9] However, Polycrates eventually forsook his Egyptian allies, and reached out to Cambyses, whose plans he was well acquainted with.[7] His sudden change of alliances was undoubtly due to his uneasy position, with the Spartans raising a force against him, and the rising hostility of some of the Samian aristocrats, who preferred partnership with Egypt. Another former ally of Amasis II, the Carian military leader Phanes of Halicarnassus, had also joined Cambyses after escaping assassins sent by the pharaoh.[10] Cambyses, before starting his expedition into Egypt, had seized Cyprus from Amasis II, which was reportedly a heavy blow to the latter.[7] Conquest of Egypt and its surroundings[edit] Imaginary 19th-century illustration of Cambyses II meeting Psamtik III. By 526 BC, Amasis II had died, and his son Psamtik III had succeeded him, thus weakening Egypt's position.[9] In the meantime, Cambyses had made substantial preparations for his army. He had essentially laid the foundations to the Persian navy, which was crucial to his ambitions to conquer Egypt. The navy was created by men and equipment from Phoenicia and Asia Minor. During his march to Egypt, Cambyses made a treaty with the Arabs, who controlled the desert area between Gaza and the Egyptian frontier. This treaty granted Cambyses sufficient water to arrive to the Nile.[10] This also paved the way for Cambyses to extend his authority over the unsubdued lands between Egypt and Persia, including Gaza, a prominent commercial region, which equalled that of Sardis in Lydia.[11] The region served as the headquarters of the Persian expedition into Egypt.[12] In 525 BC, Cambyses finally invaded Egypt; in the spring of the same year, the Persian and Egyptian forces clashed at Pelusium, where the Persians emerged victorious.[3] The forces of Cambyses shortly laid siege to Memphis, where Psamtik III and his men had fortified themselves. Despite the considerable resistance put by the pharaoh, Cambyses captured Memphis, and established a Persian-Egyptian garrison there. The length of the siege is not specified by the 5th-century BC Greek historian Herodotus.[12] Regardless, by summer, all of Egypt was under Persian suzerainty.[3] Cambyses now adopted the aspirations of the last pharaohs towards the west (Libya and Cyrenaica) and south (Nubia).[12] Further conquests[edit] The Libyans, and soon the Greeks of Cyrene and Barca as well, willingly acknowledged the authority of Cambyses, and as proof of their submission, sent offerings to Cambyses.[12][3] As a demonstration of his generosity, Cambyses had Amasis II's Greek widow returned to Cyrene.[12] Cambyses originally intended to make an expedition against the Phonenician state of Carthage, but it was ultimately called off due to his Phoenician subjects' reluctance to make war against their own kind.[12] In the south, Cambyses, followed the same policy of the last pharaohs to keep the Kingdom of Kush in check, and had a garrison established at Elephantine.[13] According to Herodotus, Cambyses' campaigns against Amnion and Ethiopia ended catastrophically.[14] He states that the reason behind this defeat was the "madness" of Cambyses, who "at once began his march against Ethiopia, without any orders for the provision of supplies, and without for a moment considering the fact that he was to take his men to the ends of the earth".[14] However, according to Briant, "the deliberate bias against Cambyses raises doubts about the accuracy of Herodotus's version."[14] Herodotus' statement is contradicted by other sources that does not suggest a catastrophe for his forces, even though the obstacles of the campaign possibly compelled Cambyses to withdraw.[14] Archaeological proof indicates that the Achaemenids made use of the stronghold of Dorginarti (south of Buhen) throughout their history.[14] Policies in Egypt[edit] Statue of an Apis. In accordance with the traditional Egyptian royal custom, Cambyses took the titles of "king of Upper and Lower Egypt" and "descendant of (the gods) Ra, Horus, Osiris," used by the previous Egyptian pharaohs. Cambyses used propaganda to show his Egyptian conquest as a legitimate unification with the native Egyptians, and that he was himself of Egyptian descent, claiming to be the son of Princess Nitetis, a daughter of the pharaoh Apries. At Sais, Cambyses had himself crowned in the temple of the goddess Neith under a religious ritual, where he made sacrifices to the Egyptian gods.[3] According to ancient historians, Cambyses' rule of Egypt was marked by brutality, looting temples, ridiculing the local gods, and defilement of the royal tombs.[3] Historians such as Herodotus put an emphasis on Cambyses' supposed killing of the Egyptian sacred bull Apis.[3][15] However, no looting of temples has been reported by contemporary Egyptian sources.[3] In addition, Cambyses is said to have ordered the burial of an Apis in a sarcophagus.[3][16] The successor of the Apis died in 518 BC, four years after Cambyses had already died.[3] The epitaph of the Apis buried in 524 BC, states the following:[15] "[Year] 6, third month of the season Shemou, day 10 (?), under the Majesty of the king of Upper and Lower Egypt [. ..] endowed with eternal life, the god was brought in [peace toward the good West and laid to rest in the necropolis in] his [place] which is the place which his Majesty had made for him, [after] all [the ceremonies had been done for him] in the embalming hall [..] It was done according to everything his Majesty had said [.. .]." A legend on the sarcophagus also says the following:[15] "(Cambyses], the king of Upper and Lower Egypt.. . made as his monument to his father Apis-Osiris a large sarcophagus of granite, dedicated by the king [.. .], endowed with all life, with all perpetuity and prosperity (?), with all health, with all joy, appearing eternally as king of Upper and Lower Egypt." This thus debunks Cambyses' supposed killing of the Apis, and according to Briant, proves that Herodotus documented bogus reports.[15] On the contrary, Cambyses took part in the preservation and burial ceremony of an Apis.[15] Other similar sources also makes mention of Cambyses' careful treatment towards Egyptian culture and religion.[16] According to the Egyptian Demotic Chronicle, Cambyses decreased the immense income that the Egyptian temples received from the Egyptian pharaohs. Only the three main temples were given permission to maintain all their entitlements.[3] This caused the Egyptian priests that had lost their entitlements to circulate spurious stories about Cambyses.[3][17] The issue with the temples dated back to the earlier pharaohs, who had also tried to reduce the economic authority of the temples.[18] This issue would carry on throughout the history of ancient Egypt.[18] Like Cyrus in Babylon, Cambyses allowed the Egyptian nobility to maintain their jurisdiction.[16] Administration[edit] Achaemenid coin minted at Sardis, possibly under Cambyses II. Although a tax system existed both during the reign of both Cyrus and Cambyses, it was not a systematic one, and thus the subjects of the king were either obligated to give gifts, or pay taxes.[19] Like under his father, Cambyses' satraps were all of Persian stock: Gubaru in Babylonia-Trans-Euphrates: Aryandes in Egypt: Oroetes in Sardis, Mitrobates in Dascylium, Dadarsi in Bactria, and Vivana in Arachosia. Likewise, the imperial treasurer in Babylon, Mithradata, was also from a Persian family. Indeed, the retinue of Cambyses in Egypt was composed solely of Persians.[20] The most notable of these Persians were relatives of the king himself, such as his cousin Darius, who occupied high offices under Cyrus and Cambyses, serving as a spear-bearer under the latter.[21] Darius' father, Hystaspes, served as the governor of Parthia and Hyrcania, or at least held a prominent role there. Important offices centered around the king was also occupied by the Persians, as in the case of Prexaspes, who served as the "message-bearer" of Cambyses, and Sisamnes, who was the royal judge, and later executed by Cambyses.[20] Personality[edit] According to Herodotus, Cambyses was labelled "despot" by the Persians due to being "half-mad, cruel, and insolent". However, this is part of the Persian and Egyptian propaganda used against Cambyses. Indeed, due to Cambyses' proneness to consolidate authority by himself, the Persian tribal nobility were antagonistic towards him.[3] Marriages[edit] In Achaemenid Persia, marriages between family members, such as half-siblings, nieces, and cousins took place, however, they were not seen as incestuous. Greek sources, however, state that allegedly brother-sister and father-daughter marriages took place inside the royal family, yet it remains problematic to measure their accuracy.[22] According to Herodotus, Cambyses supposedly married two of his sisters, Atossa and Roxane.[3][22] This was seen as an illegal action. However, Herodotus himself also states that Cambyses married Otanes' daughter Phaidyme, whilst his contemporary Ctesias names Roxane as Cambyses' wife, but she is not labelled as his sister.[22] The accusations against of Cambyses of committing incest is mentioned as part of his "blasphemous actions", which were mentioned to point out his "madness and vanity". These reports all derive from the same Egyptian source that was antagonistic towards Cambyses, and some of these "crimes", such as the killing of the Apis bull, have been confirmed as fake, which thus makes the report of Cambyses' supposed incestious acts questionable.[22] Death and succession[edit] In the spring of 522 BC, Cambyses hurriedly left Egypt to deal with a rebellion in Persia.[23] Before he left the country, he made it into a satrapy under the governorship of the Persian Aryandes.[23] However Cambyses died shortly after under disputed circumstances. By most accounts, while Cambyses was en route in Syria (Eber-Nari), he received a wound to the thigh, which was soon affected by gangrene.[23] Cambyses died three weeks later (in July) at a location called Agbatana, which is most likely the modern city of Hama.[3] He died childless,[3] and was succeeded by his younger brother Bardiya.[24] According to Darius, who was Cambyses' lance-bearer at the time, he decided that success was impossible, and died by his own hand in 522 BC. Herodotus and Ctesias ascribe his death to an accident. Ctesias writes that Cambyses, despondent from the loss of family members, stabbed himself in the thigh while working with a piece of wood, and died eleven days later from the wound. Herodotus' story is that while mounting his horse, the tip of Cambyses' scabbard broke and his sword pierced his thigh. Some modern historians suspect that Cambyses was assassinated, either by Darius as the first step to usurping the empire for himself, or by supporters of Bardiya.[25] At the time of Cambyses' death, the Achaemenid Empire was stronger than ever, reaching from Cyrenaica to the Hindu Kush, and from the Syr Darya to the Persian Gulf.[26] Notes[edit] ^ According to 5th-century BC Greek historian Ctesias, the mother of Cambyses II was Amytis, a daughter of the last Median king Astyages (r. 585–550 BC). However, according to the Russian Iranologist Muhammad Dandamayev, this statement is not trustworthy.[3] References[edit] ^ Posener, Georges (1936). Bibliothèque de l'Université Bordeaux Montaigne (ed.). "La première domination perse en Égypte". Bibliothèque d'Études. Cairo: Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale: 30–36. ISSN 0259-3823. OCLC 5042163. ^ Bachenheimer 2018, p. 184. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w Dandamayev 1990, pp. 726–729. ^ a b Dandamayev 1993, pp. 516–521. ^ Briant 2002, p. 519. ^ a b c Briant 2002, p. 50. ^ a b c d e Briant 2002, p. 51. ^ Briant 2002, pp. 49, 51. ^ a b Briant 2002, p. 52. ^ a b Briant 2002, p. 53. ^ Briant 2002, pp. 53–54. ^ a b c d e f Briant 2002, p. 54. ^ Briant 2002, pp. 54-55. ^ a b c d e Briant 2002, p. 55. ^ a b c d e Briant 2002, p. 57. ^ a b c Llewellyn-Jones 2017, p. 69. ^ Llewellyn-Jones 2017, p. 68. ^ a b Briant 2002, p. 60. ^ Dandamayev 2000. ^ a b Briant 2002, p. 82. ^ Briant 2002, pp. 82, 771. ^ a b c d Brosius 2000. ^ a b c Briant 2002, p. 61. ^ Briant 2002, p. 102. ^ Van De Mieroop 2003, p. 336. ^ Briant 2002, p. 62. Sources[edit] Bachenheimer, Avi (2018). Old Persian: Dictionary, Glossary and Concordance. Wiley and Sons. pp. 1–799. Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. pp. 1–1196. ISBN 9781575061207. Brosius, Maria (2000). "Women i. In Pre-Islamic Persia". Archived copy. Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. London et al. Archived from the original on 2020-03-13. Retrieved 2019-09-21.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) Dandamayev, Muhammad A. (2000). "Achaemenid taxation". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Dandamayev, Muhammad A. (1993). "Cyrus iii. Cyrus II The Great". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IV, Fasc. 7. pp. 516–521. Dandamayev, Muhammad A. (1990). "Cambyses II". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IV, Fasc. 7. pp. 726–729. Llewellyn-Jones, Lloyd (2017). "The Achaemenid Empire". In Daryaee, Touraj (ed.). King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE - 651 CE). UCI Jordan Center for Persian Studies. pp. 1–236. ISBN 9780692864401. Van De Mieroop, Marc (2003). A History of the Ancient Near East. Blackwell History of the Ancient World. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-631-22552-2. JSTOR 25608373. Cambyses II Achaemenid dynasty Preceded by Cyrus the Great King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire 530 BC – July 522 BC Succeeded by Bardiya Preceded by Psamtik III Pharaoh of Egypt 525 BC – July 522 BC v t e Median and Achaemenid kings Family tree Median (728–550 BC) Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Achaemenid (550–330 BC) Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Nothus Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Italics indicate kings not directly attested and so possibly legendary. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Authority control BIBSYS: 2030055 GND: 118800582 LCCN: n83124464 NKC: jn20040130015 NLP: A35557709 NTA: 14381186X PLWABN: 9810572430205606 RERO: 02-A010059528 SELIBR: 192462 SUDOC: 123252385 VIAF: 54149294488180522886 WorldCat Identities: viaf-69725750 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cambyses_II&oldid=1002213098" Categories: 6th-century BC Kings of the Achaemenid Empire 6th-century BC Pharaohs 6th-century BC Babylonian kings Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Pharaohs of the Achaemenid dynasty of Egypt Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt 522 BC deaths Deaths from gangrene 6th-century BC Iranian people 6th-century BC rulers Hidden categories: Articles with 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en-wikipedia-org-2373	----	Shoshenq VI - Wikipedia Shoshenq VI From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Shoshenq VI Pharaoh Reign c.6 years (23rd Dynasty) Predecessor Pedubast I Successor Osorkon III Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Usermaatre Meryamun Wsr-Mȝˁt-Rˁ mrj-Jmn Powerful is the Maat of Ra, beloved of Amun Nomen Shoshenq Meryamun Šš(n)q mrj-Jmn[1] Shoshenq, beloved of Amun Statue CG 42226 of Hor IX, who died under Shoshenq VI's reign Shoshenq VI is known to be Pedubast I's immediate successor at Thebes based upon the career of the Letter Writer to Pharaoh Hor IX, who served under Osorkon II and Pedubast I (see Hor IX's statue—CGC 42226—which is explicitly dated to Pedubast's reign). Since Shoshenq VI's prenomen is inscribed on Hor IX's funerary cones, this indicates that Hor IX outlived Pedubast I and made his funeral arrangements under Shoshenq VI instead.[2] His prenomen or royal name was "Usermaatre Meryamun Shoshenq" which is unusual because it is the only known example where the epithet "Meryamun" (Beloved of Amun) appears within a king's cartouche.[3] Shoshenq VI's High Priest of Amun was a certain Takelot who first appears in office in Year 23 of Pedubast I. Shoshenq VI's Year 4 and Year 6 are attested in an inscription carved on the roof of the Temple of Monthu at Karnak by a certain Djedioh and in Nile Quay Text No.25 respectively.[3] Shoshenq VI was presumably Crown prince Osorkon B's chief rival at Thebes after the death of Pedubast I. He was defeated and ousted from power at Thebes in Year 39 of Shoshenq III by Prince Osorkon B. In this decisive Year, Osorkon B explicitly states in Nile Quay Text No.7 that he and his brother, General Bakenptah of Herakleopolis, conquered Thebes and "overthrew everyone who had fought against them."[4] Thereafter, Shoshenq VI is never heard from again. (NOTE: The old king Shoshenq IV in pre-1993 books and journal articles has been renamed Shoshenq VI by Egyptologists today because he was a Theban king who is only attested by Upper Egyptian documents. This monarch was never a ruler of the Tanite based 22nd Dynasty of Egypt.) References[edit] ^ Jürgen von Beckerath, Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen (= Münchner ägyptologische Studien, vol 46), Mainz am Rhein: Verlag Philipp von Zabern, 1999. ISBN 3-8053-2310-7, pp.192-93. ^ Davies & MacAdam, A Corpus of Inscribed Egyptian Funerary Cones (1957), No. 25-26 ^ a b David Aston, "Takeloth II: A Theban King of the 23rd Dynasty?" JEA 75 (1989), pp.139-153 ^ Kenneth Kitchen, The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt c.100-650 BC (2nd edition, 1986), p.340 v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shoshenq_VI&oldid=954562014" Categories: 9th-century BC Pharaohs 8th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt 9th century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Български Català Ελληνικά Español Français Italiano ქართული Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá Edit links This page was last edited on 3 May 2020, at 02:55 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2377	----	Neferkare (9th dynasty) - Wikipedia Neferkare (9th dynasty) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Neferkare, ninth dynasty) Jump to navigation Jump to search Neferkare VII Neferkare VII, Kaneferre(?) Pharaoh Reign c. 2140 BCE (9th Dynasty) Predecessor Meryibre Khety (not directly) Successor Nebkaure Khety Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Neferkare nfr-k3-rˁ Beautiful is the ka of Ra Neferkare VII was the third pharaoh of the Ninth Dynasty of Egypt of ancient Egypt, ca. 2140 BCE (during the First Intermediate Period), according to the Turin King List where his name, Neferkare, is inscribed in the register 4.20. Neferkare is not included on the Abydos King List or the Saqqara King List, nor can the existence of his reign be positively confirmed through archaeological finds.[1] The prenomen "Neferkare" suggests he considered himself a legitimate successor of Pepi II Neferkare of the Sixth Dynasty, much like the many namesake Memphite kings of the Eighth Dynasty. In some literature he is called "Neferkare VII" because he likely was the seventh king to bear this name, although many of his predecessors are now called by a combination of their prenomen and nomen (for example, Neferkare Neby, or Neferkare Pepiseneb). This otherwise unattested ruler of Herakleopolis Magna has been controversially identified by various scholars with a king named Ka-nefer-re, who is mentioned in an obscure and isolated tomb inscription of Ankhtifi, the pro-Herakleopolite nomarch of Hieraconpolis and prince of El-Mo'alla, about 30 km (19 mi) south of Thebes.[1] If Neferkare and Kaneferre were the same pharaoh, his authority is sometimes presumed from Ankhtifi's inscription to have extended at least over Elephantine, Edfu and Hieraconpolis, the capitals of the first three nomoi of Upper Egypt. However, the inscription in question simply states "Horus brings/brought (or may Horus bring) a (good) inundation for his son Ka-nefer-Re." Uncertainty about the verb tense in the inscription has led to disagreement among various scholars as to whether this named pharaoh would have ruled in Ankhtifi's youth, or at the time of the events he describes, or indeed if it were not a king before Ankhtifi's time, who had ruled toward the end of the Old Kingdom from Memphis.[1] References[edit] ^ a b c William C. Hayes, in The Cambridge Ancient History, vol 1, part 2, 1971 (2008), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-077915, pp. 464–465. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e This biography of a member of an African royal house is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neferkare_(9th_dynasty)&oldid=974671677" Categories: 22nd-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Ninth Dynasty of Egypt 22nd-century BC rulers 22nd century BC in Egypt Ancient Egypt people stubs African royalty stubs Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages አማርኛ Català Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands Русский Slovenščina ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 24 August 2020, at 09:40 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2404	----	Xerxes (graphic novel) - Wikipedia Xerxes (graphic novel) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Xerxes: The Fall of the House of Darius and the Rise of Alexander) Jump to navigation Jump to search This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Xerxes" graphic novel – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Xerxes: The Fall of the House of Darius and the Rise of Alexander Publication information Publisher Dark Horse Comics Schedule Monthly Format Limited series Publication date 2018 No. of issues 5 Creative team Written by Frank Miller Artist(s) Frank Miller Xerxes: The Fall of the House of Darius and the Rise of Alexander is a 2018 historically inspired comic book limited series written and illustrated by Frank Miller. It acts as a prequel and sequel to the events chronicled in Miller's earlier series 300, a fictional retelling of the Battle of Thermopylae. Parts of the series were loosely adapted for the 2014 film 300: Rise of an Empire, a sequel to the 2006 film adaptation of 300. However, the comic series was not actually published until 2018, four years after the film's release. Contents 1 Synopsis 1.1 Chapter One 1.2 Chapter Two 1.3 Chapter Three 1.4 Chapter Four 1.5 Chapter Five 2 References Synopsis[edit] Chapter One[edit] In 490 BC, Darius I invades mainland Greece in retaliation for the Ionian Revolt's destruction of Sardis, with Athens's aid. An advance scouting party is slaughtered by a small detachment of Athenians, led by Themistokles and Aeskylos. The following day, at Marathon, General Miltiades comes up with a radical strategy to abandon the traditional phalanx and charge the numerically superior Persian force with a battle line that has been deliberately thinned in order to allow the Greeks to flank the Persians and catch them in a pincer. The strategy works, and the Persian force is slaughtered, but Miltiades orders the army to return to Athens immediately, knowing that the main body of Darius's force is headed there by sea. Chapter Two[edit] The army returns to Athens ahead of the Persians, but Militades sees they are hopelessly outnumbered, and begs to be killed for his failure. Themistokles, however, has a plan: all the citizens of Athens, including women and the elderly, are dressed in armor and arrayed on the shore, presenting the image of a mighty army. Darius balks from landing, and decides to send a detachment of Androsians to test the Athenians. The Androsians' barges are destroyed by arrows lit with Greek fire, which acts as a diversion for Aeskylos to swim between the Persian ships, mount a cliff above Darius's flagship, and rain javelins onto the deck, killing Darius and several of his Immortals. Darius dies in his son Xerxes's arms, warning his son not to repeat his mistake, and to leave the Greeks in peace. The Persian navy retreats, but Themistokles feels no sense of triumph, believing that Xerxes's survival will come back to haunt them. Chapter Three[edit] In 479 BC, Xerxes journeys into the desert of Najd, communing with the spirits of his ancestors and emerging as a mighty god-king. Returning to his capital, he demands that the "perfect" woman be found to be his wife, and he finds her in Esther of Judea, who promises all her love to the king if he will free her people. There is ambiguity as to what happens next: Xerxes either orders Zion burned to ash, "freeing" the Jewish people to wander homeless, or else he halts the campaign of genocide commenced by his father and saves the Jews from annihilation, who declare a national holiday (Purim) in his honor. After his ignominious defeat in Greece, Xerxes returns to Persia, but his plans for his empire are cut short by his assassination in 465 BC. Again, there is ambiguity about the exact manner of his assassination: whether he was struck down in battle, or quietly poisoned. Chapter Four[edit] 336 BC: under Darius III, the Persian Empire is larger and mightier than ever before. But Alexander conquers all of Greece and invades Persia, defeating Darius's army at Issus in 333 BC. Darius flees the battle and his wife and children are taken hostage by Alexander, who orders their lives spared. Chapter Five[edit] 331 BC: Incensed by Alexander's refusal to return his wife and family, Darius confronts the Greeks again, at Gaugamela. Again, the Persians are defeated and Darius flees to Babylon, while the Greeks sack Susa and Persepolis. Darius is finally assassinated in 330 BC by his cousin Bessus. Alexander himself oversees Darius's funeral, saluting him as a worthy rival, while anticipating his own plans to conquer the entire known world, believing that nothing is impossible. References[edit] v t e Frank Miller Batman comics The Dark Knight Returns Batman: Year One Spawn/Batman The Dark Knight Strikes Again All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder The Dark Knight III: The Master Race Other comics Written Bad Boy The Big Guy and Rusty the Boy Robot Daredevil "Born Again" Elektra: Assassin Give Me Liberty Martha Washington Hard Boiled RoboCop RoboCop Versus The Terminator Written and drawn 300 Daredevil Elektra Lives Again Rōnin Sin City The Hard Goodbye A Dame to Kill For The Big Fat Kill That Yellow Bastard Family Values Hell and Back Holy Terror Xerxes Drawn The Twilight Zone Daredevil Wolverine Heroes for Hope Characters DC Comics Arnold John Flass Carmine Falcone Carrie Kelley Gillian B. Loeb Holly Robinson James Gordon Jr. Officer Merkel Sarah Essen Marvel Comics Chaste Elektra John Garrett Karma Kirigi Maggie Murdock Mauler Nuke Shingen Yashida Stick Sin City Ava Lord Dwight McCarthy Goldie and Wendy John Hartigan Kevin Marv Miho Nancy Callahan Roark family The Girls of Old Town Wallace Wallenquist Organization Film adaptations RoboCop 2 (1990) RoboCop 3 (1993) Sin City (2005) 300 (2006) The Spirit (2008) Batman: Year One (2011) Batman: The Dark Knight Returns Part One (2012) Batman: The Dark Knight Returns Part Two (2013) 300: Rise of an Empire (2014) Sin City: A Dame to Kill For (2014) Television and video games RoboCop Versus The Terminator (1993) The Big Guy and Rusty the Boy Robot (1999–2001) 300: March to Glory (2007) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_(graphic_novel)&oldid=991565847" Categories: Dark Horse Comics limited series Comics set in ancient Greece Comics set in ancient Persia Comics set in the 5th century BC Battle of Thermopylae Fantasy comics War comics Comics by Frank Miller (comics) Dark Horse Comics adapted into films Comics based on real people Cultural depictions of Xerxes I Cultural depictions of Darius the Great Cultural depictions of Alexander the Great Cultural depictions of Esther Hidden categories: Articles lacking sources from October 2019 All articles lacking sources Title pop Comics infobox without image Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 30 November 2020, at 18:54 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2432	----	Amenemope (pharaoh) - Wikipedia Amenemope (pharaoh) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other Ancient Egyptians by this name, see Amenemope (disambiguation). Amenemope Grave mask of pharaoh Amenemope in the Cairo Museum Pharaoh Reign 1001 – 992 BC[1] or 993 – 984 BC[2] (21st Dynasty) Predecessor Psusennes I Successor Osorkon the Elder Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Usermaatre-Setepenamun Wsr-Mȝˁt-Rˁ stp.n-Jmn[3] Powerful is the Maat of Ra, the chosen of Amun Nomen Amenemipet Imn-m-ipet Amun in the Opet Festival[4] Father Psusennes I(?) Mother Mutnedjmet(?) Burial Tanis, originally NRT IV, reburied in NRT III Usermaatre Amenemope was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 21st Dynasty. Ruled during 1001–992 or 993–984 years. Contents 1 Reign 2 Burial 3 See also 4 References 5 Bibliography 6 External links Reign[edit] A probable son of Psusennes I and his queen Mutnedjmet,[5] Amenemope succeeded his purported father's long reign after a period of coregency.[6] This coregency has been deduced thanks to a linen bandage mentioning a "... king Amenemope, Year 49..." which has been reconstructed as "[Year X under] king Amenemope, Year 49 [under king Psusennes I]".[7] It has been suggested, however, that this Year 49 may belong to the High Priest of Amun Menkheperre instead of Psusennes I, thus ruling out the coregency;[8] this hypothesis has been rejected by Kenneth Kitchen, who still supports a coregency.[9] Kitchen refers to the existence of Papyrus Brooklyn 16.205, a document mentioning a Year 49 followed by a Year 4, once thought to refer to Shoshenq III and Pami, but more recently to Psusennes I and Amenemope, and thus issued in regnal Year 4 of the latter.[10] During his reign as Pharaoh, Amenemope claimed the title of "High Priest of Amun in Tanis" as Psusennes also did before him. Amenemope's authority was fully recognized at Thebes – at this time governed by the High Priest of Amun Smendes II and then by his brother Pinedjem II[11] – as his name appears on funerary goods of at least nine Theban burials, among these is the Book of the Dead of the "Captain of the barque of Amun", Pennestawy, dating to Amenemope's Year 5.[12] Apart from his Tanite tomb and the aforementioned Theban burials, Amemenope is a poorly attested ruler. He continued with the decoration of the chapel of Isis "Mistress of the Pyramids at Giza" and made an addition to one of the temples in Memphis.[12] All versions of Manetho's Epitome reports that Amenophthis (Amenemope's Hellenised name) enjoyed 9 years of reign, a duration more or less confirmed by archaeological sources.[13] Neither children nor wives are known for him, and he was succeeded by the seemingly unrelated Osorkon the Elder. According to the analysis of his skeleton performed by Dr. Douglas Derry, Amenemope was a strongly-built man who reached a fairly advanced age.[14] It seems that the king suffered a skull infection which likely developed into meningitis and led to his death.[15] Burial[edit] Full view of the Royal Necropolis of Tanis (NRT). Amenemope was originally buried in NRT IV and later reburied in NRT III, left granite chamber, next to Psusennes I Amenemope was originally buried in the only chamber of a small tomb (NRT IV) in the royal necropolis of Tanis; a few years after his death, during the reign of Siamun, Amenemope was moved and reburied in NRT III, inside the chamber once belonging to his purported mother Mutnedjmet and just next to Psusennes I.[12][16] His undisturbed tomb was rediscovered by French Egyptologists Pierre Montet and Georges Goyon in April 1940, just a month before the Nazi invasion of France. Montet had to stop his excavation until the end of World War II, then resumed it in 1946 and later published his findings in 1958. When the excavators entered the small burial chamber, they argued that it was originally made for queen Mutnedjmet. The chamber contained an uninscribed granite sarcophagus, some vessels including the canopic jars and the vessel once containing the water used for washing the mummy, and a heap of around 400 ushabtis; a wooden coffin covered with gold leaf was placed within the sarcophagus and contained Amenemope's mummy. On the mummy were found two gilt funerary masks, two pectorals, necklaces, bracelets, rings and a cloisonné collar. Four of these items bore the name of Psusennes I.[17][18] The funerary masks depict the king as young, although Goyon stated that at the moment of discovery the masks had an expression of suffering and pleading, later softened after restoration.[17] The mummy and funerary goods are now in Cairo Museum. Amenemope was buried with far less opulence than his neighbour Psusennes I: for comparison, the latter was provided with a solid silver coffin and a solid gold mask, while the former's coffin and mask were merely gilt.[12] See also[edit] List of pharaohs References[edit] ^ Jansen-Winkeln, p. 493 ^ Kitchen, Table 1 ^ von Beckerath, Jürgen (1999). Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen. Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz: Philip von Zabern. ISBN 978-3-8053-2591-2., pp. 180-181 ^ Clayton, Peter (1994). Chronicle of the Pharaohs. Thames & Hudson Ltd., p. 178 ^ Kitchen, § 221 ^ Kitchen, §§ 431-433 ^ Jansen-Winkeln, p. 227 ^ Jansen-Winkeln, p. 230, n. 70 ^ Kitchen, §§ L-M ^ Kitchen, § 83 ^ Kitchen, § 388-389 ^ a b c d Kitchen, § 229 ^ Kitchen, §§ 3-4; 31 ^ Derry, Douglas E. (1942). "Report on skeleton of King Amenemopet". Annales du Service des Antiquités de l'Égypte. 41., p. 149 ^ Goyon, p. 164 ^ Goyon, pp. 87; 163 ^ a b Goyon, p. 163 ^ Wente, Edward F. (1967). "On the Chronology of the Twenty-First Dynasty". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 26., p. 156 Bibliography[edit] Derry, D.E., Report on Skeleton of King Amenemopet, ASAE 41 (1942), 149. Goyon, Georges (1987). La Découverte des trésors de Tanis. Perséa. p. 608. ISBN 2-906427-01-2. Jansen-Winkeln, Karl (2006). Hornung, Erik; Krauss, Rolf; Warburton, David A. (eds.). Ancient Egyptian Chronology. Brill, Leiden/Boston. ISBN 978 90 04 11385 5. Kitchen, Kenneth A. (1996). The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100–650 BC). Warminster: Aris & Phillips Limited. p. 608. ISBN 0-85668-298-5. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Amenemope. Sarcophagus of Amenemope v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 118648772 VIAF: 3264131 WorldCat Identities: viaf-3264131 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amenemope_(pharaoh)&oldid=991814267" Categories: 11th-century BC Pharaohs 10th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Ancient Egyptian mummies 11th-century BC births 992 BC deaths Deaths from meningitis 11th century BC in Egypt 10th century BC in Egypt 11th-century BC rulers 10th-century BC rulers Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools 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en-wikipedia-org-2413	----	Zoroastrianism - Wikipedia Zoroastrianism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Zoroastrian) Jump to navigation Jump to search Religion ascribed to the teachings of Zoroaster Zoroastrianism The Faravahar, a symbol commonly used to signify Zoroastrianism Classification Iranian religions Scripture Avesta Theology Dualism in cosmology Region India,[1] Iran,[1] United States,[1] Pakistan,[1] and Kurdistan Language Avestan Founder Zarathusthra Zoroaster Origin 5th century BC[2] Greater Iran Separations Mazdakism[3] Members c. 110,000–120,000[1] Other name(s) Mazdaism Part of a series on Zoroastrianism Atar (fire), a primary symbol of Zoroastrianism Primary topics Ahura Mazda Zarathustra Asha Vohu Manah Persia/Iran Faravahar Avestan Divine entities Amesha Spentas Yazatas Ahuras Daevas Angra Mainyu Scripture and worship Adur Burzen-Mihr Adur Gushnasp Avesta Cypress of Kashmar Gathas Yasna Vendidad Visperad Yashts Khordeh Avesta The Revayats Ab-Zohr Ashem Vohu Ahuna Vairya Yenghe hatam Airyaman ishya Fire Temples 101 Names of Ahura Mazda Accounts and legends Dēnkard Bundahišn Book of Arda Viraf Book of Jamasp Story of Sanjan Chinvat Bridge Frashokereti History and culture Zurvanism Mazdakism Khurramites Calendar Festivals Marriage Burial Adherents Zoroastrians in India Zoroastrians in Iran Parsis Zoroastrianism in the United States Iranis Persecution of Zoroastrians Related topics Criticism of Zoroastrianism  Religion portal v t e Zoroastrianism or Mazdayasna is one of the world's oldest continuously practiced religions. It is a multi-faceted faith centered on a dualistic cosmology of good and evil and an eschatology predicting the ultimate conquest of evil with theological elements of henotheism, monotheism/monism, and polytheism.[4][5][6][7] Ascribed to the teachings of the Iranian-speaking spiritual leader Zoroaster (also known as Zarathustra),[8] it exalts an uncreated and benevolent deity of wisdom, Ahura Mazda (Wise Lord), as its supreme being.[9] Historical features of Zoroastrianism, such as messianism, judgment after death, heaven and hell, and free will may have influenced other religious and philosophical systems, including Second Temple Judaism, Gnosticism, Greek philosophy,[10] Christianity, Islam,[11] the Baháʼí Faith, and Buddhism.[12] With possible roots dating back to the second millennium BCE, Zoroastrianism enters recorded history in the 5th century BCE.[13] It served as the state religion of the ancient Iranian empires for more than a millennium, from around 600 BCE to 650 CE, but declined from the 7th century onwards following the Muslim conquest of Persia of 633–654.[14] Recent estimates place the current number of Zoroastrians at around 110,000–120,000[1] at most with the majority living in India, Iran, and North America; their number has been thought to be declining.[15][16] The most important texts of the religion are those of the Avesta, which includes as central the writings of Zoroaster known as the Gathas, enigmatic ritual poems that define the religion's precepts, which is within Yasna, the main worship service of modern Zoroastrianism. The religious philosophy of Zoroaster divided the early Iranian gods of the Proto-Indo-Iranian tradition into ahuras[17] and daevas,[18] the latter of which were not considered worthy of worship. Zoroaster proclaimed that Ahura Mazda was the supreme creator, the creative and sustaining force of the universe through Asha,[9] and that human beings are given a right of choice between supporting Ahura Mazda or not, making them responsible for their choices. Though Ahura Mazda has no equal contesting force, Angra Mainyu (destructive spirit/mentality), whose forces are born from Aka Manah (evil thought), is considered the main adversarial force of the religion, standing against Spenta Mainyu (creative spirit/mentality).[19] Middle Persian literature developed Angra Mainyu further into Ahriman and advancing him to be the direct adversary to Ahura Mazda.[20] In Zoroastrianism, Asha (truth, cosmic order), the life force that originates from Ahura Mazda,[9][21] stands in opposition to Druj (falsehood, deceit)[22][23] and Ahura Mazda is considered to be all-good with no evil emanating from the deity.[9] Ahura Mazda works in gētīg (the visible material realm) and mēnōg (the invisible spiritual and mental realm)[24] through the seven (six when excluding Spenta Mainyu) Amesha Spentas[25] (the direct emanations of Ahura Mazda) and the host of other Yazatas (literally meaning "worthy of worship"), who all worship Ahura Mazda in the Avesta and other texts and who Ahura Mazda requests worship towards in the same texts.[5] Zoroastrianism is not uniform in theological and philosophical thought, especially with historical and modern influences having a significant impact on individual and local beliefs, practices, values and vocabulary, sometimes merging with tradition and in other cases displacing it.[26] Modern Zoroastrianism, however, tends to divide itself into either Reformist or Traditionalist camps with various smaller movements arising.[27] In Zoroastrianism, the purpose in life is to become an Ashavan (a master of Asha) and to bring happiness into the world, which contributes to the cosmic battle against evil. Zoroastrianism's core teachings include: Follow the Threefold Path of Asha: Humata, Huxta, Huvarshta (Good Thoughts, Good Words, Good Deeds).[28] Charity is a way of maintaining one's soul aligned to Asha and to spread happiness.[29] The spiritual equality and duty of the genders.[30] Being good for the sake of goodness and without the hope of reward (see Ashem Vohu). Contents 1 Terminology 2 Overview 2.1 Theology 2.2 Practices 3 History 3.1 Classical antiquity 3.2 Late antiquity 3.3 Decline in the Middle Ages 3.3.1 Conversion 3.3.2 Survival 3.4 Modern 4 Relation to other religions and cultures 4.1 Indo-Iranian origins 4.2 Manichaeism 4.3 Present-day Iran 5 Religious text 5.1 Avesta 5.2 Middle Persian (Pahlavi) 6 Zoroaster 6.1 Zoroaster in legend 6.2 Cypress of Kashmar 7 Principal beliefs 7.1 Cosmology: Creation of the universe 7.2 Eschatology: Renovation and judgment 7.3 Ritual and prayer 8 Demographics 8.1 In South Asia 8.1.1 India 8.1.2 Pakistan 8.2 Iran, Iraq and Central Asia 8.3 Western world 9 See also 10 References 11 Bibliography 12 External links Terminology The name Zoroaster (Ζωροάστηρ) is a Greek rendering of the Avestan name Zarathustra. He is known as Zartosht and Zardosht in Persian and Zaratosht in Gujarati.[31] The Zoroastrian name of the religion is Mazdayasna, which combines Mazda- with the Avestan word yasna, meaning "worship, devotion".[9] In English, an adherent of the faith is commonly called a Zoroastrian or a Zarathustrian. An older expression still used today is Behdin, meaning "The best religion | beh < Middle Persian weh ‘good’ + din < Middle Persian dēn < Avestan daēnā". In Zoroastrian liturgy the term is used as a title for an individual who has been formally inducted into the religion in a Navjote ceremony.[32] The first surviving reference to Zoroaster in English scholarship is attributed to Thomas Browne (1605–1682), who briefly refers to Zoroaster in his 1643 Religio Medici.[33] The term Mazdaism (/ˈmæzdə.ɪzəm/) is an alternative form in English used as well for the faith, taking Mazda- from the name Ahura Mazda and adding the suffix -ism to suggest a belief system.[34] Overview Theology Zoroastrians believe that there is one universal, transcendent, all-good, and uncreated supreme creator deity, Ahura Mazda, or the "Wise Lord". (Ahura meaning "Lord" and Mazda meaning "Wisdom" in Avestan).[35] Zoroaster keeps the two attributes separate as two different concepts in most of the Gathas yet sometimes combines them into one form. Zoroaster also claims that Ahura Mazda is omniscient but not omnipotent.[9] In the Gathas, Ahura Mazda is noted as working through emanations known as the Amesha Spenta[25] and with the help of "other ahuras",[5] of which Sraosha is the only one explicitly named of the latter category. Scholars and theologians have long debated on the nature of Zoroastrianism, with dualism, monotheism, and polytheism being the main terms applied to the religion.[4][5][6] Some scholars assert that Zoroastrianism's concept of divinity covers both being and mind as immanent entities, describing Zoroastrianism as having a belief in an immanent self-creating universe with consciousness as its special attribute, thereby putting Zoroastrianism in the pantheistic fold sharing its origin with Indian Brahmanism.[36][37] In any case, Asha, the main spiritual force which comes from Ahura Mazda,[21] is the cosmic order which is the antithesis of chaos, which is evident as druj, falsehood and disorder.[22] The resulting cosmic conflict involves all of creation, mental/spiritual and material, including humanity at its core, which has an active role to play in the conflict.[38] In the Zoroastrian tradition, druj comes from Angra Mainyu (also referred to in later texts as "Ahriman"), the destructive spirit/mentality, while the main representative of Asha in this conflict is Spenta Mainyu, the creative spirit/mentality.[19] Ahura Mazda is immanent in humankind and interacts with creation through emanations known as the Amesha Spenta, the bounteous/holy immortals, which are representative and guardians of different aspects of creation and the ideal personality.[25] Ahura Mazda, through these Amesha Spenta, is assisted by a league of countless divinities called Yazatas, meaning "worthy of worship", and each is generally a hypostasis of a moral or physical aspect of creation. According to Zoroastrian cosmology, in articulating the Ahuna Vairya formula, Ahura Mazda made the ultimate triumph of good against Angra Mainyu evident.[39] Ahura Mazda will ultimately prevail over the evil Angra Mainyu, at which point reality will undergo a cosmic renovation called Frashokereti[40] and limited time will end. In the final renovation, all of creation—even the souls of the dead that were initially banished to or chose to descend into "darkness"—will be reunited with Ahura Mazda in the Kshatra Vairya (meaning "best dominion"),[41] being resurrected to immortality. In Middle Persian literature, the prominent belief was that at the end of time a savior-figure known as the Saoshyant would bring about the Frashokereti, while in the Gathic texts the term Saoshyant (meaning "one who brings benefit") referred to all believers of Mazdayasna but changed into a messianic concept in later writings. Zoroastrian theology includes foremost the importance of following the Threefold Path of Asha revolving around Good Thoughts, Good Words, and Good Deeds.[28] There is also a heavy emphasis on spreading happiness, mostly through charity,[29] and respecting the spiritual equality and duty of the genders.[30] Zoroastrianism's emphasis on the protection and veneration of nature and its elements has led some to proclaim it as the "world's first proponent of ecology."[42] The Avesta and other texts call for the protection of water, earth, fire and air making it, in effect, an ecological religion: "It is not surprising that Mazdaism…is called the first ecological religion. The reverence for Yazatas (divine spirits) emphasizes the preservation of nature (Avesta: Yasnas 1.19, 3.4, 16.9; Yashts 6.3–4, 10.13)."[43] However, this particular assertion is undermined by the fact that early Zoroastrians had a duty to exterminate "evil" species, a dictate no longer followed in modern Zoroastrianism.[44] Practices An 8th century Tang dynasty Chinese clay figurine of a Sogdian man wearing a distinctive cap and face veil, possibly a camel rider or even a Zoroastrian priest engaging in a ritual at a fire temple, since face veils were used to avoid contaminating the holy fire with breath or saliva; Museum of Oriental Art (Turin), Italy.[45] The religion states that active and ethical participation in life through good deeds formed from good thoughts and good words is necessary to ensure happiness and to keep chaos at bay. This active participation is a central element in Zoroaster's concept of free will and Zoroastrianism as such rejects extreme forms of asceticism and monasticism but historically has allowed for moderate expressions of these concepts.[46] In Zoroastrian tradition, life is a temporary state in which a mortal is expected to actively participate in the continuing battle between Asha and Druj. Prior to being born, the urvan (soul) of an individual is still united with its fravashi (personal/higher spirit), which has existed since Ahura Mazda created the universe. The fravashi before the urvan's split act as aids in the maintenance of creation with Ahura Mazda. During life, the fravashi act as aspirational concepts, spiritual protectors, and the fravashi of bloodline, cultural, and spiritual ancestors and heroes are venerated and can be called upon for aid.[47] On the fourth day after death, the urvan is reunited with its fravashi, in which the experiences of life in the material world are collected for the continuing battle in the spiritual world. For the most part, Zoroastrianism does not have a notion of reincarnation, at least not until the Frashokereti. Followers of Ilm-e-Kshnoom in India believe in reincarnation and practice vegetarianism, among other currently non-traditional opinions,[48] although there have been various theological statements supporting vegetarianism in Zoroastrianism's history and claims that Zoroaster was vegetarian.[49] In Zoroastrianism, water (aban) and fire (atar) are agents of ritual purity, and the associated purification ceremonies are considered the basis of ritual life. In Zoroastrian cosmogony, water and fire are respectively the second and last primordial elements to have been created, and scripture considers fire to have its origin in the waters. Both water and fire are considered life-sustaining, and both water and fire are represented within the precinct of a fire temple. Zoroastrians usually pray in the presence of some form of fire (which can be considered evident in any source of light), and the culminating rite of the principal act of worship constitutes a "strengthening of the waters". Fire is considered a medium through which spiritual insight and wisdom are gained, and water is considered the source of that wisdom. Both fire and water are also hypostasized as the Yazatas Atar and Anahita, which worship hymns and litanies dedicated to them. A corpse is considered a host for decay, i.e., of druj. Consequently, scripture enjoins the safe disposal of the dead in a manner such that a corpse does not pollute the good creation. These injunctions are the doctrinal basis of the fast-fading traditional practice of ritual exposure, most commonly identified with the so-called Towers of Silence for which there is no standard technical term in either scripture or tradition. Ritual exposure is currently mainly practiced by Zoroastrian communities of the Indian subcontinent, in locations where it is not illegal and diclofenac poisoning has not led to the virtual extinction of scavenger birds. Other Zoroastrian communities either cremate their dead, or bury them in graves that are cased with lime mortar, though Zoroastrians are keen to dispose of their dead in the most environmental way possible. While the Parsees in India have traditionally since the 19th century been opposed to proselytizing,[27] and even considered it a crime for which the culprit may face expulsion,[50] Iranian Zoroastrians have never been opposed to conversion, and the practice has been endorsed by the Council of Mobeds of Tehran. While the Iranian authorities do not permit proselytizing within Iran, Iranian Zoroastrians in exile have actively encouraged missionary activities, with the Zarathushtrian Assembly in Los Angeles and the International Zoroastrian Centre in Paris as two prominent organizations and the Federation of Zoroastrian Associations of North America being in favor of conversion and welcoming to converts. Converts from both traditionally Persian and non-Persian ethnicities have even been welcomed at international events, even attending and speaking at events such as the World Zoroastrian Congress and the World Zoroastrian Youth Congress.[51][52] Zoroastrians are encouraged to marry others of the same faith, but this is not a requirement outside of traditionalist communities where it is strictly enforced in regards to women marrying outside of the faith but not men.[53] History Painted clay and alabaster head of a Zoroastrian priest wearing a distinctive Bactrian-style headdress, Takhti-Sangin, Tajikistan, Greco-Bactrian kingdom, 3rd–2nd century BCE Classical antiquity See also: Western Perceptions of Zoroastrianism The Tomb of Cyrus the Great at Pasargadae, Iran. The roots of Zoroastrianism are thought to have emerged from a common prehistoric Indo-Iranian religious system dating back to the early 2nd millennium BCE.[54] The prophet Zoroaster himself, though traditionally dated to the 6th century BCE, is thought by many modern historians to have been a reformer of the polytheistic Iranian religion who lived in the 10th century BCE.[55] Zoroastrianism as a religion was not firmly established until several centuries later. Zoroastrianism enters recorded history in the mid-5th century BCE. Herodotus' The Histories (completed c. 440 BCE) includes a description of Greater Iranian society with what may be recognizably Zoroastrian features, including exposure of the dead. The Histories is a primary source of information on the early period of the Achaemenid era (648–330 BCE), in particular with respect to the role of the Magi. According to Herodotus, the Magi were the sixth tribe of the Medes (until the unification of the Persian empire under Cyrus the Great, all Iranians were referred to as "Mede" or "Mada" by the peoples of the Ancient World) and wielded considerable influence at the courts of the Median emperors.[56] Following the unification of the Median and Persian empires in 550 BCE, Cyrus the Great and later his son Cambyses II curtailed the powers of the Magi after they had attempted to sow dissent following their loss of influence. In 522 BCE, the Magi revolted and set up a rival claimant to the throne. The usurper, pretending to be Cyrus' younger son Smerdis, took power shortly thereafter.[57] Owing to the despotic rule of Cambyses and his long absence in Egypt, "the whole people, Persians, Medes and all the other nations" acknowledged the usurper, especially as he granted a remission of taxes for three years.[56] Darius I and later Achaemenid emperors acknowledged their devotion to Ahura Mazda in inscriptions, as attested to several times in the Behistun inscription, and appear to have continued the model of coexistence with other religions. Whether Darius was a follower of the teachings of Zoroaster has not been conclusively established as there is no indication of note that worship of Ahura Mazda was exclusively a Zoroastrian practice.[58] According to later Zoroastrian legend (Denkard and the Book of Arda Viraf), many sacred texts were lost when Alexander the Great's troops invaded Persepolis and subsequently destroyed the royal library there. Diodorus Siculus's Bibliotheca historica, which was completed circa 60 BCE, appears to substantiate this Zoroastrian legend.[59] According to one archaeological examination, the ruins of the palace of Xerxes bear traces of having been burned.[60] Whether a vast collection of (semi-)religious texts "written on parchment in gold ink", as suggested by the Denkard, actually existed remains a matter of speculation, but it is unlikely.[61] Alexander's conquests largely displaced Zoroastrianism with Hellenistic beliefs,[55] though the religion continued to be practiced many centuries following the demise of the Achaemenids in mainland Persia and the core regions of the former Achaemenid Empire, most notably Anatolia, Mesopotamia, and the Caucasus. In the Cappadocian kingdom, whose territory was formerly an Achaemenid possession, Persian colonists, cut off from their co-religionists in Iran proper, continued to practice the faith [Zoroastrianism] of their forefathers; and there Strabo, observing in the first century B.C., records (XV.3.15) that these "fire kindlers" possessed many "holy places of the Persian Gods", as well as fire temples.[62] Strabo further states that these were "noteworthy enclosures; and in their midst there is an altar, on which there is a large quantity of ashes and where the magi keep the fire ever burning."[62] It was not until the end of the Parthian period (247 b.c.– a.d. 224) that Zoroastrianism would receive renewed interest.[55] Late antiquity As late as the Parthian period, a form of Zoroastrianism was without a doubt the dominant religion in the Armenian lands.[63] The Sassanids aggressively promoted the Zurvanite form of Zoroastrianism, often building fire temples in captured territories to promote the religion. During the period of their centuries long suzerainty over the Caucasus, the Sassanids made attempts to promote Zoroastrianism there with considerable successes, and it was prominent in the pre-Christian Caucasus (especially modern-day Azerbaijan). Due to its ties to the Christian Roman Empire, Persia's arch-rival since Parthian times, the Sassanids were suspicious of Roman Christianity, and after the reign of Constantine the Great, sometimes persecuted it.[64] The Sassanid authority clashed with their Armenian subjects in the Battle of Avarayr ( a.d. 451), making them officially break with the Roman Church. But the Sassanids tolerated or even sometimes favored the Christianity of the Church of the East. The acceptance of Christianity in Georgia (Caucasian Iberia) saw the Zoroastrian religion there slowly but surely decline,[65] but as late the 5th century a.d. it was still widely practised as something like a second established religion.[66][67] Decline in the Middle Ages See also: Persecution of Zoroastrians A scene from the Hamzanama where Hamza ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib Burns Zarthust's Chest and Shatters the Urn with his Ashes Most of the Sassanid Empire was overthrown by the Arabs over the course of 16 years in the 7th century. Although the administration of the state was rapidly Islamicized and subsumed under the Umayyad Caliphate, in the beginning "there was little serious pressure" exerted on newly subjected people to adopt Islam.[68] Because of their sheer numbers, the conquered Zoroastrians had to be treated as dhimmis (despite doubts of the validity of this identification that persisted down the centuries),[69] which made them eligible for protection. Islamic jurists took the stance that only Muslims could be perfectly moral, but "unbelievers might as well be left to their iniquities, so long as these did not vex their overlords."[69] In the main, once the conquest was over and "local terms were agreed on", the Arab governors protected the local populations in exchange for tribute.[69] The Arabs adopted the Sassanid tax-system, both the land-tax levied on land owners and the poll-tax levied on individuals,[69] called jizya, a tax levied on non-Muslims (i.e., the dhimmis). In time, this poll-tax came to be used as a means to humble the non-Muslims, and a number of laws and restrictions evolved to emphasize their inferior status. Under the early orthodox caliphs, as long as the non-Muslims paid their taxes and adhered to the dhimmi laws, administrators were enjoined to leave non-Muslims "in their religion and their land." (Caliph Abu Bakr, qtd. in Boyce 1979, p. 146). Under Abbasid rule, Muslim Iranians (who by then were in the majority) in many instances showed severe disregard for and mistreated local Zoroastrians. For example, in the 9th century, a deeply venerated cypress tree in Khorasan (which Parthian-era legend supposed had been planted by Zoroaster himself) was felled for the construction of a palace in Baghdad, 2,000 miles (3,200 km) away. In the 10th century, on the day that a Tower of Silence had been completed at much trouble and expense, a Muslim official contrived to get up onto it, and to call the adhan (the Muslim call to prayer) from its walls. This was turned into a pretext to annex the building.[70] Ultimately, Muslim scholars like Al-Biruni found little records left of the belief of for instance the Khawarizmians because figures like Qutayba ibn Muslim "extinguished and ruined in every possible way all those who knew how to write and read the Khawarizmi writing, who knew the history of the country and who studied their sciences." As a result, "these things are involved in so much obscurity that it is impossible to obtain an accurate knowledge of the history of the country since the time of Islam…"[71] Conversion Though subject to a new leadership and harassment, the Zoroastrians were able to continue their former ways. But there was a slow but steady social and economic pressure to convert.[72][73] The nobility and city-dwellers were the first to convert, with Islam more slowly being accepted among the peasantry and landed gentry.[74] "Power and worldly-advantage" now lay with followers of Islam, and although the "official policy was one of aloof contempt, there were individual Muslims eager to proselytize and ready to use all sorts of means to do so."[73] In time, a tradition evolved by which Islam was made to appear as a partly Iranian religion. One example of this was a legend that Husayn, son of the fourth caliph Ali and grandson of Islam's prophet Muhammad, had married a captive Sassanid princess named Shahrbanu. This "wholly fictitious figure"[75] was said to have borne Husayn a son, the historical fourth Shi'a imam, who claimed that the caliphate rightly belonged to him and his descendants, and that the Umayyads had wrongfully wrested it from him. The alleged descent from the Sassanid house counterbalanced the Arab nationalism of the Umayyads, and the Iranian national association with a Zoroastrian past was disarmed. Thus, according to scholar Mary Boyce, "it was no longer the Zoroastrians alone who stood for patriotism and loyalty to the past."[75] The "damning indictment" that becoming Muslim was Un-Iranian only remained an idiom in Zoroastrian texts.[75] With Iranian support, the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads in 750, and in the subsequent caliphate government—that nominally lasted until 1258—Muslim Iranians received marked favor in the new government, both in Iran and at the capital in Baghdad. This mitigated the antagonism between Arabs and Iranians, but sharpened the distinction between Muslims and non-Muslims. The Abbasids zealously persecuted heretics, and although this was directed mainly at Muslim sectarians, it also created a harsher climate for non-Muslims.[76] Although the Abbasids were deadly foes of Zoroastrianism, the brand of Islam they propagated throughout Iran became ever more "Zoroastrianized", making it easier for Iranians to embrace Islam. Survival The fire temple of Baku, c. 1860 Despite economic and social incentives to convert, Zoroastrianism remained strong in some regions, particularly in those furthest away from the Caliphate capital at Baghdad. In Bukhara (in present-day Uzbekistan), resistance to Islam required the 9th-century Arab commander Qutaiba to convert his province four times. The first three times the citizens reverted to their old religion. Finally, the governor made their religion "difficult for them in every way", turned the local fire temple into a mosque, and encouraged the local population to attend Friday prayers by paying each attendee two dirhams.[73] The cities where Arab governors resided were particularly vulnerable to such pressures, and in these cases the Zoroastrians were left with no choice but to either conform or migrate to regions that had a more amicable administration.[73] The 9th century came to define the great number of Zoroastrian texts that were composed or re-written during the 8th to 10th centuries (excluding copying and lesser amendments, which continued for some time thereafter). All of these works are in the Middle Persian dialect of that period (free of Arabic words), and written in the difficult Pahlavi script (hence the adoption of the term "Pahlavi" as the name of the variant of the language, and of the genre, of those Zoroastrian books). If read aloud, these books would still have been intelligible to the laity. Many of these texts are responses to the tribulations of the time, and all of them include exhortations to stand fast in their religious beliefs. Some, such as the "Denkard", are doctrinal defenses of the religion, while others are explanations of theological aspects (such as the Bundahishn's) or practical aspects (e.g., explanation of rituals) of it. Fire temple in Yazd Museum of Zoroastrians in Kerman In Khorasan in northeastern Iran, a 10th-century Iranian nobleman brought together four Zoroastrian priests to transcribe a Sassanid-era Middle Persian work titled Book of the Lord (Khwaday Namag) from Pahlavi script into Arabic script. This transcription, which remained in Middle Persian prose (an Arabic version, by al-Muqaffa, also exists), was completed in 957 and subsequently became the basis for Firdausi's Book of Kings. It became enormously popular among both Zoroastrians and Muslims, and also served to propagate the Sassanid justification for overthrowing the Arsacids (i.e., that the Sassanids had restored the faith to its "orthodox" form after the Hellenistic Arsacids had allowed Zoroastrianism to become corrupt). Among migrations were those to cities in (or on the margins of) the great salt deserts, in particular to Yazd and Kerman, which remain centers of Iranian Zoroastrianism to this day. Yazd became the seat of the Iranian high priests during Mongol Il-Khanate rule, when the "best hope for survival [for a non-Muslim] was to be inconspicuous."[77] Crucial to the present-day survival of Zoroastrianism was a migration from the northeastern Iranian town of "Sanjan in south-western Khorasan",[78] to Gujarat, in western India. The descendants of that group are today known as the Parsis—"as the Gujaratis, from long tradition, called anyone from Iran"[78]—who today represent the larger of the two groups of Zoroastrians. The struggle between Zoroastrianism and Islam declined in the 10th and 11th centuries. Local Iranian dynasties, "all vigorously Muslim,"[78] had emerged as largely independent vassals of the Caliphs. In the 16th century, in one of the early letters between Iranian Zoroastrians and their co-religionists in India, the priests of Yazd lamented that "no period [in human history], not even that of Alexander, had been more grievous or troublesome for the faithful than 'this millennium of the demon of Wrath'."[79] Modern Further information: Parsi, Irani (India), and Zoroastrians in Iran A modern Zoroastrian fire temple in Western India Sadeh in Tehran, 2011 Zoroastrianism has survived into the modern period, particularly in India, where it has been present since about the 9th century. Today Zoroastrianism can be divided in two main schools of thought: reformists and traditionalists. Traditionalists are mostly Parsis and accept, beside the Gathas and Avesta, also the Middle Persian literature and like the reformists mostly developed in their modern form from 19th century developments.[27] They generally do not allow conversion to the faith and, as such, for someone to be a Zoroastrian they must be born of Zoroastrian parents. Some traditionalists recognize the children of mixed marriages as Zoroastrians, though usually only if the father is a born Zoroastrian.[80] Reformists tend to advocate a "return" to the Gathas, the universal nature of the faith, a decrease in ritualization, and an emphasis on the faith as philosophy rather than religion.[27] Not all Zoroastrians identify with either school and notable examples are getting traction including Neo-Zoroastrians/Para-Zoroastrians, which are usually radical reinterpretations of Zoroastrianism appealing towards Western concerns,[81] and Revivalists, who center the idea of Zoroastrianism as a living religion and advocate the revival and maintenance of old rituals and prayers while supporting ethical and social progressive reforms. Both of these latter schools tend to center the Gathas without outright rejecting other texts except the Vendidad. Ilm-e-Khshnoom and the Pundol Group are Zoroastrian mystical schools of thought popular among a small minority of the Parsi community inspired mostly by 19th-century theosophy and typified by a spiritual ethnocentric mentality.[27] From the 19th century onward, the Parsis gained a reputation for their education and widespread influence in all aspects of society. They played an instrumental role in the economic development of the region over many decades; several of the best-known business conglomerates of India are run by Parsi-Zoroastrians, including the Tata, Godrej, Wadia families, and others. Though the Armenians share a rich history affiliated with Zoroastrianism (that eventually declined with the advent of Christianity), reports indicate that there were Zoroastrian Armenians in Armenia until the 1920s.[82] A comparatively minor population persisted in Central Asia, the Caucasus, and Persia, and a growing large expatriate community has formed in the United States mostly from India and Iran, and to a lesser extent in the United Kingdom, Canada and Australia. At the request of the government of Tajikistan, UNESCO declared 2003 a year to celebrate the "3000th anniversary of Zoroastrian culture", with special events throughout the world. In 2011 the Tehran Mobeds Anjuman announced that for the first time in the history of modern Iran and of the modern Zoroastrian communities worldwide, women had been ordained in Iran and North America as mobedyars, meaning women assistant mobeds (Zoroastrian clergy).[83][84][85] The women hold official certificates and can perform the lower-rung religious functions and can initiate people into the religion.[86] Relation to other religions and cultures The Achaemenid Empire in the 5th century BCE was the largest empire in history by percentage of world population.[87] Some scholars believe[88] that key concepts of Zoroastrian eschatology and demonology influenced the Abrahamic religions.[89][90] On the other hand, Zoroastrianism itself inherited ideas from other belief systems and, like other "practiced" religions, accommodates some degree of syncretism,[91] with Zoroastrianism in Sogdia, the Kushan Empire, Armenia, China, and other places incorporating local and foreign practices and deities.[92] Zoroastrian influences on Hungarian, Slavic, Ossetian, Turkic and Mongol mythologies have also been noted, all of which bearing extensive light-dark dualisms and possible sun god theonyms related to Hvare-khshaeta.[93][94][95] Indo-Iranian origins See also: Indo-Iranians and Proto-Indo-Iranian religion The religion of Zoroastrianism is closest to Vedic religion to varying degrees. Some historians believe that Zoroastrianism, along with similar philosophical revolutions in South Asia were interconnected strings of reformation against a common Indo-Aryan thread. Many traits of Zoroastrianism can be traced back to the culture and beliefs of the prehistorical Indo-Iranian period, that is, to the time before the migrations that led to the Indo-Aryans and Iranics becoming distinct peoples. Zoroastrianism consequently shares elements with the historical Vedic religion that also has its origins in that era. Some examples include cognates between the Avestan word Ahura ("Ahura Mazda") and the Vedic Sanskrit word Asura ("demon; evil demigod"); as well as Daeva ("demon") and Deva ("god") and they both descend from a common Proto-Indo-Iranian religion. Manichaeism Zoroastrianism is often compared with Manichaeism. Nominally an Iranian religion, it has its origins in Middle-Eastern Gnosticism. Superficially such a comparison seems apt, as both are dualistic and Manichaeism adopted many of the Yazatas for its own pantheon. Gherardo Gnoli, in The Encyclopaedia of Religion,[96] says that "we can assert that Manichaeism has its roots in the Iranian religious tradition and that its relationship to Mazdaism, or Zoroastrianism, is more or less like that of Christianity to Judaism".[97] But they are quite different.[98] Manichaeism equated evil with matter and good with spirit, and was therefore particularly suitable as a doctrinal basis for every form of asceticism and many forms of mysticism. Zoroastrianism, on the other hand, rejects every form of asceticism, has no dualism of matter and spirit (only of good and evil), and sees the spiritual world as not very different from the natural one (the word "paradise", or pairi.daeza, applies equally to both.) Manichaeism's basic doctrine was that the world and all corporeal bodies were constructed from the substance of Satan, an idea that is fundamentally at odds with the Zoroastrian notion of a world that was created by God and that is all good, and any corruption of it is an effect of the bad.[citation needed] Present-day Iran Many aspects of Zoroastrianism are present in the culture and mythologies of the peoples of Greater Iran, not least because Zoroastrianism was a dominant influence on the people of the cultural continent for a thousand years. Even after the rise of Islam and the loss of direct influence, Zoroastrianism remained part of the cultural heritage of the Iranian language-speaking world, in part as festivals and customs, but also because Ferdowsi incorporated a number of the figures and stories from the Avesta in his epic Shāhnāme, which is pivotal to Iranian identity. One notable example is the incorporation of the Yazata Sraosha as an angel venerated within Shia Islam in Iran.[99] Religious text Avesta Main articles: Avesta and Avestan language The Avesta is a collection of the central religious texts of Zoroastrianism written in the old Iranian dialect of Avestan. The history of the Avesta is speculated upon in many Pahlavi texts with varying degrees of authority, with the current version of the Avesta dating at oldest from the times of the Sasanian Empire.[100] According to Middle Persian tradition, Ahura Mazda created the twenty-one Nasks of the original Avesta which Zoroaster brought to Vishtaspa. Here, two copies were created, one which was put in the house of archives and the other put in the Imperial treasury. During Alexander's conquest of Persia, the Avesta was burned, and the scientific sections that the Greeks could use were dispersed among themselves. However, there is no strong evidence historically towards these claims and they remain contested academically and within the faith.[100] As tradition continues, under the reign of King Valax of the Arsacis Dynasty, an attempt was made to restore what was considered the Avesta. During the Sassanid Empire, Ardeshir ordered Tansar, his high priest, to finish the work that King Valax had started. Shapur I sent priests to locate the scientific text portions of the Avesta that were in the possession of the Greeks. Under Shapur II, Arderbad Mahrespandand revised the canon to ensure its orthodox character, while under Khosrow I, the Avesta was translated into Pahlavi. The compilation of the Avesta can be authoritatively traced, however, to the Sasanian Empire, of which only fraction survive today if the Middle Persian literature is correct.[100] The later manuscripts all date from after the fall of the Sasanian Empire, the latest being from 1288, 590 years after the fall of the Sasanian Empire. The texts that remain today are the Gathas, Yasna, Visperad and the Vendidad, of which the latter's inclusion is disputed within the faith.[101] Along with these texts is the individual, communal, and ceremonial prayer book called the Khordeh Avesta, which contains the Yashts and other important hymns, prayers, and rituals. The rest of the materials from the Avesta are called "Avestan fragments" in that they are written in Avestan, incomplete, and generally of unknown provenance.[102] Middle Persian (Pahlavi) Middle Persian and Pahlavi works created in the 9th and 10th century contain many religious Zoroastrian books, as most of the writers and copyists were part of the Zoroastrian clergy. The most significant and important books of this era include the Denkard, Bundahishn, Menog-i Khrad, Selections of Zadspram, Jamasp Namag, Epistles of Manucher, Rivayats, Dadestan-i-Denig, and Arda Viraf Namag. All Middle Persian texts written on Zoroastrianism during this time period are considered secondary works on the religion, and not scripture. Nonetheless, these texts have had a strong influence on the religion. Zoroaster Main article: Zoroaster Zoroastrianism was founded by Zoroaster (or Zarathushtra) in ancient Iran. The precise date of the founding of Zoroastrianism is uncertain and dates differ wildly from 2000 BCE to "200 years before Alexander". Zoroaster was born in either Northeast Iran or Southwest Afghanistan. He was born into a culture with a polytheistic religion, which included excessive animal sacrifice[103] and the excessive ritual use of intoxicants, and his life was defined heavily by the settling of his people and the constant threats of raids and conflict. Zoroaster's birth and early life are little documented but speculated heavily upon in later texts. What is known is recorded in the Gathas—the core of the Avesta, which contains hymns thought to be composed by Zoroaster himself. Born into the Spitama clan, he refers to himself as a poet-priest and spiritual master. He had a wife, three sons, and three daughters, the numbers of which are gathered from various texts.[104] Zoroaster rejected many of the gods of the Bronze Age Iranians and their oppressive class structure, in which the Karvis and Karapans (princes and priests) controlled the ordinary people. He also opposed cruel animal sacrifices and the excessive use of the hallucinogenic Haoma plant (possibly a species of ephedra), but did not outright condemn completely either practice in moderate forms.[105][106] Zoroaster in legend According to later Zoroastrian tradition, when Zoroaster was 30 years old, he went into the Daiti river to draw water for a Haoma ceremony; when he emerged, he received a vision of Vohu Manah. After this, Vohu Manah took him to the other six Amesha Spentas, where he received the completion of his vision.[107] This vision radically transformed his view of the world, and he tried to teach this view to others. Zoroaster believed in one supreme creator deity and acknowledged this creator's emanations (Amesha Spenta) and other divinities which he called Ahuras (Yazata). Some of the deities of the old religion, the Daevas (Devas in Sanskrit), appeared to delight in war and strife and were condemned as evil workers of Angra Mainyu by Zoroaster. Zoroaster's ideas were not taken up quickly; he originally only had one convert: his cousin Maidhyoimanha.[108] The local religious authorities opposed his ideas, considering that their faith, power, and particularly their rituals were threatened by Zoroaster's teaching against the bad and overly-complicated ritualization of religious ceremonies. Many did not like Zoroaster's downgrading of the Daevas to evil ones not worthy of worship. After twelve years of little success, Zoroaster left his home. In the country of King Vishtaspa, the king and queen heard Zoroaster debating with the religious leaders of the land and decided to accept Zoroaster's ideas as the official religion of their kingdom after having Zoroaster prove himself by healing the king's favorite horse. Zoroaster is believed to have died in his late 70s, either by murder by a Turanian or old age. Very little is known of the time between Zoroaster and the Achaemenian period, except that Zoroastrianism spread to Western Iran and other regions. By the time of the founding of the Achaemenid Empire, Zoroastrianism is believed to have been already a well-established religion. Cypress of Kashmar Main article: Cypress of Kashmar The Cypress of Kashmar is a mythical cypress tree of legendary beauty and gargantuan dimensions. It is said to have sprung from a branch brought by Zoroaster from Paradise and to have stood in today's Kashmar in northeastern Iran and to have been planted by Zoroaster in honor of the conversion of King Vishtaspa to Zoroastrianism. According to the Iranian physicist and historian Zakariya al-Qazwini King Vishtaspa had been a patron of Zoroaster who planted the tree himself. In his ʿAjā'ib al-makhlūqāt wa gharā'ib al-mawjūdāt, he further describes how the Al-Mutawakkil in 247 AH (861 AD) caused the mighty cypress to be felled, and then transported it across Iran, to be used for beams in his new palace at Samarra. Before, he wanted the tree to be reconstructed before his eyes. This was done in spite of protests by the Iranians, who offered a very great sum of money to save the tree. Al-Mutawakkil never saw the cypress, because he was murdered by a Turkish soldier (possibly in the employ of his son) on the night when it arrived on the banks of the Tigris.[109][110] Principal beliefs Humata, Huxta, Huvarshta (Good Thoughts, Good Words, Good Deeds), the Threefold Path of Asha, is considered the core maxim of Zoroastrianism especially by modern practitioners. In Zoroastrianism, good transpires for those who do righteous deeds for its own sake, not for the search of reward. Those who do evil are said to be attacked and confused by the druj and are responsible for aligning themselves back to Asha by following this path.[28] Faravahar (or Ferohar), one of the primary symbols of Zoroastrianism, believed to be the depiction of a Fravashi or the Khvarenah. In Zoroastrianism, Ahura Mazda is the beginning and the end, the creator of everything that can and cannot be seen, the eternal and uncreated, the all-good and source of Asha.[9] In the Gathas, the most sacred texts of Zoroastrianism thought to have been composed by Zoroaster himself, Zoroaster acknowledged the highest devotion to Ahura Mazda, with worship and adoration also given to Ahura Mazda's manifestations (Amesha Spenta) and the other ahuras (Yazata) that support Ahura Mazda.[111] Daena (din in modern Persian and meaning "that which is seen") is representative of the sum of one's spiritual conscience and attributes, which through one's choice Asha is either strengthened or weakened in the Daena.[112] Traditionally, the manthras, spiritual prayer formulas, are believed to be of immense power and the vehicles of Asha and creation used to maintain good and fight evil.[113] Daena should not be confused with the fundamental principle of Asha, believed to be the cosmic order which governs and permeates all existence, and the concept of which governed the life of the ancient Indo-Iranians. For these, asha was the course of everything observable—the motion of the planets and astral bodies; the progression of the seasons; and the pattern of daily nomadic herdsman life, governed by regular metronomic events such as sunrise and sunset, and was strengthened through truth-telling and following the Threefold Path.[21] All physical creation (getig) was thus determined to run according to a master plan—inherent to Ahura Mazda—and violations of the order (druj) were violations against creation, and thus violations against Ahura Mazda.[24] This concept of asha versus the druj should not be confused with Western and especially Abrahamic notions of good versus evil, for although both forms of opposition express moral conflict, the asha versus druj concept is more systemic and less personal, representing, for instance, chaos (that opposes order); or "uncreation", evident as natural decay (that opposes creation); or more simply "the lie" (that opposes truth and goodness).[21] Moreover, in the role as the one uncreated creator of all, Ahura Mazda is not the creator of druj, which is "nothing", anti-creation, and thus (likewise) uncreated and developed as the antithesis of existence through choice.[22] A Parsi Wedding, 1905 In this schema of asha versus druj, mortal beings (both humans and animals) play a critical role, for they too are created. Here, in their lives, they are active participants in the conflict, and it is their spiritual duty to defend Asha, which is under constant assault and would decay in strength without counteraction.[21] Throughout the Gathas, Zoroaster emphasizes deeds and actions within society and accordingly extreme asceticism is frowned upon in Zoroastrianism but moderate forms are allowed within.[46] This was explained as fleeing from the experiences and joys of life, which was the very purpose that the urvan (most commonly translated as the "soul") was sent into the mortal world to collect. The avoidance of any aspect of life which does not bring harm to another and engage in activities that support the druj, which includes the avoidance of the pleasures of life, is a shirking of the responsibility and duty to oneself, one's urvan, and one's family and social obligations.[22] Central to Zoroastrianism is the emphasis on moral choice, to choose the responsibility and duty for which one is in the mortal world, or to give up this duty and so facilitate the work of druj. Similarly, predestination is rejected in Zoroastrian teaching and the absolute free will of all conscious beings is core, with even divine beings having the ability to choose. Humans bear responsibility for all situations they are in, and in the way they act toward one another. Reward, punishment, happiness, and grief all depend on how individuals live their lives.[114] In the 19th century, through contact with Western academics and missionaries, Zoroastrianism experienced a massive theological change that still affects it today. The Rev. John Wilson led various missionary campaigns in India against the Parsi community, disparaging the Parsis for their "dualism" and "polytheism" and as having unnecessary rituals while declaring the Avesta to not be "divinely inspired". This caused mass dismay in the relatively uneducated Parsi community, which blamed its priests and led to some conversions towards Christianity. The arrival of the German orientalist and philologist Martin Haug led to a rallied defense of the faith through Haug's reinterpretation of the Avesta through Christianized and European orientalist lens. Haug postulated that Zoroastrianism was solely monotheistic with all other divinities reduced to the status of angels while Ahura Mazda became both omnipotent and the source of evil as well as good. Haug's thinking was subsequently disseminated as a Parsi interpretation, thus corroborating Haug's theory, and the idea became so popular that it is now almost universally accepted as doctrine though being reevaluated in modern Zoroastrianism and academia.[27][5] Throughout Zoroastrian history, shrines and temples have been the focus of worship and pilgrimage for adherents of the religion. Early Zoroastrians were recorded as worshiping in the 5th century BCE on mounds and hills where fires were lit below the open skies.[115] In the wake of Achaemenid expansion, shrines were constructed throughout the empire and particularly influenced the role of Mithra, Aredvi Sura Anahita, Verethragna and Tishtrya, alongside other traditional Yazata who all have hymns within the Avesta and also local deities and culture-heroes. Today, enclosed and covered fire temples tend to be the focus of community worship where fires of varying grades are maintained by the clergy assigned to the temples.[116] Cosmology: Creation of the universe According to the Zoroastrian creation myth, Ahura Mazda existed in light and goodness above, while Angra Mainyu existed in darkness and ignorance below. They have existed independently of each other for all time, and manifest contrary substances. Ahura Mazda first manifested seven divine beings called Amesha Spentas, who support him and represent beneficent aspects of personality and creation, along with numerous Yazatas, divinities worthy of worship. Ahura Mazda then created the material and visible world itself in order to ensnare evil. Ahura Mazda created the floating, egg-shaped universe in two parts: first the spiritual (menog) and 3,000 years later, the physical (getig). Ahura Mazda then created Gayomard, the archetypical perfect man, and Gavaevodata, the primordial bovine.[114] While Ahura Mazda created the universe and humankind, Angra Mainyu, whose very nature is to destroy, miscreated demons, evil daevas, and noxious creatures (khrafstar) such as snakes, ants, and flies. Angra Mainyu created an opposite, evil being for each good being, except for humans, which he found he could not match. Angra Mainyu invaded the universe through the base of the sky, inflicting Gayomard and the bull with suffering and death. However, the evil forces were trapped in the universe and could not retreat. The dying primordial man and bovine emitted seeds, which were protect by Mah, the Moon. From the bull's seed grew all beneficial plants and animals of the world and from the man's seed grew a plant whose leaves became the first human couple. Humans thus struggle in a two-fold universe of the material and spiritual trapped and in long combat with evil. The evils of this physical world are not products of an inherent weakness, but are the fault of Angra Mainyu's assault on creation. This assault turned the perfectly flat, peaceful, and ever day-lit world into a mountainous, violent place that is half night.[114] Eschatology: Renovation and judgment Main article: Frashokereti Zoroastrianism also includes beliefs about the renovation of the world (Frashokereti) and individual judgment (cf. general and particular judgment), including the resurrection of the dead, which are alluded to in the Gathas but developed in later Avestan and Middle Persian writings. Individual judgment at death is at the Chinvat Bridge ("bridge of judgement" or "bridge of choice"), which each human must cross, facing a spiritual judgment, though modern belief is split as to whether it is representative of a mental decision during life to choose between good and evil or an afterworld location. Humans' actions under their free will through choice determine the outcome. According to tradition, the soul is judged by the Yazatas Mithra, Sraosha, and Rashnu, where depending on the verdict one is either greeted at the bridge by a beautiful, sweet-smelling maiden or by an ugly, foul-smelling old hag representing their Daena affected by their actions in life. The maiden leads the dead safely across the bridge, which widens and becomes pleasant for the righteous, towards the House of Song. The hag leads the dead down a bridge that narrows to a razor's edge and is full of stench until the departed falls off into the abyss towards the House of Lies.[114][117] Those with a balance of good and evil go to Hamistagan, a neutral place of waiting where according to the Dadestan-i Denig, a Middle Persian work from the 9th century, the souls of the departed can relive their lives and conduct good deeds to raise themselves towards the House of Song or await the final judgement and the mercy of Ahura Mazda.[118] The House of Lies is considered temporary and reformative; punishments fit the crimes, and souls do not rest in eternal damnation. Hell contains foul smells and evil food, a smothering darkness, and souls are packed tightly together although they believe they are in total isolation.[114] In ancient Zoroastrian eschatology, a 3,000-year struggle between good and evil will be fought, punctuated by evil's final assault. During the final assault, the sun and moon will darken and humankind will lose its reverence for religion, family, and elders. The world will fall into winter, and Angra Mainyu's most fearsome miscreant, Azi Dahaka, will break free and terrorize the world.[114] According to legend, the final savior of the world, known as the Saoshyant, will be born to a virgin impregnated by the seed of Zoroaster while bathing in a lake. The Saoshyant will raise the dead—including those in all afterworlds—for final judgment, returning the wicked to hell to be purged of bodily sin. Next, all will wade through a river of molten metal in which the righteous will not burn but through which the impure will be completely purified. The forces of good will ultimately triumph over evil, rendering it forever impotent but not destroyed. The Saoshyant and Ahura Mazda will offer a bull as a final sacrifice for all time and all humans will become immortal. Mountains will again flatten and valleys will rise; the House of Song will descend to the moon, and the earth will rise to meet them both.[114] Humanity will require two judgments because there are as many aspects to our being: spiritual (menog) and physical (getig).[114] Thus, Zoroastrianism can be said to be a universalist religion with respect to salvation in that all souls are redeemed at the final judgement. Ritual and prayer The central ritual of Zoroastrianism is the Yasna, which is a recitation of the eponymous book of the Avesta and sacrificial ritual ceremony involving Haoma.[119] Extensions to the Yasna ritual are possible through use of the Visperad and Vendidad, but such an extended ritual is rare in modern Zoroastrianism.[120][121] The Yasna itself descended from Indo-Iranian sacrificial ceremonies and animal sacrifice of varying degrees are mentioned in the Avesta and are still practiced in Zoroastrianism albeit through reduced forms such as the sacrifice of fat before meals.[105] High rituals such as the Yasna are considered to be the purview of the Mobeds with a corpus of individual and communal rituals and prayers included in the Khordeh Avesta.[119][122] A Zoroastrian is welcomed into the faith through the Navjote/Sedreh Pushi ceremony, which is traditionally conducted during the later childhood or pre-teen years of the aspirant, though there is no defined age limit for the ritual.[113][123] After the ceremony, Zoroastrians are encouraged to wear their sedreh (ritual shirt) and kusti (ritual girdle) daily as a spiritual reminder and for mystical protection, though modern Zoroastrians tend to only wear them during festivals, ceremonies, and prayers.[124][113][123] The incorporation of cultural and local rituals is quite common and traditions have been passed down in historically Zoroastrian communities such as herbal healing practices, wedding ceremonies, and the like.[125][126][113] Traditionally, Zoroastrian rituals have also included shamanic elements involving mystical methods such as spirit travel to the invisible realm and involving the consumption of fortified wine, Haoma, mang, and other ritual aids.[127][24][128][129][130] Historically, Zoroastrians are encouraged to pray the five daily Gāhs and to maintain and celebrate the various holy festivals of the Zoroastrian calendar, which can differ from community to community.[131][132] Zoroastrian prayers, called manthras, are conducted usually with hands outstretched in imitation of Zoroaster's prayer style described in the Gathas and are of a reflectionary and supplicant nature believed to be endowed with the ability to banish evil.[133][134][39] Devout Zoroastrians are known to cover their heads during prayer, either with traditional topi, scarves, other headwear, or even just their hands. However, full coverage and veiling which is traditional in Islamic practice is not a part of Zoroastrianism and Zoroastrian women in Iran wear their head coverings displaying hair and their faces to defy mandates by the Islamic Republic of Iran.[135] Demographics The sacred Zoroastrian pilgrimage shrine of Chak Chak in Yazd, Iran. Further information: List of countries by Zoroastrian population and List of Zoroastrians Zoroastrian communities internationally tend to comprise mostly two main groups of people: Indian Parsis and Iranian Zoroastrians. According to a study in 2012 by the Federation of Zoroastrian Associations of North America, the number of Zoroastrians worldwide was estimated to be between 111,691 and 121,962. The number is imprecise because of diverging counts in Iran.[1] Small Zoroastrian communities may be found all over the world, with a continuing concentration in Western India, Central Iran, and Southern Pakistan. Zoroastrians of the diaspora are primarily located in the United States, Great Britain and the former British colonies, particularly Canada and Australia, and usually anywhere where there is a strong Iranian and Gujarati presence. In South Asia India Main articles: Parsi and Irani (India) Parsi Navjote ceremony (rites of admission into the Zoroastrian faith) India is considered to be home to the single largest Zoroastrian population in the world. When the Islamic armies, under the first caliphs, invaded Persia, those locals who were unwilling to convert to Islam sought refuge, first in the mountains of Northern Iran, then the regions of Yazd and its surrounding villages. Later, in the ninth century CE, a group sought refuge in the western coastal region of India, and also scattered to other regions of the world. Following the fall of the Sassanid Empire in 651 CE, many Zoroastrians migrated. Among them were several groups who ventured to Gujarat on the western shores of the Indian subcontinent, where they finally settled. The descendants of those refugees are today known as the Parsis. The year of arrival on the subcontinent cannot be precisely established, and Parsi legend and tradition assigns various dates to the event. In the Indian census of 2001, the Parsis numbered 69,601, representing about 0.006% of the total population of India, with a concentration in and around the city of Mumbai. Due to a low birth rate and high rate of emigration, demographic trends project that by 2020 the Parsis will number only about 23,000 or 0.002% of the total population of India. By 2008, the birth-to-death ratio was 1:5; 200 births per year to 1,000 deaths.[136] India's 2011 Census recorded 57,264 Parsi Zoroastrians.[137] Pakistan In Pakistan, the Zoroastrian population was estimated to number 1,675 people in 2012,[1] mostly living in Sindh (especially Karachi) followed by Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.[138][139] The National Database and Registration Authority (NADRA) of Pakistan claimed that there were 3,650 Parsi voters during the elections in Pakistan in 2013 and 4,235 in 2018.[140] Iran, Iraq and Central Asia Main article: Zoroastrians in Iran Iran's figures of Zoroastrians have ranged widely; the last census (1974) before the revolution of 1979 revealed 21,400 Zoroastrians.[141] Some 10,000 adherents remain in the Central Asian regions that were once considered the traditional stronghold of Zoroastrianism, i.e., Bactria (see also Balkh), which is in Northern Afghanistan; Sogdiana; Margiana; and other areas close to Zoroaster's homeland. In Iran, emigration, out-marriage and low birth rates are likewise leading to a decline in the Zoroastrian population. Zoroastrian groups in Iran say their number is approximately 60,000.[142] According to the Iranian census data from 2011 the number of Zoroastrians in Iran was 25,271.[143] Communities exist in Tehran, as well as in Yazd, Kerman and Kermanshah, where many still speak an Iranian language distinct from the usual Persian. They call their language Dari (not to be confused with the Dari of Afghanistan). Their language is also called Gavri or Behdini, literally "of the Good Religion". Sometimes their language is named for the cities in which it is spoken, such as Yazdi or Kermani. Iranian Zoroastrians were historically called Gabrs, originally without a pejorative connotation but in the present-day derogatorily applied to all non-Muslims. The number of Kurdish Zoroastrians, along with those of non-ethnic converts, has been estimated differently.[144] The Zoroastrian Representative of the Kurdistan Regional Government in Iraq has claimed that as many as 100,000 people in Iraqi Kurdistan have converted to Zoroastrianism recently, with community leaders repeating this claim and speculating that even more Zoroastrians in the region are practicing their faith secretly.[145][146][147] However, this has not been confirmed by independent sources.[148] The surge in Kurdish Muslims converting to Zoroastrianism is largely attributed to disillusionment with Islam after experiencing violence and oppression perpetrated by ISIS in the area.[149] Western world North America is thought to be home to 18,000–25,000 Zoroastrians of both South Asian and Iranian background. A further 3,500 live in Australia (mainly in Sydney). As of 2012, the population of Zoroastrians in USA was 15,000, making it the third-largest Zoroastrian population in the world after those of India and Iran.[150] It has been claimed that 3,000 Kurds have converted to Zoroastrianism in Sweden.[151] In 2020, Historic England published A Survey of Zoroastrianism Buildings in England with the aim of providing information about buildings that Zoroastrians use in England so that HE can work with communities to enhance and protect those buildings now and in the future. The scoping survey identified four buildings in England.[152] See also Religion portal Asia portal Iran portal Dualistic cosmology Iranian religions Proto-Indo-European religion Zoroastrian calendar Persecution of Zoroastrians Muslim conquest of Persia References ^ a b c d e f g h Rivetna, Roshan. "The Zarathushti World, a 2012 Demographic Picture" (PDF). Fezana.org. ^ "ZOROASTRIANISM i. HISTORY TO THE ARAB CONQUEST – Encyclopaedia Iranica". Encyclopædia Iranica. 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(2004), An Introduction to the History of the Assyrian Church, or, The Church of the Sassanid Persian Empire, 100–640 A.D, Gorgias Press, p. 34, ISBN 978-1593331030 ^ Dr Stephen H Rapp Jr. The Sasanian World through Georgian Eyes: Caucasia and the Iranian Commonwealth in Late Antique Georgian Literature Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 28 September 2014. ISBN 1472425529, p. 160 ^ Ronald Grigor Suny. The Making of the Georgian Nation Indiana University Press, 1994, ISBN 0253209153, p. 22 ^ Roger Rosen, Jeffrey Jay Foxx. The Georgian Republic, Volume 1992 Passport Books, 1992 p. 34 ^ Boyce 1979, p. 150. ^ a b c d Boyce 1979, p. 146. ^ Boyce 1979, p. 158. ^ "Kamar Oniah Kamaruzzaman, Al-Biruni: Father of Comparative Religion". Lib.iium.edu.my. Archived from the original on 13 July 2015. Retrieved 9 June 2017. ^ Buillet 1978, pp. 37, 138 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBuillet1978 (help). ^ a b c d Boyce 1979, pp. 147. ^ Buillet 1978, p. 59 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBuillet1978 (help). ^ a b c Boyce 1979, p. 151. ^ Boyce 1979, p. 152. ^ Boyce 1979, p. 163. ^ a b c Boyce 1979, p. 157. ^ Boyce 1979, p. 175. ^ "CONVERSION vii. Zoroastrian faith in mod. per.". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2017-06-14. ^ Stausberg, Michael (2007). "Para-Zoroastrianisms: Memetic transmissions and appropriations". In Hinnels, John; Williams, John (eds.). Parsis in India and their Diasporas. London: Routledge. pp. 236–254. ^ Anne Sofie Roald, Anh Nga Longva. Religious Minorities in the Middle East: Domination, Self-Empowerment, Accommodation Brill, 2011, ISBN 9004216847, p. 313 ^ "The Jury Is Still Out On Women as Parsi Priests". Parsi Khabar. 2011-03-09. Retrieved 2013-10-12. ^ "A group of 8 Zartoshti women received their Mobedyar Certificate from Anjoman Mobedan in Iran". Amordad6485.blogfa.com. Retrieved 2017-06-14. ^ "Sedreh Pooshi by Female Mobedyar in Toronto Canada". Parsinews.net. 2013-06-19. Retrieved 2017-06-14. ^ "گزارش تصویری-موبدیاران بانوی زرتشتی، به جرگه موبدیاران پیوستند (بخش نخست)". Archived from the original on September 27, 2013. Retrieved August 10, 2013.CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) ^ While estimates for the Achaemenid Empire range from 10–80+ million, most prefer 50 million. Prevas (2009, p. 14) estimates 10 million 1. Langer (2001, p. 40) estimates around 16 million 2. McEvedy and Jones (2001, p. 50) estimates 17 million 3 Archived 2013-10-13 at the Wayback Machine. Strauss (2004, p. 37) estimates about 20 million 4. Ward (2009, p. 16) estimates at 20 million 5. Aperghis (2007, p. 311) estimates 32 million 6. Scheidel (2009, p. 99) estimates 35 million 7. Zeinert (1996, p. 32) estimates 40 million 8. Rawlinson and Schauffler (1898, p. 270) estimates possibly 50 million 9. Astor (1899, p. 56) estimates almost 50 million 10. Lissner (1961, p. 111) estimates probably 50 million 11. Milns (1968, p. 51) estimates some 50 million 12. Hershlag (1980, p. 140) estimates nearly 50 million 13. Yarshater (1996, p. 47) estimates by 50 million 14. Daniel (2001, p. 41) estimates at 50 million 15. Meyer and Andreades (2004, p. 58) estimates to 50 million 16. Pollack (2004, p. 7) estimates about 50 million 17. Jones (2004, p. 8) estimates over 50 million 18. Safire (2007, p. 627) estimates in 50 million 19. Dougherty (2009, p. 6) estimates about 70 million 20. Richard (2008, p. 34) estimates nearly 70 million 21. Mitchell (2004, p. 16) estimates over 70 million 22. Hanson (2001, p. 32) estimates almost 75 million 23. West (1913, p. 85) estimates about 75 million 24. Zenos (1889, p. 2) estimates exactly 75 million 25. Cowley (1999 and 2001, p. 17) estimates possibly 80 million 26. Cook (1904, p. 277) estimates exactly 80 million 27. ^ "Zoroastrianism". jewishencyclopedia.com. 2012. Retrieved 23 February 2012. ^ Black & Rowley 1987, p. 607b harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBlackRowley1987 (help). ^ Duchesne-Guillemin 1988, p. 815. ^ e.g., Boyce 1982, p. 202. ^ The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Zoroastrianism. John Wiley & Sons. 2015. pp. 83–191. ISBN 9781444331356. ^ Š. Kulišić; P.Ž. Petrović; N. Pantelić. "Бели бог". Српски митолошки речник (in Serbian). Belgrade: Nolit. pp. 21–22. ^ Juha Pentikäinen, Walter de Gruyter, Shamanism and Northern Ecology 11/07/2011 ^ Diószegi, Vilmos (1998) [1958]. A sámánhit emlékei a magyar népi műveltségben (in Hungarian) (1. reprint kiadás ed.). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. ISBN 963-05-7542-6. The title means: “Remnants of shamanistic beliefs in Hungarian folklore”. ^ Gherardo Gnoli, “Manichaeism: An Overview”, in Encyclopedia of Religion, ed. 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(1982), Peake's Commentary on the Bible, New York: Nelson, ISBN 978-0-415-05147-7 Boyce, Mary (1984), Textual sources for the study of Zoroastrianism, Manchester: Manchester UP, ISBN 978-0-226-06930-2 Boyce, Mary (1987), Zoroastrianism: A Shadowy but Powerful Presence in the Judaeo-Christian World, London: William's Trust Boyce, Mary (1979), Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, London: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-23903-5 (note to catalogue searchers: the spine of this edition misprints the title "Zoroastrians" as "Zoroastians", and this may lead to catalogue errors; there is a second edition published in 2001 with the same ISBN) Boyce, Mary (1975), The History of Zoroastrianism, 1, Leiden: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-10474-7, (repr. 1996) Boyce, Mary (1982), The History of Zoroastrianism, 2, Leiden: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-06506-2, (repr. 1997) Boyce, Mary (1991), The History of Zoroastrianism, 3, Leiden: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-09271-6, (repr. 1997) Boyce, Mary (2007), Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, London: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-23903-5 Boyce, Mary (1983), "Ahura Mazdā", Encyclopaedia Iranica, 1, New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul pp. 684–687 Bulliet, Richard W. 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(1991), The Eliade Guide to World Religions, New York: Harper Collins Foltz, Richard (2013), Religions of Iran: From Prehistory to the Present, London: Oneworld publications, ISBN 978-1-78074-308-0 Hourani, Albert (1947), Minorities in the Arab World, New York: AMS Press Kellens, Jean, "Avesta", Encyclopaedia Iranica, 3, New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul pp. 35–44. Khan, Roni K (1996), The Tenets of Zoroastrianism King, Charles William (1998) [1887], Gnostics and their Remains Ancient and Mediaeval, London: Bell & Daldy, ISBN 978-0-7661-0381-8 Melton, J. Gordon (1996), Encyclopedia of American Religions, Detroit: Gale Research Malandra, William W. (1983), An Introduction to Ancient Iranian Religion. Readings from the Avesta and Achaemenid Inscriptions, Minneapolis: U. Minnesota Press, ISBN 978-0-8166-1114-0 Malandra, William W. (2005), "Zoroastrianism: Historical Review", Encyclopaedia Iranica, New York: iranicaonline.org Moulton, James Hope (1917), The Treasure of the Magi: A Study of Modern Zoroastrianism, London: OUP, 1-564-59612-5 (repr. 1997) Robinson, B.A. (2008), Zoroastrianism: Holy text, beliefs and practices, retrieved 2010-03-01 Russell, James R. (1987), Zoroastrianism in Armenia (Harvard Iranian Series), Oxford: Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-96850-9 Simpson, John A.; Weiner, Edmund S., eds. (1989), "Zoroastrianism", Oxford English Dictionary (2nd ed.), London: Oxford UP, ISBN 978-0-19-861186-8 Stolze, Franz (1882), Die Achaemenidischen und Sasanidischen Denkmäler und Inschriften von Persepolis, Istakhr, Pasargadae, Shâpûr, Berlin: A. Asher Verlag, Chronik (2008), The Chronicle of World History, United States: Konecky and Konecky Zaehner, Robert Charles (1961), The Dawn and Twilight of Zoroastrianism, London: Phoenix Press, ISBN 978-1-84212-165-8 External links Zoroastrianismat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Data from Wikidata Encyclopedia Iranica - Zoroastrianism Zoroastrianism at Curlie FEZANA – Federation of Zoroastrian Associations of North America Zoroastrianism, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis, Farrokh Vajifdar & Alan Williams (In Our Time, Nov. 11, 2004) v t e Iranian-Zoroastrian calendar Days Hormazd Bahman Ardibehest Shehrevar Aspandarmad Khordad Amardad Dae-Pa-Adar Adar Avan Khorshed Mohor Tir Gosh Dae-Pa-Meher Meher Srosh Rashne Fravardin Behram Ram Govad Dae-Pa-Din Din Ashishvangh Ashtad Asman Zamyad Mahraspand Aneran Months Fravardin Ardibehest Khordad Tir Amardad Shehrevar Meher Avan 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en-wikipedia-org-243	----	Abbas the Great - Wikipedia Abbas the Great From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Shah of the Persian Safavid Empire (1571–1629) (r. 1588–1629) Shahanshah Abbas the Great عباس بزرگ Shahanshah Zell'ollah (Shadow of God)[1] Ṣāḥebqerān-e-ʿAlāʾ (Supreme Lord of the Auspicious Conjunction)[2] Portrait by an unknown Italian painter 5th Safavid Shah of Iran Reign 1 October 1588 – 19 January 1629 Coronation 1588 Predecessor Mohammad I Successor Safi Born 27 January 1571 Herat, Safavid Iran (modern-day Afghanistan) Died 19 January 1629 (aged 57) Mazandaran, Safavid Iran Burial Mausoleum of Shah Abbas I, Kashan, Iran Consort Mahd-i-Aliya Khanum Oglan Pasha Khanum Yakhan Begum Fakhr-i-Jahan Begum Princess Marta Fatima Sultan Begum Wali Ahad Khanum Issue See below Dynasty Safavid Father Mohammad Khodabanda Mother Khayr al-Nisa Begum Religion Shia Islam Abbas the Great or Abbas I of Persia (Persian: شاه عباس بزرگ‎; 27 January 1571 – 19 January 1629) was the 5th Safavid Shah (king) of Iran, and is generally considered as one of the greatest rulers of Persian history and the Safavid dynasty. He was the third son of Shah Mohammad Khodabanda.[3] Although Abbas would preside over the apex of Iran's military, political and economic power, he came to the throne during a troubled time for the Safavid Empire. Under his weak-willed father, the country was riven with discord between the different factions of the Qizilbash army, who killed Abbas' mother and elder brother. Meanwhile, Iran's enemies, the Ottoman Empire (its archrival) and the Uzbeks, exploited this political chaos to seize territory for themselves. In 1588, one of the Qizilbash leaders, Murshid Qoli Khan, overthrew Shah Mohammed in a coup and placed the 16-year-old Abbas on the throne. However, Abbas soon seized power for himself. Under his leadership, Iran developed the ghilman system where thousands of Circassian, Georgian, and Armenian slave-soldiers joined the civil administration and the military. With the help of these newly created layers in Iranian society (initiated by his predecessors but significantly expanded during his rule), Abbas managed to eclipse the power of the Qizilbash in the civil administration, the royal house, and the military. These actions, as well as his reforms of the Iranian army, enabled him to fight the Ottomans and Uzbeks and reconquer Iran's lost provinces, including Kakheti whose people he subjected to widescale massacres and deportations. By the end of the 1603–1618 Ottoman War, Abbas had regained possession over Transcaucasia and Dagestan, as well as swaths of Eastern Anatolia and Mesopotamia. He also took back land from the Portuguese and the Mughals and expanded Iranian rule and influence in the North Caucasus, beyond the traditional territories of Dagestan. Abbas was a great builder and moved his kingdom's capital from Qazvin to Isfahan, making the city the pinnacle of Safavid architecture. In his later years, following a court intrigue involving several leading Circassians, Abbas became suspicious of his own sons and had them killed or blinded. Contents 1 Early years 2 Absolute monarch 2.1 Abbas takes control 2.2 Reducing the power of the Qizilbash and the completion of the Caucasian layer 2.3 Reforming the army 2.4 Consolidation of the Empire 3 Reconquest 3.1 War against the Uzbeks 3.2 War against the Ottomans 3.3 Quelling the Georgian uprisings 3.4 Kandahar and the Mughals 3.5 War against the Portuguese 4 Shah and his subjects 4.1 Isfahan: a new capital 4.2 Arts 4.3 Attitude towards religious minorities 5 Contacts with Europe 6 Family tragedies and death 7 Character and legacy 8 Family 9 Ancestry 10 See also 11 Notes 12 Footnotes 13 References 14 Further reading 15 External links Early years[edit] Shah Abbas I and his court. Abbas was born in Herat (now in Afghanistan, then one of the two chief cities of Khorasan) as the third son of the royal prince Mohammad Khodabanda and his wife Khayr al-Nisa Begum (known as "Mahd-i Ulya"), the daughter of the Marashi ruler of the Mazandaran province, who claimed descent from the fourth Shi'a Imam Zayn al-Abidin.[4][5] At the time of his birth, Abbas' grandfather Shah Tahmasp I was the Shah of Iran. Abbas' parents gave him to be nursed by Khani Khan Khanum, the mother of the governor of Herat, Ali-Qoli Khan Shamlu.[6][nb 1] When Abbas was four, Tahmasp sent Abbas' father to stay in Shiraz where the climate was better for his fragile health. Tradition dictated that at least one prince of the royal blood had to reside in Khorasan, so Tahmasp appointed Abbas as the nominal governor of the province, despite his young age, and Abbas was left behind in Herat.[8] In 1578, Abbas' father became Shah of Iran. Abbas' mother soon came to dominate the government, but she had little time for Abbas, preferring to promote the interests of his elder brother Hamza.[9] The queen consort antagonised leaders of the powerful Qizilbash army, who plotted against her and murdered her on 26 July 1579, reportedly for having an affair with Adil Giray, brother of the Crimean Tatar khan who was held captive in the Safavid capital Qazvin.[10][11][12] Mohammad was a weak sovereign, incapable of preventing Iran's main rivals, the Ottoman Empire and the Uzbeks, from invading the country or stopping factional feuding among the Qizilbash.[10][13] The young prince, Hamza, was more promising and led a campaign against the Ottomans, but he was murdered suspiciously in 1586.[14] Attention now turned to Abbas.[15] At the age of 14, Abbas had come under the guardianship of Murshid Qoli Khan, one of the Qizilbash leaders in Khorasan. When a large Uzbek army invaded Khorasan in 1587, Murshid decided the time was right to overthrow Shah Mohammad.[16][17] He rode to the capital of Qazvin with the young prince and pronounced him king on 16 October 1587.[18][19] Mohammad made no objection against his deposition and handed the royal insignia over to his son during the following year on 1 October 1588.[nb 2] Abbas was 17 years old.[20][21] Absolute monarch[edit] Abbas takes control[edit] Shah 'Abbās King of the Persians. Copper engraving by Dominicus Custos, from his Atrium heroicum Caesarum pub. 1600–1602. The kingdom Abbas inherited was in a desperate state. The Ottomans had seized vast territories in the west and the north-west (including the major city of Tabriz) and the Uzbeks had overrun half of Khorasan in the north-east. Iran itself was riven by fighting between the various factions of the Qizilbash, who had mocked royal authority by killing the queen in 1579 and the grand vizier Mirza Salman Jabiri in 1583. First, Abbas settled his score with his mother's killers, executing three of the ringleaders of the plot and exiling four others.[22] His next task was to free himself from the power of Murshid Qoli Khan. Murshid made Abbas marry Hamza's widow and a Safavid cousin, and began distributing important government posts among his own friends, gradually confining Abbas to the palace.[23] Meanwhile, the Uzbeks continued their conquest of Khorasan. When Abbas heard they were besieging his old friend Ali Qoli Khan Shamlu in Herat, he pleaded with Murshid to take action. Fearing a rival, Murshid did nothing until the news came that Herat had fallen and the Uzbeks had slaughtered the entire population. Only then did he set out on campaign to Khorasan.[24] But Abbas planned to avenge the death of Ali Qoli Khan, and he arranged for four Qizilbash leaders to kill Murshid after a banquet on 23 July 1589. With Murshid gone, Abbas could now rule Iran in his own right.[25][26] Abbas decided he must re-establish order within Iran before he took on the foreign invaders. To this end he made a humiliating peace treaty – known as the Treaty of Istanbul – with the Ottomans in 1590, ceding to them the provinces of Azerbaijan, Karabagh, Ganja, Dagestan, and Qarajadagh, as well as parts of Georgia, Luristan and Kurdistan. This demeaning treaty even ceded the previous capital of Tabriz to the Ottomans.[27][28][29] Reducing the power of the Qizilbash and the completion of the Caucasian layer[edit] Anthony Shirley and Robert Shirley (pictured in 1622) helped modernize the Persian Army. The Qizilbash had provided the backbone of the Safavid army from the very beginning of Safavid rule and they also occupied many posts in the government. As a result, effective power in the state in the early days of the dynasty was held by the Qizilbash, leaving the shah often powerless. To counterbalance their power and as a decisive answer to this problem, Abbas turned to the newly introduced members of Iranian society (an initiative put in place by Shah Tahmasp I) the ghulams (a word literally meaning "slaves"). From these newly introduced slaves, the Shah created a gunpowder force, reaching numbers up to 37,000 soldiers, completely funded by the Crown. This weakened the power that the Qizilbash had against the crown significantly as they no longer had a "military monopoly" in Persia.[30] Like the janissaries of the neighbouring Ottoman Empire, these ghulams were mainly Georgians, Circassians and Armenians who had been brought into Iran en masse (by conquest and slave trade), had converted or had been converted to Islam, and had taken up service in the army, royal household or the civil administration, and were loyal only to the shah.[31][32] Under Abbas' leadership this new grouping in Iranian society (also called the third force)[33] grew in influence and power, with many thousands of ethnic Georgians, Circassians and Armenians becoming an integral part of Iranian society and taking up key government, royal household and military positions. Tahmasp I, the second Safavid shah, had realised, by looking at his own empire and that of the neighbouring Ottomans, that he faced ongoing threats from dangerous rival factions and internal family rivalries that were a threat to him as the head of state. If not properly managed, these rivalries represented a serious threat to the ruler or could lead to unnecessary court intrigues. For Tahmasp, the problem revolved around the military tribal elite of the empire, the Qezelbāš, who believed that physical proximity to and control of a member of the immediate Safavid family guaranteed spiritual advantages, political fortune and material advancement.[34] Therefore, between 1540 and 1555, Tahmasp conducted a series of invasions of the Caucasus region which provided battle experience for his soldiers, as well as leading to the capture of large numbers of Christian Circassian and Georgian slaves (30,000 just in these four raids).[34] These slaves would form the basis of an Safavid military slave system.[35] These slaves would serve a similar role in their formation, implementation and use to the janissaries of the neighbouring Ottoman Empire.[36] Their arrival in such large numbers led to the formation of a new grouping in Iranian society solely composed of ethnic Caucasians. Although the first slave soldiers would not be organized until Abbas' reign, during Tahmasp's time Caucasians would already become important members of the royal household, the harem and in the civil and military administration.[37][38] Learning from his grandfather, Abbas (who had been used by the vying Qizilbash factions during his youth)[32] decided to encourage this new (Caucasian) grouping in Iranian society, as he realized that he must impose his authority on the Qezelbāš or remain their tool. So Abbas single-handedly encouraged the growth in influence and power of this new grouping, also called the third force. It is estimated that during Abbas' reign alone some 130,000 to 200,000 Georgians,[39][40][41][42] tens of thousands of Circassians, and around 300,000 Armenians[43][44] were deported from the Caucasus to Persia's heartland, with a significant number gaining responsibilities and roles in Iranian society, including some of the highest positions of the state, including the ghulam corps. Many of those deported from the Caucasus settled in various regions of Iran and became craftsmen, farmers, cattle breeders, traders, soldiers, generals, governors and peasants within Iranian society.[45] As part of the ghulam slave system, Abbas greatly expanded the ghulam military corps (also known as ḡolāmān-e ḵāṣṣa-ye-e šarifa, tr. as "crown servants") from just a few hundred during Tahmasp's era, to 15,000 highly trained cavalrymen,[46] as part of a whole army division of 40,000 Caucasian ghulams. Abbas then reduced the number of Qizilbash provincial governorships and systematically moved Qizilbash governors to other districts, thus disrupting their ties with the local community and reducing their power. Most were eventually replaced by ghulams, whose loyalty was to the shah. By 1595, Allahverdi Khan, a Georgian, had become one of the most powerful men in the Safavid state [47] when he was appointed the Governor-General of Fars, one of the richest provinces in Persia. His power reached its peak in 1598, when he became the commander-in-chief of all the armed forces.[48] Not only did the ghulam system allowed the shah to control and manage the rival Qizilbash Turks and Persians, it also resolved budgetary problems, in the short term at least,[32] as by restoring the Shah's complete control of the provinces formerly governed by the Qizilbash chiefs, the provinces' revenues now supplemented the royal treasury. From now on, government officials collected the taxes and remitted them directly to the royal treasury. In the harem, the Circassians and Georgians rapidly replaced the Turcoman factions and, as a result, gained a significant direct influence on the meritocratic Safavid bureaucracy and the court of the Safavid state.[49][50] The increasing numbers of Georgians and Circassians in the Safavid bureaucracy and the court of the Safavid state vied with the Qizilbash for power and as a result also became involved in court intrigues. This competition for influence saw queens (and their supporters in the harem, court and bureaucracy) compete against each other in order to get their own sons on the throne. This competition increased under Abbas and his successors which weakened the dynasty considerably.[51] Abbas' own son and crown prince, Mohammad Baqer Mirza, was caught in the court intrigue involving several leading Circassians, which eventually led to him being executed under Abbas' orders. Though the ghulam system did not work as well as it had after the Safavids, the third force would continue to play a crucial role during the rest of the Safavid era and later until the fall of the Qajar dynasty.[51] Reforming the army[edit] Abbas needed ten years to get his army into shape so that he could effectively confront his Ottoman and Uzbek enemies. During this period, the Uzbeks and the Ottomans took swaths of territory from Iran.[52] He also used military reorganisation as another way of side-lining the Qizilbash.[53] He created a standing army of many thousands of ghulams (always conscripted from ethnic Georgians and Circassians), and to a much lesser extent Iranians, to fight alongside the traditional, feudal force provided by the Qizilbash. The new army regiments' loyalty was to the Shah. The new army consisted of 10,000 to 15,000 cavalry or squires (conscripted Caucasian ghulams) armed with muskets and other weapons (then the largest cavalry in the world[54]), a corps of musketeers, or tufangchiyan,[31] (12,000 strong) and a corp of artillery, called tupchiyan[31] (also 12,000 strong). In addition Abbas had a personal bodyguard, composed of Caucasian ghulams, that was increased to 3,000. This force amounted to about 40,000 soldiers paid for and beholden to the Shah.[31][55][56] Abbas greatly increased the number of cannon at his disposal so that he could field 500 cannon in a single battle.[56] Ruthless discipline was enforced and looting was severely punished. Abbas was also able to draw on military advice from a number of European envoys, particularly the English adventurers Sir Anthony Shirley and his brother Robert Shirley, who arrived in 1598 as envoys from the Earl of Essex on an unofficial mission to persuade Persia to enter into an anti-Ottoman alliance.[57] From 1600 onwards, the Safavid statesman Allāhverdī Khan, in conjunction with Robert Shirley, undertook further reorganizations of the army, which led to a further increase in the number of ghulams to 25,000.[58] Consolidation of the Empire[edit] During the 1590s, Abbas moved to depose the provincial rulers of Persia. He started with Khan Ahmad Khan, the ruler of Gilan, who had disobeyed Abbas' orders when he requested that Khan Ahmad Khan's daughter Yakhan Begum marry Abbas' son, Mohammad Baqer Mirza, since Khan Ahmad Khan had no male successor. Khan Ahmad Khan disagreed due to the age of his daughter.[59] This resulted in a Safavid invasion of Gilan in 1591 under the leadership of one of Abbas' favourites, Farhad Khan Qaramanlu. In 1593–94, Jahangir III, the Paduspanid ruler of Nur, travelled to the court of the Abbas, where he handed over his domains to him, and spend the rest of his life on an estate at Saveh, which Abbas had given to him. In 1597, Abbas deposed the Khorshidi ruler of Lar. One year later, Jahangir IV, the Paduspanid ruler of Kojur, killed two prominent Safavid nobles during a festival in Qazvin. In response, in 1598 Abbas invaded his domains and besieged Kojur. Jahangir managed to flee, but was captured and killed by a pro-Safavid Paduspanid named Hasan Lavasani.[60] Reconquest[edit] War against the Uzbeks[edit] Abbas' first campaign with his reformed army was against the Uzbeks who had seized Khorasan and were ravaging the province. In April 1598 he went on the attack. One of the two main cities of the province, Mashhad, was easily recaptured but the Uzbek leader Din Mohammed Khan was safely behind the walls of the other chief city, Herat. Abbas managed to lure the Uzbek army out of the town by feigning a retreat. A bloody battle ensued on 9 August 1598, in the course of which the Uzbek khan was wounded and his troops retreated (the khan was murdered by his own men during the retreat). However, during the battle, Farhad Khan had fled after being wounded and was later accused of fleeing due to cowardice. He was nevertheless forgiven by Abbas, who wanted to appoint him as the governor of Herat, which Farhad Khan refused. According to Oruch Beg, Farhad Khan's refusal made Abbas feel that he had been insulted. Due to Farhad Khan's arrogant behaviour and his suspected treason, he was seen as a threat to Abbas, so Abbas had him executed.[61] Abbas then converted Gilan and Mazandaran into the crown domain (khasseh), and appointed Allahverdi Khan as the new commander-in-chief of the Safavid army.[61] By 1599, Abbas had conquered not only Herat and Mashhad, but had moved as far east as Balkh. This would be a short-lived victory and he would eventually have to settle on controlling only some of this conquest after the new ruler of the Khanate of Khiva, Baqi Muhammad Khan attempted to retake Balkh and Abbas found his troops were still no match for the Uzbeks. By 1603, the battle lines had stabilized, albeit with the loss of the majority of the Persian artillery. Abbas was able to hold onto most of Khorassan, including Herat, Sabzevar, Farah, and Nisa.[62] Abbas' north-east frontier was now safe for the time being and he could turn his attention to the Ottomans in the west.[63] After defeating the Uzbeks, he moved his capital from Qazvin to Isfahan.[52] War against the Ottomans[edit] See also: Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–1618) and Capture of Baghdad (1623) "Abbas King of Persia", as seen by Thomas Herbert in 1627. The Safavids had not yet beaten their archrival, the Ottomans, in battle. After a particularly arrogant series of demands from the Ottoman ambassador, the Shah had him seized, had his beard shaved and sent it to his master, the sultan, in Constantinople. This was effectively a declaration of war.[64] In the resulting conflict, Abbas first recaptured Nahavand and destroyed the fortress in the city, which the Ottomans had planned to use as an advance base for attacks on Iran.[65] The next year, Abbas pretended he was setting off on a hunting expedition to Mazandaran with his men. This was merely a ruse to deceive the Ottoman spies in his court – his real target was Azerbaijan.[66] He changed course for Qazvin where he assembled a large army and set off to retake Tabriz, which had been in Ottoman hands for some time. Drawing of the capture of Tabriz and the parading before Shah Abbas I of the severed heads of Ottoman soldiers. Drawn by a European traveller, 1603. For the first time, the Iranians made great use of their artillery and the town – which had been ruined by Ottoman occupation – soon fell.[67] Abbas set off to besiege Yerevan, a town that had become one of the main Ottoman strongholds in the Caucasus since the Safavids had ceded it in 1590. It finally fell in June 1604 and with it the Ottomans lost the support of most Armenians, Georgians and other Caucasians. But Abbas was unsure how the new sultan, Ahmed I, would respond and withdrew from the region using scorched earth tactics.[68] For a year, neither side made a move, but in 1605, Abbas sent his general Allahverdi Khan to meet Ottoman forces on the shores of Lake Van. On 6 November 1605 the Iranians, led by Abbas, scored a decisive victory over the Ottomans at Sufiyan, near Tabriz.[69] In the Caucasus, during the war Abbas also managed to capture what is now Kabardino-Balkaria. The Persian victory was recognised in the Treaty of Nasuh Pasha in 1612, effectively granting them back suzerainty over most of the Caucasus. Several years of peace followed as the Ottomans carefully planned their response. But their secret training manoeuvres were observed by Iranian spies. Abbas learnt that the Ottoman plan was to invade Iran via Azerbaijan, take Tabriz then move on to Ardabil and Qazvin, which they could use as bargaining chips in exchange for other territories. The shah decided to lay a trap. He would allow the Ottomans to enter the country, then destroy them. He had Tabriz evacuated of its inhabitants while he waited at Ardabil with his army. In 1618, an Ottoman army of 100,000 led by the grand vizier, invaded and easily seized Tabriz.[70] The vizier sent an ambassador to the shah demanding he make peace and return the lands taken since 1602.[71] Abbas refused and pretended he was ready to set fire to Ardabil and retreat further inland rather than face the Ottoman army.[72] When the Turkish vizier heard the news, he decided to march on Ardabil right away. This was just what Abbas wanted. His army of 40,000 was hiding at a crossroads on the way and they ambushed the Ottoman army in a battle, which ended in complete victory for the Iranians.[73] In 1623, Abbas decided to take back Mesopotamia, which had been lost by his grandfather Tahmasp through the Ottoman-Safavid War (1532–1555).[74] Profiting from the confusion surrounding the accession of the new Ottoman sultan Murad IV, he pretended to be making a pilgrimage to the Shi'ite shrines of Kerbala and Najaf, but used his army to seize Baghdad.[75] However, Abbas was then distracted by a rebellion in Georgia in 1624 led by Giorgi Saakadze thus allowing an Ottoman force to besiege Baghdad, but the Shah came to its relief the next year and crushed the Turkish army decisively.[76] In 1638, however, after Abbas' death, the Ottomans retook Baghdad, and the Iranian–Ottoman border was finalised to be roughly the same as the current Iran–Turkey and Iran–Iraq borders. Quelling the Georgian uprisings[edit] Teimuraz I of Kakheti (also known as Tahmuras Khan). See also: Abbas I's Kakhetian and Kartlian campaigns Rostom (also known as Rustam Khan), viceroy of Kartli, eastern Georgia, from 1633–1658. Between 1614 and 1616, during the Ottoman-Safavid War, Abbas suppressed a rebellion led by his formerly loyal Georgian subjects Luarsab II and Teimuraz I (also known as Tahmuras Khan) in the Kingdom of Kakheti. In 1606, Abbas had appointed these Georgians onto the thrones of Safavid vassals Kartli and Kakheti, at the behest of Kartlian nobles and Teimuraz's mother Ketevan; both seemed like malleable youths.[77] However, tensions soon arose between the Shah and the Georgian kings. In 1613, when the Shah summoned them to join him on a hunting expedition in Mazandaran, they did not appear as they feared that they would be either imprisoned or killed.[49] At this point war broke out, Iranian armies invaded the two territories in March 1614, and the two allied kings subsequently sought refuge in the Ottoman vassal Imeretia.[77] Abbas, as reported by the Safavid court historian Iskander Beg Munshi, was infuriated by what was perceived as the defection of two of his most trusted subjects and gholams.[49] He deported 30,000 Kakhetian peasants to Iran, and appointed a grandson of Alexander II of Imereti to the throne of Kartli, Jesse of Kakheti (also known as "Isā Khān").[49][77] Raised up at the court in Isfahan and a Muslim, he was perceived as fully loyal to the Shah. Abbas threatened Imeretia with devastation if they did not give up the fugitive kings; the Imeretian, Mingrelian and Gurian rulers jointly refused his demand. Luarsab, however, surrendered voluntarily to the Shah; Abbas initially treated him well but when he learned that Luarsab and Teimuraz had offered an alliance with the Ottomans he demanded that Luarsab accept Islam. When Luarsab refused, he was thrown in prison.[77] Teimuraz returned to eastern Georgia in 1615, taking advantage of a resurgence in Ottoman-Safavid hostilities, and there he defeated a Safavid force. However, when the Ottoman army postponed its invasion of the Safavids, Abbas was able to briefly send an army back to defeat Teimuraz, and redoubled his invasion after brokering a truce with the Ottomans.[77] Now Iranian rule was fully restored over eastern Georgia.[78] Subsequently, the Shah marched on Kutaisi, the capital of Imereti, and punished its peoples for harbouring the defectors.[citation needed] In a punitive expedition to Kakhetia, his army then killed perhaps 60–70,000[39][40][41][79] or 100,000[77] Georgians, with twice as many more being deported to Iran, removing about two-thirds of the Kakhetian population.[80][77] More refugees were rounded up in 1617.[77] In 1619 Abbas appointed the loyal Simon II (or Semayun Khan) as a puppet ruler of Kakheti, while placing a series of his own governors to rule over districts where the rebellious inhabitants were mostly located.[49] Having momentarily secured the region, Abbas took further acts of revenge for the recalcitrance of Teimuraz and Luarsab. He castrated Teimuraz's sons, who both died shortly afterwards.[77] He executed Luarsab in 1622, and in 1624 he had Ketevan, who had been sent to the Shah as a negotiator, tortured to death when she refused to renounce Christianity.[81][82][77] Teimuraz, meanwhile, sought aid from the Ottomans and Russia.[77] Abbas was then warned of another imminent Kakhetian uprising, so he returned to Georgia in early 1625. He lured Kakhetian soldiers on a false pretext and then began executing them. He also had plans to execute all armed Kartlians, including his own general Giorgi Saakadze; however Saakadze intercepted a courier and uncovered the plot. Saakadze then defected to the Georgians, and led a new rebellion which succeeded in throwing the Persians out of Kartli and Kakheti while crowning Teimuraz as king of both territories. Abbas counterattacked in June, won the subsequent war and dethroned Teimuraz, but lost half his army at the hands of the Georgians and was forced to accept Kartli and Kakheti only as vassal states while abandoning his plans to eliminate Christians from the area.[77] Even then, Saakadze and Teimuraz launched another rebellion in 1626, and were effective in clearing Iranian forces from most of the region.[77] Thus, the Georgian territories continued to resist Safavid encroachments until Abbas' death.[78] Kandahar and the Mughals[edit] Main article: Mughal-Safavid War (1622–1623) The Safavids were traditionally allied with the Mughals in India against the Uzbeks, who coveted the province of Khorasan. The Mughal emperor Humayun had given Abbas' grandfather, Shah Tahmasp, the province of Kandahar as a reward for helping him back to his throne.[83][84] In 1590, profiting from the confusion in Iran, Humayun's successor Akbar seized Kandahar. Abbas continued to maintain cordial relations with the Mughals, while always asking for the return of Kandahar.[85] Finally, in 1620, a diplomatic incident in which the Iranian ambassador refused to bow down in front of the Emperor Jahangir led to war.[86] India was embroiled in civil turmoil and Abbas found he only needed a lightning raid to take back the far easternmost town of Kandahar in 1622. After the conquest, he was very conciliatory to Jahangir, claiming he had only taken back what was rightly his and disavowing any further territorial ambitions.[87][88] Jahangir was not appeased but he was unable to recapture the province. A childhood friend of Abbas named Ganj Ali Khan was then appointed as the governor of city, which he would govern until his death in 1624/5.[89][90] War against the Portuguese[edit] Main articles: Persia-Portugal war and Capture of Ormuz (1622) The island of Hormuz was captured by an Anglo-Persian force in the 1622 Capture of Ormuz. During the 16th century the Portuguese had established bases in the Persian Gulf.[91] In 1602, the Iranian army under the command of Imam-Quli Khan Undiladze managed to expel the Portuguese from Bahrain.[92] In 1622, with the help of four English ships, Abbas retook Hormuz from the Portuguese.[93] He replaced it as a trading centre with a new port, Bandar Abbas, nearby on the mainland, but it never became as successful.[94] Shah and his subjects[edit] Isfahan: a new capital[edit] Abbas moved his capital from Qazvin to the more central city of Isfahan in 1598. Embellished by a magnificent series of new mosques, baths, colleges, and caravansarais, Isfahan became one of the most beautiful cities in the world. As Roger Savory writes, "Not since the development of Baghdad in the eighth century A.D. by the Caliph al-Mansur had there been such a comprehensive example of town-planning in the Islamic world, and the scope and layout of the city centre clearly reflect its status as the capital of an empire."[95] Isfahan became the centre of Safavid architectural achievement, with the mosques Masjed-e Shah and the Masjed-e Sheykh Lotfollah and other monuments including the Ali Qapu, the Chehel Sotoun palace and the Naghsh-i Jahan Square. In making Isfahan the centre of Safavid Empire, Abbas utilized the Armenian people, whom he had forcibly relocated to Isfahan from their Armenian homelands. Once they were settled, he allowed them considerable freedom and encouraged them to continue in their silk trade. Silk was an integral part of the economy and considered to be the best form of hard currency available. The Armenians had already established trade networks that allowed Abbas to strengthen Iran's economy.[96] Arts[edit] The Statue of Shah Abbas, which was on display in Isfahan before the Iranian Revolution Abbas' painting studios (of the Isfahan school established under his patronage) created some of the finest art in modern Iranian history, by such illustrious painters as Reza Abbasi and Muhammad Qasim. Despite the ascetic roots of the Ṣafavid dynasty and the religious injunctions restricting the pleasures lawful to the faithful, the art of Abbas' time denoted a certain relaxation of the strictures. The portrait by Muhammad Qasim suggests that the Muslim prohibition against the consumption of wine, as well as that against male intimacy, "were more honoured in the breach than in the observance".[97] Abbas brought in 300 Chinese potters to Iran to enhance local production of Chinese-style ceramics.[98] Under Abbas' reign, carpet weaving increased its role as an important part of Persian industry and culture, as wealthy Europeans started importing Persian rugs. Silk production became a monopoly of the crown, and manuscripts, bookbinding, and ceramics were also important exports.[52] Attitude towards religious minorities[edit] Like all other Safavid monarchs, Abbas was a Shi'ite Muslim. He had a particular veneration for Imam Hussein.[99] In 1601, he made a pilgrimage on foot from Isfahan to Mashhad, site of the shrine of Imam Reza, which he restored (it had been despoiled by the Uzbeks).[100] Since Sunni Islam was the religion of Iran's main rival, the Ottoman Empire, Abbas often treated Sunnis living in western border provinces harshly.[101] Kelisa-e Vank (the Armenian Vank Cathedral) in New Julfa Abbas was usually tolerant of Christianity. The Italian traveller Pietro della Valle was astonished at the Shah's knowledge of Christian history and theology and establishing diplomatic links with European Christian states was a vital part of the shah's foreign policy.[102] Christian Armenia was a key Safavid province bordering the Ottoman Empire. From 1604 Abbas implemented a "scorched earth" policy in the region to protect his north-western frontier against any invading Ottoman forces, a policy that involved the forced resettlement of up to 300,000 Armenians from their homelands.[103][104] The Armenians came primarily from the wealthy Armenian merchant town of Jugha (also known as Jolfa).[104] Many were transferred to New Julfa, a town the shah had built for the Armenians primarily meant for these Armenians from Jugha ("Old Julfa"), near his capital Isfahan.[103][104] Thousands of Armenians died on the journey. Those who survived enjoyed considerable religious freedom in New Julfa, where the shah built them a new cathedral. Abbas' aim was to boost the Iranian economy by encouraging the Armenian merchants who had moved to New Julfa. As well as religious liberties, he also offered them interest-free loans and allowed the town to elect its own mayor (kalantar).[105] Other Armenians were transferred to the provinces of Gilan and Mazandaran. These were less lucky. Abbas wanted to establish a second capital in Mazandaran, Farahabad, but the climate was unhealthy and malarial. Many settlers died and others gradually abandoned the city.[106][107][108] Abbas was more intolerant of Christians in Georgia, where the threat of rebellion loomed larger. Abbas frequently demanded that nobles convert to Shia Islam, and had Ketevan the Martyr tortured to death when she refused. Abbas's anger at Georgian rebelliousness also generated his plan to deport or exterminate eastern Georgia's Christians and replace them with Turkmens, which has been described as "genocidal".[77] Contacts with Europe[edit] Persian ambassador during his entry into Kraków for the wedding ceremonies of King Sigismund III of Poland in 1605. Abbas' tolerance towards most Christians was part of his policy of establishing diplomatic links with European powers to try to enlist their help in the fight against their common enemy, the Ottoman Empire. The idea of such an anti-Ottoman alliance was not a new one – over a century before, Uzun Hassan, then ruler of part of Iran, had asked the Venetians for military aid – but none of the Safavids had made diplomatic overtures to Europe and Abbas' attitude was in marked contrast to that of his grandfather, Tahmasp I, who had expelled the English traveller Anthony Jenkinson from his court upon hearing he was a Christian.[109] For his part, Abbas declared that he "preferred the dust from the shoe soles of the lowest Christian to the highest Ottoman personage".[110] Canvas by Carlo and Gabriele Caliari in the Doge's Palace in Venice depicting doge Marino Grimani receiving the Persian ambassadors, 1603 Abbas I as a new Caesar being honoured by the Trumpets of Fame, together with the 1609–1615 Persian embassy, in Allégorie de l'Occasion, by Frans II Francken, 1628. In 1599, Abbas sent his first diplomatic mission to Europe.[111] The group crossed the Caspian Sea and spent the winter in Moscow, before proceeding through Norway, Germany (where it was received by Emperor Rudolf II) to Rome where Pope Clement VIII gave the travellers a long audience. They finally arrived at the court of Philip III of Spain in 1602.[112] Although the expedition never managed to return to Iran, being shipwrecked on the journey around Africa, it marked an important new step in contacts between Iran and Europe and Europeans began to be fascinated by the Iranians and their culture – Shakespeare's 1601–02 Twelfth Night, for example, makes two references (at II.5 and III.4) to 'the Sophy', then the English term for the Shahs of Iran.[113][114] Persian fashions—such as shoes with heels, for men—were enthusiastically adopted by European aristocrats.[54] Henceforward, the number of diplomatic missions to and fro greatly increased.[115] The shah had set great store on an alliance with Spain, the chief opponent of the Ottomans in Europe. Abbas offered trading rights and the chance to preach Christianity in Iran in return for help against the Ottomans. But the stumbling block of Hormuz remained, a port that had fallen into Spanish hands when the King of Spain inherited the throne of Portugal in 1580. The Spanish demanded Abbas break off relations with the English East India Company before they would consider relinquishing the town. Abbas was unable to comply.[115] Eventually Abbas became frustrated with Spain, as he did with the Holy Roman Empire, which wanted him to make his 400,000+ Armenian subjects swear allegiance to the Pope but did not trouble to inform the shah when the Emperor Rudolf signed a peace treaty with the Ottomans.[116] Contacts with the Pope, Poland and Muscovy were no more fruitful.[117] More came of Abbas' contacts with the English, although England had little interest in fighting against the Ottomans. The Shirley brothers arrived in 1598 and helped reorganise the Iranian army, which proved to be pivotal for the Safavid victory in the Ottoman-Safavid War (1603–1618) and the first Safavid victory in battle over their neighbouring Ottoman archrivals. One of the Shirley brothers, Robert Shirley, led Abbas' second diplomatic mission to Europe between 1609–1615. The English East India Company also began to take an interest in Iran and in 1622 four of its ships helped Abbas retake Hormuz from the Portuguese. The capture of Ormuz gave the opportunity for the Company to develop trade with Persia, attempting to trade English cloth and other commodities for silk, with did not become very profitable due to the lack of Persian interest and small quantity of English goods.[118] Family tragedies and death[edit] Shah Abbas in later life with a page. By Muhammad Qasim (1627).[94] Of Abbas' five sons, three had survived past childhood, so the Safavid succession seemed secure. He was on good terms with the crown prince, Mohammed Baqir Mirza (born 1587; better known in the West as Safi Mirza).[119] In 1614, however, during a campaign in Georgia, the shah heard rumours that the prince was conspiring against him with a leading Circassian, Farhad Beg Cherkes. Shortly after, Mohammed Baqir broke protocol during a hunt by killing a boar before the shah had a chance to put his spear in the animal. This seemed to confirm Abbas' suspicions and he sunk into melancholy; he no longer trusted any of his three sons.[120] In 1615, he decided he had no choice but to have Mohammed killed. A Circassian named Behbud Beg executed the Shah's orders and the prince was murdered in a hammam in the city of Resht. The shah almost immediately regretted his action and was plunged into grief.[121] In 1621, Abbas fell seriously ill. His heir, Mohammed Khodabanda, thought he was on his deathbed and began to celebrate his accession to the throne with his Qizilbash supporters. But the shah recovered and punished his son by blinding him, which would disqualify him from ever taking the throne.[122] The blinding was only partially successful and the prince's followers planned to smuggle him out of the country to safety with the Mughals whose aid they would use to overthrow Abbas and install Mohammed on the throne. But the plot was betrayed, the prince's followers were executed and the prince himself imprisoned in the fortress of Alamut where he would later be murdered by Abbas' successor, Shah Safi.[123] Imam Qoli Mirza, the third and last son, then became the crown prince. Abbas groomed him carefully for the throne but, for some reason, in 1627, he had him partially blinded and imprisoned in Alamut.[124] Unexpectedly, Abbas now chose as heir the son of Mohammed Baqir Mirza, Sam Mirza, a cruel and introverted character who was said to loathe his grandfather because of his father's murder. Nevertheless, he did succeed Shah Abbas at the age of 17 in 1629, taking the name Shah Safi. Abbas's health was poor from 1621 onwards. He died at his palace in Farahabad on the Caspian coast in 1629 and was buried in Kashan.[125] Character and legacy[edit] Tomb, the Mausoleum of Shah Abbas I. According to Roger Savory: "Shah Abbas I possessed in abundance qualities which entitle him to be styled 'the Great'. He was a brilliant strategist and tactician whose chief characteristic was prudence. He preferred to obtain his ends by diplomacy rather than war, and showed immense patience in pursuing his objectives."[126] In Michael Axworthy's view, Abbas "was a talented administrator and military leader, and a ruthless autocrat. His reign was the outstanding creative period of the Safavid era. But the civil wars and troubles of his childhood (when many of his relatives were murdered) left him with a dark twist of suspicion and brutality at the centre of his personality."[127] Donald Rayfield described him as "exceptionally perspicacious and active," but also "a murderous paranoiac when aroused."[77] The Cambridge History of Iran rejects the view that the death of Abbas marked the beginning of the decline of the Safavid dynasty as Iran continued to prosper throughout the 17th century, but blames him for the poor statesmanship of the later Safavid shahs: "The elimination of royal princes, whether by blinding or immuring them in the harem, their exclusion from the affairs of state and from contact with the leading aristocracy of the empire and the generals, all the abuses of the princes' education, which were nothing new but which became the normal practice with Abbas at the court of Isfahan, effectively put a stop to the training of competent successors, that is to say, efficient princes prepared to meet the demands of ruling as kings."[128] Abbas was fluent in the Turkish dialect used by the Turkoman portion of the multi-ethnic Qizilbash organization, although he was equally at ease speaking Persian, which was the language of the administration and culture, of the majority of the population, as well as of the court when Isfahan became the capital under his reign (1598).[129][130] According to García de Silva Figueroa, the Spanish ambassador to the Safavid court during Abbas' later reign, he heard Abbas speak Georgian, which he had doubtlessly acquired from his Georgian gholams and concubines.[131] Abbas gained strong support from the common people.[clarification needed] Sources report him spending much of his time among them, personally visiting bazaars and other public places in Isfahan.[132] Short in stature but physically strong until his health declined in his final years, Abbas could go for long periods without needing to sleep or eat and could ride great distances. At the age of 19 Abbas shaved off his beard, keeping only his moustache, thus setting a fashion in Iran.[133][134] Family[edit] Consorts Mahd-i-Ulya Khanum (m. 1587), daughter of Shahzada Sultan Mustafa Mirza; Olgan Pasha Khanum (1587), daughter of Shahzada Sultan Husayn Mirza, and widow of Hamza Mirza; Wali Ahad Khanum (m. 1591); Fakhr-i-Jahan Khanum, daughter of King Bagrat VII of Kartli; Yakhan Begum, daughter of Khan Ahmad Khan and Maryam Begum; Tzarievna Marta, daughter of King David I of Kahkheti; A daughter of Rostam Khan Daghistani (m. 1607); A daughter of Masum Khan, Governor of Tabaristan (m. 1604 – div. 1614); Fatima Sultan Begum alias Peri Lala, née Tinatin, daughter of Peykar Khan of Kakheti; A daughter of Shaikh Haider Moksi, Governor of Maraghah (m. 1610); Sons Prince Shahzadeh Mohammad Baqer Mirza (15 September 1587, Mashhad, Khorasan – killed 25 January 1615, Rasht, Gilan), was Governor of Mashhad 1587–1588, and of Hamadan 1591–1592. Married firstly at Esfahan, 1601, Princess Fakhri-Jahan Begum, daughter of Ismail II, married secondly Dilaram Khanum, a Georgian. He had issue, two sons: Prince Shahzadeh Sultan Abul-Naser Sam Mirza, succeeded as Safi – with Dilaram; Prince Shahzadeh Sultan Suleiman Mirza (killed August 1632 at Alamut, Qazvin) – with Fakhr-i-Jahan; Prince Shahzadeh Sultan Hasan Mirza (b. September 1588, Mazandaran – d. 18 August 1591, Qazvin); Prince Shahzadeh Sultan Hosein Mirza (26 February 1591, Qazvin – died young); Prince Shahzadeh Tahmasph Mirza (died young); Prince Shahzadeh Sultan Mohammad Mirza (18 March 1591, Qazvin – killed August 1632, Alamut, Qazvin) Blinded on the orders of his father, 1621. Princess Gawhar Shad Begum, married to Mirza Qazi, the Shaykh-ul-Islam of Isfahan.[135] Prince Shahzadeh Sultan Ismail Mirza (6 September 1601, Esfahan – killed 16 August 1613) Prince Shahzadeh Imam Qoli Amano'llah Mirza (12 November 1602, Esfahan – killed August 1632, Alamut, Qazvin) Blinded on the orders of his father, 1627. He had issue, one son: Prince Shahzadeh Najaf Qoli Mirza (c. 1625 – killed August 1632, Alamut, Qazvin) Daughters Princess Shahzada Begum, married to Mirza Mohsin Razavi.[135] and had issue two sons; Princess Zubayda Begum (killed 20 February 1632), married to Isa Khan Shaykhavand,[135] and had issue a daughter; Jahan Banu Begum, married in 1623, Simon II of Kartli son of Bagrat VII of Kartli by his wife, Queen Anna, daughter of Alexander II of Kakheti. She had issue, a daughter: Princess Izz-i-Sharif Begum, married to Sayyid Abdullah, son of Mirza Muhammad Shafi. she had issue, a son: Sayyid Muhammad Daud, married to Shahr Banu Begum, daughter of Suleiman I. She had issue, two sons including: Suleiman II. Princess Agha Begum, married to Sultan al-Ulama Khalife Sultan,[135] and had issue four sons and four daughters; Princess Havva Begum (d. 1617, Zanjan), married firstly to Mirza Riza Shahristani (Sadr), married secondly to Mirza Rafi al-Din Muhammad (Sadr),[135] and had issue three sons; Princess Shahr Banu Begum, married to Mir Abdulazim, darughah of Isfahan;[135] Princess Malik Nissa Begum, married to Mir Jalal Shahristani, the mutvalli of the shrine of Imam Riza.[135] Ancestry[edit] Ancestors of Abbas the Great 8. Isma'il I, Shah of Iran 4. Tahmasp I, Shah of Iran 9. Tajlu Khanum 2. Muhammad Khodabanda, Shah of Iran 10. Musa Sultan Musullu Sultanum Begum 1. Abbas I, Shah of Iran 12. Sultan Mahmud Marashi 6. Mir Abdullah Khan II Marashi, Ruler of Mazandaran 3. Khayr al-Nisa Begum Fakhr al-Nisa Begum See also[edit] Battle of DimDim García de Silva Figueroa History of Iran Mausoleum of Shah Abbas I Persian embassy to Europe (1599–1602) Persian embassy to Europe (1609–1615) Safavid conversion of Iran from Sunnism to Shiism Shah Abbas Mosque, Yerevan Shah Abbas Mosque, Ganja Notes[edit] ^ Ali Qoli Khan Shamlu, the governor of Herat, had originally been tasked with murder of Abbas by Shah Ishmail. Before he could act, the Shah had died, thus leaving him as governor, but without fulfilling his prerequisite task.[7] ^ There is some confusion concerning the date which Abbas assumed power. The confusion sprouts from the fact that two distinctly different, but similar, occurrences both happened in the month of October, but in different years. First, Abbas seized power in the capital of Qazvin, whilst his father was leading the troops. This occurred on 16 October 1587. Then, after his father had returned, on 1 October 1588, Shah Mohammad abdicated and gave control of the empire over to Abbas in a ceremony. Footnotes[edit] ^ Quinn 2015, chpt. Shah Abbas and political legitimacy' ^ Quinn 2015, chpt. Shah Abbas as the 'Supreme Lord of the Auspicious Conjunction' ^ Thorne 1984, p. 1 ^ Savory 1980, p. 71 ^ Newman 2006, p. 42 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, p. 27 ^ Roemer 1986, p. 259 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, p. 28 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, p. 29 ^ a b Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, pp. 31–32 ^ Roemer 1986, p. 255 ^ Savory 1980, p. 73 ^ Savory 1980, p. 76 ^ Savory 1980, p. 74 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, pp. 32–33 ^ Blow 2009, p. 29 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, p. 35 ^ Dale 2010, p. 92 ^ Roemer 1986, p. 261 ^ Savory 1980, p. 75 ^ Blow 2009, p. 30 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, p. 36 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, p. 37 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, p. 38 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, pp. 38–39 ^ Newman 2006, p. 50 ^ Savory 1980, p. 77 ^ Newman 2006, p. 52 ^ Roemer 1986, p. 266 ^ Cleveland, William L. "A History of the Modern Middle East" (Westview Press, 2013) pg 50 ^ a b c d Roemer 1986, p. 265 ^ a b c Savory 1983[page needed] ^ Wallbank 1992, p. 369 ^ a b Mitchell 2009a ^ Streusand 2011, p. 148[verification needed] ^ Bosworth 1989[page needed] ^ Manz & Haneda 1990[page needed] ^ Lapidus 2012[page needed] ^ a b Mikaberidze 2015, pp. 291, 536. ^ a b Blow 2009, p. 174. ^ a b Monshi 1978, p. 1116 ^ Hosayn, Malekšāh, p. 509 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHosayn,_Malekšāh (help)[full citation needed] ^ Bournoutian, George A.; A Concise History of the Armenian People: (from Ancient Times to the Present) (original from the University of Michigan) Mazda Publishers, 2002 ISBN 978-1568591414 p 208 ^ Aslanian, Sebouh. From the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean: The Global Trade Networks of Armenian Merchants from New Julfa University of California Press, 4 mei 2011 ISBN 978-0520947573 p 1 ^ Matthee 1999a[page needed] ^ Blow 2009, p. 37 ^ Savory 1980, p. 81 ^ Savory 1980, p. 82 ^ a b c d e Mitchell 2011, p. 69 ^ Savory 1980, pp. 183–184 ^ a b Haneda 1990, p. 818 ^ a b c Hoiberg 2010, p. 9 ^ Axworthy 2007, pp. 134–135 ^ a b Kremer 2013 ^ Savory 1980, p. 79 ^ a b Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, pp. 141–142 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, p. 143 ^ R.M., Savory. "ALLĀHVERDĪ KHAN (1)". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 1 January 2016. ^ Starkey 2010, p. 38 ^ Madelung 1988, p. 390 ^ a b Matthee 1999[page needed] ^ Roemer 1986, p. 267 ^ Savory 1980, p. 84 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, pp. 147–148 ^ Savory 1980, p. 85 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, pp. 148–149 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, pp. 149–150 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, pp. 150–151 ^ Savory 1980, p. 87 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, p. 153 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, p. 154 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, p. 155 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, p. 156 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, pp. 157–158 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, p. 158 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, pp. 158–159 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Rayfield, Donald (2013). Edge of Empires. Reaktion Books. ^ a b Mitchell 2011, p. 70 ^ Khanbaghi 2006, p. 131 ^ Kacharava 2011[page needed] ^ Suny p. 50[incomplete short citation] ^ Asat'iani & Bendianachvili 1997, p. 188 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, p. 120 ^ Eraly 2003, p. 263 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, p. 121 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, pp. 123–124 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, p. 124 ^ Eraly 2003, p. 264 ^ Parizi 2000, pp. 284–285. ^ Babaie 2004, p. 94. ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, p. 159 ^ Cole 1987, p. 186 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, p. 161 ^ a b Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, p. 162 ^ Savory 1980, p. 96 ^ Dale 2010, p. 94 ^ Saslow 1999, p. 147 ^ Newman 2006, p. 67 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, p. 96 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, pp. 98–99 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, p. 111 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, p. 107 ^ a b Aslanian, Sebouh (2011). From the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean: The Global Trade Networks of Armenian Merchants from New Julfa. California: University of California Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0520947573. ^ a b c Bournoutian, George (2002). A Concise History of the Armenian People: (from Ancient Times to the Present) (2 ed.). Mazda Publishers. p. 208. ISBN 978-1568591414. ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, p. 209 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, p. 104 ^ Jackson & Lockhart 1986, p. 454 ^ Kouymjian 2004, p. 20 ^ Lockhart 1953, p. 347 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, p. 114 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, p. 128 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, p. 129 ^ Shakespeare 1863, pp. 258,262,282 ^ Wilson 2010, p. 210 ^ a b Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, p. 131 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, pp. 134–135 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, pp. 136–137 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, pp. 161–162 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, p. 235 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, pp. 235–236 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, pp. 236–237 ^ Savory 1980, p. 95 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, pp. 240–241 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, pp. 241–242 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, pp. 243–246 ^ Savory 1980, p. 101 ^ Axworthy 2007, p. 134 ^ Roemer 1986, p. 278 ^ Blow 2009, p. 165. ^ Cyril Glassé (ed.), The New Encyclopedia of Islam, Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, revised ed., 2003, ISBN 0-7591-0190-6, p. 392: "Shah Abbas moved his capital from Qazvin to Isfahan. His reigned marked the peak of Safavid dynasty's achievement in art, diplomacy, and commerce. It was probably around this time that the court, which originally spoke a Turkic language, began to use Persian" ^ Blow 2009, pp. 166, 118. ^ Savory 1980, p. 103 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, pp. 44–47 ^ Bomati & Nahavandi 1998, pp. 57–58 ^ a b c d e f g Babayan, Kathryn (2002). Mystics, Monarchs, and Messiahs: Cultural Landscapes of Early Modern Iran. Harvard CMES. pp. 400–1. ISBN 978-0-932-88528-9. References[edit] Asat'iani, Nodar; Bendianachvili, Alexandre (1997). Histoire de la Géorgie [History of Georgia] (in French). Paris, France: L'Harmattan. ISBN 2-7384-6186-7. LCCN 98159624. Axworthy, Michael (2007). Empire of the Mind: A History of Iran. London, UK: C. Hurst and Co. ISBN 978-1-8506-5871-9. LCCN 2008399438. Babaie, Sussan; et al. (2004). Slaves of the Shah: New Elites of Safavid Iran. Library of Middle East History. London, UK: I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-8606-4721-5. Blow, David (2009). Shah Abbas: The Ruthless King Who Became an Iranian Legend. London, UK: I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84511-989-8. LCCN 2009464064. Bomati, Yves; Nahavandi, Houchang (1998). Shah Abbas, Empereur de Perse: 1587–1629 [Shah Abbas, Emperor of Persia: 1587–1629] (in French). Paris, France: Perrin. ISBN 2-2620-1131-1. LCCN 99161812. Bosworth, C. E. (1989). "Barda and Barda-Dāri v. Military Slavery in Islamic Iran". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica. III: Ātaš – Beyhaqi. London, UK: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 774–776. ISBN 0-7100-9090-0. LCCN 84673402. Archived from the original on 17 May 2015. Retrieved 24 May 2015. Cole, Juan R. I. (May 1987). "Rival Empires of Trade and Imami Shi'ism in Eastern Arabia, 1300–1800". International Journal of Middle East Studies. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 19 (2): 177–203. doi:10.1017/s0020743800031834. ISSN 0020-7438. Dale, Stephen Frederic (2010). The Muslim Empires of the Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-69142-0. LCCN 2010278301. Eraly, Abraham (2003) [2000]. The Mughal Throne: The Saga of India's Great Emperors. original title Emperors of the Peacock Throne. London, UK: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 1-8421-2723-3. LCCN 2005440260. Haneda, Masahi (1990). "Čarkas: ii. Under the Safavids". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica. IV: Bāyjū – Carpets. London, UK: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 818–819. Archived from the original on 17 May 2015. Retrieved 13 September 2014. Hoiberg, Dale H., ed. (2010). "Abbas I (Persia)". Encyclopædia Britannica. I: A-Ak – Bayes (15th ed.). Chicago, IL: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. ISBN 978-1-59339-837-8. LCCN 2008934270. IBP (2013). Armenia Country Study Guide. 1: Strategic Information and Developments. International Business Publications. ISBN 978-1-4387-7382-7. Jackson, Peter; Lockhart, Lawrence, eds. (1986). The Cambridge History of Iran. 6: The Timurid and Safavid Periods. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-5212-0094-6. LCCN 67012845. Kacharava, Eka (2011). "Alaverdy Eparchy" (PDF). Friends of Academic Research in Georgia. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 May 2015. Retrieved 24 May 2015. Khanbaghi, Aptin (2006). The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran. London, UK: I. B. Tauris. ISBN 1-8451-1056-0. LCCN 2006296797. Kouymjian, Dickran (2004). "1: Armenia From the Fall of the Cilician Kingdom (1375) to the Forced Emigration under Shah Abbas (1604)". In Hovannisian, Richard G. (ed.). The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times. II: Foreign Dominion to Statehood: The Fifteenth Century to the Twentieth Century. New York, NY: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 1-4039-6422-X. LCCN 2004273378. Kremer, William (25 January 2013). "Why Did Men Stop Wearing High Heels?". BBC News Magazine. Archived from the original on 17 August 2014. Retrieved 13 September 2014. Lapidus, Ira Marvin (2012). A Global History of Pre-modern Islamic Societies. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-5217-3298-7. LCCN 2011043732. Lockhart, Lawrence (1953). Arberry, Arthur John (ed.). The Legacy of Persia. The Legacy Series. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. LCCN 53002314. Madelung, W. (1988). "Baduspanids". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica. III: Ātaš – Bayhaqī. London, UK: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 385–391. ISBN 0-7100-9121-4. LCCN 84673402. Archived from the original on 17 November 2014. Retrieved 13 September 2014. Manz, Beatrice; Haneda, Masashi (1990). "Čarkas". Encyclopædia Iranica. London, UK: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 816–819. Archived from the original on 17 May 2015. Retrieved 24 May 2015. Matthee, Rudi (2011). Persia in Crisis: Safavid Decline and the Fall of Isfahan. International Library of Iranian Studies. London, UK: I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-8451-1745-0. Matthee, Rudi (1999). "Farhād Khan Qaramānlū, Rokn-al-Saltana". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica. IX: Ethé – Fish. London, UK: Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-7100-9090-0. LCCN 84673402. Archived from the original on 17 May 2015. Retrieved 24 May 2015. Matthee, Rudolph P. (1999a). The Politics of Trade in Safavid Iran: Silk for Silver, 1600–1730. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-5216-4131-4. LCCN 99012830. Mikaberidze, Alexander (2015). Historical Dictionary of Georgia (2 ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1442241466. Mitchell, Colin P., ed. (2011). New Perspectives on Safavid Iran: Empire and Society. Milton Park, UK: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-4157-7462-8. LCCN 2010032352. Mitchell, Colin P. (2009). The Practice of Politics in Safavid Iran: Power, Religion and Rhetoric. Persian Studies. London, UK: I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-0-8577-1588-3. LCCN 2010292168. Mitchell, Colin P. (2009a). "Ṭahmāsp I". Encyclopædia Iranica. ISSN 2330-4804. Archived from the original on 17 May 2015. Retrieved 12 May 2015. Monshi, Eskandar Beg (1978). Tārīk̲-e ʻālamārā-ye ʻAbbāsī [The History of Shah 'Abbas the Great]. Persian Heritage (in Arabic and English). Translated by Savory, Roger M. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. ISBN 0-8915-8296-7. LCCN 78020663. Newman, Andrew J. (2006). Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. Library of Middle East History. London, UK: I. B. Tauris. ISBN 1-86064-667-0. Parizi, Mohammad-Ebrahim Bastani (2000). "Ganj-ʿAlī Khan". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica. X: Fisheries – Gindaros. London, UK: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 284–285. ISBN 0-7100-9090-0. LCCN 84673402. Archived from the original on 17 May 2015. Retrieved 24 May 2015. Quinn, Sholeh (2015). Shah Abbas: The King who Refashioned Iran. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 9781780745688. Roemer, H. R. (1986). "5: The Safavid Period". In Jackson, Peter; Lockhart, Lawrence (eds.). The Cambridge History of Iran. 6: The Timurid and Safavid Periods. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-5212-0094-6. LCCN 67012845. Saslow, James M. (1999). "Asia and Islam: Ancient Cultures, Modern Conflicts". Pictures and Passions: A History of Homosexuality in the Visual Arts. New York, NY: Viking. ISBN 0-6708-5953-2. LCCN 99019960. Savory, Roger M. (1983). "'Abbās (I)". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica. I: Āb - Anāhid. London, UK: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 71–75. ISBN 0-7100-9090-0. LCCN 84673402. Archived from the original on 7 May 2015. Retrieved 24 May 2015. Savory, Roger M. (1980). Iran under the Safavids. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-22483-7. LCCN 78073817. Shakespeare, William (1863). Clark, William George; Wright, William Aldis (eds.). The Works of William Shakespeare. III. Cambridge, UK: Macmillan and Company. LCCN 20000243. Archived from the original on 19 November 2015. Retrieved 24 May 2015. Starkey, Paul (2010). "Tawfīq Yūsuf Awwād (1911–1989)". In Allen, Roger (ed.). Essays in Arabic Literary Biography. 3: 1850–1950. Wiesbaden, Germany: Otto Harrassowitz. ISBN 978-3-447-06141-4. ISSN 0938-9024. LCCN 2010359879. Streusand, Douglas E. (2011). Islamic Gunpowder Empires: Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-1359-7. LCCN 2010024984.[verification needed] Sykes, Ella Constance (1910). Persia and its People. New York, NY: The Macmillan Company. LCCN 10001477. Thorne, John O., ed. (1984). "Abbas I". Chambers Biographical Dictionary. Edinburgh, UK: Chambers Harrap. ISBN 0-550-18022-2. LCCN 2010367095. Wallbank, Thomas Walter (1992) [1942]. Civilization Past & Present (7th ed.). New York, NY: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-6733-8867-0. LCCN 91025406. Wilson, Richard (March 2010). "When Golden Time Convents: Twelfth Night and Shakespeare's Eastern Promise". Shakespeare. Routledge. 6 (2): 209–226. doi:10.1080/17450911003790331. ISSN 1745-0918. S2CID 191598902. Further reading[edit] Yves Bomati and Houchang Nahavandi,Shah Abbas, Emperor of Persia,1587-1629, 2017, ed. Ketab Corporation, Los Angeles, ISBN 978-1595845672, English translation by Azizeh Azodi. Canby, Sheila R. (ed), 2009, Shah Abbas; The Remaking of Iran, 2009, British Museum Press, ISBN 9780714124520 Pearce, Francis Barrow (1920). Zanzibar, the Island Metropolis of Eastern Africa. New York, NY: E. P. Dutton and Company. LCCN 20008651. Retrieved 13 September 2014. External links[edit] Wikisource has the text of a 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article about Abbas I. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Abbas I of Persia. Shah Abbās: The Remaking of Iran, The British Museum, in association with Iran Heritage Foundation, 19 February – 14 June 2009, John Wilson, Iranian treasures bound for Britain, BBC Radio 4, 19 January 2009, BBC Radio 4's live magazine, Front Row (audio report). "Shah 'Abbas: The Remaking of Iran" Abbas the Great Safavid Dynasty Preceded by Mohammed Khodabanda Shah of Persia 1 October 1588 – 19 January 1629 Succeeded by Safi v t e Rulers of the Safavid dynasty (1501–1736) Ismail I (1501–1524) Tahmasp I (1524–1576) Ismail II (1576–1577) Mohammad Khodabanda (1577–1587) Abbas I (1587–1629) Safi (1629–1642) Abbas II (1642–1666) Suleiman I (1666–1694) Sultan Husayn (1694-1722) Tahmasp II (1722–1732) Abbas III (1732–1736) Authority control BIBSYS: 15009366 BNF: cb13334199v (data) CANTIC: a11217017 GND: 118646400 ISNI: 0000 0000 6679 019X LCCN: n80034374 NDL: 001117400 NLP: A18334611 NTA: 317318721 PLWABN: 9810628925205606 SUDOC: 03575365X TDVİA: abbas-i VIAF: 77109363 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80034374 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abbas_the_Great&oldid=1002211272" Categories: 16th-century Iranian people 17th-century Iranian people Safavid monarchs 1571 births 1629 deaths Iranian Shia Muslims People from Herat 16th-century monarchs in the Middle East 17th-century monarchs in the Middle East Filicides Iranian poets Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from May 2015 All pages needing factual verification Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from May 2015 Harv and Sfn no-target errors All articles with incomplete citations Articles with incomplete citations from May 2015 Articles with incomplete citations from September 2014 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from July 2020 Articles containing Persian-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2019 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2019 CS1 French-language sources (fr) CS1: long volume value CS1 Arabic-language sources (ar) Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLP identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with TDVİA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages Alemannisch العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú Башҡортса Беларуская Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kurdî Кыргызча Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Malagasy മലയാളം مصرى مازِرونی Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча پنجابی پښتو Polski Português Română Русский Scots Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Татарча/tatarça ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 January 2021, at 10:24 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2454	----	Djet - Wikipedia Djet From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Djet Wadj, Zet, Uadji, Ouenephes, Vavenephis The famous stela of king Djet which once stood next to his tomb in the Umm el-Qa'ab, Louvre Museum. Pharaoh Reign 10 years, ca. 2980 BC (First Dynasty) Predecessor Djer Successor Merneith, Den Royal titulary Horus name Hor-Djet Ḥr-ḏt Serpent of Horus Abydos King List Ita Jt3 Turin King List ...tjuj ...tjwj [1] Consort Merneith, Ahaneith Children Den Father Djer Burial Tomb Z, Umm el-Qa'ab Djet, also known as Wadj, Zet, and Uadji (in Greek possibly the pharaoh known as Uenephes or possibly Atothis), was the fourth pharaoh of the First Dynasty. Djet's Horus name means "Horus Cobra"[2] or "Serpent of Horus". Contents 1 Family 2 Reign 3 Tomb 4 See also 5 References 6 Bibliography Family[edit] See also: First Dynasty of Egypt family tree Djet's queen was his sister Merneith, who may have ruled as a pharaoh in her own right after his death. There is a possibility that a woman known as Ahaneith was also one of his wives. Djet and Merneith's son was Den, and their grandson was Anedjib. Reign[edit] Ita, cartouche name of Djet in the Abydos king list. How long Djet ruled is unknown. Only one Seker festival is attested by ivory labels dating to his reign, whose duration is estimated to be anywhere between six and ten years. According to Wolfgang Helck he reigned 10 years.[3] From a calendar entry, Djer is known to have died on 7 Peret III while Djet began his reign on 22 Peret IV. The reason for the 45 days of interregnum is unknown. Details of Djet's reign are lost in the lacunas of the Palermo Stone. However, finds of vessel fragments and seal impressions prove that there were intense trading activities with Syria and Palestine at the time. Graves at Tarkhan and Saqqara dating to his reign yielded pottery from Palestine.[4] Other activities can be inferred from the only two known years tablets of the ruler, one of which is preserved in two copies. The reading of the events described on the tablets is highly problematic. Helck translated: "Year of the planning of the underground/basement (?) of the dual plant, birth of lotus buds, standing in the crown shrine of the two Ladies."[5] The other year tablet mentions a victory, the production (birth) of a statue and perhaps the creation of a fortress.[6] Finally, in Marsa Alam in Nubia, the short inscription "Hemka" below "Djet" was discovered. [7] Clay seals prove that the official Amka begun his career under king Djer, as manager of the "Hor-sekhenti-dju" estate. Under Djet, Amka became royal steward. In the early years of the king's successor Amka died after he was appointed to regional responsibilities in the western Nile Delta.[8] Other senior officials under Djet were Sekhemkasedj and Setka. Tomb[edit] Fragment of an object bearing the serekh of Djet and the name of a court official Sekhemkasedj, Egyptian Museum. Label of King Djet (Ashmolean). Abydos, Umm el-Qaab, Tomb Z. Djet's tomb is located at Abydos in Petrie's Tomb Z. It is located west of his father, King Djer's tomb. Surrounding Djet's tomb are 174 subsidiary burials most of them being retainers that were sacrificed upon Djet's death to serve him in the afterlife. Found within Djet's tomb was a stele. This stele was a snake surmounted by a falcon (Horus) and could be interpreted to mean "Horus the snake". Also found within the tomb was an ivory comb with the name of Djet on it, along with a picture of the stele. Copper tools and pottery were also found in the tomb, a common find in Egyptian tombs. There is evidence that Djet's tomb was intentionally burned, along with other tombs at Abydos from this time period. The tombs were later renovated because of the association with the cult of Osiris. Djet owes his fame to the survival, in well-preserved form, of one of his artistically refined tomb steles. It is carved in relief with Djet's Horus name, and shows that the distinct Egyptian style had already become fully developed at that time. This stela was discovered in 1904 by Émile Amélineau and is today on display at the Louvre museum. Another artistic landmark dated to Djet's reign is his ivory comb [9] now housed in the Egyptian Museum. It is the earliest surviving depiction of the heavens symbolised by the outspread wings of a falcon. The wings carry the bark of Seker, below the celestial bark Djet's serekh is surrounded by two Was scepters and one Ankh-sign. See also[edit] List of Pharaohs Ancient Egyptian retainer sacrifices References[edit] ^ Alan H. Gardiner: The royal canon of Turin ^ Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames & Hudson Ltd, 2006 paperback, p.16 ^ Wolfgang Helck: Untersuchungen zur Thinitenzeit (Agyptologische Abhandlungen), ISBN 3447026774, O. Harrassowitz (1987), p. 124 ^ Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt, Routledge; New edition (2001), ISBN 0415260116 ^ Wolfgang Helck: Untersuchungen zur Thinitenzeit (Agyptologische Abhandlungen), ISBN 3447026774, O. Harrassowitz (1987), p. 124 ^ G. Dreyer: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo. (MDAIK) Nr. 59. (2003), p. 93 ^ Z. Zaba: The Rock Inscriptions of Lower Nubia, p. 239-41, Nr. A30 ^ Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt - Strategy, Society and Security, p. 146 ^ Picture Bibliography[edit] Toby A. H. Wilkinson, Early Dynastic Egypt, Routledge, London/New York 1999, ISBN 0-415-18633-1, 73-74 Toby A. H. Wilkinson, Royal Annals of Ancient Egypt: The Palermo Stone and Its Associated Fragments, (Kegan Paul International), 2000. Preceded by Djer Pharaoh of Egypt Succeeded by Merneith v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e First Dynasty of Ancient Egypt Pharaohs Menes/Narmer Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Regents Neithhotep Merneith Queen consorts Benerib Herneith Penebui Nakhtneith (Khenthap) Semat Serethor Seshemetka Betrest Officials Amka Hemaka Sabef Meriiti Other people Ahaneith Artefacts and monuments Narmer macehead Narmer palette Tomb of Anedjib Den seal impressions Abydos boats MacGregor plaque Mastabas S3503 and S3504 Capital Thinis Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Djet&oldid=982287644" Categories: 30th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the First Dynasty of Egypt Djer 30th century BC in Egypt 30th-century BC 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en-wikipedia-org-2470	----	Smendes - Wikipedia Smendes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other bearers of the name see Smendes (disambiguation). Smendes Nesbanebdjed, Nesibanebdjedet Canopic jar of Smendes, Metropolitan Museum of Art. Pharaoh Reign c. 1077/1076–1052 BC[1] (21st Dynasty) Predecessor Ramesses XI Successor Amenemnisu Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Hedjkheperre Setepenre[2] Ḥḏ-ḫpr-Rˁ-stp.n-Rˁ Radiant manifestation of Ra, the chosen one of Ra Nomen Nesbanebdjed Meriamun[3][4] Mrj-Jmn nsw-b3-nb-ḏdt He of the Ba ram, lord of Mendes, beloved of Amun Horus name Kanakht Meryre Suseramunkhepesheferseqaimaat K3-nḫt-mrj-Rˁ-swsr-Jmn-ḫpš=f-r-sq3j-m3ˁt Strong bull, beloved of Ra, Amun empowers his strike to reinforce the Maat Nebty name Sekhempehti Hureqiufbehatuf Hepetem[...] Sḫm-pḥtj-ḥwj-rqw=f-bh3.tw=f-ḥtp-m (...) Mighty of power, he who beats his opponents, they flee before him, [he] encircles ... Golden Horus [...]khesefdenden (...) Ḫsf-dndn [...] wards off the wrath Consort Tentamun B Children Amenemnisu ? Mother Possibly Hrere Died 1052 BC Burial Unknown Hedjkheperre Setepenre Smendes was the founder of the Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt and succeeded to the throne after burying Ramesses XI in Lower Egypt – territory which he controlled. His Egyptian nomen or birth name was actually Nesbanebdjed[5] meaning "He of the Ram, Lord of Mendes",[6] but it was translated into Greek as Smendes by later classical writers such as Josephus and Sextus Africanus. According to the Story of Wenamun from c. 1000 BC, Smendes was a governor of Lower Egypt during the Era of the Renaissance under the reign of Ramesses XI, however, Egyptologists have questioned the historical accuracy of that story.[7] Contents 1 Family 2 Report of Wenamun 3 Reign 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links Family[edit] Smendes may have been a son of a lady named Hrere. Hrere was a Chief of the Harem of Amun-Re and likely the wife of a high priest of Amun. If Hrere was Smendes' mother, then he was a brother of Nodjmet and through her brother-in-law of the High Priests Herihor and Piankh. Smendes was married to Tentamun B, likely a daughter of Ramesses IX. They may have been the parents of his successor Amenemnisu.[8] Report of Wenamun[edit] Smendes features prominently in the Report of Wenamun. This story is set in an anonymous "Year 5", generally taken to be year 5 of the so-called Renaissance of Pharaoh Ramesses XI, the tenth and last ruler of the Twentieth Dynasty of Ancient Egypt (1190–1077 BC). However, since Karl Jansen-Winkeln has proposed to reverse the order of the High Priests of Amun Herihor and Piankh, this ascription has become disputed.[9] With the pontificate of Herihor falling later than that of Piankh, who is attested in year 7 of the Renaissance,[10] the date in the heading of Wenamun should rather refer to the successor of Ramesses XI. Following Jansen-Winkeln, Arno Egberts (1991) therefore argues that the story is set in the fifth regnal year of Smendes. Recently, Ad Thijs[11] has alternatively ascribed the text to year 5 of king Khakheperre Pinuzem, who is the successor of Ramesses XI in his chronology, which is also based on the reversal of High Priests put forward by Jansen-Winkeln. As the story begins, the principal character, Wenamun, a priest of Amun at Karnak, is sent by the High Priest of Amun Herihor to the Phoenician city of Byblos to acquire lumber (probably cedar wood) to build a new ship to transport the cult image of Amun. Wenamun first visits Smendes at Tanis and personally presented his letters of accreditation to Smendes in order to receive the latter's permission to travel north to modern Lebanon. Smendes responds by dispatching a ship for Wenamun's travels to Syria and the Levant. Smendes appears as a person of the highest importance in Tanis. Reign[edit] Detail of the Banishment Stela, which bears the highest known regnal date (25 years) of Smendes. Louvre, C 256 Smendes' nominal authority over Upper Egypt is attested by a single inscribed stela found in a quarry at Ed-Dibabiya, opposite Gebelein on the right bank of the Nile, as well as by a separate graffito inscription on an enclosure Wall of the Temple of Monthu at Karnak, the Temple that was originally constructed during the reign of Thutmose III.[12] The quarry stela describes how Smendes "while residing in Memphis, heard of danger to the temple of Luxor from flooding, gave orders for repairs (hence the quarry works), and received news of the success of the mission."[13] Smendes is assigned a reign of 26 Years by Manetho in his Epitome.[14] This figure is supported by the Year 25 date on the Banishment Stela which recounts that the High Priest Menkheperre suppressed a local revolt in Thebes in Year 25 of a king who can only be Smendes because there is no evidence that the High Priests counted their own regnal years even when they assumed royal titles like Pinedjem I did.[15] Menkheperre then exiled the leaders of the rebellion to the Western Desert Oases. These individuals were pardoned several years later during the reign of Smendes' successor, Amenemnisu. Smendes ruled over a divided Egypt and only effectively controlled Lower Egypt during his reign while Middle and Upper Egypt was effectively under the suzerainty of the High Priests of Amun such as Pinedjem I, Masaharta, and Menkheperre. His prenomen or throne name Hedjkheperre Setepenre/Setepenamun—which means 'Bright is the Manifestation of Rê, Chosen of Rê/Amun'[4]—became very popular in the following 22nd Dynasty and 23rd Dynasty. In all, five kings: Shoshenq I, Shoshenq IV, Takelot I, Takelot II and Harsiese A adopted it for their own use. On the death of Smendes in 1052 BC, he was succeeded by Neferkare Amenemnisu, who may have been this king's son. References[edit] ^ R. Krauss & D.A. Warburton "Chronological Table for the Dynastic Period" in Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss & David Warburton (editors), Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies), Brill, 2006. p. 493 ^ Clayton, Peter A. Chronicle of the Pharaohs. Thames & Hudson. 2006. p. 178 ^ Digital Egypt for Universities ^ a b Clayton, p. 178 ^ Nesbanebdjed ^ Mansikka, Pekka (2020). New Chronology Using Solar Eclipses, Volume III. p. 180. ISBN 978-9528023142. ^ Hagens, Graham (1996). "A Critical Review of Dead-Reckoning from the 21st Dynasty". Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt. American Research Center in Egypt. 33: 156. doi:10.2307/40000612. ISSN 0065-9991. JSTOR 40000612. ^ Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson (2004) ISBN 0-500-05128-3, pp. 196-209 ^ Karl Jansen-Winkeln, "Das Ende des Neuen Reiches", Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache, 119 (1992), pp.22-37 ^ Nims, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 7 (1948), 157-162 ^ Ad Thijs, The Burial of Psusennes I and “The Bad Times” of P. Brooklyn 16.205, Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache, 96 (2014), 209–223 ^ J. Cerny, "Egypt from the Death of Ramesses III to the End of the Twenty-First Dynasty" in The Middle East and the Aegean Region c. 1380-1000 BC, Cambridge University Press, p. 645 ISBN 0-521-08691-4 ^ K.A. Kitchen, The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100-650 BC), 3rd ed. (Warminster: Aris & Phillips, 1996), p. 256 ^ Manetho, fragments 58 & 59; translation in W.G. Waddell, Manetho (Cambridge: Harvard University, 1997), pp. 155-7 ISBN 0-674-99385-3 ^ Kitchen, p. 260 Further reading[edit] G. Daressy, "Les Carrières de Gebelein et le roi Smendés", Receuil de Travaux Relatifs à la Philologie et à l’Archeologie Égyptiennes et Assyriennes, 10 (1988) 133–8. Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, Blackwell Books (1992) v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 1050916816 VIAF: 308219364 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 308219364 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Smendes. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smendes&oldid=1002074650" Categories: 11th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt 1052 BC deaths 11th century BC in Egypt 11th-century BC rulers Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Commons category link from Wikidata Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 January 2021, at 18:45 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2496	----	Sebkay - Wikipedia Sebkay From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sebkay Sebekay, Sebekāi Closeup of the ivory wand showing the king's name. Pharaoh Reign uncertain date (13th Dynasty) Royal titulary Nomen Sebkay Sb-k3jj Sebkay (alternatively Sebekay or Sebekāi[1]) was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh during the Second Intermediate Period. For a long time his position created problems and he was most often placed into the 13th Dynasty. However, the discovery of the tomb of a king with the name Senebkay make it very likely that Sebkay is identical with the latter and the writing of the name Sebkay is just a misspelling of the name.[2] Very little is known about him, since his name is attested only on a wooden birth Tusk (wand) found at Abydos and now in the Cairo Museum (CG 9433 / JE 34988).[3] Identity[edit] Since the discovery of the wand, several Egyptologists have tried to identify this king with other rulers of the Second Intermediate Period. Stephen Quirke believed that “Sebkay” was a diminutive for “Sedjefakare”, which is the throne name of Kay-Amenemhat,[4] while Jürgen von Beckerath considered the name a short form of the nomen “Sobekhotep” instead.[1] Thomas Schneider supports von Beckerath's hypothesis, specifying that the king Sobekhotep likely was Sobekhotep II.[5] A more radical hypothesis came from Kim Ryholt, who suggested the reading “Seb's son Kay”, de facto splitting the name “Seb-kay” in two different pharaohs and thus filling a gap in the Turin King List before Kay-Amenemhat. Furthermore, in this reconstruction the name of the last mentioned king should be considered a patronymic too, and must be read “Kay's son Amenemhat”, thus setting a dynastic line consisting of three kings: Seb, his son Kay, and the latter's son Amenemhat. Ryholt's interpretation is considered daring and controversial by some egyptologists.[5] In 2014, at Abydos, a team of archaeologists discovered the tomb of a previously unknown king of the Second Intermediate Period, called Senebkay. It has been suggested that this ruler and Sebkay might be the same person.[6] Full view of the ivory wand. Sebkay's name is carved on the left side. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sebkay. References[edit] ^ a b Jürgen von Beckerath, Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, Augustin, 1964, p. 46. ^ Ilin-Tomich, Alexander, 2016, Second Intermediate Period. In Wolfram Grajetzki and Willeke Wendrich (eds.), UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, Los Angeles. http://digital2.library.ucla.edu/viewItem.do?ark=21198/zz002k7jm9 p. 10 ^ Georges Daressy, Catalogue Général des Antiquités Égyptiennes du Musée du Caire: Textes et dessins magiques. Le Caire: Imprimerie de L'institut Français D'archéologie Orientale (1903), pl. XI. ^ "Sebkay page on". Eglyphica.de. Retrieved 2014-08-18. ^ a b Thomas Schneider, in Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss, and David A. Warburton (eds) Ancient Egyptian Chronology, Brill, Leiden – Boston, 2006, pp. 178-79. ^ Finding a Lost Pharaoh Archived 2014-01-28 at Archive.today, Archaeology and arts. Retrieved 08 May 2014 v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sebkay&oldid=993739194" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt 2nd-millennium BC births 2nd-millennium BC deaths Pharaohs of the Abydos Dynasty Hidden categories: Webarchive template archiveis links Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Català Español Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Slovenščina ไทย Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 12 December 2020, at 06:03 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-249	----	Argos, Peloponnese - Wikipedia Argos, Peloponnese From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the city in Greece. For other uses, see Argos (disambiguation) § Places. Place in Greece Argos Άργος View of Argos, seen from the ancient theatre Seal Argos Location within the regional unit Coordinates: 37°37′N 22°43′E / 37.617°N 22.717°E / 37.617; 22.717Coordinates: 37°37′N 22°43′E / 37.617°N 22.717°E / 37.617; 22.717 Country Greece Administrative region Peloponnese Regional unit Argolis Municipality Argos-Mykines Municipal unit Argos  • Municipal unit 138.138 km2 (53.335 sq mi) Elevation 40 m (130 ft) Population (2011[1])  • Total 22,085  • Municipality 42,027  • Municipal unit 26,963  • Municipal unit density 200/km2 (510/sq mi) Community  • Population 22,471 (2011[1]) Time zone UTC+2 (EET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+3 (EEST) Postal code 21200 Area code(s) 2751 Vehicle registration AP Website newargos.gr Argos (/ˈɑːrɡɒs, -ɡəs/; Greek: Άργος [ˈarɣos]; Ancient Greek: Ἄργος [árɡos]) is a city in Argolis, the Peloponnese, Greece and is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world.[2] It is the largest city in Argolis and a major center for the area. Since the 2011 local government reform it has been part of the municipality of Argos-Mykines, of which it is a municipal unit.[3] The municipal unit has an area of 138.138 km2.[4] It is 11 kilometres (7 miles) from Nafplion, which was its historic harbour. A settlement of great antiquity, Argos has been continuously inhabited as at least a substantial village for the past 7,000 years.[2]:121– The city is a member of the Most Ancient European Towns Network.[5] A resident of the city of Argos is known as an Argive (/ˈɑːrɡaɪv/ AR-ghyve, /-dʒaɪv/ -⁠jyve; Greek: Ἀργεῖος). However, this term is also used to refer to those ancient Greeks generally who assaulted the city of Troy during the Trojan War; the term is more widely applied by the Homeric bards. Numerous ancient monuments can be found in the city today. Agriculture is the mainstay of the local economy. Contents 1 Geography 1.1 Climate 2 Etymology 3 History 3.1 Antiquity 3.2 Archaic Argos 3.3 Classical Argos 3.4 Democracy in Classical Argos 3.5 Roman, Byzantine, Crusader, Ottoman rule and independence 4 Mythology 5 Ecclesiastical history 6 Characteristics 6.1 Orientation 6.2 Population 6.3 Economy 7 Monuments 8 Transportation 9 Education 10 Sports 11 Notable people 12 International relations 12.1 Twin towns & sister cities 12.2 Other relations 13 See also 14 Notes 15 Sources and external links Geography[edit] Climate[edit] Argos has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate. It is one of the hottest places in Greece during summer. Climate data for Argos (38m) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high °C (°F) 13.6 (56.5) 15.5 (59.9) 18.8 (65.8) 20.3 (68.5) 25.9 (78.6) 31.7 (89.1) 34.4 (93.9) 35 (95) 31.1 (88.0) 26.5 (79.7) 20.5 (68.9) 16.7 (62.1) 24.2 (75.5) Average low °C (°F) 4.5 (40.1) 5.7 (42.3) 7.5 (45.5) 9.8 (49.6) 13 (55) 18.4 (65.1) 21.4 (70.5) 22.5 (72.5) 19.3 (66.7) 15.1 (59.2) 11.7 (53.1) 8.7 (47.7) 13.1 (55.6) Average precipitation mm (inches) 100 (3.9) 70 (2.8) 71 (2.8) 72.6 (2.86) 12.4 (0.49) 12.9 (0.51) 16.3 (0.64) 6.9 (0.27) 14.8 (0.58) 32 (1.3) 84.7 (3.33) 86.2 (3.39) 579.8 (22.87) Source: http://penteli.meteo.gr/stations/argos/ (2019 – 2020 averages) Etymology[edit] The name of the city is very ancient and several etymological theories have been proposed as an explanation to its meaning. The most popular one maintains that the name of the city is a remainder from the Pelasgian language, i.e. the one used by the people who first settled in the area, in which Argos meant "plain". Alternatively, the name is associated with Argos, the third king of the city in ancient times, who renamed it after himself, thus replacing its older name Phoronikon Asty (Φορωνικόν Άστυ, "city of Phoroneus"). It is also believed that "Argos" is linked to the word αργός (argós), which meant "white"; possibly, this had to do with the visual impression given of the argolic plain during harvest time. According to Strabo, the name could have even originated from the word αγρός "field" by antimetathesis of the consonants.[6] History[edit] Antiquity[edit] Triobol of Argos, minted between 270 and 250 BC. The obverse depicts the forepart of a wolf, alluding to Apollo Lykeios, the patron-god of the city. The A on the reverse is simply the initial of Argos.[7] Argos is traditionally considered to be the origins of the ancient Macedonian royal Greek house of the Argead dynasty (Greek: Ἀργεάδαι, Argeádai). The most celebrated members were Philip II of Macedon and Alexander the Great. As a strategic location on the fertile plain of Argolis, Argos was a major stronghold during the Mycenaean era. In classical times Argos was a powerful rival of Sparta for dominance over the Peloponnese, but was eventually shunned by other Greek city-states after remaining neutral during the Greco-Persian Wars.[8] The Heraion of Argos View of the ancient theatre Ancient Peloponnese Ancient regions of Peloponnese (southern mainland Greece). There is evidence of continuous settlement in the area starting with a village about 7000 years ago in the late Neolithic, located on the foot of Aspida hill.[2]:124– Since that time, Argos has been continually inhabited at the same geographical location. Its creation is attributed to Phoroneus, with its first name having been Phoronicon Asty, or the city of Phoroneus. The historical presence of the Pelasgian Greeks in the area can be witnessed in the linguistic remainders that survive up to today, such as the very name of the city and "Larisa", the name of the city's castle located on the hill of the name.[9] The city is located at a rather propitious area, among Nemea, Corinth and Arcadia. It also benefitted from its proximity to lake Lerna, which, at the time, was at a distance of one kilometre from the south end of Argos. Argos was a major stronghold of Mycenaean times, and along with the neighbouring acropolis of Mycenae and Tiryns became a very early settlement because of its commanding positions in the midst of the fertile plain of Argolis. Archaic Argos[edit] Argos experienced its greatest period of expansion and power under the energetic 7th century BC ruler King Pheidon. Under Pheidon, Argos regained sway over the cities of the Argolid and challenged Sparta’s dominance of the Peloponnese. Spartan dominance is thought to have been interrupted following the Battle of Hyssiae in 669-668 BC, in which Argive troops defeated the Spartans in a hoplite battle.[10] During the time of its greatest power, the city boasted a pottery and bronze sculpturing school, pottery workshops, tanneries and clothes producers. Moreover, at least 25 celebrations took place in the city, in addition to a regular local products exhibition.[11] A sanctuary dedicated to Hera was also found at the same spot where the monastery of Panagia Katekrymeni is located today. Pheidon also extended Argive influence throughout Greece, taking control of the Olympic Games away from the citizens of Elis and appointing himself organizer during his reign. Pheidon is also thought to have introduced reforms for standard weight and measures in Argos, a theory further reinforced with the unearthing of six "spits" of iron in an Argive Heraion, possibly remainders of a dedication from Pheidon. Classical Argos[edit] In 494 BC, Argos suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of its regional rival, Sparta, at the Battle of Sepeia. Following this defeat, Herodotus tells us the city suffered a form of stasis. The political chaos is thought to have resulted in a democratic transition in the city.[12] Argos did not participate in the Hellenic Alliance against the Persian Invasion of 480 BC. This resulted in a period of diplomatic isolation, although there is evidence of an Argive alliance with Tegea prior to 462 BC.[13] In 462 BC, Argos joined a tripartite alliance with Athens and Thessaly. This alliance was somewhat dysfunctional, however, and the Argives are only thought to have provided marginal contributions to the alliance at the Battle of Oenoe and Tanagra.[13] For example, only 1,000 Argive hoplites are thought to have fought alongside the Athenians at the Battle of Tanagra. Following the allies' defeat at Tanagra in 457 BC, the alliance began to fall apart, resulting in its dissolution in 451 BC.[13] Argos remained neutral or the ineffective ally of Athens during the Archidamian War between Sparta and Athens. Argos' neutrality resulted in a rise of its prestige among other Greek cities, and Argos used this political capital to organize and lead an alliance against Sparta and Athens in 421 BC.[13] This alliance included Mantinea, Corinth, Elis, Thebes, Argos, and eventually Athens. This alliance fell apart, however, after the allied loss at the Battle of Tegea in 418 BC.[13] This defeat, combined with the raiding of the Argolid by the Epidaurians, resulted in political instability and an eventual oligarchic coup in 417 BC.[13] Although democracy was restored within a year, Argos was left permanently weakened by this coup. This weakening led to a loss of power, which in turn led to the shift of commercial focus from the Ancient Agora to the eastern side of the city, delimited by Danaou and Agiou Konstadinou streets. Argos played a minor role in the Corinthian Wars against Sparta, and for a short period of time considered uniting with Corinth to form an expanded Argolid state. For a brief period of time, the two poleis combined, but Corinth quickly rebelled against Argive domination, and Argos returned to its traditional boundaries. After this, Argos continued to remain a minor power in Greek affairs. Democracy in Classical Argos[edit] Argos was a democracy for most of the classical period, with only a brief hiatus between 418 and 416.[12] Democracy was first established after a disastrous defeat by the Spartans at the Battle of Sepeia in 494. So many Argives were killed in the battle that a revolution ensued, in which previously disenfranchised outsiders were included in the state for the first time.[14] Argive democracy included an Assembly (called the aliaia), a Council (the bola), and another body called 'The Eighty,' whose precise responsibilities are obscure. Magistrates served six-month terms of office, with few exceptions, and were audited at the end of their terms. There is some evidence that ostracism was practiced.[15] Roman, Byzantine, Crusader, Ottoman rule and independence[edit] The castle on Larissa Hill. Under Roman rule, Argos was part of the province of Achaea. Under Byzantine rule it was part of the theme of Hellas, and later of the theme of the Peloponnese. In the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade, the Crusaders captured the castle built on Larisa Hill, the site of the ancient acropolis, and the area became part of the lordship of Argos and Nauplia. In 1388 it was sold to the Republic of Venice, but was taken by the Despot of the Morea Theodore I Palaiologos before the Venetians could take control of the city; he sold it anyway to them in 1394. The Crusaders established a Latin bishopric. Venetian rule lasted until 1463, when the Ottomans captured the city. In 1397, the Ottomans plundered Argos, carrying off much of the population,[16] to sell as slaves.[17] The Venetians repopulated the town and region with Albanian settlers,[17] granting them long-term agrarian tax exemptions.[16] Together with the Greeks of Argos, they supplied stratioti troops to the armies of Venice.[16] Some historians consider the French military term "argoulet" to derive from the Greek "argetes", or inhabitant of Argos, as a large number of French stratioti came from the plain of Argos.[18] The church of the Kimisis (Dormition) of the Virgin in Neo Ireo During Ottoman rule, Argos was divided in four mahalas, or quarters; the Greek (Rûm) mahala, Liepur mahala, Bekir Efenti mahala and Karamoutza or Besikler mahala, respectively corresponding to what is now the northeastern, the northwestern, the southwestern and southeastern parts of the city. The Greek mahala was also called the "quarter of the unfaithful of Archos town" in Turkish documents, whereas Liepur mahala (the quarter of the rabbits) was composed mostly of Albanian emigrants and well-reputed families. Karamoutza mahala was home to the most prominent Turks and boasted a mosque (modern-day church of Agios Konstadinos), a Turkish cemetery, Ali Nakin Bei's serail, Turkish baths and a Turkish school. It is also at this period when the open market of the city is first organised on the site north to Kapodistrias' barracks, at the same spot where it is held in modern times. A mosque would have existed there, too, according to the city planning most Ottoman cities followed. Argos grew exponentially during this time, with its sprawl being unregulated and without planning. As French explorer Pouqueville noted, "its houses are not aligned, without order, scattered all over the place, divided by home gardens and uncultivated areas". Liepur mahala appears to have been the most organised, having the best layout, while Bekir mahala and Karamoutza mahala were the most labyrinthine. However, all quarters shared the same type of streets; firstly, they all had main streets which were wide, busy and public roads meant to allow for communication between neighbourhoods (typical examples are, to a great extent, modern-day Korinthou, Nafpliou and Tripoleos streets). Secondary streets were also common in all four quarters since they lead to the interior of each mahala, having a semi-public character, whereas the third type of streets referred to dead-end private alleys used specifically by families to access their homes. Remnants of this city layout can be witnessed even today, as Argos still preserves several elements of this Ottoman type style, particularly with its long and complicated streets, its narrow alleys and its densely constructed houses. Illustration of Argos by Vincenzo Coronelli, 1688 With the exception of a period of Venetian domination in 1687–1715, Argos remained in Ottoman hands until the beginning of the Greek War of Independence in 1821, when wealthy Ottoman families moved to nearby Nafplio due to its stronger walling. At that time, as part of the general uprising, many local governing bodies were formed in different parts of the country, and the "Consulate of Argos" was proclaimed on 28 March 1821, under the Peloponnesian Senate. It had a single head of state, Stamatellos Antonopoulos, styled "Consul", between 28 March and 26 May 1821. Later, Argos accepted the authority of the unified Provisional Government of the First National Assembly at Epidaurus, and eventually became part of the Kingdom of Greece. With the coming of governor Ioannis Kapodistrias, the city underwent efforts of modernisation. Being an agricultural village, the need for urban planning was vital. For this reason, in 1828, Kapodistrias himself appointed mechanic Stamatis Voulgaris as the creator of a city plan which would offer Argos big streets, squares and public spaces. However, both Voulgaris and, later, French architect de Borroczun's plans were not well received by the locals, with the result that the former had to be revised by Zavos. Ultimately, none of the plans were fully implemented. Still, the structural characteristics of de Borroczun's plan can be found in the city today, despite obvious proof of pre-revolutionary layout, such as the unorganised urban sprawl testified in the area from Inachou street to the point where the railway tracks can be found today. After talks concerning the intentions of the Greek government to move the Greek capital from Nafplio to Athens, discussions regarding the possibility of Argos also being a candidate as the potential new capital became more frequent, with supporters of the idea claiming that, unlike Athens, Argos was naturally protected by its position and benefited from a nearby port (Nafplio). Moreover, it was maintained that construction of public buildings would be difficult in Athens, given that most of the land was owned by the Greek church, meaning that a great deal of expropriation would have to take place. On the contrary, Argos did not face a similar problem, having large available areas for this purpose. In the end, the proposition of the Greek capital being moved to Argos was rejected by the father of king Otto, Ludwig, who insisted in making Athens the capital, something which eventually happened in 1834.[19] Mythology[edit] The mythological kings of Argos are (in order): Inachus, Phoroneus, Apis, Argus, Criasus, Phorbas, Triopas, Iasus, Agenor, Crotopus, Sthenelus, Gelanor AKA Pelasgus, Danaus, Lynceus, Abas, Proetus, Acrisius, Perseus, Megapenthes, Argeus and Anaxagoras.[citation needed] An alternative version supplied by Tatian of the original 17 consecutive kings of Argos includes Apis, Argios, Kriasos and Phorbas between Argus and Triopas, explaining the apparent unrelation of Triopas to Argus.[20] The city of Argos was believed to be the birthplace of the mythological character Perseus, the son of the god Zeus and Danaë, who was the daughter of the king of Argos, Acrisius. After the original 17 kings of Argos, there were three kings ruling Argos at the same time (see Anaxagoras),[citation needed] one descended from Bias, one from Melampus, and one from Anaxagoras. Melampus was succeeded by his son Mantius, then Oicles, and Amphiaraus, and his house of Melampus lasted down to the brothers Alcmaeon and Amphilochus. Anaxagoras was succeeded by his son Alector, and then Iphis. Iphis left his kingdom to his nephew Sthenelus, the son of his brother Capaneus. Bias was succeeded by his son Talaus, and then by his son Adrastus who, with Amphiaraus, commanded the disastrous war of the Seven against Thebes. Adrastus bequeathed the kingdom to his son, Aegialeus, who was subsequently killed in the war of the Epigoni. Diomedes, grandson of Adrastus through his son-in-law Tydeus and daughter Deipyle, replaced Aegialeus and was King of Argos during the Trojan war. This house lasted longer than those of Anaxagoras and Melampus, and eventually the kingdom was reunited under its last member, Cyanippus, son of Aegialeus, soon after the exile of Diomedes.[citation needed] Ecclesiastical history[edit] After Christianity became established in Argos, the first bishop documented in extant written records is Genethlius, who in 448 AD took part in the synod called by Archbishop Flavian of Constantinople that deposed Eutyches from his priestly office and excommunicated him. The next bishop of Argos, Onesimus, was at the 451 Council of Chalcedon. His successor, Thales, was a signatory of the letter that the bishops of the Roman province of Hellas sent in 458 to Byzantine Emperor Leo I the Thracian to protest about the killing of Proterius of Alexandria. Bishop Ioannes was at the Third Council of Constantinople in 680, and Theotimus at the Photian Council of Constantinople (879).[21] The local see is today the Greek Orthodox Metropolis of Argolis. Under 'Frankish' Crusader rule, Argos became a Latin Church bishopric in 1212, which lasted as a residential see until Argos was taken by the Ottoman Empire in 1463 [22] but would be revived under the second Venetian rule in 1686. Today the diocese is a Catholic titular see. Characteristics[edit] Orientation[edit] The city of Argos is delimited to the north by dry river Xerias, to the east by Inachos river and Panitsa stream (which emanates from the latter), to the west by the Larissa hill (site of homonymous castle and of a monastery called Panagia Katakekrymeni-Portokalousa) and the Aspida Hill (unofficially Prophetes Elias hill), and to the south by the Notios Periferiakos road. The Agios Petros (Saint Peter) square, along with the eponymous cathedral (dedicated to saint Peter the Wonderworker), make up the town centre, whereas some other characteristic town squares are the Laiki Agora (Open Market) square, officially Dimokratias (Republic) square, where, as implied by its name, an open market takes place twice a week, Staragora (Wheat Market), officially Dervenakia square, and Dikastirion (Court) square. Bonis Park is an essential green space of the city. Currently, the most commercially active streets of the city are those surrounding the Agios Petros square (Kapodistriou, Danaou, Vassileos Konstantinou streets) as well as Korinthou street. The Pezodromi (Pedestrian Streets), i.e. the paved Michael Stamou, Tsaldari and Venizelou streets, are the most popular meeting point, encompassing a wide variety of shops and cafeterias. The neighborhood of Gouva, which extends around the intersection of Vassileos Konstantinou and Tsokri streets, is also considered a commercial point. Population[edit] In 700 BC there were at least 5,000 people living in the city.[23] In the fourth century BC, the city was home to as many as 30,000 people.[24] Today, according to the 2011 Greek census, the city has a population of 22,085. It is the largest city in Argolis, larger than the capital Nafplio. Economy[edit] Municipal market The old City Hall in 2002; built in 1830, it served as the headquarters of municipal government until 2012 The primary economic activity in the area is agriculture. Citrus fruits are the predominant crop, followed by olives and apricots. The area is also famous for its local melon variety, Argos melons (or Argitiko). There is also important local production of dairy products, factories for fruits processing. Considerable remains of the ancient and medieval city survive and are a popular tourist attraction. Monuments[edit] Most of Argos' historical and archaeological monuments are currently unused, abandoned, or only partially renovated: The Larissa castle, built during prehistoric time, which has undergone several repairs and expansions since antiquity and played a significant historical role during the Venetian domination of Greece and the Greek War of Independence.[9] It is located on top of the homonymous Larissa Hill, which also constitutes the highest spot of the city (289 m.). In ancient times, a castle was also found in neighbouring Aspida Hill. When connected with walls, these two castles fortified the city from enemy invasions. The Ancient theatre, built in the 3rd century B.C with a capacity of 20,000 spectators, replaced an older neighbouring theatre of the 5th century BC and communicated with the Ancient Agora. It was visible from any part of the ancient city and the Argolic gulf. In 1829, it was used by Ioannis Kapodistrias for the Fourth National Assembly of the new Hellenic State. Today, cultural events are held at its premises during the summer months.[25] The Ancient Agora, adjacent to the Ancient theatre, which developed in the 6th century B.C., was located at the junction of the ancient roads coming from Corinth, Heraion and Tegea. Excavations in the area have uncovered a bouleuterion, built in 460 B.C. when Argos adopted the democratic regime, a Sanctuary of Apollo Lyceus and a palaestra.[26] The "Criterion" of Argos, an ancient monument located on the southwest side of the town, on the foot of Larissa hill, which came to have its current structure during the 6th-3rd century BC period. Initially, it served as a court of ancient Argos, similar to Areopagus of Athens. According to mythology, it was at this area where Hypermnestra, one of the 50 daughters of Danaus, the first king of Argos, was tried. Later, under the reigns of Hadrian, a fountain was created to collect and circulate water coming from the Hadrianean aqueduct located in northern Argos. The site is connected via a paved path with the ancient theatre.[27] The Barracks of Kapodistrias, a preservable building with a long history. Built in the 1690s during the Venetian domination of Greece, they initially served as a hospital run by the Sisters of Mercy. During the Tourkokratia, they served as a market and a post office. Later, in 1829, significant damage caused during the Greek revolution was repaired by Kapodistrias who turned the building into a cavalry barrack, a school (1893-1894), an exhibition space (1899), a shelter for Greek refugees displaced during the population exchange between Greece and Turkey (since 1920) and an interrogation and torture space (during the German occupation of Greece). In 1955–68, it was used by the army for the last time; it now accommodates the Byzantine Museum of Argos, local corporations and also serves as an exhibition space.[28] The Municipal Neoclassical Market building (unofficially the "Kamares", i.e. arches, from the arches that it boasts), built in 1889, which is located next to Dimokratias square, is one of the finest samples of modern Argos' masterly architecture, in Ernst Ziller style. The elongated, two corridor, preservable building accommodates small shops.[29] The Kapodistrian school, in central Argos. Built by architect Labros Zavos in 1830, as part of Kapodistrias' efforts to provide places of education to the Greek people, it could accommodate up to 300 students. However, technical difficulties led to its decay, until it was restored several times, the last of which being in 1932. Today, its neoclassical character is evident, with the building housing the 1st elementary school of the town.[30] The old Town Hall, built during the time of Kapodistrias in 1830, which originally served as a Justice of the peace, the Dimogerontia of Argos, an Arm of Carabineers and a prison. From 1987 to 2012, it housed the Town Hall which is now located in Kapodistriou street. The House of philhellene Thomas Gordon, built in 1829 that served as an all-girls school, a dance school and was home to the 4th Greek artillery regiment. Today it accommodates the French Institute of Athens (Institut Français d' Athènes).[31] The House of Spyridon Trikoupis (built in 1900), where the politician was born and spent his childhood. Also located in the estate, which is not open to public, is the Saint Charalambos chapel where Trikoupis was baptized.[32] The House of general Tsokris, important military fighter in the Greek revolution of 1821 and later assemblyman of Argos. The temple of Agios Konstadinos, one of the very few remaining buildings in Argos dating from the Ottoman Greece era. It is estimated to have been built in the 1570-1600 period, with a minaret also having existed in its premises. It served as a mosque and an Ottoman cemetery up to 1871, when it was declared a Christian temple.[33] The chambered tombs of the Aspida hill. The Hellinikon Pyramid. Dating back to late 4th B.C., there exist many theories as to the purpose it served (tumulus, fortress). Together with the widely accepted scientific chronology, there are some people who claim it was built shortly after the Pharaoh tomb, i.e. the Great Pyramid of Giza, thus a symbol of the excellent relationship the citizens of Argos had with Egypt. A great number of archaeological findings, dating from the prehistoric ages, can be found at the Argos museum, housed at the old building of Dimitrios Kallergis at Saint Peter's square. The Argos airport, located in an homonymous area (Aerodromio) in the outskirts of the city is also worth mentioning. The area it covers was created in 1916-1917 and was greatly used during the Greco-Italian War and for the training of new Kaberos school aviators for the Hellenic Air Force Academy. It also constituted an important benchmark in the organization of the Greek air forces in southern Greece. Furthermore, the airport was used by the Germans for the release of their aerial troops during the Battle of Crete. It was last used as a landing/take off point for spray planes (for agricultural purposes in the olive tree cultivations) up until 1985.[34] Transportation[edit] The railway station Argos is connected via regular bus services with neighbouring areas as well as Athens. In addition, taxi stands can be found at the Agios Petros as well as the Laiki Agora square. The city also has a railway station which, at the moment, remains closed due to an indefinite halt to all railway services in the Peloponnese area by the Hellenic Railways Organisation. However, in late 2014, it was announced that the station would open up again, as part of an expansion of the Athens suburban railway in Argos, Nafplio and Korinthos.[35][36] Finally in mid 2020 it was announced by the administration of Peloponnese Region their cooperation with the Hellenic Railways Organisation for the metric line and stations maintenance for the purpose of the line's reoperation in the middle of 2021.[37] [38] Education[edit] Argos has a wide range of educational institutes that also serve neighbouring sparsely populated areas and villages. In particular, the city has seven dimotika (primary schools), four gymnasia (junior high), three lyceums (senior high), one vocational school, one music school as well as a Touristical Business and Cooking department and a post-graduate ASPETE department. The city also has two public libraries.[39] Sports[edit] Argos hosts two major sport clubs with presence in higher national divisions and several achievements, Panargiakos F.C. football club, founded in 1926 and AC Diomidis Argous handball club founded in 1976. Other sport clubs that are based in Argos:[40] A.E.K. Argous, Apollon Argous, Aristeas Argous, Olympiakos Argous, Danaoi and Panionios Dalamanaras. Sport clubs based in Argos Club Founded Sports Achievements Panargiakos F.C. 1926 Football Earlier presence in Alpha Ethniki AC Diomidis Argous 1976 Handball Panhellenic and European titles in Greek handball Notable people[edit] Acrisius, mythological king Theoclymenus, mythological prophet Agamemnon, legendary leader of the Achaeans in the Trojan War Acusilaus (6th century BC), logographer and mythographer Ageladas (6th–5th century BC), sculptor Calchas (8th century BC), Homeric mythological seer Karanos (8th century BC), founder of the Macedonian Argead Dynasty Leo Sgouros (13th century), Byzantine despot Nikon the Metanoeite (10th century), Christian saint of Armenian origin, according to some sources born in Argos Pheidon (7th century BC), king of Argos Argus (7th century BC), king of Argos Polykleitos (5th–4th century BC), sculptor Polykleitos the Younger (4th century BC), sculptor Telesilla (6th century BC), Greek poet Bilistiche, hetaira and lover of pharaoh Ptolemy II Philadelphus Eleni Bakopanos (born 1954), Canadian politician Samuel Greene Wheeler Benjamin (1837-1914), American statesman International relations[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Greece Twin towns & sister cities[edit] Argos is twinned with: Veria, Greece Abbeville, France[41] Episkopi, Cyprus[41] Mtskheta, Georgia (1991)[41] Other relations[edit] Most Ancient European Towns Network See also[edit] Argos (dog) Communities of Argos (municipal unit) Kings of Argos List of ancient Greek cities List of settlements in Argolis Notes[edit] ^ "Population & housing census 2011 (2014 revision)" (PDF) (in Greek). National Statistical Service of Greece. ^ a b c Bolender, Douglas J. (2010-09-17). Eventful Archaeologies: New Approaches to Social Transformation in the Archaeological Record. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-1-4384-3423-0. Retrieved 1 January 2011. ^ Kallikratis law Greece Ministry of Interior (in Greek) ^ "Population & housing census 2001 (incl. area and average elevation)" (PDF) (in Greek). National Statistical Service of Greece. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-09-21. ^ MAETN (1999). "diktyo". classic-web.archive.org. Archived from the original on October 22, 2005. Retrieved 19 May 2011. ^ Athanasios Vercetis; Stavroula Petraki (2010). Σεπτεμβρίου ΑΡΓΟΛΙΚΗ ΑΡΧΕΙΑΚΗ ΒΙΒΛΙΟΘΗΚΗ ΙΣΤΟΡΙΑΣ ΚΑΙ ΠΟΛΙΤΙΣΜΟΥ. argolikivivliothiki.gr (in Greek). Argolikos Archival Library of History and Culture. Archived from the original on February 5, 2018. Retrieved 5 February 2018. ^ Oliver D. Hoover, Handbook of Coins of the Peloponnesos: Achaia, Phleiasia, Sikyonia, Elis, Triphylia, Messenia, Lakonia, Argolis, and Arkadia, Sixth to First Centuries BC [The Handbook of Greek Coinage Series, Volume 5], Lancaster/London, Classical Numismatic Group, 2011, pp. 157, 161. ^ Roberts, John (2005). Dictionary of the Classical World. Oxford University Press. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-19-280146-3. ^ a b Παπαθανασίου, Μανώλης. "Κάστρο Άργους". Καστρολόγος. ^ Mackil, Emily, Tyrants in Seventh Century Greece, Lecture, September 20, 2018 ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2015-02-25. Retrieved 2015-03-06.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ a b E. Robinson, Democracy Beyond Athens, Cambridge, 2011, 6-21. ^ a b c d e f 2. Kelly, Thomas. "Argive Foreign Policy in the Fifth Century B.C." Classical Philology 69, no. 2 (1974): 81-99. http://www.jstor.org/stable/268729. ^ Hdt. 6.83; Arist. Pol. 13036-8 ^ E. Robinson, Democracy Beyond Athens, Cambridge, 2011, 10-18. ^ a b c Contingent countryside: settlement, economy, and land use in the southern Argolid since 1700 Authors Susan Buck Sutton, Keith W. Adams, Argolid Exploration Project Editors Susan Buck Sutton, Keith W. Adams Contributor Keith W. Adams Edition illustrated Publisher Stanford University Press, 2000 ISBN 0-8047-3315-5, ISBN 978-0-8047-3315-1 page 28 ^ a b Eventful Archaeologies: New Approaches to Social Transformation in the Archaeological Record The Institute for European and Mediterranean Archaeology Distinguished Monograph Series Author Douglas J. Bolender Editor Douglas J. Bolender Publisher SUNY Press, 2010 ISBN 1-4384-3423-5, ISBN 978-1-4384-3423-0 page 129 link ^ Pappas, Nicholas C. J. "Stradioti: Balkan Mercenaries in Fifteenth and Sixteenth Century Italy". Sam Houston State University. Archived from the original on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2011-11-07. ^ "Το Άργος προτείνεται ως πρωτεύουσα της Ελλάδας (1833 -1834)". February 20, 2009. ^ James Cowles Prichard : An Analysis of the Egyptian Mythology. 1819. p. 85 ^ Michel Lequien, Oriens christianus in quatuor Patriarchatus digestus, Paris 1740, Vol. II, coll. 183-186 ^ Konrad Eubel, Hierarchia Catholica Medii Aevi, vol. 1, p. 105-106; vol. 2, pp. XIV e 94; vol. 3, p. 117; vol. 4, p. 94; vol. 5, p. 98 ^ Urbanism in the Preindustrial World: Cross-Cultural Approaches, p. 37, at Google Books ^ Geology and Settlement: Greco-Roman Patterns, p. 124, at Google Books ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2015-02-21. Retrieved 2015-02-21.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2015-02-21. Retrieved 2015-02-21.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "Αδριάνειο Υδραγωγείο". ΑΡΓΟΛΙΚΗ ΑΡΧΕΙΑΚΗ ΒΙΒΛΙΟΘΗΚΗ ΙΣΤΟΡΙΑΣ ΚΑΙ ΠΟΛΙΤΙΣΜΟΥ. ^ "Στρατώνες Καποδίστρια – Άργος". October 24, 2008. ^ "Δημοτική Νεοκλασική Αγορά Άργους". November 16, 2011. ^ "Καποδιστριακό σχολείο (1ο Δημοτικό Σχολείο Άργους)". March 11, 2009. ^ "Οικία Γόρδωνος, Άργος". November 16, 2008. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2015-07-29.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "Ιερός Ναός Αγίου Κωνσταντίνου στο Άργος". February 19, 2010. ^ "H σχολή Ικάρων στο αεροδρόμιο του Άργους στον πόλεμο του 1940". January 12, 2010. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2014-09-19. Retrieved 2015-02-01.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ Νέα, Σιδηροδρομικά (January 10, 2015). "Σιδηροδρομικά Νέα: Ο ΟΣΕ υλοποιεί την εξαγγελία του για αξιοποίηση της Γραμμής Κόρινθο – Άργος -Ναύπλιο". ^ "θα σφυρίξει ξανά το τρένο στη γραμμή Κόρινθος- Άργος- Ναύπλιο - To Vima Online". 2020-04-10. Retrieved 2020-12-13. ^ "Εξελίξεις στο θέμα του σιδηρόδρομου στην Περιφέρεια Πελοποννήσου - ert.gr". 2020-11-24. Retrieved 2020-12-13. ^ "Μέγαρο «Δαναού», Άργος". November 16, 2008. ^ Argolida Football Clubs Association - List of clubs (in Greek) ^ a b c "Twinnings" (PDF). Central Union of Municipalities & Communities of Greece. Retrieved 2013-08-25. Sources and external links[edit] Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Argos. Official website Website of abolished Municipality of Argos (web archive) GCatholic with incumbent bio links The Theatre at Argos, The Ancient Theatre Archive, Theatre specifications and virtual reality tour of theatre v t e Subdivisions of the municipality of Argos-Mykines Municipal unit of Achladokampos Achladokampos Municipal unit of Alea Agios Nikolaos Alea Frousiouna Skoteini Municipal unit of Argos Argos Dalamanara Elliniko Inachos Ira Kefalari Kourtaki Laloukas Pyrgella Municipal unit of Koutsopodi Koutsopodi Malantreni Schinochori Vrousti Municipal unit of Lerna Andritsa Kiveri Myloi Skafidaki Municipal unit of Lyrkeia Fregkaina Gymno Kaparelli Karya Kefalovryso Lyrkeia Neochori Sterna Municipal unit of Mykines Borsas Fichti Limnes Monastiraki Mykines Neo Iraio Prosymna Municipal unit of Nea Kios Nea Kios v t e Most Ancient European Towns Network Argos (Greece) Béziers (France) Cádiz (Spain) Colchester (UK) Cork (Ireland) Évora (Portugal) Maastricht (Netherlands) Roskilde (Denmark) Tongeren (Belgium) Worms (Germany) v t e Stato da Màr of the Republic of Venice Adriatic Sea Istria (10th century – 1797) Dalmatia (11th century – 1797) Durazzo (Durrës) (1205–1213, 1392–1501) Venetian Albania (1420–1797) Ionian Islands and dependencies Cerigo (Cythera) and Cerigotto (Anticythera) (1363–1797) Corfu and Paxi (1386–1797) Parga (1401–1797) Zante (Zakynthos) (1479–1797) Cephalonia (1500–1797) Ithaca (1500–1797) Santa Maura (Leucas) (1684–1797) Vonitsa (1684–1797) Preveza (1717–1797) Mainland Greece Modon and Coron (1207–1500) Negroponte (Euboea) (1209/1390–1470) Pteleos (1322–1470) Napoli di Romania (Nafplio) (1388–1540) Argos (1394–1463) Lepanto (Nafpaktos) (1407–1540, 1687–1699) Patras (1408–1413) Athens (1395–1402) Thessalonica (1423–1430) Navarino (1417–1500) Monemvasia (1463–1540) Kingdom of the Morea (1687–1715) Aegean Islands Hydra (1204-1566) Samothrachi (1204-1355) Spezia (1220-1460) Crete (1205–1669), then only Souda, Gramvousa and Spinalonga (until 1715) Mykonos (1390–1537) Duchy of the Archipelago (1383–1537/79), then only Sifnos (1383–1617) and Tinos (1390–1715) Skiathos, Skopelos, Alonissos and Skyros (1453–1538) Aegina (1451–1537, 1687–1715) Poros (1484–1715) Other Constantinople (1204–1261) Gallipoli (1204–1235) Rodosto (1204–1235) Soldaia (Sudak) (13th century – 1365) Cyprus (1489–1571) Related articles Fourth Crusade Partitio Romaniae Podestà of Constantinople Frankokratia Ottoman–Venetian wars Venetian–Genoese wars Venetian navy Fall of the Republic of Venice Authority control BNF: cb120111125 (data) GND: 4079822-7 NKC: ge847667 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Argos,_Peloponnese&oldid=998631151" Categories: Argos, Peloponnese Populated places in ancient Argolis Ancient Greek sanctuaries in Greece Aegean palaces of the Bronze Age Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Peloponnese (region) Mycenaean sites in Argolis Byzantine sites in Greece Stato da Màr Greek city-states Populated places in Argolis Hidden categories: CS1 Greek-language sources (el) Articles with Greek-language sources (el) CS1 uses Greek-language script (el) CS1 maint: archived copy as title Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2018 Articles needing additional references from April 2016 All articles needing additional references Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikivoyage Languages Alemannisch አማርኛ العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Scots Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Vèneto Winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 January 2021, at 08:41 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2508	----	Finger Snail - Wikipedia Finger Snail From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Pharaoh Finger snail was an ancient Egyptian ruler (Pharaoh) from the pre-Dynastic period of prehistoric Egypt.[1][2][3] It is disputed whether he really existed as the reading of his name as king's name is far from certain. Most scholars do not read the known signs as king's name.[4] He may have been the first king of a united upper Egypt.[5][6] The name is preserved in the inscriptions in the tomb U-j of King Scorpion I in Umm el-Qa'ab.[7] References[edit] ^ Thomas Kühn: The Origin of Egyptian Writing in the Predynastic Period. In: The predynastic period. Kemet issue 4/2001. Kemet-Verlag, 2001, ISSN 0943-5972, pp. 32-33. ^ Michael Höveler-Müller: "On the early kings "Finger Snail" and "Fish" from the tomb U-j in Umm el-Qaab". In: Studies on Ancient Egyptian Culture (SAK) 37. Buske, Hamburg 2008, pp. 159–167. ^ Hermann A. Schlögl: Das alte Ägypten. Beck, Munich 2008, ISBN 3-406-48005-5, p. 59. ^ Jochem Kahl (2006): Inscriptional Evidence For The Relative Chronology Of Dyns. 0–2 In: Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss, And David A. Warburton (editors), Ancient Egyptian Chronology, Brill: Leiden, Boston, ISBN 9789004113855, p. 96 ^ Jürgen Schraten, Zur Aktualität von Jan Assmann: Einleitung in sein Werk (Springer-Verlag, 11.11.2010) page 59. ^ [1]. ^ https://nefershapiland.de/Skorpion%20I.htm, v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Finger_Snail&oldid=988703355" Categories: 33rd-century BC Pharaohs 32nd-century BC births 32nd-century BC Pharaohs 32nd-century BC rulers Predynastic Egypt Predynastic pharaohs People whose existence is disputed Ancient Egypt people stubs Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Português Edit links This page was last edited on 14 November 2020, at 19:38 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2519	----	Semerkhet - Wikipedia Semerkhet From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Semerkhet Semempses, Mempses Alabaster vase of Semerkhet, the inscription reads King Iry-Nebty visits the house-of-the-pleased-king, oil jars for it, National Archaeological Museum (France) Pharaoh Reign 8½ years, ca. 2920 BC (First Dynasty) Predecessor Anedjib Successor Qa'a Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Nisut-Bity-Nebty-Iry nsw.t-bty-nb.ty-iry King of Upper and Lower Egypt, he of the two ladies, he who belongs to them Alternative: He whom the two ladies guard[1] Horus name Hor-Semerkhet Ḥr-smr.ẖt Companion of the divine community Alternative: Companion of the gods[1] Abydos King List Iry?/Semsu? iry?/smsw? Turin King List Semsem smsm The elder of Horus Father Anedjib ? Den ? Mother Betrest Burial Tomb U, Umm el-Qa'ab Semerkhet is the Horus name of an early Egyptian king who ruled during the First Dynasty. This ruler became known through a tragic legend handed down by the historian Manetho, who reported that a calamity of some sort occurred during Semerkhet's reign. The archaeological records seem to support the view that Semerkhet had a difficult time as king and some early archaeologists questioned the legitimacy of Semerkhet's succession to the Egyptian throne. Contents 1 Length of reign 2 Name sources 3 Identity 4 Reign 5 Tomb 6 References 7 External links Length of reign[edit] Manetho named Semerkhet Semêmpsés and credited him with a reign of 18 years,[2] whilst the Royal Canon of Turin credited him with an implausibly long reign of 72 years.[3] Egyptologists and historians now consider both statements as exaggerations and credit Semerkhet with a reign of 8½ years. This evaluation is based on the Cairo Stone inscription, where the complete reign of Semerkhet has been recorded. Additionally, they point to the archaeological records, which strengthen the view that Semerkhet had a relatively short reign.[4] Name sources[edit] Semsu, cartouche name of Semerkhet in the Abydos king list Semerkhet is well attested in archaeological records. His name appears in inscriptions on vessels made of schist, alabaster, breccia, and marble. His name is also preserved on ivory tags and earthen jar seals. Objects bearing Semerkhet's name and titles come from Abydos and Sakkara.[4][5] Semerkhet's serekh name is commonly translated as "companion of the divine community" or "thoughtful friend". The latter translation is questioned by many scholars, since the hieroglyph khet (Gardiner-sign F32) normally was the symbol for "body" or "divine community".[4][5][6] Pottery sherd inscribed with Semerkhet's serekh name, originally from his tomb, now in the Petrie Museum, UC 36756 Semerkhet's birth name is more problematic. Any artefact showing his birth name curiously lacks any artistic detail of the used hieroglyphic sign: a walking man with waving cloak or skirt, a nemes head dress, and a long, plain stick in his hands. The reading and meaning of this special sign is disputed, since it doesn't appear in this form before association with king Semerkhet. Indeed, the hieroglyph of the cloaked man is extremely rare. It appears only twice in relief inscriptions depicting ceremonial processions of priests and standard bearers.[4][5] Egyptologists such as Toby Wilkinson, Bernhard Grdseloff, and Jochem Kahl read Iry-Netjer, meaning "divine guardian". During the Old Kingdom period, this word is written with uniliteral signs of a netjer flag (Gardiner-sign R8) and a human eye (Gardiner-sign D4) nearby the ideogram of the man. Some contemporary ivory tags show the Nebty name written with the single eye symbol only. Thus, the scholars also read Semerkhet's throne name as Iry (meaning "guardian") and the Nebty name as Iry-Nebty (meaning "guardian of the Two Ladies"). This reconstruction is strengthened by the observation that Semerkhet was the first king using the Nebty title in its ultimate form. For unknown reason Semerkhet did not use the Nebuy title of his predecessor. It seems that he felt connected with the 'Two Ladies', a title referring to the goddesses Nekhbet and Wadjet, the patron deities of the Ancient Egyptians who were worshiped by all after the unification of its two parts, Lower Egypt, and Upper Egypt. The Nebty title in turn was thought to function as an addition to the Nisut-Bity title.[5][6][7] His prenomen is Nisut-Bity-Nebty-Iry, nsw.t-bty-nb.ty-irymeaning, King of Upper and Lower Egypt, he of the two ladies, and he who belongs to them or He whom the two ladies guard.[1] Scribes and priests of the Ramesside era were also confused, because the archaic ideogram that was used during Semerkhet's lifetime was very similar to the sign of an old man with a walking stick (Gardiner sign A19). This had been read as Semsu or Sem and means "the eldest". It was used as a title identifying someone as the head of the house. Due to this uncertainty, it seems that the compiler of the Abydos king list simply tried to imitate the original figure, whilst the author of the Royal Canon of Turin seems to have been convinced about reading it as the Gardiner-sign A19 and he wrote Semsem with uniliteral signs. The Royal Table of Sakkara omits Semerkhet's throne name. The reason for that is unknown, but all kings from Narmer up to king Den also are missing their throne names.[5][6][7] Identity[edit] See also: First Dynasty of Egypt family tree Nebty name of Semerkhet from Djoser's pyramid complex at Saqqara[8] Virtually nothing is known about Semerkhet's family. His parents are unknown, but it is thought that one of his predecessors, king Den, might have been his father. Possibly, Semerkhet was born to queen Betrest. On the Cairo Stone she is described as his mother, but definite evidence for that view has not yet been found. It would be expected that Semerkhet had sons and daughters, but their names have not been preserved in the historical record. A candidate as a possible member of his family line is his immediate successor, king Qa'a.[9] Reign[edit] Ivory label of Semerkhet Ivory label of Semerkhet, on display in the British Museum. The right section, introduced by the 'year'-sign Renpet (a bald palm stem), reports -from top to bottom- a feast of the Sokar-bark, a visitation to the temple of the ancestor-deity, Wer-Wadyt, and the travelling in a royal boat. The left part of the label shows the throne name Iry-Nebty of Semerkhet with a blessing wish below. On the upper left corner is described the content of the jar, to which the label was once adjusted. Also the name of the high official Henuka is preserved, who was obviously responsible for the delivery of the mentioned jar. An old theory, supported by Egyptologists and historians such as Jean-Philippe Lauer, Walter Bryan Emery, Wolfgang Helck, and Michael Rice once held that Semerkhet was a usurper and not the rightful heir to the throne. Their assumption was based on the observation that a number of stone vessels with Semerkhet's name on them, originally were inscribed with king Adjib's name. Semerkhet simply erased Adjib's name and replaced it with his own. Furthermore, they point out that no high official and priest associated with Semerkhet was found at Sakkara. All other kings, such as Den and Adjib, are attested in local mastabas.[4][10][11] Today this theory has little support. Egyptologists such as Toby Wilkinson, I. E. S. Edwards, and Winifred Needler deny the 'usurping theory', because Semerkhet's name is mentioned on stone vessel inscriptions along with those of Den, Adjib, and Qa'a. The objects were found in the underground galleries beneath the Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara. The inscriptions show that king Qa'a, immediate successor of Semerkhet and sponsor of the vessels, accepted Semerkhet as a rightful ancestor and heir to the throne. Furthermore, the Egyptologists point out that nearly every king of First Dynasty had the habit of taking special vessels (so-called 'anniversary vessels') from their predecessor's tomb and then replacing their predecessor's name with their own. Semerkhet not only confiscated Adjib's vessels, in his tomb several artefacts from the necropolis of queen Meritneith and king Den also were found. The lack of any high official's tomb at Saqqara might be explained by the rather short reign of Semerkhet. It seems that the only known official of Semerkhet, Henu-Ka, had survived his king: His name appears on ivory tags from Semerkhet's and Qaa's tomb.[5][9] Seal impressions from Semerkhet's burial site show the new royal domain, Hor wep-khet, (meaning "Horus, the judge of the divine community") and the new private household Hut-Ipty (meaning "house of the harem"), which was headed by Semerkhet's wives. Two ivory tags show the yearly 'Escort of Horus', a feast connected to the regular tax collections. Other tags report the cult celebration for the deity of the ancestors, Wer-Wadyt ("the Great White"). And further tags show the celebration of a first (and only) Sokar feast.[5][12][13] While the Cairo Stone reports the whole of Semerkhet's reign, unfortunately, the surface of the stone slab is badly worn and most of the events are now illegible. The following chart follows the reconstructions by Toby A. H. Wilkinson, John D. Degreef, and Hermann Alexander Schlögl: Cairo Stone, main fragment: Year of coronation: Appearance of the king of Lower- and Upper Egypt; unifying the two realms; circumambulation of the White Wall of Memphis first year: Escort of Horus; destruction of Egypt second year: Appearance of the king; creation of a statue for Seshat and Sed third year: Escort of... (rest is missing) fourth year: Appearance of the king of Upper Egypt; creation of... (rest is missing) fifth year: Escort of... (rest is missing) sixth year: Appearance of the king of Upper Egypt... (rest is missing) seventh year: Escort of... (rest is missing) eighth year: Appearance of the king of Lower- and Upper Egypt... (rest is missing) year of death: The ...th month and ...th day. (damaged) [7][13][14] Egyptologists and historians pay special attention to the entrance "Destruction of Egypt" in the second window of Semerkhet's year records. The inscription gives no further information about that event, but it has a resemblance to the Manetho's report. The Eusebian version says: "His son, Semémpsês, who reigned for 18 years; in his reign a very great calamity befell Egypt." The Armenian version sounds similar: "Mempsis, 18 years. Under him many portents happened and a great pestilence occurred." None of the documents from after Semerkhet's reign provide any details about this "calamity".[2][7][13] Tomb[edit] Map of Semerkhet's tomb in the Umm el-Qa'ab[15] Semerkhet's burial site was excavated in 1899 by archaeologist and Egyptologist Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie at Abydos and is known as "Tomb U". While excavating, Petrie found no stairways as he did at the necropolis of Den and Adjib. He found a ramp, four metres wide and leading straight into the main chamber. The ramp starts approximately ten metres east outside the tomb and has a base slope of 12°. Inside the tomb the ramp shows irregular graduations. Petrie was also confused by the small number of clay seals. Only 17 seals were found. For archaeologists and Egyptologists, the complete arrangement of the burial site suggests that the builders were pressed for time. When Petrie freed the ramp from sand, he found that the complete ramp was thickly covered in aromatic oil, which still gave off a scent. Beside the ramp several wooden and hand-made baskets and earthen jars were found. These were dated to the Ramesside era. Scholars now think that Semerkhet's tomb was re-opened and restored when Ramesside priests and kings saw the tomb of king Djer as the ritual burial of Osiris's head. The findings inside the main chamber included precious objects such as inlays and fragments of furniture (especially pedestals), copper-made armatures, and jewelry made of ebony, amethyst, and turquoise. Some vessels originating from the Levant also were found. They once contained Bescha oil, which was of great value to the Egyptians. Outside the tomb, close to the entrance, a damaged tomb stela made of black granite displaying Semerkhet's serekh name was excavated.[5][11][16][17][18] The burial chamber measures 29.2 × 20.8 metres and is of simple construction. Petrie found that the king's mastaba once covered the whole of the subsidiary tombs. Now the royal burial formed a unit with the 67 subsidiary tombs. Egyptologists such as Walter Bryan Emery and Toby Wilkinson see this architectural development as proof that the royal family and household were killed willingly when their royal family head had died. Wilkinson goes further and thinks that Semerkhet, as the godlike king, tried to demonstrate his power over the death and life of his servants and family members even in their afterlife. The tradition of burying the family and court of the king when he died was abandoned at the time of king Qaa, one of the last rulers of the First Dynasty. The tombs of Second Dynasty founder, Hotepsekhemwy, onward have no subsidiary tombs.[11][16][18] Calcite dish, from Royal Tomb "U" , Semerkhet, at Abydos, Egypt, First Dynasty, The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London Pottery shard bearing Semerkhet's serekh, on display at the Musée du Louvre Clay jar incised with Semerkhet's serekh, Musée du Louvre Fragment of a vessel of white marble bearing the serekh of Semerkhet, at the left of the serekh a per bja, meaning "brazen house" or "house of ore", is mentioned, Egyptian Museum, Cairo Tomb stela of Semerkh References[edit] ^ a b c Nicolas Grimal, Ian Shaw (translator): A History of Ancient Egypt, 1992, Oxford: Blackwell publishing, ISBN 978-0-63-119396-8, p. 54 ^ a b William Gillian Waddell: Manetho (The Loeb Classical Library, Volume 350). Harvard University Press, Cambridge (Mass.) 2004 (Reprint), ISBN 0-674-99385-3, page 33–37. ^ Alan H. Gardiner: The royal Canon of Turin. Griffith Institute of Oxford, Oxford (UK) 1997, ISBN 0-900416-48-3; page 15 & Table I. ^ a b c d e Wolfgang Helck: Untersuchungen zur Thinitenzeit. (Ägyptologische Abhandlungen, Volume 45), Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1987, ISBN 3-447-02677-4, page 124, 160 - 162 & 212 - 214. ^ a b c d e f g h Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, London 1999, ISBN 0-415-18633-1, page 78, 79 & 275. ^ a b c Jochem Kahl, Markus Bretschneider, Barbara Kneissler: Frühägyptisches Wörterbuch, Band 1. Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2002, ISBN 3-447-04594-9, Seite 46. ^ a b c d Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Royal Annals of Ancient Egypt: the Palermo Stone and its Associated Fragments. Kegan Paul International, London 2000, ISBN 0-7103-0667-9, page 76. ^ Pierre Lacau, J.-Ph. Lauer: La Pyramide a Degrees. Band 4: Inscriptions gravées sur les vases. Fasc. 1: Planches. Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale, Kairo 1959, Abb. 37. ^ a b Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards: Early History of the Middle East (The Cambridge Ancient History; Vol. 1, Pt. 2). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2006, ISBN 0-521-07791-5, page 27–31. ^ Michael Rice: Egypt's Making: the Origins of Ancient Egypt, 5000-2000 BC. Taylor & Francis, London/New York 1990, ISBN 0-415-05092-8, page 127. ^ a b c Walter Bryan Emery: Ägypten, Geschichte und Kultur der Frühzeit, 3200-2800 v. Chr. Fourier, Wiesbaden 1964, ISBN 0-415-18633-1, page 15–17 & 94–95. ^ Eva-Maria Engel: The Domain of Semerkhet. In: Stan Hendrickx: Studies in Memory of Barbara Adams: Proceedings of the International Conference „Origin of the State, Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt“, Krakow, 28th August - 1st September 2002. Peeters, Leuven 2004, ISBN 90-429-1469-6, page 705–710. ^ a b c Hermann A. Schlögl: Das alte Ägypten. Beck, München 2008, ISBN 3-406-48005-5, page 71–72. ^ Ian Shaw & Paul T. Nicholson: The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt. Harry N. Abrams, New York 2003, ISBN 0-8109-9096-2, page 202. ^ Dieter Arnold: Lexikon der ägyptischen Baukunst, Patmos Verlag, 2000, S. 11 ^ a b Ian Shaw: The Oxford history of ancient Egypt. University Press, Oxford (UK) 2003, ISBN 0-19-280458-8, page 69. ^ G. Dreyer, A. Effland, U. Effland, E.M. Engel, H. Hartmann, R. Hartung, Lacher, Müller, Pokorny: Excavations in the Tomb of Semerkhet. In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Institut Kairo, vol. 62. von Zabern, Mainz 2006, page 95-97. ^ a b Günter Dreyer: Zur Rekonstruktion der Oberbauten der Königsgräber der 1. Dynastie in Abydos (Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Kairo 47). von Zabern, Mainz 1991, page 56. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Semerkhet. Francesco Raffaele: Semerkhet - nisut-bity Iry Preceded by Anedjib Pharaoh of Egypt Succeeded by Qa'a v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e First Dynasty of Ancient Egypt Pharaohs Menes/Narmer Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Regents Neithhotep Merneith Queen consorts Benerib Herneith Penebui Nakhtneith (Khenthap) Semat Serethor Seshemetka Betrest Officials Amka Hemaka Sabef Meriiti Other people Ahaneith Artefacts and monuments Narmer macehead Narmer palette Tomb of Anedjib Den seal impressions Abydos boats MacGregor plaque Mastabas S3503 and S3504 Capital Thinis Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Semerkhet&oldid=999244675" Categories: 30th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the First Dynasty of Egypt 30th century BC in Egypt 30th-century BC rulers Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from November 2013 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Commons category link from Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Ripoarisch Русский 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en-wikipedia-org-2522	----	Nebka - Wikipedia Nebka From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the Old Kingdom pharaoh. For the desert landform, see Nabkha. Nebka Necherôchis, Necherôphes, likely identical with Sanakht Cartouche name of Nebka on the Abydos King List Pharaoh Reign duration uncertain in the 27th century BCE, possibly six years if identical with Sanakht,[1] 19 years according to the Turin Canon,[2] 28 years following Africanus' epithome of the Aegytiaca. (Third Dynasty) Predecessor Sekhemkhet (most likely), Khaba or Khasekhemwy Successor Khaba, Huni or Djoser (less likely) Royal titulary Nomen Tomb of Akhetaa (Third dynasty) Nebka Nb-k3 Lord of the ka or Possessor of a ka.[3] Abydos King List Nebka Nb-k3 Lord of the ka Saqqara King List Nebkara Nb-k3-r3 Lord of the Ka of Râ Turin King List Nebka... Nb-k3 Lord of the ka Nebka (meaning "Lord of the ka") is the throne name of an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the Third Dynasty during the Old Kingdom period, in the 27th century BCE. He is thought to be identical with the Hellenized name Νεχέρωχις (Necherôchis or Necherôphes) recorded by the Egyptian priest Manetho of the much later Ptolemaic period. Nebka's name is otherwise recorded from the near contemporaneous tomb of a priest of his cult as well as in a possible cartouche from Beit Khallaf, later New Kingdom king lists and in a story of the Westcar Papyrus. If the Beit Khallaf seal impression is indeed a cartouche of Nebka, then he is the earliest king to have thus recorded his throne name, otherwise this innovation can be ascribed to Huni. Nebka is thought by most Egyptologists to be the throne name of Sanakht, the third or fourth ruler of the Third Dynasty, who is sparsely attested by archaeological evidence and must have had only a short reign. Older hypotheses followed two New Kingdom sources which credit Nebka with founding the Third Dynasty, a view that is now believed to contradict the archaeological evidence. The tomb of Nebka has not been located with any certainty and three locations have been proposed: a mastaba in Beit Khallaf attributed to Sanakht by John Garstang, a mudbrick structure in Abu Rawash seen as the tomb of Nebka by Swelim and Dodson, and the Unfinished Northern Pyramid of Zawyet El Aryan. Contents 1 Name sources 2 Identity 3 Chronology 4 Tomb 5 References and sources 5.1 References 5.2 Sources Name sources[edit] The earliest source for Nebka's name is the mastaba tomb of the late Third Dynasty high official Akhetaa who, among other positions, held that of "priest of Nebka".[4][5][6] The exact location of Akhetaa's mastaba is now lost, hindering further research. It may be near Abusir, where some relief-bearing blocks from the tomb were found re-used as construction material.[7] The next oldest source is found in a story recorded on the Westcar Papyrus which dates to the Seventeenth Dynasty, but which was likely first written during the late Middle Kingdom period,[8] possibly at the end of the Twelfth Dynasty.[9] There, a king Nebka is cited in the story known as “Nebka and the crocodile”, which pertains to adultery and the typical sort of punishment for that during the Old Kingdom. The story throws a positive light on the personality of king Nebka, who is depicted as a strict but lawful judge. He punishes mischief and unethical behavior, in this case punishing the betrayal of an unfaithful wife with the death penalty.[10][11] The passage involving Nebka starts after a magician, Ubaoner, throws a commoner who had an affair with Ubaoner's wife to a crocodile, who swallows him for seven days: During these seven days Ubaoner is received by pharaoh Nebka for an important audience. After the audience Ubaoner invites Nebka to visit his house with the words: “May thy majesty proceed and see the wonder that has happened in the time of thy majesty [... text damaged ...] a commoner.” Nebka and Ubaoner walk to the lake where Ubaoner orders the crocodile to come out of the water and to release the commoner. When king Nebka sees that he says: “This crocodile is dangerous!” But Ubaoner bends down and touches the crocodile and immediately it becomes a figurine of wax again. Then Ubaoner gives a report to Nebka about the affairs. Nebka tells the crocodile: “Take away what is yours!” and the animal grabs the commoner and then disappears. The wife of Ubaoner is brought to Nebka too, and the pharaoh sentences her to death. She is brought to a place east of the palace and burnt alive. Her ash is thrown into the Nile.[10][12][11] The subsequent historical sources date to the Nineteenth Dynasty: the Royal Table of Saqqara mentions a Nebkara close to the end of the Third Dynasty as the direct successor of Sekhemket and predecessor of Huni. This Nebkara is likely a variant of the name Nebka.[13][14][15] The near contemporaneous Abydos King list and Turin canon record a king Nebka, this time as the founder of the Third Dynasty.[16] Finally, a king Necherôchis is listed as the founder of the Third Dynasty in the Aegyptiaca, a history of Egypt written in the 3rd century BCE during the reign of Ptolemy II (283–246 BCE) by an Egyptian priest, Manetho. No copies of the Aegyptiaca have survived to this day and it is now known only through later writings by Sextus Julius Africanus and Eusebius, themselves quoted by the Byzantine scholar George Syncellus. According to these sources, the Aegyptiaca gave Necherôchis as the predecessor of Sesorthos or Tosorthros, both names being widely held to refer to Djoser as the Aegyptiaca credits Sesorthos with the invention of stone architecture. Necherôchis (Eusebius) or Necherôphes (Africanus), both likely Hellenized forms of Nebka, is said to have faced a rebellion of Libyans during his reign, but "when the moon waxed beyond reckoning, they surrendered in terror".[17] Africanus further credits Necherôphes with 28 years of reign.[18] Identity[edit] Seal impression from Beit Khallaf showing Sanakht's serekh together with what could be a cartouche of Nebka.[19] Nebka's identity with respect to other Third Dynasty rulers is now partially settled. Most scholars including Thomas Schneider,[2] Darell Baker,[20] Peter Clayton,[21] Michel Baud,[22] Jaromír Málek,[23] Toby Wilkinson,[24] Kenneth Anderson Kitchen,[15] Stephan Seidlmayer,[25] Michael Rice,[26] Donald Leprohon[3] and Rainer Stadelmann are convinced that Nebka was identical with Hor-Sanakht. This opinion is based on a single fragmentary clay seal discovered by Garstand in 1902 in Beit Khallaf,[27][28] a locality north of Abydos.[22] Kurt Sethe proposed that the damaged sealing shows the serekh of Sanakht next to a fragmentary cartouche housing an archaic form of the sign for "ka".[29] The cartouche is believed to be just large enough to have enclosed the further sign "Neb".[28] In addition, a further two dozen sealings of Sanakht were uncovered in Beit Khallaf's nearby tomb K2,[28][30][1] which John Garstang believed to be this king's tomb.[27][28] If the identification of Nebka with Sanakht is correct, then Nebka is the earliest king to write his throne name in a cartouche and otherwise this innovation would pass to Huni.[31] Egyptologists John D. Degreef, Nabil Swelim and Wolfgang Helck resisted the equation of Nebka with Sanakht in earlier research. They underline the heavily damaged nature of the Beit Khallaf seal fragment and hence that the alleged cartouche can be hardly identified with certainty. Instead, they propose that the cartouche could actually be the oval-shaped crest of a royal fortress with one or several boats in it, a city that may have already been mentioned under the name “Elder's boats” in sources dating to the Second Dynasty king Peribsen.[2][14][32] Chronology[edit] Relief fragment of Sanakht from Sinai Nebka's relative chronological position has been the subject of debate in earlier Egyptology, as he is listed as the first pharaoh of the Third Dynasty in both the Turin (third column, seventh line) and Abydos (15th entry) king lists.[20] Some Egyptologists including Málek tried to reconcile this position in the list with the evidence from Beit Khallaf by proposing that Nebka Sanakht reigned for a short time between the last Second Dynasty ruler Khasekhemwy and Djoser, whom Málek sees as a younger brother to Sanakht.[33] This is now understood to "flatly contradict" (quoting Wilkinson) much archaeological evidence,[34][35] which rather point to Djoser as the first ruler of the dynasty and Sekhemket as his immediate successor. For example, numerous seal fragments of Djoser uncovered in the tomb of Khasekhemwy strongly suggest that he buried this king who might have been his father. Khasekhemwy's wife and likely Djoser's mother, queen Nimaethap, was herself buried in tomb K1 of Beit Khallaf which yielded many seals of Djoser but none of Sanakht.[28] Nimaethap was furthermore given the title of “Mother of a king”, that is with a singular, implying that she had only one son who ascended the throne, precluding the reign of Sanakht between those of Khasekhemwy and Djoser. Kitchen also observes that the Turin Canon gives exactly the same reign length of 19 years to both Nebka and Djoser, hinting at an error in the placement of Nebka's name on the canon and the attribution of Djoser's regnal years to Nebka.[2][14][32][36] In addition, the Saqqara king list places Nebka after Sekhemket rather than before Djoser.[20] Further indirect evidence for Nebka's placement in the late Third Dynasty comes from the Papyrus Westcar, which records the story of "Nebka and the crocodile" between two tales set in the reigns of Djoser and Huni and Sneferu, respectively.[37] Evidence from the tomb of Akhetaa regarding the chronological position of Nebka is inconclusive: on the one hand, Akhetaa's title could indicate that he was priest of the cult of the reigning king and thus that Nebka was alive at the end of the Third Dynasty. On the other hand, it could equally be that Akhetaa was priest of a funerary cult, in which case Nebka's placement could be somewhat earlier.[34] Given the likely identification of Nebka with Sanakht and the placement of the later in the late Third Dynasty, perhaps as the penultimate king of this line, it is possible that Nebka Sanakht reigned for six years. This is the duration credited by the Turin canon to the immediate predecessor of Huni, whose name is lost,[1] and in any case a short reign better fits the scant archaeological evidence for both Nebka and Sanakht.[1][3][16] Tomb[edit] Skull uncovered in Beit Khallaf tomb K2, attributed to Sanakht by Garstang.[38] The bones found in K2 exhibit gigantism, as the individual was over 1.87 m (6 ft 1 1⁄2 in) tall. The tomb of Nebka has not been located with any certainty, nor has that of Sanakht. Garstang, who excavated mastaba K2 at Beit Khallaf, believed that it belonged to Sanakht as seals bearing this pharaoh's name were uncovered there, beside a burial.[27][38] Dieter Arnold and other Egyptologists now think mastaba K2 was the tomb of a private individual rather than a royal one,[39] though the old theory is still supported. Swelim and Aidan Dodson have instead proposed that a mudbrick structure located in Abu Rawash could be the tomb of Nebka. Dodson states that it is a "mudbrick enclosure 330 m × 170 m (1,080 ft × 560 ft) with a 20 m (66 ft) central square massif of the same material, located north of the modern village of Abu Roash, known as El Dair. It has been badly damaged by drainage work since first being discovered in 1902, and now may be beyond saving. However, the plan seems to closely resemble royal funerary monuments of the late Second and early Third Dynasties, while pottery from the site has been dated to the latter period".[40] Stone sarcophagus from the unfinished Northern Pyramid of Zawyet El Aryan. On the other hand, some Egyptologists have noticed that Nebka's name seems to be inscribed in the Unfinished Northern Pyramid of Zawyet El Aryan under the form Nebkara, so that this structure could have been started by this king. More precisely, they point to several graffiti made of black and red ink which were found in the chamber and in the descending stairway of the pyramid. Alessandro Barsanti recorded at least 67 inscriptions with the names of different workmen crews as well as the name of the planned pyramid complex: Seba ?-Ka, meaning "The Star of ?-Ka". The workmen crew whose name appears most often — thus being the leading crew during the building works — was Wer-ef-seba ?-Ka, meaning "Great Like the Star of (King) ?-Ka". Inscription No. 35 gives the name Neferka-Nefer (meaning "His Beautiful Ka is Flawless"), but otherwise lacks any reference to known people from the Third or Fourth Dynasty, to which this pyramid is usually ascribed. Graffiti No. 15 and No. 52 mention the royal name Nebkarâ, meaning "Lord of the Ka of Râ" and a further inscription, No. 55, mentions a possible Horus of Gold name: Neb hedjet-nwb, meaning "Lord of the Golden Crown". Some Egyptologists propose that this is either the Horus name of king Huni or the Horus of Gold name of Nebka.[41][42][43] References and sources[edit] References[edit] ^ a b c d Wilkinson 1999, p. 102. ^ a b c d Schneider 2002, pp. 167 & 243. ^ a b c Leprohon 2013, p. 33. ^ Wilkinson 1999, pp. 102–103. ^ Weill 1908, pp. 262–273, pls. VI–VII. ^ Porter, Moss & Burney 1974, p. 500. ^ Ziegler 1999, pp. 189–190. ^ Parkinson 2001, p. 24. ^ Burkard, Thissen & Quack 2003, p. 178. ^ a b Lepper 2008, pp. 35–41 & 308–310. ^ a b Lichtheim 2000, pp. 215–220. ^ Erman 1890, pp. 7–10. ^ von Beckerath 1999, pp. 49, 283 & 293. ^ a b c Helck 1987. ^ a b Kitchen 1998, pp. 534–538. ^ a b Baker 2008, pp. 347–348. ^ Waddell 1971, pp. 42–43. ^ Waddell 1971, p. 41. ^ Garstang 1903, pl. XIX. ^ a b c Baker 2008, p. 347. ^ Clayton 1994, p. 32. ^ a b Baud 2007, pp. 19–20 & 41. ^ Málek 2000, p. 96. ^ Wilkinson 1999, pp. 101–104. ^ Seidlmayer 1996, p. 121, pl. 23. ^ Rice 1999, p. 174. ^ a b c Garstang 1903, pp. 3, 11–14, 24–25 & pls. XVII, XIX & XXIII. ^ a b c d e Baker 2008, p. 348. ^ Pätznik 2005, pp. 69–72 & 78–80. ^ Kahl 2001, p. 592. ^ Verner 2001, p. 586. ^ a b Wildung 1969, pp. 54–58. ^ Málek 2000, pp. 85 & 87. ^ a b Wilkinson 1999, p. 103. ^ Kahl 2001, p. 591. ^ Swelim 1983, pp. 196–198. ^ Parkinson 2001, p. 25. ^ a b Myers 1901, pp. 152–153. ^ Arnold et al. 2003, pp. 28–29. ^ Dodson 1998, p. 30. ^ Verner 1999, pp. 270–272. ^ Stadelmann 1985, pp. 77 & 140–145. ^ Gundacker 2009, pp. 26–30. Sources[edit] Allen, James; Allen, Susan; Anderson, Julie; Arnold, Arnold; Arnold, Dorothea; Cherpion, Nadine; David, Élisabeth; Grimal, Nicolas; Grzymski, Krzysztof; Hawass, Zahi; Hill, Marsha; Jánosi, Peter; Labée-Toutée, Sophie; Labrousse, Audran; Lauer, Jean-Phillippe; Leclant, Jean; Der Manuelian, Peter; Millet, N. B.; Oppenheim, Adela; Craig Patch, Diana; Pischikova, Elena; Rigault, Patricia; Roehrig, Catharine H.; Wildung, Dietrich; Ziegler, Christiane (1999). "Relief Block with the Figure of Aa-akhti". Egyptian Art in the Age of the Pyramids. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 189–190. ISBN 978-0-8109-6543-0. OCLC 41431623. Arnold, Dieter; Gardiner, Sabine H.; Strudwick, Helen; Strudwick, Nigel (2003). The Encyclopedia of Ancient Egyptian Architecture. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-69-111488-0.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Baker, Darrell (2008). The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC. Stacey International. ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Baud, Michel (2007). Djéser et la IIIe dynastie. Grands pharaons (in French). Paris: Pygmalion. ISBN 978-2-75-641753-0.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Burkard, Günter; Thissen, Heinz Josef; Quack, Joachim Friedrich (2003). Einführung in die altägyptische Literaturgeschichte. Band 1: Altes und Mittleres Reich. Einführungen und Quellentexte zur Ägyptologie. 1, 3, 6. Münster: LIT. ISBN 978-3-82-580987-4.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Clayton, Peter (1994). Chronicle of the Pharaohs. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05074-3.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Dodson, Aidan (1998). "On the threshold of glory: the third dynasty". KMT: A Modern Journal of Egyptology. 9 (2): 26–40.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Erman, Adolf (1890). Die Märchen des Papyrus Westcar I. Einleitung und Commentar. Mitteilungen aus den Orientalischen Sammlungen (in German). V. Berlin: Spemann, Königliche Museen zu Berlin. OCLC 898843662.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Garstang, John (1903). Maḥâsna and Bêt Khallâf. London: B. Quaritch. OCLC 457606654.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Gundacker, Roman (2009). "Zur Struktur der Pyramidennamen der 4. Dynastie". Sokar (in German). 18. ISSN 1438-7956.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Helck, Wolfgang (1987). Untersuchungen zur Thintenzeit. Ägyptologische Abhandlungen (in German). 45. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 978-3-447-02677-2.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Kahl, Jochem (2001). "Third Dynasty". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 591–593. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Kitchen, Kenneth A (1998). Ramesside Inscriptions, Translated and Annotated Notes and Comments. Volume II, Ramesses II, Royal inscriptions. London: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-63-118435-5.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Lichtheim, Miriam (2000). Ancient Egyptian literature: a book of readings. The Old and Middle Kingdoms, Volume 1. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-02899-9.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Lepper, Verena M. (2008). Untersuchungen zu pWestcar. Eine philologische und literaturwissenschaftliche (Neu-)Analyse. Ägyptologische Abhandlungen (in German). 70. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 978-3-447-05651-9.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Leprohon, Ronald J. (2013). The great name: ancient Egyptian royal titulary. Writings from the ancient world, no. 33. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature. ISBN 978-1-58983-736-2.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Málek, Jaromír (2000). "The Old Kingdom (c. 2160–2055 BC)". In Shaw, Ian (ed.). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-815034-3.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Myers, Charles S. (1901). "The Bones of Hen Nekht, an Egyptian King of the Third Dynasty". The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. London: Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. XXX, New series III.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Parkinson, R. B. (2001). "Papyrus Westcar". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 3. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Pätznik, Jean-Pierre (2005). Die Siegelabrollungen und Rollsiegel der Stadt Elephantine im 3. Jahrtausend v. Chr. : Spurensicherung eines archäologischen Artefaktes. Breasted's Ancient Records (BAR), International Series (in German). 1339. Oxford: Archaeopress. ISBN 978-1-84171-685-5. OCLC 492410616.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Porter, Bertha; Moss, Rosalind L. B.; Burney, Ethel W. (1974). Topographical bibliography of ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic texts, reliefs, and paintings. III/1. Memphis. Abû Rawâsh to Abûṣîr (PDF) (second, revised and augmented by Jaromír Málek ed.). Oxford: Griffith Institute, Oxford University Press at the Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-900416-19-4.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Rice, Michael (1999). Who is who in Ancient Egypt. London & New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-44328-6.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Schneider, Thomas (2002). Lexikon der Pharaonen (in German). Düsseldorf: Albatros Verlag. ISBN 978-3-49-196053-4.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Seidlmayer, S. J. (1996). "Town and state in the early Old Kingdom. A view from Elephantine". In Spencer, Jeffrey (ed.). Aspects of Early Egypt. London: British Museum Press. ISBN 978-0-71-410999-2.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Stadelmann, Rainer (1985). Die Ägyptischen Pyramiden: vom Ziegelbau zum Weltwunder. Kulturgeschichte der antiken Welt (in German). 30. Mainz: von Zabern. ISBN 978-3805308557.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Swelim, Nabil (1983). "Some Problems on the History of the Third Dynasty". Archaeological and Historical Studies. 7. Alexandria: The Archaeological Society of Alexandria. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Verner, Miroslav (1999). Die Pyramiden (in German). Reinbek: Rowohlt-Taschenbuch-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-4996-0890-2.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Verner, Miroslav (2001). "Old Kingdom: An Overview". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 585–591. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) von Beckerath, Jürgen (1999). Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen. Münchner ägyptologische Studien (in German). 49. Mainz: Philip von Zabern. ISBN 978-3-8053-2591-2.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Waddell, William Gillan (1971). Manetho. Loeb classical library, 350. Cambridge, Massachusetts; London: Harvard University Press; W. Heinemann. OCLC 6246102.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Weill, Raymond (1908). Les Origines de l'Egypte Pharaonique, 1ère Partie. La IIe et la IIIe Dynasties (in French). Paris: Ernest Leroux. OCLC 422033129.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Wildung, Dietrich (1969). Die Rolle ägyptischer Könige im Bewusstsein ihrer Nachwelt. Posthume Quellen über die Könige der ersten vier Dynastien. Münchner ägyptologische Studien. 17. Berlin: B. Hessling. OCLC 644820022.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Wilkinson, Toby A. H. (1999). Early Dynastic Egypt. Strategies, Society and Security. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-18633-9.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nebka&oldid=984295051" Categories: 27th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Third Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Good articles CS1 maint: ref=harv CS1 French-language sources (fr) CS1: long volume value CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 errors: missing periodical AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal 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en-wikipedia-org-252	----	Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt 1650 BC–c. 1550 BC Egypt during the Fifteenth Dynasty Capital Avaris Common languages Egyptian language Religion ancient Egyptian religion Government Absolute monarchy Historical era Bronze Age • Established 1650 BC • Disestablished c. 1550 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abydos Dynasty Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The Fifteenth Dynasty was a foreign dynasty of ancient Egypt. It was founded by Salitis, a Hyksos from West Asia whose people had invaded the country and conquered Lower Egypt.[1] The 15th, 16th, and 17th Dynasties of ancient Egypt are often combined under the group title, Second Intermediate Period. The 15th Dynasty dates approximately from 1650 to 1550 BC.[2][3] Contents 1 Dynastic history 1.1 Identity 1.2 Territorial extent 1.3 Trade 1.4 Religion 2 Rulers 2.1 Number of kings named Apepi 3 References 4 Bibliography 5 External link Dynastic history[edit] The kings of the Fifteenth Dynasty are said to have been Canaanite.[4] Pharaoh Kamose is known to have referred to Apophis, one of the kings of the dynasty, as "Chieftain of Retjenu (i.e. Caanan)".[5][6] The kings of the Fifteenth Dynasty formed "the second Asiatic Kingdom in the Delta", covering an area which may have included Canaan itself, although the archaeological record is sparse.[7][8] The dynasty probably lasted for a period of about 108 years.[9][10] The first king, also described as a Hyksos (ḥḳꜣw-ḫꜣswt, a "shepherd" according to Africanus), led his people into an occupation of the Nile Delta area and settled his capital at Avaris. These events put an end to the Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt.[4] There is no evidence of conflict at that time however, and the settling of the Canaanite populations could have occurred rather peacefully in the power vacuum left by the disintegration of the Fourteenth Dynasty.[6] Subsequent relations with Egyptian polities, however, were marked with violent conflict.[11] Identity[edit] Main article: Hyksos The people of Avaris in the Nile Delta were called "Aamu" by the Egyptians, which was also the term used to designate the inhabitants of Syria and the Levant, or the enemies of Ramses II at the battle of Kadesh. This has generally been translated as "Western Asiatics" by Egyptologists.[12] The term Hyksos was traditionally used to designate foreign chieftains, and more specifically "rulers of the Asiatics", already before the Fifteenth Dynasty and also after it.[12][13] It was not an official title of the rulers of the Fifteenth dynasty, and is never encountered together with royal titulature, except in one rare instance in an inscription from Tell el-Dab'a mentioning an unknown king and describing him as an Hyksos.[13] "Hyksos" was rather a generic term which is encountered separately from royal titulature, and in regnal lists after the end of the Fifteenth Dynasty itself.[13][14] In another instance, Khyan is thought to have used the title "Hyksos" early in his reign, and then abandoned it for traditional Egyptian titulature when he invaded the whole of Egypt.[13] Only the first four kings of the Fifteenth Dynasty are known to have used the naming "Hyksos", and after that royal titulature becomes purely Egyptian.[14] Territorial extent[edit] Dagger in the name of Apophis Regular conflicts continued with the Egyptian dynasties to the south, the Sixteenth Dynasty, the Abydos Dynasty and the Seventeenth Dynasty, with short intervals of peace during which there were some relations with Nubia.[4] Soon after the occupation of the Nile Delta, where it replaced the Fourteenth Dynasty, the Fifteenth Dynasty expanded to occupy Memphis, leading to the fall of the Thirteenth Dynasty at Memphis. As Egyptian political power disintegrated at Memphis, new dynasties arose in the south, the Abydos Dynasty and the Sixteenth Dynasty at Thebes.[15] The Fifteenth Dynasty at one point, after a period of about 20 years since its foundation, extended its rule as far south as Thebes, entering into conflict with Pharaoh Neferhotep III.[4][15] The whole of Egypt was conquered during the reign of Khayan.[13] The Abydos Dynasty also vanished on the occasion of these southern conquests.[15] Numerous monuments from conquered areas were brought north to the capital of Avaris, and many were marked with additional inscriptions, especially by Apophis.[16] The Fifteenth Dynasty eventually ended with the conquest of Avaris by the Pharaoh Ahmose I.[4] Trade[edit] The trading relations of the Fifteenth Dynasty were mainly with Canaan and Cyprus.[4][17][18] Trade with Canaan is said to have been "intensive", especially with many imports of Canaanite wares, and may have reflected the Canaanite origins of the dynasty.[18] According to the Kamose stelae, the Hyksos imported "charriots and horses, ships, timber, gold, lapis lazuli, silver, turquoise, bronze, axes without number, oil, incense, fat and honey".[17] The Fifteenth Dynasty also exported large quantities of material looted from southern Egypt, especially Egyptian sculptures, to the areas of Canaan and Syria. These transfers of Egyptian artifacts to the Near East may especially be attributed to king Apophis.[18] Trade relations with Cyprus were also very important.[19] Religion[edit] The relation of the Fifteenth Dynasty to Egyptian religious traditions was ambiguous, and they are said by commentators from the Eighteenth Dynasty that "they ruled without ackowledging Re".[14] The dynasty is recorded as having destroyed Egyptian monuments and removed Egyptian statuary for booty, as well as plundering royal tombs, Ahmose complaining that "pyramids have been torn down".[20] Rulers[edit] Known rulers of the 15th Dynasty are as follows:[21] Fifteenth Dynasty Name Image Dates and comments Salitis Mentioned by Manetho as first king of the dynasty; currently unidentified with any known archaeologically attested person. Semqen Mentioned on the Turin king list. According to Ryholt, he was an early Hyksos ruler, possibly the first king of the dynasty;[21] von Beckerath assigns him to the 16th dynasty.[22] Aperanat Mentioned on the Turin king list. According to Ryholt, he was an early Hyksos ruler, possibly the second king of the dynasty;[21] von Beckerath assigns him to the 16th dynasty.[22] Khyan Ruled 10+ years.[9] Yanassi Khyan's eldest son, possibly at the origin of the mention of a king Iannas in Manetho's Aegyptiaca Sakir-Har Named as an Hyksos king on a doorjamb found at Avaris. Regnal order uncertain. Apophis c. 1590?–1550 BC Ruled 40+ years.[9] Khamudi c. 1550–1540 BC The 15th Dynasty of Egypt was the first Hyksos dynasty, ruling from Avaris, without control of the entire land. The Hyksos preferred to stay in northern Egypt since they infiltrated from the north-east. The names and order of kings is uncertain. The Turin King list indicates that there were six Hyksos kings, with an obscure Khamudi listed as the final king of the 15th Dynasty. Number of kings named Apepi[edit] Main article: Apepi (pharaoh) Some scholars argue there were two Apophis kings named Apepi, but this is primarily because there are two known prenomens for this king: Awoserre and Aqenenre. However, the Danish Egyptologist Kim Ryholt maintains in his study of the Second Intermediate Period that these prenomens all refer to one man: Apepi I, who ruled Egypt for 40+X years.[23] This is also supported by this king's employment of a third prenomen during his reign: Nebkhepeshre.[24] Apophis likely employed different prenomens over the course of several periods of his reign. This scenario is not without precedent or parallel, since several kings, including Mentuhotep II, the famous Ramesses II, and Seti II, are known to have used two different prenomens during their reigns. References[edit] ^ Ryholt, K. S. B.; Bülow-Jacobsen, Adam (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C. Museum Tusculanum Press. pp. 303–304. ISBN 978-87-7289-421-8. ^ Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. p. 481. ISBN 0-19-815034-2. ^ Bunson, Margaret (2014). Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Infobase Publishing. p. 110. ISBN 978-1-4381-0997-8. ^ a b c d e f Ryholt, K. S. B.; Bülow-Jacobsen, Adam (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C. Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-87-7289-421-8. ^ Ryholt, K. S. B.; Bülow-Jacobsen, Adam (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C. Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 126. ISBN 978-87-7289-421-8. ^ a b Ryholt, K. S. B.; Bülow-Jacobsen, Adam (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C. Museum Tusculanum Press. pp. 131–132. ISBN 978-87-7289-421-8. ^ Ryholt, K. S. B.; Bülow-Jacobsen, Adam (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C. Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 118. ISBN 978-87-7289-421-8. ^ Ryholt, K. S. B.; Bülow-Jacobsen, Adam (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C. Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 130. ISBN 978-87-7289-421-8. ^ a b c Ryholt, K. S. B.; Bülow-Jacobsen, Adam (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C. Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 119. ISBN 978-87-7289-421-8. ^ Shaw, Ian (2003). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. OUP Oxford. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-19-280458-7. ^ Ryholt, K. S. B.; Bülow-Jacobsen, Adam (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C. Museum Tusculanum Press. ISBN 978-87-7289-421-8. ^ a b Shaw, Ian (2003). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. OUP Oxford. pp. 274 ff. ISBN 978-0-19-280458-7. ^ a b c d e Ryholt, K. S. B.; Bülow-Jacobsen, Adam (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C. Museum Tusculanum Press. pp. 123–124. ISBN 978-87-7289-421-8. ^ a b c Ryholt, K. S. B.; Bülow-Jacobsen, Adam (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C. Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 125. ISBN 978-87-7289-421-8. ^ a b c Ryholt, K. S. B.; Bülow-Jacobsen, Adam (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C. Museum Tusculanum Press. pp. 132–133. ISBN 978-87-7289-421-8. ^ Ryholt, K. S. B.; Bülow-Jacobsen, Adam (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C. Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 133. ISBN 978-87-7289-421-8. ^ a b Shaw, Ian (2003). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. OUP Oxford. pp. 182–183. ISBN 978-0-19-280458-7. ^ a b c Ryholt, K. S. B.; Bülow-Jacobsen, Adam (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C. Museum Tusculanum Press. pp. 138–139. ISBN 978-87-7289-421-8. ^ Ryholt, K. S. B.; Bülow-Jacobsen, Adam (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C. Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 141. ISBN 978-87-7289-421-8. ^ Ryholt, K. S. B.; Bülow-Jacobsen, Adam (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C. Museum Tusculanum Press. pp. 145–148. ISBN 978-87-7289-421-8. ^ a b c K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here. ^ a b Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz : P. von Zabern, 1999, ISBN 3-8053-2591-6, available online Archived 2015-12-22 at the Wayback Machine see p. 120–121. ^ Kim Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c.1800-1550 B.C. by Museum Tuscalanum Press. 1997. p. 125 ^ Kings of the Second Intermediate Period University College London; scroll down to the 15th dynasty Bibliography[edit] Kim Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c.1800-1550 B.C." by Museum Tuscalanum Press ( ISBN 87-7289-421-0) External link[edit] Media related to 15th dynasty of Egypt at Wikimedia Commons Preceded by Fourteenth Dynasty Dynasty of Egypt 1650−1550 BC Succeeded by Sixteenth Dynasty Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fifteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=1001971327" Categories: Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt States and territories established in the 17th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 16th century BC Hyksos Dynasties of ancient Egypt 17th century BC in Egypt 16th century BC in Egypt 17th-century BC establishments in Egypt 2nd-millennium BC disestablishments in Egypt 16th-century BC disestablishments 2nd millennium BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Commons category link from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ქართული Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska தமிழ் Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 January 2021, at 05:35 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2532	----	File:Histoire universelle depuis le commencement du monde jusqu'à présent (1742) (14598039057).jpg - Wikipedia File:Histoire universelle depuis le commencement du monde jusqu'à présent (1742) (14598039057).jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Size of this preview: 800 × 543 pixels. Other resolutions: 320 × 217 pixels | 640 × 435 pixels | 1,024 × 696 pixels | 1,280 × 869 pixels | 3,510 × 2,384 pixels. Original file ‎(3,510 × 2,384 pixels, file size: 3.49 MB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary DescriptionHistoire universelle depuis le commencement du monde jusqu'à présent (1742) (14598039057).jpg English: Identifier: histoireuniverse03psal (find matches) Title: Histoire universelle depuis le commencement du monde jusqu'à présent Year: 1742 (1740s) Authors: Psalmanazar, George, 1679?-1763 Subjects: Histoire universelle Publisher: Amsterdam : Arkstée et Merkus Contributing Library: University of Ottawa Digitizing Sponsor: University of Ottawa View Book Page: Book Viewer About This Book: Catalog Entry View All Images: All Images From Book Click here to view book online to see this illustration in context in a browseable online version of this book. Text Appearing Before Image: beront avec eux fous le tranchant de lépce. Ainfi a dit lEternel, ceux qui foutiendront, lEgypte tomberont, & lorgueil de fon Empire fera détruit : ils tomberont dans lEgyp-, te par lépée depuis la tour de Syène,<Mt le Seigneur lEternel. Et ils feront défolé? au mi-, lieu des Pays défolés, & les villes feront a» milieu des villes rendues déferres. Et ils fau-, rontqueje fuis lEternel, quand jaurai mis le feu en Egypte ; & tous ceux qui la foutç-, noient faront réduits en poudre. En ce jour-là jenverrai des mclTagers pour eflraycr 1 *-, thiopie, & fon tourment fera comme à la journée àEgypte.... voici elle vient (4), (i) )ér<!m. XUI. fO Fzecli. XXX. (i) ibJd. yet». Jj—H- (♦) !»<• Text Appearing After Image: il di 2. v; s; HISTOIRE DES BABYLONIENS. Liv. I. Cn. IX. 297 Roi Egyptien (au moins à en juger par le portrait que nous en font les Egyp- Sectio»tiens mêmes («) ) ne doit pas nous faire fuppofer que ce Prince étoit quel- ^V.que ciiofe de plus quun fimple Viceroi du Monarque de Bahyktie : un Fro- Hifl^ephète ayant prédit en termes formels,que les Egyptiens feroient défolés du- <ies baby.rant quarante ans(é),ce qui eft à peu près le tcms qua duré le règne d^- ^-fnajis (c), dont la révolte contribua autant quaucune autre caulc à la haineque (d) Canéyfes conçut contre lui, après que les Peijes eurent ravagé leKoyaume de Babylone. Mais fans nous arrêter à des chofes douteufes , nous ajouterons fimple-ment, que Nebncadnezar, a ce quon aflure, porta (es armes jufques dansle cœur de la Lybie & de VIbérie, & quil furpafla à cet égard liercule mê-me (e). Jufquici nous navons confidéré ce Prince que comme un Guerrier,fupérieui- à tous ceux qui lont préc Note About Images Please note that these images are extracted from scanned page images that may have been digitally enhanced for readability - coloration and appearance of these illustrations may not perfectly resemble the original work. Date 1742 Source https://www.flickr.com/photos/internetarchivebookimages/14598039057/ Source book page: https://archive.org/stream/histoireuniverse03psal/histoireuniverse03psal#page/n356/mode/1up Author Internet Archive Book Images Permission (Reusing this file) At the time of upload, the image license was automatically confirmed using the Flickr API. For more information see Flickr API detail. Volume 3 Flickr tags bookid:histoireuniverse03psal bookyear:1742 bookdecade:1740 bookcentury:1700 bookauthor:Psalmanazar__George__1679__1763 booksubject:Histoire_universelle bookpublisher:Amsterdam___Arkst__e_et_Merkus bookcontributor:University_of_Ottawa booksponsor:University_of_Ottawa bookleafnumber:356 bookcollection:universityofottawa bookcollection:toronto Flickr posted date 30 July 2014 Licensing This image was taken from Flickr's The Commons. The uploading organization may have various reasons for determining that no known copyright restrictions exist, such as: The copyright is in the public domain because it has expired; The copyright was injected into the public domain for other reasons, such as failure to adhere to required formalities or conditions; The institution owns the copyright but is not interested in exercising control; or The institution has legal rights sufficient to authorize others to use the work without restrictions. 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Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 22:37, 3 August 2015 3,510 × 2,384 (3.49 MB) Fæ == {{int:filedesc}} == {{subst:chc}} {{information |description={{en|1=<br> '''Identifier''': histoireuniverse03psal ([https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3ASearch&profile=default&fulltext=Search&search=insource%3A%2Fhistoireunivers... 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en-wikipedia-org-2535	----	Assassin's Creed II - Wikipedia Assassin's Creed II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "ACII" redirects here. For the character set, see ASCII. Assassin's Creed II Developer(s) Ubisoft Montreal Publisher(s) Ubisoft Director(s) Patrice Désilets Producer(s) Sébastien Puel Jamal Rguigui Vincent Pontbriand Designer(s) Benoît Lambert Patrick Plourde Olivier Palmieri Programmer(s) James Therien Artist(s) Mohamed Gambouz Writer(s) Corey May Joshua Rubin Jeffrey Yohalem Composer(s) Jesper Kyd Series Assassin's Creed Engine Anvil Platform(s) PlayStation 3 Xbox 360 Microsoft Windows Mac OS X PlayStation 4 Xbox One Release November 17, 2009 PlayStation 3, Xbox 360 NA: November 17, 2009 AU: November 19, 2009 EU: November 20, 2009 Microsoft Windows AU: March 4, 2010 EU: March 5, 2010 NA: March 9, 2010 Mac OS X EU: October 1, 2010 NA: January 6, 2011 PlayStation 4, Xbox One WW: November 15, 2016 Genre(s) Action-adventure, stealth Mode(s) Single-player Assassin's Creed II is a 2009 action-adventure video game developed by Ubisoft Montreal and published by Ubisoft.[1] It is the second major installment in the Assassin's Creed series, a sequel to 2007's Assassin's Creed. The game was first released on the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in November 2009, and was later made available on Microsoft Windows in March 2010 and OS X in October 2010. Several minor game related features could be redeemed on Uplay and three downloadable expansion packs were released on Xbox Live. The plot is set in a fictional history setting and follows the centuries-old struggle between the Assassins, who fight for peace with free will, and the Knights Templars, who desire peace through control. The framing story is set in the 21st century and follows Desmond Miles as he relives the genetic memories of his ancestor Ezio Auditore da Firenze. The main narrative takes place at the height of the Renaissance in Italy during the 15th and early 16th century. Players can explore Florence, Venice, Tuscany, Monteriggioni and Forlì as they guide Ezio on a quest for vengeance against those responsible for betraying his family. The primary focus is to use the player's combat and stealth abilities, as Desmond begins to uncover the mysteries left behind by an ancient race known as the First Civilization in the hope of ending the conflict between the Assassins and Templars. Using a newly updated Anvil game engine, Assassin's Creed II began development shortly after the release of Assassin's Creed. The game received praise from video game publications for its Renaissance setting, narrative, characters, map design, and visuals, as well as the improvements over its predecessor. It has sold more than nine million copies. It is considered to be one of the best video games ever made, and it popularized the Assassin's Creed franchise. The PC version was met with some criticism in relation to the digital rights management system, and thus had the always-online DRM permanently removed. The game spawned a follow-up, Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood and its direct sequel, Assassin's Creed: Revelations. Remastered versions of all three games were released for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One on November 15, 2016, as part of The Ezio Collection. Contents 1 Gameplay 2 Synopsis 2.1 Plot 3 Development 4 Downloadable content 4.1 Uplay content 4.2 The Battle of Forlì 4.3 Bonfire of the Vanities 4.4 Templar Lair 4.5 Bonus skin 5 Music 6 Marketing 6.1 Promotion 6.2 Editions 7 Reception 7.1 DRM-related criticism 8 Sequel 9 References 10 External links Gameplay[edit] Players directly control the on-screen character through a third-person perspective and can control the camera, allowing for a 360° view of their surroundings. The game takes place in an open world environment with nonlinear gameplay, allowing the player to roam freely within several regions of late fifteenth-century Italy such as Venice, Florence, Monteriggioni, Forlì, San Gimignano, Rome (The Vatican only) and the Tuscan countryside. The Animus 2.0, a new version of the machine of the same name present in Assassin's Creed, provides in-game context for changes and additions to several game elements. A database is also available, providing extra historical information about key landmarks, characters, and services that the player encounters. The health system has been made more dynamic, with synchronization to the Animus and causing the character to recover only from minor injuries.[2] More grievous injuries require visiting a street-side doctor or use of medicine (which can be purchased from doctors or found on bodies). The player may now swim in water, and Eagle Vision—the ability to identify specific people and landmarks—can now be used in third-person view and while moving.[2] A young Leonardo da Vinci is present in the game, aiding the player by creating new weapons from translated "Codex pages" that Altaïr, the original game's main character, left behind for future Assassins' analysis and insight.[2] Within the game, the player will be able to use Leonardo's flying machine (based on real-life plans by Leonardo) during one mission. The player also has the ability to control a carriage in one level, and can row gondolas, as well as ride horses at any point in the game where they are readily available between towns and cities.[2] The setting of the various places the player may go to have been made more detailed and in-depth; civilians sometimes cough or sneeze. Additionally, the player can hire different groups of NPCs, such as mercenaries, courtesans, or thieves; these groups can be used to fight, distract, or lure guards, respectively. A day and night cycle has been added to the game, giving the game more of a sense of time, in addition to setting missions and events at certain times of the day.[2] There are many ways to interact with NPCs. Money can be thrown to the ground, or a corpse carried and then deposited on the ground, may also serve as a distraction for both guards and peasants. There are also several different types of enemies, some more agile or stronger than others, and some of which will actively search hiding places where Ezio was last seen. Ezio stealing a gondola from a small pier The combat system is more complex than that of its predecessor, with the ability to disarm opponents using counter-attacks while unarmed. If the player steals an enemy's weapon, it is possible to follow up with an attack that instantly kills the enemy.[2] Da Vinci provides the player with specialized weaponry, such as the dual hidden blades, poison blade, and the miniature wheellock firearm, which are all based on schematics found in Altaïr's Codex pages. Generic swords, cutlasses, maces, axes, and daggers can all be purchased from vendors in each city. The player can also pick up any weapon on the ground or use improvised weapons, such as brooms or halves of a spear. These weapons are used just like normal blunt weapons. In addition, players are able to purchase artwork for their villa, obtain new armor as the game progresses, and even dye Ezio's clothing with a number of different colors. Other equipment includes larger pouches to carry more throwing knives and medicine. Six additional weapons can be unlocked by connecting a PSP with Assassin's Creed: Bloodlines to the PS3.[3] The Auditore family's countryside villa, located in Monteriggioni, acts as Ezio's headquarters: the surrounding property can be upgraded, drawing income for the player's use. There are several outlets for using currency, with vendors selling items such as medicine, poison, weapons, repairs, upgrades, paintings, and clothing dyes. When these shops are renovated, Ezio receives discounts at the shops on the goods they sell. Purchasing weaponry, armor sets, and artwork also contribute to increasing the villa's overall worth, in turn generating more income for Monteriggioni. There is now a broader array of methods for hiding or blending in the area. One can dive underwater to break guards' line of sight, and blending may be performed with any group of people, rather than only a specific type (as in the first Assassin's Creed).[2] The game features a notoriety system, with guards more alert to Ezio's presence depending on his behavior, location, and current mission. This infamy can be reduced through bribery, removing wanted posters, or assassinating corrupt officials.[2] The missions in the game now have an expanded variety, with different structuring. For example, a mission may have the objective to escort someone but may change to a chase and assassination. An investigation is less explicit, and instead, missions may follow people and/or a narrative. There are roughly 200 missions in the game; about half are part of the main storyline, while the rest are side quests which need not be completed in order to finish the game's main storyline. Cities also contain hidden locations such as catacombs and caves (the design of which have been compared by the developers to the Prince of Persia series, where the objective is to navigate the area). Exploring these locations eventually rewards the player with an Assassin's Seal; the collection of all six Seals allows the player to unlock the Armor of Altaïr, in a concealed section of the Villa. Like Assassin's Creed, characters based on historical figures are present in the game, including Leonardo da Vinci, Niccolò Machiavelli, Caterina Sforza, Bartolomeo d'Alviano, the Medici family, the Pazzi family, the Barbarigo family and Pope Alexander VI.[4] Locations in the game include the Tuscany region[2] (Florence, Monteriggioni and San Gimignano),[5] the Apennine Mountains, the Romagna region (Forlì),[5] Venice and Rome.[6] Specific landmarks include St Mark's Basilica,[2] the Grand Canal, the Little Canal, the Rialto Bridge,[2] Santa Maria del Fiore, the Sistine Chapel, Santa Croce, Palazzo Vecchio, Ponte Vecchio, and Santa Maria Novella.[5] Synopsis[edit] Plot[edit] In the "Truth puzzles", certain historical paintings are used, such as the first depiction of a firearm. After the events of the first game, test subject Desmond Miles is rescued from confinement by undercover Assassin Lucy Stillman and taken to a remote safe house, where he meets her team, consisting of historian and analyst Shaun Hastings and technician Rebecca Crane. Using design plans stolen by Lucy, they have constructed their own version of the Animus, dubbed "Baby", which they intend to use to train Desmond as an Assassin through the so-called "Bleeding Effect", which allows the user to learn all their ancestor's skills instantly. Desmond is assigned to investigate the memories of his ancestor Ezio Auditore da Firenze, starting with his birth to a wealthy Florentine family in the late 15th century. Assassin's Creed II's plot includes the fictional depictions of historical characters including Niccolò Machiavelli and Rodrigo Borgia, later known as Pope Alexander VI. The story then skips forward several years in Italy, with Ezio growing into a charismatic but reckless young man in the time of the Renaissance. After his father and brothers are hanged after being framed for treason by a corrupt magistrate, Ezio kills him and flees to his ancestral home of Monteriggioni with his mother and sister. There, his uncle Mario explains that both he and his late father served an ancient order known as the Assassins, and agrees to train Ezio in stealth and combat. With his new abilities, Ezio embarks on a quest to kill the men responsible for arranging his father's death, including politicians, bankers, mercenaries, and merchants aligned to the Pazzi and Barbarigo families. The search takes him to cities such as Florence, San Gimignano, Forlì, and Venice. During his journey, Ezio also makes a number of new allies, including philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli and inventor Leonardo da Vinci, the latter of whom provides him with new equipment such as the hidden pistol and the modification of the hidden blade based on information left by Altair's Codex. While in Venice, he learns the identity of the Templar grandmaster known as "the Spaniard": Rodrigo Borgia, who has been planning to secure all of Italy for the Templar Order by unifying the most influential families behind his leadership. Dressed as a soldier, he confronts Rodrigo while helping him transport an Apple of Eden to Rome. Armed with the papal staff—which turns out to be a Piece of Eden—Rodrigo reveals his intention to unlock the "Vault", a chamber he believes to contain a power greater than any the world has ever known. He manages to escape, leaving the Apple in Ezio's possession. As a reward for service, Mario, along with other major characters who are revealed to be Assassins, formally induct him into the Assassins. Around this time, Desmond uncovers a random memory left over from his time at Abstergo, in which Altair is shown impregnating Maria Thorpe, a Templar he encountered in the previous game. He also finds a series of glyphs similar to the drawings he found in his cell, which, when deciphered, reveal a vision of two human slaves stealing an Apple. The video ends with the ASCII codes (in binary) for "EDEN" (01000101 01000100 01000101 01001110). The team theorizes that the two humans may be Adam and Eve, the first man and woman. With several sections of memory too corrupted to access (later made available as DLC Sequences), the team sends Desmond to the final memory, set in 1499. With Rodrigo now secure in his position as Pope Alexander VI, Ezio infiltrates Vatican City during Mass and beats him in a fistfight. Rather than kill his nemesis, he lets him live with the knowledge that he has failed.[7] Combining the Apple and Staff, he opens the entrance to the vault. Inside, he is contacted by a strange woman named Minerva. Aware that Desmond is listening, she explains how her people, the "First Civilization", created humanity to serve them, but were subsequently destroyed by an unknown catastrophe, the catastrophe being a solar flare. The survivors joined forces with their former servants, building a network of vaults to both preserve their technology and culture and serve as a preventative measure against a future disaster. Before vanishing, she tells Desmond that only he has the power to fulfill this "prophecy", leaving both him and Ezio confused as to what she means. Shortly thereafter, Abstergo agents led by Dr. Warren Vidic, an Abstergo executive responsible for Desmond's abduction, enter the hideout and force the team to abandon everything except the Animus. As they head to a new location, Lucy informs Desmond that the Assassins have detected strange occurrences in the Earth's magnetic field; a solar flare scheduled to pass the planet in a few months would likely trigger the same event that ended the First Civilization. Desmond prepares to reenter the Animus, beginning the story of Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood. Development[edit] Ubisoft's Yves Guillemot officially confirmed that Assassin's Creed II was in development on November 26, 2008, during the company's financial performance report.[8] This was followed by Michael Pachter speculating in GameTrailers' "Bonus Round" that the game would change its setting to the events of the French Revolution, which turned out to be false.[9] A promotional video was released by Ubisoft on April 6 showing a skull, some hidden blade designs, and Leonardo's flying machine on a scroll.[10] On April 16, Game Informer released details of the game, including pictures of Ezio,[11] a new teaser trailer[12] was released, and the game was "officially" announced by Ubisoft.[13] In an interview, in May 2009, Sebastien Puel stated that the development team working on Assassin's Creed II had increased to 450 members, and the development team's size had tripled since the first game.[14] On June 1, 2009, Ubisoft released a new four-minute cinematic Assassin's Creed II trailer at E3.[15] On June 2, 2009, Ubisoft revealed the first live gameplay demo, lasting 6 minutes, at the Sony Press Conference.[16] GameTrailers features an exclusive developer walkthrough from E3 2009. In an interview with GameTrailers Ubisoft Montreal creative director Patrice Desilets stated Desmond would be doing more than walking around and discovering clues.[17] It was announced at the Assassin's Creed panel at Comic-Con 2009 that a mini-series of three episodes, Assassin's Creed: Lineage, would be released showing the events leading up to the game and the history of Ezio and his father Giovanni. It was also revealed that the humorist Danny Wallace would be voicing a new character in Assassin's Creed II: Shaun Hastings, a sarcastic historian assisting Desmond. The character's face would also be modeled after him.[18] Actress Kristen Bell returned for the character of Lucy Stillman.[19] The game was originally due to be released at the same time on all three platforms, but Ubisoft announced on September 24, 2009, that the PC version would be delayed to the first quarter of 2010 in order to have "a bit more time for the dev team to deliver the best quality game."[20] Downloadable content[edit] On December 1, 2009, Ubisoft announced the first of several downloadable content (DLC) expansions for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions of Assassin's Creed II. The first, titled The Battle of Forlì, continues the story of Caterina Sforza, and was released on January 28, 2010. It also includes a special memory that allows users to pilot Leonardo da Vinci's flying machine over Forlì. The second expansion, titled Bonfire of the Vanities, concerns the mass burning of sinful objects in Florence and was released on February 18, 2010.[21] These were both initially planned to be included as part of the main game, but were later cut due to time constraints;[22] this issue was written into the game's story as the Animus corrupting several memory sequences. Both the retail and digital releases of the Deluxe PC version include these DLC packages as part of the main storyline.[23] Uplay content[edit] Ubisoft's Uplay system enables further in-game enhancements which can be redeemed by points that are given when playing the game. The available awards are an Assassin's Creed II theme or wallpaper for PC and PlayStation 3, 5 additional throwing knives, Altaïr outfit and the Uplay exclusive Auditore Family Crypt map.[24] The Battle of Forlì[edit] The two downloadable content packs feature the corrupted memory sequences, which Rebecca is able to repair with a computer patch.[25] Sequence 12, "Forlì Under Attack" (released as The Battle of Forlì) is set in 1488, just after Ezio has recovered the Apple of Eden. Machiavelli, Mario Auditore, Ezio, and da Vinci meet to discuss what to do to protect the Apple, and it is decided that it will be sent to Romagna, to be defended by Caterina Sforza. When Ezio arrives, however, he finds that the city is under attack from the Orsi Brothers, who have been hired by Borgia to take a map featuring the locations of the Codex pages, made by Sforza's late husband. In an attempt to force Sforza to hand over the map, the brothers kidnap her children. Ezio leaves the Apple in Sforza's protection; he rescues her children and kills one Orsi brother. When he returns, he discovers that Checco, the other brother, used the distraction to steal the Apple. Ezio gives chase and kills Checco. As he stands over Checco's body, Checco stabs Ezio. Ezio falls to the floor bleeding, and before he passes out, he sees a man missing a finger and wearing monastic robes take the Apple. Ezio wakes up with Sforza at his side. He sets out to reclaim the Apple, and Sforza gives him the map of the Codex page locations. He travels to a monastery in the wetlands, where he is sent to Forlì's monastery. He attempts to speak to the abbot, but the abbot recognizes him as the Assassin who killed Stefano de Bagnone (one of the Pazzi conspirators) and flees. When Ezio catches him, the abbot names the monk who stole the Apple as Girolamo Savonarola. The Pack also includes a bonus memory in which Ezio can pilot Leonardo's Flying Machine over the Forlì area.[26] Unlike regular memories, the player is able to play this memory an unlimited number of times. Bonfire of the Vanities[edit] Sequence 13 begins in 1497, two years prior to Sequence 14 and nine years after Sequence 12, after the events of Assassin's Creed II: Discovery.[27] Ezio has tracked Savonarola to Florence, where the player can now explore the southern district of the city. After meeting with Machiavelli, Ezio devises that bringing unrest to the city will force Savonarola to come out and settle the unrest. In order to bring about this unrest, Ezio assassinates nine of Savonarola's lieutenants who preach within the city.[28] The people become angry and a mob forms outside the plaza, where Savonarola preaches to the mob to disperse. He exposes the Apple to bewitch the mob, but Ezio quickly throws a knife at the Piece of Eden and Savonarola drops it. The mob proceeds to take the monk away, but a Templar courier quickly rushes in to retrieve the Apple; Ezio rushes after the guard and reclaims it. Afterward, the mob takes Savonarola to the Piazza della Signoria to burn him at the stake, but Ezio, believing no one deserves such a painful fate, jumps onto a wooden platform, leaps at Savanarola, and stabs the monk with his hidden blade to spare him the pain. Ezio stands before the confused crowd and declares that all should follow their own path, as he was taught by his mentors. Templar Lair[edit] These three dungeons, platforming puzzles, similar to the game's Assassin's Tombs but without special rewards other than treasure, were originally included in the Assassin's Creed II: Black Edition (European and Australian release), with one included in the White Edition and two in the North American Master Assassin's Edition. Ubisoft subsequently offered them as DLC via PlayStation Network and Xbox Live. They have since been included in Assassin's Creed II: Deluxe Edition and Game of the Year Edition. Bonus skin[edit] This costume (dye) is unlocked by entering a code obtained after buying the Assassin's Creed II 3D mobile game from the Verizon App Store. Also, this bonus skin is included in the Game of the Year Edition, "The Complete Edition" and Digital Deluxe Edition. Music[edit] The score to Assassin's Creed II was composed by Jesper Kyd.[29] It was recorded at Capitol Records with a 35-piece string ensemble and 13-person choir, with featured vocals by Melissa Kaplan.[30] A soundtrack was released via download on November 16, 2009.[31] 14 tracks of the soundtrack were also released on the game disc available with the special pre-order Black edition of Assassin's Creed II.[32] In the marketing, "Genesis" by Justice was used in the "Visions of Venice" trailer.[33] Marketing[edit] Promotion[edit] On October 20, 2009, Ubisoft announced a series of short films, to be broadcast via YouTube, that would provide additional back story and the introduction of some of the characters found in the game. The shorts, collectively called Assassin's Creed: Lineage, came in three parts and were developed by Ubisoft's Hybride Technologies, who previously worked on the films 300 and Sin City. The series focused on Ezio's father, Giovanni Auditore, and contained live-action and computer-generated imagery. The first of the films was released on October 27, 2009, with the remaining two released on November 13, 2009. On November 12, 2009, Ubisoft released Assassin's Creed II themed virtual items on PlayStation Home to promote the release of the game, as well as the game Assassin's Creed: Bloodlines for PSP.[34] Assassin's Creed II virtual items and an Ezio costume were also released on the Xbox Live Marketplace for the Xbox 360's avatars.[35] On November 19, 2009, more Assassin's Creed II virtual items were released in PlayStation Home, along with a costume for Ezio, which was released on November 26, 2009, in which the player could obtain and roam PlayStation Home in it.[36] On December 3, 2009, more 15th century Italian renaissance themed items were released in Home.[37] Ezio's "Purple Assassin" costume is available to download on LittleBigPlanet, as of December 8, 2009, on the PlayStation Network.[citation needed] Assassin's Creed II is the first game to be linked to Ubisoft's Uplay feature.[38] Progression through the game allows Uplay members to acquire points that can be redeemed for bonuses for use in the game, including a new crypt to explore and an Altaïr costume.[39] A novel based on the game, Assassin's Creed: Renaissance (by Oliver Bowden), was published by Penguin Books in November 2009.[40] Ubisoft announced a Play Your Part, Play At Home campaign during the COVID-19 pandemic. As part of this campaign, PC users were able to redeem a free digital copy of Assassin's Creed II (among other games) via the Ubisoft website.[41] Editions[edit] There are several different limited editions of Assassin's Creed II. The Black Edition contains an Ezio figurine garbed in a black outfit and was released in Europe and Australia. Included also are three bonus areas and missions, an art book, a DVD with part of the game's soundtrack, one premium PS3/Xbox 360 theme, behind the scenes videos, and 2 desktop wallpapers. The White Edition contains one bonus area/mission and an Ezio figurine in his white outfit.[42] The Master Assassin's Edition is the North American limited edition, which contains an Ezio figurine, two bonus areas, an art book and a Blu-ray with music and behind the scenes videos.[43] After much complaining from Assassin's Creed II fans that they were unable to complete the game due to the need to complete the three Templar Lairs (only available on the White or Black Editions) to earn 100% synchronization, Ubisoft released Assassin's Creed II: The Complete Edition. Included in the package are download codes for the two DLCs, Battle of Forlì and Bonfire of the Vanities and the three Templar Lairs. Later Assassin's Creed II: The Game of the Year Edition was released, containing the extra content incorporated on the game disc. Both versions also have the Bonus Skin, however, it needs to be unlocked through the game code. Eventually Assassin's Creed II: Digital Deluxe Edition was also released, containing the three bonus areas & missions and the downloadable content Battle of Forlì and Bonfire of the Vanities. This Edition, however, is only available via Digital Download. Assassin's Creed II: Digital Deluxe Edition as of now is available only on the PlayStation 3 through PSN and PC through Epic Games & Steam. It also has the Bonus Dye for Ezio's outfit, albeit it is unlocked from the very beginning of the game and available for free at Monteriggioni. The PC version of the Retail Edition or the Digital Deluxe Edition now requires a one-time online activation, after which the game, its activation key, and the Uplay Account will be bound together and the game can be played offline, even with the Uplay Launcher forced to run in Offline Mode in the Settings Menu. Even in Offline mode, users can log in into Uplay, provided they have already logged in online with a legitimate e-mail account when they started using the software for the first time. Users already owning the Retail Edition through Steam can upgrade to the Deluxe Edition. Reception[edit] Reception Aggregate score Aggregator Score Metacritic PS3: 91/100[44] X360: 90/100[45] PC: 86/100[46] Review scores Publication Score 1Up.com A-[47] CVG 9.4/10[48] Edge 8/10[49] Game Informer 9.5/10[1] GamePro [50] GameSpot PS3/X360: 9/10[51] PC: 8/10 GameSpy [52] GamesRadar+ [53] GameTrailers 9.2/10[54] IGN 9.2/10[55] TeamXbox 9.5/10[56] Upon release, Assassin's Creed II received universal acclaim on PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 with generally favourable reviews on PC. Review aggregator site Metacritic gave the PlayStation 3 version a score of 91 and the Xbox 360 version a 90, making it the highest-rated game in the franchise on the site. In an exclusive review by Official Xbox Magazine, Assassin's Creed II scored 9/10.[45] Its second review was a perfect score from the Official PlayStation Magazine US, while the Official PlayStation Magazine UK scored the game a 9/10.[44] German magazine Computer Bild Spiele reported that the game's publishers offered to provide a pre-release copy of the game if the magazine would guarantee a review score of "very good". The magazine rejected the request and instead opted to delay their review.[57][58] GameSpot which reviewed the PC version of the game, said despite the game being "fun and beautiful" it was hard to justify the higher price point. It was also mentioned that the game was hindered by Ubisoft's DRM and the game "deserved better. For that matter, PC gamers deserved better too."[59][60] According to pre-official sales estimates, Ubisoft announced that Assassin's Creed II sold 1.6 million copies worldwide during its first week of sale, representing a 32 percent increase over the first week retail performance of the original Assassin's Creed.[61] As of May 2010, the game has sold 9 million copies.[62] At the 2009 Spike Video Game Awards, Assassin's Creed II was named Best Action Adventure Game, and IGN named it as the Action Game of the Year for Xbox 360 and Xbox 360 Game of the Year. Game Informer also named it as Xbox 360 Game of the Year. It also received Game of the Year from GamePro, Eurogamer and The New York Times. Assassin's Creed II has been nominated for the "Outstanding Achievement in Animation", "Outstanding Achievement in Art Direction", "Outstanding Achievement in Visual Engineering", "Outstanding Achievement in Gameplay Engineering", "Outstanding Achievement in Original Story", "Outstanding Achievement in Original Music Composition", "Outstanding Achievement in Sound Design", "Outstanding Achievement in Game Direction", "Adventure Game of the Year" and "Game of the Year" at the Interactive Achievement Awards (now known as the D.I.C.E. Awards) from the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences.[63] The game was also nominated for several Game Developers Choice Awards including "Best Game Design", "Best Visual Art", "Best Technology", and "Game of the Year".[64] The game is included in the 2010 book 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die.[65] In April 2020, Game Informer ranked the game as the fifth best game in the Assassin's Creed series to date.[66] DRM-related criticism[edit] The PC version of the game uses Ubisoft's Uplay platform, which includes a digital rights management (DRM) system that initially required all users to remain connected to the Internet while playing. In the initial retail version, any progress made subsequent to the last checkpoint was lost if the Internet connection was severed. Ubisoft stated that if the disconnection was temporary, the game would pause. In addition, the company argued that there were numerous checkpoints spread throughout Assassin's Creed II.[67] The company was also criticized by overseas members of the U.S. Armed Forces, who could not play the game while in locations with sporadic and expensive connections.[68] Ubisoft has since published a patch to finally remove the DRM: the PC version of the Retail Edition or the Digital Deluxe Edition now requires a one-time online activation, after which the game, its activation key, and the Uplay Account will be bound together and the game can be played offline, even with the Uplay Launcher logged in offline. The game can then be activated many times on the existing or new machine and still be played offline.[69] Shortly after the release of the Windows version, Ubisoft claimed that a cracked version of the game had not been created, and was confirmed by at least one website. During the following weekend, the DRM servers for Silent Hunter 5 and Assassin's Creed II were, according to Ubisoft, affected by a denial-of-service attack. Ubisoft later stated that "95 per cent of players were not affected, but a small group of players attempting to open a game session did receive denial of service errors."[70][71][72] A server emulator to overcome the DRM has been developed. A cracked dynamic-link library bypassing the connection requirement entirely was released in late April.[73][74][75] Following the series of server outages, Ubisoft offered owners of the Windows version all DLC from the Assassin's Creed II Black Edition (despite already having the Battle of Forli and Bonfire of the Vanities DLC incorporated into the story mode from the beginning by default), or a free copy of Heroes Over Europe, Tom Clancy's EndWar, Tom Clancy's H.A.W.X, or Prince of Persia (2008).[76] The DRM was modified in December 2010. By that time the game no longer required a constant Internet connection while playing. Instead, the player had to be connected to the Internet every time the game was launched.[77] In 2012, Ubisoft announced that they would patch the game to remove internet access as a requirement to play, and would not require internet access for DRM henceforth. It worked on the PC version. The PC version of the Retail Edition or the Digital Deluxe Edition now requires a one-time online activation, after which the game, its activation key, and the Uplay Account will be bound together and the game can be played offline, even with the Uplay Launcher forced to run in Offline Mode in the Settings Menu. The game can then be activated infinitely on the existing or a new machine if the game is ever reinstalled for some reason, and it can still be played offline. The same rule for Assassin's Creed II on PC now applies to any Ubisoft game on the PC that once required a persistent online connection.[69] However none of these changes affected the Mac OS X version of the game which still requires a constant Internet connection and players still lose progress if the Internet connection is disrupted. Sequel[edit] Discussions about details of Assassin's Creed III were already present before the release of Assassin's Creed II, with the game staff's notion of possibly having a female descendant in England during World War II.[78] However, co-writer Corey May has stated that the series will never take place during that period, as a major goal was to take players to settings normally unvisited in games.[79] Ubisoft's Philippe Bergeron stated that potential settings could include England in the Middle Ages, during the era of King Arthur, and feudal Japan, the latter of which had been a "personal favorite" of many in the staff. However, on March 1, 2012, the setting for Assassin's Creed III was revealed to be colonial Boston during the American Revolution, starring a Native American protagonist named Ratonhnaké:ton.[80] This game was released at the end of October 2012. Two Assassin's Creed games were released concurrently with Assassin's Creed II: Assassin's Creed: Bloodlines and Assassin's Creed II: Discovery. Discovery is set during the missing chapters in II and features Ezio Auditore.[81] A direct sequel, Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood was released on November 16, 2010 for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360,[82] continuing directly after the events of Assassin's Creed II. The game once again featured Ezio Auditore da Firenze as the primary protagonist, and included a new online multiplayer mode.[83] The game takes place primarily in Rome, the seat of power for the Borgia family and the Knights Templar.[84] The game's primary antagonist is Cesare Borgia, Rodrigo Borgia's son.[85] References[edit] ^ a b Miller, Matt (November 17, 2009). "Ubisoft Gets The Sequel Right — Assassin's Creed II — PlayStation 3". Gameinformer. Archived from the original on January 6, 2010. Retrieved January 11, 2010. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Assassin's Creed II It cost $20" (Fee required). Game Informer. April 16, 2009. pp. 36–45.[dead link] ^ Ferry (June 3, 2009). "Assassins Creed 2 cheats guide (PSP to PS3 linkup)". VideoGamesBlogger. Archived from the original on November 19, 2009. Retrieved November 10, 2009. ^ "Hard News 04/09/09". ScrewAttack. April 9, 2009. Archived from the original on December 26, 2009. 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Makes for a lovely image, but the truth is far more interesting! / Ezio: Let's say I was to believe you; what do you think he'll do when you open that door? / Rodrigo: I don't care. It's not approval I'm after—only power! / Ezio: And you think he'll give it up!? / Rodrigo: What lies beyond that wall will not be able to resist the Staff and Apple. They were made for felling gods! / Ezio: God is supposed to be all-knowing, all-powerful. You think a couple of ancient relics can harm him!? / Rodrigo: You know nothing, boy. You take your image of the Creator from an ancient book; a book, mind you, written by men! / Ezio: You are the Pope! And yet you dismiss the central text of your faith!? / Rodrigo: Are you really so naïve!? I became Pope because it gave me access. It gave me power! Do you think I believe a single goddamn word of that ridiculous book!? 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Archived from the original on February 24, 2010. Retrieved January 11, 2010. ^ Tuttle, Will (November 17, 2009). "The Consensus: Assassin's Creed II Review". GameSpy. Archived from the original on November 21, 2009. Retrieved January 17, 2010. ^ "Assassin's Creed II, Assassin's Creed II Review". Game Radar.com. November 10, 2009. Archived from the original on April 23, 2016. Retrieved January 11, 2010. ^ "Assassin's Creed II Video Game, Review". Gametrailers.com. November 17, 2009. Archived from the original on January 27, 2010. Retrieved January 11, 2010. ^ Clayman, David (November 17, 2009). "Assassin's Creed II Review — Xbox 360 Review". IGN. Archived from the original on November 23, 2009. Retrieved January 11, 2010. ^ Gies, Arthur (November 17, 2009). "Assassin's Creed II Review (Xbox 360)". Teamxbox.com. Archived from the original on November 20, 2009. Retrieved January 11, 2010. ^ "Aktuelle Ausgabe 12/2009" (in German). Computer Bild Spiele. Archived from the original on August 30, 2009. Retrieved November 11, 2009. ^ Good, Owen (November 9, 2009). "German Mag Claims Ubi Demanded Positive Review On Assassin's Creed II". Kotaku. Archived from the original on November 12, 2009. Retrieved November 12, 2009. ^ VanOrd, Kevin (March 8, 2010). "Assassin's Creed II Review for PC". Gamespot. Archived from the original on March 17, 2010. Retrieved March 9, 2010. ^ VanOrd, Kevin (March 8, 2010). "GameSpot Video: Assassin's Creed II Video Review". Gamespot. Archived from the original on March 17, 2010. Retrieved March 9, 2010. ^ Reilly, Jim (November 24, 2009). "Assassin's Creed II First Week Sales Impressive". IGN. Archived from the original on November 27, 2009. Retrieved November 24, 2009. ^ News: Assassin's Creed II sales hit 9 million – ComputerAndVideoGames.com ^ "13th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards Finalists" (PDF). Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences. January 21, 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 15, 2010. Retrieved January 24, 2010. ^ "Uncharted 2, Flower, Assassin's Creed II Lead Finalists for the Tenth Annual Game Developers Choice Awards". PR Newswire. January 19, 2010. Archived from the original on January 22, 2010. Retrieved January 24, 2010. ^ Mott, Tony (2010). 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die. London: Quintessence Editions Ltd. p. 584. ISBN 978-1-74173-076-0. ^ Juba, Joe (April 29, 2020). "Ranking The Entire Assassin's Creed Series". Game Informer. GameStop. Retrieved November 19, 2020. ^ Polybren. "Official explanation of controversial Assassin's Creed 2 DRM". Archived from the original on March 3, 2012. Retrieved June 14, 2017. ^ Kuchera, Ben (February 23, 2010). "The victims of PC gaming DRM: one soldier's story". Arstechnica.com. Archived from the original on July 15, 2010. Retrieved August 24, 2010. ^ a b "Ubisoft Officially Ditches Always-On PC DRM". IGN. Archived from the original on October 9, 2014. 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"Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood E3 2010 CG Trailer Released; November 16th Release Date Announced". Voodoo Extreme. Archived from the original on June 22, 2010. Retrieved July 11, 2010. ^ "Next Assassin's Creed Will Have Full Campaign, "Justified" Multiplayer". Kotaku.com. February 19, 2010. Archived from the original on May 26, 2010. Retrieved August 24, 2010. ^ Signaigo, Mathew (November 25, 2010). "Assassin's Creed Brotherhood Review". We Got This Covered. Archived from the original on March 6, 2019. Retrieved March 3, 2019. ^ Totilo, Stephen (July 22, 2010). "Assassin's Creed Brotherhood Single-Player, Deadlier Than Ever". Kotaku. Gizmodo Media Group. Archived from the original on March 6, 2019. Retrieved March 3, 2019. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Assassin's Creed II. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Assassin's Creed II Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood. Assassin's Creed II on IMDb v t e Assassin's Creed Ubisoft Video games Main series Assassin's Creed II Brotherhood Revelations III IV: Black Flag Rogue Unity Syndicate Origins Odyssey Valhalla Other games Altaïr's Chronicles Bloodlines II: Discovery III: Liberation Identity Chronicles Other media Books Novels The Fall The Chain Brahman Trial by Fire Film Lineage Embers Assassin's Creed (2016) Characters Desmond Miles Altaïr Ibn-LaʼAhad Ezio Auditore da Firenze Aveline de Grandpré Edward Kenway Shay Patrick Cormac Arno Dorian Bayek of Siwa Alexios and Kassandra People Patrice Désilets Corey May Jade Raymond Jeffrey Yohalem Related Immortals Fenyx Rising Prince of Persia Skull & Bones Soulcalibur V Watch Dogs Category Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Assassin%27s_Creed_II&oldid=1001347463" Categories: 2009 video games Action-adventure games Assassin's Creed Fictional sealed locations Florence in fiction MacOS games Open-world video games PlayStation 3 games PlayStation 4 games Single-player video games Stealth video games Ubisoft games Video game sequels Video games about revenge Video games scored by Jesper Kyd Video games developed in Canada Video games set in Italy Video games set in Rome Video games set in the 15th century Video games set in Venice Video games with expansion packs Windows games Xbox 360 games Xbox One games Cultural depictions of Leonardo da Vinci Cultural depictions of Cesare Borgia Cultural depictions of Lucrezia Borgia Cultural depictions of Pope Alexander VI Cultural depictions of Niccolò Machiavelli Cultural depictions of Girolamo Savonarola Cultural depictions of Lorenzo de' Medici Video games with downloadable content Video games using Havok Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from March 2016 CS1 German-language sources (de) Use mdy dates from June 2019 Pages using collapsible list with both background and text-align in titlestyle Articles using Infobox video game using locally defined parameters Articles using Wikidata infoboxes with locally defined images All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2009 Articles using Video game reviews template in multiple platform mode Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages العربية Azərbaycanca বাংলা Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 January 2021, at 08:27 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2551	----	Persis - Wikipedia Persis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Persis (disambiguation). Region Persis Περσίς Persís Region The ruins of Persepolis The Persian Empire, about 500 BC; Persis is the central southern province with the red outline. Its main cities are Persepolis and Pasargadae. Persis (Greek: Περσίς, romanized: Persís), better known as Persia (Old Persian: 𐎱𐎠𐎼𐎿, romanized: Parsa; Persian: پارس‎, romanized: Pârs),[1] or Persia proper, is a region located to the southwest of modern Iran (now Fars). The Persians are thought to have initially migrated either from Central Asia or, more probably, from the north through the Caucasus.[2] They would then have migrated to the current region of Persis in the early 1st millennium BC.[2] The country name Persia was derived directly from the Old Persian Parsa. Contents 1 Achaemenid Empire 2 Alexandrian Empire 3 Seleucid Empire 4 Kings of Persis, under the Parthian Empire 5 Sasanian Empire 6 See also 7 References Achaemenid Empire[edit] Main article: Achaemenid Empire Seal of Darius the Great hunting in a chariot, reading "I am Darius, the Great King" in Old Persian (𐎠𐎭𐎶𐏐𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁𐎴 𐏋, "adam Dārayavaʰuš xšāyaθiya"), as well as in Elamite and Babylonian. British Museum.[3][4] The ancient Persians were present in the region of Persis from about the 10th century BC. They became the rulers of the largest empire the world had yet seen under the Achaemenid dynasty which was established in the late 6th century BC, at its peak stretching from Thrace-Macedonia, Bulgaria-Paeonia and Eastern Europe proper in the west, to the Indus Valley in its far east.[5] The ruins of Persepolis and Pasargadae, two of the four capitals of the Achaemenid Empire, are located in Fars. Alexandrian Empire[edit] The Achaemenid Empire was defeated by Alexander the Great in 330 BC, incorporating most of their vast empire. Several Hellenistic satraps of Persis are known, following the conquests of Alexander the Great, from circa 330 BC, especially Phrasaortes, who ruled from 330 to 324 BC, Oxines who usurped his position and was then executed by Alexander, and the Macedonian general Peucestas, who learned the Persian language and followed local customs, implementing a persophile policy.[6][7][8] Peucestas retained the satrapy of Persis until the Battle of Gabiene (316 BC), after which he was removed from his position by Antigonus.[8] A short period of Antigonid rule followed, until Seleucus took possession of the region in 312 BC.[7] Seleucid Empire[edit] Frataraka dynasty ruler Vadfradad I (Autophradates I). 3rd century BC. Istakhr (Persepolis) mint.[9] When the Seleucid Empire was established, it possibly never extended its power beyond the main trade routes in Fars, and by the reign of Antiochus I or possibly later, Persis emerged as a state with a level of independence that minted its own coins.[10] "Frataraka" Governors of the Seleucid Empire Main article: Frataraka Several later Persian rulers, forming the Frataraka dynasty, are known to have acted as representatives of the Seleucids in the region of Fārs.[11] They ruled from the end of the 3rd century BC to the beginning of the 2nd century BC, and Vahbarz or Vādfradād I obtained independence circa 150 BC, when Seleucid power waned in the areas of southwestern Persia and the Persian Gulf region.[11] Kings of Persis, under the Parthian Empire[edit] Dārēv I (Darios I) used for the first time the title of mlk (King). 2nd century BC. Main article: Kings of Persis During an apparent transitional period, corresponding to the reigns of Vādfradād II and another uncertain king, no titles of authority appeared on the reverse of their coins. The earlier title prtrk' zy alhaya (Frataraka) had disappeared. Under Dārēv I however, the new title of mlk, or king, appeared, sometimes with the mention of prs (Persis), suggesting that the kings of Persis had become independent rulers.[12] When the Parthian Arsacid king Mithridates I (ca. 171-138 BC) took control of Persis, he left the Persian dynasts in office, known as the Kings of Persis, and they were allowed to continue minting coins with the title of mlk ("King").[11][13] Sasanian Empire[edit] Main article: Pars (Sasanian province) A Sassanid relief showing the investiture of Ardashir I Babak was the ruler of a small town called Kheir. Babak's efforts in gaining local power at the time escaped the attention of Artabanus IV, the Arsacid Emperor of the time. Babak and his eldest son Shapur managed to expand their power over all of Persis. The subsequent events are unclear, due to the sketchy nature of the sources. It is however certain that following the death of Babak around 220, Ardashir who at the time was the governor of Darabgird, got involved in a power struggle of his own with his elder brother Shapur. The sources tell us that in 222, Shapur was killed when the roof of a building collapsed on him. Ardaxšir (Artaxerxes) V, defeated the last legitimate Parthian king, Artabanos V in 224 CE, and was crowned at Ctesiphon as Ardaxšir I (Ardashir I), šāhanšāh ī Ērān, becoming the first king of the new Sasanian Empire.[12] At this point, Ardashir moved his capital further to the south of Persis and founded a capital at Ardashir-Khwarrah (formerly Gur, modern day Firouzabad).[14] After establishing his rule over Persis, Ardashir I rapidly extended the territory of his Sassanid Persian Empire, demanding fealty from the local princes of Fars, and gaining control over the neighboring provinces of Kerman, Isfahan, Susiana, and Mesene. Sarvestan Palace in Sarvestan Artabanus marched a second time against Ardashir I in 224. Their armies clashed at Hormizdegan, where Artabanus IV was killed. Ardashir was crowned in 226 at Ctesiphon as the sole ruler of Persia, bringing the 400-year-old Parthian Empire to an end, and starting the virtually equally long rule of the Sassanian Empire, over an even larger territory, once again making Persia a leading power in the known world, only this time along with its arch-rival and successor to Persia's earlier opponents (the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire); the Byzantine Empire. The Sassanids ruled for 425 years, until the Muslim armies conquered the empire. Afterward, the Persians started to convert to Islam, this making it much easier for the new Muslim empire to continue the expansion of Islam. Persis then passed hand to hand through numerous dynasties, leaving behind numerous historical and ancient monuments; each of which has its own values as a world heritage, reflecting the history of the province, Iran, and West Asia. The ruins of Bishapur, Persepolis, and Firouzabad are all reminders of this. Arab invaders brought about a decline of Zoroastrian rule and made Islam ascendant from the 7th century. See also[edit] Fars Province Pars (Sasanian province) References[edit] Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Persis. ^ Richard Nelson Frye (1984). The History of Ancient Iran, Part 3, Volume 7. C.H.Beck. pp. 9–15. ^ a b Dandamaev, Muhammad A.; Lukonin, Vladimir G. (2004). The Culture and Social Institutions of Ancient Iran. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–5. ISBN 9780521611916. ^ The Darius Seal. ^ Darius' seal: photo - Livius. ^ David Sacks, Oswyn Murray, Lisa R. Brody; Oswyn Murray; Lisa R. Brody (2005). Encyclopedia of the ancient Greek world. Infobase Publishing. pp. 256 (at the right portion of the page). ISBN 978-0-8160-5722-1.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Roisman, Joseph (2002). Brill's Companion to Alexander the Great. BRILL. p. 189. ISBN 9789004217553. ^ a b Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh; Stewart, Sarah (2010). The Age of the Parthians. I.B.Tauris. p. 38. ISBN 9780857710185. ^ a b PEUCESTAS – Encyclopaedia Iranica. ^ CNG: KINGS of PERSIS. Vādfradād (Autophradates) I. 3rd century BC. AR Tetradrachm (28mm, 15.89 g, 9h). Istakhr (Persepolis) mint. ^ The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 3 (1), p. 299 ^ a b c FRATARAKA – Encyclopaedia Iranica. ^ a b CNG: KINGS of PERSIS. Vahbarz (Oborzos). 3rd century BC. AR Obol (10mm, 0.50 g, 11h). ^ The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 3 (1), p. 302 ^ Kaveh Farrokh (2007). Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War. Osprey Publishing. pp. 176–9. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Persis&oldid=997798377" Categories: Persian history Fars Province Historical regions of Iran Greek words and phrases Hidden categories: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Pages using infobox settlement with missing country Pages using infobox settlement with no coordinates Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Persian-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Català Čeština Deutsch Español فارسی Français Kurdî Português Русский Sardu Slovenčina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 2 January 2021, at 08:08 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2564	----	Heidemarie Koch - Wikipedia Heidemarie Koch From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Heidemarie Koch (December 17, 1943) is a German Iranologist. Life[edit] Heidemarie Koch was born in Merseburg. She studied mathematics as her major between 1963 and 1966. Subsequently, she worked as a teacher in Hannover until 1972. In 1972, she started Iranian Studies at the University of Göttingen and received her doctorate in 1976. The topic of her dissertation under Walther Hinz was Religious Conditions under Darius I with Reference to the Elamite Tablets of Persepolis. Koch took as her minor subjects Classical Archaeology, Byzantine Art History, and Christian Archaeology. From 1977 to 1986 she was employed at the Department of Iranian Studies and Near Eastern Archaeology in University of Göttingen. In 1986, at the University of Marburg, she worked on the labor administration and the economy in the Persian heartland at the time of the Achaemenids. Then she taught as a lecturer. In 1990-91 Koch worked on research projects funded by German Research Foundation. Between 1993-94 she taught for two semesters as a substitute professor at the Goethe University in Frankfurt. Since 1995 she is a professor of Iranian Studies in the context of ancient history at the University of Marburg. Her main subject areas are the Persian history and Persian languages of the pre-Islamic period. She puts special emphasis on the cultural and economic history, the management and the religion. She utilizes both written sources and the archaeological remains. A second research focus is the exploration of Elam and its neighboring regions, especially in terms of the influences that they exerted on the subsequent Persian Empire. She is married to the Christian archaeologist Guntram Koch. Works[edit] Die religiösen Verhältnisse der Dareioszeit. Untersuchungen an Hand der elamischen Persepolistäfelchen, Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1977 (Göttinger Orientforschungen. Reihe 3, Iranica Bd. 4) ISBN 3-447-01889-5 / English: The Religious Conditions of the Time of Darius. Investigations with reference to the Elamite Persepolis Tablets. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1977 (Göttingen Oriental Research. Row 3, Iranica Vol. 4) Kunst, Kultur und Geschichte der Achämenidenzeit und ihr Fortleben (Hrsg.), Reimer, Berlin 1983 (Archäologische Mitteilungen aus Iran. Ergänzungsband 10) ISBN 3-496-00711-7 / English: Art, culture and history of the Achaemenid and their survival (ed.), Reimer, Berlin 1983 (Archaeological Messages from Iran. Suppl 10) Elamisches Wörterbuch (mit Walther Hinz), Reimer, Berlin 1987 (Archäologische Mitteilungen aus Iran, Ergänzungsband, 17) ISBN 3-496-00923-3 / English: Elamite Dictionary (with Walther Hinz), Reimer, Berlin 1987 (Archaeological Messages from Iran, Supplement, 17) Verwaltung und Wirtschaft im persischen Kernland zur Zeit der Achämeniden, Reichert, Wiesbaden 1990 (Beihefte zum Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients. Reihe B, Geisteswissenschaften Nr. 89) ISBN 3-88226-468-3 / English: Management and Economics in the Persian heartland at the time of the Achaemenids, Reichert, Wiesbaden 1990 (supplements to the Tübingen Atlas of the Near East. Series B, Humanities No. 89) Es kündet Dareios der König ... Vom Leben im persischen Grossreich, von Zabern, Mainz 1992 (Kulturgeschichte der antiken Welt; Bd. 55) ISBN 3-8053-1347-0 (auch Veröffentlichung auf Persisch im Iran) / English: So Says King Darius ... Life in the Persian Empire, Saverne, Mainz 1992 (Cultural History of the Ancient World; Vol. 55) (also published in Persian translation in Iran) Achämeniden-Studien, Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1993, ISBN 3-447-03328-2 / English: Achaemenid Studies, Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, 1993 Persepolis. Hauptstadt des achämidischen Großreichs, Farhangsara Yassavoli, Tehran 1997 ISBN 964-306-049-7 / English: Persepolis: Capital of the Achaemid Great Empire, Farhangsara Yassavoli, 1997, Tehran Persepolis: Glänzende Hauptstadt des Perserreichs, von Zabern, Mainz 2001 (Antike Welt Sonderheft/Zaberns Bildbände zur Archäologie) ISBN 3-8053-2813-3 / English: Persepolis: Shiny Capital of the Persian Empire, Saverne, Mainz 2001 (Antique World Special Issue / Saverne Illustrated Books on Archaeology) Königreiche im alten Vorderen Orient, von Zabern, Mainz 2006 (Antike Welt Sonderheft/Zaberns Bildbände zur Archäologie) ISBN 978-3-8053-3621-5 / English: Kingdoms in the Ancient Near East, Saverne, Mainz 2006 (Antique World Special Issue / Saverne illustrated Books on Archaeology) Körner, Knollen, Brot und Wein. Die Geschichte unserer Esskulturen, Köppe, Köln 2006 ISBN 978-3-89645-409-6 / English: Grains, Tubers, Bread and Wine. The History of Our Food Cultures, Köppe, 2006, Cologne Frauen und Schlangen. Die geheimnisvolle Kultur der Elamer in Alt-Iran, von Zabern, Mainz 2007 (Kulturgeschichte der antiken Welt; Bd. 114) ISBN 978-3-8053-3737-3 / English: Women and Snakes. The mysterious Culture of the Elamites in Old Iran, Saverne, Mainz 2007 (Cultural History of the Ancient World; Vol 114th) External links[edit] Heidemarie Koch page in University of Marbug v t e Persepolis Palace Tachara Gate of All Nations Other sections Tomb of Artaxerxes III builders Darius the Great Xerxes I Artaxerxes I of Persia Researchers Heidemarie Koch Erich Schmidt (archaeologist) Alireza Shapour Shahbazi Related Tangeh Bolaghi 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire Sivand Dam Persepolis Administrative Archives Waterskin Achaemenid architecture Category:Persepolis Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Heidemarie_Koch&oldid=962581470" Categories: 1943 births People from Merseburg German scholars Living people Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Deutsch فارسی Edit links This page was last edited on 14 June 2020, at 22:03 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2561	----	Aramaic - Wikipedia Aramaic From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Semitic language spread by the Neo-Assyrians For other uses, see Aramaic (disambiguation). This article is about the Semitic language now spoken by smaller numbers of people in scattered locations. It is not to be confused with Amharic, the Semitic language spoken in Ethiopia. Aramaic ܐܪܡܝܐ, ארמיא, 𐡀𐡓𐡌𐡉𐡀 Arāmāyā Geographic distribution Mesopotamia, Levant, Fertile Crescent, Northern Arabia Linguistic classification Afro-Asiatic Semitic West Semitic Central Semitic Northwest Semitic Aramaic Early form Old Aramaic (900–700 BC) Middle Aramaic Subdivisions Eastern Aramaic Western Aramaic ISO 639-2 / 5 arc Linguasphere 12-AAA Glottolog aram1259 Arāmāyā in Syriac Esṭrangelā script Syriac-Aramaic alphabet Aramaic (Classical Syriac: ܐܪܡܝܐ Arāmāyā; Old Aramaic: 𐤀𐤓𐤌𐤉𐤀; Imperial Aramaic: 𐡀𐡓𐡌𐡉𐡀; square script אַרָמָיָא) is a language that originated among ancient Arameans, at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, and later became one of the most prominent languages of the ancient Near East. During its three thousand years long history,[1] Aramaic went through several stages of development. It has served as a language of public life and administration of ancient kingdoms and empires, and also as a language of divine worship and religious study. It subsequently branched into several Neo-Aramaic languages that are still spoken in modern times.[2][3][4][5] Aramaic language belongs to the Northwest Semitic group of the Afroasiatic language family, which also includes the Canaanite languages, such as Hebrew, Edomite, Moabite, and Phoenician, as well as Amorite and Ugaritic.[6] The Aramaic alphabet was widely adopted for other languages to the Hebrew, Syriac and Arabic alphabets. Historically and originally, Aramaic was the language of the Arameans, a Semitic-speaking people of the region between the northern Levant and the northern Tigris valley. By around 1000 BC, the Arameans had a string of kingdoms in what is now part of Syria, Jordan, and the fringes of southern Mesopotamia and Anatolia. Aramaic rose to prominence under the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC), under whose influence Aramaic became a prestige language after being adopted as a lingua franca of the empire, and its use spread throughout Mesopotamia, the Levant and parts of Asia Minor. At its height, Aramaic, having gradually replaced earlier Semitic languages, was spoken in several variants all over what is today Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Eastern Arabia, Bahrain, Sinai, parts of southeast and south central Turkey, and parts of northwest Iran.[7] Aramaic was the language of Jesus,[8][9][10] who spoke the Galilean dialect during his public ministry, as well as the language of large sections of the biblical books of Daniel and Ezra, and also one of the languages of the Talmud. The scribes of the Neo-Assyrian bureaucracy had also used Aramaic, and this practice was subsequently inherited by the succeeding Neo-Babylonian Empire (605–539 BC), and later by the Achaemenid Empire (539–330 BC).[11] Mediated by scribes that had been trained in the language, highly standardized written Aramaic (named by scholars as Imperial Aramaic) progressively also become the lingua franca of public life, trade and commerce throughout the Achaemenid territories.[12] Wide use of written Aramaic subsequently led to the adoption of the Aramaic alphabet and (as logograms) some Aramaic vocabulary in the Pahlavi scripts, which were used by several Middle Iranian languages, including Parthian, Middle Persian, Sogdian, and Khwarazmian).[13] Aramaic's long history and diverse and widespread use has led to the development of many divergent varieties, which are sometimes considered dialects, though they have become distinct enough over time that they are now sometimes considered separate languages. Therefore, there is not one singular, static Aramaic language; each time and place rather has had its own variation. The more widely spoken Eastern Aramaic and Mandaic forms are today largely restricted to Assyrian Christian and Mandean gnostic communities in Iraq, northeastern Syria, northwestern Iran and southeastern Turkey, whilst the severely endangered Western Neo-Aramaic is spoken by small communities of Arameans in northwestern Syria.[14] Some variants of Aramaic are also retained as sacred languages by certain religious communities. Most notable among them is Classical Syriac, the liturgical language of Syriac Christianity. It is used by several communities, including the Assyrian Church of the East, the Ancient Church of the East, the Chaldean Catholic Church, the Syriac Orthodox Church, the Syriac Catholic Church, the Maronite Church, and also the Saint Thomas Christian denominations of India.[15][16] One of Aramaic liturgical dialects was Mandaic,[17] which besides becoming a vernacular (Neo-Mandaic) also remained the liturgical language of Mandaeism.[18] Syriac was also the liturgical language of several now-extinct gnostic faiths, such as Manichaeism. Neo-Aramaic languages are still spoken today as a first language by many communities of Syriac Christians, Jews (in particular, the Kurdish Jews), and Mandaeans of the Near East,[19][20] most numerously by Christian Syriacs (Syriac-speakers: ethnic Arameans, Assyrians and Chaldeans), and with numbers of fluent speakers ranging approximately from 1 million to 2 million, with the main languages among Assyrians being Assyrian Neo-Aramaic (590,000 speakers), Chaldean Neo-Aramaic (240,000 speakers) and Turoyo (100,000 speakers), together with a number of smaller closely related languages with no more than 5,000 to 10,000 speakers between them. They have retained use of the once dominant lingua franca despite subsequent language shifts experienced throughout the Middle East. However, the Aramaic languages are now considered endangered.[21] The languages are used by the older generation, all beyond retirement age, and so could go extinct within a generation. However, researchers are working to record all the dialects of Neo-Aramaic languages before they go extinct.[22] Royal Aramaic inscriptions from the Aramean city-states date from 10th century BC, making Aramaic one of the world's oldest recorded living languages.[23] Contents 1 Name 2 Geographic distribution 2.1 Aramaic languages and dialects 3 Writing system 4 Periodization 5 Old Aramaic 5.1 Ancient Aramaic 5.2 Imperial Aramaic 5.3 Biblical Aramaic 5.4 Post-Achaemenid Aramaic 5.5 Other dialects of the Post-Achaemenid period 5.5.1 Eastern dialects of the Post-Achaemenid period 5.5.2 Western dialects of the Post-Achaemenid period 5.5.3 Languages during Jesus' lifetime 6 Middle Aramaic 6.1 Eastern Middle Aramaic 6.1.1 Syriac Aramaic 6.1.2 Jewish Babylonian Aramaic 6.1.3 Mandaic Aramaic 6.2 Western Middle Aramaic 6.2.1 Samaritan Aramaic 6.2.2 Jewish Palestinian Aramaic 6.2.3 Christian Palestinian Aramaic 7 Modern Aramaic 7.1 Modern Eastern Aramaic 7.2 Modern Western Aramaic 8 Phonology 8.1 Vowels 8.2 Consonants 8.3 Historical sound changes 9 Grammar 9.1 Nouns and adjectives 9.2 Verbs 9.2.1 Aspectual tense 9.2.2 Conjugations or verbal stems 10 See also 11 References 12 Sources 13 External links Name[edit] The Carpentras Stele was the first ancient inscription ever identified as "Aramaic". Although it was first published in 1704, it was not identified as Aramaic until 1821, when Ulrich Friedrich Kopp complained that previous scholars had "[left everything] to the Phoenicians and nothing to the Arameans, as if they could not have written at all".[24] In historical sources, Aramaic language is designated by two distinctive groups of terms, first of them represented by endonymic (native) names, and the other one represented by various exonymic (foreign in origin) names. Native (endonymic) terms for Aramaic language were derived from the same word root as the name of its original speakers, the ancient Arameans. Endonymic forms were also adopted in some other languages, like ancient Hebrew. In the Torah (Hebrew Bible), "Aram" is used as a proper name of several people including descendants of Shem (Genesis 10:22), Nahor (Genesis 22:21), and Jacob (1 Chronicles 7:34).[25] Unlike in Hebrew, designations for Aramaic language in some other ancient languages were mostly exonymic. In ancient Greek, Aramaic language was most commonly known as the “Syrian language”,[26] in relation to the native (non-Greek) inhabitants of the historical region of Syria. Since the name of Syria itself emerged as a variant of Assyria,[27][28] the biblical Ashur,[29] and Akkadian Ashuru,[30] a complex set of semantic phenomena was created, becoming a subject of interest both among ancient writers and modern scholars. Josephus and Strabo (the latter citing Posidonius) both stated that the “Syrians” called themselves “Arameans”.[31][32][33][34] The Septuagint, the earliest extant copy of the Bible, used the terms Syria and Syrian where the Masoretic Text, the earliest extant Hebrew copy of the Bible, uses the terms Aramean and Aramaic; numerous later bibles followed the Septuagint's usage, including the King James Version.[35] The connection between Chaldean, Syriac, and Samaritan as "Aramaic" was first identified in 1679 by German theologian Johann Wilhelm Hilliger.[36][37] The connection between the names Syrian and Aramaic was made in 1835 by Étienne Marc Quatremère.[26][38] Ancient Aram, bordering northern Israel and what is now called Syria, is considered the linguistic center of Aramaic, the language of the Arameans who settled the area during the Bronze Age circa 3500 BC. The language is often mistakenly considered to have originated within Assyria (Iraq). In fact, Arameans carried their language and writing into Mesopotamia by voluntary migration, by forced exile of conquering armies, and by nomadic Chaldean invasions of Babylonia during the period from 1200 to 1000 BC.[39] The Christian New Testament uses the Koine Greek phrase Ἑβραϊστί Hebraïstí to denote "Aramaic", as Aramaic was at that time the language commonly spoken by the Jews.[25] The Hellenized Jewish community of Alexandria instead translated "Aramaic" to "the Syrian tongue". Geographic distribution[edit] Syriac inscription at the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church's Major Archbishop's House in Kerala, India During the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian Empires, Arameans, the native speakers of Aramaic, began to settle in greater numbers, at first in Babylonia, and later in Assyria (Upper Mesopotamia, modern-day northern Iraq, northeast Syria, northwest Iran, and south eastern Turkey (what was Armenia at the time).[23] The influx eventually resulted in the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC) adopting an Akkadian-influenced Imperial Aramaic as the lingua franca of its empire.[40] This policy was continued by the short-lived Neo-Babylonian Empire and Medes, and all three empires became operationally bilingual in written sources, with Aramaic used alongside Akkadian. The Achaemenid Empire (539–323 BC) continued this tradition, and the extensive influence of these empires led to Aramaic gradually becoming the lingua franca of most of western Asia, the Arabian Peninsula, Anatolia, the Caucasus, and Egypt.[23] Beginning with the rise of the Rashidun Caliphate in the late 7th century, Arabic gradually replaced Aramaic as the lingua franca of the Near East.[41] However, Aramaic remains a spoken, literary, and liturgical language for local Christians and also some Jews. Aramaic also continues to be spoken by the Assyrians of Iraq, northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey and northwest Iran, with diaspora communities in Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan and southern Russia. The Mandaeans also continue to use Mandaic Aramaic as a liturgical language, although most now speak Arabic as their first language.[18] There are still also a small number of first-language speakers of Western Aramaic varieties in isolated villages in western Syria. Being in contact with other regional languages, some Aramaic dialects were often engaged in mutual exchange of influences, particularly with Arabic,[41] Iranian,[42] and Kurdish.[43] The turbulence of the last two centuries (particularly the Assyrian genocide) has seen speakers of first-language and literary Aramaic dispersed throughout the world. However, there are a number of sizable Assyrian towns in northern Iraq such as Alqosh, Bakhdida, Bartella, Tesqopa, and Tel Keppe, and numerous small villages, where Aramaic is still the main spoken language, and many large cities in this region also have Assyrian Aramaic-speaking communities, particularly Mosul, Erbil, Kirkuk, Dohuk, and al-Hasakah. In Modern Israel, the only native Aramaic speaking population are the Kurdish Jews, although the language is dying out.[44] However, Aramaic is also experiencing a revival among Maronites in Israel in Jish.[45] Aramaic languages and dialects[edit] "Jesus" in Jewish Aramaic Aramaic is often spoken of as a single language, but is in reality a group of related languages.[citation needed] Some Aramaic languages differ more from each other than the Romance languages do among themselves. Its long history, extensive literature, and use by different religious communities are all factors in the diversification of the language. Some Aramaic dialects are mutually intelligible, whereas others are not, not unlike the situation with modern varieties of Arabic. Some Aramaic languages are known under different names; for example, Syriac is particularly used to describe the Eastern Aramaic variety used in Christian ethnic communities in Iraq, southeastern Turkey, northeastern Syria, and northwestern Iran, and Saint Thomas Christians in India. Most dialects can be described as either "Eastern" or "Western", the dividing line being roughly the Euphrates, or slightly west of it. It is also helpful to draw a distinction between those Aramaic languages that are modern living languages (often called "Neo-Aramaic"), those that are still in use as literary languages, and those that are extinct and are only of interest to scholars. Although there are some exceptions to this rule, this classification gives "Modern", "Middle", and "Old" periods, alongside "Eastern" and "Western" areas, to distinguish between the various languages and dialects that are Aramaic. Writing system[edit] 11th century book in Syriac Serto Main article: Aramaic alphabet The earliest Aramaic alphabet was based on the Phoenician alphabet. In time, Aramaic developed its distinctive "square" style. The ancient Israelites and other peoples of Canaan adopted this alphabet for writing their own languages. Thus, it is better known as the Hebrew alphabet today. This is the writing system used in Biblical Aramaic and other Jewish writing in Aramaic. The other main writing system used for Aramaic was developed by Christian communities: a cursive form known as the Syriac alphabet. A highly modified form of the Aramaic alphabet, the Mandaic alphabet, is used by the Mandaeans.[18] In addition to these writing systems, certain derivatives of the Aramaic alphabet were used in ancient times by particular groups: the Nabataean alphabet in Petra and the Palmyrene alphabet in Palmyra. In modern times, Turoyo (see below) has sometimes been written in a Latin script. Periodization[edit] Periodization of historical development of Aramaic language has been the subject of particular interest for scholars, who proposed several types of periodization, based on linguistic, chronological and territorial criteria. Overlapping terminology, used in different periodizations, led to the creation of several polysemic terms, that are used differently among scholars. Terms like: Old Aramaic, Ancient Aramaic, Early Aramaic, Middle Aramaic, Late Aramaic (and some others, like Paleo-Aramaic), were used in various meanings, thus referring (in scope or substance) to different stages in historical development of Aramaic language.[46][47][48] Most commonly used types of periodization are those of Klaus Beyer and Joseph Fitzmyer. Periodization of Klaus Beyer (1929-2014):[2] Old Aramaic, from the earliest records, to c. 200 AD Middle Aramaic, from c. 200 AD, to c. 1200 AD Modern Aramaic, from c. 1200 AD, up to the modern times Periodization of Joseph Fitzmyer (1920–2016):[49] Old Aramaic, from the earliest records, to regional prominence c. 700 BC Official Aramaic, from c. 700 BC, to c. 200 BC Middle Aramaic, from c. 200 BC, to c. 200 AD Late Aramaic, from c. 200 AD, to c. 700 AD Modern Aramaic, from c. 700 AD, up to the modern times Recent periodization of Aaron Butts:[50] Old Aramaic, from the earliest records, to c. 538 BC Achaemenid Aramaic, from c. 538 BC, to c. 333 BC Middle Aramaic, from c. 333 BC, to c. 200 AD Late Aramaic, from c. 200 AD, to c. 1200 AD Neo-Aramaic, from c. 1200 AD, up to the modern times Old Aramaic[edit] One of the Bar-Rakib inscriptions from Sam'al.[51] The inscription is in the Samalian language (also considered a dialect). Main article: Old Aramaic language The term "Old Aramaic" is used to describe the varieties of the language from its first known use, until the point roughly marked by the rise of the Sasanian Empire (224 AD), dominating the influential, eastern dialect region. As such, the term covers over thirteen centuries of the development of Aramaic. This vast time span includes all Aramaic that is now effectively extinct. Regarding the earliest forms, Beyer suggests that written Aramaic probably dates from the 11th century BCE,[52] as it is established by the 10th century, to which he dates the oldest inscriptions of northern Syria. Heinrichs uses the less controversial date of the 9th century,[53] for which there is clear and widespread attestation. The central phase in the development of Old Aramaic was its official use by the Achaemenid Empire (500–330 BC). The period before this, dubbed "Ancient Aramaic", saw the development of the language from being spoken in Aramaean city-states to become a major means of communication in diplomacy and trade throughout Mesopotamia, the Levant and Egypt. After the fall of the Achaemenid Empire, local vernaculars became increasingly prominent, fanning the divergence of an Aramaic dialect continuum and the development of differing written standards. Ancient Aramaic[edit] See also: Samalian language "Ancient Aramaic" refers to the earliest known period of the language, from its origin until it becomes the lingua franca of the Fertile Crescent. It was the language of the Aramean city-states of Damascus, Hamath and Arpad.[54] There are inscriptions that evidence the earliest use of the language, dating from the 10th century BC. These inscriptions are mostly diplomatic documents between Aramaean city-states. The alphabet of Aramaic at this early period seems to be based on the Phoenician alphabet, and there is a unity in the written language. It seems that, in time, a more refined alphabet, suited to the needs of the language, began to develop from this in the eastern regions of Aram. Due to increasing Aramean migration eastward, the Western periphery of Assyria became bilingual in Akkadian and Aramean at least as early as the mid-9th century BC. As the Neo-Assyrian Empire conquered Aramean lands west of the Euphrates, Tiglath-Pileser III made Aramaic the Empire's second official language, and it eventually supplanted Akkadian completely. From 700 BC, the language began to spread in all directions, but lost much of its unity. Different dialects emerged in Assyria, Babylonia, the Levant and Egypt. Around 600 BC, Adon, a Canaanite king, used Aramaic to write to an Egyptian Pharaoh.[55] Imperial Aramaic[edit] Main article: Imperial Aramaic Arameans Aramaic language Aramaic alphabet Syro-Hittite states Biblical region Aram-Damascus Paddan Aram Aram Rehob Aram Soba Aramean kings Irhuleni Hezion Tabrimmon Ben-Hadad I Hadadezer Hazael Ben-Hadad III Rezin Aramean cities Amrit Arpad Bit Bahiani Coba Höyük Gidara Hama Qarqar Ruhizzi Sam'al Tell Aran Tell Halaf Til Barsip Upu Zobah Sources Aramaic inscriptions v t e Around 500 BC, following the Achaemenid (Persian) conquest of Mesopotamia under Darius I, Aramaic (as had been used in that region) was adopted by the conquerors as the "vehicle for written communication between the different regions of the vast empire with its different peoples and languages. The use of a single official language, which modern scholarship has dubbed Official Aramaic or Imperial Aramaic,[56][11][57] can be assumed to have greatly contributed to the astonishing success of the Achaemenids in holding their far-flung empire together for as long as they did".[58] In 1955, Richard Frye questioned the classification of Imperial Aramaic as an "official language", noting that no surviving edict expressly and unambiguously accorded that status to any particular language.[59] Frye reclassifies Imperial Aramaic as the lingua franca of the Achaemenid territories, suggesting then that the Achaemenid-era use of Aramaic was more pervasive than generally thought. Imperial Aramaic was highly standardised; its orthography was based more on historical roots than any spoken dialect, and the inevitable influence of Persian gave the language a new clarity and robust flexibility. For centuries after the fall of the Achaemenid Empire (in 330 BC), Imperial Aramaic – or a version thereof near enough for it to be recognisable – would remain an influence on the various native Iranian languages. Aramaic script and – as ideograms – Aramaic vocabulary would survive as the essential characteristics of the Pahlavi scripts.[60] One of the largest collections of Imperial Aramaic texts is that of the Persepolis fortification tablets, which number about five hundred.[61] Many of the extant documents witnessing to this form of Aramaic come from Egypt, and Elephantine in particular (see Elephantine papyri). Of them, the best known is the Story of Ahikar, a book of instructive aphorisms quite similar in style to the biblical Book of Proverbs. In addition, current consensus regards the Aramaic portion of the Biblical book of Daniel (i.e., 2:4b-7:28) as an example of Imperial (Official) Aramaic.[62] Achaemenid Aramaic is sufficiently uniform that it is often difficult to know where any particular example of the language was written. Only careful examination reveals the occasional loan word from a local language. A group of thirty Aramaic documents from Bactria have been discovered, and an analysis was published in November 2006. The texts, which were rendered on leather, reflect the use of Aramaic in the 4th century BC Achaemenid administration of Bactria and Sogdia.[63] Biblical Aramaic[edit] Biblical Aramaic is the Aramaic found in four discrete sections of the Hebrew Bible: Ezra 4:8–6:18 and 7:12–26 – documents from the Achaemenid period (5th century BC) concerning the restoration of the temple in Jerusalem. Daniel 2:4b–7:28 – five subversive tales and an apocalyptic vision. Jeremiah 10:11 – a single sentence in the middle of a Hebrew text denouncing idolatry. Genesis 31:47 – translation of a Hebrew place-name. Biblical Aramaic is a somewhat hybrid dialect. It is theorized that some Biblical Aramaic material originated in both Babylonia and Judaea before the fall of the Achaemenid dynasty. Biblical Aramaic presented various challenges for writers who were engaged in early Biblical studies. Since the time of Jerome of Stridon (d. 420), Aramaic of the Hebrew Bible was misnamed as "Chaldean" (Chaldaic, Chaldee).[64] That label remained common in early Aramaic studies, and persisted up into the nineteenth century. The "Chaldean misnomer" was eventually abandoned, when modern scholarly analyses showed that Aramaic dialect used in Hebrew Bible was not related to ancient Chaldeans and their language.[65][66][67] Post-Achaemenid Aramaic[edit] Coin of Alexander the Great bearing an Aramaic language inscription The Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription (Greek and Aramaic) by the Indian king Ashoka, 3rd century BC at Kandahar, Afghanistan 11th century Hebrew Bible with Targum intercalated between verses of Hebrew text The fall of the Achaemenid Empire (c. 334-330 BCE), and its replacement with the newy created political order, imposed by Alexander the Great (d. 323 BCE) and his Hellenistic successors, marked an important turning point in the history of Aramaic language. During the early stages of the post-Achaemenid era, public use of Aramaic language was continued, but shared with the newly introduced Greek language. By the year 300 BCE, all of the main Aramaic-speaking regions came under political rule of the newly created Seleucid Empire that promoted Hellenistic culture, and favored Greek language as the main language of public life and administration. During the 3rd century BCE, Greek overtook Aramaic in many spheres of public communication, particularly in highly Hellenized cities throughout the Seleucid domains. However, Aramaic continued to be used, in its post-Achaemenid form, among upper and literate classes of native Aramaic-speaking communities, and also by local authorities (along with the newly introduced Greek). Post-Achaemenid Aramaic, that bears a relatively close resemblance to that of the Achaemenid period, continued to be used up to the 2nd century BCE.[68] By the end of the 2nd century BCE, several variants of Post-Achaemenid Aramaic emerged, bearing regional characteristics. One of them was Hasmonaean Aramaic, the official administrative language of Hasmonaean Judaea (142–37 BCE), alongside Hebrew which was the language preferred in religious and some other public uses (coinage). It influenced the Biblical Aramaic of the Qumran texts, and was the main language of non-biblical theological texts of that community. The major Targums, translations of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic, were originally composed in Hasmonaean Aramaic. It also appears in quotations in the Mishnah and Tosefta, although smoothed into its later context. It is written quite differently from Achaemenid Aramaic; there is an emphasis on writing as words are pronounced rather than using etymological forms. Babylonian Targumic is the later post-Achaemenid dialect found in the Targum Onqelos and Targum Jonathan, the "official" targums. The original, Hasmonaean targums had reached Babylon sometime in the 2nd or 3rd century AD. They were then reworked according to the contemporary dialect of Babylon to create the language of the standard targums. This combination formed the basis of Babylonian Jewish literature for centuries to follow. Galilean Targumic is similar to Babylonian Targumic. It is the mixing of literary Hasmonaean with the dialect of Galilee. The Hasmonaean targums reached Galilee in the 2nd century AD, and were reworked into this Galilean dialect for local use. The Galilean Targum was not considered an authoritative work by other communities, and documentary evidence shows that its text was amended. From the 11th century AD onwards, once the Babylonian Targum had become normative, the Galilean version became heavily influenced by it. Babylonian Documentary Aramaic is a dialect in use from the 3rd century AD onwards. It is the dialect of Babylonian private documents, and, from the 12th century, all Jewish private documents are in Aramaic. It is based on Hasmonaean with very few changes. This was perhaps because many of the documents in BDA are legal documents, the language in them had to be sensible throughout the Jewish community from the start, and Hasmonaean was the old standard. Nabataean Aramaic was the written language of the Arab kingdom of Nabataea, whose capital was Petra. The kingdom (c. 200 BC – 106 AD) controlled the region to the east of the Jordan River, the Negev, the Sinai Peninsula and the northern Hijaz, and supported a wide-ranging trade network. The Nabataeans used imperial Aramaic for written communications, rather than their native Arabic. Nabataean Aramaic developed from Imperial Aramaic, with some influence from Arabic: "l" is often turned into "n", and there are some Arabic loanwords. Arabic influence on Nabataean Aramaic increased over time. Some Nabataean Aramaic inscriptions date from the early days of the kingdom, but most datable inscriptions are from the first four centuries AD. The language is written in a cursive script which was the precursor to the Arabic alphabet. After annexation by the Romans in 106 AD, most of Nabataea was subsumed into the province of Arabia Petraea, the Nabataeans turned to Greek for written communications, and the use of Aramaic declined. Palmyrene Aramaic is the dialect that was in use in the Syriac city state of Palmyra in the Syrian Desert from 44 BC to 274 AD. It was written in a rounded script, which later gave way to cursive Estrangela. Like Nabataean, Palmyrene was influenced by Arabic, but to a much lesser degree. The use of written Aramaic in the Achaemenid bureaucracy also precipitated the adoption of Aramaic(-derived) scripts to render a number of Middle Iranian languages. Moreover, many common words, including even pronouns, particles, numerals, and auxiliaries, continued to written as Aramaic "words" even when writing Middle Iranian languages. In time, in Iranian usage, these Aramaic "words" became disassociated from the Aramaic language and came to be understood as signs (i.e. logograms), much like the symbol '&' is read as "and" in English and the original Latin et is now no longer obvious. Under the early 3rd-century BC Parthians Arsacids, whose government used Greek but whose native language was Parthian, the Parthian language and its Aramaic-derived writing system both gained prestige. This in turn also led to the adoption of the name 'pahlavi' (< parthawi, "of the Parthians") for that writing system. The Persian Sassanids, who succeeded the Parthian Arsacids in the mid-3rd century AD, subsequently inherited/adopted the Parthian-mediated Aramaic-derived writing system for their own Middle Iranian ethnolect as well.[69][70] That particular Middle Iranian dialect, Middle Persian, i.e. the language of Persia proper, subsequently also became a prestige language. Following the conquest of the Sassanids by the Arabs in the 7th-century, the Aramaic-derived writing system was replaced by Arabic script in all but Zoroastrian usage, which continued to use the name 'pahlavi' for the Aramaic-derived writing system and went on to create the bulk of all Middle Iranian literature in that writing system. Other dialects of the Post-Achaemenid period[edit] Mandaic magical "demon trap" Main articles: Eastern Aramaic languages and Western Aramaic languages The dialects mentioned in the previous section were all descended from Achaemenid Aramaic. However, some other regional dialects also continued to exist alongside these, often as simple, spoken variants of Aramaic. Early evidence for these vernacular dialects is known only through their influence on words and names in a more standard dialect. However, some of those regional dialects became written languages by the 2nd century BCE. These dialects reflect a stream of Aramaic that is not directly dependent on Achaemenid Aramaic, and they also show a clear linguistic diversity between eastern and western regions. Eastern dialects of the Post-Achaemenid period[edit] Main article: Eastern Aramaic languages In the eastern regions (from Mesopotamia to Persia), dialects like Palmyrene Aramaic and Arsacid Aramaic gradually merged with the regional vernacular dialects, thus creating languages with a foot in Achaemenid and a foot in regional Aramaic. In the Kingdom of Osroene, founded in 132 BCE and centred in Edessa (Urhay), the regional dialect became the official language: Edessan Aramaic (Urhaya), that later came to be known as Classical Syriac. On the upper reaches of the Tigris, East Mesopotamian Aramaic flourished, with evidence from the regions of Hatra (Hatran Aramaic) and Assur (Assurian Aramaic). Tatian, the author of the gospel harmony the Diatessaron came from Assyria, and perhaps wrote his work (172 AD) in East Mesopotamian rather than Syriac or Greek. In Babylonia, the regional dialect was used by the Jewish community, Jewish Old Babylonian (from c. 70 AD). This everyday language increasingly came under the influence of Biblical Aramaic and Babylonian Targumic. The written form of Mandaic, the language of the Mandaean religion, was descended from the Arsacid chancery script.[71] Western dialects of the Post-Achaemenid period[edit] Main article: Western Aramaic languages The western regional dialects of Aramaic followed a similar course to those of the east. They are quite distinct from the eastern dialects and Imperial Aramaic. Aramaic came to coexist with Canaanite dialects, eventually completely displacing Phoenician in the first century BC and Hebrew around the turn of the fourth century AD. The form of Late Old Western Aramaic used by the Jewish community is best attested, and is usually referred to as Jewish Old Palestinian. Its oldest form is Old East Jordanian, which probably comes from the region of Caesarea Philippi. This is the dialect of the oldest manuscript of the Book of Enoch (c. 170 BC). The next distinct phase of the language is called Old Judaean lasting into the second century AD. Old Judean literature can be found in various inscriptions and personal letters, preserved quotations in the Talmud and receipts from Qumran. Josephus' first, non-extant edition of his The Jewish War was written in Old Judean. The Old East Jordanian dialect continued to be used into the first century AD by pagan communities living to the east of the Jordan. Their dialect is often then called Pagan Old Palestinian, and it was written in a cursive script somewhat similar to that used for Old Syriac. A Christian Old Palestinian dialect may have arisen from the pagan one, and this dialect may be behind some of the Western Aramaic tendencies found in the otherwise eastern Old Syriac gospels (see Peshitta). Languages during Jesus' lifetime[edit] Further information: Language of Jesus This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) It is generally believed by Christian scholars that in the first century, Jews in Judea primarily spoke Aramaic with a decreasing number using Hebrew as their first language, though many learned Hebrew as a liturgical language. Additionally, Koine Greek was the lingua franca of the Near East in trade, among the Hellenized classes (much like French in the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries in Europe), and in the Roman administration. Latin, the language of the Roman army and higher levels of administration, had almost no impact on the linguistic landscape. In addition to the formal, literary dialects of Aramaic based on Hasmonean and Babylonian, there were a number of colloquial Aramaic dialects. Seven Western Aramaic varieties were spoken in the vicinity of Judea in Jesus' time. They were probably distinctive yet mutually intelligible. Old Judean was the prominent dialect of Jerusalem and Judaea. The region of Ein Gedi spoke the Southeast Judaean dialect. Samaria had its distinctive Samaritan Aramaic, where the consonants "he", "heth" and "‘ayin" all became pronounced as "aleph". Galilean Aramaic, the dialect of Jesus' home region, is only known from a few place names, the influences on Galilean Targumic, some rabbinic literature and a few private letters. It seems to have a number of distinctive features: diphthongs are never simplified into monophthongs. East of the Jordan, the various dialects of East Jordanian were spoken. In the region of Damascus and the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, Damascene Aramaic was spoken (deduced mostly from Modern Western Aramaic). Finally, as far north as Aleppo, the western dialect of Orontes Aramaic was spoken. The three languages, especially Hebrew and Aramaic, influenced one another through loanwords and semantic loans. Hebrew words entered Jewish Aramaic. Most were mostly technical religious words, but a few were everyday words like עץ ʿēṣ "wood". Conversely, Aramaic words, such as māmmôn "wealth", were borrowed into Hebrew, and Hebrew words acquired additional senses from Aramaic. For instance, Hebrew ראוי rā’ûi "seen" borrowed the sense "worthy, seemly" from the Aramaic ḥzî meaning "seen" and "worthy". The Greek of the New Testament preserves some semiticisms, including transliterations of Semitic words. Some are Aramaic, like talitha (ταλιθα), which represents the noun טליתא ṭalīṯā (Mark 5:41), and others may be either Hebrew or Aramaic like רבוני Rabbounei (Ραββουνει), which means "my master/great one/teacher" in both languages (John 20:16). Other examples: "Talitha kumi" (טליתא קומי) (Mark 5:41) "Ephphatha" (אתפתח) (Mark 7:34) "Eloi, Eloi, lama sabachthani?" (אלי, אלי, למה שבקתני?) (Mark 15:34) The 2004 film The Passion of the Christ used Aramaic for much of its dialogue, specially reconstructed by a scholar, William Fulco, S.J. Where the appropriate words (in first-century Aramaic) were no longer known, he used the Aramaic of Daniel and fourth-century Syriac and Hebrew as the basis for his work.[72] Middle Aramaic[edit] The 3rd century AD is taken as the threshold between Old and Middle Aramaic. During that century, the nature of the various Aramaic languages and dialects began to change. The descendants of Imperial Aramaic ceased to be living languages, and the eastern and western regional languages began to develop vital new literatures. Unlike many of the dialects of Old Aramaic, much is known about the vocabulary and grammar of Middle Aramaic. Eastern Middle Aramaic[edit] Only two of the Old Eastern Aramaic languages continued into this period. In the north of the region, Old Syriac transitioned into Middle Syriac. In the south, Jewish Old Babylonian became Jewish Middle Babylonian. The post-Achaemenid, Arsacid dialect became the background of the new Mandaic language. Syriac Aramaic[edit] Main article: Syriac language 9th century Syriac Estrangela manuscript of John Chrysostom's Homily on the Gospel of John Abun dbashmayo The Lord's Prayer, Abun dbashmayo, sung in Syriac Problems playing this file? See media help. Syriac Aramaic (also "Classical Syriac") is the literary, liturgical and often spoken language of Syriac Christianity. It originated by the first century AD in the region of Osroene, centered in Edessa, but its golden age was the fourth to eight centuries. This period began with the translation of the Bible into the language: the Peshitta, and the masterful prose and poetry of Ephrem the Syrian. Classical Syriac became the language of the Church of the East, and the Syriac Orthodox Church. Missionary activity led to the spread of Syriac from Mesopotamia and Persia, into Central Asia, India and China.[73][74] Jewish Babylonian Aramaic[edit] Main article: Jewish Babylonian Aramaic Jewish Middle Babylonian is the language employed by Jewish writers in Babylonia between the fourth and the eleventh century. It is most commonly identified with the language of the Babylonian Talmud (which was completed in the seventh century) and of post-Talmudic Geonic literature, which are the most important cultural products of Babylonian Judaism. The most important epigraphic sources for the dialect are the hundreds of incantation bowls written in Jewish Babylonian Aramaic.[75] Mandaic Aramaic[edit] Main article: Mandaic language The Mandaic language, spoken by the Mandaeans of Iraq, is a sister dialect to Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, though it is both linguistically and culturally distinct. Classical Mandaic is the language in which the Mandaeans' gnostic religious literature was composed. It is characterized by a highly phonetic orthography.[17] Western Middle Aramaic[edit] The dialects of Old Western Aramaic continued with Jewish Middle Palestinian (in Hebrew "square script"), Samaritan Aramaic (in the old Hebrew script) and Christian Palestinian (in cursive Syriac script). Of these three, only Jewish Middle Palestinian continued as a written language.[clarification needed] Samaritan Aramaic[edit] Main article: Samaritan Aramaic language The Samaritan Aramaic is earliest attested by the documentary tradition of the Samaritans that can be dated back to the fourth century. Its modern pronunciation is based on the form used in the tenth century.[76] Jewish Palestinian Aramaic[edit] Hebrew (left) and Aramaic (right) in parallel in a 1299 Hebrew Bible held by the Bodleian Library Main article: Jewish Palestinian Aramaic In 135, after the Bar Kokhba revolt, many Jewish leaders, expelled from Jerusalem, moved to Galilee. The Galilean dialect thus rose from obscurity to become the standard among Jews in the west. This dialect was spoken not only in Galilee, but also in the surrounding parts. It is the linguistic setting for the Jerusalem Talmud (completed in the 5th century), Palestinian targumim (Jewish Aramaic versions of scripture), and midrashim (biblical commentaries and teaching). The standard vowel pointing for the Hebrew Bible, the Tiberian system (7th century), was developed by speakers of the Galilean dialect of Jewish Middle Palestinian. Classical Hebrew vocalisation, therefore, in representing the Hebrew of this period, probably reflects the contemporary pronunciation of this Aramaic dialect.[77] Middle Judaean Aramaic, the descendant of Old Judaean Aramaic, was no longer the dominant dialect, and was used only in southern Judaea (the variant Engedi dialect continued throughout this period). Likewise, Middle East Jordanian continued as a minor dialect from Old East Jordanian. The inscriptions in the synagogue at Dura-Europos are either in Middle East Jordanian or Middle Judaean. Christian Palestinian Aramaic[edit] Main article: Christian Palestinian Aramaic This was the language of the Christian Melkite (Chalcedonian) community from the 5th to the 8th century. As a liturgical language, it was used up to the 13th century. It is also been called "Melkite Aramaic" and "Palestinian Syriac".[78] The language itself comes from Old Christian Palestinian Aramaic, but its writing conventions were based on early Middle Syriac, and it was heavily influenced by Greek. For example, the name Jesus, although ישוע Yešua’ in Jewish Aramaic, and Išo in Syriac, is written Yesûs (a transliteration of the Greek form) in Christian Palestinian.[79] Modern Aramaic[edit] Main article: Neo-Aramaic languages As the Western Aramaic languages of the Levant and Lebanon have become nearly extinct in non-liturgical usage, the most prolific speakers of Aramaic dialects today are predominantly ethnic Assyrian Eastern Neo-Aramaic speakers, the most numerous being the Northeastern Neo-Aramaic speakers of Mesopotamia. This includes speakers of Assyrian Neo-Aramaic (235,000 speakers), Chaldean Neo-Aramaic (216,000 speakers), and Turoyo (Surayt) (112,000 to 450,000 speakers). Having largely lived in remote areas as insulated communities for over a millennium, the remaining speakers of modern Aramaic dialects, such as the Assyrians, and the Arameans, escaped the linguistic pressures experienced by others during the large-scale language shifts that saw the proliferation of other tongues among those who previously did not speak them, most recently the Arabization of the Middle East and North Africa by Arabs beginning with the early Muslim conquests of the seventh century.[41] Modern Eastern Aramaic[edit] Amen in East Syriac Aramaic Main articles: Northeastern Neo-Aramaic and Neo-Mandaic Modern Eastern Aramaic exists in a wide variety of dialects and languages. There is significant difference between the Aramaic spoken by Christians, Jews, and Mandaeans. The Christian varieties are often called Modern Syriac (or Neo-Syriac, particularly when referring to their literature), being deeply influenced by the literary and liturgical language of Middle Syriac. However, they also have roots in numerous, previously unwritten, local Aramaic varieties, and are not purely the direct descendants of the language of Ephrem the Syrian. The varieties are not all mutually intelligible. The principal Christian varieties are Assyrian Neo-Aramaic and Chaldean Neo-Aramaic, both belonging to the group of Northeastern Neo-Aramaic languages.[80] The Judeo-Aramaic languages are now mostly spoken in Israel, and most are facing extinction. The Jewish varieties that have come from communities that once lived between Lake Urmia and Mosul are not all mutually intelligible. In some places, for example Urmia, Assyrian Christians and Jews speak mutually unintelligible varieties of Modern Eastern Aramaic in the same place. In others, the Nineveh plains around Mosul for example, the varieties of these two ethnic communities are similar enough to allow conversation. Modern Central Neo-Aramaic, being in between Western Neo-Aramaic and Eastern Neo-Aramaic) is generally represented by Turoyo, the language of the Assyrians of Tur Abdin. A related language, Mlahsô, has recently become extinct.[81] Mandaeans living in the Khuzestan Province of Iran and scattered throughout Iraq, speak Modern Mandaic. It is quite distinct from any other Aramaic variety. Mandaic numbers some 50,000–75,000 people, but it is believed the Mandaic language may now be spoken fluently by as few as 5,000 people, with other Mandaeans having varying degrees of knowledge.[18] Modern Western Aramaic[edit] Main article: Western Neo-Aramaic Very little remains of Western Aramaic. Its only remaining vernacular is the Western Neo-Aramaic language, that is still spoken in the villages of Maaloula, al-Sarkha (Bakhah), and Jubb'adin on Syria's side of the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, as well as by some people who migrated from these villages, to Damascus and other larger towns of Syria. All these speakers of Modern Western Aramaic are fluent in Arabic as well.[14] Other Western Aramaic languages, like Jewish Palestinian Aramaic and Samaritan Aramaic, are preserved only in liturgical and literary usage. Phonology[edit] This section contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. Each dialect of Aramaic has its own distinctive pronunciation, and it would not be feasible here to go into all these properties. Aramaic has a phonological palette of 25 to 40 distinct phonemes. Some modern Aramaic pronunciations lack the series of "emphatic" consonants, and some have borrowed from the inventories of surrounding languages, particularly Arabic, Azerbaijani, Kurdish, Persian and Turkish. Vowels[edit] Front Back Close i u Close-mid e o Open-mid ɛ (ɔ) Open a (ɑ) As with most Semitic languages, Aramaic can be thought of as having three basic sets of vowels: Open a-vowels Close front i-vowels Close back u-vowels These vowel groups are relatively stable, but the exact articulation of any individual is most dependent on its consonantal setting. The open vowel is an open near-front unrounded vowel ("short" a, somewhat like the first vowel in the English "batter", [a]). It usually has a back counterpart ("long" a, like the a in "father", [ɑ], or even tending to the vowel in "caught", [ɔ]), and a front counterpart ("short" e, like the vowel in "head", [ɛ]). There is much correspondence between these vowels between dialects. There is some evidence that Middle Babylonian dialects did not distinguish between the short a and short e. In West Syriac dialects, and possibly Middle Galilean, the long a became the o sound. The open e and back a are often indicated in writing by the use of the letters א "alaph" (a glottal stop) or ה "he" (like the English h). The close front vowel is the "long" i (like the vowel in "need", [i]). It has a slightly more open counterpart, the "long" e, as in the final vowel of "café" ([e]). Both of these have shorter counterparts, which tend to be pronounced slightly more open. Thus, the short close e corresponds with the open e in some dialects. The close front vowels usually use the consonant י y as a mater lectionis. The close back vowel is the "long" u (like the vowel in "school", [u]). It has a more open counterpart, the "long" o, like the vowel in "show" ([o]). There are shorter, and thus more open, counterparts to each of these, with the short close o sometimes corresponding with the long open a. The close back vowels often use the consonant ו w to indicate their quality. Two basic diphthongs exist: an open vowel followed by י y (ay), and an open vowel followed by ו w (aw). These were originally full diphthongs, but many dialects have converted them to e and o respectively. The so-called "emphatic" consonants (see the next section) cause all vowels to become mid-centralised. Consonants[edit] Labial Interdental Alveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyngeal Glottal plain emp. Nasal m n Stop voiceless p t tˤ k q ʔ voiced b d ɡ Fricative voiceless f θ s sˤ ʃ x ħ h voiced v ð z ɣ ʕ Approximant l j w Trill r The various alphabets used for writing Aramaic languages have twenty-two letters (all of which are consonants). Some of these letters, though, can stand for two or three different sounds (usually a stop and a fricative at the same point of articulation). Aramaic classically uses a series of lightly contrasted plosives and fricatives: Labial set: פּ\פ p/f and בּ\ב b/v, Dental set: תּ\ת t/θ and דּ\ד d/ð, Velar set: כּ\כ k/x and גּ\ג g/ɣ. Each member of a certain pair is written with the same letter of the alphabet in most writing systems (that is, p and f are written with the same letter), and are near allophones. A distinguishing feature of Aramaic phonology (and that of Semitic languages in general) is the presence of "emphatic" consonants. These are consonants that are pronounced with the root of the tongue retracted, with varying degrees of pharyngealization and velarization. Using their alphabetic names, these emphatics are: ח Ḥêṯ, a voiceless pharyngeal fricative, /ħ/, ט Ṭêṯ, a pharyngealized t, /tˤ/, ע ʽAyin (or ʽE in some dialects), a pharyngealized glottal stop (sometimes considered to be a voiced pharyngeal approximant), [ʕ] or [ʔˤ], צ Ṣāḏê, a pharyngealized s, /sˤ/, ק Qôp, a voiceless uvular stop, /q/. The emphatic consonants of Aramaic Problems playing this file? See media help. Ancient Aramaic may have had a larger series of emphatics, and some Neo-Aramaic languages definitely do. Not all dialects of Aramaic give these consonants their historic values. Overlapping with the set of emphatics are the "guttural" consonants. They include ח Ḥêṯ and ע ʽAyn from the emphatic set, and add א ʼĀlap̄ (a glottal stop) and ה Hê (as the English "h"). Aramaic classically has a set of four sibilants (ancient Aramaic may have had six): ס, שׂ /s/ (as in English "sea"), ז /z/ (as in English "zero"), שׁ /ʃ/ (as in English "ship"), צ /sˤ/ (the emphatic Ṣāḏê listed above). In addition to these sets, Aramaic has the nasal consonants מ m and נ n, and the approximants ר r (usually an alveolar trill), ל l, י y and ו w. Historical sound changes[edit] Six broad features of sound change can be seen as dialect differentials: Vowel change occurs almost too frequently to document fully, but is a major distinctive feature of different dialects. Plosive/fricative pair reduction. Originally, Aramaic, like Tiberian Hebrew, had fricatives as conditioned allophones for each plosive. In the wake of vowel changes, the distinction eventually became phonemic; still later, it was often lost in certain dialects. For example, Turoyo has mostly lost /p/, using /f/ instead, like Arabic; other dialects (for instance, standard Assyrian Neo-Aramaic) have lost /θ/ and /ð/ and replaced them with /t/ and /d/, as with Modern Hebrew. In most dialects of Modern Syriac, /f/ and /v/ are realized as [w] after a vowel. Loss of emphatics. Some dialects have replaced emphatic consonants with non-emphatic counterparts, while those spoken in the Caucasus often have glottalized rather than pharyngealized emphatics. Guttural assimilation is the main distinctive feature of Samaritan pronunciation, also found in Samaritan Hebrew: all the gutturals are reduced to a simple glottal stop. Some Modern Aramaic dialects do not pronounce h in all words (the third person masculine pronoun hu becomes ow). Proto-Semitic */θ/ */ð/ are reflected in Aramaic as */t/, */d/, whereas they became sibilants in Hebrew (the number three is שלוש šālôš in Hebrew but תלת tlāṯ in Aramaic, the word gold is זהב zahav[82] in Hebrew but דהב dehav[83] in Aramaic). Dental/sibilant shifts are still happening in the modern dialects. New phonetic inventory. Modern dialects have borrowed sounds from the dominant surrounding languages. The most frequent borrowings are [ʒ] (as the first consonant in "azure"), [d͡ʒ] (as in "jam") and [t͡ʃ] (as in "church"). The Syriac alphabet has been adapted for writing these new sounds. Grammar[edit] Aramaic words based on the triliteral root k-t-b Problems playing this file? See media help. As with other Semitic languages, Aramaic morphology (the way words are formed) is based on the consonantal root. The root generally consists of two or three consonants and has a basic meaning, for example, כת״ב k-t-b has the meaning of 'writing'. This is then modified by the addition of vowels and other consonants to create different nuances of the basic meaning: כתבה kṯāḇâ, handwriting, inscription, script, book. כתבי kṯāḇê, books, the Scriptures. כתובה kāṯûḇâ, secretary, scribe. כתבת kiṯḇeṯ, I wrote. אכתב 'eḵtûḇ, I shall write. Nouns and adjectives[edit] Aramaic nouns and adjectives are inflected to show gender, number and state. Aramaic has two grammatical genders: masculine and feminine. The feminine absolute singular is often marked by the ending ה- -â. Nouns can be either singular or plural, but an additional "dual" number exists for nouns that usually come in pairs. The dual number gradually disappeared from Aramaic over time and has little influence in Middle and Modern Aramaic. Aramaic nouns and adjectives can exist in one of three states. To a certain extent, these states correspond to the role of articles and cases in the Indo-European languages: The absolute state is the basic form of a noun. In early forms of Aramaic, the absolute state expresses indefiniteness, comparable to the English indefinite article a(n) (for example, כתבה kṯāḇâ, "a handwriting"), and can be used in most syntactic roles. However, by the Middle Aramaic period, its use for nouns (but not adjectives) had been widely replaced by the emphatic state. The construct state is a form of the noun used to make possessive constructions (for example, כתבת מלכתא kṯāḇat malkṯâ, "the handwriting of the queen"). In the masculine singular the form of the construct is often the same as the absolute, but it may undergo vowel reduction in longer words. The feminine construct and masculine construct plural are marked by suffixes. Unlike a genitive case, which marks the possessor, the construct state is marked on the possessed. This is mainly due to Aramaic word order: possessed[const.] possessor[abs./emph.] are treated as a speech unit, with the first unit (possessed) employing the construct state to link it to the following word. In Middle Aramaic, the use of the construct state for all but stock phrases (like בר נשא bar nāšâ, "son of man") begins to disappear. The emphatic or determined state is an extended form of the noun that functions similarly to the definite article. It is marked with a suffix (for example, כתבתא kṯāḇtâ, "the handwriting"). Although its original grammatical function seems to have been to mark definiteness, it is used already in Imperial Aramaic to mark all important nouns, even if they should be considered technically indefinite. This practice developed to the extent that the absolute state became extraordinarily rare in later varieties of Aramaic. Whereas other Northwest Semitic languages, like Hebrew, have the absolute and construct states, the emphatic/determined state is a unique feature to Aramaic. Case endings, as in Ugaritic, probably existed in a very early stage of the language, and glimpses of them can be seen in a few compound proper names. However, as most of those cases were expressed by short final vowels, they were never written, and the few characteristic long vowels of the masculine plural accusative and genitive are not clearly evidenced in inscriptions. Often, the direct object is marked by a prefixed -ל l- (the preposition "to") if it is definite. Adjectives agree with their nouns in number and gender but agree in state only if used attributively. Predicative adjectives are in the absolute state regardless of the state of their noun (a copula may or may not be written). Thus, an attributive adjective to an emphatic noun, as in the phrase "the good king", is written also in the emphatic state מלכא טבא malkâ ṭāḇâ—king[emph.] good[emph.]. In comparison, the predicative adjective, as in the phrase "the king is good", is written in the absolute state מלכא טב malkâ ṭāḇ—king[emph.] good[abs.]. "good" masc. sg. fem. sg. masc. pl. fem. pl. abs. טב ṭāḇ טבה ṭāḇâ טבין ṭāḇîn טבן ṭāḇān const. טבת ṭāḇaṯ טבי ṭāḇê טבת ṭāḇāṯ det./emph. טבא ṭāḇâ טבתא ṭāḇtâ טביא ṭāḇayyâ טבתא ṭāḇāṯâ The final א- -â in a number of these suffixes is written with the letter aleph. However, some Jewish Aramaic texts employ the letter he for the feminine absolute singular. Likewise, some Jewish Aramaic texts employ the Hebrew masculine absolute singular suffix ים- -îm instead of ין- -în. The masculine determined plural suffix, יא- -ayyâ, has an alternative version, -ê. The alternative is sometimes called the "gentilic plural" for its prominent use in ethnonyms (יהודיא yəhûḏāyê, 'the Jews', for example). This alternative plural is written with the letter aleph, and came to be the only plural for nouns and adjectives of this type in Syriac and some other varieties of Aramaic. The masculine construct plural, -ê, is written with yodh. In Syriac and some other variants this ending is diphthongized to -ai. Possessive phrases in Aramaic can either be made with the construct state or by linking two nouns with the relative particle -[ד[י d[î]-. As the use of the construct state almost disappears from the Middle Aramaic period on, the latter method became the main way of making possessive phrases. Different variations of the possessive construction in Aramaic Problems playing this file? See media help. For example, the various forms of possessive phrases (for "the handwriting of the queen") are: כתבת מלכתא kṯāḇaṯ malkṯâ – the oldest construction, also known as סמיכות səmîḵûṯ : the possessed object (כתבה kṯābâ, "handwriting") is in the construct state (כתבת kṯāḇaṯ); the possessor (מלכה malkâ, "queen") is in the emphatic state (מלכתא malkṯâ) כתבתא דמלכתא kṯāḇtâ d(î)-malkṯâ – both words are in the emphatic state and the relative particle -[ד[י d[î]- is used to mark the relationship כתבתה דמלכתא kṯāḇtāh d(î)-malkṯâ – both words are in the emphatic state, and the relative particle is used, but the possessed is given an anticipatory, pronominal ending (כתבתה kṯāḇtā-h, "handwriting-her"; literally, "her writing, that (of) the queen"). In Modern Aramaic, the last form is by far the most common. In Biblical Aramaic, the last form is virtually absent. Verbs[edit] The Aramaic verb has gradually evolved in time and place, varying between varieties of the language. Verb forms are marked for person (first, second or third), number (singular or plural), gender (masculine or feminine), tense (perfect or imperfect), mood (indicative, imperative, jussive or infinitive) and voice (active, reflexive or passive). Aramaic also employs a system of conjugations, or verbal stems, to mark intensive and extensive developments in the lexical meaning of verbs. Aspectual tense[edit] Aramaic has two proper tenses: perfect and imperfect. These were originally aspectual, but developed into something more like a preterite and future. The perfect is unmarked, while the imperfect uses various preformatives that vary according to person, number and gender. In both tenses the third-person singular masculine is the unmarked form from which others are derived by addition of afformatives (and preformatives in the imperfect). In the chart below (on the root כת״ב K-T-B, meaning "to write"), the first form given is the usual form in Imperial Aramaic, while the second is Classical Syriac. Person & gender Perfect Imperfect Singular Plural Singular Plural 3rd m. כתב kəṯaḇ ↔ kəṯaḇ כתבו ↔ כתב(ו)\כתבון kəṯaḇû ↔ kəṯaḇ(w)/kəṯabbûn יכתוב ↔ נכתוב yiḵtuḇ ↔ neḵtoḇ יכתבון ↔ נכתבון yiḵtəḇûn ↔ neḵtəḇûn 3rd f. כתבת kiṯbaṯ ↔ keṯbaṯ כתבת ↔ כתב(י)\כתבן kəṯaḇâ ↔ kəṯaḇ(y)/kəṯabbên תכתב tiḵtuḇ ↔ teḵtoḇ יכתבן ↔ נכתבן yiḵtəḇān ↔ neḵtəḇān 2nd m. כתבת kəṯaḇt ↔ kəṯaḇt כתבתון kəṯaḇtûn ↔ kəṯaḇton תכתב tiḵtuḇ ↔ teḵtoḇ תכתבון tiḵtəḇûn ↔ teḵtəḇûn 2nd f. (כתבתי ↔ כתבת(י kəṯaḇtî ↔ kəṯaḇt(y) כתבתן kəṯaḇtēn ↔ kəṯaḇtên תכתבין tiḵtuḇîn ↔ teḵtuḇîn תכתבן tiḵtəḇān ↔ teḵtəḇān 1st m./f. כתבת kiṯḇēṯ ↔ keṯḇeṯ כתבנא ↔ כתבן kəṯaḇnâ ↔ kəṯaḇn אכתב eḵtuḇ ↔ eḵtoḇ נכתב niḵtuḇ ↔ neḵtoḇ Conjugations or verbal stems[edit] Like other Semitic languages, Aramaic employs a number of derived verb stems, to extend the lexical coverage of verbs. The basic form of the verb is called the ground stem, or G-stem. Following the tradition of mediaeval Arabic grammarians, it is more often called the Pə‘al פעל (also written Pe‘al), using the form of the Semitic root פע״ל P-‘-L, meaning "to do". This stem carries the basic lexical meaning of the verb. By doubling of the second radical, or root letter, the D-stem or פעל Pa‘‘el is formed. This is often an intensive development of the basic lexical meaning. For example, qəṭal means "he killed", whereas qaṭṭel means "he slew". The precise relationship in meaning between the two stems differs for every verb. A preformative, which can be -ה ha-, -א a- or -ש ša-, creates the C-stem or variously the Hap̄‘el, Ap̄‘el or Šap̄‘el (also spelt הפעל Haph‘el, אפעל Aph‘el and שפעל Shaph‘el). This is often an extensive or causative development of the basic lexical meaning. For example, טעה ṭə‘â means "he went astray", whereas אטעי aṭ‘î means "he deceived". The Šap̄‘el שפעל is the least common variant of the C-stem. Because this variant is standard in Akkadian, it is possible that its use in Aramaic represents loanwords from that language. The difference between the variants הפעל Hap̄‘el and אפעל Ap̄‘el appears to be the gradual dropping of the initial ה h sound in later Old Aramaic. This is noted by the respelling of the older he preformative with א aleph. These three conjugations are supplemented with three further derived stems, produced by the preformative -הת hiṯ- or -את eṯ-. The loss of the initial ה h sound occurs similarly to that in the form above. These three derived stems are the Gt-stem, התפעל Hiṯpə‘el or אתפעל Eṯpə‘el (also written Hithpe‘el or Ethpe‘el), the Dt-stem, התפעּל Hiṯpa‘‘al or אתפעּל Eṯpa‘‘al (also written Hithpa‘‘al or Ethpa‘‘al), and the Ct-stem, התהפעל Hiṯhap̄‘al, אתּפעל Ettap̄‘al, השתפעל Hištap̄‘al or אשתפעל Eštap̄‘al (also written Hithhaph‘al, Ettaph‘al, Hishtaph‘al or Eshtaph‘al). Their meaning is usually reflexive, but later became passive. However, as with other stems, actual meaning differs from verb to verb. Not all verbs use all of these conjugations, and, in some, the G-stem is not used. In the chart below (on the root כת״ב K-T-B, meaning "to write"), the first form given is the usual form in Imperial Aramaic, while the second is Classical Syriac. Stem Perfect active Imperfect active Perfect passive Imperfect passive פעל Pə‘al (G-stem) כתב kəṯaḇ ↔ kəṯaḇ יכתב ↔ נכתב yiḵtuḇ ↔ neḵtoḇ כתיב kəṯîḇ התפעל\אתפעל Hiṯpə‘ēl/Eṯpə‘el (Gt-stem) התכתב ↔ אתכתב hiṯkəṯēḇ ↔ eṯkəṯeḇ יתכתב ↔ נתכתב yiṯkəṯēḇ ↔ neṯkəṯeḇ פעּל Pa‘‘ēl/Pa‘‘el (D-stem) כתּב kattēḇ ↔ katteḇ יכתּב ↔ נכתּב yəḵattēḇ ↔ nəkatteḇ כֻתּב kuttaḇ התפעל\אתפעל Hiṯpa‘‘al/Eṯpa‘‘al (Dt-stem) התכתּב ↔ אתכתּב hiṯkəttēḇ ↔ eṯkətteḇ יתכתּב ↔ נתכתּב yiṯkəttēḇ ↔ neṯkətteḇ הפעל\אפעל Hap̄‘ēl/Ap̄‘el (C-stem) הכתב ↔ אכתב haḵtēḇ ↔ aḵteḇ יהכתב↔ נכתב yəhaḵtēḇ ↔ naḵteḇ הֻכתב huḵtaḇ התהפעל\אתּפעל Hiṯhap̄‘al/Ettap̄‘al (Ct-stem) התהכתב ↔ אתּכתב hiṯhaḵtaḇ ↔ ettaḵtaḇ יתהכתב ↔ נתּכתב yiṯhaḵtaḇ ↔ nettaḵtaḇ In Imperial Aramaic, the participle began to be used for a historical present. Perhaps under influence from other languages, Middle Aramaic developed a system of composite tenses (combinations of forms of the verb with pronouns or an auxiliary verb), allowing for narrative that is more vivid. The syntax of Aramaic (the way sentences are put together) usually follows the order verb–subject–object (VSO). Imperial (Persian) Aramaic, however, tended to follow a S-O-V pattern (similar to Akkadian), which was the result of Persian syntactic influence. See also[edit] Languages portal Christianity portal Talmud Arameans Aramaic studies Arabic alphabet Aramaic of Hatra Ephrem the Syrian Hebrew alphabet Gospel of Matthew Peshitta List of loanwords in modern Aramaic Romanization of Syriac References[edit] ^ Brock 1989, p. 11–23. ^ a b Beyer 1986. ^ Lipiński 2000. ^ Creason 2008, p. 108-144. ^ Gzella 2015. ^ Lipiński 2001. ^ Kilpatrick, Hilary (2013). "Modernity in a Classical Arabic Adab Work, the Kitāb al-Aghānī". In Smart, J. R. (ed.). Tradition and Modernity in Arabic Language And Literature. Routledge. p. 253. ISBN 9781136788123. Retrieved 10 October 2018. ^ Myers, Allen C., ed. (1987). "Aramaic". The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Alban Books Limited. p. 72. ISBN 9780802824028. Retrieved 10 October 2018. It is generally agreed that Aramaic was the common language of Israel in the first century CE. Jesus and his disciples spoke the Galilean dialect, which was distinguished from that of Jerusalem (Matt. 26:73). ^ "Aramaic language". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 10 October 2018. ^ Roberts, Rev. Dr. Mark D. "What Language Did Jesus Speak?". Patheos.com. Retrieved 10 October 2018. ^ a b Folmer 2012, p. 587–598. ^ Bae 2004, p. 1–20. ^ Green 1992, p. 45. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGreen1992 (help) ^ a b Arnold 2012, p. 685–696. ^ Beyer 1986, p. 38–43. ^ Casey 1998, p. 83–93. ^ a b Burtea 2012, p. 670–685. ^ a b c d Häberl 2012, p. 725–737. ^ Heinrichs 1990, p. XI–XV. ^ Beyer 1986, p. 53. ^ Naby 2004, p. 197-203. ^ Shaviv, Miriam (14 July 2013). "The last of the Aramaic speakers". The Times of Israel. Retrieved 10 October 2018. ^ a b c Richard, 2003, p. 69. ^ Kopp, Ulrich Friedrich (1821). "Semitische Paläographie: Aramäische ältere Schrift.". Bilder und Schriften der Vorzeit. pp. 226–227 (§168–169).: “Irre ich nicht, so hat man die Benennung „phönicische Schrift“ bisher etwas zu freygebig gebraucht, den Phöniciern alles gegeben, und den Aramäern nichts gelassen, gleichsam, als ob diese gar nicht hätten schreiben können, oder doch von ihnen nicht ein einziges Denkmal aus ältern Zeiten sich sollte erhalten haben. Selbst Schriften, in welchen sich die aramäische Mund-Art gar nicht verkennen läßt, nennen die Orientalisten phönicisch (§. 195), bloß weil sie noch nicht geahndet haben, daß eine Verschiedenheit vorhanden seyn könne. Ein Haupt-Unterscheidungs-Zeichen -- So weit man, ohne auch dasjenige gesehen zu haben, was etwa noch entdeckt werden könnte, vorjetzt durch bloße Induction schließen kann - scheint in den Buchstaben ב, ד, ע und ר zu liegen. Denn so viele phönicische Denkmäler ich auch betrachtet habe; so sind mir doch in keinem einzigen ächt phönicischen diejenigen Gestalten vorgekommen, welche sich oben öffnen (§. 100). Nur bey dem einzigen ע finden sich, wie ich schon erinnert habe, jedoch höchst seltene Ausnahmen, die zuweilen bloß von der Uebereilung des Schreibers herrühren (z.B. im ersten ע der oxforder Inschrift (B.I. S.207). Wir haben sogar oben (§. 159) gesehen, daß selbst noch 153 Jahre nach Christi Geburt, als schon die Schrift in Phönicien sehr ausgeartet war, und in dem ganzen Zeit-Raume vorher, nie ד und ר mit von oben geöffneten Köpfen erscheinen. Dagegen haben diejenigen Denkmäler, auf welchen man sie antrifft, wie ich glaube, auch keinen Anspruch an Pönicier, als Urheber.” ^ a b "The name Aram in the Bible". Abarim Publications. Archived from the original on 29 September 2018. Retrieved 10 October 2018. ^ a b Nöldeke, 1871, p.115: “Die Griechen haben den Namen „Aramäer" nie eigentlich gekannt; ausser Posidonius (dem Strabo folgt) nennt ihn uns nur noch ein andrer Orientale, Josephus (Ant. 1, 6, 4). Dass Homer bei den 'Ερεμβοι oder in den Worten eiv 'Αρίμοις an sie dächte, ist sehr unwahrscheinlich. Die Griechen nannten das Volk „Syrer"”. ^ Frye 1992, p. 281–285. ^ Frye 1997, p. 30–36. ^ "Strong's Hebrew: 804. אַשּׁוּר (Ashshuwr) -- Asshur". biblehub.com. Retrieved 2020-07-31. ^ "Search Entry". www.assyrianlanguages.org. Retrieved 2020-07-31. ^ Andrade 2013, p. 7. ^ Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, 1.144: "Aram had the Aramites, which the Greeks called Syrians" (Greek: Ἀραμαίους δὲ Ἄραμος ἔσχεν, οὓς Ἕλληνες Σύρους προσαγορεύουσιν ^ Strabo, Geographica, 1.2.34: "But it would seem that the view of Poseidonius is best, for here he derives an etymology of the words from the kinship of the peoples and their common characteristics. For the nation of the Armenians and that of the Syrians and Arabians betray a close affinity, not only in their language, but in their mode of life and in their bodily build, and particularly wherever they live as close neighbours. Mesopotamia, which is inhabited by these three nations, gives proof of this, for in the case of these nations the similarity is particularly noticeable. And if, comparing the differences of latitude, there does exist a greater difference between the northern and the southern people of Mesopotamia than between these two peoples and the Syrians in the centre, still the common characteristics prevail. And, too, the Assyrians, the Arians, and the Aramaeans display a certain likeness both to those just mentioned and to each other. Indeed, Poseidonius conjectures that the names of these nations also are akin; for, says he, the people whom we call Syrians are by the Syrians themselves called Arimaeans and Arammaeans; and there is a resemblance between this name and those of the Armenians, the Arabians and the Erembians, since perhaps the ancient Greeks gave the name of Erembians to the Arabians, and since the very etymology of the word "Erembian" contributes to this result". ^ Strabo, Geographica, 16.4.27: "Poseidonius says that the Arabians consist of three tribes, that they are situated in succession, one after another, and that this indicates that they are homogeneous with one another, and that for this reason they were called by similar names — one tribe "Armenians," another "Aramaeans," and another "Arambians." And just as one may suppose that the Arabians were divided into three tribes, according to the differences in the latitudes, which ever vary more and more, so also one may suppose that they used several names instead of one. Neither are those who write "Eremni" plausible; for that name is more peculiarly applicable to the Aethiopians. The poet also mentions "Arimi,"by which, according to Poseidonius, we should interpret the poet as meaning, not some place in Syria or in Cilicia or in some other land, but Syria itself; for the people in Syria are Aramaeans, though perhaps the Greeks called them Arimaeans or Arimi". ^ Joseph, John (2000). The Modern Assyrians of the Middle East: A History of Their Encounter with Western Christian Missions, Archaeologists, and Colonial Powers. BRILL. pp. 9–10. ISBN 90-04-11641-9. The designations Syria and Syrian were derived from Greek usage long before Christianity. When the Greeks became better acquainted with the Near East, especially after Alexander the Great overthrew the Achaemenian empire in the 4th century B.C., they restricted the name Syria to the lands west of the Euphrates. During the 3rd century B.C., when the Hebrew Bible was translated by Jewish scholars into the Greek Septuagint for the use of the Hellenized Jews of Alexandria, the terms for ‘Aramean’ and ‘Aramaic’ in the Hebrew Bible, were translated into ‘Syrian’ and ‘the Syrian tongue’ respectively. [Footnote: “The Authorized Version of the Bible continued to use the same terms that the Septuagint had adopted. In 1970, the New English Bible, published by Oxford and Cambridge University presses, and translated by biblical scholars drawn from various British universities, went back to the original Hebrew terms, using Aram and Arameans for Syria and Syrians respectively.”] In Palestine itself, according to Noldeke, the Jews and later the Christians there referred to their dialect of Aramaic as Syriac; in Babylon, both Greeks and Persians called the Arameans Syrians. The second-century B.C. Greek historian Posidonius, a native of Syria, noted that ‘the people we [Greeks] call Syrians were called by the Syrians themselves Arameans….for the people in Syria are Arameans’.” ^ Schmidt, Nathaniel. “Early Oriental Studies in Europe and the Work of the American Oriental Society, 1842-1922.” Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 43, 1923, pp. 1–14. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/593293 "Hilliger first saw clearly the relation of the so-called Chaldee, Syriac, and Samaritan (1679)" ^ Johann Wilhelm Hilliger (1679). Summarium Lingvæ Aramææ, i.e. Chaldæo-Syro-Samaritanæ: olim in Academia Wittebergensi orientalium lingvarum consecraneis, parietes intra privatos, prælectum & nunc ... publico bono commodatum. Sumtibus hæred. D. Tobiæ Mevii & Elerti Schumacheri, per Matthæum Henckelium. [Partial English translation]: "The Aramaic language name comes from its gentile founder, Aram (Gen 10:22), in the same manner as the Slavic languages Bohemian, Polish, Vandal etc. Multiple dialects are Chaldean, Syrian, Samaritan."; Latin Original: Linguae Aramaeae nomen à gentis conditore, Aramo nimirum (Gen. X 22) desumptum est, & complectitur, perinde ut Lingua Sclavonica, Bohemican, Polonican, Vandalicam &c. Dialectos plures, ceu sunt: Chaldaica, Syriaca, Samaritana. ^ Quatremère, Étienne Marc (1835). "Mémoire Sur Les Nabatéens". Journal asiatique. Société asiatique: 122–127. Les livres du Nouveau Testament furent immédiatement traduits dans fa langue du pays. Or ces livres étaient écrits dans la langue des Grecs, et offraient par conséquent les expressions et les dénominations en usage chez'ce peuple. Or les noms de Syrie, de Syriens se trouvaient souvent employés dans les livres fondamentaux du christianisme. Les habitants des pays situés entre la Méditerranée et l'Euphrate, se voyant désignés par une dénomination qui leur était étrangère, mais qui se trouvait en quelque sorte consacrée par l'autorité des livres qu'ils vénéraient à tant de titres, ne crurent pas sans doute pouvoir rejeter ce nom, et l'adoptèrent sans répugnance. Ils se persuadèrent que, régénérés par un nouveau culte, ils devaient sous tous les rapports devenir un peuple nouveau et abjurer leur nom antique, qui semblait leur rappeler l'idolâtrie à laquelle le christianisme venait de les arracher. Cette conjecture est, si je ne me trompe, confirmée par un fait que je crois décisif. Dans la langue syriaque ecclésiastique, le mot armoïo, ܐܪܡܝܐ, qui ne diffère du nom ancien, ormoïo, ܐܪܡܝܐ, que par une seule voyelle, désigne un païen, un idolâtre. Ainsi s'intrôduisit le nom de Sourioïo, Syrien. Quant à la dénomination Orom, Aram, ou le pays des Araméens, elle fut appliquée de préférence à la contrée que les Grecs et les Latins appelaient Assyrie. ^ "Hittites, Assyrians and Aramaeans". fsmitha.com. Retrieved 10 October 2018. ^ Yana 2008, p. 88. ^ a b c Weninger 2012, p. 747–755. ^ Kapeliuk 2012, p. 738–747. ^ Chyet 1997, p. 283-300. ^ [The last of the Aramaic speakers] By MIRIAM SHAVIV, 14 July 2013, Times of Israel ^ "Aramaic Israelis seek to revive endangered language of Jesus". The Jerusalem Post. 9 November 2014. Retrieved 10 October 2018. ^ Fitzmyer 1997, p. 57-60. ^ Gzella 2015, p. 47-48. ^ Butts 2019, p. 222-225. ^ Fitzmyer 1997, p. 60-63. ^ Butts 2019, p. 224-225. ^ Younger, Jr., K. Lawson (1986). "Panammuwa and Bar-Rakib: Two Structural Analyses" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 10 October 2018. ^ Beyer 1986, p. 11. ^ Heinrichs 1990, p. X. ^ Fales 2012, p. 555–573. ^ Beyer 1986, p. 14. ^ Gzella 2012a, p. 574–586. ^ Gzella 2012b, p. 598-609. ^ Shaked, Saul (1987). "Aramaic". Encyclopædia Iranica. 2. New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 251–252. Retrieved 10 October 2018. ^ Frye, Richard N.; Driver, G. R. (1955). "Review of G. R. Driver's 'Aramaic Documents of the Fifth Century B. C.'". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 18 (3/4): 457. doi:10.2307/2718444. JSTOR 2718444. ^ Geiger, Wilhelm; Kuhn, Ernst (2002). "Grundriss der iranischen Philologie: Band I. Abteilung 1". Boston: Adamant: 249. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ Stolper, John A. Matthew (2007). "What are the Persepolis Fortification Tablets?". The Oriental Studies News & Notes (winter): 6–9. Retrieved 10 October 2018. ^ Collins 1993, p. 710-712. ^ Naveh, Joseph; Shaked, Shaul (2006). Ancient Aramaic Documents from Bactria. Studies in the Khalili Collection. Oxford: Khalili Collections. ISBN 1-874780-74-9. ^ Gallagher 2012, p. 123-141. ^ Nöldeke 1871, p. 113-131. ^ Kautzsch 1884a, p. 17-21. ^ Kautzsch 1884b, p. 110-113. ^ Gzella 2015, p. 212-217. ^ Beyer 1986, p. 28. ^ Wiesehöfer, Josef (2001). Ancient Persia. Translated by Azodi, Azizeh. I.B. Taurus. pp. 118–120. ISBN 9781860646751. Retrieved 10 October 2018. ^ Häberl, Charles G. (February 2006). "Iranian Scripts for Aramaic Languages: The Origin of the Mandaic Script". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research (341): 53–62. doi:10.7282/T37D2SGZ. JSTOR 25066933. ^ Darling, Cary (25 February 2004). "What's up with Aramaic?". Miami Herald. Archived from the original on 3 April 2004. Retrieved 10 October 2018. ^ Healey 2012, p. 637-652. ^ Briquel-Chatonnet 2012, p. 652–659. ^ Sokoloff 2012b, p. 660–670. ^ Tal 2012, p. 619–628. ^ Sokoloff 2012a, p. 610–619. ^ Morgenstern 2012, p. 628–637. ^ Emran El-Badawi (17 December 2013). The Qur'an and the Aramaic Gospel Traditions. Routledge. p. 35. ISBN 978-1-317-92933-8. ^ Khan 2012, p. 708–724. ^ Jastrow 2012, p. 697–707. ^ "Strong's Hebrew: 2091. זָהָב (zahab) -- gold". biblehub.com. Retrieved 2020-07-31. ^ "Strong's Hebrew: 1722. דְּהַב (dehab) -- gold". biblehub.com. Retrieved 2020-07-31. Sources[edit] Andrade, Nathanael J. (2013). Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Andrade, Nathanael J. (2014). "Assyrians, Syrians and the Greek Language in the late Hellenistic and Roman Imperial Periods". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 73 (2): 299–317. doi:10.1086/677249. JSTOR 10.1086/677249. S2CID 163755644. Arnold, Werner (2012). "Western Neo-Aramaic". The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 685–696. Bae, Chul-hyun (2004). "Aramaic as a Lingua Franca During the Persian Empire (538-333 B.C.E.)". Journal of Universal Language. 5: 1–20. doi:10.22425/jul.2004.5.1.1. Beyer, Klaus (1986). The Aramaic Language: Its Distribution and Subdivisions. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Briquel-Chatonnet, Françoise (2012). "Syriac as the Language of Eastern Christianity". The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 652–659. Brock, Sebastian P. (1971). "A Fragment of the Acta Pilati in Christian Palestinian Aramaic". The Journal of Theological Studies. 22 (1): 157–159. doi:10.1093/jts/XXII.I.157. JSTOR 23962351. Brock, Sebastian P. (1989). "Three Thousand Years of Aramaic Literature". Aram Periodical. 1 (1): 11–23. Brock, Sebastian P. (2002). Kiraz, George (ed.). "Some Basic Annotation to The Hidden Pearl: The Syrian Orthodox Church and its Ancient Aramaic Heritage, I-III (Rome, 2001)" (PDF). Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies. 5 (1): 63–112. Burnett, Stephen G. (2005). "Christian Aramaism: The Birth and Growth of Aramaic Scholarship in the Sixteenth Century" (PDF). Seeking Out the Wisdom of the Ancients. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns. pp. 421–436. Burtea, Bogdan (2012). "Mandaic". The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 670–685. Butts, Aaron M. (2019). "The Classical Syriac Language". The Syriac World. London: Routledge. pp. 222–242. Casey, Maurice (1998). Aramaic sources of Mark's Gospel. Cambridge University Press. Creason, Stuart (2008). "Aramaic" (PDF). The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 108–144. Chyet, Michael L. (1997). "A Preliminary List of Aramaic Loanwords in Kurdish". Humanism, Culture, and Language in the Near East: Studies in Honor of Georg Krotkoff. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns. p. 283-300. Collins, John J. (1993). "The Aramaic of Daniel in the Light of Old Aramaic, by Zdravko Stefanovic". Journal of Biblical Literature. 112 (4): 710–712. doi:10.2307/3267414. JSTOR 3267414. Fales, Frederick M. (2012). "Old Aramaic". The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 555–573. Fitzmyer, Joseph A. (1997) [1979]. A Wandering Aramean: Collected Aramaic Essays. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. Folmer, Margaretha (1995). The Aramaic Language in the Achaemenid Period: A Study in Linguistic Variation. Leuven: Peeters Publishers. Folmer, Margaretha (2012). "Imperial Aramaic as an Administrative Language of the Achaemenid Period". The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 587–598. Frye, Richard N. (1992). "Assyria and Syria: Synonyms". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 51 (4): 281–285. doi:10.1086/373570. JSTOR 545826. S2CID 161323237. Frye, Richard N. (1997). "Assyria and Syria: Synonyms" (PDF). Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies. 11 (2): 30–36. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-07-13. Frye, Richard N. (1999). "Reply to John Joseph" (PDF). Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies. 13 (1): 69–70. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-07-11. Gallagher, Edmon L. (2012). Hebrew Scripture in Patristic Biblical Theory: Canon, Language, Text. Leiden-Boston: Brill. Greenfield, Jonas C. (1985). "Aramaic in the Achaemenian Empire". The Cambridge History of Iran. 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 698–713. Gzella, Holger (2008). "Aramaic in the Parthian Period: The Arsacid Inscriptions". Aramaic in its Historical and Linguistic Setting. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 107–130. Gzella, Holger (2012a). "Imperial Aramaic". The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 574–586. Gzella, Holger (2012b). "Late Imperial Aramaic". The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 598–609. Gzella, Holger (2015). A Cultural History of Aramaic: From the Beginnings to the Advent of Islam. Leiden-Boston: Brill. Häberl, Charles G. (2012). "Neo-Mandaic". The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 725–737. Healey, John F. (1980). First Studies in Syriac. Birmingham: University of Birmingham. Healey, John F. (2007). "The Edessan Milieu and the Birth of Syriac" (PDF). Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies. 10 (2): 115–127. Healey, John F. (2008). "Variety in Early Syriac: The Context in Contemporary Aramaic". Aramaic in Its Historical and Linguistic Setting. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 221–229. Healey, John F. (2012). "Syriac". The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 637–652. Heinrichs, Wolfhart, ed. (1990). Studies in Neo-Aramaic. Atlanta: Scholars Press. Jastrow, Otto (2008). "Old Aramaic and Neo-Aramaic: Some Reflections on Language History". Aramaic in its Historical and Linguistic Setting. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 1–10. Jastrow, Otto (2012). "Ṭuroyo and Mlaḥsô". The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 697–707. Kautzsch, Emil F. (1884a). Grammatik des Biblisch-Aramäischen: Mit einer Kritischen Erörterung der aramäischen Wörter im Neuen Testament. Leipzig: Vogel.* Kautzsch, Emil F. (1884b). "The Aramaic Language". Hebraica. 1 (1–2): 98–115. doi:10.1086/368803. JSTOR 527111. Kapeliuk, Olga (2012). "Language Contact between Aramaic Dialects and Iranian". The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 738–747. Khan, Geoffrey (2012). "North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic". The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 708–724. Kim, Ronald (2008). "Stammbaum or Continuum? The Subgrouping of Modern Aramaic Dialects Reconsidered". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 128 (3): 505-531. Lipiński, Edward (2000). The Aramaeans: Their Ancient History, Culture, Religion. Leuven: Peeters Publishers. Lipiński, Edward (2001) [1997]. Semitic Languages: Outline of a Comparative Grammar (2nd ed.). Leuven: Peeters Publishers. Mengozzi, Alessandro (2011). "Neo-Aramaic Studies: A Survey of Recent Publications". Folia Orientalia. 48: 233-265. Morgenstern, Matthew (2012). "Christian Palestinian Aramaic". The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 628–637. Murre van den Berg, Heleen (2008). "Classical Syriac, Neo-Aramaic, and Arabic in the Church of the East and the Chaldean Church between 1500 and 1800". Aramaic in Its Historical and Linguistic Setting. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 335–352. Naby, Eden (2004). "From Lingua Franca to Endangered Language: The Legal Aspects of the Preservation of Aramaic in Iraq". On the Margins of Nations: Endangered Languages and Linguistic Rights. Bath: Foundation for Endangered Languages. pp. 197–203. Nöldeke, Theodor (1871). "Die Namen der aramäischen Nation und Sprache". Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft. 25 (1–2): 113–131. JSTOR 43366019. Nöldeke, Theodor (1886). "Semitic Languages". The Encyclopaedia Britannica. 21 (9th ed.). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 641–656. Nöldeke, Theodor (1904). Compendious Syriac Grammar (1st English ed.). London: Williams & Norgate. Peursen, Wido van (2008). "Language Variation, Language Development, and the Textual History of the Peshitta". Aramaic in Its Historical and Linguistic Setting. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 231–256. Prym, Eugen; Socin, Albert (1881). Der neu-aramaeische Dialekt des Ṭûr 'Abdîn. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht's Verlag. Ruzer, Serge (2014). "Hebrew versus Aramaic as Jesus' Language: Notes on Early Opinions by Syriac Authors". The Language Environment of First Century Judaea. Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 182–205. Richard, Suzanne (2003). Near Eastern Archaeology: A Reader. EISENBRAUNS. Rosenthal, Franz (1995). A Grammar of Biblical Aramaic (6th, revised ed.). Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden. Rubin, Milka (1998). "The Language of Creation or the Primordial Language: A Case of Cultural Polemics in Antiquity". Journal of Jewish Studies. 49 (2): 306–333. doi:10.18647/2120/JJS-1998. Sabar, Yona (2002). A Jewish Neo-Aramaic Dictionary: Dialects of Amidya, Dihok, Nerwa and Zakho, Northwestern Iraq. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. John F. A., Sawyer (1999). Sacred Languages and Sacred Texts. London and New York: Routledge. Shepardson, Christine (2019). Controlling Contested Places: Late Antique Antioch and the Spatial Politics of Religious Controversy. Oakland: University of California Press. Sokoloff, Michael (1990). A Dictionary of Jewish Palestinian Aramaic of the Byzantine Period. Ramat Gan: Bar Ilan University Press. Sokoloff, Michael (2002). A Dictionary of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic of the Talmudic and Geonic Periods. Ramat Gan: Bar Ilan University Press. Sokoloff, Michael (2003). A Dictionary of Judean Aramaic. Ramat Gan: Bar Ilan University Press. Sokoloff, Michael (2012a). "Jewish Palestinian Aramaic". The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 610–619. Sokoloff, Michael (2012b). "Jewish Babylonian Aramaic". The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 660–670. Sokoloff, Michael (2014). A dictionary of Christian Palestinian Aramaic. Leuven: Peeters. Stefanovic, Zdravko (1992). The Aramaic of Daniel in the Light of Old Aramaic. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press. Stevenson, William B. (1924). Grammar of Palestinian Jewish Aramaic. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Tal, Abraham (2012). "Samaritan Aramaic". The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 619–628. Tezel, Aziz (2003). Comparative Etymological Studies in the Western Neo-Syriac (Ṭūrōyo) Lexicon: With Special Reference to Homonyms, Related Words and Borrowings with Cultural Signification. Uppsala: Uppsala University Library. Tezel, Sina (2015). "Arabic or Ṣūrayt/Ṭūrōyo". Arabic and Semitic Linguistics Contextualized: A Festschrift for Jan Retsö. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 554–568. Tezel, Sina (2015). "Neologisms in Ṣūrayt/Ṭūrōyo". Neo-Aramaic in Its Linguistic Context. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press. pp. 100–109. Taylor, David G. K. (2002). "Bilingualism and Diglossia in Late Antique Syria and Mesopotamia". Bilingualism in Ancient Society: Language Contact and the Written Word. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 298–331. Waltisberg, Michael (2016). Syntax des Ṭuroyo. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. Weninger, Stefan (2012). "Aramaic-Arabic Language Contact". The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 747–755. Yitzchak, Frank (2003). Grammar for Gemara & Targum Onkelos ((expanded edition) ed.). Feldheim Publishers / Ariel Institute. Yana, George V. (2008). Ancient and Modern Assyrians: A Scientific Analysis. Philadelphia: Xlibris Corporation. Younger, Kenneth Lawson (2016). A Political History of the Arameans: From Their Origins to the End of Their Polities. Atlanta: SBL Press. External links[edit] Aramaic edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Assyrian Neo-Aramaic test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator Turoyo test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator Jewish Babylonian Aramaic test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator Wikimedia Commons has media related to Aramaic language. Aramaic Dictionary: Search the online dictionary using English or Aramaic words. Ancient Aramaic Audio Files: Contains audio recordings of scripture. Aramaic Designs: Website offering various designs based on historical Aramaic scripts. Lishana Online Academy: The first online academy on Spanish network to learn Aramaic in several dialects. For Spanish and Portuguese speakers. Preservation and Advancement of the Aramaic Language in the Internet Age by Paul D. Younan Aramaic Language: "Christians in Palestine eventually rendered portions of Christian Scripture into their dialect of Aramaic; these translations and related writings constitute 'Christian Palestinian Aramaic'. A much larger body of Christian Aramaic is known as Syriac. Indeed, Syriac writings surpass in quantity all other Aramaic combined." The Aramaic Language and Its Classification – Efrem Yildiz, Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies Aramaic Peshitta Bible Repository: Many free Syriac Aramaic language research tools and the Syriac Peshitta Bible. Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon (including editions of Targums) at the Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati Dictionary of Judeo-Aramaic Jewish Language Research Website: Jewish Aramaic "An Introduction to Syriac Studies" by Sebastian Brock. Reproduced, with permission, from J. H. Eaton, ed., Horizons in Semitic Studies: Articles for the Student (Semitics Study Aids 8; Birmingham: Dept. of Theology, University of Birmingham, 1980), pp. 1–33. Omniglot written Aramaic/Proto-Hebrew outline Learn Aramaic for the absolute beginner Eden Naby (2004): From Lingua Franca to Endangered Language: The Legal Aspects of the Preservation of Aramaic in Iraq v t e Modern Aramaic languages Christian Assyrian Neo-Aramaic Bohtan Neo-Aramaic Chaldean Neo-Aramaic Hértevin Koy Sanjaq Surat Mlahsô Senaya Turoyo Judeo-Aramaic Lishanid Noshan Barzani Jewish Neo-Aramaic Hulaulá Lishana Deni Lishán Didán Betanure Jewish Neo-Aramaic Mandaean Neo-Mandaic Other Western Neo-Aramaic v t e Semitic languages East Semitic languages Akkadian Eblaite West Semitic and Central Semitic languages Northwest Canaanite Hebrew Biblical Mishnaic Medieval Mizrahi Yemenite Sephardi Ashkenazi Samaritan Modern Phoenician Punic Others Ammonite Moabite Edomite Aramaic Western Jewish Palestinian Samaritan Christian Palestinian Nabataean Palmyrene Western Neo-Aramaic Eastern Biblical Hatran Syriac Jewish Babylonian Aramaic Chaldean Neo-Aramaic Assyrian Neo-Aramaic Senaya Koy Sanjaq Surat Hértevin Turoyo Mlahsô Mandaic Judeo-Aramaic Syriac Malayalam Others Ancient North Arabian Dadanitic Taymanitic Amorite Ugaritic Eteocypriot Himyaritic Sutean Arabic Literary Arabic Classical Modern Standard Dialects Mashriqi (Eastern) Arabian Peninsular Dhofari Gulf Bahrani Kuwaiti Shihhi Hejazi Najdi Omani Yemeni Judeo-Yemeni Bedouin Eastern Egyptian and Peninsular Bedawi Others Egyptian Sa'idi Arabic Levantine Cypriot Lebanese Palestinian Mesopotamian North Mesopotamian Judeo-Iraqi Sudanese Central Asian Tajiki Uzbeki Shirvani Maghrebi (Western) Algerian Saharan Shuwa Hassānīya Andalusian Libyan Arabic Judeo-Tripolitanian Sicilian Maltese Moroccan Arabic Judeo-Moroccan Tunisian Arabic Judeo-Tunisian Others Old Arabic Nabataean Arabic Pre-Classical Arabic South Semitic languages Western South Old South Razihi Faifi Sabaean Minaean Qatabanian Awsānian Hadramautic Ethiopic North Ge'ez Tigrinya Tigre Dahalik South Amharic Argobba Harari Silt'e (Wolane, Ulbareg, Inneqor) Zay Outer n-group Gafat Soddo tt-group Mesmes Muher West Gurage Mesqan Ezha Chaha Gura Gumer Gyeto Ennemor Endegen Modern South Arabian Bathari Harsusi Hobyot Mehri Shehri Soqotri Italics indicate extinct languages, excluding liturgical languages. v t e Assyrian people Ethno-linguistic group(s) indigenous to the Middle East with various additional self-identification, such as Syriacs, Arameans, or Chaldeans Identity Assyrian continuity Assyrian–Chaldean–Syriac diaspora Chaldean Catholics Terms for Syriac Christians Assyrian flag Aramean-Syriac flag Chaldean flag Syriac Christianity West Syriac Rite Syriac Orthodox Church (518–) Syriac Catholic Church (1662–) Assyrian Evangelical Church (1870–) Assyrian Pentecostal Church (1940–) East Syriac Rite Chaldean Catholic Church (1552–) Assyrian Church of the East (1692–) Ancient Church of the East (1968–) Aramaic/Syriac languages Assyrian Neo-Aramaic Chaldean Neo-Aramaic Turoyo Bohtan Neo-Aramaic Hértevin Senaya Mlahsô Syriac script Culture Assyrian folk/pop music Music of Mesopotamia Syriac sacral music Folk dance Cuisine Clothing History (including related contexts) Ancient Assyria Early period (2600–2025 BCE) Old Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Middle Empire (1392–934 BCE) Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 BCE) Achaemenid Assyria (539–330 BCE) Ancient Mesopotamian religion Arameans Assyrian tribes Classical antiquity Seleucid Empire (312–63 BCE) Parthian Empire (247 BCE–224 CE) Osroene (132 BCE–244 CE) Syrian Wars (66 BCE–217 CE) Roman Syria (64 BCE–637 CE) Adiabene (15–116) Roman Assyria (116–118) Christianization (1st to 3rd c.) Nestorian Schism (5th c.) Church of the East (410-1552) Asoristan (226–651) Byzantine–Sasanian wars (502–628) Middle ages Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia (630s) Muslim conquest of Syria (630s) Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258) Emirs of Mosul (905–1383) Buyid amirate (945–1055) Principality of Antioch (1098–1268) Ilkhanate (1258–1335) Jalairid Sultanate (1335–1432) Kara Koyunlu (1375–1468) Aq Qoyunlu (1453–1501) Modern era Safavid Empire (1508–55) Ottoman Empire (1555–1917) Schism of 1552 (16th c.) Massacres of Badr Khan (1840s) Massacres of Diyarbakir (1895) Rise of nationalism (19th c.) 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en-wikipedia-org-2582	----	Archeptolis - Wikipedia Archeptolis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Archeptolis Portrait of ruler with olive wreath, Archeptolis coinage. Allegiance Achaemenid Empire Years of service circa 459 BCE to possibly around 412 BCE.[1] Rank Governor of Magnesia on the Maeander Magnesia Location of Magnesia on the Meander, where Archeptolis ruled. Archeptolis, also Archepolis, was a Governor of Magnesia on the Maeander in Ionia for the Achaemenid Empire circa 459 BCE to possibly around 412 BCE,[1] and a son and successor of the former Athenian general Themistocles.[2][3][4][5] Contents 1 Governor of Magnesia 2 Coinage 3 See also 4 References Governor of Magnesia[edit] Archeptolis minted silver coinage as he ruled Magnesia, just as his father had done, and it is probable that part of his revenues were handed over to the Achaemenids in exchange for the maintenance of their territorial grant.[3][5] Archeptolis is said to have married his half-sister Mnesiptolema (daughter of Themistocles from his second wife), homopatric (but not homometric) marriages being permitted in Athens.[6] Themistocles and his son formed what some authors have called "a Greek dynasty in the Persian Empire".[7] Archeptolis had several sisters, named Nicomache, Asia, Italia, Sybaris, and probably Hellas, who married the Greek exile in Persia Gongylos and still had a fief in Persian Anatolia in 399/400 BC as his widow.[8] He also had three brothers, Diocles, Polyeucteus and Cleophantus, the latter possibly a ruler of Lampsacus.[8] One of the descendants of Cleophantus still issued a decree in Lampsacus around 200 BC mentioning a feast for his own father, also named Themistocles, who had greatly benefited the city.[9] Later, Pausanias wrote that the sons of Themistocles "appear to have returned to Athens", and that they dedicated a painting of Themistocles in the Parthenon and erected a bronze statue to Artemis Leucophryene, the goddess of Magnesia, on the Acropolis:[1][10][11] The children of Themistocles certainly returned and set up in the Parthenon a painting, on which is a portrait of Themistocles. — Pausanias 1.1.2[12] They may have returned from Asia Minor in old age, after 412 BC, when the Achaemenids took again firm control of the Greek cities of Asia, and they may have been expelled by the Achaemenid satrap Tissaphernes sometime between 412 and 399 BC.[1] In effect, from 414 BC, Darius II had started to resent increasing Athenian power in the Aegean and had Tissaphernes enter into an alliance with Sparta against Athens, which in 412 BC led to the Persian conquest of the greater part of Ionia.[13] Coinage[edit] Coin of Governor of Magnesia Archeptolis, son of Themistocles, circa 459 BC. This coin type is similar to the coins issued by Themistocles himself as Governor of Magnesia. The obverse design could be a portrait of Themistocles.[14] Coin of Archeptolis. Helmeted male and Athenian owl. Circa 459 BC Coin of Archeptolis. Portrait (Zeus?) and eagle. Circa 459 BC Coin of Archeptolis. Diademed head and eagle. Circa 459 BC Coin of Governor of Magnesia Archeptolis, son of Themistocles, circa 459 BC.[15] Archepolis coin Circa 459 BC.jpg See also[edit] Coins References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Archeptolis. ^ a b c d Harvey, David; Wilkins, John (2002). The Rivals of Aristophanes: Studies in Athenian Old Comedy. ISD LLC. p. 200. ISBN 9781910589595. ^ Clough, Arthur Hugh (1909). Plutarch's Lives of Themistocles, Pericles, Aristides,Alcibiades, and Coriolanus, Demosthenes, and Cicero, Caesar and Antony: In the Translation Called Dryden's. P.F. Collier & Son. p. 33-34. ^ a b Hyland, John O. (2017). Persian Interventions: The Achaemenid Empire, Athens, and Sparta, 450−386 BCE. JHU Press. p. 22. ISBN 9781421423708. ^ KG, Fritz Rudolf Künker GmbH & Co. Künker Auktion 158 - Münzen aus der Welt der Antike. Numismatischer Verlag Künker. p. 49. ^ a b "The history and coinage of Themistokles as lord of Ionian Magnesia ad Maeandrum and of his son and successor, Archepolis, is illustrated by among other things, coins of Magnesia." in Numismatic Literature. American Numismatic Society. 2005. p. 5. ^ Cox, Cheryl Anne (2014). Household Interests: Property, Marriage Strategies, and Family Dynamics in Ancient Athens. Princeton University Press. p. 218. ISBN 9781400864690. ^ "Eine griechishe Dynastie im Perserreich und ihre Munzpragung" in Nollé, Johannes (1998). Themistokles und Archepolis: Eine griechische Dynastie im Perserreich und ihre Münzprägung, JNG 48/49, 1998/1999, 29-70. (zusammen mit A. Wenninger). ^ a b Harvey, David; Wilkins, John (2002). The Rivals of Aristophanes: Studies in Athenian Old Comedy. ISD LLC. p. 199-201. ISBN 9781910589595. ^ Foster, Edith; Lateiner, Donald (2012). Thucydides and Herodotus. OUP Oxford. p. 227. ISBN 9780199593262. ^ Paus. 1.1.2, 26.4 ^ Habicht, Christian (1998). Pausanias Guide to Ancient Greece. University of California Press. p. 5. ISBN 9780520061705. ^ Paus. 1.1.2, 26.4 ^ Smith, William (1867). Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology. vol. 3. Boston: Little, Brown. pp. 1154–1156. ^ Classical Numismatic Group ^ Classical Numismatic Group v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Archeptolis&oldid=994184177" Categories: 5th-century BC Greek people Achaemenid satraps of Lydia Ancient Greek emigrants to the Achaemenid Empire Hidden categories: CS1: long volume value Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Add links This page was last edited on 14 December 2020, at 14:18 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2586	----	Tabalus - Wikipedia Tabalus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Tabalus was the first satrap of Lydia, with his capital in Sardis. Remains of the acropolis of Sardis where Tabalus took refuge from the Lydian revolt.[1] Tabalus the Persian (Greek: Τάβαλος) was the first satrap of Sardis. Cyrus the Great of Persia put him in place after conquering Lydia, c.546 BC. Herodotus mentions him in his histories (Hdt 1. 153-4): Presently, entrusting Sardis to a Persian called Tabalus, and charging Pactyes, a Lydian, to take charge of the gold of Croesus and the Lydians, he (Cyrus the Great) himself marched away to Agbatana, taking with him Croesus, and at first making no account of the Ionians. For he had Babylon on his hands and the Bactrian nation and the Sacae and Egyptians; he was minded to lead an army himself against these and to send another commander against the Ionians. — Herodotus 1.153[2] This was the same Tabalus whom Pactyes the Lydian trapped in the acropolis when he revolted and marched upon Sardis later that year: But no sooner had Cyrus marched away from Sardis than Pactyes made the Lydians to revolt from Tabalus and Cyrus; and he went down to the sea, where, as he had all the gold of Sardis, he hired soldiers and persuaded the men of the coast to join his army. Then marching to Sardis he penned Tabalus in the citadel and besieged him there. — Herodotus 1.154[3] External links[edit] Herodotus. The Histories of Herodotus. References[edit] ^ CROESUS – Encyclopaedia Iranica. ^ LacusCurtius • Herodotus — Book I: Chapters 141‑177. ^ LacusCurtius • Herodotus — Book I: Chapters 141‑177. v t e Achaemenid Satraps of Lydia (546–334 BC) Tabalus (546–545 BC) Mazares (545–544 BC) Harpagus (540-530 BC) Oroetus (530–520 BC) Bagaeus (520 BC) Otanes (517 BC) Artaphernes (513–492 BC) Artaphernes II (492–480 BC) Pissuthnes (440–415 BC) Tissaphernes (415–408 BC) Cyrus the Younger (408–401 BC) Tissaphernes (400–395 BC) Tithraustes (392–380 BC) Tiribazus (375 BC) Struthas (370 BC) Autophradates (365 BC) Spithridates (365–334 BC) v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC This Achaemenid biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tabalus&oldid=977829600" Categories: 6th-century BC Iranian people Achaemenid satraps of Lydia Officials of Cyrus the Great Achaemenid people stubs Hidden categories: Articles containing Greek-language text Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català فارسی Hrvatski עברית Nederlands Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 11 September 2020, at 07:18 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2607	----	JSTOR - Wikipedia JSTOR From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from JSTOR (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Subscription digital library JSTOR Screenshot The JSTOR front page Type of site Digital library Available in English (includes content in other languages) Owner Ithaka Harbors[1] Created by Andrew W. Mellon Foundation URL jstor.org Registration Yes Launched 1995; 26 years ago (1995) Current status Active OCLC number 46609535 Links Website www.jstor.org Title list(s) support.jstor.org/hc/en-us/articles/115007466248-JSTOR-Title-Lists JSTOR (/ˈdʒeɪstɔːr/;[2] short for Journal Storage)[3] is a digital library founded in 1995 in New York City, United States. Originally containing digitized back issues of academic journals, it now encompasses books and other primary sources as well as current issues of journals.[4] It provides full-text searches of almost 2,000 journals. As of 2013[update], more than 8,000 institutions in more than 160 countries had access to JSTOR.[5] Most access is by subscription but some of the site is public domain, and open access content is available free of charge.[6] JSTOR's revenue was $86 million in 2015.[7] Contents 1 History 2 Content 3 Access 3.1 Aaron Swartz incident 3.2 Limitations 3.3 Increasing public access 4 Use 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links History[edit] William G. Bowen, president of Princeton University from 1972 to 1988,[8] founded JSTOR in 1995. JSTOR originally was conceived as a solution to one of the problems faced by libraries, especially research and university libraries, due to the increasing number of academic journals in existence. Most libraries found it prohibitively expensive in terms of cost and space to maintain a comprehensive collection of journals. By digitizing many journal titles, JSTOR allowed libraries to outsource the storage of journals with the confidence that they would remain available long-term. Online access and full-text search ability improved access dramatically. Bowen initially considered using CD-ROMs for distribution.[9] However, Ira Fuchs, Princeton University's vice-president for Computing and Information Technology, convinced Bowen that CD-ROM was becoming an increasingly outdated technology and that network distribution could eliminate redundancy and increase accessibility. (For example, all Princeton's administrative and academic buildings were networked by 1989; the student dormitory network was completed in 1994; and campus networks like the one at Princeton were, in turn, linked to larger networks such as BITNET and the Internet.) JSTOR was initiated in 1995 at seven different library sites, and originally encompassed ten economics and history journals. JSTOR access improved based on feedback from its initial sites, and it became a fully searchable index accessible from any ordinary web browser. Special software was put in place to make pictures and graphs clear and readable.[10] With the success of this limited project, Bowen and Kevin Guthrie, then-president of JSTOR, wanted to expand the number of participating journals. They met with representatives of the Royal Society of London and an agreement was made to digitize the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society dating from its beginning in 1665. The work of adding these volumes to JSTOR was completed by December 2000.[10] The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation funded JSTOR initially. Until January 2009 JSTOR operated as an independent, self-sustaining nonprofit organization with offices in New York City and in Ann Arbor, Michigan. Then JSTOR merged with the nonprofit Ithaka Harbors, Inc.[11]—a nonprofit organization founded in 2003 and "dedicated to helping the academic community take full advantage of rapidly advancing information and networking technologies".[1] Content[edit] JSTOR content is provided by more than 900 publishers.[5] The database contains more than 1,900 journal titles,[5] in more than 50 disciplines. Each object is uniquely identified by an integer value, starting at 1. In addition to the main site, the JSTOR labs group operates an open service that allows access to the contents of the archives for the purposes of corpus analysis at its Data for Research service.[12] This site offers a search facility with graphical indication of the article coverage and loose integration into the main JSTOR site. Users may create focused sets of articles and then request a dataset containing word and n-gram frequencies and basic metadata. They are notified when the dataset is ready and may download it in either XML or CSV formats. The service does not offer full-text, although academics may request that from JSTOR, subject to a non-disclosure agreement. JSTOR Plant Science[13] is available in addition to the main site. JSTOR Plant Science provides access to content such as plant type specimens, taxonomic structures, scientific literature, and related materials and aimed at those researching, teaching, or studying botany, biology, ecology, environmental, and conservation studies. The materials on JSTOR Plant Science are contributed through the Global Plants Initiative (GPI)[14] and are accessible only to JSTOR and GPI members. Two partner networks are contributing to this: the African Plants Initiative, which focuses on plants from Africa, and the Latin American Plants Initiative, which contributes plants from Latin America. JSTOR launched its Books at JSTOR program in November 2012, adding 15,000 current and backlist books to its site. The books are linked with reviews and from citations in journal articles.[15] In September 2014, JSTOR launched JSTOR Daily, an online magazine meant to bring academic research to a broader audience. Posted articles are generally based on JSTOR entries, and some entries provide the backstory to current events.[16] Access[edit] JSTOR is licensed mainly to academic institutions, public libraries, research institutions, museums, and schools. More than 7,000 institutions in more than 150 countries have access.[4] JSTOR has been running a pilot program of allowing subscribing institutions to provide access to their alumni, in addition to current students and staff. The Alumni Access Program officially launched in January 2013.[17] Individual subscriptions also are available to certain journal titles through the journal publisher.[18] Every year, JSTOR blocks 150 million attempts by non-subscribers to read articles.[19] Inquiries have been made about the possibility of making JSTOR open access. According to Harvard Law professor Lawrence Lessig, JSTOR had been asked "how much would it cost to make this available to the whole world, how much would we need to pay you? The answer was $250 million".[20] Aaron Swartz incident[edit] Main article: United States v. Aaron Swartz See also: Aaron Swartz § JSTOR In late 2010 and early 2011, Aaron Swartz, an American computer programmer, writer, political organizer and Internet activist used MIT's data network to bulk-download a substantial portion of JSTOR's collection of academic journal articles.[21][22] When the bulk-download was discovered, a video camera was placed in the room to film the mysterious visitor and the relevant computer was left untouched. Once video was captured of the visitor, the download was stopped and Swartz was identified. Rather than pursue a civil lawsuit against him, in June 2011 they reached a settlement wherein he surrendered the downloaded data.[21][22] The following month, federal authorities charged Swartz with several "data theft"-related crimes, including wire fraud, computer fraud, unlawfully obtaining information from a protected computer, and recklessly damaging a protected computer.[23][24] Prosecutors in the case claimed that Swartz acted with the intention of making the papers available on P2P file-sharing sites.[22][25] Swartz surrendered to authorities, pleaded not guilty to all counts, and was released on $100,000 bail. In September 2012, U.S. attorneys increased the number of charges against Swartz from four to thirteen, with a possible penalty of 35 years in prison and $1 million in fines.[26][27] The case still was pending when Swartz committed suicide in January 2013.[28] Prosecutors dropped the charges after his suicide.[29] Limitations[edit] The availability of most journals on JSTOR is controlled by a "moving wall", which is an agreed-upon delay between the current volume of the journal and the latest volume available on JSTOR. This time period is specified by agreement between JSTOR and the publisher of the journal, which usually is three to five years. Publishers may request that the period of a "moving wall" be changed or request discontinuation of coverage. Formerly, publishers also could request that the "moving wall" be changed to a "fixed wall"—a specified date after which JSTOR would not add new volumes to its database. As of November 2010[update], "fixed wall" agreements were still in effect with three publishers of 29 journals made available online through sites controlled by the publishers.[30] In 2010, JSTOR started adding current issues of certain journals through its Current Scholarship Program.[31] Increasing public access[edit] Beginning September 6, 2011, JSTOR made public domain content available at no charge to the public.[32][33] This "Early Journal Content" program constitutes about 6% of JSTOR's total content, and includes over 500,000 documents from more than 200 journals that were published before 1923 in the United States, and before 1870 in other countries.[32][33][34] JSTOR stated that it had been working on making this material free for some time. The Swartz controversy and Greg Maxwell's protest torrent of the same content led JSTOR to "press ahead" with the initiative.[32][33] As of 2017[update], JSTOR does not have plans to extend it to other public domain content, stating that "We do not believe that just because something is in the public domain, it can always be provided for free".[35] In January 2012, JSTOR started a pilot program, "Register & Read", offering limited no-cost access (not open access) to archived articles for individuals who register for the service. At the conclusion of the pilot, in January 2013, JSTOR expanded Register & Read from an initial 76 publishers to include about 1,200 journals from over 700 publishers.[36] Registered readers may read up to six articles online every calendar month, but may not print or download PDFs.[37] JSTOR is conducting a pilot program with Wikipedia, whereby established editors are given reading privileges through the Wikipedia Library, as with a university library.[38][39] Use[edit] In 2012, JSTOR users performed nearly 152 million searches, with more than 113 million article views and 73.5 million article downloads.[5] JSTOR has been used as a resource for linguistics research to investigate trends in language use over time and also to analyze gender differences and inequities in scholarly publishing, revealing that in certain fields, men predominate in the prestigious first and last author positions and that women are significantly underrepresented as authors of single-authored papers.[40][41][42] JSTOR metadata is available through CrossRef and the Unpaywall dump,[43] which as of 2020 identifies nearly 3 million works hosted by JSTOR as toll access, as opposed to over 200,000 available in open access (mainly through third party open access repositories). See also[edit] Aluka ARTstor ArXiv Digital preservation HAL (open archive) Japanese Historical Text Initiative JHOVE List of academic databases and search engines Project MUSE References[edit] ^ a b "About". Ithaka. Retrieved 2009-10-25. ^ "JSTOR Videos". YouTube. Retrieved 16 December 2012. ^ Douglas F. Morgan; Marcus D. Ingle; Craig W. Shinn (3 September 2018). New Public Leadership: Making a Difference from Where We Sit. Routledge. p. 82. ISBN 9780429832918. JSTOR means journal storage, which is an online service created in 1995 to provide electronic access to an extensive array of academic journals. ^ a b Genicot, Léopold (February 13, 2012). "At a glance". Études Rurales (PDF) (45): 131–133. JSTOR 20120213. ^ a b c d "Annual Summary" (PDF). JSTOR. 19 March 2013. Retrieved 13 April 2013. ^ "Register and read beta". ^ "Ithaka Harbors, Inc". Nonprofit Explorer. ProPublica. Retrieved 2018-04-24. ^ Leitch, Alexander. "Bowen, William Gordon". Princeton University Press. ^ "JSTOR, A History" by Roger C. Schonfeld, Princeton University Press, 2003 ^ a b Taylor, John (2001). "JSTOR: An Electronic Archive from 1665". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London. 55 (1): 179–81. doi:10.1098/rsnr.2001.0135. JSTOR 532157. ^ "About". JSTOR. Retrieved 28 November 2015. ^ Data for Research. JSTOR. ^ JSTOR Plant Science. JSTOR. ^ Global Plants Initiative. JSTOR. ^ "A new chapter begins: Books at JSTOR launches". JSTOR. November 12, 2012. Retrieved December 1, 2012. ^ Lichterman, Joseph. "Opening up the archives: JSTOR wants to tie a library to the news". Nieman Lab. Retrieved September 18, 2017. ^ "Access for alumni". JSTOR. Retrieved December 1, 2012. (subscription required) ^ "Individual subscriptions". JSTOR. Retrieved December 1, 2012. (subscription required) ^ Every Year, JSTOR Turns Away 150 Million Attempts to Read Journal Articles. The Atlantic. Retrieved 29 January 2013. ^ Lessig on "Aaron's Laws—Law and Justice in a Digital Age". YouTube (2013-02-20). Retrieved on 2014-04-12. ^ a b "JSTOR Statement: Misuse Incident and Criminal Case". JSTOR. 2011-07-19. ^ a b c Carter, Zach; Grim, Ryan; Reilly, Ryan J. (2013-01-12). "Aaron Swartz, Internet Pioneer, Found Dead Amid Prosecutor 'Bullying' In Unconventional Case". Huffington Post. The Huffington Post. ^ Bilton, Nick (July 19, 2011). "Internet activist charged in M.I.T. data theft". Bits Blog, The New York Times website. Retrieved December 1, 2012. ^ Schwartz, John (July 19, 2011). "Open-Access Advocate Is Arrested for Huge Download". New York Times. Retrieved July 19, 2011. ^ Lindsay, Jay (July 19, 2011). "Feds: Harvard fellow hacked millions of papers". Associated Press. Retrieved July 20, 2011. ^ Ortiz, Carmen (2011-07-19). "Alleged Hacker Charged with Stealing over Four Million Documents from MIT Network". The United States Attorney's Office". Archived from the original on 2011-07-24. ^ Kravets, David (2012-09-18). "Feds Charge Activist with 13 Felonies for Rogue Downloading of Academic Articles". Wired. ^ "Aaron Swartz, internet freedom activist, dies aged 26", BBC News ^ "Aaron Swartz's father: He'd be alive today if he was never arrested", money.cnn.com ^ "Moving wall". JSTOR. ^ "About current journals". JSTOR. Retrieved December 1, 2012. ^ a b c Brown, Laura (September 7, 2011). "JSTOR–free access to early journal content and serving 'unaffiliated' users", JSTOR. Retrieved December 1, 2012. ^ a b c Rapp, David (2011-09-07). "JSTOR Announces Free Access to 500K Public Domain Journal Articles". Library Journal. Archived from the original on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2015-10-21. ^ "Early journal content". JSTOR. Retrieved December 1, 2012. ^ "About JSTOR: Frequently Asked Questions". JSTOR. Archived from the original on 2017-05-11. Retrieved 2017-05-18. ^ Tilsley, Alexandra (January 9, 2013). "Journal Archive Opens Up (Some)". Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved 6 January 2015. ^ "My JSTOR Read Online Free". JSTOR. Retrieved 2018-03-26. ^ Orlowitz, Jake; Earley, Patrick (January 25, 2014). "Librarypedia: The Future of Libraries and Wikipedia". The Digital Shift. Library Journal. Retrieved 20 December 2014. ^ Price, Gary (June 22, 2014). "Wikipedia Library Program Expands With More Accounts from JSTOR, Credo, and Other Database Providers". INFOdocket. Library Journal. Retrieved 20 December 2014. ^ Shapiro, Fred R. (1998). "A Study in Computer-Assisted Lexicology: Evidence on the Emergence of Hopefully as a Sentence Adverb from the JSTOR Journal Archive and Other Electronic Resources". American Speech. 73 (3): 279–296. doi:10.2307/455826. JSTOR 455826. ^ Wilson, Robin (October 22, 2012). "Scholarly Publishing's Gender Gap". The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved 6 January 2015. ^ West, Jevin D.; Jacquet, Jennifer; King, Molly M.; Correll, Shelley J.; Bergstrom, Carl T. (2013-07-22). "The Role of Gender in Scholarly Authorship". PLOS ONE. 8 (7): e66212. arXiv:1211.1759. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...866212W. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0066212. PMC 3718784. PMID 23894278. ^ Heather (2018-09-14). "It's time to insist on #openinfrastructure for #openscience". Our Research blog. Retrieved 2020-04-25. Further reading[edit] Gauger, Barbara J.; Kacena, Carolyn (2006). "JSTOR usage data and what it can tell us about ourselves: is there predictability based on historical use by libraries of similar size?". OCLC Systems & Services. 22 (1): 43–55. doi:10.1108/10650750610640801. Schonfeld, Roger C. (2003). JSTOR: A History. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-11531-3. Seeds, Robert S. (November 2002). "Impact of a digital archive (JSTOR) on print collection use". Collection Building. 21 (3): 120–22. doi:10.1108/01604950210434551. Spinella, Michael P. (2007). "JSTOR: Past, Present, and Future". Journal of Library Administration. 46 (2): 55–78. doi:10.1300/J111v46n02_05. Spinella, Michael (2008). "JSTOR and the changing digital landscape". Interlending & Document Supply. 36 (2): 79–85. doi:10.1108/02641610810878549. External links[edit] Official website "Libraries and institutions offering access". JSTOR. Retrieved 2015-10-21. Searchable database, includes many public libraries offering free access to library card holders. "Register & Read". JSTOR. Retrieved 2015-10-21. Free individual registration, offering free read-only access (no printing or saving) to three articles every two weeks (seventy-eight per year). JSTOR Early Journal Content : Free Texts : Download & Streaming : Internet Archive Authority control BIBSYS: 2041438 BNF: cb14557837v (data) GND: 1086659538 LCCN: no97001983 NLI: 002100754 VIAF: 146159089 WorldCat Identities: lccn-no97001983 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=JSTOR&oldid=997723588" Categories: 1995 establishments in the United States Academic publishing Andrew W. 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en-wikipedia-org-2619	----	Xerxes I - Wikipedia Xerxes I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The printable version is no longer supported and may have rendering errors. Please update your browser bookmarks and please use the default browser print function instead. Fourth King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire King of Kings Xerxes I 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠 King of Kings Great King King of Persia King of Babylon Pharaoh of Egypt King of Countries Rock relief of a Achaemenid king, most likely Xerxes, located in the National Museum of Iran[1] King of kings of the Achaemenid Empire Reign October 486 – August 465 BC Predecessor Darius the Great Successor Artaxerxes I Born c. 518 BC Died August 465 BC (aged approximately 53) Burial Naqsh-e Rostam Spouse Amestris Issue Darius Hystaspes Artaxerxes I Arsames Amytis Dynasty Achaemenid Father Darius the Great Mother Atossa Religion Indo-Iranian religion (possibly Zoroastrianism) Xerxes (Xašayaruša/Ḫašayaruša)[2] in hieroglyphs Xerxes I (Old Persian: 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠, romanized: Xšaya-ṛšā; c. 518 – August 465 BC), commonly known as Xerxes the Great, was the fourth King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire, ruling from 486 to 465 BC. He was the son and successor of Darius the Great (r. 522 – 486 BC) and his mother was Atossa, a daughter of Cyrus the Great (r. 550 – 530 BC), the first Achaemenid king. Like his father, he ruled the empire at its territorial apex. He ruled from 486 BC until his assassination in 465 BC at the hands of Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard. Xerxes I is notable in Western history for his failed invasion of Greece in 480 BC. His forces temporarily overran mainland Greece north of the Isthmus of Corinth[3][4] until losses at Salamis and Plataea a year later reversed these gains and ended the second invasion decisively. However, Xerxes successfully crushed revolts in Egypt and Babylon. Roman Ghirshman says that, "After this he ceased to use the title of 'king of Babylon', calling himself simply 'king of the Persians and the Medes'."[5] Xerxes also oversaw the completion of various construction projects at Susa and Persepolis. Xerxes is identified with the fictional king Ahasuerus in the biblical Book of Esther.[6] That book is broadly considered to be fictional.[7][8][9] Contents 1 Etymology 2 Historiography 3 Early life 3.1 Parentage and birth 3.2 Upbringing and education 3.3 Accession to the throne 4 Consolidation of power 5 Campaigns 5.1 Invasion of the Greek mainland 5.2 Battle of Thermopylae and destruction of Athens 5.3 Battles of Salamis and Plataea 6 Construction projects 7 Death 8 Government 8.1 Religion 9 Wives and children 10 Cultural depictions 11 See also 12 References 13 Bibliography 13.1 Ancient sources 13.2 Modern sources 14 External links Etymology Xérxēs (Ξέρξης) is the Greek and Latin (Xerxes, Xerses) transliteration of the Old Iranian Xšaya-ṛšā ("ruling over heroes"), which can be seen by the first part xšaya, meaning "ruling", and the second ṛšā, meaning "hero, man".[10] The name of Xerxes was known in Akkadian as Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá and in Aramaic as ḥšyʾrš.[11] Xerxes would become a popular name amongst the rulers of the Achaemenid Empire.[10] Historiography Much of Xerxes' bad reputation is due to propaganda by the Macedonian king Alexander the Great (r. 336–323 BC), who had him vilified.[12] The modern historian Richard Stoneman regards the portrayal of Xerxes as more nuanced and tragic in the work of the contemporary Greek historian Herodotus.[12] However, many modern historians agree that Herodotus recorded spurious information.[13][14] Pierre Briant has accused him of presenting a stereotyped and biased portrayal of the Persians.[15] Many Achaemenid-era clay tablets and other reports written in Elamite, Akkadian, Egyptian and Aramaic are frequently contradictory to the reports of classical authors, i.e. Ctesias, Plutarch and Justin.[16] Early life Parentage and birth Xerxes' father was Darius the Great (r. 522 – 486 BC), the incumbent monarch of the Achaemenid Empire, albeit himself not a member of the family of Cyrus the Great, the founder of the empire.[17][18] Xerxes' mother was Atossa, a daughter of Cyrus.[19] Darius and Atossa had married in 522 BC,[20] with Xerxes being born around 518 BC.[21] Upbringing and education The "Caylus vase", a quadrilingual alabaster jar with cuneiform and hieroglyphic inscriptions in the name of "Xerxes, the Great King". Cabinet des Médailles, Paris[22] According to the Greek dialogue First Alcibiades, which describes typical upbringing and education of Persian princes; they were raised by eunuchs. When reaching the age of 7, they learn how to ride and hunt; at age 14, they are looked after by four teachers of aristocratic stock, who teach them how to be "wise, just, prudent and brave."[23] Persian princes were also taught on the basics of the Zoroastrian religion, to be truthful, have self-restraint, and to be courageous.[23] The dialogue further adds that "Fear, for a Persian, is the equivalent of slavery."[23] At the age of 16 or 17, they begin their "national service" for 10 years, which included practicing archery and javelin, competing for prizes, and hunting.[24] Afterwards they serve in the military for around 25 years, and are then elevated to the status of elders and advisers of the king.[24] This account of education among the Persian elite is supported by Xenophon's description of the 5th-century BC Achaemenid prince Cyrus the Younger, with whom he was well-acquainted.[24] Stoneman suggests that this was the type of upbringing and education that Xerxes experienced.[25] It is unknown if Xerxes ever learned to read or write, with the Persians favouring oral history over written literature.[25] Stoneman suggests that Xerxes' upbringing and education was possibly not much different from that of the later Iranian kings, such as Abbas the Great, king of the Safavid Empire in the 17th-century AD.[25] Starting from 498 BC, Xerxes resided in the royal palace of Babylon.[26] Accession to the throne While Darius was preparing for another war against Greece, a revolt spurred in Egypt in 486 BC due to heavy taxes and the deportation of craftsmen to build the royal palaces at Susa and Persepolis. Under Persian law, the king was required to choose a successor before setting out on dangerous expeditions. When Darius decided to leave (487–486 BC), he (Darius) prepared his tomb at Naqsh-e Rustam (five kilometers from his royal palace at Persepolis) and appointed Xerxes, his eldest son by Atossa, as his successor. However, Darius could not lead the campaign due to his failing health and died in October 486 BC at the age of 64.[27] Artobazan claimed the crown as the eldest of all the children; while Xerxes, on the other hand, argued that he was sprung from Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus, and that it was Cyrus who had won the Persians their freedom. Xerxes was also helped by a Spartan king in exile who was present in Persia at the time, Eurypontid king Demaratus, who also argued that the eldest son does not universally mean they have claim to the crown, as Spartan law states that the first son born while the father is king is the heir to the kingship.[28] Some modern scholars also view the unusual decision of Darius to give the throne to Xerxes to be a result of his consideration of the unique positions that Cyrus the Great and his daughter Atossa enjoyed.[29] Artobazan was born to "Darius the subject", while Xerxes was the eldest son born in the purple after Darius's rise to the throne, and Artobazan's mother was a commoner while Xerxes's mother was the daughter of the founder of the empire.[30] Xerxes was crowned and succeeded his father in October–December 486 BC[31] when he was about 36 years old.[32] The transition of power to Xerxes was smooth due again in part to the great authority of Atossa[33] and his accession of royal power was not challenged by any person at court or in the Achaemenian family, or any subject nation.[34] Consolidation of power Engraving of Babylon by H. Fletcher, 1690 At Xerxes' accession, trouble was brewing in some of his domains. A revolt occurred in Egypt, which seems to have been dangerous enough for Xerxes to personally lead the army to restore order (which also gave him the opportunity to begin his reign with a military campaign).[35] Xerxes suppressed the revolt in January 484 BC, and appointed his full-brother Achaemenes as satrap of the country, replacing the previous satrap Pherendates, who was reportedly killed during the revolt.[36][26] The suppression of the Egyptian revolt expended the army, which had been mobilized by Darius over the previous three years.[35] Xerxes thus had to raise another army for his expedition into Greece, which took four years.[35] There was also unrest in Babylon, which revolted at least twice against Xerxes. The first revolt broke out in June or July of 484 BC and was led by a rebel of the name Bel-shimanni. Bel-shimmani's revolt was short-lived, Babylonian documents written during his reign only account for a period of two weeks.[37] Two years later, Babylon produced another rebel leader, Shamash-eriba. Beginning in the summer of 482 BC, Shamash-eriba seized Babylon itself and other nearby cities, such as Borsippa and Dilbat, and was only defeated in March 481 BC after a lengthy siege of Babylon.[37] The precise cause of the unrest in Babylon is uncertain.[35] It may have been due to tax increase.[38] Prior to these revolts, Babylon had occupied a special position within the Achaemenid Empire, the Achaemenid kings had been titled as "King of Babylon" and "King of the Lands", perceiving Babylonia as a somewhat separate entity within their empire, united with their own kingdom in a personal union. Xerxes dropped "King of Babylon" from his titulature and divided the previously large Babylonian satrapy (accounting for most of the Neo-Babylonian Empire's territory) into smaller sub-units.[39] Using texts written by classical authors, it is often assumed that Xerxes enacted a brutal vengeance on Babylon following the two revolts. According to ancient writers, Xerxes destroyed Babylon's fortifications and damaged the temples in the city.[37] The Esagila was allegedly exposed to great damage and Xerxes allegedly carried the statue of Marduk away from the city,[40] possibly bringing it to Iran and melting it down (classical authors held that the statue was entirely made of gold, which would have made melting it down possible).[37] Modern historian Amélie Kuhrt considers it unlikely that Xerxes destroyed the temples, but believes that the story of him doing so may derive from an anti-Persian sentiment among the Babylonians.[41] It is doubtful if the statue was removed from Babylon at all[37] and some have even suggested that Xerxes did remove a statue from the city, but that this was the golden statue of a man rather than the statue of the god Marduk.[42][43] Though mentions of it are lacking considerably compared to earlier periods, contemporary documents suggest that the Babylonian New Year's Festival continued in some form during the Achaemenid period.[44] Because the change in rulership from the Babylonians themselves to the Persians and due to the replacement of the city's elite families by Xerxes following its revolt, it is possible that the festival's traditional rituals and events had changed considerably.[45] Campaigns Invasion of the Greek mainland Main article: Second Persian invasion of Greece The soldiers of Xerxes I, of all ethnicities,[46] on the tomb of Xerxes I, at Naqsh-e Rostam[47][48] Darius died while in the process of preparing a second army to invade the Greek mainland, leaving to his son the task of punishing the Athenians, Naxians, and Eretrians for their interference in the Ionian Revolt, the burning of Sardis, and their victory over the Persians at Marathon. From 483 BC, Xerxes prepared his expedition: The Xerxes Canal was dug through the isthmus of the peninsula of Mount Athos, provisions were stored in the stations on the road through Thrace, and two pontoon bridges later known as Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges were built across the Hellespont. Soldiers of many nationalities served in the armies of Xerxes from all over his multi-ethnic massive Eurasian-sized empire and beyond, including the Assyrians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Jews,[49] Macedonians, European Thracians, Paeonians, Achaean Greeks, Ionians, Aegean islanders, Aeolians, Greeks from Pontus, Colchians, Indians and many more. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, Xerxes's first attempt to bridge the Hellespont ended in failure when a storm destroyed the flax and papyrus cables of the bridges. In retaliation, Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped three hundred times, and had fetters thrown into the water. Xerxes's second attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful.[50] The Carthaginian invasion of Sicily deprived Greece of the support of the powerful monarchs of Syracuse and Agrigentum; ancient sources assume Xerxes was responsible, modern scholarship is skeptical.[51] Many smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially Thessaly, Thebes and Argos. Xerxes was victorious during the initial battles. Xerxes set out in the spring of 480 BC from Sardis with a fleet and army which Herodotus estimated was roughly one million strong along with 10,000 elite warriors named the Immortals. More recent estimates place the Persian force at around 60,000 combatants.[52] Battle of Thermopylae and destruction of Athens Achaemenid king killing a Greek hoplite. Impression from a cylinder seal, sculpted c. 500 BC–475 BC, at the time of Xerxes I Metropolitan Museum of Art At the Battle of Thermopylae, a small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas of Sparta resisted the much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated. According to Herodotus, the Persians broke the Spartan phalanx after a Greek man called Ephialtes betrayed his country by telling the Persians of another pass around the mountains. At Artemisium, large storms had destroyed ships from the Greek side and so the battle stopped prematurely as the Greeks received news of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated. Foundations of the Old Temple of Athena, destroyed by the armies of Xerxes I during the Destruction of Athens in 480 BC After Thermopylae, Athens was captured. Most of the Athenians had abandoned the city and fled to the island of Salamis before Xerxes arrived. A small group attempted to defend the Athenian Acropolis, but they were defeated. Xerxes ordered the Destruction of Athens and burnt the city, leaving an archaeologically attested destruction layer, known as the Perserschutt.[53] The Persians thus gained control of all of mainland Greece to the north of the Isthmus of Corinth.[4] Battles of Salamis and Plataea Xerxes was induced, by the message of Themistocles (against the advice of Artemisia of Halicarnassus), to attack the Greek fleet under unfavourable conditions, rather than sending a part of his ships to the Peloponnesus and awaiting the dissolution of the Greek armies. The Battle of Salamis (September, 480 BC) was won by the Greek fleet, after which Xerxes set up a winter camp in Thessaly. According to Herodotus, fearing that the Greeks might attack the bridges across the Hellespont and trap his army in Europe, Xerxes decided to retreat back to Asia, taking the greater part of the army with him.[54] Another cause of the retreat might have been that the continued unrest in Babylon, a key province of the empire, required the king's personal attention.[55] He left behind a contingent in Greece to finish the campaign under Mardonius, who according to Herodotus had suggested the retreat in the first place. This force was defeated the following year at Plataea by the combined forces of the Greek city states, ending the Persian offensive on Greece for good. Construction projects The rock-cut tomb at Naqsh-e Rustam north of Persepolis, copying that of Darius, is usually assumed to be that of Xerxes After the military blunders in Greece, Xerxes returned to Persia and oversaw the completion of the many construction projects left unfinished by his father at Susa and Persepolis. He oversaw the building of the Gate of All Nations and the Hall of a Hundred Columns at Persepolis, which are the largest and most imposing structures of the palace. He oversaw the completion of the Apadana, the Tachara (Palace of Darius) and the Treasury, all started by Darius, as well as having his own palace built which was twice the size of his father's. His taste in architecture was similar to that of Darius, though on an even more gigantic scale.[56] He had colorful enameled brick laid on the exterior face of the Apadana.[57] He also maintained the Royal Road built by his father and completed the Susa Gate and built a palace in Susa.[58] Death This cuneiform text mentions the murder of Xerxes I by his son. From Babylon, Iraq. British Museum In August 465 BC, Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court, assassinated Xerxes with the help of a eunuch, Aspamitres. Although Artabanus bore the same name as the famed uncle of Xerxes, a Hyrcanian, his rise to prominence was due to his popularity in religious quarters of the court and harem intrigues. He put his seven sons in key positions and had a plan to dethrone the Achaemenids.[59] Greek historians give contradicting accounts of events. According to Ctesias (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Crown Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest son, of the murder and persuaded another of Xerxes's sons, Artaxerxes, to avenge the patricide by killing Darius. But according to Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and then killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes discovered the murder, he killed Artabanus and his sons.[60] Participating in these intrigues was the general Megabyzus, whose decision to switch sides probably saved the Achaemenids from losing their control of the Persian throne.[61] Government Religion While there is no general consensus in scholarship whether Xerxes and his predecessors had been influenced by Zoroastrianism,[62] it is well established that Xerxes was a firm believer in Ahura Mazda, whom he saw as the supreme deity.[62] However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped by adherents of the (Indo-)Iranian religious tradition.[62][63] On his treatment of other religions, Xerxes followed the same policy as his predecessors; he appealed to local religious scholars, made sacrifices to local deities, and destroyed temples in cities and countries that caused disorder.[64] Wives and children Xerxes being designated by Darius I. Tripylon, Persepolis. The ethnicities of the Empire are shown supporting the throne. Ahuramazda crowns the scene. By queen Amestris: Amytis, wife of Megabyzus. Darius, the first born, murdered by Artaxerxes I or Artabanus. Hystaspes, murdered by Artaxerxes I. Artaxerxes I Achaemenes, murdered by Egyptians.[citation needed] Rhodogune By unknown wives or mistresses: Artarius, satrap of Babylon. Tithraustes Arsames or Arsamenes or Arxanes or Sarsamas, satrap of Egypt.[citation needed] Parysatis[65] Ratashah[66] Cultural depictions Trilingual inscription of Xerxes at Van (present-day Turkey) Xerxes is the central character of the Aeschylus play "The Persians". Xerxes is the protagonist of the opera Serse by the German-English Baroque composer George Frideric Handel. It was first performed in the King's Theatre London on 15 April 1738. The famous aria "Ombra mai fù" opens the opera. The murder of Xerxes by Artabanus (Artabano), execution of crown prince Darius (Dario), revolt by Megabyzus (Megabise), and subsequent succession of Artaxerxes I is romanticised by the Italian poet Metastasio in his opera libretto Artaserse, which was first set to music by Leonardo Vinci, and subsequently by other composers such as Johann Adolf Hasse and Johann Christian Bach.[67][68][69] The historical novel Xerxes of de Hoogmoed (1919) by Dutch writer Louis Couperus describes the Persian wars from the perspective of Xerxes. Though the account is fictionalised, Couperus nevertheless based himself on an extensive study of Herodotus. The English translation Arrogance: The Conquests of Xerxes by Frederick H. Martens appeared in 1930.[70][71] Queen Esther, a Jewish queen of Xerxes (Edwin Long, 19th century) Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, particularly the Battle of Thermopylae, has led to Xerxes' portrayal in works of popular culture. He was played by David Farrar in the fictional film The 300 Spartans (1962), where he is portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept commander. He also features prominently in the graphic novels 300 and Xerxes: The Fall of the House of Darius and the Rise of Alexander by Frank Miller, as well as the film adaptation 300 (2007) and its sequel 300: Rise of an Empire (2014), as portrayed by Brazilian actor Rodrigo Santoro, in which he is represented as a giant man with androgynous qualities, who claims to be a god-king. This portrayal attracted controversy, especially in Iran.[72] Ken Davitian plays Xerxes in Meet the Spartans, a parody of the first 300 movie replete with sophomoric humour and deliberate anachronisms. Other works dealing with the Persian Empire or the Biblical story of Esther have also featured or alluded to Xerxes, such as the video game Assassin's Creed II and the film One Night with the King (2006), in which Ahasuerus (Xerxes) was portrayed by British actor Luke Goss. He is the leader of the Persian Empire in the video game Civilization II and III (along with Scheherazade), although Civilization IV replaces him with Cyrus the Great and Darius I.[citation needed] In the Age of Empires, Xerxes featured as a short swordsman. Xerxes (Ahasuerus) by Ernest Normand, 1888 (detail) Gore Vidal, in his historical fiction novel Creation (1981), describes at length the rise of the Achemenids, especially Darius I, and presents the life and death circumstances of Xerxes. Vidal's version of the Persian Wars, which diverges from the orthodoxy of the Greek histories, is told through the invented character of Cyrus Spitama, a half-Greek, half-Persian, and grandson of the prophet Zoroaster. Thanks to his family connection, Cyrus is brought up in the Persian court after the murder of Zoroaster, becoming the boyhood friend of Xerxes, and later a diplomat who is sent to India, and later to Greece, and who is thereby able to gain privileged access to many leading historical figures of the period.[73] Xerxes (Ahasuerus) is portrayed by Richard Egan in the 1960 film Esther and the King and by Joel Smallbone in the 2013 film, The Book of Esther. In at least one of these films, the events of the Book of Esther are depicted as taking place upon Xerxes' return from Greece.[citation needed] Xerxes plays an important background role (never making an appearance) in two short works of alternate history taking place generations after his complete victory over Greece. These are: "Counting Potsherds" by Harry Turtledove in his anthology Departures and "The Craft of War" by Lois Tilton in Alternate Generals volume 1 (edited by Turtledove).[citation needed] See also List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources References ^ According to plate 2 in Stoneman 2015; though it may also be Darius I. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath (1999), Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Mainz am Rhein: von Zabern. ISBN 3-8053-2310-7, pp. 220–221 ^ Lazenby, J.F. (1993). The Defence of Greece, 490–479 B.C. Aris & Phillips. ISBN 978-0856685910. Retrieved 7 September 2016. ^ a b Brian Todd Carey, Joshua Allfree, John Cairns. Warfare in the Ancient World Pen and Sword, 19 Jan. 2006 ISBN 1848846304 ^ Roman Ghirshman, Iran (1954), Penguin Books, p. 191. ^ Stoneman 2015, p. 9. ^ McCullough, W. S. (28 July 2011) [15 December 1984]. "AHASUREUS – Encyclopaedia Iranica". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 3 April 2020. There may be some factual nucleus behind the Esther narrative, but the book in its present form displays such inaccuracies and inconsistencies that it must be described as a piece of historical fiction. ^ Meyers, Carol (2007). Barton, John; Muddiman, John (eds.). The Oxford Bible Commentary. Oxford University Press. p. 325. ISBN 9780199277186. Like the Joseph story in Genesis and the book of Daniel, it is a fictional piece of prose writing involving the interaction between foreigners and Hebrews/Jews. ^ Hirsch, Emil G.; Dyneley Prince, John; Schechter, Solomon (1906). Singer, Isidor; Adler, Cyrus (eds.). "ESTHER". JewishEncyclopedia.com. Retrieved 25 April 2020. The vast majority of modern expositors have reached the conclusion that the book is a piece of pure fiction, although some writers qualify their criticism by an attempt to treat it as a historical romance. ^ a b Marciak 2017, p. 80; Schmitt 2000 ^ Schmitt 2000. ^ a b Stoneman 2015, p. 2. ^ Briant 2002, p. 57. ^ Radner 2013, p. 454. ^ Briant 2002, pp. 158, 516. ^ Stoneman 2015, pp. viii–ix. ^ Llewellyn-Jones 2017, p. 70. ^ Waters 1996, pp. 11, 18. ^ Briant 2002, p. 132. ^ Briant 2002, p. 520. ^ Stoneman 2015, p. 1. ^ "vase (inv.65.4695) - inv.65.4695 , BnF". medaillesetantiques.bnf.fr (in French). ^ a b c Stoneman 2015, p. 27. ^ a b c Stoneman 2015, p. 28. ^ a b c Stoneman 2015, p. 29. ^ a b Dandamayev 1989, p. 183. ^ Dandamayev 1989, pp. 178–179. ^ Herodotus 7.1–5 ^ R. Shabani Chapter I, p. 15 ^ Olmstead: The history of Persian empire ^ The Cambridge History of Iran vol. 2. p. 509. ^ Dandamayev 1989, p. 180. ^ Schmitt, R., "Atossa" in Encyclopaedia Iranica. ^ The Cambridge Ancient History vol. V p. 72. ^ a b c d Briant 2002, p. 525. ^ Dandamayev 1983, p. 414. ^ a b c d e Dandamayev 1993, p. 41. ^ Stoneman 2015, p. 111. ^ Dandamayev 1989, pp. 185–186. ^ Sancisi-Weerdenburg 2002, p. 579. ^ Deloucas 2016, p. 39. ^ Waerzeggers & Seire 2018, p. 3. ^ Briant 2002, p. 544. ^ Deloucas 2016, p. 40. ^ Deloucas 2016, p. 41. ^ Soldiers with names, after Walser ^ The Achaemenid Empire in South Asia and Recent Excavations in Akra in Northwest Pakistan Peter Magee, Cameron Petrie, Robert Knox, Farid Khan, Ken Thomas p. 713 ^ Naqš-e-Rostam – Encyclopaedia Iranica. ^ Farrokh, Kaveh (2007). Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War. Oxford, UK: Osprey. ISBN 1846031087, p. 77 ^ Bailkey, Nels, ed. Readings in Ancient History, p. 175. D.C. Heath and Co., 1992. ^ G. Mafodda, La monarchia di Gelone tra pragmatismo, ideologia e propaganda, (Messina, 1996) pp. 119–136 ^ Barkworth, 1993. "The Organization of Xerxes' Army." Iranica Antiqua Vol. 27, pp. 149–167 ^ Martin Steskal, Der Zerstörungsbefund 480/79 der Athener Akropolis. Eine Fallstudie zum etablierten Chronologiegerüst, Verlag Dr. Kovač, Hamburg, 2004 ^ Herodotus VIII, 97 ^ "Bêl-šimânni and Šamaš-eriba – Livius". livius.org. Retrieved 7 September 2016. ^ Ghirshman, Iran, p. 172 ^ Fergusson, James. A History of Architecture in All Countries, from the Earliest Times to the Present Day: 1. Ancient architecture. 2. Christian architecture. xxxi, 634 p. front., illus. p. 211. ^ Herodotus VII.11 ^ Iran-e-Bastan/Pirnia book 1 p. 873 ^ Dandamayev ^ History of Persian Empire, Olmstead pp. 289/90 ^ a b c Malandra 2005. ^ Boyce 1984, pp. 684–687. ^ Briant 2002, p. 549. ^ Ctesias ^ M. Brosius, Women in ancient Persia. ^ "Johann Adolph Hasse | German composer". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 27 April 2020. ^ "Metastasio's Musicians : Music In The Seventeenth And Eighteenth Centuries". www.oxfordwesternmusic.com. Retrieved 27 April 2020. ^ "Christer Malmbergs värld - Musik - Klassisk musik - Johann Christian Bach". christermalmberg.se. Retrieved 27 April 2020. ^ "Xerxes, of De hoogmoed". www.bibliotheek.nl. Retrieved 27 April 2020. ^ Classe, O.; AC02468681, Anonymus (2000). Encyclopedia of Literary Translation Into English: A-L. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-884964-36-7. ^ Boucher, Geoff "Frank Miller returns to the '300' battlefield with 'Xerxes': 'I make no apologies whatsoever'", The Los Angeles Times, 1 June 2010, accessed 2010-05-14. ^ Gore Vidal, Creation: A Novel (Random House, 1981) Bibliography Ancient sources The Sixth Book, Entitled Erato in History of Herodotus. The Seventh Book, Entitled Polymnia in History of Herodotus. Modern sources Barkworth, Peter R. (1993). "The Organization of Xerxes' Army". Iranica Antiqua. 27: 149–167. doi:10.2143/ia.27.0.2002126. Boardman, John (1988). The Cambridge Ancient History. V. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-22804-2. Boyce, Mary. "Achaemenid Religion". Encyclopaedia Iranica. vol. 1. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Boyce, Mary (1979). Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. Psychology Press. pp. 1–252. ISBN 9780415239028. Boyce, Mary (1984). "Ahura Mazdā". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 7. pp. 684–687. Bridges, Emma (2014). Imagining Xerxes: Ancient Perspectives on a Persian King. Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1472511379 Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. pp. 1–1196. ISBN 9781575061207. Brosius, Maria (2000). "Women i. In Pre-Islamic Persia". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. London et al. Dandamayev, M.A. (1999). "Artabanus". Encyclopædia Iranica. Routledge & Kegan Pau. Retrieved 25 February 2009. Dandamayev, Muhammad A. (2000). "Achaemenid taxation". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Dandamayev, Muhammad A. (1989). A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire. BRILL. ISBN 978-9004091726. Dandamayev, Muhammad A. (1993). "Xerxes and the Esagila Temple in Babylon". Bulletin of the Asia Institute. 7: 41–45. JSTOR 24048423. Dandamayev, Muhammad A. (1990). "Cambyses II". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IV, Fasc. 7. pp. 726–729. Dandamayev, Muhammad A. (1983). "Achaemenes". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 4. p. 414.* Frye, Richard N. (1963). The Heritage of Persia. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. p. 301. ISBN 0-297-16727-8. Deloucas, Andrew Alberto Nicolas (2016). "Balancing Power and Space: a Spatial Analysis of the Akītu Festival in Babylon after 626 BCE" (PDF). Research Master's Thesis for Classical and Ancient Civilizations (Assyriology). Universiteit Leiden. Gershevitch, Ilya; Bayne Fisher, William; A. Boyle, J. (1985). The Cambridge history of Iran. 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-20091-1. Llewellyn-Jones, Lloyd (2017). "The Achaemenid Empire". In Daryaee, Touraj (ed.). King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE - 651 CE). UCI Jordan Center for Persian Studies. pp. 1–236. ISBN 9780692864401. Malandra, William W. (2005). "Zoroastrianism i. Historical review up to the Arab conquest". Encyclopaedia Iranica.* Macaulay, G.C. (2004). The Histories. Spark Educational Publishing. ISBN 1-59308-102-2. Marciak, Michał (2017). Sophene, Gordyene, and Adiabene: Three Regna Minora of Northern Mesopotamia Between East and West. BRILL. ISBN 9789004350724. McCullough, W.S. "Ahasuerus". Encyclopaedia Iranica. vol. 1. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Schmeja, H. (1975). "Dareios, Xerxes, Artaxerxes. Drei persische Königsnamen in griechischer Deutung (Zu Herodot 6,98,3)". Die Sprache. 21: 184–188. Radner, Karen (2013). "Assyria and the Medes". In Potts, Daniel T. (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199733309. Sancisi-Weerdenburg, Heleen (2002). "The Personality of Xerxes, King of Kings". Brill's Companion to Herodotus. BRILL. pp. 579–590. doi:10.1163/9789004217584_026. ISBN 9789004217584. Schmitt, Rüdiger. "Achaemenid dynasty". Encyclopaedia Iranica. vol. 3. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Schmitt, Rüdiger. "Atossa". Encyclopaedia Iranica. vol. 3. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Schmitt, Rüdiger (2000). "Xerxes i. The Name". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Shabani, Reza (2007). Khshayarsha (Xerxes). What do I know about Iran? No. 75 (in Persian). Cultural Research Bureau. p. 120. ISBN 978-964-379-109-4. Shahbazi, A. Sh. "Darius I the Great". Encyclopaedia Iranica. vol. 7. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Stoneman, Richard (2015). Xerxes: A Persian Life. Yale University Press. pp. 1–288. ISBN 9781575061207. Olmstead, A.T. (1979) [1948]. History of the Persian Empire. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226497648. Waerzeggers, Caroline; Seire, Maarja (2018). Xerxes and Babylonia: The Cuneiform Evidence (PDF). Peeters Publishers. ISBN 978-90-429-3670-6. Waters, Matt (1996). "Darius and the Achaemenid Line". London: 11–18. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Xerxes I. "Xerxes" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. Xerxes I Achaemenid dynasty Born: 519 BC Died: 465 BC Preceded by Darius I King of Kings of Persia 486 BC – 465 BC Succeeded by Artaxerxes I Pharaoh of Egypt 486 BC – 465 BC v t e Median and Achaemenid kings Family tree Median (728–550 BC) Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Achaemenid (550–330 BC) Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Nothus Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Italics indicate kings not directly attested and so possibly legendary. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC v t e Persepolis Palace Tachara Gate of All Nations Other sections Tomb of Artaxerxes III builders Darius the Great Xerxes I Artaxerxes I of Persia Researchers Heidemarie Koch Erich Schmidt (archaeologist) Alireza Shapour Shahbazi Related Tangeh Bolaghi 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire Sivand Dam Persepolis Administrative Archives Waterskin Achaemenid architecture Category:Persepolis Authority control BNE: XX1153338 BNF: cb150689088 (data) CANTIC: a12318310 GND: 118808109 ISNI: 0000 0000 6300 8852 LCCN: n81070675 LNB: 000054067 NKC: mzk2005313022 NLA: 66228176 NLI: 000437459 NTA: 073636711 SELIBR: 259706 SUDOC: 050588400 Trove: 1808084 ULAN: 500354810 VcBA: 495/27255 VIAF: 282770127 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en-wikipedia-org-2622	----	Djer - Wikipedia Djer From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Djer Pharaoh Reign 41 years, c. 3000 BC (middle of the 1st Dynasty) Predecessor Hor-Aha Successor Djet Royal titulary Horus name Djer ḏr Defender (of Horus) Abydos King List Itetj Jttj A ruler Turin King List It... Jtj... ...damaged... Cairo stone Itetj Jttj The ruler has come Golden Horus Nynebu nj-nbw He who belongs to the Golden One Consort Nakhtneith, Herneith, Penebui Children Merneith, Djet ? Father Hor-Aha Mother Khenthap Burial Tomb O, Umm el-Qa'ab Djer (or Zer or Sekhty)[1] is considered the third pharaoh of the First Dynasty of ancient Egypt in current Egyptology. He lived around the mid-thirty-first century BC[2] and reigned for c. 40 years. A mummified forearm of Djer or his wife was discovered by Flinders Petrie,[3] but was discarded by Émile Brugsch.[4] Contents 1 Name 2 Length of reign 3 Reign 4 Family 5 Tomb 6 Gallery 7 See also 8 References 9 Bibliography 10 External links Name[edit] Iti, cartouche name of Djer in the Abydos king list. The Abydos King List lists the third pharaoh as Iti, the Turin Canon lists a damaged name, beginning with It..., while Manetho lists Uenéphes. Length of reign[edit] Although the Egyptian priest Manetho, writing in the third century BC, stated that Djer ruled for 57 years, modern research by Toby Wilkinson in Royal Annals of Ancient Egypt stresses that the near-contemporary and therefore, more accurate Palermo Stone ascribes Djer a reign of "41 complete and partial years."[5] Wilkinson notes that years 1–10 of Djer's reign are preserved in register II of the Palermo Stone, while the middle years of this pharaoh's reign are recorded in register II of Cairo stone fragment C1.[6] Reign[edit] Djer's reign was preceded by a regency controlled by Neithhotep, possibly his mother or grandmother. The evidence for Djer's life and reign is:[7] Tomb in Umm el-Qa'ab, Abydos Seal prints from graves 2185 and 3471 in Saqqara Inscriptions in graves 3503, 3506 and 3035 in Saqqara Seal impression and inscriptions from Helwan[8] Jar from Turah with the name of Djer[9] UC 16182 ivory tablet from Abydos, subsidiary tomb 612 of the enclosure of Djer[10] UC 16172 copper adze with the name of Djer[11] Inscription of his name (of questioned authenticity, however) at Wadi Halfa, Sudan The inscriptions, on ivory and wood, are in a very early form of hieroglyphs, hindering complete translation, but a label at Saqqarah may depict the First Dynasty practice of human sacrifice.[12] An ivory tablet from Abydos mentions that Djer visited Buto and Sais in the Nile Delta. One of his regnal years on the Cairo Stone was named "Year of smiting the land of Setjet", which often is speculated to be Sinai or beyond. Manetho claimed that Athothes, who is sometimes identified as Djer, had written a treatise on anatomy that still existed in his own day, over two millennia later. [13] Family[edit] See also: First Dynasty of Egypt family tree Stone vase bearing the serekh of Djer, National Archaeological Museum (France). Djer was a son of the pharaoh Hor-Aha and his wife Khenthap. His grandfather was probably Narmer. Djer fathered Merneith, wife of Djet and mother of Den. Women carrying titles later associated with queens such as Great One of the Hetes-Sceptre and She who Sees/Carries Horus were buried in subsidiary tombs near the tomb of Djer in Abydos or attested in Saqqara. These women are thought to be the wives of Djer and include: Nakhtneith (or Nekhetneith), buried in Abydos and known from a stela.[14][15] Herneith, possibly a wife of Djer. Buried in Saqqara.[15] Seshemetka, buried in Abydos next to the king.[16] She was said to be a wife of Den in Dodson and Hilton.[15] Penebui, her name and title were found on an ivory label from Saqqara.[14] bsu, known from a label in Saqqara and several stone vessels (reading of name uncertain; name consists of three fish hieroglyphs).[14] Tomb[edit] Similarly to his father Hor-Aha, Djer was buried in Umm el-Qa'ab at Abydos. Djer's tomb is tomb O of Petrie. His tomb contains the remains of 318 retainers who were buried with him.[17] During later times, the tomb of Djer was revered as the tomb of Osiris, and the entire First Dynasty burial complex, which includes the tomb of Djer, was very important in the Egyptian religious tradition. Several objects were found in and around the tomb of Djer:[18] A stela of Djer, now in the Cairo Museum probably comes from Abydos. Labels mentioning the name of a palace and the name of Meritneith. Fragments of two vases inscribed with the name of Queen Neithhotep. Bracelets of a Queen were found in the wall of the tomb. In the subsidiary tombs, excavators found objects including stelae representing several individuals, ivory objects inscribed with the name of Neithhotep, and various ivory tablets.[18] Manetho indicates that the First Dynasty ruled from Memphis – and indeed Herneith, one of Djer's wives, was buried nearby at Saqqara. Gallery[edit] Small ivory label of Djer mentioning the name of a fortress or domain of the king "Hor-Djer-ib". Seal impression with the serekh of Djer found in Abydos, on display at the British Museum Ceremonial flint knife with the Horus name of Djer inscribed on its gold handle, on display at the Royal Ontario Museum. Close-up view of Djer's serekh on the ceremonial flint knife of the Royal Ontario Museum. Label from Tomb of King Djer, Abydos Label from Tomb of King Djer, Abydos See also[edit] List of pharaohs Ancient Egyptian retainer sacrifices References[edit] ^ Trigger, Bruce (1983). Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge University Press. p. 70. ISBN 978-0521284271. ^ Grimal, Nicolas (1994). A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 528. ISBN 0-631-19396-0. ^ W. M. Flinders Petrie: The Royal Tombs of the Earliest Dynasties, 1901, Part II, London 1901, p.16-17 ^ Salima Ikram and Aidan Dodson, The Mummy in Ancient Egypt: Equipping the Dead for Eternity, Thames & Hudson, 1998, p. 109 ^ Toby Wilkinson, Royal Annals of Ancient Egypt: The Palermo Stone and Its Associated Fragments, (Kegan Paul International), 2000. p.79 ^ Wilkinson, Royal Annals of Ancient Egypt, p.258 ^ King Djer page from digitalegypt. ^ Saad 1947: 165; Saad 1969: 82, pl. 94 ^ Kaiser 1964: 103, fig.3 ^ Petrie 1925: pl. II.8; XII.1 ^ tomb 461 in Abydos, Petrie 1925: pl. III.1, IV.8 ^ Rice, Michael The Power of the Bull Routledge; 1 edition (4 Dec 1997) ISBN 978-0-415-09032-2 p123 [1] ^ https://archive.org/stream/manethowithengli00maneuoft/manethowithengli00maneuoft_djvu.txt ^ a b c W. Grajetzki: Ancient Egyptian Queens: a hieroglyphic dictionary ^ a b c Dodson and Hilton: The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, 2004 ^ W. M. Flinders Petrie: The Royal Tombs of the Earliest Dynasties, 1901, Part II, London 1901, pl. XXVII, 96 ^ Thomas Kühn: Die Königsgräber der 1. & 2. Dynastie in Abydos. In: Kemet. Issue 1, 2008. ^ a b B. Porter and R.L.B. Moss. Topographical Bibliography of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphic Texts, Reliefs, and Paintings, V. Upper Egypt: Sites. Oxford, 1937 Bibliography[edit] Toby A. H. Wilkinson, Early Dynastic Egypt, Routledge, London/New York 1999, ISBN 0-415-18633-1, 71-73 Toby Wilkinson, Royal Annals of Ancient Egypt: The Palermo Stone and Its Associated Fragments, (Kegan Paul International), 2000. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Djer. Preceded by Neithhotep (regent) Pharaoh of Egypt Succeeded by Djet v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e First Dynasty of Ancient Egypt Pharaohs Menes/Narmer Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Regents Neithhotep Merneith Queen consorts Benerib Herneith Penebui Nakhtneith (Khenthap) Semat Serethor Seshemetka Betrest Officials Amka Hemaka Sabef Meriiti Other people Ahaneith Artefacts and monuments Narmer macehead Narmer palette Tomb of Anedjib Den seal impressions Abydos boats MacGregor plaque Mastabas S3503 and S3504 Capital Thinis Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Djer&oldid=995290844" Categories: Djer 31st-century BC Pharaohs 30th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the First Dynasty of Egypt Hor-Aha 31st century BC in Egypt 31st-century BC rulers Hidden categories: Commons category link from Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Ripoarisch Română Русский සිංහල Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski 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en-wikipedia-org-2671	----	Wadjkare - Wikipedia Wadjkare From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wadjkare Pharaoh Reign duration unknown; c. 2150 BC (First Intermediate Period) Predecessor uncertain; possibly Qakare Ibi Successor uncertain; possibly Wahkare Khety I Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Wadj-ka-Re W3ḏ-k3-Rˁ The Ka of Rê is refreshed Horus name Djemed-ib-tawy Dmḏ-jb-t3wj He who unifies the heart of the two lands Burial unknown Wadjkare was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the Eighth dynasty who reigned c. 2150 BC during the First Intermediate Period. He is considered to be a very obscure figure in Egyptian history.[1] Identity[edit] Wadjkare is mentioned only once: in a royal limestone tablet known as Coptos Decree R (Cairo museum; obj. JE 41894), which is said to have been created by the king himself. It contains a list of punishments for everyone who dares to damage or plunder a shrine dedicated to the god Min-of-Coptos.[2] However, from an archaeological standpoint there is nothing else known about this king. His existence is questioned by some scholars, because he is not mentioned in any Ramesside king list.[3] A rock inscription in Nubia mentions a king that in the past was tentatively read as Wadjkare.[4][5] It is believed nowadays that the royal name on the inscription is Menkhkare, the throne name of the Eleventh Dynasty local ruler Segerseni.[6] Scholars such as Farouk Gomaà and William C. Hayes identify the Horus name Djemed-ib-taui with a ruler named Neferirkare and equate Wadjkare with an obscure ruler named Hor-Khabaw.[7] Hans Goedicke sees Wadjkare as the predecessor of Djemed-ib-taui and assigns both rulers to the 9th dynasty.[8] References[edit] ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, p. 170 - 171. ^ Nigel C. Strudwick: Texts from the Pyramid Age. BRILL, Leiden 2005, ISBN 9004130489, p. 123-124. ^ Margaret Bunson: Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Infobase Publishing, 2009, ISBN 1438109970, p. 429. ^ Henri Gauthier, "Nouvelles remarques sur la XIe dynastie". BIFAO 9 (1911), p. 136. ^ Alan Gardiner, Egypt of the Pharaohs: an introduction, Oxford University Press, 1964, p. 121. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath, Handbuch der Ägyptischen Königsnamen (MÄS 49), Philip Von Zabern, 1999, pp. 80-81. ^ Farouk Gomaà: Ägypten während der Ersten Zwischenzeit (= Beihefte zum Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients. Reihe B: Geisteswissenschaften, vol. 27). Reichert, Wiesbaden 1980, ISBN 3-88226-041-6. p. 57, 59, 127. ^ Hans Goedicke: Königliche Dokumente aus dem Alten Reich (= Ägyptologische Abhandlungen, Bd. 14). Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1967, p. 215. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Ancient Egypt topics Index Major topics Glossary of artifacts Agriculture Architecture (Egyptian Revival architecture) Art Portraiture Astronomy Chronology Cities (list) Clothing Cuisine Dance Dynasties Funerary practices Geography Great Royal Wives (list) Hieroglyphs History Language Literature Mathematics Medicine Military Music Mythology People Pharaohs (list) Philosophy Religion Sites Technology Trade Writing Egyptology Egyptologists Museums  Ancient Egypt portal Book Category WikiProject Commons Outline This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e This biography of a member of an African royal house is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wadjkare&oldid=974675446" Categories: 22nd-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Ancient Egypt people stubs African royalty stubs Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages አማርኛ Català Deutsch Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia ქართული Magyar Português Русский Tiếng Việt Yorùbá Edit links This page was last edited on 24 August 2020, at 10:19 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2681	----	Menkauhor Kaiu - Wikipedia Menkauhor Kaiu From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Pharaoh of Egypt Menkauhor Kaiu Mencherês, Menkaouhor, Ikau, Ikaouhor, Hor-A-Kau Statue of Menkauhor wearing the dress of the Sed festival from Memphis[note 1][2] Pharaoh Reign Eight to nine years of reign in the late-25th to early-24th century BC.[note 2] (Fifth Dynasty) Predecessor Nyuserre Ini Successor Djedkare Isesi Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Menkauhor Mn-k3w-Ḥr Eternal are the Kas of Horus[4] Alternative translation: The established one of the Kas of Horus[11] Nomen Ikauhor Ik3w-Ḥr The Ka of Horus Variant form: Kaiu Ik3w The Ka [of Horus] Horus name Menkhau Mn-ḫ3w He whose appearances are eternal Alternative translation: Established of appearances[11] Golden Horus Bik-nebu Hedj Bik-nbw ḥḏ The effulgent Golden Falcon Alternative translation: The radiant Golden Falcon[11] Turin canon: Menkahor Mn-k3-Ḥr The Ka of Horus Saqqara Tablet: Menkahor Mn-k3-Ḥr The Ka of Horus Abydos king list: Menkauhor Mn-k3w-Ḥr Eternal are the Kas of Horus Consort Uncertain: Khuit I,[12][13] Meresankh IV[14] Children Conjectural: Raemka ♂, Khaemtjenent ♂ Father Uncertain, possibly Neferefre or, less likely, Nyuserre Ini Mother Possibly Khentkaus III[15] Burial Headless Pyramid Monuments Sun temple Akhet-Ra Pyramid Netjer-isut-Menkauhor Menkauhor Kaiu (also known as Ikauhor and in Greek as Mencherês, Μεγχερῆς)[16] was an Ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the Old Kingdom period. He was the seventh ruler of the Fifth Dynasty at the end of the 25th century BC or early in the 24th century BC ( circa 2399–2390 BC ). Menkauhor ruled for possibly eight or nine years, following king Nyuserre Ini, and was succeeded in turn by Djedkare Isesi. Although Menkauhor is well attested by historical sources, few artefacts from his reign have survived. Consequently, his familial relation to his predecessor and successor is unclear, and no offspring of his have been identified. Khentkaus III may have been Menkauhor's mother, as indicated by evidence discovered in her tomb in 2015. Beyond the construction of monuments, the only known activity dated to Menkauhor's reign is an expedition to the copper and turquoise mines in Sinai. Menkauhor ordered the construction of a sun temple, called the "Akhet-Ra", meaning "The Horizon of Ra". The last to be built, this sun temple, known from inscriptions found in the tombs of its priests, is yet to be located. Menkauhor was buried in a small pyramid in Saqqara, which the Ancient Egyptians named Netjer-Isut Menkauhor, "The Divine Places of Menkauhor". Known today as the Headless Pyramid, the ruin had been lost under shifting sands until its rediscovery in 2008. The figure of Menkauhor was at the centre of a long lasting funerary cult until the end of the Old Kingdom period, with at least seven agricultural domains producing goods for the necessary offerings. The cult of a deified Menkauhor, then known by the titles "Strong Lord of the Two Lands, Menkauhor the Justified" reappeared during the New Kingdom period (c. 1550 – c. 1077 BC), and lasted until at least the Nineteenth Dynasty (c. 1292 – c. 1077 BC), some 1200 years after his death. Contents 1 Attestations 1.1 Historical 1.2 Contemporaneous 2 Family 2.1 Name 2.2 Filiation 2.3 Consorts 2.4 Descendants 3 Reign 3.1 Duration 3.2 Activities 4 Construction activities 4.1 Sun temple 4.2 Pyramid 5 Funerary cult 5.1 Old Kingdom 5.2 New Kingdom 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Bibliography 10 External links Attestations[edit] Historical[edit] Menkauhor is attested by three hieroglyphic sources, all from the much later New Kingdom period. His name is given on the 31st entry of the Abydos King List, which was inscribed on the walls of a temple during the reign of Seti I (1290–1279 BC). He is also mentioned on the Saqqara Tablet (30th entry)[17] and on the Turin canon (third column, 23rd row),[18] both of which were written during the reign of Ramesses II (1279–1213 BC).[19] The Turin canon credits Menkauhor with a reign of eight years.[1] These sources indicate that Menkauhor succeeded Nyuserre Ini and preceded Djedkare Isesi on the throne, making him the seventh pharaoh of the Fifth Dynasty.[20] Menkauhor was likely mentioned in the Aegyptiaca, a history of Egypt written in the 3rd century BC during the reign of Ptolemy II (283–246 BC) by the Egyptian priest Manetho, but no copies of the text survive, and it is known only through later writings by Sextus Julius Africanus and Eusebius. Africanus relates that the Aegyptiaca mentioned a pharaoh "Mencherês" reigning for nine years as the seventh king of the Fifth Dynasty.[21] Mencherês is believed to be a Hellenized form of Menkauhor, and Africanus' nine-year figure fits well with the eight years of reign given to Menkauhor on the Turin canon,[19] the latter figure being considered by some Egyptologists, including Hartwig Altenmüller, as more likely than the former.[22] Contemporaneous[edit] Personified agricultural estate of Menkauhor, tomb of Ptahhotep, Saqqara[23] Relatively few attestations dating to Menkauhor's reign have survived compared to the other kings of the Fifth Dynasty.[19] Nonetheless, Menkauhor's name is well attested in the names and titles of priests and officials of the Fifth Dynasty as well as in the names of the agricultural estates associated with his funerary cult.[24] Surviving artefacts contemporaneous with Menkauhor's reign include two stone vessels inscribed with his name from the mortuary temple of Neferefre – possibly gifts from Menkauhor for the funerary cult of Neferefre[25]– as well as a few sealings from the same temple[26][27] and from an area known as "Djedkare's Family Cemetery" in Abusir.[28] Cylinder seal impressions showing Menkauhor's Horus name or the name of his pyramid have also been unearthed in the mortuary complex of Nyuserre Ini,[29] and in the necropolises of Giza and Gebelein.[1] A gold cylinder seal bearing Menkauhor's cartouche as part of the name of his pyramid together with the serekh of Djedkare Isesi is now on display at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.[note 3][30] The seal, purportedly discovered near the Pactolus river valley in western Anatolia,[31] could attest to wide-ranging trade-contacts during the Fifth Dynasty,[22] but its provenance remains unverifiable.[note 4][33] The only secure depiction of the king dating to the Old Kingdom that has survived to this day is a rough, possibly unfinished, alabaster statuette showing Menkauhor enthroned and wearing the tight-fitting ceremonial robe of the Heb-sed.[note 5][2][27] The statue was discovered in a cachette built during the late New Kingdom beneath the floor of a room to the west of the sacred lake at the temple of Ptah in Memphis.[34] The Egyptologist Jocelyn Berlandini proposed that another statuette,[note 6] usually attributed to Teti, belongs instead to Menkauhor Kaiu. Berlandini bases her hypothesis on stylistic grounds, noting the resemblance with Menkauhor's seated statue, as well as the location of the second statue, which was uncovered east of Teti's pyramid, in close proximity to Menkauhor's pyramid.[36] Monumental attestations of Menkauhor are limited to a rock inscription at the Wadi Maghareh in Sinai, showing his titulary and a rough stele inscribed with his cartouche from Mastaba 904 at Saqqara.[19][37] Family[edit] Drawing of a serpentine cylinder seal of Menkauhor Kaiu[38] Name[edit] The name of Menkauhor is a departure from those of other kings of the Fifth Dynasty. Menkauhor, whose name means "Eternal are the Kas of Horus", is the first pharaoh in 80 years whose name does not refer to the sun god Ra.[39] The name of Menkauhor instead finds its peers among the princes of the Fifth Dynasty with, for example, prince Khentykauhor "The forces of Horus are at the fore",[39] a son of Nyuserre Ini,[39] and prince Neserkauhor, a son of Djedkare Isesi.[40] Filiation[edit] Owing to the paucity of contemporaneous sources for Menkauhor, his relation to his predecessor, Nyuserre Ini, and to his successor, Djedkare Isesi, cannot be ascertained beyond doubt.[39][41] Menkauhor may have been a son of Nyuserre Ini; indeed Nyuserre Ini is known to have fathered a prince Khentykauhor as shown by a relief mentioning the prince from the mortuary complex of queen Khentkaus II, the mother of Nyuserre Ini.[42] The similarity of Khentykauhor's name to that of Menkauhor led the Egyptologists Miroslav Verner and Vivienne Callender to propose that the two are the same person, with Khentykauhor taking the name "Menkauhor" upon ascending the throne.[41] This hypothesis is possibly contradicted by an inscription discovered in 2008 in the mastaba of Werkaure, the eldest son of an unnamed king. The inscription mentions a "Menkauhor", but does not ascribe any royal attributes to him.[43] The Egyptologists Hana Vymazalová and Filip Coppens suggest this might refer to the future pharaoh Menkauhor Kaiu at a time when he was still a prince. They note that Menkauhor might have offered high-quality stone blocks for the construction of the tomb of his (possible) relative, which would explain the inscription.[43] This contradicts the identification of Menkauhor with Khentykauhor; Vymazalová and Coppens theorize that Khentykauhor and Menkauhor were brothers and sons of Nyuserre Ini.[44] The identity of Menkauhor's mother is equally uncertain. In January 2015 the tomb of the "King's wife" and "King's mother", Khentkaus III, was discovered by a team of Czech archaeologists in the necropolis surrounding the pyramid of Neferefre in Abusir.[15] Mud seals in the tomb indicate that Khentkaus III was buried during Nyuserre Ini's reign.[15] Since Nyuserre Ini's own mother is known to have been Khentkaus II,[45] the discovery suggests that she was Menkauhor Kaiu's mother.[15] The position of her tomb close to the pyramid of Neferefre could indicate that she was this king's consort and thus that Neferefre was Menkauhor's father.[46] Consorts[edit] No queen consort of Menkauhor has been identified for certain. The Egyptologist Wilfried Seipel has proposed that Khuit I was a queen of Menkauhor.[12] Based on the dating of the tombs surrounding Khuit's burial, Seipel argues that she lived during the mid-Fifth Dynasty. By the process of elimination, he attributes known queens to each king of the period, which leaves only Menkauhor as a candidate for her king.[12] These arguments are criticized by the Egyptologist Michel Baud, who observes that pharaohs could have had more than one queen.[47] Queen Meresankh IV has also been suggested as a consort for Menkauhor based on the dating and location of her tomb in Saqqara.[note 7][48] It is possible however that she was a wife of Djedkare Isesi.[48] Descendants[edit] There is no evidence either for or against the hypothesis that Menkauhor's successor Djedkare Isesi was his son. Two sons have been suggested for Menkauhor based on the dating and general location of their tombs in Saqqara: princes Raemka[note 8] and Kaemtjenent,[note 9] both believed to be children of Meresankh IV. By the same reasoning, they could instead be sons of Djedkare Isesi.[49] Reign[edit] Duration[edit] Relief of Menkauhor Kaiu from the Wadi Maghareh[note 10][51][52] Given the scarcity of contemporaneous attestations for Menkauhor, modern Egyptologists consider his reign to have been perhaps eight or nine years long, as indicated by the much later historical sources.[19][53][54][55] The small seated statue of Menkauhor wearing the robe of the Sed festival[19] might suggest a longer reign, since this festival was typically celebrated only after a ruler had spent 30 years on the throne. However, Egyptologist Hartwig Altenmüller deems this hypothesis unlikely.[22] Mere depictions of the festival do not necessarily imply a long reign; for example, a relief showing pharaoh Sahure in the tunic of the Sed festival was found in his mortuary temple,[56][57] although both historical sources and archaeological evidence suggest Sahure ruled Egypt for less than 14 full years.[10][58][59] Activities[edit] Owing to the scarcity of artefacts and inscriptions relating to Menkauhor's reign, few of his activities are known. Menkauhor sent an expedition to Sinai to exploit the mines of turquoise and copper in the Wadi Maghareh.[19] The expedition is evidenced by a damaged rock inscription showing Menkauhor's titulary which is one of the few attestations dating to his lifetime.[51][52] The mines of Sinai had been exploited since the Third Dynasty (2686 BC–2613 BC), and both Menkauhor's predecessor Nyuserre Ini and successor Djedkare Isesi sent expeditions to the Wadi Maghareh.[60] Construction activities[edit] Menkauhor Kaiu is known to have ordered the construction of two major monuments during his reign: a sun temple for the veneration of Ra and a pyramid for his burial, known today as the "Headless Pyramid".[61] Sun temple[edit] Sun temple of Menkauhor in hieroglyphs [note 11] 3ḫ.t-Rˁ Akhet-Ra Following a tradition which started with Userkaf, the founder of the Fifth Dynasty, Menkauhor built a temple to the sun god Ra. He was the last pharaoh to do so.[63] His successors, Djedkare Isesi and Unas, abandoned[64][65] this practice as the cult of Ra declined[66] at the expense of that of Osiris.[65] Given the paucity of documents relating to Menkauhor's sun temple, it probably functioned for only a short time or was never completed.[64][67] Menkauhor's sun temple was called Akhet-Ra, which is variously translated as "The Horizon of Ra" or "The Place where Ra Issues Forth".[64][68] The temple has yet to be located and could be lying under the sands of Saqqara or Abusir.[69] Its existence is known thanks to inscriptions found in the tombs of Fifth and Sixth Dynasties officials who served as priests of Ra in the temple.[70][71] These include Hemu,[72] buried in Giza, and Neferiretptah[72] and Raemankh,[73] who were both buried in Saqqara-north.[63] In addition to his service in the Akhet-Ra, Neferiretptah was a priest in Menkauhor's pyramid and held the office of "royal ornament", making him responsible for the precious items in the palace of the king.[74] Besides these inscriptions, a single seal[note 12][29] bearing the name of the Akhet-Ra is known from the tomb of princess Khamerernebti, located near the mortuary temple of Niuserre in Abusir.[70] The seal was placed on a large vessel indicating that provisions for the tombs of members of the royal family were dispatched from Menkauhor's temple to Niuserre's pyramid complex.[70] Pyramid[edit] Main article: Headless Pyramid The pyramid of Menkauhor (Lepsius XXIX) was constructed on a south-west north-east axis[75] linking the pyramids of Djoser and Userkaf and, after Menkauhor's death, those of Unas and Teti as well.[76] Menkauhor Kaiu built a pyramid in North-Saqqara, thereby abandoning the royal necropolis of Abusir, where kings of the Fifth Dynasty had been buried since the reign of Sahure, some 80 years earlier.[77] The reason for this choice may be that the Abusir plateau had become overcrowded by the beginning of Menkauhor's reign.[78] Originally named Netjer-isut-Menkauhor by the Ancient Egyptians, meaning "The divine places of Menkauhor", the pyramid is known today as Lepsius XXIX[79] after the number given to it by the archaeologist Karl Richard Lepsius who discovered the pyramid in 1843. Owing to the ruined state of the structure, it is known in Arabic as the "Headless Pyramid", a name that has been retained.[80][81] The pyramid was lost under shifting sands in the early 20th century and its attribution to Menkauhor was consequently debated.[82] Instead, it was proposed that the Headless Pyramid was that of Merikare, a structure dating to the First Intermediate Period and which has yet to be found.[83] In 2008, the structure identified by Lepsius was rediscovered by a team of archaeologists under the direction of Zahi Hawass, and excavations at the site quickly established a Fifth Dynasty date as indicated by the construction techniques used in its making. Although the excavations failed to yield the name of the king who built the pyramid, Menkauhor was the last pharaoh of the dynasty whose pyramid remained undiscovered. Thus, proceeding by elimination, archeologists and egyptologists have formally recognized the Headless Pyramid as that of Menkauhor.[84] The pyramid is estimated to have been around 50–60 m (160–200 ft) at the base,[80][85] so that the edifice would have stood 40–50 m (130–160 ft) high at the time of its construction, making it one of the smallest royal pyramids of the Old Kingdom.[note 13] There is evidence that Menkauhor had the time to complete his pyramid, whose small dimensions are thus consistent with his short eight to nine years of reign.[27] On the north side lies the entrance to the underground chamber system, which was sealed by two granite portcullises indicating that a burial took place. A broken sarcophagus lid of blue-grey basalt[87] was found in the burial chamber by Cecil Mallaby Firth during his brief excavations of the pyramid in 1930.[88][89] Funerary cult[edit] Personified Ḥwt domain of Menkauhor called "Menkauhor is perfect of appearances", tomb of Ptahhotep.[23] Old Kingdom[edit] After his death Menkauhor enjoyed a funerary cult centered on his pyramid complex. The cult lasted at least until the second half of the Sixth Dynasty, nearly 150 years later. Provisions for this cult were produced in dedicated agricultural domains that were established during Menkauhor's lifetime.[63] Products of these domains were delivered to Menkauhor's sun and mortuary temples and distributed to the priests of the cult, who could use them for their sustenance or their own funerary cults.[63] Personified representations of Menkauhor's agricultural domains are depicted bringing offerings on the walls of the mastabas of these priests. Most of the depictions are located in Saqqara North,[54] near the pyramid complex of Djoser.[63] This area comprises the tombs of Neferiretptah,[90] Raemankh, Duare, Iti, Sekhemnefer, Snofrunefer, Akhethotep, Ptahhotep and Qednes,[63] all priests of the funerary cult of Menkauhor. Further tombs of priests of this cult are found to the north, in Abusir South, with the mastaba of Isesiseneb and Rahotep[91] and in Giza.[63] The complete names of at least seven domains of Menkauhor are known:[92] "Ikauhor is perfect in favor"[note 14] and "the favor of Ikauhor",[note 15] both mentioned in the tombs of Ptahhotep and Akhethotep; "Ikauhor is perfect of life",[note 16] from the tomb of Ptahhotep II; "Horus Qemaa causes Ikauhor to live";[note 17] "Ikauhor is strong";[note 18] "Seshat loves Ikauhor"[note 19] and "Matyt loves Ikauhor"[note 20] from the tombs of viziers Senedjemib Inti,[96] Senedjemib Mehi and Hemu in Giza. In addition the Ḥwt domain of the king, which comprises the land holdings[97] of the mortuary temple of Menkauhor, was named "Menkauhor is perfect of appearances".[note 21][63][93] New Kingdom[edit] Menkauhor represented on a stele from the tomb of Ameneminet, Louvre The cult of Menkauhor enjoyed a revival during the New Kingdom period (1550–1077 BC).[98][99] At this point Menkauhor had been deified as a local god of the Saqqara necropolis acting as a divine intercessor,[100] and qualified of "Strong Lord of the Two Lands, Menkauhor the Justified".[note 22][101] This cult is evidenced by reliefs showing Menkauhor in the tombs of the "Chief of the artisans and jewelers" Ameneminet and of the physician Thuthu in Saqqara-North, both of whom lived at the time of the late Eighteenth Dynasty (1550–1292 BC),[102] during the reigns of Tutankhamun, Ay and Horemheb.[103] An inscribed block dating to the later Ramesside period (1292–1077 BC) and now in the Egyptian Museum of Berlin,[note 23] was uncovered by Lepsius in a house in Abusir[104] and shows Menkauhor enthroned beside four other deified kings of the Old Kingdom: the name of the first, partially lost, but probably Sneferu is then followed by Djedefre, Menkaure, Menkauhor and finally Neferkare. The owner of the tomb stands before the kings, in worship.[105] Another relief dating to the same period shows a similar scene. It was inscribed on the lintel of the tomb chapel of Mahy buried in Saqqara North. Four deified kings of the Old Kingdom are shown, all of whom built their pyramids at Saqqara: Djoser, Teti, Userkaf and Menkauhor.[104] The persistence of the cult of Menkauhor during the late Eighteenth to Nineteenth Dynasty possibly results from the location of his pyramid, which stood on the way to the necropolis of the Apis bulls, which later became the Serapeum.[104] See also[edit] List of pharaohs Notes[edit] ^ The statue is now in the Egyptian Museum and has the catalog numbers CG40 and JdE 28579.[1] ^ Proposed dates for Menkauhor's reign: 2444–2436 BC,[3] 2422–2414 BC,[4] 2421–2414 BC,[5][6][7] 2414–2405 BC,[8] 2389–2380 BC,[9] 2373–2366 BC[10] ^ The golden seal has the catalog number 68.115.[30] ^ The archaeologist Karin Sowada has even doubted the authenticity of the seal.[32] ^ Measuring 47.5 cm (18.7 in) in height, the statue shows the king wearing the white crown of Upper Egypt, his eyes adorned with Kohl and with a now damaged false beard. Menkauhor is identified by an inscription at the right of the feet giving his name.[2] ^ The statuette is now in the Egyptian Museum of Cairo, under the catalog number JE 39013.[35] ^ Meresankh IV is buried in the tomb S82.[48] ^ Prince Raemka was buried in the tomb S80.[40] ^ Prince Kaemtjenent was buried in the tomb S84.[40] ^ The inscription reads "Horus Menkhau, king of Upper and Lower Egypt Menkauhor, given life, stability, and [dominion for ever]. A commission carried out by ...". The inscription is now housed in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo, under the catalog number JE 38566.[50] ^ The last hieroglyph shown here is an approximation of the correct one which shows a squat obelisk on a flat base called a ben-ben.[62] ^ The seal is now in the Egyptian Museum of Berlin with catalog number 16760 ^ As compared to the dimensions of the other royal pyramids of the Old Kingdom as given by Grimal. [86] ^ In Egyptian Nfr-ḥswt Ik3w-Ḥr reading "Neferhesut Ikauhor".[93] ^ In Egyptian Ḥswt Ik3w-Ḥr reading "Hesut Ikauhor".[93] ^ Nfr-ˁnḫ Ik3w-Ḥr Neferankh Ikauhor.[93] ^ Sˁnḫ Ḥr-ḳm3ˁ Ik3w-Ḥr reading "Sankh Hor-Qemaa Ikauhor".[93] ^ W3ḥ Ik3w-Ḥr that is "Wah Ikauhor"[93] also translated "Ikauhor flourishes".[94] ^ Mr-Sš3t Ik3w-Ḥr reading "Mer Sheshat Ikauhor".[93] ^ Mr-M3tjt Ik3w-Ḥr for "Mer Matyt Ikauhor",[93] Matyt is possibly a variant for "Matit", a lioness goddess worshipped during the Old Kingdom period in Deir el-Gabrawi.[95] ^ Ḥwt nfr-ḫ3w Mn-k3w-Ḥr reading "Hewet neferkhau Menkauhor".[93] ^ Title found in the tomb of Thuthu, in Egyptian wsir nb t3wy Mn-k3w-Ḥr m3ˁ ḫrw.[101] ^ The relief has the catalog number Berlin NI 1116.[104] References[edit] ^ a b c Vymazalová & Coppens 2008, p. 33. ^ a b c Borchardt 1911, pp. 37–38. ^ Verner 2001b, p. 589. ^ a b Clayton 1994, pp. 60–61. ^ Malek 2000, p. 100. ^ Rice 1999, pp. 107–108. ^ Sowada & Grave 2009, p. 3. ^ Strudwick 2005, p. xxx. ^ von Beckerath 1999, pp. 58–59 & 283. ^ a b Hornung 2012, p. 491. ^ a b c Leprohon 2013, p. 40. ^ a b c Seipel 1980, p. 214. ^ Baud 1999, p. 537. ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004, pp. 64–65 & 68. ^ a b c d Charles University Press Release 2015. ^ Müller 2010, p. 549. ^ Mariette 1864, p. 15. ^ Gardiner 1959, Col. III num. 23. ^ a b c d e f g Baker 2008, pp. 198–199. ^ von Beckerath 1999, pp. 58–59. ^ Waddell 1971, p. 51. ^ a b c Altenmüller 2001, p. 600. ^ a b Murray 1905, pl. IX. ^ Verner 2000, p. 594. ^ Vlčková 2006, p. 91. ^ Kaplony 1981, pp. 295–307. ^ a b c Verner 2001a, p. 405. ^ Verner, Callender & Strouhal 2002, pp. 87 & 91. ^ a b Kaplony 1981, p. 297. ^ a b Seal of office 68.115, BMFA 2015. ^ Young 1972, p. 11. ^ Sowada & Grave 2009, p. 146, footnote 89. ^ Schulman 1979, p. 86. ^ Morales 2006, p. 322. ^ Berlandini 1979, p. 27. ^ Berlandini 1979, p. 27, pl. 4, A & B. ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 67. ^ Petrie 1917, seal 5.7 plate IX. ^ a b c d Vymazalová & Coppens 2008, p. 38. ^ a b c Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 69. ^ a b Verner, Callender & Strouhal 2002, p. 106. ^ Verner 1995, p. 65. ^ a b Vymazalová & Coppens 2013, pp. 37–38. ^ Vymazalová & Coppens 2008, pp. 38–39. ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 66. ^ Verner 2014, p. 58. ^ Baud 1999, pp. 537 & 484. ^ a b c Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 68. ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004, pp. 68–69. ^ Strudwick 2005, p. 136, "59. Inscription of Menkauhor in Wadi Maghara". ^ a b Lepsius & Denkmäler II, p. 39. ^ a b Gardiner, Peet & Černý 1955, Pl. VII num. 12. ^ Baud 1999, p. 569. ^ a b Berlandini 1979, p. 16. ^ Vercoutter 1992, pp. 302–303. ^ Borchardt 1913, Blatt 45. ^ Richter 2013. ^ Rice 1999, p. 173. ^ von Beckerath 1999, p. 283. ^ Mumford 1999, pp. 875–876. ^ Vymazalová & Coppens 2008, pp. 36 & 39. ^ Bard 2015, p. 166. ^ a b c d e f g h Vymazalová & Coppens 2008, p. 36. ^ a b c Verner 2003, p. 84. ^ a b Dorman 2015. ^ Verner 2001b, pp. 589–590. ^ Verner 2013, p. 68. ^ Verner 1994, p. 111. ^ Kanawati 2003, p. 146. ^ a b c Voß 2004, p. 155. ^ Grimal 1992, p. 78. ^ a b Voß 2004, p. 157. ^ Voß 2004, p. 156. ^ Baud 1999, p. 448. ^ Berlandini 1979, p. 4. ^ Kanawati 2003, p. 186. ^ Vymazalová & Coppens 2008, p. 39. ^ Goelet 1999, p. 87, Abu Gurab/Abusir after the 5th Dynasty. ^ Lepsius & Denkmäler I, Pl. 33 & Text. I, p. 188. ^ a b Lehner 1997, p. 165. ^ Vymazalová & Coppens 2008, p. 35. ^ Berlandini 1979. ^ Malek 1994, pp. 203–214. ^ Wright 2008. ^ Berlandini 1979, p. 9. ^ Grimal 1992, p. 118, Table 3. ^ Berlandini 1979, p. 12. ^ Firth 1930, p. 188. ^ Berlandini 1979, p. 8. ^ Mariette 1889, p. 322. ^ Bárta, Černý & Strouhal 2001, pp. 70–71 & 134. ^ Jacquet-Gordon 1962, pp. 292, 299, 381, 390, 394, 400 & 412. ^ a b c d e f g h i Berlandini 1979, p. 16, footnote 77. ^ Brovarski 2001, p. 152. ^ Fischer 1962, p. 7. ^ Brovarski 2001, p. 55, 69 & 152. ^ Brewer & Teeter 1999, p. 52. ^ Berlandini 1979, pp. 18–19. ^ Rice 1999, p. 108. ^ Berlandini-Grenier 1976, pp. 315–316. ^ a b Berlandini-Grenier 1976, p. 315. ^ Vymazalová & Coppens 2008, pp. 32–39. ^ Berlandini 1979, p. 19. ^ a b c d Vymazalová & Coppens 2008, p. 37. ^ Wildung 1969, pp. 197–198. Bibliography[edit] Altenmüller, Hartwig (2001). "Old Kingdom: Fifth Dynasty". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). 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External links[edit] Media related to Menkauhor Kaiu at Wikimedia Commons Menkauhor (king of Egypt) at the Encyclopædia Britannica Preceded by Nyuserre Ini Pharaoh of Egypt Fifth Dynasty Succeeded by Djedkare Isesi v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Menkauhor_Kaiu&oldid=994210800" Categories: 25th-century BC Pharaohs 24th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Featured articles CS1 French-language sources (fr) CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown Commons category link is on Wikidata Articles with Encyclopædia Britannica links AC with 0 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en-wikipedia-org-2683	----	Ariaramnes - Wikipedia Ariaramnes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article needs attention from an expert in Ancient Near East. Please add a reason or a talk parameter to this template to explain the issue with the article. WikiProject Ancient Near East may be able to help recruit an expert. (October 2009) Position of Ariaramnes in the Achaemenid lineage according to Darius the Great in the Behistun inscription. Ariaramnes (Old Persian: 𐎠𐎼𐎡𐎹𐎠𐎼𐎶𐎴[1] Ariyāramna,[2] "He who brings peace to the Aryans (i.e. Iranians)"[3]) was a great-uncle of Cyrus the Great and the great-grandfather of Darius I, and perhaps the king of Parsa,[4] the ancient core kingdom of Persia. Ariaramnes was most likely the brother of Cyrus I of Anshan and son of Teispes, but this is not certain. In any case, he was a member of the Achaemenid House. As supported by the relief at Behistun he was the first king of a separate Achaemenid branch that ran parallel[clarification needed] to the reigns of Cyrus I and his son Cambyses I. As the great-grandfather of Darius the Great, this line ultimately absorbs the Dynasty and dominates the Persian Empire. Contents 1 Hamadan Tablet 2 References 3 Bibliography 4 External links Hamadan Tablet[edit] Sometime in the first half of the 20th Century two gold tablets relating to Ariaramnes were found in Ecbatana, modern Hamadan. These gold tablets allegedly documented the reigns of Ariaramnes and his son Arsames and were written in Old Persian in the first person. This is the only evidence we have from the time documenting his reign and thus this branch of the Achaemenid royal family. Another attestation of his reign is the later Behistun Inscription, where his great-grandson Darius I states that eight Achaemenid kings preceded him - and then, he must be counting Ariaramnes as a king. His English name is derived - via Latin - from the Greek Ἀριαράμνης. In Modern Persian, his name is spelled اریارمنه.‎[5] References[edit] ^ Akbarzadeh (2006), page 56 ^ Kent (1384 AP), page 393 ^ See Shahbazi (1987). Shahbazi believes this interpretation is problematic. ^ "ARIYĀRAMNA – Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2020-01-19. ^ Kent (1384 AP), page 391 Bibliography[edit] Akbarzadeh, D.; A. Yahyanezhad (2006). The Behistun Inscriptions (Old Persian Texts) (in Persian). Khaneye-Farhikhtagan-e Honarhaye Sonati. ISBN 964-8499-05-5. Kent, Ronald Grubb (1384 AP). Old Persian: Grammar, Text, Glossary (in Persian). translated into Persian by S. Oryan. ISBN 964-421-045-X. Check date values in: |year= (help) A. Sh. Shahbazi (1987): "Ariyaramna", in Encyclopaedia Iranica. External links[edit] livius.org article on Ariamnes Ariaramnes Achaemenid dynasty Born: ?? Died: ?? Preceded by Teispes King of Persia Succeeded by Arsames v t e Median and Achaemenid kings Family tree Median (728–550 BC) Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Achaemenid (550–330 BC) Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Nothus Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Italics indicate kings not directly attested and so possibly legendary. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC This biography of a member of a noble house or article about nobility is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ariaramnes&oldid=980067400" Categories: Monarchs of Persia Achaemenid dynasty 6th-century BC rulers 6th-century BC Iranian people Nobility stubs Hidden categories: Articles needing expert attention with no reason or talk parameter Articles needing expert attention from October 2009 All articles needing expert attention Ancient Near East articles needing expert attention Wikipedia articles needing clarification from March 2009 Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text CS1 Persian-language sources (fa) CS1 errors: dates All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Kurdî Magyar Malagasy مصرى Bahasa Melayu Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 September 2020, at 11:58 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-268	----	2007 in film - Wikipedia 2007 in film From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Overview of the events of 2007 in film Overview of the events of 2007 in film List of years in film (table) … 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 … In home video 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 In television 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 In radio 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Art Archaeology Architecture Literature Music Philosophy Science +... Years in film 1870s 1880s 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890s 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900s 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910s 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920s 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930s 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940s 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950s 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960s 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970s 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980s 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990s 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000s 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010s 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020s 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 v t e The following is an overview of events in 2007 in film, including the highest-grossing films, award ceremonies and festivals, a list of films released and notable deaths. The highest-grossing film of the year was Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End, which was just ahead of Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix. 2007 is often considered one of the greatest years for film in the 21st century.[1][2][3] This would the last year in which no film grossed at least $1 billion at the worldwide box office until 2020. Contents 1 Evaluation of the year 2 Highest-grossing films 3 Events 4 Awards 5 2007 films 6 Notable deaths 7 References 8 External links Evaluation of the year[edit] Many have considered 2007 to be one of the greatest years for film in the 21st century. In his article from April 18, 2017, which highlighted the best movies of 2007, critic Mark Allison of Den of Geek said, "2007 must surely be remembered as one of the finest years in English-language film-making, quite possibly the best of this century so far. Like 1939, 1976, or 1994, it was one of those years in which a succession of veritable classics came into being. So many, in fact, that some of the best examples were cruelly overlooked by the hype machine of the day." He also emphasized, "If 2007 proves anything, it’s that classic films aren’t just a relic of ages past; they’re being made all around us. I can’t wait to see what we’re watching in another ten years’ time."[1] Critic Craig Johnson from the film review and movie list website Taste of Cinema said in an article from December 16, 2014, "For one glorious year, it (2007) was like the 1970’s all over again. Smart characters were using their brains as weapons. Movie stars were challenging themselves with tough roles. Punches were not pulled. Happy endings were not guaranteed. There was a parade of intelligent movies, seemingly made for adults to watch while the kids were watching Transformers".[2] Highest-grossing films[edit] See also: Lists of box office number-one films § 2007 The top 10 films released in 2007 by worldwide gross are as follows:[4] Highest-grossing films of 2007 Rank Title Distributor Worldwide gross 1 Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End Disney $960,996,492 2 Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix Warner Bros. $941,676,843 3 Spider-Man 3 Sony Pictures / Columbia $894,983,373 4 Shrek the Third Paramount / DreamWorks $813,367,380 5 Transformers Paramount $709,709,780 6 Ratatouille Disney $623,726,085 7 I Am Legend Warner Bros. $585,410,052 8 The Simpsons Movie Fox $536,414,270 9 National Treasure: Book of Secrets Disney $459,242,249 10 300 Warner Bros. $456,068,181 Events[edit] Month Day Event January 9 33rd People's Choice Awards: Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest wins Favorite Movie, Favorite Movie Drama, and Favorite On Screen Matchup for Johnny Depp and Keira Knightley. Depp also wins Favorite Male Action Star and Favorite Male Movie Star. 13 64th Golden Globe Awards: Major winners include Dreamgirls and Babel. 20 Little Miss Sunshine is chosen as best picture by the Producers Guild of America. 22 The Golden Raspberry Awards announces picks for worst film achievement in 2007, with both Little Man and Basic Instinct 2 leading with seven nominations. Other nominees included Lady in the Water, RV, The Shaggy Dog, and Date Movie. 23 79th Academy Awards nominations announced, leading films are: 8: Dreamgirls 7: Babel 6: Pan's Labyrinth 6: The Queen 5: The Departed 28 Screen Actors Guild Awards: Helen Mirren, for Best Female Actor, Forest Whitaker, for Best Male Actor, Eddie Murphy, for Best Male Supporting Actor, Jennifer Hudson, for Best Female Supporting Actor. February 15 BAFTA Awards: Major winners include Helen Mirren, Best Actress and Forest Whitaker, Best Actor 24 Basic Instinct 2 dominates the Golden Raspberry Awards, walking away with 4 awards, including Worst Picture and Worst Actress (Sharon Stone). M. Night Shyamalan wins Worst Director and Worst Supporting Actor for Lady in the Water. Other awards include Shawn and Marlon Wayans for Little Man and Carmen Electra for Scary Movie 4 and Date Movie. 25 79th Academy Awards: The Departed wins picture and director (Martin Scorsese) and two other awards. Helen Mirren (The Queen) and Forest Whitaker (The Last King of Scotland) win top acting awards for leading roles, while Jennifer Hudson (Dreamgirls) and Alan Arkin (Little Miss Sunshine) win top acting awards for supporting roles. March 27 12th Empire Awards: Casino Royale wins the most awards with three including Best Film and Best Actor for Daniel Craig. April 25 The 2007 Tribeca Film Festival opens with notable films such as Spider-Man 3 and Surf's Up. May 6 Spider-Man 3 finishes weekend with a total weekend gross of $151,116,516, breaking the previous record set by Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest. 27 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, a Romanian film by Cristian Mungiu wins the top prize, the Palme d'Or, at the Cannes Film Festival. Paranoid Park, a film by Gus Van Sant wins the 60th Anniversary Prize. June 20 The American Film Institute holds a revised edition of 100 Years...100 Movies. Citizen Kane retains its place as the greatest movie of the past century. September 12 Producer Gil Cates elects Jon Stewart as MC for the 80th Academy Awards. November 5 12,000 writers of the Writers Guild of America go on strike affecting both motion picture and television production, including the Golden Globes and the Academy Awards in 2008. December 13 Nomination for the 65th Golden Globe Awards are announced. Atonement earns the most entries with seven. Charlie Wilson's War follows with five. Awards[edit] Category/Organization 13th Critics' Choice Awards January 7, 2008 65th Golden Globe Awards January 13, 2008 Producers, Directors, Screen Actors, and Writers Guild Awards 61st BAFTA Awards February 10, 2008 80th Academy Awards February 24, 2008 Drama Musical or Comedy Best Film No Country for Old Men Atonement Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street No Country for Old Men Atonement No Country for Old Men Best Director Joel Coen and Ethan Coen No Country for Old Men Julian Schnabel The Diving Bell and the Butterfly Joel Coen and Ethan Coen No Country for Old Men Best Actor Daniel Day-Lewis There Will Be Blood Johnny Depp Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street Daniel Day-Lewis There Will Be Blood Best Actress Julie Christie Away From Her Marion Cotillard La Vie en Rose Julie Christie Away From Her Marion Cotillard La Vie en Rose Best Supporting Actor Javier Bardem No Country for Old Men Best Supporting Actress Amy Ryan Gone Baby Gone Cate Blanchett I'm Not There Ruby Dee American Gangster Tilda Swinton Michael Clayton Best Screenplay, Adapted Diablo Cody Juno Joel Coen and Ethan Coen No Country for Old Men Joel Coen and Ethan Coen No Country for Old Men Ronald Harwood The Diving Bell and the Butterfly Joel Coen and Ethan Coen No Country for Old Men Best Screenplay, Original Diablo Cody Juno Best Animated Film Ratatouille Best Original Score There Will Be Blood Jonny Greenwood Atonement Dario Marianelli N/A La Vie en Rose Christopher Gunning Atonement Dario Marianelli Best Original Song "Falling Slowly" Once "Guaranteed" Into the Wild N/A N/A "Falling Slowly" Once Best Foreign Language Film The Diving Bell and the Butterfly N/A The Lives of Others The Counterfeiters 2007 films[edit] The list of films released in 2007, arranged by country, are as follows: American films Argentine films Australian films Bengali films Bollywood films Brazilian films British films French films Hong Kong films Italian films Japanese films Mexican films Pakistani films Russian films South Korean films Spanish films Tamil films Telugu films Notable deaths[edit] Month Date Name Age Country Profession Notable films January 1 A. I. Bezzerides 98 US Author, Screenwriter They Drive by Night Kiss Me Deadly 4 Ben Gannon 54 Australia Producer Gallipoli The Man Who Sued God 4 Christopher Greenbury 55 UK Film Editor American Beauty There's Something About Mary Serendipity Dumb and Dumber Daddy Day Care 8 Yvonne De Carlo 84 Canada Actress The Ten Commandments Salome, Where She Danced McLintock! Hotel Sahara Munster, Go Home! 8 Iwao Takamoto 81 US Director Charlotte's Web Jetsons: The Movie 10 Carlo Ponti 94 Italy Producer Doctor Zhivago Sex Pot 11 Tudor Gates 77 UK Screenwriter, Producer Barbarella Danger: Diabolik 14 Harvey Cohen 55 US Composer, Orchestrator King Kong Mission: Impossible III South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut Bicentennial Man All Dogs Go to Heaven 16 Ron Carey 71 US Actor High Anxiety History of the World, Part I 19 Denny Doherty 66 Canada Actor, Singer The Real Howard Spitz Elvis Meets Nixon 21 Myrtle Devenish 94 UK Actress Brazil Monty Python's The Meaning of Life 22 Anna Cropper 68 UK Actress Cromwell All Neat in Black Stockings 23 David M. Ronne 63 US Sound Mixer Mr. & Mrs. Smith Face/Off 27 Tige Andrews 86 US Actor, Writer Mister Roberts The Last Tycoon 28 Teala Loring 84 US Actress Gas House Kids Fall Guy 30 Sidney Sheldon 89 US Writer, Producer Easter Parade The Other Side of Midnight February 1 George Robotham 86 Germany Stuntman, Actor, Director Mars Attacks! The Goonies 3 Donfeld 72 US Costume Designer Spaceballs The China Syndrome 4 Barbara McNair 72 US Actress, Singer They Call Me Mister Tibbs! Stiletto 5 David Wiley 77 US Actor Friday the 13th Part III 6 Frankie Laine 93 US Actor, Singer Meet Me in Las Vegas Bring Your Smile Along 8 Anna Nicole Smith 39 US Actress Naked Gun ​33 1⁄3: The Final Insult Skyscraper 9 Ian Richardson 72 UK Actor Brazil 102 Dalmatians 9 Erik Schumann 82 Germany Actor Veronika Voss Lili Marleen 12 Peter Ellenshaw 93 US Special Effects, Visual Effects Mary Poppins Spartacus 12 Randy Stone 48 US Casting Director, Actor Jaws 3-D Say Anything... 14 Lee Patterson 77 US Actor Airplane II: The Sequel Death Wish 3 15 Walker Edmiston 82 US Voice Actor, Actor Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory The Beach Girls and the Monster 19 Janet Blair 85 US Actress Tonight and Every Night My Sister Eileen 24 Bruce Bennett 100 US Actor Mildred Pierce The Treasure of the Sierra Madre March 1 Harold Michelson 87 US Art Director Star Trek: The Motion Picture Spaceballs 7 Andy Sidaris 76 US Director, Writer Guns Picasso Trigger 8 John Inman 71 UK Actor Are You Being Served? Shakespeare in Love 10 Richard Jeni 49 US Comedian, Actor The Mask An Alan Smithee Film: Burn Hollywood Burn 12 Betty Hutton 86 US Actress, Singer Annie Get Your Gun The Miracle of Morgan's Creek 13 Herbert Fux 79 Switzerland Actor, Director The Three Musketeers Asterix & Obelix Take On Caesar 14 Gareth Hunt 65 UK Actor Licensed to Love and Kill Bloodbath at the House of Death 15 Stuart Rosenberg 79 US Director Cool Hand Luke The Amityville Horror 17 Freddie Francis 89 UK Cinematographer, Director Glory The Elephant Man Dune Cape Fear The Straight Story 19 Calvert DeForest 85 US Actor Waitress! Freaked 20 John P. Ryan 70 US Actor The Right Stuff Runaway Train 22 Bradley Lavelle 48 UK Actor Judge Dredd Superman IV: The Quest for Peace 25 Lynn Merrick 87 US Actress Voice of the Whistler A Close Call for Boston Blackie 26 Bill Capizzi 70 US Actor Don Juan DeMarco Bulletproof 29 Howard Goorney 85 UK Actor Fiddler on the Roof The Hill 29 Calvin Lockhart 72 Bahamas Actor Coming to America Let's Do It Again April 1 George Sewell 82 UK Actor Barry Lyndon Get Carter 4 Bob Clark 67 US Director A Christmas Story Porky's 4 Edward Mallory 76 US Actor, Producer Birdman of Alcatraz Diamond Head 6 Luigi Comencini 90 Italy Director Bread, Love and Dreams Bread, Love and Jealousy 6 George Jenkins 98 US Production Designer All the President's Men Klute 7 Barry Nelson 89 US Actor The Shining Shadow of the Thin Man 8 Roscoe Lee Browne 79 US Actor Babe The Cowboys 10 Jack Williams 85 US Stuntman, Actor Gone with the Wind Wild Wild West 17 Kitty Carlisle 96 US Actress, Singer A Night at the Opera Murder at the Vanities 19 Jean-Pierre Cassel 74 France Actor Murder on the Orient Express The Discreet Charm of the Bourgeoisie 24 Roy Jenson 80 US Stuntman, Actor Chinatown Red Dawn 27 Al Hunter Ashton 49 UK Actor, Writer Gladiator From Hell 28 Dabbs Greer 90 UK Actor The Green Mile Invasion of the Body Snatchers 30 Tom Poston 85 US Actor Christmas with the Kranks Zotz! May 2 Brad McGann 43 New Zealand Director, Writer In My Father's Den 6 Curtis Harrington 80 US Director Queen of Blood Games 7 Mark Burns 71 UK Actor Stardust Death in Venice 7 Nicholas Worth 69 US Actor The Naked Gun Darkman 11 Bernard Gordon 88 US Screenwriter 55 Days at Peking Earth vs. the Flying Saucers 15 Yolanda King 51 US Actress Ghosts of Mississippi Hopscotch 21 Bruno Mattei 75 Italy Director SS Girls Strike Commando 22 Art Stevens 92 US Animator Mary Poppins One Hundred and One Dalmatians 25 Charles Nelson Reilly 76 US Actor, Voice Actor All Dogs Go to Heaven Cannonball Run II Rock-a-Doodle 29 Norman Kaye 80 Australia Actor Moulin Rouge! Oscar and Lucinda 30 Jean-Claude Brialy 74 France Actor Le Beau Serge The Monster 30 Nick Ramus 77 US Actor Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home Invasion USA June 2 Charles Evans 81 US Producer Tootsie Showgirls 3 Gordon Gostelow 82 UK Actor Nicholas and Alexandra How to Get Ahead in Advertising 9 Alma Beltran 87 Mexico Actress Ghost Marathon Man 9 Ousmane Sembène 84 Senegal Director, Writer Black Girl 11 Mala Powers 75 US Actress Outrage City Beneath the Sea 14 Alex Thomson 78 UK Cinematographer Alien 3 Demolition Man 18 Bernard Manning 76 UK Actor, Writer 19 Tommy Eytle 80 UK Actor, Composer The Criminal 27 William Hutt 87 Canada Actor The Statement 28 Leo Burmester 63 US Actor The Abyss A Perfect World 29 Joel Siegel 63 US Film Critic Deathtrap 29 Edward Yang 59 Taiwan Director Yi Yi Taipei Story July 5 Kerwin Mathews 81 UK Actor The 7th Voyage of Sinbad The Three Worlds of Gulliver 5 George Melly 80 UK Actor, Writer Sweet Movie 9 Charles Lane 102 US Actor Mr. Smith Goes to Washington Murphy's Romance 13 Michael Reardon 42 US Actor The Punisher Cabin Fever 15 Kieron Moore 82 France Actor, Writer, Director Anna Karenina The Day of the Triffids 19 Laura Devon 76 US Actress Red Line 7000  Goodbye Charlie 19 Ivor Emmanuel 79 Spain Actor Zulu 22 Laszlo Kovacs 74 Hungary Cinematographer Ghostbusters Easy Rider 23 Joan O'Hara 76 Ireland Actress The Dawning Far and Away 26 John Normington 70 UK Actor Atonement Rollerball 27 William J. Tuttle 95 US Make-up Artist Singin' in the Rain The Wizard of Oz 29 Mike Reid 67 Spain Stuntman, Actor Snatch The Dirty Dozen 30 Michelangelo Antonioni 94 Italy Director L'eclisse I Vinti 30 Ingmar Bergman 89 Sweden Director Persona Fanny and Alexander August 3 James T. Callahan 76 US Actor The Burning Bed Lady Sings the Blues 5 Peter Graham Scott 82 UK Director Captain Clegg Bitter Harvest 7 Hal Fishman 75 US Broadcaster Spider-Man 3 Maximum Overdrive 8 Melville Shavelson 90 US Screenwriter, Director Yours, Mine and Ours Houseboat 12 Merv Griffin 82 US Producer, Actor So This Is Love The Man with Two Brains 13 Geoffrey Wilkinson 64 UK Actor Calendar Girls Brideshead Revisited 22 Keith Knight 51 Canada Actor Meatballs My Bloody Valentine 23 Robert Symonds 80 US Actor The Exorcist Catch Me if You Can 24 Aaron Russo 80 US Producer Trading Places The Rose 25 Elizabeth Inglis 94 US Actress The 39 Steps  The Letter 28 Miyoshi Umeki 78 Japan Actress Sayonara The Horizontal Lieutenant 30 José Luis de Vilallonga 87 Spain Director Breakfast at Tiffany's Blood and Sand September 2 Marcia Mae Jones 83 US Actress Heidi The Way We Were 3 Steve Ryan 60 US Actor D.A.R.Y.L. Crime Story 4 Michael Evans 87 US Actor Time After Time Bye Bye Birdie 5 Nikos Nikolaidis 67 Greece Director Evrydiki BA 2O37 The Wretches Are Still Singing 5 Charlotte Zucker 86 US Actress Airplane!, My Best Friend's Wedding, Ghost 6 Ronald Magill 87 UK Actor Julius Caesar 6 Luciano Pavarotti 71 Italy Singer, Actor Yes, Giorgio 6 Percy Rodriguez 89 Canada Actor The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter Come Back, Charleston Blue 10 Jane Wyman 90 US Actress Johnny Belinda Magnificent Obsession 14 Emilio Ruiz del Río 84 Spain Set Designer Pan's Labyrinth Spartacus 19 Christine Hewitt 64 UK Actress, Double Star Wars Die Another Day 21 Alice Ghostley 81 US Actress To Kill a Mockingbird Grease 22 Karl Hardman 80 US Actor, Producer Night of the Living Dead Santa Claws 22 Marcel Marceau 84 France Actor, Mime Barbarella Silent Movie 28 Charles B. Griffith 77 US Screenwriter Death Race 2000 The Little Shop of Horrors 28 Martin Manulis 92 US Producer Days of Wine and Roses Luv 29 Lois Maxwell 80 Canada Actress That Hagen Girl Goldfinger October 2 George Grizzard 79 US Actor Advise & Consent From the Terrace 6 Bud Ekins 77 US Stunt Performer The Great Escape The Blues Brothers 9 Carol Bruce 87 US Actor Keep 'Em Flying This Woman is Mine 12 Lonny Chapman 87 US Actor The Birds The Hunted 12 Noel Coleman 87 UK Actor Under Suspicion 14 Sigrid Valdis 79 US Actress Our Man Flint Marriage on the Rocks 16 Gareth Forwood 62 UK Actor Gandhi Battle of Britain 16 Deborah Kerr 86 UK Actress From Here to Eternity An Affair to Remember 17 Joey Bishop 89 US Actor Ocean's 11 Betsy's Wedding 17 Harry Kleiner 91 Russia Screenwriter Fantastic Voyage Bullitt 20 Arlene Francis 93 93 Actress One, Two, Three The Thrill of It All 21 Don Fellows 84 US Actor Raiders of the Lost Ark The Omen 24 Masakazu Yoshizawa 57 Japan Musician, Actor Memoirs of a Geisha Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story 26 Bernard L. Kowalski 78 US Director Krakatoa, East of Java  Sssssss 27 Moira Lister 84 South Africa Actress The Yellow Rolls-Royce The Cruel Sea 29 David Morris 83 UK Actor Charlie and the Chocolate Factory Flick 30 Robert Goulet 73 US, Canada Singer, Actor Honeymoon Hotel Gay Purr-ee November 1 Sonny Bupp 79 US Actor Citizen Kane Angels with Dirty Faces 2 Henry Cele 58 South Africa Actor The Last Samurai The Ghost and the Darkness 4 Peter Viertel 86 Germany Screenwriter White Hunter Black Heart Five Miles to Midnight 6 Hilda Braid 78 UK Actress 101 Dalmatians Mrs Dalloway 6 Peter Handford 88 UK Sound Mixer Dangerous Liaisons Out of Africa 10 Jack Bear 87 US Costume Designer The Party The Odd Couple 10 Laraine Day 87 US Actress The High and the Mighty Foreign Correspondent 10 Norman Mailer 84 US Writer, Actor, Director Ragtime Tough Guys Don't Dance 11 Delbert Mann 89 US Director, Screenwriter Marty The Bachelor Party 12 Al Mancini 74 US Actor, Writer Falling Down Miller's Crossing 13 Monty Westmore 84 US Makeup Artist The Shawshank Redemption Seven 13 Peter Zinner 88 Austria Film Editor, Actor, Director The Godfather The Godfather: Part II 14 Michael Blodgett 87 US Actor, Screenwriter Turner & Hooch 40 Guns to Apache Pass 14 Ronnie Burns 72 US Actor Anatomy of a Psycho Bernardine 22 Verity Lambert 71 UK Producer Clockwise Evil Angels 26 Marit Allen 66 UK Costume Designer Mrs. Doubtfire Brokeback Mountain 26 Denis Rich 77 UK Storyboard Artist, Production Illustrator Gladiator Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire 28 Jeanne Bates 89 US Actress Eraserhead Die Hard 2 28 Mali Finn 69 US Casting Director The Matrix Titanic 28 Tony Holland 67 UK Writer, Actor 30 Evel Knievel 69 US Daredevil, Actor Viva Knievel! Freebie and the Bean December 1 Gary Epper 62 US Stuntman, Actor Scarface Blade Runner 1 Anton Rodgers 74 UK Actor Scrooge Son of the Pink Panther 2 Eleonora Rossi Drago 82 Italy Actress Le amiche The Bible: In the Beginning... 5 Joe Brooks 83 US Actor Gremlins The Bad News Bears 5 Christine Finn 79 UK Actress Thunderbirds Are Go Thunderbird 6 5 Tony Tenser 87 UK Producer Repulsion Cul-de-sac 8 Donald Burton 73 US Actor Hudson Hawk Mohammad, Messenger of God 11 Freddie Fields 84 US Producer Glory Escape to Victory 12 Schuster Vance 47 US Stuntman, Actor Wedding Crashers 16 Blocks 13 Floyd Red Crow Westerman 71 US Actor, Singer Dances with Wolves Hidalgo 15 John Berg 58 US Actor Star Trek: Nemesis 19 Frank Capra, Jr. 73 US Producer Escape from the Planet of the Apes Tom Sawyer 19 James Costigan 81 US Actor, Writer The Hunger Grand Theft Auto 23 Michael Kidd 92 US Actor, Choreographer It's Always Fair Weather Seven Brides for Seven Brothers 23 Tyler MacDuff 82 US Actor The Boy from Oklahoma 26 Stu Nahan 81 US Actor, Broadcaster Rocky Fast Times at Ridgemont High 28 Tab Thacker 45 US Actor City Heat Identity Crisis References[edit] ^ a b Mark Allison (18 April 2017). "Why 2007 was a great year for film". Den of Geek!. Retrieved 13 July 2019. ^ a b Craig Johnson (16 December 2014). "20 Movies That Prove 2007 Is The Best Film Year of The 21st Century (So Far)". Retrieved 13 July 2019. ^ Patrick Ryan (31 August 2017). "10 movies that prove 2007 is the best film year of the 21st century". USA Today. Retrieved 13 July 2019. ^ "2007 Worldwide Box Office". Box Office Mojo. IMDb. Retrieved June 21, 2020. External links[edit] 2007 release schedule at Box Office Mojo Movie titles from 2007 at IMDb[permanent dead link] 2007 UK release schedule at Film Distributors Association Online Film v t e 2007 films American Argentine Australian Bangladeshi Brazilian British Cambodian Canadian Chinese Hong Kong French Indian Bengali Bollywood Kannada Malayalam Marathi Nigerian Ollywood Punjabi Tamil Telugu Israeli Italian Japanese Malaysian Maldivian Mexican Pakistani Portuguese Russian South Korean Spanish Turkish Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2007_in_film&oldid=999668329" Categories: 2007 in film Film by year Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from April 2018 Articles with permanently dead external links Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Čeština Deutsch Español فارسی Français Gaeilge Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia עברית Кыргызча Magyar Македонски मराठी Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 11 January 2021, at 09:40 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-26	----	Ptolemy V Epiphanes - Wikipedia Ptolemy V Epiphanes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Epiphanes (disambiguation). Ptolemy V Epiphanes Ancient Greek: Πτολεμαῖος Ἐπιφανής Ancient Egyptian: Iwaennetjerwymerwyitu Seteppah Userkare Sekhem-ankhamun[1] Tetradrachm issued by Ptolemy V Epiphanes, British Museum King of Egypt Reign July/August 204–September 180 BC (Ptolemaic dynasty) Predecessor Ptolemy IV Successor Ptolemy VI Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) jwꜤ-nṯrwj-mr(wj)-jt stp.n-ptḥ wsr-kꜢ-rꜤ sḫm-Ꜥnḫ-n-jmn Iwaennetjerwymer(wy)it Setepenptah Userkare Sekhemankhamun The heir of the two gods who love (their?) father, chosen by Ptah, the strong one of the ka of Ra, the living image of Amun Nomen ptwlmjs Ꜥnḫ-ḏt-mrj-pth Ptolemys Ankhdjetmeryptah Ptolemaios, living forever, beloved of Ptah Horus name ḥwnw-ḫꜤj-m-nsw-ḥr-st-jt.f Khunukhaiemnisutkhersetitef The youth who has appeared as king on his father's throne Nebty name wr-pḥtj smn-tꜢwj snfr-tꜢmrj mnḥ-jb-ḫr-nṯrw Werpehty Sementawy Senefertameri Menekhibkhernetjeru The one great of strength, who has established the Two Lands and made Ta-mery perfect (by) being efficacious before the gods Golden Horus wꜢḏ-Ꜥnḫ-n-ḥnmmt nb-ḥbw-sd-mj-ptḥ jty-mj-rꜤ Wadjankhenkhenmemet Nebkhebusedmiptah Itymire The one who has made the life of mankind flourish, a possessor of Sed festivals like Ptah and a sovereign like Ra Consort Cleopatra I Children Ptolemy VI Ptolemy VIII Cleopatra II Father Ptolemy IV Philopator Mother Arsinoe III of Egypt Born 9 October 210 BC[2] Died September 180 BC (aged 29)[2] Burial Alexandria Ptolemy V Epiphanes[note 1] (Greek: Πτολεμαῖος Ἐπιφανής Εὐχάριστος, Ptolemaĩos Epiphanḗs Eucharistos "Ptolemy the Manifest, the Beneficent"; 9 October 210–September 180 BC), son of the siblings Ptolemy IV Philopator and Arsinoe III of Egypt, was the fifth ruler of the Ptolemaic dynasty from July/August 204 to September 180 BC. Ptolemy inherited the throne at the age of five, when his parents died in suspicious circumstances. The new regent, Agathocles, was widely reviled and was toppled by a revolution in 202 BC, but the series of regents who followed proved incompetent and the kingdom was paralysed. The Seleucid king Antiochus III and the Antigonid king Philip V took advantage of the kingdom's weakness to begin the Fifth Syrian War (202–196 BC), in which the Ptolemies lost all their territories in Asia Minor and the Levant, as well as most of their influence in the Aegean Sea. Simultaneously, Ptolemy V faced a widespread Egyptian revolt (206–185 BC) led by the self-proclaimed pharaohs Horwennefer and Ankhwennefer, which resulted in the loss of most of Upper Egypt and parts of Lower Egypt as well. Ptolemy V came of age in 196 BC and was crowned as pharaoh in Memphis, an occasion commemorated by the creation of the Rosetta Stone. After this, he made peace with Antiochus III and married his daughter Cleopatra I in 194/3 BC. This disgusted the Romans, who had entered into hostilities with Antiochus partially on Ptolemy's behalf, and after their victory they distributed the old Ptolemaic territories in Asia Minor to Pergamum and Rhodes rather than returning them to Egypt. However, Ptolemaic forces steadily reconquered the south of the country, bringing all of Upper Egypt back under Ptolemaic control in 186 BC. In his last years, Ptolemy began manoeuvring for renewed warfare with the Seleucid empire, but these plans were cut short by his sudden death in September 180 BC, allegedly poisoned by courtiers worried about the cost of the war. Ptolemy's reign saw greatly increased prominence of courtiers and the Egyptian priestly elite in Ptolemaic political life, a pattern that would continue for most of the rest of the kingdom's existence. It also marked the collapse of Ptolemaic power in the wider Mediterranean region. Arthur Eckstein has argued that this collapse sparked the "power transition crisis" that led to the Roman conquest of the eastern Mediterranean.[3] Contents 1 Background and early life 2 Regencies 2.1 Regency of Agathocles (204–203 BC) 2.2 Alexandrian revolution (203–202 BC) 2.3 Fifth Syrian War (202–196 BC) 2.4 The Egyptian Revolt (204–196 BC) 3 Personal reign 3.1 Coronation 3.2 Peace with Antiochus III 3.3 End of the Egyptian Revolt (196–185 BC) 3.4 Foreign policy after the Fifth Syrian War (194/3–180 BC) 4 Regime 4.1 Ptolemaic dynastic cult 4.2 Pharaonic ideology and Egyptian religion 5 Marriage and issue 6 Notes 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Background and early life[edit] Ptolemy V was the only child of Ptolemy IV and his sister-wife Arsinoe III. The couple had come to power relatively young and ancient historiography remembered Ptolemy IV as being given over to luxury and ceremony, while leaving the government of Egypt largely to two courtiers, Sosibius and Agathocles (the latter being the brother of his concubine Agathocleia). In his early reign, Ptolemy IV successfully defeated the rival Seleucid empire in the Fourth Syrian War (219-217 BC), successfully preventing the Seleucid king Antiochus III from seizing Coele Syria for himself. His later reign, however was troubled by native Egyptian revolts. Between 206 and 205 BC, Ptolemy lost control of Upper Egypt altogether, to the self-styled Pharaoh Hugronaphor.[4] Ptolemy V was born in 210 BC, possibly on 9 October and made co-regent with his father shortly thereafter, probably on 30 November.[note 2][5] In July or August of 204 BC, when Ptolemy V was five years old, his father and mother died in mysterious circumstances. It appears that there was a fire in the palace that killed Ptolemy IV, but it is unclear whether Arsinoe III also perished in this fire or was murdered afterwards to prevent her from becoming regent.[5] Regencies[edit] Regency of Agathocles (204–203 BC)[edit] An uncertain amount of time elapsed after the death of Ptolemy IV and Arsinoe III (perhaps a week), during which Sosibius and Agathocles kept their deaths secret. Some time before September 204 BC,[2] the royal bodyguard and army officers were gathered at the royal palace and Sosibius announced the death of the ruling couple and presented the young Ptolemy V to be acclaimed as king, wrapping the diadem around his head. Sosibius read out Ptolemy IV's will, which made Sosibius and Agathocles regents and placed Ptolemy V in the personal care of his mistress Agathoclea and her mother Oenanthe. Polybius thought that this will was a forgery produced by Sosibius and Agathocles themselves and modern scholars tend to agree with him. Sosibius is not heard of again after this event and it is generally assumed that he died. Hölbl suggests that the loss of his acumen was fatal to the regency.[6][7] Agathocles took a number of actions to solidify the new regime. Two months' pay were granted to the soldiers in Alexandria. Prominent aristocrats were dispatched overseas - to secure recognition of the succession from foreign powers and to prevent the aristocrats from challenging Agathocles supremacy at home. Philammon, said to have carried out the murder of Arsinoe III, was sent to Cyrene as governor, in order to assert Ptolemaic rule there. Pelops, governor of Cyprus, was sent to Antiochus III to ask him to continue to respect the peace treaty made with Ptolemy IV at the end of the Fourth Syrian War. Ptolemy, Sosibius' son, was sent to Philip V of Macedon to attempt to arrange an alliance against Antiochus III and a marriage between Ptolemy V and one of his daughters. Ptolemy of Megalopolis was sent to Rome, probably seeking support against Aniochus III.[8] These missions were failures. Over the following year, Antiochus seized Ptolemaic territory in Caria, including the city of Amyzon and by late 203 BC he and Philip V had made a secret agreement to divide the Ptolemaic territories between themselves.[9][7] War with Antiochus III was expected - Agathocles had also sent an embassy under Scopas the Aetolian to hire mercenaries in Greece in preparation for a conflict, although Polybius claims that his true purpose was to replace the Ptolemaic troops with mercenaries loyal to him.[10] Alexandrian revolution (203–202 BC)[edit] Agathocles and Agathoclea had already been unpopular before Ptolemy IV's death. This unpopularity was exacerbated by the widespread belief that they had been responsible for the death of Arsinoe III and a string of extrajudicial murders of prominent courtiers. Opposition crystallised around the figure of Tlepolemus, the general in charge of Pelusium, whose mother-in-law had been arrested and publicly shamed by Agathocles. In October 203 BC,[2] when Agathocles gathered the palace guard and army to hear a proclamation in advance of the royal coronation, the assembled troops began to insult him and he barely escaped alive.[11] Shortly after this, Agathocles had Moeragenes, one of the royal bodyguard, arrested on suspicion of ties to Tlepolemus and had him stripped and tortured. He escaped and convinced the army to go into active revolt. After an altercation with Oenanthe at the temple of Demeter, the Alexandrian women joined the revolt as well. Overnight, the populus besieged the palace calling for the king to be brought to them. The army entered at dawn and Agathocles offered to surrender. Ptolemy V, now about seven years old, was taken from him and presented to the people on horseback in the stadium. In response to the crowd's demands Sosibius, son of Sosibius persuaded Ptolemy to agree to the execution of his mother's killers. Agathocles and his family were then dragged into the stadium and killed by the mob.[12][13][7] Tlepolemus arrived in Alexandria immediately after these events and was appointed regent. He and Sosibius, son of Sosibius were also made Ptolemy V's legal guardians. Popular opinion soon turned against Tlepolemus, who was considered to spend too much time sparring and drinking with the soldiers and to have given too much money to embassies from the cities of mainland Greece. Ptolemy, son of Sosibius attempted to set his brother Sosibius up in opposition to Tlepolemus, but the plan was discovered and Sosibius was dismissed as guardian.[14] Fifth Syrian War (202–196 BC)[edit] Coin of Antiochus III. Coin of Philip V. Main article: Fifth Syrian War Since his defeat by Ptolemy IV in the Fourth Syrian War in 217 BC, Antiochus III had been waiting for an opportunity to avenge himself. As aforementioned, he had begun seizing Ptolemaic territory in western Asia Minor in 203 BC and made a pact with Philip V of Macedon to divide the Ptolemaic possessions between themselves late in that year.[9] In 202 BC, Antiochus invaded Coele-Syria and seized Damascus. Tlepolemus responded by sending an embassy to Rome begging for help.[15] At some point over the winter, Tlepolemus was replaced as regent by Aristomenes, a member of the bodyguard who had been instrumental in the seizure of young Ptolemy V from Agathocles.[7] In 201 BC, Antiochus invaded Palestine and eventually captured Gaza. The Ptolemaic governor of Coele-Syria, Ptolemy, son of Thraseas defected to Antiochus, bringing his territory with him and remaining its governor. Meanwhile, Philip seized Samos and invaded Caria. This led to conflict with Rhodes and the Attalids who also sent embassies to Rome. In summer 200 BC Philip V conquered the Ptolemaic possessions and independent cities in Thrace and the Hellespont and the Romans intervened, starting the Second Macedonian War (200-197 BC).[16] The Ptolemaic general, Scopas led a successful reconquest of Palestine over the winter of 201/200,[17] but Antiochus invaded again in 200 BC and defeated him decisively at the Battle of Panium.[18] A Roman embassy made an ineffectual attempt to broker a peace between Ptolemy V and Antiochus III, but largely abandoned the Egyptians to their fate.[19] Scopas was besieged at Sidon over the winter, but had to surrender at the beginning of summer 199 BC. He was sent off to his homeland of Aetolia to recruit troops in case Antiochus moved on to attack Egypt itself.[20] Instead, Antiochus spent 198 BC solidifying his conquest of Coele-Syria and Judea, which would never again return to Ptolemaic control. In 197 BC, Antiochus turned on the Ptolemaic territories remaining in Asia Minor, conquering their cities in Cilicia,[21] as well as several of their cities in Lycia and Ionia, notably Xanthos, Telmessus, and Ephesus.[22][16] The Egyptian Revolt (204–196 BC)[edit] Main articles: Hugronaphor and Ankhmakis A revolt had broken out in Upper Egypt under the native Pharaoh Hugronaphor (Horwennefer) in the last years of Ptolemy IV's reign and Thebes had been lost in November 205 BC, shortly before his death. The conflict continued throughout the infighting of Ptolemy V's early reign and during the Fifth Syrian War. Hugronaphor was succeeded by or changed his name to Ankhmakis (Ankhwennefer) in late 199 BC.[23][24] Shortly after this, Ptolemy V launched a massive southern campaign, besieging Abydos in August 199 BC and regaining Thebes from late 199 BC until early 198 BC. The next year, however, a second group of rebels in the Nile Delta, who were linked to Ankhmakis in some way that is not entirely clear, captured the city of Lycopolis near Busiris and invested themselves there. After a siege, Ptolemy's forces regained control of the city. The rebel leaders were taken to Memphis and publicly executed on 26 March 196 BC, during the feast celebrating Ptolemy V's coronation as Pharaoh.[25][23] Personal reign[edit] Coronation[edit] The Memphis decree, inscribed on the Rosetta Stone By 197 BC the dismal Ptolemaic performance in the war against Antiochus had completely eroded Aristomenes' authority as regent. Around October or November 197 BC, the Ptolemaic governor of Cyprus, Polycrates of Argos came to Alexandria, and arranged for Ptolemy V to be declared an adult, with a ceremony known as an anacleteria, even though he was only thirteen years old. Polybius writes that Ptolemy's courtiers "thought that the kingdom would gain a certain degree of firmness and a fresh impulse towards prosperity, if it were known that the king had assumed the independent direction of the government."[26] He was crowned as Pharaoh in Memphis by the High Priest of Ptah on 26 March 196. Polycrates now became the chief minister in Alexandria and Aristomenes was forced to commit suicide in the following years[27][16] The day after Ptolemy's coronation as Pharaoh, a synod of priests from all over Egypt who had gathered for the event passed the Memphis decree. Stelae inscribed with the decree. Two of these stelae survive: the Nubayrah Stele and the famous Rosetta Stone. This decree praises Ptolemy V's benefactions for the people of Egypt, recounts his victory over the rebels at Lycopolis, and remits a number of taxes on the temples of Egypt. The decree has been interpreted as a reward for the priests' support of Ptolemy against the rebels.[28] Günther Hölbl instead interprets the decree as a sign of the priests increased power. In his view, the priests asserted their right to the remission of taxes, aware that Ptolemy was relying more heavily on their support than his predecessors had, and he had no choice but to concede.[29] Peace with Antiochus III[edit] Defaced image of Cleopatra I as queen, from El Kab. After the Romans decisively defeated Philip V at the Battle of Cynoscephalae in 197 BC, they turned their attention to Antiochus III, whose troops had crossed the Hellespont and entered Thrace. In late 196 or early 195 BC Lucius Cornelius Lentulus met with the king and, among other things, demanded that Antiochus return everything he had conquered from Ptolemy V. However, Antiochus announced that he had already begun peace negotiations with Egypt and the Romans departed without achieving anything.[30] Antiochus then concluded peace with Ptolemy, engaging him to his own daughter Cleopatra I. In winter of 194/193 BC, the sixteen-year old Ptolemy V married Cleopatra who was somewhere between 14 and 23 years old. Symbolically, Antiochus held the wedding that sealed his conquest of Coele-Syria at Raphia, the site of his great defeat at the hands of Ptolemy IV.[31][32] End of the Egyptian Revolt (196–185 BC)[edit] In the mid 190s BC, Ankhmakis made some sort of agreement with King Adikhalamani of Meroe. In return for the southern Egyptian city of Syene, Adikhalamani provided some sort of aid which enabled Ankhmakis to recapture Thebes by autumn 195 BC. Violent battles between the forces of Ptolemy V and Ankhmakis took place around Asyut. In late 191 or early 190 BC, papyrus records indicate that Thebes was once again under Ptolemy V's control. The Ptolemaic general, Comanus led this reconquest. In 187 BC, Adikhalamani of Meroe pulled out of Syene and abandoned his support for Ankhmakis. The priests who had supported Ankhmakis accompanied his troops back to Meroe. On 27 August 186 BC, Ankhmakis and his son led a last-ditch attack on Thebes, but were defeated by Comanus. This victory re-established Ptolemaic rule in Upper Egypt, as well as the Triakontaschoinos. In temples in the region, inscriptions with the names of the Meroitic kings who had ruled the region since 206 BC were scratched out.[23] Ankhmakis was taken to Alexandria and executed on 6 September 186 BC. Soon after, an official synod of priests gathered in the city and passed a decree, known today as the Philensis II decree, in which Ankhmakis was denounced for rebellion and various other crimes against humanity and the gods. A month later, on 9 October 186 BC, Ptolemy V issued the 'Amnesty Decree', which required all fugitives and refugees to return to their homes and pardoned them for any crimes committed before September 186 BC (except temple robbery). This was intended to restore land to cultivation that had been abandoned during the prolonged period of warfare. To prevent further revolts in the south, a new military governorship of Upper Egypt, the epistrategos, was created, with Comanus serving in the role from 187 BC. Greek soldiers were settled in villages and cities in the south, to act as a garrison force in the event of further unrest.[23] The rebels in Lower Egypt still continued to fight on. In 185 BC, the general Polycrates of Argos succeeded in suppressing the rebellion. He promised the leaders of the rebellion that they would be treated generously if they surrendered. Trusting this, they voluntarily went to Sais in October 185 BC, where they were stripped naked, forced to drag carts through the city, and then tortured to death.[33] Whether Polycrates or Ptolemy was responsible for this duplicitous cruelty is disputed.[23] Foreign policy after the Fifth Syrian War (194/3–180 BC)[edit] After the end of the Fifth Syrian War, Ptolemy V made an effort to reassert Ptolemaic power on the world stage and to claw back some of the territories lost to the Seleucids, with very little success. When the Roman–Seleucid War broke out in 192 BC, Ptolemy V sent an embassy to Rome offering financial and military support, but the Senate refused it, apparently annoyed about the separate peace that Ptolemy had made with Antiochus in 194/3 BC.[34] Another embassy to Rome in 191 BC, congratulating the Senate on the Roman victory at the Battle of Thermopylae was entirely ignored.[35] At the end of the war in 188 BC, when the Romans imposed the Treaty of Apamea on Antiochus, which forced him to give up all his territory in Asia Minor, they did not return the former Ptolemaic holdings in the region to Ptolemy V, but awarded them to Pergamum and Rhodes instead.[36][37] When Antiochus III died in 187 BC and was succeeded by his brother Seleucus IV, Ptolemy V began preparations for a renewed war to recapture Coele-Syria. Ptolemy's childhood friend, the eunuch Aristonicus was sent to Greece to recruit mercenaries in 185 BC.[38] At the same time, Ptolemy revived the alliances that his grandfather had maintained with the Achaean League, presenting the League with monetary gifts and promising them ships as well.[39] To raise his profile in Greece, Ptolemy also entered a chariot team in the Panathenaic Games of 182 BC.[40] In the same year, Aristonicus led a naval raid on Syria, attacking the island of Aradus.[37] Ptolemy V died suddenly in September 180 BC, not yet thirty years old. The ancient historians allege that he was poisoned by his courtiers, who believed that he intended to seize their property in order to fund his new Syrian war.[41][37][2] Regime[edit] Ptolemaic dynastic cult[edit] Octodrachm of Ptolemy V, wearing the diadem and chlamys of a Hellenistic king, as well as a crown of wheat. Ptolemaic Egypt had a dynastic cult, which centred on the Ptolemaia festival and the annual Priest of Alexander the Great, whose full title included the names of all the Ptolemaic monarchs and appeared in official documents as part of the date formula. Probably at the Ptolemaia festival in 199 BC, Ptolemy V was proclaimed to be the Theos Epiphanes Eucharistos (Manifest, Beneficent God) and his name was added to the title of the Priest of Alexander. When he married Cleopatra I in 194–3 BC, the royal couple were deified as the Theoi Epiphaneis (Manifest Gods) and the Priest of Alexander's full title was modified accordingly.[42] Since the death of Arsinoe II, deceased Ptolemaic queens had been honoured with a separate dynastic cult of their own, including a separate priestess who marched in religious processions in Alexandria behind the priest of Alexander the Great and whose names also appeared in dating formulae. That trend continued under Ptolemy V with the establishment of a cult for his mother, Arsinoe III in 199 BC. Unlike the canephore of Arsinoe II and the athlophore of Berenice II, Arsinoe's priestess had no special title and served for life rather than a single year.[43][42] With the loss of most of the Ptolemaic possessions outside Egypt in the Fifth Syrian War, Cyprus assumed a much more important role within the Ptolemaic empire and this was asserted by the establishment of a centralised religious structure on the island. The governor (strategos) of Cyprus was henceforth also the island's high priest (archiereus), responsible for maintaining a version of the dynastic cult on the island.[42] Pharaonic ideology and Egyptian religion[edit] Like his predecessors, Ptolemy V assumed the traditional Egyptian role of Pharaoh and the concomitant support for the Egyptian priestly elite. As under Ptolemy III and IV, the symbiotic relationship between the king and the priestly elite was affirmed and articulated by the decrees of priestly synods. Under Ptolemy V there were three of these, all of which were published on stelae in hieroglyphs, Demotic, and Greek were published throughout Egypt.[44] The first of these decrees was the Memphis decree, passed on 27 March 196 BC, the day after Ptolemy's coronation as Pharaoh, in which Ptolemy V is presented as the 'image of Horus, son of Isis and Osiris'. The decree's description of Ptolemy's victory over the Lycopolis rebels and of his coronation draws heavily on traditional imagery that presented the Pharaoh as a new Horus, receiving the kingship from his dead father, whom he avenges by smiting the enemies of Egypt and restoring order. In honour of his benefactions, the priests awarded him religious honours modelled on those granted by the priestly synods to his father and his grandfather: they agreed to erect a statue of Ptolemy V in the shrine of every temple in Egypt and to celebrate an annual festival on Ptolemy's birthday.[44] These honours were augmented in the Philensis II decree passed in September 186 BC on the suppression of Ankhmakis' revolt. The priests undertook to erect another statue of Ptolemy V in the guise of 'Lord of Victory' in the sanctuary of every temple in Egypt alongside a statue of the main deity of the temple, and to celebrate a festival in honour of Ptolemy V and Cleopatra I every year on the day of Ankhmakis' defeat.[45][44] This decree was revised in the Philensis I decree, passed in autumn 185 BC on the enthronement of an Apis Bull. This decree reinstated the honours for Arsinoe Philadelphus and the Theoi Philopatores (Ptolemy IV and Arsinoe III) in the temples of Upper Egypt, which had been abolished during Ankhmakis' revolt. It also granted Cleopatra I all the various honours that had been granted to Ptolemy V in the earlier decrees.[44] Ptolemy's predecessors, since the time of Alexander the Great, had pursued a wide-ranging policy of temple construction, designed to ensure the support of the priestly elite. Ptolemy was not able to do this on the same scale as his predecessors. One reason for this was the more difficult financial circumstances of Egypt during Ptolemy's reign. Another was the loss of large sections of the country to the rebels - at the temple of Horus at Edfu, for example, it had been planned that a large set of doors would be installed in 206 BC, but the rebellion meant that this did not actually take place until the late 180s. What construction was carried out under Ptolemy V was focussed in the northern part of the country, particularly the sanctuary of the Apis Bull and the temple of Anubis at Memphis. Hölbl interprets this work as part of an effort to build up Memphis as the centre of Egyptian religious authority, at the expense of Thebes, which had been a stronghold of the Egyptian revolt.[46] Marriage and issue[edit] Ptolemy V married Cleopatra the Syrian, daughter of the Seleucid king Antiochus III in 194 BC and they had three children, who would rule Egypt in various combinations and with a great deal of conflict for most of the rest of the second century BC.[47] Name Image Birth Death Notes Ptolemy VI Philometor May/June 186 BC 145 BC Succeeded as King under the regency of his mother in 180 BC, co-regent and spouse of Cleopatra II from 170-164 BC and again 163-145 BC. Cleopatra II 186-184 BC 6 April 115 BC Co-regent and wife of Ptolemy VI from 170-145 BC, co-regent and spouse of Ptolemy VIII from 145-132 BC, claimed sole rule 132-127 BC, co-regent and spouse of Ptolemy VIII again from 124-115 BC, co-regent with Cleopatra III and Ptolemy IX from 116-115 BC. Ptolemy VIII c. 184 BC 26 June 116 BC Co-regent with Ptolemy VI and Cleopatra II from 169-164 BC, expelled Ptolemy VI in 164, expelled in turn 163 BC, King of Cyrenaica from 163-145 BC, co-regent with Cleopatra II and Cleopatra III from 145-132 BC and again from 124-116 BC. Notes[edit] ^ Numbering the Ptolemies is a modern convention. Older sources may give a number one higher or lower. The most reliable way of determining which Ptolemy is being referred to in any given case is by epithet (e.g. "Philopator"). ^ The Rosetta decree gives Ptolemy's official birthday as 30 Mesore (which fell on 9 October in 210 BC). Since this is the date of a major Egyptian festival, some scholars have questioned whether it was his actual birthday. The same decree gives his accession date as 17 Phaophi (30 November in 210 BC) in the hieroglyphic text, but as 17 Mecheir in the demotic text (29 March in 209 BC). Ludwig Koenen has proposed that 30 Mesore was actually Ptolemy's accession date: Koenen 1977, p. 73 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFKoenen1977 (help). References[edit] ^ Clayton (2006) p. 208. ^ a b c d e Bennett, Chris. "Ptolemy V". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 7 November 2019. ^ Eckstein, Arthur M. (2006). Mediterranean Anarchy, Interstate War, and the Rise of Rome. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 23-24. ISBN 9780520246188. ^ Hölbl 2001, pp. 127–133 ^ a b Bennett, Chris. "Ptolemy IV". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 29 October 2019. ^ Justin, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus 30.2; Polybius 15.25.3 ^ a b c d Hölbl 2001, pp. 134–136 ^ Polybius 15.25.11-13 ^ a b Polybius 15.20, 16.1.9, 16.10.1; Justin, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus 30.2.8; Livy Ab Urbe Condita 31.14.5; Appian Macedonica 4.1. ^ Polybius 15.25.16-19 ^ Polybius 16.25.20-27.3 ^ Polybius 15.27-34 ^ Bevan, Chapter 8. ^ Polybius 16.21-22 ^ Justin 30.2.8 ^ a b c Hölbl 2001, pp. 136–140 ^ Polybius 16.39; Porphyry FGrH 260 F45-46 ^ Polybius 16.8-19, 22a ^ Polybius 16.27.5; Livy Ab Urbe Condita 31.2.3 ^ Livy Ab Urbe Condita 31.43.5-7 ^ Livy Ab Urbe Condita 33.20.4; Porphyry FGrH 260 F46 ^ Polybius 18.40a; Livy Ab Urbe Condita 22.28.1; Porphyry FGrH 260 F45-46 ^ a b c d e Hölbl 2001, pp. 155–157 ^ Bennett, Chris. "Horwennefer / Ankhwennefer". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 29 October 2019. ^ Polybius 22.17.1; Rosetta Stone decree 11 ^ Polybius 18.55.3-6 ^ Polybius 18.55.7; Diodorus Bibliotheca 18.14; Plutarch Moralia 71c-d. ^ British Museum. "History of the World in 100 Objects:Rosetta Stone". BBC. ^ Hölbl 2001, p. 165 ^ Polybius 18.49-52; Livy Ab Urbe Condita 33.39-41; Appian, Syriaca 3. ^ Livy Ab Urbe Condita 33.13; Cassius Dio 19.18 ^ Bennett, Chris. "Cleopatra I". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 6 November 2019. ^ Polybius 22.17.3-7 ^ Livy Ab Urbe Condita 36.41 ^ Livy Ab Urbe Condita 37.3.9-11 ^ Polybius 21.45.8; Livy Ab Urbe Condita 38.39 ^ a b c Hölbl 2001, pp. 141–143 ^ Polybius 22.22 ^ Polybius 22.3.5-9, 22.9 ^ IG II2 2314, line 41; S. V. Tracy & C. Habicht, Hesperia 60 (1991) 219 ^ Diodorus Bibliotheca 29.29; Jerome, Commentary on Daniel 11.20 ^ a b c Hölbl 2001, p. 171 ^ Bennett, Chris. "Arsinoe III". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 7 November 2019. ^ a b c d Hölbl 2001, pp. 165–167 ^ Translated text on attalus.org ^ Hölbl 2001, p. 162 ^ Chris Bennett. "Cleopatra I". Tyndale House. Retrieved September 28, 2019. Bibliography[edit] Bevan, Edwyn Robert (1927). A History of Egypt Under the Ptolemaic Dynasty. Methuen. OCLC 876137911. Hölbl, Günther (2001). A History of the Ptolemaic Empire. London & New York: Routledge. pp. 143–152 & 181–194. ISBN 0415201454. Clayton, Peter A. (2006). Chronicles of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28628-0. External links[edit] Ptolemy V Epiphanes entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith Greek section of Rosetta Stone and Second Philae Decree in English translation Ptolemy V Epiphanes Ptolemaic dynasty Born: 209 BC Died: 181 BC Preceded by Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemaic dynasty 204 BC–181 BC with Cleopatra I Succeeded by Cleopatra I and Ptolemy VI Philometor v t e Hellenistic rulers Argeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Kings of Cyrene Magas Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Kings of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Kings of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Kings of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Kings of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus Kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon (regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces Asander with Dynamis Mithridates II Asander with Dynamis Scribonius’ attempted rule with Dynamis Dynamis with Polemon Polemon with Pythodorida Aspurgus Mithridates III with Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control BNF: cb12245711d (data) GND: 1172668973 ISNI: 0000 0003 5491 947X SUDOC: 069262810 VIAF: 5983154441748435460003 WorldCat Identities: viaf-66521839 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ptolemy_V_Epiphanes&oldid=994959021" Categories: 3rd-century BC Pharaohs 2nd-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Ptolemaic dynasty Ancient child rulers 2nd-century BC rulers 3rd-century BC rulers 210 BC births 181 BC deaths 3rd-century BC Egyptian people 2nd-century BC Egyptian people Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Ancient Egyptian-language text Articles containing Greek-language text Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles 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en-wikipedia-org-2704	----	Halicarnassus - Wikipedia Halicarnassus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Carian city, present day Bodrum in Turkey Halicarnassus 𐊠𐊣𐊫𐊰 𐊴𐊠𐊥𐊵𐊫𐊰 (in Carian) Ἁλικαρνασσός or Ἀλικαρνασσός (in Ancient Greek) Halikarnas (in Turkish) The ruins of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Shown within Turkey Show map of Turkey Halicarnassus (the Aegean Sea area) Show map of the Aegean Sea area Location Bodrum, Muğla Province, Turkey Region Caria Coordinates 37°02′16″N 27°25′27″E / 37.03778°N 27.42417°E / 37.03778; 27.42417Coordinates: 37°02′16″N 27°25′27″E / 37.03778°N 27.42417°E / 37.03778; 27.42417 Type Settlement History Associated with Herodotus Ancient cities of Caria Halicarnassus (/ˌhælɪkɑːrˈnæsəs/; Ancient Greek: Ἁλικαρνᾱσσός Halikarnāssós or Ἀλικαρνασσός Alikarnāssós; Turkish: Halikarnas; Carian: 𐊠𐊣𐊫𐊰 𐊴𐊠𐊥𐊵𐊫𐊰 alos k̂arnos) was an ancient Greek city at what is now Bodrum in Turkey. It was located in southwest Caria on a picturesque, advantageous site on the Ceramic Gulf.[1] The city was famous for the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, also known simply as the Tomb of Mausolus, whose name provided the origin of the word "mausoleum". The mausoleum, built from 353 to 350 BC, ranked as one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Halicarnassus' history was special on two interlinked issues. Halicarnassus retained a monarchical system of government at a time when most other Greek city states had long since rid themselves of their kings. And secondly, while their Ionian neighbours rebelled against Persian rule, Halicarnassus remained loyal to the Persians and formed part of the Persian Empire until Alexander the Great captured it at the siege of Halicarnassus in 334 BC. Halicarnassus originally occupied only a small island near to the shore called Zephyria, which was the original name of the settlement and the present site of the great Castle of St. Peter built by the Knights of Rhodes in 1404. However, in the course of time, the island united with the mainland, and the city was extended to incorporate Salmacis, an older town of the Leleges and Carians[1] and site of the later citadel. Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Mycenaean presence in the area 2.2 Early history 2.3 Hekatomnid dynasty 2.4 Alexander the Great and Ada of Caria 2.5 Later history 3 Archaeological notes and restorations 4 Notable people 5 See also 6 Notes and references 7 Bibliography 8 External links Etymology[edit] The suffix -ᾱσσός (-assos) of Greek Ἁλικαρνᾱσσός is indicative of a substrate toponym, meaning that an original non-Greek name influenced, or established the place's name. (Compare Parnassus.) It has been recently proposed that the element -καρνᾱσσός is cognate with Luwian (CASTRUM)ha+ra/i-na-sà / (CASTRUM)ha+ra/i-ni-sà 'fortress'.[2] If so, the toponym is probably borrowed from Carian, a Luwic language spoken alongside Greek in Halicarnassus. The Carian name for Halicarnassus has been tentatively identified with 𐊠𐊣𐊫𐊰 𐊴𐊠𐊥𐊵𐊫𐊰 (alos k̂arnos) in inscriptions.[3] History[edit] Relief of an Amazonomachy from the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. Mycenaean presence in the area[edit] Some large Mycenaean tombs have been found at Musgebi (or Muskebi, modern Ortakent), not far from Halicarnassus. According to Turkish archaeologist Yusuf Boysal, the Muskebi material, dating from the end of the fifteenth century BC to ca. 1200 BC, provides evidence of the presence, in this region, of a Mycenaean settlement.[4] More than forty burial places dating back to that time have been discovered. A rich collection of artifacts found in these tombs is now housed in the Bodrum Castle. These finds cast some light on the problem of determining the territories of ancient Arzawa and Ahhiyawa.[4] Early history[edit] Myndos Gate. Ruins of the fortifications of Halicarnassus (modern Bodrum); 4th c. BC; Herodotus (Greek: Ἡρόδοτος) is honored with a statue in his home of Halicarnassus (modern Bodrum). The founding of Halicarnassus is debated among various traditions; but they agree in the main point as to its being a Dorian colony, and the figures on its coins, such as the head of Medusa, Athena or Poseidon, or the trident, support the statement that the mother cities were Troezen and Argos. The inhabitants appear to have accepted Anthes, a son of Poseidon, as their legendary founder, as mentioned by Strabo, and were proud of the title of Antheadae.[1] At an early period Halicarnassus was a member of the Doric Hexapolis, which included Kos, Cnidus, Lindos, Kameiros and Ialysus; but it was expelled from the league when one of its citizens, Agasicles, took home the prize tripod which he had won in the Triopian games, instead of dedicating it according to custom to the Triopian Apollo. In the early 5th century Halicarnassus was under the sway of Artemisia I of Caria (also known as Artemesia of Halicarnassus), who made herself famous as a naval commander at the battle of Salamis. Of Pisindalis, her son and successor, little is known. Artemisia's grandson Lygdamis II of Halicarnassus, is notorious for having put to death the poet Panyasis and causing Herodotus, possibly the best known Halicarnassian, to leave his native city (c. 457 BC).[5][1] Hekatomnid dynasty[edit] Hecatomnus became king of Caria, at that time part of the Persian Empire, ruling from 404 BC to 358 BC and establishing the Hekatomnid dynasty. He left three sons, Mausolus, Idrieus and Pixodarus—all of whom—in their turn, succeeded him in the sovereignty; and two daughters, Artemisia and Ada, who were married to their brothers Mausolus and Idrieus. Model of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, at the Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology. Persian sphinx from Halicarnassus, 355 BC. Mausolus moved his capital from Mylasa to Halicarnassus. His workmen deepened the city's harbor and used the dragged sand to make protecting breakwaters in front of the channel.[6] On land they paved streets and squares, and built houses for ordinary citizens. And on one side of the harbor they built a massive fortified palace for Mausolus, positioned to have clear views out to sea and inland to the hills—places from where enemies could attack. On land, the workmen also built walls and watchtowers, a Greek–style theatre and a temple to Ares—the Greek god of war. Artemisia and Mausolus spent huge amounts of tax money to embellish the city. Mausolus and Artemisia had ruled over Halicarnassus and the region surrounding it for 24 years.[7] They commissioned statues, temples and buildings of gleaming marble. When he died in 353 BC, his wife, sister and successor, Artemisia II of Caria, began construction of a magnificent tomb for him and herself on a hill overlooking the city. She died in 351 BC (of grief, according to Cicero, Tusculan Disputations 3.31). According to Pliny the Elder the craftsmen continued to work on the tomb after the death of their patron, "considering that it was at once a memorial of his own fame and of the sculptor's art," finishing it in 350 BC. This tomb of Mausolus came to be known as the Mausoleum, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Artemisia was succeeded by her brother Idrieus, who, in turn, was succeeded by his wife and sister Ada when he died in 344 BC. However, Ada was usurped by her brother Pixodarus in 340 BC. On the death of Pixodarus in 335 BC his son-in-law, a Persian named Orontobates, received the satrapy of Caria from Darius III of Persia. Alexander the Great and Ada of Caria[edit] Main article: Siege of Halicarnassus The siege and capture of Halicarnassus under Alexander the Great. When Alexander the Great entered Caria in 334 BC, Ada, who was in possession of the fortress of Alinda, surrendered the fortress to him. After taking Halicarnassus, Alexander handed back the government of Caria to her; she, in turn, formally adopted Alexander as her son, ensuring that the rule of Caria passed unconditionally to him upon her eventual death. During the siege of Halicarnassus the city was fired by the retreating Persians. As he was not able to reduce the citadel, Alexander was forced to leave it blockaded.[1] The ruins of this citadel and moat are now a tourist attraction in Bodrum. Later history[edit] Not long afterwards the citizens received the present of a gymnasium from Ptolemy and built in his honour a stoa or portico.[1] Under Egyptian hegemony, around 268 BC, a citizen named Hermias became Nesiarch of the Nesiotic League in the Cyclades.[8] Halicarnassus never recovered altogether from the disasters of the siege, and Cicero describes it as almost deserted.[1] Baroque artist Johann Elias Ridinger depicted the several stages of siege and taking of the place in a huge copper engraving as one of only two known today from his Alexander set. The Christian and later history of the site is continued at Bodrum. Archaeological notes and restorations[edit] Ruins of the ancient Theater and Acropolis of Halicarnassus (modern Bodrum). Theatre at Halicarnassus in Bodrum, with the Bodrum Castle seen in the background. Statue of a priest from Halicarnassus (modern Bodrum). The site is now occupied in part by the town of Bodrum; but the ancient walls can still be traced round nearly all their circuit, and the position of several of the temples, the Theatre of Halicarnassus, and other public buildings can be fixed with certainty.[1] The ruins of the mausoleum were recovered sufficiently by the 1857 excavations of Charles Newton to enable a fairly complete restoration of its design to be made. The building consisted of five parts—a basement or podium, a pteron or enclosure of columns, a pyramid, a pedestal and a chariot group. The basement, covering an area of 114 feet by 92, was built of blocks of greenstone, cased with marble and covered in carvings of cows. Round the base of it were probably disposed groups of statuary. The pteron consisted (according to Pliny) of thirty-six columns of the Ionic order, enclosing a square cella. Between the columns probably stood single statues. From the portions that have been recovered, it appears that the principal frieze of the pteron represented combats of Greeks and Amazons. In addition, there are also many life-size fragments of animals, horsemen, etc., belonging probably to pedimental sculptures, but formerly supposed to be parts of minor friezes. Above the pteron rose the pyramid, mounting by 24 steps to an apex or pedestal.[1] Part of a panel from a mosaic pavement from Halicarnassus (Roman Empire), British Museum (14097669977) On this apex stood the chariot with the figure of Mausolus himself and an attendant. The height of the statue of Mausolus in the British Museum is 9'9" without the plinth. The hair falls from the forehead in thick waves on each side of the face and descends nearly to the shoulder; the beard is short and close, the face square and massive, the eyes deep set under overhanging brows, the mouth well formed with settled calm about the lips. The drapery is grandly composed. All sorts of restorations of this famous monument have been proposed. The original one, made by Newton and Pullan, is obviously in error in many respects; and that of Oldfield, though to be preferred for its lightness (the mausoleum was said anciently to be "suspended in mid-air"), does not satisfy the conditions postulated by the remains. The best on the whole is that of the veteran German architect, F. Adler, published in 1900; but fresh studies have since been made (see below).[1] Notable people[edit] Artemisia I (fl. 480 BC), Queen of Halicarnassus, who participated in the Battle of Salamis[9] Herodotus (c. 484 – c. 425 BC), Greek historian[10] Dionysius (c. 60 – 8 BC), historian and teacher of rhetoric[11] Pigres of Halicarnassus - Greek poet Aelius Dionysius (fl. 2nd century), Greek rhetorician and musician Heraclitus of Halicarnassus - Greek Elegiac Poet[12] Hegesippus of Halicarnassus - a naval commander of Antigonus Monophthalmus Scylax of Halicarnassus - ancient astronomer[13][14] Cleon of Halicarnassus - ancient orator[15][16] Phormio of Halicarnassus - ancient boxer who was a victor at the boxing in the 97 Ancient Olympic Games[17] Asiaticus of Halicarnassus - ancient victor at the Stadion in the 197 Ancient Olympic Games[18] Julian of Halicarnassus - bishop of Halicarnassus and a leader of the Monophysites in the 6th century[19][20] See also[edit] List of ancient Greek cities Notes and references[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h i j  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Hogarth, David George (1911). "Halicarnassus". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 12 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 837–838}. ^ Ilya Yakubovich. "Phoenician and Luwian in Early Age Cilicia". Anatolian Studies 65 (2015): 44, doi:10.1017/S0066154615000010 Archived 2016-09-23 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Lajara, Ignacio-Javier Adiego (2007). The Carian Language. BRILL. ISBN 9789004152816. ^ a b Yusuf Boysal, New Excavations in Caria (PDF), Anadolu, (1967), 32–56. ^ "Herodotus". Suda. At the Suda On Line Project. ^ premiumtravel. "Bodrum - Premium Travel". premiumtravel.net. Archived from the original on 4 August 2017. Retrieved 3 May 2018. ^ "Halicarnassus Film Festival". Retrieved May 12, 2020. ^ C. Constantakopoulou, Identity and resistance: The Islanders’ League, the Aegean islands and the Hellenistic kings, in: Mediterranean Historical Review, Vol. 27, No. 1, June 2012, 49–70, note 49 Archived 2018-05-03 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Salowey, Christina A.; Magill, Frank Northen (2004). Great Lives from History: Aaron-Lysippus. Salem Press. p. 109. ISBN 9781587651533. ^ Berit, Ase; Strandskogen, Rolf (26 May 2015). Lifelines in World History: The Ancient World, The Medieval World, The Early Modern World, The Modern World. Routledge. p. 62. ISBN 9781317466048. ^ Matsen, Patricia P.; Rollinson, Philip B.; Sousa, Marion (1990). Readings from Classical Rhetoric. SIU Press. p. 291. ISBN 9780809315932. ^ Greek Anthology Book 7, 7.80 ^ Cicero, On Divination, 2.88 ^ Cicero, On Divination, 2.88 in english ^ Plutarch, Laconic Apophthegms, Moralia, 2.212 ^ Plutarch, Life of Agesilaus, 20 ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, 5.21.3 ^ Eusebius, Chronography, 79 ^ Suda Encyclopedia iota,436 ^ Suda Encyclopedia, si.271 Bibliography[edit] Cook, B. F., Bernard Ashmole, and Donald Emrys Strong. 2005. Relief Sculpture of the Mausoleum At Halicarnassus. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Dinsmoor, William B. (1908). "The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus". American Journal of Archaeology. 12 (1): 3–29, 141–197. doi:10.2307/496853. JSTOR 496853. F. Adler, F. (1900). "Das Mausoleum zu Halikarnass" (PDF). Zeitschrift für Bauwesen. 50: 2–19. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-02. Retrieved 2011-10-01. Fergusson, James (1862). The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus restored in conformity with the recently discovered remains. London: J. Murry. Jeppeson, Kristian. 2002. The Maussolleion at Halikarnassos: Reports of the Danish archaeological expedition to Bodrum: The superstructure, a comparative analysis of the architectural, sculptural, and literary evidence. Vol. 5. Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus Univ. Press. Newton, Charles Thomas; Pullan, Richard Popplewell (1862–1863). A history of discoveries at Halicarnassus, Cnidus & Branchidæ (2 Vols). London: Day and Son.. Google books: Volume 1, Volume 2. Oldfield, Edmund (1895). "The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. A new restoration". Archaeologia. 54 (2): 273–362. doi:10.1017/s0261340900018051. Oldfield, Edmund (1897). "The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. The probable arrangement and signification of its principal sculptures". Archaeologia. 55 (2): 343–390. doi:10.1017/s0261340900014417. Preedy, J. B. Knowlton (1910). "The Chariot Group of the Maussolleum". Journal of Hellenic Studies. 30: 133–162. doi:10.2307/624266. JSTOR 624266. Rodríguez Moya, Inmaculada, and Víctor Mínguez. 2017. The Seven Ancient Wonders In the Early Modern World. New York: Routledge. Six, J. (1905). "The pediments of the Maussolleum". Journal of Hellenic Studies. 25: 1–13. doi:10.2307/624205. JSTOR 624205. Steele, James, and Ersin Alok. 1992. Hellenistic Architecture In Asia Minor. London: Academy Editions. Stevenson, John James (1909). A restoration of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. London: B. T. Batsford. Wiater, Nicolas. 2011. The Ideology of Classicism: Language, History, and Identity In Dionysius of Halicarnassus. New York: De Gruyter. Winter, Frederick E. 2006. Studies In Hellenistic Architecture. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Halicarnassus. Library resources about Halicarnassus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Livius, Halicarnassus by Jona Lendering. The Tomb of Mausolus W. R. Lethaby's reconstruction of the Mausoleum, 1908. Mausoleum Article from Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, 1875. v t e Ancient settlements in Turkey Aegean Achaion Limen Acharaca Acmonia Adramyttium Agatheira Aegae Airai Aizanoi Alabanda Alinda Allianoi Almura Amnista Amorium Amos Amynanda Amyzon Anaua Anineta Annaea Antandrus Antioch on the Maeander Apamea in Phrygia Aphrodisias Apollonia in Mysia Apollonia Salbaces Apollonis Apollonos Hieron Appia Appolena Aragokome Araukome Arilla Aroma Aspaneus Astragon Astyra near Adramyttium Astyra near Pergamon Astyria Atarneus Atarneus sub Pitanem Attea Attuda Aulae Aurelia Neapolis Aureliopolis in Lydia Aurokra Bageis Bargasa Bargasa in northern Caria Bargylia Beudos Beycesultan Birgena Blaundus Bonitai Boukolion Boutheia Briula Bruzus Bybassus Cadi Callipolis Caloe Canae Carene Carmylessus Carura Caryanda Castabus Casystes Cedreae Celaenae Ceramus Chalcetor Choria Chrysaoris Chytrium Cidramus Cindye Cisthene Clannuda Claros Colophon Colossae Conium Coryphas Cybeleia Cyllandus Cyme Daldis Dareioukome Dideiphyta Didyma Digda Dioclea Dionysiopolis Dios Hieron in Ionia Dios Hieron in Lydia Dioskome Docimium Doroukome Eibos Eiokome Elaea Embatum Emoddi Ephesus Erines Erythrae Erythras Etsyena Eukarpia Euhippe Eumeneia Euromus Euthenae Euxine Gambrium Gerga Gergitha Gerriadai Glauke Gryneium Halicarnassus Halisarna Harpasa Helos Heraclea at Latmus Heraclea in Aeolis Heraclea in Lydia Heraclea Salbace Hermocapelia Hierapolis Hierapolis of the Phyrgian Pentapolis Hierocaesarea Homadena Hydai Hydas Hydissus Hygassos Hyllarima Hypaepa Hypokremnos Hyrcanis Iasos Iaza Idyma Ioniapolis Ioudda Ipsus Isinda in Ionia Iskome Kadyie Kaira Kalabantia Kasara Kasossos Kaualena Kaunos Kilaraza Kildara Klazomenai Kleimaka Kleros Politike Knidos Koddinou Petra Koraia Korakoe Koresa Kouara Kyllene Kymnissa Kys Labraunda Lagina Lalandos Lamyana Lankena Laodicea on the Lycus Larisa in Caria Larisa in Ionia Larisa in Lydia Larissa Phrikonis Larymna Lasnedda Latmus Lebedus Leimon Leucae Leucophrys Limantepe Lobolda Lunda Lydae Lyrna Lysimachia Madnasa Maeandropolis Magnesia ad Sipylum Magnesia on the Maeander Maiboza Maionia in Lydia Malene Marathesium Mastaura Meiros Meiros Megale Melampagos Meloukome Metropolis in Lydia Metropolis in southern Phrygia Miletus Mylasa Mobolla Mokolda Mossyna Mostene Motella Myloukome Myndus Myrina Myus Nais Nasos Naulochon Naulochus Naxia Neapolis Neonteichos Nisyra Notion Nymphaeum Nysa on the Maeander Odon Oenoanda Olaeis Olymos Oroanna Orthoisa Ortygia Otrus Palaemyndus Panasion Panormus near Miletus Panormus near Halicarnassus Parsada Parthenium Passala Passanda Pedasa Pepuza Pergamon Perperene Philadelphia in Lydia Phocaea Phoenix in Caria Physcus Phyteia Pidasa Pinara Pisilis Pisye Pitane Pladasa Plarasa Polichna in Ionia Polichne in Ionia Polybotus Pordoselene Priene Prymnessus Pteleum Pydnae Pygela Pyrnus Pyrrha Saouenda Sardis Satala in Lydia Sebaste in Phrygia Sebastopolis in Caria Setae Side in Caria Sidussa Silandus Sillyos Skolopoeis Smyrna Soa Spore Stadia Stectorium Stratonicea in Lydia Stratonicea in Caria Strobilos Syangela Symbra Synaus Syneta Synnada Syrna Tabae Tabala Tateikome Taza Teichiussa Telandrus Temenothyra Temnos Tempsis Tendeba Teos Termera Teuthrania Thasthara Theangela Thebe Hypoplakia Thebes Thera Thyaira Thyatira Thymbrara Thyssanus Tisna Tlos in Caria Tomara Traianopolis Trapezopolis Trarium Triopium Tripolis on the Meander Troketta Tyanollos Tymion Tymnos Ula Uranium Zemmeana Zingotos Kome Black Sea Abonoteichos Aegialus Aiginetes Alaca Höyük Amasia Amastris Ancon Anticinolis Argyria Armene Bonita Boon Cabira Cales Callistratia Carambis Carissa Carussa Cerasus Chadisia Cinolis Cizari Colonia in Armenia Colussa Comana in the Pontus Coralla Cordyle Cratia Crenides Cromen Cromna Cyptasia Cytorus Dia Diacopa Elaeus Endeira Erythini Euchaita Eusene Gadilon Garius Garzoubanthon Gaziura Gozalena Hadrianopolis in Paphlagonia Hattusa Heraclea Pontica Heracleium Hermonassa Hieron Oros Hüseyindede Tepe Hyssus Ibora Ischopolis Karza Kelesa Kimista Laodicea Pontica Libiopolis Lillium Metroon Mokata Naustathmus Nerik Nicopolis Ophis Oxinas Patara Pharnacia Phazemon Philocaleia Pida Pimolisa Polemonium Pompeiopolis Potami Prusias ad Hypium Pteria in Paphlagonia Salatiwara Samuha Sandaraca Sapinuwa Satala Saurania Sebastopolis in Pontus Stephane Syderos Themiscyra Thymena Timolaeum Tium Tripolis Virasia Yazılıkaya Zagorus Zaliche Zephyrium in Paphlagonia Ziporea Central Anatolia Abouadeineita Alişar Hüyük Amblada Anadynata Andabalis Anisa Anniaca Ano Kotradis Antoniopolis Anzoulada Aquae Saravenae Aralla Arasaxa Archalla Ardistama Ariaramneia Ariarathia Armaxa Artiknos Aspenzinsos Astra Atenia Balbissa Balgatia Barate Bathys Rhyax Binbirkilise Blucium Borissos Campae Camuliana Candara Carus Vicus Çatalhöyük Cimiata Ciscissus Cinna Claneus Comitanassus Congustus Corna Corniaspa Coropassus Cotenna Cybistra Cyzistra Dadastana Dasmenda Derbe Diocaesarea Doara Dometiopolis Dorylaeum Ecdaumava Ecobriga Ergobrotis Euaissa Eudocia (Cappadocia) Eudocia (Phrygia) Eulepa Faustinopolis Germa Gorbeus Gordium Hadrianopolis in Phrygia Heraclea Cybistra Herpha Hieropotamon Homana Hyde Ilistra Irenopolis Juliopolis Kaman-Kalehöyük Kanotala Karbala Keissia Kerkenes Kilistra Kindyria Kobara Kodylessos Korama Koron Kültepe (Kanesh) Lageina Lamatorma Laodicea Combusta Laroumada Lauzadus Limnae Lystra Malandasa Malus in Galatia Malus in Phrygia Meloë Metropolis in northern Phrygia Midaeium Mistea Mnizus Mokissos Mourisa Moutalaske Musbanda Myrika Nakoleia Nazianzus Nitazi Nora Nyssa Ochras Olosada Orcistus Papirion Parnassus Pedachtoë Pedaia Peium Perta Pessinus Pharax Phlara Pillitokome Pissia Pithoi Pontanena Posala Pteria Purushanda Pyrgoi Sadagolthina Salamboreia Salarama Sasima Savatra Sbida Sedasa Senzousa Sereana Sibora Sidamaria Skandos Soanda Soandos Sora Takourtha Tavium Thebasa Thouththourbia Tiberiopolis Trocmades Tyana Tynna Tyriaeum Vasada Zeita Zenopolis Zizima Eastern Anatolia Altıntepe Ani Arsamosata Cafer Höyük Dadima Melid Sugunia Tushpa Marmara Abydos Achaiion Achilleion Ad Statuas Adrasteia Aegospotami Agora Aianteion in Thrace Aianteion in the Troad Ainos Alexandria Troas Alopeconnesus Ammoi Amycus Anaplous Apamea Myrlea Aphrodisias Apollonia on the Rhyndacus Aprus Apsoda Arbeila Argiza Argyria Argyronion Argyropolis Arisba Artace Artaiouteichos Artanes Assos Astacus Astyra in Troad Aureliane Aureliopolis Baradendromia Basilica Therma Basilinopolis Bathonea Beodizo Bergule Birytis Bitenas Bithynium Blachernae Bolos Boradion Brunca Burtudizon Bythias Byzantium Byzapena Caenophrurium Callum Calpe Canopus Cardia Cebrene Cenon Gallicanon Chalcaea Chalcedon Charax Charmidea Chelae on the Black Sea Chelae on the Asian coast of the Bosphorus Chelae on the European coast of the Bosphorus Choiragria Chryse Chrysopolis Cius Clitae Cobrys Cocylium Colla Cremaste Crenides Cressa Crithote Cypasis Cypsela Cyzicus Dadokome Dacibyza Damalis Daphne Mainomene Daphnus Dardanus Dascylium Dascylium in Bithynia Dekaton in Bithynia Dekaton in Thrace Delkos Delphin Deris Desa Didymateiche Diolkides Drabus Drizipara/Drusipara Eirakla Elaea in Bithynia Elaeus Elekosmioi Embolos Ergasteria Eribolum Gargara Gentinos Gergis Germa Germanicopolis Hadriani ad Olympum Hadriania Hadrianotherae Hamaxitus Harpagion Hebdomon Helenopolis/Drepanum Heracleium Hieria Hierion Iasonion Ide Ilieon Kome Kabia Kalamos Kalasyrta Kale Peuke Kalos Agros Kampos Kassa Katapaspanas Kepos Kizoura Koila Kolonai Kosilaos Koubaita Kyparodes Kypra Lamponeia Lampsacus Larisa in Troad Lasthenes Leptoia Liada Libum Libyssa Limnae in Bithynia Limnae in Thrace Linus Lupadium Lygos Lysimachia Madytus Mantineion Marpessos Miletopolis Mocasura Mochadion Modra Morzapena Mossynea Moukaporis Myrileion Narco Nassete Nausikleia Nausimachion Neandreia Neapolis on the Bosphorus Neapolis on the Thracian Chersonese Neonteichos Nerola Nicomedia Oka Ontoraita Ophryneion Orestias Orni Ostreodes Pactya Paeon Paesus Palodes Panion Pantichium Parabolos Parium Paulines Pegae in Mysia Pegae in Thrace Pege Pentephyle Percote Pericharaxis Perinthus Petrozetoi Pharmakia Phidalia Petra Phiela Philia Phosphorus Pionia Pitheci Portus Placia Ploketta Poemanenum Poleatikon Polymedium Potamoi Potamonion Praenetus Pratomysia Prepa Priapus Prindea Proconnesus Proochthoi Prusa Psarela Psyllium Pyrrhias Cyon Pytheion Rhebas Rhegion Rhesion Rhoiteion Rouphinianai Salmydessus Sangarus Scamandria Scamandrus Scepsis Scylace Scylla Selymbria Semystra Serrion Teichos Sestos Sigeion Sirkanos Smintheion Soka Strobilos Sykai Syllanta Tarpodizo Tarsus in Bithynia Tattaios Tenba Terbos Tesderamoska Tetrakomia Tipaso Tragasai Thynias Traron Tricomia in Bithynia Troy (Hisarlik) Tyrodiza Tzurulum Urisio Utsurgae Zeleia Mediterranean Acalissus Acarassus Adada Adrasus Aegae Agrae Alalakh Amelas Anabura in Pisidia Anazarbus Anchiale Andeda Andriaca Anemurium Antigonia Antioch on the Orontes Antioch of Pisidia Antiochia Lamotis Antioch on the Cragus Antioch on the Pyramis Antiphellus Aperlae Aphrodisias of Cilicia Apollonia in Lycia Arabissus Araxa Ariassus Arima Arnabanda Arneae Arsada Arsinoe Artanada Arycanda Aspendos Augai Augusta Aulae Aunesis Bab al-Hawa Border Crossing Balbura Baris Bindaios Bubon Cabassus Cadrema Cadyanda Callimache Calynda Carallia Carmylessus Casae Castabala Ceretapa Cestrus Charadrus Choma Cibyra Mikra Claudiopolis Colybrassus Comama Comana in Cappadocia Comba Conana Coracesium Corycium Antrum Corycus (Kızkalesi) Corydala Cremna Cretopolis Crya Cyaneae Cyrrhus Daedala Dalisandus in Isauria Dalisandus in Pamphylia Damasei Dias Diocaesarea Domuztepe Elaiussa Sebaste Elbessos Emirzeli Epiphania Erymna Etenna Eudocia (Lycia) Eudocias (Pamphylia) Flaviopolis Gagae Gözlükule Hacilar Hadrianopolis in Pisidia Halae Hamaxia Hippucome Holmi Hyia Idebessos Idyros Iotape Irenopolis Isaura Nea Isaura Palaea Isba Isinda in Lycia Isinda in Pisidia Issus Istlada Juliosebaste Kalanthia Kalelibelen Kandyba Kanytelis Karakabaklı Karatepe Karkabo Kastellon Keraia Kibyra Kiphisos Kirkota Kitanaura Kodroula Kolbasa Korasion Korma Kynosarion Laertes Lagbe Lamos Lebessus Legeita Limnae in Pamphylia Limnae in Pisidia Limyra Lissa Lycae Lyrbe Lysinia Magarsa Magastara Magydus Mallus Malus in Pisidia Mampsoukrenai Mamure Castle Manava Mandane Marciana Marmara (Mnara) Mastaura Meloë Melanippe Meriana Mezgitkale Moatra Mopsucrene Mopsuestia Morka Moron Hydor Moumoustra Mylae Mylios Myra Myriandus Nagidos Nauloi Neapolis in Pisidia Nephelis Nisa Octapolis Olba Olbasa Olbia Olympus Öküzlü Onobara Orokenda Otanada Ouerbe Padyandus Panemotichus Panhormus Pargais Parlais Patara Pednelissus Perga Perminounda Phaselis Phellus Philadelphia in Cilicia Philaea Phoenicus Phoenix in Lycia Pisarissos Pisurgia Placoma Platanus Podalia Pogla Prostanna Pseudokorasion Ptolemais Rhodiapolis Rhoscopus Rhosus Rygmanoi Sabandus Sagalassos Sandalium Saraganda Sebeda Seleucia in Pamphylia Seleucia Pieria Seleucia Sidera Selge Selinus Seroiata Serraepolis Sia Sibidounda Sibyla Side Siderus Sidyma Sillyon Simena Sinda Siricae Soli Solyma Sozopolis Sura Syca Syedra Takina Tapureli Tardequeia Tarsus Teimiussa Tell Tayinat Telmessos Telmessos (Caria) Tenedos Termessos Tetrapyrgia in Cappadocia Tetrapyrgia in Pamphylia Titiopolis Tityassus Tlos Toriaeum Tragalassus Trebendae Trebenna Trysa Tyberissus Tyinda Tymandus Tynada Typallia Xanthos Yanıkhan Yumuktepe Zephyrium on the Calycadnus Southeastern Anatolia Amida Antioch in the Taurus Antioch in Mesopotamia (Constantia) Apamea on the Euphrates Carcathiocerta Carchemish Çayönü Dabanas Dara Doliche Edessa Göbekli Tepe Hallan Çemi Tepesi Harran Khashshum Kussara Nevalı Çori Nicopolis in Cilicia Nisibis Sakçagözü Sam'al Samosata Sareisa Seleucia at the Zeugma Sitai Sultantepe Tille Tushhan Urima Urshu Zeugma Retrieved from 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en-wikipedia-org-2709	----	Zoroaster - Wikipedia Zoroaster From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Founder of Zoroastrianism For other uses, see Zoroaster (disambiguation). "Zarathustra" redirects here. For other uses, see Zarathustra (disambiguation). Zoroaster 𐬰𐬀𐬭𐬀𐬚𐬎𐬱𐬙𐬭𐬀 Zaraθuštra 19th-century Indian Zoroastrian perception of Zoroaster derived from a figure that appears in a 4th-century sculpture at Taq-e Bostan in South-Western Iran. The original is now believed to be either a representation of Mithra or Hvare-khshaeta.[1] Venerated in Zoroastrianism Manichaeism Baháʼí Faith Mithraism Ahmadiyya Part of a series on Zoroastrianism Atar (fire), a primary symbol of Zoroastrianism Primary topics Ahura Mazda Zarathustra Asha Vohu Manah Persia/Iran Faravahar Avestan Divine entities Amesha Spentas Yazatas Ahuras Daevas Angra Mainyu Scripture and worship Adur Burzen-Mihr Adur Gushnasp Avesta Cypress of Kashmar Gathas Yasna Vendidad Visperad Yashts Khordeh Avesta The Revayats Ab-Zohr Ashem Vohu Ahuna Vairya Yenghe hatam Airyaman ishya Fire Temples 101 Names of Ahura Mazda Accounts and legends Dēnkard Bundahišn Book of Arda Viraf Book of Jamasp Story of Sanjan Chinvat Bridge Frashokereti History and culture Zurvanism Mazdakism Khurramites Calendar Festivals Marriage Burial Adherents Zoroastrians in India Zoroastrians in Iran Parsis Zoroastrianism in the United States Iranis Persecution of Zoroastrians Related topics Criticism of Zoroastrianism  Religion portal v t e Zoroaster In Fire Temple of Yazd. Zoroaster (/ˈzɒroʊæstər/, UK also /ˌzɒroʊˈæstər/; Greek: Ζωροάστρης, Zōroastrēs), also known as Zarathustra (/ˌzærəˈθuːstrə/, UK also /ˌzɑːrə-/; Avestan: 𐬰𐬀𐬭𐬀𐬚𐬎𐬱𐬙𐬭𐬀‎, Zaraθuštra), Zarathushtra Spitama or Ashu Zarathushtra (Modern Persian: زرتشت‎, Zartosht), was an ancient Iranian prophet (spiritual leader) who founded what is now known as Zoroastrianism. His teachings challenged the existing traditions of the Indo-Iranian religion and inaugurated a movement that eventually became the dominant religion in Ancient Persia. He was a native speaker of Old Avestan and lived in the eastern part of the Iranian Plateau, but his exact birthplace is uncertain.[2][3] There is no scholarly consensus on when he lived.[4] Some scholars, using linguistic and socio-cultural evidence, suggest a dating to somewhere in the second millennium BCE. Other scholars date him in the 7th and 6th century BCE as a near-contemporary of Cyrus the Great and Darius I, while some have speculated on datings as far back as the sixth millennium BCE.[5][6][7][8][9][10] Zoroastrianism eventually became the official religion of Ancient Persia and its distant subdivisions from the 6th century BCE to the 7th century CE.[11] Zoroaster is credited with authorship of the Gathas as well as the Yasna Haptanghaiti, hymns composed in his native dialect, Old Avestan and which comprise the core of Zoroastrian thinking. Most of his life is known from these texts.[2] By any modern standard of historiography, no evidence can place him into a fixed period and the historicization surrounding him may be a part of a trend from before the 10th century CE that historicizes legends and myths.[12] Contents 1 Name and etymology 2 Date 3 Place 4 Life 4.1 Cypress of Kashmar 5 Influences 5.1 In Islam 5.1.1 Muslim scholastic views 5.1.2 Ahmadiyya view 5.2 In Manichaeism 5.3 In the Baháʼí Faith 6 Philosophy 7 Iconography 8 Western civilization 8.1 In classical antiquity 8.2 In the modern era 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Bibliography 13 External links Name and etymology[edit] Zoroaster's name in his native language, Avestan, was probably Zaraϑuštra. His English name, "Zoroaster", derives from a later (5th century BC) Greek transcription, Zōroastrēs (Ζωροάστρης),[13] as used in Xanthus's Lydiaca (Fragment 32) and in Plato's First Alcibiades (122a1). This form appears subsequently in the Latin Zōroastrēs and, in later Greek orthographies, as Ζωροάστρις Zōroastris. The Greek form of the name appears to be based on a phonetic transliteration or semantic substitution of Avestan zaraϑ- with the Greek ζωρός zōros (literally "undiluted") and the Avestan -uštra with ἄστρον astron ("star"). In Avestan, Zaraϑuštra is generally accepted to derive from an Old Iranian *Zaratuštra-; The element half of the name (-uštra-) is thought to be the Indo-Iranian root for "camel", with the entire name meaning "he who can manage camels".[14][a] Reconstructions from later Iranian languages—particularly from the Middle Persian (300 BCE) Zardusht,[further explanation needed] which is the form that the name took in the 9th- to 12th-century Zoroastrian texts—suggest that *Zaratuštra- might be a zero-grade form of *Zarantuštra-.[14] Subject then to whether Zaraϑuštra derives from *Zarantuštra- or from *Zaratuštra-, several interpretations have been proposed.[b] If Zarantuštra is the original form, it may mean "with old/aging camels",[14] related to Avestic zarant-[13] (cf. Pashto zōṛ and Ossetian zœrond, "old"; Middle Persian zāl, "old"):[15] "with angry/furious camels": from Avestan *zarant-, "angry, furious".[16] "who is driving camels" or "who is fostering/cherishing camels": related to Avestan zarš-, "to drag".[17] Mayrhofer (1977) proposed an etymology of "who is desiring camels" or "longing for camels" and related to Vedic Sanskrit har-, "to like", and perhaps (though ambiguous) also to Avestan zara-.[16] "with yellow camels": parallel to Younger Avestan zairi-.[18] The interpretation of the -ϑ- (/θ/) in Avestan zaraϑuštra was for a time itself subjected to heated debate because the -ϑ- is an irregular development: As a rule, *zarat- (a first element that ends in a dental consonant) should have Avestan zarat- or zarat̰- as a development from it. Why this is not so for zaraϑuštra has not yet been determined. Notwithstanding the phonetic irregularity, that Avestan zaraϑuštra with its -ϑ- was linguistically an actual form is shown by later attestations reflecting the same basis.[14] All present-day, Iranian-language variants of his name derive from the Middle Iranian variants of Zarϑošt, which, in turn, all reflect Avestan's fricative -ϑ-.[citation needed] In Middle Persian, the name is 𐭦𐭫𐭲𐭥𐭱𐭲 Zardu(x)št,[19] in Parthian Zarhušt,[20] in Manichaean Middle Persian Zrdrwšt,[19] in Early New Persian Zardušt,[19] and in modern (New Persian), the name is زرتشت Zartosht. Date[edit] There is no consensus on the dating of Zoroaster; the Avesta gives no direct information about it, while historical sources are conflicting. Some scholars base their date reconstruction on the Proto-Indo-Iranian language and Proto-Indo-Iranian religion,[11] and thus it is considered to have been some place in northeastern Iran and some time between 1500 and 500 BCE.[21][22][23][24] Some scholars[8] such as Mary Boyce (who dated Zoroaster to somewhere between 1700–1000 BC) used linguistic and socio-cultural evidence to place Zoroaster between 1500 and 1000 BC (or 1200 and 900 BC).[7][24] The basis of this theory is primarily proposed on linguistic similarities between the Old Avestan language of the Zoroastrian Gathas and the Sanskrit of the Rigveda (c. 1700–1100 BC), a collection of early Vedic hymns. Both texts are considered to have a common archaic Indo-Iranian origin. The Gathas portray an ancient Stone-Bronze Age bipartite society of warrior-herdsmen and priests (compared to Bronze tripartite society; some conjecture that it depicts the Yaz culture[25]), and thus it is implausible that the Gathas and Rigveda could have been composed more than a few centuries apart. These scholars suggest that Zoroaster lived in an isolated tribe or composed the Gathas before the 1200–1000 BC migration by the Iranians from the steppe to the Iranian Plateau.[6][26][7][27][28] The shortfall of the argument is the vague comparison, and the archaic language of Gathas does not necessarily indicate time difference.[4][23] Other scholars[8] propose a period between 7th and 6th century, for example, c. 650–600 BC or 559–522 BC.[23][24] The latest possible date is the mid 6th century, at the time of Achaemenid Empire's Darius I, or his predecessor Cyrus the Great. This date gains credence mainly on the thesis that certain figures must be based on historical facts,[24] thus some have related the mythical Vishtaspa with Darius I's father Vishtaspa (or Hystaspes in Greek) with the account on Zoroaster's life. However, in the Avesta it should not be ignored that Vishtaspa's son became the ruler of the Persian Empire, Darius I would not neglect to include his patron-father in the Behistun Inscription. A different proposed conclusion is that Darius I's father was named in honor of the Zoroastrian patron, indicating possible Zoroastrian faith by Arsames.[29] Classical scholarship in the 6th to 4th century BC believed he existed six thousand years before Xerxes I's invasion of Greece in 480 BCE (Xanthus, Eudoxus, Aristotle, Hermippus), which is a possible misunderstanding of the Zoroastrian four cycles of 3000 years i.e. 12,000 years.[4][30][31][32] This belief is recorded by Diogenes Laërtius, and variant readings could place it six hundred years before Xerxes I, somewhere before 1000 BCE.[23] However, Diogenes also mentions Hermodorus's belief that Zoroaster lived five thousand years before the Trojan War, which would mean he lived around 6200 BC.[23] The 10th-century Suda provides a date of "500 years before Plato" in the late 10th century BC.[4] Pliny the Elder cited Eudoxus who also placed his death six thousand years before Plato, c. 6300 BC.[23] Other pseudo-historical constructions are those of Aristoxenus who recorded Zaratas the Chaldeaean to have taught Pythagoras in Babylon,[4][33] or lived at the time of mythological Ninus and Semiramis.[34] According to Pliny the Elder, there were two Zoroasters. The first lived thousands of years ago, while the second accompanied Xerxes I in the invasion of Greece in 480 BCE.[4] Some scholars propose that the chronological calculation for Zoroaster was developed by Persian magi in the 4th century BC, and as the early Greeks learned about him from the Achaemenids, this indicates they did not regard him as a contemporary of Cyrus the Great, but as a remote figure.[35] Some later pseudo-historical and Zoroastrian sources (the Bundahishn, which references a date "258 years before Alexander") place Zoroaster in the 6th century BC,[d][36] which coincided with the accounts by Ammianus Marcellinus from 4th century CE. The traditional Zoroastrian date originates in the period immediately following Alexander the Great's conquest of the Achaemenid Empire in 330 BCE.[23] The Seleucid rulers who gained power following Alexander's death instituted an "Age of Alexander" as the new calendrical epoch. This did not appeal to the Zoroastrian priesthood who then attempted to establish an "Age of Zoroaster". To do so, they needed to establish when Zoroaster had lived, which they accomplished by (erroneous, some even identified Cyrus with Vishtaspa[37]) counting back the length of successive generations, until they concluded that Zoroaster must have lived "258 years before Alexander".[4][38] This estimate then re-appeared in the 9th- to 12th-century Arabic and Pahlavi texts of Zoroastrian tradition,[c] like the 10th century Al-Masudi who cited a prophecy from a lost Avestan book in which Zoroaster foretold the Empire's destruction in three hundred years, but the religion would last for a thousand years.[29] Place[edit] Painted clay and alabaster head of a Zoroastrian priest wearing a distinctive Bactrian-style headdress, Takhti-Sangin, Tajikistan, Greco-Bactrian kingdom, 3rd–2nd century BCE The birthplace of Zoroaster is also unknown, and the language of the Gathas is not similar to the proposed north-western and north-eastern regional dialects of Persia. It is also suggested that he was born in one of the two areas and later lived in the other area.[39] Yasna 9 and 17 cite the Ditya River in Airyanem Vaējah (Middle Persian Ērān Wēj) as Zoroaster's home and the scene of his first appearance. The Avesta (both Old and Younger portions) does not mention the Achaemenids or of any West Iranian tribes such as the Medes, Persians, or even Parthians. The Farvardin Yasht refers to some Iranian peoples that are unknown in the Greek and Achaemenid sources about the 6th and 5th century BC Eastern Iran. The Vendidad contain seventeen regional names, most of which are located in north-eastern and eastern Iran.[40] However, in Yasna 59.18, the zaraϑuštrotema, or supreme head of the Zoroastrian priesthood, is said to reside in 'Ragha' (Badakhshan).[2] In the 9th- to 12th-century Middle Persian texts of Zoroastrian tradition, this 'Ragha' and with many other places appear as locations in Western Iran. While the land of Media does not figure at all in the Avesta (the westernmost location noted in scripture is Arachosia), the Būndahišn, or "Primordial Creation," (20.32 and 24.15) puts Ragha in Media (medieval Rai). However, in Avestan, Ragha is simply a toponym meaning "plain, hillside."[41] Apart from these indications in Middle Persian sources that are open to interpretations, there are a number of other sources. The Greek and Latin sources are divided on the birthplace of Zarathustra. There are many Greek accounts of Zarathustra, referred usually as Persian or Perso-Median Zoroaster; Ctesias located him in Bactria, Diodorus Siculus placed him among Ariaspai (in Sistan),[2] Cephalion and Justin suggest east of greater Iran whereas Pliny and Origen suggest west of Iran as his birthplace.[39] Moreover, they have the suggestion that there has been more than one Zoroaster.[42] On the other hand, in post-Islamic sources Shahrastani (1086–1153) an Iranian writer originally from Shahristān, present-day Turkmenistan, proposed that Zoroaster's father was from Atropatene (also in Medea) and his mother was from Rey. Coming from a reputed scholar of religions, this was a serious blow for the various regions who all claimed that Zoroaster originated from their homelands, some of which then decided that Zoroaster must then have then been buried in their regions or composed his Gathas there or preached there.[43][44] Also Arabic sources of the same period and the same region of historical Persia consider Azerbaijan as the birthplace of Zarathustra.[39] By the late 20th century, most scholars had settled on an origin in eastern Greater Iran. Gnoli proposed Sistan, Baluchistan (though in a much wider scope than the present-day province) as the homeland of Zoroastrianism; Frye voted for Bactria and Chorasmia;[45] Khlopin suggests the Tedzen Delta in present-day Turkmenistan.[46] Sarianidi considered the Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex region as "the native land of the Zoroastrians and, probably, of Zoroaster himself."[47] Boyce includes the steppes to the west from the Volga.[48] The medieval "from Media" hypothesis is no longer taken seriously, and Zaehner has even suggested that this was a Magi-mediated issue to garner legitimacy, but this has been likewise rejected by Gershevitch and others. The 2005 Encyclopedia Iranica article on the history of Zoroastrianism summarizes the issue with "while there is general agreement that he did not live in western Iran, attempts to locate him in specific regions of eastern Iran, including Central Asia, remain tentative".[49] Life[edit] Painting of the events of Zoroaster's life. The rings of the Fravashi. Zoroaster is recorded as the son of Pourušaspa of the Spitamans or Spitamids (Avestan spit mean "brilliant" or "white"; some argue that Spitama was a remote progenitor) family,[50] and Dugdōw,[39] while his great-grandfather was Haēčataspa. All the names appear appropriate to the nomadic tradition. His father's name means "possessing gray horses" (with the word aspa meaning horse), while his mother's means "milkmaid". According to the tradition, he had four brothers, two older and two younger, whose names are given in much later Pahlavi work.[51] The training for priesthood probably started very early around seven years of age.[52] He became a priest probably around the age of fifteen, and according to Gathas, he gained knowledge from other teachers and personal experience from traveling when he left his parents at age twenty.[53] By the age of thirty, he experienced a revelation during a spring festival; on the river bank he saw a shining Being, who revealed himself as Vohu Manah (Good Purpose) and taught him about Ahura Mazda (Wise Lord) and five other radiant figures. Zoroaster soon became aware of the existence of two primal Spirits, the second being Angra Mainyu (Destructive Spirit), with opposing concepts of Asha (order) and Druj (deception). Thus he decided to spend his life teaching people to seek Asha.[54] He received further revelations and saw a vision of the seven Amesha Spenta, and his teachings were collected in the Gathas and the Avesta.[55] Disciples of Zoroaster centered in Nineveh. Zoroaster in the court of Vishtaspa. Eventually, at the age of about forty-two, he received the patronage of queen Hutaosa and a ruler named Vishtaspa, an early adherent of Zoroastrianism (possibly from Bactria according to the Shahnameh).[56] Zoroaster's teaching about individual judgment, Heaven and Hell, the resurrection of the body, the Last Judgment, and everlasting life for the reunited soul and body, among other things, became borrowings in the Abrahamic religions, but they lost the context of the original teaching.[57] According to the tradition, he lived for many years after Vishtaspa's conversion, managed to establish a faithful community,[58] and married three times. His first two wives bore him three sons, Isat Vâstra, Urvatat Nara, and Hvare Chithra, and three daughters, Freni, Thriti, and Pouruchista. His third wife, Hvōvi, was childless.[59][60] Zoroaster died when he was 77 years and 40 days old.[59] The later Pahlavi sources like Shahnameh, instead claim that an obscure conflict with Tuiryas people led to his death, murdered by a karapan (a priest of the old religion) named Brādrēs.[61] Cypress of Kashmar[edit] Main article: Cypress of Kashmar The Cypress of Kashmar is a mythical cypress tree of legendary beauty and gargantuan dimensions. It is said to have sprung from a branch brought by Zoroaster from Paradise and to have stood in today's Kashmar in northeastern Iran and to have been planted by Zoroaster in honor of the conversion of King Vishtaspa to Zoroastrianism. According to the Iranian physicist and historian Zakariya al-Qazwini King Vishtaspa had been a patron of Zoroaster who planted the tree himself. In his ʿAjā'ib al-makhlūqāt wa gharā'ib al-mawjūdāt, he further describes how the Al-Mutawakkil in 247 AH (861 AD) caused the mighty cypress to be felled, and then transported it across Iran, to be used for beams in his new palace at Samarra. Before, he wanted the tree to be reconstructed before his eyes. This was done in spite of protests by the Iranians, who offered a very great sum of money to save the tree. Al-Mutawakkil never saw the cypress, because he was murdered by a Turkish soldier (possibly in the employ of his son) on the night when it arrived on the banks of the Tigris.[62][63] Influences[edit] In Islam[edit] Main articles: 101 Names of God, Names of God in Islam, and Cyrus the Great in the Quran Further information: Daeva, Jinn, Ifrit, Iblis, and Angra Mainyu A number of parallels have been drawn between Zoroastrian teachings and Islam. Such parallels include the evident similarities between Amesha Spenta and the archangel Gabriel, praying five times a day, covering one's head during prayer, and the mention of Thamud and Iram of the Pillars in the Quran. These may also indicate the vast influence of the Achaemenid Empire on the development of either religion.[64] The Sabaeans, who believed in free will coincident with Zoroastrians, are also mentioned in the Quran.[64] Muslim scholastic views[edit] Main article: Shahnameh An 8th-century Tang dynasty Chinese clay figurine of a Sogdian man (an Eastern Iranian person) wearing a distinctive cap and face veil, possibly a camel rider or even a Zoroastrian priest engaging in a ritual at a fire temple, since face veils were used to avoid contaminating the holy fire with breath or saliva; Museum of Oriental Art (Turin), Italy.[65] Like the Greeks of classical antiquity, Islamic tradition understands Zoroaster to be the founding prophet of the Magians (via Aramaic, Arabic Majus, collective Majusya). The 11th-century Cordoban Ibn Hazm (Zahiri school) contends that Kitabi "of the Book" cannot apply in light of the Zoroastrian assertion that their books were destroyed by Alexander. Citing the authority of the 8th-century al-Kalbi, the 9th- and 10th-century Sunni historian al-Tabari (I, 648)[66] reports that Zaradusht bin Isfiman (an Arabic adaptation of "Zarathustra Spitama") was an inhabitant of Israel and a servant of one of the disciples of the prophet Jeremiah. According to this tale, Zaradusht defrauded his master, who cursed him, causing him to become leprous (cf. Elisha's servant Gehazi in Jewish Scripture). The apostate Zaradusht then eventually made his way to Balkh (present day Afghanistan) where he converted Bishtasb (i.e. Vishtaspa), who in turn compelled his subjects to adopt the religion of the Magians. Recalling other tradition, al-Tabari (I, 681–683)[66] recounts that Zaradusht accompanied a Jewish prophet to Bishtasb/Vishtaspa. Upon their arrival, Zaradusht translated the sage's Hebrew teachings for the king and so convinced him to convert (Tabari also notes that they had previously been Sabis) to the Magian religion.[66] The 12th-century heresiographer al-Shahrastani describes the Majusiya into three sects, the Kayumarthiya, the Zurwaniya and the Zaradushtiya, among which Al-Shahrastani asserts that only the last of the three were properly followers of Zoroaster. As regards the recognition of a prophet, Zoroaster has said: "They ask you as to how should they recognize a prophet and believe him to be true in what he says; tell them what he knows the others do not, and he shall tell you even what lies hidden in your nature; he shall be able to tell you whatever you ask him and he shall perform such things which others cannot perform." (Namah Shat Vakhshur Zartust, .5–7. 50–54) When the companions of Muhammad, on invading Persia, came in contact with the Zoroastrian people and learned these teachings, they at once came to the conclusion that Zoroaster was really a Divinely inspired prophet. Thus they accorded the same treatment to the Zoroastrian people which they did to other "People of the Book".[citation needed] Though the name of Zoroaster is not mentioned in the Qur'an, still he was regarded as one of those prophets whose names have not been mentioned in the Qur'an, for there is a verse in the Qur'an: "And We did send apostles before thee: there are some of them that We have mentioned to thee and there are others whom We have not mentioned to Thee." (40 : 78). Accordingly, the Muslims treated the founder of Zoroastrianism as a true prophet and believed in his religion as they did in other inspired creeds, and thus according to the prophecy, protected the Zoroastrian religion. James Darmesteter remarked in the translation of Zend Avesta: "When Islam assimilated the Zoroastrians to the People of the Book, it evinced a rare historical sense and solved the problem of the origin of the Avesta." (Introduction to Vendidad. p. 69.)[citation needed] Ahmadiyya view[edit] The Ahmadiyya Community views Zoroaster as a Prophet of Allah and describe the expressions of the all-good Ahura Mazda and evil Ahriman as merely referring to the coexistence of forces of good and evil enabling humans to exercise free will.[67] In Manichaeism[edit] Manichaeism considered Zoroaster to be a figure (along with the Buddha and Jesus) in a line of prophets of which Mani (216–276) was the culmination.[68] Zoroaster's ethical dualism is—to an extent—incorporated in Mani's doctrine, which viewed the world as being locked in an epic battle between opposing forces of good and evil.[69] Manicheanism also incorporated other elements of Zoroastrian tradition, particularly the names of supernatural beings; however, many of these other Zoroastrian elements are either not part of Zoroaster's own teachings or are used quite differently from how they are used in Zoroastrianism.[70][71] In the Baháʼí Faith[edit] Zoroaster appears in the Baháʼí Faith as a "Manifestation of God", one of a line of prophets who have progressively revealed the Word of God to a gradually maturing humanity. Zoroaster thus shares an exalted station with Abraham, Moses, Krishna, Jesus, Muhammad, the Báb, and the founder of the Baháʼí Faith, Bahá'u'lláh.[72] Shoghi Effendi, the head of the Baháʼí Faith in the first half of the 20th century, saw Bahá'u'lláh as the fulfillment of a post-Sassanid Zoroastrian prophecy that saw a return of Sassanid emperor Bahram:[73] Shoghi Effendi also stated that Zoroaster lived roughly 1000 years before Jesus.[e] Philosophy[edit] Detail of The School of Athens by Raphael, 1509, showing Zoroaster (left, with star-studded globe). In the Gathas, Zoroaster sees the human condition as the mental struggle between aša and druj. The cardinal concept of aša—which is highly nuanced and only vaguely translatable—is at the foundation of all Zoroastrian doctrine, including that of Ahura Mazda (who is aša), creation (that is aša), existence (that is aša), and as the condition for free will. The purpose of humankind, like that of all other creation, is to sustain and align itself to aša. For humankind, this occurs through active ethical participation in life, ritual, and the exercise of constructive/good thoughts, words and deeds. Elements of Zoroastrian philosophy entered the West through their influence on Judaism and Platonism and have been identified as one of the key early events in the development of philosophy.[74] Among the classic Greek philosophers, Heraclitus is often referred to as inspired by Zoroaster's thinking.[75] In 2005, the Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy ranked Zarathustra as first in the chronology of philosophers.[76][77] Zarathustra's impact lingers today due in part to the system of religious ethics he founded called Mazdayasna. The word Mazdayasna is Avestan and is translated as "Worship of Wisdom/Mazda" in English. The encyclopedia Natural History (Pliny) claims that Zoroastrians later educated the Greeks who, starting with Pythagoras, used a similar term, philosophy, or "love of wisdom" to describe the search for ultimate truth.[78] Zoroaster emphasized the freedom of the individual to choose right or wrong and individual responsibility for one's deeds. This personal choice to accept aša and shun druj is one's own decision and not a dictate of Ahura Mazda. For Zoroaster, by thinking good thoughts, saying good words, and doing good deeds (e.g. assisting the needy, doing good works, or conducting good rituals) we increase aša in the world and in ourselves, celebrate the divine order, and we come a step closer on the everlasting road to Frashokereti. Thus, we are not the slaves or servants of Ahura Mazda, but we can make a personal choice to be co-workers, thereby perfecting the world as saoshyants ("world-perfecters") and ourselves and eventually achieve the status of an Ashavan ("master of Asha").[citation needed] Iconography[edit] Although a few recent depictions of Zoroaster show him performing some deed of legend, in general the portrayals merely present him in white vestments (which are also worn by present-day Zoroastrian priests). He often is seen holding a baresman (Avestan; Middle Persian barsom), which is generally considered to be another symbol of priesthood, or with a book in hand, which may be interpreted to be the Avesta. Alternatively, he appears with a mace, the varza—usually stylized as a steel rod crowned by a bull's head—that priests carry in their installation ceremony. In other depictions he appears with a raised hand and thoughtfully lifted finger, as if to make a point.[citation needed] Zoroaster is rarely depicted as looking directly at the viewer; instead, he appears to be looking slightly upwards, as if beseeching. Zoroaster is almost always depicted with a beard, this along with other factors bearing similarities to 19th-century portraits of Jesus.[79] A common variant of the Zoroaster images derives from a Sassanid-era rock-face carving. In this depiction at Taq-e Bostan, a figure is seen to preside over the coronation of Ardashir I or II. The figure is standing on a lotus, with a baresman in hand and with a gloriole around his head. Until the 1920s, this figure was commonly thought to be a depiction of Zoroaster, but in recent years is more commonly interpreted to be a depiction of Mithra. Among the most famous of the European depictions of Zoroaster is that of the figure in Raphael's 1509 The School of Athens. In it, Zoroaster and Ptolemy are having a discussion in the lower right corner. The prophet is holding a star-studded globe.[citation needed] Zoroastrian devotional art depicting the religion's founder with white clothing and a long beard Depiction of Zoroaster in Clavis Artis [it], an alchemy manuscript published in Germany in the late 17th or early 18th century and pseudoepigraphically attributed to Zoroaster An image of Zoroaster on display at the Yazd Atash Behram (Zoroastrian fire temple) in Yazd, Yazd province, Iran An image of Zoroaster on mirrored etched glass at the Zoroastrian fire temple in Taft, Iran Western civilization[edit] The School of Athens: a gathering of renaissance artists in the guise of philosophers from antiquity, in an idealized classical interior, featuring the scene with Zoroaster holding a planet or cosmos. In classical antiquity[edit] See also: Magi This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This section relies too much on references to primary sources. Please improve this section by adding secondary or tertiary sources. (March 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (March 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Greeks—in the Hellenistic sense of the term—had an understanding of Zoroaster as expressed by Plutarch, Diogenes Laertius, and Agathias[80] that saw him, at the core, to be the "prophet and founder of the religion of the Iranian peoples," Beck notes that "the rest was mostly fantasy".[81] Zoroaster was set in the ancient past, six to seven millennia before the Common Era, and was described as a king of Bactria or a Babylonian (or teacher of Babylonians), and with a biography typical of a Neopythagorean sage, i.e. having a mission preceded by ascetic withdrawal and enlightenment.[81] However, at first mentioned in the context of dualism, in Moralia, Plutarch presents Zoroaster as "Zaratras," not realizing the two to be the same, and he is described as a "teacher of Pythagoras".[82][33] Zoroaster has also been described as a sorcerer-astrologer – the creator of both magic and astrology. Deriving from that image, and reinforcing it, was a "mass of literature" attributed to him and that circulated the Mediterranean world from the 3rd century BCE to the end of antiquity and beyond.[83][84] The language of that literature was predominantly Greek, though at one stage or another various parts of it passed through Aramaic, Syriac, Coptic or Latin. Its ethos and cultural matrix was likewise Hellenistic, and "the ascription of literature to sources beyond that political, cultural and temporal framework represents a bid for authority and a fount of legitimizing "alien wisdom". Zoroaster and the magi did not compose it, but their names sanctioned it."[83] The attributions to "exotic" names (not restricted to magians) conferred an "authority of a remote and revelatory wisdom."[85] Among the named works attributed to "Zoroaster" is a treatise On Nature (Peri physeos), which appears to have originally constituted four volumes (i.e. papyrus rolls). The framework is a retelling of Plato's Myth of Er, with Zoroaster taking the place of the original hero. While Porphyry imagined Pythagoras listening to Zoroaster's discourse, On Nature has the sun in middle position, which was how it was understood in the 3rd century. In contrast, Plato's 4th-century BCE version had the sun in second place above the moon. Colotes accused Plato of plagiarizing Zoroaster,[86][87] and Heraclides Ponticus wrote a text titled Zoroaster based on his perception of "Zoroastrian" philosophy, in order to express his disagreement with Plato on natural philosophy.[88] With respect to substance and content in On Nature only two facts are known: that it was crammed with astrological speculations, and that Necessity (Ananké) was mentioned by name and that she was in the air.[citation needed] Pliny the Elder names Zoroaster as the inventor of magic (Natural History 30.2.3). "However, a principle of the division of labor appears to have spared Zoroaster most of the responsibility for introducing the dark arts to the Greek and Roman worlds." That "dubious honor" went to the "fabulous magus, Ostanes, to whom most of the pseudepigraphic magical literature was attributed."[89] Although Pliny calls him the inventor of magic, the Roman does not provide a "magician's persona" for him.[89] Moreover, the little "magical" teaching that is ascribed to Zoroaster is actually very late, with the very earliest example being from the 14th century.[90] Association with astrology according to Roger Beck, were based on his Babylonian origin, and Zoroaster's Greek name was identified at first with star-worshiping (astrothytes "star sacrificer") and, with the Zo-, even as the living star.[91][verification needed] Later, an even more elaborate mythoetymology evolved: Zoroaster died by the living (zo-) flux (ro-) of fire from the star (astr-) which he himself had invoked, and even, that the stars killed him in revenge for having been restrained by him.[91][verification needed] The alternate Greek name for Zoroaster was Zaratras[82] or Zaratas/Zaradas/Zaratos.[92] Pythagoreans considered the mathematicians to have studied with Zoroaster in Babylonia.[93]Lydus, in On the Months, attributes the creation of the seven-day week to "the Babylonians in the circle of Zoroaster and Hystaspes," and who did so because there were seven planets.[94] The Suda's chapter on astronomia notes that the Babylonians learned their astrology from Zoroaster.[citation needed] Lucian of Samosata, in Mennipus 6, reports deciding to journey to Babylon "to ask one of the magi, Zoroaster's disciples and successors," for their opinion.[95] While the division along the lines of Zoroaster/astrology and Ostanes/magic is an "oversimplification, the descriptions do at least indicate what the works are not"; they were not expressions of Zoroastrian doctrine, they were not even expressions of what the Greeks and Romans "imagined the doctrines of Zoroastrianism to have been" [emphases in the original].[85] The assembled fragments do not even show noticeable commonality of outlook and teaching among the several authors who wrote under each name.[96] Almost all Zoroastrian pseudepigrapha is now lost, and of the attested texts—with only one exception—only fragments have survived. Pliny's 2nd- or 3rd-century attribution of "two million lines" to Zoroaster suggest that (even if exaggeration and duplicates are taken into consideration) a formidable pseudepigraphic corpus once existed at the Library of Alexandria. This corpus can safely be assumed to be pseudepigrapha because no one before Pliny refers to literature by "Zoroaster",[97] and on the authority of the 2nd-century Galen of Pergamon and from a 6th-century commentator on Aristotle it is known that the acquisition policies of well-endowed royal libraries created a market for fabricating manuscripts of famous and ancient authors.[97] The exception to the fragmentary evidence (i.e. reiteration of passages in works of other authors) is a complete Coptic tractate titled Zostrianos (after the first-person narrator) discovered in the Nag Hammadi library in 1945. A three-line cryptogram in the colophones following the 131-page treatise identify the work as "words of truth of Zostrianos. God of Truth [logos]. Words of Zoroaster."[98] Invoking a "God of Truth" might seem Zoroastrian, but there is otherwise "nothing noticeably Zoroastrian" about the text and "in content, style, ethos and intention, its affinities are entirely with the congeners among the Gnostic tractates."[96] Another work circulating under the name of "Zoroaster" was the Asteroskopita (or Apotelesmatika), and which ran to five volumes (i.e. papyrus rolls). The title and fragments suggest that it was an astrological handbook, "albeit a very varied one, for the making of predictions."[85] A third text attributed to Zoroaster is On Virtue of Stones (Peri lithon timion), of which nothing is known other than its extent (one volume) and that pseudo-Zoroaster sang it (from which Cumont and Bidez[who?] conclude that it was in verse).[citation needed][original research?] Numerous other fragments preserved in the works of other authors are attributed to "Zoroaster," but the titles of those books are not mentioned.[citation needed][original research?] These pseudepigraphic texts aside, some authors did draw on a few genuinely Zoroastrian ideas. The Oracles of Hystaspes, by "Hystaspes", another prominent magian pseudo-author, is a set of prophecies distinguished from other Zoroastrian pseudepigrapha in that it draws on real Zoroastrian sources.[85] Some allusions are more difficult to assess:[original research?] in the same text that attributes the invention of magic to Zoroaster,[clarification needed] Pliny states that Zoroaster laughed on the day of his birth,[citation needed] although in an earlier place, Pliny had sworn in the name of Hercules that no child had ever done so before the 40th day from his birth.[99] This notion of Zoroaster's laughter (like that of "two million verses"[This quote needs a citation]) also appears in the 9th– to 11th-century texts of genuine Zoroastrian tradition, and for a time it was assumed[weasel words] that the origin of those myths lay with indigenous sources.[citation needed][original research?] Pliny also records that Zoroaster's head had pulsated so strongly that it repelled the hand when laid upon it, a presage of his future wisdom.[100] The Iranians were however just as familiar with the Greek writers, and the provenance of other descriptions are clear.[citation needed][original research?] For instance, Plutarch's description of its dualistic theologies reads thus: "Others call the better of these a god and his rival a daemon, as, for example, Zoroaster the Magus, who lived, so they record, five thousand years before the siege of Troy. He used to call the one Horomazes and the other Areimanius".[101] In the modern era[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The earliest recorded references to Zoroaster in English literature occur in the writings of the physician-philosopher Sir Thomas Browne who asserted in his Religio Medici (1643) I believe, besides Zoroaster, there were divers that writ before Moses, who notwithstanding have suffered the common fate of time.[102] In his The Garden of Cyrus (1658) Browne's study of comparative religion led him to speculate- And if Zoroaster were either Cham, Chus, or Mizraim, they were early proficients therein, who left (as Pliny delivereth) a work of Agriculture. The Oxford English Dictionary attributes the English poet Lord Byron as the first to allude to the Zoroastrian religion in 1811 when stating- I would sooner be a Paulican, Manichean, Spinozist, Gentile, Pyrrohonian, Zoroastrian, than any one of the seventy-two villainous sects that are tearing each other to pieces for the love of the Lord. In E. T. A. Hoffmann's novel Klein Zaches, genannt Zinnober (1819), the mage Prosper Alpanus states that Professor Zoroaster was his teacher.[103] In his seminal work Also sprach Zarathustra (Thus Spoke Zarathustra) (1885) the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche uses the native Iranian name Zarathustra which has a significant meaning[f] as he had used the familiar Greek-Latin name in his earlier works.[104] It is believed that Nietzsche invents a characterization of Zarathustra as the mouthpiece for Nietzsche's own ideas against morality.[g] The Austrian composer Richard Strauss's large-scale tone-poem Also sprach Zarathustra (1896) was inspired by Nietzsche's book. A sculpture of Zoroaster by Edward Clarke Potter, representing ancient Persian judicial wisdom and dating to 1896, towers over the Appellate Division Courthouse of New York State at East 25th Street and Madison Avenue in Manhattan.[105][106] A sculpture of Zoroaster appears with other prominent religious figures on the south side of the exterior of Rockefeller Memorial Chapel on the campus of the University of Chicago.[who?][when?][107] The protagonist and narrator of Gore Vidal's 1981 novel Creation is described to be the grandson of Zoroaster.[108] See also[edit] Poetry portal Religion portal Abraham Also sprach Zarathustra, a tone poem composed in 1896 by Richard Strauss Cypress of Kashmar List of founders of religious traditions List of unsolved deaths Thus Spoke Zarathustra: A Book for All and None, a philosophical novel by German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, composed in four parts between 1883 and 1885. Zartosht Bahram e Pazhdo, author of a Persian epic biography on Zoroaster. Zoroaster and the Mount Savalan Zoroastre, an opera by Jean-Philippe Rameau Notes[edit] a:^ Originally proposed by Burnouf[109] b:^ For refutation of these and other proposals, see Humbach, 1991.[110] c:^ The Bundahishn computes "200 and some years" (GBd xxxvi.9) or "284 years" (IBd xxxiv.9). That '258 years' was the generally accepted figure is however noted by al-Biruni and al-Masudi, with the latter specifically stating (in 943/944 AD) that "the Magians count a period of two hundred and fifty-eight years between their prophet and Alexander."[111][112] d:^ "258 years before Alexander" is only superficially precise.[112] It has been suggested that this "traditional date" is an adoption of some date from foreign sources, from the Greeks[113] or the Babylonians[114] for example, which the priesthood then reinterpreted. A simpler explanation is that the priests subtracted 42 (the age at which Zoroaster is said to have converted Vistaspa) from the round figure of 300.[115][116][117] e:^ From a letter of the Universal House of Justice, Department of the Secretariat, May 13, 1979 to Mrs. Gayle Woolson published in: Hornby (1983), p. 501. f:^ By choosing the name of 'Zarathustra' as prophet of his philosophy, as he has expressed clearly, he followed the paradoxical aim of paying homage to the original Iranian prophet and reversing his teachings at the same time. The original Zoroastrian world view interprets being essentially on a moralistic basis and depicts the world as an arena for the struggle of the two fundamentals of being, Good and Evil, represented in two antagonistic divine figures.[104] g:^ Ecce Homo quotations are per the Ludovici translation.[118] Paraphrases follow the original passage (Warum ich ein Schicksal bin 3), available in the public domain on p. 45 of the Project Gutenberg EBook. References[edit] ^ Stausberg 2002, vol. I, pp. 58–59. ^ a b c d West 2010, p. 4 ^ Boyce 1996, pp. 3–4. ^ a b c d e f g West 2013, pp. 89–109 ^ "Zarathustra". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2020-03-29. ^ a b Boyce 1996, p. 3 ^ a b c West 2010, pp. 4–8 ^ a b c Lincoln 1991, pp. 149–150: "At present, the majority opinion among scholars probably inclines toward the end of the second millennium or the beginning of the first, although there are still those who hold for a date in the seventh century." ^ Fischer 2004, pp. 58–59 ^ Goucher, Candice; Walton, Linda (2013), World History: Journeys from Past to Present, Routledge, p. 100, ISBN 978-1-135-08828-6 ^ a b Boyce 2001, pp. 1–3 ^ Stausberg, Vevaina & Tessmann 2015, pp. 60–61. ^ a b Schlerath 1977, pp. 133–135 ^ a b c d Schmitt 2003. ^ Paul Horn, Grundriß der neupersischen Etymologie, Strassburg 1893 ^ a b Mayrhofer 1977, pp. 43–53. ^ Bailey 1953, pp. 40–42. ^ Markwart 1930, pp. 7ff. ^ a b c MacKenvie, D.N. (1971). A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary (PDF). London: Oxford University Press. p. 98. ISBN 0-19-713559-5. ^ Durkin-Meisterernst, Desmond (2004). Dictionary Of Manichean Middle Persian & Parthian. ^ Boyce 1996, pp. 3, 189–191 ^ Stausberg, Vevaina & Tessmann 2015, p. 61 ^ a b c d e f g Nigosian 1993, pp. 15–16 ^ a b c d Shahbazi 1977, pp. 25–35 ^ Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (1997), Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture, Taylor & Francis, pp. 310–311, 653, ISBN 978-1-884964-98-5 ^ Boyce 1982, pp. 1–7 ^ West 2010, p. 18 ^ Stausberg 2008, p. 572 ^ a b West 2010, p. 6 ^ Stausberg, Vevaina & Tessmann 2015, p. 441 ^ Boyce 1982, p. 260 ^ Boyce 1996, pp. 285–292 ^ a b Tuplin, Christopher (2007). Persian Responses: Political and Cultural Interaction with(in) the Achaemenid Empire. ISD LLC. p. 246. ISBN 9781910589465. ^ West 2010, p. 8 ^ Boyce 1982, p. 261 ^ Stausberg, Vevaina & Tessmann 2015, p. 9 ^ Boyce 1982, p. 68 ^ Shahbazi 1977, pp. 25–26 ^ a b c d Nigosian 1993, pp. 17–18 ^ Boyce 1996, pp. 190–191 ^ Gershevitch 1964, pp. 36–37. ^ William Enfield; Johann Jakob Brucker; Knud Haakonssen (2001). The History of Philosophy from the Earliest Periods: Drawn Up from Brucker's Historia Critica Philosophia. Thoemmes. pp. 18, 22. ISBN 1-85506-828-1. ^ cf. Boyce 1996, pp. 2–26. ^ cf. Gronke 1993, pp. 59–60. ^ Frye 1992, p. 8. ^ Khlopin 1992, pp. 107–110. ^ Sarianidi 1987, p. 54. ^ Boyce 1996, p. 1. ^ Malandra 2005 ^ West 2010, p. 17 ^ Boyce 1996, pp. 182–183 ^ Boyce 1996, pp. 183 ^ Boyce 1996, pp. 184 ^ West 2010, pp. 19–20 ^ West 2010, p. 24 ^ Boyce 1996, pp. 187 ^ West 2010, p. 29 ^ West 2010, p. 9 ^ a b Boyce 1996, pp. 188 ^ West 2010, p. 31 ^ Boyce 1996, pp. 192 ^ "The Destruction of Sacred Trees". www.goldenassay.com. Retrieved 6 February 2020. ^ "The Cypress of Kashmar and Zoroaster". www.zoroastrian.org.uk. Retrieved 6 February 2020. ^ a b Hinnel, J (1997), The Penguin Dictionary of Religion, Penguin Books UK ^ Lee Lawrence. (3 September 2011). "A Mysterious Stranger in China". The Wall Street Journal. Accessed on 31 August 2016. ^ a b c Quoted in Büchner 1936, p. 105 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBüchner1936 (help).[full citation needed] ^ "Zoroastrianism". www.alislam.org. ^ Widengren 1961, p. 76. ^ Widengren 1961, pp. 43–45. ^ Widengren 1961, pp. 44–45. ^ Zaehner 1972, p. 21. ^ Taherzadeh 1976, p. 3. ^ Buck 1998. ^ Blackburn 1994, p. 405. ^ Gladisch, August (1859), Herakleitos Und Zoroaster: Eine Historische Untersuchung, p. IV, hdl:2027/hvd.32044085119394 ^ Blackburn 2005, p. 409. ^ Frankfort, H., Frankfort, H. A. G., Wilson, J. A., & Jacobsen, T. (1964). Before Philosophy. Penguin, Harmondsworth. ^ Jones, W.H.S. (1963). "Pliny Natural History Vol 8; Book XXX". Heinemann. Archived from the original on January 1, 2017. Retrieved December 28, 2016. ^ Stausberg 2002, vol. I, p. 58. ^ See Plutarch's Isis and Osiris 46-7, Diogenes Laertius 1.6–9, and Agathias 2.23-5. ^ a b Beck 1991, p. 525. ^ a b Brenk, Frederick E. (1977). In Mist Apparelled: Religious Themes in Plutarch's Moralia and Lives, Volumes 48-50. Mnemosyne, bibliotheca classica Batava [Vol. 48: Supplementum]. Leiden, NDL: Brill Archive. p. 129. ISBN 9004052410. Retrieved March 19, 2017. ^ a b Beck 1991, p. 491. ^ Beck 2003, para. 4. ^ a b c d Beck 1991, p. 493. ^ Nock et al. 1929, p. 111. ^ Livingstone 2002, pp. 144–145. ^ Livingstone 2002, p. 147. ^ a b Beck 2003, para. 7. ^ Beck 1991, p. 522. ^ a b Beck 1991, p. 523. ^ Cf. Agathias 2.23–5 and Clement's Stromata I.15.[non-primary source needed] ^ See Porphyry's Life of Pythagoras 12, Alexander Polyhistor apud Clement's Stromata I.15, Diodorus of Eritrea and Aristoxenus apud Hippolytus VI32.2, for the primary sources.[non-primary source needed] ^ Lydus, On the Months, II.4.[non-primary source needed] ^ Lucian of Samosata, Mennipus 6.[non-primary source needed] ^ a b Beck 1991, p. 495. ^ a b Beck 1991, p. 526. ^ Sieber 1973, p. 234. ^ Pliny, VII, I.[non-primary source needed] ^ Pliny, VII, XV.[non-primary source needed] ^ Plutarch's Isis and Osiris, 46–7.[non-primary source needed] ^ Religio Medici Part 1 Section 23 ^ "Klein Zaches Genannt Zinnober". Michaelhaldane.com. Retrieved 2013-11-19. ^ a b Ashouri 2003. ^ "Tall Statue of Zoroaster in New York" ایرون دات کام: عکس ها: مجسّمهٔ تمام قّدِ زرتشت در نیویورک (in Persian). Iroon.com. Retrieved 2013-11-19. ^ Pages 9–12 of ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on January 11, 2014. Retrieved December 17, 2013.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ Howes, Victor (1981-04-13). "Vidal's latest: Endless historic tidbits but not a novel; Creation, by Gore Vidal". Christian Science Monitor. ISSN 0882-7729. Retrieved 2020-02-12. ^ Burnouf 1833, p. 13. ^ Humbach 1991, p. I.18. ^ Jackson 1899, p. 162. ^ a b Shahbazi 1977, p. 26. ^ Kingsley 1990, pp. 245–265. ^ Shahbazi 1977, pp. 32–33. ^ Jackson 1896. ^ Boyce 1996, p. [page needed]. ^ Henning, Western Response.[full citation needed] ^ Nietzsche/Ludovici 1911, p. 133 Bibliography[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Zoroaster Wikimedia Commons has media related to Zoroaster. Ashouri, Daryoush (2003), "Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm, and Persia", Encyclopaedia Iranica, New York: Encyclopædia Iranica online Bailey, Harold Walter (1953), "Indo-Iranian Studies", Transactions of the Philological Society, 52: 21–42, doi:10.1111/j.1467-968X.1953.tb00268.x Beck, Roger (1991), "Thus Spake Not Zarathushtra: Zoroastrian Pseudepigrapha of the Greco-Roman World", in Boyce, Mary; Grenet, Frantz (eds.), A History of Zoroastrianism, 3, Leiden: Brill Publishers, pp. 491–565. Beck, Roger (2003), "Zoroaster, as perceived by the Greeks", Encyclopaedia Iranica, New York: Encyclopædia Iranica online Blackburn, Simon, ed. (1994), "Philosophy", The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, Oxford: Oxford University Press Blackburn, Simon, ed. (2005), The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (2nd ed.), London: Oxford University Press Boyce, Mary (1996) [1975], A History of Zoroastrianism: Volume I: The Early Period, BRILL, ISBN 90-04-10474-7 Boyce, Mary (1982), A History of Zoroastrianism: Volume II: Under the Achaemenians, BRILL, ISBN 90-04-06506-7 Boyce, Mary (2001), Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, Psychology Press, ISBN 978-0-415-23902-8 Buck, Christopher (1998), "Bahá'u'lláh as Zoroastrian saviour" (PDF), Bahaʼi Studies Review, 8, archived from the original (PDF) on May 24, 2013 Burnouf, M. Eugène (1833), Commentaire sur le Yaçna, Vol. I, Paris: Imprimatur Royale Effendi, Shoghi (1991), "Buddha, Krishna, Zoroaster", The Compilation of Compilations, Volume I, Baháʼí Publications Australia Effendi, Shoghi (1944), God Passes By, Wilmette: Baháʼí Publishing Trust, ISBN 0-87743-020-9 Fischer, Michael M. J. (2004), Mute Dreams, Blind Owls, and Dispersed Knowledges: Persian Poesis in the Transnational Circuitry, Duke University Press, ISBN 0-8223-8551-1 Foltz, Richard (2013), Religions of Iran: From Prehistory to the Present, London: Oneworld publications, ISBN 978-1-78074-308-0 Frye, Richard N. (1992), "Zoroastrians in Central Asia in Ancient Times", Journal of the K. R. Cama Oriental Institute, 58: 6–10 Gershevitch, Ilya (1964), "Zoroaster's Own Contribution", Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 23 (1): 12–38, doi:10.1086/371754, S2CID 161954467 Gnoli, Gherardo (2000), "Zoroaster in History", Biennial Yarshater Lecture Series, Vol. 2, New York: Bibliotheca Persica Gnoli, Gherardo (2003), "Agathias and the Date of Zoroaster", Eran ud Aneran, Festschrift Marshak, Venice: Libreria Editrice Cafoscarina Gronke, Monika (1993), "Derwische im Vorhof der Macht. Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte Nordwestirans im 13. und 14. Jahrhundert", Freiburger Islamstudien 15, Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag Hornby, Helen, ed. (1983), Lights of Guidance: A Baháʼí Reference File, New Delhi: Baháʼí Publishing Trust, ISBN 81-85091-46-3 Humbach, Helmut (1991), The Gathas of Zarathushtra and the other Old Avestan texts, Heidelberg: Winter Jackson, A. V. Williams (1896), "On the Date of Zoroaster", Journal of the American Oriental Society, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 17, 17: 1–22, doi:10.2307/592499, JSTOR 592499 Jackson, A. V. Williams (1899), Zoroaster, the prophet of ancient Iran, New York: Columbia University Press Khamneipur, Abolghassem (2015), Zarathustra: Myth, Message, History, Voctoria, BC: FriesenPress Kingsley, Peter (1990), "The Greek Origin of the Sixth-Century Dating of Zoroaster", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 53 (2): 245–265, doi:10.1017/S0041977X00026069 Khlopin, I.N. (1992), "Zoroastrianism – Location and Time of its Origin", Iranica Antiqua, 27: 96–116, doi:10.2143/IA.27.0.2002124 Kriwaczek, Paul (2002), In Search of Zarathustra – Across Iran and Central Asia to Find the World's First Prophet, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson Lincoln, Bruce (1991), Death, War, and Sacrifice: Studies in Ideology & Practice, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-48200-2 Livingstone, David N. (2002), The Dying God: The Hidden History of Western Civilization, Writers Club Press, ISBN 0-595-23199-3 Malandra, William W. (2005), "Zoroastrianism: Historical Review", Encyclopaedia Iranica, New York: Encyclopædia Iranica online Markwart, Joseph (1930), Das erste Kapitel der Gatha Uštavati (Orientalia 50), Rome: Pontificio Instituto Biblico Mayrhofer, Manfred (1977), Zum Namengut des Avesta, Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften Moulton, James Hope (1917), The Treasure of the Magi, Oxford: Oxford University Press Moulton, James Hope (1913), Early Zoroastrianism, London: Williams and Norgate Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm; Ludovici, Anthony Mario, trans.; Levy, Oscar, ed. (1911), Ecco Homo, The Complete Works of Friedrich Nietzsche, Edinburgh: T. N. FoulisCS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) Nigosian, Solomon Alexander (1993), The Zoroastrian Faith: Tradition and Modern Research, McGill-Queen's Press, ISBN 978-0-7735-1144-6 Nock, A. D.; Stuart, Duane Reed; Reitzenstein, R.; Schaeder, H. H.; Saxl, Fr. (1929), "(Book Review) Studien zum antiken Synkretismus aus Iran und Griechenland by R. Reitzenstein & H. H. Schaeder", The Journal of Hellenic Studies, The Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 49, 49 (1): 111–116, doi:10.2307/625011, JSTOR 625011 Sarianidi, V. (1987), "South-West Asia: Migrations, the Aryans and Zoroastrians", International Association for the Study of Cultures of Central Asia Information Bulletin, 13: 44–56 Shahbazi, A. Shapur (1977), "The 'Traditional Date of Zoroaster' Explained", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 40 (1): 25–35, doi:10.1017/S0041977X00040386 Schlerath, Bernfried (1977), "Noch einmal Zarathustra", Die Sprache, 23 (2): 127–135 Schmitt, Rüdiger (2003), "Zoroaster, the name", Encyclopaedia Iranica, New York: Encyclopædia Iranica online Sieber, John (July 1973), "An Introduction to the Tractate Zostrianos from Nag Hammadi", Novum Testamentum, 15 (3): 233–240, doi:10.1163/156853673X00079 Stausberg, Michael (2002), Die Religion Zarathushtras, Vol. I & II [Zoroaster's religion] (in German), Stuttgart: Kohlhammer Stausberg, Michael (2004), Die Religion Zarathushtras, Vol. III [Zoroaster's religion] (in German), Stuttgart: Kohlhammer Stausberg, Michael (2005), "Zoroaster, as perceived in Western Europe after antiquity", Encyclopaedia Iranica, OT9, New York: Encyclopædia Iranica online Stausberg, Michael (2008), "On the State and Prospects of the Study of Zoroastrianism", Numen, 55 (5): 561–600, doi:10.1163/156852708X310536, S2CID 143903349 Stausberg, Michael; Vevaina, Yuhan Sohrab-Dinshaw; Tessmann, Anna (2015), The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Zoroastrianism, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-1-4443-3135-6 Taherzadeh, Adib (1976), The Revelation of Bahá'u'lláh, Volume 1: Baghdad 1853–63, Oxford: George Ronald, ISBN 0-85398-270-8 Watkins, Alison (2006), "Where Got I That Truth? Psychic Junk in a Modernist Landscape", Writing Junk: Culture, Landscape, Body (Conference Proceedings), Worcester: University College, pp. 3–4 Werba, Chlodwig (1982), Die arischen Personennamen und ihre Träger bei den Alexanderhistorikern (Studien zur iranischen Anthroponomastik), Vienna: n.p. (Institut für Südasien-, Tibet- und Buddhismuskunde der Universität Wien) West, Martin Litchfield (2010), The Hymns of Zoroaster: A New Translation of the Most Ancient Sacred Texts of Iran, I.B.Tauris, ISBN 978-0-85773-156-2 West, Martin Litchfield (2013), Hellenica: Volume III: Philosophy, Music and Metre, Literary Byways, Varia, OUP Oxford, ISBN 978-0-19-960503-3 Widengren, Geo (1961), Mani and Manichaeism, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, OCLC 640889566 Zaehner, Robert Charles (1972), Zurvan: A Zoroastrian Dilemma, New York: Biblo and Tannen, ISBN 978-0-8196-0280-0 Zaehner, Robert Charles (1958), A Comparison of Religions, London: Faber and Faber. Cf. especially Chapter IV: Prophets Outside Israel Bahram, Zartusht (2010), The Book of Zoroaster, or The Zartusht-Nāmah, London: Lulu External links[edit] Zoroastrianism and Hinduism By Himanshu Bhatt Zoroaster at Encyclopædia Iranica Zoroaster at Encyclopædia Britannica Works by or about Zoroaster at Internet Archive Works by Zoroaster at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) v t e Timeline of the Ancient Near East Category v t e Zoroastrianism Date Zoroaster Vishtaspa Firooz Bahram High School Concepts Ahura Mazda Yazata Ahriman Amesha Spenta Saoshyant Zurvanism Asha Haoma Magi Anahita Fravashi Chinvat Bridge Frashokereti Mobad Vohu Manah Spenta Armaiti Haurvatat Mordad Atash Behram The forces of evil Ahriman Demon Apaosha Jahi Aka Manah Indra Important people Vishtaspa Kartir Paul the Persian Adurbad-i Mahraspand Babak Khorramdin Farhang Mehr Jamasp Maneckji Nusserwanji Dhalla Mazdak Book of Arda Viraf Zartosht Bahram-e Pazhdo Mazyar Ardashir I Shapur II Khosrow I Keikhosrow Shahrokh Maneckji Limji Hataria Zubin Mehta Jamsetji Tata Meher Baba Jahangir Oshidri Rostam Giv Farangis Yeganegi Sacred mirrors and places Zoroastrian festivals Xwedodah Gahambars Navjote Barsom Kushti Trial by ordeal Zoroastrian calendar Ka'ba-ye Zartosht Fire temple Ossuary Tower of Silence Chak Chak, Yazd Khordad Sal Zartosht No-Diso Nava Vihara Adur Burzen-Mihr Adur Gushnasp Zoroastrian music Fire Temple of Yazd Cypress of Kashmar Atashgah castle Religious writings Avesta Gathas Yasna Haptanghaiti Khordeh Avesta Bundahishn Denkard Shāyest nē Shāyest Zend Pazend Menog-i Khrad Book of Arda Viraf Dadestan-i Denig Yasht Middle Persian literature Dabestan-e Mazaheb Avesta scholars Ebrahim Pourdavoud Mary Boyce Karl Friedrich Geldner James Darmesteter Maneckji Nusserwanji Dhalla Friedrich von Spiegel Émile Benveniste Abraham Hyacinthe Anquetil-Duperron Friedrich Heinrich Hugo Windischmann Charles-Joseph de Harlez de Deulin Martin Haug Gherardo Gnoli Mythical places Vourukasha Mazandaran Alborz Daitya Airyanem Vaejah Azerbaijan Sistan Hamun Lake Nishapur Mount Damavand Chak Chak, Yazd Kashmar Personalities Kay Lohrasp Vishtaspa Jamasp Mashya and Mashyana Arash Tahmuras Hushang Jamshid Esfandiyār Peshotanu Arjasp Abtin Zoroastrian communities Zoroastrianism in Armenia Zoroastrianism in Azerbaijan Zoroastrianism in India Irani Parsis Zoroastrianism in Iran Zoroastrianism in Iraq Zoroastrianism in Pakistan Zoroastrianism in the United States Related animals Simurgh Dragon Chamrosh Also See: Category:Zoroastrianism Authority control BIBSYS: 97011762 BNE: XX1187171 BNF: cb11974948r (data) CANTIC: a11063762 GND: 118636227 ISNI: 0000 0001 1661 6596 LCCN: n79062738 NKC: xx0003188 NLG: 305033 NTA: 069965781 SELIBR: 201221 SUDOC: 02778049X Trove: 1048313 ULAN: 500372710 VcBA: 495/16668 VIAF: 66440309 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79062738 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zoroaster&oldid=1001718566" Categories: Ancient occultists Dualism Founders of religions 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en-wikipedia-org-272	----	Nectanebo II - Wikipedia Nectanebo II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Nectanebo II Nakhthorheb Head of Nectanebo II, Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon Pharaoh Reign 360–342 BC[a] (Thirtieth Dynasty) Predecessor Teos Successor Artaxerxes III Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Snedjemibre Setepenanhur Pleasing to the Heart is Ra, chosen of Onuris Nomen Nḫt Ḥr n ḥbt mrj Ḥtḥr Nakhthor(en)hebit Meryhathor Strong is Horus of Hebit, the beloved of Hathor Horus name Mrj-tꜣwj Merytawy Beloved by the Two Lands Nebty name Shrw-jb-nṯrw One who contents the Heart of Gods Golden Horus Smn-hpw Creator of Laws Father Tjahapimu Born c. 380 BC[1] Died c. 340? BC[b] Nectanebo II (Manetho's transcription of Egyptian Nḫt-Ḥr-(n)-Ḥbyt, "Strong is Horus of Hebit"),[2][3] ruled in 360–342 BC[a] was the third and last pharaoh of the Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt as well as the last native ruler of ancient Egypt.[5] Under Nectanebo II, Egypt prospered. During his reign, the Egyptian artists developed a specific style that left a distinctive mark on the reliefs of the Ptolemaic Kingdom.[6] Like his indirect predecessor Nectanebo I, Nectanebo II showed enthusiasm for many of the cults of the gods within ancient Egyptian religion, and more than a hundred Egyptian sites bear evidence of his attentions.[7] Nectanebo II, however, undertook more constructions and restorations than Nectanebo I, commencing in particular the enormous Egyptian temple of Isis (the Iseum). For several years, Nectanebo II was successful in keeping Egypt safe from the Achaemenid Empire.[8] However, betrayed by his former servant, Mentor of Rhodes, Nectanebo II was ultimately defeated by the combined Persian and Greek forces in the Battle of Pelusium (343 BC). The Persians occupied Memphis and then seized the rest of Egypt, incorporating the country into the Achaemenid Empire under Artaxerxes III. Nectanebo fled south and preserved his power for some time; his subsequent fate is unknown. Contents 1 Portraits 2 Rise to power 3 Reign 4 Legacy 4.1 Building campaigns 4.2 Nectanebo and the Alexander Romance 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links Portraits[edit] The greywacke statue of Nectanebo II. Except for the small-scale greywacke statue in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, which shows Nectanebo II standing before the image of Horus, no other annotated portraits of Nectanebo II are known.[9] In the greywacke statue, Nectanebo II is shown in a nemes and uraeus. His bent arm with the sword stands for the hieroglyph nakht, the falcon represents Horus, while the hieroglyph in Nectanebo's right hand stands for heb.[10] Other portraits attributed to Nectanebo II (all featuring the khepresh) include a quartzite head in the museum of the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, a basalt head in Alexandria, a granite head acquired by the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston and a damaged quartzite head.[9] Rise to power[edit] Isis and Nectanebo II In 525 BC, Egypt was conquered by the Achaemenid Empire. Because of internal struggles for the Persian imperial succession, Egypt managed to regain independence in 404 BC. In 389 BC, Pharaoh Hakor negotiated a treaty with Athens and for three years (from 385 to 383 BC) managed to withstand Persian aggression.[11] However, following the conclusion of the Peace of Antalcidas in 387 BC between the Achaemenids and the Greek city-states, Egypt and Cyprus became the only obstacles to Persian hegemony in the Mediterranean. At the beginning of 360 BC, Nectanebo's predecessor, Teos, started preparations for war against intruders. In the same year, the Egyptian army set off, traveling along the coast by land and sea. Nectanebo II accompanied his uncle Teos in that campaign and was in charge of the machimoi.[12] In an attempt to quickly raise finances for the war, Teos imposed taxes on Egyptians and seized temple property.[13] Egyptians, particularly the priests, resented these measures but supported Nectanebo II. Teos asked Spartan military leader Agesilaus and Athenian general Chabrias to support him.[14] Agesilaus, however, said he was sent to aid Egypt and not to wage war against it.[14] Chabrias returned home with his mercenaries.[14] Teos decided to flee to the Achaemenid court, where he ultimately died of natural causes. Nectanebo contended with an unnamed pretender to the throne from the town of Mendes, who proclaimed himself pharaoh.[14] The revolt was probably led by one of the descendants of Nepherites I, whose family had ruled the town before.[15] The claimant sent messengers to Agesilaus in an attempt to persuade Agesilaus to his side.[14] Agesilaus remained loyal to Nectanebo, fearing to become a turncoat. At one of the towns in the Nile Delta, the troops of Nectanebo and Agesilaus were besieged by the usurper, who had gained many sympathisers. Despite the enemy's numerical superiority, Nectanebo and Agesilaus were victorious and the revolt was put down in the fall of 360 BC.[7] Acknowledging Agesilaus, Nectanebo sent him 220 talents of gold. Reign[edit] Egyptian gold stater of Nectanebo II. The design on the reverse consists of Egyptian hieroglyphs meaning “good gold”: pectoral necklace (nub = “gold”) crossing horizontally over a windpipe and heart (nefer = “good”).[16][17] Religion played an important part in Nectanebo's domestic policy. He began his reign by officiating over the funeral of an Apis bull in Memphis. There, Nectanebo added a relief decoration to the eastern and western temples of Apis.[18] Among notable sanctuaries erected under Nectanebo II are a temple of Khnum in Abu and a temple of Amun at Sekhtam. He also dedicated a diorite naos to Anhur-Shu (a fragment of it was found in the temples of Tjebnutjer).[6] Nectanebo II was responsible for the increasing popularity of the Buchis cult.[7] Under Nectanebo II a decree forbidding stone quarrying in the so-called "Mysterious Mountains" in Abydos was issued.[19] Foreign affairs under Nectanebo II were thwarted by repeated Achaemenid attempts to reoccupy Egypt. Before the accession of Nectanebo II to the throne, the Persians attempted to reclaim Egypt in 385, 383, and 373 BC. Nectanebo used the peace to build up a new army and employed Greek mercenaries, which was a common practice at the time. In about 351 BC, the Achaemenid Empire embarked on a new attempt to reclaim Egypt. After a year of fighting, Nectanebo and his allied generals, Diophantus of Athens [ca] and Lamius of Sparta, managed to defeat the Achaemenids. Having scored a resounding victory, Nectanebo II was acclaimed "Nectanebo the divine falcon" by his people, and cults were set up in his name.[20] In 345/44 BC, Nectanebo supported the Phoenician rebellion against the Achaemenid Empire, led by the king of Sidon, Tennes,[21] and dispatched military aid in the form of 4000 Greek mercenaries, led by Mentor of Rhodes.[22] However, having heard of the approach of the forces of Artaxerxes III, Mentor opened communication with the Persians in collusion with Tennes.[22] Saqqara, Sarcophagus of Nectanebo II, which he never used since he fled to the south. British Museum At the end of 344 BC, ambassadors of Artaxerxes III arrived in Greece, asking for the Greeks' participation in a campaign against Egypt.[23] Athens and Sparta treated the ambassadors with courtesy, but refrained from committing to an alliance against Egypt.[23] Other cities, however, decided to support the Persians: Thebes sent 1000 hoplites and Argos 3000.[23] In the winter of 343 BC, Artaxerxes set off for Egypt. The Egyptian army, headed by Nectanebo, consisted of 60,000 Egyptians, 20,000 Libu, and as many Greek mercenaries.[24] In addition, Nectanebo had a number of flat-bottomed boats intended to prevent an enemy from entering the Nile mouths.[25] The vulnerable points along his Mediterranean sea border and east boundary were protected by strongholds, fortifications and entrenched camps.[25] Persian forces were strengthened by Mentor and his men, well acquainted with the eastern border of Egypt, and by 6000 Ionians.[22] Nectanebo II was ultimately defeated and, in the summer of 342 BC, Artaxerxes entered Memphis[26] and installed a satrap.[27] Nectanebo fled to Upper Egypt and finally to Nubia, where he was granted asylum. He, however, preserved a degree of power there for some time. With the help of Khabash, Nectanebo made a vain attempt to regain the throne.[28] Black siltstone obelisk of Pharaoh Nectanebo II. According to the vertical inscriptions he set up this obelisk at the doorway of the sanctuary of Thoth, the Twice-Great, Lord of Hermopolis. Today, it is located in the British Museum, London. Legacy[edit] Building campaigns[edit] Though placed in an unfortunate period of Egyptian history, and with his legacy perhaps marred by being "the last pharaoh" to rule an autonomous Egypt, Nectanebo was an extensive builder, likely on a scale that would equal many kings of the glory days of the New Kingdom.[29] References to either Nectanebo II or his grandfather have been found almost ubiquitously at the premier religious centres,[29] and the piety of the two kings matched those of the great kings of the past, attested to by the numerous monuments across Egypt bearing their names.[30] Nectanebo II, specifically, built and improved temples across the country, and he donated extensively to the priesthoods of the plethora of sites which he donated to. Nectanebo's name has been found at Heliopolis, Athribis, and Bubastis in the Nile Delta, among other places, but he built most extensively at Sebennytos,[31] including the modern site of Behbeit El Hagar. The reliefs of the temples at Sebennytos would leave a distinct mark on the art of the later Ptolemaic Kingdom. The religious focus of his building campaigns, however, may not be solely due to sheer piety; because Nectanebo was an usurper, he likely sought to legitimise his rule over Egypt religiously.[29] Nectanebo and the Alexander Romance[edit] Main article: Alexander romance Papyrus of the Dream of Nectanebo, ca. 160–150 BC There is an apocryphal tale appearing in the pseudo-historical Alexander romance that details another end for the last native pharaoh. Soon after Alexander the Great's godhood was confirmed by the Libyan Sibyl of Zeus Ammon at the Siwa Oasis, a rumor was begun that Nectanebo II, following defeat in his last battle, did not travel to Nubia but instead to the court of Philip II of Macedon in the guise of an Egyptian magician. There, while Philip was away on campaign, Nectanebo convinced Philip's wife Olympias that Amun was to come to her and that they would father a son. Nectanebo, disguising himself as Amun, slept with Olympias and from this event came Alexander.[32] This myth would hold strong appeal for the Egyptians, who desired continuity and harbored a strong dislike for foreign rule. In art of this event, Nectanebo is usually depicted as having dragon-like features, for example in the Speculum Historiale.[33] In the early Ptolemaic tale of Nectanebo and Petesis,[34] preserved only in a Greek fragment from the Memphis Serapeum, the pharaoh has a prophetic dream of Isis in which the god Onuris is angry with him because of his unfinished temple in Sebennytos. Nectanebo calls in the best sculptor of the realm, Petesis, to finish the job, but he bungles his assignment when he gets drunk and chases a beautiful girl instead. The narrative ends abruptly here, but this is probably the preface to the fall of Egypt.[35] Al-Biruni's A History of India reproduces the story.[36] Alexander unhorsing Porrus, the King of India (BL Royal MS B xx, c. 1420) Natanabo, from Sola Busca Tarot (Northern Italy, c. 1491, Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan) The legend of Nectanebo (or Nectanebus, or Natanabo, as reported in some versions of the Alexander Romance) left a profound mark on European culture up to the Renaissance and beyond. It is no coincidence that this character is included in the Sola Busca tarot (with the name Natanabo) together with other important "actors" of the same legend: Alexander, Philip of Macedon, Olympias and Ammon. [37] An alchemical interpretation of this character was provided by the Italian scholar Sofia Di Vincenzo in a study on the Sola Busca Tarot, where she explains that Natanabo represents a celestial messenger who came to earth with a gift, the helmet, which is a symbol of invulnerability and both physical and mental potency. [38] Notes[edit] ^ a b According to J. von Beckerath & A. Dodson; 360–343 BC according to N. Grimal and 359/58–342/41 BC according to D. Arnold.[4] ^ The Dictionary of African Biography notes that "Precise details of Nectanebo II's death are lacking, although it is assumed that he died shortly after 341 BC." References[edit] ^ Akyeampong, Emmanuel K.; Gates, Henry Louis Jr. (2012). Dictionary of African Biographies. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195382075. Retrieved 17 December 2017 – via Gooogle Books. ^ I. A. Ladynin (2009). ""Nectanebos-the-Falcons": Sculpture Images of Nectanebo II Before the God Horus and Their Concept". Vestnik drevnej istorii. Retrieved March 1, 2011. ^ Kipfer, Barbara Ann (2000). Encyclopedic dictionary of archaeology. Springer. p. 384. ISBN 0-306-46158-7. ^ "XXXth Dynasty". Narmer.pl. Archived from the original on January 19, 2009. Retrieved March 2, 2011. ^ "Nakhthorhebyt". Digital Egypt for Universities. Retrieved March 1, 2011. ^ a b Myśliwiec, Karol (2000). The twilight of ancient Egypt: first millennium B.C.E. Cornell University Press. p. 173. ISBN 0-8014-8630-0. ^ a b c Grimal, Nicolás; Nicolas-Christophe Grimal (1994). A history of ancient Egypt. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 379. ISBN 0-306-46158-7. ^ Sharpe, Samuel (1838). The History of Egypt under the Ptolemies. London: E. Moxon. p. 19. OCLC 4523393. ^ a b "An Egyptian Colossal Quartzite Head of the Pharaoh Nectanebo II". Christie's. Retrieved March 5, 2011. ^ "The God Horus Protecting King Nectanebo II". David Rumsey Map Collection/AMICA Library. Retrieved March 5, 2011. ^ Grimal, p. 374 ^ Grimal, p. 377 ^ Educational Britannica Educational (2010). Ancient Egypt: From Prehistory to the Islamic Conquest. The Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 88–89. ISBN 978-1-61530-210-9. ^ a b c d e Dandamaev, M. A. (1989). A political history of the Achaemenid empire. BRILL. p. 301. ISBN 90-04-09172-6. ^ Sharpe, Samuel (1859). The history of Egypt from the earliest times till the conquest by the Arabs: A. D. 640. Moxon. p. 211. ^ "It is worth noting that a series of gold staters apparently issued by Tachos' successor, Nectanebo II (361/60-343) bear hieroglyphs meaning "good gold" (nefer nub)" in American Journal of Numismatics. American Numismatic Society. 1989. p. 26. ^ Forbes, R. J. (1965). Studies in ancient technology. 5. Brill Archive. p. 184. ^ Myśliwiec, p. 171 ^ Assmann, Jan (2005). Death and salvation in ancient Egypt. Cornell University Press. p. 190. ISBN 0-8014-4241-9. ^ Blyth, Elizabeth (2006). Karnak: evolution of a temple. Taylor & Francis. p. 222. ISBN 0-415-40486-X. ^ Brosius, Maria (2006). The Persians: an introduction. Taylor & Francis. p. 29. ISBN 0-415-32089-5. ^ a b c H. R. Hall. "Cambridge's Ancient History of Greece". Third Millennium Library. Retrieved March 4, 2011. ^ a b c Dandamaev, p. 309 ^ Dandamaev, p. 310 ^ a b Maspero, G. (2003). History of Egypt. Kessinger Publishing. p. 309. ISBN 0-7661-3512-8. ^ Brosius, p. 30 ^ Watterson, Barbara (1998). The Egyptians. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 182. ISBN 0-631-21195-0. ^ Myśliwiec, p. 177 ^ a b c Myśliwiec 2000, p. 170. ^ Myśliwiec 2000, p. 171. ^ Myśliwiec 2000, p. 172. ^ Ogden, Daniel (2002). Magic, Witchcraft, and Ghosts in the Greek and Roman Worlds: A Sourcebook. Oxford University Press. p. 59. ISBN 0-19-513575-X. ^ "Héros, d'Achille à Zidane". BnF (in French). Vincent de Beauvais, qui reprend cette tradition légendaire initiée par le Pseudo-Callisthène à la fin du III e siècle et suivie par un certain nombre d'auteurs médiévaux, raconte comment Olympias, abusée par les tours de magie de Nectanebo, a conçu Alexandre avec lui, sous la forme d'un dragon. ^ Maspero, Gaston (1915). Popular Stories of Ancient Egypt. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. pp. 239–242. OCLC 5696112. ^ Koenen, Ludwig (1985). "The Dream of Nektanebos". The Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrologists. 22: 171–194. JSTOR 43785964. ^ Al Beruni (1910). Alberuni's India. Translated by Sachau, Edward. London: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. OCLC 4384506. ^ Gnaccolini, Laura Paola (2012). I Tarocchi Sola Busca e la cultura ermetico-alchemica tra Marche e Veneto alla fine del Qattrocento. Skira, Milano. p. 22. ISBN 978-88-572-1764-2. ^ Di Vincenzo, Sofia (1998). Sola Busca Tarot. U.S. Games Systems, Stamford CT. p. 58. ISBN 1-57281-130-7. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nectanebo II. Livius.org: Nectanebo II Preceded by Teos Pharaoh of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty Succeeded by Artaxerxes III v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 118785850 VIAF: 45098268 WorldCat Identities: viaf-45098268 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nectanebo_II&oldid=995234043" Categories: 4th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: CS1 French-language sources (fr) Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in 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en-wikipedia-org-2730	----	Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep - Wikipedia Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep Sobekhotep I or Sobekhotep II Head of a statue, thought to represent Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep, although other attributions have been proposed Pharaoh Reign At least three years, 1803–1800 BC[1] or 1724–1718 BC[2] (13th Dynasty) Predecessor Uncertain, Sobekneferu or Sedjefakare Kay Amenemhat VII Successor Uncertain, Sekhemkare Sonbef or Khendjer Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sekemre Khutawy Sḫm-Rˁ-ḫwj-t3wj Mighty Ra, he who protects the two lands Nomen Amenemhat Sobekhotep Jmn-m-ḥ3t Sbk-ḥtp Amun is in front, Sobek is satisfied Horus name Menekh[...] Mnḫ-... Splendid [...] Golden Horus Ankhnetjeru ˁnḫ-nṯrw Life of the gods Turin canon: Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep sḫm-rˁ ḫwỉ-t3.wỉ Mighty Ra, who protects the Two Lands, Sobek is satisfied Father Uncertain, possibly Amenemhat IV[1] Born after 1900 BC Died before 1700 BC Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep (appears in most sources as Amenemhat Sobekhotep; now believed to be Sobekhotep I; known as Sobekhotep II in older studies) was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period, who reigned for at least three years c. 1800 BC. His chronological position is much debated, Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep being either the founder of the dynasty, in which case he is called Sobekhotep I, or its twentieth ruler, in which case he is called Sobekhotep II. In his 1997 study of the Second Intermediate Period, the Egyptologist Kim Ryholt makes a strong case for Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep as the founder of the dynasty, a hypothesis that is now dominant in Egyptology.[1][3] His tomb was believed to have been discovered in Abydos in 2013, but its attribution is now questioned.[4] Contents 1 Attestations 1.1 Nile Level Records 1.2 Small finds 1.3 Alleged tomb 2 Chronological position 3 References 4 Further reading Attestations[edit] Titulary of Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep on a relief from the mortuary temple of Mentuhotep II, Deir el-Bahri.[5] Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep is well attested by contemporary sources. First, he is mentioned on the Kahun Papyrus IV, now in the Petrie Museum (UC32166).[1] (Ryholt, p. 315)[6][7] This Kahun Papyrus is "a census of the household of a lector-priest that is dated to the first regnal year" of the king and also records the birth of a son of the lector-priest during a 40th regnal year, "which can only refer to Amenemhat III."[8] This establishes that Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep reigned close in time to Amenemhat III. Second, a number of architectural elements bearing Sobekhotep's titulary are known: a fragment of a Hebsed chapel from Medamud, three lintels from Deir el-Bahri and Medamud, an architrave from Luxor and a doorjamb from Medamud that is now in the Louvre. Nile Level Records[edit] Three Nile level records from Semna and Kumna in Nubia are also attributable to Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep, the latest of which is dated to year 4, showing that he reigned for at least three complete years.[1][9] Small finds[edit] Smaller artifacts mentioning Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep comprise a cylinder seal from Gebelein, an adze-blade, a statuette from Kerma and a faience bead, now in the Petrie Museum (UC 13202).[1][6][10] Alleged tomb[edit] See also: S 10 (Abydos) During a 2013 excavation in Abydos, a team of archaeologists led by Josef W. Wegner of the University of Pennsylvania discovered the tomb of a king with the name Sobekhotep. While Sobekhotep I was named as owner of the tomb on several press reports since January 2014,[11][12][13][14][15][16] further investigations made it more likely that the tomb belongs to king Sobekhotep IV instead.[4] Chronological position[edit] Drawing of a seal reading "The son of Ra, Sobekhotep Amenemhat, beloved of Sobek-Ra, Lord of Iu-miteru".[17] There is some dispute in Egyptology over the position of this king in the 13th Dynasty. The throne name Sekhemre Khutawyre appears in the Turin King List as the 19th king of the 13th Dynasty. However, the Nile level records and his appearance on a papyrus found at Lahun indicate that he might date to the early 13th Dynasty. In both monument types only kings of the late 12th and early 13th Dynasty are mentioned. In the Turin King List, Khutawyre appears as the first 13th Dynasty king; Egyptologist Kim Ryholt maintains that it is possible that the writer of the list confused Sekhemre Khutawy with Khutawyre, the nomen of Wegaf.[1] Furthermore, the identification of any mention of Sekhemre Khutawy is difficult, as at least three kings are known to have had this name: Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep, Sekhemre Khutawy Pantjeny and Sekhemre Khutawy Khabaw. Based on his name Amenemhat Sobekhotep, it has been suggested that Sobekhotep was a son of the penultimate pharaoh of the 12th Dynasty, king Amenemhat IV. Amenemhat Sobekhotep can be read as Amenemhat's son Sobekhotep. Therefore, Sobekhotep may have been a brother of Sekhemkare Sonbef, the second ruler of the 13th Dynasty.[18] Other Egyptologists read Amenemhat Sobekhotep as a double name, these being common in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Dynasty.[19] References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g K. S. B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997. ^ Thomas Schneider after Detlef Franke: Lexikon der Pharaonen, p. 255 ^ Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I – Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 443 ^ a b Josef W. Wegner: A Royal Necropolis at Abydos, in: Near Eastern Archaeology, 78 (2), 2015, p. 70 ^ Édouard Naville: The XIth dynasty temple at Deir el-Bahari, PART II, (1907)available copyright-free online ^ a b "Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep, the Petrie Museum". Digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk. Retrieved 10 January 2014. ^ Kahun papyrus IV, Petrie Museum ^ Ryholt, 1997 SIP, p.315 ^ Nicolás Grimal: A History of Ancient Egypt, Wiley-Blackwell, 1994, pp 183–184 ^ Faience bead of Sekhemre Khutawy, Petrie Museum ^ "Giant Sarcophagus Leads Penn Museum Team in Egypt To the Tomb of a Previously Unknown Pharaoh". Penn Museum. Retrieved 17 January 2014. ^ "King Sobekhotep I Tomb discovered in Sohag". State Information Services. 7 January 2014. Retrieved 8 January 2014. ^ Stephen Adkins (7 January 2014). "Pennsylvania Researchers Discover Tomb of Egypt's First King of 13th Dynasty". University Herald. Retrieved 8 January 2014. ^ "US diggers identify tomb of Pharoah Sobekhotep I". Times Live. South Africa. 6 January 2014. Retrieved 8 January 2014. ^ "Archaeologists discover tomb of Pharoah Sobekhotep I in Egypt". Voice of Russia. 7 January 2014. Retrieved 8 January 2014. ^ Stark, Florian (7 January 2014). "Pharaonengrab aus apokalyptischen Zeiten entdeckt". Die Welt (in German). Retrieved 8 January 2014. ^ Percy Newberry (1908): Scarabs an introduction to the study of Egyptian seals and signet rings, available online copyright free see plate XLIII num 3 ^ Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson, 2004. ISBN 0-500-05128-3 ^ Stephen Quirke: In the Name of the King: on Late Middle Kingdom Cylinders, in: Timelines, Studies in Honour of Manfred Bietak, Leuven, Paris, Dudley, MA. ISBN 90-429-1730-X, 263-64 Further reading[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sebekhotep Sekhemre Khutawy. K. S. B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, (Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997), 336, File 13/1. Preceded by uncertain Sobekneferu or Sedjefakare Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by uncertain Sonbef or Khendjer v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sekhemre_Khutawy_Sobekhotep&oldid=994127906" Categories: 19th-century BC Pharaohs 18th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt 2nd-millennium BC births 2nd-millennium BC deaths Hidden categories: CS1 German-language sources (de) Use dmy dates from January 2014 Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Azərbaycanca Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá Edit links This page was last edited on 14 December 2020, at 05:42 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2746	----	Fourth Dynasty of Egypt family tree - Wikipedia Fourth Dynasty of Egypt family tree From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Fourth Dynasty of Egypt family tree" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Family tree of the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt, ruling ancient Egypt in the 27th century BCE to the 25th century BCE. Chart[edit] Third Dynasty Third Dynasty Meresankh I Hetepheres I SNEFERU ? Meritites I KHUFU Henutsen Rahotep Nefermaat I Itet Djedefhor Meresankh II Kawab Hetepheres II DJEDEFRE Khentetka KHAFRE Khamerernebty I Hemiunu Setka Baka Neferhetepes Hernet MENKAURA Khamerernebty II ? SHEPSESKAF Bunefer Fifth Dynasty Neferhetepes USERKAF Khentkaus I Djedefptah Khamaat v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Royal or noble family trees Monarchies by region Africa Egypt House of Muhammad Ali Ethiopia Solomonic dynasty Madagascar Morocco Tunisia Americas Aztec Brazil Mexico Asia Brunei Cambodia China Ancient Warring States Early Middle Late India Mughal Mughal-Mongol Iran Pre-Islamic: Achaemenid Arsacid Sasanian post-Islamic dynasties Modern: Safavid Afsharid Zand Qajar Pahlavi Japan Shōgun: Kamakura Ashikaga Tokugawa Jerusalem Korea Silla Goryeo Joseon Kuwait Malaysia Johor Kedah Kelantan Negeri Sembilan Pahang Perak Perlis Selangor Terengganu Mongol Borjigin Yuan Ilkhanate Timurid Myanmar Ottoman simplified Seljuk Anatolian Seljuk Sri Lanka Thailand Vietnam Europe Aragon Belgium Bohemia Bosnia Castile Croatia Denmark France simplified House of Bonaparte Greece Hungary Leon Luxembourg Monaco Naples Navarre Netherlands Norway Orange-Nassau Poland Portugal Holy Roman Empire/Germany House of Habsburg (incl. Holy Roman Empire after 1440) Romania Russia Serbia Medieval: Vlastimirović Vojislavljević Vukanović Nemanjić Lazarević Branković Modern: Karađorđević Obrenović Sicily Spain Sweden United Kingdom England simplified) (Wessex Mercia Northumbria Scotland Wales after 1603 Visigoths Oceania Hawaii Kamehameha Lunalilo Kalākaua Huahine Mangareva Samoa Malietoa Tui Manua Tupua Tamasese Tahiti Tonga Dukes, princes and counts Artois Brittany Aquitaine Brabant Lorraine Burgundy Bourbon Condé Conti Flanders Fujiwara Hainault Holland Jagiello La Fayette Lithuania Norfolk Swabia Monarchies of the ancient world Egypt 1st 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st, 22nd & 23rd 25th 26th Near East Yamhad Israel/Judah Georgia Iberia Bagrationi of Tao-Klarjeti and Georgia Kartli Kakheti Imereti Greece and Hellenistic World House of Atreus Erechtheids of Athens Alcmaeonids of Athens Heraclidae Kings of Sparta Argead dynasty Ptolemies Attalid Seleucids Rome Roman Emperors Caecilii Metelli Cornelii Scipiones Julio-Claudian dynasty Severan dynasty Flavian dynasty Constantinian dynasty Valentinianic dynasty Eastern Roman/Byzantine Emperors See also Family tree Ahnentafel Genealogical numbering systems Quarters of nobility Seize quartiers Royal descent Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree&oldid=998140726" Categories: People of the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Ancient Egyptian family trees Fourth Dynasty of Egypt 27th century BC in Egypt 26th century BC in Egypt 25th century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Articles lacking sources from January 2021 All articles lacking sources Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages فارسی Français Hrvatski ქართული Magyar Română සිංහල Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски ไทย Edit links This page was last edited on 4 January 2021, at 00:49 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2747	----	Piye - Wikipedia Piye From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Kushite king and Egyptian pharaoh "Paanchi" redirects here. For other usages, see Paanchi (disambiguation). Piye Piankhi, Piankhy, Paankhi, Paanchi Drawing of the upper part of the victory stele of pharaoh Piye. The lunette on the top depicts Piye being tributed by various Lower Egypt rulers, and the text describes his successful invasion of Egypt. While the stela itself dates back to Piye's reign in the Twenty-fifth Dynasty, it also describes events from the Twenty-third Dynasty. Pharaoh Reign 744–714 BC (25th Dynasty) Predecessor Kashta Successor Shebitku Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Usimare Nomen Piy[1] Horus name Zematawy Nebty name Mes-hemut Golden Horus Sasha-qenu Consort Tabiry, Abar, Khensa, Peksater Children Pharaoh Taharqa, God's Wife Shepenupet II, Queen Qalhata, Queen Arty, Queen Tabekenamun, Queen Naparaye, Queen Takahatenamun, Har, Khaliut Father King Kashta Mother Possibly Queen Pebatjma Burial el-Kurru Monuments Stelae at Jebel Barkal Piye (once transliterated as Pankhy or Piankhi;[2] d. 714 BC) was an ancient Kushite king and founder of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt, who ruled Egypt from 744–714 BC.[3] He ruled from the city of Napata, located deep in Nubia, modern-day Sudan. Contents 1 Name 2 Family 3 Conquest of Egypt 4 Length of reign 5 Burial 6 Stele of Piye 7 Representation in Media 8 References 9 Bibliography 10 External links Name[edit] Piye adopted two throne names: Usimare and Sneferre.[4] He was passionate about the worship of the god Amun, like many kings of Nubia. He revitalized the moribund Great Temple of Amun at Jebel Barkal, which was first built under Thutmose III of the New Kingdom, employing numerous sculptors and stonemasons from Egypt. He was once thought to have also used the throne name 'Menkheperre' ("the Manifestation of Ra abides") but this prenomen has now been recognized as belonging to a local Theban king named Ini instead who was a contemporary of Piye.[5] Family[edit] See also: Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Piye was the son of Kashta and Pebatjma. He is known to have had three or four wives. Abar was the mother of his successor Taharqa. Further wives are Tabiry, Peksater and probably Khensa.[6] Piye is known to have had several children. He was the father of: King Shebitku. Said to be a son of Piye,[7] or alternatively a brother of Piye.[6][8] King Taharqa. Son of Queen Abar. He would take the throne after his uncle Shabaka and another male relative Shebitku.[6] God's Wife of Amun Shepenwepet II. Installed in Thebes during the reign of her brother Taharqa.[6] Qalhata, wife of King Shabaka, she was the mother of king Tanutamun and probably of King Shabataka as well.[6] Tabekenamun married her brother Taharqa.[6] Naparaye married her brother Taharqa.[6] Takahatenamun married her brother Taharqa.[6] Arty, married king Shebitku.[6] Har. Known from an offering table of his daughter Wadjrenes from Thebes (TT34).[6] Khaliut, Governor of Kanad according to a stela found at Barkal.[6] Princess Mutirdis, Chief Prophet of Hathor and Mut in Thebes and daughter of Piye according to Morkot.[8] Thought to be a daughter of a local ruler named Menkheperre Khmuny from Hermopolis by Kitchen.[7] Conquest of Egypt[edit] Image of Shepenupet II, "Divine adoratrice of Amón" and daughter of Piye. Ruins of the Temple of Gebel Barkal. As ruler of Nubia and Upper Egypt, Piye took advantage of the squabbling of Egypt's rulers by expanding Nubia's power beyond Thebes into Lower Egypt. In reaction to this, Tefnakht of Sais formed a coalition between the local kings of the Delta Region and enticed Piye's nominal ally—king Nimlot of Hermopolis—to defect to his side. Tefnakht then sent his coalition army south and besieged Herakleopolis where its king Peftjauawybast and the local Nubian commanders appealed to Piye for help. Piye reacted quickly to this crisis in his regnal year 20 by assembling an army to invade Middle and Lower Egypt and visited Thebes in time for the great Opet Festival which proves he effectively controlled Upper Egypt by this time. His military feats are chronicled in the Victory stela at Gebel Barkal: Hear what I have done in exceeding the ancestors. I am the king, the representation of god, the living image of Atum, who issued from the womb marked as ruler, who is feared by those greater than he, [whose father] knew and whose mother perceived even in the egg that he would be ruler, the good god, beloved of the gods, the Son of Re, who acts with his two arms, Piye, beloved of Amon .... — Victory Stele of Piye.[9] Piye viewed his campaign as a Holy War, commanding his soldiers to cleanse themselves ritually before beginning battle. He himself offered sacrifices to the great god Amun.[10] Piye then marched north and achieved complete victory at Herakleopolis, conquering the cities of Hermopolis and Memphis among others, and received the submission of the kings of the Nile Delta including Iuput II of Leontopolis, Osorkon IV of Tanis and his former ally Nimlot at Hermopolis. Hermopolis fell to the Nubian king after a siege lasting five months. Tefnakht took refuge in an island in the Delta and formally conceded defeat in a letter to the Nubian king but refused to personally pay homage to the Kushite ruler. Satisfied with his triumph, Piye proceeded to sail south to Thebes and returned to his homeland in Nubia never to return to Egypt. Despite Piye's successful campaign into the Delta, his authority only extended northward from Thebes up to the western desert oases and Herakleopolis where Peftjauawybast ruled as a Nubian vassal king. The local kings of Lower Egypt—especially Tefnakht—were essentially free to do what they wanted without Piye's oversight. It was Shabaka, Piye's successor, who later rectified this unsatisfactory situation by attacking Sais and defeating Tefnakht's successor Bakenranef there, in his second regnal year. Length of reign[edit] Detail of a drawing of the Victory stele: Piye (left, partially erased) is tributed by four Nile Delta rulers: Nimlot standing, and kneeling from left to right, Osorkon (IV), Iuput (II) and Peftjauawybast.[11] Piye's highest known date was long thought to be the "Year 24 III Akhet day 10" date mentioned in the "Smaller Dakhla Stela" (Ashmolean Museum No.1894) from the Sutekh temple of Mut el-Kharab in the Dakhla Oasis.[12] However, the inscriptions within the tomb of vizier Padiamonet, discovered in 2006 in Deir El-Bahari, indicate that he died in the 27th year of Piye.[13] Also possibly relevant are the reliefs from the Great Temple at Gebel Barkal, which depict Piye celebrating a Heb Sed Festival. Such festivals were traditionally celebrated in a king's 30th Year. It is debated whether the reliefs portrayed historical events, or were prepared in advance for the festival - in which case Piye might have died before his 30th regnal year. The 2006 discovery lends more weight to the former theory. Kenneth Kitchen has suggested a reign of 31 years for Piye, based on the Year 8 donation stela of a king Shepsesre Tefnakht who is commonly viewed as Piye's opponent.[14] A dissenting opinion came from Olivier Perdu in 2002, who believes that this stela refers instead to the later king Tefnakht II because of stylistic similarities to another, dated to Year 2 of Necho I's reign.[15][16] Burial[edit] Piye's pyramid at El-Kurru Piye's tomb was located next to the largest Pyramid in the cemetery, designated Ku.1 (seen in the image on the right), at el-Kurru near Jebel Barkal in what is now Northern Sudan. Down a stairway of 19 steps opened to the east, the burial chamber is cut into the bedrock as an open trench and covered with a corbelled masonry roof. His body had been placed on a bed which rested in the middle of the chamber on a stone bench with its four corners cut away to receive the legs of the bed so that the bed platform lay directly on the bench. Further out to the edge of the cemetery (the first pharaoh to receive such an entombment in more than 500 years)[10] his four favorite horses had been buried. This site would be also occupied by the tombs of several later members of the dynasty. Stele of Piye[edit] Following its discovery in Jebel Barkal, the Stele of Piye was published by Auguste Mariette in 1872. It consists of a front, a reverse, a two thick sides, all covered with text.[17] Emmanuel de Rougé published a complete word-by-word translation in French in 1876. [18] Stele of Piye (complete).[19] Stele of Piye. Translation of first line (sample).[20] Representation in Media[edit] Piye was played by Chris Rochester in The 25th Dynasty[21] written and directed by Jason Young.[22] References[edit] ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2007-04-26. Retrieved 2007-06-12.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) Piy (Piankhi) ^ Karola Zibelius-Chen. 2006. "Zur Problematik der Lesung des Königsnamens Pi(anch)i." Der Antike Sudan 17:127-133. ^ F. Payraudeau, Retour sur la succession Shabaqo-Shabataqo, Nehet 1, 2014, p. 115-127 online here Archived 2018-05-07 at the Wayback Machine ^ Jürgen von Beckerath, Handbuch der Ägyptischen Königsnamen, Verlag Philipp von Zabern, MÄS 49, 1999. pp. 206-207 ^ Jean Yoyotte, 'Pharaon Iny, un Roi mystèrieux du VIIIe siècle avant J.-C.', CRIPEL 11(1989), pp.113-131 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004. ISBN 0-500-05128-3 ^ a b Kitchen, Kenneth A. The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt, 1100-650 B.C. (Book & Supplement) Aris & Phillips. 1986 ISBN 978-0-85668-298-8 ^ a b Morkot, Robert G., The Black Pharaohs: Egypt's Nubian Rulers, The Rubicon Press, 2000, ISBN 0-948695-24-2 ^ The Literature Of Ancient Egypt (in Arabic). pp. 368 ff. ^ a b "The Black Pharaohs Archived 2014-05-06 at the Wayback Machine", by Robert Draper, National Geographic, February 2008. ^ Leahy, Anthony (1992). "Royal Iconography and Dynastic Change, 750-525 BC: The Blue and Cap Crowns". The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 78: 227, and Plate XXVI. doi:10.2307/3822074. ISSN 0307-5133. JSTOR 3822074. ^ Janssen, Jac. J. (1968-08-01). "The Smaller Dâkhla Stela (Ashmolean Museum No. 1894. 107 b)". The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 54: 165–172. doi:10.2307/3855921. ISSN 0307-5133. JSTOR 3855921. ^ Łucyk, Szymon (March 6, 2006). "Polish archaeologists have discovered a tomb of a vizier in the temple of Hatshepsut". Nauka w Polsce. Polish Press Agency. Archived from the original on 2011-07-17. Retrieved 2014-06-17 – via Egyptology Blog, Translated from Polish by A. Bak. ^ Kenneth Kitchen, The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100–650 BC). 3rd ed. (1996) Warminster: Aris & Phillips ^ Olivier Perdu, "De Stéphinatès à Néchao ou les débuts de la XXVIe dynastie", Compte-rendus de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (CRAIBL) 2002, pp. 1215–1244 ^ Olivier Perdu, "La Chefferie de Sébennytos de Piankhy à Psammétique Ier", RdE 55 (2004), pp. 95–111 ^ Mariette, Auguste (1872). Monuments divers recueillis en Egypte et en Nubie (Tables). Paris. ^ Rougé, Emmanuel de (1811-1872) Auteur du texte (1876). Chrestomathie égyptienne, par M. le Vte de Rougé. 4e fascicule. La Stèle du roi éthiopien Piankhi-Meriamen. ^ Mariette, Auguste (1872). Monuments divers recueillis en Egypte et en Nubie (Tables). Paris. ^ Rougé, Emmanuel de (1811-1872) Auteur du texte (1876). Chrestomathie égyptienne, par M. le Vte de Rougé. 4e fascicule. La Stèle du roi éthiopien Piankhi-Meriamen. ^ https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1731656/?ref_=nm_flmg_wr_6 ^ https://www.imdb.com/name/nm3248232/?ref_=tt_ov_dr Bibliography[edit] Roberto B. Gozzoli: The Writing of History in Ancient Egypt during the First Millennium BC (ca. 1070-180 BC), Trends and Perspectives, London 2006, S. 54-67 ISBN 0-9550256-3-X External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Piye. The Victory Stela of Piankhy The Stela of Piye - verbatim translation v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control BIBSYS: 2022478 GND: 102597839 ISNI: 0000 0000 9993 2342 LCCN: n81020338 VIAF: 42234564 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n81020338 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Piye&oldid=998665032" Categories: 710s BC deaths 8th-century BC Pharaohs 8th-century BC monarchs of Kush Kingdom of Kush Pharaohs of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt Egyptian people of Nubian descent 8th century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: CS1 maint: archived copy as title Webarchive template wayback links CS1 Arabic-language sources (ar) Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Commons category link is on 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en-wikipedia-org-2750	----	King of Kings - Wikipedia King of Kings From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the monarchic or divine title. For other uses, see King of Kings (disambiguation). Ruling title used by certain historical monarchs The title King of Kings was prominently used by Achaemenid Persian kings such as Darius the Great (pictured). The full titulature of Darius was Great King, King of Kings, King in Fārs, King of the Countries, Hystaspes’ son, Arsames’ grandson, an Achaemenid. Part of a series on Imperial, royal, noble, gentry and chivalric ranks in West, Central, South Asia and North Africa Emperor: Caliph · King of Kings · Shahanshah · Padishah · Sultan of Sultans · Chakravarti · Chhatrapati · Samrat · Khagan High King: Great King · Sultan · Sultana · Maharaja · Beg Khan · Amir al-umara · Khagan Bek · Nawab King: Malik · Emir · Hakim · Sharif · Shah · Shirvanshah · Raja · Khan · Dey · Nizam · Nawab Grand Duke: Khedive · Nawab · Nizam · Wāli · Yabghu Crown Prince: Shahzada · Mirza · Nawabzada · Yuvraj · Vali Ahd · Prince of the Sa'id · Mir · Tegin Prince or Duke: Emir · Sheikh · Ikhshid · Beylerbey · Pasha · Babu Saheb · Sardar · Rajkumar · Sahibzada · Nawab · Nawabzada · Yuvraj · Sardar · Thakur · Şehzade · Mirza · Morza · Shad Noble Prince: Sahibzada Earl or Count: Mankari · Dewan Bahadur · Sancak bey · Rao Bahadur · Rai Bahadur · Khan Bahadur · Atabeg · Boila Viscount: Zamindar · Khan Sahib · Bey · Kadi · Baig or Begum · Begzada · Uç bey Baron: Lala · Agha · Hazinedar Royal house: Damat Nobleman: Zamindar · Mankari · Mirza · Pasha · Bey · Baig · Begzada · al-Dawla Governmental: Lala · Agha · Hazinedar · Mostowfi ol-Mamalek v t e King of Kings (Akkadian: šar šarrāni;[1] Old Persian: Xšâyathiya Xšâyathiyânâm;[2] Middle Persian: šāhān šāh;[3] Modern Persian: شاهنشاه, Šâhanšâh; Greek: Βασιλεὺς Βασιλέων, Basileùs Basiléōn;[4] Armenian: արքայից արքա, ark'ayits ark'a; Georgian: მეფეთ მეფე, Mepet mepe;[5] Ge'ez: ንጉሠ ነገሥት, Nəgusä Nägäst[6]) was a ruling title employed primarily by monarchs based in the Middle East. Though most commonly associated with Iran (historically known as Persia in the West[7]), especially the Achaemenid and Sasanian Empires, the title was originally introduced during the Middle Assyrian Empire by king Tukulti-Ninurta I (reigned 1233–1197 BC) and was subsequently used in a number of different kingdoms and empires, including the aforementioned Persia, various Hellenic kingdoms, Armenia, Georgia and Ethiopia. The title is commonly seen as equivalent to that of Emperor, both titles outranking that of king in prestige, stemming from the medieval Byzantine emperors who saw the Shahanshahs of the Sasanian Empire as their equals. The last reigning monarchs to use the title of Shahanshah, those of the Pahlavi dynasty in Iran (1925–1979), also equated the title with "Emperor". The rulers of the Ethiopian Empire used the title of Nəgusä Nägäst (literally "King of Kings"), which was officially translated into "Emperor". The female variant of the title, as used by the Ethiopian Zewditu, was Queen of Kings (Ge'ez: Nəgəstä Nägäst). In the Sasanian Empire, the female variant used was Queen of Queens (Middle Persian: bānbishnān bānbishn). In Judaism, Melech Malchei HaMelachim ("the King of Kings of Kings") came to be used as a name of God. "King of Kings" (βασιλεὺς τῶν βασιλευόντων) is also used in reference to Jesus Christ several times in the Bible, notably in the First Epistle to Timothy and twice in the Book of Revelation. In Islam, both the terms King of Kings and as the Persian variant Shahanshah are condemned, particularly in Sunni hadith. Contents 1 Historical usage 1.1 Ancient India 1.2 Ancient Mesopotamia 1.2.1 Assyria and Babylon 1.2.2 Urartu and Media 1.3 Iran 1.3.1 Achaemenid usage 1.3.2 Parthian and Sasanian usage 1.3.3 Buyid revival 1.4 Hellenic usage 1.5 Armenia 1.6 Georgia 1.7 Palmyra 1.8 Ethiopia 2 In religion 2.1 Judaism and Christianity 2.2 Islam 3 Modern usage 3.1 Iran 3.2 Muammar Gaddafi 4 References 4.1 Annotations 4.2 Citations 4.3 Bibliography 4.4 Websites Historical usage[edit] Ancient India[edit] In Ancient India, Sanskrit language words such as Chakravarti, Rajadhiraja are among the words that were used for employing the title of the King of Kings.[8][9] These words also occur in Aitareya Aranyaka and other parts of Rigveda (1700 BCE - 1100 BCE).[10] Ancient Mesopotamia[edit] Assyria and Babylon[edit] King of Kings was among the many titles used by King Ashurbanipal of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (depicted strangling and stabbing a lion). The title King of Kings was first introduced by the Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I (who reigned between 1233 and 1197 BC) as šar šarrāni. The title carried a literal meaning in that a šar was traditionally simply the ruler of a city-state. With the formation of the Middle Assyrian Empire, the Assyrian rulers installed themselves as kings over an already present system of kingship in these city-states, becoming literal "kings of kings".[1] Following Tukulti-Ninurta's reign, the title was occasionally used by monarchs of Assyria and Babylon.[2] Later Assyrian rulers to use šar šarrāni include Esarhaddon (r. 681–669 BC) and Ashurbanipal (r. 669–627 BC).[11][12] "King of Kings", as šar šarrāni, was among the many titles of the last Neo-Babylonian king, Nabonidus (r. 556–539 BC).[13] Boastful titles claiming ownership of various things were common throughout ancient Mesopotamian history. For instance, Ashurbanipal's great-grandfather Sargon II used the full titulature of Great King, Mighty King, King of the Universe, King of Assyria, King of Babylon, King of Sumer and Akkad.[14] Urartu and Media[edit] The title of King of Kings occasionally appears in inscriptions of kings of Urartu.[2] Although no evidence exists, it is possible that the title was also used by the rulers of the Median Empire, since its rulers borrowed much of their royal symbolism and protocol from Urartu and elsewhere in Mesopotamia. The Achaemenid Persian variant of the title, Xšâyathiya Xšâyathiyânâm, is Median in form which suggests that the Achaemenids may have taken it from the Medes rather than from the Mesopotamians.[2] An Assyrian-language inscription on a fortification near the fortress of Tušpa mentions King Sarduri I of Urartu as a builder of a wall and a holder of the title King of Kings;[15] This is the inscription of king Sarduri, son of the great king Lutipri, the powerful king who does not fear to fight, the amazing shepherd, the king who ruled the rebels. I am Sarduri, son of Lutipri, the king of kings and the king who received the tribute of all the kings. Sarduri, son of Lutipri, says: I brought these stone blocks from the city of Alniunu. I built this wall. — Sarduri I of Urartu Iran[edit] Achaemenid usage[edit] Xerxes the Great of the Achaemenid Empire referred to himself as the great king, the king of kings, the king of the provinces with many tongues, the king of this great earth far and near, son of king Darius the Achaemenian. The Achaemenid Empire, established in 550 BC after the fall of the Median Empire, rapidly expanded over the course of the sixth century BC. Asia Minor and the Lydian kingdom was conquered in 546 BC, the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BC, Egypt in 525 BC and the Indus region in 513 BC. The Achaemenids employed satrapal administration, which became a guarantee of success due to its flexibility and the tolerance of the Achaemenid kings for the more-or-less autonomous vassals. The system also had its problems; though some regions became nearly completely autonomous without any fighting (such as Lycia and Cilicia), other regions saw repeated attempts at rebellion and secession.[16] Egypt was a particularly prominent example, frequently rebelling against Achaemenid authority and attempting to crown their own Pharaohs. Though it was eventually defeated, the Great Satraps' Revolt of 366–360 BC showed the growing structural problems within the Empire.[17] The Achaemenid Kings used a variety of different titles, prominently Great King and King of Countries, but perhaps the most prominent title was that of King of Kings (rendered Xšâyathiya Xšâyathiyânâm in Old Persian)[2], recorded for every Achaemenid king. The full titulature of the king Darius I was "great king, king of kings, king in Persia, king of the countries, Hystaspes’ son, Arsames’ grandson, an Achaemenid".[18][19] An inscription in the Armenian city of Van by Xerxes I reads;[20] I am Xerxes, the great king, the king of kings, the king of the provinces with many tongues, the king of this great earth far and near, son of king Darius the Achaemenian. — Xerxes I of Persia Parthian and Sasanian usage[edit] Mithridates I of Parthia (r. 171–132 BC) was the first post-Achaemenid Iranian king to use the title of King of Kings. Beginning with the reign of his nephew Mithridates II (r. 124–88 BC), the title remained in consistent usage until the fall of the Sasanian Empire in 651 AD. The standard royal title of the Arsacid (Parthian) kings while in Babylon was Aršaka šarru ("Arsacid king"), King of Kings (recorded as šar šarrāni by contemporary Babylonians)[21] was adopted first by Mithridates I (r. 171–132 BC), though he used it infrequently.[22][23] The title first began being consistently used by Mithridates I's nephew, Mithridates II, who after adopting it in 111 BC used it extensively, even including it in his coinage (as the Greek BAΣIΛEΥΣ BAΣIΛEΩN)[4] until 91 BC.[24] It is possible that Mithridates II's, and his successors', use of the title was not a revival of the old Achaemenid imperial title (since it was not used until almost a decade after Mithridates II's own conquest of Mesopotamia) but actually stemmed from Babylonian scribes who accorded the imperial title of their own ancestors onto the Parthian kings.[25] Regardless of how he came to acquire the title, Mithridates II did undertake conscious steps to be seen as an heir to and restorer of Achaemenid traditions, introducing a crown as the customary headgear on Parthian coins and undertaking several campaigns westwards into former Achaemenid lands.[4] The title was rendered as šāhān šāh in Middle Persian and Parthian and remained in consistent use until the ruling Arsacids were supplanted by the Sasanian dynasty of Ardashir I, creating the Sasanian Empire. Ardashir himself used a new variant of the title, introducing "Shahanshah of the Iranians" (Middle Persian: šāhān šāh ī ērān). Ardashir's successor Shapur I introduced another variant; "Shahanshah of the Iranians and non-Iranians" (Middle Persian: šāhān šāh ī ērān ud anērān), possibly only assumed after Shapur's victories against the Roman Empire (which resulted in the incorporation of new non-Iranian lands into the empire). This variant, Shahanshah of Iranians and non-Iranians, appear on the coinage of all later Sasanian kings.[3] The final Shahanshah of the Sasanian Empire was Yazdegerd III (r. 632–651 AD). His reign ended with the defeat and conquest of Persia by the Rashidun Caliphate, ending the last pre-Islamic Iranian Empire.[26] The defeat of Yazdegerd and the fall of the Sasanian Empire was a blow to the national sentiment of the Iranians, which was slow to recover. Although attempts were made at restoring the Sasanian Empire, even with Chinese help, these attempts failed and the descendants of Yazdegerd faded into obscurity.[27] The title Shahanshah was criticized by later Muslims, associating it with the Zoroastrian faith and referring to it as "impious".[28] The female variant of the title in the Sasanian Empire, as attested for Shapur I's (r. 240–270 AD) daughter Adur-Anahid, was the matching bānbishnān bānbishn ("Queen of Queens"). The similar title shahr banbishn ("Queen of the empire") is attested for Shapur I's wife Khwarranzem.[29] Buyid revival[edit] Panāh Khusraw, better known by his laqab 'Adud al-Dawla, revived the title of Shahanshah in Iran in the year 978 AD, more than three centuries after the fall of the Sasanian Empire. Following the fall of the Sasanian Empire, Iran was ruled by a series of relatively short-lived Muslim Iranian dynasties; including the Samanids and Saffarids. Although Iranian resentment against the Abbasid Caliphs was common, the resentment materialized as religious and political movements combining old Iranian traditions with new Arabic ones rather than as full-scale revolts. The new dynasties do not appear to have had any interest in re-establishing the empire of the old Shahanshahs, they at no point seriously questioned the suzerainty of the Caliphs and actively promoted Arabic culture. Though the Samanids and the Saffarids also actively promoted the revival of the Persian language, the Samanids remained loyal supporters of the Abbasids and the Saffarids, despite at times being in open rebellion, did not revive any of the old Iranian political structures.[30] The shiite Buyid dynasty, of Iranian Daylamite origin, came to power in 934 AD through most of the old Iranian heartland. In contrast to earlier dynasties, ruled by Emirs and wanting to appease the powerful ruling Caliphs, the Buyids consciously revived old symbols and practices of the Sasanian Empire.[31] The region of Daylam had resisted the Caliphate since the fall of the Sasanian Empire, attempts at restoring a native Iranian rule built on Iranian traditions had been many, though unsuccessful. Asfar ibn Shiruya, a Zoroastrian and Iranian nationalist, rebelled against the Samanids in 928 AD, intending to put a crown on himself, set up a throne of gold and make war on the Caliph. More prominently, Mardavij, who founded the Ziyarid Dynasty, was also Zoroastrian and actively aspired to restore the old empire. He was quoted as promising to destroy the empire of the Arabs and restore the Iranian empire and had a crown identical to the one worn by the Sasanian Khosrow I made for himself.[32] At the time he was murdered by his own Turkic troops, Mardavij was planning a campaign towards Baghdad, the Abbasid capital. Subsequent Ziyarid rulers were Muslim and made no similar attempts.[33] After the death of Mardavij, many of his troops entered into the service of the founder of the Buyid dynasty, Imad al-Dawla.[33] Finally, the Buyid Emir Panāh Khusraw, better known by his laqab (honorific name) of 'Adud al-Dawla proclaimed himself Shahanshah after defeating rebellious relatives and becoming the sole ruler of the Buyid dynasty in 978 AD.[n 1] Those of his successors that likewise exercised full control over all the Buyid emirates would also style themselves as Shahanshah.[34][35] During times of Buyid infighting, the title became a matter of importance. When a significant portion of Firuz Khusrau's (laqab Jalal al-Dawla) army rebelled in the 1040s and wished to enthrone the other Buyid Emir Abu Kalijar as ruler over the lands of the entire dynasty, they minted coins in his name with one side bearing the name of the ruling Caliph (Al-Qa'im) and the other side bearing the inscription "al-Malik al-Adil Shahanshah".[36] When discussing peace terms, Abu Kalijar in turn addressed Jalal in a letter with the title Shahanshah.[37] When the struggle between Abu Kalijar and Jalal al-Dawla resumed, Jalal, wanting to assert his superiority over Kalijar, made a formal application to Caliph Al-Qa'im for the usage of the title Shahanshah, the first Buyid ruler to do so. It can be assumed that the Caliph agreed (since the title was later used), but its usage by Jalal in a mosque caused outcry at its impious character.[28] Following this, the matter was raised to a body of jurists assembled by the Caliph. Though some dissented, the body as a whole ruled that the usage of al-Malik al-Adil Shahanshah was lawful.[38] Hellenic usage[edit] Although the Hellenic Seleucid rulers frequently assumed old Persian titles and honors, the usurper Timarchus is one of few concrete examples of a Seleucid ruler using the title "King of Kings". Alexander the Great's conquests ended the Achaemenid Empire and the subsequent division of Alexander's own empire resulted in the Seleucid dynasty inherting the lands formerly associated with the Achaemenid dynasty. Although Alexander himself did not employ any of the old Persian royal titles, instead using his own new title "King of Asia" (βασιλεὺς τῆς Ἀσίας)[39], the monarchs of the Seleucid Empire more and more aligned themselves to the Persian political system. The official title of most of the Seleucid kings was "Great King", which like "King of Kings", a title of Assyrian origin, was frequently used by the Achaemenid rulers and was intended to demonstrate the supremacy of its holder over other rulers. "Great King" is prominently attested for both Antiochus I (r. 281–261 BC) in the Borsippa Cylinder and for Antiochus III the Great (r. 222–187 BC) throughout his rule.[40] In the late Seleucid Empire, "King of Kings" even saw a revival, despite the fact that the territory controlled by the Empire was significantly smaller than it had been during the reigns of the early Seleucid kings. The title was evidently quite well known to be associated with the Seleucid king, the usurper Timarchus (active 163–160 BC) called himself "King of Kings" and the title was discussed in sources from outside the empire as well.[41] Some non-Seleucid rulers even assumed the title for themselves, notably in Pontus (especially prominently used under Mithridates VI Eupator).[41][42] It is possible that the Seleucid usage indicates that the title no longer implied complete vassalization of other kings but instead a recognition of suzerainty (since the Seleucids were rapidly losing the loyalty of their vassals at the time).[41] Armenia[edit] The King of Kings Tigranes the Great of Armenia with four vassal Kings surrounding him After the Parthian Empire under Mithridates II defeated Armenia in 105 BC, the heir to the Armenian throne, Tigranes, was taken hostage and kept at the Parthian court until he bought his freedom in 95 BC (by handing over "seventy valleys" in Atropatene) and assumed the Armenian throne.[43] Tigranes ruled, for a short time in the first century BC, the strongest empire in the Middle East which he had built himself. After conquering Syria in 83 BC, Tigranes assumed the title King of Kings.[44] The Armenian kings of the Bagratuni dynasty from the reign of Ashot III 953–977 AD to the dynasty's end in 1064 AD revived the title, rendering it as the Persian Shahanshah.[45] Georgia[edit] King of Kings was revived in the Kingdom of Georgia by King David IV (r. 1089–1125 AD), rendered as mepet mepe in Georgian. All subsequent Georgian monarchs, such as Tamar the Great, used the title to describe their rule over all Georgian principalities, vassals and tributaries. Their use of the title probably derived from the ancient Persian title.[46][47] Palmyra[edit] After a successful campaign against the Sasanian Empire in 262 AD, which restored Roman control to territories that had been lost to the Shahanshah Shapur I, the ruler of the city of Palmyra, Odaenathus, founded the Palmyrene kingdom. Though a Roman vassal, Odaenathus assumed the title Mlk Mlk dy Mdnh (King of Kings and Corrector of the East). Odaenathus son, Herodianus (Hairan I) was acclaimed as his co-monarch, also given the title King of Kings.[48][49] Usage of the title was probably justified through proclaiming the Palmyrene kingdom as the legitimate successor state of the Hellenic Seleucid empire, which had controlled roughly the same territories near its end. Herodianus was crowned at Antioch, which had been the final Seleucid capital.[49] Though the same title was used by Odaenathus second son and successor following the deaths of both Odaenathus and Herodianus, Vaballathus and his mother Zenobia soon relinquished it, instead opting for the Roman Augustus ("Emperor") and Augusta ("Empress") respectively.[50] Ethiopia[edit] The title King of Kings was used by the rulers of the Aksumite Kingdom since the reign Sembrouthes c. 250 AD.[51] The rulers of the Ethiopian Empire, which existed from 1270 to 1974 AD, also used the title of Nəgusä Nägäst, sometimes translated to "King of the Kingdom", but most often equated to "King of Kings" and officially translated to Emperor. Though the Ethiopian Emperors had been literal "Kings of Kings" for the duration of the Empire's history, with regional lords using the title of Nəgus ("king"), this practice was ended by Haile Selassie (r. 1930–1974 AD), who somewhat paradoxically still retained the use of Nəgusä Nägäst.[6] Empress Zewditu (r. 1916–1930 AD), the only female monarch of the Ethiopian Empire, assumed the variant "Queen of Kings" (Nəgəstä Nägäst).[52][53] In religion[edit] Judaism and Christianity[edit] See also: Christ the King "Christ as King of Kings". A Russian icon from Murom (1690). In Judaism, Melech Malchei HaMelachim ("the King of Kings of Kings") came to be used as a name of God, using the double superlative to put the title one step above the royal title of the Babylonian and Persian kings referred to in the Bible.[54] "King of Kings" (βασιλεὺς τῶν βασιλευόντων) is used in reference to Jesus Christ several times in the Bible, notably once in the First Epistle to Timothy (6:15) and twice in the Book of Revelation (17:14, 19:11–16);[55] ... which He will bring about at the proper time—He who is the blessed and only Sovereign, the King of kings and Lord of lords, ... — First Epistle to Timothy 6:15 "These will wage war against the Lamb, and the Lamb will overcome them, because He is Lord of lords and King of kings, and those who are with Him are the called and chosen and faithful." — Book of Revelation 17:14 And I saw heaven opened, and behold, a white horse, and He who sat on it is called Faithful and True, and in righteousness He judges and wages war. His eyes are a flame of fire, and on His head are many diadems; and He has a name written on Him which no one knows except Himself. ... And on His robe and on His thigh He has a name written, "KING OF KINGS, AND LORD OF LORDS." — Book of Revelation 19:11–12, 16 Some Christian realms (Georgia, Armenia and Ethiopia) employed the title and it was part of the motto of the Byzantine Emperors of the Palaiologan period, Βασιλεὺς Βασιλέων Βασιλεύων Βασιλευόντων (Basileus Basileōn, Basileuōn Basileuontōn, literally "King of Kings, ruling over those who rule").[56] In the Byzantine Empire the word Βασιλεὺς (Basileus), which had meant "king" in ancient times had taken up the meaning of "emperor" instead. Byzantine rulers translated "Basileus" into "Imperator" when using Latin and called other kings rēx or rēgas, hellenized forms of the Latin title rex.[57][58] As such, Βασιλεὺς Βασιλέων in the Byzantine Empire would have meant "Emperor of Emperors". The Byzantine rulers only accorded the title of Basileus onto two foreign rulers they considered to be their equals, the Kings of Axum and the Shahanshahs of the Sasanian Empire, leading to "King of Kings" being equated to the rank of "Emperor" in the view of the West.[59] Islam[edit] Following the fall of the Sasanian Empire in 651 AD, the title of Shahanshah was sternly criticized in the Muslim world. It was problematic enough that the adoption of Shahanshah by the Muslim Buyid dynasty in Persia required a body of jurists to agree on its lawfulness[38] and the title itself (both as "king of kings" and as the Persian variant Shahanshah) is condemned in Sunni hadith, a prominent example being Sahih al-Bukhari Book 73 Hadiths 224 and 225;[60][61] Allah's Apostle said, "The most awful name in Allah's sight on the Day of Resurrection, will be (that of) a man calling himself Malik Al-Amlak (the king of kings)." — Sahih al-Bukhari Book 73 Hadith 224 The Prophet said, "The most awful (meanest) name in Allah's sight." Sufyan said more than once, "The most awful (meanest) name in Allah's sight is (that of) a man calling himself king of kings." Sufyan said, "Somebody else (i.e. other than Abu Az-Zinad, a sub-narrator) says: What is meant by 'The king of kings' is 'Shahan Shah.," — Sahih al-Bukhari Book 73 Hadith 225 The condemnation of the title within the Islamic world may stem from that the concept of God alone being king had been prominent in early Islam. Opposing worldly kingship, the use of "King of Kings" was obnoxious and blasphemous.[27] Modern usage[edit] Iran[edit] Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (r. 1941–1979) was the last monarch of Iran and the last Iranian ruler to take the title Shahanshah. After the end of the Buyid dynasty in 1062 AD, the title of Shahanshah wouldn't be adopted by another Iranian ruler until Ismail I, the founder of the Safavid dynasty. Upon his capture of Tabriz in 1501 AD, more than four hundred years after the end of the Buyid dynasty, Ismail proclaimed himself the Shāh of Azerbaijan and the Shahanshah of Iran.[62] The term šāhanšāh-e Irān, King of Kings of Iran, is richly attested for the Safavid period and for the preceding Timurid period (when it was not in use).[63] Nader Shah, founder of the later Afsharid Dynasty, assumed the title šāhanšāh in 1739 to emphasize his superiority over Muhammad Shah of the Mughal Empire in India.[64] The title Shahanshah is also attested for Fath-Ali Shah Qajar of the Qajar dynasty (r. 1797–1834). Fath-Ali's reign was noted for its pomp and elaborate court protocol.[65] An 1813/1814 portrait of Fath-Ali contains a poem with the title; "Is this a portrait of a shahanshah, inhabitant of the skies / Or is it the rising of the sun and the image of the moon?".[66] The Qajar dynasty was overthrown in 1925, replaced by the Pahlavi dynasty. Both reigning members of this dynasty, Reza Shah Pahlavi (r. 1925–1941) and Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (r. 1941–1979), before they too were overthrown as part of the Iranian revolution in 1979, used the title of Shahanshah.[67] Although Mohammad Reza Pahlavi had reigned as Shah for twenty-six years by then, he only took the title of Shahanshah on 26 October 1967 in a lavish coronation ceremony held in Tehran. He said that he chose to wait until this moment to assume the title because in his own opinion he "did not deserve it" up until then; he is also recorded as saying that there was "no honour in being Emperor of a poor country" (which he viewed Iran as being until that time).[68] The current head of the exiled house of Pahlavi, Reza Pahlavi II, symbolically declared himself Shahanshah at the age of 21 after the death of his father in 1980.[69] Muammar Gaddafi[edit] In 2008, the Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi claimed the title of "King of Kings" after a gathering of more than 200 African tribal kings and chiefs endorsed his use of the title on 28 August that year, stating that "We have decided to recognise our brotherly leader as the 'king of kings, sultans, princes, sheikhs and mayors of Africa". At the meeting, held in the city of Benghazi, Gaddafi was given gifts including a throne, an 18th-century Qur'an, traditional outfits and ostrich eggs. At the same meeting, Gaddafi urged his guests to put pressure on their own governments and speed the process of moving towards a unified African continent. Gaddafi told those that attended the meeting that "We want an African military to defend Africa, we want a single African currency, we want one African passport to travel within Africa".[70][71] The meeting was later referred to as a "bizarre ceremony" in international media.[72] References[edit] Annotations[edit] ^ Though the title being revived by 'Adud al-Dawla is the most common view, some scant evidence suggests that it may have been assumed by Buyid rulers even earlier, possibly by Dawla's father Rukn al-Dawla or uncle Imad al-Dawla.[30] Citations[edit] ^ a b Handy 1994, p. 112. ^ a b c d e King of kings in Media and Urartu. ^ a b Yücel 2017, pp. 331–344. ^ a b c Olbrycht 2009, p. 165. ^ Pinkerton 1811, p. 124. ^ a b Dejene 2007, p. 539. ^ Yarshater, Ehsan Persia or Iran, Persian or Farsi Archived 2010-10-24 at the Wayback Machine, Iranian Studies, vol. XXII no. 1 (1989) ^ Pasricha, Ashu (1998). Encyclopaedia Eminent Thinkers (vol. 15 : The Political Thought Of C. Rajagopalachari). Concept Publishing. p. 11. ISBN 9788180694950. In Sanskrit, 'Chakravarti' means the King of Kings. ^ The Cilappatikāram: The Tale of an Anklet. Penguin Books. 2004. p. 342. ISBN 9780143031963. ^ Mookerji, Radhakumud. The Fundamental Unity of India (from Hindu Sources). Longmans, Green and Company. p. 71. ^ Karlsson 2017, p. 7. ^ Karlsson 2017, p. 10. ^ Oshima 2017, p. 655. ^ Levin 2002, p. 362. ^ Tušpa (Van). ^ Engels 2011, p. 20. ^ Engels 2011, p. 21. ^ DARIUS iv. Darius II. ^ Achaemenid Dynasty. ^ Tushpa. ^ Simonetta 1966, p. 18. ^ Daryaee 2012, p. 179. ^ Schippmann 1986, pp. 525–536. ^ Shayegan 2011, p. 43. ^ Shayegan 2011, p. 44. ^ Kia 2016, pp. 284–285. ^ a b Madelung 1969, p. 84. ^ a b Amedroz 1905, p. 397. ^ Sundermann 1988, pp. 678–679. ^ a b Madelung 1969, p. 85. ^ Goldschmidt 2002, p. 87. ^ Madelung 1969, p. 86. ^ a b Madelung 1969, p. 87. ^ Clawson & Rubin 2005, p. 19. ^ Kabir 1964, p. 240. ^ Amedroz 1905, p. 395. ^ Amedroz 1905, p. 396. ^ a b Amedroz 1905, p. 398. ^ Fredricksmeyer 2000, pp. 136–166. ^ Engels 2011, p. 27. ^ a b c Engels 2011, p. 28. ^ Kotansky 1994, p. 181. ^ Strabo, Geography. ^ Olbrycht 2009, p. 178. ^ Greenwood 2011, p. 52. ^ Dzagnidze 2018. ^ Vashalomidze 2007, p. 151. ^ Hartmann 2001, pp. 149, 176, 178. ^ a b Andrade 2013, p. 333. ^ Ando 2012, p. 210. ^ Kobishchanov 1979, p. 195. ^ Kiunguyu 2018. ^ Tesfu 2008. ^ Gluck 2010, p. 78. ^ Jesus As King Of Kings. ^ Atlagić 1997, p. 2. ^ Kazhdan 1991, p. 264. ^ Morrisson 2013, p. 72. ^ Chrysos 1978, p. 42. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari Book 73 Hadith 224. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari Book 73 Hadith 225. ^ Lenczowski 1978, p. 79. ^ Iranian Identity. ^ NĀDER SHAH. ^ The Court of Fath 'Ali Shah at the Nowrooz Salaam Ceremony. ^ Portrait of Fath Ali Shah Seated. ^ Saikal & Schnabel 2003, p. 9. ^ National Geographic Magazine, p. 9. ^ Goodspeed 2010. ^ Gaddafi named 'king of kings'. ^ Gaddafi: Africa's 'king of kings'. ^ Adebajo 2011. Bibliography[edit] Amedroz, H. F. (1905). "The Assumption of the Title Shahanshah by Buwayhid Rulers". The Numismatic Chronicle and Journal of the Royal Numismatic Society. 5: 393–399. JSTOR 42662137. Ando, Clifford (2012). Imperial Rome AD 193 to 284: The Critical Century. Edinburgh University Press. Andrade, Nathanael J. (2013). Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-01205-9. Atlagić, Marko (1997). "The cross with symbols S as heraldic symbols" (PDF). Baština. 8: 149–158. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 21, 2013. Chrysos, Evangelos K. (1978). "The Title Βασιλευσ in Early Byzantine International Relations". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 32: 29–75. doi:10.2307/1291418. JSTOR 1291418. Clawson, Patrick; Rubin, Michael (2005). Eternal Iran: continuity and chaos. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-6276-8. Daryaee, Touraj (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–432. ISBN 978-0-19-987575-7. Archived from the original on 2019-01-01. Retrieved 2019-02-22. Dejene, Solomon (2007). "Exploring Iddir: Toward Developing a Contextual Theology of Ethiopia". Research in Ethiopian Studies: Selected Papers of the 16th International Conference of Ethiopian Studies. Engels, David (2011). "Middle Eastern 'Feudalism' and Seleucid Dissolution". Cite journal requires |journal= (help)[dead link] Fredricksmeyer, Ernst (2000). Bosworth, A. B.; Baynham, E. J. (eds.). Alexander the Great and the Kingship of Asia. Alexander the Great in Fact and Fiction: Oxford University Press. Gluck, P. K. (2010). The Sovereignty of Kings and the Rule of Scientists: A Paradigm Conflict (PDF). The University of Michigan. Goldschmidt, Arthur (2002). A Concise History of the Middle East (7 ed.). Westview Press. ISBN 978-0813338859. Greenwood, Timothy (2011). The Emergence of the Bagratuni Kingdoms of Kars and Ani. Mazda Publishers. Handy, Lowell K. (1994). 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Hoover Institution Press. ISBN 978-0817966416. Levin, Yigal (2002). "Nimrod the Mighty, King of Kish, King of Sumer and Akkad". Vetus Testamentum. 52 (3): 350–366. doi:10.1163/156853302760197494. Madelung, Wilferd (1969). "The Assumption of the Title Shāhānshāh by the Būyids and "The Reign of the Daylam (Dawlat Al-Daylam)"". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 28 (2): 84–108. doi:10.1086/371995. JSTOR 543315. Morrisson, Cécile (2013). Displaying the Emperor's Authority and Kharaktèr on the Marketplace. Routledge. ISBN 978-1409436089. "National Geographic magazine". 133 (3). March 1968: 299. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Olbrycht, Marek Jan (2009). "Mithridates VI Eupator and Iran". Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Oshima, Takayoshi M. (2017). "Nebuchadnezzar's Madness (Daniel 4:30): Reminiscence of a Historical Event or a Legend?". Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Pinkerton, John (1811). 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MEDIEVAL ISLAMIC PERIOD". iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 23 February 2019. "King of kings in Media and Urartu". melammu-project.eu. Retrieved 19 February 2019. Kiunguyu, Kylie (2018). "Empress Zewditu: Ethiopia's First female head of State". thisisafrica.me. Retrieved 21 February 2019. "NĀDER SHAH". iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 23 February 2019. "Portrait of Fath Ali Shah Seated". hermitagemuseum.org. Retrieved 20 February 2019. "Sahih al-Bukhari Book 73 Hadith 224". muflihun.com. Retrieved 20 February 2019. "Sahih al-Bukhari Book 73 Hadith 225". muflihun.com. Retrieved 20 February 2019. "Strabo, Geography". perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 20 February 2019. "The Court of Fath 'Ali Shah at the Nowrooz Salaam Ceremony". rct.uk. Retrieved 20 February 2019. Tesfu, Julianna (2008). "Empress Zewditu (1876–1930)". blackpast.org. Retrieved 21 February 2019. "Tushpa – Ancient History Encyclopedia". ancient.eu. Retrieved 20 February 2019. "Tušpa (Van)". livius.org. Retrieved 20 February 2019. v t e Imperial, royal, and noble styles Forms of address for popes, royalty, and nobility Western Holiness Imperial and Royal Majesty (HI&RM) Imperial and Most Faithful Majesty Imperial Majesty (HIM) Apostolic Majesty (HAM) Apostolic King Catholic Monarchs Catholic Majesty (HCM) Most Christian Majesty (HMCM) Most Faithful Majesty (HFM) Orthodox Majesty (HOM) Britannic Majesty (HBM) Most Excellent Majesty Most Gracious Majesty Royal Majesty (HRM) Majesty (HM) Grace (HG) Royal Highness (HRH) Monseigneur (Msgr) Exalted Highness (HEH) Highness (HH) Most Eminent Highness (HMEH) Serene Highness (HSH) Illustrious Highness (HIll.H) Excellency (HE) Most Excellent Most Illustrious Hochgeboren Hochwohlgeboren Wohlgeboren Much Honoured (The Much Hon.) Milord (Millourt) Antiquity Ancient Rome Pater Patriae Augustus Sebastos Dominus Middle Ages Sovereign and mediatised families in the Holy Roman Empire Imperial and Royal Highness (HI&RH) Imperial Highness (HIH) Royal Highness (HRH) Grand Ducal Highness (HGDH) Grand Highness Highness (HH) Ducal Serene Highness (HDSH) Serene Highness (HSH) Serenity (HS) Illustrious Highness (HIll.H) Grace (HG) Excellency (HE) Asian Duli Yang Maha Mulia Great king Khan Great Khan King of Kings Maharaja Mikado Shah Shogun Son of Heaven Islamic Amir al-umara Amir al-Mu'minin Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques Hadrat Sharif Sultanic Highness Countries France Georgia Netherlands Portugal United Kingdom Canada Scotland See also By the Grace of God Divine right of kings Defender of the Faith (Fidei defensor) Defender of the Holy Sepulchre Great Catholic Monarch List of current sovereign monarchs List of current constituent monarchs Sacred king Translatio imperii Victory title Don (honorific) Wikipedia:WikiProject Royalty and Nobility v t e Ancient Mesopotamian royal titulature Dominion over the world King of All Peoples (šar kiššat nišē) King of the Four Corners of the World (šar kibrāt erbetti) King of the Universe (šar kiššatim) More Dominion over Mesopotamia King of Kings (šar šarrāni) King of Sumer and Akkad (šar māt Šumeri u Akkadi) King of the Lands (šar mātāti) More The king's person Great King (šarru rabu) Mighty King (šarrum dannum) More Specific locations King of Akkad (šar māt Akkadi) King of Assyria (šar māt Aššur) King of Babylon (šar Bābili) King of Sumer (šar māt Šumeri) More Titles rendered in Akkadian language. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=King_of_Kings&oldid=1002419018" Categories: 2nd-millennium BC introductions Assyrian kings Feudalism Heads of state Royal titles Noble titles Emperors New Testament words and phrases Titles of national or ethnic leadership Superlatives in religion Superlatives Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles CS1 errors: missing periodical All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from February 2020 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Alemannisch العربية Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Bosanski Català Čeština Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Қазақша Kurdî Nederlands 日本語 Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Тоҷикӣ Українська 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 10:26 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2760	----	Category:Family of Darius the Great - Wikipedia Help Category:Family of Darius the Great From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Pages in category "Family of Darius the Great" The following 15 pages are in this category, out of 15 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). A Achaemenes (satrap) Ariabignes Arsames (satrap of Egypt) Artabanus (son of Hystaspes) Artaphernes Artazostre Artystone Atossa H Hyperanthes Hystaspes (father of Darius I) M Masistes Megabates O Oebares II P Parmys X Xerxes I Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Family_of_Darius_the_Great&oldid=970583980" Categories: Darius the Great Families of national leaders Family by person Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español فارسی Edit links This page was last edited on 1 August 2020, at 05:30 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2772	----	Sogdianus - Wikipedia Sogdianus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Sogdianus of Persia) Jump to navigation Jump to search Illegitimate son of Artaxerxes I, brief ruler of the Achaemenid Empire This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources. Find sources: "Sogdianus" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2017) King of Kings Sogdianus King of Kings Great King King of Persia Pharaoh of Egypt King of Countries King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Reign 424 BC – 423 BC Predecessor Xerxes II Successor Darius II Died Persepolis, Persia House Achaemenid Father Artaxerxes I Mother Alogyne of Babylon Religion Zoroastrianism Sogdianus (/ˌsɔːɡdiˈeɪnəs/ or /ˌsɒɡdiˈeɪnəs/) was briefly a ruler of the Achaemenid Empire for a period in 424–423 BC. His short rule—lasting not much more than six months—and the little recognition of his kingdom are known primarily from the writings of Ctesias; who is known to be unreliable. He was reportedly an illegitimate son of Artaxerxes I by his concubine Alogyne of Babylon. Contents 1 Background 1.1 Death of Artaxerxes I 1.2 Rise and fall 2 References Background[edit] Death of Artaxerxes I[edit] The last inscription mentioning Artaxerxes I being alive can be dated to December 24, 424 BC. His death resulted in at least three of his sons proclaiming themselves King of Kings. The first was Xerxes II, who was reportedly his only legitimate son by Queen Damaspia and was formerly the heir. Xerxes II's rule was apparently only recognized in the Persian heartlands. The second was Sogdianus himself, presumed to have initially been recognized only in Elam. The third was Ochus, son of Artaxerxes I by his concubine Cosmartidene of Babylon and satrap of Hyrcania. Ochus was also married to their common half-sister Parysatis, daughter of Artaxerxes I and his concubine Andia of Babylon. The first inscription of Ochus as Darius II can be dated to January 10, 423 BC. He seems to have been recognized by Medes, Babylonia and Egypt. If it is correct that all three declared themselves king at the same time, then the Achaemenid Empire had three King of Kings for a brief period.[1][2] Rise and fall[edit] This chaotic state of affairs would prove short-lived. Xerxes II only ruled for forty-five days. He was reportedly murdered while drunk by Pharnacyas and Menostanes, conspirators who sided with Sogdianus, on his orders. Sogdianus apparently gained the support of his regions and reigned for six months and fifteen days before being captured by his half-brother, Ochus, who had rebelled against him feeling dishonoured he was passed up over Sogdianus for the throne—since he outranked the latter. Sogdianus was executed by being suffocated in ash per Ochus' promise he would not die by the sword, by poison or by hunger. Ochus then ascended to the Achaemenid throne as Darius II; he was the sole ruler of the Persian Empire until 404 BC.[2] References[edit] ^ Ctesias the Cnidian. Persica. 18. ^ a b Zawadzki, S. (1995–1996). "The Circumstances of Darius II's Accession". Jaarbericht Ex Oriente Lux. 34: 45–49. Sogdianus Achaemenid dynasty Born: ?? Died: 423 BC Preceded by Xerxes II Great King (Shah) of Persia 424 BC – 423 BC Succeeded by Darius II Pharaoh of Egypt 424 BC – 423 BC v t e Median and Achaemenid kings Family tree Median (728–550 BC) Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Achaemenid (550–330 BC) Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Nothus Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Italics indicate kings not directly attested and so possibly legendary. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sogdianus&oldid=1002212973" Categories: 5th-century BC births 423 BC deaths 5th-century BC Kings of the Achaemenid Empire 5th-century BC Pharaohs 5th-century BC Babylonian kings Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Pharaohs of the Achaemenid dynasty of Egypt Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt 5th-century BC murdered monarchs Murdered Persian monarchs 5th-century BC Iranian people 5th-century BC rulers Deaths from asphyxiation Executed monarchs Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles needing additional references from April 2017 All articles needing additional references AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano עברית Magyar Malagasy مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 January 2021, at 10:38 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-277	----	Djedankhre Montemsaf - Wikipedia Djedankhre Montemsaf From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Djedankhre Montemsaf Montuemsaf, Mentemsaf, Mentuemsaf Steatite scarab of pharaoh Djedankhre Montemsaf reading "The good god, Djedankhre", now in the Petrie Museum UC11225. Pharaoh Reign uncertain, ca. 1590 BC (16th Dynasty) Predecessor uncertain, Dedumose II Successor uncertain, Mentuhotep VI Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Djedankhre Ḏd-ˁnḫ-Rˁ Enduring of life like Ra Variant: Djedankhre Ḏd-ˁnḫ-Rˁ Nomen Montuemsaf Mn-tw-m-s3-f Montu is his protection Burial unknown, probably in Dra' Abu el-Naga'[1] Djedankhre Montemsaf was a Theban king of the 16th Dynasty based in Upper Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c. 1590 BC.[2][3] As such, he would have ruled concurrently with the 15th Dynasty, which controlled Lower and Middle Egypt. Attestations[edit] Djedankhre Montemsaf is attested by an inscribed block found in Gebelein,[1][4] a bronze axe-blade of unknown origin, now in the British Museum, and bearing "The good god Djedankhre, given life" and finally two scarab seals, also of unknown provenance.[1][5] Djedankhre Montemsaf is not attested on the surviving fragments of the Turin canon, his reign and those of four other kings of the end of the 16th Dynasty being lost in a lacuna.[2] For this reason, the exact chronological position as well as the length of his reign cannot be ascertained. Chronological position[edit] According to the new arrangement of kings of the Second Intermediate Period and Kim Ryholt, Djedankhre Montemsaf succeeded Djedneferre Dedumose II and preceded Merankhre Mentuhotep VI on the throne.[6] He was thus a king of the late 16th Dynasty and may have reigned ca. 1590 BC. The arguments supporting this chronological position are: 1) the form of his prenomen Ḏd-X-Rˁ, which is in common with those of Dedumose I and Dedumose II; 2) the location of finds attesting Montemsaf in Thebes and the south; and 3) the style of the axe-blade which can be dated to the late Second Intermediate Period. On the other hand, an older study by Jürgen von Beckerath places Djedankhre Montemsaf in the 13th Dynasty, following Mentuhotep VI and succeeded by Dedumose I on the throne.[7] References[edit] ^ a b c Darell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300 - 1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 221 ^ a b Kim Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, Museum Tusculanum Press, (1997), p. 202 ^ Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004. ISBN 0-500-05128-3 ^ Chris Bennett, A Genealogical Chronology of the Seventeenth Dynasty, Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, Vol. 39 (2002), pp. 123-155 JSTOR ^ One scarab is in the British Museum BM EA 40687, the other in the Petrie Museum UC 11225, see scarab here. ^ New arrangement, Digital Egypt for Universities ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt 1964, (XIII G.) v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Djedankhre_Montemsaf&oldid=971139927" Categories: 16th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Català Deutsch Español Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Slovenščina ไทย Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 4 August 2020, at 12:05 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2792	----	Babylonian revolts (484 BC) - Wikipedia Babylonian revolts (484 BC) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Shamash-eriba) Jump to navigation Jump to search For other Babylonian revolts, see Revolt of Babylon. Babylonian revolts (484 BC) Part of the Babylonian revolts against the Persian Empire The Daiva inscription of Xerxes I (c. 480 BC), which records the suppression of a religious revolt somewhere in the Achaemenid Empire. It might be a reference to the revolts of Bel-shimanni and Shamash-eriba.[1] Date July – October 484 BC (3 months) Location Babylonia Result Decisive Achaemenid victory Babylon and other cities punished; extent of punishment unclear Division of the large Babylonian satrapy into smaller units Targeted revenge against supporters of the revolts Persians encourage local cults in Babylonia to diminish the religious hegemony of Babylon in the region Belligerents Babylon Sippar Borsippa Kish Dilbat Other Babylonian cities Achaemenid Empire Commanders and leaders Shamash-eriba Bel-shimanni Xerxes I Strength Unknown Unknown The Babylonian revolts of 484 BC were revolts of two rebel kings of Babylon, Bel-shimanni (Akkadian: Bêl-šimânni)[1] and Shamash-eriba (Akkadian: Šamaš-eriba),[1] against Xerxes I, king of the Persian Achaemenid Empire. Babylonia had been conquered by the Persians in 539 BC, but through the fifty-five years of Persian rule, the Babylonians had grown dissatisfied with their foreign overlords. Babylon's prestige and significance had diminished as the Persian kings did not become absorbed by the native Babylonian culture and continued to rule from capitals outside of Babylonia. Furthermore, the Persian kings failed in the traditional duties of the Babylonian king in that they rarely partook in Babylon's rituals (which required the presence of a king) and rarely gave cultic gifts in Babylonian temples. Babylonian letters written shortly before the revolt paint a picture of dissatisfaction and concern, as the Persians withdrew the income of Babylonian temple officials without explanation and tax pressures and exploitation of resources increased throughout Babylonia. It is possible that the revolts were not just motivated by a wish to re-establish an independent Babylonian kingdom, but that the revolts also had religious undertones, something which might connect them to a religious uprising somewhere in the Persian Empire written about in Xerxes's inscriptions. The revolt began in July 484 BC, the fourth month of Xerxes's second year as king. The citizens of Sippar (north of Babylon) proclaimed Shamash-eriba as king of Babylon and he also took for himself the title king of the Lands. In the same month, a second rebel king, Bel-shimanni, was recognised in Borsippa and Dilbat (south of Babylon). Shamash-eriba was still in control of Sippar at this point, which means that the two rebels were contemporaries, either allies or, more likely, rivals. Bel-shimanni's revolt was brief, only lasting about two weeks, most probably either being defeated by Shamash-eriba or willingly giving up his claim and joining with the northern rebel. By September, Shamash-eriba was recognised not only in Sippar and Borsippa, but also in Kish and Babylon itself. The Persians defeated him in October and re-established control of Babylonia. The extent to which Babylon and the Babylonians were reprimanded by Xerxes is unclear. Traditionally, historians have ascribed widespread destruction to the aftermath of the revolts, with Xerxes supposedly having greatly damaged the temples of Babylon and removing the Statue of Marduk, Babylon's main cult image, from the city. The veracity of such claims is unclear, as no evidence exists whatsoever of any damage being done to the cities of Babylonia in 484 BC. Other forms of retribution are evident from the historical evidence; the text archives of a majority of Babylonia's most prominent families end in 484 BC, suggesting targeted revenge against the supporters of the revolts. Additionally, the Persians appear to have worked on dismantling the religious hegemony Babylon held over Babylonia by encouraging the rise of local cults in other Mesopotamian cities, most notably in Uruk. Contents 1 Background 2 Historical evidence and chronology 3 Reconstruction of events 4 Aftermath 4.1 Xerxes as a "destroyer of Babylon" 4.2 End of the Babylonian archives 4.3 Religious reorganisation of Uruk 5 Notes 6 References 6.1 Bibliography 6.2 Web sources Background[edit] The Neo-Babylonian Empire, the last great Mesopotamian empire to be ruled by monarchs native to Mesopotamia itself[2] and the final and most spectacular era in Babylonian history, was ended through the Persian Achaemenid conquest of Babylon under Cyrus the Great in 539 BC. After its conquest, Babylon would never again rise to become the single capital of an independent kingdom, much less a great empire. The city, owing to its prestigious and ancient history, continued to be an important site, however, with a large population, defensible walls and a functioning local cult for centuries.[3] The Babylonians worshipped the gods of the Mesopotamian pantheon and the citizens of Babylon above all others revered the god Marduk, the patron deity of the city. Though worship of Marduk never meant the denial of the existence of the other gods, it has sometimes been compared to monotheism.[4] Though Babylon did become one of the Achaemenid Empire's capitals (alongside Pasargadae, Ecbatana and Susa), retaining some importance through not being relegated to just a provincial city,[5] the Persian conquest introduced a ruling class which was not absorbed by the native Babylonian culture, instead maintaining their own additional political centers outside of Mesopotamia. Since the new rulers did not rely on Babylon's significance for their continued rule, the city's prestige had been irreversibly diminished.[5] Although the Persian kings continued to stress Babylon's importance through their titulature, using the royal title king of Babylon and king of the Lands,[6] the Babylonians became less and less enthusiastic in regards to Persian rule as time went on. That the Persians were foreigners probably had very little to do with this resentment; none of the traditional duties and responsibilities[n 1] of the Babylonian kings required them to be ethnically or even culturally Babylonian; many foreign rulers had enjoyed Babylonian support in the past and many native kings had been despised.[7] More important than a king's origin was whether they fulfilled their royal duties in line with established Babylonian royal tradition.[8] The Persian kings had capitals elsewhere in their empire, rarely partook in Babylon's traditional rituals (meaning that these rituals could not be celebrated in their traditional form since the presence of the king was typically required) and rarely performed their traditional duties to the Babylonian cults through the construction of temples and giving of cultic gifts to the city's gods. As such, the Babylonians might have interpreted them as failing in their duties as kings and thus not having the necessary divine endorsement to be considered true kings of Babylon.[9] Babylon revolted several times against Persian rule in an attempt to regain its independence and the revolts of 484 BC against Xerxes I were not the first time the city rebelled.[10] Xerxes's father and predecessor Darius I (r. 522–486 BC) faced the rebellions of Nebuchadnezzar III (522 BC) and Nebuchadnezzar IV (521 BC), both of whom claimed to be sons of Nabonidus, Babylon's last independent king.[11][12] Historical evidence and chronology[edit] Locations of some major Mesopotamian cities The Babylonian revolts against Darius are easily dated to 522 and 521 BC due to the number of contemporary sources. The revolts of Nebuchadnezzar III and Nebuchadnezzar IV were part of a wider series of uprisings throughout the Persian Empire due to unrest and dissent following the deaths of Persian rulers Cambyses II and Bardiya. The large number of uprisings were only suppressed by Darius with great difficulty and as a result his victory widely commemorated in texts and monuments.[10] Although there was contemporary dissent within the Persian Empire in the 480s BC as well, notably an ongoing revolt in Egypt, the resistance against Persian rule was not as widespread as it had been forty years earlier. Perhaps as a result of this, the Babylonian revolts against Xerxes were not as widely commemorated as those against Darius I. There are no known documents or monuments made by Xerxes that speak of his Babylonian victory and no contemporary Babylonian chroniclers recorded the events of the year. No known later Babylonian documents reflect on what transpired either and though a handful of later Greek historians, such as Herodotus, wrote of a Babylonian uprising against Xerxes, they appear to have lacked precise knowledge of the events that transpired and their dates.[10] In general, evidence in regards to the revolts is sparse and whether all of historical evidence traditionally associated with them is actually related and how it fits together is unclear. The most important evidence are contemporary Babylonian documents that date themselves to the reign of the rebel kings of 484 BC; Bel-shimanni and Shamash-eriba, confirming the existence of the rebels, their names, and their revolt against Persian rule. In addition to these documents, the Daiva inscription by Xerxes, which records the suppression of a religious revolt somewhere in his empire, could be a reference to the revolts, though the inscription does not specify where the revolt took place or who partook in it. Other evidence comes in the form of the works of later Greek and Roman historians. Herodotus wrote that Xerxes captured Babylon after an uprising and removed a statue from the Esagila (Babylon's main temple) as punishment. The Greek historian Ctesias (typically considered unreliable) wrote that Xerxes dealt with two different Babylonian revolts on two separate occasions, the first one being defeated by his general Megabyzus and the second one being defeated by Xerxes himself. The Greco-Roman historian Arrian wrote that Xerxes faced a Babylonian revolt on his way back from Greece in 479 BC and punished the Babylonians for their uprising by closing the Esagila.[1] As Babylonian tablets do not record years in relation to anything other than the first year of a king,[13] the tablets dated to the reigns of Bel-shimanni and Shamash-eriba do not in of themselves provide enough evidence to determine when their revolts took place. As the tablets are dated to the summer months, one method to determine when the revolts took place would be to examine which of the regnal years of Xerxes are missing tablets dated to the summer. However, several different possibilities are then available as there are no known tablets dated to Xerxes's reign from the summers of 484 BC, 479 BC, 477 BC, 475 BC, 473 BC, 472 BC, 468 BC or 466 BC.[1] The first attempt to date Bel-shimanni and Shamash-eriba was made by Arthur Ungnad in 1907, who suggested that they had rebelled during the late reign of Darius I or early reign of Xerxes. He based this on the names of the people mentioned in the legal contracts dated to the two rebels, since these figures were also mentioned in legal contracts written during the reigns of Darius and Xerxes. Based on information contained in the tablets recognising Bel-shimanni, Mariane San Nicolò was in 1934 confidently able to pinpoint his reign to Xerxes's second year as king (484 BC).[13] In 1941, George Glenn Cameron suggested that Shamash-eriba's revolt had taken place in Xerxes's fourth year (482 BC), coinciding with Xerxes supposedly dropping the title king of Babylon.[13] In 1992, Pierre Briant proposed that a better fit would be Xerxes's sixth year (480 BC), since a rebellion in Babylon could help explain why Xerxes mismanaged his ongoing war in Greece. Shamash-eriba's uprising also taking place in 484 BC was not suggested until 2004 by Caroline Waerzeggers, who partly based her date on the archival context of several of the contracts dated to his reign and evidence from previously unpublished cuneiform material. John Oelsner examined her evidence in 2007 and also agreed with 484 BC as the most probable date. Since 2007, 484 BC has been the near-universally accepted date for both revolts.[14] Further evidence examined since then, such as an abrupt end to many Babylonian archives in 484 BC, makes it clear that something remarkable occurred during this year.[1] Reconstruction of events[edit] The cuneiform tablets dated to the reigns of Bel-shimanni (green) and Shamash-eriba (purple) and the locations of their discovery presented in a timeline.[1] Through examination of the cuneiform evidence, it is possible to approximately reconstruct the events of 484 BC.[14] It is apparent that the Babylonians were dissatisfied with Persian rule; preserved letters from the Babylonian city of Borsippa, written shortly before 484 BC, suggest a generally worried atmosphere in the city. The incomes of the city's temple officials had been withdrawn by Persian officials without any explanation. Although it is unclear whether this type of sudden and unexplained interference by imperial authorities was restricted to Borsippa or widespread throughout Babylonia, it might have been what allowed the rebel leaders to gather significant enough support to revolt. In addition to this specific example, tax pressures and a general exploitation of Babylonian resources had gradually increased throughout the reign of Xerxes's predecessor, Darius.[15] As the Babylonian establishment was closely linked to religious matters and the Daiva inscription refers to a religious revolt, it is possible that the Babylonian revolts were religious in nature.[1] The contents of Babylonian text archives deposited in 484 BC prove the existence of a large interconnected network of urban elites throughout Babylonia prior to the revolts. Texts deposited in the archives of different families and individuals overlap significantly in style and several figures appear in texts from different archives, proving the existence of inter-personal relationships among Babylonia's elites. These archives implicate several figures as supporters of Bel-shimanni's and Shamash-eriba's revolts, including the governor (šākinṭēmi) of Babylon itself, prebendaries of temples in Sippar (with frequently mentioned figures being the archive owners Marduk-rēmanni and Bēl-rēmanni) as well as the powerful Ša-nāšišu family, which controlled the most important religious and civic offices of both Babylon and Sippar in the reign of Darius.[16] Caroline Waerzeggers identified the Ša-nāšišu family in the years leading up to 484 BC as "ideally positioned to facilitate coordinated action".[17] Though contemporary Babylonian documents offer little in regards to events transpiring at a political stage, they can be used to establish a sequence of events as they allow researchers to determine which cities recognised the rule of Bel-shimanni and Shamash-eriba and on what days their rules were recognised.[13] After the death of Darius, Xerxes's rule was initially accepted in Babylonia, despite mounting unrest in the region and an ongoing revolt in Egypt. In the fourth month of Xerxes's second year as king,[14] July 484 BC,[1] the citizens of the city of Sippar proclaimed Shamash-eriba, of unclear origin, as king.[14] He took the title king of Babylon and of the lands.[15] Shamash-eriba's proclamation as king, though he did not yet control Babylon itself, was the first open act of revolt from the Babylonians since the uprising of Nebuchadnezzar IV in 521 BC. Tablets recognising Bel-shimanni in Borsippa and Dilbat, cities south of Sippar, are known from just ten days after the earliest tablets recognising Shamash-eriba.[14] As most Babylonian names did, the names of both rebels incorporate the names of Mesopotamian deities. Shamash-eriba's name incorporates the deity Shamash, a sun god and the patron deity of Sippar[18] (where Shamash-eriba's rebellion began).[14] Bel-shimanni's name incorporates Bêl, meaning "lord", a common designation for Marduk.[19] As Shamash-eriba was still recognised by the citizens of Sippar at this point, there was suddenly two contemporary Babylonian rebels. Though both fought against the Persians, Waerzeggers speculated in 2018 that they, as rival claimants, might also have fought against each other.[14] As the ruler of Sippar, Shamash-eriba's revolt initially gained ground in northern Babylonia whereas Bel-shimanni power-base was south of Babylon, in Borsippa and Dilbat.[1] Nothing is known of the background of either of the rebel leaders. Caroline Waerzeggers suggested a number of possibilities in 2018, writing that the most likely possibilities were that they were army officers, local governors or religious leaders. As their names are Babylonian, both were probably native Babylonians.[20] As tablets dated to the reign of Bel-shimanni only cover a period of about two weeks,[21] it is clear that his reign was terminated through some means and Shamash-eriba later remained as the only contender facing Xerxes.[14] Bel-shimanni might have been defeated by Shamash-eriba or willingly merged his uprising with that of his northern contender.[1] Halfway through September, the cities of Sippar, Babylon, Borsippa and Kish are known to have supported Shamash-eriba's rule.[14] As no documents recognise Shamash-eriba's rule after October, it is likely that the Persians defeated him in that month.[1] Aftermath[edit] Though the revolts themselves were only brief interruptions of Persian dominion, their aftermath saw large-scale and significant changes to political institutions and society in Babylonia as the Persians cemented their control of the region.[22] Xerxes as a "destroyer of Babylon"[edit] 9th century BC depiction from a cylinder seal of the Statue of Marduk, Babylon's patron deity Marduk's main cult image in the city It is disputed and unclear whether Xerxes's response in Babylonia was measured or violent and what its long-term effects were on Babylonian society.[23] The orthodox view, most clearly expressed by George Glenn Cameron in 1941 and Franz Marius Theodor de Liagre Böhl in 1962, is that Babylon was harshly reprimanded, with Xerxes ruining the city, taking away the Statue of Marduk (Babylon's main cult image of Marduk), which in turn prevented the celebration of Akitu (the Babylonian New Year's festival, which required the statue's presence), splitting the large Babylonian satrapy ("Babylon-and-across-the-River") into two smaller provinces, and removing the title king of Babylon from his royal titulature. Other researchers, such as Hans-Jörg Schmid in 1981, further embellished the details of this supposed retribution, considering it possible the Esagila was destroyed and that the river Euphrates was diverted.[22] Evidence to support Xerxes unleashing heavy retribution upon Babylon include that Daiva inscription, which supposedly encapsulates Xerxes I's intolerant religious policy, as well as the decreasing number of clay tablets from Babylonia after his reign, perhaps illustrating the region's decline. Other researchers, such as Amélie Kuhrt and Susan Sherwin-White in 1987, consider the ideas forwarded by Böhl and others as being "based on a careless reading of Herodotus combined with incomplete Babylonian evidence and an implicit wish to make very disparate types of material harmonize with a presumed “knowledge” of Xerxes’ actions, policies and character".[22] The primary evidence that the Statue of Marduk was removed from the Esagila comes from Herodotus, but the relevant passage in his text only reads that the "statue of a man" was removed, with no indication that this is supposed to be the statue of the god. Xerxes cannot be responsible for suspending the Babylonian Akitu festival since the festival had already been suspended for quite some time before Xerxes became king. Furthermore, the title king of Babylon was not abruptly dropped by Xerxes, who continued to use it (albeit less often) in the years after the Babylonian revolts. There is even evidence that Xerxes's successor, Artaxerxes I, used the title at times.[24] The gradual disappearance of the title might reflect the stabilisation of the Persian Empire into a more integrated political unit, rather than some instant punishment against Babylon.[25] Following re-assessments in the 1990s, most modern scholars agree that viewing Xerxes as the "destroyer of Babylonian temples" would be erroneous and based on uncritical misreadings of classical sources alongside an attempt to forcefully fit sparse Babylonian references into the hypothesis.[24] The lesser number of clay tablets from the reign of Xerxes and later might be attributable not to Persian oppression but to a multitude of other factors, such as accidents, the appearance of new forms of recordkeeping and new writing technologies or the further spread the Aramaic language.[25] The ruins of major cities in Babylonia show no evidence of having suffered any destruction whatsoever in the 480s BC.[24] End of the Babylonian archives[edit] The Neo-Babylonian Text Corpus is a collection of documents and texts which document the history of Babylonia under Assyrian, Babylonian and subsequent Persian rule. Two-thirds of the large number of tablets were deposited in a single year, 484 BC. The texts are relatively decentralised and organic in content up until documents written in 484 BC, which are more homogenised and politicised. This suggests widespread support of Bel-shimanni and Shamash-eriba among many of the authors. Caroline Waerzeggers wrote in 2004 that the archives were probably abandoned (or otherwise deposited) in the aftermath of the revolts, possible as the result of Persian intervention[26] as an effect of targeted revenge against those who supported the revolts.[27] Those archives that continue beyond 484 BC were written by local clients of the Persian governing elite in Babylonia, such as managers and caretakers of estates owned by Persian landlords.[26] Many of them were of rural origin, tied to the Persian state through its systems of governance.[28] In contrast, those whose archives cease in 484 BC were overwhelmingly people who lived in the cities, their ideology not rooted in their relationship to the new Persian overlords but to the political tradition of Babylonia in the form of the country's temples and cities; urban institutions had been established long before the Persian conquest and were run by a small number of families intimately connected through status, education, employment and marriage.[29] Most of the closed archives are from the main rebel centers of 484 BC; Babylon, Borsippa and Sippar,[30] whereas surviving archives are mainly from cities such as Ur, Uruk and Kutha, which may not have supported the uprising.[1] The contrasting origins and status of the people whose archives survived 484 BC and those whose archives did not point to a clear political division between the two groups. Waerzeggers argued in 2004 that the former group represented a pro-Babylonian faction aspiring to overthrow Persian rule whilst the latter represented a pro-Persian faction content with Persian dominion. The end of the archives coincides with the disappearance of elite families with roots in Babylon from southern Babylonia, suggesting that the Persian retribution at least partially focused on dismantling what remained of the pro-Babylonian faction in the aftermath of the revolts.[28] It is probable that repercussions against these individuals was not limited to just closing their archives and probably reflected the removal of previously enjoyed privileges in several areas.[29] The end of the archives does not appear to have been unexpected for their owners. The most precious and valuable types of tablets, such as property deeds, are not found among the contents of the corpus, the owners probably having taken these with them.[1] Religious reorganisation of Uruk[edit] It is unclear whether the city of Uruk supported the 484 BC revolts. No evidence exists that any city in southern Babylonia supported the revolts,[1][14] but this might be attributable to poor documentation, since it is clear that cities in the south suffered from the effects of Persian retribution in the aftermath of Shamash-eriba's defeat.[14] Evidence from Uruk in particular demonstrates that the city experienced a dramatic series of societal changes in 484 BC.[30] By 484 BC, a small number of prominent families of Babylonian origin had dominated the local politics of Uruk for generations. These were all driven out from the city after the end of the revolts and replaced with a new group of locals. As noted by Waerzeggers and Karlheinz Kessler in 2004, this shift in the elites of the city had considerable effects on local culture and politics as the new families implemented their own cultural and political programs separate from those of Babylon. Perhaps most dramatically, the city's most prominent place of worship, the Eanna temple, was closed and dismantled; replaced with new temples and new theological leanings distinct from those that had previously been imposed through influence from Babylon.[31] The most prominent of these new temples were the Rēš and the Irigal (or Ešgal), both of which would survive for centuries thereafter.[32] By this time, Uruk's principal deities were the goddesses Ishtar and Nanaya, typically described in inscriptions as the "owners" of Uruk's primary temples.[33] In the aftermath of the Babylonian defeat, Ishtar and Nanaya were replaced at the top of the local pantheon by the god Anu, with the city's civic religion being reorganised into a nearly hegemonic cult of this god.[30] Evidence for Anu's rise include the shift of naming patterns to names that more frequently incorporate Anu,[30] as well as Anu from 484 BC onwards being described as the owner of Uruk's temples instead of Ishtar and Nanaya.[33] Anu had been important in Uruk for some time but was also the ancestral head of the Mesopotamian pantheon. His rise to the top of the pantheon at Uruk might have been a symbolic assertion by the city to counter the central religious authority of Babylon. A collection of texts describing the Esagila and rituals dedicated to Anu in Uruk might be an example of the priests of Uruk being influenced by the priests dedicated to Marduk in Babylon, meaning that they might have viewed their new main temple, the Rēš as a counterpart to the Esagila in Babylon.[34] Architecturally, the Rēš was very similar to the Esagila and in cuneiform signs, its name was inscribed as É.SAG, conspicuously similar to the rendering of the Esagila's name, É.SAG.ÍL.[35] Paul-Alain Beaulieu believes that it is possible that Anu's rise was either imposed or encouraged by the Persians in the aftermath of the defeat of the Babylonian revolts. Persian authorities might have perceived the cult in Uruk as a counterweight to the religious hegemony exerted by Babylon. Encouraging the new elite families of Uruk to create a renewed local civic cult independent of the theology advocated by Babylon might have been a step in working against unity among the Babylonian cities.[35] Notes[edit] ^ Babylonian kings were expected to establish peace and security, uphold justice, honour civil rights, refrain from unlawful taxation, respect religious traditions and maintain cultic order. Any foreigner sufficiently familiar with the royal customs of Babylonia could become its king, though they might then have required the assistance of the native priesthood and the native scribes.[7] References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Lendering 1998. ^ Hanish 2008, p. 32. ^ Nielsen 2015, p. 53. ^ Mark 2016. ^ a b Nielsen 2015, p. 54. ^ Dandamaev 1989, pp. 185–186. ^ a b Zaia 2019, pp. 3–4. ^ Zaia 2019, p. 7. ^ Zaia 2019, pp. 6–7. ^ a b c Waerzeggers 2018, p. 1. ^ Nielsen 2015, pp. 55–57. ^ Lendering 1998b. ^ a b c d Waerzeggers 2018, p. 11. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Waerzeggers 2018, p. 12. ^ a b Waerzeggers 2018, p. 6. ^ Waerzeggers 2018b, p. 108. ^ Waerzeggers 2018b, p. 112. ^ Walker & Dick 1999, p. 58. ^ Cole & Machinist 1998, pp. 11–13. ^ Waerzeggers 2018b, p. 107. ^ Dandamaev 1993, p. 41. ^ a b c Waerzeggers 2018, p. 2. ^ Waerzeggers 2018b, p. 92. ^ a b c Waerzeggers 2018, p. 3. ^ a b Waerzeggers 2018, p. 4. ^ a b Waerzeggers 2018b, p. 89. ^ Waerzeggers 2018, p. 5. ^ a b Waerzeggers 2018b, p. 90. ^ a b Waerzeggers 2018b, p. 91. ^ a b c d Beaulieu 2018, p. 189. ^ Waerzeggers 2018, pp. 4–7. ^ Beaulieu 2018, p. 192. ^ a b Beaulieu 2018, p. 190. ^ Beaulieu 2018, p. 204. ^ a b Beaulieu 2018, p. 205. Bibliography[edit] Beaulieu, Paul-Alain (2018). "Uruk Before and After Xerxes: The Onomastic and Institutional Rise of the God Anu". In Waerzeggers, Caroline; Seire, Maarja (eds.). Xerxes and Babylonia: The Cuneiform Evidence (PDF). Peeters Publishers. ISBN 978-90-429-3670-6. Cole, Steven W.; Machinist, Peter (1998). Letters From Priests to the Kings Esarhaddon and Assurbanipal (PDF). Helsinki University Press. ISBN 978-1575063294. Dandamaev, Muhammad A. (1989). A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire. BRILL. ISBN 978-9004091726. Dandamaev, Muhammad A. (1993). "Xerxes and the Esagila Temple in Babylon". Bulletin of the Asia Institute. 7: 41–45. JSTOR 24048423. Hanish, Shak (2008). "The Chaldean Assyrian Syriac people of Iraq: an ethnic identity problem". Digest of Middle East Studies. 17 (1): 32–47. doi:10.1111/j.1949-3606.2008.tb00145.x. Nielsen, John P. (2015). ""I Overwhelmed the King of Elam": Remembering Nebuchadnezzar I in Persian Babylonia". In Silverman, Jason M.; Waerzeggers, Caroline (eds.). Political Memory in and After the Persian Empire. SBL Press. ISBN 978-0884140894. Waerzeggers, Caroline (2018). "Introduction: Debating Xerxes' Rule in Babylonia". In Waerzeggers, Caroline; Seire, Maarja (eds.). Xerxes and Babylonia: The Cuneiform Evidence (PDF). Peeters Publishers. ISBN 978-90-429-3670-6. Waerzeggers, Caroline (2018). "The Network of Resistance: Archives and Political Action in Babylonia Before 484 BCE". In Waerzeggers, Caroline; Seire, Maarja (eds.). Xerxes and Babylonia: The Cuneiform Evidence (PDF). Peeters Publishers. ISBN 978-90-429-3670-6. Walker, Christopher; Dick, Michael Brennan (1999). "The Induction of the Cult Image in Ancient Mesopotamia: The Mesopotamian mīs pî Ritual". In Dick, Michael Brennan (ed.). Born in Heaven, Made on Earth: The Making of the Cult Image in the Ancient Near East. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1575063423. Zaia, Shana (2019). "Going Native: Šamaš-šuma-ukīn, Assyrian King of Babylon". IRAQ. 81: 247–268. doi:10.1017/irq.2019.1. Web sources[edit] Lendering, Jona (1998). "Arakha (Nebuchadnezzar IV)". Livius. Retrieved 11 August 2020. Lendering, Jona (1998). "Bêl-šimânni and Šamaš-eriba". Livius. Retrieved 14 August 2020. Mark, Joshua J. (2016). "The Marduk Prophecy". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 9 December 2019. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Babylonian_revolts_(484_BC)&oldid=993035912" Categories: 5th century BC 5th-century BC conflicts 484 BC Rebellions against the Achaemenid Empire Xerxes I Religion-based wars Hidden categories: Good articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 8 December 2020, at 13:15 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. 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en-wikipedia-org-2799	----	Legcuffs - Wikipedia Legcuffs From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Fetters) Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about physical fetters used as restraints. For other uses, see Fetter (disambiguation). "In irons" redirects here. For the sailing term, see Point of sail § No-go zone. Cup lock shackle with no built-in lock Legcuffs are physical restraints used on the ankles of a person to allow walking only with a restricted stride and to prevent running and effective physical resistance.[1] Frequently used alternative terms are leg cuffs, (leg/ankle) shackles, footcuffs, fetters[2] or leg irons. The term "fetter" shares a root with the word "foot". Shackles are typically used on prisoners and slaves. Leg shackles also are used for chain gangs to keep them together.[3] Chain Gang Street Sweepers, 1909 Metaphorically, a fetter may be anything that restricts or restrains in any way, hence the word "unfettered". Contents 1 History 2 Controversial use 3 See also 4 References History[edit] Standard type legcuffs made in Taiwan The earliest fetters found in archaeological excavations date from the prehistoric age and are mostly of the puzzle lock type[clarification needed]. Fetters are also referenced in ancient times in the Bible (2 Samuel 3:34, Job 36:13, Psalm 149:8) Heavy legcuffs from China, including a metal plate to protect the keyhole from collecting dust or being tampered with Roman times already see a variety of restraint types. Some early versions of cup lock shackles can already be found. These were widely used in medieval times but their use declined when mass production made the manufacture of locks built into restraints affordable. Simple fetter types continue to be used like puzzle lock shackles as the typical slave iron or irons riveted shut for prisoners being transported to overseas prison camps. The first built-in locks often were of a simple screw-type but soon developed into the "Darby" type. In Europe these continued to be used into the middle of the 20th century, whereas in the U.S. from the late 19th century onwards many new designs were invented and produced before handcuffs and leg irons of the Peerless type became the standard several decades ago. One type of shackle, called an "Oregon Boot" or "Gardner Shackle", was patented by Oregon State Penitentiary Warden J.C. Gardner in 1866. The shackle consisted of an iron band of varying weights that was locked around one of prisoners ankles that was supported by braces which went down and under the prisoners foot. The shackle's weight hobbled the prisoner's movements to prevent escape, and long-term use would cause severe injury to the wearer. Use of this type of shackle was ended by the mid-20th century.[4] Controversial use[edit] Wooden legcuff at a museum, Sri Lanka In comparison to handcuffs the wearing of leg irons may be found less restrictive. Thus the prison authorities in several countries deem their long-term use acceptable. In order to avoid condoning this disputed practice, the countries of the European Union have banned exporting leg irons into non-EU countries.[5][6] The countries that continue to make prisoners wear fetters long-term now tend to manufacture their own restraints. See also[edit] Ankle monitor Bilboes Ball and chain Handcuffs Hobble (device) Leg Thumbcuffs References[edit] ^ "Select Your Library - Credo Reference". ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Fetters and Handcuffs" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 10 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 296. ^ Reynolds, Marylee. "Back on the Chain Gang". Corrections Today. Gale group. Archived from the original on May 21, 2011. Retrieved 1 October 2013. ^ "DOC Operations Division: Prison A Brief History of the Oregon Boot". www.oregon.gov. Retrieved 10 December 2017. ^ Civilising the torture trade, by Steve Wright, The Guardian, Thursday March 13, 2003 ^ COUNCIL REGULATION (EC) No 1236/2005 of 27 June 2005, concerning trade in certain goods which could be used for capital punishment, torture or other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Legcuffs&oldid=1000798364" Categories: Law enforcement equipment Physical restraint Foot Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles needing clarification from May 2015 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Brezhoneg Deutsch Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Italiano עברית Nederlands Português Русский Slovenščina Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 16 January 2021, at 19:39 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-279	----	Book sources - Wikipedia Book sources Jump to navigation Jump to search This page allows users to search for multiple sources for a book given the 10- or 13-digit ISBN number. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN number do not matter. Search for book sourcesISBN: Search Wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources For assistance, see Help:ISBN. This page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its International Standard Book Number (ISBN). If you arrived at this page by clicking an ISBN link in a Wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. To search for a different book, type that book's individual ISBN into this ISBN search box. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. Also, the number starts after the colon for "ISBN-10:" and "ISBN-13:" numbers.  An ISBN identifies a specific edition of a book. Any given title may therefore have a number of different ISBNs. See xISBN below for finding other editions. An ISBN registration, even one corresponding to a book page on a major book distributor database, is not definite proof that such a book actually exists. A title may have been cancelled or postponed after the ISBN was assigned. Check to see if the book exists or not. The master copy of this page is located at Wikipedia:Book sources. Contents 1 Online text 2 Online databases 3 Subscription eBook databases 4 Libraries 4.1 Worldwide 4.2 Africa 4.2.1 Nigeria 4.2.2 South Africa 4.2.3 Zimbabwe 4.3 Central America and the Caribbean 4.3.1 Barbados 4.3.2 Guatemala 4.3.3 Jamaica 4.3.4 Mexico 4.3.5 Trinidad and Tobago 4.4 Canada 4.4.1 Public libraries 4.4.2 Universities and colleges 4.5 United States 4.5.1 Public libraries by state 4.5.2 Universities and colleges 4.6 South America 4.6.1 Argentina 4.6.2 Brazil 4.6.3 Colombia 4.6.4 Ecuador 4.7 Asia 4.7.1 Bangladesh 4.7.2 China, People's Republic 4.7.3 Hong Kong, S.A.R. of China 4.7.4 India 4.7.5 Indonesia 4.7.6 Iran 4.7.7 Israel 4.7.8 Japan 4.7.9 Korea 4.7.10 Malaysia 4.7.11 Philippines 4.7.11.1 Universities and colleges 4.7.11.2 Other libraries 4.7.12 Singapore 4.7.13 Taiwan, Republic of China 4.7.14 Thailand 4.8 Australasia and Oceania 4.8.1 Australia 4.8.1.1 Public libraries 4.8.1.2 Academic libraries 4.8.2 New Zealand 4.8.2.1 Public libraries 4.8.2.2 Academic libraries 4.9 Europe 4.9.1 Austria 4.9.2 Belgium 4.9.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.9.4 Croatia 4.9.5 Czech Republic 4.9.6 Denmark 4.9.7 Estonia 4.9.8 Finland 4.9.9 France 4.9.10 Germany 4.9.11 Greece 4.9.12 Hungary 4.9.13 Iceland 4.9.14 Ireland 4.9.15 Italy 4.9.16 Luxembourg 4.9.17 Montenegro 4.9.18 Netherlands 4.9.19 Norway 4.9.20 Poland 4.9.21 Portugal 4.9.22 Russia 4.9.23 Serbia 4.9.24 Slovenia 4.9.25 Spain 4.9.26 Sweden 4.9.27 Switzerland 4.9.28 Turkey 4.9.29 United Kingdom 4.9.29.1 Public libraries 4.9.29.2 Universities 5 Bookselling and swapping 5.1 Price comparison sites 5.2 Search many booksellers 5.3 Individual booksellers 5.4 Book-swapping websites 6 Non-English book sources 7 Bibliographical information 8 Find other editions 9 Find on Wikipedia 10 See also Online text Find this book on Google Books Find this book at the Open Library Find this book on Amazon.com (or .au, .br, .ca, .cn, .de, .es, .fr, .in, .it, .jp, .mx, .nl, .uk). Google Books and Amazon.com may be particularly helpful if you want to verify citations in Wikipedia articles, because they often enable you to search an online version of the book for specific words or phrases, or you can browse through the book (although for copyright reasons the entire book is usually not available). Online databases Find this book at Karlsruhe Virtual Catalog, a metasearch engine addressing many of the databases linked here and also some major commercial booksellers. Find this book at WorldCat free online catalog of the world's libraries Find this book at OttoBib.com citation metasearch Find this book at Copyright Clearance Center online rights database Find this book at Goodreads personal library catalog Find this book at LibraryThing personal library catalog Find this book at aNobii personal library catalog Find this book at iDreamBooks book review aggregator Find this book at the Grand Comics Database Find this book at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database Subscription eBook databases Find this book at Alexander Street Press by ProQuest Find this book at eBookCentral by ProQuest Find this book at EBSCO Industries eBooks Find this book at Gale by Cengage Find this book at HathiTrust Find this book at Overdrive by Rakuten Find this book at Project MUSE Find this book at ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Open Find this book at Safari Books Online by O'Reilly Media Find this book at ScienceDirect Libraries Select your region from the map above Worldwide Find this book at your local library through WorldCat Africa Nigeria Find this book on the Ahmadu Bello University Library catalogue Find this book on the University of Ilorin Library catalogue South Africa Find this book on the National Library of South Africa catalogue Find this book on the SEALS Consortium catalogue Find this book on the University of South Africa catalogue Find this book on the University of the Witwatersrand Library catalogue Zimbabwe Find this book on the University of Zimbabwe Library catalogue Central America and the Caribbean Barbados Find this book in the University of the West Indies (Cave Hill campus) Library catalogue Guatemala Find this book in the University of San Carlos of Guatemala Central Library catalogue Jamaica Find this book in the University of the West Indies (Mona campus) Library catalogue Mexico Find this book in the National Autonomous University of Mexico Library System Trinidad and Tobago Find this book in the University of 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en-wikipedia-org-2802	----	Pierre Briant - Wikipedia Pierre Briant From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Pierre Briant Born (1940-09-30) 30 September 1940 (age 80) Angers, Maine-et-Loire Nationality French Alma mater University of Poitiers Known for From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire Scientific career Fields Iranian Studies Institutions Collège de France Pierre Briant (born 30 September 1940 in Angers) is a French Iranologist, Professor of History and Civilisation of the Achaemenid World and the Empire of Alexander the Great at the Collège de France (1999 onwards), Doctor Honoris Causa at the University of Chicago, and founder of the website achemenet.com.[1] He studied History at the University of Poitiers (1960–1965), and reached his doctorat d'État in 1972. His works deal mainly with the Achaemenid Empire, and related matters as Alexander the Great or the Hellenistic Era. In the words of Matthew Stolper, Briant "has shown a generation of scholars once isolated from each other that they are members of a common intellectual project of great consequence."[2] Contents 1 Works 2 See also 3 References 4 External links Works[edit] Antigone le Borgne (Les Débuts de sa Carrière et les Problèmes de l'Assemblée Macédonienne) (1973) - doctoral thesis. Alexandre le Grand (1974, 2005) Rois, Tributs et Paysans, Études sur les Formations Tributaires du Moyen-Orient Ancien (1982) Etat et Pasteurs au Moyen-Orient Ancien' in Production Pastorale et Société (1982) L'Asie Centrale et les Royaumes Proche-orientaux du Premier Millénaire (c. VIIIe-IVe s. av. n. è.) (1984) "Pouvoir central et polycentrisme culturel dans l'Empire achéménide (Quelques réflexions et suggestions)", in Achaemenid History I: Sources,structures and synthesis (ed. Heleen Sancisi-Weerdenburg), (1987) "Institutions perses et histoire comparatiste dans l'historiographie grecque", in Achaemenid History II: The Greek sources (eds. H. Sancisi-Weerdenbur & Amélie Kuhrt) (1987) De la Grèce à l'Orient : Alexandre le Grand, collection « Découvertes Gallimard » (nº 27), série Histoire. Paris: Gallimard (1987; new edition in 2005, under the title Alexandre le Grand : De la Grèce à l'Inde[3]) Alexander the Great: The Heroic Ideal, 'New Horizons' series, London: Thames & Hudson (1996) Alexander the Great: Man of Action, Man of Spirit, "Abrams Discoveries" series, New York: Harry N. Abrams (1996) "Ethno-classe dominante et populations soumises dans l'Empire achéménide: le cas de l'Égypte", in Achaemenid History III: Method and Theory (eds. A. Kuhrt & H. Sancisi-Weerdenburg) (1988) Darius : Les Perses et l'Empire, collection « Découvertes Gallimard » (nº 159), série Histoire. Paris: Gallimard (1992) Dans les Pas des Dix-Mille (ed) (1995) Histoire de l'Empire Perse. De Cyrus à Alexandre (1996) - in English, From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire (2002). Darius dans l'Ombre d'Alexandre (2003) See also[edit] Cyrus the Great References[edit] ^ Achemenet.com ^ Uchicago.edu Archived 2006-09-19 at the Wayback Machine ^ "Alexandre le Grand : De la Grèce à l'Inde, collection Découvertes Gallimard (n° 27)". gallimard.fr (in French). Éditions Gallimard. 2005. Retrieved 10 June 2020. Briant's page at the Collège de France Iranheritage.org Honorary Degree ar[clarification needed] the Chicago University External links[edit] Achemenet Achaemenid museum P. Briant: Class system in Median and Achaemenid periods, in Encyclopaedia Iranica. Authority control BNE: XX865974 BNF: cb11893994x (data) GND: 112009263 ISNI: 0000 0001 2282 0008 LCCN: n81114022 NDL: 00463758 NKC: jo20181012385 NLA: 35021776 NLK: KAC2018O2601 NTA: 068685408 PLWABN: 9810687226005606 SUDOC: 026752433 Trove: 795916 VIAF: 76312764 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n81114022 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pierre_Briant&oldid=970587715" Categories: People from Angers 1940 births Collège de France faculty Living people 20th-century French historians 21st-century French historians Corresponding members of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres French Iranologists Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur French male non-fiction writers Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links CS1 French-language sources (fr) Articles with hCards Articles containing French-language text Wikipedia articles needing clarification from January 2015 Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages تۆرکجه Deutsch Español فارسی Français Latina Русский Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 1 August 2020, at 06:16 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2808	----	Ptolemaic dynasty - Wikipedia Ptolemaic dynasty From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Ptolemaic family tree) Jump to navigation Jump to search Macedonian Greek royal family which ruled Egypt This article is about the royal family. For the territorial state over which it ruled, see Ptolemaic Kingdom. Ptolemaic Dynasty Ptolemaic Empire, circa 300 BC Country Ancient Egypt, Macedonia, Mauretania Founded 305 BC Founder Ptolemy I Soter Final ruler Ptolemy XV (Egypt), Cleopatra VII (Egypt) Titles Pharaoh, King of Macedonia, King of Mauretania Estate(s) Egypt, Cyrenaica, Cyprus, Canaan Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The Ptolemaic dynasty (/ˌtɒlɪˈmeɪɪk/; Ancient Greek: Πτολεμαῖοι, Ptolemaioi), sometimes also known as the Lagids (/ˈlædʒɪdz/) or Lagidae (/ˈlædʒɪdi/; Λαγίδαι, Lagidai, after Lagus, Ptolemy I's father), was a Macedonian Greek[1][2][3][4][5] royal family, which ruled the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt during the Hellenistic period. Their rule lasted for 275 years, from 305 to 30 BC.[6] They were the last dynasty of ancient Egypt. Ptolemy, one of the seven somatophylakes (bodyguards) of Macedon who served as Alexander the Great's generals and deputies, was appointed satrap of Egypt after Alexander's death in 323 BC. In 305 BC, he declared himself Ptolemy I, later known as Sōter "Saviour". The Egyptians soon accepted the Ptolemies as the successors to the pharaohs of independent Egypt. Ptolemy's family ruled Egypt until the Roman conquest of 30 BC. Like the earlier dynasties of ancient Egypt, the Ptolemaic dynasty practiced inbreeding including sibling marriage, but this did not start in earnest until nearly a century into the dynasty's history.[7] All the male rulers of the dynasty took the name Ptolemy, while queens regnant were all called Cleopatra, Arsinoe or Berenice. The most famous member of the line was the last queen, Cleopatra VII, known for her role in the Roman political battles between Julius Caesar and Pompey, and later between Octavian and Mark Antony. Her apparent suicide at the conquest by Rome marked the end of Ptolemaic rule in Egypt. Contents 1 Ptolemaic rulers and consorts 2 Ptolemaic family tree 2.1 Other notable members of the Ptolemaic dynasty 3 Inbreeding and health 4 Gallery of images 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Ptolemaic rulers and consorts[edit] Ptolemy I Soter was the founder of the Ptolemaic dynasty, and the first ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom. Posthumous portrait of Cleopatra VII, from Roman Herculaneum, mid-1st century AD.[8][9] The Gonzaga Cameo of Ptolemy II Philadelphus and Arsinoe II from Alexandria (Hermitage Museum) Cameo of Ptolemaic rulers (Kunsthistorisches Museum) The Cup of the Ptolemies: front (top) and back (bottom) of the cup (Cabinet des Médailles) Dates in brackets represent the regnal dates of the Ptolemaic pharaohs. They frequently ruled jointly with their wives, who were often also their sisters. Several queens exercised regal authority. Of these, one of the last and most famous was Cleopatra ("Cleopatra VII Philopator", 51–30 BC), with her two brothers and her son serving as successive nominal co-rulers. Several systems exist for numbering the later rulers; the one used here is the one most widely employed by modern scholars. Ptolemy I Soter (303–282 BC)[10] married first Thaïs, then Artakama, then Eurydice, and finally Berenice I Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285–246 BC)[11] married Arsinoe I, then Arsinoe II; ruled jointly with Ptolemy Epigonos (267–259 BC) Ptolemy III Euergetes (246–221 BC) married Berenice II Ptolemy IV Philopator (221–203 BC) married Arsinoe III Ptolemy V Epiphanes (203–181 BC) married Cleopatra I Syra Ptolemy VI Philometor (181–164 BC, 163–145 BC) married Cleopatra II, briefly ruled jointly with Ptolemy Eupator in 152 BC Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator (never reigned) Ptolemy VIII Physcon (170–163 BC, 145–116 BC) married Cleopatra II, then Cleopatra III; temporarily expelled from Alexandria by Cleopatra II from 131-127 BC, then reconciled with her in 124 BC. Cleopatra II Philometora Soteira (131–127 BC), in opposition to Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Philometor Soteira Dikaiosyne Nikephoros (Kokke) (116–101 BC) ruled jointly with Ptolemy IX Lathyros (116–107 BC) and Ptolemy X Alexander I (107–101 BC) Ptolemy IX Lathyros (116–107 BC, 88–81 BC as Soter II) married Cleopatra IV, then Cleopatra Selene; ruled jointly with Cleopatra III in his first reign Ptolemy X Alexander I (107–88 BC) married Cleopatra Selene, then Berenice III; ruled jointly with Cleopatra III till 101 BC Berenice III Philopator (81–80 BC) Ptolemy XI Alexander II (80 BC) married and ruled jointly with Berenice III before murdering her; ruled alone for 19 days after that. Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos (Auletes) (80–58 BC, 55–51 BC) married Cleopatra V Tryphaena Cleopatra V Tryphaena (58–57 BC) ruled jointly with Berenice IV Epiphaneia (58–55 BC) and Cleopatra VI Tryphaena (58 BC) Cleopatra ("Cleopatra VII Philopator", 51–30 BC) ruled jointly with Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator (51–47 BC), Ptolemy XIV (47–44 BC) and Ptolemy XV Caesarion (44–30 BC). Arsinoe IV (48–47 BC), in opposition to Cleopatra Ptolemaic family tree[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Ptolemaic dynasty" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Lagus of Eordea, Macedon Arsinoe of Macedon Ptolemy I Soter (Kg 303–282 BC) Berenice I Philip Arsinoe II Ptolemy II Philadelphus (Kg. 285–246 BC) Arsinoe I Magas of Cyrene Apama II Ptolemy III Euergetes (Kg. 246–221 BC) Berenice II Ptolemy IV Philopator (Kg. 221–203 BC) Arsinoe III Ptolemy V Epiphanes (Kg. 203–181 BC) Cleopatra I Syra Ptolemy VI Philometor (Kg. 181–164 BC, 163–145 BC) Cleopatra II (Qn. 131–127 BC) Ptolemy VIII Physcon (Kg. 170–163 BC, 145–116 BC) Eirene Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra III (Qn, 116–101 BC) Ptolemy Memphites Ptolemy Apion Cleopatra IV Ptolemy IX Lathyros (Kg. 116–107 BC, as Soter II 88–81 BC) Cleopatra Selene Ptolemy X Alexander I (Kg. 107–88 BC) Ptolemy XII Auletes (Kg. 80–58 BC, 55–51 BC) Berenice III (Qn. 81–80 BC) Ptolemy XI Alexander II (Kg. 80 BC, for 19 days) Cleopatra V (Qn. 58–55 BC) Cleopatra VI (Qn. 58 BC) Berenice IV (Qn. 58–55 BC) Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator (Kg. 51–47 BC) Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator (Qn. 51–30 BC) Ptolemy XIV (Kg. 47–44 BC) Arsinoe IV (Qn. 48–47 BC) Julius Caesar Mark Antony Ptolemy XV Caesarion (Kg. 44–30 BC) Alexander Helios Ptolemy Philadelphus Cleopatra Selene II Ptolemy of Mauretania Detailed Ptolemaic family tree Antipater Lagus Arsinoe of Macedon Eurydice Ptolemy I Soter (Kg 303–282 BC) Berenice I (∞ Philip ↓ Magas of Cyrene ∞ Apama II ↓ See below: Berenice II) Lysimachus Lysandra Ptolemais Ptolemy Ceraunus Arsinoe II Ptolemy II Philadelphus (Kg. 285–246 BC) Arsinoe I Berenice II of Egypt (daughter of Magas of Cyrene, see above: Berenice I) Ptolemy III Euergetes (Kg. 246–221 BC) Berenice Syra Antiochus III the Great Arsinoe III Ptolemy IV Philopator (Kg. 221–203 BC) Cleopatra I Syra Ptolemy V Epiphanes (Kg. 203–181 BC) Ptolemy VI Philometor (Kg. 181–164 BC, 163-145 BC) Cleopatra II (Qn. 131–127 BC) Ptolemy VIII Physcon (Kg. 170–163 BC, 145–116 BC) Eirene ? Ptolemy Eupator Cleopatra Thea Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra III (Qn, 116–101 BC) Ptolemy Memphites Ptolemy Apion Cleopatra Tryphaena Cleopatra IV Ptolemy IX Lathyros (Kg. 116–107 BC, as Soter II 88–81 BC) Cleopatra V Selene ? Ptolemy X Alexander I (Kg. 107–88 BC) ? Berenice III (Qn. 81–80 BC) Ptolemy XI Alexander II (Kg. 80 BC, for 19 days) Ptolemy of Cyprus Ptolemy XII Auletes (Kg. 80–58 BC, 55–51 BC) Cleopatra VI (Qn. 58 BC) Berenice IV (Qn. 58–55 BC) Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator (Kg. 51–47 BC) Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator (Qn. 51–30 BC) Ptolemy XIV (Kg. 47–44 BC) Arsinoe IV (Qn. 48–47 BC) Julius Caesar Mark Antony Ptolemy XV Caesarion (Kg. 44–30 BC) Alexander Helios Cleopatra Selene II Juba II of Mauretania Ptolemy Philadelphus Ptolemy of Mauretania Other notable members of the Ptolemaic dynasty[edit] A seated woman in a fresco from the Roman Villa Boscoreale, dated mid-1st century BC. It likely represents Berenice II of Ptolemaic Egypt wearing a stephane (i.e. royal diadem) on her head.[12] Ptolemy Keraunos (died 279 BC) – eldest son of Ptolemy I Soter. Eventually became king of Macedonia. Ptolemy Apion (died 96 BC) – son of Ptolemy VIII Physcon. Made king of Cyrenaica. Bequeathed Cyrenaica to Rome. Ptolemy Philadelphus (born 36 BC) – son of Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII. Ptolemy of Mauretania (died 40 AD) – son of King Juba II of Numidia and Mauretania and Cleopatra Selene II, daughter of Cleopatra VII and Mark Antony. King of Mauretania. Ptolemy II of Telmessos, grandson of Ptolemy Epigonos, flourished second half of 3rd century BC and first half of 2nd century BC Ptolemy of Cyprus, king of Cyprus c. 80–58 BC, younger brother of Ptolemy XII Auletes Inbreeding and health[edit] See also: Incest § Antiquity, and Inbreeding § Royalty and nobility In continuation of the tradition established by previous Egyptian dynasties, the Ptolemies engaged in inbreeding including sibling marriage, with many of the pharaohs being married to their siblings and often co-ruling with them. Ptolemy I and other early rulers of the dynasty were not married to their relatives, the childless marriage of siblings Ptolemy II and Arsinoe II[13] being an exception. The first child-producing incestuous marriage in the Ptolemaic dynasty was that of Ptolemy IV and Arsinoe III, who were succeeded as co-pharaohs by their son Ptolemy V, born 210 BC. The most famous Ptolemaic pharaoh, Cleopatra VII, was at different times married to and reigning with two of her brothers (Ptolemy XIII until 47 BC and then Ptolemy XIV until 44 BC), and their parents were likely siblings or possibly cousins as well.[7] Contemporaries describe a number of the Ptolemaic dynasty members as extremely obese,[14] whilst sculptures and coins reveal prominent eyes and swollen necks. Familial Graves' disease could explain the swollen necks and eye prominence (exophthalmos), although this is unlikely to occur in the presence of morbid obesity. This is all likely due to inbreeding within the Ptolemaic dynasty. In view of the familial nature of these findings, members of this dynasty likely suffered from a multi-organ fibrotic condition such as Erdheim–Chester disease or a familial multifocal fibrosclerosis where thyroiditis, obesity and ocular proptosis may have all occurred concurrently.[15] Gallery of images[edit] Ptolemy of Macedon founded the Ptolemaic Dynasty. Ptolemy II Ptolemy III Ptolemy IV Ptolemy V Ptolemy VI Cleopatra II (right) Ptolemy VIII Ptolemy IX Ptolemy X Ptolemy XI Ptolemy XII Ptolemy XIII and Isis Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Ptolemy XV, commonly called Caesarion. Sardonyx cameo of a Ptolemaic prince as the Greek god Hermes, Cabinet des médailles, Paris. See also[edit] Ancient Egypt portal Egypt portal History portal Argead dynasty, another Greek dynasty in Egypt Donations of Alexandria Hellenistic period History of ancient Egypt List of pharaohs#Ptolemaic Dynasty List of Seleucid rulers On Weights and Measures, which contains a chronology of the Ptolemies Ptolemaic Decrees Roman pharaohs References[edit] ^ Jones, Prudence J. (2006). Cleopatra: A Sourcebook. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 14. They were members of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Macedonians, who ruled Egypt after the death of its conqueror, Alexander the Great. ^ Pomeroy, Sarah B. (1990). Women in Hellenistic Egypt. Wayne State University Press. p. 16. while Ptolemaic Egypt was a monarchy with a Greek ruling class. ^ Redford, Donald B., ed. (2000). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. Cleopatra VII was born to Ptolemy XII Auletes (80–57 BCE, ruled 55–51 BCE) and Cleopatra, both parents being Macedonian Greeks. ^ Bard, Kathryn A., ed. (1999). Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. Routledge. p. 488. Ptolemaic kings were still crowned at Memphis and the city was popularly regarded as the Egyptian rival to Alexandria, founded by the Macedonians. ^ Bard, Kathryn A., ed. (1999). Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. Routledge. p. 687. During the Ptolemaic period, when Egypt was governed by rulers of Greek descent... ^ Epiphanius of Salamis, however, puts the total number of years of the Ptolemy dynasty at 306. See: Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures - The Syriac Version (ed. James Elmer Dean), University of Chicago Press 1935, p. 28 (note 104), or what was from 306/5 BCE to 1 CE. ^ a b Move over, Lannisters: No one did incest and murder like the last pharaohs on The A.V. Club ^ Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (2001), "Painting with a portrait of a woman in profile", in Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (eds.), Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press (British Museum Press), pp. 314–315, ISBN 9780691088358. ^ Fletcher, Joann (2008). Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend. New York: Harper. ISBN 978-0-06-058558-7, image plates and captions between pp. 246-247. ^ Wasson, Donald (February 3, 2012). "Ptolemy I". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved October 1, 2016. ^ Tunny, Jennifer(2001)The Health of Ptolemy II Philadelphus. The Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrologists/ Vol.38(1/4), pp.119-134 ^ Pfrommer, Michael; Towne-Markus, Elana (2001). Greek Gold from Hellenistic Egypt. Los Angeles: Getty Publications (J. Paul Getty Trust). ISBN 0-89236-633-8, pp. 22–23. ^ Ptolemy II "Philadelphus" on Encyclopædia Britannica ^ "Morbid obesity and hypersomnolence in several members of an ancient royal family" ^ Ashrafian, Hutan (2005). "Familial proptosis and obesity in the Ptolemies". J. R. Soc. Med. 98 (2): 85–86. doi:10.1258/jrsm.98.2.85-a. PMC 1079400. PMID 15684370. Further reading[edit] A. Lampela, Rome and the Ptolemies of Egypt: The development of their political relations 273–80 B.C. (Helsinki, 1998). J. G. Manning, The Last Pharaohs: Egypt Under the Ptolemies, 305–30 BC (Princeton, 2009). Susan Stephens, Seeing Double: Intercultural Poetics in Ptolemaic Alexandria (Berkeley, 2002). External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ptolemaic dynasty. Livius.org: "Ptolemies"—by Jona Lendering v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Hellenistic rulers Argeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Kings of Cyrene Magas Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Kings of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Kings of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Kings of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Kings of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus Kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon (regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces Asander with Dynamis Mithridates II Asander with Dynamis Scribonius’ attempted rule with Dynamis Dynamis with Polemon Polemon with Pythodorida Aspurgus Mithridates III with Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories. v t e Rulers of the Ancient Near East Territories/ dates [1][2][3][4] Egypt Canaan Ebla Mari Akshak/ Akkad Kish Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period 4000–3200 BCE Naqada culture (4000–3100 BCE) Proto-Cannaanites Sumerian period (4000–2340 BCE) Susa I Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE) Naqada I Naqada II Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests") Legendary ante-deluvian rulers: In Eridu: Alulim, Alalngar, then in Bad-tibira: En-men-lu-ana, En-men-gal-ana, Dumuzid, the Shepherd, then in Larag: En-sipad-zid-ana, then in Zimbir: En-men-dur-ana, then in Shuruppag: Ubara-Tutu "then the flood swept over"[5] Susa II (Uruk influence or control) 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ DenAnedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100-2700 BCE) Great Flood 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) First kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman En-me-barage-si ("made the land of Elam submit")[6] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba Uruk II dynasty Enshakushanna Mug-si Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions (3 kings)[7] Shushuntarana Napilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Urur Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun) Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion of Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[7] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian Empire (Semitic) Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Second Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) (Vassals of UR III) Shakkanakku dynasty (Semitic) Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Neo-Sumerian Period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians) Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (Vassals of Ur III)[8] Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal 2100 BCE Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin Ibbi-Sin 2050 BCE 2000 BCE Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV circa 2000 BCE Amorite invasions Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) 2025-1763 BCE Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ Third Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 1894–1595 BCE Second Intermediate Period Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham (Biblical) Yamhad First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Phoenicia Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Middle Assyrian Empire Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt 626–539 BCE Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116-117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ "The Sumerian king list: translation". etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2008-05-08. ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ a b Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4. Authority control BNE: XX5351205 BNF: cb119455279 (data) GND: 118793551 LCCN: sh88000475 NKC: mzk2005300730 NSK: 000069538 PLWABN: 9810608968405606 VcBA: 495/41813 VIAF: 42634079 WorldCat Identities: viaf-42634079 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_dynasty&oldid=998143437#Ptolemaic_family_tree" Categories: Ptolemaic dynasty States and territories established in the 4th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 1st century BC Dynasties of ancient Egypt Hellenistic dynasties African dynasties African royal families Ancient Greek dynasties Ancient royal families 4th century BC in Egypt 3rd century BC in Egypt 2nd century BC in Egypt 1st century BC in Egypt 4th-century BC establishments in Egypt 1st-millennium BC disestablishments in Egypt 305 BC 300s BC establishments 30 BC 4th-century BC establishments in Greece 1st-century BC disestablishments in Greece Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Pages using infobox family with unknown parameters Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles needing additional references from January 2021 All articles needing additional references Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Alemannisch العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy مصرى Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 January 2021, at 01:05 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2841	----	Psamtik I - Wikipedia Psamtik I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Pharaoh This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Psamtik I" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Psamtik I[1] Psammetichus Bust of Psamtik I, Metropolitan Museum of Art Pharaoh Reign 664–610 BC (26th Dynasty) Predecessor Necho I Successor Necho II Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Wahibre "Constant [is the] Heart [of] Ra"[2] Nomen Psamtik "The mixed-wine seller"[3] Horus name Aaib Nebty name Neba Golden Horus Qenu Consort Mehytenweskhet[4] Children Necho II Nitocris I Father Necho I Mother Queen Istemabet Died 610 BC Wahibre Psamtik I (Ancient Egyptian: wꜣḥ-jb-rꜥ psmṯk, known by the Greeks as Psammeticus or Psammetichus (Latinization of Ancient Greek: Ψαμμήτιχος, romanized: Psammḗtikhos), who ruled 664–610 BC, was the first of three kings of that name of the Saite, or Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt. Contents 1 Background 2 Military campaigns 3 Investigation into the origin of language 4 Wives 5 Statue discovery 6 References 6.1 Bibliography 7 Further reading 8 External links Background[edit] Historical references for what the Greeks referred to as the Dodecarchy, a loose confederation of twelve Egyptian territories, based on the traditional nomes, and the rise of Psamtik I in power, establishing the Saitic Dynasty, are recorded in Herodotus's Histories, Book II: 151–157. From cuneiform texts, it was discovered that twenty local princelings were appointed by Esarhaddon and confirmed by Ashurbanipal to govern Egypt. Necho I, the father of Psamtik by his queen Istemabet, was the chief of these kinglets, but they seem to have been quite unable to lead the Egyptians under the hated Assyrians against the more sympathetic Nubians. The labyrinth built by Amenemhat III of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt is ascribed by Herodotus to the Dodecarchy, which must represent this combination of rulers. Necho I died in 664 BC when the Kushite king Tantamani tried unsuccessfully to seize control of lower Egypt from the Assyrian Empire. After his father's death, within the first ten years of his reign, Psamtik both united all of Egypt and freed it from Assyrian control. Military campaigns[edit] Psamtik I enters Ashdod. Psamtik reunified Egypt in his ninth regnal year when he dispatched a powerful naval fleet in March 656 BC to Thebes and compelled the existing God's Wife of Amun at Thebes, Shepenupet II, daughter of the former Kushite Pharaoh Piye, to adopt his daughter Nitocris I as her heiress in the so-called Adoption Stela. Psamtik's victory destroyed the last vestiges of the Nubian Twenty-fifth Dynasty's control over Upper Egypt under Tantamani since Thebes now accepted his authority. Nitocris would hold her office for 70 years from 656 BC until her death in 585 BC. Thereafter, Psamtik campaigned vigorously against those local princes who opposed his reunification of Egypt. One of his victories over certain Libyan marauders is mentioned in a Year 10 and Year 11 stela from the Dakhla Oasis. Psamtik won Egypt's independence from the Assyrian Empire and restored Egypt's prosperity during his 54-year reign. The pharaoh proceeded to establish close relations with archaic Greece and also encouraged many Greek settlers to establish colonies in Egypt and serve in the Egyptian army. In particular, he settled some Greeks at Tahpanhes (Daphnae).[5] Investigation into the origin of language [edit] 7th century statue found in Kale mentioning Psamtik. The Ionian Greek inscription reads, "Amphimeos' son Pedon brought me from Egypt and gave as a votive; Psammetichos, the king of Egypt gave him a city for his virtue and a golden diadem for his virtue."[6][5] The Greek historian Herodotus conveyed an anecdote about Psamtik in the second volume of his Histories (2.2). During his visit to Egypt, Herodotus heard that Psammetichus ("Psamṯik") sought to discover the origin of language by conducting an experiment with two children. Allegedly he gave two newborn babies to a shepherd, with the instructions that no one should speak to them, but that the shepherd should feed and care for them while listening to determine their first words. The hypothesis was that the first word would be uttered in the root language of all people. When one of the children cried "βεκός" (bekós) with outstretched arms, the shepherd reported this to Psammetichus, who concluded that the word was Phrygian because that was the sound of the Phrygian word for "bread". Thus, they concluded that the Phrygians were an older people than the Egyptians, and that Phrygian was the original language of men. There are no other extant sources to verify this story.[7] Wives[edit] See also: Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Psamtik's chief wife was Mehytenweskhet, the daughter of Harsiese, the vizier of the North and High Priest of Atum at Heliopolis. Psamtik and Mehytenweskhet were the parents of Necho II, Merneith, and the Divine Adoratrice Nitocris I.[citation needed] Psamtik's father-in-law—the aforementioned Harsiese—was married three times: to Sheta, with whom he had a daughter named Naneferheres, to Tanini and, finally, to an unknown woman, by whom he had both Djedkare, the vizier of the South and Mehytenweskhet.[8][better source needed] Harsiese was the son of vizier Harkhebi, and was related to two other Harsieses, both viziers, who were a part of the family of the famous Mayor of Thebes Montuemhat.[citation needed] Statue discovery[edit] The statue's torso On 9 March 2017, Egyptian and German archaeologists discovered a colossal statue about 7.9 metres (26 ft) in height at the Heliopolis site in Cairo. Made of quartzite, the statue was found in a fragmentary state, with the bust, the lower part of the head and the crown submerged in groundwater.[9] It has been confirmed to be of Psamtik I due to engravings found that mentioned one of the pharaoh's names on the base of the statue.[10][11][12][13][14] A spokesperson at the time commented that "If it does belong to this king, then it is the largest statue of the Late Period that was ever discovered in Egypt."[15][16] The head and torso are expected to be moved to the Grand Egyptian Museum.[9] The statue (colossus) was sculpted in the ancient classical style of 2000 BC, establishing a resurgence to the greatness and prosperity of the classical period of old. However, from the many gathered fragments (now 6,400 of them) of quartzite collected, it has also been established that the colossus was at some time deliberately destroyed. Certain discoloured & cracked rock fragments show evidence of having been heated to high temperatures then shattered (with cold water), a typical way of destroying ancient colossi.[citation needed] Psamtik I kneeling, Louvre Museum Relief of Psamtik I making an offering to Ra-Horakhty (Tomb of Pabasa) References[edit] ^ "Psamtek I Wahibre". Digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2 December 2011. Retrieved 20 November 2011. ^ Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames and Hudson, 1994. p.195 ^ Eichler, Ernst (1995). Namenforschung / Name Studies / Les noms propres. 1. Halbband. Walter de Gruyter. p. 847. ISBN 3110203421. ^ "Psamtik I". Touregypt.net. Archived from the original on 22 November 2011. Retrieved 20 November 2011. ^ a b Smith, Tyler Jo; Plantzos, Dimitris (2018). A Companion to Greek Art. John Wiley & Sons. p. 294. ISBN 978-1-119-26681-5. ^ Keesling, Catherine M. (2017). Early Greek Portraiture. Cambridge University Press. p. 116. ISBN 978-1-107-16223-5. ^ Herodotus, "2.2.3", Histories, Internet Classics Archive, retrieved 18 March 2017. ^ Nos ancêtres de l'Antiquité, 1991, Christian Settipani, pp. 153, 160 & 161 ^ a b "Massive Statue of Ancient Egyptian Pharaoh Found in City Slum". National Geographic. 10 March 2017. Archived from the original on 11 March 2017. Retrieved 12 March 2017. ^ Youssef, Nour (17 March 2017). "So Many Pharaohs: A Possible Case of Mistaken Identity in Cairo". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 18 March 2017. Retrieved 18 March 2017. ^ Thompson, Ben (18 March 2017). "Two pharaohs, one statue: A tale of mistaken identity?". Christian Science Monitor. Archived from the original on 18 March 2017. Retrieved 18 March 2017. ^ "Egypt Pharaoh statue 'not Ramses II but different ruler'". BBC News. 16 March 2017. Archived from the original on 18 March 2017. Retrieved 18 March 2017. ^ "Inscription reveals colossus unearthed in Cairo slum not of Ramses II, more likely Pharaoh Psamtek I". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 16 March 2017. Archived from the original on 17 March 2017. Retrieved 18 March 2017. ^ Bel Trew (17 March 2017). "Statue found in Cairo may be biggest ever from the Late Period". The Times. Archived from the original on 17 March 2017. Retrieved 18 March 2017. ^ "Egypt Pharaoh statue 'not Ramses II but different ruler". BBC News. 16 March 2017. Archived from the original on 16 March 2017. Retrieved 16 March 2017. ^ Hendawi, Hamza. "Recently discovered Egyptian statue is not Ramses II". CTVNews. Archived from the original on 16 March 2017. Retrieved 17 March 2017. Bibliography[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Psammetichus". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Further reading[edit] Dodson, Aidan (2012). Afterglow of Empire: Egypt from the Fall of the New Kingdom to the Saite Renaissance. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-9774165313. Breasted, James Henry (1906). Ancient Records of Egypt: Historical Documents from the Earliest Times to the Persian Conquest. Ancient Records, Second Series. IV. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. LCCN 06005480. Morkot, Robert (2003). Historical Dictionary of Ancient Egyptian Warfare. Scarecrow Press. pp. 173–174. ISBN 0810848627. Spalinger, Anthony (1976). Psammetichus, King of Egypt: I. New York: Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt. pp. 133–147. OCLC 83844336. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Psammetichus I. "Psamtik I". Encyclopedia Britannica. 23 October 2008. Retrieved 18 March 2017. "Bust from Statue of a King". Met Museum. Retrieved 18 March 2017. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Rulers of the Ancient Near East Territories/ dates [1][2][3][4] Egypt Canaan Ebla Mari Akshak/ Akkad Kish Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period 4000–3200 BCE Naqada culture (4000–3100 BCE) Proto-Cannaanites Sumerian period (4000–2340 BCE) Susa I Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE) Naqada I Naqada II Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests") Legendary ante-deluvian rulers: In Eridu: Alulim, Alalngar, then in Bad-tibira: En-men-lu-ana, En-men-gal-ana, Dumuzid, the Shepherd, then in Larag: En-sipad-zid-ana, then in Zimbir: En-men-dur-ana, then in Shuruppag: Ubara-Tutu "then the flood swept over"[5] Susa II (Uruk influence or control) 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ DenAnedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100-2700 BCE) Great Flood 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) First kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman En-me-barage-si ("made the land of Elam submit")[6] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba Uruk II dynasty Enshakushanna Mug-si Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions (3 kings)[7] Shushuntarana Napilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Urur Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun) Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion of Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[7] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian Empire (Semitic) Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Second Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) (Vassals of UR III) Shakkanakku dynasty (Semitic) Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Neo-Sumerian Period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians) Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (Vassals of Ur III)[8] Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal 2100 BCE Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin Ibbi-Sin 2050 BCE 2000 BCE Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV circa 2000 BCE Amorite invasions Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) 2025-1763 BCE Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ Third Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 1894–1595 BCE Second Intermediate Period Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham (Biblical) Yamhad First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Phoenicia Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Middle Assyrian Empire Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt 626–539 BCE Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116-117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ "The Sumerian king list: translation". etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 8 May 2008. ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ a b Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4. 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Contents 1 Online text 2 Online databases 3 Subscription eBook databases 4 Libraries 4.1 Worldwide 4.2 Africa 4.2.1 Nigeria 4.2.2 South Africa 4.2.3 Zimbabwe 4.3 Central America and the Caribbean 4.3.1 Barbados 4.3.2 Guatemala 4.3.3 Jamaica 4.3.4 Mexico 4.3.5 Trinidad and Tobago 4.4 Canada 4.4.1 Public libraries 4.4.2 Universities and colleges 4.5 United States 4.5.1 Public libraries by state 4.5.2 Universities and colleges 4.6 South America 4.6.1 Argentina 4.6.2 Brazil 4.6.3 Colombia 4.6.4 Ecuador 4.7 Asia 4.7.1 Bangladesh 4.7.2 China, People's Republic 4.7.3 Hong Kong, S.A.R. of China 4.7.4 India 4.7.5 Indonesia 4.7.6 Iran 4.7.7 Israel 4.7.8 Japan 4.7.9 Korea 4.7.10 Malaysia 4.7.11 Philippines 4.7.11.1 Universities and colleges 4.7.11.2 Other libraries 4.7.12 Singapore 4.7.13 Taiwan, Republic of China 4.7.14 Thailand 4.8 Australasia and Oceania 4.8.1 Australia 4.8.1.1 Public libraries 4.8.1.2 Academic libraries 4.8.2 New Zealand 4.8.2.1 Public libraries 4.8.2.2 Academic libraries 4.9 Europe 4.9.1 Austria 4.9.2 Belgium 4.9.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.9.4 Croatia 4.9.5 Czech Republic 4.9.6 Denmark 4.9.7 Estonia 4.9.8 Finland 4.9.9 France 4.9.10 Germany 4.9.11 Greece 4.9.12 Hungary 4.9.13 Iceland 4.9.14 Ireland 4.9.15 Italy 4.9.16 Luxembourg 4.9.17 Montenegro 4.9.18 Netherlands 4.9.19 Norway 4.9.20 Poland 4.9.21 Portugal 4.9.22 Russia 4.9.23 Serbia 4.9.24 Slovenia 4.9.25 Spain 4.9.26 Sweden 4.9.27 Switzerland 4.9.28 Turkey 4.9.29 United Kingdom 4.9.29.1 Public libraries 4.9.29.2 Universities 5 Bookselling and swapping 5.1 Price comparison sites 5.2 Search many booksellers 5.3 Individual booksellers 5.4 Book-swapping websites 6 Non-English book sources 7 Bibliographical information 8 Find other editions 9 Find on Wikipedia 10 See also Online text Find this book on Google Books Find this book at the Open Library Find this book on Amazon.com (or .au, .br, .ca, .cn, .de, .es, .fr, .in, .it, .jp, .mx, .nl, .uk). 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en-wikipedia-org-2860	----	Satrap - Wikipedia Satrap From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ruler of a province in ancient Persia The Herakleia head, probable portrait of an Achaemenid Empire Satrap of Asia Minor, end of 6th century BCE, probably under Darius I.[1] Satraps (/ˈsætrəp/) were the governors of the provinces of the ancient Median and Achaemenid Empires and in several of their successors, such as in the Sasanian Empire and the Hellenistic empires.[2] The satrap served as viceroy to the king, though with considerable autonomy. The word came to suggest tyranny or ostentatious splendour.[3][4] Contents 1 Etymology 2 Medo-Persian satraps 3 Hellenistic satraps 4 Parthian and Sassanian satraps 5 Indian satraps 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links Etymology[edit] The word satrap is derived via Latin satrapes from Greek satrápēs (σατράπης), itself borrowed from an Old Iranian *xšaθra-pā/ă-.[5] In Old Persian, which was the native language of the Achaemenids, it is recorded as xšaçapāvan (𐎧𐏁𐏂𐎱𐎠𐎺𐎠, literally "protector of the province"). The Median form is reconstructed as *xšaθrapāwan-.[6] It is cognate with Sanskrit kṣatrapal (क्षेत्रपाल). The Biblical Hebrew form is ǎḥašdarpån אֲחַשְׁדַּרְפָּן‎, as found in Esther 3:12[7]. In the Parthian (language of the Arsacid Empire) and Middle Persian (the language of the Sassanian Empire), it is recorded in the forms šahrab and šasab, respectively.[8] In modern Persian the descendant of xšaθrapāvan is shahrbān (شهربان‎), but the components have undergone semantic shift so the word now means "town keeper" (shahr [شهر‎] meaning "town" + bān [بان‎] meaning "keeper"). A "satrapy" is the territory governed by a satrap.[9] Medo-Persian satraps[edit] A dignitary of Asia Minor in Achaemenid style, circa 475 BC. Karaburun tomb near Elmalı, Lycia.[10] Although the first large-scale use of satrapies, or provinces, originates from the inception of the Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus the Great, beginning at around 530 BCE, provincial organization actually originated during the Median era from at least 648 BCE. Up to the time of the conquest of Media by Cyrus the Great, emperors ruled the lands they conquered through client kings and governors. The main difference was that in Persian culture the concept of kingship was indivisible from divinity: divine authority validated the divine right of kings. The twenty-six satraps established by Cyrus were never kings, but viceroys ruling in the king's name, although in political reality many took advantage of any opportunity to carve themselves an independent power base. Darius the Great gave the satrapies a definitive organization, increased their number to thirty-six, and fixed their annual tribute (Behistun inscription). Coin of Themistocles, a former Athenian general, as Achaemenid Empire Satrap of Magnesia, circa 465-459 BC The satrap was in charge of the land that he owned as an administrator, and found himself surrounded by an all-but-royal court; he collected the taxes, controlled the local officials and the subject tribes and cities, and was the supreme judge of the province before whose "chair" (Nehemiah 3:7) every civil and criminal case could be brought. He was responsible for the safety of the roads (cf. Xenophon), and had to put down brigands and rebels. He was assisted by a council of Persians, to which also provincials were admitted and which was controlled by a royal secretary and emissaries of the king, especially the "eye of the king", who made an annual inspection and exercised permanent control. Coinage of Tiribazos, Satrap of Achaemenid Lydia, 388-380 BC There were further checks on the power of each satrap: besides his secretarial scribe, his chief financial official (Old Persian ganzabara) and the general in charge of the regular army of his province and of the fortresses were independent of him and periodically reported directly to the shah, in person. The satrap was allowed to have troops in his own service. The great satrapies (provinces) were often divided into smaller districts, the governors of which were also called satraps and (by Greco-Roman authors) also called hyparchs (actually Hyparkhos in Greek, 'vice-regents'). The distribution of the great satrapies was changed repeatedly, and often two of them were given to the same man. Achaemenid Satrap Autophradates receiving visitors, on the Tomb of Payava, circa 380 BC. As the provinces were the result of consecutive conquests (the homeland had a special status, exempt from provincial tribute), both primary and sub-satrapies were often defined by former states and/or ethno-religious identity. One of the keys to the Achaemenid success (as with most enduring great empires) was their open attitude to the culture and religion of the conquered people, so the Persian culture was the one most affected as the Great King endeavoured to meld elements from all his subjects into a new imperial style, especially at his capital, Persepolis. Banquet scene of a Satrap, on the "Sarcophagus of the Satrap", Sidon, 4th century BC. Whenever central authority in the empire weakened, the satrap often enjoyed practical independence, especially as it became customary to appoint him also as general-in-chief of the army district, contrary to the original rule. "When his office became hereditary, the threat to the central authority could not be ignored" (Olmstead). Rebellions of satraps became frequent from the middle of the 5th century BCE. Darius I struggled with widespread rebellions in the satrapies, and under Artaxerxes II occasionally the greater parts of Asia Minor and Syria were in open rebellion (Revolt of the Satraps). The last great rebellions were put down by Artaxerxes III. Hellenistic satraps[edit] Further information: Partition of Babylon and Partition of Triparadisus The satraps appointed by Alexander the Great during his campaign Bagadates I (Minted 290–280 BC), the first indigenous satrap to be appointed by the Seleucid Empire.[11][12] The satrapic administration and title were retained—even for Greco-Macedonian incumbents—by Alexander the Great, who conquered the Achaemenid Empire, and by his successors, the Diadochi (and their dynasties) who carved it up, especially in the Seleucid Empire, where the satrap generally was designated as strategos (i.e., military generals); but their provinces were much smaller than under the Persians. They would ultimately be replaced by conquering empires, especially the Parthians. Parthian and Sassanian satraps[edit] In the Parthian Empire, the king's power rested on the support of noble families who ruled large estates, and supplied soldiers and tribute to the king. City-states within the empire enjoyed a degree of self-government, and paid tribute to the king. Administration of the Sassanid Empire was considerably more centralized than that of the Parthian Empire; the semi-independent kingdoms and self-governing city states of the Parthian Empire were replaced with a system of "royal cities" which served as the seats of centrally appointed governors called shahrabs as well as the location of military garrisons. Shahrabs ruled both the city and the surrounding rural districts. Exceptionally, the Byzantine Empire also adopted the title "satrap" for the semi-autonomous princes that governed one of its Armenian provinces, the Satrapiae. Indian satraps[edit] Main article: Western satraps Coin of "Western Satrap" Nahapana, circa 120 CE. The Western Satraps or Kshatrapas (35–405 CE) of the Indian subcontinent were Saka rulers in the western and central part of the Sindh region of Pakistan, and the Saurashtra and Malwa regions of western India. They were contemporaneous with the Kushans who ruled the northern part of the subcontinent from the area of Peshawar and were possibly their overlords, and with the Satavahana (Andhra) who ruled in central India to their south and east and the Kushan state to their immediate west. See also[edit] Suzerainty Orontid Dynasty References[edit] ^ CAHN, HERBERT A.; GERIN, DOMINIQUE (1988). "Themistocles at Magnesia". The Numismatic Chronicle (1966-). 148: 13–20. JSTOR 42668124. ^ "Satrap – Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary". Merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2012-01-26. ^ Satrap, at Oxford English Dictionary; retrieved 21 February 2019 ^ Trollope, Anthony (12 May 2011). The Eustace Diamonds. OUP Oxford. p. 626. ISBN 978-0-19-162041-6. Retrieved 28 November 2020. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2017-05-17. Retrieved 2017-05-07.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ Bukharin, Mikhail. "[Towards the Discussion on the Language of the Scythians: The Transition of OIr *xš- > *s- and its Reflection in the Ancient Greek] К дискуссии о языке скифов: переход др.ир. *xš- > *s- и его отражение в древнегреческом". Проблемы Истории, Филологии, Культуры. 2013. 2. В честь 60-летия В.Д. Кузнецова. С. 263–285. ^ Esther 3:12, The Bible (Jewish Publication Society, 1917) ^ "šasab" in David Neil MacKenzie, A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary (1971). ^ "satrapy - Wiktionary". en.wiktionary.org. Retrieved 2020-08-14. ^ André-Salvini, Béatrice (2005). Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia. University of California Press. p. 46. ISBN 9780520247314. ^ Otto Mørkholm, Early Hellenistic Coinage: From the Accession of Alexander to the Peace of Apamea (Cambridge University Press) 1991:73f. ^ John Curtis, Nigel Tallis and Béatrice André-Salvini, Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia 2005:258-9, fig. 454, Silver tetradrachm of Bagadates. Ashley, James R. (2004) [First published 1998]. "Appendix H: Kings and Satraps". The Macedonian Empire: The Era of Warfare Under Philip II and Alexander the Great, 359–323 B.C. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. pp. 385–391. ISBN 978-0-7864-1918-0. Further reading[edit] A. T. Olmstead, History of the Persian Empire, 1948. Pauly-Wissowa (comprehensive encyclopaedia on Antiquity; in German). Robert Dick Wilson. The Book of Daniel: A Discussion of the Historical Questions, 1917. Available on home.earthlink.net. Rüdiger Schmitt, "Der Titel 'Satrap'", in Studies Palmer ed. Meid (1976), 373–390.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Satrap". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.. Cormac McCarthy, All the Pretty Horses, 1992. External links[edit] Look up satrap in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Livius.org: Satraps and satrapies v t e Provinces of the Achaemenid Empire (Behistun / Persepolis / Naqsh-e Rustam / Susa / Daiva inscriptions) Akaufaka (Quhistan?) Amyrgoi Arabia Arachosia Aria Armenia Assyria Babylonia Bactria Cappadocia Caria Carmania Caucasian Albania Chorasmia Cilicia Colchis Dahae Drangiana 1st Egypt / 2nd Egypt Eber-Nari (Levant) Elam Kush (Nubia) Gandāra (Gandhara) Gedrosia Hyrcania Ionia Hindush Libya Lydia Maka Margiana Media Lesser Media Massagetae Parthia Persia Phoenicia Phrygia Hellespontine Phrygia Greater Phrygia Saka Samaritan Province Sattagydia Skudra (Thrace) Sogdia Yehud See also Tax Districts of the Achaemenid Empire (according to Herodotus) v t e Designations for types of administrative division English terms Common English terms1 Area Insular area Local government area Special area Borough County borough Metropolitan borough Canton Half-canton Capital Federal capital Imperial capital City Autonomous city Charter city Independent city Incorporated city Imperial city Free imperial city Royal free city Community Autonomous community Residential community County Administrative county Autonomous county Consolidated city-county Metropolitan county Non-metropolitan county Viscounty Country Overseas country Department Overseas department District Capital district City district Congressional district Electoral district Federal district Indian government district Land district Metropolitan district Non-metropolitan district Military district Municipal district Police district Regional district Rural district Sanitary district Service district Educational service district Local service district School district Intermediate school district Special district in the US Urban district Division Census division Police division Subdivision of India Municipality City municipality County municipality Regional county municipality Direct-controlled municipality District municipality Neutral municipality Regional municipality Resort municipality Mountain resort municipality Rural municipality Specialized municipality Prefecture Autonomous prefecture Subprefecture Super-prefecture Praetorian prefecture Province Autonomous province Overseas province Roman province Region Administrative region Special administrative region Autonomous region Capital region National capital region Development region Mesoregion Microregion Overseas region Subregion Reserve Biosphere reserve Ecological reserve Game reserve Indian reserve Nature reserve State City-state Federal state Free state Sovereign state Territory Capital territory Federal capital territory National capital territory Dependent territory Federal territory Incorporated territory Organized incorporated territory Overseas territory Union territory Unorganized territory Town Census town Market town Township Charter township Civil township Paper township Survey township Urban township Unit Regional unit Territorial unit Autonomous territorial unit Zone Economic zone Exclusive economic zone Free economic zone Special economic zone Exclusion zone Military exclusion zone Free speech zone Neutral zone Self-administered zone Trade zone Free-trade zone Other English terms Current Alpine resort Bailiwick Banner Autonomous Block Cadastre Circle Circuit Colony Commune Condominium Constituency Duchy Eldership Emirate Federal dependency Governorate Hamlet Ilkhanate Indian reservation Manor Royal Muftiate Neighbourhood Parish Periphery Precinct Principality Protectorate Quarter Regency Autonomous republic Riding Sector Autonomous Shire Sultanate Suzerainty Townland Village Summer Ward Historical Agency Barony Burgh Exarchate Hide Hundred Imperial Circle March Monthon Presidency Residency Roman diocese Seat Tenth Tithing 1 Used by ten or more countries or having derived terms. Historical derivations in italics. Non-English or loanwords Current Amt Bakhsh Barangay Bezirk Regierungsbezirk Comune Frazione Fu Gemeinde Austria Germany South Tyrol Switzerland Gemeente Gmina Județ Kampong Kommun / kunta Finland Sweden Län (Sweden) Landskap (Finland) Località Maakunta Megye Muban Mukim Oblast Autonomous Okrug Ostān Poblacion Purok Shahrestān Sum Sýsla Tehsil Vingtaine Historical Commote Gau Heerlijkheid Köping Län / lääni Landskap (Sweden) Landskommun Maalaiskunta Nome Egypt Greece Pagus Pargana Plasă Satrapy Socken Subah Syssel Zhou See also: Census division, Electoral district, and List of administrative divisions by country v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC v t e Hellenistic satraps Satraps under Alexander the Great (334-323 BC) Ada (Queen of Caria) Asander, Menander (Lydia) Calas, Demarchus (Hellespontine Phrygia) Antigonus (Greater Phrygia) Balakros, Menes (Cilicia) Abistamenes (Cappadocia) Abdalonymus (Sidon) Mithrenes (Armenia) Mazaeus, Stamenes (Babylon) Mazakes (Mesopotamia) Abulites (Susiana) Oxydates, Atropates (Media) Phrasaortes, Oxines, Peucestas (Persis) Cleomenes of Naucratis (Egypt) Satibarzanes (Aria) Sibyrtius (Carmania) Autophradates (Tapuri, Mardi) Andragoras (Parthia) Amminapes, Phrataphernes, Pharismanes (Hyrcania and Parthia) Artabazos, Cleitus the Black, Amyntas (Bactria) Oxyartes (Paropamisia) Philip, Eudemus (India) Peithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara) Taxiles (Punjab) Porus (Indus) Satraps at the Partition of Babylon (323 BC) Antipater (Macedon and Greece) Philo (Illyria) Lysimachus (Thrace) Leonnatus (Hellespontine Phrygia) Antigonus (Phrygia) Asander (Caria) Nearchus (Lycia and Pamphylia) Menander (Lydia) Philotas (Cilicia) Eumenes (Cappadocia and Paphlagonia) Ptolemy (Egypt) Laomedon of Mytilene (Syria) Neoptolemus (Armenia) Peucestas (Persis) Arcesilaus (Mesopotamia) Peithon (Greater Media) Atropates (Lesser Media) Scynus (Susiana) Tlepolemus (Persia) Nicanor (Parthia) Phrataphernes (Armenia, Parthia) Antigenes (Susiana) Archon (Pelasgia) Philip (Hyrcania) Stasanor (Aria and Drangiana) Sibyrtius (Arachosia and Gedrosia) Amyntas (Bactria) Scythaeus (Sogdiana) Oxyartes (Paropamisia) Taxiles (Punjab) Peithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara) Porus (Indus) Satraps at the Partition of Triparadisus (321 BC) Antipater (Macedon and Greece) Lysimachus (Thrace) Arrhidaeus (Hellespontine Phrygia) Antigonus (Phrygia, Lycia and Pamphylia) Cassander (Caria) Cleitus the White (Lydia) Philoxenus (Cilicia) Nicanor (Cappadocia and Paphlagonia) Ptolemy (Egypt) Laomedon of Mytilene (Syria) Peucestas (Persis) Amphimachus (Mesopotamia) Peithon (Media) Tlepolemus (Carmania) Philip (Parthia) Antigenes (Susiana) Seleucus (Babylonia) Stasanor (Bactria and Sogdiana) Stasander (Aria and Drangiana) Sibyrtius (Arachosia and Gedrosia) Oxyartes (Paropamisia) Taxiles (Punjab) Peithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara) Porus (Indus) Later Satraps Peithon, son of Agenor (Babylon) Sibyrtius (Arachosia, Drangiana) Eudemus (Indus) Bagadates, Ardakhshir I, Wahbarz, Vadfradad I, Vadfradad II, Alexander c.220 BC (Persis) Andragoras (Parthia) Demodamas (Bactria, Sogdiana) Diodotus (Bactria) Alexander (Lydia) Molon c.220 BC, Timarchus, c.175 BC (Media) Apollodorus (Susiana) Ptolemaeus (Commagene) Noumenios, Hyspaosines c.150 BC (Characene) Hellenistic satraps were preceded by Achaemenid rulers, and followed or ruled by Hellenistic rulers Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Satrap&oldid=997135717" Categories: Satraps Positions of subnational authority Achaemenid Empire Types of country subdivisions Gubernatorial titles Iranian inventions Hidden categories: CS1 maint: archived copy as title Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing explicitly 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en-wikipedia-org-2867	----	Aeschylus - Wikipedia Aeschylus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search ancient Athenian tragic playwright This article is about the ancient Greek playwright. For other uses, see Aeschylus (disambiguation). Aeschylus Αἰσχύλος Roman marble herma of Aeschylus dating to c. 30 BC, based on an earlier bronze Greek herma, dating to around 340-320 BC Born c. 523 BC Eleusis Died c. 456 BC (aged c. 67) Gela Occupation Playwright and soldier Children Euphorion Euaeon Parent(s) Euphorion (father) Relatives Cynaegirus (brother) Ameinias (brother) Philopatho (sister) Philocles (nephew) Aeschylus (UK: /ˈiːskɪləs/,[1] US: /ˈɛskɪləs/;[2] Greek: Αἰσχύλος Aiskhylos, pronounced [ai̯s.kʰý.los]; c. 525/524 – c. 456/455 BC) was an ancient Greek tragedian. He is often described as the father of tragedy.[3][4] Academics' knowledge of the genre begins with his work,[5] and understanding of earlier tragedies is largely based on inferences made from reading his surviving plays.[6] According to Aristotle, he expanded the number of characters in the theatre and allowed conflict among them. Before this, characters interacted only with the chorus.[nb 1] Only seven of his estimated seventy to ninety plays have survived. There is a long-standing debate regarding the authorship of one of these plays, Prometheus Bound. Some believe that his son Euphorion wrote it. Fragments from other of Aeschylus' plays have survived in quotations, and more continue to be discovered on Egyptian papyrus. These fragments often give further insights into Aeschylus' work.[7] He was probably the first dramatist to present plays as a trilogy. His Oresteia is the only extant and ancient example.[8] At least one of his plays was influenced by the Persians' second invasion of Greece (480–479 BC). This work, The Persians, is one of very few classical Greek tragedies concerned with contemporary events, and the only one extant.[9] The significance of the war against Persia was so great to Aeschylus and the Greeks that Aeschylus' epitaph commemorates his participation in the Greek victory at Marathon while making no mention of his success as a playwright. Despite this, Aeschylus's work – particularly the Oresteia – is generally acclaimed by modern critics and scholars. Contents 1 Life 2 Personal life 2.1 Death 3 Works 3.1 Trilogies 4 Surviving plays 4.1 The Persians 4.2 Seven Against Thebes 4.3 The Suppliants 4.4 The Oresteia 4.4.1 Agamemnon 4.4.2 The Libation Bearers 4.4.3 The Eumenides 4.5 Prometheus Bound 5 Lost plays 5.1 Myrmidons 5.2 Nereids 5.3 Phrygians, or Hector's Ransom 5.4 Niobe 6 Influence 6.1 Influence on Greek drama and culture 6.2 Influence outside Greek culture 7 Editions 8 See also 9 Notes 10 Citations 11 References 12 External links Life[edit] Bust of Aeschylus at North Carolina Museum of Art Aeschylus was born in c. 525 BC in Eleusis, a small town about 27 kilometers northwest of Athens, in the fertile valleys of western Attica.[10] Some scholars argue that his date of birth may be based on counting back forty years from his first victory in the Great Dionysia.[11] His family was wealthy and well established. His father, Euphorion, was a member of the Eupatridae, the ancient nobility of Attica.[12] But this might be a fiction invented by the ancients to account for the grandeur of Aeschylus' plays.[13] As a youth, Aeschylus worked at a vineyard until, according to the 2nd-century AD geographer Pausanias, the god Dionysus visited him in his sleep and commanded him to turn his attention to the nascent art of tragedy.[12] As soon as he woke, he began to write a tragedy, and his first performance took place in 499 BC, when he was 26 years old.[10][12] He won his first victory at the City Dionysia in 484 BC.[12][14] In 510 BC, when Aeschylus was 15 years old, Cleomenes I expelled the sons of Peisistratus from Athens, and Cleisthenes came to power. Cleisthenes' reforms included a system of registration that emphasized the importance of the deme over family tradition. In the last decade of the 6th century, Aeschylus and his family were living in the deme of Eleusis.[15] The Persian Wars played a large role in Aeschylus' life and career. In 490 BC, he and his brother Cynegeirus fought to defend Athens against the invading army of Darius I of Persia at the Battle of Marathon.[10] The Athenians emerged triumphant, and the victory was celebrated across the city-states of Greece.[10] Cynegeirus was killed while trying to prevent a Persian ship retreating from the shore, for which his countrymen extolled him as a hero.[10][15] In 480 BC, Aeschylus was called into military service again, together with his younger brother Ameinias, against Xerxes I's invading forces at the Battle of Salamis. Aeschylus also fought at the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC.[16] Ion of Chios was a witness for Aeschylus' war record and his contribution in Salamis.[15] Salamis holds a prominent place in The Persians, his oldest surviving play, which was performed in 472 BC and won first prize at the Dionysia.[17] Aeschylus was one of many Greeks who were initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries, an ancient cult of Demeter based in his home town of Eleusis.[18] Initiates gained secret knowledge through these rites, likely concerning the afterlife.[citation needed] Firm details of specific rites are sparse, as members were sworn under the penalty of death not to reveal anything about the Mysteries to non-initiates. Nevertheless, according to Aristotle, Aeschylus was accused of asebeia for revealing some of the cult's secrets on stage.[19][20] Other sources claim that an angry mob tried to kill Aeschylus on the spot but he fled the scene. Heracleides of Pontus asserts that the audience tried to stone Aeschylus. Aeschylus took refuge at the altar in the orchestra of the Theater of Dionysus. He pleaded ignorance at his trial. He was acquitted, with the jury sympathetic to the military service of him and his brothers during the Persian Wars. According to the 2nd-century AD author Aelian, Aeschylus' younger brother Ameinias helped to acquit Aeschylus by showing the jury the stump of the hand he had lost at Salamis, where he was voted bravest warrior. The truth is that the award for bravery at Salamis went not to Aeschylus' brother but to Ameinias of Pallene.[15] Aeschylus travelled to Sicily once or twice in the 470s BC, having been invited by Hiero I of Syracuse, a major Greek city on the eastern side of the island.[clarification needed] He produced The Women of Aetna during one of these trips (in honor of the city founded by Hieron), and restaged his Persians.[10] By 473 BC, after the death of Phrynichus, one of his chief rivals, Aeschylus was the yearly favorite in the Dionysia, winning first prize in nearly every competition.[10] In 472 BC, Aeschylus staged the production that included the Persians, with Pericles serving as choregos.[15]o Personal life[edit] Aeschylus married and had two sons, Euphorion and Euaeon, both of whom became tragic poets. Euphorion won first prize in 431 BC in competition against both Sophocles and Euripides.[21] A nephew of Aeschylus, Philocles (his sister's son), was also a tragic poet, and won first prize in the competition against Sophocles' Oedipus Rex.[15][22] Aeschylus had at least two brothers, Cynegeirus and Ameinias. Death[edit] The death of Aeschylus illustrated in the 15th century Florentine Picture Chronicle by Maso Finiguerra[23] In 458 BC, he returned to Sicily for the last time, visiting the city of Gela, where he died in 456 or 455 BC. Valerius Maximus wrote that he was killed outside the city by a tortoise dropped by an eagle (possibly a lammergeier or Cinereous vulture, which do open tortoises for eating by dropping them on hard objects[24]) which had mistaken his head for a rock suitable for shattering the shell.[25] Pliny, in his Naturalis Historiæ, adds that Aeschylus had been staying outdoors to avoid a prophecy that he would be killed by a falling object.[25] But this story may be legendary and due to a misunderstanding of the iconography on Aeschylus's tomb.[26] Aeschylus' work was so respected by the Athenians that after his death his tragedies were the only ones allowed to be restaged in subsequent competitions.[10] His sons Euphorion and Euæon and his nephew Philocles also became playwrights.[10] The inscription on Aeschylus' gravestone makes no mention of his theatrical renown, commemorating only his military achievements: Αἰσχύλον Εὐφορίωνος Ἀθηναῖον τόδε κεύθει      μνῆμα καταφθίμενον πυροφόροιο Γέλας· ἀλκὴν δ' εὐδόκιμον Μαραθώνιον ἄλσος ἂν εἴποι      καὶ βαθυχαιτήεις Μῆδος ἐπιστάμενος[27] Beneath this stone lies Aeschylus, son of Euphorion, the Athenian,      who perished in the wheat-bearing land of Gela; of his noble prowess the grove of Marathon can speak,      and the long-haired Persian knows it well. According to Castoriadis, the inscription on his grave signifies the primary importance of "belonging to the City" (polis), of the solidarity that existed within the collective body of citizen-soldiers. Works[edit] Modern picture of the Theatre of Dionysus in Athens, where many of Aeschylus's plays were performed Tragoediae septem (1552) The seeds of Greek drama were sowed in religious festivals for the gods, chiefly Dionysus, the god of wine.[14] During Aeschylus' lifetime, dramatic competitions became part of the City Dionysia, held in spring.[14] The festival opened with a procession which was followed by a competition of boys singing dithyrambs, and all culminated in a pair of dramatic competitions.[28] The first competition Aeschylus would have participated in involved three playwrights each presenting three tragedies and one satyr play.[28] Such format is called a continuous tragic tetralogy.[citation needed] It allowed Aeschylus to explore the human and theological and cosmic dimensions of a mythic sequence, developing it in successive phases.[29][clarification needed] A second competition involving five comedic playwrights followed, and the winners of both competitions were chosen by a panel of judges.[28] Aeschylus entered many of these competitions, and various ancient sources attribute between seventy and ninety plays to him.[3][30] Only seven tragedies attributed to him have survived intact: The Persians, Seven Against Thebes, The Suppliants, the trilogy known as The Oresteia (the three tragedies Agamemnon, The Libation Bearers and The Eumenides), and Prometheus Bound (whose authorship is disputed). With the exception of this last play – the success of which is uncertain – all of Aeschylus's extant tragedies are known to have won first prize at the City Dionysia. The Alexandrian Life of Aeschylus claims that he won the first prize at the City Dionysia thirteen times. This compares favorably with Sophocles' reported eighteen victories (with a substantially larger catalogue, an estimated 120 plays), and dwarfs the five victories of Euripides, who is thought to have written roughly 90 plays. Trilogies[edit] One hallmark of Aeschylean dramaturgy appears to have been his tendency to write connected trilogies in which each play serves as a chapter in a continuous dramatic narrative.[31] The Oresteia is the only extant example of this type of connected trilogy, but there is evidence that Aeschylus often wrote such trilogies. The satyr plays that followed his tragic trilogies also drew from myth. The satyr play Proteus, which followed the Oresteia, treated the story of Menelaus' detour in Egypt on his way home from the Trojan War. It is assumed, based on the evidence provided by a catalogue of Aeschylean play titles, scholia, and play fragments recorded by later authors, that three other of his extant plays were components of connected trilogies: Seven Against Thebes was the final play in an Oedipus trilogy, and The Suppliants and Prometheus Bound were each the first play in a Danaid trilogy and Prometheus trilogy, respectively. Scholars have also suggested several completely lost trilogies, based on known play titles. A number of these treated myths about the Trojan War. One, collectively called the Achilleis, comprised Myrmidons, Nereids and Phrygians (alternately, The Ransoming of Hector). Another trilogy apparently recounted the entrance of the Trojan ally Memnon into the war, and his death at the hands of Achilles (Memnon and The Weighing of Souls being two components of the trilogy). The Award of the Arms, The Phrygian Women, and The Salaminian Women suggest a trilogy about the madness and subsequent suicide of the Greek hero Ajax. Aeschylus seems to have written about Odysseus' return to Ithaca after the war (including his killing of his wife Penelope's suitors and its consequences) in a trilogy consisting of The Soul-raisers, Penelope, and The Bone-gatherers. Other suggested trilogies touched on the myth of Jason and the Argonauts (Argô, Lemnian Women, Hypsipylê), the life of Perseus (The Net-draggers, Polydektês, Phorkides), the birth and exploits of Dionysus (Semele, Bacchae, Pentheus), and the aftermath of the war portrayed in Seven Against Thebes (Eleusinians, Argives (or Argive Women), Sons of the Seven).[32] Surviving plays[edit] The Persians[edit] Main article: The Persians The Ghost of Darius Appearing to Atossa, drawing by George Romney. The Persians (Persai) is the earliest of Aeschylus' extant plays. It was performed in 472 BC. It was based on Aeschylus' own experiences, specifically the Battle of Salamis.[33] It is unique among surviving Greek tragedies in that it describes a recent historical event.[3] The Persians focuses on the popular Greek theme of hubris and blames Persia's loss on the pride of its king.[33] It opens with the arrival of a messenger in Susa, the Persian capital, bearing news of the catastrophic Persian defeat at Salamis, to Atossa, the mother of the Persian King Xerxes. Atossa then travels to the tomb of Darius, her husband, where his ghost appears, to explain the cause of the defeat. It is, he says, the result of Xerxes' hubris in building a bridge across the Hellespont, an action which angered the gods. Xerxes appears at the end of the play, not realizing the cause of his defeat, and the play closes to lamentations by Xerxes and the chorus.[34] Seven Against Thebes[edit] Main article: Seven Against Thebes Seven against Thebes (Hepta epi Thebas) was performed in 467 BC. It has the contrasting theme of the interference of the gods in human affairs.[33][clarification needed] Another theme, with which Aeschylus' would continually involve himself, makes its first known appearance in this play, namely that the polis was a key development of human civilization.[35] The play tells the story of Eteocles and Polynices, the sons of the shamed king of Thebes, Oedipus. Eteocles and Polynices agree to share and alternate the throne of the city. After the first year, Eteocles refuses to step down. Polynices undertakes war therefore. The pair kill each other in single combat, and the original ending of the play consisted of lamentations for the dead brothers.[36] But a new ending was added to the play some fifty years later: Antigone and Ismene mourn their dead brothers, a messenger enters announcing an edict prohibiting the burial of Polynices, and Antigone declares her intention to defy this edict.[36] The play was the third in a connected Oedipus trilogy. The first two plays were Laius and Oedipus. The concluding satyr play was The Sphinx.[37] The Suppliants[edit] Main article: The Suppliants (Aeschylus) Miniature by Robinet Testard showing the Danaids murdering their husbands Aeschylus continued his emphasis on the polis with The Suppliants (Hiketides) in 463 BC. The play gives tribute to the democratic undercurrents which were running through Athens and preceding the establishment of a democratic government in 461. The Danaids (50 daughters of Danaus, founder of Argos) flee a forced marriage to their cousins in Egypt.[clarification needed] They turn to King Pelasgus of Argos for protection, but Pelasgus refuses until the people of Argos weigh in on the decision (a distinctly democratic move on the part of the king). The people decide that the Danaids deserve protection and are allowed within the walls of Argos despite Egyptian protests.[38] A Danaid trilogy had long been assumed because of The Suppliants' cliffhanger ending. This was confirmed by the 1952 publication of Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 2256 fr. 3. The constituent plays are generally agreed to be The Suppliants and The Egyptians and The Danaids. A plausible reconstruction of the trilogy's last two-thirds runs thus:[39] In The Egyptians, the Argive-Egyptian war threatened in the first play has transpired. King Pelasgus was killed during the war, and Danaus rules Argos. Danaus negotiates a settlement with Aegyptus, a condition of which requires his 50 daughters to marry the 50 sons of Aegyptus. Danaus secretly informs his daughters of an oracle which predicts that one of his sons-in-law would kill him. He orders the Danaids to murder their husbands therefore on their wedding night. His daughters agree. The Danaids would open the day after the wedding.[40] It is revealed that 49 of the 50 Danaids killed their husbands. Hypermnestra did not kill her husband, Lynceus, and helped him escape. Danaus is angered by his daughter's disobedience and orders her imprisonment and possibly execution. In the trilogy's climax and dénouement, Lynceus reveals himself to Danaus and kills him, thus fulfilling the oracle. He and Hypermnestra will establish a ruling dynasty in Argos. The other 49 Danaids are absolved of their murders, and married off to unspecified Argive men. The satyr play following this trilogy was titled Amymone, after one of the Danaids.[40] The Oresteia[edit] Main article: Oresteia Besides a few missing lines, the Oresteia of 458 BC is the only complete trilogy of Greek plays by any playwright still extant (of Proteus, the satyr play which followed, only fragments are known).[33] Agamemnon and The Libation Bearers (Choephoroi) and The Eumenides[35] together tell the violent story of the family of Agamemnon, king of Argos. Agamemnon[edit] The Murder of Agamemnon by Pierre-Narcisse Guérin (1817) Aeschylus begins in Greece,[clarification needed] describing the return of King Agamemnon from his victory in the Trojan War, from the perspective of the towns people[clarification needed] (the Chorus) and his wife, Clytemnestra. Dark foreshadowings build to the death of the king at the hands of his wife,[clarification needed] who was angry that their daughter Iphigenia was killed so that the gods would restore the winds and allow the Greek fleet to sail to Troy. Clytemnestra was also unhappy that Agamemnon kept the Trojan prophetess Cassandra as his concubine. Cassandra foretells the murder of Agamemnon and of herself to the assembled townsfolk, who are horrified. She then enters the palace knowing that she cannot avoid her fate. The ending of the play includes a prediction of the return of Orestes, son of Agamemnon, who will seek to avenge his father.[35] The Libation Bearers[edit] The Libation Bearers opens with Orestes' arrival at Agamemnon's tomb, from exile in Phocis. Electra meets Orestes there. They plan revenge against Clytemnestra and her lover, Aegisthus. Clytemnestra's account of a nightmare in which she gives birth to a snake is recounted by the chorus. This[clarification needed] leads her to order her daughter, Electra, to pour libations on Agamemnon's tomb (with the assistance of libation bearers) in hope of making amends. Orestes enters the palace pretending to bear news of his own death. Clytemnestra calls in Aegisthus to learn the news. Orestes kills them both. Orestes is then beset by the Furies, who avenge the murders of kin in Greek mythology.[35] The Eumenides[edit] The third play addresses the question of Orestes' guilt.[35] The Furies drive Orestes from Argos and into the wilderness. He makes his way to the temple of Apollo and begs Apollo to drive the Furies away. Apollo had encouraged Orestes to kill Clytemnestra, so he bears some of the guilt for the murder.[clarification needed] The Furies are a more ancient race of the gods,[clarification needed] and Apollo sends Orestes to the temple of Athena with Hermes as a guide.[38] The Furies track him down,[clarification needed] and Athena steps in and declares that a trial is necessary. Apollo argues Orestes' case, and after the judges (including Athena) deliver a tie vote, Athena announces that Orestes is acquitted. She renames the Furies The Eumenides (The Good-spirited, or Kindly Ones), and extols the importance of reason in the development of laws. As in The Suppliants, the ideals of a democratic Athens are praised.[38] Prometheus Bound[edit] Main article: Prometheus Bound Prometheus Being Chained by Vulcan by Dirck van Baburen (1623) Prometheus Bound is attributed to Aeschylus by ancient authorities. Since the late 19th century, however, scholars have increasingly doubted this ascription, largely on stylistic grounds. Its production date is also in dispute, with theories ranging from the 480s BC to as late as the 410s.[10][41] The play consists mostly of static dialogue.[clarification needed] The Titan Prometheus is bound to a rock throughout, which is his punishment from the Olympian Zeus for providing fire to humans.[clarification needed] The god Hephaestus and the Titan Oceanus and the chorus of Oceanids all express sympathy for Prometheus' plight. Prometheus is met by Io, a fellow victim of Zeus' cruelty.[clarification needed] He prophesies her future travels, revealing that one of her descendants will free Prometheus.[clarification needed] The play closes with Zeus sending Prometheus into the abyss because Prometheus will not tell him of a potential marriage which could prove Zeus' downfall.[34][clarification needed] Prometheus Bound seems to have been the first play in a trilogy, the Prometheia. In the second play, Prometheus Unbound, Heracles frees Prometheus from his chains and kills the eagle that had been sent daily to eat Prometheus' perpetually regenerating liver (then believed the source of feeling[citation needed]). We learn that Zeus has released the other Titans which he imprisoned at the conclusion of the Titanomachy, perhaps foreshadowing his eventual reconciliation with Prometheus.[42] In the trilogy's conclusion, Prometheus the Fire-Bringer, it seems that the Titan finally warns Zeus not to sleep with the sea nymph Thetis, for she is fated to beget a son greater than the father. Not wishing to be overthrown, Zeus marries Thetis off to the mortal Peleus. The product of that union is Achilles, Greek hero of the Trojan War. After reconciling with Prometheus, Zeus probably inaugurates a festival in his honor at Athens.[42] Lost plays[edit] Of Aeschylus' other plays, only titles and assorted fragments are known. There are enough fragments (along with comments made by later authors and scholiasts) to produce rough synopses for some plays. Myrmidons[edit] This play was based on books 9 and 16 of the Iliad. Achilles sits in silent indignation over his humiliation at Agamemnon's hands for most of the play.[clarification needed] Envoys from the Greek army attempt to reconcile Achilles to Agamemnon, but he yields only to his cousin, and lover Patroclus, who then battles the Trojans in Achilles' armour. The bravery and death of Patroclus are reported in a messenger's speech, which is followed by mourning.[15] Nereids[edit] This play was based on books 18 and 19 and 22 of the Iliad. It follows the Daughters of Nereus, the sea god, who lament Patroclus' death. A messenger tells how Achilles (perhaps reconciled to Agamemnon and the Greeks) slew Hector.[15] Phrygians, or Hector's Ransom[edit] After a brief discussion with Hermes, Achilles sits in silent mourning over Patroclus. Hermes then brings in King Priam of Troy, who wins over Achilles and ransoms his son's body in a spectacular coup de théâtre. A scale is brought on stage and Hector's body is placed in one scale and gold in the other. The dynamic dancing of the chorus of Trojans when they enter with Priam is reported by Aristophanes.[15] Niobe[edit] The children of Niobe, the heroine, have been slain by Apollo and Artemis because Niobe had gloated that she had more children than their mother, Leto. Niobe sits in silent mourning on stage during most of the play. In the Republic, Plato quotes the line "God plants a fault in mortals when he wills to destroy a house utterly."[15] These are the remaining 71 plays ascribed to Aeschylus which are known to us: Alcmene Amymone The Archer-Women The Argivian Women The Argo, also titled The Rowers Atalanta Athamas Attendants of the Bridal Chamber Award of the Arms The Bacchae The Bassarae The Bone-Gatherers The Cabeiroi Callisto The Carians, also titled Europa Cercyon Children of Hercules Circe The Cretan Women Cycnus The Danaids Daughters of Helios Daughters of Phorcys The Descendants The Edonians The Egyptians The Escorts Glaucus of Pontus Glaucus of Potniae Hypsipyle Iphigenia Ixion Laius The Lemnian Women The Lion Lycurgus Memnon The Men of Eleusis The Messengers The Myrmidons The Mysians Nemea The Net-Draggers The Nurses of Dionysus Orethyia Palamedes Penelope Pentheus Perrhaibides Philoctetes Phineus The Phrygian Women Polydectes The Priestesses Prometheus the Fire-Bearer Prometheus the Fire-Kindler Prometheus Unbound Proteus Semele, also titled The Water-Bearers Sisyphus the Runaway Sisyphus the Stone-Roller The Spectators, also titled Athletes of the Isthmian Games The Sphinx The Spirit-Raisers Telephus The Thracian Women Weighing of Souls Women of Aetna (two versions) Women of Salamis Xantriae The Youths Influence[edit] Influence on Greek drama and culture[edit] Mosaic of Orestes, main character in Aeschylus's only surviving trilogy The Oresteia The theatre was just beginning to evolve when Aeschylus started writing for it. Earlier playwrights such as Thespis had already expanded the cast to include an actor who was able to interact with the chorus.[30] Aeschylus added a second actor, allowing for greater dramatic variety, while the chorus played a less important role.[30] He is sometimes credited with introducing skenographia, or scene-decoration,[43] though Aristotle gives this distinction to Sophocles.[citation needed] Aeschylus is also said to have made the costumes more elaborate and dramatic, and made his actors wear platform boots (cothurni) to make them more visible to the audience.[clarification needed][citation needed] According to a later account of Aeschylus' life, the chorus of Furies in the first performance of the Eumenides were so frightening when they entered that children fainted and patriarchs urinated and pregnant women went into labour.[44] Aeschylus wrote his plays in verse. No violence is performed onstage. The plays have a remoteness from daily life in Athens, relating stories about the gods, or being set, like The Persians, far away.[45] Aeschylus' work has a strong moral and religious emphasis.[45] The Oresteia trilogy concentrated on humans' position in the cosmos relative to the gods and divine law and divine punishment.[46] Aeschylus' popularity is evident in the praise that the comic playwright Aristophanes gives him in The Frogs, produced some 50 years after Aeschylus' death. Aeschylus appears as a character in the play and claims, at line 1022, that his Seven against Thebes "made everyone watching it to love being warlike"[citation needed]. He claims, at lines 1026–7, that with The Persians he "taught the Athenians to desire always to defeat their enemies."[citation needed] Aeschylus goes on to say, at lines 1039ff., that his plays inspired the Athenians to be brave and virtuous. Influence outside Greek culture[edit] Aeschylus' works were influential beyond his own time. Hugh Lloyd-Jones draws attention to Richard Wagner's reverence of Aeschylus. Michael Ewans argues in his Wagner and Aeschylus. The Ring and the Oresteia (London: Faber. 1982) that the influence was so great as to merit a direct character by character comparison between Wagner's Ring and Aeschylus's Oresteia. But a critic of that book, while not denying that Wagner read and respected Aeschylus, has described the arguments as unreasonable and forced.[47] J.T. Sheppard argues in the second half of his Aeschylus and Sophocles: Their Work and Influence that Aeschylus and Sophocles have played a major part in the formation of dramatic literature from the Renaissance to the present, specifically in French and Elizabethan drama.[clarification needed] He also claims that their influence went beyond just drama and applies to literature in general, citing Milton and the Romantics.[48] Eugene O'Neill's Mourning Becomes Electra (1931), a trilogy of three plays set in America after the Civil War, is modeled after the Oresteia. Before writing his[clarification needed] acclaimed trilogy, O'Neill had been developing a play about Aeschylus, and he noted that Aeschylus "so changed the system of the tragic stage that he has more claim than anyone else to be regarded as the founder (Father) of Tragedy."[49] During his presidential campaign in 1968, Senator Robert F. Kennedy quoted the Edith Hamilton translation of Aeschylus on the night of the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.. Kennedy was notified of King's murder before a campaign stop in Indianapolis, Indiana, and was warned not to attend the event due to fears of rioting from the mostly African-American crowd. Kennedy insisted on attending and delivered an impromptu speech that delivered news of King's death.[50][unreliable source?][citation needed] Acknowledging the audience's emotions, Kennedy referred to his own grief at the murder of Martin Luther King and, quoting a passage from the play Agamemnon (in translation), said: "My favorite poet was Aeschylus. And he once wrote: 'Even in our sleep, pain which cannot forget falls drop by drop upon the heart, until in our own despair, against our will, comes wisdom through the awful grace of God.' What we need in the United States is not division; what we need in the United States is not hatred; what we need in the United States is not violence and lawlessness; but is love and wisdom, and compassion toward one another, and a feeling of justice toward those who still suffer within our country, whether they be white or whether they be black ... Let us dedicate ourselves to what the Greeks wrote so many years ago: to tame the savageness of man and make gentle the life of this world." The quotation from Aeschylus was later inscribed on a memorial at the gravesite of Robert Kennedy following his own assassination.[50][better source needed][citation needed] Editions[edit] Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Aeschyli Tragoediae. Editio maior, Berlin 1914. Gilbert Murray, Aeschyli Septem Quae Supersunt Tragoediae. Editio Altera, Oxford 1955. Denys Page, Aeschyli Septem Quae Supersunt Tragoediae, Oxford 1972. Martin L. West, Aeschyli Tragoediae cum incerti poetae Prometheo, 2nd ed., Stuttgart/Leipzig 1998. The first translation of the seven plays into English was by Robert Potter in 1779, using blank verse for the iambic trimeters and rhymed verse for the choruses, a convention adopted by most translators for the next century. Anna Swanwick produced a verse translation in English of all seven surviving plays as The Dramas of Aeschylus in 1886 full text Stefan Radt (ed.), Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. III: Aeschylus (Göttingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2009) (Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta, 3). Alan H. Sommerstein (ed.), Aeschylus, Volume II, Oresteia: Agamemnon. Libation-bearers. Eumenides. 146 (Cambridge, Massachusetts/London: Loeb Classical Library, 2009); Volume III, Fragments. 505 (Cambridge, Massachusetts/London: Loeb Classical Library, 2008). See also[edit] 2876 Aeschylus, an asteroid named for him Ancient Greek literature Ancient Greek mythology Ancient Greek religion Battle of Marathon Classical Greece Dionysia Music of ancient Greece Theatre of ancient Greece "Live by the sword, die by the sword" Notes[edit] ^ The remnant of a commemorative inscription, dated to the 3rd century BC, lists four, possibly eight, dramatic poets (probably including Choerilus, Phrynichus, and Pratinas) who had won tragic victories at the Dionysia before Aeschylus had. Thespis was traditionally regarded the inventor of tragedy. According to another tradition, tragedy was established in Athens in the late 530s BC, but that may simply reflect an absence of records. Major innovations in dramatic form, credited to Aeschylus by Aristotle and the anonymous source The Life of Aeschylus, may be exaggerations and should be viewed with caution (Martin Cropp (2006), "Lost Tragedies: A Survey" in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, pp. 272–74) Citations[edit] ^ Jones, Daniel; Roach, Peter, James Hartman and Jane Setter, eds. Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary. 17th edition. Cambridge UP, 2006. ^ "Aeschylus". Webster's New World College Dictionary. ^ a b c Freeman 1999, p. 243 ^ Schlegel, August Wilhelm von (December 2004). Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature. p. 121. ^ R. Lattimore, Aeschylus I: Oresteia, 4 ^ Martin Cropp, 'Lost Tragedies: A Survey'; A Companion to Greek Tragedy, p. 273 ^ P. Levi, Greek Drama, 159 ^ S. Saïd, Aeschylean Tragedy, 215 ^ S. Saïd, Aeschylean Tragedy, 221 ^ a b c d e f g h i j Sommerstein, Alan (2010). Aeschylean tragedy (in German). London: Duckworth. ISBN 978-0-7156-3824-8. OCLC 645674252. ^ Grene, David, and Richmond Lattimore, eds. The Complete Greek Tragedies: Vol. 1, Aeschylus. University of Chicago Press, 1959. ^ a b c d Bates 1906, pp. 53–59 ^ S. Saïd, Eschylean tragedy, 217 ^ a b c Freeman 1999, p. 241 ^ a b c d e f g h i j Kopff 1997 pp. 1–472 ^ ANONYMOUS LIFE OF AESCHYLUS, § 4 "They say that he was noble and that he participated in the battle of Marathon together with his brother, Cynegirus, and in the naval battle at Salamis with the youngest of his brothers, Ameinias, and in the infantry battle at Plataea." ^ Sommerstein 1996, p. 34 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSommerstein1996 (help) ^ Martin 2000, §10.1 ^ Nicomachean Ethics 1111a8–10. ^ Filonik, J. (2013). Athenian impiety trials: a reappraisal. Dike-Rivista di Storia del Diritto Greco ed Ellenistico, 16, page 23. ^ Osborn, K.; Burges, D. (1998). The complete idiot's guide to classical mythology. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-02-862385-6. ^ Smith 2005, p. 1 ^ Ursula Hoff (1938). "Meditation in Solitude". Journal of the Warburg Institute. 1 (44): 292–294. doi:10.2307/749994. JSTOR 749994. ^ del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A.; Sargatal, J., eds. (1994). Handbook of the Birds of the World. 2. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. p. 107. ISBN 84-87334-15-6. ^ a b J. C. McKeown (2013), A Cabinet of Greek Curiosities: Strange Tales and Surprising Facts from the Cradle of Western Civilization, Oxford University Press, p. 136, ISBN 978-0-19-998210-3, The unusual nature of Aeschylus's death ... ^ Critchley 2009 ^ Anthologiae Graecae Appendix, vol. 3, Epigramma sepulcrale. p. 17. ^ a b c Freeman 1999, p. 242 ^ Roman, L., & Roman, M. (2010). Encyclopedia of Greek and Roman mythology., p. 29, at Google Books ^ a b c Pomeroy 1999, p. 222 ^ Sommerstein 1996 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSommerstein1996 (help) ^ Sommerstein 2002, 34. ^ a b c d Freeman 1999, p. 244 ^ a b Vellacott: 7–19 ^ a b c d e Freeman 1999, pp. 244–46 ^ a b Aeschylus. "Prometheus Bound, The Suppliants, Seven Against Thebes, The Persians." Philip Vellacott's Introduction, pp. 7–19. Penguin Classics. ^ Sommerstein 2002, 23. ^ a b c Freeman 1999, p. 246 ^ See (e.g.) Sommerstein 1996, 141–51; Turner 2001, 36–39. ^ a b Sommerstein 2002, 89. ^ Griffith 1983, pp. 32–34 ^ a b For a discussion of the trilogy's reconstruction, see (e.g.) Conacher 1980, 100–02. ^ According to Vitruvius. See Summers 2007, 23. ^ Life of Aeschylus. ^ a b Pomeroy 1999, p. 223 ^ Pomeroy 1999, pp. 224–25 ^ Furness, Raymond (January 1984). "The Modern Language Review". The Modern Language Review. 79 (1): 239–40. doi:10.2307/3730399. JSTOR 3730399. ^ Sheppard, J. T. (1927). "Aeschylus and Sophocles: their Work and Influence". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 47 (2): 265. doi:10.2307/625177. JSTOR 625177. ^ Floyd, Virginia, ed. Eugene O'Neill at Work. New York: Frederick Ungar, 1981, p. 213. ISBN 0-8044-2205-2 ^ a b Virginia – Arlington National Cemetery: Robert F. Kennedy Gravesite References[edit] Bates, Alfred (1906). "The Drama: Its History, Literature, and Influence on Civilization, Vol. 1". London: Historical Publishing Company. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Bierl, A. Die Orestie des Aischylos auf der modernen Bühne: Theoretische Konzeptionen und ihre szenische Realizierung (Stuttgart: Metzler, 1997) Cairns, D., V. Liapis, Dionysalexandros: Essays on Aeschylus and His Fellow Tragedians in Honour of Alexander F. Garvie (Swansea: The Classical Press of Wales, 2006) Critchley, Simon (2009). The Book of Dead Philosophers. London: Granta Publications. ISBN 978-1-84708079-0. Cropp, Martin (2006). "Lost Tragedies: A Survey". In Gregory, Justine (ed.). A Companion to Greek Tragedy. Blackwell Publishing. Deforge, B. Une vie avec Eschyle. Vérité des mythes (Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2010) Freeman, Charles (1999). The Greek Achievement: The Foundation of the Western World. New York City: Viking Press. ISBN 978-0-670-88515-2. Goldhill, Simon (1992). Aeschylus, The Oresteia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-40293-4. Griffith, Mark (1983). Aeschylus' Prometheus Bound. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-27011-3. Herington, C.J. (1986). Aeschylus. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-03562-9. Herington, C.J. (1967). "Aeschylus in Sicily". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 87: 74–85. doi:10.2307/627808. JSTOR 627808. Kopff, E. Christian (1997). Ancient Greek Authors. Gale. ISBN 978-0-8103-9939-6. Lattimore, Richmond (1953). Aeschylus I: Oresteia. University of Chicago Press. Lefkowitz, Mary (1981). The Lives of the Greek Poets. University of North Carolina Press Lesky, Albin (1979). Greek Tragedy. London: Benn. Lesky, Albin (1966). A History of Greek Literature. New York: Crowell. Levi, Peter (1986). "Greek Drama". The Oxford History of the Classical World. Oxford University Press. Martin, Thomas (2000). "Ancient Greece: From Prehistoric to Hellenistic Times". Yale University Press. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Murray, Gilbert (1978). Aeschylus: The Creator of Tragedy. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Podlecki, Anthony J. (1966). The Political Background of Aeschylean Tragedy. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Pomeroy, Sarah B. (1999). Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History. New York City: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509743-6. Rosenmeyer, Thomas G. (1982). The Art of Aeschylus. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04440-1. Saïd, Suzanne (2006). "Aeschylean Tragedy". A Companion to Greek Tragedy. Blackwell Publishing. Smith, Helaine (2005). Masterpieces of Classic Greek Drama. Greenwood. ISBN 978-0-313-33268-5. Smyth, Herbert Weir (1922). Aeschylus. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Sommerstein, Alan H. (2010). Aeschylean Tragedy (2nd ed.). London: Duckworth. ISBN 978-0-7156-3824-8. — (2002). Greek Drama and Dramatists. London: Routledge Press. ISBN 0-415-26027-2 Spatz, Lois (1982). Aeschylus. Boston: Twayne Publishers Press. ISBN 978-0-8057-6522-9. Summers, David (2007). Vision, Reflection, and Desire in Western Painting. University of North Carolina Press Thomson, George (1973) Aeschylus and Athens: A Study in the Social Origin of Drama. London: Lawrence and Wishart (4th edition) Turner, Chad (2001). "Perverted Supplication and Other Inversions in Aeschylus' Danaid Trilogy". Classical Journal. 97 (1): 27–50. JSTOR 3298432. Vellacott, Philip, (1961). Prometheus Bound and Other Plays: Prometheus Bound, Seven Against Thebes, and The Persians. New York: Penguin Classics. ISBN 0-14-044112-3 Winnington-Ingram, R. P. (1985). "Aeschylus". The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Greek Literature. Cambridge University Press. Zeitlin, Froma (1982). Under the sign of the shield: semiotics and Aeschylus' Seven against Thebes. Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books, 2nd ed. 2009 (Greek studies: interdisciplinary approaches) Zetlin, Froma (1996). "The dynamics of misogyny: myth and mythmaking in Aeschylus's Oresteia", in Froma Zeitlin, Playing the Other: Gender and Society in Classical Greek Literature. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 87–119. Zeitlin, Froma (1996). "The politics of Eros in the Danaid trilogy of Aeschylus", in Froma Zeitlin, Playing the Other: Gender and Society in Classical Greek Literature. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 123–171. 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en-wikipedia-org-2869	----	Aryandes - Wikipedia Aryandes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Persian satrap of Egypt between 525 BCE and 496 BCE Aryandes Satrap of Egypt Aryandes was the first satrap of the Achaemenid Province of Egypt. Predecessor new office Successor Pherendates Dynasty 27th Dynasty Pharaoh Cambyses II to Darius I Aryandes (Old Iranian: Aryavanda[1]:266 or Arvanta, Ancient Greek: Ἀρυάνδης) was the first Achaemenid satrap of ancient Egypt between the 6th and 5th centuries BCE, during the early 27th Dynasty of Egypt. Career[edit] When king Cambyses II defeated pharaoh Psamtik III at the battle of Pelusium (525 BCE), Egypt became a satrapy of the Achaemenid empire, and Aryandes was appointed satrap shortly after. In 522 BCE, Aryandes was overthrown due to a revolt against the Achaemenid rule led by a native Egyptian pharaoh, Petubastis III. The rebellion was personally quelled by the new king Darius I during his expedition to Egypt in 518 BCE, and Aryandes reinstated. The satrap then attempted to subjugate Libya with poor results.[1]:262 Around 496 BCE, Aryandes fell out of favour with Darius I and was deposed and replaced by Pherendates.[1]:266 The reason for this decision is unknown, with Herodotus and later Polyaenus claiming that the satrap started minting his own silver coinage, calling it aryandic in opposition of the golden, already existing daric, thus irritating the great king. This story is now considered unlikely, also because no aryandic has ever been found to date.[2] It appears more likely that Darius had real concerns of a declaration of independence by Aryandes for his satrapy.[1]:264 Aryandes had been made governor of Egypt by Cambyses, later he was executed by Darius for making himself equal to the king. When he learned that Darius intended to leave a memorial surpassing anything other kings had left, Aryandes did likewise and was punished for it. The coins struck by Darius were of extremely pure gold and Aryandes, who was ruling Egypt, made silver coins, and no silver money was as pure as that of Aryandes. When Darius heard of this, he had Aryandes executed for rebellion, but not for striking coins. — Herodotus, Histories IV, 166 References[edit] ^ a b c d Ray, John D. (2006). "Egypt, 525–404 B.C.". In Boardman, John; Hammond, N.D.L.; Lewis, D.M.; Ostwald, M. (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History (2nd ed.), vol. IV – Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean c. 525 to 479 B.C. Cambridge University Press. pp. 254–286. ISBN 0 521 22804 2. ^ ARYANDES at the Encyclopædia Iranica Further reading[edit] Milne, J.G. (1936). "The Silver of Aryandes". Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 24: 245–6. Van Alfen, Peter G. (2005). "Herodotus' "Aryandic" Silver and Bullion Use in Persian-Period Egypt". The American Journal of Numismatics. Second Series. American Numismatic Society. 16–17: 7–46. New title Satrap of Egypt c.525 – 522 BCE 518 – c.496 BCE Succeeded by Pherendates v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aryandes&oldid=1002469987" Categories: Achaemenid satraps of Egypt 6th-century BC Iranian people 6th century BC in Egypt 5th-century BC Iranian people 5th century BC in Egypt Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt Officials of Darius the Great Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata CS1: long volume value Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Español فارسی Hrvatski مصرى 日本語 Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 16:39 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2871	----	Semenkare Nebnuni - Wikipedia Semenkare Nebnuni From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Semenkare Nebnuni Nebnun, Nebnennu, Nebennu Nebnuni (right) offering to Ptah (left) on a stele from Gebel el-Zeit Pharaoh Reign 2 years starting 1785 BC (Ryholt)[1] or 1 year in 1739 BC (Franke)[2] (13th Dynasty) Predecessor Amenemhat VI (Ryholt) Successor Sehetepibre Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Semenkare S.mn-k3-Rˁ He who establishes the Ka of Ra Nomen Nebnuni Nb.n-nw Nu is my lord Turin canon: Semenkare S.mn-k3-Rˁ He who establishes the Ka of Ra Semenkare Nebnuni (also Nebnun and Nebnennu) is a poorly attested pharaoh of the early 13th Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. According to Egyptologists Darrell Baker and Kim Ryholt, Nebnuni was the ninth ruler of the 13th Dynasty.[1][3] Alternatively, Jürgen von Beckerath and Detlef Franke see him as the eighth king of the dynasty.[4][5][6] Contents 1 Attestation 2 Reign 3 See also 4 References Attestation[edit] Nebnuni's name is given in the Turin canon on column 7, line 11 (Gardiner col. 6, line 11). The length of Nebnuni's reign is mostly lost in a lacuna of the papyrus, except for the end "[...] and 22 days".[1][3] The only contemporary attestation of Nebnuni is a faience stele showing the king before Ptah "South of his wall", a memphite epithet of the god, and on the other before Horus, "Lord of the foreign countries". The stele is also inscribed with Nebnuni's nomen and prenomen. The stele was discovered at Gebel el-Zeit on the Red Sea coast in the Sinai, where mines of galena were located.[7] Reign[edit] The Egyptologist Kim Ryholt credits Nebnuni with a reign of two years, from 1785 BC until 1783 BC. Alternatively, Egyptologists Rolf Krauss, Detlef Franke and Thomas Schneider give Nebuni only one year of reign in 1739 BC.[2] Although little is known of Nebnuni's reign, the existence of his stele shows that during this period, rulers of the 13th Dynasty still wielded sufficient power to organize mining expeditions in the Sinai for the supply of construction materials and the production of luxury items. Finally, Ryholt points to the lack of royal connections between Nebnuni and his predecessor. He thus concludes that Nebnuni may have usurped the throne.[1][3] See also[edit] List of pharaohs References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nebnuni Semenkare. ^ a b c d K.S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here. ^ a b Thomas Schneider following Detlef Franke: Lexikon der Pharaonen, Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3 ^ a b c Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 245 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46, Mainz am Rhein, 1997 ^ Thomas Schneider: Ancient Egyptian Chronology - Edited by Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss, And David a. Warburton, available online, see p. 176 ^ Georges Castel and Georges Soukiassian: Dépôt de stèles dans le sanctuaire du Nouvel Empire au Gebel Zeit, BIFAO 85 (1985), ISSN 0255-0962, p. 290, pl. 62 Preceded by Amenemhat VI Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Sehetepibre v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Semenkare_Nebnuni&oldid=976980317" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Català Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands Русский Slovenščina ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 6 September 2020, at 06:29 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2896	----	Sixth Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Sixth Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Final Dynasty of the Old Kingdom of Egypt Sixth Dynasty of Egypt ca. 2345 BC–ca. 2181 BC Ankhnesmeryre II and son Pepi II Capital Memphis Common languages Egyptian language Religion ancient Egyptian religion Government Absolute monarchy Historical era Bronze Age • Established ca. 2345 BC • Disestablished ca. 2181 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The Sixth Dynasty of ancient Egypt (notated Dynasty VI) along with the Third, Fourth and Fifth Dynasty constitute the Old Kingdom of Dynastic Egypt. Contents 1 Pharaohs 2 History 2.1 Teti 2.2 Pepi I 2.3 Pepi II 2.4 Nitiqret 3 The rise of the nobility 4 Notes 5 References 6 Sources Pharaohs[edit] Known pharaohs of the Sixth Dynasty are listed in the table below.[1] Manetho accords the dynasty 203 regnal years from Teti to Nitocris, while the Turin Canon assigns 181 regnal years, but with three additional kings concluding with Aba – discounting the reigns of the added Eight Dynasty kings, this is reduced to 155 regnal years.[2] This estimate varies between both scholar and source.[a] Dynasty VI pharaohs Name of King Throne or Horus Name[10] Image Proposed Dates Estimated Regnal Duration Pyramid Queen(s) Teti (Horus) Seheteptawy 2345–2333 BC Manetho: 30–33 years Royal Turin Canon (RCT): < 7 months Cattle count: 6th = 12–13 years[2][11] Pyramid of Teti at Saqqara Khentkaus III Iput I Khuit Userkare (unknown) 2333–2331 BC Manetho: Unattested,[12] possibly involved in Teti's murder[13] RCT: Possibly lost in lacuna[14] Cattle count: Unknown, lost in lacuna(?)[15] Pepi I Nefersahor (originally) Merenre (later) 2331–2287 BC Manetho: 52 years[2] RCT: 20 or 44 years[16] Cattle count: 25th = 49–50 years[17] Pyramid of Pepi I in South Saqqara Ankhesenpepi I Ankhesenpepi II Nubwenet Meritites IV Inenek-Inti Mehaa Nedjeftet Merenre I Merenre 2287–2278 BC Manetho: 7 years RCT: 6 years Cattle count: 5th + 1 year = 10 years[18] Pyramid of Merenre in South Saqqara Ankhesenpepi II Pepi II Neferkare 2278–2184 BC Manetho: 94 years RCT: > 90 years Cattle count: 33rd = 64–66 years[19][20] Pyramid of Pepi II in South Saqqara Neith Iput II Ankhesenpepi III Ankhesenpepi IV Udjebten Merenre II Merenre [Nemty?]emsaf 2184 BC Manetho: 1 year[21][20] RCT: 1 year, 1 month[22] Netjerkare Siptah or Nitocris (unknown) 2184–2181 BC Manetho: Nitocris for 12 years[21] RCT: Originally thought to identify Nitocris,[23] a recent study of the papyrus has altered this assessment in favour of Netjerkare, who is also attested on the Abydos king list.[24] History[edit] The Sixth Dynasty is considered by many authorities as the last dynasty of the Old Kingdom, although The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt[25] includes Dynasties VII and VIII as part of the Old Kingdom. Manetho writes that these kings ruled from Memphis, since their pyramids were built at Saqqara, very close one to another.[26] By the Fifth Dynasty, the religious institution had established itself as the dominant force in society;[27] a trend of growth in the bureaucracy and the priesthood, and a decline in the pharaoh's power had been established during Neferirkare Kakai's reign.[28] During Djedkare Isesi's rule, officials were endowed with greater authority—evidenced by the opulent private tombs they constructed—eventually leading to the creation of a feudal system in effect.[29] These established trends—decentralization of authority, coupled with growth in bureaucracy—intensified during the three decades of Unas's rule, which also witnessed economic decline.[30] This continued on into Sixth Dynasty, leading into the First Intermediate Period.[31] Teti[edit] Main article: Teti Teti is identified as the first king of the Sixth Dynasty[32][13] by Manetho, after the conclusion of the reign of Unas.[32] He acceded to the throne in the 23rd century BC.[33] Teti is assigned a regnal duration of 30 or 33 years by Manetho[34] — improbably long as the celebration of a Sed festival is not attested to, and the latest date recorded corresponds to the sixth cattle count, 12 or 13 years into his reign. The Royal Canon of Turin (RCT) gives another unlikely estimate of seven months.[11] The archaeologist Hartwig Altenmüller mediates between Manetho and the record of the cattle count to offer reign length of around 23 years.[34] The Egyptologists Peter Clayton and William Smith accord 12 years to his reign.[35][36][b] The relationship between Teti and his predecessors remains unclear, but his wife Iput is thought to be a daughter of Unas.[32][36] This would mean that Teti ascended to the throne as Unas's son-in-law.[34] His inauguration solved a potential succession crisis, Unas had died without a male heir.[31] Teti adopted the Horus name Seheteptawy (meaning "He who pacifies the Two Lands") to establish his reign as one of renewed political unity.[35] The transition appears to have occurred smoothly,[36][13] and Teti retained officials from his predecessors of the Fifth Dynasty, such as viziers Mehu and Kagemni who had begun their careers under Djedkare Isesi.[34] Despite this, the RCT too inserts a break between Unas and Teti, which the Egyptologist Jaromìr Malek contends relates to a "change of location of the capital and royal residence".[32] The capital migrated from "White Wall" to the populous suburbs further south to "Djed-isut"—derived from the name of Teti's pyramid and pyramid town, and located east of the monument. The royal residence might have been yet further south, in the valley away and across a lake from the city, east of South Saqqara—where the pyramids of Djedkare Isesi and Pepi I were built.[39] Teti had his daughter, Sesheshet, married to one of his viziers and later chief priest, Mereruka, a clear sign of his interest in co-operating with the noble class.[40] Mereruka was buried close to Teti's pyramid, in a lavish tomb in North Saqqara.[11][35] As part of his policy of pacification, Teti issued a decree exempting the temple at Abydos from taxation. He was the first ruler to be closely associated with the cult of Hathor at Dendera.[11] Abroad, Teti maintained trade relations with Byblos and Nubia.[35] Teti commissioned the construction of a pyramid at North Saqqara. His pyramid follows the standard set by Djedkare Isesi, with a base length of 78.5 m (258 ft; 150 cu) converging to the apex at ~53° attaining a peak height of 52.5 m (172 ft; 100 cu).[41] The substructure of the pyramid was very similar to Unas's and Djedkare Isesi's; it had a descending corridor and horizontal passage guarded at about the middle by three granite portcullises, leading to an antechamber flanked to its east by the serdab with its three recesses and to its west by the burial chamber containing the sarcophagus.[42] The walls of the chambers and a section of the horizontal passage were inscribed with Pyramid Texts, as in Unas' pyramid.[43] The mortuary temple, with the exception of its entrance, conforms to the same basic plans as his predecessors.[43][44] The complex contained a cult pyramid to the south-east of the pyramid with base length 15.7 m (52 ft; 30 cu).[45] The causeway connecting to the mortuary temple is yet to be excavated,[44] while the valley temple and pyramid town are entirely missing.[43] Teti's pyramid became the site of a large necropolis, and included the pyramids of his wives Neith and Iput, mother of Pepi I.[46][47] Iput's skeleton was discovered buried in her pyramid in a wooden coffin.[46] Manetho claims that Teti was assassinated by a body guard, but no contemporary sources confirm this.[35][48] The story, if true, might explain the references to the ephemeral ruler Userkare, proposed to have briefly reigned between Teti and Pepi I.[35] Userkare is attested to in the Royal Turin Canon and Abydos king-list, and is mentioned in several contemporaneous documents.[11] Pepi I[edit] During this dynasty, expeditions were sent to Wadi Maghara in the Sinai Peninsula to mine for turquoise and copper, as well as to the mines at Hatnub and Wadi Hammamat. The pharaoh Djedkara sent trade expeditions south to Punt and north to Byblos, and Pepi I sent expeditions not only to these locations, but also as far as Ebla in modern-day Syria. Pepi II[edit] The most notable member of this dynasty was Pepi II, who is credited with a reign of 94 years.[49] Nitiqret[edit] Also known by the Greek name Nitocris, this woman is believed by some authorities to have been not only the first female pharaoh but the first queen in the world, although it is currently accepted that her name is actually a mistranslation of the king Neitiqerty Siptah. Seated statue of an official on block chair. Limestone. 6th Dynasty. From Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London The rise of the nobility[edit] With the growing number of biographical inscriptions in non-royal tombs,[50] our knowledge of the contemporary history broadens.[51] For example, we hear of an unsuccessful plot against Pepi I.[52] We also read a letter written by the young king Pepi II, excited that one of his expeditions will return with a dancing pygmy from the land of Yam, located to the south of Nubia.[53] These non-royal tomb inscriptions are but one example of the growing power of the nobility, which further weakened the absolute rule of the king. As a result, it is believed that on the death of the long-lived Pepi II his vassals were entrenched enough to resist the authority of his many successors, which may have contributed to the rapid decline of the Old Kingdom. Notes[edit] ^ Proposed dates for the Sixth Dynasty: c. 2460–2200 BC,[3] c. 2374–2200 BC,[2] c. 2370–2190 BC,[4] c. 2345–2181 BC,[5][6][7] c. 2323–2150 BC,[8][9] c. 2282–2117 BC.[1] ^ Proposed dates for Teti's reign: c. 2374–2354 BC,[34] c. 2345–2333 BC,[35] c. 2345–2323 BC,[32][37] c. 2323–2191 BC,[8][9] c. 2282–2270 BC.[38] References[edit] ^ a b Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 70. ^ a b c d Altenmüller 2001, p. 601. ^ Grimal 1992, p. 390. ^ Verner 2001d, p. 473. ^ Bard 1999, Chronology. ^ Clayton 1994, p. 30. ^ Shaw 2003, pp. 482–483. ^ a b Allen et al. 1999, p. xx. ^ a b Lehner 2008, p. 8. ^ Leprohon 2013, pp. 42–43. ^ a b c d e Grimal 1992, p. 81. ^ Manetho & Waddell 1964, p. 53. ^ a b c Leclant 1999, p. 10. ^ Baud & Dobrev 1995, p. 59. ^ Baud & Dobrev 1995, pp. 59 & 66. ^ Ryholt 1997, pp. 13–14. ^ Baud & Dobrev 1995, pp. 46–49. ^ Altenmüller 2001, p. 603. ^ Altenmüller 2001, p. 604. ^ a b Leclant 1999, p. 11. ^ a b Manetho & Waddell 1964, p. 55. ^ Baker 2008, pp. 211–212. ^ Grimal 1992, p. 89. ^ Theis 2010, pp. 325–326. ^ Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. ^ Gardiner, Alan, Sir (1964). Egypt of the Pharaohs. Oxford University Press. p. 91. ^ Grimal 1992, pp. 89–90. ^ Verner 2001b, pp. 589–590. ^ Grimal 1992, p. 79. ^ Verner 2001b, p. 90. ^ a b Grimal 1992, p. 80. ^ a b c d e Malek 2003, p. 103. ^ Verner 2001b, p. 590. ^ a b c d e Altenmüller 2001, p. 602. ^ a b c d e f g Clayton 1994, p. 64. ^ a b c Smith 1962, p. 48. ^ Shaw 2003, p. 482. ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 288. ^ Malek 2003, p. 104. ^ Grimal 1992, pp. 80–81. ^ Lehner 2008, pp. 156–157. ^ Verner 2001d, pp. 343–344. ^ a b c Lehner 2008, p. 156. ^ a b Verner 2001d, p. 344. ^ Lehner 2008, p. 157. ^ a b Clayton 1994, p. 65. ^ Verner 2001d, pp. 347–350. ^ Kanawati 2003, p. 157. ^ Shaw, Ian (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. p. 116. ^ Breasted, J.H. (1906). Ancient Records of Egypt. Part One. Chicago. sections 282–390. ^ Shaw, Ian (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. p. 115. ^ Breasted, J.H. (1906). Ancient Records of Egypt. Part One. Chicago. section 310. ^ Breasted, J.H. (1906). Ancient Records of Egypt. Part One. Chicago. sections 350–354. Sources[edit] Allen, James; Allen, Susan; Anderson, Julie; et al. (1999). Egyptian Art in the Age of the Pyramids. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0-8109-6543-0. OCLC 41431623. Altenmüller, Hartwig (2001). "Old Kingdom: Sixth Dynasty". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 601–605. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5. Baker, Darrel D. (2008). The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC. London: Stacey International. ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9. Bard, Kathryn, ed. (1999). Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-98283-9. Baud, Michel; Dobrev, Vassil (1995). "De nouvelles annales de l'Ancien Empire égyptien. Une "Pierre de Palerme" pour la VIe dynastie". Bulletin de l'Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale (in French). 95: 23–92. ISSN 0255-0962. Clayton, Peter A. (1994). Chronicle of the Pharaohs. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05074-3. Dodson, Aidan; Hilton, Dyan (2004). The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05128-3. Grimal, Nicolas (1992). A History of Ancient Egypt. Translated by Ian Shaw. Oxford: Blackwell publishing. ISBN 978-0-631-19396-8. Kanawati, Naguib (2003). Conspiracies in the Egyptian Palace: Unis to Pepy I. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-203-16673-6. Leclant, Jean (1999). "A Brief History of the Old Kingdom". Egyptian Art in the Age of the Pyramids. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 3–12. ISBN 978-0-8109-6543-0. OCLC 41431623. Lehner, Mark (2008). The Complete Pyramids. New York: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-28547-3. Leprohon, Ronald J. (2013). The Great Name: Ancient Egyptian Royal Titulary. Volume 33 of Writings from the ancient world. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature. ISBN 978-1-589-83736-2. Malek, Jaromir (2003). "The Old Kingdom (c. 2686–2160 BC)". In Shaw, Ian (ed.). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. pp. 83–107. ISBN 978-0-19-815034-3. Manetho; Waddell, William Gillan (1964). Aegyptiaca. The Loeb classical library, 350. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. OCLC 1067847872. Ryholt, Kim (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c. 1800–1550 B.C. CNI publications. 20. Copenhagen: The Carsten Niebuhr Institute of Near Eastern Studies: Museum Tusculam Press. ISBN 87-7289-421-0. Shaw, Ian, ed. (2003). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-815034-3. Smith, William Stevenson (1962). "XIV: The Old Kingdom in Egypt and the Beginning of the First Intermediate Period". The Cambridge Ancient History. 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–72. OCLC 879104162. Theis, Christoffer (2010). Kahl, Jochem; Kloth, Nicole (eds.). "Die Pyramiden der Ersten Zwischenzeit, Nach philologischen und archäologischen Quellen". Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur (in German). Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag. Band 39: 321–339. ISBN 978-3-87548-584-4. ISSN 0340-2215. Verner, Miroslav (2001b). "Old Kingdom". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 585–591. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5. Verner, Miroslav (2001d). The Pyramids: The Mystery, Culture and Science of Egypt's Great Monuments. New York: Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-8021-1703-8. Preceded by Fifth Dynasty Dynasty of Egypt c. 2345 – 2181 BC Succeeded by (Seventh) Eighth Dynasty Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=992631438" Categories: Sixth Dynasty of Egypt 22nd century BC in Egypt 23rd century BC in Egypt 24th century BC in Egypt 3rd-millennium BC establishments in Egypt 3rd-millennium BC disestablishments in Egypt 3rd millennium BC in Egypt Dynasties of ancient Egypt States and territories established in the 3rd millennium BC States and territories disestablished in the 3rd millennium BC Hidden categories: CS1: long volume value Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata CS1 French-language sources (fr) CS1 German-language sources (de) Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca বাংলা Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ქართული Magyar Македонски مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 December 2020, at 08:41 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2898	----	Mazaces - Wikipedia Mazaces From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the ancient Libyan people, see Mazices. Mazaces Satrap of Egypt Satrap of Mesopotamia Coin of Mazakes as Satrap of Mesopotamia in the Alexandrine Empire. 331-323-2 BC. Obverse: Athena. Reverse: Athenian owl, MZDK (𐡌𐡆𐡃𐡊 in Aramaic).[1] Predecessor Sabaces Successor Cleomenes of Naucratis Dynasty 31st Dynasty Pharaoh Darius III Mazaces, also Mazakes (Old Iranian: Mazdāka, Aramaic: 𐡌𐡆𐡃𐡊 MZDK), was the last Achaemenid satrap of ancient Egypt during the late reign of Darius III of the 31st Dynasty of Egypt. Mazaces succeeded Sabaces after the latter's death at the battle of Issus (333 BCE).[2] His office lasted less than a year: when Alexander the Great invaded Egypt in late 332 BCE, Mazaces did not have enough military force to put up a resistance. Counselled by Amminapes, who knew Alexander well, Mazaces handed the country to the Macedonian without a fight, along with a treasure of 800 talents of gold. This event marked the end of the short–lived second Egyptian satrapy (343–332 BCE).[3][4] It is unknown what happened to Mazaces after this event, but Alexander assigned the role of satrap of Egypt to the Greek Cleomenes of Naucratis before leaving for the East.[5] Mazakes may have been nominated as satrap of Mesopotamia in reward for his submission, as coins in his name and in a style similar to his Egyptian predecessor Sabakes, are found in this region, and the satrap of Mesopotamia at that time is otherwise unknown.[6][7][8][9] He was succeeded by Bleitor.[10] References[edit] ^ Spek, R. J. Van der; Zanden, Jan Luiten van; Leeuwen, Bas van (2014). A History of Market Performance: From Ancient Babylonia to the Modern World. Routledge. p. 376. ISBN 9781317918509. ^ Bresciani, Edda, "EGYPT i. Persians in Egypt in the Achaemenid period," Encyclopædia Iranica, VIII/3, pp. 247-249, available online at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/egypt-i (accessed on 27 May 2018). ^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri 3.1 ^ Heinen, Heinz, "EGYPT iii. Relations in the Seleucid and Parthian periods," Encyclopædia Iranica, VIII/3, pp. 250-252, available online at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/egypt-iii (accessed on 27 May 2018). ^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri 3.5 ^ CNG: PERSIA, Alexandrine Empire. Mazakes. Satrap of Mesopotamia, circa 331-323/2 BC. AR Tetradrachm (23mm, 17.21 g, 5h). Imitating Athens. ^ Mitchiner, Michael (1975). Indo-Greek and Indo-Scythian Coinage. Hawkins Publications. p. 7. ISBN 9780904173062. ^ Rider, Georges Le (2007). Alexander the Great: Coinage, Finances, and Policy. American Philosophical Society. p. 217. ISBN 9780871692610. ^ Praktika tou XII Diethnous Synedriou Klasikēs Archaiologias: Athēna, 4-10 Septembriou 1983 (in French). Hypourgeio Politismou kai Epistēmōn. 1985. p. 246. ^ CNG: PERSIA, Alexandrine Empire. temp. Mazakes – Bleitor. Satraps of Mesopotamia, circa 331-316 BC. AR Tetradrachm (21mm, 16.44 g, 6h). Imitating Athens. Preceded by Sabaces Satrap of Egypt 333 – 332 BCE Succeeded by Cleomenes of Naucratis v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC v t e Hellenistic satraps Satraps under Alexander the Great (334-323 BC) Ada (Queen of Caria) Asander, Menander (Lydia) Calas, Demarchus (Hellespontine Phrygia) Antigonus (Greater Phrygia) Balakros, Menes (Cilicia) Abistamenes (Cappadocia) Abdalonymus (Sidon) Mithrenes (Armenia) Mazaeus, Stamenes (Babylon) Mazakes (Mesopotamia) Abulites (Susiana) Oxydates, Atropates (Media) Phrasaortes, Oxines, Peucestas (Persis) Cleomenes of Naucratis (Egypt) Satibarzanes (Aria) Sibyrtius (Carmania) Autophradates (Tapuri, Mardi) Andragoras (Parthia) Amminapes, Phrataphernes, Pharismanes (Hyrcania and Parthia) Artabazos, Cleitus the Black, Amyntas (Bactria) Oxyartes (Paropamisia) Philip, Eudemus (India) Peithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara) Taxiles (Punjab) Porus (Indus) Satraps at the Partition of Babylon (323 BC) Antipater (Macedon and Greece) Philo (Illyria) Lysimachus (Thrace) Leonnatus (Hellespontine Phrygia) Antigonus (Phrygia) Asander (Caria) Nearchus (Lycia and Pamphylia) Menander (Lydia) Philotas (Cilicia) Eumenes (Cappadocia and Paphlagonia) Ptolemy (Egypt) Laomedon of Mytilene (Syria) Neoptolemus (Armenia) Peucestas (Persis) Arcesilaus (Mesopotamia) Peithon (Greater Media) Atropates (Lesser Media) Scynus (Susiana) Tlepolemus (Persia) Nicanor (Parthia) Phrataphernes (Armenia, Parthia) Antigenes (Susiana) Archon (Pelasgia) Philip (Hyrcania) Stasanor (Aria and Drangiana) Sibyrtius (Arachosia and Gedrosia) Amyntas (Bactria) Scythaeus (Sogdiana) Oxyartes (Paropamisia) Taxiles (Punjab) Peithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara) Porus (Indus) Satraps at the Partition of Triparadisus (321 BC) Antipater (Macedon and Greece) Lysimachus (Thrace) Arrhidaeus (Hellespontine Phrygia) Antigonus (Phrygia, Lycia and Pamphylia) Cassander (Caria) Cleitus the White (Lydia) Philoxenus (Cilicia) Nicanor (Cappadocia and Paphlagonia) Ptolemy (Egypt) Laomedon of Mytilene (Syria) Peucestas (Persis) Amphimachus (Mesopotamia) Peithon (Media) Tlepolemus (Carmania) Philip (Parthia) Antigenes (Susiana) Seleucus (Babylonia) Stasanor (Bactria and Sogdiana) Stasander (Aria and Drangiana) Sibyrtius (Arachosia and Gedrosia) Oxyartes (Paropamisia) Taxiles (Punjab) Peithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara) Porus (Indus) Later Satraps Peithon, son of Agenor (Babylon) Sibyrtius (Arachosia, Drangiana) Eudemus (Indus) Bagadates, Ardakhshir I, Wahbarz, Vadfradad I, Vadfradad II, Alexander c.220 BC (Persis) Andragoras (Parthia) Demodamas (Bactria, Sogdiana) Diodotus (Bactria) Alexander (Lydia) Molon c.220 BC, Timarchus, c.175 BC (Media) Apollodorus (Susiana) Ptolemaeus (Commagene) Noumenios, Hyspaosines c.150 BC (Characene) Hellenistic satraps were preceded by Achaemenid rulers, and followed or ruled by Hellenistic rulers This Iranian biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mazaces&oldid=1001896982" Categories: Achaemenid satraps of Egypt 4th-century BC Iranian people 4th century BC in Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt Iranian people stubs Ancient Egypt people stubs Hidden categories: CS1 French-language sources (fr) Year of birth unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Español Hrvatski مصرى Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 21 January 2021, at 21:56 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-291	----	User talk:40.76.139.33 - Wikipedia User talk:40.76.139.33 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This user is currently blocked. The latest block log entry is provided below for reference: 16:25, 2 June 2019 SQL talk contribs blocked 40.76.0.0/16 talk with an expiration time of 4 years, 43 minutes and 12 seconds (account creation blocked) ({{Colocationwebhost}} <!-- Microsoft Azure-->) View full log No messages have been posted for this user yet. Post a message to 40.76.139.33. Other reasons this message may be displayed: If a page was recently created here, it may not be visible yet because of a delay in updating the database; wait a few minutes or try the purge function. Titles on Wikipedia are case sensitive except for the first character; please check alternative capitalizations and consider adding a redirect here to the correct title. If the page has been deleted, check the deletion log, and see Why was the page I created deleted?. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:40.76.139.33" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces User page Talk Variants Views Create New section More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here User contributions User logs Upload file Special pages Printable version Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2930	----	Book sources - Wikipedia Book sources Jump to navigation Jump to search This page allows users to search for multiple sources for a book given the 10- or 13-digit ISBN number. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN number do not matter. Search for book sourcesISBN: Search Wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources For assistance, see Help:ISBN. This page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its International Standard Book Number (ISBN). If you arrived at this page by clicking an ISBN link in a Wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. To search for a different book, type that book's individual ISBN into this ISBN search box. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. 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Contents 1 Online text 2 Online databases 3 Subscription eBook databases 4 Libraries 4.1 Worldwide 4.2 Africa 4.2.1 Nigeria 4.2.2 South Africa 4.2.3 Zimbabwe 4.3 Central America and the Caribbean 4.3.1 Barbados 4.3.2 Guatemala 4.3.3 Jamaica 4.3.4 Mexico 4.3.5 Trinidad and Tobago 4.4 Canada 4.4.1 Public libraries 4.4.2 Universities and colleges 4.5 United States 4.5.1 Public libraries by state 4.5.2 Universities and colleges 4.6 South America 4.6.1 Argentina 4.6.2 Brazil 4.6.3 Colombia 4.6.4 Ecuador 4.7 Asia 4.7.1 Bangladesh 4.7.2 China, People's Republic 4.7.3 Hong Kong, S.A.R. of China 4.7.4 India 4.7.5 Indonesia 4.7.6 Iran 4.7.7 Israel 4.7.8 Japan 4.7.9 Korea 4.7.10 Malaysia 4.7.11 Philippines 4.7.11.1 Universities and colleges 4.7.11.2 Other libraries 4.7.12 Singapore 4.7.13 Taiwan, Republic of China 4.7.14 Thailand 4.8 Australasia and Oceania 4.8.1 Australia 4.8.1.1 Public libraries 4.8.1.2 Academic libraries 4.8.2 New Zealand 4.8.2.1 Public libraries 4.8.2.2 Academic libraries 4.9 Europe 4.9.1 Austria 4.9.2 Belgium 4.9.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.9.4 Croatia 4.9.5 Czech Republic 4.9.6 Denmark 4.9.7 Estonia 4.9.8 Finland 4.9.9 France 4.9.10 Germany 4.9.11 Greece 4.9.12 Hungary 4.9.13 Iceland 4.9.14 Ireland 4.9.15 Italy 4.9.16 Luxembourg 4.9.17 Montenegro 4.9.18 Netherlands 4.9.19 Norway 4.9.20 Poland 4.9.21 Portugal 4.9.22 Russia 4.9.23 Serbia 4.9.24 Slovenia 4.9.25 Spain 4.9.26 Sweden 4.9.27 Switzerland 4.9.28 Turkey 4.9.29 United Kingdom 4.9.29.1 Public libraries 4.9.29.2 Universities 5 Bookselling and swapping 5.1 Price comparison sites 5.2 Search many booksellers 5.3 Individual booksellers 5.4 Book-swapping websites 6 Non-English book sources 7 Bibliographical information 8 Find other editions 9 Find on Wikipedia 10 See also Online text Find this book on Google Books Find this book at the Open Library Find this book on Amazon.com (or .au, .br, .ca, .cn, .de, .es, .fr, .in, .it, .jp, .mx, .nl, .uk). Google Books and Amazon.com may be particularly helpful if you want to verify citations in Wikipedia articles, because they often enable you to search an online version of the book for specific words or phrases, or you can browse through the book (although for copyright reasons the entire book is usually not available). Online databases Find this book at Karlsruhe Virtual Catalog, a metasearch engine addressing many of the databases linked here and also some major commercial booksellers. Find this book at WorldCat free online catalog of the world's libraries Find this book at OttoBib.com citation metasearch Find this book at Copyright Clearance Center online rights database Find this book at Goodreads personal library catalog Find this book at LibraryThing personal library catalog Find this book at aNobii personal library catalog Find this book at iDreamBooks book review aggregator Find this book at the Grand Comics Database Find this book at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database Subscription eBook databases Find this book at Alexander Street Press by ProQuest Find this book at eBookCentral by ProQuest Find this book at EBSCO Industries eBooks Find this book at Gale by Cengage Find this book at HathiTrust Find this book at Overdrive by Rakuten Find this book at Project MUSE Find this book at ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Open Find this book at Safari Books Online by O'Reilly Media Find this book at ScienceDirect Libraries Select your region from the map above Worldwide Find this book at your local library through WorldCat Africa Nigeria Find this book on the Ahmadu Bello University Library catalogue Find this book on the University of Ilorin Library catalogue South Africa Find this book on the National Library of South Africa catalogue Find this book on the SEALS Consortium catalogue Find this book on the University of South Africa catalogue Find this book on the University of the Witwatersrand Library catalogue Zimbabwe Find this book on the University of Zimbabwe Library catalogue Central America and the Caribbean Barbados Find this book in the University of the West Indies (Cave Hill campus) Library catalogue Guatemala Find this book in the University of San Carlos of Guatemala Central Library catalogue Jamaica Find this book in the University of the West Indies (Mona campus) Library catalogue Mexico Find this book in the National Autonomous University of Mexico Library System Trinidad and Tobago Find this book in the University of 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en-wikipedia-org-295	----	Mazaeus - Wikipedia Mazaeus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Mazaeus Possible coin of Mazaeus Native name Mazaios Allegiance Achaemenid Empire, Macedonian Empire Rank Satrap of Cilicia (under the Achaemenids) Satrap of Babylon (under Alexander the Great) Mazaeus, Mazday or Mazaios (Old Persian: Mazdāya, Aramaic: 𐡌𐡆𐡃𐡉 MZDY, Greek: Μαζαῖος)[1] (died 328 BC) was a Persian noble and satrap of Cilicia and later satrap of Babylon for the Achaemenid Empire, a satrapy which he retained under Alexander the Great.[2] Life[edit] Mazaeus was the second last Persian satrap (governor) of Cilicia. His successor in Cilicia was Arsames, who was ultimately expelled by Alexander the Great. At the Battle of Gaugamela, Mazaeus commanded the right flank with the Syrian, Median, Mesopotamian, Parthian, Sacian, Tapurian, Hyrcanian, Sacesinian, Cappadocian, and Armenian cavalry. As a reward for his recognition of Alexander as the legitimate successor of Darius, Mazaeus was rewarded by being able to retain the satrapy of Babylon, as a Hellenistic satrap.[2] Alexander left a Macedonian, Apollodorus of Amphipolis, as the military commander of the garrison of Babylon, and another as tax-collector.[2] Mazaeus continued minting coins under his name, and later without his name. The daughter of the Persian king Darius III, Stateira II, was originally betrothed to him, but he died before they could be married. She was eventually married to Alexander. Waldemar Heckel suggested that the Alexander Sarcophagus might have been dedicated to him.[3] Mazaeus was replaced as satrap of Babylon by Stamenes.[4] Coinage[edit] Mazaeus had an abundant coinage, which he minted in Tarsos, Sidon and Babylon. Coinage as Satrap of Cilicia Coin of Mazaios. Satrap of Cilicia, 361/0-334 BC. Tarsos, Cilicia. Aramaic: 𐡌 "M" below throne Mazday (Mazaios) as ruler of Sidon. Circa 353-333 BC. Coin of Mazaios, with Artaxerxes III as Pharaoh. Satrap of Cilicia, 361/0-334 BC. Tarsos, Cilicia. Coin of Mazaios, with Artaxerxes III and possibly Artaxerxes IV as Pharaohs. Coinage as Satrap of Babylon Coinage of Mazaios as Hellenistic Satrap of Babylon, circa 331-328 BC. Late coinage of Mazaeus as satrap of Babylon. References[edit] ^ Metcalf, William (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage. Oxford University Press USA. ISBN 978-0-19-530574-6. ^ a b c O'Brien, J. M. (2003). Alexander the Great: The Invisible Enemy: A Biography. Routledge. p. 94. ISBN 9781134845019. ^ Heckel, Waldemar (2006). "Mazaeus, Callisthenes and the Alexander Sarcophagus". Historia. 55 (4): 385–396. ^ Roisman, Joseph (2002). Brill's Companion to Alexander the Great. BRILL. p. 189. ISBN 9789004217553. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mazaeus. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC v t e Hellenistic satraps Satraps under Alexander the Great (334-323 BC) Ada (Queen of Caria) Asander, Menander (Lydia) Calas, Demarchus (Hellespontine Phrygia) Antigonus (Greater Phrygia) Balakros, Menes (Cilicia) Abistamenes (Cappadocia) Abdalonymus (Sidon) Mithrenes (Armenia) Mazaeus, Stamenes (Babylon) Mazakes (Mesopotamia) Abulites (Susiana) Oxydates, Atropates (Media) Phrasaortes, Oxines, Peucestas (Persis) Cleomenes of Naucratis (Egypt) Satibarzanes (Aria) Sibyrtius (Carmania) Autophradates (Tapuri, Mardi) Andragoras (Parthia) Amminapes, Phrataphernes, Pharismanes (Hyrcania and Parthia) Artabazos, Cleitus the Black, Amyntas (Bactria) Oxyartes (Paropamisia) Philip, Eudemus (India) Peithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara) Taxiles (Punjab) Porus (Indus) Satraps at the Partition of Babylon (323 BC) Antipater (Macedon and Greece) Philo (Illyria) Lysimachus (Thrace) Leonnatus (Hellespontine Phrygia) Antigonus (Phrygia) Asander (Caria) Nearchus (Lycia and Pamphylia) Menander (Lydia) Philotas (Cilicia) Eumenes (Cappadocia and Paphlagonia) Ptolemy (Egypt) Laomedon of Mytilene (Syria) Neoptolemus (Armenia) Peucestas (Persis) Arcesilaus (Mesopotamia) Peithon (Greater Media) Atropates (Lesser Media) Scynus (Susiana) Tlepolemus (Persia) Nicanor (Parthia) Phrataphernes (Armenia, Parthia) Antigenes (Susiana) Archon (Pelasgia) Philip (Hyrcania) Stasanor (Aria and Drangiana) Sibyrtius (Arachosia and Gedrosia) Amyntas (Bactria) Scythaeus (Sogdiana) Oxyartes (Paropamisia) Taxiles (Punjab) Peithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara) Porus (Indus) Satraps at the Partition of Triparadisus (321 BC) Antipater (Macedon and Greece) Lysimachus (Thrace) Arrhidaeus (Hellespontine Phrygia) Antigonus (Phrygia, Lycia and Pamphylia) Cassander (Caria) Cleitus the White (Lydia) Philoxenus (Cilicia) Nicanor (Cappadocia and Paphlagonia) Ptolemy (Egypt) Laomedon of Mytilene (Syria) Peucestas (Persis) Amphimachus (Mesopotamia) Peithon (Media) Tlepolemus (Carmania) Philip (Parthia) Antigenes (Susiana) Seleucus (Babylonia) Stasanor (Bactria and Sogdiana) Stasander (Aria and Drangiana) Sibyrtius (Arachosia and Gedrosia) Oxyartes (Paropamisia) Taxiles (Punjab) Peithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara) Porus (Indus) Later Satraps Peithon, son of Agenor (Babylon) Sibyrtius (Arachosia, Drangiana) Eudemus (Indus) Bagadates, Ardakhshir I, Wahbarz, Vadfradad I, Vadfradad II, Alexander c.220 BC (Persis) Andragoras (Parthia) Demodamas (Bactria, Sogdiana) Diodotus (Bactria) Alexander (Lydia) Molon c.220 BC, Timarchus, c.175 BC (Media) Apollodorus (Susiana) Ptolemaeus (Commagene) Noumenios, Hyspaosines c.150 BC (Characene) Hellenistic satraps were preceded by Achaemenid rulers, and followed or ruled by Hellenistic rulers Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mazaeus&oldid=1001699805" Categories: 328 BC deaths Alexander the Great 4th-century BC Iranian people Achaemenid satraps of Cilicia Darius III Hidden categories: CS1: long volume value Commons category link is on Wikidata Year of birth missing Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Català Deutsch Español Français Hrvatski Italiano עברית مصرى 日本語 Português Русский Српски / srpski 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en-wikipedia-org-2974	----	Artaxerxes I - Wikipedia Artaxerxes I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Artaxerxes I of Persia) Jump to navigation Jump to search Fifth King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire King of Kings Artaxerxes I 𐎠𐎼𐎫𐎧𐏁𐏂 King of Kings Great King King of Persia Pharaoh of Egypt King of Countries Relief of Artaxerxes I, from his tomb in Naqsh-e Rustam King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Reign 465–424 BC Predecessor Xerxes I Successor Xerxes II Born Unknown Died 424 BC, Susa Burial Naqsh-e Rustam, Persepolis Spouse Queen Damaspia Alogyne of Babylon Cosmartidene of Babylon Andia of Babylon Issue Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Arsites Parysatis House Achaemenid Father Xerxes I Mother Amestris Religion Zoroastrianism nomen or birth name Artaxerxes[1] in hieroglyphs Artaxerxes I (/ˌɑːrtəˈzɜːrksiːz/, Old Persian: 𐎠𐎼𐎫𐎧𐏁𐏂 Artaxšaça,[2] "whose rule (xšaça < *xšaϑram) is through arta ("truth");[3] Hebrew: אַרְתַּחְשַׁשְׂתָּא‎, Modern: ʾArtaḥšásta, Tiberian: ʾArtaḥšasetāʾ; Ancient Greek: Ἀρταξέρξης, romanized: Artaxérxēs[4]) was the fifth King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire, from 465 to 424 BC.[5] He was the third son of Xerxes I. He may have been the "Artasyrus" mentioned by Herodotus as being a satrap of the royal satrapy of Bactria. In Greek sources he is also surnamed "long-handed" (Ancient Greek: μακρόχειρ Makrókheir; Latin: Longimanus), allegedly because his right hand was longer than his left.[6] Contents 1 Succession to the throne 2 Egyptian revolt 3 Relations with Greece 4 Portrayal in the Book of Ezra and Nehemiah 5 Interpretations of actions 6 Medical analysis 7 Children 8 See also 9 References 10 External links Succession to the throne[edit] Artaxerxes was probably born in the reign of his grandfather Darius I, to the emperor's son and heir, Xerxes I. In 465 BC, Xerxes I was murdered by Hazarapat ("commander of thousand") Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court, with the help of a eunuch, Aspamitres.[7] Greek historians give contradicting accounts of events. According to Ctesias (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused Crown Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest son, of the murder, and persuaded Artaxerxes to avenge the patricide by killing Darius. But according to Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and then killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes discovered the murder, he killed Artabanus and his sons.[8][9] Egyptian revolt[edit] Inarus, seized by Artaxerxes I in the seal Persian king and the defeated enemies.[10] The ancient Egyptian god Amun-Min in front of Artaxerxes' cartouche. Artaxerxes had to face a revolt in Egypt in 460–454 BC led by Inaros II, who was the son of a Libyan prince named Psamtik, presumably descended from the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt. In 460 BC, Inaros II revolted against the Persians with the help of his Athenian allies, and defeated the Persian army commanded by satrap Akheimenes. The Persians retreated to Memphis, and the Athenians were finally defeated in 454 BC, by the Persian army led by Megabyzus, after a two-year siege. Inaros was captured and carried away to Susa. Relations with Greece[edit] Themistocles stands silently before Artaxerxes After the Achaemenid Empire had been defeated at the Battle of the Eurymedon (c. 469 BC), military action between Greece and Persia was at a standstill. When Artaxerxes I took power, he introduced a new Persian strategy of weakening the Athenians by funding their enemies in Greece. This indirectly caused the Athenians to move the treasury of the Delian League from the island of Delos to the Athenian acropolis. This funding practice inevitably prompted renewed fighting in 450 BC, where the Greeks attacked at the Battle of Cyprus. After Cimon's failure to attain much in this expedition, the Peace of Callias was agreed among Athens, Argos and Persia in 449 BC. Artaxerxes I offered asylum to Themistocles, who was probably his father Xerxes's greatest enemy for his victory at the Battle of Salamis, after Themistocles was ostracized from Athens. Also, Artaxerxes I gave him Magnesia, Myus, and Lampsacus to maintain him in bread, meat, and wine. In addition, Artaxerxes I gave him Skepsis to provide him with clothes, and he also gave him Percote with bedding for his house.[11] Themistocles would go on to learn and adopt Persian customs, Persian language, and traditions.[12][13] Portrayal in the Book of Ezra and Nehemiah[edit] A King Artaxerxes (Hebrew: אַרְתַּחְשַׁשְׂתְּא‎, pronounced [artaχʃast]) is described in the Bible as having commissioned Ezra, a kohen and scribe, by means of a letter of decree (see Cyrus's edict), to take charge of the ecclesiastical and civil affairs of the Jewish nation. Ezra thereby left Babylon in the first month of the seventh year[14] of Artaxerxes' reign, at the head of a company of Jews that included priests and Levites. They arrived in Jerusalem on the first day of the fifth month of the seventh year according to the Hebrew calendar. The text does not specify whether the king in the passage refers to Artaxerxes I (465–424 BCE) or to Artaxerxes II (404–359 BCE).[15][16] Most scholars hold that Ezra lived during the rule of Artaxerxes I, though some have difficulties with this assumption:[17] Nehemiah and Ezra "seem to have no knowledge of each other; their missions do not overlap", however, in Nehemiah 12, both are leading processions on the wall as part of the wall dedication ceremony. So, they clearly were contemporaries working together in Jerusalem at the time the wall and the city of Jerusalem was rebuilt in contrast to the previously stated viewpoint.[18] These difficulties have led many scholars to assume that Ezra arrived in the seventh year of the rule of Artaxerxes II, i.e. some 50 years after Nehemiah. This assumption would imply that the biblical account is not chronological. The last group of scholars regard "the seventh year" as a scribal error and hold that the two men were contemporaries.[17][19] However, Ezra appears for the first time in Nehemiah 8, having probably been at the court for twelve years.[20] The rebuilding of the Jewish community in Jerusalem had begun under Cyrus the Great, who had permitted Jews held captive in Babylon to return to Jerusalem and rebuild Solomon's Temple. Consequently, a number of Jews returned to Jerusalem in 538 BC, and the foundation of this "Second Temple" was laid in 536 BC, in the second year of their return (Ezra 3:8). After a period of strife, the temple was finally completed in the sixth year of Darius, 516 BC (Ezra 6:15). In Artaxerxes' twentieth year, Nehemiah, the king's cup-bearer, apparently was also a friend of the king as in that year Artaxerxes inquired after Nehemiah's sadness. Nehemiah related to him the plight of the Jewish people and that the city of Jerusalem was undefended. The king sent Nehemiah to Jerusalem with letters of safe passage to the governors in Trans-Euphrates, and to Asaph, keeper of the royal forests, to make beams for the citadel by the Temple and to rebuild the city walls.[21] Interpretations of actions[edit] Ethnicities of the Empire on the tomb of Artaxerxes I at Naqsh-e Rostam. Roger Williams, a 17th-century Christian minister and founder of Rhode Island, interpreted several passages in the Old and New Testament to support limiting government interference in religious matters. Williams published The Bloudy Tenent of Persecution for Cause of Conscience, arguing for a separation of church and state based on biblical reasoning. Williams believed that Israel was a unique covenant kingdom and not an appropriate model for New Testament Christians who believed that the Old Testament covenant had been fulfilled. Therefore, the more informative Old Testament examples of civil government were "good" non-covenant kings such as Artaxerxes, who tolerated the Jews and did not insist that they follow his state religion.[22] Medical analysis[edit] According to a paper published in 2011,[23] the discrepancy in Artaxerxes’ limb lengths may have arisen as a result of the inherited disease neurofibromatosis. Children[edit] Quadrilingual inscription of Artaxerxes on an Egyptian alabaster vase (Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian and Egyptian).[24][25] By queen Damaspia Xerxes II By Alogyne of Babylon Sogdianus By Cosmartidene of Babylon Darius II Arsites By Andia of Babylon Bogapaeus Parysatis, wife of Darius II Ochus By another(?) unknown wife An unnamed daughter, wife of Hieramenes, mother of Autoboesaces and Mitraeus[26] By various wives Eleven other children See also[edit] Artoxares Ezra–Nehemiah List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources References[edit] ^ Henri Gauthier, Le Livre des rois d'Égypte, IV, Cairo 1916 (=MIFAO 20), p. 152. ^ Ghias Abadi, R. M. (2004). Achaemenid Inscriptions (کتیبه‌های هخامنشی)‎ (in Persian) (2nd ed.). Tehran: Shiraz Navid Publications. p. 129. ISBN 964-358-015-6. ^ Artaxerxes at Encyclopædia Iranica ^ The Greek form of the name is influenced by Xerxes, Artaxerxes at Encyclopædia Iranica ^ James D. G. Dunn; John William Rogerson (19 November 2003). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 321. ISBN 978-0-8028-3711-0. ^ Plutarch, Artaxerxes, l. 1. c. 1. 11:129 - cited by Ussher, Annals, para. 1179 ^ Pirnia, Iran-e-Bastan book 1, p 873 ^ Dandamayev ^ Olmstead, History of the Persian Empire, pp 289–290 ^ Ancient Seals of the Near East. 1940. p. Plaque 17. ^ Plutarch. "Themistocles, Part II". Archived from the original on 2015-10-01. ^ Thucydides I, 137 ^ Plutarch, Themistocles, 29 ^ The Book of Daniel. Montex Publish Company, By Jim McGuiggan 1978, p. 147. ^ Porter, J.R. (2000). The Illustrated Guide to the Bible. New York: Barnes & Noble Books. pp. 115–16. ISBN 978-0-7607-2278-7. ^ The dates of Nehemiah's and Ezra's respective missions, and their chronological relation to each other, are uncertain, because each mission is dated solely by a regnal year of an Achaemenian King Artaxerxes; and in either case we do not know for certain whether the Artaxerxes in question is Artaxerxes I (465–424 BCE) or Artaxerxes II (404–359 BCE). So we do not know whether the date of Ezra's mission was 458 BCE or 397 BCE' Arnold Toynbee, A Study of History, vol. 12 (1961) Oxford University Press, 1964 pp. 484–85 n.2 ^ a b "Ezra". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. ^ Winn Leith, Mary Joan (2001) [1998]. "Israel among the Nations: The Persian Period". In Michael David Coogan (ed.). The Oxford History of the Biblical World (Google Books). Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. p. 281. ISBN 978-0-19-513937-2. LCCN 98016042. OCLC 44650958. Retrieved 13 December 2007. ^ John Boederman, The Cambridge Ancient History, 2002, p. 272 ^ https://biblehub.com/commentaries/ellicott/nehemiah/8.htm ^ Nehemiah 2:1–9 ^ James P. Byrd, The challenges of Roger Williams: Religious Liberty, Violent Persecution, and the Bible (Mercer University Press, 2002)[1] (accessed on Google Book on July 20, 2009) ^ Ashrafian, Hutan. (2011). "Limb gigantism, neurofibromatosis and royal heredity in the Ancient World 2500 years ago: Achaemenids and Parthians". J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 64 (4): 557. doi:10.1016/j.bjps.2010.08.025. PMID 20832372. ^ Revue archéologique (in French). Leleux. 1844. p. 444-450. ^ The vase is now in the Reza Abbasi Museum in Teheran (inv. 53). image inscription ^ Xenophon, Hellenica, Book II, Chapter 1 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Artaxerxes I. Encyclopedia Iranica ARTAXERXES Encyclopedia Iranica ARTAXERXES I a son of Xerxes I and Amestris Artaxerxes I Achaemenid dynasty Born: ?? Died: 424 BC Preceded by Xerxes I Kings of Persia 464–424 BC Succeeded by Xerxes II Pharaoh of Egypt 465–424 BC v t e Median and Achaemenid kings Family tree Median (728–550 BC) Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Achaemenid (550–330 BC) Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Nothus Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Italics indicate kings not directly attested and so possibly legendary. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC v t e Persepolis Palace Tachara Gate of All Nations Other sections Tomb of Artaxerxes III builders Darius the Great Xerxes I Artaxerxes I of Persia Researchers Heidemarie Koch Erich Schmidt (archaeologist) Alireza Shapour Shahbazi Related Tangeh Bolaghi 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire Sivand Dam Persepolis Administrative Archives Waterskin Achaemenid architecture Category:Persepolis v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 102382026 ISNI: 0000 0000 6701 9487 LCCN: n84233757 LNB: 000258776 NLA: 66228182 NLI: 000211067 NTA: 264805399 SUDOC: 199731594 Trove: 1808112 VcBA: 495/160276 VIAF: 30953676 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n84233757 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en-wikipedia-org-2982	----	Necho II - Wikipedia Necho II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Necho II Nekau A small kneeling bronze statuette, likely Necho II, now residing in the Brooklyn Museum Pharaoh Reign 610–595 BC (26th dynasty) Predecessor Psamtik I Successor Psamtik II Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Wahemibre Nomen Necho Horus name Maaib Nebty name Maakheru Golden Horus Merynetjeru Consort Khedebneithirbinet I Died 595 BC Necho II[1] (sometimes Nekau,[2] Neku,[3] Nechoh,[4] or Nikuu;[5] Greek: Νεκώς Β';[6][7][8] Hebrew: נְכוֹ‎, Modern: Nəkō, Tiberian: Nekō) of Egypt was a king of the 26th Dynasty (610–595 BC), which ruled out of Saite.[9] Necho undertook a number of construction projects across his kingdom.[10] In his reign, according to the Greek historian Herodotus, Necho II sent out an expedition of Phoenicians, which in three years sailed from the Red Sea around Africa to the Strait of Gibraltar and back to Egypt.[11] His son, Psammetichus II, upon succession may have removed Necho's name from monuments.[12] Necho played a significant role in the histories of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the Neo-Babylonian Empire and the Kingdom of Judah. Necho II is most likely the pharaoh mentioned in several books of the Bible.[13][14][15] The aim of the second of Necho's campaigns was Asiatic conquest,[16][17] to contain the westward advance of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, and cut off its trade route across the Euphrates. However, the Egyptians were defeated by the unexpected attack of the Babylonians and were eventually expelled from Syria. The Egyptologist Donald B. Redford observed that although Necho II was "a man of action from the start, and endowed with an imagination perhaps beyond that of his contemporaries, Necho had the misfortune to foster the impression of being a failure."[18] Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Lineage and early life 1.2 Military campaigns 1.2.1 First campaign 1.2.2 Second campaign 1.3 Ambitious projects 1.4 Phoenician expedition 1.5 Death and succession 2 Further reading 3 See also 4 References 5 External articles Biography[edit] See also: Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Lineage and early life[edit] Necho II was the son of Psammetichus I by his Great Royal Wife Mehtenweskhet. His prenomen or royal name Wahem-Ib-Re means "Carrying out [the] Heart (i.e., Wish) [of] Re."[19] Upon his ascension, Necho was faced with the chaos created by the raids of the Cimmerians and the Scythians, who had not only ravaged Asia west of the Euphrates, but had also helped the Babylonians shatter the Assyrian Empire. That once mighty empire was now reduced to the troops, officials, and nobles who had gathered around a general holding out at Harran, who had taken the throne name of Ashur-uballit II. Necho attempted to assist this remnant immediately upon his coronation, but the force he sent proved to be too small, and the combined armies were forced to retreat west across the Euphrates.[citation needed] Military campaigns[edit] First campaign[edit] In the spring of 609 BC, Necho personally led a sizable force to help the Assyrians. At the head of a large army, consisting mainly of his mercenaries, Necho took the coast route Via Maris into Syria, supported by his Mediterranean fleet along the shore, and proceeded through the low tracts of Philistia and Sharon. He prepared to cross the ridge of hills which shuts in on the south the great Jezreel Valley, but here he found his passage blocked by the Judean army. Their king, Josiah, sided with the Babylonians and attempted to block his advance at Megiddo, where a fierce battle was fought and Josiah was killed.[20] Herodotus reports the campaign of the pharaoh in his Histories, Book 2:159: Necos, then, stopped work on the canal and turned to war; some of his triremes were constructed by the northern sea, and some in the Arabian Gulf (Red Sea), by the coast of the Sea of Erythrias. The windlasses for beaching the ships can still be seen. He deployed these ships as needed, while he also engaged in a pitched battle at Magdolos with the Syrians, and conquered them; and after this he took Cadytis (Kadesh), which is a great city of Syria. He sent the clothes he had worn in these battles to the Branchidae of Miletus and dedicated them to Apollo. Necho soon captured Kadesh on the Orontes and moved forward, joining forces with Ashur-uballit and together they crossed the Euphrates and laid siege to Harran. Although Necho became the first pharaoh to cross the Euphrates since Thutmose III, he failed to capture Harran, and retreated back to northern Syria. At this point, Ashur-uballit vanished from history, and the Assyrian Empire was conquered by the Babylonians. Aerial view of Tel Megiddo site of the battle of Megiddo in 609 BC. The Second Book of Kings also describes the battle between Necho and King Josiah at Megiddo (2 Kings 23:29, 2 Chronicles 35:20–24). Leaving a sizable force behind, Necho returned to Egypt. On his return march, he found that the Judeans had selected Jehoahaz to succeed his father Josiah, whom Necho deposed and replaced with Jehoiakim.[21] He brought Jehoahaz back to Egypt as his prisoner, where Jehoahaz ended his days (2 Kings 23:31; 2 Chronicles 36:1–4). Second campaign[edit] In 605 BC, an Egyptian force fought the Babylonians at Battle of Carchemish, helped by the remnants of the army of the former Assyria, but this was met with defeat. The Babylonian king was planning on reasserting his power in Syria. In 609 BC, King Nabopolassar captured Kumukh, which cut off the Egyptian army, then based at Carchemish. Necho responded the following year by retaking Kumukh after a four-month siege, and executed the Babylonian garrison. Nabopolassar gathered another army, which camped at Qurumati on the Euphrates. However, Nabopolassar's poor health forced him to return to Babylon in 605 BC. In response, in 606 BC the Egyptians attacked the leaderless Babylonians (probably then led by the crown prince Nebuchadrezzar) who fled their position.[citation needed] At this point, the aged Nabopolassar passed command of the army to his son Nebuchadnezzar II, who led them to a decisive victory over the Egyptians at Carchemish in 605 BC, and pursued the fleeing survivors to Hamath. Necho's dream of restoring the Egyptian Empire in the Middle East as had occurred under the New Kingdom was destroyed as Nebuchadnezzar conquered Egyptian territory from the Euphrates to the Brook of Egypt (Jeremiah 46:2; 2 Kings 23:29) down to Judea. Although Nebuchadnezzar spent many years in his new conquests on continuous pacification campaigns, Necho was unable to recover any significant part of his lost territories. For example, when Ashkalon rose in revolt, despite repeated pleas the Egyptians sent no help, and were barely able to repel a Babylonian attack on their eastern border in 601 BC. When he did repel the Babylonian attack, Necho managed to capture Gaza while pursuing the enemy. Necho turned his attention in his remaining years to forging relationships with new allies: the Carians, and further to the west, the Greeks.[citation needed] Ambitious projects[edit] At some point during his Syrian campaign, Necho II initiated but never completed the ambitious project of cutting a navigable canal from the Pelusiac branch of the Nile to the Red Sea. Necho's Canal was the earliest precursor of the Suez Canal.[22] It was in connection with a new activity that Necho founded a new city of Per-Temu Tjeku which translates as 'The House of Atum of Tjeku' at the site now known as Tell el-Maskhuta,[23] about 15 km west of Ismailia. The waterway was intended to facilitate trade between the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean.[24] Necho also formed an Egyptian navy by recruiting displaced Ionian Greeks. This was an unprecedented act by the pharaoh since most Egyptians had traditionally harboured an inherent distaste for and fear of the sea.[25] The navy which Necho created operated along both the Mediterranean and Red Sea coasts.[26] Necho II constructed warships,[27] including questionably triremes.[28] Phoenician expedition[edit] The world according to Herodotus, 440 BC A 15th-century depiction of the Ptolemy world map, reconstituted from Ptolemy's Geographia (c. 150) At some point between 610 and before 594 BC, Necho reputedly commissioned an expedition of Phoenicians,[29] who it is said in three years sailed from the Red Sea around Africa back to the mouth of the Nile; and would thereby be the first completion of the Cape Route.[30][31] Herodotus' account was handed down to him by oral tradition,[32] but is seen as potentially credible because he stated with disbelief that the Phoenicians "as they sailed on a westerly course round the southern end of Libya (Africa), they had the sun on their right"—to northward of them (The Histories 4.42).[33] Pliny reported that Hanno had circumnavigated Africa, which may have been a conflation with Necho's voyage, while Strabo, Polybius, and Ptolemy doubted the description;[34] at the time it was not generally known that Africa was surrounded by an ocean (with the southern part of Africa being thought connected to Asia).[35] F. C. H. Wendel, writing in 1890, concurred with Herodotus[36] as did James Baikie.[37] Egyptologist A. B. Lloyd disputed in 1977 that an Egyptian Pharaoh would authorize such an expedition,[38][39] except for the reasons of Asiatic conquest[40][41] and trade in the ancient maritime routes.[42][43] Death and succession[edit] Necho II died in 595 BC and was succeeded by his son, Psamtik II, as the next pharaoh of Egypt. Psamtik II, however, apparently removed Necho's name from almost all of his father's monuments for unknown reasons. However, some scholars, such as Roberto Gozzoli, express doubt that this actually happened, arguing that the evidence for this is fragmentary and rather contradictory.[44] Further reading[edit] Pre-1900s Encyclopædia, "Necho". Thomas Dobson, at the Stone house, no. 41, South Second street, 1798. p785. Pantologia, "Necho". J. Walker, 1819. p372. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Volume 15. p430. Essay on the Hieroglyphic System of M. Champollion, Jun., and on the Advantages which it Offers to Sacred Criticism. By J. G. Honoré Greppo. p128–129. Prolegomena; Egypt, Mesopotamia. Edited by Henry Smith Williams. Post-1900s Petrie 1905. W.M. Flinders Petrie. A History of Egypt. From the XIXth to the XXXth Dynasties. London. See: Nekau II, pp. 335–339. Max Cary, Eric Herbert Warmington. The Ancient Explorers. Methuen & Company, Limited, 1929. Peter Clayton (1994). Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames and Hudson. Arnold 1999. Dieter Arnold. Temples of the Last Pharaos. New York/Oxford See also[edit] Necho (crater) Hanno the Navigator List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources Ancient Egyptian trade Bible and history Land of Punt References[edit] General information Budge, E. A. W. (1894). The mummy: Chapters on Egyptian funereal archaeology. Cambridge [England]: University Press. page 56+. Budge, E. A. W. (1904). A history of Egypt from the end of the Neolithic period to the death of Cleopatra VII, B.C. 30. Books on Egypt and Chaldaea, v. 9-16. London: K. Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co. Page218+. Alan B. Lloyd, "Necho and the Red Sea: Some Considerations", Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 63 (1977). Herodotus By Alan B. Lloyd. BRILL, 1988. Footnotes ^ Thomas Dobson. Encyclopædia: Or, A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature. Stone house, no. 41, South Second street, 1798. Page 785 ^ A History of Egypt, from the XIXth to the XXXth Dynasties. By Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie. p336. ^ The Historians' History of the World: Prolegomena; Egypt, Mesopotamia. Edited by Henry Smith Williams. p183. ^ United States Exploring Expedition: Volume 15. By Charles Wilkes, United States. Congress. p53 ^ The Bibliotheca Sacra, Volume 45. Dallas Theological Seminary., 1888. ^ Essay on the Hieroglyphic System of M. Champollion, Jun., and on the Advantages which it Offers to Sacred Criticism. By J. G. Honoré Greppo. p128 ^ Herodotus 2,152. 2 ^ W. Pape, "Wörterbuch der griechischen Eigennamen", 1911 ^ Cory, Isaac Preston, ed. (1828), The Ancient Fragments, London: William Pickering, OCLC 1000992106, citing Manetho, the high priest and scribe of Egypt, being by birth a Sebennyte, who wrote his history for Ptolemy Philadelphus (266 BCE – 228 BCE). ^ The history of Egypt By Samuel Sharpe. E. Moxon, 1852. Part 640. p138. ^ Herodotus (4.42)[1] ^ The Popular Handbook of Archaeology and the Bible. Edited by Norman L. Geisler, Joseph M. Holden. p287. ^ Encyclopædia britannica. Edited by Colin MacFarquhar, George Gleig. p785 ^ The Holy Bible, According to the Authorized Version (A.D. 1611). Edited by Frederic Charles Cook. p131 ^ see Hebrew Bible / Old Testament ^ The temple of Mut in Asher. By Margaret Benson, Janet A. Gourlay, Percy Edward Newberry. p276. (cf. Nekau's chief ambition lay in Asiatic conquest) ^ Egypt Under the Pharaohs: A History Derived Entireley from the Monuments. By Heinrich Brugsch, Brodrick. p444 (cf. Neku then attempted to assert the Egyptian supremacy in Asia.) ^ Donald B. Redford, Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), p. 447-48. ^ Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames and Hudson, 1994. p.195 ^ Ernest Alfred Wallis Budge, The Nile: Notes for Travellers in Egypt, p16 ^ II. Chronicles by Philip Chapman Barker. p447–448 ^ Redmount, Carol A. "The Wadi Tumilat and the "Canal of the Pharaohs"" Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 54, No. 2 (April , 1995), pp. 127-135 ^ Shaw, Ian; and Nicholson, Paul. The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt. The British Museum Press, 1995. p.201 ^ See also: History of the Suez Canal ^ Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames and Hudson, 1994, p.196 ^ Herodotus 2.158; Pliny N.H. 6.165ff; Diodorus Siculus 3.43 ^ The Cambridge Ancient History. Edited by John Boardman, N. G. L. Hammond. p49 ^ Carthage Must Be Destroyed: The Rise and Fall of an Ancient Civilization. By Richard Miles. Penguin, Jul 21, 2011. p1781 ^ Unlikely with the intent of circumnavigating Africa, but for finding an alternative route to Asia than through the area near the Levant. Also, such voyages were undertaken for trading with more southern African cities; thereafter being blown off-course, if not tasked to sail around the lands. ^ Israel, India, Persia, Phoenicia, Minor Nations of Western Asia. Edited by Henry Smith Williams. p118 ^ Anthony Tony Browder, Nile valley contributions to civilization,Volume 1. 1992 (cf. In the Twenty Fifth Dynasty, during the reign of Necho II, navigational technology had advanced to the point where sailors from Kemet successfully circumnavigated Africa and drew an extremely accurate map of the continent.) ^ M. J. Cary. The Ancient Explorers. Penguin Books, 1963. Page 114 ^ As for Libya, we know it to be washed on all sides by the sea, except where it is attached to Asia. This discovery was first made by Necos, the Egyptian king, who on desisting from the canal which he had begun between the Nile and the Arabian gulf (referring to the Red Sea), sent to sea a number of ships manned by Phoenicians, with orders to make for the Pillars of Hercules, and return to Egypt through them, and by the Mediterranean. The Phoenicians took their departure from Egypt by way of the Erythraean sea, and so sailed into the southern ocean. When autumn came, they went ashore, wherever they might happen to be, and having sown a tract of land with corn, waited until the grain was fit to cut. Having reaped it, they again set sail; and thus it came to pass that two whole years went by, and it was not till the third year that they doubled the Pillars of Hercules, and made good their voyage home. On their return, they declared—I for my part do not believe them, but perhaps others may—that in sailing round Libya they had the sun upon their right hand. In this way was the extent of Libya first discovered. "Book 4" . History of Herodotus – via Wikisource. ^ The Geographical system of Herodotus by James Rennel. p348+ ^ Die umsegelung Asiens und Europas auf der Vega. Volume 2. By Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld. p148 ^ History of Egypt. By F. C. H. Wendel. American Book Co., 1890. p127 (cf. Herodotus relates a story of a great maritime enterprise undertaken at this time which seems quite credible. He states that Nekau sent out Phoenician ships from the Red Sea to circumnavigate Africa, and that in the third year of their journey they returned to the Mediterranean through the Straits of Gibraltar.) ^ The Story of the Pharaohs. By James Baikie. p316 ^ Lloyd, Alan B. "Necho and the Red Sea:Some Considerations" Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, Vol. 63, No. 2 (April , 1995), pp. 142-155 https://www.jstor.org/stable/3856314?read-now=1&seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents ^ Lloyd is to hold the position that geographical knowledge at the time of Herodutus was such that Greeks would know that such a voyage would entail the sun being on their right but did not believe Africa could extend far enough for this to happen. He suggests that the Greeks at this time understood that anyone going south far enough and then turning west would have the sun on their right but found it unbelievable that Africa reached so far south. He wrote: "Given the context of Egyptian thought, economic life, and military interests, it is impossible for one to imagine what stimulus could have motivated Necho in such a scheme and if we cannot provide a reason which is sound within Egyptian terms of reference, then we have good reason to doubt the historicity of the entire episode." Alan B. Lloyd, "Necho and the Red Sea: Some Considerations", Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 63 (1977) p.149. ^ Twentieth Century. Twentieth century, 1908. p816 ^ 'The Historians' History of the World. Edited by Henry Smith Williams. p286 (cf. Syria seems to have submitted to him, as far as the countries bordering the Euphrates. Gaza offered resistance, but was taken. But it was only for a short time that Neku II could feel himself a conqueror.) ^ Cosmos: A Sketch of a Physical Description of the Universe. By Alexander von Humboldt. p489 ^ The Cambridge History of the British Empire. CUP Archive, 1963. p56 ^ Gozzoli, R. B. (2000), The Statue BM EA 37891 and the Erasure of Necho II's Names Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 86: 67–80 External articles[edit] Expedition Necho II's African Circumnavigation Ancient Egyptian economy. www.reshafim.org.il (Maritime economy) Other Necho Pharaoh of Egypt. Egyptian History Archaeology and the Bible. Nekau (II) Wehemibre., digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 118586726 VIAF: 22934003 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 22934003 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Necho_II&oldid=990828417" Categories: 7th-century BC births 595 BC deaths 7th-century BC Pharaohs 6th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Exploration of Africa 7th century BC in Egypt 6th century BC in Egypt Pharaohs in the Bible Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2020 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Year of 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en-wikipedia-org-2892	----	Macedonia (ancient kingdom) - Wikipedia Macedonia (ancient kingdom) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Macedon) Jump to navigation Jump to search "Macedon" redirects here. For other uses, see Macedon (disambiguation) and Macedonia (disambiguation). Ancient kingdom in the Balkans Macedonia Μακεδονία 808–168 BC 150–148 BC Vergina Sun The Kingdom of Macedonia in 336 BC (orange) Capital Aigai[1] (808–399 BC) Pella[2] (399–168 BC) Common languages Ancient Macedonian, Attic, Koine Greek Religion Greek polytheism, Hellenistic religion Government Monarchy King   • 808–778 BC Caranus (first) • 179–168 BC Perseus (last) Legislature Synedrion Historical era Classical Antiquity • Founded by Caranus 808 BC • Vassal of Persia[3] 512/511–493 BC • Incorporated into the Persian Empire[3] 492–479 BC • Rise of Macedon 359–336 BC • Founding of the Hellenic League 338–337 BC • Conquest of Persia 335–323 BC • Partition of Babylon 323 BC • Wars of the Diadochi 322–275 BC • Battle of Pydna 168 BC Area 323 BC[4][5] 5,200,000 km2 (2,000,000 sq mi) Currency Tetradrachm Preceded by Succeeded by Greek Dark Ages Achaemenid Macedonia League of Corinth Achaemenid Empire Pauravas Kingdom of Pergamon Seleucid Empire Ptolemaic Kingdom Macedonia province Macedonia (/ˌmæsɪˈdoʊniə/ (listen); Ancient Greek: Μακεδονία), also called Macedon (/ˈmæsɪdɒn/), was an ancient kingdom on the periphery of Archaic and Classical Greece,[6] and later the dominant state of Hellenistic Greece.[7] The kingdom was founded and initially ruled by the royal Argead dynasty, which was followed by the Antipatrid and Antigonid dynasties. Home to the ancient Macedonians, the earliest kingdom was centered on the northeastern part of the Greek peninsula,[8] and bordered by Epirus to the west, Paeonia to the north, Thrace to the east and Thessaly to the south. Before the 4th century BC, Macedonia was a small kingdom outside of the area dominated by the great city-states of Athens, Sparta and Thebes, and briefly subordinate to Achaemenid Persia.[3] During the reign of the Argead king Philip II (359–336 BC), Macedonia subdued mainland Greece and the Thracian Odrysian kingdom through conquest and diplomacy. With a reformed army containing phalanxes wielding the sarissa pike, Philip II defeated the old powers of Athens and Thebes in the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC. Philip II's son Alexander the Great, leading a federation of Greek states, accomplished his father's objective of commanding the whole of Greece when he destroyed Thebes after the city revolted. During Alexander's subsequent campaign of conquest, he overthrew the Achaemenid Empire and conquered territory that stretched as far as the Indus River. For a brief period, his empire was the most powerful in the world – the definitive Hellenistic state, inaugurating the transition to a new period of Ancient Greek civilization. Greek arts and literature flourished in the new conquered lands and advances in philosophy, engineering, and science spread throughout much of the ancient world. Of particular importance were the contributions of Aristotle, tutor to Alexander, whose writings became a keystone of Western philosophy. After Alexander's death in 323 BC, the ensuing wars of the Diadochi, and the partitioning of Alexander's short-lived empire, Macedonia remained a Greek cultural and political center in the Mediterranean region along with Ptolemaic Egypt, the Seleucid Empire, and the Kingdom of Pergamon. Important cities such as Pella, Pydna, and Amphipolis were involved in power struggles for control of the territory. New cities were founded, such as Thessalonica by the usurper Cassander (named after his wife Thessalonike of Macedon).[9] Macedonia's decline began with the Macedonian Wars and the rise of Rome as the leading Mediterranean power. At the end of the Third Macedonian War in 168 BC, the Macedonian monarchy was abolished and replaced by Roman client states. A short-lived revival of the monarchy during the Fourth Macedonian War in 150–148 BC ended with the establishment of the Roman province of Macedonia. The Macedonian kings, who wielded absolute power and commanded state resources such as gold and silver, facilitated mining operations to mint currency, finance their armies and, by the reign of Philip II, a Macedonian navy. Unlike the other diadochi successor states, the imperial cult fostered by Alexander was never adopted in Macedonia, yet Macedonian rulers nevertheless assumed roles as high priests of the kingdom and leading patrons of domestic and international cults of the Hellenistic religion. The authority of Macedonian kings was theoretically limited by the institution of the army, while a few municipalities within the Macedonian commonwealth enjoyed a high degree of autonomy and even had democratic governments with popular assemblies. Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Early history and legend 2.2 Involvement in the Classical Greek world 2.3 Rise of Macedon 2.4 Empire 2.5 Hellenistic era 2.6 Conflict with Rome 3 Institutions 3.1 Division of power 3.2 Kingship and the royal court 3.3 Royal pages 3.4 Bodyguards 3.5 Companions, friends, councils, and assemblies 3.6 Magistrates, the commonwealth, local government, and allied states 3.7 Military 3.7.1 Early Macedonian army 3.7.2 Philip II and Alexander the Great 3.7.3 Antigonid period military 4 Society and culture 4.1 Language and dialects 4.2 Religious beliefs and funerary practices 4.3 Economics and social class 4.4 Visual arts 4.5 Theatre, music and performing arts 4.6 Literature, education, philosophy, and patronage 4.7 Sports and leisure 4.8 Dining and cuisine 4.9 Ethnic identity 5 Technology and engineering 5.1 Architecture 5.2 Military technology and engineering 5.3 Other innovations 6 Currency, finances, and resources 7 Legacy 8 See also 9 References 9.1 Notes 9.2 Citations 9.3 Sources 10 Further reading 11 External links Etymology See also: Makedon (mythology) and Macedonia (terminology) The name Macedonia (Greek: Μακεδονία, Makedonía) comes from the ethnonym Μακεδόνες (Makedónes), which itself is derived from the ancient Greek adjective μακεδνός (makednós), meaning "tall, slim", also the name of a people related to the Dorians (Herodotus), and possibly descriptive of Ancient Macedonians.[10] It is most likely cognate with the adjective μακρός (makros), meaning "long" or "tall" in Ancient Greek.[10] The name is believed to have originally meant either "highlanders", "the tall ones", or "high grown men".[note 1] Linguist Robert S. P. Beekes claims that both terms are of Pre-Greek substrate origin and cannot be explained in terms of Indo-European morphology,[11] however De Decker argues that the arguments are insufficient.[12] History Main article: History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom) Early history and legend Main articles: Achaemenid Macedonia and Argead dynasty Further information: List of ancient Macedonians § Kings The entrance to one of the royal tombs at Vergina, a UNESCO World Heritage site The Classical Greek historians Herodotus and Thucydides reported the legend that the Macedonian kings of the Argead dynasty were descendants of Temenus, king of Argos, and could therefore claim the mythical Heracles as one of their ancestors as well as a direct lineage from Zeus, chief god of the Greek pantheon.[13] Contradictory legends state that either Perdiccas I of Macedon or Caranus of Macedon were the founders of the Argead dynasty, with either five or eight kings before Amyntas I.[14] The assertion that the Argeads descended from Temenus was accepted by the Hellanodikai authorities of the Ancient Olympic Games, permitting Alexander I of Macedon (r. 498–454 BC) to enter the competitions owing to his perceived Greek heritage.[15] Little is known about the kingdom before the reign of Alexander I's father Amyntas I of Macedon (r. 547–498 BC) during the Archaic period.[16] The kingdom of Macedonia was situated along the Haliacmon and Axius rivers in Lower Macedonia, north of Mount Olympus. Historian Robert Malcolm Errington suggests that one of the earliest Argead kings established Aigai (modern Vergina) as their capital in the mid-7th century BC.[17] Before the 4th century BC, the kingdom covered a region corresponding roughly to the western and central parts of the region of Macedonia in modern Greece.[18] It gradually expanded into the region of Upper Macedonia, inhabited by the Greek Lyncestae and Elimiotae tribes, and into regions of Emathia, Eordaia, Bottiaea, Mygdonia, Crestonia, and Almopia, which were inhabited by various peoples such as Thracians and Phrygians.[note 2] Macedonia's non-Greek neighbors included Thracians, inhabiting territories to the northeast, Illyrians to the northwest, and Paeonians to the north, while the lands of Thessaly to the south and Epirus to the west were inhabited by Greeks with similar cultures to that of the Macedonians.[19] A silver octadrachm of Alexander I of Macedon (r. 498–454 BC), minted c. 465–460 BC, showing an equestrian figure wearing a chlamys (short cloak) and petasos (head cap) while holding two spears and leading a horse The "Ionians with shield-hats" (Old Persian cuneiform: 𐎹𐎢𐎴𐎠𐏐𐎫𐎣𐎲𐎼𐎠, Yaunā takabarā)[20] depicted on the tomb of Xerxes I at Naqsh-e Rustam, were probably Macedonian soldiers in the service of the Achaemenid army, wearing the petasos or kausia, c.480 BC.[21] A year after Darius I of Persia (r. 522–486 BC) launched an invasion into Europe against the Scythians, Paeonians, Thracians, and several Greek city-states of the Balkans, the Persian general Megabazus used diplomacy to convince Amyntas I to submit as a vassal of the Achaemenid Empire, ushering in the period of Achaemenid Macedonia.[note 3] Achaemenid Persian hegemony over Macedonia was briefly interrupted by the Ionian Revolt (499–493 BC), yet the Persian general Mardonius brought it back under Achaemenid suzerainty.[22] Although Macedonia enjoyed a large degree of autonomy and was never made a satrapy (i.e. province) of the Achaemenid Empire, it was expected to provide troops for the Achaemenid army.[23] Alexander I provided Macedonian military support to Xerxes I (r. 486–465 BC) during the Second Persian invasion of Greece in 480–479 BC, and Macedonian soldiers fought on the side of the Persians at the 479 BC Battle of Platea.[24] Following the Greek victory at Salamis in 480 BC, Alexander I was employed as an Achaemenid diplomat to propose a peace treaty and alliance with Athens, an offer that was rejected.[25] Soon afterwards, the Achaemenid forces were forced to withdraw from mainland Europe, marking the end of Persian control over Macedonia.[26] Involvement in the Classical Greek world Further information: Delian League, Spartan hegemony, and Theban hegemony Macedon (orange) during the Peloponnesian War around 431 BC, with Athens and the Delian League (yellow), Sparta and Peloponnesian League (red), independent states (blue), and the Persian Achaemenid Empire (purple) Although initially a Persian vassal, Alexander I of Macedon fostered friendly diplomatic relations with his former Greek enemies, the Athenian and Spartan-led coalition of Greek city-states.[27] His successor Perdiccas II (r. 454–413 BC) led the Macedonians to war in four separate conflicts against Athens, leader of the Delian League, while incursions by the Thracian ruler Sitalces of the Odrysian kingdom threatened Macedonia's territorial integrity in the northeast.[28] The Athenian statesman Pericles promoted colonization of the Strymon River near the Kingdom of Macedonia, where the colonial city of Amphipolis was founded in 437/436 BC so that it could provide Athens with a steady supply of silver and gold as well as timber and pitch to support the Athenian navy.[29] Initially Perdiccas II did not take any action and might have even welcomed the Athenians, as the Thracians were foes to both of them.[30] This changed due to an Athenian alliance with a brother and cousin of Perdiccas II who had rebelled against him.[30] Thus, two separate wars were fought against Athens between 433 and 431 BC.[30] The Macedonian king retaliated by promoting the rebellion of Athens' allies in Chalcidice and subsequently won over the strategic city of Potidaea.[31] After capturing the Macedonian cities Therma and Beroea, Athens besieged Potidaea but failed to overcome it; Therma was returned to Macedonia and much of Chalcidice to Athens in a peace treaty brokered by Sitalces, who provided Athens with military aid in exchange for acquiring new Thracian allies.[32] Perdiccas II sided with Sparta in the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) between Athens and Sparta, and in 429 BC Athens retaliated by persuading Sitalces to invade Macedonia, but he was forced to retreat owing to a shortage of provisions in winter.[33] In 424 BC, Arrhabaeus, a local ruler of Lynkestis in Upper Macedonia, rebelled against his overlord Perdiccas, and the Spartans agreed to help in putting down the revolt.[34] At the Battle of Lyncestis the Macedonians panicked and fled before the fighting began, enraging the Spartan general Brasidas, whose soldiers looted the unattended Macedonian baggage train.[35] Perdiccas then changed sides and supported Athens, and he was able to put down Arrhabaeus's revolt.[36] A Macedonian didrachm minted during the reign of Archelaus I of Macedon (r. 413–399 BC) Brasidas died in 422 BC, the year Athens and Sparta struck an accord, the Peace of Nicias, that freed Macedonia from its obligations as an Athenian ally.[37] Following the 418 BC Battle of Mantinea, the victorious Spartans formed an alliance with Argos, a military pact Perdiccas II was keen to join given the threat of Spartan allies remaining in Chalcidice.[38] When Argos suddenly switched sides as a pro-Athenian democracy, the Athenian navy was able to form a blockade against Macedonian seaports and invade Chalcidice in 417 BC.[39] Perdiccas II sued for peace in 414 BC, forming an alliance with Athens that was continued by his son and successor Archelaus I (r. 413–399 BC).[40] Athens then provided naval support to Archelaus I in the 410 BC Macedonian siege of Pydna, in exchange for timber and naval equipment.[41] Although Archelaus I was faced with some internal revolts and had to fend off an invasion of Illyrians led by Sirras of Lynkestis, he was able to project Macedonian power into Thessaly where he sent military aid to his allies.[42] Although he retained Aigai as a ceremonial and religious center, Archelaus I moved the capital of the kingdom north to Pella, which was then positioned by a lake with a river connecting it to the Aegean Sea.[43] He improved Macedonia's currency by minting coins with a higher silver content as well as issuing separate copper coinage.[44] His royal court attracted the presence of well-known intellectuals such as the Athenian playwright Euripides.[45] When Archelaus I was assassinated (perhaps following a homosexual love affair with royal pages at his court), the kingdom was plunged into chaos, in an era lasting from 399 to 393 BC that included the reign of four different monarchs: Orestes, son of Archelaus I; Aeropus II, uncle, regent, and murderer of Orestes; Pausanias, son of Aeropus II; and Amyntas II, who was married to the youngest daughter of Archelaus I.[46] Very little is known about this turbulent period; it came to an end when Amyntas III (r. 393–370 BC), son of Arrhidaeus and grandson of Amyntas I, killed Pausanias and claimed the Macedonian throne.[47] A silver stater of Amyntas III of Macedon (r. 393–370 BC) Amyntas III was forced to flee his kingdom in either 393 or 383 BC (based on conflicting accounts), owing to a massive invasion by the Illyrian Dardani led by Bardylis.[note 4] The pretender to the throne Argaeus ruled in his absence, yet Amyntas III eventually returned to his kingdom with the aid of Thessalian allies.[48] Amyntas III was also nearly overthrown by the forces of the Chalcidian city of Olynthos, but with the aid of Teleutias, brother of the Spartan king Agesilaus II, the Macedonians forced Olynthos to surrender and dissolve their Chalcidian League in 379 BC.[49] Alexander II (r. 370–368 BC), son of Eurydice I and Amyntas III, succeeded his father and immediately invaded Thessaly to wage war against the tagus (supreme Thessalian military leader) Alexander of Pherae, capturing the city of Larissa.[50] The Thessalians, desiring to remove both Alexander II and Alexander of Pherae as their overlords, appealed to Pelopidas of Thebes for aid; he succeeded in recapturing Larissa and, in the peace agreement arranged with Macedonia, received aristocratic hostages including Alexander II's brother and future king Philip II (r. 359–336 BC).[51] When Alexander was assassinated by his brother-in-law Ptolemy of Aloros, the latter acted as an overbearing regent for Perdiccas III (r. 368–359 BC), younger brother of Alexander II, who eventually had Ptolemy executed when reaching the age of majority in 365 BC.[52] The remainder of Perdiccas III's reign was marked by political stability and financial recovery.[53] However, an Athenian invasion led by Timotheus, son of Conon, managed to capture Methone and Pydna, and an Illyrian invasion led by Bardylis succeeded in killing Perdiccas III and 4,000 Macedonian troops in battle.[54] Rise of Macedon Main article: Expansion of Macedonia under Philip II Further information: Argead dynasty, Amyntas IV of Macedon, and League of Corinth Left, a bust of Philip II of Macedon (r. 359–336 BC) from the Hellenistic period, located at Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek. Right, another bust of Philip II, a 1st-century AD Roman copy of a Hellenistic Greek original, now in the Vatican Museums. Map of the Kingdom of Macedon at the death of Philip II in 336 BC (light blue), with the original territory that existed in 431 BC (red outline), and dependent states (yellow) Philip II was twenty-four years old when he acceded to the throne in 359 BC.[55] Through the use of deft diplomacy, he was able to convince the Thracians under Berisades to cease their support of Pausanias, a pretender to the throne, and the Athenians to halt their support of another pretender.[56] He achieved these by bribing the Thracians and their Paeonian allies and establishing a treaty with Athens that relinquished his claims to Amphipolis.[57] He was also able to make peace with the Illyrians who had threatened his borders.[58] Philip II spent his initial years radically transforming the Macedonian army. A reform of its organization, equipment, and training, including the introduction of the Macedonian phalanx armed with long pikes (i.e. the sarissa), proved immediately successful when tested against his Illyrian and Paeonian enemies.[59] Confusing accounts in ancient sources have led modern scholars to debate how much Philip II's royal predecessors may have contributed to these reforms and the extent to which his ideas were influenced by his adolescent years of captivity in Thebes as a political hostage during the Theban hegemony, especially after meeting with the general Epaminondas.[60] The Macedonians, like the other Greeks, traditionally practiced monogamy, but Philip II practiced polygamy and married seven wives with perhaps only one that did not involve the loyalty of his aristocratic subjects or new allies.[note 5] His first marriages were to Phila of Elimeia of the Upper Macedonian aristocracy as well as the Illyrian princess Audata to ensure a marriage alliance.[61] To establish an alliance with Larissa in Thessaly, he married the Thessalian noblewoman Philinna in 358 BC, who bore him a son who would later rule as Philip III Arrhidaeus (r. 323–317 BC).[62] In 357 BC, he married Olympias to secure an alliance with Arybbas, the King of Epirus and the Molossians. This marriage would bear a son who would later rule as Alexander III (better known as Alexander the Great) and claim descent from the legendary Achilles by way of his dynastic heritage from Epirus.[63] It is unclear whether or not the Achaemenid Persian kings influenced Philip II's practice of polygamy, although his predecessor Amyntas III had three sons with a possible second wife Gygaea: Archelaus, Arrhidaeus, and Menelaus.[64] Philip II had Archelaus put to death in 359 BC, while Philip II's other two half brothers fled to Olynthos, serving as a casus belli for the Olynthian War (349–348 BC) against the Chalcidian League.[65] While Athens was preoccupied with the Social War (357–355 BC), Philip II retook Amphipolis from them in 357 BC and the following year recaptured Pydna and Potidaea, the latter of which he handed over to the Chalcidian League as promised in a treaty.[66] In 356 BC, he took Crenides, refounding it as Philippi, while his general Parmenion defeated the Illyrian king Grabos of the Grabaei.[67] During the 355–354 BC siege of Methone, Philip II lost his right eye to an arrow wound, but managed to capture the city and treated the inhabitants cordially, unlike the Potidaeans, who had been enslaved.[note 6] Philip II then involved Macedonia in the Third Sacred War (356–346 BC). It began when Phocis captured and plundered the temple of Apollo at Delphi instead of submitting unpaid fines, causing the Amphictyonic League to declare war on Phocis and a civil war among the members of the Thessalian League aligned with either Phocis or Thebes.[68] Philip II's initial campaign against Pherae in Thessaly in 353 BC at the behest of Larissa ended in two disastrous defeats by the Phocian general Onomarchus.[note 7] Philip II in turn defeated Onomarchus in 352 BC at the Battle of Crocus Field, which led to Philip II's election as leader (archon) of the Thessalian League, provided him a seat on the Amphictyonic Council, and allowed for a marriage alliance with Pherae by wedding Nicesipolis, niece of the tyrant Jason of Pherae.[69] Philip II had some early involvement with the Achaemenid Empire, especially by supporting satraps and mercenaries who rebelled against the central authority of the Achaemenid king. The satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia Artabazos II, who was in rebellion against Artaxerxes III, was able to take refuge as an exile at the Macedonian court from 352 to 342 BC. He was accompanied in exile by his family and by his mercenary general Memnon of Rhodes.[70][71] Barsine, daughter of Artabazos, and future wife of Alexander the Great, grew up at the Macedonian court.[71] After campaigning against the Thracian ruler Cersobleptes, in 349 BC, Philip II began his war against the Chalcidian League, which had been reestablished in 375 BC following a temporary disbandment.[72] Despite an Athenian intervention by Charidemus,[73] Olynthos was captured by Philip II in 348 BC, and its inhabitants were sold into slavery, including some Athenian citizens.[74] The Athenians, especially in a series of speeches by Demosthenes known as the Olynthiacs, were unsuccessful in persuading their allies to counterattack and in 346 BC concluded a treaty with Macedonia known as the Peace of Philocrates.[75] The treaty stipulated that Athens would relinquish claims to Macedonian coastal territories, the Chalcidice, and Amphipolis in return for the release of the enslaved Athenians as well as guarantees that Philip II would not attack Athenian settlements in the Thracian Chersonese.[76] Meanwhile, Phocis and Thermopylae were captured by Macedonian forces, the Delphic temple robbers were executed, and Philip II was awarded the two Phocian seats on the Amphictyonic Council and the position of master of ceremonies over the Pythian Games.[77] Athens initially opposed his membership on the council and refused to attend the games in protest, but they eventually accepted these conditions, perhaps after some persuasion by Demosthenes in his oration On the Peace.[78] Left, a Niketerion (victory medallion) bearing the effigy of king Philip II of Macedon, 3rd century AD, probably minted during the reign of Roman Emperor Alexander Severus. Right, the ruins of the Philippeion at Olympia, Greece, which was built by Philip II of Macedon to celebrate his victory at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC.[79] Over the next few years, Philip II reformed local governments in Thessaly, campaigned against the Illyrian ruler Pleuratus I, deposed Arybbas in Epirus in favor of his brother-in-law Alexander I (through Philip II's marriage to Olympias), and defeated Cersebleptes in Thrace. This allowed him to extend Macedonian control over the Hellespont in anticipation of an invasion into Achaemenid Anatolia.[80] In 342 BC, Philip II conquered a Thracian city in what is now Bulgaria and renamed it Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv).[81] War broke out with Athens in 340 BC while Philip II was engaged in two ultimately unsuccessful sieges of Perinthus and Byzantion, followed by a successful campaign against the Scythians along the Danube and Macedonia's involvement in the Fourth Sacred War against Amphissa in 339 BC.[82] Thebes ejected a Macedonian garrison from Nicaea (near Thermopylae), leading Thebes to join Athens, Megara, Corinth, Achaea, and Euboea in a final confrontation against Macedonia at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC.[83] After the Macedonian victory at Chaeronea, Philip II installed an oligarchy in Thebes, yet was lenient toward Athens, wishing to utilize their navy in a planned invasion of the Achaemenid Empire.[84] He was then chiefly responsible for the formation of the League of Corinth that included the major Greek city-states except Sparta. Despite the Kingdom of Macedonia's official exclusion from the league, in 337 BC, Philip II was elected as the leader (hegemon) of its council (synedrion) and the commander-in-chief (strategos autokrator) of a forthcoming campaign to invade the Achaemenid Empire.[85] Philip's plan to punish the Persians for the suffering of the Greeks and to liberate the Greek cities of Asia Minor[86] as well as perhaps the panhellenic fear of another Persian invasion of Greece, contributed to his decision to invade the Achaemenid Empire.[87] The Persians offered aid to Perinthus and Byzantion in 341–340 BC, highlighting Macedonia's strategic need to secure Thrace and the Aegean Sea against increasing Achaemenid encroachment, as the Persian king Artaxerxes III further consolidated his control over satrapies in western Anatolia.[88] The latter region, yielding far more wealth and valuable resources than the Balkans, was also coveted by the Macedonian king for its sheer economic potential.[89] When Philip II married Cleopatra Eurydice, niece of general Attalus, talk of providing new potential heirs at the wedding feast infuriated Philip II's son Alexander, a veteran of the Battle of Chaeronea, and his mother Olympias.[90] They fled together to Epirus before Alexander was recalled to Pella by Philip II.[90] When Philip II arranged a marriage between his son Arrhidaeus and Ada of Caria, daughter of Pixodarus, the Persian satrap of Caria, Alexander intervened and proposed to marry Ada instead. Philip II then cancelled the wedding altogether and exiled Alexander's advisors Ptolemy, Nearchus, and Harpalus.[91] To reconcile with Olympias, Philip II had their daughter Cleopatra marry Olympias' brother (and Cleopatra's uncle) Alexander I of Epirus, but Philip II was assassinated by his bodyguard, Pausanias of Orestis, during their wedding feast and succeeded by Alexander in 336 BC.[92] Empire Further information: Wars of Alexander the Great, Wars of the Diadochi, and Chronology of the expedition of Alexander the Great into Asia Left, Bust of Alexander the Great by the Athenian sculptor Leochares, 330 BC, Acropolis Museum, Athens. Right, Bust of Alexander the Great, a Roman copy of the Imperial Era (1st or 2nd century AD) after an original bronze sculpture made by the Greek sculptor Lysippos, Louvre, Paris. Alexander's empire and his route Modern scholars have argued over the possible role of Alexander III "the Great" and his mother Olympias in the assassination of Philip II, noting the latter's choice to exclude Alexander from his planned invasion of Asia, choosing instead for him to act as regent of Greece and deputy hegemon of the League of Corinth, and the potential bearing of another male heir between Philip II and his new wife, Cleopatra Eurydice.[note 8] Alexander III (r. 336–323 BC) was immediately proclaimed king by an assembly of the army and leading aristocrats, chief among them being Antipater and Parmenion.[93] By the end of his reign and military career in 323 BC, Alexander would rule over an empire consisting of mainland Greece, Asia Minor, the Levant, ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, and much of Central and South Asia (i.e. modern Pakistan).[94] Among his first acts was the burial of his father at Aigai.[95] The members of the League of Corinth revolted at the news of Philip II's death, but were soon quelled by military force alongside persuasive diplomacy, electing Alexander as hegemon of the league to carry out the planned invasion of Achaemenid Persia.[96] In 335 BC, Alexander fought against the Thracian tribe of the Triballi at Haemus Mons and along the Danube, forcing their surrender on Peuce Island.[97] Shortly thereafter, the Illyrian king Cleitus of the Dardani threatened to attack Macedonia, but Alexander took the initiative and besieged the Dardani at Pelion (in modern Albania).[98] When Thebes had once again revolted from the League of Corinth and was besieging the Macedonian garrison in the Cadmea, Alexander left the Illyrian front and marched to Thebes, which he placed under siege.[99] After breaching the walls, Alexander's forces killed 6,000 Thebans, took 30,000 inhabitants as prisoners of war, and burned the city to the ground as a warning that convinced all other Greek states except Sparta not to challenge Alexander again.[100] Throughout his military career, Alexander won every battle that he personally commanded.[101] His first victory against the Persians in Asia Minor at the Battle of the Granicus in 334 BC used a small cavalry contingent as a distraction to allow his infantry to cross the river followed by a cavalry charge from his companion cavalry.[102] Alexander led the cavalry charge at the Battle of Issus in 333 BC, forcing the Persian king Darius III and his army to flee.[102] Darius III, despite having superior numbers, was again forced to flee the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC.[102] The Persian king was later captured and executed by his own satrap of Bactria and kinsman, Bessus, in 330 BC. The Macedonian king subsequently hunted down and executed Bessus in what is now Afghanistan, securing the region of Sogdia in the process.[103] At the 326 BC Battle of the Hydaspes (modern-day Punjab), when the war elephants of King Porus of the Pauravas threatened Alexander's troops, he had them form open ranks to surround the elephants and dislodge their handlers by using their sarissa pikes.[104] When his Macedonian troops threatened mutiny in 324 BC at Opis, Babylonia (near modern Baghdad, Iraq), Alexander offered Macedonian military titles and greater responsibilities to Persian officers and units instead, forcing his troops to seek forgiveness at a staged banquet of reconciliation between Persians and Macedonians.[105] The Stag Hunt Mosaic, c. 300 BC, from Pella; the figure on the right is possibly Alexander the Great due to the date of the mosaic along with the depicted upsweep of his centrally-parted hair (anastole); the figure on the left wielding a double-edged axe (associated with Hephaistos) is perhaps Hephaestion, one of Alexander's loyal companions. Alexander perhaps undercut his own rule by demonstrating signs of megalomania.[106] While utilizing effective propaganda such as the cutting of the Gordian Knot, he also attempted to portray himself as a living god and son of Zeus following his visit to the oracle at Siwah in the Libyan Desert (in modern-day Egypt) in 331 BC.[107] His attempt in 327 BC to have his men prostrate before him in Bactra in an act of proskynesis borrowed from the Persian kings was rejected as religious blasphemy by his Macedonian and Greek subjects after his court historian Callisthenes refused to perform this ritual.[106] When Alexander had Parmenion murdered at Ecbatana (near modern Hamadan, Iran) in 330 BC, this was "symptomatic of the growing gulf between the king's interests and those of his country and people", according to Errington.[108] His murder of Cleitus the Black in 328 BC is described as "vengeful and reckless" by Dawn L. Gilley and Ian Worthington.[109] Continuing the polygamous habits of his father, Alexander encouraged his men to marry native women in Asia, leading by example when he wed Roxana, a Sogdian princess of Bactria.[110] He then married Stateira II, eldest daughter of Darius III, and Parysatis II, youngest daughter of Artaxerxes III, at the Susa weddings in 324 BC.[111] Meanwhile, in Greece, the Spartan king Agis III attempted to lead a rebellion of the Greeks against Macedonia.[112] He was defeated in 331 BC at the Battle of Megalopolis by Antipater, who was serving as regent of Macedonia and deputy hegemon of the League of Corinth in Alexander's stead.[note 9] Before Antipater embarked on his campaign in the Peloponnese, Memnon, the governor of Thrace, was dissuaded from rebellion by use of diplomacy.[113] Antipater deferred the punishment of Sparta to the League of Corinth headed by Alexander, who ultimately pardoned the Spartans on the condition that they submit fifty nobles as hostages.[114] Antipater's hegemony was somewhat unpopular in Greece due to his practice (perhaps by order of Alexander) of exiling malcontents and garrisoning cities with Macedonian troops, yet in 330 BC, Alexander declared that the tyrannies installed in Greece were to be abolished and Greek freedom was to be restored.[115] Kingdoms of the diadochi c. 301 BC, after the Battle of Ipsus   Kingdom of Ptolemy I Soter   Kingdom of Cassander   Kingdom of Lysimachus   Kingdom of Seleucus I Nicator   Epirus Other   Carthage   Roman Republic   Greek States A golden stater of Philip III Arrhidaeus (r. 323–317 BC) bearing images of Athena (left) and Nike (right) When Alexander the Great died at Babylon in 323 BC, his mother Olympias immediately accused Antipater and his faction of poisoning him, although there is no evidence to confirm this.[116] With no official heir apparent, the Macedonian military command split, with one side proclaiming Alexander's half-brother Philip III Arrhidaeus (r. 323–317 BC) as king and the other siding with the infant son of Alexander and Roxana, Alexander IV (r. 323–309 BC).[117] Except for the Euboeans and Boeotians, the Greeks also immediately rose up in a rebellion against Antipater known as the Lamian War (323–322 BC).[118] When Antipater was defeated at the 323 BC Battle of Thermopylae, he fled to Lamia where he was besieged by the Athenian commander Leosthenes. A Macedonian army led by Leonnatus rescued Antipater by lifting the siege.[119] Antipater defeated the rebellion, yet his death in 319 BC left a power vacuum wherein the two proclaimed kings of Macedonia became pawns in a power struggle between the diadochi, the former generals of Alexander's army.[120] A council of the army convened in Babylon immediately after Alexander's death, naming Philip III as king and the chiliarch Perdiccas as his regent.[121] Antipater, Antigonus Monophthalmus, Craterus, and Ptolemy formed a coalition against Perdiccas in a civil war initiated by Ptolemy's seizure of the hearse of Alexander the Great.[122] Perdiccas was assassinated in 321 BC by his own officers during a failed campaign in Egypt against Ptolemy, where his march along the Nile River resulted in the drowning of 2,000 of his men.[123] Although Eumenes of Cardia managed to kill Craterus in battle, this had little to no effect on the outcome of the 321 BC Partition of Triparadisus in Syria where the victorious coalition settled the issue of a new regency and territorial rights.[124] Antipater was appointed as regent over the two kings. Before Antipater died in 319 BC, he named the staunch Argead loyalist Polyperchon as his successor, passing over his own son Cassander and ignoring the right of the king to choose a new regent (since Philip III was considered mentally unstable), in effect bypassing the council of the army as well.[125] Forming an alliance with Ptolemy, Antigonus, and Lysimachus, Cassander had his officer Nicanor capture the Munichia fortress of Athens' port town Piraeus in defiance of Polyperchon's decree that Greek cities should be free of Macedonian garrisons, sparking the Second War of the Diadochi (319–315 BC).[126] Given a string of military failures by Polyperchon, in 317 BC, Philip III, by way of his politically engaged wife Eurydice II of Macedon, officially replaced him as regent with Cassander.[127] Afterwards, Polyperchon desperately sought the aid of Olympias in Epirus.[127] A joint force of Epirotes, Aetolians, and Polyperchon's troops invaded Macedonia and forced the surrender of Philip III and Eurydice's army, allowing Olympias to execute the king and force his queen to commit suicide.[128] Olympias then had Nicanor and dozens of other Macedonian nobles killed, but by the spring of 316 BC, Cassander had defeated her forces, captured her, and placed her on trial for murder before sentencing her to death.[129] Cassander married Philip II's daughter Thessalonike and briefly extended Macedonian control into Illyria as far as Epidamnos. By 313 BC, it was retaken by the Illyrian king Glaucias of Taulantii.[130] By 316 BC, Antigonus had taken the territory of Eumenes and managed to eject Seleucus Nicator from his Babylonian satrapy, leading Cassander, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus to issue a joint ultimatum to Antigonus in 315 BC for him to surrender various territories in Asia.[9] Antigonus promptly allied with Polyperchon, now based in Corinth, and issued an ultimatum of his own to Cassander, charging him with murder for executing Olympias and demanding that he hand over the royal family, King Alexander IV and the queen mother Roxana.[131] The conflict that followed lasted until the winter of 312/311 BC, when a new peace settlement recognized Cassander as general of Europe, Antigonus as "first in Asia", Ptolemy as general of Egypt, and Lysimachus as general of Thrace.[132] Cassander had Alexander IV and Roxana put to death in the winter of 311/310 BC, and by 306–305 BC, the diadochi were declared kings of their respective territories.[133] Hellenistic era Further information: Antipatrid dynasty, Antigonid dynasty, Hellenistic period, Pyrrhic War, Chremonidean War, and Cleomenean War The portrait busts of Pyrrhus of Epirus (top left), Demetrius I of Macedon (top right), Seleucus I Nicator (bottom left), and Lysimachus (bottom right), Roman-era copies of Hellenistic Greek originals from the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum, Naples National Archaeological Museum The beginning of Hellenistic Greece was defined by the struggle between the Antipatrid dynasty, led first by Cassander (r. 305–297 BC), son of Antipater, and the Antigonid dynasty, led by the Macedonian general Antigonus I Monophthalmus (r. 306–301 BC) and his son, the future king Demetrius I (r. 294–288 BC). Cassander besieged Athens in 303 BC, but was forced to retreat to Macedonia when Demetrius invaded Boeotia to his rear, attempting to sever his path of retreat.[134] While Antigonus and Demetrius attempted to recreate Philip II's Hellenic league with themselves as dual hegemons, a revived coalition of Cassander, Ptolemy I Soter (r. 305–283 BC) of Egypt's Ptolemaic dynasty, Seleucus I Nicator (r. 305–281 BC) of the Seleucid Empire, and Lysimachus (r. 306–281 BC), King of Thrace, defeated the Antigonids at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC, killing Antigonus and forcing Demetrius into flight.[135] Cassander died in 297 BC, and his sickly son Philip IV died the same year, succeeded by Cassander's other sons Alexander V of Macedon (r. 297–294 BC) and Antipater II of Macedon (r. 297–294 BC), with their mother Thessalonike of Macedon acting as regent.[136] While Demetrius fought against the Antipatrid forces in Greece, Antipater II killed his own mother to obtain power.[136] His desperate brother Alexander V then requested aid from Pyrrhus of Epirus (r. 297–272 BC),[136] who had fought alongside Demetrius at the Battle of Ipsus, but was sent to Egypt as a hostage as part of an agreement between Demetrius and Ptolemy I.[137] In exchange for defeating the forces of Antipater II and forcing him to flee to the court of Lysimachus in Thrace, Pyrrhus was awarded the westernmost portions of the Macedonian kingdom.[138] Demetrius had his nephew Alexander V assassinated and was then proclaimed king of Macedonia, but his subjects protested against his aloof, Eastern-style autocracy.[136] War broke out between Pyrrhus and Demetrius in 290 BC when Lanassa, wife of Pyrrhus, daughter of Agathocles of Syracuse, left him for Demetrius and offered him her dowry of Corcyra.[139] The war dragged on until 288 BC, when Demetrius lost the support of the Macedonians and fled the country. Macedonia was then divided between Pyrrhus and Lysimachus, the former taking western Macedonia and the latter eastern Macedonia.[139] By 286 BC, Lysimachus had expelled Pyrrhus and his forces from Macedonia.[note 10] In 282 BC, a new war erupted between Seleucus I and Lysimachus; the latter was killed in the Battle of Corupedion, allowing Seleucus I to take control of Thrace and Macedonia.[140] In two dramatic reversals of fortune, Seleucus I was assassinated in 281 BC by his officer Ptolemy Keraunos, son of Ptolemy I and grandson of Antipater, who was then proclaimed king of Macedonia before being killed in battle in 279 BC by Celtic invaders in the Gallic invasion of Greece.[141] The Macedonian army proclaimed the general Sosthenes of Macedon as king, although he apparently refused the title.[142] After defeating the Gallic ruler Bolgios and driving out the raiding party of Brennus, Sosthenes died and left a chaotic situation in Macedonia.[143] The Gallic invaders ravaged Macedonia until Antigonus Gonatas, son of Demetrius, defeated them in Thrace at the 277 BC Battle of Lysimachia and was then proclaimed king Antigonus II of Macedon (r. 277–274, 272–239 BC).[144] In 280 BC, Pyrrhus embarked on a campaign in Magna Graecia (i.e. southern Italy) against the Roman Republic known as the Pyrrhic War, followed by his invasion of Sicily.[145] Ptolemy Keraunos secured his position on the Macedonian throne by giving Pyrrhus five thousand soldiers and twenty war elephants for this endeavor.[137] Pyrrhus returned to Epirus in 275 BC after the ultimate failure of both campaigns, which contributed to the rise of Rome because Greek cities in southern Italy such as Tarentum now became Roman allies.[145] Pyrrhus invaded Macedonia in 274 BC, defeating the largely mercenary army of Antigonus II at the 274 BC Battle of Aous and driving him out of Macedonia, forcing him to seek refuge with his naval fleet in the Aegean.[146] Paintings of Hellenistic-era military arms and armor from a tomb in ancient Mieza (modern-day Lefkadia), Imathia, Central Macedonia, Greece, 2nd century BC Pyrrhus lost much of his support among the Macedonians in 273 BC when his unruly Gallic mercenaries plundered the royal cemetery of Aigai.[147] Pyrrhus pursued Antigonus II in the Peloponnese, yet Antigonus II was ultimately able to recapture Macedonia.[148] Pyrrhus was killed while besieging Argos in 272 BC, allowing Antigonus II to reclaim the rest of Greece.[149] He then restored the Argead dynastic graves at Aigai and annexed the Kingdom of Paeonia.[150] The Aetolian League hampered Antigonus II's control over central Greece, and the formation of the Achaean League in 251 BC pushed Macedonian forces out of much of the Peloponnese and at times incorporated Athens and Sparta.[151] While the Seleucid Empire aligned with Antigonid Macedonia against Ptolemaic Egypt during the Syrian Wars, the Ptolemaic navy heavily disrupted Antigonus II's efforts to control mainland Greece.[152] With the aid of the Ptolemaic navy, the Athenian statesman Chremonides led a revolt against Macedonian authority known as the Chremonidean War (267–261 BC).[153] By 265 BC, Athens was surrounded and besieged by Antigonus II's forces, and a Ptolemaic fleet was defeated in the Battle of Cos. Athens finally surrendered in 261 BC.[154] After Macedonia formed an alliance with the Seleucid ruler Antiochus II, a peace settlement between Antigonus II and Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt was finally struck in 255 BC.[155] The Temple of Apollo at Corinth, built c. 540 BC, with the Acrocorinth (i.e. the acropolis of Corinth that once held a Macedonian garrison)[156] seen in the background In 251 BC, Aratus of Sicyon led a rebellion against Antigonus II, and in 250 BC, Ptolemy II declared his support for the self-proclaimed King Alexander of Corinth.[157] Although Alexander died in 246 BC and Antigonus was able to score a naval victory against the Ptolemies at Andros, the Macedonians lost the Acrocorinth to the forces of Aratus in 243 BC, followed by the induction of Corinth into the Achaean League.[158] Antigonus II made peace with the Achaean League in 240 BC, ceding the territories that he had lost in Greece.[159] Antigonus II died in 239 BC and was succeeded by his son Demetrius II of Macedon (r. 239–229 BC). Seeking an alliance with Macedonia to defend against the Aetolians, the queen mother and regent of Epirus, Olympias II, offered her daughter Phthia of Macedon to Demetrius II in marriage. Demetrius II accepted her proposal, but he damaged relations with the Seleucids by divorcing Stratonice of Macedon.[160] Although the Aetolians formed an alliance with the Achaean League as a result, Demetrius II was able to invade Boeotia and capture it from the Aetolians by 236 BC.[156] The Achaean League managed to capture Megalopolis in 235 BC, and by the end of Demetrius II's reign most of the Peloponnese except Argos was taken from the Macedonians.[161] Demetrius II also lost an ally in Epirus when the monarchy was toppled in a republican revolution.[162] Demetrius II enlisted the aid of the Illyrian king Agron to defend Acarnania against Aetolia, and in 229 BC, they managed to defeat the combined navies of the Aetolian and Achaean Leagues at the Battle of Paxos.[162] Another Illyrian ruler, Longarus of the Dardanian Kingdom, invaded Macedonia and defeated an army of Demetrius II shortly before his death in 229 BC.[163] Although his young son Philip immediately inherited the throne, his regent Antigonus III Doson (r. 229–221 BC), nephew of Antigonus II, was proclaimed king by the army, with Philip as his heir, following a string of military victories against the Illyrians in the north and the Aetolians in Thessaly.[164] A tetradrachm minted during the reign of Antigonus III Doson (r. 229–221 BC), possibly at Amphipolis, bearing the portrait image of Poseidon on the obverse and on the reverse a scene depicting Apollo sitting on the prow of a ship Aratus sent an embassy to Antigonus III in 226 BC seeking an unexpected alliance now that the reformist king Cleomenes III of Sparta was threatening the rest of Greece in the Cleomenean War (229–222 BC).[165] In exchange for military aid, Antigonus III demanded the return of Corinth to Macedonian control, which Aratus finally agreed to in 225 BC.[166] In 224 BC, Antigonus III's forces took Arcadia from Sparta. After forming a Hellenic league in the same vein as Philip II's League of Corinth, he managed to defeat Sparta at the Battle of Sellasia in 222 BC.[167] Sparta was occupied by a foreign power for the first time in its history, restoring Macedonia's position as the leading power in Greece.[168] Antigonus died a year later, perhaps from tuberculosis, leaving behind a strong Hellenistic kingdom for his successor Philip V.[169] Philip V of Macedon (r. 221–179 BC) faced immediate challenges to his authority by the Illyrian Dardani and Aetolian League.[170] Philip V and his allies were successful against the Aetolians and their allies in the Social War (220–217 BC), yet he made peace with the Aetolians once he heard of incursions by the Dardani in the north and the Carthaginian victory over the Romans at the Battle of Lake Trasimene in 217 BC.[171] Demetrius of Pharos is alleged to have convinced Philip V to first secure Illyria in advance of an invasion of the Italian peninsula.[note 11] In 216 BC, Philip V sent a hundred light warships into the Adriatic Sea to attack Illyria, a move that prompted Scerdilaidas of the Ardiaean Kingdom to appeal to the Romans for aid.[172] Rome responded by sending ten heavy quinqueremes from Roman Sicily to patrol the Illyrian coasts, causing Philip V to reverse course and order his fleet to retreat, averting open conflict for the time being.[173] Conflict with Rome Main article: Macedonian Wars Further information: Cretan War (205–200 BC), Punic Wars, and Macedonian–Carthaginian Treaty The Kingdom of Macedonia (orange) under Philip V (r. 221–179 BC), with Macedonian dependent states (dark yellow), the Seleucid Empire (bright yellow), Roman protectorates (dark green), the Kingdom of Pergamon (light green), independent states (light purple), and possessions of the Ptolemaic Empire (violet purple) In 215 BC, at the height of the Second Punic War with the Carthaginian Empire, Roman authorities intercepted a ship off the Calabrian coast holding a Macedonian envoy and a Carthaginian ambassador in possession of a treaty composed by Hannibal Barca declaring an alliance with Philip V.[174] The treaty stipulated that Carthage had the sole right to negotiate the terms of Rome's hypothetical surrender and promised mutual aid in the event that a resurgent Rome should seek revenge against either Macedonia or Carthage.[175] Although the Macedonians were perhaps only interested in safeguarding their newly conquered territories in Illyria,[176] the Romans were nevertheless able to thwart whatever grand ambitions Philip V had for the Adriatic region during the First Macedonian War (214–205 BC). In 214 BC, Rome positioned a naval fleet at Oricus, which was assaulted along with Apollonia by Macedonian forces.[177] When the Macedonians captured Lissus in 212 BC, the Roman Senate responded by inciting the Aetolian League, Sparta, Elis, Messenia, and Attalus I (r. 241–197 BC) of Pergamon to wage war against Philip V, keeping him occupied and away from Italy.[178] The Aetolian League concluded a peace agreement with Philip V in 206 BC, and the Roman Republic negotiated the Treaty of Phoenice in 205 BC, ending the war and allowing the Macedonians to retain some captured settlements in Illyria.[179] Although the Romans rejected an Aetolian request in 202 BC for Rome to declare war on Macedonia once again, the Roman Senate gave serious consideration to the similar offer made by Pergamon and its ally Rhodes in 201 BC.[180] These states were concerned about Philip V's alliance with Antiochus III the Great of the Seleucid Empire, which invaded the war-weary and financially exhausted Ptolemaic Empire in the Fifth Syrian War (202–195 BC) as Philip V captured Ptolemaic settlements in the Aegean Sea.[181] Although Rome's envoys played a critical role in convincing Athens to join the anti-Macedonian alliance with Pergamon and Rhodes in 200 BC, the comitia centuriata (people's assembly) rejected the Roman Senate's proposal for a declaration of war on Macedonia.[182] Meanwhile, Philip V conquered territories in the Hellespont and Bosporus as well as Ptolemaic Samos, which led Rhodes to form an alliance with Pergamon, Byzantium, Cyzicus, and Chios against Macedonia.[183] Despite Philip V's nominal alliance with the Seleucid king, he lost the naval Battle of Chios in 201 BC and was blockaded at Bargylia by the Rhodian and Pergamene navies.[184] A tetradrachm of Philip V of Macedon (r. 221–179 BC), with the king's portrait on the obverse and Athena Alkidemos brandishing a thunderbolt on the reverse While Philip V was busy fighting Rome's Greek allies, Rome viewed this as an opportunity to punish this former ally of Hannibal with a war that they hoped would supply a victory and require few resources.[note 12] The Roman Senate demanded that Philip V cease hostilities against neighboring Greek powers and defer to an international arbitration committee for settling grievances.[185] When the comitia centuriata finally voted in approval of the Roman Senate's declaration of war in 200 BC and handed their ultimatum to Philip V, demanding that a tribunal assess the damages owed to Rhodes and Pergamon, the Macedonian king rejected it. This marked the beginning of the Second Macedonian War (200–197 BC), with Publius Sulpicius Galba Maximus spearheading military operations in Apollonia.[186] Bronze bust of Eumenes II of Pergamon, a Roman copy of a Hellenistic Greek original, from the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum The Macedonians successfully defended their territory for roughly two years,[187] but the Roman consul Titus Quinctius Flamininus managed to expel Philip V from Macedonia in 198 BC, forcing his men to take refuge in Thessaly.[188] When the Achaean League switched their loyalties from Macedonia to Rome, the Macedonian king sued for peace, but the terms offered were considered too stringent, and so the war continued.[188] In June 197 BC, the Macedonians were defeated at the Battle of Cynoscephalae.[189] Rome then ratified a treaty that forced Macedonia to relinquish control of much of its Greek possessions outside of Macedonia proper, if only to act as a buffer against Illyrian and Thracian incursions into Greece.[190] Although some Greeks suspected Roman intentions of supplanting Macedonia as the new hegemonic power in Greece, Flaminius announced at the Isthmian Games of 196 BC that Rome intended to preserve Greek liberty by leaving behind no garrisons and by not exacting tribute of any kind.[191] His promise was delayed by negotiations with the Spartan king Nabis, who had meanwhile captured Argos, yet Roman forces evacuated Greece in 194 BC.[192] Encouraged by the Aetolian League and their calls to liberate Greece from the Romans, the Seleucid king Antiochus III landed with his army at Demetrias, Thessaly, in 192 BC, and was elected strategos by the Aetolians.[193] Macedonia, the Achaean League, and other Greek city-states maintained their alliance with Rome.[194] The Romans defeated the Seleucids in the 191 BC Battle of Thermopylae as well as the Battle of Magnesia in 190 BC, forcing the Seleucids to pay a war indemnity, dismantle most of its navy, and abandon its claims to any territories north or west of the Taurus Mountains in the 188 BC Treaty of Apamea.[195] With Rome's acceptance, Philip V was able to capture some cities in central Greece in 191–189 BC that had been allied to Antiochus III, while Rhodes and Eumenes II (r. 197–159 BC) of Pergamon gained territories in Asia Minor.[196] Failing to please all sides in various territorial disputes, the Roman Senate decided in 184/183 BC to force Philip V to abandon Aenus and Maronea, since these had been declared free cities in the Treaty of Apamea.[note 13] This assuaged the fear of Eumenes II that Macedonia could pose a threat to his lands in the Hellespont.[197] Perseus of Macedon (r. 179–168 BC) succeeded Philip V and executed his brother Demetrius, who had been favored by the Romans but was charged by Perseus with high treason.[198] Perseus then attempted to form marriage alliances with Prusias II of Bithynia and Seleucus IV Philopator of the Seleucid Empire, along with renewed relations with Rhodes that greatly unsettled Eumenes II.[199] Although Eumenes II attempted to undermine these diplomatic relationships, Perseus fostered an alliance with the Boeotian League, extended his authority into Illyria and Thrace, and in 174 BC, won the role of managing the Temple of Apollo at Delphi as a member of the Amphictyonic Council.[200] Left, a tetradrachm of Perseus of Macedon (r. 179–168 BC), British Museum. Right, The Triumph of Aemilius Paulus (detail) by Carle Vernet, 1789. Eumenes II came to Rome in 172 BC and delivered a speech to the Senate denouncing the alleged crimes and transgressions of Perseus.[201] This convinced the Roman Senate to declare the Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC).[note 14] Although Perseus's forces were victorious against the Romans at the Battle of Callinicus in 171 BC, the Macedonian army was defeated at the Battle of Pydna in June 168 BC.[202] Perseus fled to Samothrace but surrendered shortly afterwards, was brought to Rome for the triumph of Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus, and was placed under house arrest at Alba Fucens, where he died in 166 BC.[203] The Romans abolished the Macedonian monarchy by installing four separate allied republics in its stead, their capitals located at Amphipolis, Thessalonica, Pella, and Pelagonia.[204] The Romans imposed severe laws inhibiting many social and economic interactions between the inhabitants of these republics, including the banning of marriages between them and the (temporary) prohibition on gold and silver mining.[204] A certain Andriscus, claiming Antigonid descent, rebelled against the Romans and was pronounced king of Macedonia, defeating the army of the Roman praetor Publius Juventius Thalna during the Fourth Macedonian War (150–148 BC).[205] Despite this, Andriscus was defeated in 148 BC at the second Battle of Pydna by Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus, whose forces occupied the kingdom.[206] This was followed in 146 BC by the Roman destruction of Carthage and victory over the Achaean League at the Battle of Corinth, ushering in the era of Roman Greece and the gradual establishment of the Roman province of Macedonia.[207] Institutions Main article: Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom) Division of power Further information: Ancient Greek law The Vergina Sun, the 16-ray star covering the royal burial larnax of Philip II of Macedon (r. 359–336 BC), discovered in the tomb of Vergina, formerly ancient Aigai At the head of Macedonia's government was the king (basileus).[note 15] From at least the reign of Philip II, the king was assisted by the royal pages (basilikoi paides), bodyguards (somatophylakes), companions (hetairoi), friends (philoi), an assembly that included members of the military, and (during the Hellenistic period) magistrates.[208] Evidence is lacking regarding the extent to which each of these groups shared authority with the king or if their existence had a basis in a formal constitutional framework.[note 16] Before the reign of Philip II, the only institution supported by textual evidence is the monarchy.[note 17] Kingship and the royal court The earliest known government of ancient Macedonia was that of its monarchy, lasting until 167 BC when it was abolished by the Romans.[209] The Macedonian hereditary monarchy existed since at least the time of Archaic Greece, with Homeric aristocratic roots in Mycenaean Greece.[210] Thucydides wrote that in previous ages, Macedonia was divided into small tribal regions, each having its own petty king, the tribes of Lower Macedonia eventually coalescing under one great king who exercised power as an overlord over the lesser kings of Upper Macedonia.[16] The direct line of father-to-son succession was broken after the assassination of Orestes of Macedon in 396 BC (allegedly by his regent and successor Aeropus II of Macedon), clouding the issue of whether primogeniture was the established custom or if there was a constitutional right for an assembly of the army or of the people to choose another king.[211] It is unclear if the male offspring of Macedonian queens or consorts were always preferred over others given the accession of Archelaus I of Macedon, son of Perdiccas II of Macedon and a slave woman, although Archelaus succeeded the throne after murdering his father's designated heir apparent.[212] Hades abducting Persephone, fresco in the small Macedonian royal tomb at Vergina, Macedonia, Greece, c. 340 BC It is known that Macedonian kings before Philip II upheld the privileges and carried out the responsibilities of hosting foreign diplomats, determining the kingdom's foreign policies, and negotiating alliances with foreign powers.[213] After the Greek victory at Salamis in 480 BC, the Persian commander Mardonius had Alexander I of Macedon sent to Athens as a chief envoy to orchestrate an alliance between the Achaemenid Empire and Athens. The decision to send Alexander was based on his marriage alliance with a noble Persian house and his previous formal relationship with the city-state of Athens.[213] With their ownership of natural resources including gold, silver, timber, and royal land, the early Macedonian kings were also capable of bribing foreign and domestic parties with impressive gifts.[214] Little is known about the judicial system of ancient Macedonia except that the king acted as the chief judge of the kingdom.[215] The Macedonian kings were also supreme commanders of the military.[note 18] Philip II was also highly regarded for his acts of piety in serving as the high priest of the nation. He performed daily ritual sacrifices and led religious festivals.[216] Alexander imitated various aspects of his father's reign, such as granting land and gifts to loyal aristocratic followers,[216] but lost some core support among them for adopting some of the trappings of an Eastern, Persian monarch, a "lord and master" as Carol J. King suggests, instead of a "comrade-in-arms" as was the traditional relationship of Macedonian kings with their companions.[217] Alexander's father, Philip II, was perhaps influenced by Persian traditions when he adopted institutions similar to those found in the Achaemenid realm, such as having a royal secretary, royal archive, royal pages, and a seated throne.[218] Royal pages Left, the god Dionysos riding a cheetah, mosaic floor in the "House of Dionysos" at Pella, Greece, c. 330–300 BC. Right, a framentary votive relief depicting a youth ladling wine from a krater next to a round table with vases, from the agora of Pella, end of 4th century BC, Archaeological Museum of Pella. The royal pages were adolescent boys and young men conscripted from aristocratic households and serving the kings of Macedonia perhaps from the reign of Philip II onward, although more solid evidence dates to the reign of Alexander the Great.[note 19] Royal pages played no direct role in high politics and were conscripted as a means to introduce them to political life.[219] After a period of training and service, pages were expected to become members of the king's companions and personal retinue.[220] During their training, pages were expected to guard the king as he slept, supply him with horses, aid him in mounting his horse, accompany him on royal hunts, and serve him during symposia (i.e. formal drinking parties).[221] Although there is little evidence for royal pages in the Antigonid period, it is known that some of them fled with Perseus of Macedon to Samothrace following his defeat by the Romans in 168 BC.[222] Bodyguards Royal bodyguards served as the closest members to the king at court and on the battlefield.[219] They were split into two categories: the agema of the hypaspistai, a type of ancient special forces usually numbering in the hundreds, and a smaller group of men handpicked by the king either for their individual merits or to honor the noble families to which they belonged.[219] Therefore, the bodyguards, limited in number and forming the king's inner circle, were not always responsible for protecting the king's life on and off the battlefield; their title and office was more a mark of distinction, perhaps used to quell rivalries between aristocratic houses.[219] Companions, friends, councils, and assemblies Left, an atrium with a pebble-mosaic paving, in Pella, Greece. Right, a fragmentary inscription bearing the names of six city archons (politarchs), 2nd century BC, Archaeological Museum of Pella. The companions, including the elite companion cavalry and pezhetairoi infantry, represented a substantially larger group than the king's bodyguards.[note 20] The most trusted or highest ranking companions formed a council that served as an advisory body to the king.[223] A small amount of evidence suggests the existence of an assembly of the army during times of war and a people's assembly during times of peace.[note 21] Members of the council had the right to speak freely, and although there is no direct evidence that they voted on affairs of state, it is clear that the king was at least occasionally pressured to agree to their demands.[224] The assembly was apparently given the right to judge cases of high treason and assign punishments for them, such as when Alexander the Great acted as prosecutor in the trial and conviction of three alleged conspirators in his father's assassination plot (while many others were acquitted).[225] However, there is perhaps insufficient evidence to allow a conclusion that councils and assemblies were regularly upheld or constitutionally grounded, or that their decisions were always heeded by the king.[226] At the death of Alexander the Great, the companions immediately formed a council to assume control of his empire, but it was soon destabilized by open rivalry and conflict between its members.[227] The army also used mutiny as a tool to achieve political ends.[note 22] Magistrates, the commonwealth, local government, and allied states Antigonid Macedonian kings relied on various regional officials to conduct affairs of state.[228] This included high-ranking municipal officials, such as the military strategos and the politarch, i.e. the elected governor (archon) of a large city (polis), as well as the politico-religious office of the epistates.[note 23] No evidence exists about the personal backgrounds of these officials, although they may have been chosen among the same group of aristocratic philoi and hetairoi who filled vacancies for army officers.[215] Left, a silver tetradrachm issued by the city of Amphipolis in 364–363 BC (before its conquest by Philip II of Macedon in 357 BC), showing the head of Apollo on the obverse and racing torch on the reverse. Right, a golden stater depicting Philip II, minted at Amphipolis in 340 BC (or later during Alexander's reign), shortly after its conquest by Philip II and incorporation into the Macedonian commonwealth In ancient Athens, the Athenian democracy was restored on three separate occasions following the initial conquest of the city by Antipater in 322 BC.[229] When it fell repeatedly under Macedonian rule it was governed by a Macedonian-imposed oligarchy composed of the wealthiest members of the city-state.[note 24] Other city-states were handled quite differently and were allowed a greater degree of autonomy.[230] After Philip II conquered Amphipolis in 357 BC, the city was allowed to retain its democracy, including its constitution, popular assembly, city council (boule), and yearly elections for new officials, but a Macedonian garrison was housed within the city walls along with a Macedonian royal commissioner (epistates) to monitor the city's political affairs.[231] Philippi, the city founded by Philip II, was the only other city in the Macedonian commonwealth that had a democratic government with popular assemblies, since the assembly (ecclesia) of Thessaloniki seems to have had only a passive function in practice.[232] Some cities also maintained their own municipal revenues.[230] The Macedonian king and central government administered the revenues generated by temples and priesthoods.[233] Within the Macedonian commonwealth, some evidence from the 3rd century BC indicates that foreign relations were handled by the central government. Although individual Macedonian cities nominally participated in Panhellenic events as independent entities, in reality, the granting of asylia (inviolability, diplomatic immunity, and the right of asylum at sanctuaries) to certain cities was handled directly by the king.[234] Likewise, the city-states within contemporary Greek koina (i.e., federations of city-states, the sympoliteia) obeyed the federal decrees voted on collectively by the members of their league.[note 25] In city-states belonging to a league or commonwealth, the granting of proxenia (i.e. the hosting of foreign ambassadors) was usually a right shared by local and central authorities.[235] Abundant evidence exists for the granting of proxenia as being the sole prerogative of central authorities in the neighboring Epirote League, and some evidence suggests the same arrangement in the Macedonian commonwealth.[236] City-states that were allied with Macedonia issued their own decrees regarding proxenia.[237] Foreign leagues also formed alliances with the Macedonian kings, such as when the Cretan League signed treaties with Demetrius II Aetolicus and Antigonus III Doson ensuring enlistment of Cretan mercenaries into the Macedonian army, and elected Philip V of Macedon as honorary protector (prostates) of the league.[238] Military Main articles: Ancient Macedonian army and Antigonid Macedonian army Further information: Hellenistic armies and Macedonian phalanx Left, a Macedonian infantryman, possibly a hypaspist, equipped with a hoplon shield and wearing a linothorax cuirass and Thracian helmet; bas relief from the Alexander Sarcophagus, 4th century BC. Right, an ancient Macedonian bronze shield excavated from the archaeological site at Bonče in North Macedonia, dated 4th century BC. Early Macedonian army Further information: Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom) The basic structure of the Ancient Macedonian army was the division between the companion cavalry (hetairoi) and the foot companions (pezhetairoi), augmented by various allied troops, foreign levied soldiers, and mercenaries.[239] The foot companions existed perhaps since the reign of Alexander I of Macedon.[240] Macedonian cavalry, wearing muscled cuirasses, became renowned in Greece during and after their involvement in the Peloponnesian War, at times siding with either Athens or Sparta.[241] Macedonian infantry in this period consisted of poorly trained shepherds and farmers, while the cavalry was composed of noblemen.[242] As evidenced by early 4th century BC artwork, there was a pronounced Spartan influence on the Macedonian army before Philip II.[243] Nicholas Viktor Sekunda states that at the beginning of Philip II's reign in 359 BC, the Macedonian army consisted of 10,000 infantry and 600 cavalry,[244] yet Malcolm Errington cautions that these figures cited by ancient authors should be treated with some skepticism.[245] Philip II and Alexander the Great Further information: Military tactics in Ancient Greece and Thessalian cavalry After spending years as a political hostage in Thebes, Philip II sought to imitate the Greek example of martial exercises and the issuing of standard equipment for citizen soldiery, and succeeded in transforming the Macedonian army from a levied force of unprofessional farmers into a well-trained, professional army.[246] Philip II adopted some of the military tactics of his enemies, such as the embolon (flying wedge) cavalry formation of the Scythians.[247] His infantry wielded peltai shields that replaced the earlier hoplon-style shields, were equipped with protective helmets, greaves, and either cuirasses breastplates or kotthybos stomach bands, and armed with sarissa pikes and daggers as secondary weapons.[note 26] The elite hypaspistai infantry, composed of handpicked men from the ranks of the pezhetairoi, were formed during the reign of Philip II and saw continued use during the reign of Alexander the Great.[248] Philip II was also responsible for the establishment of the royal bodyguards (somatophylakes).[249] An ancient fresco of Macedonian soldiers from the tomb of Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki, Greece, 4th century BC For his lighter missile troops, Philip II employed mercenary Cretan archers as well as Thracian, Paeonian, and Illyrian javelin throwers, slingers, and archers.[250] He hired engineers such as Polyidus of Thessaly and Diades of Pella, who were capable of building state of the art siege engines and artillery that fired large bolts.[247] Following the acquisition of the lucrative mines at Krinides (renamed Philippi), the royal treasury could afford to field a permanent, professional standing army.[251] The increase in state revenues under Philip II allowed the Macedonians to build a small navy for the first time, which included triremes.[252] The only Macedonian cavalry units attested under Alexander were the companion cavalry,[249] yet he formed a hipparchia (i.e. unit of a few hundred horsemen) of companion cavalry composed entirely of ethnic Persians while campaigning in Asia.[253] When marching his forces into Asia, Alexander brought 1,800 cavalrymen from Macedonia, 1,800 cavalrymen from Thessaly, 600 cavalrymen from the rest of Greece, and 900 prodromoi cavalry from Thrace.[254] Antipater was able to quickly raise a force of 600 native Macedonian cavalry to fight in the Lamian War when it began in 323 BC.[254] The most elite members of Alexander's hypaspistai were designated as the agema, and a new term for hypaspistai emerged after the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC: the argyraspides (silver shields).[255] The latter continued to serve after the reign of Alexander the Great and may have been of Asian origin.[note 27] Overall, his pike-wielding phalanx infantry numbered some 12,000 men, 3,000 of which were elite hypaspistai and 9,000 of which were pezhetairoi.[note 28] Alexander continued the use of Cretan archers and introduced native Macedonian archers into the army.[256] After the Battle of Gaugamela, archers of West Asian backgrounds became commonplace.[256] Antigonid period military Fresco of an ancient Macedonian soldier (thorakites) wearing chainmail armor and bearing a thureos shield, 3rd century BC, İstanbul Archaeology Museums The Macedonian army continued to evolve under the Antigonid dynasty. It is uncertain how many men were appointed as somatophylakes, which numbered eight men at the end of Alexander the Great's reign, while the hypaspistai seem to have morphed into assistants of the somatophylakes.[note 29] At the Battle of Cynoscephalae in 197 BC, the Macedonians commanded some 16,000 phalanx pikemen.[257] Alexander the Great's royal squadron of companion cavalry contained 800 men, the same number of cavalrymen in the sacred squadron (Latin: sacra ala; Greek: hiera ile) commanded by Philip V of Macedon during the Social War of 219 BC.[258] The regular Macedonian cavalry numbered 3,000 at Callinicus, which was separate from the sacred squadron and royal cavalry.[258] While Macedonian cavalry of the 4th century BC had fought without shields, the use of shields by cavalry was adopted from the Celtic invaders of the 270s BC who settled in Galatia, central Anatolia.[259] Thanks to contemporary inscriptions from Amphipolis and Greia dated 218 and 181 BC, respectively, historians have been able to partially piece together the organization of the Antigonid army under Philip V.[note 30] From at least the time of Antigonus III Doson, the most elite Antigonid-period infantry were the peltasts, lighter and more maneuverable soldiers wielding peltai javelins, swords, and a smaller bronze shield than Macedonian phalanx pikemen, although they sometimes served in that capacity.[note 31] Among the peltasts, roughly 2,000 men were selected to serve in the elite agema vanguard, with other peltasts numbering roughly 3,000.[260] The number of peltasts varied over time, perhaps never more than 5,000 men.[note 32] They fought alongside the phalanx pikemen, divided now into chalkaspides (bronze shield) and leukaspides (white shield) regiments.[261] The Antigonid Macedonian kings continued to expand and equip the navy.[262] Cassander maintained a small fleet at Pydna, Demetrius I of Macedon had one at Pella, and Antigonus II Gonatas, while serving as a general for Demetrius in Greece, used the navy to secure the Macedonian holdings in Demetrias, Chalkis, Piraeus, and Corinth.[263] The navy was considerably expanded during the Chremonidean War (267–261 BC), allowing the Macedonian navy to defeat the Ptolemaic Egyptian navy at the 255 BC Battle of Cos and 245 BC Battle of Andros, and enabling Macedonian influence to spread over the Cyclades.[263] Antigonus III Doson used the Macedonian navy to invade Caria, while Philip V sent 200 ships to fight in the Battle of Chios in 201 BC.[263] The Macedonian navy was reduced to a mere six vessels as agreed in the 197 BC peace treaty that concluded the Second Macedonian War with the Roman Republic, although Perseus of Macedon quickly assembled some lemboi at the outbreak of the Third Macedonian War in 171 BC.[263] Society and culture Main article: Ancient Macedonians Further information: Culture of ancient Greece Left, a Macedonian funerary stele, with an epigram in Greek, mid-4th century BC, Vergina. Right, marble cult statue of Aphrodite Hypolympidia, dated 2nd century BC, from the sanctuary of Isis at Dion, Pieria, Central Macedonia, Greece, now in the Archaeological Museum of Dion. Language and dialects Main article: Ancient Macedonian language Further information: History of Greek and Ancient Greek dialects Following its adoption as the court language of Philip II of Macedon's regime, authors of ancient Macedonia wrote their works in Koine Greek, the lingua franca of late Classical and Hellenistic Greece.[note 33] Rare textual evidence indicates that the native Macedonian language was either a dialect of Greek similar to Thessalian Greek and Northwestern Greek,[note 34] or a language closely related to Greek.[note 35] The vast majority of surviving inscriptions from ancient Macedonia were written in Attic Greek and its successor Koine.[264] Attic (and later Koine) Greek was the preferred language of the Ancient Macedonian army, although it is known that Alexander the Great once shouted an emergency order in Macedonian to his royal guards during the drinking party where he killed Cleitus the Black.[265] Macedonian became extinct in either the Hellenistic or the Roman period, and entirely replaced by Koine Greek.[266][note 36] Religious beliefs and funerary practices Main articles: Ancient Greek religion, Greek mythology, and Hellenistic religion Further information: Ancient Greek temple, Greek hero cult, Greco-Roman mysteries, Oracle of Delphi, Lion of Amphipolis, Lion of Chaeronea, and Pella curse tablet A mosaic of the Kasta Tomb in Amphipolis depicting the abduction of Persephone by Pluto, 4th century BC The Lion of Amphipolis in Amphipolis, northern Greece, a 4th-century BC marble tomb sculpture[267] erected in honor of Laomedon of Mytilene, a general who served under Alexander the Great By the 5th century BC, the Macedonians and the southern Greeks worshiped more or less the same deities of the Greek pantheon.[268] In Macedonia, political and religious offices were often intertwined. For instance, the head of state for the city of Amphipolis also served as the priest of Asklepios, Greek god of medicine; a similar arrangement existed at Cassandreia, where a cult priest honoring the city's founder Cassander was the nominal head of the city.[269] The main sanctuary of Zeus was maintained at Dion, while another at Veria was dedicated to Herakles and was patronized by Demetrius II Aetolicus (r. 239–229 BC).[270] Meanwhile, foreign cults from Egypt were fostered by the royal court, such as the temple of Sarapis at Thessaloniki.[271] The Macedonians also had relations with "international" cults; for example, Macedonian kings Philip III of Macedon and Alexander IV of Macedon made votive offerings to the internationally esteemed Samothrace temple complex of the Cabeiri mystery cult.[271] In the three royal tombs at Vergina, professional painters decorated the walls with a mythological scene of Hades abducting Persephone and royal hunting scenes, while lavish grave goods including weapons, armor, drinking vessels, and personal items were housed with the dead, whose bones were burned before burial in golden coffins.[272] Some grave goods and decorations were common in other Macedonian tombs, yet some items found at Vergina were distinctly tied to royalty, including a diadem, luxurious goods, and arms and armor.[273] Scholars have debated about the identity of the tomb occupants since the discovery of their remains in 1977–1978,[274] and recent research and forensic examination have concluded that at least one of the persons buried was Philip II.[note 37] Located near Tomb 1 are the above-ground ruins of a heroon, a shrine for cult worship of the dead.[275] In 2014, the ancient Macedonian Kasta Tomb was discovered outside of Amphipolis and is the largest ancient tomb found in Greece (as of 2017).[276] Economics and social class Main article: Economy of ancient Greece Further information: Slavery in ancient Greece, Prostitution in ancient Greece, and Pederasty in ancient Greece Young Macedonian men were typically expected to engage in hunting and martial combat as a by-product of their transhumance lifestyle of herding livestock such as goats and sheep, while horse breeding and raising cattle were other common pursuits.[277] Some Macedonians engaged in farming, often with irrigation, land reclamation, and horticulture activities supported by the Macedonian state.[note 38] The Macedonian economy and state finances were mainly supported by logging and by mining valuable minerals such as copper, iron, gold, and silver.[278] The conversion of these raw materials into finished products and the sale of those products encouraged the growth of urban centers and a gradual shift away from the traditional rustic Macedonian lifestyle during the course of the 5th century BC.[279] The Macedonian king was an autocratic figure at the head of both government and society, with arguably unlimited authority to handle affairs of state and public policy, but he was also the leader of a very personal regime with close relationships or connections to his hetairoi, the core of the Macedonian aristocracy.[280] These aristocrats were second only to the king in terms of power and privilege, filling the ranks of his administration and serving as commanding officers in the military.[281] It was in the more bureaucratic regimes of the Hellenistic kingdoms that succeeded Alexander the Great's empire where greater social mobility for members of society seeking to join the aristocracy could be found, especially in Ptolemaic Egypt.[282] Although governed by a king and martial aristocracy, Macedonia seems to have lacked the widespread use of slaves seen in contemporaneous Greek states.[283] Visual arts Main article: Ancient Greek art Further information: Hellenistic art, Music in ancient Greece, Pottery of ancient Greece, and Ancient Greek sculpture Left, a fresco of a Macedonian soldier resting a spear and wearing a cap, from the tomb of Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki, 4th century BC. Right, fresco from the Tomb of Judgement in ancient Mieza (modern-day Lefkadia), Imathia, Central Macedonia, Greece, depicting religious imagery of the afterlife, 4th century BC. By the reign of Archelaus I in the 5th century BC, the ancient Macedonian elite was importing customs and artistic traditions from other regions of Greece while retaining more archaic, perhaps Homeric, funerary rites connected with the symposium that were typified by items such as the decorative metal kraters that held the ashes of deceased Macedonian nobility in their tombs.[284] Among these is the large bronze Derveni Krater from a 4th-century BC tomb of Thessaloniki, decorated with scenes of the Greek god Dionysus and his entourage and belonging to an aristocrat who had had a military career.[285] Macedonian metalwork usually followed Athenian styles of vase shapes from the 6th century BC onward, with drinking vessels, jewellery, containers, crowns, diadems, and coins among the many metal objects found in Macedonian tombs.[286] Alexander (left), wearing a kausia and fighting an Asiatic lion with his friend Craterus (detail); late 4th-century BC mosaic,[287] Pella Museum. Surviving Macedonian painted artwork includes frescoes and murals, but also decoration on sculpted artwork such as statues and reliefs. For instance, trace colors still exist on the bas-reliefs of the late 4th-century BC Alexander Sarcophagus.[288] Macedonian paintings have allowed historians to investigate the clothing fashions as well as military gear worn by the ancient Macedonians.[289] Aside from metalwork and painting, mosaics are another significant form of surviving Macedonian artwork.[286] The Stag Hunt Mosaic of Pella, with its three-dimensional qualities and illusionist style, show clear influence from painted artwork and wider Hellenistic art trends, although the rustic theme of hunting was tailored to Macedonian tastes.[290] The similar Lion Hunt Mosaic of Pella illustrates either a scene of Alexander the Great with his companion Craterus, or simply a conventional illustration of the royal diversion of hunting.[290] Mosaics with mythological themes include scenes of Dionysus riding a panther and Helen of Troy being abducted by Theseus, the latter of which employs illusionist qualities and realistic shading similar to Macedonian paintings.[290] Common themes of Macedonian paintings and mosaics include warfare, hunting, and aggressive masculine sexuality (i.e. abduction of women for rape or marriage); these subjects are at times combined within a single work and perhaps indicate a metaphorical connection.[note 39] Theatre, music and performing arts Further information: Theatre of ancient Greece and Music of ancient Greece Philip II was assassinated in 336 BC at the theatre of Aigai, amid games and spectacles celebrating the marriage of his daughter Cleopatra.[291] Alexander the Great was allegedly a great admirer of both theatre and music.[292] He was especially fond of the plays by Classical Athenian tragedians Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, whose works formed part of a proper Greek education for his new eastern subjects alongside studies in the Greek language, including the epics of Homer.[293] While he and his army were stationed at Tyre (in modern-day Lebanon), Alexander had his generals act as judges not only for athletic contests but also for stage performances of Greek tragedies.[294] The contemporaneous famous actors Thessalus and Athenodorus performed at the event.[note 40] Music was also appreciated in Macedonia. In addition to the agora, the gymnasium, the theatre, and religious sanctuaries and temples dedicated to Greek gods and goddesses, one of the main markers of a true Greek city in the empire of Alexander the Great was the presence of an odeon for musical performances.[295] This was the case not only for Alexandria in Egypt, but also for cities as distant as Ai-Khanoum in what is now modern-day Afghanistan.[295] Literature, education, philosophy, and patronage Further information: Literature in ancient Greece, Education in ancient Greece, Philosophy in ancient Greece, Hellenistic philosophy, Ancient Greek medicine, and Ancient Macedonian calendar Portrait bust of Aristotle, an Imperial Roman (1st or 2nd century AD) copy of a lost bronze sculpture made by Lysippos Perdiccas II of Macedon was able to host well-known Classical Greek intellectual visitors at his royal court, such as the lyric poet Melanippides and the renowned medical doctor Hippocrates, and Pindar's enkomion written for Alexander I of Macedon may have been composed at his court.[296] Archelaus I received many more Greek scholars, artists, and celebrities at his court than his predecessors.[297] His honored guests included the painter Zeuxis, the architect Callimachus, the poets Choerilus of Samos, Timotheus of Miletus, and Agathon, as well as the famous Athenian playwright Euripides.[note 41] The philosopher Aristotle, who studied at the Platonic Academy of Athens and established the Aristotelian school of thought, moved to Macedonia, and is said to have tutored the young Alexander the Great, as well as serving as an esteemed diplomat for Philip II.[298] Among Alexander's retinue of artists, writers, and philosophers was Pyrrho of Elis, founder of Pyrrhonism, the school of philosophical skepticism.[293] During the Antigonid period, Antigonos Gonatas fostered cordial relationships with Menedemos of Eretria, founder of the Eretrian school of philosophy, and Zenon, the founder of Stoicism.[292] In terms of early Greek historiography and later Roman historiography, Felix Jacoby identified thirteen possible ancient historians who wrote about Macedonia in his Fragmente der griechischen Historiker.[299] Aside from accounts in Herodotus and Thucydides, the works compiled by Jacoby are only fragmentary, whereas other works are completely lost, such as the history of an Illyrian war fought by Perdiccas III written by Antipater.[300] The Macedonian historians Marsyas of Pella and Marsyas of Philippi wrote histories of Macedonia, the Ptolemaic king Ptolemy I Soter authored a history about Alexander, and Hieronymus of Cardia wrote a history about Alexander's royal successors.[note 42] Following the Indian campaign of Alexander the Great, the Macedonian military officer Nearchus wrote a work of his voyage from the mouth of the Indus river to the Persian Gulf.[301] The Macedonian historian Craterus published a compilation of decrees made by the popular assembly of the Athenian democracy, ostensibly while attending the school of Aristotle.[301] Philip V of Macedon had manuscripts of the history of Philip II written by Theopompus gathered by his court scholars and disseminated with further copies.[292] Sports and leisure Further information: History of sport § Ancient Greece, Gymnasium (ancient Greece), Ancient Olympic Games, and Music in ancient Greece A fresco showing Hades and Persephone riding in a chariot, from the tomb of Queen Eurydice I of Macedon at Vergina, Greece, 4th century BC When Alexander I of Macedon petitioned to compete in the foot race of the ancient Olympic Games, the event organizers at first denied his request, explaining that only Greeks were allowed to compete. However, Alexander I produced proof of an Argead royal genealogy showing ancient Argive Temenid lineage, a move that ultimately convinced the Olympic Hellanodikai authorities of his Greek descent and ability to compete.[302] By the end of the 5th century BC, the Macedonian king Archelaus I was crowned with the olive wreath at both Olympia and Delphi (in the Pythian Games) for winning chariot racing contests.[303] Philip II allegedly heard of the Olympic victory of his horse (in either an individual horse race or chariot race) on the same day his son Alexander the Great was born, on either 19 or 20 July 356 BC.[304] Non-royal Macedonians also competed in and won various Olympic contests by the 4th century BC.[305] In addition to literary contests, Alexander the Great staged competitions for music and athletics across his empire.[293] Dining and cuisine Further information: Ancient Greek cuisine and Wine in ancient Greece A banquet scene from a Macedonian tomb of Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki, 4th century BC; shown are six men reclining on couches, with food arranged on nearby tables, a male servant in attendance, and female musicians providing entertainment.[306] Ancient Macedonia produced only a few fine foods or beverages that were highly appreciated elsewhere in the Greek world, including eels from the Strymonian Gulf and special wine produced in Chalcidice.[307] The earliest known use of flat bread as a plate for meat was made in Macedonia during the 3rd century BC, which perhaps influenced the later trencher bread of medieval Europe.[307] Cattle and goats were consumed, although there was no notice of Macedonian mountain cheeses in literature until the Middle Ages.[307] The comedic playwright Menander wrote that Macedonian dining habits penetrated Athenian high society; for instance, the introduction of meats into the dessert course of a meal.[308] The Macedonians also most likely introduced mattye to Athenian cuisine, a dish usually made of chicken or other spiced, salted, and sauced meats served during the wine course.[309] This particular dish was derided and connected with licentiousness and drunkenness in a play by the Athenian comic poet Alexis about the declining morals of Athenians in the age of Demetrius I of Macedon.[310] The symposium in the Macedonian and wider Greek realm was a banquet for the nobility and privileged class, an occasion for feasting, drinking, entertainment, and sometimes philosophical discussion.[311] The hetairoi, leading members of the Macedonian aristocracy, were expected to attend such feasts with their king.[281] They were also expected to accompany him on royal hunts for the acquisition of game meat as well as for sport.[281] Ethnic identity Main article: Ancient Macedonians § Identity See also: Macedonia (terminology), Makedon (mythology), Ethnography, and Cultural anthropology Terracotta statues depicting ancient Macedonians wearing the kausia, a headgear that led the Persians to refer to the Macedonians as "Yaunã Takabara" ("Greeks with hats that look like shields").[312] Left, Athenian terracotta figurine, c. 300 BC. Right, Macedonian terracotta figurine, 3rd century BC Ancient authors and modern scholars alike disagree about the ethnic identity of the ancient Macedonians. Ernst Badian notes that nearly all surviving references to antagonisms and differences between Greeks and Macedonians exist in the written speeches of Arrian, who lived at the time of the Roman Empire, when any notion of an ethnic disparity between Macedonians and other Greeks was incomprehensible.[313] Hatzopoulos argues that there was no real ethnic difference between Macedonians and Greeks, only a political distinction contrived after the creation of the League of Corinth in 337 BC (which was led by Macedonia through the league's elected hegemon Philip II, when he was not a member of the league itself),[note 43] N. G. L. Hammond asserts that ancient views differentiating Macedonia's ethnic identity from the rest of the Greek-speaking world should be seen as an expression of conflict between two different political systems: the democratic system of the city-states (e.g. Athens) versus the monarchy (Macedonia).[314] Other academics who concur that the difference between the Macedonians and Greeks was a political rather than a true ethnic discrepancy include Michael B. Sakellariou,[315] Malcolm Errington,[note 44] and Craige B. Champion.[note 45] Anson argues that some Hellenic authors expressed complex or even ever-changing and ambiguous ideas about the exact ethnic identity of the Macedonians, who were considered by some such as Aristotle in his Politics as barbarians and others as semi-Greek or fully Greek.[note 46] Roger D. Woodard asserts that in addition to persisting uncertainty in modern times about the proper classification of the Macedonian language and its relation to Greek, ancient authors also presented conflicting ideas about the Macedonians.[note 47] Simon Hornblower argues on the Greek identity of the Macedonians, taking into consideration their origin, language, cults and customs.[316] Any preconceived ethnic differences between Greeks and Macedonians faded by 148 BC soon after the Roman conquest of Macedonia and then the rest of Greece with the defeat of the Achaean League by the Roman Republic at the Battle of Corinth (146 BC).[317] Technology and engineering Further information: Ancient Greek technology, History of science in classical antiquity, Ancient Greek astronomy, Greek mathematics, and Medicine in ancient Greece Architecture Further information: Architecture of ancient Greece The facade of the Macedonian Tomb of the Palmettes in Mieza, Macedonia, Greece, 3rd century BC; decorated by colored Doric and Ionic moldings, the pediment is also painted with a scene of a man and woman reclining together.[318] Left, fragments of ancient Macedonian painted roof tiles (raking, simas, pan-tiles), Archaeological Museum of Pella, Greece. Right, the Ionic capital of a pilaster from the palace at Pella, Archaeological Museum of Pella. Macedonian architecture, although utilizing a mixture of different forms and styles from the rest of Greece, did not represent a unique or diverging style from other ancient Greek architecture.[290] Among the classical orders, Macedonian architects favored the Ionic order, especially in the peristyle courtyards of private homes.[319] There are several surviving examples, albeit in ruins, of Macedonian palatial architecture, including a palace at the site of the capital Pella, the summer residence of Vergina near the old capital Aigai, and the royal residence at Demetrias near modern Volos.[319] At Vergina, the ruins of three large banquet halls with marble-tiled floors (covered in the debris of roof tiles) with floor plan dimensions measuring roughly 16.7 x 17.6 m (54.8 x 57.7 ft) demonstrate perhaps the earliest examples of monumental triangular roof trusses, if dated before the reign of Antigonus II Gonatas or even the onset of the Hellenistic period.[320] Later Macedonian architecture also featured arches and vaults.[321] The palaces of both Vergina and Demetrias had walls made of sundried bricks, while the latter palace had four corner towers around a central courtyard in the manner of a fortified residence fit for a king or at least a military governor.[319] Macedonian rulers also sponsored works of architecture outside of Macedonia proper. For instance, following his victory at the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC), Philip II raised a round memorial building at Olympia known as the Philippeion, decorated inside with statues depicting him, his parents Amyntas III of Macedon and Eurydice I of Macedon, his wife Olympias, and his son Alexander the Great.[322] Ruins of the ancient theatre in Maroneia, Rhodope, East Macedonia and Thrace, Greece The ruins of roughly twenty Greek theatres survive in the present-day regions of Macedonia and Thrace in Greece: sixteen open-air theatres, three odea, and a possible theatre in Veria undergoing excavation.[323] Military technology and engineering Further information: Greek and Roman artillery, Ancient Greek warfare, Lithobolos, and Siege ladder By the Hellenistic period, it became common for Greek states to finance the development and proliferation of ever more powerful torsion siege engines, naval ships, and standardized designs for arms and armor.[324] Under Philip II and Alexander the Great, improvements were made to siege artillery such as bolt-shooting ballistae and siege engines such as huge rolling siege towers.[325] E. W. Marsden and M. Y. Treister contend that the Macedonian rulers Antigonus I Monophthalmus and his successor Demetrius I of Macedon had the most powerful siege artillery of the Hellenistic world at the end of the 4th century BC.[326] The siege of Salamis, Cyprus, in 306 BC necessitated the building of large siege engines and drafting of craftsmen from parts of West Asia.[327] The siege tower commissioned by Demetrius I for the Macedonian Siege of Rhodes (305–304 BC) and manned by over three thousand soldiers was built at a height of nine stories.[328] It had a base of 4,300 square feet (399 square metres), eight wheels that were steered in either direction by pivots, three sides covered in iron plates to protect them from fire, and mechanically opened windows (shielded with wool-stuffed leather curtains to soften the blow of ballistae rounds) of different sizes to accommodate the firing of missiles ranging from arrows to larger bolts.[328] During the siege of Echinus by Philip V of Macedon in 211 BC, the besiegers built tunnels to protect the soldiers and sappers as they went back and forth from the camp to the siege works. These included two siege towers connected by a makeshift wickerwork curtain wall mounted with stone-shooting ballistae, and sheds to protect the approach of the battering ram.[329] Despite the early reputation of Macedon as a leader in siege technology, Alexandria in Ptolemaic Egypt became the center for technological improvements to the catapult by the 3rd century BC, as evidenced by the writings of Philo of Alexandria.[327] Other innovations Further information: Ancient Macedonian calendar Although perhaps not as prolific as other areas of Greece in regards to technological innovations, there are some inventions that may have originated in Macedonia aside from siege engines and artillery. The rotary-operated olive press for producing olive oil may have been invented in ancient Macedonia or another part of Greece, or even as far east as the Levant or Anatolia.[330] Mold-pressed glass first appeared in Macedonia in the 4th century BC (although it could have simultaneously existed in the Achaemenid Empire); the first known clear, translucent glass pieces of the Greek world have been discovered in Macedonia and Rhodes and date to the second half of the 4th century BC.[331] Greek technical and scientific literature began with Classical Athens in the 5th century BC, while the major production centers for technical innovation and texts during the Hellenistic period were Alexandria, Rhodes, and Pergamon.[332] Currency, finances, and resources Main article: Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom) Further information: Ancient Greek coinage and Economy of ancient Greece Tetradrachms (above) and drachms (below) issued during the reign of Alexander the Great, now in the Numismatic Museum of Athens The minting of silver coinage began during the reign of Alexander I as a means to pay for royal expenditures.[215] Archelaus I increased the silver content of his coins as well as minting copper coins to promote foreign and domestic commerce.[44] The minting of coinage significantly increased during the reigns of Philip II and Alexander the Great, especially after the increase in state revenues following the seizure of the Pangaion Hills.[333] During the Hellenistic period the royal houses of Macedonia, Ptolemaic Egypt, and the Kingdom of Pergamon exercised full monopolistic control over mining activities, largely to ensure the funding of their armies.[334] By the end of the conquests of Alexander the Great, nearly thirty mints stretching from Macedonia to Babylon produced standard coins.[335] The right to mint coins was shared by central and some local governments, i.e. the autonomous municipal governments of Thessaloniki, Pella, and Amphipolis within the Macedonian commonwealth.[336] The Macedonians were also the first to issue different coins for internal and external circulation.[337] State revenues were also raised by collecting produce from arable lands, timber from forests, and taxes on imports and exports at harbors.[338] Some mines, groves, agricultural lands, and forests belonging to the Macedonian state were exploited by the Macedonian king, although these were often leased as assets or given as grants to members of the nobility such as the hetairoi and philoi.[339] Tariffs exacted on goods flowing in and out of Macedonian seaports existed from at least the reign of Amyntas III, and Callistratus of Aphidnae (d. c. 350 BC) aided Perdiccas III in doubling the kingdom's annual profits on customs duties from 20 to 40 talents.[340] After the defeat of Perseus at Pydna in 168 BC, the Roman Senate allowed the reopening of iron and copper mines, but forbade the mining of gold and silver by the four newly established autonomous client states that replaced the monarchy in Macedonia.[341] The law may originally have been conceived by the Senate due to the fear that material wealth gained from gold and silver mining operations would allow the Macedonians to fund an armed rebellion.[342] The Romans were perhaps also concerned with stemming inflation caused by an increased money supply from Macedonian silver mining.[343] The Macedonians continued minting silver coins between 167 and 148 BC (i.e. just before the establishment of the Roman province of Macedonia), and when the Romans lifted the ban on Macedonian silver mining in 158 BC it may simply have reflected the local reality of this illicit practice continuing regardless of the Senate's decree.[344] Legacy Further information: Hellenic studies, Hellenistic religion, Hellenistic Judaism, and Hellenism (neoclassicism) The reigns of Philip II and Alexander the Great witnessed the demise of Classical Greece and the birth of Hellenistic civilization, following the spread of Greek culture to the Near East during and after Alexander's conquests.[345] Macedonians then migrated to Egypt and parts of Asia, but the intensive colonization of foreign lands sapped the available manpower in Macedonia proper, weakening the kingdom in its fight with other Hellenistic powers and contributing to its downfall and conquest by the Romans.[346] However, the diffusion of Greek culture and language cemented by Alexander's conquests in West Asia and North Africa served as a "precondition" for the later Roman expansion into these territories and entire basis for the Byzantine Empire, according to Errington.[347] The Alexander Mosaic, a Roman mosaic from Pompeii, Italy, c. 100 BC The ethnic Macedonian rulers of the Ptolemaic and Seleucid successor states accepted men from all over the Greek world as their hetairoi companions and did not foster a national identity like the Antigonids.[348] Modern scholarship has focused on how these Hellenistic successor kingdoms were influenced more by their Macedonian origins than Eastern or southern Greek traditions.[349] While Spartan society remained mostly insular and Athens continued placing strict limitations on acquiring citizenship, the cosmopolitan Hellenistic cities of Asia and northeastern Africa bore a greater resemblance to Macedonian cities and contained a mixture of subjects including natives, Greek and Macedonian colonists, and Greek-speaking Hellenized Easterners, many of whom were the product of intermarriage between Greeks and native populations.[350] The deification of Macedonian monarchs perhaps began with the death of Philip II, but it was his son Alexander the Great who unambiguously claimed to be a living god.[note 48] Following his visit to the oracle of Didyma in 334 BC that suggested his divinity, Alexander traveled to the Oracle of Zeus Ammon—the Greek equivalent of the Egyptian Amun-Ra—at the Siwa Oasis of the Libyan Desert in 332 BC to confirm his divine status.[note 49] Although the Ptolemaic and Seleucid empires maintained ancestral cults and deified their rulers, kings were not worshiped in the Kingdom of Macedonia.[351] While Zeus Ammon was known to the Greeks prior to Alexander's reign, particularly at the Greek colony of Cyrene, Libya, Alexander was the first Macedonian monarch to patronize Egyptian, Persian, and Babylonian priesthoods and deities, strengthening the fusion of Near Eastern and Greek religious beliefs.[352] After his reign, the cult of Isis gradually spread throughout the Hellenistic and Roman world, while beliefs in the Egyptian god Sarapis were thoroughly Hellenized by the Ptolemaic rulers of Egypt before the spread of his cult to Macedonia and the Aegean region.[353] The German historian Johann Gustav Droysen argued that the conquests of Alexander the Great and creation of the Hellenistic world allowed for the growth and establishment of Christianity in the Roman era.[354] See also Historiography of Alexander the Great List of kings of Macedon Geographic region of Macedonia Macedonia region of Greece Macedonia naming dispute Paeonia Tomb of Alexander the Great Museum of the Royal Tombs of Aigai (Vergina) References Notes ^ Engels 2010, p. 89; Borza 1995, p. 114; Eugene N. Borza writes that the "highlanders" or "Makedones" of the mountainous regions of western Macedonia are derived from northwest Greek stock; they were akin to those who at an earlier time may have migrated south to become the historical "Dorians". ^ Lewis & Boardman 1994, pp. 723–724, see also Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 105–108 for the Macedonian expulsion of original inhabitants such as the Phrygians. ^ Olbrycht 2010, pp. 342–343; Sprawski 2010, pp. 131, 134; Errington 1990, pp. 8–9. Errington is skeptical that at this point Amyntas I of Macedon offered any submission as a vassal at all, at most a token one. He also mentions how the Macedonian king pursued his own course of action, such as inviting the exiled Athenian tyrant Hippias to take refuge at Anthemous in 506 BC. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 158–159; see also Errington 1990, p. 30 for further details; the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus provided a seemingly conflicting account about Illyrian invasions occurring in 393 BC and 383 BC, which may have been representative of a single invasion led by Bardylis of the Dardani. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 169–170, 179. Müller is skeptical about the claims of Plutarch and Athenaeus that Philip II of Macedon married Cleopatra Eurydice of Macedon, a younger woman, purely out of love or due to his own midlife crisis. Cleopatra was the daughter of the general Attalus, who along with his father-in-law Parmenion were given command posts in Asia Minor (modern Turkey) soon after this wedding. Müller also suspects that this marriage was one of political convenience meant to ensure the loyalty of an influential Macedonian noble house. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 171–172; Buckler 1989, pp. 63, 176–181; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 185–187. Cawkwell contrarily provides the date of this siege as 354–353 BC. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 172–173; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 60, 185; Hornblower 2002, p. 272; Buckler 1989, pp. 63–64, 176–181. Conversely, Buckler provides the date of this initial campaign as 354 BC, while affirming that the second Thessalian campaign ending in the Battle of Crocus Field occurred in 353 BC. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 189–190; Müller 2010, p. 183. Without implicating Alexander III of Macedon as a potential suspect in the plot to assassinate Philip II of Macedon, N. G. L. Hammond and F. W. Walbank discuss possible Macedonian as well as foreign suspects, such as Demosthenes and Darius III: Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 8–12. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 199–200; Errington 1990, pp. 44, 93. Gilley and Worthington discuss the ambiguity surrounding the exact title of Antipater aside from deputy hegemon of the League of Corinth, with some sources calling him a regent, others a governor, others a simple general. N. G. L. Hammond and F. W. Walbank state that Alexander the Great left "Macedonia under the command of Antipater, in case there was a rising in Greece." Hammond & Walbank 2001, p. 32. ^ Adams 2010, p. 219; Bringmann 2007, p. 61; Errington 1990, p. 155. Conversely, Errington dates Lysimachus' reunification of Macedonia by expelling Pyrrhus of Epirus as occurring in 284 BC, not 286 BC. ^ Eckstein 2010, pp. 229–230; see also Errington 1990, pp. 186–189 for further details. Errington is skeptical that Philip V at this point had any intentions of invading southern Italy via Illyria once the latter was secured, deeming his plans to be "more modest", Errington 1990, p. 189. ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 86–87. Errington 1990, pp. 202–203: "Roman desire for revenge and private hopes of famous victories were probably the decisive reasons for the outbreak of the war." ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 93–97; Eckstein 2010, p. 239; Errington 1990, pp. 207–208. Bringmann dates this event of handing over Aenus and Maronea along the Thracian coast as 183 BC, while Eckstein dates it as 184 BC. ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 98–99; see also Eckstein 2010, p. 242, who says that "Rome ... as the sole remaining superpower ... would not accept Macedonia as a peer competitor or equal." Klaus Bringmann asserts that negotiations with Macedonia were completely ignored due to Rome's "political calculation" that the Macedonian kingdom had to be destroyed to ensure the elimination of the "supposed source of all the difficulties which Rome was having in the Greek world". ^ Written evidence about Macedonian governmental institutions made before Philip II of Macedon's reign is both rare and non-Macedonian in origin. The main sources of early Macedonian historiography are the works of Herodotus, Thucydides, Diodorus Siculus, and Justin. Contemporary accounts given by those such as Demosthenes were often hostile and unreliable; even Aristotle, who lived in Macedonia, provides us with terse accounts of its governing institutions. Polybius was a contemporary historian who wrote about Macedonia; later historians include Livy, Quintus Curtius Rufus, Plutarch, and Arrian. The works of these historians affirm Macedonia's hereditary monarchy and basic institutions, yet it remains unclear if there was an established constitution for Macedonian government. See: King 2010, pp. 373–374. However, N. G. L. Hammond and F. W. Walbank write with apparent certainty and conviction when describing the Macedonian constitutional government restricting the king and involving a popular assembly of the army. See: Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 12–13. The main textual primary sources for the organization of Macedonia's military as it existed under Alexander the Great include Arrian, Curtis, Diodorus, and Plutarch; modern historians rely mostly on Polybius and Livy for understanding detailed aspects of the Antigonid-period military. On this, Sekunda 2010, pp. 446–447 writes: "... to this we can add the evidence provided by two magnificent archaeological monuments, the 'Alexander Sarcophagus' in particular and the 'Alexander Mosaic'... In the case of the Antigonid army ... valuable additional details are occasionally supplied by Diodorus and Plutarch, and by a series of inscriptions preserving sections of two sets of army regulations issued by Philip V." ^ King 2010, p. 374; for an argument about the absolutism of the Macedonian monarchy, see Errington 1990, pp. 220–222. However, N. G. L. Hammond and F. W. Walbank write with apparent certainty and conviction when describing the Macedonian constitutional government restricting the king and involving a popular assembly of the army. Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 12–13. ^ King 2010, p. 375. In 1931 Friedrich Granier was the first to propose that by the time of Philip II's reign, Macedonia had a constitutional government with laws that delegated rights and customary privileges to certain groups, especially to its citizen soldiers, although the majority of evidence for the army's alleged right to appoint a new king and judge cases of treason stems from the reign of Alexander III of Macedon. See Granier 1931, pp. 4–28, 48–57 and King 2010, pp. 374–375. Pietro de Francisci was the first to refute Granier's ideas and advance the theory that the Macedonian government was an autocracy ruled by the whim of the monarch, although this issue of kingship and governance is still unresolved in academia. See: de Francisci 1948, pp. 345–435 as well as King 2010, p. 375 and Errington 1990, p. 220 for further details. ^ King 2010, p. 379; Errington 1990, p. 221; early evidence for this includes not only Alexander I's role as a commander in the Greco-Persian Wars but also the city-state of Potidaea's acceptance of Perdiccas II of Macedon as their commander-in-chief during their rebellion against the Delian League of Athens in 432 BC. ^ Sawada 2010, pp. 403–405. According to Carol J. King, there was no "certain reference" to this institutional group until the military campaigns of Alexander the Great in Asia.King 2010, pp. 380–381. However, N. G. L. Hammond and F. W. Walbank state that the royal pages are attested to as far back as the reign of Archelaus I of Macedon. Hammond & Walbank 2001, p. 13. ^ King 2010, p. 382. The ranks of the companions were greatly increased during the reign of Philip II when he expanded this institution to include Upper Macedonian aristocrats as well as Greeks. See: Sawada 2010, p. 404. ^ King 2010, p. 384: the first recorded instance dates to 359 BC, when Philip II called together assemblies to address them with a speech and raise their morale following the death of Perdiccas III of Macedon in battle against the Illyrians. ^ For instance, when Perdiccas had Philip II's daughter Cynane murdered to prevent her own daughter Eurydice II of Macedon from marrying Philip III of Macedon, the army revolted and ensured that the marriage took place. See Adams 2010, p. 210 and Errington 1990, pp. 119–120 for details. ^ King 2010, p. 390. Although these were highly influential members of local and regional government, Carol J. King asserts that they were not collectively powerful enough to formally challenge the authority of the Macedonian king or his right to rule. ^ Amemiya 2007, pp. 11–12: under Antipater's oligarchy, the lower value in terms of property for acceptable members of the oligarchy was 2,000 drachma. Athenian democracy was restored briefly after Antipater's death in 319 BC, yet his son Cassander reconquered the city, which came under the regency of Demetrius of Phalerum. Demetrius lowered the property limit for oligarchic members to 1,000 drachma, yet by 307 BC he was exiled from the city and direct democracy was restored. Demetrius I of Macedon reconquered Athens in 295 BC, yet democracy was once again restored in 287 BC with the aid of Ptolemy I of Egypt. Antigonus II Gonatas, son of Demetrius I, reconquered Athens in 260 BC, followed by a succession of Macedonian kings ruling over Athens until the Roman Republic conquered both Macedonia and then mainland Greece by 146 BC. ^ Unlike the sparse Macedonian examples, ample textual evidence of this exists for the Achaean League, Acarnanian League, and Achaean League; see Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 366–367. ^ According to Sekunda, Philip II's infantry were eventually equipped with heavier armor such as cuirasses, since the Third Philippic of Demosthenes in 341 BC described them as hoplites instead of lighter peltasts: Sekunda 2010, pp. 449–450; see also Errington 1990, p. 238 for further details. However, Errington argues that breastplates were not worn by the phalanx pikemen of either Philip II or Philip V's reigns (during which sufficient evidence exists). Instead, he claims that breastplates were worn only by military officers, while pikemen wore the kotthybos stomach bands along with their helmets and greaves, wielding a daggers as secondary weapons along with their shields. See Errington 1990, p. 241. ^ Sekunda 2010, pp. 455–456. Errington 1990, p. 245: in regards to both the argyraspides and chalkaspides, "these titles were probably not functional, perhaps not even official." ^ Sekunda 2010, pp. 455–457. However, in discussing the discrepancies among ancient historians about the size of Alexander the Great's army, N. G. L. Hammond and F. W. Walbank choose Diodorus Siculus' figure of 32,000 infantry as the most reliable, while disagreeing with his figure for cavalry at 4,500, asserting it was closer to 5,100 horsemen. Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 22–23. ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 459; Errington 1990, p. 245: "Other developments in Macedonian army organization are evident after Alexander. One is the evolution of the hypaspistai from an elite unit to a form of military police or bodyguard under Philip V; the only thing the two functions had in common was the particular closeness to the king." ^ Sekunda 2010, pp. 460–461; for the evolution of Macedonian military titles, such as its command by tetrarchai officers assisted by grammateis (i.e. secretaries or clerks), see Errington 1990, pp. 242–243. ^ Sekunda 2010, pp. 461–462; Errington 1990, p. 245: "The other development, which happened at the latest under Doson, was the formation and training of a special unit of peltastai separate from the phalanx. This unit operated as a form of royal guard similar in function to the earlier hypaspistai." ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 463; the largest figure for elite Macedonian peltasts mentioned by ancient historians was 5,000 troops, an amount that existed in the Social War (220–217 BC). ^ Hatzopoulos 2011a, p. 44; Woodard 2010, p. 9; see also Austin 2006, p. 4 for further details. Edward M. Anson contends that the native spoken language of the Macedonians was a dialect of Greek and that in the roughly 6,300 Macedonian-period inscriptions discovered by archaeologists about 99% were written in the Greek language, using the Greek alphabet. Anson 2010, p. 17, n. 57, n. 58. ^ Hatzopoulos 2011a, p. 44; Engels 2010, pp. 94–95; Woodard 2010, pp. 9–10. Hatzopoulos 2011a, pp. 43–45 states that the native language of the ancient Macedonians as preserved in the rare documents written in a language other than Koine Greek also betray a slight phonetic influence from the languages of the original inhabitants of the region who were assimilated or expelled by the invading Macedonians; Hatzopoulos also asserts that little is known about these languages aside from Phrygian spoken by the Bryges who migrated to Anatolia. Errington 1990, pp. 3–4 affirms that the Macedonian language was merely a dialect of Greek that used loanwords from Thracian and Illyrian languages, which "does not surprise modern philologists" but ultimately provided Macedonia's political enemies with the "proof" they needed to level the charge that Macedonians were not Greek. ^ Woodard 2004, pp. 12–14; Hamp, Eric; Adams, Douglas (2013). "The Expansion of the Indo-European Languages Archived 2014-02-22 at the Wayback Machine", Sino-Platonic Papers, vol 239. Accessed 16 January 2017. Joseph 2001: "Ancient Greek is generally taken to be the only representative (though note the existence of different dialects) of the Greek or Hellenic branch of Indo-European. There is some dispute as to whether Ancient Macedonian (the native language of Philip and Alexander), if it has any special affinity to Greek at all, is a dialect within Greek (see below) or a sibling language to all the known Ancient Greek dialects. If the latter view is correct, then Macedonian and Greek would be the two subbranches of a group within Indo-European which could more properly be called Hellenic." Georgiev 1966, pp. 285–297: ancient Macedonian is closely related to Greek, and Macedonian and Greek are descended from a common Greek-Macedonian idiom that was spoken till about the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. ^ For instance, Cleopatra VII Philopator, the last active ruler of the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt, spoke Koine Greek as a first language and by her reign (51–30 BC) or some time before it the Macedonian language was no longer used. See Jones 2006, pp. 33–34. ^ Sansone 2017, p. 224; Hammond & Walbank 2001, p. 6. Rosella Lorenzi (10 October 2014). "Remains of Alexander the Great's Father Confirmed Found: King Philip II's bones are buried in a tomb along with a mysterious woman-warrior Archived 2017-01-18 at the Wayback Machine." Seeker. Retrieved 17 January 2017. ^ Hatzopoulos 2011a, pp. 47–48; for a specific example of land reclamation near Amphipolis during the reign of Alexander the Great, see Hammond & Walbank 2001, p. 31. ^ This metaphorical connection between warfare, hunting, and aggressive masculine sexuality seems to be affirmed by later Byzantine literature, particularly in the Acritic songs about Digenes Akritas. See Cohen 2010, pp. 13–34 for details. ^ The actor Athenodorus performed despite risking a fine for being absent from the simultaneous Dionysia festival of Athens where he was scheduled to perform (a fine that his patron Alexander agreed to pay). SeeWorthington 2014, pp. 185–186 for details. ^ Hatzopoulos 2011b, pp. 59; Sansone 2017, p. 223; Roisman 2010, p. 157. Although Archelaus I of Macedon was criticized by the philosopher Plato, supposedly hated by Socrates, and the first known Macedonian king to be given the label of barbarian, the historian Thucydides held the Macedonian king in glowing admiration, especially for his engagement in Panhellenic sports and fostering of literary culture. See Hatzopoulos 2011b, pp. 59. ^ Errington 1990, pp. 224–225. For Marsyas of Pella, see also Hammond & Walbank 2001, p. 27 for further details. ^ Hatzopoulos 2011b, pp. 69–71. Hatzopoulos stresses the fact that Macedonians and other peoples such as the Epirotes and Cypriots, despite speaking a Greek dialect, worshiping in Greek cults, engaging in Panhellenic games, and upholding traditional Greek institutions, nevertheless occasionally had their territories excluded from contemporary geographic definitions of "Hellas" and were even considered barbarians by some. See: Hatzopoulos 2011b, pp. 52, 71–72; Johannes Engels comes to a similar conclusion about the comparison between Macedonians and Epirotes, saying that the "Greekness" of the Epirotes, despite them not being considered as refined as southern Greeks, never came into question. Engels suggests this perhaps because the Epirotes did not try to dominate the Greek world as Philip II of Macedon had done. See: Engels 2010, pp. 83–84. ^ Errington 1990, pp. 3–4. Errington 1994, p. 4: "Ancient allegations that the Macedonians were non-Greek all had their origin in Athens at the time of the struggle with Philip II. Then as now, political struggle created the prejudice. The orator Aeschines once even found it necessary, to counteract the prejudice vigorously fomented by his opponents, to defend Philip on this issue and describe him at a meeting of the Athenian Popular Assembly as being 'entirely Greek'. Demosthenes' allegations were lent an appearance of credibility by the fact, apparent to every observer, that the life-style of the Macedonians, being determined by specific geographical and historical conditions, was different to that of a Greek city-state. This alien way of life was, however, common to western Greeks of Epirus, Akarnania and Aitolia, as well as to the Macedonians, and their fundamental Greek nationality was never doubted. Only as a consequence of the political disagreement with Macedonia was the issue raised at all." ^ Champion 2004, p. 41: "Demosthenes could drop the barbarian category altogether in advocating an Athenian alliance with the Great King against a power that ranked below any so-called barbarian people, the Macedonians. In the case of Aeschines, Philip II could be 'a barbarian due for the vengeance of God', but after the orator's embassy to Pella in 346, he became a 'thorough Greek', devoted to Athens. It all depended upon one's immediate political orientation with Macedonia, which many Greeks instinctively scorned, was always infused with deep-seated ambivalence." ^ Anson 2010, pp. 14–17; this was manifested in the different mythological genealogies concocted for the Macedonian people, with Hesiod's Catalogue of Women claiming that the Macedonians descended from Macedon, son of Zeus and Thyia, and was therefore a nephew of Hellen, progenitor of the Greeks. See: Anson 2010, p. 16; Rhodes 2010, p. 24. By the end of the 5th century BC, Hellanicus of Lesbos asserted Macedon was the son of Aeolus, the latter a son of Hellen and ancestor of the Aeolians, one of the major tribes of the Greeks. As well as belonging to tribal groups such as the Aeolians, Dorians, Achaeans, and Ionians, Anson also stresses the fact that some Greeks even distinguished their ethnic identities based on the polis (i.e. city-state) they originally came from. See: Anson 2010, p. 15. ^ For instance, Demosthenes when labeling Philip II of Macedon as a barbarian whereas Polybius called Greeks and Macedonians as homophylos (i.e. part of the same race or kin). See: Woodard 2010, pp. 9–10; Johannes Engels also discusses this ambiguity in ancient sources: Engels 2010, pp. 83–89. ^ Worthington 2012, p. 319. As pharaoh of the Egyptians, he was already titled Son of Ra and considered the living incarnation of Horus by his Egyptian subjects (a belief that the Ptolemaic successors of Alexander would foster for their own dynasty in Egypt). See: Worthington 2014, p. 180 and Sansone 2017, p. 228 for details. ^ Worthington 2012, p. 319; Worthington 2014, pp. 180–183. After the priest and Oracle of Zeus Ammon at the Siwa Oasis convinced him that Philip II was merely his mortal father and Zeus his actual father, Alexander began styling himself as the 'Son of Zeus', which brought him into contention with some of his Greek subjects who adamantly believed that living men could not be immortals. See Worthington 2012, p. 319 and Worthington 2014, pp. 182–183 for details. Citations ^ Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 105–106; Roisman 2010, p. 156. ^ Engels 2010, p. 92; Roisman 2010, p. 156. ^ a b c Sprawski 2010, pp. 135–138; Olbrycht 2010, pp. 342–345. ^ Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D. (December 2006). "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires". Journal of World-Systems Research. 12 (2): 223. ISSN 1076-156X. Retrieved 12 September 2016. ^ Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.". Social Science History. 3 (3/4): 121. doi:10.2307/1170959. JSTOR 1170959. ^ Hornblower 2008, pp. 55–58. ^ Austin 2006, pp. 1–4. ^ "Macedonia". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23 October 2015. Archived from the original on 8 December 2008. Retrieved 5 February 2017.. ^ a b Adams 2010, p. 215. ^ a b Beekes 2009, p. 894. ^ Beekes 2009, p. 894 ^ De Decker, Filip (2016). "An Etymological Case Study On The And Vocabulary In Robert Beekes's New Etymological Dictionary Of Greek: M". Studia Linguistica Universitatis Iagellonicae Cracoviensis. 133 (2). doi:10.4467/20834624SL.16.006.5152. ^ King 2010, p. 376; Sprawski 2010, p. 127; Errington 1990, pp. 2–3. ^ King 2010, p. 376; Errington 1990, pp. 3, 251. ^ Badian 1982, p. 34; Sprawski 2010, p. 142. ^ a b King 2010, p. 376. ^ Errington 1990, p. 2. ^ Thomas 2010, pp. 67–68, 74–78. ^ Anson 2010, pp. 5–6. ^ Darius I, DNa inscription, Line 29 ^ Adams 2010, pp. 343–344 ^ Olbrycht 2010, p. 344; Sprawski 2010, pp. 135–137; Errington 1990, pp. 9–10. ^ Olbrycht 2010, pp. 343–344; Sprawski 2010, p. 137; Errington 1990, p. 10. ^ King 2010, p. 376; Olbrycht 2010, pp. 344–345; Sprawski 2010, pp. 138–139. ^ Sprawski 2010, pp. 139–140. ^ Olbrycht 2010, p. 345; Sprawski 2010, pp. 139–141; see also Errington 1990, pp. 11–12 for further details. ^ Sprawski 2010, pp. 141–143; Errington 1990, pp. 9, 11–12. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 145–147. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 146–147; Müller 2010, p. 171; Cawkwell 1978, p. 72; see also Errington 1990, pp. 13–14 for further details. ^ a b c Roisman 2010, pp. 146–147. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 146–147; see also Errington 1990, p. 18 for further details. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 147–148; Errington 1990, pp. 19–20. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 149–150; Errington 1990, p. 20. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 150–152; Errington 1990, pp. 21–22. ^ Roisman 2010, p. 152; Errington 1990, p. 22. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 152–153; Errington 1990, pp. 22–23. ^ Roisman 2010, p. 153; Errington 1990, pp. 22–23. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 153–154; see also Errington 1990, p. 23 for further details. ^ Roisman 2010, p. 154; see also Errington 1990, p. 23 for further details. ^ Roisman 2010, p. 154; Errington 1990, pp. 23–24. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 154–155; Errington 1990, p. 24. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 155–156. ^ Roisman 2010, p. 156; Errington 1990, p. 26. ^ a b Roisman 2010, pp. 156–157. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 156–157; Errington 1990, p. 26. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 157–158; Errington 1990, pp. 28–29. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 158; Errington 1990, pp. 28–29. ^ Roisman 2010, p. 159; see also Errington 1990, p. 30 for further details. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 159–160; Errington 1990, pp. 32–33. ^ Roisman 2010, p. 161; Errington 1990, pp. 34–35. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 161–162; Errington 1990, pp. 35–36. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 162–163; Errington 1990, p. 36. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 162–163. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 163–164; Errington 1990, p. 37. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 166–167; Buckley 1996, pp. 467–472. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 167–168; Buckley 1996, pp. 467–472. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 167–168; Buckley 1996, pp. 467–472; Errington 1990, pp. 38. ^ Müller 2010, p. 167. ^ Müller 2010, p. 168. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 168–169. ^ Müller 2010, p. 169. ^ Müller 2010, p. 170; Buckler 1989, p. 62. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 170–171; Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 187. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 167, 169; Roisman 2010, p. 161. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 169, 173–174; Cawkwell 1978, p. 84; Errington 1990, pp. 38–39. ^ Müller 2010, p. 171; Buckley 1996, pp. 470–472; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 74–75. ^ Müller 2010, p. 172; Hornblower 2002, p. 272; Cawkwell 1978, p. 42; Buckley 1996, pp. 470–472. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 171–172; Buckler 1989, pp. 8, 20–22, 26–29. ^ Müller 2010, p. 173; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 62, 66–68; Buckler 1989, pp. 74–75, 78–80; Worthington 2008, pp. 61–63. ^ Howe, Timothy; Brice, Lee L. (2015). Brill's Companion to Insurgency and Terrorism in the Ancient Mediterranean. BRILL. p. 170. ISBN 9789004284739. ^ a b Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly (2000). Women and Monarchy in Macedonia. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 101. ISBN 9780806132129. ^ Müller 2010, p. 173; Cawkwell 1978, p. 44; Schwahn 1931, col. 1193–1194. ^ Cawkwell 1978, p. 86. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 173–174; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 85–86; Buckley 1996, pp. 474–475. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 173–174; Worthington 2008, pp. 75–78; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 96–98. ^ Müller 2010, p. 174; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 98–101. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 174–175; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 95, 104, 107–108; Hornblower 2002, pp. 275–277; Buckley 1996, pp. 478–479. ^ Müller 2010, p. 175. ^ Errington 1990, p. 227. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 175–176; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 114–117; Hornblower 2002, p. 277; Buckley 1996, p. 482; Errington 1990, p. 44. ^ Mollov & Georgiev 2015, p. 76. ^ Müller 2010, p. 176; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 136–142; Errington 1990, pp. 82–83. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 176–177; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 143–148. ^ Müller 2010, p. 177; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 167–168. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 177–179; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 167–171; see also Hammond & Walbank 2001, p. 16 for further details. ^ Davis Hanson, Victor (2010). Makers of Ancient Strategy: From the Persian Wars to the Fall of Rome. Princeton University Press. p. 119. ISBN 978-0691137902. Afterwards he [Alexander] revived his father's League of Corinth, and with it his plan for a pan-Hellenic invasion of Asia to punish the Persians for the suffering of the Greeks, especially the Athenians, in the Greco-Persian Wars and to liberate the Greek cities of Asia Minor. ^ Olbrycht 2010, pp. 348, 351 ^ Olbrycht 2010, pp. 347–349 ^ Olbrycht 2010, p. 351 ^ a b Müller 2010, pp. 179–180; Cawkwell 1978, p. 170. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 180–181; see also Hammond & Walbank 2001, p. 14 for further details. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 181–182; Errington 1990, p. 44; Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 186; see Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 3–5 for details of the arrests and judicial trials of other suspects in the conspiracy to assassinate Philip II of Macedon. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 190; Müller 2010, p. 183; Renault 2001, pp. 61–62; Fox 1980, p. 72; see also Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 3–5 for further details. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 186. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 190. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 190–191; see also Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 15–16 for further details. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 191; Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 34–38. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 191; Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 40–47. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 191; see also Errington 1990, p. 91 and Hammond & Walbank 2001, p. 47 for further details. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 191–192; see also Errington 1990, pp. 91–92 for further details. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 192–193. ^ a b c Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 193. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 193–194; Holt 2012, pp. 27–41. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 193–194. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 194; Errington 1990, p. 113. ^ a b Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 195. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 194–195. ^ Errington 1990, pp. 105–106. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 198. ^ Holt 1989, pp. 67–68. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 196. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 199; Errington 1990, p. 93. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 200–201; Errington 1990, p. 58. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 201. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 201–203. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 204; see also Errington 1990, p. 44 for further details. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 204; see also Errington 1990, pp. 115–117 for further details. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 204; Adams 2010, p. 209; Errington 1990, pp. 69–70, 119. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 204–205; Adams 2010, pp. 209–210; Errington 1990, pp. 69, 119. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 205; see also Errington 1990, p. 118 for further details. ^ Adams 2010, pp. 208–209; Errington 1990, p. 117. ^ Adams 2010, pp. 210–211; Errington 1990, pp. 119–120. ^ Adams 2010, p. 211; Errington 1990, pp. 120–121. ^ Adams 2010, pp. 211–212; Errington 1990, pp. 121–122. ^ Adams 2010, pp. 207 n. #1, 212; Errington 1990, pp. 122–123. ^ Adams 2010, pp. 212–213; Errington 1990, pp. 124–126. ^ a b Adams 2010, p. 213; Errington 1990, pp. 126–127. ^ Adams 2010, pp. 213–214; Errington 1990, pp. 127–128. ^ Adams 2010, p. 214; Errington 1990, pp. 128–129. ^ Adams 2010, pp. 214–215. ^ Adams 2010, pp. 215–216. ^ Adams 2010, p. 216. ^ Adams 2010, pp. 216–217; Errington 1990, p. 129. ^ Adams 2010, p. 217; Errington 1990, p. 145. ^ Adams 2010, p. 217; Errington 1990, pp. 145–147; Bringmann 2007, p. 61. ^ a b c d Adams 2010, p. 218. ^ a b Bringmann 2007, p. 61. ^ Adams 2010, p. 218; Errington 1990, p. 153. ^ a b Adams 2010, pp. 218–219; Bringmann 2007, p. 61. ^ Adams 2010, p. 219; Bringmann 2007, p. 61; Errington 1990, pp. 156–157. ^ Adams 2010, p. 219; Bringmann 2007, pp. 61–63; Errington 1990, pp. 159–160. ^ Errington 1990, p. 160. ^ Errington 1990, pp. 160–161. ^ Adams 2010, p. 219; Bringmann 2007, p. 63; Errington 1990, pp. 162–163. ^ a b Adams 2010, pp. 219–220; Bringmann 2007, p. 63. ^ Adams 2010, pp. 219–220; Bringmann 2007, p. 63; Errington 1990, p. 164. ^ Adams 2010, p. 220; Errington 1990, pp. 164–165. ^ Adams 2010, p. 220. ^ Adams 2010, p. 220; Bringmann 2007, p. 63; Errington 1990, p. 167. ^ Adams 2010, p. 220; Errington 1990, pp. 165–166. ^ Adams 2010, p. 221; see also Errington 1990, pp. 167–168 about the resurgence of Sparta under Areus I. ^ Adams 2010, p. 221; Errington 1990, p. 168. ^ Adams 2010, p. 221; Errington 1990, pp. 168–169. ^ Adams 2010, p. 221; Errington 1990, pp. 169–171. ^ Adams 2010, p. 221. ^ a b Adams 2010, p. 222. ^ Adams 2010, pp. 221–222; Errington 1990, p. 172. ^ Adams 2010, p. 222; Errington 1990, pp. 172–173. ^ Adams 2010, p. 222; Errington 1990, p. 173. ^ Adams 2010, p. 222; Errington 1990, p. 174. ^ Adams 2010, p. 223; Errington 1990, pp. 173–174. ^ a b Adams 2010, p. 223; Errington 1990, p. 174. ^ Adams 2010, p. 223; Errington 1990, pp. 174–175. ^ Adams 2010, p. 223; Errington 1990, pp. 175–176. ^ Adams 2010, pp. 223–224; Eckstein 2013, p. 314; see also Errington 1990, pp. 179–180 for further details. ^ Adams 2010, pp. 223–224; Eckstein 2013, p. 314; Errington 1990, pp. 180–181. ^ Adams 2010, p. 224; Eckstein 2013, p. 314; Errington 1990, pp. 181–183. ^ Adams 2010, p. 224; see also Errington 1990, p. 182 about the Macedonian military's occupation of Sparta following the Battle of Sellasia. ^ Adams 2010, p. 224; Errington 1990, pp. 183–184. ^ Eckstein 2010, p. 229; Errington 1990, pp. 184–185. ^ Eckstein 2010, p. 229; Errington 1990, pp. 185–186, 189. ^ Eckstein 2010, p. 230; Errington 1990, pp. 189–190. ^ Eckstein 2010, pp. 230–231; Errington 1990, pp. 190–191. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 79; Eckstein 2010, p. 231; Errington 1990, p. 192; also mentioned by Gruen 1986, p. 19. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 80; see also Eckstein 2010, p. 231 and Errington 1990, pp. 191–193 for further details. ^ Errington 1990, pp. 191–193, 210. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 82; Errington 1990, p. 193. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 82; Eckstein 2010, pp. 232–233; Errington 1990, pp. 193–194; Gruen 1986, pp. 17–18, 20. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 83; Eckstein 2010, pp. 233–234; Errington 1990, pp. 195–196; Gruen 1986, p. 21; see also Gruen 1986, pp. 18–19 for details on the Aetolian League's treaty with Philip V of Macedon and Rome's rejection of the second attempt by the Aetolians to seek Roman aid, viewing the Aetolians as having violated the earlier treaty. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 85; see also Errington 1990, pp. 196–197 for further details. ^ Eckstein 2010, pp. 234–235; Errington 1990, pp. 196–198; see also Bringmann 2007, p. 86 for further details. ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 85–86; Eckstein 2010, pp. 235–236; Errington 1990, pp. 199–201; Gruen 1986, p. 22. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 86; see also Eckstein 2010, p. 235 for further details. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 86; Errington 1990, pp. 197–198. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 87. ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 87–88; Errington 1990, pp. 199–200; see also Eckstein 2010, pp. 235–236 for further details. ^ Eckstein 2010, p. 236. ^ a b Bringmann 2007, p. 88. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 88; Eckstein 2010, p. 236; Errington 1990, p. 203. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 88; Eckstein 2010, pp. 236–237; Errington 1990, p. 204. ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 88–89; Eckstein 2010, p. 237. ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 89–90; see also Eckstein 2010, p. 237 and Gruen 1986, pp. 20–21, 24 for further details. ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 90–91; Eckstein 2010, pp. 237–238. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 91; Eckstein 2010, p. 238. ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 91–92; Eckstein 2010, p. 238; see also Gruen 1986, pp. 30, 33 for further details. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 92; Eckstein 2010, p. 238. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 97; see also Errington 1990, pp. 207–208 for further details. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 97; Eckstein 2010, pp. 240–241; see also Errington 1990, pp. 211–213 for a discussion about Perseus's actions during the early part of his reign. ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 97–98; Eckstein 2010, p. 240. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 98; Eckstein 2010, p. 240; Errington 1990, pp. 212–213. ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 98–99; Eckstein 2010, pp. 241–242. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 99; Eckstein 2010, pp. 243–244; Errington 1990, pp. 215–216; Hatzopoulos 1996, p. 43. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 99; Eckstein 2010, p. 245; Errington 1990, pp. 204–205, 216; see also Hatzopoulos 1996, p. 43 for further details. ^ a b Bringmann 2007, pp. 99–100; Eckstein 2010, p. 245; Errington 1990, pp. 216–217; see also Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 43–46 for further details. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 104; Eckstein 2010, pp. 246–247. ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 104–105; Eckstein 2010, p. 247; Errington 1990, pp. 216–217. ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 104–105; Eckstein 2010, pp. 247–248; Errington 1990, pp. 203–205, 216–217. ^ King 2010, p. 374; see also Errington 1990, pp. 220–221 for further details. ^ King 2010, p. 373. ^ King 2010, pp. 375–376. ^ King 2010, pp. 376–377. ^ King 2010, p. 377. ^ a b King 2010, p. 378. ^ King 2010, p. 379. ^ a b c Errington 1990, p. 222. ^ a b King 2010, p. 380. ^ King 2010, p. 380; for further context, see Errington 1990, p. 220. ^ Olbrycht 2010, pp. 345–346. ^ a b c d King 2010, p. 381. ^ Sawada 2010, p. 403. ^ Sawada 2010, pp. 404–405. ^ Sawada 2010, p. 406. ^ King 2010, p. 382; Errington 1990, p. 220. ^ Sawada 2010, pp. 382–383. ^ Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 5, 12. ^ King 2010, pp. 384–389; Errington 1990, p. 220. ^ King 2010, pp. 383–384; Errington 1990, p. 220. ^ King 2010, p. 390. ^ Amemiya 2007, pp. 11–12. ^ a b Errington 1990, p. 231. ^ Errington 1990, pp. 229–230. ^ Errington 1990, p. 230. ^ Errington 1990, pp. 231–232. ^ Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 365–366. ^ Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 366–367. ^ Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 367–369. ^ Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 368–369. ^ Errington 1990, p. 242. ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 447; Errington 1990, pp. 243–244. ^ Sekunda 2010, pp. 447–448. ^ Sekunda 2010, pp. 448–449; see also Errington 1990, pp. 238–239 for further details. ^ Errington 1990, pp. 238–239; 243–244. ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 449. ^ Sekunda 2010, pp. 448–449. ^ Errington 1990, pp. 239–240. ^ Errington 1990, p. 238; 247. ^ a b Sekunda 2010, p. 451. ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 450; Errington 1990, p. 244. ^ a b Sekunda 2010, p. 452. ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 451; Errington 1990, pp. 241–242. ^ Sekunda 2010, pp. 449–451. ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 451; Errington 1990, pp. 247–248; Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 24–26. ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 453. ^ a b Sekunda 2010, p. 454. ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 455; Errington 1990, p. 245. ^ a b Sekunda 2010, pp. 458–459. ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 461. ^ a b Sekunda 2010, p. 460. ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 469 ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 462. ^ Sekunda 2010, pp. 463–464. ^ Errington 1990, pp. 247–248. ^ a b c d Errington 1990, p. 248. ^ Anson 2010, p. 17, n. 57, n. 58; Woodard 2010, pp. 9–10; Hatzopoulos 2011a, pp. 43–45; Engels 2010, pp. 94–95. ^ Engels 2010, p. 95. ^ Engels 2010, p. 94. ^ Sansone 2017, p. 223. ^ Anson 2010, pp. 17–18; see also Christesen & Murray 2010, pp. 428–445 for ways in which Macedonian religious beliefs diverged from mainstream Greek polytheism, although the latter was hardly "monolithic" throughout the Classical Greek and Hellenistic world and Macedonians were "linguistically and culturally Greek" according to Christesen and Murray. Christesen & Murray 2010, pp. 428–429. ^ Errington 1990, pp. 225–226. ^ Errington 1990, p. 226; Christesen & Murray 2010, pp. 430–431 ^ a b Errington 1990, p. 226. ^ Borza 1992, pp. 257–260; Christesen & Murray 2010, pp. 432–433; see also Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 5–7 for further details. ^ Borza 1992, pp. 259–260; see also Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 5–6 for further details. ^ Borza 1992, pp. 257, 260–261. ^ Borza 1992, p. 257. ^ Sansone 2017, pp. 224–225. ^ Hatzopoulos 2011a, pp. 47–48; Errington 1990, p. 7. ^ Hatzopoulos 2011a, p. 48; Errington 1990, pp. 7–8; 222–223. ^ Hatzopoulos 2011a, p. 48. ^ Anson 2010, pp. 9–10. ^ a b c Anson 2010, p. 10. ^ Anson 2010, pp. 10–11. ^ Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 12–13. ^ Hardiman 2010, p. 515. ^ Hardiman 2010, pp. 515–517. ^ a b Hardiman 2010, p. 517. ^ Palagia 2000, pp. 182, 185–186. ^ Head 2016, pp. 12–13; Piening 2013, pp. 1182. ^ Head 2016, p. 13; Aldrete, Bartell & Aldrete 2013, p. 49. ^ a b c d Hardiman 2010, p. 518. ^ Müller 2010, p. 182. ^ a b c Errington 1990, p. 224. ^ a b c Worthington 2014, p. 186. ^ Worthington 2014, p. 185. ^ a b Worthington 2014, pp. 183, 186. ^ Hatzopoulos 2011b, p. 58; Roisman 2010, p. 154; Errington 1990, pp. 223–224. ^ Hatzopoulos 2011b, pp. 58–59; see also Errington 1990, p. 224 for further details. ^ Chroust 2016, p. 137. ^ Rhodes 2010, p. 23. ^ Rhodes 2010, pp. 23–25; see also Errington 1990, p. 224 for further details. ^ a b Errington 1990, p. 225. ^ Badian 1982, p. 34, Anson 2010, p. 16; Sansone 2017, pp. 222–223. ^ Hatzopoulos 2011b, pp. 59. ^ Nawotka 2010, p. 2. ^ Anson 2010, p. 19 ^ Cohen 2010, p. 28. ^ a b c Dalby 1997, p. 157. ^ Dalby 1997, pp. 155–156. ^ Dalby 1997, p. 156. ^ Dalby 1997, pp. 156–157. ^ Anson 2010, p. 10; Cohen 2010, p. 28. ^ Engels 2010, p. 87; Olbrycht 2010, pp. 343–344. ^ Badian 1982, p. 51, n. 72; Johannes Engels comes to a similar conclusion. See: Engels 2010, p. 82. ^ Hammond, N.G.L. (1997). The Genius of Alexander the Great. The University of North Carolina Press. p. 11. ISBN 0807823503. The other part of the Greek-speaking world extended from Pelagonia in the north to Macedonia in the south. It was occupied by several tribal states, which were constantly at war against Illyrians, Paeonians and Thracians. Each state had its own monarchy. Special prestige attached to the Lyncestae whose royal family, the Bacchiadae claimed descent from Heracles, and to the Macedonians, whose royal family had a similar ancestry. [...] In the opinion of the city-states these tribal states were backward and unworthy of the Greek name, although they spoke dialects of the Greek language. According to Aristotle, monarchy was the mark of people too stupid to govern themselves. ^ Sakellariou 1983, pp. 52. ^ Simon Hornblower (2016). "2: Greek Identity in the Archaic and Classical Periods". In Zacharia, Katerina (ed.). Hellenisms: Culture, Identity, and Ethnicity from Antiquity to Modernity. Routledge. p. 58. ISBN 978-0754665250. The question "Were the Macedonians Greeks?" perhaps needs to be chopped up further. The Macedonian kings emerge as Greeks by criterion one, namely shared blood, and personal names indicate that Macedonians generally moved north from Greece. The kings, the elite, and the generality of the Macedonians were Greeks by criteria two and three, that is, religion and language. Macedonian customs (criterion four) were in certain respects unlike those of a normal apart, perhaps, from the institutions which I have characterized as feudal. The crude one-word answer to the question has to be "yes." ^ Hatzopoulos 2011b, p. 74. ^ Bolman 2016, pp. 120–121. ^ a b c Winter 2006, p. 163. ^ Winter 2006, pp. 164–165. ^ Winter 2006, p. 165. ^ Errington 1990, p. 227; see also Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 3, 7–8 for further details. ^ Koumpis 2012, p. 34. ^ Treister 1996, pp. 375–376. ^ Humphrey, Oleson & Sherwood 1998, p. 570. ^ Treister 1996, p. 376, no. 531. ^ a b Treister 1996, p. 376. ^ a b Humphrey, Oleson & Sherwood 1998, pp. 570–571. ^ Humphrey, Oleson & Sherwood 1998, pp. 570–572. ^ Curtis 2008, p. 380. ^ Stern 2008, pp. 530–532. ^ Cuomo 2008, pp. 17–20. ^ Errington 1990, pp. 246. ^ Treister 1996, p. 379. ^ Meadows 2008, p. 773. ^ Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 432–433. ^ Kremydi 2011, pp. 163. ^ Hatzopoulos 1996, p. 433. ^ Hatzopoulos 1996, p. 434. ^ Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 433–434; Roisman 2010, p. 163. ^ Treister 1996, pp. 373–375; see also Errington 1990, p. 223 for further details. ^ Treister 1996, pp. 374–375; see also Errington 1990, p. 223 for further details. ^ Treister 1996, p. 374. ^ Treister 1996, pp. 374–375. ^ Anson 2010, pp. 3–4. ^ Anson 2010, pp. 4–5. ^ Errington 1990, p. 249. ^ Asirvatham 2010, p. 104. ^ Anson 2010, p. 9. ^ Anson 2010, pp. 11–12. ^ Errington 1990, pp. 219–220. ^ Christesen & Murray 2010, pp. 435–436. ^ Christesen & Murray 2010, p. 436. ^ Anson 2010, p. 3. 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Worthington, Ian (2008). Philip II of Macedonia. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-12079-0. Worthington, Ian (2012). Alexander the Great: a Reader (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-66742-5. Worthington, Ian (2014). By the Spear: Philip II, Alexander the Great, and the Rise and Fall of the Macedonian Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-992986-3. Woodard, Roger D. (2004). "Introduction". In Woodard, Roger D. (ed.). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages. Oxford: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–18. ISBN 978-0-521-56256-0. Woodard, Roger D. (2010) [2008]. "Language in Ancient Europe: an Introduction". In Woodard, Roger D. (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–13. ISBN 978-0-521-68495-8. Winter, Frederick E. (2006). Studies in Hellenistic Architecture. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-3914-9. Further reading Autenrieth, Georg (1891). A Homeric Dictionary for Schools and Colleges. New York: Harper and Brothers. Bard, Kathryn A. (1999). Encyclopaedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-66524-2. Borza, Eugene N. (1999). Before Alexander: Constructing Early Macedonia. Claremont, CA: Regina Books. ISBN 0-941690-97-0. Bryant, Joseph M. (1996). Moral Codes and Social Structure in Ancient Greece: A Sociology of Greek Ethics from Homer to the Epicureans and Stoics. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-3042-1. Chamoux, François (2002). Hellenistic Civilization. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-22241-3. Errington, Robert M. (1974). "Macedonian 'Royal Style' and Its Historical Significance". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 94: 20–37. doi:10.2307/630417. JSTOR 630417. Fine, John Van Antwerp (1983). The Ancient Greeks: A Critical History. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-03314-0. Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (2001). Collected Studies: Further Studies on Various Topics. Amsterdam: Hakkert. Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (1993). Studies concerning Epirus and Macedonia before Alexander. Amsterdam: Hakkert. Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (1989). The Macedonian State: Origins, Institutions, and History. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-814883-6. Jones, Archer (2001). The Art of War in the Western World. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-06966-8. Levinson, David (1992). Encyclopedia of World Cultures. 1. Boston, MA: G.K. Hall. ISBN 978-0-8168-8840-5. Starr, Chester G. (1991). A History of the Ancient World. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-506628-6. Toynbee, Arnold Joseph (1981). The Greeks and Their Heritages. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Wilcken, Ulrich (1967). Alexander the Great. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, Inc. ISBN 978-0-393-00381-9. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ancient Macedonia. Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Macedonian Empire. 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en-wikipedia-org-2986	----	Great king - Wikipedia Great king From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Great King) Jump to navigation Jump to search For the 1942 German film, see The Great King. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Great king" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Part of a series of articles on Monarchy Central concepts Monarch Monarchism Imperialism Divine right of kings Mandate of Heaven Realm Types Absolute Chinese Legalist Composite Constitutional Crowned republic Diarchy Dual Elective Emirate Ethnarch Federal Hereditary Personal union Non-sovereign Popular Regency Coregency Tetrarch Triarchy Universal History Birth of the Roman Empire Magna Carta Foundation of the Ottoman Empire Glorious Revolution French Revolution Trienio Liberal First French Empire Liberal Wars Second French Empire Italian unification Meiji Restoration Austro-Hungarian Compromise German unification 5 October 1910 Revolution Proclamation of the Republic in Brazil Chinese Revolution Russian Revolution Siamese revolution of 1932 Birth of the Italian Republic Spanish transition to democracy Iranian Revolution Modern Cambodia Nepalese Civil War Related topics Aristocracy Nobility Autocracy Chamberlain Conservatism Despotism Dynasty List Enlightened absolutism Thomas Hobbes Legitimists Orléanist Oligarchy Peerage Philosopher king Primogeniture Rank Royalism Regicide Regnal number Royal bastard Royal family Style Ultra-royalist Politics portal v t e Part of a series on Imperial, royal, noble, gentry and chivalric ranks in Europe Emperor · Empress · King-Emperor · Queen-Empress · Kaiser · Tsar · Tsarina High king · High queen · Great king · Great queen King · Queen Archduke · Archduchess · Tsesarevich Grand prince · Grand princess Grand duke · Grand duchess Prince-elector · Prince · Princess · Crown prince · Crown princess · Foreign prince · Prince du sang · Infante · Infanta · Dauphin · Dauphine · Królewicz · Królewna · Jarl · Tsarevich · Tsarevna Duke · Duchess · Herzog · Knyaz · Princely count Sovereign prince · Sovereign princess · Fürst · Fürstin · Boyar Marquess · Marquis · Marchioness · Margrave · Marcher Lord  · Landgrave · Count palatine Count · Countess · Earl · Graf · Châtelain · Castellan · Burgrave Viscount · Viscountess · Vidame Baron · Baroness · Freiherr · Advocatus · Lord of Parliament · Thane · Lendmann Baronet · Baronetess · Scottish Feudal Baron · Scottish Feudal Baroness · Ritter · Imperial Knight Eques · Knight · Chevalier · Ridder · Lady · Dame · Sir · Sire · Madam · Edelfrei · Seigneur · Lord · Laird Lord of the manor · Gentleman · Gentry · Esquire · Edler · Jonkheer · Junker · Younger · Maid · Don Ministerialis v t e Great king and the equivalent in many languages is a title for historical titles of monarchs, suggesting an elevated status among the host of kings and princes. This title is most usually associated with the shahanshah (shah of shahs, i.e. king of kings, indeed translated in Greek as basileus tōn basileōn, later adopted by the Byzantine emperors) of Persia under the Achaemenid dynasty whose vast empire in Asia lasted for 200 years up to the year 330 BC, and later adopted by successors of the Achaemenid Empire whose monarchial names were also succeeded by "the great". In comparison, "high king" was used by ancient rulers in Great Britain and Ireland, as well as Greece. In the 2nd millennium BCE Near East, there was a tradition of reciprocally using such addresses between powers, as a way of diplomatically recognizing each other as an equal. Only the kings of countries who were not subject to any other king and powerful enough to draw the respect from their adversaries were allowed to use the title of "great king". Those were the kings of Egypt, Yamhad, Hatti, Babylonia, Mitanni (until its demise in the 14th century), Assyria (only after the demise of Mitanni), and for a brief time Myceneans. Great kings referred to each other as brothers and often established close relationships by means of marriages and frequent gift exchanges.[1] Letters exchanged between these rulers, several of which has been recovered especially in Amarna and Hittite archives, provide details of this diplomacy.[2] The case of maharaja ("great raja", great king and prince, in Sanskrit and Hindi) on the Indian subcontinent, originally reserved for the regional hegemon such as the Gupta, is an example how such a lofty style of this or an alternative model can get caught in a cycle of devalution by "title inflation" as ever more, mostly less powerful, rulers adopt the style. This is often followed by the emergence of one or more new, more exclusive and prestigious styles, as in this case maharajadhiraja (great king of kings"). The Turkic-Mongol title khan also came to be "augmented" to tiles like chagan or hakan, meaning "khan of khans", i.e. equivalent to king of kings. The aforementioned Indian style maharajadhiraja is also an example of an alternative semantic title for similar "higher" royal styles such as king of kings. Alternatively, a more idiomatic style may develop into an equally prestigious tradition of titles, because of the shining example of the original – thus various styles of emperors trace back to the Roman imperator (strictly speaking a republican military honorific), the family surname Caesar (turned into an imperial title since Diocletian's tetrarchy). As the conventional use of king and its equivalents to render various other monarchical styles illustrates, there are many roughly equivalent styles, each of which may spawn a "great X" variant, either unique or becoming a rank in a corresponding tradition; in this context "grand" is equivalent to "great" and sometimes interchangeable if convention does not firmly prescribe one of the two. Examples include grand duke and German Grosswojwod. Examples[edit] This list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items with reliable sources. Antiochus III the Great, Hellenistic Greek king and the sixth ruler of the Seleucid Empire, bore the title Basileus Megas In medieval Serbia, Stefan the First-Crowned, likely Stefan Uroš I, Stefan Dečanski and Stefan Dušan had the title of "great king" (Велики краљ/Veliki kralj)[3] See also[edit] Great Catholic Monarch Katechon King of Kings Shahryar Shahanshah References[edit] ^ Cohen, Raymond; Westbrook, Raymond (eds.) (1999). Amarna Diplomacy. Johns Hopkins. ISBN 0801861993.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) ^ See Trevor, Bryce (1992). Letters of the Great Kings of the Ancient Near East. Routledge. ISBN 041525857X.; for Amarna letters see William L., Moran (1992). The Amarna Letters. Johns Hopkins. ISBN 0801842514. ^ Svetislav Mandić (1986). Velika gospoda sve srpske zemlje i drugi prosopografski prilozi. Srpska književna zadruga. p. 60. Велики краљ v t e Imperial, royal, and noble styles Forms of address for popes, royalty, and nobility Western Holiness Imperial and Royal Majesty (HI&RM) Imperial and Most Faithful Majesty Imperial Majesty (HIM) Apostolic Majesty (HAM) Apostolic King Catholic Monarchs Catholic Majesty (HCM) Most Christian Majesty (HMCM) Most Faithful Majesty (HFM) Orthodox Majesty (HOM) Britannic Majesty (HBM) Most Excellent Majesty Most Gracious Majesty Royal Majesty (HRM) Majesty (HM) Grace (HG) Royal Highness (HRH) Monseigneur (Msgr) Exalted Highness (HEH) Highness (HH) Most Eminent Highness (HMEH) Serene Highness (HSH) Illustrious Highness (HIll.H) Excellency (HE) Most Excellent Most Illustrious Hochgeboren Hochwohlgeboren Wohlgeboren Much Honoured (The Much Hon.) Milord (Millourt) Antiquity Ancient Rome Pater Patriae Augustus Sebastos Dominus Middle Ages Sovereign and mediatised families in the Holy Roman Empire Imperial and Royal Highness (HI&RH) Imperial Highness (HIH) Royal Highness (HRH) Grand Ducal Highness (HGDH) Grand Highness Highness (HH) Ducal Serene Highness (HDSH) Serene Highness (HSH) Serenity (HS) Illustrious Highness (HIll.H) Grace (HG) Excellency (HE) Asian Duli Yang Maha Mulia Great king Khan Great Khan King of Kings Maharaja Mikado Shah Shogun Son of Heaven Islamic Amir al-umara Amir al-Mu'minin Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques Hadrat Sharif Sultanic Highness Countries France Georgia Netherlands Portugal United Kingdom Canada Scotland See also By the Grace of God Divine right of kings Defender of the Faith (Fidei defensor) Defender of the Holy Sepulchre Great Catholic Monarch List of current sovereign monarchs List of current constituent monarchs Sacred king Translatio imperii Victory title Don (honorific) Wikipedia:WikiProject Royalty and Nobility Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Great_king&oldid=982624979" Categories: 2nd-millennium BC introductions Achaemenid Empire Mythological kings Prophecy Royal titles Titles in Iran Titles of national or ethnic leadership Hidden categories: CS1 maint: extra text: authors list Articles needing additional references from January 2013 All articles needing additional references Incomplete lists from March 2016 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Bahasa Indonesia Português Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 9 October 2020, at 09:18 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2989	----	Ya'ammu Nubwoserre - Wikipedia Ya'ammu Nubwoserre From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Drawing of a scarab seal of Nubwoserre. Petrie Museum (UC16597)[1] Pharaoh Reign c.10 years, 1780-1770 BCE (Ryholt)[2] (likely 14th Dynasty[2]) Predecessor uncertain, Yakbim Sekhaenre[2] Successor uncertain, Qareh Khawoserre[2] Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Nubwoserre Nbw-wsr-R՚ Ra is the golden ruler[3] Nomen Ya'ammu[3] Nubwoserre Ya'ammu (also rendered as Ya'amu,[4] Jamu and Jaam[3]) was a ruler during the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt. This Asiatic-blooded ruler is traditionally placed in the Sixteenth Dynasty, an hypothesis still in use nowadays by scholars such as Jürgen von Beckerath;[3] although recently Kim Ryholt proposed him as the second ruler of the 14th Dynasty.[2] Identification[edit] This ruler seems to have made little use of the cartouche – which was a pharaonic prerogative – since it was used only for the throne name, Nubwoserre, though not always.[5] His personal name never appears inside a cartouche, and is simply reported as "the son of Ra, Ya'ammu". Similar to his suggested predecessor Yakbim Sekhaenre, there is no direct evidence that Ya'ammu's throne name was Nubwoserre: the association is based on stylistic features of the seals and was proposed by William Ayres Ward[6] and later elaborated by Ryholt;[7] Daphna Ben-Tor disputed this identification, pointing out that the seals of the many rulers living during this period are too similar to make such correlations on the basis of mere design features.[4] The Turin King List can not help with this issue since the ruler does not appear on it, likely due to a lacuna.[8] Assuming that Ward and Ryholt were right, Nubwoserre Ya'ammu is attested by 26 rather crude scarab seals (more precisely, 19 naming Nubwoserre and 7 naming Ya'ammu);[1][9] based on that, Ryholt estimated for him a reign length of around ten years, in the interval 1780–1770 BCE.[2] However, about the events of his reign absolutely nothing is known. Israeli Egyptologist Raphael Giveon identifies Ya'ammu with his proposed predecessor Yakbim.[3] References[edit] ^ a b King Ya'ammu on Digitalegypt ^ a b c d e f Ryholt (1997), p. 200 ^ a b c d e Nubwoserre Ya'ammu on Eglyphica.de ^ a b Ben-Tor (2010), pp. 99ff ^ Ryholt (1997), p. 45 ^ Ward (1984), pp. 163ff ^ Ryholt (1997), pp. 41–47 ^ Ryholt (1997), p. 98 ^ Ryholt (1997), p. 199 Bibliography[edit] Ben-Tor, D. (2010). "Sequences and chronology of Second Intermediate Period royal-name scarabs, based on excavated series from Egypt and the Levant". In Marcel Marée (ed.). The Second Intermediate Period: Current Research, Future Prospects. Orientalia Lovaniensa Analecta. 192. Leuven, Paris and Walpole, MA: Uitgeverij Peeters and Departement Oosterse Studies. pp. 91–108. Ryholt, K. S. B. (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800–1550 BC. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. ISBN 87-7289-421-0. Ward, W. A. (1984). "Royal-name scarabs". In O. Tufnell (ed.). Scarab Seals and their Contribution to History in the Early Second Millennium B.C. Studies on Scarab Seals. 2. Warminster: Aris & Phillips. pp. 151–192. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ya%27ammu_Nubwoserre&oldid=992481226" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Pharaohs of the Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages አማርኛ Català Deutsch Italiano ქართული Magyar Slovenščina ไทย Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 5 December 2020, at 14:09 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2996	----	Category:Use dmy dates from July 2020 - Wikipedia Help Category:Use dmy dates from July 2020 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Update this page Use dmy dates (refresh) Subtotals December 2010 830 January 2011 5,718 February 2011 1,747 March 2011 1,133 April 2011 1,579 May 2011 2,182 June 2011 1,659 July 2011 1,901 August 2011 1,859 September 2011 2,802 October 2011 1,723 November 2011 941 December 2011 541 January 2012 5,356 February 2012 1,491 March 2012 5,681 April 2012 14,886 May 2012 3,465 June 2012 1,766 July 2012 2,230 August 2012 5,749 September 2012 3,853 October 2012 7,511 November 2012 11,058 December 2012 3,153 January 2013 4,392 February 2013 5,136 March 2013 3,978 April 2013 4,257 May 2013 6,293 June 2013 10,576 July 2013 20,490 August 2013 7,221 September 2013 10,416 October 2013 10,080 November 2013 5,066 December 2013 4,695 January 2014 7,121 February 2014 5,499 March 2014 5,717 April 2014 6,064 May 2014 7,291 June 2014 5,682 July 2014 6,124 August 2014 14,096 September 2014 11,049 October 2014 5,003 November 2014 3,797 December 2014 4,644 January 2015 6,136 February 2015 5,963 March 2015 7,974 April 2015 5,890 May 2015 7,968 June 2015 7,532 July 2015 8,822 August 2015 8,931 September 2015 12,858 October 2015 9,168 November 2015 11,423 December 2015 8,642 January 2016 8,605 February 2016 7,521 March 2016 8,734 April 2016 7,798 May 2016 9,251 June 2016 8,089 July 2016 8,897 August 2016 9,214 September 2016 8,350 October 2016 7,995 November 2016 8,150 December 2016 9,417 January 2017 10,392 February 2017 7,846 March 2017 10,797 April 2017 11,679 May 2017 7,066 June 2017 13,144 July 2017 8,562 August 2017 7,645 September 2017 7,980 October 2017 9,680 November 2017 7,910 December 2017 8,667 January 2018 12,185 February 2018 11,559 March 2018 12,417 April 2018 14,982 May 2018 11,880 June 2018 12,375 July 2018 10,389 August 2018 8,892 September 2018 7,436 October 2018 9,322 November 2018 8,601 December 2018 9,593 January 2019 10,560 February 2019 7,082 March 2019 8,305 April 2019 7,388 May 2019 7,930 June 2019 8,810 July 2019 35,318 August 2019 25,212 September 2019 24,774 October 2019 34,739 November 2019 28,372 December 2019 11,980 January 2020 18,955 February 2020 19,381 March 2020 26,770 April 2020 23,495 May 2020 20,671 June 2020 23,768 July 2020 20,506 August 2020 21,156 September 2020 20,327 October 2020 19,582 November 2020 16,214 December 2020 18,842 January 2021 14,421 Undated articles 0 All articles 1,184,386 This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. 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eisteddfod 1349 (band) 1604 in science 1605 Nankai earthquake 1692 Jamaica earthquake 1696 Jacobite assassination plot 1740 Batavia massacre 1740 papal conclave 1766 English cricket season 1768 English cricket season (previous page) (next page) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_July_2020&oldid=965214858" Hidden categories: Hidden categories Tracking categories Template Large category TOC via CatAutoTOC on category with over 20,000 pages CatAutoTOC generates Large category TOC Use dmy dates Monthly clean-up category counter Monthly clean-up category (Use dmy dates) counter Clean-up categories from July 2020 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file 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en-wikipedia-org-3004	----	Template talk:Pharaohs - Wikipedia Template talk:Pharaohs From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search           This template is of interest to the following WikiProjects: WikiProject Ancient Egypt / Egyptian religion  (Rated Template-class) Ancient Egypt portal v t e This template is within the scope of WikiProject Ancient Egypt, a collaborative effort to improve the coverage of Egyptological subjects on Wikipedia. If you would like to participate, please visit the project page, where you can join the discussion and see a list of open tasks.Ancient EgyptWikipedia:WikiProject Ancient EgyptTemplate:WikiProject Ancient EgyptAncient Egypt articles  Template  This template does not require a rating on the project's quality scale. This template is supported by Egyptian religion work group.   WikiProject Ancient Egypt to-do list: edit history watch purge Needed articles. We should have an article on every pyramid and every nome in Ancient Egypt. I'm sure the rest of us can think of other articles we should have. Cleanup. To start with, most of the general history articles badly need attention. And I'm told that at least some of the dynasty articles need work. Any other candidates? Standardize the Chronology. A boring task, but the benefit of doing it is that you can set the dates !(e.g., why say Khufu lived 2589-2566? As long as you keep the length of his reign correct, or cite a respected source, you can date it 2590-2567 or 2585-2563) Stub sorting Anyone? I consider this probably the most unimportant of tasks on Wikipedia, but if you believe it needs to be done . . . Data sorting. This is a project I'd like to take on some day, & could be applied to more of Wikipedia than just Ancient Egypt. Take one of the standard authorities of history or culture -- Herotodus, the Elder Pliny, the writings of Breasted or Kenneth Kitchen, & see if you can't smoothly merge quotations or information into relevant articles. Probably a good exercise for someone who owns one of those impressive texts, yet can't get access to a research library. WikiProject Egypt (Rated Template-class) Egypt portal v t e This template is within the scope of WikiProject Egypt, a collaborative effort to improve the coverage of Egypt on Wikipedia. If you would like to participate, please visit the project page, where you can join the discussion and see a list of open tasks.EgyptWikipedia:WikiProject EgyptTemplate:WikiProject EgyptEgypt articles  Template  This template does not require a rating on the project's quality scale.   WikiProject Archaeology (Rated Template-class) v t e This template is within the scope of WikiProject Archaeology, a collaborative effort to improve the coverage of Archaeology on Wikipedia. If you would like to participate, please visit the project page, where you can join the discussion and see a list of open tasks.ArchaeologyWikipedia:WikiProject ArchaeologyTemplate:WikiProject ArchaeologyArchaeology articles  Template  This template does not require a rating on the project's quality scale.   WikiProject Politics (Rated Template-class) Politics portal v t e This template is within the scope of WikiProject Politics, a collaborative effort to improve the coverage of politics on Wikipedia. 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This template is supported by WikiProject Royalty and Nobility.   Merge back into Ancient Egyptians template[edit] We should merge the data back. The consorts are over there, the Pharaohs over here. Where would we put non-ruling royal children? It's a nightmare. -- cheers, Michael C. Price talk 21:32, 16 July 2011 (UTC) Add link to Bull in the protodynastic list[edit] He has a wikipedia article, Bull (Pharaoh). 74.90.120.94 (talk) 74.90.120.94 (talk) 18:34, 16 April 2020 (UTC) Nat-Hor an error for Hat-Hor?[edit] There is an English Wikipedia article for Hat Hor; I think the name in the template is incorrect (probably a typo). Looking at the articles for this person in the German and Spanish Wikipedias (which have articles about him), the German WP uses Hat-Hor; the Spanish uses Horus Hat. I think it should be fixed, but wanted to ask first before making a significant change to the template. --FeanorStar7 (talk) 01:33, 10 August 2020 (UTC) current template, under Protodynastic, Lower Egypt: Wazner [;] Nat-Hor [de; es] [;] Mekh suggested change to template: Wazner [;] Hat-Hor [;] Mekh Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Pharaohs&oldid=988067014" Categories: Template-Class Ancient Egypt articles NA-importance Ancient Egypt articles Template-Class Egyptian Religion articles NA-importance Egyptian Religion articles Egyptian Religion work group articles Template-Class Egypt articles NA-importance Egypt articles WikiProject Egypt articles Template-Class Archaeology articles NA-importance Archaeology articles Template-Class politics articles NA-importance politics articles WikiProject Politics articles Template-Class biography articles Template-Class biography (royalty) articles NA-importance biography (royalty) articles Royalty work group articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Template Talk Variants Views Read Edit New section View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages This page was last edited on 10 November 2020, at 21:10 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3023	----	Khasekhemwy - Wikipedia Khasekhemwy From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Final pharaoh of the Second dynasty of Egypt Khasekhemwy Khasekhemui, Cheneres Statue of Khasekhemwy, Ashmolean Museum Pharaoh Reign 18 years ca. 2690 BC (2nd Dynasty) Predecessor Sekhemib-Perenmaat or Seth-Peribsen Successor Djoser Royal titulary Horus name Khasekhem Ḫꜥj-sḫm "Horus, he whose power appears" Second Horus name: Khasekhemwy Ḫꜥj-sḫm.wj Horus, he whose two powers appear Horus-Seth-name Hor-Seth Khasekhemwy Netjerwy Hetepimef (Ḥr -Stẖ) ḫꜥj sḫm.wj ḫtp nṯrwj jm=f "The two powers are at peace within him" Nebty name Khasekhemwy Nebwkhetsen Nb.tj-ḫꜥj-sḫm.wj-nbw-ḫt-sn The two powers appear, their bodies are of gold Abydos King List Djadjay Ḏꜣḏꜣj Saqqara Tablet Beb(e)ty Bbtj Turin King List Beb(e)ty Bbtj [1] Consort Nimaethap Children Djoser Hetephernebti Sekhemkhet ? Sanakht ? Died 2686 BC Burial Tomb V at Umm el-Qa'ab Monuments Shunet ez Zebib, fort of Nekhen,[2] Gisr el-Mudir ? Khasekhemwy (ca. 2690 BC; Ḫꜥj-sḫm.wj, also rendered Kha-sekhemui) was the last Pharaoh of the Second Dynasty of Egypt. Little is known about him, other than that he led several significant military campaigns and built the mudbrick fort known as Shunet El Zebib. His Horus name Ḫꜥj-sḫm.wj can be interpreted "The Two Powerful Ones Appear",[3] but the name is recorded in many variants, such as Ḥr-Ḫꜥj-sḫm "Horus, he whose power appears", ḫꜥj sḫm.wj ḫtp nṯrwj jm=f[vague] "the two powers appear in that the ancestors rest within him" (etc.)[4] Contents 1 Date of reign 2 Biography 3 Family 4 Bibliography 5 References Date of reign[edit] Khasekhemwy ruled for close to 18 years, with a floruit in the early 27th century BC. The exact date of his reign in Egyptian chronology is unclear but would fall roughly in between 2690–2670 BC. According to Toby Wilkinson's study of the Palermo Stone in Royal Annals of Ancient Egypt, this near contemporary 5th dynasty document assigns Khasekhemwy a reign of 17.5 or nearly 18 full years.[5] Wilkinson suggests that a reign of 18 "complete or partial years" can be attributed to Khasekhemwy since the Palermo Stone and its associated fragments record Years 3-6 and Years 12-18 of this king and notes that his final year is recorded in the preserved section of the document.[6] Since the cattle count is shown to be regularly biennial during the second dynasty from the Palermo Stone (the year of the 6th, 7th and 8th count is preserved on the document plus full years after these counts respectively), a figure of c. 18 years is likely correct for Khasekhemwy. (or c. 18 years 2 months and 23 days from the main fragment of the Palermo Stone) Biography[edit] Khasekhemwy is normally placed as the successor of Seth-Peribsen, though some Egyptologists believe that another Pharaoh, Khasekhem, ruled between them. Most scholars, however, believe Khasekhem and Khasekhemwy are, in fact, the same person.[7] Khasekhem may have changed his name to Khasekhemwy after he reunited Upper and Lower Egypt after a civil war between the followers of the gods Horus and Set. Others believe he defeated the reigning king, Seth-Peribsen, after returning to Egypt from putting down a revolt in Nubia. Either way he ended the infighting of the Second dynasty and reunited Egypt. Khasekhemwy is unique in Egyptian history as having both the symbols of Horus and Set on his serekh. Some Egyptologists believe that this was an attempt to unify the two factions; but after his death, Set was dropped from the serekh permanently. He was the earliest Egyptian king known to have built statues of himself. King Khasekhemwy fort King Khasekhemwy "fort" in Abydos. Circa 2700 BCE Khasekhemwy apparently undertook considerable building projects upon the reunification of Egypt. He built in stone at el-Kab, Hierakonpolis, and Abydos. He apparently built a unique, as well as huge, tomb at Abydos, the last such royal tomb built in that necropolis (Tomb V). The trapezoidal tomb measures some 70 meters (230 ft) in length and is 17 meters (56 ft) wide at its northern end, and 10 meters (33 ft) wide at its southern end. This area was divided into 58 rooms. Prior to some recent discoveries from the 1st dynasty, its central burial chamber was considered the oldest masonry structure in the world, being built of quarried limestone. Here, the excavators discovered the king's scepter of gold and sard, as well as several beautifully made small stone pots with gold leaf lid coverings, apparently missed by earlier tomb robbers. In fact, Petrie detailed a number of items removed during the excavations of Amélineau. Other items included flint tools, as well as a variety of copper tools and vessels, stone vessels and pottery vessels filled with grain and fruit. There were also small, glazed objects, carnelian beads, model tools, basketwork and a large quantity of seals. Khasekhemwy built a fort at Nekhen, and at Abydos (now known as Shunet ez Zebib) and was buried there in the necropolis at Umm el-Qa'ab. He may also have built the Gisr el-Mudir at Saqqara. Family[edit] Khasekhemwy's wife was Queen Nimaathap, mother of the King's Children. They were the parents of Djoser and Djoser's wife Hetephernebti.[8] It is also possible that Khasekhemwy's sons were Sekhemkhet and Sanakhte, the two kings succeeding Djoser.[9][10] Limestone vessel with gold cover from Khasekhemwy's tomb Statue of Khasekhemwy, Ashmolean Museum The surviving remains of Khasekhemwy's tomb at Umm el-Qa'ab Statue of Khasekhemwy, Egyptian Museum, Cairo Stone vase bearing Khasekhemwy's titles, National Archaeological Museum (France) Flint knife. Second Dynasty, about 2700 BC. From the tomb of Khasekhemwy, Abydos. Given by the Egypt Exploration Fund, 1901. EA 68775 (British Museum) Khasekhemwy in the Ashmolean Museum Bibliography[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Khasekhemwy. Toby Wilkinson, Royal Annals of Ancient Egypt: The Palermo Stone and Its Associated Fragments, (Kegan Paul International), 2000. Egypt: Khasekhem/Khasekhemwy of Egypt's 2nd dynasty References[edit] ^ Alan H. Gardiner: The royal canon of Turin. ^ Khasekhemwy's fort Archived 2012-09-03 at the Wayback Machine ^ Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames and Hudson Ltd, 2006 paperback, p. 26 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath, Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen (1999). ^ Toby Wilkinson, Royal Annals of Ancient Egypt, (Columbia University Press:2000 - ISBN 0-7103-0667-9), p. 258 ^ Toby Wilkinson, Royal Annals of Ancient Egypt, (Columbia University Press:2000 - ISBN 0-7103-0667-9), pp. 78–79 & 258 ^ King Khasekhem Archived 2006-09-01 at the Wayback Machine ^ Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, (London: Thames & Hudson, 2004) ISBN 0-500-05128-3, p. 48 ^ Silke Roth: Die Königsmütter des Alten Ägypten von der Frühzeit bis zum Ende der 12. Dynastie (= Ägypten und Altes Testament, vol. 46). Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2001, ISBN 3-447-04368-7, p. 59-61 & 65–67. ^ Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, London 2001, ISBN 0415260116, p. 80 - 82, 94 - 97. v t e Second Dynasty of Ancient Egypt Attested pharaohs Hotepsekhemwy Nebra Weneg Nynetjer Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Khasekhemwy Obscure pharaoh names Horus Ba Ba Horus Sa Hudjefa I Neferkara I Neferkasokar Nubnefer Senedj Sneferka Wadjenes Queen consort Nimaathap Other royals Khenmetptah Satkhnum Sehener Shepset-ipet Wadjitefni (Mesen-ka) Pehen-Ptah Nisuheqet Nefer-Setekh Monument Gisr el-Mudir Capital Thinis v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Rulers of the Ancient Near East Territories/ dates [1][2][3][4] Egypt Canaan Ebla Mari Akshak/ Akkad Kish Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period 4000–3200 BCE Naqada culture (4000–3100 BCE) Proto-Cannaanites Sumerian period (4000–2340 BCE) Susa I Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE) Naqada I Naqada II Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests") Legendary ante-deluvian rulers: In Eridu: Alulim, Alalngar, then in Bad-tibira: En-men-lu-ana, En-men-gal-ana, Dumuzid, the Shepherd, then in Larag: En-sipad-zid-ana, then in Zimbir: En-men-dur-ana, then in Shuruppag: Ubara-Tutu "then the flood swept over"[5] Susa II (Uruk influence or control) 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ DenAnedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100-2700 BCE) Great Flood 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) First kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman En-me-barage-si ("made the land of Elam submit")[6] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba Uruk II dynasty Enshakushanna Mug-si Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions (3 kings)[7] Shushuntarana Napilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Urur Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun) Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion of Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[7] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian Empire (Semitic) Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Second Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) (Vassals of UR III) Shakkanakku dynasty (Semitic) Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Neo-Sumerian Period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians) Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (Vassals of Ur III)[8] Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal 2100 BCE Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin Ibbi-Sin 2050 BCE 2000 BCE Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV circa 2000 BCE Amorite invasions Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) 2025-1763 BCE Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ Third Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 1894–1595 BCE Second Intermediate Period Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham (Biblical) Yamhad First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Phoenicia Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Middle Assyrian Empire Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt 626–539 BCE Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116-117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ "The Sumerian king list: translation". etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2008-05-08. ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ a b Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khasekhemwy&oldid=995690769" Categories: 27th-century BC Pharaohs 27th-century BC deaths Pharaohs of the Second Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Egyptian-language text All Wikipedia articles needing clarification Wikipedia articles needing clarification from February 2020 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Català Čeština Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Occitan Polski Português Română Русский සිංහල Slovenčina Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 December 2020, at 10:40 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3034	----	Mausolus - Wikipedia Mausolus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Satrap of Caria Mausolus Mausolus, 377–353 BC. Casting from the Pushkin museum. Satrap of Caria Reign 377–353 BC Predecessor Hecatomnus Successor Artemisia II Consort Artemisia II House Hecatomnids Father Hecatomnus Coinage of Maussolos as Achaemenid dynast of Caria. Head of Apollo facing/ Zeus Labrandos standing, legend MAYΣΣΩΛΛO ("Mausolos"). Circa 376–353 BC.[1] Mausolus (Greek: Μαύσωλος or Μαύσσωλλος[1], Carian: [𐊪𐊠]𐊲𐊸𐊫𐊦 Mauśoλ “much blessed”[2][3]) was a ruler of Caria (377–353 BC), nominally a satrap of the Achaemenid Empire. He enjoyed the status of king or dynast by virtue of the powerful position created by his father Hecatomnus (Carian: 𐊴𐊭𐊪𐊳𐊫 K̂tmño) who had succeeded the assassinated Persian Satrap Tissaphernes in the Carian satrapy and founded the hereditary dynasty of the Hecatomnids. He is best known for the monumental shrine, the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, erected and named for him by order of his widow (who was also his sister) Artemisia. Contents 1 Biography 2 Literature 3 References 4 External links Biography[edit] Mausolos Early 20th century photograph. Modern photograph. Statue of a Hecatomnid ruler from the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, traditionally identified as Mausolus (British Museum). Mausolus was the eldest son of Hecatomnus, a native Carian who became the satrap of Caria when Tissaphernes died, around 395 BC. Mausolus participated in the Revolt of the Satraps, both on his nominal sovereign Artaxerxes Mnemon's side and (briefly) against him. In 366 BC, Mausolus together with Autophradates of Lydia, at the request of Artaxerxes, led the siege of Adramyttium against Ariobarzanes, one of the members of the Great Satraps' Revolt, until Agesilaus, king of Sparta, negotiated the besiegers' retreat.[4] Mausolus conquered a great part of Lycia circa 360 BC, putting an end to the line of dynasts that had ruled there. He also invaded Ionia and several Greek islands; and he cooperated with the Rhodians in the Social War against Athens. He moved his capital from Mylasa, the ancient seat of the Carian kings, to Halicarnassus. Mausolus embraced Hellenic culture. He is best known for the monumental shrine, the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, erected and named for him by order of his widow (who was also his sister) Artemisia. Antipater of Sidon listed the Mausoleum as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The architects Satyrus and Pythis, and the sculptors Scopas of Paros, Leochares, Bryaxis and Timotheus, finished the work after the death of Artemisia, some of them working (it was said) purely for renown. The site and a few remains can still be seen in the Turkish town of Bodrum. Derived from his name, the term mausoleum has come to be used generically for any grand tomb. An inscription discovered at Milas, the ancient Mylasa,[5] details the punishment of certain conspirators who had made an attempt upon his life at a festival in a temple at Labraunda in 353 BC. Literature[edit] Hecatomnid dynasty (Dynasts of Caria) c. 395–377 BCE Hecatomnus c. 377–353 BCE Mausolus c. 353–351 BCE Artemisia II c. 351–344 BCE Idrieus c. 344–340 BCE Ada c. 340–335 BCE Pixodarus c. 334–326 BCE Ada v t e Simon Hornblower: Mausolus, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1982 References[edit] ^ CNG: SATRAPS of CARIA. Maussolos. Circa 377/6–353/2 BC. AR Tetradrachm (23mm, 15.13 g, 12h). Halikarnassos mint. Struck circa 370–360 BC. ^ Lajara, Ignacio-Javier Adiego (2007). The Carian Language. BRILL. p. 330. ISBN 978-90-04-15281-6. ^ Melchert, H. Craig. "Naming Practices in Second- and First-Millennium Western Anatolia" (PDF). ^ Gershevitch 1985, p. 378 ^ CIG. Philipp August Böckh. p. ii 2691 c. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mausolus. Livius, Mausolus by Jona Lendering Caria  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Mausolus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 917. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Authority control BIBSYS: 90194700 BNE: XX4939110 BNF: cb14979323c (data) GND: 118641018 ISNI: 0000 0000 1058 9390 LCCN: n82127335 NTA: 069715629 ULAN: 500372660 VIAF: 232149196510774791913 WorldCat Identities: viaf-72187427 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mausolus&oldid=992818067" Categories: 353 BC deaths Carian people Achaemenid satraps of Caria Hecatomnid dynasty Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 7 December 2020, at 07:08 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3036	----	Psammuthes - Wikipedia Psammuthes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Psammuthes Psammuthis, Pasherienmut Bronze statue of Psammuthes, LACMA. Pharaoh Reign 392/1 BC (29th Dynasty) Predecessor Hakor Successor Hakor (restored) Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Userre setepenptah Wsr-Rˁ-stp-n-Pth Powerful is Ra, chosen by Ptah Nomen Pasherienmut P3-šrj-(n)-Mwt Child of Mut Horus name Aaphety marsepu ˁ3-pḥtj-mˁr-sp.w'' Psammuthes or Psammuthis,[1] was a pharaoh of the Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt during 392/1 BC. Biography[edit] The place of this king in the dynasty is a matter of debate. Although he is mentioned in three different epitomes of Manetho's Aegyptiaca (Africanus, Eusebius and the Armenian version of the latter) and in the Demotic Chronicle, the sequence of kings is different among these sources and it is unclear if Psammuthes succeeded Hakor, or vice versa.[1] According to a hypothesis of the Egyptologist John D. Ray, upon the death of Nepherites I in 393 BC, the throne passed to his son and successor, which is likely to had been Hakor. However, it seems that in his Year 2 a usurper, Psammuthes (a hellenized form of the Egyptian name Pasherienmut[2]), seized power and deposed Hakor, while proclaiming himself pharaoh.[1] Relief bearing part of Psammuthes' royal titulary, Metropolitan Museum of Art. Both Manetho and the Demotic Chronicle give to Psammuthes a reign length of a year, agreeing with the highest date given by archaeological records, a Mother of Apis stele recording his "Year 1, fourth month of Peret". Before the year 2 of Psammuthes, and thus before the "official" year 3 of Hakor, the latter in some way resumed power, and then continued to date his monuments since his first coronation date, simply pretending that the usurper never existed.[1] Nevertheless, some archaeological records mentioning Psammuthes have survived: the Mother of Apis stele from the Serapeum of Saqqara, a block from Akhmim, and some other findings all from the Theban region. Psammuthes is generally credited to have ordered the construction of a chapel in Karnak, which was later usurped and finished by Hakor. It is also possible, however, that the chapel was started by Hakor before his deposition and further restored by him during his second reign.[1] See also[edit] Muthis, a presumed claimant to the throne during his reign Wikimedia Commons has media related to Psammuthis. References[edit] ^ a b c d e Ray, J. D., 1986: "Psammuthis and Hakoris", The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 72: 149-158. ^ Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames and Hudson Ltd. 1994 p.203 Preceded by Hakor Pharaoh of Egypt Twenty-Ninth Dynasty Succeeded by Hakor (restored) v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Psammuthes&oldid=954561647" Categories: 4th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt 5th-century BC births Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Year of death missing Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى 日本語 Русский සිංහල Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 3 May 2020, at 02:52 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-303	----	Mershepsesre Ini II - Wikipedia Mershepsesre Ini II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Mershepsesre Ini II Ana, Ani, Inai, Inj Sitting statue of Mershepsesre, now in Benevento Pharaoh Reign unknown length (13th Dynasty) Predecessor uncertain, Sewadjare Mentuhotep V (new arrangement) or Mer...re (von Beckerath) Successor uncertain, Mersekhemre Neferhotep II (new arrangement) or Merkheperre (von Beckerath) Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Mershepsesre[1] Mr-šps-Rˁ The noble one who loves Ra Nomen Ini Jnj Mershepsesre Ini (also known as Ini II) was a pharaoh of the late 13th Dynasty, possibly the forty-sixth king of this dynasty.[1] He reigned over Upper Egypt during the mid-17th century BC. Attestations[edit] Mershepsesre Ini is attested only by a single inscription, giving his nomen and prenomen carved on the lower half of a statue which originated from the precinct of Amun-Ra in Karnak.[1] In Roman times, the statue was brought to the Temple of Isis at Benevento, Italy, where it was unearthed in 1957; the statue is now housed in the local Museo del Sannio.[2][3] Ini may also be attested on the Turin canon in column 8, row 16, which reads "Mer...re". If this identification is correct, Mershepsesre Ini II was the forty-sixth king of the dynasty. Kim Ryholt proposed instead that the "Mer...re" of the Turin canon refers to Mersekhemre Neferhotep II, whom he regards as a different ruler from Mersekhemre Ined.[4] Nevertheless, Mershepsesre Ini must have reigned toward the end of the dynasty.[1] Chronological position[edit] The exact chronological position of Mershepsesre Ini is uncertain, although he must have reigned at the end of the 13th Dynasty. In his reconstruction of the Second Intermediate Period, Kim Ryholt does not give any position to Mershepsesre Ini due to a lack of evidence. In the new arrangement,[5] Mershepesre Ini's predecessor is Sewadjare Mentuhotep V and his successor is Mersekhemre Neferhotep II. Jürgen von Beckerath instead gives the "Mer...re" of the Turin canon as the predecessor of Mershepsesre Ini and his successor as Merkheperre.[6][7] References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ini Mershepsesre. ^ a b c d Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300 - 1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 139 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath, "Ein neuer König des späten Mittleren Reiches", ZÄS 88 (1962), pp. 4–5 ^ Hans Wolfgang Müller, Il culto di Iside nell'antica Benevento, Benevento, 1971, pp. 64–65 & pl. XXI, 3 ^ K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c. 1800-1550 B.C., Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications 20. Copenhagen, 1997 ^ On Digital Egypt for Universities here ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46, Mainz am Rhein, 1997 Preceded by Mentuhotep V Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Mersekhemre Neferhotep II v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mershepsesre_Ini_II&oldid=954561190" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Français Italiano ქართული Magyar Slovenščina ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 3 May 2020, at 02:49 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3043	----	Meet the Spartans - Wikipedia Meet the Spartans From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Meet the Spartans Theatrical release poster Directed by Jason Friedberg Aaron Seltzer Produced by Jason Friedberg Aaron Seltzer Peter Safran Written by Jason Friedberg Aaron Seltzer Starring Sean Maguire Carmen Electra Ken Davitian Kevin Sorbo Music by Christopher Lennertz Cinematography Daian Deon Edited by Peck Prior Production company Regency Enterprises New Regency 3 in the Box Distributed by 20th Century Fox Release date January 25, 2008 (2008-01-25) Running time 83 minutes[1] Country United States Language English Budget $30 million[2] Box office $84.6 million[3] Meet the Spartans is a 2008 American parody film written and directed by Jason Friedberg and Aaron Seltzer.[4] The film is mainly a parody of the 2007 film 300, although it also references many other films, TV shows, people and pop cultural events of the time, in a manner similar to previous films that Friedberg and Seltzer had been involved in such as Scary Movie, Date Movie and Epic Movie. The film stars Sean Maguire, Carmen Electra and Kevin Sorbo. Meet the Spartans opened at No. 1 in the United States. Despite receiving extremely negative reviews, it was a box-office success, grossing $84 million on a budget of $30 million.[3] Contents 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Parodies 3.1 Films and TV shows 3.2 Real-life people 4 Release 4.1 Box office 4.2 Critical response 4.3 Accolades 5 Home media 6 References 7 External links Plot[edit] A Spartan elder inspects three babies. The first, an ugly, talking baby ogre (Shrek the Third), is abandoned to die for its deformity; while the second, who is Vietnamese, is adopted by Brad Pitt and Angelina Jolie. The third, Leonidas, is accepted as a Spartan for his already-present muscular physique and prepared for kinghood through brutal training. An adult Leonidas (Sean Maguire) is cast out into the wild, survives the harsh winter, and hunts down a gangsta penguin (Happy Feet). Returning a king for his inauguration wearing a penguin skin hat, Leonidas sees Margo (Carmen Electra) erotically dancing and asks her to marry him, to which she responds by giving him the combination to her armor-plated chastity belt. Years later, Leonidas is training his son when Captain (Kevin Sorbo) informs him that a Persian messenger has arrived. Accompanied by the Spartan politician Traitoro, the messenger presents Xerxes' demands for Sparta's submission. After growing angry with both the messenger's disrespect and finding him making out with his wife, Leonidas kicks him into a pit. Despite Traitoro's advice that the messenger's guards are now needed to convey the actual message, Leonidas kicks them in as well, along with several other people he simply dislikes, such as Britney Spears (Nicole Parker), Ryan Seacrest, and the American Idol judges. Resolving to face the Persians, Leonidas visits the prophets and gives them medicines such as Neutrogena as their price for their consultation. They advise him that he should consult the Oracle for any advice. The Oracle, Ugly Betty (Crista Flanagan), reveals that Leonidas will die should he go to war. After reaching a decision while spending the night with his wife, Leonidas meets the soldiers assembled for his departure to Thermopylae, and finds that only thirteen were accepted in the army due to stringent requirements. Among them are Captain, his son Sonio, and a slightly unfit Spartan named Dilio. Once at the Hot Gates, they encounter a deformed Paris Hilton (Parker), who tells Leonidas and the Captain about a secret goat path above the Hot Gates that Xerxes could use to outflank the Spartans. When she asks to be made a Spartan soldier, Leonidas rejects her as unqualified due to her inability to use a spear correctly. Leonidas and his platoon soon face off with Xerxes' messenger and his Immortals, beating them in a dance contest before driving them off a cliff. Xerxes (Ken Davitian), impressed, personally approaches Leonidas and attempts to bribe him with a trip to the Palms Hotel and Casino. Leonidas declines, and the Spartans face the Persian army in a "Yo Momma" fight, which the Spartans win, but Dilio has his eyes scratched out and wanders away. Hilton decides to betray the Spartans and reveals the location of the goat path to Xerxes in return for various gifts and for having her deformed hump removed. Xerxes meets the twelve remaining Spartans and the war begins. Meanwhile, back in Sparta, Queen Margo has several confrontations with Traitoro, as he is the vital vote in sending more troops to assist her husband. Following her address to the Council, Traitoro publicly betrays the Queen. The Queen then battles Traitoro in a parody of Spider-Man 3 and defeats him using a dust buster. With Traitoro's deceit exposed, the council is united with the queen. At the Battle of Thermopylae, the Persians introduce their secret weapons, Ghost Rider and Rocky Balboa, who kills Sonio with a decapitating uppercut. Captain avenges him with Botox poisoning before being struck down by Xerxes. Leonidas pursues Xerxes and plays Grand Theft Auto:San Andreas. Managing to find the "Transformer Cube", Xerxes uses it in a car to become Xerxestron and shows off his powers to access the "Leave Britney Alone!" video on YouTube. However, Xerxestron accidentally trips on his extension cord and falls on Leonidas and the surviving Spartans, killing them. The blind Dilio eventually returns to Sparta to tell of Leonidas' final moments. A year later, Dilio leads a larger Spartan force to defeat the Persians, but the blind warrior ends up going the wrong way. They end up in Malibu, where they knock Lindsay Lohan down as she is leaving rehab again. Cast[edit] Sean Maguire as King Leonidas Zachary Dylan Smith as young Leonidas Kevin Sorbo as Captain Carmen Electra as Queen Margo Ken Davitian as King Xerxes Diedrich Bader as Councilman Traitoro Travis Van Winkle as Sonio Jareb Dauplaise as Dilio Nicole Parker as Paris Hilton, Britney Spears, Ellen DeGeneres, Paula Abdul Ike Barinholtz as Le Chiffre, Prophet, Dane Cook Hunter Clary as Leo Jr. Phil Morris as Messenger Method Man as Persian Emissary Ryan Fraley as Brad Pitt Tiffany Claus as Angelina Jolie Nick Steele as Kevin Federline Tony Yalda as Sanjaya Malakar Christopher Lett as Randy Jackson Jim Piddock as Loyalist, Simon Cowell Nate Haden as Ryan Seacrest Crista Flanagan as Oracle/Ugly Betty, Spartan Woman Robin Atkin Downes (uncredited) as Narrator Thomas McKenna as Tom Cruise Jesse Lewis IV as Ms. Jay Alexander Jenny Costa as Tyra Banks Belinda Waymouth as Twiggy Dean Cochran as Rocky Balboa, Rambo Emily Wilson as Lindsay Lohan John Di Domenico as Donald Trump Jim Nieb as George W. Bush Tiffany Haddish as Urban Girl Parodies[edit] Films and TV shows[edit] 300 (2006) (Main Parody)[5] Shrek the Third (2007) Casino Royale (2006) Happy Feet (2006)[5] American Idol (2002–present)[6] Ghost Rider (2007)[5] Stomp the Yard (2007) Spider-Man 3 (2007) Rocky Balboa (2006) Transformers (2007) Deal or No Deal[5] Real-life people[edit] Angelina Jolie Brad Pitt Paris Hilton Britney Spears[7] Kevin Federline Ellen DeGeneres Lindsay Lohan[7] Donald Trump George W. Bush Tom Cruise Release[edit] Box office[edit] Meet the Spartans opened at number one at the US box office, grossing $18,505,530 over its opening weekend,[8] narrowly edging out fellow newcomer Rambo, which was briefly parodied in the credits of this film. The film dropped 60.4% in its second weekend grossing $7,336,595 expanding to 2643 theaters while ranking fourth at the box office. The film grossed $38,233,676 in United States and Canada and grossed $45,787,889 internationally, adding up to a total worldwide gross of $84,021,565.[3] Critical response[edit] The film received overwhelmingly negative reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes it has an approval rating of 2% based reviews from 49 critics, with an average rating of 1.86/10. The critical consensus reads: "A tired, unfunny, offensive waste of time, Meet the Spartans scrapes the bottom of the cinematic barrel."[9] On Metacritic it has a weighted average score of 9 out of 100, based on 11 reviews, indicating "overwhelming dislike" and being the worst received film by the directors on the site.[10] Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade C- on a scale from A+ to F.[11] Variety called it "Lazy, lame and painfully unfunny, Meet the Spartans is yet another scrambled-genre parody."[5] Frank Scheck of The Hollywood Reporter wrote: "Writer-directors Jason Friedberg and Aaron Seltzer basically reprise the tired formula from their earlier efforts, which is to throw in as many pop culture references as possible to cover up the lack of any real wit."[12] Jeannette Catsoulis of The New York Times gave it 1 out of 5 and wrote: "Jason Friedberg and Aaron Seltzer, the team behind Meet the Spartans, prove that ridiculing other movies is much easier than making your own." Catsoulis said the various audience reactions at the screening she attended summed it up best: Eewwww! Aaarghh! Huh?[13][14] Critic Garth Franklin of Dark Horizons called it "One of the most painfully bad comedies I've ever had to endure, and I've seen the collected works of Martin Lawrence, Tim Allen, Ice Cube AND Cedric the Entertainer."[15] The only positive review on Rotten Tomatoes came from Kam Williams of NewsBlaze who gave the film 2 out of 4 and wrote: "Don't expect anything of depth and you won't be disappointed by this predigested pabulum."[16] Clark Collis of Entertainment Weekly gave it a mixed review, crediting the actors for their efforts but criticizing the script and the already dated jokes, giving it a grade C-.[7] Most of the film's criticism consisted of not having many actual jokes and instead having an over-reliance on pop culture references.[12] Several recurring gags were criticized for being overused, such as the ambiguous sexuality of the Spartans[5] and throwing various celebrities down the Pit of Death. The film's score by Christopher Lennertz was commended by Christian Clemmensen from Filmtracks.com, who considered it one of the biggest "guilty pleasures" of 2008.[17] Accolades[edit] On January 21, 2009, the film received five nominations for the 29th Golden Raspberry Awards:[18] Worst Picture (jointly with Disaster Movie), Worst Supporting Actress (Electra), Worst Director, Worst Screenplay, and Worst Prequel, Remake, Rip-Off, or Sequel. Home media[edit] The film was released on Blu-ray Disc and DVD on June 3, 2008, in an "Unrated Pit of Death" Edition and a PG-13/theatrical release of the film. The theatrical cut does not include extras but includes widescreen and full screen versions on one dual disc. A "ruder & cruder" version was later released in the UK on August 18. References[edit] ^ "MEET THE SPARTANS (12A)". British Board of Film Classification. January 11, 2008. Retrieved March 15, 2015. ^ "Meet the Spartans (2008) - Financial Information". The Numbers (website). Retrieved October 10, 2020. ^ a b c Meet the Spartans at Box Office Mojo ^ Meet the Spartans at IMDb ^ a b c d e f Leydon, Joe (January 25, 2008). "Meet the Spartans". Variety. ^ Levin, Josh (January 30, 2008). "Meet the Spartans: another terrible spoof movie from the nongeniuses who brought you Date Movie and Epic Movie". Slate Magazine. Retrieved September 16, 2020. ^ a b c Clark Collis (February 6, 2008). "Meet the Spartans". Entertainment Weekly. ^ "US Movie Box Office Chart Weekend of January 25, 2008". The Numbers. Retrieved January 31, 2008. ^ "Meet the Spartans (2008)". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved October 10, 2020. ^ "Meet the Spartans (2008): Reviews". Metacritic. Retrieved April 1, 2020. ^ Joshua Rich (January 29, 2008). "Spartans stops Rambo". Entertainment Weekly. the movie’s CinemaScore was a terrible C- (coming from a crowd that was, not surprisingly 58 percent male and three-quarters under the age of 25) ^ a b Scheck, Frank. "Meet the Spartans - Bottom Line: "300" was funnier". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved January 28, 2008. Scheck, Frank (January 26, 2008). "Obvious gags, laugh-free jokes vanquish "Spartans"". Reuters. ^ Catsoulis, Jeannette (January 26, 2008). "Doing Battle on the Field of Parody (Published 2008)". The New York Times. Archived from the original on October 7, 2017. ^ Gene Seymour (2008). "'Meet the Spartans'". Newsday. Archived from the original on October 16, 2010. What's the point of making a parody that's dumber than the stuff it parodies? ^ Franklin, Garth (January 25, 2008). "Review: "Meet the Spartans"". Dark Horizons. ^ Williams, Kam (January 26, 2008). "Meet the Spartans Film Review". NewsBlaze News. ^ Meet the Spartans (Christopher Lennertz) at Filmtracks.com ^ John Wilson (January 21, 2009). "RAZZIES.COM 2008 Nominations". Razzie Awards. Retrieved January 21, 2009. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Meet the Spartans Meet the Spartans on IMDb Meet the Spartans at Box Office Mojo Meet the Spartans at Rotten Tomatoes Meet the Spartans at Metacritic v t e Works of Jason Friedberg and Aaron Seltzer Films Date Movie (2006) Epic Movie (2007) Meet the Spartans (2008) Disaster Movie (2008) Vampires Suck (2010) The Starving Games (2013) Best Night Ever (2013) Superfast! (2015) Screenplays Spy Hard (1996) Scary Movie (2000) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Meet_the_Spartans&oldid=998047715" Categories: 2008 films English-language films 2000s parody films American films American parody films Films directed by Jason Friedberg and Aaron Seltzer Films produced by Peter Safran Battle of Thermopylae Films shot in New Orleans Regency Enterprises films Films scored by Christopher Lennertz American slapstick comedy films 2008 comedy films 20th Century Fox films Cultural depictions of Donald Trump Cultural depictions of George W. Bush Hidden categories: Use American English from October 2019 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from March 2015 Template film date with 1 release date Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikiquote Languages العربية Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Suomi Svenska ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 3 January 2021, at 15:21 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3049	----	Jews - Wikipedia Jews From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Jewish) Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the Jewish people. For their religion, see Judaism. "Jew" redirects here. For other uses, see Jew (disambiguation). Ancient nation and ethnoreligious group from the Levant Jews יְהוּדִים‬ (Yehudim) The Star of David which is a common symbol of the Jewish people. Total population 14.6–17.8 million Enlarged population (includes full or partial Jewish ancestry): 20.7 million[1] (2018, est.) Regions with significant populations  Israel 6,558,000–6,958,000[1]  United States 5,700,000–10,000,000[1]  France 453,000–600,000[1]  Canada 391,000–550,000[1]  United Kingdom 290,000–370,000[1]  Argentina 180,000–330,000[1]  Russia 172,000–440,000[1]  Germany 116,000–225,000[1]  Australia 113,000–140,000[1]  Brazil 93,000–150,000[1]  South Africa 69,000–80,000[1]  Ukraine 50,000–140,000[1]  Hungary 47,000–100,000[1]  Mexico 40,000–50,000[1]  Netherlands 30,000–52,000[1]  Belgium 29,000–40,000[1]  Italy 28,000–41,000[1]   Switzerland 19,000–25,000[1]  Chile 18,000–26,000[1]  Uruguay 17,000–25,000[1]  Turkey 15,000–21,000[1]  Sweden 15,000–25,000[1] Languages Predominantly spoken:[2] Modern Hebrew English Russian French Historical: Yiddish Ladino Judeo-Arabic others Sacred: Biblical Hebrew Biblical Aramaic Talmudic Aramaic Religion Judaism Related ethnic groups Samaritans[3][4][5] Other Levantines and Semitic peoples such as[4][6][7][8] Arabs[4][9] and Assyrians[4][8][5] This article contains Hebrew text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Hebrew letters. Part of a series on Jews and Judaism Etymology Who is a Jew? Religion God in Judaism (names) Principles of faith Mitzvot (613) Halakha Shabbat Holidays Prayer Tzedakah Land of Israel Brit Bar and Bat Mitzvah Marriage Bereavement Philosophy Ethics Kabbalah Customs Synagogue Rabbi Texts Tanakh Torah Nevi'im Ketuvim Talmud Mishnah Gemara Rabbinic Midrash Tosefta Targum Beit Yosef Mishneh Torah Tur Shulchan Aruch Zohar Communities Ashkenazim Mizrahim Sephardim Teimanim Beta Israel Gruzinim Juhurim Bukharim Italkim Romanyotim Cochinim Bene Israel Related groups Bnei Anusim Lemba Crimean Karaites Krymchaks Kaifeng Jews Igbo Jews Samaritans Crypto-Jews Mosaic Arabs Subbotniks Noahides Population Judaism by country Lists of Jews Diaspora Historical population comparisons Genetic studies Land of Israel Old Yishuv New Yishuv Israeli Jews Europe Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Bulgaria Cyprus Czech Republic Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Italy Latvia Lithuania Moldova Netherlands Poland Portugal Romania Russia Spain Sweden Ukraine United Kingdom Asia Afghanistan China India Indonesia Iran Iraq Japan Lebanon Malaysia Philippines Syria Turkey Uzbekistan Vietnam Yemen Africa Algeria Egypt Ethiopia Libya Morocco South Africa Tunisia Zimbabwe North America Canada United States Latin America and Caribbean Argentina Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia Cuba Dominican Republic El Salvador Guyana Haiti Jamaica Mexico Paraguay Puerto Rico Suriname Uruguay Venezuela Oceania Australia Fiji Guam New Zealand Palau Denominations Orthodox Modern Haredi Hasidic Reform Conservative Karaite Reconstructionist Renewal Humanistic Haymanot Messianic Judaism Culture Yiddish theatre Dance Humour Minyan Wedding Clothing Niddah Pidyon haben Kashrut Shidduch Zeved habat Conversion to Judaism Hiloni Music Religious Secular Cuisine American Ashkenazi Bukharan Ethiopian Israeli Israelite Mizrahi Sephardic Yemenite Literature Israeli Yiddish American Languages Hebrew Biblical Yiddish Yeshivish Jewish Koine Greek Yevanic Juhuri Shassi Judaeo-Iranian Ladino Ghardaïa Sign Bukharian Knaanic Zarphatic Italkian Gruzinic Judeo-Aramaic Judeo-Arabic Judeo-Berber Judeo-Malayalam History Timeline Name "Judea" Leaders Twelve Tribes of Israel Ancient history Kingdom of Judah Temple in Jerusalem Babylonian captivity Assyrian captivity Yehud Medinata Second Temple Jerusalem (in Judaism timeline) Hasmonean dynasty Sanhedrin Schisms Pharisees Hellenistic Judaism Jewish–Roman wars History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire Christianity and Judaism Hinduism and Judaism Islamic–Jewish relations Middle Ages Golden Age Sabbateans Hasidism Haskalah Emancipation Antisemitism Anti-Judaism Persecution The Holocaust Israel Land of Israel Aliyah Jewish atheism Baal teshuva Arab–Israeli conflict Politics Politics of Israel Judaism and politics World Agudath Israel Anarchism Bundism Feminism Leftism Zionism General Green Labor Neo-Zionism Religious Revisionist Post-Zionism Category Portal v t e Jews (Hebrew: יְהוּדִים‎ ISO 259-2 Yehudim, Israeli pronunciation [jehuˈdim]) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group[10] and a nation[11][12] originating from the Israelites[13][14][15] and Hebrews[16][17] of historical Israel and Judah. Jewish ethnicity, nationhood, and religion are strongly interrelated,[18][19] as Judaism is the ethnic religion of the Jewish people, while its observance varies from strict observance to complete nonobservance.[20] Jews originated as an ethnic and religious group in the Middle East during the second millennium BCE,[9] in the part of the Levant known as the Land of Israel.[21] The Merneptah Stele appears to confirm the existence of a people of Israel somewhere in Canaan as far back as the 13th century BCE (Late Bronze Age).[22][23] The Israelites, as an outgrowth of the Canaanite population,[24] consolidated their hold with the emergence of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Some consider that these Canaanite sedentary Israelites melded with incoming nomadic groups known as 'Hebrews'.[25] Though few sources mention the exilic periods in detail,[26][failed verification] the experience of diaspora life, from the Babylonian captivity and exile to the Roman occupation and exile, and the historical relations between Jews and their homeland thereafter, became a major feature of Jewish history, identity and memory.[27] In the millennia following, Jewish diaspora communities coalesced into major distinct ethnic groups: Ashkenazim (European Jews), and Sephardim (Iberian Jews); furthermore, Mizrahim (Oriental Jews) are often—particularly in Israel—regarded as separate from Sephardim.[28] Prior to World War II, the worldwide Jewish population reached a peak of 16.7 million,[29] representing around 0.7 percent of the world population at that time. Approximately 6 million Jews were systematically murdered during the Holocaust.[30][31] Since then the population has slowly risen again, and as of 2018[update] was estimated at 14.6–17.8 million by the Berman Jewish DataBank,[1] less than 0.2 percent of the total world population.[32][note 1] The modern State of Israel is the only country where Jews form a majority of the population. It defines itself as a Jewish and democratic state in the Basic Laws, Human Dignity and Liberty in particular, which is based on the Declaration of Independence. Israel's Law of Return grants the right of citizenship to Jews who have expressed their desire to settle in Israel.[34] Despite their small percentage of the world's population, Jews have significantly influenced and contributed to human progress in many fields, both historically and in modern times, including philosophy,[35] ethics,[36] literature,[37] politics,[37] business,[37] fine arts and architecture,[37] music, theatre[38] and cinema, medicine,[39][40] and science and technology,[37] as well as religion; Jews authored the Bible,[41][42] founded Early Christianity[43] and had a profound influence on Islam.[44] Jews have also played a significant role in the development of Western Civilization.[45][46] Contents 1 Name and etymology 2 Who is a Jew? 3 Origins 4 History 4.1 Babylon and Rome 4.2 Diaspora 4.3 Enlightenment 5 Culture 5.1 Religion 5.2 Languages 5.3 Leadership 5.4 Theories on ancient Jewish national identity 6 Demographics 6.1 Ethnic divisions 6.2 Genetic studies 6.3 Population centers 6.3.1 Israel 6.3.2 Diaspora (outside Israel) 6.4 Demographic changes 6.4.1 Assimilation 6.4.2 War and persecution 6.4.3 Migrations 6.4.4 Growth 7 Contributions 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Name and etymology Main article: Jew (word) For a more comprehensive list, see List of Jewish ethnonyms. The English word "Jew" continues Middle English Gyw, Iewe. These terms were loaned via the Old French giu, which itself evolved from the earlier juieu, which in turn derived from judieu/iudieu which through elision had dropped the letter "d" from the Medieval Latin Iudaeus, which, like the New Testament Greek term Ioudaios, meant both "Jew" and "Judean" / "of Judea".[47] The Greek term was a loan from Aramaic Y'hūdāi, corresponding to Hebrew יְהוּדִי Yehudi, originally the term for a member of the tribe of Judah or the people of the kingdom of Judah. According to the Hebrew Bible, the name of both the tribe and kingdom derive from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob.[48] Genesis 29:35 and 49:8 connect the name "Judah" with the verb yada, meaning "praise", but scholars generally agree that the name of both the patriarch and the kingdom instead have a geographic origin—possibly referring to the gorges and ravines of the region.[49] The Hebrew word for "Jew" is יְהוּדִי‎ Yehudi, with the plural יְהוּדִים‎ Yehudim.[50] Endonyms in other Jewish languages include the Ladino ג׳ודיו‎ Djudio (plural ג׳ודיוס‎, Djudios) and the Yiddish ייִד‎ Yid (plural ייִדן‎ Yidn). The etymological equivalent is in use in other languages, e.g., يَهُودِيّ yahūdī (sg.), al-yahūd (pl.), in Arabic, "Jude" in German, "judeu" in Portuguese, "Juif" (m.)/"Juive" (f.) in French, "jøde" in Danish and Norwegian, "judío/a" in Spanish, "jood" in Dutch, "żyd" in Polish etc., but derivations of the word "Hebrew" are also in use to describe a Jew, e.g., in Italian (Ebreo), in Persian ("Ebri/Ebrani" (Persian: عبری/عبرانی‎)) and Russian (Еврей, Yevrey).[51] The German word "Jude" is pronounced [ˈjuːdə], the corresponding adjective "jüdisch" [ˈjyːdɪʃ] (Jewish) is the origin of the word "Yiddish".[52] According to The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, fourth edition (2000), It is widely recognized that the attributive use of the noun Jew, in phrases such as Jew lawyer or Jew ethics, is both vulgar and highly offensive. In such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a practice that carries risks of its own. In a sentence such as There are now several Jews on the council, which is unobjectionable, the substitution of a circumlocution like Jewish people or persons of Jewish background may in itself cause offense for seeming to imply that Jew has a negative connotation when used as a noun.[53] Who is a Jew? Main articles: Who is a Jew? and Jewish identity Map of Canaan Judaism shares some of the characteristics of a nation,[11][54][12][55][56][57] an ethnicity,[10] a religion, and a culture,[58][59][60] making the definition of who is a Jew vary slightly depending on whether a religious or national approach to identity is used.[61][62] Generally, in modern secular usage Jews include three groups: people who were born to a Jewish family regardless of whether or not they follow the religion, those who have some Jewish ancestral background or lineage (sometimes including those who do not have strictly matrilineal descent), and people without any Jewish ancestral background or lineage who have formally converted to Judaism and therefore are followers of the religion.[63] Historical definitions of Jewish identity have traditionally been based on halakhic definitions of matrilineal descent, and halakhic conversions. These definitions of who is a Jew date back to the codification of the Oral Torah into the Babylonian Talmud, around 200 CE. Interpretations of sections of the Tanakh, such as Deuteronomy 7:1–5, by Jewish sages, are used as a warning against intermarriage between Jews and Canaanites because "[the non-Jewish husband] will cause your child to turn away from Me and they will worship the gods of others."[24] Leviticus 24:10 says that the son in a marriage between a Hebrew woman and an Egyptian man is "of the community of Israel." This is complemented by Ezra 10:2–3, where Israelites returning from Babylon vow to put aside their gentile wives and their children.[64][65] A popular theory is that the rape of Jewish women in captivity brought about the law of Jewish identity being inherited through the maternal line, although scholars challenge this theory citing the Talmudic establishment of the law from the pre-exile period.[66] Another argument is that the rabbis changed the law of patrilineal descent to matrilineal descent due to the widespread rape of Jewish women by Roman soldiers.[67] Since the anti-religious Haskalah movement of the late 18th and 19th centuries, halakhic interpretations of Jewish identity have been challenged.[68] According to historian Shaye J. D. Cohen, the status of the offspring of mixed marriages was determined patrilineally in the Bible. He brings two likely explanations for the change in Mishnaic times: first, the Mishnah may have been applying the same logic to mixed marriages as it had applied to other mixtures (Kil'ayim). Thus, a mixed marriage is forbidden as is the union of a horse and a donkey, and in both unions the offspring are judged matrilineally.[69] Second, the Tannaim may have been influenced by Roman law, which dictated that when a parent could not contract a legal marriage, offspring would follow the mother.[69] Rabbi Rivon Krygier follows a similar reasoning, arguing that Jewish descent had formerly passed through the patrineal descent and the law of matrilineal descent had its roots in the Roman legal system.[66] Origins Further information: Canaan, Israelites, Origins of Judaism, and History of ancient Israel and Judah Egyptian depiction of the visit of Western Asiatics in colorful garments, labeled as Aamu. The painting is from the tomb of a 12th dynasty official Khnumhotep II at Beni Hasan, and dated to c. 1900 BCE. Their nearest Biblical contemporaries were the earliest of Hebrews, such as Abraham and Joseph.[70][71][72][73] Depiction of King Jehu, tenth king of the northern Kingdom of Israel, on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, 841–840 BCE.[74] This is "the only portrayal we have in ancient Near Eastern art of an Israelite or Judaean monarch".[75] A factual reconstruction for the origin of the Jews is a difficult and complex endeavor. It requires examining at least 3,000 years of ancient human history using documents in vast quantities and variety written in at least ten near Eastern languages. As archaeological discovery relies upon researchers and scholars from diverse disciplines, the goal is to interpret all of the factual data, focusing on the most consistent theory. The prehistory and ethnogenesis of the Jews are closely intertwined with archaeology, biology, and historical textual records, as well as religious literature and mythology. The ethnic stock to which Jews originally trace their ancestry was a confederation of Iron Age Semitic-speaking tribes known as the Israelites that inhabited a part of Canaan during the tribal and monarchic periods.[76] Modern Jews are named after and also descended from the southern Israelite Kingdom of Judah.[77][78][79][80][81][82] According to the Hebrew Bible narrative, Jewish ancestry is traced back to the Biblical patriarchs such as Abraham, his son Isaac, Isaac's son Jacob, and the Biblical matriarchs Sarah, Rebecca, Leah, and Rachel, who lived in Canaan. The Twelve Tribes are described as descending from the twelve sons of Jacob. Jacob and his family migrated to Ancient Egypt after being invited to live with Jacob's son Joseph by the Pharaoh himself. The patriarchs' descendants were later enslaved until the Exodus led by Moses, after which the Israelites conquered Canaan under Moses' successor Joshua, went through the period of the Biblical judges after the death of Joshua, then through the mediation of Samuel became subject to a king, Saul, who was succeeded by David and then Solomon, after whom the United Monarchy ended and was split into a separate Kingdom of Israel and a Kingdom of Judah. The Kingdom of Judah is described as comprising the Tribe of Judah, the Tribe of Benjamin, partially the Tribe of Levi, and later adding remnants of other tribes who migrated there from the Kingdom of Israel.[83][84] Modern Jews claim lineage from those tribes since the ten northern tribes were lost following Assyrian captivity.[85] Modern archaeology has largely discarded the historicity of this narrative,[86] with it being reframed as constituting the Israelites' inspiring national myth narrative. The Israelites and their culture, according to the modern archaeological account, did not overtake the region by force, but instead branched out of the Canaanite peoples and culture through the development of a distinct monolatristic—and later monotheistic—religion centered on Yahweh. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of cultic practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite ethnic group, setting them apart from other Canaanites.[87][88][89] The Israelites become visible in the historical record as a people between 1200 and 1000 BCE.[90] It is not certain if a period like that of the Biblical judges occurred[91][92][93][94][95] nor if there was ever a United Monarchy.[96][97][98][99] There is well accepted archeological evidence referring to "Israel" in the Merneptah Stele, which dates to about 1200 BCE,[22][23] and the Canaanites are archeologically attested in the Middle Bronze Age.[100][101] There is debate about the earliest existence of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah and their extent and power, but historians agree that a Kingdom of Israel existed by c. 900 BCE[97]:169–95[98][99] and that a Kingdom of Judah existed by c. 700 BCE.[102] It is widely accepted that the Kingdom of Israel was destroyed around 720 BCE, when it was conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire.[83] History Main article: Jewish history The term Jew originated from the Roman "Judean" and denoted someone from the southern kingdom of Judah.[103] The shift of ethnonym from "Israelites" to "Jews" (inhabitant of Judah), although not contained in the Torah, is made explicit in the Book of Esther (4th century BCE),[104] a book in the Ketuvim, the third section of the Jewish Tanakh. In 587 BCE Nebuchadnezzar II, King of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, besieged Jerusalem, destroyed the First Temple, and deported the most prominent citizens of Judah.[105] Tribes of Israel The Tribes Reuben Simeon Levi Judah Dan Naphtali Gad Asher Issachar Zebulun Joseph Manasseh Ephraim Benjamin Related topics Leaders Israelites Ten Lost Tribes Jews Samaritans v t e According to the Book of Ezra, the Persian Cyrus the Great ended the Babylonian exile in 538 BCE,[106] the year after he captured Babylon.[107] The exile ended with the return under Zerubbabel the Prince (so-called because he was a descendant of the royal line of David) and Joshua the Priest (a descendant of the line of the former High Priests of the Temple) and their construction of the Second Temple in the period 521–516 BCE.[106] The Cyrus Cylinder, an ancient tablet on which is written a declaration in the name of Cyrus referring to restoration of temples and repatriation of exiled peoples, has often been taken as corroboration of the authenticity of the biblical decrees attributed to Cyrus,[108] but other scholars point out that the cylinder's text is specific to Babylon and Mesopotamia and makes no mention of Judah or Jerusalem.[108] Professor Lester L. Grabbe asserted that the "alleged decree of Cyrus" regarding Judah, "cannot be considered authentic", but that there was a "general policy of allowing deportees to return and to re-establish cult sites". He also stated that archaeology suggests that the return was a "trickle" taking place over decades, rather than a single event.[109] As part of the Persian Empire, the former Kingdom of Judah became the province of Judah (Yehud Medinata)[110] with different borders, covering a smaller territory.[109] The population of the province was greatly reduced from that of the kingdom, archaeological surveys showing a population of around 30,000 people in the 5th to 4th centuries BCE.[97]:308 The region was under control of the Achaemenids until the fall of their empire in c. 333 BCE to Alexander the Great. Jews were also politically independent during the Hasmonean dynasty spanning from 110 to 63 BCE and to some degree under the Herodian dynasty from 37 BCE to 6 CE.[111] Since the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, most Jews have lived in diaspora.[112] Genetic studies on Jews show that most Jews worldwide bear a common genetic heritage which originates in the Middle East, and that they share certain genetic traits with other Gentile peoples of the Fertile Crescent.[113][114][115] The genetic composition of different Jewish groups shows that Jews share a common gene pool dating back four millennia, as a marker of their common ancestral origin.[116] Despite their long-term separation, Jewish communities maintained their unique commonalities, propensities, and sensibilities in culture, tradition, and language.[117] Babylon and Rome Further information: History of the Jews in the Roman Empire After the destruction of the Second Temple, Judaism lost much of its sectarian nature.[118]:69 Without a Temple, Greek-speaking Jews no longer looked to Jerusalem in the way they had before. Judaism separated into a linguistically Greek and a Hebrew / Aramaic sphere.[119]:8–11 The theology and religious texts of each community were distinctively different.[119]:11–13 Hellenized Judaism never developed yeshivas to study the Oral Law. Rabbinic Judaism (centered in the Land of Israel and Babylon) almost entirely ignores the Hellenized Diaspora in its writings.[119]:13–14 Hellenized Judaism eventually disappeared as its practitioners assimilated into Greco-Roman culture, leaving a strong Rabbinic eastern Diaspora with large centers of learning in Babylon.[119]:14–16 By the first century, the Jewish community in Babylonia, to which Jews were exiled after the Babylonian conquest as well as after the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 CE, already held a speedily growing[120] population of an estimated one million Jews, which increased to an estimated two million[121] between the years 200 CE and 500 CE, both by natural growth and by immigration of more Jews from the Land of Israel, making up about one-sixth of the world Jewish population at that era.[121] The 13th-century author Bar Hebraeus gave a figure of 6,944,000 Jews in the Roman world; Salo Wittmayer Baron considered the figure convincing.[122] The figure of seven million within and one million outside the Roman world in the mid-first century became widely accepted, including by Louis Feldman. However, contemporary scholars now accept that Bar Hebraeus based his figure on a census of total Roman citizens, the figure of 6,944,000 being recorded in Eusebius' Chronicon.[123][124] Louis Feldman, previously an active supporter of the figure, now states that he and Baron were mistaken.[125]:185 Feldman's views on active Jewish missionizing have also changed. While viewing classical Judaism as being receptive to converts, especially from the second century BCE through the first century CE, he points to a lack of either missionizing tracts or records of the names of rabbis who sought converts as evidence for the lack of active Jewish missionizing.[125]:205–06 Feldman maintains that conversion to Judaism was common and the Jewish population was large both within the Land of Israel and in the Diaspora.[125]:183–203, 206 Other historians believe that conversion during the Roman era was limited in number and did not account for much of the Jewish population growth, due to various factors such as the illegality of male conversion to Judaism in the Roman world from the mid-second century. Another factor that made conversion difficult in the Roman world was the halakhic requirement of circumcision, a requirement that proselytizing Christianity quickly dropped. The Fiscus Judaicus, a tax imposed on Jews in 70 CE and relaxed to exclude Christians in 96 CE, also limited Judaism's appeal.[126] Diaspora Further information: History of the Jews in Europe, History of European Jews in the Middle Ages, Mizrahi Jews, and Sephardi Jews Map of the Jewish diaspora.   Israel   + 1,000,000   + 100,000   + 10,000 Following the Roman conquest of Judea and the siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE, hundreds of thousands of Jews were taken as slaves to Rome, where they later immigrated to other European lands. The Jews who immigrated to Iberia and North Africa comprise the Sephardic Jews, while those who immigrated to the Rhineland and France comprise the Ashkenazi Jews. Additionally both before and after the Roman conquest of Judea many Jews lived in Persia and Babylon as well as other Middle eastern countries, these Jews comprise the Mizrachi Jews.[127] In Francia, Jews like Isaac Judaeus and Armentarius occupied prominent social and economic positions, as opposed to in Spain, where Jews were persecuted under Visigoth rule. In Babylon, from the 7th to 11th centuries the Pumbedita and Sura academies lead the Arab and to an extant the entire Jewish world. The deans and students of said academies defined the Geonic period in Jewish history.[128] Following this period were the Rishonim who lived from the 11th to 15th centuries, it was during this time that the Ashkenazi Jews began experiencing extreme persecution in France and especially the Rhineland, which resulted in mass immigration to Poland and Lithuania. Meanwhile Sephardic Jews experienced a golden age under Muslim rule, however following the Reconquista and subsequent Alhambra decree in 1492, most of the Spanish Jewish population immigrated to North Africa and the Ottoman Empire. However some Jews choose to remain and pretended to practice Catholicism. These Jews would form the members of Crypto-Judaism.[129] Enlightenment This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2020) Culture Main article: Jewish culture Religion Main article: Judaism Part of a series on Judaism      Movements Orthodox Haredi Hasidic Modern Conservative Reform Karaite Reconstructionist Renewal Humanistic Haymanot Philosophy Principles of faith Kabbalah Messiah Ethics Chosenness God Names Musar movement Texts Tanakh Torah Nevi'im Ketuvim Ḥumash Siddur Piyutim Zohar Rabbinic Mishnah Talmud Midrash Tosefta Law Mishneh Torah Tur Shulchan Aruch Mishnah Berurah Aruch HaShulchan Kashrut Tzniut Tzedakah Niddah Noahide laws Holy cities / places Jerusalem Safed Hebron Tiberias Synagogue Beth midrash Mikveh Sukkah Chevra kadisha Holy Temple Tabernacle Important figures Abraham Isaac Jacob Moses Aaron David Solomon Sarah Rebecca Rachel Leah Rabbinic sages Chazal Tannaim Amoraim Savoraim Geonim Rishonim Acharonim Religious roles Rabbi Rebbe Posek Hazzan Dayan Rosh yeshiva Mohel Kohen Culture and education Brit Pidyon haben Bar and Bat Mitzvah Marriage Bereavement Yeshiva Kolel Cheder Ritual objects Sefer Torah Tallit Tefillin Tzitzit Kippah Mezuzah Menorah Shofar Four species Etrog Lulav Hadass Arava Kittel Gartel Prayers Shema (Sh'ma) Amidah Aleinu Kaddish Minyan Birkat Hamazon Shehecheyanu Hallel Havdalah Tachanun Kol Nidre Selichot (S'lichot) Major holidays Rosh Hashana Yom Kippur Sukkot Pesach Shavuot Purim Hanukkah Other religions Judaism and Christianity Hinduism Islam Mormonism Samaritanism Abrahamic religions Judeo-Christian Pluralism Related topics Jews Zionism Israel Criticism Antisemitism Anti-Judaism Holocaust theology Music Jesus Muhammad  Judaism portal v t e The Jewish people and the religion of Judaism are strongly interrelated. Converts to Judaism typically have a status within the Jewish ethnos equal to those born into it.[130] However, several converts to Judaism, as well as ex-Jews, have claimed that converts are treated as second-class Jews by many born Jews.[131] Conversion is not encouraged by mainstream Judaism, and it is considered a difficult task. A significant portion of conversions are undertaken by children of mixed marriages, or would-be or current spouses of Jews.[132] The Hebrew Bible, a religious interpretation of the traditions and early history of the Jews, established the first of the Abrahamic religions, which are now practiced by 54 percent of the world. Judaism guides its adherents in both practice and belief, and has been called not only a religion, but also a "way of life,"[133] which has made drawing a clear distinction between Judaism, Jewish culture, and Jewish identity rather difficult. Throughout history, in eras and places as diverse as the ancient Hellenic world,[134] in Europe before and after The Age of Enlightenment (see Haskalah),[135] in Islamic Spain and Portugal,[136] in North Africa and the Middle East,[136] India,[137] China,[138] or the contemporary United States[139] and Israel,[140] cultural phenomena have developed that are in some sense characteristically Jewish without being at all specifically religious. Some factors in this come from within Judaism, others from the interaction of Jews or specific communities of Jews with their surroundings, and still others from the inner social and cultural dynamics of the community, as opposed to from the religion itself. This phenomenon has led to considerably different Jewish cultures unique to their own communities.[141] Languages Main article: Jewish languages Hebrew is the liturgical language of Judaism (termed lashon ha-kodesh, "the holy tongue"), the language in which most of the Hebrew scriptures (Tanakh) were composed, and the daily speech of the Jewish people for centuries. By the 5th century BCE, Aramaic, a closely related tongue, joined Hebrew as the spoken language in Judea.[142] By the 3rd century BCE, some Jews of the diaspora were speaking Greek.[143] Others, such as in the Jewish communities of Babylonia, were speaking Hebrew and Aramaic, the languages of the Babylonian Talmud. These languages were also used by the Jews of Israel at that time.[citation needed] For centuries, Jews worldwide have spoken the local or dominant languages of the regions they migrated to, often developing distinctive dialectal forms or branches that became independent languages. Yiddish is the Judaeo-German language developed by Ashkenazi Jews who migrated to Central Europe. Ladino is the Judaeo-Spanish language developed by Sephardic Jews who migrated to the Iberian peninsula. Due to many factors, including the impact of the Holocaust on European Jewry, the Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries, and widespread emigration from other Jewish communities around the world, ancient and distinct Jewish languages of several communities, including Judaeo-Georgian, Judaeo-Arabic, Judaeo-Berber, Krymchak, Judaeo-Malayalam and many others, have largely fallen out of use.[2] Tombstone of the Maharal in the Old Jewish Cemetery, Prague. The tombstones are inscribed in Hebrew. For over sixteen centuries Hebrew was used almost exclusively as a liturgical language, and as the language in which most books had been written on Judaism, with a few speaking only Hebrew on the Sabbath.[144] Hebrew was revived as a spoken language by Eliezer ben Yehuda, who arrived in Palestine in 1881. It had not been used as a mother tongue since Tannaic times.[142] Modern Hebrew is designated as the "State language" of Israel.[145] Despite efforts to revive Hebrew as the national language of the Jewish people, knowledge of the language is not commonly possessed by Jews worldwide and English has emerged as the lingua franca of the Jewish diaspora.[146][147][148][149][150] Although many Jews once had sufficient knowledge of Hebrew to study the classic literature, and Jewish languages like Yiddish and Ladino were commonly used as recently as the early 20th century, most Jews lack such knowledge today and English has by and large superseded most Jewish vernaculars. The three most commonly spoken languages among Jews today are Hebrew, English, and Russian. Some Romance languages, particularly French and Spanish, are also widely used.[2] Yiddish has been spoken by more Jews in history than any other language,[151] but it is far less used today following the Holocaust and the adoption of Modern Hebrew by the Zionist movement and the State of Israel. In some places, the mother language of the Jewish community differs from that of the general population or the dominant group. For example, in Quebec, the Ashkenazic majority has adopted English, while the Sephardic minority uses French as its primary language.[152][153][154] Similarly, South African Jews adopted English rather than Afrikaans.[155] Due to both Czarist and Soviet policies,[156][157] Russian has superseded Yiddish as the language of Russian Jews, but these policies have also affected neighboring communities.[158] Today, Russian is the first language for many Jewish communities in a number of Post-Soviet states, such as Ukraine[159][160][161][162] and Uzbekistan,[163] as well as for Ashkenazic Jews in Azerbaijan,[164][165] Georgia,[166] and Tajikistan.[167][168] Although communities in North Africa today are small and dwindling, Jews there had shifted from a multilingual group to a monolingual one (or nearly so), speaking French in Algeria,[169] Morocco,[164] and the city of Tunis,[170][171] while most North Africans continue to use Arabic or Berber as their mother tongue.[citation needed] Leadership Main article: Jewish leadership There is no single governing body for the Jewish community, nor a single authority with responsibility for religious doctrine.[172] Instead, a variety of secular and religious institutions at the local, national, and international levels lead various parts of the Jewish community on a variety of issues.[173] Today, many countries have a Chief Rabbi who serves as a representative of that country's Jewry. Although many Hassidic Jews follow a certain hereditary Hasidic dynasty, there is no one commonly accepted leader of all Hasidic Jews. Many Jews believe that the Messiah will act a unifying leader for Jews and the entire world.[174] Theories on ancient Jewish national identity Bible manuscript in Hebrew, 14th century. Hebrew language and alphabet were the cornerstones of the Jewish national identity in antiquity. A number of modern scholars of nationalism support the existence of Jewish national identity in antiquity. One of them is David Goodblatt,[175] who generally believes in the existence of nationalism before the modern period. In his view, the Bible, the parabiblical literature and the Jewish national history provide the base for a Jewish collective identity. Although many of the ancient Jews were illiterate (as were their neighbors), their national narrative was reinforced through public readings, a common practice in the ancient eastern Mediterranean area. The Hebrew language also constructed and preserved national identity. Although it was not spoken by most of the Jews after the 5th century BCE, Goodblatt contends that: “the mere presence of the language in spoken or written form could invoke the concept of a Jewish national identity. Even if one knew no Hebrew or was illiterate, one could recognize that a group of signs was in Hebrew script. … It was the language of the Israelite ancestors, the national literature, and the national religion. As such it was inseparable from the national identity. Indeed its mere presence in visual or aural medium could invoke that identity.”[176][177] It is believed that Jewish nationalist sentiment in antiquity was encouraged because under foreign rule (Persians, Greeks, Romans) Jews were able to claim that they were an ancient nation. This claim was based on the preservation and reverence of their scriptures, the Hebrew language, the Temple and priesthood, and other traditions of their ancestors.[178] Demographics Further information: Jewish population by country Ethnic divisions Main article: Jewish ethnic divisions Ashkenazi Jews of late-19th-century Eastern Europe portrayed in Jews Praying in the Synagogue on Yom Kippur (1878), by Maurycy Gottlieb Sephardi Jewish couple from Sarajevo in traditional clothing. Photo taken in 1900. Yemenite Jew blows shofar, 1947 Within the world's Jewish population there are distinct ethnic divisions, most of which are primarily the result of geographic branching from an originating Israelite population, and subsequent independent evolutions. An array of Jewish communities was established by Jewish settlers in various places around the Old World, often at great distances from one another, resulting in effective and often long-term isolation. During the millennia of the Jewish diaspora the communities would develop under the influence of their local environments: political, cultural, natural, and populational. Today, manifestations of these differences among the Jews can be observed in Jewish cultural expressions of each community, including Jewish linguistic diversity, culinary preferences, liturgical practices, religious interpretations, as well as degrees and sources of genetic admixture.[179] Jews are often identified as belonging to one of two major groups: the Ashkenazim and the Sephardim. Ashkenazim, or "Germanics" (Ashkenaz meaning "Germany" in Hebrew), are so named denoting their German Jewish cultural and geographical origins, while Sephardim, or "Hispanics" (Sefarad meaning "Spain/Hispania" or "Iberia" in Hebrew), are so named denoting their Spanish/Portuguese Jewish cultural and geographic origins. The more common term in Israel for many of those broadly called Sephardim, is Mizrahim (lit. "Easterners", Mizrach being "East" in Hebrew), that is, in reference to the diverse collection of Middle Eastern and North African Jews who are often, as a group, referred to collectively as Sephardim (together with Sephardim proper) for liturgical reasons, although Mizrahi Jewish groups and Sephardi Jews proper are ethnically distinct.[180] Smaller groups include, but are not restricted to, Indian Jews such as the Bene Israel, Bnei Menashe, Cochin Jews, and Bene Ephraim; the Romaniotes of Greece; the Italian Jews ("Italkim" or "Bené Roma"); the Teimanim from Yemen; various African Jews, including most numerously the Beta Israel of Ethiopia; and Chinese Jews, most notably the Kaifeng Jews, as well as various other distinct but now almost extinct communities.[181] The divisions between all these groups are approximate and their boundaries are not always clear. The Mizrahim for example, are a heterogeneous collection of North African, Central Asian, Caucasian, and Middle Eastern Jewish communities that are no closer related to each other than they are to any of the earlier mentioned Jewish groups. In modern usage, however, the Mizrahim are sometimes termed Sephardi due to similar styles of liturgy, despite independent development from Sephardim proper. Thus, among Mizrahim there are Egyptian Jews, Iraqi Jews, Lebanese Jews, Kurdish Jews, Moroccan Jews, Libyan Jews, Syrian Jews, Bukharian Jews, Mountain Jews, Georgian Jews, Iranian Jews, Afghan Jews, and various others. The Teimanim from Yemen are sometimes included, although their style of liturgy is unique and they differ in respect to the admixture found among them to that found in Mizrahim. In addition, there is a differentiation made between Sephardi migrants who established themselves in the Middle East and North Africa after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain and Portugal in the 1490s and the pre-existing Jewish communities in those regions.[181] Ashkenazi Jews represent the bulk of modern Jewry, with at least 70 percent of Jews worldwide (and up to 90 percent prior to World War II and the Holocaust). As a result of their emigration from Europe, Ashkenazim also represent the overwhelming majority of Jews in the New World continents, in countries such as the United States, Canada, Argentina, Australia, and Brazil. In France, the immigration of Jews from Algeria (Sephardim) has led them to outnumber the Ashkenazim.[182] Only in Israel is the Jewish population representative of all groups, a melting pot independent of each group's proportion within the overall world Jewish population.[183] Genetic studies Main article: Genetic studies on Jews This section relies too much on references to primary sources. Please improve this section by adding secondary or tertiary sources. (September 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Y DNA studies tend to imply a small number of founders in an old population whose members parted and followed different migration paths.[184] In most Jewish populations, these male line ancestors appear to have been mainly Middle Eastern. For example, Ashkenazi Jews share more common paternal lineages with other Jewish and Middle Eastern groups than with non-Jewish populations in areas where Jews lived in Eastern Europe, Germany and the French Rhine Valley. This is consistent with Jewish traditions in placing most Jewish paternal origins in the region of the Middle East.[185][186] Conversely, the maternal lineages of Jewish populations, studied by looking at mitochondrial DNA, are generally more heterogeneous.[187] Scholars such as Harry Ostrer and Raphael Falk believe this indicates that many Jewish males found new mates from European and other communities in the places where they migrated in the diaspora after fleeing ancient Israel.[188] In contrast, Behar has found evidence that about 40 percent of Ashkenazi Jews originate maternally from just four female founders, who were of Middle Eastern origin. The populations of Sephardi and Mizrahi Jewish communities "showed no evidence for a narrow founder effect."[187] Subsequent studies carried out by Feder et al. confirmed the large portion of non-local maternal origin among Ashkenazi Jews. Reflecting on their findings related to the maternal origin of Ashkenazi Jews, the authors conclude "Clearly, the differences between Jews and non-Jews are far larger than those observed among the Jewish communities. Hence, differences between the Jewish communities can be overlooked when non-Jews are included in the comparisons."[9][189][190] A study showed that 7% of Ashkenazi Jews have the haplogroup G2c, which is mainly found in Pashtuns and on lower scales all major Jewish groups, Palestinians, Syrians, and Lebanese.[191][192] Studies of autosomal DNA, which look at the entire DNA mixture, have become increasingly important as the technology develops. They show that Jewish populations have tended to form relatively closely related groups in independent communities, with most in a community sharing significant ancestry in common.[193] For Jewish populations of the diaspora, the genetic composition of Ashkenazi, Sephardi, and Mizrahi Jewish populations show a predominant amount of shared Middle Eastern ancestry. According to Behar, the most parsimonious explanation for this shared Middle Eastern ancestry is that it is "consistent with the historical formulation of the Jewish people as descending from ancient Hebrew and Israelite residents of the Levant" and "the dispersion of the people of ancient Israel throughout the Old World".[194] North African, Italian and others of Iberian origin show variable frequencies of admixture with non-Jewish historical host populations among the maternal lines. In the case of Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews (in particular Moroccan Jews), who are closely related, the source of non-Jewish admixture is mainly southern European, while Mizrahi Jews show evidence of admixture with other Middle Eastern populations. Behar et al. have remarked on a close relationship between Ashkenazi Jews and modern Italians.[194][195] A 2001 study found that Jews were found to be more closely related to groups of the Fertile Crescent (Kurds, Turks, and Armenians) than to their Arab neighbors, the geographic distribution of whose genetic signature was found to correlate with the pattern of the Islamic conquests.[185][196] The studies also show that persons of Sephardic Bnei Anusim origin (those who are descendants of the "anusim" who were forced to convert to Catholicism) throughout today's Iberia (Spain and Portugal) and Ibero-America (Hispanic America and Brazil), estimated at up to 19.8 percent of the modern population of Iberia and at least 10 percent of the modern population of Ibero-America, have Sephardic Jewish ancestry within the last few centuries. The Bene Israel and Cochin Jews of India, Beta Israel of Ethiopia, and a portion of the Lemba people of Southern Africa, meanwhile, despite more closely resembling the local populations of their native countries, also have some more remote ancient Jewish descent.[197][194][198][190] Population centers For a more comprehensive list, see List of urban areas by Jewish population. The New York City is home to 1.1 million Jews, making it the largest Jewish community outside of Israel. Although historically, Jews have been found all over the world, in the decades since World War II and the establishment of Israel, they have increasingly concentrated in a small number of countries.[199][200] In 2013, the United States and Israel were collectively home to more than 80 percent of the global Jewish population, each country having approximately 41 percent of the world's Jews.[201] According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics there were 13,421,000 Jews worldwide in 2009, roughly 0.19 percent of the world's population at the time.[202] According to the 2007 estimates of The Jewish People Policy Planning Institute, the world's Jewish population is 13.2 million.[203] Adherents.com cites figures ranging from 12 to 18 million.[204] These statistics incorporate both practicing Jews affiliated with synagogues and the Jewish community, and approximately 4.5 million unaffiliated and secular Jews.[citation needed] According to Sergio Della Pergola, a demographer of the Jewish population, in 2015 there were about 6.3 million Jews in Israel, 5.7 million in the United States, and 2.3 million in the rest of the world.[205] Israel Main article: Israeli Jews Jewish people in Jerusalem, Israel Israel, the Jewish nation-state, is the only country in which Jews make up a majority of the citizens.[206] Israel was established as an independent democratic and Jewish state on 14 May 1948.[207] Of the 120 members in its parliament, the Knesset,[208] as of 2016[update], 14 members of the Knesset are Arab citizens of Israel (not including the Druze), most representing Arab political parties. One of Israel's Supreme Court judges is also an Arab citizen of Israel.[209] Between 1948 and 1958, the Jewish population rose from 800,000 to two million.[210] Currently, Jews account for 75.4 percent of the Israeli population, or 6 million people.[211][212] The early years of the State of Israel were marked by the mass immigration of Holocaust survivors in the aftermath of the Holocaust and Jews fleeing Arab lands.[213] Israel also has a large population of Ethiopian Jews, many of whom were airlifted to Israel in the late 1980s and early 1990s.[214] Between 1974 and 1979 nearly 227,258 immigrants arrived in Israel, about half being from the Soviet Union.[215] This period also saw an increase in immigration to Israel from Western Europe, Latin America, and North America.[216] A trickle of immigrants from other communities has also arrived, including Indian Jews and others, as well as some descendants of Ashkenazi Holocaust survivors who had settled in countries such as the United States, Argentina, Australia, Chile, and South Africa. Some Jews have emigrated from Israel elsewhere, because of economic problems or disillusionment with political conditions and the continuing Arab–Israeli conflict. Jewish Israeli emigrants are known as yordim.[217] Diaspora (outside Israel) Main article: Jewish diaspora In this Rosh Hashana greeting card from the early 1900s, Russian Jews, packs in hand, gaze at the American relatives beckoning them to the United States. Over two million Jews fled the pogroms of the Russian Empire to the safety of the U.S. between 1881 and 1924.[218] A menorah dominating the main square in Birobidzhan. An estimated 70,000 Jews live in Siberia.[219] The waves of immigration to the United States and elsewhere at the turn of the 19th century, the founding of Zionism and later events, including pogroms in Imperial Russia (mostly within the Pale of Settlement in present-day Ukraine, Moldova, Belarus and Poland), the massacre of European Jewry during the Holocaust, and the founding of the state of Israel, with the subsequent Jewish exodus from Arab lands, all resulted in substantial shifts in the population centers of world Jewry by the end of the 20th century.[220] More than half of the Jews live in the Diaspora (see Population table). Currently, the largest Jewish community outside Israel, and either the largest or second-largest Jewish community in the world, is located in the United States, with 5.2 million to 6.4 million Jews by various estimates. Elsewhere in the Americas, there are also large Jewish populations in Canada (315,000), Argentina (180,000–300,000), and Brazil (196,000–600,000), and smaller populations in Mexico, Uruguay, Venezuela, Chile, Colombia and several other countries (see History of the Jews in Latin America).[221] According to a 2010 Pew Research Center study, about 470,000 people of Jewish heritage live in Latin-America and the Caribbean.[222] Demographers disagree on whether the United States has a larger Jewish population than Israel, with many maintaining that Israel surpassed the United States in Jewish population during the 2000s, while others maintain that the United States still has the largest Jewish population in the world. Currently, a major national Jewish population survey is planned to ascertain whether or not Israel has overtaken the United States in Jewish population.[223] Western Europe's largest Jewish community, and the third-largest Jewish community in the world, can be found in France, home to between 483,000 and 500,000 Jews, the majority of whom are immigrants or refugees from North African countries such as Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia (or their descendants).[224] The United Kingdom has a Jewish community of 292,000. In Eastern Europe, the exact figures are difficult to establish. The number of Jews in Russia varies widely according to whether a source uses census data (which requires a person to choose a single nationality among choices that include "Russian" and "Jewish") or eligibility for immigration to Israel (which requires that a person have one or more Jewish grandparents). According to the latter criteria, the heads of the Russian Jewish community assert that up to 1.5 million Russians are eligible for aliyah.[225][226] In Germany, the 102,000 Jews registered with the Jewish community are a slowly declining population,[227] despite the immigration of tens of thousands of Jews from the former Soviet Union since the fall of the Berlin Wall.[228] Thousands of Israelis also live in Germany, either permanently or temporarily, for economic reasons.[229] Prior to 1948, approximately 800,000 Jews were living in lands which now make up the Arab world (excluding Israel). Of these, just under two-thirds lived in the French-controlled Maghreb region, 15 to 20 percent in the Kingdom of Iraq, approximately 10 percent in the Kingdom of Egypt and approximately 7 percent in the Kingdom of Yemen. A further 200,000 lived in Pahlavi Iran and the Republic of Turkey. Today, around 26,000 Jews live in Arab countries[230] and around 30,000 in Iran and Turkey. A small-scale exodus had begun in many countries in the early decades of the 20th century, although the only substantial aliyah came from Yemen and Syria.[231] The exodus from Arab and Muslim countries took place primarily from 1948. The first large-scale exoduses took place in the late 1940s and early 1950s, primarily in Iraq, Yemen and Libya, with up to 90 percent of these communities leaving within a few years. The peak of the exodus from Egypt occurred in 1956. The exodus in the Maghreb countries peaked in the 1960s. Lebanon was the only Arab country to see a temporary increase in its Jewish population during this period, due to an influx of refugees from other Arab countries, although by the mid-1970s the Jewish community of Lebanon had also dwindled. In the aftermath of the exodus wave from Arab states, an additional migration of Iranian Jews peaked in the 1980s when around 80 percent of Iranian Jews left the country.[citation needed] Outside Europe, the Americas, the Middle East, and the rest of Asia, there are significant Jewish populations in Australia (112,500) and South Africa (70,000).[29] There is also a 6,800-strong community in New Zealand.[232] Demographic changes Main article: Historical Jewish population comparisons Assimilation Main articles: Jewish assimilation and Interfaith marriage in Judaism Since at least the time of the Ancient Greeks, a proportion of Jews have assimilated into the wider non-Jewish society around them, by either choice or force, ceasing to practice Judaism and losing their Jewish identity.[233] Assimilation took place in all areas, and during all time periods,[233] with some Jewish communities, for example the Kaifeng Jews of China, disappearing entirely.[234] The advent of the Jewish Enlightenment of the 18th century (see Haskalah) and the subsequent emancipation of the Jewish populations of Europe and America in the 19th century, accelerated the situation, encouraging Jews to increasingly participate in, and become part of, secular society. The result has been a growing trend of assimilation, as Jews marry non-Jewish spouses and stop participating in the Jewish community.[235] Rates of interreligious marriage vary widely: In the United States, it is just under 50 percent,[236] in the United Kingdom, around 53 percent; in France; around 30 percent,[237] and in Australia and Mexico, as low as 10 percent.[238][239] In the United States, only about a third of children from intermarriages affiliate with Jewish religious practice.[240] The result is that most countries in the Diaspora have steady or slightly declining religiously Jewish populations as Jews continue to assimilate into the countries in which they live.[citation needed] War and persecution Further information: Persecution of Jews, Antisemitism, and Jewish military history The Roman Emperor Nero sends Vespasian with an army to destroy the Jews, 69 CE. The Jewish people and Judaism have experienced various persecutions throughout Jewish history. During Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages the Roman Empire (in its later phases known as the Byzantine Empire) repeatedly repressed the Jewish population, first by ejecting them from their homelands during the pagan Roman era and later by officially establishing them as second-class citizens during the Christian Roman era.[241][242] According to James Carroll, "Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire. By that ratio, if other factors had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million."[243] Later in medieval Western Europe, further persecutions of Jews by Christians occurred, notably during the Crusades—when Jews all over Germany were massacred—and a series of expulsions from the Kingdom of England, Germany, France, and, in the largest expulsion of all, Spain and Portugal after the Reconquista (the Catholic Reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula), where both unbaptized Sephardic Jews and the ruling Muslim Moors were expelled.[244][245] In the Papal States, which existed until 1870, Jews were required to live only in specified neighborhoods called ghettos.[246] World War I poster showing a soldier cutting the bonds from a Jewish man, who says, "You have cut my bonds and set me free—now let me help you set others free!" Islam and Judaism have a complex relationship. Traditionally Jews and Christians living in Muslim lands, known as dhimmis, were allowed to practice their religions and administer their internal affairs, but they were subject to certain conditions.[247] They had to pay the jizya (a per capita tax imposed on free adult non-Muslim males) to the Islamic state.[247] Dhimmis had an inferior status under Islamic rule. They had several social and legal disabilities such as prohibitions against bearing arms or giving testimony in courts in cases involving Muslims.[248] Many of the disabilities were highly symbolic. The one described by Bernard Lewis as "most degrading"[249] was the requirement of distinctive clothing, not found in the Quran or hadith but invented in early medieval Baghdad; its enforcement was highly erratic.[249] On the other hand, Jews rarely faced martyrdom or exile, or forced compulsion to change their religion, and they were mostly free in their choice of residence and profession.[250] Notable exceptions include the massacre of Jews and forcible conversion of some Jews by the rulers of the Almohad dynasty in Al-Andalus in the 12th century,[251] as well as in Islamic Persia,[252] and the forced confinement of Moroccan Jews to walled quarters known as mellahs beginning from the 15th century and especially in the early 19th century.[253] In modern times, it has become commonplace for standard antisemitic themes to be conflated with anti-Zionist publications and pronouncements of Islamic movements such as Hezbollah and Hamas, in the pronouncements of various agencies of the Islamic Republic of Iran, and even in the newspapers and other publications of Turkish Refah Partisi."[254] Throughout history, many rulers, empires and nations have oppressed their Jewish populations or sought to eliminate them entirely. Methods employed ranged from expulsion to outright genocide; within nations, often the threat of these extreme methods was sufficient to silence dissent. The history of antisemitism includes the First Crusade which resulted in the massacre of Jews;[244] the Spanish Inquisition (led by Tomás de Torquemada) and the Portuguese Inquisition, with their persecution and autos-da-fé against the New Christians and Marrano Jews;[255] the Bohdan Chmielnicki Cossack massacres in Ukraine;[256] the Pogroms backed by the Russian Tsars;[257] as well as expulsions from Spain, Portugal, England, France, Germany, and other countries in which the Jews had settled.[245] According to a 2008 study published in the American Journal of Human Genetics, 19.8 percent of the modern Iberian population has Sephardic Jewish ancestry,[258] indicating that the number of conversos may have been much higher than originally thought.[259][260] Jews in Minsk, 1941. Before World War II some 40 percent of the population was Jewish. By the time the Red Army retook the city on 3 July 1944, there were only a few Jewish survivors. The persecution reached a peak in Nazi Germany's Final Solution, which led to the Holocaust and the slaughter of approximately 6 million Jews.[261] Of the world's 15 million Jews in 1939, more than a third were murdered in the Holocaust.[262][263] The Holocaust—the state-led systematic persecution and genocide of European Jews (and certain communities of North African Jews in European controlled North Africa) and other minority groups of Europe during World War II by Germany and its collaborators remains the most notable modern-day persecution of Jews.[264] The persecution and genocide were accomplished in stages. Legislation to remove the Jews from civil society was enacted years before the outbreak of World War II.[265] Concentration camps were established in which inmates were used as slave labour until they died of exhaustion or disease.[266] Where the Third Reich conquered new territory in Eastern Europe, specialized units called Einsatzgruppen murdered Jews and political opponents in mass shootings.[267] Jews and Roma were crammed into ghettos before being transported hundreds of kilometres by freight train to extermination camps where, if they survived the journey, the majority of them were murdered in gas chambers.[268] Virtually every arm of Germany's bureaucracy was involved in the logistics of the mass murder, turning the country into what one Holocaust scholar has called "a genocidal nation."[269] Migrations Further information: Expulsions of Jews Expulsions of Jews in Europe from 1100 to 1600 Throughout Jewish history, Jews have repeatedly been directly or indirectly expelled from both their original homeland, the Land of Israel, and many of the areas in which they have settled. This experience as refugees has shaped Jewish identity and religious practice in many ways, and is thus a major element of Jewish history.[270] The patriarch Abraham is described as a migrant to the land of Canaan from Ur of the Chaldees[271] after an attempt on his life by King Nimrod.[272] His descendants, the Children of Israel, in the Biblical story (whose historicity is uncertain) undertook the Exodus (meaning "departure" or "exit" in Greek) from ancient Egypt, as recorded in the Book of Exodus.[273] Etching of the expulsion of the Jews from Frankfurt in 1614. The text says: "1380 persons old and young were counted at the exit of the gate". Jews fleeing pogroms, 1882 Centuries later, Assyrian policy was to deport and displace conquered peoples, and it is estimated some 4,500,000 among captive populations suffered this dislocation over 3 centuries of Assyrian rule.[274] With regard to Israel, Tiglath-Pileser III claims he deported 80  of the population of Lower Galilee, some 13,520 people.[275] Some 27,000 Israelites, 20 to 25  of the population of the Kingdom of Israel, were described as being deported by Sargon II, and were replaced by other deported populations and sent into permanent exile by Assyria, initially to the Upper Mesopotamian provinces of the Assyrian Empire,[276][277] Between 10,000 and 80,000 people from the Kingdom of Judah were similarly exiled by Babylonia,[274] but these people were then returned to Judea by Cyrus the Great of the Persian Achaemenid Empire.[278] Many Jews were exiled again by the Roman Empire.[279] The 2,000 year dispersion of the Jewish diaspora beginning under the Roman Empire,[citation needed] as Jews were spread throughout the Roman world and, driven from land to land,[citation needed] settled wherever they could live freely enough to practice their religion. Over the course of the diaspora the center of Jewish life moved from Babylonia[280] to the Iberian Peninsula[281] to Poland[282] to the United States[283] and, as a result of Zionism, back to Israel.[284] There were also many expulsions of Jews during the Middle Ages and Enlightenment in Europe, including: 1290, 16,000 Jews were expelled from England, see the (Statute of Jewry); in 1396, 100,000 from France; in 1421 thousands were expelled from Austria. Many of these Jews settled in Eastern Europe, especially Poland.[285] Following the Spanish Inquisition in 1492, the Spanish population of around 200,000 Sephardic Jews were expelled by the Spanish crown and Catholic church, followed by expulsions in 1493 in Sicily (37,000 Jews) and Portugal in 1496. The expelled Jews fled mainly to the Ottoman Empire, the Netherlands, and North Africa, others migrating to Southern Europe and the Middle East.[286] During the 19th century, France's policies of equal citizenship regardless of religion led to the immigration of Jews (especially from Eastern and Central Europe).[287] This contributed to the arrival of millions of Jews in the New World. Over two million Eastern European Jews arrived in the United States from 1880 to 1925.[288] In summary, the pogroms in Eastern Europe,[257] the rise of modern antisemitism,[289] the Holocaust,[290] and the rise of Arab nationalism[291] all served to fuel the movements and migrations of huge segments of Jewry from land to land and continent to continent, until they arrived back in large numbers at their original historical homeland in Israel.[284] In the latest phase of migrations, the Islamic Revolution of Iran caused many Iranian Jews to flee Iran. Most found refuge in the US (particularly Los Angeles, California and Long Island, New York) and Israel. Smaller communities of Persian Jews exist in Canada and Western Europe.[292] Similarly, when the Soviet Union collapsed, many of the Jews in the affected territory (who had been refuseniks) were suddenly allowed to leave. This produced a wave of migration to Israel in the early 1990s.[217] Growth Praying at the Western Wall Israel is the only country with a Jewish population that is consistently growing through natural population growth, although the Jewish populations of other countries, in Europe and North America, have recently increased through immigration. In the Diaspora, in almost every country the Jewish population in general is either declining or steady, but Orthodox and Haredi Jewish communities, whose members often shun birth control for religious reasons, have experienced rapid population growth.[293] Orthodox and Conservative Judaism discourage proselytism to non-Jews, but many Jewish groups have tried to reach out to the assimilated Jewish communities of the Diaspora in order for them to reconnect to their Jewish roots. Additionally, while in principle Reform Judaism favors seeking new members for the faith, this position has not translated into active proselytism, instead taking the form of an effort to reach out to non-Jewish spouses of intermarried couples.[294] There is also a trend of Orthodox movements reaching out to secular Jews in order to give them a stronger Jewish identity so there is less chance of intermarriage. As a result of the efforts by these and other Jewish groups over the past 25 years, there has been a trend (known as the Baal teshuva movement) for secular Jews to become more religiously observant, though the demographic implications of the trend are unknown.[295] Additionally, there is also a growing rate of conversion to Jews by Choice of gentiles who make the decision to head in the direction of becoming Jews.[296] Contributions Jews have made many contributions to humanity in a broad and diverse range of fields, including the sciences, arts, politics, and business.[297] For example, over 20 percent[298][299][300][301][302][303] of Nobel Prize laureates have been of Jewish descent, with multiple winners in each category.[304] Jewish people have also won Fields Medals,[305][better source needed] ACM Turing Awards,[306][better source needed] World chess championships including 8 of the top 100 world chess players,[307][failed verification] and Westinghouse Science Talent Search awards.[305][better source needed] See also Judaism portal Jewish studies Lists of Jews Notes ^ The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure. In addition to issues with census methodology, disputes among proponents of halakhic, secular, political, and ancestral identification factors regarding who is a Jew may affect the figure considerably depending on the source.[33] References ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Dashefsky, Arnold; Della Pergola, Sergio; Sheskin, Ira, eds. (2018). World Jewish Population (PDF) (Report). Berman Jewish DataBank. Retrieved 22 June 2019. ^ a b c "Links". Beth Hatefutsoth. Archived from the original on 26 March 2009. Retrieved 2 April 2012. ^ Kiaris, Hippokratis (2012). Genes, Polymorphisms and the Making of Societies: How Genetic Behavioral Traits Influence Human Cultures. Universal Publishers. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-61233-093-8. ^ a b c d Shen, Peidong; Lavi, Tal; Kivisild, Toomas; Chou, Vivian; Sengun, Deniz; Gefel, Dov; Shpirer, Issac; Woolf, Eilon; Hillel, Jossi; Feldman, Marcus W.; Oefner, Peter J. (September 2004). "Reconstruction of patrilineages and matrilineages of Samaritans and other Israeli populations from Y-Chromosome and mitochondrial DNA sequence Variation". Human Mutation. 24 (3): 248–260. doi:10.1002/humu.20077. PMID 15300852. S2CID 1571356. ^ a b Ridolfo, Jim (2015). Digital Samaritans: Rhetorical Delivery and Engagement in the Digital Humanities. University of Michigan Press. p. 69. ISBN 978-0-472-07280-4. ^ Wade, Nicholas (9 June 2010). "Studies Show Jews' Genetic Similarity". The New York Times. ^ Nebel, Almut; Filon, Dvora; Weiss, Deborah A.; Weale, Michael; Faerman, Marina; Oppenheim, Ariella; Thomas, Mark G. (December 2000). "High-resolution Y chromosome haplotypes of Israeli and Palestinian Arabs reveal geographic substructure and substantial overlap with haplotypes of Jews". Human Genetics. 107 (6): 630–641. doi:10.1007/s004390000426. PMID 11153918. S2CID 8136092. ^ a b "Jews Are The Genetic Brothers Of Palestinians, Syrians, And Lebanese". Sciencedaily.com. 9 May 2000. Retrieved 12 April 2013. ^ a b c Atzmon, Gil; Hao, Li; Pe'er, Itsik; Velez, Christopher; Pearlman, Alexander; Palamara, Pier Francesco; Morrow, Bernice; Friedman, Eitan; Oddoux, Carole; Burns, Edward; Ostrer, Harry (June 2010). "Abraham's Children in the Genome Era: Major Jewish Diaspora Populations Comprise Distinct Genetic Clusters with Shared Middle Eastern Ancestry". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 86 (6): 850–859. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2010.04.015. PMC 3032072. PMID 20560205. ^ a b Ethnic minorities in English law. Books.google.co.uk. Retrieved on 23 December 2010. Edgar Litt (1961). "Jewish Ethno-Religious Involvement and Political Liberalism". Social Forces. 39 (4): 328–32. doi:10.2307/2573430. JSTOR 2573430. Craig R. Prentiss (2003). Religion and the Creation of Race and Ethnicity: An Introduction. NYU Press. pp. 85–. ISBN 978-0-8147-6700-9. The Avraham Harman Institute of Contemporary Jewry The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Eli Lederhendler Stephen S. Wise Professor of American Jewish History and Institutions (2001). Studies in Contemporary Jewry : Volume XVII: Who Owns Judaism? Public Religion and Private Faith in America and Israel: Volume XVII: Who Owns Judaism? Public Religion and Private Faith in America and Israel. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 101–. ISBN 978-0-19-534896-5. Ernest Krausz; Gitta Tulea. Jewish Survival: The Identity Problem at the Close of the Twentieth Century; [... International Workshop at Bar-Ilan University on the 18th and 19th of March, 1997]. Transaction Publishers. pp. 90–. ISBN 978-1-4128-2689-1. John A. Shoup III (2011). Ethnic Groups of Africa and the Middle East: An Encyclopedia: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 133. ISBN 978-1-59884-363-7. Tet-Lim N. Yee (2005). Jews, Gentiles and Ethnic Reconciliation: Paul's Jewish identity and Ephesians. Cambridge University Press. pp. 102–. ISBN 978-1-139-44411-8. ^ a b M. Nicholson (2002). International Relations: A Concise Introduction. NYU Press. pp. 19–. ISBN 978-0-8147-5822-9. "The Jews are a nation and were so before there was a Jewish state of Israel" ^ a b Alan Dowty (1998). The Jewish State: A Century Later, Updated With a New Preface. University of California Press. pp. 3–. ISBN 978-0-520-92706-3. "Jews are a people, a nation (in the original sense of the word), an ethnos" ^ Raymond P. Scheindlin (1998). A Short History of the Jewish People: From Legendary Times to Modern Statehood. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–. ISBN 978-0-19-513941-9. Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites" ^ Facts On File, Incorporated (2009). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East. Infobase Publishing. pp. 337–. ISBN 978-1-4381-2676-0."The people of the Kingdom of Israel and the ethnic and religious group known as the Jewish people that descended from them have been subjected to a number of forced migrations in their history" ^ Harry Ostrer MD (2012). Legacy: A Genetic History of the Jewish People. Oxford University Press. pp. 26–. ISBN 978-0-19-997638-6. ^ "In the broader sense of the term, a Jew is any person belonging to the worldwide group that constitutes, through descent or conversion, a continuation of the ancient Jewish people, who were themselves descendants of the Hebrews of the Old Testament." Jew at Encyclopædia Britannica ^ "Hebrew, any member of an ancient northern Semitic people that were the ancestors of the Jews." Hebrew (People) at Encyclopædia Britannica ^ Eli Lederhendler (2001). Studies in Contemporary Jewry: Volume XVII: Who Owns Judaism? Public Religion and Private Faith in America and Israel. Oxford University Press. pp. 101–. ISBN 978-0-19-534896-5. "Historically, the religious and ethnic dimensions of Jewish identity have been closely interwoven. In fact, so closely bound are they, that the traditional Jewish lexicon hardly distinguishes between the two concepts. Jewish religious practice, by definition, was observed exclusively by the Jewish people, and notions of Jewish peoplehood, nation, and community were suffused with faith in the Jewish God, the practice of Jewish (religious) law and the study of ancient religious texts" ^ Tet-Lim N. Yee (2005). Jews, Gentiles and Ethnic Reconciliation: Paul's Jewish identity and Ephesians. Cambridge University Press. pp. 102–. ISBN 978-1-139-44411-8. "This identification in the Jewish attitude between the ethnic group and religious identity is so close that the reception into this religion of members not belonging to its ethnic group has become impossible." ^ Ernest Krausz; Gitta Tulea (1997). Jewish Survival: The Identity Problem at the Close of the Twentieth Century; [... International Workshop at Bar-Ilan University on the 18th and 19th of March, 1997]. Transaction Publishers. pp. 90–. ISBN 978-1-4128-2689-1. "A person born Jewish who refutes Judaism may continue to assert a Jewish identity, and if he or she does not convert to another religion, even religious Jews will recognize the person as a Jew" ^ "Facts About Israel: History". GxMSDev. ^ a b K. L. Noll (2012), Canaan and Israel in Antiquity: A Textbook on History and Religion, A&C Black, rev.ed. pp. 137ff. ^ a b Thomas L. Thompson (2000),Early History of the Israelite People: From the Written & Archaeological Sources, Brill, pp. 275–76: 'They are rather a very specific group among the population of Palestine which bears a name that occurs here for the first time that at a much later stage in Palestine's history bears a substantially different signification.' ^ a b John Day (2005), In Search of Pre-Exilic Israel, Bloomsbury Publishing, pp. 47.5 [48] 'In this sense, the emergence of ancient Israel is viewed not as the cause of the demise of Canaanite culture but as its upshot'. ^ Day, pp. 31–33, p. 57, n. 33. ^ Rainer Albertz (2003), Israel in Exile: The History and Literature of the Sixth Century B.C.E. Society of Biblical Lit, pp. 45ff: 'Since the exilic era constitutes a gaping hole in the historical narrative of the Bible, historical reconstruction of this era faces almost insurmountable difficulties. Like the premonarchic period and the late Persian period, the exilic period, though set in the bright light of Ancient Near Eastern history, remains historically obscure. Since there are very few Israelite sources, the only recourse is to try to cast some light on this darkness from the history of the surrounding empires under whose dominion Israel came in this period.' ^ Marvin Perry (2012). Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume I: To 1789. Cengage Learning. p. 87. ISBN 978-1-111-83720-4. Botticini, Maristella and Zvi Eckstein. "From Farmers to Merchants, Voluntary Conversions and Diaspora: A Human Capital Interpretation of History." pp. 18–19. August 2006. Accessed 21 November 2015. "The death toll of the Great Revolt against the Roman empire amounted to about 600,000 Jews, whereas the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 caused the death of about 500,000 Jews. Massacres account for roughly 40 percent of the decrease of the Jewish population in Palestine. Moreover, some Jews migrated to Babylon after these revolts because of the worse economic conditions. After accounting for massacres and migrations, there is an additional 30 to 40 percent of the decrease in the Jewish population in Palestine (about 1–1.3 million Jews) to be explained" (p. 19). Boyarin, Daniel, and Jonathan Boyarin. 2003. Diaspora: Generation and the Ground of Jewish Diaspora. p. 714 "...it is crucial to recognize that the Jewish conception of the Land of Israel is similar to the discourse of the Land of many (if not nearly all) "indigenous" peoples of the world. Somehow the Jews have managed to retain a sense of being rooted somewhere in the world through twenty centuries of exile from that someplace (organic metaphors are not out of place in this discourse, for they are used within the tradition itself). It is profoundly disturbing to hear Jewish attachment to the Land decried as regressive in the same discursive situations in which the attachment of native Americans or Australians to their particular rocks, trees, and deserts is celebrated as an organic connection to the Earth that "we" have lost" p. 714. Cohen, Robin (1997), Global Diasporas: An Introduction. p. 24 London: UCL Press. "...although the word Babylon often connotes captivity and oppression, a rereading of the Babylonian period of exile can thus be shown to demonstrate the development of a new creative energy in a challenging, pluralistic context outside the natal homeland. When the Romans destroyed the Second Temple in AD 70, it was Babylon that remained as the nerve- and brain-centre for Jewish life and thought...the crushing of the revolt of the Judaeans against the Romans and the destruction of the Second Temple by the Roman general Titus in AD 70 precisely confirmed the catastrophic tradition. Once again, Jews had been unable to sustain a national homeland and were scattered to the far corners of the world" (p. 24). Johnson, Paul A History of the Jews "The Bar Kochba Revolt," (HarperPerennial, 1987) pp. 158–61: Paul Johnson analyzes Cassius Dio's Roman History: Epitome of Book LXIX para. 13–14 (Dio's passage cited separately) among other sources: "Even if Dio's figures are somewhat exaggerated, the casualties amongst the population and the destruction inflicted on the country would have been considerable. According to Jerome, many Jews were also sold into slavery, so many, indeed, that the price of Jewish slaves at the slave market in Hebron sank drastically to a level no greater than that for a horse. The economic structure of the country was largely destroyed. The entire spiritual and economic life of the Palestinian Jews moved to Galilee. Jerusalem was now turned into a Roman colony with the official name Colonia Aelia Capitolina (Aelia after Hadrian's family name: P. Aelius Hadrianus; Capitolina after Jupiter Capitolinus). The Jews were forbidden on pain of death to set foot in the new Roman city. Aelia thus became a completely pagan city, no doubt with the corresponding public buildings and temples... We can...be certain that a statue of Hadrian was erected in the centre of Aelia, and this was tantamount in itself to a desecration of Jewish Jerusalem." p. 159. Cassius Dio's Roman History: Epitome of Book LXIX para. 13–14: "13 At first the Romans took no account of them. Soon, however, all Judaea had been stirred up, and the Jews everywhere were showing signs of disturbance, were gathering together, and giving evidence of great hostility to the Romans, partly by secret and partly by overt acts; 2 many outside nations, too, were joining them through eagerness for gain, and the whole earth, one might almost say, was being stirred up over the matter. Then, indeed, Hadrian sent against them his best generals. First of these was Julius Severus, who was dispatched from Britain, where he was governor, against the Jews. 3 Severus did not venture to attack his opponents in the open at any one point, in view of their numbers and their desperation, but by intercepting small groups, thanks to the number of his soldiers and his under-officers, and by depriving them of food and shutting them up, he was able, rather slowly, to be sure, but with comparatively little danger, to crush, exhaust and exterminate them. Very few of them in fact survived. Fifty of their most important outposts and nine hundred and eighty-five of their most famous villages were razed to the ground. Five hundred and eighty thousand men were slain in the various raids and battles, and the number of those that perished by famine, disease and fire was past finding out. 2 Thus nearly the whole of Judaea was made desolate, a result of which the people had had forewarning before the war. For the tomb of Solomon, which the Jews regard as an object of veneration, fell to pieces of itself and collapsed, and many wolves and hyenas rushed howling into their cities. 3 Many Romans, moreover, perished in this war. Therefore Hadrian in writing to the senate did not employ the opening phrase commonly affected by the emperors, 'If you and our children are in health, it is well; I and the legions are in health'" (para. 13–14). Safran, William. 2005. The Jewish Diaspora in a Comparative and Theoretical Perspective. Israel Studies 10 (1): 36.[dead link] "...diaspora referred to a very specific case—that of the exile of the Jews from the Holy Land and their dispersal throughout several parts of the globe. Diaspora [galut] connoted deracination, legal disabilities, oppression, and an often painful adjustment to a hostland whose hospitality was unreliable and ephemeral. It also connoted the existence on foreign soil of an expatriate community that considered its presence to be transitory. Meanwhile, it developed a set of institutions, social patterns, and ethnonational and/or religious symbols that held it together. These included the language, religion, values, social norms, and narratives of the homeland. Gradually, this community adjusted to the hostland environment and became itself a center of cultural creation. All the while, however, it continued to cultivate the idea of return to the homeland." (p. 36). Sheffer, Gabriel. 2005. Is the Jewish Diaspora Unique? Reflections on the Diaspora's Current Situation. Israel Studies 10 (1): pp. 3–4 "...the Jewish nation, which from its very earliest days believed and claimed that it was the "chosen people," and hence unique. This attitude has further been buttressed by the equally traditional view, which is held not only by the Jews themselves, about the exceptional historical age of this diaspora, its singular traumatic experiences its singular ability to survive pogroms, exiles, and Holocaust, as well as its "special relations" with its ancient homeland, culminating in 1948 with the nation-state that the Jewish nation has established there... First, like many other members of established diasporas, the vast majority of Jews no longer regard themselves as being in Galut [exile] in their host countries.…Perceptually, as well as actually, Jews permanently reside in host countries of their own free will, as a result of inertia, or as a result of problematic conditions prevailing in other hostlands, or in Israel. It means that the basic perception of many Jews about their existential situation in their hostlands has changed. Consequently, there is both a much greater self- and collective-legitimatization to refrain from making serious plans concerning "return" or actually "making Aliyah" [to emigrate, or "go up"] to Israel. This is one of the results of their wider, yet still rather problematic and sometimes painful acceptance by the societies and political systems in their host countries. It means that they, and to an extent their hosts, do not regard Jewish life within the framework of diasporic formations in these hostlands as something that they should be ashamed of, hide from others, or alter by returning to the old homeland" (p. 4). Davies, William David; Finkelstein, Louis; Katz, Steven T. (1984). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Although Dio's figure of 985 as the number of villages destroyed during the war seems hyperbolic, all Judaean villages, without exception, excavated thus far were razed following the Bar Kochba Revolt. This evidence supports the impression of total regional destruction following the war. Historical sources note the vast number of captives sold into slavery in Palestine and shipped abroad. ... The Judaean Jewish community never recovered from the Bar Kochba war. In its wake, Jews no longer formed the majority in Palestine, and the Jewish center moved to the Galilee. Jews were also subjected to a series of religious edicts promulgated by Hadrian that were designed to uproot the nationalistic elements with the Judaean Jewish community, these proclamations remained in effect until Hadrian's death in 138. An additional, more lasting punitive measure taken by the Romans involved expunging Judaea from the provincial name, changing it from Provincia Judaea to Provincia Syria Palestina. Although such name changes occurred elsewhere, never before or after was a nation's name expunged as the result of rebellion. Dalit Rom-Shiloni, Exclusive Inclusivity: Identity Conflicts Between the Exiles and the People who Remained (6th–5th Centuries BCE), A&C Black, 2013 p. xv n.3: 'it is argued that biblical texts of the Neo-Babylonian and the early Persian periods show a fierce adversarial relationship(s) between the Judean groups. We find no expressions of sympathy to the deported community for its dislocation, no empathic expressions towards the People Who Remained under Babylonian subjugation in Judah. The opposite is apparent: hostile, denigrating, and denunciating language characterizes the relationships between resident and exiled Judeans throughout the sixth and fifth centuries.' (p. xvii) ^ Dosick (2007), pp. 59, 60. ^ a b "The Jewish Population of the World (2014)". Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved 30 June 2015., based on American Jewish Year Book. American Jewish Committee. ^ "Holocaust | Basic questions about the Holocaust". www.projetaladin.org. Retrieved 10 November 2015. ^ "The Holocaust". HISTORY.com. Retrieved 10 November 2015. ^ "Jews make up only 0.2% of mankind". ynetnews. October 2012. ^ Pfeffer, Anshel (12 September 2007). "Jewish Agency: 13.2 million Jews worldwide on eve of Rosh Hashanah, 5768". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 19 March 2009. Retrieved 24 January 2009. ^ A 1970 amendment to Israel's Law of Return defines "Jew" as "a person who was born of a Jewish mother or has become converted to Judaism and who is not a member of another religion." "Law of Return". ^ "Maimonides – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy". utm.edu. Retrieved 26 August 2015. ^ Sekine, Seizo (20 January 2005). A Comparative Study of the Origins of Ethical Thought: Hellenism and Hebraism. Sheed & Ward. ISBN 978-1-4616-7459-7.[page needed] ^ a b c d e Jonathan Daly (2013). The Rise of Western Power: A Comparative History of Western Civilization. A&C Black. pp. 21–. ISBN 978-1-4411-1851-6."Upon the foundation of Judaism, two civilizations centered on monotheistic religion emerged, Christianity and Islam. To these civilizations, the Jews added a leaven of astonishing creativity in business, medicine, letters, science, the arts, and a variety of other leadership roles." ^ "Broadway Musicals: A Jewish Legacy". DC Theatre Scene. ^ Roni Caryn Rabin Exhibition Traces the emergence of Jews as medical innovators, The New York Times (14 May 2012). Accessed 16 August 2015. ^ Shatzmiller, Joseph. Doctors to Princes and Paupers: Jews, Medicine, and Medieval Society. Berkeley: U of California, 1995. Print. ^ Max I. Dimont (2004). Jews, God, and History. Penguin Publishing Group. pp. 102–. ISBN 978-1-101-14225-7. "During the subsequent five hundred years, under Persian, Greek and Roman domination, the Jews wrote, revised, admitted and canonized all the books now comprising the Jewish Old Testament" ^ Julie Galambush (2011). The Reluctant Parting: How the New Testament's Jewish Writers Created a Christian Book. HarperCollins. pp. 3–. ISBN 978-0-06-210475-5."The fact that Jesus and his followers who wrote the New Testament were first-century Jews, then, produces as many questions as it does answers concerning their experiences, beliefs, and practices" ^ John M. G. Barclay; John Philip McMurdo Sweet (1996). Early Christian Thought in Its Jewish Context. Cambridge University Press. pp. 20–. ISBN 978-0-521-46285-3."Early Christianity began as a Jewish movement in first-century Palestine" ^ Dr. Andrea C. Paterson (2009). Three Monotheistic Faiths – Judaism, Christianity, Islam: An Analysis and Brief History. AuthorHouse. pp. 41–. ISBN 978-1-4520-3049-4. "Judaism also contributed to the religion of Islam for Islam derives its ideas of holy text, the Qur'an, ultimately from Judaism. The dietary and legal codes of Islam are based on those of Judaism. The basic design of the mosque, the Islamic house of worship, comes from that of the early synagogues. The communal prayer services of Islam and their devotional routines resembles those of Judaism." ^ Cambridge University Historical Series, An Essay on Western Civilization in Its Economic Aspects, p. 40: Hebraism, like Hellenism, has been an all-important factor in the development of Western Civilization; Judaism, as the precursor of Christianity, has indirectly had had much to do with shaping the ideals and morality of western nations since the christian era. ^ Role of Judaism in Western culture and civilization, "Judaism has played a significant role in the development of Western culture because of its unique relationship with Christianity, the dominant religious force in the West". Judaism at Encyclopædia Britannica ^ Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East, Facts On File Inc., Infobase Publishing, 2009, p. 336 ^ "Jew", Oxford English Dictionary. ^ Botterweck, G. Johannes; Ringgren, Helmer, eds. (1986). Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. V. Translated by Green, David E. Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans. pp. 483–84. ISBN 978-0-8028-2329-8. ^ Grintz, Yehoshua M. (2007). "Jew". In Fred Skolnik (ed.). Encyclopaedia Judaica. 11 (2d ed.). Farmington Hills, Mich.: Thomson Gale. p. 253. ISBN 978-0-02-865928-2. ^ Falk, Avner (1996). A Psychoanalytic History of the Jews. Madison, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p. 131. ISBN 0-8386-3660-8. ^ "Yiddish". Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (11th ed.). Springfield, Massachusetts: Merriam-Webster. 2004. p. 1453. ISBN 0-87779-809-5. ^ Kleinedler, Steven; Spitz, Susan; et al., eds. (2005). The American Heritage Guide to Contemporary Usage and Style. Houghton Mifflin Company. Jew. ISBN 978-0-618-60499-9. ^ Jacob Neusner (1991). An Introduction to Judaism: A Textbook and Reader. Westminster John Knox Press. pp. 375–. ISBN 978-0-664-25348-6. "That there is a Jewish nation can hardly be denied after the creation of the State of Israel" ^ Brandeis, Louis (25 April 1915). "The Jewish Problem: How To Solve It". University of Louisville School of Law. Retrieved 2 April 2012. Jews are a distinctive nationality of which every Jew, whatever his country, his station or shade of belief, is necessarily a member ^ Palmer, Edward Henry (2002) [First published 1874]. A History of the Jewish Nation: From the Earliest Times to the Present Day. Gorgias Press. ISBN 978-1-931956-69-7. OCLC 51578088. Retrieved 2 April 2012. Lay summary. ^ Einstein, Albert (21 June 1921). "How I Became a Zionist" (PDF). Einstein Papers Project. Princeton University Press. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 November 2015. Retrieved 5 April 2012. The Jewish nation is a living fact ^ David M. Gordis; Zachary I. Heller (2012). Jewish Secularity: The Search for Roots and the Challenges of Relevant Meaning. University Press of America. pp. 1–. ISBN 978-0-7618-5793-8.: "Judaism is a culture and a civilization which embraces the secular as well" ^ Seth Daniel Kunin (2000). Themes and Issues in Judaism. A&C Black. pp. 1–. ISBN 978-0-304-33758-3.: Although culture - and Judaism is a culture (or cultures) as well as religion - can be subdivided into different analytical categories..." ^ Paul R. Mendes-Flohr (1991). Divided Passions: Jewish Intellectuals and the Experience of Modernity. Wayne State University Press. pp. 421–. ISBN 0-8143-2030-9.: "Although Judaism is a culture - or rather has a culture - it is eminently more than a culture" ^ "What Makes a Jew Jewish?". Chabad.org. Retrieved 2 October 2013. ^ Weiner, Rebecca (2007). "Who is a Jew?". Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved 6 October 2007. ^ Fowler, Jeaneane D. (1997). World Religions: An Introduction for Students. Sussex Academic Press. p. 7. ISBN 1-898723-48-6. ^ "What is the origin of Matrilineal Descent?". Shamash.org. 4 September 2003. Archived from the original on 18 October 1996. Retrieved 9 January 2009. ^ "What is the source of the law that a child is Jewish only if its mother is Jewish?". Torah.org. Archived from the original on 24 December 2008. Retrieved 9 January 2009. ^ a b Emma Klein (2016). Lost Jews: The Struggle for Identity Today. Springer. pp. 6–. ISBN 978-1-349-24319-8. ^ Robin May Schott (2010). Birth, Death, and Femininity: Philosophies of Embodiment. Indiana University Press. pp. 67–. ISBN 978-0-253-00482-6. ^ Dosick (2007), pp. 56–57. ^ a b Shaye J.D. Cohen (1999). The Beginnings of Jewishness. U. California Press. pp. 305–06. ISBN 0-585-24643-2. ^ Mieroop, Marc Van De (2010). A History of Ancient Egypt. John Wiley & Sons. p. 131. ISBN 978-1-4051-6070-4. ^ Bard, Kathryn A. (2015). An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. John Wiley & Sons. p. 188. ISBN 978-1-118-89611-2. ^ Curry, Andrew (2018). "The Rulers of Foreign Lands – Archaeology Magazine". www.archaeology.org. ^ Kamrin, Janice (2009). "The Aamu of Shu in the Tomb of Khnumhotep II at Beni Hassan". Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections. 1 (3): 22–36. S2CID 199601200. ^ Kuan, Jeffrey Kah-Jin (2016). Neo-Assyrian Historical Inscriptions and Syria-Palestine: Israelite/Judean-Tyrian-Damascene Political and Commercial Relations in the Ninth-Eighth Centuries BCE. Wipf and Stock Publishers. pp. 64–66. ISBN 978-1-4982-8143-0. ^ Cohen, Ada; Kangas, Steven E. (2010). Assyrian Reliefs from the Palace of Ashurnasirpal II: A Cultural Biography. UPNE. p. 127. ISBN 978-1-58465-817-7. ^ Ostrer, Harry (2012). Legacy: A Genetic History of the Jewish People. Oxford University Press (published 8 May 2012). ISBN 978-0-19-537961-7. ^ Ann E. Killebrew, Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity. An Archaeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanites, Philistines and Early Israel 1300–1100 B.C.E. (Archaeology and Biblical Studies), Society of Biblical Literature, 2005 ^ Schama, Simon (2014). The Story of the Jews: Finding the Words 1000 BC–1492 AD. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-233944-7. ^ * "In the broader sense of the term, a Jew is any person belonging to the worldwide group that constitutes, through descent or conversion, a continuation of the ancient Jewish people, who were themselves the descendants of the Hebrews of the Old Testament." "The Jewish people as a whole, initially called Hebrews (ʿIvrim), were known as Israelites (Yisreʾelim) from the time of their entrance into the Holy Land to the end of the Babylonian Exile (538 BC)." Jew at Encyclopædia Britannica ^ Ostrer, Harry (2012). Legacy: A Genetic History of the Jewish People. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-970205-3. ^ Brenner, Michael (2010). A Short History of the Jews. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-14351-4. ^ Adams, Hannah (1840). The History of the Jews: From the Destruction of Jerusalem to the Present Time. London Society House. ^ a b Broshi, Maguen (2001). Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 174. ISBN 1-84127-201-9. ^ "Israelite refugees found high office in Kingdom of Judah, seals found in Jerusalem show". www.haaretz.com. ^ "Judah". Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 1 April 2018. ^ Dever, William (2001). What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and When Did They Know It?. Eerdmans. pp. 98–99. ISBN 3-927120-37-5. After a century of exhaustive investigation, all respectable archaeologists have given up hope of recovering any context that would make Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob credible "historical figures" [...] archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus has similarly been discarded as a fruitless pursuit. ^ Tubb, 1998. pp. 13–14[full citation needed] ^ Mark Smith in "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" states "Despite the long regnant model that the Canaanites and Israelites were people of fundamentally different culture, archaeological data now casts doubt on this view. The material culture of the region exhibits numerous common points between Israelites and Canaanites in the Iron I period (c. 1200–1000 BCE). The record would suggest that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. Given the information available, one cannot maintain a radical cultural separation between Canaanites and Israelites for the Iron I period." (pp. 6–7). Smith, Mark (2002) "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" (Eerdman's) ^ Rendsberg, Gary (2008). "Israel without the Bible". In Frederick E. Greenspahn. The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship. NYU Press, pp. 3–5 ^ Spielvogel, Jackson J. (2012). Western civilization (8th ed.). Australia: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-495-91324-5. What is generally agreed, however, is that between 1200 and 1000 B.C.E., the Israelites emerged as a distinct group of people, possibly united into tribes or a league of tribes ^ For a bibliography of scholars who doubt anything like the period of the Judges ever occurred, see John C. Yoder (2015). Power and Politics in the Book of Judges: Men and Women of Valor. Fortress Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-4514-9642-0. ^ Marc Zvi Brettler (2002). The Book of Judges. Psychology Press. p. 107. ISBN 978-0-415-16216-6. ^ Thomas L. Thompson (2000). Early History of the Israelite People: From the Written & Archaeological Sources. Brill. p. 96. ISBN 90-04-11943-4. ^ Hjelm, Ingrid; Thompson, Thomas L, eds. (2016). History, Archaeology and The Bible Forty Years After "Historicity": Changing Perspectives. Routledge. p. 4. ISBN 978-1-317-42815-2. ^ Philip R. Davies (1995). In Search of "Ancient Israel": A Study in Biblical Origins. A&C Black. p. 26. ISBN 978-1-85075-737-5. ^ Lipschits, Oded (2014). "The History of Israel in the Biblical Period". In Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc Zvi (eds.). The Jewish Study Bible (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-997846-5. ^ a b c Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2001). The Bible unearthed : archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories (1st Touchstone ed.). New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-86912-8. ^ a b Kuhrt, Amiele (1995). The Ancient Near East. Routledge. p. 438. ISBN 978-0-415-16762-8. ^ a b Wright, Jacob L. (July 2014). "David, King of Judah (Not Israel)". The Bible and Interpretation. ^ Jonathan M Golden,Ancient Canaan and Israel: An Introduction, OUP USA, 2009 pp. 3–4. ^ Lemche, Niels Peter (1998). The Israelites in History and Tradition. Westminster John Knox Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-664-22727-2. ^ The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995 Quote: "For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date." ^ Julia Phillips Berger; Sue Parker Gerson (2006). Teaching Jewish History. Behrman House, Inc. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-86705-183-4. ^ The people and the faith of the Bible by André Chouraqui, Univ of Massachusetts Press, 1975, p. 43 [1] ^ The Hebrews: A Learning Module from Washington State University, © Richard Hooker, reprinted by permission by the Jewish Virtual Library under The Babylonian Exile ^ a b "Second Temple Period (538 BCE. to 70 CE) Persian Rule". Biu.ac.il. Retrieved 15 March 2014. ^ Harper's Bible Dictionary, ed. by Achtemeier, etc., Harper & Row, San Francisco, 1985, p. 103 ^ a b Becking, Bob (2006). ""We All Returned as One!": Critical Notes on the Myth of the Mass Return". In Lipschitz, Oded; Oeming, Manfred (eds.). Judah and the Judeans in the Persian Period. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-57506-104-7. ^ a b Grabbe, Lester L. (2004). A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: Yehud - A History of the Persian Province of Judah v. 1. T & T Clark. p. 355. ISBN 978-0-567-08998-4. ^ Yehud being the Aramaic equivalent of the Hebrew Yehuda, or "Judah", and "medinata" the word for province ^ Peter Fibiger Bang; Walter Scheidel (2013). The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean. OUP USA. pp. 184–87. ISBN 978-0-19-518831-8. ^ Johnson (1987), p. 82. ^ Jared Diamond (1993). "Who are the Jews?" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 8 November 2010. Natural History 102:11 (November 1993): 12–19. ^ Hammer, MF; Redd, AJ; Wood, ET; et al. (June 2000). "Jewish and Middle Eastern non-Jewish populations share a common pool of Y-chromosome biallelic haplotypes". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 97 (12): 6769–74. Bibcode:2000PNAS...97.6769H. doi:10.1073/pnas.100115997. PMC 18733. PMID 10801975. ^ Wade, Nicholas (9 May 2000). "Y Chromosome Bears Witness to Story of the Jewish Diaspora". The New York Times. Retrieved 10 October 2012. ^ Balter, Michael (3 June 2010). 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Ruth – "The People of Israel – the history of 4000 years – from the days of the Forefathers to the Peace Treaty", 1981, p. 95) ^ a b Dr. Solomon Gryazel, "History of the Jews – From the destruction of Judah in 586 BC to the present Arab Israeli conflict", p. 137 ^ Salo Wittmayer Baron (1937). A Social and Religious History of the Jews, by Salo Wittmayer Baron ... Volume 1 of A Social and Religious History of the Jews. Columbia University Press. p. 132. ^ Jews in the Hellenistic and Roman Cities. Routledge. London and New york. 2002. pp. 90, 94, 104–05. ISBN 978-0-203-44634-8. ^ Leonard Victor Rutgers (1998). The Hidden Heritage of Diaspora Judaism: Volume 20 of Contributions to biblical exegesis and theology. Peeters Publishers. p. 202. ISBN 978-90-429-0666-2. ^ a b c Louis H. Feldman (2006). Judaism And Hellenism Reconsidered. Brill. ^ Goodman, Martin (26 February 2010). "Secta and natio". The Times Literary Supplement. 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This, in a world in which Jews number just a fraction of 1 percent of the population. ^ "Jewish Nobel Prize Winners". Retrieved 25 November 2011. ^ Ted Falcon; David Blatner (2001). "28". Judaism for dummies. John Wiley & Sons. Similarly, because Jews make up less than a quarter of one percent of the world's population, it's surprising that over 20 percent of Nobel prizes have been awarded to Jews or people of Jewish descent. ^ Lawrence E. Harrison (2008). The Central Liberal Truth: How Politics Can Change a Culture and Save It. Oxford University Press. p. 102. That achievement is symbolized by the fact that 15 to 20 percent of Nobel Prizes have been won by Jews, who represent two tenths of one percent of the world's population. ^ Jonathan B. Krasner; Jonathan D. Sarna (2006). The History of the Jewish People: Ancient Israel to 1880s America. Behrman House, Inc. p. 1. These accomplishments account for 20 percent of the Nobel Prizes awarded since 1901. What a feat for a people who make up only .2 percent of the world's population! ^ "Jewish Nobel Prize Winners". Jinfo.org. Retrieved 16 March 2016. At least 194 Jews and people of half- or three-quarters-Jewish ancestry have been awarded the Nobel Prize, accounting for 22% of all individual recipients worldwide between 1901 and 2015, and constituting 36% of all US recipients during the same period. In the scientific research fields of Chemistry, Economics, Physics, and Physiology/Medicine, the corresponding world and US percentages are 26% and 38%, respectively. Among women laureates in the four research fields, the Jewish percentages (world and US) are 33% and 50%, respectively. Of organizations awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, 22% were founded principally by Jews or by people of half-Jewish descent. Since the turn of the century (i.e., since the year 2000), Jews have been awarded 25% of all Nobel Prizes and 28% of those in the scientific research fields. ^ a b Entine, Jon (2007). Abraham's Children: Race, Identity, and the DNA of the Chosen People. Hachette Digital, Inc. p. 211. ISBN 978-0-446-58063-2. ^ Cochran, Gregory; Hardy, Jason; Harpending, Henry (September 2006). "Natural History of Ashkenazi Intelligence". Journal of Biosocial Science. 38 (5): 659–693. doi:10.1017/S0021932005027069. PMID 16867211. ^ "Top 100 Players October 2013 FIDE Top players archive". Ratings.fide.com. Retrieved 31 October 2013. Further reading Baron, Salo Wittmayer (1952). A Social and Religious History of the Jews, Volume II, Ancient Times, Part II. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. Carr, David R. (2003) [2000]. "Judaism in Christendom". In Neusner, Jacob; Avery-Peck, Alan J. (eds.). The Blackwell Companion to Judaism. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-57718-058-5. Cowling, Geoffrey (2005). Introduction to World Religions. Singapore: First Fortress Press. ISBN 0-8006-3714-3. Dekmejian, R. Hrair (1975). Patterns of Political Leadership: Egypt, Israel, Lebanon. State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-87395-291-X. de Lange, Nicholas (2002) [2000]. An Introduction to Judaism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-46073-5. Dosick, Wayne (2007). Living Judaism. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-062179-7. Elazar, Daniel J. (2003) [2000]. "Judaism as a Theopolitical Phenomenon". In Neusner, Jacob; Avery-Peck, Alan J. (eds.). The Blackwell Companion to Judaism. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-57718-058-5. Feldman, Louis H. (2006). Judaism and Hellenism Reconsidered. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. ISBN 90-04-14906-6. Gartner, Lloyd P. (2001). History of the Jews in Modern Times. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-289259-2. Goldenberg, Robert (2007). The Origins of Judaism: From Canaan to the Rise of Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84453-6. Goldstein, Joseph (1995). Jewish History in Modern Times. Sussex Academic Press. ISBN 1-898723-06-0. Gould, Allan (1991). What did they think of the Jews?. J. Aronson. ISBN 978-0-87668-751-2. Johnson, Paul (1987). A History of the Jews. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-091533-1. Kaplan, Dana Evan (2003) [2000]. "Reform Judaism". In Neusner, Jacob; Avery-Peck, Alan J. (eds.). The Blackwell Companion to Judaism. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-57718-058-5. Katz, Shmuel (1974). Battleground: Fact and Fantasy in Palestine. Taylor Productions. ISBN 0-929093-13-5. Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00807-8 Lewis, Bernard (1999). Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice. W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-31839-7 Littman, David (1979). "Jews Under Muslim Rule: The Case Of Persia". The Wiener Library Bulletin. XXXII (New series 49/50). Neusner, Jacob (1991). Studying Classical Judaism: A Primer. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0-664-25136-6. Poliakov, Leon (1974). The History of Anti-semitism. New York: The Vanguard Press. Ruderman, David B. Early Modern Jewry: A New Cultural History (Princeton University Press; 2010) 326 pages. Examines print culture, religion, and other realms in a history emphasizing the links among early modern Jewish communities from Venice and Kraków to Amsterdam and Smyrna. Sharot, Stephen (1997). "Religious Syncretism and Religious Distinctiveness: A Comparative Analysis of Pre-Modern Jewish Communities". In Endelman, Todd M. (ed.). Comparing Jewish Societies. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-06592-0. Stillman, Norman (1979). The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. ISBN 0-8276-0198-0 Tausch, Arno (8 January 2018). "The Effects of 'Nostra Aetate:' Comparative Analyses of Catholic Antisemitism More Than Five Decades after the Second Vatican Council". SSRN 3098079. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Sweeney, Marvin A. (2003) [2000]. "The Religious World of Ancient Israel to 586 BCE". In Neusner, Jacob; Avery-Peck, Alan J. (eds.). The Blackwell Companion to Judaism. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-57718-058-5. 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en-wikipedia-org-3054	----	Senusret I - Wikipedia Senusret I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Senusret I Sesostris, Sesonchosis Statue of Senusret I in the Cairo Museum, Egypt Pharaoh Reign 1971–1926 BC ; (1920–1875 BC) (Twelfth Dynasty) Predecessor Amenemhat I Successor Amenemhat II Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Kheperkare Ḫpr-k3-Rˁ The Ka of Ra is created Nomen Senusret S(j)-n-Wsrt Man of Wosret Horus name Ankhmesut ˁnḫ-msw.t Living of births Nebty name Ankhmesut ˁnḫ-msw.t Living of births Golden Horus Ankhmesut ˁnḫ-msw.t Living of births Turin canon: [...]ka …k3 Consort Neferu III Children Amenemhat II, Amenemhat-ankh, Itakayt, Sebat, Neferusobek, Neferuptah Father Amenemhat I Mother Neferitatjenen[1] Died 1926 BC (1875 BC) Burial Pyramid at el-Lisht Monuments White Chapel, Pyramid of Senusret I Senusret I (Middle Egyptian: z-n-wsrt; /suʀ nij ˈwas.ɾiʔ/) also anglicized as Sesostris I and Senwosret I, was the second pharaoh of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt. He ruled from 1971 BC to 1926 BC (1920 BC to 1875 BC),[2] and was one of the most powerful kings of this Dynasty. He was the son of Amenemhat I. Senusret I was known by his prenomen, Kheperkare, which means "the Ka of Re is created."[3] He continued his father's aggressive expansionist policies against Nubia by initiating two expeditions into this region in his 10th and 18th years and established Egypt's formal southern border near the second cataract where he placed a garrison and a victory stele.[4] He also organized an expedition to a Western Desert oasis. Senusret I established diplomatic relations with some rulers of towns in Syria and Canaan. He also tried to centralize the country's political structure by supporting nomarchs who were loyal to him. His pyramid was constructed at el-Lisht. Senusret I is mentioned in the Story of Sinuhe where he is reported to have rushed back to the royal palace in Memphis from a military campaign in Libya after hearing about the assassination of his father, Amenemhat I. Contents 1 Family 2 Building program 3 The royal court 4 Succession 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Family[edit] See also: Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt family tree The family relations of the king are well known. Senusret I was the son of Amenemhat I. His mother was a certain queen with the name Neferitatenen. His main wife was Neferu III who was also his sister and mother of his successor Amenemhat II. The known children are Amenemhat II and the princesses Itakayt and Sebat. The latter was most likely a daughter of Neferu III as she appears with the latter together in one inscription. Building program[edit] Senusret I dispatched several quarrying expeditions to the Sinai and Wadi Hammamat and built numerous shrines and temples throughout Egypt and Nubia during his long reign. He rebuilt the important temple of Re-Atum in Heliopolis which was the centre of the sun cult. He erected 2 red granite obelisks there to celebrate his Year 30 Heb Sed Jubilee. One of the obelisks still remains and is the oldest standing obelisk in Egypt. It is now in the Al-Masalla (Obelisk in Arabic) area of Al-Matariyyah district near the Ain Shams district (Heliopolis). It is 67 feet tall and weighs 120 tons or 240,000 pounds. Senusret I is attested to be the builder of a number of major temples in Ancient Egypt, including the temple of Min at Koptos, the Temple of Satet on Elephantine, the Month-temple at Armant and the Month-temple at El-Tod, where a long inscription of the king is preserved.[5] A shrine (known as the White Chapel or Jubilee Chapel) with fine, high quality reliefs of Senusret I, was built at Karnak to commemorate his Year 30 jubilee. It has subsequently been successfully reconstructed from various stone blocks discovered by Henri Chevrier in 1926. Finally, Senusret remodelled the Temple of Khenti-Amentiu Osiris at Abydos, among his other major building projects. The White Chapel of Senusret I at Karnak. The royal court[edit] Some of the key members of the court of Senusret I are known. The vizier at the beginning of his reign was Intefiqer, who is known from many inscriptions and from his tomb next to the pyramid of Amenemhat I. He seems to have held this office for a long period of time and was followed by a vizier named Senusret. Two treasurers are known from the reign of the king: Sobekhotep (year 22) and Mentuhotep. The latter had a huge tomb next to the pyramid of the king and he seems to have been the main architect of the Amun temple at Karnak. Several high stewards are attested. Hor is known from several stelae and from an inscription in the Wadi el-Hudi where he was evidently the leader of an expedition for amethyst. One of the stelae is dated to year nine of the king. A certain Nakhr followed in office attested around year 12 of the king. He had a tomb at Lisht. A certain Antef, son of a woman called Zatamun is known again from several stelae, one dates to year 24 another one to year 25 of Senusret I. Another Antef was the son a woman called Zatuser and was most likely also high steward in the king's reign.[6] Succession[edit] Senusret was crowned coregent with his father, Amenemhat I, in his father's 20th regnal year.[7] Towards the end of his own life, he appointed his son Amenemhat II as his coregent. The stele of Wepwawetō is dated to the 44th year of Senusret and to the 2nd year of Amenemhet, thus he would have appointed him some time in his 43rd year.[8] Senusret is thought to have died during his 46th year on the throne since the Turin Canon ascribes him a reign of 45 Years.[9] Upper part of a statue of Senusret I, from Egypt, Middle Kingdom, 12th Dynasty. C. 1950 BCE. Neues Museum, Germany Heliopolis obelisk of Senusret I Osiride statue of Senusret I Stone weight with Senusret I's cartouche Base of a granite statue inscribed with the name of Senusret I. From Armant, Egypt. Petrie Museum, London See also[edit] Loyalist Teaching References[edit] ^ W. Grajetzki, The Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt: History, Archaeology and Society, Duckworth, London 2006 ISBN 0-7156-3435-6, p.36 ^ Erik Hornung; Rolf Krauss; David Warburton, eds. (2006). Ancient Egyptian chronology. Brill. ISBN 9004113851. OCLC 70878036. ^ Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames & Hudson Ltd, (1994), p.78 ^ Senusret I ^ Grajetzki, The Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt: History, p. 38–41 ^ W. Grajetzki: Court officials of the Middle Kingdom, London 2009, ISBN 978-0-7156-3745-6, p. 172 ^ Murnane, William J. Ancient Egyptian Coregencies, Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization. No. 40. p.2. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 1977. ^ Murnane, William J. Ancient Egyptian Coregencies, Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization. No. 40. p.5. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 1977. ^ Murnane, William J. Ancient Egyptian Coregencies, Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization. No. 40. p.6. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 1977. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Senusret I. External links[edit] Senusret (I) Kheperkare Sesostris I (Kheperkare) v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 118796720 ISNI: 0000 0000 1368 5281 LCCN: no98096901 PLWABN: 9810701903705606 VIAF: 30333164 WorldCat Identities: lccn-no98096901 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Senusret_I&oldid=992025371" Categories: Senusret I Pharaohs of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt 20th-century BC Pharaohs 20th-century BC rulers 20th century BC in Egypt 20th-century BC deaths Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles 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en-wikipedia-org-3059	----	Neferkare Pepiseneb - Wikipedia Neferkare Pepiseneb From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Neferkare Pepiseneb Neferkare Khered Seneb, Neferkare VI The cartouche of Neferkare Pepiseneb on the Abydos King List. Pharaoh Reign At least 1 year (Eighth Dynasty) Predecessor Neferkahor Successor Neferkamin Anu Royal titulary Nomen Neferkare Pepiseneb Nfr-k3-Rˁ pjpj snb Perfect is the Ka of Ra, Pepi is healthy Turin canon: Neferkare Khered Seneb[1] Nfr-k3-Rˁ ẖrd snb Neferkare the younger is healthy Neferkare Pepiseneb (also Neferkare Khered Seneb and Neferkare VI) was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the Eighth Dynasty during the early First Intermediate Period (2181–2055 BC). According to the Egyptologists Kim Ryholt, Jürgen von Beckerath and Darrell Baker he was the twelfth king of the combined Eighth Dynasty.[1][2][3] Contents 1 Attestations 2 Name 3 Reign 4 References Attestations[edit] The name Neferkare Pepiseneb is attested on the Abydos King List (number 51), but not elsewhere. However, Jürgen von Beckerath has proposed that Neferkare Pepiseneb is to be identified with a "Neferkare Khered Seneb" appearing on the Turin canon.[4] As such, Neferkare Pepiseneb would be the first king of the Eighth Dynasty, following Ntyiqrt (who might be Neitiqerty Siptah) whose name appears on the Turin canon, a large lacuna in the document affecting the intervening kings of the dynasty.[1][2] Both of these sources are dated to long after the eighth dynasty, to the 19th dynasty and later and there are no contemporary attestations of this period. Name[edit] The epithet Khered given to Neferkare Pepiseneb in the Turin canon means "child" or "young". Consequently, "Neferkare Khered Seneb" is variously translated as Neferkare The Child is Healthy, Neferkare the Younger is Healthy or Neferkare Junior is Healthy.[2] Several hypotheses have been put forth by Egyptologists concerning this epiteth. Hratch Papazian proposes that the fact that the king was called Khered on the Turin canon hints at his youthful age upon ascending to the throne.[5]:415 Alternatively, Darell Baker and Kim Ryholt propose that the epithet "Khered" is the result of an error made by the copyist who wrote the Turin canon, confusing "Pepiseneb" with "Khered Seneb", as the hieratic forms of "pepi" and "khered" can resemble each other if damaged.[1] Thus this error might be due to some damage affecting the earlier document from which the canon was being copied in the Ramesside period.[2] Another hypothesis explaining "Khered" which Ryholt deems more likely is that this epithet is in this context synonymous with "Pepi". Indeed, the "Pepi" of "Pepiseneb" could be Pepi II Neferkare, last great pharaoh of the Old Kingdom of Egypt and who may have had the longest reign of any monarch in history with 94 years on the throne (2278–2184 BC). Furthermore, this pharaoh, who must have been well remembered so close to his reign, accessed the throne as a child, when he was only around 6. Ryholt thus proposes that the "child" ("Khered") referred to in Neferkare Pepiseneb's name on the Turin canon is Pepi II. Since additionally, Pepi II's nomen was Neferkare, Neferkare Seneb, Khered Seneb and Pepiseneb all could refer to Pepi II and mean "Pepi II is healthy". This hypothesis is possibly vindicated by the divine determinative (Gardiner sign G7) attached to the epithet "Khered" on the Turin canon. This is normally reserved for the names of kings and gods and might indicate that the epithet "Khered" was understood as referring to a specific pharaoh.[1] Reign[edit] According to Ryholt's latest reading of the Turin canon, Neferkare Pepiseneb reigned at least one year.[1][2] References[edit] ^ a b c d e f Kim Ryholt: "The Late Old Kingdom in the Turin King-list and the Identity of Nitocris", Zeitschrift für ägyptische, 127, 2000, p. 91 ^ a b c d e Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 268-269 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen,Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz : P. von Zabern, 1999, ISBN 3-8053-2591-6, available online Archived 2015-12-22 at the Wayback Machine ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: The Date of the End of the Old Kingdom of Egypt, JNES 21 (1962) pp. 144-145 ^ Hratch Papazian (2015). "The State of Egypt in the Eighth Dynasty". In Peter Der Manuelian; Thomas Schneider (eds.). Towards a New History for the Egyptian Old Kingdom: Perspectives on the Pyramid Age. Harvard Egyptological Studies. BRILL. Smith, W. Stevenson. The Old Kingdom in Egypt and the Beginning of the First Intermediate Period, in The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. I, part 2, ed. Edwards, I.E.S, et al. p. 197. Cambridge University Press, New York, 1971. Preceded by Neferkahor Pharaoh of Egypt Eighth Dynasty Succeeded by Neferkamin Anu v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neferkare_Pepiseneb&oldid=973452806" Categories: 22nd-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Eighth Dynasty of Egypt 22nd-century BC rulers 22nd century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands Português Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 17 August 2020, at 08:52 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3089	----	Ephialtes of Trachis - Wikipedia Ephialtes of Trachis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ephialtes (/ˌɛfiˈæltiːz/; Greek: Ἐφιάλτης, Ephialtēs; although Herodotus spelled it as Ἐπιάλτης, Epialtes) was the son of Eurydemus (Greek: Εὐρύδημος) of Malis.[1] He betrayed his homeland, in hope of receiving some kind of reward from the Persians,[2] by showing the army of Xerxes a path around the allied Greek position at the pass of Thermopylae, which helped them win the Battle of Thermopylae in 480 BC. Contents 1 Betrayal 2 Others 3 In popular media 4 Name 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Betrayal[edit] The allied Greek land forces, which Herodotus states numbered no more than 4,200 men, had chosen Thermopylae to block the advance of the much larger Persian army. Although this gap between the Trachinian Cliffs and the Malian Gulf was only "wide enough for a single carriage",[3] it could be bypassed by a trail that led over the mountains south of Thermopylae and joined the main road behind the Greek position. Herodotus notes that this trail was well known to the locals, who had used it in the past for raiding the neighboring Phocians.[4] The Persians used the trail to outflank the defenders. The Spartan king, Leonidas, sent away most of the Greeks, but he himself remained behind with a rear guard composed of his men, the Thespian contingent and a Theban detachment. Ephialtes expected to be rewarded by the Persians, but this came to nothing when they were defeated at the Battle of Salamis. He then fled to Thessaly; the Amphictyons at Pylae had offered a reward for his death. According to Herodotus, he was killed for an apparently unrelated reason by Athenades (Greek: Ἀθηνάδης) of Trachis, around 470 BC, but the Spartans rewarded Athenades all the same.[5] Others[edit] Herodotus notes that two other men were accused of betraying this trail to the Persians: Onetas, a native of Carystus and son of Phanagoras; and Corydallus, a native of Anticyra. Nevertheless, he argues Ephialtes was the one who revealed this trail because "the deputies of the Greeks, the Pylagorae, who must have had the best means for ascertaining the truth, did not offer the reward on the heads of Onetas and Corydallus, but for that of Ephialtes."[6] In popular media[edit] In the 1962 film The 300 Spartans, Ephialtes was portrayed by Kieron Moore and is depicted as a loner who worked on a goat farm near Thermopylae. He betrays the Spartans to the Persians out of greed for riches, and, it is implied, unrequited love for a Spartan girl named Ellas. Frank Miller's 1998 comic book miniseries 300, the 2006 film adaptation of the same name, and the 2014 sequel, portray Ephialtes (played by Andrew Tiernan) as a severely deformed Spartan exile whose parents fled Sparta to protect him from the infanticide he would have surely suffered as a disfigured infant. Although he is brave and his spear thrust more than adequate, he can not raise his arm so he can be part of the phalanx (a vital part of the Spartan battle formation). Leonidas asks him to support his brethren by bringing the wounded water and clearing the dead from the battleground. In anger, Ephialtes swears to prove his parents and him wrong and betrays them to Xerxes by revealing the hidden path in return. When only a handful of Spartans are left when the Persians descend, Ephialtes (in Persian uniform) is with them. Leonidas wishes him to live forever, which is an insult to a Spartan since he will not have died with honor in battle. Name[edit] After the betrayal of Ephialtes, the name "Ephialtes" received a lasting stigma; it came to mean "nightmare" in the Greek language and to symbolize the archetypal traitor in Greek culture.[7] See also[edit] Ancient Greece portal Biography portal Battle of Traigh Ghruinneart, where a dwarf switches sides and kills the leader of the forces he originally was to fight for. References[edit] ^ Macaulay, G. C. "The History of Herodotus". The University of Adelaide. paragraph 213. Archived from the original on August 29, 2006. Retrieved 2007-03-28. ^ Herodotus, Histories, 7.213 ^ Herodotus, Histories, 7.200 ^ Herodotus, Histories, 7.215 ^ Herodotus, Histories, 7.213 ^ Herodotus, Histories, 7.214 ^ Tegopoulos, entry for Εφιάλτης External links[edit] Herodotus 7.213 from Perseus Project. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ephialtes_of_Trachis&oldid=998278858" Categories: 5th-century BC Greek people Battle of Thermopylae Greek people of the Greco-Persian Wars Medism People from Phthiotis 470s BC deaths Goatherds Greek defectors Traitors in history Hidden categories: Articles containing Greek-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Bosanski Català Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Magyar Nederlands Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 4 January 2021, at 17:08 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3091	----	Intef III - Wikipedia Intef III From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Intef III Inyotef III, Antef III Intef III on the Silsileh petroglyph. Pharaoh Reign 8 years, 2069–2061 BC,[1] 2068—2061BC,[2] 2063–2055 BC,[3][4] 2016–2009 BC[5] (11th dynasty) Predecessor Intef II Successor Mentuhotep II Royal titulary Nomen Intef S3-Rˁ In-it.f Son of Re Intef (litt. his father brought him)[6] Horus name Nakhtnebtepnefer Ḥr Nḫt-nb-tp-nfr Horus beautiful and strong champion[6] Consort Iah, Henite[1] Children Mentuhotep II,[7] Neferu II Father Intef II[7] Mother Neferu-Khayet[1] Burial Saff tomb in El-Tarif known as Saff el-Baqar. Intef III was the third pharaoh of the Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt during the late First Intermediate Period in the 21st century BC, at a time when Egypt was divided in two kingdoms. The son of his predecessor Intef II and father of his successor Mentuhotep II,[7] Intef III reigned for 8 years over Upper Egypt and extended his domain North against the 10th Dynasty state, perhaps as far north as the 17th nome. He undertook some building activity on Elephantine.[8] Intef III is buried in a large saff tomb at El-Tarif known as Saff el-Barqa.[9] Contents 1 Family 2 Reign 2.1 Military activities 2.2 Building activities 3 Tomb 4 References Family[edit] See also: Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt family tree Intef III was the son of his predecessor Intef II. This is indicated by the stela of Tjeti, chief treasurer during the reigns of Intef II and Intef III. Tjeti's stele mentions the death of Intef II and goes on describing how Tjeti served Intef II's son who acceded to the throne upon the death of his father: Then, when his son assumed his place, Horus, Nakht-neb-Tepnefer, King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Son of Re, Intef, fashioner of beauty, living like Re, forever, I followed him to all his good seats of pleasure. Intef III possibly married his sister Iah, described as a king's mother (mwt-nswt), king's daughter (sȝt-nswt) and priestess of Hathor (ḥmt-nṯr-ḥwt-ḥr).[10] This indicates that Intef III's successor, Mentuhotep II, was his son. This is further confirmed by the stele of Henenu (Cairo 36346), an official who served under Intef II, Intef III and his "son", which the stele identifies as Horus Sankhibtawy (s-ˁnḫ-[jb-tȝwy]),[11][12] Mentuhotep II's first Horus name. Another piece of evidence for this parentage is a relief on the Gebel el-Silsileh in the Wadi Shatt er-Rigal, known as the Silsileh petroglyph, depicting Mentuhotep II surrounded by Iah and Intef III.[8] Additionally, Mentuhotep II's royal wife Neferu II bore the title of king's daughter, and an inscription in her tomb names her mother as Iah.[13] This establishes that she was Intef III's daughter and the sister of Mentuhotep II.[14] Reign[edit] Intef III's father and predecessor reigned for 49 years and Intef III might thus have acceded to the throne a middle-aged[8] or even elderly man.[1] Although Intef III's name is lost in a lacuna of the Turin canon, a king list compiled in the early Ramesside period, its reign length is still readable on column 5, row 15,[15] and given as 8 years.[8][16][17] The relative chronological position of Intef III as the successor of Intef II and predecessor of Mentuhotep II is secured by his established parentage to these two kings as well as the Turin canon and two blocks from the temple of Montu at Tod.[8] These blocks show the succession of kings from Intef I to Mentuhotep II and while Intef III's horus name is damaged, its position is certain.[8] The absolute dating of Intef III's reign is less certain and several dates have been proposed: 2069–2061 BC,[1] 2063–2055 BC[4] and 2016–2009 BC.[5] Military activities[edit] Intef III inherited a large and relatively peaceful domain in Upper Egypt.[8] Over his 8 years of reign, Intef was militarily active.[1] He successfully defended the territory that his father Intef II had won, as is attested by the tomb of an official of the time, Nakhty, located at Abydos and in which a doorjamb bearing Intef III's names was discovered.[8] He also conquered territories north of Abydos, in particular Asyut[1] and extended his domain perhaps as far as the seventeenth nome of Upper Egypt thereby "imposing his family’s control over most of Upper Egypt".[4] Alternatively, this might have been achieved by his son Mentuhotep II, early in his reign. Building activities[edit] A doorjamb bearing Intef III's name was uncovered on Elephantine in the sanctuary of Hekayeb, a deified nomarch of the 6th Dynasty, which shows that he must have ordered work there.[18] Another doorjamb was discovered in the temple of Satet, also on Elephantine, which attests to building activity on the site.[8] Tomb[edit] Coordinates: 25°44′12″N 32°38′11″E / 25.73667°N 32.63639°E / 25.73667; 32.63639 Herbert Winlock's 1915 photography of the tomb of Intef III. The tomb was tentatively attributed to Intef II by Winlock and reattributed to Intef III by Arnold.[19] The necropolis of the kings of the 11th Dynasty is located in El-Tarif, on the opposite bank of the Nile from Thebes. Several saff-tombs of imposing dimensions are found there but, until the excavations of the German Archaeological Institute under the direction of Dieter Arnold from 1970 until 1974, it was unclear to whom some of these tombs belonged.[9] Although no inscriptions could be found in the tombs (except that of Intef II) to confirm their ownership, their positions, together with the much later-attested chronological succession of the rulers of the 11th Dynasty, led to the attribution of the tomb known today as Saff el-Baqar[9] to Intef III. The tomb resembles that of his predecessor Intef II[8] and consists of a 75 m (246 ft) wide and 85–90 m (279–295 ft) long courtyard on a northwest - southeast axis facing a canal. The courtyard is surrounded, on all sides but the east, by many chambers dug into the rock.[8][9][20] The courtyard leads to a large double-pillared facade totalling 48 columns behind which many more chambers are located. In spite of the ruined state of the tomb, the 1970s excavations have shown that its walls must once have been lined with sandstone and adorned with decorations.[21] Nowadays, the tomb lies beneath the constructions of a village. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Intef III. References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g Margaret Bunson: Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Infobase Publishing, 2009, ISBN 978-1438109978, available online, see p. 181 ^ Redford, Donald B., ed. (2001). "Egyptian King List". The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 2. Oxford University Press. pp. 626–628. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) ^ Gae Callender: The Middle Kingdom Renaissance (c. 2055-1650 BC) in Ian Shaw (editor): The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press (2000), ISBN 9780191604621. ^ a b c Michael Rice: Who's Who in Ancient Egypt, Routledge 2001, p. 80, ISBN 978-0415154499 ^ a b Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss, David A. Warburton editors: Ancient Egyptian Chronology, Brill, 2006, p. 491, available online ^ a b Peter A. Clayton: Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson 2006, p. 72, ISBN 0-500-28628-0 ^ a b c Percy Newberry: On the Parentage of the Intef Kings of the Eleventh Dynasty, ZÄS 72 (1936), pp. 118-120 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 147-148 ^ a b c d Dieter Arnold: Gräber des Alten und Mittleren Reiches in El-Tarif (Archäologische Veröffentlichungen), Philipp von Zabern, Mainz 1976, ISBN 978-3805300469 ^ Joyce Tyldesley, Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt, Thames & Hudson. 2006, pp. 66-68. ISBN 0-500-05145-3 ^ J.J. Clere, J. Vandier, Textes de la premiere periode intermediaire et de la XIeme dynasty, 1st vol., Bibliotheca Aegyptiaca X. Complete Stele on p.21 ^ Henri Gauthier, Quelques remarques sur la XIe dynastie. , BIFAO 5, 1906, p.39 ^ William C. Hayes: The Scepter of Egypt I, New York 1953, ISBN 0870991906, p. 160, 327 ^ W. Grajetzki: Ancient Egyptian Queens, a hieroglyphic dictionary, p. 28, Golden House Publications, 2005, ISBN 978-0954721893 ^ Alan Gardiner, editor: Royal Canon of Turin. Griffith Institute, 1959. (Reprint 1988. ISBN 0-900416-48-3) ^ W. Grajetzki: The Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt: History, Archaeology and Society, Duckworth, London 2006 ISBN 0-7156-3435-6, p. 15-17 ^ Column 5, row 15. ^ Sir Alan Gardiner, Egypt of the Pharaohs, Oxford University Press 1961, p. 120 ^ Herbert Winlock: "The Theban Necropolis in the Middle Kingdom", The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Volume 32, available online copyright-free. ^ See a map of the tomb here following Dieter Arnold. ^ Nigel Strudwick, Helen Strudwick: Thebes in Egypt: A Guide to the Tombs and Temples of Ancient Luxor, Cornell University Press, 1999, p. 93, ISBN 0801486165, excerpts available online. Preceded by Intef II Pharaoh of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty Succeeded by Mentuhotep II v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intef_III&oldid=982821437" Categories: 21st-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: CS1 maint: ref=harv Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes 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en-wikipedia-org-3097	----	Smenkhkare - Wikipedia Smenkhkare From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ankhkheperure Smenkhkare Djeser Kheperu Pharaoh Reign 1335–1334 BCE (18th Dynasty) Coregency Akhenaten Predecessor Akhenaten Successor Neferneferuaten Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Ankhkheperure Living are the Manifestations of Re[1] Nomen Smenkhkare-Djeserkheperu Vigorous is the Soul of Re, Holy of Forms[1] Consort Meritaten Died 1334 BCE Ankhkheperure Smenkhkare Djeser Kheperu (sometimes spelled Smenkhare, Smenkare or Smenkhkara) was a short-lived pharaoh in the late 18th Dynasty. The names of this pharaoh translate as 'Living are the Forms of Re' and 'Vigorous is the Soul of Re – Holy of Forms'.[1] Their reign, for it is uncertain whether Smenkhkare was male or female, was during the Amarna Period, a time when Akhenaten sought to impose new religious views. They are sometimes distinguished from the immediate predecessor (successor?), the female ruler Ankhkheperure Neferneferuaten (usually identified as Nefertiti). Unlike Neferneferuaten, Smenkhkare did not use epithets in their royal name or cartouche.[2] Very little is known of Smenkhkare for certain because later kings, beginning with Horemheb, sought to erase the entire Amarna Period from history. Contents 1 Name confusion 2 Evidence 3 Co-regent 3.1 Neferneferuaten 3.2 Interpretations 4 Nefertiti Year 16 graffito 5 Dakhamunzu Hittite affair 5.1 Nefertiti 5.2 Meritaten 5.3 Ankhesenamun 6 Reign 7 Death and burial 7.1 Early examinations of the mummy 7.2 Genetic tests of 2010 7.3 Burial 8 Summary 9 References 10 Gallery 11 Bibliography Name confusion[edit] For the complete historiography regarding the names, see Neferneferuaten Line drawing from Meryre II. The lost names had been recorded previously (inset) as Smenkhkare and Meritaten. Smenkhkare was known to Egyptologists as far back as 1845 from the tomb of Meryre II. There he and Meritaten, bearing the title Great Royal Wife, are shown rewarding the tomb's owner. The names of the king have since been cut out but had been recorded by Lepsius around 1850.[3] Later, a different set of names emerged using the same throne name: "Ankhkheperure mery Neferkheperure [Akhenaten] Neferneferuaten mery Wa en Re [Akhenaten]". This led to a great deal of confusion since throne names tended to be unique.[4] For the better part of a century, the repetition of throne names was taken to mean that Smenkhare changed his name to Neferneferuaten at some point, probably upon the start of his sole reign. Indeed, Petrie makes exactly that distinction in his excavation notes of 1894. By the 1970s, feminine traces in some versions of the name and more often in the epithets led to various theories. Among them, that Nefertiti was masquerading as Smenkhkare before changing her name again to Neferneferuaten. When considered with various stelae depicting Akhenaten with another king in familiar, if not intimate poses, the theory that Akhenaten and Smenkhkare were homosexual arose. In 1978, it was proposed that there were two individuals using the same name: a male king Smenkhkare and a female Neferneferuaten.[5] Ten years later, James Peter Allen pointed out the name 'Ankhkheperure' nearly always included an epithet referring to Akhenaten such as 'desired of Wa en Re' when coupled with 'Neferneferuaten'. There were no occasions where the 'long' versions of the prenomen occurred alongside the nomen 'Smenkhkare', nor was the ‘short’ version ever found associated with the nomen 'Neferneferuaten'.[6] The issue of a female Neferneferuaten was finally settled for the remaining holdouts when Allen confirmed Marc Gabolde's findings that objects from Tutankhamun's tomb originally inscribed for Neferneferuaten which had been read using the epithet "...desired of Akhenaten" were originally inscribed as Akhet-en-hyes or "effective for her husband".[7][8] Smenkhkare, as son in law, might be 'desired of Akhenaten', but only a female could fit the new reading. By the start of the 21st century, "a fair degree of consensus"[9] emerged that Neferneferuaten was a female king and Smenkhkare a separate male king, particularly among specialists of the period[10]Almost as important, when presented with just the name Ankhkheperure, it is now widely accepted that the use of epithets indicates Neferneferuaten while no epithets indicates Smenkhkare.[11] Another reason for confusion is that the hieroglyphs in the cartouche in the picture showing "Smenkhkare" and Meritaten rewarding Meryra II actually are not to be read as Smenkhkare, but as Saakare, or Saakara or Seaakara, according to the different transliterations. The cartouche contains s-aa-ka-re [and not the spelling present in the Royal Titulary presented on this page] like in "Rock Tombs of El Amarna II" by Norman de Garis Davies[12] where it is possible to see the primary source [mentioned also in the picture]. In "Denkmaeler aus Aegypten und Aethiopien nach den zeichnungen der von Seiner Majestaet dem koenige von Preussen Friedrich Wilhelm IV" by Lepsius[13] we can clearly see the same cartouches. "Smenkhkare" would appear in a cartouche on a vase, object 405 in the Carter Archive. The quality of what remains cannot allow one to be totally sure if it is Smenkhkare or Saakare; and Carter in his notes does not express an opinion.[14] A source for the name Smenkhkare is a ring, associated with another one showing Saakare.[15] The explanation is a probable mistake made by Lepsius copying the cartouches. Davies mentions another source, PRISSE Monuments Egyptiens, where another copy of the cartouches is present and the aspect is not so clear.[16] Also John Pendlebury found objects carrying the name Smenkhkare.[17][18][original research?] Evidence[edit] Aside from the Meryre tomb depiction already mentioned there are several pieces of evidence which establish Smenkhkare as king. A calcite "globular vase" from the tomb of Tutankhamun bears the full double cartouche of Akhenaten alongside the full double cartouche of Smenkhkare. This is the only object to carry both names side by side.[19] A single wine docket, 'Year 1, wine of the house of Smenkhkare', indicates he probably had a short reign.[20] Another dated to Year 1 from 'The House of Smenkhkare (deceased)'[21] was originally taken to indicate that he died during the harvest of his first year; more recently it has been proposed to mean his estate was still producing wine in the first year of his successor. This image is commonly taken to be Smenkhkare and Meritaten, though it may be Tutankhamun and Ankhesenamun. Line drawings of a block depicting the nearly complete names of King Smenkhkare and Meritaten as Great Royal Wife were recorded before the block was lost. Flinders Petrie documented six rings bearing only the Throne Name 'Ankhkheperure' (the other six with the same Throne Name show an epithet: or Mery Neferkheperure, no. 92 and no. 93; or Mery Waenre, no. 94, 95 and 96) and two more bearing 'Smenkhkare' (with another one bearing the epithet Djeserkheperu, which belonged to Smenkhkare[22]) in excavations of the palace.[23] One example is Item UC23800 in the Petrie Museum which clearly shows the "djeser" and "kheperu" elements and a portion of the 'ka' glyph. Pendlebury found more when the town was cleared.[24] A ring bearing his name is found at Malqata in Thebes. Perhaps the most magnificent was a vast hall more than 125 metres square and including over 500 pillars. This late addition to the central palace has been known as the Hall of Rejoicing, Coronation Hall, or simply Smenkhkare Hall because a number of bricks stamped Ankhkheperure in the House of Rejoicing in the Aten were found at the site.[25] Indisputable images for Smenkhkare are rare. Aside from the tomb of Meryre II, the adjacent image showing an Amarna king and queen in a garden is often attributed to him. It is completely without inscription, but since they do not look like Tutankhamun or his queen, they are often assumed to be Smenkhkare and Meritaten, but Akhenaten and Nefertiti are sometimes put forth as well. An inscription in the tomb of Pairi, TT139, by the other Ankhkheperure (Neferneferuaten), mentions a functioning Amen 'temple of Ankhkheperure'.[26] Several items from the tomb of Tutankhamun bear the name of Smenkhkare: A linen garment decorated with 39 gold daisies along with 47 other sequins bearing the prenomen of Smenkhkare alongside Meritaten's name. Carter number 101s is a linen shawl with the name Ankhkheperure A compound bow (Carter 48h) and the mummy bands (Carter 256b) were both reworked for Tutankhamun.[27] Less certain, but much more impressive is the second anthropoid coffin containing the mummy of Tutankhamun. The face depicted is much more square than that of the other coffins and quite unlike the gold mask or other depictions of Tutankhamun. The coffin is Rishi style and inlaid with coloured glass, a feature only found on this coffin and one from KV55, the speculated resting place for the mummy of Smenkhkare. Since both cartouches show signs of being reworked, Dodson and Harrison conclude this was most likely originally made for Smenkhkare and reinscribed for Tutankhamun.[27][28] As the evidence came to light in bits and pieces at a time when Smenkhkare was assumed to have also used the name Neferneferuaten, perhaps at the start of his sole reign, it sometimes defied logic. For instance, when the mortuary wine docket surfaced from the 'House of Smenkhkare (deceased)', it seemed to appear that he changed his name back before he died. Since his reign was brief, and he may never have been more than co-regent, the evidence for Smenkhkare is not plentiful, but nor is it quite as insubstantial as it is sometimes made out to be. It certainly amounts to more than just 'a few rings and a wine docket' or that he 'appears only at the very end of Ahkenaton's reign in a few monuments'[29] as is too often portrayed. Co-regent[edit] The Meryre depiction of Smenkhkare both as king and as son-in-law to Akhenaten along with the jar inscription seems to indicate that Akhenaten and Smenkhkare were coregents, and it was initially taken to mean just that. However, the scene in the tomb of Meryre is not dated and Akhenaten is neither depicted nor mentioned in it. The jar may simply be a case of one king associating himself with a predecessor. The simple association of names, particularly on everyday objects, is not conclusive of a coregency.[30][31] To make matters more confusing, he has competition as the prime candidate as Akhenaten's coregent and successor, the female Ankhkheperure Neferneferuaten. Neferneferuaten[edit] The evidence for Neferneferuaten's association with Akhenaten is more substantial.[32] As detailed above, all but a very few of her cartouches associate her with Akhenaten in the form of "...desired of Neferkheperure [Akhenaten's throne name]" and "...desired of Wa en Re [epithet of Akhenaten's throne name]".[33] Many things from Tutankhamun's tomb either bear her name, or were originally made for her and reinscribed with his name. These include a stunning gold pectoral depicting the goddess Nut, his stone sarcophagus, mummy bands, royal figurines, various bracelets, and canopic items. Of particular interest is a box (Carter 001k) inscribed with the names of Akhenaten, Neferneferuaten and Meritaten as Great Royal Wife. A hieratic inscription on the lid repeats the inscription from the rail. There are also a series of stelae clearly showing what is accepted as Akhenaten along with a female figure wearing a crown. Most of these are uninscribed and damaged so while they pictorially attest to an association of Akhenaten with a female coregent, they fail to identify her by name. One such (stele, Berlin #17813 or a higher resolution image) depicts two royal figures in a familiar, if not intimate, pose. One figure wears the double crown, while the other, slightly more feminine one, wears the Khepresh or "blue crown". However, the set of three empty cartouches can only account for the names of a king and queen. This has been interpreted to mean that Nefertiti may have at one point been something like a coregent as indicated by the crown, but not entitled to full pharaonic honors such as the double cartouche.[34] Another stele, Berlin 25574, clearly depicts Akhenaten and Nefertiti in her familiar flat top crown. Above them are four empty cartouches – enough for two kings – one of which seems to have been squeezed in. Nicholas Reeves sees this as an important item in the case for Nefertiti as female coregent. When the stele was started, she was queen and portrayed with the flat top headpiece. She was elevated to coregent shortly afterwards and a fourth cartouche was squeezed in to accommodate two kings.[35] Perhaps the most important stela has the opposite condition and could tell us much more if it was not so badly damaged. In 1891, a private stela was found which is now in the Petrie Museum, U.C. 410, sometimes called the Coregency Stela. On this stela, most of the scene is missing but the inscriptions can be read It depicts the double cartouche of Akhenaten alongside that of Ankhkheperure mery-Waenre Neferneferuaten Akhet-en-hyes ('effective for her husband'). The inscription originally bore the single cartouche of Nefertiti, which was erased along with a reference to Meritaten to make room for the double cartouche of King Neferneferuaten.[36] The identity of King Neferneferuaten is a matter of debate. Initially, Smenkhkare and Neferneferuaten were assumed to be the same person, primarily on the basis of the repeated throne name. Today the leading candidates are Nefertiti or Meritaten. Interpretations[edit] There is an impression that there is substantial evidence for Smenkhkare as coregent and successor. This began over 100 years ago when Smenkhkare and Neferneferuaten were assumed to be the same person.[37] If all the evidence for both Smenkhkare and Neferneferuaten are seen to represent a single person, it would be a natural, logical, and obvious conclusion that they were coregent and successor. As son-in-law to Akhenaten and wearing the blue crown in Meryre's tomb, Smenkhkare as coregent is a conclusion embraced by some Egyptologists. However, the name Smenkhkare appears only during the reign of Akhenaten[38] with nothing to attest to a sole reign with any certainty. The name Neferneferuaten is a much more recent addition to the picture. Much of the evidence for her has had to be resurrected from erased inscriptions and she has become accepted as an individual by most Egyptologists only within the last 20 years. As a newcomer, many synoptic references such as encyclopedias, museum chronologies, atlases, and king lists do not even mention her. In her case, the Pairi inscription offers a clear indication of a sole reign with a coregency being more a matter of interpretation. As a result, Egyptologists remain divided on the identity of Akhenaten's coregent and his successor. Aidan Dodson uses the Meryre depiction to conclude that Smenkhkare served only as coregent starting about Year 13 of Akhenaten with the wine docket simply indicating that his estate was still in operation several years later. Nefertiti became his next coregent as King Neferneferuaten (perhaps with abbreviated honors) and succeeded him.[39] The main argument against this until very recently (see below) has been the assumption that Nefertiti died once she disappeared from the record after Year 13. James Allen on the other hand, sees Neferneferuaten as the coregent who succeeds Akhenaten largely on the basis of the epithets and stelae. He assumes that Nefertiti has died, and has offered her daughter, Neferneferuaten-tasherit (the lesser, or "junior") as King Neferneferuaten on the basis of her name.[32] She is followed by Smenkhkare after her two- to three-year reign.[32] He has also speculated that 'both' succeeded Akhenaten: Neferneferuaten as Akhenaten's "chosen" successor and Smenkhkare as a rival king using the same prenomen, perhaps to eclipse Akhenaten's unacceptable choice.[40] Others have advocated for Meritaten as Neferneferuaten in different forms, perhaps succeeding Akhenaten during an interregnum. Marc Gabolde has long advocated that she continued to rule as Neferneferuaten after the death of Smenkhkare. The main argument against this is the box from Tutankhamun's tomb listing Akhenaten, Neferneferuaten and Meritaten as three individuals.[41] Few succession theories account for all the evidence and only rarely do they offer an explanation for the consecutive use of the same throne name. Dodson, for instance, places Smenkhkare's brief coregency in Year 13/14, whereas the Smenkhkare Hall is believed to be built about Year 15. The hall, grand as it must have been, was surely built for some significant event related to Ankhkheperure. Allen's placement of Smenkhkare fares no better. Work is believed to have halted on the Amarna tombs shortly after Year 13,[42][43] so the depiction of Smenkhkare as king in Meryre II must date to about Year 13. For him to have succeeded Neferneferuaten means that aside from a lone wine docket, he left not a single trace over the course of five to six years (Years 14–17 of Akhenaten, a two to three year reign for Neferneferuaten). Gabolde's Meritaten theory has the problem of the various private stelae depicting the female coregent with Akhenaten who would be dead by the time of her rule. He suggests these are retrospective, but since they are private cult stelae, this would require a number of people to get the same idea to commission a retrospective, commemorative stela at the same time. Allen notes that the everyday interaction portrayed in them more likely indicates two living people.[31] Nefertiti Year 16 graffito[edit] In December 2012, the Leuven Archaeological Mission announced the find of a hieratic inscription in a limestone quarry at Dayr Abu Hinnis which primarily concerns a building project in Amarna.[44] The text is dated to Year 16 month 3 of Akhet, day 15 of the reign of Akhenaten and refers to Nefertiti as the Great Royal Wife.[45][46] This find invalidates the view that she died about year 13/14 of Akhenaten. With Nefertiti still alive and chief consort in the second to last year of her husband's reign, whatever coregency was yet to come would be limited to a year or less. Year 17 would be Akhenaten's final year and as the changes to the Coregency Stela (UC 410) seem to indicate, by the time the female coregent was added to it she was also already acting on behalf of Akhenaten. Dakhamunzu Hittite affair[edit] For broader coverage of this topic, see Dakhamunzu. The Deeds of Suppiluliuma written by his son Mursili II are sometimes used to provide a resolution for the succession order of Egypt. Several succession theories incorporate the episode. The story tells of an Egyptian queen named Dakhamunzu, who writes to Suppiluliuma. She tells him her husband, the king, Nibhururiya, has died and asks him to send a son for her to marry 'for she has no sons and he has many'; in marrying her, his son 'will become King of Egypt'. The Hittite king is wary and sends an envoy to verify the lack of a male heir. The queen writes back rebuking Suppiluliuma for suggesting she lied about a son and indicates she is loath to marry a "servant". Suppiluliuma sends one of his sons, Zannanza, off to Egypt, but he dies sometime after departing. It has been supposed that he was murdered at the border of Egypt (Brier) to thwart the plot, but there is no evidence as to when or where he died, nor that he was murdered, as opposed to death from a lethal injury, accident, or illness en route. Dakhamunzu (probably the Hittite transliteration of ta hemet nesu or king's wife) has traditionally been seen as Ankhesenamun since she had no sons and did eventually marry a "servant", Ay. The dead king, Nibhururiya, then refers to Tutankhamun's throne name, Nebkheperure. Some have argued that Nibhururiya might be a reference to Neferkheperure (Akhenaten), certainly the X-kheper-u-Re variations in 18th Dynasty throne names makes it possible. Of the male kings in the period, Smenkhkare can be ruled out as his throne name would be transliterated as something like Anahuriya.[47] Writing on the Dakhamunzu episode, Jared Miller points out that "‘servant’ is likely used in a disparaging manner, rather than literally, and probably with reference to real person(s) who indeed were being put forth as candidates." If the reference to a 'servant' no longer exclusively indicates Ay, then Meritaten and Nefertiti become candidates as well.[48] For the plot to succeed, the queen would have to either wield an extraordinary amount of power in order to prevent or delay the marriage to the "servant" or enjoy the backing of some powerful supporter(s) while the correspondence and travels take place.[49] Miller also offers the prominence of sun deities with the Hittite king as a motivating factor in the queen preferring a Hittite prince over a Babylonian one.[50] Nefertiti[edit] Reeves identifies Dakhamunzu as Nefertiti. After 17 years on the throne alongside her husband, she can certainly be seen having sufficient power and backing.[51] Though she may also be King Neferneferuaten, she is writing as a queen, perhaps to secure a male figurehead, or perhaps she envisioned a coregency like the one she had with Akhenaten. The argument against Nefertiti is that she would have had to conceal the presence of at least one male of royal lineage from the spies and envoy of Suppiluliuma. Alternatively, if he knew of Tutankhaten or Smenkhkare, rather than merely being shrewd, it must be assumed that Suppiluliuma was ruthless in the extreme and willing to risk the life of his son on a precarious endeavor where he suspected trickery.[52] On the other hand, it portrays Nefertiti as fully informed of Hittite minutiae such as Suppiluliuma's affiliation with the Hittite sun god.[50] Meritaten[edit] As shown on the box from Tutankhamun's tomb, Meritaten came to take Nefertiti's place as royal wife late in Akhenaten's reign. Marc Gabolde has proposed that Meritaten is Dakhamunzu and the dead king is Akhenaten, in a number of articles. He supposes that Zannanza completed the trip and died only after ascending the throne as Smenkhkare. It is after the death of Smenkhkare/Zannanza that Meritaten assumes power as Neferneferuaten. Meritaten seems the least likely on the basis that at the time of Akhenaten's death she would only have been about 20 years old. By contrast, Ankhesenamun would have been about 25 and been queen consort for some ten years. It seems unlikely that the young Meritaten would have the wiles to deceive Suppiluliuma, maintain her interregnum in the face of pressure to marry a 'servant' and conceal the presence of a male heir in the personage of Tutankhamun. Ankhesenamun[edit] In support of Ankhesenamun, is the idea that Tutankhamun 'lay in state' for some time. The Hittite sources indicate he died in late summer, around the middle of August.[53] However, a cornflower pectoral indicates he was not buried until April or May.[54] As such, there may have been time for letter writing and travel. Ankhesenamun is made more plausible if she had the backing of Ay, or Horemheb, or both. Against her is the simpler explanation that the delay in burial was the result of Tutankamun's unexpected death and unfinished tomb. Details for the Dakhamunzu/Zannanza affair are entirely from Hittite sources written many years after the events. There is the possibility that Mursili is revising history to some extent, placing full responsibility for the fiasco on the Egyptians,[55] leaving the details unreliable. Reign[edit] The sole regnal date (year 1) attested for Smenkhkare comes from a wine docket from "the house of Smenkhkare". This date might however refer either to the reign of Smenkhkare or his successor, but it is doubtful he ruled for more than a year.[56] As already noted, Dodson views Smenkhkare as Akhenaten's coregent for about a year beginning about Year 13 and who did not have a sole reign,[57] while Allen depicts Smenkhkare as successor to Neferneferuaten.[32] There are those who see the possibility of a two- or three-year reign for Smenkhkare. A number of wine dockets from Amarna bear dates for regnal years 2 and 3, but lack a king's name. A few Egyptologists[58] have argued these should be attributed to Smenkhkare. However, these are open to interpretation and cannot be considered decisive.[49] Clear evidence for a sole reign for Smenkhkare has not yet been found. Death and burial[edit] The desecrated royal coffin found in Tomb KV55 In 1907, a tomb was discovered by Edward R. Ayrton while working in the Valley of the Kings for Theodore M. Davis. Within it was found a number of funerary objects for various people—in particular, a shrine built for Queen Tiye by Akhenaten, and a mummy. This caused Davis to refer to it as The Tomb of Queen Tiye; its more common designation is KV55. The tomb is sometimes called a cache because items from several people are found there. For example, there is the shrine for Tiye, 'magic bricks' bearing Akhenaten's name and alabaster canopic jars depicting what is thought to be the likeness of Kiya. Of particular interest is the mummy found there. The coffin had been desecrated and the name of the owner removed, but it was in the Rishi style of the 18th Dynasty. It is generally accepted that the coffin was originally intended for a female, possibly Akhenaten's wife Kiya, and later reworked to accommodate a male.[59] Over the past century, the chief candidates for this individual have been either Akhenaten or Smenkhkare.[60][61][62] The case for Akhenaten rests largely on the 'magic bricks' and the reworking of some of the inscriptions on the coffin. The case for Smenkhkare comes mostly from the presumed age of the mummy (see below) which, between ages 18 and 26 would not fit Akhenaten who reigned for 17 years and had fathered a child near by his first regnal year. There is nothing in the tomb positively identified as belonging to Smenkhkare, nor is his name found there. The tomb is certainly not befitting any king, but even less so for Akhenaten. Early examinations of the mummy[edit] The skull of the KV55 mummy, believed to be Smenkhkare. The skeletonized mummy was examined on a number of occasions over the years, including by Smith (1912), Derry (1931), Harrison (1966), Strouhal (1998/2010) and Filer (2001). Wente used craniofacial analysis in 1995 (as well as examining past X-rays) to examine a cache of mummies, mostly from the 18th Dynasty, in order to sort out the relationships and true identities of each. Serological tests on the KV55 remains and Tutankhamun's mummy were performed and published in Nature (1974). The KV55 mummy was also examined by Harris in 1988, but only an abstract of the results was published, and most recently by Hawass, Gad et al. in 2010. Filer's conclusions were largely representative of the pre-2010 examinations, noting "...this man was not quite a fully mature adult, between 18 and 21 years when he died." She concluded: The human remains from Tomb 55, as presented to me, are those of a young man who had no apparent abnormalities and was no older than his early twenties at death and probably a few years younger.[63] These were largely in keeping with the previous results (18–26 years) allowing for the technologies available. For instance, Derry concluded an age of about 23 and Strouhal gave an age range of 19 to 22.[64] Wente's study found close cranial similarities between the mummies of Tutankhamun, KV55 and Thutmose IV.[65] The serological tests indicated KV55 and Tutankhamun shared the same rare blood type.[66] Taken together, the KV55 mummy was assumed to be the father or brother of Tutankhamun. A brother seemed more likely since the age would only be old enough to plausibly father a child at the upper extremes. Genetic tests of 2010[edit] In 2010, genetic tests and CT scans were performed with some of the results published in JAMA and reported in National Geographic, including a TV special.[67] Chief among the genetic results was, "The statistical analysis revealed that the mummy KV55 is most probably the father of Tutankhamun (probability of 99.99999981%), and KV35 Younger Lady could be identified as his mother (99.99999997%)."[68] The report goes on to show that both KV55 and KV35 Younger Lady were siblings and children of Amenhotep III and Queen Tiye.[69] CT scans were also performed on the mummy from which it was concluded that his age at the time of death was much higher than all previous estimates. New CT scans of the KV55 mummy also revealed an age-related degeneration in the spine and osteoarthritis in the knees and legs. It appeared that he had died closer to the age of 40 than 25, as originally thought. With the age discrepancy thus resolved, we could conclude that the KV55 mummy, the son of Amenhotep III and Tiye and the father of Tutankhamun, is almost certainly Akhenaten. (Since we know so little about Smenkhkare, he cannot be completely ruled out.)[70] Evidence to support the much older claim was not provided beyond the single point of spinal degeneration. A growing body of work soon began to appear to dispute the assessment of the age of the mummy and the identification of KV55 as Akhenaten.[64][71][72][73][74][75][76][77] Where Filer and Strouhal (below) relied on multiple indicators to determine the younger age, the new study cited one point to indicate a much older age. One letter to the JAMA editors came from Arizona State University bioarchaeologist Brenda J. Baker. The content was retold on the Archaeology News Network website and is representative of a portion of the dissent: A specialist in human osteology and paleopathology, Baker takes issue with the identification of the skeletonized mummy KV55 as Tutankhamun’s father, Akhenaten. The authors [Hawass et al in JAMA] place this individual’s age at the time of death at 35–45, despite producing no evidence that repudiates well-known prior examinations citing the age in the 18–26 range. These earlier analyses – documented with written descriptions, photographs and radiographs – show a pattern of fused and unfused epiphyses (caps on ends of growing bones) throughout the skeleton, indicating a man much younger than Akhenaten is believed to have been at the time of his death. Baker also uses a photograph of the pubic symphysis of the pelvis to narrow the age of KV55 to 18–23 based on recent techniques used in osteology and forensic anthropology.[78] An examination of the KV55 mummy was conducted in 1998 by Czech anthropologist Eugene Strouhal. He published his conclusions in 2010 where he 'utterly excluded the possibility of Akhenaten': [T]he unambiguous male skeleton from Tomb 55 proved decisively by a long list of biological developmental features his age at death to be in the range of 19–22 years which fully agrees with the results of the previous determination by Harrison (1966)... He did not possess the slightest dental pathology and not even the onset of degenerative changes in the spine and joints.[79] Other criticisms surround what the project did not do. Wente had noted that the mummies of both Tutankamun and KV55 bore a very strong craniofacial similarity to the mummy of Thutmose IV, yet this mummy was not tested. Dylan Bickerstaffe calls it "almost perverse" that the mysterious "boy on a boat" found in KV35 was not tested while the "Elder Lady" and "Younger Lady" found there were. The boy could very well be Akhenaten's older brother Prince Thutmose or even Smenkhkare given that the KV35 ladies are now known to be related to Tutankamun.[75] While it now seems likely that the KV55 mummy is the father of Tutankhamun, for many his identification as Akhenaten seems as doubtful as before. Burial[edit] Left alone in a tomb with few of the trappings of the typical Ancient Egyptian burial, the KV55 mummy appears to be not so much buried as disposed of. Since the KV55 mummy is conclusively a close relative of Tutankhamun, if not his father, why such a haphazard burial? It may simply be that they ran out of tombs or time. The royal family had been preparing tombs in Amarna rather than Thebes. As evidenced by the tomb of Meryre, work appears to have abruptly halted on the Amarna tombs after Year 13. About that time, a significant number of people depart the scene including three of Akhenaten's daughters, his mother and Kiya. In Amarna Letter 35, the king of Alashia apologizes to Akhenaten for his small greeting gift of copper, explaining that a plague had killed off many of his copper miners.[80] Something similar may well have struck Amarna, if not Egypt. After the capital moved from Amarna, Akhenaten's successor could have been faced with a severe shortage of tombs for royal reburials.[81] Smenkhkare would be in a particularly bad situation. Since he died young and reigned so briefly, he would not have had time to make and accumulate the grave goods befitting a king. In the end, the tomb seems to have been simply sealed up with the mummy and whatever was available.[81] The tomb had been re-entered once and sealed twice.[82] The seals date to the late 18th Dynasty indicating the tomb was entered and resealed probably under the reign of Tutankhamun. The nature of the debris, rubble fill and cement retaining wall suggest the desecration and attempt to remove the shrine of Tiye did not happen until later.[83] The tomb was once again entered some time later, in the 19th, 20th or 21st Dynasty (opinions vary). Bell suggests that this entry may be related to the reburial of royal mummies and resulted in Tiye being moved to KV35. It was during this entry that Akhenaten's name and likeness were attacked where it could be found.[83] The mummy itself was relatively unmolested: the wrappings were undisturbed but royal insignia were removed and various gold items were left behind including the gold vulture collar on the head of the mummy. Bell suggests feelings toward Akhenaten had softened by this time resulting in a "nameless king but still a consecrated pharaoh".[84] Others suggest that after desecrating Akhenaten's burial, including perhaps the destruction of his mummy, Smenkhkare was placed in Akhenaten's coffin.[85] Summary[edit] Perhaps no one from the Amarna Interlude has been the subject of so much speculation as Smenkhkare.[86] There is just enough evidence to say with some certainty that he is an individual apart from Neferneferuaten, but not of a coregency or a sole reign. As a result, Egyptologists move him about like a pawn as their larger hypotheses requires. He can be proposed as Zannanza (Gabolde) or Nefertiti in disguise (Reeves, Samson, Habicht). He can reign for weeks or years. He is a short lived coregent with no independent reign (Dodson) or he is Akhenaten's successor (Allen). References[edit] ^ a b c Clayton, P., Chronicle of the Pharaohs (Thames and Hudson, 2006) p.120 ^ Aidan Dodson, "Amarna Sunset:the late-Amarna succession revisited" in Beyond the Horizon. Studies in Egyptian Art, Archaeology and History and history in Honour of Barry J. Kemp, ed. S. Ikram and A. Dodson, pp.31–32 Cairo, 2009. ^ de Garies Davies, N. 1905. The Rock Tombs of El Amarna, Part II: The Tombs of Panehesy and Meryra II. Archaeological Survey of Egypt. F. L. Griffith. London: Egypt Exploration Fund. ^ Dodson, A. (2009) p 34 ^ Krauss, R. (1978) p 43-47 ^ Allen, J. (1988) ^ Gabolde, M. (1998) pp 147–62, 213–219 ^ Dodson A. and Hilton D. (2004) p.285 ^ Miller, J. (2007) p 272 ^ Miller, J. (2007) p 272; To wit: Allen (1994); Gabolde (1998); Eaton-Krauss and Krauss(2001); Hornung (2006); von Beckerath (1997); Allen (2006); Krauss (2007); Murnane (2001) They otherwise hold very different views on the succession, chronology and identity of Neferneferuaten. ^ e.g. Murnane, J. The End of the Amarna Period Once Again (2001); Allen, J. 1998, 2006; Gabolde, M. Das Ende der Amarnazeit (2001); Hornung, E. (2006); Miller, J. (2007), p 274 n 96, 97, 98; Dodson A. (2009), p 36. ^ https://archive.org/stream/cu31924020525352#page/n53/mode/2up Rock Tombs of El Amarna II, page 43, 5 MERYRA REWARDED BY KING SE-AA-KA-RA ^ https://archive.org/stream/denkmaelerausaeg12leps#page/138/mode/2up Lepsius - missing cartouches of Saakare ^ http://www.griffith.ox.ac.uk/gri/carter/405.html Globular vase with the cartouches of Akhenaten and Smenkhkare ^ https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt/chronology/semenkhkare.html Smenkhkare ^ Monuments Egyptiens ^ MEEF 40 Frankfort, H, Pendlebury The City of Akhenaton II, Plate L, 29 ^ MEEF 44.2 Pendlebury, The City of Akhenaton III, Plate CXII, IV E 9 ^ Allen, J. 2006 p 2 ^ Pendlebury, J. D. S. The City of Akhenaten (1951), Part III, vol II, pl 86 ^ Pendlebury, J. D. S. The City of Akhenaten (1951), Part III, pl lxxxvi and xcvii ^ Flinders Petrie, Tell El Amarna - Plate XV ^ Petrie, 1894 pl xv ^ Pendlebury, 1951 ^ Dodson A. (2006) p 31-32; also Pendlebury, 1951 PIs. XIII C. XLIV. 1, 2 ^ A.H. Gardiner, The Graffito from the Tomb of Pere; JEA 14 (1928), pp. 10–11 and pls. 5–6. ^ a b Reeves, C. 1990b ^ Dodson, A. 1992 and 2009 p 41 ^ Britannica entry for Smenkhkare; retrieved Dec 2012 ^ Murnane, W. (1977) pp. 213–15 ^ a b Allen, J. (2006) p 3 ^ a b c d James P. Allen, "The Amarna Succession" in Causing His Name to Live: Studies in Egyptian Epigraphy and History in Memory of William J. Murnane, ed. P. Brand and L. Cooper. Culture and History of the Ancient Near East 37. Leiden: E. J. Brill Academic Publishers, 2006 ^ Allen, A. (2006) p 1-2 ^ Dodson, A. (2009) p 42 ^ Reeves, C. (2001) p 167-168 ^ Dodson, A. (2009); p 43 ^ Petrie, W. (1894) pp 42–44 ^ Duhig, Corinne. "The remains of Pharaoh Akhenaten are not yet identified: comments on 'Biological age of the skeletonized mummy from Tomb KV55 at Thebes (Egypt)' by Eugen Strouhal" in Anthropologie: International Journal of the Science of Man Vol 48 Issue 2 (2010), pp 113–115. ^ Dodson, A. (2006) p 27-29 ^ Allen, James P. (1994). Nefertiti and Smenkh-ka-re. Göttinger Miszellen 141. pp. 7–17 ^ Allen, J. 2006, p. 14, also n. 61 ^ Giles, F. 2001; also Aldred 1988 ^ Dodson, A. 2006, p 29 ^ Meyvis, Ludo. "New light on the life of Nefertiti". nieuws.kuleuven.be. Retrieved 18 August 2019. ^ Van der Perre, Athena (2012). Seyfried, Friederike (ed.). In the Light of Amarna : 100 Years of the Nefertiti discovery. Ägyptisches Museum und Papyrussammlung, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin. pp. 196–197. ISBN 978-3-86568-848-4. ^ A. van der Perre, "The Year 16 graffito of Akhenaten in Dayr Abū Ḥinnis. A Contribution to the Study of the Later Years of Nefertiti." Journal of Egyptian History(JEH) 7 (2014), pp.72–73 & 76–77 ^ Miller, J. (2007) ^ Miller, J. (2007) p 261 ^ a b Miller, J. (2007) p 275 ^ a b Miller, J. (2007) p 273 n92 ^ Reeves, C.N. (2001) pp. 176–177 ^ Miller, J. (2007) p 260-261. Miller believes Suppiluliuma was indeed that "brutal [and] unscrupulous" ^ Bryce, T. R. (1990) p 105 ^ Newberry, P. E. (1927) p 196 ^ Miller, J.; (2007) p 262 ^ Allen, J.; 2006 p 5 ^ Dodson, A. (2009) p 39 ^ Miller, J. (2007) p 275, to wit: Krauss, R. 1997:247; 2007 and Hornung, E. 2006:207 ^ Davis, T.M. The Tomb of Queen Tiyi, (KMT Communications, 1990) p. xii ^ Davis, T.M., The Tomb of Queen Tiyi, (KMT Communications, 1990) p. viii, p. xiv ^ Aldred, C. (1988) p. 205 ^ Giles, F. J. (2001) ^ Filer, J. 2001 p 4 ^ a b Strouhal, E. "Biological age of skeletonized mummy from Tomb KV 55 at Thebes" in Anthropologie: International Journal of the Science of Man Vol 48 Issue 2 (2010), pp 97–112. Dr. Strouhal examined KV55 in 1998, but the results were apparently delayed and perhaps eclipsed by Filer's examination in 2000. Strouhal's findings were published in 2010 to dispute the Hawass et al conclusions. ^ Wente, E. 1995 ^ Nature 224 (1974), 325f. ^ Hawass, Z., Y. Z. Gad, et al. "Ancestry and Pathology in King Tutankhamun's Family". Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA), 2010. ^ Hawass, Gad, 2010; eAppendix; Details of Methods, Results, and Comment ^ Hawass, Z., Y. Z. Gad, et al. in JAMA, fig 2 ^ Zahi Hawass. "King Tut's Family Secrets". National Geographic. p. 6. ^ "News from the Valley of the Kings: DNA Shows that KV55 Mummy Probably Not Akhenaten". Kv64.info. 2010-03-02. Retrieved 2012-08-25. ^ Nature 472, 404–406 (2011); Published online 27 April 2011; Original link ^ NewScientist.com; January, 2011; Royal Rumpus over King Tutankhamun's Ancestry ^ JAMA 2010; 303(24):2471–2475. "King Tutankhamun’s Family and Demise" ^ a b Bickerstaffe, D. The King is dead. How Long Lived the King? in Kmt vol 22, n 2, Summer 2010. ^ Duhig, Corinne. "The remains of Pharaoh Akhenaten are not yet identified: comments on 'Biological age of the skeletonised mummy from Tomb KV55 at Thebes (Egypt)' by Eugen Strouhal" in Anthropologie: International Journal of the Science of Man, Vol 48 Issue 2 (2010) pp 113–115. (subscription) "It is essential that, whether the KV55 skeleton is that of Smenkhkare or some previously-unknown prince... the assumption that the KV55 bones are those of Akhenaten be rejected before it becomes "received wisdom". ^ Who’s the Real Tut? retrieved Nov 2012 ^ Brenda J. Baker (June 24, 2010). "KV55 mummy not Akhenaten". Archeology News Network. Retrieved 15 December 2012. ^ Strouhal KV55 1998/2010 p111 Conclusions ^ Moran (1992) 107–119 ^ a b Giles, F. J. (1970) p 101-105 ^ Bell, M.R. "An Armchair Excavation of KV 55", JARCE 27 (1990) p. 133 ^ a b Bell, M. R. (1990) p 133-135 ^ Bell, M.R. (1990) p. 137 ^ Perepelkin, Y. The Secret of the Gold Coffin (1978) p163-164 ^ Dodson, A. (2009); p 30 Gallery[edit] A royal vulture pectoral which was found placed on the head of the KV55 mummy. A feminine figure assumed to be Nefertiti, wearing the Kheperesh or "Blue Crown" of a king pours a libation for Akhenaten. Bibliography[edit] Aldred, Cyril. Akhenaten, King of Egypt (Thames & Hudson, 1988) Aldred, Cyril. Akhenaten, Pharoah of Light (Thames & Hudson, 1968) Allen, James P. Two Altered Inscriptions of the Late Amarna Period, Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 25 (1988) Allen, James (2006). "The Amarna Succession" (PDF). Archived from the original on July 1, 2013. Retrieved 2008-06-23.CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) Allen, James P. Nefertiti and Smenkh-ka-re. Göttinger Miszellen 141; (1994) Bryce, Trevor R. “The Death of Niphururiya and Its Aftermath.” The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, vol. 76, 1990, pp. 97–105. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3822010. 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ISBN 978-3745041453[1] Hawass, Z., Y. Gad, et al. Ancestry and Pathology in King Tutankhamun’s Family (2010) in Journal of the American medical Association 303/7. Hornung, E. Akhenaten and the Religion of Light, Cornell University, 1999 Hornung, E. "The New Kingdom"', in E. Hornung, R. Krauss, and D. A. Warburton, eds., Ancient Egyptian Chronology (HdO I/83), Leiden – Boston, 2006. Krauss, Rolf. Das Ende der Amarnazeit (The End of the Amarna Period); 1978, Hildesheim Miller, J. Amarna Age Chronology and the Identity of Nibhururiya in Altoriental. Forsch. 34 (2007) Moran, William L. The Amarna Letters. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992 Murnane, W. Ancient Egyptian Coregencies (1977) Murnane, W. Texts from the Amarna Period (1995) Newberry, P. E. 'Appendix III: Report on the Floral Wreaths Found in the Coffins of Tut.Ankh.Amen' in H. Carter, The Tomb of Tut.Ankh.Amen Volume Two London: Cassell (1927) O'Connor, D and Cline, E, (eds); Amenhotep III: perspectives on his reign (1998) University of Michigan Press Pendlebury J., Samson, J. et al. City of Akhenaten, Part III (1951) Petrie, W. M. Flinders; Tell el Amarna (1894) Reeves, C.N. Akhenaten, Egypt's false Prophet (Thames and Hudson; 2001) Reeves, C.N. The Valley of the Kings (Kegan Paul, 1990) Reeves, C.N. The Complete Tutankhamun: The King – The Tomb – The Royal Treasure. London: Thames and Hudson; 1990. Theis, Christoffer, "Der Brief der Königin Daḫamunzu an den hethitischen König Šuppiluliuma I im Lichte von Reisegeschwindigkeiten und Zeitabläufen", in Thomas R. Kämmerer (Hrsg.), Identities and Societies in the Ancient East-Mediterranean Regions. Comparative Approaches. Henning Graf Reventlow Memorial Volume (= AAMO 1, AOAT 390/1). Münster 2011, S. 301–331 Wente, E. Who Was Who Among the Royal Mummies? (1995), Oriental Institute, Chicago v t e Amarna Period Pharaohs Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten Tutankhamun Ay Royal family Tiye Nefertiti Kiya "The Younger Lady" Tey Children Meritaten Meketaten Ankhesenamun Neferneferuaten Tasherit Neferneferure Setepenre Meritaten Tasherit Ankhesenpaaten Tasherit Nobles Officials Mutbenret Aperel Bek Huya Meryre II Nakhtpaaten Panehesy Parennefer Penthu Thutmose Locations Akhetaten Karnak KV55 KV62 Amarna Tombs Other Amarna letters Amarna succession Aten Atenism Dakhamunzu Amarna Art Style v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smenkhkare&oldid=998613203" Categories: 14th-century BC Pharaohs Amarna Period Pharaohs of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Historical negationism in ancient Egypt Akhenaten Hidden categories: All articles that may contain original research Articles that may contain original research from June 2018 CS1 maint: unfit URL AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский 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en-wikipedia-org-3099	----	Metropolitan Museum of Art - Wikipedia Metropolitan Museum of Art From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Major art museum in New York City, United States Not to be confused with Museum of Modern Art. The Metropolitan Museum of Art Entrance facade Established April 13, 1870; 150 years ago (April 13, 1870)[2][3][4] Location 1000 Fifth Avenue New York City 10028 Coordinates 40°46′46″N 73°57′47″W / 40.7794°N 73.9631°W / 40.7794; -73.9631Coordinates: 40°46′46″N 73°57′47″W / 40.7794°N 73.9631°W / 40.7794; -73.9631 Collection size 2 million[1] Visitors 6,479,548 (2019)[5] Director Max Hollein Public transit access Subway: ​​ at 86th Street ​ at 77th Street Bus: M1, M2, M3, M4, M79, M86 SBS Website www.metmuseum.org The Metropolitan Museum of Art U.S. National Register of Historic Places U.S. National Historic Landmark NYC Landmark Built 1874; 147 years ago (1874) Architect Richard Morris Hunt; also Calvert Vaux; Jacob Wrey Mould Architectural style Beaux-Arts NRHP reference No. 86003556 Significant dates Added to NRHP January 29, 1972[8] Designated NHL June 24, 1986[9] Designated NYCL June 9, 1967 (exterior)[6] November 19, 1977 (interior)[7] The Metropolitan Museum of Art of New York City, colloquially "the Met",[a] is the largest art museum in the United States. With 6,479,548 visitors to its three locations in 2019, it was the fourth most visited art museum in the world.[10] Its permanent collection contains over two million works,[11] divided among 17 curatorial departments. The main building at 1000 Fifth Avenue, along the Museum Mile on the eastern edge of Central Park in Manhattan's Upper East Side, is by area one of the world's largest art galleries. A much smaller second location, The Cloisters at Fort Tryon Park in Upper Manhattan, contains an extensive collection of art, architecture, and artifacts from medieval Europe. On March 18, 2016, the museum opened the Met Breuer museum along Madison Avenue on the Upper East Side; it extends the museum's modern and contemporary art program. The permanent collection consists of works of art from classical antiquity and ancient Egypt, paintings, and sculptures from nearly all the European masters, and an extensive collection of American and modern art. The Met maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, and Islamic art. The museum is home to encyclopedic collections of musical instruments, costumes, and accessories, as well as antique weapons and armor from around the world. Several notable interiors, ranging from 1st-century Rome through modern American design, are installed in its galleries. The Metropolitan Museum of Art was founded in 1870 for the purposes of opening a museum to bring art and art education to the American people. The Fifth Avenue building opened on February 20, 1872, at 681 Fifth Avenue. Contents 1 Collections 1.1 Geographically designated collections 1.1.1 Ancient Near Eastern art 1.1.2 Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas 1.1.3 Asian art 1.1.4 Egyptian art 1.1.5 European paintings 1.1.6 European sculpture and decorative arts 1.1.7 American Wing 1.1.8 Greek and Roman art 1.1.9 Islamic art 1.2 Non-geographically designated collections 1.2.1 Arms and Armor 1.2.2 Costume Institute 1.2.3 Drawings and prints 1.2.4 Robert Lehman Collection 1.2.5 Medieval art and the Cloisters 1.2.5.1 Main building 1.2.5.2 The Cloisters museum and gardens 1.2.6 Modern and contemporary art 1.2.7 Musical instruments 1.2.8 Photographs 1.2.9 Met Breuer 1.2.10 Film 1.3 Digital representation of collections 2 Libraries 2.1 Thomas J. Watson Library 2.2 Nolen Library 3 Special exhibitions 4 History 5 Architecture 5.1 Roof garden 5.2 Landmark designations 6 Management 6.1 Governance 6.2 Finances 6.2.1 2015–2018 setbacks 6.3 Attendance 7 Acquisitions and deaccessioning 8 Selected objects 9 Selected paintings 10 References 10.1 Footnotes 10.2 Citations 10.3 Sources 11 Further reading 12 External links Collections[edit] The Great Hall The Met's permanent collection is curated by seventeen separate departments, each with a specialized staff of curators and scholars, as well as six dedicated conservation departments and a Department of Scientific Research.[12] The permanent collection includes works of art from classical antiquity and ancient Egypt, paintings and sculptures from nearly all the European masters, and an extensive collection of American and modern art. The Met maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, and Islamic art.[13] The museum is also home to encyclopedic collections of musical instruments, costumes and accessories, and antique weapons and armor from around the world.[14] A great number of period rooms, ranging from first-century Rome through modern American design, are permanently installed in the Met's galleries.[15] In addition to its permanent exhibitions, the Met organizes and hosts large traveling shows throughout the year. The current chairman of the board, Daniel Brodsky, was elected in 2011[16] and became chairman three years after director Philippe de Montebello retired at the end of 2008.[17][18] On March 1, 2017, the BBC reported that Daniel Weiss, the Met's president and COO, would also temporarily act as CEO for the museum.[19][20] Following the departure of Thomas P. Campbell as the Met's director and CEO on June 30, 2017,[21] the search for a new director of the museum was assigned to the human resources firm Phillips Oppenheim to present a new candidate for the position "by the end of the fiscal year in June" of 2018.[22] The next director would report to Weiss as the current president of the museum.[23] In April 2018, Max Hollein was named director.[24] Geographically designated collections[edit] Ancient Near Eastern art[edit] Beginning in the late 19th century, the Met started acquiring ancient art and artifacts from the Near East. From a few cuneiform tablets and seals, the Met's collection of Near Eastern art has grown to more than 7,000 pieces.[25] Representing a history of the region beginning in the Neolithic Period and encompassing the fall of the Sasanian Empire and the end of Late Antiquity, the collection includes works from the Sumerian, Hittite, Sasanian, Assyrian, Babylonian, and Elamite cultures (among others), as well as an extensive collection of unique Bronze Age objects. The highlights of the collection include a set of monumental stone lamassu, or guardian figures, from the Northwest Palace of the Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II.[26] Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas[edit] Benin ivory mask, Iyoba, 16th-century Nigeria Though the Met first acquired a group of Peruvian antiquities in 1882, the museum did not begin a concerted effort to collect works from Africa, Oceania, and the Americas until 1969, when American businessman and philanthropist Nelson A. Rockefeller donated his more than 3,000-piece collection to the museum. Before Rockefeller's collection existed at the Met, Rockefeller founded The Museum of Primitive Art in New York City with the intentions of displaying these works, after the Met had previously shown disinterest in his art collection.[27] In 1968, the Met had agreed to a temporary exhibition of Rockefeller's work. However, the Met then requested to include the arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas in their personal collection and on permanent display.[27] The arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas opened to the public in 1982, under the title, "The Michael C. Rockefeller Wing."[28] This wing is named after Michael Rockefeller's son who died while collecting works in New Guinea.[29] Today, the Met's collection contains more than 11,000 pieces from sub-Saharan Africa, the Pacific Islands, and the Americas and is housed in the 40,000-square-foot (4,000 m2) Rockefeller Wing on the south end of the museum.[30] The Michael C. Rockefeller exhibits Non- Western works of art which created from 3,000 B.C.E. - present, while at the same time display a wide range of cultural histories.[28] This is considered to be the first time arts outside of the West were placed alongside Western art in a Western museum. Before then, the works of art from Africa, Oceania, and the Americas were considered art of the "primitives" or ethnographic objects.[31] The Wing exhibits the arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas in an exhibition separated by geographical locations. The collection ranges from 40,000-year-old indigenous Australian rock paintings, to a group of 15-foot-tall (4.6 m) memorial poles carved by the Asmat people of New Guinea, to a priceless collection of ceremonial and personal objects from the Nigerian Court of Benin donated by Klaus Perls.[32] The range of materials represented in the Africa, Oceania, and Americas collection is undoubtedly the widest of any department at the Met, including everything from precious metals to porcupine quills.[citation needed] The Michael C. Rockefeller Wing's exhibition space is planned to be renovated between 2020 and 2023.[33] Asian art[edit] Jain Siddha Bahubali, 6th century Bronze Chola Statue of Nataraja The Met's Asian department holds a collection of Asian art, of more than 35,000 pieces,[34] that is arguably the most comprehensive in the US. The collection dates back almost to the founding of the museum: many of the philanthropists who made the earliest gifts to the museum included Asian art in their collections. Today, an entire wing of the museum is dedicated to the Asian collection, and spans 4,000 years of Asian art. Every known Asian civilization is represented in the Met's Asian department, and the pieces on display include every type of decorative art, from painting and printmaking to sculpture and metalworking. The department is well known for its comprehensive collection of Chinese calligraphy and painting, as well as for its Indian sculptures, Nepalese and Tibetan works, and the arts of Burma (Myanmar), Cambodia and Thailand. Three ancient religions of India – Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism – are well represented in these sculptures.[35] However, not only "art" and ritual objects are represented in the collection; many of the best-known pieces are functional objects. The Asian wing also contains a complete Ming Dynasty-style garden court, modeled on a courtyard in the Master of the Nets Garden in Suzhou. Maxwell K. Hearn has been the current department chairman of Asian Art since 2011.[36] Egyptian art[edit] William the Hippopotamus is a mascot of the Met. Mummy, Metropolitan Museum of Art Though the majority of the Met's initial holdings of Egyptian art came from private collections, items uncovered during the museum's own archeological excavations, carried out between 1906 and 1941, constitute almost half of the current collection. More than 26,000 separate pieces of Egyptian art from the Paleolithic era through the Ptolemaic era constitute the Met's Egyptian collection, and almost all of them are on display in the museum's massive wing of 40 Egyptian galleries.[37] Among the most valuable pieces in the Met's Egyptian collection are 13 wooden models (of the total 24 models found together, 12 models and 1 offering bearer figure is at the Met, while the remaining 10 models and 1 offering bearer figure are in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo), discovered in a tomb in the Southern Asasif in western Thebes in 1920. These models depict, in unparalleled detail, a cross-section of Egyptian life in the early Middle Kingdom: boats, gardens, and scenes of daily life are represented in miniature. William the Faience Hippopotamus is a miniature shown at right. However, the popular centerpiece of the Egyptian Art department continues to be the Temple of Dendur. Dismantled by the Egyptian government to save it from rising waters caused by the building of the Aswan High Dam, the large sandstone temple was given to the United States in 1965 and assembled in the Met's Sackler Wing in 1978. Situated in a large room and partially surrounded by a reflecting pool and illuminated by a wall of windows opening onto Central Park, the Temple of Dendur has been one of the Met's most enduring attractions. The oldest items at the Met, a set of Archeulian flints from Deir el-Bahri which date from the Lower Paleolithic period (between 300,000 and 75,000 BC), are part of the Egyptian collection. The first curator was Albert Lythgoe, who directed several Egyptian excavations for the Museum.[38] Since 2013 the curator has been Diana Craig Patch.[39] In 2018, the museum built an exhibition around the golden-sheathed 1st-century BC coffin of Nedjemankh, a high-ranking priest of the ram-headed god Heryshaf of Heracleopolis. Investigators determined that the artifact had been stolen in 2011 from Egypt, to which the museum has agreed to return it.[40] European paintings[edit] European paintings at the museum The Met's collection of European paintings numbers around 1,700 pieces.[41] The current chairman of the European Paintings is Keith Christiansen who has been at the museum since 1977.[42] European sculpture and decorative arts[edit] European sculpture court The European Sculpture and Decorative Arts collection is one of the largest departments at the Met, holding in excess of 50,000 separate pieces from the 15th through the early 20th centuries.[43] Although the collection is particularly concentrated in Renaissance sculpture—much of which can be seen in situ surrounded by contemporary furnishings and decoration—it also contains comprehensive holdings of furniture, jewelry, glass and ceramic pieces, tapestries, textiles, and timepieces and mathematical instruments. In addition to its outstanding collections of English and French furniture, visitors can enter dozens of completely furnished period rooms, transplanted in their entirety into the Met's galleries. The collection even includes an entire 16th-century patio from the Spanish castle of Vélez Blanco, reconstructed in a two-story gallery, and the intarsia studiolo from the ducal palace at Gubbio. Sculptural highlights of the sprawling department include Bernini's Bacchanal, a cast of Rodin's The Burghers of Calais, and several unique pieces by Houdon, including his Bust of Voltaire and his famous portrait of his daughter Sabine.[citation needed] American Wing[edit] Washington Crossing the Delaware by Emanuel Leutze The museum's collection of American art returned to view in new galleries on January 16, 2012. The new installation provides visitors with the history of American art from the 18th through the early 20th century. The new galleries encompasses 30,000 square feet (2,800 m2) for the display of the museum's collection.[44] The curator in charge of the American Wing since September 2014 is Sylvia Yount.[45][46] Greek and Roman art[edit] Greek and Roman gallery The Met's collection of Greek and Roman art contains more than 17,000 objects.[47] The Greek and Roman collection dates back to the founding of the museum—in fact, the museum's first accessioned object was a Roman sarcophagus, still currently on display. Though the collection naturally concentrates on items from ancient Greece and the Roman Empire, these historical regions represent a wide range of cultures and artistic styles, from classic Greek black-figure and red-figure vases to carved Roman tunic pins.[citation needed] The Amathus sarcophagus, from Amathus, Cyprus, arguably the single most important object in the Cesnola Collection Highlights of the collection include the monumental Amathus sarcophagus and a magnificently detailed Etruscan chariot known as the "Monteleone chariot". The collection also contains many pieces from far earlier than the Greek or Roman empires—among the most remarkable are a collection of early Cycladic sculptures from the mid-third millennium BC, many so abstract as to seem almost modern. The Greek and Roman galleries also contain several large classical wall paintings and reliefs from different periods, including an entire reconstructed bedroom from a noble villa in Boscoreale, excavated after its entombment by the eruption of Vesuvius in AD 79. In 2007, the Met's Greek and Roman galleries were expanded to approximately 60,000 square feet (6,000 m2), allowing the majority of the collection to be on permanent display.[48] Islamic art[edit] Leaf from the Blue Qur'an showing Chapter 30: 28–32 The Metropolitan Museum owns one of the world's largest collection of works of art of the Islamic world. The collection also includes artifacts and works of art of cultural and secular origin from the time period indicated by the rise of Islam predominantly from the Near East and in contrast to the Ancient Near Eastern collections. The biggest number of miniatures from the "Shahnama" list prepared under the reign of Shah Tahmasp I, the most luxurious of all the existing Islamic manuscripts, also belongs to this museum. Other rarities include the works of Sultan Muhammad and his associates from the Tabriz school "The Sade Holiday", "Tahmiras kills divs", "Bijan and Manizhe", and many others.[49] The Met's collection of Islamic art is not confined strictly to religious art, though a significant number of the objects in the Islamic collection were originally created for religious use or as decorative elements in mosques. Much of the 12,000 strong collection consists of secular items, including ceramics and textiles, from Islamic cultures ranging from Spain to North Africa to Central Asia.[50] The Islamic Art department's collection of miniature paintings from Iran and Mughal India are a highlight of the collection. Calligraphy both religious and secular is well represented in the Islamic Art department, from the official decrees of Suleiman the Magnificent to a number of Qur'an manuscripts reflecting different periods and styles of calligraphy. Modern calligraphic artists also used a word or phrase to convey a direct message, or they created compositions from the shapes of Arabic words. Others incorporated indecipherable cursive writing within the body of the work to evoke the illusion of writing.[51] Islamic Arts galleries had been undergoing refurbishment since 2001 and were reopened on November 1, 2011, as the New Galleries for the Art of the Arab Lands, Turkey, Iran, Central Asia, and Later South Asia. Until that time, a narrow selection of items from the collection had been on temporary display throughout the museum. As with many other departments at the Met, the Islamic Art galleries contain many interior pieces, including the entire reconstructed Nur Al-Din Room from an early 18th-century house in Damascus. However, the museum has confirmed to the New York Post that it has withdrawn from public display all paintings depicting Muhammad and may not rehang those that were displayed in the Islamic gallery before the renovation.[52] Non-geographically designated collections[edit] Arms and Armor[edit] Arms and armor, Middle Ages main hall The Met's Department of Arms and Armor is one of the museum's most popular collections.[53] The distinctive "parade" of armored figures on horseback installed in the first-floor Arms and Armor gallery is one of the most recognizable images of the museum, which was organized in 1975 with the help of the Russian immigrant and arms and armors' scholar, Leonid Tarassuk (1925–90). The department's focus on "outstanding craftsmanship and decoration," including pieces intended solely for display, means that the collection is strongest in late medieval European pieces and Japanese pieces from the 5th through the 19th centuries. However, these are not the only cultures represented in Arms and Armor; the collection spans more geographic regions than almost any other department, including weapons and armor from dynastic Egypt, ancient Greece, the Roman Empire, the ancient Near East, Africa, Oceania, and the Americas, as well as American firearms (especially Colt firearms) from the 19th and 20th centuries. Among the collection's 14,000 objects[54] are many pieces made for and used by kings and princes, including armor belonging to Henry VIII of England, Henry II of France, and Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor.[citation needed] Costume Institute[edit] Main article: Anna Wintour Costume Center Robe à la française 1740s, as seen in one of the exhibits at the Costume Institute The Museum of Costume Art was founded by Aline Bernstein and Irene Lewisohn.[55] In 1946, with the financial support of the fashion industry, the Museum of Costume Art merged with The Metropolitan Museum of Art as The Costume Institute, and in 1959 became a curatorial department.[56] Today, its collection contains more than 35,000 costumes and accessories.[57] The Costume Institute used to have a permanent gallery space in what was known as the "Basement" area of the Met because it was downstairs at the bottom of the Met facility. However, due to the fragile nature of the items in the collection, the Costume Institute does not maintain a permanent installation. Instead, every year it holds two separate shows in the Met's galleries using costumes from its collection, with each show centering on a specific designer or theme. The Costume Institute is known for hosting the annual Met Gala and in the past has presented summer exhibitions such as Savage Beauty and China: Through the Looking Glass.[58][59][60] In past years, Costume Institute shows organized around famous designers such as Cristóbal Balenciaga, Chanel, Yves Saint Laurent, and Gianni Versace; and style doyenne like Diana Vreeland, Mona von Bismarck, Babe Paley, Jayne Wrightsman, Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, Nan Kempner, and Iris Apfel have drawn significant crowds to the Met. The Costume Institute's annual Benefit Gala, co-chaired by Vogue editor-in-chief Anna Wintour, is an extremely popular, if exclusive, event in the fashion world; in 2007, the 700 available tickets started at $6,500 per person.[61] Exhibits displayed over the past decade in the Costume Institute include: Rock Style, in 1999, representing the style of more than 40 rock musicians, including Madonna, David Bowie, and The Beatles; Extreme Beauty: The Body Transformed, in 2001, which exposes the transforming ideas of physical beauty over time and the bodily contortion necessary to accommodate such ideals and fashion; The Chanel Exhibit, displayed in 2005, acknowledging the skilled work of designer Coco Chanel as one of the leading fashion names in history; Superheroes: Fashion and Fantasy, exhibited in 2008, suggesting the metaphorical vision of superheroes as ultimate fashion icons; the 2010 exhibit on the American Woman: Fashioning a National Identity, which exposes the revolutionary styles of the American woman from the years 1890 to 1940, and how such styles reflect the political and social sentiments of the time. The theme of the 2011 event was "Alexander McQueen: Savage Beauty". Each of these exhibits explores fashion as a mirror of cultural values and offers a glimpse into historical styles, emphasizing their evolution into today's own fashion world. On January 14, 2014, the Met named the Costume Institute complex after Anna Wintour.[62] The curator is Andrew Bolton.[citation needed] Drawings and prints[edit] Melencolia I by Albrecht Dürer Though other departments contain significant numbers of drawings and prints, the Drawings and Prints department specifically concentrates on North American pieces and western European works produced after the Middle Ages. The first Old Master drawings, comprising 670 sheets, were presented as a single group in 1880 by Cornelius Vanderbilt II and in effect launched the department, though it was not formally constituted as a department until later. Other early donors to the department include Junius Spencer Morgan II who presented a broad range of material, but mainly dated from the 16th century, including two woodblocks and many prints by Albrecht Dürer in 1919. Currently, the Drawings and Prints collection contains more than 17,000 drawings, 1.5 million prints, and 12,000 illustrated books.[63] The great masters of European painting, who produced many more sketches and drawings than actual paintings, are extensively represented in the Drawing and Prints collection. The department's holdings contain major drawings by Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci and Rembrandt, as well as prints and etchings by Van Dyck, Dürer, and Degas among many others. The curator is Nadine Orenstein.[citation needed] Robert Lehman Collection[edit] Robert Lehman Wing On the death of banker Robert Lehman in 1969, his Foundation donated 2,600 works of art to the museum.[64] Housed in the "Robert Lehman Wing," the museum refers to the collection as "one of the most extraordinary private art collections ever assembled in the United States".[65] To emphasize the personal nature of the Robert Lehman Collection, the Met housed the collection in a special set of galleries which evoked the interior of Lehman's richly decorated townhouse; this intentional separation of the Collection as a "museum within the museum" met with mixed criticism and approval at the time, though the acquisition of the collection was seen as a coup for the Met.[66] Unlike other departments at the Met, the Robert Lehman collection does not concentrate on a specific style or period of art; rather, it reflects Lehman's personal interests. Lehman the collector concentrated heavily on paintings of the Italian Renaissance, particularly the Sienese school. Paintings in the collection include masterpieces by Botticelli and Domenico Veneziano, as well as works by a significant number of Spanish painters, El Greco and Goya among them. Lehman's collection of drawings by the Old Masters, featuring works by Rembrandt and Dürer, is particularly valuable for its breadth and quality.[67] Princeton University Press has documented the massive collection in a multi-volume book series published as The Robert Lehman Collection Catalogues.[citation needed] Medieval art and the Cloisters[edit] The Limbourg brothers' Belles Heures of Jean de France, Duc de Berry The Met's collection of medieval art consists of a comprehensive range of Western art from the 4th through the early 16th centuries, as well as Byzantine and pre-medieval European antiquities not included in the Ancient Greek and Roman collection. Like the Islamic collection, the Medieval collection contains a broad range of two- and three-dimensional art, with religious objects heavily represented. In total, the Medieval Art department's permanent collection numbers over 10,000 separate objects, divided between the main museum building on Fifth Avenue and The Cloisters.[68] Main building[edit] The medieval collection in the main Metropolitan building, centered on the first-floor medieval gallery, contains about 6,000 separate objects. While a great deal of European medieval art is on display in these galleries, most of the European pieces are concentrated at the Cloisters (see below). However, this allows the main galleries to display much of the Met's Byzantine art side by side with European pieces. The main gallery is host to a wide range of tapestries and church and funerary statuary, while side galleries display smaller works of precious metals and ivory, including reliquary pieces and secular items. The main gallery, with its high arched ceiling, also serves double duty as the annual site of the Met's elaborately decorated Christmas tree.[citation needed] The Cloisters museum and gardens[edit] Main article: The Cloisters The Cloisters from the Hudson River Photo of the interior of the Cloisters The Cloisters was a principal project of John D. Rockefeller, Jr., a major benefactor of the Met. Located in Fort Tryon Park and completed in 1938, it is a separate building dedicated solely to medieval art. The Cloisters collection was originally that of a separate museum, assembled by George Grey Barnard and acquired in toto by Rockefeller in 1925 as a gift to the Met.[69] The Cloisters are so named on account of the five medieval French cloisters whose salvaged structures were incorporated into the modern building, and the five thousand objects at the Cloisters are strictly limited to medieval European works.[70] The collection features items of outstanding beauty and historical importance; including the Belles Heures of Jean de France, Duc de Berry illustrated by the Limbourg Brothers in 1409,[71] the Romanesque altar cross known as the "Cloisters Cross" or "Bury Cross",[72] and the seven tapestries depicting the Hunt of the Unicorn.[73] Modern and contemporary art[edit] With some 13,000 artworks, primarily by European and American artists, the modern art collection occupies 60,000 square feet (6,000 m2), of gallery space and contains many iconic modern works. Cornerstones of the collection include Picasso's portrait of Gertrude Stein, Jasper Johns's White Flag, Jackson Pollock's Autumn Rhythm (Number 30), and Max Beckmann's triptych Beginning. Certain artists are represented in remarkable depth, for a museum whose focus is not exclusively on modern art: for example, ninety works constitute the museum's Paul Klee collection, donated by Heinz Berggruen, spanning the entirety of the artist's life.[74] Due to the Met's long history, "contemporary" paintings acquired in years past have often migrated to other collections at the museum, particularly to the American and European Paintings departments.[citation needed] In April 2013, it was reported that the museum was to receive a collection worth $1 billion from cosmetics tycoon Leonard Lauder. The collection of Cubist art includes work by Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque and Juan Gris and went on display in 2014.[75] The Met has since added to the collection, for example spending $31.8 million for Gris' The musician's table in 2018.[76] Musical instruments[edit] Grand piano by Sébastien Érard, c. 1840 The Met's collection of musical instruments, with about 5,000 examples of musical instruments from all over the world, is virtually unique among major museums.[77] The collection began in 1889 with a donation of 270 instruments by Mary Elizabeth Adams Brown, who joined her collection to become the museum's first curator of musical instruments, named in honor of her husband, John Crosby Brown. By the time she died, the collection had 3,600 instruments that she had donated and the collection was housed in five galleries. Instruments were (and continue to be) included in the collection not only on aesthetic grounds, but also insofar as they embodied technical and social aspects of their cultures of origin. The modern Musical Instruments collection is encyclopedic in scope; every continent is represented at virtually every stage of its musical life. Highlights of the department's collection include several Stradivari violins, a collection of Asian instruments made from precious metals, and the oldest surviving piano, a 1720 model by Bartolomeo Cristofori. Many of the instruments in the collection are playable, and the department encourages their use by holding concerts and demonstrations by guest musicians.[citation needed] Photographs[edit] La Tour St. Jacques La Boucherie à Paris by Charles Soulier, 1867 The Met's collection of photographs, numbering more than 25,000 in total,[78] is centered on five major collections plus additional acquisitions by the museum. Alfred Stieglitz, a famous photographer himself, donated the first major collection of photographs to the museum, which included a comprehensive survey of Photo-Secessionist works, a rich set of master prints by Edward Steichen, and an outstanding collection of Stieglitz's photographs from his own studio. The Met supplemented Stieglitz's gift with the 8,500-piece Gilman Paper Company Collection, the Rubel Collection, and the Ford Motor Company Collection, which respectively provided the collection with early French and American photography, early British photography, and post-WWI American and European photography. The museum also acquired Walker Evans's personal collection of photographs, a particular coup considering the high demand for his works. The department of photography was founded in 1992. Though the department gained a permanent gallery in 1997, not all of the department's holdings are on display at any given time, due to the sensitive materials represented in the photography collection. However, the Photographs department has produced some of the best-received temporary exhibits in the Met's recent past, including a Diane Arbus retrospective and an extensive show devoted to spirit photography. In 2007, the museum designated a gallery exclusively for the exhibition of photographs made after 1960.[79] Met Breuer[edit] Met Breuer building in 2010, when it was the Whitney Museum of American Art. Main article: Met Breuer On March 18, 2016, the museum opened a new venue in the Marcel Breuer-designed building at Madison Avenue and 75th Street in Manhattan's Upper East Side, the former Whitney Museum of American Art.[80] It extends the museum's modern and contemporary art program.[81] In September 2018, it was announced that the Met intends to vacate the Met Breuer three years early, in 2020—in which case the Frick Collection will likely temporarily occupy the space as its main building undergoes renovations.[82][83][84] Film[edit] The Met has an extensive archive consisting of 1,500 films made and collected by the museum since the 1920s. As part of the museum's 150 anniversary commemoration, since January 2020, the museum uploads a film from its archive weekly onto YouTube.[85] Digital representation of collections[edit] Beginning in 2013, the Met organized the Digital Media Department for the purpose of increasing access of the museum's collections and resources using digital media and expanded website services. The first Chief Digital Officer Sree Sreenivasan from 2013 departed in 2016 and was replaced by Loic Tallon at the time that the department became known by its simplified designation as the Digital Department. At the start of 2017, the department began its Open Access initiative summarized on the Met's website titled "Digital Underground" stating: "It's been six months since The Met launched its Open Access initiative, which made available all 375,000+ images of public-domain works in The Met collection under Creative Commons Zero (CC0). During what is just the dawn of this new initiative, the responses so far have been incredible."[86] At that time, more than 375,000 photographic images from the museum's archival collection were released for public domain reproduction and use both by the general public and by large public access websites such as those available at Google BigQuery.[87] Libraries[edit] Each Department maintains a library, most of the material of which can be requested online through the libraries' catalog.[88] Two of the libraries may be accessed without an appointment: Thomas J. Watson Library[edit] Main article: Thomas J. Watson Library The Thomas J. Watson Library is the central library of The Metropolitan Museum of Art, and supports the activities of staff and researchers. Watson Library's collection contains approximately 900,000 volumes, including monographs and exhibition catalogs; over 11,000 periodical titles; and more than 125,000 auction and sale catalogs.[89] The Library includes a reference collection, auction and sale catalogs, a rare book collection, manuscript items, and vertical file collections. The Library is accessible to anyone 18 years of age or older simply by registering online and providing a valid photo ID.[90] Nolen Library[edit] The Nolen Library is open to the general public. The collection of some 8,000 items, arranged in open shelves, includes books, picture books, DVDs, and videos. The Nolen Library includes a children's reading room and materials for teachers.[91] Special exhibitions[edit] The museum regularly hosts notable special exhibitions, often focusing on the works of one artist that have been loaned out from a variety of other museums and sources for the duration of the exhibition. These exhibitions are part of the attraction that draw people both within and outside Manhattan to explore the Met. Such exhibitions include displays especially designed for the Costume Institute, paintings from artists from across the world, works of art related to specific art movements, and collections of historical artifacts. Exhibitions are commonly located within their specific departments, ranging from American decorative arts, arms and armor, drawings and prints, Egyptian art, Medieval art, musical instruments, and photographs. Typical exhibitions run for months at a time and are open to the general public. Each exhibition provides insight into the world of art as a transformative, cultural experience and often includes a historical analysis to demonstrate the profound impact that art has on society and its dramatic transformation over the years.[92] In 1969, a special exhibition, titled "Harlem on My Mind" was criticized for failing to exhibit work by Harlem artists. The museum defended its decision to portray Harlem itself as a work of art.[93] Norman Lewis, Benny Andrews, Romare Bearden, Clifford Joseph, Roy DeCarava, Reginald Gammon, Henri Ghent, Raymond Saunders, and Alice Neel were among the artists who picketed the show.[94] History[edit] Opening reception in the picture gallery at 681 Fifth Avenue, February 20, 1872; wood-engraving published in Frank Leslie's Weekly, March 9, 1872 The New York State Legislature granted the Metropolitan Museum of Art an Act of Incorporation on April 13, 1870, "for the purpose of establishing and maintaining in said City a Museum and Library of Art, of encouraging and developing the Study of the Fine Arts, and the application of Art to manufacture and natural life, of advancing the general knowledge of kindred subjects, and to that end of furnishing popular instruction and recreations."[95] This legislation was supplemented later by the 1893 Act, Chapter 476, which required that its collections "shall be kept open and accessible to the public free of all charge throughout the year."[96] The founders included businessmen and financiers, as well as leading artists and thinkers of the day, who wanted to open a museum to bring art and art education to the American people.[4] The museum first opened on February 20, 1872, housed in a building located at 681 Fifth Avenue.[97] John Taylor Johnston, a railroad executive whose personal art collection seeded the museum, served as its first president, and the publisher George Palmer Putnam came on board as its founding superintendent. The artist Eastman Johnson acted as co-founder of the museum,[98] as did landscape painter Frederic Edwin Church.[99] Various other industrialists of the age served as co-founders, including Howard Potter. The former Civil War officer, Luigi Palma di Cesnola, was named as its first director. He served from 1879 to 1904. Under their guidance, the Met's holdings, initially consisting of a Roman stone sarcophagus and 174 mostly European paintings, quickly outgrew the available space. In 1873, occasioned by the Met's purchase of the Cesnola Collection of Cypriot antiquities, the museum decamped from Fifth Avenue and took up residence at the Mrs. Nicholas Cruger Mansion also known as the Douglas Mansion (James Renwick, 1853–54, demolished 1928) at 128 West 14th Street.[100] However, these new accommodations proved temporary, as the growing collection required more space than the mansion could provide.[101] It moved into the current building in 1880. Between 1879 and 1895, the museum created and operated a series of educational programs, known as the Metropolitan Museum of Art Schools, intended to provide vocational training and classes on fine arts.[102] The museum in 1914 In 1954, to mark the opening of its Grace Rainey Rogers concert hall, the museum inaugurated a series of concerts, adding art lectures in 1956. This "Concerts & Lectures program" grew over the years into 200 events each season.[103] The program presented such performers as Marian Anderson, Cecilia Bartoli, Judy Collins, Marilyn Horne, Burl Ives, Juilliard String Quartet, Yo-Yo Ma, Itzhak Perlman, Artur Rubinstein, András Schiff, Nina Simone, Joan Sutherland and André Watts, as well as lectures on art history, music, dance, theater and social history. The program was directed, from its inception to 1968, by William Kolodney, and from 1969 to 2010, by Hilde Limondjian.[104] In the 1960s, the governance of the Met was expanded to include, for the first time, a chairman of the board of trustees in contemplation of a large bequest from the estate of Robert Lehman. For six decades Lehman built upon an art collection begun by his father in 1911 and devoted a great deal of time the Met, before finally becoming the first chairman of the board at the Metropolitan in the 1960s.[105] After his death in 1969, the Robert Lehman Foundation donated close to 3,000 works of art to the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Housed in the Robert Lehman Wing, which opened to the public in 1975 and largely financed by the Lehman Foundation, the museum has called it "one of the most extraordinary private art collections ever assembled in the United States".[106] The museum (left foreground) is located in Central Park. The Metropolitan Museum of Art Centennial was celebrated with exhibitions, symposia, concerts, lectures, the reopening of refurbished galleries, special tours, social events, and other programming for eighteen months from October 1969 through the spring of 1971. The centennial's events (including an open house, Centennial Ball, year-long art history course for the public, and various educational programming and traveling exhibitions) and publications drew on support from prominent New Yorkers, artists, writers, composers, interior designers, and art historians.[107] In 2009 Michael Gross published The Secret History of the Moguls and the Money That Made the Metropolitan Museum, an unauthorized social history,[108] and the museum bookstore declined to sell it.[109][110] In 2012, following the earlier appointment of Daniel Brodsky as chairman of the board at the Met, the by-laws of the museum were formally amended to recognize the office of the chairman as having authority over the assignment and review of the both the offices of president and director of the museum.[23] The office of chairman was first introduced relatively late in the museum's history in the 1960s in contemplation of the anticipated donation of the Lehman collection to the museum and has since that time, under Brodsky, become the most senior administrative position at the museum.[23] In January 2018, museum president Daniel Weiss announced that the century-old policy of free admission would be replaced by a $25 charge to out-of-state and foreign visitors, effective March 2018.[22] The museum temporarily closed in March 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City, and reopened in late August;[111] this was the first time in over a century that the Met was closed for more than three consecutive days.[112] Architecture[edit] Street view of the Met Charles Engelhard Court in the North Wing facing Central Park After negotiations with the City of New York in 1871, the Met was granted the land between the East Park Drive, Fifth Avenue, and the 79th and 85th Street transverse roads in Central Park. A red-brick and stone "mausoleum" was designed by American architect Calvert Vaux and his collaborator Jacob Wrey Mould. Vaux's ambitious building was not well received; the building's High Victorian Gothic style being considered already dated prior to completion, and the president of the Met termed the project "a mistake".[113] Within 20 years, a new architectural plan engulfing the Vaux building was already being executed. Since that time, many additions have been made, including the distinctive Beaux-Arts Fifth Avenue facade, Great Hall, and Grand Stairway. These were designed by architect and Met trustee Richard Morris Hunt, but completed by his son, Richard Howland Hunt in 1902 after his father's death.[114] The architectural sculpture on the facade is by Karl Bitter.[115] Northern view of Central Park through the glass wall of the Temple of Dendur room The wings that completed the Fifth Avenue facade in the 1910s were designed by the firm of McKim, Mead & White. The modernistic glass sides and rear of the museum are the work of Roche-Dinkeloo. Kevin Roche has been the architect for the master plan and expansion of the museum for the past 42 years. He is responsible for designing all of its new wings and renovations including but not limited to the American Wing, Greek and Roman Court, and recently opened Islamic Wing.[116] The Met measures almost 1⁄4-mile (400 m) long and with more than 2 million square feet (190,000 m2) of floor space, more than 20 times the size of the original 1880 building.[117][118] The museum building is an accretion of over 20 structures, most of which are not visible from the exterior. The City of New York owns the museum building and contributes utilities, heat, and some of the cost of guardianship. The Charles Engelhard Court of the American Wing features the facade of the Branch Bank of the United States, a Wall Street bank that was facing demolition in 1913.[119][120] Roof garden[edit] Memantra by Frank Stella on exhibit in the roof garden. The Iris and B. Gerald Cantor Roof Garden is located on the roof near the southwestern corner of the museum. The garden's cafe and bar is a popular museum spot during the mild-weathered months, especially on Friday and Saturday evenings when large crowds can lead to long lines at the elevators. The roof garden offers views of Central Park and the Manhattan skyline.[121][122] The garden is the gift of philanthropists Iris and B. Gerald Cantor, founder and chairman of securities firm Cantor Fitzgerald.[123] The garden was opened to the public on August 1, 1987.[124] Every summer since 1998 the roof garden has hosted a single-artist exhibition.[122] The artists have been: Ellsworth Kelly (1998), Magdalena Abakanowicz (1999), David Smith (2000), Joel Shapiro (2001), Claes Oldenburg and Coosje van Bruggen (2002), Roy Lichtenstein (2003), Andy Goldsworthy (2004), Sol LeWitt (2005), Cai Guo-Qiang (2006),[125] Frank Stella (2007), Jeff Koons (2008), Roxy Paine (2009), Big Bambú by Doug and Mike Starn (2010),[126] We Come in Peace by Huma Bhabha (2018),[127] and Parapivot by Alicja Kwade.[128] The roof garden has views of the Manhattan skyline from a vantage point high above Central Park.[129] The views have been described as "the best in Manhattan."[130] Art critics have been known to complain that the view "distracts" from the art on exhibition.[131] New York Times art critic Ken Johnson complains that the "breathtaking, panoramic views of Central Park and the Manhattan skyline" creates "an inhospitable site for sculpture" that "discourages careful, contemplative looking."[132] Writer Mindy Aloff describes the roof garden as "the loveliest airborne space I know of in New York."[133] The cafe and bar in this garden are considered romantic by many.[129][134][135] Landmark designations[edit] The museum's main building was designated a city landmark by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1967,[6] and its interior was separately recognized by the Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1977.[7] The Met's main building was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1986, recognizing both its monumental architecture, and its importance as a cultural institution.[136] Management[edit] Governance[edit] Although the City of New York owns the museum building and contributes utilities, heat, and some of the cost of guardianship, the collections are owned by a private corporation of fellows and benefactors which totals about 950 persons. The museum is governed by a board of trustees of 41 elected members, several officials of the City of New York, and persons honored as trustees by the museum. The current chairman of the board, Daniel Brodsky was elected in 2011.[16] Other notable trustees include Anna Wintour, Richard Chilton, Candace Beinecke, Alejandro Santo Domingo[137] as well as Mayor Bill de Blasio and his appointee Ken Sunshine.[138] On March 10, 2015, the board of trustees chose Daniel Weiss, then president of Haverford College, to be the current president and chief operating officer of the Met, replacing Emily K. Rafferty, who served in that role for a decade.[139] The search for a new director and CEO for the museum was announced on February 28, 2017, and assigned to be conducted by the human resources firm Phillips Oppenheim following the departure of Thomas Campbell as the Met's director and previous CEO on June 30, 2017.[21] The activities of board of trustees is organized and based upon the activities of the individual trustees and their various committees as of 2016.[137] The several committees of the board of trustees include the committees listed as Nominating, Executive, Acquisitions, Finance, Investment, Legal, Education, Audit, Employee Benefits, External Affairs, Merchandising, Membership, Building, Technology and The Fund for the Met.[137] The list of elective trustees of the Met for 2016–2017 included Jeffrey W. Greenberg, Bonnie B. Himmelman, and Andrew Solomon.[137] In 2020, for the Met hired its first curator of Native American Art, Dr. Patricia Marroquin Norby.[140] Finances[edit] As of 2017, the museum's endowment as administered by the museum's new investment officer Lauren Meserve is US$3.1 billion which provides much of the income for operations while admissions account for only 13 percent of revenue as of fiscal 2016.[141][142][143] The 2009–10 operating budget was $221 million. The museum admission price as of March 2018 is $25 for out-of-state and foreign visitors, while New York state residents can pay what they wish to enter. Although subject to re-assessment,[144] a 1970 agreement between the museum and the city of New York requires New York state visitors to pay at least a nominal amount; a penny is acceptable.[145] The Met's finance committee is led by Hamilton E. James of The Blackstone Group, who is also one of the board members at the Met.[21] The Met is reported to have an Aaa credit rating, the highest such rating possible. This was last affirmed by Moody's in 2015.[146] In 2019, museum President Daniel Weiss announced that the institution would review its policy for receiving financial donations, under pressure from activist group P.A.I.N. for the role that cultural institutions have played in whitewashing the Sackler family by receiving their donations.[147] 2015–2018 setbacks[edit] In September 2016, the Wall Street Journal first reported financial set-backs at the museum related to servicing its outstanding debts and associated cut-backs in staffing at the museum, with the goal of trying to balance its budget by fiscal year 2018.[148] According to the Met's annual tax filing for fiscal year 2016, several top executives had received disproportionately high compensation, often exceeding $1 million per annum with over $100,000 bonuses per annum.[149] In April 2017, The New York Times reported that the Met's annual debt was approaching $40 million, in addition to an outstanding museum bond for $250 million. This resulted in the indefinite postponement of a planned $600 million architectural expansion of the exhibition space for the museum's modern art collection as well as started a general discussion over the Met's human resources management.[150] The current chairman of the board at the Met elected in 2011, Daniel Brodsky,[151] stated in response to the Times reports that he "looked forward to working with my administrative and board colleagues to support a climate of candor, transparency, accountability and mutual respect."[150] In January 2018, Daniel Weiss as president of the museum stated that a downsized version of the original $600 million architectural expansion might be reconsidered as early as 2020 at a reduction to the $450 million level.[22] Brodsky, the chairman of the Met, stated that after the 2017 financial setbacks, the director position would be appointed separately from the position of CEO. Following a commissioned report from the Boston Consulting Group, the current interim CEO, president, and COO of the Met, Daniel Weiss, said that the Met's 2015–2017 financial setbacks were caused by "slowing revenue, rising costs, and too many projects at once." Weiss was further reported as having hired Will Manzer, formerly an executive at Perry Ellis, to help re-invigorate recently declining revenues at the museum.[152] On April 26, Weiss stated that the budget shortfall of $15 million might require a re-assessment and increase in the museum's current admission payment policy. Weiss added that there remained concerns for a sustainable fiscal model for the Met in which city officials "have a right to a clear understanding of how we would be engaging the public, how we balance access with sustainability."[96] In May 2017, the Met filed formal proposal to attempt to charge admission fees to out-of-state visitors.[153] Robin Pogrebin, writing for the Times, reported that the request for out-of-state admissions would call for the re-legislation of the New York State 1893 Act which requires that the museum's collections "shall be kept open and accessible to the public free of all charge throughout the year," and any unlegislated changes would be subject to challenge by the New York State attorney general, Eric Schneiderman, or one of the tristate counselors, Christopher Porrino or George Jepsen.[153] In January 2018, Pogrebin writing for The New York Times reported that amid-continuing reverbations from "a period of financial turbulence and leadership turmoil" that the museum president Daniel Weiss had announced that the museum would rescind its century-old policy of free admission to the museum and begin charging $25 for out-of-state visitors starting in March 2018.[22] Pogrebin stated that although the museum had made progress in decreasing its deficit from $40 million to $10 million, that an adverse decision from the City of New York to curtail funding for the Met's operating costs by as much as $8 million "for security and building staff" caused Weiss to announce the change in admissions policy. Weiss indicated that the new policy would be estimated to increase revenue from the current $43 million it receives from admissions to an enhanced revenue stream as high as US$49 million.[22] Attendance[edit] For the fiscal year 2017 which ended on June 30, the museum was reported as having 7 million visitors during the past year, where "37 percent of these were international visitors, while 30 percent came from New York's five boroughs."[154] Previously in 2016, the museum set a record for attendance, attracting 6.7 million visitors—the highest number since the museum began tracking admissions.[155] Forty percent of the Met's visitors in fiscal year 2016 came from New York City and the tristate area; 41 percent from 190 countries besides the United States.[155] In 2017, the attendance figures indicated seven million annual visitors with 63% of the visitors arriving from outside of New York State.[144] Roberta Smith writing for The New York Times in September 2017 voiced growing public concern that proposed increases in admissions costs would have an adverse effect upon attendance statistics at the museum. Smith referred to the public perception that such costs would appear "greedy and inapproriate" because "The museum already gets around $39 million a year from its gate – equal to the entire annual budget of the Brooklyn Museum."[156] Smith's article continued to report the negative response of local communities in the tristate area surrounding the museum which was previously introduced in a series of articles by Robin Pogrebin written during the 2016–2017 fiscal year at the museum which criticized speculative suggestions among current administrators at the museum that an added revenue stream could be pursued by the museum by rescinding existing museum policy since 1893 allowing for free public access to the museum.[144] In January 2018, museum president Daniel Weiss announced that the century-old policy of free museum admission would be replaced. Effective March 2018, most visitors who do not live in New York state or are not a student from New York, New Jersey, or Connecticut have to pay $25 to enter the museum.[22] The City of New York has reduced funding at the Metropolitan as part of Mayor De Blasio's political effort to increase artistic diversity. They made an agreement to allow the fees in exchange for less funding which the city pledged to use at alternate facilities and promote diversity.[157] Both Holland Carter and Roberta Smith of The New York Times have argued in response to Weiss's decision to rescind the previous free admission policy as lacking in responsible fiscal planning. They stated that a recent $65 million expenditure for renovating fountains seemed to be a poor allocation of the limited available funding. Smith added, "Those new awful Darth Vaderish fountains take huge chunks out of the plaza and disrupt movement," as an indication of the misuse of funds.[158] Further criticism of Weiss's proposal was voiced internationally when The Guardian summarized the backlash from the Weiss proposal for raising the admissions fees. It stated, "Some critics are outraged. The past week has seen a New York Times piece titled "The New Pay Policy Is a Mistake", while Jezebel's Aimée Lutkin claimed "The Met Should Be Fucking Free". The New York Post writes that the museum has never had the right to charge admission and Alexandra Schwartz in the New Yorker says the new policy diminishes New York City".[159] Acquisitions and deaccessioning[edit] See also: Looted art The Metropolitan Museum of Art spent $39 million to acquire art for the fiscal year ending in June 2012.[160] At the same time, the museum is required to list in its annual report the total cash proceeds from art sales each year and to itemize any deaccessioned objects valued at more than $50,000 each. It must also sell those pieces at auction and provide advance public notice of a work being sold if it has been on view in the last ten years. These rules were imposed by the New York State Attorney General in 1972.[161] During the 1970s, under the directorship of Thomas Hoving, the Met revised its deaccessioning policy. Under the new policy, the Met set its sights on acquiring "world-class" pieces, regularly funding the purchases by selling mid- to high-value items from its collection.[66] Though the Met had always sold duplicate or minor items from its collection to fund the acquisition of new pieces, the Met's new policy was significantly more aggressive and wide-ranging than before, and allowed the deaccessioning of items with higher values which would normally have precluded their sale. The new policy provoked a great deal of criticism (in particular, from The New York Times) but had its intended effect.[161] Many of the items then purchased with funds generated by the more liberal deaccessioning policy are now considered the "stars" of the Met's collection, including Diego Velázquez's Portrait of Juan de Pareja and the Euphronios krater depicting the death of Sarpedon (which has since been repatriated to the Republic of Italy). In the years since the Met began its new deaccessioning policy, other museums have begun to emulate it with aggressive deaccessioning programs of their own.[162] The Met has continued the policy in recent years, selling such valuable pieces as Edward Steichen's 1904 photograph The Pond-Moonlight (of which another copy was already in the Met's collection) for a record price of $2.9 million.[163] One of the most serious challenges to the Metropolitan Museum's reputation has been a series of allegations and lawsuits about its status as an institutional buyer of looted and stolen antiquities. Since the 1990s the Met has been the subject of numerous investigative reports and books critical of the Met's laissez-faire attitude to acquisition.[164][165] The Met has lost several major lawsuits, notably against the governments of Italy and Turkey, which successfully sought the repatriation of hundreds of ancient Mediterranean and Middle Eastern antiquities, with a total value in the hundreds of millions of dollars.[164] Selected objects[edit] Standing male worshiper, Mesopotamian, 2750-2600 BC(?) Sphinx, c. 530 BC Busto de Anicia Iuliana, Roman Roman c. 430 Book Cover with Byzantine Icon of the Crucifixion, before 1085 Tabernacle of Cherves, c. 1220–1230 Spanish Processional Cross, late 11th – early 12th century, Asturias Khatchkar. Basalt Alpan carpet, 1800s Scuola di biduino, portale da san leonardo al frigido, vicino massa carrara, c. 1170-80 Tomb of Ermengol IX of Urgell (died 1243) The Crucified Christ, c. 1300, Northern Europe Serpent labret with articulated tongue, c. 1300–1521, Aztec Attributed to Jean de Touyl (French, died 1349), Reliquary Shrine from the convent of the Poor Clares at Buda Attributed to Jean Le Noir or follower, Psalter of Bonne de Luxembourg, 14th-c illuminated manuscript Doorway in granite, in oak, France, Limousin, 15th c, Aixe sur Vienne Andrea da Giona, Altarpiece with Christ in Majesty, c. 1434 Schwaben, c. 1489 Aldobrandini Tazza of the Roman emperor Vitellius, c.1590s Neminatha, Akota Bronzes (7th century CE) Muisca tunjo on stool, c. 10th-16th century, Lake Guatavita region, Altiplano Cundiboyacense Andre-Charles Boulle (November 11, 1642 – February 29, 1732) – Commode Interior of the early colonial home of John Wentworth, lieutenant governor of New Hampshire Selected paintings[edit] Robert Campin, Triptych with the Annunciation, known as the Mérode Altarpiece, c. 1425–1428 Jan van Eyck, Crucifixion and Last Judgement diptych, c. 1430–40 Rogier van der Weyden, Polyptych with the Nativity, c. 1450 Paolo Uccello, Portrait of a Lady, c. 1450, Florence Pieter Bruegel the Elder, The Harvesters, 1565 Caravaggio, The Musicians, 1595 El Greco, Opening of the Fifth Seal 1608–1614 Georges de La Tour, The Fortune Teller, c.1630 Diego Velázquez, Portrait of Juan de Pareja, 1650 Rembrandt, Aristotle Contemplating the Bust of Homer, 1653 Johannes Vermeer, Woman with a Lute, 1662 Francisco Goya, Don Manuel Osorio Manrique de Zúñiga, 1777-1778 Jacques-Louis David, The Death of Socrates, 1787 J.M.W. Turner, The Grand Canal, 1835 Thomas Cole, The Oxbow, 1836 Eugène Delacroix, Christ Asleep during the Tempest, 1853 Rosa Bonheur, The Horse Fair, 1853–1855 Édouard Manet, The Dead Christ with Angels, 1864 Edgar Degas, The Dancing Class, 1872 Édouard Manet, Boating 1874 Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Mme. Charpentier and Her Children, 1878 Jules Bastien-Lepage, Jeanne d'Arc (Joan of Arc), 1879 John Singer Sargent, Portrait of Madame X, 1884 Vincent van Gogh, Self-Portrait with Straw Hat, 1887 Paul Cézanne, Madame Cézanne (Hortense Fiquet, 1850–1922) in a Red Dress, 1888–90 Paul Cézanne, The Card Players, 1890–1892 Claude Monet, The Four Trees, (Four Poplars on the Banks of the Epte River near Giverny), 1891 Paul Gauguin, The Midday Nap, 1894 Winslow Homer, The Gulf Stream, 1899 Claude Monet, The Houses of Parliament (Effect of Fog), 1903–1904 Pablo Picasso, l'Acteur (The Actor), 1904–05 Henri Matisse, The Young Sailor II, 1906 Henri Rousseau, The Repast of the Lion, c. 1907 Georges Braque, Still Life with Mandola and Metronome, late 1909 Pablo Picasso, The Oil Mill (Moulin à huile), 1909 Pablo Picasso, Still Life with a Bottle of Rum, 1911 Wassily Kandinsky, Improvisation 27, Garden of Love II, 1912 (exhibited at the 1913 Armory Show) Arthur Dove, Cow, 1914 Amedeo Modigliani, Jeanne Hébuterne, 1919 References[edit] Footnotes[edit] ^ The Metropolitan Opera in New York is also nicknamed "The Met" Citations[edit] ^ "Metropolitan Museum Launches New and Expanded Web Site" Archived November 28, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, press release, The Met, January 25, 2000 ^ "Today in Met History: April 13". 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Retrieved April 16, 2019. ^ Jennifer Smith, "Metropolitan Museum of Art Cuts Staff" Archived March 29, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, The Wall Street Journal, September 28, 2016. ^ Kinsella, Eileen (March 16, 2017). "Met Execs Got Hefty Bonuses Amid-Rising Deficit". artnet News. Archived from the original on March 25, 2017. Retrieved May 6, 2017. ^ a b Pogrebin, Robin (April 2, 2017). "A Hushed Departure at the Met Museum Reveals Entrenched Management Culture". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on April 14, 2017. Retrieved May 6, 2017. ^ Taylor, Kate (May 5, 2011). "Daniel Brodsky is Voted Chairman of the Metropolitan Museum of Art". The New York Times. Archived from the original on March 14, 2017. ^ Kachka, Boris (April 16, 2017). "With Rumors, Scandal, and a Record Budget Shortfall, What Broke the Met?". Vulture. New York Magazine. pp. 44–50. Archived from the original on May 1, 2017. Retrieved May 6, 2017. ^ a b Pogrebin, Robin (May 5, 2017). "The Met Files a Formal Proposal to Charge Admission to Out-of-State Visitors". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on May 6, 2017. Retrieved May 6, 2017. ^ Staff authors (July 12, 2017), The Met Museum Boasts Record Attendance Numbers Archived January 12, 2018, at the Wayback Machine ArtNet News. ^ a b Pogrebin, Robin (August 5, 2016). "The Metropolitan Museum of Art Announces Record Attendance". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 12, 2018. Retrieved January 12, 2018. ^ Smith, Roberta. "The Fall's Most Fascinating Art Show." The New York Times. September 4, 2017. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on September 5, 2017. Retrieved September 5, 2017.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ Pogrebin, Robin (May 8, 2017). "De Blasio, With 'Cultural Plan,' Proposes Linking Money to Diversity". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 11, 2018. Retrieved January 12, 2018. ^ Cotter, Holland; Smith, Roberta (January 4, 2018). "The Met Should Be Open to All. The New Pay Policy Is a Mistake". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 9, 2018. Retrieved July 11, 2019. ^ Sayej, Nadja (January 8, 2018). "'Museums should be accessible': the backlash to the Met's new pricing policy". the Guardian. Archived from the original on January 9, 2018. Retrieved July 11, 2019. ^ Pogrebin, Robin (July 22, 2013). "Qatar Uses Its Riches to Buy Art Treasures". The New York Times. Archived from the original on February 13, 2017. ^ a b Pogrebin, Robin (January 26, 2011). "The Permanent Collection May Not Be So Permanent". The New York Times. Archived from the original on October 25, 2015. ^ Bone, James (October 31, 2005). "Brimful museums put art under the hammer". The Times. London. Retrieved June 11, 2012. ^ "Rare photo sets $2.9m sales record". BBC News. February 15, 2006. Archived from the original on January 31, 2009. Retrieved February 18, 2013. ^ a b Peter Watson, Cecilia Todeschini (2007), The Medici Conspiracy: The Illicit Journey of Looted Antiquities from Italy's Tomb Raiders to the World's Greatest Museums Archived February 15, 2017, at the Wayback Machine ^ Vernon Silver, The Lost Chalice: The Epic Hunt for a Priceless Masterpiece. Harper Collins Books, 2009. ISBN 978-0-06-188296-8 Sources[edit] Danziger, Danny (2007). Museum: Behind the Scenes at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Viking, New York City. ISBN 9780670038619. Howe, Winifred E., and Henry Watson Kent (2009). A History of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Vol. 1. General Books, Memphis. ISBN 9781150535482. Tompkins, Calvin (1989). Merchants & Masterpieces: The Story of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Henry Holt and Company, New York. ISBN 0805010343. Trask, Jeffrey (2012). Things American: Art Museums and Civic Culture in the Progressive Era. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia. ISBN 9780812243628; A history that relates it the political context of the Progressive Era. Further reading[edit] Vogel, Carol, "Grand Galleries for National Treasures", January 5; and Holland Cotter, "The Met Reimagines the American Story", review, January 15; two 2012 New York Times articles about American painting and sculpture galleries reopening after four-year renovation. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Metropolitan Museum of Art. Official website The Metropolitan Museum of Art presents a Timeline of Art History Chronological list of special exhibitions at the Metropolitan Museum of Art Digital Collections from the Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries Watsonline: The Catalog of the Libraries of The Metropolitan Museum of Art Museum Libraries. "Metropolitan Museum of Art Publications". Digital Collections. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. (annual reports, collection catalogs, exhibit catalogs, etc.) Artwork owned by The Metropolitan Museum of Art Metropolitan Museum of Art at Wikipedia's GLAM initiative v t e Metropolitan Museum of Art Places Fifth Avenue Anna Wintour Costume Center Astor Court Iris B. and Gerald Cantor Roof Garden Robert Goldwater Library Temple of Dendur Thomas J. Watson Library Other sites The Cloisters Met Breuer Directors Luigi Palma di Cesnola Caspar Purdon Clarke Edward Robinson Herbert Eustis Winlock Francis Henry Taylor James Rorimer Thomas Hoving Philippe de Montebello Thomas P. Campbell Miscellaneous Met Gala Museum Mile Metropolitan Museum of Art Guide Antiquities Bajaur casket Pratt Ivories Coffin of Nedjemankh Dipylon krater Magdeburg Ivories Armenian Gospel with Silver Cover Calligraphic Galleon Carp and Pine Chair of Reniseneb Fieschi Morgan Staurotheke Hounds and Jackals The Hunt of the Unicorn Hunting of Birds with a Hawk and a Bow Kettle Drums Miniature Altarpiece with the Crucifixion Modern Gothic cabinet Morgan Casket Pair of Incense Boxes in the Shape of Mandarin Ducks Pomegranate carved in the round Rectangular Octave Virginal Studiolo from the Ducal Palace in Gubbio The Triumph of Fame Vase with lid Woman Seen from the Back Persian king and the defeated enemies Paintings 1476 Altarpiece A Cavalryman A Vase of Flowers (1716) The Abduction of Rebecca The Accommodations of Desire The Actor (painting) Adoration of the Magi (Bosch, New York) Adoration of the Shepherds (Mantegna) The Aegean Sea The Afternoon Meal (Luis Meléndez) Alexander Hamilton (Trumbull) The Allegory of Faith Allegory of the Planets and Continents Alpine Pool Altman Madonna America Today Ancient Rome (painting) Annunciation (Memling) Annunziata Polyptych Anthony van Dyck self portrait Approaching Thunder Storm Arab Woman (watercolor) Arcadia (painting) Ariadne (Giorgio de Chirico) Aristotle with a Bust of Homer Artillery (Roger de la Fresnaye) The Artist's Wife and His Setter Dog At the Seaside Au Lapin Agile Autumn Ivy (Ogata Kenzan) Autumn Rhythm (Number 30) Bache Madonna Bain à la Grenouillère The Baker's Cart The Banks of the Bièvre near Bicêtre Banquet in Silence (Marsden Hartley) Bashi-Bazouk (Jean-Léon Gérôme) A Basket of Clams (Winslow Homer) Beauty Revealed Black Iris (painting) Black Stork in a Landscape Boating (Édouard Manet) Annunciation (Botticelli, New York) Bouquet of Small Chrysanthemums (Léon Bonvin) Boy Carrying a Sword The Bridge at Villeneuve-la-Garenne Brigand and His Wife in Prayer Bringing Down Marble from the Quarries to Carrara The Brioche Broadway and 42nd Street Broken Eggs Burg Weiler Altarpiece Butler Madonna By the Seashore Ca' Dolfin Tiepolos The Calm Sea (painting) Camouflage Self-Portrait Cannon Rock (painting) The Card Players Catania and Mount Etna Cemetery, New Mexico (Marsden Hartley) Cervara Altarpiece The Chess Players (Eakins painting) Children Playing with a Goat Christ Carrying the Cross (El Greco, New York) Christ Presented to the People (Il Sodoma) Christ with a Staff Claes Duyst van Voorhout Coast Guard Station, Two Lights, Maine Coast Scene, Isles of Shoals The Collector of Prints (Edgar Degas) Comtesse de la Châtre Captain George K. H. Coussmaker Cow's Skull: Red, White, and Blue A Cowherd at Valhermeil, Auvers-sur-Oise Cows Crossing a Ford Crucifixion (Corpus Hypercubus) Crucifixion and Last Judgement diptych Crucifixion with the Virgin and St John The Cup of Tea (Mary Cassatt) Cypresses (Metropolitan Museum of Art) The Dance Class (Degas, Metropolitan Museum of Art) The Dancing Class The Dead Christ with Angels The Death of Harmonia The Death of Socrates The Defense of Champigny Delirious Hem The Denial of Saint Peter (Caravaggio) The Dream of Aeneas (Salvator Rosa) Dressing for the Carnival Madonna and Child (Duccio) Egyptian Woman with Earrings Egyptians Raising Water from the Nile The Empress Elizabeth of Russia on Horseback, Attended by a Page Entrance to a Dutch Port Equestrian Portrait of Cornelis and Michiel Pompe van Meerdervoort with Their Tutor and Coachman Esther before Ahasuerus (Artemisia Gentileschi) Ethel Scull 36 Times The Experts (painting) The Falls of Niagara The Farm at Les Collettes, Cagnes Femme Lisant Ferry near Gorinchem The Fingernail Test Fish Market (Joachim Beuckelaer) The Fishing Boat Fishing Boats, Key West The Five Points (Metropolitan Museum of Art) Florinda (painting) The Forest in Winter at Sunset (painting) The Fortune Teller (de La Tour) Fruit Dish and Glass The Funeral (painting) Fur Traders Descending the Missouri Garden at Sainte-Adresse George Washington (Trumbull) Gilbert Stuart (Goodridge) A Girl Asleep Girl with a Cat (Gwen John) Glass Blowers of Murano Golden Cock and Hen A Goldsmith in His Shop, Possibly Saint Eligius The Great Sirens The Gulf Stream (painting) Harlequin with a Guitar The Harvest, Pontoise The Harvesters (painting) Haystacks:Autumn Head of Christ (Rembrandt, New York) The Heart of the Andes The Hermit (Il solitario) The Horse Fair Houses on the Achterzaan I Saw the Figure 5 in Gold In a Courtyard, Tangier The Interior of an Atelier of a Woman Painter (Lemoine) Interior with a Young Couple and a Dog Irises screen Isaac Blessing Jacob (Gerbrand van den Eeckhout) Isle of the Dead (painting) Italian Hill Town (Arthur B. Davies) Jo, the Beautiful Irishwoman Joy of Life (Suzanne Valadon) Juan Legua July Fourteenth, Rue Daunou, 1910 The Kearsarge at Boulogne The Lacemaker (Maes) Lachrymae (Frederic Leighton) Lady at the Tea Table Lady with the Rose (Charlotte Louise Burckhardt) Lake George (John Frederick Kensett) Landscape with Sky The Last Communion of Saint Jerome (Botticelli) Lehman Madonna Lilacs in a Window Lobster Fishermen (Marsden Hartley) The Lovesick Maiden Lukas Spielhausen Lydia Crocheting in the Garden at Marly (Mary Cassatt) Madame Élisabeth de France Madame Grand (Louise Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun) Madonna and Child (Bellini, New York, 1485–1490) Madonna and Child Enthroned with Saints (Raphael) Magdalene with Two Flames The Maidservant Maine Coast Majas on a Balcony Manuel Osorio Manrique de Zúñiga The Marriage of the Virgin (Michelino da Besozzo) The Martyrdom of Saint Barbara (Lucas Cranach the Elder) The Masquerade Dress The Matador Saluting Max Schmitt in a Single Scull Mérode Altarpiece Merry company with two men and two women Mezzetino (painting) The Midnight Ride of Paul Revere (painting) Miss V Dressed as a Bullfighter Model by the Wicker Chair Mont Sainte-Victoire and the Viaduct of the Arc River Valley Moonlight, Wood Island Light Morning, An Overcast Day, Rouen Moses Striking the Rock Mother and Child (Cassatt) Mountain Stream (John Singer Sargent) Mountain with Red House Movement No. 5, Provincetown Houses Mr. and Mrs. I. N. Phelps Stokes Mrs. Atkinson (Gwen John) Mrs. Beckington (Alice Beckington) Mrs. Hugh Hammersley The Musician (Bartholomeus van der Helst painting) A Musician and His Daughter The Musicians (Caravaggio) Mystic Marriage of St. Catherine (Memling) Nativity scenes attributed to Zanobi Strozzi Night-Shining White Northeaster (painting) Nude Before a Mirror Oedipus and the Sphinx Pity (William Blake) Links to related articles v t e Tourist attractions in New York City More than 10 million annual visitors Times Square (50 M) Central Park (40 M) Grand Central Terminal (21.6 M) Broadway (13.2 M) South Street Seaport (12 M) Rockefeller Center 1 to 10 million annual visitors High Line (7.6 M) Metropolitan Museum of Art (6.3 M) American Museum of Natural History (5.0 M) National September 11 Memorial & Museum (5.0 M) Empire State Building (3.5 M) Museum of Modern Art (2.8 M) Statue of Liberty (2.4 M) One World Trade Center (2.3 M) Bronx Zoo (1.8 M) Ellis Island (1.7 M) Note: Visitor numbers are estimates only. See also: Tourism in New York City v t e Museums in Manhattan Financial District and Battery Park (Below Chambers St) Castle Clinton China Institute Federal Hall National Memorial Fraunces Tavern George Gustav Heye Center Mmuseumm Museum of American Finance Museum of Jewish Heritage National September 11 Memorial & Museum New York City Police Museum Skyscraper Museum South Street Seaport Lower Manhattan (Chambers-14th Sts) Asian American Arts Centre Drawing Center Eldridge Street Synagogue FusionArts Museums International Center of Photography Leslie-Lohman Museum of Gay and Lesbian Art Lower East Side Tenement Museum Merchant's House Museum Museum of Chinese in America New Museum New York City Fire Museum The Theatre Museum Ukrainian Museum Whitney Museum of American Art Chelsea, Flatiron, Gramercy (14th-34th Sts) Center for Jewish History International Print Center New York John J. Harvey The Museum at FIT Museum of Sex National Museum of Mathematics Poster House Rubin Museum of Art The Shed Theodore Roosevelt Birthplace Tibet House Midtown (34th-59th Sts) Girl Scout Museum and Archives Houdini Museum of New York Intrepid Sea, Air & Space Museum Japan Society John M. Mossman Lock Museum Madame Tussauds New York Morgan Library & Museum Museum of Arts and Design Museum of Modern Art New York Public Library Main Branch New York Transit Museum Paley Center for Media Scandinavia House United Nations Art Collection Upper West Side (59th-125th Sts west of 5th Av) American Folk Art Museum American Museum of Natural History Rose Center for Earth and Space Children's Museum of Manhattan New York Public Library for the Performing Arts New-York Historical Society Nicholas Roerich Museum Rose Museum Upper East Side and East Harlem (59th-125th Sts along or east of 5th Av) Asia Society El Museo del Barrio Frick Collection Gracie Mansion Grolier Club Guggenheim Museum Jewish Museum Met Breuer Metropolitan Museum of Art Mount Vernon Hotel Museum Museum of Motherhood Museum of the City of New York National Academy Museum and School Neue Galerie New York Upper Manhattan (Above 125th St) American Academy of Arts and Letters The Cloisters Dyckman House Hamilton Grange National Memorial Hispanic Society of America Malcolm X and Dr. Betty Shabazz Memorial and Educational Center Morris–Jumel Mansion National Jazz Museum in Harlem National Track and Field Hall of Fame Yeshiva University Museum Studio Museum in Harlem Islands Ellis Island Statue of Liberty Statue of Liberty Museum Defunct Chelsea Art Museum Dahesh Museum of Art Forbes Galleries Museum of Biblical Art Museum of Comic and Cartoon Art Museum of Primitive Art See also: Museum Mile v t e Structures on Fifth Avenue in Manhattan Below 34th Street 1 47 (Salmagundi Club) 110 (Judge) 153 (Scribner) 159–161 170 (Sohmer Piano) 173 (Flatiron) 200 (Toy Center) 255 (Grand Madison) 272 (Marble Collegiate Church) 276 (Holland House) 277 284 (The Wilbraham) 339 (Demarest) 350 (Empire State) 34th–59th Streets 355 (B. Altman and Company) 390 (Gorham) 400 (The Langham, New York) 401 (Tiffany and Company) 424 (Lord & Taylor) 425 452 (HSBC) 453 (Mid-Manhattan Library) 461 476 (New York Public Library) 500 510 (Manufacturers Trust Company) 551 (Fred F. French) 556 (Philippine Center) 597 (Charles Scribner's Sons) 608 (Goelet/Swiss Center) St. Patrick's Cathedral Rockefeller Center British Empire Building La Maison Francaise International Building 641 (Olympic Tower) 650 653 (Cartier) 666 Saint Thomas Church University Club of New York 693 (St. Regis) 696 (The Peninsula) Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church 712 714 (Coty) 721 (Trump Tower) 730 (Crown) L. P. Hollander Company 767 (General Motors) 768 (Plaza Hotel) 59th–96th Streets 781 (The Sherry-Netherland) 785 (Park Cinq) The Metropolitan Club The Pierre Knickerbocker Club 810 820 825 Edward J. Berwind House 834 Mrs. William B. Astor House 880 Henry Clay Frick House Frick Collection 907 927 930 Edward S. Harkness House 960 James B. Duke House 972 (Payne Whitney House) 995 998 1000 (Metropolitan Museum of Art) 1009 (Benjamin N. Duke House) 1040 1048 Neue Galerie New York 1049 1071 (Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum) 1085 (Church of the Heavenly Rest) Andrew Carnegie Mansion Cooper Hewitt Otto H. Kahn House 1109 (Felix M. Warburg House) Jewish Museum 1130 (Willard D. Straight House) Above 96th Street Mount Sinai Hospital 1220 (Museum of the City of New York) 1230 (El Museo del Barrio) 1280 (The Africa Center) 2067 (St. Andrew's Episcopal Church) 2366 (369th Regiment Armory) Parks & park features Bryant Park Central Park Arsenal Central Park Zoo Conservatory Garden Harlem Meer Grand Army Plaza William Tecumseh Sherman Pulitzer Fountain Madison Square Park Marcus Garvey Park Harlem Fire Watchtower Washington Square Park Arch Subway stations 42nd Street–Bryant Park/Fifth Avenue Fifth Avenue/53rd Street Fifth Avenue–59th Street Former 200 (Fifth Avenue Hotel) Hotel Victoria Caspar Samler farm 350 (Waldorf–Astoria) 391 (Gunther) West Presbyterian Church William K. Vanderbilt House 767 (Savoy-Plaza Hotel) 840 (Mrs. William B. Astor House) 857 (Jay Gould House) 857 (George J. Gould House) 858 (Isaac Stern House) 871 (William C. Whitney House) Ogden Mills House Lenox Library 962 (William A. Clark House) 1020 (William Salomon House) 1058 (James Speyer House) 1063 (Henry Phipps House) 1115 (Jacob Ruppert Sr. House) 2122 (Jordan L. Mott House) Temple Beth-El v t e U.S. National Register of Historic Places in New York Topics Contributing property Keeper of the Register Historic district History of the National Register of Historic Places National Park Service Property types Lists by county Albany Allegany Bronx Broome Cattaraugus Cayuga Chautauqua Chemung Chenango Clinton Columbia Cortland Delaware Dutchess Erie Essex Franklin Fulton Genesee Greene Hamilton Herkimer Jefferson Kings (Brooklyn) Lewis Livingston Madison Monroe Montgomery Nassau New York (Manhattan) Niagara Oneida Onondaga Ontario Orange Orleans Oswego Otsego Putnam Queens Rensselaer Richmond (Staten Island) Rockland Saratoga Schenectady Schoharie Schuyler Seneca St. Lawrence Steuben Suffolk Sullivan Tioga Tompkins Ulster Warren Washington Wayne Westchester Northern Southern Wyoming Yates Lists by city Albany Buffalo New Rochelle New York City Bronx Brooklyn Queens Staten Island Manhattan Below 14th St. 14th–59th St. 59th–110th St. Above 110th St. 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en-wikipedia-org-3103	----	Ken Davitian - Wikipedia Ken Davitian From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search American actor Ken Davitian Davitian attending the "Night of 100 Stars" for the 82nd Academy Awards viewing party at the Beverly Hills Hotel on March 7, 2010 Born Kenneth Davitian (1953-06-19) 19 June 1953 (age 67) Los Angeles, California, U.S. Occupation Actor, comedian, restaurateur Years active 1975–present Kenneth Davitian (born June 19, 1953) is an American actor, comedian and restaurateur, best known for his role as Borat's producer Azamat Bagatov in the 2006 comedy film Borat.[1] Contents 1 Early life and education 2 Restaurant ventures 3 Filmography 3.1 Film 3.2 Television 3.3 Video games 3.4 Music videos 4 References 5 External links Early life and education[edit] Davitian was born Kenneth Davitian in Los Angeles, California on June 19, 1953 to an Armenian American family in Montebello,[2] California. His father, a Soviet soldier during World War II, was captured by Nazi forces. He was placed at an Armenische Legion camp in Stuttgart. After the end of the war, he emigrated to the United States through the efforts of George Mardikian. Davitian worked in his father's waste management company.[3][4] He graduated from Whittier College.[5] His teenage idol was Burt Reynolds, who greatly influenced his choice of becoming an actor.[6] Davitian would go on to perform in the film Pocket Listing, which also featured Reynolds.[7] Davitian is fluent in Armenian; he speaks in Armenian as Azamat in Borat.[8] Restaurant ventures[edit] Davitian founded a restaurant in 2003 called The Dip, which was located in Los Angeles.[9] His son Robert used to run his baseball-themed hot dog restaurant The Infield in Sherman Oaks, which boasted a hot dog, conceived by Charlie Sheen, called the "Charlie Sheen Dog with Tiger Blood".[10] Filmography[edit] Film[edit] Year Title Role Notes 1975 Sons of Sassoun Freedom Fighter 1977 American Raspberry Fat Bartender 1991 Talkin' Dirty After Dark Seat Mate 1991 Bikini Summer Max 1992 Tuesday Never Comes Greenberg 1992 Maximum Force Fat Man 1992 Return to Frogtown Bud 1993 Sexual Intent Topless Bar Owner Direct-to-video 1993 Private Wars Bartender Direct-to-video 1994 The Silence of the Hams Luciano Pavarotti 1994 Red Sun Rising Cab driver 1995 Lord of Illusions Swann Audience Member Uncredited 1996 The Garbage Man Uncle Herbert 2000 Virgins of Sherwood Forest Manny / Friar Tuck Direct-to-video 2000 Our Lips Are Sealed Thug No. 1 2001 Bukas, Babaha ng Dugo Raul 2002 May Foreign Doctor 2002 Boris Pawn-Shop Dealer Short film 2002 After Freedom Jacob 2003 A Man Apart Ramon Cadena 2003 Holes Igor Barkov 2003 S.W.A.T. Uncle Martin Gascoigne 2004 L.A. Twister Walter 2006 Borat Azamat Bagatov 2007 Lucky You Poker Player Uncredited 2007 South of Pico Nick 2007 On Bloody Sunday Grandpa 2008 Get Smart Shtarker 2008 Stone & Ed Senor Gordo 2008 Meet the Spartans Xerxes 2008 Julia Taxi Driver 2008 Lonely Street Raj (Motel Owner) 2008 Float Vahig Manoogian 2008 Soul Men Ardesh Kezian 2009 Not Forgotten Father Salinas 2010 Let the Game Begin Eric Banks 2010 The Prankster Stavros Karas 2011 You May Not Kiss the Bride Vlatko 'Vadik' Nikitin 2011 The Artist Pawnbroker 2011 The Ballerino Sergey 'Sam' Belyakova / Homeless Bob Short film 2012 Sharkproof Yuri 2012 Melvin Smarty 2013 Abstraction Jacob Sarian 2014 Small Time Wexler 2014 Walk of Shame Cab Driver 2015 Pocket Listing Mr. Mousian 2015 Big Baby Underbrunter 2015 Burn Off 2016 Nina Club Owner 2016 Paint It Black Masha The Baker 2016 The Hollywouldn'ts Frankie 'The Method' DeSayse 2017 The Sex Addict Ken Davitian 2017 The President's Sun Khoren Short film 2017 Once Upon a Time in Venice Yuri 2017 Price for Freedom Sheik Omar 2017 Five Star Fouad Fouad Short film 2018 Diverted Eden Scotty 2018 The Samuel Project Vartan Television[edit] Year Title Role Notes 1996 Saved by the Bell: The New Class Gus Episode: "Trash TV" 1997 C-16: FBI Professor David Amir Episode: "The Sandman" 1997 Players Big Oscar Episode: "Contact Sport" 1998 Soldier of Fortune, Inc. Russian Captain Episode: "Double-Edged Sword" 1999 Oh, Grow Up Taxi Driver Episode: "President of the House" 1999 Becker Cab Driver Episode: "Hate Thy Neighbor" 2000 Missing Pieces Jorge Television film 2000, 2007 ER Zakar Papazian 2 episodes 2000 L.A. 7 Alphonse Episode: "House Sitting" 2000 Strong Medicine Cabbie Episode: "Drug Interactions" 2001 Arliss Episode: "As Others See Us" 2002 The Shield Older Armenian Episode: "Blowback" 2002 Gilmore Girls Jesus Episode: "Take the Deviled Eggs..." 2003 Six Feet Under Krikor Hovanessian Episode: "I'm Sorry, I'm Lost" 2003 The Division Episode: "Hearts & Minds" 2003 Boomtown Jewelry Store Owner Episode: "Wannabe" 2004 Line of Fire Zach Episode: "I'm Your Boogie Man" 2005 Mind of Mencia Gardner Episode: #1.2 2006 Boston Legal Mr. Kahanov Episode: "Chitty Chitty Bang Bang" 2006 The Closer Mr. Sarcasian Episode: "To Protect & to Serve" 2006 Friday Night with Jonathan Ross Azamat Bagatov Episode: #11.8 2006 Saturday Night Live Azamat Bagatov Episode: "Hugh Laurie/Beck" 2007 Ghost Whisperer Jake Rose Episode: "The Collector" 2008 Starting Under Ken Television film 2009 Chuck 'Uncle' Bernie Episode: "Chuck Versus the First Kill" 2011 The Cape Store Owner Episode: "Tarot" 2011 Big Time Rush King of Kerplankistan Episode: "Big Time Wedding" 2012 Chasing the Hill Arnold Sarca Episode: "Awesomeness Is a Warm Gun" 2012 Natasha Mail Order Bride Escape to America Boris the Butcher Television film 2013 It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia Snyder Episode: "The Gang Broke Dee" 2014 Two and a Half Men Mr. Mardirosian Episode: "Lotta Delis in Little Armenia" 2015 Hawaii Five-0 Omar Sadek Episode: "A Make Kaua" 2015 Ray Donovan Vartan 3 episodes 2017 Small Shots Amir 2 episodes 2017 All Wrong Kourosh Television miniseries 2018 3rd Eye Zoran Fashard 2018–2021 Cobra Kai Armand Zarkarian 3 episodes 2018 BBZ Good Morning Horizon: The Royal Wedding LIVE Coverage Hank Markle Television film 2018 Actress: Another Word for Waitress Giagni Mustavo Episode: "SHOWTIME" Video games[edit] Year Title Role Notes 1996 The Adventures of Pinocchio Grande Music videos[edit] Year Title Director Label Role Notes 1999 Stand Inside Your Love W.I.Z. Virgin Records Throne figure References[edit] ^ Dargis, Manohla (November 3, 2016). "Borat". The New York Times. ^ Abcarian, Robin (February 25, 2007). "Less recognizable with clothes". Los Angeles Times. ^ "Ken Davitian Interview" (in Armenian). Shant TV. July 5, 2012. ^ Abrams, Tamar (November 29, 2011). "Borat Catapulted Him to Fame, but Ken Davitian Is Not Azamat". HuffPost. ^ "America's Best Colleges No. 253 Whittier College". Forbes. May 8, 2009. Notable Alumni Ken Davitian, actor, Borat ^ Abrams, Tamar (November 29, 2011). "Borat Catapulted Him to Fame, but Ken Davitian Is Not Azamat". HuffPost. Retrieved July 10, 2012. ^ Busch, Anita (November 4, 2016). "Orion Pictures Picks up 'Pocket Listing' For Limited Theatrical Release". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved November 26, 2016. ^ joe.piasecki@latimes.com, By Joe Piasecki. "Video: Armenian media thrives in Glendale, Burbank area". Los Angeles Times. ^ Abcarian, Robin (January 7, 2011). "Ken Davitian is enjoying, very much, his Hollywood high five". The San Francisco Chronicle. ^ Bellantoni, Cassandra M. (March 6, 2011). "Hot Dog With Tiger Blood Heats Up Sherman Oaks Restaurant". Patch. Retrieved July 11, 2011. [1] External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ken Davitian. Ken Davitian on IMDb Ken Davitian is enjoying, very much, his Hollywood high five Guardian – First Sight Authority control BNE: XX1798806 BNF: cb15567490j (data) GND: 17392221X ISNI: 0000 0000 5943 6424 LCCN: no2007027840 VIAF: 44071817 WorldCat Identities: lccn-no2007027840 ^ Reacts, Shamoon (October 23, 2020). ""Ken Davitian Borat 2 Interview" on Shamoon Reacts". YouTube. 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en-wikipedia-org-3129	----	Ramesses III - Wikipedia Ramesses III From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Egyptian pharaoh Ramesses III Ramses III, Rameses III Relief from the sanctuary of the Temple of Khonsu at Karnak depicting Ramesses III Pharaoh Reign 1186–1155 BC (20th Dynasty) Predecessor Setnakhte Successor Ramesses IV Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Usermaatre Meriamun Wsr-m3ˁt-Rˁ-mrj-Jmn Strong is the Maat of Ra, beloved of Amun Nomen Ramesisu Heqaiunu Rˁ msj sw ḥq3 Jwnw Ra has fashioned him, ruler of Heliopolis Horus name Kanakht Aanisut K3-nḫt-ˁ3-nsyt Strong bull, whose royalty is great Nebty name Werhabused mi Tatenen Wr-ḥˁb.w-sd-mj-T3-ṯnn Great of Hebsed like Ptah-Tatenen Golden Horus Userrenput mi Atum Wsr-rnp.wt-mj-Jtm The golden falcon, rich in years like Atum Consort Iset Ta-Hemdjert, Tyti, Tiye Children Ramesses IV, Ramesses VI, Ramesses VIII, Amun-her-khepeshef, Meryamun, Pareherwenemef, Khaemwaset, Meryatum, Montuherkhopshef, Pentawere, Duatentopet (?) Father Setnakhte Mother Tiy-Merenese Born 1217 BC Died 1155 BC Burial KV11 Monuments Medinet Habu Usermaatre Meryamun Ramesses III (also written Ramses and Rameses) was the second Pharaoh of the Twentieth Dynasty in Ancient Egypt. He is thought to have reigned from 1186 to 1155 BC and is considered to be the last great monarch of the New Kingdom to wield any substantial authority over Egypt. His long reign saw the decline of Egyptian political and economic power, linked to a series of invasions and internal economic problems that also plagued pharaohs before him. He has also been described as "warrior Pharaoh" due to his strong military strategies. He led the way by defeating the invaders known as "the Sea Peoples", who had caused destruction in other civilizations and empires. He was able to save Egypt from collapsing at the time when many other empires fell during the Late Bronze Age; however, the damage of the invasions took a toll on Egypt.[1] Ramesses III was the son of Setnakhte and Queen Tiy-Merenese. He was assassinated in the Harem conspiracy led by one of his secondary wives, Tiye, their son Pentawer, and a group of high officials. Contents 1 Name 2 Ascension 3 Tenure of constant war 4 Economic turmoil 5 Conspiracy and death 6 Possible relationship with his son Pentawaret 7 Legacy 8 Chronological dispute 9 Gallery 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Name[edit] Ramesses' two main names transliterate as wsr-mꜢʿt-rʿ–mry-ỉmn rʿ-ms-s–ḥḳꜢ-ỉwnw. They are normally realised as Usermaatre-Meryamun Rameses-Heqaiunu, meaning "The Ma'at of Ra is strong, Beloved of Amun, Born of Ra, Ruler of Heliopolis". Ascension[edit] Ramesses III is believed to have reigned from March 1186 to April 1155 BC. This is based on his known accession date of I Shemu day 26 and his death on Year 32 III Shemu day 15, for a reign of 31 years, 1 month and 19 days.[2] Alternative dates for his reign are 1187–1156 BC. In a description of his coronation from Medinet Habu, four doves were said to be "dispatched to the four corners of the horizon to confirm that the living Horus, Ramses III, is (still) in possession of his throne, that the order of Maat prevails in the cosmos and society".[3][4] Tenure of constant war[edit] Statue of Ramesses III at the Rockefeller Museum, Jerusalem Further information: Battle of Djahy, Battle of the Delta, and Ramesses III prisoner tiles Ramses III offering incense, wall painting in KV11. During his long tenure in the midst of the surrounding political chaos of the Late Bronze Age collapse, Egypt was beset by foreign invaders (including the so-called Sea Peoples and the Libyans) and experienced the beginnings of increasing economic difficulties and internal strife which would eventually lead to the collapse of the Twentieth Dynasty. In Year 8 of his reign, the Sea Peoples, including Peleset, Denyen, Shardana, Meshwesh of the sea, and Tjekker, invaded Egypt by land and sea. Ramesses III defeated them in two great land and sea battles. Although the Egyptians had a reputation as poor seamen, they fought tenaciously. Rameses lined the shores with ranks of archers who kept up a continuous volley of arrows into the enemy ships when they attempted to land on the banks of the Nile. Then, the Egyptian navy attacked using grappling hooks to haul in the enemy ships. In the brutal hand-to-hand fighting which ensued, the Sea Peoples were utterly defeated. The Harris Papyrus states: As for those who reached my frontier, their seed is not, their heart and their soul are finished forever and ever. As for those who came forward together on the seas, the full flame was in front of them at the Nile mouths, while a stockade of lances surrounded them on the shore, prostrated on the beach, slain, and made into heaps from head to tail.[5] Ramesses III incorporated the Sea Peoples as subject peoples and settled them in southern Canaan. Their presence in Canaan may have contributed to the formation of new states in this region such as Philistia after the collapse of the Egyptian Empire in Asia. Ramesses III was also compelled to fight invading Libyan tribesmen in two major campaigns in Egypt's Western Delta in his Year 5 and Year 11 respectively.[6] Economic turmoil[edit] The heavy cost of these battles slowly exhausted Egypt's treasury and contributed to the gradual decline of the Egyptian Empire in Asia. The severity of these difficulties is stressed by the fact that the first known labour strike in recorded history occurred during Year 29 of Ramesses III's reign, when the food rations for the favoured and elite royal tomb-builders and artisans in the village of Set Maat her imenty Waset (now known as Deir el-Medina), could not be provisioned.[7] Something in the air (possibly the Hekla 3 eruption) prevented much sunlight from reaching the ground and also arrested global tree growth for almost two full decades until 1140 BC. The result in Egypt was a substantial increase in grain prices under the later reigns of Ramesses VI–VII, whereas the prices for fowl and slaves remained constant.[8] Thus the cooldown affected Ramesses III's final years and impaired his ability to provide a constant supply of grain rations to the workmen of the Deir el-Medina community. Osirid statues of Ramses III at his temple in Karnak (in the first courtyard of the Great Temple of Amun). These difficult realities are completely ignored in Ramesses' official monuments, many of which seek to emulate those of his famous predecessor, Ramesses II, and which present an image of continuity and stability. He built important additions to the temples at Luxor and Karnak, and his funerary temple and administrative complex at Medinet-Habu is amongst the largest and best-preserved in Egypt; however, the uncertainty of Ramesses' times is apparent from the massive fortifications which were built to enclose the latter. No temple in the heart of Egypt prior to Ramesses' reign had ever needed to be protected in such a manner. Conspiracy and death[edit] Main article: Harem conspiracy Thanks to the discovery of papyrus trial transcripts (dated to Ramesses III), it is now known that there was a plot against his life as a result of a royal harem conspiracy during a celebration at Medinet Habu. The conspiracy was instigated by Tiye, one of his three known wives (the others being Tyti and Iset Ta-Hemdjert), over whose son would inherit the throne. Tyti's son, Ramesses Amenherkhepshef (the future Ramesses IV), was the eldest and the successor chosen by Ramesses III in preference to Tiye's son Pentaweret. The trial documents[9] show that many individuals were implicated in the plot.[10] Chief among them were Queen Tiye and her son Pentaweret, Ramesses' chief of the chamber, Pebekkamen, seven royal butlers (a respectable state office), two Treasury overseers, two Army standard bearers, two royal scribes and a herald. There is little doubt that all of the main conspirators were executed: some of the condemned were given the option of committing suicide (possibly by poison) rather than being put to death.[11] According to the surviving trial transcripts, a total of three separate trials were started, while 38 people were sentenced to death.[12] The tombs of Tiye and her son Pentaweret were robbed and their names erased to prevent them from enjoying an afterlife. The Egyptians did such a thorough job of this that the only references to them are the trial documents and what remains of their tombs. Some of the accused harem women tried to seduce the members of the judiciary who tried them but were caught in the act. Judges who were involved were severely punished.[13] Red granite sarcophagus of Ramesses III (Louvre) It is not certain whether the assassination plot succeeded since Ramesses IV, the king's designated successor, assumed the throne upon his death rather than Pentaweret, who was intended to be the main beneficiary of the palace conspiracy. Moreover, Ramesses III died in his 32nd year before the summaries of the sentences were composed,[14] but the same year that the trial documents[9] record the trial and execution of the conspirators. Cartouches of Ramesses III. Although it was long believed that Ramesses III's body showed no obvious wounds,[13] a recent examination of the mummy by a German forensic team, televised in the documentary Ramesses: Mummy King Mystery on the Science Channel in 2011, showed excessive bandages around the neck. A subsequent CT scan that was done in Egypt by Ashraf Selim and Sahar Saleem, professors of Radiology in Cairo University, revealed that beneath the bandages was a deep knife wound across the throat, deep enough to reach the vertebrae. According to the documentary narrator, "It was a wound no one could have survived."[15] The December 2012 issue of the British Medical Journal quotes the conclusion of the study of the team of researchers, led by Zahi Hawass, the former head of the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquity, and his Egyptian team, as well as Albert Zink from the Institute for Mummies and the Iceman of the Eurac Research in Bolzano, Italy, which stated that conspirators murdered pharaoh Ramesses III by cutting his throat.[16][17][18] Zink observes in an interview that: The cut [to Ramesses III's throat] is...very deep and quite large, it really goes down almost down to the bone (spine) - it must have been a lethal injury.[19] A subsequent study of the CT scan of the mummy of Ramesses III's body by Sahar Saleem revealed that the left big toe was likely chopped by a heavy sharp object like an ax. There were no signs of bone healing so this injury must have happened shortly before death. The embalmers placed a prosthesis-like object made of linen in place of the amputated toe. The embalmers placed six amulets around both feet and ankles for magical healing of the wound for the life after. This additional injury of the foot supports the assassination of the Pharaoh, likely by the hands of multiple assailants using different weapons.[20] Before this discovery it had been speculated that Ramesses III had been killed by means that would not have left a mark on the body. Among the conspirators were practitioners of magic,[21] who might well have used poison. Some had put forth a hypothesis that a snakebite from a viper was the cause of the king's death. His mummy includes an amulet to protect Ramesses III in the afterlife from snakes. The servant in charge of his food and drink were also among the listed conspirators, but there were also other conspirators who were called the snake and the lord of snakes. In one respect the conspirators certainly failed. The crown passed to the king's designated successor: Ramesses IV. Ramesses III may have been doubtful as to the latter's chances of succeeding him, given that, in the Great Harris Papyrus, he implored Amun to ensure his son's rights.[22] Possible relationship with his son Pentawaret[edit] The Zink unit determined that the mummy of an unknown man buried with Ramesses was, because of the proven genetic relationship and a mummification process that suggested punishment, a good candidate for the pharaoh's son, Pentaweret, who was the only son to revolt against his father. It was impossible to determine his cause of death. Both mummies were predicted by the STR-predictor to share the Y chromosomal haplogroup E1b1a1-M2 and 50% of their genetic material, which pointed to a father-son relationship.[23] Legacy[edit] The Great Harris Papyrus or Papyrus Harris I, which was commissioned by his son and chosen successor Ramesses IV, chronicles this king's vast donations of land, gold statues and monumental construction to Egypt's various temples at Piramesse, Heliopolis, Memphis, Athribis, Hermopolis, This, Abydos, Coptos, El Kab and other cities in Nubia and Syria. It also records that the king dispatched a trading expedition to the Land of Punt and quarried the copper mines of Timna in southern Canaan. Papyrus Harris I records some of Ramesses III's activities: I sent my emissaries to the land of Atika, [i.e., Timna] to the great copper mines which are there. Their ships carried them along and others went overland on their donkeys. It had not been heard of since the [time of any earlier] king. Their mines were found and [they] yielded copper which was loaded by tens of thousands into their ships, they being sent in their care to Egypt, and arriving safely. (P. Harris I, 78, 1-4)[24] Medinet Habu temple relief of Ramesses III Ramesses began the reconstruction of the Temple of Khonsu at Karnak from the foundations of an earlier temple of Amenhotep III and completed the Temple of Medinet Habu around his Year 12.[25] He decorated the walls of his Medinet Habu temple with scenes of his Naval and Land battles against the Sea Peoples. This monument stands today as one of the best-preserved temples of the New Kingdom.[26] The mummy of Ramesses III was discovered by antiquarians in 1886 and is regarded as the prototypical Egyptian Mummy in numerous Hollywood movies.[27] His tomb (KV11) is one of the largest in the Valley of the Kings. Chronological dispute[edit] There is uncertainty regarding the exact dates of the reign of Ramesses III. This uncertainty affects the dating of the Late Bronze/Iron Age transition in the Levant. This transition is defined by the appearance of Mycenaean LH IIIC:1b (Philistine) pottery in the coastal plain of Palestine, generally assumed to correspond to the settlement of Sea Peoples there at the 8th year of Ramesses III.[28] Radiocarbon dates and other external evidence permit this transition to be as late as 1100 BC, compared to the conventional dating of c. 1179 BC.[29] Some scientists have tried to establish a chronological point for this pharaoh's reign at 1159 BC, based on a 1999 dating of the Hekla 3 eruption of the Hekla volcano in Iceland. Since contemporary records show that the king experienced difficulties provisioning his workmen at Deir el-Medina with supplies in his 29th Year, this dating of Hekla 3 might connect his 28th or 29th regnal year to c. 1159 BC.[30] A minor discrepancy of one year is possible since Egypt's granaries could have had reserves to cope with at least a single bad year of crop harvests following the onset of the disaster. This implies that the king's reign would have ended just three to four years later, around 1156 or 1155 BC. A rival date of "2900 BP" (950 BC) has since been proposed by scientists based on a re-examination of the volcanic layer.[31] Given that no Egyptologist dates Ramesses III's reign to as late as 1000 BC, this would mean that the Hekla 3 eruption presumably occurred well after Ramesses III's reign. A 2002 study, using high-precision radiocarbon dating of a peat deposit containing ash layers, put this eruption in the range 1087–1006 BC.[32] Gallery[edit] Ramesses III's mummy Finely painted reliefs from Ramesses III's Khonsu temple at Karnak Ramesses III prisoner tiles: Inlay figures, faience and glass, of "the traditional enemies of Ancient Egypt" from Medinet Habu, at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. From left: 2 Nubians, Philistine, Amorite, Syrian, Hittite Ramesses III's mortuary temple at Medinet Habu. A painted ceiling of Nekhbet at Ramesses III's mortuary temple at Medinet Habu. Medinet Habu - the severed hands of the defeated enemies Ramesses III talking with the Theban Triad: Amun, Mut and Khonsu. The ‘Great Harris Papyrus’ at the British Museum, c. 1150 BC. Image taken from the book The Search for Ancient Egypt (p. 91) by Jean Vercoutter. References[edit] ^ Barbara Cifola (1988), Ramses III and the Sea Peoples: A Structural Analysis of the Medinet Habu Inscriptions, NOVA SERIES, Vol. 57, No. 3 (1988), pp. 275–306 ^ E.F. Wente & C.C. Van Siclen, "A Chronology of the New Kingdom" in Studies in Honor of George R. Hughes, (SAOC 39) 1976, p.235, ISBN 0-918986-01-X ^ Murnane, W. J., United with Eternity: A Concise Guide to the Monuments of Medinet Habu, p. 38, Oriental Institute, Chicago / American University in Cairo Press, 1980. ^ Wilfred G. Lambert; A. R. George; Irving L. Finkel (2000). Wisdom, Gods and Literature: Studies in Assyriology in Honour of W.G. Lambert. Eisenbrauns. pp. 384–. ISBN 978-1-57506-004-0. Retrieved 18 August 2012. ^ Hasel, Michael G. "Merenptah's Inscription and Reliefs and the Origin of Israel" in The Near East in the Southwest: Essays in Honor of William G. Dever" edited by Beth Albprt Hakhai The Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research Vol. 58 2003, quoting from Edgerton, W. F., and Wilson, John A. 1936 Historical Records of Ramses III, the Texts in Medinet Habu, Volumes I and II. Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 12. Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. ^ Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, Blackwell Books, 1992. p.271 ^ William F. Edgerton, The Strikes in Ramses III's Twenty-Ninth Year, JNES 10, No. 3 (July 1951), pp. 137-145 ^ Frank J. Yurco, p.456 ^ a b J. H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, Part Four, §§423-456 ^ James H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, Part Four, §§416-417 ^ James H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, Part Four, §§446-450 ^ Joyce Tyldesley, Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt, Thames & Hudson October 2006, p.170 ^ a b Cambridge Ancient History, Cambridge University Press 2000, p.247 ^ J. H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, p.418 ^ Egyptologist: Ramses III assassinated in coup attempt Archived 2018-03-02 at the Wayback Machine, Dan Vergano, USA Today, December 17, 2012 ^ King Ramesses III's throat was slit, analysis reveals Archived 2018-05-04 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2012-12-18. ^ British Medical Journal, Study reveals that Pharaoh’s throat was cut during royal coup Archived 2019-05-18 at the Wayback Machine, Monday, December 17, 2012 ^ Hawass, Ismail, Selim, Saleem, Fathalla, Waset, Gad, Saad, Fares, Amer, Gostner, Gad, Pusch, Zink (December 17, 2012). "Revisiting the harem conspiracy and death of Ramesses III: anthropological, forensic, radiological, and genetic study". British Medical Journal. 345: e8268. doi:10.1136/bmj.e8268. hdl:10072/62081. PMID 23247979. S2CID 206896841. Archived from the original on February 2, 2013. Retrieved December 19, 2012.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ AFP (December 18, 2012). "Pharaoh's murder riddle solved after 3,000 years". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on December 18, 2012. Retrieved December 18, 2012. ^ "Pharaoh Ramesses III Killed by Multiple Assailants, Radiologist Says". Live Science. Archived from the original on 2018-02-27. Retrieved 2018-02-26. ^ J. H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, pp.454-456 ^ J. H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, Part Four, §246 ^ Hawass, Zahi; et al. (2012). "Revisiting the harem conspiracy and death of Ramesses III: anthropological, forensic, radiological, and genetic study". BMJ. 345 (e8268): e8268. doi:10.1136/bmj.e8268. hdl:10072/62081. PMID 23247979. S2CID 206896841. Retrieved 6 January 2018. ^ A. J. Peden, The Reign of Ramesses IV, Aris & Phillips Ltd, 1994. p.32 Atika has long been equated with Timna, see here B. Rothenburg, Timna, Valley of the Biblical Copper Mines (1972), pp.201-203 where he also notes the probable port at Jezirat al-Faroun. ^ Jacobus Van Dijk, 'The Amarna Period and the later New Kingdom' in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, ed. Ian Shaw, Oxford University Press paperback, (2002) p.305 ^ Van Dijk, p.305 ^ Bob Brier, The Encyclopedia of Mummies, Checkmark Books, 1998. p.154 ^ Mazar, Amihai (1985). "The emergence of the Philistine material culture". Israel Exploration Journal. 35 (2/3): 95–107. JSTOR 27925978. ^ Hagens, Graham (2006). "Testing the Limits: Radiocarbon dating and the end of the Late Bronze Age". Radiocarbon. 48 (1): 83–100. doi:10.1017/S0033822200035414. Archived from the original on 2017-03-17. Retrieved 2014-10-16. ^ Frank J. Yurco, "End of the Late Bronze Age and Other Crisis Periods: A Volcanic Cause" in Gold of Praise: Studies on Ancient Egypt in Honor of Edward F. Wente, ed: Emily Teeter & John Larson, (SAOC 58) 1999, pp.456-458 ^ At first, scholars tried to redate the event to "3000 BP": TOWARDS A HOLOCENE TEPHROCHRONOLOGY FOR SWEDEN Archived 2009-04-07 at the Wayback Machine, Stefan Wastegǎrd, XVI INQUA Congress, Paper No. 41-13, Saturday, July 26, 2003. Also: Late Holocene solifluction history reconstructed using tephrochronology Archived 2008-12-01 at the Wayback Machine, Martin P. Kirkbride & Andrew J. Dugmore, Geological Society, London, Special Publications; 2005; v. 242; p. 145-155. ^ Van Den Bogaard, C.; Dörfler, W.; Glos, R.; Nadeau, M. J. E.; Grootes, P. M.; Erlenkeuser, H. (2002). "Two Tephra Layers Bracketing Late Holocene Paleoecological Changes in Northern Germany". Quaternary Research. 57 (3): 314. Bibcode:2002QuRes..57..314V. doi:10.1006/qres.2002.2325. Further reading[edit] Eric H. Cline and David O'Connor, eds. Ramesses III: The Life and Times of Egypt's Last Hero (University of Michigan Press; 2012) 560 pages; essays by scholars. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ramses III. Timna: Valley of the Ancient Copper Mines v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Rulers of the Ancient Near East Territories/ dates [1][2][3][4] Egypt Canaan Ebla Mari Akshak/ Akkad Kish Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period 4000–3200 BCE Naqada culture (4000–3100 BCE) Proto-Cannaanites Sumerian period (4000–2340 BCE) Susa I Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE) Naqada I Naqada II Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests") Legendary ante-deluvian rulers: In Eridu: Alulim, Alalngar, then in Bad-tibira: En-men-lu-ana, En-men-gal-ana, Dumuzid, the Shepherd, then in Larag: En-sipad-zid-ana, then in Zimbir: En-men-dur-ana, then in Shuruppag: Ubara-Tutu "then the flood swept over"[5] Susa II (Uruk influence or control) 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ DenAnedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100-2700 BCE) Great Flood 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) First kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman En-me-barage-si ("made the land of Elam submit")[6] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba Uruk II dynasty Enshakushanna Mug-si Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions (3 kings)[7] Shushuntarana Napilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Urur Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun) Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion of Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[7] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian Empire (Semitic) Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Second Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) (Vassals of UR III) Shakkanakku dynasty (Semitic) Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Neo-Sumerian Period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians) Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (Vassals of Ur III)[8] Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal 2100 BCE Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin Ibbi-Sin 2050 BCE 2000 BCE Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV circa 2000 BCE Amorite invasions Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) 2025-1763 BCE Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ Third Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 1894–1595 BCE Second Intermediate Period Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham (Biblical) Yamhad First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Phoenicia Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Middle Assyrian Empire Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt 626–539 BCE Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116-117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ "The Sumerian king list: translation". etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2008-05-08. ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ a b Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4. Authority control BNF: cb12253993v (data) CANTIC: a19787698 GND: 118749021 ISNI: 0000 0000 8771 6757 LCCN: n86029741 NLI: 000479980 SELIBR: 333324 SUDOC: 031297587 VIAF: 45777651 WorldCat Identities: viaf-120152481 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ramesses_III&oldid=1000733032" Categories: Ramesses III 12th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Ancient Egyptian mummies Sea Peoples 1217 BC births 1155 BC deaths Ancient murdered monarchs 12th century BC in Egypt 12th-century BC rulers 12th-century BC murdered monarchs Late Bronze Age collapse Deaths by stabbing in Egypt Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Български Català Чӑвашла Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 16 January 2021, at 12:45 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3141	----	Bactria - Wikipedia Bactria From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search It has been suggested that Tokharistan be merged into this article. (Discuss) Proposed since November 2020. Historical region in Central Asia Not to be confused with Bacteria. Bactria Balkh Province of the Achaemenid Empire, Seleucid Empire, Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and Indo-Greek Kingdom 2500/2000 BC–900/1000 AD Bactria Approximate location of the region of Bactria Ancient cities of Bactria Capital Bactra Historical era Antiquity • Established 2500/2000 BC • Disestablished 900/1000 AD Bactria /ˈbæktriə/ (Bactrian: βαχλο, Bakhlo), or Bactriana, was an ancient region in Central Asia. Bactria proper was north of the Hindu Kush mountain range and south of the Amu Darya river, covering the flat region that straddles modern-day Afghanistan. More broadly Bactria was the area north of the Hindu Kush, west of the Pamirs and south of the Tian Shan, covering modern -day Tajikistan and Uzbekistan as well, with the Amu Darya flowing west through the centre. Called "beautiful Bactria, crowned with flags" by the Avesta, the region is one of the sixteen perfect Iranian lands that the supreme deity Ahura Mazda had created. One of the early centres of Zoroastrianism and capital of the legendary Kayanian kings of Iran, Bactria is mentioned in the Behistun Inscription of Darius the Great as one of the satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire; it was a special satrapy and was ruled by a crown prince or an intended heir. Bactria was centre of Iranian resistance against the Macedonian invaders after fall of the Achaemenid Empire in the 4th century BC, but eventually fell to Alexander the Great. After death of the Macedonian conqueror, Bactria was annexed by his general, Seleucus I. Nevertheless, the Seleucids lost the region after declaration of independence by the satrap of Bactria, Diodotus I; thus started history of the Greco-Bactrian and the later Indo-Greek Kingdoms. By the 2nd century BC, Bactria was conquered by the Iranian Parthian Empire, and in the early 1st century, the Kushan Empire was formed by the Yuezhi in the Bactrian territories. Shapur I, the second Sasanian King of Kings of Iran, conquered western parts of the Kushan Empire in the 3rd century, and the Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom was formed. The Sasanians lost Bactria in the 4th century, however, it was reconquered in the 6th century. With the Muslim conquest of Iran in the 7th century, Islamization of Bactria began. Bactria was centre of an Iranian Renaissance in the 8th and 9th centuries, and New Persian as an independent literary language first emerged in this region. The Samanid Empire was formed in Eastern Iran by the descendants of Saman Khuda, a Persian from Bactria; thus started spread of Persian language in the region and decline of Bactrian language. Bactrian, an Eastern Iranian language, was the common language of Bactria and surroundings areas in ancient and early medieval times. Zoroastrianism and Buddhism were the religions of the majority of Bactrians before the rise of Islam. Contents 1 Name 2 Geography 3 History 3.1 Bronze Age 3.2 Achaemenid Empire 3.3 Alexander 3.4 Seleucid Empire 3.5 Greco-Bactrian Kingdom 3.6 Indo-Greek Kingdom 3.7 Daxia, Tukhara and Tokharistan 3.7.1 Tokharistan 3.8 Introduction of Islam 4 Bactrian people 5 In popular culture 6 See also 7 Notes 8 Sources 9 External links Name[edit] Bactria between the Hindu Kush (south), Pamirs (east), south branch of Tianshan (north). Ferghana Valley to the north; western Tarim Basin to the east. The English name Bactria is derived from the Ancient Greek: Βακτριανή (Romanized: Baktriani), a Hellenized version of the Bactrian endonym βαχλο (Romanized: Bakhlo). Analogous names include Avestan Bakhdi, Old Persian Bāxtriš ,[1] Middle Persian Baxl, New Persian بلخ (Romanized: Balx), Chinese 大夏 (pinyin: Dàxià), Latin Bactriana and Sanskrit: बाह्लीक (Romanized: Bāhlīka). Geography[edit] Bactria was located in central Asia in an area that comprises most of modern day Afghanistan and parts of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. To the south and east, it was bordered by the Hindu Kush mountain range. On its western side, the region was bordered by the great Carmanian desert and to the north it was bound by the Oxus river. The land was noted for its fertility and its ability to produce most ancient Greek agricultural products, with the exception of olives. [2] According to Pierre Leriche: Bactria, the territory of which Bactra [Balkh] was the capital, originally consisted of the area south of the Āmū Daryā with its string of agricultural oases dependent on water taken from the rivers of Balḵ (Bactra) [Balkh], Tashkurgan, Kondūz [Kunduz], Sar-e Pol, and Šīrīn Tagāō [Shirin Tagab]. This region played a major role in Central Asian history. At certain times the political limits of Bactria stretched far beyond the geographic frame of the Bactrian plain.[3] History[edit] Bronze Age[edit] Goddesses, Bactria, Afghanistan, 2000–1800 BC. Ancient bowl with animals, Bactria, 3rd–2nd millennium BC. The Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC, also known as the "Oxus civilization") is the modern archaeological designation for a Bronze Age archaeological culture of Central Asia, dated to c. 2200–1700 BC, located in present-day eastern Turkmenistan, northern Afghanistan, southern Uzbekistan and western Tajikistan, centred on the upper Amu Darya (known to the ancient Greeks as the Oxus River), an area covering ancient Bactria. Its sites were discovered and named by the Soviet archaeologist Viktor Sarianidi (1976). Bactria was the Greek name for Old Persian Bāxtriš (from native *Bāxçiš)[4] (named for its capital Bactra, modern Balkh), in what is now northern Afghanistan, and Margiana was the Greek name for the Persian satrapy of Margu, the capital of which was Merv, in today's Turkmenistan. The early Greek historian Ctesias, c. 400 BC (followed by Diodorus Siculus), alleged that the legendary Assyrian king Ninus had defeated a Bactrian king named Oxyartes in c. 2140 BC, or some 1000 years before the Trojan War. Since the decipherment of cuneiform script in the 19th century, however, which enabled actual Assyrian records to be read, historians have ascribed little value to the Greek account. According to some writers,[who?] Bactria was the homeland (Airyanem Vaejah) of Indo-Iranians who moved south-west into Iran and the north-west of the Indian subcontinent around 2500–2000 BC. Later, it became the northern province of the Achaemenid Empire in Central Asia.[5] It was in these regions, where the fertile soil of the mountainous country is surrounded by the Turan Depression, that the prophet Zoroaster was said to have been born and gained his first adherents. Avestan, the language of the oldest portions of the Zoroastrian Avesta, was one of the Old Iranian languages, and is the oldest attested member of the Eastern Iranian languages. Achaemenid Empire[edit] Main article: Bactria (satrapy) Xerxes I tomb, Bactrian soldier circa 470 BC. Ernst Herzfeld suggested that before its annexation to the Achaemenid Empire by Cyrus the Great in sixth century BC, Bactria belonged to the Medes[6] and together with Margiana, formed the twelfth satrapy of Persia.[7] After Darius III had been defeated by Alexander the Great, the satrap of Bactria, Bessus, attempted to organise a national resistance but was captured by other warlords and delivered to Alexander. He was then tortured and killed.[8][9] Under Persian rule, many Greeks were deported to Bactria, so that their communities and language became common in the area. During the reign of Darius I, the inhabitants of the Greek city of Barca, in Cyrenaica, were deported to Bactria for refusing to surrender assassins.[10] In addition, Xerxes also settled the "Branchidae" in Bactria; they were the descendants of Greek priests who had once lived near Didyma (western Asia Minor) and betrayed the temple to him.[11] Herodotus also records a Persian commander threatening to enslave daughters of the revolting Ionians and send them to Bactria.[12] Persia subsequently conscripted Greek men from these settlements in Bactria into their military, as did Alexander later.[13] Alexander[edit] Pre-Seleucid Athenian owl imitation from Bactria, possibly from the time of Sophytes. Alexander conquered Sogdiana. In the south, beyond the Oxus, he met strong resistance, but ultimately conquered the region through both military force and diplomacy, marrying Roxana, daughter of the defeated Satrap of Bactria, Oxyartes. He founded two Greek cities in Bactria, including his easternmost, Alexandria Eschate (Alexandria the Furthest). After Alexander's death, Diodorus Siculus tells us that Philip received dominion over Bactria, but Justin names Amyntas to that role. At the Treaty of Triparadisus, both Diodorus Siculus and Arrian agree that the satrap Stasanor gained control over Bactria. Eventually, Alexander's empire was divided up among the generals in Alexander's army. Bactria became a part of the Seleucid Empire, named after its founder, Seleucus I. Seleucid Empire[edit] The Macedonians, especially Seleucus I and his son Antiochus I, established the Seleucid Empire and founded a great many Greek towns. The Greek language became dominant for some time there. The paradox that Greek presence was more prominent in Bactria than in areas far closer to Greece can possibly be explained[original research?] by past deportations of Greeks to Bactria. Greco-Bactrian Kingdom[edit] Main article: Greco-Bactrian Kingdom Gold stater of the Greco-Bactrian king Eucratides Map of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom at its maximum extent, circa 180 BC. Considerable difficulties faced by the Seleucid kings and the attacks of Pharaoh Ptolemy II Philadelphus gave the satrap of Bactria, Diodotus I, the opportunity to declare independence about 245 BC and conquer Sogdia. He was the founder of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. Diodotus and his successors were able to maintain themselves against the attacks of the Seleucids—particularly from Antiochus III the Great, who was ultimately defeated by the Romans (190 BC). The Greco-Bactrians were so powerful that they were able to expand their territory as far as India: As for Bactria, a part of it lies alongside Aria towards the north, though most of it lies above Aria and to the east of it. And much of it produces everything except oil. The Greeks who caused Bactria to revolt grew so powerful on account of the fertility of the country that they became masters, not only of Bactria and beyond, but also of India, as Apollodorus of Artemita says: and more tribes were subdued by them than by Alexander...."[14] The Greco-Bactrians used the Greek language for administrative purposes, and the local Bactrian language was also Hellenized, as suggested by its adoption of the Greek alphabet and Greek loanwords. In turn, some of these words were also borrowed by modern Pashto.[15] Indo-Greek Kingdom[edit] Main article: Indo-Greek Kingdom The founder of the Indo-Greek Kingdom Demetrius I (205–171 BC), wearing the scalp of an elephant, symbol of his conquest of the Indus valley. The Bactrian king Euthydemus I and his son Demetrius I crossed the Hindu Kush mountains and began the conquest of the Indus valley. For a short time, they wielded great power: a great Greek empire seemed to have arisen far in the East. But this empire was torn by internal dissension and continual usurpations. When Demetrius advanced far east of the Indus River, one of his generals, Eucratides, made himself king of Bactria, and soon in every province there arose new usurpers, who proclaimed themselves kings and fought against each other. Most of them we know only by their coins, a great many of which are found in Afghanistan. By these wars, the dominant position of the Greeks was undermined even more quickly than would otherwise have been the case. After Demetrius and Eucratides, the kings abandoned the Attic standard of coinage and introduced a native standard, no doubt to gain support from outside the Greek minority. In the Indus valley, this went even further. The Indo-Greek king Menander I (known as Milinda in India), recognized as a great conqueror, converted to Buddhism. His successors managed to cling to power until the last known Indo-Greek ruler, a king named Strato II, who ruled in the Punjab region until around 55 BC.[16] Other sources, however, place the end of Strato II's reign as late as 10 AD. Daxia, Tukhara and Tokharistan[edit] Daxia, Ta-Hsia, or Ta-Hia (Chinese: 大夏; pinyin: Dàxià) was the name given in antiquity by the Han Chinese to Tukhara or Tokhara:[citation needed] the central part of Bactria. The name "Daxia" appears in Chinese from the 3rd century BC to designate a little-known kingdom located somewhere west of China. This was possibly a consequence of the first contacts between China and the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. During the 2nd century BC, the Greco-Bactrians were conquered by nomadic Indo-European tribes from the north, beginning with the Sakas (160 BC). The Sakas were overthrown in turn by the Da Yuezhi ("Greater Yuezhi") during subsequent decades. The Yuezhi had conquered Bactria by the time of the visit of the Chinese envoy Zhang Qian (circa 127 BC), who had been sent by the Han emperor to investigate lands to the west of China.[17][18] The first mention of these events in European literature appeared in the 1st century BC, when Strabo described how "the Asii, Pasiani, Tokhari, and Sakarauli" had taken part in the "destruction of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom". Ptolemy subsequently mentioned the central role of the Tokhari among other tribes in Bactria. As Tukhara or Tokhara it included areas that were later part of Surxondaryo Province in Uzbekistan, southern Tajikistan and northern Afghanistan. The Tokhari spoke a language known later as Bactrian – an Iranian language. (The Tokhari and their language should not be confused with the Tocharian people who lived in the Tarim Basin between the 3rd and 9th centuries AD, or the Tocharian languages that form another branch of Indo-European languages.) The treasure of the royal burial Tillia tepe is attributed to 1st century BC Sakas in Bactria. Zhang Qian taking leave from emperor Han Wudi, for his expedition to Central Asia from 138 to 126 BC, Mogao Caves mural, 618–712 AD. The name Daxia was used in the Shiji ("Records of the Grand Historian") by Sima Qian. Based on the reports of Zhang Qian, the Shiji describe Daxia as an important urban civilization of about one million people, living in walled cities under small city kings or magistrates. Daxia was an affluent country with rich markets, trading in an incredible variety of objects, coming from as far as Southern China. By the time Zhang Qian visited, there was no longer a major king, and the Bactrians were under the suzerainty of the Yuezhi. Zhang Qian depicted a rather sophisticated but demoralised people who were afraid of war. Following these reports, the Chinese emperor Wu Di was informed of the level of sophistication of the urban civilizations of Ferghana, Bactria and Parthia, and became interested in developing commercial relationship with them: The Son of Heaven on hearing all this reasoned thus: Dayuan and the possessions of Daxia and Anxi Parthia are large countries, full of rare things, with a population living in fixed abodes and given to occupations somewhat identical with those of the people of Han, but with weak armies, and placing great value on the rich produce of China.[19] These contacts immediately led to the dispatch of multiple embassies from the Chinese, which helped to develop trade along the Silk Roads. Kushan worshipper with Zeus/Serapis/Ohrmazd, Bactria, 3rd century AD.[20] Kushan worshipper with Pharro, Bactria, 3rd century AD.[20] Kujula Kadphises, the xihou (prince) of the Yuezhi, united the region in the early 1st century and laid the foundations for the powerful, but short-lived, Kushan Empire. In the 3rd century AD, Tukhara was under the rule of the Kushanshas (Indo-Sasanians). Tokharistan[edit] Main article: Tokharistan The form Tokharistan – the suffix -stan means "place of" in Persian – appeared for the first time in the 4th century, in Buddhist texts, such as the Vibhasa-sastra. Tokhara was known in Chinese sources as Tuhuluo (吐呼羅) which is first mentioned during the Northern Wei era. In the Tang dynasty, the name is transcribed as Tuhuoluo (土豁羅). Other Chinese names are Doushaluo 兜沙羅, Douquluo 兜佉羅 or Duhuoluo 覩貨羅.[citation needed] During the 5th century, Bactria was controlled by the Xionites and the Hephthalites, but was subsequently reconquered by the Sassanid Empire. Introduction of Islam[edit] Main article: Islamic conquest of Afghanistan By the mid-7th century, Islam under the Rashidun Caliphate had come to rule much of the Middle East and western areas of Central Asia.[21] In 663, the Umayyad Caliphate attacked the Buddhist Shahi dynasty ruling in Tokharistan. The Umayyad forces captured the area around Balkh, including the Buddhist monastery at Nava Vihara, causing the Shahis to retreat to the Kabul Valley.[21] In the 8th century, a Persian from Balkh known as Saman Khuda left Zoroastrianism for Islam while living under the Umayyads. His children founded the Samanid Empire (875–999). Persian became the official language and had a higher status than Bactrian, because it was the language of Muslim rulers. It eventually replaced the latter as the common language due to the preferential treatment as well as colonization.[22] Bactrian people[edit] Painted clay and alabaster head of a mobad wearing a distinctive Bactrian-style headdress, Takhti-Sangin, Tajikistan, Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, third–second century BC Bactrians were the inhabitants of Bactria. Several important trade routes from India and China (including the Silk Road) passed through Bactria and, as early as the Bronze Age, this had allowed the accumulation of vast amounts of wealth by the mostly nomadic population. The first proto-urban civilization in the area arose during the 2nd millennium BC. Control of these lucrative trade routes, however, attracted foreign interest, and in the 6th century BC the Bactrians were conquered by the Persians, and in the 4th century BC by Alexander the Great. These conquests marked the end of Bactrian independence. From around 304 BC the area formed part of the Seleucid Empire, and from around 250 BC it was the centre of a Greco-Bactrian kingdom, ruled by the descendants of Greeks who had settled there following the conquest of Alexander the Great. The Greco-Bactrians, also known in Sanskrit as Yavanas, worked in cooperation with the native Bactrian aristocracy. By the early 2nd century BC the Greco-Bactrians had created an impressive empire that stretched southwards to include north-west India. By about 135 BC, however, this kingdom had been overrun by invading Yuezhi tribes, an invasion that later brought about the rise of the powerful Kushan Empire. Bactrians were recorded in Strabo's Geography' "Now in early times the Sogdians and Bactrians did not differ much from the nomads in their modes of life and customs, although the Bactrians were a little more civilised; however, of these, as of the others, Onesicritus does not report their best traits, saying, for instance, that those who have become helpless because of old age or sickness are thrown out alive as prey to dogs kept expressly for this purpose, which in their native tongue are called "undertakers," and that while the land outside the walls of the metropolis of the Bactrians looks clean, yet most of the land inside the walls is full of human bones; but that Alexander broke up the custom."[23] The Bactrians spoke Bactrian, a north-eastern Iranian language. Bactrian became extinct, replaced by north-eastern[24] Iranian languages such as Pashto, Yidgha, Munji, and Ishkashmi. The Encyclopaedia Iranica states: Bactrian thus occupies an intermediary position between Pashto and Yidgha-Munji on the one hand, Sogdian, Choresmian, and Parthian on the other: it is thus in its natural and rightful place in Bactria.[25] The principal religions of the area before Islam were Zoroastrianism and Buddhism.[26] Contemporary Tajiks are the descendants of ancient Eastern Iranian inhabitants of Central Asia, in particular, the Sogdians and the Bactrians, and possibly other groups, with an admixture of Western Iranian Persians and non-Iranian peoples.[27][28][29] The Encyclopædia Britannica states: The Tajiks are the direct descendants of the Iranian peoples whose continuous presence in Central Asia and northern Afghanistan is attested from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. The ancestors of the Tajiks constituted the core of the ancient population of Khwārezm (Khorezm) and Bactria, which formed part of Transoxania (Sogdiana). They were included in the empires of Persia and Alexander the Great, and they intermingled with such later invaders as the Kushāns and Hepthalites in the 1st–6th centuries AD. Over the course of time, the eastern Iranian dialect that was used by the ancient Tajiks eventually gave way to Persian, a western dialect spoken in Iran and Afghanistan.[30] In popular culture[edit] The Greco-Bactrian Kingdom during the age of Demetrius I is the setting for the historical fiction novel Anabasis: A Novel of Hellenistic Afghanistan and India by Geoffrey Storey.[31] The six-part documentary Alexander's Lost World explores the possible sites of Bactrian cities that historians believe were founded by Alexander the Great, including Alexandria on the Oxus. The series also explores the pre-existing Oxus civilization.[32] The site was portrayed in the 2004 film Alexander where Darius III was found dying. See also[edit] History of Afghanistan History of Uzbekistan Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex Tillya Tepe Bactrian camel Bahlika people Greater Khorasan Dalverzin Tepe Balkh Notes[edit] ^ Eduljee, Ed. "Aryan Homeland, Airyana Vaeja, in the Avesta. Aryan lands and Zoroastrianism". www.heritageinstitute.com. Retrieved 2017-09-07. ^ Rawlinson, H. G. (Hugh George), 1880-1957. (2002). Bactria, the history of a forgotten empire. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. ISBN 81-206-1615-4. OCLC 50519010.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ P. Leriche, "Bactria, Pre-Islamic period." Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. 3, 1998. ^ David Testen, "Old Persian and Avestan Phonology", Phonologies of Asia and Africa, vol. II (Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 1997), 583. ^ Cotterell (1998), p. 59 ^ Herzfeld, Ernst (1968). The Persian Empire: Studies in geography and ethnography of the ancient Near East. F. Steiner. p. 344. ^ "BACTRIA – Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2019-08-07. After annexation to the Persian empire by Cyrus in the sixth century, Bactria together with Margiana formed the Twelfth Satrapy. ^ Holt (2005), pp. 41–43. ^ Chisholm 1911. ^ Herodotus, 4.200–204 ^ Strabo, 11.11.4 ^ Herodotus 6.9 ^ Graeco-Bactrian Kingdom ^ Strabo Geography, Book 11, chapter 11, section 1 ^ UCLA Language Materials Project: Language Profile: Pashto Archived 2009-01-03 at the Wayback Machine ^ Bernard (1994), p. 126. ^ Silk Road, North China C. Michael Hogan, the Megalithic Portal, 19 November 2007, ed. Andy Burnham ^ Grousset, Rene (1970). The Empire of the Steppes. Rutgers University Press. pp. 29–31. ISBN 0-8135-1304-9. ^ Hanshu, Former Han History ^ a b Metropolitan Museum of Art exhibition ^ a b History of Buddhism in Afghanistan by Dr. Alexander Berzin, Study Buddhism ^ "Origin of the Samanids – Kamoliddin – Transoxiana 10". www.transoxiana.org. Retrieved 2017-09-07. ^ "LacusCurtius • Strabo's Geography — Book XI Chapter 11". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2017-09-07. ^ "The Modern Eastern Iranian languages are even more numerous and varied. Most of them are classified as North-Eastern: Ossetic; Yaghnobi (which derives from a dialect closely related to Sogdian); the Shughni group (Shughni, Roshani, Khufi, Bartangi, Roshorvi, Sarikoli), with which Yaz-1ghulami (Sokolova 1967) and the now extinct Wanji (J. Payne in Schmitt, p. 420) are closely linked; Ishkashmi, Sanglichi, and Zebaki; Wakhi; Munji and Yidgha; and Pashto. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/eastern-iranian-languages ^ N. Sims-Williams. "Bactrian language". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Originally Published: December 15, 1988. ^ John Haywood and Simon Hall (2005). Peoples, nations and cultures. London. ^ Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan : country studies Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, page 206 ^ Richard Foltz, A History of the Tajiks: Iranians of the East, London: Bloomsbury, 2019, pp. 33-61. ^ Richard Nelson Frye, "Persien: bis zum Einbruch des Islam" (original English title: "The Heritage Of Persia"), German version, tr. by Paul Baudisch, Kindler Verlag AG, Zürich 1964, pp. 485–498 ^ Tajikistan: History Britannica Online Encyclopedia ^ Geoffery Storey Anabasis: Bactria Synopsis: Anabasis ^ David Adams Films Alexander's Lost World Sources[edit] Bernard, Paul (1994). "The Greek Kingdoms of Central Asia." In: History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250, pp. 99–129. Harmatta, János, ed., 1994. Paris: UNESCO Publishing. Beal, Samuel (trans.). Si-Yu-Ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World, by Hiuen Tsiang. Two volumes. London. 1884. Reprint: Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation, 1969. Beal, Samuel (trans.). The Life of Hiuen-Tsiang by the Shaman Hwui Li, with an Introduction containing an account of the Works of I-Tsing. London, 1911. Reprint: New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1973. Cotterell, Arthur. From Aristotle to Zoroaster, 1998; pages 57–59. ISBN 0-684-85596-8. Hill, John E. 2003. "Annotated Translation of the Chapter on the Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu." Second Draft Edition. Hill, John E. 2004. The Peoples of the West from the Weilüe 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE. Draft annotated English translation. Holt, Frank Lee. (1999). Thundering Zeus: The Making of Hellenistic Bactria. Berkeley: University of California Press.(hardcover, ISBN 0-520-21140-5). Holt, Frank Lee. (2005). Into the Land of Bones: Alexander the Great in Afghanistan. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-24553-9. Waghmar, Burzine. (2020). "Between Hind and Hellas: the Bactrian Bridgehead (with an appendix on Indo-Hellenic interactions)". In: Indo-Hellenic Cultural Transactions. (2020). Edited by Radhika Seshan. Mumbai: K. R. Cama Oriental Institute, 2020 [2021], pp. 187-228. Tremblay, Xavier (2007) "The Spread of Buddhism in Serindia ― Buddhism among Iranians, Tocharians and Turks before the 13th century." Xavier Tremblay. In: The Spread of Buddhism. (2007). Edited by Ann Heirman and Stephan Peter Bumbacher. Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section Eight, Central Asia. Edited by Denis Sinor and Nicola Di Cosmo. Brill, Lieden; Boston. pp. 75–129. Watson, Burton (trans.). "Chapter 123: The Account of Dayuan." Translated from the Shiji by Sima Qian. Records of the Grand Historian of China II (Revised Edition). Columbia University Press, 1993, pages 231–252. ISBN 0-231-08164-2 (hardback), ISBN 0-231-08167-7 (paperback). Watters, Thomas. On Yuan Chwang's Travels in India (A.D. 629–645). Reprint: New Delhi: Mushiram Manoharlal Publishers, 1973. Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Bactria" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 180–181.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) External links[edit] Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Bactria. Bactrian Coins Bactrian Gold Livius.org: Bactria Batriane du nord—about the Termez region, an archeological site Art of the Bronze Age: Southeastern Iran, Western Central Asia, and the Indus Valley, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Bactria Authority control NDL: 00576994 NKC: ge550844 VIAF: 239863610 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 239863610 Coordinates: 36°45′29″N 66°53′56″E / 36.7581°N 66.8989°E / 36.7581; 66.8989 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bactria&oldid=1001697623" Categories: Bactria States and territories established in the 3rd millennium BC States and territories disestablished in the 10th century Buddhism in Afghanistan Buddhism in Iran Historical regions Historical regions of Afghanistan Historical regions of Iran History of Central Asia History of South Asia Iranian countries and territories Hidden categories: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list Webarchive template wayback links Articles to be merged from November 2020 All articles to be merged Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Former country articles requiring maintenance Articles containing Bactrian-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Sanskrit-language text All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from March 2017 All articles that may contain original research Articles that may contain original research from June 2013 Articles containing Chinese-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2019 CS1 maint: ref=harv Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Coordinates on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikivoyage Languages Alemannisch አማርኛ العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú Башҡортса Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Lingua Franca Nova Magyar മലയാളം मराठी مصرى Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پښتو Polski Português Română Русский Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Татарча/tatarça ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 20 January 2021, at 22:04 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3155	----	Sekhemib-Perenmaat - Wikipedia Sekhemib-Perenmaat From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sekhemib Sekhemib-Perenma'at Alabaster vessel showing the (damaged) double name of Sekhemib Pharaoh Reign ca. 2720 BC (2nd dynasty) Predecessor uncertain, Peribsen?, Nynetjer? Successor uncertain, Peribsen? Khasekhemwy? Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Nisut-Bity-Sekhemib Nsw.t-btj-Sḫm-jb King of Lower- and Upper Egypt, he with the powerful force of will Horus name Hor-Sekhemib Ḥr-Sḫm-jb He with the powerful force of will of Horus Hor-Sekhemib-Perenma´at Ḥr-Sḫm-jb-pr-n-m3ˁt He with a powerful force of will, he comes forth for the Ma´at of Horus Nebty name Sekhemib-Perenma'at-Nebty Sḫm-jb-pr-n-m3ˁt-Nb.tj He with the powerful force of will of the two ladies, he comes forth for their Ma´at Full royal title Nisut-Bity-Nebty-Sekhemib-Perenma'at Nsw.t-btj-nb.ty-Sḫm-jb-pr-n-m3ˁt King of Lower and Upper Egypt, He of the two ladies, with the powerful force of will, who comes forth for the Ma'at Burial unknown Sekhemib-Perenma'at (or simply Sekhemib), is the Horus name of an early Egyptian king who ruled during the 2nd Dynasty. Similar to his predecessor, successor or co-ruler Seth-Peribsen, Sekhemib is contemporarily well attested in archaeological records, but he does not appear in any posthumous document. The exact length of his reign is unknown and his burial site has yet to be found.[1] Contents 1 Name sources 2 Identity 3 Reign 3.1 Proponents of the divided-realm-theory 3.2 Opponents of the divided-realm-theory 4 Tomb 5 External links 6 References Name sources[edit] Sekhemib's name is known from seal impressions and from inscriptions on vessels made of alabaster and breccia. They were found in the entrance of Peribsen's tomb at Abydos, in the underground galleries beneath the step pyramid of (3rd Dynasty) king Djoser at Sakkara and on one excavation site at Elephantine.[1][2][3][4] Sekhemib's serekh name is unusual, because it is the first in Egyptian history that was extended by an epithet. Beside the first name, Sekhem-ib, several seal impressions and stone vessel inscriptions show the epithet Perenma'at inside the serekh. Sekhemib used both name forms, the single horus name and the double name, at the same time. Egyptologists such as Herman te Velde and Wolfgang Helck think that the double name of Sekhemib came in use when the Egyptian state was split into two independent realms. It seems that Sekhemib tried to stress the peaceful political situation prevailing in Egypt at the time. An increased form of such a double name was created and used by a successor of Sekhemib, king Khasekhemwy. This king also used a double name and even placed Horus and Seth together as protective deities atop his serekh. Khasekhemwy had tried to express peace and reconciliation between Upper- and Lower Egypt with his unusual serekh, too.[5][6] Identity[edit] Vase of Sekhemib bearing the inscription reproduced on the right. At its right, it reads The king of Upper and Lower Egypt, Sekhemib-Perenmaat, at its left it reads administrator of the house of copper, god servant of Kherty, National Archaeological Museum (France). The historical figure of Sekhemib is the subject of investigation and discussions by Egyptologists and historians to this day. The contradictory findings allow room for plenty of interpretations and theories. Egyptologists such as Walter Bryan Emery, Kathryn A. Bard and Flinders Petrie believe that Sekhemib was the same person as king Peribsen, a ruler who had connected his name with the deity Seth and who possibly ruled only Upper Egypt. Emery, Bard and Petrie point to several clay seals that were found in the tomb entrance of Peribsen's necropolis. Sekhemib's tomb has not yet been found.[2][7][8][9] In contrast, Egyptologists such as Hermann Alexander Schlögl, Wolfgang Helck, Peter Kaplony and Jochem Kahl believe that Sekhemib was a different ruler to Peribsen. They point out that the clay seals were only found at the entrance area of Peribsen's tomb and that none of them ever shows Peribsen and Sekhemib's names together in one inscription. They compare the findings with the ivory tablets of king Hotepsekhemwy found at the entrance of king Qaa's tomb. Therefore, Schlögl, Helck, Kaplony and Kahl are convinced that Sekhemib's seals are merely proof that Sekhemib buried Peribsen.[6][10] Egyptologists such as Toby Wilkinson and Helck believe that Sekhemib and Peribsen could have been related. Their theory is based on the stone vessel inscriptions and seal impressions that show strong similarities in their typographical and grammatical writing styles. The vessels of Peribsen for example show the notation "ini-setjet" ("tribute of the people of Sethroë"), whilst Sekhemib's inscriptions note "ini-chasut" ("tribute of the desert nomads"). A further indication for a relationship between Peribsen and Sekhemib is the serekh-name of both, as they both use the syllables "per" and "ib" in their names.[11][12] Egyptologists such as Helck identify Sekhemib with the ramesside cartouche name “Wadjenes” and equate Peribsen with a king named Senedj. Egyptologist Dietrich Wildung thinks alike and identifies Sekhemib with the nebty name Weneg-Nebty and Peribsen with Senedj.[6][13] Reign[edit] Clay seal of Sekhemib There seems to be archaeological evidence that Sekhemib ruled only in Upper Egypt. His realm would have extended down from Ombos up to the Isle of Elephantine, where a new administrative centre called "The white house of treasury" was founded under Peribsen.[14] It remains the subject of discussion by Egyptologists and historians as to if, why and when it was decided to split the state. Proponents of the divided-realm-theory[edit] Egyptologists such as Wolfgang Helck, Nicolas Grimal, Hermann Alexander Schlögl and Francesco Tiradritti believe that king Ninetjer, the third ruler of 2nd dynasty and a predecessor of Peribsen, left a realm that was suffering from an overly complex state administration and that Ninetjer decided to split Egypt between his two sons (or, at least, his two successors), in the hope that the two rulers could better administer the two states.[15][16] Since the artefacts surviving from his lifetime seem to prove that he and his contemporary Peribsen ruled only in Upper Egypt, it is the subject of investigation as to who ruled in Lower Egypt at that time. The Ramesside king lists differ in their succession of royal names from king Senedj onward. A reason may be that the royal table of Saqqara and the royal canon of Turin reflect Memphite traditions, which allow Memphite rulers to be mentioned. The Abydos king list instead reflects Thinite traditions and therefore only Thinite rulers appear on that list. Until king Senedj, all posthumous king lists accord with each other. After him, the Saqqara list and the Turin list mention three kings as successors: Neferkara I, Neferkasokar and Hudjefa I. The Abydos king list skips these kings and jumps forward to Khasekhemwy, calling him “Djadjay”. The discrepancies are considered by Egyptologists to be the result of the partition of the Egyptian state during the 2nd Dynasty.[1][10][15][16] A further problem is the Horus names and Nebty names of different kings in inscriptions found in the Great Southern Gallery in the necropolis of (3rd Dynasty) king Djoser at Saqqara. Stone vessel inscriptions mention kings such as Nubnefer, Weneg-Nebty, Horus Ba, Horus "Bird" and Za, but each of these kings is mentioned only a few times, which suggests to Egyptologists that each of these kings did not rule very long. King Sneferka might be identical with king Qa'a or an ephemeral successor of his. King Weneg-Nebty might be identical with the Ramesside cartouche name Wadjenes. But kings such as "Nubnefer", "Bird" and "Za" remain a mystery. They never appear anywhere else in the historical record other than at Saqqara where the number of objects surviving from their lifetimes is very limited. Schlögl, Helck and Peter Kaplony postulate that Nubnefer, Za and Bird were the corresponding rulers to Peribsen and Sekhemib and ruled in Lower Egypt, whilst the latter two ruled Upper Egypt.[1][10][15][16][17] In contrast, Egyptologists such as Barbara Bell believe that an economic catastrophe such as a famine or a long-lasting drought affected Egypt at that time. To help solve the problems of feeding the Egyptian population, Ninetjer split the realm and his successors ruled two independent realms until the famine was successfully brought to an end. Bell points to the inscriptions of the Palermo stone, where, in her opinion, the records of the Nile floods show consistently low levels.[18] The administrative titles of the scribes, seal-bearers and overseers were adjusted to the new political situation. For example, titles like "sealer of the king" were changed into "sealer of the king of Upper Egypt". The administration system since the time of Peribsen and Sekhemib shows a clear and well identified hierarchy; an example: Treasury house → pension office → property → vine yards → private vine yard. King Khasekhemwy, the last ruler of 2nd Dynasty, was able to re-unify the state administration of Egypt and therefore unite the whole of Ancient Egypt. He brought the two treasury houses of Egypt under the control of the "House of the King", bringing them into a new, single administration center.[19][20] Fragment of a diorite vase inscribed with part of the name of pharaoh Sekhemib Perenmaat from the Pyramid of Djoser and now in the Egyptian Museum. The inscription reads (from right to left): "King of Lower- and Upper Egypt, Sekhemib-Per(enma'at), tribute of the foreigners, provisions to...". Opponents of the divided-realm-theory[edit] Other Egyptologists, such as Michael Rice,[21] Francesco Tiradritti[16] and Wolfgang Helck, believe that there was no division of the Egyptian thrones and that Sekhemib and Peribsen were each sole and independent rulers. The suspected division may have been of a mere bureaucratic nature, including changes in the titles of high-ranking officials. It is possible, that king Nynetjer (or Peribsen) decided to split the whole bureaucracy of Egypt into two separate departments in an attempt to reduce the power of the officials. Such an act was not surprising and occurred several times in Egyptian history, especially in later dynasties. The scholars also point to the once palatial and well preserved mastaba tombs at Saqqara and Abydos belonging to high officials such as Ruaben and Nefer-Setekh. These are all dated from the reign of Nynetjer to that of Khasekhemwy, the last ruler of the Second Dynasty. Egyptologists consider the archaeological record of the mastabas' condition and the original architecture as proof that the statewide mortuary cults for kings and noblemen successfully operated during the entire dynasty. If true, their preservation is inconsistent with the theory of civil wars and economic problems during Peribsen's reign. Rice, Tiradritti and Helck think that Nynetjer decided to leave a divided realm because of private or political reasons and that the split was a formality sustained by Second Dynasty kings.[16][21][22] Scholars such as Herman TeVelde,[23] I. E. S. Edwards[24] and Toby Wilkinson[25] believe the inscription of the famous Annal stone of Fifth Dynasty, a black olivine-basalt slabstone displaying a very detailed king list, also argues against the division of the realm. On the stone, the kings are listed by their Horus name, their gold name, their cartouche name, and, finally, with the name of their royal mother. The lists also contain rectangular windows presenting year events from the day of the king's coronation to his death. The most famous fragments of the Annal stone are called the Palermo Stone and the Cairo Stone. On the Cairo stone, in line IV, the last nine years of king Nynetjer are preserved (but most of the year windows are illegible now).[25] The Annal stone however, gives absolutely no indication of a division of the Egyptian realm. Barta, TeVelde, Wilkinson and Edwards argue that the theory of state division is untenable. A mere administrative reorganization of the bureaucracy or a split in the priesthood sects seems more likely.[25] Bell's theory of a famine or drought is refuted today by Egyptologists such as Stephan Seidlmayer, who corrected Bell's calculations. Seidlmayer has shown that the annual Nile flood was normal during Ninetjer's time up to the period of the Old Kingdom. Bell may have overlooked that the height of the Nile floods in the Palermo stone inscriptions only takes into account the measurements of the nilometers around Memphis, and not elsewhere along the river. Any long-lasting drought at that time can therefore be excluded.[26] Three officials from Sekhemib's reign are known to Egyptologists by seal impressions: Nebhotep, Inykhnum and Maapermin. However, Inykhnum might also have held office in later times, under kings such as Djoser and Sanakht.[27] Tomb[edit] The location of Sekhemib's tomb is unknown. If he was actually the same person as Peribsen, he was buried in tomb P at Abydos. If not, his burial site may be located at Saqqara.[2][7][9] External links[edit] Francesco Raffaele: Horus Sekhemib Perenmaat References[edit] ^ a b c d Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, London und New York 1999, ISBN 0-415-18633-1, page 90–91. ^ a b c William Matthew Flinders Petrie & Francis Llewellyn Griffith: The royal tombs of the first dynasty. Volume II., Trübner & Co., London, 1900, page 7, 14, 19, 20 & 48. ^ Pierre Lacau und Jan-Phillip Lauer: La Pyramide a Degrees IV. – Inscriptions Gravees sur les Vases: Fouilles à Saqqarah. Service des antiquités de l'Égypte, Cairo, 1936. page 18 und 91, Bildtafel 39. ^ Jeoffrey A. Spencer: Early Dynastic Objects. British Museum Publications, London 1980, page 76–78; Obj. No. 278. ^ Herman te Velde: Seth, God of Confusion: a study of his role in Egyptian mythology and religion. Brill, Leiden 1977, ISBN 90-04-05402-2, page 72, 73 & 110. ^ a b c Wolfgang Helck: Untersuchungen zur Thintenzeit. (Ägyptologische Abhandlungen, Volume 45), Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1987, ISBN 3-447-02677-4, page 104–111 & 183. ^ a b Walter Bryan Emery: Ägypten - Geschichte und Kultur der Frühzeit. Fourier, Munich 1964, page 106. ^ J. P. Pätznik in: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Abteilung Kairo (MDAIK), 1999. page 54. ^ a b Kathryn A. Bard: The Emergence of the Egyptian State. in: Ian Shaw: The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. page 86. ^ a b c Hermann A. Schlögl: Das Alte Ägypten. Geschichte und Kultur von der Frühzeit bis zu Kleopatra. Verlag C. H. Beck, München 2006, ISBN 3-406-54988-8, page 78. ^ Siegfried Schott: Altägyptische Festdaten. Verlag der Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur, Mainz/Wiesbaden 1950, page 55. ^ Toby Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt. page 90–91; see also: Walter Bryan Emery: Ägypten – Geschichte und Kultur der Frühzeit. page 106. ^ Dietrich Wildung: Die Rolle ägyptischer Könige im Bewußtsein ihrer Nachwelt. Volume I: Posthume Quellen über die Könige der ersten vier Dynastien. Münchener Ägyptologische Studien, Volume. 17, Deutscher Kunstverlag, Munich/Berlin, 1969. page 14 & 250. ^ Jean-Pierre-Pätznik: Die Siegelabrollungen und Rollsiegel der Stadt Elephantine im 3. Jahrtausend vor Christus. Archaeopress, Oxford (UK) 2005, ISBN 1-84171-685-5, page 64–66. ^ a b c Nicolas Grimal: A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley-Blackwell, Weinheim 1994, ISBN 978-0-631-19396-8, page 55. ^ a b c d e Francesco Tiradritti & Anna Maria Donadoni Roveri: Kemet: Alle Sorgenti Del Tempo. Electa, Milano 1998, ISBN 88-435-6042-5, page 80–85. ^ Peter Kaplony: A building named "Menti-Ankh". In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Kairo (MDAIK), volume 20. de Gruyter, Berlin 1965, page 1–46. ^ Barbara Bell: Oldest Records of the Nile Floods, In: Geographical Journal, No. 136. 1970, page 569–573; M. Goedike: Journal of Egypt Archaeology, No. 42. 1998, page 50. ^ Jean-Pierre Pätznick: Die Siegelabrollungen und Rollsiegel der Stadt Elephantine im 3. Jahrtausend v. Chr. page 211–213; see also: Jean-Pierre Pätznick in: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Ägyptologischen Instituts Kairo. No. 55, Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Orient-Abteilung(Hrsg.). de Gruyter, Berlin 1999, page 90–92. ^ Christian E. Schulz: Schreibgeräte und Schreiber in der 0. Bis 3. Dynastie. GRIN, Munich 2007, ISBN 3-638-63909-6, page 9–15 ^ a b Michael Rice: Who's Who in Ancient Egypt. Routledge, London/New York 2001, ISBN 0-415-15449-9, page 72, 134 & 172. ^ Wolfgang Helck: Untersuchungen zur Thinitenzeit (= Ägyptologische Abhandlungen, Vol. 45). Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1987, ISBN 3-447-02677-4, p. 103-111. ^ Herman te Velde: Seth, God of Confusion. A study of his role in Egyptian mythology and religion (= Probleme der Ägyptologie, Vol. 6). Brill, Leiden 1977, ISBN 90-04-05402-2, p. 109-111. ^ I. E. S. Edwards (Hrsg.): Early history of the middle east (= The Cambridge ancient history. Vol. 1–2), 3rd edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1970, ISBN 0-521-07791-5, p.31-32. ^ a b c Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Royal annals of ancient Egypt: The Palermo stone and its associated fragments. Taylor and Francis, London 2000, ISBN 978-0-7103-0667-8, p. 200–206. ^ Stephan Seidlmayer: Historische und moderne Nilstände: Historische und moderne Nilstände: Untersuchungen zu den Pegelablesungen des Nils von der Frühzeit bis in die Gegenwart. Achet, Berlin 2001, ISBN 3-9803730-8-8, page 87–89. ^ Peter Kaplony: Inschriften der ägyptischen Frühzeit. Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1963, Band III, ISBN 3-447-00052-X, page 406–479. v t e Second Dynasty of Ancient Egypt Attested pharaohs Hotepsekhemwy Nebra Weneg Nynetjer Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Khasekhemwy Obscure pharaoh names Horus Ba Ba Horus Sa Hudjefa I Neferkara I Neferkasokar Nubnefer Senedj Sneferka Wadjenes Queen consort Nimaathap Other royals Khenmetptah Satkhnum Sehener Shepset-ipet Wadjitefni (Mesen-ka) Pehen-Ptah Nisuheqet Nefer-Setekh Monument Gisr el-Mudir Capital Thinis v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sekhemib-Perenmaat&oldid=995690729" Categories: 28th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Second Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Català Deutsch Ελληνικά فارسی Français Hrvatski Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Tagalog Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 December 2020, at 10:39 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3204	----	Sehetepkare Intef - Wikipedia Sehetepkare Intef From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sehetepkare Intef Sehotepkare Intef, Intef IV, Intef V, Antef, Anyotef, Anjotef, Inyotef Cylinder seal bearing the cartouche of pharaoh Hetepkare, probably [Se]hetepkare Intef IV.[1][2] Pharaoh Reign less than 10 years, between 1759 BC and 1749 BC[3] or c. 1710 BC[4] (13th Dynasty) Predecessor Imyremeshaw Successor Seth Meribre Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sehetepkare S.ḥtp-k3-rˁ "He who pleases the Ka of Ra" Nomen Intef In-it.f "Intef" (lit. His father brought him) Turin canon ...ka... Intef k3-in-it.f Consort uncertain, possibly Queen Aya Sehetepkare Intef (also known as Intef IV or Intef V) was the twenty-third king of the 13th Dynasty during the Second intermediate period. Sehetepkare Intef reigned from Memphis for a short period, certainly less than ten years, between 1759 BC and 1749 BC or c. 1710 BC.[3][4] Attestations[edit] Sehetepkare Intef is attested in the Turin canon, entry 7.22 (Ryholt) or 6.22 (Alan Gardiner, Jürgen von Beckerath). The Turin canon places Sehetepkare Intef between Imyremeshaw and Seth Meribre. Intef is also attested on the Karnak king list.[3] Beyond these documents, Sehetepkare Intef is attested by the lower half of a seated statue from the temple complex of goddess Renenutet at Medinet Madi in the Faiyum.[5] The statue, JE 67834, is now in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo. Chronological position and reign length[edit] The exact chronological position of Sehetepkare Intef in the 13th Dynasty is not known for certain owing to uncertainties affecting earlier kings of the dynasty. Darrell Baker places him as the twenty-third king of the dynasty, Kim Ryholt as the twenty-fourth and Jürgen von Beckerath as the nineteenth. Furthermore, Ryholt believes Sehetepkare Intef was the fifth ruler bearing that name, making him Intef V, while Aidan Dodson, von Beckerath and Darrell Baker posit that he was Intef IV.[6][7] The length of his reign is lost in a lacuna of the papyrus and cannot be recovered, except for the end of the inscription which reads "...[and] 3 days".[7] Kim Ryholt gives ten years for the combined reigns of Imyremeshaw, Sehetepkare Intef and Seth Meribre. Another piece of evidence concerning the reign of Intef is found in the 13th Dynasty Papyrus Boulaq 18 which reports, among other things, the composition of a royal family comprising ten king's sisters, an unspecified number of king's brothers, three daughters of the king, a son named Redienef and a queen named Aya. Even though the king's name is lost in a lacuna, Ryholt's analysis of the papyrus only leaves Imyremeshaw and Sehetepkare Intef as possibilities.[3] This is significant because the papyrus reports a year 3 and a year 5 dates for this king. Additionally, a date "regnal year 5, 3rd month of Shemu, 18th day" is known from the unfinished pyramid complex neighboring that of Khendjer, which may thus have been built by the same ruler, a close successor of Khendjer, perhaps Intef.[3] The exact circumstances of the end of Intef's reign are unknown but the fact that his successor Seth Meribre did not use filiative nomina points to a non-royal birth. Consequently, Ryholt proposes that Seth Meribre usurped the throne.[3] References[edit] ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der Ägyptischen Königsnamen, 1999, p. 94 ^ Flinders Petrie:Scarabs and cylinders with names (1917), available copyright-free here, pl. XVIII, n. 13.DE. ^ a b c d e f K.S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800-1550 BC, (Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997), 342, File 13/24. ^ a b Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen ^ Vogliano, Achille (1942). Un'impresa archeologica milanese ai margini orientali del deserto libico. Milan: Regia Università, Istituto d'alta cultura., pls. IX-X ^ Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004. ^ a b Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008 Preceded by Imyremeshaw Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Seth Meribre v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sehetepkare_Intef&oldid=992663680" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages አማርኛ العربية Català Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 6 December 2020, at 13:21 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3222	----	Erich Schmidt (archaeologist) - Wikipedia Erich Schmidt (archaeologist) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the historian of literature, see Erich Schmidt (historian). Erich Friedrich Schmidt (September 13, 1897 – October 3, 1964) was a German and American-naturalized archaeologist, born in Baden-Baden. He specialized in Ancient Near East Archaeology, and became professor emeritus at the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. He was also a pioneer in using aerial photography in archaeological research. Contents 1 Biography 2 Notes 3 Works 4 External links Biography[edit] When he was young, his father died, and Erich was sent to the military school (Kadettenkorps) in Karlsruhe. He graduated in 1914 as a lieutenant in the German Army just as WWI started. He fought in the war with distinction, but then was seriously wounded in the fighting in Austrian Galicia in 1916.[1] After the battle, Schmidt was found by the Russians on the battle field, and spent the next four years in a prisoner-of-war camp. In 1920, he found his way home to Germany. There he learned that his mother and three siblings died in the meantime. Then he attended Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität (now Humboldt University of Berlin).[2] In 1923 he moved to U.S., and studied anthropology at Columbia University, where he was a student of Franz Boas. From December 1925 through January 1926, Schmidt conducted stratigraphic test excavations at Pueblo Grande and La Ciudad, two Hohokam sites that he later used for his dissertation. He was one of the pioneers of Hohokam studies. In 1927, James Henry Breasted of the Oriental Institute invited Schmidt to join the Anatolia-Hittite Expedition as an assistant archaeologist. He became co-director of the Oriental Institute Hittite Expedition, with H.H. Von der Osten, and later on dug in sites as Tepe Hissar near Damghan in searching for ancient city Hecatompylos, and Rey. His most celebrated survey took place in Persepolis (Iran), from 1934 up to 1939. Erich Schmidt was pioneer in aerial photography of archaeological sites, especially in Iran. In 1935, Schmidt had to approach Reza Shah Pahlavi directly for permission to fly over the country. After he obtained it, he made many flights and did a lot of mapping.[3] He was married twice, in 1934, to Mary-Helen Warden (who later died), and in 1943, to Lura Florence Strawn, with whom they had two children, Richard Roderick (the noted award-winning filmmaker) and Erika Lura. He died in Santa Barbara, California, in 1964; unfortunately, he was not able to complete many of his plans, and thus much of his excavation work remained unpublished.[4] Some of it was later re-investigated and published by other scholars.[5] Notes[edit] ^ He received the Iron Cross of Germany and the golden medal of Wurttemberg for his service. ^ Erich F. Schmidt - Biography - uchicago.edu ^ Manu P. Sobti and Sahar Hosseini, "Re-examining Persian Civitas: Networked Urbanities and Suburban Hinterlands in Erich Schmidt’s Flights". in Historiography of Persian Architecture, ed. Mohammad Gharipour, 2015 ^ Socio-Economic Transformations on the Tehran Plain dur.ac.uk ^ Ayşe Gürsan-Salzmann, The New Chronology of the Bronze Age Settlement of Tepe Hissar, Iran. University Museum Monograph 142, University of Pennsylvania Museum, 2016 Works[edit] Time-Relations of Prehistoric Pottery Types in Southern Arizona, Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History 30, no. 5 (1928) Anatolia Through the Ages: Discoveries at the Alishar Mound, 1927-1929 (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1931). Excavations at Tepe Hissar, Damghan (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1937). Flights Over Ancient Cities of Iran (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1940). Persepolis I: Structures, Reliefs, Inscriptions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,1953). Persepolis II: Contents of the Treasury and Other Discoveries (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957). Persepolis III: The Royal Tombs and Other Monuments (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970). The Treasury of Persepolis and Other Discoveries in the Homeland of the Achaemenians, OIC 21 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1939); External links[edit] Schmidt, Erich Friedrich, 1897-1964 snaccooperative.org The Persian Expedition 1930-1939, and [catalog of expedition photographs], at the Oriental Institute website, Biography and list of papers at the American Museum of Natural History Division of Anthropology Archives (archived); Current version Authority control BIBSYS: 4077285 BNF: cb12315659p (data) CiNii: DA02983644 GND: 133714780 ISNI: 0000 0000 8115 5725 LCCN: n82276039 NLA: 35798730 NTA: 154222879 SNAC: w6bk39d1 SUDOC: 067052843 Trove: 1092410 VcBA: 495/9826 VIAF: 36986035 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n82276039 v t e Persepolis Palace Tachara Gate of All Nations Other sections Tomb of Artaxerxes III builders Darius the Great Xerxes I Artaxerxes I of Persia Researchers Heidemarie Koch Erich Schmidt (archaeologist) Alireza Shapour Shahbazi Related Tangeh Bolaghi 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire Sivand Dam Persepolis Administrative Archives Waterskin Achaemenid architecture Category:Persepolis Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich_Schmidt_(archaeologist)&oldid=979846332" Categories: 1897 births 1964 deaths People from the Grand Duchy of Baden People from Baden-Baden German emigrants to the United States Iranologists University of Chicago faculty Naturalized citizens of the United States 20th-century American archaeologists Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Deutsch Español فارسی Français Italiano עברית مصرى Norsk bokmål Edit links This page was last edited on 23 September 2020, at 03:44 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3243	----	Ptolemaic Kingdom - Wikipedia Ptolemaic Kingdom From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Hellenistic kingdom in ancient Egypt from 305 to 30 BC This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (May 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Ptolemaic Kingdom Πτολεμαϊκὴ βασιλεία Ptolemaïkḕ basileía 305 BC – 30 BC Ptolemaic Egypt circa 235 BC. The green areas were lost to the Seleucid Empire thirty five years later. Capital Alexandria Common languages Greek (official) Egyptian (common) Religion Cult of Alexander the Great within Greco-Egyptian syncretism (official) Egyptian polytheism (common), Greek polytheism[1] Judaism Hermeticism Local beliefs Government Hellenistic monarchy Pharaoh   • 305–283 BC Ptolemy I Soter (first) • 51–30 BC Cleopatra VII (last) Historical era Classical antiquity • Established 305 BC  • Disestablished  30 BC Population • 150 BCE 4.9-7.5 million[2] Currency Greek Drachma Preceded by Succeeded by Macedonian Empire Late Period of ancient Egypt Roman Egypt Today part of Egypt Cyprus Palestine Israel Jordan Lebanon Libya Turkey Greece Part of a series on the History of Egypt Prehistoric Egypt pre–3150 BC Ancient Egypt Early Dynastic Period 3150–2686 BC Old Kingdom 2686–2181 BC 1st Intermediate Period 2181–2055 BC Middle Kingdom 2055–1650 BC 2nd Intermediate Period 1650–1550 BC New Kingdom 1550–1069 BC 3rd Intermediate Period 1069–664 BC Late Period 664–332 BC Greco-Roman Egypt Argead and Ptolemaic dynasties 332–30 BC Roman and Byzantine Egypt 30 BC–641 AD Sasanian Egypt 619–629 Medieval Egypt Rashidun Egypt 641–661 Umayyad Egypt 661–750 Abbasid Egypt 750–935 Tulunid dynasty 868–905 Ikhshidid dynasty 935–969 Fatimid dynasty 969–1171 Ayyubid dynasty 1171–1250 Mamluk dynasties 1250–1517 Early modern Egypt Ottoman Egypt 1517–1867 French occupation 1798–1801 Muhammad Ali dynasty 1805–1853 Khedivate of Egypt 1867–1914 Late Modern Egypt British occupation 1882–1922 Sultanate of Egypt 1914–1922 Kingdom of Egypt 1922–1953 Republic 1953–present  Egypt portal v t e The Ptolemaic Kingdom (/ˌtɒlɪˈmeɪ.ɪk/; Koinē Greek: Πτολεμαϊκὴ βασιλεία, romanized: Ptolemaïkḕ basileía)[4] was an ancient Hellenistic state based in Egypt. It was founded in 305 BC by Ptolemy I Soter, a companion of Alexander the Great, and lasted until the death of Cleopatra in 30 BC.[5] Ruling for nearly three centuries, the Ptolemies were the longest and final Egyptian dynasty of ancient origin. Alexander the Great conquered Persian-controlled Egypt in 332 BC during his campaigns against the Achaemenid Empire. After Alexander's death in 323 BC, his empire quickly unraveled amid competing claims by the diadochi, his closest friends and companions. Ptolemy, a Macedonian Greek who was one of Alexander's most trusted generals and confidants, won control of Egypt from his rivals and declared himself pharaoh.[Note 1][6][7] Alexandria, a Greek polis founded by Alexander, became the capital city and a major center of Greek culture, learning, and trade for the next several centuries. Following the Syrian Wars with the Seleucid Empire, a rival Hellenistic state, the Ptolemaic Kingdom stretched it's territories from eastern Libya to the Sinai and northern Nubia. To legitimize their rule and gain recognition from native Egyptians, the Ptolemies adopted the title of pharaoh and had themselves portrayed on public monuments in Egyptian style and dress; otherwise, the monarchy rigorously maintained its Hellenistic character and traditions.[5] The kingdom had a complex government bureaucracy that exploited the country's vast economic resources to the benefit of a Greek ruling class, which dominated military, political, and economic affairs, and which rarely integrated into Egyptian society and culture. Native Egyptians maintained power over local and religious institutions, and only gradually accrued power in the bureaucracy, provided they Hellenized.[8] Beginning with Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the Ptolemies began to adopt Egyptian customs, such as marrying their siblings per the Osiris myth, and participating in Egyptian religious life. New temples were built, older ones restored, and royal patronage lavished on the priesthood. From the mid third century, Ptolemaic Egypt was the wealthiest and most powerful of Alexander's successor states, and the leading example of Hellenistic civilization.[8] Beginning in the mid second century, dynastic strife and a series of foreign wars weakened the kingdom, and it became increasingly reliant on the Roman Republic. Under Cleopatra, who sought to restore Ptolemaic power, Egypt became entangled in a Roman civil war, which ultimately led to its conquest by Rome as the last independent Hellenistic state. Roman Egypt became one of Rome's richest provinces and a center of Hellenistic culture, with Greek remaining the main language of government until the Muslim conquest in 641 AD. Alexandria would remain one of the leading cities of the Mediterranean well into the late Middle Ages.[9] Contents 1 History 1.1 Background 1.2 Establishment 1.3 Rise 1.3.1 Ptolemy I 1.3.2 Ptolemy II 1.3.3 Ptolemy III Euergetes 1.4 Decline 1.4.1 Ptolemy IV 1.4.2 Ptolemy V Epiphanes and Ptolemy VI Philometor 1.5 Later Ptolemies 1.6 Final years 1.6.1 Cleopatra 1.6.2 Roman rule 2 Culture 2.1 Art 2.2 Religion 2.3 Society 2.4 Coinage 3 Military 3.1 Army 3.2 Navy 4 Cities 4.1 Naucratis 4.2 Alexandria 4.3 Ptolemais 5 Demographics 5.1 Jews 5.2 Arabs 6 Agriculture 7 List of Ptolemaic rulers 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Sources 12 Further reading 13 External links History[edit] The Ptolemaic reign in Egypt is one of the best-documented time periods of the Hellenistic era, due to the discovery of a wealth of papyri and ostraca written in Koine Greek and Egyptian.[10] Background[edit] Ptolemy as Pharaoh of Egypt, British Museum, London A bust depicting Pharaoh Ptolemy II Philadelphus 309–246 BC In 332 BC, Alexander the Great, King of Macedon, invaded Egypt, which at the time was a satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire known as the Thirty-first Dynasty under Emperor Artaxerxes III.[11] He visited Memphis, and traveled to the oracle of Amun at the Siwa Oasis. The oracle declared him to be the son of Amun. Alexander conciliated the Egyptians by the respect he showed for their religion, but he appointed Macedonians to virtually all the senior posts in the country, and founded a new Greek city, Alexandria, to be the new capital. The wealth of Egypt could now be harnessed for Alexander's conquest of the rest of the Achaemenid Empire. Early in 331 BC he was ready to depart, and led his forces away to Phoenicia. He left Cleomenes of Naucratis as the ruling nomarch to control Egypt in his absence. Alexander never returned to Egypt. Establishment[edit] Following Alexander's death in Babylon in 323 BC,[12] a succession crisis erupted among his generals. Initially, Perdiccas ruled the empire as regent for Alexander's half-brother Arrhidaeus, who became Philip III of Macedon, and then as regent for both Philip III and Alexander's infant son Alexander IV of Macedon, who had not been born at the time of his father's death. Perdiccas appointed Ptolemy, one of Alexander's closest companions, to be satrap of Egypt. Ptolemy ruled Egypt from 323 BC, nominally in the name of the joint kings Philip III and Alexander IV. However, as Alexander the Great's empire disintegrated, Ptolemy soon established himself as ruler in his own right. Ptolemy successfully defended Egypt against an invasion by Perdiccas in 321 BC, and consolidated his position in Egypt and the surrounding areas during the Wars of the Diadochi (322–301 BC). In 305 BC, Ptolemy took the title of King. As Ptolemy I Soter ("Saviour"), he founded the Ptolemaic dynasty that was to rule Egypt for nearly 300 years. All the male rulers of the dynasty took the name Ptolemy, while princesses and queens preferred the names Cleopatra, Arsinoë and Berenice. Because the Ptolemaic kings adopted the Egyptian custom of marrying their sisters, many of the kings ruled jointly with their spouses, who were also of the royal house. This custom made Ptolemaic politics confusingly incestuous, and the later Ptolemies were increasingly feeble. The only Ptolemaic Queens to officially rule on their own were Berenice III and Berenice IV. Cleopatra V did co-rule, but it was with another female, Berenice IV. Cleopatra VII officially co-ruled with Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator, Ptolemy XIV, and Ptolemy XV, but effectively, she ruled Egypt alone.[citation needed] The early Ptolemies did not disturb the religion or the customs of the Egyptians.[citation needed] They built magnificent new temples for the Egyptian gods and soon adopted the outward display of the pharaohs of old. During the reign of Ptolemies II and III, thousands of Macedonian veterans were rewarded with grants of farm lands, and Macedonians were planted in colonies and garrisons or settled themselves in villages throughout the country. Upper Egypt, farthest from the centre of government, was less immediately affected, even though Ptolemy I established the Greek colony of Ptolemais Hermiou to be its capital. But within a century, Greek influence had spread through the country and intermarriage had produced a large Greco-Egyptian educated class. Nevertheless, the Greeks always remained a privileged minority in Ptolemaic Egypt. They lived under Greek law, received a Greek education, were tried in Greek courts, and were citizens of Greek cities.[citation needed] Rise[edit] Ptolemy I[edit] Main article: Ptolemy I The first part of Ptolemy I's reign was dominated by the Wars of the Diadochi between the various successor states to the empire of Alexander. His first objective was to hold his position in Egypt securely, and secondly to increase his domain. Within a few years he had gained control of Libya, Coele-Syria (including Judea), and Cyprus. When Antigonus, ruler of Syria, tried to reunite Alexander's empire, Ptolemy joined the coalition against him. In 312 BC, allied with Seleucus, the ruler of Babylonia, he defeated Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, in the battle of Gaza. In 311 BC, a peace was concluded between the combatants, but in 309 BC war broke out again, and Ptolemy occupied Corinth and other parts of Greece, although he lost Cyprus after a naval battle in 306 BC. Antigonus then tried to invade Egypt but Ptolemy held the frontier against him. When the coalition was renewed against Antigonus in 302 BC, Ptolemy joined it, but neither he nor his army were present when Antigonus was defeated and killed at Ipsus. He had instead taken the opportunity to secure Coele-Syria and Palestine, in breach of the agreement assigning it to Seleucus, thereby setting the scene for the future Syrian Wars.[13] Thereafter Ptolemy tried to stay out of land wars, but he retook Cyprus in 295 BC. Feeling the kingdom was now secure, Ptolemy shared rule with his son Ptolemy II by Queen Berenice in 285 BC. He then may have devoted his retirement to writing a history of the campaigns of Alexander—which unfortunately was lost but was a principal source for the later work of Arrian. Ptolemy I died in 283 BC at the age of 84. He left a stable and well-governed kingdom to his son. Ptolemy II[edit] Main article: Ptolemy II Ptolemy II Philadelphus, who succeeded his father as pharaoh of Egypt in 283 BC,[14] was a peaceful and cultured pharaoh, though unlike his father was no great warrior. Fortunately, Ptolemy I had left Egypt strong and prosperous; three years of campaigning in the First Syrian War made the Ptolemies masters of the eastern Mediterranean, controlling the Aegean islands (the Nesiotic League) and the coastal districts of Cilicia, Pamphylia, Lycia and Caria. However, some of these territories were lost near the end of his reign as a result of the Second Syrian War. In the 270s BC, Ptolemy II defeated the Kingdom of Kush in war, gaining the Ptolemies free access to Kushite territory and control of important gold deposits south of Egypt known as Dodekasoinos.[15] As a result, the Ptolemies established hunting stations and ports as far south as Port Sudan, from where raiding parties containing hundreds of men searched for war elephants.[15] Hellenistic culture would acquire an important influence on Kush at this time.[15] Ptolemy II was an eager patron of scholarship, funding the expansion of the Library of Alexandria and patronising scientific research. Poets like Callimachus, Theocritus, Apollonius of Rhodes, Posidippus were provided with stipends and produced masterpieces of Hellenistic poetry, including panegyrics in honour of the Ptolemaic family. Other scholars operating under Ptolemy's aegis included the mathematician Euclid and the astronomer Aristarchus. Ptolemy is thought to have commissioned Manetho to compose his Aegyptiaca, an account of Egyptian history, perhaps intended to make Egyptian culture intelligible to its new rulers.[16] Ptolemy's first wife, Arsinoe I, daughter of Lysimachus, was the mother of his legitimate children. After her repudiation he followed Egyptian custom and married his sister, Arsinoe II, beginning a practice that, while pleasing to the Egyptian population, had serious consequences in later reigns. The material and literary splendour of the Alexandrian court was at its height under Ptolemy II. Callimachus, keeper of the Library of Alexandria, Theocritus, and a host of other poets, glorified the Ptolemaic family. Ptolemy himself was eager to increase the library and to patronise scientific research. He spent lavishly on making Alexandria the economic, artistic and intellectual capital of the Hellenistic world. The academies and libraries of Alexandria proved vital in preserving much Greek literary heritage. Ptolemy III Euergetes[edit] Main article: Ptolemy III Euergetes Coin depicting Pharaoh Ptolemy III Euergetes. Ptolemaic Kingdom. Ptolemy III Euergetes ("the Benefactor") succeeded his father in 246 BC. He abandoned his predecessors' policy of keeping out of the wars of the other Macedonian successor kingdoms, and plunged into the Third Syrian War (246-241 BC) with the Seleucid Empire of Syria, when his sister, Queen Berenice, and her son were murdered in a dynastic dispute. Ptolemy marched triumphantly into the heart of the Seleucid realm, as far as Babylonia, while his fleets in the Aegean Sea made fresh conquests as far north as Thrace. This victory marked the zenith of the Ptolemaic power. Seleucus II Callinicus kept his throne, but Egyptian fleets controlled most of the coasts of Anatolia and Greece. After this triumph Ptolemy no longer engaged actively in war, although he supported the enemies of Macedon in Greek politics. His domestic policy differed from his father's in that he patronised the native Egyptian religion more liberally: he left larger traces among the Egyptian monuments. In this his reign marks the gradual Egyptianisation of the Ptolemies. Ptolemy III continued his predecessor's sponsorship of scholarship and literature. The Great Library in the Musaeum was supplemented by a second library built in the Serapeum. He was said to have had every book unloaded in the Alexandria docks seized and copied, returning the copies to their owners and keeping the originals for the Library.[17] It is said that he borrowed the official manuscripts of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides from Athens and forfeited the considerable deposit he paid for them in order to keep them for the Library rather than returning them. The most distinguished scholar at Ptolemy III's court was the polymath and geographer Eratosthenes, most noted for his remarkably accurate calculation of the circumference of the world. Other prominent scholars include the mathematicians Conon of Samos and Apollonius of Perge.[16] Ptolemy III financed construction projects at temples across Egypt. The most significant of these was the Temple of Horus at Edfu, one of the masterpieces of ancient Egyptian temple architecture and now the best-preserved of all Egyptian temples. Ptolemy III initiated construction on it on 23 August 237 BC. Work continued for most of the Ptolemaic dynasty; the main temple was finished in the reign of his son, Ptolemy IV, in 212 BC, and the full complex was only completed in 142 BC, during the reign of Ptolemy VIII, while the reliefs on the great pylon were finished in the reign of Ptolemy XII. Decline[edit] Ptolemaic Empire in 200 BC, alongside neighboring powers. Ring of Ptolemy VI Philometor as Egyptian pharaoh. Louvre Museum. Ptolemy IV[edit] Main article: Ptolemy IV In 221 BC, Ptolemy III died and was succeeded by his son Ptolemy IV Philopator, a weak king whose rule precipitated the decline of the Ptolemaic Kingdom. His reign was inaugurated by the murder of his mother, and he was always under the influence of royal favourites, who controlled the government. Nevertheless, his ministers were able to make serious preparations to meet the attacks of Antiochus III the Great on Coele-Syria, and the great Egyptian victory of Raphia in 217 BC secured the kingdom. A sign of the domestic weakness of his reign was the rebellions by native Egyptians that took away over half the country for over 20 years. Philopator was devoted to orgiastic religions and to literature. He married his sister Arsinoë, but was ruled by his mistress Agathoclea. Like his predecessors, Ptolemy IV presented himself as a typical Egyptian Pharaoh and actively supported the Egyptian priestly elite through donations and temple construction. Ptolemy III had introduced an important innovation in 238 BC by holding a synod of all the priests of Egypt at Canopus. Ptolemy IV continued this tradition by holding his own synod at Memphis in 217 BC, after the victory celebrations of the Fourth Syrian War. The result of this synod was the Raphia Decree, issued on 15 November 217 BC and preserved in three copies. Like other Ptolemaic decrees, the decree was inscribed in hieroglyphs, Demotic, and Koine Greek. The decree records the military success of Ptolemy IV and Arsinoe III and their benefactions to the Egyptian priestly elite. Throughout, Ptolemy IV is presented as taking on the role of Horus who avenges his father by defeating the forces of disorder led by the god Set. In return, the priests undertook to erect a statue group in each of their temples, depicting the god of the temple presenting a sword of victory to Ptolemy IV and Arsinoe III. A five-day festival was inaugurated in honour of the Theoi Philopatores and their victory. The decree thus seems to represent a successful marriage of Egyptian Pharaonic ideology and religion with the Hellenistic Greek ideology of the victorious king and his ruler cult.[18] Ptolemy V Epiphanes and Ptolemy VI Philometor[edit] Main articles: Ptolemy V Epiphanes and Ptolemy VI Philometor A mosaic from Thmuis (Mendes), Egypt, created by the Hellenistic artist Sophilos (signature) in about 200 BC, now in the Greco-Roman Museum in Alexandria, Egypt; the woman depicted is Queen Berenice II (who ruled jointly with her husband Ptolemy III Euergetes) as the personification of Alexandria, with her crown showing a ship's prow, while she sports an anchor-shaped brooch for her robes, symbols of the Ptolemaic Kingdom's naval prowess and successes in the Mediterranean Sea.[19] Ptolemy V Epiphanes, son of Philopator and Arsinoë, was a child when he came to the throne, and a series of regents ran the kingdom. Antiochus III the Great of The Seleucid Empire and Philip V of Macedon made a compact to seize the Ptolemaic possessions. Philip seized several islands and places in Caria and Thrace, while the battle of Panium in 200 BC transferred Coele-Syria from Ptolemaic to Seleucid control. After this defeat Egypt formed an alliance with the rising power in the Mediterranean, Rome. Once he reached adulthood Epiphanes became a tyrant, before his early death in 180 BC. He was succeeded by his infant son Ptolemy VI Philometor. In 170 BC, Antiochus IV Epiphanes invaded Egypt and captured Philometor, installing him at Memphis as a puppet king. Philometor's younger brother (later Ptolemy VIII Physcon) was installed as king by the Ptolemaic court in Alexandria. When Antiochus withdrew, the brothers agreed to reign jointly with their sister Cleopatra II. They soon fell out, however, and quarrels between the two brothers allowed Rome to interfere and to steadily increase its influence in Egypt. Philometor eventually regained the throne. In 145 BC, he was killed in the Battle of Antioch. Throughout the 160s and 150s BC, Ptolemy VI has also reasserted Ptolemaic control over the northern part of Nubia. This achievement is heavily advertised at the Temple of Isis at Philae, which was granted the tax revenues of the Dodecaschoenus region in 157 BC. Decorations on the first pylon of the Temple of Isis at Philae emphasise the Ptolemaic claim to rule the whole of Nubia. The aforementioned inscription regarding the priests of Mandulis shows that some Nubian leaders at least were paying tribute to the Ptolemaic treasury in this period. In order to secure the region, the strategos of Upper Egypt, Boethus, founded two new cities, named Philometris and Cleopatra in honour of the royal couple.[20][21] Later Ptolemies[edit] After Ptolemy VI's death a series of civil wars and feuds between the members of the Ptolemaic dynasty started and would last for over a century. Philometor was succeeded by yet another infant, his son Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator. But Physcon soon returned, killed his young nephew, seized the throne and as Ptolemy VIII soon proved himself a cruel tyrant. On his death in 116 BC he left the kingdom to his wife Cleopatra III and her son Ptolemy IX Philometor Soter II. The young king was driven out by his mother in 107 BC, who reigned jointly with Euergetes's youngest son Ptolemy X Alexander I. In 88 BC Ptolemy IX again returned to the throne, and retained it until his death in 80 BC. He was succeeded by Ptolemy XI Alexander II, the son of Ptolemy X. He was lynched by the Alexandrian mob after murdering his stepmother, who was also his cousin, aunt and wife. These sordid dynastic quarrels left Egypt so weakened that the country became a de facto protectorate of Rome, which had by now absorbed most of the Greek world. Ptolemy XI was succeeded by a son of Ptolemy IX, Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos, nicknamed Auletes, the flute-player. By now Rome was the arbiter of Egyptian affairs, and annexed both Libya and Cyprus. In 58 BC Auletes was driven out by the Alexandrian mob, but the Romans restored him to power three years later. He died in 51 BC, leaving the kingdom to his ten-year-old son and seventeen-year-old daughter, Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator and Cleopatra VII, who reigned jointly as husband and wife. Final years[edit] Cleopatra[edit] Main article: Cleopatra VII Coin of Cleopatra VII, with her effigy[22] Cleopatra VII ascended the Egyptian throne at the age of seventeen upon the death of her father, Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos. She reigned as queen "philopator" and pharaoh with various male co-regents from 51 to 30 BC when she died at the age of 39. The demise of the Ptolemies' power coincided with the growing dominance of the Roman Republic. With one empire after another falling to Macedon and the Seleucid empire, the Ptolemies had little choice but to ally with the Romans, a pact that lasted over 150 years. By Cleopatra's time, Rome had achieved a massive amount of influence over Egyptian politics and finances to the point that the Roman senate was eventually declared the guardian of the Ptolemaic Dynasty by Cleopatra's father, Ptolemy XII, who had paid vast sums of Egyptian wealth and resources in tribute to the Romans in order to regain and secure his throne following the rebellion and brief coup led by his older daughters, Tryphaena and Berenice IV. Both daughters were killed in Auletes' reclaiming of his throne; Tryphaena by assassination and Berenice by execution, leaving Cleopatra VII as the oldest surviving child of Ptolemy Auletes. Traditionally, Ptolemaic royal siblings were married to one another on ascension to the throne. These marriages sometimes produced children, and other times were only a ceremonial union to consolidate political power. Ptolemy Auletes expressed his wish for Cleopatra and her brother Ptolemy XIII to marry and rule jointly in his will, in which the Roman senate was named as executor, giving Rome further control over the Ptolemies and, thereby, the fate of Egypt as a nation. Ptolemy XII, father of Cleopatra VII, making offerings to Egyptian Gods, in the Temple of Hathor, Dendera, Egypt After the death of their father, Cleopatra VII and her younger brother Ptolemy XIII inherited the throne and were married. Their marriage was only nominal, however, and their relationship soon degenerated. Cleopatra was finally stripped of authority and title by Ptolemy XIII's advisors, who held considerable influence over the young king. Fleeing into exile, Cleopatra would attempt to raise an army to reclaim the throne. Julius Caesar left Rome for Alexandria in 48 BC in order to quell the looming civil war, as war in Egypt, which was one of Rome's greatest suppliers of grain and other expensive goods, would have had a detrimental effect on trade with Rome, especially on Rome's working-class citizens. During his stay in the Alexandrian palace, he received 22-year-old Cleopatra, allegedly carried to him in secret wrapped in a carpet. Caesar agreed to support Cleopatra's claim to the throne. Ptolemy XIII and his advisors fled the palace, turning the Egyptian forces loyal to the throne against Caesar and Cleopatra, who barricaded themselves in the palace complex until Roman reinforcements could arrive to combat the rebellion, known afterward as the battles in Alexandria. Ptolemy XIII's forces were ultimately defeated at the Battle of the Nile and the king was killed in the conflict, reportedly drowning in the Nile while attempting to flee with his remaining army. Relief of Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra VII and Caesarion, Dendera Temple, Egypt. In the summer of 47 BC, having married her younger brother Ptolemy XIV, Cleopatra embarked with Caesar for a two-month trip along the Nile. Together, they visited Dendara, where Cleopatra was being worshiped as pharaoh, an honor beyond Caesar's reach. They became lovers, and she bore him a son, Caesarion. In 45 BC, Cleopatra and Caesarion left Alexandria for Rome, where they stayed in a palace built by Caesar in their honor. In 44 BC, Caesar was murdered in Rome by several Senators. With his death, Rome split between supporters of Mark Antony and Octavian. When Mark Antony seemed to prevail, Cleopatra supported him and, shortly after, they too became lovers and eventually married in Egypt (though their marriage was never recognized by Roman law, as Antony was married to a Roman woman). Their union produced three children; the twins Cleopatra Selene and Alexander Helios, and another son, Ptolemy Philadelphos. Mark Antony's alliance with Cleopatra angered Rome even more. Branded a power-hungry enchantress by the Romans, she was accused of seducing Antony to further her conquest of Rome. Further outrage followed at the donations of Alexandria ceremony in autumn of 34 BC in which Tarsus, Cyrene, Crete, Cyprus, and Judaea were all to be given as client monarchies to Antony's children by Cleopatra. In his will Antony expressed his desire to be buried in Alexandria, rather than taken to Rome in the event of his death, which Octavian used against Antony, sowing further dissent in the Roman populace. Left image: Cleopatra VII bust in the Altes Museum, Antikensammlung Berlin, Roman artwork, 1st century BC Right: bust of Cleopatra VII, dated 40–30 BC, Vatican Museums, showing her with a 'melon' hairstyle and Hellenistic royal diadem worn over her head Octavian was quick to declare war on Antony and Cleopatra while public opinion of Antony was low. Their naval forces met at Actium, where the forces of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa defeated the navy of Cleopatra and Antony. Octavian waited for a year before he claimed Egypt as a Roman province. He arrived in Alexandria and easily defeated Mark Antony's remaining forces outside the city. Facing certain death at the hands of Octavian, Antony attempted suicide by falling on his own sword, but survived briefly. He was taken by his remaining soldiers to Cleopatra, who had barricaded herself in her mausoleum, where he died soon after. Knowing that she would be taken to Rome to be paraded in Octavian's triumph (and likely executed thereafter), Cleopatra and her handmaidens committed suicide on 12 August 30 BC. Legend and numerous ancient sources claim that she died by way of the venomous bite of an asp, though others state that she used poison, or that Octavian ordered her death himself. Caesarion, her son by Julius Caesar, nominally succeeded Cleopatra until his capture and supposed execution in the weeks after his mother's death. Cleopatra's children by Antony were spared by Octavian and given to his sister (and Antony's Roman wife) Octavia Minor, to be raised in her household. No further mention is made of Cleopatra and Antony's sons in the known historical texts of that time, but their daughter Cleopatra Selene was eventually married through arrangement by Octavian into the Mauretanian royal line. Through her offspring, the Ptolemaic line intermarried back into the Roman nobility for centuries. With the deaths of Cleopatra and Caesarion, the dynasty of Ptolemies and the entirety of pharaonic Egypt came to an end. Alexandria remained the capital of the country, but Egypt itself became a Roman province. Octavian became the sole ruler of Rome and began converting it into a monarchy, the Roman Empire. Roman rule[edit] Main article: Aegyptus (Roman province) Bust of Roman Nobleman, c. 30 BC – 50 AD, 54.51, Brooklyn Museum Under Roman rule, Egypt was governed by a prefect selected by the emperor from the Equestrian class and not a governor from the Senatorial order, to prevent interference by the Roman Senate. The main Roman interest in Egypt was always the reliable delivery of grain to the city of Rome. To this end the Roman administration made no change to the Ptolemaic system of government, although Romans replaced Greeks in the highest offices. But Greeks continued to staff most of the administrative offices and Greek remained the language of government except at the highest levels. Unlike the Greeks, the Romans did not settle in Egypt in large numbers. Culture, education and civic life largely remained Greek throughout the Roman period. The Romans, like the Ptolemies, respected and protected Egyptian religion and customs, although the cult of the Roman state and of the Emperor was gradually introduced.[citation needed] Culture[edit] Ptolemaic mosaic of a dog and askos wine vessel from Hellenistic Egypt, dated 200-150 BC, Greco-Roman Museum of Alexandria, Egypt Ptolemy I, perhaps with advice from Demetrius of Phalerum, founded the Library of Alexandria,[23] a research centre located in the royal sector of the city. Its scholars were housed in the same sector and funded by Ptolemaic rulers.[23] The chief librarian served also as the crown prince's tutor.[24] For the first hundred and fifty years of its existence, the library drew the top Greek scholars from all over the Hellenistic world.[24] It was a key academic, literary and scientific centre in antiquity.[25] Greek culture had a long but minor presence in Egypt long before Alexander the Great founded the city of Alexandria. It began when Greek colonists, encouraged by many Pharaohs, set up the trading post of Naucratis. As Egypt came under foreign domination and decline, the Pharaohs depended on the Greeks as mercenaries and even advisors. When the Persians took over Egypt, Naucratis remained an important Greek port and the colonist population were used as mercenaries by both the rebel Egyptian princes and the Persian kings, who later gave them land grants, spreading Greek culture into the valley of the Nile. When Alexander the Great arrived, he established Alexandria on the site of the Persian fort of Rhakortis. Following Alexander's death, control passed into the hands of the Lagid (Ptolemaic) Dynasty; they built Greek cities across their empire and gave land grants across Egypt to the veterans of their many military conflicts. Hellenistic civilization continued to thrive even after Rome annexed Egypt after the battle of Actium and did not decline until the Islamic conquests. Head Attributed to Arsinoe II, depicted as an Egyptian divinity Marble Head of a Ptolemaic Queen Two depictions of Arsinoe II. The left is in the more traditional Egyptian style, and the right is in a more Hellenistic style. Art[edit] Ptolemaic art was produced during the reign of the Ptolemaic Rulers (304–30 BC), and was concentrated primarily within the bounds of the Ptolemaic Empire.[26][27] At first, artworks existed separately in either the Egyptian or the Hellenistic style, but over time, these characteristics began to combine. The continuation of the Egyptian art style evidences the Ptolemies' commitment to maintaining Egyptian customs. This strategy not only helped to legitimize their rule, but also placated the general population.[28] Greek-style art was also created during this time and existed in parallel to the more traditional Egyptian art, which could not be altered significantly without changing its intrinsic, primarily-religious function.[29] Art found outside of Egypt itself, though within the Ptolemaic Kingdom, sometimes used Egyptian iconography as it had been used previously, and sometimes adapted it.[30][31] Faience sistrum with head of Hathor with bovine ears from the reign of Ptolemy I.[32] Color is intermediate between traditional Egyptian color to colors more characteristic of Ptolemaic-era faience.[33] For example, the faience sistrum inscribed with the name of Ptolemy has some deceptively Greek characteristics, such as the scrolls at the top. However, there are many examples of nearly identical sistrums and columns dating all the way to Dynasty 18 in the New Kingdom. It is, therefore, purely Egyptian in style. Aside from the name of the king, there are other features that specifically date this to the Ptolemaic period. Most distinctively is the color of the faience. Apple green, deep blue, and lavender-blue are the three colors most frequently used during this period, a shift from the characteristic blue of the earlier kingdoms.[32] This sistrum appears to be an intermediate hue, which fits with its date at the beginning of the Ptolemaic empire. During the reign of Ptolemy II, Arsinoe II was deified either as stand-alone goddesses or as a personification of another divine figure and given their own sanctuaries and festivals in association to both Egyptian and Hellenistic gods (such as Isis of Egypt and Hera of Greece).[34] For example, Head Attributed to Arsinoe II deified her as an Egyptian goddess. However, the Marble head of a Ptolemaic queen deified Arsinoe II as Hera.[34] Coins from this period also show Arsinoe II with a diadem that is solely worn by goddesses and deified royal women.[35] Relief from the temple of Kom Ombo depicting Ptolemy VIII receiving the sed symbol from Horus.[36] The Statuette of Arsinoe II was created c. 150–100 BC, well after her death, as a part of her own specific posthumous cult which was started by her husband Ptolemy II. The figure also exemplifies the fusing of Greek and Egyptian art. Although the backpillar and the goddess's striding pose is distinctively Egyptian, the cornucopia she holds and her hairstyle are both Greek in style. The rounded eyes, prominent lips, and overall youthful features show Greek influence as well.[37] Temple of Kom Ombo constructed in Upper Egypt in 180–47 BC by the Ptolemies and modified by the Romans. It is a double temple with two sets of structures dedicated to two separate deities. Despite the unification of Greek and Egyptian elements in the intermediate Ptolemaic period, the Ptolemaic Kingdom also featured prominent temple construction as a continuation of developments based on Egyptian art tradition from the Thirtieth Dynasty.[38][39] Such behavior expanded the rulers' social and political capital and demonstrated their loyalty toward Egyptian deities, to the satisfaction of the local people.[40] Temples remained very New Kingdom and Late Period Egyptian in style though resources were oftentimes provided by foreign powers.[38] Temples were models of the cosmic world with basic plans retaining the pylon, open court, hypostyle halls, and dark and centrally located sanctuary.[38] However, ways of presenting text on columns and reliefs became formal and rigid during the Ptolemaic Dynasty. Scenes were often framed with textual inscriptions, with a higher text to image ratio than seen previously during the New Kingdom.[38] For example, a relief in the temple of Kom Ombo is separated from other scenes by two vertical columns of texts. The figures in the scenes are smooth, rounded, and high relief, a style continued throughout the 30th Dynasty. The relief represents the interaction between the Ptolemaic kings and the Egyptian deities, which legitimized their rule in Egypt .[36] In Ptolemaic art, the idealism seen in the art of previous dynasties continues, with some alterations. Women are portrayed as more youthful, and men begin to be portrayed in a range from idealistic to realistic.[18][25] An example of realistic portrayal is the Berlin Green Head, which shows the non-idealistic facial features with vertical lines above the bridge of the nose, lines at the corners of the eyes and between the nose and the mouth.[26] The influence of Greek art was shown in an emphasis on the face that was not previously present in Egyptian art and incorporation of Greek elements into an Egyptian setting: individualistic hairstyles, the oval face, “round [and] deeply set” eyes, and the small, tucked mouth closer to the nose.[27] Early portraits of the Ptolemies featured large and radiant eyes in association to the rulers’ divinity as well as general notions of abundance.[41] Gold coin with visage of Arsinoe II wearing divine diadem Religion[edit] When Ptolemy I Soter made himself king of Egypt, he created a new god, Serapis, to garner support from both Greeks and Egyptians. Serapis was the patron god of Ptolemaic Egypt, combining the Egyptian gods Apis and Osiris with the Greek deities Zeus, Hades, Asklepios, Dionysos, and Helios; he had powers over fertility, the sun, funerary rites, and medicine. His growth and popularity reflected a deliberate policy by the Ptolemaic state, and was characteristic of the dynasty's use of Egyptian religion to legitimize their rule and strengthen their control. The cult of Serapis included the worship of the new Ptolemaic line of pharaohs; the newly established Hellenistic capital of Alexandria supplanted Memphis as the preeminent religious city. Ptolemy I also promoted the cult of the deified Alexander, who became the state god of the Ptolemaic kingdom. Many rulers also promoted individual cults of personality, including celebrations at Egyptian temples. Because the monarchy remained staunchly Hellenistic, despite otherwise co-opting Egyptian faith traditions, religion during this period was highly syncretic. The wife of Ptolemy II, Arsinoe II, was often depicted in the form of the Greek goddess Aphrodite, but she wore the crown of lower Egypt, with ram's horns, ostrich feathers, and other traditional Egyptian indicators of royalty and/or deification; she wore the vulture headdress only on the religious portion of a relief. Cleopatra VII, the last of the Ptolemaic line, was often depicted with characteristics of the goddess Isis; she usually had either a small throne as her headdress or the more traditional sun disk between two horns.[42] Reflecting Greek preferences, the traditional table for offerings disappeared from reliefs during the Ptolemaic period, while male gods were no longer portrayed with tails, so as to make them more human-like in accordance with the Hellenistic tradition. Bronze allegorical group of a Ptolemy (identifiable by his diadem) overcoming an adversary, in Hellenistic style, ca early 2nd century BC (Walters Art Museum) Nevertheless, the Ptolemies remained generally supportive of the Egyptian religion, which always remained key to their legitimacy. Egyptian priests and other religious authorities enjoyed royal patronage and support, more or less retaining their historical privileged status. Temples remained the focal point of social, economic, and cultural life; the first three reigns of the dynasty were characterized by rigorous temple building, including the completion of projects left over from the previous dynasty; many older or neglected structures were restored or enhanced.[43] The Ptolemies generally adhered to traditional architectural styles and motifs. In many respects, the Egyptian religion thrived: temples became centers of learning and literature in the traditional Egyptian style.[43] The worship of Isis and Horus became more popular, as did the practice of offering animal mummies. Memphis, while no longer the center of power, became the second city after Alexandria, and enjoyed considerable influence; its High Priests of Ptah, an ancient Egyptian creator god, held considerable sway among the priesthood and even with the Ptolemaic kings. Saqqara, the city's necropolis, was a leading center of worship of Apis bull, which had become integrated into the national mythos. The Ptolemies also lavished attention on Hermopolis, the cult center of Thoth, building a Hellenistic-style temple in his honor. Thebes continued to be a major religious center and home to a powerful priesthood; it also enjoyed royal development, namely of the Karnak complex devoted to the Osiris and Khonsu. The city's temples and communities prosperous, while a new Ptolemaic style of cemeteries were built.[43] A common stele that appears during the Ptolemaic Dynasty is the cippus, a type of religious object produced for the purpose of protecting individuals. These magical stelae were made of various materials such as limestone, chlorite schist, and metagreywacke, and were connected with matters of health and safety. Cippi during the Ptolemaic Period generally featured the child form of the Egyptian god Horus, Horpakhered. This portrayal refers to the myth of Horus triumphing over dangerous animals in the marshes of Khemmis with magic power (also known as Akhmim).[44][45] Society[edit] Characteristic Indian etched carnelian bead, found in Ptolemaic Period excavations at Saft el Henna. This is a marker of trade relations with India. Petrie Museum. Ptolemaic Egypt was highly stratified in terms of both class and language. More than any previous foreign rulers, the Ptolemies retained or co-opted many aspects of the Egyptian social order, using Egyptian religion, traditions, and political structures to increase their own power and wealth. As before, peasant farmers remained the vast majority of the population, while agricultural land and produce were owned directly by the state, temple, or noble family that owned the land. Macedonians and other Greeks now formed the new upper classes, replacing the old native aristocracy. A complex state bureaucracy was established to manage and extract Egypt's vast wealth for the benefit of the Ptolemies and the landed gentry. Greeks held virtually all the political and economic power, while native Egyptians generally occupied only the lower posts; over time, Egyptians who spoke Greek were able to advance further and many individuals identified as "Greek" were of Egyptian descent. Eventually, a bilingual and bicultural social class emerged in Ptolemaic Egypt.[46] Priests and other religious officials remained overwhelmingly Egyptian, and continued to enjoy royal patronage and social prestige, as the Ptolemies' relied on the Egyptian faith to legitimize their rule and placate the populace. Although Egypt was a prosperous kingdom, with the Ptolemies lavishing patronage through religious monuments and public works, the native population enjoyed few benefits; wealth and power remained overwhelmingly in the hands of Greeks. Subsequently, uprising and social unrest were frequent, especially by the early third century BC. Egyptian nationalism reached a peak in the reign of Ptolemy IV Philopator (221–205 BC), when a succession of native self-proclaimed "pharoah" gained control over one district. This was only curtailed nineteen years later when Ptolemy V Epiphanes (205–181 BC) succeeded in subduing them, though underlying grievances were never extinguished, and riots erupted again later in the dynasty. Example of a large Ptolemaic bronze coin minted during the reign of Ptolemy V. Coinage[edit] Main article: Ptolemaic coinage Ptolemaic Egypt produced extensive series of coinage in gold, silver and bronze. These included issues of large coins in all three metals, most notably gold pentadrachm and octadrachm, and silver tetradrachm, decadrachm and pentakaidecadrachm.[citation needed] Military[edit] The military of Ptolemaic Egypt is considered to have been one of the best of the Hellenistic period, benefiting from the kingdom's vast resources and its ability to adapt to changing circumstances.[47] The Ptolemaic military initially served a defensive purpose, primarily against competing diadochi claimants and rival Hellenistic states like the Seleucid Empire. By the reign of Ptolemy III (246 to 222 BC), its role was more imperialistic, helping extend Ptolemaic control or influence over Cyrenaica, Coele-Syria, and Cyprus, as well as over cities in Anatolia, southern Thrace, the Aegean islands, and Crete. The military expanded and secured these territories while continuing its primary function of protecting Egypt; its main garrisons were in Alexandria, Pelusium in the Delta, and Elephantine in Upper Egypt. The Ptolemies also relied on the military to assert and maintain their control over Egypt, often by virtue of their presence. Soldiers served in several units of the royal guard and were mobilized against uprisings and dynastic usurpers, both of which became increasingly common. Members of the army, such as the machimoi (low ranking native soldiers) were sometimes recruited as guards for officials, or even to help enforce tax collection.[48] Army[edit] Main article: Ptolemaic army Hellenistic soldiers in tunic, 100 BC, detail of the Nile mosaic of Palestrina. The Ptolemies maintained a standing army throughout their reign, made up of both professional soldiers (including mercenaries) and recruits. From the very beginning the Ptolemaic army demonstrated considerable resourcefulness and adaptability. In his fight for control over Egypt, Ptolemy I had relied on a combination of imported Greek troops, mercenaries, native Egyptians, and even prisoners of war.[49] The army was characterized by its diversity and maintained records of its troops' national origins, or patris.[50] In addition to Egypt itself, soldiers were recruited from Macedonia, Cyrenaica (modern Libya), mainland Greece, the Aegean, Asia Minor, and Thrace; overseas territories were often garrisoned with local soldiers.[51] By the second and first centuries, increasing warfare and expansion, coupled with reduced Greek immigration, led to increasing reliance on native Egyptians; however, Greeks retained the higher ranks of royal guards, officers, and generals.[52] Though present in the military from its founding, native troops were sometimes looked down upon and distrusted due to their reputation for disloyalty and tendency to aid local revolts;[53] however, they were well regarded as fighters, and beginning with the reforms of Ptolemy V in the early third century, they appeared more frequently as officers and cavalrymen.[54] Egyptian soldiers also enjoyed a socioeconomic status higher than the average native.[55] To obtain reliable and loyal soldiers, the Ptolemies developed several strategies that leveraged their ample financial resources and even Egypt's historical reputation for wealth; royal propaganda could be evidenced in a line by the poet Theocritus, "Ptolemy is the best paymaster a free man could have".[56] Mercenaries were paid a salary (misthos) of cash and grain rations; an infantryman in the third century earned about one silver drachma daily. This attracted recruits from across the eastern Mediterranean, who were sometimes referred to misthophoroi xenoi — literally "foreigners paid with a salary". By the second and first century, misthophoroi were mainly recruited within Egypt, notably among the Egyptian population. Soldiers were also given land grants called kleroi, whose size varied according to the military rank and unit, as well as stathmoi, or residences, which were sometimes in the home of local inhabitants; men who settled in Egypt through these grants were known as cleruchs. At least from about 230 BC, these land grants were provided to machimoi, lower ranking infantry usually of Egyptian origin, who received smaller lots comparable to traditional land allotments in Egypt.[57] Kleroi grants could be extensive: a cavalryman could receive at least 70 arouras of land, equal to about 178,920 square metres, and as much as 100 arouras; infantrymen could expect 30 or 25 arouras and machimoi at least five auroras, considered enough for one family.[58] The lucrative nature of military service under the Ptolemies appeared to have been effective at ensuring loyalty. Few mutinies and revolts are recorded, and even rebellious troops would be placated with land grants and other incentives.[59] As in other Hellenistic states, the Ptolemaic army inherited the doctrines and organization of Macedonia, albeit with some variations over time.[60] The core of the army consisted of cavalry and infantry; as under Alexander, cavalry played a larger role both numerically and tactically, while the Macedonian phalanx served as the primary infantry formation. The multiethnic nature of the Ptolemaic army was an official organizational principle: soldiers were evidently trained and utilized based on their national origin; Cretans generally served as archers, Libyans as heavy infantry, and Thracians as cavalry.[61] Similarly, units were grouped and equipped based on ethnicity. Nevertheless, different nationalities were trained to fight together, and most officers were of Greek or Macedonian origin, which allowed for a degree of cohesion and coordination. Military leadership and the figure of the king and queen were central for ensuring unity and morale among multiethnic troops; at the battle of Raphai, the presence of Ptolemy was reportedly critical in maintaining and boosting the fighting spirit of both Greek and Egyptians soldiers.[62] Navy[edit] Main article: Ptolemaic navy The Ptolemaic Kingdom was considered a major naval power in the eastern Mediterranean.[63] Some modern historians characterize Egypt during this period as a thalassocracy, owing to its innovation of "traditional styles of Mediterranean sea power", which allowed its rulers to "exert power and influence in unprecedented ways".[64] With territories and vassals spread across the eastern Mediterranean, including Cyprus, Crete, the Aegean islands, and Thrace, the Ptolemies required a large navy to defend against enemies like the Seleucids and Macedonians.[65] The Ptolemaic navy also protected the kingdom's lucrative maritime trade and engaged in antipiracy measures, including along the Nile.[66] Like the army, the origins and traditions of the Ptolemaic navy were rooted in the wars following the death of Alexander in 320 BC. Various diadochi competed for naval supremacy over the Aegean and eastern Mediterranean,[67] and Ptolemy I founded the navy to help defend Egypt and consolidate his control against invading rivals.[68] He and his immediate successors turned to developing the navy to project power overseas, rather than build a land empire in Greece or Asia.[69] Notwithstanding an early crushing defeat at the Battle of Salamis in 306 BC, the Ptolemaic navy became the dominant maritime force in the Aegean and eastern Mediterranean for the next several decades. Ptolemy II maintained his father's policy of making Egypt the preeminent naval power in the region; during his reign (283 to 246 BC), the Ptolemaic navy became the largest in the Hellenistic world and had some of the largest warships ever built in antiquity.[70] The navy reached its height following the victory of Ptolemy II during the First Syrian War (274–271 BC), succeeding in repelling both Seleucid and Macedonian control of the eastern Mediterranean and the Aegean.[71] During the subsequent Chremonidean War, the Ptolemaic navy succeeded in blockading Macedonia and containing its imperial ambitions to mainland Greece.[72] Beginning with the Second Syrian War (260–253 BC), the navy suffered a series of defeats and declined in military importance, which coincided with the loss of Egypt's overseas possessions and the erosion of its maritime hegemony. The navy was relegated primarily to a protective and antipiracy role for the next two centuries, until its partial revival under Cleopatra VII, who sought to restore Ptolemaic naval supremacy amid the rise of Rome as a major Mediterranean power.[73] Egyptian naval forces took part in the decisive battle of Actium during the final war of the Roman Republic, but once again suffered a defeat that culminated with the end of Ptolemaic rule. At its apex under Ptolemy II, the Ptolemaic navy may have had as many as 336 warships,[74] with Ptolemy II reportedly having at his disposal more than 4,000 ships (including transports and allied vessels).[75] Maintaining a fleet of this size would have been costly, and reflected the vast wealth and resources of the kingdom.[76] The main naval bases were at Alexandria and Nea Paphos in Cyprus. The navy operated throughout the eastern Mediterranean, Aegean Sea, and Levantine Sea, and along the Nile, patrolling as far as the Red Sea towards the Indian Ocean.[77] Accordingly, naval forces were divided into four fleets: the Alexandrian,[78] Aegean,[79] Red Sea,[80] and Nile River.[81] Cities[edit] Detailed map of the Ptolemaic Egypt. Egyptian faience torso of a king, for an applique on wood While ruling Egypt, the Ptolemaic Dynasty built many Greek settlements throughout their Empire, to either Hellenize new conquered peoples or reinforce the area. Egypt had only three main Greek cities—Alexandria, Naucratis, and Ptolemais. Naucratis[edit] Of the three Greek cities, Naucratis, although its commercial importance was reduced with the founding of Alexandria, continued in a quiet way its life as a Greek city-state. During the interval between the death of Alexander and Ptolemy's assumption of the style of king, it even issued an autonomous coinage. And the number of Greek men of letters during the Ptolemaic and Roman period, who were citizens of Naucratis, proves that in the sphere of Hellenic culture Naucratis held to its traditions. Ptolemy II bestowed his care upon Naucratis. He built a large structure of limestone, about 100 metres (330 ft) long and 18 metres (59 ft) wide, to fill up the broken entrance to the great Temenos; he strengthened the great block of chambers in the Temenos, and re-established them. At the time when Sir Flinders Petrie wrote the words just quoted[citation needed] the great Temenos was identified with the Hellenion. But Mr. Edgar has recently pointed out that the building connected with it was an Egyptian temple, not a Greek building.[citation needed] Naucratis, therefore, in spite of its general Hellenic character, had an Egyptian element. That the city flourished in Ptolemaic times "we may see by the quantity of imported amphorae, of which the handles stamped at Rhodes and elsewhere are found so abundantly." The Zeno papyri show that it was the chief port of call on the inland voyage from Memphis to Alexandria, as well as a stopping-place on the land-route from Pelusium to the capital. It was attached, in the administrative system, to the Saïte nome. Alexandria[edit] Main article: Alexandria Alexander the Great, 356–323 BC Brooklyn Museum A major Mediterranean port of Egypt, in ancient times and still today, Alexandria was founded in 331 BC by Alexander the Great. According to Plutarch, the Alexandrians believed that Alexander the Great's motivation to build the city was his wish to "found a large and populous Greek city that should bear his name." Located 30 kilometres (19 mi) west of the Nile's westernmost mouth, the city was immune to the silt deposits that persistently choked harbors along the river. Alexandria became the capital of the Hellenized Egypt of King Ptolemy I (reigned 323–283 BC). Under the wealthy Ptolemaic Dynasty, the city soon surpassed Athens as the cultural center of the Hellenic world. Laid out on a grid pattern, Alexandria occupied a stretch of land between the sea to the north and Lake Mareotis to the south; a man-made causeway, over three-quarters of a mile long, extended north to the sheltering island of Pharos, thus forming a double harbor, east and west. On the east was the main harbor, called the Great Harbor; it faced the city's chief buildings, including the royal palace and the famous Library and Museum. At the Great Harbor's mouth, on an outcropping of Pharos, stood the lighthouse, built c. 280 BC. Now vanished, the lighthouse was reckoned as one of the Seven Wonders of the World for its unsurpassed height (perhaps 140 metres or 460 ft); it was a square, fenestrated tower, topped with a metal fire basket and a statue of Zeus the Savior. The Library, at that time the largest in the world, contained several hundred thousand volumes and housed and employed scholars and poets. A similar scholarly complex was the Museum (Mouseion, "hall of the Muses"). During Alexandria's brief literary golden period, c. 280–240 BC, the Library subsidized three poets—Callimachus, Apollonius of Rhodes, and Theocritus—whose work now represents the best of Hellenistic literature. Among other thinkers associated with the Library or other Alexandrian patronage were the mathematician Euclid (c. 300 BC), the inventor Archimedes (287 BC – c. 212 BC), and the polymath Eratosthenes (c. 225 BC).[82] Cosmopolitan and flourishing, Alexandria possessed a varied population of Greeks, Egyptians and other Oriental peoples, including a sizable minority of Jews, who had their own city quarter. Periodic conflicts occurred between Jews and ethnic Greeks. According to Strabo, Alexandria had been inhabited during Polybius' lifetime by local Egyptians, foreign mercenaries and the tribe of the Alexandrians, whose origin and customs Polybius identified as Greek. The city enjoyed a calm political history under the Ptolemies. It passed, with the rest of Egypt, into Roman hands in 30 BC, and became the second city of the Roman Empire. A detail of the Nile mosaic of Palestrina, showing Ptolemaic Egypt c. 100 BC Ptolemais[edit] Main article: Ptolemais Hermiou The second Greek city founded after the conquest of Egypt was Ptolemais, 400 miles (640 km) up the Nile, where there was a native village called Psoï, in the nome called after the ancient Egyptian city of Thinis. If Alexandria perpetuated the name and cult of the great Alexander, Ptolemais was to perpetuate the name and cult of the founder of the Ptolemaic time. Framed in by the barren hills of the Nile Valley and the Egyptian sky, here a Greek city arose, with its public buildings and temples and theatre, no doubt exhibiting the regular architectural forms associated with Greek culture, with a citizen-body Greek in blood, and the institutions of a Greek city. If there is some doubt whether Alexandria possessed a council and assembly, there is none in regard to Ptolemais. It was more possible for the kings to allow a measure of self-government to a people removed at that distance from the ordinary residence of the court. We have still, inscribed on stone, decrees passed in the assembly of the people of Ptolemais, couched in the regular forms of Greek political tradition: It seemed good to the boule and to the demos: Hermas son of Doreon, of the deme Megisteus, was the proposer: Whereas the prytaneis who were colleagues with Dionysius the son of Musaeus in the 8th year, etc. Demographics[edit] A stele of Dioskourides, dated 2nd century BC, showing a Ptolemaic thureophoros soldier. It is a characteristic example of the "Romanization" of the Ptolemaic army. The Ptolemaic Kingdom was diverse and cosmopolitan. Beginning under Ptolemy I Soter, Macedonians and other Greeks were given land grants and allowed to settle with their families, encouraging tens of thousands of Greek mercenaries and soldiers to immigrate where they became a landed class of royal soldiers.[83] Greeks soon became the dominant elite; native Egyptians, though always the majority, generally occupied lower posts in the Ptolemaic government. Over time, the Greeks in Egypt became somewhat homogenized and the cultural distinctions between immigrants from different regions of Greece became blurred.[84] Many Jews were imported from neighboring Judea by the thousands for being renowned fighters, also establishing an important community. Other foreign groups settled from across the ancient world, usually as cleruchs who had been granted land in exchange for military service. Of the many foreign groups who had come to settle in Egypt, the Greeks, were the most privileged. They were partly spread as allotment-holders over the country, forming social groups, in the country towns and villages, side by side with the native population, partly gathered in the three Greek cities, the old Naucratis, founded before 600 BC (in the interval of Egyptian independence after the expulsion of the Assyrians and before the coming of the Persians), and the two new cities, Alexandria by the sea, and Ptolemais in Upper Egypt. Alexander and his Seleucid successors founded many Greek cities all over their dominions. Greek culture was so much bound up with the life of the city-state that any king who wanted to present himself to the world as a genuine champion of Hellenism had to do something in this direction, but the king of Egypt, ambitious to shine as a Hellene, would find Greek cities, with their republican tradition and aspirations to independence, inconvenient elements in a country that lent itself, as no other did, to bureaucratic centralization. The Ptolemies therefore limited the number of Greek city-states in Egypt to Alexandria, Ptolemais, and Naucratis. Outside of Egypt, the Ptolemies exercised control over Greek cities in Cyrenaica, Cyprus, and on the coasts and islands of the Aegean, but they were smaller than Greek poleis in Egypt. There were indeed country towns with names such as Ptolemais, Arsinoe, and Berenice, in which Greek communities existed with a certain social life and there were similar groups of Greeks in many of the old Egyptian towns, but they were not communities with the political forms of a city-state. Yet if they had no place of political assembly, they often had their own gymnasium, the essential sign of Hellenism, serving something of the purpose of a university for the young men. Far up the Nile at Ombi a gymnasium of the local Greeks was found in 136–135 BC, which passed resolutions and corresponded with the king. Also, in 123 BC, when there was trouble in Upper Egypt between the towns of Crocodilopolis and Hermonthis, the negotiators sent from Crocodilopolis were the young men attached to the gymnasium, who, according to the Greek tradition, ate bread and salt with the negotiators from the other town. All the Greek dialects of the Greek world gradually became assimilated in the Koine Greek dialect that was the common language of the Hellenistic world. Generally, the Greeks of Ptolemaic Egypt felt like representatives of a higher civilization but were curious about the native culture of Egypt. Ptolemaic Era bust of a man, circa 300-250 BC, Altes Museum Jews[edit] The Jews who lived in Egypt had originally immigrated from the Southern Levant. The Jews absorbed Greek, the dominant language of Egypt at the time, and heavily mixed it with Hebrew.[85] The Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Jewish scriptures, appeared and was written by seventy Jewish Translators who were compelled to create the translation by Ptolemy II.[86] That is confirmed by historian Flavius Josephus, who writes that Ptolemy, desirous to collect every book in the habitable earth, applied Demetrius Phalereus to the task of organizing an effort with the Jewish high priests to translate the Jewish books of the Law for his library.[87] Josephus thus places the origins of the Septuagint in the 3rd century BC, when Demetrius and Ptolemy II lived. According to Jewish legend, the seventy wrote their translations independently from memory, and the resultant works were identical at every letter. Arabs[edit] In 1990, more than 2,000 papyri written by Zeno of Caunus from the time of Ptolemy II Philadelphus were discovered, which contained at least 19 references to Arabs in the area between the Nile and the Red Sea, and mentioned their jobs as police officers in charge of "ten person units", and some others were mentioned as shepherds.[88] Arabs in the Ptolemaic kingdom had provided camel convoys to the armies of some Ptolemaic leaders during their invasions, but they had allegiance to none of the kingdoms of Egypt or Syria, and they managed to raid and attack both sides of the conflict between the Ptolemaic Kingdom and its enemies.[89][90] Agriculture[edit] The early Ptolemies increased cultivatable land through irrigation and land reclamation. The Ptolemies drained the marshes of the Faiyum to create a new province of cultivatable land.[91] They also introduced crops such as durum wheat and intensified the production of goods such as wool. Wine production increased dramatically during the Ptolemaic period, as the new Greek ruling class greatly preferred wine to the beer traditionally produced in Egypt. Vines from regions like Crete were planted in Egypt in an attempt to produce Greek wines.[92] List of Ptolemaic rulers[edit] Main article: List of Ptolemaic rulers See also[edit] Ancient Greece portal Antipatrid dynasty Antigonid dynasty Cup of the Ptolemies Dryton and Apollonia Archive Greco-Bactrian Kingdom Greek and Roman Egypt Indo-Greeks Kingdom of Pontus Notes[edit] ^ Scholars also argue that the kingdom was founded in 304 BC because of different use of calendars: Ptolemy crowned himself in 304 BC on the ancient Egyptian calendar but in 305 BC on the ancient Macedonian calendar; to resolve the issue, the year 305/4 was counted as the first year of Ptolemaic Kingdom in Demotic papyri. References[edit] ^ North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods, 323 BC to AD 305, R. C. C. Law, The Cambridge History of Africa, Vol. 2 ed. J. D. Fage, Roland Anthony Oliver, (Cambridge University Press, 1979), 154. ^ Steven Snape (16 March 2019). "Estimating Population in Ancient Egypt". Retrieved 5 January 2021. ^ Buraselis, Stefanou and Thompson ed; The Ptolemies, the Sea and the Nile: Studies in Waterborne Power. ^ Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica, 18.21.9 ^ a b "Ancient Egypt - Macedonian and Ptolemaic Egypt (332–30 bce)". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-06-08. ^ Robins, Gay (2008). The Art of Ancient Egypt (Revised ed.). United States: Harvard University Press. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-674-03065-7. ^ Hölbl, Günther (2001). A History of the Ptolemaic Empire. UK, USA, Canada: Routledge. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-415-23489-4. ^ a b "Ancient Egypt - Macedonian and Ptolemaic Egypt (332–30 bce)". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-06-08. ^ Bagnall, Director of the Institute for the Study of the Ancient World Roger S. (2004). Egypt from Alexander to the Early Christians: An Archaeological and Historical Guide. Getty Publications. pp. 11–21. ISBN 978-0-89236-796-2. ^ Lewis, Naphtali (1986). Greeks in Ptolemaic Egypt: Case Studies in the Social History of the Hellenistic World. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 5. ISBN 0-19-814867-4. ^ Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. "The Achaemenid Persian Empire (550–330 B.C.)". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/acha/hd_acha.htm (October 2004) Source: The Achaemenid Persian Empire (550–330 B.C.) | Thematic Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art ^ Hemingway, Colette, and Seán Hemingway. "The Rise of Macedonia and the Conquests of Alexander the Great". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/alex/hd_alex.htm (October 2004) Source: The Rise of Macedonia and the Conquests of Alexander the Great | Thematic Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art ^ Grabbe 2008, p. 268: In a treaty of 301, this region was assigned to Seleucus; however, Ptolemy had just seized it and refused to return it. Because Ptolemy had been very helpful to Seleucus in the past, the latter did not press his claim, but the Seleucid empire continued to regard the region as rightfully theirs. The result was the series of Syrian Wars in which the Seleucids attempted to take the territory back. ^ Ptolemy II Philadelphus [308-246 BC. Mahlon H. Smith. Retrieved 2010-06-13. ^ a b c Burstein (2007), p. 7 ^ a b Hölbl 2001, pp. 63–65 ^ Galen Commentary on the Epidemics 3.17.1.606 ^ Hölbl 2001, pp. 162–4 ^ Fletcher 2008, pp. 246–247, image plates and captions ^ Török, László (2009). Between Two Worlds: The Frontier Region Between Ancient Nubia and Egypt, 3700 BC-AD 500. Leiden, New York, Köln: Brill. pp. 400–404. ISBN 978-90-04-17197-8. ^ Grainger 2010, p. 325 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGrainger2010 (help) ^ Cleopatra: A Life ^ a b Peters (1970), p. 193 ^ a b Peters (1970), p. 194 ^ Peters (1970), p. 195f ^ Gay., Robins (2008). The art of ancient Egypt (Rev. ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 10, 231. ISBN 9780674030657. OCLC 191732570. ^ Lloyd, Alan (2003). Shaw, Ian (ed.). The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. pp. 393. ISBN 978-0-19-280458-7. ^ Manning, J.G. (2010). The Historical Understanding of the Ptolemaic State. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 34–35. ^ Malek, Jaromir (1999). Egyptian Art. London: Phaidon Press Limited. p. 384. ^ "Bronze statuette of Horus | Egyptian, Ptolemaic | Hellenistic | The Met". The Metropolitan Museum of Art, i.e. The Met Museum. Retrieved 2018-04-17. ^ "Faience amulet of Mut with double crown | Egyptian, Ptolemaic | Hellenistic | The Met". The Metropolitan Museum of Art, i.e. The Met Museum. Retrieved 2018-04-17. ^ a b Thomas, Ross. "Ptolemaic and Roman Faience Vessels" (PDF). The British Museum. Retrieved April 12, 2018. ^ Thomas, Ross. "Ptolemaic and Roman Faience Vessels" (PDF). The British Museum. Retrieved April 12, 2018. ^ a b "Marble head of a Ptolemaic queen | Greek | Hellenistic | The Met". The Metropolitan Museum of Art, i.e. The Met Museum. Retrieved 2018-04-12. ^ Pomeroy, Sarah (1990). Women in Hellenistic Egypt: From Alexander to Cleopatra. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. p. 29. ^ a b Gay., Robins (2008). The art of ancient Egypt (Rev. ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 236. ISBN 9780674030657. OCLC 191732570. ^ "Statuette of Arsinoe II for her Posthumous Cult | Ptolemaic Period | The Met". The Metropolitan Museum of Art, i.e. The Met Museum. Retrieved 2018-04-24. ^ a b c d Gay., Robins (2008). The art of ancient Egypt (Rev. ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674030657. OCLC 191732570. ^ Rosalie, David (1993). Discovering Ancient Egyptology. p. 99. ^ Fischer-Bovet, Christelle. "Army and Egyptian Temple Building Under the Ptolemies" (PDF). Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ 1941-, Török, László (2011). Hellenizing art in ancient Nubia, 300 BC-AD 250, and its Egyptian models : a study in "acculturation". Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-9004211285. OCLC 744946342.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) ^ Antiquities Experts. "Egyptian Art During the Ptolemaic Period of Egyptian History". Antiquities Experts. Retrieved 17 June 2014. ^ a b c Hill, Marsha. “Egypt in the Ptolemaic Period.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ptol/hd_ptol.htm (October 2016) ^ Gay., Robins (2008). The art of ancient Egypt (Rev. ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 244. ISBN 9780674030657. OCLC 191732570. ^ Seele, Keith C. (1947). "Horus on the Crocodiles". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 6 (1): 43–52. doi:10.1086/370811. JSTOR 542233. S2CID 161676438. ^ Bingen, Jean (2007). Hellenistic Egypt: Monarchy, Society, Economy, Culture. University of California Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-520-25141-0. ^ Fischer-Bovet, Christelle (2015-03-04). "The Ptolemaic Army". Oxford Handbooks Online. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935390.001.0001 (inactive 2021-01-14). Retrieved 2020-06-08.CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2021 (link) ^ Christelle Fischer-Bovet, “Egyptian Warriors: The Machimoi of Herodotus and the Ptolemaic Army,” Classical Quarterly 63 (2013): 209–236, 222–223; P.Tebt. I 121, with Andrew Monson, “Late Ptolemaic Capitation Taxes and the Poll Tax in Roman Egypt,” Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrologists 51 (2014): 127–160, 134. ^ Fischer-Bovet, Christelle (2015-03-04). "The Ptolemaic Army". Oxford Handbooks Online. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935390.001.0001 (inactive 2021-01-14). Retrieved 2020-06-08.CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2021 (link) ^ Sean Lesquier, Les institutions militaires de l’Egypte sous les Lagides (Paris: Ernest Leroux, 1911); ^ Roger S. Bagnall, “The Origins of Ptolemaic Cleruchs,” Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrology 21 (1984): 7–20, 16–18 ^ Fischer-Bovet, Christelle (2015-03-04). "The Ptolemaic Army". Oxford Handbooks Online. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935390.001.0001 (inactive 2021-01-14). Retrieved 2020-06-08.CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2021 (link) ^ Heinz Heinen, Heer und Gesellschaft im Ptolemäerreich, in Vom hellenistischen Osten zum römischen Westen: Ausgewählte Schriften zur Alten Geschichte. Steiner, Stuttgart 2006, ISBN 3-515-08740-0, pp. 61–84 ^ Crawford, Kerkeosiris, Table IV, 155–159; Edmond Van ‘t Dack, “Sur l’évolution des institutions militaires lagides,” in Armées et fiscalité dans le monde antique. Actes du colloque national, Paris, 14–16 octobre 1976 (Paris: Editions du Centre national de la recherche scientifique, 1977): 87 and note 1. ^ Christelle Fischer-Bovet (2013), "Egyptian warriors: the Machimoi of Herodotus and the Ptolemaic Army". The Classical Quarterly 63 (01), p. 225, doi:10.1017/S000983881200064X ^ Fischer-Bovet, Christelle (2015-03-04). "The Ptolemaic Army". Oxford Handbooks Online. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935390.001.0001 (inactive 2021-01-14). Retrieved 2020-06-08.CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2021 (link) ^ Fischer-Bovet, Christelle (2015-03-04). "The Ptolemaic Army". Oxford Handbooks Online. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935390.001.0001 (inactive 2021-01-14). Retrieved 2020-06-08.CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2021 (link) ^ Dorothy J. Crawford, Kerkeosiris: An Egyptian village in the Ptolemaic period (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971) estimated that a family could live on 5 arouras; see P.Tebt. I 56 (Kerkeosiris, late second century BC). ^ Michel M. Austin, The Hellenistic World from Alexander to the Roman Conquest: A Selection of Ancient Sources in Translation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006) #283, l. 20. ^ Nick Sekunda, “Military Forces. A. Land Forces,” in The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007) ^ Fischer-Bovet, Christelle (2015-03-04). "The Ptolemaic Army". Oxford Handbooks Online. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935390.001.0001 (inactive 2021-01-14). Retrieved 2020-06-08.CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2021 (link) ^ Fischer-Bovet, Christelle (2015-03-04). "The Ptolemaic Army". Oxford Handbooks Online. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935390.001.0001 (inactive 2021-01-14). Retrieved 2020-06-08.CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2021 (link) ^ Arthur MacCartney Shepard, Sea Power in Ancient History: The Story of the Navies of Classic Greece and Rome (Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., 1924), 128. ^ James Harrison McKinney, Novel Ptolemaic naval power: Arsinoë II, Ptolemy II, and Cleopatra VII’s innovative thalassocracies, Whitman College, p. 2. https://arminda.whitman.edu/theses/415 ^ Thucydides, The History of the Peloponnesian War, 5.34.6-7 & 9. ^ The Ptolemies, the Sea and the Nile: Studies in Waterborne Power, edited by Kostas Buraselis, Mary Stefanou, Dorothy J. Thompson, Cambridge University Press, pp. 12-13. ^ Robinson. pp.79-94. ^ Gera, Dov (1998). Judaea and Mediterranean Politics: 219 to 161 B.C.E. Leiden, Netherlands.: BRILL. p. 211. ISBN 9789004094413. ^ Robinson. pp.79-94. ^ Robinson, Carlos. Francis. (2019). "Queen Arsinoë II, the Maritime Aphrodite and Early Ptolemaic Ruler Cult". Chapter: Naval Power, the Ptolemies and the Maritime Aphrodite. pp.79-94. A thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Philosophy. University of Queensland, Australia. ^ Muhs, Brian (2 August 2016). "7:The Ptolemaic Period (332–30 BCE)". The Ancient Egyptian economy, 3000-30 BCE. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107113367. ^ Rickard. ^ James Harrison McKinney, Novel Ptolemaic naval power: Arsinoë II, Ptolemy II, and Cleopatra VII’s innovative thalassocracies, Whitman College, p. 75. ^ Muhs. ^ Muhs. ^ Muhs. ^ Fischer-Bovet, Christelle (2014). Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 58–59. ISBN 9781107007758. ^ Muhs, Brian (2 August 2016). "7:The Ptolemaic Period (332–30 BCE)". The Ancient Egyptian economy, 3000-30 BCE. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107113367. ^ Constantakopoulou, Christy (2017). Aegean Interactions: Delos and Its Networks in the Third Century. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. p. 48. ISBN 9780198787273. ^ Sidebotham, Steven E. (2019). Berenike and the Ancient Maritime Spice Route. Berkeley, California, United States.: University of California Press. p. 52. ISBN 9780520303386. ^ Kruse, Thomas (2013). "The Nile Police in the Ptolemaic Period", in: K. Buraselis – M. Stefanou – D.J. Thompson (Hg.), The Ptolemies, the Sea and the Nile. Studies in Waterborne Power, Cambridge 2013, 172-184". academia.edu. Cambridge University Press. pp. 172–185. Retrieved 19 October 2019. ^ Phillips, Heather A., "The Great Library of Alexandria?". Library Philosophy and Practice, August 2010 Archived 2012-07-26 at WebCite ^ Clarysse, Willy; Thompson, Dorothy J. (2006-06-12). Counting the People in Hellenistic Egypt: Volume 2, Historical Studies. Cambridge University Press. p. 140. ISBN 978-0-521-83839-9. ^ Chauveau, Michel. (2000). Egypt in the age of Cleopatra : history and society under the Ptolemies. Cornell University Press. p. 34. ISBN 0-8014-3597-8. OCLC 42578681. ^ Solomon Grayzel "A History of the Jews" p. 56 ^ Solomon Grayzel "A History of the Jews" pp. 56-57 ^ Flavius Josephus "Antiquities of the Jews" Book 12 Ch. 2 ^ Arabs in Antiquity: Their History from the Assyrians to the Umayyads, Prof. Jan Retso, Page: 301 ^ A History of the Arabs in the Sudan: The inhabitants of the northern Sudan before the time of the Islamic invasions. The progress of the Arab tribes through Egypt. The Arab tribes of the Sudan at the present day, Sir Harold Alfred MacMichael, Cambridge University Press, 1922, Page: 7 ^ History of Egypt, Sir John Pentland Mahaffy, p. 20-21 ^ King, Arienne (2018-07-25). "The Economy of Ptolemaic Egypt". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2020-06-24. ^ von Reden, Sitta (2006). "The Ancient Economy and Ptolemaic Egypt". Ancient Economies, Modern Methodologies. Volume 12 of Pragmateiai Series. Edipuglia. pp. 161–177. Sources[edit] Burstein, Stanley Meyer (December 1, 2007). The Reign of Cleopatra. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0806138718. Retrieved April 6, 2015. Fletcher, Joann (2008), Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend, New York: Harper, ISBN 978-0-06-058558-7. Peters, F. E. (1970). The Harvest of Hellenism. New York: Simon & Schuster. Grabbe, L. L. (2008). A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period. Volume 2 – The Coming of the Greeks: The Early Hellenistic Period (335 – 175 BC). T&T Clark. ISBN 978-0-567-03396-3. Further reading[edit] Bingen, Jean. Hellenistic Egypt. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7486-1578-4; paperback, ISBN 0-7486-1579-2). Hellenistic Egypt: Monarchy, Society, Economy, Culture. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007 (hardcover, ISBN 0-520-25141-5; paperback, ISBN 0-520-25142-3). Bowman, Alan Keir. 1996. Egypt After the Pharaohs: 332 BC–AD 642; From Alexander to the Arab Conquest. 2nd ed. Berkeley: University of California Press Chauveau, Michel. 2000. Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra: History and Society under the Ptolemies. Translated by David Lorton. Ithaca: Cornell University Press Ellis, Simon P. 1992. Graeco-Roman Egypt. Shire Egyptology 17, ser. ed. Barbara G. Adams. Aylesbury: Shire Publications, ltd. Hölbl, Günther. 2001. A History of the Ptolemaic Empire. Translated by Tina Saavedra. London: Routledge Ltd. Lloyd, Alan Brian. 2000. "The Ptolemaic Period (332–30 BC)". In The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 395–421 Susan Stephens, Seeing Double. Intercultural Poetics in Ptolemaic Alexandria (Berkeley, 2002). A. Lampela, Rome and the Ptolemies of Egypt. The development of their political relations 273-80 B.C. (Helsinki, 1998). J. G. Manning, The Last Pharaohs: Egypt Under the Ptolemies, 305-30 BC (Princeton, 2009). External links[edit] Library resources about Ptolemaic Kingdom Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Map of Ptolemaic Egypt, circa 270 BC v t e The division of Alexander's empire v t e Hellenistic rulers Argeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Kings of Cyrene Magas Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Kings of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Kings of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Kings of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Kings of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus Kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon (regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces Asander with Dynamis Mithridates II Asander with Dynamis Scribonius’ attempted rule with Dynamis Dynamis with Polemon Polemon with Pythodorida Aspurgus Mithridates III with Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories. v t e Empires Ancient (Colonies) Akkadian Neo-Sumerian Assyrian Old Assyrian Middle Assyrian Neo-Assyrian Babylonian Old Babylonian Kassite Neo-Babylonian Egyptian Old Kingdom Middle Kingdom New Kingdom Phoenician Carthaginian Chinese Shang Qin Han Three Kingdoms Jin North 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en-wikipedia-org-3271	----	Wikipedia:Citation needed - Wikipedia Wikipedia:Citation needed From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia information page This is an information page. It is not one of Wikipedia's policies or guidelines, but rather intends to describe some aspect(s) of Wikipedia:Verifiability policy. It may reflect varying levels of consensus and vetting. Shortcut WP:CITENEED A complete version of the documentation for this template is provided at Template:Citation needed. If you are new to editing and instead just need a general overview of how sources work, please visit the referencing for beginners help page. The {{Citation needed}} template aims to promote accountable discourse. To ensure that all Wikipedia content is verifiable, anyone may question an uncited claim. If your work has been tagged, please provide a reliable source for the statement, and discuss if needed. 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Contents 1 When to use this tag 2 When not to use this tag 3 If your work has been tagged 4 How to help reduce the backlog 5 See also 6 External links When to use this tag A "citation needed" tag is a request for another editor to verify a statement: a form of communication between members of a collaborative editing community. It is never, in itself, an "improvement" of an article. Though readers may be alerted by a "citation needed" that a particular statement is not supported, many readers don't fully understand the community's processes. Not all tags get addressed in a timely manner, staying in place for months or years, forming an ever growing Wikipedia backlog—this itself can be a problem. Best practice recommends the following: Tag thoughtfully. Avoid "hit-and-run" or pointed tagging. Try to be courteous and consider the hypothetical fellow-editor who will, we hope, notice your tag and try to find the citation you have requested. 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The most constructive thing to do in most cases is probably to supply the reference(s) requested, even if you feel the tags are "overdone" or unnecessary. How to help reduce the backlog Currently, there are over 419,512 articles with "Citation needed" statements. You can browse the whole list of these articles at Category:All articles with unsourced statements. Frequently the authors of statements do not return to Wikipedia to support the statement with citations, so other Wikipedia editors have to do work checking those statements. With 419,512 statements that need WP:Verification, sometimes it's hard to choose which article to work on. The tool Citation Hunt makes that easier by suggesting random articles, which you can sort by topical category membership. I can help! Give me a random citation to find! 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en-wikipedia-org-3273	----	Artabazos II - Wikipedia Artabazos II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 4th-century BC Persian satrap Artabazos II Portrait of Artabazos II, from his gold coinage (fl. 389 – 328 BC). Allegiance Achaemenid Empire Years of service fl. 389 – 328 BC Rank Satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia Satrap of Bactria (under Alexander the Great) Battles/wars Great Satraps' Revolt Children Pharnabazus Artabazos II was Satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia, and ruled from its capital Daskyleion. Coin of Artabazos. Satrap of Dascylium, Lampsakos, Mysia, circa 356 BC Pharnacid dynasty (Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia) c.550–497 BC (Pharnaces) c.480–455 BC Artabazus I c.455–430 BC Pharnabazus I c.430–420 BC Pharnaces II c.413–374 BC Pharnabazus II c.407–362 BC Ariobarzanes c.389–329 BC Artabazus II c.370–320 BC Pharnabazus III v t e Artabazos II (in Greek Αρτάβαζος) (fl. 389 – 328 BC) was a Persian general and satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia. He was the son of the Persian satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia Pharnabazus II, and younger kinsman (most probably nephew) of Ariobarzanes of Phrygia who revolted against Artaxerxes II around 356 BC. His first wife was an unnamed Greek woman from Rhodes, sister of the two mercenaries Mentor of Rhodes and Memnon of Rhodes.[1] Towards the end of his life, he became satrap of Bactria for Alexander the Great. Contents 1 Revolt of Datames 2 Rebellion against Artaxerxes III 2.1 Exile in Macedonia at the court of Philip II (352–342 BC) 3 Return to Persia 3.1 Hellenistic satrap of Bactria 4 Family 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links Revolt of Datames[edit] In 362 BC, Artabazos was sent by Artaxerxes II to capture Datames, the satrap of Cappadocia, who had joined in the Satraps' revolt to which participated Artabazus' brother, Ariobarzanes. However, Artabazos was defeated by Datames.[2] Artaxerxes II ultimately prevailed, and Ariobarzanes was crucified and Datames assassinated. Rebellion against Artaxerxes III[edit] Following the capture and death of his brother, Artabazos was made satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia, but in 356 BC he refused obedience to the new Persian king, Artaxerxes III. Artaxerxes had ordered the disbanding of all the satrapal armies of Asia Minor, as he felt that they could no longer guarantee peace in the west and was concerned that these armies equipped the western satraps with the means to revolt.[3] The order was ignored by Artabazus, who asked for the help of Athens in a rebellion against the king. Artabazos then became involved in a revolt against the king and against other satraps who acknowledged the authority of Artaxerxes III. Artabazos was at first supported by Chares, an Athenian general, and his mercenaries, whom he rewarded very generously. The gold coinage of Artabazos is thought to have been issued specifically to reward the troops of Chares.[4] The Satrap of Mysia, Orontes I, was also on his side. Later, Artabazos was also supported by the Thebans, who sent him 5,000 men under Pammenes. With the assistance of these and other allies, Artabazos defeated the King in two great battles. However, Artaxerxes III was later able to deprive Artabazos of his Athenian and Boeotian allies by counter-bribing them, whereupon Artabazos was defeated by the king's general, Autophradates, and was taken prisoner. Mentor and Memnon, two brothers-in-law of Artabazos, who had supported him, still continued the revolt, as they were aided by the Athenian mercenary leader, Charidemus. Together they were able to free Artabazos. Exile in Macedonia at the court of Philip II (352–342 BC)[edit] After this, Artabazos seems either to have continued his rebellious operations or at least started a fresh revolt. However, eventually, he had no choice but to flee with Memnon and his family. They went into exile and took refuge at the court of Philip II of Macedonia in Pella, together with their 11 sons and 10 daughters.[5] Artabazos, who was 37, and his family were exiled at the court of Philip II for about ten years, from 352 to 342, and during that time Artabazos became acquainted with the future Alexander the Great.[6][7] Barsine, daughter of Artabazos, and future wife of Alexander, grew up at the Macedonian court.[7] Return to Persia[edit] During the absence of Artabazos, Mentor of Rhodes, his brother-in-law, was of great service to the king of Persia in his war against Nectanebo II of Egypt. After the close of this war, in the summer of 342 BC, Artaxerxes gave Mentor the command against the rebellious satraps of western Asia. Mentor took advantage of this opportunity to ask the king to grant a pardon to Artabazos and Memnon. The king agreed and both men and their families were able to return to Persia.[8] In the subsequent reign of Darius III Codomannus, Artabazos distinguished himself by his loyalty and commitment to the new Persian king. He took part in the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC, and afterwards accompanied Darius on his flight from Alexander's Macedonian armies. Hellenistic satrap of Bactria[edit] After the final defeat and death of Darius III in 330 BC, Alexander recognised and rewarded Artabazos for his loyalty to the Persian king by giving him the satrapy of Bactria, a post he held until his death in 328 BC.[9] Family[edit] Claire Bloom as Barsine, daughter of Artabazos II, and Richard Burton as Alexander the Great, in the 1956 film Alexander the Great. Artabazos' daughter, Barsine, may have married Alexander and may have been the mother of Heracles. Another daughter, Artacama, was given in marriage to Ptolemy; and a third daughter, Artonis, was given in marriage to Eumenes. For Barsine, the daughter of Artabazus, who was the first lady Alexander took to his bed in Asia, and who brought him a son named Heracles, had two sisters; one of which, called Apame, he gave to Ptolemy; and the other, called Artonis, he gave to Eumenes, at the time when he was selecting Persian ladies as wives for his friends. — Plutarch, The Life of Eumenes.[10] In 328 BC, Artabazos resigned his satrapy, which was given to Cleitus the Black.[11][12] Artabazos also had a son named Pharnabazus (fl. 370–320 BC). Family tree of the later Pharnacids. Notes[edit] ^ Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly (2000). Women and Monarchy in Macedonia. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 101. ISBN 9780806132129. ^ Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca, xv. 91 ^ Sekunda, Nick; Nicholas V. Sekunda; Simon Chew (1992). The Persian Army 560–330 BC: 560–330 BC. Osprey Publishing. pp. 28. ISBN 1-85532-250-1. ^ CNG: MYSIA, Lampsakos. Artabazos. Satrap of Daskylion, circa 356 BC. AV Stater (16mm, 8.44 g, 4h). ^ Heckel, Waldemar (2008). Who's Who in the Age of Alexander the Great: Prosopography of Alexander's Empire. John Wiley & Sons. p. 290. ISBN 9781405154697. ^ Howe, Timothy; Brice, Lee L. (2015). Brill's Companion to Insurgency and Terrorism in the Ancient Mediterranean. BRILL. p. 170. ISBN 9789004284739. ^ a b Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly (2000). Women and Monarchy in Macedonia. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 101. ISBN 9780806132129. ^ Diodorus, xvi. 22, 34, 52; Demosthenes, Speeches, "Against Aristocrates", 154, 155, 157, 159, 163 ^ Hornblower, Simon (2011). The Greek World 479-323 BC. Routledge. p. 352. ISBN 9781136831256. ^ Plutarch: Life of Eumenes - translation. ^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri, iii. 23, 29, vii. 4; Curtius Rufus, Historiae Alexandri Magni, iii. 13, v. 9, 12, vi. 5, vii. 3, 5, viii. 1 ^ Roisman, Joseph (2002). Brill's Companion to Alexander the Great. BRILL. p. 221. ISBN 9789004217553. References[edit] Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, "Artabazus (4)", Boston, (1867) Corso, Antonio. The Statue of Apollo Smintheus by Scopas and the Monumental Policy of the Satrap Artabazos. Actual Problems of Theory and History of Art: Collection of articles. Vol. 9. Ed: A. V. Zakharova, S. V. Maltseva, E. Iu. Staniukovich-Denisova. Lomonosov Moscow State University / St. Petersburg, NP-Print, 2019, pp. 75–79. ISSN 2312-2129. External links[edit] Livius, Artabazus (2) by Jona Lendering v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC v t e Hellenistic satraps Satraps under Alexander the Great (334-323 BC) Ada (Queen of Caria) Asander, Menander (Lydia) Calas, Demarchus (Hellespontine Phrygia) Antigonus (Greater Phrygia) Balakros, Menes (Cilicia) Abistamenes (Cappadocia) Abdalonymus (Sidon) Mithrenes (Armenia) Mazaeus, Stamenes (Babylon) Mazakes (Mesopotamia) Abulites (Susiana) Oxydates, Atropates (Media) Phrasaortes, Oxines, Peucestas (Persis) Cleomenes of Naucratis (Egypt) Satibarzanes (Aria) Sibyrtius (Carmania) Autophradates (Tapuri, Mardi) Andragoras (Parthia) Amminapes, Phrataphernes, Pharismanes (Hyrcania and Parthia) Artabazos, Cleitus the Black, Amyntas (Bactria) Oxyartes (Paropamisia) Philip, Eudemus (India) Peithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara) Taxiles (Punjab) Porus (Indus) Satraps at the Partition of Babylon (323 BC) Antipater (Macedon and Greece) Philo (Illyria) Lysimachus (Thrace) Leonnatus (Hellespontine Phrygia) Antigonus (Phrygia) Asander (Caria) Nearchus (Lycia and Pamphylia) Menander (Lydia) Philotas (Cilicia) Eumenes (Cappadocia and Paphlagonia) Ptolemy (Egypt) Laomedon of Mytilene (Syria) Neoptolemus (Armenia) Peucestas (Persis) Arcesilaus (Mesopotamia) Peithon (Greater Media) Atropates (Lesser Media) Scynus (Susiana) Tlepolemus (Persia) Nicanor (Parthia) Phrataphernes (Armenia, Parthia) Antigenes (Susiana) Archon (Pelasgia) Philip (Hyrcania) Stasanor (Aria and Drangiana) Sibyrtius (Arachosia and Gedrosia) Amyntas (Bactria) Scythaeus (Sogdiana) Oxyartes (Paropamisia) Taxiles (Punjab) Peithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara) Porus (Indus) Satraps at the Partition of Triparadisus (321 BC) Antipater (Macedon and Greece) Lysimachus (Thrace) Arrhidaeus (Hellespontine Phrygia) Antigonus (Phrygia, Lycia and Pamphylia) Cassander (Caria) Cleitus the White (Lydia) Philoxenus (Cilicia) Nicanor (Cappadocia and Paphlagonia) Ptolemy (Egypt) Laomedon of Mytilene (Syria) Peucestas (Persis) Amphimachus (Mesopotamia) Peithon (Media) Tlepolemus (Carmania) Philip (Parthia) Antigenes (Susiana) Seleucus (Babylonia) Stasanor (Bactria and Sogdiana) Stasander (Aria and Drangiana) Sibyrtius (Arachosia and Gedrosia) Oxyartes (Paropamisia) Taxiles (Punjab) Peithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara) Porus (Indus) Later Satraps Peithon, son of Agenor (Babylon) Sibyrtius (Arachosia, Drangiana) Eudemus (Indus) Bagadates, Ardakhshir I, Wahbarz, Vadfradad I, Vadfradad II, Alexander c.220 BC (Persis) Andragoras (Parthia) Demodamas (Bactria, Sogdiana) Diodotus (Bactria) Alexander (Lydia) Molon c.220 BC, Timarchus, c.175 BC (Media) Apollodorus (Susiana) Ptolemaeus (Commagene) Noumenios, Hyspaosines c.150 BC (Characene) Hellenistic satraps were preceded by Achaemenid rulers, and followed or ruled by Hellenistic rulers Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Artabazos_II&oldid=979949259" Categories: 4th-century BC Iranian people 4th-century BC rulers Achaemenid satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Alexander the Great Military leaders of the Achaemenid Empire Pharnacid dynasty Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages 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en-wikipedia-org-3275	----	Her Majesty's Theatre - Wikipedia Her Majesty's Theatre From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Theatre in London For other uses, see Her Majesty's Theatre (disambiguation). Her Majesty's Theatre Queen's Theatre King's Theatre Italian Opera House His Majesty's Theatre Exterior of Her Majesty's Theatre, 2010 Address Haymarket London United Kingdom Coordinates 51°30′29″N 0°07′55″W / 51.5081°N 0.1320°W / 51.5081; -0.1320Coordinates: 51°30′29″N 0°07′55″W / 51.5081°N 0.1320°W / 51.5081; -0.1320 Public transit Charing Cross Charing Cross Owner LW Theatres (leased from the Crown Estate) Designation Grade II* Type West End theatre Capacity 1,216 on 4 levels Production The Phantom of the Opera Construction Opened 1705; 316 years ago (1705) Architect Charles J. Phipps Website Official website Her Majesty's Theatre is a West End theatre situated on Haymarket in the City of Westminster, London. The present building was designed by Charles J. Phipps and was constructed in 1897 for actor-manager Herbert Beerbohm Tree, who established the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art at the theatre. In the early decades of the 20th century, Tree produced spectacular productions of Shakespeare and other classical works, and the theatre hosted premieres by major playwrights such as George Bernard Shaw, J. M. Synge, Noël Coward and J. B. Priestley. Since the First World War, the wide stage has made the theatre suitable for large-scale musical productions, and the theatre has accordingly specialised in hosting musicals. The theatre has been home to record-setting musical theatre runs, notably the First World War sensation Chu Chin Chow[1] and the most recent production, Andrew Lloyd Webber's The Phantom of the Opera, which played continuously at Her Majesty's between 1986 and March 2020. The theatre was established by architect and playwright John Vanbrugh, in 1705, as the Queen's Theatre. Legitimate drama unaccompanied by music was prohibited by law in all but the two London patent theatres, and so this theatre quickly became an opera house.[2] Between 1711 and 1739, more than 25 operas by George Frideric Handel premiered here.[3] Joseph Haydn’s series of concerts in London took place here in the 1790s. In the early 19th century, the theatre hosted the opera company that was to move to the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden, in 1847, and presented the first London performances of Mozart's La clemenza di Tito, Così fan tutte and Don Giovanni.[4] It also hosted the Ballet of her Majesty's Theatre in the mid-19th century, before returning to hosting the London premieres of such operas as Bizet's Carmen and Wagner's Ring Cycle. The theatre has also been known as Queen's Theatre at the Haymarket, prior to being renamed Her Majesty's Theatre. The name of the theatre changes with the gender of the monarch. It first became the King's Theatre in 1714 on the accession of George I. It was renamed Her Majesty's Theatre in 1837. Most recently, the theatre was known as His Majesty's Theatre from 1901 to 1952, and it became Her Majesty's on the accession of Elizabeth II. The theatre's capacity is 1,216 seats, and the building was Grade II* listed by English Heritage in 1970. LW Theatres has owned the building since 2000. The land beneath it is on a long-term lease from the Crown Estate. Contents 1 History 1.1 Vanbrugh's theatre: 1705–1789 1.1.1 Fire 1.2 Second theatre: 1791–1867 1.2.1 William Taylor 1.2.2 John Ebers 1.2.3 Pierre François Laporte 1.2.4 Benjamin Lumley 1.2.5 J. H. Mapleson 1.3 Third theatre: 1868–1896 2 Phipps's theatre: 1897–present 2.1 Architecture 2.2 Performance 2.3 The Phantom of the Opera 3 Notes 4 References 5 External links History[edit] Sir John Vanbrugh painted by Godfrey Kneller The end of the 17th century was a period of intense rivalry amongst London's actors, and in 1695 there was a split in the United Company, who had a monopoly on the performance of drama at their two theatres. Dramatist and architect John Vanbrugh saw this as an opportunity to break the duopoly of the patent theatres, and in 1703 he acquired a former stable yard, at a cost of £2,000, for the construction of a new theatre on the Haymarket. In the new business, he hoped to improve the share of profits that would go to playwrights and actors. He raised the money by subscription, probably amongst members of the Kit-Cat Club: To recover them [that is, Thomas Betterton's company], therefore, to their due Estimation, a new Project was form'd of building them a stately theatre in the Hay-Market, by Sir John Vanbrugh, for which he raised a Subscription of thirty Persons of Quality, at one hundred Pounds each, in Consideration whereof every Subscriber, for his own Life, was to be admitted to whatever Entertainments should be publickly perform'd there, without farther Payment for his Entrance. —John Vanbrugh's notice of subscription for the new theatre[5] He was joined in the enterprise by his principal associate and manager William Congreve and an actors' co-operative led by Thomas Betterton.[6] The theatre provided the first alternative to the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, built in 1663 and the Lincoln's Inn, founded in 1660 (forerunner of the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden, built in 1728). The theatre's site is the second oldest such site in London that remains in use. These three post-interregnum theatres defined the shape and use of modern theatres.[7] Vanbrugh's theatre: 1705–1789[edit] The land for the theatre was held on a lease renewable in 1740 and was ultimately owned, as it is today, by the Crown Estate. Building was delayed by the necessity of acquiring the street frontage, and a three bay entrance led to a brick shell 130 feet (39.6 m) long and 60 feet (18.3 m) wide. Colley Cibber described the audience fittings as lavish but the facilities for playing poor.[5] Vanbrugh and Congreve received Queen Anne's authority to form a Company of Comedians on 14 December 1704, and the theatre opened as the Queen's Theatre on 9 April 1705 with imported Italian singers in Gli amori d'Ergasto (The Loves of Ergasto), an opera by Jakob Greber, with an epilogue by Congreve. This was the first Italian opera performed in London.[8] The opera failed, and the season struggled on through May, with revivals of plays and operas.[9] The first new play performed was The Conquest of Spain by Mary Pix.[10] The theatre proved too large for actors' voices to carry across the auditorium, and the first season was a failure. Congreve departed, Vanbrugh bought out his other partners, and the actors reopened the Lincoln's Inn Fields' theatre in the summer. Although early productions combined spoken dialogue with incidental music, a taste was growing amongst the nobility for Italian opera, which was completely sung, and the theatre became devoted to opera. As he became progressively more involved in the construction of Blenheim Palace, Vanbrugh's management of the theatre became increasingly chaotic, showing "numerous signs of confusion, inefficiency, missed opportunities, and bad judgement".[11] On 7 May 1707, experiencing mounting losses and running costs, Vanbrugh was forced to sell a lease on the theatre for fourteen years to Owen Swiny at a considerable loss. In December of that year, the Lord Chamberlain's Office ordered that "all Operas and other Musicall presentments be performed for the future only at Her Majesty's Theatre in the Hay Market"[5] and forbade the performance of further non-musical plays there.[5] King's (previously Queen's) Theatre, Haymarket, the 18th-century predecessor of the present theatre; watercolour by William Capon (V&A) After 1709, the theatre was devoted to Italian opera and was sometimes known informally as the Haymarket Opera House.[12] Young George Frideric Handel produced his English début, Rinaldo, on 24 February 1711 at the theatre, featuring the two leading castrati of the era, Nicolo Grimaldi and Valentino Urbani. This was the first Italian opera composed specifically for the London stage. The work was well received,[13] and Handel was appointed resident composer for the theatre, but losses continued, and Swiney fled abroad to escape his creditors. John James Heidegger took over the management of the theatre and, from 1719, began to extend the stage through arches into the houses to the south of the theatre.[5] A "Royal Academy of Music" was formed by subscription from wealthy sponsors, including the Prince of Wales, to support Handel's productions at the theatre.[14] Under this sponsorship, Handel conducted a series of more than 25 of his original operas, continuing until 1739[15] Handel was also a partner in the management with Heidegger from 1729 to 1734, and he contributed to incidental music for theatre, including for a revival of Ben Jonson's The Alchemist, opening on 14 January 1710.[16] On the accession of George I in 1714, the theatre was renamed the King's Theatre and remained so named during a succession of male monarchs who occupied the throne. At this time only the two patent theatres were permitted to perform serious drama in London, and lacking letters patent, the theatre remained associated with opera.[17] In 1762, Johann Christian Bach travelled to London to premiere three operas at the theatre, including Orione on 19 February 1763. This established his reputation in England, and he became music master to Queen Charlotte.[18] Actor-manager Richard Brinsley Sheridan, painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds In 1778, the lease for the theatre was transferred from James Brook to Thomas Harris, stage manager of the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden, and to the playwright Richard Brinsley Sheridan for £22,000. They paid for the remodelling of the interior by Robert Adam in the same year. In November 1778, The Morning Chronicle reported that Harris and Sheridan had ... at a considerable expence, almost entirely new built the audience part of the house, and made a great variety of alterations, part of which are calculated for the rendering the theatre more light, elegant and pleasant, and part for the ease and convenience of the company. The sides of the frontispiece are decorated with two figures painted by Gainsborough, which are remarkably picturesque and beautiful; the heavy columns which gave the house so gloomy an aspect that it rather resembled a large mausoleum or a place for funeral dirges, than a theatre, are removed. —November 1778, The Morning Chronicle[5] The expense of the improvements was not matched by the box office receipts, and the partnership dissolved, with Sheridan buying out his partner with a mortgage on the theatre of £12,000 obtained from the banker Henry Hoare.[5] One member of the company, Giovanni Gallini, had made his début at the theatre in 1753 and had risen to the position of dancing master, gaining an international reputation. Gallini had tried to buy Harris' share but had been rebuffed. He now purchased the mortgage. Sheridan quickly became bankrupt after placing the financial affairs of the theatre in the hands of William Taylor, a lawyer. The next few years saw a struggle for control of the theatre and Taylor bought Sheridan's interest in 1781. In 1782 the theatre was remodelled by Michael Novosielski, formerly a scene painter at the theatre. In May 1783, Taylor was arrested by his creditors, and a forced sale ensued, with Harris purchasing the lease and much of the effects. Further legal action transferred the interests in the theatre to a board of trustees, including Novosielski. The trustees acted with a flagrant disregard for the needs of the theatre or other creditors, seeking only to enrich themselves, and in August 1785 the Lord Chamberlain took over the running of the enterprise, in the interests of the creditors. Gallini, meanwhile, had become manager. In 1788, the Lord Chancellor observed "that there appeared in all the proceedings respecting this business, a wish of distressing the property, and that it would probably be consumed in that very court to which ... [the interested parties] seemed to apply for relief".[5] Performances suffered, with the box receipts taken by Novosielski, rather than given to Gallini to run the house. Money continued to be squandered on endless litigation or was misappropriated.[5] Gallini tried to keep the theatre going, but he was forced to employ amateur performers. The World described a performance as follows: "... the dance, if such it can be called was like the movements of heavy cavalry. It was hissed very abundantly."[19] At other times, Gallini had to defend himself against a dissatisfied audience who charged the stage and destroyed the fittings, as the company ran for their lives.[19] Fire[edit] The theatre burnt down on 17 June 1789 during evening rehearsals, and the dancers fled the building as beams fell onto the stage. The fire had been deliberately set on the roof, and Gallini offered a reward of £300 for capture of the culprit.[5] With the theatre destroyed, each group laid their own plans for a replacement. Gallini obtained a licence from the Lord Chamberlain to perform opera at the nearby Little Theatre, and he entered into a partnership with R. B. O'Reilly to obtain land in Leicester Fields for a new building, which too would require a licence. The two quarrelled, and each then planned to wrest control of the venture from the other. The authorities refused to grant either of them a patent for Leicester Fields, but O'Reilly was granted a licence for four years to put on opera at the Oxford Street Pantheon. This too, would burn to the ground in 1792. Meanwhile, Taylor reached an agreement with the creditors of the King's Theatre and attempted to purchase the remainder of the lease from Edward Vanbrugh, but this was now promised to O'Reilly. A further complication arose as the theatre needed to expand onto adjacent land that now came into the possession of a Taylor supporter. The scene was set for a further war of attrition between the lessees, but at this point O'Reilly's first season at the Pantheon failed miserably, and he fled to Paris to avoid his creditors.[5] By 1720, Vanbrugh's direct connection with the theatre had been terminated, but the leases and rents had been transferred to both his own family and that of his wife's through a series of trusts and benefices, with Vanbrugh himself building a new home in Greenwich. After the fire, the Vanbrugh family's long association with the theatre was terminated, and all their leases were surrendered by 1792.[5] Second theatre: 1791–1867[edit] Interior of second theatre on the site, c. 1808. Drawing by Auguste Pugin and Thomas Rowlandson for Ackermann's Microcosm of London Taylor completed a new theatre on the site in 1791. Michael Novosielski had again been chosen as architect for the theatre on an enlarged site, but the building was described by Malcolm in 1807 as fronted by a stone basement in rustic work, with the commencement of a very superb building of the Doric order, consisting of three pillars, two windows, an entablature, pediment, and balustrade. This, if it had been continued, would have contributed considerably to the splendour of London; but the unlucky fragment is fated to stand as a foil to the vile and absurd edifice of brick pieced to it, which I have not patience to describe. —The critic Malcolm, quoted in Old and New London (1878)[20] The Lord Chamberlain, a supporter of O'Reilly, refused a performing licence to Taylor. The theatre opened on 26 March 1791 with a private performance of song and dance entertainment, but was not allowed to open to the public. The new theatre was heavily indebted and spanned separate plots of land that were leased to Taylor by four different owners on differing terms of revision. As a later manager of the theatre wrote, "In the history of property, there has probably been no parallel instance wherein the legal labyrinth has been so difficult to thread."[5] Meetings were held at Carlton House and Bedford House attempting to reconcile the parties. On 24 August 1792 a General Opera Trust Deed was signed by the parties. The general management of the theatre was to be entrusted to a committee of noblemen, appointed by the Prince of Wales, who would then appoint a general manager. Funds would be disbursed from the profits to compensate the creditors of both the King's Theatre and the Pantheon. The committee never met, and management devolved to Taylor.[5] William Taylor[edit] Joseph Haydn in 1792 The first public performance of opera in the new theatre took place on 26 January 1793, the dispute with the Lord Chamberlain over the licence having been settled. This theatre was, at that time, the largest in England, and it became the home of the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane company while that company's home theatre was itself rebuilt between 1791–94.[21] From 1793, seven small houses at the east side of the theatre fronting on the Haymarket were demolished and replaced by a large concert room. It was in this room that Joseph Haydn gave a series of concerts, under the sponsorship of Johann Peter Salomon, on his second visit to London in 1794–95.[5][22] He presented his own symphonies, some of them premieres, conducted by himself, and was paid £50 each for 20 concerts.[23] He was feted in London and returned to Vienna in May 1795 with 12,000 florins.[24] With the departure of the Drury Lane company in 1794, the theatre returned to opera, hosting the first London performances of Mozart's La clemenza di Tito in 1806, Così fan tutte and Die Zauberflöte in 1811, and Don Giovanni in 1816. Between 1816 and 1818, John Nash and George Repton made alterations to the façade and increased the capacity of the auditorium to 2,500. They also added a shopping arcade, called the Royal Opera Arcade, which has survived fires and renovations and still exists. It runs along the rear of the theatre.[25] In 1818–20, the British premieres of Gioachino Rossini's operas Il barbiere di Siviglia, Elisabetta, regina d'Inghilterra, L'italiana in Algeri, La Cenerentola and Tancredi took place,[26] and the theatre became known as the Italian Opera House, Haymarket by the 1820s.[27] Season tickets for King's Theatre In 1797, he was elected as member of Parliament for Leominster, a position that gave him immunity from his creditors. When that parliament dissolved in 1802, he fled to France.[5] Later, he returned, and was member of Parliament for Barnstaple from 1806 to 1812 while continuing his association with the theatre.[28] Taylor paid little of the agreed receipts to performers, or composers, and lived for much of his period of management in the King's Bench, a debtors' prison in Southwark.[29] Here he maintained an apartment next to Lady Hamilton and lived in some luxury, entertaining lavishly.[30] A riot at the theatre, on 1 May 1813 John Ebers[edit] Drawing of the theatre by Thomas Hosmer Shepherd, 1827–28 John Ebers, a bookseller, took over the management of the theatre in 1821, and seven more London premieres of Rossini operas (La gazza ladra, Il turco in Italia, Mosè in Egitto, Otello, La donna del lago, Matilde di Shabran and Ricciardo e Zoraide) took place there in the following three years.[26] Ebers sublet the theatre to Giambattista Benelli in 1824, and Rossini was invited to conduct, remaining for a five-month season, with his wife Isabella Colbran performing.[31][32] Two more of his operas, Zelmira and Semiramide, received their British premieres during the season, but the theatre sustained huge losses and Benelli absconded without paying either the composer or the artists. Ebers engaged Giuditta Pasta for the 1825 season, but he became involved in lawsuits which, combined with a large increase in the rent of the theatre, forced him into bankruptcy, after which he returned to his bookselling business.[33] Pierre François Laporte[edit] The royal box In 1828, Ebers was succeeded as theatre manager by Pierre François Laporte, who held the position (with a brief gap in 1831–33) until his death in 1841. Two of Rossini's Paris operas (Le comte Ory and Le siège de Corinthe) had their British premieres at the theatre during this period, and Laporte was also the first to introduce the operas of Vincenzo Bellini (La sonnambula, Norma and I puritani) and Gaetano Donizetti (Anna Bolena, Lucia di Lammermoor and Lucrezia Borgia) to the British public. Under Laporte, singers such as Giulia Grisi, Pauline Viardot, Giovanni Battista Rubini, Luigi Lablache and Mario made their London stage debuts at the theatre.[34] Among the musical directors of this period was Nicolas Bochsa, the celebrated and eccentric French harpist. He was appointed in 1827 and remained for six years at this position.[35] When Queen Victoria ascended the throne in 1837, the name of the theatre was changed to Her Majesty's Theatre, Italian Opera House. In the same year, Samuel Phelps made his London début as Shylock in The Merchant of Venice at the theatre, also playing in other Shakespearean plays here.[36] Over the course of the 1840s, Dion Boucicault had five plays produced here: The Bastile [sic], an "after-piece" (1842), Old Heads and Young Hearts (1844), The School for Scheming (1847), Confidence (1848), and The Knight Arva (1848). In 1853, Robert Browning's Colombe's Birthday played at the theatre.[12] In 1841, disputes arose over Laporte's decision to replace the baritone Antonio Tamburini with a new singer, Colletti. The audience stormed the stage, and the performers formed a 'revolutionary conspiracy'. Benjamin Lumley[edit] Jenny Lind, The Swedish Nightingale, 1850 Laporte died suddenly, and Benjamin Lumley took over the management in 1842, introducing London audiences to Donizetti's late operas, Don Pasquale and La fille du régiment. Initially, relations between Lumley and Michael Costa, the principal conductor at Her Majesty's were good. Verdi's Ernani, Nabucco and I Lombardi received their British premieres in 1845–46, and Lumley commissioned I masnadieri from the composer. This opera received its world premiere on 22 July 1847, with the Swedish operatic diva Jenny Lind in the role of Amalia, and the British premieres of two more Verdi operas, I due Foscari and Attila, followed in 1847–48.[37] Meanwhile, the performers had continued to feel neglected and the disputes continued. In 1847, Costa finally transferred his opera company to the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden, and the theatre relinquished the sobriquet, 'Italian Opera House', to assume its present title, Her Majesty's Theatre.[38] The appearance of the Black Cuban guitarist Donna Maria Martinez at the theatre in July 1850 was the subject of much attention.[39] Lumley engaged Michael Balfe to conduct the orchestra[40] and entered negotiations with Felix Mendelssohn for a new opera. Jenny Lind had made her English début on 4 May 1847 in the role of Alice in Giacomo Meyerbeer's Robert le Diable, in the presence of the Royal family and the composer Felix Mendelssohn. Such was the press of people around the theatre that many "arrived at last with dresses crushed and torn, and coats hanging in shreds, having suffered bruises and blows in the struggle".[41] She performed for a number of acclaimed seasons at the theatre, interspersed with national tours, becoming known as the Swedish Nightingale.[41] The secession of the orchestra to Covent Garden was a blow, and the theatre closed in 1852, re-opening in 1856, when a fire closed its rival.[5] After the reopening, Lumley presented two more British premieres of Verdi operas: La traviata in 1856 and Luisa Miller in 1858.[37] From the early 1830s until the late 1840s Her Majesty's Theatre played host to the heyday of the era of the romantic ballet, and the theatre's resident ballet company was considered the most renowned in Europe, aside from the Ballet du Théâtre de l'Académie Royale de Musique in Paris. The celebrated ballet master Jules Perrot began staging ballet at Her Majesty's in 1830. Lumley appointed him Premier Maître de Ballet (chief choreographer) to the theatre in 1842.[42] Among the works of ballet that he staged were Ondine, ou La Naïade (1843), La Esmeralda (1844), and Catarina, ou La Fille du Bandit (1846), as well as the celebrated divertissement Pas de Quatre (1845). Other ballet masters created works for the ballet of Her Majesty's Theatre throughout the period of the romantic ballet, most notably Paul Taglioni (son of Filippo Taglioni), who staged ballets including Coralia, ou Le Chevalier inconstant (1847) and Electra (1849, the first production of a ballet to make use of electric lighting).[42] Arthur Saint-Léon staged such works as La Vivandière (1844), Le Violin du Diable (1849), and Le Jugement de Pâris (1850), which was considered a sequel of sorts to Pas de Quatre.[42] The Italian composer Cesare Pugni was appointed Composer of the Ballet Music to the theatre in 1843, a position created for him by Lumley. From 1843 until 1850, he composed nearly every new ballet presented at the theatre.[42][43] Pugni remains the most prolific composer of the genre, having composed more than 100 original ballets, as well as composing numerous divertissements and incidental dances that were often performed as diversions during the intermissions of opera performances at the theatre.[42] Throughout the era of the romantic ballet, the theatre presented performances by notable ballerinas, including Marie Taglioni, Carlotta Grisi, Fanny Elssler, Lucile Grahn and Fanny Cerrito, performing in the works of Perrot, Taglioni and Saint-Léon.[42][44] J. H. Mapleson[edit] The theatre burned down in 1867. From 1862 to 1867, the theatre was managed by James Henry Mapleson, presenting Italian, French and German opera, including the British premieres of La forza del destino, Médée, Faust and The Merry Wives of Windsor and promoting such singers as Mario, Giulia Grisi, De Murska, Thérèse Tietjens, Antonio Giuglini, Charles Santley and Christine Nilsson.[45] On the night of 6 December 1867, the theatre was destroyed by fire, thought to have been caused by an overheated stove. Only the bare walls of the theatre remained, and most of the adjacent shops in Pall Mall, and the Clergy Club hotel in Charles Street, suffered damage of varying severity. The Royal Opera Arcade, on the western side, survived with only superficial damage. With the destruction of the theatre, Mapleson took his company to the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane.[45] By the 1850s, with the era of the romantic ballet at an end, the principal personalities of the ballet, such as Perrot, Saint-Léon, Taglioni, and the composer Pugni, joined the Tsar's Imperial Ballet of St. Petersburg, Russia. Ballet in London went through a considerable decline beginning with the fire at Her Majesty's Theatre, a decline that lasted until the end of the 19th century.[46] Ballet in London was not resurrected until the early 20th century, when such dancers as Adeline Genée began performing.[47] The theatre's ballet company found a new home at the Old Vic and soon took on the name of the Vic-Wells Ballet. Later, moving primarily to the Sadler's Wells Theatre, the company became known as the Sadler's Wells Ballet. Eventually the troupe began performing at the Royal Opera House and became the Royal Ballet, as it is known today.[48] Third theatre: 1868–1896[edit] Carl Rosa's opera company performed at the third theatre. A third building was constructed in 1868 at a cost of £50,000,[49] within the shell of the old theatre, for Lord Dudley. It was designed by Charles Lee and Sons and their partner, William Pain, and built by George Trollope and Sons.[50] The designers had taken over John Nash's practice on his retirement. The new theatre was designed to be less susceptible to fire, with brick firewalls, iron roof trusses and Dennett's patent gypsum-cement floors.[5] The auditorium had four tiers, with a stage large enough for the greatest spectaculars. For opera, the theatre seated 1,890, and for plays, with the orchestra pit removed, 2,500. As a result of a dispute over the rent between Dudley and Mapleson,[51] and a decline in the popularity of ballet, the theatre remained dark until 1874, when it was sold to a Revivalist Christian group for £31,000.[5] Mapleson returned to Her Majesty's in 1877 and 1878, after a disastrous attempt to build a 2,000-seat National Opera House on a site subsequently used for the building of Scotland Yard. On the return of the company, all the fittings of the theatre had been removed, including the seats, carpets and even the wallpaper. £6,000 was spent on fitting out the theatre, and on 28 April 1877 the building returned to theatrical use with the opening of Vincenzo Bellini's opera Norma. The London premiere of Bizet's Carmen occurred here on 22 June 1878, and in subsequent seasons the theatre hosted the Carl Rosa Opera Company (Rosa's wife, Euphrosyne Parepa, had made her name in opera partly at Her Majesty's) and a programme of French plays and light opera. The company was the first to produce Carmen in English, at the theatre in February 1879, starring Selina Dolaro in the title role and Durward Lely as Don José.[52] In 1882, the theatre hosted the London premieres of Wagner's Ring cycle.[9] Mapleson returned in 1887 and 1889, but The Times commented that the repertoire comprised "works that had long ceased to attract a large public, the singers were exclusively of second-rate quality, and the standard of performance was extremely low".[5] Rigoletto, on 25 May 1889, was the last operatic performance given in the house.[5] Phipps's theatre: 1897–present[edit] Herbert Beerbohm Tree as Cardinal Wolsey at the theatre, in a 1910 photograph With the rapid advances in theatre technology made during this period, the 1868 theatre quickly became outmoded, and the sub-lease of the theatre, still held by the Dudley family, was due to expire in 1891. The Commissioners of Woods, Forests and Land Revenues (forerunners of the Crown Estate) desired the entire block on which the theatre stood to be rebuilt, except for the Royal Arcade, where the lease did not expire until 1912. Problems were encountered in obtaining all the buildings and in financing the scheme, but the theatre and surrounding buildings were demolished in 1892. Plans were commissioned from architect Charles J. Phipps for a theatre and a hotel. In February 1896 an agreement was reached with Herbert Beerbohm Tree for the erection of the theatre at a cost of £55,000. The plans were approved in February 1897, and on 16 July 1896, the foundation stone of the new theatre was laid.[5] Phipps died in 1897, and the theatre was his last work.[53] Architecture[edit] Phipps's new theatre The theatre was designed as a symmetrical pair with the Carlton Hotel and restaurant on the adjacent site, now occupied by New Zealand House.[54] The frontage formed three parts, each of nine bays. The hotel occupied two parts, the theatre one, and the two buildings were unified by a cornice above the ground floor. The buildings rose to four storeys, with attic floors above, surmounted by large squared domes in a style inspired by the French Renaissance. The theatre has a Corinthian colonnade at the first floor, rising to the second, forming a loggia in front of the circle foyer. This is above a canopy over the main ground floor entrances.[53] The theatre lies on an east–west axis. The stage at the western end was 49 feet (14.9 m) deep and 69.5 feet (21.2 m) wide,[5] and reputedly the first to be flat, rather than raked.[7] The interior was designed by the consulting architect, W. H. Romaine-Walker (1854–1940), after the Opera at Versailles by Gabriel. Stalls and the pit were entered at ground level, with two partly cantilevered tiers above accommodating dress and family circles on the first level, and upper circle, amphitheatre and gallery on the tier above. In all, there were 1,319 seats. Contemporary opinion was critical of the project. Edwin Sachs wrote in his 1897 guide to theatres, "The treatment is considered to be in the French Renaissance style and stone has been used throughout. The detail cannot, however, be termed satisfactory, nor does the exterior architecturally express the purpose of the building."[55] Modern opinion of the theatre is more generous, with English Heritage describing the building as both Phipps's finest work and one of the best planned theatres in London. The building was Grade II* listed in January 1970.[53] Appreciation of the buildings came too late to save the adjacent hotel from redevelopment as the new High Commission for New Zealand, completed in 1963 by British architects Robert Matthew, Johnson Marshall and Partners, who also designed the Commonwealth Institute. In 1995, this too was Grade II listed as a fine example of 1960s architecture.[56] The 200-year-old Royal Opera Arcade, built by Nash and Repton, is all that survives of the second theatre and is the earliest example of a London arcade.[57] Performance[edit] Shaw's Pygmalion ran at the theatre in 1914, starring Mrs Patrick Campbell as Eliza. The current theatre opened on 28 April 1897. Herbert Beerbohm Tree built the theatre with profits from his tremendous success at the Haymarket Theatre,[58] and he owned, managed and lived in the theatre from its construction until his death in 1917. For his personal use, he had a banqueting hall and living room installed in the massive, central, square French-style dome.[53] This building did not specialise in opera, although there were some operatic performances in its early years. The theatre opened with a dramatisation of Gilbert Parker's The Seats of the Mighty. Adaptations of novels by Dickens, Tolstoy, and others formed a significant part of the repertoire, along with classical works from Molière and Shakespeare. The theatre also hosted the world premiere of J. M. Synge's The Tinker's Wedding on 11 November 1909[59] and George Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion, with Tree as Henry Higgins and Mrs Patrick Campbell as Eliza, in 1914.[60] Tree's productions were known for their elaborate and spectacular scenery and effects, often including live animals and real grass.[60] These remained both popular and profitable, but in his last decade, Tree's acting style was seen as increasingly outmoded, and many of his plays received bad reviews. Tree defended himself from critical censure, demonstrating his continuing popularity at the box office until his death.[61] Oscar Asche in Chu Chin Chow. Its record-breaking run of 2,235 performances at the theatre began in 1916. In 1904, Tree founded the Academy of Dramatic Art (later RADA), which spent a year based in the theatre before moving in 1905 to Gower Street in Bloomsbury. Tree continued to take graduates of the Academy into his company at His Majesty's, employing some 40 actors in this way by 1911.[62] The facilities of the theatre naturally lent themselves to the new genre of musical theatre. Chu Chin Chow opened in 1916 and ran for an astonishing world record 2,235 performances[63] (almost twice as long as the previous record for musical theatre – a record that it held until surpassed by Salad Days in 1955).[1][64] Major productions of plays with large casts were also performed at His Majesty's. George and Ira Gershwin's Oh, Kay! had its London premiere on 21 September 1927. This starred Gertrude Lawrence and John Kirby, and ran for 213 performances.[65] Noël Coward's operetta Bitter Sweet enjoyed a run of 697 performances beginning 18 July 1929.[1] J. B. Priestley's theatrical adaptation of his own The Good Companions premiered on 14 May 1931. Musicals continued to dominate at the theatre in the post-Second World War period, including transfers of the successful Broadway productions Follow the Girls (1945; 572 performances)[66] and the Lerner and Loewe musicals Brigadoon (1949; 685 performances)[67] and Paint Your Wagon (1953; 478 performances).[68] Leonard Bernstein's West Side Story opened in December 1958 for a run of 1,039 performances, transferring from Broadway via the Manchester Opera House.[69] The London premiere of Fiddler on the Roof was on 16 February 1967, starring Chaim Topol, and the production ran at Her Majesty's for 2,030 performances.[70][71] Forty years after the original stage adaptation, André Previn's musical adaptation of The Good Companions premiered on 11 July 1974, followed by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Alan Ayckbourn's initially unsuccessful collaboration, Jeeves, on 22 April 1975, which has since enjoyed considerable success.[72] John Cleese organised A Poke in the Eye (With a Sharp Stick) as a benefit for Amnesty International at the theatre in 1976, and it was broadcast as Pleasure at Her Majesty's.[73] This was the first of The Secret Policeman's Balls, organised by and starring such performers as Peter Cook, Graham Chapman, and Rowan Atkinson.[74] The venue was also the setting for the popular ITV variety series Live from Her Majesty's, which ran on television from 1983 to 1988. It was on this programme that Tommy Cooper collapsed and died on stage in 1984.[75][76] This theatre is one of the 40 theatres featured in the 2012 DVD documentary series Great West End Theatres, presented by Donald Sinden.[77] The Phantom of the Opera[edit] The 'boat scene' in Phantom is achieved using surviving Victorian stage machinery. The Phantom of the Opera had its world premiere on 9 October 1986 at the theatre,[78] winning the Olivier Award for Best New Musical and featuring Sarah Brightman and Michael Crawford , who won an Olivier award for his performance in the title role.[79] The piece is still playing at Her Majesty's, celebrating its 25th anniversary in October 2011 and surpassing 10,000 performances in October 2010.[80] It is the second longest-running West End musical in history (after Les Misérables).[81] In a sign of its continuing popularity, Phantom ranked second in a 2006 BBC Radio 2 listener poll of the "Nation's Number One Essential Musicals".[82] The musical is also the longest-running show on Broadway,[83] was made into a film in 2004[84] and had been seen by over 130 million people in 145 cities in 27 countries and grossed more than £3.2bn ($5bn) by 2011, the most successful entertainment project in history.[80] Her Majesty's Theatre's "grand exterior" and "luxurious interior, with its three tiers of boxes and gold statuary around the stage", as well as French Renaissance design, "make it an ideal site for this Gothic tale" set at the Opéra Garnier.[85] The original Victorian stage machinery remains beneath the stage of the theatre. Designer Maria Björnson found a way to use it "to show the Phantom travelling across the lake as if floating on a sea of mist and fire", in a key scene from the musical.[86] On 5 May 2008, for the first time in the run, the show closed for three days. This allowed the installation of an improved sound system at the theatre, consisting of over 6 miles (10 km) of cabling and the siting of 120 auditorium speakers.[87] The theatre's capacity is 1,216 seats on four levels. Really Useful Theatres Group purchased it in January 2000 with nine other London theatres formerly owned by the Stoll-Moss Group.[88] Between 1990 and 1993, renovation and improvements were made by the H.L.M. and C. G. Twelves partnership.[89] In 2014, Really Useful Theatres split from the Really Useful Group and owns the theatre.[90] Notes[edit] ^ a b c Larkin, Colin (ed). Guinness Who's Who of Stage Musicals (Guinness Publishing, 1994) ISBN 978-0851127569 ^ Banham, Martin, ed. (1995). Theatrical Monopoly. The Cambridge Guide to Theatre. Cambridge University Press. p. 1105. ISBN 978-0521434379. ^ D Handel's Compositions Archived 30 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine GFHandel.org, accessed 21 December 2007 ^ Einstein, Alfred (1962). Mozart: His Character, His Work (reprint ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 408–409. ISBN 978-0195007329. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w The Haymarket Opera House, Survey of London: volumes 29 and 30: St James Westminster, Part 1 (1960), pp. 223–50, accessed 18 December 2007 ^ Downes, Kerry (1987). Sir John Vanbrugh: A Biography. London: Sidgwick and Jackson. p. 109. ISBN 978-0283994975. Retrieved 9 July 2020. ^ a b Earl, John and Michael Sell. Guide to British Theatres 1750–1950, p. 117 (Theatres Trust, 2000) ISBN 978-0713656886. Sadler's Wells Theatre was founded as a music room in 1683, and a theatre was built on the site in 1765. ^ Gordon-Powell, Robin. Ivanhoe, full score, Introduction, vol. I, p. VII, 2008, The Amber Ring ^ a b Her Majesty's Theatre Arthur Lloyd, accessed 17 December 2007 ^ Williamson, Marilyn L. Raising Their Voices: British Women Writers, 1650–1750, pp. 109–10 (Wayne State University Press, 1990) ISBN 0-8143-2147-X ^ Milhous, Judith. Thomas Betterton and the Management of Lincoln's Inn Fields 1695–1708 (Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press, 1979) ISBN 0-8093-0906-8 ^ a b Allingham, Philip V. (Faculty of Education, Lakehead University (Canada)) Theatres in Victorian London. 9 May 2007. Victorian Web, accessed 1 June 2007 ^ Hicks, Anthony. Handel's Rinaldo Archived 30 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine , January 1999 feature article (Academy of Ancient Music Society), accessed 11 February 2008 ^ Gibson, Elizabeth. The Royal Academy of Music (1719–28) and its Directors, Chapt. 8, p. 138ff in Handel Tercentenary Collection, Stanley Sadie, Anthony Hicks (Boydell & Brewer, 1987) ISBN 0-8357-1833-6 ^ See List of compositions by George Frideric Handel for full details of performance of Handel operas at the Queen's and King's Theatre. There were a first and second Royal Academy of Music, directed by Handel, each formed for a limited period – hence the need for two. From 1734 the Second Academy had to fight off the rival Opera of the Nobility. These academies are not related to the modern Royal Academy of Music founded by Lord Burghersh in 1822. ^ Handel: A Documentary Biography, Otto Erich Deutsch (Black, 1955) ISBN 0-306-70624-5 ^ Royal Patents (The Theatre Museum). Archived 6 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine Victoria and Albert museum, PeoplePlayUK, accessed 11 February 2008 ^ Scholes, Percy A. Johann Christian Bach (Biographical entry, p. 64) in The Oxford Companion to Music (Oxford University Press, 1992) ISBN 0-19-866212-2 ^ a b Bondeson, Jan. The London Monster: A Sanguinary Tale (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000) ISBN 0-8122-3576-2 ^ "The Haymarket". Old and New London: Volume 4 (1878), pp. 216–26, accessed 18 December 2007 ^ Milhous Judith, Dideriksen, Gabriella and Hume, Robert D. Italian Opera in Late Eighteenth-Century London, p. 185 (Oxford University Press, 2001) ISBN 0-19-816716-4 ^ On Haydn's previous visit, the concerts had been presented at the Hanover Square Rooms with tremendous success. A sensation was caused during a Royal Court Ball at St James's Palace, when Haydn was greeted by the Prince of Wales with a noticeable bow. See Haydn Festival reference, below. ^ 1791–1795 London Journey. Haydn Festival, accessed 21 December 2007 ^ Ferris, George T.The Great German Composers. Project Gutenberg (2006), accessed 21 December 2007 ^ Mander, Raymond and Joe Mitchenson. Survey of London; Vol. XXIX: The Theatres of London (London, New English Library, 1975) ^ a b Holden, Amanda; Kenyon, Nicholas; Walsh, Stephen, eds. (1993). The Viking Opera Guide. London: Viking. pp. 891–905. ISBN 0-670-81292-7. ^ Earl, John and Michael Sell. Guide to British Theatres 1750–1950, pp. 116–17 (Theatres Trust, 2000) ISBN 0-7136-5688-3 ^ Sadie, Stanley (ed) (1992). The New Grove Dictionary of Opera. Oxford: Oxford University Press. vol 4, pp. 661–2. ISBN 978-0-19-522186-2.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) ^ England's Mistress: The Infamous Life of Emma Hamilton Kate Williams (Hutchinson, 2006) ISBN 0-09-179474-9 ^ Storace Siblings and 18th-century English Theatre Agnes Selby Archived 8 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine 6 April 2007 (WordPress) accessed 26 February 2008. ^ Fenner, Theodore Opera in London: Views of the Press 1785–1830 pp. 144–57 (Southern Illinois University Press, 1994) ISBN 0-8093-1912-8 ^ Porter, Andrew A Lost Opera by Rossini, Music & Letters, Vol. 45, No. 1 (January 1964), pp. 39–44 ^ Sadie, Stanley (ed) (1992). The New Grove Dictionary of Opera. Oxford: Oxford University Press. vol 2, p. 4. ISBN 978-0-19-522186-2.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) ^ Sadie, Stanley (ed) (1992). The New Grove Dictionary of Opera. Oxford: Oxford University Press. vol 2, p. 1101. ISBN 978-0-19-522186-2.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) ^ Faul, Michel. Nicolas-Charles Bochsa, harpiste, compositeur, escroc (editions Delatour France, 2003) ^ Allen, Shirley S. Samuel Phelps and Sadler's Wells Theatre (Wesleyan, 1971) ISBN 0-8195-4029-3 ^ a b Holden, Amanda; Kenyon, Nicholas; Walsh, Stephen, eds. (1993). The Viking Opera Guide. London: Viking. pp. 1126–43. ISBN 0-670-81292-7. ^ Discover the History of the Royal Opera House. Archived 30 March 2008 at the Wayback Machine Royal Opera House, accessed 18 December 2007. ^ "Her Majesty's Theatre". The Times (20542). 16 July 1850. Retrieved 8 January 2020. ^ Walsh, Basil. Michael W. Balfe (1808–1870): His Life and Career. Victorian Web, accessed 7 February 2008 ^ a b Headland, Helen The Swedish Nightingale: A Biography of Jenny Lind (Kessinger Publishing, 2005) ISBN 1-4191-5538-5 ^ a b c d e f Guest, Ivor Forbes. The Romantic Ballet in England, Wesleyan University Press, 1972 ^ 500 Years of Italian Dance. Archived 7 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine New York Public Library, accessed 18 February 2008. ^ Edgecombe, Rodney Stenning. "Cesare Pugni, Marius Petipa, and 19th Century Ballet Music." Musical Times, Summer 2006. ^ a b Mapleson, J. H. The Mapleson Memoirs, ed. H. Rosenthal, (London, 1966) ^ Ballet continued to be performed in London, but in the Music halls and theatres as interludes and endpieces. The most notable of these were the corps at the Alhambra, and its nearby rival, the Empire Theatre. ^ Romantic Ballet. Archived 7 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine PeoplePlayUK, accessed 18 December 2007. ^ History of The Royal Ballet. Archived 22 April 2004 at the Wayback Machine Royal Opera House, accessed 11 February 2008. ^ "Her Majesty's rebuilt, but no-one will use it" (PDF). Over the Footlights. Retrieved 27 July 2019. ^ "Trollope & Colls". National Archives. Retrieved 27 July 2019. ^ "English Gossip". New York Times, 23 December 1873, accessed 31 January 2008 ^ Adams, p. 254 ^ a b c d Historic England. "Her Majesty's Theatre (1357090)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 28 April 2007. ^ The Carlton Hotel, opened in 1899 by the chef Auguste Escoffier and hotelier César Ritz after they left the Savoy Hotel, introduced the à la carte menu. ^ Sachs, Edwin O. Modern Opera Houses and Theatres vol. ii, p. 36 (London, 1897) (Reprint Ayer Co Pub., 1968) ISBN 0-405-08906-6 ^ New Zealand House, Haymarket. Archived 19 March 2008 at the Wayback Machine The 20th century Society, accessed 31 January 2008. ^ Jones, Edward, and Christopher Woodward. A Guide to the Architecture of London (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1992) ISBN 1-84188-012-4 ^ Herbert Beerbohm Tree obituary, The Times, (London) 3 July 1917, p. 11 ^ Synge, J. M. The Complete Plays (1st. New York: Vintage Books, 1935) ^ a b Herbert Beerbohm Tree. Archived 2 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine PeoplePlayUK, accessed 12 February 2008. ^ Hoenselaars, A. J. Reclamations of Shakespeare, p. 259 (Rodopi, 1994) ISBN 90-5183-606-6 ^ "RADA History". Royal Academy of Dramatic Art. Archived from the original on 26 January 2008. ^ "First Musicals" (The Theatre Museum). Archived 4 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine Victoria and Albert museum, PeoplePlayUK, accessed 8 February 2008 ^ Jones, Kenneth (21 June 2006). "Julian Slade, Composer Whose Salad Days Was a Brit Hit, Dead at 76". Playbill. Archived from the original on 3 February 2008. Retrieved 9 July 2020. Salad Days begins...The musical bested the run of The Boy Friend in London and overtook the performance count of the previous longest-run show in England, Chu Chin Chow. ^ The Play Pictorial, v.51, 1927, No.309 ^ Green, Stanley. The Encyclopaedia of the Musical Theatre, pp. 131–32 (Da Capo Press, 1991) ISBN 0-306-80113-2 ^ Brigadoon. The Guide to Musical Theatre, accessed 29 December 2007 ^ Paint Your Wagon. The Guide to Musical Theatre, accessed 29 December 2007 ^ West Side Story. The Guide to Musical Theatre, accessed 29 December 2007 ^ Fiddler On The Roof. The Guide to Musical Theatre, accessed 29 December 2007 ^ Green, Stanley. The Encyclopedia of the Musical Theatre. (Da Capo Press, 1991) ISBN 0-306-80113-2 ^ By Jeeves. The Guide to Musical Theatre, accessed 29 December 2007 ^ Pleasure at Her Majesty's (1976) on IMDb, accessed 19 February 2008 ^ History of the Secret Policeman's Ball. Amnesty International UK, accessed 2 March 2014 ^ "Tommy Cooper obituary", The Times (London) 17 April 1984 ^ Nathan Bevan (12 April 2009). "Tommy Cooper's last act fooled us all, says Jimmy Tarbuck". Wales On Sunday. Archived from the original on 6 February 2013. ^ Fisher, Philip. "Great West End Theatres", British Theatre Guide, 19 February 2012. ^ The Phantom of the Opera. The Guide to Musical Theatre, accessed 31 January 2008. ^ Nominees and Winners of The Laurence Olivier Awards for 1986. Official London Theatre Guide, accessed 17 February 2008 ^ a b "Phantom of the Opera Screening Earns Over £500,000 in the UK", BroadwayWorld.com, 5 October 2011 ^ The Phantom of the Opera awards. Archived 11 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine Really Useful Group, accessed 18 December 2007. ^ "BBC Essential Musical". BBC, accessed 17 February 2008 ^ The Phantom of the Opera at the Internet Broadway Database, accessed 31 January 2008 ^ The Phantom of the Opera (2004) on IMDb, accessed 31 January 2008 ^ "Her Majesty's" Archived 24 June 2007 at Archive.today London Metropolitan Archives, accessed 21 December 2007. ^ Maria Björnson obituary The Telegraph (London) 13 December 2002, accessed 25 February 2008 ^ Glendinning, Lee (3 May 2008). "Musical to return louder than ever". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 5 May 2008. ^ "Andrew Lloyd Webber keeps theatres". WestEndTheatre.com, 15 December 2010, accessed 19 June 2011. ^ Her Majesty's Theatre, Haymarket. Templeman Library, University of Kent, accessed 18 December 2007 ^ Dennys, Harriet. "Lord Lloyd-Webber splits theatre group to expand on a global stage", The Telegraph, (London) 24 March 2014, accessed 3 October 2014. References[edit] Society of London Theatre plaque commemorating Her Majesty's Theatre Adams, William Davenport. A dictionary of the drama (1904) Chatto & Windus Theatre History with much archive material (Arthur Lloyd) Profile of the theatre and other Victorian theatres (Victorian Web) Burden, Michael, "Biagio Rebecca Draws the London Opera House: London’s Kings Theatre in the 1790s", in The Burlington, 161 (May 2019), pp. 364–373. Burden, Michael (2019). "London's Opera House in Colour 1705–1844, with Diversions in Fencing, Masquerading, and a visit from Elisabeth Félix". Music in Art: International Journal for Music Iconography. 44 (1–2): 19–165. ISSN 1522-7464. Earl, John and Michael Sell. Guide to British Theatres 1750–1950, pp. 116–17 (Theatres Trust, 2000) ISBN 0-7136-5688-3 Larkin, Colin (ed). Guinness Who's Who of Stage Musicals (Guinness Publishing, 1994) ISBN 0-85112-756-8 Parker, John (ed). Who's Who in the Theatre, tenth edition, revised, London, 1947, p. 1184. External links[edit] Media related to Her Majesty's Theatre at Wikimedia Commons Her Majesty's Theatre official site from the Really Useful Theatres Group "Herbert Beerbohm Tree archive at the University of Bristol Theatre Collection, University of Bristol". Archived from the original on 8 June 2007. Retrieved 26 June 2007. Video of the theatre and environs after a 2012 performance v t e Theatres in London West End Ambassador Theatre Group Ambassadors Apollo Victoria Duke of York's Fortune Harold Pinter Lyceum Phoenix Piccadilly Playhouse Savoy Delfont Mackintosh Theatres Gielgud Noël Coward Novello Prince Edward Prince of Wales Sondheim Victoria Palace Wyndham's LW Theatres Adelphi Cambridge Drury Lane Gillian Lynne Her Majesty's London Palladium Nederlander Organization Aldwych Dominion Nimax Theatres Apollo Duchess Garrick Lyric Vaudeville Palace Independent Arts Criterion Haymarket Shaftesbury St. Martin's Trafalgar Studios Other major theatres Barbican Centre London Coliseum The Old Vic Open Air Peacock National Royal Opera House Sadler's Wells Shakespeare's Globe Off West End Almeida Arcola Battersea Arts Centre Bridge Bush Charing Cross Donmar Warehouse Hampstead Lyric Hammersmith Menier Chocolate Factory The Other Palace Royal Court Soho Tricycle Young Vic Fringe and suburban Above the Stag artsdepot Ashcroft Barons Court Beck Bob Hope Bloomsbury The Broadway Broadway Brockley Jack Brookside Canal Café Chelsea Churchill Cockpit Courtyard Compass Erith Playhouse Etcetera Finborough Gate Greenwich Hackney Empire Hen and Chickens Hoxton Hall ICA Intimate Theatre Jacksons Lane Jermyn Street King's Head Landor Leicester Square Little Angel Millfield New Wimbledon New Players' Old Red Lion Orange Tree Ovalhouse Park Pentameters The Place Pleasance Islington The Print Room Queen's, Hornchurch The Questors RADA Studios Richmond Riverside Studios Rose, Kingston Rosemary Branch Theatre Shaw South London Southwark Playhouse The Space Stratford Circus Tabard Theatre503 Theatre Royal Stratford East Troxy Unicorn Union Upstairs at The Gatehouse White Bear Wilton's Former Bolton's Theatre Club Cochrane Cock Tavern Greenwich Playhouse Mermaid New End Saville Warehouse Westminster Category Commons v t e Really Useful Group Theatres Adelphi Cambridge Drury Lane Her Majesty's London Palladium Gillian Lynne Theatres in London Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Her_Majesty%27s_Theatre&oldid=999201489" Categories: West End theatres 1705 establishments in England Theatres completed in 1705 Theatres completed in 1897 Theatres in the City of Westminster Fires in London Grade II* listed buildings in the City of Westminster Grade II* listed theatres Opera houses in England Ballet in London Charles J. Phipps buildings Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links CS1 maint: extra text: authors list CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty Webarchive template archiveis links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata EngvarB from July 2019 Infobox mapframe without OSM relation ID on Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata Featured articles Use dmy dates from July 2019 Pages using the Kartographer extension Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Alemannisch العربية Català Čeština Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano עברית مصرى 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 9 January 2021, at 00:11 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3294	----	Amenemhat IV - Wikipedia Amenemhat IV From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search See Amenemhat, for other individuals with this name. Amenemhat IV Ammenemes Small gneiss sphinx is inscribed with the name of Amenemhat IV that was reworked in Ptolemaic times now is on display at the British Museum.[1] Pharaoh Reign 9 years 3 months and 27 days (Turin canon) but possibly longer,[2] 1822–1812 BC,[3] 1815–1806 BC,[4] 1808–1799 BC,[5] 1807–1798 BC,[6] 1786–1777 BC,[7] 1772–1764 BC[8] (12th Dynasty) Coregency most likely 2 years with Amenemhat III Predecessor Amenemhat III Successor Sobekneferu Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Maakherure M3ˁ-ḫrw-Rˁ The voice of Ra is true[9] Turin canon:[10] Maakherure M3ˁ-ḫrw-Rˁ The voice of Ra is true Nomen Amenemhat Jmn-m-ḥ3.t Amun is in front Horus name Kheperkheperu Ḫpr-ḫprw Everlasting of manifestations Nebty name Sehebtawy [S]-ḥ3b-t3wj He who makes the two lands festive Golden Horus Sekhembiknebunetjeru Sḫm-bik-nbw-nṯrw The golden Horus, powerful one of the gods Children uncertain, possibly Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep and Sonbef[4] Father uncertain, possibly Amenemhat III (perhaps as adoptive father) Mother Hetepi Burial uncertain Southern Mazghuna pyramid ? Amenemhat IV (also Amenemhet IV) was the seventh and penultimate[6] king of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt (c. 1990–1800 BC) during the late Middle Kingdom period (c. 2050–1710 BC), ruling for more than nine years in the late nineteenth century BC or the early eighteenth century BC.[2][4] Amenemhat IV may have been the son, grandson, or step-son of his predecessor, the powerful Amenemhat III. His reign started with a two-year coregency with Amenemhat III and it was seemingly peaceful. He undertook expeditions in the Sinai for turquoise, in Upper Egypt for amethyst and to the Land of Punt. He also maintained trade relations with Byblos as well as the Egyptian presence in Nubia. Amenemhat IV built some parts of the temple of Hathor at Serabit el-Khadim in the Sinai and constructed the well-preserved temple of Renenutet in Medinet Madi. The tomb of Amenemhat IV has not been identified, although the Southern Mazghuna pyramid is a possibility. He was succeeded by Sobekneferu, a daughter to Amenemhat III and possibly a sister or step-sister to Amenemhat IV. Her reign marked the end of the twelfth dynasty and the beginning of the Middle Kingdom's decline into the Second Intermediate Period. Contents 1 Family 2 Reign 2.1 Expeditions and foreign relations 2.2 Building activities 2.3 Legacy 3 Tomb 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading Family[edit] See also: Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Amenemhat IV's mother was a woman named Hetepi. Hetepi's only known attestation is an inscription on the wall of the temple of Renenutet at Medinet Madi, where she is given the title of "King's Mother", but not the titles of "King's Wife", "King's Daughter", or "King's Sister".[2] Consequently, her relationship to Amenemhat III is unknown and she may not have been from the royal line. The relationship of Amenemhat IV to Amenemhat III is similarly uncertain; the former could have been the son or grandson of the latter.[2][7] Manetho states that Amenemhat IV married his half-sister Sobekneferu, who is identified as a royal daughter of Amenemhat III and eventually became king upon the death of Amenemhat IV. Manetho's claim about the marriage is not yet supported by archaeological evidence. Particularly inconsistent with Manetho's records, Sobekneferu is not known to have borne the title of "King's Wife" among her other titles. Egyptologist Kim Ryholt proposes alternatively that Amenemhat IV was adopted by Amenemhat III and thus became Sobekneferu's step-brother, thereby explaining the Manethonian tradition.[4] More plausibly, Amenemhat IV may have died without a male heir, which could explain why he was succeeded by Sobekneferu,[3] who was a royal daughter of Amenemhat III. However, some egyptologists, such as Aidan Dodson and Kim Ryholt, have proposed that the first two rulers of the thirteenth Dynasty, Sobekhotep I and Amenemhat Sonbef, might be his sons outside the royal line.[11] Amenenmhat IV may have been Sobeknefru's spouse, but no evidence currently substantiates these hypotheses. Reign[edit] Scarab-seal of Amenemhat IV [12] Amenemhat IV first came to power as a junior coregent[13] of his predecessor Amenemhat III, whose reign marks the apex of the Middle Kingdom period. The coregency is well attested by numerous monuments and artefacts where the names of the two kings parallel each other.[13] The length of this coregency is uncertain; it could have lasted from one to seven years,[13] although most scholars believe it was only two years long.[2][13] The Turin Canon, a king list redacted during the early Ramesside period, records Amenemhat IV on Column 6, Row 1, and credits him with a reign of 9 years, 3 months and 27 days.[4] Amenemhat IV is also recorded on Entry 65 of the Abydos King List and Entry 38 of the Saqqara Tablet, both of which date to the New Kingdom. In spite of the Turin canon, the duration of Amenemhat IV's reign is uncertain. It was given as eight years under the name Ammenemes in Manetho's Aegyptiaca. In any case, Amenemhat IV's rule seems to have been peaceful and uneventful. Amenemhat IV is well attested by contemporary artefacts, including a number of scarab- and cylinder-seals.[14] Expeditions and foreign relations[edit] Four expeditions to the turquoise mines of Serabit el-Khadim in the Sinai are dated to his reign by in-situ inscriptions. The latest took place in his ninth year on the throne and could be the last expedition of the Middle Kingdom, since the next inscription dates to Ahmose I's reign, some 200 years later.[2] In his Year 2, Amenemhat IV sent another expedition to mine amethyst in the Wadi el-Hudi in southern Egypt. The leader of the expedition was the assistant treasurer Sahathor.[15] Farther south, three Nile-records are known from Kumna in Nubia that are explicitly dated to his Years 5, 6, and 7 on the throne, showing that the Egyptian presence in the region was maintained during his lifetime.[2] Important trade relations must have existed during his reign with the city of Byblos, on the coast of modern-day Lebanon, where an obsidian and gold chest as well as a jar lid bearing Amenemhat IV's name have been found.[2] A gold plaque showing Amenemhat IV offering to a deity may also originate there.[16] In 2010, a report on continuing excavations at Wadi Gawasis on the Red Sea coast notes the finding of two wooden chests and an ostracon inscribed with a hieratic text mentioning an expedition to the fabled Land of Punt in Year 8 of Amenemhat IV, under the direction of the royal scribe Djedy.[17] Two fragments of a stela depicting him and dating to his Year 7 were found at Berenice on the Red Sea.[18][19] Building activities[edit] Amenemhat IV completed the temple of Renenutet and Sobek at Medinet Madi that had been started by Amenemhat III,[20][21][22] which is "the only intact temple still existing from the Middle Kingdom" according to Zahi Hawass, a former Secretary-General of Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA).[23] The foundations of the temple, administrative buildings, granaries, and residences were uncovered by an Egyptian archaeological expedition in early 2006. It is possible that Amenemhat IV built a temple in the northeastern Fayum at Qasr el-Sagha.[24] Amenemhat IV is responsible for the completion of a shrine at the temple of Hathor in the Sinai [25] and may also have undertaken works in Karnak where a pedestal for a sacred barque inscribed with Amenemhat III and IV names was found in 1924.[2][26][27][28][29] Legacy[edit] Less than ten years after Amenemhat IV's death, the twelfth dynasty came to an end and was replaced by the much weaker thirteenth dynasty.[4] Although the first two rulers of this new dynasty may have been sons of Amenemhat IV, political instability quickly became prevalent and kings rarely ruled beyond a couple of years.[4] The influx of Asiatic immigrants in the Nile Delta that had started during the reigns of Amenemhat IV's predecessor accelerated under his own reign, becoming completely unchecked.[30] Under the thirteenth dynasty, the Asiatic population of the Delta founded an independent kingdom ruled by kings of Canaanite descent forming the fourteenth dynasty and reigning from Avaris.[4] Approximately 80 years after the reign of Amenemhat IV, "the administration [of the Egyptian state] seems to have completely collapsed",[4] marking the start of the Second Intermediate Period. Tomb[edit] Main article: Southern Mazghuna pyramid The remains of the Southern Mazghuna pyramid, possibly Amenemhat IV's tomb [31] The tomb of Amenemhat IV has not been identified. Nonetheless, he often is associated with the ruined Southern Mazghuna pyramid. No inscriptions have been found within the pyramid to ascertain the identity of its owner, but its architectural similarity[31] with the second pyramid of Amenemhat III at Hawara, led egyptologists to date the pyramid to the late twelfth or early thirteenth dynasty.[32] Less likely, Amenemhat IV could have been interred in Amenemhat III's first pyramid in Dashur, since his name has been found on an inscription in the mortuary temple.[2] At Dahshur, next to the pyramid of Amenemhat II, the remains of another pyramid dating to the Middle Kingdom were discovered during building works. The pyramid has not yet been excavated, but a fragment inscribed with the royal name "Amenemhat" has been unearthed. It is therefore, possible that this pyramid belongs to Amenemhat IV, although there are also kings of the thirteenth Dynasty who bore the name Amenemhat and who could have built the pyramid. Alternatively, the relief fragment may originate (come) from the nearby pyramid of Amenemhat II.[33] See also[edit] List of pharaohs References[edit] ^ The sphinx BM EA58892 on the catalog of the British Museum ^ a b c d e f g h i j Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I – Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 30–32 ^ a b Wolfram Grajetzki: Late Middle Kingdom, UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology (2013), available online ^ a b c d e f g h i K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here. ^ Michael Rice: Who is who in Ancient Egypt, Routledge London & New York 1999, ISBN 0-203-44328-4, see p. 11 ^ a b Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz : Philip von Zabern, 1999, ISBN 3-8053-2591-6, see pp. 86–87, king No 7. and p. 283 for the dates of Amenemhat IV's reign. ^ a b Gae Callender, Ian Shaw (editor): The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, OUP Oxford, New Edition (2004), ISBN 978-0-19-280458-7, excerpts available online ^ Erik Hornung (editor), Rolf Krauss (editor), David A. Warburton (editor): Ancient Egyptian Chronology, Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill 2012, ISBN 978-90-04-11385-5, available online copyright-free ^ Digital Egypt for Universities: Amenemhat IV Maakherure (1807/06-1798/97 BCE) ^ Alan H. Gardiner: The Royal Canon of Turin, Griffith Institute, Oxford 1997, ISBN 0-900416-48-3, pl. 3. ^ Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, (London: Thames & Hudson, 2004) ISBN 0-500-05128-3, p. 102 ^ Flinders Petrie: A history of Egypt from the earliest times to the 16th dynasty, London Methuen 1897, available online copyright-free ^ a b c d William J. Murnane: Ancient Egyptian Coregencies, Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization (SAOC) 40, Chicago: The Oriental Institute, 1977, available online, direct access to pdf ^ See for example seals 22 and 38 pp. 113 and 121 and pl. VI and IX in: Percy Newberry: Scarabs: An introduction to the study of Egyptian seals and signet rings, with forty-four plates and one hundred and sixteen illustrations in the text, 1906, available online copyright-free ^ Ashraf I. Sadek: The Amethyst Mining Inscriptions of Wadi el-Hudi, Part I: Text, Warminster 1980, ISBN 0-85668-162-8, 44-45, no. 21 ^ Gold openwork plaque showing Amenemhat IV, on the British Museum website ^ El-Sayed Mahfouz: Amenemhat IV at Wadi Gawasis, Bulletin de l'Institut français d'archéologie orientale A. (BIFAO) 2010, vol. 110, [165-173, 485, 491 [11 p.]], ISBN 978-2-7247-0583-6, see also [1] ^ Astonishing archaeological discoveries help rewriting the history of the Ancient Egyptian harbour ^ Hense, M.; Kaper, O.E. (2015). "A stela of Amenemhet IV from the main temple at Berenike". Bibliotheca Orientalis. Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten. 72 (5–6): 585–601. ^ Dieter Arnold, Nigel Strudwick (editor), Helen M. Strudwick (editor, translator): The Encyclopaedia of Ancient Egyptian Architecture, I.B. Tauris 2001, ISBN 978-1-86064-465-8, p. 145 ^ Edda Bresciani, Antonio Giammarusti: Sobek's double temple on the hill of Medinet Madî, Les Dossiers d'archéologie (Dijon) A. 2001, n° 265, pp. 132–140, see also [2] ^ The temple of Renenutet at Medinet Madi or Narmuthis. ^ Middle East Times: Egypt finds clue to ancient temple's secret April 7, 2006 ^ Ian Shaw: Ancient Egypt: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press (2004), ISBN 978-0-19-285419-3, excerpt available online, see p. ^ Flinders Petrie: Researches in Sinai, Dutton, New York (1906), see p. 63, 92, 93 & 98, available online copyright-free ^ Maurice Pillet: Rapport sur les travaux de Karnak (1923–1924), ASAE 24, 1924, p. 53–88, available online ^ H. Gauthier: À propos de certains monuments décrits dans le dernier rapport de M. Pillet, ASAE 24, 1924, p. 196–197, available online ^ Photos of the pedestal ^ Labib Habachi: New Light on Objects of Unknown Provenance (I): A Strange Monument of Amenemhet IV and a Similar Uninscribed One, Göttinger Miszellen (GM) Vol. 26, Göttingen (1977), pp. 27–36. ^ Toby Wilkinson: The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt, Bloomsbury Paperbacks (2011), ISBN 978-1-4088-1002-6, see in particular p. 183 ^ a b Flinders Petrie, G. A. Wainwright, E. Mackay: The Labyrinth, Gerzeh and Mazghuneh, London 1912, available online. ^ William C. Hayes: The Scepter of Egypt: A Background for the Study of the Egyptian Antiquities in The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Vol. 1, From the Earliest Times to the End of the Middle Kingdom, MetPublications, 1978, pp. 136–138, available online ^ Mark Lehner, The Complete Pyramids, Thames and Hudson, London 1997, p. 184. ISBN 0-500-05084-8. Further reading[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Amenemhat IV. Ingo Matzker: Die letzten Könige der 12. Dynastie, Europäische Hochschulschriften 1986. Reihe III, Geschichte und ihre Hilfswissenschaften. Frankfurt, Bern, New York: Lang. Wolfram Grajetzki: The Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt: History, Archaeology and Society, Bloomsbury 3PL (2010), ISBN 978-0-7156-3435-6 Ian Shaw, Paul Nicholson: The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt, Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publishers. 1995. Stefania Pignattari: Amenemhat IV and the end of the Twelfth Dynasty, BAR Publishing (2018), ISBN 978-1-4073-1635-2 Preceded by Amenemhat III Pharaoh of Egypt Twelfth Dynasty Succeeded by Sobekneferu v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control VIAF: 9784158127402515150005 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 9784158127402515150005 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amenemhat_IV&oldid=983600748" Categories: 19th-century BC Pharaohs 18th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Good articles Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 15 October 2020, at 04:43 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3297	----	Kheriga - Wikipedia Kheriga From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Dynast of Lycia, in present-day Turkey Coinage of Kheriga (circa 450-410 BCE). The Xanthian Obelisk was probably erected as a pillar supporting the sarcophagus of Kheriga, circa 400 BCE.[1] Kheriga (in Greek Gergis) was a Dynast of Lycia, who ruled circa 450-410 BCE. Kheriga is mentioned on the succession list of the Xanthian Obelisk, and is probably the owner of the sarcophagus that was standing on top of it.[1][2] Kheriga was son of Harpagus (Arppakhu in Lycian).[3][4] Arbinas was the son of Kheriga.[5][4] Kheriga was ruler of Lycia at the time when Lycia was an ally of Athens in the Delian League. As the power of Athens weakened and Athens and Sparta fought the Peloponnesian wars (431–404 BC), the majority of Lycian cities defaulted from the Delian League, with the exception of Telmessos and Phaselis. In 429 BC, Athens sent an expedition against Lycia to try to force it to rejoin the League. This failed when Lycia's leader Kheriga (Gergis) defeated Athenian general Melesander.[6][7] The encounter is described in the inscription on the Xanthian Obelisk.[8] References[edit] ^ a b Keen, Antony G. (1998). Dynastic Lycia: A Political of History of the Lycians and Their Relations with Foreign Powers : C. 545-362 B.C. BRILL. p. 130. ISBN 9004109560. ^ Long, Charlotte R. (1987). The Twelve Gods of Greece and Rome. Brill Archive. p. 145. ISBN 9004077162. ^ Keen, Antony G. (1998). Dynastic Lycia: A Political of History of the Lycians and Their Relations with Foreign Powers : C. 545-362 B.C. BRILL. p. 117. ISBN 9004109560. ^ a b Rhodes, Peter John; Osborne, Robin; Osborne, University Lecturer in Ancient History and Fellow and Tutor Robin (2003). Greek Historical Inscriptions: 404-323 BC. Oxford University Press. pp. 61–62. ISBN 9780198153139. ^ Childs, William A. P. (1978). The City-reliefs of Lycia. Princeton University Press. p. 3. ^ "Melesander, with the Athenian and confederate force he had on board his ships, landed in Lycia, and was defeated in the first battle, in which he lost part of his army and his own life." The History of the Peloponnesian War: Translated from the Greek of Thucydides. To which are Annexed, Three Preliminary Discourses. I. On the Life of Thucydides. II. On His Qualifications as a Historian. III. A Survey of the History. Edward Earle T.H. Palmer, printer. 1818. p. 173. ^ Tuplin, Christopher (2007). Persian Responses: Political and Cultural Interaction with(in) the Achaemenid Empire. ISD LLC. p. 150. ISBN 9781910589465. ^ Keen, Antony G. (1998). Dynastic Lycia: A Political of History of the Lycians and Their Relations with Foreign Powers : C. 545-362 B.C. BRILL. p. 129. ISBN 9004109560. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kheriga&oldid=947278910" Categories: 5th-century BC people Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Lycians Delian League Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 25 March 2020, at 11:13 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3299	----	Necho I - Wikipedia Necho I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Necho I Horus statuette bearing the cartouches of Necho I. London, Petrie Museum.[1] Pharaoh Reign 672–664 BCE (26th Dynasty) Predecessor Nekauba or Tefnakht II[2] Successor Psamtik I Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Menkheperre Mn-ḫpr-Rˁ [3] Enduring is the apparition of Ra Nomen Nekau[1] N-kꜣ-w (𓈖𓂓𓅱) [3] Consort Istemabet[4] Children Psamtik I, possibly Ta-khered-en-ta-ihet-[weret] and Meresamun Father Tefnakht II[5] Died 664 BCE Menkheperre Necho I (Egyptian: Nekau,[1] Greek: Νεχώς Α' or Νεχώ Α', Akkadian: Nikuu[6] or Nikû[7]) (? – 664 BCE near Memphis) was a ruler of the ancient Egyptian city of Sais. He was the first securely attested local Saite king of the 26th Dynasty of Egypt who reigned for 8 years (672–664 BCE) according to Manetho's Aegyptiaca. Egypt was reunified by his son Psamtik I. Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Family 2 Attestations 3 References 4 Bibliography 5 External links Biography[edit] In 672 BCE Necho became ruler of Sais, assuming the pharaonic titulary, and a year later the Assyrians led by Esarhaddon invaded Egypt. Necho became one of Esarhaddon's vassals, and the latter confirmed Necho's office and his possessions, as well as giving him new territories, possibly including the city of Memphis.[8] In 669 BCE, king Taharqa of the 25th Dynasty was advancing from the south toward the Nile Delta principalities which were formally under Assyrian control; once he was aware of that, Esarhaddon prepared himself to return to Egypt to repel the invader, but he died suddenly. Esarhaddon's death led to a political crisis in the Neo-Assyrian Empire but at the end his son Ashurbanipal managed to become the new undisputed monarch. The counter-offensive planned by his father took place in 667/666 BCE.[9][10] Taharqa was defeated and driven back to Thebes, but Ashurbanipal found that the fleeing king and some of the rulers of Lower Egypt – named Pekrur of Pishaptu (Per-Sopdu), Sharruludari of Ṣinu (maybe Pelusium) and Nikuu (Necho I) – were plotting against him. The Assyrian king captured the conspirators, killed part of the population of the cities they governed, and deported the prisoners to Nineveh.[11] Unexpectedly, Necho was pardoned by the Assyrian king, and was reinstated at Sais with his previous possessions as well as many new territories as a gift, while his son Psamtik (called Nabusezibanni in Akkadian) was made mayor of Athribis.[12][6] It has been suggested that with his magnanimity Ashurbanipal hoped to rely on the loyalty of an Egyptian ally in the event of another offensive led by the 25th Dynasty pharaohs, and perhaps to inspire and strengthen a rivalry between the two families (i.e., Kushites and Saites) because of shared interests.[12] According to historical records, Necho I was slain in 664 BCE near Memphis while defending his realms from a new Kushite offensive led by Taharqa's successor Tantamani[12][6][13] while Psamtik fled to Nineveh under Ashurbanipal's aegis. This Nubian invasion into the Egyptian Delta was subsequently (664/663 BCE) repelled by the Assyrians who proceeded to advance south into Upper Egypt and performed the infamous sack of Thebes.[14] With the Nile Delta secured once again, Psamtik I was appointed with his dead father's offices and territories. Later, he ultimately was successful in reuniting Egypt under his sole control.[15] Family[edit] See also: Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Danish Egyptologist Kim Ryholt made claims regarding Necho I: studying a papyrus from Tebtunis, he stated that Necho I was the son of a king named Tefnakht, presumably Tefnakht II.[5] Ryholt also put in discussion the existence of Nekauba who was the purported predecessor of Necho I and possibly his brother; Ryholt suggested that the few, dubious documents regarding Nekauba should be attributed to the later Necho II instead, and that Necho I was the direct successor of Tefnakht II.[2] French historian Christian Settipani believes that Necho married Istemabet, and they were the parents of Psamtik I.[4] According to British Egyptologist Kenneth Kitchen, it is possible that princess Ta-khered-en-ta-ihet-[weret] was Necho's daughter, given in a politically arranged marriage to the local ruler of Herakleopolis, Pediese.[16] A now-lost limestone lintel from Luxor depicted a chantress of Amun named Meresamun along with a Saite form of Osiris and the Divine Adoratrice of Amun Shepenupet II; Meresamun is called "royal daughter of the lord of the Two lands, Nec[...]", the latter name written within a royal cartouche. It appears likely that Meresamun's royal father was no other than Necho I who sent his daughter to the Precinct of Amun-Re in Karnak, thus marking the beginning of the Saite influence in the city of Thebes.[17] Attestations[edit] Kneeling statuette of a king Necho. It may depict either Necho I or II. Brooklyn Museum (acc.no. 71.11)[18] Necho I is primarily known from Assyrian documents but a few Egyptian objects are known too. A glazed pottery statuette of Horus which contains his cartouches and a dedication to the goddess Neith of Sais[8][19] is now exhibited at the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology (UC 14869).[1] The aforementioned, long–lost lintel of Meresamun was once photographed in an antiquities market at Luxor.[17] A bronze kneeling statuette of a king Necho is housed at the Brooklyn Museum (acc.no. 71.11), but it is impossible to determine if it actually depicts Necho I or rather Necho II instead.[18] He is also mentioned in several demotic stories.[7] Necho I's Year 2 is attested on a privately held donation stela that was first published by Olivier Perdu. The stela records a large land donation to the Osirian triad (Osiris, Isis, and Horus) of Per-Hebyt (modern Behbeit el-Hagar near Sebennytos) by the "priest of Isis Mistress of Hebyt, Great Chief... son of Iuput, Akanosh."[20] References[edit] ^ a b c d "Nekau I". Digital Egypt for Universities. University College London. Retrieved 8 July 2018. ^ a b Ryholt (2011a) ^ a b von Beckerath (1999), pp. 212–213 ^ a b Settipani (1991), pp. 153, 160, 161–162 ^ a b Ryholt (2011b), pp. 123–127 ^ a b c Lloyd (2001), pp. 504–505 ^ a b Ryholt (2004), p. 486 ^ a b Kitchen (1996), § 117 ^ Kitchen (1996), § 353 ^ Picchi (1997), p. 49 ^ Picchi (1997), pp. 48–52 ^ a b c Picchi (1997), p. 52 ^ Kitchen (1996), §§ 117, 354 ^ Kitchen (1996), § 354 ^ Spalinger (2001), p. 74 ^ Kitchen (1996), §§ 201, 363 ^ a b Coulon & Payraudeau (2015), pp. 21–31 ^ a b "Kneeling Statuette of King Necho". Brooklyn Museum. Retrieved 8 July 2018. ^ Petrie (1917), pl. LIV, 25.5 ^ Perdu (2002), pp. 1215–1244 Bibliography[edit] Coulon, Laurent; Payraudeau, Frédéric (2015). "Une princesse saïte à Thèbes sous la XXVe dynastie ?". Revue d'Égyptologie. 66: 21–31. Kitchen, Kenneth (1996). The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100–650 BC) (3rd ed.). Warminster: Aris & Phillips Limited. ISBN 0-85668-298-5. Lloyd, Alan B. (2001). "Necho I". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, vol. II. Oxford: University Press. Perdu, Olivier (2002). "De Stéphinatès à Néchao ou les débuts de la XXVIe dynastie". CRAIBL: 1215–1244. Petrie, Flinders (1917). Scarabs and cylinders with names. London: University College Press. Picchi, Daniela (1997). Il conflitto tra Etiopi ed Assiri nell'Egitto della XXV dinastia [The war between Kushites and Assyrians in Egypt during the 25th Dynasty] (in Italian). Imola: La Mandragora. ISBN 88-86123-34-5. Ryholt, Kim (2004). "The Assyrian Invasion of Egypt in Egyptian Literary Tradition". In Dercksen, J.G. (ed.). Assyria and Beyond: Studies Presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten. pp. 483–510. Ryholt, Kim (2011a). "New light on the legendary King Nechepsos of Egypt". Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 97: 61–72. Ryholt, Kim (2011b). "King Necho I son of king Tefnakhte II". In F. Feder; L. Morenz; G. Vittmann (eds.). Von Theben nach Giza. Festmiszellen für Stefan Grunert zum 65. Geburtstag. Göttinger Miszellen Beihefte. 10. Göttingen. Settipani, Christian (1991). Nos ancêtres de l'Antiquité, Étude des possibilités de liens généalogiques entre les familles de l'Antiquité et celles du haut Moyen Âge européen [Our ancient ancestors: study into possible genealogical links between families in Antiquity and those in the Middle Ages of Europe] (in French). Paris. ISBN 2864960508. Spalinger, Anthony J. (2001). "Psamtik I". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, vol. III. Oxford: University Press. von Beckerath, Jürgen (1999). Handbuch der Ägyptischen Königsnamen. Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 49. Mainz: Philip von Zabern. ISBN 3-8053-2591-6. External links[edit] Media related to Necho I at Wikimedia Commons v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Necho_I&oldid=995075339" Categories: 664 BC deaths 7th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Monarchs killed in action Hidden categories: CS1 Italian-language sources (it) CS1 French-language sources (fr) Commons category link from Wikidata AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help 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Special:BookSources in other language Wikipedias ISBN Prefix Ranges Wikipedia 0 1 English (this page) 2 979-10 French 3 German 4 (Japan) Japanese 5 (Russia, former USSR) Russian 7 (China, PR) 957/986 (Taiwan, ROC) 962/988 (Hong Kong, SAR) 981 (Singapore) 99937 (Macau, SAR) Chinese 80 (Czech Republic) Czech 83 (Poland) Polish 84 (Spain) 950 (Argentina) 956 (Chile) 958 (Colombia) 959 (Cuba) 968/970 (Mexico) 980 (Venezuela) 9942/9978 (Ecuador) Spanish 85 (Brasil) 972 (Portugal) Portuguese 86 (Serbia, Montenegro) Serbian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 953 (Croatia) Croatian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 961 (Slovenia) Slovenian 87 Danish 88 Italian 89 Korean 90 Dutch 91 Swedish 92 International organizations (multilingual) 93 (India) Hindi 93 (India) 955 (Sri Lanka) Tamil 951/952 (Finland) Finnish 953 Bulgarian 955 (Sri Lanka) Sinhalese 960 Greek 963 Hungarian 964/600 (Iran) Persian 965 (Israel) Hebrew 966 (Ukraine) Ukrainian 967 (Malaysia) Malay 969 (Pakistan) Pashto 971 (Philippines) Tagalog 973 (Romania) Romanian 974 (Thailand) Thai 975/9944/605 (Turkey) Turkish 976 (Caribbean Community) See English, Spanish... 977 (Egypt) 978 (Nigeria) 9960/603 (Saudi Arabia) 9931/9947/9961(Algeria) Arabic 979 (Indonesia) Indonesian 982 (South Pacific) See English, French, ... 984 (Bangladesh) Bangla Welsh Bibliographical information These links produce citations in various referencing styles. 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en-wikipedia-org-3302	----	Category:Short description is different from Wikidata - Wikipedia Help Category:Short description is different from Wikidata From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a hidden category. It is not shown on its member pages, unless the corresponding user preference (appearance → show hidden categories) is set. Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. The main page for this category is WP:Short description. This category contains articles with short descriptions that do not match the description field on Wikidata. No action is needed at this time. This is a tracking category only. Contents: Top 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z * # 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 • A Aa Ae Aj Ao At • B Ba Be Bj Bo Bt • C Ca Ce Cj Co Ct • D Da De Dj Do Dt • E Ea Ee Ej Eo Et • F Fa Fe Fj Fo Ft • G Ga Ge Gj Go Gt • H Ha He Hj Ho Ht • I Ia Ie Ij Io It • J Ja Je Jj Jo Jt • K Ka Ke Kj Ko Kt • L La Le Lj Lo Lt • M Ma Me Mj Mo Mt • N Na Ne Nj No Nt • O Oa Oe Oj Oo Ot • P Pa Pe Pj Po Pt • Q Qa Qe Qj Qo Qt • R Ra Re Rj Ro Rt • S Sa Se Sj So St • T Ta Te Tj To Tt • U Ua Ue Uj Uo Ut • V Va Ve Vj Vo Vt • W Wa We Wj Wo Wt • X Xa Xe Xj Xo Xt • Y Ya Ye Yj Yo Yt • Z Za Ze Zj Zo Zt Pages in category "Short description is different from Wikidata" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 1,853,354 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). (previous page) (next page)- (album) - (disambiguation) -- -.- -77.82X-78.29 -gry puzzle -oic acid ! ! (Cláudia Pascoal album) ! (disambiguation) ! (The Dismemberment Plan album) ! (The Song Formerly Known As) ! (Trippie Redd album) !! !!! !!! (album) !!! (disambiguation) ¡ ¡Ay, Jalisco, no te rajes! (film) ¡Qué Chulada! ? ? (Bersuit album) ? (Lost) ? (Neal Morse album) ? (Nena album) ? (XXXTentacion album) ? (Enuff Z'nuff album) ?: ?! (album) ?? ?= ¿ ¿Dónde está Elisa? . ּ . . .07% .22 caliber .32 caliber .32 Short .38 Special .38 Super .45 Colt .50 BMG .223 Remington .300 .303 .350 Legend .357 .357 SIG .460 .577 .app .art .gay .hack//G.U. Trilogy .hack//G.U. .NET Core .S Timeline of women in science .wiki .wps .мкд ' ' (disambiguation) 'A'akapa 'Amanave 'Aoa 'Arsh 'Asir Province ʻAtā 'Ayy 'Eua Fo'ou 'Ili'ili 'Izbān 'S Awful Nice 'S Continental 's Lands Hospitaal 'S Marvelous ʽUrjan al Gharbiyah ’ ’ " " (disambiguation) ( ( ) (album) ( ) (disambiguation) ( ) (film) (+)-Sabinene 3-hydroxylase (= (2Z,6Z)-farnesyl diphosphate synthase (character) (I Would Do) Anything for You [ + + § §185 @ Fucking Smilers * * (disambiguation) ** *** The **** of the Mothers *= *69 (album) / // /\ /= /Film /s/ \ \/ \\ & & (disambiguation) && # 1 (Demy album) 1 (Fischerspooner album) 1 (Suburban Kids with Biblical Names EP) 2 (Suburban Kids with Biblical Names EP) 3 (Shakespears Sister album) 3 (Suburban Kids with Biblical Names album) 3 (The Script album) 5 (Flow album) 7 (George Strait album) 8 (J. J. Cale album) 20 (Edmond Leung album) 34 (song) 41 (song) ByeFelicia Cookie Jar (EP) List of The 100 characters ^ ^^ ← ← → → ↑ ↑ ↓ ↓ ∆ ∆ + + - + (disambiguation) + (song) +++ +1 +incinerate × × Fatshedera = =? − −1 −2 −5 ∔ ∔ ∾ ∾ ≂ ≂ ≅ ≅ ≡ ≡ ≤ ≤ ≬ ≬ ⊏ ⊏ ⊐ ⊐ ⊑ ⊑ ⋢ ⊒ ⊒ ⋣ ⊓ ⊓ ⊕ ⊕ ⊖ ⊖ ⊝ ⊝ ⊢ ⊬ ⊩ ⊮ ⊪ ⊪ ⊫ ⊫ ⊯ ⊶ ⊶ ⊷ ⊷ ⊺ ⊺ ⊿ ⊿ ⋇ ⋇ ⋐ ⋐ ⋑ ⋑ ⋒ ⋒ ⋓ ⋓ ⋤ ⋤ ⋥ ⋥ ✕ ✕ $ $ (disambiguation) $0 $1 coin $1,000,000 Worth of Twang $2 $3 $5 $10 $20 $50 $100 $200 $500 $1000 £ £$€ £2 ₰ ₰ 0–9 0000 00 0 (album) 0 (disambiguation) 0 Ø Choir 0 + 2 = 1 0 + 2 = 1 ½ 00s 00 Schneider – Jagd auf Nihil Baxter 0 series 0 Series Shinkansen 0 to 1 no Aida 0-0 (previous page) (next page) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata&oldid=991100198" Categories: WikiProject Short descriptions Hidden categories: Hidden categories Template Large category TOC via CatAutoTOC on category with over 20,000 pages CatAutoTOC generates Large category TOC Articles with short description Wikipedia categories tracking Wikidata differences Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages فارسی Bahasa Indonesia ଓଡ଼ିଆ Edit links This page was last edited on 28 November 2020, at 07:23 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3323	----	Aridolis - Wikipedia Aridolis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient tyrant mentioned in Herodotus Alabanda Location of Alabanda in Asia Minor, where Aridolis ruled. Aridolis (Ancient Greek: Ἀρίδωλις) was a tyrant of Alabanda in Caria, who accompanied the Achaemenid king Xerxes I in his expedition against Greece, and was taken by the Greeks off Artemisium in 480 BCE, and sent to the isthmus of Corinth in chains.[1] His successor may have been Amyntas II (son of Bubares).[2] "They took in one of these ships Aridolis, the despot of Alabanda in Caria, and in another the Paphian captain Penthylus son of Demonous; of twelve ships that he had brought from Paphos he had lost eleven in the storm off the Sepiad headland, and was in the one that remained when he was taken as he bore down on Artemisium. Having questioned these men and learnt what they desired to know of Xerxes' armament, the Greeks sent them away to the isthmus of Corinth in bonds." — Herodotus VII.195[3] References[edit] ^ Herodotus, Histories vii. 195 ^ McNicoll, Milner; McNicoll, Anthony; Milner, N. P. (1997). Hellenistic Fortifications from the Aegean to the Euphrates. Oxford monographs on classical archaeology. Clarendon Press. p. 31. ISBN 9780198132288. Retrieved 2018-10-12. ^ LacusCurtius • Herodotus — Book VII: Chapters 175‑239.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Smith, William (1870). "Aridolis". In Smith, William (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 1. p. 285. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aridolis&oldid=997721846" Categories: 6th-century BC births People of the Greco-Persian Wars 5th-century BC rulers Carian people Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Military personnel of the Achaemenid Empire Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Ελληνικά Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 1 January 2021, at 22:41 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3324	----	2006 in film - Wikipedia 2006 in film From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Overview of the events of 2006 in film This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "2006 in film" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Overview of the events of 2006 in film List of years in film (table) … 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 … In home video 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 In television 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Art Archaeology Architecture Literature Music Philosophy Science +... Years in film 1870s 1880s 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890s 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900s 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910s 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920s 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930s 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940s 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950s 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960s 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970s 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980s 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990s 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000s 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010s 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020s 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 v t e The following is an overview of events in 2006, including the highest-grossing films, award ceremonies and festivals, a list of films released and notable deaths. This was the first time that several animated films were released in that year. Most notably, Happy Feet which won the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature. Contents 1 Evaluation of the year 2 Highest-grossing films 3 Events 4 Awards 5 Films released in 2006 6 Notable deaths 7 References 8 External links Evaluation of the year[edit] Legendary film critic Philip French of The Guardian described 2006 as "an outstanding year for British cinema". He went on to emphasize, "Six of our well-established directors have made highly individual films of real distinction: Michael Winterbottom's A Cock and Bull Story, Ken Loach's Palme d'Or winner The Wind That Shakes the Barley, Christopher Nolan's The Prestige, Stephen Frears's The Queen, Paul Greengrass's United 93 and Nicholas Hytner's The History Boys. Two young directors made confident debuts, both offering a jaundiced view of contemporary Britain: Andrea Arnold's Red Road and Paul Andrew Williams's London to Brighton. In addition the gifted Mexican Alfonso Cuaron came here to make the dystopian thriller Children of Men." He also stated, "In the (United) States, M. Night Shyamalan of The Sixth Sense fame fell flat on his over-confident face with Lady in the Water, but Martin Scorsese's The Departed was his best for years, and he was with Jack Nicholson at last. Apart from that, the best American films were political (Syriana, Good Night, and Good Luck, The New World) or very personal (Little Miss Sunshine, Little Children, The Squid and the Whale). Sadly, Oliver Stone's 9/11 picture World Trade Center was neither. Asian cinema produced a string of elegant thrillers and horror flicks. The best Eastern European movie was The Death of Mr Lazarescu, a devastating look at the Romania Ceausescu left behind him. Most of the best Western European films came from France, with Michael Haneke's Hidden (Cache), proving the most widely discussed art-house puzzle picture since Last Year at Marienbad. The award of 18 certificates by the BBFC to Shortbus and Destricted has brought close the abolition of censorship, but not of classification, and Ang Lee's Brokeback Mountain was a real step forward for the representation of homosexuals in mainstream cinema, though Gore Vidal claims that there's a gay subtext to every western. However, the year's most extraordinary event, or conjunction, was the almost simultaneous release of Tommy Lee Jones's directorial debut The Three Burials of Melquiades Estrada and Al Gore's documentary An Inconvenient Truth. Who would have predicted in the Sixties, when they were roommates at Harvard and used by Erich Segal as joint models for Oliver Barrett IV in Love Story, that both Jones and Gore would end up as movie stars - if, in Gore's case, accidentally and temporarily?"[1] Highest-grossing films[edit] See also: Lists of box office number-one films § 2006 The top 10 films released in 2006 by worldwide gross are as follows:[2] Highest-grossing films of 2006 Rank Title Distributor Worldwide gross 1 Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest Disney $1,066,179,725 2 The Da Vinci Code Sony Pictures / Columbia $760,006,945 3 Ice Age: The Meltdown Fox $660,998,756 4 Casino Royale Sony Pictures / Columbia / MGM $606,099,584 5 Night at the Museum Fox $574,480,841 6 Cars Disney $461,983,149 7 X-Men: The Last Stand Fox $460,435,291 8 Mission: Impossible III Paramount $398,479,497 9 Superman Returns Warner Bros. $391,081,192 10 Happy Feet $384,335,608 Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest became the third film in cinema history to gross over $1 billion and is the 35th highest-grossing film of all time. Events[edit] Month Day Event January 4 The Producers Guild of America nominates Brokeback Mountain, Capote, Crash, Good Night, and Good Luck and Walk the Line as contenders for their best-produced film award. The Writers Guild of America (WGA) nominate The 40-Year-Old Virgin, I Tried, Crash, Good Night, and Good Luck and The Squid and the Whale for best original screenplay. The WGA nominees for best adapted screenplay are Brokeback Mountain, Capote, The Constant Gardener, A History of Violence and Syriana. 5 Jon Stewart is named host of the 78th Academy Awards. 9 The Broadcast Film Critics Association present their Critics' Choice Awards for the best films of 2005 live on The WB network in the United States. Brokeback Mountain is named best picture, best director for Ang Lee and ties for best supporting actress for Michelle Williams. Philip Seymour Hoffman is named best actor for Capote and Reese Witherspoon is awarded best actress for Walk the Line. 16 The winners of the 63rd Golden Globe Awards include Brokeback Mountain for best dramatic picture and best director. 19 The 2006 Sundance Film Festival starts in Park City, Utah. 24 Disney announces plans to acquire Pixar 28 The Directors Guild of America names Ang Lee best film director of 2005 for Brokeback Mountain, best documentary goes to Werner Herzog for Grizzly Man and its Lifetime Achievement Award goes to Clint Eastwood. 29 The Screen Actors Guild names Philip Seymour Hoffman outstanding male movie actor for Capote, Reese Witherspoon as outstanding female lead movie actor for Walk the Line, Rachel Weisz as outstanding female actor in a supporting role for The Constant Gardener, Paul Giamatti as outstanding male actor in a supporting role for Cinderella Man, the cast of Crash as outstanding ensemble in a theatrical motion picture, and Shirley Temple Black is given a life achievement award. 30 The 26th Golden Raspberry Awards nominees include Deuce Bigalow: European Gigolo, Dirty Love, The Dukes of Hazzard, House of Wax and Son of the Mask for worst film; Tom Cruise, Will Ferrell, Jamie Kennedy, The Rock and Rob Schneider for worst actor; and Jessica Alba, Hilary Duff, Jennifer Lopez, Jenny McCarthy and Tara Reid for worst actress. 31 The Academy Awards for best film achievement in 2005 had nominated primarily independent films. Brokeback Mountain led the nominations with 8, followed by Crash, Good Night, and Good Luck and Memoirs of a Geisha all earning six. February 5 The 33rd annual Annie Award - Wallace and Gromit: The Curse of the Were-Rabbit won the best animated feature, as well as all nine categories which it was nominated. Family Guy won the best voice acting and directing, Star Wars: Clone Wars II Chapters 21-25 won the best animated TV production, Lilo & Stitch 2: Stitch Has a Glitch won the best home entertainment award, and Ultimate Spider-Man won the new "best video game award". 6 Disney re-acquires the rights to Oswald the Lucky Rabbit from NBCUniversal, in exchange for ABC letting commentator Al Michaels work on NBC Sunday Night Football. March 4 Dirty Love dominates the 26th Golden Raspberry Awards with 4 awards including Worst Picture and Worst Actress for Jenny McCarthy. Rob Schneider took home for Worst Actor for his performance in Deuce Bigalow: European Gigolo. Other awards went to Hayden Christensen as Worst Supporting Actor for Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith and Paris Hilton as Worst Supporting Actress for House of Wax 5 78th Academy Awards: Crash earns a win for Best Picture upsetting favorite Brokeback Mountain. No film, for the first time in 58 years, won a clear majority. Both films as well as Memoirs of a Geisha and King Kong win three Oscars each. Favorite March of the Penguins wins Oscar for Documentary Feature. South Africa wins its first motion picture Oscar with the Best Foreign Film award for Tsotsi. Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of the Were-Rabbit wins Oscar for Animated feature film. Major awards as follows: Director: Ang Lee for Brokeback Mountain Actor: Philip Seymour Hoffman for Capote Actress: Reese Witherspoon for Walk the Line Supporting Actor: George Clooney for Syriana Supporting Actress: Rachel Weisz for The Constant Gardener 13 11th Empire Awards: Pride & Prejudice and Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith win the most awards with two. April 18 Tom Cruise and fiancée Katie Holmes welcomed their newborn baby Suri. 25 The 5th annual Tribeca Film Festival opens with notable films such as Mission: Impossible III and United 93. 28 TV double act Ant & Dec make their big screen debut with Alien Autopsy. May 17 The 2006 Cannes Film Festival began in Cannes, France. It continued until May 28. It was hosted by Vincent Cassel. Films in competition included Babel by Alejandro González Iñárritu, Fast Food Nation by Richard Linklater, Iklimler by Nuri Bilge Ceylan, El Laberinto del Fauno by Guillermo del Toro, Marie Antoinette by Sofia Coppola, Southland Tales by Richard Kelly, Volver by Pedro Almodóvar, and The Wind That Shakes the Barley by Ken Loach 27 Brad Pitt and Oscar-winner Angelina Jolie give birth to daughter Shiloh in the African nation of Namibia. June 3 The 2006 MTV Movie Awards winners were announced. 14 The American Film Institute releases its ninth list of its AFI 100 Years... series, AFI's 100 Years...100 Cheers recognizing 100 films as the most "inspirational" in cinema history. Frank Capra's It's a Wonderful Life is named the most "inspirational" film of all time. July 7 Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest opens later grossing $55.8 million on its opening day, setting records for the largest opening day, the largest single day gross, and the largest Friday gross of all time (the previous record was held by Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith with $50,013,859, the previous year). It also surpassed the opening weekend gross (at $135,634,554 between July 7–9) previously set by Spider-Man in 2002 with $114,844,116 between May 3–5. 28 Actor and Oscar-winning director producer Mel Gibson is arrested after speeding on Pacific Coast Highway due to a DUI. Police reports later reveal stinging anti-Semitic comments made to the officer (a Jew). Gibson checked into rehab and issued several statements apologizing for his rude comments. See Mel Gibson DUI incident for more details. September 7 Ellen DeGeneres is named host of the 79th Academy Awards. 7-16 The 2006 Toronto International Film Festival takes place. December 7 64th Golden Globe Awards nominees are announced. Babel leads nominations with seven. Awards[edit] Category/Organization 64th Golden Globe Awards January 15, 2007 12th Critics' Choice Awards January 20, 2007 Producers, Directors, Screen Actors, and Writers Guild Awards January 20-February 11, 2007 60th BAFTA Awards February 11, 2007 79th Academy Awards February 25, 2007 Drama Musical or Comedy Best Film Babel Dreamgirls The Departed Little Miss Sunshine The Queen The Departed Best Director Martin Scorsese The Departed Paul Greengrass United 93 Martin Scorsese The Departed Best Actor Forest Whitaker The Last King of Scotland Sacha Baron Cohen Borat Forest Whitaker The Last King of Scotland Best Actress Helen Mirren The Queen Meryl Streep The Devil Wears Prada Helen Mirren The Queen Best Supporting Actor Eddie Murphy Dreamgirls Alan Arkin Little Miss Sunshine Best Supporting Actress Jennifer Hudson Dreamgirls Best Screenplay, Adapted Peter Morgan The Queen Michael Arndt Little Miss Sunshine William Monahan The Departed Jeremy Brock and Peter Morgan The Last King of Scotland William Monahan The Departed Best Screenplay, Original Michael Arndt Little Miss Sunshine Best Animated Film Cars Happy Feet Best Original Score The Painted Veil Alexandre Desplat The Illusionist Philip Glass N/A Babel Gustavo Santaolalla Best Original Song "The Song of the Heart" Happy Feet "Listen" Dreamgirls N/A N/A "I Need to Wake Up" An Inconvenient Truth Best Foreign Language Film Letters from Iwo Jima N/A Pan's Labyrinth The Lives of Others Films released in 2006[edit] The list of films released in 2006, arranged by country, are as follows: American films Argentine films Australian films Bengali films Bollywood films Brazilian films British films French films Hong Kong films Italian films Japanese films Mexican films Pakistani films Russian films South Korean films Spanish films Tamil films Telugu films Notable deaths[edit] Month Date Name Age Country Profession Notable films January 2 Osa Massen 91 Denmark Actress A Woman's Face Rocketship X-M 2 John Woodnutt 81 UK Actor Who Dares Wins Lifeforce 5 Mark Roberts 84 US Actor Gilda Shadowed 7 Jim Zulevic 40 US Actor Let's Go to Prison Matchstick Men 12 Stu Linder 74 US Film Editor Rain Man Good Morning, Vietnam Young Sherlock Holmes Quiz Show Bugsy 14 Shelley Winters 85 US Actress The Diary of Anne Frank Lolita A Patch of Blue The Poseidon Adventure Pete's Dragon 19 Anthony Franciosa 77 US Actor The Long, Hot Summer Assault on a Queen 21 Robert Knudson 80 US Sound Re-Recording Mixer E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial Scarface The Exorcist Close Encounters of the Third Kind Who Framed Roger Rabbit 23 Joseph M. Newman 96 US Director This Island Earth 711 Ocean Drive 24 Fayard Nicholas 91 US Actor, Dancer, Choreographer Stormy Weather The Pirate 24 Chris Penn 40 US Actor Reservoir Dogs Footloose Pale Rider Rush Hour Starsky & Hutch 26 Len Carlson 68 Canada Actor Cypher 27 Paul Valentine 86 US Actor Out of the Past House of Strangers 28 Henry McGee 77 UK Actor The Italian Job Revenge of the Pink Panther 31 Moira Shearer 80 UK Actress, Dancer Peeping Tom The Red Shoes February 1 Roy Alon 63 UK Stuntman Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom Children of Men Die Another Day 101 Dalmatians Entrapment 1 Marc Smith 71 UK Actor Live and Let Die • Moonraker 3 Al Lewis 82 US Actor Used Cars Munster, Go Home! They Shoot Horses, Don't They? Car 54, Where Are You? Married to the Mob 5 Franklin Cover 77 US Actor Wall Street Almost Heroes 6 Pedro Gonzalez Gonzalez 80 US Actor The High and the Mighty Rio Bravo 9 Phil Brown 89 US Actor Star Wars Superman Chaplin The Pink Panther Strikes Again 13 Andreas Katsulas 59 US Actor The Fugitive Executive Decision Next of Kin 14 Darry Cowl 80 France Actor Not on the Lips Don't Touch the White Woman! 17 Harold Hunter 31 US Actor Kids Kung Faux 18 Richard Bright 64 US Actor The Godfather The Getaway Once Upon a Time in America Red Heat Marathon Man 19 Erna Lazarus 102 US Screenwriter The Body Disappears Hollywood or Bust 21 Richard Snell 50 Bahamas Makeup Artist Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End 24 Don Knotts 81 US Actor The Incredible Mr. Limpet The Shakiest Gun in the West The Apple Dumpling Gang The Ghost and Mr. Chicken Pleasantville 24 Dennis Weaver 81 US Actor Duel Touch of Evil Home on the Range 25 Darren McGavin 83 US Actor The Natural A Christmas Story Billy Madison Dead Heat Airport '77 March 1 Peter Sykes 66 Australia Director, Actor To the Devil a Daughter Jesus 1 Jack Wild 53 UK Actor Oliver! Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves 2 Phyllis Huffman 61 US Casting Director Million Dollar Baby Unforgiven Mystic River Space Cowboys Blood Work 7 John Junkin 76 UK Writer, Actor A Hard Day's Night The Football Factory 7 Gordon Parks 93 US Director Shaft The Learning Tree 12 Joseph Bova 81 US Actor Serpico Pretty Poison 13 Maureen Stapleton 80 US Actress Reds Cocoon Airport The Money Pit Bye Bye Birdie 16 Moira Redmond 77 UK Actress A Shot in the Dark Nightmare 17 Bob Papenbrook 50 US Voice Actor Stranger than Fiction Jeepers Creepers 2 Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed 18 Michael Attwell 63 UK Actor Labyrinth High Heels and Low Lifes 25 Richard Fleischer 89 US Director Tora! Tora! Tora! Doctor Dolittle Fantastic Voyage Soylent Green The Jazz Singer 29 Gretchen Rau 66 US Set and Art Director Memoirs of a Geisha The Last Samurai Crocodile Dundee The Good Shepherd Unbreakable April 4 Gary Gray 69 US Actor Meet Me in St. Louis Gaslight 9 Vilgot Sjöman 82 Sweden Director I Am Curious (Yellow) I Am Curious (Blue) 11 June Pointer 52 US Actress Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen Hot Shots! Part Deux 16 John Godey 93 US Author The Taking of Pelham 123 Johnny Handsome 17 Henderson Forsythe 88 US Actor Silkwood Species II 22 Alida Valli 84 Italy Actress The Third Man Inferno 23 Susan Browning 65 US Actress Sister Act The Money Pit 23 Jennifer Jayne 74 UK Actress, Writer The Medusa Touch Dr. Terror's House of Horrors May 1 Jay Presson Allen 84 US Writer, Producer Cabaret Marnie 1 Betsy Jones-Moreland 76 US Actress Last Woman on Earth Creature from the Haunted Sea 4 Michael Taliferro 44 US Actor, Director, Producer The Replacements Bad Boys Life You Got Served 8 George Lutz 59 US Author, Screenwriter The Amityville Horror 10 Val Guest 94 US Director, Screenwriter Casino Royale The Abominable Snowman 14 Paul Marco 78 US Actor Plan 9 from Outer Space Hiawatha 21 Katherine Dunham 96 US Dancer Stormy Weather Casbah 24 Henry Bumstead 91 US Art Director To Kill a Mockingbird Vertigo The Sting Million Dollar Baby Cape Fear 27 Paul Gleason 67 US Actor The Breakfast Club Die Hard Trading Places She's Having a Baby Arthur 30 Shohei Imamura 79 Japan Actor Endless Desire The Insect Woman 30 Robert Sterling 88 US Actor Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea Show Boat June 4 Alec Bregonzi 76 UK Actor Revenge of the Pink Panther Georgy Girl 8 Robert Donner 75 US Actor Cool Hand Luke El Dorado Hoot 10 Gerald James 88 UK Actor The Man with the Golden Gun Hope and Glory 12 Hugh Latimer 75 UK Actor The Million Pound Note Jane Eyre 16 Arthur Franz 86 US Actor Invaders from Mars Sands of Iwo Jima 18 Vincent Sherman 99 US Director The Young Philadelphians Mr. Skeffington 18 Richard Stahl 74 US Actor The American President Overboard Ghosts of Mississippi 9 to 5 23 Aaron Spelling 83 US Producer, Actor Mr. Mom The Spirit of St. Louis 25 Kenneth Griffith 84 UK Actor Four Weddings and a Funeral Sky Riders July 2 Jan Murray 89 US Actor Which Way to the Front? The Busy Body 3 Jack Smith 92 US Actor King Kong Cannonball Run II 5 Amzie Strickland 87 US Actress Pretty Woman Shiloh 6 Kasey Rogers 80 US Actress Strangers on a Train Two Lost Worlds 8 June Allyson 88 US Actress The Glenn Miller Story The Three Musketeers 9 Chris Drake 82 US Actor Them! Father of the Bride 11 Barnard Hughes 90 US Actor Tron Midnight Cowboy The Lost Boys Doc Hollywood Oh, God! 12 Kurt Kreuger 89 Germany Actor Sahara The Enemy Below 13 Red Buttons 87 US Actor Sayonara Pete's Dragon 18 David Maloney 72 UK Director, Producer 19 Jack Warden 85 US Actor Heaven Can Wait 12 Angry Men Being There All the President's Men Problem Child 20 Robert O. Cornthwaite 89 US Actor The War of the Worlds What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? 21 Mako 72 Japan Actor Conan the Barbarian The Sand Pebbles Pearl Harbor Taxi Driver Memoirs of a Geisha 27 Johnny Weissmuller Jr. 65 US Actor THX 1138 American Graffiti 28 Patrick Allen 79 Malawi Actor Dial M for Murder Jet Storm August 4 John Alderson 90 US Actor Blazing Saddles My Fair Lady 7 Lois January 92 US Actress The Wizard of Oz The Pace That Kills 13 Tony Jay 73 UK Voice Actor, Actor The Hunchback of Notre Dame Twins Beauty and the Beast Time Bandits My Stepmother Is an Alien 14 Bruno Kirby 57 US Actor The Godfather Part II City Slickers The Basketball Diaries This Is Spinal Tap Stuart Little 16 Alan Vint 61 US Actor Badlands The Panic in Needle Park 24 Earl Jolly Brown 66 US Actor Live and Let Die 25 Ann Richards 88 Australia Actress Sorry, Wrong Number An American Romance 25 Joseph Stefano 84 US Screenwriter Psycho Two Bits 29 Bill Stewart 63 UK Actor 101 Dalmatians Anna and the King 30 Glenn Ford 90 Canada Actor Gilda 3:10 to Yuma Superman Blackboard Jungle Cimarron 31 William Aldrich 61 US Producer, Actor Flight of the Phoenix The Sheltering Sky September 4 Steve Irwin 44 Australia Wildlife Expert, Actor Happy Feet The Crocodile Hunter: Collision Course 4 Fernando Siro 74 Argentina Actor, Director Where the Wind Dies Un Argentino en New York 5 Hilary Mason 89 UK Actress Don't Look Now Robot Jox 7 Robert Earl Jones 96 US Actor The Sting Witness The Cotton Club 8 Frank Middlemass 87 UK Actor Barry Lyndon The Island 9 Gérard Brach 79 France Director, Writer The Name of the Rose Frantic 9 Herbert Rudley 96 US Actor The Court Jester The Young Lions 11 Pat Corley 76 US Actor Coming Home The Bad News Bears in Breaking Training 14 Johnny Sekka 72 US Actor Mohammad, Messenger of God Babylon 5: The Gathering 14 Virginia Vale 86 US Actress Blonde Comet Broadway Big Shot 19 Elizabeth Allen 77 US Actress Donovan's Reef Star Spangled Girl 20 Sven Nykvist 83 Sweden Cinematographer Sleepless in Seattle Chaplin What's Eating Gilbert Grape Crimes and Misdemeanors Cries and Whispers 22 Edward Albert 55 US Actor Butterflies Are Free 40 Carats 23 Malcolm Arnold 84 UK Composer The Bridge on the River Kwai Suddenly, Last Summer 24 Sally Gray 91 UK Actress Green for Danger The Saint in London 26 Lionel Murton 91 UK Actor Patton The Dirty Dozen 28 Hy Pyke 70 US Actor Blade Runner White House Madness October 2 Frances Bergen 84 US Actress American Gigolo The Muppets Take Manhattan 2 Tamara Dobson 59 US Actress, Makeup Artist Cleopatra Jones Norman... Is That You? 4 Tom Bell 73 UK Actor Wish You Were Here Feast of July 9 Danièle Huillet 70 France Director The Chronicle of Anna Magdalena Bach History Lessons 10 Jerry Belson 68 US Producer, Writer Always Fun with Dick and Jane 12 Gillo Pontecorvo 86 Italy Director, Writer The Battle of Algiers Kapò 15 Derek Bond 86 UK Actor Uncle Silas When Eight Bells Toll 16 Ross Davidson 57 UK Actor Monty Python's The Meaning of Life The Crimson Permanent Assurance 16 Jack DeLeon 81 US Actor, Miscellaneous The Hobbit Life Stinks 16 Tommy Johnson 71 US Musician The Matrix The Godfather 19 James Glennon 64 US Cinematographer, Second Assistant Camera About Schmidt Election 19 Phyllis Kirk 79 US Actress House of Wax Back from Eternity 20 Jane Wyatt 96 US Actress Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home Lost Horizon 21 Peter Barkworth 77 UK Actor Patton Where Eagles Dare 21 Daryl Duke 77 Canada Director The Silent Partner The Thorn Birds 21 Milton Selzer 87 US Actor Sid and Nancy The Cincinnati Kid 22 B. Constance Barry 93 US Actress Trading Places Arthur 22 Arthur Hill 84 Canada Actor Harper The Andromeda Strain 22 Richard Mayes 83 UK Actor Gandhi Top Secret! 29 Roy Barnes 70 US Art Director, Set Designer War of the Worlds The Last Samurai 29 Nigel Kneale 84 UK Screenwriter, Actor Halloween III: Season of the Witch Quatermass and the Pit 31 William Franklyn 81 UK Actor, Writer Cul-de-sac The Satanic Rites of Dracula November 1 Adrienne Shelly 40 US Actress, Director Waitress The Unbelievable Truth 2 Leonard Schrader 62 US Screenwriter Kiss of the Spider Woman Blue Collar 2 Milly Vitale 73 Italy Actress The Seven Little Foys The Juggler 8 Basil Poledouris 61 US Composer Starship Troopers RoboCop The Hunt for Red October Red Dawn Free Willy 9 Wayne Artman 69 US Sound Re-Recording Falling Down Lethal Weapon 3 9 Marian Marsh 93 US Actress The Mad Genius The Black Room 10 Diana Coupland 74 UK Actress The Twelve Chairs The Millionairess 10 Chubby Oates 63 UK Actor Killer's Moon 10 Jack Palance 87 US Actor Shane City Slickers Batman Tango & Cash Young Guns The Swan Princess 11 Belinda Emmett 32 Australia Actress The Nugget 11 Ronnie Stevens 81 UK Actor The Parent Trap Brassed Off 14 John Hallam 65 UK Actor Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves Flash Gordon 15 Elaine Ives-Cameron 67 UK Actress Supergirl 16 Eustace Lycett 91 US Special Effects, Visual Effects Mary Poppins Bedknobs and Broomsticks 19 Jeremy Slate 80 US Actor The Devil's Brigade True Grit 20 Robert Altman 81 US Director, Screenwriter MASH Gosford Park The Player Nashville A Prairie Home Companion 20 Kevin McClory 80 Ireland Miscellaneous, Producer The Africa Queen Never Say Never Again 23 Betty Comden 89 US Screenwriter, Lyricist Singin' in the Rain The Band Wagon 23 Philippe Noiret 76 France Actor, Voice Dubbing Cinema Paradiso Il Postino: The Postman 24 Phyllis Cerf 90 US Actress Vivacious Lady Little Men 27 Alan Freeman 79 UK Actor, radio broadcaster Dr. Terror's House of Horrors Absolute Beginners 27 Anthony Jackson 62 UK Actor Labyrinth 29 Leon Niemczyk 62 Poland Actor Inland Empire 30 Shirley Walker 61 US Composer, Orchestrator Apocalypse Now Batman: Mask of the Phantasm Escape from L.A. Final Destination True Lies December 1 Sid Raymond 97 US Actor, Voice Actor Two Much Herman and Katnip 4 Adam Williams 84 US Actor North by Northwest Fear Strikes Out 5 Michael Gilden 44 US Actor Return of the Jedi Pulp Fiction 5 Gerry Humphreys 74 UK Sound Re-Recording Blade Runner Gandhi 6 Mavis Pugh 92 UK Actress The Class of Miss MacMichael 7 Desmond Briscoe 81 UK Sound Effects The Haunting The Man Who Fell to Earth 8 Martha Tilton 91 US Singer, Actress Swing Hostess Crime, Inc. 9 Russell Wade 89 US Actor Ball of Fire • Mr. & Mrs. Smith 12 Ivor Barry 87 US Actor, Writer Weird Science • The Andromeda Strain 12 Peter Boyle 71 US Actor Taxi Driver Young Frankenstein Monster's Ball Malcolm X The Santa Clause 14 Hallie D'Amore 64 UK Makeup Artist Forrest Gump • Apollo 13 14 Mike Evans 57 US Writer, Actor Now You See Him, Now You Don't • The House on Skull Mountain 18 Joseph Barbera 95 US Director, Producer The Flintstones • Jetsons: The Movie 21 Lois Hall 80 US Actress Gone in 60 Seconds • Flightplan 22 Philip Pine 86 US Actor D.O.A • The Set-Up 23 Charlie Drake 81 US Actor The Plank • Sands of the Desert 25 James Brown 73 US Singer, Actor Jerry Maguire • The Proposal 27 Anna Navarro 73 US Actress Last Action Hero • Topaz 30 Frank Campanella 87 US Actor Pretty Woman Dick Tracy References[edit] ^ Critics' Review of 2006 ^ "2006 Worldwide Box Office". Box Office Mojo. IMDb. Retrieved March 7, 2020. External links[edit] Box Office Mojo film release schedule. v t e 2006 films American Argentine Australian Bangladeshi Brazilian British Cambodian Canadian Chinese Hong Kong French Indian Bengali Bollywood Kannada Malayalam Marathi Ollywood Punjabi Tamil Telugu Israeli Italian Japanese Malaysian Maldivian Mexican Nigerian Pakistani Portuguese Russian South Korean Spanish Film portal Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2006_in_film&oldid=1001359695" Categories: 2006 in film Film by year Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles needing additional references from April 2017 All articles needing additional references Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Čeština Deutsch Español فارسی Français Gaeilge Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia עברית Кыргызча Magyar Македонски मराठी Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Simple English Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 January 2021, at 10:05 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3342	----	Arsames (satrap of Cilicia) - Wikipedia Arsames (satrap of Cilicia) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other people named Arsames, see Arsames (disambiguation). Cilicia Location of Cilicia. Arsames (Old Persian Aršāma, Greek: Ἀρσάμης) was an Achaemenid Persian satrap of Cilicia in 334/3 BC. He succeeded Mazaeus in this position. He took part in the Battle of Granicus where he fought with his cavalry on the left wing, along with Arsites and Memnon of Rhodes.[1] He was able to survive that battle and flee to the capital of Cilicia Tarsus. There he was planning a scorched-earth policy according to that of Memnon which caused the native Cilician soldiers to abandon their posts.[2] He also decided to burn Tarsus to the ground so as not to fall in the hands of Alexander but was prevented from doing so by the speedy arrival of Parmenion with the light armored units who took the city.[3][4] After that, Arsames fled to Darius who was at this time in Syria.[5] He was slain at the battle of Issus in 333 BC.[6][7] He was succeeded by Balacrus, a bodyguard of Alexander the Great, who became the Hellenistic satrap of Cilica. References[edit] ^ Diodorus 17.19.4 ^ Curtius Rufus 3.4.3-15 ^ Arrian 2.4.5-6 ^ Curtius Rufus 3.4.14 ^ Arrian 2.4.6 ^ Arrian 2.11.8 ^ Alexander of Macedon, 356-323 B.C.: a historical biography By Peter Green Sources[edit] Heckel, Waldemar (2006). Who’s Who in the Age of Alexander the Great: Prosopography of Alexander’s Empire. Blackwell Publishing. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC This Ancient Near East biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arsames_(satrap_of_Cilicia)&oldid=1002472209" Categories: Ancient Near East people stubs Military leaders of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenid satraps of Cilicia 4th-century BC Iranian people People from Tarsus, Mersin Persian people of the Greco-Persian Wars Military personnel of the Achaemenid Empire killed in action Hidden categories: Articles containing Greek-language text All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Deutsch فارسی Français 日本語 Русский 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 16:50 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3352	----	Djedkare Shemai - Wikipedia Djedkare Shemai From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Djedkare Shemai The cartouche of Djedkare Shemai on the Abydos King List. Pharaoh Reign Unknown (Eighth Dynasty?) Predecessor Neferkare Neby? Successor Neferkare Khendu? Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Djedkare Shemai Ḏd k3 rˁ šm3j The Ka of Ra endures, a nomad/wanderer[1] Djedkare Shemai may have been an ancient Egyptian pharaoh during the Eighth Dynasty of the First Intermediate Period. His name is only attested on the Abydos King List, as the Abydos King List is the primary source for identifying seventh/eighth dynasties(combined). No contemporary document or building with his name has been found.[1][2] References[edit] ^ a b Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, p. 114. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen. Deutscher Kunstverlag, München/ Berlin 1984, ISBN 3-422-00832-2, p. 48, 186. External links[edit] VIIth Dynasty 2175 - 2165, Accessed November 9, 2006. Abydos King List, Accessed November 9, 2006. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Djedkare_Shemai&oldid=999747796" Categories: 22nd-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Eighth Dynasty of Egypt 22nd-century BC rulers 22nd century BC in Egypt Ancient Egypt people stubs Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands Português Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 11 January 2021, at 19:32 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3380	----	King of Kings - Wikipedia King of Kings From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from King of kings) Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the monarchic or divine title. For other uses, see King of Kings (disambiguation). Ruling title used by certain historical monarchs The title King of Kings was prominently used by Achaemenid Persian kings such as Darius the Great (pictured). The full titulature of Darius was Great King, King of Kings, King in Fārs, King of the Countries, Hystaspes’ son, Arsames’ grandson, an Achaemenid. Part of a series on Imperial, royal, noble, gentry and chivalric ranks in West, Central, South Asia and North Africa Emperor: Caliph · King of Kings · Shahanshah · Padishah · Sultan of Sultans · Chakravarti · Chhatrapati · Samrat · Khagan High King: Great King · Sultan · Sultana · Maharaja · Beg Khan · Amir al-umara · Khagan Bek · Nawab King: Malik · Emir · Hakim · Sharif · Shah · Shirvanshah · Raja · Khan · Dey · Nizam · Nawab Grand Duke: Khedive · Nawab · Nizam · Wāli · Yabghu Crown Prince: Shahzada · Mirza · Nawabzada · Yuvraj · Vali Ahd · Prince of the Sa'id · Mir · Tegin Prince or Duke: Emir · Sheikh · Ikhshid · Beylerbey · Pasha · Babu Saheb · Sardar · Rajkumar · Sahibzada · Nawab · Nawabzada · Yuvraj · Sardar · Thakur · Şehzade · Mirza · Morza · Shad Noble Prince: Sahibzada Earl or Count: Mankari · Dewan Bahadur · Sancak bey · Rao Bahadur · Rai Bahadur · Khan Bahadur · Atabeg · Boila Viscount: Zamindar · Khan Sahib · Bey · Kadi · Baig or Begum · Begzada · Uç bey Baron: Lala · Agha · Hazinedar Royal house: Damat Nobleman: Zamindar · Mankari · Mirza · Pasha · Bey · Baig · Begzada · al-Dawla Governmental: Lala · Agha · Hazinedar · Mostowfi ol-Mamalek v t e King of Kings (Akkadian: šar šarrāni;[1] Old Persian: Xšâyathiya Xšâyathiyânâm;[2] Middle Persian: šāhān šāh;[3] Modern Persian: شاهنشاه, Šâhanšâh; Greek: Βασιλεὺς Βασιλέων, Basileùs Basiléōn;[4] Armenian: արքայից արքա, ark'ayits ark'a; Georgian: მეფეთ მეფე, Mepet mepe;[5] Ge'ez: ንጉሠ ነገሥት, Nəgusä Nägäst[6]) was a ruling title employed primarily by monarchs based in the Middle East. Though most commonly associated with Iran (historically known as Persia in the West[7]), especially the Achaemenid and Sasanian Empires, the title was originally introduced during the Middle Assyrian Empire by king Tukulti-Ninurta I (reigned 1233–1197 BC) and was subsequently used in a number of different kingdoms and empires, including the aforementioned Persia, various Hellenic kingdoms, Armenia, Georgia and Ethiopia. The title is commonly seen as equivalent to that of Emperor, both titles outranking that of king in prestige, stemming from the medieval Byzantine emperors who saw the Shahanshahs of the Sasanian Empire as their equals. The last reigning monarchs to use the title of Shahanshah, those of the Pahlavi dynasty in Iran (1925–1979), also equated the title with "Emperor". The rulers of the Ethiopian Empire used the title of Nəgusä Nägäst (literally "King of Kings"), which was officially translated into "Emperor". The female variant of the title, as used by the Ethiopian Zewditu, was Queen of Kings (Ge'ez: Nəgəstä Nägäst). In the Sasanian Empire, the female variant used was Queen of Queens (Middle Persian: bānbishnān bānbishn). In Judaism, Melech Malchei HaMelachim ("the King of Kings of Kings") came to be used as a name of God. "King of Kings" (βασιλεὺς τῶν βασιλευόντων) is also used in reference to Jesus Christ several times in the Bible, notably in the First Epistle to Timothy and twice in the Book of Revelation. In Islam, both the terms King of Kings and as the Persian variant Shahanshah are condemned, particularly in Sunni hadith. Contents 1 Historical usage 1.1 Ancient India 1.2 Ancient Mesopotamia 1.2.1 Assyria and Babylon 1.2.2 Urartu and Media 1.3 Iran 1.3.1 Achaemenid usage 1.3.2 Parthian and Sasanian usage 1.3.3 Buyid revival 1.4 Hellenic usage 1.5 Armenia 1.6 Georgia 1.7 Palmyra 1.8 Ethiopia 2 In religion 2.1 Judaism and Christianity 2.2 Islam 3 Modern usage 3.1 Iran 3.2 Muammar Gaddafi 4 References 4.1 Annotations 4.2 Citations 4.3 Bibliography 4.4 Websites Historical usage[edit] Ancient India[edit] In Ancient India, Sanskrit language words such as Chakravarti, Rajadhiraja are among the words that were used for employing the title of the King of Kings.[8][9] These words also occur in Aitareya Aranyaka and other parts of Rigveda (1700 BCE - 1100 BCE).[10] Ancient Mesopotamia[edit] Assyria and Babylon[edit] King of Kings was among the many titles used by King Ashurbanipal of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (depicted strangling and stabbing a lion). The title King of Kings was first introduced by the Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I (who reigned between 1233 and 1197 BC) as šar šarrāni. The title carried a literal meaning in that a šar was traditionally simply the ruler of a city-state. With the formation of the Middle Assyrian Empire, the Assyrian rulers installed themselves as kings over an already present system of kingship in these city-states, becoming literal "kings of kings".[1] Following Tukulti-Ninurta's reign, the title was occasionally used by monarchs of Assyria and Babylon.[2] Later Assyrian rulers to use šar šarrāni include Esarhaddon (r. 681–669 BC) and Ashurbanipal (r. 669–627 BC).[11][12] "King of Kings", as šar šarrāni, was among the many titles of the last Neo-Babylonian king, Nabonidus (r. 556–539 BC).[13] Boastful titles claiming ownership of various things were common throughout ancient Mesopotamian history. For instance, Ashurbanipal's great-grandfather Sargon II used the full titulature of Great King, Mighty King, King of the Universe, King of Assyria, King of Babylon, King of Sumer and Akkad.[14] Urartu and Media[edit] The title of King of Kings occasionally appears in inscriptions of kings of Urartu.[2] Although no evidence exists, it is possible that the title was also used by the rulers of the Median Empire, since its rulers borrowed much of their royal symbolism and protocol from Urartu and elsewhere in Mesopotamia. The Achaemenid Persian variant of the title, Xšâyathiya Xšâyathiyânâm, is Median in form which suggests that the Achaemenids may have taken it from the Medes rather than from the Mesopotamians.[2] An Assyrian-language inscription on a fortification near the fortress of Tušpa mentions King Sarduri I of Urartu as a builder of a wall and a holder of the title King of Kings;[15] This is the inscription of king Sarduri, son of the great king Lutipri, the powerful king who does not fear to fight, the amazing shepherd, the king who ruled the rebels. I am Sarduri, son of Lutipri, the king of kings and the king who received the tribute of all the kings. Sarduri, son of Lutipri, says: I brought these stone blocks from the city of Alniunu. I built this wall. — Sarduri I of Urartu Iran[edit] Achaemenid usage[edit] Xerxes the Great of the Achaemenid Empire referred to himself as the great king, the king of kings, the king of the provinces with many tongues, the king of this great earth far and near, son of king Darius the Achaemenian. The Achaemenid Empire, established in 550 BC after the fall of the Median Empire, rapidly expanded over the course of the sixth century BC. Asia Minor and the Lydian kingdom was conquered in 546 BC, the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BC, Egypt in 525 BC and the Indus region in 513 BC. The Achaemenids employed satrapal administration, which became a guarantee of success due to its flexibility and the tolerance of the Achaemenid kings for the more-or-less autonomous vassals. The system also had its problems; though some regions became nearly completely autonomous without any fighting (such as Lycia and Cilicia), other regions saw repeated attempts at rebellion and secession.[16] Egypt was a particularly prominent example, frequently rebelling against Achaemenid authority and attempting to crown their own Pharaohs. Though it was eventually defeated, the Great Satraps' Revolt of 366–360 BC showed the growing structural problems within the Empire.[17] The Achaemenid Kings used a variety of different titles, prominently Great King and King of Countries, but perhaps the most prominent title was that of King of Kings (rendered Xšâyathiya Xšâyathiyânâm in Old Persian)[2], recorded for every Achaemenid king. The full titulature of the king Darius I was "great king, king of kings, king in Persia, king of the countries, Hystaspes’ son, Arsames’ grandson, an Achaemenid".[18][19] An inscription in the Armenian city of Van by Xerxes I reads;[20] I am Xerxes, the great king, the king of kings, the king of the provinces with many tongues, the king of this great earth far and near, son of king Darius the Achaemenian. — Xerxes I of Persia Parthian and Sasanian usage[edit] Mithridates I of Parthia (r. 171–132 BC) was the first post-Achaemenid Iranian king to use the title of King of Kings. Beginning with the reign of his nephew Mithridates II (r. 124–88 BC), the title remained in consistent usage until the fall of the Sasanian Empire in 651 AD. The standard royal title of the Arsacid (Parthian) kings while in Babylon was Aršaka šarru ("Arsacid king"), King of Kings (recorded as šar šarrāni by contemporary Babylonians)[21] was adopted first by Mithridates I (r. 171–132 BC), though he used it infrequently.[22][23] The title first began being consistently used by Mithridates I's nephew, Mithridates II, who after adopting it in 111 BC used it extensively, even including it in his coinage (as the Greek BAΣIΛEΥΣ BAΣIΛEΩN)[4] until 91 BC.[24] It is possible that Mithridates II's, and his successors', use of the title was not a revival of the old Achaemenid imperial title (since it was not used until almost a decade after Mithridates II's own conquest of Mesopotamia) but actually stemmed from Babylonian scribes who accorded the imperial title of their own ancestors onto the Parthian kings.[25] Regardless of how he came to acquire the title, Mithridates II did undertake conscious steps to be seen as an heir to and restorer of Achaemenid traditions, introducing a crown as the customary headgear on Parthian coins and undertaking several campaigns westwards into former Achaemenid lands.[4] The title was rendered as šāhān šāh in Middle Persian and Parthian and remained in consistent use until the ruling Arsacids were supplanted by the Sasanian dynasty of Ardashir I, creating the Sasanian Empire. Ardashir himself used a new variant of the title, introducing "Shahanshah of the Iranians" (Middle Persian: šāhān šāh ī ērān). Ardashir's successor Shapur I introduced another variant; "Shahanshah of the Iranians and non-Iranians" (Middle Persian: šāhān šāh ī ērān ud anērān), possibly only assumed after Shapur's victories against the Roman Empire (which resulted in the incorporation of new non-Iranian lands into the empire). This variant, Shahanshah of Iranians and non-Iranians, appear on the coinage of all later Sasanian kings.[3] The final Shahanshah of the Sasanian Empire was Yazdegerd III (r. 632–651 AD). His reign ended with the defeat and conquest of Persia by the Rashidun Caliphate, ending the last pre-Islamic Iranian Empire.[26] The defeat of Yazdegerd and the fall of the Sasanian Empire was a blow to the national sentiment of the Iranians, which was slow to recover. Although attempts were made at restoring the Sasanian Empire, even with Chinese help, these attempts failed and the descendants of Yazdegerd faded into obscurity.[27] The title Shahanshah was criticized by later Muslims, associating it with the Zoroastrian faith and referring to it as "impious".[28] The female variant of the title in the Sasanian Empire, as attested for Shapur I's (r. 240–270 AD) daughter Adur-Anahid, was the matching bānbishnān bānbishn ("Queen of Queens"). The similar title shahr banbishn ("Queen of the empire") is attested for Shapur I's wife Khwarranzem.[29] Buyid revival[edit] Panāh Khusraw, better known by his laqab 'Adud al-Dawla, revived the title of Shahanshah in Iran in the year 978 AD, more than three centuries after the fall of the Sasanian Empire. Following the fall of the Sasanian Empire, Iran was ruled by a series of relatively short-lived Muslim Iranian dynasties; including the Samanids and Saffarids. Although Iranian resentment against the Abbasid Caliphs was common, the resentment materialized as religious and political movements combining old Iranian traditions with new Arabic ones rather than as full-scale revolts. The new dynasties do not appear to have had any interest in re-establishing the empire of the old Shahanshahs, they at no point seriously questioned the suzerainty of the Caliphs and actively promoted Arabic culture. Though the Samanids and the Saffarids also actively promoted the revival of the Persian language, the Samanids remained loyal supporters of the Abbasids and the Saffarids, despite at times being in open rebellion, did not revive any of the old Iranian political structures.[30] The shiite Buyid dynasty, of Iranian Daylamite origin, came to power in 934 AD through most of the old Iranian heartland. In contrast to earlier dynasties, ruled by Emirs and wanting to appease the powerful ruling Caliphs, the Buyids consciously revived old symbols and practices of the Sasanian Empire.[31] The region of Daylam had resisted the Caliphate since the fall of the Sasanian Empire, attempts at restoring a native Iranian rule built on Iranian traditions had been many, though unsuccessful. Asfar ibn Shiruya, a Zoroastrian and Iranian nationalist, rebelled against the Samanids in 928 AD, intending to put a crown on himself, set up a throne of gold and make war on the Caliph. More prominently, Mardavij, who founded the Ziyarid Dynasty, was also Zoroastrian and actively aspired to restore the old empire. He was quoted as promising to destroy the empire of the Arabs and restore the Iranian empire and had a crown identical to the one worn by the Sasanian Khosrow I made for himself.[32] At the time he was murdered by his own Turkic troops, Mardavij was planning a campaign towards Baghdad, the Abbasid capital. Subsequent Ziyarid rulers were Muslim and made no similar attempts.[33] After the death of Mardavij, many of his troops entered into the service of the founder of the Buyid dynasty, Imad al-Dawla.[33] Finally, the Buyid Emir Panāh Khusraw, better known by his laqab (honorific name) of 'Adud al-Dawla proclaimed himself Shahanshah after defeating rebellious relatives and becoming the sole ruler of the Buyid dynasty in 978 AD.[n 1] Those of his successors that likewise exercised full control over all the Buyid emirates would also style themselves as Shahanshah.[34][35] During times of Buyid infighting, the title became a matter of importance. When a significant portion of Firuz Khusrau's (laqab Jalal al-Dawla) army rebelled in the 1040s and wished to enthrone the other Buyid Emir Abu Kalijar as ruler over the lands of the entire dynasty, they minted coins in his name with one side bearing the name of the ruling Caliph (Al-Qa'im) and the other side bearing the inscription "al-Malik al-Adil Shahanshah".[36] When discussing peace terms, Abu Kalijar in turn addressed Jalal in a letter with the title Shahanshah.[37] When the struggle between Abu Kalijar and Jalal al-Dawla resumed, Jalal, wanting to assert his superiority over Kalijar, made a formal application to Caliph Al-Qa'im for the usage of the title Shahanshah, the first Buyid ruler to do so. It can be assumed that the Caliph agreed (since the title was later used), but its usage by Jalal in a mosque caused outcry at its impious character.[28] Following this, the matter was raised to a body of jurists assembled by the Caliph. Though some dissented, the body as a whole ruled that the usage of al-Malik al-Adil Shahanshah was lawful.[38] Hellenic usage[edit] Although the Hellenic Seleucid rulers frequently assumed old Persian titles and honors, the usurper Timarchus is one of few concrete examples of a Seleucid ruler using the title "King of Kings". Alexander the Great's conquests ended the Achaemenid Empire and the subsequent division of Alexander's own empire resulted in the Seleucid dynasty inherting the lands formerly associated with the Achaemenid dynasty. Although Alexander himself did not employ any of the old Persian royal titles, instead using his own new title "King of Asia" (βασιλεὺς τῆς Ἀσίας)[39], the monarchs of the Seleucid Empire more and more aligned themselves to the Persian political system. The official title of most of the Seleucid kings was "Great King", which like "King of Kings", a title of Assyrian origin, was frequently used by the Achaemenid rulers and was intended to demonstrate the supremacy of its holder over other rulers. "Great King" is prominently attested for both Antiochus I (r. 281–261 BC) in the Borsippa Cylinder and for Antiochus III the Great (r. 222–187 BC) throughout his rule.[40] In the late Seleucid Empire, "King of Kings" even saw a revival, despite the fact that the territory controlled by the Empire was significantly smaller than it had been during the reigns of the early Seleucid kings. The title was evidently quite well known to be associated with the Seleucid king, the usurper Timarchus (active 163–160 BC) called himself "King of Kings" and the title was discussed in sources from outside the empire as well.[41] Some non-Seleucid rulers even assumed the title for themselves, notably in Pontus (especially prominently used under Mithridates VI Eupator).[41][42] It is possible that the Seleucid usage indicates that the title no longer implied complete vassalization of other kings but instead a recognition of suzerainty (since the Seleucids were rapidly losing the loyalty of their vassals at the time).[41] Armenia[edit] The King of Kings Tigranes the Great of Armenia with four vassal Kings surrounding him After the Parthian Empire under Mithridates II defeated Armenia in 105 BC, the heir to the Armenian throne, Tigranes, was taken hostage and kept at the Parthian court until he bought his freedom in 95 BC (by handing over "seventy valleys" in Atropatene) and assumed the Armenian throne.[43] Tigranes ruled, for a short time in the first century BC, the strongest empire in the Middle East which he had built himself. After conquering Syria in 83 BC, Tigranes assumed the title King of Kings.[44] The Armenian kings of the Bagratuni dynasty from the reign of Ashot III 953–977 AD to the dynasty's end in 1064 AD revived the title, rendering it as the Persian Shahanshah.[45] Georgia[edit] King of Kings was revived in the Kingdom of Georgia by King David IV (r. 1089–1125 AD), rendered as mepet mepe in Georgian. All subsequent Georgian monarchs, such as Tamar the Great, used the title to describe their rule over all Georgian principalities, vassals and tributaries. Their use of the title probably derived from the ancient Persian title.[46][47] Palmyra[edit] After a successful campaign against the Sasanian Empire in 262 AD, which restored Roman control to territories that had been lost to the Shahanshah Shapur I, the ruler of the city of Palmyra, Odaenathus, founded the Palmyrene kingdom. Though a Roman vassal, Odaenathus assumed the title Mlk Mlk dy Mdnh (King of Kings and Corrector of the East). Odaenathus son, Herodianus (Hairan I) was acclaimed as his co-monarch, also given the title King of Kings.[48][49] Usage of the title was probably justified through proclaiming the Palmyrene kingdom as the legitimate successor state of the Hellenic Seleucid empire, which had controlled roughly the same territories near its end. Herodianus was crowned at Antioch, which had been the final Seleucid capital.[49] Though the same title was used by Odaenathus second son and successor following the deaths of both Odaenathus and Herodianus, Vaballathus and his mother Zenobia soon relinquished it, instead opting for the Roman Augustus ("Emperor") and Augusta ("Empress") respectively.[50] Ethiopia[edit] The title King of Kings was used by the rulers of the Aksumite Kingdom since the reign Sembrouthes c. 250 AD.[51] The rulers of the Ethiopian Empire, which existed from 1270 to 1974 AD, also used the title of Nəgusä Nägäst, sometimes translated to "King of the Kingdom", but most often equated to "King of Kings" and officially translated to Emperor. Though the Ethiopian Emperors had been literal "Kings of Kings" for the duration of the Empire's history, with regional lords using the title of Nəgus ("king"), this practice was ended by Haile Selassie (r. 1930–1974 AD), who somewhat paradoxically still retained the use of Nəgusä Nägäst.[6] Empress Zewditu (r. 1916–1930 AD), the only female monarch of the Ethiopian Empire, assumed the variant "Queen of Kings" (Nəgəstä Nägäst).[52][53] In religion[edit] Judaism and Christianity[edit] See also: Christ the King "Christ as King of Kings". A Russian icon from Murom (1690). In Judaism, Melech Malchei HaMelachim ("the King of Kings of Kings") came to be used as a name of God, using the double superlative to put the title one step above the royal title of the Babylonian and Persian kings referred to in the Bible.[54] "King of Kings" (βασιλεὺς τῶν βασιλευόντων) is used in reference to Jesus Christ several times in the Bible, notably once in the First Epistle to Timothy (6:15) and twice in the Book of Revelation (17:14, 19:11–16);[55] ... which He will bring about at the proper time—He who is the blessed and only Sovereign, the King of kings and Lord of lords, ... — First Epistle to Timothy 6:15 "These will wage war against the Lamb, and the Lamb will overcome them, because He is Lord of lords and King of kings, and those who are with Him are the called and chosen and faithful." — Book of Revelation 17:14 And I saw heaven opened, and behold, a white horse, and He who sat on it is called Faithful and True, and in righteousness He judges and wages war. His eyes are a flame of fire, and on His head are many diadems; and He has a name written on Him which no one knows except Himself. ... And on His robe and on His thigh He has a name written, "KING OF KINGS, AND LORD OF LORDS." — Book of Revelation 19:11–12, 16 Some Christian realms (Georgia, Armenia and Ethiopia) employed the title and it was part of the motto of the Byzantine Emperors of the Palaiologan period, Βασιλεὺς Βασιλέων Βασιλεύων Βασιλευόντων (Basileus Basileōn, Basileuōn Basileuontōn, literally "King of Kings, ruling over those who rule").[56] In the Byzantine Empire the word Βασιλεὺς (Basileus), which had meant "king" in ancient times had taken up the meaning of "emperor" instead. Byzantine rulers translated "Basileus" into "Imperator" when using Latin and called other kings rēx or rēgas, hellenized forms of the Latin title rex.[57][58] As such, Βασιλεὺς Βασιλέων in the Byzantine Empire would have meant "Emperor of Emperors". The Byzantine rulers only accorded the title of Basileus onto two foreign rulers they considered to be their equals, the Kings of Axum and the Shahanshahs of the Sasanian Empire, leading to "King of Kings" being equated to the rank of "Emperor" in the view of the West.[59] Islam[edit] Following the fall of the Sasanian Empire in 651 AD, the title of Shahanshah was sternly criticized in the Muslim world. It was problematic enough that the adoption of Shahanshah by the Muslim Buyid dynasty in Persia required a body of jurists to agree on its lawfulness[38] and the title itself (both as "king of kings" and as the Persian variant Shahanshah) is condemned in Sunni hadith, a prominent example being Sahih al-Bukhari Book 73 Hadiths 224 and 225;[60][61] Allah's Apostle said, "The most awful name in Allah's sight on the Day of Resurrection, will be (that of) a man calling himself Malik Al-Amlak (the king of kings)." — Sahih al-Bukhari Book 73 Hadith 224 The Prophet said, "The most awful (meanest) name in Allah's sight." Sufyan said more than once, "The most awful (meanest) name in Allah's sight is (that of) a man calling himself king of kings." Sufyan said, "Somebody else (i.e. other than Abu Az-Zinad, a sub-narrator) says: What is meant by 'The king of kings' is 'Shahan Shah.," — Sahih al-Bukhari Book 73 Hadith 225 The condemnation of the title within the Islamic world may stem from that the concept of God alone being king had been prominent in early Islam. Opposing worldly kingship, the use of "King of Kings" was obnoxious and blasphemous.[27] Modern usage[edit] Iran[edit] Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (r. 1941–1979) was the last monarch of Iran and the last Iranian ruler to take the title Shahanshah. After the end of the Buyid dynasty in 1062 AD, the title of Shahanshah wouldn't be adopted by another Iranian ruler until Ismail I, the founder of the Safavid dynasty. Upon his capture of Tabriz in 1501 AD, more than four hundred years after the end of the Buyid dynasty, Ismail proclaimed himself the Shāh of Azerbaijan and the Shahanshah of Iran.[62] The term šāhanšāh-e Irān, King of Kings of Iran, is richly attested for the Safavid period and for the preceding Timurid period (when it was not in use).[63] Nader Shah, founder of the later Afsharid Dynasty, assumed the title šāhanšāh in 1739 to emphasize his superiority over Muhammad Shah of the Mughal Empire in India.[64] The title Shahanshah is also attested for Fath-Ali Shah Qajar of the Qajar dynasty (r. 1797–1834). Fath-Ali's reign was noted for its pomp and elaborate court protocol.[65] An 1813/1814 portrait of Fath-Ali contains a poem with the title; "Is this a portrait of a shahanshah, inhabitant of the skies / Or is it the rising of the sun and the image of the moon?".[66] The Qajar dynasty was overthrown in 1925, replaced by the Pahlavi dynasty. Both reigning members of this dynasty, Reza Shah Pahlavi (r. 1925–1941) and Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (r. 1941–1979), before they too were overthrown as part of the Iranian revolution in 1979, used the title of Shahanshah.[67] Although Mohammad Reza Pahlavi had reigned as Shah for twenty-six years by then, he only took the title of Shahanshah on 26 October 1967 in a lavish coronation ceremony held in Tehran. He said that he chose to wait until this moment to assume the title because in his own opinion he "did not deserve it" up until then; he is also recorded as saying that there was "no honour in being Emperor of a poor country" (which he viewed Iran as being until that time).[68] The current head of the exiled house of Pahlavi, Reza Pahlavi II, symbolically declared himself Shahanshah at the age of 21 after the death of his father in 1980.[69] Muammar Gaddafi[edit] In 2008, the Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi claimed the title of "King of Kings" after a gathering of more than 200 African tribal kings and chiefs endorsed his use of the title on 28 August that year, stating that "We have decided to recognise our brotherly leader as the 'king of kings, sultans, princes, sheikhs and mayors of Africa". At the meeting, held in the city of Benghazi, Gaddafi was given gifts including a throne, an 18th-century Qur'an, traditional outfits and ostrich eggs. At the same meeting, Gaddafi urged his guests to put pressure on their own governments and speed the process of moving towards a unified African continent. Gaddafi told those that attended the meeting that "We want an African military to defend Africa, we want a single African currency, we want one African passport to travel within Africa".[70][71] The meeting was later referred to as a "bizarre ceremony" in international media.[72] References[edit] Annotations[edit] ^ Though the title being revived by 'Adud al-Dawla is the most common view, some scant evidence suggests that it may have been assumed by Buyid rulers even earlier, possibly by Dawla's father Rukn al-Dawla or uncle Imad al-Dawla.[30] Citations[edit] ^ a b Handy 1994, p. 112. ^ a b c d e King of kings in Media and Urartu. ^ a b Yücel 2017, pp. 331–344. ^ a b c Olbrycht 2009, p. 165. ^ Pinkerton 1811, p. 124. ^ a b Dejene 2007, p. 539. ^ Yarshater, Ehsan Persia or Iran, Persian or Farsi Archived 2010-10-24 at the Wayback Machine, Iranian Studies, vol. XXII no. 1 (1989) ^ Pasricha, Ashu (1998). Encyclopaedia Eminent Thinkers (vol. 15 : The Political Thought Of C. Rajagopalachari). Concept Publishing. p. 11. ISBN 9788180694950. In Sanskrit, 'Chakravarti' means the King of Kings. ^ The Cilappatikāram: The Tale of an Anklet. Penguin Books. 2004. p. 342. ISBN 9780143031963. ^ Mookerji, Radhakumud. The Fundamental Unity of India (from Hindu Sources). Longmans, Green and Company. p. 71. ^ Karlsson 2017, p. 7. ^ Karlsson 2017, p. 10. ^ Oshima 2017, p. 655. ^ Levin 2002, p. 362. ^ Tušpa (Van). ^ Engels 2011, p. 20. ^ Engels 2011, p. 21. ^ DARIUS iv. Darius II. ^ Achaemenid Dynasty. ^ Tushpa. ^ Simonetta 1966, p. 18. ^ Daryaee 2012, p. 179. ^ Schippmann 1986, pp. 525–536. ^ Shayegan 2011, p. 43. ^ Shayegan 2011, p. 44. ^ Kia 2016, pp. 284–285. ^ a b Madelung 1969, p. 84. ^ a b Amedroz 1905, p. 397. ^ Sundermann 1988, pp. 678–679. ^ a b Madelung 1969, p. 85. ^ Goldschmidt 2002, p. 87. ^ Madelung 1969, p. 86. ^ a b Madelung 1969, p. 87. ^ Clawson & Rubin 2005, p. 19. ^ Kabir 1964, p. 240. ^ Amedroz 1905, p. 395. ^ Amedroz 1905, p. 396. ^ a b Amedroz 1905, p. 398. ^ Fredricksmeyer 2000, pp. 136–166. ^ Engels 2011, p. 27. ^ a b c Engels 2011, p. 28. ^ Kotansky 1994, p. 181. ^ Strabo, Geography. ^ Olbrycht 2009, p. 178. ^ Greenwood 2011, p. 52. ^ Dzagnidze 2018. ^ Vashalomidze 2007, p. 151. ^ Hartmann 2001, pp. 149, 176, 178. ^ a b Andrade 2013, p. 333. ^ Ando 2012, p. 210. ^ Kobishchanov 1979, p. 195. ^ Kiunguyu 2018. ^ Tesfu 2008. ^ Gluck 2010, p. 78. ^ Jesus As King Of Kings. ^ Atlagić 1997, p. 2. ^ Kazhdan 1991, p. 264. ^ Morrisson 2013, p. 72. ^ Chrysos 1978, p. 42. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari Book 73 Hadith 224. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari Book 73 Hadith 225. ^ Lenczowski 1978, p. 79. ^ Iranian Identity. ^ NĀDER SHAH. ^ The Court of Fath 'Ali Shah at the Nowrooz Salaam Ceremony. ^ Portrait of Fath Ali Shah Seated. ^ Saikal & Schnabel 2003, p. 9. ^ National Geographic Magazine, p. 9. ^ Goodspeed 2010. ^ Gaddafi named 'king of kings'. ^ Gaddafi: Africa's 'king of kings'. ^ Adebajo 2011. 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Retrieved 20 February 2019. v t e Imperial, royal, and noble styles Forms of address for popes, royalty, and nobility Western Holiness Imperial and Royal Majesty (HI&RM) Imperial and Most Faithful Majesty Imperial Majesty (HIM) Apostolic Majesty (HAM) Apostolic King Catholic Monarchs Catholic Majesty (HCM) Most Christian Majesty (HMCM) Most Faithful Majesty (HFM) Orthodox Majesty (HOM) Britannic Majesty (HBM) Most Excellent Majesty Most Gracious Majesty Royal Majesty (HRM) Majesty (HM) Grace (HG) Royal Highness (HRH) Monseigneur (Msgr) Exalted Highness (HEH) Highness (HH) Most Eminent Highness (HMEH) Serene Highness (HSH) Illustrious Highness (HIll.H) Excellency (HE) Most Excellent Most Illustrious Hochgeboren Hochwohlgeboren Wohlgeboren Much Honoured (The Much Hon.) Milord (Millourt) Antiquity Ancient Rome Pater Patriae Augustus Sebastos Dominus Middle Ages Sovereign and mediatised families in the Holy Roman Empire Imperial and Royal Highness (HI&RH) Imperial Highness (HIH) Royal Highness (HRH) Grand Ducal Highness (HGDH) Grand Highness Highness (HH) Ducal Serene Highness (HDSH) Serene Highness (HSH) Serenity (HS) Illustrious Highness (HIll.H) Grace (HG) Excellency (HE) Asian Duli Yang Maha Mulia Great king Khan Great Khan King of Kings Maharaja Mikado Shah Shogun Son of Heaven Islamic Amir al-umara Amir al-Mu'minin Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques Hadrat Sharif Sultanic Highness Countries France Georgia Netherlands Portugal United Kingdom Canada Scotland See also By the Grace of God Divine right of kings Defender of the Faith (Fidei defensor) Defender of the Holy Sepulchre Great Catholic Monarch List of current sovereign monarchs List of current constituent monarchs Sacred king Translatio imperii Victory title Don (honorific) Wikipedia:WikiProject Royalty and Nobility v t e Ancient Mesopotamian royal titulature Dominion over the world King of All Peoples (šar kiššat nišē) King of the Four Corners of the World (šar kibrāt erbetti) King of the Universe (šar kiššatim) More Dominion over Mesopotamia King of Kings (šar šarrāni) King of Sumer and Akkad (šar māt Šumeri u Akkadi) King of the Lands (šar mātāti) More The king's person Great King (šarru rabu) Mighty King (šarrum dannum) More Specific locations King of Akkad (šar māt Akkadi) King of Assyria (šar māt Aššur) King of Babylon (šar Bābili) King of Sumer (šar māt Šumeri) More Titles rendered in Akkadian language. 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en-wikipedia-org-3387	----	Paeonia (kingdom) - Wikipedia Paeonia (kingdom) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Paionia) Jump to navigation Jump to search "Paionia" redirects here. For the municipality in northern Greece, see Paionia (municipality). For the deme of ancient Attica, see Paeonidae. The Paeonian tribes The Paeonians next to Odrysian Kingdom Paeonians and the kingdom of Macedon In antiquity, Paeonia or Paionia (Ancient Greek: Παιονία, romanized: Paionía) was the land and kingdom of the Paeonians or Paionians (Ancient Greek: Παίονες, romanized: Paíones). The exact original boundaries of Paeonia, like the early history of its inhabitants, are obscure, but it is known that it roughly corresponds to most of present-day North Macedonia and north-central parts of Greek Macedonia (i.e. probably the Greek municipalities of Paionia, Almopia, Sintiki, Irakleia, and Serres), and a small part of south-western Bulgaria.[1][2][3][4] Ancient authors placed it south of Dardania (an area corresponding to modern-day Kosovo and northern North Macedonia), west of the Thracian mountains, and east of the southernmost Illyrians.[5] It was separated from Dardania by the mountains through which the Vardar river passes from the field of Scupi (modern Skopje) to the valley of Bylazora (near modern Sveti Nikole). In the Iliad, the Paeonians are said to have been allies of the Trojans. During the Persian invasion of Greece the conquered Paeonians as far as the Lake Prasias, including the Paeoplae and Siropaiones, were deported from Paeonia to Asia.[6] In 355–354 BC, Philip II of Macedon took advantage of the death of King Agi of Paeonia and campaigned against them in order to conquer them. So the southern part of ancient Paeonia was annexed by the ancient kingdom of Macedon and was named "Macedonian Paeonia"; this section included the cities Astraion (later Stromnitsa), Stenae (near modern Demir Kapija), Antigoneia (near modern Negotino), etc. Contents 1 Paeonian people 1.1 Tribes 1.2 Origin 2 Paeonian Kingdom 2.1 Kings 2.2 Foreign rulers 3 Culture 4 Decline 5 See also 6 References 7 Bibliography Paeonian people[edit] Tribes[edit] The Paeonian tribes were: Agrianes[7] (also, Agriani and Agrii), it is also claimed that the tribe was Thracian. Almopians[8] (also Almopioi) Laeaeans[7] (also Laeaei and Laiai) Derrones[9] (also Derroni), it is also claimed that the tribe was Thracian. Odomantes[10] (also Odomanti), it is also claimed that the tribe was Thracian.[11] Paeoplae[12] Doberes[13] Siropaiones[14] Origin[edit] Paeonia as part of Epirus environs. Some modern scholars consider the Paeonians to have been of either Thracian,[15] or of mixed Thraco-Illyrian origins.[16] Some of the names of the Paeonians are also definitely Hellenic (Lycceius, Ariston, Audoleon), although relatively little is known about them.[17] Linguistically, the very small number of surviving words in the Paeonian language have been variously connected to its neighboring languages – Illyrian and Thracian (and every possible Thraco-Illyrian mix in between),[18] as well as Hellenic and closely related to Greek but with a great deal of Illyrian and Thracian influence as a result of their proximity.[19] Several eastern Paeonian tribes, including the Agrianes, clearly fell within the Thracian sphere of influence. Yet, according to the national legend,[20] they were Teucrian colonists from Troy. Homer[21] speaks of Paeonians from the Axios fighting on the side of the Trojans, but the Iliad does not mention whether the Paeonians were kin to the Trojans. Homer calls the Paeonian leader Pyraechmes (parentage unknown); later on in the Iliad (Book 21), Homer mentions a second leader, Asteropaeus, son of Pelagon. Before the reign of Darius Hystaspes, they had made their way as far east as Perinthus in Thrace on the Propontis. At one time all Mygdonia, together with Crestonia, was subject to them. When Xerxes crossed Chalcidice on his way to Therma (later renamed Thessalonica), he is said to have marched through Paeonian territory. They occupied the entire valley of the Axios (Vardar) as far inland as Stobi, the valleys to the east of it as far as the Strymon and the country round Astibus and the river of the same name, with the water of which they anointed their kings. Emathia, roughly the district between the Haliacmon and Axios, was once called Paeonia; and Pieria and Pelagonia were inhabited by Paeonians. As a consequence of the growth of Macedonian power, and under pressure from their Thracian neighbors, their territory was considerably diminished, and in historical times was limited to the north of Macedonia from Illyria to the Strymon. In Greek mythology, the Paeonians were said to have derived their name from Paeon the son of Endymion.[22] Paeonian Kingdom[edit] Mythological chart of Paeonia's founder, Paeon. Coin of Patraus, king of Paeonia 335-315 BC In early times, the chief town and seat of the Paeonian kings was Bylazora (now Veles in North Macedonia) on the Vardar; later, the seat of the kings was moved to Stobi (near modern Gradsko).[23] Subjugation of the Paeonians happened as a part of Persian military operations initiated by Darius the Great (521–486) in 513 – after immense preparations – a huge Achaemenid army invaded the Balkans and tried to defeat the European Scythians roaming to the north of the Danube river.[23] Darius' army subjugated several Thracian peoples, and virtually all other regions that touch the European part of the Black Sea, such as parts of nowadays Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, and Russia, before it returned to Asia Minor.[23][24] Darius left in Europe one of his commanders named Megabazus whose task was to accomplish conquests in the Balkans.[23] The Persian troops subjugated gold-rich Thrace, the coastal Greek cities, as well as defeating and conquering the powerful Paeonians.[23][25][26] At some point after the Greco-Persian Wars, the Paeonian princedoms coalesced into a kingdom centred in the central and upper reaches of the Axios and Strymon rivers, corresponding with today's northern part of North Macedonia and western Bulgaria. They joined with the Illyrians to attack the northern areas of the kingdom of Macedonia. The Illyrians, who had a culture of piracy, would have been cut off from some trade routes if movement through this land had been blocked. They unsuccessfully attacked the northern defences of Macedonian territory in an attempt to occupy the region. In 360–359 BC, southern Paeonian tribes were launching raids into Macedon, (Diodorus XVI. 2.5) in support of an Illyrian invasion. The Macedonian Royal House was thrown into a state of uncertainty by the death of Perdiccas III, but his brother Philip II assumed the throne, reformed the army (providing phalanxes), and proceeded to stop both the Illyrian invasion and the Paeonian raids through the boundary of the "Macedonian Frontier", which was the northern perimeter which he intended to defend as an area of his domain. He followed Perdiccas's success in 358 BC with a campaign deep into the north, into Paeonia itself.[27][28][29][30][31][32] This reduced the Paeonian kingdom (then ruled by Agis) to a semi-autonomous, subordinate status, which led to a process of gradual and formal Hellenization of the Paeonians, who, during the reign of Philip II, began to issue coins with Greek legends like the Macedonian ones. A Paeonian contingent, led by Ariston, was attached to Alexander the Great's army. At the time of the Persian invasion, the Paeonians on the lower Strymon had lost, while those in the north maintained, their territorial integrity. The daughter of Audoleon, a king of Paeonia, was the wife of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, and Alexander the Great wished to bestow the hand of his sister Cynane upon Langarus, king of the Agrianians, who had shown himself loyal to Philip II. Kings[edit] Kings of Paeonia Agis (died 358 BC) Lycceius (356–340 BC)[33] Patraus (340–315 BC) Audoleon (315–285 BC),[34] son of Patraus Ariston (286–285 BC),[35] son of Audoleon Leon (278–250 BC)[36] Dropion (250–230 BC),[36] son of Leon Bastareus (?–? BC) Main line Agis: founded the Paeonian kingdom; pretender to the Macedonian throne in a time of instability.[37] Lycceius: joined anti-Macedonian coalition with Grabos and Thrace in 356 BC.[38] Patraus Audoleon: reduced to great straits by the Autariatae, but was succoured by Cassander.[39] Ariston[35] Leon of Paeonia: consolidated and restored lost lands after the Gallic Invasions in 280/279 BC.[36] Dropion: last known Paeonian king in 230 BC, of a dwindling kingdom.[36] Others Pigres: one of the two tyrant brothers which in 511 BC persuaded Darius I to deport the coastal Paeonians to Asia.[40] Mantyes: one of the two tyrant brothers which in 511 BC persuaded Darius I to deport the coastal Paeonians to Asia.[40] Dokidan: of the Derrones; reigned during the 6th century BC.[41] Dokim: of the Derrones; reigned during the 6th century BC.[41] Euergetes: of the Derrones; reigned c. 480–465 BC, known only from his coinage.[42] Teutaos: reigend from c. 450–435 BC; known only from his coinage.[43] Bastareus: reigned from c. 400–380/78 BC, known only from his coinage.[44] Teutamado: reigned from 378 to 359 BC, known only from his coinage.[45] Symnon: great ally of Phillip II from 348 to 336 BC.[46] Nicharchos: reigned from 335 to 323 BC; son of Symon.[46] Langarus: of the Agrianes; invaded the territory of the Autariatae in 335 BC in coalition with Alexander the Great.[47] Dyplaios: of the Agrianes; reigend around 330 BC.[48] Didas: allied Philip V of Macedon with 4,000 warriors from 215 to 197 BC.[41] Foreign rulers[edit] Persian Darius I: subjugated Paeonia in 511/2 BC.[23][49] Xerxes: included Paeonians in vast Persian army of 481 BC, for the Invasion of Greece.[50] Thracian Sitalces: included Agrianes and Laeaeans in his Macedonian campaign in 429 BC.[51] Culture[edit] See also: Paeonian language The Paeonians included several independent tribes, all later united under the rule of a single king. Little is known of their manners and customs. They adopted the cult of Dionysus, known amongst them as Dyalus or Dryalus, and Herodotus mentions that the Thracian and Paeonian women offered sacrifice to Queen Artemis (probably Bendis). They worshipped the sun in the form of a small round disk fixed on the top of a pole. A passage in Athenaeus seems to indicate the affinity of their language with Mysian.[citation needed] They drank barley beer and various decoctions made from plants and herbs. The country was rich in gold and a bituminous kind of wood (or stone, which burst into a blaze when in contact with water) called tanrivoc (or tsarivos). The scanty remains of the Paeonian language do not allow a firm judgement to be made. On one side are Wilhelm Tomaschek and Paul Kretschmer, who claim it belonged to the Illyrian family, and on the other side is Dimitar Dečev, who claims affinities with Thracian. On the other hand, the Paeonian kings issued coins from the time of Philip II of Macedon onwards, bearing their names written in straightforward Greek. All the names of the Paeonian Kings that have come down to us are, in fact, explainable with and clearly related to Greek (Agis, Ariston, Audoleon, Lycceius, etc.), a fact that, according to Irwin L. Merker, puts into question the theories of Illyrian and Thracian connections. The women were famous for their industry. In this connection Herodotus[52] tells the story that Darius, having seen at Sardis a beautiful Paeonian woman carrying a pitcher on her head, leading a horse to drink, and spinning flax, all at the same time, inquired who she was. Having been informed that she was a Paeonian, he sent instructions to Megabazus, commander in Thrace, to deport two tribes of the nation without delay to Asia. An inscription, discovered in 1877 at Olympia on the base of a statue, states that it was set up by the community of the Paeonians in honor of their king and founder Dropion. Another king, whose name appears as Lyppeius on a fragment of an inscription found at Athens relating to a treaty of alliance, is no doubt identical with the Lycceius or Lycpeius of Paeonian coins.[53] Decline[edit] In 280 BC, the Gallic invaders under Brennus ravaged the land of the Paeonians, who, being further hard pressed by the Dardani, had no alternative but to join the Macedonians. Despite their combined efforts, however, the Paeonians and Macedonians were defeated. Paeonia consolidated again but, in 217 BC, the Macedonian king Philip V of Macedon (220–179 BC), the son of Demetrius II, succeeded in uniting and incorporating into his empire the separate regions of Dassaretia and Paeonia. A mere 70 years later (in 168 BC), Roman legions conquered Macedon in turn, and a new and much larger Roman province bearing this name was formed. Paeonia around the Axios formed the second and third districts respectively of the newly constituted Roman province of Macedonia.[54] Centuries later under Diocletian, Paeonia and Pelagonia formed a province called Macedonia Secunda or Macedonia Salutaris, belonging to the Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum. See also[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Paionia. List of ancient Illyrian peoples and tribes List of ancient tribes in Thrace References[edit] ^ Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (2010). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. John Wiley and Sons. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2. ^ "Paeonia". Encyclopædia Britannica online. ^ Reames, Jeanne (2008). Howe, Timothy (ed.). Macedonian Legacies. Regina Books. p. 239. ISBN 978-1930053564. Paeonia, roughly where the F.Y.R.O.M. is today. ^ Ovid; Green, Peter (2005). The Poems of Exile. University of California Press, 2005. p. 319. Ovid was lax in his geography, not least over Paeonia (in fact roughly coextensive with the present F.Y.R.O.M.). ^ Strabo, "Geography", 7, Frg.4, 9.5.1 ^ The Persian Empire: A Corpus of Sources from the Achaemenid Period (google books) ^ a b Early symbolic systems for communication in Southeast Europe, Part 2 by Lolita Nikolova, ISBN 1-84171-334-1, 2003, page 529, "eastern Paionians (Agrianians and Laeaeans)" ^ The Landmark Thucydides: A Comprehensive Guide to the Peloponnesian War by Thucydides, Robert B. Strassler, Richard Crawley, and Victor Davis Hanson, 1998, ISBN 0-684-82790-5, page 153,"... of them still live round Physcasb- and the Almopians from Almopia. ^ The Cambridge Ancient History, Martin Percival Charlesworth, ISBN 0-521-85073-8, ISBN 978-0-521-85073-5 Volume 4, Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean, C. 525 to 479 B.C, John Boardman, page 252, "The Paeonians were the earlier owners of some of these mines, but after their defeat in the coastal sector they maintained their independence in the mainland and coined large denominations in the upper Strymon and the Upper Axius area in the names of the Laeaei and the Derrones" ^ An Inventory of Archaic and Classical Poleis: An Investigation Conducted by The Copenhagen Polis Centre for the Danish National Research Foundation by Mogens Herman Hansen and Thomas Heine Nielsen, 2005, ISBN 0-19-814099-1, page 854, ... Various tribes have occupied this part of Thrace: Bisaltians (lower Strymon valley), Odomantes (the plain to the north of the Strymon) ... ^ Thrace in the Graeco-Roman world, p. 112 but others claim that together with the Agrianes and Odomanti, at least the latter of which were with certainty Thracian, not Paeonian. ^ The Histories (Penguin Classics) by Herodotus, John M. Marincola, and Aubery de Selincourt, ISBN 0-14-044908-6, 2003, page 315, ... "was that a number of Paeonian tribes – the Siriopaeones, Paeoplae, ..." ^ The Histories (Penguin Classics) by Herodotus, John M. Marincola, and Aubery de Selincourt, ISBN 0-14-044908-6, 2003, page 452, "... Then he passed through the country of the Doberes and Paeoplae (Paeonian tribes living north of Pangaeum), and continued in a ..." ^ The Histories (Penguin Classics) by Herodotus, John M. Marincola, and Aubery de Selincourt, ISBN 0-14-044908-6, 2003, page 315, "... was that a number of Paeonian tribes – the Siriopaeones, Paeoplae, ..." ^ Susan Wise Bauer (2007). The History of the Ancient World: From the Earliest Accounts to the Fall of Rome. ISBN 0-393-05974-X, page 518: "... Italy); to the north, Thracian tribes known collectively as the Paeonians." ^ See: Encyclopædia Britannica, online edition. ^ Irwin L. Merker, "The Ancient Kingdom of Paionia," Balkan Studies 6 (1965) 35. ^ Francesco Villari. Gli Indoeuropei e le origini dell'Europa. Il Mulino, 1997. ISBN 88-15-05708-0. ^ "The Ancient Kingdom of Paionia". Balkan Studies 6. 1965. ^ Herodotus V, 13. ^ Iliad II, 848. ^ Pausanias, 5.1.5; Smith "Paeon" 3. ^ a b c d e f Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (7 July 2011). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. ISBN 9781444351637. Retrieved 17 December 2014. ^ The Oxford Classical Dictionary by Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth, ISBN 0-19-860641-9,"page 1515,"The Thracians were subdued by the Persians by 516" ^ Howe & Reames 2008, p. 239. ^ "Persian influence on Greece (2)". Retrieved 17 December 2014. ^ Raphael Sealey, A History of the Greek City States, 700–338 BC, University of California Press, 1976, p. 442, on Google books ^ Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière Hammond, Guy Thompson Griffith, A History of Macedonia: 550–336 B.C, Clarendon Press, 1979 ^ R. Malcolm Errington, A History of Macedonia, University of California Press, 1990 ^ Carol G. Thomas, Alexander the Great in his World, Wiley-Blackwell, 2006 ^ Simon Hornblower, The Greek world, 479–323 BC, Routledge, 2002 ^ Diodorus Siculus, Library, 16.4, on Perseus ^ Catalogue of Greek Coins: Thessaly to Aetolia by Percy Gardner, 2004, Front Matter: "... present to the money of Philip II. of Macedon, and Lycceius and Audoleon, kings of Paeonia, that they must be given ..." ^ A Guide to the Principal Gold and Silver Coins of the Ancients: From Circ. B. C. 700 to a. D. 1. (1895) by British Museum Dept. of Coins and Medals, 2009, page 62: "... of Athena, facing. Bee. AYAnA EONTOZ. Horse. Wt. 193.4 grs. Patraus and his son Audoleon reigned over Paeonia between B.C. 340 ..." ^ a b Polyaenus, Stratagems of War, 4.12.3, "Lysimachus conducted Ariston, son of Autoleon, to his father's kingdom in Paeonia; under pretence that the royal youth might be acknowledged by his subjects, and treated with due respect. But as soon as he had bathed in the royal baths in the river Arisbus, and they had set before him an elegant banquet, according to the custom of his country, Lysimachus ordered his guards to arm. Ariston instantly mounted his horse and escaped to the land of the Dardani; and Lysimachus was left in possession of Paeonia." ^ a b c d Pausanias, Description of Greece Phocis and Ozolian Locri, 10.13.1, "A bronze head of the Paeonian bull called the bison was sent to Delphi by the Paeonian king Dropion, son of Leon." ^ The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 6: The Fourth Century BC by D. M. Lewis, John Boardman, Simon Hornblower, and M. Ostwald, 1994, page 463: "Agis, king of Paeonians". ^ Catalogue of Greek Coins: Thessaly to Aetolia by Percy Gardner, 2004, Front Matter: "... present to the money of Philip II. of Macedon, and Lycceius and Audoleon, kings of Paeonia, that they must be given..." ^ A Guide to the Principal Gold and Silver Coins of the Ancients: From Circ. B. C. 700 to a. D. 1. (1895) by British Museum Dept. of Coins and Medals, 2009, page 62: "... Patraus and his son Audoleon reigned over Paaonia between B.C. 340 ..." ^ a b The Histories. Digireads.com. 2009. p. 199. ISBN 9781596258778. Retrieved 2014-10-15. ^ a b c bg:Пеония ^ "Thraco Macedonian Tribes, Derrones, ancient coins index with thumbnails - WildWinds.com". wildwinds.com. Retrieved 2014-10-15. ^ "Ancient Mediterranean and Europe: The Paones". allempires.com. Retrieved 2014-10-15. ^ Introduction générale à l'étude des monnaies de l'antiquité by Ernest Babelon, ISBN 0405123485, 1979, page 224. ^ "Mbretër Ilirë, 2400 Vjet Më Parë, Në Maqedoninë E Sotme". forumishqiptar.com. Retrieved 2014-10-15. ^ a b "I/63 Paionian (512–284 BC)". fanaticus.org. Archived from the original on 2015-03-20. Retrieved 2014-10-15. ^ Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, "Langarus", Boston, (1867). ^ Čausidis, N.; Ugrinovska, L.; Drnkov, B. (1995). Macedonia: Cultural Heritage. Misla. ISBN 9789989390210. Retrieved 2014-10-15. ^ Timothy Howe, Jeanne Reames. Macedonian Legacies: Studies in Ancient Macedonian History and Culture in Honor of Eugene N. Borza (original from the Indiana University) Regina Books, 2008 ISBN 978-1930053564 p 239 ^ Herodotus VII, 185 ^ "The unknown Paeonian world | martin kubelka - Academia.edu". academia.edu. Retrieved 2014-10-15. ^ v. 12 ^ B. V. Head, Historia Numorum, 1887, p. 207. ^ Livy xiv. 29. Bibliography[edit] Howe, Timothy; Reames, Jeanne (2008). Macedonian Legacies: Studies in Ancient Macedonian History and Culture in Honor of Eugene N. Borza. Regina Books. ISBN 978-1-930-05356-4. Pausanias, Description of Greece. W. H. S. Jones (translator). Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. (1918). Vol. 1. Books I–II: ISBN 0-674-99104-4. Smith, William, A dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology. London. Online at Perseus  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Smith, William, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Missing or empty |title= (help)  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Paeonia". Encyclopædia Britannica. 20 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. v t e Paeonian-related topics Culture Paeon Paeonian art Paeonian pottery Paeonian religion Paeonian clothing Paeonian coinage Paeonian fibulae Warfare Alexander's Balkan campaign Paeonian Kingdom Language Paeonian language Cities Astraion Vylazora Astibo Stobi Kings Agis Lycceius Patraus Audoleon Ariston Leon Dropion Bastareus Tribes Agrianes Almopians Derrones Doberes Laeaeans Odomantes Paeoplae Siropaiones Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paeonia_(kingdom)&oldid=998348628" Categories: Paeonia (kingdom) Geography of ancient Paeonia Macedonia (ancient kingdom) Achaemenid Empire Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2016 Commons category link is on Wikidata CS1 errors: missing title Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM with no wstitle or title parameter Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Brezhoneg Català Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Македонски Norsk bokmål Português Română Русский Shqip Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 5 January 2021, at 00:01 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3395	----	View source for Template:Median and Achaemenid kings - Wikipedia View source for Template:Median and Achaemenid kings ← Template:Median and Achaemenid kings Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. 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en-wikipedia-org-339	----	Thebes, Greece - Wikipedia Thebes, Greece From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Place in Greece Thebes Θήβα Remains of the Cadmea, the central fortress of ancient Thebes Thebes Location within the region Coordinates: 38°19′N 23°19′E / 38.317°N 23.317°E / 38.317; 23.317Coordinates: 38°19′N 23°19′E / 38.317°N 23.317°E / 38.317; 23.317 Country Greece Administrative region Central Greece Regional unit Boeotia Area  • Municipality 830.112 km2 (320.508 sq mi)  • Municipal unit 321.015 km2 (123.945 sq mi) Elevation 215 m (705 ft) Population (2011)[1]  • Municipality 36,477  • Municipality density 44/km2 (110/sq mi)  • Municipal unit 25,845  • Municipal unit density 81/km2 (210/sq mi) Demonym(s) Theban Community[1]  • Population 22,883 (2011)  • Area (km2) 143.889 Time zone UTC+2 (EET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+3 (EEST) Postal code 32200 Area code(s) 22620 Website www.thiva.gr "Thebans" redirects here. For the inhabitants of the ancient Egyptian city, see Thebes, Egypt. Thebes (/θiːbz/; Greek: Θήβα, Thíva [ˈθiva]; Ancient Greek: Θῆβαι, Thêbai [tʰɛ̂ːbai̯][2]) is a city in Boeotia, central Greece. It played an important role in Greek myths, as the site of the stories of Cadmus, Oedipus, Dionysus, Heracles and others. Archaeological excavations in and around Thebes have revealed a Mycenaean settlement and clay tablets written in the Linear B script, indicating the importance of the site in the Bronze Age. Thebes was the largest city of the ancient region of Boeotia and was the leader of the Boeotian confederacy. It was a major rival of ancient Athens, and sided with the Persians during the 480 BC invasion under Xerxes. Theban forces under the command of Epaminondas ended the power of Sparta at the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BC. The Sacred Band of Thebes (an elite military unit) famously fell at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC against Philip II and Alexander the Great. Prior to its destruction by Alexander in 335 BC, Thebes was a major force in Greek history, and was the most dominant city-state at the time of the Macedonian conquest of Greece. During the Byzantine period, the city was famous for its silks. The modern city contains an archaeological museum, the remains of the Cadmea (Bronze Age and forward citadel), and scattered ancient remains. Modern Thebes is the largest town of the regional unit of Boeotia. Contents 1 Geography 2 Municipality 3 History 3.1 Mythic record 3.2 Early history 3.3 Archaic and classical periods 3.4 Decline and destruction 3.5 Hellenistic and Roman periods 3.5.1 Restoration by Cassander 3.6 Byzantine period 3.7 Latin period 3.8 Ottoman period 3.9 Modern town 4 Notable people 4.1 Ancient 4.2 Modern 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Geography[edit] Thebes is situated in a plain, between Lake Yliki (ancient Hylica) to the north, and the Cithaeron mountains, which divide Boeotia from Attica, to the south. Its elevation is 215 metres (705 feet) above mean sea level. It is about 50 kilometres (31 miles) northwest of Athens, and 100 kilometres (62 miles) southeast of Lamia. Motorway 1 and the Athens–Thessaloniki railway connect Thebes with Athens and northern Greece. The municipality of Thebes covers an area of 830.112 square kilometres (320.508 square miles), the municipal unit of Thebes 321.015 square kilometres (123.945 square miles) and the community 143.889 square kilometres (55.556 square miles).[3] Municipality[edit] In 2011, as a consequence of the Kallikratis reform, Thebes was merged with Plataies, Thisvi, and Vagia to form a larger municipality, which retained the name Thebes. The other three become units of the larger municipality.[4] History[edit] Mythic record[edit] For a discussion of the many mythical kings of Thebes and their individual feats, see Theban kings in Greek mythology. Interior of the Archaeological Museum of Thebes Exhibit at the museum The record of the earliest days of Thebes was preserved among the Greeks in an abundant mass of legends that rival the myths of Troy in their wide ramification and the influence that they exerted on the literature of the classical age. Five main cycles of story may be distinguished: The foundation of the citadel Cadmea by Cadmus, and the growth of the Spartoi or "Sown Men" (probably an aetiological myth designed to explain the origin of the Theban nobility which bore that name in historical times). The immolation of Semele and the advent of Dionysus. The building of a "seven-gated" wall by Amphion, and the cognate stories of Zethus, Antiope and Dirce. The tale of Laius, whose misdeeds culminated in the tragedy of Oedipus and the wars of the Seven against Thebes and the Epigoni, and the downfall of his house; Laius' pederastic rape of Chrysippus was held by some ancients to have been the first instance of homosexuality among mortals, and may have provided an etiology for the practice of pedagogic pederasty for which Thebes was famous. See Theban pederasty and Pederasty in ancient Greece for detailed discussion and background. The exploits of Heracles. The Greeks attributed the foundation of Thebes to Cadmus, a Phoenician king from Tyre (now in Lebanon) and the brother of Queen Europa. Cadmus was famous for teaching the Phoenician alphabet and building the Acropolis, which was named the Cadmeia in his honor and was an intellectual, spiritual, and cultural center. Early history[edit] Map of Greece during the height of Theban power in 362 BC, showing Theban, Spartan and Athenian power blocks. Archaeological excavations in and around Thebes have revealed cist graves dated to Mycenaean times containing weapons, ivory, and tablets written in Linear B. Its attested name forms and relevant terms on tablets found locally or elsewhere include 𐀳𐀣𐀂, te-qa-i,[n 1] understood to be read as *Tʰēgʷai̮s (Ancient Greek: Θήβαις, Thēbais, i.e. "at Thebes", Thebes in the dative-locative case), 𐀳𐀣𐀆, te-qa-de,[n 2] for *Tʰēgʷasde (Θήβασδε, Thēbasde, i.e. "to Thebes"),[2][6] and 𐀳𐀣𐀊, te-qa-ja,[n 3] for *Tʰēgʷaja (Θηβαία, Thēbaia, i.e. "Theban woman").[2] Theban workshop (Oinochoe type), 7th century BC. It seems safe[clarification needed] to infer that *Tʰēgʷai was one of the first Greek communities to be drawn together within a fortified city, and that it owed its importance in prehistoric days — as later — to its military strength. Deger-Jalkotzy claimed that the statue base from Kom el-Hetan in Amenhotep III's kingdom (LHIIIA:1) mentions a name similar to Thebes, spelled out quasi-syllabically in hieroglyphs as d-q-e-i-s, and considered to be one of four tj-n3-jj (Danaan?) kingdoms worthy of note (alongside Knossos and Mycenae). *Tʰēgʷai in LHIIIB lost contact with Egypt but gained it with "Miletus" (Hittite: Milawata) and "Cyprus" (Hittite: Alashija). In the late LHIIIB, according to Palaima,[7] *Tʰēgʷai was able to pull resources from Lamos near Mount Helicon, and from Karystos and Amarynthos on the Greek side of the isle of Euboia. As a fortified community, it attracted attention from the invading Dorians, and the fact of their eventual conquest of Thebes lies behind the stories of the successive legendary attacks on that city. The central position and military security of the city naturally tended to raise it to a commanding position among the Boeotians, and from early days its inhabitants endeavoured to establish a complete supremacy over their kinsmen in the outlying towns. This centralizing policy is as much the cardinal fact of Theban history as the counteracting effort of the smaller towns to resist absorption forms the main chapter of the story of Boeotia. No details of the earlier history of Thebes have been preserved, except that it was governed by a land-holding aristocracy who safeguarded their integrity by rigid statutes about the ownership of property and its transmission over time. Archaic and classical periods[edit] Further information: Epaminondas, Theban hegemony, and Boeotarch Topographic map of ancient Thebes. As attested already in Homer's Iliad, Thebes was often called "Seven-Gated Thebes" (Θῆβαι ἑπτάπυλοι, Thebai heptapyloi) (Iliad, IV.406) to distinguish it from "Hundred-Gated Thebes" (Θῆβαι ἑκατόμπυλοι, Thebai hekatompyloi) in Egypt (Iliad, IX.383). Ancient coin depicting a Boeotian shield, AM of Thebes In the late 6th century BC, the Thebans were brought for the first time into hostile contact with the Athenians, who helped the small village of Plataea to maintain its independence against them, and in 506 BC repelled an inroad into Attica. The aversion to Athens best serves to explain the apparently unpatriotic attitude which Thebes displayed during the Persian invasion of Greece (480–479 BC). Though a contingent of 400 was sent to Thermopylae and remained there with Leonidas before being defeated alongside the Spartans,[8] the governing aristocracy soon after joined King Xerxes I of Persia with great readiness and fought zealously on his behalf at the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC. The victorious Greeks subsequently punished Thebes by depriving it of the presidency of the Boeotian League and an attempt by the Spartans to expel it from the Delphic amphictyony was only frustrated by the intercession of Athens. In 457 BC Sparta, needing a counterpoise against Athens in central Greece, reversed her policy and reinstated Thebes as the dominant power in Boeotia. The great citadel of Cadmea served this purpose well by holding out as a base of resistance when the Athenians overran and occupied the rest of the country (457–447 BC). In the Peloponnesian War, the Thebans, embittered by the support that Athens gave to the smaller Boeotian towns, and especially to Plataea, which they vainly attempted to reduce in 431 BC, were firm allies of Sparta, which in turn helped them to besiege Plataea and allowed them to destroy the town after its capture in 427 BC. In 424 BC, at the head of the Boeotian levy, they inflicted a severe defeat on an invading force of Athenians at the Battle of Delium, and for the first time displayed the effects of that firm military organization that eventually raised them to predominant power in Greece. Silver stater of Thebes (405-395 BC). Obverse: Boeotian shield, reverse: Head of bearded Dionysus. After the downfall of Athens at the end of the Peloponnesian War, the Thebans, having learned that Sparta intended to protect the states that Thebes desired to annex, broke off the alliance. In 404 C, they had urged the complete destruction of Athens; yet, in 403 BC, they secretly supported the restoration of its democracy in order to find in it a counterpoise against Sparta. A few years later, influenced perhaps in part by Persian gold, they formed the nucleus of the league against Sparta. At the Battle of Haliartus (395 BC) and the Battle of Coronea (394 BC), they again proved their rising military capacity by standing their ground against the Spartans. The result of the war was especially disastrous to Thebes, as the general settlement of 387 BC stipulated the complete autonomy of all Greek towns and so withdrew the other Boeotians from its political control. Its power was further curtailed in 382 BC, when a Spartan force occupied the citadel by a treacherous coup-de-main. Three years later, the Spartan garrison was expelled and a democratic constitution was set up in place of the traditional oligarchy. In the consequent wars with Sparta, the Theban army, trained and led by Epaminondas and Pelopidas, proved itself formidable (see also: Sacred Band of Thebes). Years of desultory fighting, in which Thebes established its control over all Boeotia, culminated in 371 BC in a remarkable victory over the Spartans at Leuctra. The winners were hailed throughout Greece as champions of the oppressed. They carried their arms into Peloponnesus and at the head of a large coalition, permanently crippled the power of Sparta, in part by freeing many helot slaves, the basis of the Spartan economy. Similar expeditions were sent to Thessaly and Macedon to regulate the affairs of those regions. Decline and destruction[edit] Ruins of Thebes However, the predominance of Thebes was short-lived, as the states that it protected refused to subject themselves permanently to its control. Thebes renewed rivalry with Athens, who had joined with them in 395 BC in fear of Sparta, but since 387 BC had endeavored to maintain the balance of power against its ally, prevented the formation of a Theban empire. With the death of Epaminondas at the Battle of Mantinea (362 BC), the city sank again to the position of a secondary power. In the Third Sacred War (356—346 BC) with its neighbor Phocis, Thebes lost its predominance in central Greece. By asking Philip II of Macedon to crush the Phocians, Thebes extended the former's power within dangerous proximity to its frontiers. The revulsion of popular feeling in Thebes was expressed in 338 BC by the orator Demosthenes, who persuaded Thebes to join Athens in a final attempt to bar Philip's advance on Attica. The Theban contingent lost the decisive battle of Chaeronea and along with it every hope of reassuming control over Greece. Philip was content to deprive Thebes of its dominion over Boeotia; but an unsuccessful revolt in 335 BC against his son Alexander the Great while he was campaigning in the north was punished by Alexander and his Greek allies with the destruction of the city (except, according to tradition, the house of the poet Pindar and the temples), and its territory divided between the other Boeotian cities. Moreover, the Thebans themselves were sold into slavery.[9] Alexander spared only priests, leaders of the pro-Macedonian party and descendants of Pindar. The end of Thebes cowed Athens into submission. According to Plutarch, a special Athenian embassy, led by Phocion, an opponent of the anti-Macedonian faction, was able to persuade Alexander to give up his demands for the exile of leaders of the anti-Macedonian party, and most particularly Demosthenes and not sell the people into slavery.[10] Hellenistic and Roman periods[edit] This section needs expansion with: End of the Hellenistic period Roman Period. You can help by adding to it. (April 2013) Ancient writings tend to treat Alexander's destruction of Thebes as excessive.[11] Plutarch, however, writes that Alexander grieved after his excess, granting them any request of favors, and advising they pay attention to the invasion of Asia, and that if he failed, Thebes might once again become the ruling city-state.[12] Although Thebes had traditionally been antagonistic to whichever state led the Greek world, siding with the Persians when they invaded against the Athenian-Spartan alliance, siding with Sparta when Athens seemed omnipotent, and famously derailing the Spartan invasion of Persia by Agesilaus. Alexander's father Philip had been raised in Thebes, albeit as a hostage, and had learnt much of the art of war from Pelopidas. Philip had honoured this fact, always seeking alliances with the Boeotians, even in the lead-up to Chaeronea. Thebes was also revered as the most ancient of Greek cities, with a history of over 1,000 years. Plutarch relates that, during his later conquests, whenever Alexander came across a former Theban, he would attempt to redress his destruction of Thebes with favours to that individual. Restoration by Cassander[edit] Following Alexander the Great's death in 323 BC, Thebes was re-established in 315 BC[13] by Alexander's successor, Cassander.[14] In restoring Thebes, Cassander sought to rectify the perceived wrongs of Alexander - a gesture of generosity that earned Cassander much goodwill throughout Greece.[15] In addition to currying favor with the Athenians and many of the Peloponnesian states, Cassander's restoration of Thebes provided him with loyal allies in the Theban exiles who returned to resettle the site.[15] Cassander's plan for rebuilding Thebes called for the various Greek city-states to provide skilled labor and manpower, and ultimately it proved successful.[15] The Athenians, for example, rebuilt much of Thebes' wall.[15] Major contributions were sent from Megalopolis, Messene, and as far away as Sicily and Italy.[15] Despite the restoration, Thebes never regained its former prominence. The death of Cassander in 297 BC created a power vacuum throughout much of Greece, which contributed, in part, to Thebes' besiegement by Demetrius Poliorcetes in 293 BC, and again after a revolt in 292 BC. This last siege was difficult and Demetrius was wounded, but finally he managed to break down the walls and to take the city once more, treating it mildly despite its fierce resistance. The city recovered its autonomy from Demetrius in 287 BC, and became allied with Lysimachus and the Aetolian League. Byzantine period[edit] Further information: Hellas (theme) During the early Byzantine period it served as a place of refuge against foreign invaders. From the 10th century, Thebes became a centre of the new silk trade, its silk workshops boosted by imports of soaps and dyes from Athens. The growth of this trade in Thebes continued to such an extent that by the middle of the 12th century, the city had become the biggest producer of silks in the entire Byzantine empire, surpassing even the Byzantine capital, Constantinople. The women of Thebes were famed for their skills at weaving. Theban silk was prized above all others during this period, both for its quality and its excellent reputation. Though severely plundered by the Normans in 1146, Thebes quickly recovered its prosperity and continued to grow rapidly until its conquest by the Latins of the Fourth Crusade in 1204. Latin period[edit] Further information: Duchy of Athens The Duchy of Athens and the other Greek and Latin states of southern Greece, ca. 1210 Thanks to its wealth, the city was selected by the Frankish dynasty de la Roche as its capital, before it was permanently moved to Athens. After 1240, the Saint Omer family controlled the city jointly with the de la Roche dukes. The castle built by Nicholas II of Saint Omer on the Cadmea was one of the most beautiful of Frankish Greece. After its conquest in 1311 the city was used as a capital by the short-lived state of the Catalan Company. In 1379, the Navarrese Company took the city with the aid of the Latin Archbishop of Thebes, Simon Atumano.[n 4] Ottoman period[edit] Further information: Ottoman Greece View of Thebes (1819) by Hugh William Williams Latin hegemony in Thebes lasted to 1458, when the Ottomans captured it. The Ottomans renamed Thebes "İstefe" and managed it until the War of Independence (1821, nominally to 1832) except for a Venetian interlude between 1687 and 1699. Modern town[edit] In the modern Greek State, Thebes was the capital of the prefecture of Boeotia until the late 19th century, when Livadeia became the capital. Today, Thebes is a bustling market town, known for its many products and wares. Until the 1980s, it had a flourishing agrarian production with some industrial complexes. However, during the late 1980s and 1990s the bulk of industry moved further south, closer to Athens. Tourism in the area is based mainly in Thebes and the surrounding villages, where many places of interest related to antiquity exist such as the battlefield where the Battle of Plataea took place. The proximity to other, more famous travel destinations, like Athens and Chalkis, and the undeveloped archaeological sites have kept the tourist numbers low. Thebes, 1842 by Carl Rottmann Popular festival at Thebes, 1880s A bust of Pindar Entrance to the archaeological museum Monastery of Transfiguration Notable people[edit] Ancient[edit] Pindar (c. 518–443 BC), poet Attaginus (5th century BC), oligarch Pelopidas (c. 420–365) general and statesman, led rebellion against Sparta, commanded the Theban "Sacred band" at Leuctra Epaminondas (c. 418–362 BC) general and statesman, commanded the Theban forces at the battles of Leuctra and Mantinea Aristides of Thebes (4th century BC), painter Nicomachus of Thebes (4th century BC), painter Crates of Thebes (c. 365 – c. 285 BC), Cynic philosopher Kleitomachos (3rd century BC), athlete Luke the Evangelist (died 84 AD), buried here Modern[edit] Theodoros Vryzakis (c. 1814–1878) painter Alexandros Merentitis (1880–1964), military officer Panagiotis Bratsiotis (1889–1982), theologian Pandelis Pouliopoulos (1900–1943), Greek communist politician Archbishop Ieronymos II of Athens (born 1938) Haris Alexiou (born 1950), singer See also[edit] Boeotia Graïke Sacred Band of Thebes List of traditional Greek place names Theban pederasty Notes[edit] ^ Found on the TH Ft 140 tablet.[5] ^ Found on the MY X 508, TH Wu 65, tablets.[5] ^ Found on the KN Ap 5864, PY Ep 539, tablets.[5] ^ Portions of the historical section were taken from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica. References[edit] ^ a b "Απογραφή Πληθυσμού - Κατοικιών 2011. ΜΟΝΙΜΟΣ Πληθυσμός" (in Greek). Hellenic Statistical Authority. ^ a b c Θῆβαι. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project. ^ "Population & housing census 2001 (incl. area and average elevation)" (PDF) (in Greek). National Statistical Service of Greece. ^ "Kallikratis law" (PDF) (in Greek). Greek Ministry of the Interior. August 11, 2010. Retrieved June 8, 2014. ^ a b c Raymoure, K.A. "Thebes". Minoan Linear A & Mycenaean Linear B. Deaditerranean. "The Linear B word te-qa-ja". Palaeolexicon. Word study tool for ancient languages. "KN 5864 Ap (103)". "PY 539 Ep + fr. + fr. + fr. (1)". "TH 65 Wu (γ)". "MY 508 X (unknown)". "TH 140 Ft (312)". DĀMOS: Database of Mycenaean at Oslo. University of Oslo. ^ Θήβασδε. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; An Intermediate Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project. ^ Palaima, Thomas G. (2004). "Sacrificial Feasting in the Linear B documents" (PDF). Hesperia. 73 (2): 217–246. doi:10.2972/hesp.2004.73.2.217. ^ Herodotus Bibliography VII:204 ,222,223. ^ Alexander the Great. Encyclopædia Britannica. ^ Plutarch. Phocion. p. 17. ^ Siculus, Diodorus. "Book XIX, 54". Bibliotheca historica. ^ Plutarch's Lives, Volume III, Life of Alexander, Chapter 13 ^ "The Parian Marble". The Ashmolean Museum. Archived from the original on 18 July 2017. ^ Beckett, Universal Biography, Vol. 1” p. 688 ^ a b c d e Thirlwall, The History of Greece, Vol. 2” p. 325 Bibliography[edit] Herodotus – Histories Angold, Michael (1984) – The Byzantine Empire, 1025–1204 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Thebes, Greece. Timeless Myths – House of Thebes Fossey, J.; J. Morin; G. Reger; R. Talbert; T. Elliott; S. Gillies. "Places: 541138 (Thebai/Thebae)". Pleiades. Retrieved March 8, 2012. v t e Administrative division of the Central Greece Region Area 15,549 km2 (6,004 sq mi) Population 547,390 (as of 2011) Municipalities 25 (since 2011) Capital Lamia Regional unit of Boeotia Aliartos Distomo-Arachova-Antikyra Livadeia Orchomenos Tanagra Thebes Regional unit of Euboea Chalcis Dirfys-Messapia Eretria Istiaia-Aidipsos Karystos Kymi-Aliveri Mantoudi-Limni-Agia Anna Skyros Regional unit of Evrytania Agrafa Karpenisi Regional unit of Phocis Delphi Dorida Regional unit of Phthiotis Amfikleia-Elateia Domokos Lamia Lokroi Makrakomi Molos-Agios Konstantinos Stylida Regional governor Kostas Bakoyannis (since 2014) Decentralized Administration Thessaly and Central Greece v t e Subdivisions of the municipality of Thebes Municipal unit of Plataies Kaparelli Lefktra Loutoufi Melissochori Plataies Municipal unit of Thebes Ampelochori Eleonas Mouriki Neochoraki Thebes Ypato Municipal unit of Thisvi Chostia Domvraina Ellopia Thisvi Xironomi Municipal unit of 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en-wikipedia-org-3406	----	Shenshek - Wikipedia Shenshek From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Shenshek Scarab seal of Shenshek. Egyptian Museum (TD-6160[50]) Pharaoh Reign unknown duration (uncertain, possibly 14th Dynasty) Predecessor unknown Successor unknown Royal titulary Nomen Shenshek Šnšk The rescuer ?[1] Shenshek was a ruler of some part of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, possibly during the 17th century BC, and likely belonging to the 14th Dynasty.[2][3] As such he would have ruled from Avaris over the eastern Nile Delta and possibly over the western Delta as well. His chronological position and identity are unclear. Contents 1 Attestation 2 Identity 3 References Attestation[edit] Shenshek is known from a single scarab discovered in Avaris, modern Tell el-Dab'a, by the Egyptologist Manfred Bietak. The scarab is now in the Egyptian Museum, catalog number TD-6160[50].[4][5] Identity[edit] The primary historical source for the identification and chronological position of the rulers of the 14th Dynasty is the Turin canon, a king list compiled during the Ramesside period. The identification of Shenshek with one of the names on the list is difficult because the Turin canon only records the kings' prenomen while Shenshek is a nomen. Although the Egyptologists Darrell Baker and Kim Ryholt deem it likely that Shenshek is indeed recorded on the list, its identification will remain conjectural until an artefact bearing both Shenshek's nomen and prenomen is found. After his discovery of the seal, Bietak proposed that Shenshek is a variant of the name of king Maaibre Sheshi, whose chronological position is somewhat unclear but who could also belong to the 14th Dynasty.[3] This hypothesis is rejected by Baker and Ryholt.[3] Based on a seriation of the scarab-seals of the Second Intermediate Period, Ryholt proposed that Shenshek reigned after Nehesy and before Yaqub-Har.[2] References[edit] ^ Thomas Schneider: Ausländer in Ägypten während des Mittleren Reiches und der Hyksoszeit, Vol. 1: Die ausländischen Konige, ÄAT 42, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 1998, ISBN 978-3447040495, see p. 140–141 ^ a b K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here. ^ a b c Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 424 ^ Manfred Bietak: Egypt and Canaan during the Middle Bronze Age, BASOR 281 (1991), p.52 & fig 18, available online ^ I. Hein (editor): Pharaonen und fremde Dynastien im Dunkel, Museen der Stadt Wien, 1994, p. 145 v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shenshek&oldid=954561970" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages ქართული Magyar Slovenščina ไทย Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 3 May 2020, at 02:55 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3407	----	Ombra mai fu - Wikipedia Ombra mai fu From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Ombra mai fù) Jump to navigation Jump to search "Ombra mai fu", also known as "Largo from Xerxes", is the opening aria from the 1738 opera Serse by George Frideric Handel. Contents 1 Context 2 Music 3 Libretto 4 Cultural references 5 References 6 External links Context[edit] "Frondi tenere e belle ... Ombra mai fu" Enrico Caruso, 1920 Problems playing this file? See media help. The opera was a commercial failure, lasting only five performances in London after its premiere. In the 19th century, however, the aria was rediscovered and became one of Handel's best-known pieces. Handel adapted the aria from the setting by Giovanni Bononcini, who, in turn, adapted it from the setting by Francesco Cavalli. All three composers had produced settings of the same opera libretto by Nicolò Minato. Music[edit] Originally composed to be sung by a soprano castrato (and sung in modern performances of Serse by a countertenor, contralto or a mezzo-soprano), it has been arranged for other voice types and instruments, including solo organ, solo piano, violin and piano, and string ensembles, often under the title "Largo from Xerxes", although the original tempo is marked larghetto. In the opera, the aria is preceded by a short recitativo accompagnato of 9 bars, setting the scene ("Frondi tenere e belle"). The aria itself is also short; it consists of 52 bars and typically lasts three to four minutes. The instrumentation is for a string section: first and second violins, viola, and basses. The key signature is F major, the time signature is 3/4 time. The vocal range covers C4 to F5 with a tessitura from F4 to F5. Libretto[edit] Plane tree (planted in 1680) The title translates from the Italian as "Never was a shade". It is sung by the main character, Xerxes I of Persia, admiring the shade of a plane tree. Frondi tenere e belle del mio platano amato per voi risplenda il fato. Tuoni, lampi, e procelle non v'oltraggino mai la cara pace, né giunga a profanarvi austro rapace. Ombra mai fu di vegetabile, cara ed amabile, soave più. Tender and beautiful fronds of my beloved plane tree, let Fate smile upon you. May thunder, lightning, and storms never disturb your dear peace, nor may you by blowing winds be profaned. Never was a shade of any plant dearer and more lovely, or more sweet. Cultural references[edit] On 24 December 1906, Reginald Fessenden, a Canadian inventor and radio pioneer, broadcast the first AM radio program, which started with a phonograph record of "Ombra mai fu" followed by his playing "O Holy Night" on the violin and singing the final verse. The aria therefore was the first piece of music to be broadcast on radio.[1][2] A 1980s electronic mix instrumental version of the aria can be heard in the cherry blossom viewing scene and forms a central part of Kon Ichikawa's 1983 film The Makioka Sisters.[3] References[edit] ^ Collins, Ace (2010). Stories Behind the Best-loved Songs of Christmas. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan. pp. 137–138. ISBN 978-0-310-87387-7. ^ Fessenden, Helen (1940). Builder of Tomorrows. New York: Coward-McCann. pp. 153–154. Retrieved 25 January 2020. ^ Salazar, David (18 June 2020). "Opera Meets Film: How Kon Ichikawa's Use of 'Ombra Mai Fu' Explores Theme in 'The Makioka Sisters'". OperaWire. Retrieved 19 September 2020. External links[edit] Free scores of "Ombra mai fu" in the Choral Public Domain Library (ChoralWiki) "Ombra mai fu": Scores at the International Music Score Library Project "Ombra mai fu" at The Aria Database v t e George Frideric Handel List of operas List of compositions Operas Handel's lost Hamburg operas Almira Florindo Rodrigo Agrippina Rinaldo Il pastor fido Teseo Silla Amadigi di Gaula Acis and Galatea Radamisto Muzio Scevola Floridante Ottone Flavio Giulio Cesare Tamerlano Rodelinda Scipione Alessandro Admeto Riccardo Primo Siroe Tolomeo Lotario Partenope Poro Ezio Sosarme Orlando Arianna in Creta Parnasso in festa Oreste Ariodante Alcina Atalanta Arminio Giustino Berenice Faramondo Alessandro Severo Serse Giove in Argo Imeneo Deidamia Opera excerpts "Lascia ch'io pianga" "Ombra mai fu" "Svegliatevi nel core" "Va tacito e nascosto" Incidental music The Alchemist Comus Alceste Oratorios Il trionfo del Tempo e del Disinganno / Il trionfo del Tempo e della Verità / The Triumph of Time and Truth La resurrezione Brockes Passion Esther Deborah Athalia Saul Israel in Egypt L'Allegro, il Penseroso ed il Moderato Messiah Structure Part I Part II Part III Der Messias (Mozart arr.) Scratch Messiah Samson Semele Joseph and his Brethren Hercules Belshazzar Occasional Oratorio Judas Maccabaeus Joshua Alexander Balus Susanna Solomon Theodora The Choice of Hercules Jephtha Odes and masques Aci, Galatea e Polifemo Ode for the Birthday of Queen Anne Alexander's Feast Ode For St. Cecilia's Day Cantatas Agrippina condotta a morire or Dunque sarà pur vero Allor ch'io dissi addio Aure soavi e lieti Clori, Tirsi e Fileno Dalla guerra amorosa Del bell'idolo mio Apollo e Dafne O lucenti, o sereni occhi Ero e Leandro Tra le fiamme (Il consiglio) Un'alma innamorata Latin church music Dixit Dominus Gloria Nisi Dominus Salve Regina Anthems As Pants the Hart Zadok the Priest The Ways of Zion Do Mourn / Funeral Anthem for Queen Caroline Sing Unto God/Anthem for the Wedding of Frederick, Prince of Wales Chandos Anthems Wedding anthem for Princess Anne Foundling Hospital Anthem Canticles Utrecht Te Deum and Jubilate Dettingen Te Deum Queen Caroline Te Deum Chandos Jubilate Oboe Oboe Concerto No. 3 Oboe Concerto No. 1 Oboe Concerto No. 2 Orchestral suites Water Music Music for the Royal Fireworks Flute, solo and XV solo sonatas 358 "Fitzwilliam" 359a 359b 360 361 362 363a 363b 364a 364b 365 366 367a 367b 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 378 379 Opus Organ concertos, Op. 4 Organ concertos, Op. 7 Concerti Grossi, Op. 3 Concerti grossi, Op. 6 Other Nabal Gideon Keyboard suite in D minor (HWV 437) Catalogs and collections Handel Reference Database Händel-Werke-Verzeichnis Händel-Gesellschaft Hallische Händel-Ausgabe Festivals Göttingen Halle London Related articles British citizenship Letters and writings Will Handel at Cannons Handel House Handel & Hendrix in London Georg Händel Category Commons Audio Opera portal Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ombra_mai_fu&oldid=998847386" Categories: Arias by George Frideric Handel 1738 compositions 1906 in radio Opera excerpts Songs about trees Hidden categories: Articles containing Italian-language text Articles with hAudio microformats Works with IMSLP links Articles with International Music Score Library Project links Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Català Deutsch Español Italiano 日本語 Simple English Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 7 January 2021, at 08:22 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3411	----	Neferkamin - Wikipedia Neferkamin From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Neferkamin The cartouche of Neferkamin on the Abydos King List. Pharaoh Reign Unknown (Eighth Dynasty?) Predecessor Merenhor? Successor Nikare? Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Neferkamin nfr k3 mnw Perfect is the Ka of Min Abydos King List Sneferka S.nfr k3 With perfect Ka Neferkamin may have been an Eighth Dynasty pharaoh of ancient Egypt during the First Intermediate Period. His throne name "Sneferka" is attested on the Abydos King List (n. 47) although it is possible that here the name is mistyped, and the O34 hieroglyph ("s") in fact is a R22 ("min"), hence "Neferkamin".[1] The correct reading of this king's name is provided, along with the name of Nikare, on a gold plaque now in the British Museum; however, it has been suggested that this object could be a forgery.[2] References[edit] ^ Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Egyptian Pharaohs. Volume I: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty (3300-1069 BC). Bannerstone Press, Oakville 2008, ISBN 978-0977409440, p. 262–263. ^ Gold plaque EA 8444 in the British Museum. External links[edit] VIIth Dynasty 2175 - 2165, Accessed November 9, 2006. Abydos King List, Accessed November 9, 2006. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neferkamin&oldid=966964981" Categories: 22nd-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Ancient Egypt people stubs Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano ქართული Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands Português Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 10 July 2020, at 09:20 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3417	----	Esther and the King - Wikipedia Esther and the King From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Esther and the King Theatrical poster Directed by Raoul Walsh Italian version: Mario Bava Produced by Raoul Walsh Screenplay by Raoul Walsh Michael Elkins Uncredited: Ennio De Concini Based on Book of Esther Starring Joan Collins Richard Egan Denis O'Dea Music by Francesco Lavagnino Roberto Nicolosi Cinematography Mario Bava Edited by Jerry Webb Production company 20th Century Fox Galatea Film Distributed by 20th Century Fox Release date December 14, 1960 (1960-12-14) (U.S.) February 17, 1961 (1961-02-17) (Italy) Running time 109 minutes Country United States Italy Language English Esther and the King (Italian: Ester e il re) is a 1960 American-Italian religious epic film produced and directed by Raoul Walsh and starring Joan Collins as Esther, Richard Egan as Ahasuerus, and Denis O'Dea as Mordecai. Walsh and Michael Elkins wrote the screenplay, which was based on the Book of Esther of the Hebrew Bible and the Old Testament. It recounts the origin of the Jewish celebration of Purim. An international co-production released by 20th Century Fox, Esther and the King was filmed in Italy in the CinemaScope format and the DeLuxe color process. Mario Bava, the film's cinematographer, was credited as a co-director on Italian prints of the film.[1] Contents 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production 4 Release 5 Critical response 6 Home media 7 References 7.1 Bibliography 8 External links Plot[edit] The film is set in Persia in the 5th century BC. After the King’s wife is murdered, Esther (a Jewish woman) comes to the attention of the recently widowed King Ahasuerus. The king has been trying to stifle and defeat the campaign of hatred against the Jews by his evil minister Haman (Sergio Fantoni). Before the King can pair off with Esther and defeat the villainous Haman, there are several intervening adventures and an additional, attractive woman who competes for attention.[2] Cast[edit] The film's on-screen credits list the cast in the following order and sections: Starring Joan Collins as Esther Richard Egan as Ahasuerus, King of Persia With Denis O'Dea as Mordecai Sergio Fantoni as Haman Rick Battaglia as Simon Renato Baldini as Klydrathes Gabriele Tinti as Samuel Rosalba Neri as Zeresh Walter Williams (as Robert Buchanan) as Hegai[3] Also starring Daniela Rocca as Vashti Folco Lulli as Tobiah Production[edit] In December 1950, 20th Century Fox studio executive Darryl F. Zanuck announced he intended to produce The Story of Esther as a follow-up to David and Bathsheba, which he was producing at the time.[4] He entrusted Frank and Doris Hursley with the task of writing the screenplay.[5] George Jessel expressed interest in producing the film.[5] In February 1951, Henry King was assigned to direct the film. In October, producers Joseph Bernhard and Anson Bond purchased the script from the Hursleys and were planning the film as a 20th Century Fox release.[5] In February 1952, Hedy Lamarr bought the Hursley script for $25,000; Arthur B. Krim of United Artists negotiated the deal for her.[6] Lamarr wanted to portray Esther and produce the story as an independent feature and United Artists release, with the possibility of filming it in Italy.[6] She eventually decided to produce it in Rome as the first episode of a British television series titled The Great Love Stories, but the project changed and the story was not filmed.[7] The 1960 Writers Guild of America strike, which began in January, forced 20th Century Fox to cease production temporarily.[8] Fox president Spyros Skouras and producer Buddy Adler asked director Raoul Walsh if he could "make a film very quickly for them, because they had nothing at all, the studios were practically shut. That's why we made Esther in Italy."[8] Release[edit] Esther and the King premiered in New York City at the RKO Palace Theatre on November 18, 1960.[9][10] The film grossed 126% and was considered a hit film of the 1960-61 season.[11] Critical response[edit] James D. Ivers, writing for Motion Picture Daily, was enthusiastically positive: "All the trappings of a Biblical spectacle, exotic sets and costumes, a moving and dramatic story, and the skilled and experienced hand of Raoul Walsh make this a worthy and potentially successful entry in the present cycle of historical epics."[12] Ivers also commended the performances of the leading actors: "Joan Collins plays Esther with beauty and some depth, Richard Egan is properly virile as a soldierly but unstatesmanlike King Ahasuerus, and Denis O' Dea is dignified and devout as Mordecai".[12] The supporting actors who earned notice were a "satisfactory" Rik Battaglia, a "sufficiently menacing" Sergio Fantoni, and a "somewhat overly voluptuous" Daniela Rocca.[12] Ivers also admired the technical aspects of the film: "Color by DeLuxe and excellent camera work by Mario Bava give an eye-filling background to the straightforward story."[12] Some critics did not like the film. Bosley Crowther of The New York Times gave the film a blatantly negative review, writing that the "beautiful Bible story of Esther" had "been thumped into a crude costume charade".[10] Harrison's Reports thought the film "has a hackneyed script and two incompetent lead players [Collins and Egan]," but praised O'Dea's portrayal of Mordecai.[13] In recent years, Rosalba Neri's performance has been evaluated as "memorable".[14] Home media[edit] In 2014, 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment released Esther and the King on DVD as part of the manufactured-on-demand Cinema Archives line.[15] References[edit] ^ Mario Bava: All the Colors of the Dark by Tim Lucas, Published by Video Watchdog ^ Plot Synopsis by Eleanor Mannikka from allmovie.com website ^ Lucas 2013, p. 341. ^ "Studio Size-Ups: 20th Century Fox - Zanuck Announces Busy Work Plan For New Year". Film Bulletin: 26. December 18, 1950. ^ a b c "Esther and the King - Notes". Turner Classic Movies. Retrieved November 12, 2018. ^ a b "Hedy Another Indie Set at UA as Krim Negotiates Story Buy". Variety. 185 (11): 5. February 20, 1952. ^ Shearer, Stephen Michael (2010). Beautiful: The Life of Hedy Lamarr. Macmillan. ISBN 9781429908207. ^ a b Moss 2011, p. 374. ^ "RKO Palace To Open 'Esther' on Nov. 18". Motion Picture Daily. 88 (71): 2. October 11, 1960. ^ a b Crowther, Bosley (November 19, 1960). "Screen: Costume Charade:' Esther and the King' Is New Film at Palace". The New York Times. Retrieved November 8, 2018. ^ "Grosses: The Hits of '60-'61". Boxoffice Barometer: 31. March 26, 1962. ^ a b c d Ivers, James D. (November 21, 1960). "Review: Esther and the King". Motion Picture Daily. 88 (97): 6. ^ ""Esther and the King" with Joan Collins, Richard Egan and Denis O'Dea". Harrison's Reports. XLII (48): 190. November 26, 1960. Retrieved November 8, 2018. ^ Hughes 2011, p. 69. ^ "Esther and the King DVD". Turner Classic Movies. Retrieved November 10, 2018. Bibliography[edit] Hughes, Howard (2011). Cinema Italiano - The Complete Guide From Classics To Cult. London - New York: I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84885-608-0. Lucas, Tim (2013). Mario Bava: All the Colors of the Dark. Video Watchdog. ISBN 978-0-9633756-1-2. Moss, Marilyn Ann (2011). Raoul Walsh: The True Adventures of Hollywood's Legendary Director. University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 9780813133942. External links[edit] Esther and the King on IMDb Esther and the King is available for free download at the Internet Archive Esther and the King at AllMovie Esther and the King at the TCM Movie Database Esther and the King at the American Film Institute Catalog Esther and the King at Rotten Tomatoes v t e Films directed by Raoul Walsh The Life of General Villa (1914) Regeneration (1915) Peer Gynt (1915) Carmen (1915) Blue Blood and Red (1916) The Serpent (1916) The Honor System (1917) The Silent Lie (1917) Betrayed (1917) The Conqueror (1917) The Pride of New York (1917) The Innocent Sinner (1917) On the Jump (1918) The Prussian Cur (1918) Every Mother's Son (1918) Evangeline (1919) Should a Husband Forgive? (1919) The Deep Purple (1920) The Oath (1921) Kindred of the Dust (1922) Lost and Found on a South Sea Island (1923) The Thief of Bagdad (1924) East of Suez (1925) The Spaniard (1925) The Wanderer (1925) The Lucky Lady (1926) The Lady of the Harem (1926) What Price Glory? (1926) The Monkey Talks (1927) The Loves of Carmen (1927) Sadie Thompson (1928) The Red Dance (1928) Me, Gangster (1928) The Cock-Eyed World (1929) Hot for Paris (1929) The Big Trail (1930) The Man Who Came Back (1931) Women of All Nations (1931) The Yellow Ticket (1931) Wild Girl (1932) Me and My Gal (1932) Sailor's Luck (1933) Hello, Sister! (1933) The Bowery (1933) Going Hollywood (1933) Under Pressure (1935) Baby Face Harrington (1935) Every Night at Eight (1935) Klondike Annie (1936) Big Brown Eyes (1936) Spendthrift (1936) Artists and Models (1937) Hitting a New High (1937) O.H.M.S. (1937) Jump for Glory (1937) College Swing (1938) St. Louis Blues (1939) The Roaring Twenties (1939) Dark Command (1940) They Drive by Night (1940) High Sierra (1941) The Strawberry Blonde (1941) Manpower (1941) They Died with Their Boots On (1941) Desperate Journey (1942) Gentleman Jim (1942) Background to Danger (1943) Northern Pursuit (1943) Uncertain Glory (1944) Objective, Burma! (1945) Salty O'Rourke (1945) The Horn Blows at Midnight (1945) The Man I Love (1947) Pursued (1947) Cheyenne (1947) Silver River (1948) Fighter Squadron (1948) One Sunday Afternoon (1948) Colorado Territory (1949) White Heat (1949) Captain Horatio Hornblower (1951) Along the Great Divide (1951) Distant Drums (1951) Glory Alley (1952) The World in His Arms (1952) Blackbeard the Pirate (1952) The Lawless Breed (1953) Sea Devils (1953) A Lion Is in the Streets (1953) Gun Fury (1953) Saskatchewan (1954) Battle Cry (1955) The Tall Men (1955) The Revolt of Mamie Stover (1956) The King and Four Queens (1956) Band of Angels (1957) The Naked and the Dead (1958) The Sheriff of Fractured Jaw (1958) A Private's Affair (1959) Esther and the King (1960) Marines, Let's Go (1961) A Distant Trumpet (1964) v t e Mario Bava Films directed Black Sunday Hercules in the Haunted World Erik the Conqueror The Girl Who Knew Too Much Black Sabbath The Whip and the Body Blood and Black Lace The Road to Fort Alamo Planet of the Vampires Knives of the Avenger Kill, Baby, Kill Dr. Goldfoot and the Girl Bombs Danger: Diabolik Five Dolls for an August Moon Hatchet for the Honeymoon Roy Colt & Winchester Jack Four Times That Night A Bay of Blood Baron Blood Lisa and the Devil Shock Rabid Dogs Collaborative works I Vampiri The Day the Sky Exploded Caltiki – The Immortal Monster The Giant of Marathon Esther and the King The Wonders of Aladdin The Odyssey Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Esther_and_the_King&oldid=999876682" Categories: 1960 films 1961 films English-language films 1960s romantic drama films 20th Century Fox films American romantic drama films Cultural depictions of Esther Italian romantic drama films Italian films Films about Christianity Films about Jews and Judaism Films based on the Hebrew Bible Films directed by Raoul Walsh Films scored by Angelo Francesco Lavagnino Films set in ancient Persia Films set in the 5th century BC Films shot in Rome Peplum films Religious epic films Sword and sandal films American films 1960 drama films 1961 drama films Hidden categories: Template film date with 1 release date Articles containing Italian-language text Articles with Internet Archive links AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Español فارسی Français Italiano עברית Lëtzebuergesch Nederlands Português Simple English Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 12 January 2021, at 11:36 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3468	----	Shoshenq III - Wikipedia Shoshenq III From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Shoshenq III Shoshenq III, standing on the boat "msktt", the boat of the night, with the god Atum. From his tomb in Tanis. Pharaoh Reign 837–798 BC (22nd Dynasty) Predecessor Osorkon II Successor Shoshenq IV Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Usermaatre Setepenre Wsr-Mȝˁt-Rˁ-stp-n-Rˁ Powerful is the Maat of Ra, the chosen one of Ra Nomen Shoshenq [Meri]amun Šš.nq [mri]-Jmn Shoshenq, [beloved] of Amun Horus name Kanakht Mestiure Consort Djed-Bast-Es-Ankh, Tjesbastperu Children Ankhesen-Shoshenq, Bakennefi A, Pashedbast B, Pimay, Takelot C Died 798 BC Burial NRT V, Tanis King Usermaatre Setepenre/Setepenamun Shoshenq III of the 22nd Dynasty ruled for 39 years according to contemporary historical records. Two Apis Bulls were buried in the fourth and 28th years of his reign and he celebrated his Heb Sed Jubilee in his regnal year 30. Little is known of the precise basis for his successful claim to the throne since he was not a son of Osorkon II and Shoshenq's parentage and family ties are unknown. From Shoshenq III's eighth regnal year, his reign was marked by the loss of Egypt's political unity, with the appearance of Pedubast I at Thebes. Henceforth, the kings of the 22nd Dynasty only controlled Lower Egypt. The Theban High Priest Osorkon B (the future Osorkon III) did date his activities at Thebes and (Upper Egypt) to Shoshenq III's reign, but this was solely for administrative reasons since Osorkon did not declare himself king after the death of his father, Takelot II. On the basis of Osorkon B's well known Chronicle, most Egyptologists today accept that Takelot II's 25th regnal year is equivalent to Shoshenq III's 22nd year.[1] Family[edit] Shoshenq III married Djed-Bast-Es-Ankh, the daughter of Takelot, a High Priest of Ptah at Memphis, and Tjesbastperu, Osorkon II's daughter.[2] He had at least four sons and one daughter: Ankhesen-Shoshenq, Bakennefi A, Pashedbast B, Pimay the 'Great Chief of the Ma', and Takelot C, a Generalissimo. A certain Padehebenbast may also have been another son of Shoshenq III, but this is not certain. They all appear to have predeceased their father through his nearly four-decade-long rule. Shoshenq III's third son, Pimay ('The Lion' in Egyptian), was once thought to be identical with king Pami ('The Cat' in Egyptian), but it is now believed that they are two different individuals, due to the separate orthography and meaning of their names. Instead, it was an unrelated individual named Shoshenq IV who ultimately succeeded Shoshenq III. Shoshenq III was buried in the looted Royal Tomb NRT V at Tanis. Tomb of Shoshenq III at Tanis. Reliefs on the south wall of Shoshenq III's tomb. Reliefs on the walls of the tomb. References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Shoshenq III. ^ David Aston, JEA 75 (1989), Takeloth II: A King of the Theban 23rd Dynasty?, pp.139-153 ^ Nos ancêtres de l'Antiquité, 1991. Christian Settipani, p.153,163,164 and 166 v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shoshenq_III&oldid=995105023" Categories: 9th-century BC births 798 BC deaths 9th-century BC Pharaohs 8th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt 9th century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá Edit links This page was last edited on 19 December 2020, at 07:05 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3469	----	Category:Monarchs of the Hebrew Bible - Wikipedia Help Category:Monarchs of the Hebrew Bible From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the purposes of Wikipedia categories, "Hebrew Bible" refers only to those books in the Jewish Tanakh, which is the same as the Protestant Old Testament (including the portions in Aramaic). The deuterocanonical books of the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox biblical canons are categorized under Category:Old Testament apocrypha. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Monarchs of the Hebrew Bible. Subcategories This category has the following 12 subcategories, out of 12 total.   ► Biblical rulers by century‎ (10 C) A ► Ahasuerus‎ (8 P) ► Kings of Ammon‎ (13 P) B ► Belshazzar‎ (14 P) D ► Darius the Mede‎ (8 P) E ► Kings of Edom‎ (11 P) I ► Kings of ancient Israel‎ (8 C, 29 P) J ► Kings of ancient Judah‎ (5 C, 30 P) M ► Melchizedek‎ (9 P) N ► Nebuchadnezzar II‎ (2 C, 18 P) S ► Sennacherib‎ (15 P) T ► Torah monarchs‎ (4 C, 13 P) Pages in category "Monarchs of the Hebrew Bible" The following 33 pages are in this category, out of 33 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). A Abimelech (Judges) Adoni-Bezek Adonizedek Agag Ahasuerus Amel-Marduk B Baalis Belshazzar C Cushan-rishathaim D Darius the Mede Debir E Eglon (king) G Gog and Magog H Hazael Hiram I I Ithobaal III J Jabin Jehoahaz Jezebel L Lemuel (biblical king) M Melchizedek N Nebuchadnezzar II O Og Oreb and Zeeb Q Queen of Sheba Queen of the South (biblical reference) S Sargon II Sennacherib Shalman (Bible) T Talmai Tiglath-Pileser III X Xerxes I Z Zebah and Zalmunna Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Monarchs_of_the_Hebrew_Bible&oldid=937388585" Categories: Hebrew Bible people African monarchs Middle Eastern monarchs Jewish monarchs Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Čeština فارسی Bahasa Indonesia עברית Македонски Русский Svenska اردو 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2020, at 18:26 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3480	----	Ptolemy III Euergetes - Wikipedia Ptolemy III Euergetes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ptolemy III Euergetes Greek: Πτολεμαίος Εὐεργέτης Ancient Egyptian: Iwaennetjerwysenwy Sekhemankhre Setepamun[1] Bust of Ptolemy III King of Egypt Reign 28 January 246 – November/December 222 BC[2] (Ptolemaic dynasty) Predecessor Ptolemy II Successor Ptolemy IV Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) jwꜤ-n-nṯrwj-snwj stp.n-rꜤ sḫm-Ꜥnḫ-n-jmn Iwaensenwinetjerwy setepenre sekhemankhenamun The heir of the two divine brothers, chosen by Ra, the living image of Amun Nomen ptwlmys Ꜥnḫ-ḏt mrj-ptḥ Petolemys ankhdjet meryptah Ptolemy, who lives eternally, beloved of Ptah Horus name ḥkn-nṯrw-rmṯ-ḥr.f Khekenetjeruremetj-heref The one over whom gods and people have rejoiced Second Horus name: ḥkn-nṯrw-rmṯ-ḥr.f m-šsp.f-nsyt-m-Ꜥ-jt.f Hekenetjeruremetj-heref emshesepefnesytemaitef The one over whom gods and people have rejoiced when he has received the kingship from his father's hand v Nebty name ḳn nḏtj-nṯrw jnb-mnḫ-n-tꜢmrj Qen nedjtinetjeru inebmenekhentamery The brave one who has protected the gods, a potent wall for The Beloved Land Golden Horus wr-pḥtj jrj-Ꜣḫt nb-ḥꜢbw-sd-mi-ptḥ-tꜢ-ṯnn jty-mi-rꜤ Werpehty iryakhut nebkhabusedmiptah-tatenen itymire Whose might is great, doing that which is beneficial, Lord of the years of Jubilee like Ptah Ta-Tjenen, a ruler like Ra Consort Berenice II Children Ptolemy IV, Arsinoe III, Alexander, Magas, Berenice Father Ptolemy II Philadelphus Mother Arsinoe I of Lysimachids Born c. 280 BC[2] Kos or Egypt Died November/December 222 BC (aged c. 60)[2] Burial Alexandria Ptolemy III Euergetes (Greek: Πτολεμαίος Εὐεργέτης Ptolemaios Euergetes "Ptolemy the Benefactor"; c. 280 – November/December 222 BC) was the third king of the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt from 246 to 222 BC. The Ptolemaic Kingdom reached the height of its power during his reign. Ptolemy III was the eldest son of Ptolemy II Philadelphus and his first wife Arsinoe I. When Ptolemy III was young, his mother was disgraced and he was removed from the succession. He was restored as heir to the throne in the late 250s BC and succeeded his father as king without issue in 246 BC. On his succession, Ptolemy married Berenice II, reigning queen of Cyrenaica, thereby bringing her territory into the Ptolemaic realm. In the Third Syrian War (246-241 BC), Ptolemy III invaded the Seleucid empire and won a near total victory, but was forced to abandon the campaign as a result of an uprising in Egypt. In the aftermath of this rebellion, Ptolemy forged a closer bond with the Egyptian priestly elite, which was codified in the Canopus decree of 238 BC and set a trend for Ptolemaic power in Egypt for the rest of the dynasty. In the Aegean, Ptolemy suffered a major setback when his fleet was defeated by the Antigonids at the Battle of Andros around 245 BC, but he continued to offer financial support to their opponents in mainland Greece for the rest of his reign. At his death, Ptolemy was succeeded by his eldest son, Ptolemy IV Philopator. Contents 1 Background and early life 2 Reign 2.1 Cyrenaica (246 BC) 2.2 Third Syrian War (246-241 BC) 2.3 Later reign (241-222 BC) 3 Regime 3.1 Pharaonic ideology and Egyptian religion 3.2 Scholarship and culture 3.3 Red Sea trade 4 Marriage and issue 5 Ancestry 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 8.1 Bibliography 9 External links Background and early life[edit] Ptolemy III was born some time around 280 BC, as the eldest son of Ptolemy II of Egypt and his first wife, Arsinoe I, daughter of King Lysimachus of Thrace. His father had become co-regent of Egypt in 284 BC and sole ruler in 282 BC. Around 279 BC, the collapse of Lysimachus' kingdom led to the return to Egypt of Ptolemy II's sister Arsinoe II, who had been married to Lysimachus. A conflict quickly broke out between Arsinoe I and Arsinoe II. Sometime after 275 BC, Arsinoe I was charged with conspiracy and exiled to Coptos.[3] When Ptolemy married Arsinoe II (probably in 273/2 BC), her victory in this conflict was complete. As children of Arsinoe I, Ptolemy III and his two siblings seem to have been removed from the succession after their mother's fall.[4] This political background may explain why Ptolemy III seems to have been raised on Thera in the Aegean, rather than in Egypt.[5][2] Ptolemy's tutors included the poet and polymath Apollonius of Rhodes, later head of the Library of Alexandria.[6] From 267 BC, a figure known as Ptolemy "the Son" was co-regent with Ptolemy II. He led naval forces in the Chremonidean war (267-261 BC), but revolted in 259 BC at the beginning of the Second Syrian War and was removed from the co-regency. Some scholars have identified this individual with Ptolemy III. This seems unlikely, since Ptolemy III was probably too young to lead forces in the 260s and does not seem to have suffered any of the negative consequences that would be expected if he had revolted from his father in 259 BC. Chris Bennett has argued that Ptolemy "the Son" was a son of Arsinoe II by Lysimachus.[7][notes 1] Around the time of the rebellion, Ptolemy II legitimised the children of Arsinoe I by having them posthumously adopted by Arsinoe II.[4] In the late 250s BC, Ptolemy II arranged the engagement of Ptolemy III to Berenice, the sole child of King Magas of Cyrene.[8] The decision to single Ptolemy III out for this marriage indicates that, by this time, he was the heir presumptive. On his father's death, Ptolemy III succeeded him without issue, taking the throne on 28 January 246 BC.[2] Reign[edit] Cyrenaica (246 BC)[edit] Gold octodrachm coin depicting Berenice II. Cyrene had been the first Ptolemaic territory outside Egypt, but Magas had rebelled against Ptolemy II and declared himself king of Cyrenaica in 276 BC. The aforementioned engagement of Ptolemy III to Berenice had been intended to lead to the reunification of Egypt and Cyrene after Magas' death. However, when Magas died in 250 BC, Berenice's mother Apame refused to honour the agreement and invited an Antigonid prince, Demetrius the Fair to Cyrene to marry Berenice instead. With Apame's help, Demetrius seized control of the city, but he was assassinated by Berenice.[9] A republican government, led by two Cyrenaeans named Ecdelus and Demophanes controlled Cyrene for four years.[10] It was only with Ptolemy III's accession in 246 BC, that the wedding of Ptolemy III and Berenice seems to have actually taken place. Ptolemaic authority over Cyrene was forcefully reasserted. Two new port cities were established, named Ptolemais and Berenice (modern Tolmeita and Benghazi) after the dynastic couple. The cities of Cyrenaica were unified in a League overseen by the king, as a way of balancing the cities' desire for political autonomy against the Ptolemaic desire for control.[11] Third Syrian War (246-241 BC)[edit] Coin of Seleucus II Callinicus Main article: Third Syrian War In July 246 BC, Antiochus II Theos, king of the Seleucid empire died suddenly. By his first wife Laodice I, Antiochus had had a son, Seleucus II, who was about 19 years old in 246 BC. However, in 253 BC, he had agreed to repudiate Laodice and marry Ptolemy III's eldest sister Berenice Phernophorus. By her, he had another son, named Antiochus, who was still an infant in 246 BC. A succession dispute broke out immediately after Antiochus II's death. Ptolemy III quickly invaded Syria in support of his sister and her son, marking the beginning of the Third Syrian War (also known as the Laodicean War).[12][13] An account of the initial phase of this war, written by Ptolemy III himself, is preserved on the Gurob papyrus. At the outbreak of war, Laodice and Seleucus were based in western Asia Minor, while Berenice Phernophorus was in Antioch. The latter quickly seized control of Cilicia to prevent Laodice from entering Syria. Meanwhile, Ptolemy III marched along the Levantine coast encountering minimal resistance. The cities of Seleucia and Antioch surrendered to him without a fight in late autumn.[14] At Antioch, Ptolemy III went to the royal palace to plan his next moves with Berenice in person, only to discover that she and her young son had been murdered.[15][13] Rather than accept defeat in the face of this setback, Ptolemy III continued his campaign through Syria and into Mesopotamia, where he conquered Babylon at the end of 246 or beginning of 245 BC.[16] In light of this success, Ptolemy III may have been crowned 'Great King' of Asia.[17] Early in 245 BC, Ptolemy established a governor of the land 'on the other side' of the Euphrates, indicating an intention to permanently incorporate the region into the Ptolemaic kingdom.[18][19] Egyptian Revolt (245 BC) A statue that may represent Ptolemy III Euergetes in Pharaonic guise At this point however, Ptolemy received notice that a revolt had broken out in Egypt and he was forced to return home to suppress it.[20] By July 245 BC, the Seleucids had recaptured Mesopotamia.[21] The Egyptian revolt is significant as the first of a series of native Egyptian uprisings which would trouble Egypt for the next century. One reason for this revolt was the heavy tax-burdens placed on the people of Egypt by Ptolemy III's war in Syria. Furthermore, papyri records indicate that the inundation of the Nile river failed in 245 BC, resulting in famine.[19] Climate proxy studies suggest that this resulted from changes of the monsoon pattern at the time, resulting from a volcanic eruption which took place in 247 BC.[22] After his return to Egypt and suppression of the revolt, Ptolemy III made an effort to present himself as a victorious king in both Egyptian and Greek cultural contexts. Official propaganda, like OGIS 54, an inscription set up in Adulis, vastly exaggerated Ptolemy's conquests, claiming even Bactria among his conquests. At the new year in 243 BC, Ptolemy incorporated himself and his wife into the Ptolemaic state cult, to be worshipped as the Theoi Euergetai (Benefactor Gods), in honour of his restoration to Egypt of statues found in the Seleucid territories, which had been seized by the Persians.[18][19] End of the war There may also have been a second theatre to this war in the Aegean. A general Ptolemy son of Andromachus (possibly an illegitimate son of Ptolemy II) captured Ephesus from the Seleucids in 246 BC. At an uncertain date around 245 BC, he fought a sea-battle at Andros against Antigonus II Gonatas, King of Macedon, in which the Ptolemaic forces were defeated. It appears that he then led an invasion of Thrace, where Maroneia and Aenus were under Ptolemaic control as of 243 BC. He was subsequently assassinated at Ephesus by Thracian soldiers under his control.[23][24] The only further action known from the war is some fighting near Damascus in 242 BC.[25] Shortly after this, in 241 BC, Ptolemy made peace with the Seleucids, retaining all the conquered territory in Asia Minor and northern Syria. Nearly the whole Mediterranean coast from Maroneia in Thrace to the Syrtis in Libya was now under Ptolemaic control. One of the most significant acquisitions was Seleucia Pieria, the port of Antioch, whose loss was a significant economic and logistical set-back for the Seleucids.[26] Later reign (241-222 BC)[edit] Asia Minor and the Seleucids The conclusion of the Third Syrian War marked the end of military intervention in the Seleucid territories, but Ptolemy III continued to offer covert financial assistance to the opponents of Seleucus II. From 241 BC, this included Antiochus Hierax, the younger brother of Seleucus II, who rebelled against his brother and established his own separate kingdom in Asia Minor. Ptolemy III sent military forces to support him only when a group of Galatian mercenaries rebelled against him[27] but is likely to have supported him more tacitly throughout his conflict with Seleucus. He offered similar support to Attalus I, the dynast of Pergamum, who took advantage of this civil conflict to expand his territories in northwestern Asia Minor. When the Seleucid general Achaeus was sent in 223 BC to reconquer the territories in Asia Minor that had been lost to Attalus, Ptolemy III sent his son Magas with a military force to aid Attalus, but he was unable to prevent Attalus' defeat.[28] Mainland Greece and the Cleomenean War Greece around the time of the Cleomenean War Ptolemy III maintained his father's hostile policy to Macedonia. This probably involved direct conflict with Antigonus II during the Third Syrian War, but after the defeat at Andros in c. 245 BC, Ptolemy III seems to have returned to the policy of indirect opposition, financing enemies of the Antigonids in mainland Greece. The most prominent of these was the Achaian League, a federation of Greek city-states in the Peloponnese that were united by their opposition to Macedon. From 243 BC, Ptolemy III was the nominal leader (hegemon) and military commander of the League[29] and supplied them with a yearly payment.[30] After 240 BC, Ptolemy also forged an alliance with the Aetolian League in northwest Greece.[31] From 238 to 234 BC, the two leagues waged the Demetrian War against Macedon with Ptolemaic financial support.[32] However, in 229 BC, the Cleomenean War (229-222 BC) broke out between the Achaian League and Cleomenes III of Sparta. As a result, in 226 BC, Aratos of Sicyon the leader of the Achaian League forged an alliance with the Macedonian king Antigonus III Doson. Ptolemy III responded by immediately breaking off relations with the Achaian League and redirecting his financial support to Sparta. Most of the rest of the Greek states were brought under the Macedonian umbrella in 224 BC when Antigonus established the "Hellenic League." However Aetolia and Athens remained hostile to Macedon and redoubled their allegiance to Ptolemy III. In Athens, in 224 BC, extensive honours were granted to Ptolemy III to entrench their alliance with him, including the creation of a new tribe named Ptolemais in his honour and a new deme named Berenicidae in honour of the queen.[33] The Athenians instituted a state religious cult in which Ptolemy III and Berenice were worshipped as gods, including a festival, the Ptolemaia. The centre of the cult was the Ptolemaion, which also served as the gymnasium where the Athenian youth were educated.[34] Cleomenes suffered serious defeats in 223 BC and Ptolemy III abandoned his support for him in the next year - probably as a result of an agreement with Antigonus. Ptolemy III seems to have been unwilling to commit actual troops to Greece, particularly as the threat of renewed war with the Seleucids was looming. Cleomenes was defeated and forced to flee to Alexandria, where Ptolemy III offered him hospitality and promised to help restore him to power.[35] However, these promises were not fulfilled, and the Cleomenian War would in fact be the last time that the Ptolemies intervened in mainland Greece.[34] Death In November or December 222 BC, shortly after Cleomenes' arrival in Egypt and Magas' failure in Asia Minor, Ptolemy III died of natural causes.[36][2] He was succeeded by his son Ptolemy IV Philopator without incident. Regime[edit] Pharaonic ideology and Egyptian religion[edit] Forecourt of the Temple of Horus at Edfu, constructed under Ptolemy III. Ptolemy III built on the efforts of his predecessors to conform to the traditional model of the Egyptian Pharaoh. He was responsible for the first known example of a series of decrees published as trilingual inscriptions on massive stone blocks in Ancient Greek, Egyptian hieroglyphs, and demotic. Earlier decrees, like the Satrap stele and the Mendes stele had been in hieroglyphs alone and had been directed at single individual sanctuaries. By contrast, Ptolemy III's Canopus decree was the product of a special synod of all the priests of Egypt, which was held in 238 BC. The decree instituted a number of reforms and represents the establishment of a full partnership between Ptolemy III as Pharaoh and the Egyptian priestly elite. This partnership would endure until the end of the Ptolemaic dynasty. In the decree, the Egyptian priesthood praise Ptolemy as a perfect Pharaoh. They emphasise Ptolemy's support of the priesthood, his military success in defending Egypt and in restoring religious artefacts supposedly held by the Seleucids, and his good governance, especially an incident when Ptolemy imported, at his own expense, a vast amount of grain to compensate for a weak inundation. The rest of the decree consists of reforms to the priestly orders (phylai). The decree also added a leap day to the Egyptian calendar of 365 days, and instituted related changes in festivals. Ptolemy's infant daughter Berenice died during the synod and the stele arranges for her deification and ongoing worship. Further decrees would be issued by priestly synods under Ptolemy's successors. The best-known examples are the Decree of Memphis, about 218 BC, passed by his son, Ptolemy IV, as well as the famous Rosetta Stone erected by Ptolemy Epiphanes, his grandson, in 196 BC. The earlier Ptolemies had followed the lead of Alexander the Great in prioritising the worship of Amun, worshipped at Karnak in Thebes among the Egyptian deities. With Ptolemy III the focus shifted strongly to Ptah, worshipped at Memphis. Ptah's earthly avatar, the Apis bull came to play a crucial role in royal new year festivals and coronation festivals. This new focus is referenced by two elements of Ptolemy III's Pharaonic titulary: his nomen which included the phrase Mery-Ptah (beloved of Ptah), and his golden Horus name, Neb khab-used mi ptah-tatenen (Lord of the Jubilee-festivals as well as Ptah Tatjenen).[37] Alexandria Canopus Sebennytos Edfu Medamud Esna Karnak Philae Sites of construction work under Ptolemy III Ptolemy III financed construction projects at temples across Egypt. The most significant of these was the Temple of Horus at Edfu, one of the masterpieces of ancient Egyptian temple architecture and now the best-preserved of all Egyptian temples. Ptolemy III initiated construction on it on 23 August 237 BC.[38] Work continued for most of the Ptolemaic dynasty; the main temple was finished in the reign of his son, Ptolemy IV, in 231 BC, and the full complex was only completed in 142 BC, during the reign of Ptolemy VIII, while the reliefs on the great pylon were finished in the reign of Ptolemy XII. Other construction work took place at a range of sites, including (from north to south): Serapeum at Alexandria Temple of Osiris at Canopus;[38] Decorative work on the Temple of Isis at Behbeit El Hagar, near Sebennytos;[38] A sacred lake in the Temple of Montu at Medamud;[38] The Gateway of Ptolemy III in the Temple of Khonsu and decorative work on the Temple of Opet at Karnak Thebes.[38][39] Temple of Khnum at Esna A birth house at the Temple of Isis at Philae.[38] Scholarship and culture[edit] Ptolemy III continued his predecessor's sponsorship of scholarship and literature. The Great Library in the Musaeum was supplemented by a second library built in the Serapeum. He was said to have had every book unloaded in the Alexandria docks seized and copied, returning the copies to their owners and keeping the originals for the Library.[40] It is said that he borrowed the official manuscripts of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides from Athens and forfeited the considerable deposit he paid for them in order to keep them for the Library rather than returning them. The most distinguished scholar at Ptolemy III's court was the polymath and geographer Eratosthenes, most noted for his remarkably accurate calculation of the circumference of the world. Other prominent scholars include the mathematicians Conon of Samos and Apollonius of Perge.[41] Red Sea trade[edit] Ptolemy III's reign was also marked by trade with other contemporaneous polities. In the 1930s, excavations by Mattingly at a fortress close to Port Dunford (the likely Nikon of antiquity) in present-day southern Somalia yielded a number of Ptolemaic coins. Among these pieces were 17 copper coins from the reigns of Ptolemy III to Ptolemy V, as well as late Imperial Rome and Mamluk Sultanate coins.[42] Marriage and issue[edit] Ptolemy III married his cousin Berenice of Cyrene in 244/243 BC. Their children were: Name Image Birth Death Notes Arsinoe III 246/5 BC 204 BC Married her brother Ptolemy IV in 220 BC. Ptolemy IV Philopator May/June 244 BC July/August 204 BC King of Egypt from 222–204 BC. A son July/August 243 BC Perhaps 221 BC Name unknown, possibly 'Lysimachus'. He was probably killed in or before the political purge of 221 BC.[43] Alexander September/October 242 BC Perhaps 221 BC He was probably killed in or before the political purge of 221 BC.[44] Magas November/December 241 BC 221 BC Scalded to death in his bath by Theogos or Theodotus, at the orders of Ptolemy IV.[45] Berenice January/February 239 BC February/March 238 BC Posthumously deified on 7 March 238 BC by the Canopus Decree, as Berenice Anasse Parthenon (Berenice, mistress of virgins).[46] Ancestry[edit] Ancestors of Ptolemy III Euergetes 8. Lagus 4. Ptolemy I Soter 18. Meleager (Son of Balacrus, Grandson of Prince Amnytas and Great-grandson of Alexander I of Macedon) 9. Arsinoe of Macedon 2. Ptolemy II Philadelphus 10. Magas of Macedon 5. Berenice I of Egypt 22. Cassander 11. Antigone of Macedon 1. Ptolemy III Euergetes, King of Egypt 24. Alcimachus 12. Agathocles of Pella 6. Lysimachus, King of Thrace, Asia Minor, and Macedon 3. Arsinoe I Lollas (Maecedonian Nobleman) 14. Antipater 7. Nicaea of Macedon See also[edit] History of Ptolemaic Egypt Ptolemais - towns and cities named after members of the Ptolemaic dynasty. Notes[edit] ^ This identification of Ptolemy son of Lysimachus, with Ptolemy "the son" who is attested as Ptolemy II's co-regent is argued in detail by Chris Bennett. Other scholars have identified the co-regent as an illegitimate or otherwise unknown son of Ptolemy II. References[edit] ^ Clayton (2006) p. 208 ^ a b c d e f Bennett, Chris. "Ptolemy III". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 13 October 2019. ^ Hölbl 2001, p. 36 ^ a b Bennett, Chris. "Arsinoe II". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 10 October 2019. ^ IG XII.3 464 ^ Hölbl 2001, p. 63 ^ Bennett, Chris. "Ptolemy "the son"". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 10 October 2019. ^ Justin 26.3.2 ^ Justin 26.3.3-6; Catullus 66.25-28 ^ Hölbl 2001, pp. 44–46 ^ Hölbl 2001, pp. 46–47 ^ Bevan ^ a b Hölbl 2001, p. 48 ^ Gurob Papyrus ^ Justin Epitome of Pompeius Trogus 27.1, Polyaenus Stratagems 8.50 ^ Ptolemy III chronicle; Appian, Syriaca 11.65. ^ OGIS 54 (the 'Adulis inscription'). ^ a b Jerome, Commentary on Daniel 11.7-9 ^ a b c Hölbl 2001, p. 49 ^ Justin 27.1.9; Porphyry FGrH 260 F43 ^ Hölbl 2001, pp. 49–50 ^ "Volcanic eruptions linked to social unrest in Ancient Egypt". EurekAlert. 2017. ^ P. Haun 6; Athenaeus Deipnosophistae 13.593a ^ Hölbl 2001, p. 50 ^ Porphyry FGrH 260 F 32.8 ^ Hölbl 2001, pp. 50–51 ^ Porphyry FGrH 260 F32.8 ^ Hölbl 2001, pp. 53–4 ^ Plutarch Life of Aratus 24.4 ^ Plutarch Life of Aratus 41.5 ^ Frontinus Stratagems 2.6.5; P. Haun. 6 ^ Hölbl 2001, p. 51 ^ Pausanias 1.5.5; Stephanus of Byzantium sv. Βερενικίδαι ^ a b Hölbl 2001, p. 52 ^ Plutarch, Life of Cleomenes 29-32 ^ Polybius 2.71.3; Justin 29.1 claims that Ptolemy III was murdered by his son, but this is probably slander. ^ Holbl 2001, pp. 80–81 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHolbl2001 (help) ^ a b c d e f Holbl 2001, pp. 86–87 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHolbl2001 (help) ^ Wilkinson, Richard H. (2000). The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames & Hudson. p. 163. ISBN 9780500283967. ^ Galen Commentary on the Epidemics 3.17.1.606 ^ Hölbl 2001, pp. 63–65 ^ Hildegard Temporini, ed. (1978). Politische Geschichte: (Provinzien und Randvölker: Mesopotamien, Armenien, Iran, Südarabien, Rom und der Ferne Osten)], Part 2, Volume 9. Walter de Gruyter. p. 977. ISBN 3110071754. Retrieved 1 November 2014. ^ Lysimachus by Chris Bennett ^ Alexander by Chris Bennett ^ Magas by Chris Bennett ^ Berenice by Chris Bennett Bibliography[edit] Clayton, Peter A. (2006). Chronicles of the Pharaohs: the reign-by-reign record of the rulers and dynasties of ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28628-0. Hölbl, Günther (2001). A History of the Ptolemaic Empire. London & New York: Routledge. pp. 143–152 & 181–194. ISBN 0415201454. External links[edit] Ptolemy Euergetes I at LacusCurtius — (Chapter VI of E. R Bevan's House of Ptolemy, 1923) Ptolemy III — (Royal Egyptian Genealogy) Ptolemy III Euergetes entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith Bust of Ptolemy III from Herculaneum - now in the Museo Nazionale, Naples. Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemaic dynasty Born: Unknown Died: 222 BC Preceded by Ptolemy II Philadelphus Pharaoh of Egypt 246–222 BC Succeeded by Ptolemy IV Philopator v t e Hellenistic rulers Argeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Kings of Cyrene Magas Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Kings of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Kings of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Kings of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Kings of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus Kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon (regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces Asander with Dynamis Mithridates II Asander with Dynamis Scribonius’ attempted rule with Dynamis Dynamis with Polemon Polemon with Pythodorida Aspurgus Mithridates III with Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control BNF: cb124381557 (data) GND: 119132893 ISNI: 0000 0001 1742 6794 LCCN: n94040175 NTA: 075008653 PLWABN: 9810575567705606 SELIBR: 359356 SUDOC: 033522758 ULAN: 500356589 VcBA: 495/249333 VIAF: 232377557 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n94040175 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ptolemy_III_Euergetes&oldid=995129396" Categories: 284 BC births 222 BC deaths 3rd-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Ptolemaic dynasty 3rd-century BC rulers 3rd-century BC Egyptian people 3rd-century BC Macedonians Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Use dmy dates from January 2020 Articles containing Greek-language text Articles containing Ancient Egyptian-language text Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers 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en-wikipedia-org-3491	----	Mentuhotep II - Wikipedia Mentuhotep II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Egyptian pharaoh of the 11th Dynasty Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep II on a relief from his mortuary temple in Deir el-Bahari Pharaoh Reign c. 2061–2010 BC (estimates vary) (11th Dynasty) Predecessor Intef III Successor Mentuhotep III Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Nebhepetre Nb-ḥ3pt-Rˁ The Lord of the rudder is Ra[1] Nomen Mentuhotep Mn-ṯw-ḥtp Montu is content[2] Horus name Shematawy Šm3-t3.w(j) He who unifies the two lands Nebty name Shematawy Šm3-t3.w(j) He who unifies the two lands Golden Horus Biknebu Qashuti Bjk-nbw-q3-šwtj The Golden Falcon, lofty in plumes Abydos King List Nebhepetre Nb-ḥ3pt-Rˁ The Lord of the rudder is Ra Karnak king list Nebhepetre Nb-ḥ3pt-Rˁ The Lord of the rudder is Ra Turin King List Nebhepetre Nb-ḥ3pt-Rˁ The Lord of the rudder is Ra [3] Consort Tem, Neferu II, Ashayet, Henhenet, Kawit, Kemsit, Sadeh Children Mentuhotep III Father Intef III Mother Iah Died 1995 BC ? Burial mortuary temple at Deir-el-Bahri Mentuhotep II (Ancient Egyptian: Mn-ṯw-ḥtp, meaning "Mentu is satisfied"), also known under his prenomen Nephepetre (Ancient Egyptian: Nb-ḥpt-Rˁ, meaning "The Lord of the rudder is Ra"), was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh circa 2061–2010 BCE, the sixth ruler of the Eleventh Dynasty. He is credited with reuniting Egypt, thus ending the turbulent First Intermediate Period and becoming the first pharaoh of the Middle Kingdom. He reigned for 51 years, according to the Turin King List.[4] Mentuhotep II succeeded his father Intef III on the throne and was in turn succeeded by his son Mentuhotep III. Mentuhotep II ascended Egypt’s throne in the Upper Egyptian city of Thebes during the First Intermediate Period. Egypt was not unified during this time, and the Tenth Dynasty, rival to Mentuhotep’s Eleventh, ruled Lower Egypt from Herakleopolis. After the Herakleopoitan kings desecrated the sacred ancient royal necropolis of Abydos in Upper Egypt in the fourteenth year of Mentuhotep’s reign, the pharaoh dispatched his armies north to conquer Lower Egypt. Continuing his father Intef III’s conquests, Mentuhotep succeeded in unifying his country, probably shortly before his 39th year on the throne.[5][6] Following and in recognition of the unification, in regnal year 39, he changed his titulary to Shematawy (Ancient Egyptian: Šmˁ-tȝ.w(j), meaning "He who unifies the two lands").[7] Following the unification, Mentuhotep II reformed Egypt's government. To reverse the decentralization of power, which contributed to the collapse of the Old Kingdom and marked the First Intermediate Period, he centralized the state in Thebes to strip nomarchs of some of their power over the regions. Mentuhotep II also created new governmental posts whose occupants were Theban men loyal to him, giving the pharaoh more control over his country. Officials from the capital travelled the country regularly to control regional leaders.[8] Mentuhotep II was buried at the Theban necropolis of Deir el-Bahri. His mortuary temple was one of Mentuhotep II’s most ambitious building projects, and included several architectural and religious innovations. For example, it included terraces and covered walkways around the central structure, and it was the first mortuary temple that identified the pharaoh with the god Osiris. His temple inspired several later temples, such as those of Hatshepsut and Thutmose III of the Eighteenth Dynasty.[8] Contents 1 Family 2 Reign 2.1 Early reign 2.2 Reunification of Egypt 2.3 Military activities outside Egypt 2.4 Officials 2.5 Reorganization of the government 2.6 Titulary 2.7 Monuments 3 Mortuary temple of Mentuhotep II 3.1 Situation 3.2 Discovery and excavations 3.3 Foundational offerings 3.4 Architecture 3.4.1 Causeway and courtyard 3.4.2 Front part of the temple 3.4.3 Rear part of the temple 3.5 Royal tomb 4 Gallery 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Family[edit] See also: Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt family tree Silsileh rock relief depicting a giant king Mentuhotep II, on the right Intef III and the treasurer Kheti and, on the left, queen Iah. Mentuhotep II was the son of Intef III and Intef III's wife Iah who may also have been his sister. This lineage is demonstrated by the stele of Henenu (Cairo 36346), an official who served under Intef II, Intef III and his son, which the stele identifies as Horus s-ankh-[ib-t3wy],[9][10] Mentuhotep II's first Horus name. As for Iah, she bore the title of mwt-nswt, "King's mother".[11] The parentage of Mentuhotep II is also indirectly confirmed by a relief at Shatt er-Rigal.[12] Mentuhotep II had many wives who were buried with him in or close to his mortuary temple:[13] Tem (tm) who might have been Mentuhotep II's chief wife as she bore the titles of ḥmt-nswt "King's wife", ḥmt-nswt mryt.f "King's wife, his beloved" and wrt-ḥts-nbwj "Great one of the hetes-sceptre of the two Lords". She gave Mentuhotep II two children, one of whom was certainly Mentuhotep III since Tem was also called mwt-nswt, ""King's mother" and mwt-nswt-bjtj, "Dual king's mother". Apparently she died after her husband and was buried by her son in Mentuhotep's temple.[14] Her tomb was discovered in 1859 by Lord Dufferin[15] and fully excavated in 1968 by D. Arnold.[16] Neferu II ("The beautiful") was called "King's wife" and ḥmt-nswt-mryt.f, "King's wife, his beloved". She might have been Mentuhotep II's sister since she also bore the titles of sȝt-nswt-šmswt-nt-ẖt.f, "Eldest king daughter of his body", jrjt-pˁt, "hereditary princess" and ḥmwt-nbwt, "mistress of all women". She was buried in the tomb TT319 of Deir el-Bahri. Sarcophagus of Kawit, photograph by E. Naville, 1907.[17] Kawit (kȝwj.t) was one of Mentuhotep II's secondary wives. She bore the titles of ḥmt-nswt mryt.f "King's wife, his beloved" and ẖkrt-nswt, "King's embellishment". She was a "Priestess of the goddess Hathor". It has been suggested that she was Nubian.[18][19] She was buried under the terrace of Mentuhotep II's mortuary temple where E. Naville uncovered her sarcophagus in 1907. Sadeh, Ashayet, Henhenet and Kemsit were all Mentuhotep II's secondary wives. They bore the title of ḥmt-nswt mryt.f "King's wife, his beloved" and ẖkrt-nswt-wˁtit "Unique embellishment of the King". They were priestesses of Hathor[20] and each of them was buried in a single pit dug under the terrace of Mentuhotep II's temple.[21][22] Note that an alternative theory holds that Henhenet was one of Intef III's secondary wives, possibly the mother of Neferu II. Henhenet might have died in childbirth. Mwyt, a five year-old girl buried with Mentuhotep II's secondary wives. It is most likely one of his daughters. Reign[edit] Mentuhotep II is considered to be the first ruler of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt. The Turin Canon credits him with a reign of 51 years.[4] Many Egyptologists have long considered two rock reliefs, showing Mentuhotep II towering over smaller figures labeled king "Intef", to be conclusive evidence that his predecessor Intef III was his own father; this is, however, not entirely certain, as these reliefs may have had other propagandistic purposes, and there are other difficulties surrounding Mentuhotep's true origin, his three name-changes, and his frequent attempts to claim descent from various gods.[23] Painted sandstone seated statue of Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II, Egyptian Museum, Cairo. Early reign[edit] When he ascended the Theban throne, Mentuhotep II inherited the vast land conquered by his predecessors from the first cataract in the south to Abydos and Tjebu in the north. Mentuhotep II's first fourteen years of reign seem to have been peaceful in the Theban region as there are no surviving traces of conflict firmly datable to that period. In fact, the general scarcity of testimonies from the early part of Mentuhotep's reign might indicate that he was young when he ascended the throne, a hypothesis consistent with his 51 years long reign. Reunification of Egypt[edit] In the 14th year of his reign, an uprising occurred in the north. This uprising is most probably connected with the ongoing conflict between Mentuhotep II based in Thebes and the rival 10th Dynasty based at Herakleopolis who threatened to invade Upper Egypt. The 14th year of Mentuhotep's reign is indeed named Year of the crime of Thinis. This certainly refers to the conquest of the Thinite region by the Herakleopolitan kings who apparently desecrated the sacred ancient royal necropolis of Abydos in the process. Mentuhotep II subsequently dispatched his armies to the north. The famous tomb of the warriors at Deir el-Bahari discovered in the 1920s, contained the linen-wrapped, unmummified bodies of 60 soldiers all killed in battle, their shroud bearing Mentuhotep II's cartouche. Due to its proximity to the Theban royal tombs, the tomb of the warriors is believed to be that of heroes who died during the conflict between Mentuhotep II and his foes to the north.[24] Merikare, the ruler of Lower-Egypt at the time may have died during the conflict, which further weakened his kingdom and gave Mentuhotep the opportunity to reunite Egypt. The exact date when reunification was achieved is not known, but it is assumed to have happened shortly before year 39 of his reign.[5] Indeed, evidence shows that the process took time, maybe due to the general insecurity of the country at the time: commoners were buried with weapons, the funerary stelae of officials show them holding weapons instead of the usual regalia[24] and when Mentuhotep II's successor sent an expedition to Punt some 20 years after the reunification, they still had to clear the Wadi Hammamat of rebels. Cylinder seal of Mentuhotep II, Musée du Louvre. Following the reunification, Mentuhotep II was considered by his subjects to be divine, or half divine. This was still the case during the late 12th Dynasty some 200 years later: Senusret III and Amenemhat III erected stelae commemorating opening of the mouth ceremonies practiced on Mentuhotep II's statues.[25] Military activities outside Egypt[edit] Mentuhotep II launched military campaigns under the command of his vizier Khety south into Nubia, which had gained its independence during the First Intermediate Period, in his 29th and 31st years of reign. This is the first attested appearance of the term Kush for Nubia in Egyptian records. In particular, Mentuhotep posted a garrison on the island fortress of Elephantine so troops could rapidly be deployed southwards.[24] There is also evidence of military actions against Canaan. At Gabal El Uweinat close to the borders of modern Libya, Sudan and Tschad was found an inscription naming the king and attesting at least trade contacts to this region.[26] Officials[edit] The king reorganized the country and placed a vizier at the head of the administration. The viziers of his reign were Bebi and Dagi. His treasurer was Kheti who was involved in organising the sed festival for the king. Other important officials were the treasurer Meketre and the overseer of sealers Meru. His general was Intef. Reorganization of the government[edit] Throughout the First Intermediate Period and until Mentuhotep II's reign, the nomarchs held important powers over Egypt. Their office had become hereditary during the 6th Dynasty and the collapse of central power assured them complete freedom over their lands. After the unification of Egypt however, Mentuhotep II initiated a strong policy of centralization, reinforcing his royal authority by creating the posts of Governor of Upper Egypt and Governor of Lower Egypt who had power over the local nomarchs.[27] Mentuhotep's third titulary from his temple of Montu at Tod. Mentuhotep also relied on a mobile force of royal court officials who further controlled the deeds of the nomarchs.[28] Finally, the nomarchs who supported the 10th Dynasty, such as the governor of Asyut, certainly lost their power to the profit of the king. In the meantime, Mentuhotep II started an extensive program of self-deification emphasizing the divine nature of the ruler.[28] Titulary[edit] Mentuhotep II's self-deification program is evident from temples he built where he is represented wearing the headgear of Min and Amun. But perhaps the best evidence for this policy is his three titularies: his second Horus and Nebty names were The divine one of the white crown while he is also referred to as the son of Hathor at the end of his reign. Mentuhotep II changed his titulary twice during his reign:[7] the first time in his 14th regnal year, marking the initial successes of his campaign against Herakleopolis Magna to the north. The second time on or shortly before his 39th year of reign, marking the final success of that campaign, and his reunification of all of Egypt. More precisely, this second change may have taken place on the occasion of the sed festival celebrated during his 39th year on the throne.[29] First titulary Second titulary Third titulary Horus name S.ˁnḫ-ib-tȝwy "Horus, he who invigorates the heart of the two lands" Nṯrj-ḥḏt "The divine one of the white crown" Šmˁ-tȝ.w(j) "He who unifies the two lands" Nebty name Nṯrj-ḥḏt "The divine one of the white crown" Šmˁ-tȝ.w(j) "He who unifies the two lands" Golden Horus name Bjk-nbw-qȝ-šwtj "The Golden Falcon, lofty in plumes" Prenomen Nb-ḥpt-Rˁ "The Lord of the rudder is Re" Nb-ḥpt-Rˁ "The Lord of the rudder is Re" Nomen Mn-ṯw-ḥtp "Montu is satisfied" Mn-ṯw-ḥtp "Montu is satisfied" Mn-ṯw-ḥtp "Montu is satisfied" In general, the titularies of Mentuhotep II show a desire to return to the traditions of the Old Kingdom. In particular he adopted the complete five-fold titulary after his reunification of Egypt, seemingly for the first time since the 6th Dynasty, though known records are sparse for much of the First Intermediate Period that preceded him. Another proof that Mentuhotep II paid great attention to the traditions of the Old Kingdom is his second Nomen, sometimes found as sȝ Ḥw.t-Ḥr nb(.t) jwn.t Mnṯw-ḥtp "The son of Hathor, the lady of Dendera, Mentuhotep" This reference to Hathor rather than Re is similar to the titulary of Pepi I. Finally, in later king lists, Mentuhotep was referred to with a variant of his third titulary Monuments[edit] Mentuhotep II commanded the construction of many temples though few survive to this day. Well preserved is a funerary chapel found in 2014 at Abydos. Most of the other temple remains are also located in Upper Egypt, more precisely in Abydos, Aswan, Tod, Armant, Gebelein, Elkab, Karnak and Denderah.[30] In doing so, Mentuhotep followed a tradition started by his grandfather Intef II: royal building activities in the provincial temples of Upper Egypt began under Intef II and lasted throughout the Middle Kingdom.[31] Mortuary Temple of Mentuhotep II in hieroglyphs 3ḫ-swt-nb-ḥpt-Rˁ AkhsutnebhepetRe "Transfigured are the places of Nebhepetre" 3ḫ-swt-Jmn Akhsutamun "Transfigured are the places of Amun"[32] Mortuary temple of Mentuhotep II[edit] I Mentuhotep's mortuary temple, 1) Bab el-Hosan cache, 2) Lower pillared halls, 3) Upper hall, 4) core building, maybe a pyramid and between 3) and 4) is the ambulatory, 5) Hypostyle Hall, 6) Sanctuary. Mentuhotep II's most ambitious and innovative building project remains his large mortuary temple. The many architectural innovations of the temple mark a break with the Old Kingdom tradition of pyramid complexes and foreshadow the Temples of Millions of Years of the New Kingdom.[33] As such, Mentuhotep II's temple was certainly a major source of inspiration for the nearby, but 550-year later temples of Hatshepsut and Thutmose III. However, the most profound innovations of Mentuhotep II's temple are not architectural but religious. First, it is the earliest mortuary temple where the king is not just the recipient of offerings but rather enacts ceremonies for the deities (in this case Amun-Ra).[34] Second, the temple identifies the king with Osiris. Indeed, the decoration and royal statuary of the temple emphasizes the Osirian aspects of the dead ruler, an ideology apparent in the funerary statuary of many later pharaohs.[35] Finally, most of the temple decoration is the work of local Theban artists. This is evidenced by the dominant artistic style of the temple which represents people with large lips and eyes and thin bodies.[36] At the opposite, the refined chapels of Mentuhotep II's wives are certainly due to Memphite craftsmen who were heavily influenced by the standards and conventions of the Old Kingdom. This phenomenon of fragmentation of the artistic styles is observed throughout the First Intermediate Period and is a direct consequence of the political fragmentation of the country.[36] Situation[edit] The temple is located in the cliff at Deir el-Bahri on the west bank of Thebes. The choice of this location is certainly related to the Theban origin of the 11th Dynasty: Mentuhotep's predecessors on the Theban throne are all buried in close-by saff tombs. Furthermore, Mentuhotep may have chosen Deir el-Bahri because it is aligned with the temple of Karnak, on the other side of Nile. In particular, the statue of Amun was brought annually to Deir el-Bahri during the Beautiful Festival of the Valley, something which the king may have perceived as beneficial to this funerary cult.[33] Consequently, and until the construction of the Djeser-Djeseru some five centuries later, Mentuhotep II's temple was the final destination of the barque of Amun during the festival[37][38] Discovery and excavations[edit] In the early 19th century, the ruins of the temple of Mentuhotep II were completely covered with debris. They consequently went unnoticed until the second half of the century, in spite of extensive excavations performed on the nearby Djeser-Djeseru of Hatshepsut. Thus it was only in 1859, that Lord Dufferin and his assistants, Dr. Lorange and Cyril C. Graham, started to excavate the southwest corner of the hypostyle hall of Mentuhotep's temple. Clearing the immense mass of debris, they soon discovered the plundered grave of Queen Tem, one of Mentuhotep's wives. Realising the potential of the site, they then gradually worked their way to the sanctuary, where they found the granite altar of Mentuhotep with a representation of Amun-Re and various other finds such as the grave of Neferu TT319. Finally, in 1898, Howard Carter discovered the Bab el-Hosan [39] cache in the front court, where he uncovered the famous black seated statue of the king.[40] Cross-section of Mentuhotep II mortuary temple by E. Naville The next important excavation works took place from 1903 to 1907 under the direction of Henri Édouard Naville, who worked there on behalf of the Egypt Exploration Fund. He was the first to undertake a systematic exploration of the temple. About ten years later, between 1920 and 1931, Herbert E. Winlock further excavated the temple for the Metropolitan Museum of Art. However, his results were published only in the form of preliminary reports in summary form.[41] Finally, from 1967 to 1971, Dieter Arnold conducted research on the site on behalf of the German Archaeological Institute. He published his results in three volumes.[42] Painted sandstone statue of Mentuhotep II wearing the Deshret crown, discovered by H. Winlock. Foundational offerings[edit] Under the four corners of the temple terrace, H. Winlock discovered four pits during his 1921–1922 excavations. These pits were dug into the ground before the construction of the temple for the purpose of foundation rituals. Indeed, when H. Winlock discovered them, they still contained many offerings: a cattle skull, pitchers and bowls filled with fruits, barley and bread and a mud brick bearing Mentuhotep II's name.[43] Further excavations of the pits undertaken in 1970 by Dieter Arnold revealed more food offerings such as bread and beef ribs, but also some bronze objects, a faience scepter and sheets of fabric. The sheets were marked in red ink at the corner, seven with the name of Mentuhotep II and three with that of Intef II.[44] Architecture[edit] Causeway and courtyard[edit] Similarly to the mortuary complexes of the Old Kingdom, Mentuhotep II's mortuary complex comprised two temples: the high temple of Deir el-Bahri and a valley temple located closer to the Nile on cultivated lands. The valley temple was linked to the high temple by a 1.2 km long and 46 m wide uncovered causeway. The causeway led to a large courtyard in front of the Deir el-Bahri temple. The courtyard was adorned by a long rectangular flower bed, with fifty-five sycamore trees planted in small pits and six tamarisk plus two sycamore trees planted in deep pits filled with soil.[45] This is one of the very few archaeologically documented temple-gardens of ancient Egypt that are known enough about to reconstruct its appearance.[46] The maintenance of such a garden more than 1 km from the Nile into the arid desert must have required the constant work of many gardeners and an elaborate irrigation system. Seated statues of Mentuhotep II next to the causeway Left and right of the processional walkway were at least 22 seated statues of Mentuhotep II wearing, on the south side, the White Crown of Upper Egypt and on the north side the Red Crown of Lower Egypt. These were probably added to the temple for the celebration of Mentuhotep II's Sed festival during his 39th year on the throne.[47] Some headless sandstone statues are still on site today. Another was discovered in 1921 during Herbert Winlock's excavations and is now on display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art.[48] Front part of the temple[edit] West of the causeway is the main temple, which consisted of two parts. The front part of the temple is dedicated to Monthu-Ra, a merger of the sun god Ra with the Theban god of war Monthu, particularly worshipped during the 11th Dynasty. A ramp aligned with the central axis of the temple led to the upper terrace. The ramp that is visible today was constructed in 1905 by Édouard Naville over the remains of the original ramp, which only is visible in two places as the lowest two layers of the lateral limestone cladding.[49] The eastern front part of the temple, on both sides of the rising ramp, consists of two porticos with a double row of rectangular pillars, which make the temple look like a saff tomb, the traditional burial of Mentuhotep II's 11th-Dynasty predecessors.[50] The ruins of the ambulatory On the temple terrace, a 60-metre-wide, 43-metre-deep and 5-metre-high podium supports the upper hall surrounding an ambulatory and the core building. The ambulatory, separated from the upper hall by a 5-cubit-thick wall, comprised a total of 140 octagonal columns disposed in three rows.[51] For most of these columns, only the base is still visible today.[52] The courtyard of the ambulatory was completely filled by the core building, a massive 22 m large and 11 m high construction. This edifice, located at the center of the temple complex, was excavated in 1904 and 1905 by Edouard Naville. He reconstructed it as a square structure topped by a small pyramid, a representation of the primeval mount which possibly resembled the superstructures of the royal tombs at Abydos. This reconstruction, supported by H. E. Winlock, was contested by D. Arnold, who argued that, for structural reasons, the temple could not have supported the weight of a small pyramid. Instead, he proposed that the edifice was flat-roofed.[53] Reconstruction of Mentuhotep II's mortuary temple by Édouard Naville. The presence of a pyramid is debated. Rear part of the temple[edit] Behind the core edifice was the center of the cult for the deified king. The rear part of the temple was cut directly into the cliff and consisted of an open courtyard, a pillared hall with 82 octagonal columns and a chapel for a statue of the king.[54] This part of the temple was dedicated to Amun-Ra. The open courtyard is flanked on the north and south sides by a row of five columns and on the east side by a double row totalling sixteen columns. At the center of the open courtyard lies a deep dromos leading to the royal tomb. Archaeological finds in this part of the temple include a limestone altar, a granite stele and six granite statues of Senusret III.[55] To the west, the courtyard leads to the hypostyle hall with its ten rows of eight columns each, plus two additional columns on both sides of the entrance. The hypostyle hall is separated from the courtyard by a wall and, being also higher, is accessed via a small ramp.[56] On the west end of the hypostyle hall lies the holiest place of the temple, a sanctuary dedicated to Mentuhotep and Amun-Ra leading to a small speos which housed a larger-than-life statue of the king. The sanctuary itself housed a statue of Amun-Re and was surrounded on three sides by walls and on one side by the cliff. The inner and outer faces of these walls were all decorated with painted inscriptions and representations of the kings and gods in high relief.[57] Surviving relief fragments show the deified king surrounded by the chief deities of Upper and Lower Egypt, Nekhbet, Seth, Horus and Wadjet, and on a par with them.[58] The gods present the king with bundles of palm branches, the symbol of Millions of Years. This relief is a manifestation of the profound religious changes in the ideology of kingship since the Old Kingdom: In the Old Kingdom, the king had been the lord of the pyramid complex, [...] now he is reduced to a human ruler dependent on the gods' goodwill. His immortality is no longer innate; it has to be bestowed on him by the gods..[59] Royal tomb[edit] Corridor leading to Mentuhotep II's tomb As mentioned above, the open courtyard of the rear part of the temple presents a dromos in its center. This dromos, a 150 m long straight corridor, leads down to a large underground chamber 45 m below the court which is undoubtedly the tomb of the king. This chamber is entirely lined with red granite and has a pointed roof. It contained an alabaster chapel in the form of an Upper-Egyptian Per-wer sanctuary.[60] This chapel was once closed by a double door now missing. It contained a wooden coffin and ointment vessels which left traces in the ground. Most of the grave goods that must have been deposited there are long gone as a result of the tomb plundering. The few remaining items were a scepter, several arrows, and a collection of models including ships, granaries and bakeries.[61] Gallery[edit] Head statue of Mentuhotep II originally in Thebes, now on display in the Museo Gregoriano Egiziano, Vatican. Mentuhotep II receives offering, Musée du Louvre. Cylinder seals of Mentuhotep II, Musée du Louvre. Mentuhotep II's cartouche on the Abydos king list. Aerial view of Mentuhotep II's mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahari. Shade-bearer of Neferu, Mentuhotep II's royal wife, in the typical regional artistic style of the 11th Dynasty. Model of granary from Mentuhotep II's tomb References[edit] ^ "Ancient Egypt - Dynasty XI". www.narmer.pl. ^ Peter Clayton: Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson, p. 72. 2006. ISBN 0-500-28628-0 ^ Alan H. Gardiner: The royal canon of Turin. ^ a b "The Ancient Egypt Site". www.ancient-egypt.org. ^ a b Grajetzki, The Middle Kingdom, p. 19 ^ Franke, Detlef (1988). "Zur Chronologie des Mittleren Reiches Teil II: Die sogenannte "Zweite Zwischenzeit" Altägyptens". Orientalia. Nova Series (in German). Gregorian Biblical Press. 57 (3): 133. ISSN 0030-5367. JSTOR 3793107. ^ a b Vandersleyen, Claude (1994). "La titulature de Montouhotep II". In Bryan, Betsy Morrell; Lorton, David (eds.). 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Wiesbaden, DE: Otto Harrassowitz. ^ "Ancient Egypt and Archaeology Web Site - deir_el_bahri_068". ^ Arnold, Dieter (1974). Der Tempel des Königs Mentuhotep von Deir el-Bahari. Mainz, DE: Philipp von Zabern. 3 vols. ^ "Sarcophagus of Kawit". Wikimedia Commons. ^ Wendrick, Willike (2010). Egyptian Archaeology. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 151. ISBN 978-1-4051-4988-4 – via Google Books. ^ Török, László (2008). Between Two Worlds: The Frontier Region Between Ancient Nubia and Egypt 3700 BC–500 AD. Brill. p. 83. ISBN 978-90-04-17197-8. ^ Callender. Shaw, Ian (ed.). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. p. 141. ^ "Sarcophagus of Henhenet". Metropolitan Museum. ^ "Shrine of Henhenet". Metropolitan Museum. ^ Callender, In: Ian Shaw (edit.), Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, p. 139. ^ a b c Callender, In: Ian Shaw (edit.), Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, p. 140. ^ M. Collier, B. Manley and R. Parkinson; How to Read Egyptian Hieroglyphs: A Step-by-Step Guide to Teach Yourself ^ Joseph Clayton, Aloisia de Trafford ; Mark Borda: A hieroglyphic inscription found at Jebel Uweinat mentioning Yam and Tekhebet. In: Sahara : preistoria e storia del Sahara, 19, 2008, ISSN 1120-5679, pp. 129–134 ^ Callender, In Ian Shaw (edit.), Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, p. 140-141. ^ a b Callender, In: Ian Shaw (edit.), Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, p. 140-141. ^ , Callender, In Ian Shaw (edit.), Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, p. 141. ^ Grajetzki, The Middle Kingdom, p. 20-21 ^ Callender, In: Ian Shaw (edit.): The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt p.127 ^ Dieter Arnold Mentuhotep. vol. 2, p.90. ^ a b Callender, In: Ian Shaw (edit.): The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, p. 142–143 ^ Byron Esely Shafer (Editor), Temples of Ancient Egypt, p.74, Cornell University Press; 2nd Revised edition, ISBN 0-8014-3399-1 [1] ^ "Search results for "osiride statue" - Wikimedia Commons". commons.wikimedia.org. ^ a b Callender, In: Ian Shaw (edit.): The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt p. 144 ^ Byron Esely Shafer (Editor), Temples of Ancient Egypt, p.95, Cornell University Press; 2nd Revised edition, ISBN 0-8014-3399-1 [2] ^ After Hatchepsut's reign, the barque of Amun visited all the royal cult complexes on the west bank that were still in activity. ^ "Discovery of Bab el-Hosan". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2012-05-02. ^ "Mentuhotep II, The Gateof the Horseman". ib205.tripod.com. ^ D. Arnold: Mentuhotep. vol. 1, p. 70f. ^ D. Arnold: Der Tempel des Königs Mentuhotep in Deir el-Bahari. 3 vols. ^ Dieter Arnold: The Temple of Mentuhotep at Deir el-Bahri, p. 49 ff, Dieter Arnold: Dictionary of Egyptian architecture p. 95f ^ Dieter. Arnold, Mentuhotep vol 3, p. 52 ^ Winlock quote after Dieter Arnold, The Temple of Mentuhotep at Deir el Bahari 1979 p. 21ff ^ Robichon-Varille quote after Dieter Arnold, The Temple of Mentuhotep at Deir el Bahari 1979 p. 21 ^ Byron Esely Shafer (Editor), Temples of Ancient Egypt, p. 75, Cornell University Press; 2nd Revised edition, ISBN 0-8014-3399-1 ^ T. Kühn, Der königliche Tempel- und Grabbezirk Mentu-hotep II. in Deir el-Bahari p. 21 ^ Dieter Arnold, Mentuhotep vol. 1, p. 16f ^ Dieter Arnold, Mentuhotep vol. 1, p. 11 ^ Similar to the column of Intef II in Karnak ^ Dieter Arnold, Mentuhotep. vol. 1, p. 16f ^ Dieter Arnold: Mentuhotep vol. 1, p. 27ff.; Dieter Arnold: Lexikon der Baukunst p. 159, and Höveler-Müller Am Anfang war Ägypten p. 142. ^ Byron Esely Shafer (Editor), Temples of Ancient Egypt, p. 74, Cornell University Press; 2nd Revised edition, ISBN 0-8014-3399-1 [3] ^ Dieter Arnold: Mentuhotep. vol. 1, p. 33. ^ Dieter Arnold, Mentuhotep vol. 1, p. 34f. ^ Dieter Arnold,Mentuhotep vol. 3, p. 15 ^ Dieter Arnold, Mentuhotep vol. 3, p. 33f ^ Dieter Arnold, Byron Esely Shafer (Editor), Temples of Ancient Egypt, p.74-75, Cornell University Press; 2nd Revised edition, ISBN 0-8014-3399-1 [4] ^ Dieter Arnold, Encyclopedia of Ancient Egyptian Architecture, I B Tauris editions, ISBN 1-86064-465-1 ^ Dieter Arnold, Mentuhotep vol. 1, p. 44 Further reading[edit] Gae Callender: The Middle Kingdom Renaissance, In: Ian Shaw (edit.): The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2000, ISBN 0-19-815034-2, pp. 148–183 W. Grajetzki, The Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt: History, Archaeology and Society, Duckworth, London 2006 ISBN 0-7156-3435-6, 18-23 Habachi, Labib 1963. King Nebhepetre Menthuhotp: his monuments, place in history, deification and unusual representation in the form of gods. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo 19, 16-52. External links[edit] Media related to Mentuhotep II at Wikimedia Commons Preceded by Intef III Pharaoh of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty Succeeded by Mentuhotep III v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 118732978 VIAF: 37711488 WorldCat Identities: viaf-37711488 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mentuhotep_II&oldid=991653458" Categories: Mentuhotep II 21st-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt 21st-century BC rulers 21st century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 Italian-language sources (it) Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Egyptian-language text Commons category link from Wikidata 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en-wikipedia-org-3500	----	Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree - Wikipedia Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The family tree of the Egyptian 19th Dynasty is the usual mixture of conjecture and interpretation. The family history starts with the appointment of Ramesses I as the successor to Horemheb, the last king of the 18th Dynasty who had no heirs.[1] From Ramesses' line came perhaps the greatest king of the New Kingdom of Egypt, Ramesses II. He ruled for nearly 67 years and had many children (see List of children of Ramses II). Following Ramesses II's death, his granddaughter declined the throne[citation needed] and the succession remains unclear. The parentage of Pharaoh Amenmesse and his exact relation to Siptah is unknown. Commander Seti Ramesses I Sitre Hattusili III Puduhepa Seti I Tuya Isetnofret Ramesses II Nefertari Maathorneferure Amun-her-khepsef Meritamen Ramesses Bintanath Khaemweset Isisnofret Merneptah Takhat Seti II Twosret Amenmesse Siptah References[edit] ^ Joyce Tyldesley: Ramesses, Egypt's Greatest Pharaoh Bibliography[edit] Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton (2004). The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames & Hudson. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Royal or noble family trees Monarchies by region Africa Egypt House of Muhammad Ali Ethiopia Solomonic dynasty Madagascar Morocco Tunisia Americas Aztec Brazil Mexico Asia Brunei Cambodia China Ancient Warring States Early Middle Late India Mughal Mughal-Mongol Iran Pre-Islamic: Achaemenid Arsacid Sasanian post-Islamic dynasties Modern: Safavid Afsharid Zand Qajar Pahlavi Japan Shōgun: Kamakura Ashikaga Tokugawa Jerusalem Korea Silla Goryeo Joseon Kuwait Malaysia Johor Kedah Kelantan Negeri Sembilan Pahang Perak Perlis Selangor Terengganu Mongol Borjigin Yuan Ilkhanate Timurid Myanmar Ottoman simplified Seljuk Anatolian Seljuk Sri Lanka Thailand Vietnam Europe Aragon Belgium Bohemia Bosnia Castile Croatia Denmark France simplified House of Bonaparte Greece Hungary Leon Luxembourg Monaco Naples Navarre Netherlands Norway Orange-Nassau Poland Portugal Holy Roman Empire/Germany House of Habsburg (incl. Holy Roman Empire after 1440) Romania Russia Serbia Medieval: Vlastimirović Vojislavljević Vukanović Nemanjić Lazarević Branković Modern: Karađorđević Obrenović Sicily Spain Sweden United Kingdom England simplified) (Wessex Mercia Northumbria Scotland Wales after 1603 Visigoths Oceania Hawaii Kamehameha Lunalilo Kalākaua Huahine Mangareva Samoa Malietoa Tui Manua Tupua Tamasese Tahiti Tonga Dukes, princes and counts Artois Brittany Aquitaine Brabant Lorraine Burgundy Bourbon Condé Conti Flanders Fujiwara Hainault Holland Jagiello La Fayette Lithuania Norfolk Swabia Monarchies of the ancient world Egypt 1st 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st, 22nd & 23rd 25th 26th Near East Yamhad Israel/Judah Georgia Iberia Bagrationi of Tao-Klarjeti and Georgia Kartli Kakheti Imereti Greece and Hellenistic World House of Atreus Erechtheids of Athens Alcmaeonids of Athens Heraclidae Kings of Sparta Argead dynasty Ptolemies Attalid Seleucids Rome Roman Emperors Caecilii Metelli Cornelii Scipiones Julio-Claudian dynasty Severan dynasty Flavian dynasty Constantinian dynasty Valentinianic dynasty Eastern Roman/Byzantine Emperors See also Family tree Ahnentafel Genealogical numbering systems Quarters of nobility Seize quartiers Royal descent Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nineteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree&oldid=973836327" Categories: Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt People of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ancient Egyptian family trees 13th century BC in Egypt 12th century BC in Egypt 13th-century BC people 12th-century BC people Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2014 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages فارسی Français ქართული Magyar مصرى 日本語 ไทย Edit links This page was last edited on 19 August 2020, at 14:09 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3501	----	Ramesses I - Wikipedia Ramesses I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ramesses I Menophres Stone head carving of Paramessu (Ramesses I), originally part of a statue depicting him as a scribe; on display at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Pharaoh Reign 1292–1290 BC or 1295–1294 BC (19th Dynasty) Predecessor Horemheb Successor Seti I Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Menpehtyre Eternal is the Strength of Re[1] Nomen Ra-messes Re has fashioned him[1] Horus name Kanakht Wadj neswt Mighty bull, he who rejuvenates the royalty Nebty name Kha m neswt mj jtm He who appears as a king, like Atum Golden Horus Smn m3't khetawy He who firms Maat throughout the land of the two banks ( ) Consort Sitre Children Seti I Father Seti Died 1290 BC Burial KV16 Menpehtyre Ramesses I (or Ramses) was the founding pharaoh of ancient Egypt's 19th Dynasty. The dates for his short reign are not completely known but the time-line of late 1292–1290 BC is frequently cited[2] as well as 1295–1294 BC.[3] While Ramesses I was the founder of the 19th Dynasty, his brief reign mainly serves to mark the transition between the reign of Horemheb, who had stabilized Egypt in the late 18th Dynasty, and the rule of the powerful pharaohs of his own dynasty, in particular his son Seti I, and grandson Ramesses II, who would bring Egypt to the height of its imperial power. Contents 1 Origins 2 Death 3 Rediscovery and repatriation 4 In popular culture 5 References 6 External links Origins[edit] See also: Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Pharaoh Ramses I making an offering before Osiris, Allard Pierson Museum. Originally called Pa-ra-mes-su, Ramesses I was of non-royal birth, being born into a noble military family from the Nile Delta region, perhaps near the former Hyksos capital of Avaris. He was a son of a troop commander called Seti. His uncle Khaemwaset, an army officer, married Tamwadjesy, the matron of the Harem of Amun, who was a relative of Huy, the viceroy of Kush, an important state post.[4] This shows the high status of Ramesses' family. Ramesses I found favor with Horemheb, the last pharaoh of the tumultuous Eighteenth Dynasty, who appointed the former as his vizier. Ramesses also served as the High Priest of Set[5] – as such, he would have played an important role in the restoration of the old religion following the Amarna heresy of a generation earlier, under Akhenaten. Horemheb himself had been a nobleman from outside the immediate royal family, who rose through the ranks of the Egyptian army to serve as the royal advisor to Tutankhamun and Ay and, ultimately, pharaoh. Since Horemheb had no surviving children, he ultimately chose Ramesses to be his heir in the final years of his reign presumably because Ramesses I was both an able administrator and had a son (Seti I) and a grandson (the future Ramesses II) to succeed him and thus avoid any succession difficulties. Upon his accession, Ramesses assumed a prenomen, or royal name. When transliterated, the name is mn-pḥty-rʿ, which is usually interpreted as Menpehtyre, meaning "Established by the strength of Ra". However, he is better known by his nomen, or personal name. This is transliterated as rʿ-ms-sw, and is usually realised as Ramessu or Ramesses, meaning 'Ra bore him'. Already an old man when he was crowned, Ramesses appointed his son, the later pharaoh Seti I, to serve as the Crown Prince and chosen successor. Seti was charged with undertaking several military operations during this time–in particular, an attempt to recoup some of Egypt's lost possessions in Syria. Ramesses appears to have taken charge of domestic matters: most memorably, he completed the second pylon at Karnak Temple, begun under Horemheb. Death[edit] Reliefs from the Abydos chapel of Ramesses I. The chapel was specifically built and dedicated by Seti I in memory of his late father. Mummy of Ramesses I Ramesses I enjoyed a very brief reign, as evidenced by the general paucity of contemporary monuments mentioning him: the king had little time to build any major buildings in his reign and was hurriedly buried in a small and hastily finished tomb.[6] The Egyptian priest Manetho assigns him a reign of 16 months, but this pharaoh certainly ruled Egypt for a minimum of 17 months based on his highest known date which is a Year 2 II Peret day 20 (Louvre C57) stela which ordered the provision of new endowments of food and priests for the temple of Ptah within the Egyptian fortress of Buhen.[7] Jürgen von Beckerath observes that Ramesses I died just 5 months later—in June 1290 BC—since his son Seti I succeeded to power on III Shemu day 24.[2] Ramesses I's only known action was to order the provision of endowments for the aforementioned Nubian temple at Buhen and "the construction of a chapel and a temple (which was to be finished by his son) at Abydos."[8] The aged Ramesses was buried in the Valley of the Kings. His tomb, discovered by Giovanni Belzoni in 1817 and designated KV16, is small in size and gives the impression of having been completed with haste. Joyce Tyldesley states that Ramesses I's tomb consisted of a single corridor and one unfinished room whose walls, after a hurried coat of plaster, were painted to show the king with his gods, with Osiris allowed a prominent position. The red granite sarcophagus too was painted rather than carved with inscriptions which, due to their hasty preparation, included a number of unfortunate errors.[6] Seti I, his son and successor, later built a small chapel with fine reliefs in memory of his deceased father Ramesses I at Abydos. In 1911, John Pierpont Morgan donated several exquisite reliefs from this chapel to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York.[9] Rediscovery and repatriation[edit] Fragment of a stela showing Amun enthroned. Mut, wearing the double crown, stands behind him. Both are being offered by Ramesses I, now lost. From Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London A mummy currently believed to be that of Ramesses I was stolen from Egypt and displayed in a private Canadian museum for many years before being repatriated. The mummy's identity cannot be conclusively determined, but is most likely to be that of Ramesses I based on CT scans, X-rays, skull measurements and radio-carbon dating tests by researchers at Emory University, as well as aesthetic interpretations of family resemblance. Moreover, the mummy's arms were found crossed high across his chest which was a position reserved solely for Egyptian royalty until 600 BC.[10] The mummy had been stolen by the Abu-Rassul family of grave robbers and brought to North America around 1860 by Dr. James Douglas. It was then placed in the Niagara Museum and Daredevil Hall of Fame in Niagara Falls Ontario, Canada. The mummy remained there, its identity unknown, next to other curiosities and so-called freaks of nature for more than 130 years. When the owner of the museum decided to sell his property, Canadian businessman William Jamieson purchased the contents of the museum and, with the help of Canadian Egyptologist Gayle Gibson, identified their great value.[11] In 1999, Jamieson sold the Egyptian artifacts in the collection, including the various mummies, to the Michael C. Carlos Museum at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia for US $2 million. The mummy was returned to Egypt on October 24, 2003 with full official honors and is on display at the Luxor Museum.[12] In popular culture[edit] The 1956 motion picture The Ten Commandments, directed by Cecil B. DeMille, depicts Ramesses I (portrayed by Ian Keith) as the pharaoh who orders the elimination of the first-born of every Hebrew slave family in Egypt, leading to the scenario of future prophet Moses being sheltered by Bithiah, who in the film is said to be the daughter of Ramesses I and sister of Seti I. In the 2000 animated musical film Joseph: King of Dreams, by DreamWorks Animation, Ramesses I is depicted as the pharaoh who has his dreams interpreted by Joseph and who appoints Joseph to the office of Vizier when his foresight and administrative skills prevent Egypt from being ruined by famine.[citation needed] References[edit] ^ a b Clayton, Peter A (2012). Chronicle of the Pharaohs the reign-by-reign record of the rulers and dynasties of ancient Egypt. London: Thames & Hudson. p. 140. ISBN 978-0500286289. OCLC 869729880. ^ a b Beckerath, Jürgen von; Zabern, Verlag Philipp von (1997). Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägypten : die Zeitbestimmung der ägyptischen Geschichte von der Vorzeit bis 332 v. Chr. Mainz am Rhein. p. 190. ISBN 3805323107. OCLC 932193922. ^ Rice, Michael (1999). Who's Who in Ancient Egypt. Routledge. p. 165. ^ Cruz-Uribe, Eugene (1978). "The Father of Ramses I: OI 11456". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 37 (3): 237–244. doi:10.1086/372654. JSTOR 544684. ^ P. Montert, Everyday Life in Egypt in the Days of Ramesses The Great, 1974, p. 197. ^ a b Tyldesley, Joyce (2001). Ramesses: Egypt's greatest pharaoh. Penguin Books. pp. 37–38. ISBN 9780140280975. OCLC 932221233. ^ Brand, Peter J (2000). The monuments of Seti I: epigraphic, historical and art historical analysis. Leiden; Boston; Köln: Brill. pp. 289, 300 and 311. ISBN 9004117709. OCLC 247341737. ^ Grimal, Nicolas-Christophe (1992). A history of ancient Egypt. Oxford, UK; Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell. p. 245. ISBN 0631174729. OCLC 872585819. ^ Ranke, Hermann (1939). "Review of The Temple of Ramesses I at Abydos". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 59 (2): 272–274. doi:10.2307/594071. JSTOR 594071. ^ "U.S. Museum to Return Ramses I Mummy to Egypt". National Geographic. April 30, 2003. Retrieved 2008-04-13. A 3,000-year-old mummy that many scholars believe is ancient Egypt's King Ramses I is the star attraction of an exhibit at the Michael C. Carlos Museum in Atlanta that will run from April 26 to September 14. ^ "Canada's favourite mummy hunter returns". Niagara Falls Review. Archived from the original on 2017-12-04. Retrieved 2017-05-17. ^ "Egypt's 'Ramses' mummy returned". BBC. October 26, 2003. Retrieved 2008-04-13. An ancient Egyptian mummy thought to be that of Pharaoh Ramses I has returned home after more than 140 years in North American museums. External links[edit] Ramesses I: The search for the Lost Pharaoh Ramesses I at Find a Grave v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 118749013 ISNI: 0000 0000 3734 8140 LCCN: n2003060084 VIAF: 9223030 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n2003060084 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ramesses_I&oldid=998147252" Categories: Ramesses I 13th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Viziers of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt 1290s BC deaths Ancient Egyptian mummies Art and cultural repatriation 13th-century BC rulers 13th century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2020 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers 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en-wikipedia-org-3502	----	Merkawre Sobekhotep - Wikipedia Merkawre Sobekhotep From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Merkawre Sobekhotep Sobekhotep VII Inscription from a pink granite seated statue of Merkawre Sobekhotep discovered in Karnak. Pharaoh Reign 2 years, ..., and 3 or 4 days. Estimated by Kim Ryholt to be 2 and a half years[1] (13th dynasty) Predecessor Sewadjkare Hori Successor unknown Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Merkawre[2] Mr-k3w-Rˁ He who loves the Kas of Ra Nomen Sobekhotep Sobek is satisfied Sbk ḥtp Turin canon Merka[w]re Sobek[hotep] He who loves the Ka[s] of Ra, Sobek [is satisfied] Children Bebi, Sobekhotep Merkawre Sobekhotep (also known as Sobekhotep VII) was the thirty-seventh pharaoh of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period. He probably reigned over Middle and perhaps Upper Egypt during the mid-17th century BC from 1664 BC until 1663 BC.[1] Alternatively, the German Egyptologist Thomas Schneider dates this short-lived king's reign from 1646 BC to 1644 BC[3] Contents 1 Attestations 2 Chronological position 3 References 4 External links Attestations[edit] Merkawre Sobekhotep is attested by a scarab-seal of unknown origin [2] and by two statues dedicated to Amun. The statues were originally from Karnak and are now in the Egyptian Museum and in the Louvre Museum respectively.[4] The statues present Merkawre Sobekhotep with two sons Bebi and Sobekhotep, both bearing the titles of "king's son" and of "court official".[1] Merkawre Sobekhotep is also named in the Turin canon (Ryholt: row 8 column 8, Gardiner & von Beckerath: row 7, column 8) and in the Karnak king list. The Turin canon credits him with a reign of 2 years, a lost number of months and 3 to 4 days. Consequently, Ryholt attributes him 2 and a half years of reign. Chronological position[edit] The exact chronological position of Merkawre Sobekhotep in the 13th dynasty is not known for certain owing to uncertainties affecting earlier kings of the dynasty. According to the Turin canon, Merkawre Sobekhotep was the immediate successor of Sewadjkare Hori. Darrell Baker makes him the thirty-seventh king of the dynasty, Kim Ryholt sees him as the thirty-eighth king and Jürgen von Beckerath places him as the thirty-second pharaoh of the dynasty.[2][5] After Merkawre Sobekhotep's kingship, the sequence of rulers of the 13th dynasty is highly uncertain due to a large lacuna affecting the Turin canon. Four to seven king names are lost to the lacuna.[1] References[edit] ^ a b c d K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800-1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997 ^ a b c Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300 - 1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 453 ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen ^ Catalogue No. Egyptian Museum (Cairo) JE 43599; Louvre Museum A. 121[E. 7824]. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt 1964, S. 61, 254-255 (XIII 32.) External links[edit] Titulary of Sebekhotep VII Preceded by Sewadjkare Hori Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Unknown v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Merkawre_Sobekhotep&oldid=972491829" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes 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en-wikipedia-org-3506	----	Anedjib - Wikipedia Anedjib From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Anedjib Adjib, Enezib, Miebîdós Pharaoh Anedjib on a stone bowl fragment Pharaoh Reign 8-10 years, ca. 2930 BC (1st Dynasty) Predecessor Den Successor Semerkhet Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Nisut-Bity-Nebuy-Merbiape nsw.t-bty-nebwy-mrj-bj3-p King of Upper and Lower Egypt, he of the two lords, the beloved one of the brazen throne Horus name Hor-Adjib Ḥr-ˁḏ-jb He with the bold heart/force of will Abydos King List Merbiape mr-bj3-p Beloved one of the brazen throne Saqqara Tablet Merybiapen mr.ij-bj3-pn Beloved one of the brazen throne Turin King List Meri-gereg-ipen mrj-grg-ipn Beloved founder of the (brazen) throne Consort Betrest ? Father Den ? Burial Tomb X, Umm el-Qa'ab Anedjib, more correctly Adjib and also known as Hor-Anedjib, Hor-Adjib and Enezib, is the Horus name of an early Egyptian king who ruled during the 1st Dynasty. The Egyptian historian Manetho named him "Miebîdós" and credited him with a reign of 26 years,[1] whilst the Royal Canon of Turin credited him with an implausible reign of 74 years.[2] Egyptologists and historians now consider both records to be exaggerations and generally credit Adjib with a reign of 8–10 years.[3] Contents 1 Name sources 2 Identity 3 Reign 4 Tomb 5 Finds associated to Anedjib 6 References 7 External links Name sources[edit] Cartouche name Merbiape from the Abydos King List Adjib is well attested in archaeological records. His name appears in inscriptions on vessels made of schist, alabaster, breccia and marble. His name is also preserved on ivory tags and earthen jar seals. Objects bearing Adjib's name and titles come from Abydos and Sakkara.[3][4] Identity[edit] See also: First Dynasty of Egypt family tree Adjib's family has only partially been investigated. His parents are unknown, but it is thought that his predecessor, king Den, may have been his father. Adjib was possibly married to a woman named Betrest. On the Palermo Stone she is described as the mother of Adjib's successor, king Semerkhet. Definite evidence for that view has not yet been found. It would be expected that Adjib had sons and daughters, but their names have not been preserved in the historical record. A candidate for being a possible member of his family line is Semerkhet.[5] Reign[edit] According to archaeological records, Adjib introduced a new royal title which he thought to use as some kind of complement to the Nisut-Bity-title: the Nebuy-title, written with the doubled sign of a falcon on a short standard. It means "The two lords" and refers to the divine state patrons Horus and Seth. It also symbolically points to Lower- and Upper Egypt. Adjib is thought to have legitimised his role as Egyptian king with the use of this title.[5][6] Clay seal impressions record the foundation of the new royal fortress Hor nebw-khet ("Horus, the gold of the divine community") and the royal residence Hor seba-khet ("Horus, the star of the divine community").[7] Stone vessel inscriptions show that during Adjib's reign an unusually large number of cult statues were made for the king. At least six objects show the depicting of standing statues representing the king with his royal insignia.[4] Seal impression of king Anedjib Stone vessel inscriptions record that Adjib commemorated a first and even a second Heb Sed (a throne jubilee), a feast that was celebrated the first time after 30 years of a king's reign, after which it was repeated every third or fourth year.[8] But recent investigations suggest that every object showing the Hebsed and Adjib's name together were removed from king Den's tomb. It would seem that Adjib had simply erased and replaced Den's name with his own. This is seen by egyptologists and historians as evidence that Adjib never celebrated a Hebsed and thus his reign was relatively short. Egyptologists such as Nicolas Grimal and Wolfgang Helck assume that Adjib, as Den's son and rightful heir to the throne, may have been quite old when he ascended the Egyptian throne. Helck additionally points to an unusual feature; All Hebsed pictures of Adjib show the notation Qesen ("calamity") written on the stairways of the Hebsed pavilion. Possibly the end of Adjib's reign was a violent one.[3][6] Tomb[edit] Main article: Tomb of Anedjib Adjib's burial site was excavated at Abydos and is known as "Tomb X". It measures 16.4 x 9.0 metres and is the smallest of all royal tombs in this area. Adjib's tomb has its entrance at the eastern side and a staircase leads down inside. The burial chamber is surrounded by 64 subsidiary tombs and simply divided by a cut-off wall into two rooms.[9][10] Until the end of the 1st dynasty, it would seem to have been a tradition that the family and court of the king committed suicide (or were killed) and were then buried alongside the ruler in his necropolis.[11] Finds associated to Anedjib[edit] Stone vessel fragment bearing Anedjib serekh. Serekh of Anedjib from an inscription. Map of Anedjib's tomb in the Umm el-Qa'ab. References[edit] ^ William Gillian Waddell: Manetho (The Loeb Classical Library, Volume 350). Harvard University Press, Cambridge (Mass.) 2004 (Reprint), ISBN 0-674-99385-3, page 33–37. ^ Alan H. Gardiner: The Royal Canon of Turin. Griffith Institute of Oxford, Oxford (UK) 1997, ISBN 0-900416-48-3; page 15 & Table I. ^ a b c Wolfgang Helck: Untersuchungen zur Thinitenzeit. (Ägyptologische Abhandlungen, Volume 45), Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1987, ISBN 3-447-02677-4, page 124, 160 - 162 & 212 - 214. ^ a b Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, London 1999, ISBN 0-415-18633-1, page 78, 79 & 275. ^ a b Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards: Early History of the Middle East (The Cambridge Ancient History; Vol. 1, Pt. 2). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2006, ISBN 0-521-07791-5, page 27–31. ^ a b Nicolas-Christophe Grimal: A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley-Blackwell, London/New York 1994, ISBN 0-631-19396-0, page 53 & 54. ^ Stan Hendrickx, Barbara Adams & K. M. Cialowicz: Egypt at its origins: studies in memory of Barbara Adams - proceedings of the international conference "Origin of the State, Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt. Peeters Publishers, Leuven 2004, ISBN 90-429-1469-6, page 1137. ^ Jean Daniel Degreef: The Heb Set Festival, Sequence and pBrooklyn 47.218.50, in: Göttinger Miscellen, vol. 223 (2009); ISSN 0344-385X, page 27-34. ^ Günter Dreyer: Zur Rekonstruktion der Oberbauten der Königsgräber der 1. Dynastie in Abydos (Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Kairo 47). von Zabern, Mainz 1991, page 56. ^ Walter Bryan Emery: Ägypten, Geschichte und Kultur der Frühzeit, 3200-2800 v. Chr. Fourier, Wiesbaden 1964, ISBN 0-415-18633-1, page 16 ^ Walter Bryan Emery: Ägypten, Geschichte und Kultur der Frühzeit, 3200-2800 v. Chr. Fourier, Wiesbaden 1964, ISBN 0-415-18633-1, page 17. External links[edit] Francesco Raffaele: Adjib - Merbiape Preceded by Den Pharaoh of Egypt Succeeded by Semerkhet v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e First Dynasty of Ancient Egypt Pharaohs Menes/Narmer Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Regents Neithhotep Merneith Queen consorts Benerib Herneith Penebui Nakhtneith (Khenthap) Semat Serethor Seshemetka Betrest Officials Amka Hemaka Sabef Meriiti Other people Ahaneith Artefacts and monuments Narmer macehead Narmer palette Tomb of Anedjib Den seal impressions Abydos boats MacGregor plaque Mastabas S3503 and S3504 Capital Thinis Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anedjib&oldid=994984277" Categories: 30th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the First Dynasty of Egypt 30th century BC in Egypt 30th-century BC rulers Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Plattdüütsch Polski Português Ripoarisch Русский සිංහල Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 18 December 2020, at 15:58 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3507	----	Khaankhre Sobekhotep - Wikipedia Khaankhre Sobekhotep From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Khaankhre Sobekhotep Sobekhotep II or Sobekhotep I Doorjamb of a temple bearing Khaankhre Sobekhotep's nomen, originally from Abydos, now on display at the Louvre Pharaoh Reign three to four-and-a-half years, ca. 1735 BC (13th Dynasty) Predecessor Nedjemibre Successor Renseneb Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Khaankhre ḫˁj-ˁnḫ-Rˁ Living is the apparition of Ra Nomen Sobekhotep Sbk-ḥtp Sobek is satisfied Horus name Sematawy Smȝ-tȝ.wj He who unifies the two lands Nebty name Djedkhaw Ḏd-ḫˁjw He whose apparitions are enduring Golden Horus Kawnetjeru Kȝw-nṯr.w The Kas of the gods Turin King List: Sobek[hotep] Ra[...] Sbk -..p..-Rˁ Sobek is satisfied, Ra [...] Monuments Chapel in Abydos[1] Khaankhre Sobekhotep (now believed to be Sobekhotep II or Sobekhotep IV; known as Sobekhotep I in older studies) was a pharaoh of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period. Contents 1 Evidence 2 Theories 3 See also 4 References Evidence[edit] Sobekhotep appears in the Karnak king list as Khaankhre. A name Sobek[hote]pre is also given on column 6, line 15 of the Turin canon, which could be Sobekhotep I. However this identification is not certain and Sobekhotep I's chronological position within the 13th Dynasty is debated. Contemporary attestations of Sobekhotep comprise reliefs coming from a chapel which once stood in Abydos and a fragment of inscribed column. Furthermore, the name Khaankhre Sobekhotep appears in an inscription on a granite statue pedestal once in the Amherst collection and, since 1982, in the British Museum (exhibit BM 69497).[2][3] His reign was most likely short, amounting to three to four-and-a-half years.[2] Theories[edit] According to egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, Khaankhre Sobekhotep was the 13th pharaoh of the dynasty and had a short reign ca. 1735 BC. Alternatively, Jürgen von Beckerath sees him as the 16th pharaoh of the dynasty.[4][5] Ryholt mentions that Sobekhotep I may be identical with Sobekhotep II, who is only mentioned as Sobekhotep in the Turin King List.[2] Others, like Dodson, consider Khaankhre Sobekhotep II and Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep I to be two different rulers from the 13th Dynasty,[6] while Bierbrier lists Khaankhre Sobekhotep I and Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep II.[7] Recently Simon Connor and Julien Siesse investigated the style of the king's monument and argue that he reigned much later than previously thought (after Sobekhotep IV – who would become Sobekhotep III).[8] See also[edit] List of pharaohs References[edit] Media related to Sebekhotep Khaankhre at Wikimedia Commons ^ Inventory of the Louvre: B.3–5, C.9–10; E. Bresciani: Un edificio di Kha-anekh-Ra Sobekhotep ad Abdido. In: Egitto e Vicino Oriente, vol. II, 1979, pp. 1–20 ^ a b c K.S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period (Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997), 339, File 13/13. ^ C. N. Reeves, Miscellanea Epigraphica, Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur, Bd. 13, (1986), pp. 165–170 ^ K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997 ^ Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 445 ^ Aidan Dodson, Monarchs of the Nile, American Univ in Cairo Press, 2000, p 207 ^ Bierbrier, M.L. (2008). Historical dictionary of ancient Egypt. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-5794-0. Retrieved 8 January 2014. ^ Simon Connor, Julien Siesse: Nouvelle datation pour le roi Sobekhotep Khâânkhrê, in: Revue d'Égyptologie 66 (2015), 2015, 227-247; compare Throne Names Patterns as a Clue for the Internal Chronology of the 13th to 17th Dynasties (Late Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period), GM 246 (2015), p. 75-98 798 online Preceded by Nedjemibre Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Renseneb v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khaankhre_Sobekhotep&oldid=999706600" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools 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en-wikipedia-org-350	----	Userkaf - Wikipedia Userkaf From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Egyptian pharaoh Userkaf Ouserkaf, Weserkaf, Woserkaf, Usercherês, Οὐσερχέρης Head of Userkaf, recovered from his sun temple Pharaoh Reign Seven years in the late 26th to early 25th century BC.[note 1] (Fifth Dynasty) Predecessor Shepseskaf (most likely) or Thamphthis (possibly known as Djedefptah) Successor Sahure Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Userkaf wsr-k3-f His Ka is strong[21] Alternative translations: Powerful is his Ka[22][3] His Ka is potent[23] Nomen Userkaf[24] wsr-k3-f His Ka is strong[21] Alternative translations: Powerful is his Ka[22][3] His Ka is potent[23] Horus name Hor Irymaat Hr-iry-maat Horus, he who ensures the harmony Alternative translations: Performer of Maat[3] He who puts Maat into practice[22] The one who has accomplished Maat[21] Nebty name Irymaat nbtj iry-maat He who ensures the harmony Alternative translations: Performer of Maat[3] He who puts Maat into practice[22] The one who has accomplished Maat[21] Golden Horus Bik Nebu Nefer bik-nbw-nfr The perfect golden falcon[21] Consort Neferhetepes (most likely) or Khentkaus I Children Sahure ♂, Khamaat ♀ Father unknown, but probably belonged to a branch of the Fourth Dynasty royal family Mother Khentkaus I? Raddjedet (myth) Monuments Pyramid Wab-Isut-Userkaf Pyramid of Neferhetepes Sun temple Nekhenre Temple of Montu in El-Tod Userkaf (known in Ancient Greek as Οὐσερχέρης, Usercherês) was a pharaoh of ancient Egypt and the founder of the Fifth Dynasty. He reigned for seven to eight years in the early 25th century BC, during the Old Kingdom period. He probably belonged to a branch of the Fourth Dynasty royal family, although his parentage is uncertain; he could have been the son of Khentkaus I. He had at least one daughter and very probably a son, Sahure, with his consort Neferhetepes. This son succeeded him as pharaoh. His reign heralded the ascendancy of the cult of Ra, who effectively became Egypt's state god during the Fifth Dynasty. Userkaf may have been a high-priest of Ra before ascending the throne, and built a sun temple, known as the Nekhenre, between Abusir and Abu Gurab. In doing so, he instituted a tradition followed by his successors over a period of 80 years. The Nekhenre mainly functioned as a mortuary temple for the setting sun. Rites performed in the temple were primarily concerned with Ra's creator function and his role as father of the king. Taken with the reduction in the size of the royal mortuary complex, this suggests a more concrete separation between the sun god and the king than in the preceding dynasties. After Userkaf's death, his temple was the subject of four building phases, during which it acquired a large obelisk. Userkaf built a pyramid in Saqqara close to that of Djoser, a location that forced architects to put the associated mortuary temple in an unusual position, to the south of the pyramid. The latter was much smaller than those built during the Fourth Dynasty but the mortuary complex was lavishly and extensively decorated with fine painted reliefs. In addition to his own pyramid and temple, Userkaf built a smaller pyramid close to his for one of his queens, likely Neferhetepes. Although Userkaf was the object of a funerary cult after his death like the other Fifth Dynasty kings, his was relatively unimportant, and was abandoned after the end of the dynasty. Little is known of his activities beyond the construction of his pyramid and sun temple. The Old Kingdom royal annals record offerings of beer, bread and lands to various gods, some of which may correspond to building projects on Userkaf's behalf, including the temple of Montu in El-Tod where he is the earliest attested pharaoh. Beyond the borders of Egypt, a military expedition to Canaan or the Eastern Desert may have taken place, and trade contacts with the Aegean seem to have existed at the time. Contents 1 Family 1.1 Parents and consort 1.2 Children 2 Reign 2.1 Duration 2.2 Founder of the Fifth Dynasty 2.3 Activities in Egypt 2.4 Trade and military activities 2.5 Statuary 3 Sun temple 3.1 Significance 3.2 Name 3.3 Function 4 Pyramid complex 4.1 Pyramid of Userkaf 4.1.1 Location 4.1.2 Pyramid architecture 4.2 Mortuary temple 5 Pyramid complex of Neferhetepes 5.1 Pyramid 5.2 Mortuary temple 6 Legacy 6.1 Funerary cult 6.1.1 Old Kingdom 6.1.2 Middle Kingdom 6.1.3 Later periods 6.2 In contemporary culture 7 Notes, references and sources 7.1 Notes 7.2 References 7.3 Sources Family[edit] See also: Fourth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Parents and consort[edit] The identity of Userkaf's parents is uncertain, but he undoubtedly had family connections with the rulers of the preceding Fourth Dynasty.[9][25][26] Egyptologist Miroslav Verner proposes that he was a son of Menkaure by one of his secondary queens[note 2] and possibly a full brother to his predecessor and the last king of the Fourth Dynasty, Shepseskaf.[27][28] Alternatively, Nicolas Grimal, Peter Clayton and Michael Rice propose that Userkaf was the son of a Neferhetepes,[29][30] whom Grimal, Giovanna Magi and Rice see as a daughter of Djedefre and Hetepheres II.[23][31][32] The identity of Neferhetepes's husband in this hypothesis is unknown, but Grimal conjectures that he may have been the "priest of Ra, lord of Sakhebu", mentioned in Westcar papyrus.[note 3][34] Aidan Dodson and Dyan Hilton propose that Neferhetepes was buried in the pyramid next to that of Userkaf,[note 4] which is believed to have belonged to a woman of the same name.[note 5][35] Portrait of Khentkaus I from her tomb The location of the pyramid attributed to Neferhetepes, however, strongly suggests that she may instead have been Userkaf's wife. If so she should be identified with the Neferhetepes who is the mother of Userkaf's successor and likely son, Sahure.[35] A relief from Sahure's causeway depicts this king and his queen together with the king's mother, identified as a Neferhetepes, which very likely makes her Userkaf's wife.[37] Like Grimal, Jaromír Malek sees her as a daughter of Djedefre and Hetepheres II.[25] Following this hypothesis, Mark Lehner also suggests that Userkaf's mother may have been Khentkaus I, an idea shared by Arielle Kozloff.[15][38] Dodson and Hilton argue that Neferhetepes is not given the title of king's wife in later documents pertaining to her mortuary cult, although they note that this absence is inconclusive.[35] They propose that Userkaf's queen may have been Khentkaus I, a hypothesis shared by Selim Hassan.[35][39] Clayton and Rosalie and Anthony David concur, further positing that Khentkaus I was Menkaure's daughter.[40][41] Bernhard Grdseloff argues that Userkaf, as a descendant of pharaoh Djedefre marrying a woman from the main royal line—that of Khafre and Menkaure—could have unified two rival factions within the royal family and ended possible dynastic struggles.[12][42] Alternatively, Userkaf could have been the high priest of Ra before ascending the throne, giving him sufficient influence to marry Shepseskaf's widow in the person of Khentkaus I.[note 6][49][50] Children[edit] Many Egyptologists, including Verner, Zemina, David, and Baker, believe that Sahure was Userkaf's son rather than his brother as suggested by the Westcar papyrus.[51][52] The main evidence is a relief showing Sahure and his mother Neferhetepes, this being also the name of the queen who is believed to have owned the pyramid next to Userkaf's.[37] An additional argument supporting the filiation of Sahure is the location of his pyramid in close proximity to Userkaf's sun temple.[53] No other child of Userkaf has been identified except a daughter named Khamaat, mentioned in inscriptions uncovered in the mastaba of Ptahshepses.[54] Reign[edit] Cartouche of Userkaf on the Abydos king list Duration[edit] The exact duration of Userkaf's reign is unknown. Given the historical and archeological evidence, the consensus among Egyptologists is that he ruled for seven to eight years[11][55][56][57] at the start of Egypt's Fifth Dynasty.[15] First, an analysis of the nearly contemporaneous Old Kingdom royal annals shows that Userkaf's reign was recorded on eight compartments corresponding to at least seven full years but not much more.[note 7][60] The latest legible year recorded on the annals for Userkaf is that of his third cattle count, to evaluate the amount of taxes to be levied on the population. This significant event is believed to have been biennial during the Old Kingdom period, meaning that the third cattle count represents the sixth year of his reign. The same count is also attested in a mason's inscription found on a stone of Userkaf's sun temple.[note 8][61] Second, Userkaf is given a reign of seven years on the third column, row 17, of the Turin Royal Canon,[67] a document copied during the reign of Ramesses II from earlier sources.[68] Third, very few small artefacts bearing Userkaf's name have been found, witnessing a short reign. These include a gold mounted diorite jar,[69] a five-deben stone weight[70] and a stone cylinder seal from Elephantine, now all in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, as well as an ivory cylinder seal in the British Museum[71] and yet another seal in the Bulaq Museum.[72][73] The only historical source favouring a longer reign is the Aegyptiaca (Αἰγυπτιακά), a history of Egypt written in the 3rd century BC, during the reign of Ptolemy II (283–246 BC) by Manetho. No copies of the Aegyptiaca have survived and it is now known only through later writings by Sextus Julius Africanus and Eusebius. According to the Byzantine scholar George Syncellus, Africanus wrote that the Aegyptiaca mentioned the succession "Usercherês → Sephrês → Nefercherês" at the start of the Fifth Dynasty. Usercherês, Sephrês, and Nefercherês are believed to be the Hellenized forms for Userkaf, Sahure and Neferirkare, respectively.[74] In particular, Manetho's reconstruction of the early Fifth Dynasty is in agreement with those given on the Abydos king list and the Saqqara Tablet, two lists of kings written during the reigns of Seti I and Ramesses II, respectively.[75] In contrast with the Turin canon, Africanus's report of the Aegyptiaca estimates that Userkaf reigned for 28 years,[74] much longer than the modern consensus.[11][55][56][57] Founder of the Fifth Dynasty[edit] The Westcar papyrus, on display in the Ägyptisches Museum, dates to the 17th Dynasty but its story was possibly first written during the 12th Dynasty.[76] The division of ancient Egyptian kings into dynasties is an invention of Manetho's Aegyptiaca, intended to adhere more closely to the expectations of Manetho's patrons, the Greek rulers of Ptolemaic Egypt.[77] A distinction between the Fourth and Fifth dynasties may nonetheless have been recognised by the ancient Egyptians, as recorded by a much older tradition[25] found in the tale of the Westcar papyrus. In this story, King Khufu of the Fourth Dynasty is foretold the demise of his line and the rise of a new dynasty through the accession of three brothers, sons of Ra, to the throne of Egypt. This tale dates to the Seventeenth or possibly the Twelfth Dynasty.[76] Beyond such historical evidence, the division between the Fourth and Fifth Dynasties seems to reflect actual changes taking place at the time, in particular in Egyptian religion, and in the king's role.[78] Ra's primacy over the rest of the Egyptian pantheon and the increased royal devotion given to him made Ra a sort of state-god,[56][79] a novelty in comparison with the Fourth Dynasty, when more emphasis was put on royal burials.[9] Userkaf's position before ascending to the throne is unknown. Grimal states that he could have been a high-priest of Ra in Heliopolis or Sakhebu, a cult-center of Ra mentioned in the Westcar papyrus.[22][80] The hypothesis of a connection between the origins of the Fifth Dynasty and Sakhebu was first proposed by the Egyptologist Flinders Petrie, who noted that in Egyptian hieroglyphs the name of Sakhebu resembles that of Elephantine, the city that Manetho gives as the cradle of the Fifth Dynasty. According to Petrie, positing that the Westcar papyrus records a tradition that remembered the origins of the Fifth Dynasty could explain Manetho's records, especially given that there is otherwise no particular connection between Elephantine and Fifth Dynasty pharaohs.[80] Activities in Egypt[edit] Cylinder seal of Userkaf reading "Userkaf beloved of the gods, beloved of Hathor"[note 9][80][82] Beyond the constructions of his mortuary complex and sun temple, little is known of Userkaf.[3] Malek says his short reign may indicate that he was elderly upon becoming pharaoh.[83] Verner sees Userkaf's reign as significant in that it marks the apex of the sun cult,[note 10] the pharaonic title of "Son of Ra" becoming systematic from his reign onwards.[86] In Upper Egypt, Userkaf either commissioned[3] or enlarged[55] the temple of Montu at Tod, where he is the earliest attested pharaoh.[87] Due to structural alterations, in particular during the early Middle Kingdom, New Kingdom and Ptolemaic periods, little of Userkaf's original temple has survived.[88] It was a small mud-brick chapel including a granite pillar,[88] inscribed with the name of the king.[89] Further domestic activities may be inferred from the annals of the Old Kingdom, written during Neferirkare's or Nyuserre's reign.[note 11][91][92] They record that Userkaf gave endowments for the gods of Heliopolis[note 12] in the second and sixth years[note 13] of his reign as well as to the gods of Buto in his sixth year, both of which may have been destined for building projects on Userkaf's behalf.[3] In the same vein, the annals record a donation of land to Horus during Userkaf's sixth year on the throne, this time explicitly mentioning "building [Horus'] temple".[95] Other gods honoured by Userkaf include Ra and Hathor, both of whom received land donations recorded in the annals,[93][96] as well as Nekhbet, Wadjet, the "gods of the divine palace of Upper Egypt" and the "gods of the estate Djebaty" who received bread, beer and land. Finally, a fragmentary piece of text in the annals suggests that Min might also have benefited from Userkaf's donations.[95] Further evidence for religious activities taking place at the time is given by a royal decree[97] found in the mastaba of the administration official Nykaankh buried at Tihna al-Jabal in Middle Egypt.[22] By this decree, Userkaf donates and reforms several royal domains for the maintenance of the cult of Hathor[97] and installs Nykaankh as priest of this cult.[98] Excavations of the pyramid temple of Amenemhat I at Lisht produced a block decorated with a relief bearing the titulary of Userkaf. The block had been reused as a building material. The relief mentions a journey of the king to the temple of Bastet in a ship called "He who controls the subjects [...]".[99] While Userkaf chose Saqqara to build his pyramid complex, officials at the time, including the vizier Seshathotep Heti, continued to build their tombs in the Giza necropolis.[3] Trade and military activities[edit] Stone vessel from Kythira bearing the name of Userkaf's sun temple[27] Userkaf's reign might have witnessed the birth of direct trade between Egypt and its Aegean neighbors as shown by a series of reliefs from his mortuary temple representing ships engaged in what may be a naval expedition.[46][100] Further evidence for such contacts is a stone vessel bearing the name of his sun temple that was uncovered on the Greek island of Kythira.[27] This vase is the earliest evidence of commercial contacts between Egypt and the Aegean world. Finds in Anatolia, dating to the reigns of Menkauhor Kaiu and Djedkare Isesi, demonstrate that these contacts continued throughout the Fifth Dynasty.[55] South of Egypt,[101] Userkaf launched a military expedition into Nubia,[27] while the Old Kingdom annals record that he received tribute from a region that is either the Eastern Desert or Canaan in the form of a workforce of one chieftain and 70 foreigners[102] (likely women),[93][103] as well as 303 "pacified rebels" destined to work on Userkaf's pyramid.[104] These might have been prisoners from another military expedition to the east of Egypt[3] or rebels exiled from Egypt prior to Userkaf's second year on the throne and now willing to reintegrate into Egyptian society.[105] According to the Egyptologist Hartwig Altenmüller these people might have been punished following dynastic struggles connected with the end of the Fourth Dynasty.[102] Finally, some reliefs from Userkaf's mortuary temple depict a successful military venture[106] against Asiatic Bedouins, whom Userkaf is shown smiting,[107] as well as a naval expedition.[108][109] Statuary[edit] Fragment of an alabaster statue of Userkaf from his sun temple, now at the Egyptian Museum of Berlin[110] Several fragmentary statues of Userkaf have been uncovered. These include a bust of the goddess Neith in his likeness[111] found in his sun temple at Abusir, now in the Egyptian Museum. This head of Userkaf is 45 cm (18 in) high and carved from greywacke stone. It is considered particularly important as it is among the very few sculptures in the round from the Old Kingdom that show the monarch wearing the Deshret of Lower Egypt.[note 14] The head was uncovered in 1957 during the joint excavation expedition of the German and Swiss Institutes of Cairo. Another head which might belong to Userkaf, wearing the Hedjet of Upper Egypt and made of painted limestone, is in the Cleveland Museum of Art.[note 15][17][111] The head of a colossal larger-than-life sphinx statue of Userkaf, now in the Egyptian Museum, was found in the temple courtyard of his mortuary complex at Saqqara by Cecil Mallaby Firth in 1928.[113] This colossal head of pink Aswan granite shows the king wearing the nemes headdress with a cobra on his forehead.[4][40] It is the largest surviving head dating to the Old Kingdom other than that of the Great Sphinx of Giza[40] and the only colossal royal statue from this period.[4] Many more fragments of statues of the king made of diorite, slate and granite but none of limestone have been found at the same site.[113][114] Some bore Userkaf's cartouche and Horus name.[114] Kozloff notes the youthful features of Userkaf on most of his representations and concludes that if these are good indications of his age, then he might have come to the throne as an adolescent and died in his early twenties.[114] Sun temple[edit] Main article: Sun temple of Userkaf Layout of Userkaf's sun temple after its completion by Sahure or Neferirkare Kakai; 1 = obelisk, 2 = obelisk pedestal, 3 = statue shrines, 4 = court open to the sun, 5 = altar, 6 = outbuilding, 7 = causeway, 8 = valley temple.[115][116] Significance[edit] Userkaf is the first[3][27] pharaoh to build a dedicated temple to the sun god Ra in the Memphite necropolis north of Abusir, on a promontory on the desert edge[14] just south of the modern locality of Abu Gurab.[117] Works might have started during Userkaf's fifth or sixth year of reign.[38] The only plausible precedent for Userkaf's sun temple was the temple associated with the Great Sphinx of Giza, which may have been dedicated to Ra and may thus have served similar purposes.[116] In any case, Userkaf's successors for the next 80 years followed his course of action:[83] sun temples were built by all subsequent Fifth Dynasty pharaohs until Menkauhor Kaiu, with the possible[118] exception of Shepseskare, whose reign might have been too short to build one.[119] Userkaf's choice of Abusir as the site of his sun temple has not been satisfactorily explained,[120] the site being of no particular significance up to that point.[note 16][121] Userkaf's choice may[note 17] have influenced subsequent kings of the Fifth Dynasty who made Abusir the royal necropolis until the reign of Menkauhor Kaiu.[125] For the Egyptologist Hans Goedicke, Userkaf's decision to build a temple for the setting sun separated from his own mortuary complex is a manifestation of and response to sociopolitical tensions, if not turmoil, at the end of the Fourth Dynasty.[78] The construction of the sun temple permitted a distinction between the king's personal afterlife and religious issues pertaining to the setting sun, which had been so closely intertwined in the pyramid complexes of Giza and in the pharaohs of the Fourth Dynasty.[126] Thus, Userkaf's pyramid would be isolated in Saqqara, not even surrounded by a wider cemetery for his contemporaries, while the sun temple would serve the social need for a solar cult, which, while represented by the king, would not be exclusively embodied by him anymore.[126] Malek similarly sees the construction of sun temples as marking a shift from the royal cult, which was so preponderant during the early Fourth Dynasty, to the cult of the sun god Ra. A result of these changes is that the king was now primarily revered as the son of Ra.[56] Name[edit] The ancient Egyptians called Userkaf's sun temple Nekhenre (Nḫn Rˁ.w), which has been variously translated as "The fortress of Ra", "The stronghold of Ra", "The residence of Ra",[3] "Ra's storerooms" and "The birthplace of Ra".[127] According to Coppens, Janák, Lehner, Verner, Vymazalová, Wilkinson and Zemina, Nḫn here might actually refer instead to the town of Nekhen, also known as Hierakonpolis.[14][116][121][127] Hierakonpolis was a stronghold and seat of power for the late predynastic kings who unified Egypt. They propose that Userkaf may have chosen this name to emphasise the victorious and unifying nature of the cult of Ra[128][129] or, at least, to represent some symbolic meaning in relation to kingship.[127] Nekhen was also the name of an institution responsible for providing resources to the living king as well as to his funerary cult after his death.[129] In consequence, the true meaning of Nekhenre might be closer to "Ra's Nekhen" or "The Hierakonpolis of Ra".[127] Function[edit] The Abusir Papyri indicate that the cults taking place at the sun temple and mortuary complex of the king were closely related.[129] The sun temple of Userkaf first appears as pyramid XVII in Karl Richard Lepsius' pioneering list of pyramids in the mid-19th century.[130][131] Its true nature was recognised by Ludwig Borchardt in the early 20th century but it was only thoroughly excavated from 1954 until 1957 by a team including Hanns Stock, Werner Kaiser, Peter Kaplony, Wolfgang Helck, and Herbert Ricke.[132][133] According to the royal annals, the construction of the temple started in Userkaf's fifth year on the throne and, on that occasion, he donated 24 royal domains for the maintenance of the temple.[134] Userkaf's sun temple covered an area of 44 m × 83 m (144 ft × 272 ft)[133] and was oriented to the west. It served primarily as a place of worship for the mortuary cult of Ra[135] and was supposed to relate it to the royal funerary cult.[2] Structurally, the sun temple and the royal mortuary complex were very similar,[136] as they included a valley temple close to the Nile and a causeway leading up to the high temple on the desert plateau. In other ways their architectures differed. For example, the valley temple of the sun temple complex is not oriented to any cardinal point, rather pointing vaguely[137] to Heliopolis, and the causeway is not aligned with the axis of the high temple. The Abusir Papyri, a collection of administrative documents from later in the Fifth Dynasty, indicates that the cultic activities taking place in the sun and mortuary temples were related; for instance, offerings for both cults were dispatched from the sun temple.[129] In fact, sun temples built during this period were meant to play for Ra the same role that the pyramid played for the king. They were funerary temples for the sun god, where his renewal and rejuvenation, necessary to maintain the order of the world, could take place. Rites performed in the temple were thus primarily concerned with Ra's creator function as well as his role as father of the king. During his lifetime, the king would appoint his closest officials to the running of the temple, allowing them to benefit from the temple's income and thus ensuring their loyalty. After the pharaoh's death, the sun temple's income would be associated with the pyramid complex, supporting the royal funerary cult.[138] Construction works on the Nekhenre did not stop with Userkaf's death but continued in at least four building phases, the first of which may have taken place under Sahure,[139] and then under his successors Neferirkare Kakai and Nyuserre Ini.[116][140] By the end of Userkaf's rule, the sun temple did not yet house the large granite obelisk on a pedestal that it would subsequently acquire. Instead its main temple seems to have comprised a rectangular enclosure wall with a high mast set on a mound in its center, possibly as a perch for the sun god's falcon.[116] To the east of this mound was a mudbrick altar with statue shrines on both sides.[141] According to the royal annals, from his sixth year on the throne, Userkaf commanded that two oxen and two geese were to be sacrificed daily in the Nekhenre.[95][116] These animals seem to have been butchered in or around the high temple, the causeway being wide enough to lead live oxen up it.[137] In addition to these sacrifices Userkaf endowed his sun temple with vast agricultural estates amounting to 34,655 acres (14,024 ha) of land,[38] which Klaus Baer describes as "an enormous and quite unparalleled gift for the Old Kingdom".[142] Kozloff sees these decisions as a manifestation of Userkaf's young age and of the power of the priesthood of Ra rather than as a result of his personal devotion to the sun god.[38] Pyramid complex[edit] Main article: Pyramid of Userkaf The ruined pyramid of Userkaf at Saqqara Pyramid of Userkaf[edit] Location[edit] Unlike most pharaohs of the Fourth Dynasty, Userkaf built a modest[22] pyramid at North Saqqara, at the north-eastern edge of the enclosure wall surrounding Djoser's pyramid complex.[126][143] This decision, probably political,[2] may be connected to the return to the city of Memphis as center of government,[126] of which Saqqara to the west is the necropolis, as well as a desire to rule according to principles and methods closer to Djoser's.[126] In particular, like Djoser's and unlike the pyramid complexes of Giza, Userkaf's mortuary complex is not surrounded by a necropolis for his followers.[126] For Goedicke, the wider religious role played by Fourth Dynasty pyramids was now to be played by the sun temple, while the king's mortuary complex was to serve only the king's personal funerary needs.[126] Hence, Userkaf's choice of Saqqara is a manifestation of a return to a "harmonious and altruistic"[126] notion of kingship which Djoser seemed to have symbolized, against that represented by Khufu who had almost personally embodied the sun-god.[note 18][122] Pyramid architecture[edit] Relief from Userkaf's mortuary temple, originally painted Userkaf's pyramid complex was called Wab-Isut Userkaf, meaning "Pure are the places of Userkaf"[144] or "Userkaf's pyramid, holiest of places".[145] The pyramid originally reached a height of 49 m (161 ft) for a base-side of 73.3 m (240 ft).[146] By volume, this made it the second smallest king's pyramid finished during the Fifth Dynasty after that of the final ruler, Unas.[147] The reduced size of the pyramid as compared to those of Userkaf's Fourth Dynasty predecessors owes much to the rise of the cult of Ra which diverted spiritual and financial resources away from the king's burial.[111] The pyramid was built following techniques established during the Fourth Dynasty, with a core made of stones rather than employing rubble as in subsequent pyramids of the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties.[148] The core was so poorly laid out, however, that once the pyramid's outer casing of fine limestone had been robbed, it crumbled into a heap of rubble.[15] The burial chamber was lined with large limestone blocks, its roof made of gabled limestone beams.[15] Mortuary temple[edit] The pyramid's funerary complex is peculiar in that Userkaf's mortuary temple is located on the southern side rather than the usual eastern one. This was almost certainly due to the presence of a large moat surrounding Djoser's pyramid and running to the east as proposed by Verner,[149] or to the general topography of Saqqara and the presence of older tombs in the vicinity as expounded by Edwards and Lauer. In any case, this means that Userkaf chose to be buried in close proximity to Djoser even though this implied that he could not use the normal layout for his temple.[149] Rainer Stadelmann believes that the reason for the choices of location and layout were practical and due to the presence of the necropolis's administrative center on the north-east corner of Djoser's complex.[36] Verner rather identifies a desire on Userkaf's behalf to benefit from the religious significance of Djoser's complex.[36] Alternatively, Userkaf's decision to locate the temple on the pyramid's southern side may be motivated by entirely religious reasons, with the Egyptologists Herbert Ricke and Richard H. Wilkinson proposing that it could have ensured the temple's year-round exposure to the sun,[36][150] while Altenmüller suggests it was aligned with an obelisk that could have been located nearby.[36] The mortuary temple walls were extensively adorned with raised reliefs of exceptional quality.[150][151] Scant remains of pigments on some reliefs show that these reliefs were originally painted. Userkaf's pyramid temple represents an important innovation in this respect; he was the first pharaoh to introduce nature scenes in his funerary temple, including scenes of hunting in the marshes that would subsequently become common.[151] The artistic work is highly detailed, with a single relief showing no less than seven different species of birds and a butterfly. Hunting scenes symbolised the victory of the king over the forces of chaos, and might thus have illustrated Userkaf's role as Iry-Maat, that is "the one who establishes Maat", which was one of Userkaf's names.[151] The funerary complex of Userkaf was accessed from the Nile via a valley temple connected to the mortuary temple with a causeway. This valley temple is yet to be excavated.[38] Pyramid complex of Neferhetepes[edit] Pyramid[edit] The funerary chamber of the queen's pyramid exposed by stone robbers Some 10 m (33 ft) to the south of Userkaf's funerary enclosure, there stands a separate pyramid complex built in all likelihood for one of his queens. The pyramid, built on an east–west axis, is ruined and only a small mound of rubble can be seen today. Although no name has been identified in the pyramid proper, its owner is believed by Egyptologists including Cecil Mallaby Firth, Bernard Grdseloff, Audran Labrousse (fr), Jean-Philippe Lauer and Tarek El-Awady to have been Neferhetepes, mother of Sahure and in all probability Userkaf's consort.[152] The pyramid was originally some 17 m (56 ft) high with a slope of 52°, similar to that of Userkaf's, and a base 26.25 m (86.1 ft) long.[153] The core of the main and cult pyramids were built with the same technique, consisting of three[154] horizontal layers of roughly hewn local limestone blocks and gypsum mortar. The core was covered with an outer casing of fine Tura limestone, now gone. The pyramid was so extensively used as a stone quarry that even its internal chambers are exposed. These chambers are a scaled-down version of those in Userkaf's main pyramid, but without storage rooms.[153] Mortuary temple[edit] The queen's pyramid complex had its own separate mortuary temple, located on the pyramid eastern side. The temple entrance led to an open pillared courtyard, stretching from east to west, where the ritual cleaning and preparation of the offerings took place. A sacrificial chapel adjoined the pyramid side and there were three statue niches and a few magazine chambers to store offerings.[36] The temple halls were adorned with reliefs of animal processions and carriers of offerings moving towards the shrine of the queen.[36] Legacy[edit] Funerary cult[edit] Old Kingdom[edit] Relief from a Saqqara tomb dating to the Ramesside Period showing, from left to right, Djoser, Teti and Userkaf[155] Like other Fourth and Fifth Dynasty pharaohs, Userkaf received a funerary cult after his death. His cult was state-sponsored and relied on goods for offerings produced in dedicated agricultural estates established during his lifetime, as well as such resources as fabrics brought from the "house of silver" (the treasury).[156] The cult flourished in the early to mid-Fifth Dynasty, as evidenced by the tombs and seals of participating priests and officials such as Nykaure, who served in the cults of Userkaf and Neferefre;[157] Nykaankh and Khnumhotep, who served in Userkaf's pyramid complex;[158] Ptahhotep, a priest of the Nekhenre and of Userkaf's mortuary temple;[159] Tepemankh,[160] Nenkheftka[161] and Senuankh,[162][163] who served in the cults of Userkaf and Sahure; Pehenukai, a vizier under Sahure and Neferirkare Kakai;[164] and Nykuhor, a judge, inspector of scribes, privy councillor, and priest of funerary cults of Userkaf and Neferefre.[165][166] Middle Kingdom[edit] The long-term importance of Userkaf's official cult may be judged by its abandonment at the end of the Fifth Dynasty.[55] In comparison, the official funerary cult of at least one of Userkaf's successors, Nyuserre Ini, may have lasted until the Middle Kingdom period.[167][168] The mortuary temple of Userkaf must have been in ruins or dismantled by the time of the Twelfth Dynasty as indicated, for example, by a block showing the king performing a ritual found re-used as a construction material in the pyramid of Amenemhat I.[169] Userkaf was not the only king whose mortuary temple met this fate: Nyuserre's temple was targeted even though its last priests were serving in it around this time. These facts hint at a lapse of royal interest in the state-sponsored funerary cults of Old Kingdom rulers.[170] Later periods[edit] Examples of personal devotions on behalf of pious individuals endured much longer. For example, Userkaf is depicted on a relief from the Saqqara tomb of the priest Mehu, who lived during the Ramesside period (c. 1292–1189 BCE).[171][172] Early in this period, during the reign of Ramesses II, Ramesses's fourth son, Khaemwaset (fl. c. 1280–1225 BCE), ordered restoration work on Userkaf's pyramid as well as on other pyramids of the Fifth Dynasty. In the case of Userkaf, this is established by inscriptions on stone cladding from the pyramid field showing Khaemwaset with offering bearers.[173] The reliefs from Userkaf's funerary complex were copied during the 26th Dynasty of the Late Period. A particular example is a relief showing Userkaf wearing a boatman's circlet with streamers and urae with the horns of an Atef crown, a motif which had disappeared from Egyptian arts since Userkaf's time.[73] In contemporary culture[edit] Egyptian Nobel Prize for Literature-laureate Naguib Mahfouz published a short story in 1945 about Userkaf entitled "Afw al-malik Usirkaf: uqsusa misriya". This short story was translated by Raymond Stock as "King Userkaf's Forgiveness" in the collection of short stories Sawt min al-ʻalam al-akhar, whose title translates to Voices from the other world: ancient Egyptian tales.[174] Notes, references and sources[edit] Notes[edit] ^ Proposed dates for Userkaf's reign: 2560–2553 BC,[1] 2513–2506 BC,[2][3][4] 2504–2496 BC,[5] 2498–2491 BC,[6] 2494–2487 BC[7][8][9] 2479–2471 BC,[10] 2466–2458 BC[11] 2465–2458 BC,[12][13][14][15][16] 2454–2447 BC,[17] 2454–2446 BC,[5] 2435–2429 BC,[18][19] 2392–2385 BC[20] ^ The historians Rosalie and Anthony David concur, stating that Userkaf belonged to a side branch of Khafra's family.[9] ^ This papyrus, now recognised as non-historical, records a story according to which Userkaf is a son of the god Ra with a woman named Rededjet. In the story, two of Userkaf's brothers are said to rise to the throne after him, displacing Khufu's family from the throne.[33] ^ This queen is referred to as Neferhetepes Q in modern Egyptology to distinguish her from preceding women of the same name.[35] ^ The attribution of the pyramid to a queen named Neferhetepes is not certain and relies on indirect evidence in the form of an inscription mentioning the queen in the nearby tomb of Persen, a priest of her funerary cult.[36] ^ Ludwig Borchardt expanded on the theory according to which Khentkaus I was Userkaf's spouse by positing that Userkaf managed to take the throne at the unexpected death of Shepseskaf and before the legitimate heirs Sahure and Neferirkare were old enough to rule.[42] This hypothesis has been conclusively invalidated by recent research which established: 1) that there were two queens named Khentkaus, the first being possibly Userkaf's mother while the second was the mother of Nyuserre Ini;[43][44][45] 2) that Sahure is Userkaf's son;[46][47] and 3) that Neferirkare was the son of Sahure.[48] ^ Older analyses of the document by Breasted and Daressy had already established that Userkaf reigned 12 to 14 years[58] or 12 to 13 years[59] respectively. ^ Four mentions of the "year of the fifth cattle count" were also discovered on stone tablets from Userkaf's sun temple,[61] which could indicate that Userkaf reigned for 10 years. However, these inscriptions are incomplete. In particular the name of the king to whose reign they belong is lost, and they might instead refer to Sahure's rule[62] or to Neferirkare's[63] rather than that of Userkaf.[64][65] The attribution of these inscriptions to either Sahure or Neferirkare is paramount in determining who completed Userkaf's sun temple, which was unfinished at his death.[64] The tablets detail the division of labour during works on the Nekhenre.[66] ^ The seal was in the British Museum at the end of the 19th century, its current location is unknown.[81] ^ Egyptologists including Jürgen von Beckerath rather consider Nyuserre's reign as the peak of the solar cult,[84] but for Grimal this is exaggerated.[85] ^ The surviving fragments of the annal likely date to the much later 25th Dynasty (fl. 760–656 BCE), but were certainly copied or compiled from Old Kingdom sources.[90] ^ More precisely to the "Bas of Heliopolis".[93] ^ That is, if cattle counts were indeed biennial. The annals state only that the donations happened in the years of the first and third cattle counts.[94] ^ With catalog number JE 90220.[112] ^ The head measures 17.2 cm (6.8 in) in height with a width of 6.5 cm (2.6 in) and a depth of 7.2 cm (2.8 in). Its catalog number is 1979.2.[17] This head of Userkaf closely resembles the depictions of Menkaure on his triads.[111] ^ Verner and Zemina report that some Egyptologists, whom they do not name, have proposed that Abusir was chosen as the southernmost point from which one may have been able to glimpse the sun above the obelisk of the religious center of Ra in Heliopolis.[121] This observation is contested by Goedicke[122] for whom "the supposed proximity to Heliopolis for the choice of the site hardly played a role".[123] Grimal instead conjectures that Abusir was chosen for its proximity to Sakhebu, a locality some 10 km (6.2 mi) north of Abu Rawash, which is mentioned in various sources such as the Westcar papyrus as a cult center of Ra and which may have been the home town of Userkaf's father, in the hypothesis that he was a grandson of Djedefre.[22] ^ Verner and Zemina are convinced that the presence of Userkaf's sun temple in Abusir explains the subsequent development of the necropolis,[124] but Goedicke sees this only as a "vague association" leaving the choice of Abusir as royal necropolis "inexplicable".[120] ^ Goedicke also notes that the line passing through Userkaf's pyramid and sun temple also passes through the apex of Khufu's pyramid in Giza, an alignment which he believes must be intentional, yet cannot explain.[126] References[edit] ^ Hayes 1978, p. 58. ^ a b c Verner 2001c, p. 91. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Altenmüller 2001, p. 598. ^ a b c El-Shahawy & Atiya 2005, p. 61. ^ a b von Beckerath 1997, p. 188. ^ Clayton 1994, p. 60. ^ Malek 2000a, pp. 98 & 482. ^ Rice 1999, p. 215. ^ a b c d David & David 2001, p. 164. ^ von Beckerath 1999, p. 285. ^ a b c Helck 1981, p. 63. ^ a b Encyclopædia Britannica 2018. ^ Arnold 1999. ^ a b c Wilkinson 2000, p. 121. ^ a b c d e Lehner 2008, p. 140. ^ List of rulers of ancient Egypt and Nubia, MET 2019. ^ a b c CMA 2018. ^ Strudwick 1985, p. 3. ^ Hornung 2012, p. 491. ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 288. ^ a b c d e Leprohon 2013, p. 38. ^ a b c d e f g h Grimal 1992, p. 75. ^ a b c Magi 2008, p. 12. ^ Digital Egypt 2018. ^ a b c Malek 2000a, p. 98. ^ Guerrier 2006, p. 414. ^ a b c d e Verner 2001b, p. 588. ^ El-Shahawy & Atiya 2005, p. 33. ^ Grimal 1992, p. 68, Table 2. ^ Rice 1999, p. 131. ^ Rice 1999, pp. 67–68. ^ Grimal 1992, pp. 72 & 75. ^ Grimal 1992, pp. 70 & 72. ^ Grimal 1992, pp. 72–75. ^ a b c d e Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 65. ^ a b c d e f g Verner 2002, p. 209. ^ a b Verner 2007, p. 9. ^ a b c d e Kozloff 1982, p. 216. ^ Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 118. ^ a b c Clayton 1994, p. 61. ^ David & David 2001, p. 68. ^ a b Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 119. ^ Verner 1980a, p. 161, fig. 5. ^ Baud 1999a, p. 234. ^ Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 126. ^ a b Labrousse & Lauer 2000. ^ Baud 1999b, p. 494. ^ El-Awady 2006, pp. 208–213. ^ Verner & Zemina 1994, pp. 102 & 118. ^ Verner 2002, p. 263. ^ Verner & Zemina 1994, pp. 68 & 85. ^ David & David 2001, p. 127. ^ Verner & Zemina 1994, pp. 67–68. ^ Dorman 2002, pp. 101 & 107. ^ a b c d e Grimal 1992, p. 76. ^ a b c d Malek 2000a, pp. 98–99. ^ a b von Beckerath 1997, p. 155. ^ Breasted 1906, pp. 68–69, § 153–160. ^ Daressy 1912, p. 206. ^ Hornung 2012, p. 484. ^ a b Verner 2001a, p. 386. ^ Verner 2001a, pp. 388–390. ^ Kaiser 1956, p. 108. ^ a b Verner 2001a, pp. 386–387. ^ Strudwick 2005, p. 158. ^ Strudwick 2005, p. 158, see also footnote 2. ^ Verner 2001a, p. 385. ^ Hornung 2012, p. 136. ^ Hayes 1978, pp. 71–72. ^ Weight of Userkaf, MET 2019. ^ Hall 1913, p. 261 seal 2597. ^ Mariette 1889b, p. 17 & pl. 54e. ^ a b Kozloff 1982, p. 219. ^ a b Waddell 1971, p. 51. ^ Daressy 1912, p. 205. ^ a b Burkard, Thissen & Quack 2003, p. 178. ^ Redford 2001, pp. 336–337. ^ a b Goedicke 2000, pp. 405–406. ^ Kozloff 1982, p. 220. ^ a b c Petrie 1897, p. 70. ^ Petrie 1897, p. 71. ^ Petrie 1917, pl. IX. ^ a b Malek 2000a, p. 99. ^ von Beckerath 1982, pp. 517–518. ^ Grimal 1992, p. 78. ^ Verner 2002, p. 265. ^ Arnold 2003, p. 86. ^ a b Wilkinson 2000, p. 200. ^ Arnold 1996, p. 107. ^ Bárta 2017, p. 2. ^ Allen et al. 1999, p. 3. ^ Grimal 1992, p. 46. ^ a b c Strudwick 2005, p. 69. ^ Strudwick 2005, pp. 69–70. ^ a b c Strudwick 2005, p. 70. ^ Daressy 1912, p. 172. ^ a b Breasted 1906, pp. 100–106, § 216–230. ^ Breasted 1906, § 219. ^ Jánosi 2016, pp. 15–16, pls. 4, 149. ^ Allen et al. 1999, p. 324. ^ Edwards 2004, pp. 2, 90 & 106. ^ a b Altenmüller 1995, p. 48. ^ Goedicke 1967, p. 63, n. 34. ^ Baud & Dobrev 1995, p. 33, footnote f. ^ Altenmüller 1995, pp. 47–48. ^ Running troops relief, MET 2019. ^ Kozloff 1982, pp. 216–217. ^ Ship relief, MET 2019. ^ Oarsmen relief, MET 2019. ^ Kozloff 1982, pp. 211 & 214. ^ a b c d Kozloff 1982, p. 211. ^ Stadelmann 2007. ^ a b Allen et al. 1999, p. 315. ^ a b c Kozloff 1982, p. 215. ^ Verner & Zemina 1994, pp. 102 & 267. ^ a b c d e f Lehner 2008, p. 150. ^ Quirke 2001, p. 127. ^ Kaplony 1981, A. 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Kairo: Schweizerisches Institut für ägyptische Bauforschung und Altertumskunde. OCLC 77668521. Edwards, David (2004). The Nubian Past. Oxon: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-41-536988-6. El-Awady, Tarek (2006). "The royal family of Sahure. New evidence." (PDF). In Bárta, Miroslav; Krejčí, Jaromír (eds.). Abusir and Saqqara in the Year 2005. Prague: Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Oriental Institute. pp. 191–218. ISBN 978-80-7308-116-4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 February 2011. El-Khouly, Aly (1978). "Excavations at the Pyramid of Userkaf, 1976: Preliminary Report". The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 64 (1): 35–43. doi:10.1177/030751337806400105. S2CID 192383294. El-Shahawy, Abeer; Atiya, Farid S. (2005). The Egyptian Museum in Cairo. A Walk Through The Alleys of Ancient Egypt. Cairo: Farid Atiya Press. ISBN 978-9-77-171983-0. Gauthier, Henri (1906). "Note et remarques historiques III: Un nouveau nom royal". 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The Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum of Art. 69 (7): 211–223. JSTOR 25159780. Labrousse, Audran; Lauer, Jean-Philippe (2000). Les complexes funéraires d'Ouserkaf et de Néferhétepès. Bibliothèque d'étude, Institut d'archéologie orientale, Le Caire (in French). 130. Cairo: Institut français d'archéologie orientale. ISBN 978-2-72-470263-7. Lehner, Mark (2008). The Complete Pyramids. London: Thames & Hudson Ltd. ISBN 978-0-500-05084-2. Leprohon, Ronald J. (2013). The Great Name: Ancient Egyptian Royal Titulary. Writings from the Ancient World. 33. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature. ISBN 978-1-58983-736-2. Lepsius, Karl Richard (1972). Denkmäler aus Ægypten und Æthiopien (in German). Geneva: Éditions de Belles-Lettres. OCLC 941020412. "List of Rulers of Ancient Egypt and Nubia". Metropolitan Museum of Art online collections. Retrieved 5 October 2019. Magi, Giovanna (2008). Saqqara: the Pyramid, the Mastabas and the Archaeological Site. Firenze: Bonechi. ISBN 978-8-84-761500-7. 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Petrie, Flinders (1917). Scarabs and Cylinders with Names: Illustrated by the Egyptian Collection in University College, London (PDF). London: British School of Archaeology in Egypt, University College: Bernard Quaritch. OCLC 55858240. Quirke, Stephen (2001). The Cult of Ra : Sun-Worship in Ancient Egypt. New York: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-50-005107-8. Redford, Donald B. (2001). "Manetho". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 336–337. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5. "Relief with running troops ca. 2465–2458 B.C." Metropolitan Museum of Art online collections. Retrieved 5 October 2019. "Relief Fragment with a Ship Under Sail ca. 2465–2458 B.C." Metropolitan Museum of Art online collections. Retrieved 5 October 2019. Rice, Michael (1999). Who is Who in Ancient Egypt. London & New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-44328-6. Sethe, Kurt Heinrich (1903). Urkunden des Alten Reichs (in German). Wikipedia entry: Urkunden des Alten Reichs. Leipzig: J.C. Hinrichs. OCLC 846318602. Stadelmann, Rainer (2007). "Der Kopf des Userkaf aus dem "Taltempel" des Sonnenheiligtums in Abusir". Sokar (in German). 15: 56–61. ISSN 1438-7956. Strudwick, Nigel (1985). The Administration of Egypt in the Old Kingdom: The Highest Titles and Their Holders (PDF). Studies in Egyptology. London; Boston: Kegan Paul International. ISBN 978-0-7103-0107-9. Strudwick, Nigel C. (2005). Texts from the Pyramid Age. Writings from the Ancient World (book 16). Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature. ISBN 978-1-58983-680-8. "Userkaf". Digital Egypt. University College London. Retrieved 11 August 2018. "Userkaf". Encyclopædia Britannica. 20 July 1998. Retrieved 11 August 2018. Verner, Miroslav (1980a). "Excavations at Abusir". Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde. 107. pp. 158–169. ISSN 2196-713X. Verner, Miroslav; Zemina, Milan (1994). Forgotten Pharaohs, Lost Pyramids: Abusir (PDF). Prague: Academia Škodaexport. ISBN 978-80-200-0022-4. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011.CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) Verner, Miroslav (1998). Die Pyramiden (in German). Reinbek bei Hamburg: Rowohlt. ISBN 978-3-49-807062-5. Verner, Miroslav (2000). "Who was Shepseskara, and when did he reign?" (PDF). In Bárta, Miroslav; Krejčí, Jaromír (eds.). Abusir and Saqqara in the Year 2000. Prague: Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Oriental Institute. pp. 581–602. ISBN 978-80-85425-39-0. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 February 2011. Verner, Miroslav (2001a). "Archaeological Remarks on the 4th and 5th Dynasty Chronology" (PDF). Archiv Orientální. 69 (3): 363–418. ISSN 0044-8699. Verner, Miroslav (2001b). "Old Kingdom: An Overview". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 585–591. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5. Verner, Miroslav (2001c). "Pyramids". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 3. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 87–95. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5. Verner, Miroslav (2002). The Pyramids: The Mystery, Culture and Science of Egypt's Great Monuments. London: Atlantic Books. ISBN 978-1-90-380945-7. Verner, Miroslav (2007). "Sahure's Causeway. New Archaeological Discoveries in the Abusir Pyramid Field". Archaeogate Egittologia. ISSN 1973-2953. Archived from the original on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 11 August 2018. von Beckerath, Jürgen (1982). "Niuserre". In Helck, Wolfgang; Otto, Eberhard (eds.). Lexikon der Ägyptologie. Band IV: Megiddo – Pyramiden (in German). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. pp. 517–518. ISBN 978-3-447-02262-0. von Beckerath, Jürgen (1997). Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägypten: die Zeitbestimmung der ägyptischen Geschichte von der Vorzeit bis 332 v. Chr. Münchner Ägyptologische Studien (in German). 46. Mainz am Rhein: Verlag Philipp von Zabern. ISBN 978-3-80-532310-9. von Beckerath, Jürgen (1999). Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen. Münchner ägyptologische Studien (in German). 49. Mainz: Philip von Zabern. ISBN 978-3-8053-2591-2. Voß, Susanne (2004). Untersuchungen zu den Sonnenheiligtümern der 5. Dynastie. Bedeutung und Funktion eines singulären Tempeltyps im Alten Reich (PDF) (PhD) (in German). OCLC 76555360. Retrieved 11 June 2015. Waddell, William Gillan (1971). Manetho. Loeb classical library, 350. Cambridge, Massachusetts; London: Harvard University Press; W. Heinemann. OCLC 6246102. "Weight equal to five deben ca. 2649–2100 B.C." Metropolitan Museum of Art online collections. Retrieved 5 October 2019. Wildung, Dietrich (1969). Die Rolle ägyptischer Könige im Bewußtsein ihrer Nachwelt. Teil I. Posthume Quellen über die Könige der ersten vier Dynastien. Münchener Ägyptologische Studien (in German). 17. München, Berlin: Deutscher Kunstverlag. OCLC 698531851. Wilkinson, Richard (2000). The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-50-005100-9. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Userkaf. Preceded by Shepseskaf or Djedefptah Pharaoh of Egypt Fifth Dynasty Succeeded by Sahure v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 118763954 ISNI: 0000 0004 4887 2385 LCCN: no2001020062 VIAF: 47557723 WorldCat Identities: lccn-no2001020062 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Userkaf&oldid=990834738" Categories: 25th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from April 2020 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown CS1 French-language sources (fr) CS1: long volume value Commons category link 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en-wikipedia-org-3525	----	Plutarch - Wikipedia Plutarch From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Plutarch (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Plutarchy. Hellenistic Greek biographer, philosopher, & essayist Plutarch Modern portrait at Chaeronea, based on a bust from Delphi tentatively identified as Plutarch. Born c. AD 46 Chaeronea, Boeotia Died after AD 119 (aged 73–74) Delphi, Phocis Occupation Biographer, essayist, philosopher, priest, ambassador, magistrate Subject Biography, various Literary movement Middle Platonism, Hellenistic literature Plutarch (/ˈpluːtɑːrk/; Greek: Πλούταρχος, Ploútarchos; Koine Greek: [ˈplutarkʰos]; AD 46–after 119)[1] was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher,[2] historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo. He is known primarily for his Parallel Lives, a series of biographies of illustrious Greeks and Romans, and Moralia, a collection of essays and speeches.[3] Upon becoming a Roman citizen, he was named Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus (Λούκιος Μέστριος Πλούταρχος).[a] Contents 1 Life 1.1 Early life 1.2 Work as magistrate and ambassador 1.3 Late period: Priest at Delphi 2 Works 2.1 Lives of the Roman emperors 2.2 Parallel Lives 2.2.1 Life of Alexander 2.2.2 Life of Caesar 2.2.3 Life of Pyrrhus 2.3 Moralia 2.3.1 Spartan lives and sayings 2.3.2 Questions 2.3.3 On the Malice of Herodotus 2.4 Other works 2.5 Lost works 3 Philosophy 4 Influence 5 Translations of Lives and Moralia 5.1 French translations 5.2 English translations 5.3 Italian translations 5.4 Latin translations 5.5 German translations 5.5.1 Hieronymus Emser 5.5.2 Gottlob Benedict von Schirach 5.5.3 Johann Friedrich Salomon Kaltwasser 5.5.4 Subsequent German translations 5.6 Hebrew translations 6 Pseudo-Plutarch 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 Sources 11 Further reading 12 External links Life[edit] Early life[edit] Ruins of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi, where Plutarch served as one of the priests responsible for interpreting the predictions of the Pythia Plutarch was born to a prominent family in the small town of Chaeronea, about 80 kilometres (50 mi) east of Delphi, in the Greek region of Boeotia. His family was wealthy. The name of Plutarch's father has not been preserved, but based on the common Greek custom of repeating a name in alternate generations, it was probably Nikarchus (Nίκαρχoς). The name of Plutarch's grandfather was Lamprias, as he attested in Moralia[4] and in his Life of Antony. His brothers, Timon and Lamprias, are frequently mentioned in his essays and dialogues, which speak of Timon in particular in the most affectionate terms. Rualdus, in his 1624 work Life of Plutarchus, recovered the name of Plutarch's wife, Timoxena, from internal evidence afforded by his writings. A letter is still extant, addressed by Plutarch to his wife, bidding her not to grieve too much at the death of their two-year-old daughter, who was named Timoxena after her mother. He hinted at a belief in reincarnation in that letter of consolation.[5] The exact number of his sons is not certain, although two of them, Autobulus and the second Plutarch, are often mentioned. Plutarch's treatise De animae procreatione in Timaeo is dedicated to them, and the marriage of his son Autobulus is the occasion of one of the dinner parties recorded in the "Table Talk". Another person, Soklarus, is spoken of in terms which seem to imply that he was Plutarch's son, but this is nowhere definitely stated. His treatise on marriage questions, addressed to Eurydice and Pollianus, seems to speak of the latter as having been recently an inmate of his house, but without any clear evidence on whether she was his daughter or not.[6] Plutarch was the uncle of Sextus of Chaeronea, who was one of the teachers of Marcus Aurelius, and who may have been the same person as the philosopher Sextus Empiricus. Plutarch studied mathematics and philosophy in Athens under Ammonius from 66 to 67.[7] Plutarch was a vegetarian, though how long and how strictly he adhered to this diet is unclear.[8][9] He wrote about the ethics of meat-eating in two discourses in Moralia.[10] At some point, Plutarch received Roman citizenship. As evidenced by his new name, Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus, his sponsor for citizenship was Lucius Mestrius Florus, a Roman of consular status whom Plutarch also used as a historical source for his Life of Otho.[11] He lived most of his life at Chaeronea, and was initiated into the mysteries of the Greek god Apollo. For many years Plutarch served as one of the two priests at the temple of Apollo at Delphi, the site of the famous Delphic Oracle, twenty miles from his home. He probably took part in the Eleusinian Mysteries.[12] By his writings and lectures Plutarch became a celebrity in the Roman Empire, yet he continued to reside where he was born, and actively participated in local affairs, even serving as mayor. At his country estate, guests from all over the empire congregated for serious conversation, presided over by Plutarch in his marble chair. Many of these dialogues were recorded and published, and the 78 essays and other works which have survived are now known collectively as the Moralia.[13] Work as magistrate and ambassador[edit] In addition to his duties as a priest of the Delphic temple, Plutarch was also a magistrate at Chaeronea and he represented his home town on various missions to foreign countries during his early adult years. Plutarch held the office of archon in his native municipality, probably only an annual one which he likely served more than once. He busied himself with all the little matters of the town and undertook the humblest of duties.[14] The Suda, a medieval Greek encyclopedia, states that Emperor Trajan made Plutarch procurator of Illyria. However, most historians consider this unlikely, since Illyria was not a procuratorial province, and Plutarch probably did not speak Illyrian.[15] According to the 8th/9th-century historian George Syncellus, late in Plutarch's life, Emperor Hadrian appointed him nominal procurator of Achaea – which entitled him to wear the vestments and ornaments of a consul.[16] Late period: Priest at Delphi[edit] Portrait of a philosopher and Hermaic stele at Delphi Museum Plutarch spent the last thirty years of his life serving as a priest in Delphi. He thus connected part of his literary work with the sanctuary of Apollo, the processes of oracle-giving and the personalities who lived or traveled there. One of his most important works is the "Why Pythia does not give oracles in verse" (Moralia 11) ( "Περὶ τοῦ μὴ χρᾶν ἔμμετρα νῦν τὴν Πυθίαν").[17] Even more important is the dialogue "On the E in Delphi" ("Περὶ τοῦ Εἶ τοῦ ἐν Δελφοῖς"),[18] which features Ammonius, a Platonic philosopher and teacher of Plutarch, and Lambrias, Plutarch's brother. According to Ammonius, the letter E written on the temple of Apollo in Delphi originated from the following fact: the wise men of antiquity, whose maxims were also written on the walls of the vestibule of the temple, were not seven but actually five: Chilon, Solon, Thales, Bias and Pittakos. However, the tyrants Cleobulos and Periandros used their political power in order to be incorporated in the list. Thus, the E, which corresponds to number 5, constituted an acknowledgment that the Delphic maxims actually originated from the five real wise men. The portrait of a philosopher exhibited at the exit of the Archaeological Museum of Delphi, dating to the 2nd century AD, had been in the past identified with Plutarch. The man, although bearded, is depicted at a relatively young age. His hair and beard are rendered in coarse volumes and thin incisions. The gaze is deep, due to the heavy eyelids and the incised pupils. The portrait is no longer thought to represent Plutarch. But a fragmentary hermaic stele next to the portrait probably did once bear a portrait of Plutarch, since it is inscribed, "The Delphians along with the Chaeroneans dedicated this (image of) Plutarch, following the precepts of the Amphictyony" ("Δελφοὶ Χαιρωνεῦσιν ὁμοῦ Πλούταρχον ἔθηκαν | τοῖς Ἀμφικτυόνων δόγμασι πειθόμενοι" Syll.3 843=CID 4, no. 151). Works[edit] Plutarch's surviving works were intended for Greek speakers throughout the Roman Empire, not just Greeks.[19] Lives of the Roman emperors[edit] Plutarch in the Nuremberg Chronicle Plutarch's first biographical works were the Lives of the Roman Emperors from Augustus to Vitellius. Of these, only the Lives of Galba and Otho survive. The Lives of Tiberius and Nero are extant only as fragments, provided by Damascius (Life of Tiberius, cf. his Life of Isidore)[20] and Plutarch himself (Life of Nero, cf. Galba 2.1), respectively. These early emperors’ biographies were probably published under the Flavian dynasty or during the reign of Nerva (AD 96–98). There is reason to believe that the two Lives still extant, those of Galba and Otho, "ought to be considered as a single work."[21] Therefore, they do not form a part of the Plutarchian canon of single biographies – as represented by the Life of Aratus of Sicyon and the Life of Artaxerxes II (the biographies of Hesiod, Pindar, Crates and Daiphantus were lost). Unlike in these biographies, in Galba-Otho the individual characters of the persons portrayed are not depicted for their own sake but instead serve as an illustration of an abstract principle; namely the adherence or non-adherence to Plutarch's morally founded ideal of governing as a Princeps (cf. Galba 1.3; Moralia 328D–E).[22] Arguing from the perspective of Platonic political philosophy (cf. Republic 375E, 410D-E, 411E-412A, 442B-C), in Galba-Otho Plutarch reveals the constitutional principles of the Principate in the time of the civil war after Nero's death. While morally questioning the behavior of the autocrats, he also gives an impression of their tragic destinies, ruthlessly competing for the throne and finally destroying each other.[22] "The Caesars' house in Rome, the Palatium, received in a shorter space of time no less than four Emperors", Plutarch writes, "passing, as it were, across the stage, and one making room for another to enter" (Galba 1).[23] Galba-Otho was handed down through different channels. It can be found in the appendix to Plutarch's Parallel Lives as well as in various Moralia manuscripts, most prominently in Maximus Planudes' edition where Galba and Otho appear as Opera XXV and XXVI. Thus it seems reasonable to maintain that Galba-Otho was from early on considered as an illustration of a moral-ethical approach, possibly even by Plutarch himself.[24] Parallel Lives[edit] A page from the 1470 Ulrich Han printing of Plutarch's Parallel Lives Main article: Parallel Lives Plutarch's best-known work is the Parallel Lives, a series of biographies of illustrious Greeks and Romans, arranged in pairs to illuminate their common moral virtues and vices, thus it being more of an insight into human nature than a historical account.[25] The surviving Lives contain 23 pairs, each with one Greek Life and one Roman Life, as well as four unpaired single Lives. As is explained in the opening paragraph of his Life of Alexander, Plutarch was not concerned with history so much as the influence of character, good or bad, on the lives and destinies of men. Whereas sometimes he barely touched on epoch-making events, he devoted much space to charming anecdote and incidental triviality, reasoning that this often said far more for his subjects than even their most famous accomplishments. He sought to provide rounded portraits, likening his craft to that of a painter; indeed, he went to tremendous lengths (often leading to tenuous comparisons) to draw parallels between physical appearance and moral character. In many ways, he must be counted amongst the earliest moral philosophers. Some of the Lives, such as those of Heracles, Philip II of Macedon, Epaminondas, Scipio Africanus, Scipio Aemilianus and possibly Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus no longer exist; many of the remaining Lives are truncated, contain obvious lacunae or have been tampered with by later writers. Extant Lives include those on Solon, Themistocles, Aristides, Agesilaus II, Pericles, Alcibiades, Nicias, Demosthenes, Pelopidas, Philopoemen, Timoleon, Dion of Syracuse, Eumenes, Alexander the Great, Pyrrhus of Epirus, Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Coriolanus, Theseus, Aemilius Paullus, Tiberius Gracchus, Gaius Gracchus, Gaius Marius, Sulla, Sertorius, Lucullus, Pompey, Julius Caesar, Cicero, Cato the Elder, Mark Antony, and Marcus Junius Brutus. Life of Alexander[edit] Plutarch's Life of Alexander, written as a parallel to that of Julius Caesar, is one of only five extant tertiary sources on the Macedonian conqueror Alexander the Great. It includes anecdotes and descriptions of events that appear in no other source, just as Plutarch's portrait of Numa Pompilius, the putative second king of Rome, holds much that is unique on the early Roman calendar. Plutarch devotes a great deal of space to Alexander's drive and desire, and strives to determine how much of it was presaged in his youth. He also draws extensively on the work of Lysippus, Alexander's favourite sculptor, to provide what is probably the fullest and most accurate description of the conqueror's physical appearance. When it comes to his character, Plutarch emphasizes his unusual degree of self-control and scorn for luxury: "He desired not pleasure or wealth, but only excellence and glory." As the narrative progresses, however, the subject incurs less admiration from his biographer and the deeds that it recounts become less savoury. The murder of Cleitus the Black, which Alexander instantly and deeply regretted, is commonly cited to this end. Life of Caesar[edit] Together with Suetonius's The Twelve Caesars, and Caesar's own works de Bello Gallico and de Bello Civili, this Life is the main account of Julius Caesar's feats by ancient historians. Plutarch starts by telling of the audacity of Caesar and his refusal to dismiss Cinna's daughter, Cornelia. Other important parts are those containing his military deeds, accounts of battles and Caesar's capacity of inspiring the soldiers. His soldiers showed such good will and zeal in his service that those who in their previous campaigns had been in no way superior to others were invincible and irresistible in confronting every danger to enhance Caesar's fame. Such a man, for instance, was Acilius, who, in the sea-fight at Massalia, boarded a hostile ship and had his right hand cut off with a sword, but clung with the other hand to his shield, and dashing it into the faces of his foes, routed them all and got possession of the vessel. Such a man, again, was Cassius Scaeva, who, in the battle at Dyrrhachium, had his eye struck out with an arrow, his shoulder transfixed with one javelin and his thigh with another, and received on his shield the blows of one hundred and thirty missiles. In this plight, he called the enemy to him as though he would surrender. Two of them, accordingly, coming up, he lopped off the shoulder of one with his sword, smote the other in the face and put him to flight, and came off safely himself with the aid of his comrades. Again, in Britain, when the enemy had fallen upon the foremost centurions, who had plunged into a watery marsh, a soldier, while Caesar in person was watching the battle, dashed into the midst of the fight, displayed many conspicuous deeds of daring, and rescued the centurions, after the Barbarians had been routed. Then he himself, making his way with difficulty after all the rest, plunged into the muddy current, and at last, without his shield, partly swimming and partly wading, got across. Caesar and his company were amazed and came to meet the soldier with cries of joy; but he, in great dejection, and with a burst of tears, cast himself at Caesar's feet, begging pardon for the loss of his shield. Again, in Africa, Scipio captured a ship of Caesar's in which Granius Petro, who had been appointed quaestor, was sailing. Of the rest of the passengers Scipio made booty, but told the quaestor that he offered him his life. Granius, however, remarking that it was the custom with Caesar's soldiers not to receive but to offer mercy, killed himself with a blow of his sword. — Life of Caesar, XVI However, this Life shows few differences between Suetonius' work and Caesar's own works (see De Bello Gallico and De Bello Civili). Sometimes, Plutarch quotes directly from the De Bello Gallico and even tells us of the moments when Caesar was dictating his works. In the final part of this Life, Plutarch recounts details of Caesar's assassination. The book ends by telling the destiny of his murderers, just after his detailed account of the scene when a phantom appeared to Brutus at night.[26] Life of Pyrrhus[edit] Plutarch's Life of Pyrrhus is a key text because it is the main historical account on Roman history for the period from 293 to 264 BC, for which neither Dionysius nor Livy have surviving texts.[27] "It is not histories I am writing, but lives; and in the most glorious deeds there is not always an indication of virtue or vice, indeed a small thing like a phrase or a jest often makes a greater revelation of a character than battles where thousands die." Moralia[edit] Moralia, 1531 Main article: Moralia The remainder of Plutarch's surviving work is collected under the title of the Moralia (loosely translated as Customs and Mores). It is an eclectic collection of seventy-eight essays and transcribed speeches, including On Fraternal Affection—a discourse on honour and affection of siblings toward each other, On the Fortune or the Virtue of Alexander the Great—an important adjunct to his Life of the great king, On the Worship of Isis and Osiris (a crucial source of information on Egyptian religious rites),[28] along with more philosophical treatises, such as On the Decline of the Oracles, On the Delays of the Divine Vengeance, On Peace of Mind and lighter fare, such as Odysseus and Gryllus, a humorous dialogue between Homer's Odysseus and one of Circe's enchanted pigs. The Moralia was composed first, while writing the Lives occupied much of the last two decades of Plutarch's own life. Spartan lives and sayings[edit] Since Spartans wrote no history prior to the Hellenistic period — their only extant literature is fragments of 7th-century lyrics — Plutarch's five Spartan lives and Sayings of Spartans and Sayings of Spartan Women, rooted in sources that have since disappeared, are some of the richest sources for historians of Lacedaemonia.[29] But while they are important, they are also controversial. Plutarch lived centuries after the Sparta he writes about (and a full millennium separates him from the earliest events he records) and even though he visited Sparta, many of the ancient customs he reports had been long abandoned, so he never actually saw of what he wrote.[29] Plutarch's sources themselves can be problematic. As the historians Sarah Pomeroy, Stanley Burstein, Walter Donlan, and Jennifer Tolbert Roberts have written, "Plutarch was influenced by histories written after the decline of Sparta and marked by nostalgia for a happier past, real or imagined."[29] Turning to Plutarch himself, they write, "the admiration writers like Plutarch and Xenophon felt for Spartan society led them to exaggerate its monolithic nature, minimizing departures from ideals of equality and obscuring patterns of historical change."[29] Thus the Spartan egalitarianism and superhuman immunity to pain that have seized the popular imagination are likely myths, and their main architect is Plutarch. While flawed, Plutarch is nonetheless indispensable as one of the only ancient sources of information on Spartan life. Pomeroy et al. conclude that Plutarch's works on Sparta, while they must be treated with skepticism, remain valuable for their "large quantities of information" and these historians concede that "Plutarch's writings on Sparta, more than those of any other ancient author, have shaped later views of Sparta", despite their potential to misinform. He was also referenced in saying unto Sparta, “The beast will feed again.”[29] Questions[edit] Book IV of the Moralia contains the Roman and Greek Questions (Αἰτίαι Ῥωμαϊκαί and Αἰτίαι Ἑλλήνων). The customs of Romans and Greeks are illuminated in little essays that pose questions such as 'Why were patricians not permitted to live on the Capitoline?' (no. 91)[30] and then suggests answers to them. On the Malice of Herodotus[edit] A bust of the early Greek historian Herodotus, whom Plutarch criticized in On the Malice of Herodotus In On the Malice of Herodotus Plutarch criticizes the historian Herodotus for all manner of prejudice and misrepresentation. It has been called the "first instance in literature of the slashing review."[31] The 19th-century English historian George Grote considered this essay a serious attack upon the works of Herodotus, and speaks of the "honourable frankness which Plutarch calls his malignity."[32] Plutarch makes some palpable hits, catching Herodotus out in various errors, but it is also probable that it was merely a rhetorical exercise, in which Plutarch plays devil's advocate to see what could be said against so favourite and well-known a writer.[6] According to Plutarch scholar R. H. Barrow, Herodotus’ real failing in Plutarch's eyes was to advance any criticism at all of those states that saved Greece from Persia. “Plutarch”, he concluded, “is fanatically biased in favor of the Greek cities; they can do no wrong.”[33] Other works[edit] Symposiacs[34] (Συμποσιακά); Convivium Septem Sapientium. Dialogue on Love (Ερωτικος); Latin name = Amatorius. Lost works[edit] The lost works of Plutarch are determined by references in his own texts to them and from other authors' references over time. Parts of the Lives and what would be considered parts of the Moralia have been lost. The 'Catalogue of Lamprias', an ancient list of works attributed to Plutarch, lists 227 works, of which 78 have come down to us.[35] The Romans loved the Lives. Enough copies were written out over the centuries so that a copy of most of the lives has survived to the present day, but there are traces of twelve more Lives that are now lost.[36] Plutarch's general procedure for the Lives was to write the life of a prominent Greek, then cast about for a suitable Roman parallel, and end with a brief comparison of the Greek and Roman lives. Currently, only 19 of the parallel lives end with a comparison, while possibly they all did at one time. Also missing are many of his Lives which appear in a list of his writings: those of Hercules, the first pair of Parallel Lives, Scipio Africanus and Epaminondas, and the companions to the four solo biographies. Even the lives of such important figures as Augustus, Claudius and Nero have not been found and may be lost forever.[31][37] Lost works that would have been part of the Moralia include "Whether One Who Suspends Judgment on Everything Is Condemned to Inaction", "On Pyrrho’s Ten Modes", and "On the Difference between the Pyrrhonians and the Academics".[38] Philosophy[edit] "The soul, being eternal, after death is like a caged bird that has been released. If it has been a long time in the body, and has become tame by many affairs and long habit, the soul will immediately take another body and once again become involved in the troubles of the world. The worst thing about old age is that the soul's memory of the other world grows dim, while at the same time its attachment to things of this world becomes so strong that the soul tends to retain the form that it had in the body. But that soul which remains only a short time within a body, until liberated by the higher powers, quickly recovers its fire and goes on to higher things." Plutarch (The Consolation, Moralia) Plutarch was a Platonist, but was open to the influence of the Peripatetics, and in some details even to Stoicism despite his criticism of their principles.[39] He rejected only Epicureanism absolutely.[39] He attached little importance to theoretical questions and doubted the possibility of ever solving them.[40] He was more interested in moral and religious questions.[40] In opposition to Stoic materialism and Epicurean atheism he cherished a pure idea of God that was more in accordance with Plato.[40] He adopted a second principle (Dyad) in order to explain the phenomenal world.[40] This principle he sought, however, not in any indeterminate matter but in the evil world-soul which has from the beginning been bound up with matter, but in the creation was filled with reason and arranged by it.[40] Thus it was transformed into the divine soul of the world, but continued to operate as the source of all evil.[40] He elevated God above the finite world, and thus daemons became for him agents of God's influence on the world. He strongly defends freedom of the will, and the immortality of the soul.[40] Platonic-Peripatetic ethics were upheld by Plutarch against the opposing theories of the Stoics and Epicureans.[40] The most characteristic feature of Plutarch's ethics is, however, its close connection with religion.[41] However pure Plutarch's idea of God is, and however vivid his description of the vice and corruption which superstition causes, his warm religious feelings and his distrust of human powers of knowledge led him to believe that God comes to our aid by direct revelations, which we perceive the more clearly the more completely that we refrain in "enthusiasm" from all action; this made it possible for him to justify popular belief in divination in the way which had long been usual among the Stoics.[41] His attitude to popular religion was similar. The gods of different peoples are merely different names for one and the same divine Being and the powers that serve it.[41] The myths contain philosophical truths which can be interpreted allegorically.[41] Thus Plutarch sought to combine the philosophical and religious conception of things and to remain as close as possible to tradition.[41] Plutarch was the teacher of Favorinus. Influence[edit] External video Shakespeare: Metamorphosis – Plutarch’s “Lives” (1579), Senate House Library[42] Plutarch's writings had an enormous influence on English and French literature. Shakespeare paraphrased parts of Thomas North's translation of selected Lives in his plays, and occasionally quoted from them verbatim.[43] Jean-Jacques Rousseau quotes from Plutarch in the 1762 Emile, or On Education, a treatise on the education of the whole person for citizenship. Rousseau introduces a passage from Plutarch in support of his position against eating meat: "'You ask me,' said Plutarch, 'why Pythagoras abstained from eating the flesh of beasts...'"[44] Ralph Waldo Emerson and the Transcendentalists were greatly influenced by the Moralia and in his glowing introduction to the five-volume, 19th-century edition, he called the Lives "a bible for heroes".[45] He also opined that it was impossible to "read Plutarch without a tingling of the blood; and I accept the saying of the Chinese Mencius: 'A sage is the instructor of a hundred ages. When the manners of Loo are heard of, the stupid become intelligent, and the wavering, determined.'"[46] Montaigne's Essays draw extensively on Plutarch's Moralia and are consciously modelled on the Greek's easygoing and discursive inquiries into science, manners, customs and beliefs. Essays contains more than 400 references to Plutarch and his works.[31] James Boswell quoted Plutarch on writing lives, rather than biographies, in the introduction to his own Life of Samuel Johnson. Other admirers included Ben Jonson, John Dryden, Alexander Hamilton, John Milton, Louis L'amour, and Francis Bacon, as well as such disparate figures as Cotton Mather and Robert Browning. Plutarch's influence declined in the 19th and 20th centuries, but it remains embedded in the popular ideas of Greek and Roman history. One of his most famous quotes was one that he included in one of his earliest works. "The world of man is best captured through the lives of the men who created history." Translations of Lives and Moralia[edit] There are translations, from the original Greek, in Latin, English, French, German, Italian, Polish and Hebrew. British classical scholar H. J. Rose writes “One advantage to a modern reader who is not well acquainted with Greek is, that being but a moderate stylist, Plutarch is almost as good in a translation as in the original.”[47] French translations[edit] Jacques Amyot's translations brought Plutarch's works to Western Europe. He went to Italy and studied the Vatican text of Plutarch, from which he published a French translation of the Lives in 1559 and Moralia in 1572, which were widely read by educated Europe.[48] Amyot's translations had as deep an impression in England as France, because Thomas North later published his English translation of the Lives in 1579 based on Amyot's French translation instead of the original Greek. English translations[edit] Plutarch's Lives were translated into English, from Amyot's version, by Sir Thomas North in 1579. The complete Moralia was first translated into English from the original Greek by Philemon Holland in 1603. In 1683, John Dryden began a life of Plutarch and oversaw a translation of the Lives by several hands and based on the original Greek. This translation has been reworked and revised several times, most recently in the 19th century by the English poet and classicist Arthur Hugh Clough (first published in 1859). One contemporary publisher of this version is Modern Library. Another is Encyclopædia Britannica in association with the University of Chicago, ISBN 0-85229-163-9, 1952, LCCN 55-10323. In 1770, English brothers John and William Langhorne published "Plutarch's Lives from the original Greek, with notes critical and historical, and a new life of Plutarch" in 6 volumes and dedicated to Lord Folkestone. Their translation was re-edited by Archdeacon Wrangham in the year 1819. From 1901 to 1912, an American classicist, Bernadotte Perrin,[49] produced a new translation of the Lives for the Loeb Classical Library. The Moralia is also included in the Loeb series, translated by various authors. Penguin Classics began a series of translations by various scholars in 1958 with The Fall of the Roman Republic, which contained six Lives and was translated by Rex Warner.[50] Penguin continues to revise the volumes. Italian translations[edit] Note: just main translations from the second half of 15th century.[51] Battista Alessandro Iaconelli, Vite di Plutarcho traducte de Latino in vulgare in Aquila, L’Aquila, 1482. Dario Tiberti, Le Vite di Plutarco ridotte in compendio, per M. Dario Tiberto da Cesena, e tradotte alla commune utilità di ciascuno per L. Fauno, in buona lingua volgare, Venice, 1543. Lodovico Domenichi, Vite di Plutarco. Tradotte da m. Lodouico Domenichi, con gli suoi sommarii posti dinanzi a ciascuna vita..., Venice, 1560. Francesco Sansovino, Le vite de gli huomini illustri greci e romani, di Plutarco Cheroneo sommo filosofo et historico, tradotte nuovamente da M. Francesco Sansovino..., Venice, 1564. Marcello Adriani il Giovane, Opuscoli morali di Plutarco volgarizzati da Marcello Adriani il giovane, Florence, 1819–1820. Girolamo Pompei, Le Vite Di Plutarco, Verona, 1772–1773. Latin translations[edit] There are multiple translations of Parallel Lives into Latin, most notably the one titled "Pour le Dauphin" (French for "for the Prince") written by a scribe in the court of Louis XV of France and a 1470 Ulrich Han translation. German translations[edit] Hieronymus Emser[edit] In 1519, Hieronymus Emser translated De capienda ex inimicis utilitate (wie ym eyner seinen veyndt nutz machen kan, Leipzig). Gottlob Benedict von Schirach[edit] The biographies were translated by Gottlob Benedict von Schirach (1743–1804) and printed in Vienna by Franz Haas, 1776–80. Johann Friedrich Salomon Kaltwasser[edit] Plutarch's Lives and Moralia were translated into German by Johann Friedrich Salomon Kaltwasser: Vitae parallelae. Vergleichende Lebensbeschreibungen. 10 Bände. Magdeburg 1799–1806. Moralia. Moralische Abhandlungen. 9 Bde. Frankfurt a.M. 1783–1800. Subsequent German translations[edit] Biographies Konrat Ziegler [de] (Hrsg.): Große Griechen und Römer. 6 Bde. Zürich 1954–1965. (Bibliothek der alten Welt). Moralia Konrat Ziegler (Hrsg.):Plutarch. Über Gott und Vorsehung, Dämonen und Weissagung, Zürich 1952. (Bibliothek der alten Welt) Bruno Snell (Hrsg.):Plutarch. Von der Ruhe des Gemüts – und andere Schriften, Zürich 1948. (Bibliothek der alten Welt) Hans-Josef Klauck (Hrsg.): Plutarch. Moralphilosophische Schriften, Stuttgart 1997. (Reclams Universal-Bibliothek) Herwig Görgemanns (Hrsg.):Plutarch. Drei Religionsphilosophische Schriften, Düsseldorf 2003. (Tusculum) Hebrew translations[edit] Following some Hebrew translations of selections from Plutarch's Parallel Lives published in the 1920s and the 1940s, a complete translation was published in three volumes by the Bialik Institute in 1954, 1971 and 1973. The first volume, Roman Lives, first published in 1954, presents the translations of Joseph G. Liebes to the biographies of Coriolanus, Fabius Maximus, Tiberius Gracchus and Gaius Gracchus, Cato the Elder and Cato the Younger, Gaius Marius, Sulla, Sertorius, Lucullus, Pompey, Crassus, Cicero, Julius Caesar, Brutus and Mark Anthony. The second volume, Greek Lives, first published in 1971 presents A. A. Halevy's translations of the biographies of Lycurgus, Aristides, Cimon, Pericles, Nicias, Lysander, Agesilaus, Pelopidas, Dion, Timoleon, Demosthenes, Alexander the Great, Eumenes and Phocion. Three more biographies presented in this volume, those of Solon, Themistocles and Alcibiades were translated by M. H. Ben-Shamai. The third volume, Greek and Roman Lives, published in 1973, presented the remaining biographies and parallels as translated by Halevy. Included are the biographies of Demetrius, Pyrrhus, Agis and Cleomenes, Aratus and Artaxerxes, Philopoemen, Camillus, Marcellus, Flamininus, Aemilius Paulus, Galba and Otho, Theseus, Romulus, Numa Pompilius and Poplicola. It completes the translation of the known remaining biographies. In the introduction to the third volume Halevy explains that originally the Bialik Institute intended to publish only a selection of biographies, leaving out mythological figures and biographies that had no parallels. Thus, to match the first volume in scope the second volume followed the same path and the third volume was required.[citation needed] Pseudo-Plutarch[edit] Main article: Pseudo-Plutarch Some editions of the Moralia include several works now known to have been falsely attributed to Plutarch. Among these are the Lives of the Ten Orators, a series of biographies of the Attic orators based on Caecilius of Calacte; On the Opinions of the Philosophers, On Fate, and On Music.[52] These works are all attributed to a single, unknown author, referred to as "Pseudo-Plutarch".[52] Pseudo-Plutarch lived sometime between the third and fourth centuries AD. Despite being falsely attributed, the works are still considered to possess historical value.[53] See also[edit] Middle Platonism Numenius of Apamea 6615 Plutarchos Notes[edit] ^ The name Mestrius or Lucius Mestrius was taken by Plutarch, as was common Roman practice, from his patron for citizenship in the empire; in this case Lucius Mestrius Florus, a Roman consul. References[edit] ^ "Plutarch", Encyclopædia Britannica, retrieved 27 March 2020 ^ Dillon, John M. Middle Platonists: 80 BC to AD 220. Cornell University Press, 1996. pp. 184 ff. ^ "Plutarch". Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. ^ Symposiacs, Book IX, questions II & III ^ "Plutarch • Consolatio ad Uxorem". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 17 March 2018. ^ a b Aubrey Stewart, George Long. "Life of Plutarch". Plutarch's Lives, Volume I (of 4). The Gutenberg Project. Retrieved 2007-01-03. ^ Britannica ^ Chrysopoulos, Philip. "Ancient Greek Historian Plutarch Might Have Been the First Vegetarian". Greek Reporter. Retrieved 2020-09-05. ^ Newmyer, Stephen (1992). "Plutarch on Justice Toward Animals: Ancient Insights on a Modern Debate". Scholia: Studies in Classical Antiquity. 1 (1): 38–54. Retrieved 2020-09-05. ^ Plutarch. "On the Eating of Flesh". Moralia. ^ Plutarch, Otho 14.1 ^ "The Eleusinian Mysteries: The Rites of Demeter". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2019-04-27. ^ Bronchud, Miguel H. (2007). The Secret Castle: The Key to Good and Evil. DigitalPulp Publishing.com. ISBN 978-0976308393. ^ Clough, Arthur Hugh (1864). "Introduction". Plutarch's Lives. Liberty Library of Constitutional Classics. ^ Gianakaris, C. J. Plutarch. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1970. ^ Russell, D. A. Plutarch. New York: Scribner, 1973. ^ "Περί του μη χραν έμμετρα νυν την Πυθίαν (Πλούταρχος) - Βικιθήκη". el.wikisource.org. Retrieved 17 March 2018. ^ Plutarch, Moralia, On the E at Delphi (in ancient Greek) https://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%97%CE%B8%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AC/%CE%A0%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AF_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%95%CE%B9_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%B5%CE%BD_%CE%94%CE%B5%CE%BB%CF%86%CE%BF%CE%AF%CF%82 ^ Stadter, Philip A. (2015). Plutarch and His Roman Readers. Oxford University Press. p. 69. ISBN 978-0198718338. Retrieved 2015-02-04. Although Plutarch wrote in Greek and with a Greek point of view, [...] he was thinking of a Roman as well as a Greek audience. ^ Ziegler, Konrad, Plutarchos von Chaironeia (Stuttgart 1964), 258. Citation translated by the author. ^ Cf. among others, Holzbach, M.-C.(2006). Plutarch: Galba-Otho und die Apostelgeschichte : ein Gattungsvergleich. Religion and Biography, 14 (ed. by Detlev Dormeyer et al.). Berlin London: LIT, p. 13 ^ a b Cf. Holzbach, op. cit., 24, 67–83 ^ The citation from Galba was extracted from the Dryden translation as given at the MIT Internet Classics Archive ^ Cf. Holzbach, op. cit., 24 ^ Plutarch. The life of Alexander. p. 1. ^ Plutarch. The life of Caesar. ^ Cornell, T.J. (1995). "Introduction". The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000–264 BC). Routledge. p. 3. ^ (but which according to Erasmus referred to the Thessalonians) Plutarch. "Isis and Osiris". Frank Cole Babbitt (trans.). Retrieved 2006-12-10. ^ a b c d e Pomeroy, Sarah B, Stanley M. Burstein, Walter Donlan, and Tolbert Roberts Jennifer (1999). Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History. New York: Oxford University Press[ISBN missing][page needed] ^ "Plutarch • Roman Questions, 90‑113". uchicago.edu. ^ a b c Kimball, Roger. "Plutarch & the issue of character". The New Criterion Online. Archived from the original on 2006-11-16. Retrieved 2006-12-11. ^ Grote, George (2000-10-19) [1830]. A History of Greece: From the Time of Solon to 403 B.C. Routledge. p. 203. ^ Barrow, R.H. (1979) [1967]. Plutarch and His Times. ^ "Plutarch: Symposiacs, in The complete works of Plutarch: essays and miscellanies, New York: Crowell, 1909. Vol. III". Archived from the original on 2017-04-19. Retrieved 2014-10-06. ^ Russell, D.A.F.M. (1970) The Oxford Classical Dictionary, Clarendon Press, Oxford, p. 849 ^ "Translator's Introduction". The Parallel Lives (Vol. I ed.). Loeb Classical Library Edition. 1914. ^ McCutchen, Wilmot H. "Plutarch - His Life and Legacy". Archived from the original on 2006-12-05. Retrieved 2006-12-10. ^ Mauro Bonazzi, "Plutarch on the Differences Between the Pyrrhonists and Academics", Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy, 2012 https://www.academia.edu/2362682/Plutarch_on_the_Difference_between_Academics_and_Pyrrhonists_in_Oxford_Studies_in_Ancient_Philosophy_43_2012_pp._271-298 ^ a b Eduard Zeller, Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy, 13th edition, p. 306 ^ a b c d e f g h Eduard Zeller, Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy, 13th edition, p. 307 ^ a b c d e Eduard Zeller, Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy, 13th edition, p. 308 ^ "Shakespeare: Metamorphosis – Plutarch's "Lives" (1579)". Senate House Library at Vimeo. 2016-03-31. Retrieved 9 May 2016. ^ Honigmann 1959. ^ Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1911). Emile, or On Education. Translated by Foxley, Barbara. http://lf-oll.s3.amazonaws.com/titles/2256/Rousseau_1499_Bk.pdf: JM Dent & Sons / EP Dutton & Co. p. 118.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ Emerson, Ralph Waldo (1870). "Introduction". In William W. Goodwin (ed.). Plutarch's Morals. London: Sampson, Low. p. xxi. ^ Emerson, Ralph Waldo (1850). "Uses of Great Men". Representative Men. ^ H. J. Rose. A Handbook of Greek Literature: From Homer to the Age of Lucian.. New York: Dutton, 1960. p. 409 (a Dutton paperback). ^ "Amyot, Jacques (1513–1593)". Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910–1911). ^ "Bernadotte Perrin Papers (MS 1018). Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library". hdl:10079/fa/mssa.ms.1018. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ The Age of Alexander, rev. ed. (Penguin, 2012), "Penguin Plutarch". ^ Virgilio Costa, Sulle prime traduzioni italiane a stampa delle opere di Plutarco (secc. XV–XVI) ^ a b Blank, D. (2011). Martínez, J. (ed.). 'Plutarch' and the Sophistry of 'Noble Lineage'. Fakes and Forgers of Classical Literature. Madrid: Ediciones Clásicas. pp. 33–60. ^ Marietta, Don E. (1998). Introduction to Ancient Philosophy. M.E. Sharpe. p. 190. ISBN 978-0765602169. Sources[edit] Blackburn, Simon (1994). Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Russell, D.A. (2001) [1972]. Plutarch. Duckworth Publishing. ISBN 978-1-85399-620-7. Duff, Timothy (2002) [1999]. Plutarch's Lives: Exploring Virtue and Vice. UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-925274-9. Hamilton, Edith (1957). The Echo of Greece. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 194. ISBN 0-393-00231-4. Honigmann, E.A.J. "Shakespeare's Plutarch." Shakespeare Quarterly, 1959: 25–33. Pelling, Christopher (2002). Plutarch and History. Eighteen Studies, London[ISBN missing] Wardman, Alan (1974). Plutarch's "Lives". Elek. p. 274. ISBN 0-236-17622-6. John M. Dillon ( 1996).The Middle Platonists: 80 B.C. to A.D. 220, Cornell University Press, ISBN 978-0801483165 Further reading[edit] Beck, Mark. 2000. "Anecdote and the representation of Plutarch’s ethos." In Rhetorical theory and praxis in Plutarch: Acta of the IVth international congress of the International Plutarch Society, Leuven, July 3–6, 1996. Edited by Luc van der Stockt, 15–32. Collection d’Études Classiques 11. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters. --, ed. 2014. A companion to Plutarch. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. Malden, MA, and Oxford: Blackwell. Beneker, Jeffrey. 2012. The passionate statesman: Eros and politics in Plutarch’s Lives. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Duff, Timothy E. 1999. Plutarch’s Lives: Exploring virtues and vice. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Georgiadou, Aristoula. 1992. "Idealistic and realistic portraiture in the Lives of Plutarch." In Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung. Vol. 2.33.6, Sprache und Literatur: Allgemeines zur Literatur des 2. Jahrhunderts und einzelne Autoren der trajanischen und frühhadrianischen Zeit. Edited by Wolfgang Haase, 4616–23. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. Gill, Christopher. 1983. "The question of character-development: Plutarch and Tacitus." Classical Quarterly 33. no. 2: 469–87. Humble, Noreen, ed. 2010. Plutarch’s Lives: Parallelism and purpose. Swansea: Classical Press of Wales. McInerney, Jeremy. 2003. "Plutarch’s manly women." In Andreia: Studies in manliness and courage in classical Athens. Edited by Ralph M. Rosen and Ineke Sluiter, 319–44. Mnemosyne, Bibliotheca Classica Batava, Supplementum 238. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill. Mossman, Judith. 2015. "Dressed for success? Clothing in Plutarch’s Demetrius." In Fame and infamy: Essays for Christopher Pelling on characterization and Roman biography and historiography. Edited by Rhiannon Ash, Judith Mossman, and Frances B. Titchener, 149–60. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Nikolaidis, Anastasios G., ed. 2008. The unity of Plutarch’s work: Moralia themes in the Lives, features of the Lives in the Moralia. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. Pelling, Christopher. 2002. Plutarch and history: Eighteen studies. Swansea: Classical Press of Wales. Scardigli, Barbara, ed. 1995. Essays on Plutarch’s Lives. Oxford: Clarendon. Stadter, Philip. 1996. "Anecdotes and the thematic structure of Plutarchean biography." In Estudios sobre Plutarco: Aspectos formales; Actas del IV Simposio español sobre Plutarco, Salamanca, 26 a 28 de mayo de 1994. Edited by José Antonio Fernández Delgado and Francisca Pordomingo Pardo, 291–303. Madrid: Ediciones Clásicas. --. 2015. "The rhetoric of virtue in Plutarch’s Lives." In Plutarch and his Roman readers. By Philip A. Stadter, 231–45. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Van Hoof, Lieve. 2010. Plutarch's practical ethics: the social dynamics of philosophy Oxford: Oxford University Press. Wardman, Alan E. 1967. "Description of personal appearance in Plutarch and Suetonius: The use of statues as evidence." Classical Quarterly 17, no. 2: 414–20. Zadorojnyi, Alexei V. 2012. "Mimesis and the (plu)past in Plutarch’s Lives." In Time and narrative in ancient historiography: The “plupast” from Herodotus to Appian. Edited by Jonas Grethlein and Christopher B. Krebs, 175–98. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Plutarch Wikisource has original works written by or about: Plutarch Wikimedia Commons has media related to Plutarch. Library resources about Plutarch Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Plutarch Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Plutarch's works Works by Plutarch at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Plutarch at Internet Archive Works by Plutarch at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Perseus Project: many texts of Plutarch and Pseudo-Plutarch in Greek and English Didot edition of Plutarch's works in Greek, with Latin translation (1857–1876): vol. 1 (Lives, pt. 1), vol. 2 (Lives, pt. 2), vol. 3 (Moralia, pt. 1), vol. 4 (Moralia, pt. 2), vol. 5 (fragmenta et spuria) (also via BNF) Collections of works in English translation: at University of Adelaide, at LacusCurtius, Project Gutenberg, Lives, trans. North (PDF) Also in English translation (by John Dryden, 1631–1700): Plutarch, Parallel Lives, Solon Free Audiobooks by Plutarch from Librivox Secondary material Karamanolis, George. "Plutarch". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Plutarch of Chaeronea by Jona Lendering at Livius.Org The International Plutarch Society The relevance of Plutarch's book De Defectu Oraculorum for Christian Theology (Ploutarchos, Journal of the International Plutarch Society) v t e Works of Plutarch Works Parallel Lives Moralia "De genio Socratis" "On the Malice of Herodotus" Pseudo-Plutarch Lives Alcibiades and Coriolanus1 Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar Aratus of Sicyon / Artaxerxes and Galba / Otho2 Aristides and Cato the Elder1 Crassus and Nicias1 Demetrius and Antony1 Demosthenes and Cicero1 Dion and Brutus1 Fabius and Pericles1 Lucullus and Cimon1 Lysander and Sulla1 Numa and Lycurgus1 Pelopidas and Marcellus1 Philopoemen and Flamininus1 Phocion and Cato the Younger Pompey and Agesilaus1 Poplicola and Solon1 Pyrrhus and Gaius Marius Romulus and Theseus1 Sertorius and Eumenes1 Agis / Cleomenes1 and Tiberius Gracchus / Gaius Gracchus Timoleon and Aemilius Paulus1 Themistocles and Camillus Translators and editors Jacques Amyot Arthur Hugh Clough John Dryden Philemon Holland Thomas North 1 Comparison extant 2 Four unpaired Lives v t e Platonists Academic Old Plato Aristotle Eudoxus Philip of Opus Aristonymus Coriscus and Erastus of Scepsis Demetrius of Amphipolis Euaeon of Lampsacus Heraclides and Python of Aenus Hestiaeus of Perinthus Lastheneia of Mantinea Timolaus of Cyzicus Speusippus Axiothea of Phlius Heraclides Ponticus Menedemus of Pyrrha Xenocrates Crantor Polemon Crates of Athens Skeptic Middle Arcesilaus Diocles of Cnidus Lacydes Telecles and Evander Hegesinus New Carneades Hagnon of Tarsus Metrodorus of Stratonicea Clitomachus Charmadas Aeschines of Neapolis Philo of Larissa Cicero Dio of Alexandria Middle Platonist Antiochus Philo of Alexandria Plutarch Justin Martyr Gaius Albinus Alcinous Apuleius Atticus Maximus of Tyre Numenius of Apamea Longinus Clement of Alexandria Origen the Pagan Calcidius Neoplatonist Ancient Ammonius Saccas Plotinus Disciples Origen Amelius Porphyry Iamblichus Sopater Eustathius of Cappadocia Sosipatra Aedesius Dexippus Chrysanthius Theodorus of Asine Julian Sallustius Maximus of Ephesus Eusebius of Myndus Priscus of Epirus Antoninus Gregory of Nyssa Hypatia Gaius Marius Victorinus Augustine Macrobius Academy Plutarch of Athens Asclepigenia Hierocles Syrianus Hermias Aedesia Proclus Ammonius Hermiae Asclepiodotus Hegias Zenodotus Marinus Agapius Isidore Damascius Simplicius Priscian Medieval Boethius John Philoponus Olympiodorus Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite John Scotus Eriugena Islamic Golden Age Al-Farabi Anselm Peter Abelard Chartres Bernard Gilbert Thierry Henry of Ghent Bonaventure Theodoric of Freiberg Meister Eckhart Berthold of Moosburg Paul of Venice Modern Renaissance Florentine Academy Plethon Marsilio Ficino Cristoforo Landino Giovanni Pico della Mirandola Cambridge Ralph Cudworth Henry More Anne Conway Petrus Ramus Giordano Bruno Blaise Pascal Emanuel Swedenborg German idealist Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Christian Wolff Moses Mendelssohn Immanuel Kant Johann Gottlieb Fichte Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling Arthur Schopenhauer G. 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en-wikipedia-org-3527	----	Merhotepre Sobekhotep - Wikipedia Merhotepre Sobekhotep From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sobekhotep V or VI? A seated Statue of Merhotepre Sobekhotep V from the Cairo Museum, on display at the King Tut exhibit in Seattle. It clearly bears both his royal names. Pharaoh Reign c. 3 years (13th Dynasty) Predecessor Sobekhotep IV Successor Sobekhotep VI Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Merhotepre Mr-ḥtp-Rˁ Beloved satisfaction of Ra Nomen Sobekhotep Sbk ḥtp Sobek is satisfied Father Sobekhotep IV ? Mother Nubhotepti' Merhotepre Sobekhotep (also known as Sobekhotep V; Sobekhotep VI in older studies) was an Egyptian king of the 13th Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. According to egyptologist Kim Ryholt he was the thirtieth pharaoh of the dynasty, while Darrell Baker believes instead that he was its twenty-ninth ruler.[1][2] In older studies, Jürgen von Beckerath and Detlef Franke identified Merhotepre Sobekhotep with Merhotepre Ini, thereby making him Sobekhotep VI and the twenty-eighth ruler of the 13th Dynasty.[3][4][5] Contents 1 Identity 2 Chronological position 3 See also 4 References Identity[edit] The identity of Merhotepre Sobekhotep is debatable because his name is missing from the Turin canon, a king list redacted in the early Ramesside period. According to Kim Ryholt, Merhotepre Sobekhotep is missing from the list because he was listed in the line below that of Sobekhotep IV. This line was lost in a lacuna of the papyrus.[6] That this king must have ruled during the 13th dynasty however is uncontested since a seated statue of the king bearing his cartouche has been found and is now located in the Cairo Museum. While Franke and von Beckerath identified Merhotepre Sobekhotep with Merhotepre Ini, on the basis that they have the same prenomen, Ryholt showed in 1997 that he was listed in the lacuna below Sobekhotep IV. Furthermore, Ryholt points to the many rulers of the period who shared prenomen and yet were not the same person. Ryholt thus sees him as a separate ruler from Merhotepre Ini and credits him a reign of approximately 3 years.[7] Chronological position[edit] Kneeling figure of Sobekhotep V, from Egypt, 1750–1700 BCE. Neues Museum, Berlin Merhotepre Sobekhotep's position following the reign of Sobekhotep IV is strongly suggested by the fact that five 13th Dynasty pharaohs are attested by genealogical seals which mention their parents. Four of these pharaohs are known to have been Sobekhotep III, Neferhotep I and his two brothers Sihathor, and Sobekhotep IV.[8] But two genealogical seals bear name of the ruler's mother as The king's Mother Nubhotepti and the king as Sobekhotep.[8] However, Sobekhotep III's mother was Jewhetibew whereas Neferhotep I, Sihathor and Sobekhotep IV were the sons of The King's Mother Kemi.[9] This means that there was a different king named Sobekhotep who used genealogical seals in his lifetime. A further seal impression found at Tukh apparently mentions the father of this unknown king and while it is broken, and the father's name is unreadable, "it is clear from the traces that it was neither Monthhotep [Sobekhotep III's father] or Haankhef [Neferhotep I, Sihathor and Sobekhotep IV's father]".[8] This seal impression is likely, therefore, to have been made by the paternal counterpart to the seal naming Nubhotepti. Since the seal impression bears a prenomen that appears to read mr-[...]-r' , Ryholt argues that we are dealing "with a king whose nomen was Sobekhotep and whose prenomen was constructed on the form mr-X-rˁ" such as Merhotepre or Merkawre Sobekhotep.[10] Ryholt notes, furthermore, that during the 13th Dynasty, royal genealogical seals were in use only during the period of the four identified kings, which succeeded each other on the throne: Sobekhotep III-Neferhotep I-Sihathor-Sobekhotep IV. Since during the 30+ years that followed in the reigns of Khahotepre Sobekhotep, Wahibre Ibiau and Merneferre Ay, no genealogical seals are attested for these three kings, it is safe to assume that "it had thus positively gone out of use by their reigns". Thus, Merkawre Sobekhotep would not have used it in his reign since he was the ninth successor of Sobekhotep IV.[11] The 30-year gap also excludes the reigns of other intervening kings from the death of Sobekhotep IV and the accession of Merkawre Sobekhotep such as Sewadjkare Hori who ruled Egypt for five years as per the Turin King List. Therefore, king Merhotepre Sobekhotep, who is also attested by a statue from the Cairo Museum, would be the only candidate remaining to be the immediate successor of Sobekhotep IV and predecessor of Khahotepre Sobekhotep. Merhotepre Sobekhotep employed genealogical seals and his name was lost in a lacuna at the bottom of a column of the Turin canon.[11] The successor of Merhotepre Sobekhotep, Khahotepre Sobekhotep, whose reign is mentioned on the Turin canon, also has a prenomen which is similar in style since it is built on an X-htp-rˁ formula, further confirming that both reigned in close succession. See also[edit] List of Pharaohs References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sebekhotep Merhotepre. ^ K. S. B. Ryholt, The political situation in Egypt during the second intermediate period, c. 1800–1550 B.C. Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, pp 37, 233 ^ Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46, Mainz am Rhein, 1997 ^ Thomas Schneider: Ancient Egyptian Chronology - Edited by Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss, And David A. Warburton, available online, see p. 176 ^ Kim S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, (Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997), pp.22-23 ^ Ryholt, p.197 ^ a b c Ryholt, p.231 ^ Ryholt, pp.225 & 231 ^ Ryholt, pp.231-232 ^ a b Ryholt, p.232 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Merhotepre_Sobekhotep&oldid=972483606" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is locally defined AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Català Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands Polski Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 12 August 2020, at 09:23 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3546	----	Khendjer - Wikipedia Khendjer From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Khendjer Upper part of a statue of Khendjer from his pyramid complex. Cairo Egyptian Museum, JE 53368 Pharaoh Reign Five years starting in 1764, 1756 or 1718 BC (Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt) Predecessor Wegaf (most likely [1]) or Khaankhre Sobekhotep Successor Imyremeshaw Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Userkare Wsr-k3-Rˁ Strong is the Ka of Ra Nomen Khendjer Ḫnḏr Boar Horus name Turin King List: User[...]re Khendjer Wsr-...-Rˁ-ḫnḏr Strong is the [...] of Ra, boar Consort Sonb[henas] Monuments Pyramid of Khendjer Userkare Khendjer was the twenty-first pharaoh of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period.[2] Khendjer possibly reigned for four to five years, archaeological attestations show that he was on the throne for at least three or four years three months and five days. Several absolute dates have been proposed for his reign, depending on the scholar: 1764—1759 BC as proposed by Ryholt and Baker,[1] 1756—1751 BC as reported by Redford,[3] and 1718—1712 BC as per Schneider.[4] Khendjer had a small pyramid built for himself in Saqqara and it is therefore likely that his capital was in Memphis. Contents 1 Name 2 Chronological position and reign length 3 Pyramid 4 References Name[edit] The name Khendjer is poorly attested in Egyptian.[5] Khendjer "has been interpreted as a foreign name hnzr and equated with the Semitic personal name h(n)zr, [for] "boar" according to the Danish Egyptologist Kim Ryholt.[1] He notes that this identification is confirmed by the fact that the name h(n)zr is written as hzr in a variant spelling of this king's name on a seal from this king's reign.[6] Ryholt states that the word 'boar' is: attested as huzīru in Akkadian, hinzīr in Arabic, hazīrā in Aramaic, hazīr in Hebrew (the name is attested as hēzīr in I Chron. 24:15, Neh. 10:20) hu-zi-ri in the Nuzi texts, hnzr in Ugarit, and perhaps hi-zi-ri in Amorite.[1] Khendjer was, therefore, the earliest known Semitic king of a native Egyptian dynasty. Khendjer's prenomen or throne name, Userkare, translates as "The Soul of Re is Powerful."[7] Khendjer, however, may have had a second prenomen at his coronation: 'Nimaatre' which translates as 'The one who belongs to Maat is Re.'[8] This name appears together with the name Khendjer at the top of the stela of Amenyseneb (Louvre C11).[9] Chronological position and reign length[edit] Khendjer making offerings on the pyramidion from his pyramid. The pyramidion from Khendjer's pyramid. The exact chronological position of Khendjer in the Thirteenth Dynasty is not known for certain owing to uncertainties affecting earlier kings of the dynasty. Egyptologist Darrell Baker makes him the twenty-first king of the dynasty, Ryholt sees him as the twenty-second king and Jürgen von Beckerath places him as the seventeenth pharaoh of the dynasty. Furthermore, the identity of his predecessor is still debated: Baker and Ryholt believe it was Wegaf, but that pharaoh is confused with Khaankhre Sobekhotep, so that it is not known which one of the two founded the Thirteenth Dynasty and which one was Khendjer's predecessor.[1][2] The highest attested date for Khendjer's reign is the fourth month of the season of the Inundation), day 15 in his fifth regnal year. Kim Ryholt notes that two dated control notes on stone blocks from his unfinished pyramid complex give him a minimum reign of 3 or 4 years 3 months and 5 days.[10] The aforementioned control notes are dated to Year 1 I Akhet day 10 and Year 5 IV Akhet day 15 of his reign.[11] In these control notes, the names of three officials involved in building the pyramid are also identified. They are the chamberlain of the palace, Senebtyfy, the chamberlain Ameny and the chamberlain, Shebenu.[12] The latter is also attested by other sources. Pyramid[edit] Main article: Pyramid of Khendjer Khendjer is known primarily from his pyramid complex excavated by G. Jequier at Saqqara which was perhaps completed as a pyramidion was found.[13] There was found a fragment of a canopic jar, which offers a partial name for his queen, Seneb ... "which may be restored as Sonb[henas]."[14] Other objects with the name of the king are a stela from Abydos recording building projects by the king at the Osiris temple at Abydos, and naming the vizier Ankhu. Another stela once in Liverpool (destroyed in World War II), provides the name of the king's son "Khedjer". He might be a son of the king.[15] Other objects with his name, according to the list provided by Ryholt, include three cylinder-seals from Athribis, a tile found near el-Lisht, scarab seals and an axe blade. References[edit] Media related to Khendjer at Wikimedia Commons ^ a b c d e K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997 ^ a b Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 181 ^ Redford, Donald B., ed. (2001). "Egyptian King List". The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 2. Oxford University Press. pp. 626–628. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) ^ Thomas Schneider following Detlef Franke: Lexikon der Pharaonen ^ The name Khedjer for private individuals appears on only two monuments: Stela Marischal Museum, University of Aberdeen ABDUA 21642 and on stela Liverpool M13635, see Iain Ralston: The Stela of Ibi son of Iiqi in the Marischal Museum, University of Aberdeen, In Discovering Egypt from the Neva, The Egyptologcial Legacy of Oleg D Berlev, edited by S. Quirke, Berlin 2003, pp.107-110, pl. 6 and W. Grajetzki: Two Treasurers of the Late Middle Kingdom, Oxford 2001, p. 28, pl. 2. Both monuments date to around the time of king Khendjer and the individuals there might have called themselves after the king. ^ Ryholt, p.220 and footnote 763 ^ Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames and Hudson Ltd, 2006 paperback, p.91 ^ Khendjer Titulary Archived 2012-05-27 at the Wayback Machine ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt 1964, 238 ^ Ryholt, p.193 ^ Ryholt, pp.193-195 ^ Felix Arnold: The Control Notes and Team Marks, The South Cemeteries of Lisht, Volume II, New York 1990, ISBN 0-87099-551-0, pp.176-183 ^ G. Jequier: Deux pyramides du Moyen Empire, Cairo 1933, S. 3-35 ^ Ryholt, op. cit., p.221 The object is Cairo JE 54498 ^ W. Grajetzki: Two Treasurers of the Late Middle Kingdom, Oxford 2001, p. 28, pl. 2 Preceded by Wegaf Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Imyremeshaw v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khendjer&oldid=971829073" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: CS1 maint: ref=harv Webarchive template wayback links Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Bosanski Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Hrvatski Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 8 August 2020, at 13:45 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3587	----	Amyntas I of Macedon - Wikipedia Amyntas I of Macedon From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search king of Macedon (r. 540 – 512/511 BC) and then a vassal of Achaemenid king Darius I (c. 540 BC - 498 BC) Vassal of Achaemenid Empire[1] Amyntas I Vassal of Achaemenid Empire[1] Coinage towards the end of the reign of Amyntas I, under the Achaemenids, Aegae, circa 510-480 BC. Goat kneeling right, head reverted; pellet above and before / Quadripartite incuse square. King of Macedon Reign traditional: 547–498 BC Predecessor Alcetas I Successor Alexander I Spouse Queen Eurydice Issue Alexander I Gygaea House Macedon (Ancient Macedonian ) Dynasty Argead Father Alcetas I Mother unknown Religion Ancient Macedonian Polytheism Amyntas I (Greek: Ἀμύντας Aʹ; c. 540 – 498 BC) was king of the ancient kingdom of Macedon (540 – 512 / 511 BC) and then a vassal of Darius I from 512/511 to his death 498 BC, at the time of Achaemenid Macedonia. He was a son of Alcetas I of Macedon. He married Eurydice and they had a son Alexander. Amyntas was a vassal of Darius I, king of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, since 512/511 BC.[2] Amyntas gave the present of "Earth and Water" to Megabazus, which symbolized submission to the Achaemenid Emperor.[3][4] One of the daughters of Amyntas, named Gygaea, was married to the Persian General, called Bubares, possibly as a way of reinforcing the alliance.[3][5] The history of Macedonia may be said to begin with Amyntas' reign. He was the first of its rulers to have diplomatic relations with other states.[6] In particular, he entered into an alliance with Hippias of Athens, and when Hippias was driven out of Athens he offered him the territory of Anthemus on the Thermaic Gulf with the object of taking advantage of the feuds between the Greeks.[6] Hippias refused the offer and also rejected the offer of Iolcos, as Amyntas probably did not control Anthemous at that time, but was merely suggesting a plan of joint occupation to Hippias.[7] References[edit] ^ Joseph Roisman,Ian Worthington. "A companion to Ancient Macedonia" John Wiley & Sons, 2011. ISBN 144435163X pp 343-345 ^ Joseph Roisman,Ian Worthington. "A companion to Ancient Macedonia" John Wiley & Sons, 2011. ISBN 144435163X pp 343-345 ^ a b Waters, Matt (2014). Ancient Persia: A Concise History of the Achaemenid Empire, 550–330 BCE. Cambridge University Press. p. 83. ISBN 9781107009608. ^ Herodotus, The Histories, Book 5, chapter 17. pp. 5.17–18. ^ Herodotus. Herodotus, The Histories, Book 5, chapter 21, section 2. ^ a b Chisholm 1911. ^ Miltiades V. Chatzopoulos Macedonian Institutions Under the Kings: A historical and epigraphic study, p. 174, ISBN 960-7094-89-1. Attribution  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Amyntas I". Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 900. Sources[edit] Herodotus v. 17, 94 Justin vii. 2 Thucydides ii. 100 Pausanias ix. 40 Preceded by Alcetas I King of Macedon 547–498 BC Succeeded by Alexander I v t e Kings of Macedon Argead Caranus Coenus Tyrimmas Perdiccas I Argaeus I Philip I Aeropus I Alcetas I Amyntas I Alexander I Alcetas II Perdiccas II Archelaus I Craterus Orestes / Aeropus II Archelaus II Amyntas II Pausanias Argaeus II Amyntas III Alexander II Perdiccas III Amyntas IV Philip II Alexander III (Alexander the Great) Philip III Alexander IV Regents Ptolemy of Aloros Perdiccas Peithon and Arrhidaeus Antipater Polyperchon Cassander Antipatrid Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Antigonid Demetrius I Antigonus II Demetrius II Antigonus III Philip V Perseus Andriscus (Philip VI) Non-dynastic Lysimachus Pyrrhus Ptolemy Keraunos Meleager v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amyntas_I_of_Macedon&oldid=983603207" Categories: 6th-century BC births 498 BC deaths 6th-century BC Macedonian monarchs 5th-century BC Macedonian monarchs Argead kings of Macedonia 5th-century BC rulers 6th-century BC rulers Achaemenid Macedon 6th-century BC Macedonians 5th-century BC Macedonians Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Hidden categories: Articles with short description Articles with long short description Short description matches Wikidata Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans العربية تۆرکجه বাংলা Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 15 October 2020, at 05:09 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3564	----	Egyptians - Wikipedia Egyptians From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the contemporary Nile Valley ethnic group. For other uses, see Egyptian (disambiguation). People of Egypt Egyptians Total population 104.2 million (2017)[1] Regions with significant populations  Egypt ~94.8 million (2017 estimate)[1][2]  Saudi Arabia 2,900,000[3]  United States 1,000,000 - 1,500,000 [4][5]  Libya ~1,000,000 (2011)[6]  United Arab Emirates 750,000[3]  Canada 250,000[7]  Italy 560,000[3]  Kuwait 500,000[3]  Sudan 500,000[8]  Australia 340,000[3]  Qatar 230,000[3]  Germany 77,000[3]  Israel 57,500[9]  Oman 56,000[8]  Netherlands 15,000 - 45,000[3][10][11]  Lebanon 40,000[8]  South Africa 40,000[8]  United Kingdom 39,000[12]  Greece 28,000[10]  France 15,000[13]  Brazil 4,000[10]  Spain 4,000[10] Languages Official: Modern Standard Arabic[14] National: Egyptian Arabic Sa'idi Arabic Coptic (mainly for Coptic Christian rituals) Egyptian (historically) other Languages of Egypt Religion Predominantly Islam (predominantly Sunni and Sufi) Christianity (predominantly Coptic Orthodox; also Coptic Catholic, Protestant) Historically, Ancient Egyptian religion Related ethnic groups Copts Nubians Maghrebis other Afroasiatic-speaking peoples Egyptians are the people originating from the country of Egypt. Egyptian identity is closely tied to geography. The population is concentrated in the lower Nile Valley, a small strip of cultivable land stretching from the First Cataract to the Mediterranean and enclosed by desert both to the east and to the west. This unique geography has been the basis of the development of Egyptian society since antiquity. The daily language of the Egyptians is a continuum of the local varieties of Arabic; the most famous dialect is known as Egyptian Arabic or Masri. Additionally, a sizable minority of Egyptians living in Upper Egypt speak Sa'idi Arabic. Egyptians are predominantly adherents of Sunni Islam with a Shia minority and a significant proportion who follow native Sufi orders.[15] A considerable percentage of Egyptians are Coptic Christians who belong to the Coptic Orthodox Church, whose liturgical language, Coptic, is the most recent stage of the ancient Egyptian language and is still used in prayers along with Arabic. Contents 1 Terminology 2 Demographics 3 History 3.1 Ancient Egypt 3.2 Graeco-Roman period 3.3 Islamic period from Late antiquity to Middle Ages 3.4 Ottoman period 3.5 Modern history 3.5.1 Nationalism 3.5.2 Liberal age 3.5.3 Republic 4 Languages 5 Identity 5.1 Ancient Egypt 5.2 Egypt and Africa 5.3 Ottoman Rule 5.4 British Rule 5.5 Nasserism 6 Culture 7 Surnames 8 Genetic history 9 See also 10 References 11 Bibliography 12 Further reading Terminology[edit] Egyptians have received several names: 𓂋𓍿𓀂𓁐𓏥𓈖𓆎𓅓𓏏𓊖 / rmṯ n Km.t, the native Egyptian name of the people of the Nile Valley, literally 'People of Kemet' (i.e., Egypt). In antiquity, it was often shortened to simply Rmṯ or "the people".[citation needed] The name is vocalized as ræm/en/kā/mi ⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ in the (Bohairic) Coptic stage of the language, meaning "Egyptian" (ni/ræm/en/kāmi ⲛⲓⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ with the plural definite article, "the Egyptians"). Egyptians, from Greek Αἰγύπτιοι, Aiguptioi, from Αἴγυπτος, Aiguptos "Egypt". The Greek name is derived from Late Egyptian Hikuptah "Memphis", a corruption of the earlier Egyptian name Hat-ka-Ptah (ḥwt-k3-ptḥ), meaning "home of the ka (soul) of Ptah", the name of a temple to the god Ptah at Memphis. Strabo provided a folk etymology according to which Αἴγυπτος had evolved as a compound from Aἰγαίου ὑπτίως Aegaeou huptiōs, meaning "below the Aegean". In English, the noun "Egyptians" appears in the 14th century, in Wycliff's Bible, as Egipcions.[citation needed] Copts (قبط, qibṭ, qubṭ), also a derivative of the Greek word Αἰγύπτιος, Aiguptios ("Egypt, Egyptian"), that appeared under Muslim rule when it overtook Roman rule in Egypt. The term referred to the Egyptian locals, to distinguish them from the Arab rulers. Coptic was the language of the state, Christian church and people [16][17] but was replaced by Arabic after the Muslim conquest.[18][19] Islam became the dominant religion centuries after the Muslim conquest in Egypt. This is due to centuries of conversion from Christianity to Islam, likely as a result of the higher tax rate on Christians. The modern term then became exclusively associated with Egyptian Christianity and Coptic Christians who are members of the Coptic Orthodox Church or Coptic Catholic Church. References to native Muslims as Copts are attested until the Mamluk period.[20] Masryeen (مَصريين, Masryyeen),[21] the modern Egyptian Arabic name, which comes from the ancient Semitic name for Egypt. The term originally connoted "Civilization" or "Metropolis"[22].Classical Arabic Miṣr (Egyptian Arabic Maṣr) is directly cognate with the Biblical Hebrew Mitsráyīm (מִצְרַיִם / מִצְרָיִם), meaning "the two straits", a reference to the predynastic separation of Upper and Lower Egypt. Also mentioned in several semitic languages as Mesru, Misir and Masar. The term "Misr" in Arabic refers to Egypt, but sometimes also to the Cairo area,[23] as a consequence, and because of the habit of identifying people with cities rather than countries (i.e. Tunis (capital of Tunisia), Tunsi). The term Masreyeen originally referred only to the native inhabitants of Cairo or "City of Misr" before its meaning expanded to encompass all Egyptians. Edward William Lane, writing in the 1820s, said that the native Muslim inhabitants of Cairo commonly call themselves El-Maṣreeyeen, Ewlad Maṣr (lit. Children of Masr) and Ahl Maṣr (lit. The People of Masr).[24] He also added that the Turks "stigmatized" the people of Egypt with the name Ahl-Far'ūn or the 'People of the Pharaoh'.[25] Demographics[edit] A map of Egypt's population density. A view of Cairo, the largest city in Africa and the Middle East. The Cairo Opera House (bottom-right) is the main performing arts venue in the Egyptian capital. There are an estimated 92.1 million Egyptians.[2] Most are native to Egypt, where Egyptians constitute around 99.6% of the population.[26] Approximately 84–90% of the population of Egypt are Muslim adherents and 10–15% are Christian adherents (10–15% Coptic Christian, 1% other Christian Sects (mainly Greek Orthodox)) according to estimates.[27][28] Most of Egypt’s people live along the banks of the Nile River, and more than two-fifths of the population lives in urban areas. Along the Nile, the population density is one of the highest in the world, in excess of 5,000 persons per square mile (2,000 per square km) in a number of riverine governorates. The rapidly growing population is young, with roughly one-third of the total under age 15 and about three-fifths under 30. In response to the strain put on Egypt’s economy by the country’s burgeoning population, a national family planning program was initiated in 1964, and by the 1990s it had succeeded in lowering the birth rate. Improvements in health care also brought the infant mortality rate well below the world average by the turn of the 21st century. Life expectancy averages about 72 years for men and 74 years for women.[29] Egyptians also form smaller minorities in neighboring countries, North America, Europe and Australia. Egyptians also tend to be provincial, meaning their attachment extends not only to Egypt but to the specific provinces, towns and villages from which they hail. Therefore, return migrants, such as temporary workers abroad, come back to their region of origin in Egypt. According to the International Organization for Migration, an estimated 2.7 million Egyptians live abroad and contribute actively to the development of their country through remittances (US$7.8 billion in 2009), circulation of human and social capital, as well as investment. Approximately 70% of Egyptian migrants live in Arab countries (923,600 in Saudi Arabia, 332,600 in Libya, 226,850 in Jordan, 190,550 in Kuwait with the rest elsewhere in the region) and the remaining 30% are living mostly in Europe and North America (318,000 in the United States, 110,000 in Canada and 90,000 in Italy).[30] Their characteristic rootedness as Egyptians, commonly explained as the result of centuries as a farming people clinging to the banks of the Nile, is reflected in sights, sounds and atmosphere that are meaningful to all Egyptians. Dominating the intangible pull of Egypt is the ever present Nile, which is more than a constant backdrop. Its varying colors and changing water levels signal the coming and going of the Nile flood that sets the rhythm of farming in a rainless country and holds the attention of all Egyptians. No Egyptian is ever far from his river and, except for the Alexandrines whose personality is split by looking outward toward the Mediterranean, the Egyptians are a hinterland people with little appetite for travel, even inside their own country. They glorify their national dishes, including the variety of concoctions surrounding the simple bean. Most of all, they have a sense of all-encompassing familiarity at home and a sense of alienation when abroad ... There is something particularly excruciating about Egyptian nostalgia for Egypt: it is sometimes outlandish, but the attachment flows through all Egyptians, as the Nile through Egypt.[31] A sizable Egyptian diaspora did not begin to form until well into the 1980s, when political and economic conditions began driving Egyptians out of the country in significant numbers. Today, the diaspora numbers nearly 4 million (2006 est).[32] Generally, those who emigrate to the United States and western European countries tend to do so permanently, with 93% and 55.5% of Egyptians (respectively) settling in the new country. On the other hand, Egyptians migrating to Arab countries almost always only go there with the intention of returning to Egypt; virtually none settle in the new country on a permanent basis.[33] Prior to 1974, only few Egyptian professionals had left the country in search for employment. Political, demographic and economic pressures led to the first wave of emigration after 1952. Later more Egyptians left their homeland first after the 1973 boom in oil prices and again in 1979, but it was only in the second half of the 1980s that Egyptian migration became prominent.[33] Egyptian emigration today is motivated by even higher rates of unemployment, population growth and increasing prices. Political repression and human rights violations by Egypt's ruling régime are other contributing factors (see Egypt § Human rights). Egyptians have also been impacted by the wars between Egypt and Israel, particularly after the Six-Day War in 1967, when migration rates began to rise. In August 2006, Egyptians made headlines when 11 students from Mansoura University failed to show up at their American host institutions for a cultural exchange program in the hope of finding employment.[34] Egyptians in neighboring countries face additional challenges. Over the years, abuse, exploitation and/or ill-treatment of Egyptian workers and professionals in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, Iraq and Libya have been reported by the Egyptian Human Rights Organization[35] and different media outlets.[36][37] Arab nationals have in the past expressed fear over an "'Egyptianization' of the local dialects and culture that were believed to have resulted from the predominance of Egyptians in the field of education"[38] (see also Egyptian Arabic – Geographics). The Egyptians for their part object to what they call the "Saudization[citation needed]" of their culture due to Saudi Arabian petrodollar-flush investment in the Egyptian entertainment industry.[39] Twice Libya was on the brink of war with Egypt due to mistreatment of Egyptian workers and after the signing of the peace treaty with Israel.[40] When the Gulf War ended, Egyptian workers in Iraq were subjected to harsh measures and expulsion by the Iraqi government and to violent attacks by Iraqis returning from the war to fill the workforce.[41] History[edit] Main article: Population history of Egypt Further information: History of Egypt Ancient Egypt[edit] Main articles: Ancient Egypt and History of ancient Egypt rmṯ (n) kmt 'Egyptians' in hieroglyphs Ancient Egypt saw a succession of thirty dynasties spanning three millennia. During this period, Egyptian culture underwent significant development in terms of religion, arts, language and customs. Egypt fell under Hyksos rule in the Middle Bronze Age. The native nobility managed to expel the conquerors by the Late Bronze Age, thereby initiating the New Kingdom. During this period, the Egyptian civilization rose to the status of an empire under Pharaoh Thutmose III of the 18th dynasty. It remained a super-regional power throughout the Amarna Period as well as during the 19th and 20th dynasties (the Ramesside Period), lasting into the Early Iron Age. The Bronze Age collapse that had afflicted the Mesopotamian empires reached Egypt with some delay, and it was only in the 11th century BC that the Empire declined, falling into the comparative obscurity of the Third Intermediate Period of Egypt. The 25th dynasty of Nubian rulers was again briefly replaced by native nobility in the 7th century BC, and in 525 BC, Egypt fell under Persian rule. Alexander the Great was greeted as a liberator when he conquered Egypt in 332 BC. The Late Period of ancient Egypt is taken to end with his death in 323 BC. The Ptolemaic dynasty ruled Egypt from 305 BC to 30 BC and introduced Hellenic culture to Egyptians. 4,000 Celtic mercenaries under Ptolemy II had even attempted an ambitious but doomed coup d'état around the year 270 BC. Throughout the Pharaonic epoch (viz., from 2920 BC to 525 BC in conventional Egyptian chronology), divine kingship was the glue which held Egyptian society together. It was especially pronounced in the Old Kingdom and Middle Kingdom and continued until the Roman conquest. The societal structure created by this system of government remained virtually unchanged up to modern times.[42] The role of the king was considerably weakened after the 20th dynasty. The king in his role as Son of Ra was entrusted to maintain Ma'at, the principle of truth, justice, and order, and to enhance the country's agricultural economy by ensuring regular Nile floods. Ascendancy to the Egyptian throne reflected the myth of Horus who assumed kingship after he buried his murdered father Osiris. The king of Egypt, as a living personification of Horus, could claim the throne after burying his predecessor, who was typically his father. When the role of the king waned, the country became more susceptible to foreign influence and invasion. The attention paid to the dead, and the veneration with which they were held, were one of the hallmarks of ancient Egyptian society. Egyptians built tombs for their dead that were meant to last for eternity. This was most prominently expressed by the Great Pyramids. The ancient Egyptian word for tomb pr nḥḥ means 'House of Eternity'. The Egyptians also celebrated life, as is shown by tomb reliefs and inscriptions, papyri and other sources depicting Egyptians farming, conducting trade expeditions, hunting, holding festivals, attending parties and receptions with their pet dogs, cats and monkeys, dancing and singing, enjoying food and drink, and playing games. The ancient Egyptians were also known for their engaging sense of humor, much like their modern descendants.[43] A boat scene, the tomb of Nebamun, 18th dynasty, Thebes Another important continuity during this period is the Egyptian attitude toward foreigners—those they considered not fortunate enough to be part of the community of rmṯ or "the people" (i.e., Egyptians.) This attitude was facilitated by the Egyptians' more frequent contact with other peoples during the New Kingdom when Egypt expanded to an empire that also encompassed Nubia through Jebel Barkal and parts of the Levant. The Egyptian sense of superiority was given religious validation, as foreigners in the land of Ta-Meri (Egypt) were anathema to the maintenance of Maat—a view most clearly expressed by the admonitions of Ipuwer in reaction to the chaotic events of the Second Intermediate Period. Foreigners in Egyptian texts were described in derogatory terms, e.g., 'wretched Asiatics' (Semites), 'vile Kushites' (Nubians), and 'Ionian dogs' (Greeks). Egyptian beliefs remained unchallenged when Egypt fell to the Hyksos, Assyrians, Libyans, Persians and Greeks—their rulers assumed the role of the Egyptian Pharaoh and were often depicted praying to Egyptian gods. The ancient Egyptians used a solar calendar that divided the year into 12 months of 30 days each, with five extra days added. The calendar revolved around the annual Nile Inundation (akh.t), the first of three seasons into which the year was divided. The other two were Winter and Summer, each lasting for four months. The modern Egyptian fellahin calculate the agricultural seasons, with the months still bearing their ancient names, in much the same manner. The importance of the Nile in Egyptian life, ancient and modern, cannot be overemphasized. The rich alluvium carried by the Nile inundation was the basis of Egypt's formation as a society and a state. Regular inundations were a cause for celebration; low waters often meant famine and starvation. The ancient Egyptians personified the river flood as the god Hapy and dedicated a Hymn to the Nile to celebrate it. km.t, the Black Land, was as Herodotus observed, "the gift of the river." Graeco-Roman period[edit] Main articles: Ptolemaic Kingdom and Egypt (Roman province) Roman-era portrait of an Egyptian mummy from the Fayum collection, c. AD 125 − AD 150 When Alexander died, a story began to circulate that Nectanebo II was Alexander's father. This made Alexander in the eyes of the Egyptians a legitimate heir to the native pharaohs.[44] The new Ptolemaic rulers, however, exploited Egypt for their own benefit and a great social divide was created between Egyptians and Greeks.[45] The local priesthood continued to wield power as they had during the Dynastic age. Egyptians continued to practice their religion undisturbed and largely maintained their own separate communities from their foreign conquerors.[46] The language of administration became Greek, but the mass of the Egyptian population was Egyptian-speaking and concentrated in the countryside, while most Greeks lived in Alexandria and only few had any knowledge of Egyptian.[47] The Ptolemaic rulers all retained their Greek names and titles, but projected a public image of being Egyptian pharaohs. Much of this period's vernacular literature was composed in the demotic phase and script of the Egyptian language. It was focused on earlier stages of Egyptian history when Egyptians were independent and ruled by great native pharaohs such as Ramesses II. Prophetic writings circulated among Egyptians promising expulsion of the Greeks, and frequent revolts by the Egyptians took place throughout the Ptolemaic period.[48] A revival in animal cults, the hallmark of the Predyanstic and Early Dyanstic periods, is said to have come about to fill a spiritual void as Egyptians became increasingly disillusioned and weary due to successive waves of foreign invasions.[49] When the Romans annexed Egypt in 30 BC, the social structure created by the Greeks was largely retained, though the power of the Egyptian priesthood diminished. The Roman emperors lived abroad and did not perform the ceremonial functions of Egyptian kingship as the Ptolemies had. The art of mummy portraiture flourished, but Egypt became further stratified with Romans at the apex of the social pyramid, Greeks and Jews occupied the middle stratum, while Egyptians, who constituted the vast majority, were at the bottom. Egyptians paid a poll tax at full rate, Greeks paid at half-rate and Roman citizens were exempt.[50] The Roman emperor Caracalla advocated the expulsion of all ethnic Egyptians from the city of Alexandria, saying "genuine Egyptians can easily be recognized among the linen-weavers by their speech."[51] This attitude lasted until AD 212 when Roman citizenship was finally granted to all the inhabitants of Egypt, though ethnic divisions remained largely entrenched.[52] The Romans, like the Ptolemies, treated Egypt like their own private property, a land exploited for the benefit of a small foreign elite. The Egyptian peasants, pressed for maximum production to meet Roman quotas, suffered and fled to the desert.[53] The cult of Isis, like those of Osiris and Serapis, had been popular in Egypt and throughout the Roman Empire at the coming of Christianity, and continued to be the main competitor with Christianity in its early years. The main temple of Isis remained a major center of worship in Egypt until the reign of the Byzantine emperor Justinian I in the 6th century, when it was finally closed down. Egyptians, disaffected and weary after a series of foreign occupations, identified the story of the mother-goddess Isis protecting her child Horus with that of the Virgin Mary and her son Jesus escaping the emperor Herod.[54] Consequently, many sites believed to have been the resting places of the holy family during their sojourn in Egypt became sacred to the Egyptians. The visit of the holy family later circulated among Egyptian Christians as fulfillment of the Biblical prophecy "When Israel was a child, then I loved him, and called my son out of Egypt" (Hosea 11:1). The feast of the coming of the Lord of Egypt on June 1 became an important part of Christian Egyptian tradition. According to tradition, Christianity was brought to Egypt by Saint Mark the Evangelist in the early 40s of the 1st century, under the reign of the Roman emperor Nero. The earliest converts were Jews residing in Alexandria, a city which had by then become a center of culture and learning in the entire Mediterranean oikoumene. A Coptic-Arabic manuscript, Ayyubid period, AD 1249–50. Images depict Jesus in the Garden of Gethsemane, the kiss of Judas, the arrest of Christ, his appearance before Caiaphas, Peter's denial at cockcrow, Christ before Pilate, and the baptism of Jesus in the Jordan River. St. Mark is said to have founded the Holy Apostolic See of Alexandria and to have become its first Patriarch. Within 50 years of St. Mark's arrival in Alexandria, a fragment of New Testament writings appeared in Oxyrhynchus (Bahnasa), which suggests that Christianity already began to spread south of Alexandria at an early date. By the mid-third century, a sizable number of Egyptians were persecuted by the Romans on account of having adopted the new Christian faith, beginning with the Edict of Decius. Christianity was tolerated in the Roman Empire until AD 284, when the Emperor Diocletian persecuted and put to death a great number of Christian Egyptians.[55] This event became a watershed in the history of Egyptian Christianity, marking the beginning of a distinct Egyptian or Coptic Church. It became known as the 'Era of the Martyrs' and is commemorated in the Coptic calendar in which dating of the years began with the start of Diocletian's reign. When Egyptians were persecuted by Diocletian, many retreated to the desert to seek relief. The practice precipitated the rise of monasticism, for which the Egyptians, namely St. Antony, St. Bakhum, St. Shenouda and St. Amun, are credited as pioneers. By the end of the 4th century, it is estimated that the mass of the Egyptians had either embraced Christianity or were nominally Christian.[55] The Catachetical School of Alexandria was founded in the 3rd century by Pantaenus, becoming a major school of Christian learning as well as science, mathematics and the humanities. The Psalms and part of the New Testament were translated at the school from Greek to Egyptian, which had already begun to be written in Greek letters with the addition of a number of demotic characters. This stage of the Egyptian language would later come to be known as Coptic along with its alphabet. The third theologian to head the Catachetical School was a native Egyptian by the name of Origen. Origen was an outstanding theologian and one of the most influential Church Fathers. He traveled extensively to lecture in various churches around the world and has many important texts to his credit including the Hexapla, an exegesis of various translations of the Hebrew Bible. At the threshold of the Byzantine period, the New Testament had been entirely translated into Coptic. But while Christianity continued to thrive in Egypt, the old pagan beliefs which had survived the test of time were facing mounting pressure. The Byzantine period was particularly brutal in its zeal to erase any traces of ancient Egyptian religion. Under emperor Theodosius I, Christianity had already been proclaimed the religion of the Empire and all pagan cults were forbidden. When Egypt fell under the jurisdiction of Constantinople after the split of the Roman Empire, many ancient Egyptian temples were either destroyed or converted into monasteries.[56] One of the defining moments in the history of the Church in Egypt is a controversy that ensued over the nature of Jesus Christ which culminated in the final split of the Coptic Church from both the Byzantine and Roman Catholic Churches. The Council of Chalcedon convened in AD 451, signaling the Byzantine Empire's determination to assert its hegemony over Egypt. When it declared that Jesus Christ was of two natures embodied in Christ's person, the Egyptian reaction was swift, rejecting the decrees of the Council as incompatible with the Miaphysite doctrine of Coptic Orthodoxy. The Copts' upholding of the Miaphysite doctrine against the pro-Chalcedonian Greek Melkites had both theological and national implications. As Coptologist Jill Kamil notes, the position taken by the Egyptians "paved [the way] for the Coptic church to establish itself as a separate entity...No longer even spiritually linked with Constantinople, theologians began to write more in Coptic and less in Greek. Coptic art developed its own national character, and the Copts stood united against the imperial power."[57] Islamic period from Late antiquity to Middle Ages[edit] Tomb of Egyptian saint Dhul-Nun al-Misri (AD 796–859) in Cairo's City of the Dead. En Route to an Arab Wedding or Katb el-Kitāb in Cairo, Egypt Before the Muslim conquest of Egypt, the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius was able to reclaim the country after a brief Persian invasion in AD 616, and subsequently appointed Cyrus of Alexandria, a Chalcedonian, as Patriarch. Cyrus was determined to convert the Egyptian Miaphysites by any means. He expelled Coptic monks and bishops from their monasteries and sees. Many died in the chaos, and the resentment of the Egyptians against their Byzantine conquerors reached a peak.[58] Meanwhile, the new religion of Islam was making headway in Arabia, culminating in the Muslim conquests that took place following Muhammad's Passing on. In AD 639, the Arab general 'Amr ibn al-'As marched into Egypt, facing off with the Byzantines in the Battle of Heliopolis that ended with the Byzantines' defeat. The relationship between the Greek Melkites and the Egyptian Copts had grown so bitter that most Egyptians did not put up heavy resistance against the Arabs.[59] The new Muslim rulers moved the capital to Fustat and, through the 7th century, retained the existing Byzantine administrative structure with Greek as its language. Native Egyptians filled administrative ranks and continued to worship freely so long as they paid the jizya poll tax, in addition to a land tax that all Egyptians irrespective of religion also had to pay. The authority of the Miaphysite doctrine of the Coptic Church was for the first time nationally recognized.[60] According to al-Ya'qubi, repeated revolts by Egyptian Christians against the Muslim Arabs took place in the 8th and 9th centuries under the reign of the Umayyads and Abbasids. The greatest was one in which disaffected Muslim Egyptians joined their Christian compatriots around AD 830 in an unsuccessful attempt to repel the Arabs.[60] The Egyptian Muslim historian Ibn Abd al-Hakam spoke harshly of the Abbasids—a reaction that according to Egyptologist Okasha El-Daly can be seen "within the context of the struggle between proud native Egyptians and the central Abbasid caliphate in Iraq."[61] The form of Islam that eventually took hold in Egypt was Sunni, though very early in this period Egyptians began to blend their new faith with indigenous beliefs and practices that had survived through Coptic Christianity. Just as Egyptians had been pioneers in early monasticism so they were in the development of the mystical form of Islam, Sufism.[62] Various Sufi orders were founded in the 8th century and flourished until the present day. One of the earliest Egyptian Sufis was Dhul-Nun al-Misri (i.e., Dhul-Nun the Egyptian). He was born in Akhmim in AD 796 and achieved political and social leadership over the Egyptian people.[63] Dhul-Nun was regarded as the Patron Saint of the Physicians and is credited with having introduced the concept of Gnosis into Islam, as well as of being able to decipher a number of hieroglyphic characters due to his knowledge of Coptic.[64] He was keenly interested in ancient Egyptian sciences, and claimed to have received his knowledge of alchemy from Egyptian sources.[65] Al-Azhar Mosque founded in AD 970 by the Fatimids Mosque of Abu Haggag built in the 11th century over the ruins of a pharaonic temple. The ancient Opet festival associated with this temple is mirrored in the present day festival of Abu-l Haggag celebrated similarly by boat processions through the streets of Luxor.[66] In the years to follow the Arab occupation of Egypt, a social hierarchy was created whereby Egyptians who converted to Islam acquired the status of mawali or "clients" to the ruling Arab elite, while those who remained Christian, the Copts, became dhimmis. In time the power of the Arabs waned throughout the Islamic Empire so that in the 10th century, the Turkish Ikhshids were able to take control of Egypt and made it an independent political unit from the rest of the empire. Egyptians continued to live socially and politically separate from their foreign conquerors, but their rulers like the Ptolemies before them were able to stabilize the country and bring renewed economic prosperity. It was under the Shiite Fatimids from the 10th to the 12th centuries that Muslim Egyptian institutions began to take form along with the Egyptian dialect of Arabic, which was to eventually slowly supplant native Egyptian or Coptic as the spoken language. Al-Azhar was founded in AD 970 in the new capital Cairo, not very far from its ancient predecessor in Memphis. It became the preeminent Muslim center of learning in Egypt and by the Ayyubid period it had acquired a Sunni orientation. The Fatimids with some exceptions were known for their religious tolerance and their observance of local Muslim, Coptic and indigenous Egyptian festivals and customs. Under the Ayyubids, the country for the most part continued to prosper. The Mamluks of Egypt (AD 1258–1517) as a whole were, some of the most enlightened rulers of Egypt, not only in the arts and in providing for the welfare of their subjects, but also in many other ways, such as efficient organisation of law and order and postal services, and the building of canals, roads, bridges and aqueducts.[67] Though turbulent, often treacherous and brutal in their feuds, and politically and economically inept, the later Mameluks maintained the splendour and artistic traditions of their predecessors. The reign of Kait Bey (1468-1496) was one of high achievement in architecture, showing great refinement of taste in the building of elegant tombs, mosques and palaces. It was a period in which learning flourished. Their rule is generally[citation needed] regarded as one under which Egyptians, Muslims and Copts, greatly suffered. By the 15th century most Egyptians had already been converted to Islam, while Coptic Christians were reduced to a minority.[68][69] The Mamluks were mainly ethnic Circassians and Turks who had been captured as slaves then recruited into the army fighting on behalf of the Islamic empire. Native Egyptians were not allowed to serve in the army until the reign of Mohamed Ali. Historian James Jankwoski writes: Ultimately, Mamluk rule rested on force. The chronicles of the period are replete with examples of Mamluk violence against the indigenous population of Egypt...From horseback, they simply terrorized those lesser breeds who crossed their paths. The sudden and arbitrary use of force by the government and its dominant military elite; frequent resort to cruelty to make a point; ingenious methods of torture employed both for exemplary purpose and to extract wealth from others: all these measures were routine in the Mamluk era. Egypt under the Mamluks was not a very secure place to live.[70] Ottoman period[edit] Egyptians under the Ottoman Turks from the 16th to the 18th centuries lived within a social hierarchy similar to that of the Mamluks, Arabs, Romans, Greeks and Persians before them. Native Egyptians applied the term atrak (Turks) indiscriminately to the Ottomans and Mamluks, who were at the top of the social pyramid, while Egyptians, most of whom were farmers, were at the bottom. Frequent revolts by the Egyptian peasantry against the Ottoman-Mamluk Beys took place throughout the 18th century, particularly in Upper Egypt where the peasants at one point wrested control of the region and declared a separatist government.[71] The only segment of Egyptian society which appears to have retained a degree of power during this period were the Muslim 'ulama or religious scholars, who directed the religious and social affairs of the native Egyptian population and interceded on their behalf when dealing with the Turko-Circassian elite. It is also believed that during the time of Ottoman period of Egypt, native Egyptians were allowed and required to join the army for the first time since the Roman period of Egypt, particularly Copts who were civil servants at the time of Mohammed Ali Pasha. From the Egyptian side, literary works from both the Mamluk and Ottoman eras indicate that literate Egyptians had not totally submerged their identity within Islam, but retained an awareness of Egypt's distinctiveness as a uniquely fertile region of the Muslim world, as a land of great historical antiquity and splendor... At least for some Egyptians, 'the land of Egypt' (al-diyar al-misriyya) was an identifiable and emotionally meaningful entity within the larger Muslim polity of which it was now a province.[72] Modern history[edit] Main articles: History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty and History of modern Egypt Battle of the Pyramids by François-Louis-Joseph Watteau, 1798–1799 Egyptian women in traditional dress Modern Egyptian history is generally believed to begin with the French expedition in Egypt led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1798. The French defeated a Mamluk-Ottoman army at the Battle of the Pyramids, and soon they were able to seize control of the country. The French occupation was short-lived, ending when British troops drove out the French in 1801. Its impact on the social and cultural fabric of Egyptian society, however, was tremendous. The Egyptians were deeply hostile to the French, whom they viewed as yet another foreign occupation to be resisted. At the same time, the French expedition introduced Egyptians to the ideals of the French Revolution which were to have a significant influence on their own self-perception and realization of modern independence. When Napoleon invited the Egyptian ulama to head a French-supervised government in Egypt, for some, it awakened a sense of nationalism and a patriotic desire for national independence from the Turks. In addition, the French introduced the printing press in Egypt and published its first newspaper. The monumental catalogue of Egypt's ecology, society and economy, Description de l'Égypte, was written by scholars and scientists who accompanied the French army on their expedition. The withdrawal of French forces from Egypt left a power vacuum that was filled after a period of political turmoil by Mohammed Ali, an Ottoman officer of Albanian ethnicity. He rallied support among the Egyptians until he was elected by the native Muslim ulama as governor of Egypt. Mohammed Ali is credited for having undertaken a massive campaign of public works, including irrigation projects, agricultural reforms and the cultivation of cash crops (notably cotton, rice and sugar-cane), increased industrialization, and a new educational system—the results of which are felt to this day.[73] In order to consolidate his power in Egypt, Mohammed Ali worked to eliminate the Turko-Circassian domination of administrative and army posts. For the first time since the Roman period, native Egyptians filled the junior ranks of the country's army. The army would later conduct military expeditions in the Levant, Sudan and against the Wahabis in Arabia.[73] Many Egyptians student missions were sent to Europe in the early 19th century to study at European universities and acquire technical skills such as printing, shipbuilding and modern military techniques. One of these students, whose name was Rifa'a et-Tahtawy, was the first in a long line of intellectuals that started the modern Egyptian Renaissance. Nationalism[edit] Rifa'a el-Tahtawi, 1801–1873, laid the groundwork for the modern Egyptian Renaissance. The period between 1860–1940 was characterized by an Egyptian nahda, renaissance or rebirth. It is best known for the renewed interest in Egyptian antiquity and the cultural achievements that were inspired by it. Along with this interest came an indigenous, Egypt-centered orientation, particularly among the Egyptian intelligentsia that would affect Egypt's autonomous development as a sovereign and independent nation-state.[74] The first Egyptian renaissance intellectual was Rifa'a el-Tahtawi. In 1831, Tahtawi undertook a career in journalism, education and translation. Three of his published volumes were works of political and moral philosophy. In them he introduces his students to Enlightenment ideas such as secular authority and political rights and liberty; his ideas regarding how a modern civilized society ought to be and what constituted by extension a civilized or "good Egyptian"; and his ideas on public interest and public good.[74] Tahtawi was instrumental in sparking indigenous interest in Egypt's ancient heritage. He composed a number of poems in praise of Egypt and wrote two other general histories of the country. He also co-founded with his contemporary Ali Mubarak, the architect of the modern Egyptian school system, a native Egyptology school that looked for inspiration to medieval Egyptian scholars like Suyuti and Maqrizi, who studied ancient Egyptian history, language and antiquities.[75] Tahtawi encouraged his compatriots to invite Europeans to come and teach the modern sciences in Egypt, drawing on the example of Pharaoh Psamtek I who had enlisted the Greeks' help in organizing the Egyptian army.[citation needed] Egyptian silk weavers during the reign of Khedive Ismail, 1880. Among Mohammed Ali's successors, the most influential was Isma'il Pasha who became khedive in 1863. Ismail's reign witnessed the growth of the army, major education reforms, the founding of the Egyptian Museum and the Royal Opera House, the rise of an independent political press, a flourishing of the arts, and the inauguration of the Suez Canal. In 1866, the Assembly of Delegates was founded to serve as an advisory body for the government. Its members were elected from across Egypt, including villages, which meant that native Egyptians came to exert increasing political and economic influence over their country.[76] Several generations of Egyptians exposed to the ideas of constitutionalism made up the emerging intellectual and political milieu that slowly filled the ranks of the government, the army and institutions which had long been dominated by an aristocracy of Turks, Greeks, Circassians and Armenians.[citation needed] Ismail's massive modernization campaign, however, left Egypt indebted to European powers, leading to increased European meddling in local affairs. This led to the formation of secret groups made up of Egyptian notables, ministers, journalists and army officers organized across the country to oppose the increasing European influence.[77] When the British deposed Ismail and installed his son Tawfik, the now Egyptian-dominated army reacted violently, staging a revolt led by Minister of War Ahmed Urabi, self-styled el-Masri ('the Egyptian'), against the Khedive, the Turko-Circassian elite, and the European stronghold. The revolt was a military failure and British forces occupied Egypt in 1882. Technically, Egypt was still part of the Ottoman Empire with the Mohammed Ali family ruling the country, though now with British supervision and according to British directives. The Egyptian army was disbanded and a smaller army commanded by British officers was installed in its place. Liberal age[edit] Main article: Liberalism in Egypt Mustafa Kamil (1874−1908), an anti-colonial nationalist famous for coining the phrase, "If I had not been an Egyptian, I would have wished to become one". Egyptian self-government, education, and the continued plight of Egypt's peasant majority deteriorated most significantly under British occupation. Slowly, an organized national movement for independence began to form. In its beginnings, it took the form of an Azhar-led religious reform movement that was more concerned with the social conditions of Egyptian society. It gathered momentum between 1882 and 1906, ultimately leading to a resentment against European occupation.[78] Sheikh Muhammad Abduh, the son of a Delta farmer who was briefly exiled for his participation in the Urabi revolt and a future Azhar Mufti, was its most notable advocate. Abduh called for a reform of Egyptian Muslim society and formulated the modernist interpretations of Islam that took hold among younger generations of Egyptians. Among these were Mustafa Kamil and Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed, the architects of modern Egyptian nationalism. Mustafa Kamil had been a student activist in the 1890s involved in the creation of a secret nationalist society that called for British evacuation from Egypt. He was famous for coining the popular expression, "If I had not been an Egyptian, I would have wished to become one." Egyptian nationalist sentiment reached a high point after the 1906 Dinshaway Incident, when following an altercation between a group of British soldiers and Egyptian farmers, four of the farmers were hanged while others were condemned to public flogging. Dinshaway, a watershed in the history of Egyptian anti-colonial resistance, galvanized Egyptian opposition against the British, culminating in the founding of the first two political parties in Egypt: the secular, liberal Umma (the Nation, 1907) headed by Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed, and the more radical, pro-Islamic Watani Party (National Party, 1908) headed by Mustafa Kamil. Lutfi was born to a family of farmers in the Delta province of Daqahliya in 1872. He was educated at al-Azhar where he attended lectures by Mohammed Abduh. Abduh came to have a profound influence on Lutfi's reformist thinking in later years. In 1907, he founded the Umma Party newspaper, el-Garida, whose statement of purpose read: "El-Garida is a purely Egyptian party which aims to defend Egyptian interests of all kinds."[79] Both the People and National parties came to dominate Egyptian politics until World War I, but the new leaders of the national movement for independence following four arduous years of war (in which Great Britain declared Egypt a British protectorate) were closer to the secular, liberal principles of Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed and the People's Party. Prominent among these was Saad Zaghlul who led the new movement through the Wafd Party. Saad Zaghlul held several ministerial positions before he was elected to the Legislative Assembly and organized a mass movement demanding an end to the British Protectorate. He garnered such massive popularity among the Egyptian people that he came to be known as 'Father of the Egyptians'. When on March 8, 1919 the British arrested Zaghlul and his associates and exiled them to Malta, the Egyptian people staged their first modern revolution. Demonstrations and strikes across Egypt became such a daily occurrence that normal life was brought to a halt.[80] The Wafd Party drafted a new Constitution in 1923 based on a parliamentary representative system. Saad Zaghlul became the first popularly elected Prime Minister of Egypt in 1924. Egyptian independence at this stage was provisional, as British forces continued to be physically present on Egyptian soil. In 1936, the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty was concluded. New forces that came to prominence were the Muslim Brotherhood and the radical Young Egypt Party. In 1920, Banque Misr (Bank of Egypt) was founded by Talaat Pasha Harb as "an Egyptian bank for Egyptians only",[81] which restricted shareholding to native Egyptians and helped finance various new Egyptian-owned businesses. King Farouk I, Queen Farida and their first-born daughter Princess Ferial c. 1940. Under the parliamentary monarchy, Egypt reached the peak of its modern intellectual Renaissance that was started by Rifa'a el-Tahtawy nearly a century earlier. Among those who set the intellectual tone of a newly independent Egypt, in addition to Muhammad Abduh and Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed, were Qasim Amin, Muhammad Husayn Haykal, Taha Hussein, Abbas el-'Akkad, Tawfiq el-Hakeem, and Salama Moussa. They delineated a liberal outlook for their country expressed as a commitment to individual freedom, secularism, an evolutionary view of the world and faith in science to bring progress to human society.[82] This period was looked upon with fondness by future generations of Egyptians as a Golden Age of Egyptian liberalism, openness, and an Egypt-centered attitude that put the country's interests center stage. When Egyptian novelist and Nobel Prize laureate Naguib Mahfouz died in 2006, many Egyptians felt that perhaps the last of the Greats of Egypt's golden age had died. In his dialogues with close associate and journalist Mohamed Salmawy, published as Mon Égypte, Mahfouz had this to say: Egypt is not just a piece of land. Egypt is the inventor of civilisation ... The strange thing is that this country of great history and unsurpassed civilisation is nothing but a thin strip along the banks of the Nile ... This thin strip of land created moral values, launched the concept of monotheism, developed arts, invented science and gave the world a stunning administration. These factors enabled the Egyptians to survive while other cultures and nations withered and died ... Throughout history Egyptians have felt that their mission is to tend to life. They were proud to turn the land green, to make it blossom with life. The other thing is that Egyptians invented morality long before the major religions appeared on earth. Morality is not just a system for control but a protection against chaos and death ... Egypt gave Islam a new voice. It didn't change the basic tenets of Islam, but its cultural weight gave Islam a new voice, one it didn't have back in Arabia. Egypt embraced an Islam that was moderate, tolerant and non-extremist. Egyptians are very pious, but they know how to mix piety with joy, just as their ancestors did centuries ago. Egyptians celebrate religious occasions with flair. For them, religious festivals and the month of Ramadan are occasions to celebrate life.[83] Republic[edit] The Free Officers Movement overthrew the Egyptian monarchy. The bottom row from left to right includes the Gamal Abdel Nasser, the movement's operational leader and Egypt's second president, Muhammad Naguib, Egypt's first president, Abdel Hakim Amer and Anwar Sadat, Egypt's third president Over 2 million Egyptians protesting in Tahrir Square Increased involvement by King Farouk in parliamentary affairs, government corruption, and the widening gap between the country's rich and poor led to the eventual toppling of the monarchy and the dissolution of the parliament through a coup d'état by a group of army officers in 1952. The Egyptian Republic was declared on June 18, 1953 with General Muhammad Naguib as the first President of the Republic. After Naguib was forced to resign in 1954 and later put under house arrest by Gamal Abdel Nasser, the real architect of the 1952 movement, mass protests by Egyptians erupted against the forced resignation of what became a popular symbol of the new regime.[84] Nasser assumed power as President and began a nationalization process that initially had profound effects on the socioeconomic strata of Egyptian society. According to one historian, "Egypt had, for the first time since 343 BC, been ruled not by a Macedonian Greek, nor a Roman, nor an Arab, nor a Turk, but by an Egyptian."[85] Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal leading to the 1956 Suez Crisis. Egypt became increasingly involved in regional affairs until three years after the 1967 Six-Day War, in which Egypt lost the Sinai to Israel, Nasser died and was succeeded by Anwar Sadat. Sadat revived an Egypt Above All orientation, switched Egypt's Cold War allegiance from the Soviet Union to the United States, expelling Soviet advisors in 1972, and launched the Infitah economic reform policy. Like his predecessor, he also clamped down on religious and leftist opposition alike. Egyptians fought one last time in the 1973 October War in an attempt to liberate Egyptian territories captured by Israel six years earlier. The October War presented Sadat with a political victory that later allowed him to regain the Sinai. In 1977, Sadat made a historic visit to Israel leading to the signing of the 1978 peace treaty, which was supported by the vast majority of Egyptians,[86] in exchange for the complete Israeli withdrawal from Sinai. Sadat was assassinated in Cairo by members of the Egyptian Islamic Jihad in 1981, and was succeeded by Hosni Mubarak. Hosni Mubarak was the president from 14 October 1981 to 11 February 2011, when he resigned under pressure of popular protest. Although power was ostensibly organized under a multi-party semi-presidential system, in practice it rested almost solely with the president. In late February 2005, for the first time since the 1952 coup d'état, the Egyptian people had an apparent chance to elect a leader from a list of various candidates, most prominently Ayman Nour. Most Egyptians were skeptical about the process of democratization and feared that power might ultimately be transferred to the president's first son, Gamal Mubarak.[87] After the resignation of Hosni Mubarak presidential powers were transferred to the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces, who relinquished power on 30 June 2012 when Islamist candidate Mohamed Morsi became the first democratically elected head of state in Egyptian history. He was ousted in a revolution and military coup a year afterward, jailed by the government, sentenced to death (later overturned), and died in prison six years later largely due to and medical mistreatment by the government.[88] In the 26–28 May 2014 Egyptian presidential election, former General Abdel Fattah el-Sisi won in a landslide, capturing 97% of the vote according to the government. The election was widely regarded as undemocratic due to several political opponents being detained or banned from running.[89] In 2018 el-Sisi was re-elected with 97% of the vote, in an election denounced by human rights groups as unfair and "farcical".[90] Multiple opposition candidates were blackmailed and imprisoned by el-Sisi before the vote, ensuring his victory.[91] Languages[edit] Main articles: Languages of Egypt, Egyptian Arabic, and Coptic language Further information: Egyptian language A Luxor school teacher lecturing on Eastern Arabic numerals. A 3rd-century Coptic inscription. In the Early Dynastic Period, Nile Valley Egyptians spoke the Archaic Egyptian language. In antiquity, Egyptians spoke the Egyptian language. It constitutes its own branch of the Afroasiatic family. The Coptic language is the last form of the Egyptian language, written in Coptic alphabet which is based on the Greek alphabet. It is worth noting that other languages, such as Nubian, Arabic, and other Libyan languages also existed in Egypt outside of the Nile valley and in the mountains surrounding it since at least the time of Herodotus, with Arabic being used mainly in the Eastern Desert and Sinai,[92] Nubian (referred to as Ethiopian By Herodotus) South of the first cataract of the Nile,[93] and other Libyan Languages in the Libyan Desert[92] Although Arabic was spoken in parts of Egypt in the pre-islamic era such as the Eastern Desert and Sinai,[92] Coptic was the Language of the majority of Egyptians residing in the Nile Valley. Arabic was adopted by the rulers of Egypt after the Islamic invasion. Gradually, and after numerous waves of massive immigration, such as the Banu Hilal exodus, Arabic came to replace Coptic as the spoken language.[94] Spoken Coptic was mostly extinct by the 17th century but may have survived in isolated pockets in Upper Egypt as late as the 19th century.[95] The official language of Egypt today is Arabic. Many spoken vernaculars exist such as Egyptian Arabic, Saidi Arabic, and also Bedawi Arabic in the Sinai, and Western Egyptian Arabic in the Western desert. The most prestigious and widely spread vernacular is known as Egyptian Arabic or Cairene Arabic, being spoken by about 50% of the population, and the second, less prestigious, being Saidi Arabic, spoken by about 35-40% of the population. Modern Standard Arabic is reserved for official, educational, and more formal contexts as is the case in all Arab countries. The recorded history of Egyptian Arabic as a dialect begins in Ottoman Egypt with a document by the 17th-century Moroccan author Yusuf Al-Maghribi during after his travels to Egypt writing about the peculiarities of the speech of the Egyptian people دفع الإصر عن كلام أهل مصر Dafʻ al-ʼiṣr ʻan kalām ʼahl Miṣr ("Apology of the Egyptian vernacular", lit. "The Removal of the Burden from the Language of the people of Egypt")[96] This suggests the language that by then was spoken in the majority of Misr (Egypt). It's also worth noting that Arabic speakers commonly referred to the modern day area of Greater Cairo (Cairo, Fustat, Giza, and their surroundings) by the name of "Misr",[97][98] which was also the name used to refer to the entire land of Egypt. As a consequence, and because of the habit of identifying people in the capital with the entire country's name, the word Misreyeen/Masreyeen which is derived from the Quranic term Misr, the Hebrew Bible term Mitzrayim, and the Ancient Amarna tablets term Misri (lit. Land of Egypt)[99] and Assyrian records called Egypt Mu-ṣur.,[100] commonly referred to the people of Egypt's Capital City, the greater Cairo area.[101] It is represented in a body of vernacular literature comprising novels, plays and poetry published over the course of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Classical Arabic is also a significant cultural element in Egyptian culture, as Egyptian novelists and poets were among the first to experiment with modern styles of Arabic literature, and the forms they developed have been widely imitated. While the Egyptian Arabic dialect is derived from the formal Arabic language, it has also been influenced by many other languages such as French, Turkish and the old Egyptian language. This is widely thought to be the effects of being the victim of several invasions, including that of the Ottoman Empire as well as the French invasion. As each nation came and went, the Egyptians kept the few words and phrases that made the language seem easier. It is also noteworthy that the Egyptian dialect is the most understood version of the Arabic language among the Arab world. This is because Egyptian movies have been the most influential in the Arabic movie industry and is therefore the most widespread. As a result, most Arabic countries have grown up listening to the dialect and therefore have no trouble understanding it, even though they actually speak their own. Originally the Egyptians wrote in hieroglyphics. At first the meaning of the hieroglyphics was unknown; until one day in the year 1799 Napoleón Bonaparte's soldiers dug up the Rosetta stone. The Rosetta Stone was found broken and incomplete. It features 14 lines of hieroglyphic script, 32 lines in Demotic and 53 lines of Ancient Greek. Identity[edit] This article is part of a series on Life in Egypt Culture Architecture Egyptian revival Art Contemporary Cinema Cuisine Dance Belly dance Raqs sharqi Baladi Tahtib Tanoura Fashion History Holidays Language Literature Music Mythology Radio Sculpture Sport Symbols Flag Anthem Television Society People Identity Education Demographics Health Media Human rights Religion Wildlife World Heritage Sites Politics Presidency Government Parliament Political parties Military Corruption Law enforcement Foreign relations Law Economy Energy Tourism Telecommunications Transportation Egypt portal v t e Further information: Pan-Arabism, Pharaonism, Coptic identity, and Islamism Egyptian donkey herders at the start of the British occupation of Egypt, circa 1860s. The degree to which Egyptians identify with each layer of Egypt's history in articulating a sense of collective identity can vary and was hugely influenced by Islamization and Arabization, same as almost all Arabic-speaking countries. Ancient Egypt[edit] The categorization of people as Egyptians, Asiatics, Libyans and Nubians occurred in Egyptian documents of state ideology and were contingent on Social and Cultural factors among the ancient populations themselves.[102] Egypt and Africa[edit] Even though Egypt is mostly located in North Africa, Egypt and the Egyptian people do not generally have an African identity.[103] In 2017, the National Geographic Genographic Project published a 10 years study on several nations where it revealed that Egypt is indeed a North African population,[104] but African identity is not that common in Egypt and not many identify as African. Ottoman Rule[edit] Before the birth of Contemporary Egyptian Nationalism, which emerged in the period between 1860-1940, and throughout the Ottoman rule, Arabic-speaking nations under Ottoman rule were all referred to as "Arabs", whether Egyptians, Sudanese, ..etc.[105][106][107] During her stay in Upper Egypt, Lady Duff Gordon mentions the opinion of an Upper Egyptian man on the Ahmad Al Tayeb Uprising[108] that happened during her stay. He says "Truly in all the world none are miserable like us Arabs. The Turks beat us, and the Europeans hate us and say quite right. By God, we had better lay down our heads in the dust (die) and let the strangers take our land and grow cotton for themselves".[109] After Muhammed Ali Pasha took control of Egypt, along with Sudan and, briefly, parts of Arabia and the Levant, he enforced mandatory military service. The Egyptians were discriminated against in the military where they weren't allowed to hold any important positions. That contributed to forming an early sense of a collective imagined community among Arab soldiers as opposed to Turks, Kurds, and Albanians. Throughout the Ottoman Empire, all Arabic speakers, especially Muslims, were viewed as Arabs. As a consequence, being "Arab" was equivalent to being Egyptian in modern day. In an attempt to prove to his soldiers that he is one of them, Ibrahim Pasha, the son of Mohammed Ali Pasha, who was an Albanian, told one of his soldiers after criticizing Turks: "I am not a Turk, I came to Egypt when I was a child, and since that time, its sun has changed my blood, and I became fully Arab".[110] British Rule[edit] Beginning 1860, the state started making efforts to shape a collective Egyptian Identity, and the word "Misreyeen" started slowly replacing the word "Evlad Arab". However, the revolution of Ahmed Orabi is considered to be the turning point in Egyptian History, as it fought for an Egyptian identity where Egyptians mainly referred to themselves as Masreyeen/Misreyeen/Egyptians/"مصريين". It is worth noting that Arabic speakers commonly refer to the modern day area of Greater Cairo (Cairo, Fustat, Giza, and their surroundings) by the name of "Misr",[97][111] which was also the name used to refer to the entire land of Egypt. As a consequence, and because of the Arab habit of identifying people with their city names, the word Misreyeen/Masreyeen traditionally referred only to the people of the greater Cairo area.[101] The Orabi movement in the 1870s and 1880s was the first major Egyptian nationalist movement that demanded an end to the alleged despotism of the Muhammad Ali family and demanded curbing the growth of European influence in Egypt, it campaigned under the nationalist slogan of "Egypt for Egyptians".[112] As a result of the increasing European influence, western ideas started becoming prevalent among the upper classes in Egypt[citation needed]. Especially after the British occupation of Egypt which brought a westernized style of education with it. Among the western ideas, the French Enlightenment notion of reviving Pre-Christian civilizations and cultures found a special place among Egyptian Nationalists[citation needed], who sought to revive the Pharaonic culture as the main Pre-Islamic civilization of Egypt. Questions of identity came to fore in the 20th century as Egyptians sought to free themselves from British occupation, leading to the rise of ethno-territorial secular Egyptian nationalism (also known as "Pharaonism"). After Egyptians gained their independence from Great Britain, other forms of nationalism developed, including secular Arab nationalism as well as Islamism. "Pharaonism" rose to political prominence in the 1920s and 1930s during the British occupation, as Egypt developed separately from the Arab world. A segment of the most Westernized upper class argued that Egypt was part of a Mediterranean civilization. This ideology largely developed out of the country's lengthy pre-Islamic pre-Arab history, the relative isolation of the Nile Valley and the mostly homogeneous indigenous non-Arab genetic ancestry/ethnicity of the inhabitants,[113] regardless of current religious identity. One of Pharaonism's most notable advocates was Taha Hussein who remarked "Pharaonism is deeply rooted in the spirits of the Egyptians. It will remain so, and it must continue and become stronger. The Egyptian is Pharaonic before being Arab."[114] Pharaonism became the dominant mode of expression of Egyptian anti-colonial activists of the pre-war and inter-war periods. In 1931, following a visit to Egypt, Syrian Arab nationalist Sati' al-Husri remarked that "[Egyptians] did not possess an Arab nationalist sentiment; did not accept that Egypt was a part of the Arab lands, and would not acknowledge that the Egyptian people were part of the Arab nation."[115] The later 1930s would become a formative period for Arab nationalism in Egypt, in large part due to efforts by Syrian, Palestinian and Lebanese intellectuals.[116] Arab-Islamic political sentiment was fueled by the solidarity felt between Egyptians struggling for independence from Britain and those across the Arab world engaged in similar anti-imperialist struggles. In particular, the growth of Zionism in neighboring Palestine was seen as a threat by many Egyptians and the cause of resistance there was adopted by rising Islamic movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood as well as the political leadership including King Faruq I and Prime Minister Mustafa el-Nahhas.[113] Nasserism[edit] It was not until the Nasser era more than a decade later that Arab nationalism, and by extension Arab socialism, became a state policy and a means with which to define Egypt's position in the Middle East and the world,[117] usually articulated vis-à-vis Zionism in the neighboring new state of Israel. Nasser's politics was shaped by his conviction that all the Arab states were contending with anti-imperialist struggles and thus solidarity between them was imperative for independence. He viewed the earlier Egyptian nationalism of Saad Zaghlul as too inward-looking and saw no conflict between Egyptian patriotism (wataniyya) and Arab nationalism (qawmiyya).[118] For a while Egypt and Syria formed the United Arab Republic (UAR). When the union was dissolved, Egypt continued to be known as the UAR until 1971, when Egypt adopted the current official name, the Arab Republic of Egypt.[119] The Egyptians' attachment to Arabism was particularly questioned after the 1967 Six-Day War. Thousands of Egyptians had lost their lives, and the country became disillusioned with Arab politics.[120] Although the Arabism instilled in the country by Nasser was not deeply embedded in society, a certain kinship with the rest of the Arab world was firmly established and Egypt saw itself as the leader of this larger cultural entity. Nasser's version of pan-Arabism stressed Egyptian sovereignty and leadership of Arab unity instead of the eastern Arab states.[118] Nasser's successor Anwar el-Sadat, both through public policy and his peace initiative with Israel, revived an uncontested Egyptian orientation, unequivocally asserting that only Egypt and Egyptians were his responsibility. According to Dawisha, the terms "Arab", "Arabism" and "Arab unity", save for the new official name, became conspicuously absent.[121] (See also Liberal age and Republic sections.) However, despite Sadat's systematic attempts to root out Arab sentiment, Arab nationalism in Egypt remained a potent force.[122] During this era, in 1978, Egyptian-American sociologist Saad Eddin Ibrahim studied the national discourse between 17 Egyptian intellectuals relating to Egypt's identity and peace with Israel. He noted that in 18 articles Arab identity was acknowledged and neutrality in the conflict opposed, while in eight articles Arab identity was acknowledged and neutrality supported and only in three articles written by author Louis Awad was Arab identity rejected and neutrality supported.[123] Egyptian scholar Gamal Hamdan stressed that Egyptian identity was unique, but that Egypt was the center and "cultural hub" of the Arab world, arguing that "Egypt in the Arab world is like Cairo in Egypt." Hamdan further contended "We do not see the Egyptian personality, no matter how distinct it may be, as anything other than a part of the personality of the greater Arab homeland."[122] Many Egyptians today feel that Egyptian and Arab identities are inextricably linked, and emphasize the central role that Egypt plays in the Arab world. Others continue to believe that Egypt and Egyptians are simply not Arab, emphasizing indigenous Egyptian heritage, culture and independent polity, pointing to the perceived failures of Arab and pan-Arab nationalist policies. Egyptian anthropologist Laila el-Hamamsy illustrates the modern-day relationship between the two trends, stating: "in light of their history, Egyptians ... should be conscious of their national identity and consider themselves, above all, Egyptians. How is the Egyptian, with this strong sense of Egyptian identity, able to look himself as an Arab too?"[124] Her explanation is that Egyptianization translated as Arabization with the result being "an increased tempo of Arabization, for facility in the Arabic language opened the windows into the rich legacy of Arabic culture. ... Thus in seeking a cultural identity, Egypt has revived its Arab cultural heritage."[123] Culture[edit] Main article: Culture of Egypt See also: Ancient Egypt Egyptian culture boasts five millennia of recorded history. Ancient Egypt was among the earliest and greatest civilizations during which the Egyptians maintained a strikingly complex and stable culture that influenced later cultures of Europe, the Near East and Africa. After the Pharaonic era, the Egyptians themselves came under the influence of Hellenism, Christianity and Islamic culture. Today, many aspects of ancient Egyptian culture exist in interaction with newer elements, including the influence of modern Western culture, itself influenced by Ancient Egypt. Surnames[edit] An Egyptian elder, 1860s Today, Egyptians carry names that have Ancient Egyptian, Arabic, Turkish, Greek and Western meanings (especially Coptic ones) among others. The concept of a surname is lacking in Egypt. Rather, Egyptians tend to carry their father's name as their first middle name, and stop at the 2nd or 3rd first name, which thus becomes one's surname. In this manner, surnames continuously change with generations, as first names of 4th or 5th generations get dropped. A serpent charmer in Egypt, 1860s Some Egyptians tend to have Surnames based on their cities, like Monoufi (from Monufia), Banhawy (from Benha), Aswany (from Aswan), Tahtawy (from Tahta), Fayoumi (from Fayoum), Eskandarani / Eskandar (from Alexandria) and so on. As a result of the Long Islamic history of Egypt, and as a result of several mass migration waves into Egypt such as the Banu Hilal Exodus. Some Egyptian muslims carry historical Arabic last names. For example the surname "Al Sharif" (The Noble) from the Ashraf tribes "Al Juhaini", from Juhainah, "Al Qarmouti" from Al Qaramita, "Al Hawary" from Hawara. Other people have their family names based on their traditional crafts, like El Nagar (Carpenter), El Fawal (the one who sells Foul), El Hadad (Blacksmith), El Khayat (Tailor) and so on. The Majority of people, however, have surnames that used to be their great grand parents first names, this habit is especially dominant among the fellahin, where Surnames isn't really strong tradition. For example, if a person named Khaled Mohamed Ali has a son named Ashraf, his son's full name may become Ashraf Khaled Mohamed. Thus, a son may have a different last name than his father. However, it is not entirely unusual for families to have Ancient Egyptian based names (especially Coptic ones) and have their first names or surnames beginning with the Ancient Egyptian masculine possessive pronoun pa (generally ba in Arabic, which lost the phoneme /p/ in the course of developing from Proto-Semitic). For example, Bayoumi (variations: Baioumi, Bayoumi, Baioumy) "of Fayyoum", Fayyoum meaning "of the big water (yom)", Basyouni (of Aswan), Bashandi, Bakhoum ("the eagle"), Bekhit, Bahur ("of Horus") and Banoub ("of Anubis"). The name Shenouda, which is very common among Copt, means "child of God". Hence, names and many toponyms may end with -nouda, -noudi or -nuti, which means Of God in Egyptian and Coptic. In addition, Egyptian families often derive their name from places in Egypt, such as Minyawi from Minya and Suyuti from Asyut; or from one of the local Sufi orders such as el-Shazli and el-Sawy. More examples of prominent surnames are Qozman and Habib. With the adoption of Christianity and eventually Islam, Egyptians began to take on names associated with these religions. Many Egyptian surnames also became Hellenized and Arabized, meaning they were altered to sound Greek or Arabic. This was done by the addition of the Greek suffix -ios to Egyptian names; for example, Pakhom to Pakhomios; or by adding the Arabic definite article el to names such as Baymoui to el-Bayoumi. Names starting with the Ancient Egyptian affix pu ("of the place of") were sometimes Arabized to abu ("father of"); for example, Busiri ("of the place of Osiris") occasionally became Abusir and al-Busiri. Some people might also have surnames like el-Shamy ("the Levantine") indicating a possible Levantine origin, or Dewidar indicating an Ottoman-Mamluk remnant. Conversely, some Levantines might carry the surname el-Masri ("the Egyptian") suggesting a possible Egyptian extraction. The Egyptian peasantry, the fellahin, are more likely to retain indigenous names given their relative isolation throughout the Egyptian people's history. With French influence, names like Mounier, Pierre, and many others became common, particularly in the Christian community. Genetic history[edit] Main article: DNA history of Egypt See also: Population history of Egypt Beginning in the predynastic period, some differences between the populations of Upper and Lower Egypt were ascertained through their skeletal remains, suggesting a gradual clinal pattern north to south.[125][126][127][128] The mummy of 19th dynasty King Ramesses II. When Lower and Upper Egypt were unified c. 3200 BC, the distinction began to blur, resulting in a more homogeneous population in Egypt, though the distinction remains true to some degree to this day.[129][130][131] Some biological anthropologists such as Shomarka Keita believe the range of variability to be primarily indigenous and not necessarily the result of significant intermingling of widely divergent peoples.[132] Keita describes the northern and southern patterns of the early predynastic period as "northern-Egyptian-Maghreb" and "tropical African variant" (overlapping with Nubia/Kush) respectively. He shows that a progressive change in Upper Egypt toward the northern Egyptian pattern takes place through the predynastic period. The southern pattern continues to predominate in Abydos, Upper Egypt by the First Dynasty, but "lower Egyptian, Maghrebian, and European patterns are observed also, thus making for great diversity."[133] A group of noted physical anthropologists conducted craniofacial studies of Egyptian skeletal remains and concluded similarly that "the Egyptians have been in place since back in the Pleistocene and have been largely unaffected by either invasions or migrations. As others have noted, Egyptians are Egyptians, and they were so in the past as well."[134] Genetic analysis of modern Egyptians reveals that they have paternal lineages common to indigenous North-East African populations primarily and to Near Eastern peoples to a lesser extent—these lineages would have spread during the Neolithic and were maintained by the predynastic period.[135][136] University of Chicago Egyptologist Frank Yurco suggested a historical, regional and ethnolinguistic continuity, asserting that "the mummies and skeletons of ancient Egyptians indicate they were Africans of the Afro-Asiatic ethnic grouping".[137] He writes: "Certainly there was some foreign admixture [in Egypt], but basically a homogeneous African population had lived in the Nile Valley from ancient to modern times... [the] Badarian people, who developed the earliest Predynastic Egyptian culture, already exhibited the mix of North African and Sub-Saharan physical traits that have typified Egyptians ever since (Hassan 1985; Yurco 1989; Trigger 1978; Keita 1990; Brace et al., this volume)... The peoples of Egypt, the Sudan, and much of East Africa, Ethiopia and Somalia are now generally regarded as a [Nile Valley] continuity, with widely ranging physical features (complexions light to dark, various hair and craniofacial types) but with powerful common cultural traits, including cattle pastoralist traditions (Trigger 1978; Bard, Snowden, this volume). Language research suggests that this Saharan-[Nile Valley] population became speakers of the Afro-Asiatic languages... Semitic was evidently spoken by Saharans who crossed the Red Sea into Arabia and became ancestors of the Semitic speakers there, possibly around 7000 BC... In summary we may say that Egypt was a distinct Afro-Asiatic African culture rooted in the Nile Valley and on the Sahara."[138] A 2006 bioarchaeological study on the dental morphology of ancient Egyptians by Prof. Joel Irish shows dental traits characteristic of indigenous North Africans and to a lesser extent Southwest Asian and southern European populations. Among the samples included in the study is skeletal material from the Hawara tombs of Fayum, which clustered very closely with the Badarian series of the predynastic period. All the samples, particularly those of the Dynastic period, were significantly divergent from a neolithic West Saharan sample from Lower Nubia. Biological continuity was also found intact from the dynastic to the post-pharaonic periods. According to Irish: [The Egyptian] samples [996 mummies] exhibit morphologically simple, mass-reduced dentitions that are similar to those in populations from greater North Africa (Irish, 1993, 1998a–c, 2000) and, to a lesser extent, western Asia and Europe (Turner, 1985a; Turner and Markowitz, 1990; Roler, 1992; Lipschultz, 1996; Irish, 1998a). Similar craniofacial measurements among samples from these regions were reported as well (Brace et al., 1993)... an inspection of MMD values reveals no evidence of increasing phenetic distance between samples from the first and second halves of this almost 3,000-year-long period. For example, phenetic distances between First-Second Dynasty Abydos and samples from Fourth Dynasty Saqqara (MMD ¼ 0.050), 11–12th Dynasty Thebes (0.000), 12th Dynasty Lisht (0.072), 19th Dynasty Qurneh (0.053), and 26th–30th Dynasty Giza (0.027) do not exhibit a directional increase through time... Thus, despite increasing foreign influence after the Second Intermediate Period, not only did Egyptian culture remain intact (Lloyd, 2000a), but the people themselves, as represented by the dental samples, appear biologically constant as well... Gebel Ramlah [Neolithic Nubian/Western Desert sample] is, in fact, significantly different from Badari based on the 22-trait MMD (Table 4). For that matter, the Neolithic Western Desert sample is significantly different from all others [but] is closest to predynastic and early dynastic samples.[139] A study published in 2017 described the extraction and analysis of DNA from 151 mummified ancient Egyptian individuals, whose remains were recovered from Abusir. The study was able to measure the mitochondrial DNA of 90 individuals, and it showed that Ancient Egyptians had the greatest affinity for modern Middle Eastern (Arabs, Levantine and Anatolian) and North African populations and had significantly more affinity with south-eastern Europeans than with sub-Saharan Africans. Genome-wide data could only be successfully extracted from three of these individuals. Of these three, the Y-chromosome haplogroups of two individuals could be assigned to the Middle-Eastern haplogroup J, and one to haplogroup E1b1b1 common in North Africa. The absolute estimates of sub-Saharan African ancestry in these three individuals ranged from 6 to 15%, which is slightly lower than the level of sub-Saharan African ancestry in Egyptians from Abusir, who range from 14 to 21%. The study's authors cautioned that the Mummies may be unrepresentative of the whole Ancient Egyptian population, since they were recovered from the northern part of Egypt and that the Southern part might have more Sub-Saharan component being closer to Nubia.[140] and that they only dated from the late New Kingdom to the Roman Period. As a result mummies from the earlier classical periods of Egyptian history such as the Old Kingdom and Middle Kingdom further to the south were omitted.[140] See also[edit] Sa'idi people Religion in Egypt List of Egyptians Egyptian Americans Egyptians in the United Kingdom Egyptian diaspora References[edit] ^ a b "مصر في المركز الـ13 عالميا في التعداد السكاني". BBC News Arabic. 2017-09-30. Retrieved 2018-09-01. ^ a b والاحصاء, الجهاز المركزى للتعبئة العامة. "الجهاز المركزى للتعبئة العامة والاحصاء". msrintranet.capmas.gov.eg. Retrieved 2016-07-20. ^ a b c d e f g h "9.5 million Egyptians live abroad, mostly in Saudi Arabia and Jordan". 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P4 |quote=The modem Egyptian metropolis, to the inhabitants of which most of the contents of the following pages relate, is now called " Masr", more properly, "Misr" but was formerly named " El-Kahireh;" whence Europeans have formed the name of Cairo ^ An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians, P 27.LONDON & TORONTO PUBLISHED BY J·M·DENT &SONS IN NEW YORK BY E·P ·DUTTON & CO. |quote=""The native Muslim inhabitants of Cairo commonly call themselves " El-Masreeyeen," "Owlad-Maasr " (or " Ahl Masr "), and "Owlad-el-Beled, which signify People of Masr, Children of. Masr, and Children of the Town : the singular forms of these appellations are "Maasree, "Ibn-Masr," and "Ibn-el-Beled." Of these three terms, the last is most common in the town itself. The country people are called "El-Fellaheen" (or the agriculturists), in the singular" Fellah. 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"The Last Egyptian Belly Dancer". Newsweek. Retrieved 2008-06-02. ^ AfricaNet. Libya. Archived May 3, 2006, at the Wayback Machine ^ Vatikiotis, P.J. The History of Modern Egypt. 4th edition. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1992, p. 432 ^ Grimal, p. 93 ^ Watterson, p. 15 ^ Watterson, p. 192 ^ Kamil, Jill. Coptic Egypt: History and Guide. Cairo: American University in Cairo, 1997. p. 11 ^ Watterson, p. 215 ^ Jankowski, p. 28 ^ Kamil, p. 12 ^ Watterson, p. 214 ^ Watterson, p. 237 ^ qtd. in Alan K. Bowman Egypt after the Pharaohs, 332 BC − AD 642. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996. p. 126. ^ Jankowski, p. 29 ^ Kamil, p. 16 ^ Kamil, p. 21 ^ a b Jankowski, p. 32 ^ Kamil, p. 35 ^ Kamil, p. 39 ^ Watterson, p. 232 ^ Kamil, p. 40 ^ a b Watterson, p. 268 ^ El-Daly, Okasha. Egyptology: The Missing Millennium. London: UCL Press, 2005. p. 165 ^ El-Daly, p. 140 ^ Vatikiotis, P.J. The History of Modern Egypt. 4th ed. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991. p. 26 ^ El-Daly, p. 164 ^ El-Daly, p. 112 ^ "Opet Festival". Archived from the original on May 3, 2006. ^ "A Short History of Egypt – to about 1970 from University of Standford" (PDF). ^ Dobon, Begoña; Hassan, Hisham Y.; Laayouni, Hafid; Luisi, Pierre; Ricaño-Ponce, Isis; Zhernakova, Alexandra; Wijmenga, Cisca; Tahir, Hanan; Comas, David; Netea, Mihai G.; Bertranpetit, Jaume (28 May 2015). "The genetics of East African populations: a Nilo-Saharan component in the African genetic landscape". Scientific Reports. 5 (1): 9996. Bibcode:2015NatSR...5E9996D. doi:10.1038/srep09996. PMC 4446898. PMID 26017457. ^ Jankowski, p. 35 ^ A Short History of Egypt, p. 47 ^ Vatikiotis, p. 31 ^ Jankowski, p. 60 ^ a b Jankowskil, p. 74 ^ a b Vatikiotis, p. 115–16 ^ El-Daly, p. 29 ^ Jankowski, p. 83 ^ Vatikiotis, p. 135 ^ Vatikiotis, p. 189 ^ qtd. in Vatikiotis, p. 227 ^ Jankowski, p. 112 ^ qtd. in Jankowski p. 123 ^ Jankowski, p. 130 ^ Salmawy, Mohamed. 'Dialogues of Naguib Mahfouz: Mon Egypte' Archived 2006-10-02 at the Wayback Machine. Al-Ahram Weekly. 10–16 August 2006. ^ Jankowski, p. 137 ^ Watterson, Barbara (1998-12-04). Watterson, p. 294. ISBN 9780631211952. Retrieved 2012-09-06. ^ Vatikiotis, p. 443 ^ Egyptians stage protest over call for Mubarak's son to be president ^ "Egypt's ousted president Mohammed Morsi dies in court". BBC News. 17 June 2019. Retrieved 17 June 2019. ^ "El-Sisi wins Egypt's presidential race with 96.91%". English.Ahram.org. Ahram Online. Retrieved 3 June 2014. ^ Human Rights Watch (13 February 2018). "Egypt: Planned Presidential Vote Neither Free Nor Fair". Human Rights Watch. Retrieved 8 January 2018. ^ "Egypt election: Sisi set to win second term as president". BBC. 29 March 2018. Retrieved 30 March 2018. ^ a b c The History of Herodotus By GEORGE RAWLINSON, Page 9 ^ The History of Herodotus By GEORGE RAWLINSON, Page 33 ^ "Arab Invasions: The First Islamic Empire | History Today". www.historytoday.com. Retrieved 2018-03-17. ^ The language may have survived in isolated pockets in Upper Egypt as late as the 19th century, according to James Edward Quibell, "When did Coptic become extinct?" in Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde, 39 (1901), p. 87. ^ Elisabeth Zack. Yusuf al-Maghribi's Egyptian-Arabic Word List. A Unique Manuscript in the St. Petersburg State University Library, Manuscripta orientalia ( ISSN 1238-5018 ) 2001, vol. 7, no3, pp. 46–49., literally "The lifting of the burden from the speech of the population of Egypt")) by Yūsuf al-Maġribi ^ a b Al Khutat Al Maqrizia, An Account of The City of Fustat Misr, الخطط المقريزية، ذكر ما قيل في مدينة فسطاط مصر ^ Al Khutat Al Maqrizia, An Account of the City of Fustat Misr Today and its Description، ذكر ما قيل في مدينة مصر الآن وصفتها. |quote= قال ابن رضوان، والمدينة الكبرى اليوم بمصر ذات أربعة أجزاء: الفساط والقاهرة والجيزة والجزيرة. |Translation=According to Ibn Radwan: The greatest city in Fustat Misr now is of 4 parts: Fustat, Cairo. Giza, and Al Jazira. ^ Daniel I. Block (19 June 1998). The Book of Ezekiel, Chapters 25 48. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 166. ISBN 978-0-8028-2536-0. ^ George Evans (1883). An Essay on Assyriology. Williams and Norgate : pub. by the Hibbert trustees. p. 49. ^ a b An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians, P 2.LONDON & TORONTO PUBLISHED BY J·M·DENT &SONS IN NEWYORK BY E·P ·DUTTON & CO. ^ Thomas Schneider. "Ethnic Identities in Ancient Egypt and the Identity of Egyptology: Towards a "Trans-Egyptology"". ^ "The Root: Race And Racism Divide Egypt". Retrieved 2019-10-08. Many Egyptians do not consider themselves Africans. Some take offense even to being identified with Africa at all. When speaking to Egyptians who have traveled to countries below the Sahara, nearly all of them speak of going to Africa, or going down to Africa, as if Egypt were separate from the rest of the continent. ^ "DNA analysis proves that Egyptians are not Arabs". Egypt Independent. January 17, 2017. ^ Fahmy, All The Pasha's Men, P246 |quote=As a rule Egyptians, referred to as evlad-l Arab, were not allowed to be promoted beyond the rank of yuzbasi(captain) ^ Fahmy, All The Pasha's Men, P 246 |quote=The names of the military ranks used in Sultan Selim's army were changed since they were unfamiliar to the cadets. Moreover, although according to an initial plan it was possible to promote evlad Arab (lit. sons of Arabs, i.e. Arabic speaking Egyptians) ..... ^ Al Khitat Al Tawfikia ^ Imagined Empires: A History of Revolt in Egypt ^ Duff Gordon, Letters From Egypt, Luxor, March 30th, 1865, To Sir Alexander Duff Gordon ^ All the Pasha's Men, Arabic Version, P 337 ^ Al Khutat Al Maqrizia, An Account of the City of Misr Today and its Description، ذكر ما قيل في مدينة مصر الآن وصفتها. |quote= قال ابن رضوان، والمدينة الكبرى اليوم بمصر ذات أربعة أجزاء: الفساط والقاهرة والجيزة والجزيرة. |Translation=According to Ibn Radwan: The greatest city in Misr now is of 4 parts: Fustat, Cairo. Giza, and Al Jazira. ^ Motyl 2001, p. 138. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMotyl2001 (help) ^ a b Hinnesbusch, p. 93. ^ Taha Hussein, "Kwakab el Sharq", August 12th 1933: إن الفرعونية متأصلة فى نفوس المصريين ، وستبقى كذلك بل يجب أن تبقى وتقوى ، والمصرى فرعونى قبل أن يكون عربياً ولا يطلب من مصر أن تتخلى عن فرعونيتها وإلا كان معنى ذلك : اهدمى يا مصر أبا الهول والأهرام، وانسى نفسك واتبعينا ... لا تطلبوا من مصر أكثر مما تستطيع أن تعطى ، مصر لن تدخل فى وحدة عربية سواء كانت العاصمة القاهرة أم دمشق أم بغداد ^ qtd in Dawisha, Adeed. Arab Nationalism in the Twentieth Century. Princeton University Press. 2003, p. 99 ^ Jankowski, "Egypt and Early Arab Nationalism", p. 246 ^ "Before Nasser, Egypt, which had been ruled by Britain since 1882, was more in favor of territorial, Egyptian nationalism and distant from the pan-Arab ideology. Egyptians generally did not identify themselves as Arabs, and it is revealing that when the Egyptian nationalist leader [Saad Zaghlul] met the Arab delegates at Versailles in 1918, he insisted that their struggles for statehood were not connected, claiming that the problem of Egypt was an Egyptian problem and not an Arab one." Makropoulou, Ifigenia. Pan – Arabism: What Destroyed the Ideology of Arab Nationalism? Archived 2018-10-02 at the Wayback Machine. Hellenic Center for European Studies. January 15, 2007. ^ a b Hinnesbusch, p. 94. ^ "1971 – Egypt's new constitution is introduced and the country is renamed the Arab Republic of Egypt." Timeline Egypt. BBC News, Timeline: Egypt ^ Dawisha, p. 237. ^ Dawisha, pp. 264–65, 267 ^ a b Barakat, p. 4. ^ a b Barakat, p. 5. ^ Barakat, pp. 4–5. ^ Batrawi A (1945). The racial history of Egypt and Nubia, Pat I. J Roy Anthropol Inst 75:81–102. ^ Batrawi A. 1946. The racial history of Egypt and Nubia, Part II. J Roy Anthropol Inst 76:131–156. ^ Keita, SOY (1990). "Studies of ancient crania from northern Africa". Am J Phys Anthropol. 83 (1): 35–48. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330830105. PMID 2221029. ^ Keita, SOY (1992). "Further studies of crania from ancient northern Africa: an analysis of crania from First Dynasty Egyptian tombs". Am J Phys Anthropol. 87 (3): 245–254. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330870302. PMID 1562056. ^ Berry AC, Berry RJ, Ucko PJ (1967). "Genetical change in ancient Egypt". Man. 2 (4): 551–568. doi:10.2307/2799339. JSTOR 2799339. ^ Brace CL, Tracer DP, Yaroch LA, Robb J, Brandt K, Nelson AR (1993). "Clines and clusters versus "race:" a test in ancient Egypt and the case of a death on the Nile". Yearbook of Physical Anthropology. 36: 1–31. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330360603. ^ Irish JD (2006). "Who were the ancient Egyptians? Dental affinities among Neolithic through postdynastic peoples". Am J Phys Anthropol. 129 (4): 529–43. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20261. PMID 16331657. ^ Keita SOY and Rick A. Kittles. The Persistence of Racial Thinking and the Myth of Racial Divergence. American Anthropologist Vol. 99, No. 3 (Sep., 1997), pp. 534–544 ^ Keita 1992, p. 251 ^ Brace, C. L.; Tracer, D. P.; Yaroch, L. A.; Robb, J.; Brandt, K.; Nelson, A. R. (1993). "Clines and clusters versus "Race:" a test in ancient Egypt and the case of a death on the Nile". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 36: 1–31. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330360603. ^ Arredi B, Poloni E, Paracchini S, Zerjal T, Fathallah D, Makrelouf M, Pascali V, Novelletto A, Tyler-Smith C (2004). "A Predominantly Neolithic Origin for Y-Chromosomal DNA Variation in North Africa". Am J Hum Genet. 75 (2): 338–45. doi:10.1086/423147. PMC 1216069. PMID 15202071. ^ Manni F, Leonardi P, Barakat A, Rouba H, Heyer E, Klintschar M, McElreavey K, Quintana-Murci L (2002). "Y-chromosome analysis in Egypt suggests a genetic regional continuity in Northeastern Africa". Hum Biol. 74 (5): 645–58. doi:10.1353/hub.2002.0054. PMID 12495079. S2CID 26741827. ^ Yurco, Frank (Sep–Oct 1989). "Were the Ancient Egyptians Black or White?". BAR Magazine. ^ Frank Yurco, "An Egyptological Review" in Mary R. Lefkowitz and Guy MacLean Rogers, eds. Black Athena Revisited. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996. p. 62-100 ^ Irish pp. 10–11 ^ a b Schuenemann, Verena; Peltzer, Alexander; Welte, Beatrix (30 May 2017). "Ancient Egyptian mummy genomes suggest an increase of Sub-Saharan African ancestry in post-Roman periods". Nature Communications. 8: 15694. Bibcode:2017NatCo...815694S. doi:10.1038/ncomms15694. PMC 5459999. PMID 28556824. Bibliography[edit] Barakat, Halim (1993). The Arab World: Society, Culture, and State. University of California Press. ISBN 0520084276. Egyptian identity Arab. Hinnebusch, Raymond A. (2002). The Foreign Policies of Middle East States. Lynne Rienner Publishers. ISBN 1588260208. Egyptian identity Arab. Further reading[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to People of Egypt. Edward William Lane (1837). An account of the manners and customs of the modern Egyptians: written in Egypt during the years 1833, −34, and −35, partly from notes made during a former visit to that country in the years 1825, −26, −27, and −28. Volume 1 of An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians. C. Knight and co. 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en-wikipedia-org-3595	----	Neferkauhor - Wikipedia Neferkauhor From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Neferkauhor Neferkawhor, Chuwihapi, Chui[...](?), Khuihapy, Ka(?)puib(i)(?) The cartouche of Neferkauhor on the Abydos King List. Pharaoh Reign 2 years, 1 month and 1 day (Eighth Dynasty) Predecessor Neferkaure II Successor Neferirkare Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Neferkauhor Nfr-k3.w Ḥr Perfect are the Kas of Horus Variant:[1] Nomen Khuwihapi Ḫw-w-ḥpw Hapi protects me[2] Variant:[1] Pu(?)...hapi Pw(?)...ḥpw Horus name Netjerbaw Nṯr-b3w Divine of Bas Children Nebyet Neferkauhor Khuwihapi was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the Eighth Dynasty during the early First Intermediate Period (2181–2055 BC), at a time when Egypt was possibly divided between several polities. Neferkauhor was the sixteenth and penultimate[3] king of the Eighth Dynasty and as such would have ruled over the Memphite region.[4][5] Neferkauhor reigned for little over 2 years[6] and is one of the best attested kings of this period with eight of his decrees surviving in fragmentary condition to this day.[7] Contents 1 Attestations on king lists 2 The decrees of Neferkauhor 3 Other attestations 4 See also 5 References Attestations on king lists[edit] Neferkauhor is listed on entry 55 of the Abydos King List, a king list redacted during the reign of Seti I, some 900 years after Neferkauhor's lifetime.[5] He is believed to have been listed on the Turin Canon as well even though his name is lost in a lacuna affecting column 5, row 12 of the document (following Kim Ryholt's reconstruction).[5][6] The duration of his reign is, however, preserved and given as "2 years, 1 month and 1 day".[6] The decrees of Neferkauhor[edit] See also: Coptos Decrees A total of eight[5] different decrees found in the temple of Min at Coptos are attributed to Neferkauhor and survive to this day in fragmentary condition.[8] Four of these decrees, inscribed on limestone slabs, were given in 1914 by the philanthropist Edward Harkness to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, where there are now on display in Gallery 103.[9] Seven out of the eight decrees were issued on a single day[5] of the first year of reign of Neferkauhor, perhaps on the day of his accession to the throne.[7] The year in question is given the name of "Year of Uniting the Two Lands". In the first decree Neferkauhor bestows titles to his eldest daughter Nebyet, wife of a vizier named Shemay. He attributes her a bodyguard, the commandant of soldiers Khrod-ny (also read Kha’redni[10]), and orders the construction of a sacred barque for a god called "Two-Powers", perhaps the syncretized god Horus-Min.[7][10] The second and best preserved of the decrees concerns the appointment of Shemay's son, Idy, to the post of governor of Upper Egypt, ruling over the seven southernmost nomes from Elephantine to Diospolis Parva:[1][7] The Horus Netjerbau. Sealed in the presence of the king himself in the Month 2 [of Peret, Day 20]. Royal decree to the count, the over[seer of priests, Idy]: you are appointed count, governor of Upper Egypt, overseer of priests in this same Upper Egypt, which [is under] your supervision southward to Nubia, northward to the Sistrum nome, functioning as count, overseer of priests, chief of the rulers of towns who are under your supervision, in place of your father, the father of the god, beloved of the god, the hereditary prince, mayor of the [pyramid ci]ty, chief justice, vizier, keeper of the king's archives, [count, governor of Upper Egypt, overseer of priests, Shemay. No] one [shall have rightfull claim against it]... Reunited Coptos decrees P and Q, addressed to Idy and his brother. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (Acc. No. 14.7.12) The third and fourth decrees are partially preserved on a single fragment. They record Neferkauhor giving Idy's brother a post in the temple of Min and possibly also informing Idy about it.[7] This last decree records why the decrees were found in the temple of Min:[1][7] [My majesty commands you to post] the words [of this decree at the gate]way of the temple of Min [of Coptos forever] and ever. There is sent the sole companion, Hemy's son, Intef, concerning it. Sealed in the presence of the [king] himself in the Year of Uniting the Two Lands, Month 2 of Peret, Day 20." The remaining decrees concern the appointment of mortuary priests to the chapels of Nebyet and Shemay as well as ordering inventories at the temple of Min.[5] Other attestations[edit] Beyond the decrees Neferkauhor is also attested by two inscriptions on a wall in Shemay's tomb. They are dated to the first year of his reign, Month 4 of Shemu, Day 2.[11] The inscriptions report the bringing of stone from the Wadi Hammamat (Coptos is the starting point for expeditions to this Wadi). The inscriptions are partly destroyed, but seem to mention that the work was done within 19 days. From the Wadi Hammamat are known three rock inscriptions reporting the bringing of a stone. One of the texts is dated under year one of an unnamed king. In two of the inscriptions an Idy is also mentioned. If this Idy is identical to the one known from the decrees, the inscriptions also refer to this expedition under the king.[12] See also[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Neferkauhor. List of pharaohs References[edit] ^ a b c d Kurt Sethe: Urkunden des Alten Reichs (= Urkunden des ägyptischen Altertums. Abteilung 1). 1. Band, 4. Heft. 2., augmented edition, Hinrichs'sche Buchhandlung, Leipzig 1933, see p. 297-299, available online. ^ Translation after Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen, Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, p. 175. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: The Date of the End of the Old Kingdom, Journal of Near Eastern Studies 21 (1962), p.143 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz : P. von Zabern, 1999, ISBN 3-8053-2591-6, available online Archived 2015-12-22 at the Wayback Machine see p. 68 ^ a b c d e f Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 271-272 ^ a b c Kim Ryholt: "The Late Old Kingdom in the Turin King-list and the Identity of Nitocris", Zeitschrift für ägyptische, 127, 2000, p. 99 ^ a b c d e f William C. Hayes: The Scepter of Egypt: A Background for the Study of the Egyptian Antiquities in The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Vol. 1, From the Earliest Times to the End of the Middle Kingdom , MetPublications, 1978, pp.136-138, available online ^ William C. Hayes: Royal Decrees from the Temple of Min at Coptos, JEA 32(1946), pp. 3–23. ^ The fragments of the decrees on the catalog of the MET: fragment 1, 2 and 3. ^ a b Margaret Bunson: Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Infobase Publishing, 2009, ISBN 978-1438109978, available online, see p. 268 and p. 284 for Kha’redni. ^ Nigel C. Strudwick, :Texts from the Pyramid Age, Writings from the Ancient World, Ronald J. Leprohon (ed.), Society of Biblical Literature 2005, ISBN 978-1589831384, available online, see pp.345-347 ^ Maha Farid Mostafa: The Mastaba of SmAj at Naga' Kom el-Koffar, Qift, Vol. I, Cairo 2014, ISBN 978-977642004-5, p. 88-111 Preceded by Neferkaure II Pharaoh of Egypt Eighth Dynasty Succeeded by Neferirkare v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neferkauhor&oldid=973457573" Categories: 22nd-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Eighth Dynasty of Egypt 22nd-century BC rulers 22nd century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Commons category link from Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions 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en-wikipedia-org-3607	----	Seti II - Wikipedia Seti II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Seti II Statue of Seti II at the Museo Egizio, Turin, Italy Pharaoh Reign 1203–1197 BC[1] (19th Dynasty) Predecessor Merneptah Successor Siptah Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Userkheperure Setepenre[2] Wsr-ḫprw-Rˁ-stp-n-Rˁ Powerful are the manifestations of Ra, the chosen one of Ra Nomen Seti Meryenptah Stẖj-mrj-n-Ptḥ Seth, beloved of Ptah'’ Horus name Kanakht Werpehti K3-nḫt-wr-pḥtj Strong bull, great of strength Nebty name Nakhtkhepesh-der-pedjut-9[1] Nḫt-ḫpš-dr-pḏwt-9 He who strikes victoriously the 9 bows (the ennemies of Egypt) Golden Horus Aaneruemtawnebu ˁ3-nrw-m-t3w-nbw He whose victories are great in all the lands Consort Takhat?, Twosret, Tiaa Children Seti-Merenptah Father Merneptah Mother Isetnofret II Died 1197 BC Burial KV15[3] Seti II (or Sethos II) was the fifth pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt and reigned from c. 1203 BC to 1197 BC.[1] His throne name, Userkheperure Setepenre, means "Powerful are the manifestations of Re, the chosen one of Re."[4] He was the son of Merneptah and Isetnofret II and sat on the throne during a period known for dynastic intrigue and short reigns, and his rule was no different. Seti II had to deal with many serious plots, most significantly the accession of a rival king named Amenmesse, possibly a half brother, who seized control over Thebes and Nubia in Upper Egypt during his second to fourth regnal years. Contents 1 Contest for the throne 2 Reign 3 Wives and treasure 4 Bibliography 5 References 6 External links Contest for the throne[edit] Evidence that Amenmesse was a direct contemporary with Seti II's rule—rather than Seti II's immediate predecessor —includes the fact that Seti II's royal KV15[5] tomb at Thebes was deliberately vandalised with many of Seti's royal names being carefully erased here during his reign.[6] The erasures were subsequently repaired by Seti II's agents. This suggests that Seti II's reign at Thebes was interrupted by the rise of a rival: king Amenmesse in Upper Egypt.[7] Secondly, the German scholar Wolfgang Helck has shown that Amenmesse is only attested in Upper Egypt by several Year 3 and a single Year 4 ostracas; Helck also noted that no Year 1 or Year 2 ostracas from Deir El Medina could legitimately be assigned to Amenmesse's reign.[8] This conforms well with the clear evidence of Seti II's control over Thebes in his first two years, which is attested by various documents and papyri. In contrast, Seti II is absent from Upper Egypt during his third and fourth years which are notably unattested—presumably because Amenmesse controlled this region during this time.[9] Mummy of Seti II. Finally, and most importantly, it is well known that the chief foreman of Deir el-Medina, a certain Neferhotep, was killed in the reign of king Amenmesse on the orders of a certain 'Msy' who was either Amenmesse himself or one of this king's agents, according to Papyrus Salt 124.[10] However, Neferhotep is attested in office in the work register list of Ostraca MMA 14.6.217, which also recorded Seti II's accession to the throne and was later reused to register workers' absences under this king's reign.[11] If Seti II's 6-year reign followed that of the usurper Amenmesse, then this chief foreman would not have been mentioned in a document which dated to the start of Seti II's reign since Neferhotep was already dead.[12] This indicates that the reigns of Amenmesse and Seti II must have partly overlapped with one another and suggests that both rulers were rivals who were fighting each another for the throne of Egypt. During the second to fourth years of Amenmesse/Seti II's parallel reigns, Amenmesse gained the upper hand and seized control over Upper Egypt and Nubia; he ordered Seti II's tomb in the Valley of the Kings to be vandalised. Prior to his fifth year, however, Amenmesse was finally defeated by his rival, Seti II, who was the legitimate successor to the throne since he was Merneptah's son. Seti II, in turn, launched a damnatio memoriae campaign against all inscriptions and monuments belonging to both Amenmesse and this king's chief supporters in Thebes and Nubia, which included a certain Khaemter, a former Viceroy of Kush, who had served as Amenmesse's Vizier. Seti II's agents completely erased both scenes and texts from KV10, the royal tomb of Amenmesse.[13] Vizier Khaemter's scenes in Nubia which were carved when he served as the Viceroy of Kush were so thoroughly erased that until Rolf Krauss' and Labib Habachi's articles were published in the 1970s,[14] his career here as viceroy was almost unknown, notes Frank J. Yurco.[15] Reign[edit] Limestone fragment inscribed with the birth-name of King Seti II within a cartouche. 19th Dynasty. From Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London A replica statue of Seti II holding a shrine to the god Amun on display at the Rosicrucian Egyptian Museum A small temple erected by Seti II in the atrium of the temple of Karnak. An obelisk erected by Seti II in front of Karnak temple Seti II promoted Chancellor Bay to become his most important state official and built 3 tombs – KV13, KV14, and KV15 – for himself, his Senior Queen Twosret and Bay in the Valley of the Kings. This was an unprecedented act on his part for Bay, who was of Syrian descent and was not connected by marriage or blood ties to the royal family. Because Seti II had his accession between II Peret 29 and III Peret 6 while Siptah—Seti II's successor—had his accession around late IV Akhet to early I Peret 2,[16] Seti's 6th and final regnal year lasted about 10 months; therefore, Seti II ruled Egypt for 5 years and 10 months or almost 6 full years when he died. Due to the relative brevity of his reign, Seti's tomb was unfinished at the time of his death. Twosret later rose to power herself after the death of Siptah, Seti II's successor. According to an inscribed ostraca document from the Deir el-Medina worker's community, Seti II's death was announced to the workmen by "The [Chief of] police Nakht-min" on Year 6, I Peret 19 of Seti II's reign.[17] Since it would have taken time for the news of Seti II's death to reach Thebes from the capital city of Pi-Ramesses in Lower Egypt, the date of I Peret 19 only marks the day the news of the king's death reached Deir el-Medina.[18] Seti II likely died sometime late in IV Akhet or early in I Peret; Wolfgang Helck and R.J. Demarée have now proposed I Peret 2 as the date of Seti II's actual death,[19] presumably since it is 70 days before the day of his burial. From a graffito written in the first corridor of Twosret's KV14 tomb, Seti II was buried in his KV15 tomb on "Year 1, III Peret day 11" of Siptah's reign.[20] Seti II's earliest prenomen in his First Year was 'Userkheperure Setepenre'[21] which is written above an inscription of Messuy, a Viceroy of Nubia under Merneptah, on a rock outcropping at Bigeh Island. However, Messuy's burial in Tomb S90 in Nubia has been discovered to contain only funerary objects naming Merneptah which suggests that 1) Messuy may have died during Merneptah's reign and 2) Seti II may have merely associated himself with an official who had actively served his father as Viceroy of Kush. Seti II soon changed his royal name to 'Userkheperure Meryamun', which was the most common form of his prenomen. Two important papyri date from the reign of Seti II. The first of these is the "Tale of Two Brothers", a fabulous story of troubles within a family on the death of their father, which may have been intended in part as political satire on the situation of the two half brothers. The second is the records of the trial of Paneb. Neferhotep, one of the two chief workmen of the Deir el-Medina necropolis, had been replaced by Paneb, his troublesome son-in-law. Many crimes were alleged by Neferhotep's brother—Amennakhte—against Paneb in a violently worded indictment preserved in papyrus now in the British Museum. If Amennakhte's testimony can be trusted, Paneb had allegedly stolen stone from the tomb of Seti II while still working on its completion—for the embellishment of his own tomb—besides purloining or damaging other property belonging to that monarch. Paneb was also accused of trying to kill Neferhotep, his adopted father-in-law, despite being educated by the latter and after the murder of Neferhotep by 'the enemy,' Paneb had reportedly bribed the Vizier Pra'emhab in order to usurp his father's office. Whatever the truth of these accusations, it is clear that Thebes was going through very troubled times. There are references elsewhere to a 'war' that had occurred during these years, but it is obscure to what this word alludes—perhaps to no more than internal disturbances and discontent. Neferhotep had complained of Paneb's attacks on himself to the vizier Amenmose, presumably a predecessor of Pra'emhab, whereupon Amenmose had punished Paneb. This trouble-maker had then brought a complaint before 'Mose' (i.e., 'Msy'), who then acted to remove Pra'emhab from his office. Evidently this 'Mose' must have been a person of the highest importance, perhaps the king Amenmesse himself or a senior ally of the king. Seti II also expanded the copper mining at Timna Valley in Edom, building an important temple to Hathor, the cow goddess, in the region. It was abandoned in the late Bronze Age collapse, where a part of the temple seems to have been used by Midianite nomads, linked to the worship of a bronze serpent discovered in the area.[22] Seti II also founded a station for a barge on the courtyard in front of the pylon II at Karnak, and chapels of the Theban Triad – Amun, Mut and Khonsu. Wives and treasure[edit] Of the wives of Seti II, Twosret and Takhat seem certain. Twosret would rule as regent for Siptah and later as Pharaoh. Her name is recorded in Manetho's Epitome as a certain 'Thuoris' who is assigned a reign of 7 years. Takhat bears the title of King's Daughter which would make her the offspring of either Ramesses II or Merenptah. A list of princesses dated to Year 53 of Ramesses II names a Takhat who is not included in earlier lists. This would make her about the same age or younger than Seti II. The traditional view has been that the rivals were half-brothers, with Takhat as Queen to Merenptah and mother to Amenmesses while the mother of Seti II was Isetnofret II. Takhat is shown on several statues of Amenmesse and on one of these, she is called King's Daughter and King's Wife with the word 'wife' inscribed over 'Mother'. According to Aidan Dodson the title was recarved when Seti regained control and usurped the statue. This would seem to indicate that Takhat was married to Seti and that Amenmesse was Seti's son and usurped the throne from his own father.[23] Dodson allows that there may have been two women named Takhat, but the treatment of the image of Takhat makes it unlikely. Gold earrings containing Seti II's name discovered in KV56 For many years, a certain Tiaa was also accepted as a wife of Seti II and mother of Siptah. This was based on a number of funerary objects found in the tomb of Siptah bearing the name of Tiaa as King's Wife and King's Mother. However, it now seems that these items washed into Siptah's tomb from the nearby tomb, KV32, as the result of an accidental breakthrough. KV32 is the tomb of the wife of Thutmose IV, Tiaa.[24] In January 1908, the Egyptologist Edward R. Ayrton, in an excavation conducted for Theodore M. Davis, discovered a small burial in tomb KV56 which Davis referred to as 'The Gold Tomb' in his publication of the discovery in the Valley of the Kings; it proved to contain a small cache of jewelry that featured the name of Seti II.[25] A set of "earrings, finger-rings, bracelets, a series of necklace ornaments and amulets, a pair of silver 'gloves' and a tiny silver sandal" were found within this tomb.[26] Bibliography[edit] Gabriella Dembitz, The Decree of Sethos II at Karnak : Further Thoughts on the Succession Problem after Merenptah, in: In: K. Endreffy – A. Gulyás (eds.): Proceedings of the Fourth Central European Conference of Young Egyptologists. 31 August - 2 September 2006, Budapest. Studia Aegyptiaca 18. 91 – 108, 2007. References[edit] ^ a b c Seti II on digital Egypt ^ Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames & Hudson Ltd, 1994. p.158 ^ "Seti II". Retrieved 2007-03-17. ^ Clayton, p.158 ^ "KV 15 (Sety II) - Theban Mapping Project". Theban Mapping Project. Retrieved 5 November 2015. ^ Aidan Dodson, The Decorative Phases of the Tomb of Sethos II and their Historical Implications, JEA 85 (1999), pp.136-38 ^ Dodson, p.131 ^ Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss & David Warburton (editors), Handbook of Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies), Brill: 2006, p.213 ^ E.F. Wente & C.C. Van Siclen, A Chronology of the New Kingdom, Studies in Honor of George R. Hughes, January 12, 1977, SAOC 39, Chicago: Oriental Institute, p.252 ^ Jac Janssen, "Amenmesse and After: The chronology of the late Nineteenth Dynasty Ostraca" in 'Village Varia. Ten Studies on the History and Administration of Deir el-Medina,' (Egyptologische Utigaven 11), Leiden; 1997, pp.99-109 ^ Janssen, p.104 ^ Janssen, p.100 ^ Otto Schaden, "Amenmesse Project Report, "ARCE Newsletter," No.163 (Fall. 1993) pp.1-9 ^ Rolf Krauss, Untersuchungen zu König Amenmesse, " SAK 5 (1977) pp.131-74 & Labib Habachi, "King Amenmesse and Viziers Amenmose and Kha'emtore: Their Monuments and Place in History," MDAIK 34 (1978) pp.58-67 ^ Frank Joseph Yurco, Was Amenmesse the Viceroy of Kush, Messuwy? JARCE 39 (1997), p.56 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath, Chronologie des Pharaonischen Ägypten, MAS:Philipp von Zabern, (1997), p.201 ^ KRI IV: 327. II.22-28, §57 (A.17) ^ Jacobus J. Janssen, Village Varia: Ten Studies on the History and Administration of Deir el-Medina, Egyptologische Uitgaven 11 (Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 1997), 153-54 ^ Wolfgang Helck, "Begräbnis Pharaos," in The Intellectual Heritage of Egypt: Studies Presented to László Kákosy by Friends and Colleagues on the Occasion of his 60th Birthday, ed. Ulrich Luft, (Budapest: La Chair d’Égyptologie de l’Université Eötvös Loráno de Budapest, 1992), 270, n.12. See also R.J. Demarée, "The King is Dead – Long Live the King," GM 137 (1993): p.52 ^ Hartwig Altenmüller, "Bemerkungen zu den neu gefundenen Daten im Grab der Königin Twosre (KV 14) im Tal der Könige von Theben," pp.147-148, Abb. 19. Cf. "Der Begräbnistag Sethos II," SAK 11 (1984): 37-38 & "Das Graffito 551 aus der thebanischen Nekropole," SAK 21 (1994): pp.19-28 ^ Frank Joseph Yurco, Was Amenmesse the Viceroy of Kush, Messuwy? JARCE 39 (1997), pp.49-56 ^ Magnusson, Magnus, "Archaeology of the Bible Lands" (BBC Books) ^ Dodson, A.; Poisoned Legacy: The Decline and Fall of the Nineteenth Egyptian Dynasty, American University Press in Cairo, 2010. Appendix 4, p 40 ^ Dodson, A, (2010), p 91 ^ Davis, T. M., The Tomb of Sipthah, the Monkey Tomb and the Gold Tomb, No.4, Bibân el Molûk, Theodore M. Davis' Excavations, A. Constable, London, 1908 ^ Reeves, Nicholas (2001). "Re-excavating 'The Gold Tomb'". Nicholasreeves.com. University College London. Archived from the original on 16 September 2009. External links[edit] Media related to Seti II at Wikimedia Commons v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seti_II&oldid=995842051" Categories: Seti II 13th-century BC Pharaohs 12th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt 1197 BC deaths 13th century BC in Egypt 12th century BC in Egypt 13th-century BC rulers 12th-century BC rulers Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 December 2020, at 04:47 (UTC). 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Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: {{Navbox with collapsible groups | name = Pharaohs | state = {{{state<includeonly>|collapsed</includeonly>}}} | bodyclass = hlist | title = [[Pharaoh]]s | selected = {{{selected|{{{expanded|{{{1|}}}}}}}}} <!----------------------------------------------------------------------------- Protodynastic to First Intermediate ------------------------------------------------------------------------------> | abbr2 = proto | sect2 = [[Naqada III|Protodynastic]] to [[First Intermediate Period of Egypt|First Intermediate Period]] {{nobold|{{small|&nbsp;(<3150–2040 BC)}}}} | list2 = {{Navbox |child |groupwidth=8.25em | group1 = {{center|Period}} | list1 = {{Navbox|child|groupwidth=4.75em |group1={{center|Dynasty}} |listclass=navbox-group |list1={{hlist|Pharaohs &nbsp;{{nobold|(male}}|{{nobold|female{{sup|♀}})}}|{{nobold|''uncertain''}}}}}} <!---------------------Protodynastic---------------------> | group2 = [[Naqada III|Protodynastic]]<br />{{nobold|{{small|(pre-3150 BC)}}}} | list2 = {{Navbox |child |groupwidth=4.75em |groupstyle=text-align:center; | group1 = [[Lower Egypt|Lower]] | list1 = * ''[[Hedju Hor]]'' * ''[[Ny-Hor]]'' * ''[[Hsekiu]]'' * ''[[Khayu]]'' * ''[[Tiu (pharaoh)|Tiu]]'' * ''[[Thesh]]'' * ''[[Neheb]]'' * ''[[Wazner]]'' * ''[[Hat-Hor]]'' * ''[[Mekh]]'' * [[Double Falcon]] * ''[[Wash (pharaoh)|Wash]]'' | group2 = [[Upper Egypt|Upper]] | list2 = * ''[[Finger Snail]]'' * ''[[Fish (pharaoh)|Fish]]'' * ''[[Elephant (pharaoh)|Pen-Abu]]'' * ''Animal'' * ''[[Stork (pharaoh)|Stork]]'' * ''[[Canide (Pharaoh)|Canide]]'' * ''[[Bull (pharaoh)|Bull]]'' * ''[[Scorpion I]]'' * ''[[Crocodile (pharaoh)|Shendjw]]'' * [[Iry-Hor]] * [[Ka (pharaoh)|Ka]] * ''[[Scorpion II]]'' * [[Narmer]] / [[Menes]] }} <!---------------------Early dynastic--------------------> | group3 = [[Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)|Early Dynastic]]<br />{{nobold|{{small|(3150–2686 BC)}}}} | list3 = {{Navbox |child |groupwidth=4.75em |groupstyle=text-align:center; | group1 = [[First Dynasty of Egypt|I]] | list1 = * [[Narmer]] / [[Menes]] * [[Hor-Aha]] * [[Djer]] * [[Djet]] * [[Den (pharaoh)|Den]] * [[Anedjib]] * [[Semerkhet]] * [[Qa'a]] * ''[[Sneferka]]'' * ''[[Horus Bird (Pharaoh)|Horus Bird]]'' | group2 = [[Second Dynasty of Egypt|II]] | list2 = * [[Hotepsekhemwy]] * [[Nebra (Pharaoh)|Nebra/Raneb]] * [[Nynetjer]] * ''[[Ba (pharaoh)|Ba]]'' * ''[[Nubnefer]]'' * ''[[Horus Sa]]'' * ''[[Weneg (pharaoh)|Weneg-Nebty]]'' * ''[[Wadjenes]]'' * ''[[Senedj]]'' * [[Seth-Peribsen]] * [[Sekhemib-Perenmaat]] * ''[[Neferkara I]]'' * ''[[Neferkasokar]]'' * ''[[Hudjefa I]]'' * [[Khasekhemwy]] }} <!----------------------Old Kingdom----------------------> | group4 = [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]]<br />{{nobold|{{small|(2686–2181 BC)}}}} | list4 = {{Navbox |child |groupwidth=4.75em |groupstyle=text-align:center; | group1 = [[Third Dynasty of Egypt|III]] | list1 = * [[Djoser]] * [[Sekhemkhet]] * [[Sanakht]] * ''[[Nebka]]'' * [[Khaba]] * ''[[Qahedjet]]'' * [[Huni]] | group2 = [[Fourth Dynasty of Egypt|IV]] | list2 = * [[Sneferu|Snefru]] * [[Khufu]] * [[Djedefre]] * [[Khafre]] * ''[[Bikheris]]'' * [[Menkaure]] * [[Shepseskaf]] * ''[[Thamphthis]]'' | group3 = [[Fifth Dynasty of Egypt|V]] | list3 = * [[Userkaf]] * [[Sahure]] * [[Neferirkare Kakai]] * [[Neferefre]] * [[Shepseskare]] * [[Nyuserre Ini]] * [[Menkauhor Kaiu]] * [[Djedkare Isesi]] * [[Unas]] | group4 = [[Sixth Dynasty of Egypt|VI]] | list4 = * [[Teti]] * [[Userkare]] * [[Pepi I Meryre|Pepi I]] * [[Merenre Nemtyemsaf I]] * [[Pepi II Neferkare|Pepi II]] * [[Merenre Nemtyemsaf II]] * [[Netjerkare Siptah]] }} <!------------------First Intermediate-------------------> | group5 = [[First Intermediate Period of Egypt|1{{sup|st}} Intermediate]]<br />{{nobold|{{small|(2181–2040 BC)}}}} | list5 = {{Navbox |child |groupwidth=4.75em |groupstyle=text-align:center; | group1 = {{hlist|[[Seventh Dynasty of Egypt|VII]]/[[Eighth Dynasty of Egypt|VIII]]}} | list1 = * [[Menkare]] * [[Neferkare II]] * [[Neferkare Neby|Neferkare III Neby]] * [[Djedkare Shemai]] * [[Neferkare Khendu|Neferkare IV Khendu]] * [[Merenhor]] * [[Neferkamin]] * [[Nikare]] * [[Neferkare Tereru|Neferkare V Tereru]] * [[Neferkahor]] * [[Neferkare Pepiseneb|Neferkare VI Pepiseneb]] * [[Neferkamin Anu]] * [[Qakare Ibi|Qakare Iby]] * [[Neferkaure]] * [[Neferkauhor]] * [[Neferirkare]] * ''[[Wadjkare]]'' * ''[[Khuiqer]]'' * ''[[Khui]]'' | group2 = {{hlist|[[Ninth Dynasty of Egypt|IX]]}} | list2 = * [[Meryibre Khety]] * [[Neferkare, ninth dynasty|Neferkare VII]] * [[Nebkaure Khety]] * [[Setut]] | group3 = {{hlist|[[Tenth Dynasty of Egypt|X]]}} | list3 = * [[Meryhathor]] * [[Neferkare VIII]] * [[Wahkare Khety]] * [[Merikare|Merykare]] }} }} <!----------------------------------------------------------------------------- Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate ------------------------------------------------------------------------------> | abbr3 = middle | sect3 = [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] and [[Second Intermediate Period of Egypt|Second Intermediate Period]] {{nobold|{{small|&nbsp;(2040–1550 BC)}}}} | list3 = {{Navbox |child |groupwidth=8.25em | group1 = {{center|Period}} | list1 = {{Navbox|child|groupwidth=4.75em |group1={{center|Dynasty}} |listclass=navbox-group |list1={{hlist|Pharaohs &nbsp;{{nobold|(male}}|{{nobold|female{{sup|♀}})}}|{{nobold|''uncertain''}}}}}} <!--------------------Middle Kingdom---------------------> | group2 = [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]]<br />{{nobold|{{small|(2040–1802 BC)}}}} | list2 = {{Navbox |child |groupwidth=4.75em |groupstyle=text-align:center;4.75em | group1 = [[Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt|XI]] | list1 = * [[Mentuhotep I]] * [[Intef I]] * [[Intef II]] * [[Intef III]] * [[Mentuhotep II]] * [[Mentuhotep III]] * [[Mentuhotep IV]] | group2 = Nubia | list2 = * [[Segerseni]] * [[Qakare Ini]] * [[Iyibkhentre]] | group3 = [[Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt|XII]] | list3 = * [[Amenemhat I]] * [[Senusret I]] * [[Amenemhat II]] * [[Senusret II]] * [[Senusret III]] * [[Amenemhat III]] * [[Amenemhat IV]] * [[Sobekneferu]]{{sup|♀}} }} <!------------------Second Intermediate------------------> | group3 = [[Second Intermediate Period of Egypt|2{{sup|nd}} Intermediate]]<br />{{nobold|{{small|(1802–1550 BC)}}}} | list3 = {{Navbox |child |groupwidth=4.75em |groupstyle=text-align:center;4.75em | group1 = [[Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt|XIII]] | list1 = * ''[[Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep|Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep]]'' * [[Sonbef]] * [[Nerikare]] * [[Sekhemkare|Sekhemkare Amenemhat V]] * [[Ameny Qemau]] * [[Hotepibre]] * [[Iufni]] * [[Amenemhet VI|Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI]] * [[Semenkare Nebnuni]] * [[Sehetepibre]] * [[Sewadjkare]] * [[Nedjemibre]] * [[Khaankhre Sobekhotep]] * [[Renseneb]] * [[Hor]] * [[Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw]] * [[Djedkheperew]] * [[Sebkay]] * [[Sedjefakare]] * ''[[Wegaf]]'' * [[Khendjer]] * [[Imyremeshaw]] * [[Sehetepkare Intef]] * [[Seth Meribre]] * [[Sobekhotep III]] * [[Neferhotep I]] * [[Sihathor]] * [[Sobekhotep IV]] * [[Merhotepre Sobekhotep]] * [[Sobekhotep VI|Khahotepre Sobekhotep]] * [[Wahibre Ibiau]] * [[Merneferre Ay]] * [[Merhotepre Ini]] * [[Sankhenre Sewadjtu]] * [[Mersekhemre Ined]] * [[Sewadjkare Hori]] * [[Merkawre Sobekhotep]] * [[Mershepsesre Ini II]] * [[Sewahenre Senebmiu]] * [[Merkheperre]] * [[Merkare]] * [[Sewadjare Mentuhotep]] * [[Seheqenre Sankhptahi]] | group2 = [[Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt|XIV]] | list2 = * ''[[Yakbim Sekhaenre]]'' * ''[[Ya'ammu Nubwoserre]]'' * ''[[Qareh|Qareh Khawoserre]]'' * ''[[Aahotepre|'Ammu Ahotepre]]'' * ''[[Sheshi|Maaibre Sheshi]]'' * [[Nehesy]] * [[Khakherewre]] * [[Nebefawre]] * [[Sehebre]] * [[Merdjefare]] * [[Sewadjkare III]] * [[Nebdjefare]] * Webenre * [[Nebsenre]] * [[Sekheperenre]] * Djedkherewre * [[Bebnum]] * [['Apepi]] * ''[[Nuya]]'' * ''[[Wazad]]'' * ''[[Sheneh (pharaoh)|Sheneh]]'' * ''[[Shenshek]]'' * ''[[Khamure]]'' * ''[[Yakareb]]'' * ''[[Yaqub-Har]]'' | group3 = [[Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt|XV]] | list3 = * ''[[Semqen]]'' * ''[[Aperanat|'Aper-'Anati]]'' * ''[[Salitis]]'' * [[Sakir-Har]] * [[Khyan]] * ''[[Yanassi]]'' * [[Apepi (pharaoh)|Apepi]] * [[Khamudi]] | group4 = [[Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt|XVI]] | list4 = * [[Djehuti]] * [[Sobekhotep VIII]] * [[Neferhotep III]] * [[Seankhenre Mentuhotepi|Mentuhotepi]] * [[Nebiryraw I]] * [[Nebiriau II]] * [[Semenre]] * [[Bebiankh]] * [[Sekhemre Shedwast]] * [[Dedumose I]] * [[Dedumose II]] * [[Djedankhre Montemsaf|Montuemsaf]] * [[Merankhre Mentuhotep]] * ''[[Senusret IV]]'' * ''[[Pepi III]]'' | group5 = [[Abydos Dynasty|Abydos]] | list5 = * ''[[Senebkay]]'' * ''[[Wepwawetemsaf]]'' * ''[[Pantjeny]]'' * ''[[Snaaib]]'' | group6 = [[Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt|XVII]] | list6 = * [[Rahotep]] * ''[[Nebmaatre]]'' * [[Sobekemsaf I]] * [[Sobekemsaf II]] * [[Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef]] * [[Nubkheperre Intef]] * [[Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef]] * [[Senakhtenre Ahmose]] * [[Seqenenre Tao]] * [[Kamose]] }} }} <!----------------------------------------------------------------------------- New Kingdom and Third Intermediate ------------------------------------------------------------------------------> | abbr4 = new | sect4 = [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] and [[Third Intermediate Period of Egypt|Third Intermediate Period]] {{nobold|{{small|&nbsp;(1550–664 BC)}}}} | list4 = {{Navbox |child |groupwidth=8.25em | group1 = {{center|Period}} | list1 = {{Navbox|child|groupwidth=4.75em |group1={{center|Dynasty}} |listclass=navbox-group |list1={{hlist|Pharaohs &nbsp;{{nobold|(male}}|{{nobold|female{{sup|♀}})}}|{{nobold|''uncertain''}}}}}} <!----------------------New Kingdom----------------------> | group2 = [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]]<br />{{nobold|{{small|(1550–1070 BC)}}}} | list2 = {{Navbox |child |groupwidth=4.75em |groupstyle=text-align:center; | group1 = [[Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt|XVIII]] | list1 = * [[Ahmose I]] * [[Amenhotep I]] * [[Thutmose I]] * [[Thutmose II]] * [[Thutmose III]] * [[Hatshepsut]]{{sup|♀}} * [[Amenhotep II]] * [[Thutmose IV]] * [[Amenhotep III]] * [[Akhenaten]] * ''[[Smenkhkare]]'' * [[Neferneferuaten]]{{sup|♀}} * [[Tutankhamun]] * [[Ay]] * [[Horemheb]] | group2 = [[Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt|XIX]] | list2 = * [[Ramesses I]] * [[Seti I]] * [[Ramesses II]] * [[Merneptah]] * [[Amenmesse]]s * [[Seti II]] * [[Siptah]] * [[Twosret]]{{sup|♀}} | group3 = [[Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt|XX]] | list3 = * [[Setnakhte]] * [[Ramesses III]] * [[Ramesses IV]] * [[Ramesses V]] * [[Ramesses VI]] * [[Ramesses VII]] * [[Ramesses VIII]] * [[Ramesses IX]] * [[Ramesses X]] * [[Ramesses XI]] }} <!------------------Third Intermediate-------------------> | group3 = [[Third Intermediate Period of Egypt|3{{sup|rd}} Intermediate]]<br />{{nobold|{{small|(1069–664 BC)}}}} | list3 = {{Navbox |child |groupwidth=4.75em |groupstyle=text-align:center; | group1 = [[Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt|XXI]] | list1 = * [[Smendes]] * [[Amenemnisu]] * [[Psusennes I]] * [[Amenemope (pharaoh)|Amenemope]] * [[Osorkon the Elder]] * [[Siamun]] * [[Psusennes II]] | group2 = [[Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt|XXII]] | list2 = * [[Shoshenq I]] * [[Osorkon I]] * [[Shoshenq II]] * [[Takelot I]] * [[Osorkon II]] * [[Shoshenq III]] * [[Shoshenq IV]] * [[Pami]] * [[Shoshenq V]] * ''[[Pedubast II]]'' * [[Osorkon IV]] | group3 = [[Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt|XXIII]] | list3 = * [[Harsiese A]] * [[Takelot II]] * [[Pedubast I]] * [[Shoshenq VI]] * [[Osorkon III]] * [[Takelot III]] * [[Rudamun]] * ''[[Shoshenq VII]]'' * [[Ini (pharaoh)|Menkheperre Ini]] | group4 = [[Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt|XXIV]] | list4 = * [[Tefnakht]] * [[Bakenranef]] | group5 = [[Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt|XXV]] | list5 = * [[Piye]] * [[Shebitku]] * [[Shabaka]] * [[Taharqa]] * [[Tantamani|Tanutamun]] }} }} <!----------------------------------------------------------------------------- Late and Hellenistic ------------------------------------------------------------------------------> | abbr5 = late | sect5 = [[Late Period of ancient Egypt|Late Period]] and [[Ptolemaic Kingdom#History|Hellenistic Period]] {{nobold|{{small|&nbsp;(664–30 BC)}}}} | list5 = {{Navbox |child |groupwidth=8.25em | group1 = {{center|Period}} | list1 = {{Navbox|child|groupwidth=4.75em |group1={{center|Dynasty}} |listclass=navbox-group |list1={{hlist|Pharaohs &nbsp;{{nobold|(male}}|{{nobold|female{{sup|♀}})}}|{{nobold|''uncertain''}}}}}} <!-------------------------Late--------------------------> | group2 = [[Late Period of ancient Egypt|Late]]<br />{{nobold|{{small|(664–332 BC)}}}} | list2 = {{Navbox |child |groupwidth=4.75em |groupstyle=text-align:center; | group1 = [[Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt|XXVI]] | list1 = * [[Necho I]] * [[Psamtik I]] * [[Necho II]] * [[Psamtik II]] * [[Apries|Wahibre]] * [[Amasis II|Ahmose II]] * [[Psamtik III]] | group2 = [[Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt|XXVII]] | list2 = * [[Cambyses II]] * [[Petubastis III]] * [[Darius the Great|Darius I]] * [[Xerxes I|Xerxes]] * [[Artaxerxes I of Persia|Artaxerxes I]] * [[Darius II]] | group3 = [[Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt|XXVIII]] | list3 = * [[Amyrtaeus]] | group4 = [[Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt|XXIX]] | list4 = * [[Nepherites I]] * [[Hakor]] * [[Psammuthes]] * [[Nepherites II]] | group5 = [[Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt|XXX]] | list5 = * [[Nectanebo I]] * [[Teos of Egypt|Teos]] * [[Nectanebo II]] | group6 = [[Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt|XXXI]] | list6 = * [[Artaxerxes III]] * [[Khabash]] * [[Arses of Persia|Arses]] * [[Darius III]] }} <!----------------------Hellenistic----------------------> | group3 = [[Ptolemaic Kingdom#History|Hellenistic]]<br />{{nobold|{{small|(332–30 BC)}}}} | list3 = {{Navbox |child |groupwidth=4.75em |groupstyle=text-align:center; |evenodd=swap | group1 = [[Argead dynasty|Argead]] | list1 = * [[Alexander the Great]] * [[Philip III of Macedon|Philip III Arrhidaeus]] * [[Alexander IV of Macedon|Alexander IV]] | group2 = [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic]] | list2 = * [[Ptolemy I Soter]] * [[Ptolemy II Philadelphus]] * [[Arsinoe II]]{{sup|♀}} * [[Ptolemy III Euergetes]] * [[Berenice II|Berenice II Euergetes]]{{sup|♀}} * [[Ptolemy IV Philopator]] * [[Arsinoe III Philopator]]{{sup|♀}} * [[Ptolemy V Epiphanes]] * [[Cleopatra I Syra]]{{sup|♀}} * [[Ptolemy VI Philometor]] * [[Cleopatra II]]{{sup|♀}} * [[Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator]] * [[Ptolemy VIII Physcon|Ptolemy VIII Euergetes]] * [[Cleopatra III]]{{sup|♀}} * [[Ptolemy IX Lathyros|Ptolemy IX Soter]] * [[Cleopatra IV]]{{sup|♀}} * [[Ptolemy X Alexander I]] * [[Berenice III]]{{sup|♀}} * [[Ptolemy XI Alexander II]] * [[Ptolemy XII Auletes|Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos]] * [[Cleopatra V]]{{sup|♀}} * [[Berenice IV of Egypt|Berenice IV Epiphaneia]]{{sup|♀}} * ''[[Cleopatra VI Tryphaena]]''{{sup|♀}} * [[Cleopatra|Cleopatra VII Philopator]]{{sup|♀}} * [[Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator]] * [[Arsinoe IV]]{{sup|♀}} * [[Ptolemy XIV]] * [[Caesarion|Ptolemy XV Caesarion]] }} }} <!---------------------------Dynastic genealogies------------------------------> | abbr6 = genealogies | sect6 = Dynastic genealogies | list6 = * [[First Dynasty of Egypt family tree|1{{sup|st}}]] * [[Second Dynasty of Egypt family tree|2{{sup|nd}}]] * [[Third Dynasty of Egypt family tree|3{{sup|rd}}]] * [[Fourth Dynasty of Egypt family tree|4{{sup|th}}]] * [[Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt family tree|11{{sup|th}}]] * [[Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt family tree|12{{sup|th}}]] * [[Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree|18{{sup|th}}]] * [[Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree|19{{sup|th}}]] * [[Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt family tree|20{{sup|th}}]] * [[21st, 22nd & 23rd dynasties of Egypt family tree|21{{sup|st}} to 23{{sup|rd}}]] * [[Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt#Family tree|24{{sup|th}}]] * [[Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt family tree|25{{sup|th}}]] * [[Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt family tree|26{{sup|th}}]] * [[Achaemenid family tree|27{{sup|th}}]] * [[Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt#Family tree|30{{sup|th}}]] * [[Achaemenid family tree|31{{sup|st}}]] * [[Ptolemaic family tree|Ptolemaic]] | below = [[List of pharaohs]] }}<noinclude> {{Documentation | content = {{Collapsible sections option |list={{hlist|proto|middle|new|late|genealogies}}}} {{Collapsible option |default=collapsed}} }} [[Category:Ancient Egypt templates]] [[Category:Pharaonic dynasty templates]] [[Category:Ruler navigational boxes]] [[Category:WikiProject Ancient Egypt templates]] [[Category:Pharaohs|τ]] [[Category:African royalty and nobility navigational boxes‎]] </noinclude> Pages transcluded onto the current version of this page (help): Template:Big (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Center (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Collapsible option (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Collapsible sections option (edit) Template:Documentation (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Hlist (view source) (template 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en-wikipedia-org-3559	----	Paris - Wikipedia Paris From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 24 January 2021. Jump to navigation Jump to search Capital and most populous city of France This article is about the capital of France. For other uses, see Paris (disambiguation). Place in Île-de-France, France Paris Capital city, department and commune Clockwise from top: skyline of Paris on the Seine with the Eiffel Tower, Notre-Dame de Paris, the Pont Royal leading to the Louvre, and the Arc de Triomphe Flag Coat of arms Motto(s): Fluctuat nec mergitur "Tossed by the waves but never sunk" Paris Location within France Show map of France Paris Location within Europe Show map of Europe Coordinates: 48°51′24″N 2°21′08″E / 48.856613°N 2.352222°E / 48.856613; 2.352222Coordinates: 48°51′24″N 2°21′08″E / 48.856613°N 2.352222°E / 48.856613; 2.352222 Country France Region Île-de-France Department Paris Canton Paris Subdivisions 20 arrondissements Government  • Mayor Anne Hidalgo (PS) Area  • City proper 105.4 km2 (40.7 sq mi) Population (1 January 2020 (est))[1]  • City proper 2,148,271  • Density 20,000/km2 (53,000/sq mi)  • Urban[2] 10,784,830  • Metro[3] 12,628,266 Demonym(s) Parisian(s) (en) Parisien, Parisienne (fr) Time zone UTC+1 (CET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+2 (CEST) INSEE/postal code 75001–75020, 75116 GeoTLD .paris Website www.paris.fr Paris (French pronunciation: ​[paʁi] (listen)) is the capital and most populous city of France, with an estimated population of 2,148,271 residents as of 2020, in an area of more than 105 square kilometres (41 square miles).[1] Since the 17th century, Paris has been one of Europe's major centres of finance, diplomacy, commerce, fashion, science and arts. The City of Paris is the centre and seat of government of the Île-de-France, or Paris Region, which has an estimated official 2020 population of 12,278,210, or about 18 percent of the population of France.[1] The Paris Region had a GDP of €709 billion ($808 billion) in 2017.[4] According to the Economist Intelligence Unit Worldwide Cost of Living Survey in 2018, Paris was the second most expensive city in the world, after Singapore, and ahead of Zürich, Hong Kong, Oslo and Geneva.[5] Another source ranked Paris as most expensive, on a par with Singapore and Hong Kong, in 2018.[6][7] The city is a major railway, highway and air-transport hub served by two international airports: Paris–Charles de Gaulle (the second busiest airport in Europe) and Paris–Orly.[8][9] Opened in 1900, the city's subway system, the Paris Métro, serves 5.23 million passengers daily;[10] it is the second busiest metro system in Europe after the Moscow Metro. Gare du Nord is the 24th busiest railway station in the world, but the first located outside Japan, with 262 million passengers in 2015.[11] Paris is especially known for its museums and architectural landmarks: the Louvre was the most visited art museum in the world in 2019, with 9.6 million visitors.[12][13] However, the number of visitors plunged by 72 percent to 2.7 million visitors in 2020, due to the COVID virus and the drop in the number of foreign visitors.[14] The Musée d'Orsay, Musée Marmottan Monet, and Musée de l'Orangerie are noted for their collections of French Impressionist art. The Pompidou Centre Musée National d'Art Moderne has the largest collection of modern and contemporary art in Europe. The Musée Rodin and Musée Picasso exhibit the works of two noted Parisians. The historical district along the Seine in the city centre is classified as a UNESCO Heritage Site, and popular landmarks there included the Cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris on the Île de la Cité, now closed for renovation after the 15 April 2019 fire. Other popular tourist sites include the Gothic royal chapel of Sainte-Chapelle, also on the Île de la Cité; the Eiffel Tower, constructed for the Paris Universal Exposition of 1889; the Grand Palais and Petit Palais, built for the Paris Universal Exposition of 1900; the Arc de Triomphe on the Champs-Élysées, and the Basilica of Sacré-Coeur on the hill of Montmartre. Paris received 38 million visitors in 2019, measured by hotel stays, with the largest numbers of foreign visitors coming from the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, and China.[15] It was ranked as the second most visited travel destination in the world in 2019, after Bangkok and just ahead of London.[16] The football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris. The 80,000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros. The city hosted the Olympic Games in 1900, 1924 and will host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The 1938 and 1998 FIFA World Cups, the 2007 Rugby World Cup, as well as the 1960, 1984 and 2016 UEFA European Championships were also held in the city. Every July, the Tour de France bicycle race finishes on the Avenue des Champs-Élysées in Paris. Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Origins 2.2 Middle Ages to Louis XIV 2.3 18th and 19th centuries 2.4 20th and 21st centuries 2.4.1 Terrorist attacks 3 Geography 3.1 Location 3.2 Climate 4 Administration 4.1 City government 4.2 Métropole du Grand Paris 4.3 Regional government 4.4 National government 4.5 Police force 5 Cityscape 5.1 Urbanism and architecture 5.2 Housing 5.3 Paris and its suburbs 6 Demographics 6.1 Migration 6.2 Religion 7 International organisations 8 Economy 8.1 Employment 8.2 Unemployment 8.3 Incomes 9 Tourism 9.1 Monuments and attractions 9.2 Hotels 10 Culture 10.1 Painting and sculpture 10.2 Photography 10.3 Museums 10.4 Theatre 10.5 Literature 10.6 Music 10.7 Cinema 10.8 Restaurants and cuisine 10.9 Fashion 10.10 Holidays and festivals 11 Education 11.1 Libraries 12 Sports 13 Infrastructure 13.1 Transport 13.1.1 Railways 13.1.2 Métro, RER and tramway 13.1.3 Air 13.1.4 Motorways 13.1.5 Waterways 13.1.6 Cycling 13.2 Electricity 13.3 Water and sanitation 13.4 Parks and gardens 13.5 Cemeteries 13.6 Healthcare 14 Media 15 International relations 15.1 Twin towns and sister cities 15.2 Other relationships 16 See also 17 Notes 18 References 18.1 Citations 18.2 Sources 19 Further reading 20 External links Etymology[edit] See Wiktionary for the name of Paris in various languages other than English and French. The name 'Paris' is derived from its early inhabitants, the Parisii, a Gallic tribe from the Iron Age and the Roman period.[17] The meaning of the Gaulish ethnonym is debated. According to Xavier Delamarre, it may derive from the root pario- ('cauldron').[17] Alfred Holder interpreted the name as 'the makers' or 'the commanders', by comparing it to the Welsh peryff ('lord, commander'), both possibly descending from a Proto-Celtic form reconstructed as *kwar-is-io-.[18] Alternatively, Pierre-Yves Lambert proposed to translate Parisii as the 'spear people', by connecting the first element to the Old Irish carr 'spear', derived from an earlier *kwar-sā.[19] In any case, the city's name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. Paris is often referred to as the 'City of Light' (La Ville Lumière),[20] both because of its leading role during the Age of Enlightenment and more literally because Paris was one of the first large European cities to use gas street lighting on a grand scale on its boulevards and monuments. Gas lights were installed on the Place du Carrousel, Rue de Rivoli and Place Vendome in 1829. By 1857, the Grand boulevards were lit.[21] By the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps.[22] Since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam(e) (pronounced [panam]) in French slang.[23] Inhabitants are known in English as "Parisians" and in French as Parisiens ([paʁizjɛ̃] (listen)). They are also pejoratively called Parigots ([paʁiɡo] (listen)).[note 1][24] History[edit] Main articles: History of Paris and Timeline of Paris Origins[edit] Main article: Lutetia The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC.[25][26] One of the area's major north–south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité; this meeting place of land and water trade routes gradually became an important trading centre.[27] The Parisii traded with many river towns (some as far away as the Iberian Peninsula) and minted their own coins for that purpose.[28] Gold coins minted by the Parisii (1st century BC) The Romans conquered the Paris Basin in 52 BC and began their settlement on Paris' Left Bank.[29] The Roman town was originally called Lutetia (more fully, Lutetia Parisiorum, "Lutetia of the Parisii", modern French Lutèce). It became a prosperous city with a forum, baths, temples, theatres, and an amphitheatre.[30] By the end of the Western Roman Empire, the town was known as Parisius, a Latin name that would later become Paris in French.[31] Christianity was introduced in the middle of the 3rd century AD by Saint Denis, the first Bishop of Paris: according to legend, when he refused to renounce his faith before the Roman occupiers, he was beheaded on the hill which became known as Mons Martyrum (Latin "Hill of Martyrs"), later "Montmartre", from where he walked headless to the north of the city; the place where he fell and was buried became an important religious shrine, the Basilica of Saint-Denis, and many French kings are buried there.[32] Clovis the Frank, the first king of the Merovingian dynasty, made the city his capital from 508.[33] As the Frankish domination of Gaul began, there was a gradual immigration by the Franks to Paris and the Parisian Francien dialects were born. Fortification of the Île de la Cité failed to avert sacking by Vikings in 845, but Paris' strategic importance—with its bridges preventing ships from passing—was established by successful defence in the Siege of Paris (885–86), for which the then Count of Paris (comte de Paris), Odo of France, was elected king of West Francia.[34] From the Capetian dynasty that began with the 987 election of Hugh Capet, Count of Paris and Duke of the Franks (duc des Francs), as king of a unified Francia, Paris gradually became the largest and most prosperous city in France.[32] Middle Ages to Louis XIV[edit] See also: Paris in the Middle Ages, Paris in the 16th century, and Paris in the 17th century The Palais de la Cité and Sainte-Chapelle, viewed from the Left Bank, from the Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (month of June) (1410) By the end of the 12th century, Paris had become the political, economic, religious, and cultural capital of France.[35] The Palais de la Cité, the royal residence, was located at the western end of the Île de la Cité. In 1163, during the reign of Louis VII, Maurice de Sully, bishop of Paris, undertook the construction of the Notre Dame Cathedral at its eastern extremity. After the marshland between the river Seine and its slower 'dead arm' to its north was filled in around the 10th century,[36] Paris' cultural centre began to move to the Right Bank. In 1137, a new city marketplace (today's Les Halles) replaced the two smaller ones on the Île de la Cité and Place de la Grève (Place de l'Hôtel de Ville).[37] The latter location housed the headquarters of Paris' river trade corporation, an organisation that later became, unofficially (although formally in later years), Paris' first municipal government. In the late 12th century, Philip Augustus extended the Louvre fortress to defend the city against river invasions from the west, gave the city its first walls between 1190 and 1215, rebuilt its bridges to either side of its central island, and paved its main thoroughfares.[38] In 1190, he transformed Paris' former cathedral school into a student-teacher corporation that would become the University of Paris and would draw students from all of Europe.[39][35] With 200,000 inhabitants in 1328, Paris, then already the capital of France, was the most populous city of Europe. By comparison, London in 1300 had 80,000 inhabitants.[40] The Hôtel de Sens, one of many remnants of the Middle Ages in Paris During the Hundred Years' War, Paris was occupied by England-friendly Burgundian forces from 1418, before being occupied outright by the English when Henry V of England entered the French capital in 1420;[41] in spite of a 1429 effort by Joan of Arc to liberate the city,[42] it would remain under English occupation until 1436. In the late 16th-century French Wars of Religion, Paris was a stronghold of the Catholic League, the organisers of 24 August 1572 St. Bartholomew's Day massacre in which thousands of French Protestants were killed.[43][44] The conflicts ended when pretender to the throne Henry IV, after converting to Catholicism to gain entry to the capital, entered the city in 1594 to claim the crown of France. This king made several improvements to the capital during his reign: he completed the construction of Paris' first uncovered, sidewalk-lined bridge, the Pont Neuf, built a Louvre extension connecting it to the Tuileries Palace, and created the first Paris residential square, the Place Royale, now Place des Vosges. In spite of Henry IV's efforts to improve city circulation, the narrowness of Paris' streets was a contributing factor in his assassination near Les Halles marketplace in 1610.[45] During the 17th century, Cardinal Richelieu, chief minister of Louis XIII, was determined to make Paris the most beautiful city in Europe. He built five new bridges, a new chapel for the College of Sorbonne, and a palace for himself, the Palais-Cardinal, which he bequeathed to Louis XIII. After Richelieu's death in 1642, it was renamed the Palais-Royal.[46] Due to the Parisian uprisings during the Fronde civil war, Louis XIV moved his court to a new palace, Versailles, in 1682. Although no longer the capital of France, arts and sciences in the city flourished with the Comédie-Française, the Academy of Painting, and the French Academy of Sciences. To demonstrate that the city was safe from attack, the king had the city walls demolished and replaced with tree-lined boulevards that would become the Grands Boulevards of today.[47] Other marks of his reign were the Collège des Quatre-Nations, the Place Vendôme, the Place des Victoires, and Les Invalides.[48] 18th and 19th centuries[edit] See also: Paris in the 18th century, Paris during the Second Empire, and Haussmann's renovation of Paris Paris grew in population from about 400,000 in 1640 to 650,000 in 1780.[49] A new boulevard, the Champs-Élysées, extended the city west to Étoile,[50] while the working-class neighbourhood of the Faubourg Saint-Antoine on the eastern site of the city grew more and more crowded with poor migrant workers from other regions of France.[51] Paris was the centre of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity known as the Age of Enlightenment. Diderot and d'Alembert published their Encyclopédie in 1751, and the Montgolfier Brothers launched the first manned flight in a hot-air balloon on 21 November 1783, from the gardens of the Château de la Muette. Paris was the financial capital of continental Europe, the primary European centre of book publishing and fashion and the manufacture of fine furniture and luxury goods.[52] The storming of the Bastille on 14 July 1789, by Jean-Pierre Houël In the summer of 1789, Paris became the centre stage for the French Revolution. On 14 July, a mob seized the arsenal at the Invalides, acquiring thousands of guns, and stormed the Bastille, a symbol of royal authority. The first independent Paris Commune, or city council, met in the Hôtel de Ville and, on 15 July, elected a Mayor, the astronomer Jean Sylvain Bailly.[53] The Paris Opera was the centrepiece of Napoleon III's new Paris. The architect, Charles Garnier, described the style simply as "Napoleon the Third." Louis XVI and the royal family were brought to Paris and made prisoners within the Tuileries Palace. In 1793, as the revolution turned more and more radical, the king, queen, and the mayor were guillotined (executed) in the Reign of Terror, along with more than 16,000 others throughout France.[54] The property of the aristocracy and the church was nationalised, and the city's churches were closed, sold or demolished.[55] A succession of revolutionary factions ruled Paris until 9 November 1799 (coup d'état du 18 brumaire), when Napoléon Bonaparte seized power as First Consul.[56] The Jardin du Luxembourg, and the Panthéon in the background The population of Paris had dropped by 100,000 during the Revolution, but between 1799 and 1815, it surged with 160,000 new residents, reaching 660,000.[57] Napoleon Bonaparte replaced the elected government of Paris with a prefect reporting only to him. He began erecting monuments to military glory, including the Arc de Triomphe, and improved the neglected infrastructure of the city with new fountains, the Canal de l'Ourcq, Père Lachaise Cemetery and the city's first metal bridge, the Pont des Arts.[57] The Richelieu reading room, National Library of France During the Restoration, the bridges and squares of Paris were returned to their pre-Revolution names, but the July Revolution of 1830 in Paris, (commemorated by the July Column on Place de la Bastille), brought a constitutional monarch, Louis Philippe I, to power. The first railway line to Paris opened in 1837, beginning a new period of massive migration from the provinces to the city.[57] Louis-Philippe was overthrown by a popular uprising in the streets of Paris in 1848. His successor, Napoleon III, and the newly appointed prefect of the Seine, Georges-Eugène Haussmann, launched a gigantic public works project to build wide new boulevards, a new opera house, a central market, new aqueducts, sewers, and parks, including the Bois de Boulogne and Bois de Vincennes.[58] In 1860, Napoleon III also annexed the surrounding towns and created eight new arrondissements, expanding Paris to its current limits.[58] In the 1860s, Paris streets and monuments were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, giving it the name "The City of Light."[59] During the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871), Paris was besieged by the Prussian Army. After months of blockade, hunger, and then bombardment by the Prussians, the city was forced to surrender on 28 January 1871. On 28 March, a revolutionary government called the Paris Commune seized power in Paris. The Commune held power for two months, until it was harshly suppressed by the French army during the "Bloody Week" at the end of May 1871.[60] The Eiffel Tower, under construction in November 1888, startled Parisians – and the world – with its modernity. Late in the 19th century, Paris hosted two major international expositions: the 1889 Universal Exposition, was held to mark the centennial of the French Revolution and featured the new Eiffel Tower; and the 1900 Universal Exposition, which gave Paris the Pont Alexandre III, the Grand Palais, the Petit Palais and the first Paris Métro line.[61] Paris became the laboratory of Naturalism (Émile Zola) and Symbolism (Charles Baudelaire and Paul Verlaine), and of Impressionism in art (Courbet, Manet, Monet, Renoir).[62] 20th and 21st centuries[edit] See also: Paris in the Belle Époque, Paris during the First World War, Paris between the Wars (1919–1939), Paris in World War II, and History of Paris (1946–2000) By 1901, the population of Paris had grown to 2,715,000.[63] At the beginning of the century, artists from around the world including Pablo Picasso, Modigliani, and Henri Matisse made Paris their home. It was the birthplace of Fauvism, Cubism and abstract art,[64][65] and authors such as Marcel Proust were exploring new approaches to literature.[66] During the First World War, Paris sometimes found itself on the front line; 600 to 1,000 Paris taxis played a small but highly important symbolic role in transporting 6,000 soldiers to the front line at the First Battle of the Marne. The city was also bombed by Zeppelins and shelled by German long-range guns.[67] In the years after the war, known as Les Années Folles, Paris continued to be a mecca for writers, musicians and artists from around the world, including Ernest Hemingway, Igor Stravinsky, James Joyce, Josephine Baker, Eva Kotchever, Henry Miller, Anaïs Nin, Sidney Bechet[68] Allen Ginsberg[69] and the surrealist Salvador Dalí.[70] In the years after the peace conference, the city was also home to growing numbers of students and activists from French colonies and other Asian and African countries, who later became leaders of their countries, such as Ho Chi Minh, Zhou Enlai and Léopold Sédar Senghor.[71] General Charles de Gaulle on the Champs-Élysées celebrating the liberation of Paris, 26 August 1944 On 14 June 1940, the German army marched into Paris, which had been declared an "open city".[72] On 16–17 July 1942, following German orders, the French police and gendarmes arrested 12,884 Jews, including 4,115 children, and confined them during five days at the Vel d'Hiv (Vélodrome d'Hiver), from which they were transported by train to the extermination camp at Auschwitz. None of the children came back.[73][74] On 25 August 1944, the city was liberated by the French 2nd Armoured Division and the 4th Infantry Division of the United States Army. General Charles de Gaulle led a huge and emotional crowd down the Champs Élysées towards Notre Dame de Paris, and made a rousing speech from the Hôtel de Ville.[75] In the 1950s and the 1960s, Paris became one front of the Algerian War for independence; in August 1961, the pro-independence FLN targeted and killed 11 Paris policemen, leading to the imposition of a curfew on Muslims of Algeria (who, at that time, were French citizens). On 17 October 1961, an unauthorised but peaceful protest demonstration of Algerians against the curfew led to violent confrontations between the police and demonstrators, in which at least 40 people were killed, including some thrown into the Seine. The anti-independence Organisation armée secrète (OAS), for their part, carried out a series of bombings in Paris throughout 1961 and 1962.[76][77] In May 1968, protesting students occupied the Sorbonne and put up barricades in the Latin Quarter. Thousands of Parisian blue-collar workers joined the students, and the movement grew into a two-week general strike. Supporters of the government won the June elections by a large majority. The May 1968 events in France resulted in the break-up of the University of Paris into 13 independent campuses.[78] In 1975, the National Assembly changed the status of Paris to that of other French cities and, on 25 March 1977, Jacques Chirac became the first elected mayor of Paris since 1793.[79] The Tour Maine-Montparnasse, the tallest building in the city at 57 storeys and 210 metres (689 feet) high, was built between 1969 and 1973. It was highly controversial, and it remains the only building in the centre of the city over 32 storeys high.[80] The population of Paris dropped from 2,850,000 in 1954 to 2,152,000 in 1990, as middle-class families moved to the suburbs.[81] A suburban railway network, the RER (Réseau Express Régional), was built to complement the Métro, and the Périphérique expressway encircling the city, was completed in 1973.[82] Most of the postwar's Presidents of the Fifth Republic wanted to leave their own monuments in Paris; President Georges Pompidou started the Centre Georges Pompidou (1977), Valéry Giscard d'Estaing began the Musée d'Orsay (1986); President François Mitterrand, in power for 14 years, built the Opéra Bastille (1985–1989), the new site of the Bibliothèque nationale de France (1996), the Arche de la Défense (1985–1989), and the Louvre Pyramid with its underground courtyard (1983–1989); Jacques Chirac (2006), the Musée du quai Branly.[83] In the early 21st century, the population of Paris began to increase slowly again, as more young people moved into the city. It reached 2.25 million in 2011. In March 2001, Bertrand Delanoë became the first Socialist Mayor of Paris. In 2007, in an effort to reduce car traffic in the city, he introduced the Vélib', a system which rents bicycles for the use of local residents and visitors. Bertrand Delanoë also transformed a section of the highway along the Left Bank of the Seine into an urban promenade and park, the Promenade des Berges de la Seine, which he inaugurated in June 2013.[84] In 2007, President Nicolas Sarkozy launched the Grand Paris project, to integrate Paris more closely with the towns in the region around it. After many modifications, the new area, named the Metropolis of Grand Paris, with a population of 6.7 million, was created on 1 January 2016.[85] In 2011, the City of Paris and the national government approved the plans for the Grand Paris Express, totalling 205 kilometres (127 miles) of automated metro lines to connect Paris, the innermost three departments around Paris, airports and high-speed rail (TGV) stations, at an estimated cost of €35 billion.[86] The system is scheduled to be completed by 2030.[87] Terrorist attacks[edit] Further information: 1995 France bombings, Charlie Hebdo shooting, November 2015 Paris attacks, Louvre machete attack, March 2017 Île-de-France attacks, and April 2017 Champs-Élysées attack Anti-terrorism demonstration on the Place de la République after the Charlie Hebdo shooting, 11 January 2015 Between July and October 1995, a series of bombings carried out by the Armed Islamic Group of Algeria caused 8 deaths and more than 200 injuries.[88] On 7 January 2015, two French Muslim extremists attacked the Paris headquarters of Charlie Hebdo and killed thirteen people, in an attack claimed by Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula,[89] and on 9 January, a third terrorist, who claimed he was part of ISIL, killed four hostages during an attack at a Jewish grocery store at Porte de Vincennes.[90] On 11 January an estimated 1.5 million people marched in Paris in a show of solidarity against terrorism and in support of freedom of speech.[91] On 13 November of the same year, a series of coordinated bomb and gunfire terrorist attacks in Paris and Saint-Denis, claimed by ISIL,[92] killed 130 people and injured more than 350.[93] On 3 February 2017, a two-backpack-carrying, machete-wielding attacker shouting "Allahu Akbar" attacked soldiers guarding the Louvre museum after they stopped him because of his bags; the assailant was shot, and no explosives were found.[94] On 18 March of the same year, in a Vitry-sur-Seine bar, a man held patrons hostage, then fled to later hold a gun to the head of an Orly Airport French soldier, shouting "I am here to die in the name of Allah", and was shot dead by the soldier's comrades.[95] On 20 April, a man fatally shot a French police officer on the Champs-Élysées, and was later shot dead himself.[96] On 19 June, a man rammed his weapons-and-explosives-laden vehicle into a police van on the Champs-Élysées, but the car only burst into flames.[97] Geography[edit] Location[edit] Satellite image of Paris by Sentinel-2 Paris in the night from a plane Main article: Geography of Paris Parisian hills and hydrology Paris is located in northern central France, in a north-bending arc of the river Seine whose crest includes two islands, the Île Saint-Louis and the larger Île de la Cité, which form the oldest part of the city. The river's mouth on the English Channel (La Manche) is about 233 mi (375 km) downstream from the city. The city is spread widely on both banks of the river.[98] Overall, the city is relatively flat, and the lowest point is 35 m (115 ft) above sea level. Paris has several prominent hills, the highest of which is Montmartre at 130 m (427 ft).[99] Excluding the outlying parks of Bois de Boulogne and Bois de Vincennes, Paris covers an oval measuring about 87 km2 (34 sq mi) in area, enclosed by the 35 km (22 mi) ring road, the Boulevard Périphérique.[100] The city's last major annexation of outlying territories in 1860 not only gave it its modern form but also created the 20 clockwise-spiralling arrondissements (municipal boroughs). From the 1860 area of 78 km2 (30 sq mi), the city limits were expanded marginally to 86.9 km2 (33.6 sq mi) in the 1920s. In 1929, the Bois de Boulogne and Bois de Vincennes forest parks were officially annexed to the city, bringing its area to about 105 km2 (41 sq mi).[101] The metropolitan area of the city is 2,300 km2 (890 sq mi).[98] Measured from the 'point zero' in front of its Notre-Dame cathedral, Paris by road is 450 kilometres (280 mi) southeast of London, 287 kilometres (178 mi) south of Calais, 305 kilometres (190 mi) southwest of Brussels, 774 kilometres (481 mi) north of Marseille, 385 kilometres (239 mi) northeast of Nantes, and 135 kilometres (84 mi) southeast of Rouen.[102] Climate[edit] Main article: Climate of Paris Autumn in Paris Paris has a typical Western European oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb), which is affected by the North Atlantic Current. The overall climate throughout the year is mild and moderately wet.[103] Summer days are usually warm and pleasant with average temperatures between 15 and 25 °C (59 and 77 °F), and a fair amount of sunshine.[104] Each year, however, there are a few days when the temperature rises above 32 °C (90 °F). Longer periods of more intense heat sometimes occur, such as the heat wave of 2003 when temperatures exceeded 30 °C (86 °F) for weeks, reached 40 °C (104 °F) on some days and rarely cooled down at night.[105] Spring and autumn have, on average, mild days and fresh nights but are changing and unstable. Surprisingly warm or cool weather occurs frequently in both seasons.[106] In winter, sunshine is scarce; days are cool, and nights are cold but generally above freezing with low temperatures around 3 °C (37 °F).[107] Light night frosts are however quite common, but the temperature seldom dip below −5 °C (23 °F). Snow falls every year, but rarely stays on the ground. The city sometimes sees light snow or flurries with or without accumulation.[108] Paris has an average annual precipitation of 641 mm (25.2 in), and experiences light rainfall distributed evenly throughout the year. However the city is known for intermittent abrupt heavy showers. The highest recorded temperature is 42.6 °C (108.7 °F) on 25 July 2019,[109] and the lowest is −23.9 °C (−11.0 °F) on 10 December 1879.[110] Climate data for Paris (Parc Montsouris), elevation: 75 m (246 ft), 1981–2010 normals, extremes 1872–present Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 16.1 (61.0) 21.4 (70.5) 25.7 (78.3) 30.2 (86.4) 34.8 (94.6) 37.6 (99.7) 42.6 (108.7) 39.5 (103.1) 36.2 (97.2) 28.9 (84.0) 21.6 (70.9) 17.1 (62.8) 42.6 (108.7) Average high °C (°F) 7.2 (45.0) 8.3 (46.9) 12.2 (54.0) 15.6 (60.1) 19.6 (67.3) 22.7 (72.9) 25.2 (77.4) 25.0 (77.0) 21.1 (70.0) 16.3 (61.3) 10.8 (51.4) 7.5 (45.5) 16.0 (60.8) Daily mean °C (°F) 4.9 (40.8) 5.6 (42.1) 8.8 (47.8) 11.5 (52.7) 15.2 (59.4) 18.3 (64.9) 20.5 (68.9) 20.3 (68.5) 16.9 (62.4) 13.0 (55.4) 8.3 (46.9) 5.5 (41.9) 12.4 (54.3) Average low °C (°F) 2.7 (36.9) 2.8 (37.0) 5.3 (41.5) 7.3 (45.1) 10.9 (51.6) 13.8 (56.8) 15.8 (60.4) 15.7 (60.3) 12.7 (54.9) 9.6 (49.3) 5.8 (42.4) 3.4 (38.1) 8.8 (47.8) Record low °C (°F) −14.6 (5.7) −14.7 (5.5) −9.1 (15.6) −3.5 (25.7) −0.1 (31.8) 3.1 (37.6) 2.7 (36.9) 6.3 (43.3) 1.8 (35.2) −3.8 (25.2) −14.0 (6.8) −23.9 (−11.0) −23.9 (−11.0) Average precipitation mm (inches) 51.0 (2.01) 41.2 (1.62) 47.6 (1.87) 51.8 (2.04) 63.2 (2.49) 49.6 (1.95) 62.3 (2.45) 52.7 (2.07) 47.6 (1.87) 61.5 (2.42) 51.1 (2.01) 57.8 (2.28) 637.4 (25.09) Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) 9.9 9.0 10.6 9.3 9.8 8.4 8.1 7.7 7.8 9.6 10.0 10.9 111.1 Average snowy days 3.0 3.9 1.6 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 2.1 11.9 Average relative humidity (%) 83 78 73 69 70 69 68 71 76 82 84 84 76 Mean monthly sunshine hours 62.5 79.2 128.9 166.0 193.8 202.1 212.2 212.1 167.9 117.8 67.7 51.4 1,661.6 Percent possible sunshine 22 28 35 39 42 42 43 49 43 35 26 21 35 Average ultraviolet index 1 2 3 4 6 7 7 6 4 3 1 1 4 Source 1: Meteo France,[111][112] Infoclimat.fr (relative humidity 1961–1990)[113] Source 2: Weather Atlas (percent sunshine and UV Index)[114] Administration[edit] Main article: Administration of Paris City government[edit] See also: Arrondissements of Paris and List of mayors of Paris A map of the arrondissements of Paris For almost all of its long history, except for a few brief periods, Paris was governed directly by representatives of the king, emperor, or president of France. The city was not granted municipal autonomy by the National Assembly until 1974.[115] The first modern elected mayor of Paris was Jacques Chirac, elected 20 March 1977, becoming the city's first mayor since 1793. The mayor is Anne Hidalgo, a socialist, first elected 5 April 2014[116] and re-elected 28 June 2020.[117] The mayor of Paris is elected indirectly by Paris voters; the voters of each of the city's 20 arrondissements elect members to the Conseil de Paris (Council of Paris), which subsequently elects the mayor. The council is composed of 163 members, with each arrondissement allocated a number of seats dependent upon its population, from 10 members for each of the least-populated arrondissements (1st through 9th) to 34 members for the most populated (the 15th). The council is elected using closed list proportional representation in a two-round system.[118] Party lists winning an absolute majority in the first round – or at least a plurality in the second round – automatically win half the seats of an arrondissement.[118] The remaining half of seats are distributed proportionally to all lists which win at least 5% of the vote using the highest averages method.[119] This ensures that the winning party or coalition always wins a majority of the seats, even if they don't win an absolute majority of the vote.[118] The Hôtel de Ville, or city hall, has been at the same site since 1357. Once elected, the council plays a largely passive role in the city government, primarily because it meets only once a month. The council is divided between a coalition of the left of 91 members, including the socialists, communists, greens, and extreme left; and 71 members for the centre-right, plus a few members from smaller parties.[120] Each of Paris' 20 arrondissements has its own town hall and a directly elected council (conseil d'arrondissement), which, in turn, elects an arrondissement mayor.[121] The council of each arrondissement is composed of members of the Conseil de Paris and also members who serve only on the council of the arrondissement. The number of deputy mayors in each arrondissement varies depending upon its population. There are a total of 20 arrondissement mayors and 120 deputy mayors.[115] The budget of the city for 2018 is 9.5 billion Euros, with an expected deficit of 5.5 billion Euros. 7.9 billion Euros are designated for city administration, and 1.7 billion Euros for investment. The number of city employees increased from 40,000 in 2001 to 55,000 in 2018. The largest part of the investment budget is earmarked for public housing (262 million Euros) and for real estate (142 million Euros).[122] Métropole du Grand Paris[edit] A map of the Greater Paris Metropolis (Métropole du Grand Paris) and its 131 communes The Métropole du Grand Paris, or simply Grand Paris, formally came into existence on 1 January 2016.[123] It is an administrative structure for co-operation between the City of Paris and its nearest suburbs. It includes the City of Paris, plus the communes of the three departments of the inner suburbs (Hauts-de-Seine, Seine-Saint-Denis and Val-de-Marne), plus seven communes in the outer suburbs, including Argenteuil in Val d'Oise and Paray-Vieille-Poste in Essonne, which were added to include the major airports of Paris. The Metropole covers 814 square kilometres (314 square miles) and has a population of 6.945 million persons.[124][125] The new structure is administered by a Metropolitan Council of 210 members, not directly elected, but chosen by the councils of the member Communes. By 2020 its basic competencies will include urban planning, housing and protection of the environment.[123][125] The first president of the metropolitan council, Patrick Ollier, a Republican and the mayor of the town of Rueil-Malmaison, was elected on 22 January 2016. Though the Metropole has a population of nearly seven million people and accounts for 25 percent of the GDP of France, it has a very small budget: just 65 million Euros, compared with eight billion Euros for the City of Paris.[126] Regional government[edit] The Region of Île de France, including Paris and its surrounding communities, is governed by the Regional Council, which has its headquarters in the 7th arrondissement of Paris. It is composed of 209 members representing the different communes within the region. On 15 December 2015, a list of candidates of the Union of the Right, a coalition of centrist and right-wing parties, led by Valérie Pécresse, narrowly won the regional election, defeating a coalition of Socialists and ecologists. The Socialists had governed the region for seventeen years. The regional council has 121 members from the Union of the Right, 66 from the Union of the Left and 22 from the extreme right National Front.[127] National government[edit] The Élysée Palace, official residence of the President of the French Republic As the capital of France, Paris is the seat of France's national government. For the executive, the two chief officers each have their own official residences, which also serve as their offices. The President of the French Republic resides at the Élysée Palace in the 8th arrondissement,[128] while the Prime Minister's seat is at the Hôtel Matignon in the 7th arrondissement.[129][130] Government ministries are located in various parts of the city; many are located in the 7th arrondissement, near the Matignon.[131] The two houses of the French Parliament are located on the Left Bank. The upper house, the Senate, meets in the Palais du Luxembourg in the 6th arrondissement, while the more important lower house, the Assemblée Nationale, meets in the Palais Bourbon in the 7th arrondissement. The President of the Senate, the second-highest public official in France (the President of the Republic being the sole superior), resides in the "Petit Luxembourg", a smaller palace annexe to the Palais du Luxembourg.[132] The Palais-Royal, residence of the Conseil d'État Members of the National Assembly for Paris (since 2017) Constituency Member[133] Party Paris' 1st constituency Sylvain Maillard La République En Marche! Paris' 2nd constituency Gilles Le Gendre La République En Marche! Paris' 3rd constituency Stanislas Guerini La République En Marche! Paris' 4th constituency Brigitte Kuster The Republicans Paris' 5th constituency Benjamin Griveaux La République En Marche! Paris' 6th constituency Pierre Person La République En Marche! Paris' 7th constituency Pacôme Rupin La République En Marche! Paris' 8th constituency Laetitia Avia La République En Marche! Paris' 9th constituency Buon Tan La République En Marche! Paris' 10th constituency Anne-Christine Lang La République En Marche! Paris' 11th constituency Marielle de Sarnez MoDem Paris' 12th constituency Olivia Grégoire La République En Marche! Paris' 13th constituency Hugues Renson La République En Marche! Paris' 14th constituency Claude Goasguen The Republicans Paris' 15th constituency George Pau-Langevin Socialist Party Paris' 16th constituency Mounir Mahjoubi La République En Marche! Paris' 17th constituency Danièle Obono La France Insoumise Paris' 18th constituency Pierre-Yves Bournazel The Republicans France's highest courts are located in Paris. The Court of Cassation, the highest court in the judicial order, which reviews criminal and civil cases, is located in the Palais de Justice on the Île de la Cité,[134] while the Conseil d'État, which provides legal advice to the executive and acts as the highest court in the administrative order, judging litigation against public bodies, is located in the Palais-Royal in the 1st arrondissement.[135] The Constitutional Council, an advisory body with ultimate authority on the constitutionality of laws and government decrees, also meets in the Montpensier wing of the Palais Royal.[136] Paris and its region host the headquarters of several international organisations including UNESCO, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the International Chamber of Commerce, the Paris Club, the European Space Agency, the International Energy Agency, the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, the European Union Institute for Security Studies, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, the International Exhibition Bureau, and the International Federation for Human Rights. Following the motto "Only Paris is worthy of Rome; only Rome is worthy of Paris";[137] the only sister city of Paris is Rome, although Paris has partnership agreements with many other cities around the world.[137] Police force[edit] Police (Gendarmerie) motorcyclists in Paris The security of Paris is mainly the responsibility of the Prefecture of Police of Paris, a subdivision of the Ministry of the Interior. It supervises the units of the National Police who patrol the city and the three neighbouring departments. It is also responsible for providing emergency services, including the Paris Fire Brigade. Its headquarters is on Place Louis Lépine on the Île de la Cité.[138] There are 30,200 officers under the prefecture, and a fleet of more than 6,000 vehicles, including police cars, motorcycles, fire trucks, boats and helicopters.[138] The national police has its own special unit for riot control and crowd control and security of public buildings, called the Compagnies Républicaines de Sécurité (CRS), a unit formed in 1944 right after the liberation of France. Vans of CRS agents are frequently seen in the centre of the city when there are demonstrations and public events. The police are supported by the National Gendarmerie, a branch of the French Armed Forces, though their police operations now are supervised by the Ministry of the Interior. The traditional kepis of the gendarmes were replaced in 2002 with caps, and the force modernised, though they still wear kepis for ceremonial occasions.[139] Crime in Paris is similar to that in most large cities. Violent crime is relatively rare in the city centre. Political violence is uncommon, though very large demonstrations may occur in Paris and other French cities simultaneously. These demonstrations, usually managed by a strong police presence, can turn confrontational and escalate into violence.[140] Cityscape[edit] Panorama of Paris as seen from the Eiffel Tower in a full 360-degree view (river flowing from north-east to south-west, right to left) Urbanism and architecture[edit] See also: Architecture of Paris, Haussmann's renovation of Paris, Religious buildings in Paris, and List of tallest buildings and structures in the Paris region Most French rulers since the Middle Ages made a point of leaving their mark on a city that, contrary to many other of the world's capitals, has never been destroyed by catastrophe or war. In modernising its infrastructure through the centuries, Paris has preserved even its earliest history in its street map.[141] At its origin, before the Middle Ages, the city was composed of several islands and sandbanks in a bend of the Seine; of those, two remain today: the Île Saint-Louis and the Île de la Cité. A third one is the 1827 artificially created Île aux Cygnes. Camille Pissarro, Boulevard Montmartre, 1897, Hermitage Museum Modern Paris owes much of its downtown plan and architectural harmony to Napoleon III and his Prefect of the Seine, Baron Haussmann. Between 1853 and 1870 they rebuilt the city centre, created the wide downtown boulevards and squares where the boulevards intersected, imposed standard facades along the boulevards, and required that the facades be built of the distinctive cream-grey "Paris stone". They also built the major parks around the city centre.[142] The high residential population of its city centre also makes it much different from most other western major cities.[143] Rue de Rivoli Place des Vosges Paris' urbanism laws have been under strict control since the early 17th century,[144] particularly where street-front alignment, building height and building distribution is concerned. In recent developments, a 1974–2010 building height limitation of 37 metres (121 ft) was raised to 50 m (160 ft) in central areas and 180 metres (590 ft) in some of Paris' peripheral quarters, yet for some of the city's more central quarters, even older building-height laws still remain in effect.[144] The 210 metres (690 ft) Tour Montparnasse was both Paris's and France's tallest building until 1973,[145] but this record has been held by the La Défense quarter Tour First tower in Courbevoie since its 2011 construction. Parisian examples of European architecture date back more than a millennium, including the Romanesque church of the Abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Prés (1014–1163), the early Gothic Architecture of the Basilica of Saint-Denis (1144), the Notre Dame Cathedral (1163–1345), the Flamboyant Gothic of Saint Chapelle (1239–1248), the Baroque churches of Saint-Paul-Saint-Louis (1627–1641) and Les Invalides (1670–1708). The 19th century produced the neoclassical church of La Madeleine (1808–1842), the Palais Garnier serving as an opera house (1875), the neo-Byzantine Basilica of Sacré-Cœur (1875–1919), as well as the exuberant Belle Époque modernism of the Eiffel Tower (1889). Striking examples of 20th-century architecture include the Centre Georges Pompidou by Richard Rogers and Renzo Piano (1977), the Cité des Sciences et de l'Industrie by various architects (1986), the Arab World Institute by Jean Nouvel (1987), the Louvre Pyramid by I. M. Pei (1989) and the Opéra Bastille by Carlos Ott (1989). Contemporary architecture includes the Musée du quai Branly – Jacques Chirac by Jean Nouvel (2006), the contemporary art museum of the Louis Vuitton Foundation by Frank Gehry (2014)[146] and the new Tribunal de grande instance de Paris by Renzo Piano (2018). Housing[edit] The most expensive residential streets in Paris in 2018 by average price per square meter were Avenue Montaigne (8th arrondissement), at 22,372 Euros per square meter; Place Dauphine (1st arrondissement; 20,373 euros) and Rue de Furstemberg (6th arrondissement) at 18,839 Euros per square meter.[147] The total number of residences in the City of Paris in 2011 was 1,356,074, up from a former high of 1,334,815 in 2006. Among these, 1,165,541 (85.9 percent) were main residences, 91,835 (6.8 percent) were secondary residences, and the remaining 7.3 percent were empty (down from 9.2 percent in 2006).[148] Sixty-two percent of its buildings date from 1949 and before, 20 percent were built between 1949 and 1974, and only 18 percent of the buildings remaining were built after that date.[149] Two-thirds of the city's 1.3 million residences are studio and two-room apartments. Paris averages 1.9 people per residence, a number that has remained constant since the 1980s, but it is much less than Île-de-France's 2.33 person-per-residence average. Only 33 percent of principal residence Parisians own their habitation (against 47 percent for the entire Île-de-France): the major part of the city's population is a rent-paying one.[149] Social or public housing represented 19.9 percent of the city's total residences in 2017. Its distribution varies widely throughout the city, from 2.6 percent of the housing in the wealthy 7th arrondissement, to 24 percent in the 20th arrondissement, 26 percent in the 14th arrondissement and 39.9 percent in the 19th arrondissement, on the poorer southwest and northern edges of the city.[150] On the night of 8–9 February 2019, during a period of cold weather, a Paris NGO conducted its annual citywide count of homeless persons. They counted 3,641 homeless persons in Paris, of whom twelve percent were women. More than half had been homeless for more than a year. 2,885 were living in the streets or parks, 298 in train and metro stations, and 756 in other forms of temporary shelter. This was an increase of 588 persons since 2018.[151] Paris and its suburbs[edit] Paris and its suburbs, as seen from the Spot Satellite West of Paris seen from Tour Montparnasse in 2019 Aside from the 20th-century addition of the Bois de Boulogne, the Bois de Vincennes and the Paris heliport, Paris' administrative limits have remained unchanged since 1860. A greater administrative Seine department had been governing Paris and its suburbs since its creation in 1790, but the rising suburban population had made it difficult to maintain as a unique entity. This problem was 'resolved' when its parent "District de la région parisienne" ('district of the Paris region') was reorganised into several new departments from 1968: Paris became a department in itself, and the administration of its suburbs was divided between the three new departments surrounding it. The district of the Paris region was renamed "Île-de-France" in 1977, but this abbreviated "Paris region" name is still commonly used today to describe the Île-de-France, and as a vague reference to the entire Paris agglomeration.[152] Long-intended measures to unite Paris with its suburbs began on 1 January 2016, when the Métropole du Grand Paris came into existence.[123] Paris' disconnect with its suburbs, its lack of suburban transportation, in particular, became all too apparent with the Paris agglomeration's growth. Paul Delouvrier promised to resolve the Paris-suburbs mésentente when he became head of the Paris region in 1961:[153] two of his most ambitious projects for the Region were the construction of five suburban "villes nouvelles" ("new cities")[154] and the RER commuter train network.[155] Many other suburban residential districts (grands ensembles) were built between the 1960s and 1970s to provide a low-cost solution for a rapidly expanding population:[156] These districts were socially mixed at first,[157] but few residents actually owned their homes (the growing economy made these accessible to the middle classes only from the 1970s).[158] Their poor construction quality and their haphazard insertion into existing urban growth contributed to their desertion by those able to move elsewhere and their repopulation by those with more limited possibilities.[158] These areas, quartiers sensibles ("sensitive quarters"), are in northern and eastern Paris, namely around its Goutte d'Or and Belleville neighbourhoods. To the north of the city, they are grouped mainly in the Seine-Saint-Denis department, and to a lesser extreme to the east in the Val-d'Oise department. Other difficult areas are located in the Seine valley, in Évry et Corbeil-Essonnes (Essonne), in Mureaux, Mantes-la-Jolie (Yvelines), and scattered among social housing districts created by Delouvrier's 1961 "ville nouvelle" political initiative.[159] The Paris agglomeration's urban sociology is basically that of 19th-century Paris: its fortuned classes are situated in its west and southwest, and its middle-to-lower classes are in its north and east. The remaining areas are mostly middle-class citizenry dotted with islands of fortuned populations located there due to reasons of historical importance, namely Saint-Maur-des-Fossés to the east and Enghien-les-Bains to the north of Paris.[160] Demographics[edit] Main article: Demographics of Paris 2015 Census Paris Region[161][162] Country/territory of birth Population Metropolitan France 9,165,570 Algeria 310,019 Portugal 243,490 Morocco 241,403 Tunisia 117,161 Guadeloupe 80,062 Martinique 77,300 Turkey 69,835 China 67,540 Mali 60,438 Italy 56,692 Côte d'Ivoire 55,022 Senegal 52,758 Romania 49,124 Democratic Republic of Congo 47,091 Spain 47,058 Other countries/territories Sri Lanka 42,016 Cameroon 41,749 Poland 38,550 Republic of the Congo 36,354 Haiti 35,855 Vietnam 35,139 Cambodia 31,258   Réunion 28,869 India 26,507 Serbia 26,119 Germany 21,620 Lebanon 20,375 Mauritius 19,506 Madagascar 19,281 Pakistan 18,801 United Kingdom 18,209 Russia 18,022 United States 17,548 Other countries and territories 846,914 The official estimated population of the City of Paris was 2,206,488 as of 1 January 2019, according to the INSEE, the official French statistical agency. This is a decline of 59,648 from 2015, close to the total population of the 5th arrondissement.[163] Despite the drop, Paris remains the most densely-populated city in Europe, with 252 residents per hectare, not counting parks.[163] This drop was attributed partly to a lower birth rate, to the departure of middle-class residents. and partly to the possible loss of housing in the city due to short-term rentals for tourism.[164] Paris is the fourth largest municipality in the European Union, following Berlin, Madrid and Rome. Eurostat places Paris (6.5 million people) behind London (8 million) and ahead of Berlin (3.5 million), based on the 2012 populations of what Eurostat calls "urban audit core cities".[165] City proper, urban area, and metropolitan area population from 1800 to 2010 The population of Paris today is lower than its historical peak of 2.9 million in 1921.[166] The principal reasons were a significant decline in household size, and a dramatic migration of residents to the suburbs between 1962 and 1975. Factors in the migration included de-industrialisation, high rent, the gentrification of many inner quarters, the transformation of living space into offices, and greater affluence among working families. The city's population loss came to a temporary halt at the beginning of the 21st century; the population increased from 2,125,246 in 1999 to 2,240,621 in 2012, before declining again slightly in 2017.[167] It declined again in 2018. Paris is the core of a built-up area that extends well beyond its limits: commonly referred to as the agglomération Parisienne, and statistically as a unité urbaine (a measure of urban area), the Paris agglomeration's 2017 population of 10,784,830[168] made it the largest urban area in the European Union.[169] City-influenced commuter activity reaches well beyond even this in a statistical aire urbaine de Paris ("urban area", but a statistical method comparable to a metropolitan area[170]), that had a 2017 population of 12,628,266,[171] a number 19% the population of France,[172] and the largest metropolitan area in the Eurozone.[169] According to Eurostat, the EU statistical agency, in 2012 the Commune of Paris was the most densely populated city in the European Union, with 21,616 people per square kilometre within the city limits (the NUTS-3 statistical area), ahead of Inner London West, which had 10,374 people per square kilometre. According to the same census, three departments bordering Paris, Hauts-de-Seine, Seine-Saint-Denis and Val-de-Marne, had population densities of over 10,000 people per square kilometre, ranking among the 10 most densely populated areas of the EU.[173][verification needed] Migration[edit] According to the 2012 French census, 586,163 residents of the City of Paris, or 26.2 percent, and 2,782,834 residents of the Paris Region (Île-de-France), or 23.4 percent, were born outside of metropolitan France (the last figure up from 22.4% at the 2007 census).[161] 26,700 of these in the City of Paris and 210,159 in the Paris Region were people born in Overseas France (more than two-thirds of whom in the French West Indies) and are therefore not counted as immigrants since they were legally French citizens at birth.[161] A further 103,648 in the City of Paris and in 412,114 in the Paris Region were born in foreign countries with French citizenship at birth.[161] This concerns in particular the many Christians and Jews from North Africa who moved to France and Paris after the times of independence and are not counted as immigrants due to their being born French citizens. The remaining group, people born in foreign countries with no French citizenship at birth, are those defined as immigrants under French law. According to the 2012 census, 135,853 residents of the City of Paris were immigrants from Europe, 112,369 were immigrants from the Maghreb, 70,852 from sub-Saharan Africa and Egypt, 5,059 from Turkey, 91,297 from Asia (outside Turkey), 38,858 from the Americas, and 1,365 from the South Pacific.[174] Note that the immigrants from the Americas and the South Pacific in Paris are vastly outnumbered by migrants from French overseas regions and territories located in these regions of the world.[161] In the Paris Region, 590,504 residents were immigrants from Europe, 627,078 were immigrants from the Maghreb, 435,339 from sub-Saharan Africa and Egypt, 69,338 from Turkey, 322,330 from Asia (outside Turkey), 113,363 from the Americas, and 2,261 from the South Pacific.[175] These last two groups of immigrants are again vastly outnumbered by migrants from French overseas regions and territories located in the Americas and the South Pacific.[161][clarification needed] In 2012, there were 8,810 British citizens and 10,019 United States citizens living in the City of Paris (Ville de Paris) and 20,466 British citizens and 16,408 United States citizens living in the entire Paris Region (Île-de-France).[176][177] Religion[edit] See also: Religious buildings in Paris The Roman Catholic Basilique du Sacré-Cœur St-Gervais-et-St-Protais in Le Marais At the beginning of the twentieth century, Paris was the largest Catholic city in the world.[178] French census data does not contain information about religious affiliation.[179] According to a 2011 survey by the IFOP, a French public opinion research organisation, 61 percent of residents of the Paris Region (Île-de-France) identified themselves as Roman Catholic. In the same survey, 7 percent of residents identified themselves as Muslims, 4 percent as Protestants, 2 percent as Jewish, and 25 percent as without religion. According to the INSEE, between 4 and 5 million French residents were born or had at least one parent born in a predominantly Muslim country, particularly Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia. An IFOP survey in 2008 reported that, of immigrants from these predominantly Muslim countries, 25 percent went to the mosque regularly; 41 percent practised the religion, and 34 percent were believers but did not practice the religion.[180][181] In 2012 and 2013, it was estimated that there were almost 500,000 Muslims in the City of Paris, 1.5 million Muslims in the Île-de-France region, and 4 to 5 million Muslims in France.[182][183] The Jewish population of the Paris Region was estimated in 2014 to be 282,000, the largest concentration of Jews in the world outside of Israel and the United States.[184] International organisations[edit] The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has had its headquarters in Paris since November 1958. Paris is also the home of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).[185] Paris hosts the headquarters of the European Space Agency, the International Energy Agency, European Securities and Markets Authority and, as of 2019, the European Banking Authority. Economy[edit] Main article: Economy of Paris La Défense, the largest dedicated business district in Europe[186] Top companies with world headquarters in the Paris Region for 2018 (ranked by revenues) with Region and World ranks Paris corporation World 1 AXA 27 2 Total S.A. 28 3 BNP Paribas 44 4 Carrefour 68 5 Crédit Agricole 82 6 EDF 94 7 Engie 104 8 Peugeot 108 9 Société Générale 121 10 Renault 134 Source: Fortune Global 500 (2018) The Eiffel Tower and the La Défense district The economy of the City of Paris is based largely on services and commerce; of the 390,480 enterprises in the city, 80.6 percent are engaged in commerce, transportation, and diverse services, 6.5 percent in construction, and just 3.8 percent in industry.[187] The story is similar in the Paris Region (Île-de-France): 76.7 percent of enterprises are engaged in commerce and services, and 3.4 percent in industry.[188] At the 2012 census, 59.5% of jobs in the Paris Region were in market services (12.0% in wholesale and retail trade, 9.7% in professional, scientific, and technical services, 6.5% in information and communication, 6.5% in transportation and warehousing, 5.9% in finance and insurance, 5.8% in administrative and support services, 4.6% in accommodation and food services, and 8.5% in various other market services), 26.9% in non-market services (10.4% in human health and social work activities, 9.6% in public administration and defence, and 6.9% in education), 8.2% in manufacturing and utilities (6.6% in manufacturing and 1.5% in utilities), 5.2% in construction, and 0.2% in agriculture.[189][190] The Paris Region had 5.4 million salaried employees in 2010, of whom 2.2 million were concentrated in 39 pôles d'emplois or business districts. The largest of these, in terms of number of employees, is known in French as the QCA, or quartier central des affaires; it is in the western part of the City of Paris, in the 2nd, 8th, 9th, 16th, and 18th arrondissements. In 2010, it was the workplace of 500,000 salaried employees, about 30 percent of the salaried employees in Paris and 10 percent of those in the Île-de-France. The largest sectors of activity in the central business district were finance and insurance (16 percent of employees in the district) and business services (15 percent). The district also includes a large concentration of department stores, shopping areas, hotels and restaurants, as well a government offices and ministries.[191] The second-largest business district in terms of employment is La Défense, just west of the city, where many companies installed their offices in the 1990s. In 2010, it was the workplace of 144,600 employees, of whom 38 percent worked in finance and insurance, 16 percent in business support services. Two other important districts, Neuilly-sur-Seine and Levallois-Perret, are extensions of the Paris business district and of La Défense. Another district, including Boulogne-Billancourt, Issy-les-Moulineaux and the southern part of the 15th arrondissement, is a centre of activity for the media and information technology.[191] The top ten French companies listed in the Fortune Global 500 for 2018 all have their headquarters in the Paris Region; six in the central business district of the City of Paris; and four close to the city in the Hauts-de-Seine Department, three in La Défense and one in Boulogne-Billancourt. Some companies, like Société Générale, have offices in both Paris and La Défense. The Paris Region is France's leading region for economic activity, with a GDP of €681 billion (~US$850 billion) and €56,000 (~US$70,000) per capita.[4] In 2011, its GDP ranked second among the regions of Europe and its per-capita GDP was the 4th highest in Europe.[192][193] While the Paris region's population accounted for 18.8 percent of metropolitan France in 2011,[194] the Paris region's GDP accounted for 30 percent of metropolitan France's GDP.[195] The Paris Region economy has gradually shifted from industry to high-value-added service industries (finance, IT services) and high-tech manufacturing (electronics, optics, aerospace, etc.).[196] The Paris region's most intense economic activity through the central Hauts-de-Seine department and suburban La Défense business district places Paris' economic centre to the west of the city, in a triangle between the Opéra Garnier, La Défense and the Val de Seine.[196] While the Paris economy is dominated by services, and employment in manufacturing sector has declined sharply, the region remains an important manufacturing centre, particularly for aeronautics, automobiles, and "eco" industries.[196] In the 2017 worldwide cost of living survey by the Economist Intelligence Unit, based on a survey made in September 2016, Paris ranked as the seventh most expensive city in the world, and the second most expensive in Europe, after Zurich.[197] In 2018, Paris was the most expensive city in the world with Singapore and Hong Kong.[198] Station F is a business incubator for startups, located in 13th arrondissement of Paris. Noted as the world's largest startup facility.[199] Employment[edit] Employment by economic sector in the Paris area (petite couronne), with population and unemployment figures (2015) According to 2015 INSEE figures, 68.3 percent of employees in the City of Paris work in commerce, transportation, and services; 24.5 percent in public administration, health and social services; 4.1 percent in industry, and 0.1 percent in agriculture.[200] The majority of Paris' salaried employees fill 370,000 businesses services jobs, concentrated in the north-western 8th, 16th and 17th arrondissements.[201] Paris' financial service companies are concentrated in the central-western 8th and 9th arrondissement banking and insurance district.[201] Paris' department store district in the 1st, 6th, 8th and 9th arrondissements employ ten percent of mostly female Paris workers, with 100,000 of these registered in the retail trade.[201] Fourteen percent of Parisians work in hotels and restaurants and other services to individuals.[201] Nineteen percent of Paris employees work for the State in either in administration or education. The majority of Paris' healthcare and social workers work at the hospitals and social housing concentrated in the peripheral 13th, 14th, 18th, 19th and 20th arrondissements.[201] Outside Paris, the western Hauts-de-Seine department La Défense district specialising in finance, insurance and scientific research district, employs 144,600,[196] and the north-eastern Seine-Saint-Denis audiovisual sector has 200 media firms and 10 major film studios.[196] Paris' manufacturing is mostly focused in its suburbs, and the city itself has only around 75,000 manufacturing workers, most of which are in the textile, clothing, leather goods, and shoe trades.[196] Paris region manufacturing specialises in transportation, mainly automobiles, aircraft and trains, but this is in a sharp decline: Paris proper manufacturing jobs dropped by 64 percent between 1990 and 2010, and the Paris region lost 48 percent during the same period. Most of this is due to companies relocating outside the Paris region. The Paris region's 800 aerospace companies employed 100,000.[196] Four hundred automobile industry companies employ another 100,000 workers: many of these are centred in the Yvelines department around the Renault and PSA-Citroen plants (this department alone employs 33,000),[196] but the industry as a whole suffered a major loss with the 2014 closing of a major Aulnay-sous-Bois Citroen assembly plant.[196] The southern Essonne department specialises in science and technology,[196] and the south-eastern Val-de-Marne, with its wholesale Rungis food market, specialises in food processing and beverages.[196] The Paris region's manufacturing decline is quickly being replaced by eco-industries: these employ about 100,000 workers.[196] In 2011, while only 56,927 construction workers worked in Paris itself,[202] its metropolitan area employed 246,639,[200] in an activity centred largely on the Seine-Saint-Denis (41,378)[203] and Hauts-de-Seine (37,303)[204] departments and the new business-park centres appearing there. Unemployment[edit] Paris' 2015 at-census unemployment rate was 12.2%,[200] and in the first trimester of 2018, its ILO-critera unemployment rate was 7.1 percent. The provisional unemployment rate in the whole Paris Region was higher: 8.0 percent, and considerably higher in some suburbs, notably the Department of Seine-Saint-Denis to the east (11.8 percent) and the Val-d'Oise to the north (8.2 percent).[205] Incomes[edit] Median income in Paris and its nearest departments The average net household income (after social, pension and health insurance contributions) in Paris was €36,085 for 2011.[206] It ranged from €22,095 in the 19th arrondissement[207] to €82,449 in the 7th arrondissement.[208] The median taxable income for 2011 was around €25,000 in Paris and €22,200 for Île-de-France.[209] Generally speaking, incomes are higher in the Western part of the city and in the western suburbs than in the northern and eastern parts of the urban area.[210] Unemployment was estimated at 8.2 percent in the City of Paris and 8.8 percent in the Île-de-France region in the first trimester of 2015. It ranged from 7.6 percent in the wealthy Essonne department to 13.1 percent in the Seine-Saint-Denis department, where many recent immigrants live.[211] While Paris has some of the richest neighbourhoods in France, it also has some of the poorest, mostly on the eastern side of the city. In 2012, 14 percent of households in the city earned less than €977 per month, the official poverty line. Twenty-five percent of residents in the 19th arrondissement lived below the poverty line; 24 percent in the 18th, 22 percent in the 20th and 18 percent in the 10th. In the city's wealthiest neighbourhood, the 7th arrondissement, 7 percent lived below the poverty line; 8 percent in the 6th arrondissement; and 9 percent in the 16th arrondissement.[212] Tourism[edit] Main article: Tourism in Paris Tourists from around the world make the Louvre the most-visited art museum in the world. Greater Paris, comprising Paris and its three surrounding departments, received 38 million visitors in 2019, a record, measured by hotel arrivals.[15] These included 12.2 million French visitors. Of foreign visitors, the greatest number came from the United States (2.6 million), United Kingdom (1.2 million), Germany (981 thousand) and China (711 thousand).[15] In 2018, measured by the Euromonitor Global Cities Destination Index, Paris was the second-busiest airline destination in the world, with 19.10 million visitors, behind Bangkok (22.78 million) but ahead of London (19.09 million).[213] According to the Paris Convention and Visitors Bureau, 393,008 workers in Greater Paris, or 12.4% of the total workforce, are engaged in tourism-related sectors such as hotels, catering, transport and leisure.[214] Monuments and attractions[edit] Main articles: Landmarks in Paris, Historical quarters of Paris, and List of tourist attractions in Paris See also: List of most visited museums Passage Jouffroy The city's top cultural attraction in 2019 was the Basilica of Sacré-Cœur (11 million visitors), followed by the Louvre (9.6 million visitors); the Eiffel Tower (6.1 million visitors); the Centre Pompidou (3.5 million visitors); and the Musée d'Orsay (3.3 million visitors).[15] Paris, Banks of the Seine UNESCO World Heritage Site Criteria Cultural: i, ii, iv Reference 600 Inscription 1991 (15th session) Area 365 ha The centre of Paris contains the most visited monuments in the city, including the Notre Dame Cathedral (now closed for restoration) and the Louvre as well as the Sainte-Chapelle; Les Invalides, where the tomb of Napoleon is located, and the Eiffel Tower are located on the Left Bank south-west of the centre. The Panthéon and the Catacombs of Paris are also located on the Left Bank of the Seine. The banks of the Seine from the Pont de Sully to the Pont d'Iéna have been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1991.[215] The Axe historique, pictured here from Concorde to Grande Arche of La Défense The Hôtel national des Invalides, a military hospital and museum on France's military history Other landmarks are laid out east to west along the historical axis of Paris, which runs from the Louvre through the Tuileries Garden, the Luxor Column in the Place de la Concorde, and the Arc de Triomphe, to the Grande Arche of La Défense. Several other much-visited landmarks are located in the suburbs of the city; the Basilica of St Denis, in Seine-Saint-Denis, is the birthplace of the Gothic style of architecture and the royal necropolis of French kings and queens.[216] The Paris region hosts three other UNESCO Heritage sites: the Palace of Versailles in the west,[217] the Palace of Fontainebleau in the south,[218] and the medieval fairs site of Provins in the east.[219] In the Paris region, Disneyland Paris, in Marne-la-Vallée, 32 kilometres (20 miles) east of the centre of Paris, received 9.66 million visitors in 2017.[220] Hotels[edit] In 2019 Greater Paris had 2,056 hotels, including 94 five-star hotels, with a total of 121,646 rooms.[15] Paris has long been famous for its grand hotels. The Hotel Meurice, opened for British travellers in 1817, was one of the first luxury hotels in Paris.[221] The arrival of the railways and the Paris Exposition of 1855 brought the first flood of tourists and the first modern grand hotels; the Hôtel du Louvre (now an antiques marketplace) in 1855; the Grand Hotel (now the InterContinental Paris Le Grand Hotel) in 1862; and the Hôtel Continental in 1878. The Hôtel Ritz on Place Vendôme opened in 1898, followed by the Hôtel Crillon in an 18th-century building on the Place de la Concorde in 1909; the Hotel Bristol on the Rue du Faubourg Saint-Honoré in 1925; and the Hotel George V in 1928.[222] In addition to hotels, in 2019 Greater Paris had 60,000 homes registered with Airbnb.[15] Under French law, renters of these units must pay the Paris tourism tax. The company paid the city government 7.3 million euros in 2016.[223] Culture[edit] Painting and sculpture[edit] Main article: Art in Paris Pierre Mignard, Self-portrait, between 1670 and 1690, oil on canvas, 235 cm × 188 cm (93 in × 74 in), The Louvre For centuries, Paris has attracted artists from around the world, who arrive in the city to educate themselves and to seek inspiration from its vast pool of artistic resources and galleries. As a result, Paris has acquired a reputation as the "City of Art".[224] Italian artists were a profound influence on the development of art in Paris in the 16th and 17th centuries, particularly in sculpture and reliefs. Painting and sculpture became the pride of the French monarchy and the French royal family commissioned many Parisian artists to adorn their palaces during the French Baroque and Classicism era. Sculptors such as Girardon, Coysevox and Coustou acquired reputations as the finest artists in the royal court in 17th-century France. Pierre Mignard became the first painter to King Louis XIV during this period. In 1648, the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture (Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture) was established to accommodate for the dramatic interest in art in the capital. This served as France's top art school until 1793.[225] Auguste Renoir, Bal du moulin de la Galette, 1876, oil on canvas, 131 cm × 175 cm (52 in × 69 in), Musée d'Orsay Paris was in its artistic prime in the 19th century and early 20th century, when it had a colony of artists established in the city and in art schools associated with some of the finest painters of the times: Édouard Manet, Claude Monet, Berthe Morisot, Paul Gauguin, Pierre-Auguste Renoir and others. The French Revolution and political and social change in France had a profound influence on art in the capital. Paris was central to the development of Romanticism in art, with painters such as Gericault.[225] Impressionism, Art Nouveau, Symbolism, Fauvism, Cubism and Art Deco movements all evolved in Paris.[225] In the late 19th century, many artists in the French provinces and worldwide flocked to Paris to exhibit their works in the numerous salons and expositions and make a name for themselves.[226] Artists such as Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, Vincent van Gogh, Paul Cézanne, Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Henri Rousseau, Marc Chagall, Amedeo Modigliani and many others became associated with Paris. Picasso, living in Le Bateau-Lavoir in Montmartre, painted his famous La Famille de Saltimbanques and Les Demoiselles d'Avignon between 1905 and 1907.[227] Montmartre and Montparnasse became centres for artistic production. The most prestigious names of French and foreign sculptors, who made their reputation in Paris in the modern era, are Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi (Statue of Liberty – Liberty Enlightening the World), Auguste Rodin, Camille Claudel, Antoine Bourdelle, Paul Landowski (statue of Christ the Redeemer in Rio de Janeiro) and Aristide Maillol. The Golden Age of the School of Paris ended between the two world wars. Photography[edit] The inventor Nicéphore Niépce produced the first permanent photograph on a polished pewter plate in Paris in 1825. In 1839, after the death of Niépce, Louis Daguerre patented the Daguerrotype, which became the most common form of photography until the 1860s. [225] The work of Étienne-Jules Marey in the 1880s contributed considerably to the development of modern photography. Photography came to occupy a central role in Parisian Surrealist activity, in the works of Man Ray and Maurice Tabard.[228][229] Numerous photographers achieved renown for their photography of Paris, including Eugène Atget, noted for his depictions of street scenes, Robert Doisneau, noted for his playful pictures of people and market scenes (among which Le baiser de l'hôtel de ville has become iconic of the romantic vision of Paris), Marcel Bovis, noted for his night scenes, as well as others such as Jacques-Henri Lartigue and Henri Cartier-Bresson.[225] Poster art also became an important art form in Paris in the late nineteenth century, through the work of Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Jules Chéret, Eugène Grasset, Adolphe Willette, Pierre Bonnard, Georges de Feure, Henri-Gabriel Ibels, Paul Gavarni and Alphonse Mucha.[225] Museums[edit] Main article: List of museums in Paris The Louvre Musée d'Orsay The Louvre received 9.6 million visitors in 2019, ranking it the most visited museum in the world.,[12] though that number dropped to 2.7 million visitors in 2020, due to the COVID virus.[230] Its treasures include the Mona Lisa (La Joconde), the Venus de Milo statue, Liberty Leading the People. The second-most visited museum in the city, with 3.5 million visitors, was the Centre Georges Pompidou, also known as Beaubourg, which houses the Musée National d'Art Moderne.[15] The third most visited Paris museum, in a building constructed for the Paris Universal Exhibition of 1900 as the Orsay railway station, was the Musée d'Orsay, which had 3.3 million visitors in 2019.[15] The Orsay displays French art of the 19th century, including major collections of the Impressionists and Post-Impressionists. The Musée de l'Orangerie, near both the Louvre and the Orsay, also exhibits Impressionists and Post-Impressionists, including most of Claude Monet's large Water Lilies murals. The Musée national du Moyen Âge, or Cluny Museum, presents Medieval art, including the famous tapestry cycle of The Lady and the Unicorn. The Guimet Museum, or Musée national des arts asiatiques, has one of the largest collections of Asian art in Europe. There are also notable museums devoted to individual artists, including the Musée Picasso, the Musée Rodin and the Musée national Eugène Delacroix. Musée du quai Branly Paris hosts one of the largest science museums in Europe, the Cité des Sciences et de l'Industrie at La Villette. It attracted 2.2 million visitors in 2018.[231] The National Museum of Natural History located near the Jardin des plantes attracted two million visitors in 2018.[231] It is famous for its dinosaur artefacts, mineral collections and its Gallery of Evolution. The military history of France, from the Middle Ages to World War II, is vividly presented by displays at the Musée de l'Armée at Les Invalides, near the tomb of Napoleon. In addition to the national museums, run by the Ministry of Culture, the City of Paris operates 14 museums, including the Carnavalet Museum on the history of Paris, Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris, Palais de Tokyo, the House of Victor Hugo, the House of Balzac and the Catacombs of Paris.[232] There are also notable private museums; The Contemporary Art museum of the Louis Vuitton Foundation, designed by architect Frank Gehry, opened in October 2014 in the Bois de Boulogne. It received 1.1 million visitors in 2018.[233] Theatre[edit] The Opéra Bastille The largest opera houses of Paris are the 19th-century Opéra Garnier (historical Paris Opéra) and modern Opéra Bastille; the former tends toward the more classic ballets and operas, and the latter provides a mixed repertoire of classic and modern.[234] In middle of the 19th century, there were three other active and competing opera houses: the Opéra-Comique (which still exists), Théâtre-Italien and Théâtre Lyrique (which in modern times changed its profile and name to Théâtre de la Ville).[235] Philharmonie de Paris, the modern symphonic concert hall of Paris, opened in January 2015. Another musical landmark is the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées, where the first performances of Diaghilev's Ballets Russes took place in 1913. The Comédie Française (Salle Richelieu) Theatre traditionally has occupied a large place in Parisian culture, and many of its most popular actors today are also stars of French television. The oldest and most famous Paris theatre is the Comédie-Française, founded in 1680. Run by the Government of France, it performs mostly French classics at the Salle Richelieu in the Palais-Royal at 2 rue de Richelieu, next to the Louvre.[236] of Other famous theatres include the Odéon-Théâtre de l'Europe, next to the Luxembourg Gardens, also a state institution and theatrical landmark; the Théâtre Mogador, and the Théâtre de la Gaîté-Montparnasse.[237] The music hall and cabaret are famous Paris institutions. The Moulin Rouge was opened in 1889. It was highly visible because of its large red imitation windmill on its roof, and became the birthplace of the dance known as the French Cancan. It helped make famous the singers Mistinguett and Édith Piaf and the painter Toulouse-Lautrec, who made posters for the venue. In 1911, the dance hall Olympia Paris invented the grand staircase as a settling for its shows, competing with its great rival, the Folies Bergère. Its stars in the 1920s included the American singer and dancer Josephine Baker. Later, Olympia Paris presented Dalida, Edith Piaf, Marlene Dietrich, Miles Davis, Judy Garland and the Grateful Dead. The Casino de Paris presented many famous French singers, including Mistinguett, Maurice Chevalier and Tino Rossi. Other famous Paris music halls include Le Lido, on the Champs-Élysées, opened in 1946; and the Crazy Horse Saloon, featuring strip-tease, dance and magic, opened in 1951. A half dozen music halls exist today in Paris, attended mostly by visitors to the city.[238] Literature[edit] Main article: Writers in Paris Victor Hugo The first book printed in France, Epistolae ("Letters"), by Gasparinus de Bergamo (Gasparino da Barzizza), was published in Paris in 1470 by the press established by Johann Heynlin. Since then, Paris has been the centre of the French publishing industry, the home of some of the world's best-known writers and poets, and the setting for many classic works of French literature. Almost all the books published in Paris in the Middle Ages were in Latin, rather than French. Paris did not become the acknowledged capital of French literature until the 17th century, with authors such as Boileau, Corneille, La Fontaine, Molière, Racine, several coming from the provinces, as well as the foundation of the Académie française.[239] In the 18th century, the literary life of Paris revolved around the cafés and salons; it was dominated by Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Pierre de Marivaux and Pierre Beaumarchais. During the 19th century, Paris was the home and subject for some of France's greatest writers, including Charles Baudelaire, Stéphane Mallarmé, Mérimée, Alfred de Musset, Marcel Proust, Émile Zola, Alexandre Dumas, Gustave Flaubert, Guy de Maupassant and Honoré de Balzac. Victor Hugo's The Hunchback of Notre Dame inspired the renovation of its setting, the Notre-Dame de Paris.[240] Another of Victor Hugo's works, Les Misérables, written while he was in exile outside France during the Second Empire, described the social change and political turmoil in Paris in the early 1830s.[241] One of the most popular of all French writers, Jules Verne, worked at the Theatre Lyrique and the Paris stock exchange, while he did research for his stories at the National Library.[242][verification needed] Jean-Paul Sartre In the 20th century, the Paris literary community was dominated by figures such as Colette, André Gide, François Mauriac, André Malraux, Albert Camus, and, after World War II, by Simone de Beauvoir and Jean-Paul Sartre. Between the wars it was the home of many important expatriate writers, including Ernest Hemingway, Samuel Beckett, and, in the 1970s, Milan Kundera. The winner of the 2014 Nobel Prize in Literature, Patrick Modiano (who lives in Paris), based most of his literary work on the depiction of the city during World War II and the 1960s–1970s.[243] Paris is a city of books and bookstores. In the 1970s, 80 percent of French-language publishing houses were found in Paris, almost all on the Left Bank in the 5th, 6th and 7th arrondissements. Since that time, because of high prices, some publishers have moved out to the less expensive areas.[244] It is also a city of small bookstores. There are about 150 bookstores in the 5th arrondissement alone, plus another 250 book stalls along the Seine. Small Paris bookstores are protected against competition from discount booksellers by French law; books, even e-books, cannot be discounted more than five percent below their publisher's cover price.[245] Music[edit] Main articles: Music in Paris and History of music in Paris Olympia, a famous music hall In the late 12th century, a school of polyphony was established at Notre-Dame. Among the Trouvères of northern France, a group of Parisian aristocrats became known for their poetry and songs. Troubadours, from the south of France, were also popular. During the reign of François I, in the Renaissance era, the lute became popular in the French court. The French royal family and courtiers "disported themselves in masques, ballets, allegorical dances, recitals, and opera and comedy", and a national musical printing house was established.[225] In the Baroque-era, noted composers included Jean-Baptiste Lully, Jean-Philippe Rameau, and François Couperin.[225] The Conservatoire de Musique de Paris was founded in 1795.[246] By 1870, Paris had become an important centre for symphony, ballet and operatic music. Romantic-era composers (in Paris) include Hector Berlioz (La Symphonie fantastique), Charles Gounod (Faust), Camille Saint-Saëns (Samson et Delilah), Léo Delibes (Lakmé) and Jules Massenet (Thaïs), among others.[225] Georges Bizet's Carmen premiered 3 March 1875. Carmen has since become one of the most popular and frequently-performed operas in the classical canon.[247][248] Among the Impressionist composers who created new works for piano, orchestra, opera, chamber music and other musical forms, stand in particular, Claude Debussy (Suite bergamasque, and its well-known third movement, Clair de lune, La Mer, Pelléas et Mélisande), Erik Satie (Gymnopédies, "Je te veux", Gnossiennes, Parade) and Maurice Ravel (Miroirs, Boléro, La valse, L'heure espagnole). Several foreign-born composers, such as Frédéric Chopin (Poland), Franz Liszt (Hungary), Jacques Offenbach (Germany), Niccolò Paganini (Italy), and Igor Stravinsky (Russia), established themselves or made significant contributions both with their works and their influence in Paris. Charles Aznavour Bal-musette is a style of French music and dance that first became popular in Paris in the 1870s and 1880s; by 1880 Paris had some 150 dance halls in the working-class neighbourhoods of the city.[249] Patrons danced the bourrée to the accompaniment of the cabrette (a bellows-blown bagpipe locally called a "musette") and often the vielle à roue (hurdy-gurdy) in the cafés and bars of the city. Parisian and Italian musicians who played the accordion adopted the style and established themselves in Auvergnat bars especially in the 19th arrondissement,[250] and the romantic sounds of the accordion has since become one of the musical icons of the city. Paris became a major centre for jazz and still attracts jazz musicians from all around the world to its clubs and cafés.[251] Paris is the spiritual home of gypsy jazz in particular, and many of the Parisian jazzmen who developed in the first half of the 20th century began by playing Bal-musette in the city.[250] Django Reinhardt rose to fame in Paris, having moved to the 18th arrondissement in a caravan as a young boy, and performed with violinist Stéphane Grappelli and their Quintette du Hot Club de France in the 1930s and 1940s.[252] Immediately after the War the Saint-Germain-des-Pres quarter and the nearby Saint-Michel quarter became home to many small jazz clubs, mostly found in cellars because of a lack of space; these included the Caveau des Lorientais, the Club Saint-Germain, the Rose Rouge, the Vieux-Colombier, and the most famous, Le Tabou. They introduced Parisians to the music of Claude Luter, Boris Vian, Sydney Bechet, Mezz Mezzrow, and Henri Salvador. Most of the clubs closed by the early 1960s, as musical tastes shifted toward rock and roll.[253] Some of the finest manouche musicians in the world are found here playing the cafés of the city at night.[252] Some of the more notable jazz venues include the New Morning, Le Sunset, La Chope des Puces and Bouquet du Nord.[251][252] Several yearly festivals take place in Paris, including the Paris Jazz Festival and the rock festival Rock en Seine.[254] The Orchestre de Paris was established in 1967.[255] On 19 December 2015, Paris and other worldwide fans commemorated the 100th anniversary of the birth of Edith Piaf—a cabaret singer-songwriter and actress who became widely regarded as France's national chanteuse, as well as being one of France's greatest international stars.[256] Other singers—of similar style—include Maurice Chevalier, Charles Aznavour, Yves Montand, as well as Charles Trenet. Paris has a big hip hop scene. This music became popular during the 1980s.[257] The presence of a large African and Caribbean community helped to its development, it gave a voice, a political and social status for many minorities.[258] Cinema[edit] See also: List of films set in Paris The movie industry was born in Paris when Auguste and Louis Lumière projected the first motion picture for a paying audience at the Grand Café on 28 December 1895.[259] Many of Paris' concert/dance halls were transformed into cinemas when the media became popular beginning in the 1930s. Later, most of the largest cinemas were divided into multiple, smaller rooms. Paris' largest cinema room today is in the Grand Rex theatre with 2,700 seats.[260] Big multiplex cinemas have been built since the 1990s. UGC Ciné Cité Les Halles with 27 screens, MK2 Bibliothèque with 20 screens and UGC Ciné Cité Bercy with 18 screens are among the largest.[261] Parisians tend to share the same movie-going trends as many of the world's global cities, with cinemas primarily dominated by Hollywood-generated film entertainment. French cinema comes a close second, with major directors (réalisateurs) such as Claude Lelouch, Jean-Luc Godard, and Luc Besson, and the more slapstick/popular genre with director Claude Zidi as an example. European and Asian films are also widely shown and appreciated.[262] On 2 February 2000, Philippe Binant realised the first digital cinema projection in Europe, with the DLP CINEMA technology developed by Texas Instruments, in Paris.[263][264] Restaurants and cuisine[edit] See also: French cuisine Dining room of the Vagenende Le Zimmer, on the Place du Châtelet, where Géo Lefèvre first suggested the idea of a Tour de France to Henri Desgrange in 1902 Since the late 18th century, Paris has been famous for its restaurants and haute cuisine, food meticulously prepared and artfully presented. A luxury restaurant, La Taverne Anglaise, opened in 1786 in the arcades of the Palais-Royal by Antoine Beauvilliers; it featured an elegant dining room, an extensive menu, linen tablecloths, a large wine list and well-trained waiters; it became a model for future Paris restaurants. The restaurant Le Grand Véfour in the Palais-Royal dates from the same period.[265] The famous Paris restaurants of the 19th century, including the Café de Paris, the Rocher de Cancale, the Café Anglais, Maison Dorée and the Café Riche, were mostly located near the theatres on the Boulevard des Italiens; they were immortalised in the novels of Balzac and Émile Zola. Several of the best-known restaurants in Paris today appeared during the Belle Epoque, including Maxim's on Rue Royale, Ledoyen in the gardens of the Champs-Élysées, and the Tour d'Argent on the Quai de la Tournelle.[266] Today, due to Paris' cosmopolitan population, every French regional cuisine and almost every national cuisine in the world can be found there; the city has more than 9,000 restaurants.[267] The Michelin Guide has been a standard guide to French restaurants since 1900, awarding its highest award, three stars, to the best restaurants in France. In 2018, of the 27 Michelin three-star restaurants in France, ten are located in Paris. These include both restaurants which serve classical French cuisine, such as L'Ambroisie in the Place des Vosges, and those which serve non-traditional menus, such as L'Astrance, which combines French and Asian cuisines. Several of France's most famous chefs, including Pierre Gagnaire, Alain Ducasse, Yannick Alléno and Alain Passard, have three-star restaurants in Paris.[268][269] Les Deux Magots café on Boulevard Saint-Germain In addition to the classical restaurants, Paris has several other kinds of traditional eating places. The café arrived in Paris in the 17th century, when the beverage was first brought from Turkey, and by the 18th century Parisian cafés were centres of the city's political and cultural life. The Café Procope on the Left Bank dates from this period. In the 20th century, the cafés of the Left Bank, especially Café de la Rotonde and Le Dôme Café in Montparnasse and Café de Flore and Les Deux Magots on Boulevard Saint Germain, all still in business, were important meeting places for painters, writers and philosophers.[266] A bistro is a type of eating place loosely defined as a neighbourhood restaurant with a modest decor and prices and a regular clientele and a congenial atmosphere. Its name is said to have come in 1814 from the Russian soldiers who occupied the city; "bistro" means "quickly" in Russian, and they wanted their meals served rapidly so they could get back their encampment. Real bistros are increasingly rare in Paris, due to rising costs, competition from cheaper ethnic restaurants, and different eating habits of Parisian diners.[270] A brasserie originally was a tavern located next to a brewery, which served beer and food at any hour. Beginning with the Paris Exposition of 1867; it became a popular kind of restaurant which featured beer and other beverages served by young women in the national costume associated with the beverage, particular German costumes for beer. Now brasseries, like cafés, serve food and drinks throughout the day.[271] Fashion[edit] Main article: French fashion Magdalena Frackowiak at Paris Fashion Week (Fall 2011) Since the 19th century, Paris has been an international fashion capital, particularly in the domain of haute couture (clothing hand-made to order for private clients).[272] It is home to some of the largest fashion houses in the world, including Dior and Chanel, as well as many other well-known and more contemporary fashion designers, such as Karl Lagerfeld, Jean-Paul Gaultier, Yves Saint Laurent, Givenchy, and Christian Lacroix. Paris Fashion Week, held in January and July in the Carrousel du Louvre among other renowned city locations, is one of the top four events on the international fashion calendar. The other fashion capitals of the world, Milan, London, and New York also host fashion weeks.[273][274] Moreover, Paris is also the home of the world's largest cosmetics company: L'Oréal as well as three of the top five global makers of luxury fashion accessories: Louis Vuitton, Hermés, and Cartier.[275] Most of the major fashion designers have their showrooms along the Avenue Montaigne, between the Champs-Élysées and the Seine. Holidays and festivals[edit] Republican Guards parading on Bastille Day Bastille Day, a celebration of the storming of the Bastille in 1789, the biggest festival in the city, is a military parade taking place every year on 14 July on the Champs-Élysées, from the Arc de Triomphe to Place de la Concorde. It includes a flypast over the Champs Élysées by the Patrouille de France, a parade of military units and equipment, and a display of fireworks in the evening, the most spectacular being the one at the Eiffel Tower.[276] Some other yearly festivals are Paris-Plages, a festive event that lasts from mid-July to mid-August when the Right Bank of the Seine is converted into a temporary beach with sand, deck chairs and palm trees;[276] Journées du Patrimoine, Fête de la Musique, Techno Parade, Nuit Blanche, Cinéma au clair de lune, Printemps des rues, Festival d'automne, and Fête des jardins. The Carnaval de Paris, one of the oldest festivals in Paris, dates back to the Middle Ages. Education[edit] Main article: Education in Paris The former main building of the University of Paris is now used by classes from Paris-Sorbonne University and other autonomous campuses. Paris is the département with the highest proportion of highly educated people. In 2009, around 40 percent of Parisians held a licence-level diploma or higher, the highest proportion in France,[277] while 13 percent have no diploma, the third-lowest percentage in France. Education in Paris and the Île-de-France region employs approximately 330,000 people, 170,000 of whom are teachers and professors teaching approximately 2.9 million children and students in around 9,000 primary, secondary, and higher education schools and institutions.[278] The University of Paris, founded in the 12th century, is often called the Sorbonne after one of its original medieval colleges. It was broken up into thirteen autonomous universities in 1970, following the student demonstrations in 1968. Most of the campuses today are in the Latin Quarter where the old university was located, while others are scattered around the city and the suburbs.[279] The École des hautes études en sciences sociales (EHESS), France's most prestigious university in the social sciences, is headquartered in the 6th arrondissement. The Paris region hosts France's highest concentration of the grandes écoles – 55 specialised centres of higher-education outside the public university structure. The prestigious public universities are usually considered grands établissements. Most of the grandes écoles were relocated to the suburbs of Paris in the 1960s and 1970s, in new campuses much larger than the old campuses within the crowded City of Paris, though the École Normale Supérieure has remained on rue d'Ulm in the 5th arrondissement.[280] There are a high number of engineering schools, led by the Paris Institute of Technology which comprises several colleges such as École Polytechnique, École des Mines, AgroParisTech, Télécom Paris, Arts et Métiers, and École des Ponts et Chaussées. There are also many business schools, including HEC, INSEAD, ESSEC, and ESCP Europe. The administrative school such as ENA has been relocated to Strasbourg, the political science school Sciences-Po is still located in Paris' 7th arrondissement, the most prestigious university for social sciences, the École des hautes études en sciences sociales is located in Paris' 6th arrondissement and the most prestigious university of economics and finance, Paris-Dauphine, is located in Paris' 16th. The Parisian school of journalism CELSA department of the Paris-Sorbonne University is located in Neuilly-sur-Seine.[281] Paris is also home to several of France's most famous high-schools such as Lycée Louis-le-Grand, Lycée Henri-IV, Lycée Janson de Sailly and Lycée Condorcet. The National Institute of Sport and Physical Education, located in the 12th arrondissement, is both a physical education institute and high-level training centre for elite athletes. Libraries[edit] Main article: Libraries in Paris Sainte-Geneviève Library The Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF) operates public libraries in Paris, among them the François Mitterrand Library, Richelieu Library, Louvois, Opéra Library, and Arsenal Library.[282] There are three public libraries in the 4th arrondissement. The Forney Library, in the Marais district, is dedicated to the decorative arts; the Arsenal Library occupies a former military building, and has a large collection on French literature; and the Bibliothèque historique de la ville de Paris, also in Le Marais, contains the Paris historical research service. The Sainte-Geneviève Library is in 5th arrondissement; designed by Henri Labrouste and built in the mid-1800s, it contains a rare book and manuscript division.[283] Bibliothèque Mazarine, in the 6th arrondissement, is the oldest public library in France. The Médiathèque Musicale Mahler in the 8th arrondissement opened in 1986 and contains collections related to music. The François Mitterrand Library (nicknamed Très Grande Bibliothèque) in the 13th arrondissement was completed in 1994 to a design of Dominique Perrault and contains four glass towers.[283] There are several academic libraries and archives in Paris. The Sorbonne Library in the 5th arrondissement is the largest university library in Paris. In addition to the Sorbonne location, there are branches in Malesherbes, Clignancourt-Championnet, Michelet-Institut d'Art et d'Archéologie, Serpente-Maison de la Recherche, and Institut des Etudes Ibériques.[284] Other academic libraries include Interuniversity Pharmaceutical Library, Leonardo da Vinci University Library, Paris School of Mines Library, and the René Descartes University Library.[285] Sports[edit] Parc des Princes. Paris' most popular sport clubs are the association football club Paris Saint-Germain F.C. and the rugby union clubs Stade Français and Racing 92, the last of which is based just outside the city proper. The 80,000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the commune of Saint-Denis.[286] It is used for football, rugby union and track and field athletics. It hosts the French national football team for friendlies and major tournaments qualifiers, annually hosts the French national rugby team's home matches of the Six Nations Championship, and hosts several important matches of the Stade Français rugby team.[286] In addition to Paris Saint-Germain F.C., the city has a number of other professional and amateur football clubs: Paris FC, Red Star, RCF Paris and Stade Français Paris. 2010 Tour de France, Champs Élysées. Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and will host the 2024 Summer Olympics and Paralympic Games. The city also hosted the finals of the 1938 FIFA World Cup (at the Stade Olympique de Colombes), as well as the 1998 FIFA World Cup and the 2007 Rugby World Cup Final (both at the Stade de France). Two UEFA Champions League Finals in the current century have also been played in the Stade de France: the 2000 and 2006 editions.[287] Paris has most recently been the host for UEFA Euro 2016, both at the Parc des Princes in the city proper and also at Stade de France, with the latter hosting the opening match and final. The final stage of the most famous bicycle racing in the world, Tour de France, always finishes in Paris. Since 1975, the race has finished on the Champs-Elysées.[288] Tennis is another popular sport in Paris and throughout France; the French Open, held every year on the red clay of the Roland Garros National Tennis Centre,[289] is one of the four Grand Slam events of the world professional tennis tour. The 17,000-seat Bercy Arena (officially named AccorHotels Arena and formerly known as the Palais Omnisports de Paris-Bercy) is the venue for the annual Paris Masters ATP Tour tennis tournament and has been a frequent site of national and international tournaments in basketball, boxing, cycling, handball, ice hockey, show jumping and other sports. The Bercy Arena also hosted the 2017 IIHF World Ice Hockey Championship, together with Cologne, Germany. The final stages of the FIBA EuroBasket 1951 and EuroBasket 1999 were also played in Paris, the latter at the Palais Omnisports de Paris-Bercy. The basketball team Levallois Metropolitans plays some of its games at the 4,000 capacity Stade Pierre de Coubertin.[290] Another top-level professional team, Nanterre 92, plays in Nanterre. Infrastructure[edit] Transport[edit] Main article: Transport in Paris See also: List of railway stations in Paris The Gare du Nord railway station is the busiest in Europe. Paris is a major rail, highway, and air transport hub. Île-de-France Mobilités (IDFM), formerly the Syndicat des transports d'Île-de-France (STIF) and before that the Syndicat des transports parisiens (STP), oversees the transit network in the region.[291] The syndicate coordinates public transport and contracts it out to the RATP (operating 347 bus lines, the Métro, eight tramway lines, and sections of the RER), the SNCF (operating suburban rails, one tramway line and the other sections of the RER) and the Optile consortium of private operators managing 1,176 bus lines.[292] Railways[edit] See also: List of railway stations in Paris A central hub of the national rail network, Paris' six major railway stations (Gare du Nord, Gare de l'Est, Gare de Lyon, Gare d'Austerlitz, Gare Montparnasse, Gare Saint-Lazare) and a minor one (Gare de Bercy) are connected to three networks: the TGV serving four high-speed rail lines, the normal speed Corail trains, and the suburban rails (Transilien). Métro, RER and tramway[edit] Main article: Paris Métro The Paris Métro is the busiest subway network in the European Union. Since the inauguration of its first line in 1900, Paris's Métro network has grown to become the city's most widely used local transport system; today it carries about 5.23 million passengers daily[293] through 16 lines, 303 stations (385 stops) and 220 km (136.7 mi) of rails. Superimposed on this is a 'regional express network', the RER, whose five lines (A, B, C, D, and E), 257 stops and 587 km (365 mi) of rails connect Paris to more distant parts of the urban area.[294] Over €26.5 billion will be invested over the next 15 years to extend the Métro network into the suburbs,[294] with notably the Grand Paris Express project. In addition, the Paris region is served by a light rail network of nine lines, the tramway: Line T1 runs from Asnières-Gennevilliers to Noisy-le-Sec, Line T2 runs from Pont de Bezons to Porte de Versailles, Line T3a runs from Pont du Garigliano to Porte de Vincennes, Line T3b runs from Porte de Vincennes to Porte d'Asnières, Line T5 runs from Saint-Denis to Garges-Sarcelles, Line T6 runs from Châtillon to Viroflay, Line T7 runs from Villejuif to Athis-Mons, Line T8 runs from Saint-Denis to Épinay-sur-Seine and Villetaneuse, all of which are operated by the RATP Group,[295] and line T4 runs from Bondy RER to Aulnay-sous-Bois, which is operated by the state rail carrier SNCF.[294] Five new light rail lines are currently in various stages of development.[296] Air[edit] In 2020 Paris–Charles de Gaulle Airport was the busiest airport in Europe and the eighth-busiest airport in the world.[297] Busiest destinations from Paris airports (CDG, ORY, BVA) in 2014 Domestic destinations Passengers Toulouse 3,158,331 Nice 2,865,602 Bordeaux 1,539,478 Marseille 1,502,196 Pointe-à-Pitre 1,191,437 Saint-Denis (Réunion) 1,108,964 Fort-de-France 1,055,770 Other domestic destinations Montpellier 807,482 Biarritz 684,578 Lyon 613,395 International destinations Passengers Italy 7,881,497 Spain 7,193,481 United States 6,495,677 Germany 4,685,313 United Kingdom 4,177,519 Morocco 3,148,479 Portugal 3,018,446 Algeria 2,351,402 China 2,141,527 Other international destinations Switzerland 1,727,169 Paris is a major international air transport hub with the 5th busiest airport system in the world. The city is served by three commercial international airports: Paris–Charles de Gaulle, Paris–Orly and Beauvais–Tillé Airport. Together these three airports recorded traffic of 96.5 million passengers in 2014.[298] There is also one general aviation airport, Paris-Le Bourget, historically the oldest Parisian airport and closest to the city centre, which is now used only for private business flights and air shows. Orly Airport, located in the southern suburbs of Paris, replaced Le Bourget as the principal airport of Paris from the 1950s to the 1980s.[299] Charles de Gaulle Airport, located on the edge of the northern suburbs of Paris, opened to commercial traffic in 1974 and became the busiest Parisian airport in 1993.[300] For the year 2017 it was the 5th busiest airport in the world by international traffic and it is the hub for the nation's flag carrier Air France.[294] Beauvais-Tillé Airport, located 69 kilometres (43 miles) north of Paris' city centre, is used by charter airlines and low-cost carriers such as Ryanair. Domestically, air travel between Paris and some of France's largest cities such as Lyon, Marseille, or Strasbourg has been in a large measure replaced by high-speed rail due to the opening of several high-speed TGV rail lines from the 1980s. For example, after the LGV Méditerranée opened in 2001, air traffic between Paris and Marseille declined from 2,976,793 passengers in 2000 to 1,502,196 passengers in 2014.[301] After the LGV Est opened in 2007, air traffic between Paris and Strasbourg declined from 1,006,327 passengers in 2006 to 157,207 passengers in 2014.[301] Internationally, air traffic has increased markedly in recent years between Paris and the Gulf airports, the emerging nations of Africa, Russia, Turkey, Portugal, Italy, and mainland China, whereas noticeable decline has been recorded between Paris and the British Isles, Egypt, Tunisia, and Japan.[302][303] Motorways[edit] Ring roads of Paris The city is also the most important hub of France's motorway network, and is surrounded by three orbital freeways: the Périphérique,[100] which follows the approximate path of 19th-century fortifications around Paris, the A86 motorway in the inner suburbs, and finally the Francilienne motorway in the outer suburbs. Paris has an extensive road network with over 2,000 km (1,243 mi) of highways and motorways. Waterways[edit] The Paris region is the most active water transport area in France, with most of the cargo handled by Ports of Paris in facilities located around Paris. The rivers Loire, Rhine, Rhone, Meuse, and Scheldt can be reached by canals connecting with the Seine, which include the Canal Saint-Martin, Canal Saint-Denis, and the Canal de l'Ourcq.[304] Cycling[edit] Vélib' at the Place de la Bastille There are 440 km (270 mi) of cycle paths and routes in Paris. These include piste cyclable (bike lanes separated from other traffic by physical barriers such as a kerb) and bande cyclable (a bicycle lane denoted by a painted path on the road). Some 29 km (18 mi) of specially marked bus lanes are free to be used by cyclists, with a protective barrier protecting against encroachments from vehicles.[305] Cyclists have also been given the right to ride in both directions on certain one-way streets. Paris offers a bike sharing system called Vélib' with more than 20,000 public bicycles distributed at 1,800 parking stations,[306] which can be rented for short and medium distances including one way trips. Electricity[edit] Electricity is provided to Paris through a peripheral grid fed by multiple sources. As of 2012[update], around 50% of electricity generated in the Île-de-France comes from cogeneration energy plants located near the outer limits of the region; other energy sources include the Nogent Nuclear Power Plant (35%), trash incineration (9% – with cogeneration plants, these provide the city in heat as well), methane gas (5%), hydraulics (1%), solar power (0.1%) and a negligible amount of wind power (0.034 GWh).[307] A quarter of the city's district heating is to come from a plant in Saint-Ouen-sur-Seine, burning a 50/50-mix of coal and 140,000 tonnes of wood pellets from the United States per year.[308] Water and sanitation[edit] A view of the Seine, the Île de la Cité and a Bateau Mouche Paris in its early history had only the rivers Seine and Bièvre for water. From 1809, the Canal de l'Ourcq provided Paris with water from less-polluted rivers to the north-east of the capital.[309] From 1857, the civil engineer Eugène Belgrand, under Napoleon III, oversaw the construction of a series of new aqueducts that brought water from locations all around the city to several reservoirs built atop the Capital's highest points of elevation.[310] From then on, the new reservoir system became Paris' principal source of drinking water, and the remains of the old system, pumped into lower levels of the same reservoirs, were from then on used for the cleaning of Paris' streets. This system is still a major part of Paris' modern water-supply network. Today Paris has more than 2,400 km (1,491 mi) of underground passageways[311] dedicated to the evacuation of Paris' liquid wastes. In 1982, Mayor Chirac introduced the motorcycle-mounted Motocrotte to remove dog faeces from Paris streets.[312] The project was abandoned in 2002 for a new and better enforced local law, under the terms of which dog owners can be fined up to €500 for not removing their dog faeces.[313] The air pollution in Paris, from the point of view of particulate matter (PM10), is the highest in France with 38 μg/m³.[314] Parks and gardens[edit] Main articles: List of parks and gardens in Paris and History of Parks and Gardens of Paris The lawns of the Parc des Buttes-Chaumont on a sunny day The Passerelle de l'Avre, crossing the Seine and establishing a link between the Bois de Boulogne and Saint-Cloud in Hauts-de-Seine, is the City of Paris's westernmost point. Paris today has more than 421 municipal parks and gardens, covering more than 3,000 hectares and containing more than 250,000 trees.[315] Two of Paris's oldest and most famous gardens are the Tuileries Garden (created in 1564 for the Tuileries Palace and redone by André Le Nôtre between 1664 and 1672)[316] and the Luxembourg Garden, for the Luxembourg Palace, built for Marie de' Medici in 1612, which today houses the Senate.[317] The Jardin des plantes was the first botanical garden in Paris, created in 1626 by Louis XIII's doctor Guy de La Brosse for the cultivation of medicinal plants.[318] Between 1853 and 1870, Emperor Napoleon III and the city's first director of parks and gardens, Jean-Charles Adolphe Alphand, created the Bois de Boulogne, Bois de Vincennes, Parc Montsouris and Parc des Buttes-Chaumont, located at the four points of the compass around the city, as well as many smaller parks, squares and gardens in the Paris's quarters.[319] Since 1977, the city has created 166 new parks, most notably the Parc de la Villette (1987), Parc André Citroën (1992), Parc de Bercy (1997) and Parc Clichy-Batignolles (2007).[320] One of the newest parks, the Promenade des Berges de la Seine (2013), built on a former highway on the left bank of the Seine between the Pont de l'Alma and the Musée d'Orsay, has floating gardens and gives a view of the city's landmarks. Weekly Parkruns take place in the Bois de Boulogne and the Parc Montsouris [321][322] Cemeteries[edit] The Paris Catacombs hold the remains of approximately 6 million people. During the Roman era, the city's main cemetery was located to the outskirts of the left bank settlement, but this changed with the rise of Catholic Christianity, where most every inner-city church had adjoining burial grounds for use by their parishes. With Paris's growth many of these, particularly the city's largest cemetery, the Holy Innocents' Cemetery, were filled to overflowing, creating quite unsanitary conditions for the capital. When inner-city burials were condemned from 1786, the contents of all Paris' parish cemeteries were transferred to a renovated section of Paris's stone mines outside the "Porte d'Enfer" city gate, today place Denfert-Rochereau in the 14th arrondissement.[323][324] The process of moving bones from the Cimetière des Innocents to the catacombs took place between 1786 and 1814;[325] part of the network of tunnels and remains can be visited today on the official tour of the catacombs. After a tentative creation of several smaller suburban cemeteries, the Prefect Nicholas Frochot under Napoleon Bonaparte provided a more definitive solution in the creation of three massive Parisian cemeteries outside the city limits.[326] Open from 1804, these were the cemeteries of Père Lachaise, Montmartre, Montparnasse, and later Passy; these cemeteries became inner-city once again when Paris annexed all neighbouring communes to the inside of its much larger ring of suburban fortifications in 1860. New suburban cemeteries were created in the early 20th century: The largest of these are the Cimetière parisien de Saint-Ouen, the Cimetière parisien de Pantin (also known as Cimetière parisien de Pantin-Bobigny), the Cimetière parisien d'Ivry, and the Cimetière parisien de Bagneux.[327] Some of the most famous people in the world are buried in Parisian cemeteries, such as Oscar Wilde and Serge Gainsbourg among others.[328] Healthcare[edit] The Hôtel-Dieu de Paris, the oldest hospital in the city Health care and emergency medical service in the City of Paris and its suburbs are provided by the Assistance publique – Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), a public hospital system that employs more than 90,000 people (including practitioners, support personnel, and administrators) in 44 hospitals.[329] It is the largest hospital system in Europe. It provides health care, teaching, research, prevention, education and emergency medical service in 52 branches of medicine. The hospitals receive more than 5.8 million annual patient visits.[329] One of the most notable hospitals is the Hôtel-Dieu, founded in 651, the oldest hospital in the city,[330] although the current building is the product of a reconstruction of 1877. Other hospitals include Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital (one of the largest in Europe), Hôpital Cochin, Bichat–Claude Bernard Hospital, Hôpital Européen Georges-Pompidou, Bicêtre Hospital, Beaujon Hospital, the Curie Institute, Lariboisière Hospital, Necker–Enfants Malades Hospital, Hôpital Saint-Louis, Hôpital de la Charité and the American Hospital of Paris. Media[edit] Agence France-Presse Headquarters in Paris Paris and its close suburbs is home to numerous newspapers, magazines and publications including Le Monde, Le Figaro, Libération, Le Nouvel Observateur, Le Canard enchaîné, La Croix, Pariscope, Le Parisien (in Saint-Ouen), Les Échos, Paris Match (Neuilly-sur-Seine), Réseaux & Télécoms, Reuters France, and L'Officiel des Spectacles.[331] France's two most prestigious newspapers, Le Monde and Le Figaro, are the centrepieces of the Parisian publishing industry.[332] Agence France-Presse is France's oldest, and one of the world's oldest, continually operating news agencies. AFP, as it is colloquially abbreviated, maintains its headquarters in Paris, as it has since 1835.[333] France 24 is a television news channel owned and operated by the French government, and is based in Paris.[334] Another news agency is France Diplomatie, owned and operated by the Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs, and pertains solely to diplomatic news and occurrences.[335] The most-viewed network in France, TF1, is in nearby Boulogne-Billancourt. France 2, France 3, Canal+, France 5, M6 (Neuilly-sur-Seine), Arte, D8, W9, NT1, NRJ 12, La Chaîne parlementaire, France 4, BFM TV, and Gulli are other stations located in and around the capital.[336] Radio France, France's public radio broadcaster, and its various channels, is headquartered in Paris' 16th arrondissement. Radio France Internationale, another public broadcaster is also based in the city.[337] Paris also holds the headquarters of the La Poste, France's national postal carrier.[338] International relations[edit] Twin towns and sister cities[edit] Column dedicated to Paris near the Baths of Diocletian in Rome Sculpture dedicated to Rome in the square Paul Painlevé in Paris See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in France Since 9 April 1956, Paris is exclusively and reciprocally twinned only with:[339][340] Rome, Italy, 1956 Seule Paris est digne de Rome ; seule Rome est digne de Paris. (in French) Solo Parigi è degna di Roma; solo Roma è degna di Parigi. (in Italian) "Only Paris is worthy of Rome; only Rome is worthy of Paris."[341] Other relationships[edit] Paris has agreements of friendship and co-operation with:[339] Algiers, 2003 Amman, 1987 Athens, 2000 Beijing, 1997 Beirut, 1992 Berlin, 1987 Bucharest[342] Buenos Aires, 1999 Cairo, 1985 Casablanca, 2004 Chicago, 1996 Copenhagen, 2005 Geneva, 2002 Hanoi, 2013[343] Jakarta, 1995 Kyoto, 1958 Lisbon, 1998 London, 2001 Madrid, 2000 Mexico City, 1999 Montreal, 2006 Moscow, 1992 New York City, 2007 Porto Alegre, 2001 Prague, 1997 Quebec City, 2003 Rabat, 2004 Riyadh, 1997 Saint Petersburg, 1997 Sana'a, 1987 San Francisco, 1996 Santiago, 1997 São Paulo, 2004 Seoul, 1991 Sofia, 1998 Sydney, 1998 Tbilisi, 1997 Tehran, 2004 Tokyo, 1982 Tunis, 2004 Ubon Ratchathani, 2000 Warsaw, 1999 Washington, D.C., 2000 Yerevan, 1998 See also[edit] France portal European Union portal Art Nouveau in Paris Art Deco in Paris C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group International Exposition of Modern Industrial and Decorative Arts held in Paris in 1925 Megacity Outline of France Outline of Paris Paris syndrome Notes[edit] ^ The word was most likely created by Parisians of the lower popular class who spoke *argot*, then *parigot* was used in a provocative manner outside the Parisian region and throughout France to mean Parisians in general. 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Politics and Religion in France and the United States. Rowman & Littlefield Pub Incorporated. ISBN 978-0-7391-1930-3. Hazan, Eric (2011). The Invention of Paris: A History in Footsteps. Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-84467-800-6. Hervé, Peter (1818). A Chronological Account of the History of France. p. 72. Higonnet, Patrice L. R. (2009). Paris: Capital of the World. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-03864-6. Horne, Alistair (2003). Seven Ages of Paris. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-679-45481-6. d'Istria, Robert Colonna (2002). Paris and Versailles. Editions Marcus. ISBN 978-2-7131-0202-8. Jefferson, David (2009). Through the French Canals (12th ed.). ISBN 978-1-4081-0381-4. Jones, Colin (2006). Paris: Biography of a City. Penguin Adult. ISBN 978-0-14-028292-4. Jones, Colin (1994). The Cambridge Illustrated History of France. Cambridge University Press. p. 48. ISBN 9780521669924. west francia kingdom. Jarrassé, Dominique (2007). Grammaire des jardins parisiens: de l'héritage des rois aux créations contemporaines (in French). Parigramme. ISBN 9782840964766. Kaberry, Rachel; Brown, Amy K. (2001). Paris. Rough Guides. ISBN 978-1-85828-679-2. Korgen, Kathleen Odell; White, Jonathan Michael (2008). The Engaged Sociologist: Connecting the Classroom to the Community. Pine Forge Press. ISBN 978-1-4129-6900-0. Knapp, Andrew; Wright, Vincent (2006). The Government and Politics of France. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-35732-6. Krinsky, Carol Herselle (1996). Synagogues of Europe: Architecture, History, Meaning. Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-29078-2. Lawrence, Rachel; Gondrand, Fabienne (2010). Paris (City Guide) (12th ed.). London: Insight Guides. ISBN 978-981-282-079-2. Leclanche, Maria Spyropoulou (1998). Le refrain dans la chanson française: de Bruant à Renaud (in French). Presses Univ. Limoges. ISBN 978-2-84287-096-6. Madge, Charles; Willmott, Peter (2006). Inner City Poverty in Paris and London. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-41762-4. Masson, Jean-Louis (1984). Provinces, départements, régions: l'organisation administrative de la France. Fernand Lanore. Mehra, Ajay K.; Levy, Rene (2011). The Police, State and Society: Perspectives from India and France. Pearson Education India. ISBN 978-81-317-3145-1. Metzelthin, Pearl Violette Newfield (1981). Gourmet. Condé Nast Publications. Meunier, Florian (2014). Le Paris du Moyen Âge (in French). Éditions Ouest-France. ISBN 978-2-7373-6217-0. Michelin (2011). Paris Green Guide Michelin 2012–2013. Michelin. ISBN 978-2-06-718220-2. Montclos, Jean-Marie Perouse De (2003). Paris, City of Art. Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 978-0-86565-226-2. Modood, Tariq; Triandafyllidou, Anna; Zapata-Barrero, Ricard (2012). Multiculturalism, Muslims and Citizenship: A European Approach. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-25561-0. Mroue, Haas (2006). Frommer's Memorable Walks in Paris. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-03712-6. Nevez, Catherine Le (2010). Paris Encounter. Lonely Planet. ISBN 978-1-74220-503-8. Newman, Peter; Thornley, Andy (2002). Urban Planning in Europe: International Competition, National Systems and Planning Projects. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-203-42794-1. Oscherwitz, Dayna (2010). Past Forward: French Cinema and the Post-Colonial Heritage. SIU Press. p. 135. ISBN 978-0-8093-8588-1. Overy, Richard (2006). Why the Allies Won. Pimlico. ISBN 978-1-84595-065-1. Paine, Thomas (1998). Rights of Man, Common Sense, and Other Political Writings. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-283557-4. Papayanis, Nicholas (2004). Planning Paris Before Haussmann. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-7930-2. Perry, Gillian (1995). Women Artists and the Parisian Avant-garde: Modernism and 'feminine Art' Art, 1900 to the Late 1920s. Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-4165-5. Perry, Marvin; Chase, Myrna; Jacob, James R.; Jacob, Margaret C.; Von Laue, Theodore H. (2011). Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society: from 1600: Ideas, Politics, and Society: From the 1600s (10th ed.). Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-111-83171-4. Phillips, Betty Lou (2005). The French Connection. Gibbs Smith. ISBN 978-1-58685-529-1. Rand, Tom (2010). Kick the Fossil Fuel Habit: 10 Clean Technologies to Save Our World. Greenleaf Book Group. ISBN 978-0-9812952-0-6. Robb, Graham (2010). Parisians: An Adventure History of Paris. Pan Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-330-52254-0. Robertson, Jamie Cox (2010). A Literary Paris: Hemingway, Colette, Sedaris, and Others on the Uncommon Lure of the City of Light. Krause Publications. ISBN 978-1-4405-0740-3. Rodgers, Eamonn J. (1999). Encyclopedia of Contemporary Spanish Culture. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-415-13187-2. Rougerie, Jacques (2014). La Commune de 1871 (in French). Paris: Presses universitaires de France. ISBN 978-2-13-062078-5. Rousseau, George Sebastian (2004). Yourcenar. Haus Bublishing. ISBN 978-1-904341-28-4. Blackmore, Ruth; McConnachie, James (2004). Rough Guide Paris Directions. Rough Guides. ISBN 978-1-84353-317-7. Ryersson, Scot D.; Yaccarino, Michael Orlando (2004). Infinite variety: the life and legend of the Marchesa Casati. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-4520-6. Sarmant, Thierry (2012). Histoire de Paris: politique, urbanisme, civilisation (in French). Editions Gisserot. ISBN 978-2-7558-0330-3. Schmidt, Joël (2009). Lutèce: Paris, des origines à Clovis (in French). Perrin. ISBN 978-2-262-03015-5. Schumacher, Claude (1996). Naturalism and Symbolism in European Theatre 1850–1918. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-23014-8. Shack, William A. Harlem in Montmartre, A Paris Jazz Story between the Great Wars, University of California Press, 2001. ISBN 978-0-520-22537-4, Shales, Melissa (2007). Paris. New Holland Publishers. ISBN 978-1-84537-661-1. Simmer, James (1997). Innovation Networks and Learning Regions?. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-11-702360-4. Steele, Valerie (1998). Paris Fashion: A Cultural History. Berg. ISBN 978-1-85973-973-0. Sutherland, Cara (2003). The Statue of Liberty. Barnes & Noble Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7607-3890-0. Tallett, Frank; Atkin, Nicholas (1991). Religion, Society and Politics in France Since 1789. Continuum. ISBN 978-1-85285-057-9. Tellier, Luc-Normand (2009). Urban World History: An Economic and Geographical Perspective. PUQ. ISBN 978-2-7605-2209-1. Tomas, François; Blanc, Jean-Noël; Bonilla, Mario; IERP (2003). Les grands ensembles: une histoire qui continue. Université de Saint-Étienne. p. 237. ISBN 978-2-86272-260-3. de Vitriaco, Jacobus; Hinnebusch, John Frederick (1972). The Historia Occidentalis of Jacques de Vitry. Saint-Paul. GGKEY:R8CJPKJJK4D. Weingardt, Richard (2009). Circles in the Sky: The Life and Times of George Ferris. ASCE Publications. ISBN 978-0-7844-1010-3. Whaley, Joachim (2012). Mirrors of Mortality (Routledge Revivals): Social Studies in the History of Death. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-81060-2. Woolley, Reginald Maxwell (1915). Coronation Rites. Cambridge University Press. p. 106. Yarri, Monique (2008). Rethinking the French City: Architecture, Dwelling, and Display After 1968. Amsterdam, New York: Editions Rodopi B.V. ISBN 978-90-420-2500-4. Zarka, Yves Charles; Taussig, Sylvie; Fleury, Cynthia (2004). "Les contours d'une population susceptible d'être musulmane d'après la filiation". L'Islam en France (in French). Presses universitaires de France. ISBN 978-2-13-053723-6. Further reading[edit] For a more comprehensive list, see Bibliography of Paris. Vincent Cronin (1989). Paris on the Eve, 1900–1914. New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-312-04876-1. Vincent Cronin (1994). Paris: City of Light, 1919–1939. New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-00-215191-7. Jean Favier (1997). Paris (in French). Fayard. ISBN 978-2-213-59874-1. Jacques Hillairet (2005). Connaissance du Vieux Paris (in French). Rivages. ISBN 978-2-86930-648-6. Colin Jones (2004). Paris: The Biography of a City. New York: Penguin Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-03393-5. Bernard Marchand (1993). Paris, histoire d'une ville : XIXe-XXe siècle (in French). Paris: Le Seuil. ISBN 978-2-02-012864-3. Rosemary Wakeman (2009). The Heroic City: Paris, 1945–1958. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-87023-6. External links[edit] Parisat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel guide from Wikivoyage Resources from Wikiversity Official website (in French) v t e City of Paris Arrondissements 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th 17th 18th 19th 20th Airports Charles de Gaulle Orly Architecture Era of absolutism Bridges Culture Cycling Vélib' Métropole Economy Education History (timeline) Landmarks Libraries Mayors Museums List Music Tallest buildings Syndrome Religion Archdiocese Squares Topography Transport Métro Transilien Tramways RER Tourism Grand Paris Paris metropolitan area Île-de-France France v t e Tourism in Paris Landmarks Arc de Triomphe Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel Arènes de Lutèce Bourse Catacombs Conciergerie Eiffel Tower Gare d'Austerlitz Gare de l'Est Gare de Lyon Gare du Nord Gare Montparnasse Gare 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Montparnasse Cemetery Passy Cemetery Père Lachaise Cemetery Oscar Wilde's tomb Picpus Cemetery Région parisienne Basilica of Saint-Denis Château d'Écouen Château de Chantilly Château de Fontainebleau Château de Malmaison Château de Rambouillet Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye Château de Sceaux Château and Gardens of Versailles Château de Vincennes La Défense Grande Arche Paris La Défense Arena Disneyland Paris Disneyland Park Walt Disney Studios Park Exploradôme Fort Mont-Valérien Mémorial de la France combattante Suresnes American Cemetery and Memorial France Miniature Musée de l'air et de l'espace Musée Fragonard d'Alfort Parc Astérix Parc de Saint-Cloud Provins La Roche-Guyon Sèvres – Cité de la céramique Stade de France Vaux-le-Vicomte Culture and events Bastille Day military parade Fête de la Musique Nuit Blanche Paris Air Show Paris-Plages Republican Guard Solidays Other Axe historique Bateau-Lavoir Bateaux Mouches Café des 2 Moulins Café Procope Fountains in Paris La Ruche Les Deux Magots Maxim's Moulin de la Galette Moulin Rouge Paris Métro entrances Montmartre Funicular Paris Musées Paris Syndrome Paris Zoological Park Pyramide inversée v t e Paris transport network Métro Planned RER Transilien Tramway Planned Bus RATP Noctilien Le Bus Direct Others CDGVAL Orlyval Montmartre Funicular Projects Grand Paris Express CDG Express Administration Île-de-France Mobilités RATP SNCF Optile Keolis Transdev Finance Fares and tickets Ticket "t+" Carte Améthyste Carte Imagine'R Carte Intégrale Carte orange Paris visite Versement transport Navigo card Related articles Architecture Ghost stations Administrative structures v t e Communes in the Paris metropolitan area Population over 2 million Paris Population over 100,000 Argenteuil Boulogne-Billancourt Montreuil Saint-Denis Population over 75,000 Asnières-sur-Seine Aubervilliers Aulnay-sous-Bois Champigny-sur-Marne Colombes Courbevoie Créteil Nanterre Rueil-Malmaison Versailles Vitry-sur-Seine Population over 50,000 Antony Le Blanc-Mesnil Bondy Cergy Chelles Clamart Clichy Drancy Épinay-sur-Seine Évry-Courcouronnes Fontenay-sous-Bois Issy-les-Moulineaux Ivry-sur-Seine Levallois-Perret Maisons-Alfort Meaux Neuilly-sur-Seine Noisy-le-Grand Pantin Saint-Maur-des-Fossés Sarcelles Sartrouville Sevran Villejuif Population over 25,000 Alfortville Athis-Mons Bagneux Bagnolet Bezons Bobigny Bois-Colombes Brunoy Bussy-Saint-Georges Cachan Charenton-le-Pont Châtenay-Malabry Châtillon Chatou Le Chesnay-Rocquencourt Choisy-le-Roi Clichy-sous-Bois Conflans-Sainte-Honorine Corbeil-Essonnes La Courneuve Draveil Élancourt Ermont Franconville Fresnes Gagny La Garenne-Colombes Garges-lès-Gonesse Gennevilliers Gonesse Goussainville Grigny Guyancourt L'Haÿ-les-Roses Herblay-sur-Seine Houilles Le Kremlin-Bicêtre Livry-Gargan Malakoff Mantes-la-Jolie Massy Melun Meudon Montfermeil Montigny-le-Bretonneux Montrouge Les Mureaux Neuilly-sur-Marne Nogent-sur-Marne Noisy-le-Sec Palaiseau Le Perreux-sur-Marne Pierrefitte-sur-Seine Plaisir Le Plessis-Robinson Poissy Pontault-Combault Pontoise Puteaux Rambouillet Ris-Orangis Romainville Rosny-sous-Bois Saint-Cloud Saint-Germain-en-Laye Saint-Ouen-sur-Seine Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois Sannois Savigny-sur-Orge Savigny-le-Temple Stains Sucy-en-Brie Suresnes Taverny Thiais Trappes Tremblay-en-France Vanves Vigneux-sur-Seine Villemomble Villeneuve-la-Garenne Villeneuve-Saint-Georges Villeparisis Villepinte Villiers-le-Bel Villiers-sur-Marne Vincennes Viry-Châtillon Yerres Population under 25,000 1,669 other communes v t e Prefectures of the departments of France Bourg-en-Bresse (Ain) Laon (Aisne) Moulins (Allier) Digne-les-Bains (Alpes-de-Haute-Provence) Gap (Hautes-Alpes) Nice (Alpes-Maritimes) Privas (Ardèche) Charleville-Mézières (Ardennes) Foix (Ariège) Troyes (Aube) Carcassonne (Aude) Rodez (Aveyron) Marseille (Bouches-du-Rhône) Caen (Calvados) Aurillac (Cantal) Angoulême (Charente) La Rochelle (Charente-Maritime) Bourges (Cher) Tulle (Corrèze) Ajaccio (Corse-du-Sud) Bastia (Haute-Corse) Dijon (Côte-d'Or) Saint-Brieuc (Côtes-d'Armor) Guéret (Creuse) Périgueux (Dordogne) Besançon (Doubs) Valence (Drôme) Évreux (Eure) Chartres (Eure-et-Loir) Quimper (Finistère) Nîmes (Gard) Toulouse (Haute-Garonne) Auch (Gers) Bordeaux (Gironde) Montpellier (Hérault) Rennes (Ille-et-Vilaine) Châteauroux (Indre) Tours (Indre-et-Loire) Grenoble (Isère) Lons-le-Saunier (Jura) Mont-de-Marsan (Landes) Blois (Loir-et-Cher) Saint-Étienne (Loire) Le Puy-en-Velay (Haute-Loire) Nantes (Loire-Atlantique) Orléans (Loiret) Cahors (Lot) Agen (Lot-et-Garonne) Mende (Lozère) Angers (Maine-et-Loire) Saint-Lô (Manche) Châlons-en-Champagne (Marne) Chaumont (Haute-Marne) Laval (Mayenne) Nancy (Meurthe-et-Moselle) Bar-le-Duc (Meuse) Vannes (Morbihan) Metz (Moselle) Nevers (Nièvre) Lille (Nord) Beauvais (Oise) Alençon (Orne) Arras (Pas-de-Calais) Clermont-Ferrand (Puy-de-Dôme) Pau (Pyrénées-Atlantiques) Tarbes (Hautes-Pyrénées) Perpignan (Pyrénées-Orientales) Strasbourg (Bas-Rhin) Colmar (Haut-Rhin) Lyon (Rhône) Vesoul (Haute-Saône) Mâcon (Saône-et-Loire) Le Mans (Sarthe) Chambéry (Savoie) Annecy (Haute-Savoie) Paris (Paris) Rouen (Seine-Maritime) Melun (Seine-et-Marne) Versailles (Yvelines) Niort (Deux-Sèvres) Amiens (Somme) Albi (Tarn) Montauban (Tarn-et-Garonne) Toulon (Var) Avignon (Vaucluse) La Roche-sur-Yon (Vendée) Poitiers (Vienne) Limoges (Haute-Vienne) Épinal (Vosges) Auxerre (Yonne) Belfort (Territoire de Belfort) Évry-Courcouronnes (Essonne) Nanterre (Hauts-de-Seine) Bobigny (Seine-Saint-Denis) Créteil (Val-de-Marne) Cergy, Pontoise (Val-d'Oise) Overseas departments Basse-Terre (Guadeloupe) Fort-de-France (Martinique) Cayenne (French Guiana) Saint-Denis (Réunion) Mamoudzou (Mayotte) v t e Prefectures of the regions of France Metropolitan regions Lyon (Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes) Dijon (Bourgogne-Franche-Comté) Rennes (Brittany) Orléans (Centre-Val de Loire) Ajaccio (Corsica) Strasbourg (Grand Est) Lille (Hauts-de-France) Paris (Île-de-France) Rouen (Normandy) Bordeaux (Nouvelle-Aquitaine) Toulouse (Occitanie) Nantes (Pays de la Loire) Marseille (Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur) Overseas regions Cayenne (French Guiana) Basse-Terre (Guadeloupe) Fort-de-France (Martinique) Mamoudzou (Mayotte) Saint Denis (Réunion) v t e Departments of France Metropolitan 01 Ain 02 Aisne 03 Allier 04 Alpes-de-Haute-Provence 05 Hautes-Alpes 06 Alpes-Maritimes 07 Ardèche 08 Ardennes 09 Ariège 10 Aube 11 Aude 12 Aveyron 13 Bouches-du-Rhône 14 Calvados 15 Cantal 16 Charente 17 Charente-Maritime 18 Cher 19 Corrèze 2A Corse-du-Sud 2B Haute-Corse 21 Côte-d'Or 22 Côtes-d'Armor 23 Creuse 24 Dordogne 25 Doubs 26 Drôme 27 Eure 28 Eure-et-Loir 29 Finistère 30 Gard 31 Haute-Garonne 32 Gers 33 Gironde 34 Hérault 35 Ille-et-Vilaine 36 Indre 37 Indre-et-Loire 38 Isère 39 Jura 40 Landes 41 Loir-et-Cher 42 Loire 43 Haute-Loire 44 Loire-Atlantique 45 Loiret 46 Lot 47 Lot-et-Garonne 48 Lozère 49 Maine-et-Loire 50 Manche 51 Marne 52 Haute-Marne 53 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territories and states whose sovereignty is disputed shown in italics. 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en-wikipedia-org-3629	----	Arses of Persia - Wikipedia Arses of Persia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about a king of Persia. For other uses, see Arses (disambiguation). 12th King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire, son of Artaxerxes III (338—336 BC) King of Kings Arses 𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎣 King of Kings Great King King of Persia Pharaoh of Egypt King of Countries Probable portrait of Arses, wearing the Egyptian Pharaonic crown.[1] King of Kings the Achaemenid Empire Reign 338–336 BC Predecessor Artaxerxes III Successor Darius III Died 336 BC Regnal name Artaxerxes IV Dynasty Achaemenid Father Artaxerxes III Mother Atossa Religion Zoroastrianism Arses (Old Persian: 𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎣, romanized: Aršaka), also known by his regnal name Artaxerxes IV (/ˌɑːrtəˈzɜːrksiːz/; Old Persian: 𐎠𐎼𐎫𐎧𐏁𐏂𐎠, romanized: Artaxšaçā), was the twelfth Achaemenid King of Kings from 338 to 336 BC. Arses ascended the throne, after his father Artaxerxes III—who had caused a resurgence of the Persian Empire—was poisoned by the eunuch Bagoas. The latter put Arses on the throne with the expectation of being able to control him. With the weakening of the Achaemenid Empire from the assassination of Artaxerxes III and the succession of Arses, the Greek league sent troops into Asia in 336. Arses, in an attempt to free himself from Bagoas' influences, tried to have the eunuch poisoned; but did not succeed, instead succumbing poisoning himself at the orders of Bagoas. Bagoas put Arses' cousin Darius III on the throne after him. Contents 1 Name 2 Biography 3 Coinage 4 References 5 Bibliography 5.1 Ancient works 5.2 Modern works Name[edit] He is known as Arses in Greek sources and that seems to have been his real name, but the Xanthus trilingue and potsherds from Samaria report that he took the royal name of Artaxerxes IV, following his father and grandfather. Arses is the Greek form of the Old Persian Aršaka (also spelled Aršāma, Xšayaaršan). The common Iranian variant is attested in Avestan Aršan- (linguistically related to Greek arsēn, "male, manly").[2] Biography[edit] Arses was the youngest son of Artaxerxes III and his wife Atossa.[2] Arses had several brothers, only one whose name is attested, a certain Bisthanes.[2] Persia was experiencing a resurgence under Artaxerxes III, who reorganized his empire, and suppressed revolts throughout the country.[3] However, the fortunes of Persia came to an abrupt end in autumn of 338, when Artaxerxes III was murdered by the ambitious eunuch and chiliarch Bagoas, who had the king poisoned.[4] Artaxerxes III's early death proved to be a problematic issue for Persia,[3] and may have played a role in the weakening of the country.[2] The majority of Artaxerxes III's sons, with the exception of Arses and Bisthanes, were also murdered by Bagoas.[3] Bagoas, who wanted to be kingmaker, put the young Arses on the throne.[3][2] On his ascension to the throne, Arses most likely assumed the regnal name of Artaxerxes IV.[5] He was put on the throne by Bagoas due to his youth, which the latter sought to take advantage of in order to control him. Around the same period, most of the Greek city-states had joined the Greek league under the leadership of the Macedonian king Philip II, who took advantage of the events in Persia by demanding compensation from the country for helping the town of Perinthus during the reign of Artaxerxes III.[2] Arses declined, and as a result, a Greek expedition was started with Philip II as general, who sent 10,000 Macedonian soldiers into Asia in 336 BC.[2] At the same time, however, Arses was determined on trying to free himself from Bagoas' authority and influence; he made an unsuccessful effort to have the latter poisoned, only to be poisoned himself along with the rest of his family by Bagoas, who put Arses' cousin Darius III on the throne.[2] Macedonian propaganda, made in order to legitimize the conquests of Alexander the Great a few years later, accused Darius III of playing a key role in the murder of Arses, who was portrayed as the last king of the Achaemenid royal house.[6] Coinage[edit] Coinage of Mazaios, Satrap of Cilicia, 361/0-334 BC, thought to represent Artaxerxes III on the obverse, and a young Arses on the reverse.[1] There is no dynastic coinage of Artaxerxes IV, but it is thought he may be depicted as a young ruler wearing the Pharaonic crown on the reverse of some of the contemporary coinage of satrap Mazaios in Cilicia, while his father Artaxerxes III appears seated, also in Pharaonic dress, on the obverse.[1] References[edit] ^ a b c Kovacs, Frank L. (2002). "Two Persian Pharaonic Portraits". Jahrbuch für Numismatik und Geldgeschichte. R. Pflaum. pp. 55–60. ^ a b c d e f g h LeCoq 1986, p. 548. ^ a b c d Schmitt 1986, pp. 658-659. ^ Waters 2014, p. 197. ^ Briant 2002, p. 769. ^ Briant 2002, p. 770. Bibliography[edit] Ancient works[edit] Arrian, The Anabasis of Alexander. Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica. Justin, Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus. Modern works[edit] Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. pp. 1–1196. ISBN 9781575061207. LeCoq, P. (1986). "Arses". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 5. p. 548. Schmitt, R. (1986). "Artaxerxes III". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 6. pp. 658–659. Waters, Matt (2014). Ancient Persia: A Concise History of the Achaemenid Empire, 550–330 BCE. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–272. ISBN 9781107652729. Arses of Persia Achaemenid dynasty Preceded by Artaxerxes III King of Kings of Persia 338 – 336 BC Succeeded by Darius III Pharaoh of Egypt XXXI Dynasty 338 – 336 BC v t e Median and Achaemenid kings Family tree Median (728–550 BC) Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Achaemenid (550–330 BC) Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Nothus Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Italics indicate kings not directly attested and so possibly legendary. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arses_of_Persia&oldid=1002212635" Categories: 4th-century BC Kings of the Achaemenid Empire 4th-century BC Pharaohs 4th-century BC Babylonian kings Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Pharaohs of the Achaemenid dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 336 BC deaths 4th-century BC murdered monarchs Murdered Persian monarchs Deaths by poisoning 4th-century BC Iranian people 4th-century BC rulers Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Avestan-language text Articles containing Greek-language text AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano עברית ქართული Magyar Malagasy مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit 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en-wikipedia-org-3631	----	Orontes I - Wikipedia Orontes I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Satrap of Sophene and Matiene Orontes I Orontes I's portrait on the observe of a coin, showing him with the satrapal headdress Satrap of Sophene and Matiene Reign 401 – 344 BC Coronation 401 BC Predecessor Artasyrus Successor Darius III Codomannus Died 344 BC Ionia Spouse Rhodogoune Issue Orontes II Full name Orontes (Aurand/Yervand) House Armavir Dynasty Orontid Dynasty Father Artasyrus Mother Asatera Orontes I or Yervand I (Old Persian: *Arvanta-) was an Bactrian nobleman,[1] who ruled as satrap of the Achaemenid satrapy of Armenia from 401 to 344 BC. He is regarded as the ancestor of the Orontid dynasty. Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Satrap of Armenia 1.1.1 Battle of Cunaxa (401 BC) 1.1.2 Cyprus campaign (381 BC) 1.2 Satrap of Mysia 2 Coinage 3 References 4 Sources Biography[edit] Satrap of Armenia[edit] Orontes was a son of the Bactrian[2][3] Artasyrus. Orontes has therefore sometimes been referred to as "Orontes the Bactrian",[2][4] According to the Greek sources (Xenophon, Strabo), Orontes was made Satrap of Sophene and Matiene (Mitanni).}}[5] He was called "Praefectus Armeniae" by Trogus.[6] Battle of Cunaxa (401 BC)[edit] Orontes was given these Satrapies of Armenis in 401 BC for supporting the Persian king Artaxerxes II in the Battle of Cunaxa against Cyrus the Younger. After the Battle of Cunaxa, Orontes harassed the Ten Thousand as they attempted to return home and made their way through Armenia.[7] It is likely he ruled from Armavir as the previous Satrap of Armenia, Hydarnes, had ruled from there. He married Rhodogoune, the daughter of king Artaxerxes II by one of his concubines.[8] Cyprus campaign (381 BC)[edit] Mysia Approximate location of Mysia in Asia Minor. He next appears in 381 BC as the army commander during the campaign to recapture Cyprus from its rebel leader, King Evagoras, whilst the navy was under the command of Tiribazus. They managed to lay siege to the city of Salamis; however, Orontes intrigued against Tiribazus before king Artaxerxes II, but this led to Orontes falling from favor. It may be because of this that he was stripped of his satrapy and sent to the west of the Empire to become satrap of Mysia.[citation needed]. Satrap of Mysia[edit] Orontes coin with running Achaemenid king. Legend OΡONTA (Orontes). Minted in Caria. In 362 BC a great rebellion occurred in Anatolia, led by Datames, Satrap of Cappadocia (Revolt of the Satraps). Some sources say that it was Orontes who was chosen by the rebels as their leader. However, Orontes stayed loyal to king Artaxerxes II and aided in the collapse of the rebellion. Apparently, he wanted to rule Anatolia and Armenia alone. He captured the city of Pergamon and sent bribes to Athens, where a decree seeking an alliance records his name. He was able to fund these activities as he is recorded as having a personal fortune of 3,000 talents of silver. From around 362-361, Orontes is said to be "Satrap of Mysia", and there is various proof of his activity in the region and around Pergamon.[9][10] In 355 BC he rebelled against the new king of the Achaemenid Empire, Artaxerxes III. He still had possession of parts of western Anatolia. He fought a battle against the satrap of Daskyleion and minted his own coins in Ionia, such as the one displayed in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. He handed back Pergamon to the king. The kings of the Kingdom of Commagene claimed descent from Orontes I and also claimed Darius I of Persia as an ancestor, thanks to Orontes' marriage to Rhodogoune, daughter of Artaxerxes II who was a direct descendant of king Darius I.[11][12] Xenophon's Anabasis mentions that the region near the river Centrites was defended by the Satrap of Armenia for Artaxerxes II and named Orontes son of Artasyrus who had Armenian contingents. Xenophon mentioned that he had a son called Tigranes. His successor was Darius III and after Codomannus these Satrapies were ruled by Orontes II. Whether he was the same person as Tigranes but had adopted the name Orontes or that they were brothers is not known. Coinage[edit] All the known coinage of Orontes is confined to the region of Mysia, and was only found in cities from Lampsacus to Colophon, particularly Adramyteion and Kisthene in the area of Aeolis on the coast.[13] References[edit] ^ Schmitt 2002. ^ a b Gershevitch 1985, p. 354. ^ Chahin 2001, p. 185. ^ Chahin 2001, p. 185, "(...) son of Artasyras, the "King's Eye", sometimes called "Orontes the Bactrian". because of his princely, Bactrian parentage." ^ Petrie, Flinders. Mitannian (Armenian) origin ^ Stylianou, P. J.; Stylianou, Research Associate P. J. (1998). A Historical Commentary on Diodorus Siculus. Clarendon Press. p. 530. ISBN 9780198152392. ^ Xen. Anab. 2.4-5 passim ^ Plutarch. Life of Artaxerxes. ^ Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. p. 662. ISBN 9781575061207. ^ Stylianou, P. J.; Stylianou, Research Associate P. J. (1998). A Historical Commentary on Diodorus Siculus. Clarendon Press. p. 532. ISBN 9780198152392. ^ Cook, J.M. (1993). The Persian Empire ([Repr.] ed.). New York: Barns & Noble Books. pp. 170, 173, 193, 212, 213, 216, 217, 221–223, 257, 263. ISBN 1-56619-115-7. ^ The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times - 2 Vols., Richard G. Hovannisian, St. Martin's Press, New York, 1997 ^ Stylianou, P. J.; Stylianou, Research Associate P. J. (1998). A Historical Commentary on Diodorus Siculus. Clarendon Press. p. 532. ISBN 9780198152392. Sources[edit] Chahin, M. (2001). The Kingdom of Armenia: A History. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0700714520. Garsoian, Nina (2004). "Armeno-Iranian Relations in the pre-Islamic period". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Gershevitch, Ilya, ed. (1985). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 2: The Median and Achaemenian periods. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521200912. Hyla A., Troxell (1981). "Orontes, Satrap of Mysia". Schweizerische Numismatische Rundschau. 60: 27–41. ISSN 0035-4163. Osborne, Michael J. (1973). "Orontes". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 22 (4): 515–551. ISSN 0018-2311. JSTOR 4435366. Osborne, Michael J. (1971). "Athens and Orontes". Annual of the British School at Athens. 66: 297–321. doi:10.1017/S0068245400019213. ISSN 2045-2403. JSTOR 30103238. Schmitt, Rüdiger (2002). "Orontes". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Orontes I. v t e Armenian kings Orontid Dynasty Orontes I Sakavakyats Tigranes Vahagn Hidarnes I Hidarnes II Hidarnes III Artasyrus (satrap) Orontes I (satrap) Darius III (satrap) Orontes II (satrap) Mithrenes (satrap) Orontes III Sames Arsames I Xerxes Orontes IV Abdissares Artaxiad Dynasty Artaxias I Tigranes I Artavasdes I Tigranes the Great Artavasdes II Artaxias II Tigranes III Tigranes IV with Erato Roman and Parthian non-dynastic candidates Ariobarzanes II Artavasdes III Tigranes V Vonones I Artaxias III Arsaces I Orodes Mithridates Rhadamistus Tiridates I Arsacid Dynasty Tigranes VI Sanatruk Axidares Parthamasiris Vologases I Sohaemus Bakur Vologases II Khosrov I Tiridates II Khosrov II Tiridates III Khosrov III Tiran Arshak II Pap Varazdat Arshak III Khosrov IV Vramshapuh Artaxias IV Bagratid Armenia Ashot I Smbat I Ashot II Abas I Ashot III Smbat II Gagik I Hovhannes-Smbat III Ashot IV Gagik II Cilicia Leo I Isabella Hethum I Leo II Hethum II Thoros Sempad Constantine I Leo III Oshin Leo IV Constantine II Constantine III Constantine IV Leo V v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Orontes_I&oldid=1001747650" Categories: 5th-century BC Iranian people 4th-century BC Iranian people Orontid dynasty 344 BC 5th-century BC births 4th-century BC rulers 340s BC deaths Achaemenid satraps of Armenia Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2018 Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages تۆرکجه Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Հայերեն Hrvatski ქართული Nederlands Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 21 January 2021, at 03:36 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3635	----	Cyaxares - Wikipedia Cyaxares From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in Persian. (July 2013) Click [show] for important translation instructions. View a machine-translated version of the Persian article. Machine translation like DeepL or Google Translate is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Wikipedia. Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article. You must provide copyright attribution in the edit summary accompanying your translation by providing an interlanguage link to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary Content in this edit is translated from the existing Persian Wikipedia article at [[:fa:هووخشتره]]; see its history for attribution. You should also add the template {{Translated|fa|هووخشتره}} to the talk page. For more guidance, see Wikipedia:Translation. King of Media Cyaxares King of Media Likely relief of Cyaxeres (right), Qyzqapan tomb, Sulaymaniyah. Iraqi Kurdistan.[1] Reign 625–585 BC Predecessor Phraortes Successor Astyages Born Ecbatana (present-day Hamadan) Burial Syromedia (present-day Qyzqapan), according to Igor Diakonov[2] Spouse Daughter (or granddaughter) of Nabopolassar Issue Astyages Amytis (or granddaughter) Dynasty Median Dynasty Father Phraortes Religion Ancient Iranian religion Cyaxares (Ancient Greek: Κυαξάρης; Old Persian: 𐎢𐎺𐎧𐏁𐎫𐎼 Uvaxštra;[3][4] Avestan: Huxšaθra "Good Ruler"; Akkadian: Umakištar;[5] Old Phrygian: ksuwaksaros;[6] r. 625–585 BC) was the third and most capable king of Media, according to Herodotus, with a far greater military reputation than his father Phraortes or grandfather Deioces. He was the first to divide his troops into separate sections of spearmen, archers, and horsemen.[7] By uniting most of the Iranian tribes of ancient Iran and conquering neighbouring territories, Cyaxares transformed the Median Empire into a regional power.[8] He facilitated the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, and according to Herodotus repelled the Scythians from Media.[9] He was one of the great-grandfathers of Cyrus the Great. Contents 1 The rise of Cyaxares 2 War against Lydia 3 Qyzqapan 4 Legacy 5 See also 6 References 7 Sources 8 External links The rise of Cyaxares[edit] Cyaxares' Median Empire at the time of its maximum expansion. Cyaxares was born in the Median capital of Ecbatana. His father Phraortes was killed in a battle against the Assyrians, led by Ashurbanipal, the king of Assyria. After Phraortes' demise, the Scythians overran Media and controlled the area for a period of twenty-eight years.[10] Cyaxares, seeking revenge, killed the Scythian leaders[11] and proclaimed himself King of Medes. After throwing off the Scythians, he prepared for war against Assyria.[12] Cyaxares reorganized the Median army, then allied himself with King Nabopolassar of Babylonia, a mutual enemy of Assyria. This alliance was formalized through the marriage of Cyaxares' daughter, Amytis, to Nabopolassar's son, Nebuchadnezzar II. Cyaxares also allied with the Scythians even though they warred against each other a decade earlier.[13] In the year 612 B.C.E, Cyaxares and his army was able to conquer Assur and he also claimed the Assyrian capital of Nineveh. The Medians, Babylonians, and Scythians overthrew the Assyrian Empire and destroyed Nineveh in 612 BC. Fighting between the Medes and the Assyrians would finally come to an end in the year 609 B.C.E. War against Lydia[edit] Qyzqapan tomb, likely relief of Cyaxeres (detail).[1] Herodotus reported the wars of Cyaxares in The Histories After the victory in Assyria, the Medes conquered Northern Mesopotamia, Armenia and the parts of Asia Minor east of the Halys River, which was the border established with Lydia after a decisive battle between Lydia and Media, the Battle of Halys ended with an eclipse on May 28, 585 BC. Before Cyaxares was confronted with the threat of the Lydian army, Alyattes had previously campaigned in the eastern regions of Phrygia and Gordion.[14] The conflict between Lydia and the Medes was reported by Herodotus as follows: "A horde of the nomad Scythians at feud with the rest withdrew and sought refuge in the land of the Medes: and at this time the ruler of the Medes was Cyaxares the son of Phraortes, the son of Deïokes, who at first dealt well with these Scythians, being suppliants for his protection; and esteeming them very highly he delivered boys to them to learn their speech and the art of shooting with the bow. Then time went by, and the Scythians used to go out continually to the chase and always brought back something; till once it happened that they took nothing, and when they returned with empty hands Cyaxares (being, as he showed on this occasion, not of an eminently good disposition) dealt with them very harshly and used insult towards them. And they, when they had received this treatment from Cyaxares, considering that they had suffered indignity, planned to kill and to cut up one of the boys who were being instructed among them, and having dressed his flesh as they had been wont to dress the wild animals, to bear it to Cyaxares and give it to him, pretending that it was game taken in hunting; and when they had given it, their design was to make their way as quickly as possible to Alyattes the son of Sadyattes at Sardis. This then was done; and Cyaxares with the guests who ate at his table tasted of that meat, and the Scythians having so done became suppliants for the protection of Alyattes. After this, since Alyattes would not give up the Scythians when Cyaxares demanded them, there had arisen war between the Lydians and the Medes lasting five years; in which years the Medes often discomfited the Lydians and the Lydians often discomfited the Medes (and among others they fought also a battle by night): and as they still carried on the war with equally balanced fortune, in the sixth year a battle took Halys River place in which it happened, when the fight had begun, that suddenly the day became night. And this change of the day Thales the Milesian had foretold to the Ionians laying down as a limit this very year in which the change took place. The Lydians however and the Medes, when they saw that it had become night instead of day, ceased from their fighting and were much more eager both of them that peace should be made between them. And they who brought about the peace between them were Syennesis the Kilikian and Labynetos the Babylonian: these were they who urged also the taking of the oath by them, and they brought about an interchange of marriages; for they decided that Alyattes should give his daughter Aryenis to Astyages the son of Cyaxares, since without the compulsion of a strong tie agreements are apt not to hold strongly together." (The Histories, 1.73-74, trans. Macaulay) After the subsequent interchange of marriage, fighting ceased between the Medians and the Lydians, yet Croesus would later refuse to send aid to Astyages when faced with conflict from Cyrus the Great.[14] Thus showing that while the resulting marriages may have prevented more fighting between the Medians and the Lydians, the two kingdoms were not joined in any type of alliance. Cyaxares died shortly after the battle and was succeeded by his son, Astyages, who was the maternal grandfather of Cyrus the Great through his daughter Mandane of Media. Tomb of Cyaxares, Qyzqapan, Sulaymaniyah. Iraqi Kurdistan Qyzqapan[edit] Qyzqapan is a tomb located in the mountains of Iraqi Kurdistan in Sulaymaniyah. The Russian historian Igor Diakonov believed that it is probably a royal tomb and that if it is royal it is the tomb of Cyaxares.[2] Legacy[edit] See also: Historiography and nationalism In later accounts of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, this was remembered as Nebuchadrezzar's present for his wife Amytis Cyaxares's daughter, to help with her homesickness for the mountainous country of her birth.[15] After Darius I seized the Iranshahr, rebellions erupted claiming Uvaxštra's legacy. After these were defeated, the shah noted two in the Behistun Inscription: "Another was Phraortes [Fravartiš], the Mede [Mâda]; he lied, saying: 'I am Khshathrita, of the dynasty of Cyaxares.' He made Media to revolt. Another was Tritantaechmes [Ciçataxma], the Sagartian [Asagartiya]; he lied, saying: 'I am king in Sagartia, of the dynasty of Cyaxares.' He made Sagartia to revolt." See also[edit] Asia portal History of Iran Iranian Peoples Cyaxares II Medes Eclipse of Thales References[edit] ^ a b Gershevitch, I.; Fisher, William Bayne; Avery, Peter; Boyle, John Andrew; Frye, Richard Nelson; Yarshater, Ehsan; Jackson, Peter; Melville, Charles Peter; Lockhart, Laurence; Hambly, Gavin (1985). The Cambridge History of Iran. Cambridge University Press. p. 139. ISBN 9780521200912. ^ a b Gershevitch, Ilya (1984). The Cambridge history of Iran: The Median and Achaemenian periods. ISBN 9780521200912. ^ Akbarzadeh, D.; A. Yahyanezhad (2006). The Behistun Inscriptions (Old Persian Texts) (in Persian). Khaneye-Farhikhtagan-e Honarhaye Sonati. p. 87. ISBN 964-8499-05-5. ^ Kent, Ronald Grubb (1384 AP). Old Persian: Grammar, Text, Glossary (in Persian). translated into Persian by S. Oryan. p. 406. ISBN 964-421-045-X. Check date values in: |date= (help) ^ https://www.livius.org/articles/person/cyaxares/ ^ Diakonoff 1993, pp. 478-479. ^ Herodotus (425 BC). The Histories (2008 ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 48. Check date values in: |date= (help) ^ http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/147792/Cyaxares ^ Cyaxares (Livius.org) ^ Middleton, John (2015). "World Monarchies and Dynasties". EBSCOhost. ^ Grousset, Rene (1970). The Empire of the Steppes. Rutgers University Press. pp. 8–9. ISBN 0-8135-1304-9. ^ Gershevitch, Ilya (1984). The Cambridge history of Iran: The Median and Achaemenian periods. ISBN 9780521200912. ^ Middleton, John. "World Monarchies and Dynasties". EBSCOhost. Armonk, N.Y. ; Great Britain. ^ a b Leloux, Kevin. "The Battle of the Eclipse". https://orbi.uliege.be/. Polemos. Retrieved 2019-04-30. External link in |website= (help) ^ Dalley, Stephanie (2013). The Mystery of the Hanging Garden of Babylon: an elusive World Wonder traced. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-966226-5. Sources[edit] Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Cyaxares. Diakonoff, I. M. (1993). "CYAXARES". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VI, Fasc. 5. pp. 478–479. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Qyzqapan. Livius.org: Cyaxares Preceded by Madius King of Medes Succeeded by Astyages v t e Median and Achaemenid kings Family tree Median (728–550 BC) Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Achaemenid (550–330 BC) Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Nothus Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Italics indicate kings not directly attested and so possibly legendary. v t e Median topics Language Median language, Iranian language Cities Ecbatana (Hamadan) Rhagae (Shahre Rey, Tehran) Laodicea (Nahavand) Battles involving Lydia Eclipse of Thales Battles involving Persia Persian Revolt Battle of Hyrba Battle of the Persian Border Siege of Pasargadae Hill Battle of Pasargadae Fall of Ecbatana Kings/Satraps Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Cyaxares II Darius the Mede Other Medians Amytis of Media Artembares Datis Gubaru Mazares Harpagus Aryenis Mandane Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cyaxares&oldid=1000521060" Categories: 585 BC deaths Median kings 6th-century BC rulers 7th-century BC rulers in Asia 6th-century BC Iranian people 7th-century BC Iranian people Hidden categories: CS1 Persian-language sources (fa) CS1 errors: dates CS1 errors: external links Articles to be expanded from July 2013 All articles to be expanded Articles needing translation from Persian Wikipedia Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text Commons category link is locally defined Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Italiano עברית Kurdî Latina Lietuvių Magyar Malagasy مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 15 January 2021, at 12:57 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3667	----	Khyan - Wikipedia Khyan From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Khian" redirects here. For village in Eastern Anatolia, see Salkımlı, Kulp. Khyan Khayan, Khian, Chayan, Apachnan, Apaq-khyran Remains of a statue of the Twelfth Dynasty reappropriated by Hyksos ruler Khyan, with his name inscribed on the sides over an erasure.[1] Pharaoh Reign Dating subject to ongoing debate in Egyptology. Possibly second half of the 17th century BC[2] and more generally floruit may be anywhere between c. 1700 BC and c. 1580 BC.[3][note 1] (Fifteenth Dynasty) Predecessor Sakir-Har Successor Yanassi or Apepi Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Seuserenre Nomen Khyan Horus name Horus, who unites the shores Children Yanassi ♂ Monuments A Stela in Avaris Seuserenre Khyan (also Khayan or Khian and Apachnan from the West Semitic Apaq-khyran) was an Hyksos king of the Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt, ruling over Lower Egypt in the second half of the 17th century BCE. His royal name Seuserenre translates as "The one whom Re has caused to be strong."[6] Khyan bears the titles of an Egyptian king, but also the title ruler of the foreign land (heqa-khaset). The later title is the typical designation of the Hyksos rulers. Khyan is one of the better attested kings from the Hyksos period, known from many seals and seal impressions. Remarkable are objects with his name found at Knossos and Hattusha indicating diplomatic contacts with Crete and the Hittites. A sphinx with his name was bought on the art market at Baghdad and might demonstrate diplomatic contacts to Babylon, in an example of Egypt-Mesopotamia relations.[7][8][9] Contents 1 Hyksos Kingdom 2 Khyan's position in the Hyksos dynasty 3 Origin of Khyan's name 4 Notes 5 References 6 Bibliography 7 Further reading Hyksos Kingdom[edit] Khyan's rule marks the peak of the Hyksos kingdom power.[10] Khyan directly ruled over Lower and Middle Egypt up to Cusae and indirectly dominated the Nile Valley as far south as Thebes,[11] forcing native Egyptian kingdoms including those of the 16th and Abydos Dynasty into vassal states.[12] At the time of Khyan, relations between the Hyksos and their Egyptian vassals were likely peaceful, centered on exchange and trade and possibly even including donations to Upper Egyptian sanctuaries, such as one in Gebelein, were blocks inscribed with Khyan's name were uncovered.[13] Khyan's seat of power was located in Avaris, which hosted a strongly fortified palace.[14] Seal impressions of Khyan and a stela of his eldest son, prince Yanassi,[15][16] were found in two areas of the city during excavations, confirming his presence onsite.[17] The palace, possibly destroyed during the later conquest of the Hyksos' kingdom by the Thebans under Ahmose I,[note 2] comprised a high platform built on massive brick casemates surrounded by columned halls and monumental staircases leading to a still higher platform, on which the royal apartments probably stood.[14] This palace seems to have been abandoned c. 1600 BC, at which point an enormous ritual feast was orchestrated, filling several 5 m (16 ft) wide pits with animal bones and thousands of potery fragments in consequence. Some of these fragments came from an array of vessels produced by the Kerma culture, a Nubian kingdom and Hyksos' ally during the Second Intermediate Period.[19] The Egyptologist Manfred Bietak proposes that the ritual feast and abandonment of the palace were triggered by the death of its owner,[20] most probably Khyan.[21][22] On the western edge of Avaris, another fortress was subsequently erected in the later Hyksos period c. 1560-1530 BC, likely under Khyan's successor Apepi.[20] East of Avaris, the Hyksos controlled the massive 350 m × 400 m (1,150 ft × 1,310 ft) fortress of Tjaru on the road to Sinai and Canaan, where stelae of the Hyksos king Apepi were uncovered.[23] Khyan's position in the Hyksos dynasty[edit] Scarab of Khyan[24] Scarab of "Khyan the Hyksos" ("Hyksos" highlighted) Khyan is identified with king Iannas in the works of Josephus whose knowledge of the Hyksos Pharaohs was derived from a history of Egypt written by Manetho. Josephus mentions him after Apophis when discussing the reign lengths of kings who ruled after Salitis. This led 18th century scholars such as Arthur Bedford to place Khyan after Apophis, towards the end of the Hyksos dynasty. However, in Sextus Julius Africanus' version of Manetho's Epitome, Khyan (whose name is transcribed there as Staan) is listed after a king Pachnan, perhaps Yaqub-Har. Stylistically Khyan's scarabs resemble closely those of Yaqub-Har, who might date rather to the beginning and not to the end of the Hyksos-period.[25][26] This indicates that Khyan was one of the earlier rulers of the 15th dynasty. The early position of Khyan within the 15th dynasty may be confirmed by new archaeological finds at Edfu. On this site were found seal impressions of Khyan in close connection with seal impressions of the 13th Dynasty king Sobekhotep IV, indicating that both kings could have reigned at about the same time.[27] The scholars Moeller and Marouard discuss the discovery of an important early 12th dynasty Middle Kingdom administrative building in the eastern Tell Edfu area which was continuously employed into the early Second Intermediate Period before it fell out of use during the 17th dynasty when its remains were sealed by a large silo court. Fieldwork by Egyptologists in 2010 and 2011 into the remains of the former 12th dynasty building which was also used in the 13th dynasty led to the discovery of a large adjoining hall which proved to contain 41 sealings showing the cartouche of the Hyksos ruler Khyan together with 9 sealings naming the 13th dynasty king Sobekhotep IV. As Moeller and Marouard write: "These finds come from a secure and sealed archaeological context and open up new questions about the cultural and chronological evolution of the late Middle Kingdom and early Second Intermediate Period."[28] These conclusions are rejected by Robert Porter who argues that Khyan ruled much later than Sobekhotep IV and that the seals of a pharaoh were used even long after his death. Another option he proposed is that Sobekhotep IV reigned much later than previously thought.[29] Lion inscribed with the cartouche of Khyan, found in Baghdad, suggesting relations with Babylon. British Museum, EA 987.[30][31][32] Blue glazed steatite scarab in a gold mount, with the cartouche of Khyan: - "Son of Ra, Khyan, living forever!" A stela of Khyan mentioning a king's son' was also discovered at Avaris. Manfred Bietak observed that: "a stela set up in Avaris contains the nomen and prenomen of Khyan and a now lost dedication (presumably to Seth, Lord of Avaris) below which are inscribed the title and name of the Eldest King's Son Yanassi." [33][34] The Danish Egyptologist Kim Ryholt, who published an extensive catalogue of the monuments of all the numerous pharaohs of the Second Intermediate Period, notes an important personal detail regarding this king's family; Ryholt writes that the association of Khyan with those of his eldest son upon this stela suggests that Yanassi in fact was his designated successor, as also implied by his title." Ryholt speculates that Manetho might have mentioned Yanassi in a now lost passage and that one possible explanation of the name Iannas used by Josephus for Khyan is a misquotation of such a passage in which the son's name was extracted instead of the father's.[34] These hypotheses formed the consensus in Egyptology until the 2010s when significant archaeological discoveries showed major problems with the general dating of Khyan's rule. First was the discovery of seals of Khyan together with seals of the Thirteenth Dynasty king Sobekhotep IV in a secure and sealed archaeological context suggesting both were near contemporary. Yet, in the prevailing consensus, nearly a hundred years should separate both kings. Then, nearly all carbon-14 analyses of materials related to the Second Intermediate Period yield dates on average 120 years earlier than was expected from the prevailing chronological reconstruction of the 15th Dynasty. While the debate is ongoing, Egyptologists have acknowledged the validity of these observations and that they indicate some major issue with the consensus reached hitherto. Khyan's rule is no longer dated with any accuracy. The Egyptologist David Aston has showed available evidence is compatible with Khyan ruling anywhere between 1700 BC and 1580 BC, with the former his preferred scenario.[3] The possibility that one or more kings reigned between him and Apophis is now the dominant hypothesis. Origin of Khyan's name[edit] Ryholt notes that the name, Khyan, generally has been "interpreted as Amorite Hayanu (reading h-ya-a-n) which the Egyptian form represents perfectly, and this is in all likelihood the correct interpretation." [35] It should be stressed that Khyan's name was not original and had been in use for centuries before the fifteenth (Hyksos) Dynasty. The name Hayanu is recorded in the Assyrian king lists—see "Khorsabad List I, 17 and the SDAS List, I, 16"--"for a remote ancestor of Shamshi-Adad I (c.1800 BC)."[35] Notes[edit] ^ Dates proposed for Khyan's reign: c. 1700–1669/1667 BC,[4] 1653–1614 BC,[5] 1610?–1580 BC ^ The palace was decorated with painted murals in Cretan styles and motifs. Initially the palace excavator Manfred Bietak, saw this as suggestion of far-reaching cultural and commercial exchanges under the Hyksos. He later reappraised the dating of the murals, proposing instead that they date to the early 18th Dynasty of Egypt under Hatshepsut or Thutmose III.[18] References[edit] ^ "The name of Khyan on the statue from Bubastis is written over an erasure , that the statue is of the XIIth Dynasty , and that Khyan was a Hyksôs king" in Griffith, F. Ll. Archaeological Report 1890/91 - 1911/12: Comprising the Recent Work of the Egypt Exploration Fund and the Progress of Egyptology During the Year 1890/91-1911/12. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner. p. 28. ^ Aston 2018, p. 15. ^ a b Aston 2018, pp. 35–47. ^ Aston 2018, p. 49. ^ Redford 2001, p. 638, Egyptian King List. ^ Khiyan Titulary Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine ^ Rohl, David (2010). The Lords Of Avaris. Random House. p. 216. ISBN 978-1-4070-1092-2. ^ Weigall, Arthur E. P. Brome (2016). A History of the Pharaohs. Cambridge University Press. p. 188. ISBN 978-1-108-08291-4. ^ "Statue British Museum". The British Museum. ^ Bietak 2001, p. 140. ^ Mumford 2001b, p. 339. ^ Tyson Smith 2001, p. 30. ^ Moeller & Forstner-Müller 2018, p. 13. ^ a b Stadelmann 2001, p. 14. ^ Bietak 2007, p. 753. ^ Bietak 1981, pp. 63–71. ^ M. Bietak: A Hyksos Palace at Avaris, In: Egyptian Archaeology 38 Spring 2011, S. 38-41 ^ Bietak 2000, pp. 185–205. ^ Bietak 2007, p. 778–780. ^ a b Bietak 2007, p. 771. ^ Moeller & Forstner-Müller 2018, p. 8. ^ Bietak 2007, p. 780. ^ Mumford 2001a, p. 289. ^ Flinders Petrie: Scarabs and cylinders with names (1917), available copyright-free here, pl. XXI ^ W. Ward, in; O. Tufnell: Scarabs and their Contribution to History in the Early Second Millennium B.C., Warminster 1984, 68, fig. 29 ^ A scarab of Khyan at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. ^ N. Moeller, G. Marouard, N. Ayers: Discussion of Late Middle Kingdom and Early Second Intermediate Period History and Chronology in Relation to the Khayan Sealings from Tell Edfu, in: Ägypten und Levante XXI (2011), 87-121 online PDF ^ N. Moeller, G. Maround, N. Ayers, Ägypten und Levante XXI (2011), p.87 ^ Robert M. Porter: The Second Intermediate Period according to Edfu, Goettinger Mizsellen 239 (2013), p. 75-80 ^ Rohl, David (2010). The Lords Of Avaris. Random House. p. 216. ISBN 978-1-4070-1092-2. ^ Weigall, Arthur E. P. Brome (2016). A History of the Pharaohs. Cambridge University Press. p. 188. ISBN 978-1-108-08291-4. ^ "Statue British Museum". The British Museum. ^ Manfred Bietak, MDAIK 37, pp.63-71, pl.6 ^ a b Kim SB Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, CNI Publications, (Museum Tusculanum Press: 1997), p.256 ^ a b Ryholt, p.128 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Khyan. Bibliography[edit] Aston, David A. (2018). "How Early (and How Late) Can Khyan Really Be. An Essay Based on "Conventional Archaeological Methods"". In Moeller, Nadine; Forstner-Müller, Irene (eds.). The Hyksos ruler Khyan and the Early Second Intermediate Period in Egypt: Problems and Priorities of Current Research. Proceedings of the Workshop of the Austrian Archaeological Institute and the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, Vienna, July 4 – 5, 2014. Leberstraße 122 A-1110 Wien: Verlag Holzhausen GmbH. pp. 15–56. ISBN 978-3-902976-83-3.CS1 maint: location (link) CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Bietak, Manfred (1981). "Eine Stele des ältesten Königssohnes des Hyksos Chajan". Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo (in German). 37, Labib Habachi Festschrift: 63–71.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Bietak, Manfred (2000). "Rich beyond the Dreams of Avaris: Tell el-Dabʿa and the Aegean World: A Guide for the Perplexed': A Response to Eric H. Cline". The Annual of the British School at Athens. Athens: British School at Athens. 95: 185–205.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Bietak, Manfred (2001). "Hyksos". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 136–143. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5. Bietak, Manfred (2007). "Où est le palais des Hyksôs ? À propos des fouilles à Tell el-Dabca et 'Ezbet Helmi". Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (in French): 749–780.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Moeller, Nadine; Forstner-Müller, Irene (2018). "Introduction". In Moeller, Nadine; Forstner-Müller, Irene (eds.). The Hyksos ruler Khyan and the Early Second Intermediate Period in Egypt: Problems and Priorities of Current Research. Proceedings of the Workshop of the Austrian Archaeological Institute and the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, Vienna, July 4 – 5, 2014. Leberstraße 122 A-1110 Wien: Verlag Holzhausen GmbH. pp. 7–13. ISBN 978-3-902976-83-3.CS1 maint: location (link) CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Mumford, Gregory (2001a). "Sinai". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 3. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 288–292. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5. Mumford, Gregory (2001b). "Syria-Palestine". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 3. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 335–343. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5. Redford, Donald B., ed. (2001). "Egyptian King List". The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 637–640. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5. Stadelmann, Rainer (2001). "Palaces". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 3. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 13–17. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5. Tyson Smith, Stuart (2001). "People". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 3. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 27–33. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5. Further reading[edit] Irene Forster-Müller, Nadine Moeller (eds.), The Hyksos Ruler Khyan and the Early Second Intermediate Period in Egypt: Problems and Priorities of Current Research. Proceedings of the Workshop of the Austrian Archaeological Institute and the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, Vienna, July 4–5, 2014.(online) Preceded by Sakir-Har Pharaoh of Egypt Fifteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Yanassi or Apepi v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khyan&oldid=1001965210" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs 16th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt Amorite kings Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Commons link from Wikidata CS1 maint: location CS1 maint: ref=harv CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1: long volume value CS1 French-language sources (fr) AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Year of death 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en-wikipedia-org-3669	----	Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Dynasty of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt 1549/1550 BC–1292 BC Funeral mask of Tutankhamun Capital Thebes, Amarna Common languages Egyptian language Religion Ancient Egyptian Religion Atenism Government Absolute monarchy Historical era Bronze Age • Established 1549/1550 BC • Disestablished 1292 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt (notated Dynasty XVIII, alternatively 18th Dynasty or Dynasty 18) is classified as the first dynasty of the New Kingdom of Egypt, the era in which ancient Egypt achieved the peak of its power. The Eighteenth Dynasty spanned the period from 1549/1550 to 1292 BC. This dynasty is also known as the Thutmosid Dynasty for the four pharaohs named Thutmose. Several of Egypt's most famous pharaohs were from the Eighteenth Dynasty, including Tutankhamun, whose tomb was found by Howard Carter in 1922. Other famous pharaohs of the dynasty include Hatshepsut (c. 1479 BC–1458 BC), the longest-reigning woman pharaoh of an indigenous dynasty, and Akhenaten (c. 1353–1336 BC), the "heretic pharaoh", with his Great Royal Wife, Nefertiti. The Eighteenth Dynasty is unique among Egyptian dynasties in that it had two women who ruled as sole pharaoh: Hatshepsut, who is regarded as one of the most innovative rulers of ancient Egypt, and Neferneferuaten, usually identified as Nefertiti.[1] Contents 1 History 1.1 Early Dynasty XVIII 1.2 Akhenaten, the Amarna Period, and Tutankhamun 1.3 Ay and Horemheb 1.4 Relations with Nubia 1.5 Relations with the Near-East 2 Dating 3 Pharaohs of the 18th Dynasty 4 Timeline of the 18th Dynasty 5 Gallery of images 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links History[edit] Early Dynasty XVIII[edit] Ahmose-Nefertari. Ahmose-Nefertari was the daughter of Seqenenre Tao II, a 17th dynasty king who rose up against the Hyksos. Her brother Ahmose, expelled the Hyksos, and she became queen of a united Egypt. She was deified after she died. Head of an Early Eighteenth Dynasty King, c. 1539–1493 BC, 37.38E, Brooklyn Museum Dynasty XVIII was founded by Ahmose I, the brother or son of Kamose, the last ruler of the 17th Dynasty. Ahmose finished the campaign to expel the Hyksos rulers. His reign is seen as the end of the Second Intermediate Period and the start of the New Kingdom. Ahmose's consort, Queen Ahmose-Nefertari was "arguably the most venerated woman in Egyptian history, and the grandmother of the 18th Dynasty."[2] She was deified after she died. Ahmose was succeeded by his son, Amenhotep I, whose reign was relatively uneventful.[3] Amenhotep I probably left no male heir and the next pharaoh, Thutmose I, seems to have been related to the royal family through marriage. During his reign the borders of Egypt's empire reached their greatest expanse, extending in the north to Carchemish on the Euphrates and in the south up to Kurgus beyond the fourth cataract of the Nile. Thutmose I was succeeded by Thutmose II and his queen, Hatshepsut, who was the daughter of Thutmose I. After her husband's death and a period of regency for her minor stepson (who would later become pharaoh as Thutmose III) Hatshepsut became pharaoh in her own right and ruled for over twenty years. Thutmose III, who became known as the greatest military pharaoh ever, also had a lengthy reign after becoming pharaoh. He had a second co-regency in his old age with his son Amenhotep II. Amenhotep II was succeeded by Thutmose IV, who in his turn was followed by his son Amenhotep III, whose reign is seen as a high point in this dynasty. Amenhotep III's reign was period of unprecedented prosperity, artistic splendor, and international power, as attested by over 250 statues (more than any other pharaoh) and 200 large stone scarabs discovered from Syria to Nubia.[4] Amenhotep III undertook large scale building programmes, the extent of which can only be compared with those of the much longer reign of Ramesses II during Dynasty XIX.[5] Amenhotep III's consort was the Great Royal wife Tiye, for whom he built an artificial lake, as described on eleven scarabs.[6] Akhenaten, the Amarna Period, and Tutankhamun[edit] Main article: Amarna Period The Aten, Akhenaten and his family adoring the Aten. Second from the left is Meritaten, daughter of Akhenaten. Amenhotep III may have shared the throne for up to twelve years with his son Amenhotep IV. There is much debate about this proposed co-regency, with different experts considering that there was a lengthy co-regency, a short one, or none at all. In the fifth year of his reign, Amenhotep IV changed his name to Akhenaten (ꜣḫ-n-jtn, "Effective for the Aten") and moved his capital to Amarna, which he named Akhetaten. During the reign of Akhenaten, the Aten (jtn, the sun disk) became, first, the most prominent deity, and eventually came to be considered the only god.[7] Whether this amounted to true monotheism continues to be the subject of debate within the academic community. Some state that Akhenaten created a monotheism, while others point out that he merely suppressed a dominant solar cult by the assertion of another, while he never completely abandoned several other traditional deities. Later Egyptians considered this "Amarna Period" an unfortunate aberration. The events following Akhenaten's death are unclear. Individuals named Smenkhkare and Neferneferuaten are known but their relative placement and role in history is still much debated; Neferneferuaten was likely Akhetaten's Great Royal Wife Nefertiti's regnal name as pharaoh. Tutankhamun eventually took the throne but died young.[8] His infant daughters, 317a and 317b mummies, represent the final genetically-related generation of the Eighteenth Dynasty. Ay and Horemheb[edit] Block Statue of Ay, c. 1336–1327 BC, 66.174.1, Brooklyn Museum The last two members of the Eighteenth Dynasty—Ay and Horemheb—became rulers from the ranks of officials in the royal court, although Ay might also have been the maternal uncle of Akhenaten as a fellow descendant of Yuya and Tjuyu. Ay may have married the widowed Great Royal Wife and young half-sister of Tutankhamun, Ankhesenamun, in order to obtain power; she did not live long afterward. Ay then married Tey, who was originally Nefertiti's wet-nurse. Ay's reign was short. His successor was Horemheb, a general during Tutankhamun's reign whom the pharaoh may have intended as his successor in the event that he had no surviving children, which came to pass.[9] Horemheb may have taken the throne away from Ay in a coup d'état. Although Ay's son or stepson Nakhtmin was named as his father/stepfather's Crown Prince, Nakhtmin seems to have died during the reign of Ay, leaving the opportunity for Horemheb to claim the throne next. Horemheb also died without surviving children, having appointed his vizier, Pa-ra-mes-su, as his heir. This vizier ascended the throne in 1292 BC as Ramesses I, and was the first pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty. This example to the right depicts a man named Ay who achieved the exalted religious positions of Second Prophet of Amun and High Priest of Mut at Thebes. His career flourished during the reign of Tutankhamun, when the statue was made. The cartouches of King Ay, Tutankhamun's successor appearing on the statue, were an attempt by an artisan to "update" the sculpture.[10] Relations with Nubia[edit] The Eighteenth Dynasty empire conquered all of Lower Nubia under Thutmose I.[11] By the reign of Thutmose III, the Egyptians controlled Nubia to the Nile river, 4th cataract (rapids). The Egyptians referred to the area as Kush and it was administered by the Viceroy of Kush. The 18th dynasty obtained Nubian gold, animal skins, ivory, ebony, cattle, and horses, which were of exceptional quality.[11] The Egyptians built temples throughout Nubia. One of the largest and most important temples was dedicated to amun at Jebel Barkal in the city of Napata. This Temple of Amun was enlarged by later Egyptian and Nubian Pharaohs, such as Taharqa. Ramessess II charging the Nubians in his war chariot Nubian Tribute Presented to the King, Tomb of Huy MET DT221112 Nubian Prince Heqanefer bringing tribute for King Tut, 18th dynasty, Tomb of Huy Nubians bringing tribute for King Tut, Tomb of Huy Relations with the Near-East[edit] After the end of the Hyksos period of foreign rule, the Eighteenth Dynasty engaged in a vigorous phase of expansionism, conquering vast areas of the Near-East, with especially Pharaoh Thutmose III submitting the "Shasu" Bedouins of northern Canaan, and the land of Retjenu, as far as Syria and Mittani in numerous military campaigns circa 1450 BC.[12][13] Egyptian relief depicting a battle against West Asiatics. Reign of Amenhotep II, Eighteenth Dynasty, c. 1427–1400 BC. West Asiatic tribute bearers in the tomb of Sobekhotep, c. 1400 BC, Thebes. British Museum.[14] Dating[edit] Radiocarbon dating suggests that Dynasty XVIII may have started a few years earlier than the conventional date of 1550 BC. The radiocarbon date range for its beginning is 1570–1544 BC, the mean point of which is 1557 BC.[15] Pharaohs of the 18th Dynasty[edit] Main article: List of pharaohs § Eighteenth dynasty See also: Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt Family Tree The pharaohs of Dynasty XVIII ruled for approximately 250 years (c. 1550–1298 BC). The dates and names in the table are taken from Dodson and Hilton.[16] Many of the pharaohs were buried in the Valley of the Kings in Thebes (designated KV). More information can be found on the Theban Mapping Project website.[17] Several diplomatic marriages are known for the New Kingdom. These daughters of foreign kings are often only mentioned in cuneiform texts and are not known from other sources. The marriages were likely to have been a way to confirm good relations between these states.[18] Pharaoh Image Throne name / Prenomen Reign Burial Consort(s) Comments Ahmose I / Ahmosis I Nebpehtire 1549–1524 BC Ahmose-Nefertari Ahmose-Henuttamehu Ahmose-Sitkamose Amenhotep I Djeserkare 1524–1503 BC KV39? or Tomb ANB? Ahmose-Meritamon Thutmose I Aakheperkare 1503–1493 BC KV20, KV38 Ahmose Mutnofret Thutmose II Aakheperenre 1493–1479 BC KV42? Hatshepsut Iset Hatshepsut Maatkare 1479–1458 BC KV20 Thutmose II Thutmose III Menkheper(en)re 1479–1425 BC KV34 Satiah Merytre-Hatshepsut Nebtu Menhet, Menwi and Merti Amenhotep II Aakheperure 1427–1397 BC KV35 Tiaa Thutmose IV Menkheperure 1397–1388 BC KV43 Nefertari Iaret Mutemwiya Daughter of Artatama I of Mitanni Amenhotep III Nebmaatre 1388–1351 BC KV22 Tiye Gilukhipa of Mitanni Tadukhipa of Mitanni Sitamun Iset Daughter of Kurigalzu I of Babylon[18] Daughter of Kadashman-Enlil of Babylon[18] Daughter of Tarhundaradu of Arzawa[18] Daughter of the ruler of Ammia[18] Amenhotep IV/Akhenaten Neferkepherure-Waenre 1351–1334 BC Royal Tomb of Akhenaten Nefertiti Kiya Tadukhipa of Mitanni Daughter of Šatiya, ruler of Enišasi[18] Meritaten? Meketaten? Ankhesenamun Daughter of Burna-Buriash II, King of Babylon[18] Smenkhkare Ankhkheperure 1335–1334 BC Meritaten Neferneferuaten Ankhkheperure 1334–1332 BC Akhenaten? Smenkhkare? Usually identified as Queen Nefertiti Tutankhamun Nebkheperure 1332–1323 BC KV62 Ankhesenamun Ay Kheperkheperure 1323–1319 BC KV23 Ankhesenamun Tey Horemheb Djeserkheperure-Setepenre 1319–1292 BC KV57 Mutnedjmet Amenia Timeline of the 18th Dynasty[edit] Gallery of images[edit] Trial piece showing a head of an unknown king in profile. Uraeus on forehead. Limestone relief. 18th Dynasty. From Thebes, Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London Ahmose I. Though he was called the founder of the 18th dynasty, he was the brother of Kamose, the last pharaoh of the 17th dynasty. During his reign, he expelled the Hyksos from Lower Egypt and brought the Nile Delta under his control, politically unifying Egypt once again. Amenhotep I gained the throne after his two elder brothers had died. He was the son of Ahmose and Ahmose-Nefertari. He was succeeded by Thutmose I who married his daughter, Ahmose. Amenhotep I with his mother, Ahmose-Nefertari. Both royals are credited with opening a workmen's village at Deir el-Medina. Dier el-Medina housed the artisans and workers of the pharaohs tombs in the Valley of the Kings, from the 18th to 21st dynasties. Amenhotep I and his mother were deified and were the village's principal gods. Thutmose I. A military man, he came to power by marrying the sister of Amenhotep I. During his reign, he pushed the borders of Egypt into Nubia and the Levant. He is credited with the starting the building projects in what is now the temple of Karnak. Sketch from temple relief of Thutmose II. Considered a weak ruler, he was married to his sister Hatshepsut. He named Thutmose III, his son as successor to prevent Hatshepsut from gaining the throne. They had a daughter, Neferure. Hatshepsut. Daughter of Thutmose I, she ruled jointly as her stepson Thutmose III's co-regent. She soon took the throne for herself, and declared herself pharaoh. While there may have been other female rulers before her, she is the only one who used the symbolic beard. Thutmosis III, a military man and member of the Thutmosid royal line is commonly called the "Napoleon of Egypt". His conquests of the Levant brought Egypt's territories and influence to its greatest extent. Amenhotep II. Thutmose IV. Amenhotep III. Akhenaten, born Amenhotep IV, began a religious revolution in which he declared Aten was a supreme god and turned his back on the old traditions. He moved the capital to Akhetaten. Queen Nefertiti the daughter of Ay, married Akhenaten. Her role in daily life at the court soon extended from Great Royal Wife to that of a co-regent. It is also possible that she may have ruled Egypt in her own right as pharaoh Neferneferuaten. Queen Meritaten, was the eldest daughter of Akhenaten and Nefertiti. She was the wife of Smenkhkare. She also may have ruled Egypt in her own right as pharaoh and is one of the possible candidates of being the pharaoh Neferneferuaten. Neferneferure and Neferneferuaten Tasherit. Shown here as children, they were two of six daughters born to Akhenaten and Nefertiti. It is possible that Neferneferuaten Tasherit was the one who may have been her father's co-regent and may have ruled as the female pharaoh, Neferneferuaten. Smenkhkare, was a co-regent of Akhenaten who ruled after his death. It was believed that Smenkhkare was a male guise of Nefertiti, however, it is accepted that Smenkhkare was a male. He took Meritaten, Queen Nefertiti's daughter as his wife. Tutankhamun, formerly Tutankhaten, was Akhenaten's son. As pharaoh, he instigated policies to restore Egypt to its old religion and moved the capital away from Akhetaten. Ay served as vizier to Akhenaten, and Tutankhamun. He was the father of Nefertiti. After the death of Tutankhamun, Ay laid a claim to the throne by burying him and marrying his granddaughter Ankhesenamun. After the death of Ay, Horemheb assumed the throne. A commoner, he had served as vizier to both Tutankhamun and Ay. Horemheb instigated a policy of damnatio memoriae, against everyone associated with the Amarna period. He was married to Nefertiti's sister, Mutnodjmet, who died in childbirth. With no heir, he appointed his own vizier, Paramessu as his successor. Tiye was the daughter of the visizer Yuya. She married Amenhotep III, and became his principal wife. Her knowledge of government helped her gain power in her position and she was soon running affairs of state and foreign affairs for her husband, Amenhotep III and later her son, Akhenaten. She is also Tutankhamun's grandmother. Senenu, High Priest of Amūn at Deir El-Baḥri, grinding grain, c. 1352–1292 BC, Limestone, Brooklyn Museum. Beautiful Festival of the Valley (Celebration of the dead in Thebes) See also[edit] Egyptian chronology References[edit] ^ Daniel Molinari (2014-09-16), Egypts Lost Queens, retrieved 2017-11-14 ^ Graciela Gestoso Singer, "Ahmose-Nefertari, The Woman in Black". Terrae Antiqvae, January 17, 2011 ^ Aidan Dodson, Dyan Hilton: pg 122 ^ O'Connor & Cline 1998, pp. 11–12. sfn error: no target: CITEREFO'ConnorCline1998 (help) ^ Aidan Dodson, Dyan Hilton: pg 130 ^ Kozloff & Bryan 1992, no. 2. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKozloffBryan1992 (help) ^ Dodson, Aidan; Hilton, Dyan (2010). The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. p. 142. ISBN 978-0-500-28857-3. ^ Dodson, Aidan; Hilton, Dyan (2010). The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. p. 143. ISBN 978-0-500-28857-3. ^ Gardiner, Alan (1953). "The Coronation of King Haremhab". Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 39: 13–31. ^ "Block Statue of Ay". brooklynmuseum.org. Retrieved 17 June 2014. ^ a b O'Connor, David (1993). Ancient Nubia: Egypt's Rival in Africa. University of Pennsylvania, USA: University Museum of Archaelogy and Anthropology. pp. 60–69. ISBN 0924171286. ^ Gabriel, Richard A. (2009). Thutmose III: The Military Biography of Egypt's Greatest Warrior King. Potomac Books, Inc. p. 204. ISBN 978-1-59797-373-1. ^ Allen, James P. (2000). Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs. Cambridge University Press. p. 299. ISBN 978-0-521-77483-3. ^ "Tomb-painting British Museum". The British Museum. ^ Ramsey, C. B.; Dee, M. W.; Rowland, J. M.; Higham, T. F. G.; Harris, S. A.; Brock, F.; Quiles, A.; Wild, E. M.; Marcus, E. S.; Shortland, A. J. (2010). "Radiocarbon-Based Chronology for Dynastic Egypt". Science. 328 (5985): 1554–1557. doi:10.1126/science.1189395. PMID 20558717. S2CID 206526496. ^ Aidan Dodson, Dyan Hilton: The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press, London 2004 ^ "Sites in the Valley of the Kings". Theban Mapping Project. 2010. Archived from the original on 25 July 2010. Retrieved 24 November 2018. ^ a b c d e f g Grajetzki, Ancient Egyptian Queens: A Hieroglyphic Dictionary, Golden House Publications, London, 2005, ISBN 978-0954721893 Bibliography[edit] Kuhrt, Amélie (1995). The Ancient Near East: c. 3000–330 BC. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780415013536. External links[edit] Hatshepsut: from Queen to Pharaoh, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eighteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=1000591772" Categories: Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt States and territories established in the 16th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 13th century BC Dynasties of ancient Egypt New Kingdom of Egypt 16th century BC in Egypt 15th century BC in Egypt 14th century BC in Egypt 13th century BC in Egypt 16th-century BC establishments in Egypt 13th century BC disestablishments in Egypt 2nd millennium BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Pages using the EasyTimeline extension Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Egyptian-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Авар Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский සිංහල Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 15 January 2021, at 20:01 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3682	----	Bessus - Wikipedia Bessus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the self-proclaimed Achaemenid king. For the Christian saint, see Saint Bessus. For the King of Persis Artaxerxes/Ardashir V, founder of the Sasanian Dynasty, see Ardashir I. Artaxerxes V Bessus King of Kings Great King King of Persia King of Countries[citation needed] King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Reign 330–329 BC Predecessor Darius III Successor Alexander the Great (Macedonian Empire) Died 329 BC Ecbatana House Achaemenid Dynasty Religion Zoroastrianism Bessus, also known by his throne name Artaxerxes V (died summer 329 BC), was a prominent Persian satrap of Bactria in Persia,[1] and later self-proclaimed king of Persia. According to classical sources, he killed his predecessor and relative,[1][2] Darius III, after the Persian army had been defeated by Alexander the Great. Contents 1 Background 2 Capture and execution 3 References 4 External links Background[edit] At the Battle of Gaugamela (1 October 331 BC), in which Alexander defeated Darius III, Bessus commanded the left wing of the Persian army, chiefly composed of warriors from his Satrapy who had been mobilized before the Battle of Issus. The envelopment ordered by Darius failed and the Persians lost the battle after hours of fierce fighting. Bessus survived the battle and remained with his king, whose routed army eluded Alexander's forces and spent the winter in Ecbatana. The next year Darius attempted to flee to Bactria in the east. Bessus, conspiring with fellow satraps, deposed Darius and, according to sources, put him in golden chains. It is not clear whether Bessus was motivated primarily by personal ambition or by disillusionment with Darius as a leader. He may have intended to surrender the deposed king to the Macedonians, but Alexander ordered his forces to continue to pursue the Persians. According to sources, the panicked conspirators stabbed Darius and left him dying in a cart to be found by a Macedonian soldier. The Babylonian Chronicle known as BCHP 1 indicates this happened in July 330 BC. The site has been identified near modern Ahuan. List of supplies for Bessus, November–December 330 BC, from a collection of Achaemenid administrative documents Bessus immediately proclaimed himself king of kings of Persia and adopted the throne name Artaxerxes (V). His self-proclaimed ascension was justifiable, since the satrap of Bactria, known as mathišta, was the Persian noble next in the line of succession to the Persian throne. But since most of the Achaemenid Empire had already been conquered and Bessus only ruled over a loose alliance of those provinces not yet occupied by the Macedonians, historians do not generally regard him as a king. Capture and execution[edit] Bessus returned to Bactria and tried to organize resistance among the eastern satrapies. Alexander was forced to move his force to suppress the uprising in 329 BC, entering Bactria. After burning the crops Bessus fled east, crossing the river Oxus. However his own Bactrian mounted levies deserted en masse, rather than abandon their homeland. Bessus was seized by several of his chieftains who handed him over to the pursuing Macedonians in an isolated village. The Macedonian vanguard was commanded by General Ptolemy who, under orders from Alexander, had the former satrap put in a wooden collar and tied naked to a stake by the road down which the main army was marching.[3] Alexander questioned Bessus as to why he had betrayed Darius and continued to lead resistance to the Macedonians. Bessus claimed that he had been only one of several nobles who had jointly agreed on the need to dethrone their irresolute king. Unsatisfied by his responses Alexander ordered the prisoner to be whipped and taken to Balkh and then to Hamadan for trial and punishment. A fellow conspirator against Darius, Satibarzanes Satrap of Aria, had already surrendered to Alexander and had been pardoned.[4] However, unlike Bessus, Satibarzanes had not aspired to the Persian throne. At Hamadan, Alexander ordered that Bessus's nose and earlobes be cut off, which was a Persian custom for those involved in rebellion and regicide; the Behistun inscription relates that Darius the Great punished the usurper Phraortes of Media (who was the son of Upadaranma, king of Media) in a similar manner (c. 521 BC). Ancient reports contradict each other about the nature of Bessus's execution. The historian Quintus Curtius Rufus says he was crucified in the place where Darius had been killed, Arrian states that he was tortured and then decapitated in Ecbatana, and Plutarch suggests that he was torn apart in Bactria by recoiling trees after a Macedonian trial, a style which was according to Persian custom: two trees would have been forcibly bent towards each other, the victim tied to both, and then the trees released, causing an agonizing and drawn-out death in which the ligaments, tendons, muscles and organs would slowly come apart as the trees straightened themselves.[5] References[edit] ^ a b Heckel, Waldemar (2008). Who's Who in the Age of Alexander the Great. pp. 67–73. doi:10.1002/9780470757604.ch2. ^ Gershevitch, Ilya; Fisher, William Bayne; Boyle, J. A. (1985). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 449. ISBN 978-0-521-20091-2. ^ Robin Lane Fox, page 300 "Alexander the Great", Library of Congress CCN 73-18880 ^ Robin Lane Fox, page 280 "Alexander the Great", Library of Congress CCN 73-18880 ^ Michael Scott (16 September 2010). From Democrats to Kings: The Brutal Dawn of a New World from the Downfall of Athens to the Rise of Alexan. Overlook. p. 146. ISBN 978-1-4683-0280-6. External links[edit] Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Bessus. BCHP 1 Livius.org: Bessus / Artaxerxes V Bessus Achaemenid dynasty Born: ? Died: 329 BC Regnal titles Preceded by Darius III King of Kings of Persia 330–329 BC Succeeded by Alexander III (Alexander the Great) v t e Median and Achaemenid kings Family tree Median (728–550 BC) Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Achaemenid (550–330 BC) Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Nothus Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Italics indicate kings not directly attested and so possibly legendary. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bessus&oldid=1002212775" Categories: 4th-century BC Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenid satraps of Bactria 329 BC deaths People executed by Alexander the Great Executed Iranian people 4th-century BC executions Executed monarchs 4th-century BC Iranian people People executed by crucifixion Iranian torture victims Ancient torture victims People executed by decapitation Darius III Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2019 Year of birth missing Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Magyar Malagasy മലയാളം مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Тоҷикӣ Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 January 2021, at 10:37 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3699	----	LIBRIS - Wikipedia LIBRIS From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from SELIBR (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Swedish national union catalogue LIBRIS (Library Information System) is a Swedish national union catalogue maintained by the National Library of Sweden in Stockholm.[1] It is possible to freely search about 6.5 million titles nationwide.[2] In addition to bibliographic records, one for each book or publication, LIBRIS also contains an authority file of people. For each person there is a record connecting name, birth and occupation with a unique identifier.[citation needed] The MARC Code for the Swedish Union Catalog is SE-LIBR, normalized: selibr.[3] The development of LIBRIS can be traced to the mid-1960s.[4] While rationalization of libraries had been an issue for two decades after World War II, it was in 1965 that a government committee published a report on the use of computers in research libraries.[5] The government budget of 1965 created a research library council (Forskningsbiblioteksrådet, FBR).[6] A preliminary design document, Biblioteksadministrativt Information System (BAIS) was published in May 1970, and the name LIBRIS, short for Library Information System, was used for a technical subcommittee that started on 1 July 1970.[7] The newsletter LIBRIS-meddelanden (ISSN 0348-1891) has been published since 1972[8] and is online since 1997.[9] References[edit] ^ "LIBRIS". Nationalencyklopedin (in Swedish). Retrieved 27 July 2010. (subscription required) ^ "LIBRIS database contents". National Library of Sweden. Retrieved 27 July 2010. ^ Library of Congress Network Development and MARC Standards Office (5 April 2011). "Search the MARC Code List for Organizations Database". Library of Congress. Retrieved 22 August 2012. ^ Lena Olsson, Det datoriserade biblioteket. Maskindrömmar på 70-talet (1995), PhD dissertation from Linköping University, Linköping Studies in Arts and Science 121, ISSN 0282-9800, ISBN 91-7871-492-3, Abstract online ^ Databehandling i forskningsbibliotek (1965; in LIBRIS), cited in Olsson (1995), p. 51. ^ Olsson (1995), p. 55. ^ Olsson (1995), p. 103. ^ Olsson (1995), p. 31. ^ LIBRIS-meddelanden External links[edit] Wikidata has the property: SELIBR ID (P906) (see uses) National Library of Sweden: LIBRIS (select "In English" from the top menu, default language is Swedish) Open Data, Information about LIBRIS bibliographic records and authority file as open data, 3 April 2012. v t e Authority control files AAG • ACM DL • ADB • AGSA • autores.uy • AWR • BALaT • BIBSYS • Bildindex • BNC • BNE • BNF • Botanist • BPN • CANTIC • CiNii • CWGC • DAAO • DBLP • DSI • FNZA • GND • HDS • IAAF • ICCU • ICIA • ISNI • Joconde • KulturNav • LCCN • LIR • LNB • Léonore • MBA • MGP • NARA • NBL • NDL • NGV • NKC • NLA • NLG • NLI • NLK • NLP • NLR • NSK • NTA • ORCID • PIC • PLWABN • ResearcherID • RERO • RKD • RKDimages ID • RSL • SELIBR • SIKART • SNAC • SUDOC • S2AuthorId • TA98 • TDVİA • TE • TePapa • TH • TLS • Trove • UKPARL • ULAN • US Congress • VcBA • VIAF • WorldCat Identities Authority control GND: 4501169-2 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LIBRIS&oldid=998269629" Categories: Libraries in Sweden Library cataloging and classification Hidden categories: CS1 Swedish-language sources (sv) Pages containing links to subscription-only content Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from August 2012 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2012 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans العربية Asturianu भोजपुरी Български Català Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Македонски مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Türkçe Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 January 2021, at 16:15 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3702	----	Leonardo Vinci - Wikipedia Leonardo Vinci From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be confused with Leonardo da Vinci. Leonardo Vinci Leonardo Vinci (1690 – 27 May 1730) was an Italian composer, best known for his operas. Contents 1 Life and career 2 Operas 3 Other works 4 Selected recordings 5 References 6 Sources 7 External links Life and career[edit] He was born at Strongoli[1] and educated at Naples under Gaetano Greco in the Conservatorio dei Poveri di Gesù Cristo. He first became known for his opere buffe (comic operas) in Neapolitan dialect in 1719; he also composed many opere serie (dramatic operas). He was received into the Congregation of the Rosary, a lay religious and burial fraternity, at Formiello in 1728.[2] He died in May 1730.[3] Vinci is rumoured to have been poisoned by a jealous husband in the wake of an ill-advised affair, a story which is given by several reliable authorities without evident contradictions.[4] Vinci's opere buffe, of which Li zite 'ngalera (1722) is generally regarded as the best, are full of life and spirit; his opere serie, of which Didone Abbandonata (Rome, 1726) and Artaserse (Rome, 1730) are the most notable, have an incisive vigour and directness of dramatic expression praised by Charles Burney. According to Burney, "Vinci seems to have been the first opera composer who, without degrading his art, rendered it the friend, though not the slave to poetry, by simplifying and polishing melody and calling the audienceпїЅs attention to the voice part by liberating it from fugue, complication, and labored contrivance. (Charles Burney, A General History of Music, 1789)".[5] The well-known aria "Vo solcando," from Artaserse, is a good example of his style. In 2015 Decca released a Parnassus Arts Productions recording of his 3-act opera seria, Catone in Utica (Rome, 1728).[citation needed] Operas[edit] Le doje lettere (1719) Lo cecato fauzo (1719) Lo scagno (1720) Lo scassone (1720) Lo Barone di Trocchia (1721) Don Ciccio (1721) Li zite 'ngalera (1722) La festa di Bacco (1722) Publio Cornelio Scipione (1722) Lo castiello sacchiato (1722) Lo labberinto (1723) Semiramide (1723) Silla dittatore (1723) Farnace (1724) La mogliera fedele (1724) Turno Aricino (1724) Ifigenia in Tauride (1725) La Rosmira fedele (1725) also known as Partenope (1725) Vinci's manuscript of Partenope Il trionfo di Camilla (1725) Elpidia (1725) L'Astianatte (1725) Didone abbandonata (1726) Siroe, Re di Persia (1726) L'asteria (1726) Ernelinda (1726) Gismondo, Re di Polonia (1727) La caduta dei Decemviri (1727) Il Medo (1728) Catone in Utica (1728) Flavio Anicio Olibrio (1728) Alessandro nell'Indie (1729) Farnace (1729) La Contesa dei Numi (1729) Massimiano (1729) Artaserse (1730) Other works[edit] In addition to operas, Vinci wrote a few cantatas, sonatas, a serenata, and two oratorios (Oratorio di Maria dolorata ca. 1723 and Oratorio per la Santissima Vergine del Rosario ca. 1730). His sonata in D major for flute and basso continuo is still played today. He composed two sonatas for the recorder in addition to a recorder concerto in A minor.[citation needed] Selected recordings[edit] Fileno - Soprano Cantatas Mesta Oh Dio, tra queste selve. Mi costa tante lacrime. Amor di Citerea. Parto, ma con qual core. Emanuela Galli & Francesca Cassinari, Stile Galante, Stefano Aresi. With work wrongly attributed to Vinci by Alessandro Scarlatti Fille, tu parti? Oh Dio! Pan Classics 2011. References[edit] ^ "Leonardo Vinci - Italian composer". Retrieved 10 September 2016. ^ Markstrom, Kurt Sven (2007). The Operas of Leonardo Vinci, Napoletano. Pendragon Press. pp. 233–235. ISBN 978-1576470947. ^ Markstrom, Kurt Sven (2007). The Operas of Leonardo Vinci, Napoletano. Pendragon Press. p. 330. ISBN 978-1576470947. ^ Markstrom, Kurt Sven (2007). The Operas of Leonardo Vinci, Napoletano. Pendragon Press. p. 344. ISBN 978-1576470947. "..causes, such as poison. Although the story of Vinci's poisoning cannot be proven, it cannot be disproved, as is the case of similar stories connected with the deaths of Pergolesi and Mozart. Because we have this story from several reliable authorities without any obvious contradictions, one must let the story stand as is, within the realm of possibility." ^ Markstrom, Kurt Sven (2007). (cited in) The Operas of Leonardo Vinci, Napoletano. Pendragon Press. p. passim. ISBN 978-1576470947. Sources[edit] Opera Glass This entry was originally from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Leonardo Vinci. https://archive.org/details/VinciOperaArtaserseLOperaDeNancy20121110 Leonardo Vinci at the Encyclopædia Britannica Free scores by Leonardo Vinci at the International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP) The Mutopia Project has compositions by Leonardo Vinci v t e Leonardo Vinci Operas Li zite 'ngalera (1722) Ifigenia in Tauride (1724) Partenope (1725) Didone abbandonata (1726) Catone in Utica (1728) Artaserse (1730) v t e Neapolitan School Francesco Durante Leonardo Leo Giovanni Battista Pergolesi Francesco Provenzale Leonardo Vinci Alessandro Scarlatti Francesco Feo Nicola Porpora Gian Francesco de Majo Niccolò Jommelli Tommaso Traetta Niccolò Piccinni Giovanni Paisiello Domenico Cimarosa Authority control BNE: XX1763648 BNF: cb139008726 (data) GND: 119448009 ISNI: 0000 0001 0863 4495 LCCN: n80023095 MBA: a411f11c-9499-4a46-b2eb-a9a58d1fcb81 NKC: xx0025198 NLK: KAC201892801 NTA: 108061523 PLWABN: 9810617841905606 SELIBR: 211810 SNAC: w6ff4brv SUDOC: 158362438 Trove: 1050110 VIAF: 305416804 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80023095 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leonardo_Vinci&oldid=999749608" Categories: 1690 births 1730 deaths 18th-century male musicians Neapolitan school composers Settecento composers Italian Baroque composers Italian male classical composers Italian opera composers Male opera composers People from the Province of Crotone Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2017 Articles with unsourced statements from November 2018 Commons category link from Wikidata Articles with Encyclopædia Britannica links Composers with IMSLP links Articles with International Music Score Library Project links Use dmy dates from February 2011 Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Français Հայերեն Hrvatski Italiano עברית Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Napulitano Norsk bokmål Polski Русский Sicilianu Slovenčina Suomi Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 11 January 2021, at 19:43 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3703	----	File:Xerxes by Ernest Normand.jpg - Wikipedia File:Xerxes by Ernest Normand.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this preview: 487 × 600 pixels. Other resolutions: 195 × 240 pixels | 390 × 480 pixels | 623 × 768 pixels | 831 × 1,024 pixels | 1,312 × 1,616 pixels. Original file ‎(1,312 × 1,616 pixels, file size: 847 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary DescriptionXerxes by Ernest Normand.jpg English: Xerxes by Ernest Normand Date 1 January 1888 Source This file has been extracted from another file: Esther Denouncing Haman.jpg Author Ernest Normand  (1857–1923)   Description British painter Date of birth/death 30 December 1857  23 March 1923  Location of birth/death London London Authority control : Q3057110 VIAF: 95747158 ULAN: 500010880 RKD: 59965 creator QS:P170,Q3057110 Licensing This is a faithful photographic reproduction of a two-dimensional, public domain work of art. The work of art itself is in the public domain for the following reason: Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse The author died in 1923, so this work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 95 years or fewer. This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1926. This file has been identified as being free of known restrictions under copyright law, including all related and neighboring rights. https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/PDMCreative Commons Public Domain Mark 1.0falsefalse The official position taken by the Wikimedia Foundation is that "faithful reproductions of two-dimensional public domain works of art are public domain". This photographic reproduction is therefore also considered to be in the public domain in the United States. In other jurisdictions, re-use of this content may be restricted; see Reuse of PD-Art photographs for details. Captions EnglishXerxes by Ernest Normand Items portrayed in this file depicts inception 1 January 1888Gregorian File history Click on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 05:30, 25 January 2019 1,312 × 1,616 (847 KB) पाटलिपुत्र User created page with UploadWizard File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Xerxes I Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on ku.wikipedia.org Xeşeyerşa I Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. If the file has been modified from its original state, some details may not fully reflect the modified file. Width 1,312 px Height 1,616 px Horizontal resolution 72 dpi Vertical resolution 72 dpi Software used PaintShop Pro 20,00 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Xerxes_by_Ernest_Normand.jpg" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces File Talk Variants Views Read View on Commons More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Upload file Special pages Printable version Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3710	----	Mazares - Wikipedia Mazares From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Achaemenid nobleman, 520-480 BC. Mazares (Median: Mazdara, Ancient Greek: Μαζάρης) was a Median general who defected to Cyrus the Great when the latter overthrew his grandfather, Astyages and formed the Persian Empire. Mazares is mentioned by Herodotus as a Median general in the service of Cyrus the Great who died while putting down a revolt in Asia Minor. Contents 1 Repression of the Lydian revolt 2 Succession 3 External links 4 References Repression of the Lydian revolt[edit] After Cyrus' conquest of Lydia in 539 BC, a Lydian official named Pactyas, whom Cyrus had honored by making him a treasury official in his own government, raised an army of Lydians and Ionian Greeks. He revolted against Tabalus, Cyrus' Satrap at Sardis in Lydia, besieging the Persian forces in the royal enclosure and stealing from the famed Lydian Horde (the riches of King Crœsus) to finance his revolt. Cyrus, upon hearing of the revolt, was enraged and made plans to punish the Lydians by burning Sardis to the ground. King Crœsus, who had been made an advisor to Cyrus' court after his defeat, entreated Cyrus to leave his former capital unharmed. According to Herodotus, Crœsus' recommendation was to disarm the population and enact trade laws that would turn the minds of the people to habits of luxury and pleasure: "By doing this," Crœsus advised, "the people will, in a short time, become so enervated and so effeminate that you will have nothing to fear from them." Cyrus, who was to become known for the mercy he showed to the peoples he conquered, agreed and sent his commander Mazares to put down the insurrection according to Crœsus' wishes, with instructions to return Pactyas alive for punishment. But Pactyas fled when Marzares' forces approached the city and found refuge in Ionian Greece. The Apadana Palace, northern stairway, 5th century BC Achaemenid bas-relief shows a Mede soldier behind a Persian soldier, in Persepolis, Iran Mazares gave chase, conquering the Ionian Greek city-states of Priene and Magnesia, capturing Pactyas after several attempts and sending him back to Cyrus for punishment. Mazares then continued the conquest of Asia Minor, but died of unknown causes while on campaign: Pactyes being then delivered up by the Chians, Mazares presently led his army against those who had helped to besiege Tabalus, and he enslaved the people of Priene, and overran the plain of the Maeandrus, giving it up to his army to pillage, and Magnesia likewise. Immediately after this he died of a sickness. — Herodotus 1.161[1] Succession[edit] Cyrus then sent his leading general, Harpagus, to take his place. Harpagus completed Mazares' conquests of Asia Minor, Lycia, Cilicia and Phoenicia, using the hitherto unknown technique of building earthworks to breach the walls of besieged cities: After his death Harpagus came down to succeed him in his command, a Median like Mazares; this is that Harpagus who was entertained by Astyages the Median king at that unnatural feast, and who helped win the kingship for Cyrus. When he came to Ionia, he took the cities by building mounds; he would drive the men within their walls and then build mounds against the walls and so take the cities. — Herodotus 1.162[2] Asia portal External links[edit] Livius.org Histories The Baldwyn Project References[edit] ^ LacusCurtius • Herodotus — Book I: Chapters 141‑177. ^ LacusCurtius • Herodotus — Book I: Chapters 141‑177. v t e Median topics Language Median language, Iranian language Cities Ecbatana (Hamadan) Rhagae (Shahre Rey, Tehran) Laodicea (Nahavand) Battles involving Lydia Eclipse of Thales Battles involving Persia Persian Revolt Battle of Hyrba Battle of the Persian Border Siege of Pasargadae Hill Battle of Pasargadae Fall of Ecbatana Kings/Satraps Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Cyaxares II Darius the Mede Other Medians Amytis of Media Artembares Datis Gubaru Mazares Harpagus Aryenis Mandane v t e Achaemenid Satraps of Lydia (546–334 BC) Tabalus (546–545 BC) Mazares (545–544 BC) Harpagus (540-530 BC) Oroetus (530–520 BC) Bagaeus (520 BC) Otanes (517 BC) Artaphernes (513–492 BC) Artaphernes II (492–480 BC) Pissuthnes (440–415 BC) Tissaphernes (415–408 BC) Cyrus the Younger (408–401 BC) Tissaphernes (400–395 BC) Tithraustes (392–380 BC) Tiribazus (375 BC) Struthas (370 BC) Autophradates (365 BC) Spithridates (365–334 BC) v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mazares&oldid=1001258538" Categories: Generals Median people Military leaders of the Achaemenid Empire 6th-century BC deaths 6th-century BC Iranian people Achaemenid satraps of Lydia Officials of Cyrus the Great Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Azərbaycanca Català Deutsch فارسی Hrvatski עברית مصرى Português Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 18 January 2021, at 22:40 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3714	----	Lygdamis II of Halicarnassus - Wikipedia Lygdamis II of Halicarnassus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Lygdamid dynasty (Dynasts of Caria) c. 520–484 BCE Lygdamis I c. 484–460 BCE Artemisia c. 460–454 BCE Pisindelis c. 454–450 BCE Lygdamis II v t e Lygdamis II was tyrant of Caria, under the rule of the Achaemenid Empire. Lygdamis II (Greek: Λύγδαμις) (ruled c.460-454 BCE) was a tyrant of Caria during the 5th century BCE, under the Achaemenid Empire.[1][2] His capital was in Halicarnassus. He was the grandson of Artemisia, and son of Pisindelis, the previous tyrant.[1] Lydamis assassinated the poet Panyassis, uncle of famous historian Herodotus, in 461, which forced Herodotus to leave his native city of Halicarnassus, fleeing to the island of Samos.[2] After the death of Lygdamis, circa 454 BCE, Halicarnassus joined the Athenian alliance, known as the Delian League.[2] At that time, Halicarnassus started to appear on the Athenian tribute quota lists.[3] From 395 BCE, Caria would again fall under the control of the Achaemenid Empire and be ruled by a new dynasty of local tyrants, the Hecatomnids.[4] References[edit] ^ a b Fornara, Charles W.; Badian, E.; Sherk, Robert K. (1983). Archaic Times to the End of the Peloponnesian War. Cambridge University Press. p. 70. ISBN 9780521299466. ^ a b c Grant, Michael (2004). Greek and Roman Historians: Information and Misinformation. Routledge. p. 4. ISBN 9781134828210. ^ The Ancient World. Ares Publishers. 1988. p. 5. ^ Hecatomnid dynasty - Livius. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lygdamis_II_of_Halicarnassus&oldid=947488020" Categories: Ancient Halicarnassians Lygdamid dynasty Achaemenid satraps of Caria 5th-century BC rulers in Asia 454 BC deaths Hidden categories: Articles containing Greek-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Hrvatski Latina مصرى Polski Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 26 March 2020, at 16:47 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3727	----	Account creation error - Wikipedia Account creation error Jump to navigation Jump to search Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. Return to Xerxes I. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:CreateAccount" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Special page Variants Views More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools Upload file Special pages Printable version Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3757	----	Shoshenq VII - Wikipedia Shoshenq VII From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Hedjkheperre Setepenre Shoshenq (VII/VIa) Si-Ese Meryamun may have been an Egyptian king of the 23rd Dynasty, ruling Thebes in the period between the death of Takelot III and the Egyptian campaign of the Nubian king Piye, c. 755–730 BCE.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7] The length of his reign has been estimated variously as between five and twenty-five years. He is poorly attested and his existence remains a matter of some dispute, but is supported by leading experts on the Third Intermediate Period such as Gerard Broekman and Kenneth Kitchen. References[edit] ^ Gerard P. F. Broekman: The Chronological Position of King Shoshenq Mentioned in Nile Level Record No. 3 on the Quay Wall of the Great Temple of Amun at Karnak In: Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur Bd. 33, 2005, pp. 75-89 ([1]). ^ Gerard P. F. Broekman: Once again the reign of Takeloth II; Another view on the chronology of the mid 22nd dynasty In: Ägypten und Levante Bd. 16, 2006, pp. 245-255 ([2]). ^ Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss, David a. Warburton: Ancient Egyptian Chronology, 2006 ([3]) ^ "The Libyan Period in Egypt" (PDF). openaccess.leidenuniv.nl. 2007. Retrieved 2020-10-29. ^ "Restoring the 23rd dynasty" (PDF). www.egyptchronology.com. Retrieved 2020-10-29. ^ "Framing the 22nd dynasty" (PDF). www.egyptchronology.com. Retrieved 2020-10-29. ^ "Looking at other reconstructions of the 22nd to the 35th dybasties" (PDF). www.egyptchronology.com. Retrieved 2020-10-29. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shoshenq_VII&oldid=986848767" Categories: 8th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt People whose existence is disputed Ancient Egypt people stubs Hidden categories: Year of death unknown Year of birth unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 3 November 2020, at 10:41 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3758	----	Artumpara - Wikipedia Artumpara From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Artumpara Portrait of Artumpara wearing the Achaemenid satrapal headdress, from his coinage. Allegiance Achaemenid Empire Years of service fl. 400 – 370 BC Rank Dynast of Lycia Location of Lycia. Anatolia/Asia Minor in the Greco-Roman period. The classical regions, including Lycia, and their main settlements Artumpara, also Arttum̃para, Artembares (Persian name, *Rtambura, self-identified as "the Mede) was an Achaemenid Satrap of Lycia circa 400-370 BCE.[1] He was involved in the Great Satraps' Revolt on the side of central Achaemenid authority in 366-360 BCE, helping to put down the rebel Datames.[2][3] He is well known for his coinage.[4] Artumpara is known to have competed for power with another man named Mithrapata.[5] It is thought he was defeated by Perikle.[2] Coinage[edit] The portrait of Artumpara appears on his coinage, wearing the Achaemenid satrapal headdress.[2] Coin of Artumpara, Satrap of Lycia, circa 400-370 BCE. References[edit] ^ Brosius, Maria (2006). The Persians. Routledge. p. 28. ISBN 9781134359844. ^ a b c CNG: DYNASTS of LYCIA. Artumpara. Circa 400-370 BC. Stater (Silver, 7.62 g 9), Telmessos. ^ Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. p. 673. ISBN 9781575061207. ^ André-Salvini, Béatrice (2005). Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia. University of California Press. p. 208. ISBN 9780520247314. ^ D. T. Potts, A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East (2012), p. 912: "...c. 380–370 BC, two western Lycian dynasts named Arttumpara and Mithrapata claimed power simultaneously." v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC This Achaemenid biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Artumpara&oldid=930024263" Categories: 4th-century BC Iranian people Military leaders of the Achaemenid Empire Satraps of the Achaemenid Empire Lycians Achaemenid people stubs Hidden categories: All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 9 December 2019, at 19:03 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3761	----	Cyrus the Great - Wikipedia Cyrus the Great From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Founder of the Achaemenid Empire Cyrus the Great 𐎤𐎢𐎽𐎢𐏁 King of Anshan King of Persia King of Media King of the World King of Kings Great King Mighty King King of Babylon King of Sumer and Akkad King of the Four Corners of the World Cyrus the Great with a Hemhem crown, or four-winged Cherub tutelary divinity, from a relief in the residence of Cyrus in Pasagardae.[1] King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Reign 559–530 BC Predecessor The establishment of the empire Successor Cambyses II King of Persia Reign 559–530 BC Predecessor Cambyses I Successor Cambyses II King of Media Reign 549–530 BC Predecessor Astyages Successor Cambyses II King of Lydia Reign 547–530 BC Predecessor Croesus Successor Cambyses II King of Babylon Reign 539–530 BC Predecessor Nabonidus Successor Cambyses II Born c. 600 BC[2] Anshan, Persis Died 4 December 530 BC[3] (aged 70) Along the Syr Darya Burial Pasargadae Consort Cassandane Issue Cambyses II Bardiya Artystone Atossa Roxane[4] House Teispid Father Cambyses I Mother Mandane of Media v t e Campaigns of Cyrus the Great Battles as a satrap Battle of the Assyrian camp[citation needed] Persian revolt Battle of Hyrba Battle of the Persian Border Invasion of Anatolia Battle of Pteria Battle of Thymbra Siege of Sardis Invasion of Babylonia Battle of Opis Siege of Babylon Cyrus II of Persia (Old Persian: 𐎤𐎢𐎽𐎢𐏁 Kūruš;[5][6] New Persian: کورش Kūroš; c. 600 – 530 BC)[7] commonly known as Cyrus the Great,[8] and also called Cyrus the Elder by the Greeks, was the founder of the Achaemenid Empire, the first Persian Empire.[9] Under his rule, the empire embraced all the previous civilized states of the ancient Near East,[9] expanded vastly and eventually conquered most of Western Asia and much of Central Asia. From the Mediterranean Sea and Hellespont in the west to the Indus River in the east, Cyrus the Great created the largest empire the world had yet seen.[10] Under his successors, the empire eventually stretched at its maximum extent from parts of the Balkans (Bulgaria-Paeonia and Thrace-Macedonia) and Eastern Europe proper in the west, to the Indus Valley in the east. The reign of Cyrus the Great lasted about thirty years. Cyrus built his empire by first conquering the Median Empire, then the Lydian Empire, and eventually the Neo-Babylonian Empire. He led an expedition into Central Asia, which resulted in major campaigns that were described as having brought "into subjection every nation without exception."[11] Cyrus did not venture into Egypt, and was alleged to have died in battle, fighting the Massagetae along the Syr Darya in December 530 BC.[12][13] but Xenophon said Cyrus did not die in battle and he returned to the capital again.[14] He was succeeded by his son, Cambyses II, who managed to conquer Egypt, Nubia, and Cyrenaica during his short rule. Cyrus the Great respected the customs and religions of the lands he conquered.[15] This became a very successful model for centralized administration and establishing a government working to the advantage and profit of its subjects.[9] In fact, the administration of the empire through satraps and the vital principle of forming a government at Pasargadae were the works of Cyrus.[16] What is sometimes referred to as the Edict of Restoration (actually two edicts) described in the Bible as being made by Cyrus the Great left a lasting legacy on the Jewish religion. According to Isaiah 45:1 of the Hebrew Bible,[17] God anointed Cyrus for this task, even referring to him as a messiah (lit. 'anointed one') and he is the only non-Jewish figure in the Bible to be called so.[18] Cyrus the Great is also well recognized for his achievements in human rights, politics, and military strategy, as well as his influence on both Eastern and Western civilizations. Having originated from Persis, roughly corresponding to the modern Iranian province of Fars, Cyrus has played a crucial role in defining the national identity of modern Iran.[19][20][21] The Achaemenid influence in the ancient world eventually would extend as far as Athens, where upper-class Athenians adopted aspects of the culture of the ruling class of Achaemenid Persia as their own.[22] Cyrus is a cult figure amongst modern Iranians, with his tomb serving as a spot of reverence for millions of people.[23] In the 1970s, the last Shah of Iran Mohammad Reza Pahlavi identified his famous proclamation inscribed onto the Cyrus Cylinder as the oldest known declaration of human rights,[24] and the Cylinder has since been popularized as such.[25][26][27] This view has been criticized by some historians[28] as a misunderstanding[29] of the Cylinder's generic nature as a traditional statement that new monarchs make at the beginning of their reign.[26][27][30] Contents 1 Etymology 2 Dynastic history 3 Early life 3.1 Mythology 4 Rise and military campaigns 4.1 Median Empire 4.2 Lydian Empire and Asia Minor 4.3 Neo-Babylonian Empire 5 Death 5.1 Burial 6 Legacy 6.1 Religion and philosophy 6.2 Politics and management 6.3 Cyrus Cylinder 7 Titles 8 Family tree 9 See also 10 References 11 Bibliography 11.1 Ancient sources 11.2 Modern sources 12 Further reading 13 External links Etymology[edit] Further information: Cyrus The name Cyrus is a Latinized form derived from the Greek Κῦρος, Kỹros, itself from the Old Persian Kūruš.[31][32] The name and its meaning have been recorded in ancient inscriptions in different languages. The ancient Greek historians Ctesias and Plutarch stated that Cyrus was named from Kuros, the Sun, a concept which has been interpreted as meaning "like the Sun" (Khurvash) by noting its relation to the Persian noun for sun, khor, while using -vash as a suffix of likeness.[33] Karl Hoffmann has suggested a translation based on the meaning of an Indo-European root "to humiliate", and accordingly "Cyrus" means "humiliator of the enemy in verbal contest."[32] In the Persian language and especially in Iran, Cyrus's name is spelled as کوروش [kuːˈɾoʃ]. In the Bible, he is known as Koresh (Hebrew: כורש‎).[34] Some scholars, on the other hand, believe that neither Cyrus nor Cambyses were Iranian names, proposing that Cyrus was Elamite[35] in origin and that it meant "He who bestows care."[36] Dynastic history[edit] See also: Achaemenes, Achaemenid family tree, and Teispids The four-winged guardian figure representing Cyrus the Great or possibly a four-winged Cherub tutelary deity. Bas-relief found at Pasargadae on top of which was once inscribed in three languages the sentence "I am Cyrus the king, an Achaemenian."[37][38] The Persian domination and kingdom in the Iranian plateau started by an extension of the Achaemenid dynasty, who expanded their earlier domination possibly from the 9th century BC onward. The eponymous founder of this dynasty was Achaemenes (from Old Persian Haxāmaniš). Achaemenids are "descendants of Achaemenes" as Darius the Great, the ninth king of the dynasty, traces his genealogy to him and declares "for this reason we are called Achaemenids." Achaemenes built the state Parsumash in the southwest of Iran and was succeeded by Teispes, who took the title "King of Anshan" after seizing Anshan city and enlarging his kingdom further to include Pars proper.[39] Ancient documents[40] mention that Teispes had a son called Cyrus I, who also succeeded his father as "king of Anshan." Cyrus I had a full brother whose name is recorded as Ariaramnes.[9] In 600 BC, Cyrus I was succeeded by his son, Cambyses I, who reigned until 559 BC. Cyrus II "the Great" was a son of Cambyses I, who had named his son after his father, Cyrus I.[41] There are several inscriptions of Cyrus the Great and later kings that refer to Cambyses I as the "great king" and "king of Anshan." Among these are some passages in the Cyrus cylinder where Cyrus calls himself "son of Cambyses, great king, king of Anshan." Another inscription (from CM's) mentions Cambyses I as "mighty king" and "an Achaemenian," which according to the bulk of scholarly opinion was engraved under Darius and considered as a later forgery by Darius.[42][43] However Cambyses II's maternal grandfather Pharnaspes is named by historian Herodotus as "an Achaemenian" too.[44] Xenophon's account in Cyropædia further names Cambyses's wife as Mandane and mentions Cambyses as king of Iran (ancient Persia). These agree with Cyrus's own inscriptions, as Anshan and Parsa were different names of the same land. These also agree with other non-Iranian accounts, except at one point from Herodotus stating that Cambyses was not a king but a "Persian of good family."[45] However, in some other passages, Herodotus's account is wrong also on the name of the son of Chishpish, which he mentions as Cambyses but, according to modern scholars, should be Cyrus I.[46] The traditional view based on archaeological research and the genealogy given in the Behistun Inscription and by Herodotus[9] holds that Cyrus the Great was an Achaemenid. However, M. Waters has suggested that Cyrus is unrelated to the Achaemenids or Darius the Great and that his family was of Teispid and Anshanite origin instead of Achaemenid.[47] Early life[edit] "I am Cyrus the King, an Achaemenian" in Old Persian, Elamite and Akkadian languages. It is known as the "CMa inscription," carved in a column of Palace P in Pasargadae.[48] These inscriptions on behalf of Cyrus were probably made later by Darius I in order to affirm his lineage, using the Old Persian script he had designed.[43] Cyrus was born to Cambyses I, King of Anshan, and Mandane, daughter of Astyages, King of Media, during the period of 600–599 BC. By his own account, generally believed now to be accurate, Cyrus was preceded as king by his father Cambyses I, grandfather Cyrus I, and great-grandfather Teispes.[49] Cyrus married Cassandane[50] who was an Achaemenian and the daughter of Pharnaspes who bore him two sons, Cambyses II and Bardiya along with three daughters, Atossa, Artystone, and Roxane.[51] Cyrus and Cassandane were known to love each other very much – Cassandane said that she found it more bitter to leave Cyrus than to depart her life.[52] After her death, Cyrus insisted on public mourning throughout the kingdom.[53] The Nabonidus Chronicle states that Babylonia mourned Cassandane for six days (identified as 21–26 March 538 BC).[54] After his father's death, Cyrus inherited the Persian throne at Pasargadae, which was a vassal of Astyages. The Greek historian Strabo has said that Cyrus was originally named Agradates[36] by his step-parents. It is probable that, when reuniting with his original family, following the naming customs, Cyrus's father, Cambyses I, named him Cyrus after his grandfather, who was Cyrus I.[citation needed] There is also an account by Strabo that claimed Agradates adopted the name Cyrus after the Cyrus river near Pasargadae.[36] Mythology[edit] Painting of king Astyages sending Harpagus to kill young Cyrus Herodotus gave a mythological account of Cyrus's early life. In this account, Astyages had two prophetic dreams in which a flood, and then a series of fruit-bearing vines, emerged from his daughter Mandane's pelvis, and covered the entire kingdom. These were interpreted by his advisers as a foretelling that his grandson would one day rebel and supplant him as king. Astyages summoned Mandane, at the time pregnant with Cyrus, back to Ecbatana to have the child killed. General Harpagus delegated the task to Mithradates, one of the shepherds of Astyages, who raised the child and passed off his stillborn son to Harpagus as the dead infant Cyrus.[55] Cyrus lived in secrecy, but when he reached the age of 10, during a childhood game, he had the son of a nobleman beaten when he refused to obey Cyrus's commands. As it was unheard of for the son of a shepherd to commit such an act, Astyages had the boy brought to his court, and interviewed him and his adoptive father. Upon the shepherd's confession, Astyages sent Cyrus back to Persia to live with his biological parents.[56] However, Astyages summoned the son of Harpagus, and in retribution, chopped him to pieces, roasted some portions while boiling others, and tricked his adviser into eating his child during a large banquet. Following the meal, Astyages' servants brought Harpagus the head, hands and feet of his son on platters, so he could realize his inadvertent cannibalism.[57] In another version, Cyrus was presented as the son of a poor family that worked in the Median court. Rise and military campaigns[edit] Median Empire[edit] Detail of Cyrus Hunting Wild Boar by Claude Audran the Younger, Palace of Versailles Cyrus the Great succeeded to the throne in 559 BC following his father's death; however, Cyrus was not yet an independent ruler. Like his predecessors, Cyrus had to recognize Median overlordship. Astyages, last king of the Median Empire and Cyrus' grandfather, may have ruled over the majority of the Ancient Near East, from the Lydian frontier in the west to the Parthians and Persians in the east. According to the Nabonidus Chronicle, Astyages launched an attack against Cyrus, "king of Ansan." According to the historian Herodotus, it is known that Astyages placed Harpagus in command of the Median army to conquer Cyrus. However, Harpagus contacted Cyrus and encouraged his revolt against Media, before eventually defecting along with several of the nobility and a portion of the army. This mutiny is confirmed by the Nabonidus Chronicle. The Chronicle suggest that the hostilities lasted for at least three years (553–550), and the final battle resulted in the capture of Ecbatana. This was described in the paragraph that preceded the entry for Nabonidus' year 7, which detailed Cyrus' victory and the capture of his grandfather.[58] According to the historians Herodotus and Ctesias, Cyrus spared the life of Astyages and married his daughter, Amytis. This marriage pacified several vassals, including the Bactrians, Parthians, and Saka.[59] Herodotus notes that Cyrus also subdued and incorporated Sogdia into the empire during his military campaigns of 546–539 BC.[60][61] With Astyages out of power, all of his vassals (including many of Cyrus's relatives) were now under his command. His uncle Arsames, who had been the king of the city-state of Parsa under the Medes, therefore would have had to give up his throne. However, this transfer of power within the family seems to have been smooth, and it is likely that Arsames was still the nominal governor of Parsa under Cyrus's authority—more a Prince or a Grand Duke than a King.[62] His son, Hystaspes, who was also Cyrus's second cousin, was then made satrap of Parthia and Phrygia. Cyrus the Great thus united the twin Achamenid kingdoms of Parsa and Anshan into Persia proper. Arsames lived to see his grandson become Darius the Great, Shahanshah of Persia, after the deaths of both of Cyrus's sons.[63] Cyrus's conquest of Media was merely the start of his wars.[64] Lydian Empire and Asia Minor[edit] Further information: Battle of Pteria, Battle of Thymbra, and Siege of Sardis (547 BC) Victory of Cyrus over Lydia's Croesus at the Battle of Thymbra, 546 BC. The exact dates of the Lydian conquest are unknown, but it must have taken place between Cyrus's overthrow of the Median kingdom (550 BC) and his conquest of Babylon (539 BC). It was common in the past to give 547 BC as the year of the conquest due to some interpretations of the Nabonidus Chronicle, but this position is currently not much held.[65] The Lydians first attacked the Achaemenid Empire's city of Pteria in Cappadocia. Croesus besieged and captured the city enslaving its inhabitants. Meanwhile, the Persians invited the citizens of Ionia who were part of the Lydian kingdom to revolt against their ruler. The offer was rebuffed, and thus Cyrus levied an army and marched against the Lydians, increasing his numbers while passing through nations in his way. The Battle of Pteria was effectively a stalemate, with both sides suffering heavy casualties by nightfall. Croesus retreated to Sardis the following morning.[66] While in Sardis, Croesus sent out requests for his allies to send aid to Lydia. However, near the end of the winter, before the allies could unite, Cyrus the Great pushed the war into Lydian territory and besieged Croesus in his capital, Sardis. Shortly before the final Battle of Thymbra between the two rulers, Harpagus advised Cyrus the Great to place his dromedaries in front of his warriors; the Lydian horses, not used to the dromedaries' smell, would be very afraid. The strategy worked; the Lydian cavalry was routed. Cyrus defeated and captured Croesus. Cyrus occupied the capital at Sardis, conquering the Lydian kingdom in 546 BC.[66] According to Herodotus, Cyrus the Great spared Croesus's life and kept him as an advisor, but this account conflicts with some translations of the contemporary Nabonidus Chronicle (the King who was himself subdued by Cyrus the Great after conquest of Babylonia), which interpret that the king of Lydia was slain.[67] Croesus on the pyre. Attic red-figure amphora, 500–490 BC, Louvre (G 197) Before returning to the capital, a Lydian named Pactyas was entrusted by Cyrus the Great to send Croesus's treasury to Persia. However, soon after Cyrus's departure, Pactyas hired mercenaries and caused an uprising in Sardis, revolting against the Persian satrap of Lydia, Tabalus. With recommendations from Croesus that he should turn the minds of the Lydian people to luxury, Cyrus sent Mazares, one of his commanders, to subdue the insurrection but demanded that Pactyas be returned alive. Upon Mazares's arrival, Pactyas fled to Ionia, where he had hired more mercenaries. Mazares marched his troops into the Greek country and subdued the cities of Magnesia and Priene. The end of Pactyas is unknown, but after capture, he was probably sent to Cyrus and put to death after a succession of tortures.[68] Mazares continued the conquest of Asia Minor but died of unknown causes during his campaign in Ionia. Cyrus sent Harpagus to complete Mazares's conquest of Asia Minor. Harpagus captured Lycia, Cilicia and Phoenicia, using the technique of building earthworks to breach the walls of besieged cities, a method unknown to the Greeks. He ended his conquest of the area in 542 BC and returned to Persia. Neo-Babylonian Empire[edit] Further information: Battle of Opis By the year 540 BC, Cyrus captured Elam (Susiana) and its capital, Susa.[69] The Nabonidus Chronicle records that, prior to the battle(s), Nabonidus had ordered cult statues from outlying Babylonian cities to be brought into the capital, suggesting that the conflict had begun possibly in the winter of 540 BC.[70] Near the beginning of October 539 BC, Cyrus fought the Battle of Opis in or near the strategic riverside city of Opis on the Tigris, north of Babylon. The Babylonian army was routed, and on 10 October, Sippar was seized without a battle, with little to no resistance from the populace.[71] It is probable that Cyrus engaged in negotiations with the Babylonian generals to obtain a compromise on their part and therefore avoid an armed confrontation.[72] Nabonidus, who had retreated to Sippar following his defeat at Opis, fled to Borsippa.[73] Ancient Near East circa 540 BC, prior to the invasion of Babylon by Cyrus the Great Two days later, on 12 October[74] (proleptic Gregorian calendar), Gubaru's troops entered Babylon, again without any resistance from the Babylonian armies, and detained Nabonidus.[75] Herodotus explains that to accomplish this feat, the Persians, using a basin dug earlier by the Babylonian queen Nitokris to protect Babylon against Median attacks, diverted the Euphrates river into a canal so that the water level dropped "to the height of the middle of a man's thigh," which allowed the invading forces to march directly through the river bed to enter at night.[76] Shortly thereafter, Nabonidus returned from Borsippa and surrendered to Cyrus.[77] On 29 October, Cyrus himself entered the city of Babylon.[78] Prior to Cyrus's invasion of Babylon, the Neo-Babylonian Empire had conquered many kingdoms. In addition to Babylonia itself, Cyrus probably incorporated its subnational entities into his Empire, including Syria, Judea, and Arabia Petraea, although there is no direct evidence of this fact.[4][79] After taking Babylon, Cyrus the Great proclaimed himself "king of Babylon, king of Sumer and Akkad, king of the four corners of the world" in the famous Cyrus Cylinder, an inscription deposited in the foundations of the Esagila temple dedicated to the chief Babylonian god, Marduk. The text of the cylinder denounces Nabonidus as impious and portrays the victorious Cyrus pleasing the god Marduk. It describes how Cyrus had improved the lives of the citizens of Babylonia, repatriated displaced peoples, and restored temples and cult sanctuaries. Although some have asserted that the cylinder represents a form of human rights charter, historians generally portray it in the context of a long-standing Mesopotamian tradition of new rulers beginning their reigns with declarations of reforms.[80] Cyrus the Great's dominions composed the largest empire the world had ever seen to that point.[10] At the end of Cyrus' rule, the Achaemenid Empire stretched from Asia Minor in the west to the Indus River in the east.[4] Death[edit] The details of Cyrus's death vary by account. The account of Herodotus from his Histories provides the second-longest detail, in which Cyrus met his fate in a fierce battle with the Massagetae, a tribe from the southern deserts of Khwarezm and Kyzyl Kum in the southernmost portion of the Eurasian Steppe regions of modern-day Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, following the advice of Croesus to attack them in their own territory.[81] The Massagetae were related to the Scythians in their dress and mode of living; they fought on horseback and on foot. In order to acquire her realm, Cyrus first sent an offer of marriage to their ruler, the empress Tomyris, a proposal she rejected. Achaemenid soldiers fighting against Scythians, 5th century BC. Cylinder seal impression (drawing).[82] He then commenced his attempt to take Massagetae territory by force (c. 529),[83] beginning by building bridges and towered war boats along his side of the river Oxus, or Amu Darya, which separated them. Sending him a warning to cease his encroachment (a warning which she stated she expected he would disregard anyway), Tomyris challenged him to meet her forces in honorable warfare, inviting him to a location in her country a day's march from the river, where their two armies would formally engage each other. He accepted her offer, but, learning that the Massagetae were unfamiliar with wine and its intoxicating effects, he set up and then left camp with plenty of it behind, taking his best soldiers with him and leaving the least capable ones. The general of Tomyris's army, Spargapises, who was also her son, and a third of the Massagetian troops, killed the group Cyrus had left there and, finding the camp well stocked with food and the wine, unwittingly drank themselves into inebriation, diminishing their capability to defend themselves when they were then overtaken by a surprise attack. They were successfully defeated, and, although he was taken prisoner, Spargapises committed suicide once he regained sobriety. Upon learning of what had transpired, Tomyris denounced Cyrus's tactics as underhanded and swore vengeance, leading a second wave of troops into battle herself. Cyrus the Great was ultimately killed, and his forces suffered massive casualties in what Herodotus referred to as the fiercest battle of his career and the ancient world. When it was over, Tomyris ordered the body of Cyrus brought to her, then decapitated him and dipped his head in a vessel of blood in a symbolic gesture of revenge for his bloodlust and the death of her son.[81][84] However, some scholars question this version, mostly because Herodotus admits this event was one of many versions of Cyrus's death that he heard from a supposedly reliable source who told him no one was there to see the aftermath.[85] Queen Tomyris of the Massagetae receiving the head of Cyrus. Herodotus also recounts that Cyrus saw in his sleep the oldest son of Hystaspes (Darius I) with wings upon his shoulders, shadowing with the one wing Asia, and with the other wing Europe.[86] Archaeologist Sir Max Mallowan explains this statement by Herodotus and its connection with the four winged bas-relief figure of Cyrus the Great in the following way:[86] Herodotus therefore, as I surmise, may have known of the close connection between this type of winged figure and the image of Iranian majesty, which he associated with a dream prognosticating the king's death before his last, fatal campaign across the Oxus. Muhammad Dandamayev says that Persians may have taken Cyrus' body back from the Massagetae, unlike what Herodotus claimed.[4] According to the Chronicle of Michael the Syrian (1166–1199 AD) Cyrus was killed by his wife Tomyris, queen of the Massagetae (Maksata), in the 60th year of Jewish captivity.[87] Ctesias, in his Persica, has the longest account, which says Cyrus met his death while putting down resistance from the Derbices infantry, aided by other Scythian archers and cavalry, plus Indians and their war-elephants. According to him, this event took place northeast of the headwaters of the Syr Darya.[88] An alternative account from Xenophon's Cyropaedia contradicts the others, claiming that Cyrus died peaceably at his capital.[89] The final version of Cyrus's death comes from Berossus, who only reports that Cyrus met his death while warring against the Dahae archers northwest of the headwaters of the Syr Darya.[90] Burial[edit] Main article: Tomb of Cyrus Tomb of Cyrus in Pasargadae, Iran, a UNESCO World Heritage Site (2015) Cyrus the Great's remains may have been interred in his capital city of Pasargadae, where today a limestone tomb (built around 540–530 BC[91]) still exists, which many believe to be his. Strabo and Arrian give nearly identical descriptions of the tomb, based on the eyewitness report of Aristobulus of Cassandreia, who at the request of Alexander the Great visited the tomb twice.[92] Though the city itself is now in ruins, the burial place of Cyrus the Great has remained largely intact, and the tomb has been partially restored to counter its natural deterioration over the centuries. According to Plutarch, his epitaph read: O man, whoever you are and wherever you come from, for I know you will come, I am Cyrus who won the Persians their empire. Do not therefore begrudge me this bit of earth that covers my bones.[93] Cuneiform evidence from Babylon proves that Cyrus died around December 530 BC,[94] and that his son Cambyses II had become king. Cambyses continued his father's policy of expansion, and captured Egypt for the Empire, but soon died after only seven years of rule. He was succeeded either by Cyrus's other son Bardiya or an impostor posing as Bardiya, who became the sole ruler of Persia for seven months, until he was killed by Darius the Great. The translated ancient Roman and Greek accounts give a vivid description of the tomb both geometrically and aesthetically; the tomb's geometric shape has changed little over the years, still maintaining a large stone of quadrangular form at the base, followed by a pyramidal succession of smaller rectangular stones, until after a few slabs, the structure is curtailed by an edifice, with an arched roof composed of a pyramidal shaped stone, and a small opening or window on the side, where the slenderest man could barely squeeze through.[95] Within this edifice was a golden coffin, resting on a table with golden supports, inside of which the body of Cyrus the Great was interred. Upon his resting place, was a covering of tapestry and drapes made from the best available Babylonian materials, utilizing fine Median worksmanship; below his bed was a fine red carpet, covering the narrow rectangular area of his tomb.[95] Translated Greek accounts describe the tomb as having been placed in the fertile Pasargadae gardens, surrounded by trees and ornamental shrubs, with a group of Achaemenian protectors called the "Magi," stationed nearby to protect the edifice from theft or damage.[95][96] Years later, in the chaos created by Alexander the Great's invasion of Persia and after the defeat of Darius III, Cyrus the Great's tomb was broken into and most of its luxuries were looted. When Alexander reached the tomb, he was horrified by the manner in which the tomb was treated, and questioned the Magi and put them to court.[95] On some accounts, Alexander's decision to put the Magi on trial was more about his attempt to undermine their influence and his show of power in his newly conquered empire, than a concern for Cyrus's tomb.[97] However, Alexander admired Cyrus, from an early age reading Xenophon's Cyropaedia, which described Cyrus's heroism in battle and governance as a king and legislator.[98] Regardless, Alexander the Great ordered Aristobulus to improve the tomb's condition and restore its interior.[95] Despite his admiration for Cyrus the Great, and his attempts at renovation of his tomb, Alexander had, six years previously (330 BC), sacked Persepolis, the opulent city that Cyrus may have chosen the site for, and either ordered its burning as an act of pro-Greek propaganda or set it on fire during drunken revels.[99] The edifice has survived the test of time, through invasions, internal divisions, successive empires, regime changes, and revolutions. The last prominent Persian figure to bring attention to the tomb was Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (Shah of Iran) the last official monarch of Persia, during his celebrations of 2,500 years of monarchy. Just as Alexander the Great before him, the Shah of Iran wanted to appeal to Cyrus's legacy to legitimize his own rule by extension.[100] United Nations recognizes the tomb of Cyrus the Great and Pasargadae as a UNESCO World Heritage site.[91] Legacy[edit] Cyrus the Great is said in the Bible to have liberated the Jews from the Babylonian captivity to resettle and rebuild Jerusalem, earning him an honored place in Judaism. British historian Charles Freeman suggests that "In scope and extent his achievements [Cyrus] ranked far above that of the Macedonian king, Alexander, who was to demolish the [Achaemenid] empire in the 320s but fail to provide any stable alternative."[101] Cyrus has been a personal hero to many people, including Thomas Jefferson, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, and David Ben-Gurion.[102] The achievements of Cyrus the Great throughout antiquity are reflected in the way he is remembered today. His own nation, the Iranians, have regarded him as "The Father," the very title that had been used during the time of Cyrus himself, by the many nations that he conquered, as according to Xenophon:[103] And those who were subject to him, he treated with esteem and regard, as if they were his own children, while his subjects themselves respected Cyrus as their "Father" ... What other man but 'Cyrus', after having overturned an empire, ever died with the title of "The Father" from the people whom he had brought under his power? For it is plain fact that this is a name for one that bestows, rather than for one that takes away! The Babylonians regarded him as "The Liberator."[104] The Book of Ezra narrates a story of the first return of exiles in the first year of Cyrus, in which Cyrus proclaims: "All the kingdoms of the earth hath the LORD, the God of heaven, given me; and He hath charged me to build Him a house in Jerusalem, which is in Judah."(Ezra 1:2) Cyrus was distinguished equally as a statesman and as a soldier. Due in part to the political infrastructure he created, the Achaemenid Empire endured long after his death. The rise of Persia under Cyrus's rule had a profound impact on the course of world history. Iranian philosophy, literature and religion all played dominant roles in world events for the next millennium. Despite the Islamic conquest of Persia in the 7th century AD by the Islamic Caliphate, Persia continued to exercise enormous influence in the Middle East during the Islamic Golden Age, and was particularly instrumental in the growth and expansion of Islam. Many of the Iranian dynasties following the Achaemenid Empire and their kings saw themselves as the heirs to Cyrus the Great and have claimed to continue the line begun by Cyrus.[105][106] However, there are different opinions among scholars whether this is also the case for the Sassanid Dynasty.[107] Alexander the Great was himself infatuated with and admired Cyrus the Great, from an early age reading Xenophon's Cyropaedia, which described Cyrus's heroism in battle and governance and his abilities as a king and a legislator.[98] During his visit to Pasargadae he ordered Aristobulus to decorate the interior of the sepulchral chamber of Cyrus's tomb.[98] Cyrus's legacy has been felt even as far away as Iceland[108] and colonial America. Many of the thinkers and rulers of Classical Antiquity as well as the Renaissance and Enlightenment era,[109] and the forefathers of the United States of America sought inspiration from Cyrus the Great through works such as Cyropaedia. Thomas Jefferson, for example, owned two copies of Cyropaedia, one with parallel Greek and Latin translations on facing pages showing substantial Jefferson markings that signify the amount of influence the book has had on drafting the United States Declaration of Independence.[110][111][112] According to Professor Richard Nelson Frye, Cyrus – whose abilities as conqueror and administrator Frye says are attested by the longevity and vigor of the Achaemenid Empire – held an almost mythic role among the Persian people "similar to that of Romulus and Remus in Rome or Moses for the Israelites," with a story that "follows in many details the stories of hero and conquerors from elsewhere in the ancient world."[113] Frye writes, "He became the epitome of the great qualities expected of a ruler in antiquity, and he assumed heroic features as a conqueror who was tolerant and magnanimous as well as brave and daring. His personality as seen by the Greeks influenced them and Alexander the Great, and, as the tradition was transmitted by the Romans, may be considered to influence our thinking even now."[113] On another account, Professor Patrick Hunt states, "If you are looking at the greatest personages in History who have affected the World, 'Cyrus the Great' is one of the few who deserves that epithet, the one who deserves to be called 'the Great.' The empire over which Cyrus ruled was the largest the Ancient World had ever seen and may be to this day the largest empire ever."[114] Religion and philosophy[edit] Main articles: Cyrus the Great in the Bible and Cyrus the Great in the Quran Cyrus the Great (center) with his General Harpagus behind him, as he receives the submission of Astyages (18th century tapestry). Though it is generally believed that Zarathushtra's teachings maintained influence on Cyrus's acts and policies, so far no clear evidence has been found to indicate that Cyrus practiced a specific religion. Pierre Briant wrote that given the poor information we have, "it seems quite reckless to try to reconstruct what the religion of Cyrus might have been."[115] The policies of Cyrus with respect to treatment of minority religions are documented in Babylonian texts as well as Jewish sources and the historians accounts.[116] Cyrus had a general policy of religious tolerance throughout his vast empire. Whether this was a new policy or the continuation of policies followed by the Babylonians and Assyrians (as Lester Grabbe maintains)[117] is disputed. He brought peace to the Babylonians and is said to have kept his army away from the temples and restored the statues of the Babylonian gods to their sanctuaries.[15] His treatment of the Jews during their exile in Babylon after Nebuchadnezzar II destroyed Jerusalem is reported in the Bible. The Jewish Bible's Ketuvim ends in Second Chronicles with the decree of Cyrus, which returned the exiles to the Promised Land from Babylon along with a commission to rebuild the temple. Thus saith Cyrus, king of Persia: All the kingdoms of the earth hath the LORD, the God of heaven given me; and He hath charged me to build Him a house in Jerusalem, which is in Judah. Whosoever there is among you of all His people – the LORD, his God, be with him – let him go there. — (2 Chronicles 36:23) This edict is also fully reproduced in the Book of Ezra. In the first year of King Cyrus, Cyrus the king issued a decree: "Concerning the house of God at Jerusalem, let the temple, the place where sacrifices are offered, be rebuilt and let its foundations be retained, its height being 60 cubits and its width 60 cubits; with three layers of huge stones and one layer of timbers. And let the cost be paid from the royal treasury. Also let the gold and silver utensils of the house of God, which Nebuchadnezzar took from the temple in Jerusalem and brought to Babylon, be returned and brought to their places in the temple in Jerusalem; and you shall put them in the house of God." — (Ezra 6:3–5) The Cyrus Street, Jerusalem The Jews honored him as a dignified and righteous king. In one Biblical passage, Isaiah refers to him as Messiah (lit. "His anointed one") (Isaiah 45:1), making him the only gentile to be so referred.[citation needed] Elsewhere in Isaiah, God is described as saying, "I will raise up Cyrus in my righteousness: I will make all his ways straight. He will rebuild my city and set my exiles free, but not for a price or reward, says God Almighty." (Isaiah 45:13) As the text suggests, Cyrus did ultimately release the nation of Israel from its exile without compensation or tribute. These particular passages (Isaiah 40–55, often referred to as Deutero-Isaiah) are believed by most modern critical scholars to have been added by another author toward the end of the Babylonian exile (c. 536 BC).[118] Josephus, the first-century Jewish historian, relates the traditional view of the Jews regarding the prediction of Cyrus in Isaiah in his Antiquities of the Jews, book 11, chapter 1:[119] In the first year of the reign of Cyrus, which was the seventieth from the day that our people were removed out of their own land into Babylon, God commiserated the captivity and calamity of these poor people, according as he had foretold to them by Jeremiah the prophet, before the destruction of the city, that after they had served Nebuchadnezzar and his posterity, and after they had undergone that servitude seventy years, he would restore them again to the land of their fathers, and they should build their temple, and enjoy their ancient prosperity. And these things God did afford them; for he stirred up the mind of Cyrus, and made him write this throughout all Asia: "Thus saith Cyrus the king: Since God Almighty hath appointed me to be king of the habitable earth, I believe that he is that God which the nation of the Israelites worship; for indeed he foretold my name by the prophets, and that I should build him a house at Jerusalem, in the country of Judea." This was known to Cyrus by his reading the book which Isaiah left behind him of his prophecies; for this prophet said that God had spoken thus to him in a secret vision: "My will is, that Cyrus, whom I have appointed to be king over many and great nations, send back my people to their own land, and build my temple." This was foretold by Isaiah one hundred and forty years before the temple was demolished. Accordingly, when Cyrus read this, and admired the Divine power, an earnest desire and ambition seized upon him to fulfill what was so written; so he called for the most eminent Jews that were in Babylon, and said to them, that he gave them leave to go back to their own country, and to rebuild their city Jerusalem, and the temple of God, for that he would be their assistant, and that he would write to the rulers and governors that were in the neighborhood of their country of Judea, that they should contribute to them gold and silver for the building of the temple, and besides that, beasts for their sacrifices. Painting of Daniel and Cyrus before the Idol Bel While Cyrus was praised in the Tanakh (Isaiah 45:1–6 and Ezra 1:1–11), there was Jewish criticism of him after he was lied to by the Cuthites, who wanted to halt the building of the Second Temple. They accused the Jews of conspiring to rebel, so Cyrus in turn stopped the construction, which would not be completed until 515 BC, during the reign of Darius I.[120][121] According to the Bible it was King Artaxerxes who was convinced to stop the construction of the temple in Jerusalem. (Ezra 4:7–24) Statue of Cyrus the great at Olympic Park in Sydney The historical nature of this decree has been challenged. Professor Lester L Grabbe argues that there was no decree but that there was a policy that allowed exiles to return to their homelands and rebuild their temples. He also argues that the archaeology suggests that the return was a "trickle," taking place over perhaps decades, resulting in a maximum population of perhaps 30,000.[122] Philip R. Davies called the authenticity of the decree "dubious," citing Grabbe and adding that J. Briend argued against "the authenticity of Ezra 1.1–4 is J. Briend, in a paper given at the Institut Catholique de Paris on 15 December 1993, who denies that it resembles the form of an official document but reflects rather biblical prophetic idiom."[123] Mary Joan Winn Leith believes that the decree in Ezra might be authentic and along with the Cylinder that Cyrus, like earlier rulers, was through these decrees trying to gain support from those who might be strategically important, particularly those close to Egypt which he wished to conquer. He also wrote that "appeals to Marduk in the cylinder and to Yahweh in the biblical decree demonstrate the Persian tendency to co-opt local religious and political traditions in the interest of imperial control."[124] Some Muslims have suggested that the Quranic figure of Dhul-Qarnayn is a representation of Cyrus the Great, but the scholarly consensus is that he is a development of legends concerning Alexander the Great.[125] Politics and management[edit] Cyrus founded the empire as a multi-state empire governed by four capital states; Pasargadae, Babylon, Susa and Ecbatana. He allowed a certain amount of regional autonomy in each state, in the form of a satrapy system. A satrapy was an administrative unit, usually organized on a geographical basis. A 'satrap' (governor) was the vassal king, who administered the region, a 'general' supervised military recruitment and ensured order, and a 'state secretary' kept the official records. The general and the state secretary reported directly to the satrap as well as the central government. During his reign, Cyrus maintained control over a vast region of conquered kingdoms, achieved through retaining and expanding the satrapies. Further organization of newly conquered territories into provinces ruled by satraps, was continued by Cyrus's successor Darius the Great. Cyrus's empire was based on tribute and conscripts from the many parts of his realm.[126] Through his military savvy, Cyrus created an organized army including the Immortals unit, consisting of 10,000 highly trained soldiers.[127] He also formed an innovative postal system throughout the empire, based on several relay stations called Chapar Khaneh.[128] Cyrus's conquests began a new era in the age of empire building, where a vast superstate, comprising many dozens of countries, races, religions, and languages, were ruled under a single administration headed by a central government. This system lasted for centuries, and was retained both by the invading Seleucid dynasty during their control of Persia, and later Iranian dynasties including the Parthians and Sasanians.[129] 17th-century bust of Cyrus the Great in Hamburg, Germany. Cyrus has been known for his innovations in building projects; he further developed the technologies that he found in the conquered cultures and applied them in building the palaces of Pasargadae. He was also famous for his love of gardens; the recent excavations in his capital city has revealed the existence of the Pasargadae Persian Garden and a network of irrigation canals. Pasargadae was a place for two magnificent palaces surrounded by a majestic royal park and vast formal gardens; among them was the four-quartered wall gardens of "Paradisia" with over 1000 meters of channels made out of carved limestone, designed to fill small basins at every 16 meters and water various types of wild and domestic flora. The design and concept of Paradisia were exceptional and have been used as a model for many ancient and modern parks, ever since.[130] The English physician and philosopher Sir Thomas Browne penned a discourse entitled The Garden of Cyrus in 1658 in which Cyrus is depicted as an archetypal "wise ruler" – while the Protectorate of Cromwell ruled Britain. "Cyrus the elder brought up in Woods and Mountains, when time and power enabled, pursued the dictate of his education, and brought the treasures of the field into rule and circumscription. So nobly beautifying the hanging Gardens of Babylon, that he was also thought to be the author thereof." Cyrus' standard, described as a golden eagle mounted upon a "lofty shaft", remained the official banner of the Achaemenids.[131] Cyrus Cylinder[edit] Main article: Cyrus Cylinder The Cyrus cylinder, a contemporary cuneiform script proclaiming Cyrus as legitimate king of Babylon. One of the few surviving sources of information that can be dated directly to Cyrus's time is the Cyrus Cylinder (Persian: استوانه کوروش‎), a document in the form of a clay cylinder inscribed in Akkadian cuneiform. It had been placed in the foundations of the Esagila (the temple of Marduk in Babylon) as a foundation deposit following the Persian conquest in 539 BC. It was discovered in 1879 and is kept today in the British Museum in London.[132] The text of the cylinder denounces the deposed Babylonian king Nabonidus as impious and portrays Cyrus as pleasing to the chief god Marduk. It describes how Cyrus had improved the lives of the citizens of Babylonia, repatriated displaced peoples and restored temples and cult sanctuaries.[133] Although not mentioned specifically in the text, the repatriation of the Jews from their "Babylonian captivity" has been interpreted as part of this general policy.[134] In the 1970s the Shah of Iran adopted the Cyrus cylinder as a political symbol, using it "as a central image in his celebration of 2500 years of Iranian monarchy."[135] and asserting that it was "the first human rights charter in history."[24] This view has been disputed by some as "rather anachronistic" and tendentious,[136] as the modern concept of human rights would have been quite alien to Cyrus's contemporaries and is not mentioned by the cylinder.[137][138] The cylinder has, nonetheless, become seen as part of Iran's cultural identity.[135] The United Nations has declared the relic to be an "ancient declaration of human rights" since 1971, approved by then Secretary General Sithu U Thant, after he "was given a replica by the sister of the Shah of Iran."[139] The British Museum describes the cylinder as "an instrument of ancient Mesopotamian propaganda" that "reflects a long tradition in Mesopotamia where, from as early as the third millennium BC, kings began their reigns with declarations of reforms."[80] The cylinder emphasizes Cyrus's continuity with previous Babylonian rulers, asserting his virtue as a traditional Babylonian king while denigrating his predecessor.[140] Neil MacGregor, Director of the British Museum, has stated that the cylinder was "the first attempt we know about running a society, a state with different nationalities and faiths — a new kind of statecraft."[141] He explained that "It has even been described as the first declaration of human rights, and while this was never the intention of the document – the modern concept of human rights scarcely existed in the ancient world – it has come to embody the hopes and aspirations of many."[142] Titles[edit] His regal titles in full were The Great King, King of Persia, King of Anshan, King of Media, King of Babylon, King of Sumer and Akkad, and King of the Four Corners of the World. The Nabonidus Chronicle notes the change in his title from simply "King of Anshan," a city, to "King of Persia." Assyriologist François Vallat wrote that "When Astyages marched against Cyrus, Cyrus is called 'King of Anshan," but when Cyrus crosses the Tigris on his way to Lydia, he is 'King of Persia.' The coup therefore took place between these two events."[143] Family tree[edit] Further information: the full Achaemenid family tree v t e Cyrus family tree[144] AchaemenesKing of Persia TeispesKing of Persia AriaramnesRuler of Persia[i] Cyrus IRuler of Anshan ArsamesRuler of Persia[i] Cambyses IRuler of Anshan HystaspesPrince Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II)King of Persia Darius the Great (Darius I)King of Persia Cambyses IIKing of Persia Bardiya (Smerdis) Prince (imposter Gaumata ruled as Smerdis[i]) ArtystonePrincess AtossaPrincess Notes: ^ a b c Unconfirmed rulers, due to the Behistun Inscription See also[edit] Cyrus the Great in the Bible Cyrus the Great in the Quran Dhu al-Qarnayn Kay Bahman List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources References[edit] ^ Curzon, George Nathaniel (2018). Persia and the Persian Question. Cambridge University Press. p. 75. ISBN 9781108080859. ^ Ilya Gershevitch, ed. (1985). The Cambridge history of Iran: The Median and Achaemenian periods. 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 404. ISBN 978-0-521-20091-2. ^ Dandamayev 1993, pp. 516-521. ^ a b c d Dandamayev 1993, pp. 516–521. ^ Bachenheimer 2018, p. 188. ^ Image: ^ (Dandamaev 1989, p. 71) ^ Xenophon, Anabasis I. IX; see also M. A. Dandamaev "Cyrus II", in Encyclopaedia Iranica. ^ a b c d e Schmitt Achaemenid dynasty (i. The clan and dynasty) ^ a b Kuhrt, Amélie (1995). "13". The Ancient Near East: c. 3000–330 BC. Routledge. p. 647. ISBN 0-415-16763-9. ^ Cambridge Ancient History IV Chapter 3c. p. 170. The quote is from the Greek historian Herodotus. ^ Beckwith, Christopher. (2009). Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13589-2. p. 63. ^ Cyrus's date of death can be deduced from the last two references to his own reign (a tablet from Borsippa dated to 12 August and the final from Babylon 12 September 530 BC) and the first reference to the reign of his son Cambyses (a tablet from Babylon dated to 31 August and or 4 September), but an undocumented tablet from the city of Kish dates the last official reign of Cyrus to 4 December 530 BC; see R.A. Parker and W.H. Dubberstein, Babylonian Chronology 626 B.C. – A.D. 75, 1971. ^ Bassett, Sherylee R. (1999). "The Death of Cyrus the Younger". The Classical Quarterly. 49 (2): 473–483. doi:10.1093/cq/49.2.473. ISSN 0009-8388. JSTOR 639872. PMID 16437854. ^ a b Dandamayev Cyrus (iii. Cyrus the Great) Cyrus's religious policies. ^ The Cambridge Ancient History Vol. IV p. 42. See also: G. Buchaman Gray and D. Litt, The foundation and extension of the Persian empire, Chapter I in The Cambridge Ancient History Vol. IV, 2nd edition, published by The University Press, 1927. p. 15. Excerpt: The administration of the empire through satrap, and much more belonging to the form or spirit of the government, was the work of Cyrus ... ^ Jona Lendering (2012). "Messiah – Roots of the concept: From Josiah to Cyrus". livius.org. Retrieved 26 January 2012. ^ The Biblical Archaeology Society (BAS) (24 August 2015). "Cyrus the Messiah". bib-arch.org. ^ Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis; Sarah Stewart (2005). Birth of the Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-84511-062-8.[verification needed] ^ Amelie Kuhrt (3 December 2007). The Persian Empire: A Corpus of Sources from the Achaemenid Period. Routledge. p. 47. ISBN 978-1-134-07634-5. ^ Shabnam J. Holliday (2011). Defining Iran: Politics of Resistance. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. pp. 38–40. ISBN 978-1-4094-0524-5. ^ Margaret Christina Miller (2004). Athens and Persia in the Fifth Century BC: A Study in Cultural Receptivity. Cambridge University Press. p. 243. ISBN 978-0-521-60758-2. ^ Llewellyn-Jones 2017, p. 67. ^ a b Neil MacGregor, "The whole world in our hands", in Art and Cultural Heritage: Law, Policy, and Practice, pp. 383–84, ed. Barbara T. Hoffman. Cambridge University Press, 2006. ISBN 0-521-85764-3 ^ "The Cyrus Cylinder travels to the US". British Museum. 2012. Retrieved 21 September 2013. ^ a b "Cyrus cylinder, world's oldest human rights charter, returns to Iran on loan". The Guardian. Associated Press. 10 September 2010. Retrieved 21 September 2013. ^ a b "Oldest Known Charter of Human Rights Comes to San Francisco". 13 August 2013. Archived from the original on 22 September 2013. Retrieved 21 September 2013. ^ Daniel, Elton L. (2000). The History of Iran. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-313-30731-8. ^ Mitchell, T.C. (1988). Biblical Archaeology: Documents from the British Museum. London: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-36867-7. ^ Arnold, Bill T.; Michalowski, Piotr (2006). "Achaemenid Period Historical Texts Concerning Mesopotamia". In Chavelas, Mark W. (ed.). The Ancient Near East: Historical Sources in Translation. London: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-23581-7. ^ Schmitt, Rüdiger. "Cyrus (name)". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 8 February 2016. ^ a b Schmitt 2010, p. 515. ^ ; Plutarch, Artaxerxes 1. 3 classics.mit.edu; Photius, Epitome of Ctesias' Persica 52 livius.org ^ Tait 1846, p. 342-343. ^ D.T.Potts, Birth of the Persian Empire, Vol. I, ed. Curtis & Stewart, I.B.Tauris-British Museum, London, ç2005, p.13-22 ^ a b c Waters 2014, p. 171. ^ Max Mallowan p. 392. and p. 417 ^ Kuhrt, Amélie (2013). The Persian Empire: A Corpus of Sources from the Achaemenid Period. Routledge. p. 177. ISBN 9781136016943. ^ (Schmitt 1985b) harv error: no target: CITEREFSchmitt1985b (help) under i. The clan and dynasty. ^ e. g. Cyrus Cylinder Fragment A. ¶ 21. ^ Schmitt, R. "Iranian Personal Names i.-Pre-Islamic Names". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. 4. Naming the grandson after the grandfather was a common practice among Iranians. ^ Visual representation of the divine and the numinous in early Achaemenid Iran: old problems, new directions; Mark A. Garrison, Trinity University, San Antonio, Texas; last revision: 3 March 2009, see page: 11 ^ a b Briant 2002, p. 63. ^ Waters 2004, p. 92. ^ Dandamev, M. A. (1990). "Cambyses". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Encyclopaedia Iranica Foundation. ISBN 0-7100-9132-X. ^ (Dandamaev 1989, p. 9) ^ Waters 2004, p. 97. ^ Pasargadae, Palace P – Livius. ^ Amélie Kuhrt, The Ancient Near East: c. 3000–330 BC, Routledge Publishers, 1995, p.661, ISBN 0-415-16762-0 ^ Romm 2014. sfn error: no target: CITEREFRomm2014 (help) ^ Konig 1972, p. 7-12. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKonig1972 (help) ^ Benjamin G. Kohl; Ronald G. Witt; Elizabeth B. Welles (1978). The Earthly republic: Italian humanists on government and society. Manchester University Press ND. p. 198. ISBN 978-0-7190-0734-7. ^ Kuhrt 2013, p. 106. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFKuhrt2013 (help) ^ Grayson 1975, p. 111. ^ Herodotus, p. 1.95. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHerodotus (help) ^ Herodotus, p. 1.107-21. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHerodotus (help) ^ Stories of the East From Herodotus, pp. 79–80 ^ Briant 2002, p. 31. ^ Briant 2002, pp. 31–33. ^ Antoine Simonin. (8 Jan 2012). "Sogdiana." Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 1 September 2016. ^ Kirill Nourzhanov, Christian Bleuer (2013), Tajikistan: a Political and Social History, Canberra: Australian National University Press, p. 12, ISBN 978-1-925021-15-8. ^ Jack Martin Balcer (1984). Sparda by the bitter sea: imperial interaction in western Anatolia. Scholars Press. p. 137. ISBN 9780891306573. ^ A. Sh. Sahbazi, "Arsama", in Encyclopaedia Iranica. ^ The encyclopædia britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, literature and general information, Volume 21 edited by Hugh Chrisholm, b1911, pp. 206–07 ^ Rollinger, Robert, "The Median "Empire", the End of Urartu and Cyrus the Great's Campaign in 547 B.C."; Lendering, Jona, "The End of Lydia: 547?". ^ a b Herodotus, The Histories, Book I, 440 BC. Translated by George Rawlinson. ^ Croesus: Fifth and last king of the Mermnad dynasty. ^ The life and travels of Herodotus, Volume 2, by James Talboys Wheeler, 1855, pp. 271–74 ^ Tavernier, Jan. "Some Thoughts in Neo-Elamite Chronology" (PDF). p. 27. ^ Kuhrt, Amélie. "Babylonia from Cyrus to Xerxes", in The Cambridge Ancient History: Vol IV – Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean, pp. 112–38. Ed. John Boardman. Cambridge University Press, 1982. ISBN 0-521-22804-2 ^ Nabonidus Chronicle, 14. ^ Tolini, Gauthier, Quelques éléments concernant la prise de Babylone par Cyrus, Paris. "Il est probable que des négociations s'engagèrent alors entre Cyrus et les chefs de l'armée babylonienne pour obtenir une reddition sans recourir à l'affrontement armé." p. 10 (PDF) ^ Bealieu, Paul-Alain (1989). The Reign of Nabonidus, King of Babylon 536–539 B.C. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. p. 230. ISBN 0-300-04314-7. ^ Briant 2002, p. 41. ^ Nabonidus Chronicle, 15–16. ^ Potts, Daniel (1996). Mesopotamian civilization: the material foundations. Cornell University Press. pp. 22–23. ISBN 978-0-8014-3339-9. ^ Bealieu, Paul-Alain (1989). The Reign of Nabonidus, King of Babylon 536–539 B.C. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. p. 231. ISBN 0-300-04314-7. ^ Nabonidus Chronicle, 18. ^ Briant 2002, pp. 44–49. ^ a b "British Museum Website, The Cyrus Cylinder". Britishmuseum.org. Retrieved 30 December 2012. ^ a b "Ancient History Sourcebook: Herodotus: Queen Tomyris of the Massagetai and the Defeat of the Persians under Cyrus". Fordham.edu. Retrieved 30 December 2012. ^ Hartley, Charles W.; Yazicioğlu, G. Bike; Smith, Adam T. (2012). The Archaeology of Power and Politics in Eurasia: Regimes and Revolutions. Cambridge University Press. p. 83. ISBN 978-1-107-01652-1. ^ Grousset, Rene (1970). The Empire of the Steppes. Rutgers University Press. p. 9. ISBN 0-8135-1304-9. ^ Tomyris, Queen of the Massagetae, Defeats Cyrus the Great in Battle Archived 29 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine Herodotus, The Histories ^ Nino Luraghi (2001). The historian's craft in the age of Herodotus. Oxford University Press US. p. 155. ISBN 978-0-19-924050-0. ^ a b Ilya Gershevitch, ed. (1985). The Cambridge history of Iran: The Median and Achaemenian periods, Volume 2. Cambridge University Press. pp. 392–98. ISBN 978-0-521-20091-2. ^ Michael the Syrian. Chronicle of Michael the Great, Patriarch of the Syrians – via Internet Archive. ^ A history of Greece, Volume 2, By Connop Thirlwall, Longmans, 1836, p. 174 ^ Xenophon, Cyropaedia VII. 7; M.A. Dandamaev, "Cyrus II", in Encyclopaedia Iranica, p. 250. See also H. Sancisi-Weerdenburg "Cyropaedia", in Encyclopaedia Iranica, on the reliability of Xenophon's account. ^ A political history of the Achaemenid empire, By M.A. Dandamaev, Brill, 1989, p. 67 ^ a b UNESCO World Heritage Centre (2006). "Pasargadae". Retrieved 26 December 2010. ^ Strabo, Geographica 15.3.7; Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri 6.29 ^ Life of Alexander, 69, in Plutarch: The Age of Alexander, translated by Ian Scott-Kilvert (Penguin Classics, 1973), p. 326.; similar inscriptions give Arrian and Strabo. ^ Cyrus's date of death can be deduced from the last reference to his own reign (a tablet from Borsippa dated to 12 Augustus 530) and the first reference to the reign of his son Cambyses (a tablet from Babylon dated to 31 August); see R.A. Parker and W.H. Dubberstein, Babylonian Chronology 626 B.C. – A.D. 75, 1971. ^ a b c d e ((grk.) Lucius Flavius Arrianus), (en.) Arrian (trans.), Charles Dexter Cleveland (1861). A compendium of classical literature:comprising choice extracts translated from Greek and Roman writers, with biographical sketches. Biddle. p. 313.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Abraham Valentine Williams Jackson (1906). Persia past and present. The Macmillan Company. p. 278. tomb of cyrus the great. ^ Ralph Griffiths; George Edward Griffiths (1816). The Monthly review. 1816. p. 509. Cyrus influence on persian identity. ^ a b c Ulrich Wilcken (1967). Alexander the Great. W.W. Norton & Company. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-393-00381-9. Alexander admiration of cyrus. ^ John Maxwell O'Brien (1994). Alexander the Great: the invisible enemy. Psychology Press. pp. 100–01. ISBN 978-0-415-10617-7. ^ James D. Cockcroft (1989). Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Shah of Iran. Chelsea House Publishers. ISBN 978-1-55546-847-7. Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and the Cyrus legacy. ^ Freeman 1999: p. 188 ^ "The Cyrus cylinder: Diplomatic whirl". The Economist. 23 March 2013. ^ Xenophon (1855). The Cyropaedia. H.G. Bohn. cyropaedia. ^ Cardascia, G., Babylon under Achaemenids, in Encyclopedia Iranica. ^ Richard Nelson Frye (1963). The Heritage of Persia. World Pub. Co. ^ Cyrus Kadivar (25 January 2002). "We are Awake". The Iranian. ^ E. Yarshater, for example, rejects that Sassanids remembered Cyrus, whereas R.N. Frye do propose remembrance and line of continuity: See A. Sh. Shahbazi, Early Sassanians' Claim to Achaemenid Heritage, Namey-e Iran-e Bastan, Vol. 1, No. 1 pp. 61–73; M. Boyce, "The Religion of Cyrus the Great" in A. Kuhrt and H. Sancisi-Weerdenburg, eds., Achaemenid History III. Method and Theory, Leiden, 1988, p. 30; and The History of Ancient Iran, by Frye p. 371; and the debates in Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis, et al. The Art and Archaeology of Ancient Persia: New Light on the Parthian and Sasanian Empires, Published by I. B. Tauris in association with the British Institute of Persian Studies, 1998, ISBN 1-86064-045-1, pp. 1–8, 38–51. ^ Jakob Jonson: "Cyrus the Great in Icelandic epic: A literary study". Acta Iranica. 1974: 49–50 ^ Nadon, Christopher (2001), Xenophon's Prince: Republic and Empire in the Cyropaedia, Berkeley: UC Press, ISBN 0-520-22404-3 ^ Cyrus and Jefferson: Did they speak the same language? http://www.payvand.com/news/13/apr/1111.html ^ Cyrus Cylinder: How a Persian monarch inspired Jefferson, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-21747567 ^ Boyd, Julian P. "The Papers of Thomas Jefferson". Retrieved 18 August 2010. ^ a b "Cyrus II Encyclopædia Britannica 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online". Original.britannica.com. Retrieved 30 December 2012.[permanent dead link] ^ Cited quote as per media (documentary piece) titled "Engineering an Empire – The Persians". History Channel. Release date: 4 December 2006. Media available for viewing online via history.com or via Google Video. Host: Peter Weller. Production: United States. ^ Briant 2002, p. 84. ^ Crompton, Samuel Willard (2008). Cyrus the Great. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. p. 80. ISBN 9780791096369. ^ Oded Lipschitz; Manfred Oeming, eds. (2006). "The "Persian Documents" in the Book of Ezra: Are They Authentic?". Judah and the Judeans in the Persian period. Eisenbrauns. p. 542. ISBN 978-1-57506-104-7. ^ Simon John De Vries: From old Revelation to new: a tradition-historical and redaction-critical study of temporal transitions in prophetic prediction. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing 1995, ISBN 978-0-8028-0683-3, p. 126 ^ Josephus, Flavius. The Antiquities of the Jews, Book 11, Chapter 1 [1] ^ Goldwurm, Hersh (1982). History of the Jewish People: The Second Temple Era. ArtScroll. pp. 26, 29. ISBN 0-89906-454-X. ^ Schiffman, Lawrence (1991). From text to tradition: a history of Second Temple and Rabbinic Judaism. KTAV Publishing. pp. 35, 36. ISBN 978-0-88125-372-6. ^ Grabbe, Lester L. (2004). A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: Yehud: A History of the Persian Province of Judah v. 1. T & T Clark. p. 355. ISBN 978-0-567-08998-4. ^ Philip R. Davies (1995). John D Davies (ed.). Words Remembered, Texts Renewed: Essays in Honour of John F.A. Sawyer. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 219. ISBN 978-1-85075-542-5. ^ Winn Leith, Mary Joan (2001) [1998]. "Israel among the Nations: The Persian Period". In Michael David Coogan (ed.). The Oxford History of the Biblical World (Google Books). Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. p. 285. ISBN 0-19-513937-2. LCCN 98016042. OCLC 44650958. Retrieved 14 December 2012. ^ Toorawa 2011, p. 8. ^ John Curtis; Julian Reade; Dominique Collon (1995). Art and empire. The Trustees of the British Museum by British Museum Press. ISBN 978-0-7141-1140-7. ^ From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire by Pierre Briant ^ Herodotus, Herodotus, trans. A.D. Godley, vol. 4, book 8, verse 98, pp. 96–97 (1924). ^ Wilcox, Peter; MacBride, Angus (1986). Rome's Enemies: Parthians And Sassanid Persians. Osprey Publishing. p. 14. ISBN 0-85045-688-6. ^ Persepolis Recreated, Publisher: NEJ International Pictures; 1ST edition (2005) ISBN 978-964-06-4525-3 ^ Alireza Shapur Shahbazi (15 December 1994), "DERAFŠ", Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VII, Fasc. 3, pp. 312–315. ^ H.F. Vos, "Archaeology of Mesopotamia", p. 267 in The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, ed. Geoffrey W. Bromiley. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1995. ISBN 0-8028-3781-6 ^ "The Ancient Near East, Volume I: An Anthology of Texts and Pictures". Vol. 1. Ed. James B. Pritchard. Princeton University Press, 1973. ^ "British Museum: Cyrus Cylinder". British Museum. Retrieved 28 October 2009. ^ a b British Museum explanatory notes, "Cyrus Cylinder": In Iran, the cylinder has appeared on coins, banknotes and stamps. Despite being a Babylonian document it has become part of Iran's cultural identity." ^ Elton L. Daniel, The History of Iran, p. 39. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2000. ISBN 0-313-30731-8 (restricted online copy, p. 39, at Google Books) ^ John Curtis, Nigel Tallis, Beatrice Andre-Salvini. Forgotten Empire, p. 59. University of California Press, 2005. (restricted online copy, p. 59, at Google Books) ^ See also Amélie Kuhrt, "Babylonia from Cyrus to Xerxes", in The Cambridge Ancient History: Vol IV – Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean, p. 124. Ed. John Boardman. Cambridge University Press, 1982. ISBN 0-521-22804-2 ^ The telegraph (16 July 2008). "Cyrus Cylinder". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 15 December 2010. ^ Hekster, Olivier; Fowler, Richard (2005). Imaginary kings: royal images in the ancient Near East, Greece and Rome. Oriens et occidens 11. Franz Steiner Verlag. p. 33. ISBN 978-3-515-08765-0. ^ Barbara Slavin (6 March 2013). "Cyrus Cylinder a Reminder of Persian Legacy of Tolerance". Al-Monitor. Archived from the original on 22 September 2013. Retrieved 21 September 2013. ^ MacGregor, Neil (24 February 2013). "A 2,600-year-old icon of freedom comes to the United States". CNN. Retrieved 21 September 2013. ^ François Vallat (2013). Perrot, Jean (ed.). The Palace of Darius at Susa: The Great Royal Residence of Achaemenid Persia. I.B.Tauris. p. 39. ISBN 978-1-84885-621-9. Retrieved 11 March 2018. ^ "Family Tree of Darius the Great" (JPG). Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 28 March 2011. Bibliography[edit] Kuhrt (2013), The Persian Empire: A Corpus of Sources from the Achaemenid Period Grayson (1975), Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles Ancient sources[edit] The Nabonidus Chronicle of the Babylonian Chronicles The Verse account of Nabonidus The Prayer of Nabonidus (one of the Dead Sea scrolls) The Cyrus Cylinder Herodotus (The Histories) Ctesias (Persica) The biblical books of Isaiah, Daniel, Ezra and Nehemiah Flavius Josephus (Antiquities of the Jews) Thucydides (History of the Peloponnesian War) Plato (Laws (dialogue)) Xenophon (Cyropaedia) Quintus Curtius Rufus (Library of World History) Plutarchos (Plutarch's Lives) Fragments of Nicolaus of Damascus Arrian (Anabasis Alexandri) Polyaenus (Stratagems in War) Justin (Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus) (in English) Polybius (The Histories (Polybius)) Diodorus Siculus (Bibliotheca historica) Athenaeus (Deipnosophistae) Strabo (History) Quran (Dhul-Qarnayn, Al-Kahf) Modern sources[edit] Toorawa, Shawkat M. (2011). "Islam". In Allen, Roger (ed.). Islam; A Short Guide for the Faithful. Eerdmans. p. 8. ISBN 9780802866004. Bachenheimer, Avi (2018). Old Persian: Dictionary, Glossary and Concordance. Wiley and Sons. pp. 1–799. Ball, Charles James (1899). Light from the East: Or the witness of the monuments. London: Eyre and Spottiswoode. Boardman, John, ed. (1994). The Cambridge Ancient History IV: Persia, Greece, and the Western Mediterranean, C. 525–479 B.C. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-22804-2. Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. pp. 1–1196. ISBN 9781575061207. Cannadine, David; Price, Simon (1987). Rituals of royalty : power and ceremonial in traditional societies (1. publ. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-33513-2. Cardascia, G (1988). "Babylon under Achaemenids". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. 3. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-939214-78-4. Chavalas, Mark W., ed. (2007). The ancient Near East : historical sources in translation. Malden, MA: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-23580-4. Church, Alfred J. (1881). Stories of the East From Herodotus. London: Seeley, Jackson & Halliday. Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh; Stewart, Sarah (2010). Birth of the Persian Empire. I.B.Tauris. pp. 1–160. ISBN 9780857710925. Dandamaev, M. A. (1989). A political history of the Achaemenid empire. Leiden: Brill. p. 373. ISBN 90-04-09172-6. Dandamayev, Muhammad A. (1993). "Cyrus iii. Cyrus II The Great". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IV, Fasc. 7. pp. 516–521. Freeman, Charles (1999). The Greek Achievement: The Foundation of the Western World. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-7139-9224-7. Fried, Lisbeth S. (2002). "Cyrus the Messiah? The Historical Background to Isaiah 45:1". Harvard Theological Review. 95 (4). doi:10.1017/S0017816002000251. Frye, Richard N. (1962). The Heritage of Persia. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 1-56859-008-3 Gershevitch, Ilya (1985). The Cambridge History of Iran: Vol. 2; The Median and Achaemenian periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-20091-1. Llewellyn-Jones, Lloyd (2017). "The Achaemenid Empire". In Daryaee, Touraj (ed.). King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE - 651 CE). UCI Jordan Center for Persian Studies. pp. 1–236. ISBN 9780692864401. Moorey, P.R.S. (1991). The Biblical Lands, VI. New York: Peter Bedrick Books . ISBN 0-87226-247-2 Olmstead, A. T. (1948). History of the Persian Empire [Achaemenid Period]. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-62777-2 Palou, Christine; Palou, Jean (1962). La Perse Antique. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. Potts, Daniel T. (2005). "Cyrus the Great and the Kingdom of Anshan". London: University of Sydney: 1–27. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Schmitt, Rüdiger (1983). "Achaemenid dynasty". Encyclopaedia Iranica. vol. 3. London: Routledge. Schmitt, Rüdiger (2010). "CYRUS i. The Name". Routledge & Kegan Paul. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Tait, Wakefield (1846). "The Presbyterian review and religious journal". Oxford University. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Waters, Matt (1996). "Darius and the Achaemenid Line". London: 11–18. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Waters, Matt (2004). "Cyrus and the Achaemenids". Iran. Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 42: 91–102. doi:10.2307/4300665. JSTOR 4300665. (registration required) Waters, Matt (2014). Ancient Persia: A Concise History of the Achaemenid Empire, 550–330 BCE. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–272. ISBN 9781107652729. Further reading[edit] Amelie Kuhrt: Ancient Near Eastern History: The Case of Cyrus the Great of Persia. In: Hugh Godfrey Maturin Williamson: Understanding the History of Ancient Israel. Oxford University Press 2007, ISBN 978-0-19-726401-0, pp. 107–28 Bickermann, Elias J. (September 1946). "The Edict of Cyrus in Ezra 1". Journal of Biblical Literature. 65 (3): 249–75. doi:10.2307/3262665. JSTOR 3262665. Dougherty, Raymond Philip (1929). Nabonidus and Belshazzar: A Study of the Closing Events of the Neo-Babylonian Empire. New Haven: Yale University Press. Drews, Robert (October 1974). "Sargon, Cyrus, and Mesopotamian Folk History". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 33 (4): 387–93. doi:10.1086/372377. S2CID 162226226. Harmatta, J. (1971). "The Rise of the Old Persian Empire: Cyrus the Great". Acta Antiquo. 19: 3–15. Lawrence, John M. (1985). "Cyrus: Messiah, Politician, and General". Near East Archaeological Society Bulletin. n.s. 25: 5–28. Lawrence, John M. (1982). "Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian Attitudes Towards Foreigners and Their Religion". Near East Archaeological Society Bulletin. n.s. 19: 27–40. Mallowan, Max (1972). "Cyrus the Great (558–529 BC)". Iran. 10: 1–17. doi:10.2307/4300460. JSTOR 4300460. Wiesehöfer, Josef (1996). Ancient Persia : from 550 BC to 650 AD. Azizeh Azodi, trans. London: I. B. Tauris. ISBN 1-85043-999-0. Jovy, Alexander (2011). I am Cyrus: The story of the Real Prince of Persia. Reading: Garnet Publishing. ISBN 978-1-85964-281-8. External links[edit] Cyrus the Greatat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Cyrus Cylinder Full Babylonian text of the Cyrus Cylinder as it was known in 2001; translation; brief introduction Xenophon, Cyropaedia: the education of Cyrus, translated by Henry Graham Dakyns and revised by F.M. Stawell, Project Gutenberg. 360 Panoramic Image – Tomb of Cyrus The Great[dead link] Cyrus the Great Achaemenid dynasty Born: c. 600 BC Died: 530 BC New title Not previously established King of Kings of Persian Empire ?–530 BC Succeeded by Cambyses II Preceded by Cambyses I King of Persia 559–530 BC Preceded by Astyages King of Media 550–530 BC Preceded by Croesus King of Lydia 547–530 BC Preceded by Nabonidus King of Babylon 539–530 BC v t e Cyrus the Great Teispids, Achaemenid Empire Family Cambyses I Mandane of Media Cassandane Amitis Children Cambyses II Bardiya Atossa Artystone Battles Persian Revolt Hyrba Persian Border Pasargadae Pteria Thymbra Sardis Opis Related "Cyrus" (name) Pasargadae Cyrus Cylinder Cyropaedia Tomb Cyrus in the Bible Cyrus's edict Cyrus in the Quran Dhul-Qarnayn Kay Bahman Cyrus the Great Day Cyrus the Great (screenplay) Ciro riconosciuto Category v t e Median and Achaemenid kings Family tree Median (728–550 BC) Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Achaemenid (550–330 BC) Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Nothus Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Italics indicate kings not directly attested and so possibly legendary. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC v t e Book of Daniel Bible Daniel 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Additions to Daniel Places Babylon Susa People Abednego Belshazzar Cyrus Daniel Darius Gabriel Meshach Michael Nebuchadnezzar Shadrach Jehoiakim Terms Abomination of desolation Belshazzar's feast Four kingdoms Lion's den Prophecy 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en-wikipedia-org-3762	----	Old Temple of Athena - Wikipedia Old Temple of Athena From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Old temple of Athena Polias (Archaios Neos) Central figure of the pediment of the temple Location within Greece General information Type Temple Architectural style Ancient Greek Archaic Location Athens, Greece Coordinates 37°58′17″N 23°43′36″E / 37.9715°N 23.7267°E / 37.9715; 23.7267Coordinates: 37°58′17″N 23°43′36″E / 37.9715°N 23.7267°E / 37.9715; 23.7267 Current tenants Museum of the Acropolis Construction started ca. 525 BC Completed ca. 500 BC (for the worship of Athena) Destroyed 480 BC (Persian Wars) Owner Greek government Technical details Size 21.3 m by 43.15 m The Old Temple of Athena was an Archaic temple located on the Acropolis of Athens between the Older Parthenon and Erechtheion, built around 525–500 BC, and dedicated to Athena Polias, the patron deity of the city of Athens. It was destroyed by the Persians in 480 BC, during the Destruction of Athens. It was located at the center of the Acropolis plateau, probably on the remains of a Mycenaean palace. The complex is sometimes described by the name "Dörpfeld foundations", after the archaeologist who found the location of the temple. It was referred to as "Archaios Neos" (Old Temple) by the Greeks. Contents 1 Description 1.1 Temple Plan 1.2 Sculpture 1.2.1 Pediments 1.2.2 Xoanon 2 Excavation and Reconstruction 2.1 Wilhelm Dörpfeld 2.2 Other scholars 3 Bibliography 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Description[edit] Temple Plan[edit] Foundations of the Old Temple of Athena, in front of the Erechtheion. It was destroyed by the armies of Xerxes I during the Achaemenid destruction of Athens, in 480-479 BC. Foundations of the Old Temple of Athena. Old Temple of Athena (restored). Floor plan of Old Temple Of Athena. Location of Old Temple Athena is #2. The foundations suggest the following basic description: the temple measured 21.3 by 43.15 m. It was surrounded by a peristasis of 6 by 12 columns. The difference between column axes was 4.04 m, narrowed by 0.31 m at the corners. The Stylobate was slightly curved, whether this also applied to the superstructure remains unclear. In both the pronaos and opisthodomos, two columns stood between short antae. The main building had two inner sanctums, the east cella and the west cella,[1] which was very short, in fact nearly square, and subdivided into three aisles by two rows of three columns each. It was followed by a pair of side-by-side rooms. The foundations were composed of various materials and constructed in varying techniques. While the load-bearing parts and internal supports were made of blue Acropolis limestone,[1] the foundations of the surrounding peristasis were of Poros limestone. The superstructure and decorative pieces also appear to have been made from a variety of materials, including Poros and Parian marble. Sculpture[edit] Pediments[edit] The old temple of Athena had two Poros pediments, around 15 m. in length.[2] The surviving pediment depicts Gigantomachy, the struggle between Gods and Giants, eventually won by the Gods. The central figure depicts the goddess Athena wearing an aegis covered with scales and edged by snakes obtained from a monster she previously defeated. She is thought to hit a falling Giant, whose foot is the only remain.[2] Scholars believe that this pediment originally contained a frontal chariot in the center with four horses and Zeus inside one of the chariot, pointing an arrow in the direction of Athena.[3] This images also shows Athena holding a snake and reaching out to a giant.[1] Another figure features a lying giant, whereas two side figures, one was positioned at the corners of the pediment, depict two more falling giants. Other remains ascribed to the temple include an entablature and sima of Parian marble and Poros limestone, capitals with a steep echinus, a marble sculpture depicting a procession, and marble waterspouts in each of the four corners, shaped like lions' and rams' heads.[1] Xoanon[edit] The main building of the temple had two parts, one of the spaces in the east Cella contained the ancient Xoanon or wooden statue of Athena, believed to have fallen from the sky,[1] or from Zeus.[2] The statue was probably taken to the Athenian fleet ('the wooden wall') and was therefore not destroyed when the Persians destroyed the old Temple of Athena Polias in 480 BC. It was eventually housed in the new temple of Athena Polias - the Erechtheion. The Xoanon statue was made out of olive-wood.[1] Slab of frieze of Old Athena Temple Athena fighting the giants (pediment). One of the two west pediment Gigantomachy Athena fighting the giants (pediment). Old Temple of Athena, pediment giant. Excavation and Reconstruction[edit] Wilhelm Dörpfeld[edit] Architectural remains of the Old Athena Temple built into the north wall of the Acropolis by Themistocles, circa 478 BC. Remains of the Old Temple of Athena built into the northern wall of the Acropolis by Themistocles, circa 478 BC.[4] Wilhelm Dörpfeld went to Athens in 1885[5] to look at the ruins of the Temple of Athena where he noticed some ruins were still standing and looked as though the architecture was the temple of Athena Polias.[5] Wilhelm saw a piece of a building that looked like a piece of the Erechtheiom temple, which was in the same location another archaeologist named Ross excavated in 1834.[5] Once Wilhelm saw the same ruins he cleared in 1834, Wilhelm went towards the ruins to examine and he immediately confirmed it was the old temple of Athena.[5] Wilhelm Dörpfeld assumed that the original structure was a double temple in antis, dating to about 570 BC, lengthened and broadened by the addition of the peristasis under Peisistratus, between 529 and 520 BC.[6] This idea led to a subdivision of the foundations into an inner smaller structure known as H-Architektur and assumed to be the oldest part of the building, followed by a structure still described as the "Old Temple of Athena", including the inner H-Architektur as well as the external peristasis. Other scholars[edit] The foundations of the Old Temple, visible in front of the Erechtheion The reconstruction of the temple's architectural history has remained controversial until recently. More recently, scholars have attributed the older remains, initially attributed to the inner H-Architektur, to the close Hekatompedon temple, dating the temple of Athena Polias to the last third of the 6th century BC and identifying its dimensions with the entirety of the foundations excavated by Dörpfeld.[7] The Old Temple of Athena Polias is often dated to[6] 510/500 BC.[8] There are many speculations that the old temple of Athena was rebuilt by the Athenians once they took over Athens again.[5] Frazer and Michaelis believe that the temple was not the old temple of Athena but, a new temple in the same location where the Erechtheion stood.[5] There were other scholars that did not agree with Dörpfeld's suggestion that the old temple of Athena was rebuilt and that the building was destroyed. Bates believes that Dörpfeld is correct with his discovery of the architecture and that it was indeed rebuilt.[5] Ferrari mentions that Bates took Dörpfeld's side on his excavation for lost treasure in the old temple of Athena, but the temple was not built right away as Dörpfeld thought it was.[5] Pericles (495-429 B.C.) who was a general and a politician to Athens citizens was the one who convinced the Athenian people to rebuild the Temples of Athena. He suggested to the Athenians not to have the location be a pile of rubble where the temple once stood because that could offend the gods.[5] It remains controversial whether a partial restoration of the temple followed the Persian sack of 480 BC. Herodotus[9] mentions a west-facing Megaron on the Acropolis. This reference, as well as a structure listed in an inscription,[10] has been interpreted as evidence that the Opisthodomus of the Old Temple remained in place through the fifth century. Xenophon[11] states that the Old Temple of Athena burned down in 406/405 BC, but this might also refer to the Erechtheion, which had taken over the functions of the Old Temple and housed the Xoanon.[9] From the 4th century BC onwards, there are no possible references to the Old Temple; Pausanias was not aware of its existence. Section of the Acropolis with Old Temple of Athena (reconstitution). Plan of the Old Temple of Athena. Location of the Temple on the Acropolis. Bibliography[edit] Wilhelm Dörpfeld: Der alte Athenatempel auf der Akropolis. In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Institus, Abteilung Athen. Vol. 11, 1886, p. 337–51. Wilhelm Dörpfeld: Der alte Athenatempel auf der Akropolis II. In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Institus, Abteilung Athen. Vol. 12 (1887), 25–61. 190–211 Wilhelm Dörpfeld: Das Hekatompedon in Athen. In: Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Institus. Vol. 34, 1919, p. 1–40. William B. Dinsmoor: The Hekatompedon on the Athenian Acropolis. In: American Journal of Archaeology. Vol. 51, 1947, p. 109–51 I. Beyer: Die Datierung der großen Reliefgiebel des Alten Athenatempels der Akropolis. In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. 1977, p. 44–74. William A. P. Childs: The Date of the Old Temple of Athena on the Athenian Acropolis. In: William D. E. Coulson et al. (eds.): The Archaeology of Athens and Attica under the Democracy. Proceedings of an International Conference celebrating 2500 years since the birth of democracy in Greece, held at the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, December 4–6, 1992. Oxford 1994, p. 1–6. Manolis Korres: Die Athena-Tempel auf der Akropolis. In: Wolfram Hoepfner (ed.): Kult und Kultbauten auf der Akropolis. Internationales Symposion vom 7. bis 9. Juli 1995 in Berlin. Berlin 1997, p. 218–43. Gloria Ferrari: The Ancient Temple on the Acropolis at Athens. In: American Journal of Archaeology. Vol. 106, 2002, p. 11–35. Stamatia Eleftheratou, Acropolis Museum, guide, Acropolis Museum Editions, Athens 2014 See also[edit] Hekatompedon temple Older Parthenon Parthenon References[edit] ^ a b c d e f Brouskai, Maria (1997). The Monuments of the Acropolis. Athens: Archaeological Receipts Fund. pp. 302–211. ^ a b c Frantzi, Helen (1970). The Acropolis. Athens: Voutsas. pp. 5–92. ^ Moore, Mary (1995). "The Central Group in the Gigantomachy of the Old Athena Temple on the Acropolis". American Journal of Archaeology. 99 (4): 633–639. doi:10.2307/506186. JSTOR 506186. ^ Old Temple of Athena, museum notice. 2019. ^ a b c d e f g h i Ferrari, Gloria (2002). "The Ancient Temple on the Acropolis at Athens". American Journal of Archaeology. 106 (1): 11–35. doi:10.2307/507187. JSTOR 507187. ^ a b Wilhelm Dörpfeld: Der alte Athenatempel auf der Akropolis. In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Institus, Abteilung Athen. Vol. 11, 1886, p. 337–51; Wilhelm Dörpfeld: Der alte Athenatempel auf der Akropolis II. In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Institus, Abteilung Athen. Vol. 12 (1887), 25–61. 190–211; Wilhelm Dörpfeld: Das Hekatompedon in Athen. In: Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Institus. Vol. 34, 1919, p. 1–40; William B. Dinsmoor: The Hekatompedon on the Athenian Acropolis. In: American Journal of Archaeology. Vol. 51, 1947, p. 109–51. ^ Manolis Korres: Die Athena-Tempel auf der Akropolis. In: Wolfram Hoepfner (ed.): Kult und Kultbauten auf der Akropolis. Internationales Symposion vom 7. bis 9. Juli 1995 in Berlin. Berlin 1997, p. 218–43; Stamatia Eleftheratou: “Acropolis Museum, guide”, Acropolis Museum Editions, Athens 2014, p. 116-23 ^ William A. P. Childs: The Date of the Old Temple of Athena on the Athenian Acropolis. In: William D. E. Coulson u.a. (eds.): The Archaeology of Athens and Attica under the Democracy. Proceedings of an International Conference celebrating 2500 years since the birth of democracy in Greece, held at the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, December 4–6, 1992. Oxford 1994, p. 1–6; suggesting a date before 520: Manolis Korres: Die Athena-Tempel auf der Akropolis. In: Wolfram Hoepfner (ed.): Kult und Kultbauten auf der Akropolis. Internationales Symposion vom 7. bis 9. Juli 1995 in Berlin. Berlin 1997, p. 218–43 ^ a b Herodotus 5, 77. ^ Inscriptiones Graecae I² 91/92. ^ Xenophon, Hellenika 1, 6, 1. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Old Temple of Athena. theacropolismuseum.gr Image of the foundations from ASCSA.net v t e Acropolis of Athens Existent structures Parthenon Erechtheion Propylaea Temple of Athena Nike Odeon of Herodes Atticus Pedestal of Agrippa Stoa of Eumenes Sanctuary of Asclepius Theatre of Dionysus Eleuthereus Aglaureion Choragic Monument of Thrasyllos Cave Sanctuaries of the Akropolis Peripatos Infrastructure Former structures Pelasgic wall Hekatompedon temple Older Parthenon Old Temple of Athena Perserschutt Statue of Athena Promachos Statue of Athena Parthenos Sanctuary of Artemis Brauronia Chalkotheke Pandroseion Arrephorion Altar of Athena Eleusinion Nike of Callimachus Sanctuary of Pandion Sanctuary of Zeus Polieus Odeon of Pericles Frankish Tower Choragic Monument of Nikias Klepsydra People Creation Themistocles Pericles Phidias Ictinus Callicrates Mnesikles Destruction Xerxes I Mardonius Francesco Morosini Lord Elgin Giovanni Battista Lusieri Reverend Philip Hunt Museums Acropolis Museum Old Acropolis Museum Museum of the Center for the Acropolis Studies Elgin Marbles at the British Museum Authority control VIAF: 237047195 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 237047195 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_Temple_of_Athena&oldid=994594958" Categories: Ancient Greek buildings and structures in Athens Temples in ancient Athens Former buildings and structures in Greece Archaic Athens Temples of Athena 6th-century BC religious buildings and structures Destroyed landmarks in Greece Hidden categories: Coordinates on Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Արեւմտահայերէն Беларуская Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Galego Հայերեն Íslenska Italiano مصرى Nederlands Português Русский Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 16 December 2020, at 15:08 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3780	----	The 300 Spartans - Wikipedia The 300 Spartans From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 1962 film by Rudolph Maté This article is about the 1962 film. For the historical Spartan contingent, see Battle of Thermopylae. The 300 Spartans Theatrical release poster Directed by Rudolph Maté Produced by Rudolph Maté George St. George Screenplay by George St. George Story by Gian Paolo Callegari Remigio Del Grosso Giovanni d'Eramo Ugo Liberatore Starring Richard Egan Sir Ralph Richardson Diane Baker Barry Coe David Farrar Music by Manos Hadjidakis Cinematography Geoffrey Unsworth Edited by Jerry Webb Production company 20th Century Fox Distributed by 20th Century Fox Release date August 29, 1962 (1962-08-29) (US) Running time 114 min Country United States Language English Budget £500,000 (approximately $1,350,000.) Epitaph with Simonides' epigram (modern replica) The 300 Spartans is a 1962 CinemaScope epic film[1] depicting the Battle of Thermopylae. Made with the cooperation of the Greek government, it was shot in the village of Perachora in the Peloponnese. The working title was Lion of Sparta.[2] It stars Richard Egan as the Spartan king Leonidas, Sir Ralph Richardson as Themistocles of Athens and David Farrar as Persian king Xerxes, with Diane Baker as Ellas and Barry Coe as Phylon providing the requisite romantic element in the film. Greek warriors, led by 300 Spartans, fight against a Persian army of almost limitless size. Despite the odds, the Spartans will not flee or surrender, even if it means their deaths. When it was released in 1962, critics saw the movie as a commentary on the Cold War,[3] referring to the independent Greek states as "the only stronghold of freedom remaining in the then known world", holding out against the Persian "slave empire". Contents 1 Plot 2 Main cast 3 Production 4 Release 5 Other adaptions 6 Legacy 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Plot[edit] King Xerxes of Persia leads a vast army of soldiers into Europe to defeat the small city-states of Greece, not only to fulfill the idea of "one world ruled by one master", but also to avenge the defeat of his father Darius at the Battle of Marathon ten years before. Accompanying him are Artemisia, the Queen of Halicarnassus, who beguiles Xerxes with her feminine charm, and Demaratus, an exiled king of Sparta, to whose warnings Xerxes pays little heed. In Corinth, Themistocles of Athens wins the support of the Greek allies and convinces both the delegates and the Spartan representative, warrior king Leonidas I, to grant Sparta leadership of their forces. Outside the hall, Leonidas and Themistocles agree to fortify the narrow pass at Thermopylae until the rest of the army arrives. After this, Leonidas learns of the Persian advance and travels to Sparta to spread the news and rally the rest of the troops. In Sparta, his fellow king Leotychidas is fighting a losing battle with the Ephors over the religious harvest festival of Carnea that is due to take place, with members of the council arguing that the army should wait until after the festival is over before it marches, while Leotychidas fears that by that time the Persians may have conquered Greece. Leonidas decides to march north immediately with his personal bodyguard of 300 men, who are exempt from the decisions of the Ephors and the Gerousia. They are subsequently reinforced by about 700 volunteer Thespians led by Demophilus and few other Greek allies. After several days of fighting, Xerxes grows angry as his army is repeatedly routed by the Greeks, with the Spartans in the forefront. Leonidas receives word sent by his wife that, by decision of the Ephors, the remainder of the Spartan army, rather than joining him as he had expected, will only fortify the isthmus in the Peloponnese and will advance no further. The Greeks constantly beat back the Persians, and following the defeat of most of his personal bodyguard in battle against the Spartans plus the killing/death of Xerxes' own two brothers, Xerxes begins to consider withdrawing to Sardis until he can equip a larger force at a later date. He prepares to withdraw, as advised by Artemesia (who, having a Greek mother, has her own agenda to dissuade the king from continuing the invasion). Xerxes, however, receives word from the treacherous and avaricious Ephialtes of a secret old goat-track through the mountains that will enable his forces to attack the Greeks from the rear. Promising to richly reward the traitorous goatherd for his betrayal (just as Ephialtes had expected) an emboldened Xerxes sends his army onward. Once Leonidas realizes he will be surrounded, he sends away the Greek allies to alert the cities to the south. Being too few to hold the pass, the Spartans instead attack the Persian front, where Xerxes is nearby. Leonidas is killed in the melée. Meanwhile, the Thespians, who had refused to leave, are overwhelmed (offscreen) while defending the rear. Surrounded, the surviving Spartans refuse Xerxes's demand to give up Leonidas' body. They are then all annihilated as the remaining Immortals rain down a barrage of arrowfire. After this, narration states that the Battle of Salamis and the Battle of Plataea end the Persian invasion, but that the Greeks could not have been organized and victorious without the time bought by the 300 Spartans who defied the tyranny of Xerxes at Thermopylae. One of the final images of the film is the stone memorial bearing the epigram of Simonides of Ceos, which the narrator recites in honour of the slain 300 Spartan men's bravery : "Oh stranger, tell the Spartans that we lie here obedient to their word." Then ends with : "...But it was more than a victory for Greece, it was a stirring example to free people throughout the world of what a few brave men can accomplish once they refuse to submit to tyranny!" Main cast[edit] Richard Egan as King Leonidas of Sparta Ralph Richardson as Themistocles of Athens Diane Baker as Ellas, daughter of Pentheus Barry Coe as Phyllon, Spartan in love with Ellas David Farrar as King Xerxes of Persia Donald Houston as Hydarnes, leader of the Persian Immortals Anna Synodinou as Queen Gorgo of Sparta Kieron Moore as Ephialtes of Trachis, farm worker & Greek traitor John Crawford as Agathon, Spartan spy and soldier Robert Brown as Pentheus, Leonidas' second-in-command Laurence Naismith a Greek delegate Anne Wakefield as Artemisia, Queen of Halicarnassus Ivan Triesault as Demaratus, exiled former King of Sparta Charles Fernley Fawcett as Megistias, Spartan priest Michalis Nikolinakos as Myron, a Spartan Sandro Giglio as Xenathon, a Spartan Ephor Dimos Starenios as Samos, a goatherd Anna Raftopoulou as Toris, Samos' wife Yorgos Moutsios as Demophilus, leader of the Thespians Nikos Papakonstantinou as Grellas, a Spartan in Xerxes' camp John G. Contes as Artovadus, Persian general Marietta Flemotomos as a Greek woman Kostas Baladimas as Mardonius, Persian general Zannino as Athenian citizen, Persian general Production[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The battle scenes were shot around Vouliagmenis Lagoon [4] (north of Loutraki and the Corinth Canal and west of the village of Perachora; northwest of Athens)--not to be confused with the much smaller Lake Vouliagmeni, due south of Athens. The northern Corinthian site doubled as Thermopylae and the surrounding areas as it had become impossible to shoot at the actual location in Thermopylae. The passage of 2,500 years of the receding coastline turned the strait where the actual battle was fought in 480 BCE into a broad coastal plain facing the Malian Gulf adding about 3.5 kilometers of dry land to the coastline by mid-20th century. The Greek Defense Ministry agreed to make available to the producers up to 5,000 members of the Hellenic Army for a pre-negotiated fee. However, the film's budgetary constraints reduced the numbers drawn to only two battalions (approximately 1,100 men). The largest establishing scenes, of the Persian Army entering Greece, utilized many of these soldiers, together with a combined total of several hundred civilian extras, horses, cattle, ox carts, and chariots. For the wider establishing scenes of the battle, one battalion was retained to play both Greeks (about 450 soldier-extras) and Persians (some 650 soldiers). For closer compositions of the fighting and encampments, military extras were called (call-sheeted) by company-size or smaller units, in meeting the specific needs of the day's shooting schedule. Director of Photography Geoffrey Unsworth made good use of the tree groves, which lined the coastal plain aside the Limni Vouliagmeni[5] lagoon, to cover for the obvious deficiency in the number of troops that would have been amassed on the Persian-side of the battle line.[citation needed] Originally developed as an Italian sword-and-sandal project, the cooperation and blessing of the Greek government allowed the producers to both finance and complete the production on a budget of 500,000 GBP (equivalent to £10,745,341 in 2019) or approximately US$1,350,000 (equivalent to $11,410,396 in 2019), roughly twice for what most Italian peplum films were being made at the time. The 300 Spartans was the last film of Richard Egan's seven-year contract with 20th Century Fox. It was also the last film appearance of David Farrar, who then chose to retire from acting.[citation needed] Release[edit] In 1970, despite the attributed Cold War connotations, the film was dubbed in Russian and shown in the USSR. The film proved to be very popular, with 27.1 million total viewers.[6] Other adaptions[edit] Comic book -Dell Movie Classic: Lion of Sparta (January 1963)[7][8] Novelisation - John Burke - The 300 Spartans Signet, New York; First Printing edition (1962)[9] Legacy[edit] Frank Miller's 1998 graphic novel 300 depicts the same Battle of Thermopylae. The comic artist saw The 300 Spartans as a boy and said "it changed the course of my creative life".[10] In 2006, his book was adapted into a successful film of the same name directed by Zack Snyder.[11] See also[edit] List of American films of 1962 List of historical drama films 300, 2006 film 300: Rise of an Empire, 2014 film List of films based on military books (pre-1775) References[edit] ^ Halliwell, Leslie, Halliwell’s Film Guide, second edition, Granada, London, 1977 p. 881 ^ "The 300 Spartans (1962): Notes". Turner Classic Movies. ^ Beam, Alex (8 March 2007). "Meanwhile: Hot times at the 'Hot Gates'". International Herald Tribune. Retrieved 2007-06-03. ^ http://www.western-locations-spain.com/genre/epic/index.htm ^ http://www.western-locations-spain.com/genre/epic/index.htm ^ Kinopoisk.ru. Retrieved from http://www.kinopoisk.ru/top/lists/184/film/64043/page/6/#film64043. ^ Dell Movie Classic: Lion of Sparta at the Grand Comics Database ^ Dell Movie Classic: Lion of Sparta at the Comic Book DB (archived from the original) ^ https://www.amazon.com/300-Spartans-John-Burke/dp/B000MU4J8W%7C ^ UnderGroundOnline interview Archived 2007-03-19 at the Wayback Machine ^ Ito, Robert (November 26, 2006). "The Gore of Greece, Torn From a Comic". The New York Times. External links[edit] The 300 Spartans on IMDb The 300 Spartans (1962) at DBCult Film Institute The 300 Spartans! at AllMovie The 300 Spartans publicity photos at 300spartanwarriors.com v t e Films directed by Rudolph Maté It Had to Be You (1947) The Dark Past (1948) D.O.A. (1949) No Sad Songs for Me (1950) Union Station (1950) Branded (1950) The Prince Who Was a Thief (1951) When Worlds Collide (1951) The Green Glove (1952) Sally and Saint Anne (1952) Paula (1952) The Mississippi Gambler (1953) Second Chance (1953) Forbidden (1953) Siege at Red River (1954) The Black Shield of Falworth (1954) The Violent Men (1955) The Far Horizons (1955) The Rawhide Years (1955) Miracle in the Rain (1956) Port Afrique (1956) Three Violent People (1956) The Deep Six (1958) For the First Time (1959) Revak the Rebel (1960) The 300 Spartans (1962) Seven Seas to Calais (1962) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_300_Spartans&oldid=996681281" Categories: 1962 films English-language films 1960s historical films American films American historical films Classical war films Battle of Thermopylae American epic films Epic films based on actual events Films set in ancient Greece Films shot in Greece Films set in the 5th century BC 20th Century Fox films Films directed by Rudolph Maté Siege films Films adapted into comics 1960s war adventure films Historical epic films Films scored by Manos Hatzidakis Cultural depictions of Leonidas I Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Template film date with 1 release date Pages using infobox film with unknown empty parameters Articles needing additional references from March 2016 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2019 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Català Deutsch Español Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Magyar Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Simple English Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 28 December 2020, at 01:47 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3799	----	Royal Library of the Netherlands - Wikipedia Royal Library of the Netherlands From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from NTA (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search National Library of the Netherlands KB National Library of the Netherlands Koninklijke Bibliotheek (KB) The KB as seen from the Prins Bernhardviaduct Type National Library Established 1798 (223 years ago) (1798) Location The Hague Coordinates 52°4′50.37″N 4°19′36.35″E / 52.0806583°N 4.3267639°E / 52.0806583; 4.3267639Coordinates: 52°4′50.37″N 4°19′36.35″E / 52.0806583°N 4.3267639°E / 52.0806583; 4.3267639 Collection Size 7 million printed items: over 115 km (71 miles) of books, newspapers, journals, and microforms[1] Access and use Members 16,975 Other information Budget €53 million Director Lily Knibbeler Staff 412 Website www.kb.nl/en Map The Royal Library of the Netherlands (Dutch: Koninklijke Bibliotheek or KB; Royal Library) is the national library of the Netherlands, based in The Hague, founded in 1798.[2][3] The KB collects everything that is published in and concerning the Netherlands, from medieval literature to today's publications. About 7 million publications are stored in the stockrooms, including books, newspapers, magazines and maps. The KB also offers many digital services, such as the national online Library (with e-books and audiobooks), Delpher (millions of digitized pages) and The Memory. Since 2015, the KB has played a coordinating role for the network of the public library.[4] Contents 1 History 2 Collection 3 Literature museum 4 Research 5 See also 6 References 7 External links History[edit] The initiative to found a national library was proposed by representative Albert Jan Verbeek on August 17, 1798. The collection would be based on the confiscated book collection of William V.[5][6] The library was officially founded as the Nationale Bibliotheek on November 8 of the same year, after a committee of representatives had advised the creation of a national library on the same day. The National Library was initially only open to members of the Representative Body. King Louis Bonaparte gave the national library its name of the Royal Library in 1806. Napoleon Bonaparte transferred the Royal Library to The Hague as property, while also allowing the Imperial Library in Paris to expropriate publications from the Royal Library. In 1815 King William I of the Netherlands confirmed the name of 'Royal Library' (Dutch: Koninklijke Bibliotheek) by royal resolution. It has been known as the National Library of the Netherlands since 1982, when it opened new quarters.[7] The institution became 'Independent Administrative Body' of the state in 1996, although it is financed by the Department of Education, Culture and Science. On 18 November 2014 the Wsob (Public Library Facilities System Act or 'Library Act') came into being. The act became valid on 1 January 2015 and from this moment onwards four organizations from the library world continued under the name Koninklijke Bibliotheek. These organizations are Sector Institute Public Libraries (SIOB), the Foundation Bibliotheek.nl (BNL), the Digital Library for Dutch Literature (DBNL) and the Koninklijke Bibliotheek (KB). Collection[edit] The humanities are central to the collection of the KB, with an emphasis on Dutch history, language and culture. In 2016, the KB contained 7,000,000 items, equivalent to 115 kilometers of bookshelves. Most items in the collection are books. There are also pieces of "grey literature", where the author, publisher, or date may not be apparent but the document has cultural or intellectual significance.[7] The collection contains almost the entire literature of the Netherlands, from medieval manuscripts to modern scientific publications. As there was no law for depositing Dutch publication the library started on January 1, 1974 the voluntary Dutch Repository Library. This in contrast with most other countries that have a legal deposit of publications. For a publication to be accepted, it must be from a registered Dutch publisher.[7] The Royal Library of the Netherlands also has works of art and antiquities. One such piece of art is The Madonna with the Christ Child by fifteenth-century French painter Jean Fouquet, who is regarded as one of the best painters from that era. A valuable antiquity that is housed within the library is a bound book by Christopher Plantin (1520–89), a sixteenth-century French printer and publisher. The binding is made of brown calfskin with gold tooling. The book was made at Plantin’s workshop in Antwerp and was dedicated to Emperor Charles V (1500–58). The library also has remarkable eighteenth-century brocade paper from Augsburg, Germany. In addition, the library holds a rare elaborately illustrated book from 1596. The book is of the travels of Jan Huygen van Linschoten (1563-1611). He traveled to Spain, India, Indonesia, and East Asia.[8] Another valuable antiquity is the oldest depiction of ‘Dutchmen’. In 975, Count Dirk and Countess Hildegard donated the medieval manuscript, known as Egmond Gospels, to the Abbey of Egmond. It is one of the oldest surviving church treasures and includes depictions of ‘Dutch’ people and buildings. The Egmond Gospels were lost around the sixteenth-century, but were found in the early nineteenth-century. Knowing its historical significance, the Dutch government purchased the manuscript and brought it to the Royal Library of the Netherlands.[9] The Royal Library of the Netherlands also has the Trivulzio Book of House (ca.1465), a medieval manuscript that measures 9 cm x 13 cm, and contains wonderfully detailed Flemish miniature art.[10] The collection is accessible for members. Any person aged 16 years or older can become a member. One day passes are also available. Requests for material take approximately 30 minutes. The KB hosts several open access websites, including the "Memory of the Netherlands" (Geheugen van Nederland),[11] Digital Library for Dutch Literature[12] and Delpher, an archive of more than 100 million pages as of 2020.[13] Literature museum[edit] The Literature museum (in Dutch: Literatuurmuseum) was founded in 1750[14] as Nederlands Letterkundig Museum,[15] The museum contains a large collection of letters, manuscripts and memorabilia. The museum has three permanent and several temporary exhibitions. It also contains a special children's book museum.[14] On 4 February 2016, an online museum was opened.[15] On 1 November 2016, the museum was renamed to Literature museum.[16] The museum has a reading room with an extensive collection of newspaper clipping, and under certain conditions, some archival material can be consulted.[14] Research[edit] The KB's Research Department is engaged in internationally renowned research in the field of digital technology, sustainable preservation and accessibility of both paper and digital heritage. Important topics are the applicability of artificial intelligence, the use of big data, the increasing importance of privacy & security, the changes in the publishing and publishing world and the role of public libraries in today's society. See also[edit] List of libraries in the Netherlands European Library Nederlandse Centrale Catalogus (Dutch Central Catalog) Books in the Netherlands References[edit] ^ "KB in a nutshell". ^ "Koninklijke Bibliotheek / Royal Library of the Netherlands". The Conference of European National Librarians (CENL). Retrieved 2020-05-23. ^ "Dutch Royal Library | library, The Hague, Netherlands". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-05-23. ^ "The National Library of the Netherlands - Digital Preservation (Library of Congress)". www.digitalpreservation.gov. Retrieved 2020-05-23. ^ "National Library of The Netherlands". Preserving the World's Rarest Books. 2018-02-13. Retrieved 2019-08-13. ^ Hanson, J. C. M. (April 1940). "Review: The Royal Library of the Netherlands". The Library Quarterly: Information, Community, Policy. The University of Chicago Press. 10 (2): 266–269. doi:10.1086/614725. JSTOR 4302710. ^ a b c Murray, Stuart (2009). The Library: An Illustrated History. Chicago: Skyhorse Publishing. ^ Murray, Stuart. The Library: An Illustrated History. New York: Skyhorse, 2019. Print. ^ [1] Egmond Gospels. KB National Library of the Netherlands ^ [2] Trivulzio Book of Hours (ca.1465). KB National Library of the Netherlands ^ "Image database - Memory of the Netherlands - Online image database of archives, museums and libraries". geheugenvannederland.nl. ^ "Organisatie". Digital Library for Dutch Literature (in Dutch). Retrieved 14 June 2020. ^ "Delpher: de Organisatie". Delpher (in Dutch). Retrieved 14 June 2020. ^ a b c "Literatuurmuseum". The Memory. Retrieved 14 June 2020. ^ a b "Literatuurmuseum". Mondriaan Fonds. Retrieved 14 June 2020. ^ "Letterkundig Museum wordt Literatuurmuseum". Literatuur Museum (in Dutch). Retrieved 14 June 2020. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Koninklijke Bibliotheek. Official website (in English) Literature museum (in Dutch) v t e Netherlands articles Part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands History Germanic tribes Roman Era Frisii, Chamavi, Batavi, Cananefates Migration Period Saxons, Frisians, Franks Dorestad, Utrecht Development urban centers Frisian Kingdom Frankish Kingdom Middle Francia Lower Lorraine Flanders, Holland, Frisian Freedom Brabant, Guelders Holy Roman Empire Burgundian Netherlands Habsburg Netherlands Renaissance Seventeen Provinces Spanish Netherlands Eighty Years' War Dutch Republic Golden Age Batavian Revolution Batavian Republic Kingdom of Holland First French Empire Principality United Kingdom Netherlands since 1900 World War II Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands Geography Birds Cities Delta Works Earthquakes Extreme points Flood control Gas field Islands Lakes Mammals Mountains and hills Regions Rivers Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta Volcanoes World Heritage Sites Zuiderzee Works Politics Cabinet Constitution Corruption 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WorldCat Identities Authority control BIBSYS: 90886046 BNE: XX124092 BNF: cb11987395j (data) CANTIC: a10109481 GND: 2016385-X ISNI: 0000 0001 2369 9000 LCCN: n79130800 LNB: 000061265 NKC: ko2003164738 NLA: 36189008 NLP: A26286117 NSK: 000127836 PLWABN: 9810572830705606 RERO: 02-A000183211 SUDOC: 027938743 Trove: 1226258 ULAN: 500307428 VIAF: 102145970121932251120 WorldCat Identities: viaf-102145970121932251120 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Royal_Library_of_the_Netherlands&oldid=998486233" Categories: 1798 establishments in Europe Dutch culture Government of the Netherlands Libraries in The Hague National libraries Organisations based in the Netherlands with royal patronage Open-access archives Organisations based in The Hague Education in South Holland Libraries established in 1798 Hidden categories: CS1 Dutch-language sources (nl) Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata Infobox mapframe without OSM 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Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Српски / srpski Suomi Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 5 January 2021, at 16:17 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3802	----	Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt 404 BC–398 BC Capital Sais Common languages Egyptian language Religion Ancient Egyptian Religion Government Absolute monarchy Historical era Classical antiquity • End of Satrapy 404 BC • Deposition of Amyrtaeus 398 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt (notated Dynasty XXVIII, alternatively 28th Dynasty or Dynasty 28) is usually classified as the third dynasty of the Ancient Egyptian Late Period. The 28th Dynasty lasted from 404 BC to 398 BC and it includes only one Pharaoh, Amyrtaeus (Amenirdis), also known as Psamtik V or Psammetichus V. Amyrtaeus was probably the grandson of the Amyrtaeus of Sais, who is known to have carried on a rebellion in 465–463 BC with the Libyan chief, Inarus (himself a grandson of Psamtik III), against the satrap Achaemenes of Achaemenid Egypt. Contents 1 History 2 Pharaohs of the 28th Dynasty 3 References 4 Sources 5 See also History[edit] As early as 411 BC, Amyrtaeus, a native Egyptian, revolted against Darius II, the Achaemenid Persian King and the last Pharaoh of the 27th Dynasty. Amyrtaeus succeeded in expelling the Persians from Memphis in 405 BC with assistance from Cretan mercenaries, and in 404 BC, following the death of Darius, proclaimed himself Pharaoh of Egypt. Although Artaxerxes II, Darius' successor as King of Persia attempted to lead an expedition to retake Egypt he was unable to do so, due to political problems with his brother, Cyrus the Younger. This allowed Amyrtaeus to solidify Egyptian rule over Egypt. Very little is known about Amyrtaeus' reign. No monuments from this dynasty have been found. In 398 BC Amyrtaeus was overthrown and executed by Nefaarud I, ending the 28th Dynasty and beginning the 29th Dynasty.[1] Pharaohs of the 28th Dynasty[edit] Main article: List of pharaohs Name of Pharaoh Cartouche Reign Throne Name Comments Amyrtaeus / Psamtik V/ Psammetichus V 404-398 BC Founder of 28th Dynasty References[edit] ^ David, Klotz (2015-09-19). "Persian Period". UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology. 1 (1). Sources[edit] O. Perdu, 'Saites and Persians (664-332),' in A.B. Lloyd (ed.), A Companion to Ancient Egypt (Chichester, 2010), 140-58 (at 153-7). J.D. Ray, 'Egypt: Dependence and Independence (425-343 B.C.)', in Achaemenid History 1 (Leiden, 1987), 79-95. See also[edit] Achaemenid Egypt topics History of Ancient Egypt v t e Ancient Egypt topics Index Major topics Glossary of artifacts Agriculture Architecture (Egyptian Revival architecture) Art Portraiture Astronomy Chronology Cities (list) Clothing Cuisine Dance Dynasties Funerary practices Geography Great Royal Wives (list) Hieroglyphs History Language Literature Mathematics Medicine Military Music Mythology People Pharaohs (list) Philosophy Religion Sites Technology Trade Writing Egyptology Egyptologists Museums  Ancient Egypt portal Book Category WikiProject Commons Outline Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Twenty-eighth_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=970541347" Categories: Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt States and territories established in the 5th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 4th century BC Dynasties of ancient Egypt 404 BC 5th-century BC establishments in Egypt 398 BC 4th-century BC disestablishments in Egypt Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara Français 한국어 Íslenska Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska தமிழ் Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 31 July 2020, at 22:30 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3804	----	Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt 1189 BC–1077 BC Portrait of Ramesses IX from his tomb KV6. Capital Pi-Ramesses Common languages Egyptian language Religion Ancient Egyptian Religion Government Absolute monarchy Historical era Iron Age • Established 1189 BC • Disestablished 1077 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt (notated Dynasty XX, alternatively 20th Dynasty or Dynasty 20) is the third and last dynasty of the Ancient Egyptian New Kingdom period, lasting from 1189 BC to 1077 BC. The 19th and 20th Dynasties furthermore together constitute an era known as the Ramesside period. Contents 1 History 1.1 Background 1.2 20th Dynasty 1.2.1 Setnakhte 1.2.2 Ramesses III 1.2.3 Ramesses IV 1.2.4 Ramesses V 1.2.5 Ramesses VI 1.2.6 Ramesses VII 1.2.7 Ramesses VIII 1.2.8 Ramesses IX 1.2.9 Ramesses X 1.2.10 Ramesses XI 1.3 Decline 2 Pharaohs of the 20th Dynasty 3 Timeline of the 20th Dynasty 4 Pharaonic Family tree 5 Gallery of images 6 See also 7 References History[edit] Background[edit] Upon the death of the last pharaoh of the 19th Dynasty, Queen Twosret, Egypt descended into a period of civil war, as attested by the Elephantine stela built by Setnakhte. The circumstances of Twosret's demise are uncertain, as she may have died peacefully during her reign or been overthrown by Setnakhte, who was likely already middle aged at the time.[1] 20th Dynasty[edit] A consistent theme of this dynasty was the loss of pharaonic power to the High Priests of Amun. Horemheb, a pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty, had restored the traditional Ancient Egyptian religion and the priesthood of Amun after their abandonment by Akhenaten. With the High Priests now acting as intermediaries between the gods and the people, rather than the pharaoh, the position of pharaoh no longer commanded the same kind of power as it had in the past.[2] Setnakhte[edit] Main article: Setnakhte Setnakhte stabilized the situation in Egypt, and may have driven off an attempted invasion by the Sea Peoples. He ruled for about 4 years before being succeeded by his son Ramesses III. Ramesses III[edit] Main article: Ramesses III In Year 5 of his reign, Ramesses defeated a Libyan invasion of Egypt by the Libu, Meshwesh and Seped people through Marmarica, who had previously unsuccessfully invaded during the reign of Merneptah.[3] Ramesses III is most famous for decisively defeating a confederacy of the Sea Peoples, including the Denyen, Tjekker, Peleset, Shardana and Weshesh in the Battle of the Delta and the Battle of Djahy during Year 8 of his reign. Within the Papyrus Harris I, which attests these events in detail, Ramesses is said to have settled the defeated Sea Peoples in "strongholds", most likely located in Canaan, as his subjects.[2][4] In Year 11 of Ramesses' reign, another coalition of Libyan invaders was defeated in Egypt. Between regnal Year 12 and Year 29, a systematic program of reorganization of the varied cults of the Ancient Egyptian religion was undertaken, by creating and funding new cults and restoring temples. In Year 29 of Ramesses' reign, the first recorded labor strike in human history took place, after food rations for the favored and elite royal tomb builders and artisans in the village of Set Maat (now known as Deir el-Medina), could not be provisioned.[5] The reign of Ramesses III is also known for a harem conspiracy in which Queen Tiye, one of his lesser wives, was implicated in an assassination attempt against the king, with the goal of putting her son Pentawer on the throne. The coup was unsuccessful, as while the king apparently died from the attempt on his life, his legitimate heir and son Ramesses IV succeeded him to the throne, arresting and putting approximately 30 conspirators to death.[6][7] Ramesses IV[edit] Main article: Ramesses IV At the start of his reign Ramesses IV started an enormous building program on the scale of Ramesses the Great's own projects. He doubled the number of work gangs at Set Maat to a total of 120 men and dispatched numerous expeditions to the stone quarries of Wadi Hammamat and the turquoise mines of the Sinai. One of the largest expeditions included 8,368 men, of which some 2,000 were soldiers.[8] Ramesses expanded his father's Temple of Khonsu at Karnak and possibly began his own mortuary temple at a site near the Temple of Hatshepsut. Another smaller temple is associated with Ramesses north of Medinet Habu. Ramesses IV saw issues with the provision of food rations to his workmen, similar to the situation under his father. Ramessesnakht, the High Priest of Amun at the time, began to accompany state officials as they went to pay the workmen their rations, suggesting that, at least in part, it was the Temple of Amun and not the Egyptian state that was responsible for their wages.[citation needed] He also produced the Papyrus Harris I, the longest known papyrus from Ancient Egypt, measuring in at 41 meters long with 1,500 lines of text to celebrate the achievements of his father. Ramesses V[edit] Main article: Ramesses V Ramesses V reigned for no more than 4 years, dying of smallpox in 1143 BC. The only monument attested to him is a stela near Gebel el-Silsila.[citation needed] The Turin Papyrus Cat. 2044 attests that during his reign the workmen of Set Maat were forced to periodically stop working on Ramesses' KV9 tomb out of "fear of the enemy", suggesting increasing instability in Egypt and an inability to defend the country from what are presumed to be Libyan raiding parties.[9] The Wilbour Papyrus is thought to date from Ramesses V's reign. The document reveals that most of the land in Egypt by that point was controlled by the Temple of Amun, and that the Temple had complete control over Egypt's finances.[10] Ramesses VI[edit] Main article: Ramesses VI Ramesses VI is best known for his tomb which, when built, inadvertently buried the tomb of pharaoh Tutankhamun underneath, keeping it safe from grave robbing until its discovery by Howard Carter in 1922. Ramesses VII[edit] Main article: Ramesses VII Ramesses VII's only monument is his tomb, KV1.[citation needed] Ramesses VIII[edit] Main article: Ramesses VIII Almost nothing is known about Ramesses VIII's reign, which lasted for a single year. He is only attested at Medinet Habu and through a few plaques. The only monument from his reign is his modest tomb, which was used for Mentuherkhepeshef, son of Ramesses IX, rather than Ramesses VIII himself.[citation needed] Ramesses IX[edit] Main article: Ramesses IX During Year 16 and Year 17 of Ramesses IX's reign famous tomb robbery trials took place, as attested by the Abbott Papyrus. A careful examination by a vizierial commission was undertaken of ten royal tombs, four tombs of the Chantresses of the Estate of the Divine Adoratrix, and finally the tombs of the citizens of Thebes. Many of these were found to have been broken into, like the tomb of Pharaoh Sobekemsaf II, whose mummy had been stolen.[11] Ramesses IX's cartouche has been found at Gezer in Canaan, suggesting that Egypt at this time still had some degree of influence in the region.[12] Most of the building projects during Ramesses IX's reign were at Heliopolis.[13] Ramesses X[edit] Main article: Ramesses X Ramesses X's reign is poorly documented. The Necropolis Journal of Set Maat records the general idleness of the workmen at this time, due, at least in part, to the danger of Libyan raiders.[14] Ramesses XI[edit] Main article: Ramesses XI Ramesses XI was the last pharaoh of the 20th Dynasty. During his reign the position grew so weak that in the south the High Priests of Amun at Thebes became the de facto rulers of Upper Egypt, while Smendes controlled Lower Egypt even before Ramesses XI's death. Smendes would eventually found the Twenty-First dynasty at Tanis.[15] Decline[edit] As happened under the earlier Nineteenth Dynasty, this dynasty struggled under the effects of the bickering between the heirs of Ramesses III. For instance, three different sons of Ramesses III are known to have assumed power as Ramesses IV, Ramesses VI and Ramesses VIII respectively. However, at this time Egypt was also increasingly beset by a series of droughts, below-normal flooding levels of the Nile, famine, civil unrest and official corruption – all of which would limit the managerial abilities of any king. Pharaohs of the 20th Dynasty[edit] Main article: List of pharaohs The pharaohs of the 20th Dynasty ruled for approximately 120 years: from c. 1187 to 1064 BC. The dates and names in the table are mostly taken from "Chronological Table for the Dynastic Period" in Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss & David Warburton (editors), Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies), Brill, 2006. Many of the pharaohs were buried in the Valley of the Kings in Thebes (designated KV). More information can be found on the Theban Mapping Project website.[16] Pharaoh Image Throne Name / Prenomen Reign Burial Consort(s) Comments Setnakhte Userkhaure-setepenre 1189 – 1186 BC KV14 Tiy-merenese May have usurped the throne from his predecessor, Twosret. Ramesses III Usermaatre-Meryamun 1186 – 1155 BC KV11 Iset Ta-Hemdjert Tyti Tiye Ramesses IV Usermaatre Setepenamun, later Heqamaatre Setepenamun 1155 – 1149 BC KV2 Duatentopet Ramesses V / Amenhirkhepeshef I Usermaatre Sekheperenre 1149 – 1145 BC KV9 Henutwati Tawerettenru Ramesses VI / Amenhirkhepeshef II Nebmaatre Meryamun 1145 – 1137 BC KV9 Nubkhesbed Ramesses VII / Itamun Usermaatre Setepenre Meryamun 1136 – 1129 BC KV1 Ramesses VIII / Sethhirkhepeshef Usermaatre-Akhenamun 1130 – 1129 BC Ramesses IX / Khaemwaset I Neferkare Setepenre 1129 – 1111 BC KV6 Baketwernel Ramesses X / Amenhirkhepeshef III Khepermaatre Setepenre 1111 – 1107 BC KV18 Tyti Ramesses XI / Khaemwaset II Menmaatre Setpenptah 1107 – 1077 BC KV4 Tentamun Timeline of the 20th Dynasty[edit] Pharaonic Family tree[edit] The Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt was the last of the New Kingdom of Egypt. The familial relationships are unclear, especially towards the end of the dynasty. Setnakhte Tiy-merenese Isis-ta-Habadjilat Ramesses III Tiye Pentawere Nubkhesbed Ramesses VI Ramesses IV Duatentopet Amenhirkhopshef Khaemwaset E Ramesses VIII Parahiremenef Mentuhirkopshef B Takhat B Ramesses VII Ramesses V Baketwernel Ramesses IX Tyti Ramesses X Unknown Ramesses XI Gallery of images[edit] Ramesses III was the son of Sethnakht. During his reign, he fought off the invasions of the Sea Peoples in Egypt and tolerated their settlement in Canaan. A conspiracy was hatched to kill him, but it failed. He was later murdered. His mummy, long an inspiration for the scary Hollywood films, showed his throat was slit. Ramesses IV was the fifth son of Ramesses III. He assumed the throne after his four older brothers had died. Ramesses V was the son of Ramesses IV and Queen Duatentopet. During his reign Libyan raiders attacked the country and attempted to conquer Thebes, forcing the workers of Deir el-Medina to halt work in the Valley of the Kings. He died of smallpox. Ramesses VI was an uncle of Ramesses V. He usurped his predecessor's throne and later his tomb, KV9. Ramesses VII was the son of Ramesses VI. During his reign, prices of grain soared to the highest levels. His mummy has never been found but cups bearing his name were found in the royal cache at Deir el-Bahri. He was buried in KV1. Above is a scene from KV1, open since antiquity. Ramesses VIII, born Sethherkhepeshef, was a brother of Ramesses VI and a surviving son of Ramesses III. He may have ruled for a year or two. His tomb has never been identified. Ramesses IX was the grandson of Ramesses III, nephew of Ramesses IV and VI, and a son of Mentuherkhepeshef, who never became a pharaoh. Ramesses X, born Amunherkhepeshef, took the throne after Ramesses IX. He is a poorly documented king, with few monuments to his name. His tomb, KV18, was left unfinished. Ramesses XI was the last pharaoh of the Twentieth Dynasty. He began KV4 but later abandoned the tomb. As Egypt weakened, Ramesses XI was forced to share power in a triumvirate with Herihor, the high priest of Amun, and Smendes, governor of Lower Egypt. Ramesses XI was buried in Lower Egypt by Smendes, who later took the throne himself. See also[edit] Pharaoh is a historical novel by Bolesław Prus, set in Egypt at the end of the Twentieth Dynasty, which adds two fictional rulers: Ramesses XII and Ramesses XIII. It has been adapted into a film of the same title. References[edit] ^ Hartwig Altenmüller, "The Tomb of Tausert and Setnakht," in Valley of the Kings, ed. Kent R. Weeks (New York: Friedman/Fairfax Publishers, 2001), pp.222-31 ^ a b "New Kingdom of Egypt". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2017-05-06. ^ Grandet, Pierre (2014-10-30). "Early–mid 20th dynasty". UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology. 1 (1): 4. ^ Lorenz, Megaera. "The Papyrus Harris". fontes.lstc.edu. Retrieved 2017-05-06. ^ William F. Edgerton, The Strikes in Ramses III's Twenty-Ninth Year, JNES 10, No. 3 (July 1951), pp. 137-145 ^ Dodson and Hilton, pg 184 ^ Grandet, Pierre (2014-10-30). "Early–mid 20th dynasty". UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology. 1 (1): 5–8. ^ Jacobus Van Dijk, 'The Amarna Period and the later New Kingdom' in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, ed. Ian Shaw, Oxford University Press paperback, (2002), pp.306-307 ^ A.J. Peden, The Reign of Ramesses IV, (Aris & Phillips Ltd: 1994), p.21 Peden's source on these recorded disturbances is KRI, VI, 340-343 ^ Alan H. Gardiner, R. O. Faulkner: The Wilbour Papyrus. 4 Bände, Oxford University Press, Oxford 1941-52. ^ Une enquête judiciaire à Thèbes au temps de la XXe dynastie : ...Maspero, G. (Gaston), 1846-1916. ^ Finkelstein, Israel. "Is the Philistine Paradigm Still Viable?": 517. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, Blackwell Books, 1992. p.289 ^ E.F. Wente & C.C. Van Siclen, "A Chronology of the New Kingdom" in Studies in Honor of George R. Hughes, (SAOC 39) 1976, p.261 ^ Dodson and Hilton, pg 185-186 ^ Sites in the Valley of the Kings v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Preceded by Nineteenth Dynasty Dynasty of Egypt 1189−1077 BC Succeeded by Twenty-first Dynasty Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Twentieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=1001188877" Categories: Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt States and territories established in the 12th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 11th century BC Dynasties of ancient Egypt New Kingdom of Egypt 12th century BC in Egypt 11th century BC in Egypt 12th-century BC establishments in Egypt 2nd-millennium BC disestablishments in Egypt 2nd millennium BC in Egypt Late Bronze Age collapse Hidden categories: Pages 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en-wikipedia-org-3820	----	Yatonmilk - Wikipedia Yatonmilk From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Phoenician Bodashtart inscription, known as "Contenau I" inscription found on the Temple of Eshmun's podium. Bustan el-Sheikh, Sidon, 6th century BC. The inscription was published in 1920 and left in situ at the Temple of Eshmun.[1] Yatonmilk (Phoenician: 𐤉𐤕𐤍𐤌𐤋𐤊‎, YTNMLK, Romanized also as Yatanmilk, Yaton Milk, Yatan-Milk) was a Phoenician King of Sidon and a vassal to the Achaemenid king of kings Darius I (c. 515–486 BC).[2][3] You may need rendering support to display the Phoenician alphabet characters in this article correctly. Contents 1 Epigraphic sources 2 Etymology 3 Notes 4 References 5 Bibliography Epigraphic sources[edit] Yatonmilk's name was attested on many building stone-incised dedications dubbed the Bodashtart inscriptions that were found at the Temple of Eshmun in the hinterland of the city of Sidon in Lebanon. Despite being mentioned in the inscriptions, nothing is known about his reign due to the lack of further material or epigraphic evidence.[4][5] Bodashtart, Yatonmilk's father who is dubbed the 'builder king', carried out an extensive expansion and restoration project of the Temple of Eshmun; he left more than thirty dedicatory inscriptions at the temple site.[6] The first phase of the works involved adding a second podium at the base of the temple.[6] During this construction phase inscriptions were carved on the added podium's foundation stones around 530 BC, these inscriptions known as KAI 15, do not mention Yatonmilk.[7][8] A second set of inscriptions (KAI 16) were placed on restoration ashlar stones; these stones mention Yatonmilk and emphasize his legitimacy as heir, associate him with the reign of his father,[a][7][8] and assign a share of credit to Yatonmilk for the construction project.[9] One example of the Bodashtart's inscriptions reads: "The king Bodashtart and his legitimate heir Yatonmilk, king of the Sidonians, grandson of king Eshmunazar, king of the Sidonians, built this temple to his god Eshmun, the Sacred Prince".[10] Another translation reads: "King Bodashtort, and his pious son (or legitimate successor), Yatonmilk, king of the Sidonians, descendants (bn bn) of King Eshmunazor, king of the Sidonians, this house he built to his god, to Eshmun, lord/god of the sanctuary."[11] Some scholars misidentified Yatonmilk as the father of Bodashtart;[12] this was successfully contested by later epigraphists.[10][13][14] Etymology[edit] The Latinized form Yatonmilk comes from the Phoenician 𐤉𐤕𐤍𐤌𐤋𐤊‎ (YTNMLK), meaning "the king gives" from 𐤉𐤕𐤍 (Yaton, "to give") and 𐤌𐤋𐤊 (Milk, "king").[15][16] Marvin Pope posited that the epithet mlk may be an abbreviation of the name of the Phoenician god Melkart (melk-qart) which means the king of the city.[17] Notes[edit] ^ Yatonmilk is styled by Bodashtart as BN ṢDQ, meaning "true son" or "pious son".[6] References[edit] ^ Conteneau 1924, p.16 ^ Leveque, Francis (2010-05-29). "Sidon au Ier millénaire av. J.-C". marine-antique.net (in French). Retrieved 2020-07-30. ^ Elayi 2006, p.31 ^ Elayi 2018, p.234 ^ Kelly 1987, p.52 ^ a b c Elayi 2006, p.5 ^ a b Elayi 2006, p.7 ^ a b Xella 2005, p.119 ^ Halpern 2016, p.19 ^ a b Xella 2005, p.121 ^ Halpern 2016, p.20 ^ Bordreuil 1990, p.496 ^ Elayi 2006, p.5,7 ^ Bonnet 1995, p.216 ^ Guzzo 2015, p.338 ^ Benz 1972, p.329 ^ Pope 1955, p.25-27 Bibliography[edit] Benz, Frank L. Personal Names in the Phoenician and Punic Inscriptions. Gregorian Biblical BookShop. Bonnet, Corinne (1995). "Phénicien šrn = Akkadien šurinnu - A propos de l'inscription de Bodashtart CIS I 4*". Orientalia (in French). Gregorian Biblical BookShop. 64: 216. Bordreuil, P.; Gubel, E. (1990). "Bulletin d'Antiquités Archéologiques du Levant Inédites ou Méconnues". Syria. 67 (2): 483–520. ISSN 0039-7946. JSTOR 4198843. Conteneau, Gaston (1924). "Deuxième mission archéologique à Sidon (1920)". Syria (in French). 5 (5–1): 9–23. doi:10.3406/syria.1924.3094. Retrieved 2009-08-31. Elayi, Josette (2006). "An updated chronology of the reigns of phoenician kings during the Persian period (539-333 BCE)" (PDF). Digitorient. Collège de France - UMR7912 : Proche-Orient—Caucase : langues, archéologie, cultures. Elayi, Josette (2018-05-15). The History of Phoenicia. ISD LLC. p. 234. ISBN 978-1-937040-82-6. Guzzo, Amadasi; Giulia, Maria (2015). "A. Les inscriptions phéniciennes". MOM Éditions. 67 (1): 335–345. Halpern, Baruch; הלפרן, ברוך (2016). "Annotations to royal Phoenician inscriptions from Persian Sidon, Zincirli (Kilamuwa), Karatepe (Azitawadda) and Pyrgi - הארות על כתובות פיניקיות מצידון (מן התקופה הפרסית), מזינג'ירלי (כלמו), מקאראטפה (אזתוד) ומפירגי". Eretz-Israel: Archaeological, Historical and Geographical Studies / ארץ-ישראל: מחקרים בידיעת הארץ ועתיקותיה. לב: 18*–27*. ISSN 0071-108X. JSTOR 26732492. Kelly, Thomas (1987). "Herodotus and the Chronology of the Kings of Sidon". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research (268): 39–56. doi:10.2307/1356993. ISSN 0003-097X. JSTOR 1356993. S2CID 163208310. Pope, Marvin H. (1955). El in the Ugaritic texts. Brill Archive. Xella, Paolo; López, José-Ángel Zamora (2005). "L'inscription phénicienne de Bodashtart in situ à Bustān eš-Šēḫ (Sidon) et son apport à l'histoire du sanctuaire". Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins. 121 (2): 119–129. ISSN 0012-1169. JSTOR 27931768. Zamora, Jose (2007). "The inscription from the first year of King Bodashtart of Sidon's reign: CIS I,4". Pontificium Institutum Biblicum. Retrieved 2011-01-30. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yatonmilk&oldid=1001542453" Categories: Kings of Sidon 6th-century BC rulers Hidden categories: CS1 French-language sources (fr) Articles containing Phoenician-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Français Edit links This page was last edited on 20 January 2021, at 04:12 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3821	----	Ptolemy IX Soter - Wikipedia Ptolemy IX Soter From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Ptolemy IX Lathyros) Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd/1st century BC king of Ptolemaic Egypt Ptolemy IX Soter Pharaoh from the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt Probable bust of Ptolemy IX Ptolemaic King of Egypt Predecessor Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III of Egypt Successor Berenice III of Egypt Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) iwꜤ-(n)-nṯr-mnḫ-nṯrt-mr(t)-mwt.s-nḏt(t) stp.n-ptḥ iri-mꜢꜤt-rꜤ sḫm-Ꜥnḫ-imn Iwa(en)netjermenekhnetjeretmeretmutesnedjet(et) Setepenptah Irimaatre Sekhemankhamun 1 Nomen ptwlmis Ꜥnḫ-ḏt mri-ptḥ Petulemis Ankhdjet meryptah Ptolemaios, living forever, beloved of Ptah Horus name ḏsr-mswt-ḥnꜤ-ḥpw-Ꜥnḫ nṯrj-ḫpr(w) snsn-msḫn(t)-nt-zꜢ-Ꜣst Djosermesuthenahapuankh netjerikheperu sensenmesekhenetsa'Aset Distinguished through his birth together with the living Apis, godlike at conception, twin in his birthplace with the son of Isis ? Second Horus Name: kꜢ-nḫt jty-psḏ-m-tꜢmrj-mj-ḥpw-Ꜥnḫ rdj-n.f-ḥꜢbw-sd-ꜤšꜢw-wrw-mj-ptḥ-tꜢṯnn-jt-nṯrw Kanakht itypesedjemtamerimihapuankh redjenefhabusedashauwerumiptah-tatjenenitnetjeru The strong bull and sovereign who shines in Ta-mery like the living Apis bull, whom has been given many Sed festivals like Ptah Ta-tjenen, and father of the gods Nebty name sḫꜤi-sw-mwt.f-ḥr-nst-jt.f jṯj-tꜢwj m mꜢꜤ-ḫrw Sekhasumutefhernesutitef ititawy em Maat-kheru Second Nebty name: wr-pḥti ḫnti-š-nḥḥ smn-hpw-mi-ḏḥwti-ꜤꜢ-ꜤꜢ Werpehty Khentishenehe Semenhepumidjehutia'a Third Nebty name: wr-pḥti sḫm-WꜢḏ-wr iti-iwꜤ-tꜢwi-m-mꜢꜤ-ḫrw mnḫ-ib-ḫr-nṯrw-rmṯw Werpehty Sekhemwadjwer Itiiwatawyemmaatkheru Menkhibkhernetjeruremetju Golden Horus nb-tꜢmri ḥḳꜢ.f-m-ḥꜤꜤw nb-ḥꜢbw-sd-mi-tꜢṯnn-it-nṯrw-nsyt(?) ity-smn-hpw-mi-ḏḥwti-ꜤꜢ-ꜤꜢ Nebtamery Heqa'efemhaau Nebhabusedmitatenenitnetjerunesut Itysemenhepumidjehutia'a Lord of Egypt who rules in joy, the lord of the Sed festival like Ptah-Tatenen, king of the Gods, who determines the laws like the great god Thoth Second Golden Horus name: šzp-tꜢmri ḥḳꜢ.f-m-ḥꜤꜤw nb-ḥꜢbw-sd-ꜤšꜢw-wrw-mi-it.f-Ptḥ-tꜢṯnn-smsw-nṯrw šzp.n.f-nsyt-n-rꜤ-m-ḳnw-nḫt ity-wḏꜤ-MꜢꜤt smn-hpw-mi-ḏḥwti-ꜤꜢ-ꜤꜢ Sheseptamery Heqa'efemhaau Nebhabusedashauwerumiitefptatatenensemsunetjeru Shesepenefnesytenraemqenunekhet Itiwedjamaat Semenhepumidjehutia'a Who, seizing Egypt, rules in joy, the lord of many great Sed festivals like his father Ptah-Tatenen, the oldest of the Gods ? Born 143/2 BC[1] or 140/39 BC[2] Died December 81 BC (aged 60–62) Wives Cleopatra IV Cleopatra Selene I Issue By Cleopatra Selene: Two legitimate sons Berenice III By unknown consorts: Ptolemy XII Ptolemy of Cyprus perhaps Cleopatra V Full name Ptolemy IX Soter II Dynasty Ptolemaic Father Ptolemy VIII Mother Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Soter II[note 1] (Greek: Πτολεμαῖος Σωτήρ, Ptolemaĩos Sōtḗr "Ptolemy the Saviour"), commonly nicknamed Lathyros (Λάθυρος, Láthuros "chickpea"),[3] reigned twice as king of Ptolemaic Egypt: first as Ptolemy Philometor Soter in joint rule with his Cleopatra II and Cleopatra III (116–107 BC), and then again as Ptolemy Soter (88–81 BC). He was the son of Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III. After the murder of his elder brother in 130 BC, during a civil war between Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra II, Ptolemy IX became the heir apparent. On his father's death in 116 BC, he became co-regent with Cleopatra II (until 115 BC) and with Cleopatra III. He eventually quarrelled with his mother and in 107 BC, she deposed him and replaced him with his younger brother Ptolemy X. However, Ptolemy IX succeeded in seizing control of Cyprus. From there he invaded Judaea but was prevented by Ptolemy X from invading Egypt (103–102 BC). In 88 BC, the Alexandrians expelled Ptolemy X and restored Ptolemy IX to the throne. He reigned alone until 81 BC, when he appointed his daughter Berenice III as co-regent shortly before his own death. She succeeded him as ruler. Contents 1 Background and early life 2 First reign (116–107 BC) 2.1 Will of Ptolemy VIII 2.2 Divorce, remarriage, and intervention in Seleucid civil war 2.3 Expulsion from Alexandria 3 King of Cyprus (107–88 BC) 4 Second reign (88–81 BC) 4.1 Restoration 4.2 Roman claims and First Mithridatic War 4.3 Death and succession 5 Regime 5.1 Relationship with Rome 6 Marriages and issue 7 Ancestry 8 Notes 9 References 10 External links Background and early life[edit] Wall relief of Cleopatra III, her mother Cleopatra II and Ptolemy VIII before Horus at Kom Ombo When Ptolemy V Epiphanes had died in 180 BC, he had left three children: Ptolemy VI Philometor, Cleopatra II, and Ptolemy VIII Euergetes. All three ruled together from 169 BC until 164 BC, when Ptolemy VIII expelled his brother from power. In 163 BC, he was expelled in turn and forced to withdraw to Cyrene. However, when Ptolemy VI died in 145 BC, Ptolemy VIII was invited back to Egypt to serve as king, marrying his sister Cleopatra II (who had previously been married to Ptolemy VI). The relationship between Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra II rapidly deteriorated, especially when Ptolemy VIII took Cleopatra III (the daughter of Ptolemy VI and Cleopatra II), as a second wife. The conflict eventually led to a civil war with Cleopatra II on one side and Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III on the other (132-126 BC). Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III were victorious, but reconciled with Cleopatra II and restored her as co-regent in 124 BC.[4] Ptolemy IX was the son of Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III of Egypt. The exact date of his birth is a bit unclear. As Pharaoh, his Horus name was "Distinguished through his birth together with the living Apis; twin in his birthplace with the son of Isis" which seems to indicate that he was born in the same year as an Apis bull, i.e. 143/2 BC.[1] This would put his birth two years before his parents' marriage, which took place in 141 BC.[5] Some historians, like Günther Hölbl, consider this insuperable and propose to place his birth in 140 or 139 BC instead.[2] Initially, Ptolemy IX was not the heir to the throne – that was Ptolemy Memphites, the son of Ptolemy VI and Cleopatra II, who was roughly the same age as him. In 134/3, Ptolemy IX served as the annual Priest of Alexander the Great, the year after Memphites had done the same.[6][1] However, during the civil war, in 130 BC, Cleopatra II attempted to have Memphites crowned as her co-ruler, so Ptolemy VIII had him murdered, leaving Ptolemy IX as the heir. Around 117 BC, Ptolemy IX was sent to Cyprus, reportedly at his mother's request, where he served as governor of the island (strategos, nauarchos, archiereus, archikynegos).[7] Shortly before this he had married his sister, Cleopatra IV, who probably gave birth to two sons while the couple was on Cyprus: the future Ptolemy XII in 117 BC and the future Ptolemy of Cyprus around 116 BC.[8] First reign (116–107 BC)[edit] Will of Ptolemy VIII[edit] Coronation of Ptolemy IX depicted at Kom Ombo On 28 June 116, Ptolemy VIII died. According to Justin, Ptolemy VIII's will left Cleopatra III in charge of Egypt, with the right to choose either Ptolemy IX or his younger brother Ptolemy X as her co-regent. Cyrene was left to a third son, Ptolemy Apion. Justin further claims that Cleopatra III wanted to choose Ptolemy X, but the people of Alexandria rioted and forced her to choose Ptolemy IX.[9] Pausanias implies that Cleopatra III's request to send Ptolemy IX to Cyprus in 117 BC had been intended to get him out of the way in order to enable Ptolemy X's succession.[10] Some historians have found this account plausible.[11] However, Chris Bennett argues that it is a false story that was invented by Cleopatra III at a later date. He points out that Justin's story assumes that Cleopatra III was the only living queen at the time of Ptolemy VIII's death. Documentary evidence shows that Cleopatra II was still alive in 116 BC, which makes it unlikely that Cleopatra III would have been allowed sole power to decide who would be king.[12] At any rate, Cleopatra II, Cleopatra III, and Ptolemy IX (in that order) are listed together as co-rulers in surviving papyrus documents from October 116 BC. Ptolemy IX received the epithet Philometor Soter (Mother-loving Saviour). This was the same epithet that Cleopatra II and taken on during her civil war with Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III, which suggests that she played a controlling role in the new regime.[11] Ptolemy X was sent to Cyprus to serve as governor of Cyprus soon after Ptolemy IX's accession. Divorce, remarriage, and intervention in Seleucid civil war[edit] Cleopatra II died some time before April 115 BC and at this point Cleopatra III became the dominant force in the government. Ptolemy IX was forced to divorce his sister-wife Cleopatra IV, who went off and married the Seleucid king Antiochus IX Cyzicenus (r. 115–95 BC), whose mother Cleopatra Thea[13] was Cleopatra III's sister.[14] Her new husband was waging a war against his half-brother Antiochus VIII Grypus (r. 125–96 BC), who was married to Cleopatra IV's elder sister Tryphaena. On the way to meet Antiochus IX, Cleopatra IV stopped in Cyprus, where she recruited an army and seized control of the Cypriot fleet, in order to aid Antiochus IX.[15] Perhaps as a result of this, in 114/113 BC, Ptolemy X proclaimed himself 'King of Cyprus', openly declaring his opposition to Ptolemy IX.[16][11] Meanwhile, Ptolemy IX married his younger sister, Cleopatra Selene, with whom he soon had a daughter, Berenice III.[1] Cleopatra Selene was not made co-regent with her new husband, as would have been normal. Instead, in documents from this period, the royal couple were Cleopatra III and Ptolemy IX, who were integrated into the Ptolemaic dynastic cult as the Theoi Philometores Soteres (The Mother-loving Saviour Gods).[17] Ptolemy IX supported Antiochus IX Cyzicenus in his conflict with Antiochus VIII Grypus. In 114 BC, Cleopatra IV had been captured and murdered by Antiochus VIII's wife Tryphaena, who was murdered in turn by Antiochus IX in 111 BC.[17] In 109 BC, Ptolemy IX sent Antiochus IX fresh troops to aid him in a campaign against the Jewish ruler Hyrcanus I of the Hasmonean dynasty.[18] Expulsion from Alexandria[edit] In autumn 107 BC, a new conflict broke out between Cleopatra III and Ptolemy IX. Pausanias claims that Cleopatra III wounded a number of her own eunuch servants and displayed them to the people as evidence that her son had attempted to have her assassinated, causing the Alexandrians to riot and expel Ptolemy IX from the city. While this was taking place, Ptolemy X had left Cyprus and sailed to Pelusium. Cleopatra III then had him brought to Alexandria and placed on the throne as her new co-regent.[19][3][17] Ptolemy IX had left his two sons behind when he fled Alexandria. He also abandoned Cleopatra Selene, who now seems to have been married to Ptolemy X.[20] King of Cyprus (107–88 BC)[edit] After his expulsion from Alexandria, Ptolemy IX went to the isle of Cyprus. There forces loyal to Cleopatra III and Ptolemy X rebuffed him, forcing him to retreat to Seleucia in Pieria. From there he mounted another invasion of Cyprus in 106 BC, which succeeded in conquering the island.[21] He initially maintained control of Cyrene, but it seems to have come under the control of his half brother Ptolemy Apion some time after 105 BC. Apion protected his position by publishing a will which left all his territories to Rome in the event that he died without heirs, a method which was often used by Hellenistic kings to prevent rivals from attempting to depose or assassinate them. However, he actually died without heirs in 96 BC, meaning that Rome inherited the territory.[22][18] In 103 BC, the new Hasmonean King Alexander Jannaeus led an army to conquer Ptolemais Akko. The city appealed to Ptolemy IX for help and he sailed over and caused Jannaeus to lift his siege. He then invaded Galilee, defeated Jannaeus in a battle at Asophon near the river Jordan, and despoiled Judaea with impunity.[23] Fearing that Ptolemy IX was planning to use Judaea as a springboard for an invasion of Egypt, Cleopatra III and Ptolemy X invaded Judaea themselves. Ptolemy X invaded Phoenicia by sea and then marched inland to Damascus, while Cleopatra III besieged Ptolemais Akko. Ptolemy IX attempted to slip past them and into Egypt, but Ptolemy X managed to rush back and stop him. Ptolemy IX spent the winter encamped at Gaza, before deciding to sail back to Cyprus in early 102 BC. We hear nothing more about his activities until 88 BC.[18] Second reign (88–81 BC)[edit] Restoration[edit] The army and people of Alexandria turned against Ptolemy X in spring 88 BC and expelled him from Egypt. The Alexandrians then recalled Ptolemy IX to the throne. Ptolemy IX was formally re-crowned as Pharaoh at Memphis in November. In his first reign, Ptolemy had borne the epithet Philometor Soter (Mother-loving saviour), but on his return he dropped the Philometor, since it recalled his mother. The cults and memory of Cleopatra III and Ptolemy X seem to have been officially suppressed.[24] When Ptolemy IX returned to Egypt, the south of the country had been under the control of Egyptian rebels since 91 BC. Ptolemy sent a large force south in November 88 BC, under the command of the general Hierax. Thebes was quickly recaptured and severely sacked.[25] Ptolemaic control was restored as far south as Philae, but Lower Nubia, which had come under the control of the kingdom of Meroe during the revolt, was not reclaimed.[24] Roman claims and First Mithridatic War[edit] After his expulsion from Alexandria, Ptolemy X made an attempt to invade Cyprus and recapture control, but was killed in the attempt. Before his death, however, he had taken out a large loan from the Roman Republic, in return for which he produced a will which left his kingdom to the Romans. Although they chose not to take advantage of this, the possibility of Roman intervention hung over Ptolemy IX for the rest of his reign and forced him to adopt a highly deferential posture with the Romans.[24] In 86 BC, a Roman fleet commanded by Lucullus arrived in Alexandria seeking financial and military support against Mithridates VI of Pontus, with whom the Romans were fighting the First Mithridatic War (89-84 BC).[26] Ptolemy hosted Lucullus magnificently, but did not offer him any material support.[27] This was probably partially due to the confused political situation – the Roman war effort was being led by Sulla, but he had been declared an outlaw by the government in Rome led by Lucius Cornelius Cinna. Moreover, Mithridates VI had managed to capture Ptolemy's sons, who had been on Cos since 103 BC.[24] Death and succession[edit] On 5 August 81 BC, Ptolemy IX promoted his daughter Berenice III, who had previously been the wife and co-regent of Ptolemy X, to the status of co-regent. Some sources claim that Ptolemy IX had made Berenice III his co-regent at the start of his second reign in 88 BC, but all documentary evidence shows that he reigned alone until this point. Ptolemy died shortly thereafter, probably in December of the same year, leaving her alone on the throne. After a few months of sole rule, her cousin Ptolemy XI was placed on the throne as her co-regent, murdered her, was murdered himself, and was replaced by Ptolemy XII, another child of Ptolemy IX.[1][24][3] Regime[edit] In August 115 BC, Ptolemy IX travelled down the Nile to Elephantine in order to celebrate the festival there in honour of the Great God of the Nile – a traditional Pharaonic duty which was meant to give thanks for the inundation and ensure the success of the next. The fact that Ptolemy IX carried this ritual out personally, rather than letting a local priest carry it out in his stead, shows the extent to which Ptolemy embraced the Pharaonic role.[28] It is possible that construction of certain buildings occurred during the first reign of Ptolemy IX. This would have included work on the Dendera Temple complex and on the temple in Edfu. Relationship with Rome[edit] A Roman embassy led by the senator Lucius Memmius, arrived in Egypt in 112 BC. As part of his visit, he was given a tour of the Fayyum region. Papyrus letters survive that instruct all local officials to treat him with the greatest respect and provide him with the most luxurious accommodation. The visit is a sign of the extent to which the Ptolemies now sought to conciliate the Roman Republic. It is also an early example of Roman tourism in Egypt, which would become a major phenomenon in the Roman imperial period. A set of four graffiti at Philae provide evidence for another set of early Roman tourists. Dated to 116 BC, they are the earliest known examples of the Latin language to be found in Egypt.[17] Marriages and issue[edit] Rare drachms of Ptolemy XII minted at Paphos, Cyprus in 53 BC[29] Ptolemy IX is only known to have married twice, first to Cleopatra IV from around 119 BC until he was forced to divorce her in 115 BC, and secondly to Cleopatra Selene from 115 BC, until he abandoned her during his flight from Alexandria in 107 BC. At least three children are attested for Ptolemy IX. The birth dates and parentage of his two sons Ptolemy XII and Ptolemy of Cyprus are disputed.[30] According to Justin, Cleopatra Selene and Ptolemy IX had two children.[31] The historian John Whitehorne noted that the existence of those two children is doubted and they might have died at a young age.[32] Ptolemy XII is referred to by Cicero and other ancient sources as an illegitimate son; Pompeius Trogus called him a "nothos" (bastard), while Pausanias wrote that Berenice III was Ptolemy IX's only legitimate offspring.[33] This has discouraged the identification of Ptolemy XII and Ptolemy of Cyprus with the two sons mentioned by Justin. Michael Grant suggested that Ptolemy XII's mother was a Syrian or a partly Greek concubine while Günther Hölbl suggested that she was a member of the Egyptian elite.[34] However, John Pentland Mahaffy and Christopher Bennett argue that they were considered illegitimate simply because their mother had not been a co-regnant queen. They propose Cleopatra IV as the mother, in which case Ptolemy XII and Ptolemy of Cyprus would have been born in 117 and 116 BC respectively. Bennett further proposes that Ptolemy XII and Ptolemy of Cyprus are identical with the two sons mentioned by Justin.[1] The mother of Ptolemy IX's daughter, Berenice III is not certain either. Cleopatra IV and Cleopatra Selene are candidates, with the former favoured by modern scholarship.[35] Bennett noted that Berenice III's legitimacy was never questioned by ancient historians, and the illegitimacy of Ptolemy IX and Cleopatra IV's marriage makes it more probable that Berenice III was the result of a legitimate marriage, that is between her father and Cleopatra Selene.[36][37] Name Image Birth Death Notes Ptolemy XII 117 or c. 98 BC February/March 51 BC King of Egypt (80-58 & 55-51 BC) Ptolemy of Cyprus 116 or ca. 96 BC? 58 BC King of Cyprus (80-58 BC) Berenice III Late 115 or early 114 BC April 80 BC Co-regent with Ptolemy X (101-88 BC), Queen of Egypt (81-80 BC) Ancestry[edit] Ancestors of Ptolemy IX Soter 16. Ptolemy III 8. Ptolemy IV 17. Berenice II 4. Ptolemy V 18. =16. Ptolemy III 9. Arsinoe III 19. =17. Berenice II 2. Ptolemy VIII 20. Seleucus II 10. Antiochus III the Great 21. Laodice II 5. Cleopatra I 22. Mithridates II of Pontus 11. Laodice III 23. Laodice (wife of Mithridates II of Pontus) (Sister of No. 20) 1. Ptolemy IX 24. =8. Ptolemy IV 12. =4. Ptolemy V 25. =9. Arsinoe III 6. Ptolemy VI 26. =10. Antiochus III the Great 13. =5. Cleopatra I 27. =11. Laodice III 3. Cleopatra III 28. =8/24. Ptolemy IV 14. =4/12. Ptolemy V 29. =9/25. Arsinoe III 7. Cleopatra II 30. =10/26. Antiochus III the Great 15. =5/13. Cleopatra I 31. =11/27. Laodice III Notes[edit] ^ Numbering the Ptolemies is a modern convention. Older sources may give a number one higher or lower. The most reliable way of determining which Ptolemy is being referred to in any given case is by epithet (e.g. "Philopator"). Ptolemy IX also took the same title 'Soter' as Ptolemy I. In older references and in more recent references by the German historian Huss, Ptolemy IX Soter II may be numbered VIII. References[edit] ^ a b c d e f Bennett, Chris. "Ptolemy IX". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 11 November 2019. ^ a b Hölbl 2001, p. 203 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHölbl2001 (help) ^ a b c Ptolemy Soter II and Ptolemy Alexander I at LacusCurtius — (Chapter XI of E. R Bevan's House of Ptolemy, 1923) ^ Hölbl 2001, p. 172-203 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHölbl2001 (help) ^ Bennett, Chris. "Cleopatra III". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 11 November 2019. ^ Bennett, Chris. "Ptolemy Memphites". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 11 November 2019. ^ Pausanias 1.9.1; OGIS 143 ^ Bennett, Chris. "Cleopatra IV". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 12 November 2019. ^ Justin, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus 39.3.1 ^ Pausanias 1.9.1 ^ a b c Hölbl 2001, p. 204-205 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHölbl2001 (help) ^ Bennett, Chris. "Cleopatra II". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 12 November 2019. ^ Antiochus IX at Livius.org ^ Ptolemy VI Philometor and Cleopatra II at Livius.org ^ Justin 39.3.2 ^ Bennett, Chris. "Ptolemy X". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 12 November 2019. ^ a b c d Hölbl 2001, p. 206-207 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHölbl2001 (help) ^ a b c Hölbl 2001, p. 207-210 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHölbl2001 (help) ^ Justin (historian), Epitome of Pompeius Trogus 39.4.1; Pausanias 1.9.2 ^ Bennett, Chris. "Cleopatra Selene". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 12 November 2019. ^ Diodorus, Bibliotheca 34/35.39a; Justin 39.4.1-2 ^ Bennett, Chris. "Ptolemy Apion". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 12 November 2019. ^ Josephus Antiquities of the Jews 13.324-364 ^ a b c d e Hölbl 2001, p. 211-213 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHölbl2001 (help) ^ Pausanias 1.9.3 ^ Plutarch Life of Lucullus 2-3; Appian, Mithridatica 33 ^ Cicero Ac. 1.2.11 ^ Hölbl 2001, p. 205-206 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHölbl2001 (help) ^ Ioannis Svoronos, Ta nomismata tou kratous ton Ptolemaion, Athens, 1904, vol. I-II, p. 302 (n°1838), & vol. III-IV, plate LXI, n°22, 23. ^ Werner Huß, Ägypten in hellenistischer Zeit. C. H. Beck, Munich 2001, p. 674-675 ^ Justin Epitome of the Philippic History 39.4 ^ Whitehorne 1994, p. 176. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWhitehorne1994 (help) ^ Sullivan 1990, p. 92. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSullivan1990 (help) ^ Fletcher 2008, p. 353. sfn error: no target: CITEREFFletcher2008 (help) ^ Llewellyn-Jones, Lloyd (2013) [2012]. "Cleopatra V Berenike III". In Bagnall, Roger S.; Brodersen, Kai; Champion, Craige B.; Erskine, Andrew; Huebner, Sabine R. (eds.). The Encyclopedia of Ancient History (13 Vols.). III: Be-Co. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-405-17935-5. ^ Bennett 1997, p. 54. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBennett1997 (help) ^ Bennett, Chris. "Berenice III". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 16 November 2019. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ptolemy IX. Ptolemy IX Lathyrus entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith Ptolemy IX (Soter) at Thebes by Robert Ritner Ptolemy IX Soter Ptolemaic dynasty Born: 143/2 BC Died: 81 BC Regnal titles Preceded by Helenus of Cyrene Governor of Cyprus 117 BC-116 BC Succeeded by Ptolemy X Preceded by Ptolemy VIII Pharaoh of Egypt 116 BC–107 BC with Cleopatra III and Cleopatra IV Succeeded by Cleopatra III Ptolemy X Preceded by Helenus of Cyrene King of Cyprus 105-88 BC Succeeded by Chaereas? Preceded by Ptolemy X Berenice III Pharaoh of Egypt 88 BC–81 BC Succeeded by Berenice III v t e Hellenistic rulers Argeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Kings of Cyrene Magas Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Kings of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Kings of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Kings of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Kings of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus Kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon (regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces Asander with Dynamis Mithridates II Asander with Dynamis Scribonius’ attempted rule with Dynamis Dynamis with Polemon Polemon with Pythodorida Aspurgus Mithridates III with Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 133072568 LCCN: nr97026533 VIAF: 46669300 WorldCat Identities: lccn-nr97026533 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ptolemy_IX_Soter&oldid=1002383711" Categories: 2nd-century BC births 81 BC deaths 2nd-century BC Pharaohs 1st-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Ptolemaic dynasty 1st-century BC rulers in Africa 2nd-century BC rulers in Africa 2nd-century BC Egyptian people 1st-century BC Egyptian people Ptolemaic governors of Cyprus Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors CS1: long volume value Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia 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en-wikipedia-org-3840	----	Category:Kings of the Achaemenid Empire - Wikipedia Help Category:Kings of the Achaemenid Empire From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Asia portal Europe portal History portal Wikimedia Commons has media related to Achaemenid kings. Subcategories This category has the following 11 subcategories, out of 11 total. 0–9 ► 4th-century BC Kings of the Achaemenid Empire‎ (5 P) ► 5th-century BC Kings of the Achaemenid Empire‎ (7 P) ► 6th-century BC Kings of the Achaemenid Empire‎ (4 P) A ► Artaxerxes II of Persia‎ (1 C, 8 P) ► Artaxerxes I of Persia‎ (6 P) C ► Cyrus the Great‎ (4 C, 29 P) D ► Darius the Great‎ (4 C, 21 P) ► Darius II‎ (5 P) ► Darius III‎ (19 P) P ► Pharaohs of the Achaemenid dynasty of Egypt‎ (5 C, 10 P) X ► Xerxes I‎ (1 C, 14 P) Pages in category "Kings of the Achaemenid Empire" The following 14 pages are in this category, out of 14 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). A Arsames Arses of Persia Artaxerxes I Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III B Bessus C Cambyses II Cyrus the Great D Darius II Darius III S Sogdianus X Xerxes I Xerxes II Τ Template:Median and Achaemenid kings Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Kings_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire&oldid=925618769" Categories: Achaemenid dynasty Shahanshahs Zoroastrian dynasties and rulers Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه Български Català Deutsch Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Íslenska Kurdî Lietuvių Magyar Македонски 日本語 Русский Scots Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska ไทย Türkçe Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 11 November 2019, at 07:12 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3847	----	Cleopatra VI - Wikipedia Cleopatra VI From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Cleopatra VI Tryphaena) Jump to navigation Jump to search Cleopatra VI Tryphaena (Greek: Κλεοπάτρα Τρύφαινα) was an Egyptian Ptolemaic queen. She may be identical with Cleopatra V. The name Tryphaena translates to "dainty". Contents 1 Identification 1.1 Wife of Ptolemy XII Auletes 1.2 Daughter of Cleopatra V and Ptolemy XII Auletes 2 See also 3 References Identification[edit] Wife of Ptolemy XII Auletes[edit] Cleopatra V Tryphaena was a Queen of Egypt until her mysterious disappearance from the records in 69 BC. If, as some scholars believe, her disappearance is attributable to her death, then it must be assumed that she had a daughter also called Cleopatra Tryphaena.[1] Daughter of Cleopatra V and Ptolemy XII Auletes[edit] She is called Cleopatra VI Tryphaena by some modern historians[2] and she would have been an older sister of the famous Cleopatra VII.[1] If so, her birth year would correctly be c. 75 BC. The only instance she is mentioned in historical sources is by Porphyry. He says that when Ptolemy XII fled to Rome to avoid an uprising in Alexandria against him (in 58 BC), Berenice IV took control of Ptolemaic Egypt and ruled alongside her sister, Cleopatra Tryphaena.[3][4] Strabo, however, states that Ptolemy had three daughters, of whom only the eldest (Berenice) was legitimate.[5] This suggests that the Cleopatra Tryphaena referred to by Porphyry may have been Ptolemy's wife, not his daughter. Some, though not all, experts now identify Cleopatra VI with Cleopatra V of Egypt, Ptolemy's wife.[2] See also[edit] Tryphaena References[edit] ^ a b Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004. ISBN 0-500-05128-3 ^ a b Tyldesley, Joyce (2006), Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt, p. 200, ISBN 0-500-05145-3. ^ Porphyry, cited by Felix Jacoby, Fragmente der griechischen Historiker, no. 260 F 2, 14 ^ Eusebius of Caesarea, Chronicle, Schoene, p. 167. ^ Strabo, Geographica, University of Chicago, p. 17.1.11. Cleopatra VI Ptolemaic dynasty Born: ca. 75 BC Died: 57 BC Regnal titles Preceded by Ptolemy XII Pharaoh of Egypt 58 BC-57 BC with Berenice IV Succeeded by Berenice IV v t e Hellenistic rulers Argeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Kings of Cyrene Magas Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Kings of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Kings of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Kings of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Kings of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus Kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon (regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces Asander with Dynamis Mithridates II Asander with Dynamis Scribonius’ attempted rule with Dynamis Dynamis with Polemon Polemon with Pythodorida Aspurgus Mithridates III with Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Queens of Ancient Egypt Early Dynastic Period to First Intermediate Period  (3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Neithhotep Benerib Khenthap Herneith Nakhtneith Penebui Merneith Seshemetka Semat Serethor Betrest II Nimaathap Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Hetephernebti Djeseretnebti Djefatnebti Meresankh I IV Hetepheres I Meritites I Henutsen Khentetka Meresankh II Hetepheres II Meresankh III Khamerernebty I Persenet Hekenuhedjet Khamerernebty II Rekhetre Bunefer V Khentkaus I Neferhetepes Meretnebty Khentkaus II Khentkaus III Reptynub Khuit I Meresankh IV Setibhor Nebet Khenut VI Iput I Khuit II Ankhesenpepi I Ankhesenpepi II Nubwenet Meritites IV Inenek-Inti Nedjeftet Neith Iput II Udjebten Ankhesenpepi III Ankhesenpepi IV Nitocris Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Neferu I Neferukayet Iah Tem Neferu II Ashayet Henhenet Sadeh Kawit Kemsit XII Neferitatjenen Neferu III Keminub Khenemetneferhedjet I Nofret II Itaweret Khenmet Sithathoriunet Khenemetneferhedjet II Neferthenut Meretseger Aat Khenemetneferhedjet III Sobekneferu 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Nofret Nubhetepti Senebhenas Neni Tjan Ineni Nubkhaes Aya XIV Tati XVI Mentuhotep XVII Nubemhat Sobekemsaf Haankhes Tetisheri Ahhotep I Ahmose Inhapy Sitdjehuti Ahhotep II New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose-Nefertari Ahmose-Sitkamose Ahmose-Henuttamehu Ahmose-Meritamun Ahmose Mutnofret Hatshepsut Iset Satiah Merytre-Hatshepsut Nebtu Menhet, Menwi and Merti Nebsemi Tiaa Nefertari Iaret Mutemwiya Tiye Gilukhipa Sitamun Iset Tadukhipa / Kiya Nefertiti Meritaten Neferneferuaten Ankhesenamun Tey Mutnedjmet Nebetnehat XIX Sitre Tuya Tanedjemet Nefertari Isetnofret Henutmire Maathorneferure Meritamen Bintanath Nebettawy Merytre Isetnofret II Takhat Twosret Tiaa XX Tiy-Merenese Iset Ta-Hemdjert Tyti Tiye Duatentopet Henutwati Tawerettenru Nubkhesbed Baketwernel Tentamun 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Tentamun Mutnedjmet Karimala XXII Karomama Patareshnes Maatkare Tashedkhonsu Nesitaudjatakhet Nesitanebetashru Kapes Karomama I Tadibast III XXIII Karomama II XXV Pebatjma Tabiry Abar Khensa Peksater Arty Qalhata Tabekenamun Takahatenamun Naparaye Atakhebasken Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Mehytenweskhet Khedebneithirbinet I Takhuit Tentkheta Nakhtubasterau Ladice XXVII Atossa Artystone Parmys Amestris Damaspia Parysatis XXXI Stateira I Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Roxana Stateira II Parysatis II Eurydice II of Macedon Ptolemaic Eurydice Berenice I Arsinoe I Arsinoe II Berenice II Arsinoe III Cleopatra I Cleopatra II Cleopatra III Cleopatra IV Cleopatra Selene Berenice III Cleopatra V Cleopatra VI Berenice IV Cleopatra VII Arsinoe IV Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cleopatra_VI&oldid=999801295" Categories: 57 BC deaths 1st-century BC Pharaohs 1st-century BC women rulers 1st-century BC Egyptian people Pharaohs of the Ptolemaic dynasty Ancient Egyptian queens regnant Seleucid dynasty Ptolemaic princesses Female pharaohs Hidden categories: Articles containing Greek-language text AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Asturianu Български Català Deutsch 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en-wikipedia-org-3854	----	Digital object identifier - Wikipedia Digital object identifier From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Doi (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search For the use of digital object identifiers on Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Digital Object Identifier. ISO standard unique string identifier for a digital object Digital object identifier Acronym DOI Organisation International DOI Foundation Introduced 2000 (2000) Example 10.1000/182 Website www.doi.org A digital object identifier (DOI) is a persistent identifier or handle used to identify objects uniquely, standardized by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).[1] An implementation of the Handle System,[2][3] DOIs are in wide use mainly to identify academic, professional, and government information, such as journal articles, research reports, data sets, and official publications. However, they also have been used to identify other types of information resources, such as commercial videos. A DOI aims to be "resolvable", usually to some form of access to the information object to which the DOI refers. This is achieved by binding the DOI to metadata about the object, such as a URL, indicating where the object can be found. Thus, by being actionable and interoperable, a DOI differs from identifiers such as ISBNs and ISRCs which aim only to identify their referents uniquely. The DOI system uses the indecs Content Model for representing metadata. The DOI for a document remains fixed over the lifetime of the document, whereas its location and other metadata may change. Referring to an online document by its DOI is supposed to provide a more stable link than simply using its URL. But every time a URL changes, the publisher has to update the metadata for the DOI to link to the new URL.[4][5][6] It is the publisher's responsibility to update the DOI database. If they fail to do so, the DOI resolves to a dead link leaving the DOI useless. The developer and administrator of the DOI system is the International DOI Foundation (IDF), which introduced it in 2000.[7] Organizations that meet the contractual obligations of the DOI system and are willing to pay to become a member of the system can assign DOIs.[8] The DOI system is implemented through a federation of registration agencies coordinated by the IDF.[9] By late April 2011 more than 50 million DOI names had been assigned by some 4,000 organizations,[10] and by April 2013 this number had grown to 85 million DOI names assigned through 9,500 organizations. Contents 1 Nomenclature and syntax 1.1 Display 2 Applications 3 Features and benefits 4 Comparison with other identifier schemes 5 Resolution 6 IDF organizational structure 7 Standardization 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 External links Nomenclature and syntax [edit] A DOI is a type of Handle System handle, which takes the form of a character string divided into two parts, a prefix and a suffix, separated by a slash. prefix/suffix The prefix identifies the registrant of the identifier and the suffix is chosen by the registrant and identifies the specific object associated with that DOI. Most legal Unicode characters are allowed in these strings, which are interpreted in a case-insensitive manner. The prefix usually takes the form 10.NNNN, where NNNN is at least a four digit number greater than or equal to 1000, whose limit depends only on the total number of registrants.[11][12] The prefix may be further subdivided with periods, like 10.NNNN.N.[13] For example, in the DOI name 10.1000/182, the prefix is 10.1000 and the suffix is 182. The "10." part of the prefix distinguishes the handle as part of the DOI namespace, as opposed to some other Handle System namespace,[A] and the characters 1000 in the prefix identify the registrant; in this case the registrant is the International DOI Foundation itself. 182 is the suffix, or item ID, identifying a single object (in this case, the latest version of the DOI Handbook). DOI names can identify creative works (such as texts, images, audio or video items, and software) in both electronic and physical forms, performances, and abstract works[14] such as licenses, parties to a transaction, etc. The names can refer to objects at varying levels of detail: thus DOI names can identify a journal, an individual issue of a journal, an individual article in the journal, or a single table in that article. The choice of level of detail is left to the assigner, but in the DOI system it must be declared as part of the metadata that is associated with a DOI name, using a data dictionary based on the indecs Content Model. Display[edit] The official DOI Handbook explicitly states that DOIs should display on screens and in print in the format doi:10.1000/182.[15] Contrary to the DOI Handbook, CrossRef, a major DOI registration agency, recommends displaying a URL (for example, https://doi.org/10.1000/182) instead of the officially specified format (for example, doi:10.1000/182)[16][17] This URL is persistent (there is a contract that ensures persistence in the DOI.ORG domain), so it is a PURL – providing the location of an HTTP proxy server which will redirect web accesses to the correct online location of the linked item.[8][18] The CrossRef recommendation is primarily based on the assumption that the DOI is being displayed without being hyperlinked to its appropriate URL – the argument being that without the hyperlink it is not as easy to copy-and-paste the full URL to actually bring up the page for the DOI, thus the entire URL should be displayed, allowing people viewing the page containing the DOI to copy-and-paste the URL, by hand, into a new window/tab in their browser in order to go to the appropriate page for the document the DOI represents.[19] Since DOI is a namespace within the Handle system, it is semantically correct to represent it as the URI info:doi/10.1000/182. Applications[edit] Major applications of the DOI system currently include: Scholarly materials (journal articles, books, ebooks, etc.) through CrossRef, a consortium of around 3,000 publishers; Airiti, a leading provider of electronic academic journals in Chinese and Taiwanese; and the Japan Link Center (JaLC) an organization providing link management and DOI assignment for electronic academic journals in Japanese. Research datasets through Datacite, a consortium of leading research libraries, technical information providers, and scientific data centers; European Union official publications through the EU publications office; The Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure project at Tsinghua University and the Institute of Scientific and Technical Information of China (ISTIC), two initiatives sponsored by the Chinese government. Permanent global identifiers for both commercial and non-commercial audio/visual content titles, edits, and manifestations through the Entertainment ID Registry, commonly known as EIDR. In the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development's publication service OECD iLibrary, each table or graph in an OECD publication is shown with a DOI name that leads to an Excel file of data underlying the tables and graphs. Further development of such services is planned.[20] Other registries include Crossref and the multilingual European DOI Registration Agency.[21] Since 2015, RFCs can be referenced as doi:10.17487/rfc….[22] Features and benefits[edit] The IDF designed the DOI system to provide a form of persistent identification, in which each DOI name permanently and unambiguously identifies the object to which it is associated. It also associates metadata with objects, allowing it to provide users with relevant pieces of information about the objects and their relationships. Included as part of this metadata are network actions that allow DOI names to be resolved to web locations where the objects they describe can be found. To achieve its goals, the DOI system combines the Handle System and the indecs Content Model with a social infrastructure. The Handle System ensures that the DOI name for an object is not based on any changeable attributes of the object such as its physical location or ownership, that the attributes of the object are encoded in its metadata rather than in its DOI name, and that no two objects are assigned the same DOI name. Because DOI names are short character strings, they are human-readable, may be copied and pasted as text, and fit into the URI specification. The DOI name-resolution mechanism acts behind the scenes, so that users communicate with it in the same way as with any other web service; it is built on open architectures, incorporates trust mechanisms, and is engineered to operate reliably and flexibly so that it can be adapted to changing demands and new applications of the DOI system.[23] DOI name-resolution may be used with OpenURL to select the most appropriate among multiple locations for a given object, according to the location of the user making the request.[24] However, despite this ability, the DOI system has drawn criticism from librarians for directing users to non-free copies of documents that would have been available for no additional fee from alternative locations.[25] The indecs Content Model as used within the DOI system associates metadata with objects. A small kernel of common metadata is shared by all DOI names and can be optionally extended with other relevant data, which may be public or restricted. Registrants may update the metadata for their DOI names at any time, such as when publication information changes or when an object moves to a different URL. The International DOI Foundation (IDF) oversees the integration of these technologies and operation of the system through a technical and social infrastructure. The social infrastructure of a federation of independent registration agencies offering DOI services was modelled on existing successful federated deployments of identifiers such as GS1 and ISBN. Comparison with other identifier schemes[edit] A DOI name differs from commonly used Internet pointers to material, such as the Uniform Resource Locator (URL), in that it identifies an object itself as a first-class entity, rather than the specific place where the object is located at a certain time. It implements the Uniform Resource Identifier (Uniform Resource Name) concept and adds to it a data model and social infrastructure.[26] A DOI name also differs from standard identifier registries such as the ISBN, ISRC, etc. The purpose of an identifier registry is to manage a given collection of identifiers, whereas the primary purpose of the DOI system is to make a collection of identifiers actionable and interoperable, where that collection can include identifiers from many other controlled collections.[27] The DOI system offers persistent, semantically-interoperable resolution to related current data and is best suited to material that will be used in services outside the direct control of the issuing assigner (e.g., public citation or managing content of value). It uses a managed registry (providing social and technical infrastructure). It does not assume any specific business model for the provision of identifiers or services and enables other existing services to link to it in defined ways. Several approaches for making identifiers persistent have been proposed. The comparison of persistent identifier approaches is difficult because they are not all doing the same thing. Imprecisely referring to a set of schemes as "identifiers" doesn't mean that they can be compared easily. Other "identifier systems" may be enabling technologies with low barriers to entry, providing an easy to use labeling mechanism that allows anyone to set up a new instance (examples include Persistent Uniform Resource Locator (PURL), URLs, Globally Unique Identifiers (GUIDs), etc.), but may lack some of the functionality of a registry-controlled scheme and will usually lack accompanying metadata in a controlled scheme. The DOI system does not have this approach and should not be compared directly to such identifier schemes. Various applications using such enabling technologies with added features have been devised that meet some of the features offered by the DOI system for specific sectors (e.g., ARK). A DOI name does not depend on the object's location and, in this way, is similar to a Uniform Resource Name (URN) or PURL but differs from an ordinary URL. URLs are often used as substitute identifiers for documents on the Internet although the same document at two different locations has two URLs. By contrast, persistent identifiers such as DOI names identify objects as first class entities: two instances of the same object would have the same DOI name. Resolution[edit] DOI name resolution is provided through the Handle System, developed by Corporation for National Research Initiatives, and is freely available to any user encountering a DOI name. Resolution redirects the user from a DOI name to one or more pieces of typed data: URLs representing instances of the object, services such as e-mail, or one or more items of metadata. To the Handle System, a DOI name is a handle, and so has a set of values assigned to it and may be thought of as a record that consists of a group of fields. Each handle value must have a data type specified in its <type> field, which defines the syntax and semantics of its data. While a DOI persistently and uniquely identifies the object to which it is assigned, DOI resolution may not be persistent, due to technical and administrative issues. To resolve a DOI name, it may be input to a DOI resolver, such as doi.org. Another approach, which avoids typing or cutting-and-pasting into a resolver is to include the DOI in a document as a URL which uses the resolver as an HTTP proxy, such as https://doi.org/ (preferred)[28] or http://dx.doi.org/, both of which support HTTPS. For example, the DOI 10.1000/182 can be included in a reference or hyperlink as https://doi.org/10.1000/182. This approach allows users to click on the DOI as a normal hyperlink. Indeed, as previously mentioned, this is how CrossRef recommends that DOIs always be represented (preferring HTTPS over HTTP), so that if they are cut-and-pasted into other documents, emails, etc., they will be actionable. Other DOI resolvers and HTTP Proxies include http://hdl.handle.net, and https://doi.pangaea.de/. At the beginning of the year 2016, a new class of alternative DOI resolvers was started by http://doai.io. This service is unusual in that it tries to find a non-paywalled version of a title and redirects the user to that instead of the publisher's version.[29][30] Since then, other open-access favoring DOI resolvers have been created, notably https://oadoi.org/ in October 2016[31] (later Unpaywall). While traditional DOI resolvers solely rely on the Handle System, alternative DOI resolvers first consult open access resources such as BASE (Bielefeld Academic Search Engine).[29][31] An alternative to HTTP proxies is to use one of a number of add-ons and plug-ins for browsers, thereby avoiding the conversion of the DOIs to URLs,[32] which depend on domain names and may be subject to change, while still allowing the DOI to be treated as a normal hyperlink. For example. the CNRI Handle Extension for Firefox, enables the browser to access Handle System handles or DOIs like hdl:4263537/4000 or doi:10.1000/1 directly in the Firefox browser, using the native Handle System protocol. This plug-in can also replace references to web-to-handle proxy servers with native resolution. A disadvantage of this approach for publishers is that, at least at present, most users will be encountering the DOIs in a browser, mail reader, or other software which does not have one of these plug-ins installed. IDF organizational structure[edit] The International DOI Foundation (IDF), a non-profit organisation created in 1998, is the governance body of the DOI system.[33] It safeguards all intellectual property rights relating to the DOI system, manages common operational features, and supports the development and promotion of the DOI system. The IDF ensures that any improvements made to the DOI system (including creation, maintenance, registration, resolution and policymaking of DOI names) are available to any DOI registrant. It also prevents third parties from imposing additional licensing requirements beyond those of the IDF on users of the DOI system. The IDF is controlled by a Board elected by the members of the Foundation, with an appointed Managing Agent who is responsible for co-ordinating and planning its activities. Membership is open to all organizations with an interest in electronic publishing and related enabling technologies. The IDF holds annual open meetings on the topics of DOI and related issues. Registration agencies, appointed by the IDF, provide services to DOI registrants: they allocate DOI prefixes, register DOI names, and provide the necessary infrastructure to allow registrants to declare and maintain metadata and state data. Registration agencies are also expected to actively promote the widespread adoption of the DOI system, to cooperate with the IDF in the development of the DOI system as a whole, and to provide services on behalf of their specific user community. A list of current RAs is maintained by the International DOI Foundation. The IDF is recognized as one of the federated registrars for the Handle System by the DONA Foundation (of which the IDF is a board member), and is responsible for assigning Handle System prefixes under the top-level 10 prefix.[34] Registration agencies generally charge a fee to assign a new DOI name; parts of these fees are used to support the IDF. The DOI system overall, through the IDF, operates on a not-for-profit cost recovery basis. Standardization[edit] The DOI system is an international standard developed by the International Organization for Standardization in its technical committee on identification and description, TC46/SC9.[35] The Draft International Standard ISO/DIS 26324, Information and documentation – Digital Object Identifier System met the ISO requirements for approval. The relevant ISO Working Group later submitted an edited version to ISO for distribution as an FDIS (Final Draft International Standard) ballot,[36] which was approved by 100% of those voting in a ballot closing on 15 November 2010.[37] The final standard was published on 23 April 2012.[1] DOI is a registered URI under the info URI scheme specified by IETF RFC 4452. info:doi/ is the infoURI Namespace of Digital Object Identifiers.[38] The DOI syntax is a NISO standard, first standardised in 2000, ANSI/NISO Z39.84-2005 Syntax for the Digital Object Identifier.[39] The maintainers of the DOI system have deliberately not registered a DOI namespace for URNs, stating that: URN architecture assumes a DNS-based Resolution Discovery Service (RDS) to find the service appropriate to the given URN scheme. However no such widely deployed RDS schemes currently exist.... DOI is not registered as a URN namespace, despite fulfilling all the functional requirements, since URN registration appears to offer no advantage to the DOI System. It requires an additional layer of administration for defining DOI as a URN namespace (the string urn:doi:10.1000/1 rather than the simpler doi:10.1000/1) and an additional step of unnecessary redirection to access the resolution service, already achieved through either http proxy or native resolution. If RDS mechanisms supporting URN specifications become widely available, DOI will be registered as a URN. — International DOI Foundation, Factsheet: DOI System and Internet Identifier Specifications See also[edit] arXiv Bibcode DataCite Digital identity Metadata standards Object identifier ORCID PMID Publisher Item Identifier (PII) Permalink Scientific literature Universally unique identifier (UUID) Notes[edit] ^ Other registries are identified by other strings at the start of the prefix. Handle names that begin with "100." are also in use, as for example in the following citation: Hammond, Joseph L., Jr.; Brown, James E.; Liu, Shyan-Shiang S. (May 1975). "Development of a Transmission Error Model and an Error Control Model l". Technical Report RADC-TR-75-138. Rome Air Development Center. Bibcode:1975STIN...7615344H. hdl:100.2/ADA013939. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) References[edit] ^ a b "ISO 26324:2012(en), Information and documentation – Digital object identifier system". ISO. Retrieved 20 April 2016. ^ "The Handle System". ^ "Factsheets". ^ Witten, Ian H.; David Bainbridge & David M. Nichols (2010). How to Build a Digital Library (2nd ed.). Amsterdam; Boston: Morgan Kaufmann. pp. 352–253. ISBN 978-0-12-374857-7. ^ Langston, Marc; Tyler, James (2004). "Linking to journal articles in an online teaching environment: The persistent link, DOI, and OpenURL". The Internet and Higher Education. 7 (1): 51–58. doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2003.11.004. ^ "How the 'Digital Object Identifier' works". BusinessWeek. BusinessWeek. 23 July 2001. Retrieved 20 April 2010. Assuming the publishers do their job of maintaining the databases, these centralized references, unlike current web links, should never become outdated or broken. ^ Paskin, Norman (2010), "Digital Object Identifier (DOI) System", Encyclopedia of Library and Information Sciences (3rd ed.), Taylor and Francis, pp. 1586–1592 ^ a b Davidson, Lloyd A.; Douglas, Kimberly (December 1998). "Digital Object Identifiers: Promise and problems for scholarly publishing". Journal of Electronic Publishing. 4 (2). doi:10.3998/3336451.0004.203. ^ "Welcome to the DOI System". Doi.org. 28 June 2010. Retrieved 7 August 2010. ^ "DOI News, April 2011: 1. DOI System exceeds 50 million assigned identifiers". Doi.org. 20 April 2011. Retrieved 3 July 2011. ^ "doi info & guidelines". CrossRef.org. Publishers International Linking Association, Inc. 2013. Archived from the original on 21 October 2002. Retrieved 10 June 2016. All DOI prefixes begin with "10" to distinguish the DOI from other implementations of the Handle System followed by a four-digit number or string (the prefix can be longer if necessary). ^ "Factsheet—Key Facts on Digital Object Identifier System". doi.org. International DOI Foundation. 6 June 2016. Retrieved 10 June 2016. Over 18,000 DOI name prefixes within the DOI System ^ "DOI Handbook—2 Numbering". doi.org. International DOI Foundation. 1 February 2016. Retrieved 10 June 2016. The registrant code may be further divided into sub-elements for administrative convenience if desired. Each sub-element of the registrant code shall be preceded by a full stop. ^ "Frequently asked questions about the DOI system: 6. What can a DOI name be assigned to?". International DOI Foundation. 3 July 2018 [update of earlier version]. Retrieved 19 July 2018. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ "DOI Handbook – Numbering". doi.org. 13 February 2014. Section 2.6.1 Screen and print presentation. Archived from the original on 30 June 2014. Retrieved 30 June 2014. ^ "DOI Display Guidelines". ^ "New Crossref DOI display guidelines are on the way". ^ Powell, Andy (June 1998). "Resolving DOI Based URNs Using Squid: An Experimental System at UKOLN". D-Lib Magazine. ISSN 1082-9873. ^ ChrissieCW. "Crossref Revises DOI Display Guidelines - Crossref". www.crossref.org. ^ Green, T. (2009). "We Need Publishing Standards for Datasets and Data Tables". Research Information. doi:10.1787/603233448430. ^ "multilingual European DOI Registration Agency". mEDRA.org. 2003. ^ Levine, John R. (2015). "Assigning Digital Object Identifiers to RFCs § DOIs for RFCs". IAB. doi:10.17487/rfc7669. RFC 7669. ^ Timmer, John (6 March 2010). "DOIs and their discontents". Ars Technica. Retrieved 5 March 2013. ^ DeRisi, Susanne; Kennison, Rebecca; Twyman, Nick (2003). "Editorial: The what and whys of DOIs". PLoS Biology. 1 (2): e57. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0000057. PMC 261894. PMID 14624257. ^ Franklin, Jack (2003). "Open access to scientific and technical information: the state of the art". In Grüttemeier, Herbert; Mahon, Barry (eds.). Open access to scientific and technical information: state of the art and future trends. IOS Press. p. 74. ISBN 978-1-58603-377-4. ^ "DOI System and Internet Identifier Specifications". Doi.org. 18 May 2010. Retrieved 7 August 2010. ^ "DOI System and standard identifier registries". Doi.org. Retrieved 7 August 2010. ^ International DOI Foundation (7 August 2014). "Resolution". DOI Handbook. Retrieved 19 March 2015. ^ a b "DOAI". CAPSH (Committee for the Accessibility of Publications in Sciences and Humanities). Retrieved 6 August 2016. ^ Schonfeld, Roger C. (3 March 2016). "Co-opting 'Official' Channels through Infrastructures for Openness". The Scholarly Kitchen. Retrieved 17 October 2016. ^ a b Piwowar, Heather (25 October 2016). "Introducing oaDOI: resolve a DOI straight to OA". Retrieved 17 March 2017. ^ "DOI System Tools". ^ "Chapter 7: The International DOI Foundation". DOI Handbook. Doi.org. Retrieved 8 July 2015. ^ "DONA Foundation Multi-Primary Administrators". Archived from the original on 14 January 2017. Retrieved 7 February 2017. ^ "Digital object identifier (DOI) becomes an ISO standard". iso.org. 10 May 2012. Retrieved 10 May 2012. ^ "about_the_doi.html DOI Standards and Specifications". Doi.org. 28 June 2010. Retrieved 7 August 2010. ^ "Overviews & Standards – Standards and Specifications: 1. ISO TC46/SC9 Standards". Doi.org. 18 November 2010. Retrieved 3 July 2011. ^ "About "info" URIs – Frequently Asked Questions". Info-uri.info. Retrieved 7 August 2010. ^ "ANSI/NISO Z39.84-2000 Syntax for the Digital Object Identifier". Techstreet.com. Retrieved 7 August 2010. External links[edit] Wikidata has the property: DOI (P356) (see uses) Official website Short DOI – DOI Foundation service for converting long DOIs to shorter equivalents Factsheet: DOI System and Internet Identifier Specifications CrossRef DOI lookup v t e International numbering standards Standards ISO 2108: International Standard Book Number (ISBN) ISO 3297: International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) ISO 3901: International Standard Recording Code (ISRC) ISO 6166: International Securities Identification Number (ISIN) ISO/IEC 7812: Issuer Identification Number (IIN) ISO 9362: Business Entity Identifier (BIC) ISO 10957: International Standard Music Number (ISMN) ISO 13616: International Bank Account Number (IBAN) ISO 15511: International Standard Identifier for Libraries... (ISIL) ISO 15706: International Standard Audiovisual Number (ISAN) ISO 15707: International Standard Musical Work Code (ISWC) ISO 17316: International Standard Link Identifier (ISLI) ISO 17442: Legal Entity Identifier (LEI) ISO 21047: International Standard Text Code (ISTC) ISO 26324: Digital Object Identifier System (DOI) ISO 27729: International Standard Name Identifier (ISNI) ISO 27730: International Standard Collection Identifier (ISCI) CAE/IPI Virtual International Authority File (VIAF) v t e ISO standards by standard number List of ISO standards / ISO romanizations / IEC standards 1–9999 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 16 17 31 -0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10 -11 -12 -13 68-1 128 216 217 226 228 233 259 261 262 269 302 306 361 428 500 518 519 639 -1 -2 -3 -5 -6 646 657 668 690 704 732 764 838 843 860 898 965 999 1000 1004 1007 1073-1 1073-2 1155 1413 1538 1629 1745 1989 2014 2015 2022 2033 2047 2108 2145 2146 2240 2281 2533 2709 2711 2720 2788 2848 2852 3029 3103 3166 -1 -2 -3 3297 3307 3601 3602 3864 3901 3950 3977 4031 4157 4165 4217 4909 5218 5426 5427 5428 5725 5775 5776 5800 5807 5964 6166 6344 6346 6385 6425 6429 6438 6523 6709 6943 7001 7002 7010 7027 7064 7098 7185 7200 7498 -1 7637 7736 7810 7811 7812 7813 7816 7942 8000 8093 8178 8217 8373 8501-1 8571 8583 8601 8613 8632 8651 8652 8691 8805/8806 8807 8820-5 8859 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -8-I -9 -10 -11 -12 -13 -14 -15 -16 8879 9000/9001 9036 9075 9126 9141 9227 9241 9293 9314 9362 9407 9496 9506 9529 9564 9592/9593 9594 9660 9797-1 9897 9899 9945 9984 9985 9995 10000–19999 10005 10006 10007 10116 10118-3 10160 10161 10165 10179 10206 10218 10303 -11 -21 -22 -28 -238 10383 10487 10585 10589 10646 10664 10746 10861 10957 10962 10967 11073 11170 11179 11404 11544 11783 11784 11785 11801 11889 11898 11940 (-2) 11941 11941 (TR) 11992 12006 12182 12207 12234-2 12620 13211 -1 -2 13216 13250 13399 13406-2 13450 13485 13490 13567 13568 13584 13616 13816 14000 14031 14224 14289 14396 14443 14496 -2 -3 -6 -10 -11 -12 -14 -17 -20 14644 14649 14651 14698 14750 14764 14882 14971 15022 15189 15288 15291 15292 15398 15408 15444 -3 15445 15438 15504 15511 15686 15693 15706 -2 15707 15897 15919 15924 15926 15926 WIP 15930 16023 16262 16355-1 16612-2 16750 16949 (TS) 17024 17025 17100 17203 17369 17442 17799 18000 18004 18014 18245 18629 18916 19005 19011 19092 -1 -2 19114 19115 19125 19136 19407 19439 19500 19501 19502 19503 19505 19506 19507 19508 19509 19510 19600 19752 19757 19770 19775-1 19794-5 19831 20000+ 20000 20022 20121 20400 21000 21047 21500 21827 22000 22300 22395 23270 23271 23360 24517 24613 24617 24707 25178 25964 26000 26262 26300 26324 27000 series 27000 27001 27002 27005 27006 27729 28000 29110 29148 29199-2 29500 30170 31000 32000 37001 38500 40500 42010 45001 50001 55000 80000 -1 Category Authority control BNF: cb135461391 (data) GND: 7694956-4 LCCN: sh99010374 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_object_identifier&oldid=1002059314" Categories: Academic publishing Electronic documents Identifiers Index (publishing) Hidden categories: CS1 errors: missing periodical Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from December 2019 Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiversity Languages Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Basa Bali বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская भोजपुरी Български Boarisch Bosanski Català Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano Jawa ქართული Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски മലയാളം मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Sardu Scots Shqip සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча/tatarça ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 January 2021, at 17:14 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3859	----	Berenice IV - Wikipedia Berenice IV From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Berenice IV of Egypt) Jump to navigation Jump to search Queen of Egypt Berenice IV Queen of Egypt Reign 58-55 BC Successor Ptolemy XII Auletes Born 77 BC Alexandria, Egypt Died 55 BC Alexandria, Egypt Burial Alexandria, Egypt Spouse Seleucus VII Kybiosaktes Archelaus I of Comana Full name Irypatet Werethesut Berenice IV Epiphaneia Dynasty Ptolemaic Father Ptolemy XII Auletes Mother Cleopatra V of Egypt Berenice IV Epiphaneia (Greek: Βερενίκη; 77–55 BC, born and died in Alexandria, Egypt) was a Greek Princess and Queen of the Ptolemaic dynasty. Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Early life prior to reign 1.2 Reign 2 Ancestry 3 See also 4 References 5 Sources Biography[edit] Early life prior to reign[edit] Berenice was the daughter of Ptolemy XII Auletes and probably Cleopatra V Tryphaena. She was the sister of the famous Pharaoh Cleopatra, Arsinoe IV, Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator and Ptolemy XIV. In 58 BC, Ptolemy XII and Cleopatra VII fled to Rome in search of political and military aid against Berenice's elder sister Cleopatra VI Tryphaena, who had become far too powerful. Reign[edit] After Tryphaena's death in 57 BC, possibly poisoned on behalf of Berenice, she at age 20 became the sole ruler of Egypt due to her father's absence, and with him and Cleopatra absent she had no worry about being overthrown or overpowered and executed.[1] As a lone woman ruling Egypt, she was expected to marry and have a man as a co-regent. When she did not, her consuls forced her to marry prince Seleucus VII Philometor, but she had him strangled and remained as sole ruler.[2] The public feared the Ptolemaic reign would fail to continue due to Berenice's refusal to marry. It is also believed she cared far too much for fashion and luxuries, leading to rising expenses. She later married Archelaus, but he was not co-regent. Archelaus had been appointed to the priesthood at Comana at Cappadocia by Pompey, and claimed to be a son of King Mithridates VI of Pontus. Strabo instead says his father was Archelaus, an officer of Mithridates VI in the First Mithridatic War[3] who defected to the Romans. The reign of Berenice ended in 55 BC when her father retook the throne with the aid of the Romans led by Aulus Gabinius, and had Berenice beheaded. Archelaus, who according to Strabo had previously had a friendly relationship with Gabinius, died in battle against the forces of Gabinius.[4] Ancestry[edit] Ancestors of Berenice IV of Egypt 16. Ptolemy V Epiphanes 8. Ptolemy VIII Physcon 17. Cleopatra I of Egypt 4. Ptolemy IX Lathyros 18. Ptolemy VI Philometor (brother of 8) 9. Cleopatra III of Egypt 19. Cleopatra II of Egypt (sister of 8) 2. Ptolemy XII Auletes 20. =16. Ptolemy V Epiphanes 10. =8. Ptolemy VIII Physcon 21. =17. Cleopatra I of Egypt 5. Cleopatra IV of Egypt 22. =18. Ptolemy VI Philometor 11. =9. Cleopatra III of Egypt 23. =19. Cleopatra II of Egypt 1. Berenice IV 24. =16. Ptolemy V Epiphanes 12. =8. Ptolemy VIII Physcon 25. =17. Cleopatra I of Egypt 6. Ptolemy X Alexander I 26. =18. Ptolemy VI Philometor 13. =9. Cleopatra III of Egypt 27. =19. Cleopatra II of Egypt 3. Cleopatra V of Egypt 28. =8. Ptolemy VIII Physcon 14. =4. Ptolemy IX Lathyros 29. =9. Cleopatra III of Egypt 7. Berenice III of Egypt 30. =8. Ptolemy VIII Physcon 15. Cleopatra Selene I 31. =9. Cleopatra III of Egypt See also[edit] Egypt portal Asia portal List of Syrian monarchs Timeline of Syrian history References[edit] ^ Strabo 12.3.34 and 17.1.11 ^ Strabo 12.3.34 and 17.1.11 ^ Appian Mithrid. 114 ^ Plutarch Antony 3.2 - 3.6 Sources[edit] Dio Cassius 39.12 - 39.14, 39.55 - 39.58 Berenice IV Ptolemaic dynasty Born: c. 77 BC Died: 55 BC Regnal titles Preceded by Ptolemy XII Pharaoh of Egypt 58 BC–55 BC with Cleopatra VI Succeeded by Ptolemy XII v t e Hellenistic rulers Argeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Kings of Cyrene Magas Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Kings of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Kings of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Kings of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Kings of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus Kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon (regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces Asander with Dynamis Mithridates II Asander with Dynamis Scribonius’ attempted rule with Dynamis Dynamis with Polemon Polemon with Pythodorida Aspurgus Mithridates III with Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Queens of Ancient Egypt Early Dynastic Period to First Intermediate Period  (3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Neithhotep Benerib Khenthap Herneith Nakhtneith Penebui Merneith Seshemetka Semat Serethor Betrest II Nimaathap Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Hetephernebti Djeseretnebti Djefatnebti Meresankh I IV Hetepheres I Meritites I Henutsen Khentetka Meresankh II Hetepheres II Meresankh III Khamerernebty I Persenet Hekenuhedjet Khamerernebty II Rekhetre Bunefer V Khentkaus I Neferhetepes Meretnebty Khentkaus II Khentkaus III Reptynub Khuit I Meresankh IV Setibhor Nebet Khenut VI Iput I Khuit II Ankhesenpepi I Ankhesenpepi II Nubwenet Meritites IV Inenek-Inti Nedjeftet Neith Iput II Udjebten Ankhesenpepi III Ankhesenpepi IV Nitocris Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Neferu I Neferukayet Iah Tem Neferu II Ashayet Henhenet Sadeh Kawit Kemsit XII Neferitatjenen Neferu III Keminub Khenemetneferhedjet I Nofret II Itaweret Khenmet Sithathoriunet Khenemetneferhedjet II Neferthenut Meretseger Aat Khenemetneferhedjet III Sobekneferu 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Nofret Nubhetepti Senebhenas Neni Tjan Ineni Nubkhaes Aya XIV Tati XVI Mentuhotep XVII Nubemhat Sobekemsaf Haankhes Tetisheri Ahhotep I Ahmose Inhapy Sitdjehuti Ahhotep II New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose-Nefertari Ahmose-Sitkamose Ahmose-Henuttamehu Ahmose-Meritamun Ahmose Mutnofret Hatshepsut Iset Satiah Merytre-Hatshepsut Nebtu Menhet, Menwi and Merti Nebsemi Tiaa Nefertari Iaret Mutemwiya Tiye Gilukhipa Sitamun Iset Tadukhipa / Kiya Nefertiti Meritaten Neferneferuaten Ankhesenamun Tey Mutnedjmet Nebetnehat XIX Sitre Tuya Tanedjemet Nefertari Isetnofret Henutmire Maathorneferure Meritamen Bintanath Nebettawy Merytre Isetnofret II Takhat Twosret Tiaa XX Tiy-Merenese Iset Ta-Hemdjert Tyti Tiye Duatentopet Henutwati Tawerettenru Nubkhesbed Baketwernel Tentamun 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Tentamun Mutnedjmet Karimala XXII Karomama Patareshnes Maatkare Tashedkhonsu Nesitaudjatakhet Nesitanebetashru Kapes Karomama I Tadibast III XXIII Karomama II XXV Pebatjma Tabiry Abar Khensa Peksater Arty Qalhata Tabekenamun Takahatenamun Naparaye Atakhebasken Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Mehytenweskhet Khedebneithirbinet I Takhuit Tentkheta Nakhtubasterau Ladice XXVII Atossa Artystone Parmys Amestris Damaspia Parysatis XXXI Stateira I Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Roxana Stateira II Parysatis II Eurydice II of Macedon Ptolemaic Eurydice Berenice I Arsinoe I Arsinoe II Berenice II Arsinoe III Cleopatra I Cleopatra II Cleopatra III Cleopatra IV Cleopatra Selene Berenice III Cleopatra V Cleopatra VI Berenice IV Cleopatra VII Arsinoe IV Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berenice_IV&oldid=988661551" Categories: 77 BC births 55 BC deaths 1st-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Ptolemaic dynasty Ancient Egyptian queens regnant 1st-century BC women rulers 1st-century BC Egyptian people Female pharaohs Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random 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en-wikipedia-org-3869	----	Wadjenes - Wikipedia Wadjenes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wadjenes Wadjlas, Ougotlas, Outlas, Tlas Cartouche name of Wadjenes in the Abydos King List (cartouche no. 12) Pharaoh Reign length of reign unknown (2nd Dynasty; around 2740 B.C.) Predecessor Banetjer Successor Senedj Royal titulary Nomen Abydos King List Wadjenes W3dj-ns Saqqara King List Wadjlas W3dj-l3s Turin Canon ...s[1] Wadjenes (ancient Eyptian Wadj-nes, which means "fresh of tongue"), also known as Wadjlas, Ougotlas and Tlas, was an early Egyptian king who may have ruled during the 2nd Dynasty. Since the name form "Wadjenes" is not contemporarily attested as the name of a king, but frequently appears in Ramesside kinglists, Egyptologists to this day are trying to connect Wadjenes with contemporary Horus-kings. Name sources[edit] Black ink inscription on alabaster showing a "wer-ma'a Wadjesen" The king's name "Wadjenes" is attested only in the Ramesside kinglists, where he is always presented as the immediate successor of king Nynetjer and as the predecessor of king Senedj. The same goes for the Royal Canon of Turin, where the entry for his name is damaged so only the years of rulership are preserved.[1][2] Whilst all kinglists match each other regarding the chronological position of Wadjenes, Egyptologists are uncertain as to the origin of the name "Wadjenes". Egyptologists and historians such as Winfried Barta, Bernhard Grdseloff and Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards believe that the papyrus haulm, the first symbol in Wadjenes's name, is a misinterpretation of the hieroglyphic sign of a flower called Weneg (also read as Uneg), which is rarely used in Egyptian writing. A king Weneg (also written as "Weneg-Nebti") is also contemporarily identified by black ink-inscriptions on alabaster-shards and as incised writings on schist vessels originating from the underground galleries beneath the step pyramid of king Djoser at Sakkara. It is possible that Ramesside scribes interchanged the Weneg flower with the papyrus haulm, since both signs are very similar to each other in hieratic script.[3][4][5] Besides the artefacts with the name "Weneg-Nebti", further objects made of alabaster show the personal name "Wadj-sen" in connection with the Sed festival. Egyptologists such as Wolfgang Helck think that Wadj-sen was a crown prince, since the titulary Wer-ma'a ("he who sees the greatest") was always reserved for the eldest son of a king and so it is also connected with Wadj-sen's name. However, Egyptologists such as Peter Kaplony and Jürgen von Beckerath believe that Weneg-Nebti and Wadjenes are identical and that Wadjenes's Horus name was Sekhemib-Perenmaat or Horus Sa.[6] The ancient Egyptian historian Manetho called Wadjenes "Tlas". This name distortion may be based on the Coptic rewriting of the name "Wadjenes" as "Ougotlas", meaning ″fresh of tongue″.[7] Reign[edit] Very little is known about Wadjenes's reign. The Turin King List lists Wadjenes as ruling for 54 years, whilst Manetho assigns 17 years to him. Egyptologists evaluate both lists as misinterpretations by Ramesside scribes or as an exaggeration. If Wadjenes was an independent ruler (as Richard Weill and Peter Kaplony believe) he was evidently the last to rule over a unified realm, since his name is found in both Memphite and Thinite royal chronicles. It is largely accepted by Egyptologists that the immediate successor of king Nynetjer left a divided Egypt, which was headed by two kings who ruled at the same time. The theory is based on the unusual serekh name of a king called Peribsen, who succeeded Nynetjer and who placed the crest animal of Seth above his name. Since the deity Seth was of Ombite origin, king Peribsen was probably of Ombite origin, too, and he definitely ruled only in Upper Egypt. His name is missing from the Ramesside Memphite kinglists, because they were all written by Memphite priests and they did not accept any non-Memphite ruler as a rightful ancestor.[2][3][4][5] References[edit] ^ a b after: Alan H. Gardiner: The Royal Canon of Turin. Griffith Institute of Oxford, Oxford (UK) 1997, ISBN 0-900416-48-3; page 15 & Table I. ^ a b Walter Bryan Emery: Ägypten. Geschichte und Kultur der Frühzeit. Fourier-Verlag, Wiesbaden 1964, ISBN 3-921695-39-2, page 275. ^ a b B. Grdseloff: King Uneg in: Annales du Service des Antiquités de l’Égypte, No. 44, 1944, page 279–306. ^ a b Winfried Barta in: Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde, No.108. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1981, ISSN 0044-216X, page11. ^ a b Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards: The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 1, Pt. 2: Early History of the Middle East, 3rd reprint. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2006, ISBN 0-521-07791-5, page 31. ^ Wolfgang Helck: Untersuchungen zur Thinitenzeit. Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1987, ISBN 3-447-02677-4, page 142 ^ I.E.S. Edwards: The Cambridge ancient history, Volume 1-3. Cambridge University Press, 1970, ISBN 0-521-07791-5, page 31. Preceded by Weneg (pharaoh) Pharaoh of Egypt Succeeded by Senedj v t e Second Dynasty of Ancient Egypt Attested pharaohs Hotepsekhemwy Nebra Weneg Nynetjer Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Khasekhemwy Obscure pharaoh names Horus Ba Ba Horus Sa Hudjefa I Neferkara I Neferkasokar Nubnefer Senedj Sneferka Wadjenes Queen consort Nimaathap Other royals Khenmetptah Satkhnum Sehener Shepset-ipet Wadjitefni (Mesen-ka) Pehen-Ptah Nisuheqet Nefer-Setekh Monument Gisr el-Mudir Capital Thinis v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wadjenes&oldid=995691248" Categories: 28th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Second Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch ქართული Magyar Português Tagalog Edit links This page was last edited on 22 December 2020, at 10:45 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3877	----	Khamure - Wikipedia Khamure From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Khamure Kho-Ra Scarab of Khamure photographed by Flinders Petrie and now in the Petrie Museum[1][2] Pharaoh Reign unknown duration (uncertain, possibly 14th dynasty) Predecessor unknown Successor unknown Royal titulary Nomen Khamure Ḫˁ-mw-Rˁ Khamure was a ruler of some part of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, possibly during the 17th century BC, and likely belonging to the 14th Dynasty.[3][4] As such he would have ruled from Avaris over the eastern Nile Delta and possibly over the Western Delta as well. His chronological position and identity are unclear. Attestations[edit] Khamure is one of the few attested kings of the 14th Dynasty with two scarab seals attributable to him, both of unknown provenance.[3][4] One of the two scarabs is currently housed in the Petrie Museum,[5][6] under the catalog number 11819, while the other was sold at an auction at Lotte New York Palace Hotel in December 1991.[7] The Petrie Museum scarab is peculiar in that it has a unique and elaborate decoration on its back indicating that it was given to an official of the highest rank.[3] The scarab is inscribed with the name of Khamure preceded by the epithet Netjer Nefer, "the good god", showing that Khamure was this king's prenomen.[3] This means that Khamure is not listed in the surviving fragments of the Turin canon, a king list dating to the Ramesside period and recording the prenomina of the kings. Identity[edit] The archaeologists Olga Tufnell and William A. Ward argue that the name written on the scarab seal of the Petrie Museum is actually "'Ammu", possibly to be identified with 'Ammu Aahotepre, a shadowy king of the late Second Intermediate Period.[5][8][9] The Egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker reject this reading, since Gardiner's sign N5 for the sun-disk is clearly readable on the seal together with the signs for Netjer Nefer.[3][4] Hence, they argue, Khamure is the correct reading of the scarab, in agreement with Percy Newberry and Flinders Petrie.[1][2] Although the chronological position of Khamure remains uncertain, Ryholt has proposed that he ruled in the 14th Dynasty, some time before Yaqub-Har and Yakareb. This estimation is based on a seriation of the scarabs dating to the Second Intermediate Period.[3] References[edit] ^ a b Flinders Petrie: Scarabs and cylinders with names, illustrated by the Egyptian collection in University College, London by W. M. Flinders Petrie, British school of archaeology in Egypt and Egyptian research account, London 1917, available online copyright-free see pl. xxii, num 16.k.1 ^ a b Percy E. Newberry: Scarabs an introduction to the study of Egyptian seals and signet rings, with forty-four plates and one hundred and sixteen illustrations in the text, 1906, available online copyright-free see plate XXI, num 30, p. 150. ^ a b c d e f K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here. ^ a b c Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 175–176 ^ a b The scarab on Digital Egypt, Petrie Museum. ^ The scarab on the catalog of the Petrie Museum ^ Joyce Haynes, Yvonne Markowitz, Sue d'Auria (editor): Scarabs and Design Amulets : A Glimpse of Ancient Egypt in Miniature [Auction Catalog], NFA Classical Auctions, New York 1991, num 30, online reference. ^ Olga Tufnell: Studies on Scarab Seals Vol. 2, Aris & Phillips 1984, ISBN 978-0856681301, see seal num. 3361 ^ William A. Ward: Some Personal Names of the Hyksos Period Rulers and Notes on the Epigraphy of Their Scarabs, Ugarit- Forschungen 8 (1976), p.353–369, see p. 368, num 42. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khamure&oldid=971826089" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here 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en-wikipedia-org-3888	----	Imyremeshaw - Wikipedia Imyremeshaw From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Imyremeshaw Imyremeshau, Mermeshau, Emramescha' Granite statue of Imyremeshaw in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo Pharaoh Reign less than 10 years, starting 1759 BC[1] or 1711 BC[2] (13th Dynasty) Predecessor Khendjer Successor Sehetepkare Intef Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Smenkhkare Smnḫ-k3-rˁ "Vigorous is the Ka of Ra" Nomen Imyremeshaw Imy-r-mšˁw "General" or "Overseer of troops" Turin canon [Smenkh]kare Imyremeshaw [Smnḫ]-k3-rˁ-Imy-r-mšˁw "Smenkhkare the general" Consort uncertain, possibly Queen Aya Monuments uncertain, possibly an unfinished pyramid at Saqqara neighboring that of Khendjer Smenkhkare Imyremeshaw was an Egyptian pharaoh of the mid 13th Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. Imyremeshaw reigned from Memphis, starting in 1759 BC[1] or 1711 BC.[2] The length of his reign is not known for certain; he may have reigned for five years and certainly less than ten years.[1] Imyremeshaw is attested by two colossal statues now in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo. Contents 1 Attestations 2 Name 3 Chronological position and reign length 4 References Attestations[edit] Imyremeshaw is attested on the Turin canon, on column 7, line 21 (Alan Gardiner's entry 6.21) as [Smenkh]kare Imyremeshaw. The main contemporary attestations of Imyremeshaw are a pair of colossi dedicated to Ptah "He who is south of his wall, Lord of Ankhtawy" (rsy-ínb=f nb ˁnḫt3wy), a Memphite epithet indicating that the statues must originally have been set up in the temple of Ptah in Memphis.[1] The colossi were later usurped by the 15th Dynasty Hyksos ruler Aqenenre Apepi who had his name inscribed on the right shoulder of each statue with a dedication to "Seth, Lord of Avaris" and had the statues placed in his capital, Avaris. Later, the colossi were moved to Pi-Ramesses by Ramses II who also had his name inscribed on them, together with a further dedication to Seth. Finally, the statues were moved to Tanis during the 21st Dynasty where the colossi remained until the 1897 excavations under the direction of Flinders Petrie.[1][3][4] The two statues are now in the Egyptian Museum and are numbered JE37466 and JE37467. The only other contemporary attestation of Imyremeshaw is a white steatite bead bearing the inscription "The good god, Smenkhkare, beloved of Sobek, Lord of Shedyt". The bead is now in the British Museum, numbered BM EA74185.[3][5] Although the provenance of the bead is unknown, Egyptologists Darrell Baker and Kim Ryholt propose that the reference to Shedyt, a town close to Memphis, on the bead could indicate that the bead originates from this location. Finally, W. Davies has proposed that the torso of a statuette discovered in the ruins of a 13th Dynasty pyramid at southern Saqqara and dating "to [a] close successor of Khendjer" may belong to Imyremeshaw. The fragment however is uninscribed and Davies' identification of the owner of the statuette as Imyremeshaw is based solely "on grounds of provenance".[3][6] The statuette is now in the Egyptian Museum, JE54493. Name[edit] The nomen of Imyremeshaw is a well attested name in use during the Second Intermediate Period and means "Overseer of troops" or "General". For this reason, it has been assumed without further evidence that Imyremeshaw was a general before becoming king. Following this hypothesis, egyptologists Alan Gardiner and William Hayes translated the entry of the Turin canon referring to Imyremeshaw as "Smenkhkare the General", i.e. understanding Imyremeshaw as a title rather than a name.[3] Jürgen von Beckerath proposes that Imyremeshaw was of foreign origin and had a foreign name that could not be understood by the Egyptians and thus became known to them by his military title.[1][7] Furthermore, Imyremeshaw did not use any filiative nomina—that is, he was apparently not related to his predecessor Khendjer and certainly of non-royal birth.[1] Thus, scholars suggested that he may have come to power by orchestrating a military coup against his predecessor Khendjer.[3] Baker and Ryholt contest this hypothesis. They point to the lack of evidence for a military coup as one cannot rule out an usurpation by political means. Additionally, they note that Imyremeshaw was a common personal name at the time. Similar common names based on titles include Imyrikhwe (literally "Overseer of cattle"), Imyreper ("Steward") and Imyrekhenret ("Overseer of the compound").[1] For these reasons, Stephen Quirke suggests that the name of Imyremeshaw may simply reflect a family tradition and Ryholt adds that it could indicate a family with a military background.[1][8] Chronological position and reign length[edit] Syenite statue of Imyremeshaw photographed by Flinders Petrie during his excavations at Tanis The exact chronological position of Imyremeshaw in the 13th Dynasty is not known for certain owing to uncertainties affecting earlier kings of the dynasty. According to the Turin canon, Imyremeshaw was the immediate successor of Khendjer. Baker makes him the twenty-second king of the dynasty, Ryholt sees him as the twenty-third king and Jürgen von Beckerath places him as the eighteenth pharaoh of the dynasty. The exact duration of the reign of Imyremeshaw is mostly lost in a lacuna of the Turin canon and cannot be recovered, except for the end: "[and] 4 days". Ryholt proposes that the combined reigns of Imyremeshaw and his two successors Sehetepkare Intef and Seth Meribre amount to about 10 years. Another piece of evidence concerning the reign of Imyremeshaw is found in the 13th Dynasty Papyrus Boulaq 18 which reports, among other things, the composition of a royal family comprising ten king's sisters, an unspecified number of king's brothers, three daughters of the king, a son named Redienef and a queen named Aya. Even though the king's name is lost in a lacuna, Ryholt's analysis of the papyrus only leaves Imyremeshaw and Sehetepkare Intef as possibilities.[1] This is significant because the papyrus reports a year 3 and a year 5 dates for this king. Additionally, a date "regnal year 5, 3rd month of Shemu, 18th day" is known from the unfinished pyramid complex neighboring that of Khendjer known as Southern South Saqqara pyramid, which may thus have been built by the same person, perhaps Imyremeshaw.[1] The exact circumstances of the end of Imyremeshaw's reign are unknown but the fact that his successor Sehetepkare Intef did not use filiative nomina points to a non-royal birth. Consequently, Ryholt proposes that Intef may have usurped the throne.[1] References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l K.S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here. ^ a b Thomas Schneider following Detlef Franke: Lexikon der Pharaonen, Albatros, 2002 ^ a b c d e Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 134 ^ Flinders Petrie: A history of Egypt from the earliest times to the 16th dynasty, pp. 209-210, 1897, available online ^ British Museum database ^ W. Davies: A royal statue reattributed, British Museum occasional paper 28, London, 1981 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964, p. 52 ^ Stephen Quirke in Middle Kingdom Studies, S. Quirke editor, SIA publishing, 1991, p. 131 Preceded by Khendjer Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Sehetepkare Intef v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Imyremeshaw&oldid=971792114" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Català Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 8 August 2020, at 07:33 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3909	----	One Night with the King - Wikipedia One Night with the King From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search One Night with the King Theatrical release poster Directed by Michael O. Sajbel Produced by Stephan Blinn Richard J. Cook Laurie Crouch Matthew Crouch Lawrence Mortorff Screenplay by Stephan Blinn Based on Hadassah: One Night with the King by Tommy Tenney and Mark Andrew Olsen Starring Tiffany Dupont Luke Goss John Rhys-Davies John Noble Tommy "Tiny" Lister James Callis Jonah Lotan Peter O'Toole Omar Sharif Music by J. A. C. Redford Cinematography Steven Bernstein Edited by Gabriella Cristiani Stephan Blinn Production company Gener8Xion Entertainment Distributed by 20th Century Fox Release date October 13, 2006 (2006-10-13) Running time 123 minutes Country United States Language English Budget $20 million Box office $13.7 million One Night with the King is a 2006 American historical epic film produced by Matt Crouch and Laurie Crouch of Gener8Xion Entertainment, directed by Michael O. Sajbel, and starring Peter O'Toole, Tiffany Dupont, John Rhys-Davies and Luke Goss. The screenplay by Stephan Blinn is based on Tommy Tenney and Mark Andrew Olsen's novel Hadassah: One Night with the King and Nathaniel Weinreb's novel Esther (the latter uncredited, but the film closely follows Weinreb's book in plot, including direct quotes and events in the novel)[citation needed], One Night with the King is a dramatization of the Biblical story of Esther, who risked her life by approaching the King of Persia to request that he save the Jewish people. Despite being a critical and commercial failure, it received a 2007 CAMIE Award for Goss' portrayal of King Xerxes.[1] Contents 1 Plot 2 Modification 3 Production and sales 4 Cast 5 Production 5.1 Promotion 6 Reception 6.1 Box office 6.2 Critical response 7 Classification 8 See also 9 References 10 External links Plot[edit] The movie is set in Susa, Persia (modern-day Iran). King Xerxes holds a great feast for all the people to attend. Hadassah (the main protagonist) longs to go to Jerusalem to see the Holy Land and prepares to leave with the caravan along with her friend, Jesse. They stop by the King's feast before he goes marching to war to avenge his father's death. Hadassah and Jesse witness the King summoning Queen Vashti. Queen Vashti was opposed to the war, desiring King Xerxes to enhance his kingdom instead. She holds her own feast in protest against the war. When the king summons her to his own feast, she refuses to come, stating, "I am queen, and I will not lower my dignity. Or shame my crown by wearing it before your drunk and thinly veiled war council". Because of this, King Xerxes is advised to banish her and select a more worthy queen. All beautiful virgin women in the stronghold of Susa are brought in so Xerxes can leave behind a queen to keep the kingdom unified. Under the command of her foster-father, "Uncle Mordecai" (who was one of the king's scribes and worked in the palace), Hadassah does not reveal her nationality or family and changes her name to "Esther" (after the Babylonian goddess Ishtar). She is taken in with the rest of the selected women and given cosmetics, perfumes, and treatments under the care of Hegai, the king's royal eunuch. Through her quick wit, intelligence, and integrity, she becomes Hegai's favorite contestant. On their night with the king, each female slave is allowed to bring along whatever she wishes from the harem. She goes in the evening and returns in the morning to a second harem to another royal eunuch who is custodian to the concubines. She will not be able to return to the king unless she pleases him and he summons her by name. During their preparation, Hegai discovers Esther can read and listens to her reading to the other contestants. He admires her bravery. Late into the night, he brings her to King Xerxes to read to him. She starts reading from the assigned scroll and then begins telling the love story of Jacob and Rachel (from the Old Testament). He is amused and intrigued and dismisses her, saying she shall read to him again. From this interaction, Esther falls in love with the King. When it is Esther's turn for her 'one night with the king', she only wears what Hegai advises. She wins the king's favor by revealing her heart to him. He chooses her and crowns her queen. Simultaneously, Haman the Agagite is promoted to the highest-ranking official. He has all the king's servants at the royal gate to kneel before him. Mordecai refuses, declaring he will only kneel before God and the king. He announces himself before Haman to be a son of Abraham, a Jew. Haman, filled with vengeance and hatred, seeks to destroy Mordecai and all his people because centuries earlier, Jews persecuted his forefathers. Esther discovers the plot and breaks protocol by going before the king unsummoned, risking her life to plead for her people. The king lowers his scepter to her and spares her life out of his love for her. She invites the king and Haman to a banquet and there reveals her nationality and Haman's plot to kill the Jews. The king, overwhelmed by her revelation, leaves the banquet. Haman then assaults Esther. The king saves her and, in his fury, commands Haman be hanged on the gallows he had erected to hang Mordecai for revenge. After Haman is taken away, the king goes to Esther's side. Esther asks, "What made you come back"? And the king responds with, "I saw the stars". Then King Xerxes kisses Esther, with the camera pulling away from the small temple. The ending shows Mordecai being made a Prince of Persia, and issuing a royal decree in his own name, with flashbacks of Esther being made Queen, and the crowd of Jews cheering in the streets. The last scenes show the small temple and Mordecai saying, "Thus dictated, I order this decree sent out under the great seal of Mordecai, Prince of Persia, a Jew". Modification[edit] The film generally adheres to the main plot of the Biblical version. However, the film adds stylistic elements not present in the Biblical story, as well as depicting several non-Biblical minor characters. The story presents many facets that could have happened rather than strictly sticking to Biblical texts. For example, the build-up to the Biblical story's climax focuses mainly on Haman and his plot to destroy the Jews, whereas Esther is hardly featured until chapter 6. In the film, Esther is featured prominently throughout, and it is Haman who receives very little screen-time until the last third of the film, although his presence is felt throughout.[citation needed] Production and sales[edit] The movie's Premiere Night took place at Mann Bruins Theater in Los Angeles, California. The movie, filmed entirely in the state of Rajasthan, India, was released in theaters on October 13, 2006. During its opening weekend, it earned $4,120,497 in theaters. By the end of its theatrical run, the film had earned $13,395,961 domestically,[2] and $13,728,450 worldwide. Cast[edit] Tiffany Dupont as Hadassah/Esther, the main protagonist. Luke Goss as King Xerxes I of Persia, Esther's love interest and insecure in his new position as king and therefore almost submits to the influence of the Princes of the Face. John Rhys-Davies as Mordecai, Esther's uncle and father figure. Omar Sharif as Prince Memucan, one of the few truly loyal Princes of the Face. Tommy Lister, Jr. as Hegai, the Royal Eunuch, the harem's bodyguard. Jonah Lotan as Jesse, Esther's close friend who becomes a Eunuch in the Persian palace. John Noble as Prince Admatha, a scheming Prince of the Face who plots to become king himself. James Callis as Haman, the Agagite, the film's main antagonist, Haman plans to use his position of power to kill the Jewish inhabitants of Persia. Scenes including Haman and his henchmen in the film make use of imagery associated with Nazism, including swastika-like symbols and torchlit nighttime rallies. Peter O'Toole as Prophet Samuel Denzil Smith as Prince Carshena Jyoti Dogra as Queen of Persia Vashti Tom Alter as King Saul of Israel Aditya Bal as Amalekite King Agag Dilshad Patel as Hannah Nimrat Kaur as Sarah Asif Basra as Cameo Role Production[edit] Premiere Night at Mann Bruins Theater in L.A. California The movie was filmed entirely in the state of Rajasthan, India.[3] Jeannie Tenney wrote and sang "One Night with the King", which can be heard during the final credits. She was a co-author with her husband, Tommy Tenney (also a producer of the film), of the book upon which the film is based. Promotion[edit] The Genius Club[4] from writer/director Tim Chey[5] was also released theatrically in 2006. The film's trailers showed before One Night With The King.[verification needed] Reception[edit] Box office[edit] One Night with the King was released to theaters on October 13, 2006. During its opening weekend, it earned $4,120,497 in theaters. By the end of its theatrical run, the film had received $13,395,961 domestically, with $13,728,450 worldwide.[6] Subsequent DVD sales were strong at $20,688,299, more than making up for production costs.[7] The success of this film encouraged Fox studio executives to approve production of the even more ambitious Exodus: Gods And Kings project.[8] Critical response[edit] One Night with the King received a generally negative reception, garnering a 19% positive rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 26 reviews, with an average of 4.4 out of 10.[9] V.A. Musetto of the New York Post, noting that, "The cinematography and sets look great, but the script is a bummer. It's overlong, overwrought and overblown."[10] The film was awarded four Doves by The Dove Foundation and received the Dove Family-Approved Seal.[11] MovieGuide has also reviewed the film fairly favourably, giving it 3 out of 4 stars, saying that "despite some minor flaws, [it] brings back the biblical epic in an entertaining, inspiring way."[12] The movie has also been endorsed by the American Bible Society.[13] Classification[edit] The British Board of Film Classification granted this motion picture a PG certificate, noting that it contained "images of moderate battle violence".[14] In the US, One Night With The King is also rated PG by the MPAA for violence, some sensuality and thematic elements.[15] See also[edit] Esther and the King (1960 film) Esther (1999 film) The Book of Esther (2013 film) List of historical drama films Book of Esther Esther References[edit] ^ Character and Morality in Entertainment, verified 2007-08-20. ^ https://www.the-numbers.com/movie/One-Night-with-the-King#tab=box-office ^ Treasure Valley Christian News, by Ken Malgren, Boise, Idaho ^ Thegeniusclubmovie.com ^ Timchey.com ^ "One Night with the King". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved May 27, 2009. ^ https://www.the-numbers.com/movie/One-Night-with-the-King#tab=video-sales ^ https://deadline.com/2014/10/fox-chief-on-20ths-biblical-oscar-contender-you-dont-see-movies-on-this-scale-anymore-844493/ ^ "One Night With The King (2006)". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved May 27, 2009. ^ Musetto, V.A. (October 22, 2006). "ONE NIGHT WITH THE KING". New York Post. Archived from the original on October 22, 2006. Retrieved May 22, 2020. ^ "One Night with the King". The Dove Foundation. Retrieved May 27, 2009. ^ One Night with the King - MovieGuide Review ^ Mathews, Jack; Elizabeth Weitzman (October 13, 2006). "King-Size Story". New York Daily News. Retrieved May 27, 2009. ^ "PRINCESS OF PERSIA". British Board of Film Classification. Retrieved 2020-05-22. ^ "Search". FilmRatings.com. Retrieved 2020-05-22. External links[edit] One Night with the King One Night with the King on IMDb One Night with the King at the TCM Movie Database One Night With the King at Rotten Tomatoes One Night with the King at Box Office Mojo One Night with the King at AllMovie Grace-Centered Magazine Christian Movie Review One Night With the King MovieGuide Review Financial data from Yahoo! Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=One_Night_with_the_King&oldid=1001428948" Categories: 2006 films English-language films Cultural depictions of Esther Cultural depictions of Xerxes I Films set in ancient Persia Religious epic films American independent films Films about Jews and Judaism Films based on the Hebrew Bible Films set in the 5th century BC Films shot in Rajasthan American films Films based on American novels Films based on adaptations Foreign films shot in India Hidden categories: Template film date with 1 release date All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2018 Articles with unsourced statements from April 2015 All pages needing factual verification Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from July 2010 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikiquote Languages Deutsch فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano עברית Nederlands Русский Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 19 January 2021, at 17:05 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-390	----	Akitu - Wikipedia Akitu From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Akitu" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (March 2018) This article may need to be rewritten to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards. You can help. The talk page may contain suggestions. (March 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Akitu or Akitum (Sumerian: EZEN Á.KI.TUM, akiti-šekinku, Á.KI.TI.ŠE.GUR10.KU5, lit. "the barley-cutting",[citation needed] akiti-šununum, lit. "barley-sowing"; Akkadian: akitu or rêš-šattim, "head of the year") was a spring festival in ancient Mesopotamia. The Babylonian and Assyrian Akitu festival has played a pivotal role in the development of theories of religion, myth and ritual. While the purpose of the festival remains a point of contention among both historians of religion and Assyriologists, it is certain to have played a pivotal role in the regular setting of an agenda, priorities, and in the overall advancement of western civilization as being one of the first regularly occurring forums where proposals for social maintenance or change could consistently be made and crucial issues readily addressed.[1][2] The name is from the Sumerian for "barley", originally marking two festivals celebrating the beginning of each of the two half-years of the Sumerian calendar, marking the sowing of barley in autumn and the cutting of barley in spring. In Babylonian religion it came to be dedicated to Marduk's victory over Tiamat. Contents 1 Babylonian Akitu 1.1 First to Third Day 1.2 Fourth Day 1.3 Fifth Day 1.4 Sixth Day 1.5 Seventh Day 1.6 Eighth Day 1.7 Ninth Day 1.8 Tenth Day 1.9 Eleventh Day 1.10 Twelfth Day 2 Legacy 3 See also 4 References 5 Bibliography 6 External links Babylonian Akitu[edit] The Babylonian festival traditionally started on 4 Nisannu.[3] All the people in the city would celebrate, including the awilu (upper class), muskena (middle class), wardu (lower class), High Priest, and the King.[4] First to Third Day[edit] The priest of Ésagila (Marduk's house) would recite sad prayers with the other priests and the people would answer with equally sad prayers which expressed humanity's fear of the unknown. This fear of the unknown explains why the high priest would head to the Ésagila every day asking for Marduk's forgiveness, begging him to protect Babylon, his holy city, and asking him to have favor on the city. This prayer was called "The Secret Of Ésagila". It reads as followed: "Lord without peer in thy wrath, Lord, gracious king, lord of the lands, Who made salvation for the great gods, Lord, who throwest down the strong by his glance, Lord of kings, light of men, who dost apportion destinies, O Lord, Babylon is thy seat, Borsippa thy crown The wide heavens are thy body.... Within thine arms thou takest the strong.... Within thy glance thou grantest them grace, Makest them see light so that they proclaim thy power. Lord of the lands, light of the Igigi, who pronnouncest blessings; Who would not proclaim thy, yea, thy power? Would not speak of thy majesty, praise thy dominion? Lord of the lands, who livest in Eudul, who takest the fallen by the hand; Have pity upon thy city, Babylon Turn thy face towards Esagila, thy temple Give freedom to them that dwell in Babylon, thy wards!"[5] On the third day special craftsmen would create two puppets made of wood, gold, and precious stones and dress them in red. These puppets were set aside and would be used on the sixth day.[6] Fourth Day[edit] The same rituals would be followed as in the previous three days. Before the sunrise the priests looked for the sacred star group IKU ("Field"). During the day the Epic of Creation Enuma Elish would be recited. The Enuma Elish is most likely the oldest story concerning the birth of the gods and the creation of the universe and human beings. It then explains how all the gods united in the god Marduk, following his victory over Tiamat. The recitation of this Epic was considered the beginning of preparations for the submission of the King of Babylon before Marduk on the fifth day of Akitu. During the night a drama was performed that praised Marduk as well. Fifth Day[edit] The submission of the king of Babylon before Marduk. The king would enter to the Esagila accompanied by the priests, they would approach all together the altar where the high priest of the Esagila impersonates Marduk then he approaches the king, begins to strip him of his jewelry, scepter and even his crown then he would slap him hard while the altar would kneel and begins to pray asking for Marduk's forgiveness and submitting to him saying: "I have not sinned O Lord of the universe, and I haven't neglected your heavenly might at all"... Then the priest in the role of Marduk says: "Don't be afraid of what Marduk has to say, for he will hear your prayers, extends your power, and increases the greatness of your reign". The removal of all worldly possessions is a symbol of the submission the king gives to Marduk. After this the king would stand up and the priest would give him back his jewelry, scepter and crown then slaps him hard again hoping for the king to shed tears, because that would express more the submission to Marduk and respect to his power. When the priest returns the crown to the king that means his power was renewed by Marduk, thus April would be considered not only the revival of nature and life but also to the State as well. Thus, these ceremonies would make the greatest and most feared personalities of that time submit to the greatest god, and live a humbling moment with all the population, sharing prayers to prove their faith before the might of God. Following his presence in his earthly home Babylon and renewing its king's power, god Marduk stays in the Etemenanki (a ziggurat or tower composed of seven floors was Marduk's dwelling or in the temple Esagila. During this day according to the tradition of Akitu, Marduk would enter his dwelling and is surprised by the evil gods who will fight him, then he's taken prisoner by Tiamat, the chaos monster and goddess of the ocean, and awaits for arrival of his son god Nabu who would save him from "Nought" and restore his glory. Sixth Day[edit] Before the gods arrived, the day would be filled with commotion. The puppets that were made on the third day would be burned and mock battle would be taking place as well. This commotion signified that without Marduk, the city would be in constant chaos.[7] The arrival of God Nabu in boats accompanied by his assistants of brave Gods coming from Nippur, Uruk, Kish, and Eridu (cities ancient Babylonia). The Gods accompanying Nabu would be represented by statues which would be mounted on boats made especially for the occasion. Here the people in huge numbers would begin their walk behind their king towards the Esagila where Marduk is held prisoner, chanting the following : "Here's he who's coming from far to restore the glory of our imprisoned father". Seventh Day[edit] On the third day of his imprisonment Nabu frees Marduk. The evil gods had closed a huge gate behind him when he entered his dwelling. Marduk would be fighting till Nabu's arrival, when he would break in the huge gate and a battle would go on between the two groups, until Nabu comes out victorious and frees Marduk. Eighth Day[edit] When Marduk is set free, the statues of the gods are gathered in the Destinies Hall "Ubshu-Ukkina", to deliberate his destiny, there it is decided to join all the forces of the gods and bestow them upon Marduk. Here, the king implores all the gods to support and honor Marduk, and this tradition was an indication that Marduk received submission from all the gods and was unique in his position. Ninth Day[edit] The victory procession to the "House of Akitu" where Marduk's victory in the beginning of Creation over the dragon Tiamat (goddess of the nether waters) is celebrated. The House of Akitu which the Assyrians of Nineveh called "Bet Ekribi" ("House of Prayers" in old Assyrian language), was about 200 meters outside the city's walls, where there were wonderful trees decorated and watered carefully out of respect to the god who's considered the one to grant nature its life. The victory procession was the population's way to express its joy at Marduk's (Ashur) renewal of power and the destruction of evil forces which almost controlled life in the beginning. Tenth Day[edit] Arriving at "Bet Akitu", god Marduk begins to celebrate with both the upper and nether world gods (the statues of gods were arranged around a huge table such as in a feast) then Marduk returns to the city at night celebrating his marriage to goddess "Ishtar" where earth and heaven are united, and as the gods unite so is this union arranged on earth. Thus the king personifies this union by playing the role of marrying the highest priestess of the Esagila where they would both sit at the throne before the population and they recite special poems for the occasion. This love is going to bring forth life in spring. Eleventh Day[edit] The gods return accompanied by their Lord Marduk to meet again in the Destinies Hall "Upshu Ukkina", where they met for the first time on the eighth day, this time they will decide the fate of the people of Marduk. In ancient Assyrian philosophy Creation in general was considered as a covenant between heaven and earth as long as a human serves the gods till his death, therefore, gods' happiness isn't complete except if humans are happy as well, thus a human's destiny will be to be given happiness on the condition that he serves the gods. So Marduk and the gods renew their covenant with Babylon, by promising the city another cycle of seasons. After the fate of mankind is decided, Marduk returns to the heavens.[7] Twelfth Day[edit] The last day of Akitu. The gods return to Marduk's temple (the statues are returned to the temple) and daily life resumes in Babylon, Nineveh, and the rest of the Assyrian cities. The people begin to plow and prepare for another cycle of seasons. Legacy[edit] The festival was also adopted in the Neo-Assyrian Empire following the destruction of Babylon. King Sennacherib in 683 BC built an "Akitu house" outside the walls of Assur. Another Akitu house was built outside Nineveh.[8] The Akitu festival was continued throughout the Seleucid Empire[9] and into the Roman Empire period. At the beginning of the 3rd century, it was still celebrated in Emessa, Syria, in honour of the god Elagabal. The Roman emperor Elagabalus (r. 218-222), who was of Syrian origin, even introduced the festival in Italy (Herodian, Roman History, 5.6). The new moon of Aviv, the month of barley ripening, marks the beginning of the Jewish ecclesiastical year. (Exodus 13:4; 23:15) Since the Babylonian captivity, this month has mainly been called Nisan (Nehemiah 2:1, Esther 3:7) Kha b-Nisan is the name of the spring festival among the Assyrians. The festival is celebrated on April 1, corresponding to the start of the Assyrian calendar.[10] See also[edit] Ancient Mesopotamian religion Babylonian religion Katabasis#Trip into the underworld Dumuzid References[edit] ^ The Babylonian Akitu Festival: Rectifying the King or Renewing the Cosmos? (n.d.): n. pag. Web. ^ Einführung in die Altorientalistik ^ https://www.livius.org/articles/religion/akitu/ ^ The Babylonian Akitu Festival by Svend Aage Pallis Review by: S. S.The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland , No. 4 (Oct., 1927) , pp. 895-897. ^ "The Akitu-Festival - Www.GatewaysToBabylon.com." The Akitu-Festival - Www.GatewaysToBabylon.com. N.p., n.d. Web. ^ Gard, Carolyn. "Akitu The Babylonian New Year's Festival." Calliope 11.3 (2000): 36. MAS Ultra - School Edition. ^ a b "Middle Eastern religion". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2014. Web. ^ Ali Yaseen Ahmad and A. Kirk Grayson, Sennacherib in the Akitu House, Iraq, Vol. 61, (1999), pp. 187-189; Simo Parpola, Neo-Assyrian Treaties from the Royal Archives of Nineveh, Journal of Cuneiform Studies, Vol. 39, No. 2 (Autumn, 1987), pp. 161-189 ^ S. M. Sherwin-White, Ritual for a Seleucid King at Babylon? The Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 103, (1983), pp. 156-159 ^ William Ricketts Cooper. "An Archaic Dictionary: biographical, historical and mythological: from the Egyptian, Assyrian, and Etruscan monuments". Published by S. Bagster and Sons, 1876. Bibliography[edit] Julye Bidmead (2004). The Akitu Festival: Religious Continuity and Royal Legitimation in Mesopotamia. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press. ISBN 1-59333-158-4. Svend A. Pallis (1926). The Babylonian Akitu Festival, Copenhagen. Abraham Sachs (1969). "Akkadian Rituals", in: J. B. Pritchard, ANET, 3rd. ed., Princeton, pp. 331–4. Karel van der Toorn (1990). 'Het Babylonische Nieuwjaarsfeest' in Phoenix. Bulletin van het Vooraziatisch-Egyptisch Genootschap Ex Oriente Lux 36/1, 10-29 online link. Heinrich Zimmern (1906), Zum babylonischen Neujahrhfest, BVSGW, vol. 58, pp. 126–56; vol. 70 (1918), pt. 3, 52 pp. External links[edit] Akitu Festival at livius.org Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Akitu&oldid=999086356" Categories: Babylonia Mesopotamian religion Spring festivals New Year celebrations Enûma Eliš Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from April 2010 All articles needing additional references Wikipedia articles in need of updating from March 2018 All Wikipedia articles in need of updating Wikipedia articles needing rewrite from March 2018 All articles needing rewrite Articles with multiple maintenance issues All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2015 Articles containing Akkadian-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Deutsch Español فارسی Français Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar Nederlands Polski Português Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 8 January 2021, at 12:12 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3912	----	Djedkare Isesi - Wikipedia Djedkare Isesi From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Egyptian pharaoh Djedkare Isesi Djedkara, Izezi, Izzj, Asosi, Tankeris Part of a door jamb showing the cartouche of Djedkare Isesi, Neues Museum, Berlin Pharaoh Reign Duration uncertain, at least 33 years and possibly more than 44 years, in the late-25th to mid-24th century BC[note 1] (Fifth Dynasty) Predecessor Menkauhor Kaiu Successor Unas Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Djedkare Ḏd-k3-Rˁ The enduring one of the Ka of Ra[13] The soul of Ra endureth[14] Nomen Isesi Izzi Translation uncertain, possibly from the imperative iz for "go!", which could have been said by a midwife during Djedkare's birth[15] Horus name Djedkhau Ḏd-ḫˁ.w Horus, enduring of appearances[13] Nebty name Djedkhau Nebty Ḏd-ḫˁ.w Neb.tj Enduring of appearances (by means of?) the Two Ladies[13] Golden Horus Bik Nebu Djed Bik-nbw-Ḏd The enduring Golden Falcon[13] Saqqara Tablet: Maatkare[16] M3ˁ.t-k3-Rˁ He of the Maat and Ka of Ra Turin canon: Djedu Ḏdw Abydos King List: Djedkare Ḏd-k3-Rˁ The enduring one of the Ka of Ra Karnak king list: Isesi Izzj Consort Setibhor Children Neserkauhor♂, Kekheretnebti♀, Meret-Isesi♀, Hedjetnebu♀, Nebtyemneferes♀ Uncertain: Raemka♂, Kaemtjenent♂, Isesi-ankh♂ Conjectural: Unas♂ Burial Pyramid of Djedkare Isesi Djedkare Isesi (known in Greek as Tancheres) was a pharaoh, the eighth and penultimate ruler of the Fifth Dynasty of Egypt in the late 25th century to mid-24th century BC, during the Old Kingdom. Djedkare succeeded Menkauhor Kaiu and was in turn succeeded by Unas. His relations to both of these pharaohs remain uncertain, although it is often conjectured that Unas was Djedkare's son, owing to the smooth transition between the two. Djedkare likely enjoyed a reign of more than 40 years, which heralded a new period in the history of the Old Kingdom. Breaking with a tradition followed by his predecessors since the time of Userkaf, Djedkare did not build a temple to the sun god Ra, possibly reflecting the rise of Osiris in the Egyptian pantheon. More significantly, Djedkare effected comprehensive reforms of the Egyptian state administration, the first undertaken since the inception of the system of ranking titles. He also reorganised the funerary cults of his forebears buried in the necropolis of Abusir and reformed the corresponding priesthood. Djedkare commissioned expeditions to Sinai to procure copper and turquoise, to Nubia for its gold and diorite and to the fabled Land of Punt for its incense. One such expedition had what could be the earliest recorded instance of oracular divination undertaken to ensure an expedition's success. The word "Nub", meaning gold, to designate Nubia is first recorded during Djedkare's reign. Under his rule, Egypt also entertained continuing trade relations with the Levantine coast and made punitive raids in Canaan. In particular, one of the earliest depictions of a battle or siege scene was found in the tomb of one of Djedkare's subjects. Djedkare was buried in a pyramid in Saqqara named Nefer Djedkare ("Djedkare is perfect"), which is now ruined owing to theft of stone from its outer casing during antiquity. The burial chamber still held Djedkare's mummy when it was excavated in the 1940s. Examinations of the mummy revealed that he died in his fifties. Following his death, Djedkare was the object of a cult that lasted at least until the end of the Old Kingdom. He seemed to have been held in particularly high esteem during the mid-Sixth Dynasty, whose pharaohs lavished rich offerings on his cult. Archaeological evidence suggests the continuing existence of this funerary cult throughout the much later New Kingdom (c. 1550–1077 BC). Djedkare was also remembered by the ancient Egyptians as the Pharaoh of Vizier Ptahhotep, the purported author of The Maxims of Ptahhotep, one of the earliest pieces of philosophic wisdom literature. The reforms implemented by Djedkare are generally assessed negatively in modern Egyptology as his policy of decentralization created a virtual feudal system that transferred much power to the high and provincial administrations. Some Egyptologists such as Naguib Kanawati argue that this contributed heavily to the collapse of the Egyptian state during the First Intermediate Period, c. 200 years later. These conclusions are rejected by Nigel Strudwick, who says that in spite of Djedkare's reforms, Ancient Egyptian officials never amassed enough power to rival that of the king. Contents 1 Attestations 1.1 Contemporaneous sources 1.2 Historical sources 2 Family 2.1 Parents 2.2 Queens 2.3 Sons 2.4 Daughters 3 Chronology 4 Reign 4.1 Domestic reforms 4.2 Building activities 4.3 Activities outside Egypt 4.3.1 Expeditions to mines and quarries 4.3.2 Trade relations 4.3.3 Warfare 5 Pyramid 6 Legacy 6.1 Impact of the reforms 6.2 Funerary cult 6.2.1 Old Kingdom 6.2.2 New Kingdom 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 Bibliography Attestations[edit] Contemporaneous sources[edit] Djedkare is well attested in sources contemporaneous with his reign.[note 2] The tombs of many of his courtiers and family members have been discovered in Giza,[note 3] Saqqara and Abusir.[24] They give insights into the administrative reforms that Djedkare conducted during his reign and, in a few cases, even record letters that the king sent to his officials.[25][26] These letters, inscribed on the walls of tombs, typically present royal praises for the tomb owner.[27] Another important source of information about Egypt during the reign of Djedkare is the Abusir papyri. These are administrative documents, covering a period of 24 years[28] during Djedkare's reign; they were discovered in the mortuary temples of pharaohs Neferirkare Kakai, Neferefre and queen Khentkaus II.[29] In addition to these texts, the earliest letters on papyrus preserved to the present day also date to Djedkare's reign, dealing with administrative or private matters.[28] Historical sources[edit] Djedkare is attested in four ancient Egyptian king lists, all dating to the New Kingdom.[30] The earliest of these is the Karnak king list, dating to the reign of Thutmose III (1479–1425 BC), where Djedkare is mentioned on the fifth entry. Djedkare's prenomen occupies the 32nd entry of the Abydos King List, which was written during the reign of Seti I (1290–1279 BC). Djedkare is also present on the Saqqara Tablet (31st entry)[16] where he is listed under the name "Maatkare", probably because of a scribal error.[31] Djedkare's prenomen is given as "Djed" on the Turin canon (third column, 24th row),[30] probably because of a lacuna affecting the original document from which the canon was copied during the reign of Ramses II (1279–1213 BC).[31] The Turin canon credits Djedkare with 28 years of reign.[2][31][32] In addition to these sources, Djedkare is mentioned on the Prisse Papyrus dating to the 12th Dynasty (c. 1990–1800 BC).[33] The papyrus records The Maxims of Ptahhotep and gives Djedkare's nomen "Isesi" to name the pharaoh whom the purported authors of the maxims, vizier Ptahhotep, served.[34] Djedkare was also probably mentioned in the Aegyptiaca, a history of Egypt written in the 3rd century BC during the reign of Ptolemy II (283–246 BC) by the Egyptian priest Manetho. No copies of the Aegyptiaca have survived to this day and it is known to us only through later writings by Sextus Julius Africanus and Eusebius. Africanus relates that a pharaoh Tancheres (Ancient Greek Τανχέρης) reigned for 44 years as the eighth and penultimate king of the Fifth Dynasty.[35] Given its position within the dynasty, Tancheres is believed to be his Hellenized name.[30] Family[edit] Parents[edit] Isesi-ankh as depicted on his false door stela[36] Djedkare's parentage is unknown; in particular his relation with his predecessors Menkauhor Kaiu and Nyuserre Ini cannot be ascertained.[37] Djedkare is generally thought to have been the son of Menkauhor Kaiu, but the two might instead have been brothers and sons of Nyuserre Ini.[38] Another hypothesis suggests that Djedkare and Menkauhor could have been cousins,[38] being sons of Nyuserre and Neferefre respectively.[39] The identity of Djedkare's mother is similarly unknown.[37] Queens[edit] The name of Djedkare's principal wife was Setibhor. This important queen consort whose name was lost but found in 2019 was the owner of a large pyramid complex located to the northeast of Djedkare's pyramid in Saqqara.[40] This could indicate that she was the mother of Djedkare's successor, Unas,[2] or that Djedkare owed the throne to her.[41][42] The very high status of this queen is suggested by some features of her funerary complex that are otherwise reserved to kings:[43] her pyramid has its own satellite pyramid, has a causeway leading from a valley temple up to a mortuary temple devoted to the cult of the queen and had an entrance hall pr-wrw, an open courtyard and a square antechamber.[42][44] Furthermore, some reliefs showing the queen had been reworked with royal insignia and vultures added above her head.[45] Since the construction of the queen's pyramid was apparently undertaken after the planning of Djedkare's pyramid and her relief had been reworked, the Egyptologist Klaus Baer suggests that this queen may have ruled after the death of Djedkare, playing an important role in his succession. This is rejected by other Egyptologists, such as Michel Baud, owing to the lack of evidence for a regency or interregnum between Djedkare and Unas.[46] The Egyptologist Wilfried Seipel has proposed that this pyramid was initially intended for queen Meresankh IV, whom he and Verner see as a wife of Djedkare. Seipel contends that Meresankh was finally buried in a smaller mastaba in Saqqara North after she fell into disgrace.[47] Alternatively, Aidan Dodson and Dyan Hilton have proposed that she was a wife of the preceding king, Menkauhor Kaiu.[48] Sons[edit] Wooden statues of Kekheretnebti and in the background, of Neserkauhor, now in the Náprstek Museum Only one son of Djedkare has been identified for certain, Neserkauhor,[49] who bore the title of "eldest beloved king's son of his body".[note 4][50][51] Neserkauhor also bore the title of Iry-pat, showing that he was an important member of the royal court, as well as a priestly title "Greatest of the Five in the temple of Thot", suggesting that he may have been a vizier[50] or had similar occupations.[51] As well as Neserkauhor, there is indirect evidence that princes Raemka[note 5] and Kaemtjenent[note 6][55] are sons of Djedkare[56][57][58] based on the dating and general location of their tombs in Saqqara. For example, the tomb of Kaemtjenent mentions vizier Rashepses, who served during the reign of Djedkare.[59][60] Raemka also bore the title of "king's son of his body",[52] almost exclusively reserved to true princes of royal blood.[note 7] The locations of Raemka's and Kaemtjenent's tombs have led some Egyptologists to believe that both princes are sons[57] of queen Meresankh IV buried nearby, who would thus be one of Djedkare's wives. These conclusions are debated, in particular in the case of Kaemtjenent, whose title of "king's son" may have been purely honorific.[61] A high official named Isesi-ankh could have been yet another son of Djedkare, as suggested by his name meaning "Isesi lives".[48] Yet, similarities in the titles and locations of the tombs[note 8] of Isesi-ankh and Kaemtjenent have led Egyptologists to propose that they could instead be brothers and sons of Meresankh IV,[63] or that the former is a son of the latter.[64] Even though Isesi-ankh bore the title of "king's son", the Egyptologists Michel Baud and Bettina Schmitz argue that this filiation was fictitious, being only an honorary title.[65][66] Finally, the successor of Djedkare, Unas, is thought to have been his son[2] in spite of the complete lack of evidence bearing on the question.[67] The main argument in favor of this filiation is that the succession from Djedkare to Unas seems to have been smooth,[68] as suggested indirectly, for example, by the Abusir papyri.[69] Indirect evidence also comes from the reliefs of Unas' causeway, which show many officials bearing names incorporating "Isesi", suggesting at the very least that Unas did not perceive Djedkare as an antagonist.[70][71][72] Daughters[edit] Several daughters of Djedkare have been identified by the title of "king's daughter of his body" and the general date of their tomb. These include Kekheretnebti,[note 9][48] whose filiation is clearly indicated by her other title of "Beloved of Isesi",[73] Meret-Isesi,[note 10][48] Hedjetnebu,[note 11][74][48] and Nebtyemneferes.[note 12][48] Less certain is the filiation of Kentkhaus, wife of vizier Senedjemib Mehi, who bore the title of "king's daughter of his body".[75][76] It is debated whether this title indicates a true filiation or if it is only honorary.[76][77] Chronology[edit] Alabaster vase bearing an inscription celebrating Djedkare's first "Sed" festival, Musée du Louvre[note 13][80] The relative chronological position of Djedkare as the eighth and penultimate ruler of the Fifth Dynasty, succeeding Menkauhor Kaiu and preceding Unas on the throne, is well established by historical sources and confirmed by archaeological evidence.[81] The duration of Djedkare's reign is much less certain. Djedkare's time on the throne is well documented by the Abusir papyri, numerous royal seals and contemporary inscriptions; taken together, they indicate a fairly long rule for this king.[note 14][84] While the Turin canon credits him with 28 years of reign, there is direct evidence for an even longer reign. Several artefacts and inscriptions have been uncovered relating to Djedkare's rejuvenation or "sed" festival, normally celebrated only after 30 years of reign. For example, the tomb of one of Djedkare's viziers, Senedjemib Inti, relates construction works undertaken during the year of the 16th cattle count in preparation for the festival ceremonies. An alabaster vase now on display at the Louvre museum[note 15] bears an inscription celebrating Djedkare's first sed festival, indicating in all likelihood that he reigned beyond his 30th year on the throne.[78] One of the Abusir papyri was found to be dated to the "Year of the 22nd Count, IV Akhet day 12", constituting Djedkare's latest known date.[note 16][87] This date might correspond to any time from the 32nd year of Djedkare's reign up to his 44th year on the throne, depending on whether the cattle count was once every two years or once every year and a half. The higher estimate is close to Manetho's 44-year figure credited to Tancheres,[88] the Hellenized name of Djedkare, although this may just be coincidental.[89] Modern estimates thus put Djedkare's reign length as certainly more than 33 years and, if the cattle count was regularly biennial, at least 42 to 44 years.[89] This makes Djedkare the longest reigning king of the Fifth Dynasty.[12] Reign[edit] Statue of Djedkare from the temple of Osiris in Abydos[90] The reign of Djedkare heralded a new period in the history of the Old Kingdom.[91][92] First, he did not build a sun temple, as his predecessors had done since the time of Userkaf, some 80 years earlier.[note 17][93][94] This may be a result of the increased prominence of Osiris compared with the sun god Ra during the late Fifth Dynasty.[1][95][96][97] The rise of Osiris corresponds to changes in the role of the king with respect to the wider Egyptian society. In particular, the king loses his role as the sole guarantor of the afterlife, which now becomes available beyond the immediate royal circle. These changes demythologise the king's position and, as the Egyptologist Hans Goedicke writes, make him fully human yet still socially dominant.[98] The importance of the cult of Osiris becomes manifest when the Pyramid Texts of the pyramid of Unas are inscribed a few decades later.[95][99] In this context, it is perhaps noteworthy that the only[100] known statue of Djedkare was discovered in the ruins of the temple of Osiris, in Abydos.[90] Another manifestation of the winds of change[101] during Djedkare's time on the throne is the confirmation of the relocation of the royal necropolis from Abusir, where it had been since the reign of Sahure, to Saqqara, where Menkauhor Kaiu, Djedkare and his successor, Unas, built their pyramids. Abusir may have become overcrowded by the time of Menkauhor's accession[102] and the capital may have been shifted south to Saqqara, along with the royal necropolis, around the same time.[103] The abandonment of Abusir as a royal necropolis and the termination of sun temple building are possibly related, given the close association between the two since the reign of Userkaf.[104] Domestic reforms[edit] Two statues of Ptahhotep, a vizier during Djedkare's reign[105] During his reign Djedkare effected significant reforms of the state administration and priesthood, in particular that pertaining to the funerary cults[106] in the necropolis of Abusir.[note 18][107] These evolutions are witnessed by changes in priestly titles and more broadly, in the system of ranking titles of high officials, which was modified for the first time in its existence.[93] For example, the priesthood of the royal pyramids was reorganized,[1] with Djedkare possibly changing the titles and functions of the priests from "priest of king" to "priest of the pyramid",[108] although this change may have happened earlier, under Nyuserre Ini.[109] Princes of royal blood could once more hold administrative titles,[note 19] a prerogative they had lost during the early Fifth Dynasty.[93] At the same time, viziers could now hold the prestigious titles of Iry-pat[92] and Haty-a[110] and, as "overseer of the royal scribes", became the head of the scribal administration.[111] At least one vizier, Seshemnefer III, even bore the title of "king's son of his body", one of the most distinguished titles at the time and normally reserved to princes of royal blood. Yet neither Seshemnefer III's father nor his mother seems to have belonged to the royal family.[112] For the period spanning the reign of Djedkare until that of Teti, viziers were furthermore responsible for the weaponry of the state, both for military and other purposes.[112] Following the reforms undertaken by Djedkare, three viziers would be in office at the same time:[113] two in the Memphite region and a Southern one, the "governor of Upper Egypt",[93] with a seat at Abydos.[1][2] In total six viziers were appointed during Djedkare's reign.[note 20][105] Lower ranking officials lost power during the late Fifth Dynasty and were frequently limited to holding only one high title,[113] a departure from the preceding period.[93] Such functions as "overseer of the granary" and "overseer of the treasury" disappear from the record some time between Djedkare's reign and that of Teti,[93] while men of lower status became head of the legal administration.[111] Consequently, the viziers concentrated more power than before while lower echelons of the state administration were reduced.[111] At the same time, the size of the provincial administration was increased, and it also became more autonomous from the central government.[2] In particular, the nomarchs were responsible in their provinces for performing works hitherto conducted by Memphite officials.[111] Building activities[edit] The main building activity undertaken during the reign of Djedkare was the construction of his pyramid complex in Saqqara. Djedkare also either completed or undertook restoration works in the funerary complex of Nyuserre Ini in Abusir, as indicated by a now damaged inscription,[114] which must have detailed Djedkare's activities on the site.[note 21][115] Further building works took place in Abusir during the second half of Djedkare's reign following the curious[116] decision by members of the royal family to be buried there rather than next to Djedkare's pyramid in Saqqara. A group of mastabas was thus constructed for princess Kekheretnebti and her daughter Tisethor, princess Hedjetnebu, the courtiers Mernefu and Idu, who was buried with his wife Khenit, and prince Neserkauhor.[102][116] Djedkare also undertook building activities in relation with his "sed" festival as indicated by a decree that he sent to his vizier Senedjemib Inti on the year of the 16th cattle count,[117] praising him for his work.[118] The decree mentions the construction of a broad rectangular court[119] or artificial lake[120][121] for the jubilee of the king, some 1000 cubits long and 400 cubits wide,[118] amounting to c. 525 m × 231 m (1,722 ft × 758 ft).[122][123] The court was located within the precincts of a palace built for the ceremonies of the "sed" festival, which was probably located in the vicinity of his pyramid.[note 22][123] Another decree addressed to Senedjemib Inti and later inscribed on the walls of his mastaba records the decoration of a chapel of Hathor in the palace of the king. This chapel was most likely built during his reign.[128] Djedkare may have left some of his monuments unfinished at his death, as suggested by several relief-bearing blocks inscribed with his name and which were found reused in the pyramid of king Unas. Their original setting remains unknown.[129] A reused granite block with the king's name was also found at the pyramid of Amenemhat I at Lisht.[130] Activities outside Egypt[edit] Drawing by Karl Richard Lepsius of a relief of Djedkare, Wadi Maghara[131] Expeditions to mines and quarries[edit] Three or four[note 23] rock inscriptions dating to Djedkare's reign have been found in the Wadi Maghareh in Sinai, where mines of copper and semi-precious stones were exploited throughout the Old Kingdom, from the Fourth until the Sixth Dynasty.[133] These inscriptions record three expeditions sent to look for turquoise: the earliest one, dated to the third[134] or fourth[135] cattle count–possibly corresponding to the sixth or eighth year of Dejdkare's reign–explicitly recalls the arrival of the mining party to the "hills of the turquoise"[note 24] after being given "divine authority for the finding of semi-precious stones in the writing of the god himself, [as was enacted] in the broad court of the temple Nekhenre".[134][135] This sentence could indicate the earliest known record of an oracular divination undertaken in order to ensure the success of the expedition prior to its departure, Nekhenre being the sun temple of Userkaf.[135] Another inscription dating to the year of the ninth cattle count–possibly Djedkare's 18th year on the throne – shows the king "subduing all foreign lands. Smiting the chief of the foreign land".[134][135] The expedition that left this inscription comprised over 1400 men and administration officials.[137][138] Some Egyptologists have proposed that these men were also sent to mine copper.[139][140] These expeditions departed Egypt from the port of Ain Sukhna, on the western shore of the Gulf of Suez, as revealed by papyri and seals bearing Djedkare's name found on the site.[141][142] The port comprised large galleries carved into the sandstone serving as living quarters and storage places.[142] The wall of one such gallery was inscribed with a text mentioning yet another expedition to the hills of turquoise in the year of the seventh cattle count–possibly Djedkare's 14th year on the throne.[136][143] In early 2018, more than 220 clay seals bearing the serekh of Djedkare were uncovered in Tell Edfu in the south of Upper Egypt. These seals have been found in close association with copper ore, Nubian pottery, the remains of two large buildings and a settlement. Edfu, called Behdet by the ancient Egyptians, was likely the place of departure for the mining expeditions sent to the Eastern desert and the Red Sea during Djedkare's reign. These expeditions were undertaken by a special group of prospectors, called the sementiu, who were under the orders of an administration official sent by the king from Memphis to Edfu.[144] Gold cylinder seal bearing the names of Djedkare and Menkauhor Kaiu, purportedly from Anatolia[145] South of Egypt, Djedkare dispatched at least one expedition to the diorite quarries located 65 km (40 mi) north-west of Abu Simbel.[note 25][147] Djedkare was not the first king to do so, as these quarries were already exploited during the Fourth Dynasty and continued to be so during the Sixth Dynasty and later, in the Middle Kingdom period (c. 2055 BE – c. 1650 BC).[146] Djedkare probably also exploited gold mines in the Eastern Desert and in Nubia: indeed, the earliest mention of the "land of gold" – an Ancient Egyptian term for Nubia[note 26] – is found in an inscription from the mortuary temple of Djedkare.[149] Trade relations[edit] Egypt entertained continuing trade relations with the Levant during Djedkare's reign, possibly as far north as Anatolia. A gold cylinder seal bearing the serekh of Djedkare together with the cartouche of Menkauhor Kaiu is now on display at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.[note 27][145] The seal, whose gold may originate from the Pactolus river valley in western Anatolia,[150] could attest to wide-ranging trade-contacts during the later Fifth Dynasty,[2][151] but its provenance remains unverifiable.[note 28][154] Trade contacts with Byblos, on the coast of modern-day Lebanon, are suggested by a fragmentary stone vessel unearthed in the city and bearing the inscription "King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Djedkare [living] forever".[155][156] A biographical inscription discovered in the tomb of Iny, a Sixth Dynasty official, provides further evidence for an Egyptian expedition to Byblos during Djedkare's reign.[157] Iny's inscription relates his travels to procure lapis lazuli and lead or tin[158] for pharaoh Merenre, but starts by recounting what must have been similar events taking place under Djedkare.[159] To the south of Egypt, Djedkare also sent an expedition to the fabled Land of Punt[147] to procure the myrrh used as incense in the Egyptian temples.[160] The expedition to Punt is referred to in the letter from Pepi II Neferkare to Harkuf some 100 years later. Harkuf had reported that he would bring back a "dwarf of the god's dancers from the land of the horizon dwellers". Pepi mentions that the god's sealbearer Werdjededkhnum had returned from Punt with a dwarf during the reign of Djedkare and had been richly rewarded. The decree mentions that "My Majesty will do for you something greater than what was done for the god's sealbearer Werdjededkhnum in the reign of Isesi, reflecting my majesty's yearning to see this dwarf".[161] Relief from the tomb of Inti showing a scene of battle or siege[162] Djedkare's expedition to Punt is also mentioned in a contemporaneous graffito found in Tumas, a locality of Lower Nubia some 150 km (93 mi) south of Aswan,[30] where Isesi's cartouche was discovered.[163] Warfare[edit] Not all relations between Egypt and its neighbors were peaceful during Djedkare's reign. In particular, one of the earliest known depictions of a battle or a city being besieged[164] is found in the tomb of Inti, an official from the 21st nome of Upper Egypt, who lived during the late Fifth Dynasty.[157][164] The scene shows Egyptian soldiers scaling the walls of a Near Eastern fortress on ladders.[30][165] More generally, ancient Egyptians seem to have regularly organised punitive raids in Canaan during the later Old Kingdom period but did not attempt to establish a permanent dominion there.[166] Pyramid[edit] Main article: Pyramid of Djedkare Isesi The pyramid of Djedkare in Saqqara Djedkare built his pyramid in South Saqqara. It was called Nefer Isesi or Nefer Djedkare in Ancient Egyptian,[note 29][167] variously translated as "Isesi/Djedkare is beautiful"[168] or "Isesi/Djedkare is perfect".[2][9] It is known today as Haram el-Shawwâf (Arabic: هَـرَم ٱلـشَّـوَّاف‎, romanized: Haram ash-Shawwāf, lit. 'The Sentinel Pyramid'),[167] because it stands on the edge of the Nile valley.[169][170] The pyramid originally comprised six or seven steps made of irregular and roughly hewn limestone blocks and mortar, of which only three survive. This core was overlaid by casing stones of white Tura limestone, which were stolen in antiquity. At the time of its construction the pyramid stood 52 m (171 ft) high, with a base length of 78.75 m (258.4 ft) and an inclination angle of 52°.[170] In the interior of the pyramid a descending passage led, behind three granite portcullises, to an antechamber, three magazine rooms and the burial chamber. In the burial chamber, pieces of alabaster and a faience bead on a gold thread were discovered, as well as many fragments of what was originally a large sarcophagus of dark grey basalt.[170] The sarcophagus was sunk into the floor of the burial chamber and there was a niche for the canopic chest of the king to its north-east. An almost complete mummy was discovered in the remnants of the sarcophagus. An examination by Ahmed Batrawi of these skeletal remains, excavated in the mid-1940s under the direction of Abdel-Salam Hussein, suggests that Djedkare died at the age of 50 to 60 years.[84][171] To the east of the pyramid, Djedkare's mortuary temple was laid out.[172] Its eastern façade was flanked by two massive stone structures, which resemble the later pylons. The mortuary temple is connected via a yet unexcavated causeway to a valley temple.[172] Legacy[edit] Impact of the reforms[edit] The large mastaba of Senedjemib Inti, vizier under Djedkare For Nigel Strudwick, the reforms of Djedkare were undertaken as a reaction to the rapid growth of the central administration in the first part of the Fifth Dynasty[111] which, Baer adds, had amassed too much political or economic power[173] in the eyes of the king.[174] Joyce Tyldesley sees the reign of Djedkare as the very beginning of a decline in the importance of the king, in conjunction with the gradual rise of the power wielded by the high and provincial administration.[175] Concurrent with this trend is a process of decentralization, with local loyalties slowly superseding allegiance to the central state.[175] Since offices and the vizierate in particular could be inherited,[2] the reforms of Djedkare created a "virtual feudal system" as Nicolas Grimal writes,[147][176] with much power in the hands of a few puissant officials. This is best witnessed by the large, magnificent mastaba tombs that Djedkare's viziers built.[147] In this context, Djedkare's reforms of the ranking system might have been an attempt at maintaining a sprawling administration under control,[113] yet ultimately failed. For some Egyptologists, such as Naguib Kanawati, this failure contributed in no small part to the fall of the Old Kingdom,[177] but others, including Strudwick, believe the reasons of the collapse must be sought elsewhere as the power of an administration official never approached that of the king.[173] The reforms of Djedkare played an important role in flourishing of the arts during the later Old Kingdom, as artisans and craftsmen could now find many wealthy patrons beyond the king. This created a surge in the number of commissions leading to a general improvement of the artistic works. This also provided the artisans with a new wealth, which they used to build their own large funerary complexes.[2] Funerary cult[edit] Old Kingdom[edit] Personified agricultural estate of Djedkare called "Ra desires that Isesi lives"[178] Djedkare was the object of a funerary cult established at his death and which lasted until the end of the Old Kingdom nearly 200 years later. Provisions for this cult were produced in several agricultural estates set up during Djedkare's reign. The names of some of these estates have been found inscribed on the walls of the tombs of his courtiers: "Ra desires that Isesi lives",[note 30] "Heqa desires that Izezi live",[note 31] "Perfect of emulation is Isesi",[note 32] "The mnza-vessel of Djedkare",[note 33] "Perfect of favors is Isesi",[note 34] "Seshat makes Isesi live",[note 35] "The Ka of Isesi is foremost",[note 36] "Dominion belongs to Izezi", [note 37] "Work of the command of Izezi",[note 38] "Bastet wishes that Izezi lives",[note 39] "Horus perpetuates Izezi",[note 40] "The offerings of Izezi",[note 41] and "Izezi is one who loves life".[note 42] Djedkare seems to have been held in high esteem during the Sixth Dynasty. For example, Merenre Nemtyemsaf I chose to place his pyramid complex close to that of Djedkare.[183] In addition, the South Saqqara Stone, a royal annal dating to the reign of Merenre or of his successor Pepi II,[184] records rich offerings being made to Djedkare on behalf of the king.[note 43][185][186] An estimated 92%[187] of the text inscribed on the stone was lost when it was roughly polished to be reused as a sarcophagus lid, possibly in the late First Intermediate (c. 2160–2055 BC) to early Middle Kingdom period (c. 2055–1650 BC).[188] More generally, an historical or literary tradition concerning events in the time of Djedkare seems to have flourished toward the end of Old Kingdom as can be inferred from the tombs of Harkuf and Iny.[189] These two officials were in charge of expeditions to foreign lands–Punt and Byblos– under Merenre I and Pepi II and both relate similar expeditions that took place during the time of Djedkare.[189] New Kingdom[edit] The funerary cult of Djedkare enjoyed a revival during the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1077 BC). For the early part of this period, this is best attested by the Karnak king list, a list of kings commissioned by pharaoh Thutmose III. The list was not meant to be exhaustive, rather it gave the names of Thutmose's forefathers whom he wanted to honor by dedicating offerings.[190] For the later New Kingdom, a relief from the Saqqara tomb of the priest Mehu, dating to the 19th or 20th Dynasty shows three gods faced by several deceased pharaohs. These are Djoser and Sekhemket, of the Third Dynasty and Userkaf, founder of the Fifth Dynasty. He is followed by a fourth king whose name is damaged but which is often read "Djedkare" or, much less likely, "Shepseskare". The relief is an expression of personal piety on Mehu's behalf, who prayed to the ancient kings for them to recommend him to the gods.[191] See also[edit] List of pharaohs Notes[edit] ^ Proposed dates for Djedkare Isesi's reign: 2436–2404 BC,[1][2][3] 2414–2375 BC[4][5][6][7][8] 2405–2367 BC,[9] 2380–2342 BC,[10] 2379–2352 BC,[11] 2365–2322 BC.[12] ^ Numerous artefacts bearing Djedkare's nomen, prenomen or serekh have been unearthed, which provide information about trade relations or the state administration during Djedkare's reign. These artifacts are now scattered throughout the world in many museums including the Louvre Museum,[17] the Petrie Museum,[18][19] the Metropolitan Museum of Art,[20] the Boston Museum of Fine Arts,[21] and the Egyptian Museum of Berlin.[22] ^ Cemetery 2000 in Giza contains several tombs of overseers and inspectors of the palace attendants who lived during Djedkare's reign.[23] ^ Neserkauhor was buried in mastaba C, south of Nyuserre's pyramid complex in the east of the Abusir necropolis.[50] ^ Prince Raemka was buried in the mastaba tomb S80, also known as mastaba D3 and QS 903, in Saqqara, north of Djoser's pyramid.[49] His tomb seems to have been usurped[52] from a certain Neferiretnes.[53] The chapel from Raemka's tomb is now on display in the Metropolitan Museum of Art.[54] ^ Prince Kaemtjenent was buried in the mastaba tomb S84 in Saqqara.[49] ^ As opposed to those bearing the title "king's son", which was used as an honorary title during the later Fifth Dynasty. ^ Isesi-ankh was buried in mastaba D8, north of the pyramid of Djoser in Saqqara.[62] ^ Kekheretnebti is believed to have died in her early thirties, she was buried in mastaba B in east Abusir, south of the pyramid complex of Nyuserre.[73] She had a daughter named Tisethor, who was buried in an extension of her tomb.[48] ^ Probably buried in Abusir.[48] ^ Buried in the mastaba K, south of Nyuserre's complex in Abusir,[74] likely prior to the building of Tisethor's tomb. ^ Buried in Abusir.[48] ^ The inscription reads "First occasion of the Sed festival of the king of Upper and Lower Egypt Djedkare, beloved of the bas of Heliopolis, given life, stability, and all joy for ever."[78][79] ^ The years of 1st, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, 14th, 15th, 16th, 17th, 18th and 22nd cattle counts are attested in contemporary sources for Djedkare.[82][83] ^ Catalog number E5323.[85] ^ Miroslav Verner writes that Paule Posener-Kriéger and Jean-Louis de Cenival transcribed the year date numeral in the papyrus as the "year of the 21st count" in their 1968 study of the Abusir papyri.[86] Verner notes that in "the damaged place where the numeral still is, one can see a tiny black trace of another vertical stroke just visible. Therefore, the numeral can probably be reconstructed as 22.[87] ^ With the possible exception of Shepseskare who might not have the time required to start one. ^ The abandonment of Abusir as the royal necropolis meant that Djedkare had to strictly regulate its activities so as to ensure the proper continuation of the funerary cults taking place there, which explains in large part the administrative content of the Abusir papyri.[107] ^ The Egyptologist Nigel Strudwick illustrates this novelty with the cases of Isesi-ankh and Kaemtjenent, who both bore the title of "king's son" as well as a number of administrative titles such as "overseer of all the works of the king" and "seal bearer of the god".[62] The Egyptologists Michel Baud and Bettina Schmitz have argued that the title of "king's son" here does not denote a true filiation and was only honorary, at least in the case of Isesi-ankh.[66][65] More generally Baud and Schmitz consider that true princes of blood were qualified of smsw [z3 nswt] for "eldest [king's son]" and remained excluded from holding administrative offices.[110] ^ These are Ptahhotep Desher, Seshemnefer III, Ptahhotep, Rashepses, another Ptahhotep, and Senedjemib Inti.[105] ^ The block inscribed with the text relating Djedkare's works in the temple of Nyuserre reads "Horus Djedkhau, the king of Upper and Lower Egypt, the Two Ladies Djedkhau, the Golden Horus Djed, Djedkare. For the king of Upper and Lower Egypt [Nyuse]rre he set up a monument ...".[114] It is now in the Egyptian Museum of Berlin, catalog No. 17933.[22] ^ The name of the palace mentioned in the decree has been the subject of varying translations owing to the damaged state of the inscription. For Brovarski and Sethe the palace is simply called the "jubilee palace" in the decree,[124] while others such as Breasted,[125] Roccati,[126] and Trigger[123] have read the palace name as "lotus-blossom of Isesi" or "lotus of Isesi" (Ancient Egyptian Nehbet). Wente reads the "jubilee palace of Lotus-of-Izezi".[127] ^ It is unclear whether two of the inscribed texts originate from the same damaged inscription or have always been part of two different inscriptions.[132] ^ Also translated as "terraces of turquoise" from the Egyptian ḫtjw mfk3t.[136] ^ The rock exploited in these quarries actually comprises two varieties of gneiss, the word "diorite" being misused by Egyptologists to designate these.[146] ^ Gold is Nub in Ancient Egyptian, and the "land of gold" may have given rise to the modern word "Nubia"[148] ^ The golden seal has the catalog number 68.115.[145] ^ The provenance of the seal is usually believed to be a tomb in a yet undiscovered site along the Eastern Mediterranean coast.[152] The archaeologist Karin Sowada doubts the authenticity of the seal.[153] ^ Transliterations nfr-Jzzj and nfr-Ḏd-k3-Rˁ.[167] ^ Ancient Egyptian Mr-Rˁ-ˁnḫ-Izzi, tomb of Ptahhotep II, Saqqara.[178] ^ Ancient Egyptian Mr-Ḥq3-ˁnḫ-Izzi.[179] ^ Ancient Egyptian Nfr-nḥrw-Izzi.[180] ^ Ancient Egyptian Mnz3-Ḏd-k3-Rˁ.[181] ^ Ancient Egyptian Nfr-ḥzwt-Izzi.[181] ^ Ancient Egyptian Sˁnḫ-Sš3t-Izzi.[181] ^ Ancient Egyptian ḫnty-k3-Izzi.[181] ^ Ancient Egyptian N(y)-w3s-Izzi.[182] ^ Ancient Egyptian Irt-wḏt-Izzi.[182] ^ Ancient Egyptian Mr B3stt-ˁnḫ-Izzi.[182] ^ Ancient Egyptian Srwḏ-Ḥr-Izzi.[182] ^ Ancient Egyptian Ḥtpwt-Izzi.[182] ^ Ancient Egyptian Mr ˁnḫ-Izzi.[182] ^ See in particular the zone F6 of the Saqqara stone.[185] References[edit] ^ a b c d Verner 2001b, p. 589. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Altenmüller 2001, p. 600. ^ Hawass & Senussi 2008, p. 10. ^ Malek 2000, p. 100. ^ Rice 1999, pp. 46–47. ^ Clayton 1994, pp. 60. ^ Sowada & Grave 2009, p. 3. ^ Lloyd 2010, p. xxxiv. ^ a b Strudwick 2005, p. xxx. ^ von Beckerath 1999, pp. 60–61 & 283. ^ Strudwick 1985, p. 3. ^ a b Hornung 2012, p. 491. ^ a b c d Leprohon 2013, p. 40. ^ Clayton 1994, p. 61. ^ Leprohon 2013, p. 40, Footnote 63. ^ a b Mariette 1864, p. 15. ^ Louvre Museum, Online Collection 2016, Item E32669. ^ Petrie Museum 2016, UC11107. ^ Digital Egypt for Universities 2016. ^ Metropolitan Museum of Art 2016. ^ Boston Museum of Fine Arts 2016. ^ a b Borchardt 1907, pp. 157–158, fig. 131. ^ Roth 1995. ^ Verner, Callender & Strouhal 2002. ^ Sethe 1903, pp. 59–65; 68; 179–180. ^ Hayes 1978, p. 122. ^ Thompson 1999, pp. 976–977. ^ a b Thompson 1999, p. 977. ^ Papyrus Abu Sir, British Museum website 2016. ^ a b c d e Baker 2008, p. 84. ^ a b c Baker 2008, p. 85. ^ Gardiner 1959, pl. II & Col. III num. 24. ^ Stevenson Smith 1971, p. 159. ^ Horne 1917, pp. 62–78. ^ Waddell 1971, p. 51. ^ Mariette 1885, p. 191. ^ a b Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 64. ^ a b Tyldesley 2005, p. 241. ^ Verner 2002, p. 324. ^ Discovery of a unique tomb and the name of an ancient Egyptian queen in south Saqqara (titles of queen on Fig. 14) ^ Maragioglio & Rinaldi 1963–1977, p. 98. ^ a b Verner, Callender & Strouhal 2002, p. 110. ^ Stadelman 1987, pp. 256–257. ^ Jánosi 1989, p. 187–202. ^ Moursi 1987, pp. 185–194. ^ Baud 1999b, p. 624. ^ Baud 1999b, p. 464. ^ a b c d e f g h i Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 68. ^ a b c Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 69. ^ a b c Baud 1999b, p. 505. ^ a b Verner, Callender & Strouhal 2002, p. 55. ^ a b Baud 1999b, p. 510. ^ Met. Museum of Art 2016. ^ Met. Museum of Art 2016, Tomb of Raemka. ^ Brovarski 2001, p. 15. ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004, pp. 68–69. ^ a b Baud 1999b, p. 591. ^ Hayes 1978, p. 94. ^ Schott 1977, pp. 443–461. ^ Sethe 1903, pp. 181–186. ^ Strudwick 1985, p. 225. ^ a b Baud 1999b, p. 421. ^ Stevenson Smith 1971, pp. 187–188. ^ Strudwick 1985, pp. 71–72. ^ a b Schmitz 1976, p. 88 & 90. ^ a b Baud 1999b, p. 422. ^ Grimal 1992, p. 80. ^ Baud 1999b, p. 563. ^ Verner 2001a, p. 411. ^ Munro 1993, pp. 17–19. ^ Altenmüller 1990, pp. 1–2 & 5. ^ Baud & Dobrev 1995, pp. 57–58. ^ a b Baud 1999b, p. 561. ^ a b Baud 1999b, p. 486. ^ Brovarski 2001, p. 30. ^ a b Baud 1999b, p. 555. ^ Schmitz 1976, p. 119 & 123. ^ a b Strudwick 2005, p. 130. ^ Sethe 1903, text 57. ^ Louvre Museum, Online Collection 2016, Item E5323. ^ von Beckerath 1999, pp. 60–61, king no. 8. ^ Hornung 2012, p. 125. ^ Hornung 2012, pp. 139–142. ^ a b Verner 2001a, p. 410. ^ Pierret 1873, num. 349. ^ Posener-Kriéger & de Cenival 1968, Plates 41 & 41A. ^ a b Verner 2001a, p. 406. ^ Hornung 2012, p. 139. ^ a b Hornung 2012, p. 483. ^ a b Petrie, Weigall & Saba 1902, p. 28, plate LV, num 2. ^ Brovarski 2001, p. 23. ^ a b Andrassy 2008, p. 38. ^ a b c d e f Strudwick 1985, p. 339. ^ Malek 2000, p. 99. ^ a b Dorman 2015. ^ Kanawati 2003, p. 147. ^ Griffiths 1966, p. 41. ^ Goedicke 2000, pp. 408–409 & footnote 55. ^ Tyldesley 2005, p. 240. ^ Verner 1985, p. 270. ^ Malek 2000, p. 102. ^ a b Verner, Callender & Strouhal 2002, p. 105. ^ Goelet 1999, p. 87. ^ Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 111–112. ^ a b c Strudwick 1985, p. 301. ^ Strudwick 1985, p. 307 & 339. ^ a b Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 164. ^ Baer 1960, p. 297. ^ Baud 1999a, p. 23. ^ a b Baud 1999a, p. 328. ^ a b c d e Strudwick 1985, p. 340. ^ a b Kanawati 2003, p. 154. ^ a b c Trigger 2003, p. 211. ^ a b Strudwick 2005, p. 94. ^ Morales 2006, p. 317. ^ a b Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 86. ^ Eichler 1991, p. 146. ^ a b Brovarski 2001, p. 97, see also footnote e, p. 99. ^ Brovarski 2001, p. 98. ^ Breasted 1962, pp. 121–123, texts 268 & 273. ^ Roccati 1982, text 93. ^ Brovarski 2001, p. 98, footnote b. ^ a b c Trigger 2003, p. 134. ^ Brovarski 2001, p. 99, Footnote e. ^ Breasted 1962, text 273. ^ Roccati 1982, p. 126. ^ Wente 1990, p. 18. ^ Brovarski 2001, p. 92, see also footnote d. ^ Labrousse, Lauer & Leclant 1977, pp. 125–128. ^ Jánosi 2016, pp. 18-19 pls. 8b-d, 9. ^ Lepsius & Denkmäler II, p. 2 & 39. ^ Strudwick 2005, pp. 137–138, Texts C and D. ^ Mumford 1999, pp. 1071–1072. ^ a b c Mumford 1999, p. 1072. ^ a b c d Strudwick 2005, p. 137. ^ a b Tallet 2012, p. 151. ^ Gardiner, Peet & Černý 1955, Pl. IX num. 19. ^ Strudwick 2005, p. 138. ^ Valbelle & Bonnet 1996, p. 3. ^ Allen et al. 1999, p. 177. ^ Tallet 2012, p. 20. ^ a b Tallet 2012, p. 150. ^ Tallet 2010, p. 21. ^ Tell Edfu project 2018. ^ a b c Seal of office 68.115, BMFA 2015. ^ a b Harrell 2001, p. 395. ^ a b c d Grimal 1992, p. 79. ^ "Nubia" & Catholic Encyclopedia 2016. ^ Klemm & Klemm 2013, p. 604. ^ Young 1972, pp. 11–13. ^ Vermeule, Stone & Vermeule 1970, p. 34. ^ Vermeule, Stone & Vermeule 1970, p. 37. ^ Sowada & Grave 2009, p. 146, footnote 89. ^ Schulman 1979, p. 86. ^ Nelson 1934, pl. III no. 1, see here and there. ^ Porter, Moss & Burney 1951, p. 390. ^ a b Verner 2001b, p. 590. ^ Marcolin 2006, p. 297–298, footnote f. ^ Marcolin 2006, p. 293. ^ Hayes 1978, p. 67. ^ Wente 1990, pp. 20–21. ^ Petrie 1898, plate IV. ^ Weigall 1907, p. 108, Pl. LVIII. ^ a b Strudwick 2005, p. 371. ^ Kanawati & McFarlane 1993, pp. 26–27, pl. 2. ^ Redford 1992, pp. 53–54. ^ a b c Porter et al. 1981, p. 424. ^ Grimal 1992, p. 118. ^ Leclant 1999, p. 865. ^ a b c Lehner 2008, p. 153. ^ Batrawi 1947, p. 98. ^ a b Lehner 2008, p. 154. ^ a b Strudwick 1985, p. 341. ^ Baer 1960, p. 297 & 300. ^ a b Tyldesley 2005, p. 238. ^ Sicker 2000, p. 12. ^ Kanawati 1980, p. 131. ^ a b Murray 1905, pl. IX. ^ Brovarski 2001, p. 152. ^ Brovarski 2001, p. 55. ^ a b c d Brovarski 2001, p. 56. ^ a b c d e f Brovarski 2001, p. 70. ^ Baud & Dobrev 1995, p. 43, Note g. ^ Baud & Dobrev 1995, p. 54. ^ a b Strudwick 2005, p. 77. ^ Baud & Dobrev 1995, p. 41. ^ Baud & Dobrev 1995, p. 25. ^ Baud & Dobrev 1995, pp. 54–55. ^ a b Marcolin 2006, p. 293, footnote (a). ^ Wildung 1969, pp. 60–63. ^ Wildung 1969, pp. 74–76. 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Preceded by Menkauhor Kaiu Pharaoh of Egypt Fifth Dynasty Succeeded by Unas v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 128963891 VIAF: 30603557 WorldCat Identities: viaf-30603557 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Djedkare_Isesi&oldid=990772067" Categories: Djedkare Isesi 25th-century BC Pharaohs 24th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Ancient Egyptian mummies Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Featured articles Articles containing Arabic-language text CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 French-language sources (fr) CS1 Italian-language sources (it) CS1: long volume value Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles 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en-wikipedia-org-3941	----	First Dynasty of Egypt family tree - Wikipedia First Dynasty of Egypt family tree From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "First Dynasty of Egypt family tree" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Family tree of the First Dynasty of Egypt, ruling ancient Egypt in the 32nd century BCE to the 30th century BCE. Chart[edit] NARMER/ MENES Neithotep AHA Khenthap DJER Nakhtneith DJET Merneith DEN Seshemetka ADJIB Betrest SEMERKHET ? QA'A v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Royal or noble family trees Monarchies by region Africa Egypt House of Muhammad Ali Ethiopia Solomonic dynasty Madagascar Morocco Tunisia Americas Aztec Brazil Mexico Asia Brunei Cambodia China Ancient Warring States Early Middle Late India Mughal Mughal-Mongol Iran Pre-Islamic: Achaemenid Arsacid Sasanian post-Islamic dynasties Modern: Safavid Afsharid Zand Qajar Pahlavi Japan Shōgun: Kamakura Ashikaga Tokugawa Jerusalem Korea Silla Goryeo Joseon Kuwait Malaysia Johor Kedah Kelantan Negeri Sembilan Pahang Perak Perlis Selangor Terengganu Mongol Borjigin Yuan Ilkhanate Timurid Myanmar Ottoman simplified Seljuk Anatolian Seljuk Sri Lanka Thailand Vietnam Europe Aragon Belgium Bohemia Bosnia Castile Croatia Denmark France simplified House of Bonaparte Greece Hungary Leon Luxembourg Monaco Naples Navarre Netherlands Norway Orange-Nassau Poland Portugal Holy Roman Empire/Germany House of Habsburg (incl. 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en-wikipedia-org-3942	----	Category:510s BC births - Wikipedia Help Category:510s BC births From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search People who were born in the 510s BC. See also: Category:510s BC deaths. ← 6th-century BC births: 590s • 580s • 570s • 560s • 550s • 540s • 530s • 520s • 510s • 500s → Wikimedia Commons has media related to 510s BC births. To display all pages, subcategories and images click on the "►": ► 510s BC births‎ (3 C, 5 P) Subcategories This category has the following 3 subcategories, out of 3 total. * ► 512 BC births‎ (1 P) ► 515 BC births‎ (1 P) ► 519 BC births‎ (2 P) Pages in category "510s BC births" The following 5 pages are in this category, out of 5 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). C Cimon P Parmenides Pindar Q Titus Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus X Xerxes I Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:510s_BC_births&oldid=716081691" Categories: 510s BC 6th-century BC births Births by decade Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages العربية Беларуская Български Español فارسی 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Magyar 日本語 Norsk bokmål Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Winaray 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 April 2016, at 19:55 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3960	----	Lydia (satrapy) - Wikipedia Lydia (satrapy) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Lydia" satrapy – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Lydia (satrapy) 𐎿𐎱𐎼𐎭, Sparda Lydian soldier of the Achaemenid army, circa 480 BCE. Xerxes I tomb relief. Lydia, including Ionia, during the Achaemenid Empire. The Satrapy of Lydia, known as Sparda in Old Persian (Old Persian cuneiform 𐎿𐎱𐎼𐎭, Sparda),[1] was an administrative province (satrapy) of the Achaemenid Empire, located in the ancient kingdom of Lydia, with Sardis as its capital. Contents 1 Achaemenid Satrapy 2 Ionian revolt (499 BCE) 3 Invasion of Greece (480-479 BCE) 4 Satraps 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Achaemenid Satrapy[edit] The name for Lydia as an Achaemenid territory in the DNa inscription of Darius the Great (circa 490 BC): Sparda (𐎿𐎱𐎼𐎭). Tabalus, appointed by Cyrus the Great, was the first satrap; however, his rule did not last long as the Lydians revolted. The insurrection was suppressed by general Mazares and his successor Harpagus. After Cyrus' death, Oroetus was appointed as satrap. Oroetus ruled during the reign of Cambyses, and after the chaotic period that followed the Persian king's death, he conquered the Greek isle of Samos, killing its ruler Polycrates. Due to his growing power, Darius the Great had Bagaeus kill Oroetus. Bagaeus himself may have become satrap for a short period, but the next rulers were Otanes and Darius' younger brother, Artaphernes. Ionian revolt (499 BCE)[edit] During the Ionian revolt in 499 BC, Sardis was sacked by the Greeks. Five years later, the rebellion was suppressed and to the surprise of the Greek world, Artaphernes was very lenient in his treatment of the rebels. After this period, many Persians settled in Lydia. The worship of eastern gods such as Anahita, as well as persified Lydian deities, began. Although members of the Persian aristocracy were given estates in the region following the Greek revolt, Greeks loyal to the Persian Empire were also given estates. Invasion of Greece (480-479 BCE)[edit] Xerxes stationed in Sardis with all his invasion force during the winter of 481-480 BCE. Artaphernes was succeeded as satrap in 492 BC by his son Artaphernes II. Lydians enrolled in the Achaemenid army, and participated to the Second Persian invasion of Greece (480–479 BC). Sardis was where all the troops of Xerxes stationed during the winter of 481-480 BCE to prepare for the invasion of Greece.[2][3] Achaemenid Era silver shekel made in Sardis between 500 and 450 BCE showing a warrior-king holding a bow and a lance. Coinage of Tiribazos, Satrap of Lydia, with Ahuramazda on the obverse. 388-380 BCE. Coin of Autophradates, Achaemenid Satrap of Sparda (Lydia and Ionia), circa 380s-350s BCE. Lydian delegation at Apadana, circa 500 BC From the period of 480 BC to 440 BC, there is little historical information about the satrap of Lydia. In 440 BC, the satrap Pissuthnes attempted to retake Samos, which had rebelled against Athens, but failed. In 420 BC, Pissuthnes revolted against the Persian king Darius II. The Persian soldier and statesman Tissaphernes (Pers. Tiθrafarna, Gr. Τισσαφέρνης), a grandson of Hydarnes, was sent by Darius II to Lydia to arrest and execute Pissuthnes. Tissaphernes became satrap of Lydia in 415 BC and continued to fight Amorges, son of Pissuthnes. After Sparta had defeated Athens, the Greeks invaded Lydia. Tissaphernes overcame the invasion of Thibron in 399 BC but was defeated at Sardis by the Spartan King Agesilaus II. The satrap was executed and replaced by Tiribazus, who restored order in Lydia and was responsible for a series of treaties between the Persian king and the Greek city states. Autophradates was probably Tiribazus' direct successor, and was loyal to the Achaemenid monarch during a series of revolts in 370 BC. The last satrap of Lydia was Spithridates, who was killed by Alexander the Great at the battle of Granicus. Satraps[edit] Main article: List of satraps of Lydia Tabalus (546–545 BCE) Mazares (545–c. 544 BCE) Harpagus (c. 544 BCE) Oroetus (before 530–c. 520 BCE) Bagaeus (c. 520 BCE) Otanes (517 BCE) Artaphernes I (513–492 BCE) Artaphernes II (492–after 480 BCE) Pissuthnes (before 440–415 BCE) Tissaphernes (c. 415–408 BCE) Cyrus the Younger (408–401 BCE) Tissaphernes (400–395 BCE) Tiribazus (born 395 BCE) Autophradates (c. 365 BCE) Spithridates (died before 334 BCE) See also[edit] Lydia References[edit] ^ Darius I, DNa inscription, Line 28 ^ Stoneman, Richard (2015). Xerxes: A Persian Life. Yale University Press. p. 118. ISBN 9780300180077. ^ Herodotus. LacusCurtius • Herodotus — Book VII: Chapters 1‑56. pp. VII-26. External links[edit] Lendering, Jona. Lydia — Livius.org (accessed 18 January 2013) v t e Achaemenid Satraps of Lydia (546–334 BC) Tabalus (546–545 BC) Mazares (545–544 BC) Harpagus (540-530 BC) Oroetus (530–520 BC) Bagaeus (520 BC) Otanes (517 BC) Artaphernes (513–492 BC) Artaphernes II (492–480 BC) Pissuthnes (440–415 BC) Tissaphernes (415–408 BC) Cyrus the Younger (408–401 BC) Tissaphernes (400–395 BC) Tithraustes (392–380 BC) Tiribazus (375 BC) Struthas (370 BC) Autophradates (365 BC) Spithridates (365–334 BC) v t e Provinces of the Achaemenid Empire (Behistun / Persepolis / Naqsh-e Rustam / Susa / Daiva inscriptions) Akaufaka (Quhistan?) Amyrgoi Arabia Arachosia Aria Armenia Assyria Babylonia Bactria Cappadocia Caria Carmania Caucasian Albania Chorasmia Cilicia Colchis Dahae Drangiana 1st Egypt / 2nd Egypt Eber-Nari (Levant) Elam Kush (Nubia) Gandāra (Gandhara) Gedrosia Hyrcania Ionia Hindush Libya Lydia Maka Margiana Media Lesser Media Massagetae Parthia Persia Phoenicia Phrygia Hellespontine Phrygia Greater Phrygia Saka Samaritan Province Sattagydia Skudra (Thrace) Sogdia Yehud See also Tax Districts of the Achaemenid Empire (according to Herodotus) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lydia_(satrapy)&oldid=958031555" Categories: Achaemenid satraps of Lydia Achaemenid satrapies Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from July 2019 All articles needing additional references Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Ελληνικά Italiano Latina Edit links This page was last edited on 21 May 2020, at 17:50 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3970	----	Palace of Darius in Susa - Wikipedia Palace of Darius in Susa From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Palace of Darius in Susa Reconstruction drawing of the Apadana of Susa Archaeological map of Susa Alternative name Susa Palace Location Susa (modern Shush, Khuzestan Province, Iran) Coordinates 32°11′32″N 48°14′55″E / 32.1921°N 48.2487°E / 32.1921; 48.2487 Type palace History Builder Darius I, Xerxes I, Artaxerxes I, Darius II, Artaxerxes II Material stone, mud-brick, wood Founded 6th century BC Periods Achaemenid Empire Cultures Persian Site notes Archaeologists Jean Perrot, etc. Condition in ruins Management Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts and Tourism Organization of Iran Architecture Architectural styles Achaemenid The Palace of Darius in Susa was a palace complex in Susa, Iran, a capital of the Achaemenid Empire. The construction was conducted parallel to that of Persepolis. Man-power and raw materials from various parts of the empire contributed to its construction. It was once destroyed by fire and was partially restored later. Little has remained from this important complex. Contents 1 History 2 Construction 3 Gallery 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links History[edit] The palace complex was constructed by the Achaemenid king Darius I in Susa, his favorite capital. Construction works continued under Darius I's son, Xerxes, and to a lesser extent, Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC) and Darius II (423–404 BC). Artaxerxes II (404–358 BC) partially restored the palace as it was destroyed by a fire during the reign of Artaxerxes I fifty years earlier. The palace was captured and plundered by the invading Macedonians under Alexander the Great in December 330 BC.[1] The site of the palace has been greatly damaged during the past seven decades.[2] Construction[edit] Construction was carried out at Susa parallel to those at Persepolis.[3] Built on an artificially raised platform 15 metres (49 ft) high, covering 100 hectares (250 acres),[1] the complex at Susa consists of a residential palace, an apadana (audience hall), and a monumental gate. A covered passage ("Propylaeum") faces these structures.[1] The apadana at Susa is similar to that of Persepolis,[3] using the distinctive Persian column, topped by two bulls, which was probably developed here. Sources describing Achaemenid-era Susa are rare. The Achaemenid constructions at Susa are mostly known through the royal inscriptions, which are mostly trilingual—in Old Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian. Unlike the massive number of clay tablets found in Persepolis, only few clay tablets have been found in Susa, despite its important political and economic situation.[1] According to Gene R. Garthwaite, the Susa Palace served as Darius' model for Persepolis. Comparing the palace to that of Pasargadae, the former Achaemenid capital, he argues that Susa even more represented Achaemenid simultaneous rulership, and "what was symbolic was actualized", such that Darius's rule "could command craftsmen and material from the breadth of the empire" to build the monument,[4] as is described in Darius' "charter of foundation" of the palace (or the DSf inscription), which enumerates the workers and the material used:[5] This palace which I built at Susa, from afar its ornamentation was brought. Downward the earth was dug, until I reached rock in the earth. When the excavation had been made, then rubble was packed down, some 40 cubits in depth, another (part) 20 cubits in depth. On that rubble the palace was constructed. And that the earth was dug downward, and that the rubble was packed down, and that the sun-dried brick was molded, the Babylonian people -- it did (these tasks). The cedar timber, this -- a mountain named Lebanon -- from there was brought. The Assyrian people, it brought it to Babylon; from Babylon the Carians and the Ionians brought it to Susa. The yakâ-timber was brought from Gandara and from Carmania. The gold was brought from Sardis and from Bactria, which here was wrought. The precious stone lapis lazuli and carnelian which was wrought here, this was brought from Sogdiana. The precious stone turquois, this was brought from Chorasmia, which was wrought here. The silver and the ebony were brought from Egypt. The ornamentation with which the wall was adorned, that from Ionia was brought. The ivory which was wrought here, was brought from Ethiopia [Nubia] and from Sind and from Arachosia. The stone columns which were here wrought, a village named Abiradu, in Elam -- from there were brought. The stone-cutters who wrought the stone, those were Ionians and Sardians. The goldsmiths who wrought the gold, those were Medes and Egyptians. The men who wrought the wood, those were Sardians and Egyptians. The men who wrought the baked brick, those were Babylonians. The men who adorned the wall, those were Medes and Egyptians. Darius the King says: At Susa a very excellent (work) was ordered, a very excellent (work) was (brought to completion). Me may Ahuramazda protect, and Hystaspes my father, and my country. — Darius I, DSf inscription Gallery[edit] Site of the palace Ruins of the Apadana of Susa Reconstruction drawing of the Apadana of the Susa Palace Remains of a Persian column Bull capital from the Apadana of the Susa Palace, Louvre Relief of rosace The Frieze of Archers, glazed siliceous bricks, Louvre Decorative panel with sphinxes Relief of winged lion Statue of Darius, with a quadrilingual inscription at its base Lion-shaped weight Bracelet ornated with a pair of lion heads Rhyton Winged Aurochs References[edit] ^ a b c d "SUSA iii. THE ACHAEMENID PERIOD – Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2017-07-11. ^ Ed Eduljee. "Susa, Shush. Palace of Darius. Winter Capital". heritageinstitute.com. Retrieved 2017-07-11. ^ a b Perrot, Jean (2013). The Palace of Darius at Susa: The Great Royal Residence of Achaemenid Persia. I.B.Tauris. p. 423. ISBN 9781848856219. ^ Garthwaite, Gene R. (2008). The Persians. John Wiley & Sons. p. 50. ISBN 9781405144001. ^ Wiesehofer, Josef (2001). Ancient Persia. I.B.Tauris. pp. 26–27. ISBN 9781860646751. Further reading[edit] Perrot, Jean, ed. (2013). The Palace of Darius at Susa: The Great Royal Residence of Achaemenid Persia. London: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 9781848856219. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Palace of Darius I in Susa. "Susa, Palace of Darius the Great", Livius v t e Iranian architecture Styles Parsian Achaemenid pre-Parsian Parthian Khorasani Sasanian Other Azeri Isfahani Razi Types Bazaars Caravanserais Khaneqah Mosques Tekyeh Elements Ab anbar Andaruni Biruni Burj Chahartaq Dalan e Vorudi Gonbad Hashti Howz Imamzadeh Iwan Kariz Kucheh Panjdari Persian Garden (hayāt) Qanat Sahn Shabestan Talar Windcatchers Yakhchal Traditional cities Amol Andijan Baku Bam Bukhara Ctesiphon Derbent Ganja Gur-e-Amir Hatra Herat Isfahan Kashan Kashmar Khiva Khorramabad Mashhad Merv Nakhchivan Nishapur Persepolis Qazvin Qom Samarkand Shahrisabz Shiraz Susa Tabriz Takht-e Soleymān Tehran Yazd Theory and analysis Islamic architecture Traditional Persian residential architecture Traditional water sources of Persian antiquity Lists Architects of Iran Args, castles, and ghal'ehs List of ab anbars of Qazvin List of mosques List of ziyarat-gahs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Palace_of_Darius_in_Susa&oldid=989405938" Categories: Susa Darius the Great Xerxes I Artaxerxes I of Persia Darius II Artaxerxes II of Persia Buildings and structures completed in the 5th century BC Achaemenid cities Achaemenid architecture Archaeological sites in Iran Demolished buildings and structures in Iran Fires in Iran Royal residences in Iran Ruins in Iran Buildings and structures in Khuzestan Province Hidden categories: Commons link is locally defined Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Deutsch Español فارسی Հայերեն Português Edit links This page was last edited on 18 November 2020, at 20:14 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3973	----	Sonbef - Wikipedia Sonbef From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sonbef Senbef, Amenemhat Senbef Cylinder seal bearing the royal titulary of Sonbef, drawing by Flinders Petrie.[1][2] Pharaoh Reign 4 years, 1800–1796BC[3] or 1799–1795BC[1] (13th Dynasty) Predecessor Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep Successor Nerikare (Ryholt) or Pantjeny (von Beckerath) Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sekhemkare Sḫm-k3-Rˁ Mighty is the Ka of Ra Nomen Amenemhat [Sa] Sonbef Jmn-m-ḥ3.t [s3]snb.f Amenemhat['s son] Sonbef[4] Horus name Mehibtawy Mḥ-jb-t3.wj Favorite of the two lands He whom the two lands trust Nebty name Itisekhemef Jṯj-sḫm=f He who seizes his power Turin canon: Sekhemkare A[menemhat Sonbe]f Sḫm-k3-Rˁ J[mn-m-ḥ3.t snb].f Mighty is the Ka of Ra, A[menemhat's son Sonbe]f [5] Mehibtawy Sekhemkare Amenemhat Sonbef (also Amenemhat Senbef) was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. According to Egyptologists Kim Ryholt, Jürgen von Beckerath and Darrell Baker, he was the second king of the dynasty, reigning from 1800 BC until 1796 BC.[3][4][6][7] Identity[edit] There is a debate between Egyptologists on whether or not Sekhemkare Sonbef is the same king as Sekhemkare Amenemhat V, fourth ruler of the 13th Dynasty. Indeed, Sonbef called himself "Amenemhat Sonbef"; this can be a double name, but can also be a filiation Son of Amenemhat Sonbef, which both Ryholt and Baker see as evidence that Sonbef was a son of Amenemhat IV and a brother of Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep, the founder of the 13th Dynasty.[3][4] Thus, they see Sonbef and Amenemhat V as two different rulers, an opinion also shared by Jürgen von Beckerath.[3][4][6][7] Ryholt and Baker further posit that Sonbef's and Amenemhat's rules were separated by the ephemeral reign of Nerikare, while von Beckerath believes it was Sekhemre Khutawy Pantjeny who reigned between the two.[6][7] At the opposite Detlef Franke and Stephen Quirke believe that Amenemhat V and Sonbef are one and the same person.[8][9] Franke and others regard "Amenemhat Sonbef" as a double name. Indeed, double naming was common in Egypt and especially in the late 12th and 13th Dynasty.[10] Attestations[edit] Sonbef is attested on column 7, line 6 of the Turin canon, where he appears as "Sekhemkare [Amenemhat Sonbe]f".[3] Although, as a king of the early 13th Dynasty, Sonbef certainly reigned from Itjtawy in the Faiyum, the only contemporary attestations of him are from south of Thebes.[4] These include a scarab seal of unknown provenance, a cylinder seal from the Amherst collection and now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art,[1] and two inscribed blocks from El-Tod where he appears under the name Sekhemkare. Two Nile records are also attributable to him, one from Askut and dated to his year 3, and the other from Semna in Nubia, dated to his year 4.[3] A further, much damaged record from Semna and dated to a year 5 may also belong to him.[4] The ownership of these Nile records is still in doubt however, as they only bear the prenomen Sekhemkare, which Amenemhat V also bore. The Egyptologist and archaeologist Stuart Tyson Smith, who studied the records initially attributed them to Sonbef,[11] but later changed his opinion and attributed them to Amenemhat V.[12] References[edit] ^ a b c Cylinder seal of Amenemhat Senbef at the MET Museum. ^ Flinders Petrie: Scarabs and cylinders with names (1917), available copyright-free here, pl. XVIII ^ a b c d e f K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800 – 1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997 ^ a b c d e f Baker, Darrell D. (2008). The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC. Stacey International. pp. 457–458. ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9. ^ Alan H. Gardiner: The royal canon of Turin. Griffith Institute, Oxford 1997, ISBN 0900416483, Vol 3. ^ a b c Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964 ^ a b c Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46. Mainz am Rhein, 1997 ^ Detlef Franke: Zur Chronologie des Mittleren Reiches (12.-18. Dynastie) Teil 1 : Die 12. Dynastie, in Orientalia 57 (1988) ^ New arrangement of the 13th dynasty, on digital Egypt. ^ Stephen Quirke: In the Name of the King: on Late Middle Kingdom Cylinders, in: Timelines, Studies in Honour of Manfred Bietak, Leuven, Paris, Dudley, MA. ISBN 90-429-1730-X, 263-64 ^ S. Smith: Askut and the Role of the Second Cataract Forts, in JARCE, vol XXVII ^ S. Smith: Askut in Nubia: The Economic and Ideology of Egyptian Imperialism in the Second Millenium B.C., Kegan Paul International, London and New York Preceded by Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Nerikare v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sonbef&oldid=977991180" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Español Euskara Italiano ქართული Magyar 日本語 Português Русский Slovenščina ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 12 September 2020, at 06:16 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3974	----	Harsiese A - Wikipedia Harsiese A From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Harsiese A Sarcophagus of king Harsiese A King of Thebes Reign 880–860 BC (23rd Dynasty) Successor Takelot II Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Hedjkheperre Setepenamun ḥḏ-ḫpr-Rˁ stp.n-Jmn "Radiant manifestation of Ra, the chosen one of Amun" Nomen Horsaiset Meriamum Ḥr-zꜣ-ꜣst mrj-Jmn Harsiese, lit."Horus, son of Isis, beloved of Amun" Horus name Kanakht Khaemwaset kꜣ-nḫt-ḫˁj-m-wꜣst "Strong bull who appears in Thebes" Burial tomb at Medinet Habu King Hedjkheperre Setepenamun Harsiese, or Harsiese A, is viewed by the Egyptologist Kenneth Kitchen in his Third Intermediate Period of Egypt to be both a High Priest of Amun and the son of the High Priest of Amun, Shoshenq C. The archaeological evidence does suggest that he was indeed Shoshenq C's son. However, recent published studies by the German Egyptologist Karl Jansen-Winkeln in JEA 81 (1995) have demonstrated that all the monuments of the first (king) Harsiese show that he was never a High Priest of Amun in his own right. Rather both Harsiese A and his son [...du] – whose existence is known from inscriptions on the latter's funerary objects at Coptos – are only attested as Ordinary Priests of Amun. Instead, while Harsiese A was certainly an independent king at Thebes during the first decade of Osorkon II's kingship, he was a different person from a second person who was also called Harsiese: Harsiese B. Harsiese B was the genuine High Priest of Amun, who is attested in office late in Osorkon II's reign, in the regnal year 6 of Shoshenq III and in regnal years 18 and 19 of Pedubast I, according to Jansen-Winkeln. While Harsiese A may have become king at Thebes prior to Year 4 of Osorkon II, contra Kitchen, he certainly ruled Thebes during the first decade of Osorkon II's reign as Kitchen notes. Osorkon II's control over this great city is only first documented by two separate Year 12 Nile Level Texts, which means that Harsiese had died by this time. If Harsiese was already ruling at Thebes earlier under Takelot I, it might help explain why Takelot I's own Year 5, Year 8, and Year 14 Nile Level Texts, which mention the serving High Priests Iuwelot and Smendes III—who were all brothers of Takelot I--consistently omit any mention of Takelot's name, as Gerard Broekman aptly notes in an article in JEA (88 (2002)). Takelot I's name is left deliberately blank here. This might indicate a possible rivalry between Takelot I and Harsiese A at Thebes. The Amun Priests may have chosen not to involve themselves in this dispute by omitting any mention of the reigning king's name. Burial[edit] According to a 1994 book by the English Egyptologist Aidan Dodson, King Harsiese: was buried in a tomb within the temenos at Medinet Habu, in the trough of a granite coffin (JE 60137) made for Ramesses II's sister, Henutmire, (and) closed with a hawk-Headed lid. When cleared, four canopic jars were found....No trace of any lids have survived, suggesting that such items may have been of [perishable] wood[.](p.92)[citation needed] Dodson notes that Harsiese's coffin is similar in style to the hawk-headed silver coffin of Shoshenq II, and to the surviving "traces of the gilded coffin and cartonnage of Osorkon II" (pp. 88–89). References[edit] Gerard Broekman, "The Nile Level Records of the Twenty-Second and Twenty-Third Dynasties in Karnak," Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 88 (2002), pp. 163–178. Aidan Dodson, The Canopic Equipment of the Kings of Egypt, (Kegan Paul Intl: 1994), pp. 88–89 and p. 92. Karl Jansen-Winkeln, "Historische Probleme Der 3. Zwischenzeit," Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 81 (1995), pp. 129–149. K.A. Kitchen, The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100–650 BC), 3rd ed. Warminster: Aris and Phillips Limited, (1996) John H. Taylor, "A daughter of King Harsiese", Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 74 (1988), pp. 230–231. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harsiese_A&oldid=971619395" Categories: 9th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt 9th century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2018 AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Polski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 7 August 2020, at 07:17 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3996	----	Thesh - Wikipedia Thesh From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Thesh Tjesh Closeup of the Palermo Stone. Thesh is the no. 5 Pharaoh Reign Unknown (Predynastic Period) Predecessor Tiu? Successor Neheb? Royal titulary Thesh in hieroglyphs [1] Tjesh Thesh, also known as Tjesh and Tesh, is mentioned in the Palermo Stone as a Predynastic Egyptian king who ruled in Lower Egypt. As there is no other evidence of such a ruler, he may be a mythical king preserved through oral tradition,[2] or may even be completely fictitious.[3][4] References[edit] ^ From: Palermo Stone ^ Helck, Untersuchungen zu Manetho und den ägyptischen Königslisten 1956, Berlin: Akademie-Verlag. Untersuchungen zur Geschichte und Altertumskunde Ägyptens 18 ^ O'Mara, Was there an Old Kingdom historiography? Is it datable? 1996, Orientalia 65: 197-208 ^ Wilkinson, Toby A. H. (2000). Royal Annals of Ancient Egypt. p.85 New York: Columbia University Press). ISBN 0-7103-0667-9. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thesh&oldid=993410939" Categories: Pharaohs only mentioned in the Palermo Stone People whose existence is disputed Ancient Egypt people stubs Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Bahasa Melayu 日本語 Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 December 2020, at 13:51 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4010	----	Shoshenq II - Wikipedia Shoshenq II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Shoshenq II Gold funerary mask of Shoshenq II in the Cairo Museum Pharaoh Reign 887–885 BC (22nd Dynasty) Predecessor Osorkon I Successor Takelot I or Tutkheperre Shoshenq? Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Heqakheperre Setepenre ḥq3-ḫpr-Rˁ-stp-n-Rˁ The manifestation of Ra rules, the chosen one of Ra Nomen Shoshenq Meriamum Šš.nq mri-Jmn Shoshenq, beloved of Amun Consort Nesitanebetashru, Nesitaudjatakhet Died 885 BC Burial Tanis Heqakheperre Shoshenq II or Shoshenq IIa[1] was a pharaoh of the Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt. He was the only ruler of this dynasty whose tomb was not plundered by tomb robbers. His final resting place was discovered within an antechamber of Psusennes I's tomb at Tanis by Pierre Montet in 1939. Montet removed the coffin lid of Shoshenq II on March 20, 1939, in the presence of king Farouk of Egypt himself.[2] It proved to contain many jewel-encrusted bracelets and pectorals, along with a beautiful hawkheaded silver coffin and a gold funerary mask.[3] The facemask had been placed upon the head of the king.[4] Montet later discovered the intact tombs of two Twenty-first Dynasty kings (Psusennes I and Amenemope) a year later in February and April 1940 respectively. Shoshenq II's prenomen, Heqakheperre Setepenre, means "The manifestation of Ra rules, the chosen one of Ra."[5] Contents 1 Shoshenq II's enigmatic identity 2 Independent reign 3 Death and burial 4 References 5 Further reading Shoshenq II's enigmatic identity[edit] There is a small possibility that Shoshenq II was the son of Shoshenq I. Two bracelets from Shoshenq II's tomb mention king Shoshenq I while a pectoral was inscribed with the title 'Great Chief of the Ma Shoshenq,' a title which Shoshenq I employed under Psusennes II before he became king.[6] These items may be interpreted as either evidence of a possible filial link between the two men or just mere heirlooms. A high degree of academic uncertainty regarding the parentage of this king exists: some scholars today contend that Shoshenq II was actually a younger son of Shoshenq I—who outlived Osorkon I and Takelot I—due to the discovery of the aforementioned items naming the founder of the 22nd Dynasty within his intact royal Tanite tomb. As the German Egyptologist Karl Jansen-Winkeln observes in the recent (2005) book on Egyptian chronology: "The commonly assumed identification of this king with the (earlier) HP and son of Osorkon I [by KA Kitchen] does not appear to be very probable."[7] A forensic examination of Shoshenq II's body by Dr. Douglas Derry, the head of Cairo Museum's anatomy department, reveals that he was a man in his fifties when he died.[8] Hence, Shoshenq II could have easily survived Osorkon I's 35-year reign and ruled Egypt for a few years before Takelot I came to power. Moreover, Sextus Julius Africanus's generally more accurate copy of Manetho's Epitome explicitly states that “3 Kings” intervened between Osorkon I and Takelot I.[9] While Manetho's suggested position for these three kings cannot be presently verified due to the paucity of evidence for this period and the brevity of their reigns, another of these poorly known monarchs would be Tutkheperre Shoshenq who was an early Dynasty 22 ruler since he is now monumentally attested in both Lower and Upper Egypt at Bubastis and Abydos respectively.[10] Evidence that Shoshenq II was a predecessor of Osorkon II is indicated by the fact that his hawk-headed coffin is stylistically similar to "a hawk-headed lid" which enclosed the granite coffin of king Harsiese A, from Medinet Habu.[11] Harsiese A was an early contemporary of Osorkon II and likely Takelot I too since the latter did not firmly control Upper Egypt in his reign. This implies that Shoshenq II and Harsiese A were near contemporaries since Harsiese A was the son of the High Priest of Amun Shoshenq C at Thebes and, thus, the grandson of Osorkon I. Harsiese's funerary evidence places Shoshenq II roughly one or two generations after Osorkon I and may date him to the brief interval between Takelot I and Osorkon I at Tanis.[12] In this case, the objects naming Shoshenq I in this king's tomb would simply be heirlooms, rather than proof of an actual filial relation between Shoshenq I and II. This latter interpretation is endorsed by Jürgen von Beckerath, in his 1997 book, Chronologie des Pharaonischen Ägypten who believes Shoshenq II was actually an elder brother of Takelot I. The view that Shoshenq II was an elder brother of Takelot I is also endorsed by Norbert Dautzenberg in a GM 144 paper.[13] Von Beckerath, however, places Shoshenq II between the reigns of Takelot I and Osorkon II at Tanis.[14] Kenneth Kitchen, in his latest 1996 edition of '’The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (c.1100–650 BC)’', maintains that Shoshenq II was the High Priest of Amun Shoshenq C, son of Osorkon I and Queen Maatkare, who was appointed as the junior coregent to the throne but predeceased his father.[15] Kitchen suggests such a coregency is reflected on the bandages of the Ramesseum mummy of Nakhtefmut, which contain the dates "Year 3 [Blank]" and "Year 33 Second Heb Sed" respectively.[16] The “Year 33” date mentioned here almost certainly refers to Osorkon I since Nakhtefmut wore a ring which bore this king's prenomen. Kitchen infers from this evidence that Year 33 of Osorkon I is equivalent to Year 3 of Shoshenq II, and that the latter was Shoshenq C himself.[17] Unfortunately, however, the case for a coregency between Osorkon I and Shoshenq II is uncertain because there is no clear evidence that the Year 3 and Year 33 bandages on Naktefmut's body were made at the same time. These two dates were not written on a single piece of mummy linen—which would denote a true coregency. Rather, the dates were written on two separate and unconnected mummy bandages which were likely woven and used over a period of several years, as the burial practices of the Amun priests show. A prime example is the Mummy of Khonsmaakheru in Hamburg which contains separate bandages dating to Years 11, 12, and 23 of Osorkon I—or a minimum period of 12 Years between their creation and final use. (Altenmüller: 2000) A second example is the mummy of Djedptahiufankh, the Third or Fourth Prophet of Amun, which bears various bandages from Years 5, 10, and 11 of Shoshenq I, or a spread of six years in their final use for embalming purposes. As these two near contemporary examples show, the temple priests simply reused whatever old or recycled linens which they could gain access to for their mummification rituals. The Year 3 mummy linen would, hence, belong to the reign of Osorkon's successor. Secondly, none of the High Priest Shoshenq C's own children—the priest Osorkon whose funerary papyrus, P. Denon C, is located in the Russian National Library in St. Petersburg or a second priest named Harsiese (likely king Harsiese A) who dedicated a Bes statue in memory of his father, now in Durham Museum—give royal titles to their father on their own funerary objects. The priest Osorkon only calls himself the "son of the High Priest Shoshenq", rather than the title "King's Son" in his funerary papyri, which would presumably have been created long after his father's death.[18] On Harsiese, Jacquet-Gordon notes that "there is no good evidence to suggest that the 1st prophet Shoshenq C ever claimed or was accorded royal rank."[19] She observes that Harsiese designated his father as a High Priest of Amun on a Bes statue without any accompanying royal name or prenomen and stresses that if Shoshenq C "had [even] the slightest pretensions to royal rank, his son would not have omitted to mention this fact. We must therefore conclude that he had no such pretensions."[20][21] This implies that the High Priest Shoshenq C was not king Shoshenq II. While Shoshenq C's name is indeed written in a cartouche on the Bes statue, no actual royal name or prenomen is ever given. An example of a king's son who enclosed his name in a cartouche on a monument but never inherited the throne was Wadjmose, a son of the New Kingdom king Thutmose I. Independent reign[edit] Pectoral of Shoshenq II. More significantly, Shoshenq II's intact burial did not contain a single object or heirloom naming Osorkon I—an unlikely situation if Osorkon did indeed bury his own son. Kitchen notes that this king's burial goods included a pectoral that was originally inscribed for the Great Chief of the Ma Shoshenq I—before the latter became king—and "a pair of bracellets of Shoshenq I as king but no later objects."[22] This situation appears improbable if Shoshenq II was indeed Shoshenq C, Osorkon I's son who died and was buried by his own father. Other Dynasty 21 and 22 kings such as Amenemope and Takelot I, for instance, employed grave goods which mentioned their parent's names in their own tombs. This suggests that Heqakheperre Shoshenq II was not a son of Osorkon I but someone else's son, perhaps Shoshenq I. Karl Jansen-Winkeln writes in the most recent book on Egyptian chronology that: As the individuals interred in the [Tanite] royal tombs often bore objects belonging to their parents, this king (Shoshenq II) is probably a son of Shoshenq I.[7] Since this pharaoh's funerary objects such as his silver coffin, jewel pectorals, and cartonnage all give him the unique royal name Heqakheperre, he was most likely a genuine king of the 22nd Dynasty in his own right, and not just a minor coregent. Jürgen von Beckerath adopts this interpretation of the evidence and assigns Shoshenq II an independent reign of 2 years at Tanis.[14] In their 2005 academic publication on Egyptian chronology, the Egyptologists Rolf Krauss and David Alan Warburton also ascribed Shoshenq II an independent reign of between 1 to 2 years in the 22nd dynasty although they place Shoshenq II's brief reign between that of Takelot I and Osorkon II.[23] The German Egyptologist Thomas Schneider, in a 2010 paper, has accepted the validity of the reference in Manetho's epitome to the "3 [Tanite] kings" from Africanus' version and placed the reigns of both Shoshenq II and Tutkheperre Shoshenq in the interval between Osorkon I and Takelot I.[24] The exclusive use of silver for the creation of Shoshenq II's coffin is a potent symbol of his power because silver "was considerably rarer in Egypt than gold."[25] Death and burial[edit] View of tomb NRT III showing where Shoshenq II was buried and discovered Dr. Derry's medical examination of Shoshenq II's mummy reveals that the king died as a result of a massive septic infection from a head wound.[26] The final resting place of Shoshenq II was certainly a reburial because he was found interred in the tomb of another king, Psusennes I of the Twenty-first Dynasty. Scientists have found evidence of plant growth on the base of Shoshenq II's coffin, which suggests that Shoshenq II's original tomb had become waterlogged,[27] hence a need to rebury him and his funerary equipment in another tomb. As Aidan Dodson writes: It is abundantly clear that the presence of Shoshenq II within NRT III (Psusennes I's tomb) was the result of a reburial. Apart from the presence of the [king's] coffinettes within an extremely mixed group of secondhand jars, the broken condition of the trough of the king's silver coffin showed that it had received rough handling in antiquity.[28] References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Shoshenq II. ^ [1] At the October 2007 Egyptological Conference on the History and Chronology of the Libyan Period in Egypt at Leiden University, the conference members voted unanimously to designate him as Shoshenq IIa. ^ Bob Brier, Egyptian Mummies: Unravelling the Secrets of an Ancient Art, William Morrow & Company Inc., New York, 1994. p.145 ^ Sheshonq II ^ Brier, p.144 ^ Peter A. Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt, Thames and Hudson, London, 1994. p.185 ^ Kenneth A. Kitchen, The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100–650 BC), 3rd edition: 1996, Aris & Phillips Ltd., p.117 ^ a b Karl Jansen-Winkeln, The Chronology of the Third Intermediate Period: Dyns 22-24 in 'Handbook of Egyptian Chronology,' ed. Rolf Krauss, Erik Hornung, David Warburton, Brill: 2005, p.237 ^ Douglas E. Derry, Note on the Remains of Shashanq, Annales du Service des Antiquités de l’Égypte 39 (1939), pp.549-551 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath, Chronologie des Pharaonischen Ägypten, Philipp von Zabern: Mainz am Rhein, (1997), pp.95 ^ Eva R. Lange, Ein Neuer König Schoschenk in Bubastis, Göttinger Miszellen 203 (2004), pp.65–72 ^ Aidan M. Dodson, The Canopic Equipment of the Kings of Egypt, Kegan Paul Intl: London, 1994. pp.90 & 92 ^ J. von Beckerath, p.98 ^ Norbert Dautzenberg, Bemerkungen zu Schoschenq II., Takeloth II. und Pedubastis II., Göttinger Miszellen 144 (1995), pp.21-29 ^ a b J. von Beckerath, pp.98 & 191 ^ Kitchen, pp.117–119 ^ Kitchen, p.110 ^ Kitchen, p.308 ^ Helen Jacquet-Gordon, book review of KA Kitchen's The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100–650 B.C.), Bibliotheca Orientalis 32 (1975), pp.358–359 ^ Jacquet-Gordon, pp.358–360 ^ Jacquet-Gordon, p.35 ^ Kitchen, p.117 ^ Kitchen, pp.117–118 ^ Rolf Krauss & David A. Warburton, Chronological Table for the Dynastic Period in 'Handbook of Egyptian Chronology,' ed. Rolf Krauss, Erik Hornung, David Warburton, Brill: 2005, p.493 ^ Thomas Schneider, Contributions to the Chronology of the New Kingdom and the Third Intermediate Period, Aegypte und Levante 20 (2010) p.403 ^ Christine Hobson, Exploring the World of the Pharaohs: A complete Guide to Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson 1987. p.123 ^ Derry, pp.549–551 ^ Derry, pp.549-551 ^ Dodson, p.89 Further reading[edit] Altenmüller, Hartwig. (2000). "Lederbänder und Lederanhänger von der Mumie des Chonsu-maacheru" and "Die Mumienbinden des Chonsu-maacheru" in Alt-Ägypten 30, pp. 73–76, 88–89, 102–114.[2] ISBN 3-86097-540-4 Guy Brunton, Some Notes on the Burial of Shashanq Heqa-Kheper-Re, Annales du Service des Antiquités de l'Égypte 39 (1939), 541-547 N. Dautzenberg, 'Bemerkungen zu Schoschenq II., Takeloth II. und Pedubastis II', Göttinger Miszellen 144 (1995), 21-29 D. E. Derry, Note on the Remains of Shashanq, Annales du Service des Antiquités de l'Égypte 39 (1939), 549-551 v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shoshenq_II&oldid=994412865" Categories: 885 BC deaths 9th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Ancient Egyptian mummies 9th century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Mirandés Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá Edit links This page was last edited on 15 December 2020, at 16:17 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4012	----	Xerxes I: Revision history - Wikipedia Help Xerxes I: Revision history View logs for this page (view filter log) Jump to navigation Jump to search Filter revisionsshowhideTo date: Tag filter: Show revisions External tools: Find addition/removal (Alternate) Find edits by user Page statistics Pageviews Fix dead links For any version listed below, click on its date to view it. For more help, see Help:Page history and Help:Edit summary. (cur) = difference from current version, (prev) = difference from preceding version,  m = minor edit, → = section edit, ← = automatic edit summary (newest | oldest) View (newer 50 | older 50) (20 | 50 | 100 | 250 | 500) curprev 18:19, 8 December 2020‎ HistoryofIran talk contribs‎ 45,138 bytes −293‎ rv, you might wanna read WP:RS, WP:CONSENSUS and WP:EDIT WARRING. Next time you will get reported Tag: Undo curprev 18:02, 8 December 2020‎ Pursuedbygod talk contribs‎ m 45,431 bytes +293‎ Clarifying statement. Tags: Visual edit Reverted curprev 17:48, 8 December 2020‎ HistoryofIran talk contribs‎ 45,138 bytes +1,687‎ rv, disruption Tag: Undo curprev 17:48, 8 December 2020‎ Pursuedbygod talk contribs‎ m 43,451 bytes −1,687‎ Edit is considered inaccurate an unhelpful. Continued reversions wby editor will result in a ban from editorial permissions. Tags: Visual edit Manual revert Reverted curprev 17:36, 8 December 2020‎ Materialscientist talk contribs‎ m 45,138 bytes +1,687‎ Reverted edits by Pursuedbygod (talk) (HG) (3.4.10) Tags: Rollback Reverted curprev 17:36, 8 December 2020‎ Pursuedbygod talk contribs‎ m 43,451 bytes −1,687‎ Editors continue to hack this page with misleading and inaccurate reference to Biblical history. Reversion was not supported with fact. The Holy Bible is considered to be historical fact. Reversion will trigger a ban from editorial permissions on Wikipedia. Tags: Visual edit Reverted curprev 16:30, 8 December 2020‎ पाटलिपुत्र talk contribs‎ 45,138 bytes +1,691‎ Undid revision 993062005 by Pursuedbygod (talk) referenced Tag: Undo curprev 16:22, 8 December 2020‎ Pursuedbygod talk contribs‎ 43,447 bytes −1,691‎ Inaccurate statements, as virtually the whole of Christendom believes in the inspired and historically accurate books of scriptural canon. Yes, there are elements and pockets who believe otherwise, but the statement as written is misleading at best, and intentionally offensive at worst. Tags: Visual edit Reverted curprev 17:33, 3 December 2020‎ Sitush talk contribs‎ 45,138 bytes −14‎ Undid revision 980426918 by Vilho-Veli (talk) rv sock of Risto hot sir - note current VPP discussion about Wikiquote linking Tag: Undo curprev 23:57, 28 November 2020‎ Monkbot talk contribs‎ m 45,152 bytes −893‎ Task 18 (cosmetic): eval 46 templates: del empty params (60×); hyphenate params (6×); del |ref=harv (14×); cvt lang vals (1×); Tag: AWB curprev 07:34, 21 November 2020‎ Citation bot talk contribs‎ 46,045 bytes −140‎ Alter: url. URLs might have been internationalized/anonymized. | You can use this bot yourself. Report bugs here. | Suggested by Abductive | All pages linked from cached copy of User:Abductive/sandbox | via #UCB_webform_linked 64/440 curprev 09:15, 6 November 2020‎ Neuroforever talk contribs‎ 46,185 bytes +285‎ Added an image. curprev 14:42, 3 November 2020‎ JHunterJ talk contribs‎ m 45,900 bytes +19‎ Disambiguating links to Argos (link changed to Argos, Peloponnese) using DisamAssist. curprev 15:57, 30 October 2020‎ Woody talk contribs‎ m 45,881 bytes 0‎ Changed protection level for "Xerxes I": Persistent disruptive editing ([Edit=Require autoconfirmed or confirmed access] (expires 15:57, 30 April 2021 (UTC)) [Move=Require administrator access] (indefinite)) curprev 15:30, 30 October 2020‎ HistoryofIran talk contribs‎ 45,881 bytes −345‎ Undid revision 986225979 by 136.32.72.191 (talk) Tag: Undo curprev 15:27, 30 October 2020‎ 136.32.72.191 talk‎ 46,226 bytes +345‎ Tag: Reverted curprev 15:37, 29 October 2020‎ Asartea talk contribs‎ m 45,881 bytes +1,798‎ Reverted edits by 2001:569:7EB8:ED00:B5A6:1710:37FA:1293 (talk): unexplained content removal (HG) (3.4.10) Tag: Rollback curprev 15:37, 29 October 2020‎ 2001:569:7eb8:ed00:b5a6:1710:37fa:1293 talk‎ 44,083 bytes −1,798‎ Tags: Manual revert Reverted curprev 15:35, 29 October 2020‎ Blablubbs talk contribs‎ m 45,881 bytes +1,798‎ Reverted edits by 2001:569:7EB8:ED00:B5A6:1710:37FA:1293 (talk): unexplained content removal (HG) (3.4.10) Tags: Rollback Reverted curprev 15:35, 29 October 2020‎ 2001:569:7eb8:ed00:b5a6:1710:37fa:1293 talk‎ 44,083 bytes −1,798‎ Tag: Reverted curprev 04:58, 29 October 2020‎ William Avery talk contribs‎ 45,881 bytes +65‎ Reverted 1 edit by 98.166.35.184 (talk): Historians don't consider it to be true Tags: Undo Twinkle curprev 03:59, 29 October 2020‎ 98.166.35.184 talk‎ 45,816 bytes −65‎ Fixed a biblical error. Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit Reverted curprev 02:37, 27 October 2020‎ ManlyMatt talk contribs‎ 45,881 bytes −3‎ →‎Consolidation of power: Typo Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit curprev 02:33, 27 October 2020‎ ManlyMatt talk contribs‎ 45,884 bytes 0‎ →‎Upbringing and education: Grammar correction Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit curprev 22:01, 26 October 2020‎ Donner60 talk contribs‎ m 45,884 bytes +1,677‎ Reverted edits by 24.227.200.120 (talk): original research (HG) (3.4.9) Tag: Rollback curprev 21:58, 26 October 2020‎ 24.227.200.120 talk‎ 44,207 bytes −1,677‎ The Bible is the inerrant, inspired word of God. As such, the Book of Esther is not fictional. Tags: references removed Reverted curprev 17:21, 24 October 2020‎ LizardJr8 talk contribs‎ m 45,884 bytes +473‎ Reverted edits by 108.31.119.133 (talk): disruptive edits (HG) (3.4.10) Tag: Rollback curprev 17:21, 24 October 2020‎ 108.31.119.133 talk‎ 45,411 bytes −473‎ →‎Parentage and birth Tag: Reverted curprev 07:24, 20 October 2020‎ 121.138.88.245 talk‎ 45,884 bytes +97‎ →‎Cultural depictions curprev 06:51, 20 October 2020‎ Kansas Bear talk contribs‎ 45,787 bytes +694‎ restored quotes Tag: Undo curprev 06:44, 20 October 2020‎ 2a02:c7f:7e79:d00:5592:4fc8:e341:1bd7 talk‎ 45,093 bytes −694‎ Tag: Reverted curprev 13:29, 19 October 2020‎ Materialscientist talk contribs‎ m 45,787 bytes +2‎ Reverted edits by 172.110.60.199 (talk) (HG) (3.4.10) Tag: Rollback curprev 13:26, 19 October 2020‎ 172.110.60.199 talk‎ 45,785 bytes −2‎ Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit Reverted curprev 22:49, 18 October 2020‎ HistoryofIran talk contribs‎ 45,787 bytes −12‎ Undid revision 984222284 by Edwin trinh14 (talk) Tag: Undo curprev 22:37, 18 October 2020‎ Edwin trinh14 talk contribs‎ 45,799 bytes +12‎ Tags: Visual edit Reverted curprev 19:21, 16 October 2020‎ Zzuuzz talk contribs‎ m 45,787 bytes +1,961‎ Reverted edits by 172.110.60.199 (talk) to last version by Zzuuzz Tag: Rollback curprev 19:20, 16 October 2020‎ 172.110.60.199 talk‎ 43,826 bytes −1,961‎ Epic hame Tags: Visual edit references removed Reverted curprev 19:20, 16 October 2020‎ Zzuuzz talk contribs‎ m 45,787 bytes +12,162‎ Reverted edits by 172.110.60.199 (talk) to last version by SigmaB Tag: Rollback curprev 19:19, 16 October 2020‎ 172.110.60.199 talk‎ 33,625 bytes −12,163‎ Epic gamer Tag: Reverted curprev 19:19, 16 October 2020‎ 172.110.60.199 talk‎ 45,788 bytes +1‎ Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit Reverted curprev 19:19, 16 October 2020‎ SigmaB talk contribs‎ m 45,787 bytes +23,205‎ Reverted 1 edit by 172.110.60.199 (talk) to last revision by HistoryofIran Tags: Undo Twinkle curprev 19:19, 16 October 2020‎ 172.110.60.199 talk‎ 22,582 bytes −23,205‎ Epic Tags: blanking Reverted curprev 01:07, 14 October 2020‎ HistoryofIran talk contribs‎ 45,787 bytes −642‎ rv, look at the articles history, seriously, this has been reverted too many times. Source states that he was fictional, what parts of the book that may have been legit or not is irrelevant. Not to mention linking a Wikipedia article as some of sort of citation is not how it works. Stop this. Tag: Manual revert curprev 00:44, 14 October 2020‎ Edwin trinh14 talk contribs‎ 46,429 bytes +103‎ →‎Cultural depictions Tags: Visual edit Reverted curprev 00:40, 14 October 2020‎ Edwin trinh14 talk contribs‎ 46,326 bytes +539‎ Tags: Visual edit Reverted curprev 03:41, 10 October 2020‎ Mercury McKinnon talk contribs‎ 45,787 bytes −29‎ trim repetition of preceding sentence curprev 10:54, 8 October 2020‎ पाटलिपुत्र talk contribs‎ 45,816 bytes +1,677‎ Undid revision 982439734 by 129.59.122.23 (talk) referenced Tag: Undo curprev 04:36, 8 October 2020‎ 129.59.122.23 talk‎ 44,139 bytes −1,677‎ Stated religious opinion as fact in a way that was irrelevant to the article. Tags: Visual edit references removed Reverted curprev 18:20, 7 October 2020‎ MusikBot II talk contribs‎ m 45,816 bytes −17‎ removing {{pp}} as page is not edit-protected (more info) curprev 18:14, 7 October 2020‎ LogicalReasons talk contribs‎ m 45,833 bytes −2‎ Tag: Visual edit (newest | oldest) View (newer 50 | older 50) (20 | 50 | 100 | 250 | 500) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_I" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Atom Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4015	----	Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef - Wikipedia Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Sarcophagus of Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef, Louvre Museum Pharaoh Reign c.1573?–1571 BC[1] (17th Dynasty of Egypt) Predecessor Sobekemsaf II Successor Nubkheperre Intef Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sekhemre-Wepmaat Sḫm-Rˁ-wp-m3ˁt Mighty like Re, he who judges righteously Nomen Intef Aa Jnj jt=f ˁ3 His father brought him, the great Horus name Wep-maat Wp-m3ˁt He who judges righteously Father Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef (or Antef, Inyotef) was an Egyptian king of the Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt, who lived late during the Second Intermediate Period, when Egypt was divided into two by Hyksos controlled Lower Egypt and Theban ruled Upper Egypt. Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef is sometimes referred to as Intef V,[2][3] and sometimes as Intef VI.[4] His nomen, Intef-aa, translates as "His father brought him, the great" or "Intef, the great."[5] He ruled from Thebes and was probably buried in a tomb in the necropolis. His rishi coffin, Louvre E 3019, was discovered in the 19th century and found to preserve an inscription which reveals that this king's brother Nubkheperre Intef buried – and thus succeeded – him.[6] Canopic chest of Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef, Musée du Louvre. Both Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef and Nubkheperre Intef were sons of a king called Sobekemsaf, most probably Sekhemre Shedtawy Sobekemsaf (Sobekemsaf II today, not I) based on an inscription from a doorjamb from a 17th Dynasty temple at Gebel Antef.[7] While his own tomb has not been located, it was likely located in the area of Dra' Abu el-Naga' where the pyramid tomb of his brother Nubkheperre Intef was found in 2001.[8] The pyramidion of the pyramid of Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef's pyramid was found in Dra' Abu el-Naga'. It has a slope of 60 degrees and is inscribed with this king's names.[2] The pyramidion is now in the British Museum (BM EA 478).[9] References[edit] ^ Kim Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, CNI Publications, Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, p.204 ^ a b Lehner, Mark. The Complete Pyramids. Thames & Hudson. 2008 (reprint). ISBN 978-0-500-28547-3 ^ Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004. ISBN 0-500-05128-3 ^ Chris Bennett, A Genealogical Chronology of the Seventeenth Dynasty, Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, Vol. 39 (2002), pp. 123–155 JSTOR (Bennett quotes Beckerath as also referring to this king as Intef VI.) ^ Intef Wepmaat Titulary Archived 2011-11-24 at the Wayback Machine ^ Kim Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, CNI Publications, Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, p.270 ^ Ryholt, p.270 ^ Thomas Schneider, "The Relative Chronology of the Middle Kingdom and the Hyksos Period (Dyns. 12-17)" in Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss & David Warburton (editors), Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies), Brill, 2006. p.187 ^ Dodson, Aidan. The Tomb in Ancient Egypt. Thames and Hudson. 2008. p 208, ISBN 9780500051399 Preceded by Sobekemsaf II Pharaoh of Egypt Seventeenth Dynasty Succeeded by Nubkheperre Intef External links[edit] Sekhemre Wepmaat's titulary v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sekhemre-Wepmaat_Intef&oldid=995911786" Categories: 16th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Català Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى 日本語 Polski Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 December 2020, at 15:16 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4041	----	Book sources - Wikipedia Book sources Jump to navigation Jump to search This page allows users to search for multiple sources for a book given the 10- or 13-digit ISBN number. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN number do not matter. Search for book sourcesISBN: Search Wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources For assistance, see Help:ISBN. This page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its International Standard Book Number (ISBN). If you arrived at this page by clicking an ISBN link in a Wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. To search for a different book, type that book's individual ISBN into this ISBN search box. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. 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Contents 1 Online text 2 Online databases 3 Subscription eBook databases 4 Libraries 4.1 Worldwide 4.2 Africa 4.2.1 Nigeria 4.2.2 South Africa 4.2.3 Zimbabwe 4.3 Central America and the Caribbean 4.3.1 Barbados 4.3.2 Guatemala 4.3.3 Jamaica 4.3.4 Mexico 4.3.5 Trinidad and Tobago 4.4 Canada 4.4.1 Public libraries 4.4.2 Universities and colleges 4.5 United States 4.5.1 Public libraries by state 4.5.2 Universities and colleges 4.6 South America 4.6.1 Argentina 4.6.2 Brazil 4.6.3 Colombia 4.6.4 Ecuador 4.7 Asia 4.7.1 Bangladesh 4.7.2 China, People's Republic 4.7.3 Hong Kong, S.A.R. of China 4.7.4 India 4.7.5 Indonesia 4.7.6 Iran 4.7.7 Israel 4.7.8 Japan 4.7.9 Korea 4.7.10 Malaysia 4.7.11 Philippines 4.7.11.1 Universities and colleges 4.7.11.2 Other libraries 4.7.12 Singapore 4.7.13 Taiwan, Republic of China 4.7.14 Thailand 4.8 Australasia and Oceania 4.8.1 Australia 4.8.1.1 Public libraries 4.8.1.2 Academic libraries 4.8.2 New Zealand 4.8.2.1 Public libraries 4.8.2.2 Academic libraries 4.9 Europe 4.9.1 Austria 4.9.2 Belgium 4.9.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.9.4 Croatia 4.9.5 Czech Republic 4.9.6 Denmark 4.9.7 Estonia 4.9.8 Finland 4.9.9 France 4.9.10 Germany 4.9.11 Greece 4.9.12 Hungary 4.9.13 Iceland 4.9.14 Ireland 4.9.15 Italy 4.9.16 Luxembourg 4.9.17 Montenegro 4.9.18 Netherlands 4.9.19 Norway 4.9.20 Poland 4.9.21 Portugal 4.9.22 Russia 4.9.23 Serbia 4.9.24 Slovenia 4.9.25 Spain 4.9.26 Sweden 4.9.27 Switzerland 4.9.28 Turkey 4.9.29 United Kingdom 4.9.29.1 Public libraries 4.9.29.2 Universities 5 Bookselling and swapping 5.1 Price comparison sites 5.2 Search many booksellers 5.3 Individual booksellers 5.4 Book-swapping websites 6 Non-English book sources 7 Bibliographical information 8 Find other editions 9 Find on Wikipedia 10 See also Online text Find this book on Google Books Find this book at the Open Library Find this book on Amazon.com (or .au, .br, .ca, .cn, .de, .es, .fr, .in, .it, .jp, .mx, .nl, .uk). 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en-wikipedia-org-4058	----	Khafre - Wikipedia Khafre From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Egyptian pharaoh of 4th dynasty This article is about the Egyptian pharaoh. For the encryption algorithm, see Khufu and Khafre. Khafre Khefren, Suphis II, Saophis Alabaster statue of Khafre, probably from Memphis, now in the Egyptian Museum at Cairo. Pharaoh Reign About 26 years, ca. 2570 BC[1] (4th Dynasty) Predecessor Djedefre Successor Bikheris (?), Menkaure Royal titulary Nomen Khafre Sȝ Rˁ Ḫʿj-f-Rʿ Son of Ra, he appears like Ra Horus name Hor-User-ib Wsr-jb Strong heart of Horus Nebty name User-im-nebti Wsr-m-nb.tj Strong for the Two Ladies Golden Horus Netjer-nub-sekhem Nṯr-nb.w-sḫm Powerful golden falcon Abydos King List Khafre Ḫʿj-f-Rʿ He appears like Ra Saqqara Tablet Khafre Ḫʿj-f-Rʿ He appears like Ra Consort Meresankh III, Khamerernebty I, Persenet, Hekenuhedjet Children Nebemakhet, Duaenre, Niuserre, Khentetka, Shepsetkau, Menkaure, Khamerernebty II, Sekhemkare, Nikaure, Ankhmare, Akhre, Iunmin, Iunre, Rekhetre, and Hemetre Father Khufu Mother Meritites I or Henutsen Burial Pyramid of Khafre Monuments Pyramid of Khafre Khafre (also read as Khafra and Greek: Χεφρήν Khephren or Chephren) was an ancient Egyptian king (pharaoh) of the 4th Dynasty during the Old Kingdom. He was the son of Khufu and the throne successor of Djedefre. According to the ancient historian Manetho, Khafre was followed by king Bikheris, but according to archaeological evidence he was instead followed by king Menkaure. Khafre was the builder of the second largest pyramid of Giza. The view held by modern Egyptology at large continues to be that the Great Sphinx was built in approximately 2500 BC for Khafre.[2] Not much is known about Khafre, except from the historical reports of Herodotus, writing 2,000 years after his life, who describes him as a cruel ruler who kept the Egyptian temples closed after Khufu had sealed them. Contents 1 Family 2 Reign 3 Pyramid complex 3.1 Valley Temple 3.2 Mortuary Temple 3.3 Great Sphinx and Sphinx temple 4 Khafre in ancient Greek traditions 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Family[edit] See also: Fourth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Cartouche name Kha'afre in the Abydos King List Khafre was a son of king Khufu and the brother and successor of Djedefre.[3] Khafre is thought by some to be the son of Queen Meritites I due to an inscription where he is said to honor her memory. Kings-wife, his beloved, devoted to Horus, Mertitytes. King's-wife, his beloved, Mertitytes; beloved of the Favorite of the Two Goddesses; she who says anything whatsoever and it is done for her. Great in the favor of Snefr[u] ; great in the favor of Khuf[u], devoted to Horus, honored under Khafre. Merti[tyt]es. [Breasted; Ancient Records] Others argue that the inscription just suggests that this queen died during the reign of Khafre.[4] Khafre may be a son of Queen Henutsen instead.[5] Khafre had several wives and he had at least 12 sons and 3 or 4 daughters. Queen Meresankh III was the daughter of Kawab and Hetepheres II and thus a niece of Khafre. She was the mother of Khafre's sons Nebemakhet, Duaenre, Niuserre and Khentetka, and a daughter named Shepsetkau. Queen Khamerernebty I was the mother of Menkaure and his principal queen Khamerernebty II. Hekenuhedjet was a wife of Khafre. She is mentioned in the tomb of her son Sekhemkare. Persenet may have been a wife of Khafre based on the location of her tomb. She was the mother of Nikaure.[3] Other children of Khafre are known, but no mothers have been identified. Further sons include Ankhmare, Akhre, Iunmin, and Iunre. Two more daughters named Rekhetre and Hemetre are known as well.[3] Reign[edit] King Khafre. In Ägyptisches Museum Georg Steindorff, Leipzig There is no agreement on the date of his reign. Some authors say it was between 2558 BC and 2532 BC. While the Turin King List length for his reign is blank, and Manetho exaggerates his reign as 66 years, most scholars believe it was between 24 and 26 years, based upon the date of the Will of Prince Nekure which was carved on the walls of this Prince's mastaba tomb. The will is dated anonymously to the Year of the 12th Count and is assumed to belong to Khufu since Nekure was his son. Khafre's highest year date is the "Year of the 13th occurrence" which is a painted date on the back of a casing stone belonging to mastaba G 7650.[6] This would imply a reign of 24–25 years for this king if the cattle count was biannual during the Fourth Dynasty. Pyramid complex[edit] Lantern Slide Collection: Views, Objects: Egypt. Gizeh [selected images]. View 07: Egyptian - Old Kingdom. Plan of Temple of Khephren. Gizeh, 4th Dyn., n.d. Brooklyn Museum Archives Khafre's Pyramid and the Great Sphinx. Main article: Pyramid of Khafre Khafre built the second largest pyramid at Giza. The Egyptian name of the pyramid was Wer(en)-Khafre which means "Khafre is Great".[7] The pyramid has a subsidiary pyramid, labeled GII a. It is not clear who was buried there. Sealings have been found of a King's eldest son of his body etc. and the Horus name of Khafre.[7] Valley Temple[edit] The valley temple of Khafre was located closer to the Nile and would have stood right next to the Sphinx temple. Inscriptions from the entrance way have been found which mention Hathor and Bubastis. Blocks have been found showing the partial remains of an inscription with the Horus name of Khafre (Weser-ib). Mariette discovered statues of Khafre in 1860. Several were found in a well in the floor and were headless. But other complete statues were found as well.[7] Mortuary Temple[edit] The mortuary temple was located very close to the pyramid. From the mortuary temple come fragments of maceheads inscribed with Khafre's name as well as some stone vessels.[7] Great Sphinx and Sphinx temple[edit] The sphinx is said to date to the time of Khafre. This is supported by the proximity of the sphinx to Khafre's pyramid temple complex, and a certain resemblance (despite damage) to the facial structure seen in his statues. The Great Sphinx of Giza may have been carved out as a guardian of Khafre's pyramid, and as a symbol of royal power. It became deified during the time of the New Kingdom.[8] Khafre in ancient Greek traditions[edit] Khafre Enthroned, a funerary statue of Khafre in diorite. Egyptian Museum in Cairo The ancient Egyptian historian Manetho called Khafre “Sûphis II.” and credited him with a rulership of 66 years, but didn't make any further comments about him.[9][10][11][12] The ancient Greek historians Diodorus and Herodotus instead depicted Khafre as a heretic and cruel tyrant: They were writing 2,000 years after his time that Khafre (whom they both called "Khêphren") followed his father Khêops on the throne, after the megalomaniac despot had died. Then Herodotus and Diodorus say that Khafre ruled for 56 years and that the Egyptians had to suffer under him like under his father before. Since Khufu was said to have ruled for 50 years, the authors claim that the poor Egyptians had to suffer under both kings for altogether 106 years.[9][10][11] But then they describe a king Menkaure (whom they call "Mykerînós") as the follower of Khafre and that this king was the counterpart of his two predecessors: Herodotus describes Menkaure as being saddened and disappointed about Khufu's and Khafre's cruelty and that Menkaure brought peace and piety back to Egypt.[9][10][11] Modern Egyptologists evaluate Herodotus's and Diodorus's stories as some sort of defamation, based on both authors' contemporary philosophy. Oversized tombs such as the Giza pyramids must have appalled the Greeks, and even the later priests of the New Kingdom because they surely remembered the heretic pharaoh Akhenaten and his megalomaniacal building projects. This extremely negative picture was obviously projected onto Khafre and his daunting pyramid. This view was possibly promoted by the fact that during Khafre's lifetime the authority to give permission for the creation of oversized statues made of precious stone and for their display in open places in public was restricted to the king only. In their eras, the Greek authors and mortuary priests and temple priests couldn't explain the impressive monuments and statues of Khafre as anything other than the result of a megalomaniacal character. These views and resulting stories were avidly snapped up by the Greek historians and so they made their also negative evaluations about Khafre, since scandalous stories were easier to sell to the public than positive (and therefore boring) tales.[9][10][11][12] References[edit] ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, page 102. ^ "Sphinx Project: Why Sequence is Important". 2007. Archived from the original on July 26, 2010. Retrieved February 27, 2015. ^ a b c Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004. ISBN 0-500-05128-3 ^ Grajetzki, Ancient Egyptian Queens: A Hieroglyphic Dictionary, Golden House Publications, London, 2005, ISBN 978-0-9547218-9-3 ^ Tyldesley, Joyce. Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2006. ISBN 0-500-05145-3 ^ Anthony Spalinger, Dated Texts of the Old Kingdom, SAK 21 (1994), p.287 ^ a b c d Porter, Bertha and Moss, Rosalind, Topographical Bibliography of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphic Texts, Statues, Reliefs and Paintings Volume III: Memphis, Part I Abu Rawash to Abusir. 2nd edition (revised and augmented by Dr Jaromir Malek, 1974. Retrieved from gizapyramids.org Archived 2008-10-11 at the Wayback Machine ^ Markowitz, Haynes, Freed (2002). Egypt in the Age of the Pyramids.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ a b c d Siegfried Morenz: Traditionen um Cheops. In: Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde, vol. 97, Berlin 1971, ISSN 0044-216X, page 111–118. ^ a b c d Dietrich Wildung: Die Rolle ägyptischer Könige im Bewußtsein ihrer Nachwelt. Band 1: Posthume Quellen über die Könige der ersten vier Dynastien (= Münchener Ägyptologische Studien. Bd. 17). Hessling, Berlin 1969, page 152–192. ^ a b c d Wolfgang Helck: Geschichte des Alten Ägypten (= Handbuch der Orientalistik, vol. 1.; Chapter 1: Der Nahe und der Mittlere Osten, vol 1.). BRILL, Leiden 1968, ISBN 9004064974, page 23–25 & 54–62. ^ a b Aidan Dodson: Monarchs of the Nile. American Univ in Cairo Press, 2000, ISBN 9774246004, page 29–34. Further reading[edit] James H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, Part I, §§ 192, (1906) on 'The Will of Nekure'. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Khafra. Khefren (Khafre) Read more and view photos and video of the Pyramid of Khafre at Talking Pyramids v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 118675737 NKC: ola2002100659 VIAF: 50019346 WorldCat Identities: viaf-50019346 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khafre&oldid=999262499" Categories: Khafre 26th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt 3rd-millennium BC births 3rd-millennium BC deaths Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Place of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية বাংলা Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 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en-wikipedia-org-4064	----	Semenre - Wikipedia Semenre From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Semenre Smenre, Semenenre Axehead with the name of Semenre, Petrie Museum UC30079[1] Ruler of Upper Egypt Reign ca. 1600 BC or 1580 BC (16th Dynasty or 17th Dynasty) Predecessor Nebiriau II Successor Bebiankh Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Semenre s.mn-rˁ[2] Turin Canon Semenenre Smn-n-Rˁ[3] He who is established by Ra Semenre, also Smenre[1] or Semenenre,[3] is a poorly attested Theban pharaoh during the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt who succeeded the equally obscure Nebiriau II.[3][4] He reigned from 1601 to 1600 BC (Kim Ryholt)[4] or ca. 1580 BC (Detlef Franke) and belonged to the 16th Dynasty (Ryholt)[4] or the 17th Dynasty[1] (Franke). For this ruler only the throne name is known, carved on a tin-bronze axe head of unknown provenance, now in the Petrie Museum, London (UC30079). He is possibly also listed on the Turin Canon (11.7).[1] Semenre was succeeded by Seuserenre Bebiankh[3][4] who left behind more traces of building projects and mining activity in his reign than most kings of this dynasty with the exception of Djehuti.[5] References[edit] ^ a b c d Davies, V.W. (1981). "Two inscribed objects from the Petrie Museum". Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 67: 175–178. ^ Ryholt 1997, p. 450 ^ a b c d von Beckerath 1984, pp. 126-27 ^ a b c d Ryholt 1997, p. 202 ^ Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Egyptian Pharaohs, Volume I: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty (3300-1069 BC), Bannerstone Press, London 2008, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, p. 375. Ryholt, Kim (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. von Beckerath, Jürgen (1984). Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen. München-Berlin: Deutscher Kunstverlag. ISBN 3422008322. Preceded by Nebiriau II Pharaoh of Egypt Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt Succeeded by Bebiankh v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Semenre&oldid=992453424" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs 16th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ancient Egypt people stubs Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages አማርኛ العربية Català Deutsch Español Euskara Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Русский Slovenščina Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 5 December 2020, at 10:13 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4073	----	Hsekiu - Wikipedia Hsekiu From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Hsekiu Seka Closeup of the Palermo Stone. Hsekiu is the no. 2 Pharaoh Reign Unknown (Predynastic Period) Successor Khayu? Royal titulary Seka in hieroglyphs [1] Seka Hsekiu,[2] alternatively Seka, is mentioned in the Palermo Stone as a Predynastic Egyptian pharaoh (king) who ruled in Lower Egypt. As there is no other evidence of such a ruler, he may be a mythical king preserved through oral tradition, or may even be completely fictitious.[3][4][5] References[edit] ^ From: Palermo Stone ^ Peake, Harold and Herbert John Fleure, Priests and Kings, Clarendon OUP, Oxford, 1927, p. 63 ^ Helck, Untersuchungen zu Manetho und den ägyptischen Königslisten 1956, Berlin: Akademie-Verlag. Untersuchungen zur Geschichte und Altertumskunde Ägyptens 18 ^ O'Mara, Was there an Old Kingdom historiography? Is it datable? 1996, Orientalia 65: 197-208 ^ Wilkinson, Toby A. H. (2000). Royal Annals of Ancient Egypt. p.85 New York: Columbia University Press). ISBN 0-7103-0667-9. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hsekiu&oldid=993401949" Categories: 32nd-century BC Pharaohs People whose existence is disputed Pharaohs only mentioned in the Palermo Stone Ancient Egypt people stubs Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Bosanski Català Deutsch Español فارسی Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Bahasa Melayu Polski Português Română Русский සිංහල Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 December 2020, at 12:36 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4082	----	Khayu - Wikipedia Khayu From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Khayu Closeup of the Palermo Stone. Khayu is the no. 3 Pharaoh Reign Unknown (Predynastic Period) Predecessor Hsekiu? Successor Tiu? Royal titulary Khayu in hieroglyphs [1] Khayu Ḫꜣjw Khayu is mentioned in the Palermo Stone as a Predynastic Egyptian king who ruled in Lower Egypt. As there is no other evidence of such a ruler, he may be a mythical king preserved through oral tradition,[2] or may even be completely fictitious.[3][4] References[edit] ^ From: Palermo Stone ^ Helck, Untersuchungen zu Manetho und den ägyptischen Königslisten 1956, Berlin: Akademie-Verlag. Untersuchungen zur Geschichte und Altertumskunde Ägyptens 18 ^ O'Mara, Was there an Old Kingdom historiography? Is it datable? 1996, Orientalia 65: 197-208 ^ Wilkinson, Toby A. H. (2000). Royal Annals of Ancient Egypt. p.85 New York: Columbia University Press). ISBN 0-7103-0667-9. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khayu&oldid=993410771" Categories: Pharaohs only mentioned in the Palermo Stone People whose existence is disputed Ancient Egypt people stubs Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Deutsch Español فارسی Bahasa Indonesia ქართული Magyar مصرى Bahasa Melayu Polski Português Русский සිංහල Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Suomi Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 December 2020, at 13:50 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4091	----	Nubnefer - Wikipedia Nubnefer From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Nubnefer in hieroglyphs Reign: unknown Predecessor: unknown Successor: unknown Nisut-Bity Nubnefer nsw.t-btj nwb-nfr Birth name Nubnefer is the birth name of a king (pharaoh) who may have ruled during the 2nd Dynasty of Ancient Egypt. The exact length of his reign is unknown and his chronological position is unclear. Contents 1 Name sources 2 Identity 3 References 4 External links Name sources[edit] Fragment of black schist presenting Nubnefer´s name beside the building ″Menti Ankh″ (left). The name "Nubnefer" appears on two black stone vessel fragments found in the Southern Galleries in the necropolis of king Djoser (3rd Dynasty) at Sakkara, mentioning a building called "Menti-Ankh" ("Life may endure"), which was founded during the reign of king Nynetjer. Therefore, Egyptologists such as Peter Kaplony, Jochem Kahl and Francesco Tiradritti believe that Nubnefer's reign should be chronologically set close to that of Nynetjer. Nubnefer's name does not appear in any further contemporary or posthumous document.[1][2] Identity[edit] Egyptologists such as Battiscombe Gunn and Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards believe that the name "Nubnefer" could be the birth name of king Raneb. In contrast egyptologists such as Wolfgang Helck and Toby Wilkinson think that Nubnefer was the immediate successor of Nynetjer. Peter Kaplony identifies Nubnefer as a king who have ruled between the kings Wadjenes and Senedj.[1][3][4][5] References[edit] ^ a b Peter Kaplony: A building named Menti-Ankh. In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Kairo, vol. 20. Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Orient-Abteilung (Hrsg.). de Gruyter, Berlin 1965, page 41–46. ^ Pierre Lacau & Jan-Phillip Lauer: La Pyramide à Degrés IV. – Inscriptions gravées sur les Vases: Fouilles à Saqqarah. Service des antiquités de l’Égypte, Cairo 1936, Table IV. ^ I. E. S. Edwards: The early dynastic period in Egypt; Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1964; page 25. ^ And egyptologist Wolfgang Helck: Datierungen der Gefäßaufschriften aus der Djoser-Pyramide. In: Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertum, vol. 106. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1979, page 120–132. ^ Toby Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt: Strategy, Society and Security. Routledge, London 1999, ISBN 0-415-18633-1, page 89. External links[edit] Francesco Raffaele: Nwbnefer, Neferkara and Neferkaseker v t e Second Dynasty of Ancient Egypt Attested pharaohs Hotepsekhemwy Nebra Weneg Nynetjer Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Khasekhemwy Obscure pharaoh names Horus Ba Ba Horus Sa Hudjefa I Neferkara I Neferkasokar Nubnefer Senedj Sneferka Wadjenes Queen consort Nimaathap Other royals Khenmetptah Satkhnum Sehener Shepset-ipet Wadjitefni (Mesen-ka) Pehen-Ptah Nisuheqet Nefer-Setekh Monument Gisr el-Mudir Capital Thinis v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nubnefer&oldid=995691155" Categories: 28th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Second Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation 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en-wikipedia-org-4104	----	Pharnaces II of Phrygia - Wikipedia Pharnaces II of Phrygia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Pharnacid dynasty (Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia) c.550–497 BC (Pharnaces) c.480–455 BC Artabazus I c.455–430 BC Pharnabazus I c.430–420 BC Pharnaces II c.413–374 BC Pharnabazus II c.407–362 BC Ariobarzanes c.389–329 BC Artabazus II c.370–320 BC Pharnabazus III v t e Pharnaces II (Old Iranian: Farnaka; fl. 430 BCE - 422 BCE) ruled the satrapy of Hellespontine Phrygia under the Achaemenid Dynasty of Persia. Hellespontine Phrygia (Greek: Ἑλλησποντιακὴ Φρυγία) comprised the lands of Troad, Mysia and Bithynia and had its seat at Daskyleion, south of Cyzicus, Mysia (near modern-day Erdek, Balıkesir Province, Turkey). His grandfather, Artabazos I of Phrygia, was the founder of the Pharnacid dynasty. Pharnaces II followed as satrap either upon the death of his father, Pharnabazus I, or directly upon the death of his grandfather. He was succeeded by his son Pharnabazus II. Coinage of Hellespontine Phrygia at the time of Pharnaces II, Kyzikos, Mysia, circa 460-400 BC Coinage of Hellespontine Phrygia at the time of Pharnaces II, Kyzikos, Mysia, circa 450-400 BC See also[edit] Pharnacid Dynasty v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC This Achaemenid biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pharnaces_II_of_Phrygia&oldid=1002466323" Categories: 422 BC deaths Achaemenid satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia 5th-century BC Iranian people Pharnacid dynasty Achaemenid people stubs Hidden categories: Year of birth missing All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Hrvatski مصرى 日本語 Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 16:22 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4107	----	Teos of Egypt - Wikipedia Teos of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Teos Djedhor, Djedher, Tachos, Takhos Fragment of a faience saucer inscribed with the name of Teos. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London Pharaoh Reign 361/0–359/8 BCE[1][2] (30th Dynasty) Coregency Three years with Nectanebo I Predecessor Nectanebo I Successor Nectanebo II Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Irimaatenre Jrj-m3ˁt-n-Rˁ Carrying out the Justice of Ra Nomen Djedhor Setep-en-inhuret Ḏd Ḥr stp n jnj ḥrt Horus Says [he will live], Chosen of Anhur[3] Horus name Khaemmaat Seshemtawy ḫ3j-m-M3ˁt-sšm-t3wj Who appears as Maat, Leader of the Two Lands Nebty name Merymaat Sahperunetjeru Mrj-M3ˁt-s3ḫ-prw-nṯrw Golden Horus Khubaqet Wafkhasut ḫwj-b3qt-w3f-ḫ3swt The ruling king who destroys foreign countries Children Khedebneithirbinet II(?)[4] Father Nectanebo I Djedhor, better known as Teos (Ancient Greek: Τέως) or Tachos (Ancient Greek: Τάχως), was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 30th Dynasty. Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Expedition against Persians 1.2 Betrayal and end 2 Sources 3 Bibliography 4 External links Biography[edit] A son of his predecessor Nectanebo I, Teos was his co-regent for three years[5] before ascending to the throne in 361/0 BCE. Expedition against Persians[edit] Nectanebo's success in the Nile Delta against the invading Persian armies in 374/3 BCE encouraged Teos to start to plan a military expedition into Palestine and Phoenicia, which were territories controlled by the Persians. Taking advantage of a moment of weakness for the Achaemenid Empire due to riots in some satrapies in Asia Minor, Teos sought assistance from both the octogenarian king Agesilaus II of Sparta and the Athenian general Chabrias, including a number of mercenaries and 200 triremes, from Greece.[6] However, to finance such an expedition, Teos had to impose new taxes and to expropriate the goods of the temples, destroying the delicate balance artfully established by his father Nectanebo. This action ensured to Teos both the required finances and a great unpopularity.[7][8][9] Athenian General Chabrias (left) with Spartan king Agesilaus (center), in the service of Egyptian king Nectanebo I and his regent Teos, Egypt 361 BCE. The operation against the Persians started with Chabrias as the admiral of the fleet, Agesilaus as the commander of the Greek mercenaries and Teos' nephew Nakhthorheb as the leader of the machimoi (Diodorus Siculus, certainly exaggerating, claimed that the machimoi were 80,000 in number[10]). Teos placed himself in the supreme command of the expedition (the position claimed by Agesilaus) leaving his brother Tjahapimu, the father of Nakhthorheb, in Egypt as his regent. The expedition made its way to Phoenicia without particular problems.[11][9] Betrayal and end[edit] Teos, cartouche fragment Unfortunately for Teos, his brother Tjahapimu was plotting against him. Taking advantage of Teos' unpopularity, and with the support of the priestly classes, Tjahapimu convinced his son Nakhthorheb to rebel against Teos and to make himself pharaoh. Nakhthorheb persuaded Agesilaus to join his side by taking advantage of the several disagreements that had arisen between the Spartan king and the pharaoh. Nakhthorheb was acclaimed pharaoh – better known today as Nectanebo II – and the betrayed Teos had no alternative but to flee to Susa, the court of his enemies.[11][9] Knowledge of the final fate of Teos comes from the inscription by a noble called Wennefer, who also participated in Teos' unfortunate expedition as a physician. Wennefer was sent by Nectanebo II in search of Teos and managed to have him held by the Persian king Artaxerxes II at Susa. Wennefer then had Teos brought back with him in chains to the Egyptian pharaoh.[8] Sources[edit] ^ Lloyd 1994, p. 358. ^ Depuydt 2006, p. 270. ^ Late Period Dynasty 30: Teos accessed January 22, 2007 ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004. ^ Lloyd 1994, p. 341. ^ Lloyd 1994, pp. 348–349. ^ Lloyd 1994, p. 343. ^ a b Wilkinson 2010, pp. 457–59. ^ a b c Grimal 1992, pp. 377–378. ^ Lloyd 1994, p. 342. ^ a b Lloyd 1994, p. 341; 349. Bibliography[edit] Depuydt, Leo (2006). "Saite and Persian Egypt, 664 BC - 332 BC". In Hornung, Erik; Krauss, Rolf; Warburton, David A. (eds.). Ancient Egyptian Chronology. Brill, Leiden/Boston. pp. 265–283. ISBN 978 90 04 11385 5. Dodson, Aidan; Hilton, Dyan (2004). The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames & Hudson Ltd. ISBN 0-500-05128-3. Grimal, Nicolas (1992). A History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Blackwell Books. ISBN 9780631174721. Lloyd, Alan B. (1994). "Egypt, 404–322 B.C.". In Lewis, D.M.; Boardman, John; Hornblower, Simon; et al. (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History (2nd ed.), vol. VI – The Fourth Century B.C. Cambridge University Press. pp. 337–360. ISBN 0 521 23348 8. Wilkinson, Toby (2010). The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt. London: Bloomsbury. ISBN 978 1 4088 10026. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Teos. Livius.org: Teos Preceded by Nectanebo I Pharaoh of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty Succeeded by Nectanebo II v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Teos_of_Egypt&oldid=992483175" Categories: 4th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt 4th-century BC Egyptian people Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help 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en-wikipedia-org-4112	----	Ahura Mazda - Wikipedia Ahura Mazda From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Ahuramazda) Jump to navigation Jump to search Highest deity of Zoroastrianism "Ormuzd" redirects here. For the kingdom of Ohrmuzd, see Ormus. "Hormazd", "Hormozd", and "Hurmuzd" redirect here. For persons with these names, such as several Sasanian kings, see Hormizd. Ahura Mazda Lord of Wisdom Sassanid relief at Naqsh-e Rostam showing Ahura Mazda presenting the diadem of sovereignty to Ardashir I Affiliation Zoroastrianism Region Greater Iran Personal information Siblings Ahriman Part of a series on Zoroastrianism Atar (fire), a primary symbol of Zoroastrianism Primary topics Ahura Mazda Zarathustra Asha Vohu Manah Persia/Iran Faravahar Avestan Divine entities Amesha Spentas Yazatas Ahuras Daevas Angra Mainyu Scripture and worship Adur Burzen-Mihr Adur Gushnasp Avesta Cypress of Kashmar Gathas Yasna Vendidad Visperad Yashts Khordeh Avesta The Revayats Ab-Zohr Ashem Vohu Ahuna Vairya Yenghe hatam Airyaman ishya Fire Temples 101 Names of Ahura Mazda Accounts and legends Dēnkard Bundahišn Book of Arda Viraf Book of Jamasp Story of Sanjan Chinvat Bridge Frashokereti History and culture Zurvanism Mazdakism Khurramites Calendar Festivals Marriage Burial Adherents Zoroastrians in India Zoroastrians in Iran Parsis Zoroastrianism in the United States Iranis Persecution of Zoroastrians Related topics Criticism of Zoroastrianism  Religion portal v t e Part of a series on God General conceptions Agnosticism Apatheism Atheism Deism Henotheism Ietsism Ignosticism Monotheism Monism Dualism Monolatry Kathenotheism Omnism Pandeism Panentheism Pantheism Polytheism Theism Transtheism Specific conceptions Creator Demiurge Deus Father Form of the Good Great Architect Monad Mother Summum bonum Supreme Being Sustainer The All The Lord Trinity Tawhid Ditheism Monism Personal Unitarianism In particular religions Abrahamic Judaism Christianity Islam Bahá'í Mormonism Indo-Iranian Hinduism Buddhism Jainism Sikhism Zoroastrianism Chinese Tian Shangdi Hongjun Laozu Attributes Eternalness Existence Gender Names ("God") Omnibenevolence Omnipotence Omnipresence Omniscience Experiences Practices Belief Esotericism Faith Fideism Gnosis Hermeticism Metaphysics Mysticism Prayer Revelation Worship Related topics Euthyphro dilemma God complex God gene Theology Ontology Problem of evil (theodicy) Religion philosophy texts Portrayals of God in popular media  Religion portal v t e Ahura Mazda (/əˌhʊərə ˈmæzdə/;[1] Avestan: 𐬨𐬀𐬰𐬛𐬁 𐬀𐬵𐬎𐬭𐬀‎, romanized: Ahura Mazdā also known as Oromasdes, Ohrmazd, Ahuramazda, Hourmazd, Hormazd, and Hurmuz) is the creator and highest deity of Zoroastrianism. Ahura Mazda is the first and most frequently invoked spirit in the Yasna. The literal meaning of the word Ahura is "lord," and that of Mazda is "wisdom." Ahura Mazda first appeared in the Achaemenid period (c. 550 – 330 BC) under Darius I's Behistun Inscription. Until Artaxerxes II of Persia (405–04 to 359–58 BC), Ahura Mazda was worshipped and invoked alone in all extant royal inscriptions. With Artaxerxes II, Ahura Mazda was invoked in a triad, with Mithra and Anahita. In the Achaemenid period, there are no known representations of Ahura Mazda at the royal court other than the custom for every emperor to have an empty chariot drawn by white horses, to invite Ahura Mazda to accompany the Persian army on battles. Images of Ahura Mazda, however, were present from the 5th century BC, but were stopped and replaced with stone carved figures in the Sassanid period and later removed altogether through an iconoclastic movement supported by the Sassanid dynasty. Contents 1 Nomenclature 2 Characteristics 3 Zoroaster's revelation 4 History 4.1 Achaemenid Empire 4.2 Parthian Empire 4.3 Sassanid Empire 4.4 Present-day Zoroastrianism 5 In other religions 6 101 Names 7 In popular culture 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Bibliography 12 Further reading Nomenclature[edit] "Ahura" is synonymous with the Vedic word "Asura" which means "lord".[2] Finnish Indologist, Asko Parpola, traces the etymological root of Asura to *asera- of Uralic languages, where it means "lord, prince".[3] "Mazda", or rather the Avestan stem-form Mazdā-, nominative Mazdå, reflects Proto-Iranian *mazdáH (a feminine noun). It is generally taken to be the proper name of the spirit, and like its Vedic cognate medhā́, means "intelligence" or "wisdom". Both the Avestan and Sanskrit words reflect Proto-Indo-Iranian *mazdʰáH, from Proto-Indo-European *mn̥sdʰh₁éh₂, literally meaning "placing (*dʰeh₁) one's mind (*mn̥-s)", hence "wise".[4] The name was rendered as Ahuramazda (Old Persian) during the Achaemenid era, Hormazd during the Parthian era, and Ohrmazd was used during the Sassanian era.[5] The name may be attested on cuneiform tablets of Assyrian Assurbanipal, in the form Assara Mazaš, though this interpretation is very controversial.[6] Characteristics[edit] Even though it is speculated that Ahura Mazda was a spirit in the Indo-Iranian religion, he had not yet been given the title of "uncreated spirit". This title was given by Zoroaster, who proclaimed Ahura Mazda as the uncreated spirit, wholly wise, benevolent and good, as well as the creator and upholder of Asha. Zoroaster's revelation[edit] According to Zoroastrian tradition, at the age of 30, Zoroaster received a revelation: while fetching water at dawn for a sacred ritual, he saw the shining figure of the Amesha Spenta, Vohu Manah, who led Zoroaster to the presence of Ahura Mazda, where he was taught the cardinal principles of the "Good Religion" later known as Zoroastrianism. As a result of this vision, Zoroaster felt that he was chosen to spread and preach the religion.[7] He stated that this source of all goodness was the Ahura worthy of the highest worship. He further stated that Ahura Mazda created spirits known as yazatas to aid him. Zoroaster proclaimed that some of the Iranian gods were daevas who deserved no worship. These "bad" deities were created by Angra Mainyu, the destructive spirit. The existence of Angra Mainyu was the source of all sin and misery in the universe. Zoroaster claimed that Ahura Mazda was not an omnipotent God, but used the aid of humans in the cosmic struggle against Angra Mainyu. Nonetheless, Ahura Mazda is Angra Mainyu's superior, not his equal. Angra Mainyu and his daevas, which attempt to attract humans away from the Path of Asha, would eventually be defeated.[8] History[edit] Achaemenid Empire[edit] The Behistun Inscription contains many references to Ahura Mazda. Stater of Tiribazos, Satrap of Lydia, c. 380 BC showing Ahura Mazda Whether the Achaemenids were Zoroastrians is a matter of much debate. However, it is known that the Achaemenids were worshipers of Ahura Mazda.[9] The representation and invocation of Ahura Mazda can be seen on royal inscriptions written by Achaemenid kings.[10] The most notable of all the inscriptions is the Behistun Inscription written by Darius I which contains many references to Ahura Mazda. An inscription written in Greek was found in a late Achaemenid temple at Persepolis which invoked Ahura Mazda and two other deities, Mithra and Anahita. Amongst the earliest surviving inscription, on the Elamite Persepolis Fortification Tablet 377, Ahura Mazda is invoked along with Mithra and Apam Napat, Vedic Varuna ("water-god"). Artaxerxes III makes this invocation to the three deities again in his reign. In Vedic texts which predate these inscriptions by thousands of years, the Vedic gods Mithra and Varuna are frequently mentioned together. In the earliest layer of the Rigveda, Varuna is the guardian of moral law, the ruler over Asuras, one who punishes those who sin without remorse, and who forgives those who err with remorse. He is the Guardian deity of the West, meaning regions west of India.[11][12] He is mentioned in many Rigvedic hymns, such as 7.86–88, 1.25, 2.27–30, 8.8, 9.73 and others.[11][13] His relationship with waters, rivers and oceans is mentioned in the Vedas.[14] Vedic poets describe him as an aspect and one of the plural perspectives of the Agni, one of the Primary deities.[15][16] Further, both have wrathful-gracious aspects in Indian mythology. The early Achaemenid period contained no representation of Ahura Mazda. The winged symbol with a male figure who was formerly regarded by European scholars as Ahura Mazda has been now speculated to represent the royal xvarənah, the personification of divine power and royal glory. However, it was customary for every emperor from Cyrus until Darius III to have an empty chariot drawn by white horses as a place for Ahura Mazda to accompany the Persian army on battles. The use of images of Ahura Mazda began in the western satraps of the Achaemenid Empire in the late 5th century BCE. Under Artaxerxes II, the first literary reference as well as a statue of Ahura Mazda was built by a Persian governor of Lydia in 365 BCE.[17] Parthian Empire[edit] It is known that the reverence for Ahura Mazda, as well as Anahita and Mithra continued with the same traditions during this period. The worship of Ahura Mazda with symbolic images is noticed, but it stopped within the Sassanid period. Zoroastrian iconoclasm, which can be traced to the end of the Parthian period and the beginning of the Sassanid, eventually put an end to the use of all images of Ahura Mazda in worship. However, Ahura Mazda remained symbolized by a dignified male figure, standing or on horseback which is found in Sassanian investiture.[17] Sassanid Empire[edit] Ahura Mazda (on the right, with high crown) presents Ardashir I (left) with the ring of kingship. (Naqsh-e Rustam, 3rd century CE) Investiture scene: Anahita on the left as the patron yazata of the Sassanian dynasty behind Emperor Khosrau Parviz with Ahura Mazda presenting the diadem of sovereignty on the right. Taq-e Bostan, Iran. During the Sassanid Empire, a heretical and divergent[18][19][20] form of Zoroastrianism, termed Zurvanism, emerged. It gained adherents throughout the Sassanid Empire, most notably the royal lineage of Sassanian emperors. Under the reign of Shapur I, Zurvanism spread and became a widespread cult. Zurvanism revokes Zoroaster's original message of Ahura Mazda as the uncreated spirit, and the "uncreated creator" of all, and reduces him to a created spirit, one of two twin sons of Zurvan, their father and the primary spirit. Zurvanism also makes Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu of equal strength and only contrasting spirits. Other than Zurvanism, the Sassanian kings demonstrated their devotion to Ahura Mazda in other fashions. Five kings took the name Hormizd and Bahram II created the title of "Ohrmazd-mowbad" which was continued after the fall of the Sassanid Empire and through the Islamic times. All devotional acts in Zoroastrianism originating from the Sassanian period begin with homage to Ahura Mazda. The five Gāhs begin with the declaration in Middle Persian, that "Ohrmazd is Lord" and incorporate the Gathic verse "Whom, Mazda hast thou appointed my protector". Zoroastrian prayers are to be said in the presence of light, either in the form of fire or the sun. In the Iranian dialects of Yidḡa and Munǰī, the sun is still called "ormozd".[17] Present-day Zoroastrianism[edit] In 1884, Martin Haug proposed a new interpretation of Yasna 30.3 that subsequently influenced Zoroastrian doctrine to a significant extent. According to Haug's interpretation, the "twin spirits" of 30.3 were Angra Mainyu and Spenta Mainyu, the former being literally the "Destructive Spirit"[n 1] and the latter being the "Bounteous Spirit" (of Ahura Mazda). Further, in Haug's scheme, Angra Mainyu was now not Ahura Mazda's binary opposite, but—like Spenta Mainyu—an emanation of Him. Haug also interpreted the concept of a free will of Yasna 45.9 as an accommodation to explain where Angra Mainyu came from since Ahura Mazda created only good. The free will made it possible for Angra Mainyu to choose to be evil. Although these latter conclusions were not substantiated by Zoroastrian tradition,[4] at the time Haug's interpretation was gratefully accepted by the Parsis of Bombay since it provided a defense against Christian missionary rhetoric,[n 2] particularly the attacks on the Zoroastrian idea of an uncreated Evil that was as uncreated as God was. Following Haug, the Bombay Parsis began to defend themselves in the English-language press, the argument being that Angra Mainyu was not Mazda's binary opposite, but his subordinate, who—as in Zurvanism also—chose to be evil. Consequently, Haug's theories were disseminated as a Parsi interpretation, also in the West, where they appeared to be corroborating Haug. Reinforcing themselves, Haug's ideas came to be iterated so often that they are today almost universally accepted as doctrine.[17][21][n 3] In other religions[edit] Some scholars (Kuiper. IIJ I, 1957; Zimmer. Münchner Studien 1984:187–215) believe that Ahura Mazda originates from *vouruna-mitra, or Vedic Varuna (and Mitra).[22] According to William W Malandra both Varuna (in Vedic period) and Ahura Mazda (in old Iranian religion) represented same Indo-Iranian concept of a supreme "wise, all-knowing lord".[23] In Manichaeism, the name Ohrmazd Bay ("god Ahura Mazda") was used for the primal figure Nāšā Qaḏmāyā, the "original man" and emanation of the Father of Greatness (in Manicheism called Zurvan) through whom after he sacrificed himself to defend the world of light was consumed by the forces of darkness. Although Ormuzd is freed from the world of darkness his "sons", often called his garments or weapons, remain. His sons, later known as the World Soul after a series of events will for the most part escape from matter and return again to the world of light where they came from. Manicheans often identified many of Mani's cosmological figures with Zoroastrian ones. This may be in part because Mani was born in the greatly Zoroastrian Parthian Empire. In Sogdian Buddhism, Xwrmztʼ (Sogdian was written without a consistent representation of vowels) was the name used in place of Ahura Mazda.[24][25] Via contacts with Turkic peoples like the Uyghurs, this Sogdian name came to the Mongols, who still name this deity Qormusta Tengri (Also Qormusta or Qormusda) is now a popular enough deity to appear in many contexts that are not explicitly Buddhist.[26] The pre-Christian Armenians had Aramazd as an important deity in their pantheon of gods. He is thought to be a syncretic deity, a combination of the autochthonous Armenian figures Aram and his son Ara and the Iranian Ahura Mazda. In modern-day Armenia, Aramazd is a male first name. 101 Names[edit] See also: 101 Names of God yazat ("Worthy of worship.") harvasp-tavãn ("Omnipotent.") harvasp-âgâh ("Omniscient.") harvasp-h'udhâ ("The Lord of all.") abadah ("Without beginning.") awî-añjâm ("Without end.") bûnastah ("The origin of the formation of the world.") frâxtañtah ("Broad end of all.") jamakh ("Greatest cause.") parjahtarah ("More exalted.") tum-afayah ("Most innocent.") abravañt ("Apart from everyone.") parvañdah ("Relation with all.") an-ayâfah ("Incomprehensible by anyone.") ham-ayâfah ("Comprehensible of all.") âdharô ("Most straight, most just.") gîrâ ("Holding fast all.") acim ("Without reason.") cimnâ ("Reason of reasons.") safinâ ("Increaser.") âwzâ ("Causer of increase. The Lord of purity") nâshâ ("Reaching all equally.") parvarâ ("Nourisher.") âyânah ("Protector of the world.") âyaîn-âyânah ("Not of various kinds.") an-âyanah ("Without form.") xraoshît-tum ("Firmest.") mînôtum ("Most invisible.") vâsnâ ("Omnipresent.") harvastum ("All in all.") husipâs ("Worthy of thanks.") har-hemît ("All good-natured.") harnekfareh ("All good auspicious-glory.") beshtarnâ ("Remover of affliction.") tarônîs ("The triumphant.") anaoshak ("Immortal.") farashak ("Fulfiller of wishes.") pazohadhad ("Creator of good nature.") xavâpar ("Beneficient.") awaxshâyâ ("Bestower of Love.") awarzâ ("Excessive bringer.”) â-sitôh ("Undefeated, undistressed.") raxôh ("Independent, carefree.") varûn ("Protector from evil.") a-frîpah ("Undeceivable.") awe-frîftah ("Undeceived.") adhvaî ("Unparalleled.") kãme-rat ("Lord of wishes.") framãn-kãm ("Only wish is His command.") âyextan ("Without body.") â-framôsh ("Unforgetful.") hamârnâ ("Taker of accounts.") snâyâ ("Recognizable, worth recognition.") a-tars ("Fearless.") a-bîsh ("Without affliction or torment.") a-frâzdum ("Most exalted.") hamcûn ("Always uniform.") mînô-stîgar ("Creator of the Universe spiritually.") a-mînôgar ("Creator of much spirituality.") mînô-nahab ("Hidden in Spirits.") âdhar-bâtgar ("Air of fire, i.e. transformer into air.") âdhar-namgar ("Water of fire, i.e. transformer into water.") bât-âdhargar ("Transformer of air into fire.") bât-namgar ("Transformer of air into water.") bât-gelgar ("Transformer of air into earth.") bât-girdtum ("Transformer of air into girad, i.e. gathered.") âdhar-kîbarît-tum ("Transformer of fire into jewels.") bâtgarjâi ("Who creates air in all places.") âwtum ("Creator of most excessive water.") gel-âdhargar ("Transformer of the earth into fire.") gel-vâdhgar ("Transformer of the earth into air.") gel-namgar ("Transformer of the earth into water.") gargar ("Artisan of artisans.") garôgar ("Bestower of wishes.") garâgar ("Creator of man") garâgargar ("Creator of the entire creation") a-garâgar ("Creator of four elements)" a-garâgargar ("Creator of clusters of the stars") a-gûmãn ("Without doubt.") a-jamãn ("Without time.") a-h'uãn ("Without sleep.") âmushthushyâr ("Intelligent.") frashûtanâ ("Eternal protector-increaser.") padhamãnî ("Maintainer of padman, i.e. the golden mean.") pîrôzgar ("Victorious.") h'udhâvañd ("Lord-Master of the Universe.") ahuramazda ("Lord Omniscient.") abarînkuhantavãn ("Of the most exalted rank in the power of maintaining the origin of the creations.") abarîn-nô-tavã ("Of the most exalted rank in the power of rendering the creations anew.") vaspãn ("Attainer to all the creations.") vaspâr ("Bringer of and attainer to all.") h'âwar ("Merciful.") ahû ("Lord of the world.") âwaxsîdâr ("Forgiver.") dâdhâr ("The just creator.") rayomañd ("Full of rae-lustre-splendour.") h'arehmand ("Full of khoreh, i.e. glory.") dâwar ("The just judge.") kerfagar ("Lord of meritorious deeds.") buxtâr ("Redeemer, saviour.") frashôgar ("Restorer through increase of the soul.") In popular culture[edit] Coin of Hormizd I Kushanshah (277-286 CE). Pahlavi inscription: "The Mazda worshipper, the divine Hormizd the great Kushan king of kings"/ Pahlavi inscription: "Exalted god, Hormizd the great Kushan king of kings", Hormizd standing right, holding investiture wreath over altar and raising left hand in benedictional gesture to Anahita holding investiture wreath and sceptre. Merv mint. Ormazd and Ahriman feature in the 2008 video game, Prince of Persia. Ormuhzd and Ahriman are two characters in the Warhammer 40,000 Franchise. Ahriman has a model, whereas Ormuhzd is only referenced in the book A Thousand Sons Ormazd and Ahriman feature heavily in the Philip K. Dick novel The Cosmic Puppets. In the 2001 video game Severance: Blade of Darkness, Ahura Mazda was the god who created the entire world in which the game takes place. General Electric exploited the association of the name with light for their brand of Mazda light bulbs. One of the inspirations for the name of the Mazda Motor Corporation is Ahura Mazda, with homophone similarity to founder Jujiro Matsuda.[27] A statue of Ahura Mazda is built to contain the Djinn in the film Wishmaster.[28][29] In the 2013 Amish Tripathi novel The Oath of the Vayuputras, Ahura Mazda is shown as the God of Pariha. Ahura Mazda is mentioned in the Immortal Technique song "Sign of the Times" from the album The Martyr. In the novel Battle Royale, a student named Mizuho Inada believes she is a warrior for the god Ahura Mazda. Ahura Mazda appears as a character in the Lucifer's Halo miniseries of Joseph Michael Linsner's comic Dawn. Ahura Mazda was the name of a late 1960s, early 1970s psychedelic and fusion prog-rock band from the Netherlands. Ahura Mazda is featured in the book Kushiel's Avatar, the third novel in Jacqueline Carey's Kushiel's Legacy series. In the MMORPG Final Fantasy XIV, Ahura Mazda is the ultimate move of the third god of the Warring Triad, Zurvan. Ahriman appears as a character in the television show Highlander: The Series. See also[edit] Religion portal Asura Varuna Creator deity Names of God Notes[edit] ^ For an explanation of the approximation of mainyu as "spirit", see Angra Mainyu. ^ Most prominent of these voices was that of the Scottish Presbyterian minister Dr. John Wilson, whose church was next door to the M. F. Cama Athornan Institute, the premier school for Zoroastrian priests. That the opinions of the Zoroastrian priesthood is barely represented in the debates that ensued was to some extent due to the fact that the priesthood spoke Gujarati and not English, but also because they were (at the time) poorly equipped to debate with a classically trained theologian on his footing. Wilson had even taught himself Avestan. ^ For a scholastic review of the theological developments in Indian Zoroastrianism, particularly with respect to the devaluation of Angra Mainyu to a position where the (epitome of) pure evil became viewed as a creation of Mazda (and so compromised their figure of pure good), see Maneck 1997 References[edit] ^ "Ahura Mazda | Definition of Ahura Mazda by Merriam-Webster". Merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2016-01-11. ^ David S. Noss, Blake Grangaard. A History of the World's Religions. Routledge, 2016. ^ Asko Parpola (2015), The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0190226923, pages 114-116 ^ a b Boyce 1983, p. 685. ^ Boyce 1985, p. 685. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBoyce1985 (help) ^ Boyce 1975, p. 14. ^ Nigosian 1993, p. 12. ^ Andrea 2000, p. 86. sfn error: no target: CITEREFAndrea2000 (help) ^ Bromiley 1995, p. 126. ^ Hanson, Victor Davis (2007-12-18). Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-307-42518-8. ^ a b Mariasusai Dhavamony (1982). Classical Hinduism. Gregorian. pp. 167–168 with footnotes. ISBN 978-88-7652-482-0. ^ John Gwyn Griffiths (1991). The Divine Verdict: A Study of Divine Judgement in the Ancient Religions. BRILL. pp. 132–133. ISBN 90-04-09231-5. ^ Adrian Snodgrass (1992). The Symbolism of the Stupa. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 120–122 with footnotes. ISBN 978-81-208-0781-5. ^ Hermann Oldenberg (1988). The Religion of the Veda. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 104. ISBN 978-81-208-0392-3. ^ Hermann Oldenberg (1988). The Religion of the Veda. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 51. ISBN 978-81-208-0392-3. ^ Moriz Winternitz (1996). A History of Indian Literature. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 91–92. ISBN 978-81-208-0264-3. ^ a b c d Boyce 1983, p. 686. ^ Corduan 1998, p. 123. ^ King 2005, p. 314. ^ Whitrow 2003, p. 8. ^ Maneck 1997, pp. 182ff. ^ Varuna#In Zoroastrianism ^ William W. Malandra. An Introduction to Ancient Iranian Religion. 1983. p. 46 ^ Unknown 1999, p. 429. ^ Frye 1996, p. 247. ^ Sims-Williams 1992, p. 44. ^ Morschett, Dirk; Schramm-Klein, Hanna; Zentes, Joachim (2015-01-27). Strategic International Management: Text and Cases. Springer. p. 162. ISBN 978-3-658-07884-3. ^ "Recensione story, Wishmaster - Il signore dei desideri di Robert Kurtzman". Il Cineocchio (in Italian). Retrieved 2020-11-19. ^ Bleiler, David (2013-12-03). TLA Film and Video Guide 2000-2001: The Discerning Film Lover's Guide. St. Martin's Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-4668-5940-1. Bibliography[edit] Boyce, Mary (1975), History of Zoroastrianism, Vol. I, The early period, Leiden: Brill Boyce, Mary (1982), History of Zoroastrianism, Vol. II, Under the Achamenians, Leiden: Brill Boyce, Mary (1983), "Ahura Mazdā", Encyclopaedia Iranica, 1, New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, pp. 684–687 Maneck, Susan Stiles (1997), The Death of Ahriman: Culture, Identity and Theological Change Among the Parsis of India, Bombay: K. R. Cama Oriental Institute Sims-Williams, Nicholas (1992), Sogdian and other Iranian inscriptions of the Upper Indus, University of Michigan, ISBN 978-0-7286-0194-9 Andrea, Alfred; James H. Overfield (2000), The Human Record: Sources of Global History : To 1700, 4 (Illustrated ed.), Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, ISBN 978-0-618-04245-6 Corduan, Winfried (1998), Neighboring faiths: a Christian introduction to world religions, InterVarsity Press, ISBN 978-0-8308-1524-1 Frye, Richard Nelson (1996), The heritage of Central Asia from antiquity to the Turkish expansion, Markus Wiener Publishers, ISBN 978-1-55876-111-7 Unknown (1999), History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume 3, Motilal Banarsidass Publ King, Karen L. (2005), What is Gnosticism?, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-01762-7 Whitrow, G. J. (2003), What is time?, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-860781-6 Bromiley, Geoffrey (1995), The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: Q-Z, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, ISBN 978-0-8028-3784-4 Nigosian, Solomon (1993), The Zoroastrian faith: tradition and modern research, McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP, ISBN 978-0-7735-1144-6 Further reading[edit] Ahuramazda and Zoroastrianism Dhalla, Maneckji Nusservanji (1938), History of Zoroastrianism, New York: OUP, ISBN 0-404-12806-8 Boyce, Mary (2001), "Mithra the King and Varuna the Master", Festschrift für Helmut Humbach zum 80., Trier: WWT, pp. 239–257 Humbach, Helmut (1991), The Gathas of Zarathushtra and the other Old Avestan texts, Heidelberg: Winter, ISBN 3-533-04473-4 Kent, Roland G. (1945), "Old Persian Texts", Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 4 (4): 228–233, doi:10.1086/370756 Kuiper, Bernardus Franciscus Jacobus (1983), "Ahura", Encyclopaedia Iranica, 1, New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, pp. 682–683 Kuiper, Bernardus Franciscus Jacobus (1976), "Ahura Mazdā 'Lord Wisdom'?", Indo-Iranian Journal, 18 (1–2): 25–42, doi:10.1163/000000076790079465 Ware, James R.; Kent, Roland G. (1924), "The Old Persian Cuneiform Inscriptions of Artaxerxes II and Artaxerxes III", Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 55: 52–61, doi:10.2307/283007, JSTOR 283007 Kent, Roland G. (1950), Old Persian: Grammar, texts, lexicon, New Haven: American Oriental Society, ISBN 0-940490-33-1 Andrea, Alfred; James H. Overfield (2000), The Human Record: Sources of Global History : To 1700, 4 (Illustrated ed.), Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, ISBN 978-0-618-04245-6 Schlerath, Bernfried (1983), "Ahurānī", Encyclopaedia Iranica, 1, New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, pp. 683–684 v t e Names of God in Baháʼísm In Chinese religions (1) In Chinese religions (2) In Christianity In Hinduism In Islam In Jainism In Judaism In Rastafarianism In Santeria In Sikhism In Zoroastrianism Acintya Adonai Ahura Mazda The All Allah Aten Bathala Bhagavan Brahma Brahman Cao Đài The Creator Dakini Deus Deva Devi Durga Ein Sof El Elohim El Elyon El Shaddai God God the Father Great Spirit Hiranyagarbha Haneullim Hu Hyang I Am that I Am Ik Onkar Ishvara Jah Jahbulon Kami Khuda Krishna Mahadeva Manitou Melek Taus Ngai Olodumare Ọlọrun Om The One of Neoplatonism The One (Tad Ekam) of Rigveda Parvardigar Purusha Rama Shakti Shangdi Shen Shiva Svayam Bhagavan Tenri-Ō-no-Mikoto Tetragrammaton Tian Tianzhu Trimurti Trinity Vishnu Waheguru Wakan Tanka Xwedê YHWH Jehovah Yahweh Authority control BNF: cb15023119p (data) GND: 118898426 LCCN: sh2009000186 NKC: jo2016908792 SUDOC: 241474280 VIAF: 5729643 WorldCat Identities: viaf-5729643 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ahura_Mazda&oldid=1000746838" Categories: Ancient Iranian gods Names of God in Zoroastrianism Creator gods Wisdom gods Persian words and phrases God Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors CS1 Italian-language sources (it) Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles having different image on Wikidata and Wikipedia Articles containing Avestan-language text Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Български Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Kurdî Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy مصرى Мокшень Nederlands 日本語 Нохчийн Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی پښتو Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 吴语 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 16 January 2021, at 14:29 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4114	----	Achaemenid architecture - Wikipedia Achaemenid architecture From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Historical architecture style Panorama of Persepolis ruins Achaemenid architecture includes all architectural achievements of the Achaemenid Persians manifesting in construction of spectacular cities used for governance and inhabitation (Persepolis, Susa, Ecbatana), temples made for worship and social gatherings (such as Zoroastrian temples), and mausoleums erected in honor of fallen kings (such as the burial tomb of Cyrus the Great). The quintessential feature of Persian architecture was its eclectic nature with elements of Assyrian, Egyptian, Median and Asiatic Greek all incorporated, yet producing a unique Persian identity seen in the finished product.[1] Achaemenid architecture is academically classified under Persian architecture in terms of its style and design.[2] Achaemenid architectural heritage, beginning with the expansion of the empire around 550 B.C.E., was a period of artistic growth that left an extraordinary architectural legacy ranging from Cyrus the Great's solemn tomb in Pasargadae to the splendid structures of the opulent city of Persepolis.[3] With the advent of the second Persian Empire, the Sassanid dynasty (224–624 C.E.), revived Achaemenid tradition by construction of temples dedicated to fire, and monumental palaces.[3] Perhaps the most striking extant structures to date are the ruins of Persepolis, a once opulent city established by the Achaemenid king, Darius the Great for governmental and ceremonial functions, and also acting as one of the empire's four capitals. Persepolis would take 100 years to complete and would finally be ransacked and burnt by the troops of Alexander the Great in 330 B.C.E.[4] Similar architectural infrastructures were also erected at Susa and Ecbatana by Darius the Great, serving similar functions as Persepolis, such as reception of foreign dignitaries and delegates, performance of imperial ceremonies and duties, and also housing the kings. Contents 1 Pasargadae 1.1 Mausoleum of Cyrus the Great 1.1.1 Structural details 1.1.2 History 1.2 Four-winged guardian 2 Persepolis 2.1 Structural details 2.2 Engineering 2.2.1 Water technologies 2.2.2 Structural technologies 2.3 History 2.4 Vandalism 2.5 Virtual reconstruction 3 Susa 3.1 Structural details 3.2 History 4 Naqsh-e Rustam 4.1 Ka'ba-ye Zartosht 5 Behistun inscription 6 Legacy and influences 7 See also 8 References Pasargadae[edit] Mausoleum of Cyrus the Great[edit] Mausoleum of Cyrus the Great in Iran Dimensions of the tomb Tomb of Cyrus Despite having ruled over much of the ancient world, Cyrus the Great would design a tomb that depicts extreme simplicity and modesty when compared to those of other ancient kings and rulers. The simplicity of the structure has a powerful effect on the viewer, since aside from a few cyma moldings below the roof and a small rosette above its small entrance, there are no other stylistic distractions.[5] Structural details[edit] After his death, Cyrus the Great's remains were interred in his capital city of Pasargadae, where today his limestone tomb (built around 540–530 B.C.E.[6]) still exists. The translated ancient accounts give a vivid description of the tomb both geometrically and aesthetically; "With its massive stonework and smooth surfaces relieved by the minimum of decorative detail, the tomb creates an impression of dignity, simplicity, and strength. In design it combines two distinct elements: a high plinth composed of six receding tiers and a modest, gabled tomb chamber. In its original state the tomb probably measured c. 11,1 o m from the once hidden foundation level to the apex of the roof. Of the six tiers of the plinth, the lowest has an average height of 1,65 m, the second and third have a height of 1,05 m, and the last three each have a uniform height of 57,5 cm. The base of the plinth measures c. 13,35×12,30 m, while the base of the tomb chamber measures c. 6,40 × 5,35 m. As for the cella's other measurements, the narrow doorway, in its present condition without its original doorsills, is 1,39 m high and 78 cm wide; the passage is 1,20 long; and the chamber is 3,17 m in length with a uniform width and height of 2,11 m. The walls of the chamber are up to 1,50 m thick. Above the chamber, a hollow compartment in the roof, almost divided in two for structural reasons, measures 4,75 m in length and 85 cm in height. The capstone of the roof is missing."[7] Arrian's direct testimony indicates that Cyrus the Great was indeed buried in the chamber inside the edifice, as he describes Alexander seeing it during his visit to Pasargadae, but it is also a possibility that the body of Cyrus the Great had been interred below the structure, and that the tomb seen on the top is in fact a cenotaph or a false tomb. There was originally a golden coffin inside the mausoleum, resting on a table with golden supports, inside of which the body of Cyrus the Great was interred. Upon his resting place, was a covering of tapestry and drapes made from the best available Babylonian materials, using fine Median workmanship; below his bed was a fine red carpet, covering the narrow rectangular base of his tomb.[8] History[edit] Translated Greek accounts describe the tomb as having been placed in the fertile Pasargadae gardens, surrounded by trees and ornamental shrubs, with a group of Achaemenian protectors (the "Magi"), stationed nearby to protect the edifice from theft or damage.[9][10] The magi were a group of on-site Zoroastrian observers, located in their separate but attached structure possibly a caravanserai, paid and cared for by the Achaemenid state (by some accounts they received a salary of daily bread and flour, and one sheep payment a day[11]). The magi were placed in charge of maintenance and also prevention of theft. Years later, in the ensuing chaos created by Alexander the Great's invasion of Persia and loss of a centralized authority directing and caring for the Magi, Cyrus the Great's tomb was broken into and most of its luxuries were looted. When Alexander reached the tomb, he was horrified by the manner in which the tomb was treated, and questioned the Magi and put them to court.[9] On some accounts, Alexander's decision to put the Magi on trial was more about his attempt to undermine their influence and his show of power in his newly conquered empire, than a concern for Cyrus's tomb.[12] Regardless, Alexander the Great ordered Aristobulus of Cassandreia to improve the tomb's condition and restore its interior.[9] The tomb was originally ornamented with an inscription that, according to Strabo (and other ancient sources), stated:[13] O man! I am Cyrus the Great, who gave the Persians an empire and was the king of Asia. Grudge me not therefore this monument. The edifice has survived the test of time for some 2,500 years. After the Arab invasion into Persia and collapse of the Sassanid Empire, Arab armies wanted to destroy this historical artifact, on the basis that it was not in congruence to their Islamic tenets, but quick thinking on the part of the local Persians prevented this disaster. The Persians renamed the tomb, and presented it to the invading army as the tomb of King Solomon's mother. It is likely that the inscription was lost at this time.[14] Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (Shah of Iran), the last official monarch of Persia, during his 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire paid significant homage to the Achaemenid kings and specially Cyrus the Great. Just as Alexander the Great before him, the Shah of Iran wanted to appeal to Cyrus's legacy to legitimize his own rule by extension.[15] Shah of Iran however was generally interested in protection of imperial historical artifacts. After the Iranian revolution, the tomb of Cyrus the Great survived the initial chaos and vandalism propagated by the Islamic revolutionary hardliners who equated Persian imperial historical artifacts with the late Shah of Iran. There are allegations of the tomb being in danger of damage from the construction of the Sivand Dam on river Polvar (located in the province of Pars) and water related damage, but there is no official acknowledgement of this claim. United Nations recognizes the tomb of Cyrus the Great and Pasargadae as a UNESCO World Heritage site.[6] Shah of Iran's 2,500 years celebrations An animated picture of the mausoleum Tomb of Cyrus under repair Four-winged guardian[edit] The four winged guardian figure of Cyrus, with four wings, a two horned crown, and a royal Elamite clothing Perhaps one of the most memorable remaining architectural and artistic works is the bas-relief of Cyrus the Great in Pasargadae. This is a bas-relief cut upon a stone slab depicting a figure or a guardian man, most likely a resemblance of Cyrus himself, possessing four wings shown in an Assyrian style, dressed in Elamite traditional clothing, assuming a pose and figure of an Egyptian god, and wearing a crown that has two horns, in what resembles an Ovis longipes palaeoaegyptiacus. The structure originally had an upper stone slab that in three different languages, (Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian) declared, "I, (am) Cyrus the king, an Achaemenid."[16] This carved in limestone writing was in place when Sir Robert Ker Poter described the piece in 1818 but, at some point has been lost. David Stronach has suggested that there were originally four such figures, set against doorways to the Palace of Cyrus in Pasargadae.[16] That this bas-relief has such an eclectic styling with elements of Egyptian, Elamite, and Assyrian, reflects "..'the oecumenical attitude of the Achaemenian kings, who from the time of Cyrus, onward adopted a liberal policy of tolerance and conciliation toward the various religions embraced within their empire'..."[16] It would therefore depict the eclectic nature of Achaemenid life from policies of the kings to their choice of architecture. Herodotus, recounts that Cyrus saw in his sleep the oldest son of Hystaspes, [Darius the Great] with wings upon his shoulders, shadowing with the one wing Asia, and with the other wing Europe.[16] Noted Iranologist, Ilya Gershevitch explains this statement by Herodotus and its connection with the four winged figure in the following way:[16] Herodotus, therefore as I surmise, may have known of the close connection, between this type of winged figure, and the image of the Iranian majesty, which he associated with a dream prognosticating, the king's death, before his last, fatal campaign across the Oxus. This relief sculpture, in a sense depicts the eclectic inclusion of various art forms by the Achaemenids, yet their ability to create a new synthetic form that is uniquely Persian in style, and heavily dependent on the contributions of their subject states. After all, that is what distinguishes Achaemenid architecture from those of other kingdoms. It is its originality in context of fusion and inclusion of existing styles, in such a way as to create awe-inspiring structures. A recreation of the details of the four winged figure in Olympic Park, Sydney. Note the details of the two-horned crown Ruins of the private palace of Cyrus the Great in Pasargadae where this winged figure could have served as decoration An erect column found in the ruin complex of Cyrus's private palace. Unlike Apadana columns no fluting is used A so-called "swallow-tail" (or "dovetail") staple. This is an early, huge example of staple used in architecture in order to fasten stones together. Persepolis[edit] Panorama of Persepolis An incomplete schematic blueprint of Persepolis; note – C: Apadana Hall, G: "Talar-i-Takht" or hall of 100 column, N: "Tachar" or palace of Darius, H: "Hadish" or Palace of Xerxes the Great, B:"Darvazeh-i-Mellal" or gate of all nations, F: Trypilon;[3] Not shown (behind the reference text): "khazaneh" (treasury) A well-preserved Persian column showing the details of the capital of the columns in Persepolis Persepolis is the Latinized version of the Old Persian name, "Parsa" literally meaning the "city of Persians." Another spectacular achievement of the Achaemenids, Persepolis became one of the four capitals of the empire. Initiated by Darius the Great around 518 B.C.E., it would grow to become a center for ceremonial and cultural festivities, a center for dignitaries and visitors to pay homage to the king, a private residence for the Persian kings, a place for satraps to bring gifts for the king in the Spring during the festival of Nowruz, as well as a place of governance and ordinance.[13] Persepolis's prestige and grand riches were well known in the ancient world, and it was best described by the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus as "the richest city under the sun".[5] Structural details[edit] Today the archaeological remnants of this once opulent city are about 70 kilometers northeast of the modern Iranian city of Shiraz, in the Pars province, in southwestern Iran. Persepolis is a wide, elevated complex 40 feet high, 100 feet wide, and a third of a mile long,[3] composed of multiple halls, corridors, a wide terrace, and a special, double, symmetrical stairway that would provide access to the top of the terrace.[13] The stairway would delineate relief scenes of various motifs of daily life or nature, including some that were literal as well as metaphorical; Some scenes would show natural acts such as a lion attacking its prey but bear symbolism of spring and the Nowruz festival. Other scenes would depict, subjects from all states of the empire presenting gifts to the king, as well as scenes depicting royal guards, or scenes of social interactions between the guards or the dignitaries.[13] This stairway is sometimes referred to as "All countries."[4] The structure was constructed from various halls and complexes that included, hall of Apadana (the largest hall with 36 columns), "Tachar" (the private chamber of Darius the Great), "Hadish" (added later on as a private chamber for king Xerxes the Great), the "Talar-i-Takht" also known as the 100-columned hall serving as the throne hall for general meeting with the king, "Darvazeh-i-Mellal" (the gate of all nations), the "khazaneh" (the royal treasury), a hall/palace complex later on developed by Artaxerxes III, Tripylon (council hall), and the "rock cut tombs of the kings" or Naqsh-e Rustam.[13] The most impressive hall in the complex is the Apadana hall, occupying an area of about 109 square meters with 36 Persian columns, each more than 19 m tall. Each column is fluted, with a square base (except a few in the porticos), and an elaborate capital with two animals supporting the roof. The structure was originally closed off from the elements by mud-brick walls over 5 meters thick and over 20 meters.[17] The columns have a composite capital depicting addorsed bulls or creatures. Those columns in the porticoes not only would possess a circular base, but would also have an ornate capital after the end of the fluting, only to be curtailed by detailed addorsed bulls, supporting the roof.[17] Apadana's relief is also unique in that it delineates the presence and power of the king. Known as "Treasure reliefs" the depicted scenes on Apadana stress the continuity of the kingdom through Darius the Great, and stress his presence throughout the empire, as well as depict his army of Persian immortals. Perhaps this was Darius's attempt to create a symbol of the assured continuity of his line. Apadana hall and the adjacent structures in the complex are believed to have been designed to host large number of people. In fact, halls of Persepolis could at any one time host some ten thousand visitors easily with the king and the royal staff seated appropriately.[17] The grandeur of Persepolis is in its architectural details, its impressive, tall, and upright columns, in its skilfully crafted reliefs depicting people from all walks of life, and from all corners of the empire, and most importantly in its historical importance as both a political and a social center of Achaemenid royal life. Engineering[edit] Persepolis Fortifications (PF) Tablets, dating to between 509 and 494 B.C.E. are ancient Persian documents that describe many aspects of construction and maintenance of the Persepolis.[18] The tablets are important because they highlight two important aspects of the Achaemenid life and the construction of Persepolis: Firstly, that the structure was created by workers, who were paid rations or wages, and secondly the structure had an intricate system of engineering involving weight bearing and architectural elements, and most notably an irrigation system composed of a system of closed pipes and open aqueducts. The following text from PF 1224, delineates both points: 32 BAN (9.7 litres) of grain...the high priest at Persepolis... received and gave (it as) bonus to post-partum Greek women at Persepolis, irrigation (workers), whose apportionment are set....[18] Water technologies[edit] The runoff and sewer network of Persepolis are among the most complex in the ancient world. Persepolis is constructed on the foot of a mountain (Rahmat Mountain), with an elevated terrace that is partially man made and partially part of the mountain complex. As Persepolis was in essence an important cultural center often used by the beginning of the spring during the festival of Nowruz it enjoyed great precipitation and water runoffs from the molten ice and snow. The sewer network assumed great importance at this critical time as it was meant to both handle the water flow downward from higher areas as well as manage the inhabitant's sewage runoffs, and their water needs.[19] In order to prevent flooding, the Achaemenids used two engineering techniques to divert snowmelt and mountain runoff: The first strategy was to collect the runoff in a reservoir that was a well with a square opening with dimensions of 4.2 m for the square opening, and a depth of 60 m, allowing a volume of 554 cubic meters, or 554,000 liters, (60 x 4.2 x 4.2) of runoff to be collected. The water would be diverted toward the reservoir via multiple masonry gutters strategically located around the structure. The second strategy was to divert water away from the structure, should the reservoirs be filled to capacity; this system used a 180 m long conduit, with 7 m width, and 2.6 m depth located just west of the site.[19] The water system however was far more complex than just the reservoirs and the water conduits and involved a very sophisticated ancient system of closed pipes and irrigation. The irrigation was divided into five zones, two serving north part of the structure and three the southern part. Amazingly the irrigation system was designed to be harmonious with the structure so that at places there were central drainage canals in the center of the columns and small draining holes and conduits on each floor that would take the water out of roof, each floor, and the sewage portals into an underground sewage network and away from the structure.[19] The five zones (I–V) all possessed a runoff capacity of 260 L/s (liter/second) which is certainly more than the amount needed for handling mountain runoff indicating that the system was also used for water supply to the inhabitants, sewage management, and even irrigation of the gardens around the structure.[19] A schematic diagram of the reservoir A photo of the reservoir as it exists today Irrigation zones (I,II) in north and (III, IV, V) in south[19] Structural technologies[edit] In order for such a massive structure to have functioned properly it meant that the weight of the roof, columns and indeed the terrace had to be distributed evenly. Construction at the base of the mountain offered some structural support. The ceiling material was a composite application of wood and stone decreasing its overall weight. Extensive use of stone in Persepolis, not only guaranteed its structural integrity for the duration of its use but also meant that its remains lasted longer than the mud-bricks of Susa palaces. The remaining structural columns & doorways Another view of the columns The columns and the door frames History[edit] Scholars agree that it was Darius the Great who initiated the construction and expansion of the Persepolis project, however German archaeologist Ernst E. Herzfeld, believed that it was Cyrus the Great who chose the site for the construction, although it ultimately came down to Darius the Great to finish the construction and create its impressive buildings. Excavations on behalf of the Oriental Institute of Chicago University, headed by Herzfeld in 1931 and later cooperation by Eric F. Schmidt in 1933 led to some of the most impressive uncovering of Achaemenid artifacts, palaces, and structures. Herzfeld felt that the site of Persepolis was made for special ceremonies and was meant to convey the power of the Achaemenid empire to its subject nations.[13] On some accounts, Persepolis was never officially finished as its existence was cut short by Alexander the Great, who in a fit of anger, ordered the burning of the city in 330 B.C.E. Started originally by Darius the Great a century earlier, the structure was constantly changing, receiving upgrades from subsequent Persian monarchs, and undergoing renovation to maintain its impressive façade. After the burning of the city, Persepolis was deserted and it was relatively lost to history until the excavations of Herzfeld, Schmidt, and the Chicago team uncovered it in the 1930s. This great historical artifact is unfortunately at serious risk of "irreparable damage"[3] from neglect, the elements, and vandalism. Persepolis was by no means the only large scale Achaemenid project, as Susa also hosted a similar structure initiated by Darius for similar ceremonial purposes. However, that history is able to enjoy the remains of Persepolis as opposed to meager remnants of Susa, owes partly to selection of stone in construction of Persepolis over mud-brick in Susa, and the fact that it had been relatively uninhabited, protecting it from wear and tear of inhabitants. Politically, Persepolis also was a significant find because nearby discovery of Naqsh-e Rustam, the Persian necropolis home to Darius the Great shed light on the significance it has had as one of the major capitals of the empire.[5] Naqsh-e Rustam would not only house Darius the Great, but also his son Xerxes the Great, Artaxerxes I, and Darius II as well. The necropolis complex was looted following invasion of Alexander, and possibly in the Sassanid period and during the Arab invasion. During the time of Shah of Iran, the structure enjoyed protection and coverage as Mohammad Reza Shah appeased to its royal and national symbolism. During this time period many western politicians, poets, artists, and writers were gravitated to Iran, and Persepolis, either as a function of the political relations with the Iranian monarchy or to report on, or visit the ruins. Such figures include the procession of international dignitaries attending the 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire held by Shah, as well as individual visits by such figures as Heinrich Lübke of Germany, and Ralph Graves of Life magazine. In an article in ``Life`` in 1971, Graves describes his experience at Persepolis in the following way: When you see Persepolis for the first time as I did, facing Marvdasht, you are likely to be disappointed but once inside the ruins themselves you are overwhelmed by the still-proud soaring columns, and by the quality and the fresh state of the bas-relief carvings which are certainly among the finest in the history of the world’s art. But mostly you are transfixed by the sudden realization that all this happened 24 centuries ago, and that people from every nation in the known world of the time had stood in the same place and felt the same.[20] Lubke in his visit to Persepolis Lubke and the bas-relief Lubke and the wall relief Theatrical performance by western artists in Shiraz Arts Festival Vandalism[edit] Throughout history there have been instances of neglect or vandalism in Persepolis. The most notable historical figure to vandalize this structure was Alexander the Great, who after entering Persepolis in 330 B.C.E. called it the "most hateful city in Asia" and allowed his Macedonian troops to pillage it.[21] Despite this stern hatred, Alexander also admired the Persians as is obvious through his respect for Cyrus the Great, and his act of giving a dignified burial to Darius III. Years later upon revisiting the city he had burnt, Alexander would regret his action. Plutarch depicts the paradoxical nature of Alexander when he recounts an anecdote in which Alexander pauses and talks to a fallen statue of Xerxes the Great as if it were a live person: Shall I pass by and leave you lying there because of the expeditions you led against Greece, or shall I set you up again because of your magnanimity and your virtues in other respects?[22] In retrospect, it must be understood that despite his momentary lapse of judgment and his role as having been the single most significant figure to bring an end to Persepolis, Alexander is not by any means the only. Many individuals in the following centuries would damage Persepolis including thieves and vandals during the Sassanid era. When the Arab armies invaded in the seventh century, they took to causing civil disturbances, religious persecution of Persians, and burning of the books. That no clear record of their vandalism remains to date, is most likely due to their destruction of books and historical records.[23] During the colonial era, and in WWII, the structure would also suffer vandalism at the hands of the Allies. Natural causes such as earthquakes and winds have also contributed to the overall demise of the structure.[24] The first French excavation in Susa carried out by the Dieulafoys and the looting and the destruction of Persian antiquities by the so-called archeologists had a deep impact on the site. Jane Dieulafoy writes in her diary: Yesterday I was gazing at the huge stone cow found recently; it weighs around 12,000 kilos! It is impossible to move such an enormous mass. I couldn't control my anger. I took a hammer and started striking the stone beast. I gave it some ferocious blows. The head of the pillar burst open like ripe fruit.[citation needed] Modern graffiti on the Achaemenid relief of Rawansar rock cut tomb, 2019, Kermanshah, Iran Even to date the structure is not safe from destruction and vandalism. After the Iranian revolution, a group of fundamentalists serving Khomeini, including his right-hand man Sadegh Khalkhali, tried to bulldoze both the renown Persian poet, Ferdowsi's tomb, and Persepolis, but they were stopped by the provisional government.[25] The gallery below highlights only some of these unfortunate acts of vandalism mostly by foreign visitors from the late 1800s to mid-1900s. Currently the structure is at high risk of "irreparable damage."[3] A graffito left during the Sassanid era by a horseman A graffito left by explorer Henry Morton Stanley of New York Herald English graffiti left by foreign visitors Virtual reconstruction[edit] French archaeologist, Egyptologist, and historian Charles Chipiez (1835–1901) has created some of the most advanced virtual drawings of what Persepolis would have looked like as a metropolis of the Persian Empire. The following mini-gallery depicts his virtual recreations.[26] The first image on the left is a view of the "Talar-i-Takht" or the 100 columns hall of Persepolis. Note on the far left portion of the image, the famous "lamassu" (or chimeric man, lion, eagle beast) greeting the visitors (look below for a picture of a lamassu). Chipiez's drawings delineate his technical prowess and attention to details. The second picture from the left, is Chipiez's drawing of the columns, their capital ornation, and roof structure of the palace of Darius in Persepolis, also known as "Tachar." It has bull details, as well as the use of wood in construction of the roof. This explains why the palace caught fire when Alexander the Great, set it aflame. The third picture from the left, is a more detailed, technical drawing of the "Talar-i-Takht" or the 100 column hall. Note the layering of the roof, the detailing on the edges of the roof, the window structures, and the technical detailing of the construction poles. The last picture, on the right, is a panoramic view of the outside of the palace of Darius the Great in Persepolis. Details of the Persepolis reliefs are depicted as one can note the symbolic scenes of lions attacking bulls, accompanied by two groups of Persian soldiers protecting (symbolically in this case) the infrastructure above. Hall of 100 columns (Hall of the throne, or "Talar-i-Takht") Analysis of the roof, and column's capital of the "Tachar" or palace of Darius An aerial reconstruction of the structure in "Talar-i-Takht" or 100 columns hall Virtual construction of the entrance to palace of Darius the Great, Persepolis Susa[edit] Main article: Palace of Darius in Susa Reconstruction drawing of the Palace of Darius at Susa Glazed siliceous bricks depicting palms disposed as flowers, (ca. 510 B.C.E.) from the palace of Darius the Great, Susa. Note the lively coloration preserved thanks to the structure, being protected from the elements by being buried. Item is currently on display in the Louvre, France Another decorative terra-cotta frieze from palace of Darius the Great at Susa, depicting what seems to be spirals. Note the blue color and the resemblance to the ocean Susa was an ancient city (5500 B.C.E) even by the time of the Achaemenids. Susa became a part of the Achaemenid Empire in 539 B.C.E., and was expanded upon by Darius the Great with construction of Palace of Darius, and later development of palace of Artaxerxes II. The palace had a unique Apadana, resembling the one in Persepolis, except this hall was much larger than its Persepolis counterpart covering some 9,200 square meters.[27] Cyrus the Great chose Susa as a site for one of his fortifications creating a wall there that was significantly taller than older walls made by the Elamites. This choice might have been to facilitate the trade from Persian Gulf northward.[13] What remains in way of structure from this once active capital, are five archaeological mounds, today located in modern Shush, in southwestern Iran, scattered over 250 hectares.[28] Structural details[edit] Darius's design of his palace in Susa would resemble Persepolis structurally and aesthetically but would incorporate more of a local flair. The structure hosted a large hall of throne or Apadana similar to the Apadana of the Persepolis. This Susa version of Apadana would be composed of three porticoes at right angles to each other, one of which was closed in all three sides by the walls, and only open in its southward direction. The palace was decorated with reliefs in enameled terra-cotta of lions walking.[27] Intricate scenes depicting archers of king Darius would decorate the walls, as well as motifs of nature such as double-bulls, unicorns, fasciae curling into volutes, and palms disposed as a flower or a bell. The archers in particular depict a unique symbiosis of Persian, Ionian and Greek artistry of the time probably reflecting the origin of the artists who were originally hired by Darius the Great, and their personal reflections on the finished work.[27] Perhaps the most striking terra-cotta relief is that of the griffin, depicting a winged creature resembling a lion with wings of an eagle (picture not shown here). The terra-cotta brick reliefs were decorated with lively dye colorations often giving them a lifelike quality. History[edit] Architecturally, the palace of Darius in Susa, was the epitome of the Persian architecture at the height of the empire's growth. Originally erected by Darius, and extensively renovated and modified by Artaxerxes II, it was meant to reflect the same opulence and prestige as Persepolis. This was Darius the Great's attempt to decorate his summer capital of Susa and to show case its glory. French archaeologist Marcel-Auguste Dieulafoy discovered the remnants of the palace of Darius, among the ruins of Susa producing the artifacts of this once magnificent structure now at display in the Louvre museum, France. He also wrote a series of architectural observations known as "L'Art antique de la Perse" which made a significant impression on the art community as to the intricacy of the Achaemenid architecture.[27] Although Dieulafoy and his wife Jane, made significant contributions in way of excavation, Susa remains were noted by many observers years before and were in fact officially noted by William K. Loftus in 1852.[28] Susa was a wealthy city by the time Alexander the Great invaded it, and it is said that he required 10,000 camels and 20,000 donkeys to carry away the treasures.[13] For the most part the architectural wealth of Susa lies in its palaces, and ceremonial structures most of which have been eroded away by time or wear and tear. Today the most important remnants of the Achaemenid contribution to the architecture of ancient Susa are found in remnants of the Palace of Darius the Great in the original excavation site, or hosted in foreign nations' museums as Persian artifacts. Today the archaeological remains of the structure remain exposed to the elements, wear and tear, and human activity, and it seems that remains of Susa would be forever lost to the humankind, except perhaps for few selected pieces on display at the Louvre or foreign nations' museums. Below are a few selected photos from the palace of Darius. The photo on the far left depicts the famous Archers' relief from the palace of Darius, from Susa. The second picture from the right, is a two-dimensional "lamassu" a mythical creature with wings of an eagle, head of a man, and body of a lion. The picture in the middle, is of the base of a column from the palace of Darius in Susa, inscribing in its rim, in three languages (Babylonian, Elamite, and Old Persian), that Darius, is the "great king of kings." Terra-cotta frieze of the Apadana of Susa, depicting an Achaemenid soldier. Note the intricate clothing details, and lively coloration of the piece Bell shaped base of a column from the palace of Darius in Susa bearing a trilingual inscription: "I, Darius, the great king of the kings" A creature with a head of a man, body of a lion, and wings of an eagle, resembling a "lamassu," from the palace of Darius, Susa, Shush Remnant of the Apadana at Susa built by Darius I. Only the foundations remain, but there was once a large hall of columns located on this structure. Naqsh-e Rustam[edit] A panorama of the Naqsh-e Rustam mountain complex Naqsh-e Rustam is an archaeological site located about 6 kilometers to the northwest of Persepolis in Marvdasht region in the Fars province of Iran.[29] Nash-e Rustam acts as a necropolis for the Achaemenid kings, but is a significant historical entity in that it also housed ancient Elamite relief, as well as later relief by the Sassanid kings. Naqsh-e Rustam is not the actual name of this massive structure, but is the New Persian compound word composed of "Naqsh" meaning "face", or "facade", and "Rustam" referring to the hero of the Persian epic Shahnameh. The Elamites, Achaemenids, and the Sassanids lived centuries before the drafting of the Shahnameh by the Persian poet Ferdowsi, and therefore the name is a misnomer, the result of the great amnesia of Persians about their ancient past, that settled over them after being conquered by the Arabs.[30] The name therefore is a retrospective creation, due to lack of historical documents and lack of any inclusive knowledge of its origin. In ancient Persia, this structure would overlook the now long gone city of Istakhr easily accessible from Persepolis. Istakhr had a religious role as it was the place where Achaemenids held their reverence of the water goddess Anahita. The structure is carved into a native limestone rock mountain, and houses the burial chambers of Darius the Great, Xerxes I, Artaxerxes I, and Darius II, all Achaemenid monarchs of Persia. There is also an incomplete tomb, as only its lower cruciform arm is carved out of the rock, while the rest is unfinished. It is speculated to belong to king Darius III.[29][30] The kings were interred behind a facade and rock relief, that would resemble an accurate depiction of the king's own palace and its structural details. The accuracy of the facade and its association with the actual structure of the kings' palaces is so close that they almost produce a view of how the structures would have looked before time reduced them to remains; Tomb of Darius the Great, for instance mirrors his palace in Persepolis, the "Tachar" even in scale and dimensions.[30] The tombs are carved into the mountain's side, in form of a cross (Old Persian: chalipa), depressed into the mountain's limestone background, and elevated from the ground. The relief which is found in the depressed cruciform is that which depicts the respective king's palace, and also depicts on its roof, the relief figure of the king praying, to Ahuramazda or what most believe is a reference to the Zoroastrian icon, Faravahar.[30] One of the enigmatic features of the complex is a cubical, stone structure standing 12.5 meters tall, and around 7 meters wide, called the "Ka'ba-ye Zartosht" translating to the "Cube of Zoroaster" believed to have been constructed during the Acahemenid era and modified and changed during the Sassanid era. The structure is cubical in base, with blind impressions on the side resembling windows, and a ruined staircase leading to a small door in the front leading to a completely empty interior.[29][30] There are varied speculations as to its function discussed below. The structure also once housed an ancient Elamite relief which has been almost entirely replaced by the Sassanid reliefs. Today but a figure of a man remains of the Elamite contribution to this mountain. The later Sassanids, also created their own historical signature on the structure, called the Naqsh-e Rajab. Though numerous and very detailed, the study of the Sassanid architectural achievements sheds light on some of the architectural achievements during the second Persian empire's reign. A view of the complex including "Cube of Zoroaster" in the northeastern direction. Note the depth of the cruciforms Burial tomb of Darius the Great. Note the relief of Bahram II of the Sassanids at the base Burial tomb of Artaxerxes I. Note the relief of Hormizd II of the Sassanids at the base Ka'ba-ye Zartosht[edit] A close up view of the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht ("Cube of Zoroaster") showing the stairs, the narrow opening, and the blind windows. Note its placement in a depression, as well as the unique rectangular markings on the façade This enigmatic structure stands erect around 12.5 meters tall (~ 35 feet), with a linear, cubical shape and a square base (~ 22 feet in sides),[11] constructed in what is essentially a dug out rectangular depression, having on all but one of its sides, four rectangular depressions resembling blind windows, and multiple minute rectangular depressions in the façade interdispersed among the blind windows as well as the side housing the staircase. The staircase leads to a small door (5 feet by 6 feet in dimensions) opening to an interior apartment of about 12 feet square.[11] The structure's roof houses a minimal entablature of a repeating square pattern.[11] The entire structure is posited on a raised stone platform that is composed of a few stone slabs, in a sequentially smaller yet in a concentric, pyramidally shaped succession. This structure is enigmatic, both in its aesthetic choice seen in its rather odd design, and façade, as well as its location, and supposed function. "Zendan-i-Soleiman" or Jail of Solomon in Pasargadae. Note the incredible resemblance between this structure and the "Cube of Zoroaster" (shown left) down to the details of the façade From one perspective, its proximity to the kings' tombs, and its simple design, is by some scholars thought to indicate that the cube was a Zoroastrian temple, and the Naqsh-e Rustam was more than a mere place for grieving of the deceased kings, but a grand festive center where crowds would gather on festive days to observe the king pray to Ahuramazda, and bask in the structure's magnitude while praying to Ahuramazda.[30] This would certainly be logical as the city was also adjacent to Istakhr, a major religious and cultural center. The concept of the temple being used as a fire sanctuary, is however not likely because there is no general ventilation for smoke and gasses, and also that it differs so drastically, architecturally and aesthetically from other well known contemporary temple sites in Pars.[31] Curiously the design although unique, is not the only one of its kind. Located not far away from the Cube of Zoroaster, there exists in Pasargadae, even to date, remnants of a structure that is very similar in its square shape and design to the "Cube of Zoroaster", called "Zendan-i-Suleiman."[11] The name "Zendan-i-Suleiman," is a compound word composed of the words, "Zendan" which is Persian for "jail", and "Suleiman" which is a local Persian dialect name of the King Solomon, translating to "Jail of Solomon." Structurally both "Jail of Solomon" and "Cube of Zoroaster" have the same cubic shape, and even resemble each other in the most minute of details, including facade, and dimensions. The name "Jail of Solomon" is of course a misnomer since Solomon never did erect this structure. The term must have come as a result of a Persian tactic advised by local Persians, to protect both Cyrus the Great's tomb, and the surrounding structures including this temple, from invading Arabs' destruction, by calling the mausoleum, the "tomb of Solomon's mother" and the temple in Pasargadae, the "Jail of Solomon."[14] Just like the "Cube of Zoroaster", the function of the "Solomon's Jail" is not well understood. There are theories about the structures being used as a depository of objects of dynastic or religious importance as well as theories of it being a temple of fire.[11] It should also be noted, that the structures as they exist today are not simply the work of the Achaemenid architects and have been modified, and improved by the Sassanids, who also used them for their festive, and political needs. An aerial view of the site. "K" denotes the "Cube of Zoroaster." Letters (A,B,C,D) denote tombs of Darius II, Artaxerxes I, Darius the Great, and Xerxes I respectively. Numbers are Sassanid reliefs Faintly made out head, and crown of an Elamite figure's relief in Naqsh-e Rustam. The locals must have assumed the Elamite figures were those of the Persian epic hero Rostam Faint, if not unrecognizable remnants of what seems to be a throne of an Elamite king. Sassanid empire reliefs eliminated the Elamite remnants Behistun inscription[edit] Behistun inscription Carved high in Mount Behistun of Kermanshah, one can find the Behistun inscription, a text etched into the stone of the mountain describing the manner in which Darius became the king of Persia, after the previous ruler (Cambyses II), and how he overthrew the magus usurper of the throne.[32] In this inscription Darius also details his satraps and delineates his position as the king and emperor of the Persian empire. A schematic representation of the Behistun inscription. Note from left to right: Two guards serving Darius the Great, the king himself stepping over the alleged usurper Gaumata, a group of Gaumata's magi conspirators in chains before the king Architecturally speaking, the Behistun inscription is a massive project, that entailed cutting into the rough edge of the mountain in order to create bas-relief figures as seen in the pictures above. The Behistun mountain, rises up to some 1700 feet as part of the Zagros mountain chains in Iran. The mountain's location is ideal being close to both Ecbatana and Babylonia.[33] The bas-relief itself is located some 300 feet above the base of the mountain. The figures represent two of the king's soldiers, the king himself standing over a fallen usurper and captives of several nations possibly dissidents, or co-conspirators. The inscription itself is written in cuneiform character in Old Persian, Babylonian, and Median.[33] The inscription is interpreted and deciphered with the help of many intellectuals and scholars, but the Orientalist Sir Henry Rawlinson is credited as being most critical in the process of deciphering the piece.[33] Part of why the understanding of the text is so vivid today is owed to Darius the Great himself, for he wrote the message of the inscription in three language, and so allowed the modern scholars to decipher one language and follow through the other two, since the message was essentially similar in all three forms. In this sense, the Behistun inscription is not only a significant architectural work, but also a significant linguistic tool, as important to the old world understanding of ancient Persia and its languages, as Rosetta Stone is to understanding ancient Egypt and its languages.[34] A close up photograph of the Behistun inscription showing the figure of Darius the Great. Note the detail in the arrow, and the positioning of the king and his hand posture Outline tracing of the figure of Darius on the Behistun inscription A picture of Mount Behistun. Note the size of the climbers compared to the size of the mountain A panorama of the Behistun inscription. Note that the relief inscription is 300 feet off the ground Legacy and influences[edit] Elements of the Achaemenid style can be seen in contemporary Iranian architecture. Buildings built by the Pahlavi dynasty, in particular, show extensive influence of Achaemenid architecture and art. Khakh-e Shahrbani, currently a building of the Iranian Ministry of Foreign Affairs Khakh-e Sahrbani shows combination of elements from Achamenid and Persian Islamic styles Tehran University College of Social Sciences shows obvious traces of architecture from Persepolis. Dariush Grand Hotel, Kish Island, Persian Gulf Courthouse of Tehran Sanduq-e Pas-Andaz-e Bank Melli Iran Building, Ferdowsi Avenue Anooshiravan-e Dadgar Girls' High School Sherkat-e Farsh-e Iran Wikimedia Commons has media related to Achaemenid architecture. See also[edit] Architecture of Mesopotamia Ancient Greek architecture Ancient Egyptian architecture References[edit] ^ Charles Henry Caffin (1917). How to study architecture. Dodd, Mead and Company. p. 80. ^ Fallah'far, Sa'id (2010). The Dictionary of Iranian Traditional Architectural Terms (Persian: فرهنگ واژه‌های معماری سنتی ایران). Kamyab Publications. p. 44. ISBN 978-964-350-316-1. LCCN 2010342544. ^ a b c d e f Marco Bussagli (2005). Understanding Architecture. I.B.Tauris. p. 211. ISBN 9781845110895. ^ a b Charles Gates (2003). Ancient cities: the archaeology of urban life in the Ancient Near East and Egypt, Greece and Rome. Psychology Press. p. 186. ISBN 9780415121828. ^ a b c Ronald W. Ferrier (1989). The Arts of Persia. Yale University Press. pp. 27–8. ISBN 0300039875. ^ a b UNESCO World Heritage Centre (2006). "Pasargadae". Retrieved December 26, 2010. ^ D. Stronach, Pasargadae. A Report of the Excavations Conducted by the British Institute of Persian Studies from 1961 to 1963, Oxford, 1978 (the basic reference for the tomb of Cyrus).pp. 26-39, pls. 19-39. ^ ((Grk.) Lucius Flavius Arrianus) (En.) Arrian – (trans.) Charles Dexter Cleveland (1861) A compendium of classical literature:comprising choice extracts translated from Greek and Roman writers, with biographical sketches Biddle. p. 313-314 ^ a b c ((Grk.) Lucius Flavius Arrianus) (En.) Arrian – (trans.) Charles Dexter Cleveland (1861). A compendium of classical literature:comprising choice extracts translated from Greek and Roman writers, with biographical sketches. Biddle. p. 313. ^ Abraham Valentine Williams Jackson (1906). Persia past and present. The Macmillan Company. pp. 278. ^ a b c d e f James Fergusson (1851). The palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis restored: an essay on ancient Assyrian and Persian architecture, Volume 5. J. Murray. pp. 214–216 & 206–209 (Zoroaster Cube: pp. 206). ^ Ralph Griffiths; George Edward Griffiths (1816). The Monthly review. Printers Street, London. pp. 509. ^ a b c d e f g h Aedeen Cremin (2007). Archaeologica: The World's Most Significant Sites and Cultural Treasures. frances lincoln Ltd. pp. 227–29. ISBN 9780711228221. ^ a b Andrew Burke; Mark Elliot (2008). Iran. Lonely Planet. p. 284. ^ James D. Cockcroft (1989). Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Shah of Iran. Chelsea House Publishers. ISBN 9781555468477. ^ a b c d e Ilya Gershevitch (1985). The Cambridge history of Iran: The Median and Achaemenian periods, Volume 2. Cambridge University Press. pp. 392–398. ISBN 9780521200912. ^ a b c R. Schmitt; D. Stronach (December 15, 1986). "APADANA". Encyclopedia Iranica. Retrieved Jan 23, 2011. ^ a b George Boys-Stones; Barbara Graziosi; Phiroze Vasunia (2009). The Oxford handbook of Hellenic studies. Oxford University Press US. pp. 42–47. ISBN 9780199286140. ^ a b c d e L. Mays; M. Moradi-Jalal; et al. (2010). Ancient Water Technologies. Springer. pp. 95–100. ISBN 9789048186327. ^ Ralph Graves (October 15, 1971). "A stunning setting for a 2500th anniversary". Life magazine. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ Laura Foreman (2004). Alexander the conqueror: the epic story of the warrior king, Volume 2003. Da Capo Press. p. 152. ISBN 9780306812934. ^ O'Brien, John Maxwell (1994). Alexander the Great: The Invisible Enemy: A Biography. Psychology Press. p. 104. ISBN 978-0-415-10617-7. ^ Solomon Alexander Nigosian (1993). The Zoroastrian faith: tradition and modern research. McGill-Queen's Press. pp. 47–48. ISBN 9780773511446. ^ N. N. Ambraseys; C. P. Melville (2005). A History of Persian Earthquakes. Cambridge University Press. p. 198. ISBN 9780521021876. ^ Reza Aslan (April 30, 2006). "The Epic of Iran". New York Times. Retrieved Jan 30, 2011. ^ Georges Perrot; Charles Chipiez (1892). History of art in Persia. Chapman and Hall, limited. pp. 336–43 & others. ^ a b c d Giulio Carotti (1908). A History of Art. Duckworth & Co. pp. 94–7. ^ a b David Noel Freedman; Allen C. Myers; Astrid B. Beck (2000). Eerdmans dictionary of the Bible. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 1258. ISBN 9780802824004. ^ a b c Gene Ralph Garthwaite (2005). The Persians. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 51–55. ISBN 9781405144001. ^ a b c d e f Paul Kriwaczek (2004). In Search of Zarathustra: Across Iran and Central Asia to Find the World's First Prophet. Random House, Inc. pp. 88–90. ISBN 9780307426352. ^ Ali Sami (1956). Pasargadae: the oldest imperial capital. Musavi Printing Office. pp. 90–94. ^ John Kitto; Henry Burgess; Benjamin Harris Cowper (1856). The journal of sacred literature and Biblical record, Volume 3. A. Heylin. pp. 183–5. ^ a b c Philip Smith (1865). A history of the world from the earliest records to the present time: ancient history, Volume 1. D. Appleton. p. 298. ^ J. Poolos (2008). Darius the Great. Infobase Publishing. pp. 38–9. ISBN 9780791096338. v t e Achaemenid Empire History Kingdom Family tree Timeline History of democracy Art Achaemenid Persian Lion Rhyton Achaemenid coinage Danake Persian daric Architecture Achaemenid architecture Persepolis Pasargadae Tomb of Cyrus Naqsh-e Rostam Ka'ba-ye Zartosht Mausoleum at Halicarnassus Tombs at Xanthos Harpy Tomb Nereid Monument Tomb of Payava Culture Persepolis Administrative Archives Old Persian cuneiform Old Persian Behistun Inscription Xerxes I's inscription at Van Ganjnameh Warfare Persian Revolt Battle of Hyrba Battle of the Persian Border Lydian-Persian Wars Battle of Pteria Battle of Thymbra Siege of Sardis (547 BC) Battle of Opis First conquest of Egypt Battle of Cunaxa Conquest of the Indus Valley Scythian campaign of Darius I Greco-Persian Wars Ionian Revolt Battle of Thermopylae Battle of Artemisium Battle of Salamis Battle of Plataea Battle of Mycale Battle of Marathon Delian League Battle of Lade Siege of Eretria Siege of Naxos (499 BC) Wars of the Delian League Battle of the Eurymedon Peloponnesian War Battle of Cyzicus Corinthian War Battle of Cnidus Great Satraps' Revolt Second conquest of Egypt Wars of Alexander the Great Battle of Gaugamela Battle of the Granicus Battle of the Persian Gate Battle of Issus Siege of Gaza Siege of Halicarnassus Siege of Miletus Siege of Perinthus Siege of Tyre (332 BC) Related Achaemenid dynasty Pharnacid dynasty Peace of Antalcidas Peace of Callias Kingdom of Pontus Mithridatic dynasty Kingdom of Cappadocia Ariarathid dynasty 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire Districts of the Empire Royal Road Xanthian Obelisk v t e Persepolis Palace Tachara Gate of All Nations Other sections Tomb of Artaxerxes III builders Darius the Great Xerxes I Artaxerxes I of Persia Researchers Heidemarie Koch Erich Schmidt (archaeologist) Alireza Shapour Shahbazi Related Tangeh Bolaghi 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire Sivand Dam Persepolis Administrative Archives Waterskin Achaemenid architecture Category:Persepolis v t e History of architecture Architectural timeline History of construction Neolithic Mesopotamian Ancient Egyptian Chinese Dravidian Hindu Maya Classical Mesoamerican Achaemenid Persia Ancient Greek Etruscan Ancient Roman Indian Incan Sasanian Byzantine Moorish architecture Moroccan Russian Islamic Newari Medieval Scandinavian Buddhist Somali Persian Japanese Korean Carolingian Hoysala Pre-Romanesque Romanesque Norman architecture Romano-Gothic Gothic Sondergotik Plateresque Manueline Vijayanagara Western Chalukya Ottoman Renaissance Palladian Spanish Spanish Colonial Portuguese Portuguese Colonial Mughal Sikh Baroque Andean Czech Dutch Edwardian English French Italian Maltese Petrine Portuguese Siberian Ukrainian Biedermeier Classicism Revivalism Baroque Byzantine Colonial Egyptian Gothic Mayan Mediterranean Mission Moorish Mycenaean Neo-Manueline Pueblo Queen Anne Renaissance Russian Spanish Colonial Territorial Tudor Neoclassical Historicism Gründerzeit 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en-wikipedia-org-4124	----	Aperanat - Wikipedia Aperanat From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Egyptian king 'Aper-'Anati Aperanat, Aper-Anat Scarab seal of 'Aper-'Anati made of glazed steatite. London, Petrie Museum.[1][2][3] Heka-chasut Reign unknown duration (uncertain dynasty, possibly 15th Dynasty, otherwise 16th Dynasty) Predecessor Semqen (Ryholt) or Anat-her (von Beckerath) Successor Sakir-Har (Ryholt) or Semqen (von Beckerath) Royal titulary Nomen Heka-chasut 'Aper-'Anati Ruler of the foreign lands, dust of Anat[4](in west semitic language) Ḥq3-ḫ3swt ˁpr-ˁnti Aper-'Anati (also written Aper-Anat and Aperanat) was a ruler of Lower Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period in the mid-17th century BC. According to Jürgen von Beckerath he was the second king of the 16th Dynasty and a vassal of the Hyksos kings of the 15th Dynasty.[5] This opinion was recently rejected by Kim Ryholt. In his 1997 study of the Second Intermediate Period, Ryholt argues that the kings of the 16th Dynasty ruled an independent Theban realm c. 1650–1580 BC.[4] Consequently, Ryholt sees 'Aper-'Anati as an early Hyksos king of the 15th Dynasty, perhaps its second ruler. This analysis has convinced some Egyptologists, such as Darrell Baker and Janine Bourriau,[6][7] but not others including Stephen Quirke.[8] 'Aper-'Anati is only known from a single scarab-seal, now in the Petrie Museum.[1][9] On the scarab he is given the title of Heka-chasut, which translates as "Ruler of the Foreign Lands" and from which the word Hyksos is derived. Significantly, this title was borne by the early Hyksos kings of the 15th Dynasty. Based on this evidence, Ryholt tentatively proposes that 'Aper-'Anati was the second ruler of the 15th Dynasty,[4] but points out that this identification is not certain. References[edit] ^ a b Flinders Petrie: Scarabs and cylinders with names (1917), available copyright-free here, pl. XXI, n. 15.1 ^ Scarab of 'Aper-'Anati, catalog of the Petrie Museum ^ Scarab seal of Aperanat on Digital Egypt ^ a b c Kim Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz : P. von Zabern, 1999, ISBN 3-8053-2591-6 ^ Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 60–61 ^ Janine Bourriau, Ian Shaw (editor): The Oxford history of ancient Egypt, chapter The Second Intermediate Period, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2003, ISBN 0-19-280458-8, [1] ^ Stephen Quirke, Marcel Maree (editor): The Second Intermediate Period Thirteenth - Seventeenth Dynasties, Current Research, Future Prospects, Leuven 2011, Paris — Walpole, MA. ISBN 978-9042922280, p. 56, n. 6 ^ Geoffrey Thorndike Martin: Egyptian administrative and private-name seals, principally of the Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period, Griffith Institute 1971, ISBN 978-0900416019, see p. 30, seal No. 318 v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aperanat&oldid=996143990" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages አማርኛ Català Deutsch Español Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски ไทย Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 24 December 2020, at 20:12 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4126	----	Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator - Wikipedia Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Pharaoh of Egypt from 51 to 47 BC Pharaoh of Egypt Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator An engraving depicting Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator by French artist Élisabeth Sophie Chéron (1648–1711), published c. 1736; the portrait is based on a medallion dated to the 1st c. BC. Pharaoh of Egypt Reign 51–47 BC Predecessor Ptolemy XII Auletes Successor Cleopatra VII and Ptolemy XIV Philopator Alongside Cleopatra VII and Arsinoe IV Born 62/61 BC Died prob. 13 January 47 BC Nile river Spouse Cleopatra VII (sister) Greek Πτολεμαίος ΙΓ΄ Θεός Φιλοπάτωρ Dynasty Ptolemaic Father Ptolemy XII Auletes Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator[1] (Greek: Πτολεμαῖος Θεός Φιλοπάτωρ, Ptolemaĩos; c. 61 BC – 13 January 47 BC) was Pharaoh of Egypt from 51 to 47 BC, and one of the last members of the Ptolemaic dynasty (305–30 BC). He was the son of Ptolemy XII and the brother of and co-ruler with Cleopatra VII. Cleopatra's exit from Egypt caused a civil war to break out between the pharaohs. Ptolemy later ruled jointly with his other sister, Arsinoe IV. Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Co-ruler of Egypt, inner turmoil 1.2 Civil war 2 Cultural depictions 3 Ancestry 4 References 5 External links Biography[edit] Co-ruler of Egypt, inner turmoil[edit] Hellenistic bust of Ptolemy XII, father of Ptolemy XIII; Louvre, Paris Roman bust of Cleopatra VII, sister-wife of Ptolemy XIII; Altes Museum, Antikensammlung Berlin Son of Ptolemy XII (r. 80–58 BC and 55–51 BC), he succeeded his father as pharaoh in the spring of 51 BC as co-ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom by his marriage to his older sister Cleopatra (r. 51–30 BC). In October 50 BC, Ptolemy XIII was promoted to senior ruler along with her, although the eunuch Pothinus acted as regent for him. In the spring of 48 BC, Ptolemy XIII and Pothinus attempted to depose Cleopatra due to her increasing status as queen. Her face appeared on minted coins, for example, while Ptolemy XIII's name was omitted on official documents. Ptolemy intended to become main ruler, with Pothinus acting as the power behind the throne. Civil war[edit] Ptolemy XIII and Pothinus managed to force Cleopatra to flee to Syria, but she soon organized her own army and a civil war began in Egypt. Soon their other sister started to claim the throne as Arsinoe IV of Egypt (r. 48–47 BC), further complicating the situation. At this point, defeated Roman general Pompey the Great came to Egypt seeking refuge from his pursuing rival Julius Caesar. Initially, Ptolemy XIII pretended to have accepted his request, but on 29 September 48 BC, he had the general murdered by Achillas and Lucius Septimius in hopes of winning favor with Caesar when the victorious general arrived. When Caesar arrived he was presented with the head of his deceased rival and former ally, but reportedly, instead of being pleased, Caesar reacted with disgust and ordered that Pompey's body be located and given a proper Roman funeral. Cleopatra VII proved more successful in winning Caesar's favor and became his lover. Caesar arranged the execution of Pothinus and the official return to the throne of Cleopatra VII, though she had never officially abdicated her marriage to Ptolemy XIII. Still determined to depose Cleopatra VII, Ptolemy XIII allied himself with Arsinoe IV. Jointly, they organized the factions of the army loyal to them against those loyal to Cleopatra VII and the relatively small part of his army that had accompanied Caesar to Egypt. The battle between the warring factions occurred in mid-December 48 BC inside Alexandria itself (Siege of Alexandria (47 BC)), which suffered serious damage.[2] Around this time, the burning of the Library of Alexandria occurred.[3] Upon the arrival of Roman reinforcements, the Battle of the Nile (47 BC) ensued and resulted in a victory for Caesar and Cleopatra, forcing Ptolemy XIII to flee the city. He reportedly drowned on 13 January 47 BC while attempting to cross the Nile. Whether he was attempting to flee or was seeking negotiations remains uncertain from sources of the time. Cleopatra VII remained the unchallenged ruler of Egypt, although she named their younger brother Ptolemy XIV of Egypt (r. 47–44 BC) her new co-ruler. Cultural depictions[edit] Ptolemy appears in George Frideric Handel's 1724 opera Giulio Cesare in Egitto ("Julius Caesar in Egypt"). George Bernard Shaw's play Caesar and Cleopatra also features him. In the motion picture Cleopatra (1963), Ptolemy was played by Richard O'Sullivan. Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator and his fight with Caesar and Cleopatra for the control of Egypt is featured in the HBO TV series Rome episode "Caesarion" and is also depicted in the second season of the Netflix series Roman Empire. He was one of fifteen Ptolemies featured in the BBC series The Cleopatras and played by Daniel Beales. He will be featured in the Channel 5 series "Eight Days that made Rome". He appears as a non-playable character in the 2017 video game Assassin's Creed Origins, set in the final days of his rule. He is the main character in Emily Holleman's 2017 novel The Drowning King, the second novel in The Fall of Egypt series. He also features as a character in Cleopatra's Shadow, the first novel in the series. Ancestry[edit] Ancestors of Ptolemy XIII of Egypt 16. Ptolemy V Epiphanes 8. Ptolemy VIII Physcon 17. Cleopatra I of Egypt 4. Ptolemy IX Lathyros 18. Ptolemy VI Philometor (brother of 8) 9. Cleopatra III of Egypt 19. Cleopatra II of Egypt (sister of 8) 2. Ptolemy XII Auletes 20. =16. Ptolemy V Epiphanes 10. =8. Ptolemy VIII Physcon 21. =17. Cleopatra I of Egypt 5. Cleopatra IV of Egypt 22. =18. Ptolemy VI Philometor 11. =9. Cleopatra III of Egypt 23. =19. Cleopatra II of Egypt 1. Ptolemy XIII 24. =16. Ptolemy V Epiphanes 12. =8. Ptolemy VIII Physcon 25. =17. Cleopatra I of Egypt 6. Ptolemy X Alexander I 26. =18. Ptolemy VI Philometor 13. =9. Cleopatra III of Egypt 27. =19. Cleopatra II of Egypt 3. Cleopatra V of Egypt 28. =8. Ptolemy VIII Physcon 14. =4. Ptolemy IX Lathyros 29. =9. Cleopatra III of Egypt 7. Berenice III of Egypt 30. =8. Ptolemy VIII Physcon 15. Cleopatra Selene I 31. =9. Cleopatra III of Egypt References[edit] ^ Numbering the Ptolemies is a modern convention. Older sources may give a number one higher or lower. The most reliable way of determining which Ptolemy is being referred to in any given case is by epithet (e.g. "Philopator"). His name means "Ptolemy, God Beloved of his Father". ^ Plutarch, Life of Julius Caesar, 49:3. ^ Aulus Gellius. Attic Nights book 7 chapter 17. External links[edit] Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Ptolemaic dynasty Born: ca. 62 BC Died: ca. 47 BC Regnal titles Preceded by Ptolemy XII and Cleopatra VII Pharaoh of Egypt 51–ca. 47 BC with Cleopatra VII Succeeded by Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIV v t e Hellenistic rulers Argeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Kings of Cyrene Magas Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Kings of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Kings of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Kings of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Kings of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus Kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon (regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces Asander with Dynamis Mithridates II Asander with Dynamis Scribonius’ attempted rule with Dynamis Dynamis with Polemon Polemon with Pythodorida Aspurgus Mithridates III with Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control ULAN: 500372672 VIAF: 4150150325533010090006 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 4150150325533010090006 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ptolemy_XIII_Theos_Philopator&oldid=1001263981" Categories: 60s BC births 47 BC deaths 1st-century BC Pharaohs Ancient child rulers Deaths by drowning Husbands of Cleopatra Pharaohs of the Ptolemaic dynasty Rulers who died as children Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from January 2021 Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Malagasy مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский සිංහල Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 18 January 2021, at 23:10 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4135	----	Ramesses VIII - Wikipedia Ramesses VIII From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ramesses VIII Also written Ramses and Rameses A relief of Prince Sethiherkhepeshef II, one of Ramesses III's many sons, from the latter's temple at Medinet Habu. Sethiherkhepeshef II later briefly ascended the throne as king Ramesses VIII. Pharaoh Reign 1130–1129 BC (20th Dynasty) Predecessor Ramesses VII Successor Ramesses IX Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Usermaatre-Akhenamun Nomen Ramesses (Sethherkhepsef)meryamun Father Ramesses III Died 1129 BC Usermare Akhenamun Ramesses VIII (also written Ramses and Rameses) or Ramesses Sethherkhepshef Meryamun ('Set is his Strength, beloved of Amun')[1] (reigned 1130–1129 BC, or 1130 BC[2]), was the seventh Pharaoh of the Twentieth Dynasty of the New Kingdom of Egypt and was one of the last surviving sons of Ramesses III.[3] Contents 1 Reign 2 Burial 3 References 4 External links Reign[edit] Ramesses VIII is the most obscure ruler of this Dynasty and the current information from his brief kingship suggests that he lasted on the throne for one year at the most.[4][5] Some scholars assign him a maximum reign of two years. The fact that he succeeded to power after the death of Ramesses VII—his nephew and a son of Ramesses VI—may indicate a continuing problem in the royal succession.[4] Ramesses VIII was probably a son of Ramesses III. Ramesses VIII's prenomen or royal name, Usermaatre Akhenamun, means "Powerful is the maat of Ra, Helpful to Amun."[6] Monuments from his reign are scarce and consist primarily of an inscription at Medinet Habu, a mention of this ruler in one document—Berlin stele 2081 of Hori at Abydos—and one scarab. His only known date is a Year 1, I Peret day 2 graffito in the tomb of Kyenebu (Theban Tomb 113) at Thebes.[7] According to Erik Hornung in a 2006 book,[8] the accession date of Ramesses VIII has been established by Amin Amer to date to an eight-month interval between I Peret day 2 and I Season of the Inundation day 13.[9] The tomb inscription notes that it took 3.5 months from Year 1, I Akhet day 13 of Ramesses VIII to start work and paint scenes on a tomb chapel in Kyenebu's tomb up until Year 1, I Peret day 2 to complete the work.[10] Since no year change occurs in this time interval, the accession date for Ramesses VIII must fall outside this period of this text, "i.e., within I Peret 3 to I Akhet 12."[11] Burial[edit] He is the sole pharaoh of the Twentieth Dynasty whose tomb has not been definitely identified in the Valley of the Kings, though some scholars have suggested that the tomb of Prince Mentuherkhepshef, KV19, the son of Ramesses IX, was originally started for Ramesses VIII but proved unsuitable when he became a king in his own right. An all-Egyptian team of researchers headed by Afifi Rohiem under the supervision of Dr. Zahi Hawass were looking for the pharaoh's tomb.[12] Work on the tomb of Ramesses VIII might have started before he ascended the throne, when he was known as prince Sethherkhepshef, as suggested by an ostracon discovered in the Valley of the Queens. Before he became Pharaoh, the tomb QV43 in the Valley of the Queens was constructed for him, however, the tomb was never used.[13][14] References[edit] ^ Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames & Hudson Ltd, 2006 paperback, p.167 ^ "Chronological Table for the Dynastic Period" in Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss & David Warburton (editors), Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies), Brill, 2006. p.493 ^ Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, (Blackwell Books: 1992), pp.288-289 ^ a b Clayton, p.169 ^ Grimal, op. cit., p.289 ^ Clayton, p.167 ^ Tomb No.113: see P.M. I, i (1960), pp.230-231 ^ Erik Hornung, "The New Kingdom" in Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss & David Warburton (editors), Handbook of Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies), Brill: 2006, p.216 ^ A. Amer, A Unique Theban Tomb Inscription under Ramesses VIII, GM 49, 1981, pp.9-12 ^ Amer, p.9 ^ Amer, p.10 ^ www.guardians.net ^ "Valley of the Queens". mathstat.slu.edu. Retrieved 2018-04-26. ^ "Valley of the Queens - Tomb 43". ib205.tripod.com. Retrieved 2018-04-26. External links[edit] Ramesses VIII at Find a Grave Preceded by Ramesses VII Pharaoh of Egypt Twentieth Dynasty Succeeded by Ramesses IX v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ramesses_VIII&oldid=975761211" Categories: 12th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt 1120s BC deaths 12th century BC in Egypt 12th-century BC rulers Ramesses III Hidden categories: Year of birth unknown AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 30 August 2020, at 07:57 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4138	----	Elephant (pharaoh) - Wikipedia Elephant (pharaoh) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Elephant Pen-Abw Rock inscription from Qustul Pharaoh Reign c. 3240-3220 BC (Predynastic Egypt) Predecessor Unknown Successor Unknown Royal titulary Horus name (Hor) Pen-Abu Pn-3bw Great one from the (throne) seat Burial unknown Elephant (maybe read as Pen-Abu[1]) is the provisional name of a Predynastic ruler in Egypt. Since the incarved rock inscriptions and ivory tags showing his name are either drawn sloppily, or lacking any royal crest, the reading and thus whole existence of king "Elephant" are highly disputed. Contents 1 Identity 2 Reign 3 See also 4 References Identity[edit] The proposed existence of Elephant is based on Günter Dreyer's and Ludwig David Morenz's essays. They are convinced that Elephant was a local king who ruled at the region of Qustul. According to Dreyer, Elephant's name appears in incised rock inscriptions at Qustul and Gebel Sheikh-Suleiman, where the hieroglyphs are put inside a royal serekh. On ivory tags found at Abydos, the Elephant appears without any other royal crest. Dreyer sees a cube-shaped throne seat and a walking elephant beneath it and reads Pen-Abu ("Great one from the (throne) seat").[2] Morenz thinks alike but is highly uncertain about the reading of the name. He prefers to use the neutral provisional name "King Elephant". Alternatively, he proposes a rhinoceros as a royal animal. Morenz points out that it became a remarkable fashion during the Naqada III epoch to choose dangerous and unpredictable animals (such as lions, crocodiles, elephants and rhinoceroses) for building up royal names.[3] Other Egyptologists, such as Peter Kaplony and Toby Wilkinson, are not so sure and propose different readings. Whilst Wilkinson sees a throne seat and the hieroglyph for "border", Kaplony sees a seat and a stand full of wine jars, the sign for "praised". Kaplony also mentions that the name of a certain 1st-dynasty palatinate named Hor-Sekhentydjw was also written with the wine-jar holder symbol. He believes that the name of the palatinate was created out of King Elephant's name.[4] Reign[edit] Elephant might have ruled during the early Naqada III epoch. His tomb is unknown.[5] See also[edit] List of pharaohs References[edit] ^ Günter Dreyer: Umm El-Qaab. Band I: Das prädynastische Königsgrab U-j und seine frühen Schriftzeugnisse. In: Archäologische Veröffentlichungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Kairo (AV), vol. 86, von Zabern, Mainz 1998, p. 177. ^ Günter Dreyer: Umm El-Qaab. Band I: Das prädynastische Königsgrab U-j und seine frühen Schriftzeugnisse. In: Archäologische Veröffentlichungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Kairo (AV), vol. 86, von Zabern, Mainz 1998, p. 179. ^ Ludwig David Morenz: Bild-Buchstaben und symbolische Zeichen. Die Herausbildung der Schrift der hohen Kultur Altägyptens (= Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis, vol. 205). Fribourg 2004, ISBN 3-7278-1486-1, p. 114 & 118. ^ Peter Kaplony: Die Inschriften der Ägyptischen Frühzeit, vol. III (= Ägyptologische Abhandlungen (ÄA), vol. 8). Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1963, p. 8. ^ Ludwig David Morenz: Bild-Buchstaben und symbolische Zeichen. Die Herausbildung der Schrift der hohen Kultur Altägyptens (= Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis, vol. 205). Fribourg 2004, ISBN 3-7278-1486-1, p. 91. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elephant_(pharaoh)&oldid=997882541" Categories: 33rd-century BC rulers 33rd-century BC Pharaohs 32nd-century BC Pharaohs Predynastic pharaohs Predynastic Egypt 32nd-century BC rulers People whose existence is disputed Ancient Egypt people stubs Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Авар Deutsch Ελληνικά Français Bahasa Indonesia עברית Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Suomi ไทย Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 2 January 2021, at 18:21 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4147	----	Mitrobates - Wikipedia Mitrobates From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Achaemenid satrap of Daskyleion (Hellespontine Phrygia) during the reigns of Cyrus and Cambyses Location of Hellespontine Phrygia, and the provincial capital of Dascylium, in the Achaemenid Empire, c. 500 BCE Coinage of Hellespontine Phrygia at the time of Mitrobates, Kyzikos, Mysia. Circa 550-500 BC Coinage of Hellespontine Phrygia at the time of Mitrobates, Kyzikos, Mysia. Circa 550-500 BC Mitrobates (c. 520 BCE) was an Achaemenid satrap of Daskyleion (Hellespontine Phrygia) under the reigns of Cyrus the Great, by whom he was nominated, and Cambyses. After Cambyses died, and during the struggles for succession that followed, he is said to have been assassinated, together with his son Cranaspes, by the neighbouring satrap of Lydia, Oroetes, who had expansionist views on Anatolian territory.[1][2] After that, Oroetes added the territory of Hellespontine Phrygia to his own territory of Lydia.[3] After Cambyses had died and the Magians won the kingship, Oroetes stayed in Sardis, where he in no way helped the Persians to regain the power taken from them by the Medes, but contrariwise; for in this confusion he slew two notable Persians, Mitrobates, the governor from Dascyleium, who had taunted him concerning Polycrates, and Mitrobates' son Cranaspes; and besides many other violent deeds, when a messenger from Darius came with a message which displeased him, he set an ambush by the way and killed that messenger on his journey homewards, and made away with the man's body and horse. So when Darius became king he was minded to punish Oroetes for all his wrongdoing, and chiefly for the killing of Mitrobates and his son. — Herodotus III, 126-127.[4] These events took place in the troubled times of the interregnum between Cambyses and Darius I, with the usurpation of Gaumata, whom Herodotus refers to as "the Magians".[5] The story of early satraps of Asia Minor, including Mitrobates, was related by Herodotus.[5] Mitrobates is the first known Persian satrap of Daskyleion (c. 525–522). Following the reorganization of Darius I, he was succeeded by Megabazus (circa 500 BC) and then his son Oebares II (c. 493) and Artabazus (479), who established the Persian Pharnacid dynasty, which would rule Hellespontine Phrygia until the conquests of Alexander the Great (338 BCE).[6] References[edit] ^ Thomas, Rodney Lawrence (2010). Magical Motifs in the Book of Revelation. A&C Black. p. 119. ISBN 9780567226860. ^ Dusinberre, Elspeth R. M. (2013). Empire, Authority, and Autonomy in Achaemenid Anatolia. Cambridge University Press. p. 43. ISBN 9781107018266. ^ Grote, George (2018). History of Greece Volume 4: Greeks and Persians. Charles River Editors. pp. 324–325. ISBN 9781625399984. ^ Herodotus III, 126-127. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. ^ a b Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge University Press. 1924. p. 214. ISBN 9780521228046. ^ Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. p. 351. ISBN 9781575061207. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mitrobates&oldid=960668828" Categories: 6th-century BC Iranian people Achaemenid satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Officials of Cyrus the Great Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Español 日本語 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 June 2020, at 07:14 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4167	----	Amasis II - Wikipedia Amasis II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Egyptian pharaoh Amasis II Ahmose II Head of Amasis II, c. 550 BCE Pharaoh Reign 570–526 BCE (26th dynasty) Predecessor Apries Successor Psamtik III Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Khnem-ib-re He Who Embraces the Heart of Re Forever[1] Nomen Ah-mose The Moon is Born, Son of Neith[1] Consort Tentkheta, mother of Psamtik III Nakhtubasterau Ladice Chedebnitjerbone II (daughter of Apries) Tadiasir? Children Psamtik III Pasenenkhonsu Ahmose (D) Tashereniset II ? Nitocris II Mother Tashereniset I Died 526 B.C.E. Amasis II (Ancient Greek: Ἄμασις) or Ahmose II was a pharaoh (reigned 570 – 526 BCE) of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt, the successor of Apries at Sais. He was the last great ruler of Egypt before the Persian conquest.[2] Contents 1 Life 2 Egypt's wealth 3 Tomb and desecration 4 Later reputation 5 Gallery of images 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading Life[edit] See also: Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Most of our information about him is derived from Herodotus (2.161ff) and can only be imperfectly verified by monumental evidence. According to the Greek historian, he was of common origins.[3] He was originally an officer in the Egyptian army. His birthplace was Siuph at Saïs. He took part in a general campaign of Pharaoh Psamtik II in 592 BC in Nubia.[citation needed] A revolt which broke out among native Egyptian soldiers gave him his opportunity to seize the throne. These troops, returning home from a disastrous military expedition to Cyrene in Libya, suspected that they had been betrayed in order that Apries, the reigning king, might rule more absolutely by means of his Greek mercenaries; many Egyptians fully sympathized with them. General Amasis, sent to meet them and quell the revolt, was proclaimed king by the rebels instead, and Apries, who then had to rely entirely on his mercenaries, was defeated.[4] Apries fled to the Babylonians and was captured and killed mounting an invasion of his native homeland in 567 BCE with the aid of a Babylonian army.[5] An inscription confirms the struggle between the native Egyptian and the foreign soldiery, and proves that Apries was killed and honourably buried in the third year of Amasis (c. 567 BCE).[4] Amasis then married Chedebnitjerbone II, one of the daughters of his predecessor Apries, in order to legitimise his kingship.[6] Some information is known about the family origins of Amasis: his mother was a certain Tashereniset, as a bust of her, today located in the British Museum, shows.[7] A stone block from Mehallet el-Kubra also establishes that his maternal grandmother—Tashereniset's mother—was a certain Tjenmutetj.[7] His court is relatively well known. The head of the gate guard Ahmose-sa-Neith appears on numerous monuments, including the location of his sarcophagus. He was referenced on monuments of the 30th Dynasty and apparently had a special significance in his time. Wahibre was 'Leader of the southern foreigners' and 'Head of the doors of foreigners', so he was the highest official for border security. Under Amasis the career of the doctor, Udjahorresnet, began, who was of particular importance to the Persians. Several "heads of the fleet" are known. Psamtek Meryneit and Pasherientaihet / Padineith are the only known viziers. Polycrates, Tyrant of Samos, with Pharaoh Amasis II. Herodotus describes how Amasis II would eventually cause a confrontation with the Persian armies. According to Herodotus, Amasis was asked by Cambyses II or Cyrus the Great for an Egyptian ophthalmologist on good terms. Amasis seems to have complied by forcing an Egyptian physician into mandatory labor, causing him to leave his family behind in Egypt and move to Persia in forced exile. In an attempt to exact revenge for this, the physician grew very close to Cambyses and suggested that Cambyses should ask Amasis for a daughter in marriage in order to solidify his bonds with the Egyptians. Cambyses complied and requested a daughter of Amasis for marriage.[8] Amasis, worrying that his daughter would be a concubine to the Persian king, refused to give up his offspring; Amasis also was not willing to take on the Persian empire, so he concocted a deception in which he forced the daughter of the ex-pharaoh Apries, whom Herodotus explicitly confirms to have been killed by Amasis, to go to Persia instead of his own offspring.[8][9][10] This daughter of Apries was none other than Nitetis, who was, as per Herodotus's account, "tall and beautiful." Nitetis naturally betrayed Amasis and upon being greeted by the Persian king explained Amasis's trickery and her true origins. This infuriated Cambyses and he vowed to take revenge for it. Amasis died before Cambyses reached him, but his heir and son Psamtik III was defeated by the Persians.[8][10] First, Cyrus the Great signed alliance agreements with the Lydian King Croesus and Nabonidus the Babylonian king in 542 BC. The actual aim of the agreements was to prevent aid between Egypt and her allies. With both now deprived of Egyptian support, the Persians conquered, first, Croesus's empire in 541 BCE, and, then, the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BCE. Herodotus also describes how, just like his predecessor, Amasis relied on Greek mercenaries and councilmen. One such figure was Phanes of Halicarnassus, who would later leave Amasis, for reasons that Herodotus does not clearly know, but suspects were personal between the two figures. Amasis sent one of his eunuchs to capture Phanes, but the eunuch was bested by the wise councilman and Phanes fled to Persia, meeting up with Cambyses and providing advice for his invasion of Egypt. Egypt was finally lost to the Persians during the battle of Pelusium in 525 BC.[10] Egypt's wealth[edit] Statue of Tasherenese, mother of king Amasis II, 570-526 BCE, British Museum Amasis brought Egypt into closer contact with Greece than ever before. Herodotus relates that under his prudent administration, Egypt reached a new level of wealth; Amasis adorned the temples of Lower Egypt especially with splendid monolithic shrines and other monuments (his activity here is proved by existing remains).[4] For example, a temple built by him was excavated at Tell Nebesha.[citation needed] Amasis assigned the commercial colony of Naucratis on the Canopic branch of the Nile to the Greeks, and when the temple of Delphi was burnt, he contributed 1,000 talents to the rebuilding. He also married a Greek princess named Ladice daughter of King Battus III and made alliances with Polycrates of Samos and Croesus of Lydia.[4] Montaigne cites the story by Herodotus that Ladice cured Amasis of his impotence by praying to Venus/Aphropdite.[11] Under Amasis, Egypt's agricultural based economy reached its zenith. Herodotus, who visited Egypt less than a century after Amasis II's death, writes that: It is said that it was during the reign of Ahmose II (Amasis) that Egypt attained its highest level of prosperity both in respect of what the river gave the land and in respect of what the land yielded to men and that the number of inhabited cities at that time reached in total 20,000.[12] His kingdom consisted probably of Egypt only, as far as the First Cataract, but to this he added Cyprus, and his influence was great in Cyrene, Libya.[4] In his fourth year (c. 567 BCE), Amasis was able to defeat an invasion of Egypt by the Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar II; henceforth, the Babylonians experienced sufficient difficulties controlling their empire that they were forced to abandon future attacks against Amasis.[13] However, Amasis was later faced with a more formidable enemy with the rise of Persia under Cyrus who ascended to the throne in 559 BCE; his final years were preoccupied by the threat of the impending Persian onslaught against Egypt.[14] With great strategic skill, Cyrus had destroyed Lydia in 546 BCE and finally defeated the Babylonians in 538 BCE which left Amasis with no major Near Eastern allies to counter Persia's increasing military might.[14] Amasis reacted by cultivating closer ties with the Greek states to counter the future Persian invasion into Egypt but was fortunate to have died in 526 BCE shortly before the Persians attacked.[14] The final assault instead fell upon his son Psamtik III, whom the Persians defeated in 525 BCE after he had reigned for only six months.[15] Tomb and desecration[edit] Amasis II died in 526 BC. He was buried at the royal necropolis of Sais, and while his tomb has never been discovered, Herodotus describes it for us: [It is] a great cloistered building of stone, decorated with pillars carved in the imitation of palm-trees, and other costly ornaments. Within the cloister is a chamber with double doors, and behind the doors stands the sepulchre.[16] Herodotus also relates the desecration of Ahmose II/Amasis' mummy when the Persian king Cambyses conquered Egypt and thus ended the 26th (Saite) Dynasty: [N]o sooner did [... Cambyses] enter the palace of Amasis that he gave orders for his [Amasis's] body to be taken from the tomb where it lay. This done, he proceeded to have it treated with every possible indignity, such as beating it with whips, sticking it with goads, and plucking its hairs. [... A]s the body had been embalmed and would not fall to pieces under the blows, Cambyses had it burned.[17] Later reputation[edit] This head probably came from a temple statue of Amasis II. He wears the traditional royal nemes head cloth, with a protective uraeus serpent at the brow. Circa 560 BCE. Walters Art Museum, Baltimore. From the fifth century BCE, there is evidence of stories circulating about Amasis, in Egyptian sources (including a demotic papyrus of the third century BCE), Herodotus, Hellanikos, and Plutarch's Convivium Septem Sapientium. 'In those tales Amasis was presented as a non-conventional Pharaoh, behaving in ways unbecoming to a king but gifted with practical wisdom and cunning, a trickster on the throne or a kind of comic Egyptian Solomon'.[18] Gallery of images[edit] Relief showing Amasis from the Karnak temple Papyrus, written in demotic script in the 35th year of Amasis II, on display at the Louvre Grant of a parcel of land by an individual to a temple. Dated to the first year of Amasis II, on display at the Louvre A stele dating to the 23rd regnal year of Amasis, on display at the Louvre See also[edit] Rhodopis References[edit] ^ a b Peter A. Clayton (2006). Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-By-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. p. 195. ISBN 978-0-500-28628-9. ^ Lloyd, Alan Brian (1996), "Amasis", in Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Anthony (eds.), Oxford Classical Dictionary (3rd ed.), Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-521693-8 ^ Mason, Charles Peter (1867). "Amasis (II)". In William Smith (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 1. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. pp. 136–137. ^ a b c d e  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Griffith, Francis Llewellyn (1911). "Amasis s.v. Amasis II.". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 782. This cites: W. M. Flinders Petrie, History, vol. iii. James Henry Breasted, History and Historical Documents, vol. iv. p. 509 Gaston Maspero, Les Empires. ^ Herodotus, The Histories, Book II, Chapter 169 ^ "Amasis". Livius. Retrieved 31 March 2019. ^ a b Dodson, Aidan & Hilton, Dyan (2004). The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. pp. 245 & 247. ISBN 0-500-05128-3. ^ a b c Herodotus (1737). The History of Herodotus Volume I,Book II. D. Midwinter. pp. 246–250. ^ Sir John Gardner Wilkinson (1837). Manners and customs of the ancient Egyptians: including their private life, government, laws, art, manufactures, religions, and early history; derived from a comparison of the paintings, sculptures, and monuments still existing, with the accounts of ancient authors. Illustrated by drawings of those subjects, Volume 1. J. Murray. p. 195. ^ a b c Herodotus (Trans.) Robin Waterfield, Carolyn Dewald (1998). The Histories. Oxford University Press, US. p. 170. ISBN 978-0-19-158955-3. ^ Montaigne, de, Michel. "20". In William Carew Hazlitt (ed.). The Essays of Michel de Montaigne. Translated by Charles Cotton. The University of Adelaide. Retrieved November 22, 2019. ^ Herodotus, (II, 177, 1) ^ Lloyd, Alan B. (2002). "The Late Period". In Shaw, Ian (ed.). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (Paperback ed.). Oxford Univ. Press. pp. 381–82. ISBN 0-19-280293-3. ^ a b c Lloyd. (2002) p.382 ^ Griffith 1911. ^ "Egypt: Amasis, the Last Great Egyptian Pharaoh". www.touregypt.net. ^ Herodotus, The Histories, Book III, Chapter 16 ^ Konstantakos, Ioannis M. (2004). "Trial by Riddle: The Testing of the Counsellor and the Contest of Kings in the Legend of Amasis and Bias". Classica et Mediaevalia. 55: 85–137 (p. 90). Further reading[edit] Ray, John D. (1996). "Amasis, the pharaoh with no illusions". History Today. 46 (3): 27–31. Leo Depuydt: Saite and Persian Egypt, 664 BC–332 BC (Dyns. 26–31, Psammetichus I to Alexander's Conquest of Egypt). In: Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss, David A. Warburton (Hrsg.): Ancient Egyptian Chronology (= Handbook of Oriental studies. Section One. The Near and Middle East. Band 83). Brill, Leiden/Boston 2006, ISBN 978-90-04-11385-5, S. 265–283 (Online). v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 102378940 VIAF: 61941083 WorldCat Identities: viaf-61941083 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amasis_II&oldid=999541757" Categories: 6th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt 526 BC deaths Kings of Egypt in Herodotus 6th century BC in Egypt Philhellenes Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2019 Articles with unsourced statements from March 2017 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Gaeilge Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Қазақша Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 January 2021, at 18:35 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4173	----	Muhammad Dandamayev - Wikipedia Muhammad Dandamayev From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Muhammad Abdulkadyrovich Dandamayev (Russian: Мухаммад Абдулкадырович Дандамаев; September 2, 1928 – August 28, 2017 [1]), Chief Researcher at the Institute of Oriental Manuscripts of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IOM-RAS), was a historian who focused on the ancient Persian Empire, and the social institutions of Babylonia during the first millennium BCE.[2][3] Contents 1 Works 1.1 Books 1.2 Articles 2 References Works[edit] Books[edit] Dandamayev, M. A. (1989). A political history of the Achaemenid empire. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 90-04-09172-6. M. A. Dandamayev (1992). Iranians in Achaemenid Babylonia. Mazda Publishers in association with Bibliotheca Persica. 241 pages Muhammad A. Dandamayev, Vladimir G. Lukonin (2004) : The Culture and Social Institutions of Ancient Iran. Cambridge University Press. 480 pages. Muhammad A. Dandamayev, Marvin A. Powell, David B. Weisberg (2008). Slavery in Babylonia: From Nabopolassar to Alexander the Great (626-331 B.C.). Northern Illinois University Press. 836 pages. Dandamayev M.А. Mesopotamia and Iran in the 7th-4th Centuries B.C.: Social Institutions and Ideology [Месопотамия и Иран в VII—IV вв. до н.э.: Социальные институты и идеология]. St Petersburg: St. Petersburg State University Faculty of Philology and Arts 2007. 512 p. Dandamayev M.A. The Babylonian Scribes [Вавилонские писцы]. Moscow, Nauka GRVL Publishers 1983. Dandamayev M.A. The Slavery in Babylonia during the 7th to 8th Centuries BCE (626-331) [Рабство в Вавилонии VII - IV вв. до н.э. (626 - 331 гг.)]. Moscow: Nauka GRVL Publishers 1974. Азиатский музей - Ленинградское отделение Института востоковедения АН СССР / Редакционная коллегия: А.П.Базиянц, Д.Е.Бертельс (отв. секретарь), Б.Г.Гафуров, А.Н.Кононов (председатель), Е.И.Кычанов, И.М.Оранский, Ю.А.Петросян, Э.Н.Тёмкин, О.Л.Фишман, А.Б.Халидов, И.Ш.Шифман. М.: «Наука», 1972. Articles[edit] In Encyclopædia Iranica: ABIRĀDŪŠ ĀÇINA ABROCOMAS ABROCOMES ARTOXARES AKES CASSANDANE ARTAVARDIYA References[edit] ^ MUHAMMAD ABDULKADYROVICH DANDAMAYEV (1928-2017) ^ Consulting Editors ^ Muhammad AbdulkadyrovichDandamayev Authority control BNF: cb12035074t (data) GND: 171085515 ISNI: 0000 0001 0857 6889 LCCN: n81019698 NTA: 074861638 PLWABN: 9810556035505606 SUDOC: 02853381X VIAF: 56625858 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n81019698 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Muhammad_Dandamayev&oldid=964590571" Categories: 1928 births 2017 deaths People from Laksky District Laks (Caucasus) Russian historians Historians of antiquity Iranologists Hidden categories: Articles containing Russian-language text Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch فارسی Français Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 26 June 2020, at 11:42 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4170	----	Alexander the Great - Wikipedia Alexander the Great From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the ancient king of Macedonia. For other uses, see Alexander the Great (disambiguation). King of Macedonia Alexander the Great Basileus of Macedon Hegemon of the Hellenic League Shahanshah of Persia Pharaoh of Egypt Lord of Asia Alexander Mosaic (c. 100 BC), ancient Roman floor mosaic from the House of the Faun in Pompeii, Italy, showing Alexander fighting king Darius III of Persia in the Battle of Issus King of Macedon Reign 336–323 BC Predecessor Philip II Successor Alexander IV Philip III Hegemon of Hellenic League Strategos autokrator of Greece Reign 336 BC Predecessor Philip II Pharaoh of Egypt Reign 332–323 BC Predecessor Darius III Successor Alexander IV Philip III Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) stp.n-rꜤ mrj-jmn Setepenre meryamun Chosen by Ra, beloved by Amun Nomen Ꜥlwksjndrs Aluxsindres Alexandros Horus name mk-kmt Mekemet Protector of Egypt Second Horus name: ḥḳꜢ-ḳnj tkn-ḫꜢswt Heqaqeni tekenkhasut The brave ruler who has attacked foreign lands Third Horus name: ḥḳꜢ ḥḳꜢw nw tꜢ (r) ḏr-f Heqa heqau nu ta (er) djeref The ruler of the rulers of the entire land Fourth Horus name: ṯmꜢ-Ꜥ Tjema'a The sturdy-armed one Nebty name mꜢj wr-pḥty jṯ ḏww tꜢw ḫꜢswt Mai werpehty itj dju tau khasut The lion, great of might, who takes possession       of mountains, lands, and deserts Golden Horus kꜢ (nḫt) ḫwj bꜢḳ(t) ḥḳꜢ wꜢḏ(-wr) šnw n jtn Ka (nakht) khui baq(et) heqa wadj(wer) shenu en Aten The (strong) bull who protects Egypt,       the ruler of the sea and of what the sun encircles King of Persia Reign 330–323 BC Predecessor Darius III Successor Alexander IV Philip III Lord of Asia Reign 331–323 BC Predecessor New office Successor Alexander IV Philip III Born 20 or 21 July 356 BC Pella, Macedon, Ancient Greece Died 10 or 11 June 323 BC (aged 32) Babylon, Mesopotamia Spouse Roxana of Bactria Stateira II of Persia Parysatis II of Persia Issue Alexander IV Heracles of Macedon (alleged illegitimate son) Full name Alexander III of Macedon Greek Μέγας Ἀλέξανδρος[d] Mégas Aléxandros lit. 'Great Alexander' Ἀλέξανδρος ὁ Μέγας Aléxandros ho Mégas lit. 'Alexander the Great' Dynasty Argead Father Philip II of Macedon Mother Olympias of Epirus Religion Greek polytheism Alexander III of Macedon (Greek: Αλέξανδρος Γʹ ὁ Μακεδών, Aléxandros III ho Makedȏn; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great (Greek: ὁ Μέγας, ho Mégas), was a king (basileus) of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon[a] and a member of the Argead dynasty. He was born in Pella in 356 BC and succeeded his father Philip II to the throne at the age of 20. He spent most of his ruling years on an unprecedented military campaign through western Asia and northeast Africa, and by the age of thirty, he had created one of the largest empires of the ancient world, stretching from Greece to northwestern India.[1][2] He was undefeated in battle and is widely considered one of history's most successful military commanders.[3] During his youth, Alexander was tutored by Aristotle until age 16. After Philip's assassination in 336 BC, he succeeded his father to the throne and inherited a strong kingdom and an experienced army. Alexander was awarded the generalship of Greece and used this authority to launch his father's pan-Hellenic project to lead the Greeks in the conquest of Persia.[4][5] In 334 BC, he invaded the Achaemenid Empire (Persian Empire) and began a series of campaigns that lasted 10 years. Following the conquest of Anatolia, Alexander broke the power of Persia in a series of decisive battles, most notably the battles of Issus and Gaugamela. He subsequently overthrew Persian King Darius III and conquered the Achaemenid Empire in its entirety.[b] At that point, his empire stretched from the Adriatic Sea to the Beas River. Alexander endeavoured to reach the "ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea" and invaded India in 326 BC, winning an important victory over the Pauravas at the Battle of the Hydaspes. He eventually turned back at the demand of his homesick troops, dying in Babylon in 323 BC, the city that he planned to establish as his capital, without executing a series of planned campaigns that would have begun with an invasion of Arabia. In the years following his death, a series of civil wars tore his empire apart, resulting in the establishment of several states ruled by the Diadochi, Alexander's surviving generals and heirs. Alexander's legacy includes the cultural diffusion and syncretism which his conquests engendered, such as Greco-Buddhism. He founded some twenty cities that bore his name, most notably Alexandria in Egypt. Alexander's settlement of Greek colonists and the resulting spread of Greek culture in the east resulted in a new Hellenistic civilization, aspects of which were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century AD and the presence of Greek speakers in central and far eastern Anatolia until the Greek genocide and the population exchange in the 1920s. Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mould of Achilles, and he features prominently in the history and mythic traditions of both Greek and non-Greek cultures. He was undefeated in battle and became the measure against which military leaders compared themselves. Military academies throughout the world still teach his tactics.[6][c] He is often ranked among the most influential people in history.[7] Contents 1 Early life 1.1 Lineage and childhood 1.2 Education 2 Philip's heir 2.1 Regency and ascent of Macedon 2.2 Exile and return 3 King of Macedon 3.1 Accession 3.2 Consolidation of power 3.3 Balkan campaign 3.4 Maps of campaigns 4 Conquest of the Persian Empire 4.1 Asia Minor 4.2 The Levant and Syria 4.3 Egypt 4.4 Assyria and Babylonia 4.5 Persia 4.6 Fall of the Empire and the East 4.7 Problems and plots 4.8 Macedon in Alexander's absence 5 Indian campaign 5.1 Forays into the Indian subcontinent 5.2 Revolt of the army 6 Last years in Persia 7 Death and succession 7.1 After death 7.2 Division of the empire 7.3 Will 8 Character 8.1 Generalship 8.2 Physical appearance 8.3 Personality 8.4 Personal relationships 9 Battle record 10 Legacy 10.1 Hellenistic kingdoms 10.2 Founding of cities 10.3 Funding of temples 10.4 Hellenization 10.4.1 Hellenization in South and Central Asia 10.5 Influence on Rome 10.6 Unsuccessful plan to cut a canal through the isthmus 10.7 Naming of the Icarus island in the Persian Gulf 10.8 Legend 10.9 In ancient and modern culture 11 Historiography 12 See also 13 Annotations 14 References 15 Sources 15.1 Primary sources 15.2 Secondary sources 16 Further reading 17 External links Early life Lineage and childhood Bust of a young Alexander the Great from the Hellenistic era, British Museum Aristotle Tutoring Alexander, by Jean Leon Gerome Ferris Alexander was born in Pella, the capital of the Kingdom of Macedon,[8] on the sixth day of the ancient Greek month of Hekatombaion, which probably corresponds to 20 July 356 BC, although the exact date is uncertain.[9] He was the son of the king of Macedon, Philip II, and his fourth wife, Olympias, the daughter of Neoptolemus I, king of Epirus.[10] Although Philip had seven or eight wives, Olympias was his principal wife for some time, likely because she gave birth to Alexander.[11] Several legends surround Alexander's birth and childhood.[12] According to the ancient Greek biographer Plutarch, on the eve of the consummation of her marriage to Philip, Olympias dreamed that her womb was struck by a thunderbolt that caused a flame to spread "far and wide" before dying away. Sometime after the wedding, Philip is said to have seen himself, in a dream, securing his wife's womb with a seal engraved with a lion's image.[13] Plutarch offered a variety of interpretations of these dreams: that Olympias was pregnant before her marriage, indicated by the sealing of her womb; or that Alexander's father was Zeus. Ancient commentators were divided about whether the ambitious Olympias promulgated the story of Alexander's divine parentage, variously claiming that she had told Alexander, or that she dismissed the suggestion as impious.[13] On the day Alexander was born, Philip was preparing a siege on the city of Potidea on the peninsula of Chalcidice. That same day, Philip received news that his general Parmenion had defeated the combined Illyrian and Paeonian armies and that his horses had won at the Olympic Games. It was also said that on this day, the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, burnt down. This led Hegesias of Magnesia to say that it had burnt down because Artemis was away, attending the birth of Alexander.[14] Such legends may have emerged when Alexander was king, and possibly at his instigation, to show that he was superhuman and destined for greatness from conception.[12] In his early years, Alexander was raised by a nurse, Lanike, sister of Alexander's future general Cleitus the Black. Later in his childhood, Alexander was tutored by the strict Leonidas, a relative of his mother, and by Lysimachus of Acarnania.[15] Alexander was raised in the manner of noble Macedonian youths, learning to read, play the lyre, ride, fight, and hunt.[16] Statue of Alexander the Great in Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece When Alexander was ten years old, a trader from Thessaly brought Philip a horse, which he offered to sell for thirteen talents. The horse refused to be mounted, and Philip ordered it away. Alexander, however, detecting the horse's fear of its own shadow, asked to tame the horse, which he eventually managed.[12] Plutarch stated that Philip, overjoyed at this display of courage and ambition, kissed his son tearfully, declaring: "My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedon is too small for you", and bought the horse for him.[17] Alexander named it Bucephalas, meaning "ox-head". Bucephalas carried Alexander as far as India. When the animal died (because of old age, according to Plutarch, at age thirty), Alexander named a city after him, Bucephala.[18] Education When Alexander was 13, Philip began to search for a tutor, and considered such academics as Isocrates and Speusippus, the latter offering to resign from his stewardship of the Academy to take up the post. In the end, Philip chose Aristotle and provided the Temple of the Nymphs at Mieza as a classroom. In return for teaching Alexander, Philip agreed to rebuild Aristotle's hometown of Stageira, which Philip had razed, and to repopulate it by buying and freeing the ex-citizens who were slaves, or pardoning those who were in exile.[19] Mieza was like a boarding school for Alexander and the children of Macedonian nobles, such as Ptolemy, Hephaistion, and Cassander. Many of these students would become his friends and future generals, and are often known as the 'Companions'. Aristotle taught Alexander and his companions about medicine, philosophy, morals, religion, logic, and art. Under Aristotle's tutelage, Alexander developed a passion for the works of Homer, and in particular the Iliad; Aristotle gave him an annotated copy, which Alexander later carried on his campaigns.[20] During his youth, Alexander was also acquainted with Persian exiles at the Macedonian court, who received the protection of Philip II for several years as they opposed Artaxerxes III.[21][22][23] Among them were Artabazos II and his daughter Barsine, future mistress of Alexander, who resided at the Macedonian court from 352 to 342 BC, as well as Amminapes, future satrap of Alexander, or a Persian nobleman named Sisines.[21][24][25][26] This gave the Macedonian court a good knowledge of Persian issues, and may even have influenced some of the innovations in the management of the Macedonian state.[24] Suda writes that, also, Anaximenes of Lampsacus was one of his teachers. Anaximenes, also accompanied him on his campaigns.[27] Philip's heir Regency and ascent of Macedon Main articles: Philip II of Macedon and Rise of Macedon Further information: History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom) Philip II of Macedon, Alexander's father At the age of 16, Alexander's education under Aristotle ended. Philip waged war against Byzantion, leaving Alexander in charge as regent and heir apparent.[12] During Philip's absence, the Thracian Maedi revolted against Macedonia. Alexander responded quickly, driving them from their territory. He colonized it with Greeks, and founded a city named Alexandropolis.[28] Upon Philip's return, he dispatched Alexander with a small force to subdue revolts in southern Thrace. Campaigning against the Greek city of Perinthus, Alexander is reported to have saved his father's life. Meanwhile, the city of Amphissa began to work lands that were sacred to Apollo near Delphi, a sacrilege that gave Philip the opportunity to further intervene in Greek affairs. Still occupied in Thrace, he ordered Alexander to muster an army for a campaign in southern Greece. Concerned that other Greek states might intervene, Alexander made it look as though he was preparing to attack Illyria instead. During this turmoil, the Illyrians invaded Macedonia, only to be repelled by Alexander.[29] Philip and his army joined his son in 338 BC, and they marched south through Thermopylae, taking it after stubborn resistance from its Theban garrison. They went on to occupy the city of Elatea, only a few days' march from both Athens and Thebes. The Athenians, led by Demosthenes, voted to seek alliance with Thebes against Macedonia. Both Athens and Philip sent embassies to win Thebes' favour, but Athens won the contest.[30] Philip marched on Amphissa (ostensibly acting on the request of the Amphictyonic League), capturing the mercenaries sent there by Demosthenes and accepting the city's surrender. Philip then returned to Elatea, sending a final offer of peace to Athens and Thebes, who both rejected it.[31] Statue of Alexander in Istanbul Archaeology Museum As Philip marched south, his opponents blocked him near Chaeronea, Boeotia. During the ensuing Battle of Chaeronea, Philip commanded the right wing and Alexander the left, accompanied by a group of Philip's trusted generals. According to the ancient sources, the two sides fought bitterly for some time. Philip deliberately commanded his troops to retreat, counting on the untested Athenian hoplites to follow, thus breaking their line. Alexander was the first to break the Theban lines, followed by Philip's generals. Having damaged the enemy's cohesion, Philip ordered his troops to press forward and quickly routed them. With the Athenians lost, the Thebans were surrounded. Left to fight alone, they were defeated.[32] After the victory at Chaeronea, Philip and Alexander marched unopposed into the Peloponnese, welcomed by all cities; however, when they reached Sparta, they were refused, but did not resort to war.[33] At Corinth, Philip established a "Hellenic Alliance" (modelled on the old anti-Persian alliance of the Greco-Persian Wars), which included most Greek city-states except Sparta. Philip was then named Hegemon (often translated as "Supreme Commander") of this league (known by modern scholars as the League of Corinth), and announced his plans to attack the Persian Empire.[34][35] Exile and return When Philip returned to Pella, he fell in love with and married Cleopatra Eurydice in 338 BC,[36] the niece of his general Attalus.[37] The marriage made Alexander's position as heir less secure, since any son of Cleopatra Eurydice would be a fully Macedonian heir, while Alexander was only half-Macedonian.[38] During the wedding banquet, a drunken Attalus publicly prayed to the gods that the union would produce a legitimate heir.[37] At the wedding of Cleopatra, whom Philip fell in love with and married, she being much too young for him, her uncle Attalus in his drink desired the Macedonians would implore the gods to give them a lawful successor to the kingdom by his niece. This so irritated Alexander, that throwing one of the cups at his head, "You villain," said he, "what, am I then a bastard?" Then Philip, taking Attalus's part, rose up and would have run his son through; but by good fortune for them both, either his over-hasty rage, or the wine he had drunk, made his foot slip, so that he fell down on the floor. At which Alexander reproachfully insulted over him: "See there," said he, "the man who makes preparations to pass out of Europe into Asia, overturned in passing from one seat to another." — Plutarch, describing the feud at Philip's wedding.[39] In 337 BC, Alexander fled Macedon with his mother, dropping her off with her brother, King Alexander I of Epirus in Dodona, capital of the Molossians.[40] He continued to Illyria,[40] where he sought refuge with one or more Illyrian kings, perhaps with Glaukias, and was treated as a guest, despite having defeated them in battle a few years before.[41] However, it appears Philip never intended to disown his politically and militarily trained son.[40] Accordingly, Alexander returned to Macedon after six months due to the efforts of a family friend, Demaratus, who mediated between the two parties.[42] In the following year, the Persian satrap (governor) of Caria, Pixodarus, offered his eldest daughter to Alexander's half-brother, Philip Arrhidaeus.[40] Olympias and several of Alexander's friends suggested this showed Philip intended to make Arrhidaeus his heir.[40] Alexander reacted by sending an actor, Thessalus of Corinth, to tell Pixodarus that he should not offer his daughter's hand to an illegitimate son, but instead to Alexander. When Philip heard of this, he stopped the negotiations and scolded Alexander for wishing to marry the daughter of a Carian, explaining that he wanted a better bride for him.[40] Philip exiled four of Alexander's friends, Harpalus, Nearchus, Ptolemy and Erigyius, and had the Corinthians bring Thessalus to him in chains.[43] King of Macedon Accession Further information: Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom) The Kingdom of Macedon in 336 BC The emblema of the Stag Hunt Mosaic, c. 300 BC, from Pella; the figure on the right is possibly Alexander the Great due to the date of the mosaic along with the depicted upsweep of his centrally-parted hair (anastole); the figure on the left wielding a double-edged axe (associated with Hephaistos) is perhaps Hephaestion, one of Alexander's loyal companions.[44] In summer 336 BC, while at Aegae attending the wedding of his daughter Cleopatra to Olympias's brother, Alexander I of Epirus, Philip was assassinated by the captain of his bodyguards, Pausanias.[e] As Pausanias tried to escape, he tripped over a vine and was killed by his pursuers, including two of Alexander's companions, Perdiccas and Leonnatus. Alexander was proclaimed king on the spot by the nobles and army at the age of 20.[45][46][47] Consolidation of power Alexander began his reign by eliminating potential rivals to the throne. He had his cousin, the former Amyntas IV, executed.[48] He also had two Macedonian princes from the region of Lyncestis killed, but spared a third, Alexander Lyncestes. Olympias had Cleopatra Eurydice and Europa, her daughter by Philip, burned alive. When Alexander learned about this, he was furious. Alexander also ordered the murder of Attalus,[48] who was in command of the advance guard of the army in Asia Minor and Cleopatra's uncle.[49] Attalus was at that time corresponding with Demosthenes, regarding the possibility of defecting to Athens. Attalus also had severely insulted Alexander, and following Cleopatra's murder, Alexander may have considered him too dangerous to leave alive.[49] Alexander spared Arrhidaeus, who was by all accounts mentally disabled, possibly as a result of poisoning by Olympias.[45][47][50] News of Philip's death roused many states into revolt, including Thebes, Athens, Thessaly, and the Thracian tribes north of Macedon. When news of the revolts reached Alexander, he responded quickly. Though advised to use diplomacy, Alexander mustered 3,000 Macedonian cavalry and rode south towards Thessaly. He found the Thessalian army occupying the pass between Mount Olympus and Mount Ossa, and ordered his men to ride over Mount Ossa. When the Thessalians awoke the next day, they found Alexander in their rear and promptly surrendered, adding their cavalry to Alexander's force. He then continued south towards the Peloponnese.[51] Alexander stopped at Thermopylae, where he was recognized as the leader of the Amphictyonic League before heading south to Corinth. Athens sued for peace and Alexander pardoned the rebels. The famous encounter between Alexander and Diogenes the Cynic occurred during Alexander's stay in Corinth. When Alexander asked Diogenes what he could do for him, the philosopher disdainfully asked Alexander to stand a little to the side, as he was blocking the sunlight.[52] This reply apparently delighted Alexander, who is reported to have said "But verily, if I were not Alexander, I would like to be Diogenes."[53] At Corinth, Alexander took the title of Hegemon ("leader") and, like Philip, was appointed commander for the coming war against Persia. He also received news of a Thracian uprising.[54] Balkan campaign Main article: Alexander's Balkan campaign The Macedonian phalanx at the "Battle of the Carts" against the Thracians in 335 BC Before crossing to Asia, Alexander wanted to safeguard his northern borders. In the spring of 335 BC, he advanced to suppress several revolts. Starting from Amphipolis, he travelled east into the country of the "Independent Thracians"; and at Mount Haemus, the Macedonian army attacked and defeated the Thracian forces manning the heights.[55] The Macedonians marched into the country of the Triballi, and defeated their army near the Lyginus river[56] (a tributary of the Danube). Alexander then marched for three days to the Danube, encountering the Getae tribe on the opposite shore. Crossing the river at night, he surprised them and forced their army to retreat after the first cavalry skirmish.[57] News then reached Alexander that Cleitus, King of Illyria, and King Glaukias of the Taulantii were in open revolt against his authority. Marching west into Illyria, Alexander defeated each in turn, forcing the two rulers to flee with their troops. With these victories, he secured his northern frontier.[58] While Alexander campaigned north, the Thebans and Athenians rebelled once again. Alexander immediately headed south.[59] While the other cities again hesitated, Thebes decided to fight. The Theban resistance was ineffective, and Alexander razed the city and divided its territory between the other Boeotian cities. The end of Thebes cowed Athens, leaving all of Greece temporarily at peace.[59] Alexander then set out on his Asian campaign, leaving Antipater as regent.[60] According to ancient writers Demosthenes called Alexander "Margites" (Greek: Μαργίτης)[61][62][63] and a boy.[63] Greeks used the word Margites to describe fool and useless people, on account of the Margites.[62][64] Maps of campaigns Ionia 336 BC Media and Egypt 333 BC Persia 331 BC India 326 BC Conquest of the Persian Empire Main articles: Wars of Alexander the Great and Chronology of the expedition of Alexander the Great into Asia Asia Minor Further information: Battle of the Granicus, Siege of Halicarnassus, and Siege of Miletus Map of Alexander's empire and his route Alexander Cuts the Gordian Knot (1767) by Jean-Simon Berthélemy After his victory at the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC), Philip II began the work of establishing himself as hēgemṓn (Greek: ἡγεμών) of a league which according to Diodorus was to wage a campaign against the Persians for the sundry grievances Greece suffered in 480 and free the Greek cities of the western coast and islands from Achaemenid rule. In 336 he sent Parmenion, with Amyntas, Andromenes and Attalus, and an army of 10,000 men into Anatolia to make preparations for an invasion.[65][66] At first, all went well. The Greek cities on the western coast of Anatolia revolted until the news arrived that Philip had been murdered and had been succeeded by his young son Alexander. The Macedonians were demoralized by Philip's death and were subsequently defeated near Magnesia by the Achaemenids under the command of the mercenary Memnon of Rhodes.[65][66] Taking over the invasion project of Philip II, Alexander's army crossed the Hellespont in 334 BC with approximately 48,100 soldiers, 6,100 cavalry and a fleet of 120 ships with crews numbering 38,000,[59] drawn from Macedon and various Greek city-states, mercenaries, and feudally raised soldiers from Thrace, Paionia, and Illyria.[67][f] He showed his intent to conquer the entirety of the Persian Empire by throwing a spear into Asian soil and saying he accepted Asia as a gift from the gods. This also showed Alexander's eagerness to fight, in contrast to his father's preference for diplomacy.[59] After an initial victory against Persian forces at the Battle of the Granicus, Alexander accepted the surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury of Sardis; he then proceeded along the Ionian coast, granting autonomy and democracy to the cities. Miletus, held by Achaemenid forces, required a delicate siege operation, with Persian naval forces nearby. Further south, at Halicarnassus, in Caria, Alexander successfully waged his first large-scale siege, eventually forcing his opponents, the mercenary captain Memnon of Rhodes and the Persian satrap of Caria, Orontobates, to withdraw by sea.[68] Alexander left the government of Caria to a member of the Hecatomnid dynasty, Ada, who adopted Alexander.[69] From Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded into mountainous Lycia and the Pamphylian plain, asserting control over all coastal cities to deny the Persians naval bases. From Pamphylia onwards the coast held no major ports and Alexander moved inland. At Termessos, Alexander humbled but did not storm the Pisidian city.[70] At the ancient Phrygian capital of Gordium, Alexander "undid" the hitherto unsolvable Gordian Knot, a feat said to await the future "king of Asia".[71] According to the story, Alexander proclaimed that it did not matter how the knot was undone and hacked it apart with his sword.[72] The Levant and Syria Further information: Battle of Issus and Siege of Tyre (332 BC) In spring 333 BC, Alexander crossed the Taurus into Cilicia. After a long pause due to an illness, he marched on towards Syria. Though outmanoeuvered by Darius' significantly larger army, he marched back to Cilicia, where he defeated Darius at Issus. Darius fled the battle, causing his army to collapse, and left behind his wife, his two daughters, his mother Sisygambis, and a fabulous treasure.[73] He offered a peace treaty that included the lands he had already lost, and a ransom of 10,000 talents for his family. Alexander replied that since he was now king of Asia, it was he alone who decided territorial divisions.[74] Alexander proceeded to take possession of Syria, and most of the coast of the Levant.[69] In the following year, 332 BC, he was forced to attack Tyre, which he captured after a long and difficult siege.[75][76] The men of military age were massacred and the women and children sold into slavery.[77] Egypt Further information: Siege of Gaza Name of Alexander the Great in Egyptian hieroglyphs (written from right to left), c. 332 BC, Egypt. Louvre Museum. When Alexander destroyed Tyre, most of the towns on the route to Egypt quickly capitulated. However, Alexander met with resistance at Gaza. The stronghold was heavily fortified and built on a hill, requiring a siege. When "his engineers pointed out to him that because of the height of the mound it would be impossible... this encouraged Alexander all the more to make the attempt".[78] After three unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold fell, but not before Alexander had received a serious shoulder wound. As in Tyre, men of military age were put to the sword and the women and children were sold into slavery.[79] Alexander advanced on Egypt in later 332 BC, where he was regarded as a liberator.[80] He was pronounced son of the deity Amun at the Oracle of Siwa Oasis in the Libyan desert.[81] Henceforth, Alexander often referred to Zeus-Ammon as his true father, and after his death, currency depicted him adorned with the Horns of Ammon as a symbol of his divinity.[82] During his stay in Egypt, he founded Alexandria-by-Egypt, which would become the prosperous capital of the Ptolemaic Kingdom after his death.[83] Assyria and Babylonia Further information: Battle of Gaugamela Leaving Egypt in 331 BCE, Alexander marched eastward into Achaemenid Assyria in Upper Mesopotamia (now northern Iraq) and defeated Darius again at the Battle of Gaugamela.[84] Darius once more fled the field, and Alexander chased him as far as Arbela. Gaugamela would be the final and decisive encounter between the two.[85] Darius fled over the mountains to Ecbatana (modern Hamadan) while Alexander captured Babylon.[86] Persia Further information: Battle of the Persian Gate Site of the Persian Gate; the road was built in the 1990s. From Babylon, Alexander went to Susa, one of the Achaemenid capitals, and captured its treasury.[86] He sent the bulk of his army to the Persian ceremonial capital of Persepolis via the Persian Royal Road. Alexander himself took selected troops on the direct route to the city. He then stormed the pass of the Persian Gates (in the modern Zagros Mountains) which had been blocked by a Persian army under Ariobarzanes and then hurried to Persepolis before its garrison could loot the treasury.[87] On entering Persepolis, Alexander allowed his troops to loot the city for several days.[88] Alexander stayed in Persepolis for five months.[89] During his stay a fire broke out in the eastern palace of Xerxes I and spread to the rest of the city. Possible causes include a drunken accident or deliberate revenge for the burning of the Acropolis of Athens during the Second Persian War by Xerxes;[90] Plutarch and Diodorus allege that Alexander's companion, the hetaera Thaïs, instigated and started the fire. Even as he watched the city burn, Alexander immediately began to regret his decision.[91][92][93] Plutarch claims that he ordered his men to put out the fires,[91] but that the flames had already spread to most of the city.[91] Curtius claims that Alexander did not regret his decision until the next morning.[91] Plutarch recounts an anecdote in which Alexander pauses and talks to a fallen statue of Xerxes as if it were a live person: Shall I pass by and leave you lying there because of the expeditions you led against Greece, or shall I set you up again because of your magnanimity and your virtues in other respects?[94] Fall of the Empire and the East Administrative document from Bactria dated to the seventh year of Alexander's reign (324 BC), bearing the first known use of the "Alexandros" form of his name, Khalili Collection of Aramaic Documents[95] Alexander then chased Darius, first into Media, and then Parthia.[96] The Persian king no longer controlled his own destiny, and was taken prisoner by Bessus, his Bactrian satrap and kinsman.[97] As Alexander approached, Bessus had his men fatally stab the Great King and then declared himself Darius' successor as Artaxerxes V, before retreating into Central Asia to launch a guerrilla campaign against Alexander.[98] Alexander buried Darius' remains next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a regal funeral.[99] He claimed that, while dying, Darius had named him as his successor to the Achaemenid throne.[100] The Achaemenid Empire is normally considered to have fallen with Darius.[101] Alexander viewed Bessus as a usurper and set out to defeat him. This campaign, initially against Bessus, turned into a grand tour of central Asia. Alexander founded a series of new cities, all called Alexandria, including modern Kandahar in Afghanistan, and Alexandria Eschate ("The Furthest") in modern Tajikistan. The campaign took Alexander through Media, Parthia, Aria (West Afghanistan), Drangiana, Arachosia (South and Central Afghanistan), Bactria (North and Central Afghanistan), and Scythia.[102] In 329 BC, Spitamenes, who held an undefined position in the satrapy of Sogdiana, betrayed Bessus to Ptolemy, one of Alexander's trusted companions, and Bessus was executed.[103] However, when, at some point later, Alexander was on the Jaxartes dealing with an incursion by a horse nomad army, Spitamenes raised Sogdiana in revolt. Alexander personally defeated the Scythians at the Battle of Jaxartes and immediately launched a campaign against Spitamenes, defeating him in the Battle of Gabai. After the defeat, Spitamenes was killed by his own men, who then sued for peace.[104] Problems and plots The Killing of Cleitus, by André Castaigne (1898–1899) During this time, Alexander adopted some elements of Persian dress and customs at his court, notably the custom of proskynesis, either a symbolic kissing of the hand, or prostration on the ground, that Persians showed to their social superiors.[105] The Greeks regarded the gesture as the province of deities and believed that Alexander meant to deify himself by requiring it. This cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen, and he eventually abandoned it.[106] A plot against his life was revealed, and one of his officers, Philotas, was executed for failing to alert Alexander. The death of the son necessitated the death of the father, and thus Parmenion, who had been charged with guarding the treasury at Ecbatana, was assassinated at Alexander's command, to prevent attempts at vengeance. Most infamously, Alexander personally killed the man who had saved his life at Granicus, Cleitus the Black, during a violent drunken altercation at Maracanda (modern day Samarkand in Uzbekistan), in which Cleitus accused Alexander of several judgmental mistakes and most especially, of having forgotten the Macedonian ways in favour of a corrupt oriental lifestyle.[107] Later, in the Central Asian campaign, a second plot against his life was revealed, this one instigated by his own royal pages. His official historian, Callisthenes of Olynthus, was implicated in the plot, and in the Anabasis of Alexander, Arrian states that Callisthenes and the pages were then tortured on the rack as punishment, and likely died soon after.[108] It remains unclear if Callisthenes was actually involved in the plot, for prior to his accusation he had fallen out of favour by leading the opposition to the attempt to introduce proskynesis.[109] Macedon in Alexander's absence When Alexander set out for Asia, he left his general Antipater, an experienced military and political leader and part of Philip II's "Old Guard", in charge of Macedon.[60] Alexander's sacking of Thebes ensured that Greece remained quiet during his absence.[60] The one exception was a call to arms by Spartan king Agis III in 331 BC, whom Antipater defeated and killed in the battle of Megalopolis.[60] Antipater referred the Spartans' punishment to the League of Corinth, which then deferred to Alexander, who chose to pardon them.[110] There was also considerable friction between Antipater and Olympias, and each complained to Alexander about the other.[111] In general, Greece enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity during Alexander's campaign in Asia.[112] Alexander sent back vast sums from his conquest, which stimulated the economy and increased trade across his empire.[113] However, Alexander's constant demands for troops and the migration of Macedonians throughout his empire depleted Macedon's strength, greatly weakening it in the years after Alexander, and ultimately led to its subjugation by Rome after the Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC).[16] Indian campaign Main article: Indian campaign of Alexander the Great Forays into the Indian subcontinent The Phalanx Attacking the Centre in the Battle of the Hydaspes by André Castaigne (1898–1899) Alexander's invasion of the Indian subcontinent After the death of Spitamenes and his marriage to Roxana (Raoxshna in Old Iranian) to cement relations with his new satrapies, Alexander turned to the Indian subcontinent. He invited the chieftains of the former satrapy of Gandhara (a region presently straddling eastern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan), to come to him and submit to his authority. Omphis (Indian name Ambhi), the ruler of Taxila, whose kingdom extended from the Indus to the Hydaspes (Jhelum), complied, but the chieftains of some hill clans, including the Aspasioi and Assakenoi sections of the Kambojas (known in Indian texts also as Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas), refused to submit.[114] Ambhi hastened to relieve Alexander of his apprehension and met him with valuable presents, placing himself and all his forces at his disposal. Alexander not only returned Ambhi his title and the gifts but he also presented him with a wardrobe of "Persian robes, gold and silver ornaments, 30 horses and 1,000 talents in gold". Alexander was emboldened to divide his forces, and Ambhi assisted Hephaestion and Perdiccas in constructing a bridge over the Indus where it bends at Hund,[115] supplied their troops with provisions, and received Alexander himself, and his whole army, in his capital city of Taxila, with every demonstration of friendship and the most liberal hospitality. On the subsequent advance of the Macedonian king, Taxiles accompanied him with a force of 5,000 men and took part in the battle of the Hydaspes River. After that victory he was sent by Alexander in pursuit of Porus (Indian name Puru), to whom he was charged to offer favourable terms, but narrowly escaped losing his life at the hands of his old enemy. Subsequently, however, the two rivals were reconciled by the personal mediation of Alexander; and Taxiles, after having contributed zealously to the equipment of the fleet on the Hydaspes, was entrusted by the king with the government of the whole territory between that river and the Indus. A considerable accession of power was granted him after the death of Philip, son of Machatas; and he was allowed to retain his authority at the death of Alexander himself (323 BC), as well as in the subsequent partition of the provinces at Triparadisus, 321 BC. In the winter of 327/326 BC, Alexander personally led a campaign against the Aspasioi of Kunar valleys, the Guraeans of the Guraeus valley, and the Assakenoi of the Swat and Buner valleys.[116] A fierce contest ensued with the Aspasioi in which Alexander was wounded in the shoulder by a dart, but eventually the Aspasioi lost. Alexander then faced the Assakenoi, who fought against him from the strongholds of Massaga, Ora and Aornos.[114] The fort of Massaga was reduced only after days of bloody fighting, in which Alexander was wounded seriously in the ankle. According to Curtius, "Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubble."[117] A similar slaughter followed at Ora. In the aftermath of Massaga and Ora, numerous Assakenians fled to the fortress of Aornos. Alexander followed close behind and captured the strategic hill-fort after four bloody days.[114] After Aornos, Alexander crossed the Indus and fought and won an epic battle against King Porus, who ruled a region lying between the Hydaspes and the Acesines (Chenab), in what is now the Punjab, in the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC.[118] Alexander was impressed by Porus' bravery, and made him an ally. He appointed Porus as satrap, and added to Porus' territory land that he did not previously own, towards the south-east, up to the Hyphasis (Beas).[119][120] Choosing a local helped him control these lands so distant from Greece.[121] Alexander founded two cities on opposite sides of the Hydaspes river, naming one Bucephala, in honour of his horse, who died around this time.[122] The other was Nicaea (Victory), thought to be located at the site of modern-day Mong, Punjab.[123] Philostratus the Elder in the Life of Apollonius of Tyana writes that in the army of Porus there was an elephant who fought brave against Alexander's army and Alexander dedicated it to the Helios (Sun) and named it Ajax, because he thought that a so great animal deserved a great name. The elephant had gold rings around its tusks and an inscription was on them written in Greek: "Alexander the son of Zeus dedicates Ajax to the Helios" (ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΣ Ο ΔΙΟΣ ΤΟΝ ΑΙΑΝΤΑ ΤΩΙ ΗΛΙΩΙ).[124] Revolt of the army Asia in 323 BC, the Nanda Empire and the Gangaridai of the Indian subcontinent, in relation to Alexander's Empire and neighbours East of Porus' kingdom, near the Ganges River, was the Nanda Empire of Magadha, and further east, the Gangaridai Empire of Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent. Fearing the prospect of facing other large armies and exhausted by years of campaigning, Alexander's army mutinied at the Hyphasis River (Beas), refusing to march farther east.[125] This river thus marks the easternmost extent of Alexander's conquests.[126] As for the Macedonians, however, their struggle with Porus blunted their courage and stayed their further advance into India. For having had all they could do to repulse an enemy who mustered only twenty thousand infantry and two thousand horse, they violently opposed Alexander when he insisted on crossing the river Ganges also, the width of which, as they learned, was thirty-two furlongs, its depth a hundred fathoms, while its banks on the further side were covered with multitudes of men-at-arms and horsemen and elephants. For they were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand horsemen, two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousand war elephants.[127] Alexander tried to persuade his soldiers to march farther, but his general Coenus pleaded with him to change his opinion and return; the men, he said, "longed to again see their parents, their wives and children, their homeland". Alexander eventually agreed and turned south, marching along the Indus. Along the way his army conquered the Malhi (in modern-day Multan) and other Indian tribes and Alexander sustained an injury during the siege.[128] Alexander sent much of his army to Carmania (modern southern Iran) with general Craterus, and commissioned a fleet to explore the Persian Gulf shore under his admiral Nearchus, while he led the rest back to Persia through the more difficult southern route along the Gedrosian Desert and Makran.[129] Alexander reached Susa in 324 BC, but not before losing many men to the harsh desert.[130] Last years in Persia (left) Alexander and (right) Hephaestion: Both were connected by a tight man-to-man friendship[131] Discovering that many of his satraps and military governors had misbehaved in his absence, Alexander executed several of them as examples on his way to Susa.[132][133] As a gesture of thanks, he paid off the debts of his soldiers, and announced that he would send over-aged and disabled veterans back to Macedon, led by Craterus. His troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at the town of Opis. They refused to be sent away and criticized his adoption of Persian customs and dress and the introduction of Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units.[134] Alexander at the Tomb of Cyrus the Great, by Pierre-Henri de Valenciennes (1796) After three days, unable to persuade his men to back down, Alexander gave Persians command posts in the army and conferred Macedonian military titles upon Persian units. The Macedonians quickly begged forgiveness, which Alexander accepted, and held a great banquet for several thousand of his men at which he and they ate together.[135] In an attempt to craft a lasting harmony between his Macedonian and Persian subjects, Alexander held a mass marriage of his senior officers to Persian and other noblewomen at Susa, but few of those marriages seem to have lasted much beyond a year.[133] Meanwhile, upon his return to Persia, Alexander learned that guards of the tomb of Cyrus the Great in Pasargadae had desecrated it, and swiftly executed them.[136] Alexander admired Cyrus the Great, from an early age reading Xenophon's Cyropaedia, which described Cyrus's heroism in battle and governance as a king and legislator.[137] During his visit to Pasargadae Alexander ordered his architect Aristobulus to decorate the interior of the sepulchral chamber of Cyrus' tomb.[137] Afterwards, Alexander travelled to Ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the Persian treasure. There, his closest friend and possible lover, Hephaestion, died of illness or poisoning.[138][139] Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander, and he ordered the preparation of an expensive funeral pyre in Babylon, as well as a decree for public mourning.[138] Back in Babylon, Alexander planned a series of new campaigns, beginning with an invasion of Arabia, but he would not have a chance to realize them, as he died shortly after Hephaestion.[140] Death and succession Main article: Death of Alexander the Great A Babylonian astronomical diary (c. 323–322 BC) recording the death of Alexander (British Museum, London) On either 10 or 11 June 323 BC, Alexander died in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II, in Babylon, at age 32.[141] There are two different versions of Alexander's death and details of the death differ slightly in each. Plutarch's account is that roughly 14 days before his death, Alexander entertained admiral Nearchus, and spent the night and next day drinking with Medius of Larissa.[142] He developed a fever, which worsened until he was unable to speak. The common soldiers, anxious about his health, were granted the right to file past him as he silently waved at them.[143] In the second account, Diodorus recounts that Alexander was struck with pain after downing a large bowl of unmixed wine in honour of Heracles, followed by 11 days of weakness; he did not develop a fever and died after some agony.[144] Arrian also mentioned this as an alternative, but Plutarch specifically denied this claim.[142] Given the propensity of the Macedonian aristocracy to assassination,[145] foul play featured in multiple accounts of his death. Diodorus, Plutarch, Arrian and Justin all mentioned the theory that Alexander was poisoned. Justin stated that Alexander was the victim of a poisoning conspiracy, Plutarch dismissed it as a fabrication,[146] while both Diodorus and Arrian noted that they mentioned it only for the sake of completeness.[144][147] The accounts were nevertheless fairly consistent in designating Antipater, recently removed as Macedonian viceroy, and at odds with Olympias, as the head of the alleged plot. Perhaps taking his summons to Babylon as a death sentence,[148] and having seen the fate of Parmenion and Philotas,[149] Antipater purportedly arranged for Alexander to be poisoned by his son Iollas, who was Alexander's wine-pourer.[147][149] There was even a suggestion that Aristotle may have participated.[147] The strongest argument against the poison theory is the fact that twelve days passed between the start of his illness and his death; such long-acting poisons were probably not available.[150] However, in a 2003 BBC documentary investigating the death of Alexander, Leo Schep from the New Zealand National Poisons Centre proposed that the plant white hellebore (Veratrum album), which was known in antiquity, may have been used to poison Alexander.[151][152][153] In a 2014 manuscript in the journal Clinical Toxicology, Schep suggested Alexander's wine was spiked with Veratrum album, and that this would produce poisoning symptoms that match the course of events described in the Alexander Romance.[154] Veratrum album poisoning can have a prolonged course and it was suggested that if Alexander was poisoned, Veratrum album offers the most plausible cause.[154][155] Another poisoning explanation put forward in 2010 proposed that the circumstances of his death were compatible with poisoning by water of the river Styx (modern-day Mavroneri in Arcadia, Greece) that contained calicheamicin, a dangerous compound produced by bacteria.[156] Several natural causes (diseases) have been suggested, including malaria and typhoid fever. A 1998 article in the New England Journal of Medicine attributed his death to typhoid fever complicated by bowel perforation and ascending paralysis.[157] Another recent analysis suggested pyogenic (infectious) spondylitis or meningitis.[158] Other illnesses fit the symptoms, including acute pancreatitis and West Nile virus.[159][160] Natural-cause theories also tend to emphasize that Alexander's health may have been in general decline after years of heavy drinking and severe wounds. The anguish that Alexander felt after Hephaestion's death may also have contributed to his declining health.[157] After death See also: Tomb of Alexander the Great Alexander's body was laid in a gold anthropoid sarcophagus that was filled with honey, which was in turn placed in a gold casket.[161][162] According to Aelian, a seer called Aristander foretold that the land where Alexander was laid to rest "would be happy and unvanquishable forever".[163] Perhaps more likely, the successors may have seen possession of the body as a symbol of legitimacy, since burying the prior king was a royal prerogative.[164] 19th-century depiction of Alexander's funeral procession, based on the description by Diodorus Siculus While Alexander's funeral cortege was on its way to Macedon, Ptolemy seized it and took it temporarily to Memphis.[161][163] His successor, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, transferred the sarcophagus to Alexandria, where it remained until at least late Antiquity. Ptolemy IX Lathyros, one of Ptolemy's final successors, replaced Alexander's sarcophagus with a glass one so he could convert the original to coinage.[165] The recent discovery of an enormous tomb in northern Greece, at Amphipolis, dating from the time of Alexander the Great[166] has given rise to speculation that its original intent was to be the burial place of Alexander. This would fit with the intended destination of Alexander's funeral cortege. However, the memorial was found to be dedicated to the dearest friend of Alexander the Great, Hephaestion.[167][168] Detail of Alexander on the Alexander Sarcophagus Pompey, Julius Caesar and Augustus all visited the tomb in Alexandria, where Augustus, allegedly, accidentally knocked the nose off. Caligula was said to have taken Alexander's breastplate from the tomb for his own use. Around AD 200, Emperor Septimius Severus closed Alexander's tomb to the public. His son and successor, Caracalla, a great admirer, visited the tomb during his own reign. After this, details on the fate of the tomb are hazy.[165] The so-called "Alexander Sarcophagus", discovered near Sidon and now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum, is so named not because it was thought to have contained Alexander's remains, but because its bas-reliefs depict Alexander and his companions fighting the Persians and hunting. It was originally thought to have been the sarcophagus of Abdalonymus (died 311 BC), the king of Sidon appointed by Alexander immediately following the battle of Issus in 331.[169][170] However, more recently, it has been suggested that it may date from earlier than Abdalonymus' death. Demades likened the Macedonian army, after the death of Alexander, to the blinded Cyclops, due to the many random and disorderly movements that it made.[171][172][173] In addition, Leosthenes, also, likened the anarchy between the generals, after Alexander's death, to the blinded Cyclops "who after he had lost his eye went feeling and groping about with his hands before him, not knowing where to lay them".[174] Division of the empire Main articles: Partition of Babylon and Diadochi Kingdoms of the Diadochi in 301 BC: the Ptolemaic Kingdom (dark blue), the Seleucid Empire (yellow), Kingdom of Pergamon (orange), and Kingdom of Macedon (green). Also shown are the Roman Republic (light blue), the Carthaginian Republic (purple), and the Kingdom of Epirus (red). Alexander's death was so sudden that when reports of his death reached Greece, they were not immediately believed.[60] Alexander had no obvious or legitimate heir, his son Alexander IV by Roxane being born after Alexander's death.[175] According to Diodorus, Alexander's companions asked him on his deathbed to whom he bequeathed his kingdom; his laconic reply was "tôi kratistôi"—"to the strongest".[144] Another theory is that his successors wilfully or erroneously misheard "tôi Kraterôi"—"to Craterus", the general leading his Macedonian troops home and newly entrusted with the regency of Macedonia.[176] Arrian and Plutarch claimed that Alexander was speechless by this point, implying that this was an apocryphal story.[177] Diodorus, Curtius and Justin offered the more plausible story that Alexander passed his signet ring to Perdiccas, a bodyguard and leader of the companion cavalry, in front of witnesses, thereby nominating him.[144][175] Perdiccas initially did not claim power, instead suggesting that Roxane's baby would be king, if male; with himself, Craterus, Leonnatus, and Antipater as guardians. However, the infantry, under the command of Meleager, rejected this arrangement since they had been excluded from the discussion. Instead, they supported Alexander's half-brother Philip Arrhidaeus. Eventually, the two sides reconciled, and after the birth of Alexander IV, he and Philip III were appointed joint kings, albeit in name only.[178] Dissension and rivalry soon afflicted the Macedonians, however. The satrapies handed out by Perdiccas at the Partition of Babylon became power bases each general used to bid for power. After the assassination of Perdiccas in 321 BC, Macedonian unity collapsed, and 40 years of war between "The Successors" (Diadochi) ensued before the Hellenistic world settled into four stable power blocs: Ptolemaic Egypt, Seleucid Mesopotamia and Central Asia, Attalid Anatolia, and Antigonid Macedon. In the process, both Alexander IV and Philip III were murdered.[179] Will A contemporary depiction of Alexander the Great by close aides: this coin was struck by Balakros or his successor Menes, both former somatophylakes (bodyguards) of Alexander, when they held the position of satrap of Cilicia in the lifetime of Alexander, circa 333-327 BC. The reverse shows a seated Zeus Aëtophoros.[180] Diodorus stated that Alexander had given detailed written instructions to Craterus some time before his death.[181] Craterus started to carry out Alexander's commands, but the successors chose not to further implement them, on the grounds they were impractical and extravagant.[181] Nevertheless, Perdiccas read Alexander's will to his troops.[60] Alexander's will called for military expansion into the southern and western Mediterranean, monumental constructions, and the intermixing of Eastern and Western populations. It included: Construction of a monumental tomb for his father Philip, "to match the greatest of the pyramids of Egypt"[60] Erection of great temples in Delos, Delphi, Dodona, Dium, Amphipolis, and a monumental temple to Athena at Troy[60] Conquest of Arabia and the entire Mediterranean basin[60] Circumnavigation of Africa[60] Development of cities and the "transplant of populations from Asia to Europe and in the opposite direction from Europe to Asia, in order to bring the largest continent to common unity and to friendship by means of intermarriage and family ties"[182] Character Generalship The Battle of the Granicus, 334 BC The Battle of Issus, 333 BC Alexander earned the epithet "the Great" due to his unparalleled success as a military commander. He never lost a battle, despite typically being outnumbered.[59] This was due to use of terrain, phalanx and cavalry tactics, bold strategy, and the fierce loyalty of his troops.[183] The Macedonian phalanx, armed with the sarissa, a spear 6 metres (20 ft) long, had been developed and perfected by Philip II through rigorous training, and Alexander used its speed and manoeuvrability to great effect against larger but more disparate[clarification needed] Persian forces.[184] Alexander also recognized the potential for disunity among his diverse army, which employed various languages and weapons. He overcame this by being personally involved in battle,[89] in the manner of a Macedonian king.[183] In his first battle in Asia, at Granicus, Alexander used only a small part of his forces, perhaps 13,000 infantry with 5,000 cavalry, against a much larger Persian force of 40,000.[185] Alexander placed the phalanx at the center and cavalry and archers on the wings, so that his line matched the length of the Persian cavalry line, about 3 km (1.86 mi). By contrast, the Persian infantry was stationed behind its cavalry. This ensured that Alexander would not be outflanked, while his phalanx, armed with long pikes, had a considerable advantage over the Persians' scimitars and javelins. Macedonian losses were negligible compared to those of the Persians.[186] At Issus in 333 BC, his first confrontation with Darius, he used the same deployment, and again the central phalanx pushed through.[186] Alexander personally led the charge in the center, routing the opposing army.[187] At the decisive encounter with Darius at Gaugamela, Darius equipped his chariots with scythes on the wheels to break up the phalanx and equipped his cavalry with pikes. Alexander arranged a double phalanx, with the center advancing at an angle, parting when the chariots bore down and then reforming. The advance was successful and broke Darius' center, causing the latter to flee once again.[186] When faced with opponents who used unfamiliar fighting techniques, such as in Central Asia and India, Alexander adapted his forces to his opponents' style. Thus, in Bactria and Sogdiana, Alexander successfully used his javelin throwers and archers to prevent outflanking movements, while massing his cavalry at the center.[187] In India, confronted by Porus' elephant corps, the Macedonians opened their ranks to envelop the elephants and used their sarissas to strike upwards and dislodge the elephants' handlers.[135] Physical appearance Greek biographer Plutarch (c. 45 – c. 120 AD) describes Alexander's appearance as: The outward appearance of Alexander is best represented by the statues of him which Lysippus made, and it was by this artist alone that Alexander himself thought it fit that he should be modelled. For those peculiarities which many of his successors and friends afterwards tried to imitate, namely, the poise of the neck, which was bent slightly to the left, and the melting glance of his eyes, this artist has accurately observed. Apelles, however, in painting him as wielder of the thunder-bolt, did not reproduce his complexion, but made it too dark and swarthy. Whereas he was of a fair colour, as they say, and his fairness passed into ruddiness on his breast particularly, and in his face. Moreover, that a very pleasant odour exhaled from his skin and that there was a fragrance about his mouth and all his flesh, so that his garments were filled with it, this we have read in the Memoirs of Aristoxenus.[188] The semi-legendary Alexander Romance also suggests that Alexander exhibited heterochromia iridum: that one eye was dark and the other light.[189] British historian Peter Green provided a description of Alexander's appearance, based on his review of statues and some ancient documents: Physically, Alexander was not prepossessing. Even by Macedonian standards he was very short, though stocky and tough. His beard was scanty, and he stood out against his hirsute Macedonian barons by going clean-shaven. His neck was in some way twisted, so that he appeared to be gazing upward at an angle. His eyes (one blue, one brown) revealed a dewy, feminine quality. He had a high complexion and a harsh voice.[190] Historian and Egyptologist Joann Fletcher has said that the Alexander had blond hair.[191] Ancient authors recorded that Alexander was so pleased with portraits of himself created by Lysippos that he forbade other sculptors from crafting his image.[192] Lysippos had often used the contrapposto sculptural scheme to portray Alexander and other characters such as Apoxyomenos, Hermes and Eros.[193] Lysippos' sculpture, famous for its naturalism, as opposed to a stiffer, more static pose, is thought to be the most faithful depiction.[194] Personality Alexander (left), wearing a kausia and fighting an Asiatic lion with his friend Craterus (detail); late 4th century BC mosaic,[195] Pella Museum Some of Alexander's strongest personality traits formed in response to his parents. His mother had huge ambitions, and encouraged him to believe it was his destiny to conquer the Persian Empire.[190] Olympias' influence instilled a sense of destiny in him,[196] and Plutarch tells how his ambition "kept his spirit serious and lofty in advance of his years".[197] However, his father Philip was Alexander's most immediate and influential role model, as the young Alexander watched him campaign practically every year, winning victory after victory while ignoring severe wounds.[48] Alexander's relationship with his father forged the competitive side of his personality; he had a need to outdo his father, illustrated by his reckless behaviour in battle.[190] While Alexander worried that his father would leave him "no great or brilliant achievement to be displayed to the world",[198] he also downplayed his father's achievements to his companions.[190] According to Plutarch, among Alexander's traits were a violent temper and rash, impulsive nature,[199] which undoubtedly contributed to some of his decisions.[190] Although Alexander was stubborn and did not respond well to orders from his father, he was open to reasoned debate.[200] He had a calmer side—perceptive, logical, and calculating. He had a great desire for knowledge, a love for philosophy, and was an avid reader.[201] This was no doubt in part due to Aristotle's tutelage; Alexander was intelligent and quick to learn.[190] His intelligent and rational side was amply demonstrated by his ability and success as a general.[199] He had great self-restraint in "pleasures of the body", in contrast with his lack of self-control with alcohol.[202] A Roman copy of an original 3rd century BC Greek bust depicting Alexander the Great, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen Alexander was erudite and patronized both arts and sciences.[197][201] However, he had little interest in sports or the Olympic games (unlike his father), seeking only the Homeric ideals of honour (timê) and glory (kudos).[203] He had great charisma and force of personality, characteristics which made him a great leader.[175][199] His unique abilities were further demonstrated by the inability of any of his generals to unite Macedonia and retain the Empire after his death—only Alexander had the ability to do so.[175] During his final years, and especially after the death of Hephaestion, Alexander began to exhibit signs of megalomania and paranoia.[148] His extraordinary achievements, coupled with his own ineffable sense of destiny and the flattery of his companions, may have combined to produce this effect.[204] His delusions of grandeur are readily visible in his will and in his desire to conquer the world,[148] in as much as he is by various sources described as having boundless ambition,[205][206] an epithet, the meaning of which has descended into an historical cliché.[207][208] He appears to have believed himself a deity, or at least sought to deify himself.[148] Olympias always insisted to him that he was the son of Zeus,[209] a theory apparently confirmed to him by the oracle of Amun at Siwa.[210] He began to identify himself as the son of Zeus-Ammon.[210] Alexander adopted elements of Persian dress and customs at court, notably proskynesis, a practice of which Macedonians disapproved, and were loath to perform.[105] This behaviour cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen.[211] However, Alexander also was a pragmatic ruler who understood the difficulties of ruling culturally disparate peoples, many of whom lived in kingdoms where the king was divine.[212] Thus, rather than megalomania, his behaviour may simply have been a practical attempt at strengthening his rule and keeping his empire together.[213] Personal relationships Main article: Personal relationships of Alexander the Great A mural in Pompeii, depicting the marriage of Alexander to Barsine (Stateira) in 324 BC; the couple are apparently dressed as Ares and Aphrodite. Alexander married three times: Roxana, daughter of the Sogdian nobleman Oxyartes of Bactria,[214][215][216] out of love;[217] and the Persian princesses Stateira II and Parysatis II, the former a daughter of Darius III and latter a daughter of Artaxerxes III, for political reasons.[218][219] He apparently had two sons, Alexander IV of Macedon by Roxana and, possibly, Heracles of Macedon from his mistress Barsine. He lost another child when Roxana miscarried at Babylon.[220][221] Alexander also had a close relationship with his friend, general, and bodyguard Hephaestion, the son of a Macedonian noble.[138][190][222] Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander.[138][223] This event may have contributed to Alexander's failing health and detached mental state during his final months.[148][157] Alexander's sexuality has been the subject of speculation and controversy in modern times.[224] The Roman era writer Athenaeus says, based on the scholar Dicaearchus, who was Alexander's contemporary, that the king "was quite excessively keen on boys", and that Alexander kissed the eunuch Bagoas in public.[225] This episode is also told by Plutarch, probably based on the same source. None of Alexander's contemporaries, however, are known to have explicitly described Alexander's relationship with Hephaestion as sexual, though the pair was often compared to Achilles and Patroclus, whom classical Greek culture painted as a couple. Aelian writes of Alexander's visit to Troy where "Alexander garlanded the tomb of Achilles, and Hephaestion that of Patroclus, the latter hinting that he was a beloved of Alexander, in just the same way as Patroclus was of Achilles."[226] Some modern historians (e.g., Robin Lane Fox) believe not only that Alexander's youthful relationship with Hephaestion was sexual, but that their sexual contacts may have continued into adulthood, which went against the social norms of at least some Greek cities, such as Athens,[227][228] though some modern researchers have tentatively proposed that Macedonia (or at least the Macedonian court) may have been more tolerant of homosexuality between adults.[229] Green argues that there is little evidence in ancient sources that Alexander had much carnal interest in women; he did not produce an heir until the very end of his life.[190] However, Ogden calculates that Alexander, who impregnated his partners thrice in eight years, had a higher matrimonial record than his father at the same age.[230] Two of these pregnancies — Stateira's and Barsine's — are of dubious legitimacy.[231] According to Diodorus Siculus, Alexander accumulated a harem in the style of Persian kings, but he used it rather sparingly, "not wishing to offend the Macedonians",[232] showing great self-control in "pleasures of the body".[202] Nevertheless, Plutarch described how Alexander was infatuated by Roxana while complimenting him on not forcing himself on her.[233] Green suggested that, in the context of the period, Alexander formed quite strong friendships with women, including Ada of Caria, who adopted him, and even Darius' mother Sisygambis, who supposedly died from grief upon hearing of Alexander's death.[190] Battle record Date War Action Opponent/s Type Country (present day) Rank Outcome 338-08-02 2 August 338 BC Rise of Macedon Chaeronea Battle of Chaeronea .Thebans, Athenians Battle Greece Prince Victory ⁂ 335 335 BC Balkan Campaign Mount Haemus Battle of Mount Haemus .Getae, Thracians Battle Bulgaria King Victory ⁂ 335-12 December 335 BC Balkan Campaign Pelium Siege of Pelium .Illyrians Siege Albania King Victory ⁂ 335-12 December 335 BC Balkan Campaign Pelium Battle of Thebes .Thebans Battle Greece King Victory ⁂ 334-05 May 334 BC Persian Campaign Granicus Battle of the Granicus .Achaemenid Empire Battle Turkey King Victory ⁂ 334 334 BC Persian Campaign Miletus Siege of Miletus .Achaemenid Empire, Milesians Siege Turkey King Victory ⁂ 334 334 BC Persian Campaign Halicarnassus Siege of Halicarnassus .Achaemenid Empire Siege Turkey King Victory ⁂ 333-11-05 5 November 333 BC Persian Campaign Issus Battle of Issus .Achaemenid Empire Battle Turkey King Victory ⁂ 332 January–July 332 BC Persian Campaign Tyre Siege of Tyre .Achaemenid Empire, Tyrians Siege Lebanon King Victory ⁂ 332-10 October 332 BC Persian Campaign Tyre Siege of Gaza .Achaemenid Empire Siege Palestine King Victory ⁂ 331-10-01 1 October 331 BC Persian Campaign Gaugamela Battle of Gaugamela .Achaemenid Empire Battle Iraq King Victory ⁂ 331-12 December 331 BC Persian Campaign Uxian Defile Battle of the Uxian Defile .Uxians Battle Iran King Victory ⁂ 330-01-20 20 January 330 BC Persian Campaign Persian Gate Battle of the Persian Gate .Achaemenid Empire Battle Iran King Victory ⁂ 329 329 BC Persian Campaign Cyropolis Siege of Cyropolis .Sogdians Siege Turkmenistan King Victory ⁂ 329-10 October 329 BC Persian Campaign Jaxartes Battle of Jaxartes .Scythians Battle Uzbekistan King Victory ⁂ 327 327 BC Persian Campaign Sogdian Rock Siege of the Sogdian Rock .Sogdians Siege Uzbekistan King Victory ⁂ 327 May 327 – March 326 BC Indian Campaign Cophen Cophen Campaign .Aspasians Expedition Afghanistan and Pakistan King Victory ⁂ 326-04 April 326 BC Indian Campaign Aornos Siege of Aornos .Aśvaka Siege Pakistan King Victory ⁂ 326-05 May 326 BC Indian Campaign Hydaspes Battle of the Hydaspes .Paurava Battle Pakistan King Victory ⁂ 325 November 326 – February 325 BC Indian Campaign Aornos Siege of Multan .Malli Siege Pakistan King Victory ⁂ Legacy The Hellenistic world view after Alexander: ancient world map of Eratosthenes (276–194 BC), incorporating information from the campaigns of Alexander and his successors[234] Alexander's legacy extended beyond his military conquests. His campaigns greatly increased contacts and trade between East and West, and vast areas to the east were significantly exposed to Greek civilization and influence.[16] Some of the cities he founded became major cultural centers, many surviving into the 21st century. His chroniclers recorded valuable information about the areas through which he marched, while the Greeks themselves got a sense of belonging to a world beyond the Mediterranean.[16] Hellenistic kingdoms Main article: Hellenistic period Plan of Alexandria c. 30 BC Alexander's most immediate legacy was the introduction of Macedonian rule to huge new swathes of Asia. At the time of his death, Alexander's empire covered some 5,200,000 km2 (2,000,000 sq mi),[235] and was the largest state of its time. Many of these areas remained in Macedonian hands or under Greek influence for the next 200–300 years. The successor states that emerged were, at least initially, dominant forces, and these 300 years are often referred to as the Hellenistic period.[236] The eastern borders of Alexander's empire began to collapse even during his lifetime.[175] However, the power vacuum he left in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent directly gave rise to one of the most powerful Indian dynasties in history, the Maurya Empire. Taking advantage of this power vacuum, Chandragupta Maurya (referred to in Greek sources as "Sandrokottos"), of relatively humble origin, took control of the Punjab, and with that power base proceeded to conquer the Nanda Empire.[237] Founding of cities Further information: List of cities founded by Alexander the Great Over the course of his conquests, Alexander founded some twenty cities that bore his name, most of them east of the Tigris.[106][238] The first, and greatest, was Alexandria in Egypt, which would become one of the leading Mediterranean cities.[106] The cities' locations reflected trade routes as well as defensive positions. At first, the cities must have been inhospitable, little more than defensive garrisons.[106] Following Alexander's death, many Greeks who had settled there tried to return to Greece.[106][238] However, a century or so after Alexander's death, many of the Alexandrias were thriving, with elaborate public buildings and substantial populations that included both Greek and local peoples.[106] Funding of temples Dedication of Alexander the Great to Athena Polias at Priene, now housed in the British Museum[239] In 334 BC, Alexander the Great donated funds for the completion of the new temple of Athena Polias in Priene, in modern-day western Turkey.[240][241] An inscription from the temple, now housed in the British Museum, declares: "King Alexander dedicated [this temple] to Athena Polias."[239] This inscription is one of the few independent archaeological discoveries confirming an episode from Alexander's life.[239] The temple was designed by Pytheos, one of the architects of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus.[239][240][241][242] Libanius wrote that Alexander founded the temple of Zeus Bottiaios (Ancient Greek: Βοττιαίου Δῖός), in the place where later the city of Antioch was built.[243][244] Hellenization Main article: Hellenistic civilization Alexander's empire was the largest state of its time, covering approximately 5.2 million square km. Hellenization was coined by the German historian Johann Gustav Droysen to denote the spread of Greek language, culture, and population into the former Persian empire after Alexander's conquest.[236] That this export took place is undoubted, and can be seen in the great Hellenistic cities of, for instance, Alexandria, Antioch[245] and Seleucia (south of modern Baghdad).[246] Alexander sought to insert Greek elements into Persian culture and attempted to hybridize Greek and Persian culture. This culminated in his aspiration to homogenize the populations of Asia and Europe. However, his successors explicitly rejected such policies. Nevertheless, Hellenization occurred throughout the region, accompanied by a distinct and opposite 'Orientalization' of the successor states.[247] The core of the Hellenistic culture promulgated by the conquests was essentially Athenian.[248] The close association of men from across Greece in Alexander's army directly led to the emergence of the largely Attic-based "koine", or "common" Greek dialect.[249] Koine spread throughout the Hellenistic world, becoming the lingua franca of Hellenistic lands and eventually the ancestor of modern Greek.[249] Furthermore, town planning, education, local government, and art current in the Hellenistic period were all based on Classical Greek ideals, evolving into distinct new forms commonly grouped as Hellenistic.[245] Aspects of Hellenistic culture were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century.[250] Hellenization in South and Central Asia Main articles: Indo-Greek Kingdom, Indo-Greek art, and Greco-Buddhism The Buddha, in Greco-Buddhist style, 1st to 2nd century AD, Gandhara, northern Pakistan. Tokyo National Museum. Some of the most pronounced effects of Hellenization can be seen in Afghanistan and India, in the region of the relatively late-rising Greco-Bactrian Kingdom (250–125 BC) (in modern Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Tajikistan) and the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BC – 10 AD) in modern Afghanistan and India.[251] On the Silk Road trade routes, Hellenistic culture hybridized with Iranian and Buddhist cultures. The cosmopolitan art and mythology of Gandhara (a region spanning the upper confluence of the Indus, Swat and Kabul rivers in modern Pakistan) of the ~3rd century BC to the ~5th century AD are most evident of the direct contact between Hellenistic civilization and South Asia, as are the Edicts of Ashoka, which directly mention the Greeks within Ashoka's dominion as converting to Buddhism and the reception of Buddhist emissaries by Ashoka's contemporaries in the Hellenistic world.[252] The resulting syncretism known as Greco-Buddhism influenced the development of Buddhism[citation needed] and created a culture of Greco-Buddhist art. These Greco-Buddhist kingdoms sent some of the first Buddhist missionaries to China, Sri Lanka and Hellenistic Asia and Europe (Greco-Buddhist monasticism). Some of the first and most influential figurative portrayals of the Buddha appeared at this time, perhaps modelled on Greek statues of Apollo in the Greco-Buddhist style.[251] Several Buddhist traditions may have been influenced by the ancient Greek religion: the concept of Boddhisatvas is reminiscent of Greek divine heroes,[253] and some Mahayana ceremonial practices (burning incense, gifts of flowers, and food placed on altars) are similar to those practised by the ancient Greeks; however, similar practices were also observed amongst the native Indic culture. One Greek king, Menander I, probably became Buddhist, and was immortalized in Buddhist literature as 'Milinda'.[251] The process of Hellenization also spurred trade between the east and west.[254] For example, Greek astronomical instruments dating to the 3rd century BC were found in the Greco-Bactrian city of Ai Khanoum in modern-day Afghanistan,[255] while the Greek concept of a spherical earth surrounded by the spheres of planets eventually supplanted the long-standing Indian cosmological belief of a disc consisting of four continents grouped around a central mountain (Mount Meru) like the petals of a flower.[254][256][257] The Yavanajataka (lit. Greek astronomical treatise) and Paulisa Siddhanta texts depict the influence of Greek astronomical ideas on Indian astronomy. Following the conquests of Alexander the Great in the east, Hellenistic influence on Indian art was far-ranging. In the area of architecture, a few examples of the Ionic order can be found as far as Pakistan with the Jandial temple near Taxila. Several examples of capitals displaying Ionic influences can be seen as far as Patna, especially with the Pataliputra capital, dated to the 3rd century BC.[258] The Corinthian order is also heavily represented in the art of Gandhara, especially through Indo-Corinthian capitals. Influence on Rome This medallion was produced in Imperial Rome, demonstrating the influence of Alexander's memory. Walters Art Museum, Baltimore. Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans, especially generals, who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements.[259] Polybius began his Histories by reminding Romans of Alexander's achievements, and thereafter Roman leaders saw him as a role model. Pompey the Great adopted the epithet "Magnus" and even Alexander's anastole-type haircut, and searched the conquered lands of the east for Alexander's 260-year-old cloak, which he then wore as a sign of greatness.[259] Julius Caesar dedicated a Lysippean equestrian bronze statue but replaced Alexander's head with his own, while Octavian visited Alexander's tomb in Alexandria and temporarily changed his seal from a sphinx to Alexander's profile.[259] The emperor Trajan also admired Alexander, as did Nero and Caracalla.[259] The Macriani, a Roman family that in the person of Macrinus briefly ascended to the imperial throne, kept images of Alexander on their persons, either on jewellery, or embroidered into their clothes.[260] On the other hand, some Roman writers, particularly Republican figures, used Alexander as a cautionary tale of how autocratic tendencies can be kept in check by republican values.[261] Alexander was used by these writers as an example of ruler values such as amicita (friendship) and clementia (clemency), but also iracundia (anger) and cupiditas gloriae (over-desire for glory).[261] Emperor Julian in his satire called "The Caesars", describes a contest between the previous Roman emperors, with Alexander the Great called in as an extra contestant, in the presence of the assembled gods.[262] The Itinerarium Alexandri is a 4th-century Latin Itinerarium which describes Alexander the Great's campaigns. Unsuccessful plan to cut a canal through the isthmus Pausanias writes that Alexander wanted to dig the Mimas mountain (today at the Karaburun area), but he didn't succeed. He also mentions that this was the only unsuccessful project of Alexander.[263] In addition, Pliny the Elder writes about this unsuccessful plan adding that the distance was 12 kilometres (7 1⁄2 mi), and the purpose was to cut a canal through the isthmus, so as to connect the Caystrian and Hermaean bays.[264][265] Naming of the Icarus island in the Persian Gulf Arrian wrote that Aristobulus said that the Icarus island (modern Failaka Island) in the Persian Gulf had this name because Alexander ordered the island to be named like this, after the Icarus island in the Aegean Sea.[266][267] Legend Alexander the Great depicted in a 14th-century Armenian miniature painting Main article: Alexander the Great in legend Legendary accounts surround the life of Alexander the Great, many deriving from his own lifetime, probably encouraged by Alexander himself.[268] His court historian Callisthenes portrayed the sea in Cilicia as drawing back from him in proskynesis. Writing shortly after Alexander's death, another participant, Onesicritus, invented a tryst between Alexander and Thalestris, queen of the mythical Amazons. When Onesicritus read this passage to his patron, Alexander's general and later King Lysimachus reportedly quipped, "I wonder where I was at the time."[269] In the first centuries after Alexander's death, probably in Alexandria, a quantity of the legendary material coalesced into a text known as the Alexander Romance, later falsely ascribed to Callisthenes and therefore known as Pseudo-Callisthenes. This text underwent numerous expansions and revisions throughout Antiquity and the Middle Ages,[270] containing many dubious stories,[268] and was translated into numerous languages.[271] In ancient and modern culture Alexander the Great depicted in a 14th-century Byzantine manuscript Main articles: Cultural depictions of Alexander the Great and Alexander the Great in the Quran Alexander the Great's accomplishments and legacy have been depicted in many cultures. Alexander has figured in both high and popular culture beginning in his own era to the present day. The Alexander Romance, in particular, has had a significant impact on portrayals of Alexander in later cultures, from Persian to medieval European to modern Greek.[271] Folio from the Shahnameh showing Alexander praying at the Kaaba, mid-16th century Alexander the Great conquering the air. Jean Wauquelin, Les faits et conquêtes d'Alexandre le Grand, Flanders, 1448–1449 Alexander features prominently in modern Greek folklore, more so than any other ancient figure.[272] The colloquial form of his name in modern Greek ("O Megalexandros") is a household name, and he is the only ancient hero to appear in the Karagiozis shadow play.[272] One well-known fable among Greek seamen involves a solitary mermaid who would grasp a ship's prow during a storm and ask the captain "Is King Alexander alive?" The correct answer is "He is alive and well and rules the world!" causing the mermaid to vanish and the sea to calm. Any other answer would cause the mermaid to turn into a raging Gorgon who would drag the ship to the bottom of the sea, all hands aboard.[272] Detail of a 16th-century Islamic painting depicting Alexander the Great being lowered in a glass submersible In pre-Islamic Middle Persian (Zoroastrian) literature, Alexander is referred to by the epithet gujastak, meaning "accursed", and is accused of destroying temples and burning the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism.[273] In Sunni Islamic Persia, under the influence of the Alexander Romance (in Persian: اسکندرنامه‎ Iskandarnamah), a more positive portrayal of Alexander emerges.[274] Firdausi's Shahnameh ("The Book of Kings") includes Alexander in a line of legitimate Persian shahs, a mythical figure who explored the far reaches of the world in search of the Fountain of Youth.[275] In the Shahnameh, Alexander's first journey is to Mecca to pray at the Kaaba.[276] Alexander was depicted as performing a Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) many times in subsequent Islamic art and literature.[277] Later Persian writers associate him with philosophy, portraying him at a symposium with figures such as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, in search of immortality.[274] The figure of Dhul-Qarnayn (literally "the Two-Horned One") mentioned in the Quran is believed by scholars to be based on later legends of Alexander.[274] In this tradition, he was a heroic figure who built a wall to defend against the nations of Gog and Magog.[278] He then travelled the known world in search of the Water of Life and Immortality, eventually becoming a prophet.[278] The Syriac version of the Alexander Romance portrays him as an ideal Christian world conqueror who prayed to "the one true God".[274] In Egypt, Alexander was portrayed as the son of Nectanebo II, the last pharaoh before the Persian conquest.[278] His defeat of Darius was depicted as Egypt's salvation, "proving" Egypt was still ruled by an Egyptian.[274] According to Josephus, Alexander was shown the Book of Daniel when he entered Jerusalem, which described a mighty Greek king who would conquer the Persian Empire. This is cited as a reason for sparing Jerusalem.[279] In Hindi and Urdu, the name "Sikandar", derived from the Persian name for Alexander, denotes a rising young talent, and the Delhi Sultanate ruler Aladdin Khajli stylized himself as "Sikandar-i-Sani" (the Second Alexander the Great).[280] In medieval India, Turkic and Afghan sovereigns from the Iranian-cultured region of Central Asia brought positive cultural connotations of Alexander to the Indian subcontinent, resulting in the efflorescence of Sikandernameh (Alexander Romances) written by Indo-Persian poets such as Amir Khusrow and the prominence of Alexander the Great as a popular subject in Mughal-era Persian miniatures.[281] In medieval Europe, Alexander the Great was revered as a member of the Nine Worthies, a group of heroes whose lives were believed to encapsulate all the ideal qualities of chivalry.[282] In Greek Anthology there are poems referring to Alexander.[283][284] Irish playwright Aubrey Thomas de Vere wrote Alexander the Great, a Dramatic Poem. In popular culture, the British heavy metal band Iron Maiden included a song titled "Alexander the Great" on their 1986 album Somewhere in Time. Written by bass player Steve Harris, the song retells Alexander's life. Historiography Main article: Historiography of Alexander the Great Apart from a few inscriptions and fragments, texts written by people who actually knew Alexander or who gathered information from men who served with Alexander were all lost.[16] Contemporaries who wrote accounts of his life included Alexander's campaign historian Callisthenes; Alexander's generals Ptolemy and Nearchus; Aristobulus, a junior officer on the campaigns; and Onesicritus, Alexander's chief helmsman. Their works are lost, but later works based on these original sources have survived. The earliest of these is Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC), followed by Quintus Curtius Rufus (mid-to-late 1st century AD), Arrian (1st to 2nd century AD), the biographer Plutarch (1st to 2nd century AD), and finally Justin, whose work dated as late as the 4th century.[16] Of these, Arrian is generally considered the most reliable, given that he used Ptolemy and Aristobulus as his sources, closely followed by Diodorus.[16] See also History portal Greece portal Iran portal Egypt portal War portal Ancient Macedonian army Bucephalus Chronology of European exploration of Asia Diogenes and Alexander Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources List of people known as The Great Annotations ^ Macedon was an Ancient Greek polity. The Macedonians were a Greek tribe. Historiography and scholarship agree that Alexander the Great was Greek.[285] ^ By the time of his death, he had conquered the entire Achaemenid Persian Empire, adding it to Macedon's European territories; according to some modern writers, this was most of the world then known to the ancient Greeks (the 'Ecumene').[286][287] An approximate view of the world known to Alexander can be seen in Hecataeus of Miletus's map; see Hecataeus world map. ^ For instance, Hannibal supposedly ranked Alexander as the greatest general;[288] Julius Caesar wept on seeing a statue of Alexander, since he had achieved so little by the same age;[289] Pompey consciously posed as the 'new Alexander';[290] the young Napoleon Bonaparte also encouraged comparisons with Alexander.[291] ^ The name Ἀλέξανδρος derives from the Greek verb ἀλέξω (aléxō, lit. 'ward off, avert, defend')[292][293] and ἀνδρ- (andr-), the stem of ἀνήρ (anḗr, lit. 'man'),[294][293] and means "protector of men".[295] ^ There have been, since the time, many suspicions that Pausanias was actually hired to murder Philip. Suspicion has fallen upon Alexander, Olympias and even the newly crowned Persian Emperor, Darius III. All three of these people had motive to have Philip murdered.[296] ^ However, Arrian, who used Ptolemy as a source, said that Alexander crossed with more than 5,000 horse and 30,000 foot; Diodorus quoted the same totals, but listed 5,100 horse and 32,000 foot. Diodorus also referred to an advance force already present in Asia, which Polyaenus, in his Stratagems of War (5.44.4), said numbered 10,000 men. References ^ Bloom, Jonathan M.; Blair, Sheila S. (2009) The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture: Mosul to Zirid, Volume 3. 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(William Woodthorpe), 1869-1957. (1948). Alexander the Great. Cambridge [England]: University Press. pp. 361–362. ISBN 0-521-22584-1. OCLC 606613.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ a b c Morkot 1996, p. 122. ^ a b Roisman & Worthington 2010, p. 193. ^ Plutarch 1919, IV, 1. ^ Grafton 2010, p. 27. ^ a b c d e f g h i Green 2007, pp. 15–16. ^ Fletcher 2008, pp. 87, 246–247, see image plates and captions. ^ "Images of Authority II: The Greek Example". SUNY Oneonta. 2005. Retrieved 16 December 2011. ^ Grout, James. "Lysippus: Apoxyomenos". Encyclopaedia Romana. Retrieved 16 December 2011. ^ Bosworth 1988, pp. 19–20. ^ Olga Palagia (2000). "Hephaestion's Pyre and the Royal Hunt of Alexander," in A.B. Bosworth and E.J. Baynham (eds), Alexander the Great in Fact and Fiction. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-815287-3, p. 185. ^ Green 2007, p. 4. ^ a b Plutarch 1919, IV, 4 ^ Plutarch 1919, V, 2 ^ a b c Arrian 1976, VII, 29 ^ Plutarch 1919, VII, 1 ^ a b Plutarch 1919, VIII, 1 ^ a b Arrian 1976, VII, 28 ^ Roisman & Worthington 2010, p. 190, Green 2007, p. 4 ^ Green 2007, pp. 20–21. ^ M Wood (edited by T Gergel) – Alexander: Selected Texts from Arrian, Curtius and Plutarch Penguin, 2004 ISBN 0-14-101312-5 [Retrieved 8 April 2015] ^ Maddox, Donald; Sturm-Maddox, Sara (February 2012). Medieval French Alexander, the. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-7914-8832-4. ^ G Highet – The Classical Tradition: Greek and Roman Influences on Western Literature: Greek and Roman Influences on Western Literature, Oxford University Press, 31 December 1949 p. 68 [Retrieved 2015-04-08] (ed. c.f. – Merriam-webster.com) ^ Merriam-Webster – epithet [Retrieved 8 April 2015] ^ Plutarch 1919, IX, IV ^ a b Plutarch 1919, XXVII, 1 ^ Plutarch 1919, LXV, 1 ^ Morkot 1996, p. 111, Roisman & Worthington 2010, p. 195 ^ Morkot 1996, p. 121, Roisman & Worthington 2010, p. 195 ^ Ahmed, S. Z. (2004), Chaghatai: the Fabulous Cities and People of the Silk Road, West Conshokoken: Infinity Publishing, p. 61. ^ Strachan, Edward and Roy Bolton (2008), Russia and Europe in the Nineteenth Century, London: Sphinx Fine Art, p. 87, ISBN 978-1-907200-02-1. ^ Livius.org. "Roxane." Articles on Ancient History. Retrieved on 30 August 2016. ^ Plutarch 1919, LXVII, 1. ^ Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly (2000), Women and Monarchy in Macedonia, Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, ISBN 978-0-8061-3212-9 ^ Plutarch 1936, II, 6. ^ "Alexander IV". Livius. Retrieved 13 December 2009. ^ Renault 2001, p. 100. ^ Diodorus Siculus 1989, XVII, 114 ^ Plutarch 1919, LXXII, 1 ^ Ogden 2009, p. 204. ^ Thomas K. Hubbard, ed. (2003). Homosexuality in Greece and Rome: A Sourcebook of Basic Documents. University of California Press. p. 79. ISBN 978-0-520-23430-7. ^ Aelian, "7", Varia Historia, XII ^ Marilyn Skinner (2013). Sexuality in Greek and Roman Culture (Ancient Cultures), 2nd edition. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 190. ISBN 978-1-4443-4986-3. ^ Sacks 1995, p. 16. ^ Thomas Hubbard (2014). "Chapter 8: Peer Homosexuality". In Hubbard, Thomas (ed.). A Companion to Greek and Roman Sexualities. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. p. 143. ISBN 978-1-4051-9572-0. ^ Ogden 2009, p. 208... three attested pregnancies in eight years produces an attested impregnation rate of one every 2.7 years, which is actually superior to that of his father. ^ Mary Renault (1979). The Nature of Alexander. Pantheon. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-394-73825-3. No record at all exists of such a woman [ie, Barsine] accompanying his march; nor of any claim by her, or her powerful kin, that she had borne him offspring. Yet twelve years after his death a boy was produced, seventeen years old, born therefore five years after Damascus, her alleged son "brought up in Pergamon"; a claimant and shortlived pawn in the succession wars, chosen probably for a physical resemblance to Alexander. That he actually did marry another Barsine must have helped both to launch and preserve the story; but no source reports any notice whatever taken by him of a child who, Roxane's being posthumous, would have been during his lifetime his only son, by a near-royal mother. In a man who named cities after his horse and dog, this strains credulity. ^ Diodorus Siculus 1989, XVII, 77 ^ Plutarch 1936. ^ "World map according to Eratosthenes (194 B.C.)". henry-davis.com. Henry Davis Consulting. Retrieved 16 December 2011. ^ Peter Turchin, Thomas D. Hall and Jonathan M. Adams, "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires Archived 22 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine", Journal of World-Systems Research Vol. 12 (no. 2), pp. 219–29 (2006). ^ a b Green 2007, pp. xii–xix. ^ Keay 2001, pp. 82–85. ^ a b "Alexander the Great: his towns". livius.org. Retrieved 13 December 2009. ^ a b c d Burn, Lucilla (2004). Hellenistic Art: From Alexander the Great to Augustus. London, England: The British Museum Press. pp. 10–11. ISBN 978-0-89236-776-4. ^ a b "Alexander the Great". British Museum. "On reaching Priene, he made a further dedication to Athena. There the townspeople were laying out their new city and building a temple to its patron goddess. Alexander offered funds to complete the temple, and the inscription on this wall block, cut into a block of marble, records his gift. The inscription was found in the 19th century by the architect-archaeologist Richard Pullan leading an expedition on behalf of the Society of Dilettanti. It reads: 'King Alexander dedicated the Temple to Athena Polias'." ^ a b "Collection online". British Museum. "Marble wall block from the temple of Athena at Priene, inscribed on two sides. The inscription on the front records the gift of funds from Alexander the Great to complete the temple." ^ "Priene Inscription". British Museum. "Marble wall block from the temple of Athena at Priene, inscribed. Part of the marble wall of the temple of Athena at Priene. Above: "King Alexander dedicated the temple to Athena Polias." ^ "Capitains Nemo". cts.perseids.org. ^ "Project MUSE - Ancient Antioch". muse.jhu.edu. ^ a b Green 2007, pp. 56–59. ^ Waterman, Leroy; McDowell, Robert H.; Hopkins, Clark (1998). "Seleucia on the Tigris, Iraq". umich.edu. The Kelsey Online. Archived from the original on 27 May 2012. Retrieved 16 December 2011. ^ Green 2007, pp. 21, 56–59. ^ Green 2007, pp. 56–59, McCarty 2004, p. 17 ^ a b Harrison 1971, p. 51. ^ Baynes 2007, p. 170, Gabriel 2002, p. 277 ^ a b c Keay 2001, pp. 101–09. ^ Proser, Adriana (2011). The Buddhist Heritage of Pakistan: Art of Gandhara. Asia Society. ISBN 978-0-87848-112-5. ^ Luniya 1978, p. 312 ^ a b Pingree 1978, pp. 533, 554ff ^ Cambon, Pierre; Jarrige, Jean-François (2006). Afghanistan, les trésors retrouvés: Collections du Musée national de Kaboul [Afghanistan, the treasures found: collections of the Kabul national museum] (in French). Réunion des musées nationaux. p. 269. ISBN 978-2-7118-5218-5. ^ Glick, Livesey & Wallis 2005, p. 463 ^ Hayashi (2008), Aryabhata I ^ Brown, Rebecca M.; Hutton, Deborah S. (22 June 2015). A Companion to Asian Art and Architecture. p. 438. ISBN 978-1-119-01953-4. ^ a b c d Roisman & Worthington 2010, Chapter 6, p. 114 ^ Holt 2003, p. 3. ^ a b Roisman & Worthington 2010, Chapter 6, p. 115 ^ "Julian: Caesars - translation". www.attalus.org. ^ "Pausanias, Description of Greece, *korinqiaka/, chapter 1, section 5". www.perseus.tufts.edu. ^ "Pliny the Elder, The Natural History, BOOK V. AN ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS, HAVENS, MOUNTAINS, RIVERS, DISTANCES, AND PEOPLES WHO NOW EXIST OR FORMERLY EXISTED., CHAP. 31.—IONIA". www.perseus.tufts.edu. ^ "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854), MIMAS". www.perseus.tufts.edu. ^ "Arrian, Anabasis, book 7, chapter 20". www.perseus.tufts.edu. ^ "ToposText". topostext.org. ^ a b Roisman & Worthington 2010, p. 187. ^ Plutarch 1919, LXVI, 1 ^ Stoneman 1996, passim ^ a b Roisman & Worthington 2010, p. 117. ^ a b c Fermor 2006, p. 215 ^ Curtis, Tallis & Andre-Salvini 2005, p. 154 ^ a b c d e Roisman & Worthington 2010, p. 120. ^ Fischer 2004, p. 66 ^ Kennedy, Hugh (2012). "Journey to Mecca: A History". In Porter, Venetia (ed.). Hajj : journey to the heart of Islam. Cambridge, Mass.: The British Museum. p. 131. ISBN 978-0-674-06218-4. OCLC 709670348. ^ Webb, Peter (2013). "The Hajj before Muhammad: Journeys to Mecca in Muslim Narratives of Pre-Islamic History". In Porter, Venetia; Saif, Liana (eds.). The Hajj : collected essays. London: The British Museum. pp. 14 footnote 72. ISBN 978-0-86159-193-0. OCLC 857109543. ^ a b c Roisman & Worthington 2010, p. 122. ^ Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, XI, 337 viii, 5 ^ Connerney 2009, p. 68 ^ Donde, Dipanwita (2014). "The Mughal Sikander: Influence of the Romance of Alexander on Mughal Manuscript Painting". International Conference of Greek Studies: An Asian Perspective – via Academia. ^ Noll, Thomas (2016). "The Visual Image of Alexander the Great". In Stock, Markus (ed.). Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages: Transcultural Perspectives. Translated by Boettcher, Susan. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press. p. 258. ISBN 978-1-4426-4466-3. ^ "ToposText". topostext.org. ^ "ToposText". topostext.org. ^ Hornblower 2008, pp. 55–58; Errington 1990, pp. 3–4; Fine 1983, pp. 607–08; Hammond & Walbank 2001, p. 11; Jones 2001, p. 21; Osborne 2004, p. 127; Hammond 1989, pp. 12–13; Hammond 1993, p. 97; Starr 1991, pp. 260, 367; Toynbee 1981, p. 67; Worthington 2008, pp. 8, 219; Cawkwell 1978, p. 22; Perlman 1973, p. 78; Hamilton 1974, Chapter 2: The Macedonian Homeland, p. 23; Bryant 1996, p. 306; O'Brien 1994, p. 25. ^ Danforth 1997, pp. 38, 49, 167. ^ Stoneman 2004, p. 2. ^ Goldsworthy 2003, pp. 327–28. ^ Plutarch 1919, XI, 2 ^ Holland 2003, pp. 176–83. ^ Barnett 1997, p. 45. ^ Plutarch 1919, IV, 57: 'ἀλέξω'. ^ a b Liddell & Scott 1940. ^ Plutarch 1919, IV, 57: 'ἀνήρ'. ^ "Alexander". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 11 December 2009. ^ Lane Fox 1980, pp. 72–73. Sources Primary sources Arrian (1976). de Sélincourt, Aubrey (ed.). Anabasis Alexandri (The Campaigns of Alexander). Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-044253-3. Quintus Curtius Rufus (1946). Rolfe, John (ed.). History of Alexander. Loeb Classical Library. Retrieved 28 April 2015. Siculus, Diodorus (1989). "Library of History". CH Oldfather, translator. Perseus Project. Retrieved 14 November 2009. Plutarch (1919). Perrin, Bernadotte (ed.). Plutarch, Alexander. Perseus Project. Retrieved 6 December 2011. Plutarch (1936). Babbitt, Frank Cole (ed.). On the Fortune of Alexander. IV. Loeb Classical Library. pp. 379–487. Retrieved 26 November 2011. Trogus, Pompeius (1853). Justin (ed.). "Epitome of the Philippic History". Rev. John Selby Watson, translator. Forum romanum. Retrieved 14 November 2009.. Secondary sources Barnett, C. (1997). Bonaparte. Wordsworth. ISBN 978-1-85326-678-2. Baynes, Norman G (2007). "Byzantine art". Byzantium: An Introduction to East Roman Civilization. Baynes. p. 170. ISBN 978-1-4067-5659-3. Berkley, Grant (2006). Moses in the Hieroglyphs. Trafford. ISBN 978-1-4120-5600-7. Retrieved 13 January 2011. Bose, Partha (2003). Alexander the Great's Art of Strategy. Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-1-74114-113-9. Bosworth, A. B. (1988). Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great. New York: Cambridge University Press. Bryant, Joseph M. (1996). Moral Codes and Social Structure in Ancient Greece: A Sociology of Greek Ethics from Homer to the Epicureans and Stoics. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-3042-1. Cawkwell, George (1978). Philip of Macedon. London, UK: Faber and Faber. ISBN 0-571-10958-6. Cawthorne, Nigel (2004). Alexander the Great. Haus. ISBN 978-1-904341-56-7. Connerney, R. D. (2009). The upside-down tree: India's changing culture. Algora. p. 214. ISBN 978-0-87586-649-9. Curtis, J.; Tallis, N; Andre-Salvini, B (2005). Forgotten empire: the world of ancient Persia. University of California Press. p. 154. ISBN 978-0-520-24731-4. Dahmen, Karsten (2007). The Legend of Alexander the Great on Greek and Roman Coins. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-39451-2. Danforth, Loring M. (1997). The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-04356-2. Dillon, John M. (2004). Morality and custom in ancient Greece. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-34526-4. Durant, Will (1966). The Story of Civilization: The Life of Greece. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-41800-7. Errington, Robert Malcolm (1990). A History of Macedonia. Translated by Catherine Errington. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-06319-8. Fine, John Van Antwerp (1983). The Ancient Greeks: A Critical History. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-03314-0. Fermor, Patrick Leigh (2006). Mani: Travels in the Southern Peloponnese. New York Book Review. p. 358. ISBN 978-1-59017-188-2. Fischer, MMJ (2004). Mute dreams, blind owls, and dispersed knowledges: Persian poesis in the transnational circuitry. Duke University Press. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-8223-3298-5. Fletcher, Joann (2008). Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend. New York: Harper. ISBN 978-0-06-058558-7. Foreman, Laura (2004). Alexander the conqueror: the epic story of the warrior king. Da Capo Press. p. 217. ISBN 978-0-306-81293-4. Gabriel, Richard A (2002). "The army of Byzantium". The Great Armies of Antiquity. Greenwood. p. 277. ISBN 978-0-275-97809-9. Gergel, Tania, ed. (2004). The Brief Life and Towering Exploits of History's Greatest Conqueror as Told By His Original Biographers. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-200140-0. Glick, Thomas F.; Livesey, Steven John; Wallis, Faith, eds. (2005). Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-96930-7. Goldsworthy, A. (2003). The Fall of Carthage. Cassel. ISBN 978-0-304-36642-2. Grafton, Anthony (2010). Most, Glenn W; Settis, Salvatore (eds.). The Classical Tradition. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-03572-0. Green, Peter (2007). Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age. London: Phoenix. ISBN 978-0-7538-2413-9. Gunther, John (2007). Alexander the Great. Sterling. ISBN 978-1-4027-4519-5. Hammond, NGL (1983). Sources for Alexander the Great. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-71471-6. ——— (1986). A History of Greece to 323 BC. Cambridge University. Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (1993). Studies concerning Epirus and Macedonia before Alexander. Amsterdam: Hakkert. ISBN 978-90-256-1050-0. Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière; Walbank, Frank William (2001). A History of Macedonia: 336–167 B.C. 3 (reprint ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press of the Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814815-1. Harrison, E. F. (1971). The language of the New Testament. Wm B Eerdmans. p. 508. ISBN 978-0-8028-4786-7. Heckel, Waldemar; Tritle, Lawrence A, eds. (2009). Alexander the Great: A New History. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-3082-0. Holland, Tom (2003). Rubicon: Triumph and Tragedy in the Roman Republic. Abacus. ISBN 978-0-349-11563-4. Holt, Frank Lee (2003). Alexander the Great and The Mystery of the Elephant Medallions. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-23881-7. Hornblower, Simon (2008). "Greek Identity in the Archaic and Classical Periods". In Zacharia, K. (ed.). Hellenisms: Culture, Identity and Ethnicity from Antiquity to Modernity. Ashgate. pp. 37–58. ISBN 978-0-7546-6525-0. Jones, Archer (2001). The Art of War in the Western World. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-06966-8. Keay, John (2001). India: A History. Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-8021-3797-5. Kosmin, Paul J. (2014), The Land of the Elephant Kings: Space, Territory, and Ideology in Seleucid Empire, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-72882-0 Lane Fox, Robin (1980). The Search for Alexander. Boston: Little Brown & Co. ISBN 978-0-316-29108-8. ——— (2006). Alexander the Great. ePenguin. ASIN B002RI9DYW. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (1940). Jones, Sir Henry Stuart; McKenzie, Roderick (eds.). A Greek-English Lexicon on Perseus Digital Library. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Luniya, Bhanwarlal Nathuram (1978). Life and Culture in Ancient India: From the Earliest Times to 1000 AD. Lakshmi Narain Agarwal. LCCN 78907043. McCarty, Nick (2004). Alexander the Great. Camberwell, Victoria: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-670-04268-5. McKechnie, Paul (1989). Outsiders in the Greek cities in the fourth century BC. Taylor & Francis. p. 54. ISBN 978-0-415-00340-7. Morkot, Robert (1996). The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Greece. Penguin. Narain, A. K. (1965). Alexander the Great: Greece and Rome–12. Ogden, Daniel (2009). "Alexander's Sex Life". In Heckel, Alice; Heckel, Waldemar; Tritle, Lawrence A (eds.). Alexander the Great: A New History. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-3082-0. Pingree, D. (1978). "History of Mathematical Astronomy in India". Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 15. pp. 533–633. Pratt, James Bissett (1996). The Pilgrimage of Buddhism and a Buddhist Pilgrimage. Laurier Books. ISBN 978-81-206-1196-2. Renault, Mary (2001). The Nature of Alexander the Great. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-139076-5. Ring, Trudy; Salkin, Robert M; Berney, KA; Schellinger, Paul E, eds. (1994). International dictionary of historic places. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn, 1994–1996. ISBN 978-1-884964-04-6. Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (2010). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2. Sabin, P; van Wees, H; Whitby, M (2007). The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare: Greece, the Hellenistic World and the Rise of Rome. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-78273-9. Sacks, David (1995). Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World. Constable & Co. ISBN 978-0-09-475270-2. Starr, Chester G. (1991). A History of the Ancient World. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-506628-6. Stoneman, Richard (2004). Alexander the Great. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-31932-4. Stoneman, Richard (1996). "The Metamorphoses of Alexander Romance". In Schmeling, Gareth L (ed.). The Novel in the Ancient World. Brill. pp. 601–12. ISBN 978-90-04-09630-1. Studniczka, Franz (1894). Achäologische Jahrbook 9. Tripathi, Rama Shankar (1999). History of Ancient India. ISBN 978-81-208-0018-2. Toynbee, Arnold Joseph (1981). The Greeks and Their Heritages. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Wood, Michael (2001). In the Footsteps of Alexander the Great: A Journey from Greece to Asia. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-23192-4. Worthington, Ian (2003). Alexander the Great: A Reader. Routledge. p. 332. ISBN 978-0-415-29187-3. Worthington, Ian (2008). Philip II of Macedonia. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-12079-0. Yenne, Bill (2010). Alexander the Great: Lessons From History's Undefeated General. Palgrave MacMillan. ISBN 978-0-230-61915-9. Further reading Badian, Ernst (1958). "Alexander the Great and the Unity of Mankind". Historia. 7. Beazley, JD; Ashmole, B (1932). Greek Sculpture and Painting. Cambridge University Press.[ISBN missing] Bowra, Maurice (1994). The Greek Experience. Phoenix. ISBN 978-1-85799-122-2. Boardman, John (2018). Alexander the Great: From His Death to the Present Day – illustrated history of his representations in art and literature[ISBN missing] Burn, AR (1951). Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Empire (2 ed.). London: English Universities Press. Rufus, Quintus Curtius. "Quintus Curtius Rufus, History of Alexander the Great" (in Latin). U Chicago. Retrieved 16 November 2009. Cartledge, Paul (2004). "Alexander the Great". Overlook. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Doherty, Paul (2004). "The Death of Alexander the Great". Carroll & Graf. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Engels, Donald W (1978). Alexander the Great and the Logistics of the Macedonian Army. Berkeley: University of California Press. Fawcett, Bill, ed. (2006). How To Lose A Battle: Foolish Plans and Great Military Blunders. Harper. ISBN 978-0-06-076024-3. Fuller, JFC (1958). The Generalship of Alexander the Great. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode. ISBN 978-0-306-80371-0. Green, Peter (1992). Alexander of Macedon: 356–323 BC. A Historical Biography. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-07166-7. Greene, Robert (2000). The 48 Laws of Power. Penguin. p. 351. ISBN 978-0-14-028019-7. Hammond, NGL (1989). The Macedonian State: Origins, Institutions, and History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814883-8. Hammond, NGL (1994). Alexander the Great: King, Commander, and Statesman (3 ed.). London: Bristol Classical Press. Hammond, NGL (1997). The Genius of Alexander the Great. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Mercer, Charles (1962). The Way of Alexander the Great (1 ed.). Boston: American Heritage Inc. McCrindle, J. W. (1893). The Invasion of India by Alexander the Great as Described by Arrian, Q Curtius, Diodorus, Plutarch, and Justin. Westminster: Archibald Constable & Co. Murphy, James Jerome; Katula, Richard A; Hill, Forbes I; Ochs, Donovan J (2003). A Synoptic History of Classical Rhetoric. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-880393-35-2. Nandan, Y; Bhavan, BV (2003). British Death March Under Asiatic Impulse: Epic of Anglo-Indian Tragedy in Afghanistan. Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. ISBN 978-81-7276-301-5. O'Brien, John Maxwell (1992). Alexander the Great: The Invisible Enemy. London: Routledge. Pomeroy, S; Burstein, S; Dolan, W; Roberts, J (1998). Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509742-9. Prevas, John (2004). Envy of the Gods: Alexander the Great's Ill-Fated Journey Across Asia (3 ed.). Da Capo. Roisman, Joseph, ed. (1995). Alexander the Great Ancient and Modern Perspectives. Problems in European Civilization. Lexington, MA: DC Heath. Savill, Agnes (1959). Alexander the Great and His Time (3 ed.). London: Barrie & Rockliff. Stewart, Andrew (1993). Faces of Power: Alexander's Image and Hellenistic Politics. Hellenistic Culture and Society. 11. Berkeley: University of California Press. Stoneman, Richard (2008). Alexander the Great: A Life in Legend. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-11203-0. Tarn, WW (1948). Alexander the Great. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wheeler, Benjamin Ide (1900). Alexander the Great; the merging of East and West in universal history. New York: GP Putnam's sons. Wilcken, Ulrich (1997) [1932]. Alexander the Great. New York: WW Norton & Co. ISBN 978-0-393-00381-9. Worthington, Ian (2004). Alexander the Great: Man And God. Pearson. ISBN 978-1-4058-0162-1. External links Alexander the Greatat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel guide from Wikivoyage Resources from Wikiversity Library resources about Alexander the Great Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Alexander the Great (king of Macedonia) at the Encyclopædia Britannica Delamarche, Félix (1833), The Empire and Expeditions of Alexander the Great. Romm, James; Cartledge, Paul, "Two Great Historians On Alexander the Great", Forbes (conversations) Part 1, Part 2, Part 3, Part 4, Part 5, Part 6. Alexander the Great at Curlie Alexander the Great: An annotated list of primary sources, Livius. The Elusive Tomb of Alexander the Great, Archæology. Alexander the Great and Sherlock Holmes, Sherlockian Sherlock. In Our Time: Alexander the Great BBC discussion with Paul Cartledge, Diana Spencer and Rachel Mairs hosted by Melvyn Bragg, first broadcast 1 October 2015. Alexander the Great Argead dynasty Born: 356 BC Died: 323 BC Regnal titles Preceded by Philip II King of Macedon 336–323 BC Succeeded by Philip III and Alexander IV Preceded by Darius III Great King (Shah) of Persia 330–323 BC Pharaoh of Egypt 332–323 BC New creation Lord of Asia 331–323 BC v t e Kings of Macedon Argead Caranus Coenus Tyrimmas Perdiccas I Argaeus I Philip I Aeropus I Alcetas I Amyntas I Alexander I Alcetas II Perdiccas II Archelaus I Craterus Orestes / Aeropus II Archelaus II Amyntas II Pausanias Argaeus II Amyntas III Alexander II Perdiccas III Amyntas IV Philip II Alexander III (Alexander the Great) Philip III Alexander IV Regents Ptolemy of Aloros Perdiccas Peithon and Arrhidaeus Antipater Polyperchon Cassander Antipatrid Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Antigonid Demetrius I Antigonus II Demetrius II Antigonus III Philip V Perseus Andriscus (Philip VI) Non-dynastic Lysimachus Pyrrhus Ptolemy Keraunos Meleager v t e Hellenistic rulers Argeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Kings of Cyrene Magas Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Kings of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Kings of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Kings of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Kings of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus Kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon (regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces Asander with Dynamis Mithridates II Asander with Dynamis Scribonius’ attempted rule with Dynamis Dynamis with Polemon Polemon with Pythodorida Aspurgus Mithridates III with Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Shahnameh of Ferdowsi Characters Pishdadian Keyumars Hushang Tahmuras Jamshid Fereydun Iraj Manuchehr Nowzar Zaav Garshasp Kayanian Kay Kawād Kay Kāvus Kay Khosrow Kay Lohrasp Goshtasb Kay Bahman Humay Chehrzad Kay Darab Dara Male characters Jamasp Siamak Shahrasp Abtin Kayanoush Kāve Arash Salm Tur Qobád Qaren Tous Gostaham Gershasp Nariman Sām Zāl Rostam Sohrab Esfandiyār Pashotan Faramarz Fariborz Siyâvash Farud Zangay-i Shavaran Kashvad Goudarz Giv Bizhan Rohham Bahram Hojir Gorgin Zavara Shaghad Rostam Farrokhzād Female characters Faranak Arnavāz Shahrnāz Sindukht Rudaba Sudabeh Tahmina Banu Goshasp Gordafarid Farangis Manizheh Katāyoun Tazian Mardas Zahhak Mehrab Kaboli Turanian Zadashm Pashang Aghrirat Garsivaz Afrasiab Tageuo Shideh Arjasp Viseh Piran Houman Barman Nastihan Biderafsh Clans and families Kashvadian House of Goudarz House of Viseh House of Nowzar House of Sasan House of Sām Creatures and animals Akvan Div Kharvazan Div Arzhang Div Div-e Sepid Koulad-Ghandi Huma bird Simurgh Rakhsh Shabdiz Shabrang White Elephant Places Iran Turan Zabulistan Sistan Kabul Balkh Ctesiphon Estakhr Mazandaran Alborzkouh Mount Damavand Tammisha Kasa-Roud ... Structures Dez-i Gonbadan Dez-i Roein Dezh-i sepid Dezh-i Bahman Dezh-i Alanan Gang-Dez Manuscripts Baysonghor Shahnameh Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp Florence Shahnameh Shahnameh of Rashida Windsor Shahnameh Great Mongol Shahnameh (or Demotte) Shahnameh of Ghavam al-Din Davari Shahnameh See also Daqiqi Abu-Mansuri Shahnameh Derafsh Kaviani Babr-e Bayan Zal and Rudabeh Rostam and Sohrab Rostam and Esfandiyar Rostam's Seven Labours Davazdah Rokh Khosrow and Shirin Bijan and Manijeh Persian mythology Category Book v t e Ancient Greece Timeline History Geography Periods Cycladic civilization Minoan civilization Mycenaean civilization Greek Dark Ages Archaic period Classical Greece Hellenistic Greece Roman Greece Geography Aegean Sea Aeolis Crete Cyrenaica Cyprus Doris Epirus Hellespont Ionia Ionian Sea Macedonia Magna Graecia Peloponnesus Pontus Taurica Ancient Greek colonies City states Politics Military City states Argos Athens Byzantion Chalcis Corinth Ephesus Miletus Pergamon Eretria Kerkyra Larissa Megalopolis Thebes Megara Rhodes Samos Sparta Syracuse Cyrene Alexandria Antioch Lissus (Crete) Kingdoms Epirus (ancient state) Macedonia (ancient kingdom) Ptolemaic Kingdom Seleucid Empire Greco-Bactrian Kingdom Indo-Greek Kingdom Politics Boule Koinon Proxeny Tagus Tyrant Amphictyonic League Athenian Agora Areopagus Ecclesia Graphe paranomon Heliaia Ostracism Spartan Apella Ephor Gerousia Macedon Synedrion Koinon Military Wars Athenian military Scythian archers Antigonid Macedonian army Army of Macedon Ballista Cretan archers Hellenistic armies Hippeis Hoplite Hetairoi Macedonian phalanx Phalanx Peltast Pezhetairos Sarissa Sacred Band of Thebes Sciritae Seleucid army Spartan army Strategos Toxotai Xiphos Xyston People List of ancient Greeks Rulers Kings of Argos Archons of Athens Kings of Athens Kings of Commagene Diadochi Kings of Macedonia Kings of Paionia Attalid kings of Pergamon Kings of Pontus Kings of Sparta Tyrants of Syracuse Philosophers Anaxagoras Anaximander Anaximenes Antisthenes Aristotle Democritus Diogenes of Sinope Empedocles Epicurus Gorgias Heraclitus Hypatia Leucippus Parmenides Plato Protagoras Pythagoras Socrates Thales Zeno Authors Aeschylus Aesop Alcaeus Archilochus Aristophanes Bacchylides Euripides Herodotus Hesiod Hipponax Homer Ibycus Lucian Menander Mimnermus Panyassis Philocles Pindar Plutarch Polybius Sappho Simonides Sophocles Stesichorus Theognis Thucydides Timocreon Tyrtaeus Xenophon Others Agesilaus II Agis II Alcibiades Alexander the Great Aratus Archimedes Aspasia Demosthenes Epaminondas Euclid Hipparchus Hippocrates Leonidas Lycurgus Lysander Milo of Croton Miltiades Pausanias Pericles Philip of Macedon Philopoemen Praxiteles Ptolemy Pyrrhus Solon Themistocles Groups Philosophers Playwrights Poets Tyrants By culture Ancient Greek tribes Thracian Greeks Ancient Macedonians Society Culture Society Agriculture Calendar Clothing Coinage Cuisine Economy Education Festivals Homosexuality Law Olympic Games Pederasty Philosophy Prostitution Religion Slavery Warfare Wedding customs Wine Arts and science Architecture Greek Revival architecture Astronomy Literature Mathematics Medicine Music Musical system Pottery Sculpture Technology Theatre Greco-Buddhist art Religion Funeral and burial practices Mythology mythological figures Temple Twelve Olympians Underworld Greco-Buddhism Greco-Buddhist monasticism Sacred places Eleusis Delphi Delos Dion Dodona Mount Olympus Olympia Structures Athenian Treasury Lion Gate Long Walls Philippeion Theatre of Dionysus Tunnel of Eupalinos Temples Aphaea Artemis Athena Nike Erechtheion Hephaestus Hera, Olympia Parthenon Samothrace Zeus, Olympia Language Proto-Greek Mycenaean Homeric Dialects Aeolic Arcadocypriot Attic Doric Epirote Ionic Locrian Macedonian Pamphylian Koine Writing Linear A Linear B Cypriot syllabary Greek alphabet Greek numerals Attic numerals Greek colonisation South Italy Alision Brentesion Caulonia Chone Croton Cumae Elea Heraclea Lucania Hipponion Hydrus Krimisa Laüs Locri Medma Metapontion Neápolis Pandosia (Lucania) Poseidonia Pixous Rhegion Scylletium Siris Sybaris Sybaris on the Traeis Taras Terina Thurii Sicily Akragas Akrai Akrillai Apollonia Calacte Casmenae Catana Gela Helorus Henna Heraclea Minoa Himera Hybla Gereatis Hybla Heraea Kamarina Leontinoi Megara Hyblaea Messana Naxos Segesta Selinous Syracuse Tauromenion Thermae Tyndaris Aeolian Islands Didyme Euonymos Ereikousa Hycesia Lipara/Meligounis Phoenicusa Strongyle Therassía Sardinia Olbia Cyrenaica Balagrae Barca Berenice Cyrene (Apollonia) Ptolemais Iberian Peninsula Akra Leuke Alonis Emporion Helike Hemeroscopion Kalathousa Kypsela Mainake Menestheus's Limin Illicitanus Limin/Portus Illicitanus Rhode Salauris Zacynthos Illyria Aspalathos Apollonia Epidamnos Epidauros Issa Melaina Korkyra Nymphaion Orikon Pharos Tragurion Thronion Black Sea north coast Borysthenes Charax Chersonesus Dioscurias Eupatoria Gorgippia Hermonassa Kepoi Kimmerikon Myrmekion Nikonion Nymphaion Olbia Panticapaion Phanagoria Pityus Tanais Theodosia Tyras Tyritake Black Sea south coast Dionysopolis Odessos Anchialos Mesambria Apollonia Salmydessus Heraclea Tium Sesamus Cytorus Abonoteichos Sinope Zaliche Amisos Oinòe Polemonion Thèrmae Cotyora Kerasous Tripolis Trapezous Rhizos Athina Bathus Phasis Lists Cities in Epirus People Place names Stoae Temples Theatres Category Portal Outline v t e Works of Plutarch Works Parallel Lives Moralia "De genio Socratis" "On the Malice of Herodotus" Pseudo-Plutarch Lives Alcibiades and Coriolanus1 Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar Aratus of Sicyon / Artaxerxes and Galba / Otho2 Aristides and Cato the Elder1 Crassus and Nicias1 Demetrius and Antony1 Demosthenes and Cicero1 Dion and Brutus1 Fabius and Pericles1 Lucullus and Cimon1 Lysander and Sulla1 Numa and Lycurgus1 Pelopidas and Marcellus1 Philopoemen and Flamininus1 Phocion and Cato the Younger Pompey and Agesilaus1 Poplicola and Solon1 Pyrrhus and Gaius Marius Romulus and Theseus1 Sertorius and Eumenes1 Agis / Cleomenes1 and Tiberius Gracchus / Gaius Gracchus Timoleon and Aemilius Paulus1 Themistocles and Camillus Translators and editors Jacques Amyot Arthur Hugh Clough John Dryden Philemon Holland Thomas North 1 Comparison extant 2 Four unpaired Lives v t e Ancient Greek and Roman wars Ancient Greece Trojan War First Messenian War Second Messenian War Lelantine War Greek–Punic Wars (Sicilian Wars) Greco-Persian Wars Aeginetan War Wars of the Delian League Samian War Peloponnesian War Corinthian War First / Second / Third Sacred War Social War (357–355 BC) Expansion of Macedonia Wars of Alexander the Great Wars of the Diadochi Lamian War Chremonidean War Cleomenean War Social War (220–217 BC) Cretan War Aetolian War War against Nabis Maccabean Revolt Roman Republic Roman–Latin wars (First Latin War (Battle of Lake Regillus) Second Latin War) Samnite Wars Pyrrhic War Punic Wars (First Second Third) Macedonian Wars (Illyrian First Macedonian Second Macedonian Seleucid Third Macedonian Fourth Macedonian) Jugurthine War Cimbrian War Roman Servile Wars (First Second Third) Social War (91–87 BC) Sulla's civil wars (First Second) Mithridatic Wars (First Second Third) Gallic Wars Julius Caesar's civil war Augustus' rise to power (Battle of Mutina Liberators' civil war Sicilian revolt Perusine War (Fulvia's civil war) Final War of the Roman Republic) Roman Empire Germanic wars (Marcomannic Alemannic Gothic Visigothic) Conquest of Britain Wars of Boudica Armenian War Four Emperors Jewish wars Domitian's Dacian War Trajan's Dacian Wars Parthian Wars Wars against Persia Third-century civil wars Decline and fall of the Western Empire Military history v t e Empires Ancient (Colonies) Akkadian Neo-Sumerian Assyrian Old Assyrian Middle Assyrian Neo-Assyrian Babylonian Old Babylonian Kassite Neo-Babylonian Egyptian Old Kingdom Middle Kingdom New Kingdom Phoenician Carthaginian Chinese Shang Qin Han Three Kingdoms Jin North and South Hellenistic Macedonian Seleucid Hittite Indian Nanda Maurya Satavahana Shunga Gupta Harsha Iranian Median Achaemenid Parthian Sasanian Kushan Mongol Xianbei Roman Western Eastern Teotihuacan Post-classical Aksum Arab Rashidun Umayyad Abbasid Fatimid Aragonese Angevin Ayyubid Aztec Benin Bornu Bruneian Bulgarian First Second Byzantine Nicaea Thessalonica Trebizond Calakmul Chinese Sui Tang Liao Song Jīn Yuan Uyghur Ethiopian Zagwe Solomonic Genoese Georgian Holy-Roman Carolingian Huetar Hunnic Hephthalite Inca Indian Chola Gurjara-Pratihara Pala Eastern Ganga dynasty Delhi Vijayanagara Iranian Samanid Saffarid Kanem Khmer Latin Majapahit Malaccan Mali Egyptian Mamluk Mongol Yuan Golden Horde Chagatai Khanate Ilkhanate Moroccan Idrisid Almoravid Almohad Marinid North Sea Oyo Serbian Singhasari Somali Ajuran Ifatite Adalite Mogadishan Songhai Srivijaya Tibetan Tikal Timurid Tiwanku Toltec Turco-Persian Ghaznavid Great Seljuk Khwarezmian Venetian Vietnamese Dai Viet Wagadou Wari Modern Afghan Ashanti Austrian Austro-Hungarian Brazilian Central African Chinese Ming Qing China Manchukuo Ethiopian Haitian First Second French First Second German First/Old Reich Second Reich Third Reich Indian Mughal Mysorean Sikh Maratha British Raj Iranian Safavid Afsharid Qajar Pahlavi Japanese Johor Korean Mexican First Second Moroccan Saadi Alaouite Russian Somali Gobroon Majeerteen Hobyo Swedish Tongan Ottoman Vietnamese Dainam Vietnam Colonial American Belgian British English Scottish Danish Dutch French German Italian Japanese Omani Polish–Lithuanian Couronian Portuguese Sovereign Military Order of Malta Spanish Swedish Lists Empires largest in India Ancient great powers Medieval great powers Modern great powers European colonialism African empires Miscellaneous The empire on which the sun never sets "Empire" as a description of foreign policy American empire Soviet Empire Authority control BALaT: 120352 BIBSYS: 90577037 BNE: XX1031303 BNF: cb11946296j (data) CANTIC: a10495691 CiNii: DA01681468 GND: 118501828 ICCU: IT\ICCU\VEAV\023322 ISNI: 0000 0001 2283 5816 LCCN: n79004067 LNB: 000073565 NDL: 00620255 NKC: jn19981000073 NLA: 35002922 NLG: 44430 NLI: 000008497 NLK: KAC201620660 NSK: 000075806 NTA: 068740379 PLWABN: 9810584040605606 RERO: 02-A000005596 SELIBR: 229496 SNAC: w6p270nw SUDOC: 027417077 TePapa: 32588 Trove: 785558 ULAN: 500280655 VcBA: 495/57288 VIAF: 88742742 WorldCat Identities: viaf-101353608 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexander_the_Great&oldid=1002454274" Categories: Alexander the Great 356 BC births 323 BC deaths 4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs 4th-century BC Pharaohs 4th-century BC Babylonian kings 4th-century BC Macedonians 4th-century BC rulers Ancient Macedonian generals Ancient Pellaeans Argead kings of Macedonia City founders Deified people Hellenistic-era people Monarchs of Persia People in the deuterocanonical books Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty Shahnameh characters Ancient Greek generals Hidden 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en-wikipedia-org-4181	----	Seqenenre Tao - Wikipedia Seqenenre Tao From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Seqenenre Tao Sekenenre Taa Fragment of the death shroud of Ahmose bearing Seqenenre Tao's titulary, Museo Egizio, Turin Pharaoh Reign Starting 1560 or 1558 BC-1555 BC (17th Dynasty) Predecessor Senakhtenre Ahmose Successor Kamose Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Seqenenre Sqnj-n-rˁ He whom Ra makes brave / He who strikes like Ra[1] Nomen Ta'a T3-ˁ3 Thoth is great Horus name Khaemwaset Ḫˁj-m-W3st He appears in Thebes Consort Ahhotep I, Ahmose Inhapi, Sitdjehuti Children Kamose, Ahmose I, Ahmose-Nefertari, Henutemipet, Meritamon, Nebetta, Sapair, Tumerisy, Binpu, Ahmose, Henuttamehu Father Senakhtenre Mother Tetisheri Burial Mummy found in Deir el-Bahri cache Monuments Palace and fortifications at Deir el-Ballas Seqenenre Tao (also Seqenera Djehuty-aa or Sekenenra Taa; sometimes called Seqenenre Tao II to differentiate him from his father), called 'the Brave', ruled over the last of the local kingdoms of the Theban region of Egypt in the Seventeenth Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. He probably was the son and successor to Senakhtenre Ahmose and Queen Tetisheri. The dates of his reign are uncertain, but he may have risen to power in the decade ending in 1560 BC or in 1558 BC (based on the probable accession date of his son, Ahmose I, the first ruler of the Eighteenth Dynasty, see Egyptian chronology). With his queen, Ahhotep I, Seqenenre Tao fathered two pharaohs, Kamose, his immediate successor who was the last pharaoh of the Seventeenth Dynasty, and Ahmose I who, following a regency by his mother, was the first pharaoh of the Eighteenth. Seqenenre Tao is credited with starting the opening moves in a war of revanchism against Hyksos incursions into Egypt, which saw the country completely liberated during the reign of his son Ahmose I. Contents 1 Reign 2 Monumental construction 3 Mummy 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links Reign[edit] New Kingdom literary tradition states that Seqenenre Tao came into contact with his Hyksos contemporary in the north, Apepi or Apophis. The tradition took the form of a tale, nowadays called "The Quarrel of Apophis and Seqenenre", in which the Hyksos king Apepi sent a messenger to Seqenenre in Thebes to demand that the Theban hippopotamus pool be done away with, for the noise of these beasts was such that he was unable to sleep in far-away Avaris. Perhaps the only historical information that can be gleaned from the tale is that Egypt was a divided land, the area of direct Hyksos control being in the north, but the whole of Egypt paying tribute to the Hyksos kings. Seqenenre Tao participated in active diplomatic posturing, which went beyond simply exchanging insults with the Asiatic ruler in the North. He seems to have led military skirmishes against the Hyksos and, judging from the vicious head wounds on his mummy in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, may have died during one of them.[2] His son and successor Wadjkheperre Kamose, the last ruler of the Seventeenth Dynasty at Thebes, is credited with launching a successful campaign in the Theban war of liberation against the Hyksos, although he is thought to have died in the campaign.[2] His mother, Ahhotep I, is thought to have ruled as regent after the death of Kamose and continued the warfare against the Hyksos until Ahmose I, the second son of Seqenenre Tao and Ahhotep I, was old enough to assume the throne and complete the expulsion of the Hyksos and the unification of Egypt. Monumental construction[edit] The relatively short length of the reign of Seqenenre Tao did not allow for the construction of many monumental structures, but it is known that he had built a new palace made of mud brick at Deir el-Ballas. On an adjacent hillside overlooking the river, the foundations of a building were found that almost certainly was a military observation post.[3] A relatively large amount of pottery known as Kerma-ware was found at the site, indicating that a large number of Kerma Nubians were resident at the site. It is thought that they were there as allies of the pharaoh in his wars against the Hyksos.[4] Mummy[edit] Mummified head of Seqenenre depicting his wounds. The cut above his eye was made by another weapon, most probably some sort of dagger. Seqenenre's mummy was discovered in the Deir el-Bahri cache, revealed in 1881. He was interred along with those of later, Eighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasty leaders, Ahmose I (his second son to be pharaoh), Amenhotep I, Thutmose I, Thutmose II, Thutmose III, Ramesses I, Seti I, Ramesses II, and Ramesses IX. The mummy was unwrapped by Eugène Grébaut when Professor Gaston Maspero resigned his office of directorship on June 5, 1886, and was succeeded in the superintendency of excavations and Egyptian archeology by M. Eugene Grebault. In the same month Grebault started upon the work of unbandaging the mummy of the Theban King Sekenenra Ta-aken, of the eighteenth dynasty. It was under this monarch that a revolt against the Hyksos, or Shepherd Kings, had originated, in the course of which the Asiatics were expelled from Egypt. The history of this king has always been considered legendary, but from the signs of wounds present in the mummy, it is certain that he had died in battle. In the same season the mummy of Seti I was unbandaged, and also that of an anonymous prince.[5] A vivid description provides an account of the injury that was done to the pharaoh at his death: ...it is not known whether he fell upon the field of battle or was the victim of some plot; the appearance of his mummy proves that he died a violent death when about forty years of age. Two or three men, whether assassins or soldiers, must have surrounded and despatched him before help was available. A blow from an axe must have severed part of his left cheek, exposed the teeth, fractured the jaw, and sent him senseless to the ground; another blow must have seriously injured the skull, and a dagger or javelin has cut open the forehead on the right side, a little above the eye. His body must have remained lying where it fell for some time: when found, decomposition had set in, and the embalming had to be hastily performed as best it might.[2] The wound on his forehead was probably caused by a Hyksos axe[6] and his neck wound was probably caused by a dagger while he was prone.[4] There are no wounds on his arms or hands, which suggests he was not able to defend himself. Until 2009, the main hypotheses had been that he died either in a battle against the Hyksos or was killed while sleeping.[7] A reconstruction of his death by Egyptologist Garry Shaw and archaeologist and weapons expert Robert Mason suggested a third, which they saw as the likeliest, that Seqenenre was executed by the Hyksos king.[8] Garry Shaw also analysed the arguments for the competing hypotheses and other physical, textual and statistical evidence concluding "that the most likely cause of Seqenenre’s death is ceremonial execution at the hands of an enemy commander, following a Theban defeat on the battlefield."[9] His mummy appears to have been hastily embalmed. X-rays that were taken of the mummy in the late 1960s show that no attempt had been made to remove the brain or to add linen inside the cranium or eyes, both normal embalming practice for the time. In the opinion of James E. Harris and Kent Weeks, who undertook the forensic examination at the time the X-rays were taken, his mummy is the worst preserved of all the royal mummies held at the Egyptian Museum, and they noted that a "foul, oily smell filled the room the moment the case in which his body was exhibited was opened," which is likely due to the poor embalming process and the absence of the use of absorbing natron salts, leaving some bodily fluids in the mummy at the time of burial.[10] He is the earliest royal mummy on display in the recently revamped Royal Mummies Hall at the Egyptian Museum, Cairo.[11] References[edit] ^ Clayton, Peter. Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames and Hudson Ltd, paperback 2006. p.94 ^ a b c Maspero, Gaston. History Of Egypt, Chaldaea, Syria, Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 4 (of 12), Project Gutenberg EBook, Release Date: December 16, 2005. EBook #17324. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2015-03-29.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ Shaw, Ian. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press, 2000. p.198. ^ a b Shaw, Ian. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press, 2000. p199. ^ Rappoport, S. The Project Gutenberg EBook of History Of Egypt From 330 B.C. To The Present Time, Volume 12 (of 12), by S. Rappoport. The Grolier Society Publishers, London. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 31 October 2016. ^ Shaw, Ian. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. p199. Oxford University Press, 2000. ^ Smith, G Elliot The Royal Mummies. Duckworth Egyptology. 2000 (Reprint from original 1912 edition). ISBN 0-7156-2959-X ^ "Axe Experiment". Museum Secrets. History Television. Archived from the original on 17 March 2012. Retrieved 31 August 2011. ^ Shaw, Garry J. (2009). "The Death of King Seqenenre Tao". Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt. 45. ^ Harris, James E., Weeks, Kent R. X-raying the Pharaohs. Charles Scribner's Sons. 1973. SBN 684-13016-5 p.122-123. ^ Hawass, Zahi. Dancing with Pharaohs: The New Royal Mummies Halls at the Egyptian Museum, Cairo. KMT, Volume 17, Number 1, Spring 2006. p22. Further reading[edit] Gardiner, Sir Alan. Egypt of the Pharaohs. (Oxford, 1964). Hayes, William C. Egypt: From the Death of Ammenemes III to Sequenenre II," in Volume 2, Chapter 2 of the "Cambridge Ancient History", Revised Edition (Cambridge, 1965). Pritchard, James B. (Editor). Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. Third Edition, with Supplement. (Princeton, 1969). External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Seqenenre Tao. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seqenenre_Tao&oldid=995037711" Categories: 16th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt Ancient Egyptian mummies Egyptian Museum Egyptian rebels Monarchs killed in action Axe murder Deaths by stabbing in Egypt Ancient rebels Hidden categories: CS1 maint: archived copy as title Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans አማርኛ العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 18 December 2020, at 21:54 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4185	----	Ka (pharaoh) - Wikipedia Ka (pharaoh) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Predynastic pharaoh of Upper Egypt Ka Sekhen Vessel found at Tarkhan bearing the serekh of King Ka. Petrie Museum, London Pharaoh Reign 32nd century BC (Dynasty 0) Predecessor Iry-Hor? Successor Narmer (most likely) or Scorpion II Royal titulary Horus name Sekhen sḫn Embraced by Horus / He who embraces Horus Burial Chambers B7, B9, Umm el-Qa'ab Ka, also (alternatively) Sekhen,[1][2] was a Predynastic pharaoh of Upper Egypt belonging to Dynasty 0. He probably reigned during the first half of the 32nd century BC. The length of his reign is unknown. Contents 1 Name 2 Reign 3 Tomb 4 Gallery 5 References 6 Bibliography Name[edit] The correct reading of Ka's name remains uncertain.[3] There are vessel inscriptions which show a serekh with a typical Ka-symbol, both written upright correctly, but there are also inscriptions presenting an upright serekh with an upside-down Ka-symbol inside. The second form of that writing indicates a reading as Sekhen (meaning ‘to embrace s.o.’) rather than Ka.[4] It was also thought to be the birth name of Narmer.[5] Because the reading of the name is so uncertain, Egyptologists and writing experts such as Ludwig David Morenz prefer a neutral reading as ‘King Arms’.[6] Reign[edit] Map of the locations where Ka's serekhs have been found. Ka ruled over Thinis in the first half of the 32nd century BC and was buried at Umm el-Qa'ab. He most likely was the immediate successor to Iry-Hor and was succeeded either by Narmer or by Scorpion II.[7] He is the earliest known Egyptian king with a serekh inscribed on a number of artifacts. This may thus be an innovation of his reign.[8] Ka is one of the best attested predynastic kings with Narmer and Scorpion II. Beyond Abydos, he is attested in the predynastic necropolis of Adaima in Upper Egypt[9] and in the north in Tarkhan, Helwan, Tell Ibrahim Awad, Wadi Tumilat and as far north as Tel Lod in the Southern Levant.[10] The number of artifacts bearing Ka's serekh found outside Abydos is much greater than that of his predecessor.[10] This may be the sign of an increasing influence and perhaps conquest of larger portions of Egypt by the Thinite kings.[10] Tomb[edit] Two underground chambers, B7 and B9, in the Umm el-Qa'ab necropolis of Abydos are believed to be part of the tomb of King Ka. Each chamber is 1.90 m deep, B.7 is 6.0 × 3.2 m while B.9 is slightly smaller at 5.9 x 3.1 m; the two chambers are 1.80 m apart.[10] Ka's tomb was first excavated by Petrie in 1902. The excavations yielded fragments of flint knife and pottery. In the southernmost chamber B7, more than forty inscriptions have been found on tall jars and cylinder vessels as well as a seal impression.[10][11] The tomb of Ka (B7, B9) is close to that of Iry-Hor (B1, B2) and Narmer (B17, B18). Furthermore, it is located within a sequential order linking the older "U" cemetery with the First Dynasty tombs, thus suggesting that Ka succeeded Iry-Hor and preceded Narmer on the throne.[12] Gallery[edit] Vessel from Ka's tomb in Abydos bearing Ka's serekh on display at the British Museum. Seal impression with Ka's serekh. Note the absence of the Horus falcon. British Museum. Shard bearing Ka's serekh from his tomb in Abydos.[13][page needed] Shard bearing Ka's serekh from his tomb. Ka's tomb in the Umm el-Qa'ab Names of King Ka and Queen Ha on a jar. References[edit] ^ Rice, Michael (1999), Who's Who in Ancient Egypt, Routledge, p. 86. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz : P. von Zabern, 1999, ISBN 3-8053-2591-6, available online Archived 2015-12-22 at the Wayback Machine see p. 36-37 ^ Wilkinson 1999, pp. 57–59. ^ Kaplony, Peter (1982), "Kleine Beiträge zu den Inschriften der ägyptischen Frühzeit", MDAIK (in German), Berlin: Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Orient-Abteilung (Hrsg.). von Zabern (38): 221, 229. ^ Baumgartel, Elise Jenny (1975), "Some remarks on the origins of the titles of the Archaic Egyptian Kings", Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, London: Egypt Exploration Society (61): 31. ^ Morenz, Ludwig David, Bild-Buchstaben und symbolische Zeichen (in German), pp. 106–8. ^ Shaw, Ian, The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, p. 71. ^ Wilkinson 1999, pp. 57f. ^ Grimal, N (1999), BIFAO, p. 451. ^ a b c d e Raffaele, Francesco. "Dynasty 0" (PDF). Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ Gilroy, Thomas (2001), ""Forgotten" Serekhs in the Royal Ontario Museum", Göttinger Miszellen, Göttingen: Ägyptologisches Seminar der Universität Göttingen (180): 67–76, Fig. 2, Tafel I b, ISSN 0344-385X. ^ Barta, Winfried (1982), "Zur Namensform und zeitlichen Einordnung des Königs Ro", GM (in German), 53: 11–13. ^ Wilkinson 1999. Bibliography[edit] Wilkinson, Toby AH (1999), Early Dynastic Egypt, London/New York: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-18633-1 Preceded by Iry-Hor? King of Thinis Succeeded by Scorpion II? v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ka_(pharaoh)&oldid=998630516" Categories: 32nd-century BC Pharaohs Predynastic pharaohs 4th-millennium BC deaths Wadi Tumilat Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from July 2013 Webarchive template wayback links CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 errors: missing periodical Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar Македонски مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Suomi Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 January 2021, at 08:34 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4194	----	Hystaspes (father of Darius I) - Wikipedia Hystaspes (father of Darius I) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Persian governor of Bactria and Persis, 6th ct. BC Not to be confused with Vishtaspa. Position of Hystaspes in the Achaemenid lineage according to Darius the Great in the Behistun inscription. According to Ammianus Marcellinus, Hystaspes penetrated deep into India, where he learned from the Brahmins.[1] Historically, this corresponds to the time of the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley. A "Niebuhr inscription" reading "Darius the Great King, King of Kings, King of countries, son of Hystaspes, an Achaemenian, who built this Palace".[2] Hystaspes (Greek: Ὑστάσπης), Vishtaspa (Old Persian:𐎻𐏁𐎫𐎠𐎿𐎱 Vištāspa) or Guštāsp (modern Persian) (fl. 550 BC), was a Persian satrap of Bactria and Persis.[3] He was the father of Darius I, king of the Achaemenid Empire, and Artabanus, who was a trusted advisor to both his brother Darius as well as Darius's son and successor, Xerxes I. The son of Arsames, Hystaspes was a member of the Persian royal house of the Achaemenids. He was satrap of Persis under Cambyses, and probably under Cyrus the Great also. He accompanied Cyrus on his expedition against the Massagetae. However, he was sent back to Persis to keep watch over his eldest son, Darius, whom Cyrus, after a dream, suspected of considering treason. Besides Darius, Hystaspes had three sons: Artabanus,[4] Artaphernes,[5] and Artanes,[5][6] as well as a daughter who married Darius' lance-bearer Gobryas.[7] Ammianus Marcellinus[8] makes him a chief of the Magians, and tells a story of his studying in India under the Brahmins, an event that would correspond to the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley:[9] "Hystaspes, a very wise monarch, the father of Darius. Who while boldly penetrating into the remoter districts of upper India, came to a certain woody retreat, of which with its tranquil silence the Brahmans, men of sublime genius, were the possessors. From their teaching he learnt the principles of the motion of the world and of the stars, and the pure rites of sacrifice, as far as he could; and of what he learnt he infused some portion into the minds of the Magi, which they have handed down by tradition to later ages, each instructing his own children, and adding to it their own system of divination". — Ammianus Marcellinus, XXIII. 6.[10] In ancient sources, Hystaspes is sometimes considered as identical with Vishtaspa (the Avestan name for Hystapes), an early patron of Zoroaster.[9] The name of Hystaspes occurs in the inscriptions at Persepolis and in the Behistun Inscription, where the full lineage of Darius the Great is given: [11] King Darius says: My father is Hystaspes [Vištâspa]; the father of Hystaspes was Arsames [Aršâma]; the father of Arsames was Ariaramnes [Ariyâramna]; the father of Ariaramnes was Teispes [Cišpiš]; the father of Teispes was Achaemenes [Haxâmaniš]. King Darius says: That is why we are called Achaemenids; from antiquity we have been noble; from antiquity has our dynasty been royal. King Darius says: Eight of my dynasty were kings before me; I am the ninth. Nine in succession we have been kings. King Darius says: By the grace of Ahuramazda am I king; Ahuramazda has granted me the kingdom. — Behistun Inscription Sources[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, Philip (1870). "Hystaspes". In Smith, William (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 2. p. 545. References[edit] ^ xxiii. 6 ^ André-Salvini, Béatrice (2005). Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia. University of California Press. p. 129. ISBN 978-0-520-24731-4. ^ Boyce, Mary (1982). A History of Zoroastrianism: Volume II: Under the Achaemenians. BRILL. p. 41. ISBN 9789004065062. ^ Dymock, John; Dymock, Thomas (1833). Bibliotheca Classica: Or, A Classical Dictionary ... Containing an ... Account of the Proper Names ... in Greek and Latin Authors, Relating to History, Biography, Mythology, Geography, and Antiquities. Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green & Longman. p. 109. ^ a b Dymock, John; Dymock, Thomas (1833). Bibliotheca Classica: Or, A Classical Dictionary ... Containing an ... Account of the Proper Names ... in Greek and Latin Authors, Relating to History, Biography, Mythology, Geography, and Antiquities. Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green & Longman. p. 110. ^ Herod, i. 209, 210, iii. 70, iv. 83, vii. 224. ^ Herodotus, 7.5.1 ^ xxiii. 6 ^ a b James, Montague Rhodes (2007). The Lost Apocrypha of the Old Testament: their titles and fragments. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 93. ISBN 9781556352898. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Roman History. London: Bohn (1862) Book 23. pp.316-345. ^ Grotefend, Beilage zu Heeren's Ideen. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hystaspes_(father_of_Darius_I)&oldid=1001264325" Categories: Achaemenid dynasty 6th-century BC Iranian people Governors of Fars Satraps of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenid satraps of Bactria Family of Darius the Great Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM with no wstitle or title parameter Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Հայերեն Hrvatski Italiano עברית Kurdî Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Тоҷикӣ Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 18 January 2021, at 23:12 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4208	----	National Library of the Czech Republic - Wikipedia National Library of the Czech Republic From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from NKC (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Central library of the Czech Republic National Library of the Czech Republic Baroque library hall in the National Library of the Czech Republic Country Czech Republic Type National library Established 1777 (244 years ago) (1777) Location Clementinum, Prague Coordinates 50°5′14.62″N 14°25′2.58″E / 50.0873944°N 14.4173833°E / 50.0873944; 14.4173833Coordinates: 50°5′14.62″N 14°25′2.58″E / 50.0873944°N 14.4173833°E / 50.0873944; 14.4173833 Collection Size 7,358,308 total items[1] 21,271 manuscripts[1] c. 4,200 incunabula[2] Other information Director Martin Kocanda Website www.nkp.cz Map The National Library of the Czech Republic (Czech: Národní knihovna České republiky) is the central library of the Czech Republic. It is directed by the Ministry of Culture. The library's main building is located in the historical Clementinum building in the centre of Prague, where approximately half of its books are kept. The other half of the collection is stored in the district of Hostivař.[3] The National Library is the biggest library in the Czech Republic, housing around 6 million documents. The library currently has around 20,000 registered readers.[1] Although comprising mostly Czech texts, the library also stores older material from Turkey, Iran and India.[4] The library also houses books for Charles University in Prague.[5] Contents 1 History 2 Collections 3 Digitisation 4 Proposed new building 5 Incidents 6 See also 7 References 8 External links History[edit] In the 13th century, the Studium generale school was founded in the Dominican monastery in Prague's Old Town. This school, including its library, merged with the university in the 14th century. In 1556, monks of the Jesuit Order erected a boarding school, named Clementinum, on the remains of the Dominican monastery. From 1622 on, the Jesuits also administrated the Charles University, and all their libraries were accommodated in the Clementinum. East entrance of the Clementinum After the suppression of the Jesuits, the university became a state institution in 1773, and in 1777 its library was declared "Imperial-Royal Public and University Library" by Maria Theresa. Even after the splitting of the university into a Czech and a German university in 1882, the library remained as a joint institution. In 1918, the Public and University Library was taken over by the government of the newly founded Czechoslovakia. In 1924, the Slavonic Library (Slovanská knihovna) was founded, and moved to the Clementinum in 1929; it is still an autonomous part of the National Library. In 1935, the library was renamed "National and University Library" (Národní a univerzitní knihovna). In the same year, a law on the legal deposit copy duty was introduced – a practice dating back to 1781, when Prague printers had to hand in legal deposit copies of their prints to the library. Although Czech universities and colleges were closed after the German occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1939, the library remained open under the name of "Municipal and University Library" (Zemská a univerzitní knihovna). In 1958, all large Prague libraries were merged into the single centralized State Library of the Czechoslovak Republic (Státní knihovna CSR). In 1990, the hitherto last renaming of the library resulted in its current name: National Library of the Czech Republic. A new storage building, the Central Depository in Hostivař, was inaugurated in 1996.[6] Collections[edit] The most precious medieval manuscripts preserved in the National Library are the Codex Vyssegradensis and the Passional of Abbes Kunigunde. Digitisation[edit] The National Library of the Czech Republic began with their digitisation efforts in 1992 in collaboration with the Czech company AiP Beroun. In these efforts, the National Library conducted pioneer work on a global scale in the creation of digitization standards. Later, it got involved in a number of European projects, in which it came to additional developments particularly standards regarding manuscripts and old prints. It also supported several pilot projects at the time of their creation and the first years of the UNESCO Memory of the World Programme (with the programme's first pilot project being from the National Library of the Czech Republic in 1993). The library won international recognition in 2005 as it received the inaugural Jikji Prize from UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme for its efforts in digitising old texts.[7][8] In its first 13 years since 1992, the project accomplished the digitisation of 1,700 documents and made them publicly available.[4] The National Library makes its digital content available in the digital libraries Manuscriptorium (http://www.manuscriptorium.com/en) and Kramerius (http://kramerius5.nkp.cz). Manuscriptorium comprises more than 111,000 manuscripts and old prints, with almost 84,000 of them contributed by the National Library and the remainder from 138 partners from 24 countries.[citation needed] Since 2008, when Europeana, the European Union's digital platform for cultural heritage, came into existence, Manuscriptorium contributes manuscripts and old prints digitised by libraries all over the Czech Republic and by other partners to the Europeana platform and several other specialised portals, including professional academic Resource Discovery services, e.g. of EBSCO, ProQuest and ExLibris. In a collaborative project with Google, additional old prints and early 19th century books from the Slavonic Library have been digitised, with altogether more than 177,000 books digitised by Google (as of October 2018).[citation needed] These books are accessible through the Google Books digital library as well as through the National Library's Catalogue of Old Prints and the Catalogue of the Slavonic Library, and the old prints gradually also through Manuscriptorium. The Kramerius digital library contains digitised documents published after the year 1800. So far, more than 2,000 periodical series have been digitised. The number of digitized books continues to grow, especially after mass digitization of modern prints in context of the National Digital Library project.[citation needed] Proposed new building[edit] General reading room (former refectory of the Jesuit residence in Clementinum) In 2006 the Czech parliament approved funding for the construction of a new library building on Letna plain, between Hradčanská metro station and Sparta Prague's football ground, Letná stadium.[9][10] In March 2007, following a request for tender, Czech architect Jan Kaplický was selected by a jury to undertake the project, with a projected completion date of 2011.[11] Later in 2007 the project was delayed following objections regarding its proposed location from government officials including Prague Mayor Pavel Bém and President Václav Klaus.[10][12] Plans for the building had still not been decided in February 2008, with the matter being referred to the Office for the Protection of Competition in order to determine if the tender had been won fairly.[13] Later in 2008, Minister of Culture Václav Jehlička announced the end of the project, following a ruling from the European Commission that the tender process had not been carried out legally.[14] Incidents[edit] The library was affected by the 2002 European floods, with some documents moved to upper levels to avoid the excess water.[15] Over 4,000 books were removed from the library in July 2011 following flooding in parts of the main building.[16] There was a fire at the library in December 2012, but nobody was injured in the event.[17] See also[edit] List of national and state libraries References[edit] ^ a b c Výroční zpráva Národní knihovny České republiky 2018 (PDF). Výroční Zpráva (in Czech). 2019. ISBN 978-80-7050-711-7. ISSN 1804-8625. Retrieved 30 October 2019. ^ "Incunabula". www.nlp.cz. National Library of the Czech Republic. Retrieved 29 June 2014. ^ "Need for new library intensifies". The Prague Post. 28 May 2008. Archived from the original on 9 May 2014. Retrieved 8 May 2014. ^ a b "National Library's rare prints and manuscripts at the click of a mouse". Radio Prague. 2005-11-24. Retrieved 2019-12-18. ^ Tucker, Aviezer (18–24 February 2009). "Opinion" (PDF). The Prague Post. Prague. p. A4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 May 2014. Retrieved 8 May 2014. ^ "From Klementinum's History". National Library of the Czech Republic, Prague. 2012. Retrieved 2019-09-16. ^ "National Library wins UNESCO award for pioneering digitisation work". Radio Prague. 2005-09-07. Retrieved 2019-12-18. ^ "2005 - The National Library of the Czech Republic". UNESCO. Retrieved 2019-12-18. ^ "National Library to get major new building while Clementinum will undergo extensive renovations". Radio Prague. 30 March 2006. Retrieved 8 May 2014. ^ a b "Plans to build modern "blob" building on Letna Plain meet resistance from Prague politicians". Radio Prague. 12 October 2007. Retrieved 8 May 2014. ^ "Changes ahead for the Czech National Library". Radio Prague. 11 March 2007. Retrieved 8 May 2014. ^ "'Octopus' library stirs up Czechs". BBC News. 14 May 2007. Retrieved 8 May 2014. ^ "Still no final decision on National Library building". Radio Prague. 27 February 2008. Retrieved 8 May 2014. ^ "Head of National Library sacked over 'Blob' dispute". Radio Prague. 10 September 2008. Retrieved 8 May 2014. ^ "Art saved from European floods". BBC News. 15 August 2002. Retrieved 8 May 2014. ^ "Water accident in National Library". Radio Prague. 21 July 2011. Retrieved 8 May 2014. ^ "No injuries in Czech National Library fire". Radio Prague. 4 December 2012. Retrieved 8 May 2014. External links[edit] Official website v t e National libraries of Europe Sovereign states Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Kazakhstan Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands North Macedonia Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom Northern Ireland Scotland Wales Vatican City States with limited recognition Abkhazia Artsakh Kosovo Northern Cyprus South Ossetia Transnistria Dependencies and other entities Åland Faroe Islands Gibraltar Guernsey Isle of Man Jersey Svalbard Other entities European Union v t e Authority control files AAG • ACM DL • ADB • AGSA • autores.uy • AWR • BALaT • BIBSYS • Bildindex • BNC • BNE • BNF • Botanist • BPN • CANTIC • CiNii • CWGC • DAAO • DBLP • DSI • FNZA • GND • HDS • IAAF • ICCU • ICIA • ISNI • Joconde • KulturNav • LCCN • LIR • LNB • Léonore • MBA • MGP • NARA • NBL • NDL • NGV • NKC • NLA • NLG • NLI • NLK • NLP • NLR • NSK • NTA • ORCID • PIC • PLWABN • ResearcherID • RERO • RKD • RKDimages ID • RSL • SELIBR • SIKART • SNAC • SUDOC • S2AuthorId • TA98 • TDVİA • TE • TePapa • TH • TLS • Trove • UKPARL • ULAN • US Congress • VcBA • VIAF • WorldCat Identities Authority control GND: 5245820-9 ISNI: 0000 0001 1956 5296 NKC: kn20010709069 SELIBR: 303024 SUDOC: 13149466X VIAF: 135195765 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n96020113 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_Library_of_the_Czech_Republic&oldid=998486127" Categories: National Library of the Czech Republic 1777 establishments in Europe Organizations established in 1777 National libraries Libraries in the Czech Republic Buildings and structures in Prague Culture in Prague History of Prague Hidden categories: CS1 Czech-language sources (cs) Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Coordinates not on Wikidata Infobox mapframe without OSM relation ID on Wikidata Articles containing Czech-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2019 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Pages using the Kartographer extension Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca भोजपुरी Български Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia עברית Latina Magyar Македонски مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Nordfriisk Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 5 January 2021, at 16:16 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4209	----	Artaphernes (son of Artaphernes) - Wikipedia Artaphernes (son of Artaphernes) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Artaphernes II) Jump to navigation Jump to search Artaphernes fighting the Greeks at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC, in the Stoa Poikile (reconstitution) Artaphernes II was satrap of Lydia, including Ionia. Artaphernes (Greek: Ἀρταφέρνης, Old Persian: Artafarna, from Median Rtafarnah), son of Artaphernes, was the nephew of Darius the Great, and a general of the Achaemenid Empire. He was a Satrap of Lydia from 492 to after 480. He was appointed, together with Datis, to take command of the expedition sent by Darius to punish Athens and Eretria for their support for the Ionian Revolt. Artaphernes and Datis besieged and destroyed Eretria, but were beaten by the Athenians at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC.[1] [2] Ten years later, Artaphernes is recorded as being in command of the Lydians and Mysians in the Second Persian invasion of Greece.[3] See also[edit] Artaphernes Greco-Persian Wars Battle of Marathon Darius I of Persia References[edit] ^ Persian Fire. Holland, T. ISBN 978-0-349-11717-1 ^ Herodotus, Histories VI 94; VI 119; VII 8, 2; VII 10, 2; Pausanias I 32, 7 ^ Herodotus, Histories VII 74; Aeschylus The Persians 21 v t e Achaemenid Satraps of Lydia (546–334 BC) Tabalus (546–545 BC) Mazares (545–544 BC) Harpagus (540-530 BC) Oroetus (530–520 BC) Bagaeus (520 BC) Otanes (517 BC) Artaphernes (513–492 BC) Artaphernes II (492–480 BC) Pissuthnes (440–415 BC) Tissaphernes (415–408 BC) Cyrus the Younger (408–401 BC) Tissaphernes (400–395 BC) Tithraustes (392–380 BC) Tiribazus (375 BC) Struthas (370 BC) Autophradates (365 BC) Spithridates (365–334 BC) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Artaphernes_(son_of_Artaphernes)&oldid=1002465807" Categories: Military leaders of the Achaemenid Empire Battle of Marathon Achaemenid satraps of Lydia Persian people of the Greco-Persian Wars Hidden categories: Articles containing Greek-language text Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Azərbaycanca Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית مصرى Nederlands Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 16:19 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4227	----	Salitis - Wikipedia Salitis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Salitis Salatis, Saites Einfall der Hyksos ("Invasion of the Hyksos") by Hermann Vogel (c.1880); the Hyksos invaders are imagined just after a victorious battle against the Egyptians Pharaoh Reign around 1650 BCE (15th Dynasty) Predecessor Tutimaios (13th Dynasty?) none/founder (15th Dynasty) Successor Bnon/Beon Royal titulary In the Manethonian tradition, Salitis (Greek Σάλιτις, also Salatis or Saites) was the first Hyksos king, the one who subdued and ruled Lower Egypt and founded the 15th Dynasty. Biography[edit] Salitis is mainly known from a few passages of Flavius Josephus' work Contra Apionem; for these passages, Josephus claimed to have reported Manetho's original words. It seems that during the reign of an Egyptian pharaoh called Tutimaios or Timaios, an army of foreigners suddenly came from the Near East and took over the Nile Delta without a fight. After conquering Memphis and likely deposing Tutimaios, the invaders committed several atrocities such as destroying cities and temples and killing or capturing the native Egyptians.[1]:I:75–6 After that, they made one of their number, whose name was Salitis, king. He resided in Memphis and exacted tribute from both the upper and lower country, leaving fortresses in the most strategic places.[1]:I:77 Salitis was determined to hold down his new conquests. For this reason he fortified the eastern borders, and sought a strategic position to establish an imposing stronghold from which he could dominate the independent-minded Upper Egyptians. Having found it in the city of Avaris on the east bank of the Bubastite branch of the Nile,[1]:I:77–8 Salitis established this city and rendered it extremely secure with walls, settling there a large body of armed troops – as many as 240,000 men – as a frontier guard. He used to go there in the summer, partly to hand out rations and distribute pay, and partly to train them carefully in military exercises, to frighten foreigners.[1]:I:78–80 Salitis died after 19 years of rule and his throne passed to another Asiatic called Bnon or Beon.[1]:I:80–91 Identification[edit] Several attempts were made to identify Salitis with an archaeologically attested ruler. He was sometimes associated with a ruler named Sharek or Shalek – who is mentioned in a genealogical priestly document from Memphis – and also with the much more attested king Sheshi.[2]:59[3] German Egyptologist Jürgen von Beckerath believed that Salitis could be associated with Yakbim, another Second Intermediate Period ruler.[4] At the current state of knowledge, Salitis remains unidentified.[5][1]:I:77;n.300 Even for his name there are no clues of what it could have originally meant in Egyptian, though the variant Saites used by Sextus Julius Africanus in his epitome of Manetho, might contain a reference to the deltaic city of Sais. It has been suggested that the name might be linked to shallit, a title borne by the biblical patriarch Joseph during his stay in Egypt (Genesis 42:6) with the meaning of "keeper of the power"; however, this is also considered a very weak assumption.[6][1]:I:77;n.300 As for him, also the identification of his Egyptian predecessor Tutimaios and Asiatic successor Bnon were a matter of debate; though the former was tentatively identified with Djedneferre Dedumose of the vaning 13th Dynasty;[2]:52[3] this identification was questioned for being rather weak.[7] References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g Josephus, Flavius (2007). Against Apion – Translation and commentary by John M.G. Barclay. Leiden-Boston: Brill. ISBN 978 90 04 11791 4. ^ a b Hayes, William C. (1973). "Egypt: from the death of Ammenemes III to Seqenenre II". In Edwards, I.E.S. (ed.). The Cambridge Ancient History (3rd ed.), vol. II, part 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 42–76. ISBN 0 521 082307. ^ a b Grimal, Nicolas (1992). A History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Blackwell Books. ISBN 9780631174721. p. 185 ^ Salitis' page on eglyphica.de ^ Labow, D. (2005). Flavius Josephus Contra Apionem, Buch 1. Einleitung, Text, Text-kritischer Apparat, Übersetzung und Kommentar. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer Verlag. 76-77, n.71 ^ Troiani, L. (1974). "Sui frammenti di Manetone nel primo libro del "Contra Apionem" di Flavio Giuseppe". Studi Classici e Orientali (in Italian). 23. p. 107 ^ Helck, Wolfgang; Otto, Eberhard; Westendorf, Wolfhart, eds. (1986). Lexikon der Agyptologie, vol. 6. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Salitis&oldid=993714443" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: CS1 Italian-language sources (it) AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano Magyar مصرى Nederlands Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi தமிழ் ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 12 December 2020, at 02:34 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4228	----	International Standard Name Identifier - Wikipedia International Standard Name Identifier From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from ISNI (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search 16 digit identifier for people and organisations This article relies too much on references to primary sources. Please improve this by adding secondary or tertiary sources. (December 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) International Standard Name Identifier Acronym ISNI Organisation ISNI-IA Introduced March 15, 2012 (2012-03-15) No. of digits 16 Check digit MOD 11-2 Example 000000012146438X Website isni.org The International Standard Name Identifier (ISNI) is an identifier system for uniquely identifying the public identities of contributors to media content such as books, television programmes, and newspaper articles. Such an identifier consists of 16 digits. It can optionally be displayed as divided into four blocks. ISNI can be used to disambiguate named entities that might otherwise be confused, and links the data about names that are collected and used in all sectors of the media industries. It was developed under the auspices of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as Draft International Standard 27729; the valid standard was published on 15 March 2012. The ISO technical committee 46, subcommittee 9 (TC 46/SC 9) is responsible for the development of the standard. Contents 1 ISNI format 1.1 Format without space 1.2 Format with space 2 Uses of an ISNI 2.1 ORCID 3 Organisations involved in the management 3.1 ISNI Registration Authority 3.2 ISNI Registration Agencies 3.3 ISNI members 4 ISNI assignment 5 ISNI coverage 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links ISNI format[edit] The FAQ of the isni.org websites states "An ISNI is made up of 16 digits, the last character being a check character."[1] Format without space[edit] MARC: it was proposed to store the ISNI without spaces, e.g.(isni)1234567899999799[2] isni.org URL: no spaces, e.g. http://www.isni.org/isni/0000000114559647 viaf.org: URL https://viaf.org/viaf/118892012/ URL https://viaf.org/processed/ISNI%7C0000000114559647 the data dumps contain it in form ISNI|0000000114559647 Format with space[edit] In display it is frequently shown with spaces. isni.org[3] viaf.org[4] Uses of an ISNI[edit] The ISNI allows a single identity (such as an author's pseudonym or the imprint used by a publisher) to be identified using a unique number. This unique number can then be linked to any of the numerous other identifiers that are used across the media industries to identify names and other forms of identity. An example of the use of such a number is the identification of a musical performer who is also a writer both of music and of poems. Where he or she might currently be identified in many different databases using numerous private and public identification systems, under the ISNI system, he or she would have a single linking ISNI record. The many different databases could then exchange data about that particular identity without resorting to messy methods such as comparing text strings. An often quoted example in the English language world is the difficulty faced when identifying 'John Smith' in a database. While there may be many records for 'John Smith', it is not always clear which record refers to the specific 'John Smith' that is required. If an author has published under several different names or pseudonyms, each such name will receive its own ISNI. ISNI can be used by libraries and archives when sharing catalogue information; for more precise searching for information online and in databases, and it can aid the management of rights across national borders and in the digital environment. ORCID[edit] ORCID (Open Researcher and Contributor ID) identifiers consist of a reserved block of ISNI identifiers for scholarly researchers[5] and administered by a separate organisation.[5] Individual researchers can create and claim their own ORCID identifier.[6] The two organisations coordinate their efforts.[5][6] Organisations involved in the management[edit] ISNI Registration Authority[edit] According to ISO the Registration Authority for ISO 27729:2012 is the "ISNI International Agency".[7] It is located in London (c/o EDItEUR)[8] It is incorporated under the Companies Act 2006 as a private company limited by guarantee.[9] The 'International Agency' is commonly known as the ISNI-IA.[10][11] This UK registered, not-for-profit company has been founded by a consortium of organisations consisting of the Confédération Internationale des Sociétés d'Auteurs et Compositeurs (CISAC), the Conference of European National Librarians (CENL), the International Federation of Reproduction Rights Organisations (IFRRO), the International Performers Database Association (IPDA), the Online Computer Library Center (OCLC) and ProQuest. It is managed by directors nominated from these organisations and, in the case of CENL, by representatives of the Bibliothèque nationale de France and the British Library. ISNI Registration Agencies[edit] A registration agency provides the interface between ISNI applicants and the ISNI Assignment Agency.[12] List of Registration Agencies in order as on ISNI-IA website Name (as on ISNI-IA website) Since Relation Biblioteca Nacional de España (BNE) Spain BnF (Bibliothèque nationale de France) 2014[13] France Bibliothèque nationale de Luxembourg Luxembourg British Library UK BTLF (Société de gestion de la Banque de Titres de Langue Française) France Casalini Libri Italy China Knowledge Centre for Engineering Sciences and Technology (CKCEST) China Consolidated Independent United Kingdom Electre Identification Agency (IDA) Russia Koninklijke Bibliotheek Netherlands Kültür ve Turizm Bakanliği Turkey National Assembly Library of Korea South Korea National Library of Korea South Korea National Library of Poland Poland Numerical Gurus United States Program for Cooperative Cataloging (PCC) Quansic Switzerland Ringgold organisations, international Rakuten Kobo Canada Sound Exchange Inc. United States Sound Credit United States YouTube 2018[14] international In 2018, YouTube became an ISNI registry, and announced its intention to begin creating ISNI IDs for the musicians whose videos it features.[15] ISNI anticipates the number of ISNI IDs "going up by perhaps 3-5 million over the next couple of years" as a result.[16] In 2020, Sound Credit, together with ISNI, announced that music industry ISNI registrations were free and automated. The free registration system is part of Sound Credit user profile creation, used by its larger system for music crediting. It includes an automated search to avoid duplicate ISNIs and a certificate generated by the Sound Credit registration system to officiate newly registered ISNIs.[17] ISNI members[edit] ISNI members (ISNI-IA Members[18]) as of 2018[update]-07-11:[18] ABES (French Bibliographic Agency for Higher Education) Brill Publishers CEDRO (Centro Español de Derechos Reprográficos) CDR (Centrale Discotheek Rotterdam) Copyrus FCCN French National Archives (Archives nationales de France) Harvard University Iconoclaste Irish Copyright Licensing Agency (ICLA) ISSN International Centre La Trobe University Library of Congress MacOdrum Library, Carleton University National Library of Finland National Library of New Zealand National Library of Norway National Library of Sweden (Kungliga Biblioteket) Publishers' Licensing Services UNSW Library ISNI assignment[edit] ISNI-IA uses an assignment system comprising a user interface, data-schema, disambiguation algorithms, and database that meets the requirements of the ISO standard, while also using existing technology where possible. The system is based primarily on the Virtual International Authority File (VIAF) service, which has been developed by OCLC for use in the aggregation of library catalogues. Access to the assignment system and database, and to the numbers that are generated as the output of the process, are controlled by independent bodies known as 'registration agencies'. These registration agencies deal directly with customers, ensuring that data is provided in appropriate formats and recompensing the ISNI-IA for the cost of maintaining the assignment system. Registration agencies are appointed by ISNI-IA but will be managed and funded independently. ISNI coverage[edit] As of 5 August 2017[update] ISNI holds public records of over 9.41 million identities, including 8.757 million people (of which 2.606 million are researchers) and 654,074 organisations.[19] As of 19 April 2018[update] 9.86 million identities, including 9.15 million people (of which 2.86 million are researchers) and 714,401 organisations.[19] As of 11 July 2018[update] 10 million identities, including: 9.28 million people (of which 2.87 million are researchers) 717,204 organisations.[19] As of 13 August 2018[update] 10 million identities, including: 9.32 million people (of which 2.87 million are researchers) 717,795 organisations.[19] As of 17 October 2018[update] 10 million identities, including: 9.39 million people (of which 2.87 million are researchers) 719,010 organisations.[19] As of 5 December 2018[update] 10 million identities, including: 9.4 million people (of which 2.88 million are researchers) 826,810 organisations.[19] As of 11 March 2019[update] over 10 million identities, including: 9.59 million people (of which 2.88 million are researchers) 864,999 organisations.[19] As of 21 June 2019[update] over 10.5 million identities, including: 9.6 million people (of which 2.88 million are researchers) 876,017 organisations.[19] As of 27 November 2019[update] over 10.92 million identities, including: 10.01 million people (of which 2.89 million are researchers) 908,299 organisations.[19] As of 13 February 2020[update] over 11.02 million identities, including: 10.11 million people (of which 2.91 million are researchers) 912,991 organisations.[19] As of 20 October 2020[update] over 11.51 million identities, including: 10.45 million individuals (of which 2.91 million are researchers) 1,062,333 organisations.[19] See also[edit] Authority control Digital Author Identification (DAI) Digital object identifier (DOI) GRID International Standard Text Code (ISTC) ResearcherID Ringgold identifier References[edit] ^ "ISNI - FAQ". www.isni.org. Retrieved 19 April 2018. ^ Office, Library of Congress Network Development and MARC Standards. "Encoding the International Standard Name Identifier (ISNI) in the MARC 21 Bibliographic and Authority Formats". www.loc.gov. Retrieved 19 April 2018. ^ "ISNI 000000012281955X Ai-en-ssu-tan (1879-1955)". www.isni.org. Retrieved 19 April 2018. ^ http://viaf.org/viaf/75121530/ ^ a b c "What is the relationship between ISNI and ORCID?". About ORCID. ORCID. Retrieved 10 February 2020. ^ a b "ISNI and ORCID". ISNI. Archived from the original on 4 March 2013. Retrieved 29 March 2013. ^ "Maintenance agencies and registration authorities". Iso.org. Retrieved 16 July 2018. ^ "ISNI International Agency - ISNI International Agency". Iso.org. Retrieved 16 July 2018. ^ http://www.isni.org/filedepot_download/134/473 ^ "ISNI". Retrieved 19 December 2014. ^ "About the ISNI International Agency". Retrieved 19 December 2014. ^ "Registration Agencies". ISNI. Retrieved 16 July 2018. ^ "BnF: First National Library In the World to Become an ISNI Registration Agency". ISNI. Retrieved 16 July 2018. ^ "YouTube Adopts ISNI ID for Artists & Songwriters". ISNI. 22 January 2018. Retrieved 16 July 2018. ^ "YouTube Adopts ISNI ID for Artists & Songwriters". ISNI. Retrieved 1 June 2018. ^ "Transcript: YouTube Knows Who You Are". Beyond the Book. 18 March 2018. Retrieved 1 June 2018. ^ "Music Industry ISNI Registrations Now Free and Automated". ISNI. 23 October 2020. Retrieved 27 November 2020. ^ a b "Members". ISNI. Retrieved 16 July 2018. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "ISNI". www.isni.org. Retrieved 19 April 2018. Further reading[edit] Karen Smith-Yoshimura, Janifer Gatenby, Grace Agnew, Christopher Brown, Kate Byrne, Matt Carruthers, Peter Fletcher, Stephen Hearn, Xiaoli Li, Marina Muilwijk, Chew Chiat Naun, John Riemer, Roderick Sadler, Jing Wang, Glen Wiley, and Kayla Willey. 233 "Addressing the Challenges with Organizational Identifiers and ISNI." Dublin, Ohio: OCLC Research. External links[edit] Wikidata has the property: ISNI (P213) (see uses) Official website v t e International numbering standards Standards ISO 2108: International Standard Book Number (ISBN) ISO 3297: International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) ISO 3901: International Standard Recording Code (ISRC) ISO 6166: International Securities Identification Number (ISIN) ISO/IEC 7812: Issuer Identification Number (IIN) ISO 9362: Business Entity Identifier (BIC) ISO 10957: International Standard Music Number (ISMN) ISO 13616: International Bank Account Number (IBAN) ISO 15511: International Standard Identifier for Libraries... (ISIL) ISO 15706: International Standard Audiovisual Number (ISAN) ISO 15707: International Standard Musical Work Code (ISWC) ISO 17316: International Standard Link Identifier (ISLI) ISO 17442: Legal Entity Identifier (LEI) ISO 21047: International Standard Text Code (ISTC) ISO 26324: Digital Object Identifier System (DOI) ISO 27729: International Standard Name Identifier (ISNI) ISO 27730: International Standard Collection Identifier (ISCI) CAE/IPI Virtual International Authority File (VIAF) v t e ISO standards by standard number List of ISO standards / ISO romanizations / IEC standards 1–9999 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 16 17 31 -0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10 -11 -12 -13 68-1 128 216 217 226 228 233 259 261 262 269 302 306 361 428 500 518 519 639 -1 -2 -3 -5 -6 646 657 668 690 704 732 764 838 843 860 898 965 999 1000 1004 1007 1073-1 1073-2 1155 1413 1538 1629 1745 1989 2014 2015 2022 2033 2047 2108 2145 2146 2240 2281 2533 2709 2711 2720 2788 2848 2852 3029 3103 3166 -1 -2 -3 3297 3307 3601 3602 3864 3901 3950 3977 4031 4157 4165 4217 4909 5218 5426 5427 5428 5725 5775 5776 5800 5807 5964 6166 6344 6346 6385 6425 6429 6438 6523 6709 6943 7001 7002 7010 7027 7064 7098 7185 7200 7498 -1 7637 7736 7810 7811 7812 7813 7816 7942 8000 8093 8178 8217 8373 8501-1 8571 8583 8601 8613 8632 8651 8652 8691 8805/8806 8807 8820-5 8859 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -8-I -9 -10 -11 -12 -13 -14 -15 -16 8879 9000/9001 9036 9075 9126 9141 9227 9241 9293 9314 9362 9407 9496 9506 9529 9564 9592/9593 9594 9660 9797-1 9897 9899 9945 9984 9985 9995 10000–19999 10005 10006 10007 10116 10118-3 10160 10161 10165 10179 10206 10218 10303 -11 -21 -22 -28 -238 10383 10487 10585 10589 10646 10664 10746 10861 10957 10962 10967 11073 11170 11179 11404 11544 11783 11784 11785 11801 11889 11898 11940 (-2) 11941 11941 (TR) 11992 12006 12182 12207 12234-2 12620 13211 -1 -2 13216 13250 13399 13406-2 13450 13485 13490 13567 13568 13584 13616 13816 14000 14031 14224 14289 14396 14443 14496 -2 -3 -6 -10 -11 -12 -14 -17 -20 14644 14649 14651 14698 14750 14764 14882 14971 15022 15189 15288 15291 15292 15398 15408 15444 -3 15445 15438 15504 15511 15686 15693 15706 -2 15707 15897 15919 15924 15926 15926 WIP 15930 16023 16262 16355-1 16612-2 16750 16949 (TS) 17024 17025 17100 17203 17369 17442 17799 18000 18004 18014 18245 18629 18916 19005 19011 19092 -1 -2 19114 19115 19125 19136 19407 19439 19500 19501 19502 19503 19505 19506 19507 19508 19509 19510 19600 19752 19757 19770 19775-1 19794-5 19831 20000+ 20000 20022 20121 20400 21000 21047 21500 21827 22000 22300 22395 23270 23271 23360 24517 24613 24617 24707 25178 25964 26000 26262 26300 26324 27000 series 27000 27001 27002 27005 27006 27729 28000 29110 29148 29199-2 29500 30170 31000 32000 37001 38500 40500 42010 45001 50001 55000 80000 -1 Category v t e Authority control files AAG • ACM DL • ADB • AGSA • autores.uy • AWR • BALaT • BIBSYS • Bildindex • BNC • BNE • BNF • Botanist • BPN • CANTIC • CiNii • CWGC • DAAO • DBLP • DSI • FNZA • GND • HDS • IAAF • ICCU • ICIA • ISNI • Joconde • KulturNav • LCCN • LIR • LNB • Léonore • MBA • MGP • NARA • NBL • NDL • NGV • NKC • NLA • NLG • NLI • NLK • NLP • NLR • NSK • NTA • ORCID • PIC • PLWABN • ResearcherID • RERO • RKD • RKDimages ID • RSL • SELIBR • SIKART • SNAC • SUDOC • S2AuthorId • TA98 • TDVİA • TE • TePapa • TH • TLS • Trove • UKPARL • ULAN • US Congress • VcBA • VIAF • WorldCat Identities Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Name_Identifier&oldid=998422866" Categories: ISO standards Unique identifiers Library cataloging and classification Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles lacking reliable references from December 2015 All articles lacking reliable references Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2018 All articles containing potentially dated statements Articles containing potentially dated statements from August 2017 Articles containing potentially dated 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Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Asturianu Bân-lâm-gú भोजपुरी Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Nordfriisk Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 5 January 2021, at 09:00 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4229	----	Phalanx - Wikipedia Phalanx From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Infantry formation For other uses, see Phalanx (disambiguation). This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (October 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Phalanx" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Sumerian phalanx formation c. 2400 BC, from detail of the victory stele of King Eannatum of Lagash over Umma, called the Stele of the Vultures The phalanx (Ancient Greek: φάλαγξ; plural phalanxes or phalanges, φάλαγγες, phalanges) was a rectangular mass military formation, usually composed entirely of heavy infantry armed with spears, pikes, sarissas, or similar pole weapons. The term is particularly used to describe the use of this formation in Ancient Greek warfare, although the ancient Greek writers used it to also describe any massed infantry formation, regardless of its equipment. Arrian uses the term in his Array against the Alans when he refers to his legions. In Greek texts, the phalanx may be deployed for battle, on the march, or even camped, thus describing the mass of infantry or cavalry that would deploy in line during battle. They marched forward as one entity. The term itself, as used today, does not refer to a distinctive military unit or division (e.g., the Roman legion or the contemporary Western-type battalion), but to the type of formation of an army's troops. Therefore, this term does not indicate a standard combat strength or composition but includes the total number of infantry, which is deployed in a single formation known as a "phalanx". Many spear-armed troops historically fought in what might be termed phalanx-like formations. This article focuses on the use of the military phalanx formation in Ancient Greece, the Hellenistic world, and other ancient states heavily influenced by Greek civilization. Contents 1 History 2 Overview 2.1 Pushing 2.2 Shields 2.3 Hoplite armament 2.4 Phalangite armament 3 Deployment and combat 3.1 Phalanx composition and strength 3.2 Phalanx front and depth 3.3 Stages of combat 4 Tactics 5 Weaknesses 6 Classical decline and post-classical use 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links History[edit] The earliest known depiction of a phalanx-like formation occurs in a Sumerian stele from the 25th century BC. Here the troops seem to have been equipped with spears, helmets, and large shields covering the whole body. Ancient Egyptian infantry were known to have employed similar formations. The first usage of the term phalanx comes from Homer's "φαλαγξ", used to describe hoplites fighting in an organized battle line. Homer used the term to differentiate the formation-based combat from the individual duels so often found in his poems.[1] Historians have not arrived at a consensus about the relationship between the Greek formation and these predecessors of the hoplites. The principles of shield wall and spear hedge were almost universally known among the armies of major civilizations throughout history, and so the similarities may be related to convergent evolution instead of diffusion. Traditionally, historians date the origin of the hoplite phalanx of ancient Greece to the 8th century BC in Sparta, but this is under revision. It is perhaps more likely that the formation was devised in the 7th century BC after the introduction of the aspis by the city of Argos, which would have made the formation possible. This is further evidenced by the Chigi vase, dated to 650 BC, identifying hoplites armed with aspis, spear and panoply.[1] Another possible theory as to the birth of Greek phalanx warfare stems from the idea that some of the basic aspects of the phalanx were present in earlier times yet were not fully developed due to the lack of appropriate technology. Two of the basic tactics seen in earlier warfare include the principle of cohesion and the use of large groups of soldiers. This would suggest that the Greek phalanx was rather the culmination and perfection of a slowly developed idea that originated many years earlier. As weaponry and armour advanced through the years in different city-states, the phalanx became complex and effective.[2] Overview[edit] A modern illustration of the Greek hoplites marching in a phalanx formation The hoplite phalanx of the Archaic and Classical periods in Greece (c. 800–350 BC) was the formation in which the hoplites would line up in ranks in close order. The hoplites would lock their shields together, and the first few ranks of soldiers would project their spears out over the first rank of shields. The phalanx therefore presented a shield wall and a mass of spear points to the enemy, making frontal assaults against it very difficult. It also allowed a higher proportion of the soldiers to be actively engaged in combat at a given time (rather than just those in the front rank). Battles between two phalanxes usually took place in open, flat plains where it was easier to advance and stay in formation. Rough terrain or hilly regions would have made it difficult to maintain a steady line and would have defeated the purpose of a phalanx. As a result, battles between Greek city-states would not take place in just any location, nor would they be limited to sometimes obvious strategic points. Rather, many times, the two opposing sides would find the most suitable piece of land where the conflict could be settled. Typically, the battle ended with one of the two fighting forces fleeing to safety.[3] The phalanx usually advanced at a walking pace, although it is possible that they picked up speed during the last several yards. One of the main reasons for this slow approach was to maintain formation. The formation would be rendered useless if the phalanx was lost as the unit approached the enemy and could even become detrimental to the advancing unit, resulting in a weaker formation that was easier for an enemy force to break through. If the hoplites of the phalanx were to pick up speed toward the latter part of the advance, it would have been for the purpose of gaining momentum against the enemy in the initial collision.[4] Herodotus states of the Greeks at the Battle of Marathon, that "They were the first Greeks we know of to charge their enemy at a run". Many historians believe that this innovation was precipitated by their desire to minimize their losses from Persian archery. The opposing sides would collide, possibly severing many of the spears of the row in front and killing the front part of the enemy army due to the bone-breaking collision. The spears of a phalanx had spiked butts. In battle, the back ranks used the spikes to finish fallen enemy soldiers. Pushing[edit] Phalanx in a frieze on the tomb of Pericles, Dynast of Lycia (380–360 BC) The "physical pushing match" theory is one where the battle would rely on the valour of the men in the front line, whilst those in the rear maintained forward pressure on the front ranks with their shields, and the whole formation would consistently press forward trying to break the enemy formation. This is the most widely accepted interpretation of the ancient sources thus when two phalanx formations engaged, the struggle essentially became a pushing match. Historians such as Victor Davis Hanson point out that it is difficult to account for exceptionally deep phalanx formations unless they were necessary to facilitate the physical pushing depicted by this theory, as those behind the first two ranks could not take part in the actual spear thrusting.[5] No Greek art ever depicts anything like a phalanx pushing match, so this hypothesis is a product of educated speculation rather than explicit testimony from contemporary sources and is far from being academically resolved. The Greek term for "push" was used in the same metaphorical manner as the English word is (for example it was also used to describe the process of rhetorical arguments) and so does not necessarily describe a literal physical push, although it is possible that it did. For instance, if Othismos were to accurately describe a physical pushing match, it would be logical to state that the deeper phalanx would always win an engagement since the physical strength of individuals would not compensate for even one additional rank on the enemy side. However, there are numerous examples of shallow phalanxes holding off an opponent. For instance, at Delium in 424 BC, the Athenian left flank, a formation eight men deep, held off a formation of Thebans 25 deep without immediate collapse.[6] It is difficult with the physical pushing model to imagine eight men withstanding the pushing force of 25 opponents for a matter of seconds, let alone half the battle. Such arguments have led to a wave of counter-criticism to physical shoving theorists. Adrian Goldsworthy, in his article "The Othismos, Myths and Heresies: The nature of Hoplite Battle", argues that the physical pushing match model does not fit with the average casualty figures of hoplite warfare nor the practical realities of moving large formations of men in battle.[7] This debate has yet to be resolved amongst scholars. Practical difficulties with this theory also include the fact that, in a shoving match, an eight-foot spear is too long to fight effectively or even parry attacks. Spears enable a formation of men to keep their enemies at a distance, parry attacks aimed at them and their comrades, and give the necessary reach to strike multiple men in the opposite formation. A pushing match would put enemies so close together that a quick stabbing with a knife would kill the front row almost instantly. The crush of men would also prevent the formation from withdrawing or retreating, which would result in much higher casualties than is recorded. The speed at which this would occur would also end the battle very quickly, instead of prolonging it for hours. Shields[edit] Greek Phalanx against Achaemenid troops Each individual hoplite carried his shield on his left arm, protecting not only himself but also the soldier to the left. This meant that the men at the extreme right of the phalanx were only half-protected. In battle, opposing phalanxes would try to exploit this weakness by attempting to overlap the enemy's right flank. It also meant that, in battle, a phalanx would tend to drift to the right (as hoplites sought to remain behind the shield of their neighbor). The most experienced hoplites were often placed on the right side of the phalanx to avoid these problems. Some groups, such as the Spartans at Nemea, tried to use this phenomenon to their advantage. In this case, the phalanx would sacrifice its left side, which typically consisted of allied troops, in an effort to overtake the enemy from the flank. It is unlikely that this strategy worked very often, as it is not mentioned frequently in ancient Greek literature.[8] There was a leader in each row of a phalanx, and a rear rank officer, the ouragos (meaning tail-leader), who kept order in the rear. The hoplites had to trust their neighbors to protect them and in turn be willing to protect their neighbors; a phalanx was thus only as strong as its weakest elements. The effectiveness of the phalanx therefore depended on how well the hoplites could maintain this formation in combat and how well they could stand their ground, especially when engaged against another phalanx. For this reason, the formation was deliberately organized to group friends and family close together, thus providing a psychological incentive to support one's fellows, and a disincentive, through shame, to panic or attempt to flee. The more disciplined and courageous the army, the more likely it was to win – often engagements between the various city-states of Greece would be resolved by one side fleeing before the battle. The Greek word dynamis, the "will to fight", expresses the drive that kept hoplites in formation. Now of those, who dare, abiding one beside another, to advance to the close fray, and the foremost champions, fewer die, and they save the people in the rear; but in men that fear, all excellence is lost. No one could ever in words go through those several ills, which befall a man, if he has been actuated by cowardice. For 'tis grievous to wound in the rear the back of a flying man in hostile war. Shameful too is a corpse lying low in the dust, wounded behind in the back by the point of a spear. — Tyrtaeus, The War Songs of Tyrtaeus[9] Hoplite armament[edit] Each hoplite provided his own equipment. The primary hoplite weapon was a spear around 2.4 metres (7.9 ft) in length called a dory. Although accounts of its length vary, it is usually now believed to have been seven to nine feet long (~2.1–2.7 m). It was held one-handed, with the other hand holding the hoplite's shield (aspis). The spearhead was usually a curved leaf shape, while the rear of the spear had a spike called a sauroter ('lizard-killer') which was used to stand the spear in the ground (hence the name). It was also used as a secondary weapon if the main shaft snapped or to kill enemies lying on the ground. This was a common problem, especially for soldiers who were involved in the initial clash with the enemy. Despite the snapping of the spear, hoplites could easily switch to the sauroter without great consequence.[10] The rear ranks used the secondary end to finish off fallen opponents as the phalanx advanced over them. Throughout the hoplite era, the standard hoplite armour went through many cyclical changes.[11] An Archaic hoplite typically wore a bronze breastplate, a bronze helmet with cheekplates, as well as greaves and other armour. Later, in the classical period, the breastplate became less common, replaced instead with a corselet that some claim was made of linothorax (layers of linen glued together), or perhaps of leather, sometimes covered in whole or in part with overlapping metal scales.[12][13] Eventually, even greaves became less commonly used, although degrees of heavier armour remained, as attested by Xenophon as late as 401 BC.[14] These changes reflected the balancing of mobility with protection, especially as cavalry became more prominent in the Peloponnesian War[15] and the need to combat light troops, which were increasingly used to negate the hoplite's role as the primary force in battle.[16] Yet bronze armour remained in some form until the end of the hoplite era. Some archaeologists have pointed out that bronze armour does not actually provide as much protection from direct blows as more extensive corselet padding, and have suggested its continued use was a matter of status for those who could afford it.[17] In the classical Greek dialect, there is no word for swordsmen; yet hoplites also carried a short sword called the xiphos, used as a secondary weapon if the dory was broken or lost. Samples of the xiphos recovered at excavation sites were typically around 60 cm in length. These swords were double-edged and could therefore be used as a cutting and thrusting weapon. These short swords were often used to stab or cut at the enemy's neck during close combat.[18] Hoplites carried a circular shield called a hoplon (often referred to as an aspis) made from wood and covered in bronze, measuring roughly 1 metre (3.3 ft) in diameter. It spanned from chin to knee and was very heavy (8–15 kg). This medium-sized shield (fairly large for the period considering the average male height) was made possible partly by its dish-like shape, which allowed it to be supported with the rim on the shoulder. This was quite an important feature of the shield, especially for the hoplites that remained in the latter ranks. While these soldiers continued to help press forward, they did not have the added burden of holding up their shield. But the circular shield was not without its disadvantages. Despite its mobility, protective curve, and double straps the circular shape created gaps in the shield wall at both its top and bottom. (Top gaps were somewhat reduced by the one or two spears jutting out of the gap. In order to minimize the bottom gaps, thick leather 'curtains' were used but only by an [unknown] percentage of the hoplites, possibly mostly in the first row only since there were disadvantages as well: considerable added weight on an already heavy shield and a certain additional cost.) These gaps left parts of the hoplite exposed to potentially lethal spear thrusts and were a persistent vulnerability for hoplites controlling the front lines.[19] Phalangite armament[edit] Further information: Macedonian phalanx The phalanx of the Ancient Macedonian kingdom and the later Hellenistic successor states was a development of the hoplite phalanx. The 'phalangites' were armed with a much longer spear, the sarissa, and less heavily armoured. The sarissa was the pike used by the ancient Macedonian army. Its actual length is unknown, but apparently it was twice as long as the dory. This makes it at least 14 feet (4.3 m), but 18 feet (5.5 m) appears more likely. (The cavalry xyston was 12.5 feet (3.8 m) by comparison.) The great length of the pike was balanced by a counterweight at the rear end, which also functioned as a butt-spike, allowing the sarissa to be planted into the ground. Because of its great length, weight and different balance, a sarissa was wielded two-handed. This meant that the aspis was no longer a practical defence. Instead, the phalangites strapped a smaller pelte shield (usually reserved for peltasts, light skirmishers) to their left forearm. Recent theories, including examination of ancient frescoes depicting full sets of weapons and armor, claim that the shields used were actually larger than the pelte but smaller than the aspis, hanging by leather strap(s) from the left shoulder or from both shoulders. The shield would retain handling straps in the inner curve, to be handled like a (smaller) aspis if the fight progressed to sword-wielding. Although in both shield size assumptions this reduced the shield wall, the extreme length of the spear kept the enemy at a greater distance, as the pikes of the first three to five ranks could all be brought to bear in front of the front row. This pike had to be held underhand, as the shield would have obscured the soldier's vision had it been held overhead. It would also be very hard to remove a sarissa from anything it stuck in (the earth, shields, and soldiers of the opposition) if it were thrust downwards, due to its length. The Macedonian phalanx was much less able to form a shield wall, but the lengthened spears would have compensated for this. Such a phalanx formation also reduced the likelihood that battles would degenerate into a pushing match. Deployment and combat[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Two standard Macedonian enomotiæ (32 men each) in loose formation 2 m apart (32 ranks) The same in dense formation; each file 1 m apart (16 ranks) The same in locked shields formation; each file 0.5 m apart (8 ranks – rightmost file not shown) Phalanx composition and strength[edit] The basic combat element of the Greek armies was either the stichos (meaning "file"; usually 8–16 men strong) or the enomotia (meaning "sworn" and made up by 2–4 stichœ, totaling up to 32 men), both led by a dimœrites who was assisted by a decadarchos and two decasterœ (sing. decasteros). Four to a maximum of 32 enomotiæ (depending on the era in question or the city) were forming a lochos led by a lochagos, who in this way was in command of initially 100 hoplites to a maximum of c. 500 in the late Hellenistic armies. Here, it has to be noted that the military manuals of Asclepiodotus and Aelian use the term lochos to denote a file in the phalanx. A taxis (mora for the Spartans) was the greatest standard hoplitic formation of 500 to 1500 men, led by a strategos (general). The entire army, a total of several taxeis or moræ was led by a generals' council. The commander-in-chief was usually called a polemarchos or a strategos autocrator. Phalanx front and depth[edit] Hoplite phalanxes usually deployed in ranks of 8 men or more deep; The Macedonian phalanxes were usually 16 men deep, sometimes reported to have been arrayed 32 men deep. There are some notable extremes; at the battles of Leuctra and Mantinea, the Theban general Epameinondas arranged the left wing of the phalanx into a "hammerhead" of 50 ranks of elite hoplites deep (see below) and when depth was less important, phalanxes just 4 deep are recorded, as at the battle of Marathon.[20] The phalanx depth could vary depending on the needs of the moment and plans of the general. While the phalanx was in march, an eis bathos formation (loose, meaning literally "in depth") was adopted in order to move more freely and maintain order. This was also the initial battle formation as, in addition, it permitted friendly units to pass through whether assaulting or retreating. In this status, the phalanx had twice the normal depth and each hoplite had to occupy about 1.8–2 metres (5 ft 11 in–6 ft 7 in) in width. When enemy infantry was approaching, a rapid switch to the pycne (spelled also pucne) formation (dense or tight formation) was necessary. In that case, each man's space was halved (0.9–1 metre or 2 feet 11 inches–3 feet 3 inches in width) and the formation depth returned to normal. An even denser formation, the synaspismos or sunaspismos (ultra tight or locked shields formation), was used when the phalanx was expected to experience extra pressure, intense missile volleys or frontal cavalry charges. In synaspismos, the rank depth was half that of a normal phalanx and the width each man occupied was as small as 0.45 metres (1.5 ft). Stages of combat[edit] Several stages in hoplite combat can be defined: Ephodos: The hoplites stop singing their pæanes (battle hymns) and move towards the enemy, gradually picking up pace and momentum. In the instants before impact, war cries (alalagmœ, sing. alalagmos) would be made. Notable war cries were the Athenian (eleleleleu! eleleleleu!) and the Macedonian (alalalalai! alalalalai!) alalagmœ. Krousis: The opposing phalanxes meet each other almost simultaneously along their front. Doratismos: Repeated, rapid spear thrusts in order to disrupt the enemy formation. The use of long spears would keep enemies apart as well as allow men in a row to assist their comrades next to them. The prodding could also open up a man to allow a comrade to spear him. Too hard prodding could get a spear stuck in a shield, which would necessitate someone in the back to lend his to the now-disarmed man. Othismos: Literally "pushing" after most spears have been broken, the hoplites begin to push with their spears and spear shafts against their opponents' shields. This could be the longest phase.[citation needed] Pararrhexis: "Breaching" the opposing phalanx, the enemy formation shatters and the battle ends. Cavalry would be used at this point to mop up the scattered enemy.[21] Tactics[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Top: simplified schematic of traditional hoplite order of battle and advance (elite troops in red). Bottom: the diagonal phalanx utilised by the Thebans under Epaminondas. The strong left wing advanced while the weak right wing retreated or remained stationary. Dispositions during the Battle of Leuctra, 371 BC The early history of the phalanx is largely one of combat between hoplite armies from competing Greek city-states. The usual result was rather identical, inflexible formations pushing against each other until one broke. The potential of the phalanx to achieve something more was demonstrated at Battle of Marathon (490 BC). Facing the much larger army of Darius I, the Athenians thinned out their phalanx and consequently lengthened their front, to avoid being outflanked. However, even a reduced-depth phalanx proved unstoppable to the lightly armed Persian infantry. After routing the Persian wings, the hoplites on the Athenian wings wheeled inwards, destroying the elite troop at the Persian centre, resulting in a crushing victory for Athens. Throughout the Greco-Persian Wars the hoplite phalanx was to prove superior to the Persian infantry (e.g. the battles of Thermopylae and Plataea). Perhaps the most prominent example of the phalanx's evolution was the oblique order, made famous in the Battle of Leuctra. There, the Theban general Epaminondas thinned out the right flank and centre of his phalanx, and deepened his left flank to an unheard-of 50 men deep. In doing so, Epaminondas reversed the convention by which the right flank of the phalanx was strongest. This allowed the Thebans to assault in strength the elite Spartan troops on the right flank of the opposing phalanx. Meanwhile, the centre and right flank of the Theban line were echeloned back, from the opposing phalanx, keeping the weakened parts of the formation from being engaged. Once the Spartan right had been routed by the Theban left, the remainder of the Spartan line also broke. Thus, by localising the attacking power of the hoplites, Epaminondas was able to defeat an enemy previously thought invincible. Philip II of Macedon spent several years in Thebes as a hostage, and paid attention to Epaminondas' innovations. On return to his homeland, he raised a revolutionary new infantry force, which was to change the face of the Greek world. Philip's phalangites were the first force of professional soldiers seen in Ancient Greece apart from Sparta. They were armed with longer spears (the sarissa) and were drilled more thoroughly in more evolved, complicated tactics and manoeuvres. More importantly, though, Philip's phalanx was part of a multi-faceted, combined force that included a variety of skirmishers and cavalry, most notably the famous Companion cavalry. The Macedonian phalanx now was used to pin the centre of the enemy line, while cavalry and more mobile infantry struck at the foe's flanks. Its supremacy over the more static armies fielded by the Greek city-states was shown at the Battle of Chaeronea, where Philip II's army crushed the allied Theban and Athenian phalanxes. Weaknesses[edit] The hoplite phalanx was weakest when facing an enemy fielding lighter and more flexible troops without its own such supporting troops. An example of this would be the Battle of Lechaeum, where an Athenian contingent led by Iphicrates routed an entire Spartan mora (a unit of anywhere from 500 to 900 hoplites). The Athenian force had a considerable proportion of light missile troops armed with javelins and bows that wore down the Spartans with repeated attacks, causing disarray in the Spartan ranks and an eventual rout when they spotted Athenian heavy infantry reinforcements trying to flank them by boat. The Macedonian phalanx had weaknesses similar to its hoplitic predecessor. Theoretically indestructible from the front, its flanks and rear were very vulnerable, and once engaged it may not easily disengage or redeploy to face a threat from those directions. Thus, a phalanx facing non-phalangite formations required some sort of protection on its flanks—lighter or at least more mobile infantry, cavalry, etc. This was shown at the Battle of Magnesia, where, once the Seleucid supporting cavalry elements were driven off, the phalanx was static and unable to go on the offensive against its Roman opponents (although they continued to resist stoutly and attempted a fighting withdrawal under a hail of Roman missiles, until the elephants posted on their flanks panicked and disrupted their formation). The Macedonian phalanx could also lose its cohesion without proper coordination or while moving through broken terrain; doing so could create gaps between individual blocks/syntagmata, or could prevent a solid front within those sub-units as well, causing other sections of the line to bunch up.[22] In this event, as in the battles of Cynoscephalae and Pydna, the phalanx became vulnerable to attacks by more flexible units—such as Roman legionary centuries, which were able to avoid the sarissae and engage in hand-to-hand combat with the phalangites. Another important area that must be considered concerns the psychological tendencies of the hoplites. Because the strength of a phalanx depended on the ability of the hoplites to maintain their frontline, it was crucial that a phalanx be able to quickly and efficiently replace fallen soldiers in the front ranks. If a phalanx failed to do this in a structured manner, the opposing phalanx would have an opportunity to breach the line which, many times, would lead to a quick defeat. This then implies that the hoplites ranks closer to the front must be mentally prepared to replace their fallen comrade and adapt to his new position without disrupting the structure of the frontline.[10] Finally, most of the phalanx-centric armies tended to lack supporting echelons behind the main line of battle. This meant that breaking through the line of battle or compromising one of its flanks often ensured victory. Classical decline and post-classical use[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Victorian depiction of a Macedonian phalanx, 4th century BC After reaching its zenith in the conquests of Alexander the Great, the phalanx began a slow decline, as Macedonian successor states declined. The combined arms tactics used by Alexander and his father were gradually replaced by a return to the simpler frontal charge tactics of the hoplite phalanx. The expense of the supporting arms and cavalry, and the widespread use of mercenaries, caused the Diadochi to rely on phalanx vs. phalanx tactics during the Wars of the Diadochi. The decline of the Diadochi and the phalanx was linked with the rise of Rome and the Roman legions from the 3rd century BC. The Battle of the Caudine Forks showed the clumsiness of the Roman phalanx against the Samnites. The Romans had originally employed the phalanx themselves[23] but gradually evolved more flexible tactics. The result was the three-line Roman legion of the middle period of the Roman Republic. Romans used a phalanx for their third military line, the triarii. These were veteran reserve troops armed with the hastae or spear.[24] Rome conquered most of the Macedonian successor states. Also the various Greek city-states and leagues. As these states ceased to exist, so did the armies which used the traditional phalanx. Subsequently, troops from these regions were equipped, trained and fought using the Roman model. A phalanx formation called the phoulkon appeared in the late roman army and byzantine army. It had characteristics of the classical Greek and Hellenistic phalanxes, but was more flexible. It was used against cavalry more than infantry. However, the phalanx did not totally disappear. The phalanx might not have been obsolete at the end of its history. In some battles between the Roman army and Hellenistic phalanxes, such as Pydna (168 BC), Cynoscephalae (197 BC) and Magnesia (190 BC), the phalanx performed well. It even drove back the Roman infantry. However, at Cynoscephalae and Magnesia, failure to defend the flanks of the phalanx led to defeat. At Pydna, the phalanx lost cohesion when pursuing retreating Roman soldiers. This allowed the Romans to penetrate the formation. Then, Roman close combat skills proved decisive. The historian Polybius details the effectiveness of the Roman legion against the phalanx. He deduces that the Romans refused to fight the phalanx where the phalanx was effective, Romans offered battle only when a legion could exploit the clumsiness and immobility of a phalanx. Victorian depiction of a Macedonian phalanx at the Battle of the Carts Spear-armed troops continued to be important elements in many armies until reliable firearms became available. These did not necessarily fight as a phalanx. For example, compare the classical phalanx and late medieval pike formations.[citation needed] City-states were first armed with spears, then pikes. This occurred in the Middle Ages and Renaissance of the Low Countries (modern Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg), the cantons of Switzerland and the city-states of Northern Italy. Armies of the Low Countries defeated French and Burgundian forces in the 14th century.[citation needed] The Swiss first used the halberd in the 14th century. They were later outreached by Austrian cavalry armed with lances. So, the Swiss adopted pikes in the later 15th century. Swiss pike phalanxes of the Burgundian Wars were dynamic and aggressive, destroying the 'modern' Burgundian army. They killed Charles the Bold.[citation needed] Some Italian states raised their own pike units. They also employed Swiss mercenary pikemen in the 15th and 16th century. The Swiss were also copied by German landsknechts. The large number of pike units lead to bitter rivalry between competing mercenary units.[citation needed] Military historians[who?] have suggested that the Scots under William Wallace and Robert the Bruce consciously imitated the Hellenistic phalanx to produce the Scots 'hedgehog' or schiltron. However, long spears might have been used by Picts and others in Scotlands' Early Middle Ages. Prior to 1066, long spear tactics (also found in North Wales) might have been part of irregular warfare in Britain. The Scots used imported French pikes and dynamic tactics at the Battle of Flodden. However, Flodden found the Scots pitted against effective light artillery, while advancing over bad ground. The combination disorganised the Scotts phalanxes and permitted effective attacks by English longbowmen, and soldiers wielding shorter, handier polearms called bills. Some contemporary sources might say that the bills cut off the heads of Scots pikes. This section may stray from the topic of the article into the topic of another article, pike (weapon). Please help improve this section or discuss this issue on the talk page. (September 2019) Pike and shot became a military standard in the 16th and 17th century. With bayonets, the last major use of pike was the early 18th century. The weapon rapidly disappeared from Western European armies by the Battle of Blenheim. A few pikes, half pikes and halberds were retained among regimental colour guards. Even these disappeared by the time of Napoleon. The pike was briefly reconsidered as a weapon by European armies in the late 18th and early 19th century. It could protect riflemen, whose slower rate of fire made them vulnerable. A collapsible pike was invented but never issued. The Confederate Army considered these for the American Civil War. Some were even manufactured but probably were never issued. Pikes were manufactured during World War II as "Croft's Pikes". While obsolete in military practice, the phalanx remained in use as a metaphor of warriors moving forward as a single united block. This metaphor inspired several 20th Century political movements, notably the Spanish Falange and its ideology of Falangism. The Byzantines continued and improved the use of the classical Greek phalanx alongside with the Macedonian style phalanx. This last one was based on a model that Alexander himself had created and had tried to give more importance to the skirmishers and cavalry yet it never saw action until the Byzantines adopted the model that rely in a mixture of many units sometimes. Many writers of the age describe the spear as being a Sarissa yet it was a meter short than the original Sarissa and had being modified by the time, yet the term for the long spear remained alongside with its other names.[25] See also[edit] Epaminondas Hoplite Hoplite formation in art Macedonian phalanx Pelopidas Peltast Point d'appui Roman infantry tactics Roman Legion Sarissa Comparable formations Phoulkon Pike square Schiltron Shield wall Tercio Notes[edit] ^ a b Phalanx and hoplites. livius.org. 20 November 2008 ^ Hanson (1991) pp. 66–67 ^ Hanson (1991) pp. 88–89 ^ Hanson (1991) pp. 90–91 ^ See Hanson,(1989) Ch. 15, for an introduction to the debate ^ Lazenby, (2004) p. 89 ^ Goldsworthy (1997) pp. 1–26 in the academic journal War in History ^ Hanson (1991) pp. 91–92 ^ Fragment #8D, lines 11-20: [...] οἳ μὲν γὰρ τολμῶσι παρ' ἀλλήλοισι μένοντες| ἔς τ' αὐτοσχεδίην καὶ προμάχους ἰέναι,| παυρότεροι θνῄσκουσι, σαοῦσι δὲ λαὸν ὀπίσσω·| τρεσσάντων δ' ἀνδρῶν πᾶσ' ἀπόλωλ' ἀρετή.| 15 οὐδεὶς ἄν ποτε ταῦτα λέγων ἀνύσειεν ἕκαστα,| ὅσσ', ἢν αἰσχρὰ μάθῃ, γίνεται ἀνδρὶ κακά·| ἀργαλέον γὰρ ὄπισθε μετάφρενόν ἐστι δαΐζειν| ἀνδρὸς φεύγοντος δηίῳ ἐν πολέμῳ·| αἰσχρὸς δ' ἐστὶ νέκυς κατακείμενος ἐν κονίῃσι| 20 νῶτον ὄπισθ' αἰχμῇ δουρὸς ἐληλάμενος.| [...] https://www.gottwein.de/Grie/lyr/lyr_tyrt_gr.php#Tyrt.8D ^ a b Hanson (1991) ^ See Wees (2004) pp. 156–178 for a discussion about archaeological evidence for hoplite armour and its eventual transformation ^ Snodgrass (1999) ^ Wees (2004) p. 165 ^ Xenophon, (1986) p. 184 ^ See Lazenby (2004) pp. 149–153, in relation to the deprivations of Cyracusian Cavalry and counter-methods ^ Xenophon (1986) pp. 157–161 "The Greeks Suffer From Slings and Arrows", and the methods improvised to solve this problem ^ Wees (2004) p. 189 ^ Hanson (1991) p. 25 ^ Hanson (1991) pp. 68–69 ^ Phifer, Michiko (July 13, 2012). A Handbook of Military Strategy and Tactics. Vij Books India Pvt Ltd. p. 207. ISBN 9789382573289. Retrieved 1 May 2016. ^ History of the Phalanx. ancientgreekbattles.net 3 September 2006 ^ Goldsworthy, p. 102 ^ Lendon, p. 182: The phalanx was known to the Romans in pre-Republic days, whose best fighting men were armed as hoplites. ^ Lendon, pp. 182–183 ^ "Byzantine battle tactics". www.hellenicaworld.com. Retrieved 2020-11-05. References[edit] Goldsworthy, A. (1997) "The Othismos, Myths and Heresies: The Nature of Hoplite Battle", War In History 4/1, pp. 1–26 doi:10.1177/096834459700400101. [1] Hanson, Victor Davis (1989) The Western Way of War New York: Alfred A. Knopf, ISBN 978-0-520-21911-3. Hanson, Victor Davis (1991) Hoplites: The Classical Greek Battle Experience ISBN 0-415-09816-5. Lazenby, J.F. (2004) The Peloponnesian War: a military study, Routledge ISBN 0-415-32615-X Lendon, J.E. (2005) Soldiers & Ghosts: A History of Battle in Classical Antiquity, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-11979-8, ISBN 978-0-300-11979-4. Book Review Wees, Hans van (2004), Greek warfare: Myths and Realities (Duckworth Press) ISBN 0-7156-2967-0. Xenophon (1986), Translated by George Cawkwell, The Persian Expedition (Penguin Classics) Snodgrass, A. (1999), "Arms and Armour of the Ancient Greeks", Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 0801860733 Further reading[edit] Goldsworthy, Adrian: In the Name of Rome: The Men Who Won the Roman Empire (Orion,2003) ISBN 0-7538-1789-6. Holland, T. Persian Fire, Abacus. ISBN 978-0-349-11717-1. Woodford, S.: An Introduction to Greek Art. Cornell University Press, 1988. ISBN 0-8014-9480-X. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Phalanxes. Look up phalanx in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Livius page on hoplite warfare. The Roman Maniple vs. The Macedonian Phalanx, Polybius, The Histories 18(28–32) The Apamea Phalangarius Images of the phalanx formation in ancient Greek warfare Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phalanx&oldid=1001777777" Categories: Ancient Greek military terminology Infantry units and formations of Macedon Military units and formations of ancient Greece Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles lacking in-text citations from October 2012 All articles lacking in-text citations Articles needing additional references from October 2012 All articles needing additional references Articles with multiple maintenance issues Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Greek-language text Articles needing additional references from May 2018 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2013 Articles needing additional references from February 2013 Articles needing additional references from September 2019 Articles with unsourced statements from September 2019 All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from September 2019 Wikipedia articles that may have off-topic sections from September 2019 All articles that may have off-topic sections Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 21 January 2021, at 08:11 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4232	----	Struthas - Wikipedia Struthas From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Struthas was satrap of Lydia, including Ionia. Struthas was a Persian satrap for a brief period during the Corinthian War. In 392 BC, he was dispatched by Artaxerxes II to take command of the satrapy of Sardis, replacing Tiribazus, and to pursue an anti-Spartan policy. Accordingly, Struthas raided territory held by the Spartans and their allies, prompting the Spartans to order their commander in the region, Thibron, to begin aggressive activity against Struthas. Thibron raided successfully for a time, but Struthas eventually succeeded in ambushing one of his raiding expeditions. Struthas slew Thibron in personal combat before his cavalry routed and destroyed the rest of the Spartan army save for a few survivors that escaped to nearby cities and more that were left back at the camp due to not learning of the expedition in time to partake. Thibron was then replaced by Diphridas, who rebuilt his army from the remnants of Thibron's and raided Struthas's territory successfully, even capturing his son-in-law, but achieved little remarkable success. Although the specific events of Struthas's removal from office are not known, by the early 380s BC he had been replaced by Tiribazus, and makes no further appearances in the historical record. Historical sources[edit] Xenophon, Hellenika 4, 8, 17-19 (online copies: Wikisource, Gutenberg) Diodor 14, 99, 1-3 (online copies: Loeb (LacusCurtius)) This Achaemenid biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e v t e Achaemenid Satraps of Lydia (546–334 BC) Tabalus (546–545 BC) Mazares (545–544 BC) Harpagus (540-530 BC) Oroetus (530–520 BC) Bagaeus (520 BC) Otanes (517 BC) Artaphernes (513–492 BC) Artaphernes II (492–480 BC) Pissuthnes (440–415 BC) Tissaphernes (415–408 BC) Cyrus the Younger (408–401 BC) Tissaphernes (400–395 BC) Tithraustes (392–380 BC) Tiribazus (375 BC) Struthas (370 BC) Autophradates (365 BC) Spithridates (365–334 BC) v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Struthas&oldid=926875429" Categories: Achaemenid satraps of Lydia 4th-century BC deaths 4th-century BC Iranian people People of the Corinthian War Achaemenid people stubs Hidden categories: Year of birth unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Hrvatski Italiano مصرى Nederlands Polski Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 19 November 2019, at 00:33 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4235	----	Iufni - Wikipedia Iufni From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Iufni Jewefni, Efni, Afnai Pharaoh Reign very short c. 1788 BC (Ryholt)[1] or 1741 BC (Franke)[2] (13th Dynasty) Predecessor Hotepibre Qemau Siharnedjheritef (Ryholt) or Sehetepibre Sewesekhtawy (Franke) Successor Seankhibre Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Royal titulary Nomen Iufni Iw.f-n.i He belongs to me Iufni (also Jewefni) was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period.[3] According to the egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker he was the 7th king of the dynasty,[3][4] while Jürgen von Beckerath and Detlef Franke see him as the 6th ruler.[2][5][6] Iufni reigned from Memphis for a very short time c. 1788 BC or 1741 BC.[1][2] Attestation[edit] Iufni is only known from the Turin canon, a king list compiled around 500 years after Iufni's reign, during the early Ramesside period.[3][7] According to Ryholt's latest reconstruction of the Turin canon, his name is given on column 7 row 9 of the document (this corresponds to column 6 row 9 in Alan H. Gardiner's and von Beckerath's reading of the canon).[1] Family[edit] Ryholt notes that Iufni's two predecessors Ameny Qemau and Hotepibre Qemau Siharnedjheritef as well as his successor Seankhibre Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI all bear filiative nomina—that is, names that connect them to their father. Since such nomina were used by pharaohs only when their fathers were also pharaohs and since Iufni reigned in their midst, Ryholt argues that Iufni must have been part of the family including Sekhemkare Amenmhat V, Ameny Qemau, Siharnedjheritef and Amenemhat VI.[1] Given the brevity of Iufni's reign, Ryholt proposes that he may have been a brother of Siharnedjheritef or simply a grandson of Amenemhat V.[1] References[edit] ^ a b c d e Kim Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here. ^ a b c Detlef Franke: Zur Chronologie des Mittleren Reiches. Teil II: Die sogenannte Zweite Zwischenzeit Altägyptens, in Orientalia 57 (1988) ^ a b c Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 101 ^ Kim Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, Copenhagen 1927, ISBN 87-7289-421-0, S. 338 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz : P. von Zabern, 1999, ISBN 3-8053-2591-6, available online Archived 2015-12-22 at the Wayback Machine see pp. 90-91 ^ Thomas Schneider: The Relative Chronology of the Middle Kingdom and the Hyksos Period (Dyns. 12–17), in: Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss, David A. Warburton (ed.): Ancient Egyptian Chronology, Handbook of Oriental studies. Section One. The Near and Middle East. Vol 83, Brill, Leiden/Boston 2006, ISBN 978-90-04-11385-5, p. 168–196, available online. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt 1964, pp. 40, 230 (XIII 5) Preceded by Hotepibre Qemau Siharnedjheritef Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Seankhibre Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Iufni&oldid=985453238" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages አማርኛ العربية Català Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Русский Slovenščina ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 26 October 2020, at 01:29 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4242	----	Category:465 BC deaths - Wikipedia Help Category:465 BC deaths From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search People who died c. 465 BC. 460s BC deaths: 469 • 468 • 467 • 466 • 465 • 464 • 463 • 462 • 461• 460 Wikimedia Commons has media related to 465 BC deaths. Pages in category "465 BC deaths" The following 3 pages are in this category, out of 3 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). B Battus IV of Cyrene D Darius (son of Xerxes I) X Xerxes I Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:465_BC_deaths&oldid=721125292" Categories: 465 BC 460s BC deaths Deaths by year Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages العربية Беларуская Bosanski Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Magyar Македонски मराठी 日本語 Norsk bokmål Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska ไทย Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 May 2016, at 22:36 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4251	----	Early Dynastic Period (Egypt) - Wikipedia Early Dynastic Period (Egypt) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Thinite Period" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Thinite Confederacy. Early Dynastic Period of Egypt c. 3150 BC – c. 2686 BC Crown Thinis Memphis Nekhen Thebes Naqada Early Dynastic Period (Egypt) (Egypt) Capital Thinis then Memphis Common languages Ancient Egyptian Religion Ancient Egyptian religion Government Monarchy Pharaoh   • c. 3100 BC Narmer (first) • c. 2690 BC Khasekhemwy (last) History   • Established c. 3150 BC  • Disestablished  c. 2686 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Lower Egypt Upper Egypt Old Kingdom of Egypt Today part of  Egypt Early Dynastic Period of Egypt - c. 3150 BC – c. 2686 BC Part of a series on the History of Egypt Prehistoric Egypt pre–3150 BC Ancient Egypt Early Dynastic Period 3150–2686 BC Old Kingdom 2686–2181 BC 1st Intermediate Period 2181–2055 BC Middle Kingdom 2055–1650 BC 2nd Intermediate Period 1650–1550 BC New Kingdom 1550–1069 BC 3rd Intermediate Period 1069–664 BC Late Period 664–332 BC Greco-Roman Egypt Argead and Ptolemaic dynasties 332–30 BC Roman and Byzantine Egypt 30 BC–641 AD Sasanian Egypt 619–629 Medieval Egypt Rashidun Egypt 641–661 Umayyad Egypt 661–750 Abbasid Egypt 750–935 Tulunid dynasty 868–905 Ikhshidid dynasty 935–969 Fatimid dynasty 969–1171 Ayyubid dynasty 1171–1250 Mamluk dynasties 1250–1517 Early modern Egypt Ottoman Egypt 1517–1867 French occupation 1798–1801 Muhammad Ali dynasty 1805–1853 Khedivate of Egypt 1867–1914 Late Modern Egypt British occupation 1882–1922 Sultanate of Egypt 1914–1922 Kingdom of Egypt 1922–1953 Republic 1953–present  Egypt portal v t e Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The Archaic or Early Dynastic Period of Egypt (also known as Thinite Period, from Thinis, the supposed hometown of its rulers[1]) is the era immediately following the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt c. 3100 BC. It is generally taken to include the First and Second Dynasties, lasting from the end of the Naqada III archaeological period until about 2686 BC, or the beginning of the Old Kingdom.[2] With the First Dynasty, the capital moved from Thinis to Memphis with a unified Egypt ruled by an Egyptian god-king. Abydos remained the major holy land in the south. The hallmarks of ancient Egyptian civilization, such as art, architecture and many aspects of religion, took shape during the Early Dynastic Period. Before the unification of Egypt, the land was settled with autonomous villages. With the early dynasties, and for much of Egypt's history thereafter, the country came to be known as the Two Lands. The pharaohs established a national administration and appointed royal governors. The buildings of the central government were typically open-air temples constructed of wood or sandstone. The earliest Egyptian hieroglyphs appear just before this period, though little is known of the spoken language they represent. Contents 1 Cultural evolution 2 First Pharaoh 3 Coastal settlements in Palestine 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links Cultural evolution[edit] tȝwy 'Two Lands' in hieroglyphs By about 3600 BC, Neolithic Egyptian societies along the Nile had based their culture on the raising of crops and the domestication of animals.[3] Shortly after 3600 BC Egyptian society began to grow and advance rapidly toward refined civilization.[4] A new and distinctive pottery, which was related to the pottery in the Southern Levant, appeared during this time. Extensive use of copper became common during this time.[4] The Mesopotamian process of sun-dried bricks, and architectural building principles—including the use of the arch and recessed walls for decorative effect—became popular during this time.[4] Concurrent with these cultural advances, a process of unification of the societies and towns of the upper Nile River, or Upper Egypt, occurred. At the same time the societies of the Nile Delta, or Lower Egypt also underwent a unification process.[4] Warfare between Upper and Lower Egypt occurred often.[4] During his reign in Upper Egypt, King Narmer defeated his enemies on the Delta and merged both the Kingdom of Upper and Lower Egypt under his single rule.[5] Narmer is shown on palettes wearing the double crown, composed of the lotus flower representing Upper Egypt and the papyrus reed representing Lower Egypt - a sign of the unified rule of both parts of Egypt which was followed by all succeeding rulers. In mythology, the unification of Egypt is portrayed as the falcon-god, called Horus and identified with Lower Egypt, as conquering and subduing the god Set, who was identified with Upper Egypt.[6] Divine kingship, which would persist in Egypt for the next three millennia, was firmly established as the basis of Egypt's government.[7] The unification of societies along the Nile has also been linked to the end of the African humid period. Funeral practices for the peasants would have been the same as in predynastic times, but the rich demanded something more. Thus, the Egyptians began construction of the mastabas which became models for the later Old Kingdom constructions such as the Step pyramid. Cereal agriculture and centralization contributed to the success of the state for the next 800 years. It seems certain that Egypt became unified as a cultural and economic domain long before its first king ascended to the throne in the lower Egyptian city of Memphis where the dynastic period did originate. This would last for many centuries. Political unification proceeded gradually, perhaps over a period of a century or so as local districts established trading networks and the ability of their governments to organize agriculture labor on a larger scale increased, divine kingship may also have gained spiritual momentum as the cults of gods like Horus, Set and Neith associated with living representatives became widespread in the country.[8] It was also during this period that the Egyptian writing system was further developed. Initially Egyptian writing had been composed primarily of a few symbols denoting amounts of various substances. By the end of the 3rd dynasty it had been expanded to include more than 200 symbols, both phonograms and ideograms.[7] A plate created during the Early Dynastic period of Ancient Egypt. It depicts a man on a boat alongside a Hippopotamus and a Crocodile Damaged basalt head of a foreigner, from a door socket. Early Dynastic Period, 1st to 2nd Dynasties. From Thebes, Egypt. Mesopotamian king as Master of Animals on the Gebel el-Arak Knife, dated circa 3300-3200 BC, Abydos, Egypt. Louvre Museum, reference E 11517. This work of art both shows the influence of Mesopotamia on Egypt at an early date, and the state of Mesopotamian royal iconography during the Uruk period.[9][10] First Pharaoh[edit] Main article: First Dynasty of Egypt According to Manetho, the first monarch of the unified Upper and Lower Egypt was Menes, who is now identified with Narmer. Indeed, Narmer is the earliest recorded First Dynasty monarch: he appears first on the necropolis seal impressions of Den and Qa'a.[11][12][13] This shows that Narmer was recognized by the first dynasty kings as an important founding figure. Narmer is also the earliest king associated to the symbols of power over the two lands (see in particular the Narmer Palette, a votive cosmetic palette showing Narmer wearing the crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt) and may therefore be the first king to achieve the unification. Consequently, the current consensus is that "Menes" and "Narmer" refer to the same person.[4] Alternative theories hold that Narmer was the final king of the Naqada III period[6] and Hor-Aha is to be identified with "Menes". Coastal settlements in Palestine[edit] Egyptian settlement and colonisation is also attested from about 3200 BC onward in the area of Gaza Strip and the Negev. The town of Tell El Sakan may have been the centre of this settlement.[citation needed] References[edit] ^ Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt. Blackwell Publishing, 1992, p. 49 ^ Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. p. 479. ISBN 0-19-815034-2. ^ Carl Roebuck, The World of Ancient Times (Charles Scribner's Sons Publishing: New York, 1966) p. 51. ^ a b c d e f Carl Roebuck, The World of Ancient Times (Charles Scribner's Sons: New York, 1966) p. 52-53. ^ Carl Roebuck, The World of Ancient Times (Charles Scribner's Sons Publishers: New York, 1966), p. 53. ^ a b Carl Roebuck, The World of Ancient Times, p. 53. ^ a b Kinnaer, Jacques. "Early Dynastic Period" (PDF). The Ancient Egypt Site. Retrieved 4 April 2012. ^ The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Egypt pg 22-23 (1997) By Bill Manley ^ "Site officiel du musée du Louvre". cartelfr.louvre.fr. ^ Cooper, Jerrol S. (1996). The Study of the Ancient Near East in the Twenty-first Century: The William Foxwell Albright Centennial Conference. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 9780931464966. ^ Qa'a and Merneith lists http://xoomer.virgilio.it/francescoraf/hesyra/Egyptgallery03.html ^ The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/1553 ^ The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/4048 Further reading[edit] Shaw, Ian (2003). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280458-7. Wilkinson, Toby (2001). Early Dynastic Egypt: Strategies, Society and Security. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-26011-6. Wengrow, David (2006). The Archaeology of Early Egypt: Social Transformations in North-East Africa, c. 10,000 to 2,650 BC. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-83586-0. External links[edit] Narmer Palette v t e First Dynasty of Ancient Egypt Pharaohs Menes/Narmer Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Regents Neithhotep Merneith Queen consorts Benerib Herneith Penebui Nakhtneith (Khenthap) Semat Serethor Seshemetka Betrest Officials Amka Hemaka Sabef Meriiti Other people Ahaneith Artefacts and monuments Narmer macehead Narmer palette Tomb of Anedjib Den seal impressions Abydos boats MacGregor plaque Mastabas S3503 and S3504 Capital Thinis v t e Second Dynasty of Ancient Egypt Attested pharaohs Hotepsekhemwy Nebra Weneg Nynetjer Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Khasekhemwy Obscure pharaoh names Horus Ba Ba Horus Sa Hudjefa I Neferkara I Neferkasokar Nubnefer Senedj Sneferka Wadjenes Queen consort Nimaathap Other royals Khenmetptah Satkhnum Sehener Shepset-ipet Wadjitefni (Mesen-ka) Pehen-Ptah Nisuheqet Nefer-Setekh Monument Gisr el-Mudir Capital Thinis v t e Timeline of the Ancient Near East Category Authority control LCCN: sh2010007481 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early_Dynastic_Period_(Egypt)&oldid=1001821074" Categories: States and territories established in the 4th millennium BC States and territories disestablished in the 3rd millennium BC Early Dynastic Period of Egypt Dynasties of ancient Egypt 32nd century BC 27th century BC 4th millennium BC in Egypt 3rd millennium BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Pages using the EasyTimeline extension Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the symbol caption or type parameters All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2019 Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 21 January 2021, at 14:33 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4254	----	Naqsh-e Rostam - Wikipedia Naqsh-e Rostam From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient necropolis in Iran For the administrative subdivision of Iran, see Naqsh-e Rostam Rural District. Naqsh-e Rostam نقش رستم Naqsh-e Rostam Shown within Iran Location Marvdasht, Fars Province Region Iran Coordinates 29°59′20″N 52°52′29″E / 29.98889°N 52.87472°E / 29.98889; 52.87472Coordinates: 29°59′20″N 52°52′29″E / 29.98889°N 52.87472°E / 29.98889; 52.87472 Type Necropolis History Periods Achaemenid, Sassanid Cultures Persian Management Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts and Tourism Organization of Iran Architecture Architectural styles Persian Naqsh-e Rostam (Persian: نقش رستم‎ [ˌnæɣʃeɾosˈtæm]) is an ancient necropolis located about 12 km northwest of Persepolis, in Fars Province, Iran, with a group of ancient Iranian rock reliefs cut into the cliff, from both the Achaemenid and Sassanid periods. It lies a few hundred meters from Naqsh-e Rajab, with a further four Sassanid rock reliefs, three celebrating kings and one a high priest. Naqsh-e Rostam is the necropolis of the Achaemenid dynasty (c. 550–330 BC), with four large tombs cut high into the cliff face. These have mainly architectural decoration, but the facades include large panels over the doorways, each very similar in content, with figures of the king being invested by a god, above a zone with rows of smaller figures bearing tribute, with soldiers and officials. The three classes of figures are sharply differentiated in size. The entrance to each tomb is at the center of each cross, which opens onto a small chamber, where the king lay in a sarcophagus.[1] Well below the Achaemenid tombs, near ground level, are rock reliefs with large figures of Sassanian kings, some meeting gods, others in combat. The most famous shows the Sassanian king Shapur I on horseback, with the Roman Emperor Valerian bowing to him in submission, and Philip the Arab (an earlier emperor who paid Shapur tribute) holding Shapur's horse, while the dead Emperor Gordian III, killed in battle, lies beneath it (other identifications have been suggested). This commemorates the Battle of Edessa in 260 AD, when Valerian became the only Roman Emperor who was captured as a prisoner of war, a lasting humiliation for the Romans. The placing of these reliefs clearly suggests the Sassanid intention to link themselves with the glories of the earlier Achaemenid Empire.[2] Map of the archaeological site of Naqsh-e Rostam Contents 1 Monuments 1.1 Achaemenid tombs 1.1.1 Darius I inscription 1.2 Ka'ba-ye Zartosht 1.3 Sassanid reliefs 1.3.1 Investiture relief of Ardashir I, c. 226–242 1.3.2 Triumph of Shapur I, c. 241–272) 1.3.3 "Grandee" relief of Bahram II, c. 276–293 1.3.4 Two equestrian reliefs of Bahram II, c. 276–293 1.3.5 Investiture of Narseh, c. 293–303 1.3.6 Equestrian relief of Hormizd II, c 303–309 2 Archaeology 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References 6 External links Monuments[edit] Panorama of Naqsh-e Rostam Upper register of the Achaemenid Tomb of Xerxes I The oldest relief at Naqsh-e Rostam dates back to c. 1000 BC. Though it is severely damaged, it depicts a faint image of a man with unusual head-gear, and is thought to be Elamite in origin.[3] The depiction is part of a larger mural, most of which was removed at the command of Bahram II. The man with the unusual cap gives the site its name, Naqsh-e Rostam ("Rustam Relief" or "Relief of Rustam"), because the relief was locally believed to be a depiction of the mythical hero Rustam. Achaemenid tombs[edit] Four tombs belonging to Achaemenid kings are carved out of the rock face at a considerable height above the ground. The tombs are sometimes known as the Persian crosses, after the shape of the facades of the tombs. The entrance to each tomb is at the center of each cross, which opens onto a small chamber, where the king lay in a sarcophagus. The horizontal beam of each of the tomb's facades is believed to be a replica of a Persepolitan entrance. One of the tombs is explicitly identified, by an accompanying inscription (“parsa parsahya puthra ariya ariyachitra”, meaning, “a Parsi, the son of a Parsi, an Aryan, of Aryan family),[4] as the tomb of Darius I (c. 522-486 BC). The other three tombs are believed to be those of Xerxes I (c. 486-465 BC), Artaxerxes I (c. 465-424 BC), and Darius II (c. 423-404 BC) respectively. The order of the tombs in Naqsh-e Rostam follows (left to right): Darius II, Artaxerxes I, Darius I, Xerxes I. The matching of the other kings to tombs is somewhat speculative; the relief figures are not intended as individualized portraits.[1] A fifth unfinished one might be that of Artaxerxes III, who reigned at the longest two years, but is more likely that of Darius III (c. 336-330 BC), the last king of the Achaemenid Dynasts. The tombs were looted following the conquest of the Achaemenid Empire by Alexander the Great. Darius I inscription[edit] Main article: DNa inscription An inscription by Darius I, from c.490 BCE, generally referred to as the "DNa inscription" in scholarly works, appears in the top left corner of the facade of his tomb. It mentions the conquests of Darius I and his various achievements during his life. Its exact date is not known, but it can be assumed to be from the last decade of his reign.[5] Like several other inscriptions by Darius, the territories controlled by the Achaemenid Empire are clearly listed, in particular the areas of the Indus and Gandhara in India, referring to the Achaemenid occupation of the Indus Valley.[6] Darius I inscription (DNa inscription) English translation Original A great god is Ahuramazda, who created this earth, who created yonder sky, who created man, who created happiness for man, who made Darius king, one king of many, one lord of many. I am Darius the great king, king of kings, king of countries containing all kinds of men, king in this great earth far and wide, son of Hystaspes, an Achaemenid, a Persian, son of a Persian, an Aryan, having Aryan lineage. King Darius says: By the favor of Ahuramazda these are the countries which I seized outside of Persia; I ruled over them; they bore tribute to me; they did what was said to them by me; they held my law firmly; Media, Elam, Parthia, Aria, Bactria, Sogdia, Chorasmia, Drangiana, Arachosia, Sattagydia, Gandara [Gadâra], India [Hiduš], the haoma-drinking Scythians, the Scythians with pointed caps, Babylonia, Assyria, Arabia, Egypt, Armenia, Cappadocia, Lydia, the Greeks (Yauna), the Scythians across the sea (Sakâ), Thrace, the petasos-wearing Greeks [Yaunâ], the Libyans, the Nubians, the men of Maka and the Carians. King Darius says: Ahuramazda, when he saw this earth in commotion, thereafter bestowed it upon me, made me king; I am king. By the favor of Ahuramazda I put it down in its place; what I said to them, that they did, as was my desire. If now you shall think that "How many are the countries which King Darius held?" look at the sculptures [of those] who bear the throne, then shall you know, then shall it become known to you: the spear of a Persian man has gone forth far; then shall it become known to you: a Persian man has delivered battle far indeed from Persia. Darius the King says: This which has been done, all that by the will of Ahuramazda I did. Ahuramazda bore me aid, until I did the work. May Ahuramazda protect me from harm, and my royal house, and this land: this I pray of Ahuramazda, this may Ahuramazda give to me! O man, that which is the command of Ahuramazda, let this not seem repugnant to you; do not leave the right path; do not rise in rebellion! — DNa inscription of Darius I.[7][8][9] Darius I inscription (the DNa inscription) on the upper left corner of the facade of his tomb. The nationalities mentioned in the DNa inscription are also depicted on the upper registers of all the tombs at Naqsh-e Rostam.[10][11] One of the best preserved is that of Xerxes I. Ka'ba-ye Zartosht[edit] Cube of Zoroaster, a cube-shaped construction in the foreground, against the backdrop of Naqsh-e Rostam Main article: Ka'ba-ye Zartosht Ka'ba-ye Zartosht (meaning the "Cube of Zoroaster") is a 5th-century B.C Achaemenid square tower. The structure is a copy of a sister building at Pasargadae, the "Prison of Solomon" (Zendān-e Solaymān). It was built either by Darius I (r. 521–486 BCE) when he moved to Persepolis, by Artaxerxes II (r. 404–358 BCE) or Artaxerxes III (r. 358–338 BCE). The building at Pasargadae is a few decades older. There are four inscriptions in three languages from the Sasanian period on the lower exterior walls. They are considered among the most important inscriptions from this period. Several theories exist regarding the purpose of the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht structure.[12] Sassanid reliefs[edit] Seven over-life sized rock reliefs at Naqsh-e Rostam depict monarchs of the Sassanid period. Their approximate dates range from 225 to 310 AD, and they show subjects including investiture scenes and battles. The investiture of Ardashir I The triumph of Shapur I over the Roman emperors Valerian and Philip the Arab Investiture relief of Ardashir I, c. 226–242[edit] Main article: Ahura Mazda and Ardashir I The founder of the Sassanid Empire is seen being handed the ring of kingship by Ohrmazd. In the inscription, which also bears the oldest attested use of the term Iran, Ardashir admits to betraying his pledge to Artabanus V (the Persians having been a vassal state of the Arsacid Parthians), but legitimizes his action on the grounds that Ohrmazd had wanted him to do so. The word ērān is first attested in the inscriptions that accompany the investiture relief of Ardashir I (r. 224–242) at Naqsh-e Rostam. In this bilingual inscription, the king calls himself "Ardashir, king of kings of the Iranians" (Middle Persian: ardašīr šāhān šāh ī ērān; Parthian: ardašīr šāhān šāh ī aryān). Triumph of Shapur I, c. 241–272)[edit] This is the most famous of the Sassanid rock reliefs, and depicts the victory of Shapur I over two Roman emperors, Valerian and Philip the Arab. Behind the king stands Kirtir, the mūbadān mūbad ('high priest'), the most powerful of the Zoroastrian Magi during the history of Iran.[13] A more elaborate version of this rock relief is at Bishapur. In an inscription, Shapur I claims possession of the territory of the Kushans (Kūšān šahr) as far as "Purushapura" (Peshawar), suggesting he controlled Bactria and areas as far as the Hindu-Kush or even south of it:[14] I, the Mazda-worshipping lord, Shapur, king of kings of Iran and An-Iran… (I) am the Master of the Domain of Iran (Ērānšahr) and possess the territory of Persis, Parthian… Hindestan, the Domain of the Kushan up to the limits of Paškabur and up to Kash, Sughd, and Chachestan. — Naqsh-e Rostam inscription of Shapur I[14] "Grandee" relief of Bahram II, c. 276–293[edit] The grandee relief of Bahram II On each side of the king, who is depicted with an oversized sword, figures face the king. On the left, stand five figures, perhaps members of the king's family (three having diadems, suggesting they were royalty). On the right, stand three courtiers, one of which may be Kartir. This relief is to the immediate right of the investiture inscription of Ardashir, and partially replaces the much older relief that gives the name of Naqsh-e Rostam. Two equestrian reliefs of Bahram II, c. 276–293[edit] The first equestrian relief, located immediately below the fourth tomb (perhaps that of Darius II), depicts the king battling a mounted Roman enemy. The second equestrian relief, located immediately below the tomb of Darius I, is divided into two registers, an upper and a lower one. In the upper register, the king appears to be forcing a Roman enemy, probably Roman emperor Carus from his horse. In the lower register, the king is again battling a mounted enemy wearing a headgear shaped as an animal’s head, thought to be the vanquished Indo-Sassanian ruler Hormizd I Kushanshah.[15] Both reliefs depict a dead enemy under the hooves of the king's horse. First equestrian relief. The two-panel equestrian relief. Hormizd I Kushanshah on the lower panel.[15] Investiture of Narseh, c. 293–303[edit] The investiture of Narseh In this relief, the king is depicted as receiving the ring of kingship from a female figure that is frequently assumed to be the divinity Aredvi Sura Anahita. However, the king is not depicted in a pose that would be expected in the presence of a divinity, and it is hence likely that the woman is a relative, perhaps Queen Shapurdukhtak of Sakastan. Equestrian relief of Hormizd II, c 303–309[edit] The equestrian relief of Hormizd II This relief is below tomb 3 (perhaps that of Artaxerxes I) and depicts Hormizd forcing an enemy (perhaps Papak of Armenia) from his horse. Immediately above the relief and below the tomb is a badly damaged relief of what appears to be Shapur II (c. 309–379) accompanied by courtiers. Archaeology[edit] Ka'ba-ye Zartosht in foreground, with behind the Tomb of Darius II above Sassanid equestrian relief of Bahram II. In 1923, the German archaeologist Ernst Herzfeld made casts of the inscriptions on the tomb of Darius I. Since 1946, these casts have been held in the archives of the Freer Gallery of Art and the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, in Washington, DC. Naqsh-e Rostam was excavated for several seasons between 1936 and 1939 by a team from the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, led by Erich Schmidt.[16] See also[edit] Essaqwand Rock Tombs Persepolis Qadamgah (ancient site) Pasargadae and Tomb of Cyrus the Great Behistun Inscription Bishapur Istakhr Taq-e Bostan (rock reliefs of various Sassanid kings) List of colossal sculpture in situ Valley of the Kings Naqsh-e Rajab Notes[edit] ^ a b Cotterell, 162; Canepa, 57–59, 65–68 ^ Herrmann and Curtis; Canepa, 62, 65–68 ^ [1] Morteza KHANIPOOR et al, The reliefs of Naqš-e Rostam and a reflection on a forgotten relief, Iran, Historia i Świat, iss. 6, pp. 55-68, 2017 ^ "I am Darius". ^ Orientalia Lovaniensia Periodica (in French). Instituut voor Oriëntalistiek. 1974. p. 23. ^ Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. p. 173. ISBN 9781575061207. ^ Tolman, Herbert Cushing (1893). A guide to the Old Persian inscriptions. New York, Cincinnati [etc.] American book company. p. 146. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. ^ "DNa - Livius". www.livius.org. ^ Alcock, Susan E.; Alcock, John H. D'Arms Collegiate Professor of Classical Archaeology and Classics and Arthur F. Thurnau Professor Susan E.; D'Altroy, Terence N.; Morrison, Kathleen D.; Sinopoli, Carla M. (2001). Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History. Cambridge University Press. p. 105. ISBN 9780521770200. ^ The Achaemenid Empire in South Asia and Recent Excavations in Akra in Northwest Pakistan Peter Magee, Cameron Petrie, Robert Knox, Farid Khan, Ken Thomas p.713-714 ^ NAQŠ-E ROSTAM – Encyclopaedia Iranica. ^ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kaba-ye-zardost ^ Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. Warwick Ball. page 120. Psychology Press, 16 Jan 2001. ^ a b Rezakhani, Khodadad. From the Kushans to the Western Turks. p. 202-203. ^ a b Encyclopedia Iranica HORMOZD KUŠĀNŠĀH article ^ [2] E. F. Schmidt, Persepolis III: The Royal Tombs and Other Monuments, Oriental Institute Publications 70, University of Chicago Press, 1970, ISBN 0-226-62170-7 References[edit] Canepa, Matthew P., "Topographies of Power, Theorizing the Visual, Spatial and Ritual Contexts of Rock Reliefs in Ancient Iran", in Harmanşah (2014), google books Cotterell, Arthur (ed), The Penguin Encyclopedia of Classical Civilizations, 1993, Penguin, ISBN 0670826995 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Naqsh-e Rustam. Ernst Herzfeld Papers, Series 5: Drawings and Maps, Records of Naqsh-i Rustam Collections Search Center, S.I.R.I.S., Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Hubertus von Gall "NAQŠ-E ROSTAM" in Encyclopædia Iranica [3] Lendering, Jona (2009). "Naqsh-i Rustam". Amsterdam: Livius. Unknown (2005). "Naghsh-e-Rostam". Herrmann, G. & Curtis, V. S. (2003). "Sasanian Rock Reliefs". Encyclopedia Iranica. Costa Mesa: Mazda. v t e Achaemenid Empire History Kingdom Family tree Timeline History of democracy Art Achaemenid Persian Lion Rhyton Achaemenid coinage Danake Persian daric Architecture Achaemenid architecture Persepolis Pasargadae Tomb of Cyrus Naqsh-e Rostam Ka'ba-ye Zartosht Mausoleum at Halicarnassus Tombs at Xanthos Harpy Tomb Nereid Monument Tomb of Payava Culture Persepolis Administrative Archives Old Persian cuneiform Old Persian Behistun Inscription Xerxes I's inscription at Van Ganjnameh Warfare Persian Revolt Battle of Hyrba Battle of the Persian Border Lydian-Persian Wars Battle of Pteria Battle of Thymbra Siege of Sardis (547 BC) Battle of Opis First conquest of Egypt Battle of Cunaxa Conquest of the Indus Valley Scythian campaign of Darius I Greco-Persian Wars Ionian Revolt Battle of Thermopylae Battle of Artemisium Battle of Salamis Battle of Plataea Battle of Mycale Battle of Marathon Delian League Battle of Lade Siege of Eretria Siege of Naxos (499 BC) Wars of the 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Garden Eram Garden Istakhr Ghal'eh Dokhtar Ka'ba-ye Zartosht Kazerun fire temple Lake Parishan Naqsh-e Rajab Naqsh-e Rustam Palace of Ardashir Sangtarashan cave Pars Museum Pasargadae Persepolis Qavam House Qur'an Gate Saadi's mausoleum Sarvestan Sassanian palace Shah Cheragh Colossal Statue of Shapur I in Shapur cave Tangeh Bolaghi Hāfezieh Tounbbot Vakil Bath Vakil Bazaar Vakil Mosque Populated places List of cities, towns and villages in Fars Province Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Naqsh-e_Rostam&oldid=996160461" Categories: Naqsh-e Rustam Marvdasht complex Sasanian architecture Archaeology of the Achaemenid Empire Archaeological sites in Iran History of Fars Province Sculpture of the Ancient Near East Burial sites of the Achaemenid dynasty Buildings and structures in Fars Province Tourist attractions in Fars Province Rock reliefs in Iran Inscribed rocks Rock-cut tombs Persian words and phrases Hidden categories: CS1 French-language sources (fr) Articles 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en-wikipedia-org-4274	----	Yanassi - Wikipedia Yanassi From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Stela of Yanassi, from Tell el-Dab'a Yanassi (also Yanassy and Yansas-aden) was a prince and possibly a Hyksos king of the Fifteenth Dynasty. He was the eldest king's son of the Hyksos pharaoh Khyan and possibly the crown prince, designated to be Khyan's successor. He may have succeeded his father as king Iannas from the West Semitic Jinaśśi’-Ad, thereby giving rise to the mention in Manetho's Aegyptiaca of a king Iannas ruling–improbably–after Apophis. Alternatively, the Egyptologist Kim Ryholt has proposed that Khyan was succeeded by Apophis, and because Yanassi was Khyan's eldest son, Ryholt proposed that Apophis was an usurper.[1] This opinion has been rejected as mere speculation by scholars including David Aston[2] Archaeological discoveries in the 2010s show that Khyan's rule may have to be pushed further back in time, creating the need and time for one or more kings to reign between Khyan and Apophis. In addition, the Turin canon, an exhaustive list of kings written during the reign of Ramses II, can be interpreted to have credited more than 10 years of reign to a king ruling before Apophis and after Khyan, possibly Yanassi, if he was indeed Apophis' immediate predecessor.[2] Attestations[edit] In spite of his status as the royal son of the long-reigning Khyan, Yanassi is not attested by any scarab seals but only by a damaged stela (Cairo TD-8422 [176]) found at Tell el-Dab'a, site of the ancient Hyksos capital, Avaris.[3][4] On the stela – which was probably dedicated to the god Seth, lord of Avaris – he is called the eldest king's son of Khyan.[1] If Yanassi became king, he might have ruled between Khyan and Apophis. On the Turin canon, the entry before that attributed to Apophis, on column 10 line 26, is damaged and the name of the king is lost while his reign length may be read as 10 or 20 or 30 plus a number of years.[2] A further—though non-contemporary—attestation may be found in Josephus' polemic, Contra Apionem where Josephus claims to directly quote the Aegyptiaca (Αἰγυπτιακά). This is a history of Egypt written in the 3rd century BC during the reign of Ptolemy II (283 – 246 BC) by the Egyptian priest Manetho. No copies of the Aegyptiaca have survived and it is now known only through later writings by Sextus Julius Africanus, Josephus and Eusebius. According to Josephus, Manetho's reconstruction of the Fifteenth Dynasty was Salitis → Bnon → Apachnan → Iannas → Archles/Assis → Apophis. Apachnan is understood to be the Hellenized name of Khyan, while Iannas (Ancient Greek: Iαννας) would best be understood as a corruption of that of Yanassi, confirming that he ascended the Hyksos throne. Josephus further reports that Manethod credited Iannas with an improbably long reign of 50 years and one month.[5][6][7] In any case, this means that Manetho might have considered Yanassi a king. Until the 2010s, this statement was rejected by modern consensus in Egyptology, which considered Apophis as Khyan's direct successor as proposed by Ryholt. In this understanding, it appeared more likely that, in a Manethonian passage mentioning both Iannas/Yanassi and Khyan, Josephus erroneously chose the former instead of the latter.[6] This view was challenged by archaeological discoveries which implied that Khyan may have reigned up to 80 years earlier than thought hitherto, necessitating for one or more kings to reign between him and Apophis.[8] References[edit] ^ a b Ryholt 1997, p. 256. ^ a b c Aston 2018, p. 16. ^ Bietak 1981, pp. 63–73. ^ Ryholt 1997, p. 57 n.159. ^ Gardiner 1961, p. 156. ^ a b Ryholt 1997, pp. 120–121. ^ Aston 2018, p. 18. ^ Aston 2018, p. 17. Bibliography[edit] Aston, David A. (2018). "How Early (and How Late) Can Khyan Really Be. An Essay Based on "Conventional Archaeological Methods"". In Moeller, Nadine; Forstner-Müller, Irene (eds.). The Hyksos ruler Khyan and the Early Second Intermediate Period in Egypt: Problems and Priorities of Current Research. Proceedings of the Workshop of the Austrian Archaeological Institute and the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, Vienna, July 4 – 5, 2014. Leberstraße 122 A-1110 Wien: Verlag Holzhausen GmbH. pp. 15–56. ISBN 978-3-902976-83-3.CS1 maint: location (link) CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Bietak, Manfred (1981). "Eine Stele des ältesten Königssohnes des Hyksos Chajan". Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo (MDAIK). 37: 63–73.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Gardiner, Alan (1961). Egypt of the Pharaohs: an introduction. Oxford University Press. p. 156. Ryholt, Kim (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800–1550 B.C. CNI publications, 20. Carsten Niebuhr Institute of Near Eastern Studies, University of Copenhagen : Museum Tusculanum Press. ISBN 978-87-7289-421-8.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Preceded by Khyan Pharaoh of Egypt Fifteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Apepi v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yanassi&oldid=996559733" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs 16th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt Amorite kings People of the Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt Heirs to the ancient Egyptian throne Ancient Egypt people stubs Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text CS1 maint: location CS1 maint: ref=harv AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Magyar Edit links This page was last edited on 27 December 2020, at 09:41 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4302	----	Hoplite - Wikipedia Hoplite From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Greek soldier in a phalanx For the genus of ammonite, see Hoplites (ammonite). For the river of ancient Boeotia, see Hoplites (river). For the Soviet-designed helicopter with this NATO reporting name, see Mil Mi-2. A Greek hoplite Hoplites (HOP-lytes[1][2][3]) (Ancient Greek: ὁπλίτης) were citizen-soldiers of Ancient Greek city-states who were primarily armed with spears and shields. Hoplite soldiers utilized the phalanx formation to be effective in war with fewer soldiers. The formation discouraged the soldiers from acting alone, for this would compromise the formation and minimize its strengths.[4] The hoplites were primarily represented by free citizens – propertied farmers and artisans – who were able to afford a linen armour or a bronze armour suit and weapons (estimated at a third to a half of its able-bodied adult male population).[5] Most hoplites were not professional soldiers and often lacked sufficient military training. Some states maintained a small elite professional unit, known as the epilektoi ("chosen") since they were picked from the regular citizen infantry. These existed at times in Athens, Argos, Thebes, and Syracuse, among others.[6][7] Hoplite soldiers made up the bulk of ancient Greek armies.[8] In the 8th or 7th century BC, Greek armies adopted the phalanx formation. The formation proved successful in defeating the Persians when employed by the Athenians at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC during the First Greco-Persian War. The Persian archers and light troops who fought in the Battle of Marathon failed because their bows were too weak for their arrows to penetrate the wall of Greek shields that comprised the phalanx formation. The phalanx was also employed by the Greeks at the Battle of Thermopylae in 480 BC and at the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC during the Second Greco-Persian War. The word hoplite (Greek: ὁπλίτης hoplitēs; pl. ὁπλῖται hoplitai) derives from hoplon (ὅπλον, plural hopla ὅπλα), referring to the hoplite's shield.[9] In the modern Hellenic Army, the word hoplite (Greek: oπλίτης) is used to refer to an infantryman. Contents 1 Warfare 2 Equipment 2.1 Body armour 2.2 Shield 2.3 Spear 2.4 Sword 3 Theories on the transition to fighting in the phalanx 3.1 Gradualist theory 3.2 Rapid adoption theory 3.3 Extended gradualist theory 4 History 4.1 Ancient Greece 4.2 Sparta 4.3 Macedonia 4.4 Hoplite-style warfare outside Greece 4.5 Hellenistic period 5 References 6 External links Warfare[edit] Main articles: Phalanx formation and Ancient Greek warfare Hoplite, 5th century Hoplites shown in two attack positions, with both an underhand thrust and an overhand prepared to be thrown The fragmented political structure of Ancient Greece, with many competing city-states, increased the frequency of conflict, but at the same time limited the scale of warfare. Limited manpower did not allow most Greek city-states to form large armies which could operate for long periods because they were generally not formed from professional soldiers. Most soldiers had careers as farmers or workers and returned to these professions after the campaign. All hoplites were expected to take part in any military campaign when called for duty by leaders of the state. The Lacedaemonian citizens of Sparta were renowned for their lifelong combat training and almost mythical military prowess, while their greatest adversaries, the Athenians, were exempted from service only after the age of 60. This inevitably reduced the potential duration of campaigns and often resulted in the campaign season being restricted to one summer.[clarification needed] Armies generally marched directly to their destination, and in some cases the battlefield was agreed to by the contestants in advance. Battles were fought on level ground, and hoplites preferred to fight with high terrain on both sides of the phalanx so the formation could not be flanked. An example of this was the Battle of Thermopylae, where the Spartans specifically chose a narrow coastal pass to make their stand against the massive Persian army. The vastly outnumbered Greeks held off the Persians for seven days. When battles occurred, they were usually set piece and intended to be decisive. The battlefield would be flat and open to facilitate phalanx warfare. These battles were usually short and required a high degree of discipline. At least in the early classical period, when cavalry was present, its role was restricted to protection of the flanks of the phalanx, pursuit of a defeated enemy, and covering a retreat if required. Light infantry and missile troops took part in the battles but their role was less important. Before the opposing phalanxes engaged, the light troops would skirmish with the enemy's light forces, and then protect the flanks and rear of the phalanx. The military structure created by the Spartans was a rectangular phalanx formation. The formation was organized from eight to ten rows deep and could cover a front of a quarter of a mile or more if sufficient hoplites were available. The two lines would close to a short distance to allow effective use of their spears, while the psiloi threw stones and javelins from behind their lines. The shields would clash and the first lines (protostates) would stab at their opponents, at the same time trying to keep in position. The ranks behind them would support them with their own spears and the mass of their shields gently pushing them, not to force them into the enemy formation but to keep them steady and in place. The soldiers in the back provided motivation to the ranks in the front being that most hoplites were close community members. At certain points, a command would be given to the phalanx or a part thereof to collectively take a certain number of steps forward (ranging from half to multiple steps). This was the famed othismos.[10] Phalanx fighting on a black-figure amphora, c. 560 BC. The hoplite phalanx is a frequent subject in ancient Greek art At this point, the phalanx would put its collective weight to push back the enemy line and thus create fear and panic among its ranks. There could be multiple such instances of attempts to push, but it seems from the accounts of the ancients that these were perfectly orchestrated and attempted organized en masse. Once one of the lines broke, the troops would generally flee from the field, sometimes chased by psiloi, peltasts, or light cavalry. If a hoplite escaped, he would sometimes be forced to drop his cumbersome aspis, thereby disgracing himself to his friends and family (becoming a ripsaspis, one who threw his shield).[11] To lessen the number of casualties inflicted by the enemy during battles, soldiers were positioned to stand shoulder to shoulder with their hoplon. The hoplites' most prominent citizens and generals led from the front. Thus, the war could be decided by a single battle. Victory was enforced by ransoming the fallen back to the defeated, called the "Custom of the Greeks".[clarification needed] Individual hoplites carried their shields on their left arm, protecting themselves and the soldier to the left. This meant that the men at the extreme right of the phalanx were only half-protected. In battle, opposing phalanxes would exploit this weakness by attempting to overlap the enemy's right flank.[12] It also meant that, in battle, a phalanx would tend to drift to the right (as hoplites sought to remain behind the shield of their neighbour). The most experienced hoplites were often placed on the right side of the phalanx, to counteract these problems. According to Plutarch's Sayings of Spartans, "a man carried a shield for the sake of the whole line".[13] Probable Spartan hoplite (Vix crater, c.500 BC).[14] The phalanx is an example of a military formation in which single combat and other individualistic forms of battle were suppressed for the good of the whole. In earlier Homeric, dark age combat, the words and deeds of supremely powerful heroes turned the tide of battle. Instead of having individual heroes, hoplite warfare relied heavily on the community and unity of soldiers. With friends and family pushing on either side and enemies forming a solid wall of shields in front, the hoplite had little opportunity for feats of technique and weapon skill, but great need for commitment and mental toughness. By forming a human wall to provide a powerful defensive armour, the hoplites became much more effective while suffering fewer casualties. The hoplites had much discipline and were taught to be loyal and trustworthy. They had to trust their neighbours for mutual protection, so a phalanx was only as strong as its weakest elements. Its effectiveness depended on how well the hoplites could maintain this formation in combat, and how well they could stand their ground, especially when engaged against another phalanx. The more disciplined and courageous the army, the more likely it was to win. Often engagements between various city-states of Greece would be resolved by one side fleeing after their phalanx had broken formation. Equipment[edit] Hoplite armour exhibit from the Archaeological Museum of Corfu. Note the gold inserts around the chest area of the iron breastplate at the centre of the exhibit. The helmet on the upper left is a restored version of the oxidised helmet on the right. Body armour[edit] Each hoplite provided his own equipment. Thus, only those who could afford such weaponry fought as hoplites. As with the Roman Republican army it was the middle classes who formed the bulk of the infantry. Equipment was not standardized, although there were doubtless trends in general designs over time, and between city-states. Hoplites had customized armour, the shield was decorated with family or clan emblems, although in later years these were replaced by symbols or monograms of the city states. The equipment might be passed down in families, as it was expensive to manufacture. The hoplite army consisted of heavy infantrymen. Their armour, also called panoply, was sometimes made of full bronze for those who could afford it, weighing nearly 32 kilograms (70 lb). Armor was more commonly made out of linen fabric glued together, called linothorax. The average farmer-peasant hoplite who could not afford any armor typically wore no armour, carrying only a shield, a spear, and perhaps a helmet plus a secondary weapon. The linothorax was the most popular type armour worn by the hoplites, since it was cost-effective and provided decent protection. The richer upper-class hoplites typically had a bronze cuirass of either the bell or muscled variety, a bronze helmet with cheekplates, as well as greaves and other armour. The design of helmets used varied through time. The Corinthian helmet was at first standardized and was a successful design. Later variants included the Chalcidian helmet, a lightened version of the Corinthian helmet, and the simple Pilos helmet worn by the later hoplites. Often the helmet was decorated with one, sometimes more horsehair crests, and/or bronze animal horns and ears. Helmets were often painted as well. The Thracian helmet had a large visor to further increase protection. In later periods, linothorax was also used, as it is tougher and cheaper to produce. The linen was 0.5-centimetre (0.20 in) thick. Outfit of an ancient Athenian warrior By contrast with hoplites, other contemporary infantry (e.g., Persian) tended to wear relatively light armour, wicker shields, and were armed with shorter spears, javelins, and bows. The most famous are the Peltasts, light-armed troops who wore no armour and were armed with a light shield, javelins and a short sword. The Athenian general Iphicrates developed a new type of armour and arms for his mercenary army, which included light linen armour, smaller shields and longer spears, whilst arming his Peltasts with larger shields, helmets and a longer spear, thus enabling them to defend themselves more easily against hoplites. With this new type of army he defeated a Spartan army in 392 BC. The arms and armour described above were most common for hoplites. Shield[edit] Hoplites carried a large concave shield called an aspis (often referred to as a hoplon), measuring between 80–100 centimetres (31–39 in) in diameter and weighing between 6.5–8 kilograms (14–18 lbs).[15][16] This large shield was made possible partly by its shape, which allowed it to be supported on the shoulder. The hoplon shield was assembled in three layers: the center layer was made of thick wood, the outside layer facing the enemy was made of bronze, and leather comprised the inside of the shield. The revolutionary part of the shield was the grip. Known as an Argive grip, it placed the handle at the edge of the shield, and was supported by a leather fastening (for the forearm) at the centre. These two points of contact eliminated the possibility of the shield swaying to the side after being struck, and as a result soldiers rarely lost their shields. This allowed the hoplite soldier more mobility with the shield, as well as the ability to capitalize on its offensive capabilities and better support the phalanx. The large hoplon shields, designed for pushing ahead, were the most essential equipment for the hoplites.[17] Spear[edit] The main offensive weapon used was a 2.5–4.5-metre (8.2–14.8 ft) long and 2.5-centimetre (1 in) in diameter spear called a doru, or dory. It was held with the right hand, with the left hand holding the hoplite's shield. Soldiers usually held their spears in an underhand position when approaching but once they came into close contact with their opponents, they were held in an overhand position ready to strike. The spearhead was usually a curved leaf shape, while the rear of the spear had a spike called a sauroter ("lizard-killer") which was used to stand the spear in the ground (hence the name). It was also used as a secondary weapon if the main shaft snapped, or for the rear ranks to finish off fallen opponents as the phalanx advanced over them. In addition to being used as a secondary weapon, the sauroter doubled to balance the spear, but not for throwing purposes. It is a matter of contention, among historians, whether the hoplite used the spear overarm or underarm. Held underarm, the thrusts would have been less powerful but under more control, and vice versa. It seems likely that both motions were used, depending on the situation. If attack was called for, an overarm motion was more likely to break through an opponent's defence. The upward thrust is more easily deflected by armour due to its lesser leverage. When defending, an underarm carry absorbed more shock and could be 'couched' under the shoulder for maximum stability. An overarm motion would allow more effective combination of the aspis and doru if the shield wall had broken down, while the underarm motion would be more effective when the shield had to be interlocked with those of one's neighbours in the battle-line. Hoplites in the rows behind the lead would almost certainly have made overarm thrusts. The rear ranks held their spears underarm, and raised their shields upwards at increasing angles. This was an effective defence against missiles, deflecting their force. Sword[edit] Hoplites also carried a sword, mostly a short sword called a xiphos, but later also longer and heavier types. The short sword was a secondary weapon, used if or when their spears were broken or lost, or if the phalanx broke rank. The xiphos usually had a blade around 60 centimetres (24 in) long; however, those used by the Spartans were often only 30–45 centimetres long. This very short xiphos would be very advantageous in the press that occurred when two lines of hoplites met, capable of being thrust through gaps in the shieldwall into an enemy's unprotected groin or throat, while there was no room to swing a longer sword. Such a small weapon would be particularly useful after many hoplites had started to abandon body armour during the Peloponnesian War. Hoplites could also alternatively carry the kopis, a heavy knife with a forward-curving blade. Theories on the transition to fighting in the phalanx[edit] Further information: Phalanx Athenian cavalryman Dexileos fighting a naked Peloponnesian hoplite in the Corinthian War.[18] Dexileos was killed in action near Corinth in the summer of 394 BC, probably in the Battle of Nemea,[18] or in a proximate engagement.[19] Grave Stele of Dexileos, 394-393 BC. Dark age warfare transitioned into hoplite warfare in the 8th century BC. Historians and researchers have debated the reason and speed of the transition for centuries. So far 3 popular theories exist: Gradualist theory[edit] Developed by Anthony Snodgrass, the Gradualist Theory states that the hoplite style of battle developed in a series of steps as a result of innovations in armour and weaponry.[20] Chronologically dating the archeological findings of hoplite armour and using the findings to approximate the development of the phalanx formation, Snodgrass claims that the transition took approximately 100 years to complete from 750–650 BC.[21] The progression of the phalanx took time because as the phalanx matured it required denser formations that made the elite warriors recruit Greek citizens.[22] The large amounts of hoplite armour needed to then be distributed to the populations of Greek citizens only increased the time for the phalanx to be implemented. Snodgrass believes, only once the armour was in place that the phalanx formation became popular.[21] Rapid adoption theory[edit] The Rapid Adaptation model was developed by historians Paul Cartledge and Victor Hanson.[23] The historians believe that the phalanx was created individually by military forces, but was so effective that others had to immediately adapt their way of war to combat the formation.[23] Rapid Adoptionists propose that the double grip, hoplon shield that was required for the phalanx formation was so constricting in mobility that once it was introduced, dark age, free flowing warfare was inadequate to fight against the hoplites only escalating the speed of the transition.[20] Quickly, the phalanx formation and hoplite armour became widely used throughout Ancient Greece. Cartledge and Hanson estimate the transition took place from 725–675 BC.[23] Extended gradualist theory[edit] Chigi Vase with Hoplites holding javelins and spears Developed by Hans Van Wees, the Extended Gradualist theory is the most lengthy of the three popular transition theories. Van Wees depicts iconography found on pots of the Dark Ages believing that the foundation of the phalanx formation was birthed during this time.[20] Specifically, he uses an example of the Chigi Vase to point out that hoplite soldiers were carrying normal spears as well as javelins on their backs. Matured hoplites did not carry long-range weapons including javelins.[21] The Chigi vase is important for our knowledge of the hoplite soldier because it is one if not the only representation of the hoplite formation, known as the phalanx, in Greek art.[24] This led Van Wees to believe that there was a transitional period from long-range warfare of the Dark Ages to the close combat of hoplite warfare. Some other evidence of a transitional period lies within the text of Spartan poet Tyrtaios, who wrote, "…will they draw back for the pounding [of the missiles, no,] despite the battery of great hurl-stones, the helmets shall abide the rattle [of war unbowed]".[25] At no point in other texts does Tyrtaios discuss missiles or rocks, making another case for a transitional period in which hoplite warriors had some ranged capabilities. Extended Gradualists argue that hoplite warriors did not fight in a true phalanx until the 5th century BC.[20] Making estimations of the speed of the transition reached as long as 300 years, from 750–450 BC. History[edit] Hoplites on an aryballos from Corinth, c. 580–560 BC (Louvre) Ancient Greece[edit] Further information: Ancient Greek warfare The exact time when hoplite warfare was developed is uncertain, the prevalent theory being that it was established sometime during the 8th or 7th century BC, when the "heroic age was abandoned and a far more disciplined system introduced" and the Argive shield became popular.[26] Peter Krentz argues that "the ideology of hoplitic warfare as a ritualized contest developed not in the 7th century [BC], but only after 480, when non-hoplite arms began to be excluded from the phalanx".[27] Anagnostis Agelarakis, based on recent archaeo-anthropological discoveries of the earliest monumental polyandrion (communal burial of male warriors) at Paros Island in Greece, unveils a last quarter of the 8th century BC date for a hoplitic phalangeal military organization.[28] The rise and fall of hoplite warfare was tied to the rise and fall of the city-state. As discussed above, hoplites were a solution to the armed clashes between independent city-states. As Greek civilization found itself confronted by the world at large, particularly the Persians, the emphasis in warfare shifted. Confronted by huge numbers of enemy troops, individual city-states could not realistically fight alone. During the Greco-Persian Wars (499–448 BC), alliances between groups of cities (whose composition varied over time) fought against the Persians. This drastically altered the scale of warfare and the numbers of troops involved. The hoplite phalanx proved itself far superior to the Persian infantry at such conflicts as the Battle of Marathon, Thermopylae, and the Battle of Plataea. Crouching warrior, tondo of an Attic black-figure kylix, c. 560 BC (Staatliche Antikensammlungen) During this period, Athens and Sparta rose to a position of political eminence in Greece, and their rivalry in the aftermath of the Persian wars brought Greece into renewed internal conflict. The Peloponnesian War was on a scale unlike conflicts before. Fought between leagues of cities, dominated by Athens and Sparta respectively, the pooled manpower and financial resources allowed a diversification of warfare. Hoplite warfare was in decline. There were three major battles in the Peloponnesian War, and none proved decisive. Instead there was increased reliance on navies, skirmishers, mercenaries, city walls, siege engines, and non-set piece tactics. These reforms made wars of attrition possible and greatly increased the number of casualties. In the Persian war, hoplites faced large numbers of skirmishers and missile-armed troops, and such troops (e.g., peltasts) became much more commonly used by the Greeks during the Peloponnesian War. As a result, hoplites began wearing less armour, carrying shorter swords, and in general adapting for greater mobility. This led to the development of the ekdromos light hoplite. Many famous personalities, philosophers, artists, and poets fought as hoplites.[29][30] According to Nefiodkin, fighting against Greek heavy infantry during the Greco-Persian Wars inspired the Persians to introduce scythed chariots.[31] Sparta[edit] Further information: Spartan army Achaemenid king killing a Greek hoplite. Circa 500 BC–475 BC, at the time of Xerxes I. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Sparta is one of the most famous city-states, along with Athens, which had a unique position in ancient Greece. Contrary to other city states, the free citizens of Sparta served as hoplites their entire lives, training and exercising in peacetime, which gave Sparta a professional standing army. Often small, numbering around 6000 at its peak to no more than 1000 soldiers at lowest point,[32] divided into six mora or battalions, the Spartan army was feared for its discipline and ferocity. Military service was the primary duty of Spartan men, and Spartan society was organized around its army. Spartan hoplite. (Image from Vinkhuijzen Collection of Military Costume Illustration, before 1910) Military service for hoplites lasted until the age of 40, and sometimes until 60 years of age, depending on a man's physical ability to perform on the battlefield. Macedonia[edit] Further information: Ancient Macedonian army Paintings of Ancient Macedonian soldiers, arms, and armaments, from the tomb of Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki in Greece, 4th century BC Later in the hoplite era, more sophisticated tactics were developed, in particular by the Theban general Epaminondas. These tactics inspired the future king Philip II of Macedon, who was at the time a hostage in Thebes, also inspired the development of new type of infantry, the Macedonian phalanx. After the Macedonian conquests of the 4th century BC, the hoplite was slowly abandoned in favour of the phalangite, armed in the Macedonian fashion, in the armies of the southern Greek states. Although clearly a development of the hoplite, the Macedonian phalanx was tactically more versatile, especially used in the combined arms tactics favoured by the Macedonians. These forces defeated the last major hoplite army, at the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC), after which Athens and its allies joined the Macedonian empire. While Alexander's army mainly fielded Pezhetairoi (= Foot Companions) as his main force, his army also included some classic hoplites, either provided by the League of Corinth or from hired mercenaries. Beside these units, the Macedonians also used the so-called Hypaspists, an elite force of units possibly originally fighting as hoplites and used to guard the exposed right wing of Alexander's phalanx. Hoplite-style warfare outside Greece[edit] Etruscan warrior, found near Viterbo, Italy, dated circa 500 BC. Hoplite-style warfare was influential, and influenced several other nations in the Mediterranean. Hoplite warfare was the dominant fighting style on the Italian Peninsula until the early 3rd century BC, employed by both the Etruscans and the Early Roman army. The Romans later changed their fighting style to a more flexible maniple organization, which was more versatile on rough terrain like that of Samnium. Roman equipment also changed, and they reequipped their soldiers with longer oval shields (scutum), swords and heavy javelins (pilum). In the end only the triarii would keep a long spear (hasta) as their main weapon. The triarii would still fight in a traditional phalanx formation. Though the Italian tribes, namely the socii fighting with the Romans, later adopted the new Roman fighting style, some continued to fight as hoplites. Local levied troops or mercenaries serving under Pyrrhus of Epirus or Hannibal (namely Etruscans) were equipped and fought as hoplites. Early in its history, Ancient Carthage also equipped its troops as Greek hoplites, in units such as the Sacred Band of Carthage. Many Greek hoplite mercenaries fought in foreign armies, such as Carthage and Achaemenid Empire, where it is believed by some that they inspired the formation of the Cardaces. Some hoplites served under the Illyrian king Bardylis in the 4th century. The Illyrians were known to import many weapons and tactics from the Greeks. The Diadochi imported the Greek phalanx to their kingdoms. Though they mostly fielded Greek citizens or mercenaries, they also armed and drilled local natives as hoplites or rather Macedonian phalanx, like the Machimoi of the Ptolemaic army. Hellenistic period[edit] Main article: Hellenistic armies The Greek armies of the Hellenistic period mostly fielded troops in the fashion of the Macedonian phalanx. Many armies of mainland Greece retained hoplite warfare. Besides classical hoplites Hellenistic nations began to field two new types of hoplites, the Thureophoroi and the Thorakitai. They developed when Greeks adopted the Celtic Thureos shield, of an oval shape that was similar to the shields of the Romans, but flatter. The Thureophoroi were armed with a long thrusting spear, a short sword and, if needed, javelins. While the Thorakitai were similar to the Thureophoroi, they were more heavily armoured, as their name implies, usually wearing a mail shirt. These troops were used as a link between the light infantry and the phalanx, a form of medium infantry to bridge the gaps. References[edit] Footnotes ^ "hoplite | Definition of hoplite in English by Oxford Dictionaries". Oxford Dictionaries | English. Retrieved 20 April 2019. ^ "Definition of Hoplite". www.merriam-webster.com. ^ "hoplite". www.dictionary.com. Retrieved 5 May 2019. ^ Neer, Richard T. (2012). Art & Archaeology of the Greek World: A New History, C. 2500-c. 150 BCE. New York: Thames & Hudson. p. 95. ISBN 9780500288771. OCLC 745332893. ^ Gat, Azar (2006). War in Human Civilization. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 295–98. ISBN 978-0199236633. ^ Lawrence A. Tritle (23 June 2014). Phocion the Good (Routledge Revivals). Routledge. pp. 77–8. ISBN 978-1-317-75050-5. ^ Daniel J. Geagan (9 September 2011). Inscriptions: The Dedicatory Monuments. American School of Classical Studies at Athens. p. 94. ISBN 978-1-62139-001-5. ^ Cartwright, Mark (9 February 2013). "Hoplite". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 1 December 2016. ^ Schwartz, Adam (2009). "Reinstating the hoplite. Arms, Armour and Phalanx Fighting in Archaic and Classical Greece". Historia Einzelschriften 207: 25. ^ othismos. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project. ^ ripsaspis. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project. ^ Kagan, Donald (2013). Men of Bronze: Hoplite Warfare in Ancient Greece. Princeton University Press. p. 10. ^ Hanson, Victor Davis (1993). Hoplites: Classical Greek Battle Experience. Routledge. p. 303. ^ Freeman, Charles (2014). Egypt, Greece, and Rome: Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean. Oxford University Press. p. 154. ISBN 9780199651917. ^ Zimmel, Girard, Jonathan, Todd. "Hoplites Arms and Armor". Retrieved 22 April 2013. ^ Fink, Dennis (2014). The Battle of Marathon in Scholarship: Research, Theories and Controversies Since 1850 (illustrated ed.). McFarland. p. 32. ISBN 9780786479733. ^ Sage, Michael M (1996). Warfare in Ancient Greece: A Sourcebook. London, GBR: Routledge. p. 281. ^ a b Hutchinson, Godfrey (2014). Sparta: Unfit for Empire. Frontline Books. p. 43. ISBN 9781848322226. ^ "IGII2 6217 Epitaph of Dexileos, cavalryman killed in Corinthian war (394 BC)". www.atticinscriptions.com. ^ a b c d "Theories on Development | Hoplite Battles". sites.psu.edu. Retrieved 2016-11-30. ^ a b c "Gradualism | The Hoplite Battle Experience". sites.psu.edu. Retrieved 2016-11-30. ^ Kagan, Donald (2013). Men of Bronze: Hoplite Warfare in Ancient Greece. Princeton University Press. p. 8. ^ a b c "Rapid Adoption | The Hoplite Battle Experience". sites.psu.edu. Retrieved 2016-11-30. ^ T., Neer, Richard (2012). Greek art and archaeology. : a new history, c. 2500-c. 150 BCE. New York. ISBN 9780500288771. OCLC 745332893. ^ Tyrtaios. Fragment 1.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ Peter Connoly, Greece and Rome at War, p. 37. ^ Peter Krentz, Fighting by the Rules – The Invention of the Hoplite Agon. ^ F. Zafeiropoulou and A. Agelarakis, "Warriors of Paros", Archaeology 58.1(2005): 30–35 ^ Socrates as a hoplite: Plato, Symposium 219e–221b. ^ Epicurus as a hoplite: Diogenes Laërtius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers, Book X. ^ Nefiodkin, Alexander K. (2004), "On the Origin of the Scythed Chariots", Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, 53 (3): 371−378 ^ Lane Fox, Robin. The Classical World: An Epic History from Homer to Hadrian. Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-02496-3. Bibliography Crowley, Jason. The Psychology of the Athenian Hoplite: The Culture of Combat in Classical Athens. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012 (hardcover, ISBN 1-107-02061-1). Goldsworthy, A. K. "The Othismos, Myths and Heresies: The Nature of Hoplite Battle", War in History, Vol. 4, Issue 1. (1997), pp. 1–26. Hanson, Victor Davis. The Western Way of War: Infantry Battle in Classical Greece. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989 (hardcover, ISBN 0-394-57188-6); New York: Oxford University Press (USA), 1990 (paperback, ISBN 0-19-506588-3); Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000 (paperback, ISBN 0-520-21911-2). Hanson, Victor Davis. Warfare and Agriculture in Classical Greece (Biblioteca Di Studi Antichi; 40). Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998 (hardcover, ISBN 0-520-21025-5; paperback, ISBN 0-520-21596-6). Hanson, Victor Davis. The Other Greeks: The Family Farm and the Agrarian Roots of Western Civilization. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999 (paperback, ISBN 0-520-20935-4). Kagan, Donald, and Gregory Viggiano. Men of Bronze: Hoplite Warfare in Ancient Greece. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013. Web. Krentz, Peter. "Fighting by the Rules: The Invention of the Hoplite Agôn", Hesperia, Vol. 71, No. 1. (2002), pp. 23–39. O'Connell, Robert L., Soul of the Sword. Simon and Schuster, 2002, ISBN 0-684-84407-9. Roisman, Joseph, and translated by J. C. Yardley, Ancient Greece from Homer to Alexander (Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2011) ISBN 1-4051-2776-7 Cartledge, P. "Hoplites and Heroes: Sparta's Contribution to the Technique of Ancient Warfare." The Journal of Hellenic Studies vol. 97 (1977): 11–27. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hoplites. Association of Greek Hoplites Historic Studies Club "KORYVANTES" Perseus Digital Library database: vases statues coins Sparta Pages – web page on Sparta and the Hoplite. 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en-wikipedia-org-4314	----	List of monarchs of Persia - Wikipedia List of monarchs of Persia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from List of kings of Persia) Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikimedia list article "Persian King" redirects here. For the racehorse, see Persian King (horse). Shah of Persia Lion and Sun Emblem of the Shah of Persia Portrait of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Last Shah of Iran Details Style Shah Shahanshah First monarch Deioces 705–647 BC (first known ruler of Media) Cyrus the Great 549–530 BC (Emperor of the first unified Persian Empire) Last monarch Mohammad Reza Pahlavi 16 December 1941 – 11 February 1979 (as Shah of Iran) Formation 678 BC Abolition 11 February 1979 Residence Apadana Tachara Palace of Darius Palace of Ardashir Taq Kasra Ālī Qāpū Palace Hasht Behesht Golestan Palace Sa'dabad Palace Niavaran Palace Appointer Hereditary Pretender(s) Reza Pahlavi, (Crown Prince of Pahlavi dynasty) Mohammad Hassan Mirza II, (Crown Prince of Qajar dynasty) This article lists the monarchs of Persia (Iran) from the establishment of the Median Empire by Medes around 705 BC until the deposition of the Pahlavi dynasty in 1979. Earlier monarchs in the area of modern-day Iran are listed in: List of rulers of the pre-Achaemenid kingdoms of Iran Minor dynasties and vassal monarchs can be found in: List of rulers of Parthian sub-kingdoms Islamic dynasties of Iran Contents 1 Median Empire (678–549 BC) 2 Achaemenid Kingdom (~705–559 BC) 3 Achaemenid Empire (559–334/327 BC) 4 Macedonian Empire (336–306 BC) 5 Seleucid Empire (311–129 BC) 6 Fratarakas 7 Kings of Persis 8 Parthian Empire (247 BC – CE 228) 9 Sasanian Empire (224–651) 10 Dabuyid Kingdom (642–760) 11 Rashidun Caliphate (642–661) 12 Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) 13 Abbasid Caliphate (750–946) 14 Samanid Empire (819–999) 15 Saffarid Kingdom (861–1003) 16 Ghurid Kingdom (879–1215) 17 Buyid Kingdom (934–1062) 18 Ziyarid Kingdom (928–1043) 19 Seljuk Empire (1029–1194) 20 Khwarazmian Empire (1153–1220) 21 Mongol Empire (1220–1256) 22 Ilkhanate and successor kingdoms (1256–1501) 22.1 Ilkhanate (1256–1357) 22.2 Sarbadars (1332–1386) 22.3 Chupanids (1335–1357) 22.4 Jalayirids (1335–1432) 22.5 Injuids (1335–1357) 22.6 Muzaffarids (1314–1393) 22.7 Kara Koyunlu (1375–1468) 22.8 Aq Koyunlu (1378–1497) 23 Timurid Empire (1370–1507) 24 Safavid Empire (1501–1736) 25 Afsharid Empire (1736–1796) 26 Zand Kingdom (1751–1794) 27 Qajar Empire (1794–1925) 28 Pahlavi Empire (1925–1979) 29 See also 30 Notes and references 31 Bibliography Median Empire (678–549 BC)[edit] The Median Empire at its greatest extent Main article: Medes Portrait Name Family relations Reign Notes Median Kingdom (678 BC–549 BC) Deioces 700–647 BC First known ruler of Media Phraortes Son of Deioces 647–625 BC Scythian rule (624–597 BC) Cyaxares Son of Phraortes 624–585 BC The dynasty of the Median kings was known as Cyaxarid dynasty, named after him or a pre-Deicoes king.[1] Astyages Son of Cyaxares 585–549 BC Last king of the Medes Achaemenid Kingdom (~705–559 BC)[edit] Main article: Achaemenid Kingdom Portrait Name Family relations Reign Notes Achaemenid dynasty (~705–559 BC) Achaemenes ~705 BC First ruler of the Achaemenid kingdom Teispes Son of Achaemenes ~640 BC Cyrus I Son of Teispes ~580 BC Cambyses I Son of Cyrus I and father of Cyrus II ~550 BC Achaemenid Empire (559–334/327 BC)[edit] The Achaemenid Empire at its greatest extent Main article: Achaemenid Empire Portrait Titles Regnal name Personal name Birth Family relations Reign Death Notes Achaemenid dynasty (559–334/327 BC) The Great King, King of Kings, King of Anshan, King of Media, King of Babylon, King of Sumer and Akkad, King of the Four Corners of the World Cyrus the Great – 600 BC Son of Cambyses I king of Anshan and Mandana daughter of Astyages 559–530 BC 530 BC King of Anshan from 559 BC. Killed in battle with Massagetes The Great King, King of Kings, Pharaoh of Egypt Cambyses II – ? Son of Cyrus the Great 530–522 BC 521 BC Died while in route to put down a rebellion. Pharaonic titulary: Horus: Smatawy, Nswbty: Mesutire[2] The Great King, King of Kings, Pharaoh of Egypt Bardiya Gaumata (?) ? Son of Cyrus the Great (possibly an imposter claiming to be Bardiya) 522 BC 522 BC Killed by Persian aristocrats The Great King, King of Kings, Pharaoh of Egypt Darius I – 550 BC Son of Hystaspes 522–486 BC 486 BC Pharaonic titulary: Horus: Menkhib Nswbty: Stutre[3] The Great King, King of Kings, Pharaoh of Egypt Xerxes I – 519 BC Son of Darius I 485–465 BC 465 BC Most likely is the King Ahasuerus of the Book of Esther[4] The Great King, King of Kings, Pharaoh of Egypt Artaxerxes I Arses ? Son of Xerxes I 465–424 BC 424 BC Believed by some to be the King Ahaseurus of the Book of Esther The Great King, King of Kings, Pharaoh of Egypt Xerxes II Artaxerxes ? Son of Artaxerxes I 424 BC 424 BC Only recognised in Persia itself, killed by Sogdianus The Great King, King of Kings, Pharaoh of Egypt ? Sogdianus ? Son of Artaxerxes I 424–423 BC 423 BC Only recognised in Persia and Elam, killed by Darius II The Great King, King of Kings, Pharaoh of Egypt Darius II Ochus ? Son of Artaxerxes I 424–404 BC 404 BC The Great King, King of Kings Artaxerxes II Arsaces King Son of Darius II 404–358 BC 358 BC The Great King, King of Kings, Pharaoh of Egypt Artaxerxes III Ochus ? Son of Artaxerxes II 358–338 BC 338 BC Killed The Great King, King of Kings, Pharaoh of Egypt Artaxerxes IV Arses ? Son of Artaxerxes III 338–336 BC 336 BC Killed The Great King, King of Kings, Pharaoh of Egypt Darius III Artashata 380 Son of Arsames son of Ostanes son of Darius II 336–330 BC 330 BC Killed by Artaxerxes V The Great King, King of Kings Artaxerxes V Bessus ? Probably a descendant of Artaxerxes II 330–329 BC 329 BC Killed by Alexander III Note: Ancient Persia is generally agreed to have ended with the collapse of the Achaemenid dynasty as a result of the Wars of Alexander the Great. Macedonian Empire (336–306 BC)[edit] The Macedonian Empire at its greatest extent Main article: Macedonian Empire Portrait Title Name Birth Family relations Reign Death Notes Argead dynasty (336–306 BC) King Alexander the Great 356 BC Son of Philip II of Macedonia 336–323 BC 13 June 323 BC King of Macedonia from 336 BC as Alexander III King Philip III c. 359 BC Son of Philip II of Macedonia June 323– 317 BC 317 BC Killed by Olympias King Alexander IV Sept. 323 BC Son of Alexander III Sept. 323–309 BC 309 BC King of Macedonia as Alexander IV until 309 BC. Killed by Cassander son of Antipater Regent Perdiccas ? June 323–321 BC 321 BC Regent for Alexander IV & Philip III, Prince of Orestis Regent Antipater 398 BC Son of Iollas 321–319 BC 319 BC Regent for Alexander IV & Philip III Regent Polyperchon 394 BC Son of Simmias 319–316 BC 303 BC Regent for Alexander IV & Philip III. Exercised no actual power in Persia. Regent Cassander c. 350 Son of Antipater 316–309 BC 297 BC Regent for and murderer of Alexander IV. Exercised no actual power in Persia. Seleucid Empire (311–129 BC)[edit] The Seleucid Empire at its greatest extent Main article: Seleucid Empire Portrait Title Regnal name Personal name Birth Family relations Reign Death Notes Seleucid dynasty (311–129 BC) King Seleucus I Nicator – c. 358 BC Son of Antiochus son of Seleucus 311–281 BC 281 BC Assumed title of "King" from 306 BC. King Antiochus I Soter – ? Son of Seleucus I 281–261 BC 261 BC Co-ruler from 291 King Antiochus II Theos – 286 BC Son of Antiochus I 261–246 BC 246 BC King Seleucus II Callinicus – ? Son of Antiochus II 246–225 BC 225 BC King Seleucus III Ceraunus Alexander c. 243 BC Son of Seleucus II 225–223 BC 223 BC Great King Antiochus III the Great – c. 241 BC Son of Seleucus II 223–187 BC 187 BC King Seleucus IV Philopator – ? Son of Antiochus III 187–175 BC 175 BC King Antiochus IV Epiphanes Mithridates c. 215 BC Son of Antiochus III 175–163 BC 163 BC Killed in Elymais King Antiochus V Eupator – c. 172 BC Son of Antiochus IV 163–161 BC 161 BC King Demetrius I Soter – 185 BC Son of Seleucus IV 161–150 BC 150 BC King Alexander Balas – ? Purported son of Antiochus IV 150–146 BC 146 BC King Demetrius II Nicator – ? Son of Demetrius I 146–139 BC 139 BC Defeated and captured by Parthians. He married Rhodogune daughter of Mithridates I King Antiochus VI Dionysus – 148 BC Son of Alexander III. 145–142 BC 138 BC In competition with Demetrius II. King Antiochus VII Sidetes – ? Son of Demetrius I 139–129 BC 129 BC Killed in battle with Phraates II Fratarakas[edit] Main article: Frataraka The Fratarakas appear to have been Governors of the Seleucid Empire. Name Date Coinage Family Relations Note 1 Bagadates/ Baydād (bgdt) 3rd century BC Fratarakā dynasty - son of Baykard Governor of the Seleucid Empire. Coin legend bgdt prtrk' zy 'lhy' ("Baydād, fratarakā of the gods") in Aramaic. 2 Ardakhshir I (rtḥštry) mid-3rd century BC Fratarakā dynasty Governor of the Seleucid Empire 3 Vahbarz (whwbrz - called Oborzos in Polyenus 7.40) mid-3rd century BC Fratarakā dynasty Governor of the Seleucid Empire 4 Vādfradād I (wtprdt) 3rd century BC Fratarakā dynasty - son of Vahbarz Governor of the Seleucid Empire 5 Vadfradad II c. 140 BC Fratarakā dynasty Governor of the Seleucid Empire. Transition period. Eagle emblem on top of stylized kyrbasia. Aramaic coin legend wtprdt [p]rtrk' zy 'ly' ("Vādfradād, frataraka of the gods").[5] 6 'Unknown king I' (Syknlt?) 2nd half of 2nd century BC ? Transition period. No inscription on coinage. Kings of Persis[edit] Main article: Kings of Persis Name Date Coinage Family Relations Note 7 Darayan I 2nd century BC (end) ? Darev I and his successors were sub-kings of the Parthian Empire. Crescent emblem on top of stylized kyrbasia. Aramaic coin legend d’ryw mlk (𐡃‬𐡀𐡓𐡉‬‬𐡅‬ 𐡌𐡋‬𐡊‬, "King Darius").[5] 8 Wadfradad III 1st century BC (1st half) ? Sub-king of the Parthian Empire. Coin legend wtprdt mlk (𐡅‬𐡕‬𐡐‬𐡓‬𐡃‬𐡕 𐡌‬𐡋𐡊‬, "King Vadfradad") in Aramaic script. 9 Darev II 1st century BC son of Vadfradad III Sub-king of the Parthian Empire. Aramaic coin legend d’ryw mlk brh wtprdt mlk' ("King Darius, son of King Vadfradad"). 10 Ardakhshir II 1st century BC (2nd half) son of Darev II Sub-king of the Parthian Empire. Killed by his brother Vahshir I 11 Vahšīr/ Vahshir I (Oxathres) 1st century BC (2nd half) son of Darev II Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 12 Pakor I 1st century CE (1st half) son of Vahshir I Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 13 Pakor II 1st century CE (1st half) ? Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 14 Nambed 1st century CE (mid) son of Ardashir II Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 15 Napad 1st century CE (2nd half) son of Nambed Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 16 'Unknown king II' 1st century CE (end) ? Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 17 Vadfradad IV 2nd century CE (1st half) ? Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 18 Manchihr I 2nd century CE (1st half) ? Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 19 Ardashir III 2nd century CE (1st half) son of Manchihr I Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 20 Manchihr II 2nd century CE (mid) son of Ardashir III Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 21 Uncertain King III/ tentatively Pakor III[6] 2nd century CE (2nd half) ? Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 22 Manchihr III 2nd century CE (2nd half) son of Manchihr II Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 23 Ardashir IV 2nd century CE (end) son of Manchihr III Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 24 Vahshir II (Oxathres) c. 206-210 CE ? Sub-king of the Parthian Empire. The last of Bazarangids. 25 Shapur 3rd century CE (beg.) Brother of the first Sasanian, Ardashir I Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 26 Ardashir V (Sasanian Dynasty Ardashir I) 3rd century CE (beg.) First Sasanian ruler, under the name of Ardashir I Sub-king of the Parthian Empire Parthian Empire (247 BC – CE 228)[edit] Main article: Parthian Empire The Parthian Empire at its greatest extent The Seleucid dynasty gradually lost control of Persia. In 253, the Arsacid dynasty established itself in Parthia. The Parthians gradually expanded their control, until by the mid-2nd century BC, the Seleucids had completely lost control of Persia. Control of eastern territories was permanently lost by Antiochus VII in 129 BC. For more comprehensive lists of kings, queens, sub-kings and sub-queens of this Era see: List of rulers of Parthian sub-kingdoms Portrait Title Regnal name Personal name Birth Family relations Reign Death Notes Arsacid dynasty (247 BC – 228 AD) King, Karen, Autocrator Arsaces I Tiridates I or Arsaces ? Son of Phriapites descendant of Arsaces son of Phriapatius who was probably son of Artaxerxes II 247–211 BC 211 BC ? Arsaces II Artabanus I or Arsaces ? Son of Arsaces I 211–185 BC[7] 185 BC ? Arsaces III Phriapatius ? Grandson of Tiridates I 185–170 BC[7] 170 BC ? Arsaces IV Phraates I ? Son of Phriapatius 170–167 BC[8] 167 BC The Great King, Theos, Theopator, Philhellene Arsaces V Mithridates I ? Son of Phriapatius 167[8] –132 BC[9] 132 BC The Great King, Philopator, Theopator, Nikephoros Arsaces VI Phraates II ? Son of Mithridates I 132–127 BC[9] 127 BC Killed in battle with Scythians King Arsaces VII Artabanus II ? Son of Phriapatius 127–126 BC[9] 126 BC Killed in battle with Tocharians The Great King, Theopator, Philadelphos, Philhellene, Epiphanes Arsaces VIII Vologases(?)[9] ? Son of Phriapatius 126–122 BC[9] 122 BC He was the first Arsacid king of Media, Arran and Iberia The Great King, King of kings, Epiphanes, Philhellene Arsaces IX Artabanus(?)[9] ? Son of Artabanus II 122–121 BC 121 BC Killed in battle with Medians The Great King, The Great King of Kings, Epiphanes, Soter Arsaces X Mithridates II ? Son of Artabanus II 121[10]–91 BC 91 BC The Great King, Epiphanes, Philhellene, Euergetes, Autocrator Arsaces XI Gotarzes I ? Son of Mithridates II 91–87 BC 87 BC The Great King, Theopator, Nicator Arsaces XII Artabanus(?)[8] ? Probably son of Arsaces VIII Vologases(?) 91–77? BC 77? BC The Great King, The Great King of Kings, Dikaios, Euergetes, Philhellene, Autocrator, Philopator, Epiphanes Arsaces XIII Mithridates[9] ? Probably son of Mithridates II 88–67 BC 67 BC The Great King, Euergetes, Epiphanes, Philhellene Arsaces XIV Orodes I ? Probably son of Mithridates II 80–75 BC 75 BC The Great King, Theopator, Euergetes, Epiphanes, Philhellene Arsaces XV Sanatruces 157 BC Probably son of Arsaces VIII Vologases(?)[8] 77–70 BC 70 BC The Great King, Theopator, Euergetes, Epiphanes, Philhellene, Eusebes Arsaces XVI[8] Arsaces(?) or Vardanes(?) or Vonones(?) ? ? 77–66 BC 66 BC The most obscure major monarch of the first millennium BC. Nothing about him is currently known. The Great King, Theos, Euergetes, Epiphanes, Philhellene Arsaces XVII Phraates III ? Son of Sanatruces 70–57 BC 57 BC Killed by Orodes II The Great King, Philopator, Euergetes, Epiphanes, Philhellene Arsaces XVIII[8] ? ? probably son of Arsaces XVI 66–63 BC 63 BC The second most obscure monarch of the first millennium BC, nothing about him is known. The Great King, The Great King of Kings, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Theos, Eupator, Theopator, Philhellene Arsaces XIX Mithridates III ? Son of Phraates III 65[8] –54 BC 54 BC Killed by Orodes II King of Kings, Philopator, Eupator, Euergetes, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene, Ktistes Arsaces XX Orodes II ? Son of Phraates III 57–38 BC 38 BC Killed by Phraates IV King of Kings, Euergetes, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene Arsaces XXI Pacorus I ? Son of Orodes II 50–38 BC 38 BC Killed in battle with Romans King of Kings, Euergetes, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene Arsaces XXII Phraates IV ? Son of Orodes II 38–2 BC 2 BC Killed by Musa King of Kings, Euergetes, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene, Autocrator, Philoromaeos Arsaces XXIII Tiridates II ? Probably a descendant of Arsaces XIII Mithridates 30–25 BC after 23 BC Deposed and went to Rome ? Arsaces XXIV Mithridates[11] ? Probably a descendant of Arsaces XIII Mithridates 12–9 BC ? Queen of Queens, Thea, Urania Musa Musa ? Queen of Phraates IV 2 BC – 4 CE 4? CE King of Kings, Euergetes, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene Arsaces XXV Phraates V ? Son of Phraates IV & Musa 2 BC – 4 CE 4 CE Deposed and went to Rome King of Kings, Euergetes, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene Arsaces XXVI Orodes III ? Probably a descendant of Arsaces XIII Mithridates 4–6 6 Killed by Parthian aristocrats The Great King, King of Kings, Euergetes, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene, Nikephorus Arsaces XXVII Vonones I ? Son of Phraates IV 8–12 19 Deposed and went to Rome. Later, he was killed by Romans. King of Kings, Euergetes, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene Arsaces XXVIII Artabanus III ? Probably a descendant of Arsaces XIII Mithridates 10–40 40 ? Arsaces XXIX Tiridates III ? Probably a descendant of Tiridates II 35–36 ? Deposed and went to Rome ? Arsaces XXX Cinnamus ? Son of Artabanus III 37 ? Abdicated King of Kings, Euergetes, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene Arsaces XXXI Gotarzes II 11 Son of Artabanus III 40–51 51 King of Kings, Euergetes, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene Arsaces XXXII Vardanes I ? Son of Artabanus III 40–46 46 Killed by Gotarzes II King of Kings, Euergetes, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene Arsaces XXXIII Vonones II ? Probably son of Artabanus III c. 45–51 51 ? Arsaces XXXIV Mithridates[12] ? Son of Vonones I 49–50 ? Deposed and mutilated by Gotarzes II King of Kings, Euergetes, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene, The Lord Arsaces XXXV Vologases I ? Son of Vonones II 51–77 77 King of Kings, Euergetes, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene Arsaces XXXVI Vardanes II ? Son of Vologases I 55–58 ? Deposed King of Kings, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene Arsaces XXXVII Vologases II ? Probably the eldest son of Vologases I 77–89/90 ? King of Kings, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene Arsaces XXXVIII Pacorus II ? Probably the younger son of Vologases I 77–115 115 King of Kings, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene Arsaces XXXIX Artabanus IV ? Probably son of Vologases I or Artabanus III 80–81 ? King of Kings, Euergetes, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene Arsaces XL Osroes I ? brother of Pacorus II 89/90–130 130 King of Kings, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene Arsaces XLI Vologases III ? Probably son of Sanatruces I king of Armenia 89–109 who was brother of Osroes I 105–148 148 He was also king of Armenia as Vologases I King of Kings, Euergetes, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene Arsaces XLII Parthamaspates ? Son of Osroes I 116–117 after 123 Deposed and went to Rome King of Kings, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene Arsaces XLIII Mithridates IV ? Probably son of Osroes I c. 130 – c. 145 c. 145 King of Kings, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene Arsaces XLIV[13] ? ? ? c. 140 – c. 140 c. 140 King of Kings, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene Arsaces XLV Vologases IV ? Son of Mithridates IV 148–191 191 King of Kings, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene Arsaces XLVI Vologases V ? Son of Vologases IV 191–208 208 King of Kings, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene Arsaces XLVII Osroes II ? Probably son of Vologases IV c. 190 – c. 195 ? King of Kings, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene Arsaces XLVIII Vologases VI 181 Son of Vologases V 208–228 228 Killed by Ardashir I King of Kings, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene Arsaces XLIX Artabanus V ? Son of Vologases V 213–226 226 Killed by Ardashir I King of Kings, Dikaios, Epiphanes, Philhellene Arsaces L Tiridates IV[14] ? Son of Vologases IV 217–222 ? He was also king of Armenia Sasanian Empire (224–651)[edit] The Sasanian Empire at its greatest extent Main article: Sasanian Empire Portrait Title Regnal name Personal name Birth Family relations Reign Death Notes House of Sasan Shahanshah[15] Ardashir I – 180 Son of Papak, who was son of Sasan 28 April 224 – February 242 February 242 Shahanshah Shapur I – 215 Son of Ardashir I 12 April 240 – May 270 May 270 Shahanshah, Wuzurg Armananshah[16] Hormizd I Hormozd-Ardashir ? Son of Shapur I May 270 – June 271 June 271 Shahanshah, Gilanshah Bahram I – ? Son of Shapur I June 271 – September 274 September 274 Shahanshah Bahram II – ? Son of Bahram I September 274 – 293 293 Shahanshah, Sakanshah Bahram III – ? Son of Bahram II 293 293 Deposed Shahanshah, Wuzurg Armananshah Narseh I – ? Son of Shapur I 293–302 302 Shahanshah Hormizd II – ? Son of Narseh I 302–309 309 Killed by Iranian aristocrats Shahanshah Adhur Narseh – ? Son of Hormizd II 309 309 Killed by Iranian aristocrats Shahanshah, Dhū al-aktāf[17] Shapur II – 309 Son of Hormizd II 309–379 379 Shahanshah Ardashir II – 309/310 Son of Hormizd II 379–383 383 Shahanshah Shapur III – ? Son of Shapur II 383 – December 388 December 388 Killed by Iranian aristocrats Shahanshah, Kirmanshah Bahram IV – ? Son of Shapur II December 388 – 399 399 Shahanshah Yazdegerd I – 363 Son of Shapur III 399 – 21 January 420 21 January 420 Killed by Iranian aristocrats Shahanshah Bahram V – 406 Son of Yazdegerd I 21 January 420 – 20 June 438 20 June 438 Shahanshah Yazdegerd II – ? Son of Bahram V 20 June 438 – 15 December 457 15 December 457 Shahanshah Hormizd III – 399 Son of Yazdegerd II 457–459 459 Killed by Peroz I Shahanshah Peroz I – 459 Son of Yazdegerd II 457 – January 484 January 484 Killed in battle with Hephthalites Shahanshah Balash – ? Son of Yazdegerd II February 484 – 488 488 Shahanshah Kavadh I – 449 Son of Peroz I 488–496 13 September 531 Deposed Shahanshah Djamasp – ? Son of Peroz I 496–498 502 Deposed Shahanshah Kavadh I – 449 Son of Peroz I 498 – 13 September 531 13 September 531 Shahanshah, Anushiravan, The Just Khosrau I – 500 Son of Kavadh I 13 September 531 – 31 January 579 31 January 579 Shahanshah Hormizd IV – 540 Son of Khosrau I 31 January 579 – 5 September 590 5 September 590 Killed by Vistahm Shahanshah, Aparviz Khosrau II – 570 Son of Hormizd IV September 590 – September 590 28 February 628 Deposed and went to Byzantine territory House of Mihran Shahanshah, Chubineh Bahram VI Mehrbandak ? Son of Bahram Gushnasp from House of Mihran September – 590 January 591 591 Assassinated under the order of Khosrau II House of Sasan Shahanshah, Aparviz Khosrau II – 570 Son of Hormizd IV January 591 – 25 February 628 28 February 628 Executed by Mihr Hormozd under the orders of Kavadh II House of Ispahbudhan Shahanshah Vistahm – ? Son of Shapur from the House of Ispahbudhan. He was the uncle of Khosrau II and husband of Gorduya, sister of Bahram VI 591 – 596 or 600 596 or 600 Killed by his wife Gorduya or by his general Pariowk House of Sasan Shahanshah Kavadh II Shiruyah ? Son of Khosrau II 25 February 628 – 15 September 628 15 September 628 Died from plague Shahanshah Ardashir III – 621 Son of Kavadh II 15 September 628 – 27 April 629 27 April 629 Killed by Shahrbaraz House of Mihran Shahanshah, Shahrvaraz Shahrbaraz – ? Sasanian general from the House of Mihran 27 April 629 – 17 June 629 17 June 629 Killed by Farrokh Hormizd under the orders of Borandukht House of Sasan Shahanshah Khosrau III – ? Nephew of Khosrau II 630 630 Killed after a few days reign Shahbanu[18] Borandukht – 590 Daughter of Khosrau II 17 June 629 – 16 June 630 (First reign) 631 – 632 (Second reign) 632 Deposed by Iranian aristocrats and replaced by Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Restored to the Sasanian throne, and later strangled to death by Piruz Khosrow Shahanshah Shapur-i Shahrvaraz – ? Son of Shahrbaraz and an unknown sister of Khosrau II 630 ? Deposed by Iranian aristocrats and replaced by Azarmidokht Shahanshah Peroz II Gushnasp-Bandeh ? Son of Mihran-Goshnasp & Chaharbakht who was daughter of Yazdandad son of Khosrau I. 630 630 Killed by Iranian aristocrats Shahbanu Azarmidokht – ? Daughter of Khosrau II 630–631 631 Killed by Iranian aristocrats Shahanshah Khosrau IV Khurrazadh ? Son of Khosrau II 631 631 Killed by Iranian aristocrats House of Ispahbudhan Shahanshah Farrokh Hormizd – ? Son of Sasanian general Vinduyih, the brother of Vistahm 630–631 631 Killed by Siyavakhsh under the orders of Azarmidokht House of Sasan Shahanshah Hormizd VI – ? Grandson of Khosrau II 630–631 631 Killed by Iranian aristocrats Shahanshah Yazdegerd III – 624 Son of Shahryar the son of Khosrau II 16 June 632–651 651 Killed by a miller Note: Classical Persia is generally agreed to have ended with the collapse of the Sasanian Empire as a result of the Muslim conquest of Persia. Dabuyid Kingdom (642–760)[edit] Main article: Dabuyids Dabuyids (c. 720) A Zoroastrian Persian dynasty that held power in the north for over a century before finally falling to the Abbasid Caliphate. Portrait Title Name Birth Family relations Reign Death Notes Dabuyid dynasty (642–760) Ispahbadh Gil Gavbara ? Son of Piruz 642–660 660 Ispahbadh, Gil-Gilan, Padashwargarshah Dabuya ? Son of Gil Gavbara 660–676 676 Ispahbadh, Gil-Gilan, Padashwargarshah Farrukhan the Great ? Son of Dabuya 712–728 728 Ispahbadh, Gil-Gilan, Padashwargarshah Dadhburzmihr ? Son of Farrukhan the Great 728–740/741 740/741 Ispahbadh, Gil-Gilan, Padashwargarshah Farrukhan the Little ? Son of Farrukhan the Great 740/741–747/48 747/48 Regent for Khurshid of Tabaristan Ispahbadh, Gil-Gilan, Padashwargarshah Khurshid 734 Son of Dadhburzmihr 740/741–760 761 Committed suicide Rashidun Caliphate (642–661)[edit] Main article: Rashidun Caliphate The Rashidun Empire reached its greatest extent under Caliph Uthman, in 654 For more comprehensive lists of kings and sub-kings of this Era see: Muslim dynasties of Iran Portrait Title Name Kunya Birth Family relations Reign Death Notes Al Farooq, Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Umar Abu Hafs 583 Son of Khattab ibn Nufayl. 642–644 644 Umar became Caliph in 634 and his forces conquered Persia in 642. Killed by Piruz Nahavandi Zonnurain, Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Uthman ibn Affan Abu Amr 579 Son of Affan, of the Umayyad clan. 644–656 656 Killed by Rebels Al-Mortaza, Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin, Great Imam, Maula Ali Ali Ibn Abi Talib Abul-Hasan 598 Son of Abu Talib, of the Hashemite clan. Son-in-law of Muhammad. 656–661 661 Killed by Kharijites Umayyad Caliphate (661–750)[edit] Main article: Umayyad Caliphate Umayyad Caliphate at its greatest extent (c. 750) For more comprehensive lists of kings and sub-kings of this Era see: Muslim dynasties of Iran Portrait Title Name Kunya Birth Family relations Reign Death Notes Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Muawiyah I Abu Abdullah ? Son of Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, cousin of Uthman ibn Affan and distant cousin of Muhammad 661–680 680 Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Yazid I Abu Khalid ? Son of Muawiyah I 680–683 683 Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Muawiya II Abu Abd ur-Rahman ? Son of Yazid I 683–684 ? Abdicated (?) Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Marwan I Abu Abd al-Malik ? Son of Hakam cousin of Muawiyah I 684–685 685 Killed by his wife Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Abd al-Malik Ibn Marwan Abu'l-Walid ? Son of Marwan I 685–705 705 Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Al-Walid I Abu'l-Abbas ? Son of Abd al-Malik 705–715 715 Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik Abu Ayyub ? Son of Abd al-Malik 715–717 717 Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Umar II Abu Hafṣ ? Son of Abd al-Aziz son of Marwan I 717–720 720 Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Yazid II Abu Khalid ? Son of Abd al-Malik 720–724 724 Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik Abu'l-Walid ? Son of Abd al-Malik 724–743 743 Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Al-Walid II Abu'l-Abbas ? Son of Yazid II 743–744 744 Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Yazid III Abu Khalid ? Son of Al-Walid I and Shahfarand daughter of Peroz III 744–744 744 Killed Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Ibrahim ibn al-Walid Abu Ishaq ? Son of Al-Walid I 744–744 744 Killed Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Marwan II Abu Abd al-Malik ? Son of Muhammad son of Marwan I 744–750 750 Ruled from Harran in the Jazira. Killed by Saffah Abbasid Caliphate (750–946)[edit] Main article: Abbasid Caliphate Abbasid Caliphate at its greatest extent (c. 850) For more comprehensive lists of kings and sub-kings of this Era see: Muslim dynasties of Iran Portrait Title Regnal name Personal name Birth Family relations Reign Death Notes Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin As-Saffah Abu'l-Abbas Abdullah 721 Son of Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Abdallah who was Muhammad's paternal uncle 750–754 754 Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Al-Mansur Abu Ja'far Abdullah 714 Brother of As-Saffah 754–775 775 Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Al-Mahdi Abu Abdullah Muhammad 744/745 Son of Al-Mansur 775–785 785 Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Al-Hadi Abu Mohammad Musa 764 Son of Al-Mahdi 785–786 786 Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Harun al-Rashid' Abu Ja'far Harun 763/766 Son of Al-Mahdi 786–809 809 Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Al-Amin Abu Abdullah Muhammad 787 Son of Harun al-Rashid 809–813 813 Killed by Al-Ma'mun Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Al-Ma'mun Abu'l-Abbas Abdullah 786 Son of Harun al-Rashid 813–833 833 Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Al-Mu'tasim Abu Ishaq Muhammad 795 Son of Harun al-Rashid 833–842 842 Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Al-Wathiq Abu Ja'far Harun 816 Son of Al-Mu'tasim 842–847 847 Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Al-Mutawakkil Abu'l-Fazl Ja'far 821 Son of Al-Mu'tasim 847–861 861 Killed by Al-Muntasir Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Al-Muntasir Abu Ja'far Muhammad 837 Son of Al-Mutawakkil 861–862 862 Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Al-Musta'in Abu'l-Abbas Ahmad 836 Son of Muhammad son of Al-Mu'tasim 862–866 866 Deposed and later killed Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Al-Mu'tazz Abu Abdullah Zubayr 847 Son of Al-Mutawakkil 866–869 869 Deposed and later killed Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Al-Muhtadi Abu Ishaq Muhammad ? Son of Al-Wathiq 869–870 870 Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Al-Mu'tamid Abu'l-Abbas Ahmad 844 Son of Al-Mutawakkil 870–892 892 Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Al-Mu'tadid Abu'l-Abbas Ahmad 854/861 Son of Talha al-Muwaffaq son of Al-Mutawakkil 892–902 902 Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Al-Muktafi Abu Mohammad Ali 877/878 Son of Al-Mu'tadid 902–908 908 Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Al-Muqtadir Abul-Fazl Ja'far 895 Son of Al-Mu'tadid 908–929 and 929–932 929 Briefly deposed. Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Al-Qahir Abu Mansur Muhammad 899 Son of Al-Mu'tadid 929 and 932–934 929 Forced to resign the throne in the face of public protest, later deposed and blinded. Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Abu'l-Abbas Ar-Radi Muhammad 907 Son of Al-Muqtadir 934–940 940 De facto power in the hands of Ibn Ra'iq 936-938 Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Al-Muttaqi Abu Ishaq Ibrahim 908 Son of Al-Muqtadir 940–944 944 De facto power in the hands of Bajkam 940-941, Ibn Ra'iq 941-942, Nasir al-Dawla 942-943 & Tuzun 943-944, who deposed and blinded him. Caliph, Amir al-Mu'minin Al-Mustakfi Abu'l-Qasim Abdullah 905 Son of Al-Muktafi 944–946 946 De facto power in the hands of Tuzun 944-945 & Abu Jafar 945-946. Deposed and blinded by Mu'izz al-Dawla Samanid Empire (819–999)[edit] Main article: Samanid Empire Samanid Empire at its greatest extent For more comprehensive lists of kings and sub-kings of this Era see: Muslim dynasties of Iran Portrait Title Regnal name Personal name Birth Family relations Reign Death Notes Samanid dynasty (819–999) Ahmad ibn Assad ? ? 819–864/865 864/5 Nasr I ? ? 864/865–892 892 Adel Ismail Samani’’' ? ? 892–907 907 Shaheed Ahmad Samani ? ? 907–914 914 Saeed Nasr II ? ? 914–942 943 Hamid Nuh I ? ? 942–954 954 Rashid 'Abd al-Malik I ? ? 954–961 961 Mo'ayyed Mansur I ? ? 961–976 976 Radhi Nuh II ? ? 976–996 997 Abol Hareth Mansur II ? ? 996–999 999 Abol Favares 'Abd al-Malik II ? ? 999 999 Montaser Isma'il Muntasir ? ? 1000–1005 1005 Saffarid Kingdom (861–1003)[edit] Main article: Saffarid dynasty Saffarid Empire at its greatest extent For more comprehensive lists of kings and sub-kings of this Era see: Muslim dynasties of Iran Portrait Title Name Kunya Birth Family relations Reign Death Note Saffarid dynasty (861–1003) Emir Ya'qub ibn al-layth al-Saffar – 840 Son of al-Layth 861–879 879 Died of sickness Emir Amr ibn al-Layth – ? Son of al-Layth 879–901 902 Captured by the Samanids, later executed on 20 April 902 in Baghdad Emir Tahir ibn Muhammad ibn Amr Abu'l-Hasan ? Son of Muhammad, son of Amr 901–908 ? Imprisoned in Baghdad Emir Al-Layth – ? Son of Ali, son of al-Layth 909–910 928 Dies of natural causes as a prisoner in Baghdad in 928 Emir Muhammad ibn Ali ibn al-Layth – ? Son of Ali, son of al-Layth 910–911 ? Imprisoned in Baghdad Emir Amr Abu Hafs 902 Son of Ya'qub 912–913 ? Overthrown by the Samanids Emir Ahmad Ja’far Ahmad ibn Muhammad Abu Ja'far 21 June 906 Son of Muhammad, son of Amr 923–963 31 March 963 Killed by Abu’l-'Abbas and a Turkic Ghilman Emir Khalaf ibn Ahmad Abu Ahmad November 937 Son of Ahmad ibn Muhammad 963–1003 March 1009 Overthrown by the Ghaznavids in 1003, died in exile in 1009 Ghurid Kingdom (879–1215)[edit] Main article: Ghurid dynasty Map of the Ghurid dynasty at its greatest extent by the year 1202 For more comprehensive lists of kings and sub-kings of this Era see: Muslim dynasties of Iran Portrait Title Name Birth Family relations Reign Death Note Ghurid dynasty (879–1215) Malik Amir Suri ? Father of Muhammad ibn Suri[19] ?–? ? was the first Malik of the Ghurid dynasty Malik Muhammad ibn Suri ? Son of Amir Suri ?–1011 1011 Poisoned himself Malik Abu Ali ibn Muhammad ? Son of Muhammad ibn Suri 1011–1035 1035 Overthrown and killed by his nephew Abbas ibn Shith Malik Abbas ibn Shith ? 1035–1060 1060 Deposed and killed by the Ghaznavids, replaced by his son Muhammad ibn Abbas Malik Muhammad ibn Abbas ? Son of Abbas ibn Shith 1060–1080 1080 Malik Qutb al-din Hasan ? Son of Muhammad ibn Abbas 1080–1100 1100 Malik Izz al-Din Husayn ? Son of Qutb al-din Hasan 1100–1146 1146 Malik Sayf al-Din Suri ? Son of Izz al-Din Husayn 1146–1149 1149 Malik Baha al-Din Sam I ? Son of Izz al-Din Husayn 1149 1149 Malik Ala al-Din Husayn ? Son of Izz al-Din Husayn 1149–1161 1161 Malik Sayf al-Din Muhammad ? Son of Ala al-Din Husayn 1161–1163 1163 Sultan Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad 1139 Son of Baha al-Din Sam I 1163–1202 1202 Sultan Mu'izz al-Din 1149 Son of Baha al-Din Sam I 1173–1206 1206 Sultan Ghiyath al-Din Mahmud ? Son of Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad 1206–1212 1212 Sultan Baha al-Din Sam III ? Son of Ghiyath al-Din Mahmud 1212–1213 1213 Sultan Ala al-Din Atsiz 1159 Son of Ala al-Din Husayn 1213–1214 1214 Sultan Ala al-Din Ali ? Son of Shuja al-Din Muhammad 1214–1215 1215 Buyid Kingdom (934–1062)[edit] Main article: Buyid dynasty Buyid Dynasty at its greatest extent The Buyid Kingdom was divided into a number of separate emirates, of which the most important were Fars, Ray, and Iraq. Generally, one of the emirs held a sort of primus inter pares supremacy over the rest, which would be marked by titles like Amir al-umara and Shahanshah. For more comprehensive lists of kings and sub-kings of this Era see: Muslim dynasties of Iran Portrait Title Regnal name Personal name Birth Family relations Reign Death Note Buyids of Fars (933–1062) Emir, Amir al-umara Imad al-Dawla Abu'l-Hasan Ali 891 Son of Buya 934–949 949 Also Senior Buyid Emir (934-949) Emir, Shahanshah Adud al-Dawla Fanna Khusraw 936 Son of Rukn al-Dawla and nephew of Imad al-Dawla 949–983 983 Senior Buyid Emir (976-983) and Emir of Iraq (978-983) Emir, Amir al-umara Sharaf al-Dawla Abu'l-Fawaris Shirdil 962 Son of Adud al-Dawla 983–989 989 Also Senior Buyid Emir and Emir of Iraq (987-989) Emir, King Samsam al-Dawla Abu Kalijar Marzuban 964 son of Adud al-Dawla 989–998 998 Also Emir of Iraq and self-proclaimed Senior Buyid Emir (983-986) Emir, King, Shahanshah Baha' al-Dawla Abu Nasr Firuz 971 Son of Adud al-Dawla 998–1012 1012 Also Emir of Iraq (988-1012) and Senior Buyid Emir (997-1012) Emir Sultan al-Dawla Abu Shuja 992 Son of Baha' al-Dawla 1012–1024 1024 Also Emir of Iraq and Senior Buyid Emir (1012-1021) Emir, Shahanshah Abu Kalijar Marzuban 1011 Son of Sultan al-Dawla 1024–1048 1048 Also Emir of Kerman (1028-1048), Senior Buyid Emir (1037-1048) and Emir of Iraq (1044-1048) Emir Abu Mansur Fulad Sutun ? Son of Abu Kalijar 1048–1054 1062 Lost Fars to Abu Sa'd Khusrau Shah Emir Abu Sa'd Khusrau Shah ? Son of Abu Kalijar 1051–1054 ? Lost Fars to Abu Mansur Fulad Sutun Emir Abu Mansur Fulad Sutun ? Son of Abu Kalijar 1054–1062 1062 Killed by the Shabankara tribal chief Fadluya Buyids of Rey, Isfahan, and Hamadan (935–1038) Emir, Amir al-umara Rukn al-Dawla Abu Ali Hasan 898 Son of Buya 935–976 976 Also Senior Buyid Emir (949-976) Emir Fakhr al-Dawla Abu'l-Hasan Ali 952 Son of Rukn al-Dawla 976–980 and 983–997 980 Also Emir of Hamadan & Tabaristan (984-997) and Senior Buyid Emir (991-997) Emir Mu'ayyad al-Dawla Abu Mansur 941 Son of Rukn al-Dawla 976–983 983 Also Emir of Hamadan (976–983), Jibal (977–983), Tabaristan (980–983), and Gorgan (981–983) Emir Majd al-Dawla Abu Taleb Rostam 993 Son of Fakhr al-Dawla 997–1029 1029 Only in Rey, briefly self-proclaimed Senior Buyid Emir Emir Shams al-Dawla Abu Taher ? Son of Fakhr al-Dawla 997–1021 1021 Only in Isfahan and Hamaedan, briefly self-proclaimed Senior Buyid Emir Emir Sama' al-Dawla Abu'l-Hasan Ali ? Son of Shams al-Dawla 1021–1023 1023 Only in Hamadan, Deposed by Kakuyids Buyids of Iraq and Khuzistan (945–1055) Emir, Amir al-umara Mu'izz al-Dawla Abu'l-Husayn Ahmad 915 Son of Buya 945–966 966 Emir, Amir al-umara Izz al-Dawla Abu Mansur Bakhtiyar 943 Son of Mu'izz al-Dawla 966–979 979 Self-proclaimed Senior Buyid Emir (976-978) Emir, Shahanshah Adud al-Dawla Fanna Khusraw 937 Son of Rukn al-Dawla 977–983 983 Also Emir of Fars (949-983) and Senior Buyid Emir (976-983) Emir, King Samsam al-Dawla Abu Kalijar Marzban 964 Son of Adud al-Dawla 983–987 998 Also self-proclaimed Senior Buyid Emir (983-986) and Emir of Fars & Kerman (989-998) Emir, Amir al-umara Sharaf al-Dawla Abu'l-Fawaris Shirdil 962 Son of Adud al-Dawla 987–989 989 Also Emir of Fars (983-989) and Senior Buyid Emir (987-989) Emir Baha' al-Dawla Abu Nasr Firuz 970 Son of Adud al-Dawla 989–1012 1012 Also Senior Buyid Emir (997-1012) and Emir of Fars (999-1012) Emir Sultan al-Dawla Abu Shuja 992 Son of Baha' al-Dawla 1012–1021 1024 Also Senior Buyid Emir (1012-1021) and Emir of Fars (1012-1024) Emir, Shahanshah, King Musharrif al-Dawla Abu 'Ali 1002 Son of Baha' al-Dawla 1021–1025 1025 Closest thing to Senior Buyid Emir (1024-1025) Emir Jalal al-Dawla Abu Tahir Jalal al-Dawla 994 Son of Baha' al-Dawla 1027–1043 1043 Emir, Shahanshah Abu Kalijar Marzuban 1011 Son of Sultan al-Dawla 1043–1048 1048 Also Emir of Fars (1024-1048), Emir of Kerman (1028-1048) and Senior Buyid Emir (1037-1048) Emir Al-Malik al-Rahim Abu Nasr Khusrau Firuz ? Son of Abu Kalijar 1048–1055 1058 Also Senior Buyid Emir (1051-1055). Deposed by Tughril of the Seljuqs Ziyarid Kingdom (928–1043)[edit] Main article: Ziyarid dynasty Portrait Title Regnal name Personal Name Birth Family relations Reign Death Notes Ziyarid dynasty (928–1043) Abolhajjaj, Emir Mardavij ? son of Ziyar 928–934 934 Abutaher Voshmgir ? son of Ziyar 934–967 967 Zahir od-Dowleh Bisotoon ? son of Voshmgir 967–976 976 Shams ol-Ma'ali, Abolhasan Qabus ? son of Voshmgir 976–1012 1012 Falak ol-Ma'ali Manuchehr ? son of Qabus 1012–1031 1031 Sharaf ol-Ma'ali Anushiravan ? son of Manuchehr 1031–1043 1043 Onsor ol-Ma'ali Keikavus ? son of Eskandar son of Qabus ? ? Gilanshah ? son of Keykavous ? ? Seljuk Empire (1029–1194)[edit] Main article: Seljuk Empire A map showing the Great Seljuk Empire at its height, upon the death of Malik Shah I in 1092 For more comprehensive lists of kings and sub-kings of this Era see: Muslim dynasties of Iran Portrait Title Regnal name Personal name Birth Family relations Reign Death Notes Seljuqs (1029–1191) Beg, Sultan Rukn ad-Dunya wa'd-Din Toğrül I Abu Talib Mohammad 995 Son of Mikha'il son of Seljuq 1029–1063 1063 Shahanshah, Sultan ʿAdud ad-Dawla Alp Arslan Abu Shujaʿ Mohammad 1039 Son of Chaghri Beg Dawud brother of Toğrül I 1063–1072 1072 Sultan Jalal ad-Dawla wa'd-Din Malik Shah I Abu'l-Fath Hasan 1055 Son of Alp Arslan 1072–1092 1092 Killed by Assassins Sultan Nasir ad-Dawla wa'd-Din Abu'l-Qasim Mahmud I 1086 Son of Malik Shah I 1092–1094 1094 Sultan Rukn ad-Dunya wa'd-Din Abu'l-Muzaffar Barkiyaruq 1080 Son of Malik Shah I 1094–1105 1105 Sultan Ghiyath ad-Dunya wa'd-Din Abu Shuja Muhammad I Tapar 1082 Son of Malik Shah I 1105–1118 1118 Sultan Muglith ad-Dunya wa'd-Din Mahmud II 1104 Son of Muhammad I 1118–1131 1131 Dominated by his uncle Sanjar and killed in a rebellion against him. Sultan Rukn ad-Dunya wa'd-Din Abu Talib Toghrul II 1109 Son of Muhammad I 1132–1134 1134 Ruled only in Iraq, dominated by his uncle Ahmed Sanjar Sultan As-Salatin Muʿizz ad-Dunyā wa'd-Dīn Abu'l-Harith Ahmed Sanjar 1087 Son of Malik Shah I 1097–1157 1157 Ruled in Khorasan, dominating a series of nephews in Iraq. Sultan Ghiyath ad-Dawla wa'd-Din Abu'l-Fath Mas'ud 1109 Son of Muhammad I 1134–1152 1152 Ruled over the western portion of the empire. Preoccupations in the east meant Sanjar was unable to dominate him. Sultan Mugith ad-Dunya wa'd-Din Malik Shah III 1128 Son of Mahmud II 1152–1153 and 1160 1153 Deposed by Khass Bey Regained throne but then deposed by the people of Isfahan after 16 days. Sultan Ghiyath ad-Dunya wa'd-Din Abu Shuja Muhammad II 1128 Son of Mahmud II 1153–1160 1160 Rule contested with his uncle Sulayman Shah (1153-1155) Sultan Mu'izz ad-Dunya wa'd-Din Abu'l-Harith Sulayman Shah 1118 Son of Muhammad I 1153–1155 and 1160–1161 1162 Rule contested with his nephew Muhammad II Deposed by Inanj, Lord of Reyy and the court officials Sultan Rukn ad-Dunya wa'd-Din Arslan 1134 Son of Toghrul II 1161–1176 1176 De facto power in the hands of Ildeniz (1160-1174) and his son Pahlavan (1174-1176) Sultan Rukn ad-Dunya wa'd-Din Abu Talib Toghrul III ? Son of Arslan 1176–1194 1194 De facto power in the hands of Pahlavan (1176-1186) and Qizil Arslan (1186-1188). Deposed by Qizil Arslan in 1191. Killed by Khwarazm Shah Tekish Sultan Sanjar II ? Son of Sulayman Shah 1189–1191 1191 De facto power in the hands of Qizil Arslan (1189-1191). Deposed by Qizil Arslan in 1191. Eldiguzids (1191) Sultan Qizil Arslan ? Son of Ildeniz 1191 1191 Held de facto power (1186-1188). Deposed Qizil Arslan in 1191, declared himself Sultan and died an hour before his coronation. Khwarazmian Empire (1153–1220)[edit] Main article: Khwarazmian Empire Khwarazmian Empire at its greatest extent An empire built from Khwarezm, covering part of Iran and neighbouring Central Asia. For more comprehensive lists of kings and sub-kings of this Era see: Muslim dynasties of Iran Portrait Title Regnal name Personal name Birth Family Relations Reign Death Note Khwarazmian dynasty (1153–1220) Sultan Ala ad-Dunya wa ad-Din Abul-Muzaffar Atsiz 1097/1105 son of Muhammad I of Khwarazm 1153–1156 1156 Ruling in Khwārazm from 1127 Sultan Taj ad-Dunya wa ad-Din Abul-Fath Il-Arslan ? son of Atsiz 1156–1172 1172 Sultan Ala ad-Dunya wa ad-Din Abul-Muzaffar Tekish ? son of Il-Arslan 1172–1200 1200 With opposition from Sultan shah Shah Ala ad-Dunya wa ad-Din Abul-Fath Muhammad Sanjar ? son of Tekish 1200–1220 1220 Eliminated by the Mongols Sultan Jalal ad-Dunya wa ad-Din Abul-Muzaffar Mingburnu ? son of Muhammad 1220–1231 1231 Reign largely guerilla warfare against the Mongol conquerors Mongol Empire (1220–1256)[edit] Main article: Mongol Empire Mongol Empire at its greatest extent For more comprehensive lists of kings and sub-kings of this Era see: Muslim dynasties of Iran Portrait Title Regnal name Personal name Birth Family relations Reign Death Notes Khan Genghis Temujin 1162 Son of Yesugei Baghatur 1220–1227 1227 Ruling in Mongolia from 1206 Khan Tolui 1192 Son of Genghis 25 August 1227 – 13 September 1229 13 September 1229 Regent Khan Ögedei c. 1186 Son of Genghis 13 September 1229 – 11 December 1241 1232 Khatun Töregene ? Wife of Ögedei 1242 – March 1246 ? Regent Khan Güyük c. 1206 Son of Ögedei and Töregene 1246–1248 1248 Khatun Oghul Qaimish ? Wife of Güyük 1248–1251 1251 Regent Khan Möngke 10 January 1209 Son of Tolui 1 July 1251 – 11 August 1259 11 August 1259 Ilkhanate and successor kingdoms (1256–1501)[edit] Main article: Ilkhanate Ilkhanate at its greatest extent For more comprehensive lists of kings and sub-kings of this Era see: Muslim dynasties of Iran Ilkhanate (1256–1357)[edit] Portrait Title Throne name Personal name Birth Family relations Reign Death Notes Khan, Ilkhan Hulagu c. 1217 Son of Tolui 1256 – 8 February 1265 8 February 1265 Khan, Ilkhan Abaqa 1234 Son of Hulagu 1265 – 1 April 1282 1 April 1282 Khan, Ilkhan, Sultan Ahmad Nicholas Tekuder ? Son of Hulagu 1282–1284 1284 Killed by Arghun Khan, Ilkhan, Sultan Arghun c. 1258 Son of Abaqa 1284 – 7 March 1291 7 March 1291 Khan, Ilkhan, Sultan Gaykhatu ? Son of Abaqa 1291–1295 1295 Killed by general Taghachar Khan, Ilkhan, Sultan Baydu ? Son of Taraqai son of Hulagu 1295 1295 Executed by Ghazan Khan, Ilkhan, Sultan Mahmud Ghazan 5 November 1271 Son of Arghun 1295–1304 1304 Khan, Ilkhan, Sultan, Muhammad Khodabandeh Öljaitü 1280 Son of Arghun 1304 – 16 December 1316 16 December 1316 Khan, Ilkhan, Sultan Abu Sa'id Ala' ad-Din Bahadur 2 June 1305 Son of Öljaitü 1316 – 1 December 1335 1 December 1335 Khan, Ilkhan, Sultan Arpa Ke'un Mu'izz ad-Din Mahmud ? Son of Suseh son of Munkqan son of Malik-Temur son of Ariq Böke son of Tolui 1335 – 10 April 1336 10 April 1336 Killed in battle by Ali Padshah Khan, Ilkhan, Sultan Nasir ad-Din Musa ? Son of Ali son of Baydu 12 April 1336 – 1337 1337 Puppet of Ali Padshah, fled after being defeated by the Jalayirid Hasan Buzurg Khan, Ilkhan, Sultan Togha Temür ? Son of Sudi son of Bababahathor son of Abokan son of Amakan son of Tur son of Jujiqisar son of Yesugei Baghatur 1335–1353 1353 In opposition to Jalayirid and Chupanid candidates, killed by the Sarbadar Yahya Karawi Khan, Ilkhan, Sultan, Muzaffar ad-Din Muhammad ? Son of Yul Qotloq son of Il Temur son of Ambarji son of Mengu Temur son of Hulagu 1336–1338 1338 Puppet of Hasan Buzurg, executed by the Chupanid Hasan Kucek Khatun Sati beg c. 1300 Daughter of Öljaitü 1338–1339 After 1345 Puppet of Hasan Kucek, who deposed her. Khan, Ilkhan, Sultan, Izz ad-Din Jahan Temür ? Son of Ala-Fireng son of Gaykhatu 1339–1340 ? Puppet of Hasan Buzurg, who deposed him for Togha Temür. Khan, Ilkhan, Sultan Suleiman ? Husband of Sati beg and son of Yusef Shah son of Soga son of Yeshmut son of Hulagu May 1339 – 1345 ? Puppet of Hasan Kucek, fled to Diyarbakr in the disorder after his death. Khan, Ilkhan, Sultan Anushirwan ? ? 1344–1356 ? Puppet of the Chupanid Malek Ashraf Khan, Ilkhan, Sultan Luqman ? Son of Togha Temür 1353–1388 ? Puppet of Timur Khan, Ilkhan, Sultan Ghazan II ? ? 1356–1357 ? Puppet of Malek Ashraf Sarbadars (1332–1386)[edit] Sarbadars in 1345 Portrait Title Name Birth Family relations Reign Death Notes Amir Abd al-Razzaq ibn Fazlullah ? 1337–1338 1338 Revolted against Togha Temür, stabbed to death by his brother Amir Wajih ad-Din Masud ibn Fazlullah ? brother of Abd al-Razzaq 1338–1344 1344 Captured by the Paduspanids and executed. Amir Muhammad Aytimur (1343–1346) ? Unrelated to predecessors 1344–1346 1346 Overthrown and executed Amir Kulu Isfendiyar ? Unrelated to predecessors 1346–c. 1347 c. 1347 Amir Shams al-Din ibn Fazl Allah ? brother of Abd al-Razzaq c. 1347 ? Forced to abdicate by successor Amir Khwaja Shams al-Din 'Ali ? Unrelated to predecessors 1347–1351/1352 1351/1352 Assassinated by a disgruntled official Amir Yahya Karawi ? Unrelated to predecessors 1351/1352–1355/1356 1355/1356 Eliminated Togha Temür, assassinated. Amir Zahir al-Din Karawi ? Nephew of Yahya Karawi 1355/1356 1355/1356 Deposed by vizier Amir Haidar Qassab ? Unrelated to predecessors 1355/1356 1356 Assassinated by a Turkish slave Amir Lutf Allah ? Son of Wajih ad-Din Masud 1356–1357/1358 or 1361 1357/1358 or 1361 Deposed and executed by his vizier Amir Hasan al-Damghani ? Unrelated to predecessors 1357/1358 or 1361–1361/1362 1361/1362 Overthrown by Dervish rebels Amir Khwaja 'Ali-yi Mu'ayyad ibn Masud ? Unrelated to predecessors 1361/1362–1376/1377 and 1376/1377–1381 ? Restored, became vassal of Tamerlane in 1381 Amir Rukn ad-Din ? Unrelated to predecessors 1376/1377 ? Installed by Dervish rebels. Chupanids (1335–1357)[edit] Chupanids at their greatest extent Portrait Title Name Birth Family relations Reign Death Notes Amir Hassan Kuchak c. 1319 Son of Timurtash son of Chupan 16 July 1338 – 15 December 1343 15 December 1343 Ruled on behalf of his Il-Khanate puppets Sati Beg and Suleiman Khan. Amir Yagi Basti ? Son of Chupan 1343–1344 1344 Assassinated by his co-ruler Malek Ashraf. Amir Surgan c. 1320 Son of Chupan and Sati Beg 1343–1345 1345 Driven out by his co-ruler Malek Ashraf. Amir Malek Ashraf ? Brother of Hassan Kuchak 1343–1357 1357 Ruled on behalf of his Il-Khanate puppets Anushirwan. Hung by Jani Beg of the Golden Horde. Amir Temürtas ? Son of Malek Ashraf 1360 1360 Short-lived puppet of the Golden Horde. Jalayirids (1335–1432)[edit] Jalayirids at their greatest extent Portrait Title Regnal name Personal name Birth Family relations Reign Death Notes Ulus Beg Taj-ud-Din Hasan Buzurg ? Son-in-law of Chupan 1336–1356 1356 Ruled through Ilkhanate puppets Muhammad Khan and Jahan Temür. Bahadur Khan Mu'izz-ud-dunya wa'd-Din Shaikh Uvais c. 1337–1374 Son of Hasan Buzurg 1356–1374 1374 Shaikh Hasan ? Son of Shaikh Uvais 1374–1374 1374 Killed by the Amirs Shaikh Jalal-ud-Din Husain I (1374–1382) ? Son of Shaikh Uvais 1374–1382 1382 Executed by his rebellious brother Ahmed Shaikh Bayazid ? Son of Shaikh Uvais 1382–1384 1384 In opposition to Husain and Ahmed Sultan Ghiyath ud-Din Ahmad ? Son of Shaikh Uvais 1383–1410 1410 In exile 1393-4, 1400-2, 1403-5. Killed in battle by Qara Yusuf Sultan Ala ud-Dunya Shah Walad ? Son of Ali, son of Uvais 1410–1411 1411 Sultan Mahmud ? Son of Shah Walad 1411 1425 Under regency of Tandu Khatun Sultan Uvais ? Son of Shah Walad 1415–1421 1421 Sultan Muhammad ? Son of Shah Walad 1421 1421 Sultan Mahmud ? Son of Shah Walad 1421–1425 1425 Second reign Hussain ? Son of Ala-ud-Dawlah, son of Ahmed 1425–1432 1432 Defeated by Kara Koyunlu Injuids (1335–1357)[edit] Injuids at their greatest extent Portrait Title Name Birth Family relations Reign Death Notes Sharaf ad-Din Mahmud Shah ? 1304–1335 1335 Highly autonomous master of the Ilkhanate royal estates (the injü), removed by Abu Sa'id, executed by Arpa Ke'un. Amir Ghiyath ad-Din Kai-Khusrau ? Son of Mahmud Shah 1335–1338/9 1338/9 Amir Jalal ad-Din Mas'ud Shah ? Son of Mahmud Shah 1338–1342 1342 In opposition to Kai-Khusrau. Jalayirid partisan. Assassinated by Chupanids. Amir Shams ad-Din Muhammad ? Son of Mahmud Shah 1339/40 1339/40 In opposition to Mas'ud Shah. Murdered by his Chupanid supporter. Amir Shaikh Abu Ishaq ? Son of Mahmud Shah 1343–1357 ? Defeated & executed by the Muzaffarids Muzaffarids (1314–1393)[edit] Muzaffarids at its greatest extent Portrait Title Name Birth Family relations Reign Death Notes Emir Mubariz ad-Din Muhammad ibn al-Muzaffar 1301 1314–1358 1368 Founder of the Muzaffarid dynasty Emir Shah Shuja ? 1358–1384 1384 Emir Zain al-Abidin ? 1384–1387 1387 Emir Shah Yahya ? 1387–1391 1391 Only ruled in Shiraz Emir Shah Mansur ? 1391–1393 1393 Kara Koyunlu (1375–1468)[edit] Kara Koyunlu at its greatest extent Portrait Title Regnal Name Personal Name Birth Reign Death Family relations Notes Bey Qara Muhammad Qara Muhammad Turmush ibn Bairam Khwaja ? 1378–1388 1388 First Bey of Kara Koynulu Bey Qara Yusuf Abu Nasr Qara Yusuf Nuyan ibn Muhammad ? 1388–1420 1420 Reign ended by Timurid invasion Bey Qara Iskander Qara Iskander ibn Yusuf ? 1420–1436 1436 Killed Bey Jahan Shah Muzaffar al-Din Jahan Shah ibn Yusuf 1397 1438 – 11 November 1467 11 November 1467 Son of Qara Yusuf Killed by Uzun Hasan of the Ak Koyunlu Bey Hasan Ali Hasan Ali ibn Jahan Shah ? 11 November 1467 – 1468 1468 Son of Jahan Shah Killed by Uzun Hasan of the Ak Koyunlu Aq Koyunlu (1378–1497)[edit] Ak Koyunlu at the year of Uzun Hasan's death, 1478 Sources:[20][21] Portrait Title Regnal Name Personal Name Birth Family relations Reign Death Notes Bey Qara Osman Qara Yuluk (Nickname) ? 1378–1435 1435 For aiding Timur, he was given Diyarbakir in 1402 Bey Ali Nur al-Din Ali ibn Qara Yülük ? Son of Qara Osman 1435–1438 1438 Bey Hamza ? 1403–1435 1444 Bey Jahangir M‘uizz al-Din Jahangir ibn Ali ibn Qara Yülük ? Son of Qara Osman 1444–1453 1453 Bey Uzun Hassan Uzun Hassan ibn Jahangir ? Son of Jahangir 1453 – 6 January 1478 6 January 1478 Bey Khalil Khalil ibn Uzun Hasan ? Son of Uzun Hasan 1478–1479 1479 Bey Yaqub Yaqub ibn Uzun Hasan ? Son of Uzun Hasan 1479–1490 1490 Bey Baysongur Baysongur ibn Yaqub ? Son of Yaqub 1490–1491 1491 Bey Rostam Rostam ibn Maqsud ? Son of Maqsud 1491–1497 1497 Bey Ahmad Govde Ahmad Govde ibn Muhammad ? Son of Muhammad 1497 1497 Timurid Empire (1370–1507)[edit] Main article: Timurid Empire Locator map of the Timurid Empire, c. 1400 Portrait Title Regnal name Personal name Birth Family relations Reign Death Notes Timurid dynasty (1370–1507) Amir, Beg, Gurkani, Sahib Qiran, Sultan Timur Timur bin Taraghai Barlas, later Timur Gurkani 9 April 1336 Son of Muhammad Taraghai 1370 – 18 February 1405 18 February 1405 Emir Pir Muhammad Pir Muhammad bin Jahangir c. 1374 Grandson of Timur 18 February 1405 – 22 February 1407 22 February 1407 Emir, Sultan, Shah Khalil Sultan Khalil Sultan bin Miran Shah c. 1384 Grandson of Timur 18 February 1405 – 13 May 1409 13 May 1409 Mirza Shah Rukh Shah Rukh 30 August 1377 Son of Timur 18 February 1405 – 12 March 1447 12 March 1447 Mirza, Sultan Ulugh Beg Mirza Muhammad Tāraghay 22 March 1394 Son of Shahrukh Mirza 12 March 1447 – 27 October 1449 27 October 1449 Deposed and murdered by his successor Rulers in Transoxiana (1449–1469): Mirza, Sultan Abdal-Latif Padarkush c. 1429 Son of Ulugh Beg 27 October 1449 – 9 May 1450 9 May 1450 Murdered by Amirs Mirza 'Abdullah c. 1410 Grandson of Shah Rukh 9 May 1450 – June 1451 June 1451 Deposed and executed by his successor Mirza Abu Sa'id 1424 Nephew of Ulugh Beg and great-grandson of Timur June 1451 – 17 February 1469 17 February 1469 Conquered Khurasan in 1459, realm disintegrates at his death. Rulers in Khurasan (1449–1459, 1459–1507) Mirza Abul-Qasim Babur ? Grandson of Shah Rukh 1449–1457 1457 Mirza Shah Mahmud c. 1446 Son of Babur 1457–1457 1460s Expelled by successor Mirza Ibrahim ? Nephew of Babur 1457 – March 1459 March 1459 Died at Battle of Sarakhs Interregnum (1459–1469) Mirza, Sultan Husayn Bayqarah June/July 1438 Great-grandson of Timur 24 March 1469 – 4 May 1506 4 May 1506 Mirza Badi' al-Zaman ? Son of Husayn 4 May 1506 – 1507 1517 Driven out by Uzbeks Uzbeks (1507–1510) Khan Shaybani Khan Abul Fath Muhammad c. 1451 1507 – 2 December 1510 2 December 1510 Died at the Battle of Marv Note: Medieval Persia is generally agreed to have ended with rise of the Safavid Empire Safavid Empire (1501–1736)[edit] Main article: Safavid Empire The maximum extent of the Safavid Empire under Shah Abbas I Portrait Title Regnal name Personal name Birth Family relations Reign Death Notes Safavid dynasty (1501–1736) Shah, Sultan, Kagan-i Suleyman shan Ismail I 1487 son of Sultan Heidar 7 November 1502 – 23 May 1524 23 May 1524 Shah, Sahib-i-Qiran, Sultan bar Salatin, Kagan-i Suleyman shan Tahmasp I 1514 son of Ismail I 23 May 1525 – 25 May 1576 25 May 1576 Shah Ismail II 1537 son of Tahmasp I 25 May 1576 – 24 November 1577 24 November 1577 Poisoned (?) Shah, Khodabandeh, Ashraf, Soltan Mohammad I 1532 son of Tahmasp I 25 May 1576 – 1 October 1587 1596 Deposed Shahanshah, Sultan, Great Abbas I the Great[22] 1571 son of Mohammad I 1 October 1587 – 19 January 1629 19 January 1629 Shah, Mirza Safi Sam Mirza 1611 son of Mohammd Baqer (Safi) Mirza son of Abbas I 19 January 1629 – 12 May 1642 12 May 1642 Shah Abbas II 1632 son of Safi 12 May 1642 – 26 October 1666 26 October 1666 Shah, Hakem-ol Hokama Suleiman I Safi Mirza 1645 son of Abbas II 26 October 1666 – 29 July 1694 29 July 1694 Shah, Sultan, Sadr-ol Hakem Sultan Husayn 1668 son of Suleiman I 29 July 1694 – 11 September 1722 11 September 1722 Deposed and killed by Ashraf Hotak Afghan Rebellion Shah Mahmud Hotak 1697? son-in-law of Sultan Husayn son of Mirwais Khan Hotak 23 October 1722 – 22 April 1725 22 April 1725 Recognised as Shah of Persia after the Siege of Isfahan Shah Ashraf Hotak ? cousin of Mahmud Hotak 22 April 1725 – 5 October 1729 5 October 1729 Ruled in opposition to Tahmasp II and lost control of Persia after the Battle of Damghan Safavid Restoration Shah Tahmasp II 1704 son of Sultan Husayn 11 September 1722 – 16 April 1732 1740 Ruled in opposition to Mahmud Hotak, later deposed and killed by Nader Shah Abbas III 1730 son of Tahmasp II 16 April 1732 – 22 January 1736 1739 Under control of Nader. Deposed and killed by Nader Afsharid Empire (1736–1796)[edit] Main article: Afsharid dynasty Afsharid dynasty at its greatest extent Portrait Title Regnal name Personal name Birth Family relations Reign Death Notes Afsharid dynasty (1736–1796) Shahanshah, Sultan, Hakem-ol Hokama, Hazrat-e Ashraf, Zel- ol Allah Nader Shah Nadhar Qoli Khan 1698 son of Imam Qoli Beig Afshar 22 January 1736 – 19 June 1747 19 June 1747 Before crowning his title was Tahmasp Qoli Khan. Killed Shah Adil Shah Ali Qoli Beig 1719/20 son of Mohammad Ebrahim Khan brother of Nader 19 June 1747 – 29 July 1748 1749 Deposed, blinded and killed by Ebrahim Shah Ebrahim Afshar Mohammd Ali Beig 1724 son of Mohammad Ebrahim Khan brother of Nader 29 July 1748 – 3 September 1748 1749 Deposed and killed by Shahrukh Afshar Shah Shahrukh Afshar 1734 son of Reza Qoli Mirza son of Nader. His mother was Fatemeh Soltan Beigom daughter of Sultan Husayn I Safavi 3 September 1748 – 1796 1796 Deposed & blinded by Suleiman II (1749), restored (1750) Brief Safavid control[23] (1749–1750) Shah Suleiman II of Persia Mir Sayyed Mohammad Marashi ? Pretender to the Safavid throne 1749–1750 ? Removed and blinded Afsharid restoration[24] (1750–1796) Shah Shahrukh Afshar 1734 son of Reza Qoli Mirza son of Nader. His mother was Fatemeh Soltan Beigom daughter of Sultan Husayn I Safavi 3 September 1748 – 1796 1796 Deposed & blinded by Suleiman II (1749), restored (1750) Zand Kingdom (1751–1794)[edit] Main article: Zand dynasty Map of the Zand dynasty at Lotf Ali Khan time Portrait Title Regnal name Personal name Birth Reign Death Family relations Notes Zand dynasty (1751–1794) Khan, Vakil e-Ra'aayaa Karim Khan Zand Mohammad Karim 1705 1751 – 6 March 1779 6 March 1779 son of Inaq Khan & Bay Agha Khan Mohammad Ali Khan Zand 1760 6 March 1779 – 19 June 1779 19 June 1779 son of Karim Khan Abol-Fath Khan Zand 1755 6 March 1779 – 22 August 1779 1787 son of Karim Khan Zaki Khan Zand ? 6 March 1779 – 22 August 1779 22 August 1779 son of Budaq Khan & Bay Agha Khan Sadeq Khan Zand Mohammad Sadeq ? 22 August 1779 – 14 March 1781 1782 son of Inaq Khan & Bay Agha Khan Ali-Morad Khan Zand 1720 14 March 1781 – 11 February 1785 11 February 1785 son of Allah Morad (Qeytas) Khan Zand Hazareh Khan Jafar Khan ? 18 February 1785 – 23 January 1789 23 January 1789 son of Sadeq Khan Sayed Morad Khan ? 23 January 1789 – 10 May 1789 10 May 1789 son of Khoda Morad Khan Zand Hazareh Khan Lotf Ali Khan 1769 23 January 1789 – 20 March 1794 20 March 1794 son of Ja'far Deposed, blinded and killed by Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar Qajar Empire (1794–1925)[edit] Main article: Qajar Iran Map of the Qajar dynasty at Mohammad Khan time Portrait Title Regnal name Personal name Birth Reign Death Family relations Note Qajar dynasty (1794–1925) Khan, Shahanshah, Khaqan Mohammad Khan Qajar Agha Mohammad Khan 14 March 1742 20 March 1794 – 17 June 1797 17 June 1797 son of Mohammad Hassan Khan Qajar Gelded prior to accession. Assassinated Shahanshah, Khaqan, Soltane Saheb Qaran Fath-Ali Shah Qajar Baba Khan 5 September 1772 17 June 1797 – 23 October 1834 23 October 1834 son of Hosein Qoli Khan Jahansuz brother of Mohammad Shahanshah, Khaqan Mohammad Shah Qajar Mohammad Mirza 5 January 1808 23 October 1834 – 5 September 1848 5 September 1848 son of Abbas Mirza Nayeb os-Saltaneh son of Fath-Ali Shahanshah, Khaqan, Soltane Saheb Qaran, Qebleye alam Naser al-Din Shah Qajar 16 July 1831 5 September 1848 – 1 May 1896 1 May 1896 son of Mohammad and Mahd-e Olia Assassinated at Shah-Abdol-Azim by Mirza Reza Kermani Shahanshah, Khaqan Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar 23 March 1853 1 May 1896 – 3 January 1907 3 January 1907 son of Naser al-Din Shahanshah Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar 21 June 1872 3 January 1907 – 16 July 1909 5 April 1925 son of Mozaffar ad-Din Deposed Shahanshah Ahmad Shah Qajar 21 January 1898 16 July 1909 – 15 December 1925 21 February 1930 son of Mohammad Ali Deposed Pahlavi Empire (1925–1979)[edit] Main article: Pahlavi dynasty Map of the Pahlavi dynasty Portrait Title Regnal name Personal name Birth Reign Death Family relations Notes Pahlavi dynasty (1925–1979) Shahanshah Reza Shah Reza Khan (later Pahlavi) 15 March 1878 15 December 1925 – 16 September 1941 26 July 1944 son of Abbas Ali Abdicated during the Anglo-Soviet invasion Shahanshah Ariamehr Mohammad Reza Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi 26 October 1919 16 September 1941 – 11 February 1979 27 July 1980 son of Reza Shah Deposed during the Iranian Revolution See also[edit] Iranian monarchy Monarchism in Iran Supreme Leader of Iran History of Iran Persian Empire List of ancient Persians Shah Shahbanu Notes and references[edit] ^ Behistun Inscription: This is Phraortes. He lied, saying: "I am Khshathrita, of the dynasty of Cyaxares. I am king in Media." ^ G. Posener, La première domination perse en Égypte, Cairo, 1936, pp. 30-36. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath, Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen (= Münchner ägyptologische Studien, vol 46), Mainz am Rhein: Verlag Philipp von Zabern, 1999. ISBN 3-8053-2310-7, pp. 220–21. ^ "Ahasuerus". JewishEncyclopedia.com. Retrieved 25 July 2014. ^ a b CNG: KINGS of PERSIS. Vādfradād (Autophradates) II. Early-mid 2nd century BC. AR Tetradrachm (25mm, 16.23 g, 11h). Istakhr (Persepolis) mint. ^ Rezakhani, Khodadad (2010). "The "Unbekannter König III" and the Coinage of Hellenistic and Arsacid Persis". Nameye Iran-E Bastan, 15. ^ a b Assar, 2004.Assar, 2005. Assar, "Moses of Choren & the Early Parthian Chronology", 2006. ^ a b c d e f g Qashqai, H., "The successors of Mithridates II" ^ a b c d e f g Assar, G.R.F., "A Revised Parthian Chronology of the Period 165-91 BC" Qashqai, H., "The successors of Mithridates II" ^ Assar, G.R.F., "A Revised Parthian Chronology of the Period 165-91 BC" ^ Josephus Flavius, Antiquities of the Jews, Book XVI, Ch.8.4 ^ Tacitus, The Annals, 11.10 ^ See: Unknown King (III) (c. AD 140) ^ See: Tiridates III (c. AD 224 – 228?) ^ In Persian it means "King of Kings" ^ "The great king of Armenians" ^ "The penetrator of the shoulders" ^ "Queen" ^ In arabic, ibn means son of. so muhammad ibn suri means: muhammad son of suri (so suri is his father) ^ Muʾayyid S̲ābitī, ʻAlī (1967). Asnad va Namahha-yi Tarikhi (Historical documents and letters from early Islamic period towards the end of Shah Ismaʻil Safavi's reign.). Iranian culture & literature (46). Kitābkhānah-ʾi Ṭahūrī., pp. 193, 274, 315, 330, 332, 422 and 430. See also: Abdul Hussein Navai, Asnaad o Mokatebaat Tarikhi Iran (Historical sources and letters of Iran), Tehran, Bongaah Tarjomeh and Nashr-e-Ketab, 2536, pages 578,657, 701-702 and 707 ^ H.R. Roemer, "The Safavid Period", in Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. VI, Cambridge University Press 1986, p. 339: "Further evidence of a desire to follow in the line of Turkmen rulers is Ismail's assumption of the title 'Padishah-i-Iran', previously held by Uzun Hasan." ^ بزرگ. ^ "Ottoman and Persian Empires 1730-1875 by Sanderson Beck". ^ Lang, David Marshall (1957), The Last Years of the Georgian Monarchy, 1658-1832, p. 148. Columbia University Press Bibliography[edit] Assar, G.R.F., "Genealogy & Coinage of the Early Parthian Rulers. I", Parthica, 6, 2004, pp. 69–93. Assar, G.R.F., "Genealogy & Coinage of the Early Parthian Rulers, II a revised stemma", Parthica, 7, 2005, pp. 29–63. Assar, G.R.F., "Moses of Choren & the Early Parthian Chronology", Electrum, vol. 11, 2006, pp. 61–86. Assar, G.R.F., "A Revised Parthian Chronology of the Period 165-91 B.C.", Electrum, vol. 11, 2006, pp. 87–158. Assar, G.R.F., "A Revised Parthian Chronology of the Period 91-55 B.C.", Parthica, 8, 2006, pp. 55–104. Briant, Pierre, "From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire", 2002. Cameron, George, "History of Early Iran", Chicago, 1936 (repr., Chicago, 1969; tr. E.-J. Levin, L’histoire de l’Iran antique, Paris, 1937; tr. H. Anusheh, ایران در سپیده دم تاریخ, Tehran, 1993) D’yakonov, I. M., "Istoriya Midii ot drevenĭshikh vremen do kontsa IV beka de e.E" (The history of Media from ancient times to the end of the 4th century BC), Moscow and Leningrad, 1956; tr. Karim Kešāvarz as Tāriḵ-e Mād, Tehran, 1966. Dandamaev, Muhammad A., "Persien unter den ersten Achämeniden (6. Jahrhundert v. Chr.)", tr. Heinz-Dieter Pohl, Wiesbaden, 1976. Qashqai, H., "The successors of Mithridates II", Bulletin of Ancient Iranian History (UCLA), vol. 5, March 2009.(in Persian) Henkelman, wouter. Defining Neo-Elamite History. ARTA, 2003. Hinz, W., "The Lost World of Elam", London, 1972 (tr. F. Firuznia, دنیای گمشده ایلام, Tehran, 1992) Josephus Flavius, Antiquities of the Jews. Justi, Ferdinand, "Iranisches Namenbuch", Tehran, Asatir, 2003. Legrain, Leon, "Historical Fragments", Philadelphia, The University of Pennsylvania Museum Publications of the Babylonian Section, vol. XIII, 1922. Majidzadeh, Yusef, "History and civilization of Elam", Tehran, Iran University Press, 1991. Majidzadeh, Yusef, "History and civilization of Mesopotamia", Tehran, Iran University Press, 1997, vol.1. Miroschedji, P. de, 'La fin du royaume de l’Ansˇan et de Suse et la naissance de l’empire perse', 1985, ZA 75, pp. 265–306. Nöldeke, Theodor, "Geschichte der Perser und Araber zur Zeit der Sasaniden. Aus der arabischen Chronik des Tabari übersetzt" (1879) Olmstead, A. T., "History of the Persian Empire", Chicago, 1948 Plutarch, Lives. Polybius, The Histories. Potts, D. T., The Archaeology of Elam, Cambridge University Press, 1999. Reade, Julian E. Elam after the Assyrian Sack of Susa in 647 B.C. NABU, 2000. Tacitus, The Annals. Tavernier, Jan. Some Thoughts on Neo-Elamite Chronology. ARTA, 2004. The Cambridge Ancient History (CAH) The Cambridge History of Iran (CHI), vol. 1, THE LAND OF IRAN, Cambridge University Press, 1968. The Cambridge History of Iran (CHI), vol. 2, THE MEDIAN AND ACHAEMENIAN PERIODS, Cambridge University Press, 1985. The Cambridge History of Iran (CHI), vol. 3(I), THE SELEUCID, PARTHIAN AND SASANIAN PERIODS, Cambridge University Press, 1983. The Cambridge History of Iran (CHI), vol. 3(II), THE SELEUCID, PARTHIAN AND SASANIAN PERIODS, Cambridge University Press, 1983. The Cambridge History of Iran (CHI), vol. 4, THE PERIOD FROM THE ARAB INVASION TO THE SALJUQS, Cambridge University Press, 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran (CHI), vol. 5, THE SALJUQ AND MONGOL PERIODS, Cambridge University Press, 1968. The Cambridge History of Iran (CHI), vol. 6, THE TIMURID AND SAFAVID PERIODS, Cambridge University Press, 1986. The Cambridge History of Iran (CHI), vol. 7, FROM NADIR SHAH TO THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC, Cambridge University Press, 1991. Vallat, Francois. Elam: The History of Elam. Encyclopædia Iranica, vol. VIII pp. 301–313. London/New York, 1998. Vallat, Francois. Shutruk-Nahunte, Shutur-Nahunte et l'imbroglio neo-elamite. NABU, 1995. Vallat, Francois. Le royaume elamite de SAMATI. NABU, 1996. Vallat, Francois. Les pretendus fonctionnaires Unsak des texts neo-elamites et achemenides. ARTA, 2002. Vallat, Francois. Le royaume elamite de Zamin et les 'Letters de Nineveh'. Iranica Antique, 33, 1998. pp. 95–106. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_monarchs_of_Persia&oldid=998054657" Categories: Iran history-related lists Lists of monarchs Monarchs of Persia Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from May 2020 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية تۆرکجه Български Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Frysk Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk bokmål پنجابی Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 3 January 2021, at 16:10 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4331	----	Caria - Wikipedia Caria From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Caria (disambiguation). Caria (Καρία) Ancient Region of Anatolia Theater in Caunos Location Southwestern Anatolia State existed 11th–6th century BC Language Carian Biggest city Halicarnassus Roman province Asia Location of Caria within the classical regions of Asia Minor/Anatolia Caria (/ˈkɛəriə/; from Greek: Καρία, Karia, Turkish: Karya) was a region of western Anatolia extending along the coast from mid-Ionia (Mycale) south to Lycia and east to Phrygia.[1] The Ionian and Dorian Greeks colonized the west of it and joined the Carian population in forming Greek-dominated states there. The inhabitants of Caria, known as Carians, had arrived there before the Ionian and Dorian Greeks. They were described by Herodotus as being of Minoan descent,[2] while the Carians themselves maintained that they were Anatolian mainlanders intensely engaged in seafaring and were akin to the Mysians and the Lydians.[2] The Carians did speak an Anatolian language, known as Carian, which does not necessarily reflect their geographic origin, as Anatolian once may have been widespread.[citation needed] Also closely associated with the Carians were the Leleges, which could be an earlier name for Carians or for a people who had preceded them in the region and continued to exist as part of their society in a reputedly second-class status.[citation needed] Contents 1 Municipalities of Caria 1.1 Coastal Caria 1.2 Inland Caria 2 History 2.1 Pre-Classical Greek states and people 2.2 Sovereign state hosting the Greeks 2.3 Lydian province 2.4 Persian satrapy 2.5 Macedonian empire 2.6 Roman-Byzantine province 2.7 Dissolution under the Byzantine Empire and passage to Turkish rule 3 See also 4 Notes 5 Bibliography 6 Further reading 7 External links Municipalities of Caria[edit] The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, one of the Seven wonders of the ancient world, was built by Greek architects for the local Achaemenid satrap of Caria, Mausolus (Scale model) Carian cities in white. This map depicts the current rivers and coastline and certain features have changed over the years, notably Miletus, Heracleia, and Myus were on the south side of a gulf and Priene on the north side; the river Maeander has since filled in the gulf. Also politically Telmessos, Miletus, and Kalynda were sometimes considered Carian and sometimes not Cramer's detailed catalog of Carian towns in classical Greece is based entirely on ancient sources.[3] The multiple names of towns and geomorphic features, such as bays and headlands, reveal an ethnic layering consistent with the known colonization. Coastal Caria[edit] Coastal Caria begins with Didyma south of Miletus,[4] but Miletus had been placed in the pre-Greek Caria. South of it is the Iassicus Sinus (Güllük Körfezi) and the towns of Iassus and Bargylia, giving an alternative name of Bargyleticus Sinus to Güllük Körfezi, and nearby Cindye, which the Carians called Andanus. After Bargylia is Caryanda or Caryinda, and then on the Bodrum Peninsula Myndus (Mentecha or Muntecha), 56 miles (90 km) from Miletus. In the vicinity is Naziandus, exact location unknown. On the tip of the Bodrum Peninsula (Cape Termerium) is Termera (Telmera, Termerea), and on the other side Ceramicus Sinus (Gökova Körfezi). It "was formerly crowded with numerous towns."[5] Halicarnassus, a Dorian Greek city, was planted there among six Carian towns: Theangela, Sibde, Medmasa, Euranium, Pedasa or Pedasum, and Telmissus. These with Myndus and Synagela (or Syagela or Souagela) constitute the eight Lelege towns. Also on the north coast of the Ceramicus Sinus is Ceramus and Bargasus. On the south of the Ceramicus Sinus is the Carian Chersonnese, or Triopium Promontory (Cape Krio), also called Doris after the Dorian colony of Cnidus. At the base of the peninsula (Datça Peninsula) is Bybassus or Bybastus from which an earlier names, the Bybassia Chersonnese, had been derived. It was now Acanthus and Doulopolis ("slave city"). South of the Carian Chersonnese is Doridis Sinus, the "Gulf of Doris" (Gulf of Symi), the locale of the Dorian Confederacy. There are three bays in it: Bubassius, Thymnias and Schoenus, the last enclosing the town of Hyda. In the gulf somewhere are Euthene or Eutane, Pitaeum, and an island: Elaeus or Elaeussa near Loryma. On the south shore is the Cynossema, or Onugnathos Promontory, opposite Symi. South of there is the Rhodian Peraea, a section of the coast under Rhodes. It includes Loryma or Larymna in Oedimus Bay, Gelos, Tisanusa, the headland of Paridion, Panydon or Pandion (Cape Marmorice) with Physicus, Amos, Physca or Physcus, also called Cressa (Marmaris). Beyond Cressa is the Calbis River (Dalyan River). On the other side is Caunus (near Dalyan), with Pisilis or Pilisis and Pyrnos between. Then follow some cities that some assign to Lydia and some to Caria: Calynda on the Indus River, Crya, Carya, Carysis or Cari and Alina in the Gulf of Glaucus (Katranci Bay or the Gulf of Makri), the Glaucus River being the border. Other Carian towns in the gulf are Clydae or Lydae and Aenus. Inland Caria[edit] Relief of an Amazonomachy from the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. The coast of Milas. At the base of the east end of Latmus near Euromus, and near Milas where the current village Selimiye is, was the district of Euromus or Eurome, possibly Europus, formerly Idrieus and Chrysaoris (Stratonicea). The name Chrysaoris once applied to all of Caria; moreover, Euromus was originally settled from Lycia. Its towns are Tauropolis, Plarasa and Chrysaoris. These were all incorporated later into Mylasa. Connected to the latter by a sacred way is Labranda. Around Stratonicea is also Lagina or Lakena as well as Tendeba and Astragon. Further inland towards Aydin is Alabanda, noted for its marble and its scorpions, Orthosia, Coscinia or Coscinus on the upper Maeander and Halydienses, Alinda or Alina. At the confluence of the Maeander and the Harpasus is Harpasa (Arpaz). At the confluence of the Maeander and the Orsinus, Corsymus or Corsynus is Antioch on the Maeander and on the Orsinus in the mountains a border town with Phrygia, Gordiutichos ("Gordius' Fort") near Geyre. Founded by the Leleges and called Ninoe it became Megalopolis ("Big City") and Aphrodisias, sometime capital of Caria. Other towns on the Orsinus are Timeles and Plarasa. Tabae was at various times attributed to Phrygia, Lydia and Caria and seems to have been occupied by mixed nationals. Caria also comprises the headwaters of the Indus and Eriya or Eriyus and Thabusion on the border with the small state of Cibyra. History[edit] Theatre at Halicarnassus in Bodrum, with the Bodrum Castle seen in the background. The Sebasteion of Aphrodisias Pre-Classical Greek states and people[edit] Further information: Carians The name of Caria also appears in a number of early languages: Hittite Karkija (a member state of the Assuwa league, c. 1250 BC), Babylonian Karsa, Elamite and Old Persian Kurka. According to Herodotos, the legendary King Kar, son of Zeus and Creta, founded Caria and named it after him, and his brothers Lydos and Mysos founded Lydia and Mysia, respectively. It is suggested that the mythological link between Caria and Minos' Crete was for the purpose of proving the Hellenic lineage of the Carians, who disputed such association by maintaining that they were autochthonous inhabitants of the mainland.[6] The Carians refer to the shrine of Zeus at Mylasa, which it shared with the Mysians and Lydians, proving that they were brother races.[7] Sovereign state hosting the Greeks[edit] A kylix found in Milas on display at Milas Museum Caria arose as a Neo-Hittite kingdom around the 11th century BC.[citation needed] The coast of Caria was part of the Doric hexapolis ("six-cities") when the Dorians arrived after the Trojan War, in c. 13th century BC, in the last and southernmost waves of Greek migration to western Anatolia's coastline and occupied former Mycenaean settlements such us Knidos and Halicarnassos (near present-day Bodrum). Herodotus, the famous historian was born in Halicarnassus during the 5th century BC. Greek apoikism (a form of colonization) in Caria took place mostly on the coast, as well as in the interior in great number, and groups of cities and towns were organized in local federations. Homer's Iliad records that at the time of the Trojan War, the city of Miletus belonged to the Carians, and was allied to the Trojan cause. Lemprière notes that "As Caria probably abounded in figs, a particular sort has been called Carica, and the words In Care periculum facere, have been proverbially used to signify the encountering of danger in the pursuit of a thing of trifling value." The region of Caria continues to be an important fig-producing area to this day, accounting for most fig production in Turkey, which is the world's largest producer of figs. An account also cited that Aristotle claimed Caria, as a naval empire, occupied Epidaurus and Hermione and that this was confirmed when the Athenians discovered the graves of the dead from Delos.[8] Half of it were identified as Carians based on the characteristics of the weapons they were buried with.[8] Lydian province[edit] The expansionism of Lydia under Croesus (560-546 BC) incorporated Caria briefly into Lydia before it fell before the Achaemenid advance. Persian satrapy[edit] Coin of Maussolos as Achaemenid Satrap of Caria. Circa 377/6-353/2 BC Caria was then incorporated into the Persian Achaemenid Empire as a satrapy (province) in 545 BC. The most important town was Halicarnassus, from where its sovereigns, the tyrants of the Lygdamid dynasty (c.520-450 BC), reigned. Other major towns were Latmus, refounded as Heracleia under Latmus, Antiochia, Myndus, Laodicea, Alinda and Alabanda. Caria participated in the Ionian Revolt (499–493 BC) against the Persian rule.[9] Artemisia, Queen of Halicarnassus, and commander of the Carian contingent, at the Battle of Salamis, 480 BC. Wilhelm von Kaulbach[10] Coin of Caria, Achaemenid Period. Circa 350-334 BC. Carian soldier of the Achaemenid army, circa 480 BC. Relief on the tomb of Xerxes I. During the Second Persian invasion of Greece (480-479 BC), the cities of Caria were allies of Xerxes I and they fought at the Battle of Artemisium and the Battle of Salamis, where the Queen of Halicarnassus Artemisia commanded the contingent of 70 Carian ships. Themistocles, before the battles of Artemisium and Salamis, tried to split the Ionians and Carians from the Persian coalition. He told them to come and be on his side or not to participate at the battles, but if they were bound down by too strong compulsion to be able to make revolt, when the battles begin, to be purposely slack.[11] Plutarch in his work, The Parallel Lives, at The Life of Themistocles wrote that: "Phanias (Greek: Φαινίας), writes that the mother of Themistocles was not a Thracian, but a Carian woman and her name was Euterpe (Eυτέρπη), and Neanthes (Νεάνθης) adds that she was from Halicarnassus in Caria.".[12] After the unsuccessful Persian invasion of Greece in 479 BC, the cities of Caria became members of the Athenian-led Delian League, but then returned to Achaemenid rule for about one century, from around 428 BC. Under Achaemenid rule, the Carian dynast Mausolus took control of neighbouring Lycia, a territory which was still held by Pixodarus as shown by the Xanthos trilingual inscription. The Carians were incorporated into the Macedonian Empire following the conquests of Alexander the Great and the Siege of Halicarnassus in 334 BC.[13] Halicarnassus was the location of the famed Mausoleum dedicated to Mausolus, a satrap of Caria between 377–353 BC, by his wife, Artemisia II of Caria. The monument became one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and from which the Romans named any grand tomb a mausoleum. Macedonian empire[edit] Caria was conquered by Alexander III of Macedon in 334 BC with the help of the former queen of the land Ada of Caria who had been dethroned by the Persian Empire and actively helped Alexander in his conquest of Caria on condition of being reinstated as queen. After their capture of Caria, she declared Alexander as her heir.[13] Roman-Byzantine province[edit] Marble head of a goddess, found in the Hadrianic Baths of Aphrodisias, 2nd century AD. As part of the Roman Empire the name of Caria was still used for the geographic region but the territory administratively belonged to the province of Asia. During the administrative reforms of the 4th century this province was abolished and divided into smaller units. Caria became a separate province as part of the Diocese of Asia. Christianity was on the whole slow to take hold in Caria. The region was not visited by St. Paul, and the only early churches seem to be those of Laodicea and Colossae (Chonae) on the extreme inland fringe of the country, which itself pursued its pagan customs. It appears that it was not until Christianity was officially adopted in Constantinople that the new religion made any real headway in Caria.[14] The Temple of Zeus Lepsinos at Euromus was built on the site of an earlier Carian temple in the 2nd century AD during the reign of the emperor Hadrian. Dissolution under the Byzantine Empire and passage to Turkish rule[edit] In the 7th century, Byzantine provinces were abolished and the new military theme system was introduced. The region corresponding to ancient Caria was captured by the Turks under the Menteşe Dynasty in the early 13th century. There are only indirect clues regarding the population structure under the Menteşe and the parts played in it by Turkish migration from inland regions and by local conversions, but the first Ottoman Empire census records indicate, in a situation not atypical for the region as a whole, a large Muslim (practically exclusively Turkish) majority reaching as high as 99% and a non-Muslim minority (practically exclusively Greek supplemented with a small Jewish community in Milas) as low as one per cent.[15] One of the first acts of the Ottomans after their takeover was to transfer the administrative center of the region from its millenary seat in Milas to the then much smaller Muğla, which was nevertheless better suited for controlling the southern fringes of the province. Still named Menteşe until the early decades of the 20th century, the kazas corresponding to ancient Caria are recorded by sources such as G. Sotiriadis (1918) and S. Anagiostopoulou (1997) as having a Greek population averaging at around ten per cent of the total, ranging somewhere between twelve and eighteen thousand, many of them reportedly recent immigrants from the islands. Most chose to leave in 1919, before the population exchange. See also[edit] Ancient regions of Anatolia Carians Carian language Aphrodisias Notes[edit] ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Caria" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ^ a b The Histories, Book I Section 171. ^ Cramer (1832), pages 170-224. ^ Page 170. ^ Page 176. ^ Unwin, Naomi Carless (2017). Caria and Crete in Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 6. ISBN 9781107194175. ^ Herodotus; Romm, James (2014). Histories. Translated by Mensch, Pamela. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing. p. 65. ISBN 9781624661143. ^ a b Ridgeway, William (2014). The Early Age of Greece, Volume I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 269. ISBN 9781107434585. ^ Herodotus Histories Book 5: Terpsichore ^ On the identification with Artemisia: "...Above the ships of the victorious Greeks, against which Artemisia, the Xerxes' ally, sends fleeing arrows...". Original German description of the painting: "Die neue Erfindung, welche Kaulbach für den neuen hohen Beschützer zu zeichnen gedachte, war wahrscheinlich "die Schlacht von Salamis“. Ueber den Schiffen der siegreichen Griechen, gegen welche Artemisia, des Xerxes Bundesgenossin, fliehend Pfeile sendet, sieht man in Wolken die beiden Ajaxe" in Altpreussische Monatsschrift Nene Folge p.300 ^ Herodotus Histories Book 8: Urania [19,22] ^ Themistocles By Plutarch "Yet Phanias writes that the mother of Themistocles was not of Thrace, but of Caria, and that her name was not Abrotonon, but Euterpe; and Neanthes adds farther that she was of Halicarnassus in Caria." ^ a b Gagarin, Michael (2010). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome. Oxford University Press. p. 53. ISBN 9780195170726. ^ Bean, George E. (2002). Turkey beyond the Maeander. London: Frederick A. Praeger. ISBN 0-87471-038-3. ^ Muhammet Yazıcı (2002). "XVI. Yüzyılda Batı Anadolu Bölgesinde (Muğla, İzmir, Aydın, Denizli) Türkmen Yerleşimi ve Demografik Dağılım (Turkmen Settlement and the Demographic Distribution of Western Anatolia in the 16th century), pp. 124-142 for Menteşe Subprovince" (PDF). Muğla University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2011. Bibliography[edit] Bean, George E. (1971). Turkey beyond the Maeander. London: Frederick A. Praeger. ISBN 0-87471-038-3. Cramer, J.A. (1832). Geographical and Historical Description of Asia Minor; with a Map: Volume II. Oxford: University Press. Section X Caria. Downloadable Google Books. Herodotus (1910) [original c. 440 BC]. History of Herodotus . Translated by George Rawlinson – via Wikisource. Further reading[edit] Olivier Henry and Koray Konuk, (eds.), KARIA ARKHAIA ; La Carie, des origines à la période pré-hékatomnide (Istanbul, 2019). 604 pages. ISBN 978-2-36245-078-5. Riet van Bremen and Jan-Mathieu Carbon (ed.),Hellenistic Karia: Proceedings of the First International Conference on Hellenistic Karia, Oxford, 29 June-2 July 2006 (Talence: Ausonius Editions, 2010). (Etudes, 28). Lars Karlsson and Susanne Carlsson, Labraunda and Karia (Uppsala, 2011). External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Caria. Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Caria. Livius.org: History and Culture of Ancient Caria Historia Numorum Online, Caria: ancient Greek coins from Caria Asia Minor Coins: ancient Greek and Roman coins from Caria Ancient Caria: In the garden of the sun, CANAN KÜÇÜKEREN, Hürriyet Daily News, 28 March 2011 Coordinates: 37°30′N 28°00′E / 37.5°N 28.0°E / 37.5; 28.0 v t e History of Anatolia v t e Provinces of the Achaemenid Empire (Behistun / Persepolis / Naqsh-e Rustam / Susa / Daiva inscriptions) Akaufaka (Quhistan?) Amyrgoi Arabia Arachosia Aria Armenia Assyria Babylonia Bactria Cappadocia Caria Carmania Caucasian Albania Chorasmia Cilicia Colchis Dahae Drangiana 1st Egypt / 2nd Egypt Eber-Nari (Levant) Elam Kush (Nubia) Gandāra (Gandhara) Gedrosia Hyrcania Ionia Hindush Libya Lydia Maka Margiana Media Lesser Media Massagetae Parthia Persia Phoenicia Phrygia Hellespontine Phrygia Greater Phrygia Saka Samaritan Province Sattagydia Skudra (Thrace) Sogdia Yehud See also Tax Districts of the Achaemenid Empire (according to Herodotus) v t e Late Roman and Byzantine provinces (4th–7th centuries AD) History As found in the Notitia Dignitatum. Provincial administration reformed and dioceses established by Diocletian, c. 293. Permanent praetorian prefectures established after the death of Constantine I. Empire permanently partitioned after 395. Exarchates of Ravenna and Africa established after 584. After massive territorial losses in the 7th century, the remaining provinces were superseded by the theme system in c. 640–660, although in Asia Minor and parts of Greece they survived under the themes until the early 9th century. Western Roman Empire (395–476) Praetorian Prefecture of Gaul Diocese of Gaul Alpes Poeninae et Graiae Belgica I Belgica II Germania I Germania II Lugdunensis I Lugdunensis II Lugdunensis III Lugdunensis IV Maxima Sequanorum Diocese of Vienne1 Alpes Maritimae Aquitanica I Aquitanica II Narbonensis I Narbonensis II Novempopulania Viennensis Diocese of Spain Baetica Balearica Carthaginensis Gallaecia Lusitania Mauretania Tingitana Tarraconensis Diocese of the Britains Britannia I Britannia II Flavia Caesariensis Maxima Caesariensis Valentia (?) Praetorian Prefecture of Italy Diocese of Suburbicarian Italy Apulia et Calabria Campania Corsica Lucania et Bruttii Picenum Suburbicarium Samnium Sardinia Sicilia Tuscia et Umbria Valeria Diocese of Annonarian Italy Alpes Cottiae Flaminia et Picenum Annonarium Liguria et Aemilia Raetia I Raetia II Venetia et Histria Diocese of Africa2 Africa proconsularis (Zeugitana) Byzacena Mauretania Caesariensis Mauretania Sitifensis Numidia (divided as Cirtensis and Militiana during the Tetrarchy) Tripolitania Eastern Roman/Byzantine Empire (395–c. 640) Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum Diocese of Pannonia3 Dalmatia Noricum mediterraneum Noricum ripense Pannonia I Pannonia II Savia Valeria ripensis Diocese of Dacia Dacia Mediterranea Dacia Ripensis Dardania Moesia I Praevalitana Diocese of Macedonia Achaea Creta Epirus Nova Epirus Vetus Macedonia Prima Macedonia II Salutaris Thessalia Praetorian Prefecture of the East Diocese of Thrace5 Europa Haemimontus Moesia II4 Rhodope Scythia4 Thracia Diocese of Asia5 Asia Caria4 Hellespontus Islands4 Lycaonia (370) Lycia Lydia Pamphylia Pisidia Phrygia Pacatiana Phrygia Salutaris Diocese of Pontus5 Armenia I5 Armenia II5 Armenia Maior5 Armenian Satrapies5 Armenia III (536) Armenia IV (536) Bithynia Cappadocia I5 Cappadocia II5 Galatia I5 Galatia II Salutaris5 Helenopontus5 Honorias5 Paphlagonia5 Pontus Polemoniacus5 Diocese of the East5 Arabia Cilicia I Cilicia II Cyprus4 Euphratensis Isauria Mesopotamia Osroene Palaestina I Palaestina II Palaestina III Salutaris Phoenice I Phoenice II Libanensis Syria I Syria II Salutaris Theodorias (528) Diocese of Egypt5 Aegyptus I Aegyptus II Arcadia Augustamnica I Augustamnica II Libya Superior Libya Inferior Thebais Superior Thebais Inferior Other territories Taurica Quaestura exercitus (536) Spania (552) 1 Later the Septem Provinciae 2 Re-established after reconquest by the Eastern Empire in 534 as the separate Prefecture of Africa 3 Later the Diocese of Illyricum 4 Placed under the Quaestura exercitus in 536 5 Affected (i.e. boundaries modified, abolished or renamed) by Justinian I's administrative reorganization in 534–536 v t e Historical regions of Anatolia Aeolis Bithynia Cappadocia Caria Cilicia Doris Galatia Ionia Isauria Lycaonia Lycia Lydia Mysia Pamphylia Paphlagonia Phrygia Pisidia Pontus Troad v t e Ancient kingdoms of Anatolia Bronze Age Ahhiyawa Arzawa Assuwa league Carchemish Colchis Hapalla Hatti Hayasa-Azzi Hittite Empire Isuwa Kaskia Kizzuwatna Lukka Luwia Mitanni Pala Wilusa/Troy Iron Age Aeolia Caria Cimmerians Diauehi Doris Ionia Lycia Lydia Neo-Hittites (Atuna, Carchemish, Gurgum, Hilakku, Kammanu, Kummuh, Quwê, Tabal) Phrygia Urartu Classical Age Antigonids Armenia Bithynia Cappadocia Cilicia Commagene Galatia Paphlagonia Pergamon Pontus Turkey Portal Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Caria&oldid=997705123" Categories: Caria States and territories disestablished in the 6th century BC Ancient Greek geography Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Turkey Carian people Historical regions of Anatolia History of Aydın Province History of Muğla Province Ionian colonies Praetorian prefecture of the East States and territories established in the 11th century BC Asia (Roman province) Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Pages using the EasyTimeline extension Use dmy dates from April 2020 Articles containing Turkish-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2017 Articles with unsourced statements from August 2017 Articles with unsourced statements from November 2018 Articles containing Greek-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 1 January 2021, at 20:57 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4333	----	Stork (pharaoh) - Wikipedia Stork (pharaoh) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Stork was an ancient Egyptian ruler (pharaoh) from the pre-dynastic period of Egypt.[1][2][3][4] Most modern scholars doubt that he ever existed.[5] Very little is known of his rule due to a paucity of archeological evidence and a lack of written records. The dates and geographic extent of his rule are not known. His actual name is unknown though he used the stork hieroglyph to denote himself. References[edit] ^ list. ^ Pharoh list ^ Prädynastische Zeit Frühzeit und Altes Reich. ^ Jürgen Schraten, Zur Aktualität von Jan Assmann: Einleitung in sein Werk (Springer-Verlag, 11.11.2010) page 59. ^ Barry Kemp (a1), Andrew Boyce and James Harrell, The Colossi from the Early Shrine at Coptos in Egypt, in: Cambridge Archaeological Journal Volume 10, Issue 2, April 2000, p. 233; Jochem Kahl (2006): inscriptional Evidence For The Relative Chronology Of Dyns. 0–2 In: Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss, And David A. Warburton (editors), Ancient Egyptian ChronologyBrill: Leiden, Boston, ISBN 9789004113855, p. 96 v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stork_(pharaoh)&oldid=978155455" Categories: 32nd-century BC Pharaohs 32nd-century BC births 32nd-century BC rulers People whose existence is disputed Predynastic Egypt Predynastic pharaohs Ancient Egypt people stubs Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Português Edit links This page was last edited on 13 September 2020, at 06:50 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4347	----	Book sources - Wikipedia Book sources Jump to navigation Jump to search This page allows users to search for multiple sources for a book given the 10- or 13-digit ISBN number. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN number do not matter. Search for book sourcesISBN: Search Wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources For assistance, see Help:ISBN. This page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its International Standard Book Number (ISBN). If you arrived at this page by clicking an ISBN link in a Wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. To search for a different book, type that book's individual ISBN into this ISBN search box. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. 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en-wikipedia-org-4354	----	Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Khakherewre) Jump to navigation Jump to search Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt ca. 1725 BC–ca. 1650 BC In orange, the territory possibly under control of the 14th dynasty according to Ryholt.[1] Capital Avaris Common languages Egyptian language Religion ancient Egyptian religion Government Absolute monarchy Historical era Bronze Age • Established ca. 1725 BC • Disestablished ca. 1650 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt was a series of rulers reigning during the Second Intermediate Period over the Nile Delta region of Egypt. It lasted between 75 (c. 1725–1650 BC) and 155 years (c. 1805–1650 BC), depending on the scholar. The capital of the dynasty was probably Avaris.[1] The 14th Dynasty existed concurrently with the 13th Dynasty based in Memphis. The rulers of the 14th Dynasty are commonly identified by Egyptologists as being of Canaanite (Semitic) descent, owing to the distinct origins of the names of some of their kings and princes, like Ipqu (West Semitic for "grace"), Yakbim ("ia-ak-bi-im", an Amorite name), Qareh (West Semitic for "the bald one"), or Yaqub-Har.[1] Names in relation with Nubia are also recorded in two cases, king Nehesy ("The Nubian") and queen Tati. Contents 1 Chronology 2 Seat of power 3 Extent of rule and foreign relations 4 Rulers 5 References 6 Bibliography Chronology[edit] The 14th Dynasty is sometimes combined with the 11th, 12th and 13th Dynasties in the period Middle Kingdom of Egypt, though the 14th Dynasty overlaps at least partially with either (or both of) the 13th Dynasty and the 15th Dynasty. More commonly, the 14th Dynasty is grouped with the 13th, 15th, 16th and 17th in the Second Intermediate Period. Such are the gaps in the knowledge of the 14th Dynasty, that its absolute chronological position is debated and varies by as much as 75 years among authorities. Egyptologist Kim Ryholt proposes that the 14th Dynasty emerged during the late 12th Dynasty, c. 1805 BC, during or shortly after Sobekneferu's rule. He contends that the local Canaanite population residing in the eastern Delta declared its independence and staved off possible attempts from the 13th Dynasty Memphite kings to recover the Delta. According to Ryholt, the 14th Dynasty thus lasted from 1805 BC until its demise under the Hyksos 15th Dynasty, c. 1650 BC, i.e. lasting 155 years. This hypothesis is not shared by some Egyptologists such as Manfred Bietak, Daphna Ben Tor and James and Susan Allen, who argue that the 14th Dynasty cannot have emerged before the mid 13th Dynasty, c. 1720 BC, after the reign of Sobekhotep IV.[2][3] In particular, they argue that the evidence from the strata levels in which 14th Dynasty seals were discovered conclusively establishes that the 14th Dynasty was only contemporary with the 13th Dynasty in the last half century of the latter's existence, i.e. after c. 1700 BC. Additionally, Manfred Bietak has dated the inscriptions and monuments of Nehesy, possibly the second ruler of the dynasty, to around 1700 BC as well.[4] Following the very short reign of Nehesy, most scholars–among them, Manfred Bietak and Kim Ryholt–agree that the Delta region was struck by a prolonged famine and perhaps a plague lasting until the end of the 14th Dynasty.[1][5] The same famine may have affected the 13th Dynasty, which also exhibits instability and numerous ephemeral kings in its last 50 years of existence, from c. 1700 BC until 1650 BC. The weakened state of both kingdoms may explain, in part, why they fell rapidly to the emerging Hyksos power c. 1650 BC.[1] Seat of power[edit] The Manethonian tradition credits the Fourteenth Dynasty with as many as 76 kings ruling from Xois rather than Avaris. However, Egyptologist Kim Ryholt notes that the Turin Canon mentions only c. 56 kings and does not have enough space to have recorded over 70 kings. Ryholt also points to excavations at Avaris which revealed the existence of a large royal palace dating to the second intermediate period. One of its courtyards housed a statue of a king or high-ranking official, over twice life-sized, and wearing non-Egyptian attributes. For these reasons, Ryholt and most Egyptologists share the view that Avaris rather than Xois was the seat of power of the 14th Dynasty.[1] Extent of rule and foreign relations[edit] The precise borders of the 14th Dynasty state are not known due to the general scarcity of monuments left by this dynasty. In his study of the second intermediate period however, the Egyptologist Kim Ryholt concludes that the territory directly controlled by the 14th Dynasty roughly consisted of the Nile delta, with its border located around Athribis in the western Delta and Bubastis in the east.[1] Seals attributable to the 14th Dynasty have been found in Middle and Upper-Egypt, then 13th Dynasty territory, and as far south as Dongola, beyond the third cataract. To the north, seals have been found in the southern Levant, principally along the Mediterranean coast and as far north as Tell Kabri, in modern-day Israel.[1] This indicates the existence of an important trade with the 13th Dynasty, Canaanite city-states, and Nubia.[1] Ryholt further proposes that king Sheshi, whom he sees as a 14th dynasty ruler, married a Nubian princess, queen Tati, to strengthen relations with the Kushite kingdom.[1] Rulers[edit] The order of rulers for this dynasty is established by the Turin Royal Canon and is widely accepted, except for the first five rulers, which are given below after Ryholt.[1] The names of these rulers is not given on the Turin Canon, except possibly for one, and Ryholt proposes that they were mentioned as wsf in the list, which denotes a lacuna in the original document from which the list was copied in the Ramesside period.[1] Rather, Ryholt identifies the first five kings thanks to a seriation of their seals. His conclusions are debated however in Ben Tor's study of the strata levels in which seals attributed to the first five kings have been found. Ben Tor concludes that Sheshi's, 'Ammu's and Yakbim's reigns date to the second half of the Hyksos 15th dynasty and are not contemporary with the 13th dynasty. Thus according to Ben Tor, these kings were most likely minor vassal rulers of the Hyksos kings reigning in the Nile Delta.[2] Dynasty XIV pharaohs of Egypt (contested) Name of King Image Dates Comments Yakbim Sekhaenre 1805 BC – 1780 BC or after 1650 BC Chronological position is contested, maybe a vassal of the 15th dynasty Ya'ammu Nubwoserre 1780 BC – 1770 BC Chronological position is contested Qareh Khawoserre 1770 BC – 1760 BC Chronological position is contested 'Ammu Ahotepre 1760 – 1745 BC or after 1650 BC Chronological position is contested, maybe a vassal of the 15th dynasty Sheshi Maaibre 1745 BC – 1705 BC or after 1650 BC Attested by over 300 scarab-seals, possibly married to queen Tati who was a Kushite. Chronological position is contested, maybe a vassal of the 15th dynasty The following rulers are not controversial, being established by the Turin canon as well as, for a few of them, by contemporary sources: Dynasty XIV pharaohs of Egypt Name of King Image Dates Comments Nehesy Aasehre 1705 BC Best attested king of the dynasty, he left his name on two monuments at Avaris. His name means "The Nubian".[6] Khakherewre 1705 BC - Nebefawre 1704 BC Turin canon: reigned 1 year, 5 months, 15 days Sehebre Turin canon: reigned 3 years [lost] months, 1 day Merdjefare ending 1699 BC Attested by a single stela from Saft el-Hinna, in the Delta[7] Sewadjkare III Turin canon: reigned 1 year Nebdjefare ending 1694 BC - Webenre - Unknown Lost in the Turin kinglist [...]djefare - [...]webenre ending 1690 BC - Awibre II - Heribre - Nebsenre Attested by a jar bearing his prenomen. At least 5 months of reign. Unknown wsf in the Turin kinglist, indicating a lacuna in the document from which the list was copied [...]re Sekheperenre With Nehesy, Nebsenre and Merdjefare, only undisputed king known from contemporary sources Djedkherewre - Sankhibre II - Nefertum[...]re - Sekhem[...]re - Kakemure - Neferibre - I[...]re - Khakare - Akare - Hapu[...] Semenenre - Anati Djedkare - Babnum [...]kare - Unknown Eight lines lost in the Turin kinglist Senefer...re - Men[...]re - Djed[...]re - Unknown Three lines lost in the Turin kinglist Ink [...] - 'A[...] - Apophis I (?) - Unknown Five lines lost in the Turin kinglist Finally, several rulers attested by contemporary artefacts and otherwise unknown from the Turin Canon may be dated to the 14th[1] or 15th Dynasty.[8] Their identities and chronological position remain unclear: Possible dynasty XIV pharaohs of Egypt (unclear) Name of King Image Attestations Nuya 1 scarab-seal Sheneh 3 scarab-seals Shenshek 1 scarab-seal Wazad 5 scarab-seals Khamure 2 scarab-seals Yakareb 2 scarab-seals Merwoserre Yaqub-Har 27 scarab-seals References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Kim Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, Museum Tusculanum Press, (1997) ^ a b Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research (BASOR) 315, 1999, pp.47-73. ^ Janine Bourriau, "The Second Intermediate Period (c.1650-1550 BC)" in Ian Shaw (ed.) The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press, 2000. pp.192 & 194 ^ Bourriau, "The Second Intermediate Period," pp.178-179, 181 ^ Manfred Bietak, "Egypt and Canaan During the Middle Bronze Age," BASOR, 281 (1991), pp. 21-72, esp. p. 38, available online ^ Darrell D. Baker, The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 277 ^ Kenneth Kitchen: Ramesside Inscriptions, Blackwell Publishing 1993, ISBN 0631184279, p.546 ^ Daphna Ben-Tor: Scarabs, Chronology, and Interconnections: Egypt and Palestine in the Second Intermediate Period, Volume 27 of Orbis biblicus et orientalis / Series archaeologica: Series archaeologica, Academic Press Fribourg 2007, ISBN 978-3-7278-1593-5, excerpts available online Bibliography[edit] K.S.B. Ryholt (1998). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C1800-1550 BC. Museum Tusculanum Press. ISBN 8772894210. K.A. Kitchen (1993). Ramesside Inscriptions. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0631184279. Preceded by Thirteenth Dynasty Dynasty of Egypt 1725−1650 BC Succeeded by Fifteenth Dynasty Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fourteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=1001958867" Categories: Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt States and territories established in the 19th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 17th century BC Hyksos Dynasties of ancient Egypt 17th century BC in Egypt 16th century BC in Egypt 2nd-millennium BC establishments in Egypt 2nd-millennium BC disestablishments in Egypt 2nd millennium BC in Egypt Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ქართული Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska தமிழ் Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 January 2021, at 04:12 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-437	----	Joel Smallbone - Wikipedia Joel Smallbone From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Joel Smallbone Smallbone in 2016 Born (1984-06-05) 5 June 1984 (age 36)[citation needed] Sydney, New South Wales, Australia Occupation Singer, actor Spouse(s) Moriah Peters (m. 2013) Relatives Luke Smallbone (brother) Rebecca St. James (sister) Joel David Smallbone (born 5 June 1984) is an Australian singer and actor. He is a member of the Christian pop duo for King & Country along with his brother Luke Smallbone. He played the role of James Stevens in the 2016 film Priceless. Contents 1 Early life 2 Career 2.1 Discography 2.2 Filmography 3 References 4 External links Early life[edit] Smallbone was born in Sydney, but moved to Nashville, Tennessee in 1991.[1] He is the brother of Luke Smallbone and younger brother of Christian recording artist and speaker Rebecca St. James. Smallbone is also the brother-in-law of Jacob Fink, former bassist for the band Foster the People.[2] Smallbone's father was a music promoter, and Joel recalls, "going to these rock concerts, sitting on my father's shoulders, plugging my ears...Honestly, in a lot of ways I feel like music chose me and as I grew older, I made a clear decision to fully lean into it."[3] Career[edit] Smallbone with For King & Country performing at Kingdom Bound 2015 Smallbone did background vocals for his sister Rebecca as well as operating lights and managing the stage.[4] He collaborated with his brother Luke and in 2008 they released their first EP, A Tale of Two Towns, performing under the name Austoville.[1] The group was signed to Warner Bros. Records and later changed its name to For King & Country.[1] Smallbone began his acting career in 2014 by playing King Xerxes in The Book of Esther and as Jake Reeson in Like a Country Song.[5] In 2016, Smallbone was cast in the leading role of James Stevens in the film Priceless.[6] Smallbone won two Grammy awards in 2014 and was nominated for another Grammy in 2016[7][8] Discography[edit] Main article: For King & Country (band) § Discography Filmography[edit] Year Title Role Notes 2014 The Book of Esther King Xerxes 2014 Like a Country Song Jake Reeson 2016 Priceless James Stevens References[edit] ^ a b c "For King & Country: From Rebecca St James sidemen to CCM success". Cross Ryhthms. 23 May 2012. Retrieved 2 January 2017. ^ McPhail, Carol (23 January 2015). "For King & Country, touring with Winter Jam, draws on life-or-death scare in 'Run Wild'". AL.com. Retrieved 6 January 2017. ^ "Biography | for KING & COUNTRY". Forkingandcountry.com. Archived from the original on 1 January 2014. Retrieved 11 July 2013. ^ Schmitt, Brad (2 June 2016). "For King & Country's Luke Smallbone nearly died from illness". The Tennessean. Retrieved 2 January 2016. ^ "For King & Country: Impacting the US with their anti-trafficking film Priceless". Cross Rhythms. 18 November 2016. Retrieved 2 January 2017. ^ Leydon, Joe. "Film Review: Priceless". Variety. Retrieved 2 January 2016. ^ "Joel Smallbone". GRAMMY.com. 14 May 2017. Retrieved 7 September 2017. ^ http://www.washingtontimes.com, The Washington Times. "Joel Smallbone of Christian music group For King & Country on being in film 'Priceless'". The Washington Times. Retrieved 7 September 2017. External links[edit] Joel Smallbone on IMDb Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joel_Smallbone&oldid=962604444" Categories: Living people Australian musicians Australian male actors 1984 births Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from April 2017 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2017 Articles with hCards AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Add links This page was last edited on 15 June 2020, at 01:10 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4387	----	Ptolemy XI Alexander II - Wikipedia Ptolemy XI Alexander II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (December 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Ptolemy XI King of Egypt Predecessor Berenice III Successor Ptolemy XII Spouse Berenice III Full name Ptolemy XI Alexander II Father Ptolemy X Alexander I Mother Cleopatra Selene Ptolemy XI Alexander II[note 1] (Greek: Πτολεμαῖος Ἀλέξανδρος, Ptolemaĩos Aléxandros) was a member of the Ptolemaic dynasty who ruled Egypt for a few days in 80 BC. He was a son of Ptolemy X Alexander I and Cleopatra Selene. Contents 1 Biography 2 Notes 3 References 4 External links Biography[edit] Ptolemy XI was born to Ptolemy X Alexander I and supposedly Cleopatra Selene.[1] His uncle Ptolemy IX Lathryos died in 81 BC or 80 BC, leaving only his sole legitimate daughter as his heir, and so Cleopatra Berenice (= Berenice III) ruled alone for a time. However, Rome's Sulla wanted a pro-Roman ruler on the throne, and sent the young son of Ptolemy X to Egypt, displaying Ptolemy Alexander's will in Rome as supposed justification for this obvious interference. The will also apparently required Ptolemy XI to marry Berenice III, who was his stepmother, cousin, and possible half-sister. However, nineteen days after the marriage, Ptolemy murdered his bride for unknown reasons, an unwise move since Berenice was very popular; Ptolemy was soon lynched by the citizens of Alexandria. He was succeeded by his cousin Ptolemy XII, an illegitimate son of Ptolemy IX. Notes[edit] ^ Numbering the Ptolemies is a modern convention. Older sources may give a number one higher or lower. The most reliable way of determining which Ptolemy is being referred to in any given case is by epithet (e.g. "Philopator"). References[edit] Peter Green, Alexander to Actium (University of California Press, 1990), pp. 553–554 ISBN 0-520-05611-6 ^ Llewellyn Jones, Lloyd (2013) [2012]. "Cleopatra Selene". In Bagnall, Roger S.; Brodersen, Kai; Champion, Craige B.; Erskine, Andrew; Huebner, Sabine R. (eds.). The Encyclopedia of Ancient History (13 Vols.). III: Be-Co. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-405-17935-5. External links[edit] Ptolemy XI Alexander II entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemaic dynasty Born: ? Died: 80 BC Regnal titles Preceded by Berenice III Pharaoh of Egypt 80 BC with Berenice III Succeeded by Ptolemy XII v t e Hellenistic rulers Argeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Kings of Cyrene Magas Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Kings of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Kings of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Kings of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Kings of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus Kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon (regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces Asander with Dynamis Mithridates II Asander with Dynamis Scribonius’ attempted rule with Dynamis Dynamis with Polemon Polemon with Pythodorida Aspurgus Mithridates III with Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control ULAN: 500372662 VIAF: 5687150325540010090006 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 5687150325540010090006 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ptolemy_XI_Alexander_II&oldid=1000090404" Categories: 2nd-century BC births 80 BC deaths 1st-century BC Pharaohs 1st-century BC murdered monarchs Lynching deaths Pharaohs of the Ptolemaic dynasty 1st-century BC rulers in Africa 1st-century BC Egyptian people Hidden categories: CS1: long volume value Articles lacking in-text citations from December 2012 All articles lacking in-text citations Articles containing Greek-language text Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Malagasy مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский සිංහල Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 13 January 2021, at 14:45 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4388	----	Bull (pharaoh) - Wikipedia Bull (pharaoh) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Predynastic Egyptian king with disputed existence Bull is the makeshift name for a predynastic petty ruler, from around 3250 BC,[1] the existence of whom is highly controversial. He is considered a ruler of the late pottery neolithic Naqada III culture of southern Egypt. If “Taurus” actually represents a ruler's name, it is mainly known from ivory tablets from the Abydenian tomb U-j of Umm El Qa'ab and from a rock carving on the Gebel Tjauty mountain. Egyptologist Günter Dreyer deduced the existence of King “Taurus” from incisions on a statue of the god Min, which he interpreted as rulings. He suspected that the grave goods, which were intended for King Scorpion I, came from the state domain goods of King "Bull" and thus the bull symbol originated from the name of the latter.[2][3] Further confirmation of the existence of this ruler is the interpretation of a rock drawing discovered in 2003 on the Gebel Tjauty in the desert west of Thebes. It apparently represents a successful campaign by King Scorpion I against King "Taurus." This battle was possibly part of the concentration of power in late prehistoric Egypt: Scorpion I, operating from Thinis, conquered the Taurus area in the Naqada area.[4][3] However, since the bull sign is never accompanied by a horus falcon or a gold rosette – indicators of rulers in the pre-dynastic period – some researchers doubt that it refers to a king. For example, the writing expert Ludwig D. Morenz and the Egyptologist Jochem Kahl point out that Egyptian hieroglyphic writing was still in the early stages of development during the pre-dynastic period and that it was extremely unsafe to assign individual pictorial symbols. The reason for this is the fact that in this early writing development phase no fixed determinatives for "locality", "Nomes" and "region" existed. A representation of a bull could represent the king as an attacking force, but it could also be part of a name for a certain place or district (e.g. for the mountain bull district). There were also depictions of bulls in connection with the archaic ceremony "Catching the wild bull" as a pre-form for the later Apis run. A bull representation therefore does not necessarily confirm a king's name.[5][3] References[edit] ^ Jürgen Schraten, Zur Aktualität von Jan Assmann: Einleitung in sein Werk (Springer-Verlag, 11.11.2010) page 59. ^ Günter Dreyer: Umm el-Qaab I .: the predynastic royal tomb U-j and its early documents (= Umm el-Qaab, 1st volume). von Zabern, Mainz 1998, ISBN 3-8053-2486-3., pp. 87 & 176. ^ a b c Ludwig David Morenz: picture letters and symbolic signs. The development of the writing of the high culture of ancient Egypt (= Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis 205). Friborg 2004, ISBN 3-7278-1486-1., pp. 130-134, 172, 190-193. ^ Gregory Phillip Gilbert: Weapons, warriors and warfare in early Egypt. 2004, (= BAR international series. Volume 1208). Archaeopress, 2004, ISBN 1-84171-571-9. pp. 93 & 94. ^ Wolfgang Helck: Studies on the Thinite period (= Egyptological treatises. (ÄA) Vol. 45). Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1987, ISBN 3-447-02677-4, (restricted online version), pp. 147 & 153. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bull_(pharaoh)&oldid=994799399" Categories: 32nd-century BC Pharaohs Predynastic pharaohs Predynastic Egypt 32nd-century BC rulers People whose existence is disputed Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to 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en-wikipedia-org-4393	----	Neferirkare - Wikipedia Neferirkare From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the better known pharaoh of the 5th Dynasty, see Neferirkare Kakai. Neferirkare Neferirkare II The cartouche of Neferirkare on the Abydos King List. Pharaoh Reign 1 year and 6 months, c. 2160 BC (Eighth Dynasty) Predecessor Neferkauhor Successor uncertain; possibly Meryibre Khety Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Neferirkare Nfr-jrj k3 Rˁ What the Ka of Ra does is perfect Nomen Pepy Horus name Demedjibtawy Dmḏ-ib-t3wy He who unifies the heart of the two lands Burial unknown Neferirkare (sometimes referred to as Neferirkare II because of Neferirkare Kakai) was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the Eighth Dynasty during the early First Intermediate Period (2181–2055 BC). According to the egyptologists Kim Ryholt, Jürgen von Beckerath and Darrell Baker he was the 17th and final king of the Eighth Dynasty.[1][2][3] Many scholars consider Neferirkare to have been the last pharaoh of the Old Kingdom, which came to an end with the 8th Dynasty.[4] Contents 1 Attestations 2 Identity 3 Reign 4 References Attestations[edit] Neferirkare II's name is clearly attested on the 56th entry of the Abydos King List, a king list which was redacted some 900 years after the First Intermediate Period during the reign of Seti I.[2] The latest reconstruction of the Turin canon, another king list compiled in the Ramesside era, indicates that Neferirkare II is also attested there on column 5, line 13.[1][2] Identity[edit] Farouk Gomaà, William C. Hayes and Baker identify Neferirkare II with the horus name Demedjibtawy (Dmḏ-ib-t3wy, "He who unifies the heart of the two lands") appearing on a single decree, the Coptos Decree R, now in the Egyptian Museum, JE 41894. The decree concerns the temple of Min at Coptos, exempting it from dues and duties.[5][6][7][8][9] This identification is rejected by Jürgen von Beckerath.[10] Another proposed identification concerns the prenomen Wadjkare (W3ḏ-k3-Rˁ, "Flourishing is the Ka of Ra"), which also appears on the Coptos Decree R.[11] Kurt Heinrich Sethe, Gomaà, Hayes and Baker see Wadjkare as distinct from Demedjibtawy, but von Beckerath believes that Wadjkare may have been the prenomen of Neferkare II and the same person as Demedjibtawy.[3] At the opposite, Gomaà and Hayes equate Wadjkare with an obscure ruler named Hor-Khabaw.[5] Alternatively, Hans Goedicke proposed that Wadjkare is the predecessor of Demedjibtawy and places both rulers chronologically into the 9th Dynasty.[12] Thomas Schneider leaves the problem open and relates Wadjkare equally to either Neferkare II or Neferirkare II without further reference to Demedjibtawy.[13] Finally, both Demedjibtawy and Wadjkare are not known from any other contemporary attestation than the decree and, unless they are to be identified with Neferirkare II or Neferkare II, they are also absent from both the Abydos king list and the Turin canon. In 2014 Maha Farid Mostafa published an inscription, found in the tomb of Shemay. The inscription belongs most likely to Idy, a son of Shemay, albeit Idy's name is not preserved. The text is dated under a king with the name Pepy and with a throne name Nefer-ka [destroyed]-Ra. Maha Farid Mostafa reconstructed that throne name to Neferirkare. The inscription dates for sure to the 8th Dynasty. If this reconstruction is correct, Neferirkare is most likely identical with Demedjibtawy. Idy is mentioned on one of the Coptos decrees together with Demedjibtawy .[14] Reign[edit] The Turin canon credits Neferirkare II with a year and half of reign.[1][10] Both the Turin canon and the Abydos king list record Neferirkare II as the last ruler of the combined 7th/8th.[10] Neferirkare was possibly overthrown by the first king of the succeeding Herakleopolitan 9th Dynasty, Meryibre Khety. Alternatively the Egyptian state may have completely collapsed with the onset of low Nile floods, mass famine and chaos which engulfed Egypt at the start of the First Intermediate Period. References[edit] ^ a b c Kim Ryholt: "The Late Old Kingdom in the Turin King-list and the Identity of Nitocris", Zeitschrift für ägyptische, 127, 2000, p. 99 ^ a b c Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 260 ^ a b Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz : P. von Zabern, 1999, ISBN 3-8053-2591-6, available online Archived 2015-12-22 at the Wayback Machine see p. 68 ^ Renate Mueller-Wollermann: End of the Old Kingdom, UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology (2014), available online. ^ a b Farouk Gomaà: Ägypten während der Ersten Zwischenzeit, Beihefte zum Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients. Reihe B: Geisteswissenschaften., vol. 27. Reichert, Wiesbaden 1980, ISBN 3-88226-041-6, p. 59. ^ William C. Hayes: Royal Decrees from the Temple of Min at Coptus, JEA, vol. 32, 1946. ^ Coptos decree R, translation available online Archived 2018-07-26 at the Wayback Machine, after M. A. Moret: "Chartes d'immunité dans l'Ancien Empire égyptien", in Journal Asiatique, 1917 (Sér. 11/T.10), Paris ^ Nigel Strudwick: Texts from the Pyramid Age, Brill 2005, ISBN 9004130489 ^ William C. Hayes: The Scepter of Egypt: A Background for the Study of the Egyptian Antiquities in The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Vol. 1, From the Earliest Times to the End of the Middle Kingdom, p. 134, available online ^ a b c Jürgen von Beckerath: The Date of the End of the Old Kingdom of Egypt, JNES 21 (1962), p. 143 ^ Margaret Bunson: Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Infobase Publishing, 2009, ISBN 1438109970, p. 429, available online ^ Hans Goedicke: Königliche Dokumente aus dem Alten Reich (= Ägyptologische Abhandlungen, Bd. 14). Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1967, p. 215. ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen, Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3. ^ Maha Farid Mostafa: The Mastaba of SmAj at Naga' Kom el-Koffar, Qift, Vol. I, Cairo 2014, ISBN 978-977642004-5, p. 157-161 v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neferirkare&oldid=954561356" Categories: 22nd-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Eighth Dynasty of Egypt 22nd-century BC rulers 22nd century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Беларуская Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 3 May 2020, at 02:50 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4402	----	Category:Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is for articles with ISNI identifiers. Please do not add subcategories. For more information, see Wikipedia:Authority control. Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. They are not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. 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en-wikipedia-org-4428	----	File:Designation of Xerxes I.jpg - Wikipedia File:Designation of Xerxes I.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this preview: 419 × 599 pixels. Other resolutions: 168 × 240 pixels | 550 × 786 pixels. Original file ‎(550 × 786 pixels, file size: 314 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary DescriptionDesignation of Xerxes I.jpg English: Designation of Xerxes I Date 28 November 2018 Source This file has been extracted from another file: Persepolis, Tripylon, eastern gate (1).jpg Author Jona Lendering Licensing   This file is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication. The person who associated a work with this deed has dedicated the work to the public domain by waiving all of their rights to the work worldwide under copyright law, including all related and neighboring rights, to the extent allowed by law. You can copy, modify, distribute and perform the work, even for commercial purposes, all without asking permission. http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/deed.enCC0Creative Commons Zero, Public Domain Dedicationfalsefalse Captions EnglishAdd a one-line explanation of what this file represents Items portrayed in this file depicts copyright status copyrighted, dedicated to the public domain by copyright holder copyright license CC0 inception 28 November 2018 File history Click on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 12:51, 28 November 2018 550 × 786 (314 KB) पाटलिपुत्र User created page with UploadWizard File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Xerxes I Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on ta.wikipedia.org முதலாம் செர்கஸ் Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. If the file has been modified from its original state, some details may not fully reflect the modified file. Width 550 px Height 786 px Horizontal resolution 72 dpi Vertical resolution 72 dpi Software used PaintShop Pro 20,00 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Designation_of_Xerxes_I.jpg" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces File Talk Variants Views Read View on Commons More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Upload file Special pages Printable version Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4439	----	Nebdjefare - Wikipedia Nebdjefare From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Nebdjefare Pharaoh Reign c. 1694 BC – c. 1693 BC (Fourteenth Dynasty) Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Nebdjefare "The possessor of Re's bounty" [1] Nebdjefare was a pharaoh of the Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt. He appears to have ruled during the Second Intermediate Period, for between 12 and 24 months, during the 17th century BC. Knowledge of his reign comes entirely from the severely damaged Turin King List. Biography[edit] Nebdjefare is an obscure pharaoh of the Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt, known only from the Turin King List. He would have ruled the north of Lower Egypt between 12 and 24 months in the early 17th century BC. Scholars have variously placed the beginning of his reign at c. 1694 BC (Ryholt & Bülow-Jacobsen 1997)[2] and c. 1672 BC (Gonzalez 1995),[3] a time usually considered part of the Second Intermediate Period or of the very end of the Middle Kingdom. At the time of his reign, the Thirteenth Dynasty would still have been ruling the rest of Egypt from Memphis.[4][2] Knowledge of his reign comes from the Turin King List, a badly damaged papyrus that recorded the names of Egyptian Gods, and the reigns of pharaohs from the First through the Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt. Because of the extensive damage to the papyrus, while the section giving the length of his rule as being one year is preserved, the section of months and days is lost. He therefore would have ruled between 12 and 24 months. Nebdjefare is the seventh pharaoh of the ninth column on the Turin King List. Due to papyrus damage, his nomen has not survived.[5][4][2] References[edit] ^ Leprohon 2013, p. 76. ^ a b c Ryholt & Bülow-Jacobsen 1997, p. 200. ^ González. ^ a b Ryholt & Bülow-Jacobsen 1997, p. 198. ^ Ryholt & Bülow-Jacobsen 1997, p. 98. Bibliography[edit] González, Teresa Bedman (1995). "Los hicsos: una nueva visión" (PDF). Instituto Estudio Santiguo Egipto. Retrieved 7 April 2018. Leprohon, Ronald J. (2013). The Great Name: Ancient Egyptian Royal Titulary. Society of Biblical Literature. ISBN 9781589837362. Ryholt, K.S.B.; Bülow-Jacobsen, Adam (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C. Museum Tusculanum Press. ISBN 9788772894218. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nebdjefare&oldid=1000204919" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export 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en-wikipedia-org-4444	----	Merikare - Wikipedia Merikare From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Merikare Merykare, Merykara Scribe palette of the chancellor Orkaukhety, bearing the cartouche of Merikare Pharaoh Reign c. 2075–2040 BCE (10th Dynasty) Predecessor Wahkare Khety ? Successor possibly an unnamed ephemeral successor,[1] then Mentuhotep II (11th Dynasty) Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Merikare[2] mr.j-k3-rˁ Beloved by the ka of Ra Nomen possibly Khety[3] Ḥty Father Wahkare Khety ? Died approximately 2040 BCE Burial Pyramid of Merikare Merikare (also Merykare and Merykara) was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 10th Dynasty who lived toward the end of the First Intermediate Period. Purportedly inspired by the teaching of his father, he embarked on a semi-peaceful coexistence policy with his southern rivals of the 11th Dynasty, focusing on improving the prosperity of his realm centered on Herakleopolis instead of waging an open war with Thebes. His policy was not rewarded, and shortly after his death his kingdom was conquered by the Theban Mentuhotep II, marking the beginning of the Middle Kingdom. The existence of his pyramid has historically been ascertained, although it has not yet been discovered. Contents 1 Reign 1.1 Biography 1.2 Burial 1.3 Attestations 1.4 Hypothesis of an earlier reign 2 References 3 Further reading Reign[edit] Biography[edit] According to many scholars, he ruled at the end of the 10th Dynasty in his middle-age,[2][4][5][6][7] following a long reign by his father. The identity of his predecessor (the so-called "Khety III" who was the purported author of the Teaching for King Merikare) is still a question of debate among Egyptologists. Some scholars tend to identify Merikare's predecessor with Wahkare Khety.[6][7][8] These sebayt ("teachings", in ancient Egyptian) – possibly composed during the reign of Merikare and fictitiously attributed to his father – are a collection of precepts for good governance. The text also mentions the eastern borders, recently secured, but still in need of the king's attention.[9] In the text, Merikare's unnamed father mentions having sacked Thinis, but he advises Merikare to deal more leniently with the troublesome Upper Egyptian realms.[8] Once crowned, around 2075 BCE,[10] Merikare wisely resigned himself to the existence of two separate kingdoms (the Herakleopolite and the Theban ones) and tried to maintain the policy of peaceful coexistence achieved by his father.[8] It seems that the period of peace brought a certain amount of prosperity to Merikare's realm.[7] Some time later, the pharaoh was forced to sail up the Nile with his court on a great fleet. Once he reached Asyut, the king installed the loyalist nomarch Khety II, who succeeded his deceased father Tefibi;[8] he also made restorations at the local temple of Wepwawet. After that, Merikare advanced farther upstream to the town of Shashotep, likely to quell a revolt, and at the same time as a show of force to the turbulent southern border areas.[11] Merikare died in c. 2040 BCE, a few months before the fall of Herakleopolis. Thus, the final defeat by the Thebans, led by Mentuhotep II of the 11th Dynasty, was likely inflicted upon an ephemeral, unnamed successor.[1] Burial[edit] Main article: Pyramid of Merikare Stele of Anpuemhat, attesting the funerary cult of Merikare in Saqqara during the 12th Dynasty Many sources suggest that Merikare was buried in a yet-undiscovered pyramid in Saqqara, called Flourishing are the Abodes of Merikare, that had to be near to the pyramid of Teti of the 6th Dynasty.[1] The titles of the officials involved in its construction are documented, as his funerary cult endured into the 12th Dynasty; in fact, Merikare's cartouche appears on the stelae of at least four priests who were responsible for the funerary cult of Teti and Merikare during the Middle Kingdom.[12] They include Gemniemhat who also held other important positions. Attestations[edit] Despite his name cannot be recognized in the Turin King List, Merikare is the most attested among the Herakleopolite rulers. His name appears on: the Teaching for King Merikare; a wooden scribe palette belonging to the chancellor Orkaukhety, found in a tomb near Asyut (along with a brazier dedicated to Meryibre Khety) and now at the Louvre;[4] the inscriptions from the tomb of the nomarch Khety II, in Asyut;[4] nine steles attesting the existence of his pyramid and his funerary cult in Saqqara.[3] Hypothesis of an earlier reign[edit] In 2003, the Egyptologist Arkadi F. Demidchik suggested that Merikare's placement within the dynasty should be reconsidered. According to him, if Merikare reigned during the campaign led by Mentuhotep II then the former's pyramid and its cult couldn't have survived the Theban conquest; again, Merikare likely would not be able to obtain granite from the South as mentioned in the Teachings. Demidchik also argued that the battles for Thinis mentioned by Tefibi and Merikare were the same, being fought in the opposite front by the Theban ruler Wahankh Intef II, thus suggesting that Merikare's reign should be placed some decades earlier than usually thought, when the 10th Dynasty's power was at its peak.[3] References[edit] ^ a b c William C. Hayes, in The Cambridge Ancient History, vol 1, part 2, 1971 (2008), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-077915, pp. 467–78. ^ a b Jürgen von Beckerath, Handbuch der Ägyptischen Königsnamen, 2nd edition, Mainz, 1999, p. 74. ^ a b c Arkadi F. Demidchik (2003), "The reign of Merikare Khety", Göttinger Miszellen 192, pp. 25–36. ^ a b c Flinders Petrie, A History of Egypt, from the Earliest Times to the XVIth Dynasty (1897), pp. 115-16. ^ William C. Hayes, op. cit. p. 996. ^ a b Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford, Blackwell Books, 1992, pp. 141–45. ^ a b c Michael Rice, Who is who in Ancient Egypt, 1999 (2004), Routledge, London, ISBN 0-203-44328-4, p. 113. ^ a b c d William C. Hayes, op. cit. p. 466–67. ^ William C. Hayes, op. cit. p. 237. ^ Miriam Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, vol. 2. pp. 97-109. University of California Press 1980, ISBN 0-520-02899-6, p. 97. ^ Alan Gardiner, Egypt of the Pharaohs. An introduction, Oxford University Press, 1961, p. 113. ^ James Edward Quibell, Excavations at Saqqara (1905-1906), Le Caire, Impr. de l'Institut français d'archéologie orientale (1907), p. 20 ff; pl. XIII, XV. Further reading[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Merikare. Wolfgang Kosack; Berliner Hefte zur ägyptischen Literatur 1 - 12: Teil I. 1 - 6/ Teil II. 7 - 12 (2 Bände). Paralleltexte in Hieroglyphen mit Einführungen und Übersetzung. Heft 8: Die Lehre für König Merikarê. Verlag Christoph Brunner, Basel 2015. ISBN 978-3-906206-11-0. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Merikare&oldid=972484621" Categories: 21st-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Tenth Dynasty of Egypt 21st-century BC rulers 21st century BC in Egypt 21st-century BC deaths Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Català Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Português Русский Slovenščina Svenska Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 12 August 2020, at 09:32 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4448	----	WorldCat - Wikipedia WorldCat From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from WorldCat Identities (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search International union library catalog For information on using WorldCat links in Wikipedia articles, see Template:OCLC. WorldCat Screenshot WorldCat homepage as of June 2019 Type of site Network of library content and services Available in 13 languages[1] List of languages Chinese (Simplified) Chinese (Traditional) Czech Dutch English French German Italian Korean Japanese Portuguese Spanish Thai Urdu Owner OCLC URL www.worldcat.org Commercial No Registration Optional, but some features require registration (such as writing reviews and making lists or bibliographies) Launched January 21, 1998; 23 years ago (1998-01-21)[2] Current status Online Content license Copyright policy OCLC number 756372754 WorldCat is a union catalog that itemizes the collections of 15,600 libraries in 107 countries[3] that participate in the OCLC global cooperative. It is operated by OCLC, Inc.[4] The subscribing member libraries collectively maintain WorldCat's database, the world's largest bibliographic database.[5] The database includes other information sources in addition to member library collections.[6] OCLC makes WorldCat itself available free to libraries, but the catalog is the foundation for other subscription OCLC services (such as resource sharing and collection management). WorldCat is used by the general public and by librarians for cataloging and research. Contents 1 History 2 Model 3 See also 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links History[edit] OCLC was founded in 1967 under the leadership of Fred Kilgour.[7] That same year, OCLC began to develop the union catalog technology that would later evolve into WorldCat; the first catalog records were added in 1971.[7][8] In 2003, OCLC began the "Open WorldCat" pilot program, making abbreviated records from a subset of WorldCat available to partner web sites and booksellers, to increase the accessibility of its subscribing member libraries' collections.[9][10] In October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record.[11] WikiD was later phased out, although WorldCat later incorporated user-generated content in other ways.[12][13] In 2006, it became possible for anyone to search WorldCat directly at its open website,[14] not only through the subscription FirstSearch interface where it had been available on the web to subscribing libraries for more than a decade before.[15] Options for more sophisticated searches of WorldCat have remained available through the FirstSearch interface.[14] In 2007, WorldCat Identities began providing pages for 20 million "identities", which are metadata about names—predominantly authors and persons who are the subjects of published titles.[16] In 2017, OCLC's WorldCat Search API was integrated into the cite tool of Wikipedia's VisualEditor, allowing Wikipedia editors to cite sources from WorldCat easily.[17][18] Beginning in 2017, OCLC and the Internet Archive have collaborated to make the Internet Archive's records of digitized books available in WorldCat.[19] As of July 2020, WorldCat contained almost 500 million bibliographic records in 483 languages, representing over 3 billion physical and digital library assets,[4] and the WorldCat persons dataset (mined from WorldCat) included over 100 million people.[20] Model[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) WorldCat contains records in MAchine Readable Cataloging (MARC) format contributed by library catalogers worldwide who use OCLC as a cataloging tool, and these MARC format records can also be downloaded into other libraries' local catalog systems. This allows libraries to find and download records for materials they are adding to their local catalog, without having to undergo the lengthy process of creating a new catalog entry from scratch for each new item. WorldCat operates on a batch processing model rather than a real-time model. That is, WorldCat records are synchronized at intermittent intervals with the underlying library catalogs instead of real-time or every day. Consequently: WorldCat shows that a particular item is owned by a particular library but does not provide that library's call number. WorldCat does not indicate whether an item is currently borrowed, lost, undergoing restoration or repair, or moved to storage not directly accessible to patrons (thereby forcing interested patrons to submit a retrieval request and wait). Furthermore, WorldCat does not show whether a library owns multiple copies of a particular title. As an alternative, WorldCat allows participating institutions to add direct links from WorldCat to their own catalog entries for a particular item, which enables the user to determine its real-time status.[21] However, this still requires users to open multiple Web pages, each pointing to a different online public access catalog with its own distinctive user interface design (which places item status in a different portion of the Web browser display), until they can locate a catalog entry that shows the item is currently available at a particular library. Library contributions to WorldCat are made via the Connexion computer program, which was introduced in 2001; its predecessor, OCLC Passport, was phased out in May 2005.[22] See also[edit] Copac Faceted Application of Subject Terminology (FAST) List of academic databases and search engines Open Library References[edit] ^ "Search for library items". WorldCat. OCLC. Retrieved March 29, 2017. ^ 1998 is the date of registry of the WorldCat.org domain; see: "WorldCat.org WHOIS, DNS, & Domain Info – DomainTools". WHOIS. Retrieved January 21, 2017. However, the union catalog that became WorldCat was started three decades earlier, and it was already available on the web to subscriber libraries at OCLC.org several years before WorldCat.org was a registered domain name; see: "OCLC.org WHOIS, DNS, & Domain Info – DomainTools". WHOIS. Retrieved June 26, 2019. ^ "About OCLC". OCLC. Retrieved January 4, 2021. ^ a b "Inside WorldCat". www.oclc.org. OCLC. Retrieved August 19, 2019. ^ Oswald, Godfrey (2017). "Largest unified international library catalog". Library world records (3rd ed.). Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company. p. 291. ISBN 9781476667775. OCLC 959650095. ^ "Content available through WorldCat Discovery" (XLS). www.oclc.org. OCLC. Retrieved September 22, 2020. ^ a b Margalit Fox (August 2, 2006). "Frederick G. Kilgour, Innovative Librarian, Dies at 92". The New York Times. Retrieved December 22, 2009. Frederick G. Kilgour, a distinguished librarian who nearly 40 years ago transformed a consortium of Ohio libraries into what is now the largest library cooperative in the world, making the catalogs of thousands of libraries around the globe instantly accessible to far-flung patrons, died on Monday in Chapel Hill, N.C. He was 92. ^ "A brief history of WorldCat". oclc.org. February 10, 2015. Retrieved February 13, 2014. ^ O'Neill, Nancy (November–December 2004). "Open WorldCat Pilot: A User's Perspective". Searcher. 12 (10): 54–60. ISSN 1070-4795. OCLC 201889986. ^ Quint, Barbara (October 27, 2003). "OCLC project opens WorldCat records to Google". infotoday.com. Information Today. Retrieved June 26, 2019. ^ "WikiD". OCLC. Retrieved March 5, 2015. ^ Storey, Tom (September 2007). "A WorldCat community: using WorldCat.org to build a social network of the world's library users" (PDF). NextSpace. OCLC (7): 16–17. ISSN 1559-0011. Retrieved June 26, 2019. Online ratings, tags, reviews, recommendations, lists, rankings, personal profiles—the social media revolution is here. It seems the world has exploded with Web 2.0, social networking tools and sites. ^ Bertot, John Carlo; Berube, Katy; Devereaux, Peter; Dhakal, Kerry; Powers, Stephen; Ray, Jennie (April 2012). "Assessing the usability of WorldCat Local: findings and considerations". The Library Quarterly. 82 (2): 207–221. doi:10.1086/664588. JSTOR 10.1086/664588. S2CID 61287720. Breeding [2] also makes the following observations about the benefits of the search system: the presence of a more visually appealing interface; the grouping of related material; faceted navigation; and the capability for user-generated content (e.g., reviews). Eden [3] also refers to the advantages of user-generated content possible in WCL... ^ a b Hane, Paula J. (July 17, 2006). "OCLC to open WorldCat searching to the world". infotoday.com. Information Today. Retrieved June 26, 2019. ^ Prucha, Francis Paul (1994). "National online library catalogs". Handbook for research in American history: a guide to bibliographies and other reference works (2nd ed.). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. pp. 25–27. ISBN 0803237014. OCLC 28018047. Online Computer Library Center has developed two new programs. One is called EPIC, a new command-driven full online service with sophisticated searching features, including subject searches, intended for librarians and other experienced users. The other, designed for end-users, is FirstSearch, which contains the database materials found in EPIC or subsets of them but has a menu interface that nonspecialists find easy to use. Both EPIC and FirstSearch make available the full OCLC Online Union Catalog (called WorldCat in FirstSearch), but they also function as online database services, offering their users a wide array of other databases. ^ Hickey, Thomas B. (April 15, 2007). "WorldCat Identities: Another View of the Catalog" (PDF). NextSpace. OCLC (6): 18–19. ISSN 1559-0011. Retrieved January 18, 2016. ^ "OCLC and Wikipedia Library link citations to millions of library materials, expanding access to quality sources". oclc.org. OCLC. May 11, 2017. Retrieved April 25, 2020. ^ Orlowitz, Jake (May 11, 2017). "You can now add automatically generated citations to millions of books on Wikipedia". blog.wikimedia.org. Wikimedia Foundation. Retrieved April 25, 2020. ^ Michalko, Jim (October 12, 2017). "Syncing Catalogs with thousands of Libraries in 120 Countries through OCLC". blog.archive.org. Internet Archive. Retrieved July 18, 2020. ^ "Data strategy [WorldCat]". oclc.org. Archived from the original on February 12, 2018. Retrieved February 11, 2018. ^ "What is WorldCat?". worldcat.org. Retrieved February 13, 2015. ^ Dean, Becky (March 3, 2005). "OCLC Authorities migration timeline". bibco@listserv.loc.gov (Mailing list). Retrieved June 26, 2019. Further reading[edit] Blackman, Cathy; Moore, Erica Rae; Seikel, Michele; Smith, Mandi (July 2014). "WorldCat and SkyRiver: a comparison of record quantity and fullness". Library Resources & Technical Services. 58 (3): 178–186. doi:10.5860/lrts.58n3.178. Breeding, Marshall (May 2015). "Library services platforms: a maturing genre of products". Library Technology Reports. 51 (4): 1–38. doi:10.5860/ltr.51n4. Matthews, Joseph R. (July 2016). "An environmental scan of OCLC alternatives: a management perspective". Public Library Quarterly. 35 (3): 175–187. doi:10.1080/01616846.2016.1210440. McKenzie, Elizabeth (January 2012). OCLC changes its rules for use of records in WorldCat: library community pushback through blogs and cultures of resistance (Technical report). Boston: Suffolk University Law School. Research paper 12-06. What the OCLC online union catalog means to me: a collection of essays. Dublin, Ohio: OCLC. 1997. ISBN 1556532237. OCLC 37492023. Wilson, Kristen (August 2016). "The knowledge base at the center of the universe". Library Technology Reports. 52 (6): 1–35. doi:10.5860/ltr.52n6. "WorldCat data licensing" (PDF). oclc.org. Retrieved December 31, 2018. See also: "Data licenses & attribution". oclc.org. January 14, 2017. Retrieved December 31, 2018. Information about licensing of WorldCat records and some other OCLC data. External links[edit] Official website "WorldCat". oclc.org. Retrieved December 31, 2018. Information on the OCLC website about WorldCat. What is WorldCat?—A shorter explanation at WorldCat "Bibliographic Formats and Standards". oclc.org. Retrieved December 31, 2018. "WorldCat Identities". worldcat.org. Retrieved December 31, 2018. Authority control LCCN: no2006000525 VIAF: 176058852 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 176058852 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WorldCat&oldid=1002545606#Identifier" Categories: Bibliographic databases and indexes Cooperatives Library catalogues OCLC Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use American English from March 2017 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from March 2017 Articles needing additional references from December 2018 All articles needing additional references Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Asturianu বাংলা Башҡортса Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Boarisch Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Kapampangan ქართული Kiswahili Latina Lietuvių Македонски മലയാളം مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 23:37 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4454	----	Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is for articles with GND identifiers. Please do not add subcategories. For more information, see Wikipedia:Authority control. Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. They are not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. 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Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution 14th arrondissement of Paris 14th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Galician) Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution 15 cm sFH 02 15 cm sFH 13 15th arrondissement of Paris XV Corps (German Empire) 15th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Latvian) 16 Horsepower 16th arrondissement of Paris 16th SS Panzergrenadier Division Reichsführer-SS Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution 17 Hippies 17th arrondissement of Paris 17th SS Panzergrenadier Division Götz von Berlichingen Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution 18th Army (Wehrmacht) 18th arrondissement of Paris 18th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht) 18th Panzer Division (Wehrmacht) 18th SS Volunteer Panzergrenadier Division Horst Wessel 19th arrondissement 19th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht) 19th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (2nd Latvian) 20 July plot 20th arrondissement of Paris 20th Century Studios 20th Mountain Army 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Infantry Division (Wehrmacht) 36-line Bible 38th SS-Grenadier-Division "Nibelungen" The 39 Steps (1935 film) 42nd Street (film) (previous page) (next page) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_GND_identifiers&oldid=974718139" Categories: Pages with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with authority control information Hidden categories: Hidden categories Tracking categories Template Large category TOC via CatAutoTOC on category with over 20,000 pages CatAutoTOC generates Large category TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export 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en-wikipedia-org-4455	----	Wikipedia:About - Wikipedia Wikipedia:About From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search General introduction for visitors to a Wikimedia project For a guide to help pages in Wikipedia, see Help:About help pages. "Wikipedia:Wikipedia" redirects here. For other uses, see Wikipedia:Wikipedia (disambiguation). This is a general introduction for visitors to Wikipedia. The project also has an encyclopedia article about itself, an introduction, and a tutorial for aspiring contributors. Shortcuts WP:ABOUT WP:WIKIPEDIA About Wikipedia Administration FAQ Contributing Tips Tasks Tutorial Help menu Directories Cheatsheet Asking questions Help desk Reference desk Teahouse English Wikipedia right now MediaWiki version: 1.36.0-wmf.27 (7d47974) Content articles: 6,235,381 Total pages: 52,445,075 Uploaded files: 890,760 Edits: 997,864,124 Registered users: 40,792,376, including 133,686 active this month and 1,115 administrators Data as of 00:52, 25 January 2021 (UTC). Update v t e Wikipedia is an online free-content encyclopedia project helping to create a world in which everyone can freely share in the sum of all knowledge. It is supported by the Wikimedia Foundation and based on a model of freely editable content. The name "Wikipedia" is a blending of the words wiki (a technology for creating collaborative websites, from the Hawaiian word wiki, meaning "quick") and encyclopedia. Wikipedia's articles provide links designed to guide the user to related pages with additional information. Wikipedia is written collaboratively by largely anonymous volunteers who write without pay. Anyone with Internet access can write and make changes to Wikipedia articles, except in limited cases where editing is restricted to prevent disruption or vandalism. Since its creation on January 15, 2001, Wikipedia has grown into the world's largest reference website, attracting 1.7 billion unique visitors monthly as of November 2020[update]. It currently has more than 55 million articles in more than 300 languages, including 6,235,381 articles in English with 133,686 active contributors in the past month. The fundamental principles by which Wikipedia operates are the five pillars. The Wikipedia community has developed many policies and guidelines to improve the encyclopedia; however, it is not a formal requirement to be familiar with them before contributing. Anyone is allowed to add or edit words, references, images, and other media here. What is contributed is more important than who contributes it. To remain, the content must be free of copyright restrictions and contentious material about living people. It must fit within Wikipedia's policies, including being verifiable against a published reliable source. Editors' opinions and beliefs and unreviewed research will not remain. Contributions cannot damage Wikipedia because the software allows easy reversal of mistakes, and many experienced editors are watching to ensure that edits are improvements. Begin by simply clicking the Edit button at the top of any editable page! Wikipedia is a live collaboration differing from paper-based reference sources in important ways. It is continually created and updated, with articles on new events appearing within minutes, rather than months or years. Because everybody can help improve it, Wikipedia has become more comprehensive than any other encyclopedia. Besides quantity, its contributors work on improving quality, removing or repairing misinformation, and other errors. Over time, articles tend to become more comprehensive and balanced. However, because anyone can click "edit" at any time and add content, any article may contain undetected misinformation, errors, or vandalism. Readers who are aware of this can obtain valid information, avoid recently added misinformation (see Wikipedia:Researching with Wikipedia), and fix the article. Contents 1 About Wikipedia 1.1 History 1.2 Contributors 1.3 Trademarks and copyrights 1.4 Credits 2 Uses 2.1 Exploration 2.2 Basic navigation 2.3 Research 2.4 Versus paper encyclopedias 2.5 Strengths, weaknesses, and article quality 2.6 Disclaimers 3 Contributing 3.1 Editorial quality review 4 Technical attributes 5 Feedback and questions 5.1 Frequently asked questions (FAQ) 5.2 Static help 5.3 Giving feedback 5.4 Research help and similar questions 5.5 Community discussion 5.6 Contacting individual editors 6 Other languages 7 Sister projects 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links About Wikipedia For information on the administrative structure of Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Administration. See also: Wikipedia:Purpose Further information: Wikipedia:Essay directory § About Wikipedia History Further information: History of Wikipedia The English edition of Wikipedia has grown to 6,235,381 articles, equivalent to around 2,800 print volumes of the Encyclopædia Britannica. Including all language editions, Wikipedia has 55,689,117 articles, equivalent to around 20,900 print volumes.[1] Wikipedia was founded as an offshoot of Nupedia, a now-abandoned project to produce a free encyclopedia, begun by the online media company Bomis. Nupedia had an elaborate system of peer review and required highly qualified contributors, but articles' writing was slow. During 2000, Jimmy Wales (founder of Nupedia and co-founder of Bomis), and Larry Sanger, whom Wales had employed to work on the encyclopedia project, discussed ways of supplementing Nupedia with a more open, complementary project. Multiple sources suggested that a wiki might allow public members to contribute material, and Nupedia's first wiki went online on January 10, 2001. There was considerable resistance on the part of Nupedia's editors and reviewers to the idea of associating Nupedia with a website in the wiki format, so the new project was given the name "Wikipedia" and launched on its own domain, wikipedia.com, on January 15 (now called "Wikipedia Day" by some users). The bandwidth and server (in San Diego) were donated by Wales. Other current and past Bomis employees who have worked on the project include Tim Shell, one of the cofounders of Bomis and its current CEO, and programmer Jason Richey. In May 2001, a large number of non-English Wikipedias were launched—in Catalan, Chinese, Dutch, Esperanto, French, German, Hebrew, Italian, Japanese, Portuguese, Russian, Spanish, and Swedish. These were soon joined by Arabic and Hungarian. In September,[2] Polish was added, and further commitment to the multilingual provision of Wikipedia was made. At the end of the year, Afrikaans, Norwegian, and Serbo-Croatian versions were announced. The domain was eventually changed to the present wikipedia.org when the Wikimedia Foundation was launched, in 2003, as its new parent organization with the ".org" top-level domain denoting its not-for-profit nature. Today, there are Wikipedias in more than 300 languages. Contributors Main pages: Wikipedia:Who writes Wikipedia? and Wikipedia:Wikipedians Further information: Wikipedia:Administration § Editors Play media Wikipedia contributors Anyone with Web access can edit Wikipedia, and this openness encourages the inclusion of a tremendous amount of content. About 130,000 editors—from expert scholars to casual readers—regularly edit Wikipedia, and these experienced editors often help to create a consistent style throughout the encyclopedia, following our Manual of Style. Several mechanisms are in place to help Wikipedia members carry out the important work of crafting a high-quality resource while maintaining civility. Editors can watch pages, and technically skilled persons can write editing programs to track or rectify bad edits. Where there are disagreements on how to display facts, editors often work together to compile an article that fairly represents current expert opinion on the subject. Aspiring authors may wish to read the information on Contributing to Wikipedia before contributing to the project. Although the Wikimedia Foundation owns the site, it is largely uninvolved in writing and daily operations. Trademarks and copyrights Main pages: Wikipedia:Copyrights and wmf:Trademark policy "Wikipedia" is a registered trademark of the not-for-profit Wikimedia Foundation, which has created a family of free-content projects that are built by user contributions. Most of Wikipedia's text and many of its images are dual-licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Unported License (CC-BY-SA) and the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) (unversioned, with no invariant sections, front-cover texts, or back-cover texts). Some text has been imported only under CC-BY-SA and CC-BY-SA-compatible license and cannot be reused under GFDL; such text is identified either on the page footer, in the page history, or on the discussion page of the article that utilizes the text. Every image has a description page that indicates the license under which it is released or, if it is non-free, the rationale under which it is used. Contributions remain their creators' property, while the CC-BY-SA and GFDL licenses ensure the content is freely distributable and reproducible. (See content disclaimer for more information.) Credits Text on Wikipedia is a collaborative work, and the efforts of individual contributors to a page are recorded in that page's history, which is publicly viewable. Information on the authorship of images and other media, such as sound files, can be found by clicking on the image itself or the nearby information icon to display the file page, which includes the author and source, where appropriate, along with other information. Uses Readers' FAQ About Wikipedia Administration FAQs Authority control Books Categories Censorship Copyright Disambiguation Images and multimedia ISBN Microformats Mobile access Offline access Navigation Other languages Page names Portals Searching Student help Researching with Wikipedia Citing Wikipedia Readers' glossary Readers' index Reader's guide to Wikipedia v t e Further information: Wikipedia:Reader's index to Wikipedia See also: Reader's guide to Wikipedia and the guide to using Wikipedia in research Exploration Main page: Wikipedia:Contents Many visitors come to Wikipedia to acquire knowledge, while others come to share knowledge. At this very instant, dozens of articles are being improved, and new articles are also being created. Changes can be viewed at the Recent changes page and a random page at random articles. 5,911 articles have been designated by the Wikipedia community as featured articles, exemplifying the best articles in the encyclopedia. Another 33,133 articles are designated as good articles. Some information on Wikipedia is organized into lists; the best of these are designated as featured lists. Wikipedia also has portals, which organize content around topic areas. Articles can be found using the search box on the screen's top-right side. Wikipedia is available in languages other than English. Wikipedia has more than 300 languages, including a Simple English version, and related projects include a dictionary, quotations, books, manuals, and scientific reference sources, and a news service (see sister projects). All these are maintained, updated, and managed by separate communities and often include information and articles that can be hard to find through other common sources. Basic navigation Main page: Help:Navigation Wikipedia articles are all cross-referenced. Highlighted text like this means "click here" for in-depth information. (Hovering is probably deep enough.) There are other links towards the ends of most articles, for other articles of interest, relevant external websites and pages, reference material, navigational templates, and organized categories of knowledge which can be searched and traversed in a loose hierarchy for more information. Some articles may also have links to dictionary definitions, audio-book readings, quotations, the same article in other languages, and further information on our sister projects. Additional links can be easily made if a relevant link is missing—this is one simple way to contribute. Research Main pages: Wikipedia:Researching with Wikipedia and Wikipedia:Citing Wikipedia Play media What's a love dart? Wikipedia can help you find out! (2:13 min) As wiki documents, articles are never considered complete and may be continually edited and improved. Over time, this generally results in an upward trend of quality and a growing consensus over a neutral representation of information. Users should be aware that not all articles are of encyclopedic quality from the start: they may contain false or debatable information. Indeed, many articles start their lives as displaying a single viewpoint; and, after a long process of discussion, debate, and argumentation, they gradually take on a neutral point of view reached through consensus. For a while, others may become caught up in a heavily unbalanced viewpoint that can take some time—months or years perhaps—to achieve better-balanced coverage of their subject. In part, this is because editors often contribute content in which they have a particular interest and do not attempt to make each article they edit comprehensive. However, additional editors eventually expand and contribute to articles and strive to achieve balance and comprehensive coverage. Also, Wikipedia operates several internal resolution processes that can assist when editors disagree on content and approach. Usually, editors eventually reach a consensus on ways to improve the article. External video "Using Wikipedia" with John Green, from Crash Course's Navigating Digital Information series, YouTube video The ideal Wikipedia article is well written, balanced, neutral, and encyclopedic, containing comprehensive, notable, verifiable knowledge. An increasing number of articles reach this standard over time, and many already have. Our best articles are called Featured Articles (and display a small star in the upper right corner of the article), and our second-best tier of articles are designated Good Articles. However, this process can take months or years to be achieved through editors' concerted effort. Some articles contain statements that have not yet been fully cited. Others will later be augmented with new sections. Some information will be considered by later contributors to be insufficiently founded and, therefore, may be removed. While the overall trend is toward improvement, it is important to use Wikipedia carefully if it is intended to be used as a research source. Individual articles will vary in quality and maturity by their nature. Guidelines and information pages are available to help users and researchers do this effectively, as is an article that summarizes third-party studies and assessments of the reliability of Wikipedia. Versus paper encyclopedias Like a paper encyclopedia, Wikipedia attempts to compile world knowledge but is not bound by the restrictions of a paper encyclopedia. Illustration from Nuremberg Chronicle 1493 Main page: Wikipedia is not paper (on Wikimedia Meta-Wiki). Wikipedia has advantages over traditional paper encyclopedias. First, it is not limited in space: it can keep growing as fast as people add. Second, there are no qualifications required to be able to author its articles. Therefore, it has a vast pool of contributors: the whole world. This, and the first advantage mentioned above, have enabled Wikipedia to become the most comprehensive encyclopedia on Earth. Third, a paper encyclopedia remains static (stays the same) and falls out of date until the next edition. But Wikipedia is dynamic: you don't have to wait for the next edition to come out (there are no editions), as Wikipedia is published on-line as it is written on-line. Articles are made available as is, regardless of what stage of development they are in. You can update Wikipedia at any instant. People do so continually around the clock, thereby helping each other keep abreast of the most recent events everywhere and the latest facts in every subject. Fourth, Wikipedia has a meager "publishing" cost for adding or expanding entries, as it is on-line, with no need to buy paper or ink for distribution. This has allowed it to be made available for free, making it more accessible to everyone. This has enabled Wikipedia to be independently developed and published in many different languages simultaneously by people literate in each language. Of the 290+ different language Wikipedias, 137 of them have 10,000 or more articles. Fifth, Wikipedia has a low environmental impact in some respects, since it never needs to be printed. However, computers have their own environmental cost. Sixth, Wikipedia is extra-linear (more than linear). Instead of in-line explanations, Wikipedia incorporates hypertext in the form of wikilinks. Throughout its content is a robust network of links, providing another dimension of knowledge accessibility. The encyclopedia also has correlated to tables of contents and indexes, with each entry in them hyperlinked to an article on the topic specified. Seventh, each Wikipedia article provides an introduction summarizing the more extensive detail of its contents. Eighth, being open to anyone to edit, articles on Wikipedia are subject to additions that might be erroneous or written poorly, which in turn are subject to being corrected or rewritten. It is a community effort, with most people involved helping to improve the work, fixing problems they encounter along the way. See more about Wikipedia's strengths and weaknesses below ... Strengths, weaknesses, and article quality Main pages: Wikipedia:Why Wikipedia is so great and Wikipedia:Why Wikipedia is not so great See also: Reliability of Wikipedia and Wikipedia:Researching with Wikipedia The Wikipedia Monument (2014) by Mihran Hakobyan in Slubice, Poland, honors the Wikipedia community. Wikipedia's greatest strengths, weaknesses, and differences arise because it is open to anyone. According to editorial guidelines and policies, it has a large contributor base, and its articles are written by consensus. Wikipedia is open to a large contributor base, drawing many editors from diverse backgrounds. This allows Wikipedia to reduce regional and cultural bias found in many publications significantly and makes it very difficult for any person or group to censor and impose bias. A large, diverse editor base also provides access and breadth on subject matter otherwise inaccessible or poorly documented. Many editors contributing at any moment can produce encyclopedic articles and resources covering newsworthy events within hours or days of their occurrence. Like any publication, Wikipedia may reflect the cultural, age, socio-economic, and other biases of its contributors. There is no systematic process to make sure "obviously important" topics are written about, so Wikipedia may suffer unexpected oversights and omissions. While anyone may alter most articles, in practice, editing will be performed by a certain demographic (younger rather than older, male rather than female, literate, rich enough to afford a computer, et cetera) and may, therefore, show some bias. Some topics may not be covered well, others in great depth. Allowing anyone to edit Wikipedia makes it easily vandalized and susceptible to unverified information, which requires removal. See Wikipedia:Administrator intervention against vandalism. While blatant vandalism is usually easily spotted and rapidly corrected, Wikipedia is more subject to subtle viewpoint promotion than a typical reference work. However, a bias that would be unchallenged in a traditional reference work is likely to be eventually challenged or considered on Wikipedia. While Wikipedia articles generally attain a good standard after editing, it is important to note that fledgling articles and those monitored less well may be susceptible to vandalism and insertion of false information. Wikipedia's radical openness also means any given article may be, at any given moment, in a bad state, such as in the middle of a large edit or a controversial rewrite. Many contributors do not yet comply fully with key policies or may add information without citable sources. Wikipedia's open approach tremendously increases the chances that any particular factual error or misleading statement will be relatively promptly corrected. Numerous editors at any given time are monitoring recent changes and edit articles on their watchlists. Wikipedia is written by open and transparent consensus—an approach with its pros and cons. Censorship or imposing "official" points of view is complicated and usually fails after a time. Eventually, all notable views become fairly described for most articles, and a neutral point of view reached. In reality, the process of reaching consensus may be long and drawn-out, with articles fluid or changeable for a long time while they find the "neutral approach" all sides can agree on. Reaching neutrality is occasionally made harder by extreme-viewpoint contributors. Wikipedia operates a full editorial dispute resolution process that allows time for discussion and resolution in-depth. Still, it also permits disagreements to last for months before poor-quality or biased edits are removed. A common conclusion is that Wikipedia is a valuable resource and provides a good reference point on its subjects. That said, articles and subject areas sometimes suffer from significant omissions, and while misinformation and vandalism are usually corrected quickly, this does not always happen. (See for example this incident in which a person inserted a fake biography linking a prominent journalist to the Kennedy assassinations and Soviet Russia as a joke on a co-worker which went undetected for four months, saying afterward he "didn't know Wikipedia was used as a serious reference tool.") Wikipedia is written largely by amateurs. Those with expert credentials are given no additional weight. Wikipedia is also not subject to any peer review for scientific, medical, or engineering articles. One advantage of having amateurs write in Wikipedia is that they have more free time on their hands to make rapid changes in response to current events. The wider the general public interest in a topic, the more likely it is to attract contributions from non-specialists. The MediaWiki software that runs Wikipedia retains a history of all edits and changes. Thus information added to Wikipedia never "vanishes" irreversibly. Discussion pages are an important resource on contentious topics. Therefore, serious researchers can often find a wide range of vigorously or thoughtfully advocated viewpoints not present in the consensus article. As with any source, the information should be checked. A 2005 editorial by a BBC technology writer comments that these debates are probably symptomatic of cultural changes that are happening across all sources of information (including search engines and the media) and may lead to "a better sense of how to evaluate information sources." [3] Disclaimers Main page: Wikipedia:General disclaimer Wikipedia disclaimers apply to all pages on Wikipedia. However, the consensus in Wikipedia is to put all disclaimers only as links and at the end of each article. Proposals to have a warning box at the beginning have been rejected. Some do not like the way it looks or that it calls attention to possible errors in Wikipedia. Wikipedia, in common with many websites, has a disclaimer that, at times, has led to commentators citing these to support the view that Wikipedia is unreliable. A selection of similar disclaimers from places which are often regarded as reliable (including sources such as Encyclopædia Britannica, Associated Press, and the Oxford English Dictionary) can be read and compared at Wikipedia:Non-Wikipedia disclaimers. Contributing Main pages: Wikipedia:Contributing to Wikipedia and Help:Introduction to Wikipedia See also: Help:Your first article and Guide to fixing vandalism A downloadable "Editing Wikipedia guide" in PDF form written by the staff at the Wikimedia Foundation Play media Go ahead and be bold—click the edit button! (1:06 min) Anyone can contribute to Wikipedia by clicking on the Edit tab in an article, and editors are encouraged to be bold. To get started, the intro tutorial has helpful advice. Also, creating an account offers many benefits. Editors are expected to add only verifiable and factual information rather than personal views and opinions, and to remain civil when discussing issues. Vandals will have their edits reverted and be blocked from editing. Most articles start as stubs, but after many contributions, they can become featured articles. All editors are unpaid volunteers, including administrators, trusted editors who are given elevated permissions. The ease of editing Wikipedia results in many people editing. That makes updating the encyclopedia very quick. Every page has an associated talk page tab, where improvements to it are discussed. Editorial quality review Play media Video guided tour #2: Why does Wikipedia work even though anyone can edit it? As well as systems to catch and control substandard and vandalistic edits, Wikipedia also has a full style and content manual and various positive systems for continual article review and improvement. Examples of the processes include peer review, good article assessment, and the featured article process, a rigorous review of articles that are intended to meet the highest standards and showcase Wikipedia's capability to produce high-quality work. Besides, specific types of articles or fields often have their own specialized and comprehensive projects, assessment processes (such as biographical article assessment), and expert reviewers within specific subjects. Nominated articles are also frequently the subject of specific focus on the neutral point of view noticeboard or in WikiProject Cleanup. Technical attributes Wikipedia uses MediaWiki software, the open-source program used not only on Wikimedia projects but also on many other third-party websites. The hardware supporting the Wikimedia projects is based on several hundred servers in various hosting centers worldwide. Full descriptions of these servers and their roles are available on this Meta-Wiki page. For technical information about Wikipedia, check Technical FAQ. Wikipedia publishes various types of metadata; and, across its pages, are many thousands of microformats. Feedback and questions Wikipedia is run as a communal effort. It is a community project whose result is an encyclopedia. Feedback about the content should, in the first instance, be raised on the discussion pages of those articles. Be bold and edit the pages to add information or correct mistakes. Frequently asked questions (FAQ) Main page: Wikipedia:FAQ FAQ index Category:Wikipedia FAQs Static help The Help:Contents may be accessed by clicking help displayed under the ► Interaction tab at the top left of all pages. Help:Menu—is a menu-style page that will direct you to the right place to find information. Help:Directory—is a descriptive listing of all Wikipedia's informative, instructional, and consultation pages. Giving feedback There is an established escalation-and-dispute process within Wikipedia and pages designed for questions, feedback, suggestions, and comments. For a full listing of the services and assistance that can be requested on Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Request directory. Talk pages—the associated discussion page for discussion of an article or policy's contents (usually the first place to go) Wikipedia:Vandalism—a facility for reporting vandalism (but fix vandalism as well as report it) Dispute resolution—the procedure for handling disputes that remain unresolved within an article's talk space Village pump—the Wikipedia discussion area, part of the Community portal Wikipedia:Contact us See also: Bug tracker—a facility for reporting problems with the Wikipedia website or the MediaWiki software that runs it Village pump: proposals page—a place for making non-policy suggestions Wikipedia:Help desk—Wikipedia's general help desk, if other pages have not answered the query Research help and similar questions Facilities to help users researching specific topics can be found at: Wikipedia:Requested articles—to suggest or request new articles. Wikipedia:Reference desk—to ask for help with any questions or find specific facts. Wikipedia:Researching with Wikipedia—for information on using Wikipedia as a research tool. Because of Wikipedia's nature, it is encouraged that people looking for information should try to find it themselves in the first instance. If, however, information is found to be missing from Wikipedia, please be bold and add it. Community discussion For a listing of ongoing discussions and current requests, see the dashboard. For specific discussion not related to article content or editor conduct, see the Village pump, which covers such subjects as milestone announcements, policy and technical discussion, and information on other specialized portals such as the help, reference and peer review desks. The Community portal is a centralized place to find things to do, collaborations, and general editing to help information and find out what is happening. The Signpost, a community-edited newspaper, has recent news regarding Wikipedia, its sister projects, and the Wikimedia Foundation. Contacting individual editors To contact individual contributors, leave a message on their talk page. Standard places to ask policy and project-related questions are the Village pump, online, and the Wikipedia mailing lists, over e-mail. Reach other Wikipedians via IRC and e-mail. Besides, the Wikimedia Foundation Meta-Wiki is a site for coordinating the various Wikipedia projects and sister projects (and abstract discussions of policy and direction). Also available are places for submitting bug reports and feature requests. For a full list of contact options, see Wikipedia:Questions. Other languages This Wikipedia is written in English. Many other Wikipedias are available; some of the largest are listed below. 1,000,000+ articles العربية Deutsch Español Français Italiano Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Svenska Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 250,000+ articles Bahasa Indonesia Bahasa Melayu Bân-lâm-gú Български Català Čeština Dansk Esperanto Euskara فارسی‎ עברית 한국어 Magyar Norsk Bokmål Română Srpski Srpskohrvatski Suomi Türkçe 50,000+ articles Asturianu Bosanski Eesti Ελληνικά Simple English Galego Hrvatski Latviešu Lietuvių മലയാളം Македонски Norsk nynorsk Slovenčina Slovenščina ไทย Sister projects Wikipedia is hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation, a non-profit organization that also hosts a range of other projects: Commons Free media repository MediaWiki Wiki software development Meta-Wiki Wikimedia project coordination Wikibooks Free textbooks and manuals Wikidata Free knowledge base Wikinews Free-content news Wikiquote Collection of quotations Wikisource Free-content library Wikispecies Directory of species Wikiversity Free learning resources Wikivoyage Free travel guide Wiktionary Dictionary and thesaurus Please note that while other sites may also use MediaWiki software and therefore look like Wikipedia [dot org]—"wiki-" or "-pedia" or anything similar—the only projects which are part of the Wikimedia Foundation are those listed above. See also Help desk Help portal Internet portal For useful directories and indexes, see Wikipedia:Directories and indexes. Wikipedia:Formal organization Wikipedia:History of Wikipedian processes and people Wikipedia:Quality control Wikipedia:Ten things you may not know about Wikipedia Wikimedia power structure (Meta) References ^ "Wikistats - Statistics For Wikimedia Projects". stats.wikimedia.org. Wikimedia Foundation. Retrieved 9 January 2021. ^ "Milestones 2001". Wikipedia, www.wikipedia.org. ^ Bill Thompson, "What is it with Wikipedia?" BBC, December 16, 2005. Further reading Main article: Bibliography of Wikipedia Phoebe Ayers; Charles Matthews; Ben Yates (2008). How Wikipedia Works. No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3. John Broughton (2008). Wikipedia Reader's Guide: The Missing Manual. O'Reilly Media, Inc. ISBN 978-0-596-55387-6. John Broughton (2008). Wikipedia: The Missing Manual. O'Reilly Media, Inc. ISBN 978-0-596-55377-7. Dan O'Sullivan (24 September 2009). Wikipedia: A New Community of Practice?. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 978-1-4094-8606-0. Andrew Lih (17 March 2009). The Wikipedia revolution: how a bunch of nobodies created the world's greatest encyclopedia. Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6. Joseph Michael Reagle, Jr.; Lawrence Lessig (30 September 2010). Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-01447-2. External links Wikipedia on Facebook Wikipedia on Twitter Wikipedia on Instagram Mission statement—The Wikimedia Foundation Wikimedia values—The six values of the Wikimedia Foundation Frequently asked questions|In a nutshell, what is Wikipedia? And what is the Wikimedia Foundation?—The Wikimedia Foundation Wikimedia founding principles—Principles generally supported by all the Wikimedia communities Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia v t e  Basic information on Wikipedia Help directory menu Reference desk Help desk About Wikipedia Administration FAQs Purpose Who writes Wikipedia? 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en-wikipedia-org-4474	----	Psusennes I - Wikipedia Psusennes I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Psusennes I Pasebakhenniut I[1] Gold burial mask of King Psusennes I, discovered in 1940 by Pierre Montet Pharaoh Reign 1047–1001 BC (21st Dynasty) Predecessor Amenemnisu Successor Amenemope Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Akheperre Setepenamun ꜥꜣ-ḫpr-Rꜥ-stp.n-Jmn Great is the manifestation of Ra, the chosen one of Amun Nomen Pasebakhaenniut Meriamun pꜣ-sbꜣ-ḫꜥj-n-njwt-mrj-Jmn Psusennes, lit. The star who appears in the city [of Thebes], beloved of Amun Horus name Kanakhtemauiamun Userefaw Sekhajemwaset kꜣ-nḫt-m-ꜣwj-Jmn-wsr-fꜣw-sḫꜥj-m-Wꜣst Strong bull, embraced by Amun, full of power, who shines in Thebes Nebty name Wermenu-em-Ipetsut Nebpehti Waftawywahnesitmiraempet Wr-mnw-m-Jptswt nb-pḥtj-wꜥf-tꜣwj-wꜣḥ-nsjt-mj-Rꜥ-m-pt Great of monuments in Ipetsut, powerful Lord, royal protector of the two lands, like Ra in the sky Golden Horus Semakheperuder Pedjet-9 Itjiemsekhemef Tawnebu smꜣ-ḫprw-dr-pḏt-9-jṯj-m-sḫm.f-tꜣw-nbw Golden Horus who unifies the manifestations, who overpowers the nine bows (the enemies of Egypt) and conquers all the lands with its strength Consort Mutnodjmet, Wiay Children Amenemope, AnkhefenMut, Isitemkheb Father Pinedjem I Mother Henuttawy Died c. 1001 BC Burial NRT III, Tanis Monuments Great Temple of Amun, Tanis (now in ruined fragments) Psusennes I (Ancient Egyptian: pꜣ-sbꜣ-ḫꜥ-n-njwt; Greek Ψουσέννης) was the third pharaoh of the 21st Dynasty who ruled from Tanis between 1047 and 1001 BC. Psusennes is the Greek version of his original name Pasibkhanu or Pasebakhaenniut (in reconstructed Late Egyptian: /pəsiwʃeʕənneːʔə/), which means "The Star Appearing in the City" while his throne name, Akheperre Setepenamun, translates as "Great are the Manifestations of Ra, chosen of Amun."[2] He was the son of Pinedjem I and Henuttawy, Ramesses XI's daughter by Tentamun. He married his sister Mutnedjmet. Contents 1 Reign 2 Burial 3 References 4 Further reading 5 External links Reign[edit] Psusennes I's precise reign length is unknown because different copies of Manetho's records credit him with a reign of either 41 or 46 years. Some Egyptologists have proposed raising the 41 year figure by a decade to 51 years to more closely match certain anonymous Year 48 and Year 49 dates in Upper Egypt. However, the German Egyptologist Karl Jansen-Winkeln has suggested that all these dates should be attributed to the serving High Priest of Amun, Menkheperre instead who is explicitly documented in a Year 48 record.[3] Jansen-Winkeln notes that "in the first half of Dyn. 21, [the] HP Herihor, Pinedjem I and Menkheperre have royal attributes and [royal] titles to differing extents" whereas the first three Tanite kings (Smendes, Amenemnisu and Psusennes I) are almost never referred to by name in Upper Egypt with the exception of one graffito and rock stela for Smendes.[4] In contrast, the name of Psusennes I's Twenty-first Dynasty successors such as Amenemope, Osorkon the Elder, and Siamun appear frequently in various documents from Upper Egypt while the Theban High Priest Pinedjem II who was a contemporary of the latter three kings never adopted any royal attributes or titles in his career.[5] Hence, two separate Year 49 dates from Thebes and Kom Ombo[6] could be attributed to the ruling High Priest Menkheperre in Thebes instead of Psusennes I but this remains uncertain. Psusennes I's reign has been estimated at 46 years by the editors of the Handbook to Ancient Egyptian Chronology.[7] Psusennes I must have enjoyed cordial relations with the serving High Priests of Amun in Thebes during his long reign since the High Priest Smendes II donated several grave goods to this king which were found in Psusennes II's tomb. During his long reign, Psusennes built the enclosure walls and the central part of the Great Temple at Tanis which was dedicated to the triad of Amun, Mut and Khonsu.[8] Psusennes was ostensibly the ruler responsible for turning Tanis into a fully-fledged capital city, surrounding its temple with a formidable brick temenos wall with its sanctuary dedicated to Amun being composed of blocks salvaged from the derelict Pi-Ramesses. Many of these blocks were unaltered and kept the name of Pi-Ramesses' builder, Ramesses II, including obelisks still bearing the name of Ramesses II transported from the former capital of Pi-Ramesses to Tanis.[9] Psusennes had taken his sister, Mutnedjmet, in marriage, in addition to the Lady Wiay. Only two of Psusennes I's children remain identifiable.[10] Burial[edit] Gold and lapis lazuli collar of Psusennes I, Cairo Museum Silver anthropoid coffin of Psusennes I, Cairo Museum Professor Pierre Montet discovered pharaoh Psusennes I's intact tomb (No.3 or NRT III) in Tanis in 1940.[11] Unfortunately, due to its moist Lower Egypt location, most of the perishable wood objects were destroyed by water – a fate not shared by KV62, the tomb of Tutankhamun in the drier climate of Upper Egypt. In contrast to KV62, Psusennes I's tomb holds the distinction of being the only pharaonic grave ever found unscathed by any tomb robbing attempts.[12] The tomb of Tutankhamun had been robbed twice in antiquity. In spite of the destruction of wooden artifacts within the tomb due to the moist Nile delta area, the king's magnificent funerary mask was recovered intact; it proved to be made of gold and lapis lazuli and held inlays of black and white glass for the eyes and eyebrows of the object.[13] Psusennes I's mask is considered to be "one of the masterpieces of the treasure[s] of Tanis" and is currently housed in Room 2 of the Cairo Museum.[14] It has a maximum width and height of 38 cm and 48 cm respectively.[15] The pharaoh's "fingers and toes had been encased in gold stalls, and he was buried with gold sandals on his feet. The finger stalls are the most elaborate ever found, with sculpted fingernails. Each finger wore an elaborate ring of gold and lapis lazuli or some other semiprecious stone."[16] Psusennes I's outer and middle sarcophagi had been recycled from previous burials in the Valley of the Kings through the state-sanctioned tomb robbing that was common practice in the Third Intermediate Period. A cartouche on the red outer sarcophagus shows that it had originally been made for Pharaoh Merenptah, the 19th Dynasty successor of Ramesses II. Psusennes I, himself, was interred in an "inner silver coffin" which was inlaid with gold.[17] Since "silver was considerably rarer in Egypt than gold," Psusennes I's silver "coffin represents a sumptuous burial of great wealth during Egypt's declining years."[18] Dr. Douglass Derry, who worked as the head of Cairo University's Anatomy Department, examined the king's remains in 1940 and determined that the king was an old man when he died.[19] Derry noted that Psusennes I's teeth were badly worn and full of cavities, that he had an abscess that left a hole in his palate, and observed that the king suffered from extensive arthritis and was probably crippled by this condition in his final years.[20] References[edit] ^ Pasebakhaenniut ^ Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames & Hudson Ltd, 1994., p.178 ^ Karl Jansen-Winkeln, "Das Ende des Neuen Reiches", Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache, 119 (1992), p.26 ^ Karl Jansen-Winkeln, "Dynasty 21" in Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss, and David Warburton (editors), Handbook of Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies), Brill: 2006, pp. 226-227, 229 ^ Hornung, Krauss & Warburton, p. 229 ^ Kenneth Kitchen, The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100-650 BC), third edition (Aris & Philips, 1996), pp. 421, 573 ^ Hornung, Krauss & Warburton, p. 493 ^ Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, (Oxford: Blackwell Books, 1992), pp. 315-317 ^ 1962-, Dodson, Aidan (1995). Monarchs of the Nile. London: Rubicon. pp. 155–156. ISBN 094869520X. OCLC 32925121.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) ^ 1962-, Dodson, Aidan (1995). Monarchs of the Nile. London: Rubicon. p. 156. ISBN 094869520X. OCLC 32925121.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) ^ Bob Brier, Egyptian Mummies: Unravelling the Secrets of an Ancient Art, William Morrow & Company Inc., New York, 1994. p.145 ^ A., Clayton, Peter. Chronicle of the Pharaohs : the reign-by-reign record of the rulers and dynasties of ancient Egypt. New York, N.Y. pp. 180. ISBN 0500050740. OCLC 31639364. ^ Lorna Oakes, Pyramids, Temples and Tombs of Ancient Egypt, Hermes House, 2003. p.216 ^ Alessandro Bongioanni & Maria Croce (ed.), The Treasures of Ancient Egypt: From the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, Universe Publishing, a division of Ruzzoli Publications Inc., 2003. p.422 ^ Bongioanni & Croce, p.422 ^ Brier, pp.146-147 ^ Christine Hobson, Exploring the World of the Pharaohs: A complete Guide to Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson 1987. p.123 ^ Hobson, p.123 ^ Douglass E. Derry, Annales du Service des Antiquités de l'Égypte" Vol. 40 (1940), pp.969-970 ^ Brier, p.147 Further reading[edit] Bob Brier, Egyptian Mummies: Unraveling the Secrets of an Ancient Art, William Morrow & Co, (1994), pp. 146–147. Ad Thijs, The Burial of Psusennes I and “The Bad Times” of P. Brooklyn 16.205, ZÄS 96 (2014), 209–223 Jean Yoyotte, BSSFT 1(1988) 46 n.2. External links[edit] Secrets of the Dead episode: The Silver Pharaoh (2010) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Psusennes I. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 142199893 VIAF: 160248724 WorldCat Identities: viaf-160248724 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Psusennes_I&oldid=995506021" Categories: 11th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Ancient Egyptian mummies 11th century BC in Egypt 11th-century BC rulers Hidden categories: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list Articles containing Ancient Egyptian-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with 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en-wikipedia-org-4487	----	Sneferka - Wikipedia Sneferka From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sneferka Neferseka, Sekanefer, Neferkaes Slate fragment bearing Sneferka's serekh from Saqqara[1] Pharaoh Reign short, ca. 2900 BC (end of 1st Dynasty) Predecessor unclear, possibly Qa'a or Horus Bird Successor unclear, possibly Hotepsekhemwy or Horus Bird Royal titulary Horus name Hor-Sneferka Ḥr.-snfr-k3 His Ka is complete/perfect Sneferka is the serekh-name of an early Egyptian king who may have ruled at the end of the 1st Dynasty. The exact length of his reign is unknown, but thought to have been very short and his chronological position is unclear. Contents 1 Name sources 2 Identity 3 References 4 External links Name sources[edit] Sneferka's serekh-name is the object of current investigations, because of the unusual typographical order of the hieroglyphic signs within the serekh. This led to several different readings: his name is read as Seneferka, Sneferka, Neferseka and Sekanefer.[2] The serekh-name "Sneferka" appears on several schist- and alabaster vessels. One was found in the mastaba of the high official Merka who served under king Qa'a; a second one in the underground galleries of the step pyramid of king Djoser (3rd Dynasty) and the third was found in an anonymous mastaba, also at Sakkara. A fourth artifact with Sneferka's name is found in the private Georges-Michailidis-Collection but its authenticity is questioned by archaeologists and Egyptologists, since its origin is unknown. Additionally, the inscription on the Michailidis-object is a serekh with no Horus-falcon, which is highly unusual for any Egyptian artifact of that time period.[3][4][5] Identity[edit] Beside Sneferka's serekh, the inscriptions mention several institutions and places already known thanks to finds dating to Qa'a's reign. They are called Qau-Netjeru ("Elevations of the gods") and Ah-Netjer ("Divine palace") and appear in several stone vessel inscriptions from Qa'a's tomb at Abydos. Egyptologists such as Peter Kaplony conclude that the inscriptions prove a chronological adjacency to king Qa'a or that the name "Sneferka" was an alternative name that Qa'a bore for a short time. Two artifacts of different origins show the serekh of a king, whose name is highly disputed, for the hieroglyphic sign used to write the king's name is almost illegible. Since at least the depiction of a bird was recognised, the king in question is called "Horus Bird". Egyptologists such as Wolfgang Helck and Peter Kaplony believe that Sneferka and "Horus Bird" fought each other to gain the throne of Egypt. The struggles peaked in the plundering of the royal cemetery of Abydos, which was therefore abandoned. The struggle for the throne was possibly brought to an end by the founder of the 2nd Dynasty, king Hotepsekhemwy. A piece of evidence supporting this theory is the Horus name of Hotepsekhemwy which means "The two powers are reconciled", and could relate to a re-unification of the Egyptian realm after a period of discord.[6][7][8] In contrast, Egyptologist Kim Ryholt believes that Sneferka ruled during the midst of 2nd Dynasty and was to be identified with Neferkara I, attested in Ramesside sources. He points to the circumstance that Ramesside scribes often added the symbol of the sun to the names of early dynastic kings, ignoring the fact that the sun was not yet an object of divine adoration at that early time. To support his view, Ryholt points to cartouche names such as Neferkara II and Nebkara I, which represent early kings and contradictorily have a sun-symbol in their names.[9] Egyptologist Aidan Dodson thinks alike and points to the fact that nearly all serekhs of Sneferka are made "on erasures", thus leading to the conclusion that Sneferka usurped Qa'a's vessels. This behavior was typical for kings who ruled somewhat later than the original owner of the re-used artefacts and who ruled for a very short time only.[10] References[edit] ^ Pierre Lacau & Jean-Philippe Lauer: La Pyramide à Degrés IV. – Inscriptions gravées sur les Vases: Fouilles à Saqqarah., Service des antiquités de l’Égypte, Cairo 1936 ^ I.E.S. Edwards: The Cambridge ancient history, Volume 1-3. Cambridge University Press, 1970, ISBN 0-521-07791-5, page 29. ^ Walter Brian Emery: Great tombs of the First Dynasty: Excavations at Saqqara, vol. 3. Egypt exploration society, London/Cairo 1958. page 38. ^ Pierre Lacau & Jan-Phillip Lauer: La Pyramide a Degrees IV. - Inscriptions Gravees sur les Vases: Fouilles à Saqqarah. Service des antiquités de l'Égypte, Kairo 1936, page 15–17. ^ Toby Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, London 1999, ISBN 0-415-18633-1, page 69. ^ Peter Kaplony: „Er ist ein Liebling der Frauen“ – Ein „neuer“ König und eine neue Theorie zu den Kronprinzen sowie zu den Staatsgöttinnen (Kronengöttinnen) der 1./2. Dynastie. In: Manfred Bietak: Ägypten und Levante. Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien 2006 ISBN 978-3-7001-6668-9; page 126–127. ^ Dietrich Wildung: Die Rolle ägyptischer Könige im Bewußtsein ihrer Nachwelt. page 36–41. ^ Wolfgang Helck: Untersuchungen zur Thinitenzeit. (Ägyptologische Abhandlungen, Vol. 45). Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1987, ISBN 3-447-02677-4; page 117 ^ Kim Ryholt, in: Journal of Egyptian History; vol.1. BRILL, Leiden 2008, ISSN 1874-1657, page 159–173. ^ Aidan Dodson: The Mysterious Second Dynasty In: KMT - A Modern Journal of Ancient Egypt Nr.7. Kmt Communications, San Francisco 1996, ISSN 1053-0827, S. 19-31. External links[edit] Francesco Raffaele: Horus SNEFERKA - Horus Bird - Horus SEKHET (?) - Horus BA Preceded by Qa'a Pharaoh of Egypt Succeeded by Horus Bird v t e Second Dynasty of Ancient Egypt Attested pharaohs Hotepsekhemwy Nebra Weneg Nynetjer Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Khasekhemwy Obscure pharaoh names Horus Ba Ba Horus Sa Hudjefa I Neferkara I Neferkasokar Nubnefer Senedj Sneferka Wadjenes Queen consort Nimaathap Other royals Khenmetptah Satkhnum Sehener Shepset-ipet Wadjitefni (Mesen-ka) Pehen-Ptah Nisuheqet Nefer-Setekh Monument Gisr el-Mudir Capital Thinis v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sneferka&oldid=995691210" Categories: 30th-century BC Pharaohs 29th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Second Dynasty of Egypt 30th century BC in Egypt 30th-century BC rulers Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Deutsch Français Galego Bahasa Indonesia ქართული Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands Português Русский සිංහල Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska Tagalog Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 December 2020, at 10:45 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4495	----	Asia Institute - Wikipedia Asia Institute From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Bulletin of the Asia Institute) Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the Asia Institute (Iran). For other uses, see Asia Institute (disambiguation). Logo of the Asia Institute Garden and building of Narenjestan The Asia Institute was founded in 1928 in New York City as the American Institute for Persian Art and Archaeology. Later, it continued its activity in Shiraz, Iran between 1966 and 1979. Its affiliations, functions, and publications have varied over the years, although it no longer exists as an organization. Two remnants of the Asia Institute are the Bulletin of the Asia Institute, published in the United States, and the Narenjestan Museum at Shiraz University, Iran.[1][2][3] The institute was founded by Arthur Upham Pope, who had organized an exhibition and the First International Congress on Persian Art in Philadelphia in 1926. The aim of the institute was to promote research and interest in Persian art and archaeology through exhibitions, lectures, congresses and publications, and to assist in the excavation and conservation of monuments in Persia. Due to close contacts with the royal family of Iran, Pope and his wife moved to Shiraz in 1966, where the Asia Institute was re-established as a part of Pahlavi University (now Shiraz University) and housed in the late-nineteenth-century Qajari mansion called the Narenjestan. The institute organized the Fifth International Congress of Iranian Art and Archaeology, which took place in Tehran in 1968. The institute in Shiraz was closed after the Islamic revolution in 1979,[1] but the Narenjestan re-opened as a museum. References[edit] ^ a b Iranica Online. Asia Institute ^ Bulletin of the Asia Institute [1] ^ Narenjestan Mansion website "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2014-05-28. Retrieved 2012-07-29.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) External links[edit] Bulletin of the Asia Institute Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Asia_Institute&oldid=919350936" Categories: Shiraz University Iranian studies Asian studies Hidden categories: CS1 maint: archived copy as title Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages فارسی Edit links This page was last edited on 3 October 2019, at 07:17 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4524	----	Achaemenid destruction of Athens - Wikipedia Achaemenid destruction of Athens From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Destruction of Athens) Jump to navigation Jump to search Achaemenid destruction of Athens Part of the Greco-Persian Wars Part of the archaeological remains called Perserschutt, or "Persian rubble": remnants of the destruction of Athens by the armies of Xerxes. Photographed in 1866, just after excavation. Date 480 and 479 BCE Location Athens, Greece 37°59′02″N 23°43′40″E / 37.983972°N 23.727806°E / 37.983972; 23.727806Coordinates: 37°59′02″N 23°43′40″E / 37.983972°N 23.727806°E / 37.983972; 23.727806 Result Achaemenid destruction of Athens Belligerents Athens Achaemenid Empire Location of Athens v t e Second Persian invasion of Greece Thermopylae Artemisium Athens Salamis Potidea Olynthus Plataea Mycale The Achaemenid destruction of Athens was accomplished by the Achaemenid Army of Xerxes I during the Second Persian invasion of Greece, and occurred in two phases over a period of two years, in 480-479 BCE. Contents 1 First phase: Xerxes I (480 BCE) 2 Second phase: Mardonius (479 BCE) 3 Reconstruction 4 Retaliatory burning of the Palace of Persepolis 5 References 6 Sources 7 External links First phase: Xerxes I (480 BCE)[edit] "The Citadel at Athens" at the time of Xerxes (1900 reconstitution). In 480 BCE, after the victory of Xerxes I at the Battle of Thermopylae, all of Boeotia fell to the Achaemenid Army. The two cities that had resisted Xerxes, Thespiae and Plataea, were captured and razed. Attica was also left open to invasion, and the remaining population of Athens was thus evacuated, with the aid of the Allied fleet, to Salamis.[1] The Peloponnesian Allies began to prepare a defensive line across the Isthmus of Corinth, building a wall, and demolishing the road from Megara, thereby abandoning Athens to the Persians.[2] Athens fell a first time in September 480 BCE.[3] The small number of Athenians who had barricaded themselves on the Acropolis were eventually defeated, and Xerxes then ordered Athens to be torched.[4] The Acropolis was razed, and the Old Temple of Athena and the Older Parthenon destroyed:[5] Those Persians who had come up first betook themselves to the gates, which they opened, and slew the suppliants; and when they had laid all the Athenians low, they plundered the temple and burnt the whole of the acropolis. — Herodotus VIII.53[6] "Perserschutt", or "Persian rubble" Numerous remains of statues vandalized by the Achaemenids have been found, known collectively as the "Perserschutt", or "Persian rubble": Acropolis excavation pit where remains of Archaic statues were found, northwest of the Erechtheum. The Kritios Boy was recovered, decapitated, in the Perserschutt. The Antenor Kore, recovered from the Perserschutt. Part of the damaged Hekatompedon pediment. The damaged Moscophoros. The damaged Peplos Kore. The damaged Rampin Rider. The Capture of the Acropolis by the Persians Foundations of the Old Temple of Athena, destroyed by the armies of Xerxes I. The statue was the "Nike (Victory) of Callimachus" which was erected next to the Older Parthenon in honor of Callimachus and the victory at the Battle of Marathon, was severely damaged by the Achaemenids. The statue depicts Nike (Victory), in the form of a woman with wings, on top of an inscribed column. Its height is 4.68 meters and was made of Parian marble. The head of the statue and parts of the torso and hands were never recovered. Xerxes also took away some of the statuary, such as the bronze statue of Harmodius and Haristogiton, "the Tyrant-slayers", which was recovered by Alexander the Great in the Achaemenid capital of Susa two centuries later.[7] In September though, Xerxes I lost a large part of his fleet to the Greeks in the Battle of Salamis. With the Persians' naval superiority removed, Xerxes feared that the Greeks might sail to the Hellespont and destroy the pontoon bridges.[8] According to Herodotus, Mardonius volunteered to remain in Greece and complete the conquest with a hand-picked group of troops, while advising Xerxes to retreat to Asia with the bulk of the army.[9] All of the Persian forces abandoned Attica, with Mardonius over-wintering in Boeotia and Thessaly.[10] Some Athenians were thus able to return to their burnt-out city for the winter.[10] They would have to evacuate again in front of a second advance by Mardonius in June 479 BCE.[3] Second phase: Mardonius (479 BCE)[edit] Main Achaemenid troops under Mardonius Persians Medians Sakas Bactrians Indians Main troops of Achaemenid General Mardonius, according to Herodotus: Persians, Medians, Sakas, Bactrians and Indians,[11][12][13] illustrated in the list of troops by ethnicity, on the tomb of Xerxes I at Naqsh-e Rostam.[14] Mardonius remained with the rest of the Achaemenid troops in northern Greece. He selected some of the best troops to remain with him in Greece, especially Immortals, the Medes, the Sacae, the Bactrians and the Indians. Herodotus described the composition of the principal troops of Mardonius:[13][12] Mardonius there chose out first all the Persians called Immortals, save only Hydarnes their general, who said that he would not quit the king's person; and next, the Persian cuirassiers, and the thousand horse, and the Medes and Sacae and Bactrians and Indians, alike their footmen and the rest of the horsemen. He chose these nations entire; of the rest of his allies he picked out a few from each people, the goodliest men and those that he knew to have done some good service... Thereby the whole number, with the horsemen, grew to three hundred thousand men. — Herodotus VIII, 113.[11][13] Answer of Aristides to the ambassadors of Mardonius: "As long as the sun holds to its present course, we shall never come to terms with Xerxes".[15] Mardonius remained in Thessaly, knowing an attack on the isthmus was pointless, while the Allies refused to send an army outside the Peloponessus.[16] Mardonius moved to break the stalemate, by offering peace, self-government and territorial expansion to the Athenians (with the aim of thereby removing their fleet from the Allied forces), using Alexander I of Macedon as an intermediary.[17] The Athenians made sure that a Spartan delegation was on hand to hear the offer, but rejected it.[17] Athens was thus evacuated again, and the Persians marched south and re-took possession of it.[17] Mardonius brought even more thorough destruction to the city, and some authors considered that the city was truly razed to the ground during this second phase.[3] According to Herodotus, after the negotiations broke off: (Mardonius) burnt Athens, and utterly overthrew and demolished whatever wall or house or temple was left standing — Herodotus IX.13[18][3] Reconstruction[edit] Athenians rebuilding their city under the direction of Themistocles. See also: Themistoclean Wall The Achaemenids were decisively beaten at the ensuing Battle of Plataea, and the Greeks were able to recover Athens. They had to rebuild everything, including a new Parthenon on the Acropolis. These efforts at reconstruction were led by Themistocles in the autumn of 479 BC, who reused remains of the Older Parthenon and Old Temple of Athena to reinforce the walls of the Acropolis, which are still visible today in the North Wall of the Acropolis.[19][20] His priority was probably to repair the walls and build up the defenses of the city, before even endeavouring to rebuild temples.[21] Themistocles in particular is considered as the builder of the northern wall of the Acropolis incorporating the debris of the destroyed temples, while Cimon is associated with the later building of the southern wall.[22] The Themistoclean Wall, named after Themistocles, was built right after the war with Persia, in the hope of defending against further invasion. A lot of this building efforts was accomplished using spolia, remains of the destructions from the preceding conflict. The Parthenon was only rebuilt much later, after more than 30 years had elapsed, by Pericles, possibly because of an original vow that the Temples destroyed by the Achaemenids should not be rebuilt. Architectural remains of the Old Athena Temple built into the north wall of the Acropolis by Themistocles. Column drums of the Older Parthenon, reused in the North wall of the Acropolis, by Themistocles. The Older Parthenon (in black) was destroyed by the Achaemenids, and then rebuilt by Pericles in 438 BCE (in grey). Ruins of the Themistoclean Wall. Retaliatory burning of the Palace of Persepolis[edit] Alexander the Great lifting Thais holding a torch, in "The Burning of Persepolis" (L'incendie de Persepolis), Georges Rochegrosse, 1890. In 330 BCE, Alexander the Great burned down the palace of Persepolis, the principal residence of the defeated Achaemenid dynasty, after a drinking party and at the instigation of Thais. According to Plutarch and Diodorus, this was intended as a retribution for Xerxes' burning of the old Temple of Athena on the Acropolis in Athens (the site of the extant Parthenon) in 480 BC during the Persian Wars. When the king [Alexander] had caught fire at their words, all leaped up from their couches and passed the word along to form a victory procession in honour of Dionysus. Promptly many torches were gathered. Female musicians were present at the banquet, so the king led them all out for the comus to the sound of voices and flutes and pipes, Thaïs the courtesan leading the whole performance. She was the first, after the king, to hurl her blazing torch into the palace. As the others all did the same, immediately the entire palace area was consumed, so great was the conflagration. It was remarkable that the impious act of Xerxes, king of the Persians, against the acropolis at Athens should have been repaid in kind after many years by one woman, a citizen of the land which had suffered it, and in sport. — Diodorus of Sicily (XVII.72) References[edit] ^ Herodotus VIII, 41 ^ Holland, p. 300 ^ a b c d Lynch, Kathleen M. (2011). The Symposium in Context: Pottery from a Late Archaic House Near the Athenian Agora. ASCSA. pp. 20–21, and Note 37. ISBN 9780876615461. ^ Holland, pp. 305–306 ^ Barringer, Judith M.; Hurwit, Jeffrey M. (2010). Periklean Athens and Its Legacy: Problems and Perspectives. University of Texas Press. p. 295. ISBN 9780292782907. ^ LacusCurtius Herodotus Book VIII: Chapter 53. ^ D'Ooge, Martin Luther (1909). The acropolis of Athens. New York : Macmillan. p. 64. ^ Herodotus VIII, 97 ^ Herodotus VIII, 100 ^ a b Holland, pp. 327–329 ^ a b LacusCurtius • Herodotus — Book VIII: Chapters 97‑144. p. Herodotus VIII, 113. ^ a b Shepherd, William (2012). Plataea 479 BCE: The most glorious victory ever seen. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 25. ISBN 9781849085557. ^ a b c Tola, Fernando (1986). "India and Greece before Alexander". Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute Vol. 67, No. 1/4. 67 (1/4): 165. JSTOR 41693244.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ LacusCurtius • Herodotus — Book IX: Chapters 1‑89. pp. IX–31/32. ^ The Histories. Penguin UK. 2013. p. 484. ISBN 9780141393773. ^ Holland, pp. 333–335 ^ a b c Holland, pp. 336–338 ^ LacusCurtius Herodotus Book IX: Chapter 13. ^ Shepherd, William (2012). Plataea 479 BC: The most glorious victory ever seen. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 88. ISBN 9781849085557. ^ D'Ooge, Martin Luther (1909). The acropolis of Athens. New York : Macmillan. pp. 60–80. ^ D'Ooge, Martin Luther (1909). The acropolis of Athens. New York : Macmillan. pp. 64–65. ^ D'Ooge, Martin Luther (1909). The acropolis of Athens. New York : Macmillan. p. 66. Sources[edit] Holland, Tom (2006). Persian Fire: The First World Empire and the Battle for the West. Abacus, ISBN 0-385-51311-9. External links[edit] Shear, Leslie (1993). The Persian destruction of Athens (PDF). Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_destruction_of_Athens&oldid=1001784919" Categories: Ancient Athens Greco-Persian Wars 480 BC 479 BC Razed cities Demolition Hidden categories: CS1 maint: location Coordinates on Wikidata Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Español فارسی Français Edit links This page was last edited on 21 January 2021, at 09:30 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4530	----	File:Foundations of the Old Athena Temple (foreground).jpg - Wikipedia File:Foundations of the Old Athena Temple (foreground).jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 544 pixels. Other resolutions: 320 × 218 pixels | 640 × 436 pixels | 1,024 × 697 pixels | 1,327 × 903 pixels. Original file ‎(1,327 × 903 pixels, file size: 936 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary DescriptionFoundations of the Old Athena Temple (foreground).jpg English: Foundations of the Old Athena Temple (foreground) Date 1 January 1909 Source The acropolis of Athens, published 1909 Author D'Ooge, Martin Luther, 1839-1915 Licensing Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse This work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 100 years or fewer. You must also include a United States public domain tag to indicate why this work is in the public domain in the United States. This file has been identified as being free of known restrictions under copyright law, including all related and neighboring rights. https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/PDMCreative Commons Public Domain Mark 1.0falsefalse Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1926. Public domain works must be out of copyright in both the United States and in the source country of the work in order to be hosted on the Commons. If the work is not a U.S. work, the file must have an additional copyright tag indicating the copyright status in the source country. PD-1923Public domain in the United States//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Foundations_of_the_Old_Athena_Temple_(foreground).jpg Captions EnglishAdd a one-line explanation of what this file represents Items portrayed in this file depicts inception 1 January 1909Gregorian File history Click on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 08:01, 6 January 2019 1,327 × 903 (936 KB) पाटलिपुत्र better 07:57, 6 January 2019 1,327 × 1,163 (1.18 MB) पाटलिपुत्र User created page with UploadWizard File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Achaemenid destruction of Athens Old Temple of Athena Second Persian invasion of Greece Xerxes I Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on az.wikipedia.org Yunan-İran müharibəsi (e.ə. 480-e.ə. 479) Usage on de.wikipedia.org Alter Athena-Tempel Usage on es.wikipedia.org Destrucción aqueménida de Atenas Usage on fr.wikipedia.org Temple d'Athéna Polias Destruction achéménide d'Athènes Usage on gl.wikipedia.org Antigo templo de Atenea Usage on hy.wikipedia.org Պարսկական երկրորդ ներխուժում Հունաստան Usage on pl.wikipedia.org Akropol ateński Usage on ta.wikipedia.org முதலாம் செர்கஸ் Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. If the file has been modified from its original state, some details may not fully reflect the modified file. Width 1,327 px Height 903 px File change date and time 09:00, 6 January 2019 Software used PaintShop Pro 20,00 Horizontal resolution 72 dpi Vertical resolution 72 dpi Image width 1,327 px Image height 903 px Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Foundations_of_the_Old_Athena_Temple_(foreground).jpg" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces File Talk Variants Views Read View on Commons More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Upload file Special pages Printable version Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4540	----	Age of Empires (video game) - Wikipedia Age of Empires (video game) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Age of Empires Windows cover art Developer(s) Ensemble Studios Definitive Edition: Forgotten Empires Publisher(s) Microsoft Definitive Edition: Microsoft Studios Director(s) Bruce Shelley[1] Designer(s) Brian Sullivan[2] Rick Goodman Programmer(s) Angelo Laudon Artist(s) Brad Crow Composer(s) Stephen Rippy David Rippy Series Age of Empires Engine Genie Platform(s) Microsoft Windows, Windows Mobile, Macintosh Release NA: October 15, 1997 UK: February 2, 1998 Genre(s) Real-time strategy Mode(s) Single-player, multiplayer Age of Empires (AoE) is a history-based real-time strategy video game developed by Ensemble Studios and published by Microsoft, and the first game in the Age of Empires series. The game uses the Genie Engine, a 2D sprite-based game engine. The game allows the user to act as the leader of an ancient civilization by advancing it through four ages (the Stone, Tool, Bronze, and Iron Ages), gaining access to new and improved units with each advance. Originally touted as Civilization meets Warcraft, some reviewers felt that the game failed to live up to these expectations when it was released. Despite this, it received generally good reviews, and an expansion pack, titled The Rise of Rome, was released in 1998. Both the original Age of Empires and the expansion pack were later released as "The Gold Edition". A sequel, Age of Empires II, was released in 1999. Age of Empires: Definitive Edition, a remastered version of the game, was released on February 20, 2018. Contents 1 Gameplay 1.1 Modes 1.2 Civilizations 1.3 Technology 1.3.1 Units 1.3.2 Buildings 2 Development 2.1 The Rise of Rome 3 Reception 3.1 Sales 3.2 Critical reviews 4 Definitive Edition 5 References 6 External links Gameplay[edit] Age of Empires requires the player to develop a civilization from a handful of hunter-gatherers to an expansive Iron Age Empire.[3] To assure victory, the player must gather resources in order to pay for new units, buildings and more advanced technology. Resources must be preserved, as no new resources become available as the game progresses; for example, trees that are cut down will not grow back.[4][5] Twelve civilizations are available, each with individual sets of attributes, including a varying number of available technologies and units. Each civilization has technologies unique to them, so that no civilization possesses all the technologies possible within the game.[6] A major component of the game is the advancement through four ages. These are the Stone Age (Mesolithic/Nomad/Paleolithic), the Tool Age (Neolithic/Chalcolithic), the Bronze Age and the Iron Age. Advancement between ages is researched at the Town Center, and each advancement brings the player new technologies, weapons, and units.[5][7] Modes[edit] A custom scenario: Champa invaders attack the Khmer Empire, which attempts to construct the legendary Angkor Wat. The game features four single-player campaigns in which the player is required to complete specific objectives. Campaigns are a collection of scenarios which are completed in a linear fashion. The campaigns follow the history of the Egyptian, Greek, Babylonian and Yamato civilizations; there is also a complete campaign specially made for the demo version that takes place in the Hittite Empire.[8] Aside from the campaigns, there is a game mode called "random map", in which a different map is generated for each new game. Variations of random map, such as the resource-heavy "death match", are also available.[5][9][10] Age of Empires facilitated online and network play with up to 8 people simultaneously. Because the network play is less sophisticated than that of modern games, lag and disconnections often occur.[11] Until June 19, 2006, multiplayer gameplay was supported by Microsoft Gaming Zone. At that point, the Zone abandoned support of most CD-ROM games, including Age of Empires and Age of Empires II: The Age of Kings.[12] The creation of user-made scenarios or series of scenarios (campaigns) for the game was made possible using the Scenario Builder. This tool is simpler and easier to learn than comparable editors used in more modern games, but it has fewer capabilities as a result. Ensemble Studios used the Scenario Builder to make the single-player campaigns which shipped with the retail game. Various unofficial sites exist where custom scenarios can be submitted and downloaded. In late 2005, it was discovered that by modifying various data files, units present in the beta versions of the game could be made available in the editor. Some obscure units include a spaceship and a hero that changes ownership when units move near it. Through data editing, the rules of unit placement can also be modified. This allows units to be placed on any terrain and on top of other units, which creates new possibilities for design. Other significant discoveries include new terrain templates, a mode to triple each unit's hitpoints and a tool to edit map sizes.[13] Civilizations[edit] Players choose to play as one of 12 civilizations. The civilizations are sorted into four distinct architectural styles, based on East Asian, Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Greek architecture, which determine their in-game appearance.[14] Technology[edit] Technology is researched at specific buildings, to which they are generally related; for example, religious research is done in temples and improved armor is researched in the storage pit.[5] Technological advances come in many categories, such as military upgrades (better arms and armor for units), economic upgrades (increasing the efficiency of resource gathering), religious upgrades (faster conversion rates and more abilities for priests) and infrastructure upgrades (stronger fortifications and more resilient buildings). As basic technology research is completed, more advanced technologies may become available. Some technologies are not available to certain civilizations.[5] Technology plays a very important role in the strategy of the game.[15] As a civilization progresses through the ages, technology becomes more and more expensive, which makes collecting the necessary resources to research them difficult.[15] As a consequence, balancing the workforce of villagers across the various resources can make the difference between victory and defeat.[15] Two armies squaring off, sporting an array of units Units[edit] Players control a variety of civilian and military units.[15] Most units can be upgraded through research (e.g. faster gathering for villagers, stronger armor for military units, and longer range for archers).[15] Land-based units are the most prevalent in gameplay. Villagers are the most basic units in Age of Empires. Their primary function is to collect resources, cutting down trees for wood, mining for stone and gold, and hunting, foraging, farming, or fishing to acquire food.[15] Villagers can construct buildings and repair both buildings and naval vessels, and are capable of engaging in hand-to-hand combat when necessary. Priests are non-combat units which can heal allied units or "convert" enemy units (in which case the target unit changes allegiance). Infantry units, such as clubmen, swordsmen, and hoplites use melee combat to attack at short range. Mounted units include chariots, cavalry, and war elephants. Archers, mounted or on foot, attack at range. Siege units are of two types: catapults and ballista. Catapults hurl stones which generate blast damage, affecting all units in a small area, and are especially effective against buildings and groups of units. The ballista is less damaging against buildings and units, but it fires faster and is cheaper than the catapult. Nautical units often play a secondary role, but can be essential to victory. Fishing boats are similar to villagers in that they can gather fish. Merchant ships trade resources from the stockpile and exchange it for gold at another player's dock, with the amount of gold earned being relative to the distance between both docks. Transport ships carry land units from one area of land to another. As well as attacking enemy ships, warships can be very effective in attacking land-based units close to the shoreline (because melee units cannot fight back). Warships come either as galleys which fire arrows or triremes which launch bolts or boulders (very effective against buildings near the shoreline). Unit types are identical, regardless of civilization (though certain civilizations may have improved variations of these units). So, for example, a Korean Choson broad swordsman is identical to a Persian or Phoenician one, as are bowmen, axemen, short swordsmen, cavalry, and so forth. Some armors and clothes are historically inaccurate, with the long swordsman bearing more resemblance to a Roman praetorian. Some units were also available in the game to civilizations that never, historically, had them; hoplites can be trained by every civilization except Persia, and some middle-Asian civilizations can train Legions and Centurions, while Japanese Yamato can build triremes. Buildings[edit] The four different wonders for each of the four architectural styles The Town Center is one of the most important buildings in the game. Here villagers are created, and age advancement is researched.[15] Most scenarios have each player begin with a single Town Center; the ability to build multiple Town Centers is unlocked by the construction of the Government Center during the Bronze Age.[15] The Town Center provides population support for four units. In order to build more units, houses must be constructed. Each house supports four units, and although any number of houses can be built, they can only support a maximum of fifty units.[15] Military units are produced at specific buildings relevant to their area. All sea units are created at the docks. Walls and towers are defensive fortifications (Age of Empires was one of the first real-time strategy games to include walls strong enough to form a feasible means of defense). Farms are used to produce food. Granaries, storage pits, and the Town Center are used to store resources deposited by the villagers. Wonders are enormous monuments representing the architectural achievements of the time, such as the Egyptian Pyramids. They require huge amounts of resources to build and are constructed very slowly. Wonders can neither produce units nor conduct research. In scenarios with Standard Victory conditions, a player can win by constructing a wonder and keeping it from being destroyed for 2,000 years (about 10 minutes in the real world). Building a wonder also greatly increases a player's score, which is beneficial in "score" games. Players typically make it their top priority to destroy enemy wonders, especially under Standard Victory conditions. For this reason and because a wonder is relatively easy to destroy, a wonder must be well-guarded at all times.[14] Development[edit] Age of Empires (under the working title Dawn of Man)[16] was the first game developed by Ensemble Studios. Its historical setting was chosen to be more plausible and accessible, particularly to casual gamers, than existing games.[17] At the time, other real-time strategy games had science fiction and fantasy settings, so the historical setting of Age of Empires enabled it to stand out.[18] The designers received much of their inspiration from the game Civilization, with its proven historical setting; this was noted among reviewers as something positive.[19] The game was announced in June 1996 at the Electronic Entertainment Expo.[20] Age of Empires was designed by Bruce Shelley,[18] Tony Goodman (in charge of the game's artwork),[21] and Dave Pottinger (in charge of the game's artificial intelligence).[22] Stephen Rippy was the music director (a role he kept through the series), with occasional help from his brother, David Rippy, as well as Kevin McMullan.[23] He created the original music in Age of Empires using sounds from actual instruments from the periods in the game, as well as their digital samples.[24] The tunes were the result of extensive research on the cultures, styles, and instruments used.[24] The Rise of Rome[edit] The Rise of Rome is an expansion pack for Age of Empires. It is based on the rise of the Roman Empire, and adds the Roman Empire and three other playable civilizations to Age of Empires. It was officially released on October 22, 1998.[25] Gameplay-wise, the expansion introduced numerous interface tweaks, such as unit queuing, the ability to double click a single unit and highlight others of the same unit-type, balancing damage done by catapults, and the option to increase the population limit beyond 50 (only in multiplayer games). By installing the 1.0a update from 1999, it is also possible to use the period key to cycle through idle villagers.[26] The Rise of Rome also features a new Roman architectural design, shared by all four new civilizations, the Romans, Palmyrans, Macedonians and Carthaginians. Four new researchable technologies have been added. Additional new features include five new units, four new random map types, and a larger map size option.[27] Pathfinding for all units is also considerably improved. New music was composed for this expansion, which replaced the original score entirely. After the last official patch by the developer, the game's community continued the support by an own-made unofficial patch to address remaining issues and to improve compatibility with modern hardware and OSes.[28] According to Microsoft, The Rise of Rome's demo received 1 million downloads from its official website alone by April 1999,[29] and another 350,000 from CNET's Download.com.[30] Sales of the game reached 1.2 million copies by June 2001.[31] The Rise of Rome won Computer Games Strategy Plus's 1998 "Add-On of the Year" award. The editors wrote that it "added whole new campaigns, refined rules, and a fresh new gaming experience for a title that was already highly regarded."[32] Reception[edit] Sales[edit] In the United States, Age of Empires debuted at #7 on PC Data's computer game sales rankings for October 1997.[33] It secured places eighth and 13th the following two months, respectively.[34][35] By the end of 1997, Age of Empires totaled sales in the country above 178,000 units, for revenues in excess of $8 million. This performance made it the United States' most successful real-time strategy game during late 1997: a writer for PC Gamer US noted that its sales surpassed the combined totals of rivals Total Annihilation and Dark Reign over the same period, and were over four times greater than those of Myth: The Fallen Lords.[36] Age of Empires was also successful worldwide, according to Microsoft. It was released in 55 countries during its first four months,[37] and over 650,000 copies were shipped globally by December 12.[38][39] Microsoft reported that it was consistently the top-selling computer strategy title in the United States, France, Germany and the United Kingdom through January 1998.[37] Globally, the game sold-through 850,000 units by February.[37] Age of Empires was a hit in the German market,[40] where it debuted at #1 on Media Control's sales rankings for the latter half of October 1997.[41] After holding this position in the first half of November, it remained in Media Control's top 5 through the end of 1997.[42][43] The following year, Age of Empires placed consistently in the top 3 through March, when it rose again to #1 in the last two weeks of the month.[44][45][46] By the end of May, it had spent 28 consecutive weeks in Media Control's top rankings, with placements of fifth and eighth that month.[47][48] Age of Empires proceeded to become the fourth-best-selling computer game in the German market during 1998's first nine months.[40] It received a "Gold" award from the Verband der Unterhaltungssoftware Deutschland (VUD) in August,[49] for sales of at least 100,000 units across Germany, Austria and Switzerland.[50] Sales in the German market totaled 115,000 units by the end of September,[40] and the VUD raised Age of Empires to "Platinum" status, for 200,000 sales, by November.[51] At the 1999 Milia festival in Cannes, Age of Empires took home a "Gold" prize for revenues above €15 million in the European Union during 1998.[52] It remained at 14th on Media Control's charts for the German region by January 1999, continuing a 60-week streak on the charts.[53] Sales of the game in South Korea alone reached roughly 150,000 units by 2000.[54] According to PC Data, it was the United States' 10th-best-selling computer game during the January–November 1998 period.[55] Age of Empires was a commercial success, with sales of 2.2 million copies by June 2001.[31] Critical reviews[edit] Reception Aggregate scores Aggregator Score GameRankings 87%[56] Metacritic 83/100[57] Review scores Publication Score AllGame [58] CGW [59] CVG 9.0[60] GameRevolution B+[61] GameSpot 6.8[62] IGN 7 (Mac version)[63] Next Generation [64] PC Zone 9.4[65] PC Gameworld 91%[66] Coming Soon Magazine 90%[67] Game Vortex 75%[68] Age of Empires was generally well received by critics, and scored highly on review aggregator websites[69] including an 8.3 out of 10 on Metacritic,[57] an 87% on GameRankings,[56] an 85 out of 100 on MobyGames.[70] Game Informer ranked it the 81st best game made in its 100th issue in 2001. They called it a cross between Warcraft and SimCity and praised its multiplayer and its popularity among gamers.[71] Game Revolution categorized the game as "a cross between Civilization II and Warcraft II: Tides of Darkness",[4] while GameSpot lamented that it was "a simple combat game rather than a glorious empire-builder", describing it as "Warcraft with a hint of Civilization."[72] While Computer Gaming World's Elliott Chin compared the game extensively to WarCraft II, he said that it has "great depth, and when compared to its real-time brethren, it has to be the most sophisticated of the bunch".[59] GameVortex wanted less of a combat-oriented gameplay, but praised the modes of play, commenting that "the random map generation [...] really keeps the game spiced up."[73] GameSpot decried the level of micromanagement necessary to control the game (which was due to absence of production queues and low AI of the player's units) calling it "a poor idea", which "seriously diminishes [Age of Empires'] enjoyability."[72] GameVortex echoed this criticism,[73] while PC Gameworld pointed out the subsequently released patches improving some of the faulty AI programming.[74] Elliott Chin criticized the game's population limit, which he thought to be its "most serious grievance".[59] While noting the similarities with Warcraft II, PC Gameworld praised the uniqueness of each playable civilization, and noted that the "graphics are extremely detailed and have a hand-painted feel to them. It's rare to see a game this beautiful with such detailed unit movements."[74] Game Revolution was impressed by the amount of different units of the game, and noted that the developers "obviously did [their] research here, and the result is a well rounded, historically accurate product (at least for a game)".[4] The soundscape of the game was also criticized, with GameVortex stating that "the oral clues just aren't enough to let you differentiate just what's going on."[73] With a view to the future of the game, GameRevolution emphasized the scenario editor, which "allows you total control in the design of scenarios and campaigns", a "tool at your disposal to create a scenario exactly to your liking."[4] Next Generation reviewed the PC version of the game, rating it four stars out of five, and stated that "Having been in development for nearly an eternity, Age of Empires has largely delivered what was promised by Civilization co-creator, Bruce Shelley, and his team at Ensemble Studios."[64] The game won numerous awards, including Gamecenter's 1997 Game of the Year[75] and the 1998 AIAS Computer Strategy Game of the Year award.[76] Age of Empires was a runner-up for Computer Gaming World's 1997 "Strategy Game of the Year" award, which ultimately went to Myth: The Fallen Lords.[77] Definitive Edition[edit] In June 2017, Adam Isgreen, creative director of Microsoft Studios announced Age of Empires: Definitive Edition at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2017 and it was developed by Age of Empires' new internal studios namely, Forgotten Empires. It features overhauled graphics with support for 4K resolution, a remastered soundtrack, and other gameplay improvements, and was planned to be released on October 19, 2017, but was delayed until February 20, 2018.[78][79][80] Age of Empires: Definitive Edition was released through the Windows store and was met with mixed or average reviews and weighted score of 70 out of 100 in Metacritic.[81] PC Gamer gave the game 60/100, calling the game "solid remake of a game past its time".[82] GameSpot gave the game 6/10, praising its 4K graphics and upgraded soundtrack but criticizing old problems still persisting.[83] References[edit] ^ "57. Bruce Shelley". ign.com. Archived from the original on March 7, 2017. Retrieved April 4, 2017. ^ "Age of Empires - Tech Info". GameSpot. CBS Interactive. Archived from the original on March 31, 2009. Retrieved January 1, 2009. ^ Klappenbach, Michael (June 24, 2019). "Age of Empires Series". Lifewire. Dotdash. Retrieved August 22, 2019. ^ a b c d Daniel Gies (November 1997). "Build an Empire to Surpass Microsoft's". Game Revolution. Archived from the original on May 14, 2008. Retrieved February 24, 2008. ^ a b c d e "Age of Empires preview". GameSpot. CBS Interactive. February 14, 1997. Archived from the original on October 9, 2012. Retrieved July 6, 2008. ^ "Age of Empires". Ensemble Studios. Archived from the original on October 26, 2008. Retrieved October 13, 2008. ^ Chris Anderson (August 13, 2001). "PC Review: Age Of Empires". Computer and Video Games. Archived from the original on February 9, 2008. Retrieved February 24, 2008. ^ "Single Player Help". Age of Empires Heaven. HeavenGames. Archived from the original on May 16, 2008. Retrieved February 25, 2008. ^ "Review: Age of Empires". MobileTechReview.com. Archived from the original on December 16, 2007. Retrieved February 25, 2008. ^ Brent Hecht (August 19, 1999). "Age of Empires". Archived from the original on July 25, 2008. Retrieved February 25, 2008. ^ "Age of Empires tips - lag". artho.com. Archived from the original on February 13, 2008. Retrieved February 26, 2008. ^ "Beyond the Zone – MSN Games Looks to the Future". MSN Games. June 19, 2006. Archived from the original on February 28, 2008. Retrieved February 26, 2008. ^ "The "Glitch" Template". Tribulation Designs. October 24, 2005. Archived from the original on December 5, 2008. Retrieved July 6, 2008. ^ a b "Age of Empires presents you with an opportunity to shape history". Microsoft. Archived from the original on March 7, 2008. Retrieved February 24, 2008. ^ a b c d e f g h i "Age of Empires - Overview". AllGame. Archived from the original on November 29, 2012. Retrieved October 31, 2008. ^ Grossman, Austin (2003). Postmortems from Game Developer. Focal Press. ISBN 1-57820-214-0. ^ Carless, Simon (November 26, 2003). "Interview: Bruce Shelley - The Mythology of Empires". Gamasutra. Archived from the original on October 11, 2008. Retrieved September 2, 2008. ^ a b "Behind the Scenes: Bruce Shelly". Microsoft. Archived from the original on December 30, 2008. Retrieved September 2, 2008. ^ "Behind the Scenes". Microsoft. Archived from the original on July 25, 2008. Retrieved September 2, 2008. ^ Staff (June 3, 1996). "E3 News; Age of Empires". Computer Games Strategy Plus. Archived from the original on December 21, 1996. Retrieved October 4, 2018. ^ "Behind the Scenes: Tony Goodman". Microsoft.com. Archived from the original on April 30, 2008. Retrieved September 2, 2008. ^ "Behind the Scenes: Dave Pottinger". Microsoft. Archived from the original on October 13, 2008. Retrieved September 2, 2008. ^ "Interview with Age of Empires III lead composer Stephen Rippy". Music4Games. February 1, 2006. Archived from the original on February 17, 2008. Retrieved January 23, 2008. ^ a b "Ensemble Studios Chat 16Oct97". Age of Empires Heaven. HeavenGames. October 16, 1997. Archived from the original on November 11, 2006. Retrieved January 24, 2008. ^ Gentry, Perry (October 16, 1998). "What's in Stores This Week". CNET Gamecenter. Archived from the original on August 17, 2000. Retrieved December 6, 2019. ^ "Microsoft Age of Empires Expansion Update 1.0a". Microsoft.com. 1999. Archived from the original on March 4, 2000. Retrieved March 21, 2012. ^ "Rise of Rome feature set". Microsoft.com. Archived from the original on 2012-04-19. Retrieved 2012-03-21. ^ aoe_scout (September 17, 2014). "UPatch - unofficial patch for Age of Empires: The Rise of Rome". aoe.heavengames.com. Retrieved September 21, 2014. UPatch is unofficial update (user patch) for Age of Empires: The Rise of Rome. A solid improvement over the original game, UPatch includes custom game resolutions (up to 1920x1200), over 150 bug fixes, new gameplay options and other enhancements. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on January 17, 2000. Retrieved October 4, 2018.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "Archived copy". 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External links[edit] Age of Empires at MobyGames Official website v t e Age of Empires series PC games Main series Age of Empires II: The Age of Kings The Conquerors Definitive Edition Age of Empires III The WarChiefs The Asian Dynasties Age of Empires IV Spin-offs Age of Mythology The Titans Age of Empires Online Other platforms The Age of Kings Mythologies Castle Siege Age of Empires: World Domination Board games Age of Mythology: The Boardgame Glenn Drover's Empires: The Age of Discovery v t e Rick Goodman Ensemble Studios Age of Empires (1997) Age of Empires: The Rise of Rome (1998) Stainless Steel Studios Empire Earth (2001) Empires: Dawn of the Modern World (2003) Rise and Fall: Civilizations at War (2006) Tilted Mill Entertainment Immortal Cities: Children of the Nile (2004) Caesar IV (2006) v t e Genie Engine games Age of Empires series Age of Empires The Rise of Rome Age of Empires II: The Age of Kings The Conquerors The Forgotten The African Kingdoms Rise of the Rajas Other Star Wars: Galactic Battlegrounds Clone Campaigns 1990s portal History portal Video games portal Authority control BNF: cb165994182 (data) GND: 4483637-5 LCCN: n97080714 VIAF: 176712623 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 176712623 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Empires_(video_game)&oldid=1000162602" Categories: 1997 video games Age of Empires Cancelled Gizmondo games Classic Mac OS games Multiplayer and single-player video games Real-time strategy video games Windows Mobile Professional games Interactive Achievement Award winners Video games with expansion packs Genie Engine games Windows games Video games developed in the United States Video games set in antiquity Video games set in Egypt Video games set in Greece Video games set in Japan Video games set in Iraq Video games set in Sudan Video games with pre-rendered 3D graphics Hidden categories: CS1 maint: archived copy as title CS1 German-language sources (de) Use mdy dates from February 2016 Good articles Articles using Infobox video game using locally defined parameters Articles using Wikidata infoboxes with locally defined images Articles using Video game reviews template in multiple platform mode Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Asturianu Bân-lâm-gú Български Boarisch Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Italiano עברית Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar മലയാളം Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 13 January 2021, at 22:09 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4543	----	Hor - Wikipedia Hor From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Hor (disambiguation). Hor Awibre Hor, Awibre, Auibre Ka statue of the pharaoh Awibre Hor, on display at the Egyptian Museum, Cairo Pharaoh Reign 2 years, 1777-1775 BC (Ryholt), a few months (Baker), 7 months c. 1760 BC (Verner), c. 1732 BC (Schneider) (13th Dynasty) Predecessor Renseneb Successor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Awibre 3w-jb-Rˁ The friend of Ra Nomen Hor Ḥr.(w) Horus Horus name Hotepibtawy Ḥtp-jb-t3wj He who satisfies the heart of the two Lands Nebty name Neferkhaw Nfr-ḫˁw He whose apparitions are perfect Golden Horus Nefer-netjeru Nfr-nṯrw Most perfect of the gods Turin King List Awtibre 3wt-jb-Rˁ Consort Nubhetepti I[1][2] Children Nubhetepti-khered, possibly Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw and Djedkheperew Burial shaft tomb at Dahshur Hor Awibre (also known as Hor I) was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty reigning from c. 1777 BC until 1775 BC[2] or for a few months, c. 1760 BC or c. 1732 BC,[3] during the Second Intermediate Period. Hor is known primarily thanks to his nearly intact tomb discovered in 1894 and the rare life-size wooden statue of the king's Ka it housed. Contents 1 Attestations 2 Reign 3 Tomb 4 References Attestations[edit] Jar lid with the nomen Awibre, LACMA. Hor Awibre is mentioned on the Turin canon, a king list compiled in the early Ramesside period.[1] The canon gives his name on the 7th column, line 17 (Gardiner entry 6.17 [4]). Beyond the Turin canon, Hor remained unattested until the discovery in 1894 of his nearly intact tomb in Dashur by Jacques de Morgan, see below.[1] Further attestations of Hor have come to light since then, comprising a jar lid of unknown provenance and a plaque, now in the Berlin Museum, both inscribed with his name.[1] Another plaque with his name was found at the pyramid of Amenemhat I at Lisht. There were found several faience plaques with 13th Dynasty king's names.[5] More importantly, a granite architrave with the cartouches of Hor and his successor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw in close juxtaposition was uncovered in Tanis, in the Nile Delta. The architrave probably originated in Memphis and came to the Delta region during the Hyksos period.[1] Based on this evidence, the egyptologist Kim Ryholt proposed that Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw was a son and coregent of Hor Awibre.[2] Reign[edit] According to Ryholt and Darrell Baker, Hor Awibre was the fifteenth ruler of the 13th Dynasty.[1][2] Alternatively, Detlef Franke and Jürgen von Beckerath see him as the fourteenth king of the dynasty.[6][7][8][9] No evidence has been found that relate Hor to his predecessor on the throne, Renseneb, which led Ryholt and Baker to propose that he was an usurper. Hor Awibre's reign length is partially lost to a lacuna of the Turin canon and is consequently unknown. According to the latest reading of the Turin canon by Ryholt, the surviving traces indicate the number of days as "[... and] 7 days".[2] In the previous authoritative reading of the canon by Alan Gardiner, which dates to the 1950s, this was read as "[...] 7 months".[10] This led scholars such as Miroslav Verner and Darrell Baker to believe that Hor's reign was ephemeral, while Ryholt's reading leaves a longer reign possible and indeed Ryholt credits Hor with 2 years of reign.[1][2] In any case, Hor most likely reigned only for a short time, in particular not long enough to prepare a pyramid, which was still the common burial place for kings of the early 13th dynasty. Regardless of the duration of his reign, Hor was seemingly succeeded by his two sons Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw and Djedkheperew. Tomb[edit] Drawing by Jacques de Morgan of the scepters and staves of Hor Awibre. Hor is mainly known from his nearly intact tomb, discovered in 1894 by Jacques de Morgan working in collaboration with Georges Legrain and Gustave Jequier in Dahshur.[11] The tomb was nothing more than a shaft built on the north-east corner of the pyramid of the 12th Dynasty pharaoh Amenemhat III.[12] The tomb was originally made for a member of Amenemhat's court and was later enlarged for Hor, with the addition of a stone burial chamber and antechamber.[1] Although the tomb had been pillaged in antiquity, it still contained a naos with a rare life-size wooden statue of the Ka of the king. This statue is one of the most frequently reproduced examples of Ancient Egyptian art and is now in the Egyptian Museum under the catalog number CG259.[12] It is one of the best-preserved and most accomplished wooden statues to survive from antiquity, and illustrates an artistic genre that must once have been common in Egyptian art, but has rarely survived in such good condition. Plan of the tomb of king Hor The tomb also contained the partly gilded rotten wooden coffin of the king. The king's wooden funerary mask, its eyes of stones set in bronze,[11] had been stripped of its gold gilding but still held the king's skull. Hor's canopic box was also found complete with its canopic vessels. The mummy of the king had been ransacked for his jewelry and only Hor's skeleton was left in his coffin.[11] The king was determined to have been in his forties at the time of his death. Other artifacts from the tomb include small statues, alabaster and wooden vases, some jewelry, two alabaster stelae inscribed with blue painted hieroglyphs and a number of flails, scepters and wooden staves which had all been disposed in a long wooden case. These had been intentionally broken in pieces.[11] The tomb also housed weapons such as a granite macehead[11] and a golden-leaf dagger and numerous pottery. Next to the burial of Hor was found the totally undisturbed tomb of the 'king's daughter' Nubhetepti-khered. She was likely a daughter of Hor[13] or otherwise a daughter of Amenemhat III.[12] References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 112-113-114 ^ a b c d e f K.S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online. ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen ^ Alan H. Gardiner: The Royal Canon of Turin, Oxford 1959, Vol. III, 6.14, Warminster 1987, ISBN 0-900416-48-3. ^ Dieter Arnold: The Pyramid Complex of Amenemhat I at Lisht, The Metropolitan Museum of Art New York 2015, ISBN 9781588396044, p. 59, pl. 93 ^ Thomas Schneider: Ancient Egyptian Chronology - Edited by Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss, And David a. Warburton, available online, see p. 176 ^ Detlef Franke: Zur Chronologie des Mittleren Reiches (12.-18. Dynastie) Teil 1 : Die 12. Dynastie, in Orientalia 57 (1988) ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46. Mainz am Rhein, 1997 ^ Alan Gardiner, editor. Royal Canon of Turin. Griffith Institute, 1959. (Reprint 1988. ISBN 0-900416-48-3) ^ a b c d e Jacques de Morgan: Fouilles a Dahchour, mars-juin, 1894, Vienna, 1895. Available online. ^ a b c Verner, Miroslav. The Pyramids: The Mystery, Culture, and Science of Egypt's Great Monuments. Grove Press. 2001 (1997). ISBN 0-8021-3935-3 ^ Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004. ISBN 0-500-05128-3 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hor. Preceded by Renseneb Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hor&oldid=971687715" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Azərbaycanca Català Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 7 August 2020, at 16:32 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4547	----	King of the Lands - Wikipedia King of the Lands From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Mesopotamian title The title of King of the Lands was introduced by the Neo-Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II (center) in the variant Glorious King of the Lands. King of the Lands (Akkadian: šar mātāti[1]), also interpreted as just King of Lands[2] or the more boastful King of All Lands[3] was a title of great prestige claimed by powerful monarchs in ancient Mesopotamia. Introduced during the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911 BC–609 BC), the term mātāti explicitly refers to foreign (e.g. non-Assyrian) lands, often beyond the confines of Mesopotamia itself (in contrast to the word mātu which refers to the Assyrian land itself), suggesting that the Assyrian king had the right to govern foreign lands as well as his own.[4] Contents 1 History 2 List of known Kings of the Lands 2.1 Neo-Assyrian Empire 2.2 Achaemenid Empire 2.3 Seleucid Empire 2.4 Parthian Empire 3 References 3.1 Citations 3.2 Bibliography History[edit] The title was introduced by the king Ashurnasirpal II in the variation šar mātāti šarhu, meaning "splendid" or "glorious[5] king of lands". This title, and the similar epithet of murtedu kališ mātāte ("leader of all lands") were also used by Ashurnasirpal's son and successor Shalmaneser III.[3] Other than these two kings, the title is rarely attested during the Neo-Assyrian period,[5] only being used in connection to one other king, Ashurbanipal.[6] After his conquest of Babylon in 539 BC, Cyrus the Great assumed several traditional Mesopotamian titles, among them šar mātāti.[7] Cyrus and all succeeding kings of the Achaemenid Empire would use the similar title of King of Countries (Old Persian: xšāyaθiya dahyūnām) in their inscriptions. Scribes in the city of Babylon translated this title into šar mātāti.[5] Achaemenid kings who are explicitly attested with the Akkadian-language variant (when discussed by Babylonian scribes) include Cyrus the Great, Cambyses II and Artaxerxes I.[8][9][10] The title was also assumed by rebels in Babylon during Achaemenid times. Šamaš-erība, who rebelled against the rule of Xerxes I, claimed to be the "King of Babylon and of the Lands".[11] Following the collapse of the Achaemenid Empire the title is only very rarely attested for some of the succeeding rulers of Mesopotamia. It occurs rarely during the Seleucid period,[1] with king Antiochus I claiming it alongside several other traditional Mesopotamian titles in the Antiochus cylinder, which describes how Antiochus rebuilt the Ezida Temple in the city of Borsippa.[2] It is used only once during the Parthian Empire, claimed by king Phraates II.[1] List of known Kings of the Lands[edit] Neo-Assyrian Empire[edit] Ashurnasirpal II (r. 883–859 BC)[3] Shalmaneser III (r. 859–824 BC)[3] Ashurbanipal (r. 669–631 BC)[6] Achaemenid Empire[edit] Cyrus the Great (r. 559–530 BC), claimed the title from 539 BC.[8] Cambyses II (r. 530–522 BC)[9] Artaxerxes I (r. 465–424 BC)[10] All other Achaemenid kings used the equivalent title King of Countries.[5] Šamaš-erība (r. 484 BC) – rebel in Babylon.[11] Seleucid Empire[edit] Antiochus I (r. 281–261 BC)[2] Parthian Empire[edit] Phraates II (r. 132–127 BC)[1] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ a b c d Shayegan 2011, p. 43. ^ a b c Kosmin 2014, p. 113. ^ a b c d Karlsson 2016, p. 153. ^ Karlsson 2016, p. 19. ^ a b c d Johandi 2012, p. 170. ^ a b Karlsson 2017, p. 10. ^ Johandi 2012, p. 166. ^ a b Waerzeggers & Seire 2018, p. 40. ^ a b Waerzeggers & Seire 2018, p. 44. ^ a b Waerzeggers & Seire 2018, p. 193. ^ a b Waerzeggers & Seire 2018, p. 6. Bibliography[edit] Johandi, Andreas (2012). Mesopotamian Influences on the Old Persian Royal Ideology and the Religion: The Example of Achaemenid Royal Inscriptions. Kaitseväe Ühendatud Õppeasutused. Karlsson, Mattias (2016). Relations of Power in Early Neo-Assyrian State Ideology. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 9781614519683. Karlsson, Mattias (2017). "Assyrian Royal Titulary in Babylonia". S2CID 6128352. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Kosmin, Paul J. (2014). The Land of the Elephant Kings. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674728820. Shayegan, M. Rahim (2011). Arsacids and Sasanians: Political Ideology in Post-Hellenistic and Late Antique Persia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521766418. Waerzeggers, Caroline; Seire, Maarja (2018). Xerxes and Babylonia: The Cuneiform Evidence (PDF). Peeters Publishers. v t e Ancient Mesopotamian royal titulature Dominion over the world King of All Peoples (šar kiššat nišē) King of the Four Corners of the World (šar kibrāt erbetti) King of the Universe (šar kiššatim) More Dominion over Mesopotamia King of Kings (šar šarrāni) King of Sumer and Akkad (šar māt Šumeri u Akkadi) King of the Lands (šar mātāti) More The king's person Great King (šarru rabu) Mighty King (šarrum dannum) More Specific locations King of Akkad (šar māt Akkadi) King of Assyria (šar māt Aššur) King of Babylon (šar Bābili) King of Sumer (šar māt Šumeri) More Titles rendered in Akkadian language. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=King_of_the_Lands&oldid=994222372" Categories: Ancient Mesopotamia Neo-Assyrian Empire Cyrus the Great Artaxerxes I of Persia Achaemenid Empire Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata CS1 errors: missing periodical Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Italiano Edit links This page was last edited on 14 December 2020, at 17:49 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4558	----	Neo-Babylonian Empire - Wikipedia Neo-Babylonian Empire From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Mesopotamian empire Neo-Babylonian Empire māt Bābil[n 1] māt Akkadi[n 2] māt Šumeri u Akkadi[n 3] 626 BC–539 BC Stylized symbol of the sun-god Shamash, often represented on poles as a standard from the Akkadian period down to the Neo-Babylonian period.[3] The Neo-Babylonian Empire under Nabonidus (r.  556–539 BC) Capital Babylon Tayma (de facto 553–543 BC)[4] Common languages Akkadian Aramaic Religion Ancient Mesopotamian religion Government Monarchy King   • 626–605 BC Nabopolassar • 605–562 BC Nebuchadnezzar II • 562–560 BC Amel-Marduk • 560–556 BC Neriglissar • 556 BC Labashi-Marduk • 556–539 BC Nabonidus History   • Revolt of Babylon 626 BC • Fall of Nineveh 612 BC • Siege of Jerusalem 587 BC • Battle of Opis 539 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Neo-Assyrian Empire Achaemenid Empire The Neo-Babylonian Empire, also known as the Second Babylonian Empire[5] and historically known as the Chaldean Empire,[6] was the last of the Mesopotamian empires to be ruled by monarchs native to Mesopotamia.[7] Beginning with Nabopolassar's coronation as King of Babylon in 626 BC and being firmly established through the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 612 BC, the Neo-Babylonian Empire and its ruling Chaldean dynasty would be short-lived, being conquered after less than a century by the Persian Achaemenid Empire in 539 BC. The defeat of the Assyrians and the transfer of empire to Babylon marked the first time the city, and southern Mesopotamia in general, had risen to dominate the Ancient Near East since the collapse of Hammurabi's Old Babylonian Empire nearly a thousand years prior. The period of Neo-Babylonian rule thus saw unprecedented economic and population growth throughout Babylonia and a renaissance of culture and artwork, with the Neo-Babylonian kings conducting massive building projects, especially in Babylon itself, and bringing back many elements from the previous two thousand or so years of Sumero-Akkadian culture. The empire retains a position within modern day cultural memory mainly due to the unflattering portrayal of Babylon and its greatest king, Nebuchadnezzar II, in the Bible, which is owed to Nebuchadnezzar's 587 BC destruction of Jerusalem and the subsequent Babylonian captivity. Babylonian sources describe Nebuchadnezzar's reign as a golden age which transformed Babylonia into the greatest empire of its time. Religious policies introduced by the Neo-Babylonian Empire's final king, Nabonidus, who favored the moon god Sîn over Babylon's patron deity Marduk, eventually provided a casus belli which allowed the Achaemenid king Cyrus the Great to invade Babylonia in 539 BC, portraying himself as a champion of Marduk divinely restoring order to the region. Babylon remained culturally distinct for centuries, with references to individuals with Babylonian names and references to the Babylonian religion being known from as late as the Parthian period in the 1st century BC. Although Babylon would revolt several times during the rule of later empires, it never successfully restored its independence. Contents 1 Background 2 History 2.1 Foundation and the fall of Assyria 2.2 Reign of Nebuchadnezzar II 2.3 Later history 2.4 Fall of Babylon 3 Aftermath and legacy 3.1 Babylon under foreign rule 3.2 Legacy of Babylon 4 Culture and society 4.1 Religion 4.2 Justice 4.3 Art 4.4 Revival of old traditions 4.5 Slavery 5 Economy 6 Government and military 6.1 Administration and extent 6.2 Military 7 Architecture 7.1 Monumental architecture 7.2 Domestic architecture 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 10.1 Cited bibliography 10.2 Cited web sources 11 External links Background[edit] Map of the Old Babylonian Empire under Hammurabi (r. c. 1792–1750 BC). Babylonia was founded as an independent state by an Amorite chieftain named Sumu-abum c. 1894 BC. For over a century after its founding, it was a minor and relatively weak state, overshadowed by older and more powerful states such as Isin, Larsa, Assyria and Elam. However, Hammurabi (r. c. 1792–1750 BC), turned Babylon into a major power and eventually conquered Mesopotamia and beyond, founding the Old or First Babylonian Empire. After the death of Hammurabi, his dynasty lasted for another century and a half, but the Babylonian Empire quickly collapsed, and Babylon once more became a small state.[8] Babylonia fell to the Hittite king Mursili I c. 1595 BC, after which the Kassites took control and ruled for almost five centuries before being deposed by native Babylonian rulers, who continued to rule the Babylonian rump state.[9] The population of Babylonia in this so-called Post-Kassite or Middle Babylonian period was composed of two main groups; the native Babylonians themselves (composed of the descendants of the Sumerians and Akkadians and the assimilated Amorites and Kassites) and recently arrived, and at this point more or less unassimilated, tribesmen (such as the Arameans and Chaldeans). By the 8th century, the constituent groups of the native Babylonians, the main population in the large cities, had lost their old identities and had assimilated into a unified "Babylonian" culture.[10] At the same time, the Chaldeans, though retaining their tribal structure and way of life, were becoming more "babylonized", many Chaldeans adopting traditional Babylonian names. These Babylonized Chaldeans became important players in the Babylonian political scene and by 730 BC, all of the major Chaldean tribes had produced at least one Babylonian king.[11] The 9th to 8th century BC was catastrophic for the independent Babylonian kingdom, with many weak kings either failing to control all the groups composing Babylonia's population, failing to defeat rivals or failing to maintain important trade routes. This collapse eventually resulted in Babylonia's powerful northern neighbor, the Neo-Assyrian Empire (whose people also spoke Akkadian), intervening militarily in 745 BC[12] and incorporating Babylonia into its empire in 729 BC.[13] The Assyrian conquest began a century-long struggle for Babylonian independence against Assyria. Although the Assyrians incorporated the region into their empire and used the title of King of Babylon in addition to the title King of Assyria, Assyrian control of Babylonia wasn't stable or entirely continuous and the century of Assyrian rule included several unsuccessful Babylonian revolts.[14] History[edit] Foundation and the fall of Assyria[edit] Main articles: Revolt of Babylon (626 BC) and Medo-Babylonian war against the Assyrian Empire Locations of some major Mesopotamian cities. Early in the reign of the Neo-Assyrian king Sinsharishkun, the southern[n 4] official or general Nabopolassar used ongoing political instability in Assyria, caused by an earlier brief civil war between Sinsharishkun and the general Sin-shumu-lishir, to revolt. In 626 BC, Nabopolassar assaulted and successfully seized the cities of Babylon and Nippur.[16] Sinsharishkun's response was quick and decisive; by October of that same year the Assyrians had recaptured Nippur and besieged Nabopolassar at the city of Uruk. Sinsharishkun failed to capture Babylon and Nabopolassar endured the Assyrian siege of Uruk, repulsing the Assyrian army.[17] In November of 626 BC, Nabopolassar was formally crowned as King of Babylon, restoring Babylonia as an independent kingdom after more than a century of direct Assyrian rule.[17] With only small successes during campaigns in northern Babylonia from 625 to 623 BC and more southern cities, such as Der, joining Nabopolassar, Sinsharishkun led a massive counterattack in 623 BC. Though this counterattack was initially successful and Sinsharishkun might have been ultimately victorious, he had to abandon the campaign due to a revolt in Assyria threatening his position as king.[18] The absence of the Assyrian army allowed the Babylonians to conquer the last remaining Assyrian seats of power in Babylonia from 622 BC to 620 BC.[18] Both Uruk and Nippur, the cities who had shifted the most between Assyrian and Babylonian control were firmly in Babylonian hands by 620 BC and Nabopolassar had consolidated his rule over all of Babylonia.[19] Following further Babylonian conquests and further failures by Sinsharishkun to stop Nabopolassar, despite receiving military aid from Egypt, the Assyrian Empire quickly began to fall apart.[20] In October or November 615 BC, the Medes, also ancient enemies of Assyria, under King Cyaxares entered Assyria and conquered the region around the city Arrapha.[20] In July or August of 614 BC, the Medes began attacking the cities of Kalhu and Nineveh. They then besieged Assur, the ancient political (and still religious) heart of Assyria. The siege was successful and the city endured a brutal sack. Nabopolassar only arrived at Assur after the plunder had already begun and met with Cyaxares, allying with him and signing an anti-Assyrian pact.[21] In April or May 612 BC, at the start of Nabopolassar's fourteenth year as King of Babylon, the combined Medo-Babylonian army marched on Nineveh. From June to August of that year, they besieged the Assyrian capital and in August the walls were breached, leading to another lengthy and brutal sack during which Sinsharishkun is assumed to have died.[21] Sinsharishkun's successor Ashur-uballit II, the final king of Assyria, was defeated at Harran in 609 BC.[22] Egypt, Assyria's ally, continued the war against Babylon for a few years before being decisively defeated by Nabopolassar's crown prince Nebuchadnezzar at Carchemish in 605 BC.[23] Reign of Nebuchadnezzar II[edit] Main article: Nebuchadnezzar II The so-called "Tower of Babel stele", depicting Nebuchadnezzar II in the top-right and featuring a depiction of Babylon's great ziggurat (the Etemenanki) to his left. Nebuchadnezzar II succeeded Nabopolassar in 605 BC following the death of his father. [24] The empire Nebuchadnezzar inherited was among the most powerful in the world and he quickly reinforced his father's alliance with the Medes by marrying Cyaxares's daughter or granddaughter, Amytis. Some sources suggest that the famous Hanging Gardens of Babylon, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, were built by Nebuchadnezzar for his wife as to remind her of her homeland (though the existence of these gardens is debated). Nebuchadnezzar's 43-year reign would bring with it a golden age for Babylon, which was to become the most powerful kingdom in the Middle East.[25] Nebuchadnezzar's most famous campaigns today are his wars in the Levant. These campaigns began relatively early in his reign and were chiefly conducted to stabilize his reign and consolidate his empire (most of the newly independent kingdoms and city-states in the Levant previously having been vassals of the Neo-Assyrian Empire). His 587 BC destruction of Jerusalem ended the Kingdom of Judah and scattered its populace, with many of its elite citizens being sent back to Babylon, initiating a period known as the Babylonian Captivity.[25] In addition to his military exploits, Nebuchadnezzar was also a great builder, famous for his monuments and building works throughout Mesopotamia (such as Babylon's Ishtar Gate and the city's Processional Street). In total, he is known to have completely renovated at least thirteen cities but he spent most of his time and resources on the capital, Babylon. By 600 BC, Babylon was seen by the Babylonians and possibly by their subject peoples as being the literal and figurative center of the world. Nebuchadnezzar widened the city's Processional Street and fitted it with new decorations, making the annual New Year's Festival, celebrated in honor of the city's patron deity Marduk, more spectacular than ever before.[25] Later history[edit] Stele of Nabonidus exhibited in the British Museum. The king is shown praying to the Moon, the Sun and Venus and is depicted as being the closest to the Moon. After the long reign of Nebuchadnezzar II, the empire fell into a period of political turmoil and instability. Nebuchadnezzar's son and successor, Amel-Marduk, reigned for only two years before being assassinated in a coup by the influential courtier Neriglissar.[26] Neriglissar was a simmagir, a governor of one of the eastern provinces, and had been present during several of Nebuchadnezzar's campaigns. Importantly, Neriglissar was also married to one of Nebuchadnezzar's daughters and he was as such linked to the royal family. Possibly due to old age, Neriglissar's reign would also be short with some of the few recorded activities being the restoration of some monuments in Babylon and a campaign in Cilicia. Neriglissar died in 556 BC and was succeeded by his underage son, Labashi-Marduk (also the grandson of Nebuchadnezzar II through his mother). Labashi-Marduk's reign was even briefer, being assassinated in the same year after reigning for just nine months.[27] The perpetrators of the assassination, the influential courtier Nabonidus and his son Belshazzar, then took power. Despite the turmoil that had surrounded his rise to the throne, the empire itself had remained relatively calm through the difficult period, but there was significant opposition to Nabonidus, who began his reign with the traditional activities associated with the king; renovating buildings and monuments, worshipping the gods and waging war (also campaigning in Cilicia). Nabonidus wasn't of Babylonian ancestry, but rather originated from Harran in former Assyria, one of the main places of worship of the god Sîn (associated with the moon). The new king very openly elevated Sîn's status in the empire, dedicating more attention to this god than to Babylon's national god Marduk. As such, Nabonidus was hated by the Babylonian clergy. This hatred was increased when Nabonidus increased governmental control over the temples in an attempt to solve ongoing management problems with the empire's religious institutions.[27] Nabonidus left Babylonia to campaign in the Levant and then settled for ten years in Tayma (which he had conquered during the campaign) in northern Arabia, another site for worship of the moon. His son Belshazzar was left to govern Babylonia (though with the title crown prince rather than king, a title Nabonidus continued to hold). Why Nabonidus spent a decade away from his capital there is unknown, though it might have been out of fear either of Babylon's political and religious officials who resented this city representing another prominent place for worship of the moon or due to Belshazzar's increasing influence at court. Nabonidus’ return c. 543 BC was accompanied with a reorganization of his court and the removal of some of its more influential members.[27] Fall of Babylon[edit] Main article: Fall of Babylon Map of the path of Cyrus the Great during his 539 BC invasion of Babylonia. In 549 BC Cyrus the Great, the Achaemenid king of Persia, revolted against his suzerain Astyages, king of Media, at Ecbatana. Astyages' army betrayed him and Cyrus established himself as ruler of all the Iranic peoples, as well as the pre-Iranian Elamites and Gutians, ending the Median Empire and establishing the Achaemenid Empire. Ten years after his victory against the Medes, Cyrus invaded Babylon. Nabonidus sent his son Belshazzar to head off the huge Persian army but the Babylonian forces were overwhelmed at the Battle of Opis. Nabonidus fled to Borsippa, and on 12 October, after Cyrus' engineers had diverted the waters of the Euphrates, the soldiers of Cyrus entered Babylon without the need for a battle. Nabonidus surrendered and was deported. Gutian guards were placed at the gates of the great temple of Marduk, where the services continued without interruption.[28] Cyrus claimed to be the legitimate successor of the ancient Babylonian kings and the avenger of Marduk, who was assumed to be wrathful at the impiety of Nabonidus, who had removed the statues of the local gods from their ancestral shrines to his capital Babylon. This act, combined with Nabonidus' clear favoring of Sîn over Marduk, had facilitated strong resentment towards the king, and Cyrus' conquest was welcomed by the Babylonian populace. The invasion of Babylonia by Cyrus was doubtless facilitated by this general distaste for Nabonidus, as well and the presence of foreign exiles such as the Jews. Accordingly, one of Cyrus' first acts was to allow these exiles to return to their homelands, carrying with them the images of their gods and their sacred vessels. The permission to do so was explicitly written in a proclamation, today called the Cyrus Cylinder, wherein Cyrus also justified his conquest of Babylonia as having been the will of Marduk.[28] Aftermath and legacy[edit] Babylon under foreign rule[edit] Illustration of the inhabitants of Babylon deriding the Achaemenid king Darius I during the revolt of Nebuchadnezzar III in 522 BC. From the History of Darius the Great (1900) by Jacob Abbott. The early Achaemenid rulers had great respect for Babylonia, regarding the region as a separate entity or kingdom united with their own kingdom in something akin to a personal union.[29] The region was a major economical asset and provided as much as a third of the entire Achaemenid Empire's tribute.[30] Despite Achaemenid attention and the recognition of the Achaemenid rulers as Kings of Babylon, Babylonia resented the Achaemenids, like the Assyrians had been resented a century prior. At least five rebels proclaimed themselves King of Babylon and revolted during the time of Achaemenid rule in attempts at restoring native rule; Nebuchadnezzar III (522 BC), Nebuchadnezzar IV (521–520 BC), Bel-shimanni (484 BC), Shamash-eriba (482–481 BC) and Nidin-Bel (336 BC).[31][32][33] The revolt of Shamash-eriba against Xerxes I in particular is suggested by ancient sources to have had dire consequences for the city itself. Though no direct evidence exists[34], Babylon appears to have been punished severely for the revolt. Its fortifications were destroyed and its temples were damaged as Xerxes ravaged the city. It is possible that the sacred statue of Marduk, which represented the physical manifestation of Babylon's patron deity Marduk, was removed by Xerxes from Babylon's main temple, the Esagila, at this time. Xerxes also divided the previously large Babylonian satrapy (composing virtually all of the Neo-Babylonian Empire's territory) into smaller sub-units.[32] Major cities of Lower Mesopotamia in the 1st century BC. Babylonian culture endured for centuries under the Achaemenids and survived under the rule of the later Hellenic Macedonian and Seleucid Empires as well, with the rulers of these empires also being listed as Kings of Babylon in Babylonian king lists and civil documents.[35] It was first under the rule of the Parthian Empire that Babylon was gradually abandoned as a major urban center and the old Akkadian culture truly disappeared. In the first century or so of Parthian rule, Babylonian culture was still alive, and there are records of individuals in the city with traditional Babylonian names, such as Bel-aḫḫe-uṣur and Nabu-mušetiq-uddi (mentioned as the receivers of silver in a 127 BC legal document).[36] At this time, there were two major recognized groups living in Babylon: the Babylonians themselves and the Greeks, having settled there during the centuries of Macedonian and Seleucid rule. These groups were governed by separate local (e.g. pertaining to just the city) administrative councils; the Babylonian citizens were governed by the šatammu and the kiništu and the Greeks by the epistates. Although no king lists younger than the Seleucid Empire survive, documents from the early years of Parthian rule suggest a continued recognition of at least the early Parthian kings as Kings of Babylon.[37] Although Akkadian-language legal documents continued in a slightly reduced number through the rule of the Hellenic kings, Akkadian-language legal documents are rare from the period of Parthian rule. The astronomical diaries which had been written since the days of ancient Babylon and had survived through Persian and Hellenic rule stopped being written in the middle of the 1st century BC.[38] It is likely that only a small number of scholars knew how to write Akkadian by the time of the Parthian kings and the old Babylonian temples became increasingly undermanned and underfunded as people were drawn to the new Mesopotamian capitals, such as Seleucia and Ctesiphon.[39] The latest dated document written in accordance with the old scribal tradition in Akkadian cuneiform is from 35 BC and contains a prayer to the god Marduk. The latest known other documents written in Akkadian are astronomic predictions (e.g. planetary movements) for the year 75 AD. The way the signs are written in these astronomic texts means that readers would not have to be familiar with the Akkadian language in order to understand them.[39] If the Akkadian language and Babylonian culture survived beyond these sparse documents, it was decisively wiped out c. 230 AD with the religious reforms introduced in the Sasanian Empire. By this time, the ancient Babylonian cult centres had already been closed and razed. Some temples had been closed during the early Parthian period, such as many temples in Uruk, whilst others lingered on to near the end of the Parthian Empire, such as the Esagila in Babylon.[40] Legacy of Babylon[edit] Partial view of the ruins of Babylon in modern-day Iraq. Before modern archaeological excavations in Mesopotamia, the political history, society and appearance of ancient Babylonia was largely a mystery. Western artists typically envisioned the city and its empire as a combination of known ancient cultures – typically a mixture of ancient Greek and Egyptian culture – with some influence from the then-contemporary Middle Eastern empire, the Ottoman Empire. Early depictions of the city depict it with long colonnades, sometimes built on more than a level, completely unlike the actual architecture of the real ancient Mesopotamian cities, with obelisks and sphinxes inspired by those of Egypt. Ottoman influence came in the shape of cupolas and minarets dotted through the imagined appearances of the ancient city.[41] Babylon is perhaps most famous today due to its repeated appearances in the Bible, where Babylon appears both literally (in reference to historical events) and allegorically (symbolizing other things). The Neo-Babylonian Empire is featured in several prophecies and in descriptions of the destruction of Jerusalem and subsequent Babylonian captivity. Consequently, in Jewish tradition, Babylon symbolizes an oppressor. In Christianity, Babylon symbolizes worldliness and evil. Prophecies sometimes symbolically link the kings of Babylon with Lucifer. Nebuchadnezzar II, sometimes conflated with Nabonidus, appears as the foremost ruler in this narrative.[42] The Book of Revelation in the Christian Bible refers to Babylon many centuries after it ceased to be a major political center. The city is personified by the "Whore of Babylon", riding on a scarlet beast with seven heads and ten horns, and drunk on the blood of the righteous. Some scholars of apocalyptic literature believe this New Testament "Babylon" to be a dysphemism for the Roman Empire.[43] Culture and society[edit] Religion[edit] See also: Ancient Mesopotamian religion, Babylonian religion, and Statue of Marduk 9th century BC depiction from a cylinder seal of the Statue of Marduk, Babylon's patron deity Marduk's main cult image in the city.[44] Babylon, like the rest of ancient Mesopotamia, followed the Ancient Mesopotamian religion, wherein there was a general accepted hierarchy and dynasty of gods and localized gods who acted as patron deities for specific cities. Marduk was the patron deity of the city Babylon, having held this position since the reign of Hammurabi (18th century BC) in Babylon's first dynasty. Although Babylonian worship of Marduk never meant the denial of the existence of the other gods in the Mesopotamian pantheon, it has sometimes been compared to monotheism.[45] The history of worship of Marduk is intimately tied to the history of Babylon itself and as Babylon's power increased, so did the position of Marduk relative to that of other Mesopotamian gods. By the end of the second millennium BC, Marduk was sometimes just referred to as Bêl, meaning "lord".[46] In Mesopotamian religion, Marduk was a creator god. Going by the Enûma Eliš, the Babylonian creation myth, Marduk was the son of Enki, the Mesopotamian god of wisdom, and rose to prominence during a great battle between the gods. The myth tells how the universe originated as a chaotic realm of water, in which there originally were two primordial deities; Tiamat (salt water, female) and Abzu (sweet water, male). These two gods gave birth to other deities. These deities (including gods such as Enki) had little to do in these early stages of existence and as such occupied themselves with various activities.[45] Cylinder by Nabonidus, commemorating restoration work done on a temple dedicated to the god Sîn in Ur. Exhibited at the British Museum. Eventually, their children began to annoy the elder gods and Abzu decided to rid himself of them by killing them. Alarmed by this, Tiamat revealed Abzu's plan to Enki, who killed his father before the plot could be enacted. Although Tiamat had revealed the plot to Enki to warn him, the death of Abzu horrified her and she too attempted to kill her children, rising an army together with her new consort Kingu. Every battle in the war was a victory for Tiamat until Marduk convinced the other gods to proclaim him as their leader and king. The gods agreed, and Marduk was victorious, capturing and executing Kingu and firing a great arrow at Tiamat, killing her and splitting her in two. With these chaotic primordial forces defeated, Marduk created the world and ordered the heavens. Marduk is also described as the creator of human beings, which were meant to help the gods in defeating and holding off the forces of chaos and thus maintain order on Earth.[45] The Statue of Marduk was the physical representation of Marduk housed in Babylon's main temple, the Esagila.[45] Although there were actually seven separate statues of Marduk in Babylon; four in the Esagila, one in the Etemenanki (the ziggurat dedicated to Marduk) and two in temples dedicated to other deities, the statue of Marduk usually refers to Marduk's primary statue, placed prominently in the Esagila and used in the city's rituals.[47] The Babylonians themselves conflated the statue with the actual god Marduk – the god was understood as living in the temple, among the people of his city, and not in the heavens. As such, Marduk was not seen as some distant entity, but a friend and protector who lived nearby. This was no different from other Mesopotamian cities, who similarly conflated their gods with the representations used for them in their temples. During the religiously important New Year's festival at Babylon, the statue was removed from the temple and paraded through Babylon before being placed in a smaller building outside the city walls, where the statue received fresh air and could enjoy a different view from the one it had from inside the temple.[45] The statue was traditionally incorporated into the coronation rituals for the Babylonian kings, who received the Babylonian crown "out of the hands" of Marduk during the New Year's festival, symbolizing them being bestowed with kingship by the patron deity of the city.[29] The temples of southern Mesopotamia were important as both religious and economic centers. The temples were chiefly institutions for caring for the gods and for conducting various rituals. Because of their religious significance, temples were present in all major cities, with trade and population growth being stimulated by the presence of a temple. Workers within the temples had to be "fit" for service and were not slaves or temple dependents (unlike those who served the temples by cultivating food and other supplies). These temple workers, who created the clothes used by the deity's cult, cleaned and moved around the statues of the deities, maintained the rooms within the temple and performed the important rituals, represented the skilled and free urban elite of Babylonian society and were paid through leftovers from meals intended for the gods, barley and beer.[48] Justice[edit] Tablet concerning a legal dispute over barley, from Uruk and dated to the reign of Nabonidus (544 BC). Exhibited at the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. The surviving sources suggest that the justice system of the Neo-Babylonian Empire had changed little from the one which functioned during the Old Babylonian Empire a thousand years prior. Throughout Babylonia, there were local assemblies (called puhru) of elders and other notables from society which among other local roles served as local courts of justice (though there were also higher "royal" and "temple courts" with greater legal prerogatives). In these courts, judges would be assisted by scribes and several of the local courts would be headed by royal representatives, usually titled sartennu or šukallu.[49][50] For the most part, surviving sources related to the Neo-Babylonian justice system are tablets containing letters and lawsuits. These tablets document various legal disputes and crimes, such as embezzlement, disputes over property, theft, family affairs, debts and inheritance and often offer considerable insight into daily life in the Neo-Babylonian Empire. The punishment for these types of crimes and disputes appears, for the most part, to have been money-related, with the guilty party paying a specified amount of silver as compensation. Crimes such as adultery and lèse-majesté were apparently punishable by death, but little surviving evidence exists for the death penalty actually being carried out.[51] Art[edit] Striding lions from the Processional Street of Babylon. Exhibited at the Pergamon Museum in Berlin. Artists in the Neo-Babylonian period continued the artistic trends of previous periods, showing similarities with the artwork of the Neo-Assyrian period in particular. Cylinder seals of the period are less detailed than in previous times and shows definite Assyrian influence in the themes depicted. One of the most common scenes depicted in such seals are heroes, sometimes depicted with wings, about to strike beasts with their curved swords. Other common scenes include purification of a sacred tree or mythological animals and creatures. Cylinder seals increasingly fell into disuse over the course of the Neo-Babylonian century, eventually being entirely replaced by stamp seals.[52] Neo-Babylonian terracotta figurine depicting a nude woman. Exhibited at the Walters Art Museum in Baltimore. Terracotta figurines and reliefs, made using molds, were common during the Neo-Babylonian Empire. Preserved figurines usually represent protective demons (such as Pazuzu) or deities but there are also examples of horsemen, naked women, boats, men carrying vases and various types of furniture. Terracotta figurines could be sacred objects intended to be kept in people's homes for magical protection or as decorations, but they could also be objects offered to deities in the temples.[53][54] Tablet containing a 6th-century BC Babylonian "map of the world", featuring Babylon at its center. Exhibited at the British Museum. The technique of colored glaze was improved and perfected by Neo-Babylonian artists. In reliefs, such as the ones on the Ishtar Gate in Babylon and along the city's Processional Street (where parades passed through during religious festivals in the city), colored glaze was combined with bricks molded in various shapes to create decorations in color. Most of these decorations are symbols of lions (associated with the goddess Ishtar) flowers, mušḫuššu (a mythological creature associated with the god Marduk) and oxen (associated with the god Adad).[55][56] Revival of old traditions[edit] After Babylonia regained its independence, Neo-Babylonian rulers were deeply conscious of the antiquity of their kingdom and pursued a highly traditionalist policy, reviving much of the ancient Sumero-Akkadian culture. Even though Aramaic had become the everyday tongue, Akkadian was retained as the language of administration and culture.[57] Ancient artworks from the heyday of Babylonia's imperial glory were treated with near-religious reverence and were painstakingly preserved. For example, when a statue of Sargon the Great was found during construction work, a temple was built for it, and it was given offerings. The story is told of how Nebuchadnezzar II, in his efforts to restore the Temple at Sippar, had to make repeated excavations until he found the foundation deposit of Naram-Sin of Akkad. The discovery then allowed him to rebuild the temple properly. Neo-Babylonians also revived the ancient Sargonic practice of appointing a royal daughter to serve as priestess of the moon-god Sîn.[58][59] Slavery[edit] The Babylonian marriage market, painting by Edwin Long (1875) As in most ancient empires, slaves were an accepted part of Neo-Babylonian society. In contrast to slavery in ancient Rome, where slave-owners often worked their slaves to death at an early age, slaves in the Neo-Babylonian Empire were valuable resources, typically sold for money matching several years of income for a paid worker. Slaves were typically from lands outside of Babylonia, becoming slaves through the slave trade or through being captured in times of war. Slave women were often given as part of a dowry to help daughters of free men and women in their household or in raising children. Slaves were not cheap to maintain as they had to be clothed and fed. Because they were expensive to begin with, many Neo-Babylonian slave-owners trained their slaves in professions to raise their value or rented them out to others. Sometimes slaves who showed good business sense were allowed to serve in trade or through managing part of a family business. Slaves families were most often sold as a unit, children only being separated from their parents once they reached adulthood (or working age).[60] Though slaves probably endured harsh living conditions and poor treatment from others, it would not have been equivalent to the brutal form of slavery in the Roman Empire and in later times.[60] Though there are occasional mentions of slaves escaping, there are no records of slave rebellions in the Neo-Babylonian Empire. Slaves mentioned in connection to farming and agriculture are usually not forced laborers. As farming required diligence and care, slaves at farms were typically given contracts and were allowed to work independently, which would make the slaves more interested in the result of their labor. Some slaves acted as proxies or junior partners of their masters. Slaves were also allowed to pay a fee called the mandattu to their masters, which allowed them to work and live independently, essentially "renting" themselves from their master. There are records of slaves paying the mandattu for themselves and for their wives so that they could live freely. There are, however, no records of slaves completely buying their freedom, Babylonian slaves could only be freed by their masters.[61] Economy[edit] Tablet recording a silver payment from the temple dedicated to the god Shamash in Sippar, written during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II. Exhibited at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. The establishment of the Neo-Babylonian Empire meant that for the first time since the Assyrian conquest, tribute flowed into Babylonia rather than being drained from it. This reversal, combined with building projects and the relocation of subjugated peoples stimulated both population and economic growth in the region.[30] Although the soil in Mesopotamia was fertile, the average rainfall in the region was not enough to sustain regular crops. As such, water had to be drawn from the two major rivers, the Euphrates and the Tigris, for use in irrigation. These rivers tended to flood at inconvenient times, such as at grain harvest time. To solve these issues and allow for efficient farming, Mesopotamia required a sophisticated large-scale system of canals, dams and dikes, both to protect from floods and to supply water. These structures required constant maintenance and supervision to function.[62] Digging and maintaining the canals was seen as a royal task and the resources required to construct and maintain the infrastructure necessary, and the manpower itself, was provided by the many temples which dotted the region.[63] Irrigation canal from modern-day Iraq, near Baghdad. The most detailed economical records from Neo-Babylonian times are from these temples. The people who cultivated the temple lands of Babylonia were mostly unfree personnel, so-called temple dependents (širāku[64]), which were usually given larger work assignments than they could accomplish. In later times, to increase productivity, the temples began hiring "rent farmers". These rent farmers were given a portion or all of a temple's farming grounds and fields, including the temple dependents and equipment there, in exchange for money and a fixed quota of commodities to supply to the temple.[63] Rent farmers were personally liable for accidents and falling short of the quota and there are many records of rent farmers giving up or sometimes being required to sell their own possessions and assets to the temple as compensation.[65] Although animal husbandry was practiced throughout Mesopotamia, it was the most common form of farming in the south. In Uruk, animals, rather than some type of plant, were the main cash crop. Shepherds could be temple dependents or independent contractors and were entrusted with herds of either sheep or goats. Similar to other farmers working in connection to the temples, these shepherds had a set quota of lambs to provide for sacrificial purposes, with wool and hides also being used in the temples for various purposes.[65] Dairy products were less important since the animals would be unavailable for most of the year as the shepherds drove them across the land. Cows and oxen, rare in Mesopotamia due to being difficult to feed and maintain through the summer months, were mainly used as draft animals for plowing. Regions with a swampy environment, unsuited for farming, were used to hunt birds and fish.[48] The most common form of business partnership recorded from Neo-Babylonian sources is called the harrānu, which involved a senior financing partner and a junior working partner (who did all the work, using the money provided by the senior partner). Profit from such business ventures were divided equally between the two partners. The idea allowed rich individuals to use their money to finance businesses by capable individuals who might not otherwise have had the means to carry out their trade (for instance second sons who hadn't inherited as much money as first-born sons). Records show that some junior partners worked their way up through their businesses to eventually become senior partners in new harrānu arrangements.[66] The Neo-Babylonian period saw marked population growth in Babylonia, with the number of known settlements increasing from the previous 134 to the Neo-Babylonian 182, with the average size of these settlements also increasing. This population growth was probably because of increasing prosperity in Babylonia, combined with the resettlement of subjugated peoples and the possible return of peoples that had been resettled under the Neo-Assyrian Empire.[67] The Neo-Babylonian period also saw a dramatic increase in urbanization, reversing a trend of ruralization which southern Mesopotamia had experienced since the fall of the Old Babylonian Empire.[68] Government and military[edit] Administration and extent[edit] Approximate borders of the Neo-Babylonian Empire (red) and neighboring states in the 6th century BC. At the top of the Neo-Babylonian Empire social ladder was the king (šar) - his subjects took an oath of loyalty called the ade to him, a tradition inherited from the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The Neo-Babylonian kings used the titles King of Babylon and King of Sumer and Akkad. They abandoned many of the boastful Neo-Assyrian titles that claimed universal rule (though some of these would be reintroduced under Nabonidus), possibly because the Assyrians had been resented by the Babylonians as impious and warlike and the Neo-Babylonian kings preferred to present themselves as devout kings.[69] The king was also the single most important landowner within the empire, with there being several large swaths of land placed under direct royal control throughout Babylonia. There were also large domains placed under other members of the royal family (for instance, there are mentions of a "house of the crown prince" distinct from the "house of the king" in inscriptions) and under other high officials (such as the royal treasurer).[63] The exact administrative structure of the Neo-Babylonian Empire and its government remains somewhat unclear due to a lack of relevant sources. Although the Neo-Babylonian Empire supplanted the Neo-Assyrian Empire as the major Mesopotamian empire of its time, the exact extent to which Babylon inherited and retained the lands of this preceding empire is unknown. After the Fall of Nineveh in 612 BC, the territory of the Neo-Assyrian Empire had been split between Babylon and the Medes, with the Medes being granted the northern Zagros mountains while Babylon took Transpotamia (the countries west of the Euphrates) and the Levant, but the precise border between the two empires and the degree to which the former Assyrian heartland was divided between them is unknown. Babylonia itself, the heartland of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, was ruled as an intricate network of provinces and tribal regions with varying degrees of autonomy. The administrative structure used outside of this heartland is unknown.[70] From building inscriptions it is clear that some parts of the heartland of the former Neo-Assyrian Empire were under Babylonian control. A building inscription of Nebuchadnezzar II refers to the workmen responsible for the renovation of the Etemenanki in Babylon as hailing from "the whole of the land of Akkad and the land of Assyria, the kings of Eber-Nāri, the governors of Ḫatti, from the Upper Sea to the Lower Sea".[71] Documents from the reign of Neriglissar confirms the existence of a Babylonian governor in the city Assur, meaning that it was located within the empire's borders. No evidence has yet been found that would place the Neo-Assyrian capital, Nineveh, within the Neo-Babylonian Empire. The empire evidently enjoyed direct rule in Syria, as indicated in Nebuchadnezzar's building inscription ("governors of Hatti", "Hatti" referring to the Syro-Hittite city-states in the region) and other inscriptions referencing a governor in the city Arpad.[72] Although some scholars have suggested that the Assyrian provincial system collapsed with the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire and that the Neo-Babylonian Empire was simply a zone of dominance from which Babylon's kings exacted tribute, it is likely that the Neo-Babylonian Empire retained the provincial system in some capacity. The former Assyrian heartland was probably divided between the Babylonians and the Medes, with the Babylonians incorporating the south into their empire and the Medes gaining the north. It is probable that the actual control Babylon held over these territories was variable. After Assyria's collapse, many of the coastal cities and states in the Levant regained independence, but were placed under Babylonian rule as vassal kingdoms (rather than incorporated provinces).[73] Military[edit] Babylonian soldier as represented on the tomb of the Achaemenid king Xerxes I, c. 480 BC. For the Neo-Babylonian kings, war was a means to obtain tribute, plunder (in particular sought after materials such as various metals and quality wood) and prisoners of war which could be put to work as slaves in the temples. Like their predecessors, the Assyrians, the Neo-Babylonian kings also used deportation as a means of control. The Assyrians had displaced populations throughout their vast empire, but the practice under the Babylonian kings seems to have been more limited, only being used to establish new populations in Babylonia itself. Though royal inscriptions from the Neo-Babylonian period don't speak of acts of destruction and deportation in the same boastful way royal inscriptions from the Neo-Assyrian period do, this does not prove that the practice ceased or that the Babylonians were less brutal than the Assyrians. There is for instance evidence that the city Ashkelon was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar II in 604 BC.[74][75] The troops of the Neo-Babylonian Empire would have been supplied by all parts of its complex administrative structure – from the various cities of Babylonia, from the provinces in Syria and Assyria, from the tribal confederations under Babylonian rule and from the various client kingdoms and city-states in the Levant.[73] The most detailed sources preserved from the Neo-Babylonian period concerning the army are from the temples, which supplied a portion of the temple dependents (called širāku) as soldiers in times of war. These dependents were mostly farmers (ikkaru) but some were also shepherds, gardeners and craftsmen. The vast majority of these levies from the temples seved in the army as archers, equipped with bows, arrows (each archer was supplied with 40–60 arrows), bow-cases and daggers. The bows, made in both distinct Akkadian and Cimmerian styles, were manufactured and repaired at the temples by trained bowmakers and arrows and daggers were made by temple smiths.[64] Inscriptions from the Ebabbara temple in Sippar suggests that temples could field as many as 14% of their dependents in times of crisis (for the Ebabbara this would account for 180 soldiers), but that the number was usually much lower (with the most common number of soldiers supplied by the Ebabbara being 50 soldiers). The archers fielded by these temples were divided into contingents or decuries (ešertu) by profession, each led by a commander (rab eširti). These commanders were in turn under the command of the rab qašti, who answered to the qīpu (a local high official). Cavalry and chariots were also supplied by the temples, but there are few known inscriptions detailing their equipment, relative number or leadership structure.[76] The citizens of the cities in Babylonia were obliged to perform military service, often as archers, as a civil duty. These citizen militias were, just like the archers raised by the temples, divided and organized by profession. Citizens who served as soldiers were paid in silver, probably at a rate of 1 mina per year.[77] The Neo-Babylonian army is also likely to have bolstered its numbers through conscripting soldiers from the tribal confederacies within the empire's territory and through hiring mercenaries (the presence of Greek mercenaries in the army of Nebuchadnezzar II is known from a poem). In times of war, the entire Babylonian army would have been assembled by an official called the dēkû ("mobilizer") sending word to the many rab qašti, who then organized all the ešertu. Soldiers on campaigns (which could last anywhere from three months to a full year) were supplied with ratios (including barley and sheep), silver as payment, salt, oil and water bottles and were also equipped with blankets, tents, sacks, shoes, jerkins and donkeys or horses.[78] Architecture[edit] Monumental architecture[edit] The Ishtar Gate, one of Babylon's eight inner city gates, was constructed by King Nebuchadnezzar II c. 575 BC. The reconstructed gate is exhibited at the Pergamon Museum in Berlin. Monumental architecture encompasses building works such as temples, palaces, ziggurats (a massive structure with religious connections, composed of a massive stepped tower with a shrine on top), city walls, processional streets, artificial waterways and cross-country defensive structures.[79] The Babylonian king was traditionally a builder and restorer, and as such large-scale building projects were important as a legitimizing factor for Babylonian rulers.[80] Due to the interests of early excavators of the ancient cities in Babylonia, most of the archaeological knowledge regarding the Neo-Babylonian Empire is related to the vast monumental buildings that were located in the hearts of Babylonia's major cities. This early bias has resulted in that the makeup of the cities themselves (such as residential areas) and the structure of smaller settlements remains under-researched.[81] Although inscriptions discuss the presence of royal palaces at several cities throughout southern Mesopotamia, the only Neo-Babylonian royal palaces yet found and excavated are those in Babylon itself. The South Palace, occupying a corner formed by the city wall to the north and the Euphrates to the west, was built under kings Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar II and was composed of five units, each with its own courtyard. The central of these units housed the residential suites and the actual throne room whilst the other units were for administrative and storage purposes. The palace adjoined the central Processional Street on its eastern side and was heavily fortified at its western side (the side facing the Euphrates).[82] City plan of Babylon, showcasing the locations of major points of interest. The outer walls and the northern Summer Palace are not shown. Nebuchadnezzar II also built a second palace, the North Palace, on the other side of the inner city wall. This palace also adjoined the Processional Street on its eastern side, but its ruins are poorly preserved and as such its structure and appearance are not entirely understood. There was also a third royal palace in the city, the Summer Palace, built some distance north of the inner city walls in the northernmost corner of the outer walls (also constructed by Nebuchadnezzar II). Non-royal palaces, such as the palace of a local governor at Ur, share design features with Babylon's South Palace but were considerably smaller in size.[82] Reconstruction of the Etemenanki, Babylon's great ziggurat. The temples of the Neo-Babylonian Empire are divided into two categories by archaeologists; smaller freestanding temples scattered throughout a city (often in residential quarters) and the large main temples of a city, dedicated to that city's patron deity and often located within its own set of walls.[82] In most cities, the ziggurat was located within the temple complex but the ziggurat in Babylon, called the Etemenanki, had its own complex and set of walls separate from those of the city's main temple, the Esagila. Neo-Babylonian temples combined features of palaces and residential houses. They had a central courtyard, completely enclosed on all sides, with the principal room, dedicated to the deity, often being located towards the south and the temple's entrance being located on the side opposite to this principal room. Some temples, such as Babylon's Ninurta temple, had a single courtyard, while others, such as Babylon's Ishhara temple, had smaller courtyards in addition to the main courtyard.[83] Mud-brick from the Processional Street of Babylon stamped with the name of Nebuchadnezzar II. Though many processional streets are described in inscriptions from the Neo-Babylonian period, the only such street excavated yet is the main Processional Street of Babylon. This street ran along the eastern walls of the South Palace and exited the inner city walls at the Ishtar Gate, running past the North Palace. To the south, this street went by the Etemenanki, turning to the west and going over a bridge constructed either under the reign of Nabopolassar or Nebuchadnezzar II. Some of the bricks of the Processional Street bear the name of the Neo-Assyrian king Sennacherib on their underside, suggesting that construction of the street had begun already during his reign, but the fact that the upper side of the bricks all bear the name of Nebuchadnezzar II, suggesting that construction of the street had been completed during his reign.[83] Nebuchadnezzar II also constructed two great cross-country walls, built with baked brick, to aid in Babylonia's defense. The only one of the two have been confidently located is known as the Habl al-Shar and stretched from Euphrates to the Tigris at the point the two rivers were the closest, some distance north of the city Sippar. The other wall, as of yet not found, was located to the east near the city Kish.[83] Nebuchadnezzar focused his defensive building projects on northern Babylonia, believing this region to be the most likely point of attack for his enemies, and also rebuilt the walls of northern cities such as Kish, Borsippa and Babylon itself while leaving the walls of southern cities, such as Ur and Uruk, as they were.[84] Domestic architecture[edit] Typical residential houses from the Neo-Babylonian period were composed of a central unroofed courtyard surrounded on all four sides by suites of rooms. Some larger houses contained two or (rarely, in exceptionally large houses) three courtyards. Each of the sides of the courtyard had a central door, leading into the main room of each side, from which one could access the other smaller rooms of the houses. Most houses appear to have been oriented from the southeast to the northwest, with the main living area (the largest room) being located at the southeastern side. The exterior walls of houses were unadorned, blank and windowless. The main entrance was typically located on the end of the house furthest away from the main living area. Houses of people of higher status were generally free-standing, while houses of lower status could share an outer wall with a neighboring house.[84] Houses in the Neo-Babylonian period were constructed mostly of sundried mudbrick. Baked bricks, such as the ones used in Nebuchadnezzar's great walls, were used for certain parts, such as the paving in rooms which were to be exposed to water and in the courtyard. Roofs were composed of straw-tempered murd overlaying reeds or reed matting, which in turn overlaid local timbers.[84] See also[edit] History of Mesopotamia Notes[edit] ^ māt Bābil means "the land of Babylon" in Akkadian.[1] ^ māt Akkadi means "the land of Akkad" in Akkadian.[2] ^ māt Šumeri u Akkadi means "the land of Sumer and Akkad" in Akkadian.[2] ^ The exact origin of Nabopolassar is uncertain and he has variously been referred to as a Assyrian, a Babylonian and a Chaldean. Though his ethnicity is uncertain, it is considered likely that he was from southern Mesopotamia.[15] References[edit] ^ Goetze 1964, p. 98. ^ a b Da Riva 2013, p. 72. ^ Black & Green 1992, p. 168. ^ Sawyer & Clines 1983, p. 41. ^ Zara 2008, p. 4. ^ Dougherty 2008, p. 1. ^ Hanish 2008, p. 32. ^ Van De Mieroop 2005, pp. 3–16. ^ Bryce 2005, p. 99. ^ Brinkman 1984, p. 11. ^ Brinkman 1984, p. 15. ^ Brinkman 1984, p. 16. ^ Radner 2012. ^ Baker 2012, p. 914. ^ Da Riva 2013, p. 98. ^ Lipschits 2005, p. 13. ^ a b Lipschits 2005, p. 14. ^ a b Lipschits 2005, p. 15. ^ Lipschits 2005, p. 16. ^ a b Lipschits 2005, p. 17. ^ a b Lipschits 2005, p. 18. ^ Radner 2019, p. 141. ^ Lange 2011, p. 580. ^ Mark 2018, Early Life & Rise to Power. ^ a b c Mark 2018. ^ Sack 1972, pp. 67–69. ^ a b c Beaulieu 1989. ^ a b Nijssen 2018. ^ a b Dandamaev 1989, pp. 185–186. ^ a b Wunsch 2012, p. 40. ^ Holland 2007, p. 46. ^ a b Dandamaev 1993, p. 41. ^ Lendering 2005. ^ Waerzeggers 2004, p. 150. ^ Sachs & Wiseman 1954, p. 209. ^ Spek 2001, p. 449. ^ Spek 2001, p. 451. ^ George 2007, p. 62. ^ a b George 2007, p. 63. ^ George 2007, p. 64. ^ Liverani 2016, pp. 21–22. ^ Seymour 2006, pp. 91–101. ^ Tenney 1985, p. 383. ^ Willis 2012, p. 62. ^ a b c d e Mark 2016. ^ Leick 2009, p. 348. ^ Dalley 1997, p. 163. ^ a b Wunsch 2012, p. 45. ^ Oelsner, Wells & Wunsch 2003, pp. 918–920. ^ Roth 1995, pp. 143–149. ^ Oelsner, Wells & Wunsch 2003, pp. 961–967. ^ André-Salvini 2008, pp. 222–223. ^ André-Salvini 2008, p. 173. ^ André-Salvini 2008, pp. 218–220. ^ André-Salvini 2008, pp. 158–160. ^ André-Salvini 2008, pp. 200–206. ^ George 2007, p. 60. ^ Jonker 1995, pp. 167–168. ^ Sack 2004, pp. 78–79. ^ a b Wunsch 2012, p. 50. ^ Wunsch 2012, p. 51. ^ Wunsch 2012, p. 42. ^ a b c Wunsch 2012, p. 43. ^ a b MacGinnis 2010, p. 157. ^ a b Wunsch 2012, p. 44. ^ Wunsch 2012, p. 52. ^ Baker 2012, p. 917. ^ Brinkman 1984, p. 7. ^ Beaulieu 2003, pp. 1–9. ^ MacGinnis 2010, p. 153. ^ Vanderhooft (1999). The Neo-Babylonian Empire and Babylon in the Latter Prophets. pp. 38–39. ISBN 9780788505799. ^ MacGinnis 2010, p. 154. ^ a b MacGinnis 2010, p. 156. ^ Beaulieu 2005, pp. 57–58. ^ Stager 1996, pp. 57–69, 76–77. ^ MacGinnis 2010, p. 158. ^ MacGinnis 2010, p. 159. ^ MacGinnis 2010, p. 160. ^ Baker 2012, p. 923. ^ Porter 1993, p. 66. ^ Baker 2012, p. 915. ^ a b c Baker 2012, p. 924. ^ a b c Baker 2012, p. 925. ^ a b c Baker 2012, p. 926. Cited bibliography[edit] André-Salvini, Béatrice (2008). Babylone. Musée du Louvre. ISBN 9782350311739. Baker, Heather D. (2012). "The Neo-Babylonian Empire". In Potts, D. T. (ed.). A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. pp. 914–930. doi:10.1002/9781444360790.ch49. ISBN 9781405189880. Beaulieu, P. A. (1989). Reign of Nabonidus, King of Babylon (556-539 BC). New Haven. ISBN 9780300241532. Beaulieu, P. A. (2003). "Nabopolassar and the Antiquity of Babylon". Eretz-Israel. 27. Beaulieu, P. A. (2005). "World Hegemony, 900–300 BCE". In Snell, D. C. (ed.). A Companion to the Ancient Near East. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-1405160018. Black, Jeremy; Green, Anthony (1992). Gods, Demons, and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-70794-0. Brinkman, J. A. (1984). Prelude to Empire: Babylonian Society and Politics, 747-626 B.C. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. ISBN 978-0934718622. Bryce, Trevor (2005). The Kingdom of the Hittites. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-928132-9. Da Riva, Rocío (2013). The Inscriptions of Nabopolassar, Amel-Marduk and Neriglissar. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-1614515876. Dalley, Stephanie (1997). "Statues of Marduk and the date of Enūma eliš". Altorientalische Forschungen. 24 (1): 163–171. doi:10.1524/aofo.1997.24.1.163. S2CID 162042269. Dandamaev, Muhammad A. (1989). A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire. BRILL. ISBN 978-9004091726. Dandamaev, Muhammad A. (1993). "Xerxes and the Esagila Temple in Babylon". Bulletin of the Asia Institute. 7: 41–45. JSTOR 24048423. Dougherty, Raymond Philip (2008). Nabonidus and Belshazzar: A Study of the Closing Events of the Neo-Babylonian Empire. Wipf and Stock Publishers. ISBN 978-1556359569. George, Andrew (2007). "Babylonian and Assyrian: A history of Akkadian" (PDF). The Languages of Iraq: 31–71. Goetze, Albrecht (1964). "The Kassites and near Eastern Chronology". Journal of Cuneiform Studies. 18 (4): 97–101. doi:10.2307/1359248. JSTOR 1359248. S2CID 163491250. Hanish, Shak (2008). "The Chaldean Assyrian Syriac people of Iraq: an ethnic identity problem". Digest of Middle East Studies. 17 (1): 32–47. doi:10.1111/j.1949-3606.2008.tb00145.x. Holland, Tom (2007). Persian Fire: The First World Empire and the Battle for the West. Random House Digital, Inc. ISBN 9780307386984. Jonker, Gerdien (1995). The Topography of Remembrance: The Dead, Tradition and Collective Memory in Mesopotamia. BRILL. ISBN 978-9004101623. Lange, Dierk (2011). "Origin of the Yoruba and "The Lost Tribes of Israel"" (PDF). Anthropos. 106 (2): 579–595. doi:10.5771/0257-9774-2011-2-579. Leick, Gwendolyn (2009). The Babylonian World. Routledge. ISBN 978-0415497831. Lipschits, Oled (2005). The Fall and Rise of Jerusalem: Judah under Babylonian Rule. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1575060958. Liverani, Mario (2016). Imagining Babylon. De Gruyter. ISBN 9781614516026. MacGinnis, John (2010). "Mobilisation and Militarisation in the Neo-Babylonian Empire". Studies on War in the Ancient Near East, AOAT 372: 153–163. Na’aman, Nadav (1991). "Chronology and History in the Late Assyrian Empire (631—619 B.C.)". Zeitschrift für Assyriologie. 81 (1–2): 243–267. doi:10.1515/zava.1991.81.1-2.243. S2CID 159785150. Oelsner, Joachim; Wells, Bruce; Wunsch, Cornelia (2003). "Neo Babylonian Period". In Westbrook, Raymond (ed.). A History of Ancient Near Eastern Law Vol. 1. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-12995-5. Porter, Barbara N. (1993). Images, Power, and Politics: Figurative Aspects of Esarhaddon's Babylonian Policy. American Philosophical Society. ISBN 9780871692085. Radner, Karen (2019). "Last Emperor or Crown Prince Forever? Aššur-uballiṭ II of Assyria according to Archival Sources". State Archives of Assyria Studies. 28: 135–142. Roth, Martha T. (1995). Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. Scholars Press. ISBN 9780788501043. Sachs, A. J.; Wiseman, D. J. (1954). "A Babylonian King List of the Hellenistic Period". Iraq. 16 (2): 202–212. doi:10.2307/4199591. JSTOR 4199591. Sack, Ronald Herbert (1972). "Amēl-Marduk 562-560 B. C. A Study Based on Cuneiform, Old Testament, Greek, Latin and Rabbinical Sources". Alter Orient und Altes Testament. 4. Sack, Ronald Herbert (2004). Images of Nebuchadnezzar: The Emergence of a Legend. Susquehanna University Press. ISBN 978-1575910796. Sawyer, John F. A.; J. A. Clines, David (1983). Midian, Moab and Edom: The History and Archaeology of Late Bronze and Iron Age Jordan and North-West Arabia. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-17445-1. Seymour, M. J. (2006). The idea of Babylon: archaeology and representation in Mesopotamia (Doctoral thesis). University College London. OCLC 500097655. van der Spek, R. J. (2001). "The Theatre of Babylon in Cuneiform". Veenhof Anniversary Volume: Studies Presented to Klaas R. Veenhof on the Occasion of His Sixty-fifth Birthday: 445–456. Stager, L. E. (1996). "The fury of Babylon: Ashkelon and the archaeology of destruction". Biblical Archaeology Review. 22 (1). Tenney, Merrill (1985). New Testament Survey. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0802836113. Van De Mieroop, Marc (2005). King Hammurabi of Babylon: A Biography. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4051-2660-1. Waerzeggers, Caroline (2004). "The Babylonian Revolts Against Xerxes and the 'End of Archives'". Archiv für Orientforschung. 50: 150–173. JSTOR 41668621. Willis, Roy (2012). World Mythology. Metro Books. ISBN 978-1-4351-4173-5. Wiseman, D. J. (1983). Nebuchadnezzar and Babylon. British Academy. ISBN 978-0197261002. Wunsch, Cornelia (2012). "Neo-Babylonian Entrepreneurs". The Invention of Enterprise: Entrepreneurship from Ancient Mesopotamia to Modern Times. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691154527. Zara, Tom (2008). "A Brief Study of Some Aspects of Babylonian Mathematics". Liberty University: Senior Honors Theses. 23. Cited web sources[edit] Lendering, Jona (2005). "Uruk King List". Livius. Retrieved 10 December 2019. Mark, Joshua J. (2016). "The Marduk Prophecy". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 9 December 2019. Mark, Joshua J. (2018). "Nebuchadnezzar II". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 17 December 2019. Nijssen, Daan (2018). "Cyrus the Great". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18 December 2019. Radner, Karen (2012). "Tiglath-pileser III, king of Assyria (744-727 BC)". Assyrian empire builders. Retrieved 15 December 2019. External links[edit] A. 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En-men-gal-ana, Dumuzid, the Shepherd, then in Larag: En-sipad-zid-ana, then in Zimbir: En-men-dur-ana, then in Shuruppag: Ubara-Tutu "then the flood swept over"[5] Susa II (Uruk influence or control) 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ DenAnedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100-2700 BCE) Great Flood 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) First kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman En-me-barage-si ("made the land of Elam submit")[6] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba Uruk II dynasty Enshakushanna Mug-si Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions (3 kings)[7] Shushuntarana Napilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Urur Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun) Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion of Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[7] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian Empire (Semitic) Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Second Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) (Vassals of UR III) Shakkanakku dynasty (Semitic) Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Neo-Sumerian Period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians) Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (Vassals of Ur III)[8] Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal 2100 BCE Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin Ibbi-Sin 2050 BCE 2000 BCE Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV circa 2000 BCE Amorite invasions Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) 2025-1763 BCE Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ Third Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 1894–1595 BCE Second Intermediate Period Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham (Biblical) Yamhad First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Phoenicia Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Middle Assyrian Empire Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt 626–539 BCE Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116-117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ "The Sumerian king list: translation". etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2008-05-08. ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ a b Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4. Authority control VIAF: 239425735 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 239425735 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neo-Babylonian_Empire&oldid=1002239603" Categories: States and territories established in the 7th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 6th century BC 626 BC establishments Babylonia Ancient history of Iran Ancient Syria History of Kuwait Former empires in Asia Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the flag caption or type parameters Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Български Català Čeština Deutsch Español فارسی Français 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål پنجابی Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Tagalog தமிழ் Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 January 2021, at 13:56 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4568	----	Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt 1069 BC–945 BC Gold funerary mask of pharaoh Psusennes I Capital Tanis Common languages Egyptian language Religion Ancient Egyptian Religion Government Absolute monarchy Historical era Iron Age • Established 1069 BC • Disestablished 945 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt The Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt (notated Dynasty XXI, alternatively 21st Dynasty or Dynasty 21) is usually classified as the first Dynasty of the Ancient Egyptian Third Intermediate Period, lasting from 1069 BC to 945 BC. Contents 1 History 2 Pharaohs of the 21st Dynasty 3 Timeline of the 21st Dynasty 4 Footnotes 5 Further reading 6 See also 7 External links History[edit] After the reign of Ramesses III, a long, slow decline of royal power in Egypt followed. The pharaohs of the Twenty-first Dynasty ruled from Tanis, but were mostly active only in Lower Egypt, which they controlled. This dynasty is described as 'Tanite' because its political capital was based at Tanis. Meanwhile, the High Priests of Amun at Thebes effectively ruled Middle and Upper Egypt in all but name. The later Egyptian Priest Manetho of Sebennytos states in his Epitome on Egyptian royal history that "the 21st Dynasty of Egypt lasted for 130 years".[1] Pharaohs of the 21st Dynasty[edit] Main article: List of pharaohs Pharaoh Image Throne name / Prenomen Reign Burial Consort(s) Comments Smendes / Nesbanebdjed I Hedjkheperre Setepenre 1077 - 1051 BC unknown Tentamun Only controlled Lower Egypt during his reign. Founder of the 21st Dynasty. Amenemnisu Neferkare Heqawaset 1051 - 1047 BC unknown Psusennes I / Hor-Pasebakhaenniut I Akheperre Setepenamun 1047 - 1001 BC NRT III, Tanis Mutnedjemet Wiay Precise length of reign unknown. Either 41 or 46 years. Amenemope Usermaatre Setepenamun 1001 - 992 BC Tanis Osorkon the Elder Akheperre Setepenre 992 - 986 BC unknown Siamun Netjerkheperre Setepenamun 986 - 967 BC unknown Psusennes II / Hor-Pasebakhaenniut II Titkheperure Setepenre 967 - 943 BC unknown Timeline of the 21st Dynasty[edit] Footnotes[edit] Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e ^ Kenneth A. Kitchen, The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100–650 BC), 3rd edition, 1986, Warminster: Aris & Phillips Ltd, p.531 Further reading[edit] Jaroslav Černý, Studies in the Chronology of the Twenty-First Dynasty, JEA 32 (1946), 24-30 See also[edit] Family tree of the Twenty-first, Twenty-second, and Twenty-third Dynasties of Egypt Theban High Priests of Amun External links[edit] http://www.narmer.pl/dyn/21en.htm Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Twenty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=1000399967" Categories: Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt States and territories established in the 11th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 10th century BC Dynasties of ancient Egypt Nile Delta 11th century BC in Egypt 10th century BC in Egypt 11th-century BC establishments in Egypt 10th-century BC disestablishments in Egypt 2nd millennium BC in Egypt 1st millennium BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Pages using the EasyTimeline extension Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca বাংলা Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ქართული Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 January 2021, at 23:05 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4595	----	None 
en-wikipedia-org-45	----	Argead dynasty - Wikipedia Argead dynasty From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search First dynasty of the Macedonian Kingdom House of Argos Vergina Sun Parent house Temenids (Heracleidae) Country Macedonia, (Ancient Greece) Founded 808 BC Final ruler Alexander IV of Macedon Titles Basileus of Macedonia King of Persia King of Asia Pharaoh of Egypt Hegemon of the Hellenic League, Strategus Autokrator of Greece Estate(s) Macedonia Dissolution 310 BC The Argead dynasty (Greek: Ἀργεάδαι, Argeádai) was an ancient Macedonian royal house of Dorian Greek provenance.[1][2][3] They were the founders and the ruling dynasty of the kingdom of Macedon from about 700 to 310 BC.[4] Their tradition, as described in ancient Greek historiography, traced their origins to Argos, of Peloponnese in Southern Greece, hence the name Argeads or Argives.[5][6][1] Initially the rulers of the homonymous tribe,[7] by the time of Philip II they had expanded their reign further, to include under the rule of Macedonia all Upper Macedonian states. The family's most celebrated members were Philip II of Macedon and his son Alexander the Great, under whose leadership the kingdom of Macedonia gradually gained predominance throughout Greece, defeated the Achaemenid Empire and expanded as far as Egypt and India. The mythical founder of the Argead dynasty is King Caranus.[8][9] Contents 1 Origin 2 Dynasty 2.1 Succession disputes 2.2 List of rulers 3 Family tree 4 References 4.1 Citations 4.2 Sources 5 Further reading 6 External links Origin[edit] Triobol of Argos (top), and a bronze coin of King Amyntas II of Macedon (bottom). The early Argead kings often copied the wolf of Argos' coins on their own coinage to highlight their supposed ancestry from this city.[10] The words Argead and Argive derive (via Latin Argīvus[11]) from the Greek Ἀργεῖος (Argeios meaning "of or from Argos"[12]), which is first attested in Homer where it was also used as a collective designation for the Greeks ("Ἀργείων Δαναῶν", Argive Danaans).[13][14] The Argead dynasty claimed descent from the Temenids of Argos, in the Peloponnese, whose legendary ancestor was Temenus, the great-great-grandson of Heracles.[1] In the excavations of the royal palace at Aegae, Manolis Andronikos discovered in the "tholos" room (according to some scholars "tholos" was the throne room) a Greek inscription relating to that belief.[15] This is testified by Herodotus, in The Histories, where he mentions that three brothers of the lineage of Temenus, Gauanes, Aeropus and Perdiccas, fled from Argos to the Illyrians and then to Upper Macedonia, to a town called Lebaea, where they served the king. The latter asked them to leave his territory, believing in an omen that something great would happen to Perdiccas. The boys went to another part of Macedonia, near the garden of Midas, above which mount Bermio stands. There they made their abode and slowly formed their own kingdom.[16] Herodotus also relates the incident of the participation of Alexander I of Macedon in the Olympic Games in 504 or 500 BC where the participation of the Macedonian king was contested by participants on the grounds that he was not Greek. The Hellanodikai, however, after examining his Argead claim confirmed that the Macedonian kings were Greeks and allowed him to participate.[17] The route of the Argeads from Argos, Peloponnese, to Macedonia according to Herodotus. Another theory supported by modern scholars, following the ancient author Appian, is that the Argead dynasty actually descended from Argos Orestikon in Macedonia, and that the Macedonian kings claimed a descent from Argos in Peloponnese to enforce their Greekness.[18] Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e House of Argos According to Thucydides, in the History of the Peloponnesian War, the Argeads were originally Temenids from Argos, who descended from the highlands to Lower Macedonia, expelled the Pierians from Pieria and acquired in Paionia a narrow strip along the river Axios extending to Pella and the sea. They also added Mygdonia in their territory through the expulsion of the Edoni, Eordians, and Almopians.[19] Dynasty[edit] Succession disputes[edit] The death of the king almost invariably triggered dynastic disputes and often a war of succession between members of the Argead family, leading to political and economic instability.[20] These included: Six-year Macedonian interregnum (399–393 BCE), after the death of king Archelaus I, between Crateuas, Orestes, Aeropus II, Amyntas II "the Little", Derdas II, Archelaus II, and Pausanias[21][22](18:56) Macedonian war of succession (393–392 BCE), after the death of king Pausanias, between Amyntas III and Argaeus II[23] Macedonian war of succession (369–368 BCE), after the death of king Amyntas III, between Ptolemy of Aloros and Alexander II of Macedon[24](2:25) Macedonian war of succession (360–359 BCE), after the death of king Perdiccas III, between Philip II (who deposed Amyntas IV), Argeus (supported by Athens), Pausanias (supported by Thrace) and Archelaus (supported by the Chalcidian League)[20][24](6:01) Wars of the Diadochi (323–277 BCE), after the death of king Alexander the Great, between his Diadochi ("Successors") Additionally, long-established monarchs could still face a rebellion by a relative when the former's kingship was perceived to be weak. An example was Philip's rebellion against his older brother, king Perdiccas II, in the prelude to the Peloponnesian War (433–431 BCE). List of rulers[edit] Argead Rulers King Reign (BC) Comments Caranus 808–778 BC Founder of the Argead dynasty and the first king of Macedon. Koinos 778–750 BC Tyrimmas 750–700 BC Perdiccas I 700–678 BC Argaeus I 678–640 BC Philip I 640–602 BC Aeropus I 602–576 BC Alcetas I 576–547 BC Amyntas I 547–498 BC Alexander I 498–454 BC Alcetas II 454–448 BC Perdiccas II 448–413 BC Archelaus 413–399 BC Orestes and Aeropus II 399–396 BC Archelaus II 396–393 BC Amyntas II 393 BC Pausanias 393 BC Amyntas III 393 BC Argaeus II 393–392 BC Amyntas III 392–370 BC Restored to the throne after one year. Alexander II 370–368 BC Ptolemy I 368–365 BC Perdiccas III 365–359 BC Amyntas IV 359 BC Philip II 359–336 BC Expanded Macedonian territory and influence to achieve a dominant position in the Balkans, unified most of the Greek city-states in the League of Corinth under his hegemony. Alexander III 336–323 BC Alexander the Great, the most notable Macedonian king and one of the most celebrated strategists and rulers of all time. Alexander at the top of his reign was simultaneously King of Macedonia, Pharaoh of Egypt, King of Persia and King of Asia. Antipater 334–323 BC Regent of Macedonia during the reign of Alexander III. Philip III Arrhidaeus 323–317 BC Only titular king after the death of Alexander III. Alexander IV 323–310 BC Son of Alexander the Great and Roxana. Served only as a titular king and was murdered at a young age before having the chance to rise to the throne of Macedon. Family tree[edit] Coenus king of Macedon Tyrimmas king of Macedon Perdiccas I king of Macedon Argaeus I king of Macedon Philip I king of Macedon Aeropus I king of Macedon Alcetas I king of Macedon 576–547 BC Amyntas I king of Macedon 547–498 BC ∞ Eurydice Alexander I king of Macedon 498–454 BC Gygaea ∞ Bubares Achemenid Alcetas II king of Macedon 454–448 BC Perdiccas II king of Macedon 448–413 BC ∞ Symache Cleopatra Phillipus Menelaus Amyntas Stratonice ∞ Seuthes II of Thrace Amyntas satrap of Alabanda Archelaus I king of Macedon 413–399 BC Aeropus II king of Macedon 399–395 BC Amyntas II king of Macedon 393 BC Arrhidaeus (son) Orestes king of Macedon 399–396 BC Archelaus II king of Macedon 395–394 BC Pausanias king of Macedon 394 BC Amyntas III king of Macedon 393, 392–370 BC 1.Eurydice I daughter of Sirras 2.Gygaea Argaeus II king of Macedon 393–392 BC (1) Alexander II king of Macedon 371–369 BC (1) Perdiccas III king of Macedon 365–360 BC (1) Eurynoe ∞ Ptolemy of Aloros regent 1.Audata of Illyria 2.Phila of Elimeia daughter of Derdas III 3.Nicesipolis of Thessalia niece of Jason of Pherae 4.Philinna of Larissa (1) Philip II king of Macedon 359–336 BC 5.Olympias daughter of Neoptolemus I of Epirus 6.Meda of Odessos daughter of Cothelas of Getae 7.Cleopatra Eurydice niece of Attalus (2) Menelaus prince Amyntas IV king of Macedonia 359 BC (1) Cynane (3) Thessalonike ∞ Cassander of Macedonia (4) Philip III Arrhidaeus king of Macedon 323–317 BC (4) Alexander III the Great king of Macedon 336–323 BC emperor of Macedonian Empire 330–323 BC 1.Roxana of Bactria daughter of Oxyartes 2.Stateira II/Barsine daughter of Darius III of Persia 3.Parysatis II daughter of Artaxerxes III of Persia (7) Caranus prince (7) Europa Eurydice II (1) Alexander IV emperor of Macedonian Empire 323–309 BC References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ a b c Howatson & Harvey 1989, p. 339: "In historical times the royal house traced its descent from the mythical Temenus, king of Argos, who was one of the Heracleidae, and more immediately from Perdiccas I, who left Argos for Illyria, probably in the mid-seventh century BC, and from there captured the Macedonian plain and occupied the fortress of Aegae (Vergina), setting himself up as king of the Macedonians. Thus the kings were of largely Dorian Greek stock (see PHILIP (1)); they presumably spoke a form of Dorian Greek and their cultural tradition had Greek features." ^ Cosmopoulos 1992, p. 30. ^ Grant 1988, p. 259: "It was the descendants of these Dorians [...] who formed the upper class among the Macedonians of subsequent epochs." ^ Cosmopoulos 1992, "TABLE 2: The Argeiad Kings" (p. 30). ^ Argive, Oxford Dictionaries. ^ Hammond 1986, p. 516: "In the early 5th century the royal house of Macedonia, the Temenidae was recognised as Macedonian by the Presidents of the Olympic Games. Their verdict considered themselves to be of Macedonian descent." ^ Rogers 2004, p. 316: "According to Strabo, 7.11 ff., the Argeadae were the tribe who were able to make themselves supreme in early Emathia, later Macedonia." ^ Green 2013, p. 103. ^ According to Pausanias (Description of Greece 9.40.8–9), Caranus set up a trophy after the Argive fashion for a victory against Cisseus: "The Macedonians say that Caranus, king of Macedonia, overcame in battle Cisseus, a chieftain in a bordering country. For his victory Caranus set up a trophy after the Argive fashion, but it is said to have been upset by a lion from Olympus, which then vanished. Caranus, they assert, realized that it was a mistaken policy to incur the undying hatred of the non-Greeks dwelling around, and so, they say, the rule was adopted that no king of Macedonia, neither Caranus himself nor any of his successors, should set up trophies, if they were ever to gain the good-will of their neighbors. This story is confirmed by the fact that Alexander set up no trophies, neither for his victory over Dareius nor for those he won in India." ^ Hoover 2011, p. 161; Hoover 2016, p. 295. ^ Lewis & Short 1879, Argīvus. ^ Liddell & Scott 1940, Ἀργεῖος. ^ Cartledge 2011, Chapter 4: Argos, p. 23: "The Late Bronze Age in Greece is also called conventionally 'Mycenaean', as we saw in the last chapter. But it might in principle have been called 'Argive', 'Achaean', or 'Danaan', since the three names that Homer does in fact apply to Greeks collectively were 'Argives', 'Achaeans', and 'Danaans'." ^ Homer. Iliad, 2.155–175, 4.8; Odyssey, 8.578, 4.6. ^ The Greek inscription found in the tholos room of the royal palace at Aegae reads "ΗΡΑΚΛΗΙ ΠΑΤΡΩΙΩΙ" (Andronikos 1994, p. 38: "Η επιγραφή αυτή είναι: «ΗΡΑΚΛΗΙ ΠΑΤΡΩΙΩΙ», που σημαίνει στον «Πατρώο Ηρακλή», στον Ηρακλή δηλαδή που ήταν γενάρχης της βασιλικής οικογένειας των Μακεδόνων." [Translation: "This inscription is: «ΗΡΑΚΛΗΙ ΠΑΤΡΩΙΩΙ», which means "Father (Ancestor) Hercules", dedicated to Hercules who was the ancestor of the royal family of the Macedonians."]) ^ Herodotus. Histories, 8.137. ^ Herodotus. Histories, 5.22. ^ Appian. Syrian Wars, 11.10.63. ^ Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War, 2.99. ^ a b Roisman, Joseph (2002). Brill's Companion to Alexander the Great. Leiden/Boston: Brill. p. 71–75. ISBN 9789004217553. Retrieved 23 August 2020. ^ Errington, Robert Malcolm (1990). A History of Macedonia. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 28–29. ISBN 9780520063198. Retrieved 23 August 2020. ^ Leo Stone, Ilkin Gambar, Officially Devin, Nolan Karimov, András Szente-Dzsida (8 March 2020). "Ancient Macedonia before Alexander the Great and Philip II". Kings and Generals. YouTube. Retrieved 23 August 2020.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Mason, Charles Peter (1870). "Argaeus". In Smith, William (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 1. p. 279. ^ a b Matt Hollis, Ilkin Gambar, Officially Devin, Nolan Karimov, András Szente-Dzsida (23 April 2020). "Diplomatic Genius of Philip of Macedon". Kings and Generals. YouTube. Retrieved 23 August 2020.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Sources[edit] Andronikos, Manolēs (1994). Vergina: The Royal Tombs. Athens: Ekdotikē Athēnōn. ISBN 960-213-128-4. Cartledge, Paul (2011). Ancient Greece: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-960134-9. Cosmopoulos, Michael B. (1992). Macedonia: An Introduction to its Political History. Winnipeg: Manitoba Studies in Classical Civilization. Grant, Michael (1988). The Rise of the Greeks. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN 9780684185361. Green, Peter (2013) [1991]. Alexander of Macedon, 356–323 B.C.: A Historical Biography. Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-52-095469-4. Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (1986). A History of Greece to 322 BC. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-873095-0. Hoover, Oliver D. (2011). Handbook of Coins of the Peloponnesos: Achaia, Phleiasia, Sikyonia, Elis, Triphylia, Messenia, Lakonia, Argolis, and Arkadia, Sixth to First Centuries BC (The Handbook of Greek Coinage Series, Volume 5). Lancaster/London: Classical Numismatic Group. Hoover, Oliver D. (2016). Handbook of Coins of Macedon and Its Neighbors. Part I: Macedon, Illyria, and Epeiros, Sixth to First Centuries BC (The Handbook of Greek Coinage Series, Volume 3). Lancaster/London: Classical Numismatic Group. Howatson, M. C.; Harvey, Sir Paul (1989). The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-866121-5. Lewis, Charlton T.; Short, Charles (1879). A Latin Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (1940). A Greek-English Lexicon. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Rogers, Guy MacLean (2004). Alexander: The Ambiguity of Greatness. New York: Random House Publishing Group. ISBN 1-4000-6261-6. Further reading[edit] Anson, Edward M. (2014). Alexander's Heirs: The Age of the Successors. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly (2009). "The Role of the BASILIKOI PAIDES at the Argead Court". In Howe, Timothy; Reames, Jeanne (eds.). Macedonian Legacies: Studies in Ancient Macedonian History and Culture in Honor of Eugene N. Borza. Claremont, CA: Regina. pp. 145–164. Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly (2010). "Putting Women in their Place: Women in Public under Philip II and Alexander III and the Last Argeads". In Carney, Elizabeth D.; Ogden, Daniel (eds.). Philip II and Alexander the Great: Father and Son, Lives and Afterlives. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 43–53. Errington, Robert Malcolm (1978). "The Nature of the Macedonian State under the Monarchy". Chiron. 8: 77–134. Griffith, Guy Thompson (1979). "The Reign of Philip the Second: The Government of the Kingdom". In Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière; Griffith, Guy Thompson (eds.). A History of Macedonia. 2. Oxford: Clarendon. pp. 383–404. Hatzopoulos, Miltiades B. (1996). Macedonian Institutions under the Kings (2 Volumes). Paris: De Boccard. King, Carol J. (2010). "Macedonian Kingship and Other Political Institutions". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford, Chichester and Malden: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 373–391. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2. Ogden, Daniel (2011). "The Royal Families of Argead Macedon and the Hellenistic World". In Rawson, Beryl (ed.). A Companion to Families in the Greek and Roman Worlds. Malden, MA: Blackwell-Wiley. pp. 92–107. External links[edit] Library resources about Argead dynasty Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries "Argead Dynasty". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 26 April 2008. Retrieved 13 May 2008. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 130587036 VIAF: 20795404 WorldCat Identities: viaf-20795404 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Argead_dynasty&oldid=996750359" Categories: Argead dynasty States and territories established in the 9th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 4th century BC Ancient Macedonian dynasties Royalty of Macedonia (ancient kingdom) Mythology of Macedonia (ancient kingdom) 9th-century BC establishments in Greece 4th-century BC disestablishments in Greece Hidden categories: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Pages using infobox family with unknown parameters Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch 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en-wikipedia-org-4610	----	Encyclopædia Iranica - Wikipedia Encyclopædia Iranica From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Iranica" redirects here. For other uses, see Iranica (disambiguation). Encyclopedia about the history, culture, and civilization of Iranian peoples Encyclopædia Iranica Author 1300 named contributors Country United States Language English Subject Iranistics and Greater Iran studies Genre Reference encyclopedia Publisher Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation, Brill[1] Publication date 1985–present Media type 45 hardback volumes planned; 16 volumes or 15 volumes and 6 fascicles as of October 2020[update].[1] OCLC 59605200 Website http://www.iranicaonline.org Encyclopædia Iranica is a project whose goal is to create a comprehensive and authoritative English language encyclopedia about the history, culture, and civilization of Iranian peoples from prehistory to modern times. Contents 1 Scope 2 Organization 2.1 Staff 2.2 Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation 2.3 Legal dispute 3 Controversy 4 Reception 5 Volumes 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Scope[edit] The Encyclopædia Iranica is dedicated to the study of Iranian civilization in the wider Middle East, the Caucasus, Europe, Central Asia and the Indian Subcontinent. The academic reference work will eventually cover all aspects of Iranian history and culture as well as all Iranian languages and literatures, facilitating the whole range of Iranian studies research from archeology to political sciences. It is a project founded by Ehsan Yarshater in 1973 and currently carried out at Columbia University’s Center for Iranian Studies.[2][3] It is considered the standard encyclopedia of the academic discipline of Iranistics.[4] The scope of the encyclopedia goes beyond modern Iran (also known as "Persia") and encompasses the entire Iranian cultural sphere, and far beyond. Relations of the Iranian world with other cultures (China, European countries, etc.) are also covered.[5][6] The project is planning on publishing a total of up to 45 volumes. Organization[edit] Staff[edit] Ehsan Yarshater was the Founding Editor of Encyclopædia Iranica from 1973 through 2017. The current editor-in-chief is Elton Daniel. The editorial board includes, Mohsen Ashtiany, Mahnaz Moazami, and over 40 consulting editors from major international institutions doing research in Iranian Studies.[7] Former long tenured editors include Ahmad Ashraf, Christopher Brunner, Habib Borjian, Kioumars Ghereghlou, Manuchehr Kasheff, Dagmar Riedel and Houra Yavari. A growing number (over 1,300 in 2016) of scholars worldwide have contributed articles to Encyclopædia Iranica.[8] Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation[edit] In 1990, Ehsan Yarshater established the Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation (EIF), which serves to promote the cause of the Encyclopædia Iranica and to ensure its continuation.[9] Over the years, Columbia University's Center for Iranian Studies (also founded by Yarshater) continued to coordinate and edit the Encyclopædia, while the EIF substantially sponsored the work.[10] The Foundation provides the full text of many entries (up to fascicle XVI/3) for free on the iranicaonline.org website. Legal dispute[edit] Following Yarshater’s retirement as Director of the Center for Iranian Studies in 2016, a dispute began to emerge between Columbia University and the EIF as Columbia unilaterally decided to enter into a contract with Brill, an academic publisher, which subsequently published fascicles 4 and 5 of volume XVI in 2018 and 2019; the EIF protested the move.[11] In 2019, Columbia University sued the EIF, seeking, among other things, a finding that the EIF owns neither a copyright nor an exclusive trademark right in the encyclopedia.[12] EIF countersued alleging that Columbia, as well as Brill and Prof. Elton Daniel, breached EIF’s copyright in the encyclopedia, infringed, diluted, and counterfeited its trademarks, converted EIF property, and committed various acts of unjust enrichment and unfair competition.[13] On July 31, 2020, the U.S. District Court in the Southern District of New York granted a temporary restraining order against Columbia, Brill and Prof. Daniel, enjoining them through October 8, 2020 from publishing additional fascicles.[14] EIF also sought a preliminary injunction against the defendants, but such relief was not entered by the court.[15] Columbia and Brill subsequently published fascicle XVI/6 on October 19, 2020.[16] As part of the dispute, there are now conflicting accounts as to the current state of the Encyclopædia Iranica. While Columbia has published fascicle XVI/4 through XVI/6, covering topics between “Kešaʾi Dialect” and “Khorsan XIV”, by EIF’s count volume XVI only covers topics falling alphabetically between KA and KE.[17] EIF considers fascicles XVI/4 through XVI/6 “counterfeit fascicles”.[17] Controversy[edit] On March 25, 2007, the Associated Press released a news report about Encyclopædia Iranica, claiming that it is "U.S.-backed".[18] Encyclopædia Iranica published an official response, saying the report was "inaccurate and libelous", that while the National Endowment for the Humanities supports the encyclopedia, the Endowment is "an independent federal agency whose many projects are reviewed and decided upon by independent panels of scholars", not the U.S. Government, and that only a third of the encyclopedia's budget is supplied by the Endowment, not half, as the Associated Press had claimed.[19] Many foundations, organizations, and individuals have supported Encyclopædia Iranica. The encyclopaedia has been sponsored since 1979 by the National Endowment for the Humanities, as well as the American Council of Learned Societies, Union Académique Internationale, Iran Heritage Foundation, and many other charitable foundations, philanthropic families and individuals.[20] Reception[edit] In a review of Volume III, Richard W. Bulliet calls Encyclopædia Iranica "not just a necessity for Iranists [but] of inestimable value for everyone concerned with the history and culture of the Middle East".[21] Ali Banuazizi, though, notes that its focus is on Iran "as perceived, analyzed, and described by its most distinguished, mainly Western, students".[22] In 1998, the journal Iranian Studies devoted a double issue (vol. 31, no. 3/4) to reviews of the encyclopædia, coming to 700 pages by 29 authors on as many subjects.[23] Volumes[edit] As of July 2015, the online version of the Encyclopædia Iranica has almost 7,300 entries, of which about 1,100 entries are only available on the Internet.[24] The following is a list of printed volumes, current as of October 2020[update].[24] Beginning and ending entries Publication year Volume number ISBN ĀB – ANĀHID 1985 I ANĀMAKA – ĀṮĀR AL-WOZARĀʾ 1987 II ĀTAŠ – BEYHAQI 1989 III BĀYJU – CARPETS 1990 IV CARPETS – COFFEE 1992 V COFFEEHOUSE – DĀRĀ 1993 VI DĀRĀ(B) – EBN AL-AṮIR 1996 VII EBN ʿAYYĀŠ – EʿTEŻĀD-AL-SALṬANA 1998 VIII ETHÉ – FISH 1999 IX FISHERIES – GINDAROS 2001 X GIŌNI – HAREM I 2003 XI HAREM I – ILLUMINATIONISM 2004 XII ILLUMINATIONISM – ISFAHAN VIII 2006 XIII ISFAHAN IX – JOBBĀʾI 2008 XIV JOČI – KAŠḠARI, SAʿD-AL-DIN 2011 XV In addition, the following fascicles of volume XVI have been published: Fascicle 1 (KASHAN – KAŠŠI, ABU ʿAMR MOḤAMMAD), 2012 Fascicle 2 (KAŠŠI, ABU ʿAMR MOḤAMMAD – KÉGL, SÁNDOR), 2013 Fascicle 3 (KÉGL, SÁNDOR – KEŠAʾI Dialect), 2013 Fascicle 4 (Kešaʾi Dialect – Khavaran-Nama), 2018* Fascicle 5 (Khavaran-Nama – Khomeini), 2019* Fascicle 6 (Khomeini — Khorasan XIV), 2020* (*) Not recognized by the Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation, see § Legal dispute. See also[edit] Iran portal United States portal Academy of Persian Language and Literature Dastur al-Muluk Iranology List of online encyclopedias The Comprehensive History of Iran References[edit] ^ a b See § Legal dispute. ^ "Iranicaonline". Retrieved 1 June 2014. ^ Banuazizi, Ali (1990). "Review of Encyclopædia Iranica by Ehsan Yarshater". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 22 (3): 370–373. doi:10.1017/s0020743800034279. JSTOR 164148. ^ "Praise from Scholars Worldwide". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 2016-07-14. ^ Boss, Shira J. (November 2003). "Encyclopedia Iranica". Columbia College Today. Archived from the original on 2016-10-18. Retrieved 2016-07-14. ^ Trompf, Garry W. (2008). "Encyclopedia Iranica - 35: A New Agenda for Persian Studies?". Iran & the Caucasus. 12 (2): 385–395. doi:10.1163/157338408X406137. JSTOR 25597382. ^ "About Iranica". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2016-07-14. ^ "Authors". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2016-07-14. ^ "Welcome to Encyclopædia Iranica". iranicaonline.org. Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation. Retrieved 2 August 2020. ^ "FAQs". iranicaonline.org. Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation. Retrieved 2 August 2020. ^ "The Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation Asserts its Ownership of Encyclopædia Iranica". iranicaonline.org. Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation. 16 September 2019. Retrieved 2 August 2020. ^ Complaint, The Trustees Of Columbia University in the City of New York v. Encyclopaedia Iranica Foundation, No. 19 Civ. 7465 (S.D.N.Y. Aug. 9, 2019). ^ Complaint, Encyclopaedia Iranica Foundation, Inc. v. Trustees Of Columbia University in the City of New York, No. 19 Civ. 8562 (S.D.N.Y. Sep. 14, 2019). ^ The Trustees Of Columbia University in the City of New York v. Encyclopaedia Iranica Foundation, Nos. 19 Civ. 7465 (AT) (KNF), 19 Civ. 8562 (AT) (KNF) (S.D.N.Y. Jul. 31, 2020) (Order on Motion for TRO). ^ The Trustees Of Columbia University in the City of New York v. Encyclopaedia Iranica Foundation, Nos. 19 Civ. 7465 (AT) (KNF), 19 Civ. 8562 (AT) (KNF) (S.D.N.Y. Oct. 8, 2020) (Order on Motion for Preliminary Injunction). ^ "Encyclopædia Iranica". Ehsan Yarshater Center for Iranian Studies. Retrieved 21 October 2020. ^ a b "Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation Publishes Volume 16 of Encyclopædia Iranica". iranicaonline.org. Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation. 31 July 2020. Retrieved 2 August 2020. ^ "U.S.-funded encyclopedia revels in Iran's greatness". CTV. 2007-03-26. Archived from the original on 2009-01-16. Retrieved 2016-07-14. ^ Ashraf, Ahmad (2007-04-05). "Official response of the Encyclopaedia Iranica to the Associated Press article of March 25, 2007 entitled "U.S.-funded encyclopedia revels in Iran's greatness"" (PDF). Encyclopedia Iranica. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2012-12-02. ^ "Sponsors". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2016-07-14. ^ Bulliet, Richard W. (1992). "Review of Encyclopædia Iranica by Ehsan Yarshater". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 24 (4): 680. JSTOR 164443. ^ Banuazizi (1990), p. 372. ^ "Review of the Encyclopedia Iranica". Iranian Studies. 31 (3/4). 1998. ISSN 0021-0862. JSTOR i401469. ^ a b "Citing the Encyclopædia Iranica". Encyclopaedia Iranica. 2013-09-16. Retrieved 2020-08-02. External links[edit] Encyclopædia Iranica Website (by the Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation). Full-text access to many articles from the Encyclopædia. Encyclopædia Iranica Website (by the University of Columbia). Encyclopædia Iranica Events Website. Detailing future and past events sponsored or supported by Encyclopædia Iranica Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Encyclopædia_Iranica&oldid=997638694" Categories: Encyclopedias of culture and ethnicity English-language encyclopedias Iranian online encyclopedias Iranian culture Iranian studies Persian encyclopedias 20th-century encyclopedias 21st-century encyclopedias Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Books with missing cover Articles containing potentially dated statements from October 2020 All articles containing potentially dated statements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Hrvatski Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kurdî مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 1 January 2021, at 14:50 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4621	----	Susa - Wikipedia Susa From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Shushan" and "Susian" redirect here. For other uses of Shushan, see Shushan (disambiguation). For the language also known as Susian, see Elamite language. For other uses, see Susa (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Shusha. Ancient city in Iran Susa شوش The Palace of Darius I in Susa Susa Shown within Iran Show map of Iran Susa Susa (West and Central Asia) Show map of West and Central Asia Location Shush, Khuzestan Province, Iran Region Zagros Mountains Coordinates 32°11′26″N 48°15′28″E / 32.19056°N 48.25778°E / 32.19056; 48.25778Coordinates: 32°11′26″N 48°15′28″E / 32.19056°N 48.25778°E / 32.19056; 48.25778 Type Settlement History Founded Approximately 4200  BCE Abandoned 1218 CE Events Battle of Susa Site notes Condition Abandoned and in ruins UNESCO World Heritage Site Official name Susa Criteria Cultural: i, ii, iii, iv Reference 1455 Inscription 2015 (39th session) Susa (/ˈsuːsə/; Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform: 𒈹𒂞𒆠 šušinki; Persian: Šuš; [ʃuʃ]; Hebrew: שׁוּשָׁן‎ Šušān; Greek: Σοῦσα [ˈsuːsa]; Syriac: ܫܘܫ‎ Šuš,;[1] Middle Persian: 𐭮𐭥𐭱𐭩 Sūš, 𐭱𐭥𐭮 Šūs; Old Persian: 𐏂𐏁 Çūšā) was an ancient city in the lower Zagros Mountains about 250 km (160 mi) east of the Tigris River, between the Karkheh and Dez Rivers. One of the most important cities of the Ancient Near East, Susa served as the capital of Elam and the Achaemenid Empire, and remained a strategic centre during the Parthian and Sasanian periods. The site currently consists of three archaeological mounds, covering an area of around one square kilometre.[2] The modern Iranian town of Shush is located on the site of ancient Susa. Shush is identified as Shushan, mentioned in the Book of Esther and other Biblical books. Contents 1 Name 2 Literary references 2.1 Biblical texts 2.2 Other religious texts 3 Excavation history 4 History 4.1 Early settlement 4.2 Susa I period (4200–3800 BCE) 4.3 Susa II and Uruk influence (3800–3100 BCE) 4.4 Susa III, or "Proto-Elamite", period (3100–2700 BCE) 4.5 Elamites 4.5.1 Old Elamite period (c. 2700–1500 BCE) 4.5.2 Kutik-Inshushinak 4.6 Indus-Susa relations (2600-1700 BCE) 4.6.1 Middle Elamite period (c. 1500–1100 BCE) 4.6.2 Neo-Elamite period (c. 1100 – 540 BCE) 4.6.2.1 Neo-Assyrians 4.7 Susa after Achaemenid Persian conquest 4.8 Seleucid period 4.9 Parthian period 4.10 Sassanid period 4.11 Islamic period 4.12 Today 5 World Heritage listing 6 Gallery 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 Further reading 10.1 Excavation reports 11 External links Name[edit] In Elamite, the name of the city was written variously Ŝuŝan, Ŝuŝun, etc. The origin of the word Susa is from the local city deity Inshushinak. Literary references[edit] Map showing the area of the Elamite kingdom (in orange) and the neighboring areas. The approximate Bronze Age extension of the Persian Gulf is shown. Susa was one of the most important cities of the Ancient Near East. In historic literature, Susa appears in the very earliest Sumerian records: for example, it is described as one of the places obedient to Inanna, patron deity of Uruk, in Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta. Biblical texts[edit] Susa is also mentioned in the Ketuvim of the Hebrew Bible by the name Shushan, mainly in Esther, but also once each in Nehemiah and Daniel. According to these texts, Nehemiah also lived in Susa during the Babylonian captivity of the 6th century BCE (Daniel mentions it in a prophetic vision), while Esther became queen there, married to King Ahasuerus, and saved the Jews from genocide. A tomb presumed to be that of Daniel is located in the area, known as Shush-Daniel. However, a large portion of the current structure is actually a much later construction dated to the late nineteenth century, ca. 1871.[3] Other religious texts[edit] Susa is further mentioned in the Book of Jubilees (8:21 & 9:2) as one of the places within the inheritance of Shem and his eldest son Elam; and in 8:1, "Susan" is also named as the son (or daughter, in some translations) of Elam. Excavation history[edit] Site of Susa Assyria. Ruins of Susa, Brooklyn Museum Archives, Goodyear Archival Collection The site was examined in 1836 by Henry Rawlinson and then by A. H. Layard.[4] In 1851, some modest excavation was done by William Loftus, who identified it as Susa.[5] In 1885 and 1886 Marcel-Auguste Dieulafoy and Jane Dieulafoy began the first French excavations.[6] Almost all of the excavations at Susa, post 1885, were organized and authorized by the French government.[7] Jacques de Morgan conducted major excavations from 1897 until 1911. The excavations that were conducted in Susa brought many artistic and historical artifacts back to France. These artifacts filled multiple halls in the Museum of the Louvre throughout the late 1890s and early 1900s.[8] These efforts continued under Roland De Mecquenem until 1914, at the beginning of World War I. French work at Susa resumed after the war, led by De Mecquenem, continuing until World War II in 1940.[9][10][11] To supplement the original publications of De Mecquenem the archives of his excavation have now been put online thanks to a grant from the Shelby White Levy Program.[12][13] Roman Ghirshman took over direction of the French efforts in 1946, after the end of the war. Together with his wife Tania Ghirshman, he continued there until 1967. The Ghirshmans concentrated on excavating a single part of the site, the hectare sized Ville Royale, taking it all the way down to bare earth.[14] The pottery found at the various levels enabled a stratigraphy to be developed for Susa.[15][16] During the 1970s, excavations resumed under Jean Perrot.[17][18] History[edit] Early settlement[edit] In urban history, Susa is one of the oldest-known settlements of the region. Based on C14 dating, the foundation of a settlement there occurred as early as 4395 BCE (a calibrated radio-carbon date).[19] At this stage it was already very large for the time,[citation needed] about 15 hectares. The founding of Susa corresponded with the abandonment of nearby villages. Potts suggests that the settlement may have been founded to try to reestablish the previously destroyed settlement at Chogha Mish.[20] Previously, Chogha Mish was also a very large settlement, and it featured a similar massive platform that was later built at Susa. Another important settlement in the area is Chogha Bonut, that was discovered in 1976. Susa I period (4200–3800 BCE)[edit] Goblet and cup, Iran, Susa I style, 4th millennium BC – Ubaid period; goblet height c. 12 cm; Sèvres – Cité de la céramique, France See also: Ubaid period Shortly after Susa was first settled over 6000 years ago, its inhabitants erected a monumental platform that rose over the flat surrounding landscape.[21] The exceptional nature of the site is still recognizable today in the artistry of the ceramic vessels that were placed as offerings in a thousand or more graves near the base of the temple platform. Susa's earliest settlement is known as Susa I period (c. 4200–3900 BCE). Two settlements named by archaeologists Acropolis (7 ha) and Apadana (6.3 ha), would later merge to form Susa proper (18 ha).[20] The Apadana was enclosed by 6m thick walls of rammed earth (this particular place is named Apadana because it also contains a late Achaemenid structure of this type). Nearly two thousand pots of Susa I style were recovered from the cemetery, most of them now in the Louvre. The vessels found are eloquent testimony to the artistic and technical achievements of their makers, and they hold clues about the organization of the society that commissioned them.[22] Painted ceramic vessels from Susa in the earliest first style are a late, regional version of the Mesopotamian Ubaid ceramic tradition that spread across the Near East during the fifth millennium BC.[22] Susa I style was very much a product of the past and of influences from contemporary ceramic industries in the mountains of western Iran. The recurrence in close association of vessels of three types—a drinking goblet or beaker, a serving dish, and a small jar—implies the consumption of three types of food, apparently thought to be as necessary for life in the afterworld as it is in this one. Ceramics of these shapes, which were painted, constitute a large proportion of the vessels from the cemetery. Others are coarse cooking-type jars and bowls with simple bands painted on them and were probably the grave goods of the sites of humbler citizens as well as adolescents and, perhaps, children.[23] The pottery is carefully made by hand. Although a slow wheel may have been employed, the asymmetry of the vessels and the irregularity of the drawing of encircling lines and bands indicate that most of the work was done freehand. Copper metallurgy is also attested during this period, which was contemporary with metalwork at some highland Iranian sites such as Tepe Sialk. Master of animals, Susa I, Louvre Sb 2246.[24] Sun and deities, Susa I, Louvre Susa II and Uruk influence (3800–3100 BCE)[edit] Globular envelope with the accounting tokens. Clay, Uruk period (c. 3500 BCE). From the Tell of the Acropolis in Susa. The Louvre Susa came within the Uruk cultural sphere during the Uruk period. An imitation of the entire state apparatus of Uruk, proto-writing, cylinder seals with Sumerian motifs, and monumental architecture is found at Susa. According to some scholars, Susa may have been a colony of Uruk. There is some dispute about the comparative periodization of Susa and Uruk at this time, as well as about the extent of Uruk influence in Susa. Recent research indicates that Early Uruk period corresponds to Susa II period.[25] King-priest with bow fighting enemies, with horned temple in the center. Susa II or Uruk period (3800-3100 BCE), found in excavations at Susa. Louvre Museum.[26][27][28][29] D. T. Potts, argue that the influence from the highland Iranian Khuzestan area in Susa was more significant at the early period, and also continued later on. Thus, Susa combined the influence of two cultures, from the highland area and from the alluvial plains. Also, Potts stresses the fact that the writing and numerical systems of Uruk were not simply borrowed in Susa wholesale. Rather, only partial and selective borrowing took place, that was adapted to Susa's needs. Despite the fact that Uruk was far larger than Susa at the time, Susa was not its colony, but still maintained some independence for a long time, according to Potts.[30] An architectural link has also been suggested between Susa, Tal-i Malyan, and Godin Tepe at this time, in support of the idea of the parallel development of the protocuneiform and protoelamite scripts.[31] Some scholars believe that Susa was part of the greater Uruk culture. Holly Pittman, an art historian at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia says, "they [Susanians] are participating entirely in an Uruk way of life. They are not culturally distinct; the material culture of Susa is a regional variation of that on the Mesopotamian plain". Gilbert Stein, director of the University of Chicago's Oriental Institute, says that "An expansion once thought to have lasted less than 200 years now apparently went on for 700 years. It is hard to think of any colonial system lasting that long. The spread of Uruk material is not evidence of Uruk domination; it could be local choice".[32] Work in the granaries, Susa II, Louvre.[33] Priest-King with bow and arrows, Susa II, Louvre.[34] Prisoners, Susa II, Louvre.[35] Orant statuette, Susa II, Louvre.[36] Susa III, or "Proto-Elamite", period (3100–2700 BCE)[edit] Main article: Proto-Elamite Susa III (3100–2700 BCE) is also known as the 'Proto-Elamite' period.[37] At this time, Banesh period pottery is predominant. This is also when the Proto-Elamite tablets first appear in the record. Subsequently, Susa became the centre of Elam civilization. Ambiguous reference to Elam (Cuneiform; 𒉏 NIM) appear also in this period in Sumerian records. Susa enters history during the Early Dynastic period of Sumer. A battle between Kish and Susa is recorded in 2700 BCE, when En-me-barage-si is said to have "made the land of Elam submit".[38] Susa III/ Proto-Elamite cylinder seal, 3150–2800 BC. Louvre Museum, reference Sb 1484 Susa III/ Proto-Elamite cylinder seal 3150–2800 BC Mythological being on a boat Louvre Museum Sb 6379 Susa III/ Proto-Elamite cylinder seal 3150–2800 BC Louvre Museum Sb 6166 Economical tablet in Proto-Elamite script, Suse III, Louvre Museum, reference Sb 15200, circa 3100-2850 BCE Elamites[edit] Puzur-Inshushinak Ensi Shushaki (𒅤𒊭𒀭𒈹𒂞 𒑐𒋼𒋛 𒈹𒂞𒆠), "Puzur-Inshushinak Ensi (Governor) of Susa", in the "Table au Lion", dated 2100 BCE, Louvre Museum.[39] In the Sumerian period, Susa was the capital of a state called Susiana (Šušan), which occupied approximately the same territory of modern Khūzestān Province centered on the Karun River. Control of Susiana shifted between Elam, Sumer, and Akkad. Susiana is sometimes mistaken as synonymous with Elam but, according to F. Vallat, it was a distinct cultural and political entity.[40] During the Elamite monarchy, many riches and materials were brought to Susa from the plundering of other cities.[41] This was mainly due to the fact of Susa's location on Iran's South Eastern region, closer to the city of Babylon and cities in Mesopotamia. The use of the Elamite language as an administrative language was first attested in texts of ancient Ansan, Tall-e Mal-yan, dated 1000 BCE.[42] Previous to the era of Elamites, the Akkadian language was responsible for most or all of the text used in ancient documents. Susiana was incorporated by Sargon the Great into his Akkadian Empire in approximately 2330 BCE. Silver cup from Marvdasht, Iran, with a linear-Elamite inscription from the time of Kutik-Inshushinak. National Museum of Iran The main goddess of the city was Nanaya, who had a significant temple in Susa.[43] Old Elamite period (c. 2700–1500 BCE)[edit] Dynastic list of twelve kings of Awan dynasty and twelve kings of the Shimashki Dynasty, 1800–1600 BCE, Susa, Louvre Museum Sb 17729.[44][45] The Old Elamite period began around 2700 BCE. Historical records mention the conquest of Elam by Enmebaragesi, the Sumerian king of Kish in Mesopotamia. Three dynasties ruled during this period. Twelve kings of each of the first two dynasties, those of Awan (or Avan; c. 2400–2100 BCE) and Simashki (c. 2100–1970 BC), are known from a list from Susa dating to the Old Babylonian period. Two Elamite dynasties said to have exercised brief control over parts of Sumer in very early times include Awan and Hamazi; and likewise, several of the stronger Sumerian rulers, such as Eannatum of Lagash and Lugal-anne-mundu of Adab, are recorded as temporarily dominating Elam. Kutik-Inshushinak[edit] Susa was the capital of an Akkadian province until ca. 2100 BCE, when its governor, Kutik-Inshushinak, rebelled and made it an independent state and a literary center. Also, he was the last from the Awan dynasty according to the Susa kinglist.[46] He unified the neighbouring territories and became the king of Elam. He encouraged the use of the Linear Elamite script, that remains undeciphered. The city was subsequently conquered by the neo-Sumerian Third Dynasty of Ur and held until Ur finally collapsed at the hands of the Elamites under Kindattu in ca. 2004 BCE. At this time, Susa became an Elamite capital under the Epartid dynasty. Indus-Susa relations (2600-1700 BCE)[edit] Numerous artifacts of Indus Valley Civilization origin have been found in Susa from this period, especially seals and etched carnelian beads, pointing to Indus-Mesopotamia relations during this period.[47][48] Impression of an Indus cylinder seal discovered in Susa, in strata dated to 2600-1700 BCE. Elongated buffalo with line of standard Indus script signs. Tell of the Susa acropolis. Louvre Museum, reference Sb 2425.[49][50] Indus script numbering convention per Asko Parpola.[51][52] Indus round seal with impression. Elongated buffalo with Harappan script imported to Susa in 2600-1700 BCE. Found in the tell of the Susa acropolis. Louvre Museum, reference Sb 5614[53] Indian carnelian beads with white design, etched in white with an alkali through a heat process, imported to Susa in 2600-1700 BCE. Found in the tell of the Susa acropolis. Louvre Museum, reference Sb 17751.[54][55][56] These beads are identical with beads found in the Indus Civilization site of Dholavira.[57] Indus bracelet, front and back, made of Pleuroploca trapezium or Turbinella pyrum imported to Susa in 2600-1700 BCE. Found in the tell of the Susa acropolis. Louvre Museum, reference Sb 14473.[58] This type of bracelet was manufactured in Mohenjo-daro, Lothal and Balakot.[59] The back is engraved with an oblong chevron design which is typical of shell bangles of the Indus Civilization.[60] Indus Valley Civilization carnelian beads excavated in Susa. Jewelry with components from the Indus, Central Asia and Northern-eastern Iran found in Susa dated to 2600-1700 BCE. Middle Elamite period (c. 1500–1100 BCE)[edit] Middle-Elamite basrelief of warrior gods, Susa, 1600-1100 BCE Around 1500 BCE, the Middle Elamite period began with the rise of the Anshanite dynasties. Their rule was characterized by an "Elamisation" of Susa, and the kings took the title "king of Anshan and Susa". While, previously, the Akkadian language was frequently used in inscriptions, the succeeding kings, such as the Igihalkid dynasty of c. 1400 BCE, tried to use Elamite. Thus, Elamite language and culture grew in importance in Susiana.[40] This was also the period when the Elamite pantheon was being imposed in Susiana. This policy reached its height with the construction of the political and religious complex at Chogha Zanbil, 30 km (19 mi) south-east of Susa. In ca. 1175 BCE, the Elamites under Shutruk-Nahhunte plundered the original stele bearing the Code of Hammurabi and took it to Susa. Archeologists found it in 1901. Nebuchadnezzar I of the Babylonian empire plundered Susa around fifty years later. An ornate design on this limestone ritual vat from the Middle Elamite period depicts creatures with the heads of goats and the tails of fish, Susa, 1500–1110 BCE. The Ziggurat at Chogha Zanbil was built by Elamite king Untash-Napirisha circa 1300 BCE. Susa, Middle-Elamite model of a sun ritual, circa 1150 BCE Neo-Elamite period (c. 1100 – 540 BCE)[edit] Neo-Assyrians[edit] Main article: Battle of Susa In 647 BCE, Neo-Assyrian king Ashurbanipal leveled the city during a war in which the people of Susa participated on the other side. A tablet unearthed in 1854 by Austen Henry Layard in Nineveh reveals Ashurbanipal as an "avenger", seeking retribution for the humiliations that the Elamites had inflicted on the Mesopotamians over the centuries: "Susa, the great holy city, abode of their gods, seat of their mysteries, I conquered. I entered its palaces, I opened their treasuries where silver and gold, goods and wealth were amassed. . . .I destroyed the ziggurat of Susa. I smashed its shining copper horns. I reduced the temples of Elam to naught; their gods and goddesses I scattered to the winds. The tombs of their ancient and recent kings I devastated, I exposed to the sun, and I carried away their bones toward the land of Ashur. I devastated the provinces of Elam and, on their lands, I sowed salt."[61] Assyrian rule of Susa began in 647 BCE and lasted till Median capture of Susa in 617 BCE. Susa after Achaemenid Persian conquest[edit] Statue of Darius the Great, National Museum of Iran Archers frieze from Darius' palace at Susa. Detail of the beginning of the frieze The 24 countries subject to the Achaemenid Empire at the time of Darius, on the Statue of Darius I. Susa underwent a major political and ethnocultural transition when it became part of the Persian Achaemenid empire between 540 and 539 BCE when it was captured by Cyrus the Great during his conquest of Elam (Susiana), of which Susa was the capital.[62] The Nabonidus Chronicle records that, prior to the battle(s), Nabonidus had ordered cult statues from outlying Babylonian cities to be brought into the capital, suggesting that the conflict over Susa had begun possibly in the winter of 540 BCE.[63] It is probable that Cyrus negotiated with the Babylonian generals to obtain a compromise on their part and therefore avoid an armed confrontation.[64] Nabonidus was staying in the city at the time and soon fled to the capital, Babylon, which he had not visited in years.[65] Cyrus' conquest of Susa and the rest of Babylonia commenced a fundamental shift, bringing Susa under Persian control for the first time. Under Cyrus' son Cambyses II, Susa became a center of political power as one of four capitals of the Achaemenid Persian empire, while reducing the significance of Pasargadae as the capital of Persis. Following Cambyses' brief rule, Darius the Great began a major building program in Susa and Persepolis,which included building a large palace. During this time he describes his new capital in the DSf inscription: "This palace which I built at Susa, from afar its ornamentation was brought. Downward the earth was dug, until I reached rock in the earth. When the excavation had been made, then rubble was packed down, some 40 cubits in depth, another part 20 cubits in depth. On that rubble the palace was constructed."[66] Susa continued as a winter capital and residence for Achaemenid kings succeeding Darius the Great, Xerxes I, and their successors.[67] The city forms the setting of The Persians (472 BCE), an Athenian tragedy by the ancient Greek playwright Aeschylus that is the oldest surviving play in the history of theatre. Events mentioned in the Old Testament book of Esther are said to have occurred in Susa during the Achaemenid period. Seleucid period[edit] The marriages of Stateira II to Alexander the Great of Macedon and her sister, Drypteis, to Hephaestion at Susa in 324 BCE, as depicted in a late-19th-century engraving. Susa lost much of its importance after the invasion of Alexander the Great of Macedon in 331 BCE. In 324 BCE he met Nearchus here, who explored the Persian Gulf[citation needed] as he returned from the Indus River by sea. In that same year Alexander celebrated in Susa with a mass wedding between the Persians and Macedonians. The city retained its importance under the Seleucids for approximately one century after Alexander, however Susa lost its position of imperial capital to Seleucia to become the regional capital of the satrapy of Susiana.[68] Nevertheless, Susa retained its economic importance to the empire with its vast assortment of merchants conducting trade in Susa,[69] using Charax Spasinou as its port. Seleucus I Nicator minted coins there in substantial quantities.[70] Susa is rich in Greek inscriptions,[citation needed] perhaps indicating a significant number of Greeks living in the city. Especially in the royal city large, well-equipped peristyle houses have been excavated. Parthian period[edit] Around 147 BCE Susa and the adjacent Elymais broke free from the Seleucid Empire. The city was at least temporarily ruled by the rulers of the Elymais with Kamnaskires II Nikephoros minting coins there. The city may again have briefly returned to Seleucid rule, but starting with Phraates II (about 138–127 BCE) to Gotarzes II (about 40–51 CE) almost all rulers of the Parthian Empire coined coins in the city, indicating that it was firmly in the hands of the Parthians at least during this period. The city however retained a considerable amount of independence and retained its Greek city-state organization well into the ensuing Parthian period.[71] From second half of the first century it was probably partly governed by rulers of Elymais again, but it became Parthian once again in 215.[72][73] Susa was a frequent place of refuge for Parthian and later, the Persian Sassanid kings, as the Romans sacked Ctesiphon five different times between 116 and 297 CE. Susa was briefly captured in 116 CE by the Roman emperor Trajan during the course of his Parthian campaign.[74] Never again would the Roman Empire advance so far to the east.[75] Sassanid period[edit] Suzan was conquered and destroyed in 224 CE by the Sassanid Ardashir I, but rebuilt immediately thereafter, and perhaps even temporarily a royal residence. According to a later tradition, Shapur I is said to have spent his twilight years in the city, although this tradition is uncertain and perhaps refers more to Shapur II. Under the Sassanids, following the founding of Gundeshapur Susa slowly lost its importance. Archaeologically, the Sassanid city is less dense compared to the Parthian period, but there were still significant buildings, with the settlement extending over 400 hectares. Susa was also still very significant economically and a trading center, especially in gold trading. Coins also continued to be minted in the city. The city had a Christian community in a separate district with a Nestorian bishop, whose last representative is attested to in 1265. Archaeologically a stucco panel with the image of a Christian saint has been found. During the reign of Shapur II after Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire in 312, and the identification of Christians as possible collaborators with the enemy Christians living in the Sasanian Empire were persecuted from 339 onwards.[76] Shapur II also imposed a double tax on the Christians during his war campaign against the Romans. Following a rebellion of Christians living in Susa, the king destroyed the city in 339 using 300 elephants.[77] He later had the city rebuilt and resettled with prisoners of war and weavers, which is believed to have been after his victory over the Romans in Amida in 359. The weaver produced silk brocade.[78] He renamed it Eran-Khwarrah-Shapur ("Iran's glory [built by] Shapur").[79] Islamic period[edit] During the Muslim conquest of Persia an Arab army invaded Khuzistan under the command of Abu Musa al-Ash'ari. After taking most of the smaller fortified towns the army captured Tustar in 642 before proceeding to besiege Susa. A place of military importance, it also held the tomb of the Jewish prophet Daniel. A group of Western and Iranian archaeologists at a conference held in Susa, Khuzestan, Iran in 1977. Henry Wright, William Sumner, Elizabeth Carter, Genevieve Dolfus, Greg Johnson, Saeid Ganjavi, Yousef Majidzadeh,Vanden Berghe, and others. Two stories are given in the Muslim sources of how the city fell. In the first, a Persian priest proclaimed from the walls that only a dajjal was fated to capture the city. A dajjal is an Islamic term for an Al-Masih ad-Dajjal, a false messiah, compatible to the Antichrist in Christianity. In everyday use, it also means "deceiver" or "imposter". Siyah, a Persian general who had defected to Muslim side, claimed that by converting to Islam he had turned his back on Zoroastrianism and was thus a dajjal. Abu Musa agreed to Siyah's plan. Soon after as the sun came up one morning, the sentries on the walls saw a man in a Persian officer's uniform covered in blood lying on the ground before the main gate. Thinking it he had been left out overnight after a conflict the previous day, they opened the gate and some came out to collect him. As they approached, Siyah jumped up and killed them. Before the other sentries had time to react, Siyah and a small group of Muslim soldiers hidden nearby charged through the open gate. They held the gate open long enough for Muslim reinforcements to arrive and passing through the gate to take the city.[80] In the other story, once again the Muslims were taunted from the city wall that only an Al-Masih ad-Dajjal could capture the city, and since there were none in the besieging army then they may as well give up and go home. One of the Muslim commanders was so angry and frustrated at this taunt that he went up to one of the city gates and kicked it. Instantly the chains snapped, the locks broke and it fell open.[81] Following their entry into the city, the Muslims killed all of the Persian nobles.[81] Once the city was taken, as Daniel (Arabic: دانيال, Danyal) was not mentioned in the Qur'an, nor is he regarded as a prophet in Judaism, the initial reaction of the Muslim was to destroy the cult by confiscating the treasure that had stored at the tomb since the time of the Achaemenids. They then broke open the silver coffin and carried off the mummified corpse, removing from the corpse a signet ring, which carried an image of a man between two lions. However, upon hearing what had happened, the caliph Umar ordered the ring to be returned and the body reburied under the riverbed.[81] In time, Daniel became a Muslim cult figure and they as well as Christians began making pilgrimages to the site, despite several other places claiming to be the site of Daniel's grave.[81] Following the capture of Susa, the Muslims moved on to besiege Gundeshapur.[80] Susa recovered following its capture and remained a regional center of more than 400 hectares in size.[82] A mosque was built, but also Nestorian bishops are still testifie. In addition, there was a Jewish community with its own synagogue. The city continued to be a manufacturing center of luxury fabrics during this period. Archaeologically, the Islamic period is characterized mainly by its rich ceramics. Beth Huzaye (East Syrian Ecclesiastical Province) had a significant Christian population during the first millennium, and was a diocese of the Church of the East between the 5th and 13th centuries, in the metropolitan province of Beth Huzaye (Elam). In 1218, the city was razed by invading Mongols and was never able to regain its previous importance. The city further degraded in the 15th century when the majority of its population moved to Dezful.[83] Today[edit] Today the ancient center of Susa is unoccupied, with the population living in the adjacent modern Iranian town of Shush to the west and north of the historic ruins. Shush is the administrative capital of Shush County in Iran's Khuzestan province. It had a population of 64,960 in 2005. World Heritage listing[edit] In July 2015 it was inscribed on the list of World Heritage Sites by UNESCO.[84] Gallery[edit] Letter in Greek of the Parthian king Artabanus II to the inhabitants of Susa in the 1st century CE (the city retained Greek institutions since the time of the Seleucid empire). Louvre Museum.[85] Glazed clay cup: Cup with rose petals, 8th–9th centuries Anthropoid sarcophagus Lion on a decorative panel from Darius I the Great's palace Marble head representing Seleucid King Antiochus III who was born near Susa around 242 BC.[86] Glazed clay vase: Vase with palmtrees, 8th–9th centuries Winged sphinx from the palace of Darius the Great at Susa. Tomb of Daniel Ninhursag with the spirit of the forests next to the seven-spiked cosmic tree of life. Relief from Susa. 19th-century engraving of Daniel's tomb in Susa, from Voyage en Perse Moderne, by Flandin and Coste. Archers frieze from Darius' palace at Susa. Detail of the beginning of the frieze, left. Louvre Museum Ribbed torc with lion heads, Achaemenid artwork, excavated by Jacques de Morgan, 1901, found in the Acropole Tomb Shush Castle, 2011 Children in Susa Herm pillar with Hermes, from the well of the "Dungeon" in Susa. See also[edit] Iran portal Abulites Achaemenid architecture Choqa Zanbil Cities of the Ancient Near East Elam History of Iran List of oldest continuously inhabited cities Monsieur Chouchani Muslim conquest of Khuzestan Short chronology timeline Notes[edit] ^ Thomas A. Carlson et al., “Susa — ܫܘܫ ” in The Syriac Gazetteer last modified June 30, 2014, http://syriaca.org/place/415. ^ John Curtis (2013). "Introduction". In Perrot, Jean (ed.). The Palace of Darius at Susa: The Great Royal Residence of Achaemenid Persia. I.B.Tauris. p. xvi. ISBN 9781848856219. ^ Kriwaczek, Paul. Babylon: Mesopotamia and the Birth of Civilization, St. Martin's Press, 2010, p. 5 ^ George Rawlinson, A Memoir of Major-General Sir Henry Creswicke Rawlinson, Nabu Press, 2010, ISBN 1-178-20631-9 ^ Internet Archive, William K. Loftus, Travels and Researches in Chaldaea and Susiana, Travels and Researches in Chaldaea and Susiana: With an Account of Excavations at Warka, the "Erech" of Nimrod, and Shush, "Shushan the Palace" of Esther, in 1849–52, Robert Carter & Brothers, 1857 ^ Jane Dieulafoy, Perzië, Chaldea en Susiane. (in Dutch) ^ Peters, John P. (1915). "Excavations in Persia". The Harvard Theological Review. 8 (1): 82–93. doi:10.1017/S0017816000008336. ISSN 0017-8160. JSTOR 1507314. ^ Peters, John P. (1915). "Excavations in Persia". The Harvard Theological Review. 8 (1): 82–93. doi:10.1017/S0017816000008336. ISSN 0017-8160. JSTOR 1507314. ^ Archive.org, Jacques de Morgan, Fouilles à Suse en 1897–1898 et 1898–1899, Mission archéologique en Iran, Mémoires I, 1990 ^ Archive.org, Jacques de Morgan, Fouilles à Suse en 1899–1902, Mission archéologique en Iran, Mémoires VII, 1905 ^ Robert H. Dyson, Early Work on the Acropolis at Susa. The Beginning of Prehistory in Iraq and Iran, Expedition, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 21–34, 1968 ^ Roland de Mecquenem: Archives de Suse (1912–1939) – in French ^ Harvard.edu Archived 11 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine Shelby White – Leon Levy Program funded project to publish early Susa archaeological results ^ Roman Ghirshman, Suse au tournant du III au II millenaire avant notre ere, Arts Asiatiques, vol. 17, pp. 3–44, 1968 ^ Hermann Gasche, Ville Royal de Suse: vol I : La poterie elamite du deuxieme millenaire a.C, Mission archéologique en Iran, Mémoires 47, 1973 ^ M. Steve and Hermann H. Gasche, L'Acropole de Suse: Nouvelles fouilles (rapport preliminaire), Memoires de la Delegation archeologique en Iran, vol. 46, Geuthner, 1971 ^ Jean Perrot, Les fouilles de Sus en 1975, Annual Symposium on Archaeological Research in Iran 4, pp. 224–231, 1975 ^ D. Canal, La haute terrase de l'Acropole de Suse, Paleorient, vol. 4, pp. 169–176, 1978 ^ Potts: Elam, pp. 46. ^ a b Potts: Elam. ^ [1] Hole, Frank. "A Monumental Failure: The Collapse of Susa". In Robin A. Carter and Graham Philip, eds., Beyond the Ubaid: Transformation and Integration of Late Prehistoric Societies of the Middle East, pp. 221–226, Studies in Oriental Civilization, no. 63, Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 2010 ^ a b Aruz, Joan (1992). The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. New York: Abrams. p. 26. ^ Aruz, Joan (1992). The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. New York: Abrams. p. 29. ^ "Site officiel du musée du Louvre". cartelfr.louvre.fr. ^ D. T. Potts, The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge World Archaeology. Cambridge University Press, 2015 ISBN 1107094690 p58 ^ Álvarez-Mon, Javier (2020). The Art of Elam CA. 4200–525 BC. Routledge. p. 101. ISBN 978-1-000-03485-1. ^ "Louvre Museum Sb 2125". ^ "Site officiel du musée du Louvre, Sb 2125". cartelfr.louvre.fr. ^ Cheng, Jack; Feldman, Marian (2007). Ancient Near Eastern Art in Context: Studies in Honor of Irene J. Winter by her Students. BRILL. p. 48. ISBN 978-90-474-2085-9. ^ D. T. Potts, The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge World Archaeology. Cambridge University Press, 2015 ISBN 1107094690 pp 58–61 ^ F. Desset, An Architectural Pattern in Late Fourth-Millennium BC Western Iran: A New Link Between Susa, Tal-I Malyan, and Godin Tepe, Iran, vol. 52, iss. 1, pp. 1–18, 2014 ^ Lawler, Andrew. 2003. Uruk: Spreading Fashion or Empire. Science. Volume 302, pp. 977–978 ^ Álvarez-Mon, Javier (2020). The Art of Elam CA. 4200–525 BC. Routledge. p. 93. ISBN 978-1-000-03485-1. ^ Álvarez-Mon, Javier (2020). The Art of Elam CA. 4200–525 BC. Routledge. p. 101. ISBN 978-1-000-03485-1. ^ Álvarez-Mon, Javier (2020). The Art of Elam CA. 4200–525 BC. Routledge. p. 97. ISBN 978-1-000-03485-1. ^ Álvarez-Mon, Javier (2020). The Art of Elam CA. 4200–525 BC. Routledge. p. 110. ISBN 978-1-000-03485-1. ^ D. T. Potts, A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East. Volume 94 of Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. John Wiley & Sons, 2012 ISBN 1405189886 p. 743 ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ Translation of the Akkadian portion into French, in Mémoires. Paris: P. Geuthner. 1899. pp. 4–7. ^ a b F. Vallat, The history of Elam, 1999 iranicaonline.org ^ Aruz, Joan; Fino, Elisabetta Valtz (2001). "Ancient near Eastern Art". The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin. 59 (1): 8. doi:10.2307/3269163. ISSN 0026-1521. JSTOR 3269163. ^ Mikołajczak, Tytus K. (2011). "Elam and Persia. Edited by Javier Álvarez-Mon and Mark B. Garrison. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2011. pp. xviii + 493. $89.50 (cloth)". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 72 (2): 284–289. doi:10.1086/671453. ISSN 0022-2968. ^ Potts: Elam, pp. 364. ^ "Awan King List". ^ SCHEIL, V. (1931). "Dynasties Élamites d'Awan et de Simaš". Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archéologie orientale. 28 (1): 1–46. ISSN 0373-6032. JSTOR 23283945. ^ Potts: Elam, pp. 122. ^ "Site officiel du musée du Louvre". cartelfr.louvre.fr. ^ Marshall, John (1996). Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization: Being an Official Account of Archaeological Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro Carried Out by the Government of India Between the Years 1922 and 1927. Asian Educational Services. p. 425. ISBN 9788120611795. ^ "Site officiel du musée du Louvre". cartelfr.louvre.fr. ^ Marshall, John (1996). Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization: Being an Official Account of Archaeological Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro Carried Out by the Government of India Between the Years 1922 and 1927. Asian Educational Services. p. 425. ISBN 9788120611795. ^ "Corpus by Asko Parpola". Mohenjodaro. ^ Also, for another numbering scheme: Mahadevan, Iravatham (1987). The Indus Script. Text, Concordance And Tables Iravathan Mahadevan. Archaeological Survey of India. pp. 32–36. ^ "Site officiel du musée du Louvre". cartelfr.louvre.fr. ^ "Site officiel du musée du Louvre". cartelfr.louvre.fr. ^ Guimet, Musée (2016). Les Cités oubliées de l'Indus: Archéologie du Pakistan (in French). FeniXX réédition numérique. pp. 354–355. ISBN 9782402052467. ^ Art of the first cities : the third millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus. p. 395. ^ Nandagopal, Prabhakar (13 August 2018). Decorated Carnelian Beads from the Indus Civilization Site of Dholavira (Great Rann of Kachchha, Gujarat). Archaeopress Publishing Ltd. ISBN 978-1-78491-917-7. ^ "Louvre Museum Official Website". cartelen.louvre.fr. ^ Guimet, Musée (2016). Les Cités oubliées de l'Indus: Archéologie du Pakistan (in French). FeniXX réédition numérique. p. 355. ISBN 9782402052467. ^ Art of the first cities : the third millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus. p. 398. ^ "Persians: Masters of Empire" ISBN 0-8094-9104-4 p. 7-8 ^ Tavernier, Jan. "Some Thoughts in Neo-Elamite Chronology" (PDF). p. 27. ^ Kuhrt, Amélie. "Babylonia from Cyrus to Xerxes", in The Cambridge Ancient History: Vol IV — Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean, pp. 112–138. Ed. John Boardman. Cambridge University Press, 1982. ISBN 0-521-22804-2 ^ Tolini, Gauthier, Quelques éléments concernant la prise de Babylone par Cyrus, Paris. "Il est probable que des négociations s’engagèrent alors entre Cyrus et les chefs de l’armée babylonienne pour obtenir une reddition sans recourir à l’affrontement armé." p. 10 (PDF) ^ The Harran Stelae H2 – A, and the Nabonidus Chronicle (Seventeenth year) show that Nabonidus had been in Babylon before 10 October 539, because he had already returned from Harran and had participated in the Akitu of Nissanu 1 [4 April], 539 BCE. ^ Lendering, 2010 ^ "Susa: Statue of Darius". Livius.org. 1 April 2009. Retrieved 8 February 2013. ^ Capdetrey, Laurent (2007). Le Pouvoir Séleucide. Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes. p. 252. ISBN 978-2-753505-24-7. ^ Boyce, Mary; Grenet, Frantz (1 January 1991), "On the Western Edge of the Iranian Plateau: Susa and Elymais", A History of Zoroastrianism, Zoroastrianism under Macedonian and Roman Rule, Brill, pp. 35–48, doi:10.1163/9789004293915_004, ISBN 9789004293915 ^ Marest-Caffey, Laure (2016). "Seleukos I's Victory Coinage of Susa Revisited: A Die Study and Commentary". American Journal of Numismatics. 28: 1–63. ^ Hill, John E. (2009). Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, First to Second Centuries CE. Charleston: BookSurge. ISBN 978-1-4392-2134-1. ^ Potts: Elam, pp. 354-409. ^ Le Rider, Georges (1965). Mémoires de la Délégation archéologique en Iran XXXVIII: Suse sous les Séleucides et les Parthes. Paris. pp. 349–430. ^ Rawlinson, George (2007). Parthia. New York: Cosimo. p. 310. ISBN 978-1-60206-136-1. ^ Robert J. Wenke, Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran, Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 101, no. 3, pp. 303–315, 1981 ^ Neusner, Jacob (1972). "Babylonian Jewry And Shapur Ii's Persecution of Christianity From 339 to 379 CE". Hebrew Union College Annual. Hebrew Union College Press. 43: 77–102. ^ Harper, Prudence; Aruz, Joan; Tallon, Frangoise (1993). The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 162. ^ Potts: Elam, pp. 429. ^ Daryaee, Touraj (2009). "SHAPUR II". Encyclopaedia Iranica. ^ a b Crawford, Peter (2013). The War of the Three Gods: Romans, Persians and the Rise of Islam. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Military. pp. 183–184. ISBN 978-1-84884-612-8. ^ a b c d Kennedy, Hugh (2007). The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 128–129. ISBN 978-0-297-84657-4. ^ Amiet, Pierre (1972). Mémoires de la Délégation archéologique en Iran: Glyptique susienne des origines à l'époque des Perses achéménides: cachets, sceaux-cylindres et empreintes antiques découverts à Suse de 1913 à 1967. Paris: P. Geuthner. ^ M. Streck, Clifford Edmund Bosworth (1997). Encyclopaedia of Islam, San-Sze. IX. Leiden: Brill. pp. 898–899. ISBN 9789004104228. ^ "Susa". UNESCO. 2015. Retrieved 15 April 2019. ^ Epigraphy of Later Parthia, «Voprosy Epigrafiki: Sbornik statei», 7, 2013, pp. 276-284 [2] ^ Jonsson, David J. (2005). The Clash of Ideologies. Xulon Press. p. 566. ISBN 978-1-59781-039-5. Antiochus III was born in 242 BC, the son of Seleucus II, near Susa, Iran. References[edit] Jean Perrot, Le Palais de Darius à Suse. Une résidence royale sur la route de Persépolis à Babylone, Paris, Paris-sorbonne.fr, 2010 Lendering, Jona (2010). "Susa, capital of Elam". The Iranian Chamber. Retrieved 17 April 2019. Vallat, François (13 December 2011). "The History of Elam". The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies (CAIS). Retrieved 17 April 2019. Potts, Daniel T. (1999). The archaeology of Elam: Formation and transformation of an ancient Iranian state. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-56496-0. World Archaeology Series. Further reading[edit] Bosworth, C. E. (1975). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3 (1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-20093-6. Daryaee, Touraj (2014). Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-0857716668. Jalalipour, Saeid (2014). The Arab Conquest of Persia: The Khūzistān Province before and after the Muslims Triumph (PDF). Sasanika. Westenholtz, J. G.; Guthartz, L. Taylor (1996). Royal Cities of the Biblical World. Jerusalem: Rubin Mass. ISBN 978-9657027011.</ref> Excavation reports[edit] Although numerous excavation reports have been published so far, many excavations are not or only partially published. Above all, the found architecture was often presented only in short preliminary reports and plans. Pierre Amiet: Glyptique susienne des origines à l'époque des Perses achéménides: cachets, sceaux-cylindres et empreintes antiques découverts à Suse de 1913 à 1967, Mémoires de la Délégation archéologique en Iran, Paris 1972. Roman Ghirshman: Cinq campagnes de fouilles a Suse (1946–1951). In: Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archéologie Orientale 46, 1952, pp 1–18. Florence Malbran-Labat: Les inscriptions royales de Suse: briques de l'époque paléo-élamite à l 'empire néo-élamite, Paris 1995. Laurianne Martinez-Sève: Les figurines de Suse. Réunion des Musées Nationaux, Paris 2002, ISBN 2-7118-4324-6. Jacques de Morgan, G. Jéquier, G. Lampre: Fouilles à Suse, 1897–1898 et 1898–1899. Paris 1900. Georges Le Rider : Suse sous les Séleucides et les Parthes: les trouvailles monétaires et l'histoire de la ville, Mémoires de la Délégation Archéologique en Iran, Paris 1965. Vincent Scheil: Inscriptions of Achéménides à Suse. Actes juridiques susiens, Mémoires de la Mission Archéologique de Perse, Vol. 21–24, Paris 1929–1933. Agnes Spycket: Les figurines de Suse, Paris 1992. Marie-Joseph Steve, Hermann Gasche: L'Acropole de Suse. Nouvelles fouilles (rapport préliminaire), Mémoires de la Mission Archéologique de Perse vol. 46, Leiden 1971. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Susa. ARAB II. Arab Conquest of Iran "Early Works on the Acropolis at Susa" Expedition Magazine 10.4 1968 Livius.org Pictures of Susa Aerial views of Susa at the Oriental Institute Digital Images of Cuneiform Tablets from Susa – CDLI Hamid-Reza Hosseini, Shush at the foot of Louvre (Shush dar dāman-e Louvre), in Persian, Jadid Online, 10 March 2009. Audio slideshow at Jadidonline.com (6 min 31 sec) "Susa" . The New Student's Reference Work . 1914. Susa I. Excavations Susa II. History During The Elamite Period Susa III. The Achaemenid Period Susa IV. The Hellenistic and Parthian Periods Susa V. The Sasanian Period v t e Iranian architecture Styles Parsian Achaemenid pre-Parsian Parthian Khorasani Sasanian Other Azeri Isfahani Razi Types Bazaars Caravanserais Khaneqah Mosques Tekyeh Elements Ab anbar Andaruni Biruni Burj Chahartaq Dalan e Vorudi Gonbad Hashti Howz Imamzadeh Iwan Kariz Kucheh Panjdari Persian Garden (hayāt) Qanat Sahn Shabestan Talar Windcatchers Yakhchal Traditional cities Amol Andijan Baku Bam Bukhara Ctesiphon Derbent Ganja Gur-e-Amir Hatra Herat Isfahan Kashan Kashmar Khiva Khorramabad Mashhad Merv Nakhchivan Nishapur Persepolis Qazvin Qom Samarkand Shahrisabz Shiraz Susa Tabriz Takht-e Soleymān Tehran Yazd Theory and analysis Islamic architecture Traditional Persian residential architecture Traditional water sources of Persian antiquity Lists Architects of Iran Args, castles, and ghal'ehs List of ab anbars of Qazvin List of mosques List of ziyarat-gahs v t e Khuzestan Province Capital Ahvaz Counties and cities Abadan County Abadan Arvandkenar Aghajari County Aghajari Ahvaz County Ahvaz Andika County Qaleh-ye Khvajeh Andimeshk County Andimeshk Hoseyniyeh Bagh-e Malek County Bagh-e Malek Qaleh Tall Seydun Bavi County Mollasani Sheyban Veys Behbahan County Behbahan Sardasht Dasht-e Azadegan County Susangerd Bostan Dezful County Dezful Dezab Mianrud Safiabad Saland Gotvand County Gotvand Jannat Makan Haftkel County Haftkel Hendijan County Hendijan Zohreh Hoveyzeh County Hoveyzeh Rafi Izeh County Izeh Dehdez Karun County Karun Khorramshahr County Khorramshahr Minushahr Moqavemat Lali County Lali Mahshahr County Bandar-e Mahshahr Bandar-e Emam Khomeyni Chamran Masjed Soleyman County Masjed Soleyman Omidiyeh County Omidiyeh Jayezan Ramhormoz County Ramhormoz Ramshir County Ramshir Shadegan County Shadegan Shush County Shush Alvan Horr Shushtar County Shushtar Sights Abadan's museum Gundishapur Acropole of Shush Apadana in Susa Arjan castle, Behbahan Asak ancient city, Hendijan Chagadom tappe fire temple Chogha Mish Proto-Elamite site Chogha Zanbil Dav o Dokhtar castle, Ramhormoz Dez Dam Eshkaft-e Salman Gargar bridge, Shushtar Haft Tepe Hoor-al-azim lagoon Imamzadeh Roudband, Dezful Imamzadeh Sabz-e-ghaba, Dezful Karkheh dam Khorramshahr mosque, Battle of Khorramshahr Kul-e Farah lake of Karkheh dam Lake of Karun Lali bridge Meyangaran lagoon Rangooni's mosque Salasel castle, Shushtar Shadegan lagoon Shevi waterfall, Dezful Shush-Daniel Shushtar Historical Hydraulic System Shushtar Watermills Susa Shush Castle Taryana Tobiron valley, Dezful Tomb of Daniel, Shush White bridge, Ahvaz Ya'qub-i Laith's tomb, Dezful populated places List of cities, towns and villages in Khuzestan Province v t e World Heritage Sites in Iran List of World Heritage Sites in Iran The Armenian Monastic Ensembles St. Thaddeus Monastery St. Stepanos Monastery Chapel of Dzordzor Chapel of Chupan Church of the Holy Mother of God Bam and its cultural landscape Behistun Chogha Zanbil Cultural landscape of Maymand Golestan Palace Gonbad-e Qabus Hyrcanian Forests Jameh Mosque of Isfahan Naqsh-e Jahan Square Pasargadae Persepolis The Persian gardens Pasargadae Chehel Sotoun Fin Eram Shazdeh Dolatabad Abbasabad Akbarieh Pahlevanpour Shahr-e Sukhteh Sheikh Safi's Tomb Dome of Soltaniyeh Shushtar Historical Hydraulic System Susa Bazaar of Tabriz Takht-e Soleymān The Persian Qanat Gonabad Baladeh Zarch Hassan Abad Moshir Goharriz Akbarabad Ghasemabad Moun Vazvan Mozdabad Ebrahimabad Dasht-e Loot Historic city of Yazd Sassanid Archaeological Landscape of Fars Region Qal'eh Dokhtar Ardashir Investiture Relief Victory Relief of Ardashir Ardashir Khurreh Palace of Ardashir City of Bishapur Shapur cave Sarvestan Palace v t e Rulers of the Ancient Near East Territories/ dates [1][2][3][4] Egypt Canaan Ebla Mari Akshak/ Akkad Kish Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period 4000–3200 BCE Naqada culture (4000–3100 BCE) Proto-Cannaanites Sumerian period (4000–2340 BCE) Susa I Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE) Naqada I Naqada II Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests") Legendary ante-deluvian rulers: In Eridu: Alulim, Alalngar, then in Bad-tibira: En-men-lu-ana, En-men-gal-ana, Dumuzid, the Shepherd, then in Larag: En-sipad-zid-ana, then in Zimbir: En-men-dur-ana, then in Shuruppag: Ubara-Tutu "then the flood swept over"[5] Susa II (Uruk influence or control) 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ DenAnedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100-2700 BCE) Great Flood 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) First kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman En-me-barage-si ("made the land of Elam submit")[6] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba Uruk II dynasty Enshakushanna Mug-si Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions (3 kings)[7] Shushuntarana Napilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Urur Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun) Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion of Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[7] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian Empire (Semitic) Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Second Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) (Vassals of UR III) Shakkanakku dynasty (Semitic) Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Neo-Sumerian Period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians) Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (Vassals of Ur III)[8] Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal 2100 BCE Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin Ibbi-Sin 2050 BCE 2000 BCE Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV circa 2000 BCE Amorite invasions Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) 2025-1763 BCE Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ Third Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 1894–1595 BCE Second Intermediate Period Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham (Biblical) Yamhad First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Phoenicia Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Middle Assyrian Empire Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt 626–539 BCE Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116-117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ "The Sumerian king list: translation". etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 8 May 2008. ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ a b Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4. Authority control GND: 4118912-7 NKC: ge351924 VIAF: 122821601 WorldCat Identities: viaf-122821601 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Susa&oldid=1000971929" Categories: Susa Achaemenid cities Archaeological sites in Iran Book of Esther Elam Elamite cities Former populated places in Khuzestan Province Hebrew Bible cities Parthian cities Populated places along the Silk Road Sasanian cities Seleucid colonies Shush County World Heritage Sites in Iran Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links CS1 French-language sources (fr) Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from January 2020 Articles containing Persian-language text Coordinates on Wikidata Articles containing Hebrew-language text Articles containing Syriac-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2017 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles with unsourced statements from May 2019 Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating citation to the NSRW Wikipedia articles incorporating citation to the NSRW with an wstitle parameter Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages Afrikaans አማርኛ العربية Asturianu تۆرکجه Башҡортса Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 17 January 2021, at 16:54 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4628	----	Richard Egan (actor) - Wikipedia Richard Egan (actor) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search American actor For other people with the same name, see Richard Egan. Richard Egan Egan in 1949 Born (1921-07-29)July 29, 1921 San Francisco, California, U.S. Died July 20, 1987(1987-07-20) (aged 65) Santa Monica, California, U.S. Resting place Holy Cross Cemetery Other names Richard Eagan Education St. Ignatius College Preparatory University of San Francisco Stanford University Occupation Actor Years active 1949–1987 Spouse(s) Patricia Hardy ​ (m. 1958)​ Children 5 Richard Egan (July 29, 1921 – July 20, 1987) was an American actor. After beginning his career in 1949, he subsequently won a Golden Globe Award for his performances in the films The Glory Brigade (1953) and The Kid from Left Field (1953). He went on to star in many films such as Underwater! (1955), Seven Cities of Gold (1955), The Revolt of Mamie Stover (1956), Love Me Tender (1956), A Summer Place (1959), Esther and the King (1960) and The 300 Spartans (1962). Contents 1 Early life and education 2 Acting career 2.1 Universal 2.2 20th Century Fox 2.3 Stardom 2.4 Television 2.5 Later career 3 Personal life 4 Partial filmography 5 References 6 External links Early life and education[edit] Born and raised in San Francisco, California, Egan graduated from St. Ignatius College Preparatory.[1] He won a public-speaking competition in 1938 that helped fire his interest in performing. He was supported by his brother who was a priest.[2][3] Egan was interested in drama and studied it while doing a BA at the University of San Francisco. He left in 1943 and served in the United States Army as a judo and knife fighting instructor during World War II. He served a year in the Philippines and was discharged with the rank of captain.[4][1] "The war had given me time to think", he later said, "and to decide what I really wanted to do. I think I had always been an actor in my mind, but now I was going to be one in public, too. Right out in front of everybody."[1] When Egan returned, he went back to school to earn a master's degree in theater history from Stanford University, with the help of the G.I. Bill.[1] From there, he went on to teach public speaking at Northwestern University.[1] While at Northwestern, he appeared in thirty campus stage productions and was eventually spotted by a Warner Bros talent scout, Solly Bioano, who encouraged him to try Hollywood.[4][1] Acting career[edit] Egan had a series of unsuccessful screen tests. He eventually got a bit role in the 1949 Hollywood film The Story of Molly X, at Universal. He had a small roles in The Good Humor Man (1950), at Columbia; The Damned Don't Cry (1950) (as Joan Crawford's husband) and Return of the Frontiersman (1950), at Warners; and The Killer That Stalked New York (1950), at Columbia. Universal[edit] Richard Egan playing tennis (1956) In June 1950 Egan signed a contract with Universal.[5] There he had supporting roles in Wyoming Mail (1950), Undercover Girl (1950),[6] Kansas Raiders (1950), Up Front (1951); Highway 301 (1950); Bright Victory (1951); and Up Front (1951). Egan later described these roles as saying things like "Charlie, go outside! The horses are ready."[3] He had a role in Hollywood Story (1951), directed by William Castle, and the swashbuckler The Golden Horde (1951), where he was fourth billed. Egan was also in Flame of Araby (1951) and The Battle at Apache Pass (1952).[7] Edward Small cast him in a support role in Cripple Creek (1952). Egan went to RKO for One Minute to Zero (1952)[8] and MGM for The Devil Makes Three (1952), shot in Germany.[3] He did "Let George Do It" on TV for Hollywood Opening Night (1952). Egan had support roles in RKO's Blackbeard the Pirate (1952) and Split Second (1953). Egan supported Victor Mature in The Glory Brigade (1953), a war movie at 20th Century Fox, then had a small part in The Kid from Left Field (1953). He did "Malaya Incident" and "Double Bet" for Ford Television Theatre(1953). Egan's career received a boost when a casting director, according to Egan, said "Take off your shirt!", and then cast him in a small role in Demetrius and the Gladiators (1954), as a gladiator who fights Victor Mature.[4] This led to Egan's first leading role, in Edward Small's Wicked Woman (1953). On TV he did "Go Away a Winner" for Schlitz Playhouse (1954), then had another lead in a low budget movie, Gog (1954), produced by Ivan Tors. Small used him as a leading man again in Khyber Patrol (1954). He was used by RKO to costar with Jane Russell in Underwater! (1955), a notorious flop. However it led to Hedda Hopper declaring Egan to be one of the most promising actors of 1954.[9] 20th Century Fox[edit] In July 1954, Darryl F. Zanuck of Fox offered Egan a seven-year contract at two films a year.[3] Egan was third billed in Fox's Untamed (1955), supporting Tyrone Power and Susan Hayward, taking a role that Victor Mature turned down.[10] He was second billed in Fox's Violent Saturday (1955), directed by Richard Fleischer, starring Mature. The film was a success. Fox announced him for Women in the Woods with Sheree North and Rita Moreno but it was not made.[11] Stardom[edit] Egan was top billed in Fox's Seven Cities of Gold (1955), an adventure film. He had the star part in The View from Pompey's Head (1955), which was well received.[citation needed] He starred in The Revolt of Mamie Stover (1956), opposite Jane Russell again (playing a part turned down by Marilyn Monroe). Egan went to RKO for a Western, Tension at Table Rock (1956).[12] He followed this with another Western at Fox, Love Me Tender (1956), where Egan was top billed. It was a success at the box office. However this was attributed to the third-billed actor who played Egan's character's brother, Elvis Presley, whose first film it was. The success of the film saw Egan voted as the 13th biggest star in the US according to an exhibitor poll.[13] Egan signed a contract with Universal where he made Slaughter on Tenth Avenue (1957), and Voice in the Mirror (1958). Back at Fox, Egan supported Robert Mitchum and Robert Wagner in The Hunters (1958), and Don Murray in These Thousand Hills (1959). Egan had another hit with A Summer Place (1959) at Warner Bros. However, again, attention focused on younger cast members, in this case Sandra Dee and Troy Donahue.[citation needed] In 1960, Egan appeared with Jane Wyman and Hayley Mills in Disney's Pollyanna. He co-starred with Joan Collins in Fox's Esther and the King (1960). Egan was Rod Serling's first choice to narrate The Twilight Zone, because of his distinctive voice. However, contractual issues got in the way, and Serling himself narrated instead, rather than select any actor other than his first choice.[citation needed] Egan played the lead role of Leonidas I in Fox's The 300 Spartans (1962). Television[edit] Egan starred in the NBC western dramatic series, Empire, which aired from September 25, 1962 to December 31, 1963. In the shortened second season, the program was renamed Redigo after Egan's character, ranch manager Jim Redigo. When the series ended Egan starred in a TV thriller Fanfare for a Death Scene (1964). He did "Massacre at Fort Phil Kearney" for Theatre of Stars (1966) and the TV movie Valley of Mystery (1967). In 1966, when asked about his lack of film roles, he said, "They want anti-heroes now, and it's just not for me. I'm just not right for that. It's much easier to be cynical than to make a positive statement, to set up a man only to knock him down, than to show convincingly a man who successfully sticks by his beliefs. We desperately need something to give strength and fortitude to the lost. I want to be a part of that. Part of the solution. And if I can't . . . well . . . I'm sure not interested in becoming part of the problem instead."[1] Egan had the lead in some low-budget films, Chubasco (1968) and The Destructors (1969) and a support part in The Big Cube (1969). Egan had the lead in Moonfire (1970) and co-starred with Barbara Stanwyck in The House That Would Not Die. He had the lead in the TV movie The Day of the Wolves (1971) and a support part in Left Hand of Gemini (1972) and Shootout in a One Dog Town (1974). Later career[edit] Egan began guest starring on TV series like The Streets of San Francisco, Matt Helm, The Quest, and Police Story. He had a lead in Throw Out the Anchor! (1974).[citation needed] In 1974, he returned to the stage and for the next 8 years toured extensively in stage productions starting with No Hard Feelings.[14] (1974 until 1976). In 1976 he appeared in Time Out For Ginger, 1976 to 1979 in Hanky Panky, 1979 to 1981 in Broken Up [15] and 1982 in I Ought To Be In Pictures.[16] Egan had the lead in a TV movie, Mission to Glory: A True Story (1977), and supported Robert Mitchum in The Amsterdam Kill (1977) and starred in the low-budget Western The Sweet Creek County War (1979).[17] Egan joined the political soap opera, Capitol, as a recurring character in 1982.[1][18] Personal life[edit] Egan met his wife, Patricia Hardy, in 1956.[19] The couple married in June 1958 and remained together for almost 30 years until his death.[19] They had five children, including son Rich Egan, the founder of Vagrant Records, daughter Maureen Egan, a writer and director, as well as Patricia, Kathleen, and Colleen.[19] Egan was respected within the acting community for having helped a number of young actors get their first break in the film industry. One of those young actors was Ryan O'Neal. He worked out at the same gym as Egan, who got him credited work in four episodes of Empire.[citation needed] Richard Egan died in Santa Monica, California, on July 20, 1987, of prostate cancer.[1] He is interred at Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City, California.[1][20] Partial filmography[edit] The Story of Molly X (1949) – Police Detective (uncredited) The Good Humor Man (1950) – Officer Daley The Damned Don't Cry! (1950) – Roy Whitehead Return of the Frontiersman (1950) – Cowhand (uncredited) The Killer That Stalked New York (1950) – Treasury Agent Owney (uncredited) Wyoming Mail (1950) – Beale Undercover Girl (1950) – Jess Faylen Kansas Raiders (1950) – First Lieutenant Highway 301 (1950) – Herbie Brooks Up Front (1951) – Capa Bright Victory (1951) – Sgt. John Masterson Hollywood Story (1951) – Police Lt. Bud Lennox The Golden Horde (1951) – Gill Flame of Araby (1951) – Captain Fezil The Battle at Apache Pass (1952) – Sgt. Reuben Bernard Cripple Creek (1952) – Strap Galland alias Gillis One Minute to Zero (1952) – Capt. Ralston The Devil Makes Three (1952) – Lt. Parker Blackbeard the Pirate (1952) – Briggs Split Second (1953) – Dr. Neal Garven The Glory Brigade (1953) – Sgt. Johnson The Kid from Left Field (1953) – Billy Lorant Wicked Woman (1953) – Matt Bannister Gog (1954) – Dr. David Sheppard Demetrius and the Gladiators (1954) – Dardanius Khyber Patrol (1954) – Capt. Kyle Cameron Underwater! (1955) – Johnny Gray Untamed (1955) – Kurt Hout Violent Saturday (1955) – Boyd Fairchild Seven Cities of Gold (1955) – Jose Mendoza The View from Pompey's Head (1955) – Anson 'Sonny' Page The Revolt of Mamie Stover (1956) – Jim Blair Tension at Table Rock (1956) – Wes Tancred Love Me Tender (1956) – Vance Reno Slaughter on Tenth Avenue (1957) – William "Bill" Keating Voice in the Mirror (1958) – Jim Burton The Hunters (1958) – Colonel Dutch Imil These Thousand Hills (1959) – Jehu A Summer Place (1959) – Ken Jorgenson Pollyanna (1960) – Dr. Edmond Chilton Esther and the King (1960) – King Ahasuerus The 300 Spartans (1962) – King Leonidas Chubasco (1967) – Sebastian The Destructors (1968) – Dan Street The Big Cube (1969) – Frederick Lansdale Downhill Racer (1969) – Extra in bar scene (uncredited) Moonfire (1970) – Sam Blue The House That Would Not Die (1970, TV movie) – Pat McDougal The Day of the Wolves (1971) – Pete Anderson Left Hand of Gemini (1972) Throw Out the Anchor! (1974) – Jonathon Mission to Glory: A True Story (1977) – Father Eusibio Francisco Kino The Amsterdam Kill (1977) – Ridgeway The Sweet Creek County War (1979) – Judd Firman References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h i j Thackery Jr., Ted (July 22, 1987). "Richard Egan, 65, Dies; Portrayed Rugged Heroes". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 12 Sep 2013. ^ Hopper, Hedda (Jan 16, 1955). "Make Room for Dick Egan--HE'S ON HIS WAY!: Husky Californian Has Acting Ability and a Virile Charm Which Spell Success in Hollywood". Chicago Daily Tribune. p. k27. ^ a b c d HOWARD THOMPSON (Mar 27, 1955). "END OF ECLIPSE FOR AN EAGER EGAN". New York Times. p. X5. ^ a b c Scott, John L. (Aug 2, 1953). "Actor Muscles Way Into Fatter Roles: Richard Egac Muscles Way Into Fatter Roles". Los Angeles Times. p. D1. ^ "STUDIO BRIEFS". Los Angeles Times. 7 June 1950. p. B6. ^ THOMAS F. BRADY (July 11, 1950). "COWAN TO PRODUCE A COMEDY FEATURE: 'The Customer Is Always Right' Will Be Filmed Here Using 3-Dimensional Process". New York Times. p. 25. ^ Schallert, Edwin (June 21, 1951). "Drama: Gaynor Star Build-up Proceeds; 'County Line' Adds Paula Raymond". Los Angeles Times. p. A9. ^ Strong, Edwin J. (June 8, 1952). "Drama-Arts: WAR ERUPTS IN COLORADO IN MOVIE BUT STILL GRIM". Los Angeles Times. p. E1. ^ Hopper, Hedda (Jan 2, 1955). "FILM STARS OF 1955!: Future Stars Are Rich in Talent! Hedda Hopper Names Eighteen Likely Candidates for 1955 Honors". Chicago Daily Tribune. p. k14. ^ "M-G-M TO MAKE 27 FILMS IN YEAR: 8 Movies Will Start Within 60 Days -- Three Broadway Plays on Studio Schedule". New York Times. August 4, 1954. p. 17. ^ THOMAS M. PRYOR (9 Feb 1955). "'WOMAN OF WOODS' ON FOX' SCHEDULE: Sheree North, Richard Egan, Rita Moreno Will Have Top Roles in Northwest Film". New York Times. p. 32. ^ "Drama: Richard Egan Wins Big Western Role". Los Angeles Times. Feb 23, 1956. p. A8. ^ Richard L. Coe. (Oct 30, 1957). "Dick to Stick By the Flicks". The Washington Post and Times Herald. p. D6. ^ Daniels, Mary (Apr 14, 1974). "Theater: Egan: The finish hasn't worn off". Chicago Tribune. p. e18. ^ Wilkinson (25 Jan 1980). "Classic Hero Supports Old-Fashioned Attitudes". Arizona Republic. ^ Anna Dooling (21 May 1982). "Name of the Game is Hustle For Visiting Veteran Actor". Albuquerque Journal. ^ "The Sweet Creek County War (1979)", IMDb, retrieved 2019-12-20 ^ "Capitol (TV Series 1982–1987)", IMDb, retrieved 2019-12-20 ^ a b c Barnes, Mike (2011-08-30). "Actress Patricia Hardy Dies at 80 – Star of films, TV shows in the 1950s was married to veteran actor Richard Egan". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 2011-09-02. ^ "Richard Egan". Find a Grave. May 20, 2010. Retrieved December 19, 2019. External links[edit] Richard Egan on IMDb Richard Egan at Find a Grave v t e Golden Globe Award for New Star of the Year – Actor Richard Widmark (1948) Gene Nelson / Richard Todd (1950) Kevin McCarthy (1952) Richard Burton (1953) Richard Egan / Steve Forrest / Hugh O'Brian (1954) Joe Adams / George Nader / Jeff Richards (1955) Ray Danton / Russ Tamblyn (1956) John Kerr / Paul Newman / Anthony Perkins (1957) James Garner / John Saxon / Patrick Wayne (1958) John Gavin / Bradford Dillman / Efrem Zimbalist Jr. (1959) George Hamilton / Barry Coe / Troy Donahue / James Shigeta (1960) Michael Callan / Mark Damon / Brett Halsey (1961) Warren Beatty / Richard Beymer / Bobby Darin (1962) Keir Dullea / Peter O'Toole / Omar Sharif / Terence Stamp (1963) Albert Finney / Stathis Giallelis / Robert Walker (1964) Harve Presnell / George Segal / Topol (1965) Robert Redford (1966) James Farentino (1967) Dustin Hoffman (1968) Leonard Whiting (1969) Jon Voight (1970) James Earl Jones (1971) Desi Arnaz Jr. (1972) Edward Albert (1973) Paul Le Mat (1974) Joseph Bottoms (1975) Brad Dourif (1976) Arnold Schwarzenegger (1977) Brad Davis (1979) Ricky Schroder (1980) Timothy Hutton (1981) Ben Kingsley (1983) Authority control BNE: XX1615030 BNF: cb139408303 (data) GND: 129968714 ISNI: 0000 0000 4048 7598 LCCN: no95008479 NKC: xx0157443 NTA: 073872016 SNAC: w64x8hsx SUDOC: 075891298 VIAF: 24791625 WorldCat Identities: lccn-no95008479 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Richard_Egan_(actor)&oldid=1001372963" Categories: 1921 births 1987 deaths 20th Century Fox contract players 20th-century American male actors United States Army personnel of World War II Burials at Holy Cross Cemetery, Culver City Deaths from cancer in California Deaths from prostate cancer Male actors from San Francisco Northwestern University faculty Stanford University alumni University of San Francisco alumni New Star of the Year (Actor) Golden Globe winners American expatriates in the Philippines Male Western (genre) film actors United States Army officers Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles with hCards All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2019 Articles with unsourced statements from January 2018 Articles with unsourced statements from December 2017 Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Català Deutsch Español فارسی Français Italiano עברית مصرى 日本語 Português Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 19 January 2021, at 11:41 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4641	----	Tithraustes - Wikipedia Tithraustes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the genus of moths, see Tithraustes (moth). Tithraustes (Median: Čiθrāvahišta) was the Persian satrap of Sardis for several years in the early 4th century BC. Due to scanty historical records, little is known of the man or his activities. He was sent out from Susa to replace Tissaphernes in 395 BC, and, after arresting his predecessor, executed him. To remove the threat to his satrapy posed by the Spartan army of Agesilaus, Tithraustes persuaded Agesilaus to march north into the satrapy of Pharnabazus, and provided him with money for the march. After this event, no further actions of his can be traced. Xenophon states that it was Tithraustes who dispatched Timocrates of Rhodes to Greece to stir up opposition to Sparta, but this seems unlikely for chronological reasons.[1] References[edit] Fine, John V. A. The Ancient Greeks: A Critical History (Harvard University Press, 1983) ISBN 0-674-03314-0 Xenophon (1890s) [original 4th century BC]. Hellenica . Translated by Henry Graham Dakyns – via Wikisource. Footnotes[edit] ^ Fine, The Ancient Greeks, 548. See also the contradictory account in the Hellenica Oxyrhynchia. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tithraustes&oldid=1001677733" Categories: Achaemenid satraps of Lydia 4th-century BC rulers 4th-century BC Iranian people Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Hrvatski Italiano עברית مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 20 January 2021, at 19:55 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4668	----	File:Xerxes all ethnicities.jpg - Wikipedia File:Xerxes all ethnicities.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 392 pixels. Other resolutions: 320 × 157 pixels | 640 × 313 pixels | 1,024 × 501 pixels | 1,280 × 627 pixels | 4,770 × 2,335 pixels. Original file ‎(4,770 × 2,335 pixels, file size: 2.84 MB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary DescriptionXerxes all ethnicities.jpg English: Xerxes all ethnicities Analysis List with corresponding drawings Date 17 October 2018 Source This file has been extracted from another file: Xerxes detail ethnicities.jpg Author A.Davey Licensing This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license. You are free: to share – to copy, distribute and transmit the work to remix – to adapt the work Under the following conditions: attribution – You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0 CC BY 2.0 Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 truetrue Captions EnglishAdd a one-line explanation of what this file represents Items portrayed in this file depicts copyright status copyrighted copyright license Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic inception 17 October 2018 File history Click on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 22:03, 18 December 2018 4,770 × 2,335 (2.84 MB) पाटलिपुत्र better 12:06, 18 October 2018 4,770 × 2,335 (11.5 MB) पाटलिपुत्र better 19:49, 17 October 2018 4,770 × 2,335 (11.41 MB) पाटलिपुत्र better 18:21, 17 October 2018 4,770 × 2,354 (11.38 MB) पाटलिपुत्र User created page with UploadWizard File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Achaemenid Empire Battle of Thermopylae Greco-Persian Wars Naqsh-e Rostam Second Persian invasion of Greece Xerxes I Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on az.wikipedia.org Yunan-İran müharibəsi (e.ə. 480-e.ə. 479) Usage on bg.wikipedia.org Накш-е Ростам Usage on ca.wikipedia.org Batalla de les Termòpiles (480 aC) Usage on eu.wikipedia.org Mediar Gerrak Usage on hy.wikipedia.org Պարսկական երկրորդ ներխուժում Հունաստան Usage on pl.wikipedia.org Kserkses I Usage on ta.wikipedia.org முதலாம் செர்கஸ் Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. If the file has been modified from its original state, some details may not fully reflect the modified file. Width 4,770 px Height 2,335 px Horizontal resolution 72 dpi Vertical resolution 72 dpi File change date and time 23:03, 18 December 2018 Software used PaintShop Pro 20,00 Image width 4,770 px Image height 2,335 px Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Xerxes_all_ethnicities.jpg" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces File Talk Variants Views Read View on Commons More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Upload file Special pages Printable version Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4677	----	Book sources - Wikipedia Book sources Jump to navigation Jump to search This page allows users to search for multiple sources for a book given the 10- or 13-digit ISBN number. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN number do not matter. Search for book sourcesISBN: Search Wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources For assistance, see Help:ISBN. This page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its International Standard Book Number (ISBN). If you arrived at this page by clicking an ISBN link in a Wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. To search for a different book, type that book's individual ISBN into this ISBN search box. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. 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Contents 1 Online text 2 Online databases 3 Subscription eBook databases 4 Libraries 4.1 Worldwide 4.2 Africa 4.2.1 Nigeria 4.2.2 South Africa 4.2.3 Zimbabwe 4.3 Central America and the Caribbean 4.3.1 Barbados 4.3.2 Guatemala 4.3.3 Jamaica 4.3.4 Mexico 4.3.5 Trinidad and Tobago 4.4 Canada 4.4.1 Public libraries 4.4.2 Universities and colleges 4.5 United States 4.5.1 Public libraries by state 4.5.2 Universities and colleges 4.6 South America 4.6.1 Argentina 4.6.2 Brazil 4.6.3 Colombia 4.6.4 Ecuador 4.7 Asia 4.7.1 Bangladesh 4.7.2 China, People's Republic 4.7.3 Hong Kong, S.A.R. of China 4.7.4 India 4.7.5 Indonesia 4.7.6 Iran 4.7.7 Israel 4.7.8 Japan 4.7.9 Korea 4.7.10 Malaysia 4.7.11 Philippines 4.7.11.1 Universities and colleges 4.7.11.2 Other libraries 4.7.12 Singapore 4.7.13 Taiwan, Republic of China 4.7.14 Thailand 4.8 Australasia and Oceania 4.8.1 Australia 4.8.1.1 Public libraries 4.8.1.2 Academic libraries 4.8.2 New Zealand 4.8.2.1 Public libraries 4.8.2.2 Academic libraries 4.9 Europe 4.9.1 Austria 4.9.2 Belgium 4.9.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.9.4 Croatia 4.9.5 Czech Republic 4.9.6 Denmark 4.9.7 Estonia 4.9.8 Finland 4.9.9 France 4.9.10 Germany 4.9.11 Greece 4.9.12 Hungary 4.9.13 Iceland 4.9.14 Ireland 4.9.15 Italy 4.9.16 Luxembourg 4.9.17 Montenegro 4.9.18 Netherlands 4.9.19 Norway 4.9.20 Poland 4.9.21 Portugal 4.9.22 Russia 4.9.23 Serbia 4.9.24 Slovenia 4.9.25 Spain 4.9.26 Sweden 4.9.27 Switzerland 4.9.28 Turkey 4.9.29 United Kingdom 4.9.29.1 Public libraries 4.9.29.2 Universities 5 Bookselling and swapping 5.1 Price comparison sites 5.2 Search many booksellers 5.3 Individual booksellers 5.4 Book-swapping websites 6 Non-English book sources 7 Bibliographical information 8 Find other editions 9 Find on Wikipedia 10 See also Online text Find this book on Google Books Find this book at the Open Library Find this book on Amazon.com (or .au, .br, .ca, .cn, .de, .es, .fr, .in, .it, .jp, .mx, .nl, .uk). Google Books and Amazon.com may be particularly helpful if you want to verify citations in Wikipedia articles, because they often enable you to search an online version of the book for specific words or phrases, or you can browse through the book (although for copyright reasons the entire book is usually not available). Online databases Find this book at Karlsruhe Virtual Catalog, a metasearch engine addressing many of the databases linked here and also some major commercial booksellers. Find this book at WorldCat free online catalog of the world's libraries Find this book at OttoBib.com citation metasearch Find this book at Copyright Clearance Center online rights database Find this book at Goodreads personal library catalog Find this book at LibraryThing personal library catalog Find this book at aNobii personal library catalog Find this book at iDreamBooks book review aggregator Find this book at the Grand Comics Database Find this book at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database Subscription eBook databases Find this book at Alexander Street Press by ProQuest Find this book at eBookCentral by ProQuest Find this book at EBSCO Industries eBooks Find this book at Gale by Cengage Find this book at HathiTrust Find this book at Overdrive by Rakuten Find this book at Project MUSE Find this book at ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Open Find this book at Safari Books Online by O'Reilly Media Find this book at ScienceDirect Libraries Select your region from the map above Worldwide Find this book at your local library through WorldCat Africa Nigeria Find this book on the Ahmadu Bello University Library catalogue Find this book on the University of Ilorin Library catalogue South Africa Find this book on the National Library of South Africa catalogue Find this book on the SEALS Consortium catalogue Find this book on the University of South Africa catalogue Find this book on the University of the Witwatersrand Library catalogue Zimbabwe Find this book on the University of Zimbabwe Library catalogue Central America and the Caribbean Barbados Find this book in the University of the West Indies (Cave Hill campus) Library catalogue Guatemala Find this book in the University of San Carlos of Guatemala Central Library catalogue Jamaica Find this book in the University of the West Indies (Mona campus) Library catalogue Mexico Find this book in the National Autonomous University of Mexico Library System Trinidad and Tobago Find this book in the University of 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en-wikipedia-org-4678	----	Marduk - Wikipedia Marduk From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the Babylonian god. For the Swedish black metal band, see Marduk (band). For other uses, see Marduk (disambiguation). This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Marduk" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (March 2018) This article may need to be rewritten to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards. You can help. The talk page may contain suggestions. (March 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Marduk (Bêl) God of Babylon God of creation, water, vegetation, judgment, and magic 9th century BC depiction of the Statue of Marduk, with his servant dragon Mušḫuššu. This was Marduk's main cult image in Babylon. Abode Babylon Planet Jupiter Symbol mušḫuššu Personal information Parents Enki and Damgalnuna Siblings Ninsar, Ninkurra, Uttu, Ninti Consort Sarpanit Children Nabu Greek equivalent Zeus,[1] Apollo[2] Roman equivalent Jupiter Marduk (Cuneiform: 𒀭𒀫𒌓 dAMAR.UTU; Sumerian: amar utu.k "calf of the sun; solar calf"; Greek Μαρδοχαῖος,[3] Mardochaios; Hebrew: מְרֹדַךְ‎, Modern: Mərōdaḵ, Tiberian: Merōḏaḵ) was a late-generation god from ancient Mesopotamia and patron deity of the city of Babylon. When Babylon became the political center of the Euphrates valley in the time of Hammurabi (18th century BC), Marduk slowly started to rise to the position of the head of the Babylonian pantheon, a position he fully acquired by the second half of the second millennium BC. In the city of Babylon, Marduk was worshipped in the temple Esagila. Marduk is associated with the divine weapon Imhullu. His symbolic animal and servant, whom Marduk once vanquished, is the dragon Mušḫuššu.[4] "Marduk" is the Babylonian form of his name.[5] The name Marduk was probably pronounced Marutuk.[6] The etymology of the name Marduk is conjectured as derived from amar-Utu ("immortal son of Utu" or "bull calf of the sun god Utu").[5] The origin of Marduk's name may reflect an earlier genealogy, or have had cultural ties to the ancient city of Sippar (whose god was Utu), dating to the third millennium BC.[7] By the Hammurabi period, Marduk had become astrologically associated with the planet Jupiter.[8] Contents 1 Background 1.1 Late Bronze Age 2 The fifty names of Marduk 3 Marduk Prophecy 4 Bel 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 7.1 Bibliography 8 External links Background[edit] The Babylonian king Hammurabi (standing), depicted as receiving his royal insignia from either Marduk or Shamash.[9] Relief on the upper part of the stele of Hammurabi's code of laws. Neo-Assyrian texts had become more critical of the Mesopotamian kings. The location of Marduk's statue, whether in Babylon or not, was related to the relationship between foreign kingship and traditional Babylonian religion. In the 12th century BC, during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar I, the statue of Marduk (previously captured by Elamites) was restored to Babylon. The Marduk Prophecy is a prophetic text discussing three occasions on which Babylon is abandoned by Marduk. Some of the details are obscured by a lacuna. The reference to Marduk's reign in Hatti is believed to correspond to the Hittite king Mursili I's capture of Marduk's statue (later returned to Babylon by Kassite king Agum II). Marduk blesses and lives in Assur, a reference to another conflict - this time between the Assyrian king and the Kassite king Kastilias IV, that ended with Marduk's statue being moved from Babylon to Assyria. According to the text Babylon falls into a chaos while Marduk is in Elam, referring to Babylon's defeat at the hands of the Elamite king. It says a new king will arise to renew the temple Ekursagila, most likely a reference to Nebuchadnezzar I's victory over Elam and restoration of Marduk's statue to Babylon.[10] Marduk's original character is obscure but he was later associated with water, vegetation, judgment, and magic.[11] His consort was the goddess Sarpanit.[12] He was also regarded as the son of Ea[13] (Sumerian Enki) and Damkina,[14] and the heir of Anu, but whatever special traits Marduk may have had were overshadowed by political developments in the Euphrates valley which led to people of the time imbuing him with traits belonging to gods who in an earlier period were recognized as the heads of the pantheon.[15] There are particularly two gods—Ea and Enlil—whose powers and attributes pass over to Marduk. In the case of Ea, the transfer proceeded peacefully and without effacing the older god. Marduk took over the identity of Asarluhi, the son of Ea and god of magic, and was thus integrated into the pantheon of Eridu, where both Ea and Asarluhi originated. Ea, Marduk's father, voluntarily recognized the superiority of the son and handed over to him the control of humanity. This association of Marduk and Ea, while indicating primarily the passing to Babylon of the religious and political supremacy once enjoyed by Eridu, may also reflect an early dependence of Babylon upon Eridu, not necessarily of a political character but, in view of the spread of culture in the Euphrates valley from the south to the north, the recognition of Eridu as the older centre on the part of the younger one. Part of a series on Ancient Mesopotamian religion Primordial beings Tiamat and Abzu Lahamu and Lahmu Kishar and Anshar Mummu Seven gods who decree Four primary Anu Enlil Enki Ninhursag Three sky gods Inanna/Ishtar Nanna/Sin Utu/Shamash Other major deities Adad Dumuzid Enkimdu Ereshkigal Kingu Geshtinanna Lahar Marduk Nergal Ninurta Minor deities Agasaya Anunnaki Asaruludu Ashnan Bel Enbilulu Isimud Lahar Mami/Nintu Mamitu Nabu Namtar Nanshe Nisaba Ningal Ninkasi Ninlil Ninshubur Ninsun Nuska Sarpanit Uttu Demigods and heroes Adapa Enkidu Enmerkar Gilgamesh Lugalbanda Shamhat Siduri Atra-Hasis Apkallu (seven sages) Spirits and monsters Udug Lamassu/Shedu Asag Edimmu Siris Anzû Humbaba Hanbi Kur Lamashtu Pazuzu Rabisu Tales Atra-Hasis Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta Enūma Eliš Epic of Gilgamesh Related topics Mesopotamian myths Sumerian religion Babylonian religion Religions of the ancient Near East v t e Late Bronze Age[edit] While the relationship between Ea and Marduk is marked by harmony and an amicable abdication on the part of the father in favour of his son, Marduk's absorption of the power and prerogatives of Enlil of Nippur came at the expense of the latter's prestige. Babylon became independent in the early 19th century BC, and was initially a small city state, overshadowed by older and more powerful Mesopotamian states such as Isin, Larsa and Assyria. The rise of "Marduk is closely connected with the political rise of Babylon from city-state to the capital of an empire."[16] Marduk became the supreme god after the reign of Nebuchadnezzar I in the twelfth century, replacing Enlil.[17] Although Nippur and the cult of Enlil enjoyed a period of renaissance during the more than four centuries of Kassite control in Babylonia (c. 1595 BC–1157 BC), the definite and permanent triumph of Marduk over Enlil became felt within Babylonia. During the Kassite reign, the Babylonians were attacked by the Assyrians, who captured the statue of Marduk.[18] Aššur (Ashur), the supreme god in the north, was considered to be the only rival of Marduk,[19] who reigned supreme in the South.[18] While the statue was brought back to Babylon, the Kassite dynasty with a weakened defense fell to the Elamites (1157 BC), and the statue of Marduk was taken to Susa, the Elam capital.[20] Assyria remained an enemy of the Babylonians until the reign of Marduk-nadin-ahhe (1082–1070 BC).[20] The deity of Marduk results in the Enûma Elish, which tells the story of Marduk's birth, heroic deeds and becoming the ruler of the gods. The purpose of this creation myth was to explain how Marduk came to power.[21] This can be viewed as a form of Mesopotamian apologetics. Also included in this document are the fifty names of Marduk that represent everything Marduk symbolizes.[22] In Enûma Elish, a civil war between the gods was growing to a climactic battle. The Anunnaki gods gathered together to find one god who could defeat the gods rising against them. Marduk, a very young god, answered the call and was promised the position of head god. To prepare for battle, he makes a bow, fletches arrows, grabs a mace, throws lightning before him, fills his body with flame, makes a net to encircle Tiamat within it, gathers the four winds so that no part of her could escape, creates seven nasty new winds such as the whirlwind and tornado, and raises up his mightiest weapon, the rain-flood. Then he sets out for battle, mounting his storm-chariot drawn by four horses with poison in their mouths. In his lips he holds a spell and in one hand he grasps a herb to counter poison. First, he challenges the leader of the Anunnaki gods, the dragon of the primordial sea Tiamat, to single combat and defeats her by trapping her with his net, blowing her up with his winds, and piercing her belly with an arrow. Then, he proceeds to defeat Kingu, who Tiamat put in charge of the army and wore the Tablets of Destiny on his breast, "wrested from him the Tablets of Destiny, wrongfully his", and assumed his new position. Under his reign, humans were created to bear the burdens of life so the gods could be at leisure; the lowly creatures built Marduk a temple called Ba-Bel ('Gate of God').[23] Marduk was depicted as a human, often with his symbol the snake-dragon which he had taken over from the god Tishpak. Another symbol that stood for Marduk was the spade. Babylonian texts talk of the creation of Eridu by the god Marduk as the first city, "the holy city, the dwelling of their [the other gods'] delight". However, Eridu was founded in the 5th millennium BC and Marduk's ascendancy only occurred in the second millennium BC, so this is clearly a revisionist back-dating to inflate the prestige of Marduk. The fifty names of Marduk[edit] Leonard W. King in The Seven Tablets of Creation (1902) included fragments of god lists which he considered essential for the reconstruction of the meaning of Marduk's name. Franz Bohl in his 1936 study of the fifty names also referred to King's list. Richard Litke (1958) noticed a similarity between Marduk's names in the An:Anum list and those of the Enuma elish, albeit in a different arrangement. The connection between the An:Anum list and the list in Enuma Elish were established by Walther Sommerfeld (1982), who used the correspondence to argue for a Kassite period composition date of the Enuma elish, although the direct derivation of the Enuma elish list from the An:Anum one was disputed in a review by Wilfred Lambert (1984).[24] Marduk Prophecy[edit] Late Assyrian seal. Worshipper between Nabu and Marduk, standing on his servant dragon Mušḫuššu. 8th century BCE. The Marduk Prophecy is a vaticinium ex eventu text[a] describing the travels of the Marduk cult statue[b] from Babylon. It relates his visits to the land of Ḫatti, corresponding to the statue's seizure during the sack of the city by Mursilis I in 1531 BC; to Assyria, when Tukulti-Ninurta I overthrew Kashtiliash IV, taking the image to Assur in 1225 BC; and to Elam, when Kudur-nahhunte ransacked the city and pilfered the statue around 1160 BC.[who?] Marduk addresses the prophecy to an assembly of the gods. The first two sojourns are described in glowing terms as good for both Babylon and the other places Marduk has graciously agreed to visit. The episode in Elam, however, is a disaster, where the gods have followed Marduk and abandoned Babylon to famine and pestilence. Marduk prophesies that he will return once more to Babylon to a messianic new king, who will bring salvation to the city and who will wreak a terrible revenge on the Elamites. This king is understood to be Nabu-kudurri-uṣur I, 1125–1103 BC.[25] Thereafter the text lists various sacrifices. A copy[26] was discovered in The House of Exorcist in the city of Assur and was written between 713–612 BC.[27] It is closely related thematically to another vaticinium ex eventu text called the Shulgi prophecy, which probably followed it in a sequence of tablets. Both compositions present a favorable view of Assyria. Bel[edit] Nineteenth-century engraving by Gustave Doré, showing the scene from "Bel and the Dragon" in which Daniel reveals the deception of the Babylonian priests of Bel, a syncretized form of Marduk[28][29] During the first millennium BC, the Babylonians worshipped a deity under the title "Bel", meaning "lord", who was a syncretization of Marduk, Enlil, and the dying god Dumuzid.[28][29] Bel held all the cultic titles of Enlil[29] and his status in the Babylonian religion was largely the same.[29] Eventually, Bel came to be seen as the god of order and destiny.[29] The cult of Bel is a major component of the Jewish story of "Bel and the Dragon" from the apocryphal additions to Daniel.[30] In the account, the Babylonians offer "twelve bushels of fine flour, twenty sheep, and fifty gallons of wine" every day to an idol of Bel and the food miraculously disappears overnight.[31] The Persian king Cyrus the Great tells the Jewish wise man Daniel that the idol is clearly alive, because it eats the food that is offered to it,[31] but Daniel objects that it "is only clay on the inside, and bronze on the outside, and has never tasted a thing."[31] Daniel proves this by secretly covering the floor of the temple with ash.[31] Daniel and Cyrus leave the temple and, when they return, Daniel shows the king the human footprints that have been left on the floor, proving that the food is really being eaten by the seventy priests of Bel.[32] Bel is also mentioned in the writings of several Greek historians.[29] See also[edit] Assyrian religion Baal Babylonian religion Berossus Etemenanki Nebuchadnezzar II Sacred bull Zakmuk Notes[edit] ^ "Prophecy written after the events ^ "Idol" is a dysphemism References[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Marduk". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ^ Fontenrose, pp. 150, 158; West 1966, pp. 23–24; West 1997, pp. 282, 302. ^ MArtkheel ^ identified with Marduk by Heinrich Zimmeren (1862-1931), Stade's Zeitschrift 11, p. 161. ^ Wiggermann, F. A. M. (1992). Mesopotamian Protective Spirits: The Ritual Texts. BRILL. p. 157. ISBN 978-90-72371-52-2. ^ a b Helmer Ringgren, (1974) Religions of The Ancient Near East, Translated by John Sturdy, The Westminster Press, p. 66. ^ Frymer-Kensky, Tikva (2005). Jones, Lindsay (ed.). Marduk. Encyclopedia of religion. 8 (2 ed.). New York. pp. 5702–5703. ISBN 0-02-865741-1. ^ The Encyclopedia of Religion - Macmillan Library Reference USA - Vol. 9 - Page 201 ^ Jastrow, Jr., Morris (1911). Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria, G.P. Putnam's Sons: New York and London. pp. 217-219. ^ Roux, Georges (27 August 1992), "The Time of Confusion", Ancient Iraq, Penguin Books, p. 266, ISBN 9780141938257 ^ Finn, Jennifer (2017). Much Ado about Marduk: Questioning Discourses of Royalty in First Millennium Mesopotamian Literature. de Gruyter. p. 38. ISBN 9781501504969. Retrieved 24 August 2019. ^ [John L. McKenzie, Dictionary of the Bible, Simon & Schuster, 1965 p 541.] ^ Helmer Ringgren, (1974) Religions of The Ancient Near East, Translated by John Sturdy, The Westminster Press, p. 67. ^ Arendzen, John. "Cosmogony". The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1908. Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 26 March 2011. ^ C. Scott Littleton (2005). Gods, Goddesses and Mythology, Volume 6. Marshall Cavendish. p. 829. ^ Morris Jastrow (1911). Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria. G. P. Putnam’s Sons. p. 38. ^ "Marduk". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2019-12-03. ^ Lambert, W. G. (1984). "Studies in Marduk". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 47 (1): 1–9. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00022102. ISSN 0041-977X. JSTOR 618314. ^ a b Krebsbach, Jared (2019). "Why Did Babylon Collapse in the Late Bronze Age". Daily History. Retrieved December 2, 2019. ^ Smith, Sydney (1922). "The Relation of Marduk, Ashur, and Osiris". The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 8 (1/2) (1/2): 41–44. doi:10.1177/030751332200800105. JSTOR 3853622. S2CID 192369381. ^ a b Brinkman, J. A. (1972). "Foreign Relations of Babylonia from 1600 to 625 B. C.: The Documentary Evidence". American Journal of Archaeology. 76 (3): 271–281. doi:10.2307/503920. ISSN 0002-9114. JSTOR 503920. ^ Tamtik, Svetlana (2007). "Enuma Elish: The Origins of Its Creation". Studia Antiqua 5. no. 1 – via BYU Scholars Archive. ^ O'Brien, Joan V. (1982). In the beginning : creation myths from ancient Mesopotamia, Israel, and Greece. Major, Wilfred. Chico, CA: Scholars Press. ISBN 0-89130-559-9. OCLC 8034547. ^ Smith, Homer W. (1952). Man and His Gods. New York: Grosset & Dunlap. p. 74. ^ Andrea Seri, The Fifty Names of Marduk in Enuma elis, Journal of the American Oriental Society 126.4 (2006) ^ Matthew Neujahr (2006). "Royal Ideology and Utopian Futures in the Akkadian Ex Eventu Prophecies". In Ehud Ben Zvi (ed.). Utopia and Dystopia in Prophetic Literature. Helsinki: The Finnish Exegetical Society, University of Helsinki. pp. 41–54. ^ Tablet K. 2158+ ^ "The Marduk Prophecy". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2019-12-03. ^ a b Fontenrose 1980, p. 440. ^ a b c d e f Doniger 1990, p. 120. ^ Wills 2002, p. 53. ^ a b c d Wills 2002, p. 58. ^ Wills 2002, p. 59. Bibliography[edit] Doniger, Wendy (1990), Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions, Springfield, Massachusetts: Merriam-Webster, Incorporated, ISBN 0-87779-044-2 Fontenrose, Joseph Eddy (1980) [1959], Python: A Study of Delphic Myth and Its Origins, Berkeley, California, Los Angeles, California, and London, England: The University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-04106-2 Wills, Lawrence Mitchell (2002), Ancient Jewish Novels: An Anthology, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-515142-9 External links[edit] Ancient Mesopotamian Gods and Goddesses: Marduk (god) Enuma Elish - The Babylonian Creation Story Authority control BNF: cb119611536 (data) GND: 118730940 LCCN: sh85081029 SUDOC: 078611792 VIAF: 10640869 WorldCat Identities: viaf-10640869 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marduk&oldid=995130092" Categories: Baal Deities in the Hebrew Bible Dragonslayers Characters in the Enûma Eliš Jovian deities Justice gods Magic gods Mesopotamian gods Nature gods Tutelary deities Water gods Creator gods Hidden categories: CS1: long volume value Articles needing additional references from September 2015 All articles needing additional references Wikipedia articles in need of updating from March 2018 All Wikipedia articles in need of updating Wikipedia articles needing rewrite from March 2018 All articles needing rewrite Articles with multiple maintenance issues Articles having same image on Wikidata and Wikipedia Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from May 2017 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية ܐܪܡܝܐ Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Български Català Чӑвашла Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Kurdî Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 December 2020, at 11:34 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4690	----	Ptolemy II Philadelphus - Wikipedia Ptolemy II Philadelphus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the Egyptian ruler. For the son of Cleopatra VII and Mark Antony, see Ptolemy Philadelphus (son of Cleopatra). For the medieval Italian count, see Ptolemy II of Tusculum. Ptolemy II Philadelphus Koinē Greek: Πτολεμαῖος Φιλάδελφος; Ancient Egyptian: Userkanaenre Meryamun[1] Bust of Ptolemy II, National Archaeological Museum, Naples Pharaoh of the Ptolemaic Kingdom Reign 28 March 284 – 28 January 246 BC (Ptolemaic dynasty) Predecessor Ptolemy I Soter Successor Ptolemy III Euergetes Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) wsr-kꜢ-rꜤ mrj-jmn Userkare Meryamun The strong one of the ka of Ra, beloved of Amun Nomen ptwꜢlwmys Petualumys Ptolemaios Horus name ḥwnw-ḳni Khunuqeni The brave youth Nebty name wr-pḥtj Urpekhti Great of strength Golden Horus šḫꜤj-n-sw it.f Shekhaiensu itef Whose father enthroned him Consort Arsinoe I Arsinoe II Children With Arsinoe I: Ptolemy III Euergetes Lysimachus Berenice Phernopherus With Bilistiche: Ptolemy Andromachou Father Ptolemy I Soter Mother Berenice I Born 309/8 BC Kos Died 28 January 246 BC (aged 62–63) Ptolemy II Philadelphus (Greek: Πτολεμαῖος Φιλάδελφος, Ptolemaios Philadelphos "Ptolemy, friend of his siblings"; 308/9 – 28 January 246 BC) was the pharaoh of Ptolemaic Egypt from 283 to 246 BC. He was the son of Ptolemy I Soter, the Macedonian Greek general of Alexander the Great who founded the Ptolemaic Kingdom after the death of Alexander, and queen Berenice I, originally from Macedon in northern Greece. During Ptolemy II's reign, the material and literary splendour of the Alexandrian court was at its height. He promoted the Museum and Library of Alexandria. In addition to Egypt, Ptolemy's empire encompassed much of the Aegean and Levant. He pursued an aggressive and expansionist foreign policy with mixed success. From 275-271 BC, he led the Ptolemaic Kingdom against the rival Seleucid Empire in the First Syrian War and extended Ptolemaic power into Cilicia and Caria, but lost control of Cyrenaica after the defection of his half-brother Magas. In the Chremonidean War (c. 267-261 BC), Ptolemy confronted Antigonid Macedonia for control of the Aegean and suffered serious setbacks. This was followed by a Second Syrian War (260-253 BC) against the Seleucid empire, in which many of the gains from the first war were lost. Contents 1 Early life 2 Reign 2.1 Arsinoe I and Arsinoe II 2.2 Conflict with Seleucids and Cyrene (281-275 BC) 2.3 Invasion of Nubia (c. 275 BC) 2.4 First Syrian war (274-271 BC) 2.5 Colonisation of the Red Sea 2.6 Chremonidean war (267-261 BC) 2.7 Second Syrian war (260-253 BC) 2.8 Later reign and death (252-246 BC) 3 Regime 3.1 Ruler cult 3.2 Pharaonic ideology and Egyptian religion 3.3 Administration 3.4 Scholarship and culture 3.5 Relations with the western Mediterranean 3.6 Relations with South Asia 4 Marriages and issue 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Early life[edit] Coins of Ptolemy II's parents Ptolemy I and Berenice I (left), and Ptolemy II and his sister-wife Arsinoe II (right) Ptolemy II was the son of Ptolemy I Soter and his third wife Berenice I. He was born on the island of Kos in 309/308 BC, during his father's invasion of the Aegean in the Fourth Diadoch War. He had two full sisters, Arsinoe II and Philotera.[2][3] Ptolemy was educated by a number of the most distinguished intellectuals of the age, including Philitas of Cos and Strato of Lampsacus.[4][5] Ptolemy II had numerous half-siblings.[6] Two of his father's sons by his previous marriage to Eurydice, Ptolemy Keraunos and Meleager, became kings of Macedonia.[7] The children of his mother Berenice's first marriage to Philip included Magas of Cyrene and Antigone, the wife of Pyrrhus of Epirus.[3] At Ptolemy II's birth, his older half-brother Ptolemy Keraunos was the heir presumptive. As Ptolemy II grew older a struggle for the succession developed between them, which culminated in Ptolemy Keraunos' departure from Egypt around 287 BC. On 28 March 284 BC, Ptolemy I had Ptolemy II declared king, formally elevating him to the status of co-regent.[8][9] In contemporary documents, Ptolemy is usually referred to as 'King Ptolemy son of Ptolemy' to distinguish him from his father. The co-regency between Ptolemy II and his father continued until the latter's death in April–June 282 BC. One ancient account claims that Ptolemy II murdered his father, but other sources say that he died of old age, which is more likely given that he was in his mid-eighties.[10][9][notes 1] Reign[edit] Ptolemy II and Arsinoe II depicted on the Gonzaga Cameo in the Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg. Arsinoe I and Arsinoe II[edit] The fall-out from the succession conflict between Ptolemy II and Ptolemy Keraunos continued even after Ptolemy II's accession. The conflict was probably the reason why Ptolemy executed two of his brothers, probably full brothers of Keraunos, in 281 BC.[11][12][13] Keraunos himself had gone to the court of Lysimachus, who ruled Thrace and western Asia Minor following his expulsion from Egypt. Lysimachus’ court was divided on the question of supporting Keraunos. On the one hand, Lysimachus himself had been married to Ptolemy II's full sister, Arsinoe II, since 300 BC. On the other hand, Lysimachus' heir, Agathocles, was married to Keraunos' full sister Lysandra. Lysimachus chose to support Ptolemy II and sealed that decision at some point between 284 and 281 BC by marrying his daughter Arsinoe I to Ptolemy II.[14] Continued conflict over the issue within his kingdom led to the execution of Agathocles and the collapse of Lysimachus' kingdom in 281 BC. Around 279 BC, Arsinoe II returned to Egypt, where she clashed with her sister-in-law Arsinoe I. Some time after 275 BC, Arsinoe I was charged with conspiracy and exiled to Coptos. Probably in 273/2 BC, Ptolemy married his older sister, Arsinoe II. As a result, both were given the epithet "Philadelphoi" (Koinē Greek: Φιλάδελφοι "Sibling-lovers"). While sibling-marriage conformed to the traditional practice of the Egyptian pharaohs, it was shocking to the Greeks who considered it incestuous. A poet, Sotades, who mocked the marriage was exiled and assassinated.[15] The marriage may not have been consummated, since it produced no children.[16] Another poet Theocritus defended the marriage by comparing it to the marriage of the gods Zeus and his older sister Hera.[17] The marriage provided a model which was followed by most subsequent Ptolemaic monarchs.[13] The three children of Arsinoe I, who included the future Ptolemy III, seem to have been removed from the succession after their mother's fall.[18] Ptolemy II seems to have adopted Arsinoe II's son by Lysimachus, also named Ptolemy, as his heir, eventually promoting him to co-regent in 267 BC, the year after Arsinoe II's death. He retained that position until his rebellion in 259 BC.[19][notes 2] Around the time of the rebellion, Ptolemy II legitimised the children of Arsinoe I by having them posthumously adopted by Arsinoe II.[18] Conflict with Seleucids and Cyrene (281-275 BC)[edit] Coin of Antiochus I Ptolemy I had originally supported the establishment of his friend Seleucus I as ruler of Mesopotamia, but relations had cooled after the Battle of Ipsos in 301 BC, when both kings claimed Syria. At that time, Ptolemy I had occupied the southern portion of the region, Coele Syria, up to the Eleutherus river, while Seleucus established controlled over the territory north of that point. As long as the two kings lived, this dispute did not lead to war, but with the death of Ptolemy I in 282 and of Seleucus I in 281 BC that changed. The son of Seleucus, Antiochus I, spent several years fighting to re-establish control over his father's empire. Ptolemy II took advantage of this to expand his realm at Seleucid expense. The acquisitions of the Ptolemaic kingdom at this time can be traced in epigraphic sources and seem to include Samos, Miletus, Caria, Lycia, Pamphylia, and perhaps Cilicia. Antiochus I acquiesced to these losses in 279 BC, but began to build up his forces for a rematch.[20] Antiochus did this by pursuing ties with Ptolemy II's maternal half-brother, Magas who had been governor of Cyrenaica since around 300 BC had declared himself king of Cyrene sometime after Ptolemy I's death. Around 275 BC Antiochus entered into an alliance with Magas by marrying his daughter Apama to him.[21] Shortly thereafter, Magas invaded Egypt, marching on Alexandria, but he was forced to turn back when the Libyan nomads launched an attack on Cyrene. At this same moment, Ptolemy's own forces were hamstrung. He had hired 4,000 Gallic mercenaries, but soon after their arrival the Gauls mutinied and so Ptolemy marooned them on a deserted island in the Nile where “they perished at one another’s hands or by famine.”[22] This victory was celebrated on a grand scale. Several of Ptolemy's contemporary kings had fought serious wars against Gallic invasions in Greece and Asia Minor, and Ptolemy presented his own victory as equivalent to theirs.[23][24][25] Invasion of Nubia (c. 275 BC)[edit] Ptolemy clashed with the kingdom of Nubia, located to the south of Egypt, over the territory known as the Triakontaschoinos ('thirty-mile land'). This was the stretch of the Nile river between the First Cataract at Syene and the Second Cataract at Wadi Halfa (the whole area is now submerged under Lake Nasser). The region may have been used by the Nubians as a base for raids on southern Egypt.[26] Around 275 BC, Ptolemaic forces invaded Nubia and annexed the northern twelve miles of this territory, subsequently known as the Dodekaschoinos ('twelve-mile land').[27] The conquest was publicly celebrated in the panegyric court poetry of Theocritus and by the erection of a long list of Nubian districts at the Temple of Isis at Philae, near Syene.[28][29] The conquered territory included the rich gold mines at Wadi Allaqi, where Ptolemy founded a city called Berenice Panchrysus and instituted a large-scale mining programme.[30] The region's gold production was a key contributor to the prosperity and power of the Ptolemaic empire in the third century BC.[29] First Syrian war (274-271 BC)[edit] Main article: First Syrian war Probably in response to the alliance with Magas, Ptolemy declared war on Antiochus I in 274 BC by invading Seleucid Syria. After some initial success, Ptolemy's forces were defeated in battle by Antiochus and forced to retreat back to Egypt. Invasion was imminent and Ptolemy and Arsinoe spent the winter of 274/3 BC reinforcing the defences in the eastern Nile Delta. However, the expected Seleucid invasion never took place. The Seleucid forces were afflicted by economic problems and an outbreak of plague. In 271 BC, Antiochus abandoned the war and agreed to peace, with a return to the status quo ante bellum. This was celebrated in Egypt as a great victory, both in Greek poetry, such as Theocritus' Idyll 17 and by the Egyptian priesthood in the Pithom stele.[31] Colonisation of the Red Sea[edit] Arsinoe Philotera Myos Hormos Berenice Troglodytica Berenice Key Ptolemaic bases in the Red Sea Ptolemy revived earlier Egyptian programmes to access the Red Sea. A canal from the Nile near Bubastis to the Gulf of Suez - via Pithom, Lake Timsah and the Bitter Lakes - had been dug by Darius I in the sixth century BC. However, by Ptolemy's time it had silted up. He had it cleared and restored to operation in 270/269 BC - an act which is commemorated in the Pithom Stele. The city of Arsinoe was established at the mouth of the canal on the Gulf of Suez. From there, two exploratory missions were sent down the east and west coasts of the Red Sea all the way down to the Bab-el-Mandeb. The leaders of these missions established a chain of 270 harbour bases along the coasts, some of which grew to be important commercial centres.[32] Along the Egyptian coast, Philotera, Myos Hormos, and Berenice Troglodytica would become important termini of caravan routes running through the Egyptian desert and key ports for the Indian Ocean trade which began to develop over the next three centuries. Even further south was Ptolemais Theron (possibly located near the modern Port Sudan), which was used as a base for capturing elephants. The adults were killed for their ivory, the children were captured in order to be trained as war elephants.[33][34] On the east coast of the sea, the key settlements were Berenice (modern Aqaba/Eilat)[35] and Ampelone (near modern Jeddah). These settlements allowed the Ptolemies access to the western end of the caravan routes of the incense trade, run by the Nabataeans, who became close allies of the Ptolemaic empire.[32] Chremonidean war (267-261 BC)[edit] Coin of Antigonus II Gonatas Main article: Chremonidean war Throughout the early period of Ptolemy II's reign, Egypt was the preeminent naval power in the eastern Mediterranean. The Ptolemaic sphere of power extended over the Cyclades to Samothrace in the northern Aegean. Ptolemaic naval forces even entered the Black Sea, waging a campaign in support of the free city of Byzantion.[36] Ptolemy was able to pursue this interventionist policy without any challenge because a long-running civil war in Macedon had left a power vacuum in the northern Aegean. This vacuum was threatened after Antigonus II Gonatas firmly established himself as king of Macedon in 272 BC. As Antigonus expanded his power through mainland Greece, Ptolemy II and Arsinoe II positioned themselves as defenders of 'Greek freedom' from Macedonian aggression. Ptolemy forged alliances with the two most powerful Greek cities, Athens and Sparta.[37] The Athenian politician Chremonides forged a further alliance with Sparta in 269 BC.[38] In late 268 BC, Chremonides declared war on Antigonus II. The Ptolemaic admiral Patroclus sailed into the Aegean in 267 BC and established a base on the island of Keos. From there, he sailed to Attica in 266 BC. The plan seems to have been for him to rendezvous with the Spartan army and then use their combined forces to isolate and expel the Antigonid garrisons at Sounion and Piraeus which held the Athenians in check. However, the Spartan army was unable to break through to Attica and the plan failed.[39][40] In 265/4 BC, Areus once again tried to cross the Isthmus of Corinth and aid the beleaguered Athenians, but Antigonus II concentrated his forces against him and defeated the Spartans, with Areus himself among the dead.[41] After a prolonged siege, the Athenians were forced to surrender to Antigonus in early 261 BC. Chremonides and his brother Glaucon, who were responsible for the Athenian participation in the war, fled to Alexandria, where Ptolemy welcomed them into his court.[42] Keos Methana Itanos Thera Battle of Kos Key Ptolemaic strongholds in the Aegean Sea after the Chremonidean War Despite the presence of Patroclus and his fleet, it appears that Ptolemy II hesitated to fully commit himself to the conflict in mainland Greece. The reasons for this reluctance are unclear, but it appears that, especially in the last years of the war, Ptolemaic involvement was limited to financial support for the Greek city-states and naval assistance.[43][44] Gunther Hölb argues that the Ptolemaic focus was on the eastern Aegean, where naval forces under the command of the co-regent Ptolemy the Son, took control of Ephesus and perhaps Lesbos in 262 BC.[37] The end of Ptolemaic involvement may be related to the Battle of Kos, whose chronology is much disputed by modern scholars. Almost nothing is known about the events of the battle, except that Antigonus II Gonatas, although outnumbered, led his fleet to defeat Ptolemy's unnamed commanders. Some scholars, such as Hans Hauben, argue that Kos belongs to the Chremonidean War and was fought around 262/1 BC, with Patroclus in command of the Ptolemaic fleet. Others, however, place the battle around 255 BC, at the time of the Second Syrian War.[45][46][47] The Chremonidean War and the Battle of Kos marked the end of absolute Ptolemaic thalassocracy in the Aegean.[46] The League of the Islanders, which had been controlled by the Ptolemies and used by them to manage the Cycladic islands seems to have dissolved on the aftermath of the war. However, the conflict did not mean the complete end of the Ptolemaic presence in the Aegean. On the contrary, the naval bases established during the war at Keos and Methana endured until the end of the third century BC, while those at Thera, and Itanos in Crete remained bulwarks of Ptolemaic sea power until 145 BC.[48] Second Syrian war (260-253 BC)[edit] Coin of Antiochus II Theos Main article: Second Syrian War Around 260 BC, war broke out once more between Ptolemy II and the Seleucid realm, now ruled by Antiochus II Theos. The cause of this war seems to have been the two kings' competing claims to the cities of western Asia Minor, particularly Miletus and Ephesus. Its outbreak seems to be connected to the revolt of the co-regent Ptolemy 'the son' who had been leading the Ptolemaic naval forces against Antigonus II. Ptolemy "the son" and an associate took control of the Ptolemaic territories in western Asia Minor and the Aegean. Antiochus II took advantage of this upset to declare war on Ptolemy II and he was joined by the Rhodians.[49] The course of this war is very unclear, with the chronological and causal relationship of events attested at different times and in different theatres being open to debate.[50] Between 259 and 255 BC, the Ptolemaic navy, commanded by Chremonides, was defeated in a sea battle at Ephesus. Antiochus II then took control of the Ptolemaic cities in Ionia: Ephesus, Miletus, and Samos. Epigraphic evidence shows that this was complete by 254/3 BC.[50] Ptolemy II himself invaded Syria in 257 BC. We do not know what the outcome of this invasion was. At the end of the war, Ptolemy had lost sections of Pamphylia and Cilicia, but none of the Syrian territory south of the Eleutheros River.[50] It is possible, but not certain, that Antigonus was still at war with Ptolemy II during this period and that his great naval victory over Ptolemy at the Battle of Kos (mentioned above) took place in 255 BC within the context of the Second Syrian War.[50] In 253 BC, Ptolemy negotiated a peace treaty, in which he conceded large amounts of territory in Asia Minor to Antiochus. The peace was sealed by Antiochus' marriage to Ptolemy's daughter Berenice Phernopherus, which took place in 252 BC. Large indemnity payments to the Seleucids were presented by Ptolemy II as the dowry connected to this wedding.[51][50] After the war was over, in July 253 BC Ptolemy travelled to Memphis. There he rewarded his soldiers by distributing large plots of land that had been reclaimed from Lake Moeris in the Fayyum to them as estates (kleroi). The area was established as a new nome, named the Arsinoite nome, in honour of the long-dead Arsinoe II.[52] Later reign and death (252-246 BC)[edit] After the Second Syrian War, Ptolemy refocused his attention on the Aegean and mainland Greece. Some time around 250 BC, his forces defeated Antigonus in a naval battle at an uncertain location.[53] In Delos, Ptolemy established a festival, called the Ptolemaia in 249 BC, which advertised continued Ptolemaic investment and involvement in the Cyclades,even though political control seems to have been lost by this time. Around the same time, Ptolemy was convinced to pay large subsidies to the Achaean League by their envoy Aratus of Sicyon. The Achaean League was a relatively small collection of minor city-states in the northwestern Peloponnese at this date, but with the help of Ptolemy's money, over the next forty years Aratus would expand the League to encompass nearly the whole of the Peloponnese and transform it into a serous threat to Antigonid power in mainland Greece.[54] Also in the late 250s BC, Ptolemy renewed his efforts to reach a settlement with Magas of Cyrene. It was agreed that Ptolemy's heir Ptolemy III would marry Magas' sole child, Berenice.[55] On Magas' death in 250 BC, however, Berenice's mother Apame refused to honour the agreement and invited an Antigonid prince, Demetrius the Fair to Cyrene to marry Berenice instead. With Apame's help, Demetrius seized control of the city, but he was assassinated by Berenice.[56] A republican government, led by two Cyrenaeans named Ecdelus and Demophanes controlled Cyrene until Berenice's actual wedding to Ptolemy III in 246 BC after his accession to the throne.[54] Ptolemy died on 28 January 246 BC and was succeeded by Ptolemy III without incident.[54][57] Regime[edit] Ruler cult[edit] Ptolemy II was responsible for the transformation of the cult of Alexander the Great which had been established by Ptolemy I into a state cult of the Ptolemaic dynasty. At the start of his sole reign, Ptolemy II deified his father and he deified his mother Berenice I as well after her death in the 270s. The couple were worshipped as a pair, the Theoi Soteres (Saviour Gods). Around 272 BC, Ptolemy II promoted himself and his sister-wife Arsinoe II to divine status as the Theoi Adelphoi (Sibling Gods). The eponymous priest of the deified Alexander, who served annually and whose name was used to date all official documents, became the 'Priest of Alexander and the Theoi Adelphoi.' Each subsequent royal couple would be added to the priest's title until the late second century BC. In artistic depictions, Ptolemy II was often depicted with divine attributes, namely the club of Heracles and the elephant-scalp headdress associated with Alexander the Great, while Arsinoe was shown carrying a pair of cornucopiae with a small ram's horn behind her ear.[58] Ptolemy also instituted cults for a number of relatives. Following her death around 269 BC, Arsinoe II was honoured with a separate cult in her own right, with every temple in Egypt required to include a statue of her as a 'temple-sharing deity' alongside the sanctuary's main god. Her cult would prove extremely popular in Egypt throughout the Ptolemaic period. Ptolemy's other sister Philotera also received a cult. Even Ptolemy's mistress Bilistiche received sanctuaries in which she was identified with the goddess Aphrodite.[59][58] A festival, called the Ptolemaia, was held in Ptolemy I's honour at Alexandria every four years from 279/278 BC. The festival provided an opportunity for Ptolemy II to showcase the splendour, wealth, and reach of the Ptolemaic empire. One of the Ptolemaia festivals from the 270s BC was described by the historian Callixenus of Rhodes and part of his account survives, giving a sense of the enormous scale of the event. The festival included a feast for 130 people in a vast royal pavilion and athletic competitions. The highlight was a Grand Procession, composed on a number of individual processions in honour of each of the gods, beginning with the Morning Star, followed by the Theoi Soteres, and culminating with the Evening Star. The procession for Dionysus alone contained dozens of festival floats, each pulled by hundreds of people, including a four-metre high statue of Dionysus himself, several vast wine-sacks and wine krateres, a range of tableaux of mythological or allegorical scenes, many with automata, and hundreds of people dressed in costume as satyrs, sileni, and maenads. Twenty-four chariots drawn by elephants were followed by a procession of lions, leopards, panthers, camels, antelopes, wild asses, ostriches, a bear, a giraffe and a rhinoceros.[60] Most of the animals were in pairs - as many as eight pairs of ostriches - and although the ordinary chariots were likely led by a single elephant, others which carried a 7-foot-tall (2.1 m) golden statue may have been led by four.[61] At the end of the whole procession marched a military force numbering 57,600 infantry and 23,200 cavalry. Over 2,000 talents were distributed to attendees as largesse. Although this ruler cult was centred on Alexandria, it was propagated throughout the Ptolemaic empire. The Nesiotic League, which contained the Aegean islands under Ptolemaic control, held its own Ptolemaia festival at Delos from the early 270s BC. Priests and festivals are also attested on Cyprus at Lapethos, at Methymna on Lesbos, on Thera, and possibly at Limyra in Lycia. Pharaonic ideology and Egyptian religion[edit] This granite statue depicts Ptolemy II in the traditional canon of ancient Egyptian art. Walters Art Museum, Baltimore. Ptolemy II followed the example of his father in making an effort to present himself in the guise of a traditional Egyptian Pharaoh and to support the Egyptian priestly elite. Two hieroglyphic stelae commemorate Ptolemy's activities in this context. The Mendes stele celebrates Ptolemy's performance of rituals in honour of the ram god Banebdjedet at Mendes, shortly after his accession. The Pithom stele records the inauguration of a temple at Pithom by Ptolemy, in 279 BC on his royal jubilee. Both stelae record his achievements in terms of traditional Pharaonic virtues. Particularly stressed is the recovery of religious statuary from the Seleucids through military action in 274 BC - a rhetorical claim which cast the Seleucids in the role of earlier national enemies like the Hyksos, Assyrians, and Persians.[62] Sebennytos Pithom Tanis Saqqara Akhmin Koptos Dendera Karnak Philae Sites of construction work under Ptolemy II As part of his patronage of Egyptian religion and the priestly elite, Ptolemy II financed large-scale building works at temples throughout Egypt. Ptolemy ordered the erection of the core of the Temple of Isis at Philae was erected in his reign and assigned the tax income from the newly conquered Dodekaschoinos region to the temple. Although the temple had existed since the sixth century BC, it was Ptolemy's sponsorship that converted it into one of the most important in Egypt.[63] In addition, Ptolemy initiated work at a number of other sites, including (from north to south): Decorative work on the Temple of Anhur-Shu at Sebennytos and the nearby Temple of Isis at Behbeit El Hagar;[64][65] Temple of Horus at Tanis;[66] Temple of Arsinoe at Pithom;[67] Anubeion in the Serapeum at Saqqara;[64] Restoration of the Temple of Min at Akhmin;[68] Temple of Min and Isis at Koptos;[64][69] Expansion of the birth house of the Dendera Temple complex;[64] Decorative work on the Temple of Opet at Karnak and the north pylon of the Precinct of Mut at Karnak, Thebes.[64][70] Administration[edit] Ptolemaic Egypt was administered by a complicated bureaucratic structure. It is possible that much of the structure had already been developed in the reign of Ptolemy I, but evidence for it - chiefly in the form of documentary papyri - only exists from the reign of Ptolemy II. At the top of the hierarchy, in Alexandria, there were a small group of officials, drawn from the king's philoi (friends). These included the epistolographos ('letter-writer', responsible for diplomacy), the hypomnematographos ('memo-writer' or the chief secretary), the epi ton prostagmaton ('in charge of commands', who produced the drafts of royal edicts), the key generals, and the dioiketes ('household manager', who was in charge of taxation and provincial administration). The dioiketes for most of Ptolemy II's reign was Apollonius (262-245 BC). The enormous archive of his personal secretary, Zenon of Kaunos, happens to have survived. As a result, it is the administration of the countryside that is best known to modern scholarship.[71][72] The whole of Egypt was divided into thirty-nine districts, called nomes (portions), whose names and borders had remained roughly the same since early Pharaonic times. Within each nome, there were three officials: the nomarch (nome-leader) who was in charge of agricultural production, the oikonomos (household steward) who was in charge of finances, and the basilikos grammateus (royal secretary), who was in charge of land surveying and record-keeping. All three of these officials answered to the dioiketes and held equal rank, the idea being that each would act as a check on the others and thus prevent officials from developing regional power bases that might threaten the power of the king. Each village had a komarch (village-leader) and a komogrammateus (village-secretary), who reported to the nomarch and the basilikos grammateus respectively. Through this system, a chain of command was created which ran from the king all the way down to each of the three thousand villages of Egypt. Each nome also had its own strategos (general), who was in charge of the troops settled in the nome and answered directly to the king.[71][72] A key goal of this administrative system was to extract as much wealth as possible from the land, so that it could be deployed for royal purposes, particularly war. It achieved this goal with greatest efficiency under Ptolemy II. Particular measures to increase efficiency and income are attested from the start of the Second Syrian War. A decree, known as the Revenue Laws Papyrus was issued in 259 BC in order to increase tax yields. It is one of our key pieces of evidence for the intended operation of the Ptolemaic tax system. The papyrus establishes a regime of tax farming (telonia) for wine, fruit, and castor oil. Private individuals paid the king a lump sum up front for the right to oversee the collection of the taxes (though the actual collection was carried out by royal officials). The tax farmers received any excess from the collected taxes as profit.[73] This decree was followed in 258 BC by a 'General Inventory' in which the whole of Egypt was surveyed in order to determine the quantity of different types of land, irrigation, canals, and forests within the kingdom and the amount of income that could be levied from it.[73] Efforts were made to increase the amount of arable land in Egypt, particularly by reclaiming large amounts of land from Lake Moeris in the Fayyum. Ptolemy distributed this land to the Ptolemaic soldiers as agricultural estates in 253 BC.[73] The Zenon papyri also record experiments by the dioiketes Apollonius to establish cash crop regimes, particularly growing castor oil, with mixed success. In addition to these measures focused on agriculture, Ptolemy II also established extensive gold mining operations, in Nubia at Wadi Allaqi and in the eastern desert at Abu Zawal. Scholarship and culture[edit] Ptolemy II was an eager patron of scholarship, funding the expansion of the Library of Alexandria and patronising scientific research. Poets like Callimachus, Theocritus, Apollonius of Rhodes, Posidippus were provided with stipends and produced masterpieces of Hellenistic poetry, including panegyrics in honour of the Ptolemaic family. Other scholars operating under Ptolemy's aegis included the mathematician Euclid and the astronomer Aristarchus. Ptolemy is thought to have commissioned Manetho to compose his Aegyptiaca, an account of Egyptian history, perhaps intended to make Egyptian culture intelligible to its new rulers.[74] A tradition preserved in the pseudepigraphical Letter of Aristeas presents Ptolemy as the driving force behind the translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek as the Septuagint. This account contains several anachronisms and is unlikely to be true. The Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible is likely to have taken place among the Jews of Alexandria, but was probably a protracted process rather than a single moment of translation. Relations with the western Mediterranean[edit] Ptolemy II and King Hiero II of Syracuse are regularly referred to as having enjoyed particularly close relations. There is substantial evidence for the exchange of goods and ideas between Syracuse and Alexandria. Hiero seems to have modelled various aspects of his royal self-representation and perhaps his tax system, the Lex Hieronica on Ptolemaic models. Two of the luminaries of Ptolemy II's court, the poet Theocritus and the mathematician and engineer Archimedes came from and eventually returned to Syracuse.[75] Numismatic evidence seems to indicate that Ptolemy II funded Hiero II's original rise to power - a series of Ptolemaic bronze coins known as the 'Galatian shield without Sigma' minted between 271 and 265 BC, have been shown to have been minted in Sicily itself, on the basis of their style, flan shape, die axes, weight and find spots. The first set seem to have been minted by a Ptolemaic mint, perhaps left there in 276 BC after Pyrrhus of Epirus' withdrawal from Sicily. They are succeeded by a series that seems to have been minted by the regular Syracusan mint, perhaps on the outbreak of the First Punic War in 265 BC.[76] Ptolemy II cultivated good relations with Carthage, in contrast to his father, who seems to have gone to war with them at least once. One reason for this may have been the desire to outflank Magas of Cyrene, who shared a border with the Carthaginian empire at the Altars of Philaeni.[77] Ptolemy was also the first Egyptian ruler to enter into formal relations with the Roman Republic. An embassy from Ptolemy visited the city of Rome in 273 BC and established a relationship of friendship (Latin: amicitia).[78] These two friendships were tested in 264 BC, when the First Punic War broke out between Carthage and Rome, but Ptolemy II remained studiously neutral in the conflict, refusing a direct Carthaginian request for financial assistance.[79][77] Relations with South Asia[edit] Ptolemy is recorded by Pliny the Elder as having sent an ambassador named Dionysius to the Mauryan court at Pataliputra in South Asia,[80] probably to Emperor Ashoka: "But [India] has been treated of by several other Greek writers who resided at the courts of Indian kings, such, for instance, as Megasthenes, and by Dionysius, who was sent thither by Philadelphus, expressly for the purpose: all of whom have enlarged upon the power and vast resources of these nations." Pliny the Elder, "The Natural History", Chap. 21 [81] He is also mentioned in the Edicts of Ashoka as a recipient of the Buddhist proselytism of Ashoka: Now it is conquest by Dhamma that Beloved-Servant-of-the-Gods considers to be the best conquest. And it [conquest by Dhamma] has been won here, on the borders, even six hundred yojanas away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni. Rock Edict Nb13 (S. Dhammika) Marriages and issue[edit] Ptolemy married his first wife, Arsinoe I, daughter of Lysimachus, between 284 and 281 BC. She was the mother of his legitimate children:[82][57] Name Image Birth Death Notes Ptolemy III Euergetes c. 285-275 BC October/December 222 BC Succeeded his father as king in 246 BC. Lysimachus 221 BC Berenice Phernopherus c. 275 BC? September/October 246 BC Married the Seleucid king Antiochus II Theos. Ptolemy II repudiated Arsinoe in the 270s BC. Probably in 273 BC, he married his full-blooded, older sister Arsinoe II, widow of Lysimachus, father or Arsinoe I. They had no offspring, but in the 260s BC, the children of Arsinoe I were legally declared to be her children.[83] Ptolemy II also had several concubines. With a woman named Bilistiche he is said to have had an (illegitimate) son named Ptolemy Andromachou.[84] He had many mistresses, including Agathoclea (?), Aglais (?) daughter of Megacles, the cup-bearer Cleino, Didyme, the Chian harp player Glauce, the flautist Mnesis, the actress Myrtion, the flautist Pothine and Stratonice.[57] See also[edit] Ancient Egypt portal Alexandrian Pleiad Library of Alexandria Ptolemaic period - period of Egyptian history during the Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemais (disambiguation) - towns and cities named after members of the Ptolemaic dynasty Ancient Greece–Ancient India relations Notes[edit] ^ C. Bennett established the date of Ptolemy I's death in April–June. Previously, the standard date was January 282 BC, following A.E. Samuel Ptolemaic Chronology. ^ This identification of Ptolemy son of Lysimachus, with Ptolemy "the son" who is attested as Ptolemy II's co-regent is argued in detail by Chris Bennett. Other scholars have identified the co-regent as the future Ptolemy III or some otherwise unknown son of Ptolemy II. References[edit] ^ Clayton (2006) p. 208 ^ Clayman, Dee L. (2014). Berenice II and the Golden Age of Ptolemaic Egypt. Oxford University Press. p. 65. ISBN 9780195370881. ^ a b Berenice I at Livius.org ^ Konstantinos Spanoudakis (2002). Philitas of Cos. Mnemosyne, Supplements, 229. Leiden: Brill. p. 29. ISBN 90-04-12428-4. ^ Hölbl 2001, p. 26 ^ Ogden, Daniel (1999). Polygamy Prostitutes and Death. The Hellenistic Dynasties. London: Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd. p. 150. ISBN 07156 29301. ^ Macurdy, Grace Harriet (1985). Hellenistic Queens (Reprint of 1932 ed.). Ares Publishers. ISBN 0-89005-542-4. ^ Hölbl 2001, pp. 24–5 ^ a b Bennett, Chris. "Ptolemy I". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 10 October 2019. ^ Murder: Cornelius Nepos XXI.3; Illness: Justin 16.2. ^ Pausanias 1.7.1 ^ Bennett, Chris. "Argaeus". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 10 October 2019. ^ a b Hölbl 2001, p. 36 ^ Hölbl 2001, p. 35 ^ Athenaeus Deipnosophistae 14.621a-b ^ Scholia on Theocritus 17.128; Pausanias 1.7.3 ^ Theocritus Idyll 17 ^ a b Bennett, Chris. "Arsinoe II". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 10 October 2019. ^ Bennett, Chris. "Ptolemy "the son"". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 10 October 2019. ^ Hölbl 2001, p. 38 ^ Pausanias 1.7.3 ^ Hinds, Kathryn (September 2009). Ancient Celts: Europe's Tribal Ancestors. Marshall Cavendish. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-7614-4514-2. ^ Pausanias 1.7.2; Callimachus Hymn 4.185-7, with Scholia ^ Hölbl 2001, p. 39 ^ Mitchell, Stephen (2003). "The Galatians: Representation and Reality". In Erskine, Andrew (ed.). A Companion to the Hellenistic World. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 280–293. ^ Referenced in a papyrus: SB 5111 ^ Agatharchides FGrH 86 F20; Diodorus Siculus Bibliotheca 1.37.5 ^ Theocritus Idyll 17.87 ^ a b Hölbl 2001, p. 55 ^ Diodorus, Bibliotheca 3.12; Pliny the Elder Natural History 6.170. Excavations of the city have been undertaken: Castiglioni, Alfredo; Castiglioni., Andrea; Negro, A. (1991). "A la recherche de Berenice Pancrisia dans le désert oriental nubien". Bulletin de la Société française d'égyptologie. 121: 5–24. ^ Hölbl 2001, p. 40 ^ a b Hölbl 2001, p. 56 ^ Agatharchides F86; Strabo Geography 16.4.8; Pliny the Elder, Natural History 6.171 ^ Hölbl 2001, p. 57 ^ Josephus Antiquities of the Jews 8.163-164 ^ Stephanus of Byzantium s.v. Ἄγκυρα; Dionysius of Byzantium, On the Navigation of the Bosporus 2.34. ^ a b Hölb 2001, pp. 40–41 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHölb2001 (help) ^ Byrne, Sean. "IG II3 1 912: Alliance between Athens and Sparta". Attic Inscriptions Online. Retrieved 12 October 2019. ^ Hauben 2013 ^ O'Niel 2008, pp. 74–76 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFO'Niel2008 (help) ^ O'Neil 2008, pp. 81–82. ^ Hölb 2001, p. 41 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHölb2001 (help) ^ Hauben 2013, p. 61. ^ O'Neil 2008, pp. 83–84. ^ O'Neil 2008, pp. 84–85. ^ a b Hauben 2013, p. 62. ^ Hölb 2001, p. 44 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHölb2001 (help) ^ Hölb 2001, pp. 42–43 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHölb2001 (help) ^ Hölbl 2001, pp. 43–44 ^ a b c d e Hölbl 2001, p. 44 ^ Porphyry FGrH 260 F 43 ^ Hölbl 2001, p. 61 ^ Letter of Aristeas 180; Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 12.93 ^ a b c Hölbl 2001, pp. 44–46 ^ Justin 26.3.2 ^ Justin 26.3.3-6; Catullus 66.25-28 ^ a b c Bennett, Chris. "Ptolemy II". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 10 October 2019. ^ a b Holbl 2001, pp. 94–98 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHolbl2001 (help) ^ Plutarch Moralia 753F ^ Callixenus FGrH 627 F2 = Athenaeus, Deipnosophists, 5.196a-203be; detailed studies in: Rice, E. E. (1983). The grand procession of Ptolemy Philadelphus. Oxford: Oxford University Press. and Hazzard, R. A. (2000). Imagination of a monarchy : studies in Ptolemaic propaganda. University of Toronto Press. pp. 60–81. ISBN 9780802043139. ^ Scullard, H.H The Elephant in the Greek and Roman World Thames and Hudson. 1974 pg 125 "At the head of an imposing array of animals (including...)" ^ Holbl 2001, p. 81 & 84 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHolbl2001 (help) ^ Holbl 2001, p. 86 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHolbl2001 (help) ^ a b c d e Holbl 2001, pp. 86–87 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHolbl2001 (help) ^ Wilkinson, Richard H. (2000). The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames & Hudson. p. 105. ISBN 9780500283967. ^ Wilkinson, Richard H. (2000). The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames & Hudson. p. 113. ISBN 9780500283967. ^ Wilkinson, Richard H. (2000). The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames & Hudson. p. 111. ISBN 9780500283967. ^ Wilkinson, Richard H. (2000). The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames & Hudson. p. 142. ISBN 9780500283967. ^ Wilkinson, Richard H. (2000). The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames & Hudson. pp. 151–152. ISBN 9780500283967. ^ Wilkinson, Richard H. (2000). The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames & Hudson. p. 164. ISBN 9780500283967. ^ a b Hölbl 2001, pp. 58–59 ^ a b Bagnall, Roger; Derow, Peter (2004). The Hellenistic Period: Historical Sources in Translation (2 ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell. pp. 285–288. ^ a b c Hölbl 2001, pp. 62–63 ^ Hölbl 2001, pp. 63–65 ^ De Sensi Sestito, Giovanna (1995). "Rapporti tra la Sicilia, Roma e l'Egitto". In Caccamo Caltabiano, Maria (ed.). La Sicilia tra l’Egitto e Roma: la monetazione siracusana dell’età di Ierone II. Messina: Accademia peloritana dei pericolanti. pp. 38–44 & 63–64. ^ Wolf, Daniel; Lorber, Catharine (2011). "The 'Galatian Shield without Σ' Series". The Numismatic Chronicle. 171: 7–57. ^ a b Holbl 2001, p. 54 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHolbl2001 (help) ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus Roman Antiquities 14.1; Livy Periochae 14. ^ Appian Sicelica 1 ^ Mookerji 1988, p. 38. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMookerji1988 (help) ^ Pliny the Elder, "The Natural History", Chap. 21 Archived 2013-07-28 at the Wayback Machine ^ "Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt". Ancient Egypt Online. Retrieved May 22, 2013. ^ Bennett, Chris. "Arsinoe II". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 10 October 2019. ^ Ptolemy Andromachou by Chris Bennett Bibliography[edit] Clayton, Peter A. (2006). Chronicles of the Pharaohs: the reign-by-reign record of the rulers and dynasties of ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28628-0. Grainger, John D. (2010). The Syrian Wars. pp. 281–328. ISBN 9789004180505. Hauben, Hans (2013). "Callicrates of Samos and Patroclus of Macedon, champions of Ptolemaic thalassocracy". In Buraselis, Kostas; Stefanou, Mary; Thompson, Dorothy J. (eds.). The Ptolemies, the Sea and the Nile: Studies in Waterborne Power. Cambridge University Press. pp. 39–65. ISBN 9781107033351. Hazzard, R. A. (2000). Imagination of a Monarchy: Studies in Ptolemaic Propaganda. Toronto ; London: University of Toronto Press. Hölbl, Günther (2001). A History of the Ptolemaic Empire. London & New York: Routledge. pp. 143–152 & 181–194. ISBN 0415201454. Marquaille, Céline (2008). "The Foreign Policy of Ptolemy II". In McKechnie, Paul R.; Guillaume, Philippe (eds.). Ptolemy II Philadelphus and his World. Leiden and Boston: Brill. pp. 39–64. ISBN 9789004170896. O'Neil, James L. (2008). "A Re-Examination of the Chremonidean War". In McKechnie, Paul R.; Guillaume, Philippe (eds.). Ptolemy II Philadelphus and his World. Leiden and Boston: Brill. pp. 65–90. ISBN 9789004170896.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Ptolemies". Encyclopædia Britannica. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 616–618. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ptolemy II. Ptolemy Philadelphus at LacusCurtius — (Chapter III of E. R Bevan's House of Ptolemy, 1923) Ptolemy II Philadelphus entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith the Great Mendes Stele of Ptolemy II Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemaic Dynasty Born: 309 BC Died: 246 BC Preceded by Ptolemy I Soter Pharaoh of Egypt 283–246 BC Succeeded by Ptolemy III Euergetes v t e Hellenistic rulers Argeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Kings of Cyrene Magas Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Kings of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Kings of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Kings of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Kings of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus Kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon (regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces Asander with Dynamis Mithridates II Asander with Dynamis Scribonius’ attempted rule with Dynamis Dynamis with Polemon Polemon with Pythodorida Aspurgus Mithridates III with Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority 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en-wikipedia-org-4709	----	Cite This Page - Wikipedia Help Cite This Page Jump to navigation Jump to search Contents: APA | MLA | MHRA | Chicago | CSE | Bluebook | AMA | BibTeX | wiki IMPORTANT NOTE: Most educators and professionals do not consider it appropriate to use tertiary sources such as encyclopedias as a sole source for any information—citing an encyclopedia as an important reference in footnotes or bibliographies may result in censure or a failing grade. Wikipedia articles should be used for background information, as a reference for correct terminology and search terms, and as a starting point for further research. As with any community-built reference, there is a possibility for error in Wikipedia's content—please check your facts against multiple sources and read our disclaimers for more information. Bibliographic details for "Xerxes I" Page name: Xerxes I Author: Wikipedia contributors Publisher: Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Date of last revision: 8 December 2020 18:19 UTC Date retrieved: 25 January 2021 02:55 UTC Permanent link: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&oldid=993083281 Primary contributors: Revision history statistics Page Version ID: 993083281 Please remember to check your manual of style, standards guide or instructor's guidelines for the exact syntax to suit your needs. For more detailed advice, see Citing Wikipedia. Citation styles for "Xerxes I" APA style Wikipedia contributors. (2020, December 8). Xerxes I. In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 02:55, January 25, 2021, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&oldid=993083281 MLA Style Manual Wikipedia contributors. "Xerxes I." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 8 Dec. 2020. Web. 25 Jan. 2021. MHRA style Wikipedia contributors, 'Xerxes I', Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 8 December 2020, 18:19 UTC, <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&oldid=993083281> [accessed 25 January 2021] Chicago style Wikipedia contributors, "Xerxes I," Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&oldid=993083281 (accessed January 25, 2021). CBE/CSE style Wikipedia contributors. Xerxes I [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2020 Dec 8, 18:19 UTC [cited 2021 Jan 25]. Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&oldid=993083281. Bluebook style Xerxes I, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&oldid=993083281 (last visited Jan. 25, 2021). AMA style Wikipedia contributors. Xerxes I. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. December 8, 2020, 18:19 UTC. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&oldid=993083281. Accessed January 25, 2021. BibTeX entry @misc{ enwiki:993083281, author = "{Wikipedia contributors}", title = "Xerxes I --- {Wikipedia}{,} The Free Encyclopedia", year = "2020", url = "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&oldid=993083281", note = "[Online; accessed 25-January-2021]" } When using the LaTeX package url (\usepackage{url} somewhere in the preamble), which tends to give much more nicely formatted web addresses, the following may be preferred: @misc{ enwiki:993083281, author = "{Wikipedia contributors}", title = "Xerxes I --- {Wikipedia}{,} The Free Encyclopedia", year = "2020", howpublished = "\url{https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&oldid=993083281}", note = "[Online; accessed 25-January-2021]" } Wikipedia talk pages Markup [[Xerxes I]] ([[Special:Permalink/993083281|this version]]) Result Xerxes I (this version)   Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:CiteThisPage" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Special page Variants Views More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools Upload file Special pages Printable version Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4710	----	Wikipedia:File Upload Wizard - Wikipedia Wikipedia:File Upload Wizard From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Picture:File Upload Wizard Shortcut WP:FUW Thank you for offering to contribute an image or other media file for use on Wikipedia. This wizard will guide you through a questionnaire prompting you for the appropriate copyright and sourcing information for each file. Please ensure you understand copyright and the image use policy before proceeding. Upload to Wikimedia Commons Recommended for your own or freely licensed files Upload locally to Wikipedia Use for non-free files You are not currently logged in. Sorry, in order to use this uploading script and to upload files, you need to be logged in with your named account. Please log in and then try again. Your account has not become confirmed yet. Sorry, in order to upload files on the English Wikipedia, you need to have a confirmed account. 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en-wikipedia-org-4720	----	Luke Goss - Wikipedia Luke Goss From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search English singer and actor Luke Goss Goss at the Blood Out premiere in 2011 Born Luke Damon Goss (1968-09-29) 29 September 1968 (age 52) Lewisham, London, England Occupation Actor, drummer, director, producer, author Years active 1986–present Spouse(s) Shirley Lewis ​ (m. 1994)​ Children 1 Luke Damon Goss (born 29 September 1968) is an English actor, and drummer of the 1980s band Bros. He has appeared in numerous films including Blade II (2002) as Jared Nomak, One Night with the King (2006) as King Xerxes, Hellboy II: The Golden Army (2008) as Prince Nuada, Tekken (2009) as Steve Fox, Interview with a Hitman (2012) as Viktor, and Traffik (2018) as Red. Contents 1 Career 2 Personal life 3 Filmography 4 References 5 External links Career[edit] Goss, along with twin brother Matt Goss, started his career with the 1980s boy band Bros. In total he has charted with thirteen hit singles in the UK.[1][2] When Bros broke up in the early 1990s, Goss worked with the Band of Thieves where he released two singles "Sweeter Than The Midnight Rain" and "Give Me One More Chance",[3] he then released "L.I.F.E." under the band's name change Thieves Like Us due to a change in lineup.[4] His autobiography, "I Owe You Nothing," was a top 10 best seller book and went on to have three subsequent printings. He also began to appear in stage musicals including Grease and What a Feeling, and has turned to acting in films full-time, with his first most notable role being the villain in Blade II. He also appeared as The Creature in the Hallmark Channel's Frankenstein. Goss can be seen in the 2004 crime drama, Charlie in which he plays real-life gangster Charlie Richardson. In the 2005 comedy The Man, he starred as another villain, Joey/Kane, alongside Eugene Levy and Samuel L. Jackson. He has since had roles in One Night with the King, as King Xerxes. He appeared in Bone Dry, as Eddie and in the thriller Unearthed, as Kale. Goss received a CAMIE (Character and Morality in Entertainment) Award for his work in One Night with the King on 12 May 2007 at the Beverly Hills Hotel in Los Angeles. Both One Night with the King and Bone Dry were viewed at the 2007 Cannes Film Festival. Bone Dry premiered in Los Angeles on 9 January 2008. In the autumn of 2008, Goss returned from filming Hellboy II: The Golden Army in Budapest, Hungary, in which he plays Prince Nuada.[5] The sequel was released in North America on 11 July 2008. In February 2008 he signed to play the role of Steve Fox in Tekken, which was filmed in Shreveport, Louisiana. He was seen in a commercial for the new Cadillac Escalade Hybrid. In January 2010, Goss won the role as Frankenstein in Death Race 2[6] which was originally played by Jason Statham in the first film, under the direction from Roel Reiné, which began shooting on location in Eastern Europe in February 2010.[7] Goss also played the lead role in Syfy's dark tale television film Witchville.[8] In May 2010, he won the Ultimate Badass Award at the PollyGrind Film Festival for his role in the zombie-vampire film The Dead Undead. In February 2018, Goss released his directorial debut Your Move.[9] Personal life[edit] Goss was born in Lewisham, London, the son of Carol (Read) and Alan Goss.[10] Since 1994, he has been married to backing singer Shirley Lewis[11] (who has worked with singers Elton John, George Michael, Luther Vandross,[12] and many others), and has one stepdaughter, Carli.[13] In January 2007, he and wife Shirley moved permanently to Los Angeles, but still maintain a residence in London. Filmography[edit] Luke Goss pictured in 1993 Year Film Role Notes 2000 The Stretch Warwick Locke Two Days, Nine Lives Saul 2002 Blade II Jared Nomak ZigZag Cadillac Tom Nine-Tenths Jon Laker 2004 Frankenstein The Creature TV miniseries Charlie Charlie Richardson Silver Hawk Alexander Wolfe 2005 The Man Joey / Kane Private Moments Lucien Cold & Dark John Dark Direct-to-DVD 2006 One Night with the King King Xerxes Something in the Clearing Randy Mercenary for Justice John Dresham Direct-to-DVD 13 Graves Anton 2007 Bone Dry Eddie Direct-to-DVD Shanghai Baby Mark Unearthed Kane 2008 Hellboy II: The Golden Army Prince Nuada Deep Winter Stephen Weaks Direct-to-DVD 2009 Fringe Lloyd Parr / Shapeshifter TV series Annihilation Earth David TV movie Tekken Steve Fox 2010 Witchville Malachy TV movie The Dead Undead Jack Direct-to-DVD El Dorado Col. Sam Grissom Direct-to-DVD Across the Line: The Exodus of Charlie Wright Damon Death Race 2 Carl "Luke" Lucas / Frankenstein Direct-to-DVD 2011 Seven Below Issac Direct-to-DVD Pressed Brian Parker Direct-to-DVD Blood Out Michael Savion Direct-to-DVD Inside Miles Barrett 2012 Interview with a Hitman Viktor 2013 Death Race 3: Inferno Carl "Luke" Lucas / Frankenstein Direct-to-DVD Red Widow Luther TV series 2014 Dead Drop Michael Shaughnessy Direct-to-DVD Lost Time Carter Direct-to-DVD 2015 War Pigs Captain Jack Wosick Direct-to-DVD AWOL72 Conrad Miller Direct-to-DVD The Night Crew Wade Direct-to-DVD Operator Jeremy Miller Direct-to-DVD 2016 Killing Salazar DEA Agent Tom Jensen Direct-to-DVD Crossing Point Decker 2017 Mississippi Murder Mavredes Direct-to-DVD 2018 Your Move David Selected cinemas Extracurricular Alan Gordon Direct-to-DVD Traffik Red Direct-to-DVD Bros: After The Screaming Stops Himself Selected cinemas 2019 The Hard Way Mason Netflix The Last Boy Jay Direct-to-DVD 2020 The Loss Adjuster Martin Dyer References[edit] ^ "Bros full Official Chart History". Official Charts. Retrieved 18 January 2019. ^ "LUKE GOSS & THE BAND OF THIEVES full Official Chart History". Official Charts. Retrieved 18 January 2019. ^ "Luke Goss & The Band Of Thieves official Chart History". Official Charts. Retrieved 11 January 2019. ^ "One Little Indian Artists". One Little Indian Records. Retrieved 11 January 2019. ^ "Behold the New Face of Frankenstein – Death Race: Frankenstein Lives". DreadCentral. ^ "Luke Goss Becomes the Original Frankenstein in 'Death Race 2'". BloodyDisgusting. ^ "Exclusive: Death Race 2 Goss". MovieHole. ^ "Get Your Medieval on With Syfy's Witchville". DreadCentral. ^ "Luke Goss Interview: Your Move, Directing, Guillermo del Toro". Den of Geek. Retrieved 9 January 2019. ^ Goss, Matt (9 January 2014). More Than You Know. HarperCollins UK. ISBN 9780007564828 – via Google Books. ^ Bryant, Tom (13 December 2016). "Matt Goss reveals why Bros reunited after nearly a decade of not speaking to each other". Mirror Online. Retrieved 18 January 2019. ^ Eames, Tom (16 October 2018). "Luke Goss: Bros star's wife Shirley Lewis, age, films and more facts revealed". Smooth Radio. Retrieved 18 January 2019. ^ Fulton, Rick (15 August 2008). "Exclusive: Former Bros star Luke Goss on finding new fame as film baddie". Daily Record. Retrieved 18 January 2019. External links[edit] Luke Goss on IMDb Telegraph.co.uk Interview with Luke Goss v t e Bros Matt Goss Luke Goss Craig Logan Studio albums Push The Time Changing Faces Compilations The Best of Bros I Owe You Nothing: The Best of Bros Gold Remix albums The Best Remixes Singles "I Owe You Nothing" "When Will I Be Famous?" "Drop The Boy" "I Owe You Nothing" (reissue) "I Quit" "Cat Among the Pigeons" "Silent Night" "Too Much" "Chocolate Box" "Sister" "Madly in Love" "Are You Mine" "Try" "Love Can Make You Fly" Concerts and tours The Big Push The Global Push In 2 Summer Bros Live (2017) Filmography Bros: After the Screaming Stops Video albums The Big Push Tour Live When Will I Be Famous? Push Over The Big Picture Category Authority control BNE: XX1623316 BNF: cb15069164s (data) GND: 11923551X ISNI: 0000 0001 1441 6099 LCCN: no98070806 MBA: a3089613-8bab-4ca4-a909-4135162660f6 NKC: xx0103648 NLK: KAC201877135 NTA: 272922471 VIAF: 35261859 WorldCat Identities: lccn-no98070806 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luke_Goss&oldid=1001249487" Categories: 1968 births Bros (British band) members English male film actors People from Lewisham English male television actors English male singers English pop singers English drummers Identical twins Living people Male actors from London Twin people from England English expatriates in the United States 20th-century English musicians 21st-century English male actors 21st-century English musicians 20th-century British male musicians 21st-century British male musicians Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata EngvarB from August 2014 Use dmy dates from August 2014 Pages using infobox person with unknown parameters Articles with hCards Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية تۆرکجه Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Tagalog Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 18 January 2021, at 21:52 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4728	----	Johann Adolph Hasse - Wikipedia Johann Adolph Hasse From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Johann Adolf Hasse) Jump to navigation Jump to search Johann Adolf Hasse Born circa 1699 Died (1783-12-16)16 December 1783 Venice, Republic of Venice Known for Baroque music Spouse(s) Faustina Bordoni Johann Adolph Hasse (baptised 25 March 1699 – 16 December 1783) was an 18th-century German composer, singer and teacher of music. Immensely popular in his time, Hasse was best known for his prolific operatic output, though he also composed a considerable quantity of sacred music. Married to soprano Faustina Bordoni and a great friend of librettist Pietro Metastasio, whose libretti he frequently set, Hasse was a pivotal figure in the development of opera seria and 18th-century music. Contents 1 Early career 2 Dresden and Venice 3 Dresden: 1744–63 4 Vienna and Venice: last years 5 Relationship with Metastasio 6 Style and reputation 7 Works 8 References 9 Sources 10 Further reading 11 External links Early career[edit] Hasse was baptised in Bergedorf near Hamburg where his family had been church organists for three generations. His career began in singing when he joined the Hamburg Oper am Gänsemarkt in 1718 as a tenor. In 1719 he obtained a singing post at the court of Brunswick, where in 1721 his first opera, Antioco, was performed; Hasse himself sang in the production. Memorial to Hasse in front of his birth house in Hamburg-Bergedorf He is thought to have left Germany during 1722. During the 1720s he lived mostly in Naples, dwelling there for six or seven years. In 1725 his serenata Antonio e Cleopatra, was performed at Naples; the principal roles were sung by Carlo Broschi, better known as Farinelli, and Vittoria Tesi. The success of this work not only earned Hasse many commissions from Naples's opera houses, but also, according to Johann Joachim Quantz, brought him into contact with Alessandro Scarlatti, who became his teacher and friend; Hasse also altered his style in several respects to reflect that of Scarlatti. Hasse's popularity in Naples increased dramatically and for several years his workload kept him extremely busy. In this period he composed his only full opera buffa, La sorella amante, in addition to several intermezzi and serenatas. He visited the Venetian Carnival of 1730, where his opera Artaserse was performed at S Giovanni Grisostomo. Metastasio's libretto was heavily reworked for the occasion, and Farinelli took a leading role. Two of his arias from this opera he later performed every night for a decade for Philip V of Spain.[1] Dresden and Venice[edit] Hasse in 1740, painted by Balthasar Denner In 1730 Hasse married Faustina Bordoni, and was also appointed Kapellmeister at the Dresden court, though he did not arrive at Dresden until July 1731; earlier in the year he had been active at Vienna, supervising a performance of his oratorio Daniello at the court of the Habsburgs. Soon after the couple's arrival in Dresden, Faustina performed before the court. In September Hasse's Cleofide (set to a highly adapted Metastasio text) was given its premiere; it seems possible that J. S. Bach attended the performance; certainly C. P. E. Bach claimed that Hasse and his father had become good friends around this time. King Augustus II the Strong of Poland and Saxony granted him the title of the Royal-Polish and Electoral-Saxon Kapellmeister.[2] In October Hasse left Dresden to direct premieres of his next operas at Turin and Rome, and he also wrote music for the Venetian theatres at this time. Come the autumn of 1732 and Hasse was at Naples again, though he spent the winter at Venice where his Siroe was first performed in particularly lavish style. In February 1733 Augustus II the Strong, Hasse's early royal patron at Dresden, died. As the court went into a year of mourning, Hasse was permitted to remain abroad. Many of his sacred works, composed for Venice's churches, date to this time. For much of 1734 Hasse was at Dresden, but from 1735 until 1737 he was in Italy, largely at Naples. Faustina performed in the September 1735 premiere of Tito Vespasiano (another adapted Metastsio libretto) at Pesaro. Returning to the royal court in Dresden during 1737 Hasse composed five new operas, but when the court moved to Poland in the autumn of 1738 he and Faustina came back to Venice, where both of them were extremely popular. His next stay in Dresden was also his longest, between the first months of 1740 and January 1744. In this time he revised Artaserse, composing new arias for Faustina, and also wrote a couple of original intermezzi. His general avoidance of comic opera seems to have been due to Faustina, who feared that the style of singing demanded by opera buffa would damage her voice.[3] Dresden: 1744–63[edit] Between the winter of 1744 and late summer 1745, Hasse was in Italy, but then returned to Dresden for a year. Frederick the Great, a keen flute player, visited the court in December 1745, and it is likely that many of Hasse's flute sonatas and concertos that date to this time were written for Frederick. The King of Prussia was also present at a performance of one of Hasse's Te Deums, and himself ordered a performance of the composer's opera Arminio. Soon after Hasse visited Venice and Munich, returning to Dresden in June 1747 to stage his opera La spartana generosa, performed to celebrate multiple royal weddings at this time. Also at this time the hierarchy at Dresden was restructured; Nicola Porpora was named Kapellmeister, while Hasse himself was promoted to Oberkapellmeister. In 1748 Hasse performed two of his operas, Ezio and Artaserse, in Bayreuth in the half finished Markgräfliches Opernhaus, because of the marriage of Elisabeth Fredericka Sophie of Brandenburg-Bayreuth, the daughter of Wilhelmine of Bayreuth. The marriage of princess Maria Josepha of Saxony to the French Dauphin gave Hasse the opportunity to journey to Paris in the summer of 1750, where his Didone abbandonata was performed. On 28 March 1750 Hasse presented his last oratorio La conversione di Sant' Agostino in the chapel of the royal palace in Dresden. The libretto, penned by the Dresden Electress Maria Antonia Walpurgis (1724–1780), concerns the conversion of a sinner to sainthood and was modeled after and edited by Metastasio. The Dresden premiere was followed by numerous performances of the work in Leipzig, Hamburg, Mannheim, Padua, Rome, Riga, Prague, Potsdam and Berlin which is a testament to the work's popularity in the latter half of the 18th century. The 1751 Carnival in Dresden saw the retirement of Faustina from operatic performance. Hasse continued to produce new operas throughout the decade, including a setting of Metastasio's Il re pastore, a text later used by Mozart. In 1756 the Seven Years' War compelled the court at Dresden to move to Warsaw, though Hasse himself lived mostly in Italy, travelling to Poland solely to supervise productions of his operas, if at all. In the autumn of 1760 he moved to Vienna, where he stayed for the next two years, returning to Dresden in 1763 to find much of his home destroyed and the musical apparatus of the court opera wrecked. Hasse's main patron at Dresden, king Augustus III of Poland and Saxony died soon after and his successor, who also died quickly, deemed elaborate musical events at the court superfluous. Hasse and Faustina were paid two years' salary but given no pension.[4] Vienna and Venice: last years[edit] In 1764 Hasse travelled to Vienna, where the coronation of Joseph II was marked by a performance of his festa teatrale Egeria, again set to a libretto by Metastasio. For the most part, he remained at Vienna until 1773. Mozart was present at a performance of his Partenope in September 1767. Most of his operas composed during this period were also successfully produced at Naples. He was the favourite of Maria Theresa, and it can be argued that he took up the job of de facto court Kapellmeister. With the premiere of Piramo e Tisbe (September 1768) Hasse had intended to retire from opera but was compelled by Maria Theresa to compose a further work, Ruggiero (1771), again set to a Metastasian libretto. In 1771, when hearing 15-year-old Mozart's opera Ascanio in Alba, Hasse is reported to have made the prophetic remark: "This boy will cause us all to be forgotten."[5] At this time operatic style was undergoing significant change, and the model of opera seria that Hasse and Metastasio had settled found itself assailed by the threat of the reforms of Christoph Willibald Gluck and Ranieri de' Calzabigi, as laid down in the music and libretto for Gluck's opera Orfeo ed Euridice. Charles Burney, visiting Vienna in 1773, reported on the debate. Party runs as high among poets, musicians and their adherents, at Vienna as elsewhere. Metastasio and Hasse, may be said, to be at the head of one of the principal sects; and Calsabigi and Gluck of another. The first, regarding all innovations as quackery, adhere to the ancient form of the musical drama, in which the poet and musician claim equal attention from an audience; the bard in the recitatives and narrative parts; and the composer in the airs, duos and choruses. The second party depend more on theatrical effects, propriety of character, simplicity of diction, and of musical execution, than on, what they style flowery description, superfluous similes, sententious and cold morality, on one side, with tiresome symphonies, and long divisions, on the other.[This quote needs a citation] Finding his music under siege from an avant-garde surge in a new direction, Hasse left Vienna in 1773 and spent the final ten years of his life in Venice, teaching and composing sacred works. Faustina died in November 1781, and Hasse himself, after a long period of suffering from arthritis, just over two years later. He was almost completely ignored after his death, until F. S. Kandler paid for his gravestone in Venice, where he is buried in San Marcuola, and authored a biography of Hasse in 1820.[6] Relationship with Metastasio[edit] Hasse's friendship with Metastasio, and his appreciation of the art form the librettist had created, increased over the years. The early Metastasio texts he set were all greatly altered for the purpose, but Frederick the Great and Francesco Algarotti both exerted influence in order to make Hasse pay greater respect to Metastasio's works. In the early 1740s he began setting new Metastasian libretti unadapted, and his personal relations with the librettist also improved significantly at around this time. In one of his letters, dated to March 1744, Metastasio made the following comments: ...never until now had I happened to see him [Hasse] in all his glory, but always detached from his many personal relationships in such a way that he was like an aria without instruments; but now I see him as a father, husband and friend, qualities which make an admirable union in him with those solid bases of ability and good behaviour, for which I will cherish him so many years...[This quote needs a citation] In the following years Hasse reset his earlier works based on Metastasio's texts, this time paying great attention to the poet's original intention, and during the 1760s, as Metastasio wrote new texts, Hasse was, as a general rule, the first composer to set them.[7] Burney left the following note: This poet and musician are the two halves of what, like Plato’s Androgyne, once constituted a whole; for as they are equally possessed of the same characteristic marks of true genius, taste, and judgement; so propriety, consistency, clearness, and precision, are alike the inseparable companions of both...[This quote needs a citation] Style and reputation[edit] Despite Giovanni Battista Mancini's claim that Hasse was the padre della musica, and despite the composer's massive popularity as a figure at the very forefront of 18th-century serious Italian opera, after his death Hasse's reputation vastly declined and his music lay mostly unperformed (with the exception of some of his sacred works, which were revived now and again in Germany). In particular, his operas sank without trace and revival only began as the 20th century approached its end: Gluck's reforms took opera away from Hasse's style and Metastasio's Arcadian ideals to a new direction from which it would not return. In his day, Hasse's style was noted primarily for his lyricism and sense of melody. Burney put it this way: [Hasse] may without injury to his brethren, be allowed to be as superior to all other lyric composers, as Metastasio is to all other lyric poets.[This quote needs a citation] Careful choice of key was also a crucial factor in Hasse's style, with certain emotions usually marked out by certain key choices. Amorous feelings were expressed by A, for instance, while for expressions of aristocratic nobility Hasse used C and B flat; on the other hand, his supernatural and fear-inducing music usually went into the keys of C and F minor. Most of his arias begin in the major, switching only to minor for the B section before returning to major for the da capo. As his career developed his arias grew much longer but a lyrical sense was still his overriding target.[8] In Hamburg, the Johann Adolph Hasse Museum is dedicated to his life and work.[9] Works[edit] Main articles: List of compositions by Johann Adolph Hasse and List of operas by Johann Adolph Hasse References[edit] ^ Reference for this section: Grove section 1, "Early years: Germany, Naples and Venice". ^ "Johann Adolph Hasse Museum". KomponistenQuartier. Retrieved 28 November 2019. ^ Reference for this section: Grove section 2, "The first Dresden period, 1730–33", and Grove section 3, "Dresden and Venice, 1734–44". ^ Reference for this section: Grove section 5, "The final Dresden period, 1744–63". ^ Kennedy, Michael; Bourne, Joyce: The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Music. Oxford University Press, 2007.[page needed] ^ Reference for this section: Grove section 6, "Last years". ^ Reference for this section: Grove section 4, "Hasse and Metastasio" ^ Reference for this section: Grove section 7, "Musical style and reputation". ^ Lange Nacht der Museen Hamburg, Johann Adolf Hasse Museum (in German) Sources[edit] Hansell, Sven (2001). "Johann Adolf Hasse". In Root, Deane L. (ed.). The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Oxford University Press.‎ Frederick L. Millner: The Operas of Johann Adolf Hasse. Ann Arbor MI: UMI Research Press, 1979 (Studies in Musicology, 2). ISBN 0-8357-1006-8 Smither, Howard E.: A History of the Oratorio. University of North Carolina Press, 1977 ISBN 9780807812747 Further reading[edit] Francesco Degrada: "Aspetti gluckiani nell'ultimo Hasse", Chigiana, xxix–xxx (1975), 309–329 S. Hansell: "Sacred Music at the Incurabili in Venice at the Time of J. A. Hasse", Journal of the American Musicological Society, xxiii (1970), 282–301, 505–21 D. Heartz: "Hasse, Galuppi and Metastasio", Venezia e il melodramma nel settecento: Venice 1973–5, i, 309–39 F. L. Millner: "Hasse and London's Opera of the Nobility", Music Records, xxxv (1974), 240–46 Reinhard Strohm: Essays on Handel and Italian Opera (Cambridge, 1985) Imme Tempke: "Mozart und der 'Musick-Vatter' Hasse". In: Lichtwark-Heft [de] Nr. 71. Verlag HB-Werbung, Hamburg-Bergedorf, (2006). ISSN 1862-3549. Imme Tempke: "Hasses Musikausbildung in Hamburg". In: Lichtwark-Heft Nr. 67. Verlag HB-Werbung, Hamburg-Bergedorf, (2002). ISSN 1862-3549. Robert Torre: "Operatic Twins & Musical Rivals: Two Settings of Artaserse (1730)", Discourses in Music, vol. 6 no. 1, (Summer 2006). Alan Yorke-Long: Music at Court (London, 1954) External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Johann Adolph Hasse. Article: "Dresden in the time of Zelenka and Hasse" by Brian Robins Article: Torre, Robert. "Operatic Twins and Musical Rivals: Two Settings of Artaserse (1730)" Discourses in Music: Volume 6 Number 1 (Summer 2006) More modern assessment of Hasse The Hasse Project Free scores by Johann Adolph Hasse at the International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP) Free scores by Johann Adolph Hasse in the Choral Public Domain Library (ChoralWiki) Free scores at the Mutopia Project v t e Johann Adolph Hasse Operas Tigrane (1729) Artaserse (1730) Cleofide (1731) Siroe (1733) Didone abbandonata (1742) Ipermestra (1744) Leucippo (1747) Attilio Regolo (1750) Solimano (1753) Romolo ed Ersilia (1765) Piramo e Tisbe (1768) Il Ruggiero (1771) Lists List of compositions by Hasse List of operas by Hasse Biography portal Opera portal Authority control BIBSYS: 90314795 BNE: XX1653970 BNF: cb138950241 (data) GND: 118546651 ICCU: IT\ICCU\LO1V\131115 ISNI: 0000 0001 2275 7870 LCCN: n80053117 LNB: 000039119 MBA: ee697e05-ffdb-4f94-a280-5b0887287342 NKC: jn20000602825 NLI: 000428347 NLP: A11843834 NTA: 072541156 PLWABN: 9810628142205606 SELIBR: 208149 SNAC: w6ks6rf7 SUDOC: 06704218X Trove: 1059212 VcBA: 495/156091 VIAF: 2656283 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80053117 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Johann_Adolph_Hasse&oldid=999659289" Categories: 1699 births 1783 deaths Musicians from Hamburg Settecento composers Italian Baroque composers Classical-period composers German opera composers Male opera composers Pupils of Nicola Porpora Pupils of Alessandro Scarlatti German classical composers German male classical composers 18th-century German composers 18th-century male musicians People from Bergedorf Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from July 2018 Articles with German-language sources (de) Use dmy dates from January 2017 Articles with hCards Articles with unsourced quotes Wikipedia articles incorporating the Cite Grove template Wikipedia articles incorporating the Cite Grove template without a link parameter Commons link is on Wikidata Composers with IMSLP links Articles with International Music Score Library Project links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLP identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Aragonés Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Suomi Svenska Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 11 January 2021, at 08:18 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4770	----	Yale University Press - Wikipedia Yale University Press From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Yale University Press Parent company Yale University Founded 1908 Founder George Parmly Day Country of origin United States Headquarters location New Haven, Connecticut Distribution TriLiteral (United States) John Wiley & Sons (international)[1][2] Nonfiction topics Various Fiction genres Poetry, Literature in translation Official website yalebooks.yale.edu George Parmly Day, founder of the Yale University Press Yale University Press is a university press associated with Yale University. It was founded in 1908 by George Parmly Day,[3] and became an official department of Yale University in 1961, but it remains financially and operationally autonomous. As of 2020, Yale University Press publishes approximately 300 new hardcover and 150 new paperback books annually and has a backlist of about 5,000 books in print. Its books have won five National Book Awards, two National Book Critics Circle Awards and eight Pulitzer Prizes.[4] The press maintains offices in New Haven, Connecticut and London, England. Yale is the only American university press with a full-scale publishing operation in Europe. It was a co-founder of the distributor TriLiteral LLC with MIT Press and Harvard University Press.[5] TriLiteral was sold to LSC Communications in 2018.[6] Contents 1 Series and publishing programs 1.1 Yale Series of Younger Poets 1.2 Yale Drama Series 1.3 Anchor Yale Bible Series 1.4 Future of American Democracy Series 1.5 The Lamar Series in Western History 1.6 Terry Lectures Series 1.7 Yale Nota Bene 2 Controversies 2.1 Mangling the typesetting of Mises' Human Action 2.2 Muhammad cartoon controversy 3 References 4 External links Series and publishing programs[edit] The Yale University Press' original logo, designed by Paul Rand. This section needs expansion with: Early years. You can help by adding to it. (January 2011) Yale Series of Younger Poets[edit] Main article: Yale Series of Younger Poets Competition Since its inception in 1919, the Yale Series of Younger Poets Competition has published the first collection of poetry by new poets. The first winner was Howard Buck; the 2011 winner was Katherine Larson. Yale Drama Series[edit] Yale University Press and Yale Repertory Theatre jointly sponsor the Yale Drama Series, a playwriting competition. The winner of the annual competition is awarded the David C. Horn Prize of $10,000, publication of his/her manuscript by Yale University Press, and a staged reading at Yale Rep. The Yale Drama Series and David C. Horn Prize are funded by the David Charles Horn Foundation.[7] Anchor Yale Bible Series[edit] In 2007, Yale University Press acquired the Anchor Bible Series, a collection of more than 115 volumes of biblical scholarship, from the Doubleday Publishing Group.[8] New and backlist titles are now published under the Anchor Yale Bible Series name. Future of American Democracy Series[edit] Yale University Press is publishing the Future of American Democracy Series,[9] which "aims to examine, sustain, and renew the historic vision of American democracy in a series of books by some of America's foremost thinkers", in partnership with the Future of American Democracy Foundation.[10] The Lamar Series in Western History[edit] The Lamar Series in Western History (formerly the Yale Western Americana series)[11] was established in 1962 to publish works that enhance the understanding of human affairs in the American West and contribute to a wider understanding of why the West matters in the political, social, and cultural life of America.[12] Terry Lectures Series[edit] The Dwight H. Terry Lectureship was established in 1905 to encourage the consideration of religion in the context of modern science, psychology, and philosophy. Many of the lectures, which are hosted by Yale University, have been edited into book form by the Yale University Press. Yale Nota Bene[edit] On September 22, 2000, Yale University Press announced a new Yale Nota Bene imprint that would "feature reprints of best-selling and classic Yale Press titles encompassing works of history, religion, science, current affairs, reference and biography, in addition to fiction, poetry and drama."[13] Controversies[edit] Mangling the typesetting of Mises' Human Action[edit] In 1963, the Press published a revised edition of Ludwig von Mises's Human Action. In the May 5, 1964 issue of National Review, Henry Hazlitt wrote the story "Mangling a Masterpiece", accusing Yale University Press of intentionally typesetting the new edition in an amateurish fashion, due to the Press's differing ideological beliefs.[14][15] Muhammad cartoon controversy[edit] In August, 2009, officials at the Press ignited a controversy when they decided to expunge reproductions of the cartoons involved in the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy, along with all other images of Muhammad, from a scholarly book entitled The Cartoons that Shook the World, by professor Jytte Klausen.[16] References[edit] ^ Contact Us ^ "Third Party Distribution | Wiley". Retrieved 2018-02-08. ^ Bradley, George (1998). "Introduction". The Yale Younger Poets Anthology. New Haven and London. p. 24. ^ "Donatich Appointed New Director of Yale University Press". Press release. Yale University. December 11, 2002. Retrieved 2011-01-25. ^ TriLiteral ^ "LSC Buys TriLiteral; Turner Purchases Gürze Books". PublishersWeekly.com. Retrieved 2018-07-08. ^ Yale Drama Series: Prize for Emerging Playwrights from the Yale University Press website ^ "Yale University Press Acquires Anchor Bible Series from Doubleday". Yale Books Unbound. Yale University Press. 2007-09-25. Retrieved 2017-01-24. ^ The Future of American Democracy Series from the Yale University Press official website ^ Official website of the Future of American Democracy Foundation ^ Basbanes, Nicholas A. A World of Letters: Yale University Press, 1908-2008, New Haven and London, 2008. p. 222, Centennial Highlights ^ The Lamar Series in Western History from the Yale University Press official website ^ "Yale Press launches new imprint with 'global bookstore appeal'". Yale Bulletin and Calendar. Yale University Press. 29 (3). September 22, 2000. ^ ""Mangling a Masterpiece" by Henry Hazlitt, National Review, Tuesday, May 5th, 1964". UNZ.org. ^ GaryNorth.com (2 May 2013). "Publishing Atrocity: The 1963 Edition of Human Action". ^ Patricia Cohen (August 13, 2009). "Yale Press Bans Images of Muhammad in New Book". The New York Times. External links[edit] Wikisource has original works published by or about: Yale University Press Official website Yale University Press, London Yale University Press Records. Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library. v t e Yale University People Namesake: Elihu Yale President: Peter Salovey (predecessors) Provost: Scott Strobel Faculty Sterling Professors People list Nobel Laureates Schools Undergraduate: Yale College Graduate: Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Professional: Architecture Art Divinity Drama Engineering & Applied Science Environment Law Management Medicine Music Nursing Public Health Institute of Sacred Music Defunct: Sheffield Scientific School Campus Connecticut Hall Old Campus Memorial Quadrangle Harkness Tower Hewitt Quadrangle Hillhouse Avenue Sterling Law Building Science Hill Yale-Myers Forest Horchow Hall Steinbach Hall Edward P. Evans Hall Residential colleges Berkeley Branford Davenport Ezra Stiles Jonathan Edwards Franklin Hopper (formerly Calhoun) Morse Pauli Murray Pierson Saybrook Silliman Timothy Dwight Trumbull Library and museums Yale University Library Sterling Memorial Library Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library Harvey Cushing/John Hay Whitney Medical Library Lillian Goldman Law Library Bass Library Lewis Walpole Library Peabody Museum of Natural History Yale University Art Gallery Yale Center for British Art Collection of Musical Instruments Research centers Child Study Center Cowles Foundation Haskins Laboratories Human Relations Area Files MacMillan Center Rudd Center Yale Cancer Center Athletics Team: Yale Bulldogs Mascot: Handsome Dan Arenas: Yale Bowl (football) Ingalls Rink (hockey) Yale Golf Course Yale Field (baseball) Reese Stadium (soccer and lacrosse) Payne Whitney Gymnasium Rivalries: Harvard–Yale Regatta Harvard–Yale football rivalry International Gruber Foundation Jackson Institute for Global Affairs Yale World Fellows Paul Mellon Centre for Studies in British Art Yale-NUS College Related Rumpus Magazine Yale Alumni Magazine Yale Daily News The Yale Herald Yale Law Journal Yale Literary Magazine The Yale Record Manuscript Society Russell Trust Association Skull and Bones Yale in popular culture Yale Precision Marching Band Yale student abortion art controversy Yale Dramatic Association Bladderball The Whiffenpoofs The Spizzwinks Category Commons Wikinews Authority control BIBSYS: 9045953 BNF: cb161892298 (data) CiNii: DA14323744 GND: 5262965-X ISNI: 0000 0001 0679 2262 LCCN: n92085293 NKC: kn20100329014 NLA: 47601606 NLG: 44042 NLI: 000287759 NLP: A26577446 SUDOC: 131202251 TePapa: 49425 VIAF: 121971897 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n92085293 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yale_University_Press&oldid=998129288" Categories: Yale University Press Yale University Visual arts publishing companies Book publishing companies based in Connecticut Publishing companies established in 1908 University presses of the United States 1908 establishments in Connecticut Hidden categories: Articles to be expanded from January 2011 All articles to be expanded Articles using small message boxes Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLP identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with TePapa identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikisource Languages Asturianu Azərbaycanca Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français Galego Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Bahasa Melayu Norsk bokmål Português Română Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 3 January 2021, at 23:36 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4772	----	Thutmose IV - Wikipedia Thutmose IV From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the name Thutmose (Thutmosis), see Thutmose. Thutmose IV Granite bust of Thutmose IV Pharaoh Reign 1401 – 1391 BC or 1397 – 1388 BC (18th Dynasty) Predecessor Amenhotep II Successor Amenhotep III Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Menkheperure Established in forms is Re Nomen Djehutymes ḏḥwty.ms Thoth bore him Consort Nefertari, Iaret, Mutemwiya Children Amenhotep III, Siatum (?), Amenemhat, Tiaa, Amenemopet, Petepihu, Tentamun Father Amenhotep II Mother Tiaa Died 1391 or 1388 BC Burial KV43 Thutmose IV (sometimes read as Thutmosis or Tuthmosis IV, Thothmes in older history works in Latinized Greek; Ancient Egyptian: ḏḥwtj.msj(.w) "Thoth is born")[1] was the 8th Pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty of Egypt, who ruled in approximately the 14th century BC. His prenomen or royal name, Menkheperure, means "Established in forms is Re."[2] Contents 1 Life 2 Dates and length of reign 3 Monuments 4 Burial and mummy 5 Gallery 6 See also 7 References 7.1 Sources 8 Further reading Life[edit] See also: Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Close-up of a scene from the Dream Stele depicting Thutmose IV giving offerings to the Great Sphinx of Giza. From a full-sized reproduction on display at the Rosicrucian Egyptian Museum, San Jose. Thutmose IV was born to Amenhotep II and Tiaa, but was not actually the crown prince and Amenhotep II's chosen successor to the throne. Some scholars speculate that Thutmose ousted his older brother in order to usurp power and then commissioned the Dream Stele in order to justify his unexpected kingship. Thutmose's most celebrated accomplishment was the restoration of the Great Sphinx of Giza and subsequent commission of the Dream Stele. According to Thutmose's account on the Dream Stele, while the young prince was out on a hunting trip, he stopped to rest under the head of the Sphinx, which was buried up to the neck in sand. He soon fell asleep and had a dream in which the Sphinx told him that if he cleared away the sand and restored it he would become the next pharaoh. After completing the restoration of the Sphinx, he placed a carved stone tablet, now known as the Dream Stele, between the two paws of the Sphinx. The restoration of the Sphinx, and the text of the Dream Stele would then be a piece of propaganda on Thutmose's part, meant to bestow legitimacy upon his unexpected kingship.[3] Syrian ("Retjenu") tribute bearers in the tomb of Sobekhotep, during the reign of Thutmose IV, Thebes. British Museum Little is known about his brief ten-year rule. He suppressed a minor uprising in Nubia in his 8th year (attested in his Konosso stela) around 1393 BC and was referred to in a stela as the Conqueror of Syria,[4] but little else has been pieced together about his military exploits. Betsy Bryan, who penned a biography of Thutmose IV, says that Thutmose IV's Konosso stela appears to refer to a minor desert patrol action on the part of the king's forces to protect certain gold-mine routes in Egypt's Eastern Desert from occasional attacks by the Nubians.[5] Thutmose IV's rule is significant because he established peaceful relations with Mitanni and married a Mitannian princess to seal this new alliance. Thutmose IV's role in initiating contact with Egypt's former rival, Mitanni, is documented by Amarna letter EA 29 composed decades later by Tushratta, a Mittanian king who ruled during the reign of Akhenaten, Thutmose IV's grandson. Tushratta states to Akhenaten that: When [Menkheperure], the father of Nimmureya (i.e., Amenhotep III) wrote to Artatama, my grandfather, he asked for the daughter of my grandfather, the sister of my father. He wrote 5, 6 times, but he did not give her. When he wrote my grandfather 7 times, then only under such pressure, did he give her. (EA 29)[6] Dates and length of reign[edit] Thutmose IV wearing the khepresh, Musée du Louvre. Fragment of a crudely carved limestone stela showing king Thutmose IV adoring a goddess (probably Astarte). From Thebes, Egypt. 18th Dynasty. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London Dating the beginning of the reign of Thutmose IV is difficult to do with certainty because he is several generations removed from the astronomical dates which are usually used to calculate Egyptian chronologies, and the debate over the proper interpretation of these observances has not been settled. Thutmose's grandfather Thutmose III almost certainly acceded the throne in either 1504 or 1479, based upon two lunar observances during his reign,[7] and ruled for nearly 54 years.[8] His successor Amenhotep II, Thutmose IV's father, took the throne and ruled for at least 26 years[9] but has been assigned up to 35 years in some chronological reconstructions.[10] The currently preferred reconstruction, after analyzing all this evidence, usually comes to an accession date around 1401 BC[11] or 1400 BC[12] for the beginning of Thutmose IV's reign. The length of his reign is not as clear as one would wish. He is usually given about nine or ten years of reign. Manetho credits him a reign of 9 years and 8 months.[13] However, Manetho's other figures for the 18th Dynasty are frequently assigned to the wrong kings or simply incorrect, so monumental evidence is also used to determine his reign length.[14] Of all of Thutmose IV's dated monuments, three date to his first regnal year, one to his fourth, possibly one to his fifth, one to his sixth, two to his seventh, and one to his eighth.[15] Two other dated objects, one dated to a Year 19 and another year 20, have been suggested as possibly belonging to him, but neither have been accepted as dating to his reign.[15] The readings of the king's name in these dates are today accepted as referring to the prenomen of Thutmose III—Menkheperre—and not Menkhepe[ru]re Thutmose IV himself. Due to the absence of higher dates for Thutmose IV after his Year 8 Konosso stela,[16] Manetho's figures here are usually accepted.[13] There were once chronological reconstructions which gave him a reign as long as 34–35 years.[13][17] Today, however, most scholars ascribe him a 10-year reign from 1401 to 1391 BC, within a small margin of error. Monuments[edit] Thutmose IV's Karnak chapel Thutmose IV's peristyle hall at Karnak Like most of the Thutmoside kings, he built on a grand scale. Thutmose IV completed the eastern obelisk at the Temple of Karnak started by Thutmose III, which, at 32 m (105 ft), was the tallest obelisk ever erected in Egypt.[4] Thutmose IV called it the tekhen waty or 'unique obelisk.' It was transported to the grounds of the Circus Maximus in Rome by Emperor Constantius II in 357 AD and, later, "re-erected by Pope Sixtus V in 1588 at the Piazza San Giovanni" where it is today known as the Lateran Obelisk.[18] Thutmose IV also built a unique chapel and peristyle hall against the back or eastern walls of the main Karnak temple building.[19] The chapel was intended for people "who had no right of access to the main [Karnak] temple. It was a 'place of the ear' for the god Amun where the god could hear the prayers of the townspeople."[20] This small alabaster chapel and peristyle hall of Thutmose IV[21] has today been carefully restored by French scholars from the Centre Franco-Egyptien D'Étude des Temple de Karnak (CFEETK) mission in Karnak.[22] Burial and mummy[edit] Thutmose IV's mummy. Thutmose IV was buried in tomb KV43 the Valley of the Kings but his body was later moved to the mummy cache in KV35, where it was discovered by Victor Loret in 1898. An examination of his mummy conducted by Grafton Elliot Smith revealed that he was extremely emaciated at the time of his death. His height was given as 1.646 m (5 ft 4.8 in) but considering that the feet have been broken off post-mortem, his height in life would have been taller. The forearms are crossed over the chest, right over left. His hair, which is parted in the middle, is about 16 cm (6.3 in) long and dark reddish-brown. His ears are also pierced. Elliot Smith estimated his age to be 25–28 years or possibly older.[23] He was succeeded to the throne by his son, Amenhotep III. Recently a surgeon at Imperial College London analysed the early death of Thutmose IV and the premature deaths of other Eighteenth Dynasty pharaohs (including Tutankhamun and Akhenaten). He concludes that their early deaths were likely as a result of a familial temporal epilepsy. This would account for both the untimely death of Thutmose IV and also his religious vision described on the Dream Stele, due to this type of epilepsy's association with intense spiritual visions and religiosity.[24] Gallery[edit] Head of a colossal statue of Thutmose IV, currently housed in the British Museum. Head of Thutmose IV wearing the blue crown. 18th Dynasty. State Museum of Egyptian Art, Munich. Bracer of Pharaoh Thutmose IV. From Amarna, House P 48.1, Egypt. 1397-1388 BCE. Neues Museum, Berlin See also[edit] History of Ancient Egypt References[edit] ^ Ranke, Hermann (1935). Die Ägyptischen Personennamen, Bd. 1: Verzeichnis der Namen (PDF). Glückstadt: J.J. Augustin. p. 408. Retrieved 25 July 2020. ^ Clayton 1994, p. 112. ^ Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames & Hudson Ltd, 1994. pp.113-114 ^ a b Clayton 1994, p. 114. ^ Bryan 1991, p. 335. ^ William L. Moran, The Amarna Letters, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992. p.93 ^ Bryan 1991, p. 14. ^ Peter Der Manuelian. Studies in the Reign of Amenophis II. p.20. Hildesheimer Ägyptologische Beiträge(HÄB) Verlag: 1987 ^ Donald B. Redford. The Chronology of the Eighteenth Dynasty. p.119. Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 25, No. 2 (Apr., 1966) ^ Charles C. Van Siclen. "Amenhotep II", The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Ed. Donald Redford. Vol. 1, p.71. Oxford University Press, 2001. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath, Chronologie des Pharaonischen Ägypten. Philipp von Zabern, Mainz, (1997) p.190 ^ Shaw, Ian; and Nicholson, Paul. The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt. p.290. The British Museum Press, 1995. ^ a b c Bryan 1991, p. 4. ^ Bryan 1991, p. 5. ^ a b Bryan 1991, p. 6. ^ BAR II, 823-829 ^ Wente, E.F.; and Van Siclen, C. "A Chronology of the New Kingdom." SAOC 39 ^ Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, Blackwell Books, 1992. p.303 ^ Kemp 1989, p. 202. ^ Kemp 1989, p. 303. ^ Accessible online in the Karnak project database: http://www.cfeetk.cnrs.fr/karnak/?iu=2775&hl=en ^ Al-Ahram, Fruitful seasons, 21–27 November 2002, Issue No.613 ^ Elliot Smith, G. (1912). The Royal Mummies (2000 reprint ed.). Bath, UK: Duckworth. pp. 42–46. ISBN 0-7156-2959-X. ^ Ashrafian, Hutan. "Familial epilepsy in the pharaohs of ancient Egypt's eighteenth dynasty". Epilepsy Behav. 25: 23–31. doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2012.06.014. PMID 22980077. Sources[edit] Bryan, Betsy (1991). The Reign of Thutmose IV. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Clayton, Peter (1994). Chronicle of the Pharaohs. Thames & Hudson Ltd. Kemp, Barry J. (1989). Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization. Routledge. Further reading[edit] C.N. Reeves, Tuthmosis IV as 'great-grandfather' of Tut῾ankhamun, in: Göttinger Miszellen 56 (1982), 65-69. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 119037734 ISNI: 0000 0000 8366 2317 LCCN: n90727404 VIAF: 26233914 WorldCat Identities: viaf-64808815 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thutmose_IV&oldid=999587435" Categories: Thutmose IV 15th-century BC births 14th-century BC deaths 15th-century BC Pharaohs 14th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ancient Egyptian mummies Children of Amenhotep II Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Egyptian-language text Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN 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en-wikipedia-org-4774	----	Tachara - Wikipedia Tachara From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Palace of Darius" redirects here. For the palace at Susa, see Palace of Darius in Susa. Tachara Ruins of the Tachara, Persepolis. General information Status in ruins Architectural style Achaemenid architecture Location Persepolis Marvdasht, Fars Province Country Iran Coordinates 29°56′04″N 52°53′22″E / 29.9344°N 52.88955°E / 29.9344; 52.88955 Technical details Material stone Website UNESCO: Persepolis The Tachara, or the Tachar Château, also referred to as the Palace of Darius the Great,[1] was the exclusive building of Darius I at Persepolis, Iran. It is located 70 km northeast of the modern city of Shiraz in Fars Province. Contents 1 History and construction 2 Structure 3 Function 4 Gallery 5 See also 6 References 7 External links History and construction[edit] The exterior of the Tachara and its surrounding gardens, as depicted by Charles Chipiez. The construction dates back to the time of the Achaemenid Empire (550 BC–330 BC). The building has been attributed to Darius I,[2][3] but only a small portion of it was finished under his rule. It was completed after the death of Darius I in 486, by his son and successor, Xerxes I,[4] who called it a taçara in Old Persian, translated to "winter palace". It was then used by Artaxerxes I. Its ruins are immediately south of the Apadana. On the walls of its gates, there are carvings that shows one of the famous Achaemenids architecture motifs: the Battle of Shahriar and Lion. In the 4th century BC, following his invasion of Achaemenid Persia in 330 BC, Alexander the Great allowed his troops to loot Persepolis. This palace was one of the few structures that escaped destruction in the burning of the complex by Alexander the Great's army. Structure[edit] Ruins of the Tachara, Persepolis. Tachara palace. The Tachara stands back to back to the Apadana, and is oriented southward.[5] Measuring 1,160 square meters (12,500 square feet), it is the smallest of the palace buildings on the Terrace at Persepolis.[6] As the oldest of the palace structures on the Terrace,[2] it was constructed of the finest quality gray stone. The surface was almost completely black and polished to a glossy brilliance. This surface treatment combined with the high quality stone is the reason for it being the most intact of all ruins at Persepolis today. Although its mud block walls have completely disintegrated, the enormous stone blocks of the door and window frames have survived. Bas-reliefs from the Tachara. Its main room is a mere 15.15 m × 15.42 m (49.7 ft × 50.6 ft) with three rows of four columns. A complete window measuring 2.65 m × 2.65 m × 1.70 m (8.7 ft × 8.7 ft × 5.6 ft) was carved from a single block of stone and weighed 18 tons. The door frame was fashioned from three separate monoliths and weighed 75 tons. Like many other parts of Persepolis, the Tachara has reliefs of tribute-bearing dignitaries. There are sculptured figures of lance-bearers carrying large rectangular wicker shields, attendants or servants with towel and perfume bottles, and a royal hero killing lions and monsters. There is also a bas-relief at the main doorway depicting Darius I wearing a crenellated crown covered with sheets of gold.[2] The Tachara is connected to the south court by a double reversed stairway. Later under the reign of Artaxerxes III, a new stairway was added to the northwest of the Tachara which is connected to the main hall through a new doorway. On walls of these stairways, there are sculptured representations of figures such as servants, attendants and soldiers dressed in Median and Persian costumes, as well as gift-bearing delegations flanking carved inscriptions.[2] Darius the Great's pride at the superb craftsmanship is evident by his ordering the following inscription on all 18 niches and window frames: Frames of stone, made for the Palace of King Darius. Function[edit] The function of the building, however, was more ceremonial than residential. Upon completion, it served in conjunction with the earlier south oriented entrance stairs as the Nowruz venue until the other buildings that would comprise Persepolis could be finished, which included a provisional union of the Apadana, the Throne Hall and a Banquet Hall. Gallery[edit] Carving of the Battle of Shahria and Lion on the wall of a gate. See also[edit] Iran portal Apadana Persepolis Achaemenid architecture References[edit] ^ Merrill F. Unger (Jun 1, 2009). "Architecture: Persian". The New Unger's Bible Dictionary. ^ a b c d Encyclopædia Iranica. "The Palace of Darius (the Tačara)". PERSEPOLIS. ^ John Curtis, St John Simpson (Mar 30, 2010). The World of Achaemenid Persia: History, Art and Society in Iran and the Ancient Near East. p. 233. ^ Penelope Hobhouse (2004). The Gardens of Persia. p. 52. ^ Ali Mousavi (Apr 19, 2012). Persepolis: Discovery and Afterlife of a World Wonder. p. 21. ^ "tachara of darius reconstruction". www.persepolis3d.com. Retrieved 12 November 2018. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Palace of Darius I in Persepolis. External links[edit] The Achaemenians continued v t e Iranian architecture Styles Parsian Achaemenid pre-Parsian Parthian Khorasani Sasanian Other Azeri Isfahani Razi Types Bazaars Caravanserais Khaneqah Mosques Tekyeh Elements Ab anbar Andaruni Biruni Burj Chahartaq Dalan e Vorudi Gonbad Hashti Howz Imamzadeh Iwan Kariz Kucheh Panjdari Persian Garden (hayāt) Qanat Sahn Shabestan Talar Windcatchers Yakhchal Traditional cities Amol Andijan Baku Bam Bukhara Ctesiphon Derbent Ganja Gur-e-Amir Hatra Herat Isfahan Kashan Kashmar Khiva Khorramabad Mashhad Merv Nakhchivan Nishapur Persepolis Qazvin Qom Samarkand Shahrisabz Shiraz Susa Tabriz Takht-e Soleymān Tehran Yazd Theory and analysis Islamic architecture Traditional Persian residential architecture Traditional water sources of Persian antiquity Lists Architects of Iran Args, castles, and ghal'ehs List of ab anbars of Qazvin List of mosques List of ziyarat-gahs v t e Fars Province Capital Shiraz Counties and cities Abadeh County Abadeh Bahman Izadkhvast Soghad Surmaq Abadeh Tashk County Abadeh Tashk Arsanjan County Arsanjan Beyza County Beyza Bavanat County Surian Chenar Shahijan County Qaemiyeh Darab County Darab Jannat Shahr Eqlid County Eqlid Sedeh Estahban County Estahban Ij Runiz Evaz County Evaz Fishvar Farashband County Farashband Dehram Nujin Fasa County Fasa Now Bandegan Sheshdeh Zahedshahr Firuzabad County Firuzabad Meymand Gerash County Gerash Arad Jahrom County Jahrom Duzeh Qotbabad Kavar County Kavar Kazerun County Kazerun Baladeh Khesht Konartakhteh Nowdan Kharameh County Kharameh Khonj County Khonj Khorrambid County Safashahr Qaderabad Lamerd County Lamerd Ahel Alamarvdasht Eshkanan Larestan County Lar Beyram Banaruiyeh Juyom Khur Latifi Mamasani County Nurabad Khumeh Zar Marvdasht County Marvdasht Kamfiruz Ramjerd Seyyedan Mohr County Mohr Asir Galleh Dar Varavi Neyriz County Neyriz Meshkan Qatruyeh Pasargad County Saadat Shahr Qir and Karzin County Qir Efzar Karzin Rostam County Masiri Sarchehan County Korehi Sarvestan County Sarvestan Sepidan County Ardakan Hamashahr Zarqan County Lapui Zarqan Shiraz County Shiraz Darian Zarrin Dasht County Hajjiabad Dowbaran Shahr-e Pir Khafr County Bab Anar Khavaran Landmarks Afif-Abad Garden Amir's dam Arg of Karim Khan Barmdelak lagoon Bishapur Delgosha Garden Eram Garden Istakhr Ghal'eh Dokhtar Ka'ba-ye Zartosht Kazerun fire temple Lake Parishan Naqsh-e Rajab Naqsh-e Rustam Palace of Ardashir Sangtarashan cave Pars Museum Pasargadae Persepolis Qavam House Qur'an Gate Saadi's mausoleum Sarvestan Sassanian palace Shah Cheragh Colossal Statue of Shapur I in Shapur cave Tangeh Bolaghi Hāfezieh Tounbbot Vakil Bath Vakil Bazaar Vakil Mosque Populated places List of cities, towns and villages in Fars Province v t e World Heritage Sites in Iran List of World Heritage Sites in Iran The Armenian Monastic Ensembles St. Thaddeus Monastery St. Stepanos Monastery Chapel of Dzordzor Chapel of Chupan Church of the Holy Mother of God Bam and its cultural landscape Behistun Chogha Zanbil Cultural landscape of Maymand Golestan Palace Gonbad-e Qabus Hyrcanian Forests Jameh Mosque of Isfahan Naqsh-e Jahan Square Pasargadae Persepolis The Persian gardens Pasargadae Chehel Sotoun Fin Eram Shazdeh Dolatabad Abbasabad Akbarieh Pahlevanpour Shahr-e Sukhteh Sheikh Safi's Tomb Dome of Soltaniyeh Shushtar Historical Hydraulic System Susa Bazaar of Tabriz Takht-e Soleymān The Persian Qanat Gonabad Baladeh Zarch Hassan Abad Moshir Goharriz Akbarabad Ghasemabad Moun Vazvan Mozdabad Ebrahimabad Dasht-e Loot Historic city of Yazd Sassanid Archaeological Landscape of Fars Region Qal'eh Dokhtar Ardashir Investiture Relief Victory Relief of Ardashir Ardashir Khurreh Palace of Ardashir City of Bishapur Shapur cave Sarvestan Palace v t e Persepolis Palace Tachara Gate of All Nations Other sections Tomb of Artaxerxes III builders Darius the Great Xerxes I Artaxerxes I of Persia Researchers Heidemarie Koch Erich Schmidt (archaeologist) Alireza Shapour Shahbazi Related Tangeh Bolaghi 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire Sivand Dam Persepolis Administrative Archives Waterskin Achaemenid architecture Category:Persepolis Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tachara&oldid=994814093" Categories: Buildings and structures completed in the 1st century Persepolis Ruins in Iran Former populated places in Fars Province Achaemenid Empire Architecture of Iran Archaeological sites in Iran Darius the Great Hidden categories: Infobox mapframe without OSM relation ID on Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata Pages using the Kartographer extension Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload 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en-wikipedia-org-4786	----	Special pages - Wikipedia Help Special pages Jump to navigation Jump to search This page contains a list of special pages. Most of the content of these pages is automatically generated and cannot be edited. To suggest a change to the parts that can be edited, find the appropriate text on Special:AllMessages and then request your change on the talk page of the message (using {{editprotected}} to draw the attention of administrators). For an index of special pages, see Help:SpecialPages. Maintenance reports Broken redirects Dead-end pages Dormant pages Double redirects Lint errors Long pages Orphaned pages Pages not connected to items Pages with the fewest revisions Pages without language links Protected pages Protected titles Short pages Uncategorized categories Uncategorized files Uncategorized pages Uncategorized templates Unused categories Unused files Unused templates Wanted categories Wanted files Wanted pages Wanted templates Lists of pages All pages All pages with prefix Categories Category tree Disambiguation pages Entity usage External links search Pages linking to disambiguation pages Pages on topics near you Pages with a page property Pages with badges Redirects Search Tracking categories Login / create account Create account Global user account rename request Log in Login unification status Users and rights Active users list Autoblocks Blocked users Bot passwords Change credentials Change or remove email address Global account manager Global accounts list Global group management Global preferences Grants List OAuth applications List of globally blocked IP addresses Membership in global groups Notifications Password policies Preferences Remove credentials Reset tokens User contributions User group rights User groups management Users Recent changes and logs Edit filter log Gallery of new files New pages New pages feed Recent changes Related changes User logs Valid change tags Watchlist Media reports and uploads File list Global file usage List of files with duplicates MIME search Media statistics Orphaned TimedText pages Search for duplicate files VIPS scaling test page Data and tools API feature usage API sandbox Book sources Edit filter configuration Expand templates Gadget usage statistics Gadgets Graph sandbox Statistics System messages Template sandbox Try hieroglyph markup Version View interwiki data Wiki sets Wikimedia wikis Redirecting special pages Differences Edit a page New section Page history Page info Permanent link Purge Random article Random page in category Random redirect Random root page Redirect by file, user, page, revision, or log ID High use pages Most linked-to categories Most linked-to files Most linked-to pages Most transcluded pages Pages with the most categories Pages with the most interwikis Pages with the most revisions Page tools Book Cite This Page Compare pages Export pages Page assessments What links here Pending changes Advanced review log Page review statistics Pages using Pending Changes Pages with edits awaiting review Tagged pending changes Other special pages Content Translation statistics Global rename progress Math Formula Information ORES model statistics SecurePoll Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Special page Variants Views More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools Upload file Special pages Printable version Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4797	----	Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt ca. 2130 BC–ca. 1991 BC Funerary stele of Intef II, on display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Capital Thebes Common languages Egyptian language Religion ancient Egyptian religion Government Absolute monarchy Historical era Bronze Age • Established ca. 2130 BC • Disestablished ca. 1991 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The Eleventh Dynasty of ancient Egypt (notated Dynasty XI) is a well-attested group of rulers. Its earlier members before Pharaoh Mentuhotep II are grouped with the four preceding dynasties to form the First Intermediate Period, whereas the later members are considered part of the Middle Kingdom. They all ruled from Thebes in Upper Egypt. Contents 1 Characteristics 2 Pharaohs of the Eleventh Dynasty 3 See also 4 Notes 5 External links Characteristics[edit] The relative chronology of the 11th Dynasty is well established by contemporary attestations and, except for count Intef and Mentuhotep IV, by the Turin canon.[1] Manetho's statement that Dynasty XI consisted of 16 kings, who reigned for 43 years is contradicted by contemporary inscriptions and the evidence of the Turin King List, whose combined testimony establishes that this kingdom consisted of seven kings who ruled for a total of 143 years.[2] However, his testimony that this dynasty was based at Thebes is verified by the contemporary evidence. It was during this dynasty that all of ancient Egypt was united under the Middle Kingdom. This dynasty traces its origins to a nomarch of Thebes, "Intef the Great, son of Iku", who is mentioned in a number of contemporary inscriptions. However, his immediate successor Mentuhotep I is considered the first king of this dynasty. An inscription carved during the reign of Wahankh Intef II shows that he was the first of this dynasty to claim to rule over the whole of Egypt, a claim which brought the Thebans into conflict with the rulers of Herakleopolis Magna, Dynasty X. Intef undertook several campaigns northwards, and captured the important nome of Abydos. Warfare continued intermittently between the Thebean and Heracleapolitan dynasts until the 14th regnal year of Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II, when the Herakleopolitans were defeated, and this dynasty could begin to consolidate their rule. The rulers of Dynasty XI reasserted Egypt's influence over her neighbors in Africa and the Near East. Mentuhotep II sent renewed expeditions to Phoenicia to obtain cedar. Sankhkara Mentuhotep III sent an expedition from Coptos south to the land of Punt. The reign of its last king, and thus the end of this dynasty, is something of a mystery. Contemporary records refer to "seven empty years" following the death of Mentuhotep III, which correspond to the reign of Nebtawyra Mentuhotep IV. Modern scholars identify his vizier Amenemhat with Amenemhat I, the first king of Dynasty XII, as part of a theory that Amenemhat became king as part of a palace coup. The only certain details of Mentuhotep's reign was that two remarkable omens were witnessed at the quarry of Wadi Hammamat by the vizier Amenemhat. Pharaohs of the Eleventh Dynasty[edit] Pharaohs of Dynasty XI Pharaoh Horus name Image Reign Burial Consort(s) Comments Intef the Elder Iry-pat, "the Count", probably the same person as "Intef, son of Iku".[1] Theban nomarch serving an unnamed king. Mentuhotep I Tepya 2134 BC – ? Neferu I Tepy-a, "the ancestor" Intef I Sehertawy ?–2118 BC El-Tarif, Thebes Son of Mentuhotep I Intef II Wahankh 2118–2069 BC El-Tarif, Thebes Neferukayet? Brother of Intef I Intef III Nakhtnebtepnefer 2069–2061 BC El-Tarif, Thebes Iah Son of Intef II Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II Seankhibtawy; Netjerihedjet; Smatawy 2061–2010 BC Deir el-Bahari Tem Neferu II Ashayet Henhenet Kawit Kemsit Sadeh Son of Intef III and Iah. Reunifies Egypt starting the Middle Kingdom. Sankhkare Mentuhotep III Sankhtawyef 2010–1998 BC Deir el-Bahari[3] Son of Mentuhotep II and Tem Nebtawyre Mentuhotep IV Nebtawy 1998–1991 BC Son of Queen Imi Abydos King List, Royal cartouches 57 through 61 11th Dynasty model of Nubian archers from a tomb in Asyut. See also[edit] Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt family tree Notes[edit] ^ a b Schneider, Thomas (2006-12-30). Hornung, Erik; Krauss, Rolf; Warburton, David A. (eds.). Ancient Egyptian Chronology. pp. 160–161. ISBN 9789047404002. (mirror) ^ Beckerath, J. V. (1962). "The Date of the End of the Old Kingdom of Egypt". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 21 (2): 140–147. doi:10.1086/371680. ^ Wilkinson, Richard H. (2000). The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. p. 37, 172, 173, 181. ISBN 9780500051009. External links[edit] Media related to 11th dynasty of Egypt at Wikimedia Commons Preceded by Tenth Dynasty Dynasty of Egypt 2134 − 1991 BC Succeeded by Twelfth Dynasty Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eleventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=995047991" Categories: Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt States and territories established in the 3rd millennium BC States and territories disestablished in the 20th century BC Dynasties of ancient Egypt 21st century BC in Egypt 20th century BC in Egypt 3rd-millennium BC establishments in Egypt 2nd-millennium BC disestablishments in Egypt 3rd millennium BC in Egypt 2nd millennium BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ქართული Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 18 December 2020, at 23:14 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4798	----	Aristotle - Wikipedia Aristotle From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Classical Greek philosopher and polymath, founder of the Peripatetic School For other uses, see Aristotle (disambiguation). Aristotle Roman copy in marble of a Greek bronze bust of Aristotle by Lysippos, c. 330 BC, with modern alabaster mantle Born 384 BC[A] Stagira, Chalcidian League Died 322 BC (aged 61–62) Euboea, Macedonian Empire Spouse(s) Pythias Era Ancient Greek philosophy Region Western philosophy School Peripatetic school Aristotelianism Classical republicanism Notable students Alexander the Great, Theophrastus Main interests Biology Zoology Psychology[1][2] Physics Metaphysics Logic Ethics Rhetoric Aesthetics Music Poetry Economics Politics Government Notable ideas Aristotelian philosophy Syllogism Theory of the soul Virtue ethics Influences Plato Socrates Heraclitus Parmenides Empedocles Phaleas Hippodamus Hippias Influenced Virtually all subsequent Western philosophy, especially Aristotelianism e. g. Averroes, Aquinas. Also pre-Enlightenment science (see List of writers influenced by Aristotle) Aristotle (/ærɪsˈtɒtəl/;[3] Greek: Ἀριστοτέλης Aristotélēs, pronounced [aristotélɛːs]; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Lyceum, the Peripatetic school of philosophy, and the Aristotelian tradition. His writings cover many subjects including physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic, ethics, aesthetics, poetry, theatre, music, rhetoric, psychology, linguistics, economics, politics, and government. Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him. It was above all from his teachings that the West inherited its intellectual lexicon, as well as problems and methods of inquiry. As a result, his philosophy has exerted a unique influence on almost every form of knowledge in the West and it continues to be a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion. Little is known about his life. Aristotle was born in the city of Stagira in Northern Greece. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, and he was brought up by a guardian. At seventeen or eighteen years of age he joined Plato's Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven (c. 347 BC).[4] Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedon, tutored Alexander the Great beginning in 343 BC.[5] He established a library in the Lyceum which helped him to produce many of his hundreds of books on papyrus scrolls. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues for publication, only around a third of his original output has survived, none of it intended for publication.[6] Aristotle's views on physical science profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. Their influence extended from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, and were not replaced systematically until the Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics were developed. Some of Aristotle's zoological observations found in his biology, such as on the hectocotyl (reproductive) arm of the octopus, were disbelieved until the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, studied by medieval scholars such as Peter Abelard and John Buridan. Aristotle's influence on logic also continued well into the 19th century. He influenced Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400) during the Middle Ages, as well as Christian theology, especially the Neoplatonism of the Early Church and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars as "The First Teacher" and among medieval Christians like Thomas Aquinas as simply "The Philosopher". His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics. Contents 1 Life 2 Speculative philosophy 2.1 Logic 2.1.1 Organon 2.2 Metaphysics 2.2.1 Substance 2.2.1.1 Immanent realism 2.2.1.2 Potentiality and actuality 2.3 Epistemology 3 Natural philosophy 3.1 Physics 3.1.1 Five elements 3.1.2 Motion 3.1.3 Four causes 3.1.4 Optics 3.1.5 Chance and spontaneity 3.2 Astronomy 3.3 Geology/Natural Sciences 3.4 Biology 3.4.1 Empirical research 3.4.2 Scientific style 3.4.3 Classification of living things 3.5 Psychology 3.5.1 Soul 3.5.2 Memory 3.5.3 Dreams 4 Practical philosophy 4.1 Just war theory 4.2 Ethics 4.3 Politics 4.4 Economics 4.5 Rhetoric and poetics 4.6 Views on women 5 Influence 5.1 On his successor, Theophrastus 5.2 On later Greek philosophers 5.3 On Hellenistic science 5.4 On Byzantine scholars 5.5 On the medieval Islamic world 5.6 On medieval Europe 5.7 On Early Modern scientists 5.8 On 19th-century thinkers 5.9 Modern rejection and rehabilitation 6 Surviving works 6.1 Corpus Aristotelicum 6.2 Loss and preservation 7 Legacy 7.1 Depictions 7.2 Eponyms 8 See also 9 References 9.1 Notes 9.2 Citations 9.3 Sources 10 Further reading 11 External links Life School of Aristotle in Mieza, Macedonia, Greece In general, the details of Aristotle's life are not well-established. The biographies written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points.[B] Aristotle, whose name means "the best purpose" in Ancient Greek,[7] was born in 384 BC in Stagira, Chalcidice, about 55 km (34 miles) east of modern-day Thessaloniki.[8][9] His father Nicomachus was the personal physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. Both of Aristotle's parents died when he was about thirteen, and Proxenus of Atarneus became his guardian.[10] Although little information about Aristotle's childhood has survived, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy.[11] At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Plato's Academy.[12] He probably experienced the Eleusinian Mysteries as he wrote when describing the sights one viewed at the Eleusinian Mysteries, "to experience is to learn" [παθείν μαθεĩν].[13] Aristotle remained in Athens for nearly twenty years before leaving in 348/47 BC. The traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the Academy's direction after control passed to Plato's nephew Speusippus, although it is possible that he feared the anti-Macedonian sentiments in Athens at that time and left before Plato died.[14] Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor. After the death of Hermias, Aristotle travelled with his pupil Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island and its sheltered lagoon. While in Lesbos, Aristotle married Pythias, either Hermias's adoptive daughter or niece. She bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. In 343 BC, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander.[15][5] Portrait bust of Aristotle; an Imperial Roman (1st or 2nd century AD) copy of a lost bronze sculpture made by Lysippos Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During Aristotle's time in the Macedonian court, he gave lessons not only to Alexander but also to two other future kings: Ptolemy and Cassander.[16] Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and Aristotle's own attitude towards Persia was unabashedly ethnocentric. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be "a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants".[16] By 335 BC, Aristotle had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the Lyceum. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with Herpyllis of Stagira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, Nicomachus. If the Suda – an uncritical compilation from the Middle Ages – is accurate, he may also have had an erômenos, Palaephatus of Abydus.[17] This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works.[5] He wrote many dialogues, of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, On the Soul and Poetics. Aristotle studied and made significant contributions to "logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance, and theatre."[4] Near the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle became estranged over Alexander's relationship with Persia and Persians. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but the only evidence of this is an unlikely claim made some six years after the death.[18] Following Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled. In 322 BC, Demophilus and Eurymedon the Hierophant reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety,[19] prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in Chalcis, on Euboea, at which occasion he was said to have stated: "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy"[20][21][22] – a reference to Athens's trial and execution of Socrates. He died on Euboea of natural causes later that same year, having named his student Antipater as his chief executor and leaving a will in which he asked to be buried next to his wife.[23] Speculative philosophy Logic Main article: Term logic Further information: Non-Aristotelian logic With the Prior Analytics, Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic,[24] and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th-century advances in mathematical logic.[25] Kant stated in the Critique of Pure Reason that with Aristotle logic reached its completion.[26] Organon Main article: Organon One of Aristotle's types of syllogism[C] In words In terms[D] In equations[E]     All men are mortal.     All Greeks are men. ∴ All Greeks are mortal. M a P S a M S a P What is today called Aristotelian logic with its types of syllogism (methods of logical argument),[27] Aristotle himself would have labelled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean dialectics. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into a set of six books called the Organon around 40 BC by Andronicus of Rhodes or others among his followers.[29] The books are: Categories On Interpretation Prior Analytics Posterior Analytics Topics On Sophistical Refutations Plato (left) and Aristotle in Raphael's 1509 fresco, The School of Athens. Aristotle holds his Nicomachean Ethics and gestures to the earth, representing his view in immanent realism, whilst Plato gestures to the heavens, indicating his Theory of Forms, and holds his Timaeus.[30][31] The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the Categories, the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in On Interpretation, to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the Analytics)[32][33] and dialectics (in the Topics and Sophistical Refutations). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory stricto sensu: the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning. The Rhetoric is not conventionally included, but it states that it relies on the Topics.[34] Metaphysics Main article: Metaphysics (Aristotle) The word "metaphysics" appears to have been coined by the first century AD editor who assembled various small selections of Aristotle's works to the treatise we know by the name Metaphysics.[35] Aristotle called it "first philosophy", and distinguished it from mathematics and natural science (physics) as the contemplative (theoretikē) philosophy which is "theological" and studies the divine. He wrote in his Metaphysics (1026a16): if there were no other independent things besides the composite natural ones, the study of nature would be the primary kind of knowledge; but if there is some motionless independent thing, the knowledge of this precedes it and is first philosophy, and it is universal in just this way, because it is first. And it belongs to this sort of philosophy to study being as being, both what it is and what belongs to it just by virtue of being.[36] Substance Further information: Hylomorphism Aristotle examines the concepts of substance (ousia) and essence (to ti ên einai, "the what it was to be") in his Metaphysics (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form, a philosophical theory called hylomorphism. In Book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the substratum, or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers, etc., or whatever constitutes the potential house, while the form of the substance is the actual house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other differentia that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.[37][35] Immanent realism Main article: Aristotle's theory of universals Plato's forms exist as universals, like the ideal form of an apple. For Aristotle, both matter and form belong to the individual thing (hylomorphism). Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the universal. Aristotle's ontology places the universal (katholou) in particulars (kath' hekaston), things in the world, whereas for Plato the universal is a separately existing form which actual things imitate. For Aristotle, "form" is still what phenomena are based on, but is "instantiated" in a particular substance.[35] Plato argued that all things have a universal form, which could be either a property or a relation to other things. When one looks at an apple, for example, one sees an apple, and one can also analyse a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, one can place an apple next to a book, so that one can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other. Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of particular things. For example, it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but "good" is still a proper universal form. Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated at some period of time, and that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things. In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. Where Plato spoke of the world of forms, a place where all universal forms subsist, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on which each universal is predicated. So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather than in the world of the forms.[35][38] Potentiality and actuality Further information: Potentiality and actuality (Aristotle) With regard to the change (kinesis) and its causes now, as he defines in his Physics and On Generation and Corruption 319b–320a, he distinguishes the coming to be from: growth and diminution, which is change in quantity; locomotion, which is change in space; and alteration, which is change in quality. Aristotle argued that a capability like playing the flute could be acquired – the potential made actual – by learning. The coming to be is a change where nothing persists of which the resultant is a property. In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality (dynamis) and actuality (entelecheia) in association with the matter and the form. Referring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing or being acted upon if the conditions are right and it is not prevented by something else. For example, the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially (dynamei) a plant, and if it is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' (poiein) or 'be acted upon' (paschein), which can be either innate or learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate – being acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning (exercise – acting). Actuality is the fulfilment of the end of the potentiality. Because the end (telos) is the principle of every change, and for the sake of the end exists potentiality, therefore actuality is the end. Referring then to the previous example, it can be said that an actuality is when a plant does one of the activities that plants do.[35] For that for the sake of which (to hou heneka) a thing is, is its principle, and the becoming is for the sake of the end; and the actuality is the end, and it is for the sake of this that the potentiality is acquired. For animals do not see in order that they may have sight, but they have sight that they may see.[39] In summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building and the form of the final house are actualities, which is also a final cause or end. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality. With this definition of the particular substance (i.e., matter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings, for example, "what is it that makes a man one"? Since, according to Plato there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the actual one (form) are one and the same.[35][40] Epistemology Aristotle's immanent realism means his epistemology is based on the study of things that exist or happen in the world, and rises to knowledge of the universal, whereas for Plato epistemology begins with knowledge of universal Forms (or ideas) and descends to knowledge of particular imitations of these.[34] Aristotle uses induction from examples alongside deduction, whereas Plato relies on deduction from a priori principles.[34] Natural philosophy Aristotle's "natural philosophy" spans a wide range of natural phenomena including those now covered by physics, biology and other natural sciences.[41] In Aristotle's terminology, "natural philosophy" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. Aristotle's work encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry. Aristotle makes philosophy in the broad sense coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as "science". However, his use of the term science carries a different meaning than that covered by the term "scientific method". For Aristotle, "all science (dianoia) is either practical, poetical or theoretical" (Metaphysics 1025b25). His practical science includes ethics and politics; his poetical science means the study of fine arts including poetry; his theoretical science covers physics, mathematics and metaphysics.[41] Physics The four classical elements (fire, air, water, earth) of Empedocles and Aristotle illustrated with a burning log. The log releases all four elements as it is destroyed. Main article: Aristotelian physics Five elements Main article: Classical element In his On Generation and Corruption, Aristotle related each of the four elements proposed earlier by Empedocles, Earth, Water, Air, and Fire, to two of the four sensible qualities, hot, cold, wet, and dry. In the Empedoclean scheme, all matter was made of the four elements, in differing proportions. Aristotle's scheme added the heavenly Aether, the divine substance of the heavenly spheres, stars and planets.[42] Aristotle's elements[42] Element Hot/Cold Wet/Dry Motion Modern state of matter Earth Cold Dry Down Solid Water Cold Wet Down Liquid Air Hot Wet Up Gas Fire Hot Dry Up Plasma Aether (divine substance) — Circular (in heavens) — Motion Further information: History of classical mechanics Aristotle describes two kinds of motion: "violent" or "unnatural motion", such as that of a thrown stone, in the Physics (254b10), and "natural motion", such as of a falling object, in On the Heavens (300a20). In violent motion, as soon as the agent stops causing it, the motion stops also: in other words, the natural state of an object is to be at rest,[43][F] since Aristotle does not address friction.[44] With this understanding, it can be observed that, as Aristotle stated, heavy objects (on the ground, say) require more force to make them move; and objects pushed with greater force move faster.[45][G] This would imply the equation[45] F = m v {\displaystyle F=mv} , incorrect in modern physics.[45] Natural motion depends on the element concerned: the aether naturally moves in a circle around the heavens,[H] while the 4 Empedoclean elements move vertically up (like fire, as is observed) or down (like earth) towards their natural resting places.[46][44][I] Aristotle's laws of motion. In Physics he states that objects fall at a speed proportional to their weight and inversely proportional to the density of the fluid they are immersed in.[44] This is a correct approximation for objects in Earth's gravitational field moving in air or water.[46] In the Physics (215a25), Aristotle effectively states a quantitative law, that the speed, v, of a falling body is proportional (say, with constant c) to its weight, W, and inversely proportional to the density,[J] ρ, of the fluid in which it is falling:[46][44] v = c W ρ {\displaystyle v=c{\frac {W}{\rho }}} Aristotle implies that in a vacuum the speed of fall would become infinite, and concludes from this apparent absurdity that a vacuum is not possible.[46][44] Opinions have varied on whether Aristotle intended to state quantitative laws. Henri Carteron held the "extreme view"[44] that Aristotle's concept of force was basically qualitative,[47] but other authors reject this.[44] Archimedes corrected Aristotle's theory that bodies move towards their natural resting places; metal boats can float if they displace enough water; floating depends in Archimedes' scheme on the mass and volume of the object, not as Aristotle thought its elementary composition.[46] Aristotle's writings on motion remained influential until the Early Modern period. John Philoponus (in the Middle Ages) and Galileo are said to have shown by experiment that Aristotle's claim that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect.[41] A contrary opinion is given by Carlo Rovelli, who argues that Aristotle's physics of motion is correct within its domain of validity, that of objects in the Earth's gravitational field immersed in a fluid such as air. In this system, heavy bodies in steady fall indeed travel faster than light ones (whether friction is ignored, or not[46]), and they do fall more slowly in a denser medium.[45][K] Newton's "forced" motion corresponds to Aristotle's "violent" motion with its external agent, but Aristotle's assumption that the agent's effect stops immediately it stops acting (e.g., the ball leaves the thrower's hand) has awkward consequences: he has to suppose that surrounding fluid helps to push the ball along to make it continue to rise even though the hand is no longer acting on it, resulting in the Medieval theory of impetus.[46] Four causes Main article: Four causes Aristotle argued by analogy with woodwork that a thing takes its form from four causes: in the case of a table, the wood used (material cause), its design (formal cause), the tools and techniques used (efficient cause), and its decorative or practical purpose (final cause).[48] Aristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active factors. His term aitia is traditionally translated as "cause", but it does not always refer to temporal sequence; it might be better translated as "explanation", but the traditional rendering will be employed here.[49][50] Material cause describes the material out of which something is composed. Thus the material cause of a table is wood. It is not about action. It does not mean that one domino knocks over another domino.[49] The formal cause is its form, i.e., the arrangement of that matter. It tells one what a thing is, that a thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (i.e., macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known as the whole-part causation. Plainly put, the formal cause is the idea in the mind of the sculptor that brings the sculpture into being. A simple example of the formal cause is the mental image or idea that allows an artist, architect, or engineer to create a drawing.[49] The efficient cause is "the primary source", or that from which the change under consideration proceeds. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, non-living or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of "cause" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. In the case of two dominoes, when the first is knocked over it causes the second also to fall over.[49] In the case of animals, this agency is a combination of how it develops from the egg, and how its body functions.[51] The final cause (telos) is its purpose, the reason why a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause is the purpose or function that something is supposed to serve. This covers modern ideas of motivating causes, such as volition.[49] In the case of living things, it implies adaptation to a particular way of life.[51] Optics Further information: History of optics Aristotle describes experiments in optics using a camera obscura in Problems, book 15. The apparatus consisted of a dark chamber with a small aperture that let light in. With it, he saw that whatever shape he made the hole, the sun's image always remained circular. He also noted that increasing the distance between the aperture and the image surface magnified the image.[52] Chance and spontaneity Further information: Accident (philosophy) According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause such as simple necessity. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things, "from what is spontaneous". There is also more a specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names "luck", that only applies to people's moral choices.[53][54] Astronomy Further information: History of astronomy In astronomy, Aristotle refuted Democritus's claim that the Milky Way was made up of "those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays," pointing out correctly that if "the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun, then... the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them."[55] Geology/Natural Sciences Further information: History of geology Aristotle noted that the ground level of the Aeolian islands changed before a volcanic eruption. Aristotle was one of the first people to record any geological observations. He stated that geological change was too slow to be observed in one person's lifetime.[56][57] The geologist Charles Lyell noted that Aristotle described such change, including "lakes that had dried up" and "deserts that had become watered by rivers", giving as examples the growth of the Nile delta since the time of Homer, and "the upheaving of one of the Aeolian islands, previous to a volcanic eruption."'[58] Aristotle also made many observations about the hydrologic cycle and meteorology (including his major writings "Meteorologica"). For example, he made some of the earliest observations about desalination: he observed early – and correctly – that when seawater is heated, freshwater evaporates and that the oceans are then replenished by the cycle of rainfall and river runoff (“I have proved by experiment that salt water evaporated forms fresh and the vapor does not when it condenses condense into sea water again” [59] Biology Main article: Aristotle's biology Among many pioneering zoological observations, Aristotle described the reproductive hectocotyl arm of the octopus (bottom left). Empirical research Aristotle was the first person to study biology systematically,[60] and biology forms a large part of his writings. He spent two years observing and describing the zoology of Lesbos and the surrounding seas, including in particular the Pyrrha lagoon in the centre of Lesbos.[61][62] His data in History of Animals, Generation of Animals, Movement of Animals, and Parts of Animals are assembled from his own observations,[63] statements given by people with specialized knowledge such as beekeepers and fishermen, and less accurate accounts provided by travellers from overseas.[64] His apparent emphasis on animals rather than plants is a historical accident: his works on botany have been lost, but two books on plants by his pupil Theophrastus have survived.[65] Aristotle reports on the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and the catches of fishermen. He describes the catfish, electric ray, and frogfish in detail, as well as cephalopods such as the octopus and paper nautilus. His description of the hectocotyl arm of cephalopods, used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until the 19th century.[66] He gives accurate descriptions of the four-chambered fore-stomachs of ruminants,[67] and of the ovoviviparous embryological development of the hound shark.[68] He notes that an animal's structure is well matched to function, so, among birds, the heron, which lives in marshes with soft mud and lives by catching fish, has a long neck and long legs, and a sharp spear-like beak, whereas ducks that swim have short legs and webbed feet.[69] Darwin, too, noted these sorts of differences between similar kinds of animal, but unlike Aristotle used the data to come to the theory of evolution.[70] Aristotle's writings can seem to modern readers close to implying evolution, but while Aristotle was aware that new mutations or hybridizations could occur, he saw these as rare accidents. For Aristotle, accidents, like heat waves in winter, must be considered distinct from natural causes. He was thus critical of Empedocles's materialist theory of a "survival of the fittest" origin of living things and their organs, and ridiculed the idea that accidents could lead to orderly results.[71] To put his views into modern terms, he nowhere says that different species can have a common ancestor, or that one kind can change into another, or that kinds can become extinct.[72] Scientific style Aristotle inferred growth laws from his observations on animals, including that brood size decreases with body mass, whereas gestation period increases. He was correct in these predictions, at least for mammals: data are shown for mouse and elephant. Aristotle did not do experiments in the modern sense.[73] He used the ancient Greek term pepeiramenoi to mean observations, or at most investigative procedures like dissection.[74] In Generation of Animals, he finds a fertilized hen's egg of a suitable stage and opens it to see the embryo's heart beating inside.[75][76] Instead, he practiced a different style of science: systematically gathering data, discovering patterns common to whole groups of animals, and inferring possible causal explanations from these.[77][78] This style is common in modern biology when large amounts of data become available in a new field, such as genomics. It does not result in the same certainty as experimental science, but it sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed. In this sense, Aristotle's biology is scientific.[77] From the data he collected and documented, Aristotle inferred quite a number of rules relating the life-history features of the live-bearing tetrapods (terrestrial placental mammals) that he studied. Among these correct predictions are the following. Brood size decreases with (adult) body mass, so that an elephant has fewer young (usually just one) per brood than a mouse. Lifespan increases with gestation period, and also with body mass, so that elephants live longer than mice, have a longer period of gestation, and are heavier. As a final example, fecundity decreases with lifespan, so long-lived kinds like elephants have fewer young in total than short-lived kinds like mice.[79] Classification of living things Further information: Scala naturae Aristotle recorded that the embryo of a dogfish was attached by a cord to a kind of placenta (the yolk sac), like a higher animal; this formed an exception to the linear scale from highest to lowest.[80] Aristotle distinguished about 500 species of animals,[81][82] arranging these in the History of Animals in a graded scale of perfection, a scala naturae, with man at the top. His system had eleven grades of animal, from highest potential to lowest, expressed in their form at birth: the highest gave live birth to hot and wet creatures, the lowest laid cold, dry mineral-like eggs. Animals came above plants, and these in turn were above minerals.[83] see also:[84] He grouped what the modern zoologist would call vertebrates as the hotter "animals with blood", and below them the colder invertebrates as "animals without blood". Those with blood were divided into the live-bearing (mammals), and the egg-laying (birds, reptiles, fish). Those without blood were insects, crustacea (non-shelled – cephalopods, and shelled) and the hard-shelled molluscs (bivalves and gastropods). He recognised that animals did not exactly fit into a linear scale, and noted various exceptions, such as that sharks had a placenta like the tetrapods. To a modern biologist, the explanation, not available to Aristotle, is convergent evolution.[85] He believed that purposive final causes guided all natural processes; this teleological view justified his observed data as an expression of formal design.[86] Aristotle's Scala naturae (highest to lowest) Group Examples (given by Aristotle) Blood Legs Souls (Rational, Sensitive, Vegetative) Qualities (Hot–Cold, Wet–Dry) Man Man with blood 2 legs R, S, V Hot, Wet Live-bearing tetrapods Cat, hare with blood 4 legs S, V Hot, Wet Cetaceans Dolphin, whale with blood none S, V Hot, Wet Birds Bee-eater, nightjar with blood 2 legs S, V Hot, Wet, except Dry eggs Egg-laying tetrapods Chameleon, crocodile with blood 4 legs S, V Cold, Wet except scales, eggs Snakes Water snake, Ottoman viper with blood none S, V Cold, Wet except scales, eggs Egg-laying fishes Sea bass, parrotfish with blood none S, V Cold, Wet, including eggs (Among the egg-laying fishes): placental selachians Shark, skate with blood none S, V Cold, Wet, but placenta like tetrapods Crustaceans Shrimp, crab without many legs S, V Cold, Wet except shell Cephalopods Squid, octopus without tentacles S, V Cold, Wet Hard-shelled animals Cockle, trumpet snail without none S, V Cold, Dry (mineral shell) Larva-bearing insects Ant, cicada without 6 legs S, V Cold, Dry Spontaneously-generating Sponges, worms without none S, V Cold, Wet or Dry, from earth Plants Fig without none V Cold, Dry Minerals Iron without none none Cold, Dry Psychology Soul Further information: On the Soul Aristotle proposed a three-part structure for souls of plants, animals, and humans, making humans unique in having all three types of soul. Aristotle's psychology, given in his treatise On the Soul (peri psychēs), posits three kinds of soul ("psyches"): the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans have a rational soul. The human soul incorporates the powers of the other kinds: Like the vegetative soul it can grow and nourish itself; like the sensitive soul it can experience sensations and move locally. The unique part of the human, rational soul is its ability to receive forms of other things and to compare them using the nous (intellect) and logos (reason).[87] For Aristotle, the soul is the form of a living being. Because all beings are composites of form and matter, the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e.g. the ability to initiate movement (or in the case of plants, growth and chemical transformations, which Aristotle considers types of movement).[15] In contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, he placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain.[88] Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally differed from the concepts of previous philosophers, with the exception of Alcmaeon.[89] Memory According to Aristotle in On the Soul, memory is the ability to hold a perceived experience in the mind and to distinguish between the internal "appearance" and an occurrence in the past.[90] In other words, a memory is a mental picture (phantasm) that can be recovered. Aristotle believed an impression is left on a semi-fluid bodily organ that undergoes several changes in order to make a memory. A memory occurs when stimuli such as sights or sounds are so complex that the nervous system cannot receive all the impressions at once. These changes are the same as those involved in the operations of sensation, Aristotelian 'common sense', and thinking.[91][92] Aristotle uses the term 'memory' for the actual retaining of an experience in the impression that can develop from sensation, and for the intellectual anxiety that comes with the impression because it is formed at a particular time and processing specific contents. Memory is of the past, prediction is of the future, and sensation is of the present. Retrieval of impressions cannot be performed suddenly. A transitional channel is needed and located in past experiences, both for previous experience and present experience.[93] Because Aristotle believes people receive all kinds of sense perceptions and perceive them as impressions, people are continually weaving together new impressions of experiences. To search for these impressions, people search the memory itself.[94] Within the memory, if one experience is offered instead of a specific memory, that person will reject this experience until they find what they are looking for. Recollection occurs when one retrieved experience naturally follows another. If the chain of "images" is needed, one memory will stimulate the next. When people recall experiences, they stimulate certain previous experiences until they reach the one that is needed.[95] Recollection is thus the self-directed activity of retrieving the information stored in a memory impression.[96] Only humans can remember impressions of intellectual activity, such as numbers and words. Animals that have perception of time can retrieve memories of their past observations. Remembering involves only perception of the things remembered and of the time passed.[97] Senses, perception, memory, dreams, action in Aristotle's psychology. Impressions are stored in the sensorium (the heart), linked by his laws of association (similarity, contrast, and contiguity). Aristotle believed the chain of thought, which ends in recollection of certain impressions, was connected systematically in relationships such as similarity, contrast, and contiguity, described in his laws of association. Aristotle believed that past experiences are hidden within the mind. A force operates to awaken the hidden material to bring up the actual experience. According to Aristotle, association is the power innate in a mental state, which operates upon the unexpressed remains of former experiences, allowing them to rise and be recalled.[98][99] Dreams Further information: Dream § Classical history Aristotle describes sleep in On Sleep and Wakefulness.[100] Sleep takes place as a result of overuse of the senses[101] or of digestion,[100] so it is vital to the body.[101] While a person is asleep, the critical activities, which include thinking, sensing, recalling and remembering, do not function as they do during wakefulness. Since a person cannot sense during sleep they cannot have desire, which is the result of sensation. However, the senses are able to work during sleep,[101] albeit differently,[100] unless they are weary.[101] Dreams do not involve actually sensing a stimulus. In dreams, sensation is still involved, but in an altered manner.[101] Aristotle explains that when a person stares at a moving stimulus such as the waves in a body of water, and then looks away, the next thing they look at appears to have a wavelike motion. When a person perceives a stimulus and the stimulus is no longer the focus of their attention, it leaves an impression.[100] When the body is awake and the senses are functioning properly, a person constantly encounters new stimuli to sense and so the impressions of previously perceived stimuli are ignored.[101] However, during sleep the impressions made throughout the day are noticed as there are no new distracting sensory experiences.[100] So, dreams result from these lasting impressions. Since impressions are all that are left and not the exact stimuli, dreams do not resemble the actual waking experience.[102] During sleep, a person is in an altered state of mind. Aristotle compares a sleeping person to a person who is overtaken by strong feelings toward a stimulus. For example, a person who has a strong infatuation with someone may begin to think they see that person everywhere because they are so overtaken by their feelings. Since a person sleeping is in a suggestible state and unable to make judgements, they become easily deceived by what appears in their dreams, like the infatuated person.[100] This leads the person to believe the dream is real, even when the dreams are absurd in nature.[100] In De Anima iii 3, Aristotle ascribes the ability to create, to store, and to recall images in the absence of perception to the faculty of imagination, phantasia.[15] One component of Aristotle's theory of dreams disagrees with previously held beliefs. He claimed that dreams are not foretelling and not sent by a divine being. Aristotle reasoned naturalistically that instances in which dreams do resemble future events are simply coincidences.[103] Aristotle claimed that a dream is first established by the fact that the person is asleep when they experience it. If a person had an image appear for a moment after waking up or if they see something in the dark it is not considered a dream because they were awake when it occurred. Secondly, any sensory experience that is perceived while a person is asleep does not qualify as part of a dream. For example, if, while a person is sleeping, a door shuts and in their dream they hear a door is shut, this sensory experience is not part of the dream. Lastly, the images of dreams must be a result of lasting impressions of waking sensory experiences.[102] Practical philosophy Aristotle's practical philosophy covers areas such as ethics, politics, economics, and rhetoric.[41] Virtues and their accompanying vices[4] Too little Virtuous mean Too much Humbleness High-mindedness Vainglory Lack of purpose Right ambition Over-ambition Spiritlessness Good temper Irascibility Rudeness Civility Obsequiousness Cowardice Courage Rashness Insensibility Self-control Intemperance Sarcasm Sincerity Boastfulness Boorishness Wit Buffoonery Shamelessness Modesty Shyness Callousness Just resentment Spitefulness Pettiness Generosity Vulgarity Meanness Liberality Wastefulness Just war theory Aristotelian just war theory is not well regarded in the present day, especially his view that warfare was justified to enslave "natural slaves". In Aristotelian philosophy, the abolition of what he considers "natural slavery" would undermine civic freedom. The pursuit of freedom is inseparable from pursuing mastery over "those who deserve to be slaves". According to The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle's Politics the targets of this aggressive warfare were non-Greeks, noting Aristotle's view that "our poets say 'it is proper for Greeks to rule non-Greeks' ".[104] Aristotle generally has a favourable opinion of war, extolling it as a chance for virtue and writing that "the leisure that accompanies peace" tends to make people "arrogant". War to "avoid becoming enslaved to others" is justified as self-defence. He writes that war "compels people to be just and temperate", however, in order to be just "war must be chosen for the sake of peace" (with the exception of wars of aggression discussed above).[104] Ethics Main article: Aristotelian ethics Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at becoming good and doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, including most notably, the Nicomachean Ethics.[105] Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (ergon) of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the psuchē (soul) in accordance with reason (logos). Aristotle identified such an optimum activity (the virtuous mean, between the accompanying vices of excess or deficiency[4]) of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, eudaimonia, generally translated as "happiness" or sometimes "well being". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (ēthikē aretē), often translated as moral or ethical virtue or excellence.[106] Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which one consciously chooses to do the best things. When the best people come to live life this way their practical wisdom (phronesis) and their intellect (nous) can develop with each other towards the highest possible human virtue, the wisdom of an accomplished theoretical or speculative thinker, or in other words, a philosopher.[107] Politics Main article: Politics (Aristotle) In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled Politics. Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the family which in turn is prior to the individual, "for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part".[108] He famously stated that "man is by nature a political animal" and argued that humanity's defining factor among others in the animal kingdom is its rationality.[109] Aristotle conceived of politics as being like an organism rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others. Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner.[110] Aristotle's classifications of political constitutions The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different from Aristotle's understanding. Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires, the natural community according to Aristotle was the city (polis) which functions as a political "community" or "partnership" (koinōnia). The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability, but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts: "The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together." This is distinguished from modern approaches, beginning with social contract theory, according to which individuals leave the state of nature because of "fear of violent death" or its "inconveniences."[L] In Protrepticus, the character 'Aristotle' states:[111] For we all agree that the most excellent man should rule, i.e., the supreme by nature, and that the law rules and alone is authoritative; but the law is a kind of intelligence, i.e. a discourse based on intelligence. And again, what standard do we have, what criterion of good things, that is more precise than the intelligent man? For all that this man will choose, if the choice is based on his knowledge, are good things and their contraries are bad. And since everybody chooses most of all what conforms to their own proper dispositions (a just man choosing to live justly, a man with bravery to live bravely, likewise a self-controlled man to live with self-control), it is clear that the intelligent man will choose most of all to be intelligent; for this is the function of that capacity. Hence it's evident that, according to the most authoritative judgment, intelligence is supreme among goods.[111] As Plato’s disciple Aristotle was rather skeptical concerning democracy and, following Plato's vague ideas, he developed a coherent theory of integrating various forms of power into a so-called mixed state: It is … constitutional to take … from oligarchy that offices are to be elected, and from democracy that this is not to be on a property-qualification. This then is the mode of the mixture; and the mark of a good mixture of democracy and oligarchy is when it is possible to speak of the same constitution as a democracy and as an oligarchy. — Aristotle. Politics, Book 4, 1294b.10–18 To illustrate this approach, Aristotle proposed a first-of-its-kind mathematical model of voting, albeit textually described, where the democratic principle of "one voter–one vote" is combined with the oligarchic "merit-weighted voting"; for relevant quotes and their translation into mathematical formulas see.[112] Economics Main article: Politics (Aristotle) Aristotle made substantial contributions to economic thought, especially to thought in the Middle Ages.[113] In Politics, Aristotle addresses the city, property, and trade. His response to criticisms of private property, in Lionel Robbins's view, anticipated later proponents of private property among philosophers and economists, as it related to the overall utility of social arrangements.[113] Aristotle believed that although communal arrangements may seem beneficial to society, and that although private property is often blamed for social strife, such evils in fact come from human nature. In Politics, Aristotle offers one of the earliest accounts of the origin of money.[113] Money came into use because people became dependent on one another, importing what they needed and exporting the surplus. For the sake of convenience, people then agreed to deal in something that is intrinsically useful and easily applicable, such as iron or silver.[114] Aristotle's discussions on retail and interest was a major influence on economic thought in the Middle Ages. He had a low opinion of retail, believing that contrary to using money to procure things one needs in managing the household, retail trade seeks to make a profit. It thus uses goods as a means to an end, rather than as an end unto itself. He believed that retail trade was in this way unnatural. Similarly, Aristotle considered making a profit through interest unnatural, as it makes a gain out of the money itself, and not from its use.[114] Aristotle gave a summary of the function of money that was perhaps remarkably precocious for his time. He wrote that because it is impossible to determine the value of every good through a count of the number of other goods it is worth, the necessity arises of a single universal standard of measurement. Money thus allows for the association of different goods and makes them "commensurable".[114] He goes on to state that money is also useful for future exchange, making it a sort of security. That is, "if we do not want a thing now, we shall be able to get it when we do want it".[114] Rhetoric and poetics Main articles: Rhetoric (Aristotle) and Poetics (Aristotle) The Blind Oedipus Commending his Children to the Gods (1784) by Bénigne Gagneraux. In his Poetics, Aristotle uses the tragedy Oedipus Tyrannus by Sophocles as an example of how the perfect tragedy should be structured, with a generally good protagonist who starts the play prosperous, but loses everything through some hamartia (fault).[115] Aristotle's Rhetoric proposes that a speaker can use three basic kinds of appeals to persuade his audience: ethos (an appeal to the speaker's character), pathos (an appeal to the audience's emotion), and logos (an appeal to logical reasoning).[116] He also categorizes rhetoric into three genres: epideictic (ceremonial speeches dealing with praise or blame), forensic (judicial speeches over guilt or innocence), and deliberative (speeches calling on an audience to make a decision on an issue).[117] Aristotle also outlines two kinds of rhetorical proofs: enthymeme (proof by syllogism) and paradeigma (proof by example).[118] Aristotle writes in his Poetics that epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry, painting, sculpture, music, and dance are all fundamentally acts of mimesis ("imitation"), each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner.[119][120] He applies the term mimesis both as a property of a work of art and also as the product of the artist's intention[119] and contends that the audience's realisation of the mimesis is vital to understanding the work itself.[119] Aristotle states that mimesis is a natural instinct of humanity that separates humans from animals[119][121] and that all human artistry "follows the pattern of nature".[119] Because of this, Aristotle believed that each of the mimetic arts possesses what Stephen Halliwell calls "highly structured procedures for the achievement of their purposes."[119] For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.[122] While it is believed that Aristotle's Poetics originally comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry.[123] The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the catharsis of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes Poetics with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic.[124] Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the Delphic Oracle and studied the fables of Aesop.[125] Views on women Main article: Aristotle's views on women Further information: Aristotle's biology § Inheritance Aristotle's analysis of procreation describes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive female element. On this ground, proponents of feminist metaphysics have accused Aristotle of misogyny[126] and sexism.[127] However, Aristotle gave equal weight to women's happiness as he did to men's, and commented in his Rhetoric that the things that lead to happiness need to be in women as well as men.[M] Influence Further information: List of writers influenced by Aristotle More than 2300 years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived.[129][130] He contributed to almost every field of human knowledge then in existence, and he was the founder of many new fields. According to the philosopher Bryan Magee, "it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did".[131] Among countless other achievements, Aristotle was the founder of formal logic,[132] pioneered the study of zoology, and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method.[133][134][135] Taneli Kukkonen, writing in The Classical Tradition, observes that his achievement in founding two sciences is unmatched, and his reach in influencing "every branch of intellectual enterprise" including Western ethical and political theory, theology, rhetoric and literary analysis is equally long. As a result, Kukkonen argues, any analysis of reality today "will almost certainly carry Aristotelian overtones ... evidence of an exceptionally forceful mind."[135] Jonathan Barnes wrote that "an account of Aristotle's intellectual afterlife would be little less than a history of European thought".[136] On his successor, Theophrastus Main articles: Theophrastus and Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus) Frontispiece to a 1644 version of Theophrastus's Historia Plantarum, originally written around 300 BC Aristotle's pupil and successor, Theophrastus, wrote the History of Plants, a pioneering work in botany. Some of his technical terms remain in use, such as carpel from carpos, fruit, and pericarp, from pericarpion, seed chamber.[137] Theophrastus was much less concerned with formal causes than Aristotle was, instead pragmatically describing how plants functioned.[138][139] On later Greek philosophers Further information: Peripatetic school The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the Peripatetic school. Aristotle's notable students included Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, Demetrius of Phalerum, Eudemos of Rhodes, Harpalus, Hephaestion, Mnason of Phocis, Nicomachus, and Theophrastus. Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?"[140] On Hellenistic science Further information: Ancient Greek medicine After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly.[141] It is not until the age of Alexandria under the Ptolemies that advances in biology can be again found. The first medical teacher at Alexandria, Herophilus of Chalcedon, corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between veins and arteries, noting that the latter pulse while the former do not.[142] Though a few ancient atomists such as Lucretius challenged the teleological viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, natural theology) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. Ernst Mayr states that there was "nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance."[143] On Byzantine scholars See also: Commentaries on Aristotle and Byzantine Aristotelianism Greek Christian scribes played a crucial role in the preservation of Aristotle by copying all the extant Greek language manuscripts of the corpus. The first Greek Christians to comment extensively on Aristotle were Philoponus, Elias, and David in the sixth century, and Stephen of Alexandria in the early seventh century.[144] John Philoponus stands out for having attempted a fundamental critique of Aristotle's views on the eternity of the world, movement, and other elements of Aristotelian thought.[145] Philoponus questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics, noting its flaws and introducing the theory of impetus to explain his observations.[146] After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by Eustratius and Michael of Ephesus reappeared in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponsored by Anna Comnena.[147] On the medieval Islamic world Further information: Logic in Islamic philosophy and Transmission of the Greek Classics Islamic portrayal of Aristotle, c. 1220 Aristotle was one of the most revered Western thinkers in early Islamic theology. Most of the still extant works of Aristotle,[148] as well as a number of the original Greek commentaries, were translated into Arabic and studied by Muslim philosophers, scientists and scholars. Averroes, Avicenna and Alpharabius, who wrote on Aristotle in great depth, also influenced Thomas Aquinas and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers. Alkindus greatly admired Aristotle's philosophy,[149] and Averroes spoke of Aristotle as the "exemplar" for all future philosophers.[150] Medieval Muslim scholars regularly described Aristotle as the "First Teacher".[148] The title "teacher" was first given to Aristotle by Muslim scholars, and was later used by Western philosophers (as in the famous poem of Dante) who were influenced by the tradition of Islamic philosophy.[151] On medieval Europe Woodcut of Aristotle ridden by Phyllis by Hans Baldung, 1515[152] Further information: Aristotelianism and Syllogism § Medieval With the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the early medieval Latin West, Aristotle was practically unknown there from c. AD 600 to c. 1100 except through the Latin translation of the Organon made by Boethius. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, interest in Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had translations made, both from Arabic translations, such as those by Gerard of Cremona,[153] and from the original Greek, such as those by James of Venice and William of Moerbeke. After the Scholastic Thomas Aquinas wrote his Summa Theologica, working from Moerbeke's translations and calling Aristotle "The Philosopher",[154] the demand for Aristotle's writings grew, and the Greek manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe that continued into the Renaissance.[155] These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. Scholars such as Boethius, Peter Abelard, and John Buridan worked on Aristotelian logic.[156] The medieval English poet Chaucer describes his student as being happy by having at his beddes heed Twenty bookes, clad in blak or reed, Of aristotle and his philosophie,[157] A cautionary medieval tale held that Aristotle advised his pupil Alexander to avoid the king's seductive mistress, Phyllis, but was himself captivated by her, and allowed her to ride him. Phyllis had secretly told Alexander what to expect, and he witnessed Phyllis proving that a woman's charms could overcome even the greatest philosopher's male intellect. Artists such as Hans Baldung produced a series of illustrations of the popular theme.[158][152] The Italian poet Dante says of Aristotle in The Divine Comedy: Dante L'Inferno, Canto IV. 131–135 Translation Hell vidi 'l maestro di color che sanno seder tra filosofica famiglia. Tutti lo miran, tutti onor li fanno: quivi vid'ïo Socrate e Platone che 'nnanzi a li altri più presso li stanno; I saw the Master there of those who know, Amid the philosophic family, By all admired, and by all reverenced; There Plato too I saw, and Socrates, Who stood beside him closer than the rest. On Early Modern scientists William Harvey's De Motu Cordis, 1628, showed that the blood circulated, contrary to classical era thinking. In the Early Modern period, scientists such as William Harvey in England and Galileo Galilei in Italy reacted against the theories of Aristotle and other classical era thinkers like Galen, establishing new theories based to some degree on observation and experiment. Harvey demonstrated the circulation of the blood, establishing that the heart functioned as a pump rather than being the seat of the soul and the controller of the body's heat, as Aristotle thought.[159] Galileo used more doubtful arguments to displace Aristotle's physics, proposing that bodies all fall at the same speed whatever their weight.[160] On 19th-century thinkers The 19th-century German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle.[161] Aristotle rigidly separated action from production, and argued for the deserved subservience of some people ("natural slaves"), and the natural superiority (virtue, arete) of others. It was Martin Heidegger, not Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of Aristotle, intended to warrant his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition.[162] The English mathematician George Boole fully accepted Aristotle's logic, but decided "to go under, over, and beyond" it with his system of algebraic logic in his 1854 book The Laws of Thought. This gives logic a mathematical foundation with equations, enables it to solve equations as well as check validity, and allows it to handle a wider class of problems by expanding propositions of any number of terms, not just two.[163] Modern rejection and rehabilitation "That most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander".[135] Illustration by Charles Laplante [fr], 1866 During the 20th century, Aristotle's work was widely criticized. The philosopher Bertrand Russell argued that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell called Aristotle's ethics "repulsive", and labelled his logic "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy". Russell stated that these errors made it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembered what an advance he made upon all of his predecessors.[5] The Dutch historian of science Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis wrote that Aristotle and his predecessors showed the difficulty of science by "proceed[ing] so readily to frame a theory of such a general character" on limited evidence from their senses.[164] In 1985, the biologist Peter Medawar could still state in "pure seventeenth century"[165] tones that Aristotle had assembled "a strange and generally speaking rather tiresome farrago of hearsay, imperfect observation, wishful thinking and credulity amounting to downright gullibility".[165][166] By the start of the 21st century, however, Aristotle was taken more seriously: Kukkonen noted that "In the best 20th-century scholarship Aristotle comes alive as a thinker wrestling with the full weight of the Greek philosophical tradition."[135] Alasdair MacIntyre has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans.[167] Kukkonen observed, too, that "that most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander" remained current, as in the 2004 film Alexander, while the "firm rules" of Aristotle's theory of drama have ensured a role for the Poetics in Hollywood.[135] Biologists continue to be interested in Aristotle's thinking. Armand Marie Leroi has reconstructed Aristotle's biology,[168] while Niko Tinbergen's four questions, based on Aristotle's four causes, are used to analyse animal behaviour; they examine function, phylogeny, mechanism, and ontogeny.[169][170] Surviving works Corpus Aristotelicum Main article: Corpus Aristotelicum First page of a 1566 edition of the Nicomachean Ethics in Greek and Latin The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school. Reference to them is made according to the organization of Immanuel Bekker's Royal Prussian Academy edition (Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica, Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works.[171] Loss and preservation Further information: Recovery of Aristotle Aristotle wrote his works on papyrus scrolls, the common writing medium of that era.[N] His writings are divisible into two groups: the "exoteric", intended for the public, and the "esoteric", for use within the Lyceum school.[173][O][174] Aristotle's "lost" works stray considerably in characterization from the surviving Aristotelian corpus. Whereas the lost works appear to have been originally written with a view to subsequent publication, the surviving works mostly resemble lecture notes not intended for publication.[175][173] Cicero's description of Aristotle's literary style as "a river of gold" must have applied to the published works, not the surviving notes.[P] A major question in the history of Aristotle's works is how the exoteric writings were all lost, and how the ones now possessed came to be found.[177] The consensus is that Andronicus of Rhodes collected the esoteric works of Aristotle's school which existed in the form of smaller, separate works, distinguished them from those of Theophrastus and other Peripatetics, edited them, and finally compiled them into the more cohesive, larger works as they are known today.[178][179] Legacy Depictions Paintings Aristotle has been depicted by major artists including Lucas Cranach the Elder,[180] Justus van Gent, Raphael, Paolo Veronese, Jusepe de Ribera,[181] Rembrandt,[182] and Francesco Hayez over the centuries. Among the best-known depictions is Raphael's fresco The School of Athens, in the Vatican's Apostolic Palace, where the figures of Plato and Aristotle are central to the image, at the architectural vanishing point, reflecting their importance.[183] Rembrandt's Aristotle with a Bust of Homer, too, is a celebrated work, showing the knowing philosopher and the blind Homer from an earlier age: as the art critic Jonathan Jones writes, "this painting will remain one of the greatest and most mysterious in the world, ensnaring us in its musty, glowing, pitch-black, terrible knowledge of time."[184][185] Nuremberg Chronicle anachronistically shows Aristotle in a medieval scholar's clothing. Ink and watercolour on paper, 1493 Aristotle by Justus van Gent. Oil on panel, c. 1476 Phyllis and Aristotle by Lucas Cranach the Elder. Oil on panel, 1530 Aristotle by Paolo Veronese, Biblioteka Marciana. Oil on canvas, 1560s Aristotle and Campaspe,[Q] Alessandro Turchi (attrib.) Oil on canvas, 1713 Aristotle by Jusepe de Ribera. Oil on canvas, 1637 Aristotle with a Bust of Homer by Rembrandt. Oil on canvas, 1653 Aristotle by Johann Jakob Dorner the Elder. Oil on canvas, by 1813 Aristotle by Francesco Hayez. Oil on canvas, 1811 Sculptures Roman copy of 1st or 2nd century from original bronze by Lysippos. Louvre Museum Roman copy of 117-138 AD of Greek original. Palermo Regional Archeology Museum Relief of Aristotle and Plato by Luca della Robbia, Florence Cathedral, 1437-1439 Stone statue in niche, Gladstone's Library, Hawarden, Wales, 1899 Bronze statue, University of Freiburg, Germany, 1915 Eponyms The Aristotle Mountains in Antarctica are named after Aristotle. He was the first person known to conjecture, in his book Meteorology, the existence of a landmass in the southern high-latitude region and called it Antarctica.[186] Aristoteles is a crater on the Moon bearing the classical form of Aristotle's name.[187] See also Aristotelian Society Conimbricenses Perfectionism References Notes ^ That these dates (the first half of the Olympiad year 384/383 BC, and in 322 shortly before the death of Demosthenes) are correct was shown by August Boeckh (Kleine Schriften VI 195); for further discussion, see Felix Jacoby on FGrHist 244 F 38. Ingemar Düring, Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition, Göteborg, 1957,p. 253 ^ See Shields 2012, pp. 3–16; Düring 1957 covers ancient biographies of Aristotle. ^ This type of syllogism, with all three terms in 'a', is known by the traditional (medieval) mnemonic Barbara.[27] ^ M is the Middle (here, Men), S is the Subject (Greeks), P is the Predicate (mortal).[27] ^ The first equation can be read as 'It is not true that there exists an x such that x is a man and that x is not mortal.'[28] ^ Rhett Allain notes that Newton's First Law is "essentially a direct reply to Aristotle, that the natural state is not to change motion.[43] ^ Leonard Susskind comments that Aristotle had clearly never gone ice skating or he would have seen that it takes force to stop an object.[45] ^ For heavenly bodies like the Sun, Moon, and stars, the observed motions are "to a very good approximation" circular around the Earth's centre, (for example, the apparent rotation of the sky because of the rotation of the Earth, and the rotation of the moon around the Earth) as Aristotle stated.[46] ^ Drabkin quotes numerous passages from Physics and On the Heavens (De Caelo) which state Aristotle's laws of motion.[44] ^ Drabkin agrees that density is treated quantitatively in this passage, but without a sharp definition of density as weight per unit volume.[44] ^ Philoponus and Galileo correctly objected that for the transient phase (still increasing in speed) with heavy objects falling a short distance, the law does not apply: Galileo used balls on a short incline to show this. Rovelli notes that "Two heavy balls with the same shape and different weight do fall at different speeds from an aeroplane, confirming Aristotle's theory, not Galileo's."[46] ^ For a different reading of social and economic processes in the Nicomachean Ethics and Politics see Polanyi, Karl (1957) "Aristotle Discovers the Economy" in Primitive, Archaic and Modern Economies: Essays of Karl Polanyi ed. G. Dalton, Boston 1971, 78–115. ^ "Where, as among the Lacedaemonians, the state of women is bad, almost half of human life is spoilt."[128] ^ "When the Roman dictator Sulla invaded Athens in 86 BC, he brought back to Rome a fantastic prize – Aristotle's library. Books then were papyrus rolls, from 10 to 20 feet long, and since Aristotle's death in 322 BC, worms and damp had done their worst. The rolls needed repairing, and the texts clarifying and copying on to new papyrus (imported from Egypt – Moses' bulrushes). The man in Rome who put Aristotle's library in order was a Greek scholar, Tyrannio."[172] ^ Aristotle: Nicomachean Ethics 1102a26–27. Aristotle himself never uses the term "esoteric" or "acroamatic". For other passages where Aristotle speaks of exōterikoi logoi, see W.D. Ross, Aristotle's Metaphysics (1953), vol. 2 pp= 408–10. Ross defends an interpretation according to which the phrase, at least in Aristotle's own works, usually refers generally to "discussions not peculiar to the Peripatetic school", rather than to specific works of Aristotle's own. ^ "veniet flumen orationis aureum fundens Aristoteles", (Google translation: "Aristotle will come pouring forth a golden stream of eloquence").[176] ^ Compare the medieval tale of Phyllis and Alexander above. 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The Growth of Biological Thought. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-36446-2. McLeisch, Kenneth Cole (1999). Aristotle: The Great Philosophers. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-92392-7. Medawar, Peter B.; Medawar, J. S. (1984). Aristotle to Zoos: a philosophical dictionary of biology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-283043-2. Miller, Willard M. (1973). "Aristotle on Necessity, Chance, and Spontaneity". New Scholasticism. 47 (2): 204–13. doi:10.5840/newscholas197347237. Modrak, Deborah (2009). "Dreams and Method in Aristotle". Skepsis: A Journal for Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Research. 20: 169–81. Moore, Ruth (1956). The Earth We Live On. Alfred A. Knopf. OCLC 1024467091. Morsink, Johannes (Spring 1979). "Was Aristotle's Biology Sexist?". Journal of the History of Biology. 12 (1): 83–112. doi:10.1007/bf00128136. JSTOR 4330727. PMID 11615776. S2CID 6090923. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1996). The Islamic Intellectual Tradition in Persia. Curzon Press. ISBN 978-0-7007-0314-2. Phelan, Joseph (September 2002). "The Philosopher as Hero: Raphael's The School of Athens". ArtCyclopedia. Retrieved 23 March 2018. "Phyllis and Aristotle". 1 February 2019 – via Musee du Louvre. Pickover, Clifford A. (2009). The Math Book: From Pythagoras to the 57th Dimension, 250 Milestones in the History of Mathematics. Sterling. ISBN 978-1-4027-5796-9. "Plutarch – Life of Alexander (Part 1 of 7)". penelope.uchicago.edu. Loeb Classical Library. 1919. Retrieved 31 January 2019. "Predicate Logic" (PDF). University of Texas. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 March 2018. Retrieved 29 March 2018. Rhodes, Frank Harold Trevor (1974). Evolution. Golden Press. ISBN 978-0-307-64360-5. Robbins, Lionel (2000). Medema, Steven G.; Samuels, Warren J. (eds.). A History of Economic Thought: The LSE Lectures. Princeton University Press. Rorty, Amélie Oksenberg (1996). "Structuring Rhetoric". In Rorty, Amélie Oksenberg (ed.). Essays on Aristotle's Rhetoric. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-20227-6. Rovelli, Carlo (2015). "Aristotle's Physics: A Physicist's Look". Journal of the American Philosophical Association. 1 (1): 23–40. arXiv:1312.4057. doi:10.1017/apa.2014.11. S2CID 44193681. Russell, Bertrand (1972). A history of western philosophy. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-31400-2. Sedley, David (2007). Creationism and Its Critics in Antiquity. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25364-3. Shields, Christopher (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Aristotle. OUP USA. ISBN 978-0-19-518748-9. Shields, Christopher (2016). "Aristotle's Psychology". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2016 ed.). Shute, Clarence (1941). The Psychology of Aristotle: An Analysis of the Living Being. Columbia University Press. OCLC 936606202. Sikka, Sonya (1997). Forms of Transcendence: Heidegger and Medieval Mystical Theology. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-3345-4. Smith, Robin (2017). "Aristotle's Logic". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Smith, William George (2007) [1869]. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. J. Walton. Retrieved 30 January 2019 – via Internet Archive. Sorabji, R. (2006). Aristotle on Memory (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 54. And this is exactly why we hunt for the successor, starting in our thoughts from the present or from something else, and from something similar, or opposite, or neighbouring. By this means recollection occurs... Sorabji, Richard (1990). Aristotle Transformed. Duckworth. ISBN 978-0-7156-2254-4. Staley, Kevin (1989). "Al-Kindi on Creation: Aristotle's Challenge to Islam". Journal of the History of Ideas. 50 (3): 355–370. doi:10.2307/2709566. JSTOR 2709566. Susskind, Leonard (3 October 2011). "Classical Mechanics, Lectures 2, 3". The Theoretical Minimum. Retrieved 11 May 2018. Taylor, Henry Osborn (1922). "Chapter 3: Aristotle's Biology". Greek Biology and Medicine. Archived from the original on 27 March 2006. Retrieved 3 January 2017. "The School of Athens by Raphael". Visual Arts Cork. Retrieved 22 March 2018. Stewart, Jessica (2019). "The Story Behind Raphael's Masterpiece 'The School of Athens'". My Modern Met. Retrieved 29 March 2019. Plato's gesture toward the sky is thought to indicate his Theory of Forms. ... Conversely, Aristotle's hand is a visual representation of his belief that knowledge comes from experience. Empiricism, as it is known, theorizes that humans must have concrete evidence to support their ideas Tangian, Andranik (2020). Analytical theory of democracy. Vols. 1 and 2. Studies in Choice and Welfare. Cham, Switzerland: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-39691-6. ISBN 978-3-030-39690-9. Thompson, D'Arcy (1910). Ross, W. D.; Smith, J. A. (eds.). Historia animalium. The works of Aristotle translated into English. Clarendon Press. OCLC 39273217. Warren, Howard C. (1921). A History of the Association of Psychology. OCLC 21010604. Webb, Wilse (1990). Dreamtime and dreamwork: Decoding the language of the night. Jeremy P. Tarcher. ISBN 978-0-87477-594-5. "When libraries were on a roll". The Telegraph. 19 May 2001. Retrieved 29 June 2017. Wildberg (2016). "John Philoponus". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Zalta, Edward N., ed. (2018). "Aristotle's Influence". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2018 ed.). Further reading The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following is only a small selection. Ackrill, J. L. (1997). Essays on Plato and Aristotle, Oxford University Press. Ackrill, J.L. (1981). Aristotle the Philosopher. Oxford University Press. Adler, Mortimer J. (1978). Aristotle for Everybody. Macmillan. Ammonius (1991). Cohen, S. Marc; Matthews, Gareth B (eds.). On Aristotle's Categories. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-2688-9. Aristotle (1908–1952). The Works of Aristotle Translated into English Under the Editorship of W.D. Ross, 12 vols. Clarendon Press. These translations are available in several places online; see External links. Bakalis, Nikolaos. (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing, ISBN 978-1412048439. Bocheński, I. M. (1951). Ancient Formal Logic. North-Holland. Bolotin, David (1998). An Approach to Aristotle's Physics: With Particular Attention to the Role of His Manner of Writing. Albany: SUNY Press. A contribution to our understanding of how to read Aristotle's scientific works. Burnyeat, Myles F. et al. (1979). Notes on Book Zeta of Aristotle's Metaphysics. Oxford: Sub-faculty of Philosophy. Cantor, Norman F.; Klein, Peter L., eds. (1969). Ancient Thought: Plato and Aristotle. Monuments of Western Thought. 1. Blaisdell. Chappell, V. (1973). "Aristotle's Conception of Matter". Journal of Philosophy. 70 (19): 679–96. doi:10.2307/2025076. JSTOR 2025076. Code, Alan (1995). Potentiality in Aristotle's Science and Metaphysics, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 76. Cohen, S. Marc; Reeve, C. D. C. (21 November 2020). "Aristotle's Metaphysics". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2020 ed.). Ferguson, John (1972). Aristotle. Twayne Publishers. De Groot, Jean (2014). Aristotle's Empiricism: Experience and Mechanics in the 4th century BC, Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1930972834. Frede, Michael (1987). Essays in Ancient Philosophy. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Fuller, B.A.G. (1923). Aristotle. History of Greek Philosophy. 3. Cape. Gendlin, Eugene T. (2012). Line by Line Commentary on Aristotle's De Anima Archived 27 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 1: Books I & II; Volume 2: Book III. The Focusing Institute. Gill, Mary Louise (1989). Aristotle on Substance: The Paradox of Unity. Princeton University Press. Guthrie, W.K.C. (1981). A History of Greek Philosophy. 6. Cambridge University Press. Halper, Edward C. (2009). One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 1: Books Alpha – Delta. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1930972216. Halper, Edward C. (2005). One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 2: The Central Books. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1930972056. Irwin, Terence H. (1988). Aristotle's First Principles (PDF). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0198242905. Jaeger, Werner (1948). Robinson, Richard (ed.). Aristotle: Fundamentals of the History of His Development (2nd ed.). Clarendon Press. Jori, Alberto (2003). Aristotele, Bruno Mondadori (Prize 2003 of the "International Academy of the History of Science"), ISBN 978-8842497370. Kiernan, Thomas P., ed. (1962). Aristotle Dictionary. Philosophical Library. Knight, Kelvin (2007). Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre, Polity Press. Lewis, Frank A. (1991). Substance and Predication in Aristotle. Cambridge University Press. Lord, Carnes (1984). Introduction to The Politics, by Aristotle. Chicago University Press. Loux, Michael J. (1991). Primary Ousia: An Essay on Aristotle's Metaphysics Ζ and Η. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Maso, Stefano (Ed.), Natali, Carlo (Ed.), Seel, Gerhard (Ed.) (2012) Reading Aristotle: Physics VII. 3: What is Alteration? Proceedings of the International ESAP-HYELE Conference, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1930972735. McKeon, Richard (1973). Introduction to Aristotle (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. Owen, G. E. L. (1965c). "The Platonism of Aristotle". Proceedings of the British Academy. 50: 125–50. [Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schofield, and R.R.K. Sorabji, eds.(1975). Articles on Aristotle Vol 1. Science. London: Duckworth 14–34.] Pangle, Lorraine Smith (2002). Aristotle and the Philosophy of Friendship. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511498282. ISBN 9780511498282. Plato (1979). Allen, Harold Joseph; Wilbur, James B (eds.). The Worlds of Plato and Aristotle. Prometheus Books. Reeve, C. D. C. (2000). Substantial Knowledge: Aristotle's Metaphysics. Hackett. Rose, Lynn E. (1968). Aristotle's Syllogistic. Charles C Thomas. Ross, Sir David (1995). Aristotle (6th ed.). Routledge. Scaltsas, T. (1994). Substances and Universals in Aristotle's Metaphysics. Cornell University Press. Strauss, Leo (1964). "On Aristotle's Politics", in The City and Man, Rand McNally. Swanson, Judith (1992). The Public and the Private in Aristotle's Political Philosophy. Cornell University Press. Veatch, Henry B. (1974). Aristotle: A Contemporary Appreciation. Indiana University Press. Woods, M. J. (1991b). "Universals and Particular Forms in Aristotle's Metaphysics". Aristotle and the Later Tradition. Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy. Suppl. pp. 41–56. External links Aristotleat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Resources from Wikiversity Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Ἀριστοτέλης Library resources about Aristotle Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Aristotle Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Aristotle at the Encyclopædia Britannica Aristotle at PhilPapers 2553 Aristotle at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project At the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Aristotle (general article) Biology Ethics Logic Metaphysics Motion and its Place in Nature Poetics Politics At the Internet Classics Archive From the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Aristotle (general article) Aristotle in the Renaissance Biology Causality Commentators on Aristotle Ethics Logic Mathematics Metaphysics Natural philosophy Non-contradiction Political theory Psychology Rhetoric Turner, William (1907). "Aristotle" . Catholic Encyclopedia. 1.   Laërtius, Diogenes (1925). "The Peripatetics: Aristotle" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 1:5. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library. Collections of works At Massachusetts Institute of Technology Works by Aristotle at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Aristotle at Internet Archive Works by Aristotle at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Works by Aristotle at Open Library (in English and Greek) Perseus Project at Tufts University At the University of Adelaide (in Greek and French) P. 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en-wikipedia-org-4814	----	Persepolis - Wikipedia Persepolis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Empire This article is about the ancient city. For other uses, see Persepolis (disambiguation). Persepolis 𐎱𐎠𐎼𐎿 Pārsa (Old Persian) تخت جمشید Takht-e Jamshīd (Persian) Ruins of the Gate of All Nations, Persepolis. Shown within Iran Location Marvdasht, Fars Province, Iran[1] Coordinates 29°56′04″N 52°53′29″E / 29.93444°N 52.89139°E / 29.93444; 52.89139Coordinates: 29°56′04″N 52°53′29″E / 29.93444°N 52.89139°E / 29.93444; 52.89139 Type Settlement History Builder Darius the Great, Xerxes the Great and Artaxerxes I Material Limestone, mud-brick, cedar wood Founded 6th century BC Periods Achaemenid Empire Cultures Persian Events Battle of the Persian Gates Macedonian sack of Persepolis Nowruz The 2,500 Year Celebration of the Persian Empire Site notes Condition in ruins Management Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts and Tourism Organization of Iran Public access open Architecture Architectural styles Achaemenid UNESCO World Heritage Site Official name Persepolis Type Cultural Criteria i, iii, vi Designated 1979 (3rd session) Reference no. 114 State Party Iran Region Asia-Pacific Persepolis (/pərˈsɛpəlɪs/; Old Persian: 𐎱𐎠𐎼𐎿, Pārsa; New Persian: تخت جمشید‎, romanized: Takht-e Jamshīd, lit. 'Throne of Jamshid') was the ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Empire (c. 550–330 BC). It is situated in the plains of Marvdasht, encircled by southern Zagros mountains. Modern day Shiraz is situated 60 kilometres (37 mi) southwest of the ruins of Persepolis. The earliest remains of Persepolis date back to 515 BC. It exemplifies the Achaemenid style of architecture. UNESCO declared the ruins of Persepolis a World Heritage Site in 1979.[2] The complex is raised high on a walled platform, with five "palaces" or halls of varying size, and grand entrances. The function of Persepolis remains quite unclear. It was not one of the largest cities in Persia, let alone the rest of the empire, but appears to have been a grand ceremonial complex that was only occupied seasonally; it is still not entirely clear where the king's private quarters actually were. Until recent challenges, most archaeologists held that it was especially used for celebrating Nowruz, the Persian New Year, held at the spring equinox, and still an important annual festivity in modern Iran. The Iranian nobility and the tributary parts of the empire came to present gifts to the king, as represented in the stairway reliefs.[3] It is also unclear what permanent structures there were outside the palace complex; it may be better to think of Persepolis as just that complex rather than a "city" in the normal sense. The complex was taken by the army of Alexander the Great in 330 BC, and soon after the wooden parts were completely destroyed by fire, very likely deliberately. Contents 1 Name 2 Geography 3 History 3.1 Destruction 3.2 After the fall of the Achaemenid Empire 4 Archaeological research 4.1 Architecture 5 Ruins and remains 5.1 Gate of All Nations 5.2 The Apadana Palace 5.2.1 Apadana Palace coin hoard 5.3 The Throne Hall 5.4 Other palaces and structures 5.5 Tombs 5.6 Ancient texts 6 Modern events 6.1 2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire 6.2 The controversy of the Sivand Dam 7 Museums (outside Iran) that display material from Persepolis 8 General views 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links Name[edit] Persepolis is derived from Ancient Greek: Περσέπολις, romanized: Persepolis, a compound of Pérsēs (Πέρσης) and pólis (πόλις), meaning "the Persian city" or "the city of the Persians". To the ancient Persians, the city was known as Pārsa (Old Persian: 𐎱𐎠𐎼𐎿), which is also the word for the region of Persia.[4][5] As is typical of Achaemenid cities, Persepolis was built on a (partially) artificial platform. An inscription left in AD 311 by Sasanian prince Shapur Sakanshah, the son of Hormizd II, refers to the site as Sad-stūn, meaning "Hundred Pillars".[6] Because medieval Persians attributed the site to Jamshid,[7] a king from Iranian mythology, it has been referred to as Takht-e-Jamshid (Persian: تخت جمشید‎, Taxt e Jamšīd; [ˌtæxtedʒæmˈʃiːd]), literally meaning "Throne of Jamshid". Another name given to the site in the medieval period was Čehel Menār, literally meaning "Forty Minarets".[6] Geography[edit] Persepolis is near the small river Pulvar, which flows into the Kur River. The site includes a 125,000 square meter terrace, partly artificially constructed and partly cut out of a mountain, with its east side leaning on Rahmat Mountain. The other three sides are formed by retaining walls, which vary in height with the slope of the ground. Rising from 5–13 metres (16–43 feet) on the west side was a double stair. From there, it gently slopes to the top. To create the level terrace, depressions were filled with soil and heavy rocks, which were joined together with metal clips. History[edit] Play media Reconstruction of Persepolis, capital of the Persians Archaeological evidence shows that the earliest remains of Persepolis date back to 515 BC. André Godard, the French archaeologist who excavated Persepolis in the early 1930s, believed that it was Cyrus the Great who chose the site of Persepolis, but that it was Darius I who built the terrace and the palaces. Inscriptions on these buildings support the belief that they were constructed by Darius. With Darius I, the scepter passed to a new branch of the royal house. Persepolis probably became the capital of Persia proper during his reign. However, the city's location in a remote and mountainous region made it an inconvenient residence for the rulers of the empire. The country's true capitals were Susa, Babylon and Ecbatana. This may be why the Greeks were not acquainted with the city until Alexander the Great took and plundered it. General view of the ruins of Persepolis Aerial architectural plan of Persepolis. Darius I's construction of Persepolis were carried out parallel to those of the Palace of Susa.[8] According to Gene R. Garthwaite, the Susa Palace served as Darius' model for Persepolis.[9] Darius I ordered the construction of the Apadana and the Council Hall (Tripylon or the "Triple Gate"), as well as the main imperial Treasury and its surroundings. These were completed during the reign of his son, Xerxes I. Further construction of the buildings on the terrace continued until the downfall of the Achaemenid Empire.[10] According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, the Greek historian Ctesias mentioned that Darius I's grave was in a cliff face that could be reached with an apparatus of ropes.[11] Around 519 BC, construction of a broad stairway was begun. The stairway was initially planned to be the main entrance to the terrace 20 metres (66 feet) above the ground. The dual stairway, known as the Persepolitan Stairway, was built symmetrically on the western side of the Great Wall. The 111 steps measured 6.9 metres (23 feet) wide, with treads of 31 centimetres (12 inches) and rises of 10 centimetres (3.9 inches). Originally, the steps were believed to have been constructed to allow for nobles and royalty to ascend by horseback. New theories, however, suggest that the shallow risers allowed visiting dignitaries to maintain a regal appearance while ascending. The top of the stairways led to a small yard in the north-eastern side of the terrace, opposite the Gate of All Nations. Grey limestone was the main building material used at Persepolis. After natural rock had been leveled and the depressions filled in, the terrace was prepared. Major tunnels for sewage were dug underground through the rock. A large elevated water storage tank was carved at the eastern foot of the mountain. Professor Olmstead suggested the cistern was constructed at the same time that construction of the towers began. The uneven plan of the terrace, including the foundation, acted like a castle, whose angled walls enabled its defenders to target any section of the external front. Diodorus Siculus writes that Persepolis had three walls with ramparts, which all had towers to provide a protected space for the defense personnel. The first wall was 7 metres (23 feet) tall, the second, 14 metres (46 feet) and the third wall, which covered all four sides, was 27 metres (89 feet) in height, though no presence of the wall exists in modern times. Destruction[edit] After invading Achaemenid Persia in 330 BC, Alexander the Great sent the main force of his army to Persepolis by the Royal Road. He stormed the "Persian Gates", a pass through modern-day Zagros Mountains. There Ariobarzanes of Persis successfully ambushed Alexander the Great's army, inflicting heavy casualties. After being held off for 30 days, Alexander the Great outflanked and destroyed the defenders. Ariobarzanes himself was killed either during the battle or during the retreat to Persepolis. Some sources indicate that the Persians were betrayed by a captured tribal chief who showed the Macedonians an alternate path that allowed them to outflank Ariobarzanes in a reversal of Thermopylae. After several months, Alexander allowed his troops to loot Persepolis. "The Burning of Persepolis", led by Thaïs, 1890, by Georges-Antoine Rochegrosse Around that time, a fire burned "the palaces" or "the palace". Scholars agree that this event, described in historic sources, occurred at the ruins that have been now re-identified as Persepolis. From Stolze's investigations, it appears that at least one of these, the castle built by Xerxes I, bears traces of having been destroyed by fire. The locality described by Diodorus Siculus after Cleitarchus corresponds in important particulars with the historic Persepolis, for example, in being supported by the mountain on the east. It is believed that the fire which destroyed Persepolis started from Hadish Palace, which was the living quarters of Xerxes I, and spread to the rest of the city.[12] It is not clear if the fire was an accident or a deliberate act of revenge for the burning of the Acropolis of Athens during the second Persian invasion of Greece. Many historians argue that, while Alexander's army celebrated with a symposium, they decided to take revenge against the Persians.[13] If that is so, then the destruction of Persepolis could be both an accident and a case of revenge. The fire may also have had the political purpose of destroying an iconic symbol of the Persian monarchy that might have become a focus for Persian resistance. Several much later Greek and Roman accounts (including Arrian, Diodorus Siculus and Quintus Curtius Rufus) describe that the burning was the idea of Thaïs, mistress of Alexander's general Ptolemy I Soter, and possibly of Alexander himself. She is said to have suggested it during a very drunken celebration, according to some accounts to revenge the destruction of Greek sanctuaries (she was from Athens), and either she or Alexander himself set the fire going.[14] The Book of Arda Wiraz, a Zoroastrian work composed in the 3rd or 4th century, describes Persepolis' archives as containing "all the Avesta and Zend, written upon prepared cow-skins, and with gold ink", which were destroyed. Indeed, in his Chronology of the Ancient Nations, the native Iranian writer Biruni indicates unavailability of certain native Iranian historiographical sources in the post-Achaemenid era, especially during the Parthian Empire. He adds: "[Alexander] burned the whole of Persepolis as revenge to the Persians, because it seems the Persian King Xerxes had burnt the Greek City of Athens around 150 years ago. People say that, even at the present time, the traces of fire are visible in some places."[13][15] Paradoxically, the event that caused the destruction of these texts may have helped in the preservation of the Persepolis Administrative Archives, which might otherwise have been lost over time to natural and man-made events.[16] According to archaeological evidence, the partial burning of Persepolis did not affect what are now referred to as the Persepolis Fortification Archive tablets, but rather may have caused the eventual collapse of the upper part of the northern fortification wall that preserved the tablets until their recovery by the Oriental Institute's archaeologists.[17] A general view of Persepolis. After the fall of the Achaemenid Empire[edit] Ruins of the Western side of the compound at Persepolis. In 316 BC, Persepolis was still the capital of Persia as a province of the great Macedonian Empire (see Diod. xix, 21 seq., 46; probably after Hieronymus of Cardia, who was living about 326). The city must have gradually declined in the course of time. The lower city at the foot of the imperial city might have survived for a longer time;[18] but the ruins of the Achaemenids remained as a witness to its ancient glory. It is probable that the principal town of the country, or at least of the district, was always in this neighborhood. About 200 BC, the city of Estakhr, five kilometers north of Persepolis, was the seat of the local governors. From there, the foundations of the second great Persian Empire were laid, and there Estakhr acquired special importance as the center of priestly wisdom and orthodoxy. The Sasanian kings have covered the face of the rocks in this neighborhood, and in part even the Achaemenid ruins, with their sculptures and inscriptions. They must themselves have been built largely there, although never on the same scale of magnificence as their ancient predecessors. The Romans knew as little about Estakhr as the Greeks had known about Persepolis, despite the fact that the Sasanians maintained relations for four hundred years, friendly or hostile, with the empire. At the time of the Muslim invasion of Persia, Estakhr offered a desperate resistance. It was still a place of considerable importance in the first century of Islam, although its greatness was speedily eclipsed by the new metropolis of Shiraz. In the 10th century, Estakhr dwindled to insignificance, as seen from the descriptions of Estakhri, a native (c. 950), and of Al-Muqaddasi (c. 985). During the following centuries, Estakhr gradually declined, until it ceased to exist as a city. Archaeological research[edit] See also: Nowruz § Achaemenid period Odoric of Pordenone may have passed through Persepolis on his way to China in 1320, although he mentioned only a great, ruined city called "Comerum".[19] In 1474, Giosafat Barbaro visited the ruins of Persepolis, which he incorrectly thought were of Jewish origin.[20] Hakluyt's Voyages included a general account of the ruins of Persepolis attributed to an English merchant who visited Iran in 1568.[21][22] António de Gouveia from Portugal wrote about cuneiform inscriptions following his visit in 1602. His report on the ruins of Persepolis was published as part of his Relaçam in 1611.[23] In 1618, García de Silva Figueroa, King Philip III of Spain's ambassador to the court of Abbas I, the Safavid monarch, was the first Western traveler to link the site known in Iran as "Chehel Minar" as the site known from Classical authors as Persepolis.[24] Pietro Della Valle visited Persepolis in 1621, and noticed that only 25 of the 72 original columns were still standing, due to either vandalism or natural processes.[25] The Dutch traveler Cornelis de Bruijn visited Persepolis in 1704.[26] Sketch of Persepolis from 1704 by Cornelis de Bruijn. Drawing of Persepolis in 1713 by Gérard Jean-Baptiste. Drawing of the Tachara by Charles Chipiez. The Apadana by Charles Chipiez. Apadana detail by Charles Chipiez. The fruitful region was covered with villages until its frightful devastation in the 18th century; and even now it is, comparatively speaking, well cultivated. The Castle of Estakhr played a conspicuous part as a strong fortress, several times, during the Muslim period. It was the middlemost and the highest of the three steep crags which rise from the valley of the Kur, at some distance to the west or northwest of the necropolis of Naqsh-e Rustam. The French voyagers Eugène Flandin and Pascal Coste are among the first to provide not only a literary review of the structure of Persepolis, but also to create some of the best and earliest visual depictions of its structure. In their publications in Paris, in 1881 and 1882, titled Voyages en Perse de MM. Eugene Flanin peintre et Pascal Coste architecte, the authors provided some 350 ground breaking illustrations of Persepolis.[27] French influence and interest in Persia's archaeological findings continued after the accession of Reza Shah, when André Godard became the first director of the archeological service of Iran.[28] In the 1800s, a variety of amateur digging occurred at the site, in some cases on a large scale.[27] The first scientific excavations at Persepolis were carried out by Ernst Herzfeld and Erich Schmidt representing the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. They conducted excavations for eight seasons, beginning in 1930, and included other nearby sites.[29][30][31][32][33] Achaemenid frieze designs at Persepolis. Herzfeld believed that the reasons behind the construction of Persepolis were the need for a majestic atmosphere, a symbol for the empire, and to celebrate special events, especially the Nowruz.[5] For historical reasons, Persepolis was built where the Achaemenid dynasty was founded, although it was not the center of the empire at that time. Excavations of plaque fragments hint at a scene with a contest between Herakles and Apollo, dubbed A Greek painting at Persepolis.[34] Architecture[edit] Persepolitan architecture is noted for its use of the Persian column, which was probably based on earlier wooden columns. Architects resorted to stone only when the largest cedars of Lebanon or teak trees of India did not fulfill the required sizes. Column bases and capitals were made of stone, even on wooden shafts, but the existence of wooden capitals is probable. In 518 BC, a large number of the most experienced engineers, architects, and artists from the four corners of the universe were summoned to engage and with participation, build the first building to be a symbol of universal unity and peace and equality for thousands of years. The buildings at Persepolis include three general groupings: military quarters, the treasury, and the reception halls and occasional houses for the King. Noted structures include the Great Stairway, the Gate of All Nations, the Apadana, the Hall of a Hundred Columns, the Tripylon Hall and the Tachara, the Hadish Palace, the Palace of Artaxerxes III, the Imperial Treasury, the Royal Stables, and the Chariot House.[35] Ruins and remains[edit] Reliefs of lotus flowers are frequently used on the walls and monuments at Persepolis. Ruins of a number of colossal buildings exist on the terrace. All are constructed of dark-grey marble. Fifteen of their pillars stand intact. Three more pillars have been re-erected since 1970. Several of the buildings were never finished. F. Stolze has shown that some of the mason's rubbish remains. So far, more than 30,000 inscriptions have been found from the exploration of Persepolis, which are small and concise in terms of size and text, but they are the most valuable documents of the Achaemenid period. Based on these inscriptions that are currently held in the United States most of the time indicate that during the time of Persepolis, wage earners were paid. Since the time of Pietro Della Valle, it has been beyond dispute that these ruins represent the Persepolis captured and partly destroyed by Alexander the Great. Behind the compound at Persepolis, there are three sepulchers hewn out of the rock in the hillside. The facades, one of which is incomplete, are richly decorated with reliefs. About 13 km NNE, on the opposite side of the Pulvar River, rises a perpendicular wall of rock, in which four similar tombs are cut at a considerable height from the bottom of the valley. Modern-day Iranians call this place Naqsh-e Rustam ("Rustam Relief"), from the Sasanian reliefs beneath the opening, which they take to be a representation of the mythical hero Rostam. It may be inferred from the sculptures that the occupants of these seven tombs were kings. An inscription on one of the tombs declares it to be that of Darius I, concerning whom Ctesias relates that his grave was in the face of a rock, and could only be reached by the use of ropes. Ctesias mentions further, with regard to a number of Persian kings, either that their remains were brought "to the Persians," or that they died there. A bas-relief at Persepolis, representing a symbol in Zoroastrianism for Nowruz.[1] A bas-relief from the Apadana depicting Delegations including Lydians and Armenians[2] bringing their famous wine to the king. Achaemenid plaque from Persepolis, kept at the National Museum, Tehran. Relief of a Median man at Persepolis. Objects from Persepolis kept at the National Museum, Tehran. Gate of All Nations[edit] Main article: Gate of All Nations The Gate of All Nations, referring to subjects of the empire, consisted of a grand hall that was a square of approximately 25 metres (82 ft) in length, with four columns and its entrance on the Western Wall. There were two more doors, one to the south which opened to the Apadana yard and the other opened onto a long road to the east. Pivoting devices found on the inner corners of all the doors indicate that they were two-leafed doors, probably made of wood and covered with sheets of ornate metal. A pair of lamassus, bulls with the heads of bearded men, stand by the western threshold. Another pair, with wings and a Persian Head (Gopät-Shäh), stands by the eastern entrance, to reflect the power of the empire. The name of Xerxes I was written in three languages and carved on the entrances, informing everyone that he ordered it to be built. A lamassu at the Gate of All Nations. Ruins of the Gate of All Nations, Persepolis. The Great Double Staircase at Persepolis. Bas-relief on the staircase of the palace. The Apadana Palace[edit] Main article: Apadana Statue of a Persian Mastiff found at the Apadana, kept at the National Museum, Tehran. Darius I built the greatest palace at Persepolis on the western side of platform. This palace was called the Apadana.[36] The King of Kings used it for official audiences. The work began in 518 BC, and his son, Xerxes I, completed it 30 years later. The palace had a grand hall in the shape of a square, each side 60 metres (200 ft) long with seventy-two columns, thirteen of which still stand on the enormous platform. Each column is 19 metres (62 ft) high with a square Taurus (bull) and plinth. The columns carried the weight of the vast and heavy ceiling. The tops of the columns were made from animal sculptures such as two-headed lions, eagles, human beings and cows (cows were symbols of fertility and abundance in ancient Iran). The columns were joined to each other with the help of oak and cedar beams, which were brought from Lebanon. The walls were covered with a layer of mud and stucco to a depth of 5 cm, which was used for bonding, and then covered with the greenish stucco which is found throughout the palaces. Foundation tablets of gold and silver were found in two deposition boxes in the foundations of the Palace. They contained an inscription by Darius in Old Persian cuneiform, which describes the extent of his Empire in broad geographical terms, and is known as the DPh inscription:[37][38] Gold foundation tablets of Darius I for the Apadana Palace, in their original stone box. The Apadana coin hoard had been deposited underneath. Circa 510 BC. One of the two gold deposition plates. Two more were in silver. They all had the same trilingual inscription (DPh inscription).[39] Darius the great king, king of kings, king of countries, son of Hystaspes, an Achaemenid. King Darius says: This is the kingdom which I hold, from the Sacae who are beyond Sogdia, to Kush, and from Sind (Old Persian: 𐏃𐎡𐎭𐎢𐎺, "Hidauv", locative of "Hiduš", i.e. "Indus valley") to Lydia (Old Persian: "Spardâ") – [this is] what Ahuramazda, the greatest of gods, bestowed upon me. May Ahuramazda protect me and my royal house! — DPh inscription of Darius I in the foundations of the Apadana Palace[40] At the western, northern and eastern sides of the palace, there were three rectangular porticos each of which had twelve columns in two rows of six. At the south of the grand hall, a series of rooms were built for storage. Two grand Persepolitan stairways were built, symmetrical to each other and connected to the stone foundations. To protect the roof from erosion, vertical drains were built through the brick walls. In the four corners of Apadana, facing outwards, four towers were built. The walls were tiled and decorated with pictures of lions, bulls, and flowers. Darius ordered his name and the details of his empire to be written in gold and silver on plates, which were placed in covered stone boxes in the foundations under the Four Corners of the palace. Two Persepolitan style symmetrical stairways were built on the northern and eastern sides of Apadana to compensate for a difference in level. Two other stairways stood in the middle of the building. The external front views of the palace were embossed with carvings of the Immortals, the Kings' elite guards. The northern stairway was completed during the reign of Darius I, but the other stairway was completed much later. The reliefs on the staircases allow one to observe the people from across the empire in their traditional dress, and even the king himself, "down to the smallest detail".[41] Ruins of the Apadana, Persepolis. Depiction of united Medes and Persians at the Apadana, Persepolis. Ruins of the Apadana's columns. Depiction of trees and lotus flowers at the Apadana, Persepolis. Depiction of figures at the Apadana. Apadana Palace coin hoard[edit] Apadana hoard Gold Croeseid minted in the time of Darius, of the type of the eight Croeseids found in the Apadana hoard, c. 545–520 BC. Light series: 8.07 grams, Sardis mint. Type of the Aegina stater found in the Apadana hoard, 550–530 BC. Obv: Sea turtle with large pellets down centre. Rev: incuse square punch with eight sections.[37] Type of the Abdera coin found in the Apadana hoard, c. 540/35–520/15 BC. Obv: Griffin seated left, raising paw. Rev: Quadripartite incuse square.[37] Main articles: Apadana hoard and Achaemenid coinage The Apadana hoard is a hoard of coins that were discovered under the stone boxes containing the foundation tablets of the Apadana Palace in Persepolis.[37] The coins were discovered in excavations in 1933 by Erich Schmidt, in two deposits, each deposit under the two deposition boxes that were found. The deposition of this hoard is dated to c. 515 BC.[37] The coins consisted in eight gold lightweight Croeseids, a tetradrachm of Abdera, a stater of Aegina and three double-sigloi from Cyprus.[37] The Croeseids were found in very fresh condition, confirming that they had been recently minted under Achaemenid rule.[42] The deposit did not have any Darics and Sigloi, which also suggests strongly that these coins typical of Achaemenid coinage only started to be minted later, after the foundation of the Apadana Palace.[42] The Throne Hall[edit] Column base from the Throne Hall in the British Museum Next to the Apadana, second largest building of the Terrace and the final edifices, is the Throne Hall or the Imperial Army's Hall of Honor (also called the Hundred-Columns Palace). This 70x70 square meter hall was started by Xerxes I and completed by his son Artaxerxes I by the end of the fifth century BC. Its eight stone doorways are decorated on the south and north with reliefs of throne scenes and on the east and west with scenes depicting the king in combat with monsters. Two colossal stone bulls flank the northern portico. The head of one of the bulls now resides in the Oriental Institute in Chicago [43] and a column base from one of the columns in the British Museum.[44] At the beginning of the reign of Xerxes I, the Throne Hall was used mainly for receptions for military commanders and representatives of all the subject nations of the empire. Later, the Throne Hall served as an imperial museum. Other palaces and structures[edit] Other palaces included the Tachara, which was built under Darius I, and the Imperial treasury, which was started by Darius I in 510 BC and finished by Xerxes I in 480 BC. The Hadish Palace of Xerxes I occupies the highest level of terrace and stands on the living rock. The Council Hall, the Tryplion Hall, the Palaces of D, G, H, storerooms, stables and quarters, the unfinished gateway and a few miscellaneous structures at Persepolis are located near the south-east corner of the terrace, at the foot of the mountain. Ruins of the Tachara, Persepolis. Huma bird capital at Persepolis. Bull capital at Persepolis. Ruins of the Hall of the Hundred Columns, Persepolis. Tombs[edit] Tomb of Artaxerxes II, Persepolis. It is commonly accepted that Cyrus the Great was buried in Pasargadae, which is mentioned by Ctesias as his own city. If it is true that the body of Cambyses II was brought home "to the Persians," his burying place must be somewhere beside that of his father. Ctesias assumes that it was the custom for a king to prepare his own tomb during his lifetime. Hence, the kings buried at Naghsh-e Rostam are probably Darius I, Xerxes I, Artaxerxes I and Darius II. Xerxes II, who reigned for a very short time, could scarcely have obtained so splendid a monument, and still less could the usurper Sogdianus. The two completed graves behind the compound at Persepolis would then belong to Artaxerxes II and Artaxerxes III. The unfinished tomb, a kilometer away from the city, is debated to who it belongs.[45] It is perhaps that of Artaxerxes IV, who reigned at the longest two years, or, if not his, then that of Darius III (Codomannus), who is one of those whose bodies are said to have been brought "to the Persians." Since Alexander the Great is said to have buried Darius III at Persepolis, then it is likely the unfinished tomb is his. Another small group of ruins in the same style is found at the village of Haji Abad, on the Pulvar River, a good hour's walk above Persepolis. These formed a single building, which was still intact 900 years ago, and was used as the mosque of the then-existing city of Estakhr. Ancient texts[edit] Babylonian version of an inscription of Xerxes I, the "XPc inscription".[46][8] The relevant passages from ancient scholars on the subject are set out below: (Diod. 17.70.1–73.2) 17.70 (1) Persepolis was the capital of the Persian kingdom. Alexander described it to the Macedonians as the most hateful of the cities of Asia, and gave it over to his soldiers to plunder, all but the palaces. (2) It was the richest city under the sun, and the private houses had been furnished with every sort of wealth over the years. The Macedonians raced into it, slaughtering all the men whom they met and plundering the residences; many of the houses belonged to the common people and were abundantly supplied with furniture and wearing apparel of every kind.... 72 (1) Alexander held games in honor of his victories. He performed costly sacrifices to the gods and entertained his friends bountifully. While they were feasting and the drinking was far advanced, as they began to be drunken, a madness took possession of the minds of the intoxicated guests. (2) At this point, one of the women present, Thais by name and Attic by origin, said that for Alexander it would be the finest of all his feats in Asia if he joined them in a triumphal procession, set fire to the palaces, and permitted women's hands in a minute to extinguish the famed accomplishments of the Persians. (3) This was said to men who were still young and giddy with wine, and so, as would be expected, someone shouted out to form up and to light torches, and urged all to take vengeance for the destruction of the Greek temples. (4) Others took up the cry and said that this was a deed worthy of Alexander alone. When the king had caught fire at their words, all leaped up from their couches and passed the word along to form a victory procession [epinikion komon] in honor of Dionysius. (5) Promptly, many torches were gathered. Female musicians were present at the banquet, so the king led them all out for the komos to the sound of voices and flutes and pipes, Thais the courtesan leading the whole performance. (6) She was the first, after the king, to hurl her blazing torch into the palace. As the others all did the same, immediately the entire palace area was consumed, so great was the conflagration. It was most remarkable that the impious act of Xerxes, king of the Persians, against the acropolis at Athens should have been repaid in kind after many years by one woman, a citizen of the land which had suffered it, and in sport. (Curt. 5.6.1–7.12) 5.6 (1) On the following day, the king called together the leaders of his forces and informed them that "no city was more mischievous to the Greeks than the seat of the ancient kings of Persia . . . by its destruction they ought to offer sacrifice to the spirits of their forefathers."... 7 (1) But Alexander's great mental endowments, that noble disposition, in which he surpassed all kings, that intrepidity in encountering dangers, his promptness in forming and carrying out plans, his good faith towards those who submitted to him, merciful treatment of his prisoners, temperance even in lawful and usual pleasures, were sullied by an excessive love of wine. (2) At the very time when his enemy and his rival for a throne was preparing to renew the war, when those whom he had conquered were but lately subdued and were hostile to the new rule, he took part in prolonged banquets at which women were present, not indeed those whom it would be a crime to violate, but, to be sure, harlots who were accustomed to live with armed men with more licence than was fitting. (3) One of these, Thais by name, herself also drunken, declared that the king would win most favor among all the Greeks, if he should order the palace of the Persians to be set on fire; that this was expected by those whose cities the barbarians had destroyed. (4) When a drunken strumpet had given her opinion on a matter of such moment, one or two, themselves also loaded with wine, agreed. The king, too, more greedy for wine than able to carry it, cried: "Why do we not, then, avenge Greece and apply torches to the city?" (5) All had become heated with wine, and so they arose when drunk to fire the city which they had spared when armed. The king was the first to throw a firebrand upon the palace, then the guests and the servants and courtesans. The palace had been built largely of cedar, which quickly took fire and spread the conflagration widely. (6) When the army, which was encamped not far from the city, saw the fire, thinking it accidental, they rushed to bear aid. (7) But when they came to the vestibule of the palace, they saw the king himself piling on firebrands. Therefore, they left the water which they had brought, and they too began to throw dry wood upon the burning building. (8) Such was the end of the capital of the entire Orient... . (10) The Macedonians were ashamed that so renowned a city had been destroyed by their king in a drunken revel; therefore the act was taken as earnest, and they forced themselves to believe that it was right that it should be wiped out in exactly that manner. (Cleitarchus, FGrHist. 137, F. 11 (= Athenaeus 13. 576d-e)) And did not Alexander the Great have with him Thais, the Athenian hetaira? Cleitarchus speaks of her as having been the cause for the burning of the palace at Persepolis. After Alexander's death, this same Thais was married to Ptolemy, the first king of Egypt. There is, however, one formidable difficulty. Diodorus Siculus says that the rock at the back of the palace containing the royal sepulchers is so steep that the bodies could be raised to their last resting-place only by mechanical appliances. This is not true of the graves behind the compound, to which, as F. Stolze expressly observes, one can easily ride up. On the other hand, it is strictly true of the graves at Naqsh-e Rustam. Stolze accordingly started the theory that the royal castle of Persepolis stood close by Naqsh-e Rustam, and has sunk in course of time to shapeless heaps of earth, under which the remains may be concealed. Modern events[edit] 2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire[edit] In 1971, Persepolis was the main staging ground for the 2,500 Year Celebration of the Persian Empire under the reign of the Pahlavi dynasty. It included delegations from foreign nations in an attempt to advance the Iranian culture and history. Abdolreza Ansari was in charge of delivering on the project after Mr Amir Homayoun Boushehri, a prominent government official who had been the Minister of Roads and Government spokesman under the former Prime Minister, Dr Mohammad Mossadeq, fell ill with cancer and underwent treatment in Europe. The controversy of the Sivand Dam[edit] Construction of the Sivand Dam, named after the nearby town of Sivand, began on 19 September 2006. Despite 10 years of planning, Iran's Cultural Heritage Organization was not aware of the broad areas of flooding during much of this time,[47] and there is growing concern about the effects the dam will have on the surrounding areas of Persepolis. Many archaeologists[who?] worry that the dam's placement between the ruins of Pasargadae and Persepolis will flood both. Engineers involved with the construction deny this claim, stating that it is impossible, because both sites sit well above the planned waterline. Of the two sites, Pasargadae is considered the more threatened. Archaeologists are also concerned that an increase in humidity caused by the lake will speed Pasargadae's gradual destruction. However, experts from the Ministry of Energy believe this would be negated by controlling the water level of the dam reservoir. Museums (outside Iran) that display material from Persepolis[edit] One bas-relief from Persepolis is in the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge, England.[48] The largest collection of reliefs is at the British Museum, sourced from multiple British travellers who worked in Iran in the nineteenth century.[49] The Persepolis bull at the Oriental Institute is one of the university's most prized treasures, part of the division of finds from the excavations of the 1930s. New York City's Metropolitan Museum houses objects from Persepolis,[50] as does the Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology of the University of Pennsylvania.[51] The Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon[52] and the Louvre of Paris hold objects from Persepolis as well. A bas-relief of a soldier that had been looted from the excavations in 1935–36 and later purchased by the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts was repatriated to Iran in 2018, after being offered for sale in London and New York.[53] Forgotten Empire Exhibition, the British Museum. Forgotten Empire Exhibition, the British Museum. Persepolitan rosette rock relief, kept at the Oriental Institute. Achaemenid objects at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, including a bas relief from Persepolis. General views[edit] A general view of the ruins at Persepolis. A general view of the ruins at Persepolis. A general view of the ruins at Persepolis. A general view of the ruins at Persepolis. See also[edit] Iran portal Persepolis F.C. Palace of Darius in Susa, similar structure built at the same time Achaemenid architecture Naqsh-e Rustam Pasargadae Behistun Inscription Istakhr Qadamgah (ancient site) Cities of the Ancient Near East Persepolis (comics) Tachara Notes[edit] 1.^ Eternally fighting bull (personifying the moon), and a lion (personifying the sun) representing the spring. 2.^ Known as XPc (Xerxes Persepolis c), from the portico of the Tachara. References[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Persepolis". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ^ Google maps. "Location of Persepolis". Google Maps. Retrieved 24 September 2013. ^ UNESCO World Heritage Centre (2006). "Pasargadae". Retrieved 26 December 2010. ^ Mousavi, Ali, Persepolis: Discovery and Afterlife of a World Wonder, p. 53, 2012, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-1614510338, Google Books ^ Bailey, H.W. (1996) "Khotanese Saka Literature", in Ehsan Yarshater (ed), The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods, Part 2 (reprint edition), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 1230. ^ a b Michael Woods, Mary B. Woods (2008). Seven Wonders of the Ancient Middle East. Twenty-First Century Books. pp. 26–28. ISBN 978-0822575733. Persepolis means. ^ a b Shahbazi, A. Shapur; Bosworth, C. Edmund (1990). "Capital Cities– Encyclopaedia Iranica". Encyclopædia Iranica. IV. pp. 768–774. ^ Holland, Tom (2012). In the Shadow of the Sword. Little, Brown. pp. 118–122. ISBN 978-1408700075. ^ Perrot, Jean (2013). The Palace of Darius at Susa: The Great Royal Residence of Achaemenid Persia. I.B.Tauris. p. 423. ISBN 978-1848856219. ^ Garthwaite, Gene R. (2008). The Persians. John Wiley & Sons. p. 50. ISBN 978-1405144001. ^ 2002. Guaitoli. M.T., & Rambaldi, S. Lost Cities from the Ancient World. White Star, spa. (2006 version published by Barnes & Noble. Darius I founded Persepolis in 500 BC as the residence and ceremonial center of his dynasty. p. 164 ^ "Persepolis". Encyclopedia Britannica. ^ "Persepolis". toiran.com. Archived from the original on 5 February 2015. Retrieved 2 January 2015. ^ a b Sachau, C. Edward (2004). The Chronology of Ancient Nations. Kessinger Publishing. p. 484. ISBN 978-0-7661-8908-9. p. 127 ^ Mark, Joshua J. "Alexander the Great & the Burning of Persepolis", 2018, www.ancient.eu ^ Anonimo (1974). Al-Beruni and Persepolis. Acta Iranica. 1. Leiden: Peeters Publishers. pp. 137–150. ISBN 978-90-04-03900-1. ^ Wiesehöfer 10-11. ^ Henkelman 2008:Ch 2. ^ "Persepolis". Wondermondo. 13 February 2012. ^ Mousavi, Ali (2012). Persepolis: Discovery and Afterlife of a World Wonder. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-1614510338. ^ Murray, Hugh (1820). Historical account of discoveries and travels in Asia. Edinburgh: A. Constable and Co. p. 15. ^ "Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the English Nation, by Richard Hakluyt : chapter11". ebooks.adelaide.edu.au. Retrieved 3 July 2019. ^ Tuplin, Christopher (2007). Persian Responses: Political and Cultural Interaction with(in) the Achaemenid Empire. ISD LLC. ISBN 978-1910589465. ^ Gouveia, António de (1611). Relaçam em que se tratam as Guerras e Grandes Victorias que alcançou o grande Rei da Persia Xá Abbas do grão Turco Mahometto, e seu filho Amethe: as quais resultaram das Embaixadas, que por mando da Catholica e Real Magestade del Rei D. Felippe segundo de Portugal fizeram alguns Religiosos da ordem dos Ermitas de S. Augustinho à Persia. Lisboa: Pedro Crasbeeck. pp. 31–32. ^ C. Wade Meade (1974). Road to Babylon: Development of U.S. Assyriology. Brill Archive. pp. 5–7. ISBN 978-9004038585. ^ M. H. Aminisam (2007). تخت جمشيد (Persepolis). AuthorHouse. pp. 79–81. ISBN 978-1463462529. ^ Ali Mousavi (2012). Persepolis: Discovery and Afterlife of a World Wonder. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 104–107. ISBN 978-1614510284. ^ a b Ali Mousavi, Persepolis in Retrospect: Histories of Discovery and Archaeological Exploration at the ruins of ancient Passch, Ars Orientalis, vol. 32, pp. 209–251, 2002 ^ "Godard, André – Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 3 July 2019. ^ [3] Ernst E Herzfeld, A New Inscription of Xerxes from Persepolis, Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization, vol. 5, 1932 ^ [4] Erich F Schmidt, Persepolis I: Structures, Reliefs, Inscriptions, Oriental Institute Publications, vol. 68, 1953 ^ [5] Erich F Schmidt, Persepolis II: Contents of the Treasury and Other Discoveries, Oriental Institute Publications, vol. 69, 1957 ^ [6] Erich F Schmidt, Persepolis III: The Royal Tombs and Other Monuments, Oriental Institute Publications, vol. 70, 1970 ^ [7] Erich F Schmidt, The Treasury of Persepolis and Other Discoveries in the Homeland of the Achaemenians, Oriental Institute Communications, vol. 21, 1939 ^ Roaf, Michael; Boardman, John (1980). "A Greek painting at Persepolis". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 100: 204–206. doi:10.2307/630751. JSTOR 630751. ^ Pierre Briant (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. pp. 256–258. ISBN 978-1575061207. ^ Penelope Hobhouse (2004). The Gardens of Persia. Kales Press. pp. 177–178. ISBN 978-0967007663. ^ a b c d e f Zournatzi, Antigoni (2003). "The Apadana Coin Hoards, Darius I, and the West". American Journal of Numismatics (1989-). 15: 1–28. JSTOR 43580364. ^ Persepolis : discovery and afterlife of a world wonder. 2012. pp. 171–181. ^ DPh - Livius. ^ DPh inscription, also Photographs of one of the gold plaques ^ Garthwaite, Gene R. (2008). The Persians. John Wiley & Sons. p. 50. ISBN 978-1405144001. ^ a b Fisher, William Bayne; Gershevitch, I.; Boyle, John Andrew; Yarshater, Ehsan; Frye, Richard Nelson (1968). The Cambridge History of Iran. Cambridge University Press. p. 617. ISBN 978-0521200912. ^ "Oriental Institute Highlights". Oi.uchicago.edu. 19 February 2007. Retrieved 30 December 2012. ^ British Museum collection ^ Potts, Daniel T (2012). A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East. ISBN 978-1405189880. ^ "XPc – Livius". www.livius.org. ^ Vidal, John (23 December 2004). "Dam is threat to Iran's heritage". The Guardian. Retrieved 10 June 2018. ^ A Persepolis Relief in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. Richard Nicholls and Michael Roaf. Iran, Vol. 15, (1977), pp. 146–152. Published by: British Institute of Persian Studies. ^ Allen, Lindsay (1 January 2013). ""Come Then Ye Classic Thieves of Each Degree": The Social Context of the Persepolis Diaspora in the Early Nineteenth Century". Iran. 51 (1): 207–234. doi:10.1080/05786967.2013.11834730. ISSN 0578-6967. S2CID 193984848. ^ Harper, Prudence O., Barbara A. Porter, Oscar White Muscarella, Holly Pittman, and Ira Spar. "Ancient Near Eastern Art." The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, v. 41, no. 4 (Spring, 1984). ^ "Relief – B10301 | Collections – Penn Museum". www.penn.museum. ^ "Découvrir les collections | Musée des Beaux Arts". www.mba-lyon.fr. ^ Mashberg, Tom (23 July 2018). "Judge Orders Return of Ancient Limestone Relief to Iran". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 3 July 2019. Further reading[edit] Curtis, J. and Tallis, N. (eds). (2005). Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-24731-0. Wilber, Donald Newton. (1989). Persepolis: The Archaeology of Parsa, Seat of the Persian Kings. Darwin Press. Revised edition ISBN 0-87850-062-6. 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en-wikipedia-org-4823	----	Sankhenre Sewadjtu - Wikipedia Sankhenre Sewadjtu From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sankhenre Sewadjtu S'ankhre'enswadtju, Sewadjtew Pharaoh Reign 3 Years, 2 to 4 Months, from 1675 BC until 1672 BC[1] or in 1694 BC or in 1654 BC [2] (13th dynasty) Predecessor Merhotepre Ini Successor Mersekhemre Ined Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sankhenre Sewadjtu S.ˁnḫ-n-Rˁ-sw3ḏtw The one whom Re has brought to life, he who is caused to flourish Sankhenre Sewadjtu was the thirty-fourth pharaoh of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period.[3] Sewadjtu reigned from Memphis, starting in 1675 BC and for a period of 3 years and 2 to 4 months.[1] Attestations[edit] Sankhenre Sewadjtu is unknown from contemporary historical records, and is exclusively attested by the Turin canon. This may be because he ruled Egypt at a time when the 13th Dynasty's control over Egypt was receding. He is listed as the successor of Ini in the Turin Canon, on column 7 line 5, and is given a reign of 3 years and 2 to 4 months in this document.[1] Kim Ryholt proposes that Sankhenre Sewadjtu is attested on the Karnak king list under a different name owing to a scribal error. Indeed, two prenomina Sewadjenre and two prenomina Snefer[...]re are recorded in this list but Ryholt points out that, in each case, only one king with such prenomen is known. Ryholt thus proposes that the two remaining names refer to Sankhenre Sewadjtu and Seankhenre Mentuhotepi. Indeed, Ryholt notes that wadj, nfr and ankh resemble each other in hieratic.[1][3] Chronological position[edit] The exact chronological position of Sankhenre Sewadjtu in the 13th Dynasty is not known for certain owing to uncertainties affecting earlier kings of the dynasty. Darrell Baker makes him the thirty-fourth pharaoh of the dynasty, Kim Ryholt sees him as the thirty-fifth king and Jürgen von Beckerath places him as the twenty-ninth pharaoh of the dynasty.[4] References[edit] ^ a b c d Kim Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c. 1800–1550 B.C.. Museum Tuscalanum Press, 1997 (ISBN 87-7289-421-0) ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen, Albatros, 2002 ^ a b Darell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300 - 1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 419 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz : P. von Zabern, 1999, ISBN 3-8053-2591-6, available online see p. 98-99 Preceded by Merhotepre Ini Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Mersekhemre Ined v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sankhenre_Sewadjtu&oldid=976303536" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in 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en-wikipedia-org-4825	----	Amenemhat I - Wikipedia Amenemhat I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search See Amenemhat, for other individuals with this name. Amenemhat I Relief of Amenemhat I from his mortuary complex at El-Lisht Pharaoh Reign 1991–1962 BC ; (1939–1910 BC) (Twelfth Dynasty) Predecessor Mentuhotep IV Successor Senusret I Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sehetepibre S.htp-jb-Rˁ Who satisfies the heart of Ra Nomen Amenemhat Jmn m ḥ3.t Amun is in the front Horus name Wehemmesut Ḥr.[w]-wḥm-mswt The Horus repeating of births Nebty name Wehemmesut Wḥm-mswt He who is repeating of births Golden Horus Wehemmesut Bik-nbw-wḥm-mswt The golden falcon, repeating of births Turin canon: [...]pib[...] ...p-ib... Consort Neferitatjenen Children Senusret I, Neferu III, Neferusherit, Kayet Father Senusret Mother Neferet Burial Pyramid of Amenemhet I at el-Lisht Serekh or Horus name of Amenemhat I, detail of a limestone wall-block from Koptos Cartouche of the birth name, or nomen, of Amenemhat I, detail of a wall-block from Koptos The ruined pyramid of Amenemhet I at Lisht Amenemhat I (Middle Egyptian: jmn-m-ḥꜣt; /jaˈmaːnumaˌħuːʀiʔ/) also Amenemhet I and the hellenized form Ammenemes, was the first ruler of the Twelfth Dynasty, the dynasty considered to be the golden-age of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt. He ruled from 1991 BC to 1962 BC[1] (1939 BC to 1910 BC).[2] Amenemhat I was probably the same as the vizier named Amenemhat who led an expedition to Wadi Hammamat under his predecessor Mentuhotep IV, and possibly overthrew him from power.[3] Scholars differ as to whether Mentuhotep IV was killed by Amenemhat I, but there is no independent evidence to suggest this and there may even have been a period of co-regency between their reigns.[4] Amenemhet I was not of royal lineage, born to Senusret and Nefert who were Nomarchs of one of Egypt's many provinces.[5] The composition of some literary works (the Prophecy of Neferti,[6] the Instructions of Amenemhat[7]) and, in architecture, the reversion to the pyramid-style complexes of the 6th dynasty rulers are often considered to have been attempts at legitimizing his rule. Amenemhat I moved the capital from Thebes to Itjtawy and was buried in el-Lisht. Contents 1 Early reign 2 Name 3 The royal court 4 Pyramid 5 Assassination 6 Succession 7 Modern adaptation 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links Early reign[edit] There's some evidence that the early reign of Amenemhat I was beset with political turmoil, as indicated by the inscriptions of Nehri, a local governor.[8] There were some naval battles where an associate of Amenemhat I by the name of Khnumhotep I was involved, and helped to procure victory. Later, Khnumhotep was appointed as an important local governor at Beni Hasan, and he founded a dynasty of local governors there. His grandson was Khnumhotep III.[9] In the inscriptions by Khnumhotep, mention is also made of military campaigns against the Asiatics and the Nubians.[10] Name[edit] Amenemhat I's name is associated with one of only two sebayt or ethical "teachings" attributed to Egyptian monarchs, entitled the Instructions of Amenemhat, though it is generally thought today that it was composed by a scribe at the behest of the king.[7] Amenemhat I's Horus name, Wehemmesu, which means renaissance or rebirth, is an allusion to the Old Kingdom period, whose cultural icons and models (such as pyramidal tombs and Old Kingdom artistic motifs) were emulated by the Twelfth Dynasty kings after the end of the First Intermediate Period. The cult of the king was also promoted during this period, which witnessed a steady return to a more centralized government.[11] The royal court[edit] The vizier at the beginning of the reign was Ipi, at the end of the reign, Intefiqer was in charge. Two treasurers can be placed under this king: another Ipi and Rehuerdjersen. Two high stewards, Meketre and Sobeknakht, have also been identified. Pyramid[edit] Main article: Pyramid of Amenemhet I His pyramid was made in the same fashion as 5th and 6th dynasty pyramids by having a rough core clad with a fine mantle of smooth limestone. The core of the pyramid was made up of small rough blocks of limestone with a loose fill of sand, debris and mudbrick. Perhaps the most remarkable feature is that it included fragments of relief-decorated blocks from Old Kingdom monuments – many from pyramid causeways and temples, including Khufu's. Granite blocks from Khafre's complex went into the lining and blocking of Amenemhat I's descending passage. We can only conclude that they were picked up at Saqqara and Giza and brought to Lisht to be incorporated into the pyramid for their spiritual efficacy.[12] When the limestone outer layer was taken, the core slumped. The pyramid and temple have been used as a source of material for lime burners so only a small amount remains today. The Middle Kingdom pyramids were built closer to the Nile and Amenemhet I's burial chamber is now underwater because the River Nile has shifted course. The complex has an inner wall of limestone and an outer wall of mudbrick; members of the Royal family were buried between these two walls. There are a number of mastaba tombs between the walls and 22 burial shafts on the western side of the pyramid. His son Senusret I followed in his footsteps, building his pyramid – a closer reflection of the 6th dynasty pyramids than that of Amenemhat I – at Lisht as well, but his grandson, Amenemhat II, broke with this tradition. Assassination[edit] Two literary works dating from the end of the reign give a picture about Amenemhat I's death. The Instructions of Amenemhat were supposedly counsels that the deceased king gave to his son during a dream. In the passage where he warns Senusret I against too great intimacy with his subjects, he tells the story of his own death as a reinforcement: It was after supper, when night had fallen, and I had spent an hour of happiness. I was asleep upon my bed, having become weary, and my heart had begun to follow sleep. When weapons of my counsel were wielded, I had become like a snake of the necropolis. As I came to, I awoke to fighting, and found that it was an attack of the bodyguard. If I had quickly taken weapons in my hand, I would have made the wretches retreat with a charge! But there is none mighty in the night, none who can fight alone; no success will come without a helper. Look, my injury happened while I was without you, when the entourage had not yet heard that I would hand over to you when I had not yet sat with you, that I might make counsels for you; for I did not plan it, I did not foresee it, and my heart had not taken thought of the negligence of servants.[13] This passage refers to a conspiracy in which Amenemhat was killed by his own guards, when his son and co-regent Senusret I was leading a campaign in Libya. Another account of the following events is given in the Story of Sinuhe, a famous text of Egyptian literature: Year 30, third month of the Inundation season, day 7, the god mounted to his horizon, the King of Upper and Lower Egypt Sehetepibre went aloft to heaven and became united with the sun's disk, the limb of the god being merged in him who made him; whilst the Residence was hushed, hearts were in mourning, the Great Gates were closed, the courtiers crouched, head on lap, and the nobles grieved. Now His Majesty had sent an army to the land of the Tjemeh (Libyans), his eldest son as the captain thereof, the god Senusret. He had been sent to smite the foreign countries, and to take prisoner the dwellers in the Tjehnu-land, and now indeed he was returning and had carried off living prisoners of the Tjehnu and all kinds of cattle limitless. And the Companions of the Palace sent to the western side to acquaint the king's son concerning the position that had arisen in the Royal Apartments, and the messengers found him upon the road, they reached him at time of night. Not a moment did he linger, the falcon flew off with his followers, not letting his army know. But the king's children who accompanied him in this army had been sent for and one of them had been summoned. (...)[14] Succession[edit] The double dated stela CG 20516 Amenemhat I is considered to be the first king of Egypt to have had a coregency with his son, Senusret I. A double dated stele from Abydos and now in the Cairo Museum (CG 20516) is dated to the Year 30 of Amenemhat I and to the Year 10 of Senusret I, which establishes that Senusret was made co-regent in Amenemhat's Year 20.[15] Modern adaptation[edit] Naguib Mahfouz, the Nobel Prize-winning Egyptian writer, includes Amenemhat I in one of his stories published in 1941 entitled "Awdat Sinuhi". The story appeared in an English translation by Raymond Stock in 2003 as "The Return of Sinuhe" in the collection of Mahfouz's short stories entitled Voices from the Other World. The story is based directly on the "Story of Sinuhe", although adding details of a lovers' triangle romance involving Amenemhat I and Sinuhe that does not appear in the original. Mahfouz also includes the pharaoh in his account of Egypt's rulers "Facing the Throne". In this work, the Nobel laureate has the Ancient Egyptian gods judge the country's rulers from Pharaoh Mena to President Anwar Sadat. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Amenemhat I. See also[edit] Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt family tree List of Egyptian pyramids List of megalithic sites References[edit] ^ D Wildung, L'Âge d'Or de L'Égypte - le Moyen Empire, Office de Livre, 1984 ^ Erik Hornung; Rolf Krauss; David A Warburton, eds. (2006). Ancient Egyptian chronology. Brill. ISBN 9004113851. OCLC 901251009. ^ Stiebing, William H. (2016) [2009]. Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture (2nd ed.). London; New York: Routledge. p. 156. ISBN 978-0-321-42297-2. OCLC 1004426779. Retrieved June 21, 2020. ^ E. Hornung, History of Ancient Egypt, 1999 p.50 ^ "Amenemhat I Sehetibre | Ancient Egypt Online". Retrieved 2020-10-13. ^ M. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, 1973 p.139 ^ a b M. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, 1973 p.135 ^ Alan B. Lloyd, ed. A Companion to Ancient Egypt. Volume 52 of Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. John Wiley & Sons, 2010 ISBN 1444320068 p.88 ^ Toby Wilkinson, The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt. Random House LLC, 2011 ISBN 0679604294 p.143 ^ Pharaoh: Amenemhat I (Sehetepibre) euler.slu.edu ^ Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000), The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 159 ^ Lehner, Mark The Complete Pyramids, London: Thames and Hudson (1997)p.168 ISBN 0-500-05084-8 ^ "Egypt: Amenemhat I, 1st King of the 12th Dynasty". www.touregypt.net. Retrieved 10 April 2018. ^ Sir Alan Gardiner, Egypt of the Pharaohs, Oxford University Press 1961, p. 130–131 ^ Murnane, William J. Ancient Egyptian Coregencies, Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization. No. 40. p.2. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 1977. Further reading[edit] W. Grajetzki, The Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt: History, Archaeology and Society, Duckworth, London 2006 ISBN 0-7156-3435-6, 28-35 Mahfouz, Naguib. The Return of Sinuhe in Voices from the Other World (translated by Robert Stock), Random House, 2003. External links[edit] Ancient-Egypt.org Amenemhet, Similarities between The Testament of Amenemhet and Machiavelli's Prince Hatshepsut: from Queen to Pharaoh, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Amenemhat I (see index) v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 118653016 ISNI: 0000 0001 0534 9568 LCCN: nr90006803 VIAF: 3264242 WorldCat Identities: viaf-3264242 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amenemhat_I&oldid=1000786143" Categories: Amenemhat I Pharaohs of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt 20th-century BC Pharaohs 20th-century BC rulers 20th century BC in Egypt Viziers of the Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Ancient murdered monarchs Male murder victims Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans አማርኛ العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Català Чӑвашла Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 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en-wikipedia-org-4833	----	Seventh Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Seventh Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Seventh Dynasty of Egypt ca. 2181 BC Capital Memphis Common languages Egyptian language Religion ancient Egyptian religion Government Absolute monarchy Historical era Bronze Age • Established ca. 2181 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The Seventh Dynasty of Egypt would mark the beginning of the First Intermediate Period in the early 22nd century BC but its actual existence is debated. The only historical account on the Seventh Dynasty was in Manetho's Aegyptiaca, a history of Egypt written in the 3rd century BC, where the Seventh Dynasty appears essentially as a metaphor for chaos. Since next to nothing is known of this dynasty beyond Manetho's account, Egyptologists such as Jürgen von Beckerath and Toby Wilkinson have usually considered it to be fictitious.[1][2] In a 2015 re-appraisal of the fall of the Old Kingdom, the Egyptologist Hracht Papazian has proposed that the Seventh Dynasty was real and that it consisted of kings usually attributed to the Eighth Dynasty. Historical sources[edit] Based on the now lost writings of Africanus (c. 160–240) and Eusebius (c. 260–340), themselves based on the now lost work of the Egyptian priest Manetho (3rd century BC), the Byzantine scholar George Syncellus (died after 810) variously assigns to the period after the Sixth dynasty – the Seventh Dynasty – 70 kings in 70 days (Africanus) or 5 kings in 75 days (Eusebius).[3]:395 According to Manetho, these kings would have ruled in Memphis.[3]:396 Rather than a historical reality, this rapid succession of kings has long been interpreted as a metaphor for chaos.[3]:395 Some Egyptologists, such as Papazian (2015),[3]:395 believe that this interpretation may give undue weight to Manetho's writings, and that it distorts the general scholarly understanding of the end of the Old Kingdom. According to Papazian (2015),[3]:395 "a re-examination ... of the Seventh Dynasty's existence, remains fully justified" and some of the kings usually attributed to the mid-Eighth Dynasty should instead be understood to belong to the Seventh Dynasty. Being attested by two additional ancient historical sources as well as archeological evidence, the Eighth Dynasty is not quite as obscure as the Seventh. As a consequence, some Egyptologists combine the Seventh and Eighth Dynasty into a single line of kings, reigning immediately after the Sixth Dynasty. List of rulers[edit] The Seventh Dynasty is usually considered fictitious and is thus either ignored altogether by modern scholars or it is combined with the Eighth Dynasty. The Egyptologist Hracht Papazian has proposed in 2015 that a number of rulers usually seen as belonging to the mid-Eighth Dynasty identified by the Abydos King List should be attributed to a Seventh Dynasty:[3]:416 Dynasty VII as per Papazian[3]:416 Name Evidence beyond the Abydos king list Djedkare Shemai — Neferkare Khendu — Merenhor — Neferkamin — Nikare Possibly attested by a cylinder seal.[4] Neferkare Tereru — Neferkahor Attested by a cylinder seal. Neferkare Pepiseneb Turin Canon gives at least one year.[5] Neferkamin Anu — References[edit] ^ Wilkinson, Toby (2010). "Timeline". The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt. New York: Random House. p. xiii. ISBN 9781408810026. The system of dynasties devised in the third century B.C. [by Manetho] is not without its problems—for example, the Seventh Dynasty is now recognized as being wholly spurious, while several dynasties are known to have ruled concurrently in different parts of Egypt... ^ Jürgen von Beckerath, Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen. Münchner ägyptologische Studien (in German). 49. Mainz: Philip von Zabern. ISBN 978-3-8053-2591-2. ^ a b c d e f g Hratch Papazian (2015). "The State of Egypt in the Eighth Dynasty". In Peter Der Manuelian; Thomas Schneider (eds.). Towards a New History for the Egyptian Old Kingdom: Perspectives on the Pyramid Age. Harvard Egyptological Studies. BRILL. ^ Peter Kaplony: Die Rollsiegel des Alten Reichs, vol. 2: Katalog der Rollsiegel (Monumenta Aegyptiaca Vol. 3), La Fondation Égyptologique Reine Élisabeth, Brüssel 1981, issue 144. ^ Kim Ryholt: "The Late Old Kingdom in the Turin King-list and the Identity of Nitocris", Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde, 127 (2000), p. 91 Preceded by Sixth Dynasty Dynasty of Egypt c. 2181 Succeeded by Eighth Dynasty Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=981095098" Categories: Seventh Dynasty of Egypt States and territories established in the 3rd millennium BC States and territories disestablished in the 3rd millennium BC Dynasties of ancient Egypt 22nd century BC in Egypt 3rd-millennium BC establishments in Egypt 3rd-millennium BC disestablishments in Egypt Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ქართული Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 30 September 2020, at 07:41 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4834	----	Information for "Xerxes I" - Wikipedia Help Information for "Xerxes I" Jump to navigation Jump to search Contents Basic information Page protection Edit history Page properties External tools Basic information Display title Xerxes I Default sort key Xerxes 01 Page length (in bytes) 45,138 Page ID 46289 Page content language en - English Page content model wikitext Indexing by robots Allowed Number of page watchers 381 Number of page watchers who visited recent edits 50 Number of redirects to this page 15 Counted as a content page Yes Page image Page views in the past 30 days 68,615 Wikidata item ID Q129165 Local description Fourth King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Central description Ancient Persian king Page protection Edit Require autoconfirmed or confirmed access (15:57, 30 April 2021) Move Require administrator access (no expiry set) View the protection log for this page. Edit history Page creator Jeronimo (talk | contribs) Date of page creation 00:09, 28 March 2002 Latest editor HistoryofIran (talk | contribs) Date of latest edit 18:19, 8 December 2020 Total number of edits 3,801 Recent number of edits (within past 30 days) 0 Recent number of distinct authors 0 Page properties Hidden categories (35) This page is a member of 35 hidden categories (help) : Category:All articles with unsourced statements Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Category:Articles containing Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text Category:Articles with short description Category:Articles with unsourced statements from January 2019 Category:Articles with unsourced statements from June 2013 Category:Articles with unsourced statements from September 2020 Category:CS1: long volume value Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr) Category:CS1 Persian-language sources (fa) Category:CS1 errors: missing periodical Category:Commons category link is on 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en-wikipedia-org-4835	----	Book sources - Wikipedia Book sources Jump to navigation Jump to search This page allows users to search for multiple sources for a book given the 10- or 13-digit ISBN number. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN number do not matter. Search for book sourcesISBN: Search Wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources For assistance, see Help:ISBN. This page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its International Standard Book Number (ISBN). If you arrived at this page by clicking an ISBN link in a Wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. To search for a different book, type that book's individual ISBN into this ISBN search box. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. 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en-wikipedia-org-4840	----	Ptolemaic dynasty - Wikipedia Ptolemaic dynasty From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Macedonian Greek royal family which ruled Egypt This article is about the royal family. For the territorial state over which it ruled, see Ptolemaic Kingdom. Ptolemaic Dynasty Ptolemaic Empire, circa 300 BC Country Ancient Egypt, Macedonia, Mauretania Founded 305 BC Founder Ptolemy I Soter Final ruler Ptolemy XV (Egypt), Cleopatra VII (Egypt) Titles Pharaoh, King of Macedonia, King of Mauretania Estate(s) Egypt, Cyrenaica, Cyprus, Canaan Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The Ptolemaic dynasty (/ˌtɒlɪˈmeɪɪk/; Ancient Greek: Πτολεμαῖοι, Ptolemaioi), sometimes also known as the Lagids (/ˈlædʒɪdz/) or Lagidae (/ˈlædʒɪdi/; Λαγίδαι, Lagidai, after Lagus, Ptolemy I's father), was a Macedonian Greek[1][2][3][4][5] royal family, which ruled the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt during the Hellenistic period. Their rule lasted for 275 years, from 305 to 30 BC.[6] They were the last dynasty of ancient Egypt. Ptolemy, one of the seven somatophylakes (bodyguards) of Macedon who served as Alexander the Great's generals and deputies, was appointed satrap of Egypt after Alexander's death in 323 BC. In 305 BC, he declared himself Ptolemy I, later known as Sōter "Saviour". The Egyptians soon accepted the Ptolemies as the successors to the pharaohs of independent Egypt. Ptolemy's family ruled Egypt until the Roman conquest of 30 BC. Like the earlier dynasties of ancient Egypt, the Ptolemaic dynasty practiced inbreeding including sibling marriage, but this did not start in earnest until nearly a century into the dynasty's history.[7] All the male rulers of the dynasty took the name Ptolemy, while queens regnant were all called Cleopatra, Arsinoe or Berenice. The most famous member of the line was the last queen, Cleopatra VII, known for her role in the Roman political battles between Julius Caesar and Pompey, and later between Octavian and Mark Antony. Her apparent suicide at the conquest by Rome marked the end of Ptolemaic rule in Egypt. Contents 1 Ptolemaic rulers and consorts 2 Ptolemaic family tree 2.1 Other notable members of the Ptolemaic dynasty 3 Inbreeding and health 4 Gallery of images 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Ptolemaic rulers and consorts[edit] Ptolemy I Soter was the founder of the Ptolemaic dynasty, and the first ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom. Posthumous portrait of Cleopatra VII, from Roman Herculaneum, mid-1st century AD.[8][9] The Gonzaga Cameo of Ptolemy II Philadelphus and Arsinoe II from Alexandria (Hermitage Museum) Cameo of Ptolemaic rulers (Kunsthistorisches Museum) The Cup of the Ptolemies: front (top) and back (bottom) of the cup (Cabinet des Médailles) Dates in brackets represent the regnal dates of the Ptolemaic pharaohs. They frequently ruled jointly with their wives, who were often also their sisters. Several queens exercised regal authority. Of these, one of the last and most famous was Cleopatra ("Cleopatra VII Philopator", 51–30 BC), with her two brothers and her son serving as successive nominal co-rulers. Several systems exist for numbering the later rulers; the one used here is the one most widely employed by modern scholars. Ptolemy I Soter (303–282 BC)[10] married first Thaïs, then Artakama, then Eurydice, and finally Berenice I Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285–246 BC)[11] married Arsinoe I, then Arsinoe II; ruled jointly with Ptolemy Epigonos (267–259 BC) Ptolemy III Euergetes (246–221 BC) married Berenice II Ptolemy IV Philopator (221–203 BC) married Arsinoe III Ptolemy V Epiphanes (203–181 BC) married Cleopatra I Syra Ptolemy VI Philometor (181–164 BC, 163–145 BC) married Cleopatra II, briefly ruled jointly with Ptolemy Eupator in 152 BC Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator (never reigned) Ptolemy VIII Physcon (170–163 BC, 145–116 BC) married Cleopatra II, then Cleopatra III; temporarily expelled from Alexandria by Cleopatra II from 131-127 BC, then reconciled with her in 124 BC. Cleopatra II Philometora Soteira (131–127 BC), in opposition to Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Philometor Soteira Dikaiosyne Nikephoros (Kokke) (116–101 BC) ruled jointly with Ptolemy IX Lathyros (116–107 BC) and Ptolemy X Alexander I (107–101 BC) Ptolemy IX Lathyros (116–107 BC, 88–81 BC as Soter II) married Cleopatra IV, then Cleopatra Selene; ruled jointly with Cleopatra III in his first reign Ptolemy X Alexander I (107–88 BC) married Cleopatra Selene, then Berenice III; ruled jointly with Cleopatra III till 101 BC Berenice III Philopator (81–80 BC) Ptolemy XI Alexander II (80 BC) married and ruled jointly with Berenice III before murdering her; ruled alone for 19 days after that. Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos (Auletes) (80–58 BC, 55–51 BC) married Cleopatra V Tryphaena Cleopatra V Tryphaena (58–57 BC) ruled jointly with Berenice IV Epiphaneia (58–55 BC) and Cleopatra VI Tryphaena (58 BC) Cleopatra ("Cleopatra VII Philopator", 51–30 BC) ruled jointly with Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator (51–47 BC), Ptolemy XIV (47–44 BC) and Ptolemy XV Caesarion (44–30 BC). Arsinoe IV (48–47 BC), in opposition to Cleopatra Ptolemaic family tree[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Ptolemaic dynasty" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Lagus of Eordea, Macedon Arsinoe of Macedon Ptolemy I Soter (Kg 303–282 BC) Berenice I Philip Arsinoe II Ptolemy II Philadelphus (Kg. 285–246 BC) Arsinoe I Magas of Cyrene Apama II Ptolemy III Euergetes (Kg. 246–221 BC) Berenice II Ptolemy IV Philopator (Kg. 221–203 BC) Arsinoe III Ptolemy V Epiphanes (Kg. 203–181 BC) Cleopatra I Syra Ptolemy VI Philometor (Kg. 181–164 BC, 163–145 BC) Cleopatra II (Qn. 131–127 BC) Ptolemy VIII Physcon (Kg. 170–163 BC, 145–116 BC) Eirene Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra III (Qn, 116–101 BC) Ptolemy Memphites Ptolemy Apion Cleopatra IV Ptolemy IX Lathyros (Kg. 116–107 BC, as Soter II 88–81 BC) Cleopatra Selene Ptolemy X Alexander I (Kg. 107–88 BC) Ptolemy XII Auletes (Kg. 80–58 BC, 55–51 BC) Berenice III (Qn. 81–80 BC) Ptolemy XI Alexander II (Kg. 80 BC, for 19 days) Cleopatra V (Qn. 58–55 BC) Cleopatra VI (Qn. 58 BC) Berenice IV (Qn. 58–55 BC) Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator (Kg. 51–47 BC) Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator (Qn. 51–30 BC) Ptolemy XIV (Kg. 47–44 BC) Arsinoe IV (Qn. 48–47 BC) Julius Caesar Mark Antony Ptolemy XV Caesarion (Kg. 44–30 BC) Alexander Helios Ptolemy Philadelphus Cleopatra Selene II Ptolemy of Mauretania Detailed Ptolemaic family tree Antipater Lagus Arsinoe of Macedon Eurydice Ptolemy I Soter (Kg 303–282 BC) Berenice I (∞ Philip ↓ Magas of Cyrene ∞ Apama II ↓ See below: Berenice II) Lysimachus Lysandra Ptolemais Ptolemy Ceraunus Arsinoe II Ptolemy II Philadelphus (Kg. 285–246 BC) Arsinoe I Berenice II of Egypt (daughter of Magas of Cyrene, see above: Berenice I) Ptolemy III Euergetes (Kg. 246–221 BC) Berenice Syra Antiochus III the Great Arsinoe III Ptolemy IV Philopator (Kg. 221–203 BC) Cleopatra I Syra Ptolemy V Epiphanes (Kg. 203–181 BC) Ptolemy VI Philometor (Kg. 181–164 BC, 163-145 BC) Cleopatra II (Qn. 131–127 BC) Ptolemy VIII Physcon (Kg. 170–163 BC, 145–116 BC) Eirene ? Ptolemy Eupator Cleopatra Thea Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra III (Qn, 116–101 BC) Ptolemy Memphites Ptolemy Apion Cleopatra Tryphaena Cleopatra IV Ptolemy IX Lathyros (Kg. 116–107 BC, as Soter II 88–81 BC) Cleopatra V Selene ? Ptolemy X Alexander I (Kg. 107–88 BC) ? Berenice III (Qn. 81–80 BC) Ptolemy XI Alexander II (Kg. 80 BC, for 19 days) Ptolemy of Cyprus Ptolemy XII Auletes (Kg. 80–58 BC, 55–51 BC) Cleopatra VI (Qn. 58 BC) Berenice IV (Qn. 58–55 BC) Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator (Kg. 51–47 BC) Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator (Qn. 51–30 BC) Ptolemy XIV (Kg. 47–44 BC) Arsinoe IV (Qn. 48–47 BC) Julius Caesar Mark Antony Ptolemy XV Caesarion (Kg. 44–30 BC) Alexander Helios Cleopatra Selene II Juba II of Mauretania Ptolemy Philadelphus Ptolemy of Mauretania Other notable members of the Ptolemaic dynasty[edit] A seated woman in a fresco from the Roman Villa Boscoreale, dated mid-1st century BC. It likely represents Berenice II of Ptolemaic Egypt wearing a stephane (i.e. royal diadem) on her head.[12] Ptolemy Keraunos (died 279 BC) – eldest son of Ptolemy I Soter. Eventually became king of Macedonia. Ptolemy Apion (died 96 BC) – son of Ptolemy VIII Physcon. Made king of Cyrenaica. Bequeathed Cyrenaica to Rome. Ptolemy Philadelphus (born 36 BC) – son of Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII. Ptolemy of Mauretania (died 40 AD) – son of King Juba II of Numidia and Mauretania and Cleopatra Selene II, daughter of Cleopatra VII and Mark Antony. King of Mauretania. Ptolemy II of Telmessos, grandson of Ptolemy Epigonos, flourished second half of 3rd century BC and first half of 2nd century BC Ptolemy of Cyprus, king of Cyprus c. 80–58 BC, younger brother of Ptolemy XII Auletes Inbreeding and health[edit] See also: Incest § Antiquity, and Inbreeding § Royalty and nobility In continuation of the tradition established by previous Egyptian dynasties, the Ptolemies engaged in inbreeding including sibling marriage, with many of the pharaohs being married to their siblings and often co-ruling with them. Ptolemy I and other early rulers of the dynasty were not married to their relatives, the childless marriage of siblings Ptolemy II and Arsinoe II[13] being an exception. The first child-producing incestuous marriage in the Ptolemaic dynasty was that of Ptolemy IV and Arsinoe III, who were succeeded as co-pharaohs by their son Ptolemy V, born 210 BC. The most famous Ptolemaic pharaoh, Cleopatra VII, was at different times married to and reigning with two of her brothers (Ptolemy XIII until 47 BC and then Ptolemy XIV until 44 BC), and their parents were likely siblings or possibly cousins as well.[7] Contemporaries describe a number of the Ptolemaic dynasty members as extremely obese,[14] whilst sculptures and coins reveal prominent eyes and swollen necks. Familial Graves' disease could explain the swollen necks and eye prominence (exophthalmos), although this is unlikely to occur in the presence of morbid obesity. This is all likely due to inbreeding within the Ptolemaic dynasty. In view of the familial nature of these findings, members of this dynasty likely suffered from a multi-organ fibrotic condition such as Erdheim–Chester disease or a familial multifocal fibrosclerosis where thyroiditis, obesity and ocular proptosis may have all occurred concurrently.[15] Gallery of images[edit] Ptolemy of Macedon founded the Ptolemaic Dynasty. Ptolemy II Ptolemy III Ptolemy IV Ptolemy V Ptolemy VI Cleopatra II (right) Ptolemy VIII Ptolemy IX Ptolemy X Ptolemy XI Ptolemy XII Ptolemy XIII and Isis Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Ptolemy XV, commonly called Caesarion. Sardonyx cameo of a Ptolemaic prince as the Greek god Hermes, Cabinet des médailles, Paris. See also[edit] Ancient Egypt portal Egypt portal History portal Argead dynasty, another Greek dynasty in Egypt Donations of Alexandria Hellenistic period History of ancient Egypt List of pharaohs#Ptolemaic Dynasty List of Seleucid rulers On Weights and Measures, which contains a chronology of the Ptolemies Ptolemaic Decrees Roman pharaohs References[edit] ^ Jones, Prudence J. (2006). Cleopatra: A Sourcebook. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 14. They were members of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Macedonians, who ruled Egypt after the death of its conqueror, Alexander the Great. ^ Pomeroy, Sarah B. (1990). Women in Hellenistic Egypt. Wayne State University Press. p. 16. while Ptolemaic Egypt was a monarchy with a Greek ruling class. ^ Redford, Donald B., ed. (2000). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. Cleopatra VII was born to Ptolemy XII Auletes (80–57 BCE, ruled 55–51 BCE) and Cleopatra, both parents being Macedonian Greeks. ^ Bard, Kathryn A., ed. (1999). Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. Routledge. p. 488. Ptolemaic kings were still crowned at Memphis and the city was popularly regarded as the Egyptian rival to Alexandria, founded by the Macedonians. ^ Bard, Kathryn A., ed. (1999). Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. Routledge. p. 687. During the Ptolemaic period, when Egypt was governed by rulers of Greek descent... ^ Epiphanius of Salamis, however, puts the total number of years of the Ptolemy dynasty at 306. See: Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures - The Syriac Version (ed. James Elmer Dean), University of Chicago Press 1935, p. 28 (note 104), or what was from 306/5 BCE to 1 CE. ^ a b Move over, Lannisters: No one did incest and murder like the last pharaohs on The A.V. Club ^ Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (2001), "Painting with a portrait of a woman in profile", in Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (eds.), Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press (British Museum Press), pp. 314–315, ISBN 9780691088358. ^ Fletcher, Joann (2008). Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend. New York: Harper. ISBN 978-0-06-058558-7, image plates and captions between pp. 246-247. ^ Wasson, Donald (February 3, 2012). "Ptolemy I". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved October 1, 2016. ^ Tunny, Jennifer(2001)The Health of Ptolemy II Philadelphus. The Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrologists/ Vol.38(1/4), pp.119-134 ^ Pfrommer, Michael; Towne-Markus, Elana (2001). Greek Gold from Hellenistic Egypt. Los Angeles: Getty Publications (J. Paul Getty Trust). ISBN 0-89236-633-8, pp. 22–23. ^ Ptolemy II "Philadelphus" on Encyclopædia Britannica ^ "Morbid obesity and hypersomnolence in several members of an ancient royal family" ^ Ashrafian, Hutan (2005). "Familial proptosis and obesity in the Ptolemies". J. R. Soc. Med. 98 (2): 85–86. doi:10.1258/jrsm.98.2.85-a. PMC 1079400. PMID 15684370. Further reading[edit] A. Lampela, Rome and the Ptolemies of Egypt: The development of their political relations 273–80 B.C. (Helsinki, 1998). J. G. Manning, The Last Pharaohs: Egypt Under the Ptolemies, 305–30 BC (Princeton, 2009). Susan Stephens, Seeing Double: Intercultural Poetics in Ptolemaic Alexandria (Berkeley, 2002). External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ptolemaic dynasty. Livius.org: "Ptolemies"—by Jona Lendering v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Hellenistic rulers Argeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Kings of Cyrene Magas Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Kings of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Kings of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Kings of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Kings of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus Kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon (regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces Asander with Dynamis Mithridates II Asander with Dynamis Scribonius’ attempted rule with Dynamis Dynamis with Polemon Polemon with Pythodorida Aspurgus Mithridates III with Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories. v t e Rulers of the Ancient Near East Territories/ dates [1][2][3][4] Egypt Canaan Ebla Mari Akshak/ Akkad Kish Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period 4000–3200 BCE Naqada culture (4000–3100 BCE) Proto-Cannaanites Sumerian period (4000–2340 BCE) Susa I Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE) Naqada I Naqada II Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests") Legendary ante-deluvian rulers: In Eridu: Alulim, Alalngar, then in Bad-tibira: En-men-lu-ana, En-men-gal-ana, Dumuzid, the Shepherd, then in Larag: En-sipad-zid-ana, then in Zimbir: En-men-dur-ana, then in Shuruppag: Ubara-Tutu "then the flood swept over"[5] Susa II (Uruk influence or control) 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ DenAnedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100-2700 BCE) Great Flood 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) First kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman En-me-barage-si ("made the land of Elam submit")[6] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba Uruk II dynasty Enshakushanna Mug-si Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions (3 kings)[7] Shushuntarana Napilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Urur Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun) Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion of Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[7] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian Empire (Semitic) Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Second Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) (Vassals of UR III) Shakkanakku dynasty (Semitic) Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Neo-Sumerian Period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians) Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (Vassals of Ur III)[8] Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal 2100 BCE Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin Ibbi-Sin 2050 BCE 2000 BCE Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV circa 2000 BCE Amorite invasions Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) 2025-1763 BCE Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ Third Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 1894–1595 BCE Second Intermediate Period Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham (Biblical) Yamhad First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Phoenicia Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Middle Assyrian Empire Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt 626–539 BCE Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116-117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ "The Sumerian king list: translation". etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2008-05-08. ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ a b Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4. Authority control BNE: XX5351205 BNF: cb119455279 (data) GND: 118793551 LCCN: sh88000475 NKC: mzk2005300730 NSK: 000069538 PLWABN: 9810608968405606 VcBA: 495/41813 VIAF: 42634079 WorldCat Identities: viaf-42634079 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ptolemaic_dynasty&oldid=998143437" Categories: Ptolemaic dynasty States and territories established in the 4th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 1st century BC Dynasties of ancient Egypt Hellenistic dynasties African dynasties African royal families Ancient Greek dynasties Ancient royal families 4th century BC in Egypt 3rd century BC in Egypt 2nd century BC in Egypt 1st century BC in Egypt 4th-century BC establishments in Egypt 1st-millennium BC disestablishments in Egypt 305 BC 300s BC establishments 30 BC 4th-century BC establishments in Greece 1st-century BC disestablishments in Greece Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Pages using infobox family with unknown parameters Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles needing additional references from January 2021 All articles needing additional references Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Alemannisch العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy مصرى Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 January 2021, at 01:05 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4852	----	Abdashtart I - Wikipedia Abdashtart I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Phoenician king of Sidon For the 10th-century BC king of Tyre, see Abdastartus. For the Indo-Greek king, see Strato I. Abdashtart I Portrait of Abdashtart (Straton) I from his coinage. Circa 365–352 BC. Allegiance Achaemenid Empire Years of service 365 to 352 BC Rank King of Sidon Battles/wars Revolt against the Achaemenid Empire Sidon The capital of Abdashtart I was in Sidon. Achaemenid coinage of Abdashtart I, circa 365–352 BC. Abdashtart I (in Greek, Straton I)[1] was a king of the Phoenician city-state of Sidon who reigned as coregent with his father Baalshillem II from the 380s to 365 BC,[2] then as sole king from 365 to 352.[3] Contents 1 Reform 2 Revolt against the Achaemenid Empire 3 Later life 4 References Reform[edit] The Baalshillem Temple Boy – a votive statue said to depict Abdashtart I, given by his father Baalshillem II at the Temple of Eshmun. His accession appears to have taken place in a period of economic and political difficulty, since he immediately took 'emergency measures',[4] reducing the precious metal-content of the Sidonian double shekel by two grams, [5] thereby devaluing the Sidonian currency in his first year.[6] He also expanded the currency, adding bronze coinage as well as silver, which funded the expansion of the Sidonian navy.[7] It is supposed that he gave his name to the city known in the Hellenized world as Straton's Tower, which was later renamed Caesarea by Herod the Great.[8] Joseph Patrich argues, however, that Straton's Tower may have been founded during the Ptolemaic Kingdom instead,[9] in which case the naming may have been for a Ptolemaic general of the third century BC.[10] Revolt against the Achaemenid Empire[edit] Abdashtart formed diplomatic alliances with Athens and Egypt. Relying on his increased fleet, by 360 or 359 he felt strong enough to revolt against the Achaemenid Empire.[4] Although the Persians were already fighting the Egyptians (whose Pharaoh Tachos had invaded Phoenicia), and although the rebels won two military victories against the generals of Artaxerxes III in 358 and 356,[4] the revolt was suppressed in 355[3] and led to Persian occupation for the next four years, during which time the Sidonian currency was banned, minting privileges were stopped, and the Persian currency was forcibly introduced.[11] The revolt has been described as 'a grave political error' for Abdashtart; not only did the Sidonians experience financial crisis and military repression, but they also lost swathes of territory to their neighbour, Tyre.[4] Later life[edit] Inscription in honor of Straton, Acropolis of Athens. Coin struck in Sidon, Achaemenid Phoenicia, at the time of Abdashtart I. Obv: Phoenician galley and waves. Rev: King of Persia and driver in chariot drawn by two horses. Ruler of Sidon standing behind the chariot, holding sceptre and votive vase. Dated 360/59 BC. The Persians left Abdashtart on the throne,[3] and he proceeded to further diplomatic ties with Athens[12] and Salamis, Cyprus, which had probably supported his revolt against Artaxerxes.[4] Historians do not know whether he was the last of his dynasty, as it remains uncertain whether his known heir and successor, Tennes, was his son or some other close relative.[6] Abdashtart was honoured by an inscription in the Acropolis of Athens (IG II2 141):[13] ...and has taken care that the ambassadors whom the People sent to the King should travel as finely as possible, and to reply to the man who has come from the king of Sidon that, if in the future he is a good man to the People of Athens, he will not fail to obtain from the Athenians what he needs. Also Straton the king of Sidon shall be proxenos of the People of Athens, both himself and his descendants... — Straton King of Sidon inscription, Acropolis of Athens (extract). Translation by Stephen Lambert, P. J. Rhodes.[14] References[edit] ^ Markoe, Glenn (2000). Phoenicians. U of California P. pp. 58–. ISBN 9780520226142. ^ Sagona, C. (ed.), Beyond the Homeland: Markers in Phoenician Chronology (Leuven, 2008), p. 105 ^ a b c Steiner, Margreet L.; Killebrew, Ann E. (2014). The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Levant: c. 8000-332 BCE. OUP Oxford. pp. 109, 117. ISBN 9780191662553. Retrieved 17 March 2016. ^ a b c d e Steiner, M.L. & Killebrew, A.E., The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Levant: c. 8000-332 BCE (Oxford, 2014), p. 117 ^ Elayi, J., & Jean Sapin, J., (trans. Crowley, J.E. & Elayi, J.), Beyond the River: New Perspectives on Transeuphratene (Sheffield Press, 1998), p.126 ^ a b Sagona, C. (ed.), Beyond the Homeland: Markers in Phoenician Chronology (Leuven, 2008), p. 106 ^ Moscati, S., The Phoenicians (Tauris, 2001), p. 524 ^ Isaac, B.H., The Near East Under Roman Rule: Selected Papers (Brill, 1997), p. 15 ^ Patrich, Joseph (2011). "Herodian Caesarea: The Urban Space". Studies in the Archaeology and History of Caesarea Maritima. Leiden: Brill. pp. 5–40. doi:10.1163/ej.9789004175112.i-500.6. ISBN 978-90-04-17511-2 – via Brill. ^ Ameling, Walter; Cotton, Hannah M.; Eck, Werner; Isaac, Benjamin; Kushnir-Stein, Alla; Misgav, Haggai; Price, Jonathan; Yardeni, Ada, eds. (2011). "Caesarea". Caesarea and the Middle Coast 1121–2160. Corpus Inscriptionum Iudaeae/Palaestinae. 2. Berlin: De Gruyter. p. 17. doi:10.1515/9783110222180.17. ISBN 978-3-11-022217-3 – via De Gruyter. ^ Markoe, G.E., Phoenicians: Peoples of the Past (California UP, 2000), p. 5959 ^ Bromiley, G., International Standard Bible Encyclopedia (Eerdemans, 1998), p. 502 ^ "Honours for Straton of Sidon: IG II2 141". Attic Inscriptions Online. Translated by Rhodes, P. J. Retrieved 18 March 2016. ^ IGII2 141 Honours for Straton king of Sidon. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Abdashtart I. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abdashtart_I&oldid=1001858826" Categories: 4th-century BC rulers in Asia Kings of Sidon Rebellions against the Achaemenid Empire Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Deutsch עברית Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 21 January 2021, at 18:36 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4853	----	Royal Road - Wikipedia Royal Road From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient highway rebuilt by Darius the Great in the 5th century BC .</ref> and connecting the parts together in a unified whole stretching some 1677 miles, primarily as a post road, with a hundred and eleven posting stations maintained with a supply of fresh horses, a quick mode of communication using relays of swift mounted messengers, the kingdom's pirradazis For other uses, see Royal Road (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Royal Roads. The map of Achaemenid Empire and the section of the Royal Road noted by Herodotus The Royal Road was an ancient highway reorganized and rebuilt by the Persian king Darius the Great (Darius I) of the first (Achaemenid) Persian Empire in the 5th century BCE.[1] Darius built the road to facilitate rapid communication throughout his very large empire from Susa to Sardis.[2] Mounted couriers of the Angarium were supposed to travel 1,677 miles (2,699 km) from Susa to Sardis in nine days; the journey took ninety days on foot.[3] Contents 1 Course of the Royal Road 2 History of the Royal Road 3 Legacy 3.1 A metaphorical "Royal Road" in famous quotations 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links Course of the Royal Road[edit] The course of the road has been reconstructed from the writings of Herodotus,[4] archeological research, and other historical records. It began in Sardis near the Aegean coast of Lydia, traveled east through Anatolia (crossing the Halys according to Herodotus), and passed through the Cilician Gates to the old Assyrian capital Nineveh in upper Mesopotamia, then turned south to Babylon. From near Babylon, it is believed to have split into two routes, one traveling northeast then east through Ecbatana and on along the Silk Road (via the Great Khurasan Road), the other continuing east through the future Persian capital Susa and then southeast to Persepolis in the Zagros Mountains. Of course, such long routes for travellers and tradesmen would often take months on end, and during the reign of Darius the Great numerous royal outposts (Caravanserai) were built. History of the Royal Road[edit] Because the road did not follow the shortest nor the easiest route between the most important cities of the Persian Empire, archeologists believe the westernmost sections of the road may have originally been built by the Assyrian kings, as the road plunges through the heart of their old empire. More eastern segments of the road, identifiable in present-day northern Iran, were not noted by Herodotus, whose view of Persia was that of an Ionian Greek in the West;[5] stretches of the Royal Road across the central plateau of Iran are coincident with the major trade route known as the Silk Road. This route was used by couriers to deliver messages to the Persian capital. However, Darius I improved the existing road network into the Royal Road as it is recognized today. A later improvement by the Romans of a road bed with a hard-packed gravelled surface of 6.25 m width held within a stone curbing was found in a stretch near Gordium[6] and connecting the parts together in a unified whole stretching some 1677 miles, primarily as a post road, with a hundred and eleven posting stations maintained with a supply of fresh horses, a quick mode of communication using relays of swift mounted messengers, the kingdom's pirradazis. The construction of the road as improved by Darius was of such quality that the road continued to be used until Roman times. A bridge at Diyarbakır, Turkey, still stands from this period of the road's use. The road also helped Persia increase long-distance trade, which reached its peak during the time of Alexander the Great (Alexander III of Macedon). In 1961, under a grant from the American Philosophical Society, S. F. Starr traced the stretch of road from Gordium to Sardis, identifying river crossings by ancient bridge abutments.[7] It was maintained by personal guards.[clarification needed] The road also was made secure by the Persians. Guard posts were stationed along the road, patrols were also made to secure the route. The Royal Road would be a monument of the Persian Empire. Legacy[edit] The Greek historian Herodotus wrote, "There is nothing in the world that travels faster than these Persian couriers." Herodotus's praise for these messengers—"Neither snow nor rain nor heat nor gloom of night stays these couriers from the swift completion of their appointed rounds"— was inscribed on the James Farley Post Office in New York and is sometimes thought of as the United States Postal Service creed. A metaphorical "Royal Road" in famous quotations[edit] Euclid is said to have replied to King Ptolemy's request for an easier way of learning mathematics that "there is no Royal Road to geometry", according to Proclus.[8] Charles Sanders Peirce, in his How to Make Our Ideas Clear (1878), says, "There is no royal road to logic, and really valuable ideas can only be had at the price of close attention." This essay was claimed by William James as instrumental in the foundation of the philosophical school of pragmatism. Sigmund Freud famously described dreams as the "royal road to the unconscious" ("Via regia zur Kenntnis des Unbewußten"). Karl Marx wrote in the 1872 Preface to the French Edition of Das Kapital (Volume 1), "There is no royal road to science, and only those who do not dread the fatiguing climb of its steep paths have a chance of gaining its luminous summits." The Royal Road to Romance (1925) is the first book by Richard Halliburton, covering his world travels as a young man from Andorra to Angkor. See also[edit] Chapar Khaneh Persian Corridor Baghdad Railway Trans-Iranian Railway History of Iran Achaemenid Empire El Camino Real (California) Via Regia (Germany) Angarum Angaria (Roman law) Inca road system Notes[edit] ^ Graf, David F. (1994). "The Persian Royal Road System". Continuity & Change: Proceedings of the Last Achaemenid History Workshop 1990. Achaemenid History. 8. pp. 167–189. ISBN 90-6258-408-X. ^ Fox, Robin Lane (1973). Alexander the Great. London: Penguin. p. 96. ISBN 0-86007-707-1. ^ Kia, Mehrdad (2016). The Persian Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. p. 127. ISBN 1610693914. ^ Herodotus, Histories v.52-54, viii.98; Herodotus seems to have been in possession of an itinerary. Calder, W. M. (1925). "The Royal Road in Herodotus". The Classical Review. 39 (1/2): 7–11. doi:10.1017/S0009840X0003448X suggested that Herodotus was partly in error in his tracing the route through Anatolia by making it cross the Halys and showed that though his overall his distances in parasangs are approximately correct, his distances over the sections he describes bear no relation to geographical facts. ^ "Herodotus, a Greek from the Aegean coast of Asia Minor, appears to have reported only that part of the network which led directly to the parts of the Greek world that concerned him," notes Young, Rodney S. (1963). "Gordion on the Royal Road". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 107 (4): 348–364. JSTOR 985675. ^ Near Gordium the track was identified as post-Phrygian, as it wound round Phrygian tumuli: Young, Rodney S. (1956). "The Campaign of 1955 at Gordion: Preliminary Report". American Journal of Archaeology. 60 (3): 249–266 p. 266 "The Royal Road"; and 61 (1957:319 and illus.). ^ Starr, S. F. (1963). "The Persian Royal Road in Turkey". Yearbook of the American Philosophical Society 1962. Philadelphia. pp. 629–632. ^ Proclus, p. 57 References[edit] Lockard, Craig A. (2008). Societies, Networks, and Transitions, A Global History. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. "The Persian Royal Road". Livius: Articles on Ancient History. Retrieved February 16, 2005. "The Royal Road". The History of Iran on Iran Chamber Society. Retrieved May 5, 2006. "The Persian Royal Mail (archived)". Rivers From Eden. Archived from the original on February 16, 2014. Retrieved March 2, 2016. External links[edit] Media related to Royal Road at Wikimedia Commons v t e Achaemenid Empire History Kingdom Family tree Timeline History of democracy Art Achaemenid Persian Lion Rhyton Achaemenid coinage Danake Persian daric Architecture Achaemenid architecture Persepolis Pasargadae Tomb of Cyrus Naqsh-e Rostam Ka'ba-ye Zartosht Mausoleum at Halicarnassus Tombs at Xanthos Harpy Tomb Nereid Monument Tomb of Payava Culture Persepolis Administrative Archives Old Persian cuneiform Old Persian Behistun Inscription Xerxes I's inscription at Van Ganjnameh Warfare Persian Revolt Battle of Hyrba Battle of the Persian Border Lydian-Persian Wars Battle of Pteria Battle of Thymbra Siege of Sardis (547 BC) Battle of Opis First conquest of Egypt Battle of Cunaxa Conquest of the Indus Valley Scythian campaign of Darius I Greco-Persian Wars Ionian Revolt Battle of Thermopylae Battle of Artemisium Battle of Salamis Battle of Plataea Battle of Mycale Battle of Marathon Delian League Battle of Lade Siege of Eretria Siege of Naxos (499 BC) Wars of the Delian League Battle of the Eurymedon Peloponnesian War Battle of Cyzicus Corinthian War Battle of Cnidus Great Satraps' Revolt Second conquest of Egypt Wars of Alexander the Great Battle of Gaugamela Battle of the Granicus Battle of the Persian Gate Battle of Issus Siege of Gaza Siege of Halicarnassus Siege of Miletus Siege of Perinthus Siege of Tyre (332 BC) Related Achaemenid dynasty Pharnacid dynasty Peace of Antalcidas Peace of Callias Kingdom of Pontus Mithridatic dynasty Kingdom of Cappadocia Ariarathid dynasty 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire Districts of the Empire Royal Road Xanthian Obelisk v t e Part of a series on trade routes Amber Road Austronesian maritime trade network Dvaravati–Kamboja route Grand Trunk Road Hærvejen Hanseatic League Hiri trade cycle Incense trade route King's Highway Kula ring Lapita culture Maritime republics Maritime Silk Road Old Salt Route Polynesian navigation Rome-India routes Royal Road Salt road Sepik Coast exchange Siberian Route Silk Road Spanish Road Spice Route Brouwer Route Tea Horse Road Trans-Saharan trade Trepanging Triangular trade Via Maris Volga trade route Varangians to the Greeks Way of the Patriarchs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Royal_Road&oldid=1001786694" Categories: Trade routes Achaemenid Empire Ancient roads and tracks Historic roads in Turkey Roads in Iran Roads in Iraq Iranian inventions Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles with long short description Wikipedia articles needing clarification from February 2020 Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Asturianu Български Català Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Magyar Македонски Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Русский Sicilianu Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська 吴语 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 21 January 2021, at 09:47 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-485	----	Pantjeny - Wikipedia Pantjeny From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Pantjeny Pentjeny, Penthen, Pantini, Pentini Limestone stele depicting prince Djehuti-Aa and princess Hotepneferu and bearing the cartouches of pharaoh Sekhemrekhutawy Pantjeny.[1] Pharaoh Reign uncertain 17th century BC (possibly belonging to the Abydos Dynasty or late 16th Dynasty) Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sekhemrekhutawy Sḫm-Rˁ-ḫwj-t3wj Mighty Ra, he who protects the two lands Nomen Pantjeny P(3) n Ṯnj He of Thinis Children Possibly Djehuty-Aa and Hotepneferu Sekhemrekhutawy Pantjeny was an Egyptian pharaoh during the Second Intermediate Period. According to the Egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, he was a king of the Abydos Dynasty, although they leave his position within this dynasty undetermined.[2][3] Alternatively, Pantjeny could be a king of the late 16th Dynasty.[4] According to Jürgen von Beckerath, Pantjeny is to be identified with Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw, whom he sees as the third king of the 13th Dynasty.[5] Attestation[edit] Pantjeny is known from a single limestone stela "of exceptionally crude quality"[2] found in Abydos by Flinders Petrie. The stela is dedicated to the king's son Djehuty-aa ("Thoth is great") and to the king's daughter Hotepneferu. The stela is in the British Museum under the catalog number BM EA 630.[2][3] The stela was produced by a workshop operating in Abydos. Other stelae produced by this workshop belong to king Rahotep and king Wepwawetemsaf. All three kings reigned therefore quite close in time.[4] Dynasty[edit] In his study of the Second Intermediate Period, Kim Ryholt elaborates on the idea originally proposed by Detlef Franke that following the collapse of the 13th Dynasty with the conquest of Memphis by the Hyksos, an independent kingdom centered on Abydos arose in Middle Egypt.[6] The Abydos Dynasty thus designates a group of local kinglets reigning for a short time in central Egypt. Ryholt notes that Pantjeny is attested by a single find from Abydos and furthermore that his name means "He of Thinis", a prominent city a few miles north of Abydos.[3] Thus he concludes that Pantjeny most likely ruled from Abydos and belongs to the Abydos Dynasty.[2] As such, Pantjeny would have ruled over parts of central Egypt and would have been contemporary with the 15th and 16th Dynasties. The Egyptologist Marcel Marée rejects Ryholt's hypothesis and instead holds that Pantjeny is a king of the late 16th Dynasty. Indeed, Marée notes that the workshop which produced Pantjeny's stela is also responsible for the production of the stelae of Wepwawetemsaf and Rahotep, the latter reigning in the early 17th Dynasty. Marée therefore concludes that Rahotep, Pantjeny and Wepwawetemsaf reigned quite close in time. This reasoning also precludes the existence of an Abydos Dynasty c. 1650 BC.[4] References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pantjeny. ^ Flinders Petrie, Abydos, part II, The Egypt Exploration Fund, 24, London, 1903, pl. 32. ^ a b c d K.S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here. ^ a b c Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 289-290 ^ a b c Marcel Marée: A sculpture workshop at Abydos from the late Sixteenth or early Seventeenth Dynasty, in: Marcel Marée (editor): The Second Intermediate period (Thirteenth-Seventeenth Dynasties), Current Research, Future Prospects, Leuven, Paris, Walpole, MA. 2010 ISBN 978-90-429-2228-0. p. 247, 268 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der Ägyptischen Königsnamen, MÄS 49, Philip Von Zabern. (1999) ^ Detlef Franke: Zur Chronologie des Mittleren Reiches. Teil II: Die sogenannte Zweite Zwischenzeit Altägyptens, in Orientalia 57 (1988), p. 259 v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pantjeny&oldid=954561577" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Abydos Dynasty 17th century BC in Egypt 17th-century BC rulers Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links 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en-wikipedia-org-4863	----	1962 in film - Wikipedia 1962 in film From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Overview of the events of 1962 in film Overview of the events of 1962 in film List of years in film (table) … 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 … In television 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 In radio 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 Art Archaeology Architecture Literature Music Philosophy Science +... Years in film 1870s 1880s 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890s 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900s 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910s 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920s 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930s 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940s 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950s 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960s 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970s 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980s 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990s 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000s 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010s 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020s 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 v t e The year 1962 in film involved some very significant events, with Lawrence of Arabia winning seven Academy Awards including Best Picture and Best Director. Contents 1 Top-grossing films (U.S.) 2 Events 3 Awards 4 1962 film releases 4.1 January–March 4.2 April–June 4.3 July–September 4.4 October–December 5 Notable films released in 1962 5.1 # 5.2 A 5.3 B 5.4 C 5.5 D 5.6 E 5.7 F 5.8 G 5.9 H 5.10 I 5.11 J 5.12 K 5.13 L 5.14 M 5.15 N 5.16 O 5.17 P 5.18 R 5.19 S 5.20 T 5.21 U 5.22 V 5.23 W 5.24 XYZ 6 Short film series 7 Births 8 Deaths 9 Film debuts 10 References Top-grossing films (U.S.)[edit] See also: List of 1962 box office number-one films in the United States The top ten 1962 released films by box office gross in North America are as follows: Highest-grossing films of 1962 Rank Title Studio Box-office gross rental 1 The Longest Day 20th Century Fox $17,600,000[1] 2 Lawrence of Arabia Columbia Pictures $16,700,000[1] 3 The Music Man Warner Bros. $8,100,000[2] 4 That Touch of Mink Universal Pictures $7,942,000[2] 5 Mutiny on the Bounty Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer $7,410,000[2] 6 To Kill a Mockingbird Universal Pictures $7,112,000[2] 7 Hatari! Paramount Pictures $7,000,000[2] 8 Gypsy Warner Bros. $6,000,000[2] 9 Bon Voyage! The Interns Walt Disney/Buena Vista Distribution Columbia Pictures $5,000,000[2] 10 In Search of the Castaways Walt Disney/Buena Vista Distribution $4,900,000[3] Events[edit] May – The Golden Horse Film Festival and Awards are officially founded by the Taiwanese government. August 5 – Hollywood legend Marilyn Monroe is found dead of a drug overdose. September 7 – Filming of Sergei Bondarchuk's War and Peace begins and will continue for another 5 years. October 5 – Dr. No launches the James Bond series, the second longest-running film franchise of all time (next to Godzilla), still running more than 50 years later (Spectre, 2015). It also launches the career of Sean Connery. Awards[edit] Academy Awards: Best Picture: Lawrence of Arabia – Horizon-Spiegel-Lean, Columbia Best Director: David Lean – Lawrence of Arabia Best Actor: Gregory Peck – To Kill a Mockingbird Best Actress: Anne Bancroft – The Miracle Worker Best Supporting Actor: Ed Begley – Sweet Bird of Youth Best Supporting Actress: Patty Duke – The Miracle Worker Best Foreign Language Film: Sundays and Cybele (Les dimanches de ville d'Avray), directed by Serge Bourguignon, France Golden Globe Awards: Drama: Best Picture: Lawrence of Arabia Best Actor: Gregory Peck – To Kill a Mockingbird Best Actress: Geraldine Page – Sweet Bird of Youth Comedy or Musical: Best Picture − Comedy: That Touch of Mink Best Picture − Musical: The Music Man Best Actor: Marcello Mastroianni – Divorce Italian Style Best Actress: Rosalind Russell – Gypsy Other Best Supporting Actor: Omar Sharif – Lawrence of Arabia Best Supporting Actress: Angela Lansbury – The Manchurian Candidate Best Director: David Lean – Lawrence of Arabia Palme d'Or (Cannes Film Festival): Keeper of Promises (O Pagador de Promessas), directed by Anselmo Duarte, Brazil Golden Lion (Venice Film Festival): Family Diary (Cronaca familiare, Journal intime), directed by Valerio Zurlini, France / Italy My Name is Ivan (Ivanovo detstvo), directed by Andrei Tarkovsky, USSR Golden Bear (Berlin Film Festival): A Kind of Loving, directed by John Schlesinger, United Kingdom 1962 film releases[edit] United States unless stated January–March[edit] January 1962 1 January Heaven and Earth Magic 9 January The Nun and the Sergeant 11 January Only Two Can Play 12 January Bachelor Flat 14 January I Thank a Fool 17 January The Intruder 18 January My Geisha 19 January Tender Is the Night A View from the Bridge 26 January The Three Stooges Meet Hercules February 1962 7 February Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse Light in the Piazza 10 February Sergeants 3 12 February The Bellboy and the Playgirls 15 February Pontius Pilate 21 February The Couch Walk on the Wild Side 28 February Too Late Blues March 1962 1 March Posse from Hell 5 March Rome Adventure 7 March The Premature Burial 9 March State Fair 14 March The Road to Hong Kong 21 March Hitler Sweet Bird of Youth 23 March Satan in High Heels Satan Never Sleeps 28 March Hand of Death Journey to the Seventh Planet The Manster (U.S./Japan) Six Black Horses April–June[edit] April 1962 2 April The Broken Land 5 April Moon Pilot 11 April All Fall Down Follow That Dream House of Women The Magic Sword 12 April Cape Fear 13 April Experiment in Terror 17 April The Counterfeit Traitor 18 April The Horizontal Lieutenant 19 April Five Finger Exercise 22 April Hands of a Stranger The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance 23 April Escape from Zahrain May 1962 3 May The Brain That Wouldn't Die Invasion of the Star Creatures 9 May Jessica War Hunt 17 May Bon Voyage! 24 May The Inspector Lonely Are the Brave 25 May The Cabinet of Caligari When the Girls Take Over June 1962 6 June 13 West Street Big Red Lad, A Dog 13 June It Happened in Athens Lolita Merrill's Marauders 19 June That Touch of Mink 15 June Mr. Hobbs Takes a Vacation 19 June Hatari! The Music Man 20 June Confessions of an Opium Eater The Pigeon That Took Rome Ride the High Country 21 June Boys' Night Out 26 June Hell Is for Heroes 27 June Safe at Home! 29 June Beauty and the Beast July–September[edit] July 1962 3 July Birdman of Alcatraz The Creation of the Humanoids Tarzan Goes to India 4 July Tales of Terror The Three Stooges in Orbit 5 July Panic in Year Zero! 7 July Advise & Consent 16 July Jack the Giant Killer 17 July Air Patrol 21 July Black Gold 25 July Hemingway's Adventures of a Young Man 26 July The Lion The Notorious Landlady 28 July The Miracle Worker August 1962 1 August Kid Galahad 2 August The Underwater City 3 August The Spiral Road 7 August The Wonderful World of the Brothers Grimm 8 August The Interns 17 August Two Weeks in Another Town 22 August Five Weeks in a Balloon 29 August The 300 Spartans September 1962 15 September Convicts 4 25 September The Longest Day 26 September Carnival of Souls 27 September Gigot October–December[edit] October 1962 3 October Zotz! 4 October Sodom and Gomorrah 5 October The Chapman Report 10 October If a Man Answers Long Day's Journey into Night 16 October Requiem for a Heavyweight 18 October Phaedra 22 October Escape from East Berlin 24 October The Manchurian Candidate Tower of London 25 October Tonight for Sure The War Lover 31 October Period of Adjustment What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? November 1962 1 November How the West Was Won 2 November The Reluctant Saint 8 November Mutiny on the Bounty 14 November In Search of the Castaways 21 November It's Only Money Two for the Seesaw 27 November The Main Attraction December 1962 2 December Pressure Point 6 December Billy Rose's Jumbo 10 December Lawrence of Arabia 12 December Five Miles to Midnight Freud: The Secret Passion 17 December Gay Purr-ee 19 December Taras Bulba 22 December The Trial 25 December To Kill a Mockingbird Who's Got the Action? 26 December David and Lisa Days of Wine and Roses 31 December 40 Pounds of Trouble Notable films released in 1962[edit] United States unless stated #[edit] The 300 Spartans, starring Ralph Richardson, Richard Egan, Diane Baker 40 Pounds of Trouble, starring Tony Curtis, Suzanne Pleshette, and Larry Storch A[edit] Abhijan (The Expedition), directed by Satyajit Ray – (India) Advise & Consent, directed by Otto Preminger, starring Henry Fonda, Charles Laughton, Walter Pidgeon, Don Murray, Peter Lawford Alaverdoba, directed by Giorgi Shengelaia – (Georgia) All Fall Down, directed by John Frankenheimer, starring Eva Marie Saint and Warren Beatty All Night Long, starring Patrick McGoohan and Richard Attenborough – (U.K.) All Souls' Day (Zaduszki) – (Poland) The American Beauty (La belle américaine), directed by Robert Dhéry – (France) The Amphibian Man (Chelovek-amfibiya) – (U.S.S.R.) Asli-Naqli (Real and Fake), starring Dev Anand – (India) Atraco a las tres (Robbery at 3 O'Clock) – (Spain) Attack of the Normans (I normanni), directed by Giuseppe Vari – (Italy) An Autumn Afternoon (Sanma no aji), directed by Yasujirō Ozu – (Japan) The Awful Dr. Orloff (Gritos en la noche), directed by Jesús Franco – (Spain) B[edit] Baat Ek Raat Ki (A Tale of One Night), starring Dev Anand – (India) Bachelor Flat, starring Terry-Thomas, Tuesday Weld, Celeste Holm Bees Saal Baad – (India) The Bellboy and the Playgirls, directed by Francis Ford Coppola and Fritz Umgelter Big and Little Wong Tin Bar, starring Jackie Chan and Sammo Hung – (Hong Kong) Billy Budd, directed by and starring Peter Ustinov, with Robert Ryan and Terence Stamp – (U.K.) Billy Rose's Jumbo, starring Doris Day and Jimmy Durante Birdman of Alcatraz, directed by John Frankenheimer, starring Burt Lancaster, Karl Malden, Telly Savalas Boccaccio '70, directed by Federico Fellini, Mario Monicelli, Vittorio De Sica and Luchino Visconti, starring Anita Ekberg and Sophia Loren – (Italy) Bon Voyage!, starring Fred MacMurray and Jane Wyman The Boys, directed by Sidney J. Furie, starring Richard Todd – (U.K.) Boys' Night Out, starring Kim Novak and James Garner The Brain That Wouldn't Die, starring Virginia Leith The Brainiac (El baron del terror), directed by Chano Urueta – (Mexico) The Bread of Those Early Years (Das Brot der frühen Jahre) – (West Germany) The Broken Land, starring Kent Taylor, Diana Darrin and Jack Nicholson C[edit] Cape Fear, directed by J. Lee Thompson, starring Gregory Peck, Robert Mitchum, Polly Bergen, Telly Savalas Captain Clegg (released as Night Creatures in the U.S.), directed by Peter Graham Scott – (U.K.) Carnival of Souls, directed by Herk Harvey Carry On Cruising, starring Sid James and Kenneth Williams – (U.K.) Carry On Jack, starring Kenneth Williams, Bernard Cribbins and Juliet Mills – (U.K.) Cartouche, starring Jean-Paul Belmondo and Claudia Cardinale – (France/Italy) The Chapman Report, directed by George Cukor, starring Jane Fonda, Shelley Winters, Claire Bloom, Efrem Zimbalist, Jr. Chased by the Dogs (El less wal kilab) – (Egypt) Cléo from 5 to 7, directed by Agnès Varda – (France) The Condemned of Altona (I sequestrati di Altona), directed by Vittorio De Sica, starring Sophia Loren and Maximilian Schell – (Italy) Convicts 4, starring Ben Gazzara, Stuart Whitman, Vincent Price, Ray Walston, Sammy Davis, Jr. The Counterfeit Traitor, directed by George Seaton, starring William Holden Crazy Paradise (Det tossede paradis), directed by Gabriel Axel and starring Dirch Passer – (Denmark) Crooks Anonymous, starring Leslie Phillips and Julie Christie D[edit] Damon and Pythias (Il tiranno di Siracusa), directed by Curtis Bernhardt – (U.S./Italy) David and Lisa, starring Keir Dullea and Janet Margolin The Day of the Triffids, starring Howard Keel – (U.K.) Days of Wine and Roses, directed by Blake Edwards, starring Jack Lemmon, Lee Remick, Charles Bickford, Jack Klugman Dead Man's Evidence, directed by Francis Searle – (U.K.) The Devil's Agent (Im Namen des Teufels), directed by John Paddy Carstairs – (U.K./West Germany/Ireland) Le Doulos (The Finger Man), directed by Jean-Pierre Melville, starring Jean-Paul Belmondo – (France) Dr. No, first James Bond film, directed by Terence Young, starring Sean Connery, Joseph Wiseman, Jack Lord, Ursula Andress – (U.K.) Dungeon of Harrow, directed by Pat Boyette E[edit] The Easy Life (Il sorpasso), directed by Dino Risi, starring Vittorio Gassman and Jean-Louis Trintignant – (Italy) Eclipse (L'Eclisse), directed by Michelangelo Antonioni, starring Alain Delon and Monica Vitti – (Italy/France) Eighteen in the Sun (Diciottenni al sole), directed by Camillo Mastrocinque – (Italy) Electra, directed by Michael Cacoyannis, starring Irene Papas – (Greece) Escape from East Berlin, directed by Robert Siodmak, starring Don Murray Escape from Zahrain, starring Yul Brynner, Sal Mineo and Jack Warden Eva (released in the U.K. as Eve), starring Jeanne Moreau, Stanley Baker and Virna Lisi – (Italy/France) Experiment in Terror, directed by Blake Edwards, starring Glenn Ford, Lee Remick, Stefanie Powers, Ross Martin The Exterminating Angel (El ángel exterminador), directed by Luis Buñuel – (Mexico) F[edit] The Fabulous Baron Munchausen (Baron Prášil), directed by Karel Zeman – (Czechoslovakia) Family Diary (Cronaca familiare), starring Marcello Mastroianni – (Italy) The Female: Seventy Times Seven (Setenta veces siete), starring Isabel Sarli – (Argentina) Fire Monsters Against the Son of Hercules Five Finger Exercise, starring Rosalind Russell Five Miles to Midnight, starring Sophia Loren Five Weeks in a Balloon Follow That Dream, starring Elvis Presley, Arthur O'Connell, Joanna Moore The Four Days of Naples (Le Quattro giornate di Napoli) – (Italy) Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, directed by Vincente Minnelli, starring Glenn Ford, Ingrid Thulin, Yvette Mimieux Freud: The Secret Passion, directed by John Huston, starring Montgomery Clift, Susannah York, Larry Parks The Fury of Hercules (La furia di Ercole), written and directed by Gianfranco Parolini – (Italy) G[edit] Gay Purr-ee, an animated musical with the voices of Judy Garland and Mel Blanc Geronimo, starring Chuck Connors Gigot, starring Jackie Gleason Girls! Girls! Girls!, starring Elvis Presley Go to Blazes, directed by Michael Truman – (U.K.) The Golden Arrow (L'arciere delle mille e una notte), directed by Antonio Margheriti – (Italy) Gorath, directed by Ishirō Honda – (Japan) The Grim Reaper (La commare secca), directed by Bernardo Bertolucci – (Italy) Gundamma Katha, starring N. T. Rama Rao – (India) Guns of Darkness, directed by Anthony Asquith, starring David Niven and James Robertson Justice – (U.K.) Gypsy, directed by Mervyn LeRoy, starring Rosalind Russell, Karl Malden, Natalie Wood H[edit] H.M.S. Defiant, starring Alec Guinness and Dirk Bogarde – (U.K.) Half Ticket, starring Kishore Kumar and Madhubala – (India) Hand of Death, starring John Agar Hands of a Stranger, directed by Newt Arnold Harakiri (Seppuku), directed by Masaki Kobayashi – (Japan) Hatari!, directed by Howard Hawks, starring John Wayne, Red Buttons, Hardy Krüger, Elsa Martinelli Hell Is for Heroes, starring Steve McQueen and Bobby Darin Hemingway's Adventures of a Young Man, directed by Martin Ritt, starring Richard Beymer, Diane Baker, Corinne Calvet, Paul Newman Hero's Island, starring James Mason and Rip Torn Hombre de la esquina rosada (Man on Pink Corner) – (Argentina) The Horizontal Lieutenant, starring Jim Hutton and Paula Prentiss The Horrible Dr. Hichcock (L'orribile segreto del Dr. Hichcock), directed by Riccardo Freda – (Italy) House of Women, starring Shirley Knight and Constance Ford How the West Was Won, starring James Stewart, Henry Fonda, Eli Wallach, John Wayne, Debbie Reynolds, Gregory Peck, Carroll Baker, George Peppard and more Hussar Ballad (Gusarskaya ballada) – (U.S.S.R.) Hussar of the Dead (El Húsar de la Muerte), (Restored, originally released in 1925) – (Chile) I[edit] If a Man Answers, starring Bobby Darin and Sandra Dee In Search of the Castaways, starring Hayley Mills and Maurice Chevalier In the Affirmative (L'Amour avec des si), directed by Claude Lelouch – (France) In the French Style, starring Jean Seberg The Inn on the River (Das Gasthaus an der Themse), directed by Alfred Vohrer – (West Germany) The Inspector, aka Lisa, directed by Mark Robson, starring Dolores Hart The Invisible Dr. Mabuse (Die Unsichtbaren Krallen des Dr. Mabuse), starring Wolfgang Preiss – (West Germany) The Intruder, directed by Roger Corman, starring William Shatner The Iron Maiden, starring Anne Helm and Jeff Donnell It Happened in Athens, starring Jayne Mansfield – (Greece/United States) It's Only Money, directed by Frank Tashlin. starring Jerry Lewis and Joan O'Brien Ivan's Childhood (Ivanovo detstvo), directed by Andrei Tarkovsky – (U.S.S.R.) J[edit] Jack the Giant Killer, starring Kerwin Mathews Jessica, starring Angie Dickinson La Jetée, directed by Chris Marker – (France) Jigsaw, starring Jack Warner – (U.K.) Journey to the Seventh Planet, directed by Sid Pink – (Denmark) Jules and Jim, directed by François Truffaut, starring Jeanne Moreau and Oskar Werner – (France) K[edit] Kanchanjangha, directed by Satyajit Ray – (India) Kid Galahad, starring Elvis Presley, Gig Young, Lola Albright, Charles Bronson A Kind of Loving, directed by John Schlesinger, starring Alan Bates – (U.K.) King Kong vs. Godzilla, directed by Ishirō Honda – (Japan) Knife in the Water (Nóż w wodzie), directed by Roman Polanski – (Poland) L[edit] The L-Shaped Room, directed by Bryan Forbes, starring Leslie Caron and Tom Bell – (U.K.) Lawrence of Arabia, directed by David Lean, starring Peter O'Toole, Omar Sharif, Anthony Quinn, Alec Guinness, José Ferrer – (UK/US) The Legend of Lobo, a Walt Disney production Light in the Piazza, starring Olivia de Havilland, Yvette Mimieux, George Hamilton Lisa (aka The Inspector), starring Stephen Boyd – (U.S./U.K.) Life for Ruth, starring Patrick McGoohan and Michael Craig – (U.K.) Light in the Piazza, starring Olivia de Havilland and Rossano Brazzi The Lion, starring William Holden and Trevor Howard Lolita, directed by Stanley Kubrick, starring James Mason, Shelley Winters, Peter Sellers, Sue Lyon The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner, directed by Tony Richardson, starring Tom Courtenay – (U.K.) Lonely Are the Brave, starring Kirk Douglas, Walter Matthau, Gena Rowlands, George Kennedy, Carroll O'Connor Lonely Boy, a documentary about Paul Anka – (Canada) Long Day's Journey into Night, directed by Sidney Lumet, starring Katharine Hepburn The Longest Day, starring John Wayne, Henry Fonda, Richard Burton, Sean Connery, Robert Mitchum, Rod Steiger and more Love, Thy Name Be Sorrow (Koiya koi nasuna koi), directed by Tomu Uchida – (Japan) Love at Twenty, a film in 5 segments directed by François Truffaut, Shintaro Ishihara, Andrzej Wajda, Renzo Rossellini and Marcel Ophüls – (International) Love on a Pillow, starring Brigitte Bardot – (France) Lulu, directed by Rolf Thiele, starring Nadja Tiller – (Austria) M[edit] Madison Avenue, starring Dana Andrews, Jeanne Crain, Eleanor Parker Mafioso, starring Alberto Sordi – (Italy) The Magic Sword, directed by Bert I. Gordon The Magnificent Concubine (Yang Kwei Fei) – (Hong Kong) The Main Attraction, starring Pat Boone Mamma Roma, directed by Pier Paolo Pasolini, starring Anna Magnani – (Italy) The Man of Gold (Az aranyember) – (Hungary) The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance, directed by John Ford, starring John Wayne, James Stewart, Lee Marvin, Vera Miles, Edmond O'Brien, Woody Strode The Manchurian Candidate, directed by John Frankenheimer, starring Frank Sinatra, Laurence Harvey, Janet Leigh, Leslie Parrish, Angela Lansbury March on Rome (La marcia su Roma), starring Ugo Tognazzi and Vittorio Gassman – (Italy) Merrill's Marauders, directed by Samuel Fuller, starring Jeff Chandler and Ty Hardin Mediterranean Holiday (Traumreise unter weissen Segeln), a documentary directed by Hermann Leitner and Rudolf Nussgruber – (West Germany) The Memorial Gate for Virtuous Women (열녀문 – Yeolnyeomun), directed by Shin Sang-ok – (South Korea) The Miracle Worker, directed by Arthur Penn, starring Anne Bancroft and Patty Duke Mister Magoo's Christmas Carol, (on NBC-TV) Mix Me a Person, directed by Leslie Norman, starring Anne Baxter, Donald Sinden and Adam Faith – (U.K.) Mondo Cane, directed by Paolo Cavara, Franco Prosperi and Gualtiero Jacopetti – (Italy) A Monkey in Winter (Un singe en hiver), directed by Henri Verneuil – (France) Mr. Hobbs Takes a Vacation, starring James Stewart and Maureen O'Hara Moon Pilot, starring Tom Tryon The Music Man, starring Robert Preston, Shirley Jones, Buddy Hackett, Paul Ford, Ron Howard Mutiny on the Bounty, starring Marlon Brando and Trevor Howard My Geisha, starring Shirley MacLaine My Life to Live (Vivre sa vie), directed by Jean-Luc Godard, starring Anna Karina – (France) N[edit] Night of the Eagle (retitled Burn, Witch, Burn! in the U.S.), starring Janet Blair Nine Days in One Year (9 dney odnogo goda) – (U.S.S.R.) The Notorious Landlady, starring Kim Novak, Jack Lemmon and Fred Astaire O[edit] On the Beat, starring Norman Wisdom – (U.K.) Only Two Can Play, starring Peter Sellers Operation Snatch, directed by Robert Day and starring Terry-Thomas and George Sanders – (U.K.) P[edit] O Pagador de Promessas (The Keeper of Promises), directed by Anselmo Duarte – (Brazil) Panic in Year Zero!, starring Ray Milland and Frankie Avalon Period of Adjustment, starring Jane Fonda, Jim Hutton, Anthony Franciosa, Lois Nettleton Phaedra, directed by Jules Dassin, starring Melina Mercouri and Anthony Perkins – (Greece) The Phantom of the Opera, starring Herbert Lom – (U.K.) The Pigeon That Took Rome, starring Charlton Heston The Pirates of Blood River, directed by John Gilling – (U.K.) Pitfall (Otoshiana) – (Japan) Play It Cool, starring Billy Fury – (U.K.) Pontius Pilate, starring Jean Marais, Jeanne Crain, Basil Rathbone Premature Burial, directed by Roger Corman, starring Ray Milland, Hazel Court, Heather Angel Pressure Point, starring Sidney Poitier and Bobby Darin Pretty Foe by Esmail Koushan (Iran) Professor, starring Shammi Kapoor – (India) The Puzzle of the Red Orchid (Das Rätsel der Roten Orchidee), directed by Helmut Ashley – (West Germany) R[edit] Redhead (Die Rote or La rossa) – (West Germany/Italy) Requiem for a Heavyweight, starring Anthony Quinn, Jackie Gleason, Mickey Rooney, Julie Harris Revenge of the Snakes (Yılanların öcü) – (Turkey) Ride the High Country (a.k.a. Guns in the Afternoon), directed by Sam Peckinpah, starring Joel McCrea and Randolph Scott The Road to Hong Kong, directed by Norman Panama, starring Bing Crosby, Bob Hope and Joan Collins Roaring Years (Anni ruggenti), starring Nino Manfredi – (Italy) Rome Adventure, starring Angie Dickinson and Suzanne Pleshette Der rote Rausch (The Red Intoxication), starring Klaus Kinski – (Austria) S[edit] Safe at Home!, starring Mickey Mantle and Roger Maris Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam (King, Queen and Slave), starring Meena Kumari and Guru Dutt – (India) Salvatore Giuliano, directed by Francesco Rosi – (Italy) Samar, directed by and starring George Montgomery Sanjuru (Tsubaki Sanjûrô), directed by Akira Kurosawa, starring Toshiro Mifune – (Japan) Satan in High Heels, starring Meg Myles and Grayson Hall Sergeants 3, starring Frank Sinatra, Dean Martin, Sammy Davis, Jr., Peter Lawford, Joey Bishop Seven Seas to Calais (Il dominatore dei sette mari), directed by Rudolph Maté – (Italy) Shaheed, starring Musarrat Nazir, Talish, Allauddin, Ejaz, Saqi (Pakistani film on the Palestinian-Israeli Conflict) She'll Have to Go (released in the United States as Maid for Murder), directed by Robert Asher – (U.K.) She Knows Y'Know, directed by Montgomery Tully – (U.K.) Slaughter of the Vampires (La strage dei vampiri), directed by Roberto Mauri – (Italy) Solo for Sparrow, directed by Gordon Flemyng – (U.K.) Some People, starring Kenneth More – (U.K.) Something's Got to Give, starring Marilyn Monroe and Dean Martin (unfinished) The Spiral Road, starring Rock Hudson and Gena Rowlands State Fair, starring Pat Boone, Tom Ewell, Ann-Margret, Pamela Tiffin, Bobby Darin The Suitor (Le Soupirant) – (France) Sundays and Cybele (Les dimanches de ville d'Avray), starring Hardy Krüger and Nicole Courcel – (France) Sweet Bird of Youth, starring Paul Newman, Geraldine Page, Shirley Knight, Ed Begley, Rip Torn Swordsman of Siena (La congiura dei dieci/Le mercenaire), starring Stewart Granger – (Italy/France) A Symposium on Popular Songs, a Disney animation T[edit] The Tale of Zatoichi (Zatōichi monogatari), directed by Kenji Misumi – (Japan) The Tale of Zatoichi Continues (Zoku Zatōichi Monogatari), starring Shintaro Katsu – (Japan) Tales of Terror, starring Vincent Price, Peter Lorre and Basil Rathbone Taras Bulba, starring Yul Brynner and Tony Curtis Tarzan Goes to India, Jock Mahoney's first film as Tarzan Tender Is the Night, starring Jennifer Jones Term of Trial, starring Laurence Olivier and Simone Signoret – (U.K.) The Testament of Dr. Mabuse (Das Testament des Dr. Mabuse), starring Wolfgang Preiss – (West Germany) That Touch of Mink, starring Cary Grant and Doris Day Thérèse Desqueyroux, starring Emmanuelle Riva and Philippe Noiret – (France) The Three Stooges In Orbit, starring the Three Stooges Time to Remember, directed by Charles Jarrott – (U.K.) To Kill a Mockingbird, directed by Robert Mulligan, starring Gregory Peck Tobacco (Tyutyun) – (Bulgaria) Tonny, directed by Nils R. Müller and Per Gjersøe – (Norway) Too Late Blues, directed by John Cassavetes, starring Bobby Darin and Stella Stevens Tower of London, starring Vincent Price Treasure of the Silver Lake, directed by Harald Reinl – (West Germany) The Trial (Le Procès), directed by and starring Orson Welles with Anthony Perkins and Jeanne Moreau – (France/Italy/West Germany) The Trial of Joan of Arc (Procès de Jeanne d'Arc), directed by Robert Bresson – (France) Tudor – (Romania) The Twelve Chairs (Las doce sillas), directed by Tomás Gutiérrez Alea – (Cuba) Two for the Seesaw, starring Shirley MacLaine and Robert Mitchum Two Half Times in Hell (Két félidő a pokolban), directed by Zoltán Fábri – (Hungary) Two Weeks in Another Town, directed by Vincente Minnelli, starring Kirk Douglas, Edward G. Robinson, George Hamilton, Cyd Charisse U[edit] The Unscrupulous Ones (Os Cafajestes), directed by Ruy Guerra – (Brazil) V[edit] The Vanishing Corporal (Le Caporal épinglé), directed by Jean Renoir, starring Jean-Pierre Cassel and Claude Brasseur – (France) A Very Private Affair, starring Brigitte Bardot – (France) A View from the Bridge (Vu du Pont), directed by Sidney Lumet, starring Raf Vallone – (France/Italy) Violent Life (Una vita violenta), directed by Paolo Heusch and Brunello Rondi – (Italy) Vive le Tour, documentary by Louis Malle – (France) W[edit] Walk on the Wild Side, starring Laurence Harvey, Capucine, Jane Fonda Waltz of the Toreadors (a.k.a. The Amorous General), directed by John Guillermin, starring Peter Sellers – (U.K.) War of the Buttons (La Guerre des boutons) – (France) We Joined the Navy, starring Kenneth More – (U.K.) What Ever Happened to Baby Jane?, directed by Robert Aldrich, starring Bette Davis and Joan Crawford Who's Got the Action? starring Dean Martin and Lana Turner The Witch's Curse (Maciste all'inferno), directed by Riccardo Freda – (Italy) The Wonderful World of the Brothers Grimm, starring Laurence Harvey and Claire Bloom XYZ[edit] Zorro the Avenger[clarification needed] Zotz!, directed by William Castle, starring Tom Poston Short film series[edit] Looney Tunes (1930–1969) Terrytoons (1930–1964) Merrie Melodies (1931–1969) Bugs Bunny (1940–1964) Yosemite Sam (1945–1963) Speedy Gonzales (1953–1968) The Alvin Show (1961-1962) Births[edit] January 4 – Michael France, American screenwriter (d. 2013) January 5 – Suzy Amis Cameron, American actress January 7 – Kiiri Tamm, Estonian actress January 17 – C. Martin Croker, American animator and voice actor (d. 2016) January 17 – Jim Carrey, Canadian actor and comedian February 5 – Jennifer Jason Leigh, American actress February 7 - Eddie Izzard, English stand-up comedian, actor, writer and political activist February 13 – Michele Greene, American actress February 17 – Lou Diamond Phillips, American actor February 22 – Steve Irwin, Australian zookeeper, television personality, conservationist, actor (d. 2006) February 27 – Adam Baldwin, American actor March 10 – Jasmine Guy, American actress, singer, dancer and director March 12 – Chris Sanders, American actor, animator, director and voice actor March 18 – Thomas Ian Griffith, American actor March 20 – Stephen Sommers, American director, screenwriter and producer March 21 Matthew Broderick, American actor Rosie O'Donnell, American actress and comedian April 15 – Tom Kane, American actor and voice actor April 27 – James LeGros, American actor May 12 – Emilio Estevez, American actor May 17 - Craig Ferguson, Scottish-American television host, comedian, author and actor May 18 – Karel Roden, Czech actor May 26 – Bobcat Goldthwait, American actor, comedian and director June 5 - Jeff Garlin, American comedian and actor June 13 – Ally Sheedy, American actress June 19 – Paula Abdul, American singer June 27 – Tony Leung Chiu-wai, Hong Kong actor July 3 – Tom Cruise, American actor July 4 - Neil Morrissey, English actor, voice actor, comedian, singer and businessman July 13 – Tom Kenny, American actor, voice actor, singer and comedian July 19 – Anthony Edwards, American actor July 20 – Carlos Alazraqui, voice actor July 31 – Wesley Snipes, American actor August 6 – Michelle Yeoh, Malaysian actress August 13 – John Slattery, American actor August 16 – Steve Carell, American actor, comedian, voice artist, producer, writer, director August 24 – David Koechner, American actor and comedian August 27 – Vic Mignogna, American voice actor August 29 – Ian James Corlett, Canadian-American voice actor August 31 – Dee Bradley Baker, American voice actor September 8 – Thomas Kretschmann, German actor September 11 – Kristy McNichol, American actress September 15 – Scott McNeil, Australian-Canadian voice actor September 17 – Baz Luhrmann, Australian director September 19 - Cheri Oteri, American actress and comedian September 21 - Mark Holden, Canadian actor, writer and producer September 24 – Nia Vardalos, Canadian-American actress and producer September 26 – Melissa Sue Anderson, American actress October 1 – Esai Morales, American actor October 2 – Jeff Bennett, American actor and voice actor October 11 – Joan Cusack, American actress October 12 – Deborah Foreman, American actress October 13 – Kelly Preston, American actress October 22 - Bob Odenkirk, American actor, comedian, writer, director and producer October 26 – Cary Elwes, English actor October 28 – Daphne Zuniga, American actress November 11 – Demi Moore, American actress November 14 – Harland Williams, Canadian-American actor and comedian November 19 – Jodie Foster, American actress and director November 29 – Andrew McCarthy, American actor December 9 – Felicity Huffman, American actress[4] December 19 – Jill Talley, American actress December 22 – Ralph Fiennes, English actor Deaths[edit] January 13 – Ernie Kovacs, 42, American comedian, actor, North to Alaska, Bell, Book and Candle January 28 – Hermann Wlach, 77, Austrian actor, The Pearl Maker of Madrid February 1 – Carey Wilson, American screenwriter, Mutiny on the Bounty February 19 – James Barton, American actor, Here Comes the Groom, Yellow Sky February 20 – Halliwell Hobbes, 84, British actor, Gaslight, That Hamilton Woman February 28 – Chic Johnson, 70, American comedian, actor, Hellzapoppin' March 17 – Frank Orth, 82, American actor, Nancy Drew... Detective, Here Come the Girls April 10 – Michael Curtiz, 75, Hungarian-born director, Casablanca, The Adventures of Robin Hood April 15 – Clara Blandick, 85, American actress, The Wizard of Oz, Tom Sawyer April 17 – Louise Fazenda, 66, American actress, Tillie's Punctured Romance, Alice in Wonderland April 22 Angus MacPhail, 59, British screenwriter, Spellbound, The Wrong Man Vera Reynolds, 62, American actress, The Night Club, Feet of Clay May 14 – Florence Auer, 82, American actress, The Bishop's Wife, State of the Union June 2 – Aeneas MacKenzie, 72, Scottish screenwriter, The Ten Commandments, Ivanhoe June 19 – Frank Borzage, 69, American director, actor, A Farewell to Arms, 7th Heaven June 24 – Lucile Watson, 83, Canadian actress, Waterloo Bridge, Made for Each Other July 2 – Valeska Suratt, 80, American stage and screen actress, The Immigrant July 4 – Rex Bell, 58, American actor, Broadway to Cheyenne, Law and Lead July 23 – Victor Moore, 86, American actor, It Happened on Fifth Avenue, Louisiana Purchase July 30 – Myron McCormick, 54, American actor, The Hustler, No Time for Sergeants August 5 – Marilyn Monroe, 36, American actress, Hollywood icon, Gentlemen Prefer Blondes, Some Like It Hot August 23 – Hoot Gibson, 70, American actor, Action, The Horse Soldiers September 7 – Louis King, 64, American director, Typhoon, Green Grass of Wyoming October 2 – Frank Lovejoy, 50, American actor, The Hitch-Hiker, Goodbye, My Fancy October 6 – Tod Browning, 82, American director, Dracula, Freaks October 26 – Louise Beavers, 60, American actress, Holiday Inn, The Jackie Robinson Story November 15 – Irene, American costume designer, Shall We Dance, Midnight Lace December 15 – Charles Laughton, 63, British actor, Spartacus, Witness for the Prosecution December 17 – Thomas Mitchell, 70, American actor, It's a Wonderful Life, Gone with the Wind December 23 – Luis Alberni, 76, Spanish actor, Svengali, The Count of Monte Cristo December 28 – Kathleen Clifford, 75, American actress, When the Clouds Roll By, Richard the Lion-Hearted December 29 – Hugh Sinclair, 59, British actor, The Saint's Vacation, Judgment Deferred Film debuts[edit] Bernardo Bertolucci (director) – The Grim Reaper Jackie Chan – Big and Little Wong Tin Bar Julie Christie – Crooks Anonymous Tom Courtenay – Private Potter Robert Duvall – To Kill a Mockingbird Samantha Eggar – Dr. Crippen Sally Field – Moon Pilot John Hurt – The Wild and the Willing Ian McShane – The Wild and the Willing Sarah Miles – Term of Trial Sydney Pollack (actor) – War Hunt George A. Romero (director) – Expostulations Tom Skerritt – War Hunt Terence Stamp – Term of Trial David Warner – We Joined the Navy References[edit] ^ a b Finler, Joel Waldo (2003). The Hollywood Story. Wallflower Press. pp. 358–359. ISBN 978-1-903364-66-6. ^ a b c d e f g Top 20 Films of 1962 by Domestic Revenue ^ "All-time top film grossers", Variety 8 January 1964 p 37. ^ "Famous birthdays for Dec. 9: Judi Dench, John Malkovich". UPI. v t e 1962 films American Argentine Bangladesh British Egyptian French Hong Kong Indian Bengali Bollywood Kannada Malayalam Marathi Ollywood Tamil Telugu Israeli Italian Japanese Mexican Pakistani South Korean Soviet Spanish Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1962_in_film&oldid=1000326865" Categories: 1962 in film Film by year Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Wikipedia articles needing clarification from June 2019 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Azərbaycanca Беларуская Čeština Deutsch Español Français Gaeilge Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia עברית Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 January 2021, at 17:22 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4874	----	International Standard Book Number - Wikipedia International Standard Book Number From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from ISBN (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be confused with ICCU SBN. Unique numeric book identifier International Standard Book Number A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code Acronym ISBN Organisation International ISBN Agency Introduced 1970; 51 years ago (1970) No. of digits 13 (formerly 10) Check digit Weighted sum Example 978-3-16-148410-0 Website isbn-international.org The International Standard Book Number (ISBN) is a numeric commercial book identifier which is intended to be unique.[a][b] Publishers purchase ISBNs from an affiliate of the International ISBN Agency.[1] An ISBN is assigned to each separate edition and variation (except reprintings) of a publication. For example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book will each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is ten digits long if assigned before 2007, and thirteen digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007.[c] The method of assigning an ISBN is nation-specific and varies between countries, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN identification format was devised in 1967, based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering (SBN) created in 1966. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO 2108 (the 9-digit SBN code can be converted to a 10-digit ISBN by prefixing it with a zero digit '0'). Privately published books sometimes appear without an ISBN. The International ISBN Agency sometimes assigns such books ISBNs on its own initiative.[3] Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number (ISSN), identifies periodical publications such as magazines and newspapers. The International Standard Music Number (ISMN) covers musical scores. Contents 1 History 2 Overview 2.1 How ISBNs are issued 2.2 Registration group identifier 2.3 Registrant element 2.3.1 Pattern for English language ISBNs 3 Check digits 3.1 ISBN-10 check digits 3.2 ISBN-10 check digit calculation 3.3 ISBN-13 check digit calculation 3.4 ISBN-10 to ISBN-13 conversion 3.5 Errors in usage 3.6 eISBN 4 EAN format used in barcodes, and upgrading 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links History The Standard Book Number (SBN) is a commercial system using nine-digit code numbers to identify books. It was created by Gordon Foster, Emeritus Professor of Statistics at Trinity College, Dublin,[4] for the booksellers and stationers WHSmith and others in 1965.[5] The ISBN identification format was conceived in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker[6][7] (regarded as the "Father of the ISBN")[8] and in 1968 in the United States by Emery Koltay[6] (who later became director of the U.S. ISBN agency R. R. Bowker).[8][9][10] The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO 2108.[5][6] The United Kingdom continued to use the nine-digit SBN code until 1974. ISO has appointed the International ISBN Agency as the registration authority for ISBN worldwide and the ISBN Standard is developed under the control of ISO Technical Committee 46/Subcommittee 9 TC 46/SC 9. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978.[11] An SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit "0". For example, the second edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has "SBN 340 01381 8", where "340" indicates the publisher, "01381" is the serial number assigned by the publisher, and "8" is the check digit. By prefixing a zero, this can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8; the check digit does not need to be re-calculated. Some publishers, such as Ballantine Books, would sometimes use 12-digit SBNs where the last three digits indicated the price of the book;[12] for example, Woodstock Handmade Houses had a 12-digit Standard Book Number of 345-24223-8-595 (valid SBN: 345-24223-8, ISBN: 0-345-24223-8),[13] and it cost US$5.95.[14] Since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained thirteen digits, a format that is compatible with "Bookland" European Article Numbers, which have 13 digits.[2] Overview A separate ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation (except reprintings) of a publication. For example, an ebook, audiobook, paperback, and hardcover edition of the same book will each have a different ISBN assigned to it.[15]:12 The ISBN is thirteen digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, and ten digits long if assigned before 2007.[c][2] An International Standard Book Number consists of four parts (if it is a 10-digit ISBN) or five parts (for a 13-digit ISBN). Section 5 of the International ISBN Agency's official user manual[15]:11 describes the structure of the 13-digit ISBN, as follows: The parts of a 10-digit ISBN and the corresponding EAN‑13 and barcode. Note the different check digits in each. The part of the EAN‑13 labeled "EAN" is the Bookland country code. for a 13-digit ISBN, a prefix element – a GS1 prefix: so far 978 or 979 have been made available by GS1, the registration group element (language-sharing country group, individual country or territory),[d] the registrant element, the publication element, and a checksum character or check digit. A 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts (prefix element, registration group, registrant, publication and check digit), and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts (registration group, registrant, publication and check digit) of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces. Figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits.[e] How ISBNs are issued ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for that country or territory regardless of the publication language. The ranges of ISBNs assigned to any particular country are based on the publishing profile of the country concerned, and so the ranges will vary depending on the number of books and the number, type, and size of publishers that are active. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture and thus may receive direct funding from government to support their services. In other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded.[17] A full directory of ISBN agencies is available on the International ISBN Agency website.[18] List for a few countries is given below: Australia – Thorpe-Bowker[19][20] Brazil – The National Library of Brazil;[21] (Up to 28 February 2020)[22] Brazil – Câmara Brasileira do Livro[23] (From 1 March 2020)[22] Canada – English Library and Archives Canada, a government agency; French Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec; Colombia – Cámara Colombiana del Libro, an NGO Hong Kong – Books Registration Office (BRO), under the Hong Kong Public Libraries[24] India – The Raja Rammohun Roy National Agency for ISBN (Book Promotion and Copyright Division), under Department of Higher Education, a constituent of the Ministry of Human Resource Development[25] Iceland – Landsbókasafn (National and University Library of Iceland) Israel – The Israel Center for Libraries[26] Italy – EDISER srl, owned by Associazione Italiana Editori (Italian Publishers Association)[27][28] Maldives – The National Bureau of Classification (NBC) Malta – The National Book Council (Maltese: Il-Kunsill Nazzjonali tal-Ktieb)[29][30][31] Morocco – The National Library of Morocco New Zealand – The National Library of New Zealand[32] Pakistan – National Library of Pakistan Philippines – National Library of the Philippines[33] South Africa – National Library of South Africa Spain – Spanish ISBN Agency – Agencia del ISBN Turkey – General Directorate of Libraries and Publications, a branch of the Ministry of Culture[34] United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland – Nielsen Book Services Ltd, part of Nielsen Holdings N.V.[35] United States – R. R. Bowker[6][36] Registration group identifier The ISBN registration group identifier is a 1- to 5-digit number that is valid within a single prefix element (i.e. one of 978 or 979),[15]:11 and can be separated between hyphens, such as "978-1-...". Registration group identifiers have primarily been allocated within the 978 prefix element.[37] The single-digit group identifiers within the 978-prefix element are: 0 or 1 for English-speaking countries; 2 for French-speaking countries; 3 for German-speaking countries; 4 for Japan; 5 for Russian-speaking countries; and 7 for People's Republic of China. An example 5-digit group identifier is 99936, for Bhutan. The allocated group IDs are: 0–5, 600–625, 65, 7, 80–94, 950–989, 9917–9989, and 99901–99983.[38] Books published in rare languages typically have longer group identifiers.[39] Within the 979 prefix element, the registration group identifier 0 is reserved for compatibility with International Standard Music Numbers (ISMNs), but such material is not actually assigned an ISBN.[40] The registration group identifiers within prefix element 979 that have been assigned are 8 for the United States of America, 10 for France, 11 for the Republic of Korea, and 12 for Italy.[41] The original 9-digit standard book number (SBN) had no registration group identifier, but prefixing a zero (0) to a 9-digit SBN creates a valid 10-digit ISBN. Registrant element The national ISBN agency assigns the registrant element (cf. Category:ISBN agencies) and an accompanying series of ISBNs within that registrant element to the publisher; the publisher then allocates one of the ISBNs to each of its books. In most countries, a book publisher is not legally required to assign an ISBN, although most large bookstores only handle publications that have ISBNs assigned to them.[42][43][44] A listing of more than 900,000 assigned publisher codes is published, and can be ordered in book form. The web site of the ISBN agency does not offer any free method of looking up publisher codes.[45] Partial lists have been compiled (from library catalogs) for the English-language groups: identifier 0 and identifier 1. Publishers receive blocks of ISBNs, with larger blocks allotted to publishers expecting to need them; a small publisher may receive ISBNs of one or more digits for the registration group identifier, several digits for the registrant, and a single digit for the publication element. Once that block of ISBNs is used, the publisher may receive another block of ISBNs, with a different registrant element. Consequently, a publisher may have different allotted registrant elements. There also may be more than one registration group identifier used in a country. This might occur once all the registrant elements from a particular registration group have been allocated to publishers. By using variable block lengths, registration agencies are able to customise the allocations of ISBNs that they make to publishers. For example, a large publisher may be given a block of ISBNs where fewer digits are allocated for the registrant element and many digits are allocated for the publication element; likewise, countries publishing many titles have few allocated digits for the registration group identifier and many for the registrant and publication elements.[46] Here are some sample ISBN-10 codes, illustrating block length variations. ISBN Country or area Publisher 99921-58-10-7 Qatar NCCAH, Doha 9971-5-0210-0 Singapore World Scientific 960-425-059-0 Greece Sigma Publications 80-902734-1-6 Czech Republic; Slovakia Taita Publishers 85-359-0277-5 Brazil Companhia das Letras 1-84356-028-3 English-speaking area Simon Wallenberg Press 0-684-84328-5 English-speaking area Scribner 0-8044-2957-X English-speaking area Frederick Ungar 0-85131-041-9 English-speaking area J. A. Allen & Co. 93-86954-21-4 English-speaking area Edupedia Publications Pvt Ltd. 0-943396-04-2 English-speaking area Willmann–Bell 0-9752298-0-X English-speaking area KT Publishing Pattern for English language ISBNs English-language registration group elements are 0 and 1 (2 of more than 220 registration group elements). These two registration group elements are divided into registrant elements in a systematic pattern, which allows their length to be determined, as follows:[47] Publication element length 0 – Registration group element 1 – Registration group element Total Registrants From To Registrants From To Registrants 6 digits 0-00-xxxxxx-x 0-19-xxxxxx-x 20 1-01-xxxxxx-x 1-04-xxxxxx-x 1-02-xxxxxx-x 1-06-xxxxxx-x 5 25 5 digits 0-200-xxxxx-x 0-229-xxxxx-x 0-370-xxxxx-x 0-640-xxxxx-x 0-646-xxxxx-x 0-649-xxxxx-x 0-656-xxxxx-x 0-227-xxxxx-x 0-368-xxxxx-x 0-638-xxxxx-x 0-644-xxxxx-x 0-647-xxxxx-x 0-654-xxxxx-x 0-699-xxxxx-x 494 1-000-xxxxx-x 1-030-xxxxx-x 1-100-xxxxx-x 1-714-xxxxx-x 1-009-xxxxx-x 1-034-xxxxx-x 1-397-xxxxx-x 1-716-xxxxx-x 316 810 4 digits 0-2280-xxxx-x 0-3690-xxxx-x 0-6390-xxxx-x 0-6550-xxxx-x 0-7000-xxxx-x 0-2289-xxxx-x 0-3699-xxxx-x 0-6397-xxxx-x 0-6559-xxxx-x 0-8499-xxxx-x 1,538 1-0350-xxxx-x 1-0700-xxxx-x 1-3980-xxxx-x 1-6500-xxxx-x 1-6860-xxxx-x 1-7170-xxxx-x 1-7900-xxxx-x 1-8672-xxxx-x 1-9730-xxxx-x 1-0399-xxxx-x 1-0999-xxxx-x 1-5499-xxxx-x 1-6799-xxxx-x 1-7139-xxxx-x 1-7319-xxxx-x 1-7999-xxxx-x 1-8675-xxxx-x 1-9877-xxxx-x 2,852 4,390 3 digits 0-85000-xxx-x 0-89999-xxx-x 5,000 1-55000-xxx-x 1-68000-xxx-x 1-74000-xxx-x 1-77540-xxx-x 1-77650-xxx-x 1-77770-xxx-x 1-80000-xxx-x 1-83850-xxx-x 1-86760-xxx-x 1-64999-xxx-x 1-68599-xxx-x 1-77499-xxx-x 1-77639-xxx-x 1-77699-xxx-x 1-78999-xxx-x 1-83799-xxx-x 1-86719-xxx-x 1-86979-xxx-x 22,370 27,370 2 digits 0-900000-xx-x 0-949999-xx-x 50,000 1-869800-xx-x 1-916506-xx-x 1-987800-xx-x 1-991200-xx-x 1-915999-xx-x 1-972999-xx-x 1-991149-xx-x 1-998989-xx-x 113,834 163,834 1 digit 0-6398000-x-x 0-6450000-x-x 0-6480000-x-x 0-9500000-x-x 0-6399999-x-x 0-6459999-x-x 0-6489999-x-x 0-9999999-x-x 522,000 1-7320000-x-x 1-7750000-x-x 1-7764000-x-x 1-7770000-x-x 1-8380000-x-x 1-9160000-x-x 1-9911500-x-x 1-9989900-x-x 1-7399999-x-x 1-7753999-x-x 1-7764999-x-x 1-7776999-x-x 1-8384999-x-x 1-9165059-x-x 1-9911999-x-x 1-9999999-x-x 112,660 634,660 Total 579,052 Total 252,037 831,089 Check digits A check digit is a form of redundancy check used for error detection, the decimal equivalent of a binary check bit. It consists of a single digit computed from the other digits in the number. The method for the 10-digit ISBN is an extension of that for SBNs, so the two systems are compatible; an SBN prefixed with a zero (the 10-digit ISBN) will give the same check digit as the SBN without the zero. The check digit is base eleven, and can be an integer between 0 and 9, or an 'X'. The system for 13-digit ISBNs is not compatible with SBNs and will, in general, give a different check digit from the corresponding 10-digit ISBN, so does not provide the same protection against transposition. This is because the 13-digit code was required to be compatible with the EAN format, and hence could not contain an 'X'. ISBN-10 check digits According to the 2001 edition of the International ISBN Agency's official user manual,[48] the ISBN-10 check digit (which is the last digit of the 10-digit ISBN) must range from 0 to 10 (the symbol 'X' is used for 10), and must be such that the sum of the ten digits, each multiplied by its (integer) weight, descending from 10 to 1, is a multiple of 11. That is, if xi is the ith digit, then x10 must be chosen such that: ∑ i = 1 10 ( 11 − i ) x i ≡ 0 ( mod 11 ) {\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{10}(11-i)x_{i}\equiv 0{\pmod {11}}} For example, for an ISBN-10 of 0-306-40615-2: s = ( 0 × 10 ) + ( 3 × 9 ) + ( 0 × 8 ) + ( 6 × 7 ) + ( 4 × 6 ) + ( 0 × 5 ) + ( 6 × 4 ) + ( 1 × 3 ) + ( 5 × 2 ) + ( 2 × 1 ) = 0 + 27 + 0 + 42 + 24 + 0 + 24 + 3 + 10 + 2 = 132 = 12 × 11 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}s&=(0\times 10)+(3\times 9)+(0\times 8)+(6\times 7)+(4\times 6)+(0\times 5)+(6\times 4)+(1\times 3)+(5\times 2)+(2\times 1)\\&=0+27+0+42+24+0+24+3+10+2\\&=132=12\times 11\end{aligned}}} Formally, using modular arithmetic, this is rendered: ( 10 x 1 + 9 x 2 + 8 x 3 + 7 x 4 + 6 x 5 + 5 x 6 + 4 x 7 + 3 x 8 + 2 x 9 + x 10 ) ≡ 0 ( mod 11 ) . {\displaystyle (10x_{1}+9x_{2}+8x_{3}+7x_{4}+6x_{5}+5x_{6}+4x_{7}+3x_{8}+2x_{9}+x_{10})\equiv 0{\pmod {11}}.} It is also true for ISBN-10s that the sum of all ten digits, each multiplied by its weight in ascending order from 1 to 10, is a multiple of 11. For this example: s = ( 0 × 1 ) + ( 3 × 2 ) + ( 0 × 3 ) + ( 6 × 4 ) + ( 4 × 5 ) + ( 0 × 6 ) + ( 6 × 7 ) + ( 1 × 8 ) + ( 5 × 9 ) + ( 2 × 10 ) = 0 + 6 + 0 + 24 + 20 + 0 + 42 + 8 + 45 + 20 = 165 = 15 × 11 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}s&=(0\times 1)+(3\times 2)+(0\times 3)+(6\times 4)+(4\times 5)+(0\times 6)+(6\times 7)+(1\times 8)+(5\times 9)+(2\times 10)\\&=0+6+0+24+20+0+42+8+45+20\\&=165=15\times 11\end{aligned}}} Formally, this is rendered: ( x 1 + 2 x 2 + 3 x 3 + 4 x 4 + 5 x 5 + 6 x 6 + 7 x 7 + 8 x 8 + 9 x 9 + 10 x 10 ) ≡ 0 ( mod 11 ) . {\displaystyle (x_{1}+2x_{2}+3x_{3}+4x_{4}+5x_{5}+6x_{6}+7x_{7}+8x_{8}+9x_{9}+10x_{10})\equiv 0{\pmod {11}}.} The two most common errors in handling an ISBN (e.g. when typing it or writing it down) are a single altered digit or the transposition of adjacent digits. It can be proven mathematically that all pairs of valid ISBN-10s differ in at least two digits. It can also be proven that there are no pairs of valid ISBN-10s with eight identical digits and two transposed digits. (These proofs are true because the ISBN is less than eleven digits long and because 11 is a prime number.) The ISBN check digit method therefore ensures that it will always be possible to detect these two most common types of error, i.e., if either of these types of error has occurred, the result will never be a valid ISBN – the sum of the digits multiplied by their weights will never be a multiple of 11. However, if the error were to occur in the publishing house and remain undetected, the book would be issued with an invalid ISBN.[49] In contrast, it is possible for other types of error, such as two altered non-transposed digits, or three altered digits, to result in a valid ISBN (although it is still unlikely). ISBN-10 check digit calculation Each of the first nine digits of the 10-digit ISBN—excluding the check digit itself—is multiplied by its (integer) weight, descending from 10 to 2, and the sum of these nine products found. The value of the check digit is simply the one number between 0 and 10 which, when added to this sum, means the total is a multiple of 11. For example, the check digit for an ISBN-10 of 0-306-40615-? is calculated as follows: s = ( 0 × 10 ) + ( 3 × 9 ) + ( 0 × 8 ) + ( 6 × 7 ) + ( 4 × 6 ) + ( 0 × 5 ) + ( 6 × 4 ) + ( 1 × 3 ) + ( 5 × 2 ) = 130 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}s&=(0\times 10)+(3\times 9)+(0\times 8)+(6\times 7)+(4\times 6)+(0\times 5)+(6\times 4)+(1\times 3)+(5\times 2)\\&=130\end{aligned}}} Adding 2 to 130 gives a multiple of 11 (because 132 = 12×11) – this is the only number between 0 and 10 which does so. Therefore, the check digit has to be 2, and the complete sequence is ISBN 0-306-40615-2. If the value of x 10 {\displaystyle x_{10}} required to satisfy this condition is 10, then an 'X' should be used. Alternatively, modular arithmetic is convenient for calculating the check digit using modulus 11. The remainder of this sum when it is divided by 11 (i.e. its value modulo 11), is computed. This remainder plus the check digit must equal either 0 or 11. Therefore, the check digit is (11 minus the remainder of the sum of the products modulo 11) modulo 11. Taking the remainder modulo 11 a second time accounts for the possibility that the first remainder is 0. Without the second modulo operation, the calculation could result in a check digit value of 11−0 = 11, which is invalid. (Strictly speaking, the first "modulo 11" is not needed, but it may be considered to simplify the calculation.) For example, the check digit for the ISBN-10 of 0-306-40615-? is calculated as follows: s = ( 11 − ( ( ( 0 × 10 ) + ( 3 × 9 ) + ( 0 × 8 ) + ( 6 × 7 ) + ( 4 × 6 ) + ( 0 × 5 ) + ( 6 × 4 ) + ( 1 × 3 ) + ( 5 × 2 ) ) mod 11 ) ) mod 11 = ( 11 − ( ( 0 + 27 + 0 + 42 + 24 + 0 + 24 + 3 + 10 ) mod 11 ) ) mod 11 = ( 11 − ( ( 130 ) mod 11 ) ) mod 11 = ( 11 − ( 9 ) ) mod 11 = ( 2 ) mod 11 = 2 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}s&=(11-(((0\times 10)+(3\times 9)+(0\times 8)+(6\times 7)+(4\times 6)+(0\times 5)+(6\times 4)+(1\times 3)+(5\times 2))\,{\bmod {\,}}11))\,{\bmod {\,}}11\\&=(11-((0+27+0+42+24+0+24+3+10)\,{\bmod {\,}}11))\,{\bmod {\,}}11\\&=(11-((130)\,{\bmod {\,}}11))\,{\bmod {\,}}11\\&=(11-(9))\,{\bmod {\,}}11\\&=(2)\,{\bmod {\,}}11\\&=2\end{aligned}}} Thus the check digit is 2. It is possible to avoid the multiplications in a software implementation by using two accumulators. Repeatedly adding t into s computes the necessary multiples: // Returns ISBN error syndrome, zero for a valid ISBN, non-zero for an invalid one. // digits[i] must be between 0 and 10. int CheckISBN(int const digits[10]) { int i, s = 0, t = 0; for (i = 0; i < 10; i++) { t += digits[i]; s += t; } return s % 11; } The modular reduction can be done once at the end, as shown above (in which case s could hold a value as large as 496, for the invalid ISBN 99999-999-9-X), or s and t could be reduced by a conditional subtract after each addition. ISBN-13 check digit calculation Appendix 1 of the International ISBN Agency's official user manual[15]:33 describes how the 13-digit ISBN check digit is calculated. The ISBN-13 check digit, which is the last digit of the ISBN, must range from 0 to 9 and must be such that the sum of all the thirteen digits, each multiplied by its (integer) weight, alternating between 1 and 3, is a multiple of 10. As ISBN-13 is a subset of EAN-13, the algorithm for calculating the check digit is exactly the same for both. Formally, using modular arithmetic, this is rendered: ( x 1 + 3 x 2 + x 3 + 3 x 4 + x 5 + 3 x 6 + x 7 + 3 x 8 + x 9 + 3 x 10 + x 11 + 3 x 12 + x 13 ) ≡ 0 ( mod 10 ) . {\displaystyle (x_{1}+3x_{2}+x_{3}+3x_{4}+x_{5}+3x_{6}+x_{7}+3x_{8}+x_{9}+3x_{10}+x_{11}+3x_{12}+x_{13})\equiv 0{\pmod {10}}.} The calculation of an ISBN-13 check digit begins with the first twelve digits of the 13-digit ISBN (thus excluding the check digit itself). Each digit, from left to right, is alternately multiplied by 1 or 3, then those products are summed modulo 10 to give a value ranging from 0 to 9. Subtracted from 10, that leaves a result from 1 to 10. A zero (0) replaces a ten (10), so, in all cases, a single check digit results. For example, the ISBN-13 check digit of 978-0-306-40615-? is calculated as follows: s = 9×1 + 7×3 + 8×1 + 0×3 + 3×1 + 0×3 + 6×1 + 4×3 + 0×1 + 6×3 + 1×1 + 5×3 = 9 + 21 + 8 + 0 + 3 + 0 + 6 + 12 + 0 + 18 + 1 + 15 = 93 93 / 10 = 9 remainder 3 10 – 3 = 7 Thus, the check digit is 7, and the complete sequence is ISBN 978-0-306-40615-7. In general, the ISBN-13 check digit is calculated as follows. Let r = ( 10 − ( x 1 + 3 x 2 + x 3 + 3 x 4 + ⋯ + x 11 + 3 x 12 ) mod 10 ) . {\displaystyle r={\big (}10-{\big (}x_{1}+3x_{2}+x_{3}+3x_{4}+\cdots +x_{11}+3x_{12}{\big )}\,{\bmod {\,}}10{\big )}.} Then x 13 = { r  ;  r < 10 0  ;  r = 10. {\displaystyle x_{13}={\begin{cases}r&{\text{ ; }}r<10\\0&{\text{ ; }}r=10.\end{cases}}} This check system – similar to the UPC check digit formula – does not catch all errors of adjacent digit transposition. Specifically, if the difference between two adjacent digits is 5, the check digit will not catch their transposition. For instance, the above example allows this situation with the 6 followed by a 1. The correct order contributes 3×6+1×1 = 19 to the sum; while, if the digits are transposed (1 followed by a 6), the contribution of those two digits will be 3×1+1×6 = 9. However, 19 and 9 are congruent modulo 10, and so produce the same, final result: both ISBNs will have a check digit of 7. The ISBN-10 formula uses the prime modulus 11 which avoids this blind spot, but requires more than the digits 0–9 to express the check digit. Additionally, if the sum of the 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th, 10th, and 12th digits is tripled then added to the remaining digits (1st, 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th, 11th, and 13th), the total will always be divisible by 10 (i.e., end in 0). ISBN-10 to ISBN-13 conversion An ISBN-10 is converted to ISBN-13 by prepending "978" to the ISBN-10 and recalculating the final checksum digit using the ISBN-13 algorithm. The reverse process can also be performed, but not for numbers commencing with a prefix other than 978, which have no 10-digit equivalent. Errors in usage Publishers and libraries have varied policies about the use of the ISBN check digit. Publishers sometimes fail to check the correspondence of a book title and its ISBN before publishing it; that failure causes book identification problems for libraries, booksellers, and readers.[50] For example, ISBN 0-590-76484-5 is shared by two books – Ninja gaiden®: a novel based on the best-selling game by Tecmo (1990) and Wacky laws (1997), both published by Scholastic. Most libraries and booksellers display the book record for an invalid ISBN issued by the publisher. The Library of Congress catalogue contains books published with invalid ISBNs, which it usually tags with the phrase "Cancelled ISBN".[51] However, book-ordering systems such as Amazon.com will not search for a book if an invalid ISBN is entered to its search engine.[citation needed] OCLC often indexes by invalid ISBNs, if the book is indexed in that way by a member library. eISBN Only the term "ISBN" should be used; the terms "eISBN" and "e-ISBN" have historically been sources of confusion and should be avoided. If a book exists in one or more digital (e-book) formats, each of those formats must have its own ISBN. In other words, each of the three separate EPUB, Amazon Kindle, and PDF formats of a particular book will have its own specific ISBN. They should not share the ISBN of the paper version, and there is no generic "eISBN" which encompasses all the e-book formats for a title.[52] EAN format used in barcodes, and upgrading Currently the barcodes on a book's back cover (or inside a mass-market paperback book's front cover) are EAN-13; they may have a separate barcode encoding five digits called an EAN-5 for the currency and the recommended retail price.[53] For 10-digit ISBNs, the number "978", the Bookland "country code", is prefixed to the ISBN in the barcode data, and the check digit is recalculated according to the EAN-13 formula (modulo 10, 1x and 3x weighting on alternating digits). Partly because of an expected shortage in certain ISBN categories, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) decided to migrate to a 13-digit ISBN (ISBN-13). The process began on 1 January 2005 and was planned to conclude on 1 January 2007.[54] As of 2011[update], all the 13-digit ISBNs began with 978. As the 978 ISBN supply is exhausted, the 979 prefix was introduced. Part of the 979 prefix is reserved for use with the Musicland code for musical scores with an ISMN. The 10-digit ISMN codes differed visually as they began with an "M" letter; the bar code represents the "M" as a zero (0), and for checksum purposes it counted as a 3. All ISMNs are now thirteen digits commencing 979-0; 979-1 to 979-9 will be used by ISBN. Publisher identification code numbers are unlikely to be the same in the 978 and 979 ISBNs, likewise, there is no guarantee that language area code numbers will be the same. Moreover, the 10-digit ISBN check digit generally is not the same as the 13-digit ISBN check digit. Because the GTIN-13 is part of the Global Trade Item Number (GTIN) system (that includes the GTIN-14, the GTIN-12, and the GTIN-8), the 13-digit ISBN falls within the 14-digit data field range.[55] Barcode format compatibility is maintained, because (aside from the group breaks) the ISBN-13 barcode format is identical to the EAN barcode format of existing 10-digit ISBNs. So, migration to an EAN-based system allows booksellers the use of a single numbering system for both books and non-book products that is compatible with existing ISBN based data, with only minimal changes to information technology systems. Hence, many booksellers (e.g., Barnes & Noble) migrated to EAN barcodes as early as March 2005. Although many American and Canadian booksellers were able to read EAN-13 barcodes before 2005, most general retailers could not read them. The upgrading of the UPC barcode system to full EAN-13, in 2005, eased migration to the ISBN-13 in North America. See also ASIN (Amazon Standard Identification Number) BICI (Book Item and Component Identifier) CODEN (serial publication identifier currently used by libraries; replaced by the ISSN for new works) CSBN (Chinese Standard Book Number, 10 digits from 1987 to 2007, 13 digits since 2008, includes the LSBN, by the China ISBN Centre)[56][57] DOI (Digital Object Identifier) ESTC (English Short Title Catalogue) ETTN (Electronic Textbook Track Number) ISAN (International Standard Audiovisual Number) ISMN (International Standard Music Number) ISRC (International Standard Recording Code) ISSN (International Standard Serial Number) ISTC (International Standard Text Code) ISWC (International Standard Musical Work Code) ISWN (International Standard Wine Number) LCCN (Library of Congress Control Number) License number (East German books) [de] (Book identification system used between 1951 and 1990 in the former GDR) List of group-0 ISBN publisher codes List of group-1 ISBN publisher codes List of ISBN identifier groups LSBN (Chinese book identification system since 1982, main part of CSBN)[56][57] OCLC number (Online Computer Library Center number)[58] Registration authority SICI (Serial Item and Contribution Identifier) VD 16 (Verzeichnis der im deutschen Sprachbereich erschienenen Drucke des 16. Jahrhunderts, "Bibliography of Books Printed in the German Speaking Countries of the Sixteenth Century") VD 17 (Verzeichnis der im deutschen Sprachraum erschienenen Drucke des 17. Jahrhunderts, "Bibliography of Books Printed in the German Speaking Countries of the Seventeenth Century") Notes ^ Occasionally, publishers erroneously assign an ISBN to more than one title—the first edition of The Ultimate Alphabet and The Ultimate Alphabet Workbook have the same ISBN, 0-8050-0076-3. Conversely, books are published with several ISBNs: A German second-language edition of Emil und die Detektive has the ISBNs 87-23-90157-8 (Denmark), 0-8219-1069-8 (United States), 91-21-15628-X (Sweden), 0-85048-548-7 (United Kingdom) and 3-12-675495-3 (Germany). ^ In some cases, books sold only as sets share ISBNs. For example, the Vance Integral Edition used only two ISBNs for 44 books. ^ a b Publishers were required to convert existing ISBNs from the 10-digit format to the 13-digit format (in their publication records) by 1 January 2007. For existing publications, the new 13-digit ISBN would only need to be added if (and when) a publication was reprinted. During the transition period, publishers were recommended to print both the 10-digit and 13-digit ISBNs on the verso of a publication's title page, but they were required to print only the 13-digit ISBN after 1 January 2007.[2] ^ Some books have several codes in the first block: e.g. A. M. Yaglom's Correlation Theory..., published by Springer Verlag, has two ISBNs, 0-387-96331-6 and 3-540-96331-6. Though Springer's 387 and 540 codes are different for English (0) and German (3); the same item number 96331 produces the same check digit for both (6). Springer uses 431 as the publisher code for Japanese (4), and 4-431-96331-? also has a check digit of 6. Other Springer books in English have publisher code 817, and 0-817-96331-? would also have a check digit of 6. This suggests that special considerations were made for assigning Springer's publisher codes, as random assignments of different publisher codes would not be expected to lead by coincidence to the same check digit every time for the same item number. Finding publisher codes for English and German, say, with this effect would amount to solving a linear equation in modular arithmetic.[original research?] ^ The International ISBN Agency's ISBN User's Manual says: "The ten-digit number is divided into four parts of variable length, which must be separated clearly, by hyphens or spaces", although omission of separators is permitted for internal data processing. If present, hyphens must be correctly placed.[16] The actual definition for hyphenation contains more than 220 different registration group elements with each one broken down into a few to several ranges for the length of the registrant element (more than 1,000 total). The document defining the ranges, listed by agency, is 29 pages. References ^ "The International ISBN Agency". Retrieved 20 February 2018. ^ a b c TC 46/SC 9. "Frequently Asked Questions about the new ISBN standard from ISO". lac-bac.gc.ca. Library and Archives Canada. Archived from the original on 10 June 2007. ^ Bradley, Philip (1992). "Book numbering: The importance of the ISBN" (PDF [245KB]). The Indexer. 18 (1): 25–26. ^ Foster, Gordon (1966). "International Standard Book Numbering (ISBN) System original 1966 report". informaticsdevelopmentinstitute.net. Archived from the original on 30 April 2011. Retrieved 20 April 2014. ^ a b "ISBN History". isbn.org. 20 April 2014. Archived from the original on 20 April 2014. Retrieved 20 April 2014. ^ a b c d Manwal ghall-Utenti tal-ISBN (PDF) (in Maltese) (6th ed.). Malta: Kunsill Nazzjonali tal-Ktieb. 2016. p. 5. ISBN 978-99957-889-4-0. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 August 2016. ^ "International Publishers Association—'It was an idea whose time had come.' David Whitaker on the birth of ISBN". International Publishers Association. Retrieved 6 August 2019. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ a b "Emery Koltay, David Whitaker Named NISO Fellows" (PDF), Information Standards Quarterly, National Information Standards Organization, 8 (3): 12–13, July 1996, archived from the original (PDF) on 4 August 2014 ^ US ISBN Agency. "Bowker.com – Products". Commerce.bowker.com. Retrieved 11 June 2015. ^ Gregory, Daniel. "ISBN". PrintRS. Archived from the original on 16 May 2016. Retrieved 11 June 2015. ^ ISO 2108:1978 (PDF), ISO ^ https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22SBN%20345%22&sin=TXT ^ https://archive.org/details/woodstockhandmad00robe/page/n3/mode/2up?q=SBN+345-24223-8-595 - by Ballantine Books, ISBN 0-345-24223-8 links to http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/2057258 ^ https://archive.org/details/woodstockhandmad00robe - "Ballantine/Craft [...] 5.95" ^ a b c d ISBN Users' Manual, International Edition (PDF) (7th ed.). London: International ISBN Agency. 2017. ISBN 978-92-95055-12-4. ^ "ISBN Ranges". International ISBN Agency. 2014. ^ "ISBN Canada". www.bac-lac.gc.ca. LAC. Retrieved 19 January 2016. ^ "Find an agency – International ISBN Agency". isbn-international.org. ^ "About the Australian ISBN Agency". THORPE-Bowker. ^ "Bowker – ISBN". Thorpe-Bowker. 5 January 2009. Retrieved 29 March 2012. ^ "Tabela de preços dos serviços" [Table of service prices] (in Portuguese). Biblioteca Nacional do Brasil. Retrieved 8 September 2015. ^ a b "Changes in arrangements for ISBN in Brazil". Retrieved 20 January 2020. ^ "ISBN Brasil" (in Portuguese). Retrieved 20 January 2020. ^ "Introduction to Books Registration". HKPL. Retrieved 12 January 2017. ^ "Union HRD Minister Smt. Smriti Zubin Irani Launches ISBN Portal". MHRD. 7 April 2016. ^ "What is an ISBN ?". ICL – מרכז הספר והספריות. 7 April 2015. ^ "ISBN – Chi siamo e contatti" [ISBN – Who we are and contacts] (in Italian). EDISER srl. Retrieved 3 January 2015. ^ "ISBN – Tariffe Servizi ISBN" [ISBN Service Tariffs] (in Italian). EDISER srl. Retrieved 3 January 2015. ^ "ISBN". Kunsill Nazzjonali tal-Ktieb. 2016. Archived from the original on 23 October 2016. ^ Manwal ghall-Utenti tal-ISBN (PDF) (in Maltese) (6th ed.). Malta: Kunsill Nazzjonali tal-Ktieb. 2016. pp. 1–40. ISBN 978-99957-889-4-0. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 August 2016. ^ "Gazzetta tal-Gvern ta' Malta" (PDF). Government Gazette. 23 January 2015. p. 582. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 November 2016. ^ "ISBNs, ISSNs, and ISMNs". National Library of New Zealand. Retrieved 19 January 2016. ^ "International Standard Book Number". NLP. Retrieved 25 December 2017. ^ "ISBN – Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Kütüphaneler ve Yayımlar Genel Müdürlüğü OS". ekygm.gov.tr. ^ "Nielsen UK ISBN Agency". Nielsen UK ISBN Agency. Retrieved 2 January 2015. ^ "Bowker – ISBN". R. R. Bowker. 8 March 2013. Retrieved 8 March 2013. ^ "ISBN Ranges". isbn-international.org. 29 April 2014. Select the format you desire and click on the Generate button. Archived from the original on 29 April 2014. Retrieved 29 April 2014. ^ See a complete list of group identifiers. ISBN.org sometimes calls them group numbers. Their table of identifiers now refers to ISBN prefix ranges, which must be assumed to be group identifier ranges. ^ Hailman, Jack Parker (2008). Coding and redundancy: man-made and animal-evolved signals. Harvard University Press. p. 209. ISBN 978-0-674-02795-4. ^ ISBN Users' Manual, International Edition (PDF) (6th ed.). London: International ISBN Agency. 2012. p. 23. ISBN 978-92-95055-02-5. ^ International ISBN Agency (5 December 2014). "International ISBN Agency – Range Message (pdf sorted by prefix)" (PDF). isbn-international.org. p. 29. Retrieved 15 December 2014. ^ "Independent Publishers". Waterstones. Retrieved 2 February 2020. Before submitting any titles to our central buying team for consideration, your book must have the following: An ISBN... ^ "How to obtain an ISBN". Barnes & Noble. Retrieved 2 February 2020. We use ISBNs to track inventory and sales information. All books Barnes & Noble transacts on must have an ISBN. ^ "Product ID (GTIN) requirements for Books". Amazon.com. Retrieved 2 February 2020. Effective June 1, 2017, you must provide an ISBN, EAN, or JAN to list a book in the Amazon catalog, regardless of the book's publication date. ^ See Publisher's International ISBN Directory Archived 21 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine ^ Splane, Lily (2002). The Book Book: A Complete Guide to Creating a Book on Your Computer. Anaphase II Publishing. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-945962-14-4. ^ "ISBN Ranges". isbn-international.org. International ISBN Agency. 15 September 2014. Retrieved 15 September 2014. ^ "ISBN Users' Manual (2001 edition) – 4. Structure of ISBN". International ISBN Agency. Archived from the original on 22 May 2013. ^ For example, I'saka: a sketch grammar of a language of north-central New Guinea. Pacific Linguistics. ISBN "0-85883-554-4". ^ Lorimer, Rowland; Shoichet, Jillian; Maxwell, John W. (2005). Book Publishing I. CCSP Press. p. 299. ISBN 978-0-9738727-0-5. ^ "020 – International Standard Book Number (R) – MARC 21 Bibliographic – Full". Library of Congress. September 2013. ^ "The Myth of the eISBN Why Every eBook Edition Needs a Unique Number – Publishing services for self publishing authors and businesses". Publishing services for self publishing authors and businesses. 28 June 2013. Retrieved 16 January 2017. ^ Frequently asked questions, US: ISBN, 12 March 2014, archived from the original on 16 April 2014 — including a detailed description of the EAN-13 format. ^ "ISBN", ISO TC49SC9 (FAQ), CA: Collections ^ "Are You Ready for ISBN-13?", Standards, ISBN ^ a b https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/5187/a84a083ca7deb1408e4e7e06635bab7a0027.pdf ^ a b https://www.hicom-asia.com/how-to-register-isbn-in-china/ ^ "xISBN (Web service)". Xisbn.worldcat.org. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 27 May 2013. External links Wikidata has the properties: ISBN-10 (P957) (see uses) ISBN-13 (P212) (see uses) International Standard Book Numberat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons Data from Wikidata Documentation from MediaWiki ISO 2108:2017 – International Standard Book Number (ISBN) International ISBN Agency—coordinates and supervises the worldwide use of the ISBN system Numerical List of Group Identifiers—List of language/region prefixes Free conversion tool: ISBN-10 to ISBN-13 & ISBN-13 to ISBN-10 from the ISBN agency. Also shows correct hyphenation & verifies if ISBNs are valid or not. "Guidelines for the Implementation of 13-Digit ISBNs" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 September 2004 "Are You Ready for ISBN-13?". R. R. Bowker LLC. RFC 3187—Using International Standard Book Numbers as Uniform Resource Names (URN) v t e International numbering standards Standards ISO 2108: International Standard Book Number (ISBN) ISO 3297: International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) ISO 3901: International Standard Recording Code (ISRC) ISO 6166: International Securities Identification Number (ISIN) ISO/IEC 7812: Issuer Identification Number (IIN) ISO 9362: Business Entity Identifier (BIC) ISO 10957: International Standard Music Number (ISMN) ISO 13616: International Bank Account Number (IBAN) ISO 15511: International Standard Identifier for Libraries... (ISIL) ISO 15706: International Standard Audiovisual Number (ISAN) ISO 15707: International Standard Musical Work Code (ISWC) ISO 17316: International Standard Link Identifier (ISLI) ISO 17442: Legal Entity Identifier (LEI) ISO 21047: International Standard Text Code (ISTC) ISO 26324: Digital Object Identifier System (DOI) ISO 27729: International Standard Name Identifier (ISNI) ISO 27730: International Standard Collection Identifier (ISCI) CAE/IPI Virtual International Authority File (VIAF) v t e ISO standards by standard number List of ISO standards / ISO romanizations / IEC standards 1–9999 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 16 17 31 -0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10 -11 -12 -13 68-1 128 216 217 226 228 233 259 261 262 269 302 306 361 428 500 518 519 639 -1 -2 -3 -5 -6 646 657 668 690 704 732 764 838 843 860 898 965 999 1000 1004 1007 1073-1 1073-2 1155 1413 1538 1629 1745 1989 2014 2015 2022 2033 2047 2108 2145 2146 2240 2281 2533 2709 2711 2720 2788 2848 2852 3029 3103 3166 -1 -2 -3 3297 3307 3601 3602 3864 3901 3950 3977 4031 4157 4165 4217 4909 5218 5426 5427 5428 5725 5775 5776 5800 5807 5964 6166 6344 6346 6385 6425 6429 6438 6523 6709 6943 7001 7002 7010 7027 7064 7098 7185 7200 7498 -1 7637 7736 7810 7811 7812 7813 7816 7942 8000 8093 8178 8217 8373 8501-1 8571 8583 8601 8613 8632 8651 8652 8691 8805/8806 8807 8820-5 8859 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -8-I -9 -10 -11 -12 -13 -14 -15 -16 8879 9000/9001 9036 9075 9126 9141 9227 9241 9293 9314 9362 9407 9496 9506 9529 9564 9592/9593 9594 9660 9797-1 9897 9899 9945 9984 9985 9995 10000–19999 10005 10006 10007 10116 10118-3 10160 10161 10165 10179 10206 10218 10303 -11 -21 -22 -28 -238 10383 10487 10585 10589 10646 10664 10746 10861 10957 10962 10967 11073 11170 11179 11404 11544 11783 11784 11785 11801 11889 11898 11940 (-2) 11941 11941 (TR) 11992 12006 12182 12207 12234-2 12620 13211 -1 -2 13216 13250 13399 13406-2 13450 13485 13490 13567 13568 13584 13616 13816 14000 14031 14224 14289 14396 14443 14496 -2 -3 -6 -10 -11 -12 -14 -17 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en-wikipedia-org-4882	----	Help:Introduction - Wikipedia Help:Introduction From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Tutorial for newcomers who want to contribute to Wikipedia Introduction to Wikipedia Welcome to Wikipedia! Anyone can edit almost every page, and millions already have. This page takes you through a set of tutorials aimed at complete newcomers interested in contributing. It covers all the basics, and each tutorial takes only a few minutes, so you could become a proficient Wikipedian in no time! Get started Policies and Guidelines The Wiki markup source editor shows the underlying page source code, and works like a plain text file. Links and other items are indicated using simple code like this: [[Earth]]. Editing Referencing Images Tables Talk pages VisualEditor works more like a word processor and hides the underlying source code. Links and other items are edited using toolbar and pop-up interfaces. Editing Referencing Images Tables Navigating Wikipedia Manual of Style Conclusion View all as single page Shortcuts WP:I H:I H:INTRO For more training information, see also: Full help contents page Training for students A single-page guide to contributing A training adventure game Resources for new editors Please consider leaving us some feedback. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Help:Introduction&oldid=1001848484" Categories: Wikipedia quick introductions Hidden categories: Help pages with short description Wikipedia semi-protected project pages Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Help page Talk Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikisource Wikiversity Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch Ænglisc Аҧсшәа العربية Arpetan অসমীয়া Авар Basa Bali বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Български Boarisch Bosanski Буряад Català Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Davvisámegiella Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara Føroyskt Français Gaeilge Gaelg Gàidhlig Galego ગુજરાતી 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული Қазақша Kurdî Кыргызча Ladino ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Limburgs मैथिली Македонски മലയാളം Malti مصرى Bahasa Melayu Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ 日本語 Napulitano Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk پښتو Plattdüütsch Polski Română Romani čhib Runa Simi Русский संस्कृतम् Sardu Scots Sicilianu Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog Tarandíne Татарча/tatarça ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး ไทย Türkçe Удмурт Українська اردو Vahcuengh Tiếng Việt ייִדיש 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 21 January 2021, at 17:36 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4898	----	Shebitku - Wikipedia Shebitku From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Second pharaoh of the 25th Dynasty of Egypt Shebitku Shebitku's statue in the Nubian Museum Pharaoh Reign 714–705 BC[1] (25th dynasty) Predecessor Piye Successor Shabaka Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Djed-ka-re Enduring is the Soul of Re[2] Nomen Shebitku Horus name Djedkhaw Nebty name Aashefitemtawnebu Golden Horus Aakhepesh-hupedjetpesdjet Consort Arty Died 705 BC nomen or birth name šȝ bȝ tȝ kȝ (Shabataka) in hieroglyphs Shebitku (also known as Shabataka or Shebitqo, and anglicized as Sethos) was the second pharaoh of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt who ruled from 714 BC – 705 BC, according to the most recent academic research. He was a son of Piye, the founder of this dynasty. Shebitku's prenomen or throne name, Djedkare, means "Enduring is the Soul of Re."[2] Shebitku's queen was Arty, who was a daughter of king Piye, according to a fragment of statue JE 49157 of the High Priest of Amun Haremakhet, son of Shabaka, found in the temple of the Goddess Mut in Karnak.[3] Contents 1 Reign before Shabaka 2 Alleged coregency with Shabaka 3 Timeline 4 Identification with Herodotus' Sethos 5 References 6 Further reading Reign before Shabaka[edit] Until recent times, Shebitku was placed within the 25th Dynasty between Shabaka and Taharqa. Although the possibility of a switch between the reigns of Shabaka and Shebitku had already been suggested before by Brunet[4] and Baker had outlined nine reasons for the reversal,[5] it was Michael Bányai in 2013[6] who first published in a mainstream journal many arguments in favor of such a relocation. After him, Frédéric Payraudeau[1] and Gerard P. F. Broekman[7] independently expanded the hypothesis. The archaeological evidence now in 2016/2017 firmly favours a Shebitku-Shabaka succession. Gerard Broekman's GM 251 (2017) paper shows that Shebitku reigned before Shabaka since the upper edge of Shabaka’s NLR #30 Year 2 Karnak quay inscription was carved over the left-hand side of the lower edge of Shebitku's NLR#33 Year 3 inscription.[8] This can only mean that Shabaka ruled after Shebitku. Critically, it was first pointed out by Baker[5] and then later by Frederic Payraudeau who wrote in French that "the Divine Adoratrix ie. God's Wife of Amun Shepenupet I," the last Libyan Adoratrix, was still alive during the reign of Shebitku/Shabataqo because she is represented performing rites and is described as “living” in those parts of the Osiris-Héqadjet chapel built during his reign (wall and exterior of the gate)[9][1] In the rest of the room it is Amenirdis I, Shabaka's sister), who is represented with the Adoratrix title and provided with a coronation name. The succession Shepenupet I - Amenirdis I as God's Wife of Amun or Divine Adoratrice of Amun thus took place during the reign of Shebitku. This detail in itself is sufficient to show that the reign of Shabaka cannot precede that of Shebitku.[1] King Shebitku making offerings to Egyptian Gods The construction of the tomb of Shebitku (Ku. 18) resembles that of Piye (Ku. 17) while that of Shabaka (Ku. 15) is similar to that of Taharqa (Nu. 1) and Tantamani (Ku. 16).[10][1] One of the strongest evidence that Shabaka ruled after Shebitku was demonstrated by the architectural features of the Kushite royal pyramids in El Kurru. Only in the pyramids of Piye (Ku 17) and Shebitku (Ku 18) are the burial-chambers open-cut structures with a corbelled roof, whereas fully tunneled burial chamber substructures are found in the pyramids of Shabaka (Ku 15), Taharqa (Nu 1) and Tantamani (Ku 16), as well as with all subsequent royal pyramids in El Kurru and Nuri.[11] The fully tunneled and once-decorated burial chamber of Shabaka's pyramid was clearly an architectural improvement since it was followed by Taharqa and all his successors.[12] The pyramid design evidence also shows that Shabaka must have ruled after—and not before—Shebitku. This also favours a Shebitku-Shabaka succession in the 25th dynasty. In the Cairo CG 42204 of the High Priest of Amun, Haremakhet—son of Shabaka—calls himself as "king’s son of Shabaka, justified, who loves him, Sole Confidant of king Taharqa, justified, Director of the palace of the king of Upper and Lower Egypt Tanutamun/Tantamani, may he live for ever."[13] However, as first noted by Baker,[5] no mention of Haremakhet's service under Shebitku is made; even if Haremakhet was only a youth under Shebitku, this king's absence is strange since the intent of the statue's text was to render a chronological sequence of kings who reigned during Haremakhet's life, each of their names being accompanied by a reference to the relationship that existed between the king mentioned and Haremakhet.[14] A possible explanation for Shebitku's omission from the statue of Haremakhet was that Shebitku was already dead when Haremaket was born under Shabaka. Payraudeau notes that Shebitku’s shabtis are small (about 10 cm) and have a very brief inscription with only the king's birth name in a cartouche preceded by “the Osiris, king of Upper and Lower Egypt” and followed by mȝʿ-ḫrw.[15][1] They are thus very close to those of Piye/Piankhy [42 – D. Dunham, (see footnote 39), plate 44.]. However, Shabaka's shabtis are larger (about 15–20 cm) with more developed inscriptions, including the quotation from the Book of the Dead, which is also present on those Taharqo, Tanouetamani and Senkamanisken."[1] All this evidence also suggests that Shebitku ruled before Shabaka. Finally, as first pointed out by Baker,[5] and then later by Payraudeau who observed that in the traditional Shebitku-Shabaka chronology, the time span between the reign of Taharqa and Shabaka seems to be excessively long. They both noted that Papyrus Louvre E 3328c from Year 2 or Year 6 of Taharqa mentions the sale of a slave by his owner who had bought him in Year 7 of Shabaka, that is 27 years earlier in the traditional chronology but if the reign of Shabaka is placed just before that of Taharqa (with no intervening reign of Shebitku), there is a gap of about 10 years which is much more credible.[16] The respected German scholar Karl Jansen Winkeln also endorsed a Shebitku-Shabaka succession in a JEH 10 (2017) N.1 paper titled 'Beiträge zur Geschichte der Dritten Zwischenzeit’, Journal of Egyptian History 10 (2017), pp. 23–42 when he wrote a postscript stating “Im Gegensatz zu meinen Ausführungen auf dem [2014] Kolloquium in Münster bin ich jetzt der Meinung, dass die (neue) Reihenfolge Schebitku—Schabako in der Tat richtig ist...” or ‘In contrast to my exposition at the [2014] Munster colloquium, I am now of the opinion that the (new) succession Shebitku-Shabako is in fact correct…’[17] Alleged coregency with Shabaka[edit] Donation Stela of Shebitku, with the cartouche identifying him (bottom left). Metropolitan Museum The Turin Stela 1467, which depicts Shabaka and Shebitku seated together (with Shebitku behind Shabaka) facing two other individuals across an offering table, was once considered to be clear evidence for a royal co-regency between these two Nubian kings in William J. Murnane's 1977 book on Ancient Egyptian Coregencies.[18] However, the Turin Museum has subsequently acknowledged the statue to be a forgery. Robert Morkot and Stephen Quirke, who analysed the stela in a 2001 article, also confirmed that the object is a forgery which cannot be used to postulate a possible coregency between Shabaka and Shebitku.[19] Secondly, Shebitku's Year 3, 1st month of Shemu day 5 inscription in Nile Level Text Number 33 has been assumed to record a coregency between Shabaka and Shebitku among some scholars. This Nile text records Shebitku mentioning his appearing (xai) in Thebes as king in the temple of Amun at Karnak where "Amun gave him the crown with two uraei like Horus on the throne of Re" thereby legitimising his kingship.[20] Jürgen von Beckerath argued in a GM 136 (1993) article that the inscription recorded both the official coronation of Shebitku and the very first appearance of the king himself in Egypt after comparing this inscription with Nile Level Text No.30 from Year 2 of Shebitku when Shabaka conquered all of Egypt.[21] If correct, this would demonstrate that Shebitku had truly served as a coregent to Shabaka for 2 years. Kenneth Kitchen, however, observes that the "verb xai (or appearance) applies to any official 'epiphany' or official manifestation of the king to his 'public appearances'."[22] Kitchen also stresses that the period around the first month of Shemu days 1-5 marked the date of a Festival of Amun-Re at Karnak which is well attested during the New Kingdom Period, the 22nd Dynasty and through to the Ptolemaic period.[22] Hence, in the third Year of Shebitku, this Feast to Amun evidently coincided with both the Inundation of the Nile and a personal visit by Shebitku to the Temple of Amun "but we have no warrant whatever for assuming that Shebitku...remained uncrowned for 2 whole years after his accession."[23] William Murnane also endorsed this interpretation by noting that Shebitku's Year 3 Nile Text "need not refer to an accession or coronation at all. Rather, it seems simply to record an 'appearance' of Shebitku in the temple of Amun during his third year and to acknowledge the god's influence in securing his initial appearance as king."[24] In other words, Shebitku was already king of Egypt and the purpose of his visit to Karnak was to receive and record for posterity the god Amun's official legitimization of his reign. Therefore, the evidence for a possible coregency between Shabaka and Shebitku is illusory at present. Dan'el Kahn also carefully considered but rejected arguments against a division of the 25th dynasty kingdom under Shabaka's reign with Shabaka ruling in Lower and Upper Egypt and Shebitku, acting as Shabaka's junior coregent or viceroy, in Nubia in an important 2006 article.[25] Kahn notes that there was always only one Nubian king ruling over all of the 25th dynasty's domain including both Egypt and Nubia and that problems of communication and control "did not hinder the kushite king to be the supreme ruler of this vast territory."[26] Kahn stresses that the Great Triumphal stela of Piye indicates it took only 39 days to travel by boat from Napata to Thebes while the Nitocris Adoption Stela shows that "the time to travel the distance between Memphis (or possibly Tanis) and Thebes by boat (c.700 km or more for Tanis) is [only] 16 days."[27] Timeline[edit] This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (May 2017) In 1999, an Egypt-Assyrian synchronism from the Great Inscription of Tang-i Var in Iran was re-discovered and re-analysed. Carved by Sargon II of Assyria (722-705 BC), the inscription dates to the period around 707/706 BC and reveals that it was Shebitku, king of Egypt, who extradited the rebel king Iamanni of Ashdod into Sargon's hands, rather than Shabaka as previously thought.[28] The pertinent section of the inscription by Sargon II reads: (19) I (scil. Sargon) plundered the city of Ashdod, Iamani,[29] its king, feared [my weapons] and...He fled to the region of the land of Meluhha and lived (there) stealthfully (literally:like a thief). (20) Shapataku' (Shebitku) king of the land of Meluhha, heard of the mig[ht] of the gods Ashur, Nabu (and) Marduk which I had [demonstrated] over all lands...(21) He put (Iamani) in manacles and handcuffs...he had him brought captive into my presence.[30] The Tang-i Var inscription dates to Sargon's 15th year between Nisan 707 BC to Adar 706 BC.[31] This shows that Shebitku was ruling in Egypt by April 706 BC at the very latest, and perhaps as early as November 707 BC to allow some time for Iamanni's extradition and the recording of this deed in Sargon's inscription.[32] A suggestion that Shebitku served as Shabaka's viceroy in Nubia and that Shebitku extradited Iamanni to Sargon II during the reign of king Shabaka has been rejected by the Egyptologist Karl Jansen-Winkeln in Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies), which is the most updated publication on Egyptian chronology.[33] As Jansen-Winkeln writes: there has never been the slightest hint at any form of coregency of the Nubian kings of Dynasty 25. Had Shabaka been ruler of Egypt in the year 707/706 and Shebitku [was] his "viceroy" in Nubia, one would definitely expect that the opening of diplomatic relations with Assur as well as the capture and extradation of Yamanni would have been part of Shabaka's responsibility. Sargon can also be expected to have named the regent of Egypt and senior king, rather than the distant viceroy Shebitku [in Nubia]. If, on the other hand, Shebitku was already Shabaka's successor in 707/706 [BC], the reports of the Yamani affair become clearer and make more sense. It had hitherto been assumed that the Nubian king (Shabaka) handed over Yamani more or less immediately after his flight to Egypt. Now it appears...certain that Yamani was only turned over to the Assyrians a couple of years later (under Shebitku instead).[33] Identification with Herodotus' Sethos[edit] The Greek historian Herodotus in his Histories (book II, chapter 141) writes of a High Priest of Ptah named Sethos (Greek: Σεθῶν Sethon) who became pharaoh and defeated the Assyrians with divine intervention. This name is probably a corruption of Shebitku.[34][35] Herodotus' account was the inspiration for the 18th-century fantasy novel Life of Sethos, which has been influential among Afrocentrists. References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g F. Payraudeau, Retour sur la succession Shabaqo-Shabataqo, Nehet 1, 2014, p. 115-127 online here ^ a b Clayton, Peter A. Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. p.190. 2006. ISBN 0-500-28628-0 ^ Karl Jansen-Winkeln, Inschriften der Spätzeit: Teil III: Die 25. Dynastie, 2009. pp.347-8 [52.5] ^ Jean-Frédéric Brunet, “The 21st and 25th Dynasties Apis Burial Conundrum”, Journal of the Ancient Chronology Forum 10 (2005), p. 29. ^ a b c d Joe Baker (2005), on egyptologyforum.org ^ Michael Bányai, “Ein Vorschlag zur Chronologie der 25. Dynastie in Ägypten”, JEgH 6 (2013) 46-129 and forthcoming “Die Reihenfolge der kuschitischen Könige”, JEgH 8 (2015) 81-147 ^ Gerard P. F. Broekman, “The order of succession between Shabaka and Shabataka; A different view on the chronology of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty”, GM 245 (2015) 17-31. ^ G.P.F. Broekman, Genealogical considerations regarding the kings of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty in Egypt, GM 251 (2017), p.13 ^ [45 – G. Legrain, “Le temple et les chapelles d’Osiris à Karnak. Le temple d’Osiris-Hiq-Djeto, partie éthiopienne”, RecTrav 22 (1900) 128; JWIS III, 45.] ^ [39 – D. Dunham, El-Kurru, The Royal Cemeteries of Kush, I, (1950) 55, 60, 64, 67; also D. Dunham, Nuri, The Royal Cemeteries of Kush, II, (1955) 6-7; J. Lull, Las tumbas reales egipcias del Tercer Periodo Intermedio (dinastías XXI-XXV). Tradición y cambios, BAR-IS 1045 (2002) 208.]. ^ Dows D. Dunham, El Kurru; The Royal Cemeteries of Kush (Cambridge, Massachusetts 1950) ^ G.P.F. Broekman, The order of succession between Shabaka and Shabataka. A different view on the chronology of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty, GM 245, (2015), pp.21-22 ^ G.P.F. Broekman, The order of succession between Shabaka and Shabataka. A different view on the chronology of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty, GM 245, (2015), p.23 ^ G.P.F. Broekman, GM 245 (2015), p.24 ^ [41 – JWIS III, 51, number 9; D. Dunham, (see footnote 39), 69, plate 45A-B.]. ^ Payraudeau, Nehet I, 2014, p.119 ^ Jansen-Winkeln, Journal of Egyptian History 10 (2017), N1, p.40 ^ William Murnane, Ancient Egyptian Coregencies, (SAOC 40: Chicago 1977), p.190 ^ R. Morkot and S. Quirke, "Inventing the 25th Dynasty: Turin stela 1467 and the construction of history", Begegnungen — Antike Kulturen im Niltal Festgabe für Erika Endesfelder, Karl-Heinz Priese, Walter Friedrich Reineke, Steffen Wenig (Leipzig 2001), pp.349–363 ^ L. Török, The Royal Crowns of Kush: A Study in Middle Nile Valley Regalia and Iconography in the 1st Millennia B. C. and A.D., Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology 18 (Oxford 1987), p.4 ^ J. von Beckerath, "Die Nilstandsinschrift vom 3. Jahr Schebitkus am kai von Karnak," GM 136 (1993), pp. 7-9 ^ a b Kenneth A. Kitchen, The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100–650 BC) [TIPE], 3rd edition, 1986, Warminster: Aris & Phillips Ltd, p.170 ^ Kitchen, TIPE, p.171 ^ Murnane, Coregencies, p.189 ^ Kahn, Dan'el., Divided Kingdom, Co-regency, or Sole Rule in the Kingdom(s) of Egypt-and-Kush?, Egypt and Levant 16 (2006), pp.275-291 online PDF ^ Kahn, Egypt and Levant 16, p.290 ^ Kahn, Egypt and Levant 16, p.290 Kahn cites RA Caminos, The Nitocris Stela, JEA 50 (1964), pp.81-84 for the Nitocris stela evidence ^ Grant Frame, "The Inscription of Sargon II at Tang-i Var," Orientalia Vol.68 (1999), pp.31-57 and pls. I-XVIII ^ Robin Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes in the Epic Age of Homer, 2008:30, makes a case for Iamani to be simply "the Ionian Greek": "Ionian Greeks were sometimes written in cuneiform script as ia-am-na-a: could this usurping Iamani be a Greek? ...would Assyrian scribes be exact about the name of a lowly rebel?" ^ Frame, p.40 ^ A. Fuchs, Die Inschriften Sargons II. aus Khorsabad (Gottingen 1994) pp.76 & 308 ^ Kahn, p.3 ^ a b Karl Jansen-Winkeln, "The Third Intermediate Period" in Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss & David Warburton (editors), Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies), Brill, 2006. pp.258-259 ^ Robert B. Strassler (ed.), The Landmark Herodotus: The Histories (Anchor, 2007), p. 182 ^ Alan B. Lloyd, Commentary on Book II, in A Commentary on Herodotus, Books I–IV (Oxford University Press, 2007), p. 237. Further reading[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Shebitku. Robert Morkot, The Black Pharaohs: Egypt's Nubian Rulers, The Rubicon Press, 2000. ISBN 0-948695-23-4 Preceded by Piye Pharaoh of Egypt 714 BC – 705 BC Twenty-fifth Dynasty Succeeded by Shabaka v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shebitku&oldid=999617817" Categories: 705 BC deaths 8th-century BC Pharaohs 8th-century BC monarchs of Kush Kingdom of Kush Pharaohs of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt 8th century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia articles in need of updating from May 2017 All Wikipedia articles in need of updating Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Navigation menu 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en-wikipedia-org-4900	----	Senedj - Wikipedia Senedj From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Senedj Sened, Sendj, Sethenes Cartouche name of Senedj in the Abydos King List (cartouche no. 13) Pharaoh Reign 2773-2753 BC or later (2nd Dynasty) Predecessor Wadjenes or Weneg Successor uncertain; Sekhemib, Peribsen, Neferkara I, Aaka Royal titulary Nomen Stone bowl from Giza King of Upper- and Lower Egypt, Sened nsw.t-btj snd Tomb of Shery (4th dynasty), Saqqara Sened Snd Abydos King List Senedj Snd.j Saqqara King List Senedj Snd.j Turin Canon Senedj Snd.j Senedj (also known as Sened and Sethenes) was an early Egyptian king (pharaoh), who may have ruled during the 2nd Dynasty. His historical standing remains uncertain. His name is included in the kinglists of the Ramesside era, although it is written in different ways: While the Abydos King List imitates the archaic form, the Royal Canon of Turin and the Saqqara King List form the name with the hieroglyphic sign of a plucked goose. It is unknown how long Senedj ruled over Egypt. The Royal Canon of Turin credits him with 70 years of rulership,[1] the ancient Egyptian historian Manetho states that Séthenes (as he calls Senedj) ruled for 41 years.[2] Contents 1 Name sources 2 Identity 3 Reign 4 Tomb 5 References 6 External links Name sources[edit] The possibly only known contemporary inscription from Senedj's reign was found in 1909 by Egyptologist Uvo Hölscher, who assisted the excavations at the Khephren- and Menkaura temple at Giza. Hölscher found a small, thin-walled and polished diorite shard, which once belonged to a flat bowl. At the left breakline an incised inscription gives the reading: "The king of Upper- and Lower Egypt, Senedj". The inscription goes from the right to the left and exceeds the breakline, but the king's name remains reconstructable. The precious artifact was published in 1912.[3] It was also examined by George Andrew Reisner, who mentioned it shortly in his book Mycerinus, the Temples of the Third Pyramid at Giza.[4][5] The next source referring to king Senedj dates back to the beginning or middle of the 4th Dynasty. The name, written in a cartouche, appears in the inscription on a false door belonging to the mastaba tomb of the high priest Shery at Saqqara. Shery held the title “overseer of all wab-priests of king Peribsen in the necropolis of king Senedj”, “overseer of the ka-priests of king Senedj” and “god's servant of Senedj”. Senedj's name is written in archaic form and set in a cartouche, which is an anachronism, since the cartouche itself was not used until the end of 3rd Dynasty under king Huni.[6][7] Egyptologist Dietrich Wildung points to two further priests and possible relatives of Shery, who both also participated the funerary cult of Senedj, Inkef and Siy.[8] Senedj is also mentioned in papyrus P. Berlin 3038, which contains medical prescriptions and therapies for numerous diseases. One of these gives instructions for treating foot cramps, and closes with the claim that the recipe for the ointment originates from a "book of vessels". This book is claimed to originate from the time of king Usáphais (identical with king Horus Den of Dynasty I). King Senedj allegedly received the book as an inheritance gift.[9] The latest mention of Senedj's name appears on a small bronze statuette in the shape of a kneeling king wearing the White Crown of Upper Egypt and holding incense burners in its hands. Additionally, the figurine wears a belt which has Senedj's name carved at the back.[10][11] Egyptologist Peter Munro has written a report about the existence of a mud seal inscription showing the cartouche name Nefer-senedj-Ra, which he thinks to be a version of “Senedj”.[12] But since the finding was never photographed nor drawn and the alleged object meanwhile got lost, Munro's claim is highly questioned by many scholars.[11] Identity[edit] The horus name of Senedj remains unknown. The false door inscription of Shery might indicate that Senedj is identical with king Seth-Peribsen and that the name "Senedj" was brought into the kinglists, because a seth-name was not allowed to be mentioned.[13][14] Other Egyptologists, such as Wolfgang Helck and Dietrich Wildung, are not so sure and believe that Senedj and Peribsen were different rulers. They point out that the false door inscription has the names of both strictly separated from each other. Additionally, Wildung thinks that Senedj donated an offering chapel to Peribsen in his necropolis.[15][16] This theory in turn is questioned by Helck and Hermann A. Schlögl, who point to the clay seals of king Sekhemib found in the entrance area of Peribsen's tomb, which might prove that Sekhemib buried Peribsen, not Senedj.[17] Reign[edit] Egyptologists such as Wolfgang Helck, Nicolas Grimal, Hermann Alexander Schlögl and Francesco Tiradritti believe that king Nynetjer, the third ruler of 2nd dynasty, left a realm that was suffering from an overly complex state administration and that Nynetjer decided to split Egypt to leave it to his two sons (or, at least, two chosen successors) who would rule two separate kingdoms, in the hope that the two rulers could better administer the states.[18][19] In contrast, Egyptologists such as Barbara Bell believe that an economic catastrophe such as a famine or a long lasting drought affected Egypt. Therefore, to better address the problem of feeding the Egyptian population, Nynetjer split the realm into two and his successors founded two independent realms until the famine came to an end. Bell points to the inscriptions of the Palermo stone, where, in her opinion, the records of the annual Nile floods show constantly low levels during this period.[20] Bell's theory is refuted today by Egyptologists such as Stephan Seidlmayer, who corrected Bell's calculations. Seidlmayer has shown that the annual Nile floods were at usual levels at Nynetjer's time up to the period of the Old Kingdom. Bell had overlooked that the heights of the Nile floods in the Palermo stone inscription only takes into account the measurements of the nilometers around Memphis, but not elsewhere along the river. Any long-lasting drought can therefore be excluded.[21] It is also unclear if Senedj already shared his throne with another ruler, or if the Egyptian state was split at the time of his death. All known kinglists such as the Sakkara list, the Turin King List and the Abydos table list a king Wadjenes as predecessor of Senedj. After Senedj, the kinglists differ from each other in respect of the successors. While the Sakkara list and the Turin canon mention the kings Neferka(ra), Neferkasokar and Hudjefa I as immediate successors, the Abydos list skips them and lists a king Djadjay (identical with king Khasekhemwy). If Egypt was already divided when Senedj gained the throne, kings like Sekhemib and Peribsen would have ruled Upper Egypt, whilst Senedj and his successors, Neferka(ra) and Hudjefa I, would have ruled Lower Egypt. The division of Egypt was brought to an end by king Khasekhemwy.[22] Tomb[edit] It is unknown where Senedj was buried. Toby Wilkinson assumes that the king might have been buried at Saqqara. To support this view, Wilkinson makes the observation that mortuary priests in earlier times were never buried too far away from the king for whom they had practised the mortuary cult. Wilkinson thinks that one of the Great Southern Galleries within the Necropolis of King Djoser (3rd Dynasty) was originally Senedj's tomb.[23] References[edit] ^ Alan H. Gardiner: The Royal Canon of Turin. Griffith Institute of Oxford, Oxford (UK) 1997, ISBN 0-900416-48-3, p. 15 & table I. ^ William Gillian Waddell: Manetho (= The Loeb Classical Library, Vol. 350). Harvard University Press, Cambridge (Mass.) 2004, ISBN 0-674-99385-3, p. 37-41. ^ Uvo Hölscher, Georg Steindorff: Das Grabdenkmal des Königs Chephren (= Veröffentlichungen der Ernst von Sieglin Expedition in Ägypten, 1st Volume). Hinrischs'sche Buchhandlung, Leipzig 1912. page 106ff. ^ George Andrew Reisner: Mycerinus, the Temples of the Third Pyramid at Giza. Harvard University Press, Boston 1931, page 105. ^ Toby Wilkinson: Early Dynastc Egypt. Routledge, London 2002, ISBN 1134664206, p. 74 & 75. ^ Auguste Mariette: Les mastabas de l’Ancien Empire. Paris 1885, page 92–94 ^ Werner Kaiser: Zur Nennung von Sened und Peribsen in Sakkara, In: Göttinger Miszellen, no. 122, (1991), page 49–55. ^ Dietrich Wildung: Die Rolle ägyptischer Könige im Bewußtsein ihrer Nachwelt (= Münchener Ägyptologische Studien. Bd. 17). Deutscher Kunstverlag, München/ Berlin 1969, p. 44-47. ^ Wolfhart Westendorf: Erwachen der Heilkunst: die Medizin im alten Ägypten. Artemis & Winkler, 1992, ISBN 3760810721, p. 48. ^ Wolfgang Helck: Untersuchungen zur Thinitenzeit. (Ägyptologische Abhandlungen, Volume 45), Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1987, ISBN 3-447-02677-4, page 103-106 ^ a b Dietrich Wildung: Die Rolle ägyptischer Könige im Bewusstsein ihrer Nachwelt. Part I (Münchener Ägytologische Studien 17). Deutscher Kunstverlag, München/Berlin 1969, page 45 ^ Peter Munro: Nefer-Senedj-Ra, In: Orientalia; Band 57 (1988); page 330. ^ Kenneth Anderson Kitchen: Ramesside Inscriptions. page 234–235 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen.. Deutscher Kunstverlag, München/Berlin 1984, ISBN 3-422-00832-2, page 171. ^ Wolfgang Helck: Untersuchungen zur Thinitenzeit. page 105-106. ^ Dietrich Wildung: Die Rolle ägyptischer Könige im Bewusstsein ihrer Nachwelt. page 45. ^ Hermann Alexander Schlögl: Das Alte Ägypten. page 77-78 & 415. ^ Nicolas Grimal: A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley-Blackwell, Weinheim 1994, ISBN 978-0-631-19396-8, page 55. ^ Francesco Tiradritti & Anna Maria Donadoni Roveri: Kemet: Alle Sorgenti Del Tempo. Electa, Milano 1998, ISBN 88-435-6042-5, page 80–85. ^ Barbara Bell: Oldest Records of the Nile Floods, In: Geographical Journal, No. 136. 1970, page 569–573; M. Goedike: Journal of Egypt Archaeology, No. 42. 1998, page 50. ^ Stephan Seidlmayer: Historische und moderne Nilstände: Historische und moderne Nilstände: Untersuchungen zu den Pegelablesungen des Nils von der Frühzeit bis in die Gegenwart. Achet, Berlin 2001, ISBN 3-9803730-8-8, page 87–89. ^ Hermann Alexander Schlögl: Das Alte Ägypten: Geschichte und Kultur von der Frühzeit bis zu Kleopatra. Beck, Hamburg 2006, ISBN 3-406-54988-8, page 77-78 & 415. ^ Toby Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, London/New York 1999, ISBN 0-415-18633-1, page 88 - 89. External links[edit] Sened/Senedj Preceded by Wadjenes Pharaoh of Egypt Succeeded by Seth-Peribsen v t e Second Dynasty of Ancient Egypt Attested pharaohs Hotepsekhemwy Nebra Weneg Nynetjer Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Khasekhemwy Obscure pharaoh names Horus Ba Ba Horus Sa Hudjefa I Neferkara I Neferkasokar Nubnefer Senedj Sneferka Wadjenes Queen consort Nimaathap Other royals Khenmetptah Satkhnum Sehener Shepset-ipet Wadjitefni (Mesen-ka) Pehen-Ptah Nisuheqet Nefer-Setekh Monument Gisr el-Mudir Capital Thinis v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Senedj&oldid=995691178" Categories: 28th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Second Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Azərbaycanca Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego Hrvatski Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 December 2020, at 10:44 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4909	----	Camisares - Wikipedia Camisares From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Camisares (died 385 BC) was an Iranian,[1] father of Datames, who was high in favour with the Persian Great King Artaxerxes II (404–358 BC), by whom he was made satrap of a part of Cilicia bordering on Cappadocia. He fell in Artaxerxes' war against the Cadusii in 385 BC, and was succeeded in his satrapy by Datames, his son by a Paphlagonian mother.[2] References[edit] ^ Bing 1998, p. 44; Sekunda 1988, p. 36 ^ Sekunda 1988, p. 37. Sources[edit] Bing, J. Daniel (1998). "Datames and Mazaeus: The Iconography of Revolt and Restoration in Cilicia". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 47 (1): 41–76. JSTOR 4436493. (registration required) Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. pp. 1–1196. ISBN 9781575061207. Schmitt, Rüdiger (1994). "Datames". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VII, Fasc. 2. pp. 115–117. Sekunda, Nicholas Victor (1988). "Some Notes on the Life of Datames". Iran. Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 26: 35–53. doi:10.2307/4299799. JSTOR 4299799. (registration required) v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Camisares". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. This Ancient Near East biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Camisares&oldid=992927157" Categories: 4th-century BC Iranian people 385 BC deaths Achaemenid satraps of Cilicia Ancient Near East people stubs Hidden categories: Pages with login required references or sources Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM Year of birth unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Ελληνικά Hrvatski 日本語 Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 7 December 2020, at 21:21 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-490	----	Indian people - Wikipedia Indian people From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about Indian people from India. For other uses, see Indian (disambiguation). For the ethno-religious Indian Christian group also referred to as East Indian, see East Indians. Nationals or citizens of India Indian Flag of India Total population c. 1.21 billion[1][2] 2011 Census of India c. 1.34 billion[3] 2017 estimate c. 30.8 million[4] Population of Overseas Indians Regions with significant populations  India  Saudi Arabia 4,100,000[5][6]  United Arab Emirates 3,500,000[7]  United States 3,456,477[8]  Malaysia 2,012,600[9]  Pakistan 2,000,000[7][10][11][12]  United Kingdom 1,451,862[13]  Canada 1,374,710[14]  South Africa 1,274,867[15]  Myanmar 1,030,000[16]  Mauritius 994,500[4]  Sri Lanka 839,504[17]  Oman 796,001[4]  Kuwait 700,000[18]  Qatar 650,000[19]    Nepal 600,000[20]  Trinidad and Tobago 470,376[4]  Australia 468,800[21]  Thailand 465,000[4]  Bahrain 400,000[4]  Guyana 327,000[4]  Fiji 315,000[4]  Singapore 250,300[22]  Italy 197,301[4]  Germany 161,000[23]  The Netherlands 156,000[4]  New Zealand 155,178[24]  Suriname 148,000[4]  Indonesia 120,000[4]  France 109,000[4]  Ireland 20,000+ [25] Languages Languages of India, including: Assamese Bengali Bodo Dogri English Gujarati Hindi Kashmiri Kannada Konkani Ladakhi Maithili Malayalam Manipuri Marathi Nepali Odia Punjabi Sanskrit Santhali Sindhi Tamil Telugu Tulu Urdu Religion Predominantly: Hinduism Minorities: Islam Christianity Sikhism Buddhism Jainism Zoroastrianism Judaism Baháʼí Irreligion Others Related ethnic groups Indian diaspora Indians are the nationals and citizens of India, it is the second most populous nation in the world, containing 17.50% of the world's population. In India, the term "Indian" refers to nationality, rather than a particular ethnicity or language; the Indian nationality consists of dozens of regional ethno-linguistic groups, reflecting the rich and complex history of the country. Due to emigration, the Indian diaspora is present throughout the world, notably in other parts of Asia, North America, Europe, the Caribbean, Oceania, and Africa.[4] The demonym Indian applies to nationals of the present-day Republic of India, but also to people residing outside of India, who are called Overseas Indians.[26][27] In Canada, the Caribbean, and the United States, the terms Asian Indian and East Indian are sometimes used to avoid confusion with First Nations in Canada, the indigenous people of the Caribbean, and Native Americans in the U.S., which are also commonly known as "Indian". Contents 1 Ethnonym 2 History 3 Culture 3.1 Religion 3.2 Family 3.3 Dress 3.4 Cuisine 3.5 Performing arts 3.6 Contribution and discoveries 3.7 National personification 4 Indian diaspora 4.1 Britain 4.2 Canada 4.3 South Africa 4.4 Tanzania 4.5 United States 4.6 Caribbean 5 Genetics 6 See also 7 References Ethnonym Main article: Names of India The name Bhārata has been used as a self-ascribed name by people of the Indian subcontinent and the Republic of India.[28] The designation "Bhārata" appears in the official Sanskrit name of the country, Bhārata Gaṇarājya. The name is derived from the ancient Vedic and Puranas, which refer to the land that comprises India as "Bhārata varṣam" and uses this term to distinguish it from other varṣas or continents.[29] The Bhāratas were a vedic tribe mentioned in the Rigveda, notably participating in the Battle of the Ten Kings.[30] India is named after legendary Emperor Bharata who was a descendant of the Bhāratas tribe, scion of Kuru Dynasty who unified the Indian Subcontinent under one realm.[31] उत्तरं यत्समुद्रस्य हिमाद्रेश्चैव दक्षिणम् । वर्षं तद् भारतं नाम भारती यत्र संततिः ।। "The country (varṣam) that lies north of the ocean and south of the snowy mountains is called Bhāratam; there dwell the descendants of Bharata."[32][33] In early Vedic literature, the term Āryāvarta (Sanskrit: आर्यावर्त) was in popular use before Bhārata. The Manusmṛti (2.22) gives the name Āryāvarta to "the tract between the Himalaya and the Vindhya ranges, from the Eastern (Bay of Bengal) to the Western Sea (Arabian Sea)".[34][35] While the word Indian and India is derived from Greek Ἰνδία (Indía), via Latin India. Indía in Koine Greek denoted the region beyond the Indus (Ἰνδός) river, since Herodotus (5th century BC) ἡ Ἰνδική χώρη, hē Indikē chōrē; "the Indian land", Ἰνδός, Indos, "an Indian", from Old Persian Hinduš and medieval term Hindustani.[36] The name is derived ultimately from Sindhu, the Sanskrit name of the river Indus, but also meaning "river" generically.[37] History Main articles: History of India and Greater India Priest-King, Indus Valley civilisation Map of the Mauryan Empire 3rd century BC Buddhist rock-cut architecture, 2nd century BC Ashoka pillar, erected by Emperor Ashoka in about 250 BC. It has been adopted as emblem of India. The history of India includes the prehistoric settlements and societies in the Indian subcontinent; the blending of the Indus Valley Civilization and Indo-Aryan culture into the Vedic Civilization; the development of Hinduism as a synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions; the rise of sixteen oligarchic republics known as Mahajanapadas; the rise of the Śramaṇa movement; the birth of Jainism and Buddhism in the 6th-century BCE,[38] and the onset of a succession of powerful dynasties and empires for more than two millennia throughout various geographic areas of the subcontinent, including the growth of Muslim dynasties during the Medieval period intertwined with Hindu powers; the advent of European traders resulting in the establishment of the British rule; and the subsequent independence movement that led to the Partition of India and the creation of the Republic of India. The Indian people established during ancient, medieval to early eighteenth century some of the greatest empires and dynasties in South Asian history like the Maurya Empire, Satavahana dynasty, Gupta Empire, Rashtrakuta dynasty, Chalukya Empire, Chola Empire, Karkota Empire, Pala Empire, Vijayanagara Empire, Maratha Empire and Sikh Empire. The first great Empire of the Indian people was the Maurya Empire having Patliputra(currently Patna, Bihar) as its capital, conquered the major part of South Asia in the 4th and 3rd century BC during the reign of the Indian Emperors Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka alongside their senior advisor, Acharya Chanakya, the pioneer of the field of political science and economics in the World. The next great ancient Empire of the Indian people was the Gupta Empire. This period, witnessing a Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence, is known as the classical or "Golden Age of India". During this period, aspects of Indian civilisation, administration, culture, and Hinduism and Buddhism spread to much of Asia, while Chola Empire in the south had flourishing maritime trade links with the Roman Empire during this period. The ancient Indian mathematicians Aryabhata, Bhāskara I and Brahmagupta invented the concept of zero and the Hindu–Arabic numeral system decimal system during this period.[39] During this period Indian cultural influence spread over many parts of Southeast Asia which led to the establishment of Indianized kingdoms in Southeast Asia.[40] Maratha Empire: Territory under Maratha control in 1760 (yellow), without its vassals During the early medieval period the great Rashtrakuta dynasty dominated the major part of the Indian subcontinent. from the 8th to 10th century and the Indian Emperor Amoghavarsha of the Rashtrakuta Dynasty was described by the Arab traveller Sulaiman as one of the four great kings of the world.[41] The medieval south Indian mathematician Mahāvīra lived in the Rashtrakuta dynasty and was the first Indian mathematician who separated astrology from mathematics and who wrote the earliest Indian text entirely devoted to mathematics.[42] The greatest maritime Empire of the medieval Indians was the Chola dynasty. Under the great Indian Emperors Rajaraja Chola I and his successor Rajendra Chola I the Chola dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in South Asia and South-East Asia.[43][44] The power of the Chola empire was proclaimed to the eastern world by the expedition to the Ganges which Rajendra Chola I undertook and by the occupation of cities of the maritime empire of Srivijaya in Southeast Asia, as well as by the repeated embassies to China.[45] During the late medieval period the great Vijayanagara Empire dominated the major part of southern India from the 14th to 16th century and reached its peak during the reign of the south Indian Emperor Sri Krishnadevaraya[46] The medieval Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics flourished during this period under such well known south Indian mathematicians as Madhava (c. 1340-1425) who made important contributions to Trigonometery and Calculus, and Nilakhanta (c. 1444-1545) who postulated on the orbitals of planets.[47] The Mughal Empire unified much of Indian sub-continent under one realm. Under the Mughals India developed a strong and stable economy, leading to commercial expansion and greater patronage of culture. This marked a huge influence in the Indian society.[48] The Mughal Empire balanced and pacified local societies through new administrative practices[49][50] and had diverse and inclusive ruling elites,[51] leading to more systematic, centralised, and uniform rule.[52] Newly coherent social groups in northern and western India, such as the Marathas, the Rajputs, the Pathans, the Jats and the Sikhs, gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule, which, through collaboration or adversity, gave them both recognition and military experience.[53][54][55][56] The Marathas and Sikhs emerged in the 17th century and established the Maratha Empire and Sikh Empire which became the dominant power in India in the 18th century.[57] The Maratha Empire is credited to a large extent for ending the Mughal rule in India.[58][59][60][61] The empire at its peak stretched from Tamil Nadu in the south, to Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in the north[62] and Bengal and Andaman Islands in the east.[63] The decline of Mughal Empire and Maratha Empire from the late 18th century to the mid-19th century lead to large areas of India annexed by the British East India Company of the British Empire and witnessed a period of rapid development of infrastructure, economic decline and major famines.[64][65] During the first half of the 20th century, a nationwide struggle for Indian independence movement was launched, the Indian subcontinent gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1947, after the British provinces were partitioned into the dominions of India and Pakistan and the princely states all acceded to one of the new states.[66][67][68] Culture Main articles: Culture of India and Greater India India is one of the world's oldest civilisations.[69] The Indian culture, often labelled as an amalgamation of several various cultures, spans across the Indian subcontinent and has been influenced and shaped by a history that is several thousand years old.[70][71] Throughout the history of India, Indian culture has been heavily influenced by Dharmic religions.[72] They have been credited with shaping much of Indian philosophy, literature, architecture, art and music.[73] Greater India was the historical extent of Indian culture beyond the Indian subcontinent. This particularly concerns the spread of Hinduism, Buddhism, architecture, administration and writing system from India to other parts of Asia through the Silk Road by the travellers and maritime traders during the early centuries of the Common Era.[74][75] To the west, Greater India overlaps with Greater Persia in the Hindu Kush and Pamir Mountains.[76] During medieval period, Islam played a significant role in shaping Indian cultural heritage[77] Over the centuries, there has been significant integration of Hindus, Jains, and Sikhs with Muslims across India[78][79] Religion Main articles: Religion in India, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, Islam, Christianity, and Irreligion in India Goddess Lakshmi on gold coinage issued under Gupta Empire, c. 380 AD Holi is a major Indian festival celebrated every spring. India is the birthplace of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, collectively known as Indian religions.[72] Indian religions, also known as Dharmic religions are a major form of world religions along with Abrahamic ones. Today, Hinduism and Buddhism are the world's third- and fourth-largest religions respectively, with over 1 billion followers altogether,[80][81][82] and possibly as many as 1.5 or 1.6 billion followers.[80][83] Throughout India's history, religion has been an important part of the country's culture. Religious diversity and religious tolerance are both established in the country by the law and by custom; the Constitution of India has declared the right to freedom of religion to be a fundamental right.[84] Atheism and agnosticism have a long history in India and flourished within Śramaṇa movement.[85] The Cārvāka school originated in India around the 6th century BCE and is one of the earliest form of materialistic and atheistic movement in ancient India.[86][87][88] Sramana, Buddhism, Jainism, Ājīvika and some schools of Hinduism like Samkhya consider atheism to be valid and reject the concept of creator deity, ritualism and supernaturalism.[89][90][91] India has produced some notable atheist politicians and social reformers.[92][93] Although 80% of the citizens of India are Hindus, the country has a substantial population of Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Parsis and adherents of tribal faiths.[94] Zoroastrianism and Judaism each has several thousands of Indian adherents, and also have an ancient history in India.[95] India has the largest population of people adhering to Zoroastrianism and Baháʼí Faith in the world, even though these two religions are not native to India.[96] Many other world religions also have a relationship with Indian spirituality, such as the Baháʼí Faith which recognises Buddha and Krishna as manifestations of the God Almighty.[97] Despite the strong role of religion in Indian life, atheism and agnostics also have visible influence along with a self-ascribed tolerance to other people. According to the 2012 WIN-Gallup Global Index of Religion and Atheism report, 81% of Indians were religious, 13% were not religious, 3% were convinced atheists, and 3% were unsure or did not respond.[98] Traditionally, Indian society is grouped according to their caste. It is a system in which social stratification within various social sections defined by thousands of endogamous hereditary groups are often termed jāti or castes. Within a jāti, there exists exogamous groups known as gotras, the lineage or clan of an individuals.[99] Caste barriers have mostly broken down in cities but still exists in some form in rural areas.[100] Hinduism is the majority in most states; Kashmir and Lakshadweep are Muslim majority; Nagaland, Mizoram and Meghalaya are Christian majority; Punjab is a Sikh majority with Hindus 37%. Although participants in the Indian census may choose to not declare their religion, there is no mechanism for a person to indicate that he/she does not adhere to any religion. Due to this limitation in the Indian census process, the data for persons not affiliated with any religion may not be accurate. India contains the majority of the world's Hindus, Jains, Sikhs, Zoroastrians and Baháʼí. Christianity is widespread in the Northeast India, parts of southern India, particularly in Kerala and among various populations of Central India. Muslims are the largest religious minority. India is also home to the third-largest Muslim population in the world after Indonesia and Pakistan.[101][102][103] Family Indian bride in traditional wedding attire Historically, India had a prevailing tradition of the joint family system or undivided family. Joint family system is an extended family arrangement prevalent throughout the Indian subcontinent, particularly in India.[104] The family is headed by a patriarch, the oldest male, who makes decisions on economic and social matters on behalf of the entire family. The patriarch's wife generally exerts control over the household, minor religious practices and often wields considerable influence in domestic matters. A patrilineal joint family consists of an older man and his wife, his sons and unmarried daughters, his sons’ wives and children. Family income flows into a common pool, from which resources are drawn to meet the needs of all members, which are regulated by the heads of the family.[105] However, with modernisation and economic development, India has witnessed a break up of traditional joint family into more nuclear families and the traditional joint family in India accounted for a small percent of Indian households.[106][107] Arranged marriages have been the tradition in Indian society. Marriage is considered a union of the two families rather than just the individuals, the process involved in an arranged marriage can be different depending on the communities and families. Recent survey study found that fewer marriages are purely arranged without consent and that the majority of surveyed Indian marriages are arranged with consent.[108] The study also suggested that Indian culture is trending away from traditional arranged marriages, they find that the marriage trends in India are similar to trends observed over last 40 years where arranged marriages was previously common, particularly in China and Japan.[108] Dress India's clothing styles have continuously evolved over the course of history. Cotton was first cultivated in Indian subcontinent around the 5th millennium BC.[109] Dyes used during this period are still in use, particularly indigo, red madder, lac and turmeric.[110] Silk was woven around 2450 BC and 2000 BC.[111][112] In 11th-century BC Rig-veda mentions dyed and embroidered garments known as paridhan and pesas respectively and thus highlights the development of sophisticated garment manufacturing techniques during this period.[113] In the 5th century BCE, Greek historian Herodotus describes the richness of the quality of Indian textiles.[114] By the 2nd century AD, cotton, muslins and silk textiles manufactured in India were imported by the Roman Empire and was one of the major exports of ancient India to other parts of the world along with Indian spices and Wootz steel.[115] Traditional Indian clothing greatly varies across different parts of the country and is influenced by local culture, geography and climate. Women traditionally wear Sari, Gagra Choli, Angarkha, Phiran, Shalwar Kameez, Gharara and Bandi with Dupatta or Ghoonghat worn over head or shoulder to complete the outfit.[116] Men traditionally wear Angarkha, Achkan, Kurta, Kameez, Phiran, Sherwani and Koti for upper garment, lower garment includes Dhoti, Churidar, Shalwar, and Lungi. Pagri is usually worn around head to complete the outfit.[117] In urban centres, people often wear western clothing and variety of other contemporary fashion.[118] Cuisine Main article: Indian cuisine Vegetarian thali with naan, daal, raita and papad Indian food varies from region to region. Staple foods of Indian cuisine include a variety of lentils (dal), whole-wheat flour (aṭṭa), rice and pearl millet (bājra), which has been cultivated in Indian subcontinent since 6200 BCE.[119][120] Over time, segments of the population embraced vegetarianism during Śramaṇa movement[121][122] while an equitable climate permitted a variety of fruits, vegetables, and grains to be grown throughout the year. A food classification system that categorised any item as saatvic, raajsic or taamsic developed in Yoga tradition.[123][124] The Bhagavad Gita prescribed certain dietary practices. During this period, consumption of various types of meat became taboo, due to being considered sacred or impure.[125][126] Indian cuisines use numerous ingredients, deploy a wide range of food preparation styles, cooking techniques and culinary presentation depending on geographical location.[127] Performing arts Main articles: Music of India and Dance in India Kathakali one of classical theatre forms of India The oldest preserved examples of Indian music are the melodies of the Samaveda (1000 BC) that are still sung in certain Śrauta sacrifices; this is the earliest account of Indian musical hymns.[128] The Samaveda, and other Hindu texts, heavily influenced India's classical music tradition, which is known today in two distinct styles: Hindustani music and Carnatic music. Both the Hindustani and Carnatic music systems are based on the melodic base known as Rāga, sung to a rhythmic cycle known as Tāla. These principles were refined in the nātyaśāstra (200 BC) and the dattilam (300 AD).[129] The nātyaśāstrais an ancient Indian treatise on the performing arts, encompassing theatre, dance and music. It was written during the period between 200 BCE and 200 CE in classical India and is traditionally attributed to the Sage Bharata.[130] Natya Shastra is incredibly wide in its scope. While it primarily deals with stagecraft, it has come to influence music, classical dance, and literature as well. It covers stage design, music, dance, makeup, and virtually every other aspect of stagecraft. Indian drama and theatre has a long history alongside its music and dance. One of the earliest known theatre play is Mṛcchakatika composed by Śudraka. Followed by Aśvaghoṣa's Śāriputraprakaraṇa and Bhāsa's Swapnavāsavadatta and Pancharātra. Most notable works are Kālidāsa's Abhijñānaśākuntala, Vikramorvaśīya and Mālavikāgnimitra. Harsha's Ratnavali, Priyadarsika, and Naganandam, other notable ancient dramatists include Bhatta Narayana, Bhavabhuti, Vishakhadatta, Thirayattam[131] and Viswanatha Kaviraja.[132] Notable fable story-plays Panchatantra, Baital Pachisi, Kathasaritsagara, Brihatkatha and Jataka tales were performed in folk theatres since ancient period.[133] Jataka tales has become part of Southeast and East Asian folklore with the spread of Buddhism. These literature's were also influential in development of One Thousand and One Nights during medieval period.[134] Contribution and discoveries Main articles: List of Indian inventions and discoveries and history of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent Indian people have played a major role in the development of the philosophy, sciences, mathematics, arts, architecture and astronomy throughout history. During the ancient period, notable mathematics accomplishment of India included Hindu–Arabic numeral system with decimal place-value and a symbol for zero, interpolation formula, Fibonacci's identity, theorem, the first complete arithmetic solution (including zero and negative solutions) to quadratic equations.[135] Chakravala method, sign convention, madhava series, and the sine and cosine in trigonometric functions can be traced to the jyā and koti-jyā.[136] Notable military inventions include war elephants, crucible steel weapons popularly known as Damascus steel and Mysorean rockets.[137] Other notable inventions during ancient period include chess, cotton, sugar, fired bricks, carbon pigment ink, ruler, lac, lacquer, stepwell, indigo dye, snake and ladder, muslin, ludo, calico, Wootz steel, incense clock, shampoo, palampore, chintz, and prefabricated homes. Indian cultural aspects, religions, philosophy, arts and architecture have developed over several millennia and have spread through much of Asia in peaceful manner.[75] Many architectural structures of India such as Sanchi Stupa, Taj Mahal and Mahabodhi Temple are UNESCO World Heritage sites today.[138] In modern times, Indian people have continued to contribute to mathematics, sciences and astrophysics. Among them are Satyendra Nath Bose, Srinivasa Ramanujan, Jagadish Chandra Bose, Meghnad Saha, Homi J. Bhabha, Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis, and notable Nobel Prize recipients C. V. Raman, Har Gobind Khorana, Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, and Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar who is notable for currently accepted theory on the later evolutionary stages of massive stars, including black holes.[139] National personification Bharat Mata (Hindi, from Sanskrit भारत माता, Bhārata Mātā), Mother India, or Bhāratāmbā (from अंबा ambā 'mother') is the national personification of India as a mother goddess. The image of Bharat Mata formed with the Indian independence movement of the late 19th century. A play by Kiran Chandra Bandyopadhyay, Bhārat Mātā, was first performed in 1873. She is usually depicted as a woman clad in an orange or saffron sari holding a flag, and sometimes accompanied by a lion.[140] Indian diaspora Main article: Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin Little India People of Indian origin have achieved a high demographic profile in metropolitan areas worldwide, including India Square, in the heart of Bombay, Jersey City, New Jersey, US,[141] home to the highest concentration of Asian Indians in the Western Hemisphere[142] and one of at least 24 enclaves characterized as a Little India which have emerged within the New York City Metropolitan Area, with the largest metropolitan Indian population outside Asia, as large-scale immigration from India continues into New York.[143][144][145][146] Although, population groups originating in different parts of the Indian subcontinent and within the international borders of the modern country of India had been migrating to Southeast Asia, East Asia, Central Asia, North Africa, and even along the European mediterranean coast, the Indian diaspora generally socio-politically or historically refers to those whose families or themselves migrated to other parts of the world after the British Empire established itself in India. Population estimates vary from a conservative 12 million to 20 million diaspora.[147][148] Britain Main article: British Indian The British Indian community had grown to number over one million. According to the 2001 UK Census, 1,053,411 Britons had full Indian ancestry (representing 1.8% of the UK's population). An overwhelming majority of 99.3% resided in England (in 2008 the figure is thought to be around 97.0%). In the seven-year period between 2001 and 2009, the number of Indian-born people in the UK increased in size by 38% from 467,634 to around 647,000 (an increase of approximately 180,000).[149] Canada Main article: Indo-Canadians There are over 1.5 million people of Indian origin or ancestry in Canada, the majority of which live in Greater Toronto and Vancouver, with growing communities in Alberta and Quebec. Nearly 4% of the total Canadian population is of Indian ancestry, a figure higher than both the United States and Britain. According to Statistics Canada, Indo-Canadians are one of the fastest growing visible minority groups in Canada, making up the second largest group of non-European descent in the country after Chinese Canadians. The Indo-Canadian community can trace its history in Canada back 120 years to 1897 when a contingent of Sikh soldiers visited the western coast of Canada, primarily British Columbia which at the time was very sparsely populated and the Canadian government wanted to settle in order to prevent a takeover of the territory by the United States. South Africa Main article: Indian South Africans More than a million people of Indian descent live in South Africa, concentrated around the city of Durban. Tanzania Main article: Indians in Tanzania About 40,000 people of Indian origin live in Tanzania mostly in the urban areas. United States Main articles: Indian American and Indians in the New York City metropolitan region Little India on 74th Street in Jackson Heights, Queens, New York City, has developed into a pan-South Asian business district. According to the American Community Survey of the United States Census Bureau, the Indian American population in the United States grew from almost 1.67 million in 2000 to 3.1 million in 2010 which is the third-largest Asian American community in the United States after Chinese Americans and Filipino Americans. Caribbean Main articles: Indo-Caribbean, Indo-Trinidadian and Tobagonian, Indo-Guyanese, Indo-Surinamese, Indo-Caribbean American, British Indo-Caribbean people, Indo-Canadians § Indians from the Caribbean, Indians in the Netherlands, and Indian diaspora in France See also: Hinduism in the West Indies, Hinduism in Trinidad and Tobago, Hinduism in Guyana, Hinduism in Suriname, Caribbean Hindustani, and Indo-Caribbean music After slavery was abolished in the European colonies, Indian were hired to become indentured labourers to fill the need for cheap labor. Indians primarily from the Awadh and Bhojpur regions of the Hindi Belt in the present-day states of Bihar, Jharkhand, and Uttar Pradesh in North India and the Terai region in Nepal, along with a significant minority who came from South India, and a much extremely smaller minority who came from Bengal, Punjab, Braj, Bundelkhand, Bagelkhand, Mithila, Malwa, Jammu, Kashmir, Rohilkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Haryana, Maharashtra, Kutch, Marwar, Mewar, and Gujarat were sent to the Caribbean by the British, Dutch, and French from the late 1830s to the early 1920s as indentured laborers to work on the sugarcane, cocoa, rice, banana, and coffee estates. After the first wave of migration of indentured laborers, more Indians from Gujarat, Sindh, Kutch, Punjab, Bengal, and South India came to the Caribbean for business from the 1930s to present-day. There are more than a million Indo-Caribbeans. Most of them live in Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname, and Jamaica. There are few in other Caribbean countries such as Martinique, Guadeloupe, French Guiana, Belize, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Saint Lucia, Barbados, Grenada, Saint Kitts and Nevis, and the British Virgin Islands. The Indians from Bhojpuri and Awadhi speaking areas of the Hindi Belt were the majority of Indians in Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname, and Jamaica, hence their dialect of Hindustani became known as Caribbean Hindustani and it became the lingua franca of the Indian immigrants. Since the Bhojpuri and Awadhi speaking Indians formed the largest group of Indians, the traditions and culture from the Bhojpur, Purvaanchal, and Awadh regions became the dominant culture for the Indian in those countries. France had sent Indians from Southern India to their colonies in the Caribbean as indentured laborers, hence there are also many people of Indian descent living in Guadeloupe, Martinique, and French Guiana, most who are of South Indian descent. Many Indo-Caribbeans have migrated to the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, the Netherlands, and France, and few of them have even seasonally migrated to the neighboring Latin American and other Caribbean countries as migrant workers. A majority of Indo-Caribbean are Hindus, while there is significant minority of Muslims and Christians, along with smaller numbers of Jains, Sikhs, Buddhist, Baháʼís, or adherents of another faith. Indo-Caribbeans are known as the descendants of the jahajis or girmityas.[150][151][152][153][154] Genetics Main article: Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia Recent genome studies appear to show that South Asians are mixture of two major ancestral components, one component restricted to South Asia and the other component shared with Central Asia, West Asia, and Europe.[155][156] See also Lists of people from India by state South Asian ethnic groups Ethnic groups in Asia References ^ "Population Enumeration Data (Final Population)". Census of India. 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Raman (2012), Hinduism and Science: Some Reflections, Zygon - Journal of Religion and Science, 47(3): 549–574, Quote (page 557): "Aside from nontheistic schools like the Samkhya, there have also been explicitly atheistic schools in the Hindu tradition. One virulently anti-supernatural system is/was the so-called Charvaka school.", doi:10.1111/j.1467-9744.2012.01274.x ^ Chakravarti, Sitansu (1991). Hinduism, a way of life. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 71. ISBN 978-81-208-0899-7. Retrieved 9 April 2011. ^ Joshi, L.R. (1966). "A New Interpretation of Indian Atheism". Philosophy East and West. 16 (3/4): 189–206. doi:10.2307/1397540. JSTOR 1397540. ^ Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan; Charles A. Moore (1957). A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy (Twelfth Princeton Paperback printing 1989 ed.). Princeton University Press. pp. 227–249. ISBN 978-0-691-01958-1. ^ Phil Zuckerman (21 December 2009). "Chapeter 7: Atheism and Secularity in India". Atheism and Secularity. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-313-35182-2. Retrieved 7 September 2013. ^ Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, p. 259 ^ "Census of India – Socio-cultural aspects". Censusindia.gov.in. Retrieved 3 February 2011. ^ Hodivala 1920, p. 88 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHodivala1920 (help) ^ Smith, Peter (2008). An introduction to the Baha'i faith. Cambridge University Press. p. 94. ISBN 978-0-521-86251-6. ^ Enroth, Ronald (2005). A Guide to New Religious Movements. InterVarsity Press. p. 160. ISBN 978-0-8308-2381-9. ^ "Global Index Of Religion And Atheism" (PDF). WIN-Gallup. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 October 2012. Retrieved 3 September 2013. ^ Singh, David Emmanuel (2012). Islamization in Modern South Asia: Deobandi Reform and the Gujjar Response. Walter de Gruyter. p. 199. ISBN 978-1-61451-246-2. ^ Cassan, Guilhem (September 2011). "The Impact of Positive Discrimination in Education in India: Evidence from a Natural Experiment" (PDF). Paris School of Economics and Laboratoire d'Economie Appliquee. ^ Indian and Foreign Review. 1965. Retrieved 6 May 2015. ^ "UNITED STATES COMMISSION ON INTERNATIONAL RELIGIOUS FREEDOM-Annual Report 2015" (PDF). ^ "15th anniversary retrospective:UNITED STATES COMMISSION ON INTERNATIONAL RELIGIOUS FREEDOM" (PDF). ^ Talwar, Swati. "Meaning of HUF (Hindu Undivided Family)". Taxpaisa.com. Retrieved 29 June 2014. ^ Henry Orenstein; Michael Micklin (1966). "The Hindu Joint Family: The Norms and the Numbers". Pacific Affairs. 39 (3/4): 314–325. doi:10.2307/2754275. JSTOR 2754275. Autumn, 1966 ^ Raghuvir Sinha (1993). Dynamics of Change in the Modern Hindu Family. South Asia Books. ISBN 978-81-7022-448-8. ^ "Indian Families". Facts About India. Archived from the original on 30 July 2011. Retrieved 11 October 2011. ^ a b Manjistha Banerji; Steven Martin; Sonalde Desai (2008). "Is Education Associated with a Transition towards Autonomy in Partner Choice? A Case Study of India" (PDF). University of Maryland & NCAER. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2016. ^ Stein, Burton (1998). A History of India. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-20546-2, p. 47 ^ "Harrapa clothing". A.harappa.com. Retrieved 15 December 2017. ^ Abbott, Phill (17 February 2009). "Rethinking silk's origins : Nature News". Nature. Nature.com. 457 (7232): 945. doi:10.1038/457945a. PMID 19238684. S2CID 4390646. Retrieved 9 November 2013. ^ Good, I.L.; Kenoyer, J.M.; Meadow, R.H. (2009). "New evidence for early silk in the Indus civilization". Archaeometry. 50 (3): 457–466. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4754.2008.00454.x. ^ Verma, S.P. (2005). Ancient system of oriental medicine. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. ISBN 978-81-261-2127-4. ^ Beveridge, Henry (1867). A comprehensive history of India. Blackie and son. ISBN 978-81-85418-45-2. ^ Jayapalan, N. (2008). Economic History of India. Atlantic Publishers & Distributors. ISBN 978-81-269-0697-0. ^ Govind Sadashiv Ghurye (1951) "Indian Costume.", p.11 ^ Govind Sadashiv Ghurye (1951) "Indian Costume.", p.12 ^ arti sandhu (2015). Indian Fashion: Tradition, Innovation, Style. bloomsbury. p. 126. ISBN 978-18478-8780-1. Retrieved 4 June 2012. ^ K T Achaya (2003). The Story of Our Food. Universities Press. ISBN 9788173712937. Retrieved 18 June 2015. ^ Harris, David R. (1996). The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia. Psychology Press. p. 565. ISBN 978-1-85728-538-3. ^ Padmanabh S Jaini (2001), Collected papers on Buddhist Studies, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120817760, pages 57-77 ^ Padmanabh S Jaini (2000), Collected papers on Jaina Studies, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120816916, pages 3-14 ^ Autobiography Of A Yogi, Paramahansa Yogananda, Self Realization Fellowship, 1973, p. 22 ^ Maharishi Mahesh Yogi on the Bhagavad Gita Translation and Commentary, Arkana, 1990 p. 236 ^ "Chapter 17, Verse 8,9,10". Bhagavad-Gita. 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Archived from the original on 22 January 2011. Retrieved 8 July 2010. ^ "Forced Labour". The National Archives, Government of the United Kingdom. 2010. ^ Hugh Tinker (1993). New System of Slavery. Hansib Publishing, London. ISBN 978-1-870518-18-5. ^ K Laurence (1994). A Question of Labour: Indentured Immigration Into Trinidad & British Guiana, 1875-1917. St Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-12172-3. ^ "St. Lucia's Indian Arrival Day". Caribbean Repeating Islands. 2009. ^ "Indian indentured labourers". The National Archives, Government of the United Kingdom. 2010. ^ Metspalu, Mait; et al. (2011). "Shared and Unique Components of Human Population Structure and Genome-Wide Signals of Positive Selection in South Asia". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 89 (6): 731–44. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.11.010. PMC 3234374. PMID 22152676. ^ Moorjani, Priya; et al. (2013). "Genetic Evidence for Recent Population Mixture in India". 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en-wikipedia-org-4926	----	Naqsh-e Rostam - Wikipedia Naqsh-e Rostam From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Naqsh-e Rustam) Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient necropolis in Iran For the administrative subdivision of Iran, see Naqsh-e Rostam Rural District. Naqsh-e Rostam نقش رستم Naqsh-e Rostam Shown within Iran Location Marvdasht, Fars Province Region Iran Coordinates 29°59′20″N 52°52′29″E / 29.98889°N 52.87472°E / 29.98889; 52.87472Coordinates: 29°59′20″N 52°52′29″E / 29.98889°N 52.87472°E / 29.98889; 52.87472 Type Necropolis History Periods Achaemenid, Sassanid Cultures Persian Management Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts and Tourism Organization of Iran Architecture Architectural styles Persian Naqsh-e Rostam (Persian: نقش رستم‎ [ˌnæɣʃeɾosˈtæm]) is an ancient necropolis located about 12 km northwest of Persepolis, in Fars Province, Iran, with a group of ancient Iranian rock reliefs cut into the cliff, from both the Achaemenid and Sassanid periods. It lies a few hundred meters from Naqsh-e Rajab, with a further four Sassanid rock reliefs, three celebrating kings and one a high priest. Naqsh-e Rostam is the necropolis of the Achaemenid dynasty (c. 550–330 BC), with four large tombs cut high into the cliff face. These have mainly architectural decoration, but the facades include large panels over the doorways, each very similar in content, with figures of the king being invested by a god, above a zone with rows of smaller figures bearing tribute, with soldiers and officials. The three classes of figures are sharply differentiated in size. The entrance to each tomb is at the center of each cross, which opens onto a small chamber, where the king lay in a sarcophagus.[1] Well below the Achaemenid tombs, near ground level, are rock reliefs with large figures of Sassanian kings, some meeting gods, others in combat. The most famous shows the Sassanian king Shapur I on horseback, with the Roman Emperor Valerian bowing to him in submission, and Philip the Arab (an earlier emperor who paid Shapur tribute) holding Shapur's horse, while the dead Emperor Gordian III, killed in battle, lies beneath it (other identifications have been suggested). This commemorates the Battle of Edessa in 260 AD, when Valerian became the only Roman Emperor who was captured as a prisoner of war, a lasting humiliation for the Romans. The placing of these reliefs clearly suggests the Sassanid intention to link themselves with the glories of the earlier Achaemenid Empire.[2] Map of the archaeological site of Naqsh-e Rostam Contents 1 Monuments 1.1 Achaemenid tombs 1.1.1 Darius I inscription 1.2 Ka'ba-ye Zartosht 1.3 Sassanid reliefs 1.3.1 Investiture relief of Ardashir I, c. 226–242 1.3.2 Triumph of Shapur I, c. 241–272) 1.3.3 "Grandee" relief of Bahram II, c. 276–293 1.3.4 Two equestrian reliefs of Bahram II, c. 276–293 1.3.5 Investiture of Narseh, c. 293–303 1.3.6 Equestrian relief of Hormizd II, c 303–309 2 Archaeology 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References 6 External links Monuments[edit] Panorama of Naqsh-e Rostam Upper register of the Achaemenid Tomb of Xerxes I The oldest relief at Naqsh-e Rostam dates back to c. 1000 BC. Though it is severely damaged, it depicts a faint image of a man with unusual head-gear, and is thought to be Elamite in origin.[3] The depiction is part of a larger mural, most of which was removed at the command of Bahram II. The man with the unusual cap gives the site its name, Naqsh-e Rostam ("Rustam Relief" or "Relief of Rustam"), because the relief was locally believed to be a depiction of the mythical hero Rustam. Achaemenid tombs[edit] Four tombs belonging to Achaemenid kings are carved out of the rock face at a considerable height above the ground. The tombs are sometimes known as the Persian crosses, after the shape of the facades of the tombs. The entrance to each tomb is at the center of each cross, which opens onto a small chamber, where the king lay in a sarcophagus. The horizontal beam of each of the tomb's facades is believed to be a replica of a Persepolitan entrance. One of the tombs is explicitly identified, by an accompanying inscription (“parsa parsahya puthra ariya ariyachitra”, meaning, “a Parsi, the son of a Parsi, an Aryan, of Aryan family),[4] as the tomb of Darius I (c. 522-486 BC). The other three tombs are believed to be those of Xerxes I (c. 486-465 BC), Artaxerxes I (c. 465-424 BC), and Darius II (c. 423-404 BC) respectively. The order of the tombs in Naqsh-e Rostam follows (left to right): Darius II, Artaxerxes I, Darius I, Xerxes I. The matching of the other kings to tombs is somewhat speculative; the relief figures are not intended as individualized portraits.[1] A fifth unfinished one might be that of Artaxerxes III, who reigned at the longest two years, but is more likely that of Darius III (c. 336-330 BC), the last king of the Achaemenid Dynasts. The tombs were looted following the conquest of the Achaemenid Empire by Alexander the Great. Darius I inscription[edit] Main article: DNa inscription An inscription by Darius I, from c.490 BCE, generally referred to as the "DNa inscription" in scholarly works, appears in the top left corner of the facade of his tomb. It mentions the conquests of Darius I and his various achievements during his life. Its exact date is not known, but it can be assumed to be from the last decade of his reign.[5] Like several other inscriptions by Darius, the territories controlled by the Achaemenid Empire are clearly listed, in particular the areas of the Indus and Gandhara in India, referring to the Achaemenid occupation of the Indus Valley.[6] Darius I inscription (DNa inscription) English translation Original A great god is Ahuramazda, who created this earth, who created yonder sky, who created man, who created happiness for man, who made Darius king, one king of many, one lord of many. I am Darius the great king, king of kings, king of countries containing all kinds of men, king in this great earth far and wide, son of Hystaspes, an Achaemenid, a Persian, son of a Persian, an Aryan, having Aryan lineage. King Darius says: By the favor of Ahuramazda these are the countries which I seized outside of Persia; I ruled over them; they bore tribute to me; they did what was said to them by me; they held my law firmly; Media, Elam, Parthia, Aria, Bactria, Sogdia, Chorasmia, Drangiana, Arachosia, Sattagydia, Gandara [Gadâra], India [Hiduš], the haoma-drinking Scythians, the Scythians with pointed caps, Babylonia, Assyria, Arabia, Egypt, Armenia, Cappadocia, Lydia, the Greeks (Yauna), the Scythians across the sea (Sakâ), Thrace, the petasos-wearing Greeks [Yaunâ], the Libyans, the Nubians, the men of Maka and the Carians. King Darius says: Ahuramazda, when he saw this earth in commotion, thereafter bestowed it upon me, made me king; I am king. By the favor of Ahuramazda I put it down in its place; what I said to them, that they did, as was my desire. If now you shall think that "How many are the countries which King Darius held?" look at the sculptures [of those] who bear the throne, then shall you know, then shall it become known to you: the spear of a Persian man has gone forth far; then shall it become known to you: a Persian man has delivered battle far indeed from Persia. Darius the King says: This which has been done, all that by the will of Ahuramazda I did. Ahuramazda bore me aid, until I did the work. May Ahuramazda protect me from harm, and my royal house, and this land: this I pray of Ahuramazda, this may Ahuramazda give to me! O man, that which is the command of Ahuramazda, let this not seem repugnant to you; do not leave the right path; do not rise in rebellion! — DNa inscription of Darius I.[7][8][9] Darius I inscription (the DNa inscription) on the upper left corner of the facade of his tomb. The nationalities mentioned in the DNa inscription are also depicted on the upper registers of all the tombs at Naqsh-e Rostam.[10][11] One of the best preserved is that of Xerxes I. Ka'ba-ye Zartosht[edit] Cube of Zoroaster, a cube-shaped construction in the foreground, against the backdrop of Naqsh-e Rostam Main article: Ka'ba-ye Zartosht Ka'ba-ye Zartosht (meaning the "Cube of Zoroaster") is a 5th-century B.C Achaemenid square tower. The structure is a copy of a sister building at Pasargadae, the "Prison of Solomon" (Zendān-e Solaymān). It was built either by Darius I (r. 521–486 BCE) when he moved to Persepolis, by Artaxerxes II (r. 404–358 BCE) or Artaxerxes III (r. 358–338 BCE). The building at Pasargadae is a few decades older. There are four inscriptions in three languages from the Sasanian period on the lower exterior walls. They are considered among the most important inscriptions from this period. Several theories exist regarding the purpose of the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht structure.[12] Sassanid reliefs[edit] Seven over-life sized rock reliefs at Naqsh-e Rostam depict monarchs of the Sassanid period. Their approximate dates range from 225 to 310 AD, and they show subjects including investiture scenes and battles. The investiture of Ardashir I The triumph of Shapur I over the Roman emperors Valerian and Philip the Arab Investiture relief of Ardashir I, c. 226–242[edit] Main article: Ahura Mazda and Ardashir I The founder of the Sassanid Empire is seen being handed the ring of kingship by Ohrmazd. In the inscription, which also bears the oldest attested use of the term Iran, Ardashir admits to betraying his pledge to Artabanus V (the Persians having been a vassal state of the Arsacid Parthians), but legitimizes his action on the grounds that Ohrmazd had wanted him to do so. The word ērān is first attested in the inscriptions that accompany the investiture relief of Ardashir I (r. 224–242) at Naqsh-e Rostam. In this bilingual inscription, the king calls himself "Ardashir, king of kings of the Iranians" (Middle Persian: ardašīr šāhān šāh ī ērān; Parthian: ardašīr šāhān šāh ī aryān). Triumph of Shapur I, c. 241–272)[edit] This is the most famous of the Sassanid rock reliefs, and depicts the victory of Shapur I over two Roman emperors, Valerian and Philip the Arab. Behind the king stands Kirtir, the mūbadān mūbad ('high priest'), the most powerful of the Zoroastrian Magi during the history of Iran.[13] A more elaborate version of this rock relief is at Bishapur. In an inscription, Shapur I claims possession of the territory of the Kushans (Kūšān šahr) as far as "Purushapura" (Peshawar), suggesting he controlled Bactria and areas as far as the Hindu-Kush or even south of it:[14] I, the Mazda-worshipping lord, Shapur, king of kings of Iran and An-Iran… (I) am the Master of the Domain of Iran (Ērānšahr) and possess the territory of Persis, Parthian… Hindestan, the Domain of the Kushan up to the limits of Paškabur and up to Kash, Sughd, and Chachestan. — Naqsh-e Rostam inscription of Shapur I[14] "Grandee" relief of Bahram II, c. 276–293[edit] The grandee relief of Bahram II On each side of the king, who is depicted with an oversized sword, figures face the king. On the left, stand five figures, perhaps members of the king's family (three having diadems, suggesting they were royalty). On the right, stand three courtiers, one of which may be Kartir. This relief is to the immediate right of the investiture inscription of Ardashir, and partially replaces the much older relief that gives the name of Naqsh-e Rostam. Two equestrian reliefs of Bahram II, c. 276–293[edit] The first equestrian relief, located immediately below the fourth tomb (perhaps that of Darius II), depicts the king battling a mounted Roman enemy. The second equestrian relief, located immediately below the tomb of Darius I, is divided into two registers, an upper and a lower one. In the upper register, the king appears to be forcing a Roman enemy, probably Roman emperor Carus from his horse. In the lower register, the king is again battling a mounted enemy wearing a headgear shaped as an animal’s head, thought to be the vanquished Indo-Sassanian ruler Hormizd I Kushanshah.[15] Both reliefs depict a dead enemy under the hooves of the king's horse. First equestrian relief. The two-panel equestrian relief. Hormizd I Kushanshah on the lower panel.[15] Investiture of Narseh, c. 293–303[edit] The investiture of Narseh In this relief, the king is depicted as receiving the ring of kingship from a female figure that is frequently assumed to be the divinity Aredvi Sura Anahita. However, the king is not depicted in a pose that would be expected in the presence of a divinity, and it is hence likely that the woman is a relative, perhaps Queen Shapurdukhtak of Sakastan. Equestrian relief of Hormizd II, c 303–309[edit] The equestrian relief of Hormizd II This relief is below tomb 3 (perhaps that of Artaxerxes I) and depicts Hormizd forcing an enemy (perhaps Papak of Armenia) from his horse. Immediately above the relief and below the tomb is a badly damaged relief of what appears to be Shapur II (c. 309–379) accompanied by courtiers. Archaeology[edit] Ka'ba-ye Zartosht in foreground, with behind the Tomb of Darius II above Sassanid equestrian relief of Bahram II. In 1923, the German archaeologist Ernst Herzfeld made casts of the inscriptions on the tomb of Darius I. Since 1946, these casts have been held in the archives of the Freer Gallery of Art and the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, in Washington, DC. Naqsh-e Rostam was excavated for several seasons between 1936 and 1939 by a team from the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, led by Erich Schmidt.[16] See also[edit] Essaqwand Rock Tombs Persepolis Qadamgah (ancient site) Pasargadae and Tomb of Cyrus the Great Behistun Inscription Bishapur Istakhr Taq-e Bostan (rock reliefs of various Sassanid kings) List of colossal sculpture in situ Valley of the Kings Naqsh-e Rajab Notes[edit] ^ a b Cotterell, 162; Canepa, 57–59, 65–68 ^ Herrmann and Curtis; Canepa, 62, 65–68 ^ [1] Morteza KHANIPOOR et al, The reliefs of Naqš-e Rostam and a reflection on a forgotten relief, Iran, Historia i Świat, iss. 6, pp. 55-68, 2017 ^ "I am Darius". ^ Orientalia Lovaniensia Periodica (in French). Instituut voor Oriëntalistiek. 1974. p. 23. ^ Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. p. 173. ISBN 9781575061207. ^ Tolman, Herbert Cushing (1893). A guide to the Old Persian inscriptions. New York, Cincinnati [etc.] American book company. p. 146. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. ^ "DNa - Livius". www.livius.org. ^ Alcock, Susan E.; Alcock, John H. D'Arms Collegiate Professor of Classical Archaeology and Classics and Arthur F. Thurnau Professor Susan E.; D'Altroy, Terence N.; Morrison, Kathleen D.; Sinopoli, Carla M. (2001). Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History. Cambridge University Press. p. 105. ISBN 9780521770200. ^ The Achaemenid Empire in South Asia and Recent Excavations in Akra in Northwest Pakistan Peter Magee, Cameron Petrie, Robert Knox, Farid Khan, Ken Thomas p.713-714 ^ NAQŠ-E ROSTAM – Encyclopaedia Iranica. ^ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kaba-ye-zardost ^ Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. Warwick Ball. page 120. Psychology Press, 16 Jan 2001. ^ a b Rezakhani, Khodadad. From the Kushans to the Western Turks. p. 202-203. ^ a b Encyclopedia Iranica HORMOZD KUŠĀNŠĀH article ^ [2] E. F. Schmidt, Persepolis III: The Royal Tombs and Other Monuments, Oriental Institute Publications 70, University of Chicago Press, 1970, ISBN 0-226-62170-7 References[edit] Canepa, Matthew P., "Topographies of Power, Theorizing the Visual, Spatial and Ritual Contexts of Rock Reliefs in Ancient Iran", in Harmanşah (2014), google books Cotterell, Arthur (ed), The Penguin Encyclopedia of Classical Civilizations, 1993, Penguin, ISBN 0670826995 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Naqsh-e Rustam. Ernst Herzfeld Papers, Series 5: Drawings and Maps, Records of Naqsh-i Rustam Collections Search Center, S.I.R.I.S., Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Hubertus von Gall "NAQŠ-E ROSTAM" in Encyclopædia Iranica [3] Lendering, Jona (2009). "Naqsh-i Rustam". Amsterdam: Livius. Unknown (2005). "Naghsh-e-Rostam". Herrmann, G. & Curtis, V. S. (2003). "Sasanian Rock Reliefs". Encyclopedia Iranica. 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en-wikipedia-org-4928	----	Darius the Great - Wikipedia Darius the Great From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Third King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Darius the Great 𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁 King of Kings Great King King of Persia King of Babylon Pharaoh of Egypt King of Countries The relief stone of Darius the Great in the Behistun Inscription King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Reign 29 September 522 BCE – October 486 BCE Coronation Pasargadae Predecessor Bardiya Successor Xerxes I Pharaoh of Egypt Reign September 522 BCE – October 486 BCE Predecessor Bardiya Successor Xerxes I Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) rꜤ-sttw Seteture Progeny of Ra Nomen drjwš Deriush Darius Horus name mnḫ-jb Menekhib The one of splendid mind Second Horus name: wr-nb-mrj-šmꜤw Wernebmeryshemau Chieftain and Lord, beloved of Upper Egypt Nebty name zꜣ-jmn... Zamun... Son of Amun.. Golden Horus ? ? ? ? [1] Born 550 BCE Died October 486 BCE (aged approximately 64) Burial Naqsh-e Rostam Spouse Atossa Artystone Parmys Phratagone Phaidime a daughter of Gobryas Issue Artobazanes Xerxes I Ariabignes Arsamenes Masistes Achaemenes Arsames Gobryas Ariomardus Abriokomas Hyperantes Artazostre Full name Dārayava(h)uš Dynasty Achaemenid Father Hystaspes Mother Rhodogune or Irdabama Religion Indo-Iranian religion (possibly Zoroastrianism) Darius I (Old Persian: 𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁, romanized: Dārayava(h)uš; New Persian: داریوش‎; Hebrew: דָּרְיָוֶשׁ‎, Modern: Darəyaveš, Tiberian: Dārǝyāweš; c. 550 – 486 BCE), commonly known as Darius the Great, was the third Persian King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire, reigning from 522 BCE until his death in 486 BCE. He ruled the empire at its peak, when it included much of West Asia, parts of the Caucasus, parts of the Balkans (Thrace-Macedonia, and Paeonia), most of the Black Sea coastal regions, Central Asia, as far as the Indus Valley in the far east and portions of north and northeast Africa including Egypt (Mudrâya), eastern Libya, and coastal Sudan.[2][3] Darius ascended the throne by overthrowing the legitimate Achaemenid monarch Bardiya, whom he later fabricated to be an imposter named Gaumata. The new king met with rebellions throughout his kingdom and quelled them each time. A major event in Darius's life was his expedition to punish Athens and Eretria for their aid in the Ionian Revolt and subjugate Greece. Although ultimately ending in failure at the Battle of Marathon, Darius succeeded in the re-subjugation of Thrace, expansion of the empire through the conquest of Macedon, the Cyclades and the island of Naxos and the sacking of the city of Eretria. Darius organized the empire by dividing it into provinces and placing satraps to govern it. He organized Achaemenid coinage as a new uniform monetary system, along with making Aramaic the official language of the empire. He also put the empire in better standing by building roads and introducing standard weights and measures. Through these changes, the empire was centralized and unified.[4] Darius also worked on construction projects throughout the empire, focusing on Susa, Pasargadae, Persepolis, Babylon, and Egypt. He had the cliff-face Behistun Inscription carved to record his conquests, an important testimony of the Old Persian language. Darius is mentioned in the biblical books of Haggai, Zechariah, and Ezra–Nehemiah. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Primary sources 3 Early life 3.1 Accession 4 Early reign 4.1 Early revolts 4.2 Elimination of Intaphernes 5 Military campaigns 5.1 Egyptian campaign 5.2 Invasion of the Indus Valley 5.3 Babylonian revolt 5.4 European Scythian campaign 5.5 Persian invasion of Greece 6 Family 7 Death 8 Government 8.1 Organization 8.2 Economy 8.3 Religion 8.4 Building projects 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Bibliography 13 Further reading 14 External links Etymology[edit] Main article: Darius (given name) The name of Darius I in Old Persian cuneiform on the DNa inscription of his tomb: Dārayavauš (𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁) Dārīus and Dārēus are the Latin forms of the Greek Dareîos (Δαρεῖος), itself from Old Persian Dārayauš (𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎢𐏁, d-a-r-y-uš), which is a shortened form of Dārayavaʰuš (𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁, d-a-r-y-v-u-š).[5] The longer form is also seen to have been reflected in the Elamite Da-ri-(y)a-ma-u-iš, Babylonian Da-(a-)ri-ia-(a-)muš, Aramaic drywhwš (𐡃𐡓𐡉𐡅𐡄𐡅𐡔), and possibly the longer Greek form Dareiaîos (Δαρειαῖος).[5] The name is a nominative form meaning "he who holds firm the good(ness)", which can be seen by the first part dāraya, meaning "holder", and the adverb vau, meaning "goodness".[5] Primary sources[edit] See also: Behistun Inscription, DNa inscription, and Herodotus Apadana foundation tablets of Darius the Great Gold foundation tablets of Darius I for the Apadana Palace, in their original stone box. The Apadana coin hoard had been deposited underneath. Circa 510 BC. One of the two gold deposition plates. Two more were in silver. They all had the same trilingual inscription (DPh inscription). At some time between his coronation and his death, Darius left a tri-lingual monumental relief on Mount Behistun, which was written in Elamite, Old Persian and Babylonian. The inscription begins with a brief autobiography including his ancestry and lineage. To aid the presentation of his ancestry, Darius wrote down the sequence of events that occurred after the death of Cyrus the Great.[6][7] Darius mentions several times that he is the rightful king by the grace of the supreme deity Ahura Mazda. In addition, further texts and monuments from Persepolis have been found, as well as a clay tablet containing an Old Persian cuneiform of Darius from Gherla, Romania (Harmatta) and a letter from Darius to Gadates, preserved in a Greek text of the Roman period.[8][9][10][11] In the foundation tablets of Apadana Palace, Darius described in Old Persian cuneiform the extent of his Empire in broad geographical terms:[12][13] Darius the great king, king of kings, king of countries, son of Hystaspes, an Achaemenid. King Darius says: This is the kingdom which I hold, from the Sacae who are beyond Sogdia to Kush, and from Sind (Old Persian: 𐏃𐎡𐎭𐎢𐎺, "Hidauv", locative of "Hiduš", i.e. "Indus valley") to Lydia (Old Persian: "Spardâ") – [this is] what Ahuramazda, the greatest of gods, bestowed upon me. May Ahuramazda protect me and my royal house! — DPh inscription of Darius I in the foundations of the Apadana Palace Herodotus, a Greek historian and author of The Histories, provided an account of many Persian kings and the Greco-Persian Wars. He wrote extensively on Darius, spanning half of Book 3 along with Books 4, 5 and 6. It begins with the removal of the alleged usurper Gaumata and continues to the end of Darius's reign.[8] Early life[edit] The predecessor of Darius: Dariya/ Gaumata "Gaumata" being trampled upon by Darius the Great, Behistun inscription. The Old Persian inscription reads "This is Gaumâta, the Magian. He lied, saying "I am Smerdis, the son of Cyrus, I am king"."[14] Portrait of Achaemenid King Bardiya, or "Gaumata", from the reliefs at Behistun (detail). Darius toppled the previous Achaemenid ruler (here depicted in the reliefs of the Behistun inscription) to acquire the throne. Darius was the eldest of five sons to Hystaspes.[8] The identity of his mother is uncertain. According to the modern historian Alireza Shapour Shahbazi (1994), Darius' mother was a certain Rhodogune.[8] However, according to Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones (2013), recently uncovered texts in Persepolis indicates that his mother was Irdabama, an affluent landowner descended from a family of local Elamite rulers.[15] Richard Stoneman likewise refers Irdabama to as the mother of Darius.[16] The Behistun Inscription of Darius states that his father was satrap of Bactria in 522 BCE.[a] According to Herodotus (III.139), Darius, prior to seizing power and "of no consequence at the time", had served as a spearman (doryphoros) in the Egyptian campaign (528–525 BCE) of Cambyses II, then the Persian Great King;[19] this is often interpreted to mean he was the king's personal spear-carrier, an important role. Hystaspes was an officer in Cyrus' army and a noble of his court.[20] Before Cyrus and his army crossed the Aras River to battle with the Armenians, he installed his son Cambyses II as king in case he should not return from battle.[21] However, once Cyrus had crossed the Aras River, he had a vision in which Darius had wings atop his shoulders and stood upon the confines of Europe and Asia (the known world). When Cyrus awoke from the dream, he inferred it as a great danger to the future security of the empire, as it meant that Darius would one day rule the whole world. However, his son Cambyses was the heir to the throne, not Darius, causing Cyrus to wonder if Darius was forming treasonable and ambitious designs. This led Cyrus to order Hystaspes to go back to Persis and watch over his son strictly, until Cyrus himself returned.[22] Darius did not seem to have any treasonous thoughts as Cambyses II ascended the throne peacefully; and, through promotion, Darius was eventually elevated to be Cambyses's personal lancer. Accession[edit] Lineage of Darius the Great according to the Behistun Inscription. There are different accounts of the rise of Darius to the throne from both Darius himself and Greek historians. The oldest records report a convoluted sequence of events in which Cambyses II lost his mind, murdered his brother Bardiya, and was killed by an infected leg wound. After this, Darius and a group of six nobles traveled to Sikayauvati to kill an usurper, Gaumata, who had taken the throne by pretending to be Bardiya during the true king's absence. Darius's account, written at the Behistun Inscription, states that Cambyses II killed his own brother Bardiya, but that this murder was not known among the Iranian people. A would-be usurper named Gaumata came and lied to the people, stating he was Bardiya.[23] The Iranians had grown rebellious against Cambyses's rule and on 11 March 522 BCE a revolt against Cambyses broke out in his absence. On 1 July, the Iranian people chose to be under the leadership of Gaumata, as "Bardiya". No member of the Achaemenid family would rise against Gaumata for the safety of their own life. Darius, who had served Cambyses as his lance-bearer until the deposed ruler's death, prayed for aid and in September 522 BCE, along with Otanes, Intaphrenes, Gobryas, Hydarnes, Megabyzus and Aspathines, killed Gaumata in the fortress of Sikayauvati.[23] Cylinder seal of Darius the Great Impression of a cylinder seal of King Darius the Great hunting in a chariot, reading "I am Darius, the Great King" in Old Persian (𐎠𐎭𐎶𐏐𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁𐎴 𐏋, "adam Dārayavaʰuš xšāyaθiya"), Elamite and Babylonian. The word 'great' only appears in Babylonian. British Museum, excavated in Thebes, Egypt.[24][25][26] Herodotus provides a dubious account of Darius's ascension: Several days after Gaumata had been assassinated, Darius and the other six nobles discussed the fate of the empire. At first, the seven discussed the form of government; a democratic republic (Isonomia) was strongly pushed by Otanes, an oligarchy was pushed by Megabyzus, while Darius pushed for a monarchy. After stating that a republic would lead to corruption and internal fighting, while a monarchy would be led with a single-mindedness not possible in other governments, Darius was able to convince the other nobles. To decide who would become the monarch, six of them decided on a test, with Otanes abstaining, as he had no interest in being king. They were to gather outside the palace, mounted on their horses at sunrise, and the man whose horse neighed first in recognition of the rising sun would become king. According to Herodotus, Darius had a slave, Oebares, who rubbed his hand over the genitals of a mare that Darius's horse favored. When the six gathered, Oebares placed his hands beside the nostrils of Darius' horse, who became excited at the scent and neighed. This was followed by lightning and thunder, leading the others to dismount and kneel before Darius in recognition of his apparent divine providence.[27] In this account, Darius himself claimed that he achieved the throne not through fraud, but cunning, even erecting a statue of himself mounted on his neighing horse with the inscription: "Darius, son of Hystaspes, obtained the sovereignty of Persia by the sagacity of his horse and the ingenious contrivance of Oebares, his groom."[28] According to the accounts of Greek historians, Cambyses II had left Patizeithes in charge of the kingdom when he headed for Egypt. He later sent Prexaspes to murder Bardiya. After the killing, Patizeithes put his brother Gaumata, a Magian who resembled Bardiya, on the throne and declared him the Great King. Otanes discovered that Gaumata was an impostor, and along with six other Iranian nobles including Darius, created a plan to oust the pseudo-Bardiya. After killing the impostor along with his brother Patizeithes and other Magians, Darius was crowned king the following morning.[8] The details regarding Darius' rise to power is generally acknowledged as forgery and was in reality used as a concealment of his overthrow and murder of Cyrus' rightful successor, Bardiya.[29] To legitimize his rule, Darius had a common origin fabricated between himself and Cyrus by designating Achaemenes as the eponymous founder of their dynasty.[29] In reality, Darius was not from the same house as Cyrus and his forebears, the rulers of Anshan.[29][30] Early reign[edit] Early revolts[edit] Following his coronation at Pasargadae, Darius moved to Ecbatana. He soon learned that support for Bardiya was strong, and revolts in Elam and Babylonia had broken out.[31] Darius ended the Elamite revolt when the revolutionary leader Aschina was captured and executed in Susa. After three months the revolt in Babylonia had ended. While in Babylonia, Darius learned a revolution had broken out in Bactria, a satrapy which had always been in favour of Darius, and had initially volunteered an army of soldiers to quell revolts. Following this, revolts broke out in Persis, the homeland of the Persians and Darius and then in Elam and Babylonia, followed by in Media, Parthia, Assyria, and Egypt.[32] By 522 BCE, there were revolts against Darius in most parts of the Achaemenid Empire leaving the empire in turmoil. Even though Darius did not seem to have the support of the populace, Darius had a loyal army, led by close confidants and nobles (including the six nobles who had helped him remove Gaumata). With their support, Darius was able to suppress and quell all revolts within a year. In Darius's words, he had killed a total of nine "lying kings" through the quelling of revolutions.[33] Darius left a detailed account of these revolutions in the Behistun Inscription.[33] Elimination of Intaphernes[edit] One of the significant events of Darius's early reign was the slaying of Intaphernes, one of the seven noblemen who had deposed the previous ruler and installed Darius as the new monarch.[34] The seven had made an agreement that they could all visit the new king whenever they pleased, except when he was with a woman.[34] One evening, Intaphernes went to the palace to meet Darius, but was stopped by two officers who stated that Darius was with a woman.[34] Becoming enraged and insulted, Intaphernes drew his sword and cut off the ears and noses of the two officers.[34] While leaving the palace, he took the bridle from his horse, and tied the two officers together. The officers went to the king and showed him what Intaphernes had done to them. Darius began to fear for his own safety; he thought that all seven noblemen had banded together to rebel against him and that the attack against his officers was the first sign of revolt. He sent a messenger to each of the noblemen, asking them if they approved of Intaphernes's actions. They denied and disavowed any connection with Intaphernes's actions, stating that they stood by their decision to appoint Darius as King of Kings. Darius' choice to ask the noblemen indicates that he was not yet completely sure of his authority.[34] Taking precautions against further resistance, Darius sent soldiers to seize Intaphernes, along with his son, family members, relatives and any friends who were capable of arming themselves. Darius believed that Intaphernes was planning a rebellion, but when he was brought to the court, there was no proof of any such plan. Nonetheless, Darius killed Intaphernes's entire family, excluding his wife's brother and son. She was asked to choose between her brother and son. She chose her brother to live. Her reasoning for doing so was that she could have another husband and another son, but she would always have but one brother. Darius was impressed by her response and spared both her brother's and her son's life.[35] Military campaigns[edit] Egyptian alabaster vase of Darius I with quadrilingual hieroglyphic and cuneiform inscriptions. The hieroglyph on the vase reads: "King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Lord of the Two Lands, Darius, living forever, year 36".[36][37] Egyptian campaign[edit] Main article: Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt After securing his authority over the entire empire, Darius embarked on a campaign to Egypt where he defeated the armies of the Pharaoh and secured the lands that Cambyses had conquered while incorporating a large portion of Egypt into the Achaemenid Empire.[38] Through another series of campaigns, Darius I would eventually reign over the territorial apex of the empire, when it stretched from parts of the Balkans (Thrace-Macedonia, Bulgaria-Paeonia) in the west, to the Indus Valley in the east. Invasion of the Indus Valley[edit] Eastern border of the Achaemenid Empire Main article: Achaemenid invasion of the Indus Valley In 516 BCE, Darius embarked on a campaign to Central Asia, Aria and Bactria and then marched into Afghanistan to Taxila in modern-day Pakistan. Darius spent the winter of 516–515 BCE in Gandhara, preparing to conquer the Indus Valley. Darius conquered the lands surrounding the Indus River in 515 BCE. Darius I controlled the Indus Valley from Gandhara to modern Karachi and appointed the Greek Scylax of Caryanda to explore the Indian Ocean from the mouth of the Indus to Suez. Darius then marched through the Bolan Pass and returned through Arachosia and Drangiana back to Persia. Babylonian revolt[edit] After Bardiya was murdered, widespread revolts occurred throughout the empire, especially on the eastern side. Darius asserted his position as king by force, taking his armies throughout the empire, suppressing each revolt individually. The most notable of all these revolts was the Babylonian revolt which was led by Nebuchadnezzar III. This revolt occurred when Otanes withdrew much of the army from Babylon to aid Darius in suppressing other revolts. Darius felt that the Babylonian people had taken advantage of him and deceived him, which resulted in Darius gathering a large army and marching to Babylon. At Babylon, Darius was met with closed gates and a series of defences to keep him and his armies out.[39] Darius encountered mockery and taunting from the rebels, including the famous saying "Oh yes, you will capture our city, when mules shall have foals." For a year and a half, Darius and his armies were unable to retake the city, though he attempted many tricks and strategies—even copying that which Cyrus the Great had employed when he captured Babylon. However, the situation changed in Darius's favour when, according to the story, a mule owned by Zopyrus, a high-ranking soldier, foaled. Following this, a plan was hatched for Zopyrus to pretend to be a deserter, enter the Babylonian camp, and gain the trust of the Babylonians. The plan was successful and Darius's army eventually surrounded the city and overcame the rebels.[40] During this revolt, Scythian nomads took advantage of the disorder and chaos and invaded Persia. Darius first finished defeating the rebels in Elam, Assyria, and Babylon and then attacked the Scythian invaders. He pursued the invaders, who led him to a marsh; there he found no known enemies but an enigmatic Scythian tribe.[41] European Scythian campaign[edit] Ethnicities of the Achaemenid Army, on the tomb of Darius I. The nationalities mentioned in the DNa inscription are also depicted on the upper registers of all the tombs at Naqsh-e Rustam, starting with the tomb of Darius I.[42] The ethnicities on the tomb of Darius further have trilingual labels on the lintel directly over them for identification, collectively known as the DNe inscription. One of the best preserved friezes, identical in content, is that of Xerxes I. Main article: European Scythian campaign of Darius I The Scythians were a group of north Iranian nomadic tribes, speaking an Iranian language (Scythian languages) who had invaded Media, killed Cyrus in battle, revolted against Darius and threatened to disrupt trade between Central Asia and the shores of the Black Sea as they lived between the Danube River, River Don and the Black Sea.[8][43] Darius crossed the Black Sea at the Bosphorus Straits using a bridge of boats. Darius conquered large portions of Eastern Europe, even crossing the Danube to wage war on the Scythians. Darius invaded European Scythia in 513 BC,[44] where the Scythians evaded Darius's army, using feints and retreating eastwards while laying waste to the countryside, by blocking wells, intercepting convoys, destroying pastures and continuous skirmishes against Darius's army.[45] Seeking to fight with the Scythians, Darius's army chased the Scythian army deep into Scythian lands, where there were no cities to conquer and no supplies to forage. In frustration Darius sent a letter to the Scythian ruler Idanthyrsus to fight or surrender. The ruler replied that he would not stand and fight with Darius until they found the graves of their fathers and tried to destroy them. Until then, they would continue their strategy as they had no cities or cultivated lands to lose.[46] Despite the evading tactics of the Scythians, Darius' campaign was so far relatively successful.[47] As presented by Herodotus, the tactics used by the Scythians resulted in the loss of their best lands and of damage to their loyal allies.[47] This gave Darius the initiative.[47] As he moved eastwards in the cultivated lands of the Scythians in Eastern Europe proper, he remained resupplied by his fleet and lived to an extent off the land.[47] While moving eastwards in the European Scythian lands, he captured the large fortified city of the Budini, one of the allies of the Scythians, and burnt it.[47] Darius eventually ordered a halt at the banks of Oarus, where he built "eight great forts, some eight miles distant from each other", no doubt as a frontier defence.[47] In his Histories, Herodotus states that the ruins of the forts were still standing in his day.[48] After chasing the Scythians for a month, Darius's army was suffering losses due to fatigue, privation and sickness. Concerned about losing more of his troops, Darius halted the march at the banks of the Volga River and headed towards Thrace.[49] He had conquered enough Scythian territory to force the Scythians to respect the Persian forces.[8][50] Persian invasion of Greece[edit] Main article: First Persian invasion of Greece See also: Ionian Revolt Map showing key sites during the Persian invasions of Greece Darius's European expedition was a major event in his reign, which began with the invasion of Thrace. Darius also conquered many cities of the northern Aegean, Paeonia, while Macedonia submitted voluntarily, after the demand of earth and water, becoming a vassal kingdom.[51] He then left Megabyzus to conquer Thrace, returning to Sardis to spend the winter. The Greeks living in Asia Minor and some of the Greek islands had submitted to Persian rule already by 510 BCE. Nonetheless, there were certain Greeks who were pro-Persian, although these were largely based in Athens. To improve Greek-Persian relations, Darius opened his court and treasuries to those Greeks who wanted to serve him. These Greeks served as soldiers, artisans, statesmen and mariners for Darius. However, the increasing concerns amongst the Greeks over the strength of Darius's kingdom along with the constant interference by the Greeks in Ionia and Lydia were stepping stones towards the conflict that was yet to come between Persia and certain of the leading Greek city states. The "Darius Vase" at the Achaeological Museum of Naples. Circa 340–320 BC. Detail of Darius, with a label in Greek (ΔΑΡΕΙΟΣ, top right) giving his name. When Aristagoras organized the Ionian Revolt, Eretria and Athens supported him by sending ships and troops to Ionia and by burning Sardis. Persian military and naval operations to quell the revolt ended in the Persian reoccupation of Ionian and Greek islands, as well as the re-subjugation of Thrace and the conquering of Macedonia in 492 BC under Mardonius.[52] Macedon had been a vassal kingdom of the Persians since the late 6th century BC, but retained autonomy. Mardonius' 492 campaign made it a fully subordinate part of the Persian kingdom.[51] These military actions, coming as a direct response to the revolt in Ionia, were the beginning of the First Persian invasion of (mainland) Greece. At the same time, anti-Persian parties gained more power in Athens, and pro-Persian aristocrats were exiled from Athens and Sparta. Darius responded by sending troops led by his son-in-law across the Hellespont. However, a violent storm and harassment by the Thracians forced the troops to return to Persia. Seeking revenge on Athens and Eretria, Darius assembled another army of 20,000 men under his Admiral, Datis, and his nephew Artaphernes, who met success when they captured Eretria and advanced to Marathon. In 490 BCE, at the Battle of Marathon, the Persian army was defeated by a heavily armed Athenian army, with 9,000 men who were supported by 600 Plataeans and 10,000 lightly armed soldiers led by Miltiades. The defeat at Marathon marked the end of the first Persian invasion of Greece. Darius began preparations for a second force which he would command, instead of his generals; however, before the preparations were complete, Darius died, thus leaving the task to his son Xerxes.[8] Family[edit] Darius was the son of Hystaspes and the grandson of Arsames.[53] Darius married Atossa, daughter of Cyrus, with whom he had four sons: Xerxes, Achaemenes, Masistes and Hystaspes. He also married Artystone, another daughter of Cyrus, with whom he had two sons, Arsames and Gobryas. Darius married Parmys, the daughter of Bardiya, with whom he had a son, Ariomardus. Furthermore, Darius married Phratagune, with whom he had two sons, Abrokomas and Hyperantes. He also married another woman of the nobility, Phaidyme, the daughter of Otanes. It is unknown if he had any children with her. Before these royal marriages, Darius had married an unknown daughter of his good friend and lance carrier Gobryas from an early marriage, with whom he had three sons, Artobazanes, Ariabignes and Arsamenes.[54] Any daughters he had with her are not known. Although Artobazanes was Darius's first-born, Xerxes became heir and the next king through the influence of Atossa; she had great authority in the kingdom as Darius loved her the most of all his wives. Death[edit] Tomb of Darius at Naqsh-e Rostam After becoming aware of the Persian defeat at the Battle of Marathon, Darius began planning another expedition against the Greek-city states; this time, he, not Datis, would command the imperial armies.[8] Darius had spent three years preparing men and ships for war when a revolt broke out in Egypt. This revolt in Egypt worsened his failing health and prevented the possibility of his leading another army.[8] Soon afterwards, Darius died. In October 486 BCE, his body was embalmed and entombed in the rock-cut tomb at Naqsh-e Rostam, which he had been preparing.[8] A inscription on his tomb introduces him as "Great King, King of Kings, King of countries containing all kinds of men, King in this great earth far and wide, son of Hystaspes, an Achaemenian, a Persian, son of a Persian, an Aryan [Iranian], having Aryan lineage."[8] A relief under his tomb portraying an equestrian combat was later carved during the reign of the Sasanian King of Kings, Bahram II (r. 274–293 CE).[55] Xerxes, the eldest son of Darius and Atossa, succeeded to the throne as Xerxes I; before his accession, he had contested the succession with his elder half-brother Artobarzanes, Darius's eldest son, who was born to his first wife before Darius rose to power.[56] With Xerxes' accession, the empire was again ruled by a member of the house of Cyrus.[8] Government[edit] Organization[edit] Further information: Districts of the Achaemenid Empire Volume of annual tribute per district, in the Achaemenid Empire.[57][58][59] Early in his reign, Darius wanted to reorganize the structure of the empire and reform the system of taxation he inherited from Cyrus and Cambyses. To do this, Darius created twenty provinces called satrapies (or archi) which were each assigned to a satrap (archon) and specified fixed tributes that the satrapies were required to pay.[8] A complete list is preserved in the catalogue of Herodotus, beginning with Ionia and listing the other satrapies from west to east excluding Persis which was the land of the Persians and the only province which was not a conquered land.[8] Tributes were paid in both silver and gold talents. Tributes in silver from each satrap were measured with the Babylonian talent.[8] Those paid in gold were measured with the Euboic talent.[8] The total tribute from the satraps came to an amount less than 15,000 silver talents.[8] The majority of the satraps were of Persian origin and were members of the royal house or the six great noble families.[8] These satraps were personally picked by Darius to monitor these provinces. Each of these provinces were divided into sub-provinces with their own governors which were chosen either by the royal court or by the satrap.[8] To assess tributes, a commission evaluated the expenses and revenues of each satrap.[8] To ensure that one person did not gain too much power, each satrap had a secretary who observed the affairs of the state and communicated with Darius, a treasurer who safeguarded provincial revenues and a garrison commander who was responsible for the troops.[8] Additionally, royal inspectors who were the "eyes and ears" of Darius completed further checks on each satrap.[8] The imperial administration was coordinated by the chancery with headquarters at Persepolis, Susa, and Babylon with Bactria, Ecbatana, Sardis, Dascylium and Memphis having branches.[8] Darius kept Aramaic as the common language, which soon spread throughout the empire.[8] However, Darius gathered a group of scholars to create a separate language system only used for Persis and the Persians, which was called Aryan script and was only used for official inscriptions.[8] Before this, the accomplishments of the king were addressed in Persian solely through narration and hymns and through the "masters of memory".[60] Indeed, oral history continued to play an important role throughout the history of Iran.[60] Economy[edit] See also: Achaemenid coinage Gold daric, minted at Sardis Darius introduced a new universal currency, the daric, sometime before 500 BCE.[8] Darius used the coinage system as a transnational currency to regulate trade and commerce throughout his empire. The Daric was also recognized beyond the borders of the empire, in places such as Celtic Central Europe and Eastern Europe. There were two types of darics, a gold daric and a silver daric. Only the king could mint gold darics. Important generals and satraps minted silver darics, the latter usually to recruit Greek mercenaries in Anatolia. The daric was a major boost to international trade. Trade goods such as textiles, carpets, tools and metal objects began to travel throughout Asia, Europe and Africa. To further improve trade, Darius built the Royal Road, a postal system and Phoenician-based commercial shipping. The daric also improved government revenues as the introduction of the daric made it easier to collect new taxes on land, livestock and marketplaces. This led to the registration of land which was measured and then taxed. The increased government revenues helped maintain and improve existing infrastructure and helped fund irrigation projects in dry lands. This new tax system also led to the formation of state banking and the creation of banking firms. One of the most famous banking firms was Murashu Sons, based in the Babylonian city of Nippur.[61] These banking firms provided loans and credit to clients.[62] In an effort to further improve trade, Darius built canals, underground waterways and a powerful navy.[8] He further improved and expanded the network of roads and way stations throughout the empire, so that there was a system of travel authorization for the King, satraps and other high officials, which entitled the traveller to draw provisions at daily stopping places.[63][8] Religion[edit] "By the grace of Ahuramazda am I king; Ahuramazda has granted me the kingdom." — Darius, on the Behistun Inscription Darius at Behistun Darius on the Behistun Inscription reliefs. Crowned head of Darius at Behistun. While there is no general consensus in scholarship whether Darius and his predecessors had been influenced by Zoroastrianism,[64] it is well established that Darius was a firm believer in Ahura Mazda, whom he saw as the supreme deity.[64][65] However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped by adherents of the (Indo-)Iranian religious tradition.[64][66] As can be seen at the Behistun Inscription, Darius believed that Ahura Mazda had appointed him to rule the Achaemenid Empire.[8] Darius had dualistic philosophical convictions and believed that each rebellion in his kingdom was the work of druj, the enemy of Asha. Darius believed that because he lived righteously by Asha, Ahura Mazda supported him.[67] In many cuneiform inscriptions denoting his achievements, he presents himself as a devout believer, perhaps even convinced that he had a divine right to rule over the world.[68] In the lands that were conquered by his empire, Darius followed the same Achaemenid tolerance that Cyrus had shown and later Achaemenid kings would show.[8] He supported faiths and religions that were "alien" as long as the adherents were "submissive and peaceable", sometimes giving them grants from his treasury for their purposes.[8][69] He had funded the restoration of the Israelite temple which had originally been decreed by Cyrus, was supportive towards Greek cults which can be seen in his letter to Gadatas, and supported Elamite priests.[8] He had also observed Egyptian religious rites related to kingship and had built the temple for the Egyptian god, Amun.[8] Building projects[edit] Reconstruction drawing of the Palace of Darius in Susa The ruins of Tachara palace in Persepolis During Darius's Greek expedition, he had begun construction projects in Susa, Egypt and Persepolis. He had linked the Red Sea to the river Nile by building a canal (Darius Canal) which ran from modern Zaqāzīq to modern Suez. To open this canal, he travelled to Egypt in 497 BCE, where the inauguration was carried out with great fanfare and celebration. Darius also built a canal to connect the Red Sea and Mediterranean.[8][70] On this visit to Egypt he erected monuments and executed Aryandes on the charge of treason. When Darius returned to Persis, he found that the codification of Egyptian law had been finished.[8] Additionally, Darius sponsored large construction projects in Susa, Babylon, Egypt, and Persepolis. In Susa, Darius built a new palace complex in the north of the city. An inscription states that the palace was destroyed during the reign of Artaxerxes I, but was rebuilt. Today only glazed bricks of the palace remain, the majority of them in the Louvre. In Pasargadae Darius finished all incomplete construction projects from the reign of Cyrus the Great. A palace was also built during the reign of Darius, with an inscription in the name of Cyrus the Great. It was previously believed that Cyrus had constructed this building, however due to the cuneiform script being used, the palace is believed to have been constructed by Darius. In Egypt Darius built many temples and restored those that had previously been destroyed. Even though Darius was a believer of Ahura Mazda, he built temples dedicated to the Gods of the Ancient Egyptian religion. Several temples found were dedicated to Ptah and Nekhbet. Darius also created several roads and routes in Egypt. The monuments that Darius built were often inscribed in the official languages of the Persian Empire, Old Persian, Elamite and Babylonian and Egyptian hieroglyphs. To construct these monuments Darius employed a large number of workers and artisans of diverse nationalities. Several of these workers were deportees who had been employed specifically for these projects. These deportees enhanced the empire's economy and improved inter-cultural relations.[8] At the time of Darius's death construction projects were still under way. Xerxes completed these works and in some cases expanded his father's projects by erecting new buildings of his own.[71] Darius as Pharaoh of Egypt at the Temple of Hibis Relief showing Darius I offering lettuces to the Egyptian deity Amun-Ra Kamutef, Temple of Hibis See also[edit] Darius the Mede List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources Notes[edit] ^ According to Herodotus, Hystaspes was the satrap of Persis, although the French Iranologist Pierre Briant states that this is an error.[17] Richard Stoneman likewise considers Herodotus' account to be incorrect.[18] References[edit] ^ Jürgen von Beckerath, Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen (= Münchner ägyptologische Studien, vol 46), Mainz am Rhein: Verlag Philipp von Zabern, 1999. ISBN 3-8053-2310-7, pp. 220–21. ^ "DĀḠESTĀN". Retrieved 29 December 2014. ^ Suny, Ronald Grigor (1994). The Making of the Georgian Nation. ISBN 978-0253209153. Retrieved 29 December 2014. ^ Pollard, Elizabeth (2015). Worlds Together, Worlds Apart concise edition vol.1. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. p. 132. ISBN 978-0-393-25093-0. ^ a b c Schmitt 1994, p. 40. ^ Duncker 1882, p. 192. ^ Egerton 1994, p. 6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak Shahbazi 1994, pp. 41–50. ^ Kuhrt 2013, p. 197. ^ Frye 1984, p. 103. ^ Schmitt 2000, p. 53. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSchmitt2000 (help) ^ Zournatzi, Antigoni (2003). "The Apadana Coin Hoards, Darius I, and the West". American Journal of Numismatics (1989–). 15: 1–28. JSTOR 43580364. ^ Persepolis : discovery and afterlife of a world wonder. 2012. pp. 171–181. ^ Behistun, minor inscriptions DBb inscription- Livius. ^ Llewellyn-Jones 2013, p. 112. ^ Stoneman 2015, p. 189. ^ Briant 2002, p. 467. ^ Stoneman 2015, p. 20. ^ Cook 1985, p. 217. ^ Abbott 2009, p. 14. ^ Abbott 2009, p. 14–15. ^ Abbott 2009, p. 15–16. ^ a b Boardman 1988, p. 54. ^ The Darius Seal. ^ Darius' seal: photo – Livius. ^ "The Darius Seal". British Museum. ^ Poolos 2008, p. 17. ^ Abbott 2009, p. 98. ^ a b c Llewellyn-Jones 2017, p. 70. ^ Waters 1996, pp. 11, 18. ^ Briant 2002, p. 115. ^ Briant 2002, pp. 115–116. ^ a b Briant 2002, p. 116. ^ a b c d e Briant 2002, p. 131. ^ Abbott 2009, p. 99–101. ^ Goodnick Westenholz, Joan (2002). "A Stone Jar with Inscriptions of Darius I in Four Languages" (PDF). ARTA: 2. ^ Qahéri, Sépideh. "Alabastres royaux d'époque achéménide". L’Antiquité à la BnF (in French). ^ Del Testa 2001, p. 47. ^ Abbott 2009, p. 129. ^ Sélincourt 2002, p. 234–235. ^ Siliotti 2006, p. 286–287. ^ The Achaemenid Empire in South Asia and Recent Excavations in Akra in Northwest Pakistan Peter Magee, Cameron Petrie, Robert Knox, Farid Khan, Ken Thomas p.713-714 ^ Woolf et al. 2004, p. 686. ^ Miroslav Ivanov Vasilev. "The Policy of Darius and Xerxes towards Thrace and Macedonia" ISBN 90-04-28215-7 p 70 ^ Ross & Wells 2004, p. 291. ^ Beckwith 2009, p. 68–69. ^ a b c d e f Boardman 1982, pp. 239–243. ^ Herodotus 2015, pp. 352. ^ Chaliand 2004, p. 16. ^ Grousset 1970, pp. 9–10. ^ a b Joseph Roisman, Ian Worthington. "A companion to Ancient Macedonia" John Wiley & Sons, 2011. ISBN 1-4443-5163-X pp 135–138, p 343 ^ Joseph Roisman; Ian Worthington (2011). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 135–138. ISBN 978-1-4443-5163-7. ^ Briant 2002, p. 16. ^ Briant 2002, p. 113. ^ Shahbazi 1988, pp. 514–522. ^ Briant 2002, p. 136. ^ Herodotus Book III, 89–95 ^ Archibald, Zosia; Davies, John K.; Gabrielsen, Vincent (2011). The Economies of Hellenistic Societies, Third to First Centuries BC. Oxford University Press. p. 404. ISBN 9780199587926. ^ "INDIA RELATIONS: ACHAEMENID PERIOD – Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org. ^ a b Briant 2002, pp. 126–127. ^ Farrokh 2007, p. 65. ^ Farrokh 2007, p. 65–66. ^ Konecky 2008, p. 86. ^ a b c Malandra 2005. ^ Briant 2002, p. 126. ^ Boyce 1984, pp. 684–687. ^ Boyce 1979, p. 55. ^ Boyce 1979, p. 54–55. ^ Boyce 1979, p. 56. ^ Spielvogel 2009, p. 49. ^ Boardman 1988, p. 76. 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"The Achaemenid Empire". In Daryaee, Touraj (ed.). King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE - 651 CE). UCI Jordan Center for Persian Studies. pp. 1–236. ISBN 9780692864401. Malandra, William W. (2005). "Zoroastrianism i. Historical review up to the Arab conquest". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Moulton, James (2005), Early Zoroastrianism, Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4179-7400-9 Poolos, J (2008), Darius the Great (illustrated ed.), Infobase Publishing, ISBN 978-0-7910-9633-8 Ross, William; Wells, H. G. (2004), The Outline of History: Volume 1 (Barnes & Noble Library of Essential Reading): Prehistory to the Roman Republic (illustrated ed.), Barnes & Noble Publishing, ISBN 978-0-7607-5866-3, retrieved 28 July 2011 Safra, Jacob (2002), The New Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica Inc, ISBN 978-0-85229-787-2 Schmitt, Rudiger (1994). "DARIUS i. The Name". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VII, Fasc. 1. p. 40. Sélincourt, Aubrey (2002), The Histories, London: Penguin Classics, ISBN 978-0-14-044908-2 Shahbazi, A. Shapur (1988). "Bahrām II". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. III, Fasc. 5. pp. 514–522. Shahbazi, Shapur (1994), "Darius I the Great", Encyclopedia Iranica, 7, New York: Columbia University, pp. 41–50 Siliotti, Alberto (2006), Hidden Treasures of Antiquity, Vercelli, Italy: VMB Publishers, ISBN 978-88-540-0497-9 Spielvogel, Jackson (2009), Western Civilization: Seventh edition, Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth, ISBN 978-0-495-50285-2 Stoneman, Richard (2015). Xerxes: A Persian Life. Yale University Press. pp. 1–288. ISBN 9781575061207. Tropea, Judith (2006), Classic Biblical Baby Names: Timeless Names for Modern Parents, New York: Bantam Books, ISBN 978-0-553-38393-5 Van De Mieroop, Marc (2003), A History of the Ancient Near East: Ca. 3000–323 BC, "Blackwell History of the Ancient World" series, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-0-631-22552-2 Waters, Matt (1996). "Darius and the Achaemenid Line". The Ancient History Bulletin. London. 10 (1): 11–18. Waters, Matt (2014). Ancient Persia: A Concise History of the Achaemenid Empire, 550–330 BCE. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–272. ISBN 9781107652729. Woolf, Alex; Maddocks, Steven; Balkwill, Richard; McCarthy, Thomas (2004), Exploring Ancient Civilizations (illustrated ed.), Marshall Cavendish, ISBN 978-0-7614-7456-2 Further reading[edit] Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Darius. Burn, A.R. (1984). Persia and the Greeks : the defence of the West, c. 546–478 B.C (2nd ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-1235-4. Ghirshman, Roman (1964). The Arts of Ancient Iran from Its Origins to the Time of Alexander the Great. New York: Golden Press. Klotz, David (2015). "Darius I and the Sabaeans: Ancient Partners in Red Sea Navigation". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 74 (2): 267–280. doi:10.1086/682344. Olmstead, Albert T. (1948). History of the Persian Empire, Achaemenid Period. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Vogelsang, W.J. (1992). The rise and organisation of the Achaemenid Empire : the eastern Iranian evidence. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-09682-0. Warner, Arthur G. (1905). The Shahnama of Firdausi. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner and Co. Wiesehöfer, Josef (1996). Ancient Persia : from 550 BC to 650 AD. Azizeh Azodi, trans. London: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-85043-999-8. Wilber, Donald N. (1989). Persepolis : the archaeology of Parsa, seat of the Persian kings (Rev. ed.). Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press. ISBN 978-0-87850-062-8. External links[edit] Darius the Greatat Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Darius the Great Achaemenid Empire Born: 550 BCE Died: 486 BCE Preceded by Bardiya King of Kings of Persia 522 BCE–486 BCE Succeeded by Xerxes I Pharaoh of Egypt 522–486 BCE v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC v t e Rulers of the Ancient Near East Territories/ dates [1][2][3][4] Egypt Canaan Ebla Mari Akshak/ Akkad Kish Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period 4000–3200 BCE Naqada culture (4000–3100 BCE) Proto-Cannaanites Sumerian period (4000–2340 BCE) Susa I Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE) Naqada I Naqada II Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests") Legendary ante-deluvian rulers: In Eridu: Alulim, Alalngar, then in Bad-tibira: En-men-lu-ana, En-men-gal-ana, Dumuzid, the Shepherd, then in Larag: En-sipad-zid-ana, then in Zimbir: En-men-dur-ana, then in Shuruppag: Ubara-Tutu "then the flood swept over"[5] Susa II (Uruk influence or control) 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ DenAnedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100-2700 BCE) Great Flood 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) First kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman En-me-barage-si ("made the land of Elam submit")[6] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba Uruk II dynasty Enshakushanna Mug-si Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions (3 kings)[7] Shushuntarana Napilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Urur Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun) Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion of Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[7] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian Empire (Semitic) Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Second Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) (Vassals of UR III) Shakkanakku dynasty (Semitic) Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Neo-Sumerian Period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians) Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (Vassals of Ur III)[8] Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal 2100 BCE Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin Ibbi-Sin 2050 BCE 2000 BCE Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV circa 2000 BCE Amorite invasions Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) 2025-1763 BCE Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ Third Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 1894–1595 BCE Second Intermediate Period Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham (Biblical) Yamhad First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Phoenicia Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Middle Assyrian Empire Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt 626–539 BCE Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116-117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ "The Sumerian king list: translation". etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 8 May 2008. ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ a b Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4. v t e Darius the Great Related figures Family Bardiya Darius the Mede Campaigns Revolts Indus Valley European Scythia Greece Constructions Susa Palace Pasargadae Persepolis Tachara Egypt Canal of the Pharaohs Monuments Tomb Second Temple Behistun Inscription Foundations Satrap Daric Imperial Aramaic Royal Road Angarium Waterways Category v t e Median and Achaemenid kings Family tree Median (728–550 BC) Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Achaemenid (550–330 BC) Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Nothus Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Italics indicate kings not directly attested and so possibly legendary. v t e Persepolis Palace Tachara Gate of All Nations Other sections Tomb of Artaxerxes III builders Darius the Great Xerxes I Artaxerxes I of Persia Researchers Heidemarie Koch Erich Schmidt (archaeologist) Alireza Shapour Shahbazi Related Tangeh Bolaghi 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire Sivand Dam Persepolis Administrative Archives Waterskin Achaemenid architecture Category:Persepolis v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control BNF: cb126902644 (data) CiNii: DA16665217 GND: 118523791 ISNI: 0000 0001 2095 6470 LCCN: n50066820 LNB: 000181087 NKC: mzk2004252107 NLA: 35033388 NLG: 322011 NLI: 000037016 NLP: A27095034 NTA: 070875618 PLWABN: 9810592289305606 SUDOC: 050127276 Trove: 805973 ULAN: 500116533 VcBA: 495/29935 VIAF: 15560660 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n50066820 Retrieved from 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en-wikipedia-org-492	----	Tefnakht - Wikipedia Tefnakht From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Tefnakht Tefnakht on his year 8 stela Pharaoh Reign 732–725 BC (24th Dynasty) Predecessor Interregnum (as a pharaoh) Osorkon C (as a Great Chief of the Ma) Ankhhor (as a Great Chief of the West) Successor Bakenranef Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Shepsesre Špss-Rˁ Noble like Ra[1] Nomen Tefnakht[2] T3y-[.f]-nḫt Horus name Siakhet[hor] Sj3-ẖt Son of Khet Nebty name Siakhetnebty Sj3-ẖt Son of the Two Ladies' body Children Bakenranef Father Gemnefsutkapu Shepsesre Tefnakht (in Greek known as Tnephachthos) was a prince of Sais and founder of the relatively short Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt; he rose to become a Chief of the Ma in his home city. He is thought to have reigned roughly 732 BCE to 725 BCE, or seven years. Tefnakht I first began his career as the "Great Chief of the West" and Prince of Sais and was a late contemporary of the last ruler of the 22nd Dynasty: Shoshenq V. Tefnakht I was actually the second ruler of Sais; he was preceded by Osorkon C, who is attested by several documents mentioning him as this city's Chief of the Ma and Army Leader, according to Kenneth Kitchen,[3] while his predecessor as Great Chief of the West was a man named Ankhhor.[4] A recently discovered statue, dedicated by Tefnakht I to Amun-Re, reveals important details about his personal origins.[5] The statue's text states that Tefnakht was the son of a certain Gemnefsutkapu and the grandson of Basa, a priest of Amun near Sais. Consequently, Tefnakht was not actually descended from either lines of Chiefs of the Ma and of the Libu as traditionally believed but rather came from a family of priests, and his ancestors being more likely Egyptians rather than Libyans.[6] Tefnakht is absent from the Manethonian tradition, perhaps because of the abbreviated form in which the Aegyptiaca is known, perhaps because Tefnakht was considered a usurper.[7] Contents 1 Biography 2 Kingship 3 References 4 Further reading 5 External links Biography[edit] Tefnakht erected two donation stelas in Years 36 and 38 of Shoshenq V as a Prince at Saïs. His Year 38 stela from Buto is significant not only because Tefnakht employs the rather boastful epithet of "Great Chief of the entire land" but due to its list of his religious titles as prophet of Neith, Edjo and the Lady of Imay.[8] This reflects his control over Sais, Buto to the north and Kom el-Hish to the southwest even prior to the end of the 22nd Dynasty—with the death of Shoshenq V—and reflects Tefnakht's political base in the Western Delta region of Egypt. The 22nd Dynasty was politically fragmenting even prior to the death of Shoshenq V. Tefnakht established his capital at Sais, and formed an alliance with other minor kings of the Delta region in order to conquer Middle and Upper Egypt, which was under the sway of the Nubian king Piye. He was able to capture and unify many of the cities of the Delta region, thus making Tefnakht considerably more powerful than any of his predecessors in either the 22nd or 23rd dynasties. Tefnakht was not a member of the Tanite-based 22nd Dynasty of Egypt since Tanis is located in the Eastern Delta whereas his local city of Sais was situated in the Western Delta closer to Libya. His modest title 'Great chief of the West' also hints at a non-royal background. Prior to assuming the title of "Great Chief of the West", Tefnakht managed to extend his control southward, capturing the city of Memphis and besieging the city of Herakleopolis, which was an ally of the Kushite king Piye of Nubia. This caused him to face considerable opposition from Piye, especially after Nimlot, the local ruler of Hermopolis defected from Piye's sphere of influence, to his side. A pair of naval engagements soon checked any further advances by Tefnakht's coalition into Piye's Middle Egyptian territories, and Memphis was soon recaptured by Piye. After further campaigns, Tefnakht's allies surrendered to Piye and Tefnakht soon found himself isolated. He finally dispatched a letter formally submitting his loyalty and swearing his loyalty to Piye. Tefnakht, however, was the only Lower Egyptian prince to avoid seeing Piye face to face. These details are recounted in the Great Victory stela of Piye which this Nubian ruler erected on the New Year's Day of his 21st regnal year. Shortly afterwards, Piye returned home to Nubia at Gebel Barkal, and never returned to Lower Egypt again. Kingship[edit] Complete stele of Tefnakht Despite this setback, Tefnakht was left alone as the local prince of his local region of Sais. He managed, over time, to soon reestablish his kingdom's control in the Delta region from the political vacuum which resulted after Piye's departure from this region. It is generally believed that prince Tefnakht officially proclaimed himself as king Shepsesre Tefnakht I and adopted a royal title sometime after Piye's departure from Lower Egypt. His successor at Sais was Bakenranef. While most scholars such as Kenneth Kitchen have equated Manetho's Tefnakht with the king Shepsesre Tefnakht of Sais who is attested by the Year 8 Athens donation stela, a recent article by Olivier Perdu[9] has suggested that this Tefnakht was rather Tefnakht II, a much later king of Sais who ruled in the mid-680's BCE during the late Nubian 25th Dynasty. In his paper, Perdu published a newly discovered stela dating from the second year of Necho I's reign, which he contends is similar in style, text and content to the Year 8 stela of Shepsesre Tefnakht. Perdu, thus, infers that these two kings of Sais—Necho I and Tefnakht II—were close contemporaries. However, his arguments are not currently accepted by most Egyptian scholars such as Dan'el Kahn or Kenneth Kitchen who still believe that the Year 8 Athens stela of king Shepsesre Tefnakht likely belongs to Tefnakht I rather than a hypothetical Tefnakht II who would then have assumed power in 685 BC at Sais—early during the reign of Taharqa, one of the most powerful Nubian rulers of Egypt. Kahn has also stressed at an Egyptological Conference at Leiden that Perdu's epigraphic criteria here in the famed Athens stela—such as the use of the tripartite wig, the method through which the falcon-headed god keeps his head upright in the same stela and on temple wall reliefs contemporary with Tefnakht I's time, the decoration of the stela scene: Heaven supported by wAs scepters—appear already in use in the 24th or early 25th Nubian dynasty during Piye, Shabaka or Bakenranef's reign.[10] The invisible back side of the tripartite wig can be found on the donation stela of Shebitku from Pharbaitos and on the Bakenranef/Bocchoris vase dating to the last days of Piye and the beginning of Shabaka—all appear close in time to the presumed reign of Tefnakht I. Moreover, the head of the falcon-headed god Horus is, as Perdu himself noted, similar in style to the stela of Tefnakht, chief of the Meshwesh and Piye's chief rival.[11] Unlike Necho I, neither of this king's presumed Saite royal predecessors, a certain Nekauba and Tefnakht II, are monumentally attested in Lower Egypt. Hence, the latter two kings who appear in the records of Manetho's Epitome may well be fictitious. Moreover, it is improbable that Taharqa, perhaps one of the most powerful Kushite kings of the Nubian 25th dynasty for the first 18 years of his reign, would have tolerated the existence of a rival line of native Egyptian kings at Sais during the first half of his reign when he exercised full control over Memphis and the Delta region. After all, the 24th dynasty Saite rulers Tefnakht and Bakenranef had fought Taharqa's father Piye and resisted Shabaka's expansion of Kushite power into the Delta region. References[edit] ^ Peter A. Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt, Thames and Hudson, London, 1994. p.188 ^ Tefnakht ^ KA Kitchen, The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100–650 BC), 3rd ed. 1996, Aris & Phillips Limited, pp.351 & p.355 ^ Kitchen, op. cit., § 316. ^ P.R. Del Francia, "Di una statuette dedicate ad Amon-Ra dal grande capo dei Ma Tefnakht nel Museo Egizio di Firenze", S. Russo (ed.) Atti del V Convegno Nazionale di Egittologia e Papirologia, Firenze, 10-12 dicembre 1999, Firenze, 2000, 63-112, 76-82 ^ Del Francia, pp.63-112 & 76-82 ^ Bonhême, M.-A. (1987). Les noms royaux dans l'Égypte de la troisième période intermédiaire (in French). IFAO. p. 228. ISBN 9782724700459. ^ Kitchen, The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt, p.362 ^ Olivier Perdu, "La Chefferie de Sébennytos de Piankhy à Psammétique Ier", Revue d'Égyptology 55 (2004), pp. 95-111. ^ Dan'el Kahn, The Transition from Libyan to Nubian Rule in "Egypt: Revisiting the Reign of Tefnakht, THE LIBYAN PERIOD IN EGYPT, Historical and Cultural Studies into the 21st - 24th Dynasties: Proceedings of a Conference at Leiden University 25–27 October 2007," G.P.F. Broekman, R.J. Demarée & O.E. Kaper, (eds.), pp.139-48 ^ Olivier Perdu, De Stéphinates à Nécho ou les débuts de la XXVIe Dynastie, académie des Inscriptios & belles-lettres – Comptes rendus (CRAIBL), 2002. p.1229, n. 73 Further reading[edit] Dan'el Kahn, Did Tefnakht I rule as king?, GM 173 (1999), pp. 123–125 Dan'el Kahn, The Transition from Libyan to Nubian Rule in Egypt: Revisiting the Reign of Tefnakht. In: G. P. F. Broekman, R. J. Demarée and O. E. Kaper (eds), The Libyan Period in Egypt (Egyptologische Uitgaven, vol. 23), 139-148. Leiden 2009: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten; Leuven: Peeters. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tefnakht. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tefnakht&oldid=999460311" Categories: 8th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Chiefs of the Ma 8th-century BC rulers 8th-century BC births 8th-century BC deaths 8th century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: CS1 French-language sources (fr) Commons category link from Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate 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en-wikipedia-org-4931	----	Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges - Wikipedia Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Construction of Xerxes Bridge of boats by Phoenician sailors Hellespont Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges were constructed in 480 BC during the second Persian invasion of Greece upon the order of Xerxes I of Persia for the purpose of Xerxes’ army to traverse the Hellespont (the present day Dardanelles) from Asia into Thrace, then also controlled by Persia (in the European part of modern Turkey).[1] The bridges were described by the ancient Greek historian Herodotus in his Histories, but little other evidence confirms Herodotus' story in this respect. Most modern historians accept the building of the bridges as such, but practically all details related by Herodotus are subject to doubt and discussion. Contents 1 The bridges in Herodotus' Histories 2 Details 2.1 Dardanelles 2.2 Location of the two bridges 2.3 Ships 2.4 Anchors 2.5 Length of the bridges 2.6 Width of the bridges respective to the roads 2.7 Cables 2.8 Bridge deck 2.8.1 Wooden logs 2.8.2 Brushwood 2.8.3 Earth pavement 2.8.4 Load assumptions 2.8.5 Screens 2.8.6 Openings for ships 3 Storm damage 4 Notes 5 References The bridges in Herodotus' Histories[edit] An artist's illustration depicting Xerxes' alleged "punishment" of the Hellespont Herodotus relates in his Histories that the Second Persian invasion of Greece already intended by Darius I was carefully prepared by his son Xerxes I. A canal crossing the Athos peninsula was constructed. Among many other things he also ordered ships of war to be furnished and ropes of papyrus and of white flax to be prepared for the bridges.[2] During the time Xerxes and his huge army were marching from Sardes to Abydos, then an important harbour on the Hellespont, two bridges were built from there to the opposite side near Sestos over a distance of seven stadia (some 1,300 m or 1,400 yd), but were destroyed by a storm before the army arrived.[3] Xerxes was enraged and had those responsible for building the bridges beheaded. He is then said to have thrown fetters into the strait, given it three hundred whiplashes, and branded it with red-hot irons as the soldiers shouted at the water.[4] New bridges were constructed by lashing penteconters and triremes together. 360 ships were used to construct the northeasterly bridge and 314 ships were used for the southwesterly bridge. Anchors were lowered at either end of the boats to keep them in place and cables, alternatively made of white flax and papyrus, were stretched from shore to shore to hold the boats together and were tightened by large winches.[5] The weight of the cables of flax is said to have been one talent per cubit.[6] Three openings were provided for the passage of small boats. Wooden planks were laid across the cables, and brushwood and soil used to cover the planks and form a dirt roadway.[7] Screens were put up on either side of the bridges to prevent the horses and other animals from panicking at the sight of the sea below. The crossing of the Hellespont took seven days and nights, the army using the northeasterly bridge and the huge crowd of attendants and baggage animals the southwesterly bridge.[8] After the crossing, the bridges were left behind. When a part of the Persian army later retreated to the Hellespont, they only found the debris of the bridges destroyed by another storm.[9] Details[edit] After Herodotus hardly indicated the location of the pontoon bridge across the Bosphorus built some 30 years earlier by Xerxes' father Darius I, but did not provide any specific information about that bridge, the wealth of details given for the bridges across the Hellespont is astonishing and, upon cursory reading, seems to provide a clear picture. However, upon closer examination, almost every detail of the bridges is the subject of discussions, doubts and questions.[10] Herodotus' narrative should, perhaps, not be taken as a bridge engineer's sober technical report but rather as a vivid illustration of the grandeur of the Persian king which would make the Greek victories appear even more outstanding.[11] Details in the play The Persians by Aeschylus, written in 472, less than a decade after the bridge is said to have been built, tend to corroborate the idea of it. In that play, Atossa, the mother of Xerxes, learns of what a disaster her son's invasion of Greece has been. She goes to the grave of Darius, her late husband and the father of Xerxes. The spirit of Darius rises and she tells him of their son's misadventure, and what preceded it. ATOSSA: From shore to shore he bridged the Hellespont. GHOST OF DARIUS: What! could he chain the mighty Bosphorus? ATOSSA: Ev'n so, some god assisting his design. The Ghost of Darius goes on to lament: With what a winged course the oracles Haste their completion! With the lightning's speed Jove on my son hath hurled his threaten'd vengeance: Yet I implored the gods that it might fall In time's late process: but when rashness drives Impetuous on, the scourge of Heaven upraised Lashes the Fury forward; hence these ills Pour headlong on my friends. Not weighing this, My son, with all the fiery pride of youth, Hath quickened their arrival, while he hoped To bind the sacred Hellespont, to hold The raging Bosphorus, like a slave, in chains, And dared the advent'rous passage, bridging firm With links of solid iron his wondrous way, To lead his numerous host; and swell'd with thoughts Presumptuous, deem'd, vain mortal! that his power Should rise above the gods, and Neptune's might. And was riot this the phrensy of the soul? But much I fear lest all my treasured wealth Fall to some daring hand an easy prey. Aeschylus was an Athenian playwright who had fought in the battle of Salamis, and witnessed there the destruction of the Persian fleet. Dardanelles[edit] The surface current to the Mediterranean flows at an average speed of 1 1/2 knots but varies according to wind directions which may also cause the water level to rise by some 60 cm (2.0 ft). There is an undercurrent in the opposite direction. Bills and points may cause eddies and shoals.[12] At present, the narrowest part of the Dardanelles between Çanakkale and Kilitbahir (40°8′38.32″N 26°23′23.45″E / 40.1439778°N 26.3898472°E / 40.1439778; 26.3898472) is about 1.4 km (1,530 yards) wide and has a maximum depth of 91 m (299 ft).[13] It has the strongest current and in shipping it is considered the most difficult part of the Dardanelles.[14] Çanakkale was built during the early Ottoman Empire on the alluvial gravel fan deposited by a river, in winter often a torrent,[15] descending from the nearby mountains (and recently tamed by the Atikhisar dam). 2500 years ago, this alluvial fan may not have protruded into the strait as it does today. Abydos, the town mentioned by Herodotus, was north of Çanakkale on the Asiatic shore near Nara Burnu (formerly Nagara) ( 40°11′47″N 26°24′52″E / 40.19639°N 26.41444°E / 40.19639; 26.41444). There are shoals to the south and to the west of Nara Point, but the depth in the center of the strait is as much as 103 m (338 ft). The current is running at more than 2 kn, but there are large eddies around Nara Point.[16] Location of the two bridges[edit] The location of the bridges between Abydos and near Sestos on the opposite shore, as indicated by Herodotus, is accepted by many historians. The British Major-General Frederick Barton Maurice, on a visit to the area in 1922, considered a beach further north to be the only acceptable location for a bridge from a military point of view; but there, the distance across is more than 3 km (3,280 yards). The presently narrowest part at Çanakkale appears to be beyond all question. Most probably, it was not as narrow then, and there was a constant danger of the untamed river becoming torrential at very short notice and washing away whatever was in its reach. Two bridges were necessary because the narrow roads in the Chersonese required that, to avoid leaving the head of the very long column of troops without food and water, the column of troops and the supply column march in parallel.[17] Ships[edit] Herodotus is clear in telling us that only penteconters and triremes, i.e. only naval vessels, were used for the bridges. Apparently, this is accepted by all historians. However, it does not make sense to use expensive naval ships (unless such ships were available in abundance since most of them were contributed by the Greek coastal city-states in Asia Minor, by Phoenicia, by Syria, and by Egypt, all of which were under Persian rule, at the time) were for a task which would be better fulfilled by simple and cheaper merchant vessels with a larger beam, deeper center of gravity and higher freeboard; on the other hand, slander ships would also make sense since they provided the least resistance to the surface current in the Hellespont (Dardanelles). The lowest oar ports of a trireme were about 30 cm above the waterline and were normally fitted with leather sleeves,[18] an aspect which does not really qualify them as a bridge carrier. Ships carrying a bridge should all have the same height in order to provide a flat bridge deck and thus, one may assume that the bridge consisted only of penteconters (if not of commercial ships) and that the larger and higher triremes were only used on either side of the passageways. Anchors[edit] Pontoon bridges across rivers are usually held in position by anchors fastened to the bow and stern of each boat[19] and thus, at a first glance, Herodotus' description appears to be correct. However, the depth of the strait is not mentioned at all in his Histories. Modern historians do mention the depth,[20] but do not discuss it anywhere as a problem for anchoring. The length of anchor ropes must be several times the depth of water in order to prevent damage to the ship caused by a jerking anchor rope and to prevent the anchor from dragging along the seabed. Ships in the center of the strait would thus have had to use anchor ropes with a length of several hundred meters each. The total of 674 ships would not only have required 1348 heavy anchors,[21] but also some 300 km of anchor ropes. One may question whether at that time it would have been possible to manufacture such huge amounts within a relatively short time. Even if iron anchors existed already then,[22][23] it is unlikely that the iron manufacturing was capable to produce some 183 tonnes of iron anchors. In addition, the anchorage is not safe: the long ropes cannot prevent the ships from swinging and colliding, in particular when eddies add to the confusion and long ropes get entangled. Last, but not least, it seems to be impossible to find the right points for dropping the anchors so that their long lines would hold the ships properly lined up across the strait. If one adheres to the ships being anchored as described by Herodotus, one has to take into account that each bridge together with the space required for the anchor ropes would have occupied a strip up to 900 m wide. However, the shore at Abydos would not have been wide enough to accommodate two such bridges. There is a further technical point: The addition of anchors and of cables reaching from shore to shore provides added holding power to the ships only in theory, i.e. if the ships' tension on the anchor ropes and on the cables is exactly equal, but in practice, it is not possible to tune them to such a degree, especially not under the influence of changing winds, currents, eddies and undercurrents. But then, the whole load has to be borne by either the ropes or the cables, without the other (slack) one contributing anything to the horizontal load bearing capacity of the installation. Therefore, there appears no alternative but to assume that the ships were held in place by the long cables only, and that anchors were used only temporarily to hold ships in shoal waters until they were attached to the cables. Length of the bridges[edit] The length of seven stadia or some 1,300 m[24] as indicated by Herodotus is too short in any event. At Abydos, the distance between the shores is some 2,000 m.[25] Yet, the bridges would have been longer. If they could not be kept in position by anchors because of the depth of the strait, they must have been held by cables reaching from shore to shore (no matter whether by a single long cable or by a series of cables). Because of the current and the lateral wind forces, they would have described a large curve allowing for a sort of horizontal sag of the cables in order to prevent the tension to increase indefinitely.[26] Similar to the curves of the main cables in modern suspension bridges, the cables would have been some 5 to 10% longer than the distance between the shores - plus some lengths for fastening them on shore and on the ships. This results in the length of these cables exceeding 2,200 m (2,400 yd). If the beam of a penteconter is taken to be 4 m (13 ft),[22] the bridge consisting of 314 ships spread across 2,200 m would show gaps of some 3 m (9.8 ft), if the openings made by triremes are disregarded. A gap of 3 m seems to be reasonable.[27] The other bridge consisting of 360 ships in a similar configuration would then have a length of near to 2,520 m (2,760 yd), which appears reasonable for a bridge situated some distance to the northeast of Nagara Point. Width of the bridges respective to the roads[edit] Herodotus does not give any indication of the width of the bridges or of the roads passing over them. One assumes the width of Greek roads to have measured between 2.7 and 3.6 m (8.9 and 11.8 ft)[28] Thus, the width of the bridge can be taken as 3.6 m, allowing four soldiers abreast or two horsemen side by side.[28] A larger bridge would not have any positive effect since the road at the end of the bridge could not take up all the arriving masses. Furthermore, large pontoonbridges appear to roll more distinctly than narrow ones and the horses, nervous from the outset, get even more frightened.[29] Cables[edit] The orders made in the preparatory phase to produce cables for the bridges are mentioned by Herodotus in a rather casual way like orders for larger quantities of standard merchandise. Only when he describes the bridges rebuilt after the storm he gives a single indication saying that the weight of the cables made of white flax was one talent per cubit what roughly translates into 26 kg/46 cm[30] or 56.5 kg per meter.[31] Using various methods of conversion one arrives at diameters between 23 and 28 cm (between 9 and 11 inches)![32] Cables weighing that much cannot be handled, it is almost impossible to bend cables with such a diameter or to reel them on a cable drum - which probably did not yet exist at that time - or to put them into any other transportable condition. Bollards of several meters in diameter would have been necessary in order to fasten these cables without breaking them.[33] Herodotus appears to talk about undivided cables reaching from shore to shore. However, a single cable of 2,200 m would have weighed 124.3 tonnes and even today could not be transported by any practical means.[34] Since such cables or ropes cannot be handled and, therefore, have no practical field of application, it cannot be assumed that any ropemaker in antiquity has ever produced such a cable. That alone is sufficient to discard the occasional opinion that the ropes had been produced and delivered in manageable lengths and had been spliced together on the spot.[35] The idea of the cables having been produced on the ships already lined up for the bridge[36] does not appear to be feasible, either. If such ropes never had been produced, it is more than unlikely that the Persian general staff would have relied on a totally unknown method of production to be executed on swaying ships to build bridges of vital importance for the whole campaign, in particular since everybody involved was aware that any failure could result in his being beheaded. Besides, ropemaking requires a certain tension of the strands and of the rope. For this reason, it has been assumed that initially, during the period of rope production, the ships would have been moored next to each other in order to withstand the tension of the ropemaking taking place across them[37] One may imagine this procedure being executed across three or four ships, but with any larger number of ships in open water, severe damage to the ships and serious disruptions of the ropemaking must be anticipated. It seems impossible to tighten cables of such enormous lengths by windlasses as described by Herodotus.[38] Thus, there appears to be no alternative but to assume that the ships have been moored one to the other in a long curve by a number of ropes of normal, commercial quality as usually produced at that time, and that gaps of some 3 meters have been left between the ships. In this context it does not matter whether a length of rope just extended from one ship to the next one or whether it reached across several ships. It also does not matter whether it was sufficient to do the mooring by using just one rope at the bow and at the stern. If a number of ropes were necessary they would have been placed close to each other paying attention to tensions on these ropes being equal. In order to avoid entangling, these ropes (like the parallel wires in the main cables of modern suspension bridges) might have been wrapped by some sort of sheets or ropes. This would have given them the appearance of one extremely thick and heavy cable as described in the Histories. According to Herodotus, the ropes were not only used as mooring ropes but also supported the wooden logs forming the bridge deck which is a rather unusual method of construction. Sailors carefully prevent ropes from chafing or from being pressed by hard objects and thus try to avoid early deterioration of the ropes. The constant movement of the ships caused by waves and by the marching troops and the heavy loads of the soldiers and of the earth covering the logs putting pressure on the stretched ropes would have led to an early failure of the ropes. In addition, this setup would not have allowed to have a flat and even bridge deck. The ropes in between the ships would have sagged under the load of the earth and of the people which would have caused a constant up and down of the road. On top, the earth would have accumulated in the center of the sags and thus increased the local load on the ropes. There was no necessity for this configuration: the space between the ships being only three meters, the gap could easily have been bridged by the logs put from one ship to the next and parallel to the ropes. This would have been a better basis for the road and would not have had any bad influence on the ropes. Bridge deck[edit] Wooden logs[edit] The bridge deck was made of wooden logs which must have had a thickness of at least 10 cm (3.9 in).[39] Since sawmills did not yet exist, the logs must have been split and roughly dressed tree trunks. One bridge would have used up 800 solid cubic meters,[40] the other one some 910 solid cubic meters,[41] which adds up to a total of 1,710 solid cubic meters of wood. At an average specific weight of 0.5 t/m3, this corresponds to a total weight of 855 tonnes. Brushwood[edit] The purpose of the brushwood covering the logs remains unclear. Perhaps it was meant to keep the earth on the bridge. Earth pavement[edit] In recent modern times, a mere wooden bridge deck on a pontoon bridge was considered perfectly satisfactory.[42] In certain densely forested parts of the US and of Canada, however, wooden roads have been covered by a layer of earth to protect the wood from deteriorating, which appears to have provided some comfort for the horses and carriages.[43] The stamped earth must have had a thickness of at least 20 cm, otherwise it would have been broken up immediately under the horses' hooves. Load assumptions[edit] A bridge deck of 3.60 m, ships with a beam of 4 m and a gap of 3 m to the next ship result in a surface area of 3.6 x 7 = 25.2 m2 to be borne by each ship. The weight of a square meter is made up of 50 kg of logs and 360 kg of earth[44] adding up to 410 kg[45] As a result, each ship had to carry 25.2 m2 x 410 kg/m2 = 10,332 kg plus the weight of 4 x 7 = 28 Persons with luggage adding up to 2,520 kg, thus a total weight of some 13 tonnes which appears to be a reasonable load for the ships of that time. Screens[edit] The screens which Herodotus tells us to have been set up on either side of the bridge to block the horses' view on the water are imagined to have been 2.74 m (9.0 ft) tall, constructed out of tree limbs and with smaller limbs and other plants woven through these poles in order to make a solid wall.[46] Only one such screen on the bridge of 2,200 m would thus have had an area of some 6,000 m2. Even during a very gentle breeze, the wind loads on this huge area could not have been controlled by the means available at that time.[47] Pontoon bridges of the last centuries have shown that it is entirely sufficient to have simple guardrails made of wooden lattices or ropes in order to keep the horses on the bridge.[48] Openings for ships[edit] The three openings for the passage of small ships probably have been made by inserting higher triremes into the line of penteconters or commercial vessels. Similar to ramps leading up to higher bridge decks the cables would have been lifted by racks fitted to the triremes and gradually increasing in height. As the ships could easily unstep their masts, a clearance of about 2 meters above the water level should have been sufficient for merchant ships to pass underneath.[49] When winds caused the load on the cables to increase the triremes would have been pushed deeper into the water but this was only temporary as long as the wind lasted. Storm damage[edit] Although Herodotus appears to be clear in saying that the initial bridges were destroyed by a storm,[50] very little information can be derived from this phrase. It is left to speculation whether and to what extent ships, cables, ropes and logs were recovered, saved, repaired and reused. On the other hand, there is no indication of a total loss and that all elements of the bridges had to be procured again. The preparation of the bridges lasted months, if not years. Therefore, replacement deliveries of ships, cables, ropes and logs would have taken at least some months.[51] The initial placement of the wooden logs and the earth cover must initially have taken several days. Even if one assumes that no replacement deliveries were necessary and that all items could have been repaired, those repairs must have taken several days. During this time, the army waiting at the shore would have got into a very serious situation, since the provisions of food, fodder and water had not been calculated to cope with a prolonged stay. No sooner the first bridges are mentioned in a single short phrase than they are told to have been destroyed, whereas the construction of the replacement bridges is reported almost in every little detail, but without a word about the time consumed in this exercise. This may lead to the assumption that the bridges told to have been destroyed by a storm were used by Herodotus only as a pretext for his vivid description in all details of an outburst of rage of the great king Xerxes and even to quote his furious speech in full.[51] Notes[edit] ^ Bagnall, N. (2006) The Pelopennesian War. New York: Thomas Dunne Books ^ Herodotus 7.21 and 7.25 ^ Herodotus 7.33, 34 ^ Herodotus 7.35 ^ Herodotus 7.36; Abbot, J. (1917) Xerxes. New York: Brunswick Subscription Company ^ The actual weight of a talent and length of a cubit varied from place to place and during time, and there are different views of historians, but it may be taken as 26 kg/46 cm. ^ Strassler, R. B. (2007) The Landmark Herodotus. New York: Pantheon Books ^ Herodotus 7.55, 56 ^ Herodotus 8.117 ^ Questions about the bridges are summarized by N.G.L. Hammond, Hammond, N. G. L.; Roseman, L. J. (1996). "The construction of Xerxes' bridge over the Hellespont". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 116: 88–107. doi:10.2307/631957. JSTOR 631957. in the introduction to his article. ^ http://classics.mit.edu/Aeschylus/persians.html ^ The Black Sea Pilot, p. 17 ^ Nautical chart at GeoHack-Dardanelles, MapTech ^ The Black Sea Pilot, p. 30 ^ The Black Sea Pilot, p. 30: Rhodius River ^ The Black Sea Pilot, p. 32 ^ Barker, p. 41 ^ Barker, p. 31 ^ Hoyer, p. 403 ^ e.g. Barker, p. 30; Hammond, p. 93 in the little chart ^ Hammond (p. 98) cites Robert Chapman, A treatise on ropemaking as practiced in private and public ropeyards ... (Philadelphia 1869) that an iron anchor for a ship comparable to a penteconter would have to weigh some 136 kg. The overall total weight would thus be 1348 anchors x 136 kg/anchor = 183,328 kg or 183 tonnes. ^ a b Hammond, p. 98 ^ Barker (p. 34) talks about large blocks of stone ^ This is not the place to discuss the different types of stadia and the various views on their length ^ Hammond (p. 91) explains the difference to Herodotus by the water level in ancient times having been lower by 5 ft or 1,52 m, but he does not explain why the shores would then have been along the present 20 m depth line on one side and along the 30 m line on the other side (p. 93). ^ Parallelogram of force ^ Hoyer (p.390) recommends for the sake of stability that gaps should not exceed 6 m even if strong and thick boards are used. ^ a b Hammond, p. 95 ^ Hoyer, p. 402 ^ Again, the conversion is made without regard to the unit differing locally and to the various views of historians. ^ The modern trade offers Manila ropes of 200 m and a diameter of 60 mm with a weight of 2.49 kg/m or hemp ropes of 40 mm and 0.56 kg/m, whose breaking loads are 22 tonnes and 10 tonnes, respectively. ^ Hammonds (p.99) uses a cubit of 52,7 cm and a practical rule of thumb taken from Robert Chapman, A treatise on ropemaking as practiced in private and public ropeyards ... (Philadelphia 1869) and calculates the diameter to be 23 cm; Barker (p. 34) uses simplified figures and the circular area and arrives at a diameter of 25 cm; a comparison with a modern rope taking the weights and the circular areas into account results in a diameter of more than 28 cm. ^ Hammond (p. 101) describes the mooring by way of an eye splice on a bollard of 45 cm diameter without any discussion how to splice a cable of 23 cm diameter, how the cable would survive such a sharp bend, or how the then existing iron smelting and forging industry managed to produce bollards larger than most modern ones. ^ Hammond (p. 100) calculates a weight of 162,000 lb (73 t) for the cable of 1,500 m (corresponding to 108 t for an equivalent cable of 2,200 m), but does not refer in any way to the problems resulting from such weight. ^ Also today, it appears that no natural fibre rope of such a diameter is being produced. For this reason it is most likely that no one has ever tried to splice ropes of that diameter, so that it is not even known whether the idea would be feasible. ^ Hammond, p. 92 ff ^ Hammond, p. 92 ^ Hoyer, p. 406, with reference to pontoon bridges of some 300 m across the Rhine or the Danube, apart from the necessity to use windlasses with enormous drums ^ Hoyer does not even imagine that anything less than 20 - 25 cm could be used, however, for larger gaps ^ 2200 m x 3.60 m x 0.10 m = 792 m3 ^ 2520 m x 3.60 m x 0.10 m = 907.2 m3 ^ Hoyer, p. 405 ^ Hammond cites Ira Osborn Baker: A treatise on roads and pavements (New York 1908) ^ Logs: 0.5t/m3 x 0.10 m = 0.05 t; earth: 1.8 t/m3 x 0.20 m = 0.36 t or 360 kg ^ The load assumptions being imprecise, the marginal loads of the brushwood and of the screens, but also the weight of the cables of some 800 kg per ship can be disregarded ^ Hammond p. 100 ^ For comparison:Royal Clipper, a modern cruise ship and the largest square-rigged ship in service, has 5,202 m2 of sail; Kruzenshtern, the largest traditional sailing vessel still in operation, has a sail area of 3,400 m2. ^ Hoyer, p. 412; see also the picture of a Swedish pontoon bridge ^ Barker, p. 36 ^ Herodotus 7.34 ^ a b http://www.parstimes.com/history/herodotus/persian_wars/polymnia.html References[edit] Hammond, Nicholas G. L. (1996). "The construction of Xerxes' bridge over the Hellespont", The Journal of Hellenic Studies, [1996] 88-107; Digitization at JSTOR (not generally accessible) Barker, Peter Frederick. From the Scamander to Syracuse, Studies in Ancient Logistics. Dissertation, University of South Africa, November 2005. Hoyer, von, Johann G.. Handbuch der Pontonnier-Wissenschaften in Absicht ihrer Anwendung zum Feldgebrauch (Manual of the pontooneering sciences in view of their application in the field) Tome 1, 2. Ed., Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth, Leipzig 1830; Digitization on Google Books United States Hydrographic Office. The Black Sea Pilot: The Dardanelles, Sea of Marmara, Bosporus, and Sea of Azov; published 1920 by Govt. Print. Off.. Digitization on Archive.org Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes%27_Pontoon_Bridges&oldid=998712749" Categories: Greco-Persian Wars Pontoon bridges Achaemenid Empire History of the Dardanelles 480 BC Xerxes I Bridges completed in the 5th century BC Former bridges Bridges in Turkey Former bridges in Turkey Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch فارسی Italiano Nederlands Edit links This page was last edited on 6 January 2021, at 18:03 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-494	----	Djedefre - Wikipedia Djedefre From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Egyptian Pharaoh of the 4th Dynasty Djedefre Djedefra, Radjedef, Ratoises,[1] Rhampsinit, Rhauosis[2] Quartzite head of Djedefre from Abu Rawash, Musée du Louvre Pharaoh Reign 10 to 14 years, ca. 2575 BC (4th Dynasty) Predecessor Khufu Successor Khafre Royal titulary Nomen Djedefre Sȝ Rˁ ḏd.f Rˁ The son of Ra, he endures like Ra Horus name Hor-Kheper Ḥr-ḫpr Embodiment of Horus Nebty name Kheper-im-nebti Ḫpr-m-nb.tj Embodied in the Two Ladies Golden Horus Bikju-nebu Bjk.jw-nb.w The most golden falcon Abydos King List Djedefre Ḏd.f Rˁ He endures like Ra Saqqara Tablet Djedefre Ḏḏ.f Rˁ He endures like Ra Consort Hetepheres II, Khentetka Children Setka, Baka, Hernet, Neferhetepes, Hetepheres ?, Nikaudjedefre ? Father Khufu Burial Pyramid of Djedefre, Great Sphinx of Giza ?[3] Monuments Pyramid of Djedefre Djedefre (also known as Djedefra and Radjedef – Modern Greek: Ρετζεντέφ) was an ancient Egyptian king (pharaoh) of the 4th Dynasty during the Old Kingdom. He is well known by the Hellenized form of his name Rhatoisēs (Ῥατοίσης) by Manetho. Djedefre was the son and immediate throne successor of Khufu, the builder of the Great Pyramid of Giza; his mother is not known for certain. He is the king who introduced the royal title Sa-Rê (meaning “Son of Ra”) and the first to connect his cartouche name with the sun god Ra. Contents 1 Family 2 Reign 3 Pyramid complex 4 References 5 External links Family[edit] See also: Fourth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Statue of Setka inscribed with his name and titles, in the Louvre Djedefre married his brother Kawab's widow, Hetepheres II, who was sister to both of them, and who perhaps married a third brother of theirs, Khafre, after Djedefre's death.[4] Another queen, Khentetenka is known from statue fragments in the Abu Rowash mortuary temple.[5] Known children of Djedefre are: Hornit (“Eldest King's Son of His Body”) known from a statue depicting him and his wife.[6] Baka (“Eldest King's Son”) known from a statue base found in Djedefre's mortuary temple, depicting him with his wife Hetepheres.[7] Setka (“Eldest King's Son of His Body; Unique Servant of the King”) known from a scribe statue found in his father's pyramid complex.[8] It is possible that he ruled for a short while after his father's death; an unfinished pyramid at Zawiyet el-Arian was started for a ruler whose name ends in ka; this could have been Setka or Baka.[4] Neferhetepes (“King's Daughter of His Body; God's Wife”) is known from a statue fragment from Abu Rowash. Until recently, she was believed to be the mother of a pharaoh of the next dynasty, either Userkaf or Sahure.[8] The French excavation team led by Michel Vallogia found the names of two other possible children of Djedefre in the pyramid complex: Nikaudjedefre (“King's Son of His Body”) was buried in Tomb F15 in Abu Rowash; it is possible that he wasn't a son of Djedefre but lived later and his title was only honorary.[8] Hetepheres (“King's Daughter of His Body”) was mentioned on a statue fragment.[6] Reign[edit] Cartouche name of Djedefre in the Abydos-List - name variant here written Ra-Djed-Ef Red granite head of Djedefre, in the Louvre The Turin King List credits him with a rule of eight years, but the highest known year referred to during this reign appears to be the year of his 11th cattle count. The anonymous year of the 11th count date presumably of Djedefre was found written on the underside of one of the massive roofing-block beams which covered Khufu's southern boat-pits by Egyptian work crews.[9] Miroslav Verner notes that in the work crew's mason marks and inscriptions, "either Djedefra's throne name or his Golden Horus name occur exclusively."[10] Verner writes that the current academic opinion regarding the attribution of this date to Djedefre is disputed among Egyptologists: Rainer Stadelman, Vassil Dobrev, Peter Janosi favour dating it to Djedefre whereas Wolfgang Helck, Anthony Spalinger, Jean Vercoutter and W.S. Smith attribute this date to Khufu instead on the assumption "that the ceiling block with the date had been brought to the building site of the boat pit already in Khufu's time and placed in position [only] as late as during the burial of the funerary boat in Djedefre's time."[10] The German scholar Dieter Arnold, in a 1981 MDAIK paper noted that the marks and inscriptions of the blocks from Khufu's boat pit seem to form a coherent collection relating to the different stages of the same building project realised by Djedefre's crews.[11] Verner stresses that such marks and inscriptions usually pertained to the breaking of the blocks in the quarry, their transportation, their storage and manipulation in the building site itself:[12] "In this context, the attribution of just a single inscription—and what is more, the only one with a date—on all the blocks from the boat pit to somebody other than Djedefra does not seem very plausible."[13] Verner also notes that the French-Swiss team excavating Djedefre's pyramid have discovered that this king's pyramid was really finished in his reign. According to Vallogia, Djedefre's pyramid largely made use of a natural rock promontory which represented circa 45% of its core; the side of the pyramid was 200 cubits long and its height was 125 cubits.[14] The original volume of the monument of Djedefre, hence, approximately equalled that of Menkaura's own pyramid.[15] Therefore, the argument that Djedefre enjoyed a short reign because his pyramid was unfinished is somewhat discredited.[16] This means that Djedefre likely ruled Egypt for a minimum of 11 years if the cattle count was annual, or 22 years if it was biennial; Verner, himself, supports the shorter, 11-year figure and notes that "the relatively few monuments and records left by Djedefra do not seem to favour a very long reign" for this king.[16] Pyramid complex[edit] The ruined pyramid of Djedefre at Abu Rawash Djedefre continued the move north in the location of pyramids by building his (now ruined) pyramid at Abu Rawash, some 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) to the north of Giza. It is the northernmost part of the Memphite necropolis. While Egyptologists previously assumed that his pyramid at this heavily denuded site was unfinished upon his death, more recent excavations from 1995 to 2005 have established that it was indeed completed.[17] The most recent evidence indicates that its current state is the result of extensive plundering in later periods while "the king's statues [were] smashed as late as the 2nd century AD."[17] Some believe that the sphinx of his wife, Hetepheres II, which was part of Djedefre's pyramid complex, was the first sphinx created. In 2004, evidence that Djedefre was responsible for the building of the Sphinx at Giza in the image of his father was reported by the French Egyptologist Vassil Dobrev.[18] Due to the poor condition of Abu Rawash, only small traces of his mortuary complex have been found. Only the rough ground plan of his mud brick mortuary temple was able to be traced—with some difficulty—"in the usual place on the east face of the pyramid."[19] His pyramid causeway proved to run from north to south rather than the more conventional east to west, while no valley temple has been found.[19] References[edit] ^ Kim Ryholt: The political Situation in Egypt during the second intermediate Period: c. 1800 - 1550 B.C., Museum Tusculanum Press, Copenhagen 1997, ISBN 87-7289-421-0; William Gillian Waddell: Manetho (The Loeb classical Library) ^ Alan B. Lloyd: Herodotus, book II. ^ The riddle of the Spinx ^ a b Dodson & Hilton, p.55 ^ Dodson & Hilton, p.59 ^ a b Dodson & Hilton, p.58 ^ Dodson & Hilton, pp.56, 58 ^ a b c Dodson & Hilton, p.61 ^ Miroslav Verner, Archaeological Remarks on the 4th and 5th Dynasty Chronology, Archiv Orientální, Volume 69: 2001, p.375 ^ a b Verner, p.375 ^ Dieter Arnold, MDAIK 37 (1981), p.28 ^ M. Verner, Baugraffiti der Ptahscepses-Mastaba, Praha 1992. p.184 ^ Verner, p.376 ^ Michel Vallogia, Études sur l'Ancien Empire et la nécropole de Saqqara (Fs Lauer) 1997. p.418 ^ Vallogia, op. cit., p.418 ^ a b Verner, p.377 ^ a b Clayton, pp.50-51 ^ Riddle of the Sphinx ^ a b Clayton, p.50 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Djedefra. Riddle of the Sphinx v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 12316012X ISNI: 0000 0001 2071 2185 LCCN: no2011093990 VIAF: 171737853 WorldCat Identities: lccn-no2011093990 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Djedefre&oldid=998789881" Categories: Djedefre 26th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Khufu Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Place of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 7 January 2021, at 01:38 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4953	----	Nuya - Wikipedia Nuya From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Nuya Scarab seal of Nuya Pharaoh Reign unknown duration (uncertain, possibly 14th dynasty) Predecessor unknown Successor unknown Royal titulary Nomen Nuya Nw-y Nuya was a ruler of some part of Lower Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, possibly during the 17th century BC. Nuya is attested by a single scarab seal of unknown provenance.[1] Based on a seriation of the seals of the Second Intermediate Period, the Danish Egyptologist Kim Ryholt has proposed that Nuya was a king of the 14th Dynasty, reigning after Nehesy and before Yaqub-Har.[2][3] As such, he would have ruled in the 17th century BC from Avaris over the eastern Nile Delta and possibly over the Western Delta as well. Alternatively, the Egyptologists Erik Hornung and Elisabeth Staehelin read the inscription on the scarab attributed to Nuya as Khyan, the name of a powerful Hyksos king of the 15th Dynasty c. 1610–1580 BC.[1] This reading is emphatically rejected by the Egyptologist Darrell Baker however, who remains cautious about Nuya's identity.[3] References[edit] ^ a b Erik Hornung, Elisabeth Staehelin: Skarabäen und andere Siegelamulette aus Basler Sammlungen, Verlag Phillip von Zabern in Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft (1976), ISBN 978-3805302968, p.218, seal No 140 ^ K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here. ^ a b Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 287–288 v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nuya&oldid=954561527" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What 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en-wikipedia-org-4980	----	Nerikare - Wikipedia Nerikare From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Nerikare Nerkare, [Kheper?]kare, Djefakare Drawing of the text on the stele of Nerikare discovered in Thebes by Karl Richard Lepsius, now lost.[1] Pharaoh Reign 1796 BC [2] (13th Dynasty) Predecessor Sonbef (Ryholt), Sehetepkare Intef (von Beckerath) Successor Amenemhat V (Ryholt), Hotepkare (von Beckerath) Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Nerikare[3] Nry-k3-Rˁ Nomen Uncertain, possibly "Sobek"[4] Nerikare was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. According to the Egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, he was the third king of the dynasty, reigning for a short time in 1796 BC.[2][3] Alternatively Jürgen von Beckerath sees Nerikare as the twenty-third king of the 13th Dynasty, reigning after Sehetepkare Intef.[5][6] Contents 1 Attestations 2 Chronological position 3 Nomen 4 References Attestations[edit] Nerikare is known primarily from a single stele dated to year 1 of his reign.[2] The stele was published in 1897 but is now lost.[1][3] In addition, the prenomen of a king who could be Nerikare is attested on a Nile record from Semna, near the second cataract of the Nile in Nubia. The record is dated to the first regnal year of this king, whose name was read as "Djefakare" by egyptologists F. Hintze and W. F. Reineke.[7] Kim Ryholt however notes that the prenomen was misread by the discoverers of the record with Gardiner's sign G14 nry, representing a vulture, mistaken for the sign G42 representing a duck and reading ḏf3.[2][3] Thus, Ryholt and others, such as Darrell Baker, now reads the name as "Nerikare".[2][3] Chronological position[edit] Ryholt points out that known Nile records, which are similar to the one he attributes to Nerikare, all date to the time period from the late 12th to early 13th dynasties. He thus concludes that Nerikare too must have been a king of this time period, and since "Nerikare" does not appear on the Turin canon, Ryholt proposes that he was mentioned in the wsf lacuna affecting the third king of the dynasty in the Turin canon (column 7, line 6). A wsf (literally "missing") lacuna signals a lacuna in the document from which the Turin canon was copied in Ramesside times. This would establish Nerikare as the third king of the dynasty, although the lacuna might have comprised two kings and Nerikare could possibly be the fourth ruler, following an unknown king.[2] The duration of Nerikare's reign is reported as exactly 6 years on the Turin canon, however Ryholt has shown that this is true for all kings marked as wsf and that this figure was likely inserted by the author of the king list in order to avoid chronological gaps.[2] Instead, Ryholt proposes that Nerikare reigned for only 1 year. Furthermore, the existence of a Nile record dated to his first regnal year indicates that he accessed the throne at the beginning of a calendar year, before the season of inundation during which such records were inscribed.[8] Nomen[edit] In his 1997 study of the second intermediate period, Kim Ryholt proposes that Nerikare's nomen may have been "Sobek". This nomen appears on three seals, which can be dated to the 13th dynasty, before Sobekhotep III. Since the nomina of all but two kings of this period are known, he argues that only Nerikare or Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw might have borne this nomen.[4] References[edit] ^ a b Karl Richard Lepsius: Denkmaler Abtheilung II Band IV Available online see p. 152; Lepsius: Denkmaler, Text, I (1897) 15 ^ a b c d e f g K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800 – 1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997 ^ a b c d e Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 278 ^ a b See Ryholt, note 89 p.34 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46. Mainz am Rhein, 1997 ^ F. Hintze and W. F. Reineke: Felsinschriften aus dem sudanesischen Nubien, Publikation der Nubien-Expedition, 1961–1963 I; Berlin 1989 ^ See Ryholt, p. 321 Preceded by Sonbef Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Amenemhat V v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nerikare&oldid=954561495" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages አማርኛ العربية Català Español Français Italiano ქართული Magyar Português Slovenščina ไทย Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 3 May 2020, at 02:51 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4991	----	Amyntas II (son of Bubares) - Wikipedia Amyntas II (son of Bubares) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Alabanda Location of Alabanda in Asia Minor, received from Xerxes by Amyntas II. Amyntas II was the son of the Persian official Bubares by his Macedonian wife Gygaea.[1] He was named after his maternal grandfather, Amyntas I of Macedon, who ruled Macedon as a Persian subject since 512/511 BC.[2][3] Later, king Xerxes I (r. 486-465 BC) gave him the Carian city of Alabanda.[4][2] Amyntas was possibly the direct successor of the tyrant Aridolis.[5] "Bubares, a Persian, had taken to wife Gygaea, Alexander's sister and Amyntas' daughter, who had borne to him that Amyntas of Asia who was called by the name of his mother's father, and to whom the king gave Alabanda, a great city in Phrygia, for his dwelling." — Herodotus VIII.136[6] References[edit] ^ Roisman & Worthington 2010, p. 343. sfn error: no target: CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010 (help) ^ a b Briant 2002, p. 350. ^ Roisman & Worthington 2010, pp. 136, 343. sfn error: no target: CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010 (help) ^ Roisman & Worthington 2010, p. 136. sfn error: no target: CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010 (help) ^ McNicoll, Milner; McNicoll, Anthony; Milner, N. P. (1997). Hellenistic Fortifications from the Aegean to the Euphrates. Oxford monographs on classical archaeology. Clarendon Press. p. 31. ISBN 9780198132288. Retrieved 2018-10-12. ^ LacusCurtius • Herodotus — Book VIII: Chapters 97‑144. Sources[edit] Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1575061207.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian, eds. (2011). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-1-44-435163-7.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amyntas_II_(son_of_Bubares)&oldid=981357150" Categories: 6th-century BC Iranian people 5th-century BC Iranian people Achaemenid Macedon Iranian people of Greek descent 5th-century BC deaths Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors CS1 maint: ref=harv Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Ελληνικά Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 1 October 2020, at 20:34 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5036	----	Ptolemy I Soter - Wikipedia Ptolemy I Soter From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the medieval count, see Ptolemy I of Tusculum. Macedonian general Ptolemy I Soter Bust of Ptolemy I in the Louvre Pharaoh and Basileus of the Ptolemaic Kingdom Reign 305/304 – 282 BC (Ptolemaic dynasty) Predecessor Alexander IV Successor Ptolemy II Philadelphus Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) stp.n-rꜤ mrj-jmn Setepenre meryamun Chosen by Ra and beloved of Amun < Nomen ptwꜢlwmys Petualumys Ptolemaios Horus name wr-pḥtj nsw-ḳnj Werpekhty nesuqeny Great of strength and brave king Nebty name jṯj-m-sḫm ḥḳꜢ-ṯl Itjiemsekhem heqatjel He who has seized with power, the ruler of Sile Consort Artakama Eurydice Berenice I Children With Thaïs (mistress): Lagus Leontiscus Eirene With Eurydice: Ptolemy Keraunos Meleager Unknown third son Ptolemais Lysandra With Berenice I: Arsinoe II Philotera Ptolemy II Philadelphus Father Lagus or Philip II of Macedon Mother Arsinoe Born c. 367 BC Possibly Pella Macedon Died January 282 BC (aged 84–85) Alexandria, Egypt Ptolemy I Soter (/ˈtɒləmi/; Greek: Πτολεμαῖος Σωτήρ, Ptolemaîos Sōtḗr "Ptolemy the Savior"; c. 367 BC – January 282 BC) was a companion and historian of Alexander the Great of the Kingdom of Macedon in northern Greece who became ruler of Egypt, part of Alexander's former empire. Ptolemy was pharaoh of Ptolemaic Egypt from 305/304 BC[1] to his death. He was the founder of the Ptolemaic dynasty which ruled Egypt until the death of Cleopatra in 30 BC, turning the country into a Hellenistic kingdom and Alexandria into a center of Greek culture. Ptolemy I was the son of Arsinoe of Macedon by either her husband Lagus or Philip II of Macedon, the father of Alexander. Ptolemy was one of Alexander's most trusted companions and military officers. After the death of Alexander in 323 BC, Ptolemy retrieved his body as it was en route to be buried in Macedon, placing it in Memphis instead, where it was later moved to Alexandria in a new tomb. Afterwards he joined a coalition against Perdiccas, the royal regent over Philip III of Macedon. The latter invaded Egypt but was assassinated by his own officers in 320 BC, allowing Ptolemy I to consolidate his control over the country. After a series of wars between Alexander's successors, Ptolemy gained a claim to Judea in southern Syria which was disputed with the Syrian king Seleucus I Nicator, his former ally. He also took control of Cyprus and Cyrenaica, the latter of which was placed under the control of Ptolemy's stepson Magas. Ptolemy I may have married Thaïs, his mistress during the life of Alexander; he is known to have married the Persian noblewoman Artakama on Alexander's orders. He later married Eurydice, daughter of the Macedonian regent Antipater; their sons Ptolemy Keraunos and Meleager ruled in turn as kings of Macedon. Ptolemy's final marriage was to Eurydice's cousin and lady-in-waiting, Berenice I. Ptolemy I died in 282 BC and was succeeded by his son with Berenice, Ptolemy II. He also had built the Library of Alexandria. Contents 1 Early life and career 2 Successor of Alexander 3 Rivalry and wars 4 Marriages, children, and succession 5 Lost history of Alexander's campaigns 6 Euclid 7 See also 8 References 8.1 Citations 8.2 Sources 9 Bibliography 10 External links Early life and career[edit] Ptolemaic coin showing Alexander wearing an elephant scalp, a symbol of his conquest in India A Macedonian,[2] Ptolemy was born in 367 BC.[3] Ptolemy's mother was Arsinoe. According to Satyrus the Peripatetic, Arsinoe was a descendant of Alexander I of Macedon and thus a member of the Argead dynasty, claiming ultimate descent from Heracles. Ostensibly, Ptolemy's father was Lagus, a Macedonian nobleman from Eordaea, but many ancient sources claim that he was actually an illegitimate son of Philip II of Macedon. If true, this would have made Ptolemy the half-brother of Alexander. It is probable that this is a later myth fabricated to glorify the Ptolemaic dynasty.[4] Ptolemy served with Alexander from his first campaigns, and was among the seven somatophylakes (bodyguards) of Alexander. He played a principal part in the later campaigns in Afghanistan and India.[5] He participated in the Battle of Issus, commanding troops on the left wing under the authority of Parmenion. Later he accompanied Alexander during his journey to the Oracle in the Siwa Oasis where he was proclaimed a son of Zeus.[6] Ptolemy had his first independent command during the campaign against the rebel Bessus whom Ptolemy captured and handed over to Alexander for execution.[7] Successor of Alexander[edit] Tetradrachm of Ptolemy I, British Museum, London Ptolemy I gold stater with elephant quadriga, Cyrenaica Ptolemy I as Pharaoh of Egypt, British Museum, London When Alexander died in 323 BC, Ptolemy is said to have instigated the settlement of the empire made at Babylon. Through the Partition of Babylon, he was appointed satrap of Egypt, under the nominal kings Philip III Arrhidaeus and the infant Alexander IV; the former satrap, the Greek Cleomenes, stayed on as his deputy. Ptolemy quickly moved, without authorization, to subjugate Cyrenaica.[5] By custom, kings in Macedonia asserted their right to the throne by burying their predecessor. Probably because he wanted to pre-empt Perdiccas, the imperial regent, from staking his claim in this way, Ptolemy took great pains in acquiring the body of Alexander the Great. On his deathbed, Alexander the Great wished to be buried at the Temple of Zeus Ammon in the Siwa Oasis of ancient Libya instead of the royal tombs of Aigai in Macedon.[8] However, his successors including Perdiccas attempted to bury his body in Macedon instead. In late 322 or early 321 BC, the body of Alexander the Great was in Syria, on its way to Macedon, when it was captured by Ptolemy I Soter. He brought Alexander's remains back to Egypt, interring them at Memphis, but they were later moved to Alexandria where a tomb of Alexander the Great was constructed for them.[9] Shortly after this event, Ptolemy openly joined the coalition against Perdiccas. Perdiccas appears to have suspected Ptolemy of aiming for the throne himself, and may have decided that Ptolemy was his most dangerous rival. Ptolemy executed Cleomenes for spying on behalf of Perdiccas; this removed the chief check on his authority, and allowed Ptolemy to obtain the huge sum that Cleomenes had accumulated.[10] Rivalry and wars[edit]   Kingdom of Ptolemy I Soter   Kingdom of Cassander   Kingdom of Lysimachus   Kingdom of Seleucus I Nicator   Epirus Other:   Carthage   Rome   Greek colonies The taking of Jerusalem by Ptolemy Soter c. 320 BC, by Jean Fouquet Ptolemy I, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen In 321 BC, Perdiccas attempted to invade Egypt, only to fall at the hands of his own men.[11] Ptolemy's decision to defend the Nile against Perdiccas ended in fiasco for Perdiccas, with the loss of 2,000 men. This failure was a fatal blow to Perdiccas' reputation, and he was murdered in his tent by two of his subordinates. Ptolemy immediately crossed the Nile, to provide supplies to what had the day before been an enemy army. Ptolemy was offered the regency in place of Perdiccas; but he declined.[12] Ptolemy was consistent in his policy of securing a power base, while never succumbing to the temptation of risking all to succeed Alexander.[13] In the long wars that followed between the different Diadochi, Ptolemy's first goal was to hold Egypt securely, and his second was to secure control in the outlying areas: Cyrenaica and Cyprus, as well as Syria, including the province of Judea. His first occupation of Syria was in 318, and he established at the same time a protectorate over the petty kings of Cyprus. When Antigonus One-Eye, master of Asia in 315, showed expansionist ambitions, Ptolemy joined the coalition against him, and on the outbreak of war, evacuated Syria. In Cyprus, he fought the partisans of Antigonus, and re-conquered the island (313). A revolt in Cyrene was crushed the same year.[5] In 312, Ptolemy and Seleucus, the fugitive satrap of Babylonia, both invaded Syria, and defeated Demetrius Poliorcetes ("besieger of cities"), the son of Antigonus, in the Battle of Gaza. Again he occupied Syria, and again—after only a few months, when Demetrius had won a battle over his general, and Antigonus entered Syria in force—he evacuated it. In 311, a peace was concluded between the combatants. Soon after this, the surviving 13-year-old king, Alexander IV, was murdered in Macedonia on the orders of Cassander, leaving the satrap of Egypt absolutely his own master.[5] The peace did not last long, and in 309 Ptolemy personally commanded a fleet which detached the coastal towns of Lycia and Caria from Antigonus, then crossed into Greece, where he took possession of Corinth, Sicyon and Megara (308 BC). In 306, a great fleet under Demetrius attacked Cyprus, and Ptolemy's brother Menelaus was defeated and captured in another decisive Battle of Salamis. Ptolemy's complete loss of Cyprus followed.[5] The satraps Antigonus and Demetrius now each assumed the title of king; Ptolemy, as well as Cassander, Lysimachus and Seleucus I Nicator, responded by doing the same. In the winter of 306 BC, Antigonus tried to follow up his victory in Cyprus by invading Egypt; but Ptolemy was strongest there, and successfully held the frontier against him. Ptolemy led no further overseas expeditions against Antigonus.[14] However, he did send great assistance to Rhodes when it was besieged by Demetrius (305/304). The Rhodians granted divine honors to Ptolemy as a result of the lifting of the siege.[15] When the coalition against Antigonus was renewed in 302, Ptolemy joined it, and invaded Syria a third time, while Antigonus was engaged with Lysimachus in Asia Minor. On hearing a report that Antigonus had won a decisive victory there, he once again evacuated Syria. But when the news came that Antigonus had been defeated and slain by Lysimachus and Seleucus at the Battle of Ipsus in 301, he occupied Syria a fourth time.[14] The other members of the coalition had assigned all Syria to Seleucus, after what they regarded as Ptolemy's desertion, and for the next hundred years, the question of the ownership of southern Syria (i.e., Judea) produced recurring warfare between the Seleucid and Ptolemaic dynasties. Henceforth, Ptolemy seems to have involved himself as little as possible in the rivalries between Asia Minor and Greece; he lost what he held in Greece, but reconquered Cyprus in 295/294. Cyrenaica, after a series of rebellions, was finally subjugated in about 300 and placed under his stepson Magas.[14] Marriages, children, and succession[edit] Ptolemy I and Berenice I Depiction of Ptolemy I or II, Royal Ontario Museum Ptolemy I depicted as Dionysus While Alexander was alive, Ptolemy had three children with his mistress Thaïs, who may also have been his wife: Lagus; Leontiscus; and Eirene, who was given in marriage to Eunostos of Soloi in Cyprus. During the Susa weddings, Ptolemy married Persian noblewoman Artakama, as ordered by Alexander the Great.[16] Around 322 BC, he married Eurydice, daughter of Antipater, regent of Macedonia. They had five children before she was repudiated: three sons–Ptolemy Keraunos, king of Macedon from 281 BC to 279 BC; his brother and successor Meleager, who ruled for two months in 279 BC; and a 'rebel in Cyprus' who was put to death by his half-brother Ptolemy II Philadelphus–as well as the daughters Ptolemais, who married Demetrius I of Macedon, and Lysandra, first married to Alexander V of Macedon and after to Lysimachus' son Agathocles.[16][17][18][19][20][21] Ptolemy married once more to Berenice, Eurydice's cousin, who had come to Egypt as Eurydice's lady-in-waiting with the children from her first marriage to Philip. Their children were Arsinoe II, Philotera, and Ptolemy II. Their eldest child Arsinoe married Lysimachus, then her half-brother Ptolemy Keraunos, and finally her full brother Ptolemy II.[17][22] In 285, Ptolemy made his son by Berenice, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, his co-regent. His eldest legitimate son, Ptolemy Keraunos, fled to the court of Lysimachus. Ptolemy I died in January 282 aged 84 or 85.[3] Shrewd and cautious, he had a compact and well-ordered realm to show at the end of forty years of war. His reputation for good nature and liberality attached the floating soldier-class of Macedonians and other Greeks to his service, and was not insignificant; nor did he wholly neglect conciliation of the natives. He was a ready patron of letters, founding the Great Library of Alexandria.[23] The Ptolemaic dynasty which he founded ruled Egypt for nearly three hundred years. It was a Hellenistic kingdom known for its capital Alexandria, which became a center of Greek culture. Ptolemaic rule ended with the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC.[24] Lost history of Alexander's campaigns[edit] Ptolemy himself wrote an eyewitness history of Alexander's campaigns (now lost).[25] In the second century AD, Ptolemy's history was used by Arrian of Nicomedia as one of his two main primary sources (alongside the history of Aristobulus of Cassandreia) for his own extant Anabasis of Alexander, and hence large parts of Ptolemy's history can be assumed to survive in paraphrase or précis in Arrian's work.[26] Arrian cites Ptolemy by name on only a few occasions, but it is likely that large stretches of Arrian's Anabasis reflect Ptolemy's version of events. Arrian once names Ptolemy as the author "whom I chiefly follow",[27] and in his Preface writes that Ptolemy seemed to him to be a particularly trustworthy source, "not only because he was present with Alexander on campaign, but also because he was himself a king, and hence lying would be more dishonourable for him than for anyone else".[28] Ptolemy's lost history was long considered an objective work, distinguished by its straightforward honesty and sobriety,[14] but more recent work has called this assessment into question. R. M. Errington argued that Ptolemy's history was characterised by persistent bias and self-aggrandisement, and by systematic blackening of the reputation of Perdiccas, one of Ptolemy's chief dynastic rivals after Alexander's death.[29] For example, Arrian's account of the fall of Thebes in 335 BC (Anabasis 1.8.1–1.8.8, a rare section of narrative explicitly attributed to Ptolemy by Arrian) shows several significant variations from the parallel account preserved in Diodorus Siculus (17.11–12), most notably in attributing a distinctly unheroic role in proceedings to Perdiccas. More recently, J. Roisman has argued that the case for Ptolemy's blackening of Perdiccas and others has been much exaggerated.[30] Euclid[edit] Ptolemy personally sponsored the great mathematician Euclid. He found Euclid's seminal work, the Elements, too difficult to study, so he asked if there were an easier way to master it. According to Proclus Euclid famously quipped: "Sire, there is no Royal Road to geometry."[31] See also[edit] History of Ptolemaic Egypt Serapis, Greco-Egyptian god, promoted by Ptolemy References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Hölbl, Günther (2013). A History of the Ptolemaic Empire. Routledge. p. 21. ISBN 9781135119836. ^ Jones, Prudence J. (2006). Cleopatra: A Sourcebook. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 14. ISBN 9780806137414. They were members of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Macedonian Greeks, who ruled Egypt after the death of its conqueror, Alexander the Great. ^ a b Ptolemy I at Livius.org ^ Carney, Elizabeth (2010). Philip II and Alexander The Great: Father and Son, Lives and Afterlives. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-973815-1. ^ a b c d e Chisholm 1911, p. 616. ^ Grimal, Nicolas (1992). A History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Blackwell Books. p. 382. ISBN 978-0-631-19396-8. ^ Arrian (1976). de Sélincourt, Aubrey (ed.). Anabasis Alexandri (The Campaigns of Alexander). Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. III, 30. ISBN 978-0-14-044253-3. ^ Lauren O'Connor (2008). "The Remains of Alexander the Great: The God, The King, The Symbol". Constructing the Past. Retrieved 28 March 2019.. ^ Saunders, Nicholas (2007), Alexander's Tomb: The Two-Thousand Year Obsession to Find the Lost Conqueror, Basic Books, p. 41, ISBN 0465006213 ^ Green, Peter (1990). Alexander to Actium. University of California Press. pp 13–14. ISBN 9780520083493. ^ Anson, Edward M (Summer 1986). "Diodorus and the Date of Triparadeisus". The American Journal of Philology (The Johns Hopkins University Press) 107 (2): 208–217. doi:10.2307/294603. JSTOR 294603. ^ Peter Green p14 ^ Peter Green pp 119 ^ a b c d Chisholm 1911, p. 617. ^ Siege of Rhodes at Livius.org ^ a b Ogden, Daniel (1999). Polygamy Prostitutes and Death. The Hellenistic Dynasties. London: Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd. p. 150. ISBN 07156 29301. ^ a b Clayman, Dee L. (2014). Berenice II and the Golden Age of Ptolemaic Egypt. Oxford University Press. p. 65. ISBN 9780195370881. ^ Macurdy, Grace Harriet (1985). Hellenistic Queens (Reprint of 1932 ed.). Chicago: Ares Publishers. ISBN 978-0-89005-542-7. ^ Hölbl, Gūnther (2001). A History of the Ptolemaic Empire. Routledge. pp. 35–36. ISBN 978-0-06-019439-0. ^ McKechnie, Paul; Guillaume, Philippe (16 October 2008). Ptolemy II Philadelphus and his World. Brill. p. 43. ISBN 978-9047424208. ^ Plutarch, Parallel Lives, "Demetrius", 32, 46 ^ Berenice I at Livius.org ^ Phillips, Heather A., "The Great Library of Alexandria?". Library Philosophy and Practice, August 2010 Archived 2012-07-26 at WebCite ^ Ptolemaic Dynasty at Ancient History Encyclopedia ^ Jacoby, Felix (1926). Die Fragmente der griechischen Historiker, Teil 2, Zeitgeschichte. – B. Spezialgeschichten, Autobiographien und Memoiren, Zeittafeln [Nr. 106-261]. Berlin: Weidmann. pp. 752–769, no. 138, "Ptolemaios Lagu". OCLC 769308142. ^ Bosworth, A. B. (1988). From Arrian to Alexander: Studies in Historical Interpretation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 13–14. ISBN 978-0198148630. ^ Anabasis 6.2.4 ^ Anabasis, Prologue ^ Errington, R. M. (1969-01-01). "Bias in Ptolemy's History of Alexander". The Classical Quarterly. 19 (2): 233–242. JSTOR 637545. ^ Roisman, Joseph (1984-01-01). "Ptolemy and His Rivals in His History of Alexander". The Classical Quarterly. 34 (2): 373–385. JSTOR 638295. ^ Robinson, Victor (2005). The Story of Medicine. Whitefish, Montana: Kessinger Publishing. p. 80. ISBN 978-1-4191-5431-7. Sources[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Ptolemies". Encyclopædia Britannica. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 616–618. Bibliography[edit] Walter M. Ellis: Ptolemy of Egypt, London: Routledge. 1993. ISBN 9780415100205 Christian A. Caroli: Ptolemaios I. Soter – Herrscher zweier Kulturen, Konstanz: Badawi. 2007. ISBN 9783938828052 Waterfield, Robin (2011). Dividing the Spoils – The War for Alexander the Great's Empire (hardback). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-957392-9. McKechnie, Paul and Jennifer A. Cromwell (eds). Ptolemy I and the Transformation of Egypt, 404–282 BCE. Leiden, NL; Boston, MA: Brill, 2018. ISBN 978-90-04-36696-1. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ptolemy I. Ptolemy Soter I at LacusCurtius — (Chapter II of E. R Bevan's House of Ptolemy, 1923) Ptolemy I (at Egyptian Royal Genealogy, with genealogical table) Livius, Ptolemy I Soter by Jona Lendering Ptolemy I Soter entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith A genealogical tree of Ptolemy, though not necessarily reliable Alexander the Great Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemaic Dynasty Born: 367 BC  Died: 282 BC Preceded by Alexander IV Pharaoh of Egypt 305/304–282 BC Succeeded by Ptolemy II Philadelphus v t e The division of Alexander's empire v t e Hellenistic rulers Argeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Kings of Cyrene Magas Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Kings of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Kings of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Kings of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Kings of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus Kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon (regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces Asander with Dynamis Mithridates II Asander with Dynamis Scribonius’ attempted rule with Dynamis Dynamis with Polemon Polemon with Pythodorida Aspurgus Mithridates III with Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control BIBSYS: 95004785 BNF: cb12473505d (data) CANTIC: a1229441x GND: 118596926 ISNI: 0000 0004 3959 2365 LCCN: n93023826 NKC: mzk2005300731 NLA: 66121801 NLI: 004439483 NSK: 000069540 NTA: 070980829 SUDOC: 066982855 Trove: 1806331 ULAN: 500356588 VcBA: 495/117301 VIAF: 21347488 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n93023826 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ptolemy_I_Soter&oldid=999437753" Categories: 360s BC births 280s BC deaths 4th-century BC Pharaohs 3rd-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Ptolemaic dynasty Ancient Macedonian historians Ancient Eordaeans Hetairoi Historians who accompanied Alexander the Great Satraps of the Alexandrian Empire Somatophylakes Trierarchs of Nearchus' fleet 4th-century BC Greek people 3rd-century BC Greek people 4th-century BC Macedonians 3rd-century BC Macedonians 4th-century BC rulers 3rd-century BC rulers 3rd-century BC historians Hidden categories: 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en-wikipedia-org-5040	----	Prokles (Pergamon) - Wikipedia Prokles (Pergamon) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Prokles Portrait of Prokles, from his coinage, circa 400 BC Native name Prokles Allegiance Achaemenid Empire Rank Governor Coin of Prokles, brother and co-ruler of Eurysthenes, as Dynast of Teuthrania and Halisarna, circa 400-399 BC. Obv: Head of Apollo. Rev: Portrait of Prokles wearing the Persian cap. Letters ΤΕΥ ("TEU", for Teuthrania). Teuthrania, Mysia. Laureate head of Apollo left / Head of Prokles right, wearing Persian headdress. Pergamon Location of Pergamon. Prokles (circa 400 BC) was a descendant of the exiled Spartan king Demaratus, and ruler of Pergamon in Asia Minor under the Achaemenid Empire. He was a brother of Eurysthenes, with whom he was a joint ruler. After his deposition in 491 BC Demaratus had fled to Persia, where king Darius I made him ruler of the cities of Pergamon, Teuthrania and Halisarna. About a hundred years later Eurysthenes and his brother Prokles reigned over the same cities; their joint rule is at least attested for the year 399 BC.[1] Xenophon and the Ten Thousand received some support from Prokles in facing Achaemenid troops, at the beginning of their campaign into Asia Minor.[2] According to Xenophon (Anabasis, 7.8.8-17), when he arrived in Mysia in 399, he met Hellas, the widow of Gongylos and probably daughter of Themistocles,[3] who was living at Pergamon. His two sons, Gorgion and Gongylos the younger, ruled respectively over the cities of Gambrium, Palaegambrium for Gorgion, and Myrina and Grynium for Gongylos. Xenophon received some support from the descendants of Gongylos for his campaign into Asia Minor, as well as from the descendants of Demaratos, a Spartan exile who also had become a satrap for the Achaemenids, in the person of his descendant Prokles.[4][5] The coinage of Prokles displays one of the earliest portraits of a Greek ruler on a coin.[6] The city of Pergamon was later taken over by the Spartan general Thibron, who was fighting against the Achaemenid Satrap of Lydia and Ionia Tissaphernes.[7] Notes[edit] ^ Xenophon, Hellenika 3.1.6 ^ Roller, Duane W. (2018). Cleopatra's Daughter: and Other Royal Women of the Augustan Era. Oxford University Press. p. 29. ISBN 9780190618841. ^ Harvey, David; Wilkins, John (2002). The Rivals of Aristophanes: Studies in Athenian Old Comedy. ISD LLC. p. 199-201. ISBN 9781910589595. ^ Dignas, Beate; Smith, R. R. R. (2012). Historical and Religious Memory in the Ancient World. OUP Oxford. pp. 120–122. ISBN 9780199572069. ^ Roller, Duane W. (2018). Cleopatra's Daughter: and Other Royal Women of the Augustan Era. Oxford University Press. p. 29. ISBN 9780190618841. ^ CNG: MYSIA, Teuthrania. Prokles. Dynast of Teuthrania and Halisarna, circa 400-399 BC. AR Drachm (13mm, 3.25 g, 5h). ^ Hansen, Mogens Herman; Nielsen, Thomas Heine; Nielsen, Lecturer in the Department of Greek and Latin Thomas Heine (2004). An Inventory of Archaic and Classical Poleis. OUP Oxford. p. 1048. ISBN 9780198140993. References[edit] Benedikt Niese: Eurysthenes 4). In: Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft. Vol. VI, 1 (1907), col. 1353-1354. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prokles_(Pergamon)&oldid=886727325" Categories: 5th-century BC births 4th-century BC deaths 4th-century BC Greek people 4th-century BC rulers Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Ancient Greeks from the Achaemenid Empire Eurypontid dynasty Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages فارسی Edit links This page was last edited on 8 March 2019, at 03:42 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5049	----	Khui - Wikipedia Khui From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Khui Relief fragment with the cartouche of Khui from a mastaba in Dara.[1] Pharaoh Reign Duration unknown, c. 2150 BCE? (possibly 8th Dynasty or a local kinglet) Royal titulary Nomen Khui ḫwj The protector Burial Pyramid of Khui? Khui was an ancient Egyptian kinglet during the early First Intermediate Period. Khui may have belonged to the Eighth Dynasty of Egypt, as Jürgen von Beckerath has proposed,[2] or he may instead have been a provincial nomarch who proclaimed himself king. Contents 1 Attestation 2 Pharaoh or nomarch 3 References 4 Bibliography Attestation[edit] Khui is not known from historical sources and the only certain attestation of his existence is a fragmentary relief on a stone block showing his cartouche which was published in 1912 by the Egyptologist Ahmed Bey Kamal and later republished by Raymond Weill. The block was excavated from a mastaba tomb of the necropolis of Dara near Manfalut.[1] This necropolis is dominated by a massive funerary structure which was hastily attributed to this obscure king (the so-called Pyramid of Khui), assuming that the block came from its almost disappeared mortuary temple.[3][4] Pharaoh or nomarch[edit] Based on the cartouche surrounding Khui's name on the relief from Dara, Egyptologists including Jürgen von Beckerath have proposed that he was a king of the early First Intermediate Period, belonging to the Eighth Dynasty. On the other hand, Egyptologists Barry Kemp and Toby Wilkinson believe it more likely that Khui was a nomarch, that is a provincial governor, who took advantage of the power vacuum following the collapse of the Old Kingdom and proclaimed himself king, in the same way as the coeval and neighboring Heracleopolite founders of the 9th Dynasty.[5][6] References[edit] ^ a b Kamal, Ahmed Bey (1912). "Fouilles à Dara et à Qoçéîr el-Amarna". Annales du Service des Antiquités de l'Égypte. p. 132.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ Jürgen von Beckerath, Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, München-Berlin, Deutscher Kunstverlag, 1984, p. 60, ISBN 3422008322. ^ Mark Lehner, The Complete Pyramids, Thames & Hudson, ISBN 978-0-500-28547-3, p. 164 ^ Egyptian History Dyn. 6-11 ^ Barry Kemp, Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization, 2nd ed., New York, Routledge, 2006, pp. 338-339. ^ Toby Wilkinson, The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt, New York, Random House, 2010, p. 123. Bibliography[edit] Jürgen von Beckerath, Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägypten, Zabern Verlag Mainz, 1994, p. 151. ISBN 3-8053-2310-7. Thomas Schneider, Lexikon der Pharaonen, Düsseldorf, Albatros Verlag, 2002, p. 104. ISBN 3-491-96053-3. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khui&oldid=971836483" Categories: 22nd-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Nomarchs Ancient Egypt people stubs Hidden categories: CS1 maint: location AC with 0 elements All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Català Deutsch Español Français Italiano ქართული Magyar 日本語 Svenska Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 8 August 2020, at 14:44 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5073	----	Template:Pharaohs - Wikipedia Template:Pharaohs From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Template documentation How to manage this template's collapsible groups/sections option This template includes collapsible groups/sections. 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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Pharaohs&oldid=998778738" Categories: Ancient Egypt templates Pharaonic dynasty templates Ruler navigational boxes WikiProject Ancient Egypt templates Pharaohs African royalty and nobility navigational boxes Hidden categories: Wikipedia semi-protected templates Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Template Talk Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Azərbaycanca বাংলা Bosanski Català Ελληνικά فارسی Français Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Jawa ქართული Македонски Bahasa Melayu Polski Português සිංහල Српски / srpski Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 7 January 2021, at 00:28 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5081	----	National Library of Israel - Wikipedia National Library of Israel From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from NLI (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search National Library of Israel הספרייה הלאומית Country Israel Established 1892; 129 years ago (1892) Reference to legal mandate The Legal Deposit of generally available documents Location Jerusalem Coordinates 31°46′34.2″N 35°11′48.5″E / 31.776167°N 35.196806°E / 31.776167; 35.196806Coordinates: 31°46′34.2″N 35°11′48.5″E / 31.776167°N 35.196806°E / 31.776167; 35.196806 Collection Items collected Unique collections of manuscripts, special collections of books, music, radio and TV programmes, film, theatre, maps, posters, pictures, photographs, electronic documents and newspapers. Size 5 million volumes Other information Budget Approximately 100 million NIS (₪) Director Oren Weinberg Staff 300 Website nli.org.il Map The National Library of Israel (NLI; Hebrew: הספרייה הלאומית‎, romanized: HaSifria HaLeumit; Arabic: المكتبة الوطنية في إسرائيل‎), formerly Jewish National and University Library (JNUL; Hebrew: בית הספרים הלאומי והאוניברסיטאי‎, romanized: Beit Ha-Sfarim Ha-Le'umi ve-Ha-Universita'i), is the library dedicated to collecting the cultural treasures of Israel and of Jewish heritage. The library holds more than 5 million books, and is located on the Givat Ram campus of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. The National Library owns the world's largest collections of Hebraica and Judaica, and is the repository of many rare and unique manuscripts, books and artifacts. In August 2020, it closed for two weeks due to the financial and national government crisis associated with the COVID-19 pandemic. Contents 1 History 1.1 B'nai Brith library (1892–1925) 1.2 Hebrew University library (1925–2007) 1.3 National Library status (2007) 1.4 Online library (2011) 1.5 New building 1.6 Closure (2020) 2 Goals and objectives 3 Special collections 4 See also 5 References 6 External links History[edit] B'nai Brith library (1892–1925)[edit] B'nai Brith library, Jerusalem The establishment of a Jewish National Library in Jerusalem was the brainchild of Joseph Chazanovitz (1844–1919). His idea was creating a "home for all works in all languages and literatures which have Jewish authors, even though they create in foreign cultures." Chazanovitz collected some 15,000 volumes which later became the core of the library.[1] The B'nai Brith library, founded in Jerusalem in 1892, was the first public library in Palestine to serve the Jewish community. The library was located on B'nai Brith street, between the Meah Shearim neighborhood and the Russian Compound.[2] Ten years later, the Bet Midrash Abrabanel library, as it was then known, moved to Ethiopia Street.[3] Hebrew University library (1925–2007)[edit] In 1920, when plans were drawn up for the Hebrew University, the B'nai Brith collection became the basis for a university library. The books were moved to Mount Scopus when the university opened five years later.[2] In 1948, when access to the university campus on Mount Scopus was blocked, most of the books were moved to the university's temporary quarters in the Terra Sancta building in Rehavia. By that time, the university collection included over one million books. For lack of space, some of the books were placed in storerooms around the city. In 1960, they were moved to the new JNUL building in Givat Ram.[2] In the late 1970s, when the new university complex on Mount Scopus was inaugurated and the faculties of Law, Humanities and Social Science returned there, departmental libraries opened on that campus and the number of visitors to the Givat Ram library dropped. In the 1990s, the building suffered from maintenance problems such as rainwater leaks and insect infestation.[2] National Library status (2007)[edit] In 2007 the library was officially recognized as The National Library of the State of Israel after the passage of the National Library Law.[2] The law, which came into effect on 23 July 2008, changed the library's name to "National Library of Israel" and turned it temporarily to a subsidiary company of the University, later to become a fully independent community interest company, jointly owned by the Government of Israel (50%), the Hebrew University (25%) and other organizations. Online library (2011)[edit] In 2011, the library launched a website granting public access to books, periodicals, maps, photos, and music from its collections.[4] New building[edit] In 2014, the project for a new home of the Library in Jerusalem was unveiled.[5] The 34,000 square meters building, designed by the Basel-based architecture firm Herzog & de Meuron, is scheduled for full completion in 2021.[6][7] Closure (2020)[edit] In August, 2020, the National Library announced its immediately forthcoming closure "until further notice" due to the ongoing financial and government crisis.[8][9] The closure lasted for two weeks and the Library subsequently re-opened.[citation needed] Goals and objectives[edit] Ardon windows in the library lobby The library's mission is to secure copies of all material published in Israel, in any language; all publications on the subject of Israel, the Land of Israel, Judaism and the Jewish people, published in any language, in any country in the world; and all material published in Hebrew or any of the languages spoken in the Jewish Diaspora (such as Yiddish and Ladino). By law, two copies of all printed matter published in Israel must be deposited in the National Library. In 2001, the law was amended to include audio and video recordings, and other non-print media.[10] Many manuscripts, including some of the library's unique volumes such the 13th century Worms Mahzor, have been scanned and are now available on the Internet. Special collections[edit] Reading room Among the library's special collections are the personal papers of hundreds of outstanding Jewish figures, the National Sound Archives, the Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, The Sidney Edelstein Collection (for the history of science) and numerous other collections of Hebraica and Judaica. The library also possesses some of Isaac Newton's manuscripts dealing with theological subjects.[11] The collection, donated by the family of the collector Abraham Yahuda, includes many works by Newton about mysticism, analyses of holy books, predictions about the end of days and the appearance of the ancient Temple in Jerusalem. It also contains maps that Newton sketched about mythical events to assist him in his end of days calculations.[12] The library houses the personal archives of Martin Buber and Gershom Scholem.[13] Following the occupation of West Jerusalem by Haganah forces in May 1948, the libraries of a number Palestinians who fled the country as well as of other well-to-do Palestinians were transferred to the National Library.[14] These collections included those of Henry Cattan, Khalil Beidas, Khalil al-Sakakini and Aref Hikmet Nashashibi.[15] About 30,000 books were removed from homes in West Jerusalem, with another 40,000 taken from other cities in Mandatory Palestine. It is unclear whether the books were being kept and protected or if they were looted from the abandoned houses of their owners.[16] About 6,000 of these books are in the library today indexed with the label AP – "Abandoned Property".[17] The books are cataloged, can be viewed from the Library's general catalog and are regularly consulted by the public, including Arab scholars from all over the world. The National Library of Israel completed its collection of the Max Brod archive in August 2019.[18] See also[edit] List of national and state libraries Union List of Israel, combined library catalog with over 5 million entries Judaica Archival Project References[edit] ^ Melancholy Pride: Nation, Race and Gender in the German Literature of Cultural Zionism, Mark Gelber ^ a b c d e Aryeh Dayan. "New chapter in a sad saga". Haaretz. Retrieved 29 May 2017. ^ "Hebrew University Hails 'Landmark Legislation' for the Establishment of the National Library". Canadian Friends of the Hebrew University. 27 November 2007. Archived from the original on 17 September 2017. Retrieved 1 October 2008. ^ Israel's National Library puts collection online ^ Herzog & de Meuron to Design the National Library of Israel, ArchDaily, 29 April 2013 ^ "herzog & de meuron reveals designs for national library of israel". Designboom. Retrieved 9 December 2014. ^ Herzog & de Meuron Share New Images of the National Library of Israel, ArchDaily, 14 April 2016 ^ Hen, Yitzhak, Israel's National Library Is Closing Down. How Much Do You Care?, Haaretz, 18 August 2020 ^ Oster, Marcy, National Library of Israel to suspend services, put 300 workers on unpaid leave, Times of Israel, 6 August 2020 ^ Jewish National & University Library History Archived 21 April 2007 at the Wayback Machine (in English) ^ Newton Collection Archived 24 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine (in English) ^ Israeli National Library uploads trove of Newton's theological tracts ^ National Library, Germany partner to put papers online ^ The Looting of the Palestinian Books Archived 13 May 2014 at the Wayback Machine Mitaam: a Review for radical thought 8 (December 2006), pp. 12-22, by Gish Amit ^ Israel State Archive, Jerusalem, 1429/3 ^ Preserving or looting Palestinian books in Jerusalem ^ Overdue Books: Returning Palestine’s “Abandoned Property” of 1948 by Hannah Mermelstein, Jerusalem Quarterly, Autumn 2011 ^ "Israel Gets Missing Kafka Papers, Ending Long Legal Battle". 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en-wikipedia-org-5090	----	Merdjefare - Wikipedia Merdjefare From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Merdjefare Merdjefare (right) offering to the god Sopdharsopd (left)[1] Pharaoh Reign 3 to 4 years, starting after c. 1704 BC and finishing 1699 BC [2] (14th Dynasty) Predecessor Sehebre Successor Sewadjkare III Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Merdjefare Mr-ḏf3-rˁ Nomen Unknown, possibly Wazad (after Ryholt) Merdjefare was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 14th Dynasty of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c. 1700 BC.[2] As a king of the 14th Dynasty, Merdjefare would have reigned from Avaris over the eastern Nile Delta and possibly over the western Delta as well.[2] Contents 1 Attestation 2 Chronological Position 3 Identity 4 References Attestation[edit] Merdjefare is one of only four pharaohs of the 14th Dynasty to have left any attestation beyond the Turin canon, a king list compiled in the early Ramesside period.[3] Indeed, Merdjefare is mentioned on the stele of a royal seal-bearer and treasurer named Ranisonb. The stele, discovered in 1988–89, shows Merdjefare making offerings to Sopdharsopd and probably originates from Ranisonb's tomb at Saft el-Hinna in the southeastern Nile Delta. The stele is now in the private Krief collection.[1][2][3] Chronological Position[edit] Merdjefare's relative position in the 14th Dynasty is somewhat secured by the Turin canon, which mentions him in column 9, line 5. According to this king list, Merdjefare reigned for 3 to 4 years, one of the longest reigns of the 14th Dynasty, and was preceded by Sehebre and succeeded by Sewadjkare III.[2] At the opposite, Merdjefare's absolute chronological position is debated. According to egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, Merdjefare was the tenth king of the 14th Dynasty, reigning c. 1700 BC for 3 to 4 years.[2] Ryholt's reconstruction of the early 14th Dynasty is controversial however and other specialists, such as Manfred Bietak and Jürgen von Beckerath, believe that the dynasty started shortly before Nehesy c. 1710 BC rather than c. 1805 BC as proposed by Ryholt. In this case, Merdjefare would only be the fifth king of the dynasty.[4][5] Identity[edit] Since only Merdjefare's prenomen is known, attempts at attributing him any given nomen remain conjectural. Ryholt however proposed that Merdjefare's nomen may have been either Wazad or Sheneh. Indeed, according to Ryholt, a seriation of 14th Dynasty seals shows that both Wazad and Sheneh reigned after Nehesy. Since furthermore "only few of the kings who ruled between Nehesy and Yaqub-Har are attested by contemporary sources", Ryholt posits that Wazad may be identifiable with one of the successors of Nehesy with the longest reign, either Sehebre or Merdjefare. References[edit] ^ a b Jean Yoyotte, "Le roi Mer-Djefa-Rê et le dieu Sopdu, Un monument de la XIVe dynastie", Bulletin de la Société française d'égyptologie 114 (1989), pp.17-63 ^ a b c d e f K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here. ^ a b Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 203-204 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46, Mainz am Rhein, 1997 Preceded by Sehebre Pharaoh of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Sewadjkare III v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Merdjefare&oldid=972462346" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català فارسی Français Italiano ქართული Magyar Nederlands Slovenščina ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 12 August 2020, at 06:13 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-50	----	Sakir-Har - Wikipedia Sakir-Har From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sakir-Har Heqa-Khasut Predecessor Salitis? Successor Khyan? Royal titulary Nomen Heqa-Khasut, Sakir-Har[1] Ḥq3 ḫ3swt Skr Hr Ruler of foreign countries (=Hyksos), Reward of Har Nebty name Tshes-pedjut Ṯz-pḏwt He who subdues the bow people Golden Horus Iri-tash-ef Jrj-t3š.f He who establishes his boundary Monuments A doorjamb from Tell el-Dab'a Sakir-Har (also Seker-Har and Skr-Hr) was an Hyksos ruler over some part of Lower Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, possibly in the early 16th century BC.[2] Sakir-Har is attested by a single inscription on a doorjamb excavated at Tell el-Dab'a—ancient Avaris—by Manfred Bietak in the 1990s.[3] The doorjamb, now in Cairo under the catalog number Cairo TD-8316, bears his partial royal titulary in the manner of the Ancient Egyptian, showing his Nebti and Golden Falcon names, as well as his nomen.[4] The doorjamb reads [Horus who... ...], The possessor of the Wadjet and Nekhbet diadems who subdues the bow people. The Golden Falcon who establishes his boundary. The heka-khawaset, Sakir-Har.[5][6] The doorjamb confirms the identity of Sakir-Har as one of the kings of the Hyksos Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt. His immediate successor could have been the powerful Hyksos ruler, Khyan, if he was the third Hyksos king of this dynasty, although Sakir-Har's precise position within this dynasty has not yet been established firmly. The name Sakir-Har may translate as "Reward of Har",[7] or may alternatively derive from the Amorite Sikru-Haddu meaning "The memory of Hadad",[8] in which case Sakir-Har may have reigned after Khyan and Yanassi and immeditely before Apophis. The fact that Sakir-Har bears an Egyptian titulary as well as the title of heka-khawaset (Hyksos) suggests that the line of kings to which Sakir-Har belongs may have deliberately taken this title for themselves as had been proposed earlier by scholars, including Donald Redford.[9] Bietak shared this opinion, writing that "although this new term [heka-khawaset] perhaps was originally applied by the Egyptians in a disparaging way to the new rulers of the land, the rulers themselves employed ‘Hyksos’ as an official ruler's title".[10] Research has since then refuted the idea that the Egyptians originated the term, further proving that the title of heka-khawaset, "Ruler of Foreign Lands", was invented by the Hyksos rulers[2] possibly to emphasize their origins or, more explicitly, their Amorite affiliation.[11] References[edit] ^ Jürgen von Beckerath, Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen (= Münchner ägyptologische Studien, vol 46), Mainz am Rhein: Verlag Philipp von Zabern, 1999. ISBN 3-8053-2310-7, pp.116-17. ^ a b Candelora 2017, p. 204. ^ Bietak & Hein 1994, pp. 151–152, see also fig. no. 126. ^ Ryholt 1997, p. 120. ^ Ryholt 1997, p. 123. ^ Booth 2005, p. 31. ^ Ryholt 1997, pp. 127–128. ^ Bietak 2007, p. 753. ^ Redford 1970, p. 13. ^ Bietak 1996, p. 113. ^ Candelora 2017, p. 216. Bibliography[edit] Booth, Charlotte (2005). The Hyksos period in Egypt. Shire Egyptology. 27. Shire: Princes Risborough. ISBN 9780747806387.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Bietak, Manfred (2007). "Où est le palais des Hyksôs ? À propos des fouilles à Tell el-Dabca et 'Ezbet Helmi". Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (in French): 749–780.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Candelora, Danielle (2017). "Defining the Hyksos: A Reevaluation of the Title HqA xAswt and Its Implications for Hyksos Identity". Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt. 53: 203–221.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Bietak, Manfred; Hein, I., eds. (1994). Pharaonen und Fremde - Dynastien im Dunkel: Sonderaustellung des Historischen Museums der Stadt Wien in Zusammenarbeit mit dem Ägyptologischen Institut der Universität Wien und dem Österreichischen Archäologischen Institut Kairo, Rathaus Wien, Volkshalle, 8. Sept. - 23. Okt. 1994. Vienna.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Bietak, Manfred (1996). Avaris, the Capital of the Hyksos. Recent Excavations at Tell el-Dab'a. Raymond and Beverly Sackler Foundation distinguished lecture in Egyptology. 1. London: British Museum Press for the Trustees of the British Museum. ISBN 0714109681.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Redford, D. (1970). "The Hyksos Invasion in History and Tradition". Orientalia. 39 (1).CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Ryholt, Kim (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800–1550 B.C. CNI publications, 20. Carsten Niebuhr Institute of Near Eastern Studies, University of Copenhagen : Museum Tusculanum Press. ISBN 978-87-7289-421-8.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) External links[edit] The Sakir-Har doorjamb inscription (slide 12) Preceded by Salitis? Pharaoh of Egypt Fifteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Khyan? v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sakir-Har&oldid=998541977" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: CS1 maint: ref=harv CS1 French-language sources (fr) AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here 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en-wikipedia-org-5125	----	Ptolemy X Alexander I - Wikipedia Ptolemy X Alexander I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ptolemy X Alexander I Ptolemy Philometor Soter (109-101 BC) Ptolemy Philadelphus (101-88 BC) Pharaoh from the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt Reign 107–88 BC with Cleopatra III (107-101 BC) with Berenice III (101-88 BC) (Ptolemaic) Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) iwꜤ-(n)-nṯr-mnḫ-nṯrt-mnḫt-rꜤ stp-n-ptḥ iri-mꜢꜤt-rꜤ znn-Ꜥnḫ-n-jmn Iwa(en)netjermenekhenetjeretmenkhetre Setepenptah Irimaatre Senenankhenamun Heir of the potent god and of the potent goddess, the daughter of Ra , chosen by Ptah, who has accomplished the Maat of Ra, the living likeness of Amun Nomen ptlwmis ḏd n.f Ꜥlksntrs Ꜥnḫ-ḏt mri-ptḥ Petulemis Djed Enef Aleksentres Ankhdjetmeryptah Ptolemaios, also called Alexandros, living forever, beloved of Ptah Horus name nṯrj-m-ẖt ẖnm.n-sw-ḥpw-Ꜥnḫ-ḥr-msḫn(t) ḥwnw-nfr bnr-mrwt sḫꜤj.n-sw-mwt.f-ḥr-nst-jt.f ṯmꜢ-Ꜥḥwj-ḫꜢswt jṯj-m-sḫm.f-mj-rꜤ-psḏ.f-m-Ꜣḫt Netjeriemkhet Khnumensuhapuankhhermeskhen(et) Hununeferbenermerutsekhaensumutefhernesetitef Tjema'ahuikhasut Itjemsekhemefmirepesdjefemakhet Godlike in his mother's love, associated with the living Apis upon his birth, the perfect youth, pleasant in his popularity, who his mother placed upon the throne of his father, who is strong in strategy, who defeats foreign lands, who lights up the horizon with his conquering power like Ra. ? ? Nebty name shrw-tꜢwi kꜢ-nḫt sḫm-nḥḥ Seherutawy Kanakht Sekhemneneh Who pleases the Two Lands, the strong bull, eternal power ? Golden Horus ꜤꜢ-ib mri-nṯrw ity-bꜢḳt ḥḳꜢ-wꜢḏti Ꜥḳ.f-tꜢmri-m-ḥtp A'a-ib Merynetjeru Itibaqet Heqawadjty Aqeftameryemhotep The great-hearted one who is beloved of the Gods, Master of Baqet and ruler of the two crowns, when he enters The Beloved Land in peace Consort Cleopatra Selene I Berenice III of Egypt Children Ptolemy XI Alexander II Cleopatra V Father Ptolemy VIII Physcon Mother Cleopatra III of Egypt Born 140/39 BC?[1] Died 88 or 87 BC[1] Ptolemy X Alexander I[note 1] (Greek: Πτολεμαῖος Ἀλέξανδρος, Ptolemaĩos Aléxandros) was King of Egypt from 107 BC till his death in 88 BC, in co-regency with Cleopatra III as Ptolemy Philometor Soter until 101 BC, and then with Berenice III as Ptolemy Philadelphus. He was a son of Ptolemy VIII Physcon and Cleopatra III, and younger brother of Ptolemy IX. His birth name was probably Alexander. When Ptolemy VIII died in 116 BC, Ptolemy IX became king with Cleopatra III as his co-regent and Ptolemy X was sent to Cyprus to serve as governor. However, in 114–13 BC, he declared himself king. Cleopatra III quarrelled with Ptolemy IX and arranged for Ptolemy X to return to Egypt in 107 BC and replace his brother as co-regent. The pair fought a war against Ptolemy IX in the Hasmonean kingdom (103–102 BC), in which Ptolemy X successfully prevented his brother from invading Egypt. In 101 BC, Ptolemy X had his mother murdered and appointed his niece-wife Berenice III as co-regent. An Egyptian uprising in 91 BC caused him to lose control of the south of the country. In 88 BC, the people expelled him from Alexandria, recalling Ptolemy IX to the throne. Ptolemy X raised an army with Roman help and invaded Cyprus, but was killed. Contents 1 Background and early life 2 Governor and king of Cyprus (116–107 BC) 3 King of Egypt (107-88 BC) 4 Marriage and issue 5 Ancestry 6 Notes 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Background and early life[edit] Wall relief of Cleopatra III, her mother Cleopatra II and Ptolemy VIII before Horus at Kom Ombo When Ptolemy V Epiphanes had died in 180 BC, he had left three children: Ptolemy VI Philometor, Cleopatra II, and Ptolemy VIII Euergetes. All three ruled together from 169 BC until 164 BC, when Ptolemy VIII expelled his brother from power. In 163 BC, he was expelled in turn and forced to withdraw to Cyrene. However, when Ptolemy VI died in 145 BC, Ptolemy VIII was invited back to Egypt to serve as king, marrying his sister Cleopatra II (who had previously been married to Ptolemy VI). The relationship between Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra II rapidly deteriorated, especially when Ptolemy VIII took Cleopatra III (the daughter of Ptolemy VI and Cleopatra II), as a second wife. The conflict eventually led to a civil war with Cleopatra II on one side and Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III on the other (132–126 BC). Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III were victorious, but reconciled with Cleopatra II and restored her as co-regent in 124 BC.[2] Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III of Egypt had two sons and three daughters. The eldest son was Ptolemy IX, who was born around 144–3 BC and became the heir to the throne around 130 BC, during the civil war with Cleopatra II. Ptolemy X was their second son and was born around 140 BC – it is possible that the Horus name that he later assumed indicates that he was born in 140–39 BC.[1] He is referred to as Ptolemy Alexander in a number of ancient sources, but never in documentary sources like papyri. It is likely that Alexander was his birth name. Governor and king of Cyprus (116–107 BC)[edit] Probable bust of Ptolemy IX On 28 June 116, Ptolemy VIII died. According to Justin, Ptolemy VIII's will left Cleopatra III in charge of Egypt, with the right to choose either Ptolemy IX or Ptolemy X as her co-regent. Justin further claims that Cleopatra III wanted to choose Ptolemy X, but the people of Alexandria rioted and forced her to choose Ptolemy IX.[3] Pausanias implies that Cleopatra III's request to send Ptolemy IX to Cyprus in 117 BC had been intended to get him out of the way in order to enable Ptolemy X's succession.[4] Some historians have found this account plausible.[5] Others have argued that it is a false account that was invented by Cleopatra III at a later date.[6] At any rate, Cleopatra II, Cleopatra III, and Ptolemy IX became the co-rulers of Egypt. They are listed together (in that order) as co-rulers in surviving papyrus documents from October 116 BC.[5] Meanwhile, Ptolemy X was sent to Cyprus to serve as governor of the island. Cleopatra II died some time before April 115 BC and at this point Cleopatra III became the dominant force in the government of Egypt. Ptolemy IX was forced to divorce his sister-wife Cleopatra IV, who went off and married the Seleucid king Antiochus IX Cyzicenus (r. 115–95 BC), whose mother Cleopatra Thea[7] was Cleopatra III's sister.[8] Her new husband was waging a war against his half-brother Antiochus VIII Grypus (r. 125–96 BC), who was married to Cleopatra IV's elder sister Tryphaena. On the way to meet Antiochus IX, Cleopatra IV stopped in Cyprus, where she recruited an army and seized control of the Cypriot fleet, in order to aid Antiochus IX.[9] Perhaps as a result of this, in 114–113 BC, Ptolemy X proclaimed himself 'King of Cyprus', openly declaring his opposition to Ptolemy IX.[1][5] In autumn 107 BC, a new conflict broke out between Cleopatra III and Ptolemy IX. Pausanias claims that Cleopatra III wounded a number of her own eunuch servants and displayed them to the people as evidence that her son had attempted to have her assassinated, causing the Alexandrians to riot and expel Ptolemy IX from the city.[10][11] King of Egypt (107-88 BC)[edit] Accession Head of Ptolemy X, from Egypt, Ptolemaic period, 2nd century BCE. Neues Museum, Germany While this conflict was taking place, Ptolemy X had left Cyprus and sailed to Pelusium. Cleopatra III had him brought to Alexandria and placed on the throne as her new co-regent in September 107 BC.[12] Cleopatra III seems to have dominated the new government even more thoroughly than she had during the reign of Ptolemy IX. Because of the means by which he came to the throne, he was given the derisory nickname Pareisactus ('smuggled in').[13][1] Another nickname given to him ho Cocces (the son of Cocce), seems to refer to his mother's dominance, but the exact meaning of the name thereby given to his mother, Cocce, is unclear. It may mean cuckoo, in which case this nickname too refers to the way in which his mother had brought him to the kingship. Other interpretations are 'son of the scarlet lady' or 'son of the cunt'.[1] In general, Ptolemy X was slotted into the role that his brother had previously held. He married his brother's wife, Cleopatra Selene, who was also his sister.[14] He assumed the epithet that had previously been borne by his brother, Philometor Soter (Mother-loving Saviour) and took his brother's place in the dynastic cult, in which he and his mother were worshipped as the Theoi Philometores Soteres (Mother-loving Saviour Gods).[1] Ptolemy X served as the annual Priest of Alexander and the Ptolemies for 107–106 BC and 106–105 BC – as his brother had for every year since 116 BC.[1] In 105–104 BC, Cleopatra III assumed the priesthood for herself.[12] War with Ptolemy IX and intervention in Judaea After his expulsion from Alexandria, Ptolemy IX had gone to Cyprus. Forces loyal to Cleopatra III and Ptolemy X expelled him, but he mounted another invasion of Cyprus in 106 BC, which succeeded in conquering the island.[15] Cyrene had initially remained under Ptolemy IX's control, but some time after 105 BC and before 100 BC, a third brother, Ptolemy Apion gained control of the region. Justin claims that the territory had originally been left to Apion in Ptolemy VIII's will, but it is not clear whether this was true or a post facto invention.[3] It is unclear whether Apion was aligned with either Ptolemy IX or Ptolemy X. One sign that he was a free agent may be the will which he published. This will left all his territories to Rome in the event that he died without heirs, a method which was often used by Hellenistic kings to prevent rivals from attempting to depose or assassinate them. He actually did die without heirs in 96 BC, meaning that Rome inherited the territory.[16][17] In 103 BC, the new Hasmonean King of Judaea, Alexander Jannaeus, attacked Ptolemais Akko. Ptolemy IX responded by invading Judaea.[18] Fearing that Ptolemy IX was planning to use Judaea as a springboard for an invasion of Egypt, Cleopatra III and Ptolemy X invaded Judaea themselves. Ptolemy X invaded Phoenicia by sea and then marched inland to Damascus, while Cleopatra III besieged Ptolemais Akko. Ptolemy IX attempted to slip past them and into Egypt, but Ptolemy X managed to rush back and stop him. Ptolemy IX spent the winter encamped at Gaza, before deciding to sail back to Cyprus in early 102 BC.[17] During this conflict, Cleopatra III and Ptolemy X made an alliance with the Seleucid king Antiochus VIII Grypus. He was still waging his own civil war against his brother Antiochus IX Cyzicenus, who had previously received support from Ptolemy IX. To seal the alliance with Antiochus VIII, Cleopatra forced Ptolemy X to divorce his sister-wife, Cleopatra Selene, and remarried her to Antiochus.[19][14] Reign with Berenice III In September 101 BC, Cleopatra disappears from official documents. Justin reports that Ptolemy X had her murdered, when he realised that she was intending to kill him.[19] In October of the same year, Ptolemy married his niece Berenice III, daughter of Ptolemy IX and Cleopatra Selene and appointed her co-regent.[1] Ptolemy X changed his own epithet to Philadelphos (Sibling-lover) and the couple were brought into the dynastic cult as the Theoi Philadelphoi (Sibling-loving gods).[20][17] In 91 BC, a rebellion broke out in Upper Egypt. This rebellion was the latest in a series of native Egyptian uprisings in the region, following those of Hugronaphor (205-185 BC) and Harsiesi (131-130 BC). It is unknown what the name of the rebellion's leader was or whether he claimed the title of Pharaoh, as earlier rebel leaders had. The rebels gained control of Thebes and were supported by the Theban priests. Their forces are also attested in Latopolis and Pathyris. The rebellion also meant that the Ptolemies lost contact with the Triacontaschoenus region (Lower Nubia). Meroe took control of the region and retained it until the Roman period.[21] Around May 88 BC, Alexandrians and the army turned against Ptolemy X and expelled him. Porphyry reports that the rebellion was a result of anger at Ptolemy's friendliness with the Jews.[22] Strabo says that Ptolemy X was expelled because he melted down the golden sarcophagus of Alexander the Great and replaced it with one made out of glass.[23] The Alexandrians invited Ptolemy IX to return to Alexandria and retake the throne, which he did. Ptolemy X and Berenice gathered a naval force to recapture the kingdom, but were defeated in battle. Ptolemy X recruited a second force at Myra, invaded Cyprus, and was killed.[24][1][25] In the process of recruiting this final force, Ptolemy X had taken out a loan from the Roman Republic. It seems that providing collateral for this loan involved producing a will, which left Egypt to the Roman Republic in the event of his death without an heir.[26] The Romans chose not to take advantage of this will after Ptolemy's death, but did not outright reject it, either. The possibility of Roman intervention hung over Ptolemy IX for the rest of his reign and forced him to adopt a highly deferential posture with the Romans.[25] Marriage and issue[edit] Ptolemy X probably married his sister Cleopatra Selene on taking the throne in 109 BC. She had previously been married to Ptolemy IX. They probably had one son, Ptolemy XI before she was remarried to Antiochus VIII in 103/02 BC.[27][14] After he murdered Cleopatra III, Ptolemy X married Berenice III, who was probably the daughter of Ptolemy IX and Cleopatra Selene (thus, Ptolemy X's step-daughter and niece), in October 101 BC.[28] They probably had one daughter, Cleopatra V.[20] Name Image Birth Death Notes Ptolemy XI c. 105 BC April 80 BC Co-regent with his mother Berenice III for a few days in April 80 BC. Cleopatra V c. 100-95 BC 57 BC Married her cousin Ptolemy XII and co-regent with him from 79-69 BC, co-regent with her daughter Berenice IV 58-57 BC. Ancestry[edit] Ancestors of Ptolemy X Alexander I 8. Ptolemy IV Philopator 4. Ptolemy V Epiphanes[29] 9. Arsinoe III of Egypt 2. Ptolemy VIII Physcon[29] 10. Antiochus III the Great 5. Cleopatra I of Egypt[29] 11. Laodice III 1. Ptolemy IX Lathyros 12. =4. Ptolemy V Epiphanes[29] 6. Ptolemy VI Philometor[29] 13. =5. Cleopatra I of Egypt[29] 3. Cleopatra III of Egypt[29] 14. =4/12. Ptolemy V Epiphanes[29] 7. Cleopatra II of Egypt[29] 15. =5/13. Cleopatra I of Egypt[29] Notes[edit] ^ Numbering the Ptolemies is a modern convention. Older sources may give a number one higher or lower. The most reliable way of determining which Ptolemy is being referred to in any given case is by epithet (e.g. "Philopator"). References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h i j Bennett, Chris. "Ptolemy X". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 13 November 2019. ^ Hölbl 2001, pp. 172–203 ^ a b Justin, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus 39.3.1 ^ Pausanias 1.9.1 ^ a b c Hölbl 2001, pp. 204–205 ^ Bennett, Chris. "Cleopatra II". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 12 November 2019. ^ Antiochus IX at Livius.org ^ Ptolemy VI Philometor and Cleopatra II at Livius.org ^ Justin 39.3.2 ^ Justin (historian), Epitome of Pompeius Trogus 39.4.1; Pausanias 1.9.2 ^ Hölbl 2001, pp. 206–207 ^ a b Bennett, Chris. "Cleopatra III". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 12 November 2019. ^ Strabo, Geography 17.1.8 ^ a b c Bennett, Chris. "Cleopatra Selene". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 12 November 2019. ^ Diodorus, Bibliotheca 34/35.39a; Justin 39.4.1-2 ^ Bennett, Chris. "Ptolemy Apion". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 12 November 2019. ^ a b c Hölbl 2001, pp. 207–210 ^ Josephus Antiquities of the Jews 13.324-364 ^ a b Justin 39.4.1-2 ^ a b Bennett, Chris. "Berenice III". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 12 November 2019. ^ Pausanias 1.9.3 ^ Porphyry FGrH 260 F2.9 ^ Strabo Geography 17.1.8 ^ Porphyry FGrH 260 F2.8-9; Justin Epitome of Pompeius Trogus 39.5; Pausanias ^ a b Hölbl 2001, p. 211 ^ Cicero, Agr. 1.1, 2.41-42 ^ C. J. Bennett, Anc. Soc. 28 (1997) 39, 55 ^ Porphyry 165 ^ a b c d e f g h i j Aidan Dodson, Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, 2004 Bibliography[edit] Hölbl, Günther (2001). A History of the Ptolemaic Empire. London & New York: Routledge. pp. 143–152 & 181–194. ISBN 0415201454. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ptolemy X. Ptolemy X Alexander entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith Ptolemy X Alexander I Ptolemaic dynasty Born: ? Died: ca. 88 BC Regnal titles Preceded by Ptolemy IX Pharaoh of Egypt 110 BC–109 BC with Cleopatra III Succeeded by Ptolemy IX Pharaoh of Egypt 107 BC–88 BC with Cleopatra III and Berenice III v t e Hellenistic rulers Argeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Kings of Cyrene Magas Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Kings of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Kings of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Kings of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Kings of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus Kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon (regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces Asander with Dynamis Mithridates II Asander with Dynamis Scribonius’ attempted rule with Dynamis Dynamis with Polemon Polemon with Pythodorida Aspurgus Mithridates III with Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 1163407305 VIAF: 36153288341232652955 WorldCat Identities: viaf-36153288341232652955 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ptolemy_X_Alexander_I&oldid=998990280" Categories: 2nd-century BC births 88 BC deaths 2nd-century BC Pharaohs 1st-century BC Pharaohs 1st-century BC rulers in Africa 2nd-century BC rulers in Africa 2nd-century BC Egyptian people 1st-century BC Egyptian people Matricides Pharaohs of the Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemaic governors of Cyprus Hidden categories: Articles containing Greek-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Malagasy مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский සිංහල Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 8 January 2021, at 00:04 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5142	----	Pepi III - Wikipedia Pepi III From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Pepi III Seneferankhre Pepy Photography of a scarab of Sneferankhre Pepi III by Flinders Petrie.[1] Pharaoh Reign uncertain chronological position (16th dynasty) Predecessor uncertain, Bebiankh (Helck), Nubankhre (von Beckerath) Successor uncertain, Nebmaatre (Helck), Anather (von Beckerath) Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Seneferankhre Pepy S.nfr-ˁnḫ-Rˁ-Pjpj He who causes life to be beautiful, Ra, Pepi Nomen Pepy Pjpj Pepi Seneferankhre Pepi III may have been a pharaoh[2] of the 16th Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. According to Wolfgang Helck he was the fifth pharaoh of the dynasty.[3] Alternatively, according to Jürgen von Beckerath, he was the thirteenth pharaoh of the dynasty.[4][5] Because his position in the 16th Dynasty is highly uncertain, it is not clear who were his predecessor and successor. Seneferankhre Pepi III is only attested by a scarab-shaped seal bearing his name. Egyptologist Kim Ryholt contests the seal as evidence that Pepi was a king of the 16th Dynasty, positing that the seal does not date to the Second Intermediate Period (SIP). According to Ryholt: "the size and design (prenomen + nomen without cartouche or royal titulary/epithets) of this seal is unparalleled during the SIP. Also the style of the signs is quite dissimilar to SIP seals." Instead, Ryholt proposes that the seal of Seneferankhre Pepi III be dated to the First Intermediate Period, noting however that this is a very early date for a scarab seal,[6] since otherwise the earliest scarabs appear only with the reign of Senusret III of the late 12th Dynasty.[7] References[edit] ^ Scarabs and cylinders with names (1917), available copyright-free here, pl. X ^ Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Egyptian Pharaohs, Volume I: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty (3300-1069 BC), Bannerstone Press, London 2008, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, p. 291–292, → Pepi. ^ Wolfgang Helck, Eberhard Otto, Wolfhart Westendorf, Stele - Zypresse: Volume 6 of Lexikon der Ägyptologie, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1986, Page 1383 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46. Mainz am Rhein, 1997. ^ K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c. 1800-1550 B.C, pp. 324 & 335, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications 20., Copenhagen, 1997, ISBN 8772894210. ^ Julien Siesse: An unpublished Scarab of Queen Tjan (Thirteenth Dynasty) from the Louvre Museum (AF 6755), in: Gianluca Miniaci, Wolfram Grajetzki (eds.): The World of Middle Kingdom Egypt (2000-1550 BC), Vol. ii, London 2016, ISBN 9781906137489, p. 243 v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pepi_III&oldid=974841843" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs 16th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Čeština Deutsch Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Polski Slovenščina Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 25 August 2020, at 09:57 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5148	----	Madius - Wikipedia Madius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Madius" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Madius (Ancient Greek: Μάδιος), Madyes, or Madya was the Scythian king after his father Bartatua. He "invaded and subjugated Media (c. 628)", but the "Medes soon rebelled, however; their king Cyaxares massacred the Scythian leaders, and the remainder of the Scythians turned back via the Caucasus to southern Russia."[1] according Strabo it was he who led the raids Scythians against Ancient Egypt References[edit] ^ Grousset, Rene (1970). The Empire of the Steppes. Rutgers University Press. pp. 8–9. ISBN 0-8135-1304-9. Asia portal Regnal titles Preceded by Bartatua King of the Scythians ca. 658/9 BCE – ca. 625 BCE Succeeded by ? v t e Median and Achaemenid kings Family tree Median (728–550 BC) Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Achaemenid (550–330 BC) Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Nothus Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Italics indicate kings not directly attested and so possibly legendary. v t e Median topics Language Median language, Iranian language Cities Ecbatana (Hamadan) Rhagae (Shahre Rey, Tehran) Laodicea (Nahavand) Battles involving Lydia Eclipse of Thales Battles involving Persia Persian Revolt Battle of Hyrba Battle of the Persian Border Siege of Pasargadae Hill Battle of Pasargadae Fall of Ecbatana Kings/Satraps Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Cyaxares II Darius the Mede Other Medians Amytis of Media Artembares Datis Gubaru Mazares Harpagus Aryenis Mandane This Ancient Near East biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Madius&oldid=1002214463" Categories: Scythian rulers 7th-century BC deaths Median kings 7th-century BC rulers in Asia Ancient Near East people stubs Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from December 2015 All articles needing additional references Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Year of birth unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Български Deutsch فارسی 한국어 Hrvatski Қазақша Magyar مصرى Norsk bokmål Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Tagalog Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 January 2021, at 10:50 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5150	----	Third Intermediate Period of Egypt - Wikipedia Third Intermediate Period of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Third Intermediate Period of Egypt c. 1069 BC – c. 664 BC Political factions fractured ancient Egypt during the Third Intermediate Period. The boundaries above show the political situation during the mid-8th century BC. Capital Tanis (c. 1069–945 BC, Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt) Bubastis (c. 945–720 BC, Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt) Heracleopolis Magna (c. 837–728 BC, Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt) Sais (c. 732–720 BC, Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt) Napata (c. 732–653 BC, Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt) Common languages Ancient Egyptian Religion Ancient Egyptian religion Government Monarchy Pharaoh   History   • Established c. 1069 BC  • Disestablished  c. 664 BC Preceded by Succeeded by New Kingdom of Egypt Late Period of ancient Egypt Today part of  Egypt Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The Third Intermediate Period of ancient Egypt began with the death of Pharaoh Ramesses XI in 1070 BC, which ended the New Kingdom, and was eventually followed by the Late Period. Various points are offered as the beginning for the latter era, though it is most often regarded as dating from the foundation of the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty by Psamtik I in 664 BC, following the departure of the Nubian Kushite rulers of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty by the Assyrians under King Assurbanipal. The concept of a "Third Intermediate Period" was coined in 1978 by British Egyptologist Kenneth Kitchen.[1] The period was one of decline and political instability, coinciding with the Late Bronze Age collapse of civilizations in the ancient Near East and Eastern Mediterranean (including the Greek Dark Ages). It was marked by division of the state for much of the period and conquest and rule by non-native Egyptians. Contents 1 History 1.1 Twenty-first Dynasty 1.2 Twenty-second and Twenty-third Dynasty 1.3 Twenty-fourth Dynasty 1.4 Twenty-fifth Dynasty 1.5 End of the Third Intermediate Period 2 Historiography 3 See also 4 References 4.1 Bibliography 5 External links History[edit] Twenty-first Dynasty[edit] Main article: Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt The period of the Twenty-first Dynasty is characterized by the country's fracturing kingship. Already during Ramesses XI's reign, the Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt was losing its grip on the city of Thebes, whose priests were becoming increasingly powerful. After his death, his successor, Smendes I, ruled from the city of Tanis, but was mostly active only in Lower Egypt, which he controlled. Meanwhile, the High Priests of Amun at Thebes ruled Middle and Upper Egypt in all but name.[2] However, this division was less significant than it seems, since both the priests and pharaohs came from the same family. Twenty-second and Twenty-third Dynasty[edit] Main articles: Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt and Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt The country was firmly reunited by the Twenty-second Dynasty founded by Shoshenq I in 945 BC (or 943 BC), who descended from Meshwesh immigrants, originally from ancient Libya. This brought stability to the country for well over a century, but after the reign of Osorkon II, particularly, the country had effectively split into two states, with Shoshenq III of the Twenty-second Dynasty controlling Lower Egypt by 818 BC while Takelot II and his son Osorkon (the future Osorkon III) ruled Middle and Upper Egypt. In Thebes, a civil war engulfed the city, pitting the forces of Pedubast I, who had proclaimed himself pharaoh, against the existing line of Takelot II/Osorkon B. The two factions squabbled continuously and the conflict was only resolved in Year 39 of Shoshenq III when Osorkon B comprehensively defeated his enemies. He proceeded to found the Upper Egyptian Libyan Twenty-third Dynasty of Osorkon III – Takelot III – Rudamun, but this kingdom quickly fragmented after Rudamun's death, with the rise of local city states under kings such as Peftjaubast of Herakleopolis, Nimlot of Hermopolis, and Ini at Thebes. Twenty-fourth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Twenty-fourth dynasty of Egypt The Nubian kingdom to the south took full advantage of this division and the ensuing political instability. Prior to Piye's Year 20 campaign into Egypt, the previous Nubian ruler – Kashta – had already extended his kingdom's influence into Thebes when he compelled Shepenupet, the serving Divine Adoratice of Amun and Takelot III's sister, to adopt his own daughter Amenirdis, to be her successor. Then, 20 years later, around 732 BC his successor, Piye, marched north and defeated the combined might of several native Egyptian rulers: Peftjaubast, Osorkon IV of Tanis, Iuput II of Leontopolis and Tefnakht of Sais. Twenty-fifth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt 25th Dynasty Piye established the Twenty-fifth Dynasty and appointed the defeated rulers as his provincial governors. He was succeeded first by his brother, Shabaka, and then by his two sons Shebitku and Taharqa. The reunited Nile valley empire of the 25th Dynasty was as large as it had been since the New Kingdom. Pharaohs of the dynasty, among them Taharqa, built or restored temples and monuments throughout the Nile valley, including at Memphis, Karnak, Kawa, and Jebel Barkal.[3][4] The 25th Dynasty ended with its rulers retreating to their spiritual homeland at Napata. It was there (at El-Kurru and Nuri) that all 25th Dynasty pharaohs were buried under the first pyramids to be constructed in the Nile valley in hundreds of years.[5][6][7][8] The Napatan dynasty led to the Kingdom of Kush, which flourished in Napata and Meroe until at least the 2nd century AD.[5] The international prestige of Egypt had declined considerably by this time. The country's international allies had fallen firmly into the sphere of influence of Assyria and from about 700 BC the question became when, not if, there would be war between the two states as Esarhaddon had realised that a conquest of Lower Egypt was necessary to protect Assyrian interests in the Levant. Despite Egypt's size and wealth, Assyria had a greater supply of timber, while Egypt had a chronic shortage, allowing Assyria to produce more charcoal needed for iron-smelting and thus giving Assyria a greater supply of iron weaponry. This disparity became critical during the Assyrian invasions of Egypt over the period 670–663 BC.[9] Consequently, pharaoh Taharqa's reign, and that of his successor Tantamani, were filled with constant conflict with the Assyrians. In 664 BC the Assyrians delivered a mortal blow, sacking Thebes and Memphis. Following these events, and starting with Atlanersa, no Kushite ruler would ever rule over Egypt again. End of the Third Intermediate Period[edit] Upper Egypt remained for a time under the rule of Taharqa and Tantamani, whilst Lower Egypt was ruled from 664 BC by the nascent 26th Dynasty, client kings established by the Assyrians. In 663 BC, Tantamani launched a full-scale invasion of Lower Egypt, taking Memphis in April of this year, killing Necho I of Sais in the process as Necho had remained loyal to Ashurbanipal. Tantamani barely had the time to receive the submission of some Delta kinglets and expel the remaining Assyrians that a large army led by Ashurbanipal and Necho's son Psamtik I came back. Tantamani was defeated north of Memphis and Thebes was thoroughly sacked shortly after. The Kushite king withdrew to Nubia while the Assyrian influence in Upper Egypt quickly waned. Permanently weakened by the sack, Thebes peacefully submitted itself to Psamtik's fleet in 656 BC. To affirm his authority, Psamtik placed his daughter in position to be the future Divine Adoratrice of Amun, thereby also submitting the priesthood of Amun and effectively uniting Egypt. Tantamani's successor Atlanersa was in no position to attempt a reconquest of Egypt as Psamtik also secured the southern border at Elephantine and may even have sent a military campaign to Napata. Concurrently, Psamtik managed to free himself from the Assyrian vassalage while remaining on good terms with Ashurbanipal, possibly owing to an ongoing rebellion in Babylon. By doing so, hebrought increased stability to the country during his 54-year reign from the city of Sais. Four successive Saite kings continued guiding Egypt into another period of peace and prosperity from 610 to 525 BC. Unfortunately for this dynasty, a new power was growing in the Near East – the Achaemenid Empire of Persia. Pharaoh Psamtik III had succeeded his father Ahmose II for only 6 months before he had to face the Persian Empire at Pelusium. The Persians had already taken Babylon and Egypt was no match for them. Psamtik III was defeated and briefly escaped to Memphis, before he was ultimately imprisoned and, later, executed at Susa, the capital of the Persian king Cambyses, who now assumed the formal title of Pharaoh. Historiography[edit] The historiography of this period is disputed for a variety of reasons. Firstly, there is a dispute about the utility of a very artificial term that covers an extremely long and complicated period of Egyptian history. The Third Intermediate Period includes long periods of stability as well as chronic instability and civil conflict: its very name rather clouds this fact. Secondly, there are significant problems of chronology stemming from several areas: first, there are the difficulties in dating that are common to all of Egyptian chronology but these are compounded due to synchronisms with Biblical archaeology that also contain heavily disputed dates. James et al. argued contra Kitchen that the period lasted less than 200 years – starting later than 850 BC but ending at the conventional date – as the five dynasties had many years of overlap.[10] Finally, some Egyptologists and biblical scholars, such as Kenneth Kitchen and David Rohl have novel or controversial theories about the family relationships of the dynasties comprising the period. See also[edit] Late Bronze Age collapse References[edit] ^ Schneider, Thomas (27 August 2008). "Periodizing Egyptian History: Manetho, Convention, and Beyond". In Klaus-Peter Adam (ed.). Historiographie in der Antike. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 181–197. ISBN 978-3-11-020672-2. ^ Kenneth A. Kitchen, The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100–650 BC), 3rd edition, 1986, Warminster: Aris & Phillips Ltd, p.531 ^ Bonnet, Charles (2006). The Nubian Pharaohs. New York: The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 142–154. ISBN 978-977-416-010-3. ^ Diop, Cheikh Anta (1974). The African Origin of Civilization. Chicago, Illinois: Lawrence Hill Books. pp. 219–221. ISBN 1-55652-072-7. ^ a b Emberling, Geoff (2011). Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa. New York, NY: Institute for the Study of the Ancient World. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-615-48102-9. ^ Mokhtar, G. (1990). General History of Africa. California, USA: University of California Press. pp. 161–163. ISBN 0-520-06697-9. ^ Emberling, Geoff (2011). Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa. New York: Institute for the Study of the Ancient World. pp. 9–11. ISBN 978-0-615-48102-9. ^ Silverman, David (1997). Ancient Egypt. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 36–37. ISBN 0-19-521270-3. ^ Shillington, Kevin (2005). History of Africa. Oxford: Macmillan Education. p. 40. ISBN 0-333-59957-8. ^ "Centuries of Darkness: Context, Methodology and Implications [Review Feature]" (PDF). Cambridge Archaeological Journal. 1 (2): 228ff. 1991. doi:10.1017/S0959774300000378. ISSN 1474-0540. Bibliography[edit] Dodson, Aidan Mark. 2001. "Third Intermediate Period." In The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, edited by Donald Bruce Redford. Vol. 3 of 3 vols. Oxford, New York, and Cairo: Oxford University Press and The American University in Cairo Press. 388–394. Kitchen, Kenneth Anderson. [1996]. The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100–650 BC). 3rd ed. Warminster: Aris & Phillips Limited. Myśliwiec, Karol. 2000. The Twilight of Ancient Egypt: First Millennium B.C.E. Translated by David Lorton. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press. Porter, Robert M. 2008. A Network of 22nd–26th Dynasty Genealogies, JARCE 44, 153–157. Taylor, John H. 2000. “The Third Intermediate Period (1069–664 BC).” In The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 330–368. External links[edit] Allen, James, and Marsha Hill. "Egypt in the Third Intermediate Period (1070–712 B.C.)", In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. (October 2004) Images Wikimedia Commons has media related to Egyptian third intermediate period. Artabase.net: Face from a Coffin Artabase.net: Right Hand from an Anthropoid Coffin Authority control LCCN: sh2010007271 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Third_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt&oldid=1002122206" Categories: Third Intermediate Period of Egypt States and territories established in the 11th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 7th century BC Dynasties of ancient Egypt Iron Age 11th century BC in Egypt 10th century BC in Egypt 9th century BC in Egypt 8th century BC in Egypt 7th century BC in Egypt 11th-century BC establishments in Egypt 7th-century BC disestablishments in Egypt 2nd millennium BC in Egypt 1st millennium BC in Egypt Late Bronze Age collapse Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano Lietuvių Magyar Malagasy Bahasa Melayu Mirandés Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 January 2021, at 23:53 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5178	----	Psusennes II - Wikipedia Psusennes II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Psusennes II Pasebakhaenniut II[1] Statue with dedication to Psusennes II and Shoshenq I (originally for Thutmose III). Cairo, CG 42192 (JE 37005) Pharaoh Reign 967 – 943 BC (21st Dynasty) Predecessor Siamun Successor Shoshenq I Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Titkheperure Setepenre Tjt-ḫprw-Rˁ-stp-n-Rˁ Image of the transformations of Ra, the chosen one of Ra Nomen Hor Pasebakhaenniut Ḥr-p3-sb3-ḫˁj-n-njwt Psusennes, litt. Horus, the star who appears in the city [of Thebes] Variant: Hor Pasebakhaenniut Meriamun Ḥr-p3-sb3-ḫˁj-n-njwt-mrj-Jmn Psusennes, litt. Horus, the star who appears in the city [of Thebes], beloved of Amun Children Maatkare B Father Pinedjem II Mother Isetemkheb D Died 943 BC Burial Unknown Titkheperure or Tyetkheperre Psusennes II [Greek Ψουσέννης] or Hor-Pasebakhaenniut II [Egyptian ḥr-p3-sb3-ḫˁỉ-⟨n⟩-nỉwt], was the last king of the Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt. His royal name means "Image of the transformations of Re" in Egyptian.[2] Psusennes II is often considered the same person as the High-Priest of Amun known as Psusennes III.[3] The Egyptologist Karl Jansen-Winkeln notes that an important graffito from the Temple of Abydos contains the complete titles of a king Tyetkheperre Setepenre Pasebakhaenniut Meryamun "who is simultaneously called the HPA (i.e., High Priest of Amun) and supreme military commander."[4] This suggests that Psusennes was both king at Tanis and the High Priest in Thebes at the same time, meaning he did not resign his office as High Priest of Amun during his reign.[5] The few contemporary attestations from his reign include the aforementioned graffito in Seti I's Abydos temple, an ostracon from Umm el-Qa'ab, an affiliation at Karnak and his presumed burial – which consists of a gilded coffin with a royal uraeus and a Mummy, found in an antechamber of Psusennes I's tomb at Tanis. He was a High Priest of Amun at Thebes and the son of Pinedjem II and Istemkheb. His daughter Maatkare B was the Great Royal Wife of Osorkon I. Contents 1 Secure attestation of Psusennes II 2 Reign length 3 Timeline 4 References 5 Further reading Secure attestation of Psusennes II[edit] Items which can be added to the list of secure attestations of Psusennes II include a Year 5 Mummy linen that was written with the High Priest Psusennes III's name. It is generally assumed that a Year 13 III Peret 10+X date in fragment 3B, line 6 of the Karnak Priestly Annals belongs to his reign.[6] Unfortunately, however, the king's name is not stated and the only thing which is certain is that the fragment must be dated after Siamun's reign whose Year 17 is mentioned in lines 3-5.[7] Hence, it belongs to either Psusennes II or possibly Shoshenq I's reign. More impressive are the number of objects which associate Psusennes II together with his successor, Shoshenq I, such as an old statue of Thutmose III (Cairo CG 42192) which contains two parallel columns of texts – one referring to Psusennes II and the other to Shoshenq I – a recently unearthed block from Tell Basta which preserves the nomen of Shoshenq I together with the prenomen of Psusennes II, and a now lost graffito from Theban Tomb 18.[8] Recently, the first conclusive date for king Psusennes II was revealed in a newly published priestly annal stone block. This document, which has been designated as 'Block Karnak 94, CL 2149,' records the induction of a priest named Nesankhefenmaat into the chapel of Amun-Re within the Karnak precinct in Year 11 the first month of Shemu day 13 of a king named Psusennes.[9] The preceding line of this document recorded the induction of Nesankhefenmaat's father, a certain Nesamun, into the priesthood of Amun-Re in king Siamun's reign.[10] Siamun was the predecessor of Psusennes II at Tanis. The identification of the aforementioned Psusennes with Psusennes II is certain since the same fragmentary annal document next records—in the following line—the induction of Hor, the son of Nesankhefenmaat, into the priesthood of the chapel of Amun-Re at Karnak in Year 3 the second month of Akhet day 14 of king Osorkon I's reign just one generation later.[10]—with Shoshenq I's 21-year reign being skipped over. This would not be unexpected since most Egyptologists believe that a generation in Egyptian society lasted a minimum of 25 years and a maximum of 30 years.[11] Therefore, the Year 11 date can only be assigned to Psusennes II and constitutes the first securely attested date for this pharaoh's reign. The British Egyptologist Aidan Dodson also accepts this new evidence from Frederic Payraudeau's discovery of this new unknown fragment of the Karnak priestly annals and has now discarded his previously published the late 1980s theory that Psusennes II's reign lay entirely within the reign of Shoshenq I.[12] Dodson notes the recently found annal block document establishes that Psusennes II "was indeed a 'real' king, with a reign that was recognized at Thebes."[13] Dodson also writes that Psusennes II's royal status was confirmed when Jean Yoyotte realized "that a batch of crude faience shabtis bearing the name of a [king] Pasebkhanut (i.e., Psusennes) found in the antechamber of Tanis [Tomb] NRT-III did not belong to the tomb's original owner, Pasebkhanut I, as had originally been assumed, but to the later king of the [same] name."[14][15] This means that Psusennes II's long-decayed coffin and mummy is located in the debris of this antechamber of Psusennes I's Tanis tomb where Heqakheperre Shoshenq II's coffin and mummy mask was also discovered.[16] Reign length[edit] Unlike his immediate predecessor and successor – Siamun and Shoshenq I respectively– Psusennes II is generally less well attested in contemporary historical records even though various versions of Manetho's Epitome credit him with either a 14- or a 35-year reign (generally amended to 15 years by most scholars including the British Egyptologist Kenneth Kitchen).[17] However, the German scholar Rolf Krauss has recently argued that Psusennes II's reign was 24 years rather than Manetho's original figure of 14 years.[18] This is based on personal information recorded in the Large Dakhla stela which dates to Year 5 of Shoshenq I; the stela preserves a reference to a land-register from Year 19 of a 'Pharaoh Psusennes'. However, since this document was composed under Shoshenq I, the use of the title Pharaoh before Psusennes here cannot establish whether the king was Psusennes I or II. In Year 5 of Shoshenq I, this king and the founder of the 22nd Dynasty, dispatched a certain Ma (i.e., Libyan) subordinate named Wayheset to the desert oasis town of Dakhla in order to restore Shoshenq I's authority over the western oasis region of Upper Egypt. Wayheset's titles include Prince and Governor of the Oasis. His activities are recorded in the Large Dakhla stela.[19] This stela states that Wayheset adjudicated in a certain water dispute by consulting a land-register which is explicitly dated to Year 19 of a "Pharaoh Psusennes" in order to determine the water rights of a man named Nysu-Bastet.[20] Kitchen notes that this individual made an appeal to the Year 19 cadastral land-register of king Psusennes belonging to his mother, which historians assumed was made some "80 years" before during the reign of Psusennes I.[19] The land register recorded that certain water rights were formerly owned by Nysu-Bastet's mother Tewhunet in Year 19 of a king Psusennes. This ruler was generally assumed by Egyptologists to be Psusennes I rather than Psusennes II since the latter's reign was believed to have lasted only 14–15 years. Based on the land register evidence, Wayheset ordered that these watering rights should now be granted to Nysu-Bastet himself. However, if the oracle dated to Year 19 of Psusennes I as many scholars traditionally assumed, Nysu-Bastet would have been separated from his mother by a total of 80 years from this date into Year 5 of Shoshenq I—a figure which is highly unlikely since Nysu-Bastet would not have waited until extreme old age to uphold his mother's watering rights. This implies that the aforementioned king Psusennes here must be identified with Psusennes II instead—Shoshenq I's immediate predecessor and, more significantly, that Psusennes II enjoyed a minimum reign of 19 years. The term "mother" in ancient Egypt could also be an allusion to an ancestress, the matriarch of a lineage whereby Nysu-Bastet may have been petitioning for his hereditary water rights that belonged to his grandmother, whose family name was Tewhunet. However, this argument does not account for the use of Pharaoh as a title in the Dakhla stela—a literary device which first occurs late during the reign of Siamun, an Egyptian king who ruled between 45 and 64 years after Year 19 of Psusennes I. The most significant component of the Great Dakhla stela is its palaeography: the use of the title Pharaoh Psusennes. A scholar named Helen Jacquet-Gordon believed in the 1970s that the large Dakhla stela belonged to Shoshenq III's reign due to its use of the title 'Pharaoh' directly with the ruling king's birth name—i.e., "Pharaoh Shoshenq"—which was an important palaeographical development in Egyptian history. Throughout the Old, Middle and New Kingdoms of Ancient Egypt, the word pharaoh was never employed as a title such as Mr. and Mrs. or attached to a king's nomen such as Pharaoh Ramesses or Pharaoh Amenhotep; instead, the word 'pr-`3' or pharaoh was used as a noun to refer to the activities of the king (i.e., it was "Pharaoh" who ordered the creation of a temple or statue, or the digging of a well, etc.). Rolf Krauss aptly observes that the earliest attested use of the word pharaoh as a title is documented in Year 17 of the 21st Dynasty king Siamun from Karnak Priestly Annals fragment 3B[21] while a second use of the title [Pharaoh] [birth name] occurs during Psusennes II's reign where a hieratic graffito in the Ptah chapel of the Abydos temple of Seti I explicitly refers to Psusennes II as the "High Priest of Amen-Re, King of the Gods, the Leader, Pharaoh Psusennes."[22][23] Consequently, the practice of attaching the title pr-`3 or pharaoh with a king's royal birth name had already started prior to the beginning of Shoshenq I's reign, let alone Shoshenq III. Hence, the Shoshenq mentioned in the large Year 5 Dakhla stela must have been Shoshenq I while the Psusennes mentioned in the same document likewise can only be Psusennes II which means that only 5 years (or 10 years if Psusennes II ruled Egypt for 24 years) would separate Nysu-Bastet from his mother.[24] The additional fact that the Large Dakhla stela contains a Year 5 IV Peret day 25 lunar date has helped date the aforementioned king Shoshenq's accession to 943 BC and demonstrates that the ruler here must be Shoshenq I, not Shoshenq III who ruled a century later.[24] Helen Jacquet-Gordon did not know of the two prior examples pertaining to Siamun and Psusennes II. Timeline[edit] The editors of the 'Handbook on Ancient Egyptian Chronology' (2006)--Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss and David Warburton—accept this logical reasoning and have amended Manetho's original figure of 14 years for Psusennes II to 24 years for Psusennes II.[25] This is not unprecedented since Egyptologists had previously amended the reign of Siamun by a decade from 9 years—as preserved in surviving copies of Manetho's Epitome—to 19 years based on certain Year 16 and Year 17 dates attested for the latter.[7] Psusennes II ruled Egypt for a minimum of 19 years based on the internal chronology of the Large Dakhla stela. However, a calculation of a lunar Tepi Shemu feast which records the induction of Hori son of Nespaneferhor into the Amun priesthood in regnal year 17 of Siamun, Psusennes II's predecessor—demonstrates that this date was equivalent to 970 BC.[26] Since Siamun enjoyed a reign of 19 years, he would have died 2 years later in 968/967 BC and been succeeded by Psusennes II by 967 BC at the latest. Consequently, a reign of 24 years or 967-943 BC is now likely for Psusennes II; hence, his reign has been raised from 14 to 24 years. Psusennes II's royal name has been found associated with his successor, Shoshenq I in a graffito from tomb TT18, and in an ostracon from Umm el-Qa'ab.[27] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Psusennes II. References[edit] ^ Pasebakhenniut II ^ Peter Clayton, Chronology of the Pharaohs, Thames & Hudson Ltd, 1994. p.178 ^ Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss & David Warburton (editors), Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies), Brill: 2006, p.221 Karl Jansen-Winkeln in his treatment for the 'Dynasty 21' chapter of this book writes that "the evidence weighs heavily in favour of his (ie. Psusennes III) being one and the same man, who was first HP and then successor to King Siamun in Tanis, without giving up his Theban office." ^ Jansen-Winkeln in Hornung, Krauss & Warburton, p.222 ^ Jansen-Winkeln in Hornung, Krauss & Warburton, p.223 ^ K.A. Kitchen, The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100–650 BC) 3rd ed., Warminster: Aris & Phillips Ltd, p.423 ^ a b Kitchen, p.423 ^ Aidan Dodson, "Psusennes II and Shoshenq I," JEA 79(1993), pp.267-268 ^ Frederic Payraudeau, De nouvelles annales sacerdotales de Siamon, Psousennès II et Osorkon Ier., BIFAO 108 (2008), p.294 ^ a b Payraudeau, BIFAO 108, p.294 ^ Karl Jansen-Winkeln, The Relevance of Genealogical Information for Egyptian Chronology, Äegypte und Levante 16, (2006), pp.266-271 ^ Aidan Dodson, "The Transition between the 21st and 22nd Dynasties Revisited" in The Libyan Period in Egypt, Historical and Cultural Studies into the 21st-24th Dynasties: Proceedings of a Conference at Leiden University, 25–27 October 2007, GPF Broekman, R.J. Demaree & O.E. Kaper (eds.) Peeters, Leuven, 2009. p.103 ^ Dodson, p.103 ^ Jean Yoyotte, L'Or des pharaons, Paris, 1987, 136-7 [19] ^ Dodson, pp.103-104 ^ Dodson, p.104 ^ K.A. Kitchen, The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (c.1100–650 BC), Aris & Phillips Ltd., 1996. p.531 ^ Rolf Krauss, Das wrŝ-Datum aus Jahr 5 von Shoshenq [I], Discussions in Egyptology 62 (2005), pp.43-48 ^ a b Kitchen, p.290 ^ Alan H. Gardiner, The Large Dakhla stela, JEA 19 (1930), pp.19-30 ^ J-M Kruchten, Les annales des prētres de Karnak (OLA) 1989. pp.47-48 ^ M.A. Murray, The Osireion at Abydos (London, 1989), 36; pl. XXI ^ Krauss, DE 62, pp.43-44 ^ a b Krauss, DE 62, pp.43-48 ^ Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss & David Warburton (editors), Handbook of Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies), Brill: 2006, p.474 & p.488 ^ Hornung, Krauss & Warburton, pp.474-475 ^ Aidan Dodson, "Psusennes II and Shoshenq I," JEA 79(1993), pp.267-268 Further reading[edit] Aidan Dodson, ‘Psusennes II’, Revue d’Égyptologie 38 (1987), 49-54. Jean Yoyotte, "A propos de Psousennes II," BSSFT 1(1988). F. Payraudeau, ‘De nouvelles annales sacerdotales de Siamon Psousennès II et Osorkon Ier’, Bulletin de l’Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale 108 (2008), 293-308. Aidan Dodson, 2009. ‘The Transition between the 21st and 22nd Dynasties Revisited’. In G. P. F. Broekman, R. J. Demarée & O. E. Kaper (eds), The Libyan Period in Egypt, 103-112. (Egyptologische Uitgaven 23.). 2009, Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten; Leuven: Peeters. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Psusennes_II&oldid=980128969" Categories: 10th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt 10th century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Bosanski Català Чӑвашла Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá Edit links This page was last edited on 24 September 2020, at 19:28 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5184	----	Biblioteca Nacional de España - Wikipedia Biblioteca Nacional de España From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from BNE (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Public library in Madrid, Spain This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Biblioteca Nacional de España" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) National Library of Spain Biblioteca Nacional de España Country Spain Established 1712 (309 years ago) (1712) Reference to legal mandate Royal Decree 1581/1991 on 31 October Location Madrid Collection Items collected books, journals, newspapers, magazines, sound and music recordings, patents, databases, maps, stamps, prints, drawings and manuscripts Size 26,000,000 items, including 15,000,000 books and other printed materials, 30,000 manuscripts, 143,000 newspapers and serials, 4,500,000 graphic materials, 510,000 music scores, etc. Legal deposit Yes, by Decree on 23 December 1957 Access and use Access requirements Access to reproductions and post-1958 materials is open to Biblioteca Nacional library card holders. Access to pre-1958 materials is only allowed with a researcher card.[1] Materials in exceptional circumstances are subject to special restrictions.[2] Members 115,707 readers in 2007. The web users in the same year were 1,800,935. Other information Budget €47,380,860 Director Ana Santos Aramburo (since 2013) Staff 1025 (including external employees) Website http://www.bne.es/ Map National Library of Spain Native name Spanish: Biblioteca Nacional de España Location Madrid, Spain Spanish Property of Cultural Interest Official name Biblioteca Nacional de España Type Non-movable Criteria Monument Designated 1983 Reference no. RI-51-0004908 Location of National Library of Spain in Spain The Biblioteca Nacional de España (National Library of Spain) is a major public library, the largest in Spain, and one of the largest in the world. It is located in Madrid, on the Paseo de Recoletos. Contents 1 History 2 The library today 3 See also 4 References 5 External links History[edit] The library was founded by King Philip V in 1712 as the Palace Public Library (Biblioteca Pública de Palacio). The Royal Letters Patent that he granted, the predecessor of the current legal deposit requirement, made it mandatory for printers to submit a copy of every book printed in Spain to the library. In 1836, the library's status as Crown property was revoked and ownership was transferred to the Ministry of Governance (Ministerio de la Gobernación). At the same time, it was renamed the Biblioteca Nacional. During the 19th century, confiscations, purchases and donations enabled the Biblioteca Nacional to acquire the majority of the antique and valuable books that it currently holds. In 1892 the building was used to host the Historical American Exposition.[3] On 16 March 1896, the Biblioteca Nacional opened to the public in the same building in which it is currently housed and included a vast Reading Room on the main floor designed to hold 320 readers. In 1931 the Reading Room was reorganised, providing it with a major collection of reference works, and the General Reading Room was created to cater for students, workers and general readers. During the Spanish Civil War close to 500,000 volumes were collected by the Confiscation Committee (Junta de Incautación) and stored in the Biblioteca Nacional to safeguard works of art and books held until then in religious establishments, palaces and private houses. During the 20th century numerous modifications were made to the building to adapt its rooms and repositories to its constantly expanding collections, to the growing volume of material received following the modification to the Legal Deposit requirement in 1958, and to the numerous works purchased by the library. Among this building work, some of the most noteworthy changes were the alterations made in 1955 to triple the capacity of the library's repositories, and those started in 1986 and completed in 2000, which led to the creation of the new building in Alcalá de Henares and complete remodelling of the building on Paseo de Recoletos, Madrid. In 1986, when Spain's main bibliographic institutions - the National Newspaper Library (Hemeroteca Nacional), the Spanish Bibliographic Institute (Instituto Bibliográfico Hispánico) and the Centre for Documentary and Bibliographic Treasures (Centro del Tesoro Documental y Bibliográfico) - were incorporated into the Biblioteca Nacional, the library was established as the State Repository of Spain's Cultural Memory (Centro Estatal Depositario de la Memoria Cultural Española), making all of Spain's bibliographic output on any media available to the Spanish Library System and national and international researchers and cultural and educational institutions. In 1990 it was made an Autonomous Entity attached to the Ministry of Culture (Ministerio de Cultura). The Madrid premises are shared with the National Archaeological Museum. The library today[edit] The Biblioteca Nacional is Spain's highest library institution and is head of the Spanish Library System. As the country's national library, it is the centre responsible for identifying, preserving, conserving, and disseminating information about Spain's documentary heritage, and it aspires to be an essential point of reference for research into Spanish culture. In accordance with its Articles of Association, passed by Royal Decree 1581/1991 (R.D. 1581/1991) of 31 October 1991, its principal functions are to: Compile, catalogue, and conserve bibliographic archives produced in any language of the Spanish state, or any other language, for the purposes of research, culture, and information. Promote research through the study, loan, and reproduction of its bibliographic archive. Disseminate information on Spain's bibliographic output based on the entries received through the legal deposit requirement. The library's collection consists of more than 26,000,000 items, including 15,000,000 books and other printed materials, 4,500,000 graphic materials, 600,000 sound recordings, 510,000 music scores, more than 500,000 microforms, 500,000 maps, 143,000 newspapers and serials, 90,000 audiovisuals, 90,000 electronic documents, and 30,000 manuscripts. The current director of the Biblioteca Nacional is Ana Santos Aramburo, appointed in 2013. Former directors include her predecessors Glòria Pérez-Salmerón (2010–2013) and Milagros del Corral (2007-2010) as well as historian Juan Pablo Fusi (1996–2000) and author Rosa Regàs (2004–2007). Given its role as the legal deposit for the whole of Spain, since 1991 it has kept most of the overflowing collection at a secondary site in Alcalá de Henares, near Madrid. The Biblioteca Nacional provides access to its collections through the following library services: Guidance and general information on the institution and other libraries. Bibliographic information about its collection and those held by other libraries or library systems. Access to its automated catalogue, which currently contains close to 3,000,000 bibliographic records encompassing all of its collections. Archive consultation in the library's reading rooms. Interlibrary loans. Archive reproduction. Stairs and main entrance with monuments to San Isidoro, Alonso Berruguete, Alfonso X el Sabio by José Alcoverro Statue of Hispania by Agustí Querol above the library A page from the manuscript of The Lay of the Cid Statue of Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo in the lobby of the B.N.E. Building of the National Library of Spain in Alcalá de Henares See also[edit] Biblioteca Digital Hispánica [es], digital library launched in 2008 by the Biblioteca Nacional de España List of libraries in Spain References[edit] ^ "Carnés de la Biblioteca". www.bne.es (in Spanish). 20 March 2012. Retrieved 4 February 2017. ^ "Carné de investigador. Biblioteca Nacional de España". www.bne.es (in Spanish). 12 December 2011. Retrieved 4 February 2017. ^ "Cronología. National Library of Spain". 2014-08-11. Retrieved 5 May 2017. External links[edit] Media related to Biblioteca Nacional de España at Wikimedia Commons Official site (in English) Official web catalog (in English) v t e National libraries of Europe Sovereign states Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Kazakhstan Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands North Macedonia Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom Northern Ireland Scotland Wales Vatican City States with limited recognition Abkhazia Artsakh Kosovo Northern Cyprus South Ossetia Transnistria Dependencies and other entities Åland Faroe Islands Gibraltar Guernsey Isle of Man Jersey Svalbard Other entities European Union v t e Authority control files AAG • ACM DL • ADB • AGSA • autores.uy • AWR • BALaT • BIBSYS • Bildindex • BNC • BNE • BNF • Botanist • BPN • CANTIC • CiNii • CWGC • DAAO • DBLP • DSI • FNZA • GND • HDS • IAAF • ICCU • ICIA • ISNI • Joconde • KulturNav • LCCN • LIR • LNB • Léonore • MBA • MGP • NARA • NBL • NDL • NGV • NKC • NLA • NLG • NLI • NLK • NLP • NLR • NSK • NTA • ORCID • PIC • PLWABN • ResearcherID • RERO • RKD • RKDimages ID • RSL • SELIBR • SIKART • SNAC • SUDOC • S2AuthorId • TA98 • TDVİA • TE • TePapa • TH • TLS • Trove • UKPARL • ULAN • US Congress • VcBA • VIAF • WorldCat Identities Authority control BNE: XX4891886 BNF: cb11873556v (data) CANTIC: a10050395 GND: 1027025-5 ISNI: 0000 0004 1765 9012 LCCN: n79007200 LNB: 000200423 NKC: kn20010709445 NLA: 35391277 NLI: 000020549 NLP: A1195503X NSK: 000075985 SELIBR: 336472 SUDOC: 026498545 Trove: 959980 ULAN: 500302319 VIAF: 159172356 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n85279272 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biblioteca_Nacional_de_España&oldid=998486191" Categories: 1712 establishments in Spain Libraries in Madrid National libraries Spanish culture Buildings and structures in Recoletos neighborhood, Madrid Bien de Interés Cultural landmarks in Madrid Libraries established in 1712 Deposit libraries World's fair architecture in Spain Hidden categories: CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles needing additional references from December 2008 All articles needing additional references Infobox mapframe without OSM relation ID on Wikidata Articles containing Spanish-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLP identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Pages using the Kartographer extension Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ भोजपुरी Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Македонски مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Nordfriisk Occitan Polski Português Română Русский සිංහල Simple English Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Türkçe Українська Vèneto Tiếng Việt Winaray 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 5 January 2021, at 16:16 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5190	----	The Persians - Wikipedia The Persians From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The Persians Written by Aeschylus Chorus Persian Elders Characters Atossa Messenger Ghost of Darius Xerxes Date premiered 472 BC Place premiered Athens Original language Ancient Greek Setting Susa The Persians (Ancient Greek: Πέρσαι, Persai, Latinised as Persae) is an ancient Greek tragedy written during the Classical period of Ancient Greece by the Greek tragedian Aeschylus. It is the second and only surviving part of a now otherwise lost trilogy that won the first prize at the dramatic competitions in Athens' City Dionysia festival in 472 BC, with Pericles serving as choregos. Contents 1 Place in Aeschylus' work 2 Summary 3 Discussion 4 Subsequent production history 5 Influence 6 Translations 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links Place in Aeschylus' work[edit] The first play in the trilogy, called Phineus, presumably dealt with Jason and the Argonauts' rescue of King Phineus from the torture that the monstrous harpies inflicted at the behest of Zeus. The subject of the third play, Glaucus, was either a mythical Corinthian king who was devoured by his horses because he angered the goddess Aphrodite (see Glaucus (son of Sisyphus)) or else a Boeotian farmer who ate a magical herb that transformed him into a sea deity with the gift of prophecy (see Glaucus).[1][2] In The Persians, Xerxes invites the gods' enmity for his hubristic expedition against Greece in 480/79 BCE; the focus of the drama is the defeat of Xerxes' navy at Salamis. Given Aeschylus' propensity for writing connected trilogies, the theme of divine retribution may connect the three. Aeschylus himself had fought the Persians at Marathon (490 BC). He may even have fought at Salamis, just eight years before the play was performed. The satyr play following the trilogy was Prometheus Pyrkaeus, translated as either Prometheus the Fire-lighter or Prometheus the Fire-kindler, which comically portrayed the titan's theft of fire.[3] Several fragments of Prometheus Pyrkaeus are extant, and according to Plutarch, one of those fragments was a statement by Prometheus warning a satyr who wanted to kiss and embrace the fire that he would "mourn for his beard" if he did.[4][5] Another fragment from Prometheus Pyrkaeus was translated by Herbert Weir Smyth as "And do thou guard thee well lest a blast strike thy face; for it is sharp, and deadly-scorching its hot breaths.[4][5] Summary[edit] The Persians takes place in Susa, which at the time was one of the capitals of the Persian Empire, and opens with a chorus of old men of Susa, who are soon joined by the Queen Mother, Atossa, as they await news of her son King Xerxes' expedition against the Greeks. Expressing her anxiety and unease, Atossa narrates "what is probably the first dream sequence in European theatre."[6] This is an unusual beginning for a tragedy by Aeschylus; normally the chorus would not appear until slightly later, after a speech by a minor character. An exhausted messenger arrives, who offers a graphic description of the Battle of Salamis and its gory outcome. He tells of the Persian defeat, the names of the Persian generals who have been killed, and that Xerxes had escaped and is returning. The climax of the messenger's speech is his rendition of the battle cry of the Greeks as they charged: "On, sons of Greece! Set free/Your fatherland, set free your children, wives,/Places of your ancestral gods and tombs of your ancestors!/Forward for all" (401–405).[7] "The Ghost of Darius Appearing to Atossa", drawing by George Romney. At the tomb of her dead husband Darius, Atossa asks the chorus to summon his ghost: "Some remedy he knows, perhaps,/Knows ruin's cure" they say.[8] On learning of the Persian defeat, Darius condemns the hubris behind his son's decision to invade Greece. He particularly rebukes an impious Xerxes’ decision to build a bridge over the Hellespont to expedite the Persian army's advance. Before departing, the ghost of Darius prophesies another Persian defeat at the Battle of Plataea (479 BCE): "Where the plain grows lush and green,/Where Asopus' stream plumps rich Boeotia's soil,/The mother of disasters awaits them there,/Reward for insolence, for scorning God."[9] Xerxes finally arrives, dressed in torn robes ("grief swarms," the Queen says just before his arrival, "but worst of all it stings / to hear how my son, my prince, / wears tatters, rags" (845–849)) and reeling from his crushing defeat. The rest of the drama (908–1076) consists of the king alone with the chorus engaged in a lyrical kommós that laments the enormity of Persia's defeat. Discussion[edit] Aeschylus was not the first to write a play about the Persians — his older contemporary Phrynichus wrote two plays about them. The first, The Sack of Miletus (written in 493 BCE, 21 years before Aeschylus' play), concerned the destruction of an Ionian colony of Athens in Asia Minor by the Persians. For his portrayal of this brutal defeat, which emphasized Athens' abandonment of its colony, Phrynichus was fined and a law passed forbidding subsequent performances of his play.[10] The second, Phoenician Women (written in 476 BCE, four years before Aeschylus' version), treated the same historical event as Aeschylus' Persians. Neither of Phrynichus' plays have survived. Interpretations of Persians either read the play as sympathetic toward the defeated Persians or else as a celebration of Greek victory within the context of an ongoing war.[11] The sympathetic school has the considerable weight of Aristotelian criticism behind it; indeed, every other extant Greek tragedy arguably invites an audience's sympathy for one or more characters on stage. The celebratory school argues that the play is part of a xenophobic culture that would find it difficult to sympathize with its hated barbarian enemy during a time of war.[12] During the play, Xerxes calls his pains "a joy to my enemies" (line 1034). Subsequent production history[edit] Detail from the front cover of the programme to Peter Sellars' 1993 production of the play. According to a scholium at Aristophanes' Frogs 1028, Hiero of Syracuse at some point invited Aeschylus to reproduce The Persians in Sicily.[13] Seventy years after the play was produced, the comic playwright Aristophanes mentions an apparent Athenian reproduction of The Persians in his Frogs (405 BCE).[14] In it, he has Aeschylus describe The Persians as "an effective sermon on the will to win. Best thing I ever wrote"; while Dionysus says that he "loved that bit where they sang about the days of the great Darius, and the chorus went like this with their hands and cried 'Wah! Wah!'" (1026–28).[15] The Persians was popular in the Roman Empire and Byzantine Empire, who also fought wars with the Persians, and its popularity has endured in modern Greece. According to Anthony Podlecki, during a production at Athens in 1965 the audience "rose to its feet en masse and interrupted the actors' dialogue with cheers."[16] The American Peter Sellars directed an important production of The Persians at the Edinburgh Festival and Los Angeles Festival in 1993, which articulated the play as a response to the Gulf War of 1990–1991. The production was in a new translation by Robert Auletta.[17] It opened at the Royal Lyceum Theatre on 16 August 1993.[18] Hamza El Din composed and performed its music, with additional music by Ben Halley Jr. and sound design by Bruce Odland and Sam Auinger.[18] Dunya Ramicova designed the costumes and James F. Ingalls the lighting.[18] Cordelia Gonzalez played Atossa, Howie Seago the Ghost of Darius, and John Ortiz played Xerxes.[18] The Chorus was performed by Ben Halley Jr, Joseph Haj, and Martinus Miroto.[18] Ellen McLaughlin translated Persians in 2003 for Tony Randall's National Actors Theatre in New York as a response to George Bush's invasion of Iraq.[19] The production starred Len Cariou as Darius. A 2010 translation by Aaron Poochigian [20] included for the first time the detailed notes for choral odes that Aeschylus himself created, which directed lines to be spoken by specific parts of the chorus (strophe and antistrophe). Using Poochigian's edition, which includes theatrical notes and stage directions, "Persians" was presented in a staged read-through as part of New York's WorkShop Theater Company's Spring 2011 one-act festival "They That Have Borne the Battle."[21] Also in 2010, Kaite O'Reilly's award-winning translation was produced on Sennybridge Training Area (a military range in the Brecon Beacons) by National Theatre Wales. Audiences valued the way this production required them to shift their attention between the spectacular landscape surrounding them, the particular history of the area, and the modern adaptation of the ancient Greek text performed onstage.[22] The work went on to win O'Reilly the Ted Hughes Award for New Work in Poetry, presented by the Poet Laureate, Carol Ann Duffy. Οn the occasion of the 2500th anniversary of the Battle of Salamis, on July 25, 2020, "Persians" was the first Ancient Greek Tragedy that was played at its natural environment, i.e. the open-air theatre of Epidaurus, and was live streamed internationally via YouTube.[23] The play was a production of the Hellenic National Theatre and was directed by Dimitrios Lignadis as part of the Epidaurus Festival. Actors delivered the play in Ancient and Modern Greek, while English subtitles were projected on YouTube. Influence[edit] Aeschylus' drama was a model for Percy Bysshe Shelley's 1821 Hellas: A Lyrical Drama, his final published poetical work before his death in 1822. T. S. Eliot in The Waste Land, The Burial of the Dead, line 63 “I had not thought Death had undone so many” echoes line 432 of the Messenger account in the Persians: “However, you can be sure that so great a multitude of men never perished in a single day'[24]'” which is also similar to Dante's line in Inferno, Canto III, lines 56–57: ch'i' non averei creduto/Che morte tanta n'avesse disfatta.[25] In modern literature, Dimitris Lyacos in his dystopian epic[26] Z213: Exit uses quotations from the Messenger's account[27] in The Persians, (δίψῃ πονοῦντες, οἱ δ᾽ ὑπ᾽ ἄσθματος κενοὶ: some, faint from thirst, while some of us, exhausted and panting[28]), in order to convey the failure of a military operation and the subsequent retreat of the troops in a post-apocalyptic setting.[29] The excerpts from The Persians enter a context of fragmentation whereby broken syntax is evocative of a landscape in the aftermath of war.[30] Translations[edit] Robert Potter, 1777 – verse: full text Anna Swanwick, 1886 - verse: full text E. D. A. Morshead, 1908 – verse Walter George Headlam and C. E. S. Headlam, 1909 – prose Herbert Weir Smyth, 1922 – prose: full text G. M. Cookson, 1922 – verse Gilbert Murray, 1939 - verse Seth G. Benardete, 1956 – verse Philip Vellacott, 1961 – verse Ted Hughes, 1971 – incorporated into Orghast Janet Lembke and C.J. Herington, 1981 Frederic Raphael and Kenneth McLeish, 1991 Edith Hall, 1996 Ellen McLaughlin, 2004 – verse George Theodoridis, 2009 – prose: full text Aaron Poochigian, 2010, verse[31] Ian C. Johnston, 2012, verse: full text James Romm, 2016 — verse Notes[edit] ^ A catalogue of Aeschylus' plays contains the two titles Glaucus Potnieus and Glaucus Pontius – hence the uncertainty. To add to the confusion, one title could easily be a garbled duplicate of the other. The consensus seems to favor Glaucus Potnieus ^ Garvie 2009, xl–xlvi); however see Muller/Lewis 1858, p. 322. ^ According to the hypothesis of The Persians found, for instance, in the Loeb and OCT editions of Aeschylus' plays. ^ a b "Aeschylus Fragments 57–154". theoi.com. Retrieved 2011-07-24. ^ a b Smyth, H. W. (1930). Aeschylus: Agamemnon, Libation-Bearers, Eumenides, Fragments. Harvard University Press. pp. 453–454. ISBN 0-674-99161-3. ^ Taxidou (2004, 99). ^ Raphael and Macleish (1991, p. 14). In the original, this reads: “ὦ παῖδες Ἑλλήνων ἴτε, / ἐλευθεροῦτε πατρίδ', ἐλευθεροῦτε δὲ / παῖδας, γυναῖκας, θεῶν τέ πατρῴων ἕδη,/θήκας τε προγόνων: νῦν ὑπὲρ πάντων ἀγών.". ^ Raphael and McLeish (1991, 20). ^ Raphael and McLeish (1991, p. 26). ^ See Herodotus 6.21.2 and Taxidou (2004, pp. 96–97). ^ For the first reading, see, for example, Segal (1993, p. 165) and Pelling (1997, pp. 1–19); for the second, see Hall (1996) and Harrison (2000). While there is some disagreement, the consensus is that the Persian Wars did not come to a formal conclusion until 449 BCE with the Peace of Callias. ^ See Hall (1991). ^ The Vita Aeschyli §18 repeats this claim, adding that the play was well received there. For questions surrounding this Sicilian production and its bearing on the text of the Persae that survives, see Broadhead 2009, pp. xlviii–liii; Garvie 2009, pp. liii–lvii. ^ Garvie 2009, p. lv. ^ See Barrett 1964, p. 194. ^ Podlecki (1986, p. 78). ^ See Favorini (2003) and Banham (1998, p. 974). ^ a b c d e From the programme to the Edinburgh Festival production. ^ McLaughlin (2005, p. 254) ^ http://jhupbooks.press.jhu.edu:80/ecom/MasterServlet/GetItemDetailsHandler?iN=9781421400631&qty=1&source=2&viewMode=3&loggedIN=false&JavaScript=y released by Johns Hopkins University Press ^ They That Have Borne the Battle Veterans Festival http://workshoptheater.org/jewelbox/2011/TheyThatHave Archived 2011-09-02 at the Wayback Machine ^ Sedgman, Kirsty (2016). Locating the Audience. Bristol: Intellect. ISBN 9781783205714. ^ Live from Epidaurus: Aeschylus’ “The Persians” in international live streaming from the Ancient Theatre of Epidaurus http://greekfestival.gr/live-from-epidaurus-aeschylus-quot-the-persians-quot-in-international-live-streaming-from-the-ancient-theatre-of-epidaurus/?lang=en, Date accessed: 2020-07-25 ^ Aeschylus, Persians, line 432. Herbert Weir Smyth Ed. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0012%3Acard%3D480 ^ Dante Alighieri, La Divina Commedia, Inferno, Canto III, lines 56–57.http://eliotswasteland.tripod.com ^ Michael O'Sullivan. The precarious destitute. A possible commentary on the lives of unwanted immigrants. http://www.asiancha.com/content/view/2105/505/ ^ Dimitris Lyacos Z213: Exit. Translated by Shorsha Sullivan. Shoestring Press 2010, pp. 77–81. ^ Aeschylus, Persians, line 484. Herbert Weir Smyth, ed. Retrieved 7 December 2018. ^ Allison Elliott, A review of Z213: Exit by Dimitris Lyacos. Retrieved 7 December 2018. ^ Spencer Dew, A review of "Poena Damni, Z213: Exit. Retrieved 7 December 2018. ^ http://jhupbooks.press.jhu.edu:80/ecom/MasterServlet/GetItemDetailsHandler?iN=9781421400631&qty=1&source=2&viewMode=3&loggedIN=false&JavaScript=y References[edit] Banham, Martin, ed. 1998. The Cambridge Guide to Theatre. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. ISBN 0-521-43437-8. Barrett, David, trans. 1964. The Frogs. By Aristophanes. In The Wasps / The Poet and the Women / The Frogs. London: Penguin, 1986. 147–212. ISBN 0-14-044152-2. Broadhead, H. D. 2009. The Persae of Aeschylus. Cambridge. Favorini, Attilio. 2003. "History, Collective Memory, and Aeschylus' Persians." Theatre Journal 55:1 (March): 99–111. Garvie, A. F. 2009 Aeschylus Persae. Oxford. Hall, Edith. 1991. Inventing the Barbarian: Greek Self-definition through Tragedy. Oxford Classical Monographs ser. Oxford: Clarendon. ISBN 0-19-814780-5. Hall, Edith. 1996. Aeschylus Persians: Text and Commentary. Warminster: Aris & Phillips. ISBN 0-85668-597-6. Harrison, Thomas. 2000. The Emptiness of Asia: Aeschylus' Persians and the History of the Fifth Century. London: Gerald Duckworth. ISBN 0-7156-2968-9. Lesky, Albin et al. 1996. A History of Greek Literature. Hackett. ISBN 0-87220-350-6. McLaughlin, Ellen. 2005. The Greek Plays. New York: Theatre Communications Group. ISBN 978-1-55936-240-5. Muller, K. O. 1858. History of the Literature of Ancient Greece: To the Period of Isocrates. Trans. George C. Lewis. Longmans, Green & Co. Munn, Mark H. 2000. The School of History: Athens in the Age of Socrates. Berkeley: U of California P. ISBN 0-520-23685-8. Podlecki, A. J. 1986. "Polis and Monarchy in Early Greek Tragedy." In Greek Tragedy and Political Theory. Ed. Peter Euben. New ed. Berkeley: U of California P, 1992. ISBN 0-520-05584-5. Raphael, Frederic, and Kenneth McLeish, trans. 1991. Plays: One. By Aeschylus. Ed. J. Michael Walton. Methuen Classical Greek Dramatists series, London: Methuen, 1998. ISBN 0-413-65190-8. Segal, Charles. Euripides and the Poetics of Sorrow: Art, Gender and Commemoration in Alcestis, Hippolytus and Hecuba. Durham: Duke UP. ISBN 0-8223-1360-X. Taxidou, Olga. 2004. Tragedy, Modernity and Mourning. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP. ISBN 0-7486-1987-9. External links[edit] Works related to The Persians at Wikisource  Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Πέρσαι See original Greek version See the Smyth (1926) translation The Persians public domain audiobook at LibriVox v t e Plays by Aeschylus Tetralogies Achilleis Danaid Tetralogy Lycurgeia Oedipodea Oresteia (including Agamemnon, Libation Bearers, Eumenides and fragmentary Proteus) Prometheia Extant plays The Persians Seven Against Thebes The Suppliants Prometheus Bound (authorship disputed) Fragmentary plays Philoctetes Prometheus Unbound Prometheus the Fire-Bringer Category Authority control BNF: cb12273958r (data) GND: 4261086-2 LCCN: n83200552 SUDOC: 028539516 VIAF: 183898734 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 183898734 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Persians&oldid=1001007057" Categories: Plays by Aeschylus Plays based on real people Battle of Salamis Plays set in ancient Greece Plays set in ancient Persia Cultural depictions of Darius the Great Cultural depictions of Xerxes I Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Webarchive template wayback links Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Frysk 한국어 Íslenska Italiano עברית Lëtzebuergesch Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 17 January 2021, at 20:20 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5204	----	Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt 1803 BC–1649 BC Granite statue of Pharaoh Imyremeshaw in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo Capital Itjtawy Common languages Egyptian language Religion ancient Egyptian religion Government Absolute monarchy Historical era Bronze Age • Established 1803 BC • Disestablished 1649 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The Thirteenth Dynasty of ancient Egypt (notated Dynasty XIII) is often combined with Dynasties XI, XII and XIV under the group title Middle Kingdom. Some writers separate it from these dynasties and join it to Dynasties XIV through XVII as part of the Second Intermediate Period. Dynasty XIII lasted from approximately 1803 BC until approximately 1649 BC, i.e. for 154 years.[1] The 13th Dynasty was a direct continuation of the preceding 12th Dynasty, with its first ruler believed to be a son of Amenemhat IV.[1] Kim Ryholt proposes that the demarcation between the two dynasties reflects the rise of the independent 14th Dynasty in the eastern Delta, an event which, he proposes, occurred during Sobekneferu's reign.[1] As direct heirs to the kings of the 12th Dynasty, pharaohs of the 13th Dynasty reigned from Memphis over Middle and Upper Egypt, all the way to the second cataract to the south. The power of the 13th Dynasty waned progressively over its 150 years of existence and it finally came to an end with the conquest of Memphis by the Hyksos rulers of the 15th Dynasty, c. 1650 BC.[1] Contents 1 Rulers 1.1 Sobekhotep I and II 1.2 Successors 2 References Rulers[edit] In later texts, this dynasty is usually described as an era of chaos and disorder. However, the period may have been more peaceful than was once thought since the central government in Itj-tawy near the Faiyum was sustained during most of the dynasty and the country remained relatively stable. The period was undoubtedly characterized by decline, with a large number of kings with short reigns and only a few attestations. It is clear that they were not from a single family line, and some of them were born commoners. Unfortunately, the true chronology of this dynasty is difficult to determine as there are few monuments dating from the period. Many of the kings' names are only known from odd fragmentary inscriptions or from scarabs.[citation needed] The names and order in the table are based on Dodson and Hilton and Ryholt.[1][2] Dynasty XIII pharaohs Name of pharaoh Image Burial Consort(s) Comments Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep I The dominant hypothesis is that Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep was the founder of the dynasty,[3][4] in older studies Wegaf Sonbef Perhaps a son of Amenemhat IV and brother of Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep.[3] Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Pyramid of Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Qemau Siharnedjheritef[5] Perhaps identical with King Sehotepibre in the Turin Canon Iufni Known only from the Turin canon Seankhibre Ameny-Intef-Amenemhat VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewesekhtawy Sewadjkare I Known only from the Turin canon Nedjemibre Known only from the Turin canon Khaankhre Sobekhotep II Renseneb Amenemhat Awybre Hor Buried in Dahshur near the pyramid of Amenemhet III Nubhetepti (?) Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Possibly a son of Hor Awybre. Djedkheperew Possibly a brother of Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw. Sedjefakare Kay-Amenemhet VII Khutawyre Wegaf Userkare Khendjer Pyramid of Khendjer, South Saqqara [6] Seneb[henas?] May also have borne the name Nimaatre. Smenkhkare Imyremeshaw Aya (Iy)? Sehetepkare Intef Aya (Iy)? Seth Meribre Sekhemresewadjtawy Sobekhotep III Senebhenas [7] Neni[7] Khasekhemre Neferhotep I Perhaps buried at Abydos Senebsen [7] Menwadjre Sihathor Ephemeral coregent with his brother Neferhotep I Khaneferre Sobekhotep IV Perhaps buried at Abdydos: S 10 (Abydos) Tjan[7] Brother of Neferhotep I and Sihathor Merhotepre Sobekhotep V Nubkhaes ? [7] Khahotepre Sobekhotep VI Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Built a pyramid whose location is unknown, maybe near Memphis.[8] Inni ? Reigned 23 years, the longest reign of the dynasty. Last king to be attested in both Lower and Upper Egypt. Following these kings, the remaining rulers of the 13th Dynasty are only attested by finds from Upper Egypt. This may indicate the abandonment of the old capital Itjtawy in favor of Thebes.[9] Daphna Ben Tor believes that this event was triggered by the invasion of the eastern Delta and the Memphite region by Canaanite rulers. For some authors, this marks the end of the Middle Kingdom and the beginning of the Second Intermediate Period.[9] This analysis is rejected by Ryholt and Baker however, who note that the stele of Seheqenre Sankhptahi, reigning toward the end of the dynasty, strongly suggests that he reigned over Memphis. Unfortunately, the stele is of unknown provenance.[3][4] Dynasty XIII pharaohs continued Pharaoh Comments Merhotepre Ini Also known as Ini I Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Possibly the same as Neferhotep II Sewadjkare Hori Also known as Hori II Merkawre Sobekhotep VII Eight kings, names lost Merkheperre Merkare Known only from the Turin canon One lost king Sewadjare Mentuhotep V [...]mosre Ibi [...]maatre Hor [...] [...]webenre Se[...]kare Seheqenre Sankhptahi Represented on a stele offering to Ptah [...]re Se[...]enre The chronological position of a number of attested rulers could not be conclusively determined due to a lack of evidence: Dynasty XIII pharaohs, undetermined position Pharaoh Comments Mershepsesre Ini II According to von Beckerath, successor of Sewadjare Mentuhotep V and predecessor of Merkheperre Mersekhemre Neferhotep II Possibly the same as Mersekhemre Ined Sewahenre Senebmiu According to von Beckerath, successor of Se[...]kare Sekhanenre ...re Sobekhotep I and II[edit] Ryholt posits a ruler named "Sobkhotep I Sekhemre Khutawy" as the first king of this dynasty. This is now the dominant hypothesis in Egyptology[4] and Sobekhotep Sekhemre Khutawy is referred to as Sobekhotep I in this article. Ryholt thus credits Sekhemre Khutawy Sobkhotep I with a reign of 3 to 4 years c. 1800 BC and proposes that Khaankhre Sobekhotep II reigned c. 20 years later in 1780 BC.[3] Dodson and Hilton similarly believe that Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep predated Khaankhre Sobekhotep.[10] Successors[edit] Statue of the royal sealer and high steward Gebu, 13th dynasty, c. 1700 BC from the temple of Amun in Karnak. After allowing discipline at the southern forts to deteriorate, the government eventually withdrew its garrisons and, not long afterward, the forts were reoccupied by the rising Nubian state of Kush. In the north, Lower Egypt was overrun by the Hyksos, a Semitic people from across the Sinai. An independent line of kings created Dynasty XIV that arose in the western Delta during later Dynasty XIII. According to Manetho, into this unstable mix came invaders from the east called the Hyksos who seized Egypt "without striking a blow; and having overpowered the rulers of the land, they then burned our cities ruthlessly, razed to the ground the temples of gods..." Their regime, called Dynasty XV, was claimed to have replaced Dynasties XIII and XIV in most of the country. However, recent archaeological finds at Edfu could indicate that the Hyksos 15th dynasty was already in existence at least by the mid-13th dynasty reign of king Sobekhotep IV. In a recently published paper in Egypt and the Levant,[11] Nadine Moeller, Gregory Marouard and N. Ayers discuss the discovery of an important early 12th dynasty Middle Kingdom administrative building in the eastern Tell Edfu area of Upper Egypt which was in continual use into the early Second Intermediate Period until the 17th dynasty, when its remains were sealed up by a large silo court. Fieldwork by Egyptologists in 2010 and 2011 into the remains of the former 12th dynasty building which was also used in the 13th dynasty led to the discovery of a large adjoining hall which proved to contain 41 sealings showing the cartouche of the Hyksos ruler Khyan together with 9 sealings naming the 13th dynasty king Sobekhotep IV.[12] The preserved contexts of these seals shows that Sobekhotep IV and Khyan were most likely contemporaries of one another. This could mean that the 13th dynasty did not control all of Egypt when Sobekhotep IV acceded to power, and that there was a significant overlap between the 13th and 15th dynasties since Sobekhotep IV was only a mid-13th dynasty ruler; although one of its most powerful kings. Therefore, Manetho's statement that the Hyksos 15th dynasty violently replaced the 13th dynasty could be a piece of later Egyptian propaganda. Rather, the 13th dynasty's authority must have been collapsing throughout Egypt in its final decades and the Hyksos state in the Delta region simply took over Memphis and ended the 13th dynasty's kingdom. However, this analysis and the conclusions drawn from it are rejected by Egyptologist Robert Porter, who argues that Khyan ruled much later than Sobekhotep IV (a gap of c. 100 years exists between the two in conventional chronologies) and that the seals of a pharaoh were used long after his death. Thus the seals of Sobekhotep IV might not indicate that he was a contemporary of Khyan.[13] Merneferre Ay was the last Egyptian ruler of the 13th Dynasty who is attested by objects in both Lower and Upper Egypt.[14] Henceforth, his successors, from Merhotepre Ini on, are only attested in Upper Egypt.[15] References[edit] ^ a b c d e Kim S. B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800–1550 B.C., Museum Tusculanum Press 1997, p.197 ^ Aidan Dodson, Dyan Hilton: The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press, London 2004. pp. 100–101 ^ a b c d K.S.B. Ryholt. The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c. 1800–1550 B.C. Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications 20. Copenhagen ^ a b c Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008 ^ K. S. B. Ryholt, Hotepibre, a Supposed Asiatic King in Egypt with Relations to Ebla, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, No. 311 (Aug., 1998), pp. 1–6 ^ Verner, Miroslav. The Pyramids: The Mystery, Culture, and Science of Egypt's Great Monuments. Grove Press. 2001 (1997). ISBN 0-8021-3935-3 ^ a b c d e Grajetzki, Ancient Egyptian Queens: A Hieroglyphic Dictionary, Golden House Publications, London, 2005, ISBN 978-0954721893 ^ Labib Habachi: Khata'na-Qantir: Importance, ASAE 52 (1954) pp. 471–479, pl.16–17 ^ a b Daphna Ben Tor: Sequences and chronology of Second Intermediate Period royal-name scarabs, based on excavated series from Egypt and the Levant, in: The Second Intermediate Period (Thirteenth-Seventeenth Dynasties), Current Research, Future Prospects edited by Marcel Maree, Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta, 192, 2010, p. 91 ^ Dodson, Hilton, The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, 2004 ^ Nadine Moeller, Gregory Marouard & N. Ayers, Discussion of Late Middle Kingdom and Early Second Intermediate Period History and Chronology in Relation to the Khayan Sealings from Tell Edfu, in: Egypt and the Levant 21 (2011), pp. 87–121 online PDF ^ Moeller, Marouard & Ayers, Egypt and the Levant 21, (2011), pp. 87–108 ^ Robert M. Porter: The Second Intermediate Period according to Edfu, Goettinger Mizsellen 239 (2013), p. 75–80 ^ Thomas Schneider, "The Chronology of the Middle Kingdom and the Hyksos Period", in: E. Hornung/R. Krauss/D. Warburton (eds.), Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies 1, 83), Leiden/ Boston 2006, p.180 ^ Schneider, p.180 Clayton, Peter A. Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames & Hudson Ltd., 2006. ISBN 0500286280. Preceded by Twelfth Dynasty Dynasty of Egypt 1803−1639 BC Succeeded by Fourteenth Dynasty Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thirteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=989809502" Categories: Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt States and territories established in the 19th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 17th century BC Dynasties of ancient Egypt 19th century BC in Egypt 18th century BC in Egypt 17th century BC in Egypt 2nd-millennium BC establishments in Egypt 2nd-millennium BC disestablishments in Egypt 2nd millennium BC in Egypt Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2011 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans አማርኛ العربية Azərbaycanca Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ქართული Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 21 November 2020, at 04:15 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5213	----	Ini (pharaoh) - Wikipedia Ini (pharaoh) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Menkheperre Ini The poetic stele Louvre C100, drawn by Flinders Petrie. King of Thebes Reign c. 740 BC Predecessor Rudamun? Successor Piye? Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Menkheperre Mn-ḫpr-Rˁ Enduring is the apparition of Ra Nomen Ini S3 Rˁ Jnj Son of Ra, Ini Horus name Sema-tawy Sm3-t3.wj He who unifies the two lands Nebty name Mesi-hemwt Msj-ḥmw.t Creator of the arts Golden Horus Bik nbw sasha qenw Sˁš3-qn.w Multiplier of warriors Menkheperre Ini (or Iny Si-Ese Meryamun) was an Egyptian king reigning at Thebes during the 8th century BC following the last king of the 23rd Dynasty, Rudamun. Contents 1 Attestations 2 Identity 3 References 4 External links Attestations[edit] Menkheperre Ini was probably Rudamun's successor at Thebes but was not a member of his predecessor's 23rd dynasty. Unlike the 23rd dynasty rulers, he was a local king who ruled only at Thebes for at least 4–5 years after the death of Rudamun. His existence was first revealed with the publication of a dated Year 5 graffito at an Egyptian temple by Helen Jacquet-Gordon in 1979.[1] Prior to 1989, he was conventionally attested by only three documents: Graffito No. 11 which dates to Year 5 III Shemu day 10 of an "Iny Si-Ese Meryamun" on the roof of Khonsu Temple (as noted by Jacquet-Gordon); A bronze plaque in Durham University which preserves his nomen: "Son of Re Iny"; and A shard from Abydos. Then in 1989, Jean Yoyotte published an important new study on Ini/Iny's reign in a CRIPEL 11 paper.[2] Below is a partial English summary of his article by Chris Bennett: Engraved on a bronze plaque in Durham (N 2186) is the cartouche of the 'Son of Re Iny'. This is surely the same individual as the 'Pharaoh Iny' known from Graffito no 11 of the Temple of Khonsu (AEB 79244) where his Vth year is cited. A shard (now lost) from Amélineau's work at Abydos bears perhaps another reference to the same king. H. Jacquet-Gordon has shown that the accession of this enigmatic king can be dated c. 780/770 BC or 753/743 BC (calculated here from Table 6 in AEB 86.0470). There exists, however no epigraphic evidence that to prove that the king Mn-hpr-R' [...]y of the famous poetic stele Louvre C100 and of the calcite jar Cairo CG 18498 is in fact the Kushite Pi['ankh]y (so AEB 69061); on the contrary, the reconstruction [In]y is perfectly acceptable here. Some remarks ensue concerning the use of 'imperial' and old-fashioned royal titularies, and also archaizing bas-reliefs, during the late TIPE. In this context, the titulary of Iny, which is formally archaizing, can be seen as expressing an ambitious project....two very unusual epithets of Iny — 'Creator of the Arts' and 'Multiplier of...Warriors' — could also suggest a 'Revolutionary' aspect held by this figure, who was apparently an outsider amongst the Theban 'Sons of Isis Beloved of Amun" of the 23rd Dynasty. Identity[edit] Yoyotte's proposed identification of Menkheperre as the prenomen of King Ini/Iny, was based on his examination of the surviving traces of this king’s nomen in the Louvre stela which he believed conformed better with the name Iny than the Nubian Dynasty 25 ruler Pi(ankh)y/Piye. His arguments here are today accepted by virtually all Egyptologists including Jürgen von Beckerath in the latter's 1999 book on royal Egyptian kings' names.[3] It had been previously suggested that Menkheperre was a prenomen or royal title for Piye but this is undermined by the fact that the Nubian king is known to have employed two other prenomens during his lifetime: Usimare and Sneferre. Barring this, Ini was only a local king of Thebes who ruled Egypt concurrently with Peftjaubast of Herakleopolis and Nimlot of Hermopolis. Ini may have been deposed around Piye’s year 20 invasion of Egypt since he does not appear in the latter’s year 21 Gebel Barkal Victory stela, but this hypothesis remains to be proven because Piye could well have permitted Ini to remain in power as king of Thebes. In this case, Ini would have been a Nubian vassal in Thebes. Evidence to this effect includes the name of king Ini’s daughter, Mutirdis (TT410), and the style of Louvre stela C100 which Kenneth Kitchen long ago noticed should be dated to the early 25th Nubian Dynasty period.[4] However, all three of Ini's nomen cartouche on his Louvre C100 stela were erased and his figure was partly damaged which may imply that Piye’s successor Shabaka removed Ini from power and carried out a damnatio memoriae campaign against his monuments.[5] This would justify the view that Graffito No. 11 was carved not long before the establishment of full Kushite dominion over Egypt by Shabaka who would not have tolerated a native Egyptian king in the important city of Thebes which would pose a threat to the authority of the 25th Nubian dynasty. References[edit] ^ H. Jacquet Gordon, "Deux graffiti d'époque libyenne sur le toit du Temple de Khonsu à Karnak" in Hommages à la memoire de Serge Sauneron, 1927-1976, (Cairo: 1979) pp.169-74 ^ Jean Yoyotte, 'Pharaon Iny, un Roi mystèrieux du VIIIe siècle avant J.-C.', CRIPEL 11(1989), pp.113-131 ^ von Beckerath, Jürgen (1999). Handbuch der Ägyptischen Königsnamen [Handbook of the Egyptian Kings’ Names]. Verlag Philipp von Zabern, MÄS 49. pp. 196–197. ^ Kitchen, Kenneth A. (1996). The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (c. 1100–650 BC) (3rd ed.). Warminster: Aris & Phillips Limited. p. 137. ^ Yoyotte, p. 122 External links[edit] Note: Jacquet Gordon published a transcription Ini's Year 6 of the Khonsu temple graffito in this 2003 University of Chicago publication titled "The Graffiti on the Khonsu Temple Roof at Karnak: A Manifestation of Personal Piety" where it is named Graffito 146: see online pages 79-80 Preceded by Rudamun? Pharaoh Twenty-third dynasty of Egypt Succeeded by Piye? v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ini_(pharaoh)&oldid=999229240" Categories: 8th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt 8th-century BC rulers 8th century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages 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en-wikipedia-org-5223	----	Battle of Salamis - Wikipedia Battle of Salamis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Battle of Salamis (disambiguation). Naval battle fought between an alliance of Greek city-states and the Persian Empire in 480 BC Battle of Salamis Part of the Second Persian invasion of Greece A romantic style painting of the battle by artist Wilhelm von Kaulbach Date September, 480 BC Location Straits of Salamis 37°57′5″N 23°34′0″E / 37.95139°N 23.56667°E / 37.95139; 23.56667Coordinates: 37°57′5″N 23°34′0″E / 37.95139°N 23.56667°E / 37.95139; 23.56667 Result Greek victory Territorial changes Persia fails to conquer the Peloponnese Belligerents Greek city-states  Achaemenid Empire Commanders and leaders Eurybiades Themistocles Xerxes I of Persia Artemisia I of Caria Achaemenes Ariabignes † Damasithymos † Strength 371–378 ships[i] ~900–1207 ships[ii] 600–800 ships[iii] 400–700 ships[iv] Casualties and losses 40 ships 200–300? ships ^ Herodotus gives 378 ships of the alliance, but his numbers add up to 371.[1] ^ As suggested by several ancient sources ^ Modern estimates[2][3][4] ^ Modern estimates[5] Location of the naval battle of Salamis within modern Greece v t e Second Persian invasion of Greece Thermopylae Artemisium Athens Salamis Potidea Olynthus Plataea Mycale The Battle of Salamis (/ˈsæləmɪs/ SAL-ə-miss; Ancient Greek: Ναυμαχία τῆς Σαλαμῖνος, romanized: Naumachía tês Salamînos) was a naval battle fought between an alliance of Greek city-states under Themistocles, and the Persian Empire under King Xerxes in 480 BC. It resulted in a decisive victory for the outnumbered Greeks. The battle was fought in the straits between the mainland and Salamis, an island in the Saronic Gulf near Athens, and marked the high point of the second Persian invasion of Greece. To block the Persian advance, a small force of Greeks blocked the pass of Thermopylae, while an Athenian-dominated Allied navy engaged the Persian fleet in the nearby straits of Artemisium. In the resulting Battle of Thermopylae, the rearguard of the Greek force was annihilated, whilst in the Battle of Artemisium the Greeks had heavy losses and retreated after the loss at Thermopylae. This allowed the Persians to conquer Phocis, Boeotia, Attica, and Euboea. The Allies prepared to defend the Isthmus of Corinth while the fleet was withdrawn to nearby Salamis Island. Although heavily outnumbered, the Greek Allies were persuaded by the Athenian general Themistocles to bring the Persian fleet to battle again, in the hope that a victory would prevent naval operations against the Peloponnese. The Persian king Xerxes was also eager for a decisive battle. As a result of subterfuge on the part of Themistocles, the Persian navy rowed into the Straits of Salamis and tried to block both entrances. In the cramped conditions of the Straits, the great Persian numbers were an active hindrance, as ships struggled to maneuver and became disorganized. Seizing the opportunity, the Greek fleet formed in line and scored a decisive victory. Xerxes retreated to Asia with much of his army, leaving Mardonius to complete the conquest of Greece. However, the following year, the remainder of the Persian army was decisively beaten at the Battle of Plataea and the Persian navy at the Battle of Mycale. The Persians made no further attempts to conquer the Greek mainland. These battles of Salamis and Plataea thus mark a turning point in the course of the Greco-Persian wars as a whole; from then onward, the Greek poleis would take the offensive. Contents 1 Background 2 Prelude 3 The opposing forces 3.1 The Greek fleet 3.2 The Achemenid fleet 4 Strategic and tactical considerations 5 The battle 5.1 Dispositions 5.2 The opening phase 5.3 The main battle 6 Aftermath 7 Significance 8 Anchorage discovery 9 Notes 10 References 10.1 Ancient sources 10.2 Modern sources 11 External links Background[edit] Main articles: Greco-Persian Wars, Second Persian invasion of Greece, Battle of Thermopylae, and Battle of Artemisium Ionian soldier (Old Persian cuneiform 𐎹𐎢𐎴, Yaunā)[6] of the Achaemenid army, circa 480 BC. Xerxes I tomb relief. The Greek city-states of Athens and Eretria had supported the unsuccessful Ionian Revolt against the Persian Empire of Darius I in 499-494 BC, led by the satrap of Miletus, Aristagoras. The Persian Empire was still relatively young, and prone to revolts amongst its subject peoples.[7][8] Moreover, Darius was a usurper, and had spent considerable time extinguishing revolts against his rule.[7] The Ionian revolt threatened the integrity of his empire, and Darius thus vowed to punish those involved (especially those not already part of the empire).[9][10] Darius also saw the opportunity to expand his empire into the fractious world of Ancient Greece.[10] A preliminary expedition under Mardonius, in 492 BC, to secure the land approaches to Greece ended with the conquest of Thrace and forced Macedon to become a client kingdom of Persia.[11] In 491 BC, Darius sent emissaries to all the Greek city-states, asking for a gift of 'earth and water' in token of their submission to him.[12] Having had a demonstration of his power the previous year, the majority of the Greek cities duly obliged. In Athens, however, the ambassadors were put on trial and then executed; in Sparta, they were simply thrown down a well.[12] This meant that Sparta was also now effectively at war with Persia.[12] Darius thus put together an amphibious task force under Datis and Artaphernes in 490 BC, which attacked Naxos, before receiving the submission of the other Cycladic Islands. The task force then moved on Eretria, which it besieged and destroyed.[13] Finally, it moved to attack Athens, landing at the bay of Marathon, where it was met by a heavily outnumbered Athenian army. At the ensuing Battle of Marathon, the Athenians won a remarkable victory, which resulted in the withdrawal of the Persian army to Asia.[14] Map showing the Greek world at the time of the battle Darius therefore began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece; however, in 486 BC, his Egyptian subjects revolted, indefinitely postponing any Greek expedition.[8] Darius then died whilst preparing to march on Egypt, and the throne of Persia passed to his son Xerxes I.[15] Xerxes crushed the Egyptian revolt, and very quickly restarted the preparations for the invasion of Greece.[16] Since this was to be a full-scale invasion, it required long-term planning, stock-piling and conscription.[16] Xerxes decided that the Hellespont would be bridged to allow his army to cross to Europe, and that a canal should be dug across the isthmus of Mount Athos (rounding which headland, a Persian fleet had been destroyed in 492 BC).[17] These were both feats of exceptional ambition, which would have been beyond any other contemporary state.[17] By early 480 BC, the preparations were complete, and the army which Xerxes had mustered at Sardis marched towards Europe, crossing the Hellespont on two pontoon bridges.[18] The Athenians had also been preparing for war with the Persians since the mid-480s BC, and in 482 BC the decision was taken, under the guidance of the Athenian politician Themistocles, to build a massive fleet of triremes that would be necessary for the Greeks to fight the Persians.[19] However, the Athenians did not have the manpower to fight on land and sea; and therefore combatting the Persians would require an alliance of Greek city states. In 481 BC, Xerxes sent ambassadors around Greece asking for earth and water, but made the very deliberate omission of Athens and Sparta.[20] Support thus began to coalesce around these two leading states. A congress of city states met at Corinth in late autumn of 481 BC,[21] and a confederate alliance of Greek city-states was formed. It had the power to send envoys asking for assistance and to dispatch troops from the member states to defensive points after joint consultation. This was remarkable for the disjointed Greek world, especially since many of the city-states in attendance were still technically at war with each other.[22] Initially the 'congress' agreed to defend the narrow Vale of Tempe, on the borders of Thessaly, and thereby block Xerxes's advance.[23] However, once there, they were warned by Alexander I of Macedon that the vale could be bypassed through the pass by the modern village of Sarantaporo, and that the army of Xerxes was overwhelming, so the Greeks retreated.[24] Shortly afterwards, they received the news that Xerxes had crossed the Hellespont. A second strategy was therefore adopted by the allies. The route to southern Greece (Boeotia, Attica and the Peloponnese) would require the army of Xerxes to travel through the very narrow pass of Thermopylae. This could easily be blocked by the Greek hoplites, despite the overwhelming numbers of Persians. Furthermore, to prevent the Persians bypassing Thermopylae by sea, the Athenian and allied navies could block the straits of Artemisium. This dual strategy was adopted by the congress.[25] However, the Peloponnesian cities made fall-back plans to defend the Isthmus of Corinth should it come to it, whilst the women and children of Athens had been evacuated en masse to the Peloponnesian city of Troezen.[26] Famously, the much smaller Greek army held the pass of Thermopylae against the Persians for three days before being outflanked by a mountain path. Much of the Greek army retreated, before the Spartans and Thespians who had continued to block the pass were surrounded and killed.[27] The simultaneous Battle of Artemisium was up to that point a stalemate;[28] however, when news of Thermopylae reached them, the Allied fleet also retreated, since holding the straits of Artemisium was now a moot point.[29] Prelude[edit] Battle of Salamis, 1785 engraving Modern view of the strait of Salamis, where the battle took place. Seen from the south. Battle order. The Achaemenid fleet (in red) entered from the east (right) and confronted the Greek fleet (in blue) within the confines of the strait. The Allied fleet now rowed from Artemisium to Salamis to assist with the final evacuation of Athens. En route Themistocles left inscriptions addressed to the Ionian Greek crews of the Persian fleet on all springs of water that they might stop at, asking them to defect to the Allied cause.[30] Following Thermopylae, the Persian army proceeded to burn and sack the Boeotian cities that had not surrendered, Plataea and Thespiae, before marching on the now evacuated city of Athens.[31] The Allies (mostly Peloponnesian) prepared to defend the Isthmus of Corinth, demolishing the single road that led through it, and building a wall across it.[32] This strategy was flawed, however, unless the Allied fleet was able to prevent the Persian fleet from transporting troops across the Saronic Gulf. In a council-of-war called once the evacuation of Athens was complete, the Corinthian naval commander Adeimantus argued that the fleet should assemble off the coast of the Isthmus in order to achieve such a blockade.[33] However, Themistocles argued in favour of an offensive strategy, aimed at decisively destroying the Persians' naval superiority. He drew on the lessons of Artemisium, pointing out that "battle in close conditions works to our advantage".[33] He eventually won through, and the Allied navy remained off the coast of Salamis.[34] The time-line for Salamis is difficult to establish with any certainty.[35] Herodotus presents the battle as though it occurred directly after the capture of Athens, but nowhere explicitly states as much. If Thermopylae/Artemisium occurred in September, then this may be the case, but it is probably more likely that the Persians spent two or three weeks capturing Athens, refitting the fleet, and resupplying.[35] Clearly though, at some point after capturing Athens, Xerxes held a council of war with the Persian fleet; Herodotus says this occurred at Phalerum.[36] Artemisia, queen of Halicarnassus and commander of its naval squadron in Xerxes's fleet, tried to convince him to wait for the Allies to surrender believing that battle in the straits of Salamis was an unnecessary risk.[36] Nevertheless, Xerxes and his chief advisor Mardonius pressed for an attack.[37] It is difficult to explain exactly what eventually brought about the battle, assuming that neither side simply attacked without forethought.[35] Clearly though, at some point just before the battle, new information began to reach Xerxes of rifts in the allied command; the Peloponnesians wished to evacuate from Salamis while they still could.[38] This alleged rift amongst the Allies may have simply been a ruse, in order to lure the Persians to battle.[39] Alternatively, this change in attitude amongst the Allies (who had waited patiently off the coast of Salamis for at least a week while Athens was captured) may have been in response to Persian offensive maneuvers.[35] Possibly, a Persian army had been sent to march against the Isthmus in order to test the nerve of the fleet.[35][39] Either way, when Xerxes received this news, he ordered his fleet to go out on patrol off the coast of Salamis, blocking the southern exit.[39] Then, at dusk, he ordered them to withdraw, possibly in order to tempt the Allies into a hasty evacuation.[39] That evening Themistocles attempted what appears to have been a spectacularly successful use of disinformation. He sent a servant, Sicinnus, to Xerxes, with a message proclaiming that Themistocles was "on the king's side and prefers that your affairs prevail, not the Hellenes".[40] Themistocles claimed that the Allied command was in-fighting, that the Peloponnesians were planning to evacuate that very night, and that to gain victory all the Persians needed to do was to block the straits.[40] In performing this subterfuge, Themistocles seems to have been trying to bring about exactly the opposite; to lure the Persian fleet into the Straits.[39] This was exactly the kind of news that Xerxes wanted to hear; that the Athenians might be willing to submit to him, and that he would be able to destroy the rest of the Allied fleet.[39] Xerxes evidently took the bait, and the Persian fleet was sent out that evening to effect this block.[41] Xerxes ordered a throne to be set up on the slopes of Mount Aigaleo (overlooking the straits), in order to watch the battle from a clear vantage point, and so as to record the names of commanders who performed particularly well.[42] According to Herodotus, the Allies spent the evening heatedly debating their course of action.[43] The Peloponnesians were in favour of evacuating,[44] and at this point Themistocles attempted his ruse with Xerxes.[40] It was only when Aristides, the exiled Athenian general arrived that night, followed by some deserters from the Persians, with news of the deployment of the Persian fleet,[45][46] that the Peloponnesians accepted that they could not escape, and so would fight.[47] However, the Peloponnesians may have been party to Themistocles's stratagem, so serenely did they accept that they would now have to fight at Salamis.[48] The Allied navy was thus able to prepare properly for battle the forthcoming day, whilst the Persians spent the night fruitlessly at sea, searching for the alleged Greek evacuation. The next morning, the Persians rowed into the straits to attack the Greek fleet; it is not clear when, why or how this decision was made, but it is clear that they did take the battle to the Allies.[42] The opposing forces[edit] The Greek fleet[edit] Greek trireme. Fleet of triremes based on the full-sized replica Olympias Herodotus reports that there were 378 triremes in the Allied fleet, and then breaks the numbers down by city state (as indicated in the table).[49] However, his numbers for the individual contingents only add up to 371. He does not explicitly say that all 378 fought at Salamis ("All of these came to the war providing triremes...The total number of ships...was three hundred and seventy-eight"),[1] and he also says that the Aeginetans "had other manned ships, but they guarded their own land with these and fought at Salamis with the thirty most seaworthy".[50] Thus it has been supposed that the difference between the numbers is accounted for by a garrison of 12 ships left at Aegina.[51] According to Herodotus, two more ships defected from the Persians to the Greeks, one before Artemisium and one before Salamis, so the total complement at Salamis would have been 373 (or 380).[52] According to the Athenian playwright Aeschylus, who actually fought at Salamis, the Greek fleet numbered 310 triremes (the difference being the number of Athenian ships).[53] Ctesias claims that the Athenian fleet numbered only 110 triremes, which ties in with Aeschylus's numbers.[54] According to Hyperides, the Greek fleet numbered only 220.[55] The fleet was effectively under the command of Themistocles, but nominally led by the Spartan nobleman Eurybiades, as had been agreed at the congress in 481 BC.[56] Although Themistocles had tried to claim leadership of the fleet, the other city states with navies objected, and so Sparta (which had no naval tradition) was given command of the fleet as a compromise.[56] City Number of ships City Number of ships City Number of ships Athens[57] 180 Corinth[58][59] 40 Aegina[50] 30 Chalcis[50][58] 20 Megara[58][60] 20 Sparta[59] 16 Sicyon[59] 15 Epidaurus[59] 10 Eretria[50] 7 Ambracia[60] 7 Troezen[59] 5 Naxos[50] 4 Leucas[60] 3 Hermione[59] 3 Styra[50] 2 Cythnus[50] 1 (1) Ceos[50] 2 Melos[1][50] (2) Siphnus[1][50] (1) Serifos[1][50] (1) Croton[61] 1 Total 371 or 378[1] (5) Plain numbers represent triremes; those indicated in parentheses are penteconters (fifty-oared galleys) The Achemenid fleet[edit] The Lycian dynast Kybernis (520-480 BCE) led 50 Lycian ships in the Achaemenid fleet. The Ionian fleet, here seen joining with Persian forces at the Bosphorus in preparation of the European Scythian campaign of Darius I in 513 BC, was part of the Achaemenid fleet at Salamis. 19th century illustration. According to Herodotus, the Persian fleet initially numbered 1,207 triremes.[62] However, by his reckoning they lost approximately a third of these ships in a storm off the coast of Magnesia,[63] 200 more in a storm off the coast of Euboea,[64] and at least 50 ships to Allied action at the Battle of Artemisium.[64][65] Herodotus claims that these losses were replaced in full,[66] but only mentions 120 ships from the Greeks of Thrace and nearby islands as reinforcements.[67] Aeschylus, who fought at Salamis, also claims that he faced 1,207 warships there, of which 207 were "fast ships".[68] Diodorus[69] and Lysias[70] independently claim there were 1,200 ships in the Persian fleet assembled at Doriskos in the spring of 480 BC. The number of 1,207 (for the outset only) is also given by Ephorus,[71] while his teacher Isocrates claims there were 1,300 at Doriskos and 1,200 at Salamis.[72][73] Ctesias gives another number, 1,000 ships,[54] while Plato, speaking in general terms refers to 1,000 ships and more.[74] Herodotus gives a precise list of the ships of the various nations that composed the Achaemenid fleet:[75] Nation Number of ships Nation Number of ships Nation Number of ships Phoenicia 300 Egypt 200 Cyprus 150 Cilicia 100 Ionia 100 Hellespontine Phrygia 100 Caria 70 Aeolia 60 Lycia 50 Pamphylia 30 Doria 30 Cyclades 17 Total 1207 The number 1,207 appears very early in the historical record (472 BC), and the Greeks appear to have genuinely believed they faced that many ships. Because of the consistency in the ancient sources, some modern historians are inclined to accept 1,207 as the size of the initial Persian fleet;[76][77][78] others reject this number, with 1,207 being seen as more of a reference to the combined Greek fleet in the Iliad, and generally claim that the Persians could have launched no more than around 600 warships into the Aegean.[78][79][80] However, very few appear to accept that there were this many ships at Salamis: most favour a number in the range 600-800.[2][3][4] This is also the range given by adding the approximate number of Persian ships after Artemisium (~550) to the reinforcements (120) quantified by Herodotus.[67] Strategic and tactical considerations[edit] The battle of Salamis, 19th century illustration. The overall Persian strategy for the invasion of 480 BC was to overwhelm the Greeks with a massive invasion force, and complete the conquest of Greece in a single campaigning season.[81] Conversely, the Greeks sought to make the best use of their numbers by defending restricted locations and to keep the Persians in the field for as long as possible. Xerxes had obviously not anticipated such resistance, or he would have arrived earlier in the campaigning season (and not waited 4 days at Thermopylae for the Greeks to disperse).[82] Time was now of the essence for the Persians – the huge invasion force could not be reasonably supported indefinitely, nor probably did Xerxes wish to be at the fringe of his empire for so long.[83] Thermopylae had shown that a frontal assault against a well defended Greek position was useless; with the Allies now dug in across the narrow Isthmus, there was little chance of conquering the rest of Greece by land.[84] However, as equally demonstrated by Thermopylae, if the Greeks could be outflanked, their smaller numbers of troops could be destroyed.[85] Such an outflanking of the Isthmus required the use of the Persian navy, and thus the destruction of the Allied navy. Therefore, if Xerxes could destroy the Allied navy, he would be in a strong position to force a Greek surrender; this seemed the only hope of concluding the campaign in that season.[83] Conversely by avoiding destruction, or as Themistocles hoped, by crippling the Persian fleet, the Greeks could effectively thwart the invasion.[86] However, it was strategically not necessary for the Persians to actually fight this battle at Salamis.[85] According to Herodotus, Queen Artemisia of Caria pointed this out to Xerxes in the run-up to Salamis. Artemisia suggested that fighting at sea was an unnecessary risk, recommending instead: If you do not hurry to fight at sea, but keep your ships here and stay near land, or even advance into the Peloponnese, then, my lord, you will easily accomplish what you had in mind on coming here. The Hellenes are not able to hold out against you for a long time, but you will scatter them, and they will each flee to their own cities.[87] The Persian fleet was still large enough to both bottle up the Allied navy in the straits of Salamis, and send ships to land troops in the Peloponnese.[85] However, in the final reckoning, both sides were prepared to stake everything on a naval battle, in the hope of decisively altering the course of the war.[86] The Persians were at a significant tactical advantage, outnumbering the Allies, and also having "better sailing" ships.[88] The "better sailing" that Herodotus mentions was probably due to the superior seamanship of the crews;[88] most of the Athenian ships (and therefore the majority of the fleet) were newly built as according to Themistocles' request to the Athenians to build a fleet of 200 triremes in 483 BC, and had inexperienced crews. It is important to note that despite the inexperienced crew on part of the Athenians, these newly constructed triremes would ultimately prove crucial in the forthcoming conflict with Persia.[89] The most common naval tactics in the Mediterranean area at the time were ramming (triremes being equipped with a ram at the bows), or boarding by ship-borne marines (which essentially turned a sea battle into a land one).[90] The Persians and Asiatic Greeks had by this time begun to use a manoeuver known as diekplous. It is not entirely clear what this was, but it probably involved rowing into gaps between enemy ships and then ramming them in the side.[90] This maneuver would have required skilled crews, and therefore the Persians would have been more likely to employ it; the Allies however, developed tactics specifically to counter this.[90] There has been much debate as to the nature of the Allied fleet compared to the Persian fleet. Much of this centres on the suggestion, from Herodotus, that the Allied ships were heavier, and by implication less maneuverable.[91] The source of this heaviness is uncertain; possibly the Allied ships were bulkier in construction, or that the ships were waterlogged since they had not been dried out in the winter (though there is no real evidence for either suggestion).[90] Another suggestion is that the heaviness was caused by the weight of fully armored hoplite marines (20 fully armored hoplites would have weighed 2 tons).[90] This 'heaviness', whatever its cause, would further reduce the likelihood of them employing the diekplous.[90] It is therefore probable that the Allies had extra marines on board if their ships were less maneuverable, since boarding would then be the main tactic available to them (at the cost of making the ships even heavier).[90] Indeed, Herodotus refers to the Greeks capturing ships at Artemisium, rather than sinking them.[65] It has been suggested that the weight of the Allied ships may also have made them more stable in the winds off the coast of Salamis, and made them less susceptible to ramming (or rather, less liable to sustain damage when rammed).[92] The Persians preferred a battle in the open sea, where they could better utilize their superior seamanship and numbers.[42] For the Greeks, the only realistic hope of a decisive victory was to draw the Persians into a constricted area, where their numbers would count for little.[33] The battle at Artemisium had seen attempts to negate the Persian advantage in numbers, but ultimately the Allies may have realised that they needed an even more constricted channel in order to defeat the Persians.[93] Therefore, by rowing into the Straits of Salamis to attack the Greeks, the Persians were playing into the Allies' hands. It seems probable that the Persians would not have attempted this unless they had been confident of the collapse of the Allied navy, and thus Themistocles's subterfuge appears to have played a key role in tipping the balance in the favor of the Greeks.[42] Salamis was, for the Persians, an unnecessary battle and a strategic mistake.[85] The battle[edit] The actual battle of Salamis is not well described by the ancient sources, and it is unlikely that anyone (other than perhaps Xerxes) involved in the battle had a clear idea what was happening across the width of the straits.[39][94] What follows is more of a discussion than a definitive account. Dispositions[edit] In the Allied fleet, the Athenians were on the left, and on the right were probably the Spartans (although Diodorus says it was the Megareans and Aeginetians); the other contingents were in the center.[95][96] The Allied fleet probably formed into two ranks, since the straits would have been too narrow for a single line of ships.[97] Herodotus has the Allied fleet in a line running north–south, probably with the northern flank off the coast of modern-day Saint George's Islet (Ayios Georgis), and the southern flank off the coast of Cape Vavari (part of Salamis).[98] Diodorus suggests the Allied fleet was aligned east–west, spanning the straits between Salamis and Mount Aigaleo; however, it is unlikely that the Allies would have rested one of their flanks against Persian occupied territory.[98] It seems relatively certain that the Persian fleet was sent out to block the exit from the Straits the evening before the battle. Herodotus clearly believed that the Persian fleet actually entered the Straits at nightfall, planning to catch the Allies as they fled.[99] However, modern historians have greatly debated this point, with some pointing out the difficulties of maneuvering in this confined space by night, and others accepting Herodotus's version.[100][101] There are thus two possibilities; that during the night the Persians simply blocked the exit to the Straits, and then entered the straits in daylight; or that they entered the straits and positioned themselves for battle during the night.[100][101] Regardless of when they attempted it, it seems likely that the Persians pivoted their fleet off the tip of Cape Vavari, so that from an initial east–west alignment (blocking the exit), they came round to a north–south alignment (see diagram).[102] The Persian fleet seems to have been formed into three ranks of ships (according to Aeschylus);[39] with the powerful Phoenician fleet on the right flank next to Mount Aigaleo, the Ionian contingent on the left flank and the other contingents in the centre.[95] Diodorus says that the Egyptian fleet was sent to circumnavigate Salamis, and block the northern exit from the Straits.[103] If Xerxes wanted to trap the Allies completely, this maneuver would have made sense (especially if he was not expecting the Allies to fight).[39] However, Herodotus does not mention this (and possibly alludes to the Egyptian presence in the main battle), leading some modern historians to dismiss it;[102] though again, others accept it as a possibility.[39] Xerxes had also positioned around 400 troops on the island known as Psyttaleia, in the middle of the exit from the straits, in order to kill or capture any Greeks who ended up there (as a result of shipwreck or grounding).[42] The opening phase[edit] Greek triremes at Salamis. Regardless of what time they entered the straits, the Persians did not move to attack the Allies until daylight. Since they were not planning to flee after all, the Allies would have been able to spend the night preparing for battle, and after a speech by Themistocles, the marines boarded and the ships made ready to sail.[47] According to Herodotus, this was dawn, and as the Allies "were putting out to sea the barbarians immediately attacked them".[47][104] If the Persians only entered the straits at dawn, then the Allies would have had the time to take up their station in a more orderly fashion.[100] Aeschylus claims that as the Persians approached (possibly implying that they were not already in the Straits at dawn), they heard the Greeks singing their battle hymn (paean) before they saw the Allied fleet: ὦ παῖδες Ἑλλήνων ἴτε ἐλευθεροῦτε πατρίδ᾽, ἐλευθεροῦτε δὲ παῖδας, γυναῖκας, θεῶν τέ πατρῴων ἕδη, θήκας τε προγόνων: νῦν ὑπὲρ πάντων ἀγών. O sons of the Greeks, go, Liberate your country, liberate Your children, your women, the seats of your fathers' gods, And the tombs of your forebears: now is the struggle for all things. [105] Battle of Salamis, by Wilhelm von Kaulbach (detail). Herodotus recounts that, according to the Athenians, as the battle began the Corinthians hoisted their sails and began sailing away from the battle, northwards up the straits. However, he also says that other Greeks denied this story.[106] If this did in fact occur, one possible interpretation is that these ships had been a decoy sent to reconnoitre the northern exit from the straits, in case the arrival of the encircling Egyptian detachment was imminent (if indeed this also occurred).[100] Another possibility (not exclusive of the former) is that the departure of the Corinthians triggered the final approach of the Persians, suggesting as it did that the Allied fleet was disintegrating.[100] At any rate, if they indeed ever left, the Corinthians soon returned to the battle.[106] Approaching the Allied fleet in the crowded Straits, the Persians appear to have become disorganised and cramped in the narrow waters.[96][100] Moreover, it would have become apparent that, far from disintegrating, the Greek fleet was lined up, ready to attack them.[97][100] However, rather than attacking immediately, the Allies initially appeared to back their ships away as if in fear.[104] According to Plutarch, this was to gain better position, and also in order to gain time until the early morning wind.[107] Herodotus recounts the legend that as the fleet had backed away, they had seen an apparition of a woman, asking them "Madmen, how far will ye yet back your ships?"[108] However, he more plausibly suggests that whilst the Allies were backing water, a single ship shot forward to ram the nearest Persian vessel. The Athenians would claim that this was the ship of the Athenian Ameinias of Pallene; the Aeginetans would claim it as one of their ships.[104] The whole Greek line then followed suit and made straight for the disordered Persian battle line.[109] The main battle[edit] Death of the Persian admiral Ariabignes (a brother of Xerxes) early in the battle; illustration from Plutarch's Lives for Boys and Girls c. 1910 The details of the rest of the battle are generally sketchy, and no one involved would have had a view of the entire battlefield.[100] Triremes were generally armed with a large ram at the front, with which it was possible to sink an enemy ship, or at least disable it by shearing off the banks of oars on one side.[90][110] If the initial ramming was not successful, marines boarded the enemy ship and something similar to a land battle ensued.[90] Both sides had marines on their ships for this eventuality; the Greeks with fully armed hoplites;[100] the Persians probably with more lightly armed infantry.[111] Across the battlefield, as the first line of Persian ships was pushed back by the Greeks, they became fouled in the advancing second and third lines of their own ships.[112] On the Greek left, the Persian admiral Ariabignes (a brother of Xerxes)[112] was killed early in the battle; left disorganised and leaderless, the Phoenician squadrons appear to have been pushed back against the coast, many vessels running aground.[100] In the centre, a wedge of Greek ships pushed through the Persians lines, splitting the fleet in two.[100] According to Plutarch, Ariabignes was killed by Ameinias and Socles (Greek: Σωκλής) of Pallene. When Ariabignes attempted to board on their ship, they hit him with their spears, and thrust him into the sea.[113] Plutarch also mentions that it was Artemisia who recognized Ariabignes' body floating among the shipwrecks and brought it back to Xerxes.[114] Artemisia, Queen of Halicarnassus, and commander of the Carian contingent of the Achaemenid fleet, at the Battle of Salamis, shooting arrows at the Greeks. Wilhelm von Kaulbach (detail).[115] Herodotus recounts that Artemisia, the Queen of Halicarnassus, and commander of the Carian contingent, found herself pursued by the ship of Ameinias of Pallene. In her desire to escape, she attacked and rammed another Persian vessel, thereby convincing the Athenian captain that the ship was an ally; Ameinias accordingly abandoned the chase.[116] However, Xerxes, looking on, thought that she had successfully attacked an Allied ship, and seeing the poor performance of his other captains commented that "My men have become women, and my women men".[117] The friendly ship she sank was a Calyndian ship and the king of the Calyndians, Damasithymos (Greek: Δαμασίθυμος) was on it.[118][119] None of the crew of the Calyndian ship survived.[120] The Persian fleet began to retreat towards Phalerum, but according to Herodotus, the Aeginetans ambushed them as they tried to leave the Straits.[121] The remaining Persian ships limped back to the harbour of Phalerum and the shelter of the Persian army.[122] The Athenian general Aristides then took a detachment of men across to Psyttaleia to slaughter the garrison that Xerxes had left there.[123] The exact Persian casualties are not mentioned by Herodotus. However, he writes that the next year, the Persian fleet numbered 300 triremes.[124] The number of losses then depends on the number of ships the Persian had to begin with; something in the range of 200–300 seems likely, based on the above estimates for the size of the Persian fleet. According to Herodotus, the Persians suffered many more casualties than the Greeks because most Persians did not know how to swim.[112] A king sate on the rocky brow Which looks o'er sea-born Salamis And ships, by thousands, lay below, And men in nations;—all were his! He counted them at break of day— And when the sun set where were they? — the philhellene Lord Byron in Don Juan [125] Xerxes, sitting on Mount Aigaleo on his throne, witnessed the carnage.[126] Some ship-wrecked Phoenician captains tried to blame the Ionians for cowardice before the end of the battle.[126] Xerxes, in a foul mood, and having just witnessed an Ionian ship capture an Aeginetan ship, had the Phoenicians beheaded for slandering "more noble men".[126] According to Diodorus, Xerxes "put to death those Phoenicians who were chiefly responsible for beginning the flight, and threatened to visit upon the rest the punishment they deserved", causing the Phoenicians to sail to Asia when night fell.[127] Aftermath[edit] Main article: Second Persian invasion of Greece The triumph of Themistocles after Salamis. 19th century illustration. In the immediate aftermath of Salamis, Xerxes attempted to build a pontoon bridge or causeway across the straits, in order to use his army to attack the Athenians; however, with the Greek fleet now confidently patrolling the straits, this proved futile.[82] Herodotus tells us that Xerxes held a council of war, at which the Persian general Mardonius tried to make light of the defeat: Sire, be not grieved nor greatly distressed because of what has befallen us. It is not on things of wood that the issue hangs for us, but on men and horses...If then you so desire, let us straightway attack the Peloponnese, or if it pleases you to wait, that also we can do...It is best then that you should do as I have said, but if you have resolved to lead your army away, even then I have another plan. Do not, O king, make the Persians the laughing-stock of the Greeks, for if you have suffered harm, it is by no fault of the Persians. Nor can you say that we have anywhere done less than brave men should, and if Phoenicians and Egyptians and Cyprians and Cilicians have so done, it is not the Persians who have any part in this disaster. Therefore, since the Persians are in no way to blame, be guided by me; if you are resolved not to remain, march homewards with the greater part of your army. It is for me, however, to enslave and deliver Hellas to you with three hundred thousand of your host whom I will choose.[128] The wrath of Xerxes looking at the Battle of Salamis from his promontory, by Wilhelm von Kaulbach (detail). Fearing that the Greeks might attack the bridges across the Hellespont and trap his army in Europe, Xerxes resolved to do this, taking the greater part of the army with him.[129] Mardonius handpicked the troops who were to remain with him in Greece, taking the elite infantry units and cavalry, to complete the conquest of Greece.[82] All of the Persian forces abandoned Attica, however, with Mardonius overwintering in Boeotia and Thessaly; the Athenians were thus able to return to their burnt city for the winter.[82] The following year, 479 BC, Mardonius recaptured Athens and led the second Achaemenid destruction of Athens (the Allied army still preferring to guard the Isthmus). However, the Allies, under Spartan leadership, eventually agreed to try to force Mardonius to battle, and marched on Attica.[130] Mardonius retreated to Boeotia to lure the Greeks into open terrain and the two sides eventually met near the city of Plataea (which had been razed the previous year).[130] There, at the Battle of Plataea, the Greek army won a decisive victory, destroying much of the Persian army and ending the invasion of Greece; whilst at the near-simultaneous Battle of Mycale the Allied fleet destroyed much of the remaining Persian fleet.[130] Significance[edit] Monument for the Battle of Salamis, Kynosoura peninsula, Salamis Island, Greece, by sculptor Achilleas Vasileiou The Battle of Salamis marked the turning point in the Greco-Persian wars.[84] After Salamis, the Peloponnese, and by extension Greece as an entity, was safe from conquest; and the Persians suffered a major blow to their prestige and morale (as well as severe material losses).[131] At the following battles of Plataea and Mycale, the threat of conquest was removed, and the Allies were able to go on the counter-offensive.[132] The Greek victory allowed Macedon to revolt against Persian rule; and over the next 30 years, Thrace, the Aegean Islands and finally Ionia would be removed from Persian control by the Allies, or by the Athenian-dominated successor, the Delian League.[133] Salamis started a decisive swing in the balance of power toward the Greeks, which would culminate in an eventual Greek victory, severely reducing Persian power in the Aegean.[134] Serpent Column, a monument to their alliance, dedicated by the victorious Allies in the aftermath of Plataea; now at the Hippodrome of Constantinople Like the Battles of Marathon and Thermopylae, Salamis has gained something of a 'legendary' status (unlike, for instance, the more decisive Battle of Plataea), perhaps because of the desperate circumstances and the unlikely odds.[135] A significant number of historians have stated that Salamis is one of the most significant battles in human history (though the same is often stated of Marathon).[136][3][92][94] In a more extreme form of this argument, some historians argue that if the Greeks had lost at Salamis, the ensuing conquest of Greece by the Persians would have effectively stifled the growth of Western Civilization as we know it.[137] This view is based on the premise that much of modern Western society, such as philosophy, science, personal freedom and democracy are rooted in the legacy of Ancient Greece.[135] Thus, this school of thought argues that, given the domination of much of modern history by Western Civilization, Persian domination of Greece might have changed the whole trajectory of human history.[136] It is also worth mentioning that the celebrated blossoming of hugely influential Athenian culture occurred only after the Persian wars were won.[138][139][140] Militarily, it is difficult to draw many lessons from Salamis, because of the uncertainty about what actually happened. Once again the Allies chose their ground well in order to negate Persian numbers, but this time (unlike Thermopylae) had to rely on the Persians launching an unnecessary attack for their position to count.[85] (Hale, John R.). Since it brought about that attack, perhaps the most important military lesson is to be found in the use of deception by Themistocles to bring about the desired response from the enemy.[85] According to Plutarch, the previously undistinguished Cimon "obtained great repute among the Athenians" due to his courage in battle; this reputation later enabled him to launch his political career.[141] Anchorage discovery[edit] On March 17, 2017, archaeologists announced that they had uncovered the partially submerged remains of the anchorage used by the Greek warships prior to the Battle of Salamis. The site of the ancient mooring site is on the island of Salamis, at the coastal Ambelaki-Kynosaurus site.[142] Notes[edit] ^ a b c d e f Herodotus VIII, 48 ^ a b Ιστορία του Ελληνικού Έθνους 1971 ^ a b c Demetrius, 1998 ^ a b Lazenby p.174 ^ Roisman, Joseph (2011). Yardley, J.C. (ed.). Ancient Greece from Homer to Alexander: The Evidence. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 235. ISBN 978-1405127769. Herodotus (7.89.1) estimates that the Persians altogether had 1,207 ships, which modern historians cut to between 400 and 700 ships. ^ Darius I, DNa inscription, Line 28 ^ a b Holland, pp.47–55 ^ a b Holland, p.203 ^ Herodotus V, 105 ^ a b Holland, pp.171–178 ^ Herodotus VI, 44 ^ a b c Holland, pp.178–179 ^ Herodotus VI, 101 ^ Herodotus VI, 113 ^ Holland, pp.206–206 ^ a b Holland, pp.208–211 ^ a b Holland, pp.213–214 ^ Herodotus VII, 35 ^ Holland, pp.217–223 ^ Herodotus VII, 32 ^ Herodotus VII, 145 ^ Holland, p.226 ^ Holland, pp.248–249 ^ Herodotus VII, 173 ^ Holland, pp.255–257 ^ Herodotus VIII, 40 ^ Holland, pp.292–294 ^ Herodotus VIII, 18 ^ Herodotus, VIII, 21 ^ Dandamaev, E. A. (1989). A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill. p. 204. ISBN 90-04-09172-6. ^ Herodotus VIII, 50 ^ Herodotus VIII, 71 ^ a b c Holland, pp.302–303 ^ Herodotus VIII, 63 ^ a b c d e Lazenby, pp.164–167 ^ a b Herodotus VIII, 68 ^ Herodotus VIII, 69 ^ Herodotus VIII, 74 ^ a b c d e f g h i j Holland, pp.310–315 ^ a b c Herodotus VIII, 75 ^ Herodotus VIII, 76 ^ a b c d e Holland, p.318 ^ Herodotus VIII, 78 ^ Herodotus VIII, 70 ^ Herodotus VIII, 81 ^ Herodotus VIII, 82 ^ a b c Herodotus VIII, 83 ^ Holland, p.316 ^ Herodotus, VIII, 44–48 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Herodotus VIII, 46 ^ e.g., Macaulay, in a note accompanying his translation of Herodotus VIII, 85 ^ Herodotus VIII, 82 ^ Aeschylus, The Persians ^ a b Ctesias, Persica (from Photius's Epitome) ^ Lee, A Layered Look Reveals Ancient Greek Texts ^ a b Holland, pp.226–227 ^ Herodotus VIII, 44 ^ a b c Herodotus VIII, 1 ^ a b c d e f Herodotus VIII, 43 ^ a b c Herodotus VIII, 45 ^ Herodotus VIII, 47 ^ Herodotus VII, 89 ^ Herodotus VII, 188 ^ a b Herodotus VIII, 14 ^ a b Herodotus VIII, 11 ^ Herodotus VIII, 60 ^ a b Herodotus VII, 185 ^ Aeschylus, The Persians ^ Diodorus Siculus XI, 3 ^ Lysias II, 27 ^ Ephorus, Universal History ^ Isocrates, Oration VII, 49 ^ Isocrates, Oration IV, 93 ^ Plato, Laws III, 699 ^ Romm, James (2014). Histories. Hackett Publishing. p. 381. ISBN 9781624661150. ^ Köster (1934) ^ Holland, p.394 ^ a b Lazenby, pp.93–94 ^ Green, p.61 ^ Burn, p.331 ^ Holland, pp.209–212 ^ a b c d Holland, pp.327–329 ^ a b Holland, pp.308–309 ^ a b Lazenby, p.197 ^ a b c d e f Lazenby, pp.248–253 ^ a b Holland, p.303 ^ Herodotus VIII, 68 ^ a b Lazenby, p.138 ^ Holland, pp.222–224 ^ a b c d e f g h i Lazenby, pp.34–37 ^ Herodotus VIII, 60 ^ a b Strauss, pp.1–294 ^ Lazenby, p.150 ^ a b Holland, p.399 ^ a b Herodotus VIII 85 ^ a b Diodorus Siculus, Biblioteca Historica XI, 18 ^ a b Lazenby, p.187 ^ a b Lazenby, pp.184–185 ^ Herodotus VIII, 76 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Holland, pp.320–326 ^ a b Lazenby, p.181 ^ a b Lazenby, pp.174–180 ^ Diodorus Siculus, Biblioteca Historica XI, 17 ^ a b c Herodotus VIII, 84 ^ Aesch. Pers. 402-5. Available at http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0011%3Acard%3D395. Editor's translation. ^ a b Herodotus VIII, 94 ^ Plutarch. Themistocles, 14 ^ Herodotus VIII, 84; Macaulay translation cf. Godley translation ^ Herodotus VIII, 86 ^ History Alive! The Ancient World. California: Teachers Curriculum Institute. 2004. pp. 275. ISBN 1-58371-351-4. ^ Herodotus VII, 184 ^ a b c Herodotus VIII, 89 ^ Themistocles By Plutarch "Ariamenes, admiral to Xerxes, a brave man and by far the best and worthiest of the king's brothers, was seen throwing darts and shooting arrows from his huge galley, as from the walls of a castle. Aminias the Decelean and Sosicles the Pedian [This is wrong translation his name was Socles and he was from Palene], who sailed in the same vessel, upon the ships meeting stem to stem, and transfixing each the other with their brazen prows, so that they were fastened together, when Ariamenes attempted to board theirs, ran at him with their pikes, and thrust him into the sea..." ^ Plutarch Parallel Lives Themistocles, 14 ^ On the identification with Artemisia: "...Above the ships of the victorious Greeks, against which Artemisia, the Xerxes' ally, sends fleeing arrows...". Original German description of the painting: "Die neue Erfindung, welche Kaulbach für den neuen hohen Beschützer zu zeichnen gedachte, war wahrscheinlich „die Schlacht von Salamis“. Ueber den Schiffen der siegreichen Griechen, gegen welche Artemisia, des Xerxes Bundesgenossin, fliehend Pfeile sendet, sieht man in Wolken die beiden Ajaxe" in Altpreussische Monatsschrift Nene Folge p.300 ^ Herodotus VIII, 87 ^ Herodotus VIII, 88 ^ Herodotus Book 8: Urania ,87"When the affairs of the king had come to great confusion, at this crisis a ship of Artemisia was being pursued by an Athenian ship; and as she was not able to escape, for in front of her were other ships of her own side, while her ship, as it chanced, was furthest advanced towards the enemy, she resolved what she would do, and it proved also much to her advantage to have done so. While she was being pursued by the Athenian ship she charged with full career against a ship of her own side manned by Calyndians and in which the king of the Calyndians Damasithymos was embarked." ^ Polyaenus: Stratagems- BOOK 8, 53.2 "...sank a ship of the Calyndian allies, which was commanded by Damasithymus." ^ "Herodotus Book 8: Urania,88". Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 2014-03-07. ^ Herodotus VIII, 91 ^ Herodotus VIII, 92 ^ Herodotus VIII, 95 ^ Herodotus VIII, 130 ^ Lord Byron, Don Juan, Canto 3, 86.4 ^ a b c Herodotus VIII, 90 ^ "Diodorus Siculus, Library, Book XI, Chapter 19, section 4". Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2013-10-21. ^ Herodotus VIII, 100 ^ Herodotus VIII, 97 ^ a b c Holland, pp.338–341 ^ Holland, pp.333–335 ^ Lazenby, p.247 ^ Holland, pp.359–363 ^ Holland, p.366 ^ a b Holland, pp. xvi–xvii. ^ a b Hanson, pp.12–60 ^ Discussed by Green (The Year of Salamis), p xxiii and Holland, pp.xvi–xxii ^ "The Fabulous Fifth Century: Athens During the Age of Pericles - II. Greek Society After the Persian Wars". Molloy.edu. Archived from the original on 2007-03-11. Retrieved 2011-05-29. ^ "Greek Society After the Persian Wars". Hermes-press.com. Archived from the original on 2012-03-06. Retrieved 2011-05-29. ^ "The Persian War in ancient Greece". Essortment.com. 1986-05-16. Archived from the original on 2010-03-08. Retrieved 2011-05-29. ^ Plutarch, Lives. "Life of Cimon".(University of Calgary/Wikisource) ^ "Archaeologists say they've uncovered site where ancient Athenian fleet docked before Battle of Salamis". Naftemporiki. 17 March 2017. Retrieved 17 March 2017. References[edit] Ancient sources[edit] Herodotus, The Histories Perseus online version Aeschylus, extract from The Persians Ctesias, Persica (excerpt in Photius's epitome) Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War Ephorus, Universal History Plutarch, Themistocles Cicero, On the Laws Modern sources[edit] Blakesley, J. W. (1853) "On the Position and Tactics of the Contending Fleets in the Battle of Salamis (With a Map.)" in the Proceedings of the Philological Society. Burn, A. R. (1985). "Persia and the Greeks" in The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 2: The Median and Achaemenid Periods, Ilya Gershevitch, ed. Cambridge University Press. Fehling, D. (1989). Herodotus and His "Sources": Citation, Invention, and Narrative Art. Translated by J.G. Howie. Leeds: Francis Cairns. Finley, Moses (1972). "Introduction". Thucydides – History of the Peloponnesian War (translated by Rex Warner). Penguin. ISBN 0-14-044039-9. Green, Peter (1970). The Year of Salamis, 480–479 BC. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson ( ISBN 0-297-00146-9). Green, Peter (1998). The Greco-Persian Wars. Berkeley: University of California Press (hardcover, ISBN 0-520-20573-1) (paperback, ISBN 0-520-20313-5). Hale, John R. (2009) Lords of the Sea. Viking Press. ISBN 978-0-670-02080-5 Hanson, Victor Davis (2001). Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise of Western Power. New York: DoubleDay, 2001 (hardcover, ISBN 0-385-50052-1); New York: Anchor Books (paperback, ISBN 0-385-72038-6). Ιστορία του Ελληνικού Έθνους (History of the Greek nation) vol Β, Εκδοτική Αθηνών (Editorial Athens) 1971. Holland, Tom (2005). Persian Fire. London: Abacus ( ISBN 978-0-349-11717-1). Köster, A. J. (1934). Studien zur Geschichte des Antikes Seewesens. Klio Belheft 32. Lazenby, J. F. (1993). The Defence of Greece 490–479 BC. Aris & Phillips Ltd. ( ISBN 0-85668-591-7). Lee, Felicia R. (2006). A Layered Look Reveals Ancient Greek Texts The New York Times, 27 November 2006. Morrison, John S., Coates, J.F. & Rankov, B.R. (2000) The Athenian Trireme: The History and Reconstruction of an Ancient Greek Warship Second Edition. Cambridge: CUP ( ISBN 978-0521564564) Pipes, David (1998). "Herodotus: Father of History, Father of Lies". Archived from the original on January 27, 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-18. Strauss, Barry (2004). The Battle of Salamis: The Naval Encounter That Saved Greece—and Western Civilization. New York: Simon and Schuster (hardcover, ISBN 0-7432-4450-8; paperback, ISBN 0-7432-4451-6). External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Battle of Salamis. 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en-wikipedia-org-5256	----	Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt 1649 BC–1582 BC The political situation in Egypt during the existence of the 16th Dynasty from c. 1650 until c. 1590 BC. Thebes was briefly conquered by the Hyksos c. 1580 BC. Capital Thebes Common languages Egyptian language Religion ancient Egyptian religion Government Absolute monarchy Historical era Bronze Age • Established 1649 BC • Disestablished 1582 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The Sixteenth Dynasty of ancient Egypt (notated Dynasty XVI)[1] was a dynasty of pharaohs that ruled the Theban region in Upper Egypt[2] for 70 years.[3] This dynasty, together with 15th Dynasty and 17th, are often combined under the group title, Second Intermediate Period (c. 1650–1580 BC), a period that saw the division of Upper and Lower Egypt between the pharaohs at Thebes and the Hyksos kings of the 15th Dynasty based at Avaris. Contents 1 Identification 2 History 3 Kings 3.1 Vassals of the Hyksos 3.2 Independent Theban Kingdom 4 References 4.1 Bibliography Identification[edit] Of the two chief versions of Manetho's Aegyptiaca, the Sixteenth Dynasty is described by the more reliable[4] Africanus (supported by Syncellus)[5] as "shepherd [hyksos] kings", but by Eusebius as Theban.[4] Ryholt (1997), followed by Bourriau (2003), in reconstructing the Turin canon, interpreted a list of Thebes-based kings to constitute Manetho's Sixteenth Dynasty, although this is one of Ryholt's "most debatable and far-reaching" conclusions.[4] For this reason other scholars do not follow Ryholt and see only insufficient evidence for the interpretation of the Sixteenth Dynasty as Theban.[6] History[edit] The continuing war against 15th Dynasty dominated the short-lived 16th Dynasty. The armies of the 15th Dynasty, winning town after town from their southern enemies, continually encroached on the 16th Dynasty territory, eventually threatening and then conquering Thebes itself. In his study of the Second Intermediate Period, the Egyptologist Kim Ryholt has suggested that Dedumose I sued for a truce in the latter years of the dynasty,[3] but one of his predecessors, Nebiryraw I, may have been more successful and seems to have enjoyed a period of peace in his reign.[3] Famine, which had plagued Upper Egypt during the late 13th Dynasty and the 14th Dynasty, also blighted the 16th Dynasty, most evidently during and after the reign of Neferhotep III.[3] Kings[edit] Various chronological orderings and lists of kings have been proposed by scholars for this dynasty. These lists fall broadly in two categories: those assuming that the 16th Dynasty comprised vassals of the Hyksos, as advocated by Jürgen von Beckerath and Wolfgang Helck; and those assuming that the 16th Dynasty was an independent Theban kingdom, as recently proposed by Kim Ryholt. Vassals of the Hyksos[edit] The traditional list of rulers of the 16th Dynasty regroups kings believed to be vassals of the Hyksos, some of which have semitic names such as Semqen and Anat-her. The list of kings differs from scholar to scholar and it is here given as per Jürgen von Beckerath's Dynasty XV/XVI in his Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen.[7] Wolfgang Helck, who also believes that the 16th Dynasty was an Hyksos vassal state, proposed a slightly different list of kings.[8] Many of the rulers listed here in the 16th Dynasty under the hypothesis that they were vassals of the Hyksos are put in the 14th Dynasty in the hypothesis that the 16th Dynasty was an independent Theban kingdom. The chronological ordering is largely uncertain. Dynasty XV/XVI as vassals of the Hyksos[7] Name of king Dates Comments 'Anat-Har Possibly a prince of the 15th Dynasty or a Canaanite chieftain contemporary with the 12th Dynasty 'Aper-'Anati May belong to the early 15th Dynasty Semqen May belong to the early 15th Dynasty Sakir-Har May belong to the early 15th Dynasty Apepi May be identical with the Hyksos ruler Apepi Maaibre Sheshi May belong to the early 14th Dynasty Yaqub-Har May belong to the late 14th Dynasty Jamu Jakebmu Amu Sneferankhre Pepi III Hepu Anati Bebnum Nebmaare May belong to the 17th Dynasty Aahotepre May be the same person as 'Ammu Anetrire Meribre Nubankhre Kingship contested Nikare II Kingship contested [...]kare [...]kare [...]kare Sharek Wazad May belong to the 14th Dynasty Qur Possibly Qareh, may belong to the 14th Dynasty Shenes Likely to be Sheneh rather than Shenes and may belong to the 14th Dynasty Inek 'A[...] 'Ap[epi] Hibe Aped Reading is uncertain Hapi Shemsu Meni[...] Werqa Independent Theban Kingdom[edit] In his 1997 study of the Second Intermediate Period, the Danish Egyptologist Kim Ryholt argues that the 16th Dynasty was an independent Theban kingdom. From Ryholt's reconstruction of the Turin canon, 15 kings can be associated to the dynasty, several of whom are attested by contemporary sources.[2] While most likely rulers based in Thebes itself, some may have been local rulers from other important Upper Egyptian towns, including Abydos, El Kab and Edfu.[2] By the reign of Nebiriau I, the realm controlled by the 16th Dynasty extended at least as far north as Hu and south to Edfu.[3][9] Not listed in the Turin canon (after Ryholt) is Wepwawetemsaf, who left a stele at Abydos and was likely a local kinglet of the Abydos Dynasty.[2] Ryholt gives the list of kings of the 16th Dynasty as shown in the table below.[10] Others, such as Helck, Vandersleyen, Bennett combine some of these rulers with the Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt.[11] The list of rulers is given here as per Kim Ryholt and is supposedly in chronological order: Dynasty XVI as an independent Theban kingdom[12] Name of king Dates Comments Unknown 1649–1648 BC Name lost in a lacuna of the Turin canon Sekhemre-sementawi Djehuti 1648–1645 BC Sekhemre-seusertawi Sobekhotep VIII 1645–1629 BC Sekhemre-seankhtawi Neferhotep III 1629–1628 BC Seankhenre Mentuhotepi 1628–1627 BC Sewadjenre Nebiryraw I 1627–1601 BC Nebiriau II 1601 BC Semenre 1601–1600 BC Seuserenre Bebiankh 1600–1588 BC Sekhemre Shedwaset 1588 BC Unknown 1588–1582 BC Five kings lost in a lacuna of the Turin canon Additional kings are classified as belonging to this dynasty per Kim Ryholt but their chronological position is uncertain. They may correspond to the last five lost kings on the Turin canon:[13] Dynasty XVI as an independent Theban kingdom (uncertain order) Name of king Dates Comments Djedhotepre Dedumose I May have tried to sue the Hyksos for peace Djedneferre Dedumose II Djedankhre Montemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep VI Seneferibre Senusret IV Left a colossal statue of himself in Karnak[14] References[edit] ^ Kuhrt 1995: 118 ^ a b c d Bourriau 2003: 191 ^ a b c d e Ryholt 1997: 305 ^ a b c Bourriau 2003: 179 ^ Cory 1876 ^ see for example, Quirke, in Maree: The Second Intermediate Period (Thirteenth - Seventeenth Dynasties, Current Research, Future Prospects, Leuven 2011, Paris — Walpole, MA. ISBN 978-9042922280, p. 56, n. 6 ^ a b Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz : P. von Zabern, 1999, ISBN 3-8053-2591-6 ^ Wolfgang Helck, Eberhard Otto, Wolfhart Westendorf, Stele - Zypresse: Volume 6 of Lexikon der Ägyptologie, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1986, Page 1383 ^ Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, pp. 256-257 ^ Kings of the Second Intermediate Period 16th dynasty (after Ryholt 1997) ^ Chris Bennet, A Genealogical Chronology of the Seventeenth Dynasty, Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, Vol. 39 (2002), pp. 123-155 ^ Kim Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800 - 1550 BC, Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, ISBN 8772894210, 1997. ^ Kim Ryholt's 16th dynasty on Digital Egypt for Universities ^ Georges Legrain: Statues et statuettes de rois et de particuliers, in Catalogue général des antiquités égyptiennes du Musée du Caire, Le Caire, 1906. I, 171 pp., 79 pls, available copyright-free online, published in 1906, see p. 18 and p. 109 Bibliography[edit] Bourriau, Janine (2003) [2000], "The Second Intermediate Period", in Shaw, Ian (ed.), The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-280458-8 Cory, Isaac Preston (1876), Cory's Ancient fragments of the Phoenician, Carthaginian, Babylonian, Egyptian and other authors, Reeves & Turner Kuhrt, Amélie (1995), The Ancient Near East: c. 3000–330 BC, London: Routledge, ISBN 9780415013536 Ryholt, K. S. B. (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800–1550 BC. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. ISBN 8772894210. Preceded by Fifteenth Dynasty Dynasty of Egypt 1649–1582 BC Succeeded by Seventeenth Dynasty Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sixteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=991216255" Categories: Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt States and territories established in the 17th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 16th century BC 16th century BC in Egypt 17th century BC in Egypt 2nd millennium BC in Egypt 2nd-millennium BC disestablishments in Egypt 2nd-millennium BC establishments in Egypt Dynasties of ancient Egypt Hyksos Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ქართული Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska தமிழ் Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 28 November 2020, at 22:28 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5304	----	Ernest Normand - Wikipedia Ernest Normand From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ernest Normand The White Slave, an Orientalist nude by Ernest Normand Born 30 December 1857 London, England Died 23 March 1923 (aged 65) London, England Nationality English Education Académie Julian, Paris Known for Painter Movement Orientalist; Victorian painting Spouse(s) Henrietta Rae painter and writer (1859–1928) Ernest Normand (1857–1923) was an English painter noted for his historical and Biblical scenes as well as Orientalist works. Contents 1 Life and career 2 Work 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Life and career[edit] Ernest Normand was born in London on 30 December 1857. He painted history and orientalist paintings, [1] and also undertook portraits. In 1884 he married the painter and writer, Henrietta Rae (1859–1928). They both painted nude figures in lush settings, and were criticised for an apparent tendency towards an excess of sensuality in some of their paintings.[citation needed] The Normands were based in London from 1885, where Ernest had his studio and received support from the circle around Lord Leighton. They lived in Holland Park, an area known as the residence of many other artists of the day.[2] Frequent visitors to their home included Leighton, Millais, Prinsep, and Watts.[3] These more senior artists adopted the Normands, but their criticism was not always welcome. In her memoirs, Henrietta described the overbearing attitudes and conduct of some of the more senior artists.[4] In 1890, the Normands travelled to Paris to study at the Académie Julian with Jules Joseph Lefebvre and Jean-Joseph Benjamin-Constant. In 1893, the Normands moved to Upper Norwood, into a studio that was custom-built for them by Normand's father. The couple had two children, a son (born in 1886) and a daughter (born in 1893). Work[edit] He painted history and orientalist paintings, [5] and also undertook portraits. His work was influenced by the Pre-Raphaelites. Normand painted the "King John Granting the Magna Carta" fresco at the Royal Exchange in London (painted 1900, restored 2001). Pygmalion and Galatea, 1886 Esther Denouncing Haman, 1888 Bondage, 1890 Pandora, 1899 Select list of paintings and illustrations Pygmalion and Galatea, 1886 Esther Denouncing Haman, 1888 Death of Pharaoh's First Born, (illustration), 1905 Queen Vashti Deposed, 1890 Esther Denouncing Haman, 1888 See also[edit] List of Orientalist artists Orientalism References[edit] ^ (fr)Orientalistes ^ Caroline Dakers, The Holland Park Circle: Artists and Victorian Society, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1999. ^ Fish, p. 47. ^ Debra Mancoff and D. J. Trela, eds., Victorian Urban Settings: Essays on the Nineteenth-Century City and Its Contexts, London, Taylor & Francis, 1996, pp 70-71 ^ (fr)Orientalistes External links[edit] British Paintings Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ernest Normand. Authority control RKD: 59965 SNAC: w6b86jdz ULAN: 500010880 VIAF: 95747158 WorldCat Identities: viaf-95747158 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Normand&oldid=980461814" Categories: 1859 births 1923 deaths 19th-century English painters English male painters 20th-century English painters Alumni of the Académie Julian Orientalist painters Hidden categories: Articles with hCards Pages using infobox artist with unknown parameters All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2018 Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with RKDartists identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Deutsch Español Français עברית 日本語 Português Edit links This page was last edited on 26 September 2020, at 17:21 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
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en-wikipedia-org-5324	----	Family tree of the Twenty-first, Twenty-second, and Twenty-third Dynasties of Egypt - Wikipedia Family tree of the Twenty-first, Twenty-second, and Twenty-third Dynasties of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from 21st, 22nd & 23rd dynasties of Egypt family tree) Jump to navigation Jump to search This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Family tree of the Twenty-first, Twenty-second, and Twenty-third Dynasties of Egypt" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Twenty-first, Twenty-second, and Twenty-third Dynasties ruled Egypt from the 10th century through the 8th century BC. The family tree of the Twenty-first dynasty was heavily interconnected with the family of the High Priests of Amun at Thebes. The Twenty-second dynasty and Twenty-third dynasty were also related by marriage to the family of the High Priests. Contents 1 Legend 2 Family tree 3 References 4 See also Legend[edit] descent possibly descent succession (for pharaohs with unknown parents only) marriage possibly marriage Pharaoh's name Pharaoh Pharaoh's name King of Thebes Co-regent's name Co-regent High Priest of Amun Family tree[edit] Ramesses XI Hrere Tentamun A Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Piankh Nodjmet Herihor Smendes Tentamun B Duathathor-Henuttawy Pinedjem I Amenemnisu Wiay Psusennes I Mutnedjmet Masaharta Djedkhonsuefankh Menkheperre Isetemkheb C (III) Amenemope Shoshenq A Mehtenweskhet A Smendes II Pinedjem II Isetemkheb D Osorkon the Elder Nimlot A Tentsepeh A Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Psusennes II Siamun Karomama A Shoshenq I Maatkare B Osorkon I Tashedkhonsu Iuput Shoshenq C Shoshenq II Iuwelot Smendes III Takelot I Harsiese A Osorkon II Nimlot C Tjesbastperu Shoshenq III Karomama II Takelot II Pami Shoshenq IV Pedubast I Osorkon III Shoshenq V Tadibast III Shoshenq VI Iuput I Takelot III Rudamun Pedubast II Osorkon IV Ini Peftjauawybast Irbastudjanefu Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt References[edit] See also[edit] Ancient Egyptian family trees Twenty-first dynasty of Egypt Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Ancient Egypt topics Index Major topics Glossary of artifacts Agriculture Architecture (Egyptian Revival architecture) Art Portraiture Astronomy Chronology Cities (list) Clothing Cuisine Dance Dynasties Funerary practices Geography Great Royal Wives (list) Hieroglyphs History Language Literature Mathematics Medicine Military Music Mythology People Pharaohs (list) Philosophy Religion Sites Technology Trade Writing Egyptology Egyptologists Museums  Ancient Egypt portal Book Category WikiProject Commons Outline v t e Royal or noble family trees Monarchies by region Africa Egypt House of Muhammad Ali Ethiopia Solomonic dynasty Madagascar Morocco Tunisia Americas Aztec Brazil Mexico Asia Brunei Cambodia China Ancient Warring States Early Middle Late India Mughal Mughal-Mongol Iran Pre-Islamic: Achaemenid Arsacid Sasanian post-Islamic dynasties Modern: Safavid Afsharid Zand Qajar Pahlavi Japan Shōgun: Kamakura Ashikaga Tokugawa Jerusalem Korea Silla Goryeo Joseon Kuwait Malaysia Johor Kedah Kelantan Negeri Sembilan Pahang Perak Perlis Selangor Terengganu Mongol Borjigin Yuan Ilkhanate Timurid Myanmar Ottoman simplified Seljuk Anatolian Seljuk Sri Lanka Thailand Vietnam Europe Aragon Belgium Bohemia Bosnia Castile Croatia Denmark France simplified House of Bonaparte Greece Hungary Leon Luxembourg Monaco Naples Navarre Netherlands Norway Orange-Nassau Poland Portugal Holy Roman Empire/Germany House of Habsburg (incl. Holy Roman Empire after 1440) Romania Russia Serbia Medieval: Vlastimirović Vojislavljević Vukanović Nemanjić Lazarević Branković Modern: Karađorđević Obrenović Sicily Spain Sweden United Kingdom England simplified) (Wessex Mercia Northumbria Scotland Wales after 1603 Visigoths Oceania Hawaii Kamehameha Lunalilo Kalākaua Huahine Mangareva Samoa Malietoa Tui Manua Tupua Tamasese Tahiti Tonga Dukes, princes and counts Artois Brittany Aquitaine Brabant Lorraine Burgundy Bourbon Condé Conti Flanders Fujiwara Hainault Holland Jagiello La Fayette Lithuania Norfolk Swabia Monarchies of the ancient world Egypt 1st 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st, 22nd & 23rd 25th 26th Near East Yamhad Israel/Judah Georgia Iberia Bagrationi of Tao-Klarjeti and Georgia Kartli Kakheti Imereti Greece and Hellenistic World House of Atreus Erechtheids of Athens Alcmaeonids of Athens Heraclidae Kings of Sparta Argead dynasty Ptolemies Attalid Seleucids Rome Roman Emperors Caecilii Metelli Cornelii Scipiones Julio-Claudian dynasty Severan dynasty Flavian dynasty Constantinian dynasty Valentinianic dynasty Eastern Roman/Byzantine Emperors See also Family tree Ahnentafel Genealogical numbering systems Quarters of nobility Seize quartiers Royal descent Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Family_tree_of_the_Twenty-first,_Twenty-second,_and_Twenty-third_Dynasties_of_Egypt&oldid=820658165" Categories: Ancient Egyptian family trees Pharaohs of the Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Pharaohs of the Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Pharaohs of the Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt 10th century BC in Egypt 9th century BC in Egypt 8th century BC in Egypt 10th-century BC people 9th-century BC people 8th-century BC people Hidden categories: Articles lacking sources from December 2009 All articles lacking sources Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Français ქართული Magyar 日本語 Edit links This page was last edited on 15 January 2018, at 21:54 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5325	----	Yakbim Sekhaenre - Wikipedia Yakbim Sekhaenre From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Yakbim Sekhaenre Scarab seal of Sekhaenre, now likely in the Petrie Museum Pharaoh Reign c. 25 years, 1805-1780 BCE (Ryholt)[1] (likely 14th Dynasty[1]) Predecessor none (founder)[1] Successor Ya'ammu Nubwoserre[2] Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sekhaenre He who appears through Ra[3] Nomen Yakbim[3] Sekhaenre Yakbim or Yakbmu[4] was a ruler during the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt. Although his dynastic and temporal collocation is disputed, Danish Egyptologist Kim Ryholt believes that he likely was the founder of the Levantine-blooded Fourteenth Dynasty,[1] while in older literature he was mainly considered a member of the Sixteenth Dynasty.[3] Contents 1 Identification 2 References 2.1 Bibliography 3 External links Identification[edit] His name never appears inside a cartouche, which was a pharaonic prerogative; nevertheless, on his seals he is usually called "the good god, Sekhaenre" (or simply "Sekhaenre") and "the son of Ra, Yakbim".[3] There is no direct evidence that Yakbim's throne name was Sekhaenre. This theory is based on stylistic features of the seals and was proposed by William Ayres Ward[5] and later elaborated on by Ryholt;[6] Daphna Ben-Tor disputed this identification, pointing out that the seals of the several rulers living during this period are too similar to make such correlations on the basis of mere design features.[4] Assuming that Ward was right, Sekhaenre Yakbim is attested by a remarkable 123 seals, second only – for this period – to the 396 of Sheshi.[7] Based on that, Ryholt estimated for him a reign length of around 25 years, in the interval 1805–1780 BCE.[1] Israeli Egyptologist Raphael Giveon identified Yakbim with another ruler of the same period, Ya'ammu Nubwoserre, while Jürgen von Beckerath equated Yakbim with Salitis, the Manethonian founder of the Fifteenth Dynasty.[3] References[edit] ^ a b c d e Ryholt (1997), p. 409 ^ Ryholt (1997), p. 96 ^ a b c d e Sekhaenre Yakbim on Egyphica.net ^ a b Ben-Tor (2010), pp. 99ff ^ Ward (1984), pp. 163ff ^ Ryholt (1997), pp. 41-47 ^ Ryholt (1997), p. 199 Bibliography[edit] Ben-Tor, D. (2010). "Sequences and chronology of Second Intermediate Period royal-name scarabs, based on excavated series from Egypt and the Levant". In Marcel Marée (ed.). The Second Intermediate Period (Thirteenth–Seventeenth Dynasties): Current Research, Future Prospects. Orientalia Lovaniensa Analecta. 192. Leuven: Peeters. pp. 91–108. ISBN 9789042922280. Ryholt, K. S. B. (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800-1550 BC. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. ISBN 87-7289-421-0. Ward, W. A. (1984). "Royal-name scarabs". In Olga Tufnell (ed.). Scarab Seals and their Contribution to History in the Early Second Millennium B.C. Studies on Scarab Seals. 2. Warminster: Aris & Phillips. pp. 151–192. ISBN 9780856681301. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sekhaenre. Sekhaenre Yakbim on Digital Egypt v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yakbim_Sekhaenre&oldid=999919676" Categories: 19th-century BC Pharaohs 18th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages 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en-wikipedia-org-5332	----	Akkadian language - Wikipedia Akkadian language From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Extinct Semitic language Not to be confused with Acadian French. Akkadian 𒀝𒅗𒁺𒌑 akkadû Akkadian language inscription on the obelisk of Manishtushu Native to Assyria and Babylon Region Mesopotamia Era c. 2500 – 600 BCE; academic or liturgical use until AD 100 Language family Afro-Asiatic Semitic East Semitic Akkadian Writing system Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform Official status Official language in initially Akkad (central Mesopotamia); lingua franca of the Middle East and Egypt in the late Bronze and early Iron Ages. Language codes ISO 639-2 akk ISO 639-3 akk Glottolog akka1240 This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. Akkadian (/əˈkeɪdiən/ akkadû, 𒀝𒅗𒁺𒌑 ak-ka-du-u2; logogram: 𒌵𒆠 URIKI)[1][2] is an extinct East Semitic language that was spoken in ancient Mesopotamia (Akkad, Assyria, Isin, Larsa and Babylonia) from the third millennium BC until its gradual replacement by Akkadian-influenced Old Aramaic among Mesopotamians by the 8th century BC. It is the earliest attested Semitic language.[3] It used the cuneiform script, which was originally used to write the unrelated, and also extinct, Sumerian (which is a language isolate). Akkadian is named after the city of Akkad, a major centre of Mesopotamian civilization during the Akkadian Empire (c. 2334–2154 BC). The mutual influence between Sumerian and Akkadian had led scholars to describe the languages as a Sprachbund.[4] Akkadian proper names were first attested in Sumerian texts from around the mid 3rd-millennium BC.[5] From about the 25th or 24th century BC, texts fully written in Akkadian begin to appear. By the 10th century BC, two variant forms of the language were in use in Assyria and Babylonia, known as Assyrian and Babylonian respectively. The bulk of preserved material is from this later period, corresponding to the Near Eastern Iron Age. In total, hundreds of thousands of texts and text fragments have been excavated, covering a vast textual tradition of mythological narrative, legal texts, scientific works, correspondence, political and military events, and many other examples. Akkadian (in its Assyrian and Babylonian varieties) was the native language of the Mesopotamian empires (Akkadian Empire, Old Assyrian Empire, Babylonia, Middle Assyrian Empire) throughout the later Bronze Age, and became the lingua franca of much of the Ancient Near East by the time of the Bronze Age collapse c 1150 BC. Its decline began in the Iron Age, during the Neo-Assyrian Empire, by about the 8th century BC (Tiglath-Pileser III), in favour of Old Aramaic. By the Hellenistic period, the language was largely confined to scholars and priests working in temples in Assyria and Babylonia. The last known Akkadian cuneiform document dates from the 1st century AD.[6] Mandaic and Assyrian are two (Northwest Semitic) Neo-Aramaic languages that retain some Akkadian vocabulary and grammatical features.[7] Akkadian is a fusional language with grammatical case; and like all Semitic languages, Akkadian uses the system of consonantal roots. The Kültepe texts, which were written in Old Assyrian, include Hittite loanwords and names, which constitute the oldest record of any Indo-European language.[8] Contents 1 Classification 2 History and writing 2.1 Writing 2.2 Development 2.3 Decipherment 2.4 Dialects 3 Phonetics and phonology 3.1 Consonants 3.2 Reconstruction 3.3 Descent from Proto-Semitic 3.4 Vowels 3.5 Stress 4 Grammar 4.1 Morphology 4.1.1 Consonantal root 4.1.2 Case, number and gender 4.1.3 Noun states and nominal sentences 4.1.4 Verbal morphology 4.1.4.1 Verb aspects 4.1.4.2 Verb moods 4.1.4.3 Verb patterns 4.2 Stative 4.3 Derivation 4.4 Pronouns 4.4.1 Personal pronouns 4.4.1.1 Independent personal pronouns 4.4.1.2 Suffixed (or enclitic) pronouns 4.4.2 Demonstrative pronouns 4.4.3 Relative pronouns 4.4.4 Interrogative pronouns 4.5 Prepositions 4.6 Numerals 4.7 Syntax 4.7.1 Nominal phrases 4.7.2 Sentence syntax 5 Vocabulary 6 Sample text 7 Akkadian literature 8 Notes 9 Sources 10 Further reading 10.1 General description and grammar 10.2 Textbooks 10.3 Dictionaries 10.4 Akkadian cuneiform 10.5 Translations 10.6 Technical literature on specific subjects 11 External links Classification[edit] Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform syllabary (circa 2200 BC) Left: Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform syllabary, used by early Akkadian rulers.[9] Right:Seal of Akkadian Empire ruler Naram-Sin (reversed for readability), c. 2250 BC. The name of Naram-Sin (Akkadian: 𒀭𒈾𒊏𒄠𒀭𒂗𒍪: DNa-ra-am DSîn, Sîn being written 𒂗𒍪 EN.ZU), appears vertically in the right column.[10] British Museum. Akkadian belongs with the other Semitic languages in the Near Eastern branch of the Afroasiatic languages, a family native to the Middle East, Arabian Peninsula, the Horn of Africa, parts of Anatolia, North Africa, Malta, Canary Islands and parts of West Africa (Hausa). Akkadian and its successor Aramaic, however, are only ever attested in Mesopotamia and the Near East. Within the Near Eastern Semitic languages, Akkadian forms an East Semitic subgroup (with Eblaite). This group distinguishes itself from the Northwest and South Semitic languages by its subject–object–verb word order, while the other Semitic languages usually have either a verb–subject–object or subject–verb–object order. Additionally Akkadian is the only Semitic language to use the prepositions ina and ana (locative case, English in/on/with, and dative-locative case, for/to, respectively). Other Semitic languages like Arabic, Hebrew and Aramaic have the prepositions bi/bə and li/lə (locative and dative, respectively). The origin of the Akkadian spatial prepositions is unknown. In contrast to most other Semitic languages, Akkadian has only one non-sibilant fricative: ḫ [x]. Akkadian lost both the glottal and pharyngeal fricatives, which are characteristic of the other Semitic languages. Until the Old Babylonian period, the Akkadian sibilants were exclusively affricated.[2] History and writing[edit] Writing[edit] Main article: Akkadian cuneiform Cuneiform writing (Neoassyrian script) (1 = Logogram (LG) "mix"/syllabogram (SG) ḫi, 2 = LG "moat", 3 = SG aʾ, 4 = SG aḫ, eḫ, iḫ, uḫ, 5 = SG kam, 6 = SG im, 7 = SG bir) Old Akkadian is preserved on clay tablets dating back to c. 2500 BC. It was written using cuneiform, a script adopted from the Sumerians using wedge-shaped symbols pressed in wet clay. As employed by Akkadian scribes, the adapted cuneiform script could represent either (a) Sumerian logograms (i.e., picture-based characters representing entire words), (b) Sumerian syllables, (c) Akkadian syllables, or (d) phonetic complements. However, in Akkadian the script practically became a fully fledged syllabic script, and the original logographic nature of cuneiform became secondary, though logograms for frequent words such as 'god' and 'temple' continued to be used. For this reason, the sign AN can on the one hand be a logogram for the word ilum ('god') and on the other signify the god Anu or even the syllable -an-. Additionally, this sign was used as a determinative for divine names. Another peculiarity of Akkadian cuneiform is that many signs do not have a well-defined phonetic value. Certain signs, such as AḪ, do not distinguish between the different vowel qualities. Nor is there any coordination in the other direction; the syllable -ša-, for example, is rendered by the sign ŠA, but also by the sign NĪĜ. Both of these are often used for the same syllable in the same text. Cuneiform was in many ways unsuited to Akkadian: among its flaws was its inability to represent important phonemes in Semitic, including a glottal stop, pharyngeals, and emphatic consonants. In addition, cuneiform was a syllabary writing system—i.e., a consonant plus vowel comprised one writing unit—frequently inappropriate for a Semitic language made up of triconsonantal roots (i.e., three consonants plus any vowels). Development[edit] Akkadian is divided into several varieties based on geography and historical period:[11] Old Akkadian, 2500–1950 BC Old Babylonian and Old Assyrian, 1950–1530 BC Middle Babylonian and Middle Assyrian, 1530–1000 BC Neo-Babylonian and Neo-Assyrian, 1000–600 BC Late Babylonian, 600 BC–100 AD One of the earliest known Akkadian inscriptions was found on a bowl at Ur, addressed to the very early pre-Sargonic king Meskiagnunna of Ur (c. 2485–2450 BC) by his queen Gan-saman, who is thought to have been from Akkad.[12] The Akkadian Empire, established by Sargon of Akkad, introduced the Akkadian language (the "language of Akkad") as a written language, adapting Sumerian cuneiform orthography for the purpose. During the Middle Bronze Age (Old Assyrian and Old Babylonian period), the language virtually displaced Sumerian, which is assumed to have been extinct as a living language by the 18th century BC. Old Akkadian, which was used until the end of the 3rd millennium BC, differed from both Babylonian and Assyrian, and was displaced by these dialects. By the 21st century BC Babylonian and Assyrian, which were to become the primary dialects, were easily distinguishable. Old Babylonian, along with the closely related dialect Mariotic, is clearly more innovative than the Old Assyrian dialect and the more distantly related Eblaite language. For this reason, forms like lu-prus ('I will decide') were first encountered in Old Babylonian instead of the older la-prus. While generally more archaic, Assyrian developed certain innovations as well, such as the "Assyrian vowel harmony". Eblaite was even more so, retaining a productive dual and a relative pronoun declined in case, number and gender. Both of these had already disappeared in Old Akkadian. Over 20,000 cuneiform tablets in Old Akkadian have been recovered from the Kültepe site in Anatolia. Most of the archaeological evidence is typical of Anatolia rather than of Assyria, but the use both of cuneiform and the dialect is the best indication of Assyrian presence.[13] Old Babylonian was the language of king Hammurabi and his code, which is one of the oldest collections of laws in the world. (see Code of Ur-Nammu.) The Middle Babylonian (or Assyrian) period started in the 16th century BC. The division is marked by the Kassite invasion of Babylonia around 1550 BC. The Kassites, who reigned for 300 years, gave up their own language in favor of Akkadian, but they had little influence on the language. At its apogee, Middle Babylonian was the written language of diplomacy of the entire Ancient Near East, including Egypt. During this period, a large number of loan words were included in the language from Northwest Semitic languages and Hurrian; however, the use of these words was confined to the fringes of the Akkadian-speaking territory. Middle Assyrian served as a lingua franca in much of the Ancient Near East of the Late Bronze Age (Amarna Period). During the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Neo-Assyrian began to turn into a chancellery language, being marginalized by Old Aramaic. Under the Achaemenids, Aramaic continued to prosper, but Assyrian continued its decline. The language's final demise came about during the Hellenistic period when it was further marginalized by Koine Greek, even though Neo-Assyrian cuneiform remained in use in literary tradition well into Parthian times. The latest known text in cuneiform Babylonian is an astronomical almanac dated to 79/80 AD.[14] However, the latest cuneiform texts are almost entirely written in Sumerian logograms.[15] An Akkadian inscription Old Assyrian developed as well during the second millennium BC, but because it was a purely popular language — kings wrote in Babylonian — few long texts are preserved. From 1500 BC onwards, the language is termed Middle Assyrian. During the first millennium BC, Akkadian progressively lost its status as a lingua franca. In the beginning, from around 1000 BC, Akkadian and Aramaic were of equal status, as can be seen in the number of copied texts: clay tablets were written in Akkadian, while scribes writing on papyrus and leather used Aramaic. From this period on, one speaks of Neo-Babylonian and Neo-Assyrian. Neo-Assyrian received an upswing in popularity in the 10th century BC when the Assyrian kingdom became a major power with the Neo-Assyrian Empire, but texts written 'exclusively' in Neo-Assyrian disappear within 10 years of Nineveh's destruction in 612 BC. The dominance of the Neo-Assyrian Empire under Tiglath-Pileser III over Aram-Damascus in the middle of the 8th century led to the establishment of Aramaic as a lingua franca[16] of the empire, rather than it being eclipsed by Akkadian. After the end of the Mesopotamian kingdoms, which were conquered by the Persians, Akkadian (which existed solely in the form of Late Babylonian) disappeared as a popular language. However, the language was still used in its written form; and even after the Greek invasion under Alexander the Great in the 4th century BC, Akkadian was still a contender as a written language, but spoken Akkadian was likely extinct by this time, or at least rarely used. The last positively identified Akkadian text comes from the 1st century AD.[17] Decipherment[edit] Georg Friedrich Grotefend Edward Hincks Sir Henry Rawlinson The Akkadian language began to be rediscovered when Carsten Niebuhr in 1767 was able to make extensive copies of cuneiform texts and published them in Denmark. The deciphering of the texts started immediately, and bilinguals, in particular Old Persian-Akkadian bilinguals, were of great help. Since the texts contained several royal names, isolated signs could be identified, and were presented in 1802 by Georg Friedrich Grotefend. By this time it was already evident that Akkadian was a Semitic language, and the final breakthrough in deciphering the language came from Edward Hincks, Henry Rawlinson and Jules Oppert in the middle of the 19th century. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago recently completed a 21-volume dictionary of the Akkadian language, which is available commercially and online.[18] The Deluge tablet of the Gilgamesh epic in Akkadian. Dialects[edit] The following table summarises the dialects of Akkadian identified with certainty so far. Known Akkadian dialects Dialect Location Assyrian Northern Mesopotamia Babylonian Central and Southern Mesopotamia Mariotic Central Euphrates (in and around the city of Mari) Tell Beydar Northern Syria (in and around Tell Beydar) Some researchers (such as W. Sommerfeld 2003) believe that the Old Akkadian variant used in the older texts is not an ancestor of the later Assyrian and Babylonian dialects, but rather a separate dialect that was replaced by these two dialects and which died out early. Eblaite, formerly thought of as yet another Akkadian dialect, is now generally considered a separate East Semitic language. Phonetics and phonology[edit] Because Akkadian as a spoken language is extinct and no contemporary descriptions of the pronunciation are known, little can be said with certainty about the phonetics and phonology of Akkadian. Some conclusions can be made, however, due to the relationship to the other Semitic languages and variant spellings of Akkadian words. Consonants[edit] The following table gives the consonant sounds distinguished in the Akkadian use of cuneiform, with the presumed pronunciation in IPA transcription according to Huehnergard and Woods,[2] which most closely corresponds to recent reconstructions of Proto-Semitic phonology. The parenthesised symbol following is the transcription used in the literature, in the cases where that symbol is different from the phonetic symbol. This transcription has been suggested for all Semitic languages by the Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft (DMG), and is therefore known as DMG-Umschrift. Akkadian consonantal phonemes Labial Dental/Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal Nasal m n Plosive voiceless p t k ʔ ⟨ʾ⟩ voiced b d ɡ emphatic tʼ ⟨ṭ⟩ kʼ ⟨q⟩ Fricative voiceless s ~ ʃ ⟨š⟩ x ⟨ḫ⟩ voiced ɣ ~ ʁ ⟨r⟩ Affricate voiceless t͡s ⟨s⟩ voiced d͡z ⟨z⟩ emphatic t͡s’ ⟨ṣ⟩ Approximant l j ⟨y⟩ w Reconstruction[edit] The first known Sumerian-Akkadian bilingual tablet dates from the reign of Rimush. Louvre Museum AO 5477. The top column is in Sumerian, the bottom column is its translation in Akkadian.[19][20] Akkadian emphatic consonants are typically reconstructed as ejectives, which are thought to be the oldest realization of emphatics across the Semitic languages.[21] One piece of evidence for this is that Akkadian shows a development known as Geers' law, where one of two emphatic consonants dissimilates to the corresponding non-emphatic consonant. For the sibilants, traditionally /š/ has been held to be postalveolar [ʃ], and /s/, /z/, /ṣ/ analyzed as fricatives; but attested assimilations in Akkadian suggest otherwise.[2][22] For example, when the possessive suffix -šu is added to the root awat ('word'), it is written awassu ('his word') even though šš would be expected. The most straightforward interpretation of this shift from tš to ss is that /s, ṣ/ form a pair of voiceless alveolar affricates [t͡s t͡sʼ], *š is a voiceless alveolar fricative [s], and *z is a voiced alveolar affricate or fricative [d͡z~z]. The assimilation is then [awat+su] > [awatt͡su]. In this vein, an alternative transcription of *š is *s̠, with the macron below indicating a soft (lenis) articulation in Semitic transcription. Other interpretations are possible, however. [ʃ] could have been assimilated to the preceding [t], yielding [ts], which would later have been simplified to [ss]. The phoneme /r/ has traditionally been interpreted as a trill but its pattern of alternation with /ḫ/ suggests it was a velar (or uvular) fricative. In the Hellenistic period, Akkadian /r/ was transcribed using the Greek ρ, indicating it was pronounced similarly as an alveolar trill (though Greeks may also have perceived a uvular trill as ρ).[2] Descent from Proto-Semitic[edit] Several Proto-Semitic phonemes are lost in Akkadian. The Proto-Semitic glottal stop *ʾ, as well as the fricatives *ʿ, *h, *ḥ are lost as consonants, either by sound change or orthographically, but they gave rise to the vowel quality e not exhibited in Proto-Semitic. The voiceless lateral fricatives (*ś, *ṣ́) merged with the sibilants as in Canaanite, leaving 19 consonantal phonemes. Old Akkadian preserved the /*ś/ phoneme longest but it eventually merged with /*š/, beginning in the Old Babylonian period.[2][23] The following table shows Proto-Semitic phonemes and their correspondences among Akkadian, Modern Standard Arabic and Tiberian Hebrew: Inscription in Babylonian, in the Xerxes I inscription at Van, 5th century BCE Proto-Semitic Akkadian Arabic Hebrew *b b ب b ב b *d d د d ד d *g g ج ǧ ג g *p p ف f פ p *t t ت t ת t *k k ك k כ k *ʾ (Ø)/ ʾ ء ʾ א ʾ *ṭ ṭ ط ṭ ט ṭ *ḳ q ق q ק q *ḏ z ذ ḏ ז z *z ز z *ṯ š ث ṯ שׁ š *š س s *ś ش š שׂ ś *s s س s ס s *ṱ ṣ ظ ẓ צ ṣ *ṣ ص ṣ *ṣ́ ض ḍ *ġ ḫ غ ġ ע ʿ [ʕ] *ʿ (e) [t2 1] ع ʿ [ʕ] *ḫ ḫ خ ḫ [x] ח ḥ *ḥ (e) [t2 1] ح ḥ [ħ] *h (Ø) ه h ה h *m m م m מ m *n n ن n נ n *r r ر r ר r *l l ل l ל l *w w و w ו י w y *y y ي y [j] י y Proto-Semitic Akkadian Arabic Hebrew ^ a b These are only distinguished from the Ø (zero) reflexes of /h/ and /ʾ/ by /e/-coloring the adjacent vowel *a, e.g. PS *ˈbaʿ(a)l-um ('owner, lord') → Akk. bēlu(m) (Dolgopolsky 1999, p. 35). Vowels[edit] Akkadian vowels Front Central Back Closed i u Mid e Open a The existence of a back mid-vowel /o/ has been proposed, but the cuneiform writing gives no good proof for this.[24] There is limited contrast between different u-signs in lexical texts, but this scribal differentiation may reflect the superimposition of the Sumerian phonological system (for which an /o/ phoneme has also been proposed), rather than a separate phoneme in Akkadian.[25] All consonants and vowels appear in long and short forms. Long consonants are represented in writing as double consonants, and long vowels are written with a macron (ā, ē, ī, ū). This distinction is phonemic, and is used in the grammar, for example iprusu ('that he decided') versus iprusū ('they decided'). Stress[edit] The stress patterns of Akkadian are disputed, with some authors claiming that nothing is known of the topic. There are however certain points of reference, such as the rule of vowel syncope, and some forms in the cuneiform that might represent the stressing of certain vowels; however, attempts at identifying a rule for stress have so far been unsuccessful. Huenergard (2005:3-4) claims that stress in Akkadian is completely predictable. In his syllable typology there are three syllable weights: light (V, CV); heavy (CVC, CV̄, CV̂), and superheavy (CV̂C). If the last syllable is superheavy, it is stressed, otherwise the rightmost heavy non-final syllable is stressed. If a word contains only light syllables, the first syllable is stressed. A rule of Akkadian phonology is that certain short (and probably unstressed) vowels are dropped. The rule is that the last vowel of a succession of syllables that end in a short vowel is dropped, for example the declinational root of the verbal adjective of a root PRS is PaRiS-. Thus the masculine singular nominative is PaRS-um (< *PaRiS-um) but the feminine singular nominative is PaRiStum (< *PaRiS-at-um). Additionally there is a general tendency of syncope of short vowels in the later stages of Akkadian. Grammar[edit] Neo-Babylonian inscription of king Nebuchadnezzar II, 7th century BCE Morphology[edit] Consonantal root[edit] Most roots of the Akkadian language consist of three consonants (called the radicals), but some roots are composed of four consonants (so-called quadriradicals). The radicals are occasionally represented in transcription in upper-case letters, for example PRS (to decide). Between and around these radicals various infixes, suffixes and prefixes, having word generating or grammatical functions, are inserted. The resulting consonant-vowel pattern differentiates the original meaning of the root. Also, the middle radical can be geminated, which is represented by a doubled consonant in transcription (and sometimes in the cuneiform writing itself). The consonants ʔ, w, j and n are termed "weak radicals" and roots containing these radicals give rise to irregular forms. Case, number and gender[edit] Formally, Akkadian has three numbers (singular, dual and plural) and three cases (nominative, accusative and genitive). However, even in the earlier stages of the language, the dual number is vestigial, and its use is largely confined to natural pairs (eyes, ears, etc.), and adjectives are never found in the dual. In the dual and plural, the accusative and genitive are merged into a single oblique case. Akkadian, unlike Arabic,has only "sound" plurals formed by means of a plural ending (i.e. no broken plurals formed by changing the word stem). As in all Semitic languages, some masculine nouns take the prototypically feminine plural ending (-āt). The nouns šarrum (king) and šarratum (queen) and the adjective dannum (strong) will serve to illustrate the case system of Akkadian. Noun and adjective paradigms Noun (masc.) Noun (fem.) Adjective (masc.) Adjective (fem.) Nominative singular šarr-um šarr-at-um dann-um dann-at-um Genitive singular šarr-im šarr-at-im dann-im dann-at-im Accusative singular šarr-am šarr-at-am dann-am dann-at-am Nominative dual šarr-ān šarr-at-ān Oblique dual [t3 1] šarr-īn šarr-at-īn Nominative plural šarr-ū šarr-āt-um dann-ūt-um dann-āt-um Oblique plural šarr-ī šarr-āt-im dann-ūt-im dann-āt-im ^ The oblique case includes the accusative and genitive. As is clear from the above table, the adjective and noun endings differ only in the masculine plural. Certain nouns, primarily those referring to geography, can also form a locative ending in -um in the singular and the resulting forms serve as adverbials. These forms are generally not productive, but in the Neo-Babylonian the um-locative replaces several constructions with the preposition ina. In the later stages of Akkadian the mimation (word-final -m) - along with nunation (dual final "-n") - that occurred at the end of most case endings disappeared, except in the locative. Later, the nominative and accusative singular of masculine nouns collapsed to -u and in Neo-Babylonian most word-final short vowels were dropped. As a result, case differentiation disappeared from all forms except masculine plural nouns. However many texts continued the practice of writing the case endings (although often sporadically and incorrectly). As the most important contact language throughout this period was Aramaic, which itself lacks case distinctions, it is possible that Akkadian's loss of cases was an areal as well as phonological phenomenon. Noun states and nominal sentences[edit] Cylinder of Antiochus I The Antiochus cylinder, written by Antiochus I Soter, as great king of kings of Babylon, restorer of gods E-sagila and E-zida, circa 250 BCE. Written in traditional Akkadian.[26][27][28][29] Antiochus I Soter with titles in Akkadian on the cylinder of Antiochus: "Antiochus, King, Great King, King of multitudes, King of Babylon, King of countries" As is also the case in other Semitic languages, Akkadian nouns may appear in a variety of "states" depending on their grammatical function in a sentence. The basic form of the noun is the status rectus (the governed state), which is the form as described above, complete with case endings. In addition to this, Akkadian has the status absolutus (the absolute state) and the status constructus (Construct state). The latter is found in all other Semitic languages, while the former appears only in Akkadian and some dialects of Aramaic. The status absolutus is characterised by the loss of a noun's case ending (e.g. awīl < awīlum, šar < šarrum). It is relatively uncommon, and is used chiefly to mark the predicate of a nominal sentence, in fixed adverbial expressions, and in expressions relating to measurements of length, weight, and the like. (1) Awīl-um šū šarrāq Awīl-um šū šarrāq. Man (Masculine, nominative) he (3rd masc. personal pronoun) thief (status absolutus) Translation: This man is a thief (2) šarrum lā šanān šarr-um lā šanān. King (Status rectus, nominative) not (negative particle) oppose (verbal infinitive, status absolutus) Translation: The king who cannot be rivaled The status constructus is a great deal more common, and has a much wider range of applications. It is employed when a noun is followed by another noun in the genitive, a pronominal suffix, or a verbal clause in the subjunctive, and typically takes the shortest form of the noun which is phonetically possible. In general, this amounts to the loss of case endings with short vowels, with the exception of the genitive -i in nouns preceding a pronominal suffix, hence: (3) māri-šu māri-šu Son (status constructus) + his (3rd person singular possessive pronoun) Translation: His son, its (masculine) son but (4) mār šarr-im mār šarr-im Son (Status constructus) king (genitive singular) Translation: The king's son There are numerous exceptions to this general rule, usually involving potential violations of the language's phonological limitations. Most obviously, Akkadian does not tolerate word final consonant clusters, so nouns like kalbum (dog) and maḫrum (front) would have illegal construct state forms *kalb and *maḫr unless modified. In many of these instances, the first vowel of the word is simply repeated (e.g. kalab, maḫar). This rule, however, does not always hold true, especially in nouns where a short vowel has historically been elided (e.g. šaknum < *šakinum "governor"). In these cases, the lost vowel is restored in the construct state (so šaknum yields šakin). (5) kalab belim kalab bel-im dog (Status constructus) master (genitive singular) Translation: The master's dog (6) šakin ālim šakin āl-im Governor (Status constructus) city (genitive singular) A genitive relation can also be expressed with the relative preposition ša, and the noun that the genitive phrase depends on appears in status rectus. (7) salīmātum ša awīl Ešnunna salīmātum ša awīl Ešnunna Alliances (Status rectus, nominative) which (relative particle) man (status constructus) Ešnunna (genitive, unmarked) Translation: The alliances of the Ruler of Ešnunna (literally "Alliances which man of Ešnunna (has)") The same preposition is also used to introduce true relative clauses, in which case the verb is placed in the subjunctive mood. (7) awīl-um ša māt-am i-kšud-Ø-u Awīl-um ša māt-am i-kšud-Ø-u Man (Masculine, nominative) that (relative pronoun) land (singular, accusative) 3rd person - conquer (preterite) - singular, masculine - subjunctive Translation: The man who conquered the land. Verbal morphology[edit] Verb aspects[edit] The Akkadian verb has six finite verb aspects (preterite, perfect, present, imperative, precative and vetitive) and three infinite forms (infinitive, participle and verbal adjective). The preterite is used for actions that are seen by the speaker as having occurred at a single point in time. The present is primarily imperfective in meaning and is used for concurrent and future actions as well as past actions with a temporal dimension. The final three finite forms are injunctive where the imperative and the precative together form a paradigm for positive commands and wishes, and the vetitive is used for negative wishes. Additionally the periphrastic prohibitive, formed by the present form of the verb and the negative adverb lā, is used to express negative commands. The infinitive of the Akkadian verb is a verbal noun, and in contrast to some other languages the Akkadian infinitive can be declined in case. The verbal adjective is an adjectival form and designates the state or the result of the action of the verb, and consequently the exact meaning of the verbal adjective is determined by the semantics of the verb itself. The participle, which can be active or passive, is another verbal adjective and its meaning is similar to the English gerund. The following table shows the conjugation of the G-stem verbs derived from the root PRS ("to decide") in the various verb aspects of Akkadian: Preterite Perfect Present Imperative stative Infinitive Participle (active) Verbal adjective 1st person singular aprus aptaras aparras parsāku parāsum pārisum (masc.) pāristum (fem.) parsum (masc.) paristum (fem.) 1st person plural niprus niptaras niparras parsānu 2nd person singular masc. taprus taptaras taparras purus parsāta 2nd person singular fem. taprusī taptarsī (< *taptarasī) taparrasī pursi parsāti 2nd person plural taprusā taptarsā taparrasā pursa parsātunu (masc.) / parsātina(fem.) 3rd person singular iprus iptaras iparras paris (masc.) /parsat (fem.) 3rd person plural masc. iprusū iptarsū (< *iptarasū) iparrasū parsū 3rd person plural fem. iprusā iptarsā(< *iptarasā) iparrasā parsā The table below shows the different affixes attached to the preterite aspect of the verb root PRS "to decide"; and as can be seen, the grammatical genders differ only in the second person singular and third person plural. G-Stem D-Stem Š-Stem N-Stem 1st person singular a-prus-Ø u-parris-Ø u-šapris-Ø a-pparis-Ø 1st person plural ni-prus-Ø nu-parris-Ø nu-šapris-Ø ni-pparis-Ø 2nd person singular masc. ta-prus-Ø tu-parris-Ø tu-šapris-Ø ta-pparis-Ø 2nd person singular fem. ta-prus-ī tu-parris-ī tu-šapris-ī ta-ppars-ī 2nd person plural ta-prus-ā tu-parris-ā tu-šapris-ā ta-ppars-ā 3rd person singular i-prus-Ø u-parris-Ø u-šapris-Ø i-pparis-Ø 3rd person plural masc. i-prus-ū u-parris-ū u-šapris-ū i-ppars-ū 3rd person plural fem. i-prus-ā u-parris-ā u-šapris-ā i-ppars-ā Verb moods[edit] Akkadian verbs have 3 moods: Indicative, used in independent clauses, is unmarked. Subjunctive, used in dependent clauses. The subjunctive is marked in forms which do not end in a vowel by the suffix -u (compare Arabic and Ugaritic subjunctives), but is otherwise unmarked. In the later stages of most dialects, the subjunctive is indistinct, as short final vowels were mostly lost Venitive or allative. The venitive is not a mood in the strictest sense, being a development of the 1st person dative pronominal suffix -am/-m/-nim. With verbs of motion, it often indicates motion towards an object or person (e.g. illik, "he went" vs. illikam, "he came"). However, this pattern is not consistent, even in earlier stages of the language, and its use often appears to serve a stylistic rather than morphological or lexical function. The following table demonstrates the verb moods of verbs derived from the root PRS ("to decide","to separate"): Preterite.[t4 1] Stative.[t4 1] Indicative iprus paris Subjunctive iprusu parsu Venitive iprusam parsam ^ a b Both verbs are for the 3rd person masculine singular. Verb patterns[edit] Akkadian verbs have thirteen separate derived stems formed on each root. The basic, underived, stem is the G-stem (from the German Grundstamm, meaning "basic stem"). Causative or intensive forms are formed with the doubled D-stem, and it gets its name from the doubled-middle radical that is characteristic of this form. The doubled middle radical is also characteristic of the present, but the forms of the D-stem use the secondary conjugational affixes, so a D-form will never be identical to a form in a different stem. The Š-stem is formed by adding a prefix š-, and these forms are mostly causatives. Finally, the passive forms of the verb are in the N-stem, formed by adding a n- prefix. However the n- element is assimilated to a following consonant, so the original /n/ is only visible in a few forms. Furthermore, reflexive and iterative verbal stems can be derived from each of the basic stems. The reflexive stem is formed with an infix -ta, and the derived stems are therefore called Gt, Dt, Št and Nt, and the preterite forms of the Xt-stem are identical to the perfects of the X-stem. Iteratives are formed with the infix -tan-, giving the Gtn, Dtn, Štn and Ntn. Because of the assimilation of n, the /n/ is only seen in the present forms, and the Xtn preterite is identical to the Xt durative. The final stem is the ŠD-stem, a form mostly attested only in poetic texts, and whose meaning is usually identical to either the Š-stem or the D-stem of the same verb. It is formed with the Š prefix (like the Š-stem) in addition to a doubled-middle radical (like the D-stem). An alternative to this naming system is a numerical system. The basic stems are numbered using Roman numerals so that G, D, Š and N become I, II, III and IV, respectively, and the infixes are numbered using Arabic numerals; 1 for the forms without an infix, 2 for the Xt, and 3 for the Xtn. The two numbers are separated using a solidus. As an example, the Štn-stem is called III/3. The most important user of this system is the Chicago Assyrian Dictionary. There is mandatory congruence between the subject of the sentence and the verb, and this is expressed by prefixes and suffixes. There are two different sets of affixes, a primary set used for the forms of the G and N-stems, and a secondary set for the D and Š-stems. The stems, their nomenclature and examples of the third-person masculine singular stative of the verb parāsum (root PRS: 'to decide, distinguish, separate') is shown below: # Stem Verb Description Correspondence I.1 G PaRiS the simple stem, used for transitive and intransitive verbs Arabic stem I (fa‘ala) and Hebrew pa'al II.1 D PuRRuS gemination of the second radical, indicating the intensive Arabic stem II (fa‘‘ala) and Hebrew pi‘el III.1 Š šuPRuS š-preformative, indicating the causative Arabic stem IV (’af‘ala) and Hebrew hiph‘il IV.1 N naPRuS n-preformative, indicating the reflexive/passive Arabic stem VII (infa‘ala) and Hebrew niph‘al I.2 Gt PitRuS simple stem with t-infix after first radical, indicating reciprocal or reflexive Arabic stem VIII (ifta‘ala) and Aramaic ’ithpe‘al (tG) II.2 Dt PutaRRuS doubled second radical preceded by infixed t, indicating intensive reflexive Arabic stem V (tafa‘‘ala) and Hebrew hithpa‘el (tD) III.2 Št šutaPRuS š-preformative with t-infix, indicating reflexive causative Arabic stem X (istaf‘ala) and Aramaic ’ittaph‘al (tC) IV.2 Nt itaPRuS n-preformative with a t-infix preceding the first radical, indicating reflexive passive I.3 Gtn PitaRRuS II.3 Dtn PutaRRuS doubled second radical preceded by tan-infix III.3 Štn šutaPRuS š-preformative with tan-infix IV.3 Ntn itaPRuS n-preformative with tan-infix ŠD šuPuRRuS š-preformative with doubled second radical Stative[edit] A very often appearing form which can be formed by nouns, adjectives as well as by verbal adjectives is the stative. Nominal predicatives occur in the status absolutus and correspond to the verb "to be" in English. The stative in Akkadian corresponds to the Egyptian pseudo-participle. The following table contains an example of using the noun šarrum (king), the adjective rapšum (wide) and the verbal adjective parsum (decided). šarrum rapšum parsum 1st Person singular šarr-āku rapš-āku pars-āku 1st Person plural šarr-ānu rapš-ānu pars-ānu 2nd Person singular masc. šarr-āta rapš-āta pars-āta 2nd Person singular fem. šarr-āti rapš-āti pars-āti 2nd Person plural masc. šarr-ātunu rapš-ātunu pars-ātunu 2nd Person plural fem. šarr-ātina rapš-ātina pars-ātina 3rd Person singular masc. šar-Ø rapaš-Ø paris-Ø 3rd Person singular fem. šarr-at rapš-at pars-at 3rd Person plural masc. šarr-ū rapš-ū pars-ū 3rd Person plural fem. šarr-ā rapš-ā pars-ā Thus, the stative in Akkadian is used to convert simple stems into effective sentences, so that the form šarr-āta is equivalent to: "you were king", "you are king" and "you will be king". Hence, the stative is independent of time forms. Derivation[edit] Beside the already explained possibility of derivation of different verb stems, Akkadian has numerous nominal formations derived from verb roots. A very frequently encountered form is the maPRaS form. It can express the location of an event, the person performing the act and many other meanings. If one of the root consonants is labial (p, b, m), the prefix becomes na- (maPRaS > naPRaS). Examples for this are: maškanum (place, location) from ŠKN (set, place, put), mašraḫum (splendour) from ŠRḪ (be splendid), maṣṣarum (guards) from NṢR (guard), napḫarum (sum) from PḪR (summarize). A very similar formation is the maPRaSt form. The noun derived from this nominal formation is grammatically feminine. The same rules as for the maPRaS form apply, for example maškattum (deposit) from ŠKN (set, place, put), narkabtum (carriage) from RKB (ride, drive, mount). The suffix - ūt is used to derive abstract nouns. The nouns which are formed with this suffix are grammatically feminine. The suffix can be attached to nouns, adjectives and verbs, e.g. abūtum (paternity) from abum (father), rabutum (size) from rabum (large), waṣūtum (leaving) from WṢY (leave). Also derivatives of verbs from nouns, adjectives and numerals are numerous. For the most part, a D-stem is derived from the root of the noun or adjective. The derived verb then has the meaning of "make X do something" or "becoming X", for example: duššûm (let sprout) from dišu (grass), šullušum (to do something for the third time ) from šalāš (three). Pronouns[edit] Personal pronouns[edit] Independent personal pronouns[edit] Independent personal pronouns in Akkadian are as follows: Nominative Oblique Dative Person Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural 1st anāku "I" nīnu "we" yāti niāti yāšim niāšim 2nd masculine atta "you" attunu "you" kāti (kāta) kunūti kāšim kunūšim feminine atti "you" attina "you" kāti kināti kāšim kināšim 3rd masculine šū "he" šunu "they" šātilu (šātilu) šunūti šuāšim (šāšim) šunūšim feminine šī "she" šina "they" šiāti (šuāti;šāti) šināti šiāšim (šāšim, šāšim) šināšim Suffixed (or enclitic) pronouns[edit] Suffixed (or enclitic) pronouns (mainly denoting the genitive, accusative and dative) are as follows: Genitive Accusative Dative Person singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural 1st -i, -ya [t5 1] -ni -ni -niāti -am/-nim -niāšim 2nd masculine -ka -kunu -ka -kunūti -kum -kunūšim feminine -ki -kina -ki -kināti -kim -kināšim 3rd masculine -šū -šunu -šū -šunūti -šum -šunūšim feminine -ša -šina -ši -šināti -šim -šināšim ^ -ni is used for the nominative, i.e. following a verb denoting the subject. Demonstrative pronouns[edit] Demonstrative pronouns in Akkadian differ from the Western Semitic variety. The following table shows the Akkadian demonstrative pronouns according to near and far deixis: Deixis Proximal Distal Masc. singular annū "this" ullū "that" Fem. Singular annītu "this" ullītu "that" Masc. plural annūtu "these" ullūtu "those" Fem. plural annātu "these" ullātu "those" Relative pronouns[edit] Relative pronouns in Akkadian are shown in the following table: Nominative Accusative Genitive Masc. singular šu ša ši Fem. Singular šāt šāti Dual šā Masc. plural šūt Fem. plural šāt Unlike plural relative pronouns, singular relative pronouns in Akkadian exhibit full declension for case. However, only the form ša (originally accusative masculine singular) survived, while the other forms disappeared in time. Interrogative pronouns[edit] The following table shows the Interrogative pronouns used in Akkadian: Akkadian English mannu who? mīnū what? ayyu which? Prepositions[edit] Akkadian has prepositions which consist mainly of only one word. For example: ina (in, on, out, through, under), ana (to, for, after, approximately), adi (to), aššu (because of), eli (up, over), ištu/ultu (of, since), mala (in accordance with), itti (also, with). There are, however, some compound prepositions which are combined with ina and ana (e.g. ina maḫar (forwards), ina balu (without), ana ṣēr (up to), ana maḫar (forwards). Regardless of the complexity of the preposition, the following noun is always in the genitive case. Examples: ina bītim (in the house, from the house), ana dummuqim (to do good), itti šarrim (with the king), ana ṣēr mārīšu (up to his son). Numerals[edit] Since numerals are written mostly as a number sign in the cuneiform script, the transliteration of many numerals is not well ascertained yet. Along with the counted noun, the cardinal numerals are in the status absolutus. Because other cases are very rare, the forms of the status rectus are known only by isolated numerals. The numerals 1 and 2 as well as 21–29, 31–39, 41–49 correspond with the counted in the grammatical gender, while the numerals 3–20, 30, 40 and 50 are characterized by polarity of gender, i.e. if the counted noun is masculine, the numeral would be feminine and vice versa. This polarity is typical of the Semitic languages and appears also in classical Arabic for example. The numerals 60, 100 and 1000 do not change according to the gender of the counted noun. Counted nouns more than two appear in the plural form. However, body parts which occur in pairs appear in the dual form in Akkadian. e.g. šepum (foot) becomes šepān (two feet). The ordinals are formed (with a few exceptions) by adding a case ending to the nominal form PaRuS (the P, R and S. must be substituted with the suitable consonants of the numeral). It is noted, however, that in the case of the numeral "one", the ordinal (masculine) and the cardinal number are the same. A metathesis occurs in the numeral "four". Akkadian numbers[30] # Cardinal Congruence Ordinal (masculine) (feminine) (Gender agreement of the cardinal numeral) (masculine) (feminine) (absolute) (free) (absolute) (free) 1 ištēn (ištēnum) išteat, ištēt (ištētum) Congruent (no gender polarity) pānûm maḫrûm (ištīʾum) ištēn pānītum maḫrītum (ištītum) išteat 2 šinā — šittā — Congruent šanûm šanītum 3 šalāšat šalāštum šalāš šalāšum Gender polarity šalšum šaluštum 4 erbet(ti) erbettum erbe, erba erbûm Gender polarity rebûm rebūtum 5 ḫamšat ḫamištum ḫamiš ḫamšum Gender polarity ḫamšum ḫamuštum 6 šeššet šedištum šediš? šeššum Gender polarity šeššum šeduštum 7 sebet(ti) sebettum sebe sebûm Gender polarity sebûm sebūtum 8 samānat samāntum samāne samānûm Gender polarity samnum samuntum 9 tišīt tišītum tiše tišûm Gender polarity tešûm tešūtum 10 eš(e)ret ešertum ešer eš(e)rum Gender polarity ešrum ešurtum 11 ištēššeret ištēššer Gender polarity ištēššerûm ištēššerītum 12 šinšeret šinšer Gender polarity šinšerûm šinšerītum 13 šalāššeret šalāššer Gender polarity šalāššerûm šalāššerītum 14 erbēšeret erbēšer Gender polarity erbēšerûm erbēšerītum 15 ḫamiššeret ḫamiššer Gender polarity ḫamiššerûm ḫamiššerītum 16 šeššeret? šeššer? Gender polarity šeššerûm? šeššerītum? 17 sebēšeret sebēšer Gender polarity sebēšerûm sebēšerītum 18 samāššeret samāššer Gender polarity samāššerûm samāššerītum 19 tišēšeret tišēšer Gender polarity tišēšerûm tišēšerītum 20 ešrā No gender distinction ešrûm ešrītum? 30 šalāšā No gender distinction (as with 20?) 40 erbeā, erbâ No gender distinction (as with 20?) 50 ḫamšā No gender distinction (as with 20?) 60 absolute šūš(i), free šūšum No gender distinction (as with 20?) 100 absolute sg. meat, pl. meât[31] (free meatum) No gender distinction (as with 20?) 600 absolute nēr, free nērum No gender distinction (as with 20?) 1000 absolute līm(i), free līmum No gender distinction (as with 20?) 3600 absolute šār, free šārum No gender distinction (as with 20?) Examples: erbē aššātum (four wives) (masculine numeral), meat ālānū (100 towns). Syntax[edit] Nominal phrases[edit] Adjectives, relative clauses and appositions follow the noun. While numerals precede the counted noun. In the following table the nominal phrase erbēt šarrū dannūtum ša ālam īpušū abūya 'the four strong kings who built the city are my fathers' is analyzed: Word Meaning Analysis Part of the nominal phrase erbēt four feminine (gender polarity) Numeral šarr-ū king nominative plural Noun (Subject) dann-ūtum strong nominative masculine plural Adjective ša which relative pronoun Relative clause āl-am city accusative singular īpuš-ū built 3rd person masculine plural ab-ū-ya my fathers masculine plural + possessive pronoun Apposition Sentence syntax[edit] Akkadian sentence order was Subject+Object+Verb (SOV), which sets it apart from most other ancient Semitic languages such as Arabic and Biblical Hebrew, which typically have a verb–subject–object (VSO) word order. (Modern South Semitic languages in Ethiopia also have SOV order, but these developed within historical times from the classical verb–subject–object (VSO) language Ge'ez.) It has been hypothesized that this word order was a result of influence from the Sumerian language, which was also SOV. There is evidence that native speakers of both languages were in intimate language contact, forming a single society for at least 500 years, so it is entirely likely that a sprachbund could have formed.[32] Further evidence of an original VSO or SVO ordering can be found in the fact that direct and indirect object pronouns are suffixed to the verb. Word order seems to have shifted to SVO/VSO late in the 1st millennium BC to the 1st millennium AD, possibly under the influence of Aramaic. Vocabulary[edit] The Akkadian vocabulary is mostly of Semitic origin. Although classified as 'East Semitic', many elements of its basic vocabulary find no evident parallels in related Semitic languages. For example: māru 'son' (Semitic *bn), qātu 'hand' (Semitic *yd), šēpu 'foot' (Semitic *rgl), qabû 'say' (Semitic *qwl), izuzzu 'stand' (Semitic *qwm), ana 'to, for' (Semitic *li). Due to extensive contact with Sumerian and Aramaic, the Akkadian vocabulary contains many loan words from these languages. Aramaic loan words, however, were limited to the 1st centuries of the 1st millennium BC and primarily in the north and middle parts of Mesopotamia, whereas Sumerian loan words were spread in the whole linguistic area. Beside the previous languages, some nouns were borrowed from Hurrian, Kassite, Ugaritic and other ancient languages. Since Sumerian and Hurrian, two non-Semitic languages, differ from Akkadian in word structure, only nouns and some adjectives (not many verbs) were borrowed from these languages. However, some verbs were borrowed (along with many nouns) from Aramaic and Ugaritic, both of which are Semitic languages. The following table contains examples of loan words in Akkadian: Akkadian Meaning Source Word in the language of origin dû hill Sumerian du erēqu flee Aramaic ʿRQ (root) gadalû dressed in linen Sumerian gada lá isinnu firmly Sumerian ezen kasulatḫu a device of copper Hurrian kasulatḫ- kisallu court Sumerian kisal laqāḫu take Ugaritic LQḤ(root) paraššannu part of horse riding gear Hurrian paraššann- purkullu stone cutter Sumerian bur-gul qaṭālu kill Aramaic QṬL (root) uriḫullu conventional penalty Hurrian uriḫull- Akkadian was also a source of borrowing to other languages, above all Sumerian. Some examples are: Sumerian da-ri ('lastingly', from Akkadian dāru), Sumerian ra gaba ('riders, messenger', from Akkadian rākibu). Sample text[edit] The following is the 7th section of the Hammurabi law code, written in the mid-18th century BC: šumma if awīl-um man-NOM lū or kasp-am silver-ACC lū or ḫurāṣ-am gold-ACC lū or ward-am slave-M.ACC lū or amt-am slave-F.ACC šumma awīl-um lū kasp-am lū ḫurāṣ-am lū ward-am lū amt-am if man-NOM or silver-ACC or gold-ACC or slave-M.ACC or slave-F.ACC lū or alp-am cattle/oxen-ACC lū or immer-am sheep-ACC lū or imēr-am donkey-ACC ū and lū or mimma šumšu something ina from lū alp-am lū immer-am lū imēr-am ū lū {mimma šumšu} ina or cattle/oxen-ACC or sheep-ACC or donkey-ACC and or something from qāt hand-CONST mār son-CONST awīl-im man-GEN ū and lū or warad slave-CONST awīl-im man-GEN balum without šīb-ī witnesses-GEN u and qāt mār awīl-im ū lū warad awīl-im balum šīb-ī u hand-CONST son-CONST man-GEN and or slave-CONST man-GEN without witnesses-GEN and riks-ātim contracts-GEN i-štām-Ø bought-3.SG.PERF ū and lū or ana for maṣṣārūt-im safekeeping-GEN i-mḫur-Ø received-3.SG.PRET riks-ātim i-štām-Ø ū lū ana maṣṣārūt-im i-mḫur-Ø contracts-GEN bought-3.SG.PERF and or for safekeeping-GEN received-3.SG.PRET awīl-um man-NOM šū he-3.M.SG šarrāq stealer-ABS i-ddāk is_killed-3.SG.PASS-PRS awīl-um šū šarrāq i-ddāk man-NOM he-3.M.SG stealer-ABS is_killed-3.SG.PASS-PRS Translation: If a man has bought silver or gold, a male or a female slave, an ox, a sheep, or a donkey—or anything for that matter— from another man or from another man’s slave without witnesses or contract, or if he accepted something for safekeeping without same, then this man is a thief and hence to be killed. Akkadian literature[edit] Asia portal Main article: Akkadian literature Atrahasis Epic (early 2nd millennium BC) Enûma Elish (c. 18th century BC) Amarna letters (14th century BC) Epic of Gilgamesh (Sin-liqe-unninni', Standard Babylonian version, 13th to 11th century BC) Ludlul Bel Nemeqi Notes[edit] ^ Black, Jeremy A.; George, Andrew; Postgate, J. N. (2000-01-01). A Concise Dictionary of Akkadian. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 10. ISBN 9783447042642. ^ a b c d e f John Huehnergard & Christopher Woods, "Akkadian and Eblaite", The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages. Ed. Roger D. Woodard (2004, Cambridge) Pages 218-280 ^ John Huehnergard and Christopher Woods, "Akkadian and Eblaite", in Roger D. Woodard, ed., The Ancient Languages of Mesopotamia, Egypt and Aksum, Cambridge University Press, 2008, p.83 ^ Deutscher, Guy (2007). Syntactic Change in Akkadian: The Evolution of Sentential Complementation. Oxford University Press US. pp. 20–21. ISBN 978-0-19-953222-3. ^ [1] Andrew George, "Babylonian and Assyrian: A History of Akkadian", In: Postgate, J. N., (ed.), Languages of Iraq, Ancient and Modern. London: British School of Archaeology in Iraq, pp. 37. ^ Geller, Markham Judah (1997). "The Last Wedge". Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archäologie. 87 (1): 43–95. doi:10.1515/zava.1997.87.1.43. S2CID 161968187. ^ Müller-Kessler, Christa (July 20, 2009). "Mandaeans v. Mandaic Language". Encyclopædia Iranica (online 2012 ed.). Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasitische Archäologie 86 (1997): 43–95. ^ E. Bilgic and S Bayram, Ankara Kultepe Tabletleri II, Turk Tarih Kurumu Basimevi, 1995, ISBN 975-16-0246-7 ^ Krejci, Jaroslav (1990). Before the European Challenge: The Great Civilizations of Asia and the Middle East. SUNY Press. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-7914-0168-2. ^ Mémoires. Mission archéologique en Iran. 1900. p. 53. ^ Caplice, p.5 (1980) ^ Bertman, Stephen (2003). Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Oxford University Press. p. 94. ISBN 978-019-518364-1. Retrieved 16 May 2015. ^ K. R. Veenhof, Ankara Kultepe Tabletleri V, Turk Tarih Kurumu, 2010, ISBN 978-975-16-2235-8 ^ Hunger, Hermann; de Jong, Teije (30 January 2014). "Almanac W22340a From Uruk: The Latest Datable Cuneiform Tablet". Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie. 104 (2). doi:10.1515/za-2014-0015. S2CID 163700758. ^ Walker, C. B. F. (1987). Cuneiform. Reading the Past. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-520-06115-6. ^ Bae, Chul-hyun (2004). "Aramaic as a Lingua Franca During the Persian Empire (538-333 B.C.E.)". Journal of Universal Language. 5: 1–20. doi:10.22425/jul.2004.5.1.1. Retrieved 2018-12-20. ^ John Huehnergard & Christopher Woods, 2004 "Akkadian and Eblaite", The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages, pg. 218. ^ Hebblethwaite, Cordelia (2011-06-14). "Dictionary 90 years in the making". BBC News. ^ THUREAU-DANGIN, F. (1911). "Notes Assyriologiques". Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archéologie orientale. 8 (3): 138–141. ISSN 0373-6032. JSTOR 23284567. ^ "Site officiel du musée du Louvre". cartelfr.louvre.fr. ^ Hetzron, Robert. The Semitic Languages. ^ Kogan, Leonid (2011). "Proto-Semitic Phonetics and Phonology". In Semitic languages: an international handbook, Stefan Weninger, ed. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. p. 68. ^ Hendrik, Jagersma, Abraham (2010-11-04). "A descriptive grammar of Sumerian". openaccess.leidenuniv.nl. p. 46. Retrieved 2015-11-20. ^ Sabatino Moscati et al. "An Introduction to Comparative Grammar of Semitic Languages Phonology and Morphology". (section on vowels and semi-vowels) ^ Huehnergard & Woods. "Akkadian and Eblaite". www.academia.edu: 233. Retrieved 2015-11-19. ^ Haubold, Johannes (2013). Greece and Mesopotamia: Dialogues in Literature. Cambridge University Press. p. 135. ISBN 9781107010765. ^ Andrade, Nathanael J. (2013). Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World. Cambridge University Press. p. 46. ISBN 9781107244566. ^ "Antiochus cylinder". British Museum. ^ Wallis Budge, Ernest Alfred (1884). Babylonian Life and History. Religious Tract Society. p. 94. ^ Huehnergard, 3rd ed., §23.2 ^ E.g. šalāš meât '300' ^ Deutscher 2000, p. 21. Sources[edit] Aro, Jussi (1957). Studien zur mittelbabylonischen Grammatik. Studia Orientalia 22. Helsinki: Societas Orientalis Fennica. Buccellati, Giorgio (1996). A Structural Grammar of Babylonian. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. Buccellati, Giorgio (1997). "Akkadian," The Semitic Languages. Ed. Robert Hetzron. New York: Routledge. Pages 69–99. Bussmann, Hadumod (1996). Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-20319-8 Caplice, Richard (1980). Introduction to Akkadian. Rome: Biblical Institute Press. (1983: ISBN 88-7653-440-7; 1988, 2002: ISBN 88-7653-566-7) (The 1980 edition is partly available online.) Dolgopolsky, Aron (1999). From Proto-Semitic to Hebrew. Milan: Centro Studi Camito-Semitici di Milano. Deutscher, G. (2000). Syntactic Change in Akkadian: The Evolution of Sentential Complementation. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-154483-5. Retrieved 2018-08-26. Gelb, I.J. (1961). Old Akkadian Writing and Grammar. Second edition. Materials for the Assyrian Dictionary 2. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Huehnergard, John (2005). A Grammar of Akkadian (Second Edition). Eisenbrauns. ISBN 1-57506-922-9 Marcus, David (1978). A Manual of Akkadian. University Press of America. ISBN 0-8191-0608-9 Mercer, Samuel A B (1961). Introductory Assyrian Grammar. New York: F Ungar. ISBN 0-486-42815-X Sabatino Moscati (1980). An Introduction to Comparative Grammar of Semitic Languages Phonology and Morphology. Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-00689-7. Soden, Wolfram von (1952). Grundriss der akkadischen Grammatik. Analecta Orientalia 33. Roma: Pontificium Institutum Biblicum. (3rd ed., 1995: ISBN 88-7653-258-7) Woodard, Roger D. The Ancient Languages of Mesopotamia, Egypt and Aksum. Cambridge University Press 2008. ISBN 978-0-521-68497-2 Further reading[edit] General description and grammar[edit] Gelb, I. J. (1961). Old Akkadian writing and grammar. Materials for the Assyrian dictionary, no. 2. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-62304-1 Hasselbach, Rebecca. Sargonic Akkadian: A Historical and Comparative Study of the Syllabic Texts. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag 2005. ISBN 978-3-447-05172-9 Huehnergard, J. A Grammar of Akkadian (3rd ed. 2011). Harvard Semitic Museum Studies 45. ISBN 978-1-57506-922-7[2](requires login) Huehnergard, J. (2005). A Key to A Grammar of Akkadian . Harvard Semitic Studies. Eisenbrauns.[3](requires login) Soden, Wolfram von: Grundriß der Akkadischen Grammatik. Analecta Orientalia. Bd 33. Rom 1995. ISBN 88-7653-258-7 Streck, Michael P. Sprachen des Alten Orients. Wiss. Buchges., Darmstadt 2005. ISBN 3-534-17996-X Ungnad, Arthur: Grammatik des Akkadischen. Neubearbeitung durch L. Matouš, München 1969, 1979 (5. Aufl.). ISBN 3-406-02890-X Woodard, Roger D. The Ancient Languages of Mesopotamia, Egypt and Aksum. Cambridge University Press 2008. ISBN 978-0-521-68497-2 Ikeda, Jun. Early Japanese and Early Akkadian Writing Systems. University of Tsukuba. 2007[4] Textbooks[edit] Rykle Borger: Babylonisch-assyrische Lesestücke. Rom 1963.(3., revidierte Auflage, 2006 Teil. I-II) Part I: Elemente der Grammatik und der Schrift. Übungsbeispiele. Glossar. Part II: Die Texte in Umschrift. Part III: Kommentar. Die Texte in Keilschrift. Richard Caplice: Introduction to Akkadian. Biblical Institute Press, Rome 1988, 2002 (4.Aufl.). ISBN 88-7653-566-7 Kaspar K. Riemschneider: Lehrbuch des Akkadischen. Enzyklopädie, Leipzig 1969, Langenscheidt Verl. Enzyklopädie, Leipzig 1992 (6. Aufl.). ISBN 3-324-00364-4 Martin Worthington: "Complete Babylonian: Teach Yourself" London 2010 ISBN 0-340-98388-4 Dictionaries[edit] Jeremy G. Black, Andrew George, Nicholas Postgate: A Concise Dictionary of Akkadian. Harrassowitz-Verlag, Wiesbaden 2000. ISBN 3-447-04264-8 Wolfram von Soden: Akkadisches Handwörterbuch. 3 Bde. Wiesbaden 1958–1981. ISBN 3-447-02187-X Martha T. Roth, ed.: The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. 21 vols. in 26. Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, Chicago 1956–2010. (available free online) Akkadian cuneiform[edit] Cherry, A. (2003). A basic neo-Assyrian cuneiform syllabary. Toronto, Ont: Ashur Cherry, York University. Cherry, A. (2003). Basic individual logograms (Akkadian). Toronto, Ont: Ashur Cherry, York University. Rykle Borger: Mesopotamisches Zeichenlexikon. Alter Orient und Altes Testament (AOAT). Bd 305. Ugarit-Verlag, Münster 2004. ISBN 3-927120-82-0 René Labat: Manuel d'Épigraphie Akkadienne. Paul Geuthner, Paris 1976, 1995 (6.Aufl.). ISBN 2-7053-3583-8 Translations[edit] Shin Shifra, Jacob Klein (1996). In Those Far Days. Tel Aviv, Am Oved and The Israeli Center for Libraries' project for translating Exemplary Literature to Hebrew. This is an anthology of Sumerian and Akkadian poetry, translated into Hebrew. Technical literature on specific subjects[edit] Ignace J. Gelb: Old Akkadian Writing and Grammar. Materials for the Assyrian dictionary. Bd 2. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1952, 1961, 1973. ISBN 0-226-62304-1 ISSN 0076-518X Markus Hilgert: Akkadisch in der Ur III-Zeit. Rhema-Verlag, Münster 2002. ISBN 3-930454-32-7 Walter Sommerfeld: Bemerkungen zur Dialektgliederung Altakkadisch, Assyrisch und Babylonisch. In: Alter Orient und Altes Testament (AOAT). Ugarit-Verlag, Münster 274.2003. ISSN 0931-4296 External links[edit] Akkadian language test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator Wikimedia Commons has media related to Akkadian language. Akkadian language repository of Wikisource, the free library For a list of words relating to Akkadian language, see the Akkadian language category of words in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Introduction to Cuneiform Script and the Akkadian language on The Open Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus (Oracc) Akkadian cuneiform on Omniglot (Writing Systems and Languages of the World) Wilford, John Noble (7 June 2011). "After 90 Years, a Dictionary of an Ancient World". The New York Times. p. 2. Akkadian Language Samples A detailed introduction to Akkadian Assyrian grammar with chrestomathy and glossary (1921) by Samuel A B Mercer Akkadian-English-French Online Dictionary Old Babylonian Text Corpus (includes dictionary) The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago (CAD) Old Akkadian Writing and Grammar, by I. J. Gelb, 2nd Ed. (1961) Glossary of Old Akkadian, by I. J. Gelb (1957) List of 1280 Akkadian roots, with a representative verb form for each Recordings of Assyriologists Reading Babylonian and Assyrian Unicode Fonts for Ancient Scripts and Akkadian font for Ubuntu Linux-based operating system (ttf-ancient-fonts) The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago (CAD) Akkadian in the wiki Glossing Ancient Languages (recommendations for the Interlinear Morphemic Glossing of Akkadian texts) v t e Ancient Mesopotamia Geography Modern Euphrates Upper Mesopotamia Mesopotamian Marshes Persian Gulf Syrian Desert Taurus Mountains Tigris Zagros Mountains Ancient Akkad Assyria Babylonia Chaldea Elam Hittites Media Mitanni Sumer Urartu Cities History Pre- / Protohistory Acheulean Mousterian Trialetian Zarzian Natufian Nemrikian Khiamian Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) Hassuna/Samarra Halaf Ubaid Uruk Jemdet Nasr Kish civilization History Early Dynastic Akkadian Gutians Simurrum Ur III Isin-Larsa Old Babylonian Kassite Middle Babylonian Neo-Assyrian Neo-Babylonian Achaemenid Seleucid Parthian Roman Sasanian Muslim conquest Timeline of the Assyrian Empire Hakkari Languages Akkadian Amorite Aramaic Eblaite Elamite Gutian Hittite Hurrian Luwian Middle Persian Old Persian Parthian Proto-Armenian Sumerian Urartian Culture / Society Architecture Art Cuneiform Akkadian literature Sumerian literature Music Religion Indus-Mesopotamia relations Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Royal titles Archaeology Looting Destruction by ISIL Tell v t e Semitic languages East Semitic languages Akkadian Eblaite West Semitic and Central Semitic languages Northwest Canaanite Hebrew Biblical Mishnaic Medieval Mizrahi Yemenite Sephardi Ashkenazi Samaritan Modern Phoenician Punic Others Ammonite Moabite Edomite Aramaic Western Jewish Palestinian Samaritan Christian Palestinian Nabataean Palmyrene Western Neo-Aramaic Eastern Biblical Hatran Syriac Jewish Babylonian Aramaic Chaldean Neo-Aramaic Assyrian Neo-Aramaic Senaya Koy Sanjaq Surat Hértevin Turoyo Mlahsô Mandaic Judeo-Aramaic Syriac Malayalam Others Ancient North Arabian Dadanitic Taymanitic Amorite Ugaritic Eteocypriot Himyaritic Sutean Arabic Literary Arabic Classical Modern Standard Dialects Mashriqi (Eastern) Arabian Peninsular Dhofari Gulf Bahrani Kuwaiti Shihhi Hejazi Najdi Omani Yemeni Judeo-Yemeni Bedouin Eastern Egyptian and Peninsular Bedawi Others Egyptian Sa'idi Arabic Levantine Cypriot Lebanese Palestinian Mesopotamian North Mesopotamian Judeo-Iraqi Sudanese Central Asian Tajiki Uzbeki Shirvani Maghrebi (Western) Algerian Saharan Shuwa Hassānīya Andalusian Libyan Arabic Judeo-Tripolitanian Sicilian Maltese Moroccan Arabic Judeo-Moroccan Tunisian Arabic Judeo-Tunisian Others Old Arabic Nabataean Arabic Pre-Classical Arabic South Semitic languages Western South Old South Razihi Faifi Sabaean Minaean Qatabanian Awsānian Hadramautic Ethiopic North Ge'ez Tigrinya Tigre Dahalik South Amharic Argobba Harari Silt'e (Wolane, Ulbareg, Inneqor) Zay Outer n-group Gafat Soddo tt-group Mesmes Muher West Gurage Mesqan Ezha Chaha Gura Gumer Gyeto Ennemor Endegen Modern South Arabian Bathari Harsusi Hobyot Mehri Shehri Soqotri Italics indicate extinct languages, excluding liturgical languages. 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en-wikipedia-org-5337	----	Sneferu - Wikipedia Sneferu From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the Egyptian pharaoh. For the cryptographic hash function, see Snefru. Pharaoh and founder of the 4th dynasty of Ancient Egypt Sneferu Snefru, Seneferu, Snofru, Soris Limestone statue of Sneferu, Egyptian Museum Pharaoh Reign 24, 30 or 48 years[1] c. 2600 BC (Fourth Dynasty) Predecessor Huni[2] Successor Khufu Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Snefru Snfr.w ""He has perfected me" Alternative spelling: Horus name Hor-Nebmaat Ḥr-nb-mꜣꜥt "Horus, Lord of the Maat" Second Horus name: Hor-Nebmaat Snefru Ḥr-nb-mꜣꜥt-snfr-wj "Horus, Lord of Maat, has perfected me" Nebty name Nisut Bity Nebmaat Nebty Nsw.t-bty-nbt.j-nb-mꜣꜥt "King of Upper and Lower Egypt, he of the two ladies, Lord of the Maat" Golden Horus Bik-nebu Bjk-nb.w "Golden Falcon" Abydos King List Snefru snfr-wj "He has perfected me" Saqqara Tablet Snefru snfr-wj "He has perfected me" Turin King List Snefer... S.nfr... "He has perfected..." [3] Consort Hetepheres I Children Khufu, Ankhhaf, Kanefer, Nefermaat, Netjeraperef, Rahotep, Ranefer, Iynefer I, Hetepheres A, Nefertkau I, Nefertnesu, Meritites I, Henutsen Mother Meresankh I Burial Red Pyramid ? Monuments Meidum Pyramid, Bent Pyramid, Red Pyramid Sneferu (snfr-wj "He has perfected me", from Ḥr-nb-mꜣꜥt-snfr-wj "Horus, Lord of Maat, has perfected me", also read Snefru or Snofru),[4] well known under his Hellenized name Soris (Koinē Greek: Σῶρις by Manetho), was the founding pharaoh of the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt during the Old Kingdom. Estimates of his reign vary, with for instance The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt suggesting a reign from around 2613 to 2589 BC,[5] a reign of 24 years, while Rolf Krauss suggests a 30-year reign,[6] and Rainer Stadelmann a 48-year reign.[7] He built at least three pyramids that survive to this day and introduced major innovations in the design and construction of pyramids. Contents 1 Reign length 2 Family and succession 2.1 Children 3 Building projects 4 Foreign relations 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading Reign length[edit] Detail of a relief showing Sneferu wearing the white robe of the Sed-festival, from his funerary temple of Dahshur and now on display at the Egyptian Museum The 24-year Turin Canon figure for Sneferu's reign is considered today to be an underestimate since this king's highest-known date is an inscription discovered at the Red Pyramid of Dahshur and mentioning Sneferu's 24th cattle count, corresponding to at least 24 full years.[8] Sneferu, however, was known to have a minimum of at least three years after the cattle count dates: his years after the 10th, the 13th and the 18th count are attested at his Meidum pyramid.[9] This would mean that Sneferu ruled Egypt a minimum of 27 full years. However, in the Palermo Stone, recto 6 at the bottom of the fragment shows the year of the 7th count of Sneferu while recto 7 on the same following row shows the year of the 8th count of Sneferu.[10] Significantly, there is a previous mostly intact column for Sneferu in recto 5 which also mentions events in this king's reign in a specific year but does not mention the previous (6th) year.[11] This column must, therefore, be dated to the year after the 6th count of Sneferu. Hence, Sneferu's reign would be a minimum of 28 years. Since there are many periods in Sneferu's reigns for which Egyptologists have few dates—only the years of the 2nd, 7th, 8th, 12th, 13th, 14th, 15th, 16th, 17th, 18th, 23rd and 24th count are known for Sneferu before one considers the years after his cattle counts[12]—this pharaoh is most likely to have had a reign in excess of 30 years to manage to build three pyramids in his long rule but not 48 years since the cattle count was not regularly biannual during his kingship. (There are fewer years after the count dates known for Sneferu compared to year of the count or census dates.) Family and succession[edit] See also: Fourth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Cartouche name Sneferu in the Abydos King List Sneferu was the first king of the Fourth Dynasty of ancient Egypt, who according to Manetho reigned for 24 years (2613–2589 BC). Manetho was an Egyptian priest, living in the third century BC, who categorized the pharaohs of dynastic Egypt into thirty-one dynasties.[13] Though his schematic has its flaws, nevertheless, modern scholars conventionally follow his method of grouping. The Papyrus Prisse, a Middle Kingdom source, supports the fact that King Huni was indeed Sneferu's predecessor. It states that "the majesty of the king of Upper and Lower Egypt, Huni, came to the landing place (i.e., died), and the majesty of the king of Upper and Lower Egypt, Sneferu, was raised up as a beneficent king in this entire land..."[14] Aside from Sneferu's succession, we learn from this text that later generations considered him to be a "beneficent" ruler. This idea may stem from the etymology of the king's name, for it can be interpreted as the infinitive "to make beautiful".[15] It is uncertain whether Huni was Sneferu's father; however, the Cairo Annals Stone denotes that his mother may have been a woman named Meresankh.[16] Hetepheres I was Sneferu's main wife and the mother of Khufu,[17] the builder of the Great Pyramid on the Giza Plateau. Children[edit] Sons of Sneferu: Khufu – son of Sneferu and Hetepheres I, successor to Sneferu. Ankhhaf – King's Son of his Body, King's vizier (under his nephew Khafre). Buried in G 7510. A famous bust of Ankhhaf is now in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. Ankhhaf was married to the King's Daughter Hetepheres.[18] Kanefer – King's eldest son and Son of his Body. Buried in tomb 28 in Dashur. Second Vizier of Sneferu, who continued to serve under Khufu.[19] Nefermaat I – eldest son of Sneferu and husband of Itet. Titles included: Priest of Bastet, Hereditary Prince, Guardian of Nekhen, great one of the five at the house of Thoth. First Vizier of Sneferu.[19] Netjeraperef, buried in Dashur.[20] Rahotep – King's Son of his Body, High Priest of Re in Heliopolis. Buried in Meidum with his wife Nofret. Owner of the famous statues now in the Cairo Museum.[20] Ranefer. Buried in Meidum.[20] Iynefer I. Buried in Dashur.[21] Daughters of Sneferu: Hetepheres A, married Ankhhaf. She was named after her mother, Queen Hetepheres. Nefertkau I – King's Daughter of his Body, eldest daughter of Sneferu. Buried in mastaba G 7050 at Giza. Her tomb dates to the time of Khafra. In the tomb Sneferu is mentioned as well as Nefertkau's son Nefermaat II and her grandson Sneferukhaf.[22][23] Nefertnesu – King's daughter, God's Daughter. Had a son named Kaemqed who is known from a false door. He was buried in Dashur during the 5th dynasty.[22] Meritites I, Great of Sceptre and King's Wife, married to her brother Khufu.[22] Henutsen – King's daughter, married to Khufu.[17] Building projects[edit] The Meidum pyramid Sneferu Pyramid waste limestone block. Hole in bottom, used as pivot block on which to turn heavy levers in moving stones. 4th Dynasty. From Meidum, Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London The most well known monuments from Sneferu's reign are the three pyramids he is considered to have built in Dahshur: the Bent Pyramid, the Red Pyramid and the Meidum pyramid. Under Sneferu, there was a major evolution in monumental pyramid structures, which would lead to Khufu's Great Pyramid, which would be seen as the pinnacle of the Egyptian Old Kingdom's majesty and splendour, and as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The first of Sneferu's massive undertakings is the Pyramid at Meidum. There is some debate among scholars as to Sneferu's claim to the Meidum pyramid, and many credit its origin to King Huni. Nonetheless, the pyramid is a remarkable example of the progression of technology and ideology surrounding the king's burial site. The immense stone structure serves as physical testimony to the transition from the stepped pyramid structure to that of a "true" pyramid structure. Archaeological investigations of the pyramid show that it was first conceived as a seven-stepped structure, built in a similar manner to the Djoser complex at Saqqara. Modifications later were made to add another platform, and at an even later stage limestone facing was added to create the smooth, angled finish characteristic of a "true" pyramid.[24] Complete with a descending northern passage, two underground chambers, and a burial vault, the pyramid mainly follows the conventions of previous tombs in most aspects other than one: instead of being situated underneath the colossal structure, the burial chamber is built directly within the main body albeit very near ground level.[25] Sneferu's Bent Pyramid at Dahshur The Bent Pyramid, also known as the Rhomboidal or Blunted Pyramid, attests to an even greater increase in architectural innovations. As the name suggests, the angle of the inclination changes from 55° to about 43° in the upper levels of the pyramid. It is likely that the pyramid initially was not designed to be built this way, but was modified during construction due to unstable accretion layers. As a means of stabilising the structure, the top layers were laid horizontally, marking the abandonment of the step pyramid concept.[26] The internal components of the Rhomboidal pyramid have also evolved. There are two entrances, one from the north and another from the west. The subterranean chambers are much larger, and distinguished by corbel walls and ceilings with more complex diagonal portcullis systems in place. J.P Lepre asserts: It is apparent that with the interior design of the Bent Pyramid the architect was groping and experimenting, taking maximum advantage of the huge volume of the monument (50 million cubic feet), the largest pyramid constructed to that date.[27] The satellite pyramid complementing Sneferu's Bent Pyramid introduces more change in the architecture of the time, when the passageway is built ascending westward (as opposed to the conventionally descending northward direction of the passages of previously build pyramids) towards the burial chambers.[28] Egypt decided to open the Bent Pyramid for tourism in July 2019 for the first time since 1965. Tourists will be able to reach two 4600-year-old chambers through a 79-meter narrow tunnel built from the northern entrance of the pyramid. 18-meter-high "side pyramid", which is assumed that have been built for Sneferu's wife Hetepheres will also be accessible. It is the first time for this adjacent pyramid opened to the public after its excavation in 1956.[29][30][31][32][33] The Red Pyramid of Sneferu With the increase of innovation in Sneferu's building projects, one expects that his last pyramid, the Red Pyramid, will show the greatest complexity and change in architecture yet. Upon first glance, one may be disappointed seeing that the construction of the Red Pyramid seemingly is simpler than its predecessor. Lepre points out that some of the internal innovations that the previous pyramids boast seem to be missing in the king's last monument. Although the chambers and burial vaults are all present in the monument's main body, no ascending passageway has been excavated, nor is there evidence of a western entrance or diagonal portcullis. Although the absence of these features have dissuaded many archaeologists from further studying the Red Pyramid, Lepre is convinced that there are secret chambers waiting to be uncovered within the stone superstructure. Considering that the remains of King Sneferu have not yet been found, it still may be possible that his sarcophagus and mummy lie hidden in his mysterious last structure. Lepre claims: "the Red pyramid remains one of the chief pyramids that may possibly contain secret chambers, not the least of which may be the true burial chamber of King Sneferu himself."[34] Whether or not this conjecture is true is left to modern archaeologists to determine. Sneferu's architectural innovations served as a catalyst for later pyramid builders to build on. The first king of the fourth dynasty set a challenging precedent for his successors to match, and only Khufu's Great Pyramid can rival Sneferu's accomplishments. As time progressed and ideology changed in Ancient Egypt, the monuments of the kings decreased greatly in size. As the Pyramid of Menkaure is only a fraction of the size of the previous pyramids, the focus of Egyptian ideology might have shifted from the worship of the king to the direct worship of the sun god, Ra.[35] Foreign relations[edit] To enable Sneferu to undertake such massive building projects, he would have had to secure an extensive store of labour and materials. According to Guillemette Andreu, this is where the king's foreign policy played a large part. Sneferu's conquests into Libya and Nubia served two purposes: the first goal was to establish an extensive labour force, and the second goal was to gain access to the raw materials and special products that were available in these countries.[35] This is alluded to in the Palermo Stone: "[Reign of] Sneferu. Year ... The building of Tuataua ships of mer wood of a hundred capacity, and 60 royal boats of sixteen capacity. Raid in the Land of the Blacks, and the bringing in of seven thousand prisoners, men and women, and twenty thousand cattle, sheep, and goats... The bringing of forty ships of cedar wood (or perhaps "laden with cedar wood")..."[36] Reused building materials found at the pyramid complex of Amenemhat I that are thought originally to have been a depiction of the Sed festival for Sneferu  According to this inscription, Sneferu was able to capture large numbers of people from other nations, make them his prisoners and then add them into his labour force. During his raids into Nubia and Libya, he also captured cattle for the sustenance of his massive labour force. Such incursions must have been incredibly devastating to the populations of the raided countries, and it is suggested that the campaigns into Nubia may have contributed to the dissemination of the A-Group culture of that region. Sneferu's military efforts in ancient Libya led to the capture of 11,000 prisoners and 13,100 head of cattle.[37] Aside from the extensive import of cedar (most likely from Lebanon) described above, there is evidence of activity in the turquoise mines on the Sinai Peninsula.[38] There would also have been large-scale quarrying projects to provide Sneferu with the stone he needed for his pyramids. Sneferu's ancient cedar wood ship Praise of the Two Lands is the first known instance of a ship being referred to by name.[39] See also[edit] List of Egyptian pyramids List of megalithic sites 4906 Seneferu, a minor planet named for the pharaoh References[edit] ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, page 278–279 ^ A. Dodson & D. Hilton, The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, Thames and Hudson Ltd: London, 2004. ^ Alan H. Gardiner: The royal canon of Turin ^ Homs, George. "Snefru . Pharaoh of Egypt (± 2620-± 2547) » Stamboom Homs » Genealogie Online". Genealogie Online. Retrieved 2019-03-05. ^ Jaromir Malek in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, p.87 ^ Krauss, Rolf (1996). "The length of Sneferu's reign and how long it took to build the 'Red Pyramid'". Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 82: 43–50. JSTOR 3822113. ^ Rainer Stadelmann: Beiträge zur Geschichte des Alten Reiches: Die Länge der Regierung des Snofru. In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Institutes Kairo (MDAIK), Vol. 43. von Zabern, Mainz 1987, ISSN 0342-1279, p. 229–240. ^ Miroslav Verner, Archaeological Remarks on the 4th and 5th Dynasty Chronology", Archiv Orientální. vol. 69, Praha 2001, page 367 ^ Verner, pp.367 ^ H. Schäfer, Ein Bruchstück altägyptischer Annalen, 1902 (APAW: Phil.-hist Kl. 4) 30-31 ^ see Christine Hobson, Exploring the World of the Pharaohs:A Complete Guide to Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson paperback, 1993, p.15 ^ Verner, pp.365-367 ^ An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt, pg. 36 ^ "The Instructions of Kagemni," Papyrus Prisse ^ The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, pg. 93 ^ The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, pg. 51 ^ a b The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, pg. 57 ^ Porter and Moss, Topographical Bibliography of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphic Texts, Reliefs, and Paintings; Part III. ^ a b Nicolas-Christophe Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, pg 68 ^ a b c The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, pg. 61 ^ The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, pg. 58 ^ a b c The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, pg. 60 ^ Porter and Moss, Topographical Bibliography of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphic Texts, Reliefs, and Paintings; Part III; ^ An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt, pg.134 ^ The Egyptian Pyramids... pg. 51 ^ An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt, pg.135 ^ The Egyptian Pyramids... pg. 53 ^ The Egyptian Pyramids... pg. 53-54 ^ Reuters (2019-07-14). "'Bent' pyramid: Egypt opens ancient oddity for tourism". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2019-07-15. ^ "Egypt opens Sneferu's 'Bent' Pyramid in Dahshur to public". Reuters. 2019-07-13. Retrieved 2019-07-15. ^ "Egyptian 'bent' pyramid dating back 4,600 years opens to public". The Independent. 2019-07-13. Retrieved 2019-07-15. ^ "Egypt's 4,600yo Bent Pyramid opens to the public after more than half a century". ABC News. 2019-07-14. Retrieved 2019-07-15. ^ "Egypt's Bent Pyramid opens to visitors". 2019-07-13. Retrieved 2019-07-15. ^ The Egyptian Pyramids... pg. 54 ^ a b An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt, pg. 144 ^ The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians, Pg. 100 (emphasis added) ^ Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Pg. 107 ^ The Complete Royal Families, Pg. 50 ^ Anzovin, item # 5393, page 385 "Reference to a ship with a name appears in an inscription of 2613 BCE that recounts the shipbuilding achievements of the fourth-dynasty Egyptian pharaoh Sneferu. He was recorded as the builder of a cedarwood vessel called 'Praise of the Two Lands.'" Further reading[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Seneferu. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Meidum Pyramid. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Red Pyramid. Anzovin, Steven et al., Famous First Facts (International Edition), H. W. Wilson Company, 2000, ISBN 0-8242-0958-3 Andreu, Guillemette. Egypt in the Age of the Pyramids. Cornell University Press: Ithaca, 1997. Bard, A. Kathryn. An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. Blackwell Publishing Ltd: Malden, 2008. Budge, Wallis. The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians. The Project Gutenberg. November 16, 2008 https://www.gutenberg.org/files/15932/15932-h/15932-h.htm#Pg_100 Lepre, J.P. The Egyptian Pyramids, A Comprehensive Illustrated Reference. McFarland & Company: London, 1990. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Ed. Aidan Dodson & Dylan Hilton. Thames and Hudson Ltd: London, 2004. "The Instruction of Kagemni." Ancient Egyptian Books of Wisdom. November 16, 2008, https://web.archive.org/web/20081013115157/http://egypt.thetao.info/kagemni.htm The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Ed. Ian Shaw. Oxford University Press: Oxford, 2000 v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 122482956 ISNI: 0000 0000 8234 1386 LCCN: n86127181 VIAF: 53177422 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n86127181 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sneferu&oldid=999187292" Categories: Sneferu 27th-century BC Pharaohs 26th-century BC Pharaohs 26th-century BC deaths Pharaohs of the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt 27th-century BC rulers Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Koinē Greek-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Commons category link is locally defined Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia 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en-wikipedia-org-5341	----	Bagaeus - Wikipedia Bagaeus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Achaemenid nobleman (fl. 520-517 BC) whom king Darius I ordered to kill the rebellious satrap of Lydia, Oroetes Bagaeus delivering his messages to the Persian guards. 19th century illustration. Bagaeus (Old Iranian: Bagaya) (fl. circa 520-517 BCE), son of Artontes, was an Achaemenid nobleman, who was ordered by Darius I to kill the rebellious satrap of Lydia, Oroetes.[1] Oroetes was accused of having killed Mitrobates, the satrap of Daskyleion (Hellespontine Phrygia) and his son, but is best known as the murderer of Polycrates of Samos.[2] Herodotus recounts how Bagaeus used written orders from Darius in order to assure himself of the obedience of the bodyguards of Oreates to the orders of Darius, and when assured, produced a final order to kill Oroetes:[1] So when Darius became king, he wanted to punish Oroetes for all his wrongdoing, and especially for killing Mitrobates and his son. But he thought it best not to send an army openly against the satrap, seeing that everything was still in confusion and he was still new to the royal power; moreover he heard that Oroetes was very powerful, having a guard of a thousand Persian spearmen and being governor of the Phrygian and Lydian and Ionian province. He had recourse, then, to the following expedient: having summoned an assembly of the most prominent Persians, he addressed them as follows: “Persians, which of you will promise to do this for me, not with force and numbers, but by cunning? Where there is need for cunning, force has no business. So then, which of you would either bring me Oroetes alive or kill him? For he has done the Persians no good, but much harm; he has destroyed two of us, Mitrobates and his son, and is killing my messengers that are sent to recall him, displaying an insolence that is not to be borne. So, then, before he does the Persians some still greater harm, he has to be punished by us with death.” Darius asked this and thirty men promised, each wanting to do it himself. Darius told them not argue but draw lots; they did, and the lot fell to Bagaeus, son of Artontes. Bagaeus, having drawn the lot, did as follows: he had many letters written concerning many things and put the seal of Darius on them, and then went with them to Sardis. — Herodotus 3.127-128.[3] Bagaeus then went to the court of Oroetes in Sardis, Lydia, and produced the letters one by one:[1] When he got there and came into Oroetes' presence, he took out each letter in turn and gave it to one of the royal scribes to read (all of the governors of the King have scribes); Bagaeus gave the letters to test the spearmen, whether they would consent to revolt against Oroetes. Seeing that they were greatly affected by the rolls and yet more by what was written in them, he gave another, in which were these words: “Persians! King Darius forbids you to be Oroetes' guard.” Hearing this, they lowered their spears for him. When Bagaeus saw that they obeyed the letter so far, he was encouraged and gave the last roll to the scribe, in which was written: “King Darius instructs the Persians in Sardis to kill Oroetes.” Hearing this the spearmen drew their scimitars and killed him at once. Thus atonement for Polycrates the Samian overtook Oroetes the Persian. — Herodotus 3.127-128.[3] It is thought that Bagaeus may have become the new satrap for a short time after this assassination.[4] References[edit] ^ a b c Benardete, S. (2012). Herodotean Inquiries. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 94–95. ISBN 9789401031615. ^ Thomas, Rodney Lawrence (2010). Magical Motifs in the Book of Revelation. A&C Black. p. 119. ISBN 9780567226860. ^ a b Herodotus, The Histories, Book 3, chapter 127, translation by Alfred Denis Godley (1856–1925). ^ Grote, George (1869). A History of Greece: From the Earliest Period to the Close of the Generation Contemporary with Alexander the Great. J. Murray. p. 157. v t e Achaemenid Satraps of Lydia (546–334 BC) Tabalus (546–545 BC) Mazares (545–544 BC) Harpagus (540-530 BC) Oroetus (530–520 BC) Bagaeus (520 BC) Otanes (517 BC) Artaphernes (513–492 BC) Artaphernes II (492–480 BC) Pissuthnes (440–415 BC) Tissaphernes (415–408 BC) Cyrus the Younger (408–401 BC) Tissaphernes (400–395 BC) Tithraustes (392–380 BC) Tiribazus (375 BC) Struthas (370 BC) Autophradates (365 BC) Spithridates (365–334 BC) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bagaeus&oldid=1001651149" Categories: 6th-century BC Iranian people Achaemenid satraps of Lydia Officials of Darius the Great Hidden categories: Articles with short description Articles with long short description Short description is different from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Edit links This page was last edited on 20 January 2021, at 17:30 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5362	----	List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources - Wikipedia List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items with reliable sources. Part of a series on the Bible Canons and books Tanakh Torah Nevi'im Ketuvim Old Testament (OT) New Testament (NT) Deuterocanon Antilegomena Chapters and verses Apocrypha Jewish OT NT Authorship and development Authorship Dating Hebrew canon Old Testament canon New Testament canon Composition of the Torah Mosaic authorship Pauline epistles Petrine epistles Johannine works Translations and manuscripts Samaritan Torah Dead Sea scrolls Masoretic Text Targumim Peshitta Septuagint Vetus Latina Vulgate Gothic Bible Luther Bible English Bibles Biblical studies Archeology Artifacts Dating Historicity Internal consistency People Places Names Rahlfs' Septuagint Novum Testamentum Graece Documentary hypothesis Synoptic problem NT textual categories Biblical criticism Historical Textual Source Form Redaction Canonical Interpretation Hermeneutics Pesher Midrash Pardes Allegorical interpretation Historical-grammatical method Literalism Prophecy Inspiration Humor Violence Alcohol Ethics Slavery Women Muhammad Homosexuality Death penalty Incest Rape Sex Serpents Conspiracy theory Perspectives Gnostic Islamic Quranic Inerrancy Infallibility Criticism of the Bible Outline of Bible-related topics  Bible portal ·  Bible book v t e These are biblical figures unambiguously identified in contemporary sources according to scholarly consensus. Biblical figures that are identified in artifacts of questionable authenticity, for example the Jehoash Inscription and the bullae of Baruch ben Neriah, or who are mentioned in ancient but non-contemporary documents, such as David and Balaam,[n 1] are excluded from this list. Contents 1 Hebrew Bible (Protocanonical Old Testament) 2 Deuterocanonicals or biblical apocrypha 3 New Testament 3.1 Gospels 3.2 Acts of the Apostles and Epistles 4 Tentatively identified 4.1 Hebrew Bible (Protocanonical Old Testament) 4.2 Deuterocanonicals or biblical apocrypha 4.3 New Testament 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Bibliography Hebrew Bible (Protocanonical Old Testament)[edit] Tiglath-Pileser III: stela from the walls of his palace (British Museum, London). The Hebrew Bible, known in Judaism by the acronym Tanakh, is the collection of ancient writings that are considered sacred by both Jews and Christians. They tell the story of the Jewish people and their ancestors, starting from the creation narrative and concluding near the end of the 5th century BCE. Although the first mention of the name 'Israel' in archaeology dates to the 13th century BCE,[1] contemporary information on the Israelite nation prior to the 9th century BCE is extremely sparse.[2] In the following centuries a small number of local Hebrew documents, mostly seals and bullae, mention biblical characters, but more extensive information is available in the royal inscriptions from neighbouring kingdoms, particularly Babylon, Assyria and Egypt.[2] Name Title Date (BCE)[n 2] Attestation and Notes Biblical references[n 3] Adrammelech Prince of Assyria fl. 681 Identified as the murderer of his father Sennacherib in the Bible and in an Assyrian letter to Esarhaddon (ABL 1091), where he is called "Arda-Mulissi".[3][4] Is. 37:38, 2 Kgs. 19:37† Ahab King of Israel c. 874 – c. 853 Identified in the contemporary Kurkh Monolith inscription of Shalmaneser III[5] which describes the Battle of Qarqar and mentions "2,000 chariots, 10,000 soldiers of Ahab the Israelite" defeated by Shalmaneser.[6] 1 Kgs. 17, 2 Chr. 18 Ahaz King of Judah c. 732 – c. 716 Mentioned in a contemporary Summary Inscription of Tiglath-Pileser III which records that he received tribute from "Jehoahaz of Judah".[7] Also identified in royal bullae belonging to Ahaz himself[8] and his son Hezekiah.[9] 2 Kgs. 16, Hos. 1:1, Mi. 1:1, Is. 1:1 Apries Pharaoh of Egypt 589–570 Also known as Hophra; named in numerous contemporary inscriptions including those of the capitals of the columns of his palace.[10][11] Herodotus speaks of him in Histories II, 161–171.[12] Jer. 44:30† Artaxerxes I King of Persia 465–424 Widely identified with "Artaxerxes" in the book of Nehemiah.[13][14] He is also found in the writings of contemporary historian Thucydides.[15] Scholars are divided over whether the king in Ezra's time was the same, or Artaxerxes II. Neh. 2:1, Neh. 5:14 Ashurbanipal King of Assyria 668 – c. 627 Generally identified with "the great and noble Osnappar", mentioned in the Book of Ezra.[16][17] His name survives in his own writings, which describe his military campaigns against Elam, Susa and other nations.[18][19] Ezr. 4:10† Belshazzar Coregent of Babylon c. 553–539 Mentioned by his father Nabonidus in the Nabonidus Cylinder.[20] According to another Babylonian tablet, Nabonidus "entrusted the kingship to him" when he embarked on a lengthy military campaign.[21] Dn. 5, Dn. 7:1, Dn. 8:1 Ben-hadad King of Aram Damascus early 8th century Mentioned in the Zakkur Stele.[22] A son of Hazael, he is variously called Ben-Hadad/Bar-Hadad II/III. 2 Kgs. 13:3, 2 Kgs. 13:24 Cyrus II King of Persia 559–530 Appears in many ancient inscriptions, most notably the Cyrus Cylinder.[23] He is also mentioned in Herodotus' Histories. Is. 45:1, Dn. 1:21 Darius I King of Persia 522–486 Mentioned in the books of Haggai, Zechariah and Ezra.[24][25] He is the author of the Behistun Inscription. He is also mentioned in Herodotus' Histories. Hg. 1:1, Ezr. 5:6 Esarhaddon King of Assyria 681–669 His name survives in his own writings, as well as in those of his son Ashurbanipal.[26][27] Is. 37:38, Ezr. 4:2 Evil Merodach King of Babylon c. 562–560 His name (Akkadian Amēl-Marduk) and title were found on a vase from his palace,[28] and on several cuneiform tablets.[29] 2 Kgs. 25:27, Jer. 52:31† Hazael King of Aram Damascus c. 842 – c. 800 Shalmaneser III of Assyria records that he defeated Hazael in battle and captured many chariots and horses from him.[30] Most scholars think that Hazael was the author of the Tel Dan Stele.[31] 1 Kgs. 19:15, 2 Kgs. 8:8, Am. 1:4 Hezekiah King of Judah c. 715 – c. 686 An account is preserved by Sennacherib of how he besieged "Hezekiah, the Jew", who "did not submit to my yoke", in his capital city of Jerusalem.[32] A bulla was also found bearing Hezekia's name and title, reading "Belonging to Hezekiah [son of] Ahaz king of Judah".[9][33] 2 Kgs. 16:20, Prv. 25:1, Hos. 1:1, Mi. 1:1, Is. 1:1 Hoshea King of Israel c. 732 – c. 723 He was put into power by Tilgath-Pileser III, king of Assyria, as recorded in his Annals, found in Calah.[34] 2 Kgs. 15:30, 2 Kgs. 18:1 Jehoash King of Israel c. 798 – c. 782 Mentioned in records of Adad-nirari III of Assyria as "Jehoash of Samaria".[35][36] 2 Kgs. 13:10, 2 Chr. 25:17 Jehoiachin King of Judah 598–597 He was taken captive to Babylon after Nebuchadrezzar first captured Jerusalem. Texts from Nebuchadrezzar's Southern Palace record the rations given to "Jehoiachin king of the Judeans" (Akkadian: Ya'ukin sar Yaudaya).[37] 2 Kgs. 25:14, Jer. 52:31 Jehu King of Israel c. 841 – c. 814 Mentioned on the Black Obelisk.[30] 1 Kgs. 19:16, Hos. 1:4 Johanan High Priest of Israel c. 410 – c. 371 Mentioned in a letter from the Elephantine Papyri.[38] Neh. 12:22–23 Jotham King of Judah c. 740 – c. 732 Identified as the father of King Ahaz on a contemporary clay bulla, reading "of Ahaz [son of] Jotham king of Judah".[8] 2 Kgs. 15:5, Hos. 1:1, Mi. 1:1, Is. 1:1 Manasseh King of Judah c. 687 – c. 643 Mentioned in the writings of Esarhaddon, who lists him as one of the kings who had brought him gifts and aided his conquest of Egypt.[27][39] 2 Kgs. 20:21, Jer. 15:4 Menahem King of Israel c. 752 – c. 742 The annals of Tiglath-Pileser (ANET3 283)[40] record that Menahem paid tribute him, as stated in the Books of Kings.[41] 2 Kgs. 15:14–23 Mesha King of Moab fl. c. 840 Author of the Mesha Stele.[42] 2 Kgs. 3:4† Merodach-Baladan King of Babylon 722–710 Named in the Great Inscription of Sargon II in his palace at Khorsabat.[43] Also called "Berodach-Baladan" (Akkadian: Marduk-apla-iddina). Is. 39:1, 2 Kgs. 20:12† Nebuchadnezzar II King of Babylon c. 605–562 Mentioned in numerous contemporary sources, including the inscription of the Ishtar Gate, which he built.[44] Also called Nebuchadrezzar (Akkadian: Nabû-kudurri-uṣur). Ez. 26:7, Dn. 1:1, 2 Kgs. 24:1 Nebuzaradan Babylonian official fl. c. 587 Mentioned in a prism in Istanbul (No. 7834), found in Babylon where he is listed as the "chief cook".[45][46] Jer. 52:12, 2 Kgs. 25:8 Nebo-Sarsekim Chief Eunuch of Babylon fl. c. 587 Listed as Nabu-sharrussu-ukin in a Babylonian tablet.[47][48] Jer. 39:3† Necho II Pharaoh of Egypt c. 610 – c. 595 Mentioned in the writings of Ashurbanipal[49] 2 Kgs. 23:29, Jer. 46:2 Omri King of Israel c. 880 – c. 874 Mentioned, together with his unnamed son or successor, on the Mesha Stele.[42] 1 Kgs. 16:16, Mi. 6:16 Pekah King of Israel c. 740 – c. 732 Mentioned in the annals of Tiglath-Pileser III.[34] 2 Kgs. 15:25, Is. 7:1 Rezin King of Aram Damascus died c. 732 A tributary of Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria and the last king of Aram Damascus.[50] According to the Bible, he was eventually put to death by Tiglath-Pileser. 2 Kgs. 16:7–9, Is. 7:1 Sanballat Governor of Samaria fl. 445 A leading figure of the opposition which Nehemiah encountered during the rebuilding of the walls around the temple in Jerusalem. Sanballat is mentioned in the Elephantine Papyri.[38][51] Neh. 2:10, Neh. 13:28 Sargon II King of Assyria 722–705 He besieged and conquered the city of Samaria and took many thousands captive, as recorded in the Bible and in an inscription in his royal palace.[52] His name, however, does not appear in the biblical account of this siege, but only in reference to his siege of Ashdod. Is. 20:1† Sennacherib King of Assyria 705–681 The author of a number of inscriptions discovered near Nineveh.[53] 2 Kgs. 18:13, Is. 36:1 Shalmaneser V King of Assyria 727–722 Mentioned on several royal palace weights found at Nimrud.[54] Another inscription was found that is thought to be his, but the name of the author is only partly preserved.[55] 2 Kgs. 17:3, 2 Kgs. 18:9† Taharqa Pharaoh of Egypt, King of Kush 690–664 Called "Tirhaka, the king of Kush" in the books of Kings and Isaiah.[56] Several contemporary sources mention him and fragments of three statues bearing his name were excavated at Nineveh.[57] Is. 37:9, 2 Kgs. 19:9† Tattenai Governor of Eber-Nari fl. 520 Known from contemporary Babylonian documents.[58][59] He governed the Persian province west of the Euphrates river during the reign of Darius I. Ezr. 5:3, Ezr. 6:13 Tiglath-Pileser III King of Assyria 745–727 Numerous writings are ascribed to him and he is mentioned, among others, in an inscription by Barrakab, king of Sam'al.[60] He exiled inhabitants of the cities he captured in Israel. 2 Kgs. 15:29, 1 Chr. 5:6 Xerxes I King of Persia 486–465 Called Ahasuerus in the books of Ezra and Esther.[17][61] Xerxes is known in archaeology through a number of tablets and monuments,[62] notably the "Gate of All Nations" in Persepolis. He is also mentioned in Herodotus' Histories. Est. 1:1, Dn. 9:1, Ezr. 4:6 Deuterocanonicals or biblical apocrypha[edit] Cleopatra Thea with her first husband, Alexander Balas The deuterocanon consists of books and parts of books that are included in the Old Testament canon of the Eastern Orthodox and/or Roman Catholic churches, but are not part of the Jewish Tanakh, and are regarded as apocryphal by Protestants. In contrast to the Tanakh, which is preserved in Hebrew (with some Aramaic parts), the deuterocanonical books are preserved mainly in Koine Greek, though Hebrew and Aramaic fragments have been found among the Dead Sea Scrolls. While the deuterocanon describes events between the eighth and second centuries BCE, most historically identifiable people mentioned in the deuterocanon lived around the time of the Maccabean Revolt (167–160 BCE), by which time Judea had become part of the Seleucid Empire. Coins featuring the names of rulers had become widespread and many of them were inscribed with the year number in the Seleucid era, allowing them to be dated precisely. First-hand information comes also from the Greek historian Polybius (c. 200 – c. 118 BCE), whose Histories covers much of the same period as the Books of Maccabees, and from Greek and Babylonian inscriptions. Name[n 4] Title Date (BCE)[n 2] Attestation and Notes Scriptural references[n 3] Alexander Balas King of Asia[n 5] 150–146 Pretended to be a son of Antiochus Epiphanes, as he is also described in 1 Maccabees.[63] Mentioned in Polybius' Histories.[64] 1 Macc. 10:1, 1 Macc. 11:1 Alexander the Great King of Macedon 336–323 Referred to by Athenian orator Aeschines,[65][66] and identified on his coins.[67] 1 Macc. 1:1, 1 Macc. 6:2 1 Macc. 1:10† Antiochus III the Great King of Asia 222–187 Mentioned by contemporary historian Polybius.[68][69] and coins with his name have survived.[70] 1 Macc. 1:10, 1 Macc. 8:6 Antiochus IV Epiphanes King of Asia 175–164 Known from Polybius' Histories[71][72] and from contemporary coins.[73] 1 Macc. 10:1, 2 Macc. 4:7 Antiochus V Eupator King of Asia 163–161 Executed by his half-brother Demetrius I when he was 11 years old. Identified in an inscription from Dymi,[74] and on contemporary coins.[75] 2 Macc. 2:20, 2 Macc. 13:1 Antiochus VI Dionysus King of Asia 145–142 Reigned only nominally, as he was very young when his father died,[76] but he is identified on contemporary coins.[77] 1 Macc. 11:39, 1 Macc. 12:39 Antiochus VII Sidetes King of Asia 138–129 Dethroned the usurper Tryphon. Coinage from the period bears his name.[78] 1 Macc. 15† Ariarathes V King of Cappadocia 163–130 Mentioned by Polybius.[79][80] 1 Macc. 15:22† Arsinoe III Queen of Egypt 220–204 Married to her brother, Ptolemy IV. Several contemporary inscriptions dedicated to them have been found.[81] 3 Macc. 1:1, 3 Macc. 1:4† Astyages King of Medes 585–550 The contemporary Chronicle of Nabonidus refers to the mutiny on the battlefield as the cause for Astyages' overthrow [82] Bel and the Dragon 1:1† Attalus II Philadelphus King of Pergamon 160–138 Known from the writings of Polybius.[83][84] 1 Macc. 15:22† Cleopatra Thea Queen of Asia 126–121 First married to Alexander Balas,[85] later to Demetrius II and Antiochus VII, she became sole ruler after Demetrius' death.[86] Her name and portrait appear on period coinage.[86] 1 Macc. 10:57–58† Darius III King of Persia 336–330 Last king of the Achaemenid Empire, defeated by Alexander the Great. Mentioned in the Samaria Papyri.[87] 1 Macc. 1:1† Demetrius I Soter King of Asia 161–150 A cuneiform tablet dated to 161 BCE refers to him,[88] and Polybius, who personally interacted with Demetrius, mentions him in his Histories.[89][90] 1 Macc. 7:1, 1 Macc. 9:1 Demetrius II Nicator King of Asia 145–138, 129 – 126 Ruled over part of the kingdom, simultaneously with Antiochus VI and Tryphon. He was defeated by Antiochus VII, but regained the throne in 129 BCE. Mentioned in the Babylonian Astronomical Diaries.[91] 1 Macc. 11:19, 1 Macc. 13:34 Diodotus Tryphon King of Asia 142–138 Usurped the throne after the death of Antiochus VI. Although Antiochus VII melted down most of his coins, some have been found in Orthosias.[78] 1 Macc. 11:39, 1 Macc. 12:39 Eumenes II Soter King of Pergamom 197–159 Several of his letters have survived,[92] and he is mentioned by Polybius.[93] 1 Macc. 8:8† Heliodorus Seleucid legate fl. 178 Identified in contemporary inscriptions.[94][95] 2 Macc. 3:7, 2 Macc. 5:18 Mithridates I King of Parthia 165–132 Also called Arsaces.[83] He captured Demetrius II as recorded in the Babylonian Astronomical Diaries.[91] 1 Macc. 14:2–3, 1 Macc. 15:22† Perseus King of Macedon 179–168 Son of Philip V.[96] Mentioned by Polybius.[97] and identified on his coins.[98] 1 Macc. 8:5† Philip II King of Macedon 359–336 Father of Alexander the Great. Known from contemporary coins,[99] and mentioned by Aeschines.[65][66] 1 Macc. 1:1, 1 Macc. 6:2† Philip V King of Macedon 221–179 His name appears on his coins,[100] and in Polybius' Histories.[101] 1 Macc. 8:5† Ptolemy IV Philopator King of Egypt 221–204 Mentioned together with his wife and sister Arsinoe III in contemporary inscriptions from Syria and Phoenicia.[81] 3 Macc. 1:1, 3 Macc. 3:12 Ptolemy VI Philometor King of Egypt 180–145 Referred to in ancient inscriptions,[102] and mentioned by Polybius.[103] 1 Macc. 1:18, 2 Macc. 9:29 Simon II High Priest of Israel Late 3rd century-early 2nd century Praised in Sirach for his apparent role in repairing and fortifying the Temple in Jerusalem, also briefly mentioned in Josephus' Antiquities.[104] 3 Macc. 2:1, Sirach 50:1, Sirach 50:20, † New Testament[edit] The Blacas Cameo (20–50 CE) depicting Roman emperor Augustus By far the most important and most detailed sources for first-century Jewish history are the works of Jewish historian Flavius Josephus (37 – c. 100 CE).[105][106] These books mention many of the same prominent political figures as the New Testament books and are crucial for understanding the historical background of the emergence of Christianity.[107] Josephus also mentions Jesus and the execution of John the Baptist[108] although he was not a contemporary of either. Apart from Josephus, information about some New Testament figures comes from Roman historians such as Tacitus and Suetonius and from ancient coins and inscriptions. The central figure of the New Testament is Jesus of Nazareth. Despite ongoing debate concerning the authorship of many of its books, there is a consensus[14][109] among modern scholars that at least some were written by a contemporary of Jesus,[110][111] namely the epistles of Paul, parts of which are considered undisputed. However, outside the New Testament, no contemporary references to Jesus are known, unless a very early dating is assumed of some uncanonical gospel such as the Gospel of Thomas. Nevertheless, some authentic first century and many second century writings exist in which Jesus is mentioned,[n 6] leading many scholars to conclude that the historicity of Jesus is well established by historical documents.[112][113][114] Gospels[edit] Name[n 7] Title Attestation and Notes Biblical references [n 3] Augustus Caesar Emperor of Rome Reigned between 27 BCE and 14 CE, during which time Jesus was born. He left behind a wealth of buildings, coins and monuments,[115] including a funerary inscription in which he described his life and accomplishments. Lk. 2:1† Caiaphas High Priest of Israel In 1990, workers found an ornate limestone ossuary while paving a road in the Peace Forest south of the Abu Tor neighborhood of Jerusalem.[116][117] This ossuary appeared authentic and contained human remains. An Aramaic inscription on the side was thought to read "Joseph son of Caiaphas" and on the basis of this the bones of an elderly man were considered to belong to the High Priest Caiaphas.[116][118] In 2011, archaeologists from Bar-Ilan University announced the recovery of a stolen ossuary, It is inscribed with the text: "Miriam, daughter of Yeshua, son of Caiaphas, Priest of Ma’aziah from Beth ‘Imri". Based on it, Caiaphas can be assigned to the priestly course of Ma’aziah, instituted by King David. Jn. 18:13 Jn. 11:49 Lk. 3:2 Herod Antipas Tetrarch of Galilee and Perea A son of Herod the Great. Mentioned in Antiquities[119] and Wars of the Jews.[120] Both Matthew and Josephus record that he killed John the Baptist. Lk. 3:1, Mt. 14:1 Herod Archelaus Ethnarch of Judea, Samaria and Edom A son of Herod the Great. He is known from the writings of Flavius Josephus[119] and from contemporary coins.[121] Mt. 2:22† Herod the Great King of Judea Mentioned by his friend, the historian Nicolaus of Damascus.[122][123] His name is also found on contemporary Jewish coins.[121] Mt. 2:1, Lk. 1:5 Herodias Herodian princess The wife of Herod Antipas.[124] According to the synoptic gospels, she was formerly married to Antipas's brother Philip, apparently Philip the Tetrarch. However, Josephus writes that her first husband was Herod II. Many scholars view this as a contradiction, but some have suggested that Herod II was also called Philip.[125] Mt. 14:3, Mk. 6:17 Philip the Apostle Bishop of Hierapolis On Wednesday, 27 July 2011, the Turkish news agency Anadolu reported that archaeologists had unearthed a tomb that the project leader claims to be the tomb of Saint Philip during excavations in Hierapolis close to the Turkish city Denizli. The Italian archaeologist, Professor Francesco D'Andria stated that scientists had discovered the tomb within a newly revealed church. He stated that the design of the tomb, and writings on its walls, definitively prove it belonged to the martyred apostle of Jesus.[126] Jn 12:21 Jn 1:43 Philip the Tetrarch Tetrarch of Iturea and Trachonitis Josephus writes that he shared the kingdom of his father with his brothers Herod Antipas and Herod Archelaus.[127] His name and title appear on coinage from the period.[128][129] Lk. 3:1 Pontius Pilate Prefect of Judea He ordered Jesus' execution. A stone inscription was found that mentions his name and title: "[Po]ntius Pilatus, [Praef]ectus Iuda[ea]e" (Pontius Pilate, prefect of Judaea),[130][131] see Pilate Stone. He is mentioned by his contemporary Philo of Alexandria in his Embassy to Gaius (De Legatione ad Gaium, Περι αρετων και πρεσβειας προς Γαιον) Mt. 27:2, Jn. 19:15–16 Quirinius Governor of Syria Conducted a census while governing Syria as reported by Luke and Josephus,[132] and confirmed by a tomb inscription of one Quintus Aemilius Secundus, who had served under him.[133] Lk. 2:2† Tiberius Caesar Emperor of Rome Named in many inscriptions and on Roman coins. Among other accounts, some of his deeds are described by contemporary historian Velleius (died c. 31 CE).[134] Lk. 3:1† Salome Herodian princess A daughter of Herodias.[124] Although she is not named in the Gospels, but referred to as 'the daughter of Herodias', she is commonly identified with Salome, Herodias' daughter, mentioned in Josephus' Antiquities.[135] Mt. 14:6, Mk. 6:22† Simon Peter Bishop of Rome Mention by Ignatius of Antioch's Letter to the Romans and to the Smyrnaeans, Fragments from Papias's exposition of the oracles of the Lord, and the First Epistle to the Corinthians by Clement, who also says that Peter died as a martyr.[136][137][138][139] Mt. 4:18-20, Mt. 16 Acts of the Apostles and Epistles[edit] Name[n 8] Title Attestation and Notes Biblical references[n 3] Ananias son of Nedebaios High Priest of Israel He held the office between c. 47 and 59 CE, as recorded by Josephus,[140] and presided over the trial of Paul. Acts 23:2, Acts 24:1† Antonius Felix Procurator of Judea Mentioned by historians Josephus,[141] Suetonius[142] and Tacitus[143] He imprisoned the apostle Paul around the year 58 CE, two years before Porcius Festus replaced him.[144] Acts 23:24, Acts 25:14 Apollos Both Paul and Clement affirmed that he was a Christian in Corinth.[136] 1 Cor 3:6 Aretas IV Philopatris King of the Nabateans According to Paul, Aretas' governor in Damascus tried to arrest him. Besides being mentioned by Josephus,[145] his name is found in several contemporary inscriptions[146] and on numerous coins.[147] 2 Cor. 11:32† Berenice Herodian princess A daughter of Herod Agrippa I. She appears to have had almost equal power to her brother Herod Agrippa II (with whom she was rumored to have an incestuous relationship, according to Josephus)[141] and is indeed called Queen Berenice in Tacitus' Histories.[148] Acts 25:23, Acts 26:30 Claudius Caesar Emperor of Rome Like other Roman emperors, his name is found on numerous coins[149] and monuments, such as the Porta Maggiore in Rome. Acts 11:28, Acts 18:2† Drusilla Herodian princess Married to Antonius Felix, according to the Book of Acts and Josephus' Antiquities.[141][150] Acts 24:24† Gallio Proconsul of Achaea Full name Lucius Iunius Gallio Annaeanus. Seneca, his brother, mentions him in his epistles.[151] In Delphi, an inscription, dated to 52 CE, was discovered that records a letter by emperor Claudius, in which Gallio is also named as proconsul[152] Acts 18:12–17† Gamaliel the Elder Rabbi of the Sanhedrin He is named as the father of Simon by Flavius Josephus in his autobiography.[153] In the Talmud he is also described as a prominent member of the Sanhedrin.[154] Acts 5:34, Acts 22:3† Herod Agrippa I King of Judea Although his name is given as Herod by Luke,[n 9] and as Agrippa by Josephus,[155] the accounts both writers give about his death are so similar that they are commonly accepted to refer to the same person.[22][156] Hence many modern scholars call him Herod Agrippa (I). Acts 12:1, Acts 12:21 Herod Agrippa II King of Judea He ruled alongside his sister Berenice. Josephus writes about him in his Antiquities,[141] and his name is found inscribed on contemporary Jewish coins.[121] Acts 25:23, Acts 26:1 John of Patmos Mentioned by the Fragments of Papias of Hierapolis and by his contemporary Ignatius of Antioch[157][137] Rev. 1 Judas of Galilee Leader of a Jewish revolt. Both the Book of Acts and Josephus[132] tell of a rebellion he instigated in the time of the census of Quirinius.[158] Acts 5:37† Nero Caesar Emperor of Rome Mentioned in Contemporary Coins,[159] Although he is not named in the Book of Revelation, the book mentions the number 666, theologians typically support the numerical interpretation that 666 is the equivalent of the name and title Nero[160] using the Hebrew numerology of gematria, and was used to secretly speak against the emperor. Also "Nero Caesar" in the Hebrew alphabet is נרון קסר‎ NRON QSR, which when used as numbers represent 50 200 6 50 100 60 200, which add to 666. Rev. 13:18, 2 Thes. 2:3† Paul the Apostle Mention by Ignatius of Antioch's Epistle to the Romans and Epistle to the Ephesians, Polycarp's Epistle to the Philippians, and in Clement of Rome's Epistle to the Corinthians, who also says that Paul Suffered martyrdom and that he had preached in the East and in the Far West[161][162][138][163] Gal. 1, 1 Cor. 1 Porcius Festus Governor of Judea Succeeded Antonius Felix, as recorded by Josephus and the Book of Acts.[164][165] Acts 24:27, Acts 26:25 Tentatively identified[edit] These are Biblical figures for which tentative but likely identifications have been found in contemporary sources based on matching names and credentials. The possibility of coincidental matching of names cannot be ruled out however. Hebrew Bible (Protocanonical Old Testament)[edit] Timeline showing the kings of Israel and Judah according to the chronology from Edwin R. Thiele. Kings that are known from contemporary extra-biblical sources are highlighted in yellow. Tentatively identified kings are highlighted in orange. Ahaziah/Amaziah, King of Judah. The Tel Dan Stele contains, according to many scholars, an account by a Syrian king (probably Hazael), claiming to have slain "[Ahaz]iahu, son of [... kin]g of the house of David", who reigned c. 850 – 849 BCE.[166][167] However, an alternative view, which dates the inscription half a century later, is that the name should be reconstructed as '[Amaz]iahu', who reigned c. 796–767 BCE.[168] Asaiah, servant of king Josiah (2 Kings 22:12). A seal with the text Asayahu servant of the king probably belonged to him.[169] Azaliah son of Meshullam, scribe in the Temple in Jerusalem: Mentioned in 2 Kings 22:3 and 2 Chronicles 34:8. A bulla reading "belonging to Azaliahu son of Meshullam." is likely to be his, according to archaeologist Nahman Avigad.[170] Azariah son of Hilkiah and grandfather of Ezra: Mentioned in 1 Chronicles 6:13,14; 9:11 and Ezra 7:1. A bulla reading Azariah son of Hilkiah is likely to be his, according to Tsvi Schneider.[171] Baalis king of Ammon is mentioned in Jeremiah 40:14. In 1984 an Ammonite seal, dated to c. 600 BCE, was excavated in Tell El-`Umeiri, Jordan that reads "belonging to Milkomor, the servant of Baalisha". Identification of 'Baalisha' with the biblical Baalis is likely,[172] but it is not currently known if there was only one Ammonite king of that name.[173] David, or more accurately his eponymous royal house, is mentioned in the Tel Dan Stele, see above entry for Ahaziah. Darius II of Persia, is mentioned by the contemporary historian Xenophon of Athens,[174] in the Elephantine Papyri,[38] and other sources. 'Darius the Persian', mentioned in Nehemiah 12:22, is probably Darius II, although some scholars identify him with Darius I or Darius III.[175][176] Gedaliah son of Ahikam, governor of Judah. A seal impression with the name 'Gedaliah who is over the house' is commonly identified with Gedaliah, son of Ahikam.[177] Gedaliah son of Pashhur, an opponent of Jeremiah. A bulla bearing his name was found in the City of David[178] Gemariah, son of Shaphan the scribe. A bulla was found with the text "To Gemaryahu ben Shaphan". This may have been the same person as "Gemariah son of Shaphan the scribe" mentioned in Jeremiah 36:10,12.[179] Geshem (Gusham) the Arab, mentioned in Nehemia 6:1,6 is likely the same person as Gusham, king of Kedar, found in two inscriptions in Dedan and Tell el-Mashkutah (near the Suez Canal)[180] Hilkiah, high priest in the Temple in Jerusalem: Mentioned throughout 2 Kings 22:8–23:24 and 2 Chronicles 34:9–35:8 as well as in 1 Chronicles 6:13; 9:11 and Ezra 7:1. Hilkiah in extra-biblical sources is attested by the clay bulla naming a Hilkiah as the father of an Azariah,[171] and by the seal reading Hanan son of Hilkiah the priest.[181] Isaiah, In February 2018 archaeologist Eilat Mazar announced that she and her team had discovered a small seal impression which reads "[belonging] to Isaiah nvy" (could be reconstructed and read as "[belonging] to Isaiah the prophet") during the Ophel excavations, just south of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem.[182] The tiny bulla was found "only 10 feet away" from where an intact bulla bearing the inscription "[belonging] to King Hezekiah of Judah" was discovered in 2015 by the same team.[183] Although the name "Isaiah" in Paleo-Hebrew alphabet is unmistakable, the damage on the bottom left part of the seal causes difficulties in confirming the word "prophet" or a common Hebrew name "Navi", casting some doubts whether this seal really belongs to the prophet Isaiah.[184] Jehoram, King of Israel (c. 852 – 841 BCE) is probably mentioned in the Tel Dan inscription. According to the usual interpretation, the author of the text, probably Hazael, king of Syria,[185] claims to have slain both Ahaziah of Judah and "[Jeho]ram".[166][167] However, some scholars, reconstructing the pieces of the stela differently, do not see "[..]ram" as the name of an Israelite king.[186] Jehucal son of Shelemiah, an opponent of Jeremiah. Archaeologists excavated a bulla with his name,[187] but some scholars question the dating of the seal to the time of Jeremiah. According to Robert Deutsch the bulla is from the late 8th to early 7th century BCE, before the time of Jeremiah.[citation needed] Jerahmeel, prince of Judah. A bulla bearing his name was found.[188] Jeroboam (II), king of Israel. A seal belonging to 'Shema, servant of Jeroboam', probably refers to king Jeroboam II,[189] although some scholars think it was Jeroboam I.[173] Jezebel, wife of king Ahab of Israel. A seal was found that may bear her name, but the dating and identification with the biblical Jezebel is a subject of debate among scholars.[190] Josiah, king of Judah. Three seals were found that may have belonged to his son Eliashib.[191] Nathan-melech, one of Josiah's officials in 2 Kings 23:11. A clay bulla dated to the middle of the seventh or beginning of the sixth century B.C was found in March 2019 during the Givati Parking Lot dig excavation in the City of the David area of Jerusalem bearing the inscription, "(belonging) to Nathan-melech, servant of the king."[192][193] Nergal-sharezer, king of Babylon is probably identical to an official of Nebuchadnezzar II mentioned in Jeremiah 39:3, 13.[129] A record of his war with Syria was found on a tablet from the 'Neo-Babylonian Chronicle texts'.[194] Seraiah son of Neriah. He was the brother of Baruch. Nahman Avigad identified him as the owner of a seal with the name " to Seriahu/Neriyahu".[171] The so-called Shebna Lintel Shebna (or Shebaniah), royal steward of Hezekiah: only the last two letters of a name (hw) survive on the so-called Shebna lintel, but the title of his position ("over the house" of the king) and the date indicated by the script style, have inclined many scholars to identify the person it refers to with Shebna.[195] Sheshonq I, Pharaoh of Egypt, is normally identified with king Shishaq in the Hebrew Bible. The account of Shishaq's invasion in the 5th year of Rehoboam (1 Kings 14:25–28) is thought to correspond to an inscription found at Karnak of Shoshenq's campaign into Palestine.[196] However, a minority of scholars reject this identification.[197] Tou/Toi, king of Hamath. Several scholars have argued that Tou/Toi, mentioned in 2 Samuel 8:9 and 1 Chronicles 18:9, is identical with a certain 'Taita', king of 'Palistin', known from inscriptions found in northern Syria.[198][199] However, others have challenged this identification based on linguistic analysis and the uncertain dating of king Taita.[200] Uzziah, king of Judah. The writings of Tiglath-Pileser III may refer to him, but this identification is disputed.[201] There is also an inscription that refers to his bones, but it dates from the 1st century CE. Zedekiah, son of Hananiah (Jeremiah 36:12). A seal was found of "Zedekiah son of Hanani", identification is likely, but uncertain.[202] Deuterocanonicals or biblical apocrypha[edit] Aretas I, King of the Nabataeans (fl. c. 169 BCE), mentioned in 2 Macc. 5:8, is probably referred to in an inscription from Elusa.[203] New Testament[edit] 'The Egyptian', who was according to Acts 21:38 the instigator of a rebellion, also appears to be mentioned by Josephus, although this identification is uncertain.[204][205] Joanna, wife of Chuza An ossuary has been discovered bearing the inscription, "Johanna, granddaughter of Theophilus, the High Priest.",[206] It is unclear if this was the same Joanna since Johanna was the fifth most popular woman's name in Jewish Palestine.[207] Sergius Paulus was proconsul of Cyprus (Acts 13:4–7), when Paul visited the island around 46–48 CE.[208] Although several individuals with this name have been identified, no certain identification can be made. One Quintus Sergius Paulus, who was proconsul of Cyprus probably during the reign of Claudius (41–54 CE) is however compatible with the time and context of Luke's account.[208][209] Lysanias, was tetrarch of Abila around 28 CE, according to Luke (3:1). Because Josephus only mentions a Lysanias of Abila who was executed in 36 BCE, some scholars have considered this an error by Luke. However, one inscription from Abila, which is tentatively dated 14–29 CE, appears to record the existence of a later tetrarch called Lysanias.[210][211] Theudas. The sole reference to Theudas presents a problem of chronology. In Acts of the Apostles, Gamaliel, a member of the sanhedrin, defends the apostles by referring to Theudas (Acts 5:36–8). The difficulty is that the rising of Theudas is here given as before that of Judas of Galilee, which is itself dated to the time of the taxation (c. 6–7 AD). Josephus, on the other hand, says that Theudas was 45 or 46, which is after Gamaliel is speaking, and long after Judas the Galilean. See also[edit] Biblical archaeology Biblical figures Chronology of Jesus Historicity of the Bible List of artifacts significant to the Bible List of burial places of biblical figures List of people in both the Bible and the Quran Notes[edit] ^ Identified in the Tel Dan Stele and the Deir Alla Inscription respectively. ^ a b For kings and rulers these dates refer to their reigns. Dates for Israelite and Judahite kings are according to the chronology of Edwin R. Thiele. ^ a b c d The dagger symbol (†) indicates that all occurrences in the Bible (including the Deuterocanonical books) have been cited. ^ Names that are also mentioned in the Hebrew Bible are not repeated here. ^ The official title for kings of the Seleucid dynasty ^ These sources include (but are not limited to) 1st century: Paul, Peter, Josephus, Clement and the Synoptic Gospels; 2nd century: Tacitus, Lucian, Ignatius of Antioch, Polycarp, Hegesippus, Justin Martyr and a number of apocryphal works. For dates of the New Testament books, see Dating the Bible#Table IV: New Testament. ^ Names that are also mentioned in the Old Testament are not repeated here. ^ Names that are also mentioned in the Gospels are not repeated here. ^ i.e. the author of the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles. See Authorship of Luke–Acts. References[edit] ^ Davies, Philip R., In Search of Ancient Israel: A Study in Biblical Origins, Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2015, p. 48 [1] ^ a b Kelle, Brad E., Ancient Israel at War 853–586 BC, Osprey Publishing, 2007, pp. 8–9 [2] ^ De Breucker, Geert, in The Oxford Handbook of Cuneiform Culture [3], edited by Karen Radner, Eleanor Robson, Oxford University Press, 2011, p. 643 ^ Kalimi, Isaac; Richardson, Seth (ed), Sennacherib at the Gates of Jerusalem [4], Brill, 2014, p. 45 ^ Rainey, Anson F. "Stones for Bread: Archaeology versus History". Near Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 64, No. 3 (Sep., 2001), pp. 140–149 ^ Lawson Younger, K. "Kurkh Monolith". In Hallo, 2000, Vol. II p. 263 ^ Galil, G., The Chronology of the Kings of Israel and Judah, Brill, 1996, p. 67 [5] ^ a b Deutsch, Robert. "First Impression: What We Learn from King Ahaz's Seal". Biblical Archaeology Review, July 1998, pp. 54–56, 62 ^ a b Heilpern, Will (December 4, 2015). "Biblical King's seal discovered in dump site". CNN. Retrieved 2016-05-03. ^ The palace of Apries, University College London, 2002 ^ Petrie, W. M. Flinders & Walker, J. H. (1909). The palace of Apries (Memphis II). School of Archaeology in Egypt, University College. ^ Wolfram Grajetzki, Stephen Quirke, and Narushige Shiode (2000). Digital Egypt for Universities. University College London. ^ Rogerson, John William; Davies, Philip R. (2005). The Old Testament world. Continuum International, 2005, p. 89. ^ a b Dunn, James D. G. and Rogerson, John William (2003). Eerdmans commentary on the Bible]. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. "Artaxerxes": p. 321 ; "Pauline epistles": p. 1274 ^ Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War. Translated by Thomas Hobbes, Book 1, Chapter 137 ^ Lewis, D. M. and Boardman, John (1988). The Cambridge ancient history, Volume IV. Cambridge University Press. p. 149. ^ a b Coogan et al., 2010, p. 673 [6] ^ Oppenheim, A. L. in Pritchard 1969, pp. 294–301 ^ Harper, P. O.; Aruz, J.; Tallon, F. (1992). The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 270. ^ Nabonidus Cylinder translation by Paul-Alain Beaulieu, author of The Reign of Nabonidus, King of Babylon 556–539 BC (1989). ^ Oppenheim, A. L. in Pritchard 1969, p. 313 ^ a b Geoffrey W. Bromiley International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: A–D. "Agrippa": p. 42; "Ben-Hadad III": p. 459 ^ Translation by Irving Finkel, at the British Museum ^ Berlin, Adele and Brettler, Marc Zvi (2004). The Jewish Study Bible. Oxford University Press. p. 1243. ^ Stead, Michael R. and Raine, John W. (2009). The Intertextuality of Zechariah 1–8. Continuum International. p. 40. ^ Oppenheim, A. L. in Pritchard 1969, pp. 289–301 ^ a b Thompson, R. Campbell (1931). The prisms of Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal found at Nineveh. Oxford University Press. pp. 9, 25. ^ Barton, George A. (1917). Archæology and the Bible. American Sunday-school Union. p. 381. ^ Beaulieu, Paul-Alain (2003). The pantheon of Uruk during the neo-Babylonian period. Brill. pp. 151, 329. ^ a b The Black Obelisk at the British Museum. Translation adapted by K. C. Hanson from Luckenbill, Daniel David (1927). Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia. Vol. 1. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ^ Hagelia, Hallvard (January 2004). "The First Dissertation of the Tel Dan Inscription". Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament. Volume 18, Issue 1, p. 136 ^ Oppenheim, A. L. in Pritchard 1969, pp. 287–288 ^ Cross, Frank Moore (March–April 1999). "King Hezekiah's Seal Bears Phoenician Imagery". Biblical Archaeology Review. ^ a b Oppenheim, A. L. in Pritchard 1969, p. 284 ^ Tetley, M. Christine (2005). The reconstructed chronology of the Divided Kingdom. Eisenbrauns. p. 99. ^ Bryce, Trevor (2009). The Routledge Handbook of The People and Places of Ancient Western Asia: The Near East from the Earky Bronze Age to the fall of the Persians Empire. Routledge. p. 342 ^ Wiseman, D. J. (1991). Nebuchadrezzar and Babylon. Oxford University Press. pp. 81–82. ^ a b c Ginsburg, H. L. in Pritchard 1969, p. 492 ^ Oppenheim, A. L. in Pritchard 1969, p. 291 ^ The Annals of Tiglath-pileser. Livius.org. Translation into English by Leo Oppenheim. Quote: "I [Tiglath Pileser III] received tribute from... Menahem of Samaria...gold, silver, ...". ^ Oppenheim, A. L. in Pritchard 1969, p. 283 ^ a b The Mesha Stele at the Louvre. Translation by K. C. Hanson (adapted from Albright 1969:320–21). ^ Birch, Samuel and Sayce, A. H. (1873). Records of the past: being English translations of the Ancient monuments of Egypt and western Asia. Society of Biblical Archaeology. p. 13. ^ "The Ishtar Gate", translation from "The Ishtar Gate, The Processional Way, The New Year Festival of Babylon". by Joachim Marzahn, Mainz am Rhein, Germany: Philipp von Zaubern, 1995. ^ Boardman, John. The Cambridge ancient history. Vol. III Part 2. p. 408. ^ Lipschitz, Oded (2005). The Fall and Rise of Jerusalem: Judah Under Babylonian Rule. Eisenbrauns. p. 80 ^ Greenspoon, Leonard (November 2007). "Recording of Gold Delivery by the Chief Eunuch of Nebuchadnezzar II". Biblical Archaeology Review. 33 (6): 18. ^ "Nabu-sharrussu-ukin, You Say?". British Heritage. 28 (6): 8. January 2008. Archived from the original on 2016-03-03. Retrieved January 25, 2015. ^ Oppenheim, A. L. in Pritchard 1969, p. 297 ^ Grabbe, Lester L. (2007). Ancient Israel: What Do We Know and How Do We Know It? New York: T&T Clark. p. 134 ^ Vanderkam, James C. (2001). An introduction to early Judaism. Wm. B. Eerdmans. p. 7. ^ "The Annals of Sargon Archived 2015-06-19 at the Wayback Machine". Excerpted from "Great Inscription in the Palace of Khorsabad", tr. Julius Oppert, in Records of the Past, vol. 9. London: Samuel Bagster and Sons, 1877. pp. 3–20. ^ Reade, Julian (October 1975). "Sources for Sennacherib: The Prisms". Journal of Cuneiform Studies, Vol. 27, No. 4. pp. 189–196 ^ Lipiński, Edward et al. (1995). Immigration and emigration within the ancient Near East. Peeters Publishers & Department of Oriental Studies, Leuven. pp. 36–41, 48. ^ Luckenbill, D. D. (April 1925). The First Inscription of Shalmaneser V. The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literature, Vol. 41, No. 3. pp. 162–164. ^ Coogan et al., 2010, p. 1016 [7] ^ Thomason, Allison Karmel (2004). "From Sennacherib's Bronzes to Taharqa's Feet: Conceptions of the Material World at Nineveh". Vol. 66. Papers of the 49th Rencontre Assriologique Internationale, Part One. pp. 151–162 ^ Coogan et al., 2010, p. 674 [8] ^ Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. p. 487. ^ Oppenheim, A. L. and Rosenthal, F. in Pritchard 1969, pp. 282–284, 655 ^ Fensham, Frank Charles (1982). The books of Ezra and Nehemiah. Eerdmans. p. 69. ^ Briant, Pierre (2006). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns, 2006, p. 554. ^ Schwartz, Daniel R. (2008). 2 Maccabees. Walter de Gruyter. p. 13 ^ Polybius, Book 33 Chapter 18 ^ a b Worthington, Ian, Alexander the Great: Man and God, Routledge, 2014, p. 66 [9] ^ a b Aeschines, 3.219 Against Ctesiphon ^ Mørkholm, O., Grierson, P.,, and Westermark, U. (1991). Early Hellenistic Coinage from the Accession of Alexander to the Peace of Apamaea (336–188 BC). Cambridge University Press. p. 42. ^ Scolnic, Benjamin Edidin (2010). Judaism Defined: Mattathias and the Destiny of His People. University Press of America. p. 226. ^ Polybius, Book 1 Chapter 3 ^ British Museum, # HPB, p150.1.C (in online collection) ^ Champion, Craige B. (2004). Cultural Politics in Polybius’s Histories. University of California Press. p. 188. ^ Polybius, Book 31 Chapter 21 ^ British Museum, # TC, p203.2.AntIV (in online collection) ^ Grainger, John D. (1997). A Seleukid Prosopography and Gazetteer. Brill. p. 28. Citing Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae 252 ^ British Museum, # 1995,0605.73 (in online collection) ^ Bartlett, J. R. (1973). The First and Second Books of the Maccabees. Cambridge University Press. p. 158. ^ Bing, D. and Sievers, J. "Antiochus VI". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 12 January 2016. ^ a b Astin, A. E. (1989). The Cambridge Ancient History. Volume 8. Cambridge University Press. p. 369. ^ Polybius, Book 21 Chapter 47 ^ Goodman, Martin; Barton, John; and Muddiman, John (eds.). The Oxford Bible Commentary: The Apocrypha. Oxford University Press, 2001. p. 158. ^ a b Gera, Dov (1998). Judaea and Mediterranean Politics: 219 to 161 B.C.E. Brill. p. 12. ^ Cyrus takes Babylon (530 BCE)(Livius.org) ^ a b Coogan et al., 2010, p. 1592 ^ Gruen, Erich S. (1986). The Hellenistic World and the Coming of Rome. Volume 1. University of California Press, 1986. p. 573. Citing Polybius, Book 30 Chapter 1 ^ Kosmin, Paul J. (2014). The Land of the Elephant Kings. Harvard University Press. p. 135. ^ a b Salisbury, Joyce E. (2001). Encyclopedia of Women in the Ancient World. ABC-CLIO. pp. 55–57. ^ Folmer, M. L. (1995). The Aramaic Language in the Achaemenid Period: A Study in Linguistic Variation. Peeters Publishers. pp. 27–28. ^ Astin, A. E. (1989). The Cambridge Ancient History. Volume 8. Cambridge University Press. p. 358. ^ Coogan et al., 2010, p. 1574 ^ Polybius, Book 31 Chapter 19 ^ a b Rahim Shayegan, M. (2011). Arsacids and Sasanians: Political Ideology in Post-Hellenistic and Late Antique Persia. Cambridge University Press. p. 68. ^ Jonnes, L. and Ricl, M. (1997). A New Royal Inscription from Phrygia Paroreios: Eumenes II Grants Tryriaion the Status of a Polis. Epigraphica Anatolica. 1997, pp. 4–9. ^ Geoffrey W. Bromiley (1982). International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. Wm. B. Eerdmans. pp. 199–200. Citing Polybius, Book 21 Chapter 45 ^ Schwartz, Daniel R. (2008). 2 Maccabees. Walter de Gruyter. p. 192. Citing Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae 247 ^ Coogan et al., 2010, p. 1604 ^ Coogan et al., 2010, p. 1576 ^ Thompson, Thomas L. and Wajdenbaum, Philippe (2014). The Bible and Hellenism: Greek Influence on Jewish and Early Christian Literature. Routledge. p. 203. ^ British Museum, # 1968,1207.9 (in online collection) ^ Warry, John (1991). Alexander 334–323 BC: Conquest of the Persian Empire. Osprey. p. 8. ^ British Museum, # 1896,0703.195 (in online collection) ^ Polybius, Book 4 Chapter 22 ^ Gera, Dov (1998). Judaea and Mediterranean Politics: 219 to 161 B.C.E. Brill. p. 12. Citing Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae 760 ^ Polybius, Book 39 Chapter 18 ^ Antiquities, B. XII, Chr. 4 § 10 ^ Grabbe, Lester L., An Introduction to First Century Judaism: Jewish Religion and History in the Second Temple Period, A&C Black, 1996, p. 22 [10] ^ Millar, Fergus, The Roman Near East, 31 BC–AD 337, Harvard University Press, 1993, p. 70 [11] ^ Feldman, Louis H., Josephus, the Bible, and History, Brill, 1989, p. 18 [12] ^ Antiquities, Book XVIII Chr. 5 § 2 ^ Coogan et al., 2010, p. 1973 [13] ^ Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome, Paul: a critical life, Oxford University Press, 1998, p. 4 [14] ^ Cate, Robert L., One untimely born: the life and ministry of the Apostle Paul Mercer University Press, 2006, p. 48 [15] ^ Levine, Amy-Jill ed., Allison, Dale C. Jr. ed., Crossan, John Dominic ed., The Historical Jesus in Context, Princeton University Press, 2008, [16] "Most scholars agree that Jesus was baptized by John, (...) engaged in healings and exorcisms, taught in parables, (...) and was crucified by Roman soldiers during the governorship of Pontius Pilate (26–36 CE)" ^ Stanton, Graham, The Gospels and Jesus Oxford University Press, 2nd ed. 2002, p. 145. He writes: "Today nearly all historians, whether Christians or not, accept that Jesus existed and that the gospels contain plenty of valuable evidence which has to be weighed and assessed critically." ^ Bockmuehl, Markus N. A., The Cambridge companion to Jesus, Cambridge University Press, 2001, p. 124 [17] "The fact that Jesus existed, that he was crucified under Pontius Pilate (...) seems to be part of the bedrock of historical tradition. If nothing else, the non-Christian evidence can provide us with certainty on that score" ^ Augustus (Roman Emperor) in the Encyclopædia Britannica ^ a b Metzger, Bruce M.; Coogan, Michael, eds. (1993). Oxford Companion to the Bible. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. p. 97. ISBN 978-0195046458. ^ Specter, Michael (August 14, 1992). "Tomb May Hold the Bones Of Priest Who Judged Jesus". The New York Times. New York City: New York Times Company. Retrieved January 11, 2019. ^ Charlesworth, James H. (2006). Jesus and archaeology. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 323–329. ISBN 978-0802848802. ^ a b Antiquities, B. XVII, Chr. 8, § 1 ^ Flavius Josephus, Wars of the Jews, translated by William Whiston, Book 2, Chr. 6, Par. 3 ^ a b c Kanael, Baruch Ancient Jewish Coins and Their Historical Importance in The Biblical Archaeologist Vol. 26, No. 2 (May, 1963), p. 52 ^ Toher, Mark, in Herod and Augustus: Papers Presented at the IJS Conference, 21st-23rd June 2005 (edited by Jacobson, David M. & Kokkinos, Nikos), Brill, 2009, p. 71 [18] ^ Nicolaus of Damascus, Autobiography, translated by C.M.Hall, fragment 134 ^ a b Antiquities, B. XVIII Chr. 5 § 4 ^ Hoehner, Harold W., Herod Antipas: A Contemporary of Jesus Christ, Zondervan, 1980, pp. 133–134 ^ "Tomb of Apostle Philip Found". biblicalarchaeology.org. 16 August 2014. Retrieved 1 September 2015. ^ Antiquities, B. XVII, Chr. 11 § 4 ^ Myers, E. A., The Ituraeans and the Roman Near East: Reassessing the Sources [19], Cambridge University Press 2010, p. 111 ^ a b Freedman, D.N. (ed), Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible [20], Wm. B. Eerdmans 2000, Philip the Tetrarch: p. 584, Nergal-Sharezer: p. 959 ^ Taylor, Joan E., Pontius Pilate and the Imperial Cult in Roman Judaea in New Testament Studies, 52:564–565, Cambridge University Press 2006 ^ Pilate Stone, translation by K. C. Hanson & Douglas E. Oakman ^ a b Antiquities, B. XVIII Chr. 1 § 1 ^ Levick, Barbara, The Government of the Roman Empire: A Sourcebook [21], 2nd ed. Routledge 2000, p. 75 ^ Marcus Velleius Paterculus, Roman History, Book 2, Chr. 122 ^ Salome in the Encyclopædia Britannica ^ a b Letter to the Corinthians (Clement) ^ a b From the exposition of the oracles of the Lord. ^ a b The Epistle of Ignatius to the Romans ^ The Epistle of Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans ^ Antiquities, B. XX Chr. 5 § 2 ^ a b c d Antiquities, B. XX Chr. 7 ^ Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, The Twelve Caesars, translated by J. C. Rolfe, Book V, par. 28 ^ Cornelius Tacitus, Annals, translated by Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb, Book XII Chr. 54 ^ Cate, Robert L., One Untimely Born: The Life and Ministry of the Apostle Paul, Mercer University Press, 2006, p. 117, 120 [22] ^ Antiquities, B. XVIII Chr. 5 § 1 ^ Healey, John F., Textbook of Syrian Semitic Inscriptions, Volume IV: Aramaic Inscriptions and Documents of the Roman Period, Oxford University Press 2009, pp. 55–57, 77–79, etc. ^ Galil, Gershon & Weinfeld, Moshe, Studies in Historical Geography and Biblical Historiography: Presented to Zechariah Kallai (Supplements to Vetus Testamentum), Brill Academic Publishers 2000, p. 85 ^ Cornelius Tacitus, The Histories, translated by Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb, Book II, par. 2 ^ Burgers, P., Coinage and State Expenditure: The Reign of Claudius AD 41–54 [23] in Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte Vol. 50, No. 1 (1st Qtr., 2001), pp. 96–114 ^ Borgen, Peder, Early Christianity and Hellenistic Judaism, T&T Clark, 1998, p. 55 [24] ^ Lucius Annaeus Seneca, Letter 104 from Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium, translation by Richard M. Gummere ^ Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, Gallio Inscription Archived 2011-05-18 at the Wayback Machine, translation by K. C. Hanson (adapted from Conzelmann and Fitzmyer). ^ Flavius Josephus, The Life of Flavius Josephus, translated by William Whiston, paragraph 38. ^ Gamaliel I in the Jewish Encyclopedia ^ Antiquities, B. XVIII Chr. 6 § 1 ^ Bruce, F.F. The Book of Acts (revised), part of The New international commentary on the New Testament, Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1988 ^ Spurious Epistles of St. Ignatius of Antioch ^ Kinman, Brent, Jesus' Entry Into Jerusalem: In the Context of Lukan Theology and the Politics of His Days, BRILL, 1995, p. 18 [25] ^ Coinweek - NGC Ancients: Roman Coinage of Emperor Nero ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 16 May 2019.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) by Peter M. Head, Tyndale Bulletin 51 (2000), pp. 1–16 http://www.tyndale.cam.ac.uk/Tyndale/staff/Head/NTOxyPap.htm#_ftn39 Archived 17 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine ^ St Paul ^ St. Polycarp ^ The Epistle of Ignatius to the Ephesians ^ Antiquities, Book XX, Chr. 8, § 9 ^ Yamazaki-Ransom, K., The Roman Empire in Luke's Narrative, Continuum, 2010, p. 145 [26] ^ a b Dever, William G. (2017). Beyond the Texts: An Archaeological Portrait of Ancient Israel and Judah. SBL Press. p. 492. ISBN 9780884142171. ^ a b Irvine, Stuart A. (2002). "The rise of the House of Jehu". In Dearman, J. Andrew; Graham, M. Patrick (eds.). The Land that I Will Show You: Essays on the History and Archaeology of the Ancient Near East in Honor of J. Maxwell Miller. A&C Black. pp. 113–115. ISBN 9780567355805. ^ Becking, Bob E.J.H.; Grabbe, Lester, eds. (2010). Between Evidence and Ideology: Essays on the History of Ancient Israel Read at the Joint Meeting of the Society for Old Testament Study and the Oud Testamentisch Werkgezelschap Lincoln. Brill. p. 18. ISBN 9789004187375. ^ Heltzer, Michael, THE SEAL OF ˓AŚAYĀHŪ. In Hallo, 2000, Vol. II p. 204 ^ Avigad, Nahman (1997). Corpus of West Semitic Stamp Seals (2 ed.). Institute of Archaeology, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. p. 237. ISBN 978-9652081384.; WSS 90, published by the Israel Academy of Sciences & Humanities ^ a b c Schneider, Tsvi, Six Biblical Signatures: Seals and seal impressions of six biblical personages recovered', Biblical Archaeology Review, July/August 1991 ^ Grabbe, Lester L., Can a 'History of Israel' Be Written?, Continuum International, 1997, pp. 80–82 [27] ^ a b Mykytiuk, Lawrence J., Identifying Biblical persons in Northwest Semitic inscriptions of 1200-539 B.C.E., Society of Biblical Literature, 2004, Baalis: p. 242 [28]; Jeroboam: p. 136 [29] ^ Xenophon of Athens, Hellenica, Book 1, Chapter 2 ^ VanderKam, James C., From revelation to canon: studies in the Hebrew Bible and Second Temple literature, Volume 2000, Brill, 2002, p. 181 [30] ^ Freedman, David N., The Unity of the Hebrew Bible, University of Michigan Press, 1993, p. 93 [31] ^ Wright, G. Ernest, Some Personal Seals of Judean Royal Officials [32] in The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 1, No. 2 (May, 1938), pp. 10–12 ^ Unique biblical discovery at City of David excavation site [33], Israel Ministry of Foreign affairs; 18-Aug-2008. Retrieved 2009-11-16 ^ Ogden, D. Kelly Bulla *2 "To Gemaryahu ben Shaphan", published by Brigham Young University. Dept. of Religious Education ^ Wright, G. Ernest Judean Lachish in The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 18, No. 1 (Feb., 1955), pp. 9–17 ^ Josette Elayi, New Light on the Identification of the Seal of Priest Hanan, son of Hilqiyahu (2 Kings 22), Bibliotheca Orientalis, 5/6, September–November 1992, 680–685. ^ Mazar, Eilat. Is This the "Prophet Isaiah’s Signature?" Biblical Archaeology Review 44:2, March/April May/June 2018. ^ In find of biblical proportions, seal of Prophet Isaiah said found in Jerusalem. By Amanda Borschel-Dan. The Times of Israel. 22 February 2018. Quote: "Chanced upon near a seal identified with King Hezekiah, a tiny clay piece may be the first-ever proof of the prophet, though a missing letter leaves room for doubt." ^ "Isaiah’s Signature Uncovered in Jerusalem: Evidence of the prophet Isaiah?" By Megan Sauter. Bible History Daily. Biblical Archeology Society. 22 Feb 2018. Quote by Mazar: "Because the bulla has been slightly damaged at end of the word nvy, it is not known if it originally ended with the Hebrew letter aleph, which would have resulted in the Hebrew word for "prophet" and would have definitively identified the seal as the signature of the prophet Isaiah. The absence of this final letter, however, requires that we leave open the possibility that it could just be the name Navi. The name of Isaiah, however, is clear." ^ http://theosophical.wordpress.com/2011/07/15/biblical-archaeology-4-the-moabite-stone-a-k-a-mesha-stele/ ^ Athas, George (2006). The Tel Dan Inscription: A Reappraisal and a New Introduction. A&C Black. pp. 240–242. ISBN 9780567040435. ^ Clay seal connects to Bible in The Washington Times, Wednesday, October 1, 2008 ^ Avigad, Nahman, Baruch the Scribe and Jerahmeel the King's Son [34] in The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 42, No. 2 (Spring, 1979), pp. 114–118 ^ Boardman, John, The Cambridge ancient history, Vol. 3 Part 1, p. 501 [35] ^ Korpel, Marjo C.A., Scholars Debate “Jezebel” Seal, Biblical Archaeology Review ^ Albright, W. F. in Pritchard 1969, p. 569 ^ Weiss, Bari.The Story Behind a 2,600-Year-Old Seal Who was Natan-Melech, the king’s servant?. New York Times. March 30, 2019 ^ 2,600-year old seal discovered in City of David. Jerusalem Post. April 1, 2019 ^ The Chronicle Concerning Year Three of Neriglissar, translation adapted from A. K. Grayson & Jean-Jacques Glassner ^ Deutsch, Robert, Tracking Down Shebnayahu, Servant of the King in Biblical Archaeology Review May/Jun 2009 ^ Grabbe, Lester L., Israel in transition: from late Bronze II to Iron IIa (c. 1250–850 B.C.E.), Continuum International Publishing Group, 2010, p. 84 [36] ^ Schreiber, N., The Cypro-Phoenician pottery of the Iron Age, Brill, 2003 p. 87 [37] ^ Steitler, Charles (2010). "The Biblical King Toi of Ḥamath and the Late Hittite State "P/Walas(a)tin"". Bibische Notizen (146): 95. ^ The History of King David in Light of New Epigraphic and Archeological Data, (link), website of University of Haifa, citing publications by Gershon Galil from 2013-2014 ^ Simon, Zsolt (2014). "Remarks on the Anatolian Background of the Tel Reḥov Bees and the Historical Geography of the Luwian States in the 10th c. BC". In Csabai, Zoltán (ed.). Studies in Economic and Social History of the Ancient Near East in Memory of Péter Vargyas. The University of Pécs, Department of Ancient History. pp. 724–725. ISBN 9789632367958. ^ Haydn, Howell M. Azariah of Judah and Tiglath-Pileser III in Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 28, No. 2 (1909), pp. 182–199 ^ Day, John In search of pre-exilic Israel: proceedings of the Oxford Old Testament Seminar p. 376 ^ Healey, John F., The Religion of the Nabataeans: A Conspectus, Brill, 2001, p. 29 [38] ^ Vanderkam, James C., in The Continuum History of Apocalypticism [39] (edited by McGinn, Bernard J.; Collins, John J.; Stein, Stephen J.), Continuum, 2003, p. 133 ^ Frankfurter, David, Pilgrimage and Holy Space in Late Antique Egypt [40], Brill, 1998, p. 206 ^ D. Barag and D. Flusser, The Ossuary of Yehohanah Granddaughter of the High Priest Theophilus, Israel Exploration Journal, 36 (1986), 39–44. ^ Richard Bauckham, Gospel Women: Studies of the Named Women in the Gospels (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2002), 143 ^ a b Gill, David W. J. (ed.) & Gempf, Conrad (ed.), The Book of Acts in Its Graeco-Roman Setting [41] Wm. B. Eerdmans 1994, p. 282 ^ Bromiley, Geoffrey W. (ed.), The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia Vol. III: K–P [42] Wm. B. Eerdmans 1986, pp. 729–730 (entry Paulus, Sergius) ^ Kerr, C. M., International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Wm. B. Eerdmans 1939, entry Lysanias [43] ^ Morris, Leon, Luke: an introduction and commentary [44] Wm. B. Eerdmans 1988, p. 28 Bibliography[edit] Coogan, M. D.; Brettler, M. Z.; Newsom, C. A.; et al., eds. (2010). The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195289602. Hallo, William W., ed. (1997–2002). The Context of Scripture. Brill. ISBN 9789004131057. OCLC 902087326. (3 Volumes) Flavius, Josephus. Antiquities of the Jews . Translated by Whiston, William. Polybius. Histories. Translated by Shuckburgh, Evelyn Shirley. Pritchard, James B., ed. (1969). Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament with Supplement (3d ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691035031. OCLC 5342384. v t e The Bible and history General studies Biblical criticism Biblical studies History of ancient Israel and Judah Quest for the historical Jesus Jesus in comparative mythology Historicity Biblical archaeology Historicity of Jesus sources Historicity of the Bible Historical reliability of the Gospels List of artifacts in biblical archaeology List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources List of burial places of biblical figures List of Hebrew Bible manuscripts List of New Testament papyri List of New Testament uncials Historical Jesus Criticism Criticism of the Bible Christ myth theory Bible Portal Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_biblical_figures_identified_in_extra-biblical_sources&oldid=1000292050" Categories: Ancient Israel and Judah Hebrew Bible people Bible-related lists of people Biblical archaeology Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links CS1 maint: archived copy as title Incomplete lists from August 2008 Articles containing Biblical Hebrew-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2010 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Bahasa Indonesia Slovenčina Edit links This page was last edited on 14 January 2021, at 14:40 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5363	----	300: Rise of an Empire - Wikipedia 300: Rise of an Empire From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2014 film directed by Noam Murro 300: Rise of an Empire Theatrical release poster Directed by Noam Murro Produced by Gianni Nunnari Mark Canton Zack Snyder Deborah Snyder Bernie Goldman Screenplay by Zack Snyder Kurt Johnstad Based on Xerxes[a] by Frank Miller Starring Sullivan Stapleton Eva Green Lena Headey Hans Matheson Rodrigo Santoro Music by Junkie XL[3] Cinematography Simon Duggan Edited by Wyatt Smith David Brenner Production companies Legendary Pictures Cruel and Unusual Films Atmosphere Pictures Hollywood Gang Productions Distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures Release date March 4, 2014 (2014-03-04) (TCL Chinese Theatre)[4] March 7, 2014 (2014-03-07) (United States) Running time 102 minutes[5] Country United States Language English Budget $110 million[6] Box office $337.6 million[6] 300: Rise of an Empire is a 2014 American epic action film written and produced by Zack Snyder and directed by Noam Murro. It is a sequel to the 2006 film 300, taking place before, during, and after the main events of that film, and is loosely based on the Battle of Artemisium and the Battle of Salamis.[7] The cast includes Lena Headey, Peter Mensah, David Wenham, Andrew Tiernan, Andrew Pleavin, and Rodrigo Santoro reprising their roles from the first film, alongside Sullivan Stapleton, Eva Green, Hans Matheson, and Callan Mulvey. It was released in 3D and IMAX 3D on March 7, 2014.[8][9] The film's score was composed by Junkie XL.[10] The film was released to mixed reviews, with critics praising the action sequences, music, cinematography, visual effects and Green's performance but criticizing the story and overstylized gore. It grossed over $337 million worldwide from a $110 million budget.[6] Contents 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production 4 Reception 4.1 Box office 4.2 Critical reception 5 Release 5.1 Historical accuracy 5.2 Home media 6 Future 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 External links Plot[edit] Queen Gorgo of Sparta tells her men about the Battle of Marathon, in which King Darius of Persia was killed by General Themistocles of Athens ten years earlier. Darius's son, Xerxes, witnesses his father's death and is advised to not continue the war since "only the gods can defeat the Greeks". Darius's naval commander, Artemisia, claims that Darius' last words were, in fact, a challenge and sends Xerxes on a journey through the desert. Xerxes finally reaches a cave and bathes in an otherworldly liquid, emerging as the 8-foot tall "God-King". He returns to Persia and declares war on Greece to avenge his father. As Xerxes's forces advance towards Thermopylae, Themistocles meets with the council and convinces them to provide him with a fleet to engage the Persians at the sea. Themistokles then travels to Sparta to ask King Leonidas for help, but is informed by Dilios that Leonidas is consulting the Oracle, and Gorgo is reluctant to side with Athens. Themistocles later reunites with his old friend Scyllias, who infiltrated the Persian troops and learned Artemisia was born Greek, but defected to Persia as her family was raped and murdered by Greek hoplites. She was taken as a sex slave and subsequently left for dead in the streets. She was rescued and adopted by a Persian emissary. Her lust for vengeance gained the attention of King Darius and he made her a naval commander after she killed many of his enemies. Themistokles also learns that Leonidas has marched to fight the Persians with only 300 men. Themistocles leads his fleet of fifty warships and several thousand men, which include Scyllias, Scyllias's son Calisto, and Themistocles' right-hand man Aeskylos to the Aegean Sea, starting the Battle of Artemisium. They ram their ships into the Persian ships, charge them, slaughtering several soldiers before retreating from the sinking Persian ships. The following day, the Greeks feign a retreat and lead a group of Persian ships into a crevice, where they become stuck. The Greeks charge the Persian ships from the cliffs above and kill more Persians. Impressed with Themistocles' skills, Artemisia brings him onto her ship where she has sex with him in an attempt to lure him to the Persian side as her second-in-command. They fight and make love simultaneously. He refuses her offer, causing her to dismiss him. The Persians spill tar into the sea and send suicide bombers to swim to and board the Greek ships with their flame bombs. Artemisia and her men fire flaming arrows and torches to ignite the tar, but an Athenian manages to kill one of the Persians, who falls into the tar carrying a torch, causing ships from both sides to explode. Themistocles is thrown into the sea by an explosion and nearly drowns before being rescued by Aeskylos, and stands by Scyllias's side as he succumbs to his injuries. Believing Themistocles to be dead, Artemisia and her forces withdraw. After recovering from his injuries, Themistocles learns that only a few hundred of his warriors and six of his ships survived the disastrous attack executed by Artemisia. Daxos, an Arcadian general, tells Themistocles that Leonidas and his 300 men were killed after Ephialtes betrayed the Greeks to Xerxes. Themistocles returns to Athens and confronts Ephialtes. The deformed Spartan traitor reveals that Xerxes plans to attack and burn Athens to the ground. Ephialtes acknowledges and regrets his betrayal shamefully, and welcomes death. Themistocles spares him instead, so he can warn Xerxes that the Greek forces are gathering at Salamis. He then visits Gorgo in Sparta while she is mourning Leonidas's death to ask for help, but Gorgo is angry for what the goal of a united Greece has cost her and her people. Before departing, Themistocles returns Leonidas's sword, which had been delivered to him by Ephialtes under Xerxes's orders, and urges Gorgo to avenge Leonidas. In Athens, Xerxes's army is laying waste when Ephialtes arrives to deliver Themistocles' message. Upon learning he is alive, Artemisia leaves to ready her entire navy for battle. Xerxes suggests it is most likely a trap, but she still leaves after reminding him that she made him king through her efforts while he sat safely at a distance and watched. The remaining Greek ships charge into the Persians ships, and the two armies battle, beginning the decisive Battle of Salamis. Themistocles and Artemisia engage in a duel, which ends in a stalemate with both receiving severe injuries. At this moment Gorgo, who had been narrating the tale to the Spartans, arrives at the battle along with ships from numerous Greek city states including Delphi, Thebes, Olympia, Arcadia, and Sparta, all of them uniting against the surrounded Persians. Daxos leads the Arcadian army while Themistocles urges Artemisia to surrender. Xerxes, watching the battle from a cliff, turns his back on her, acknowledging his naval defeat and continuing the march of his army. Artemisia tries to kill Themistocles one last time but is killed as he stabs her through the stomach. While Dilios leads the Greek assault, Themistocles and Gorgo take a moment to silently acknowledge one another's alliance as the remaining Persians attempt a counter-attack. The three then charge at the opposing Persians with the whole Greek army. Cast[edit] Sullivan Stapleton as Themistocles Eva Green as Artemisia Caitlin Carmichael as 8-year-old Artemisia Jade Chynoweth as 13-year-old Artemisia Lena Headey as Queen Gorgo Rodrigo Santoro as King Xerxes Jack O'Connell as Calisto Hans Matheson as Aeschylus[11] Callan Mulvey as Scyllias David Wenham as Dilios Andrew Tiernan as Ephialtes Yigal Naor as King Darius I[12] Andrew Pleavin as Daxos Ben Turner as General Artaphernes Ashraf Barhom as General Bandari Christopher Sciueref as General Kashani Peter Mensah as Artemisia's trainer / Persian messenger Gerard Butler as King Leonidas (flashback)[13] Additionally, a computer-generated facsimile is used to represent Leonidas in a separate scene. Michael Fassbender as Stelios (flashback) Production[edit] In June 2008, producers Gianni Nunnari, Mark Canton, and Bernie Goldmann revealed that work had begun on a sequel to 300.[14] Legendary Pictures announced that Frank Miller, who wrote the 1998 comic book limited series on which the film 300 was based, was writing a follow-up graphic novel, and Zack Snyder, co-screenwriter and director of 300, was interested in directing the adaptation, but instead chose to develop and direct the Superman reboot Man of Steel.[15][16] Noam Murro directed instead, while Snyder produced and co-wrote. The film was centered on the Greek leader Themistocles, portrayed by Australian actor Sullivan Stapleton.[17] During pre-production, the film was titled 300: Battle of Artemisium (although this was widely misreported as "Battle of Artemisia");[18] the film was retitled 300: Rise of an Empire in September 2012.[19] Principal photography commenced in early July 2012 at the Nu Boyana Film Studios in Sofia, Bulgaria.[20] On May 10, 2013, it was announced the film's release date would be pushed back from August 2, 2013, to March 7, 2014.[8] Reception[edit] Box office[edit] 300: Rise of an Empire grossed $106.6 million in North America and $231 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $337.6 million, against a production budget of $110 million.[6] In North America, the film opened to number one in its first weekend with $45 million.[21] In its second weekend, the film dropped to number two, grossing an additional $19.2 million.[22] In its third weekend, the film dropped to number five, grossing $8.5 million.[23] In its fourth weekend, the film dropped to number nine, grossing $4.2 million.[24] Critical reception[edit] 300: Rise of an Empire received mixed reviews from critics. Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an approval rating of 44% based on 193 reviews, with an average rating of 4.98/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "It's bound to hit some viewers as an empty exercise in stylish gore, and despite a gonzo starring performance from Eva Green, 300: Rise of an Empire is a step down from its predecessor."[25] On Metacritic, the film has a score of 48 out of 100 score, based on 34 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[26] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale, down the A- received by its predecessor.[27] Todd Gilchrist of The Wrap gave the film a negative review, saying "Rise of an Empire lacks director Snyder's shrewd deconstruction of cartoonish hagiography, undermining the glorious, robust escapism of testosterone-fueled historical reenactment with an underdog story that's almost too reflective to be rousing."[28] Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film a negative review, saying "Although Gerard Butler's star has significantly fallen due to the 17 mediocre films he's made since 300, it must be admitted that he's missed here."[29] Scott Foundas of Variety gave the film a positive review, saying "This highly entertaining time-filler lacks the mythic resonances that made 300 feel like an instant classic, but works surprisingly well on its own terms."[13] Guy Lodge of Time Out gave the film three out of five stars, saying "It's flesh and carnage that the audience is here to see, and Murro delivers it by the glistening ton, pausing only for stray bits of backstory."[30] Kyle Smith of the New York Post gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying "The film works as a high-tech boy-fantasy successor to Conan the Barbarian."[31] Soren Anderson of The Seattle Times gave the film three out of five stars, saying "Rise of an Empire is not great by any stretch of the imagination, but it's very impressive in its single-minded dedication to creating a moviegoing experience designed to totally engulf its audience."[32] James Rocchi of Film.com gave the film a zero out of ten, saying "Long on crimson spurts of blood but low on character, larded with production value but bereft of any other kind of it, 300: Rise of an Empire is a 3D joke."[33] James Berardinelli of ReelViews gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying "The lack of a creative driver behind the film leads to a level of fundamental dissatisfaction. The movie delivers all the necessary elements but their impact is dull."[34] Joe Neumaier of the New York Daily News gave the film one out of five stars, saying "The film winds up looking like an ashen video game. It's even more muddy in IMAX and 3-D."[35] Colin Covert of the Star Tribune gave the film two out of four stars, saying "300: Rise of an Empire plays like a collaboration between the Marquis de Sade and Michael Bay. Or maybe the History Channel and the Saw franchise."[36] Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post gave the film one out of four stars, saying "Rise of an Empire is no fun at all – even those famous six-pack abs from 300 seem to be missing a can or two in this desperate attempt to up an already dubious ante."[37] Drew Hunt of the Chicago Reader gave the film a negative review, saying "The slow-motion battle scenes are technically impressive and occasionally elegant, but there's enough machismo here to choke a thousand NFL locker rooms."[38] Richard Roeper gave the film three and a half stars out of four, calling the film "A triumph of production design, costumes, brilliantly choreographed battle sequences and stunning CGI."[39] Scott Bowles of USA Today gave the film two out of four stars, saying "For anyone looking for a sense of script (forget plausibility), Empire is a Trojan horse."[40] Betsy Sharkey of the Los Angeles Times gave the film a positive review, saying "The spectacularly brutal fighting is the film's main calling card, and in that Rise of an Empire doesn't disappoint."[41] Nicolas Rapold of The New York Times gave the film a mixed review, saying "The naval collisions and melees play out in panel-like renderings that are bold and satisfying for the first half-hour but lack the momentum and bombastic je ne sais quoi of 300."[42] David Hiltbrand of The Philadelphia Inquirer gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying "With its slo-mo ultraviolence, gushers of blood, impressive 3-D effects, homoerotic subtext, and self-important plot, this is a fan boy's fantasy, a four-star wonderment."[43] Tom Long of The Detroit News gave the film a D, saying "300: Rise of an Empire is a bloodbath and not much else."[44] Adam Nayman of The Globe and Mail gave the film one and a half stars out of four, saying "An extension of the 300 universe, like an add-on content pack for a video game."[45] Mark Jenkins of NPR gave the film a negative review, saying "If the movie's action recalls video games, the dramatically artificial lighting suggests 1980s rock videos. Indeed, Rise of an Empire is so campy that it might work better as a musical."[46] Stephen Whitty of the Newark Star-Ledger gave the film one and a half stars out of four, saying "There is much grinding of teeth, and mauling of history, and anachronistic use of gunpowder, until we plug our ears and desperately pray to the gods of Olympus, or the brothers of Warner, that they might make an end."[47] Despite mixed reviews for the film as a whole, Eva Green's performance as the naval officer Artemisia received positive reviews, with some going so far as to say she was more interesting than the heroes, and saved the film. Ty Burr of The Boston Globe, in his positive review stated, "Rise of an Empire may strike some as an improvement on the first film, if only for two reasons: naval warfare and the glorious absurdity of Eva Green."[48] According to Rafer Guzman's Newsday review, "The one bright spot is Eva Green as Xerxes' machinator, Artemesia, a raccoon-eyed warrior princess... Green plays a snarling, insatiable, self-hating femme fatale and completely steals the show."[49] And perhaps most emphatically, Stephanie Zacharek writing for The Village Voice exclaimed, "Rise of an Empire might have been essentially more of the same, but for one distinction that makes it 300 times better than its predecessor: Mere mortals of Athens, Sparta, and every city from Mumbai to Minneapolis, behold the magnificent Eva Green, and tremble!"[50] Some critics have identified the film as an example of Iranophobia.[51] Release[edit] Historical accuracy[edit] The Guardian's historical films reviewer, Alex von Tunzelmann, discredited the film's historical legitimacy, giving it the classification of "History grade: Fail." She itemizes numerous historical errors in the film, including the pivotal (and false) scene in which Themistocles kills Darius the Great at the Battle of Marathon, even though he wasn't present at the time and died of natural causes years later.[52] Tunzelmann further quotes Persian Fire author, historian Tom Holland—who translated Herodotus's Histories, and is an expert on the Greco-Persian wars—as comparing the film to a wild fantasy substitute for actual historic reality.[52] Paul Cartledge, a professor of Greek culture at Cambridge University, also noted historical errors in the film. For example, Darius was not killed as depicted as neither Xerxes nor Darius was present at the Battle of Marathon. Artemisia, historically a queen and not an abused, orphaned slave, actually argued against sailing into the straits and survived the Persian Wars. In addition, the Spartan navy contributed a mere sixteen warships to the Greek fleet of 400 warships in the ending battle scene, not the huge armada shown.[53][54] Home media[edit] 300: Rise of an Empire was released on the iTunes Store on June 3, 2014, and was released on DVD and Blu-ray on June 24.[55] Future[edit] In a 2016 interview, Snyder stated that more sequels to 300 would focus on topics beyond Ancient Greece, such as the American Revolutionary War, the Battle of the Alamo or a battle in China.[56] See also[edit] List of historical drama films Notes[edit] ^ Unpublished at the time of the release of the film.[1][2] References[edit] ^ Schaefer, Sandy (June 2, 2010). "First Look At '300′ Prequel Comic Book". ScreenRant. Archived from the original on January 30, 2013. Retrieved February 1, 2013. ^ Sitterson, Aubrey. "Comic-Con 2011: Xerxes Is Now 300: Battle of Artemisia". UGO Networks. Archived from the original on February 19, 2013. Retrieved February 1, 2013. ^ "Junkie XL score composer for 300: Rise of an Empire". 300themovie.com. Archived from the original on October 3, 2013. Retrieved August 15, 2013. ^ Johns, Nikara (March 5, 2014). "'Unapologetic,' 'Strong' Female Leads Praised at '300: Rise of an Empire' Premiere". Variety. Archived from the original on March 8, 2014. Retrieved March 7, 2014. ^ "300: Rise of an Empire (15)". British Board of Film Classification. January 13, 2014. Archived from the original on March 7, 2014. Retrieved January 16, 2014. ^ a b c d "300: Rise of An Empire (2014)". Box Office Mojo. Archived from the original on June 1, 2014. Retrieved June 5, 2014. ^ "Rodrigo Santoro Back For 300 Sequel?". Empireonline.com. Archived from the original on March 7, 2014. Retrieved August 15, 2013. ^ a b "300: Rise of an Empire and All You Need is Kill Pushed Back". ComingSoon. Archived from the original on June 7, 2013. Retrieved May 10, 2013. ^ "IMAX and Warner Bros. Partner to Bring 20 New Pictures to IMAX® Theatres". IMAX. Archived from the original on November 18, 2012. Retrieved November 15, 2012. ^ "Junkie XL Scoring '300: Rise of an Empire'". Filmmusicreporter.com. Archived from the original on October 12, 2013. Retrieved August 15, 2013. ^ "synopsis". 300themovie.com. Archived from the original on August 5, 2013. Retrieved August 15, 2013. ^ "IMDb Pro : 300: Rise of an Empire Business Details". Pro.imdb.com. July 27, 2007. Retrieved August 15, 2013. ^ a b Scott Foundas (March 3, 2014). "'300: Rise of an Empire' Review: Eva Green Stars in Entertaining Sequel". Variety. Archived from the original on December 10, 2017. Retrieved March 8, 2014. ^ Frosty (June 25, 2008). "Producers Mark Canton, Gianni Nunnari and Bernie Goldmann Exclusive Video Interview". Collider.com. Archived from the original on June 28, 2008. Retrieved June 26, 2008. ^ Diane Garrett (June 29, 2008). "New 300 rallies troops". Variety. Reed Business Information. Archived from the original on July 3, 2008. Retrieved June 30, 2008. ^ Mike Fleming (June 27, 2011). "'Xerxes' Pic Down To Noam Murro And Jaume Collett-Serra For '300' Spinoff". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved June 27, 2011. ^ "'300' The Prequel: Meet The New Xerxes". Moviepilot.com. February 8, 2012. Archived from the original on February 7, 2012. Retrieved February 9, 2012. ^ "300 Follow-Up Gets Official Title | Movie News | Empire". Empireonline.com. Archived from the original on November 27, 2012. Retrieved October 8, 2012. ^ Kit, Borys (September 13, 2012). "Warner Bros. Gives '300' Sequel a New Title". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on September 13, 2012. Retrieved September 13, 2012. ^ "A James Bond girl arrives in Bulgaria". EuroPost. July 13, 2012. Archived from the original on February 2, 2014. Retrieved July 16, 2012. ^ "Weekend Box Office Results for March 7–9, 2014". Box Office Mojo. Archived from the original on October 9, 2014. Retrieved March 14, 2014. ^ "Weekend Box Office Results for March 14–16, 2014". Box Office Mojo. Archived from the original on October 9, 2014. Retrieved March 26, 2014. ^ "Weekend Box Office Results for March 21–23, 2014". Box Office Mojo. Archived from the original on October 9, 2014. Retrieved March 26, 2014. ^ "Weekend Box Office Results for March 28–30, 2014". Box Office Mojo. Archived from the original on October 9, 2014. Retrieved April 1, 2014. ^ "300: Rise of an Empire (2014)". Rotten Tomatoes. Archived from the original on March 23, 2018. Retrieved May 8, 2020. ^ "300: Rise of an Empire". Metacritic. Archived from the original on March 7, 2014. Retrieved March 4, 2014. ^ "CinemaScore". cinemascore.com. Archived from the original on January 2, 2018. Retrieved December 10, 2018. ^ "'300: Rise of An Empire' Review: More of the Same, But Slightly Less". TheWrap. March 3, 2014. Archived from the original on March 6, 2014. Retrieved March 8, 2014. ^ McCarthy, Todd (March 3, 2014). "300: Rise of an Empire: Film Review". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on March 6, 2014. Retrieved March 8, 2014. ^ Guy Lodge. "300: Rise of an Empire | review, synopsis, book tickets, showtimes, movie release date | Time Out London". Timeout.com. Archived from the original on March 11, 2014. Retrieved March 8, 2014. ^ Smith, Kyle (February 26, 2014). "March into battle with '300: Rise of an Empire' | New York Post". Nypost.com. Archived from the original on December 10, 2017. Retrieved March 8, 2014. ^ Andersen, Soren. "'300: Rise of an Empire': This violent sequel means war | Entertainment". The Seattle Times. Archived from the original on August 29, 2014. Retrieved March 8, 2014. ^ James Rocch. "Review: '300: Rise Of An Empire'". Film.com. Archived from the original on March 11, 2014. Retrieved March 8, 2014. ^ "Reelviews Movie Reviews". Reelviews.net. Archived from the original on March 18, 2015. Retrieved March 8, 2014. ^ "'300: Rise of an Empire,' movie review". New York: NY Daily News. March 6, 2014. Archived from the original on March 7, 2014. Retrieved March 8, 2014. ^ Colin Covert. "Sequel to '300': In your face, Themistokles!". Star Tribune. Archived from the original on March 7, 2014. Retrieved March 8, 2014. ^ Ann Hornaday (March 6, 2014). "'300: Rise of an Empire' movie review: Sequel is no fun at all". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on December 10, 2017. Retrieved March 8, 2014. ^ Hunt, Drew. "300: Rise of an Empire | Chicago". Chicagoreader.com. Archived from the original on March 20, 2014. Retrieved March 8, 2014. ^ "300: Rise of an Empire" Review". RichardRoeper.com. Archived from the original on March 11, 2014. Retrieved March 8, 2014. ^ "'300' sequel amps up blood, tamps down believability". Usatoday.com. February 18, 2014. Archived from the original on November 27, 2017. Retrieved March 8, 2014. ^ Sharkey, Betsy (March 6, 2014). "Review: '300: Rise of an Empire' looks great but is weak in plot". latimes.com. Archived from the original on March 7, 2014. Retrieved March 8, 2014. ^ Rapold, Nicolas (March 3, 2014). "In '300: Rise of an Empire,' Greeks Under Siege Again". The New York Times. Archived from the original on November 18, 2018. Retrieved March 8, 2014. ^ David Hiltbrand (October 22, 2012). "The Athenians are coming! The Athenians are coming!". Philly.com. Archived from the original on March 7, 2014. Retrieved March 8, 2014. ^ "Review: '300: Rise of an Empire' celebrates excessive, pointless violence". The Detroit News. March 3, 2014. Archived from the original on March 8, 2014. Retrieved March 8, 2014. ^ Adam Nayman (March 7, 2014). "300: Rise of an Empire: A brutal campaign with an Xbox aesthetic". Toronto: The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on December 10, 2017. Retrieved March 8, 2014. ^ Jenkins, Mark. "Movie Review – '300: Rise Of An Empire' – Gore, Glamour, And A Goth Warrior Maiden". NPR. Archived from the original on December 1, 2017. Retrieved March 8, 2014. ^ "'300: Rise of an Empire' review: It's Greek to me". NJ.com. Archived from the original on March 15, 2014. Retrieved March 8, 2014. ^ Burr, Ty. "'300' takes a sidetrip, in 3-D – Movies". Boston.com. Archived from the original on March 10, 2014. Retrieved December 10, 2015. ^ Guzman, Rafel (March 6, 2014). "'300: Rise of an Empire' review: Pointless swordplay". newsday.com. Archived from the original on March 9, 2014. Retrieved August 2, 2014. ^ Zacharek, Stephanie (March 5, 2014). "300: Rise of an Empire Offers Delights for People of All Sexes and Persuasions". villagevoice.com. Archived from the original on August 3, 2014. Retrieved August 2, 2014. ^ Weiler, Yuram Abdullah. "United States’ Cultural Terrorism against Iran: Punishing nonconformity to the American Protestant and republican image." (2015). ^ a b von Tunzelmann, Alex "300: Rise of an Empire – doesn't know its Artemisia from its elbow; Scarred by racist political stereotyping, the mighty Persian empire is dealt a blow by plucky freedom-loving Greeks – with the help of Bondage Nymphomaniac Revenge Barbie," March 12, 2014, The Guardian, retrieved February 20, 2020 ^ "300: Five historical errors in the new film". Archived from the original on September 2, 2018. Retrieved June 21, 2018. ^ "300: Rise of an Empire". History vs. Hollywood. Archived from the original on March 15, 2014. Retrieved March 8, 2014. ^ "300: Rise of an Empire Blu-ray". Blu-ray.com. Archived from the original on April 16, 2015. Retrieved May 7, 2014. ^ Goldberg, Matt (March 18, 2016). "Exclusive: '300' Sequels Could Go Beyond Ancient Greece Says Zack Snyder". Collider. Archived from the original on March 22, 2016. Retrieved March 21, 2016. External links[edit] Official website 300: Rise of an Empire on IMDb 300: Rise of an Empire at Box Office Mojo 300: Rise of an Empire at Rotten Tomatoes 300: Rise of an Empire at Metacritic 300: Rise of an Empire at AllMovie v t e Films based on Dark Horse Comics Single films Tank Girl Barb Wire Virus Mystery Men G-Men from Hell American Splendor R.I.P.D. Polar Franchises 300 300 300: Rise of an Empire Alien vs. Predator Alien vs. Predator Aliens vs. Predator: Requiem Hellboy Hellboy (2004) Hellboy II: The Golden Army (2008) Hellboy (2019) Animated Hellboy: Sword of Storms Hellboy: Blood and Iron The Mask The Mask Son of the Mask Sin City Sin City Sin City: A Dame to Kill For Timecop Timecop Timecop 2: The Berlin Decision Category v t e Frank Miller Batman comics The Dark Knight Returns Batman: Year One Spawn/Batman The Dark Knight Strikes Again All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder The Dark Knight III: The Master Race Other comics Written Bad Boy The Big Guy and Rusty the Boy Robot Daredevil "Born Again" Elektra: Assassin Give Me Liberty Martha Washington Hard Boiled RoboCop RoboCop Versus The Terminator Written and drawn 300 Daredevil Elektra Lives Again Rōnin Sin City The Hard Goodbye A Dame to Kill For The Big Fat Kill That Yellow Bastard Family Values Hell and Back Holy Terror Xerxes Drawn The Twilight Zone Daredevil Wolverine Heroes for Hope Characters DC Comics Arnold John Flass Carmine Falcone Carrie Kelley Gillian B. Loeb Holly Robinson James Gordon Jr. Officer Merkel Sarah Essen Marvel Comics Chaste Elektra John Garrett Karma Kirigi Maggie Murdock Mauler Nuke Shingen Yashida Stick Sin City Ava Lord Dwight McCarthy Goldie and Wendy John Hartigan Kevin Marv Miho Nancy Callahan Roark family The Girls of Old Town Wallace Wallenquist Organization Film adaptations RoboCop 2 (1990) RoboCop 3 (1993) Sin City (2005) 300 (2006) The Spirit (2008) Batman: Year One (2011) Batman: The Dark Knight Returns Part One (2012) Batman: The Dark Knight Returns Part Two (2013) 300: Rise of an Empire (2014) Sin City: A Dame to Kill For (2014) Television and video games RoboCop Versus The Terminator (1993) The Big Guy and Rusty the Boy Robot (1999–2001) 300: March to Glory (2007) v t e Zack Snyder Films directed Dawn of the Dead (2004) 300 (2006) Watchmen (2009) Legend of the Guardians: The Owls of Ga'Hoole (2010) Sucker Punch (2011) Man of Steel (2013) Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) Justice League (2017) production Zack Snyder's Justice League Army of the Dead (2021) Written only 300: Rise of an Empire (2014) Wonder Woman (2017) See also The Stone Quarry Deborah Snyder Ancient Greece portal Film portal United States portal Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=300:_Rise_of_an_Empire&oldid=1002059415" Categories: 2014 films English-language films 2014 3D films 2010s action war films 2010s historical action films American films American 3D films American action war films American historical films American sequel films Cruel and Unusual Films films Period action films Legendary Pictures films Warner Bros. films Films scored by Junkie XL Films about naval warfare Films based on Dark Horse Comics Films based on works by Frank Miller Films produced by Thomas Tull Films produced by Deborah Snyder Films produced by Zack Snyder Films set in the 5th century BC Films set in ancient Greece Films set in Greece Films set in the Mediterranean Sea Films shot in Bulgaria IMAX films American epic films Films with screenplays by Kurt Johnstad Films with screenplays by Zack Snyder Sea adventure films Seafaring films War epic films Cultural depictions of Darius the Great Cultural depictions of Xerxes I Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use mdy dates from March 2013 Template film date with 2 release dates Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Azərbaycanca বাংলা Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 January 2021, at 17:14 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5364	----	Neferneferuaten - Wikipedia Neferneferuaten From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Neferneferuaten (disambiguation). Neferneferuaten Pharaoh Reign c 1334–1332 BC (Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt) Predecessor Smenkhkare Successor Tutankhamun Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Ankhkheperure (plus ephithet) Nomen Neferneferuaten (plus ephithet) Consort if Nefertiti: Akhenaten if Meritaten: Smenkhkare Father unknown Mother unknown Died c. 1332 BC Ankhkheperure-mery-Neferkheperure/-Waenre/-Aten Neferneferuaten was a name used to refer to either Meritaten or, more likely, Nefertiti. The archaeological evidence relates to a woman who reigned as pharaoh toward the end of the Amarna Period during the Eighteenth Dynasty. Her sex is confirmed by feminine traces occasionally found in the name and by the epithet Akhet-en-hyes ("Effective for her husband"), incorporated into one version of her second cartouche.[1][2][3] She is to be distinguished from the king who used the name Ankhkheperure Smenkhkare-Djeser Kheperu, but without epithets appearing in either cartouche. If this person is Nefertiti ruling as sole pharaoh, it has been theorized by Egyptologist and Archaeologist Dr. Zahi Hawass that her reign was marked by the fall of Amarna and relocation of the capital back to the traditional city of Thebes.[4] Contents 1 General chronology 1.1 Manetho 2 Key evidence 3 Female king 3.1 Cutting the knot 3.2 Possible sole reign 4 Identity of Neferneferuaten 4.1 Nefertiti 4.1.1 Nefertiti in regnal year 16 4.1.2 Sunset theory 4.2 Meritaten 4.2.1 Meritaten as Dakhamunzu theory 4.3 Neferneferuaten-tasherit 5 Smenkhkare and the Amarna succession 6 Reuse of Neferneferuaten's funerary equipment for Tutankhamun's burial 7 Summary 8 References 8.1 Notes 9 Further reading General chronology[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) As illustrated in a 2011 Metropolitan Museum of Art[5] symposium on Horemheb, the general chronology of the late Eighteenth Dynasty is: King Approx years Akhenaten 17 years Ankhkheperure Neferneferuaten 2 years Ankhkheperure Smenkhkare 2 years Tutankhaten/Tutankhamen 9 years Ay 4 years Horemheb 14 years There is no broad consensus as to the succession order of Smenkhkare and Neferneferuaten. With little dated evidence to fix their reigns with any certainty, the order depends on how the evidence is interpreted. Many encyclopedic sources and atlases will show Smenkhkare succeeding Akhenaten on the basis of tradition dating back to 1845, and some still conflate Smenkhkare with Neferneferuaten. The period from the 13th year of Akhenaten's reign to the ascension of Tutankhaten is very murky. The reigns of Smenkhkare and Neferneferuaten were very brief and left little monumental or inscriptional evidence to draw a clear picture of political events. Adding to this, Neferneferuaten shares her prenomen, or throne name, with Smenkhkare, and her nomen (or birth name) with Nefertiti/Nefertiti-Neferneferuaten making identification very difficult at times. The Egyptians themselves tried to hide the evidence of the kings reigning during the Amarna from us.[original research?] Neferneferuaten's successor seems to have denied her a king's burial and, later, in the reign of Horemheb, the entire Amarna period began to be regarded as anathema and the reigns of the Amarna period pharaohs from Akhenaten to Ay were expunged from history as these kings' total regnal years were assigned to Horemheb. The result is that 3,300 years later, scholars would have to piece together events and even resurrect the players bit by bit with the evidence sometimes limited to palimpsest. With the evidence so murky and equivocal, at one time or another, the name, sex, identity, and even the existence of Neferneferuaten has been a matter of debate among Egyptologists. The lack of unique names continues to cause problems in books and papers written before the early 1980s: an object might be characterized as bearing the name of Smenkhkare, when if in fact, the name was "Ankhkheperure", it could be related to one of two people. Manetho[edit] Manetho was a priest in the time of the Ptolemies in the third century BC. His Aegyptiaca (History of Egypt) divided the rulers into dynasties, which forms the basis of the modern system of dating Ancient Egypt. His work has been lost and is known only in fragmentary form from later writers quoting his work. As a result of the suppression of the Amarna kings, Manetho is the sole ancient record available. Manetho's Epitome, a summary of his work, describes the late Eighteenth Dynasty succession as "Amenophis for 30 years 10 months",[6] who seems likely to be Amenhotep III. Then "his son Orus for 36 years 5 months", this is often seen as a corruption of the name Horemheb with the entire Amarna period attributed to him, but others see Orus as Akhenaten. Next comes "his daughter Acencheres for 12 years 1 month then her brother Rathotis for 9 years". Acencheres is Ankhkheperure according to Gabolde,[7] with a transcription error assumed which converted 2 years, 1 month into the 12 years, 1 month reported (Africanus and Eusebius cite 32 and 16 years for this person) by the addition of 10 years. Most agree that Rathotis refers to Tutankhamun; therefore, the succession order also supports Acencheres as Ankhkheperure. Rathotis is followed by "his son Acencheres for 12 years 5 months, his son Acencheres II for 12 years 3 months",[6] which are inexplicable and demonstrate the limits to which Manetho may be relied upon. Key evidence[edit] Image commonly taken to be Smenkhkare and Meritaten, but it may not be them There are several items central to the slow unveiling regarding the existence, gender, and identity of Neferneferuaten. These continue to be key elements to various theories today. The name of King Ankheprure Smenkhkare-Djeserkheperu was known as far back as 1845 from the tomb of Meryre II. There, he and Meritaten, bearing the title Great Royal Wife, are shown rewarding the tomb's owner. The names of the king have since been cut out but had been recorded by Lepsius c. 1850.[8] A different scene on a different wall depicts the famous Durbar scene, which is dated to regnal year 12. A calcite "globular vase" from the tomb of Tutankhamun bears the full double cartouche of Akhenaten alongside the full double cartouche of Smenkhkare. It is the only object to carry both names side by side.[9] These can be taken to represent that the two were coregents, as was thought to be the case initially, however, the scene in the tomb of Meryre is not dated and Akhenaten is neither depicted nor mentioned in it. It is not known with certainty when the tomb owner died or if he may have lived on to serve a new king. The jar also seems to indicate a coregency, but may be a case of one king associating himself with a predecessor. The simple association of names is not always indicative of a coregency.[10] As with many things of this period, the evidence is suggestive, but not conclusive. Inscription from Carter 001k, a box from Tutankhamun's tomb Indisputable images for Smenkhkare are rare. Aside from the tomb of Meryre II, the adjacent image showing an Amarna king and queen in a garden is often attributed to him. It is completely without inscription, but since they do not look like Tutankhamun nor his queen, they are often assumed to be Smenkhkare and Meritaten, but Akhenaten and Nefertiti are sometimes put forth as well. A single wine docket, 'Year 1, wine of the house of Smenkhkare', indicates he probably had a short reign.[11] Another dated to Year 1 from 'The House of Smenkhkare (deceased)'[12] originally, was interpreted to indicate that he died during the harvest of his first year; more recently it has been proposed to mean his estate was still producing wine in the first year of his successor. There are several rings with most of his name intact.[13] One example is Item UC23800 in the Petrie Museum. The ring clearly shows the "djeser" and "kherperu" elements of and a portion of the 'ka' glyph. Line drawings of a block depicting the nearly complete names of King Smenkhkare and Meritaten as Great Royal Wife were recorded before the block was lost. A number of items in Tutankhamun's tomb (KV62) were originally intended for Neferneferuaten. Among them Carter 261p(1), a stunning gold pectoral depicting the goddess Nut. Other items include the stone sarcophagus, mummy wrappings, royal figurines; canopic items (chest, coffinettes, and jar stoppers), various bracelets and even shabti figures. Some items are believed to have been at least originally intended for a woman based on the style even when a name cannot be restored. Research by Egyptologist Nicholas Reeves since 2001 has suggested that even the famous gold mask may have originally been intended for Neferneferuaten since her royal name in a cartouche, Ankhkheperure, was found partly erased, on Tutankhamun's funerary mask.[14][15] Where named depictions of Smenkhkare are rare, there are no known depictions for Neferneferuaten. Of particular interest is a box (Carter 001k) (right, originally one long piece) inscribed with the following: King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Living in Truth, Lord of the Two Lands, Neferkheperure-Waenre Son of Re, Living in Truth, Lord of Crowns, Akhenaten, Great in his duration King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Lord of the Two Lands, Ankhkheperure Mery-Neferkheperre Son of Re, Lord of Crowns, Neferneferuaten Mery-Waenre Great Royal Spouse, Meritaten, May she Live Forever The most definitive inscription attesting to Neferneferuaten is a long hieratic inscription or graffito in the tomb of Pairi (TT139): Regnal year 3, third month of Inundation, day 10. The King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Lord of the Two Lands Ankhkheperure Beloved of Aten, the Son of Re Neferneferuaten Beloved of Waenre. Giving worship to Amun, kissing the ground to Wenennefer by the lay priest, scribe of the divine offerings of Amun in the Mansion [temple] of Ankhkheperure in Thebes, Pawah, born to Yotefseneb. He says: "My wish is to see you, O lord of persea trees! May your throat take the north wind, that you may give satiety without eating and drunkenness without drinking. My wish is to look at you, that my heart might rejoice, O Amun, protector of the poor man: you are the father of the one who has no mother and the husband of the widow. Pleasant is the utterance of your name: it is like the taste of life . . . [etc.] "Come back to us, O lord of continuity. You were here before anything had come into being, and you will be here when they are gone. As you caused me to see the darkness that is yours to give, make light for me so that I can see you . . . "O Amun, O great lord who can be found by seeking him, may you drive off fear! Set rejoicing in people's heart(s). Joyful is the one who sees you, O Amun: he is in festival every day!" For the Ka of the lay priest and scribe of the temple of Amun in the Mansion of Ankhkheperure, Pawah, born to Yotefseneb: "For your Ka! Spend a nice day amongst your townsmen." His brother, the outline draftsman Batchay of the Mansion of Ankhkheperure.[16] Nicholas Reeves concludes from this Year 3 inscription by Pawah in Pairi's tomb below: What we glimpse in the...graffito is a demoralized Amun priest-hood, but one which, following the recent [religious] persecution [of Akhenaten], is again operating officially and, more, surprisingly, within the mortuary temple of the heretic's co-ruler. The Amarna revolution had clearly entered a new phase—perhaps because earthly power was now vested in the hands not of Akhenaten himself but of this same mysterious co-regent, Ankhkheperure Neferneferuaten, who was taking a decidedly softer line" toward the Amun priest-hood.[17] Therefore, Neferneferuaten might have been the Amarna-era ruler who first reached an accommodation with the Amun priests and reinstated the cult of Amun—rather than Tutankhamun as previously thought—since her own mortuary temple was located in Thebes—the religious capital of the Amun priesthood and Amun priests were now working within it, however, Egypt's political administration was still situated at Amarna rather than Thebes under Neferneferuaten's reign. Female king[edit] To the right, mounted in its original position on the back of a leopard, is the statuette of a Pharaoh, with distinctly female attributes, restored in the Tomb of Tutankhamun, Egyptian Museum Berlin's Stele 17813, depicting a female Pharaoh caressing Akhenaten, Ägyptisches Museum und Papyrussammlung, Neues Museum, Berlin For some time the accepted interpretation of the evidence was that Smenkhkare served as coregent with Akhenaten beginning about year 15 using the throne name Ankhkheperure. At some point, perhaps to start his sole reign, he changed his name to Ankhkheperure Neferneferuaten. An alternative view held that Nefertiti was King Neferneferuaten, in some versions she is also masquerading as a male using the name Smenkhkare. Things remained in this state until the early 1970s when English Egyptologist John Harris noted in a series of papers, the existence of versions of the first cartouche that seemed to include feminine indicators.[18] These were linked with a few items including a statuette found in Tutankhamun’s tomb depicting a king whose appearance was particularly feminine, even for Amarna art which seems to favor androgyny.[19] There are several stele depicting a king along with someone else—often wearing a king's crown—in various familiar, almost intimate scenes. All of them are unfinished or uninscribed and some are defaced. These include: An unfinished stele (#17813, Berlin) depicts two royal figures in a familiar, if not intimate, pose. One figure wears the double crown, while the other wears a headpiece which is similar to that from the familiar Nefertiti bust, but is the Khepresh or "blue crown" worn by a king. Aidan Dodson cites this stele to support the idea that Nefertiti may have acted at one point as someone with the status of a coregent as indicated by the crown, but not entitled to full pharaonic honors such as the double cartouche. Berlin 25574 depicts what clearly seems to be Akhenaten and Nefertiti wearing her flat top headpiece. They are accompanied by four empty cartouches—enough for two kings—one of which seems to have been squeezed in. A female sovereign, usually identified as Nefertiti, wearing the blue crown of the pharaohs, while affectionately pouring water to Akhenaten, Ägyptisches Museum und Papyrussammlung, Altes Museum, Berlin Reeves sees this as an important item in the case for Nefertiti. When the stele was started, she was queen and thus portrayed with the flat top headpiece. She was elevated to coregent shortly afterward and a fourth cartouche was squeezed in to accommodate two kings.[20] Flinders Petrie discovered seven limestone fragments of a private stele in 1891, now in the Petrie Museum, U.C.410 sometimes called the Coregency Stela.[21] One side bears the double cartouche of Akhenaten alongside that of Ankhkheperure mery-Waenre Neferneferuaten Akhet-en-hyes ("effective for her husband"), which had been carved over the single cartouche of Nefertiti.[22] The clues may point to a female coregent, but the unique situation of succeeding kings using identical throne names may have resulted in a great deal of confusion. A paper by Rolf Krauss of the Egyptian Museum, Berlin speculated a middle way by suggesting that while Smenkhkare/Neferneferuaten was a man, his wife Meritaten might have ruled with the feminine prenomen ‘Ankh-et-kheperure’ after Akhenaten’s death and before Smenkhkare's accession.[1] Smenkhkare then takes the masculine form of her prenomen upon gaining the throne through marriage to her.[23] While this was a step forward in establishing a feminine king, it also sparked a new debate regarding which evidence related to Meritaten and which to Smenkhkare. Cutting the knot[edit] Ankhkheperure with feminine indicators (93, 94) and without (95), these read: (93) Ankhkheperure desired (f) of Neferkheperure (Akhenaten) (94) Ankh-et-kheprure (f) desired (f) of Wa-en-Re (using indicators in the name and epithet) (95) Ankhkheeprure desired of Wa-en-Re From Tell el Amarna, Flinders Petrie; 1894 In 1988, James P. Allen proposed that it was possible to separate Smenkhkare from Neferneferuaten.[22] He pointed out the name 'Ankhkheperure' was rendered differently depending on whether it was associated with Smenkhkare or Neferneferuaten. When coupled with Neferneferuaten, the prenomen included an epithet referring to Akhenaten such as 'desired of Wa en Re'. There were no occasions where the ‘long’ versions of the prenomen occurred alongside the nomen 'Smenkhkare', nor was the ‘short’ version ever found associated with the nomen 'Neferneferuaten'. As the adjacent image shows, the differences in the feminine and standard forms are minimal: an extra feminine 't' glyph either in the name or epithet (or both as in #94) that can be lost over time or simply misread especially on smaller items. Following Allen, without regard to the feminine indicators, all three of these names would refer to King Neferneferuaten since they include epithets and associate her with Akhenaten ('desired of Wa-en re / Neferkheperure'). In a 1994 paper, Allen suggested that the different rendering of the names may well indicate two individuals not a single person: "..the evidence itself does not demand an identification of Smenkh-ka-re with Nefer-neferu-aton, and in fact the insistence that the two sets of names must belong to a single individual only weakens each case."[2] Allen noted another nuance in the names: the reed (jtn) glyph in 'Neferneferuaten' always is reversed to face the seated-woman determinative at the end of the name when associated with the Nefertiti form. Except for a unique case, the reed is not reversed when used with Ankhkheperure. This can be taken to indicate Neferneferuaten is also an individual apart from Nefertiti based on the general difference, or to indicate they are the same person on the basis of the unique rendering in the presence of the seated-person determinative (see below). Later, the French Egyptologist Marc Gabolde noted that several items from the tomb of Tutankhamun, which had been originally inscribed for Neferneferuaten and read as "...desired of Ahkenaten" were originally inscribed as Akhet-en-hyes or "effective for her husband".[24] His reading was later confirmed by James Allen. The use of epithets (or lack of them) to identify the king referenced in an inscription eventually became widely accepted among scholars and regularly cited in their work [25] although a case for exempting a particular inscription or instance will occasionally be argued to support a larger hypothesis. As the Smenkhkare versus Neferneferuaten debate subsided, the door was opening for new interpretations for the evidence. Possible sole reign[edit] Allen later showed that Neferneferuaten's epithets were of three types or sets. They were usually in the form of "desired of ...", but were occasionally replaced by "effective for her husband". In a few cases, the names can be followed by 'justified' using feminine attributes.[2] The term 'justified' (maet kheru) is a common indicator that the person referenced is dead. A similar reference associated with Hatshepsut in the tomb of Penyati is taken to indicate she had recently died.[26] Finally, a few of her cartouches bear unique epithets not associated with Akhenaten at all. These include "desired of the Aten" and "The Ruler".[2] Dr. Allen concluded that the strong affiliation with Akhenaten in the epithets and the number of them made it likely that Neferneferuaten had been his coregent and therefore, preceded Smenkhkare.[2] The "effective..." epithets, then represent a period during which Akhenaten was incapacitated, but may also date from a time after Akhenaten’s death.[27] Finally, the less common 'Akhenaten-less' versions represented a period of sole reign for Neferneferuaten. James Allen also offered a possible explanation for the use of the same throne name by two successive kings.[2] He suggested that the almost constant references to Akhenaten, in particular the 'desired of Akhenaten' versions, may be proclamations of legitimacy on the part of Neferneferuaten. That is, the epithets are being used to announce or proclaim her as Akhenaten's chosen successor or coregent. One implication then, is there may have been resistance to the choice of Neferneferuaten, or such resistance was anticipated. This appears to be supported by her funerary items being usurped to deny her a king's burial. Allen suggested that adopting the name Ankhkheperure was "to emphasize the legitimacy of Smenkh-ka-re's claim against that of Akhenaton's "chosen" (/mr/) coregent".[2] That is, a division in the royal house put Smenkhkare on the throne as a rival king to Neferneferuaten. This was offered as a simple and logical reading of the evidence to explain the nature of the epithets, the use of identical prenomens by successive kings and that she was denied a royal burial. With no dated evidence of rival or contemporaneous kings though, it remains conjecture. The prenomen (left column) and nomen (right column) forms for Ankhkheperure Neferneferuaten[2][28][29][30] Note that aside from rings, the feminine form Ankh-et-kheperure, as yet, is never found in a royal cartouche. At one point, one or more mery Akhet-en-hyes (effective for her husband) had been read as "desired of Akhenaten" probably on the basis of the bird glyph. The fourth set are from the hieratic inscription from the tomb of Pairi (TT139) which seems to have a feminine marker in the nomen's epithet. In the last nomen, the leading reed is reversed as it always is in the cartouche of Nefertiti-Neferneferuaten. Identity of Neferneferuaten[edit] By the late twentieth century, there was "'a fair degree of consensus'"[31] that Neferneferuaten was a female king and Smenkhkare a separate male king, particularly among specialists of the period,[32] although the public and the internet references still often commingle the two. Many Egyptologists believe she also served as coregent on the basis of the stela and epithets, with advocates for Meritaten being notable exceptions. A sole reign seems very likely, given that the Pairi inscription is dated using her regnal years. Opinion is more divided on the placement and nature of the reign of Smenkhkare. The focus now shifts to the identity of Neferneferuaten, with each candidate having its own advocate(s), a debate which may never be settled to the satisfaction of all. Nefertiti[edit] Nefertiti depicted in familiar scene of a pharaoh smiting Egypt's enemy Nefertiti was an early candidate for King Neferneferuaten, first proposed in 1973 by J. R. Harris.[33] One theory from the 1970s held that Nefertiti was masquerading as the male King Smenkhkare,[34] a view still held by a few—as late as 2001 by Reeves [20] and until 2004 by Dodson.[35] The apparent use of her name made her an obvious candidate even before Neferneferuaten's gender was firmly established. Remains of painted plaster bearing the kingly names of Neferneferuaten found in the Northern Palace, long believed to be the residence of Nefertiti, supports the association of Nefertiti as the king.[36] Nefertiti was well in the forefront during her husband's reign and even depicted engaging in kingly activities such as smiting the enemies of Egypt (see image, right).[37] The core premise is that her prominence and attendant power in the Amarna period was almost unprecedented for a queen which makes her the most likely and most able female to succeed Akhenaten.[20][38][39] The Coregency Stela (UC 410), mentioned earlier, might resolve the question if it were not so badly damaged. The name Neferneferuaten replaced Nefertiti's name on it. How the image of Nefertiti was changed to match the new inscription could settle matters if her image was not missing. If her entire image was replaced it would mean Nefertiti was replaced by someone else called King Neferneferuaten and perhaps that she died. If just a new crown was added to her image, it would argue quite strongly that Nefertiti adopted a new name and title.[40] As it is, the scene seems to be another of the royal family including at least Meritaten. Replacing the name Nefertiti with the name King Neferneferuaten in a depiction of the royal family, still seems to favor Nefertiti as the new king. The primary argument against Nefertiti has been that she likely died sometime after year 12, the last dated depiction of her. Typically, when someone disappears from inscriptions and depictions, the simplest explanation is that they died. Evidence suggesting this includes: Pieces of a shabti—a funerary figure—may indicate her title at death was Great Royal Wife. The shabti is in two pieces with a piece fitting between them assumed. One piece bears her name, Nefertiti-Neferneferuaten, the other the title Great Royal Wife. With about 200 shabti for Akhenaten,[41] a single one for Nefertiti seems scant evidence for her death. A 1999 article speculates that the two pieces belonged instead to two separate shabtis, one of Nefertiti and the other of Meritaten.[42] Wine dockets from her estate decline and cease after year 13.[43] Dockets from later years mention only a Queen. The floor of the royal tomb intended for her, although apparently not used, shows signs of cuts being started for the final placement of her coffin.[38] Meritaten's title as chief queen alongside Akhenaten's name in Tutankhamun's tomb indicates she replaced Nefertiti as in that role. This also seems to be indicated by her designation as "mistress" of the royal house in Amarna Letter EA 11. This theory has been shown to be incorrect, however, since Nefertiti is now known to have still been alive in Year 16 of Akhenaten—the second-to-last year of her husband's reign. Nefertiti in regnal year 16[edit] In December 2012, the Leuven Archaeological Mission announced the discovery of a hieratic inscription in a limestone quarry that mentions a building project in Amarna. The text is said to be badly damaged, but a doctoral student read the text to indicate a date from regnal year sixteen of Akhenaten and noted that it mentions Nefertiti as Akhenaten's chief wife.[44] The full inscription was not officially published or studied at that time—but parts of it have been published and they clearly demonstrate that Nefertiti, Akhenaten's chief queen, was still alive late in Year 16 of Akhenaten's reign. The inscription is dated explicitly to Year 16 III Akhet day 15 of Akhenaten's own reign and mentions, in the same breath, the presence of Queen Nefertiti—or the "Great Royal Wife, His Beloved, Lady of the Two Lands, Neferneferuaten Nefertiti"—in its third line.[45] The barely-legible five-line text, found in a limestone quarry at Deir el-Bersha, was deciphered and interpreted [46] (the inscription was found in a limestone quarry at Dayr Abū Ḥinnis, just north of Dayr al-Barshā, which is north of Amarna.)[47] The inscription has now been fully published in a 2014 journal article and Nefertiti's existence late in Akhenaten's reign has been verified.[48] Her name, gender, and location in time could all argue quite strongly for Nefertiti to be the female ruler known as Neferneferuaten.[49] This would also affect various details of the Amarna succession theories proposed. For instance, some Egyptologists, such as Dodson, propose that Neferneferuaten was a coregent for some three years followed by another three years as sole ruler.[50] The inscription would argue against a coregency of more than about a year—if any exists at all—since the inscription attests to Nefertiti's position as Akhenaten's queen just before the start of Akhenaten's final year. Van der Perre writes concerning the discovery of Nefertiti in Akhenaten's Year 16 (this king's second-to-last year): ....the existing evidence suggests that at some point Nefertiti assumed the royal office under the name of Ankh(et)kheperure Neferneferuaten. There are slender indications that she could have been Akhenaten's co-regent. This could not have happened before Akhenaten’s 16th regnal year, however, since the quarry inscription at Dayr Abū Ḥinnis still gives the known names and titles of the queen as a Great Royal Wife [of Akhenaten]. The most likely sequel to these events is that Nefertiti eventually adopted the prenomen of her predecessor, Ankhkheperure [Smenkhkare], and combined it with her own name Neferneferuaten. References to her husband were added in her epithets, to confirm the legitimacy of her reign. As time passed, her epithets evolved. After Akhenaten's death, these references to his name were still used, suggesting a deified position of the king. Later in her reign, however, the queen changed the epithets to “Beloved of Aten” and to “the ruler,”....After reigning for three years, Nefertiti disappeared; she probably died....[and Tutankhamun, who was now eight, succeeded her].[51] This would indicate that Neferneferuaten had an independent reign as an eighteenth dynasty pharaoh after the death of Akhenaten in his seventeenth year. Sunset theory[edit] Even among Egyptologists who advocate Nefertiti as Neferneferuaten, the exact nature of her reign can vary. Reeves sees Nefertiti ruling independently for some time before Tutankhamun and has identified her as Dahamunzu of the Hittite letter-writing episode. In support, Reeves makes clear that Nefertiti did not disappear and is seen in the last years of Akhenaten in the form of the various stelae. The shabti is explained as a votive placed in the tomb of someone close to Nefertiti, such as Meketaten, at a time before she was elevated.[20] Amarna Sunset, by Aidan Dodson, is the most recent theory to date and proposes several new ideas regarding the chronology and flow of events. Based on the grounds of its location and state of completion, Dodson thinks that the depiction of Smenkhkare in the tomb of Meryre cannot date to later than Year 13/14 or Year 14/15 of Akhenaten at the latest.[52] If accepted, Smenkhkare cannot have had an independent reign and thus, Neferneferuaten must have come after him,[53] the result being that Smenkhkare's reign is entirely that of a coregent, ending about a year later, in Year 14 or 15 of Akhenaten's reign. Nefertiti then follows Smenkhkare as coregent for a time, using the name Ankhkheperure Neferneferuaten. Dodson concludes that Nefertiti was the mother of Tutankhaten, so after Akhenaten dies she continues as regent/coregent to Tutankhaten. Dodson proposes that, in that role, Neferneferuaten helped guide the reformation in the early years of Tutankhaten and conjectures that her turn around is the result of her 'rapid adjustment to political reality'. To support the Nefertiti-Tutankhamun coregency, he cites jar handles found bearing her cartouche and others bearing those of Tutankhaten found in Northern Sinai.[54] The regnal years attested for Neferneferuaten—two plus a fraction—are not enough to allow for a short coregency with Akhenaten plus an independent reign or another coregency with Tutankhaten. Dodson accounts for this by suggesting that Nefertiti counted her years only after Akhenaten's death which is a generally held view put forth by Murnane to account for the lack of double dates in the New Kingdom,[55] even when a coregency is known to exist. Dodson then speculates that she may later have shared Tutankhamun's regnal dating, in effect deferring senior status at least nominally to him.[56] Several interesting ideas worthy of consideration are offered, but the central assumption that Nefertiti was mother to Tutankhaten, has since been proven false. DNA evidence published a year after the book concluded that Tutankhaten's parents were sibling children of Amenhotep III, which Nefertiti was not.[57] Marc Gabolde contends that Tutankhaten never reigned for more than a few months at Amarna. He notes that while Akhenaten, Neferneferuaten, and even Smenkhkare are attested as kings in Amarna, evidence for Tutankhaten is limited to some bezel rings. That is, evidence typically associated with a royal residence is lacking: there are no stamped bricks, reliefs, or paintings; he is not mentioned or depicted in any private tombs, cult stela, royal depictions, or documents; the result is that there is no evidence of King Tutankhaten in Amarna at all. Ring bezels and scarabs bearing his name found, only show the city was still inhabited during his reign.[58] With Neferneferuaten scarcely attested outside Amarna and Tutankaten scarcely attested at Amarna, a coregency or regency seems unlikely. Regarding the jar sealings, excavators working the Tell el-Borg site note that the two amphorae bearing the cartouche of Neferneferuaten were found in a garbage pit 200 meters away from the location where the two cartouches of Nebkheperure (Tutankhaten) were found. Additionally, sealings and small objects such as bezel rings from many Eighteenth Dynasty characters including Akhenaten, Ay, Queen Tiye, and Horemheb are all present at the site.[59] Egyptologists excavating the site conclude: "Consequently, linking Tutankhamun and Neferneferuaten politically, based on the discovery of their names on amphorae at Tell el-Borg, is unwarranted."[60] Meritaten[edit] Meritaten as a candidate for Neferneferuaten seems to be the most fluid, taking many forms depending on the views of the Egyptologist. She had been put forth by Rolf Krauss in 1973 to explain the feminine traces in the prenomen and epithets of Ankhkheprure and to conform to Manetho's description of a Akenkheres as a daughter of Oros.[1] Although few Egyptologists endorsed the whole hypothesis, many did accept her at times as the probable or possible candidate for a female Ankhkheprure ruling for a time after Smenkhkare's death and perhaps, as regent to Tutankhaten.[61] The primary argument against Meritaten either as Krauss's pro tempore Ankh-et-kheprure before marriage to Smenkhkare or as Akhenaten's coregent King Neferneferuaten is that she is well attested as wife and queen to Smenkhkare. For her to have later ruled as king means necessarily, and perhaps incredibly for her subjects, that she stepped down from King to the role of King's Wife.[62] This view places Smenkhkare after Neferneferuaten, which requires the Meryre depiction to be drawn 5–6 years after the 'Durbar' depiction it is alongside, and several years after work on tombs had stopped. The counter to this view comes from Marc Gabolde, who offers political necessity as the reason for Meritaten's demotion.[63] He sees the box (Carter 001k tomb naming her alongside Akhenaten and Neferneferuaten) as depicting Meritaten in simultaneous roles using the name Neferneferuaten as coregent and using her birth name in the role of royal wife to Akhenaten.[64] He has also proposed that the Meryre drawing was executed in advance of an anticipated coronation, which ended up not taking place due to his death.[58] Most Egyptologists see two names, indicating two individual people, as the simplest and more likely view.[9][65] Most name changes in the Amarna period involved people incorporating -Aten into their name or removing an increasingly offensive -Amun element. Merit-Aten would have had no such need, nor would she need to adopt pharaonic airs such as a double cartouche simply to act on behalf of her husband. Since Nefertiti has now been confirmed to be living as late as Year 16 of Akhenaten's reign in a 2014 journal paper, however, the Meritaten theory becomes less likely because she would no longer be the most likely living person to be using either the name Neferneferuaten nor "Effective for her husband" as the epithet of a ruling female pharaoh. Secondly, both Aidan Dodson and the late Bill Murnane have stressed that the female ruler Neferneferuaten and Meritaten/Meryetaten cannot be the same person. As Dodson writes: ...the next issue is clearly her [i.e., Neferneferuaten's] origins. Cases have been made for her being the former Nefertiti (Harris, Samson and others), Meryetaten (Krauss 1978; Gabolde 1998) and most recently Neferneferuaten-tasherit, [the] fourth daughter of Akheneten (Allen 2006). Of these, Meryetaten’s candidature seems fatally undermined by the existence of the KV62 box fragment JE61500, which gives the names and titles of Akhenaten, Neferneferuaten and Meryetaten as clearly separate individuals.[66][67] Meritaten as Dakhamunzu theory[edit] See also Dakhamunzu Marc Gabolde is perhaps the most outspoken and steadfast advocate of Meritaten as King Neferneferuaten. Most recently, he has proposed that Meritaten was raised to coregent of Akhenaten in his final years. She succeeds him as interregnum regent using the name Ankhkheprure, and is the queen of the Dakhamunzu affair with the Hittites.[Note 1] Her ploy succeeds and the Hittite prince Zannanza travels to Egypt and marries her to claim the throne. He adopts the name Smenkhkare,[Note 2] and her throne name. After his death, she adopts full pharoanic prerogatives to continue to rule as King Ankhkheperure Neferneferuaten. Since Tutankamun was alive and of royal lineage, Meritaten's actions almost certainly must be taken as intending to prevent his ascension.[68] The traditional view has long been that the plot took place after the death of Tutankhamun and that Ankhesenamun is the queen, largely based on the fact that she did eventually marry a "servant," Ay. Miller points out that "‘servant’ is likely used in a disparaging manner, rather than literally, and probably with reference to real persons who indeed were being put forth as candidates." If the reference to a 'servant' no longer exclusively indicates Ay, then Meritaten and Nefertiti become candidates as well, since neither has sons known to us.[69] The Smenkhkare/Zannanza version garners little support among Egyptologists. With the presence of Tutankhamun, Miller points out Meritaten "would presumably have needed the backing of some powerful supporter(s) to carry out such a scheme as the tahamunzu episode, one is left with the question of why this supporter would have chosen to throw his weight behind such a daring scheme".[70] For the plot to succeed, it assumes the young Meritaten with her co-conspirators successfully deceived Suppiluliuma and his envoys (for there was a royal male - Tutankhamun - though not actually her son) and that the plot remained secret during the period of letter writing and Zannanza's travel to Egypt. It assumes the other elements of Egyptian society remained idle with a female interregnum on the throne and a royal male standing by while this played out. On the Hittite side, it assumes that Suppiluliuma was not only willing to risk the consequences if the plot were uncovered, but rather than merely shrewd, Suppiluliuma was ruthless in the extreme and willing to risk the life of his son on a precarious endeavor where he suspected trickery.[71] Details for the Dakhamunzu/Zannanza affair are entirely from Hittite sources written many years after the events. As Miller states, they were "written in full knowledge of the scheme’s dismal failure, and one cannot dismiss the possibility that Mursili is revising history to some extent, placing full responsibility for the fiasco on the Egyptians, absolving his father of any blame for his failed gamble, giving the impression that he had done everything in his power to ensure that the way was free for Zannanza to take the Egyptian throne."[72] Neferneferuaten-tasherit[edit] In 2006, James Allen proposed a new reading of events.[62] Citing the evidence above, he finds it likely Nefertiti died after year 13. About that time, Akhenaten began attempting to father his own grandchildren. Meritaten and Ankhesenpaaten appear with their daughters in reliefs from Amarna which originally depicted Kiya with her daughter.[73] Meritaten-tasherit and Ankhesenpaaten-tasherit bear the titles 'King’s daughter of his body, his desired...' and 'born of King’s daughter of his body, his desired...'. It is a matter of some debate whether this means Akhenaten actually fathered his own grandchildren, but Allen accepts the titles at face value as a simpler explanation than 'phantom' children being invented to fill space.[74] When Meritaten gave birth to a girl, Akhenaten may have then tried with Meketaten, whose death in childbirth is depicted in the royal tombs. Though the titles are missing for the infant, it seems certain it also was a girl.[75] Still without a male heir, Akhenaten next tried with Ankhesenpaaten who also bears him a girl (also with titles attesting to Akhenaten as father). His next youngest daughter, Neferneferuaten-tasherit was almost certainly too young, so: Insofar as can be determined, the primary element in the nomen of a pharaoh always corresponds to the name he (or she) bore before coming to the throne; from the Eighteenth Dynasty onward, epithets were usually added to this name in the pharaoh’s cartouche, but Akhenaten provides the only example of a complete and consistent change of the nomen’s primary element, and even he used his birth name, Amenhotep, at his accession. The evidence of this tradition argues that the coregent bore the name Neferneferuaten before her coronation, and since it now seems clear that the coregent was not Nefertiti, she must have been the only other woman known by that name: Akhenaten’s fourth daughter, Neferneferuaten Jr.[76] Allen explains the 'tasherit' portion of her name may have been dropped, either because it would be unseemly to have a King using 'the lesser' in their name, or it may have already been dropped when Nefertiti died.[76] Neferneferuaten-tasherit's age is the first objection often raised. She is thought to have been about ten at the time of Akhenaten's death,[77] but Allen suggests that some daughters may have been older than generally calculated based on their first depicted appearance. Meketaten is believed to have been born about year 4 when is she first depicted. If that is the case, she would only have been ten or eleven when she died in childbirth around year 14,[77] which is several years shy of the age when girls typically become able to conceive at age 13 (Akhenaten and his daughters may have suffered from a hereditary genetic condition called aromatase excess syndrome, which resulted in gynecomastia in males and premature sexual development in females,[78] making childbirth at 11 less improbable). Allen suggests that perhaps Meketaten's first appearance—and perhaps that of the other daughters—was on the occasion of being weaned at age three in which case her age at death would be the more likely 13 or 14, an argument Dodson also adopts in Amarna Sunset. Likewise, since Ankhesenpaaten bore a child late in Akhenaten's reign, if Neferneferuaten-tasherit was born a year or so after her sister, then Neferneferuaten-tasherit may have been as old as 13 by the end of Akhenaten's reign.[79] The later use of the "effective..." epithets may indicate that she too, was eventually old enough to act as wife to her father, supporting the older age. Central to the theory is that Akhenaten was being driven to produce a male heir that results in attempts to father his own grandchildren.[79] If the grandchildren are not his or are indeed fictitious, with no progression through his daughters to arrive at Neferneferuaten-tasherit, his choice of her as coregent at least remains a mystery, if not less likely. Without grandchildren, there is less to support the older age estimates. Her age alone need not disqualify her, since it is the same age at which Tutankhaten ascended the throne, but a ten-year-old girl seems unlikely to many. The strong point of the theory rests with her name: it does not rely on someone changing their name in some awkward fashion to assume the role of Neferneferuaten. She is a less attractive candidate now that the Year 16 graffito for Queen Nefertiti has been verified. Smenkhkare and the Amarna succession[edit] Further information: Amarna succession The evidence clearly indicates that Smenkhkare existed and that he was invested with some degree of pharoanic power at some point and died shortly afterwards. Beyond that little else can be said with any certainty at all. As a result, proponents of one theory can assign him a place in time and role with little to argue against it while others can take a wholly different perspective. For instance, Dodson cites the Meryre depiction to relegate him to a short-lived coregent circa Year 15, with little firm evidence to argue against it. Gabolde cites the Smenkhkare wine docket to support the idea that Smenkhkare must have succeeded Akhenaten. Finally, Allen has used the wine docket and strong association of Neferneferuaten with Akhenaten in her epithets and on stelae to speculate that both may have succeeded Akhenaten, with one as a rival king. An Allen-Dodson hybrid could see Tutankhamun succeeding Akhenaten directly as rival to Neferneferuaten. There are almost as many theories and putative chronologies as there are Egyptologists interested in the period. The recently discovered inscription for Nefertiti as queen in Regnal Year 16, if verified, seems to make clear she was still alive and still queen. What Egyptologists will make of it remains to be seen, but with proof of her alive in Year 16, it could be seen as supporting her candidacy as Neferneferuaten. On the other hand, advocates for Smenkhkare may make the case that since she attested as queen just before the start of Akhenaten's final regnal year, then Smenkhkare is more likely to be Akhenaten's successor. The exact succession cannot be resolved without evidence to more clearly fix Smenkhkare's place in time and role (coregent only or king). If, as the evidence suggests, he was very short-lived, such clarification is not likely to be forthcoming. The result is that the Amarna Succession is dictated by the underlying theory on the identity of King Ankhkheperure-mery Neferkheperure Neferneferuaten-mery Wa en Re. Reuse of Neferneferuaten's funerary equipment for Tutankhamun's burial[edit] Many of the Canopic Jars of Tutankhamun have distinctively female features; many scholars argue they originally were meant for a female pharaoh and repurposed for Tutankhamun.[80] According to Nicholas Reeves, almost 80% of Tutankhamun's burial equipment was derived from Neferneferuaten's original funerary goods, including his famous gold mask, middle coffin, canopic coffinettes, several of the gilded shrine panels, the shabti-figures, the boxes and chests, the royal jewelry, etc.[81][82] In 2015, Reeves published evidence showing that an earlier cartouche on Tutankhamun's famous gold mask read, "Ankheperure mery-Neferkheperure" or (Ankheperure beloved of Akhenaten); therefore, the mask originally was made for Nefertiti, Akhenaten's chief queen, who used the royal name Ankheperure when she assumed the throne after her husband's death.[83] This development implies that either Neferneferuaten was deposed in a struggle for power, possibly deprived of a royal burial—and buried as a queen—or that she was buried with a different set of king's funerary equipment—possibly Akhenaten's own funerary equipment—by Tutankhamun's officials since Tutankhamun succeeded her as king.[84] Summary[edit] There is also little that can be said with certainty about the life and reign of Ankhkheperure Neferneferuaten. Most Egyptologists accept that she was a woman and an individual apart from Smenkhkare. Many specialists in the period believe the epigraphic evidence strongly indicates she acted for a time as Akhenaten's coregent.[20][39][62] Whether she reigned before or after Smenkhkare depends on the underlying theory as to her identity. Based on the Pairi inscription dated to her Third Regnal Year, it appears she enjoyed a sole reign. How much of her reign was as coregent and how much as sole ruler, is a matter of debate and speculation. The same tomb inscription mentions an Amun temple in Thebes, perhaps a mortuary complex, which would seem to indicate that the Amun proscription had abated and the traditional religion was being restored toward the end of her reign.[30][39][62] Since much of her funeral equipment was used in Tutankhamen's burial, it seems fairly certain she was denied a pharaonic burial by her successor.[30][39][62] The reasons for this remain speculation, as does a regency with Tutankhaten. With so much evidence expunged first by Neferneferuaten's successor, then the entire Amarna period by Horemheb, and later in earnest by the kings of the Nineteenth Dynasty, the exact details of events may never be known. The highly equivocal nature of the evidence often renders it suggestive of something, while falling short of proving it. The various steles, for instance, strongly suggest a female coregent but offer nothing conclusive as to her identity. Speculations regarding the end of the Amarna Period are likely to continue for years to come. The recently discovered inscription mentioning Nefertiti as queen in year 16 shows that the Amarna Period may yet have secrets and clues to divulge. References[edit] ^ a b c Krauss, Rolf. Das Ende der Amarnazeit (The End of the Amarna Period); 1978, Hildesheim; pp.43–47 ^ a b c d e f g h Allen, James P. (1994). Nefertiti and Smenkh-ka-re. Göttinger Miszellen 141. pp. 7–17. ^ M. Gabolde, ‘Under a Deep Blue Starry Sky’, in P. Brand (ed.), "Causing His Name to Live: Studies in Egyptian Epigraphy and History in Memory of William J. Murnane.", Leiden: E. J. Brill Academic Publishers, pp. 17-21 ^ Badger Utopia (11 August 2017), Nefertiti - Mummy Queen of Mystery, retrieved 30 October 2017 ^ A Syposium of Horemhab: General and King of Egypt See the first 8 minutes of this 2011 Metropolitan Museum of Art presentation. As the video notes, the order and dates are "under discussion". ^ a b MANETHO, The Loeb Classical Library; 1940, English translation by W. G. Waddell, p 102-103 ^ Gabolde, Marc. D’Akhenaton à Tout-ânkhamon, 1998; pp.145-185 Some internet theories equate Achencheres with Akhenaten. ^ de Garies Davies, N. 1905. The Rock Tombs of El Amarna, Part II: The Tombs of Panehesy and Meryra II. Archaeological Survey of Egypt. F. L. Griffith. London: Egypt Exploration Fund. See Line Drawing from 'The Rock Tombs of El Amarna'. Lepsius rendering of the names is lower right, and were originally in the upper right where Meritaten's cartouche is quite clearly shown. ^ a b Allen, James P., "The Amarna Succession", in "Causing His Name to Live: Studies in Egyptian Epigraphy and History in Memory of William J. Murnane", p.2 ^ Murnane, W.; (1977) Ancient Egyptian Coregencies, pp.213–15 ^ Pendlebury, J. D. S. ; The City of Akhenaten (1951), Part III, p.164 ^ Pendlebury, J. D. S. ; The City of Akhenaten (1951), Part III, pl lxxxvi and xcvii ^ Petrie, W M Flinders (1894). Tell el Amarna. pp. pl. XV. 103–104. ^ Reeves 2014, p. 511. ^ James Seidel, Tutankhamun’s mask: Evidence of an erased name points to the fate of heretic queen Nefertiti, 26 November 2015, News Corp ^ Murnane, W; Texts from the Amarna Period, Atlanta: Scholars Press (1995). Note: Gardiner, JEA 14 (1928), pp. 10–11 and pls. 5–6;, Reeves (False Prophet, 2001. p.163) and Murnane all give the date as 10th Day, Month 3, Akhet. Dodson (2009) reports the date as "unequivocally" 3rd day, Month 4, Akhet. The difference is 23 days. ^ Reeves, C. Nicholas; Akhenaten: Egypt's False Prophet; 2001. p.164 ^ J. R. Harris, Neferneferuaten, "Göttinger Miszellen" 4 (1973), 15-17; Neferneferuaten Rediviva, "Acta Orientalia" 35 (1973), 5-13; Neferneferuaten Regnans, "Acta Orientalia" 36 (1974), 11-21; Akhenaten or Nefertiti?, "Acta Orientalia" 38 (1977), 5-10. ^ Burton, Harry (Photographer). "Statuette of the king upon a leopard". Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation: The Howard Carter Archives. Griffith Institute. Retrieved 23 September 2012. ^ a b c d e Reeves, C. Nicholas; Akhenaten, Egypt's False Prophet; (2001) Thames and Hudson ^ Pendlebury J., Samson, J. et al; City of Akhenaten, Part III (1951) ^ a b Allen, James P. , Two Altered Inscriptions of the Late Amarna Period, Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 25 (1988); pp.117-121. ^ In fact, portions of Krauss's hypothesis may have been put forward twice previously. See Reeves, Nicholas; Orientalistische Literaturzeitung, vol. 78, no. 6 (1983) ^ Gabolde, Marc (1998). "D'Akhenaton à Tout-ânkhamon": 147–62, 213–219. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ Allen (1994); Gabolde (1998); Eaton-Krauss and Krauss(2001); Hornung (2006); von Beckerath (1997); Allen (2006); Krauss (2007); Murnane (2001) They otherwise hold very different views on the succession, chronology, and identity of Neferneferuaten. ^ Murnane, W; (1977) p.42 ^ Gabolde, Marc. D’Akhenaton à Tout-ânkhamon, 1998; pp.156-157; This involves Isis' relationship with Osiris. ^ Dodson, A; Amarna Sunset (2009), appendix 3 ^ Allen, James P.; The Amarna Succession (2006); in P. Brand (ed.), "Causing His Name to Live: Studies in Egyptian Epigraphy and History in Memory of William J. Murnane"; Archived from the original ^ a b c Giles, 2001 ^ Miller, J; Amarna Age Chronology and the Identity of Nibhururiya in Altoriental. Forsch. 34 (2007); p 272 ^ e.g. Murnane, J.; The End of the Amarna Periode Once Again, (2001); Allen, J 1998, 2006; Gabolde, M.; Das Ende der Amarnazeit, (2001); Hornung, E; The New Kingdom in Ancient Egyptian Chronology (2006); Miller, J. Amarna Age Chronology (2007); Dodson A.; Amarna Sunset (2009). ^ Harris, J.R. Neferneferuaten Rediviva; 1973 in "Acta Orientalia" 35 pp. 5–13 Harris, J.R. Neferneferuaten Regnans; 1973 in Göttinger Miszellen 4 pp. 15–17 ^ Samson, J; City of Akhenaten and Nefertiti; Aris & Phillips Ltd, 1972; ISBN 978-0856680007 ^ Dodson & Hilton (2004); p 285 ^ Dodson, A; Amarna Sunset (2009) p. 43 ^ Giles, Frederick. J., Ikhnaton Legend and History; 1970; Associated University Press; 1972 US; p 59 ^ a b Giles, F; 1972 ^ a b c d Dodson, A; Amarna Sunset, The American University in Cairo Press, 2009 ^ Dodson, A; (2009); p. 43 ^ Martin, G. T., The Rock Tombs of El-'Amarna. Part VII. The Royal Tomb at El-'Amarna, 1974. The Objects. (Vol. I.) London: Egypt Exploration Society. ^ Bovot, J.-L. (1999). Un chaouabti pour deux reines amarniennes?. Égypte Afrique et Orient 13. pp. 31–34. ^ Aldred, Cyril (1988). Akhenaten: King of Egypt. Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27621-8. ^ Dayr al-Barsha Project Press Release, Dec 2012; http://www.dayralbarsha.com/node/124 Archived 19 December 2012 at the Wayback Machine ^ Athena Van der Perre, "Nofretetes (vorerst) letzte dokumentierte Erwähnung," (Nefertiti's (now) latest documented attestation) in: Im Licht von Amarna - 100 Jahre Fund der Nofretete. [Katalog zur Ausstellung Berlin, 7 December 2012 – 13 April 2013]. (7 December 2012 – 13 April 2013) Petersberg, pp.195-197 ^ Dayr al-Barsha Project featured in new exhibit 'Im Licht von Amarna' at the Ägyptisches Museum und Papyrussammlung in Berlin Archived 19 December 2012 at the Wayback Machine 12 June 2012 ^ Christian Bayer, "Ein Gott für Aegypten - Nofretete, Echnaton und der Sonnenkult von Amarna" Epoc, 04-2012. - pp.12-19 ^ Athena van der Perre, The Year 16 graffito of Akhenaten in Dayr Abū Ḥinnis. A Contribution to the Study of the Later Years of Nefertiti, Journal of Egyptian History (JEH) 7 (2014), pp.72-73 & 76-77 ^ van der Perre, JEH 7 (2014) pp.82-87 & 96-102 ^ Dodson, A; (2009) p. 50 ^ A. van der Perre, JEH 7 (2014), pp.101-102 ^ Aidan Dodson, Amarna Sunset:the late-Amarna succession revisited in Beyond the Horizon. Studies in Egyptian Art, Archaeology and History and history in Honour of Barry J. Kemp, ed. S, Ikram and A. Dodson, pp.32-33 Cairo: Supreme Council of Antiquites, 2009. ^ Dodson, Amarna Sunset 2009, pp. 27-29 ^ Dodson, Amarna Sunset 2009, p. 51, 45-46 ^ Murnane, W.; Ancient Egypt Coregencies (1977) p 31-32 ^ Dodson, Amarna Sunset 2009, pp.45-46 ^ JAMA. 2010 Feb 17; Ancestry and pathology in King Tutankhamun's family; Hawass Z, Gad YZ, Ismail S, Khairat R, Fathalla D, Hasan N, Ahmed A, Elleithy H, Ball M, Gaballah F, Wasef S, Fateen M, Amer H, Gostner P, Selim A, Zink A, Pusch CM. Source Supreme Council of Antiquities, Cairo, Egypt. http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=185393 ^ a b Gabolde, M; Ancient Near East Forum, Dec 2007 ^ Hoffemeir, Van Dijk. "New Light on the Amarna Period from North Sinai". ^ Hoffemeir, Van Dijk; New Light on the Amarna Period" (2010) pp.201-202 ^ J. Tyldesley, Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt, 2006, Thames & Hudson, pp.136-137; also Gabolde, M,; Under a Deep Blue Starry Sky, P. Brand (ed.), in "Causing His Name to Live: Studies in Egyptian Epigraphy and History in Memory of William J. Murnane", (2006) pp.17-21 ^ a b c d e Allen, James P.; The Amarna Succession (2006); in P. Brand (ed.), "Causing His Name to Live: Studies in Egyptian Epigraphy and History in Memory of William J. Murnane"; Archived from the original Archived 1 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine ^ Gabolde, Marc. D’Akhenaton à Tout-ânkhamon, 1998; pp.178–183 ^ Gabolde, Marc. D’Akhenaton à Tout-ânkhamon, 1998; pp.187-226 ^ Murnane, W.; The End of the Amarna Period Once Again, 2001 ^ Aidan Dodson, Amarna Sunset:the late-Amarna succession revisited in Beyond the Horizon. Studies in Egyptian Art, Archaeology and History and history in Honour of Barry J. Kemp, ed. S, Ikram and A. Dodson, p.32 Cairo: Supreme Council of Antiquites, 2009. ^ William J. Murnane, The End of the Amarna Period Once Again’, Orientalistische Literaturzeitung (OLZ) Vol. 96 (2001), p.21 ^ Miller, J; Amarna Age Chronology (2007) p.275; to wit Gabolde 1998; 2001; 2002 ^ Miller, J.; The Amarna Age Chronology (2007) p.261 ^ Miller, J.; The Amarna Age Chronology (2007) p.275 n104 ^ Miller, J.; The Amarna Age Chronology (2007) pp.260-261; Miller believes Suppiluliuma was indeed that "brutal [and] unscrupulous"; implicitly he must have been much less aware of the state of affairs at Amarna court than Neferneferuaten was of minutiae regarding Suppiluliuma such as his affiliation with the Hittite sun god. p.273 n94 ^ Miller, J.; Amarna Age Chronology (2007) p.262 ^ Roeder, Amarna-Reliefs aus Hermopolis, pls. 19 (234-VI) and 106 (451-VIIA). Also D. Redford, Studies on Akhenaten at Thebes, II, JARCE 12 (1975), pp. 11–12. ^ Allen, J, Amarna Succession (2006); p 9-10, p9 n. 34 ^ van Dijk, Jacobus; The Death of Meketaten in Causing His Name to Live: Studies in Egyptian Epigraphy and History in Memory of William J. Murnane; (2006) pp 7-8 ^ a b Allen; Amarna Succession; p15 ^ a b Tyldesley, Joyce. Nefertiti: Egypt's Sun Queen; Penguin; 1998; ISBN 0-670-86998-8 ^ Irwin M. Braverman; et al. (2009). "Akhenaten and the Strange Physiques of Egypt's 18th Dynasty". Ann Intern Med. 150 (8): 556–60. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-150-8-200904210-00010. PMID 19380856. S2CID 24766974. ^ a b Allen, James P.; The Amarna Succession in "Causing His Name to Live: Studies in Egyptian Epigraphy and History in Memory of William J. Murnane" ^ Was King Tut's Tomb Built for a Woman?, retrieved 24 October 2017 ^ Nicholas Reeves Tutankhamun's Mask Reconsidered BES 19 (2014), pp.511-522 ^ Peter Hessler, Inspection of King Tut's Tomb Reveals Hints of Hidden Chambers National Geographic, 28 September 2015 ^ Nicholas Reeves, The Gold Mask of Ankhkheperure Neferneferuaten, Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections, Vol.7 No.4, (December 2015) pp.77-79 & click download this PDF file ^ Nicholas Reeves,Tutankhamun's Mask Reconsidered BES 19 (2014), pp.523-524 Notes[edit] ^ Briefly, an Egyptian queen writes to Suppiluliuma asking for him to send a son for her to marry for she has no sons. In marrying her, the son will become King of Egypt. The Hittite king is wary and sends an envoy to verify the lack of a male heir. The queen writes back, rebuking Suppiluliuma for suggesting she lied about a son and indicates she is loath to marry a "servant" (as she was being pressed to do). A key element in the Hittite sources is that Zannanza died not long after departing. It has been supposed that he was murdered at the border of Egypt (Brier) to thwart the plot. As there is no evidence as to when or where he died nor that he was murdered, Gabolde believes that he completed the trip and died only after ascending the throne as Smenkhkare. The traditional view has been that Tutankhamun's widow is the queen in question because she had no sons and eventually was married to a "servant", Ay. Reeves has long held that the queen was Nefertiti, who was The Queen par excellence of the period. ^ Gabolde and others have long noted that the name Smenkhkare-Djeser Kheperu with the theophoric element of Re and somewhat lofty epithet seems much more like a throne name than a birth name. A name change does seem likely to many even if he is Egyptian. The change may have been simply adopting the 'Holy of Manifestations' epithet or changing the theophoric element to 'Re' to gain acceptance from both Atenists and traditionalists. Further reading[edit] Each of the leading candidates have their own proponents among Egyptologists, whose work can be consulted for more information and many more details for a given candidate. Several of the works of Nicholas Reeves and Aidan Dodson advocate for Nefertiti as Neferneferuaten. Marc Gabolde has written several papers and at least one book (in French) supporting Meritaten. James Allen's previous work in this area primarily dealt with establishing the female gender of Neferneferuaten and then as an individual apart from Smenkhkare. His paper on "The Amarna Succession" is his first theory as to identity of King Neferneferuaten, having previously cited Nefertiti or Meritaten as the probable or possible identity depending on the state of the evidence. Aldred, Cyril, Akhenaten, King of Egypt (Thames & Hudson, 1988). Aldred, Cyril (1973). Akhenaten and Nefertiti. London: Thames & Hudson. Aldred, Cyril (1984). The Egyptians. London: Thames & Hudson. Allen, James P. (2006). "The Amarna Succession" (PDF). Archived from the original on 1 July 2013. Retrieved 23 June 2008.CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004. ISBN 0-500-05128-3 Dodson, Aidan. Amarna Sunset: Nefertiti, Tutankhamun, Ay, Horemheb, and the Egyptian Counter-Reformation. The American University in Cairo Press. 2009, ISBN 978-977-416-304-3 Freed, Rita E., Yvonne J. Markowitz, and Sue H. D'Auria (ed.) (1999). Pharaohs of the Sun: Akhenaten - Nefertiti - Tutankhamen. Bulfinch Press. ISBN 0-8212-2620-7.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) Gabolde, Marc, Under a Deep Blue Starry Sky in "Causing His Name to Live: Studies in Egyptian Epigraphy and History in Memory of William J. Murnane"; Gabolde - Starry Sky Giles, Frederick. J., Ikhnaton Legend and History (1970, Associated University Press, 1972 US) Giles, Frederick. J. The Amarna Age: Egypt (Australian Centre for Egyptology, 2001) Hornung, Erik, Akhenaten and the Religion of Light, translated by David Lorton, Cornell University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-8014-3658-3) Miller, Jared; Amarna Age Chronology and the Identity of Nibhururiya in the Light of a Newly Reconstructed Hittite Text (2007); Altoriental. Forsch. 34 (2007) 2, 252–293 Redford, Donald B., Akhenaten: The Heretic King (Princeton University Press, 1984, ISBN 0-691-03567-9) Redford, Donald B.;Akhenaten: The Heretic King (1984) Princeton University Press Reeves, C. Nicholas., Akhenaten, Egypt's False Prophet (Thames & Hudson, 2001). Reeves, C. Nicholas., The Complete Tutankhamun: The King, the Tomb, the Royal Treasure. London: Thames & Hudson, 1 November 1990, ISBN 0-500-05058-9 (hardcover)/ ISBN 0-500-27810-5 (paperback) Reeves, Nicholas (2014). "Tutankhamun's Mask Reconsidered". In A. Oppenheim; O. Goelet (eds.). The Art and Culture of Ancient Egypt. Studies in Honor of Dorothea Arnold. Theis, Christoffer Der Brief der Königin Daḫamunzu an den hethitischen König Šuppiluliuma I. im Lichte von Reisegeschwindigkeiten und Zeitabläufen, in: Thomas R. Kämmerer (Hrsg.): Identities and Societies in the Ancient East-Mediterranean Regions. Comparative Approaches. Henning Graf Reventlow Memorial Volume (= AAMO 1, AOAT 390/1). Münster 2011, S. 301–331 Tyldesley, Joyce. Nefertiti: Egypt's Sun Queen. Penguin. 1998. ISBN 0-670-86998-8 The Amarna Project v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Queens of Ancient Egypt Early Dynastic Period to First Intermediate Period  (3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Neithhotep Benerib Khenthap Herneith Nakhtneith Penebui Merneith Seshemetka Semat Serethor Betrest II Nimaathap Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Hetephernebti Djeseretnebti Djefatnebti Meresankh I IV Hetepheres I Meritites I Henutsen Khentetka Meresankh II Hetepheres II Meresankh III Khamerernebty I Persenet Hekenuhedjet Khamerernebty II Rekhetre Bunefer V Khentkaus I Neferhetepes Meretnebty Khentkaus II Khentkaus III Reptynub Khuit I Meresankh IV Setibhor Nebet Khenut VI Iput I Khuit II Ankhesenpepi I Ankhesenpepi II Nubwenet Meritites IV Inenek-Inti Nedjeftet Neith Iput II Udjebten Ankhesenpepi III Ankhesenpepi IV Nitocris Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Neferu I Neferukayet Iah Tem Neferu II Ashayet Henhenet Sadeh Kawit Kemsit XII Neferitatjenen Neferu III Keminub Khenemetneferhedjet I Nofret II Itaweret Khenmet Sithathoriunet Khenemetneferhedjet II Neferthenut Meretseger Aat Khenemetneferhedjet III Sobekneferu 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Nofret Nubhetepti Senebhenas Neni Tjan Ineni Nubkhaes Aya XIV Tati XVI Mentuhotep XVII Nubemhat Sobekemsaf Haankhes Tetisheri Ahhotep I Ahmose Inhapy Sitdjehuti Ahhotep II New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose-Nefertari Ahmose-Sitkamose Ahmose-Henuttamehu Ahmose-Meritamun Ahmose Mutnofret Hatshepsut Iset Satiah Merytre-Hatshepsut Nebtu Menhet, Menwi and Merti Nebsemi Tiaa Nefertari Iaret Mutemwiya Tiye Gilukhipa Sitamun Iset Tadukhipa / Kiya Nefertiti Meritaten Neferneferuaten Ankhesenamun Tey Mutnedjmet Nebetnehat XIX Sitre Tuya Tanedjemet Nefertari Isetnofret Henutmire Maathorneferure Meritamen Bintanath Nebettawy Merytre Isetnofret II Takhat Twosret Tiaa XX Tiy-Merenese Iset Ta-Hemdjert Tyti Tiye Duatentopet Henutwati Tawerettenru Nubkhesbed Baketwernel Tentamun 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Tentamun Mutnedjmet Karimala XXII Karomama Patareshnes Maatkare Tashedkhonsu Nesitaudjatakhet Nesitanebetashru Kapes Karomama I Tadibast III XXIII Karomama II XXV Pebatjma Tabiry Abar Khensa Peksater Arty Qalhata Tabekenamun Takahatenamun Naparaye Atakhebasken Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Mehytenweskhet Khedebneithirbinet I Takhuit Tentkheta Nakhtubasterau Ladice XXVII Atossa Artystone Parmys Amestris Damaspia Parysatis XXXI Stateira I Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Roxana Stateira II Parysatis II Eurydice II of Macedon Ptolemaic Eurydice Berenice I Arsinoe I Arsinoe II Berenice II Arsinoe III Cleopatra I Cleopatra II Cleopatra III Cleopatra IV Cleopatra Selene Berenice III Cleopatra V Cleopatra VI Berenice IV Cleopatra VII Arsinoe IV Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic v t e Amarna Period Pharaohs Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten Tutankhamun Ay Royal family Tiye Nefertiti Kiya "The Younger Lady" Tey Children Meritaten Meketaten Ankhesenamun Neferneferuaten Tasherit Neferneferure Setepenre Meritaten Tasherit Ankhesenpaaten Tasherit Nobles Officials Mutbenret Aperel Bek Huya Meryre II Nakhtpaaten Panehesy Parennefer Penthu Thutmose Locations Akhetaten Karnak KV55 KV62 Amarna Tombs Other Amarna letters Amarna succession Aten Atenism Dakhamunzu Amarna Art Style Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neferneferuaten&oldid=994962152" Categories: 1330s BC deaths 14th-century BC births 14th-century BC Pharaohs 14th-century BC women rulers Amarna Period Atenism Historical negationism in ancient Egypt Pharaohs of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Female pharaohs Hidden categories: CS1 errors: missing periodical Webarchive template wayback links Use dmy dates from October 2019 Articles needing additional references from October 2019 All articles needing additional references All articles that may contain original research Articles that may contain original research from October 2019 CS1 maint: unfit URL CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list CS1 maint: extra text: authors list AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here 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en-wikipedia-org-5365	----	National Museum of Iran - Wikipedia National Museum of Iran From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Archaeology museum in Tehran, Iran National Museum of Iran موزهٔ ملی ایران Muze-ye Melli-ye Irān Museum of Ancient Iran Established 1937 Location Tehran, Iran Type Archaeology museum Collection size Archaeological collections from Paleolithic to Qajar period Director Jebrael Nokandeh Owner ICHTO Website irannationalmuseum.ir The National Museum of Iran (Persian: موزهٔ ملی ایران‎ Mūze-ye Melli-ye Irān) is located in Tehran, Iran. It is an institution formed of two complexes; the Museum of Ancient Iran and the Museum of Islamic Archaeology and Art of Iran, which were opened in 1937 and 1972, respectively. The institution hosts historical monuments dating back through preserved ancient and medieval Iranian antiquities, including pottery vessels, metal objects, textile remains, and some rare books and coins.[1] It also includes a number of research departments, categorized by different historical periods and archaeological topics. Contents 1 History 2 Collections 3 Exhibitions 4 Departments 5 Gallery 6 See also 7 References 8 External links History[edit] The entrance of the Museum of Ancient Iran, part of the National Museum of Iran. The brick building of the Museum of Ancient Iran was designed by French architects André Godard and Maxime Siroux in the early 20th century, and was influenced by Sassanian vaults, particularly the Taq Kasra at Ctesiphon.[2] Its construction, with an area of about 11,000 square metres (13,000 sq yd), began in 1935 and was completed within two years by Abbas Ali Memar and Morad Tabrizi. It was then officially inaugurated in 1937.[3] Museum of Islamic Archaeology and Art of Iran, part of the National Museum of Iran. The Museum of Islamic Era was later built with white travertine on the grassy grounds of the Museum of Ancient Iran. It has gone through quite a few hasty interior changes, and was still being remodeled when the 1979 Revolution swept the country. A Survey of the History of Iran on the Basis of Iran National Museum, Guide book of Iran National Museum in four languages General View of Iran Bastan Museum, Iran National Museum, Tehran 2020 While the Museum of Ancient Iran always had a clear mandate to show archaeological relics, as well as some rare medieval textiles and rug pieces, the newer complex began to also feature the exquisite Amlash pottery from prehistoric Caspian Sea regions of Iran. This followed some modern works, and the repeated gutting and remodeling of the interior. The Museum of Ancient Iran consists of two floors. Its halls contain artifacts and fossils from the Lower, Middle, and Upper Paleolithic, as well as the Neolithic, Chalcolithic, early and late Bronze Age, and Iron Ages I-III, through the Median, Achaemenid, Seleucid, Parthian, and Sassanian eras. The newer complex consists of three floors. It contains various pieces of pottery, textiles, texts, artworks, astrolabes, and adobe calligraphy, from Iran's post-classical era. Organizational chart of National Museum of Iran Collections[edit] The oldest artifacts kept at the museum are from Kashafrud, Darband, and Shiwatoo, which date back to the Lower Paleolithic period. Mousterian stone tools made by Neanderthals are also on display at the first hall of the Museum of Ancient Iran. The most important Upper Paleolithic tools are from Yafteh, dating back about 30,000 to 35,000 years. There are also 9,000-year-old human and animal figurines from Sarab mound in Kermanshah, among many other ancient artifacts. Exhibitions[edit] The ground floor of the newer complex has been dedicated to contemporary exhibitions. Temporary exhibition galleries are featured two or three times annually, and usually run for about one to two months. One of the most successful exhibitions, entitled Evidence for Two Hundred Thousand Years of Human-Animal Bonds in Iran, ran from August to October 2014.[4] The exhibition was mainly about the relation and coexistence of past human societies and various animal species in Iran, since the late Lower Paleolithic to modern decades. Departments[edit] Research Group Head: Yousef Hassanzadeh Paleolithic Department Head:Fereidoun Biglari Prehistoric Department Head: Fariba Moejezati Historic Department Head: Shahram Heidarabadian Islamic Department Head: Karam Mirzaei Coins and seals Department Head: Fereshteh Zokaei Inscriptions Department Head: Sedigheh Piran Conservation Department Head: Parvaneh Soltani Pottery Department Head: Omolbanin Ghafoori Osteological Department Head: Marjan Mashkour Library and archive Head: Azam Jaloli Exhibitions Department Head: Nina Rezaei Photographic Studio Head: Mahbobeh Ghelich Khani Public affairs: Head: Hassan Moradi Legal and International relations Head: Masoumeh Ahmadi Gallery[edit] Museum of Ancient Iran, part of the National Museum of Iran. Museum of the Islamic Era, part of the National Museum of Iran. An Iron-Age gold cup from Marlik, kept at the Museum of Ancient Iran. An Iron-Age animal statue from Marlik, kept at the Museum of Ancient Iran. A chopper from the Lower Paleolithic, found at Kashafrud, kept at the Museum of Ancient Iran. A trihedral from the Lower Paleolithic, found at Amar Merdeg, kept at the Museum of Ancient Iran. A clay boar figurine from the Neolithic period, found at Tepe Sarab, kept at the Museum of Ancient Iran. The Saltmen, kept at the Museum of Ancient Iran. A clay figurine of a fertility goddess found at Tepe Sarab, dating back to the Neolithic, kept at the Museum of Ancient Iran. A chlorite object with the Master of Animals motif from Kerman's Jiroft culture, dating back to Bronze Age I, kept at the Museum of Ancient Iran. An Elamite bull statue, kept at the Museum of Ancient Iran. The Statue of Parthian queen Thermusa, kept at the Museum of Ancient Iran. Directors of Iran national Museum since its establishment in 1937. The statue of a Parthian nobleman, kept at the Museum of Ancient Iran. A Persepolitan mastiff statue, kept at the Museum of Ancient Iran. The statue of Darius I, kept at the Museum of Ancient Iran. A statue of a Sasanian nobleman from Hajjiabad, Fars, kept at the Museum of Ancient Iran. A 9th-century ceramic bowl from Gorgan, decorated with slip beneath a transparent glaze, designing an anthropic figure with bull head, kept at the Museum of the Islamic Era. A 19th-century hookah, kept at the Museum of the Islamic Era. The Seljuq Gallery of the Museum of the Islamic Era. An 18th-century watercolor painting signed by Abol-Hasan Qaffari (Sani-ol-Molk), from the Qajar period, kept at the Museum of the Islamic Era. This leaflet is published by National Museum of Iran on the occasion of the 80th anniversary of the establishment of Iran Bastan Museum in 2018. See also[edit] Iran portal Reza Abbasi Museum Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art List of museums in Iran References[edit] ^ "Otraq.com, Iran's Tourism Guide" Archived 2014-10-20 at the Wayback Machine ^ Sandy Isenstadt, Kishwar Rizvi. Modernism and the Middle East: Architecture and Politics in the Twentieth Century. Studies in Modernity and National Identity. University of Washington Press, 2011. ISBN 0295800305 pp.14 ^ Nokandeh, Jebrael (ed.) 2019. A Survey of the History of Iran on the Basis of Iran National Museum Collections, Second edition, Iran National Museum with the contribution of Baloot Noghrei Institute, Tehran ^ "The Guardian's report about exhibition" External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to National Museum of Iran. Photo Gallery of the National Museum of Iran Virtual Tour of Iran National Museum 1 [1] Virtual Tour of Iran National Museum 2 [2] Official website of Iran National Museum [3] Coordinates: 35°41′13.36″N 51°24′52.60″E / 35.6870444°N 51.4146111°E / 35.6870444; 51.4146111 v t e Major collections of Islam-related materials Africa Egypt (Museum of Islamic Art, Museum of Islamic Ceramics) Libya (Islamic Museum of Tripoli, Red Castle Museum) Morocco (Majorelle Garden, Marrakech Museum) Tunisia (Bardo National Museum, Mahdia Museum, National Museum of Islamic Art) Asia South Afghanistan (Museum of Islamic Art) India (Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences) Maldives (National Museum) Pakistan (Multan Museum, National Museum of Pakistan) South East Indonesia (Bayt Al Quran & Museum Istiqlal) Malaysia (Islamic Arts Museum Malaysia, Islamic Heritage Museum, Kelantan Islamic Museum, Malay and Islamic World Museum, Melaka Al-Quran Museum, Melaka Islamic Museum, Penang Islamic Museum, Sabah Islamic Civilisation Museum, Sabah Museum) Philippines (Aga Khan Museum of Islamic Arts) Singapore (Asian Civilisations Museum) West Bahrain (Beit Al Quran) Iran (Astan Quds Razavi Central Museum, Museum of the Islamic Era) Iraq (National Museum of Iraq, Sulaymaniyah Museum) Israel/Palestine (Islamic Museum, Museum for Islamic Art) Jordan (Prophet Mohammad Museum) Kuwait (Dar al Athar al Islamiyyah, Tareq Rajab Museum) Qatar (Museum of Islamic Art, National Museum of Qatar, Qatar National Museum) Saudi Arabia (Dar al-Madinah Museum, Mecca Museum) Syria (National Museum of Damascus, National Museum of Aleppo, Raqqa Museum) Turkey Bursa Museum of Turkish and Islamic Art, İstanbul Archaeology Museums, Istanbul Museum of the History of Science and Technology in Islam, Museum of Turkish Calligraphy Art, Sadberk Hanım Museum, Topkapi Museum, Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum) United Arab Emirates (Sharjah Museum of Islamic Civilization, Zayed National Museum) Europe Denmark (David Collection) France (Arab World Institute, Louvre) Germany (Islamic Art Museum) Greece (Benaki Museum) United Kingdom (British Museum, Burrell Collection, Khalili Collections, Victoria and Albert Museum) North America Canada (Aga Khan Museum) United States (America's Islamic Heritage Museum, Harvard Art Museums, Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Walters Art Museum, Shangri La (Doris Duke)) Oceania Australia (Islamic Museum of Australia) Virtual Museum with No Frontiers Part of Islamic arts v t e Tehran Province Capital Tehran Counties and cities Baharestan County Nasim Shahr Golestan Salehieh Damavand County Damavand Abali Absard Kilan Rudehen Eslamshahr County Ahmadabad-e Mostowfi Eslamshahr Chahardangeh Firuzkuh County Firuzkuh Arjomand Malard County Malard Safadasht Pakdasht County Pakdasht Sharifabad Pardis County Pardis Bumehen Pishva County Pishva Qarchak County Qarchak Qods County Qods Ray County Rey* Baqershahr Hasanabad Kahrizak Robat Karim County Robat Karim Parand Nasirabad Shahriar County Shahriar Andisheh Baghestan Ferdowsieh Sabashahr Shahedshahr Vahidieh Shemiranat County Shemiran* Fasham Lavasan Tajrish* Tehran County Tehran Varamin County Varamin Javadabad Landmarks Azadi Tower Bahman Cultural Center Tabiat Bridge Carpet Museum of Iran Dizin Ebn-e Babooyeh Golestan Palace Grand Bazaar, Tehran Iranian Crown Jewels Malik National Museum of Iran Milad Tower National Museum of Iran Niavaran Complex Pearl Palace Sa'dabad Palace Shebeli Tower Shemshak (ski resort) Bibi Shahr Banu Shrine Tangeh Savashi Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art Toopkhaneh Tughrul Tower Reza Abbasi Museum St. Thaddeus and Bartholomew Church St. George Church Populated places List of cities, towns and villages in Tehran Province ^* indicates that this formerly independent city is now absorbed into Tehran. Authority control GND: 1246968-3 ISNI: 0000 0001 1512 2615 LCCN: n80079511 VIAF: 132624459 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80079511 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_Museum_of_Iran&oldid=998181029" Categories: Museums in Iran Museums established in 1937 Museums in Tehran Cultural infrastructure completed in 1937 National museums of Iran Architecture of Iran Museums of Ancient Near East Islamic museums Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Persian-language text Infobox mapframe without OSM relation ID on Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Pages using the Kartographer extension Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Русский Slovenščina Svenska Türkçe Українська اردو 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 January 2021, at 05:21 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5342	----	Greece - Wikipedia Greece From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Greece (disambiguation) and Hellas. Country in southeastern Europe Hellenic Republic Ελληνική Δημοκρατία (Greek) Ellinikí Dimokratía Flag Coat of arms Motto: Ελευθερία ή Θάνατος Elefthería í Thánatos ("Freedom or Death") Anthem: Ύμνος εις την Ελευθερίαν Ímnos is tin Eleftherían ("Hymn to Liberty") Show map of Europe Show globe Location of Greece (dark green)– in Europe (light green & dark grey) – in the European Union (light green) Capital and largest city Athens 37°58′N 23°43′E / 37.967°N 23.717°E / 37.967; 23.717 Official language and national language Greek Religion (2017) 93% Christianity —90% Greek Orthodoxy[a] —3% Other Christian 4% No religion 2% Islam 1% Other religions[3] Demonym(s) Greek Government Unitary parliamentary republic • President Katerina Sakellaropoulou • Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis • Speaker of the Parliament Konstantinos Tasoulas Legislature Hellenic Parliament Establishment history • Independence declared from the Ottoman Empire 25 March 1821 (traditional starting date of the Greek War of Independence), 15 January 1822 (official declaration) • Recognised 3 February 1830 • Current constitution 11 June 1975 Area • Total 131,957 km2 (50,949 sq mi)[4] (95th) • Water (%) 1.51 (as of 2015)[5] Population • 2019 estimate 10,724,599[6] (85th) • 2011 census 10,816,286[7] • Density 82[8]/km2 (212.4/sq mi) (125th) GDP (PPP) 2020 estimate • Total $310.743 billion[9] (55th) • Per capita $29,045[9] (50th) GDP (nominal) 2020 estimate • Total $194.376 billion[9] (50th) • Per capita $18,168[9] (39th) Gini (2019)  31.0[10] medium · 60th HDI (2019)  0.888[11] very high · 32nd Currency Euro (€) (EUR) Time zone UTC+02:00 (Eastern European Time) • Summer (DST) UTC+03:00 (Eastern European Summer Time) Date format dd-mm-yyyy (AD) Driving side right Calling code +30 ISO 3166 code GR Internet TLD .gra .ελ The .eu domain is also used, as in other European Union member states. Greece (Greek: Ελλάδα, Ellada, [eˈlaða]), officially the Hellenic Republic[12][b] and also known as Hellas,[c] is a country located in Southeast Europe. Its population is approximately 10.7 million as of 2018; Athens is its largest and capital city, followed by Thessaloniki. Situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, Greece is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. It shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, North Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the northeast. The Aegean Sea lies to the east of the mainland, the Ionian Sea to the west, the Cretan Sea and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the longest coastline on the Mediterranean Basin and the 11th longest coastline in the world at 13,676 km (8,498 mi) in length, featuring many islands, of which 227 are inhabited. Eighty percent of Greece is mountainous, with Mount Olympus being the highest peak at 2,918 metres (9,573 ft). The country consists of nine traditional geographic regions: Macedonia, Central Greece, the Peloponnese, Thessaly, Epirus, the Aegean Islands (including the Dodecanese and Cyclades), Thrace, Crete, and the Ionian Islands. Greece is considered the cradle of Western civilization, being the birthplace of democracy, Western philosophy, Western literature, historiography, political science, major scientific and mathematical principles, Western drama and the Olympic Games. From the eighth century BC, the Greeks were organised into various independent city-states, known as poleis (singular polis), which spanned the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. Philip II of Macedon united most of present-day Greece in the fourth century BC, with his son Alexander the Great rapidly conquering much of the ancient world, from the eastern Mediterranean to India. The subsequent Hellenistic period saw the height of Greek culture and influence in antiquity. Greece was annexed by Rome in the second century BC, becoming an integral part of the Roman Empire and its successor, the Byzantine Empire, which adopted the Greek language and culture. The Greek Orthodox Church, which emerged in the first century AD, helped shape modern Greek identity and transmitted Greek traditions to the wider Orthodox world. After falling under Ottoman dominion in the mid-15th century, Greece emerged as a modern nation state in 1830 following a war of independence. The country's rich historical legacy is reflected in part by its 18 UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Greece is a unitary parliamentary republic, and a developed country, with an advanced high-income economy, and a high quality of life, ranking simultaneously very high in the Human Development Index. Its economy is the largest in the Balkans, where it is an important regional investor. A founding member of the United Nations, Greece was the tenth member to join the European Communities (precursor to the European Union) and has been part of the Eurozone since 2001. It is also a member of numerous other international institutions, including the Council of Europe, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), and the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie (OIF). Greece's unique cultural heritage, large tourism industry, prominent shipping sector and geostrategic importance classify it as a middle power.[d] Contents 1 Name 2 History 2.1 Prehistory and early history 2.2 Archaic and Classical period 2.3 Hellenistic and Roman periods (323 BC – 4th century AD) 2.4 Medieval period (4th – 15th century) 2.5 Venetian possessions and Ottoman rule (15th century – 1821) 2.6 Modern period 2.6.1 Greek War of Independence (1821–1832) 2.6.2 Kingdom of Greece 2.6.3 Expansion, disaster, and reconstruction 2.6.4 Dictatorship, World War II, and reconstruction 2.6.5 Military regime (1967–74) 2.6.6 Third Hellenic Republic 3 Geography and climate 3.1 Islands 3.2 Climate 3.3 Biodiversity 4 Politics 4.1 Political parties 4.2 Foreign relations 4.3 Law and justice 4.4 Military 4.5 Administrative divisions 5 Economy 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Debt crisis (2010–2018) 5.3 Agriculture 5.4 Energy 5.5 Maritime industry 5.6 Tourism 5.7 Transport 5.8 Telecommunications 5.9 Science and technology 6 Demographics 6.1 Cities 6.2 Religion 6.3 Languages 6.4 Migration 6.5 Education 6.6 Healthcare system 7 Culture 7.1 Visual arts 7.2 Architecture 7.3 Theatre 7.4 Literature 7.5 Philosophy 7.6 Music and dances 7.7 Cuisine 7.8 Cinema 7.9 Sports 7.10 Mythology 7.11 Public holidays and festivals 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 10.1 Citations 10.2 Bibliography 11 External links 11.1 Government 11.2 General information Name Main article: Name of Greece The native name of the country in Modern Greek is Ελλάδα (Elláda, pronounced [eˈlaða]). The corresponding form in Ancient Greek and conservative formal Modern Greek (Katharevousa) is Ἑλλάς (Hellas, classical: [helás], modern: [eˈlas]). This is the source of the English alternate name Hellas, which is mostly found in archaic or poetic contexts today. The Greek adjectival form ελληνικός (ellinikos, [eliniˈkos]) is sometimes also translated as Hellenic and is often rendered in this way in the formal names of Greek institutions, as in the official name of the Greek state, the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία, [eliniˈci ðimokraˈti.a]).[12] The English names Greece and Greek are derived, via the Latin Graecia and Graecus, from the name of the Graeci (Γραικοί, Graikoí; singular Γραικός, Graikós), who were among the first ancient Greek tribes to settle Magna Graecia in southern Italy. The term is ultimately derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *ǵerh₂-, "to grow old". History Main article: History of Greece Prehistory and early history Main articles: Neolithic Greece, Pelasgians, Cycladic culture, Minoan civilization, and Mycenaean Greece The entrance of the Treasury of Atreus (13th BC) in Mycenae The earliest evidence of the presence of human ancestors in the southern Balkans, dated to 270,000 BC, is to be found in the Petralona cave, in the Greek province of Macedonia.[21] The Apidima Cave in Mani, in southern Greece, contains the oldest remains of anatomically modern humans outside of Africa, dated to 210,000 years ago.[22][23][24] All three stages of the Stone Age (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic) are represented in Greece, for example in the Franchthi Cave.[25] Neolithic settlements in Greece, dating from the 7th millennium BC,[21] are the oldest in Europe by several centuries, as Greece lies on the route via which farming spread from the Near East to Europe.[26] Fresco displaying the Minoan ritual of "bull leaping", found in Knossos Greece is home to the first advanced civilizations in Europe and is considered the birthplace of Western civilisation,[e][30][31][32][33] beginning with the Cycladic civilization on the islands of the Aegean Sea at around 3200 BC,[34] the Minoan civilization in Crete (2700–1500 BC),[33][35] and then the Mycenaean civilization on the mainland (1600–1100 BC).[35] These civilizations possessed writing, the Minoans using an undeciphered script known as Linear A, and the Mycenaeans writing the earliest attested form of Greek in Linear B. The Mycenaeans gradually absorbed the Minoans, but collapsed violently around 1200 BC, along with other civilizations, during the regional event known as the Late Bronze Age collapse.[36] This ushered in a period known as the Greek Dark Ages, from which written records are absent. Though the unearthed Linear B texts are too fragmentary for the reconstruction of the political landscape and can't support the existence of a larger state, contemporary Hittite and Egyptian records suggest the presence of a single state under a "Great King" based in mainland Greece.[37][38] Archaic and Classical period Main articles: Ancient Greece, Archaic Greece, and Classical Greece Greek territories and colonies during the Archaic period (750–550 BC) The end of the Dark Ages is traditionally dated to 776 BC, the year of the first Olympic Games.[39] The Iliad and the Odyssey, the foundational texts of Western literature, are believed to have been composed by Homer in the 7th or 8th centuries BC.[40][41] With the end of the Dark Ages, there emerged various kingdoms and city-states across the Greek peninsula, which spread to the shores of the Black Sea, Southern Italy ("Magna Graecia") and Asia Minor. These states and their colonies reached great levels of prosperity that resulted in an unprecedented cultural boom, that of classical Greece, expressed in architecture, drama, science, mathematics and philosophy. In 508 BC, Cleisthenes instituted the world's first democratic system of government in Athens.[42][43] The Parthenon on the Acropolis of Athens, emblem of classical Greece. By 500 BC, the Persian Empire controlled the Greek city states in Asia Minor and Macedonia.[44] Attempts by some of the Greek city-states of Asia Minor to overthrow Persian rule failed, and Persia invaded the states of mainland Greece in 492 BC, but was forced to withdraw after a defeat at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. In response, the Greek city-states formed the Hellenic League in 481 BC, led by Sparta, which was the first historically recorded union of Greek states since the mythical union of the Trojan War.[45][46] A second invasion by the Persians followed in 480 BC. Following decisive Greek victories in 480 and 479 BC at Salamis, Plataea, and Mycale, the Persians were forced to withdraw for a second time, marking their eventual withdrawal from all of their European territories. Led by Athens and Sparta, the Greek victories in the Greco-Persian Wars are considered a pivotal moment in world history,[47] as the 50 years of peace that followed are known as the Golden Age of Athens, the seminal period of ancient Greek development that laid many of the foundations of Western civilization. Alexander the Great, whose conquests led to the Hellenistic Age. Lack of political unity within Greece resulted in frequent conflict between Greek states. The most devastating intra-Greek war was the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), won by Sparta and marking the demise of the Athenian Empire as the leading power in ancient Greece. Both Athens and Sparta were later overshadowed by Thebes and eventually Macedon, with the latter uniting most of the city-states of the Greek hinterland in the League of Corinth (also known as the Hellenic League or Greek League) under the control of Phillip II.[48] Despite this development, the Greek world remained largely fragmented and would not be united under a single power until the Roman years.[49] Sparta did not join the League and actively fought against it, raising an army led by Agis III to secure the city-states of Crete for Persia.[50] Map of Alexander's short-lived empire (334–323 BC). After his death the lands were divided between the Diadochi Following the assassination of Phillip II, his son Alexander III ("The Great") assumed the leadership of the League of Corinth and launched an invasion of the Persian Empire with the combined forces of the League in 334 BC. Undefeated in battle, Alexander had conquered the Persian Empire in its entirety by 330 BC. By the time of his death in 323 BC, he had created one of the largest empires in history, stretching from Greece to India. Upon his death, his empire split into several kingdoms, the most famous of which were the Seleucid Empire, Ptolemaic Egypt, the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, and the Indo-Greek Kingdom. Many Greeks migrated to Alexandria, Antioch, Seleucia, and the many other new Hellenistic cities in Asia and Africa.[51] Although the political unity of Alexander's empire could not be maintained, it resulted in the Hellenistic civilization and spread the Greek language and Greek culture in the territories conquered by Alexander.[52] Greek science, technology, and mathematics are generally considered to have reached their peak during the Hellenistic period.[53] Hellenistic and Roman periods (323 BC – 4th century AD) Main articles: Hellenistic Greece and Roman Greece See also: Wars of Alexander the Great and Roman Empire The Antikythera mechanism (c. 100 BC) is considered to be the first known mechanical analog computer (National Archaeological Museum, Athens). A view from the ancient royal Macedonian tombs in Vergina After a period of confusion following Alexander's death, the Antigonid dynasty, descended from one of Alexander's generals, established its control over Macedon and most of the Greek city-states by 276 BC.[54] From about 200 BC the Roman Republic became increasingly involved in Greek affairs and engaged in a series of wars with Macedon.[55] Macedon's defeat at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC signalled the end of Antigonid power in Greece.[56] In 146 BC, Macedonia was annexed as a province by Rome, and the rest of Greece became a Roman protectorate.[55][57] The process was completed in 27 BC when the Roman Emperor Augustus annexed the rest of Greece and constituted it as the senatorial province of Achaea.[57] Despite their military superiority, the Romans admired and became heavily influenced by the achievements of Greek culture, hence Horace's famous statement: Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit ("Greece, although captured, took its wild conqueror captive").[58] The epics of Homer inspired the Aeneid of Virgil, and authors such as Seneca the younger wrote using Greek styles. Roman heroes such as Scipio Africanus, tended to study philosophy and regarded Greek culture and science as an example to be followed. Similarly, most Roman emperors maintained an admiration for things Greek in nature. The Roman Emperor Nero visited Greece in AD 66, and performed at the Ancient Olympic Games, despite the rules against non-Greek participation. Hadrian was also particularly fond of the Greeks. Before becoming emperor, he served as an eponymous archon of Athens. The Odeon of Herodes Atticus in Athens, built in 161 AD Greek-speaking communities of the Hellenised East were instrumental in the spread of early Christianity in the 2nd and 3rd centuries,[59] and Christianity's early leaders and writers (notably St. Paul) were mostly Greek-speaking, though generally not from Greece itself.[60] The New Testament was written in Greek, and some of its sections (Corinthians, Thessalonians, Philippians, Revelation of St. John of Patmos) attest to the importance of churches in Greece in early Christianity. Nevertheless, much of Greece clung tenaciously to paganism, and ancient Greek religious practices were still in vogue in the late 4th century AD,[61] when they were outlawed by the Roman emperor Theodosius I in 391–392.[62] The last recorded Olympic games were held in 393,[63] and many temples were destroyed or damaged in the century that followed.[64] In Athens and rural areas, paganism is attested well into the sixth century AD[64] and even later.[65] The closure of the Neoplatonic Academy of Athens by the Emperor Justinian in 529 is considered by many to mark the end of antiquity, although there is evidence that the Academy continued its activities for some time after that.[64] Some remote areas such as the southeastern Peloponnese remained pagan until well into the 10th century AD.[66] Medieval period (4th – 15th century) Main articles: Byzantine Greece and Frankokratia See also: Byzantine Empire and Fourth Crusade Dome of Hagia Sophia, Thessaloniki (8th century), one of the 15 UNESCO's Paleochristian and Byzantine monuments of the city The Palace of the Grand Master of the Knights of Rhodes, originally built in the late 7th century as a Byzantine citadel and beginning from 1309 used by the Knights Hospitaller as an administrative centre The Roman Empire in the east, following the fall of the Empire in the west in the 5th century, is conventionally known as the Byzantine Empire (but was simply called "Kingdom of the Romans" in its own time) and lasted until 1453. With its capital in Constantinople, its language and culture were Greek and its religion was predominantly Eastern Orthodox Christian.[67] From the 4th century, the Empire's Balkan territories, including Greece, suffered from the dislocation of barbarian invasions.[citation needed] The raids and devastation of the Goths and Huns in the 4th and 5th centuries and the Slavic invasion of Greece in the 7th century resulted in a dramatic collapse in imperial authority in the Greek peninsula.[68] Following the Slavic invasion, the imperial government retained formal control of only the islands and coastal areas, particularly the densely populated walled cities such as Athens, Corinth and Thessalonica, while some mountainous areas in the interior held out on their own and continued to recognise imperial authority.[68] Outside of these areas, a limited amount of Slavic settlement is generally thought to have occurred, although on a much smaller scale than previously thought.[69][70] However, the view that Greece in late antiquity underwent a crisis of decline, fragmentation and depopulation is now considered outdated, as Greek cities show a high degree of institutional continuity and prosperity between the 4th and 6th centuries AD (and possibly later as well). In the early 6th century, Greece had approximately 80 cities according to the Synecdemus chronicle, and the period from the 4th to the 7th century AD is considered one of high prosperity not just in Greece but in the entire Eastern Mediterranean.[71] The Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire after the death of Basil II in 1025 Until the 8th century almost all of modern Greece was under the jurisdiction of the Holy See of Rome according to the system of Pentarchy. Byzantine Emperor Leo III moved the border of the Patriarchate of Constantinople westward and northward in the 8th century.[72] The Byzantine recovery of lost provinces began toward the end of the 8th century and most of the Greek peninsula came under imperial control again, in stages, during the 9th century.[73][74] This process was facilitated by a large influx of Greeks from Sicily and Asia Minor to the Greek peninsula, while at the same time many Slavs were captured and re-settled in Asia Minor and the few that remained were assimilated.[69] During the 11th and 12th centuries the return of stability resulted in the Greek peninsula benefiting from strong economic growth – much stronger than that of the Anatolian territories of the Empire.[73] During that time, the Greek Orthodox Church was also instrumental in the spread of Greek ideas to the wider Orthodox world.[75][full citation needed] Following the Fourth Crusade and the fall of Constantinople to the "Latins" in 1204 mainland Greece was split between the Greek Despotate of Epirus (a Byzantine successor state) and French rule[76] (known as the Frankokratia), while some islands came under Venetian rule.[77] The re-establishment of the Byzantine imperial capital in Constantinople in 1261 was accompanied by the empire's recovery of much of the Greek peninsula, although the Frankish Principality of Achaea in the Peloponnese and the rival Greek Despotate of Epirus in the north both remained important regional powers into the 14th century, while the islands remained largely under Genoese and Venetian control.[76] During the Paleologi dynasty (1261–1453) a new era of Greek patriotism emerged accompanied by a turning back to ancient Greece.[78][79][80] As such prominent personalities at the time also proposed changing the imperial title to "Emperor of the Hellenes",[78][80] and, in late fourteenth century, the emperor was frequently referred to as the "Emperor of the Hellenes".[81] Similarly, in several international treaties of that time the Byzantine emperor is styled as "Imperator Graecorum".[82] In the 14th century, much of the Greek peninsula was lost by the Byzantine Empire at first to the Serbs and then to the Ottomans.[83] By the beginning of the 15th century, the Ottoman advance meant that Byzantine territory in Greece was limited mainly to its then-largest city, Thessaloniki, and the Peloponnese (Despotate of the Morea).[83] After the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453, the Morea was one of the last remnants of the Byzantine Empire to hold out against the Ottomans. However, this, too, fell to the Ottomans in 1460, completing the Ottoman conquest of mainland Greece.[84] With the Turkish conquest, many Byzantine Greek scholars, who up until then were largely responsible for preserving Classical Greek knowledge, fled to the West, taking with them a large body of literature and thereby significantly contributing to the Renaissance.[85] Venetian possessions and Ottoman rule (15th century – 1821) Main articles: Ottoman Greece and Stato da Màr Further information: Phanariotes and Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople See also: Kingdom of Candia and Ionian Islands under Venetian rule The Byzantine castle of Angelokastro successfully repulsed the Ottomans during the First Great Siege of Corfu in 1537, the siege of 1571, and the Second Great Siege of Corfu in 1716, causing them to abandon their plans to conquer Corfu.[86] While most of mainland Greece and the Aegean islands was under Ottoman control by the end of the 15th century, Cyprus and Crete remained Venetian territory and did not fall to the Ottomans until 1571 and 1670 respectively. The only part of the Greek-speaking world that escaped long-term Ottoman rule was the Ionian Islands, which remained Venetian until their capture by the First French Republic in 1797, then passed to the United Kingdom in 1809 until their unification with Greece in 1864.[87] While some Greeks in the Ionian Islands and Constantinople lived in prosperity, and Greeks of Constantinople (Phanariotes) achieved positions of power within the Ottoman administration,[88] much of the population of mainland Greece suffered the economic consequences of the Ottoman conquest. Heavy taxes were enforced, and in later years the Ottoman Empire enacted a policy of creation of hereditary estates, effectively turning the rural Greek populations into serfs.[89] The Greek Orthodox Church and the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople were considered by the Ottoman governments as the ruling authorities of the entire Orthodox Christian population of the Ottoman Empire, whether ethnically Greek or not. Although the Ottoman state did not force non-Muslims to convert to Islam, Christians faced several types of discrimination intended to highlight their inferior status in the Ottoman Empire. Discrimination against Christians, particularly when combined with harsh treatment by local Ottoman authorities, led to conversions to Islam, if only superficially. In the 19th century, many "crypto-Christians" returned to their old religious allegiance.[90] The White Tower of Thessaloniki, one of the best-known Ottoman structures remaining in Greece. The nature of Ottoman administration of Greece varied, though it was invariably arbitrary and often harsh.[90] Some cities had governors appointed by the Sultan, while others (like Athens) were self-governed municipalities. Mountainous regions in the interior and many islands remained effectively autonomous from the central Ottoman state for many centuries.[91][page needed] When military conflicts broke out between the Ottoman Empire and other states, Greeks usually took up arms against the Ottomans, with few exceptions.[citation needed] Prior to the Greek Revolution of 1821, there had been a number of wars which saw Greeks fight against the Ottomans, such as the Greek participation in the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, the Epirus peasants' revolts of 1600–1601 (led by the Orthodox bishop Dionysios Skylosophos), the Morean War of 1684–1699, and the Russian-instigated Orlov Revolt in 1770, which aimed at breaking up the Ottoman Empire in favour of Russian interests.[91][page needed] These uprisings were put down by the Ottomans with great bloodshed.[92][93] On the other side, many Greeks were conscripted as Ottoman citizens to serve in the Ottoman army (and especially the Ottoman navy), while also the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, responsible for the Orthodox, remained in general loyal to the empire. The 16th and 17th centuries are regarded as something of a "dark age" in Greek history, with the prospect of overthrowing Ottoman rule appearing remote with only the Ionian islands remaining free of Turkish domination. Corfu withstood three major sieges in 1537, 1571 and 1716 all of which resulted in the repulsion of the Ottomans. However, in the 18th century, due to their mastery of shipping and commerce, a wealthy and dispersed Greek merchant class arose. These merchants came to dominate trade within the Ottoman Empire, establishing communities throughout the Mediterranean, the Balkans, and Western Europe. Though the Ottoman conquest had cut Greece off from significant European intellectual movements such as the Reformation and the Enlightenment, these ideas together with the ideals of the French Revolution and romantic nationalism began to penetrate the Greek world via the mercantile diaspora.[94] In the late 18th century, Rigas Feraios, the first revolutionary to envision an independent Greek state, published a series of documents relating to Greek independence, including but not limited to a national anthem and the first detailed map of Greece, in Vienna. Feraios was murdered by Ottoman agents in 1798.[95][96] Modern period Main article: History of modern Greece Greek War of Independence (1821–1832) This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Main article: Greek War of Independence See also: Modern Greek Enlightenment, Greek Declaration of Independence, and First Hellenic Republic The sortie (exodus) of Messolonghi, depicting the Third Siege of Missolonghi, painted by Theodoros Vryzakis. The Battle of Navarino in 1827 secured Greek independence. In the late eighteenth century, an increase in secular learning during the Modern Greek Enlightenment led to the revival among Greeks of the diaspora of the notion of a Greek nation tracing its existence to ancient Greece, distinct from the other Orthodox peoples, and having a right to political autonomy. One of the organizations formed in this intellectual milieu was the Filiki Eteria, a secret organization formed by merchants in Odessa in 1814.[97] Appropriating a long-standing tradition of Orthodox messianic prophecy aspiring to the resurrection of the eastern Roman empire and creating the impression they had the backing of Tsarist Russia, they managed amidst a crisis of Ottoman trade, from 1815 onwards, to engage traditional strata of the Greek Orthodox world in their liberal nationalist cause.[98] The Filiki Eteria planned to launch revolution in the Peloponnese, the Danubian Principalities and Constantinople. The first of these revolts began on 6 March 1821 in the Danubian Principalities under the leadership of Alexandros Ypsilantis, but it was soon put down by the Ottomans. The events in the north spurred the Greeks of the Peloponnese into action and on 17 March 1821 the Maniots declared war on the Ottomans.[99] By the end of the month, the Peloponnese was in open revolt against the Ottomans and by October 1821 the Greeks under Theodoros Kolokotronis had captured Tripolitsa. The Peloponnesian revolt was quickly followed by revolts in Crete, Macedonia and Central Greece, which would soon be suppressed. Meanwhile, the makeshift Greek navy was achieving success against the Ottoman navy in the Aegean Sea and prevented Ottoman reinforcements from arriving by sea. In 1822 and 1824 the Turks and Egyptians ravaged the islands, including Chios and Psara, committing wholesale massacres of the population.[99] Approximately three-quarters of the Chios' Greek population of 120,000 were killed, enslaved or died of disease.[100][101] This had the effect of galvanizing public opinion in western Europe in favour of the Greek rebels.[102] Tensions soon developed among different Greek factions, leading to two consecutive civil wars. Meanwhile, the Ottoman Sultan negotiated with Mehmet Ali of Egypt, who agreed to send his son Ibrahim Pasha to Greece with an army to suppress the revolt in return for territorial gain.[103] Ibrahim landed in the Peloponnese in February 1825 and had immediate success: by the end of 1825, most of the Peloponnese was under Egyptian control, and the city of Missolonghi—put under siege by the Turks since April 1825—fell in April 1826. Although Ibrahim was defeated in Mani, he had succeeded in suppressing most of the revolt in the Peloponnese and Athens had been retaken. After years of negotiation, three great powers, France, Russian Empire, and the United Kingdom, decided to intervene in the conflict and each nation sent a navy to Greece. Following news that combined Ottoman–Egyptian fleets were going to attack the Greek island of Hydra, the allied fleet intercepted the Ottoman–Egyptian fleet at Navarino. A week-long standoff ended with the Battle of Navarino (20 October 1827) which resulted in the destruction of the Ottoman–Egyptian fleet. A French expeditionary force was dispatched to supervise the evacuation of the Egyptian army from the Peloponnese, while the Greeks proceeded to the captured part of Central Greece by 1828. As a result of years of negotiation, the nascent Greek state was finally recognised under the London Protocol in 1830. Kingdom of Greece This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Main article: Kingdom of Greece The Entry of King Otto in Athens, painted by Peter von Hess in 1839. In 1827, Ioannis Kapodistrias, from Corfu, was chosen by the Third National Assembly at Troezen as the first governor of the First Hellenic Republic. Kapodistrias established a series of state, economic and military institutions. Soon tensions appeared between him and local interests. Following his assassination in 1831 and the subsequent London conference a year later, the Great Powers of Britain, France and Russia installed Bavarian Prince Otto von Wittelsbach as monarch.[104] Otto's reign was despotic, and in its first 11 years of independence Greece was ruled by a Bavarian oligarchy led by Joseph Ludwig von Armansperg as Prime Minister and, later, by Otto himself, who held the title of both King and Premier.[104] Throughout this period Greece remained under the influence of its three protecting Great Powers, France, Russia, and the United Kingdom, as well as Bavaria.[105] In 1843 an uprising forced the king to grant a constitution and a representative assembly. Despite the absolutism of Otto's reign, the early years proved instrumental in creating institutions which are still the bedrock of Greek administration and education.[106] Important steps were taken in the creation of the education system, maritime and postal communications, effective civil administration and, most importantly, the legal code.[107] Historical revisionism took the form of de-Byzantinification and de-Ottomanisation, in favour of promoting the country's Ancient Greek heritage.[108] In this spirit, the national capital was moved from Nafplio, where it had been since 1829, to Athens, which was at the time a village.[109] Religious reform also took place, and the Church of Greece was established as Greece's national church, although Otto remained a Catholic. 25 March, the day of Annunciation, was chosen as the anniversary of the Greek War of Independence in order to reinforce the link between Greek identity and Orthodoxy.[108] Pavlos Karolidis called the Bavarian efforts to create a modern state in Greece as "not only appropriate for the peoples' needs, but also based on excellent administrative principles of the era".[107] Otto was deposed in the 23 October 1862 Revolution. Multiple causes led to his deposition and exile, including the Bavarian-dominated government, heavy taxation, and a failed attempt to annex Crete from the Ottoman Empire.[104] The catalyst for the revolt was Otto's dismissal of Konstantinos Kanaris from the Premiership.[106] A year later, he was replaced by Prince Wilhelm (William) of Denmark, who took the name George I and brought with him the Ionian Islands as a coronation gift from Britain. A new Constitution in 1864 changed Greece's form of government from constitutional monarchy to the more democratic crowned republic.[110][111][112] In 1875 the concept of parliamentary majority as a requirement for the formation of a government was introduced by Charilaos Trikoupis,[113] curbing the power of the monarchy to appoint minority governments of its preference. The territorial evolution of the Kingdom of Greece from 1832 to 1947. Corruption, coupled with Trikoupis' increased spending to fund infrastructure projects like the Corinth Canal, overtaxed the weak Greek economy and forced the declaration of public insolvency in 1893. Greece also accepted the imposition of an International Financial Control authority to pay off the country's debtors. Another political issue in 19th-century Greece was uniquely Greek: the language question. The Greek people spoke a form of Greek called Demotic. Many of the educated elite saw this as a peasant dialect and were determined to restore the glories of Ancient Greek. Government documents and newspapers were consequently published in Katharevousa (purified) Greek, a form which few ordinary Greeks could read. Liberals favoured recognising Demotic as the national language, but conservatives and the Orthodox Church resisted all such efforts, to the extent that, when the New Testament was translated into Demotic in 1901, riots erupted in Athens and the government fell (the Evangeliaka). This issue would continue to plague Greek politics until the 1970s. All Greeks were united, however, in their determination to liberate the Hellenic lands under Ottoman rule. Especially in Crete, a prolonged revolt in 1866–1869 had raised nationalist fervour. When war broke out between Russia and the Ottomans in 1877, Greek popular sentiment rallied to Russia's side, but Greece was too poor and too concerned about British intervention, to officially enter the war. Nevertheless, in 1881, Thessaly and small parts of Epirus were ceded to Greece as part of the Treaty of Berlin, while frustrating Greek hopes of receiving Crete. Greeks in Crete continued to stage regular revolts, and in 1897, the Greek government under Theodoros Deligiannis, bowing to popular pressure, declared war on the Ottomans. In the ensuing Greco-Turkish War of 1897, the badly trained and equipped Greek army was defeated by the Ottomans. Through the intervention of the Great Powers, however, Greece lost only a little territory along the border to Turkey, while Crete was established as an autonomous state under Prince George of Greece. With state coffers empty, fiscal policy came under International Financial Control.[citation needed] Alarmed by the abortive Ilinden uprising of the autonomist Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) in 1903, the Greek government, aiming to quell Komitadjis (IMRO bands) and detach the Slavophone peasants of the region from Bulgarian influence, sponsored a guerrilla campaign in Ottoman-ruled Macedonia, led by Greek officers and known as the Macedonian Struggle, which ended with the Young Turk Revolution in 1908.[114] Expansion, disaster, and reconstruction See also: Greece in the Balkan Wars, Greece in World War I, National Schism, Asia Minor Campaign, and Second Hellenic Republic Hellenic Army formation in the World War I Victory Parade in Arc de Triomphe, Paris, July 1919. Amidst general dissatisfaction with the seeming inertia and unattainability of national aspirations under the premiership of the cautious reformist Theotokis, a group of military officers organised a coup in August 1909 and shortly thereafter called to Athens Cretan politician Eleftherios Venizelos, who conveyed a vision of national regeneration. After winning two elections and becoming Prime Minister in 1910,[115] Venizelos initiated wide-ranging fiscal, social, and constitutional reforms, reorganised the military, made Greece a member of the Balkan League, and led the country through the Balkan Wars. By 1913, Greece's territory and population had almost doubled, annexing Crete, Epirus, and Macedonia. In the following years, the struggle between King Constantine I and charismatic Venizelos over the country's foreign policy on the eve of First World War dominated the country's political scene and divided the country into two opposing groups. During parts of the WW1, Greece had two governments: A royalist pro-German one in Athens and a Venizelist pro-Entente one in Thessaloniki. The two governments were united in 1917, when Greece officially entered the war on the side of the Entente. Map of Greater Greece after the Treaty of Sèvres, when the Megali Idea seemed close to fulfillment, featuring Eleftherios Venizelos as its supervising genius. In the aftermath of World War I, Greece attempted further expansion into Asia Minor, a region with a large native Greek population at the time, but was defeated in the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922, contributing to a massive flight of Asia Minor Greeks.[116][117] These events overlapped, with both happening during the Greek genocide (1914–1922),[118][119][120][121] a period during which, according to various sources,[122] Ottoman and Turkish officials contributed to the death of several hundred thousand Asia Minor Greeks, along with similar numbers of Assyrians and a rather larger number of Armenians. The resultant Greek exodus from Asia Minor was made permanent, and expanded, in an official Population exchange between Greece and Turkey. The exchange was part of the terms of the Treaty of Lausanne which ended the war.[123] The following era was marked by instability, as over 1.5 million propertyless Greek refugees from Turkey had to be integrated into Greek society. Cappadocian Greeks, Pontian Greeks, and non-Greek followers of Greek Orthodoxy were all subject to the exchange as well. Some of the refugees could not speak the language and were from what had been unfamiliar environments to mainland Greeks, such as in the case of the Cappadocians and non-Greeks. The refugees also made a dramatic post-war population boost, as the number of refugees was more than a quarter of Greece's prior population.[124] Following the catastrophic events in Asia Minor, the monarchy was abolished via a referendum in 1924 and the Second Hellenic Republic was declared. In 1935, a royalist general-turned-politician Georgios Kondylis took power after a coup d'état and abolished the republic, holding a rigged referendum, after which King George II returned to Greece and was restored to the throne. Dictatorship, World War II, and reconstruction See also: 4th of August Regime, Greco-Italian War, Battle of Greece, Axis occupation of Greece, and Greek Civil War An agreement between Prime Minister Ioannis Metaxas and the head of state George II followed in 1936, which installed Metaxas as the head of a dictatorial regime known as the 4th of August Regime, inaugurating a period of authoritarian rule that would last, with short breaks, until 1974.[125] Although a dictatorship, Greece remained on good terms with Britain and was not allied with the Axis. The Axis occupation of Greece. Blue indicates the Italian, red the German and green the Bulgarian. (in dark blue the Dodecanese, Italian possession since 1912) On 28 October 1940, Fascist Italy demanded the surrender of Greece, but the Greek administration refused, and, in the following Greco-Italian War, Greece repelled Italian forces into Albania, giving the Allies their first victory over Axis forces on land. The Greek struggle and victory against the Italians received exuberant praise at the time.[126][127] Most prominent is the quote attributed to Winston Churchill: "Hence we will not say that Greeks fight like heroes, but we will say that heroes fight like Greeks."[126] French general Charles de Gaulle was among those who praised the fierceness of the Greek resistance. In an official notice released to coincide with the Greek national celebration of the Day of Independence, De Gaulle expressed his admiration for the Greek resistance: In the name of the captured yet still alive French people, France wants to send her greetings to the Greek people who are fighting for their freedom. The 25 March 1941 finds Greece in the peak of their heroic struggle and in the top of their glory. Since the Battle of Salamis, Greece had not achieved the greatness and the glory which today holds.[127] The country would eventually fall to urgently dispatched German forces during the Battle of Greece, despite the fierce Greek resistance, particularly in the Battle of the Metaxas Line. Adolf Hitler himself recognised the bravery and the courage of the Greek army, stating in his address to the Reichstag on 11 December 1941, that: "Historical justice obliges me to state that of the enemies who took up positions against us, the Greek soldier particularly fought with the highest courage. He capitulated only when further resistance had become impossible and useless."[128] People in Athens celebrate the liberation from the Axis powers, October 1944. Postwar Greece would soon experience a civil war and political polarization. The Nazis proceeded to administer Athens and Thessaloniki, while other regions of the country were given to Nazi Germany's partners, Fascist Italy and Bulgaria. The occupation brought about terrible hardships for the Greek civilian population. Over 100,000 civilians died of starvation during the winter of 1941–1942, tens of thousands more died because of reprisals by Nazis and collaborators, the country's economy was ruined, and the great majority of Greek Jews (tens of thousands) were deported and murdered in Nazi concentration camps.[129][130] The Greek Resistance, one of the most effective resistance movements in Europe, fought vehemently against the Nazis and their collaborators. The German occupiers committed numerous atrocities, mass executions, and wholesale slaughter of civilians and destruction of towns and villages in reprisals. In the course of the concerted anti-guerrilla campaign, hundreds of villages were systematically torched and almost 1 million Greeks left homeless.[130] In total, the Germans executed some 21,000 Greeks, the Bulgarians 40,000, and the Italians 9,000.[131][clarification needed] Following liberation and the Allied victory over the Axis, Greece annexed the Dodecanese Islands from Italy and regained Western Thrace from Bulgaria. The country almost immediately descended into a bloody civil war between communist forces and the anti-communist Greek government, which lasted until 1949 with the latter's victory. The conflict, considered one of the earliest struggles of the Cold War,[132] resulted in further economic devastation, mass population displacement and severe political polarisation for the next thirty years.[133] Although the post-war decades were characterised by social strife and widespread marginalisation of the left in political and social spheres, Greece nonetheless experienced rapid economic growth and recovery, propelled in part by the U.S.-administered Marshall Plan.[134] In 1952, Greece joined NATO, reinforcing its membership in the Western Bloc of the Cold War. Military regime (1967–74) King Constantine II's dismissal of George Papandreou's centrist government in July 1965 prompted a prolonged period of political turbulence, which culminated in a coup d'état on 21 April 1967 by the Regime of the Colonels. Under the junta, civil rights were suspended, political repression was intensified, and human rights abuses, including state-sanctioned torture, were rampant. Economic growth remained rapid before plateauing in 1972. The brutal suppression of the Athens Polytechnic uprising on 17 November 1973 set in motion the events that caused the fall of the Papadopoulos regime, resulting in a counter-coup which overthrew Georgios Papadopoulos and established brigadier Dimitrios Ioannidis as the new junta strongman. On 20 July 1974, Turkey invaded the island of Cyprus in response to a Greek-backed Cypriot coup, triggering a political crisis in Greece that led to the regime's collapse and the restoration of democracy through Metapolitefsi. Third Hellenic Republic This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Main article: Third Hellenic Republic Signing at Zappeion by Constantine Karamanlis of the documents for the accession of Greece to the European Communities in 1979. The former prime minister Konstantinos Karamanlis was invited back from Paris where he had lived in self-exile since 1963, marking the beginning of the Metapolitefsi era. The first multiparty elections since 1964 were held on the first anniversary of the Polytechnic uprising. A democratic and republican constitution was promulgated on 11 June 1975 following a referendum which chose to not restore the monarchy. Meanwhile, Andreas Papandreou, George Papandreou's son, founded the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK) in response to Karamanlis's conservative New Democracy party, with the two political formations dominating in government over the next four decades. Greece rejoined NATO in 1980.[f][135] Greece became the tenth member of the European Communities (subsequently subsumed by the European Union) on 1 January 1981, ushering in a period of sustained growth. Widespread investments in industrial enterprises and heavy infrastructure, as well as funds from the European Union and growing revenues from tourism, shipping, and a fast-growing service sector raised the country's standard of living to unprecedented levels. Traditionally strained relations with neighbouring Turkey improved when successive earthquakes hit both nations in 1999, leading to the lifting of the Greek veto against Turkey's bid for EU membership. The country adopted the euro in 2001 and successfully hosted the 2004 Summer Olympic Games in Athens.[136] More recently, Greece has suffered greatly from the late-2000s recession and has been central to the related European sovereign debt crisis. Due to the adoption of the euro, when Greece experienced financial crisis, it could no longer devalue its currency to regain competitiveness. Youth unemployment was especially high during the 2000s.[137] The Greek government-debt crisis, and subsequent austerity policies, have resulted in protests and social strife. Geography and climate Main article: Geography of Greece Albania North Macedonia Bulgaria Turkey Greece Athens Thessaloniki Kavala Thasos Alexandroupoli Samothrace Corfu Igoumenitsa Larissa Volos Ioannina Chalcis Patras Corinth Nafplion Sparta Areopoli Piraeus Eleusina Laurium Heraklion Macedonia Thrace Epirus Thessaly Euboea Central Greece Peloponnese Mt. Olympus Lefkada Cephalonia Zakynthos Lemnos Lesbos Chios Samos Andros Tinos Mykonos Icaria Patmos Naxos Milos Santorini Kos Rhodes Karpathos Kassos Kythira Gavdos Aegean Sea Sea of Crete Myrtoan Sea Ionian Sea Mediterranean Sea Crete Aegean Islands Cyclades Dodecanese Ionian Islands Navagio (shipwreck) bay, Zakynthos island Located in Southern[138] and Southeast Europe,[139] Greece consists of a mountainous, peninsular mainland jutting out into the sea at the southern end of the Balkans, ending at the Peloponnese peninsula (separated from the mainland by the canal of the Isthmus of Corinth) and strategically located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa.[g] Due to its highly indented coastline and numerous islands, Greece has the 11th longest coastline in the world with 13,676 km (8,498 mi);[145] its land boundary is 1,160 km (721 mi). The country lies approximately between latitudes 34° and 42° N, and longitudes 19° and 30° E, with the extreme points being:[146] North: Ormenio village South: Gavdos island East: Strongyli (Kastelorizo, Megisti) island West: Othonoi island Eighty percent of Greece consists of mountains or hills, making the country one of the most mountainous in Europe. Mount Olympus, the mythical abode of the Greek Gods, culminates at Mytikas peak 2,918 metres (9,573 ft),[147] the highest in the country. Western Greece contains a number of lakes and wetlands and is dominated by the Pindus mountain range. The Pindus, a continuation of the Dinaric Alps, reaches a maximum elevation of 2,637 m (8,652 ft) at Mt. Smolikas (the second-highest in Greece) and historically has been a significant barrier to east–west travel. The Pindus range continues through the central Peloponnese, crosses the islands of Kythera and Antikythera and finds its way into southwestern Aegean, in the island of Crete where it eventually ends. The islands of the Aegean are peaks of underwater mountains that once constituted an extension of the mainland. Pindus is characterised by its high, steep peaks, often dissected by numerous canyons and a variety of other karstic landscapes. The spectacular Vikos Gorge, part of the Vikos-Aoos National Park in the Pindus range, is listed by the Guinness book of World Records as the deepest gorge in the world.[148] Another notable formation are the Meteora rock pillars, atop which have been built medieval Greek Orthodox monasteries. Northeastern Greece features another high-altitude mountain range, the Rhodope range, spreading across the region of East Macedonia and Thrace; this area is covered with vast, thick, ancient forests, including the famous Dadia Forest in the Evros regional unit, in the far northeast of the country. Extensive plains are primarily located in the regions of Thessaly, Central Macedonia and Thrace. They constitute key economic regions as they are among the few arable places in the country. Rare marine species such as the pinniped seals and the loggerhead sea turtle live in the seas surrounding mainland Greece, while its dense forests are home to the endangered brown bear, the Eurasian lynx, the roe deer and the wild goat. Islands Main article: List of islands of Greece Greece features a vast number of islands - between 1,200 and 6,000, depending on the definition,[149] 227 of which are inhabited - and is considered a non-contiguous transcontinental country. Crete is the largest and most populous island; Euboea, separated from the mainland by the 60 m-wide Euripus Strait, is the second largest, followed by Lesbos and Rhodes. The Greek islands are traditionally grouped into the following clusters: the Argo-Saronic Islands in the Saronic gulf near Athens, the Cyclades, a large but dense collection occupying the central part of the Aegean Sea, the North Aegean islands, a loose grouping off the west coast of Turkey, the Dodecanese, another loose collection in the southeast between Crete and Turkey, the Sporades, a small tight group off the coast of northeast Euboea, and the Ionian Islands, located to the west of the mainland in the Ionian Sea. Climate Further information: Climate of Greece Mount Olympus is the highest mountain in Greece and mythical abode of the Gods of Olympus The climate of Greece is primarily Mediterranean,[150] featuring mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers.[151] This climate occurs at all coastal locations, including Athens, the Cyclades, the Dodecanese, Crete, the Peloponnese, the Ionian Islands and parts of the Central Continental Greece region. The Pindus mountain range strongly affects the climate of the country, as areas to the west of the range are considerably wetter on average (due to greater exposure to south-westerly systems bringing in moisture) than the areas lying to the east of the range (due to a rain shadow effect). The mountainous areas of Northwestern Greece (parts of Epirus, Central Greece, Thessaly, Western Macedonia) as well as in the mountainous central parts of Peloponnese – including parts of the regional units of Achaea, Arcadia and Laconia – feature an Alpine climate with heavy snowfalls. The inland parts of northern Greece, in Central Macedonia and East Macedonia and Thrace feature a temperate climate with cold, damp winters and hot, dry summers with frequent thunderstorms. Snowfalls occur every year in the mountains and northern areas, and brief snowfalls are not unknown even in low-lying southern areas, such as Athens.[152] Biodiversity Main article: Wildlife of Greece Phytogeographically, Greece belongs to the Boreal Kingdom and is shared between the East Mediterranean province of the Mediterranean Region and the Illyrian province of the Circumboreal Region. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature and the European Environment Agency, the territory of Greece can be subdivided into six ecoregions: the Illyrian deciduous forests, Pindus Mountains mixed forests, Balkan mixed forests, Rhodope montane mixed forests, Aegean and Western Turkey sclerophyllous and mixed forests, and Crete Mediterranean forests.[153] It had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.6/10, ranking it 70th globally out of 172 countries.[154] Politics Main article: Politics of Greece The building of the Hellenic Parliament (Old Royal Palace) in central Athens. Count Ioannis Kapodistrias, first governor, founder of the modern Greek State, and distinguished European diplomat Greece is a unitary parliamentary republic.[155] The current Constitution was drawn up and adopted by the Fifth Revisionary Parliament of the Hellenes and entered into force in 1975 after the fall of the military junta of 1967–1974. It has been revised three times since, in 1986, 2001 and 2008. The Constitution, which consists of 120 articles, provides for a separation of powers into executive, legislative, and judicial branches, and grants extensive specific guarantees (further reinforced in 2001) of civil liberties and social rights.[156][157] Women's suffrage was guaranteed with an amendment to the 1952 Constitution. The nominal head of state is the President of the Republic, who is elected by the Parliament for a five-year term.[155] According to the Constitution, executive power is exercised by the President and the Government.[155] However, the Constitutional amendment of 1986 curtailed the President's duties and powers to a significant extent, rendering the position largely ceremonial; most political power is thus vested in the Prime Minister, Greece's head of government.[158] The position is filled by the current leader of the political party that can obtain a vote of confidence by the Parliament. The President of the Republic formally appoints the Prime Minister and, on his recommendation, appoints and dismisses the other members of the Cabinet.[155] Legislative powers are exercised by a 300-member elective unicameral Parliament.[155] Statutes passed by the Parliament are promulgated by the President of the Republic.[155] Parliamentary elections are held every four years, but the President of the Republic is obliged to dissolve the Parliament earlier on the proposal of the Cabinet, in view of dealing with a national issue of exceptional importance.[155] The President is also obliged to dissolve the Parliament earlier, if the opposition manages to pass a motion of no confidence.[155] The voting age is 17.[159] According to a 2016 report by the OECD, Greeks display a moderate level of civic participation compared to most other developed countries; voter turnout was 64 percent during recent elections, lower than the OECD average of 69 percent.[160] Political parties This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Main article: Political parties of Greece Kyriakos Mitsotakis, Prime Minister since 2019 Since the restoration of democracy, the Greek party system was dominated by the liberal-conservative New Democracy (ND) and the social-democratic Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK).[h] Other parties represented in the Hellenic Parliament include the Coalition of the Radical Left (SYRIZA), the Communist Party of Greece (KKE), Greek Solution and MeRA25. PASOK and New Democracy largely alternated in power until the outbreak of the government-debt crisis in 2009. From that time, the two major parties, New Democracy and PASOK, experienced a sharp decline in popularity.[161][162][163][164][165] In November 2011, the two major parties joined the smaller Popular Orthodox Rally in a grand coalition, pledging their parliamentary support for a government of national unity headed by former European Central Bank vice-president Lucas Papademos.[166] Panos Kammenos voted against this government and he split off from ND forming the right-wing populist Independent Greeks. The coalition government led the country to the parliamentary elections of May 2012. The power of the traditional Greek political parties, PASOK and New Democracy, declined from 43% to 13% and from 33% to 18%, respectively. The left-wing party of SYRIZA became the second major party, with an increase from 4% to 16%. No party could form a sustainable government, which led to the parliamentary elections of June 2012. The result of the second elections was the formation of a coalition government composed of New Democracy (29%), PASOK (12%) and Democratic Left (6%) parties. SYRIZA has since overtaken PASOK as the main party of the centre-left .[167] Alexis Tsipras led SYRIZA to victory in the general election held on 25 January 2015, falling short of an outright majority in Parliament by just two seats. The following morning, Tsipras reached an agreement with Independent Greeks party to form a coalition, and he was sworn in as Prime Minister of Greece. Tsipras called snap elections in August 2015, resigning from his post, which led to a month-long caretaker administration headed by judge Vassiliki Thanou-Christophilou, Greece's first female prime minister. In the September 2015 general election, Alexis Tsipras led SYRIZA to another victory, winning 145 out of 300 seats and re-forming the coalition with the Independent Greeks. However, he was defeated in the July 2019 general election by Kyriakos Mitsotakis who leads New Democracy. Foreign relations Main article: Foreign relations of Greece Representation through:[168]   embassy   embassy in another country   general consulate   no representation   Greece Greece's foreign policy is conducted through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and its head, the Minister for Foreign Affairs, currently Nikos Dendias. Officially, the main aims of the Ministry are to represent Greece before other states and international organizations;[169] safeguard the interests of the Greek state and of its citizens abroad;[169] promote Greek culture;[169] foster closer relations with the Greek diaspora;[169] and encourage international cooperation.[169] The Ministry identifies two issues of particular importance to the Greek state: Turkish challenges to Greek sovereignty rights in the Aegean Sea and corresponding airspace and the Cyprus dispute involving the Turkish occupation of Northern Cyprus.[170] There is a long-standing conflict between Turkey and Greece over natural resources in the eastern Mediterranean. Turkey doesn't recognize a legal continental shelf and exclusive economic zone around the Greek islands.[171] Additionally, due to its political and geographical proximity to Europe, Asia, the Middle East and Africa, Greece is a country of significant geostrategic importance, which it has leveraged to develop a regional policy to help promote peace and stability in the Balkans, the Mediterranean, and the Middle East.[172] This has accorded the country middle power status in global affairs.[173] Greece is a member of numerous international organizations, including the Council of Europe, the European Union, the Union for the Mediterranean, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, the Organisation internationale de la francophonie and the United Nations, of which it is a founding member. Law and justice Main articles: Judicial system of Greece and Law enforcement in Greece The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature and comprises three Supreme Courts: the Court of Cassation (Άρειος Πάγος), the Council of State (Συμβούλιο της Επικρατείας) and the Court of Auditors (Ελεγκτικό Συνέδριο). The Judiciary system is also composed of civil courts, which judge civil and penal cases and administrative courts, which judge disputes between the citizens and the Greek administrative authorities. The Hellenic Police (Greek: Ελληνική Αστυνομία) is the national police force of Greece. It is a very large agency with its responsibilities ranging from road traffic control to counter-terrorism. It was established in 1984 under Law 1481/1-10-1984 (Government Gazette 152 A) as the result of the fusion of the Gendarmerie (Χωροφυλακή, Chorofylaki) and the Cities Police (Αστυνομία Πόλεων, Astynomia Poleon) forces.[174] Military This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Main article: Military of Greece The Greek-made frigate Psara used by the Hellenic Navy Boeing AH-64A Apache used by the Hellenic Army Aviation An F-16 Fighting Falcon, the main combat aircraft of the Hellenic Air Force, during an airshow A Leopard 2A6 HEL of the Hellenic Army on parade in Athens The Hellenic Armed Forces are overseen by the Hellenic National Defense General Staff (Greek: Γενικό Επιτελείο Εθνικής Άμυνας – ΓΕΕΘΑ), with civilian authority vested in the Ministry of National Defence. It consists of three branches: Hellenic Army (Ellinikos Stratos, ES) Hellenic Navy (Elliniko Polemiko Navtiko, EPN) Hellenic Air Force (Elliniki Polemiki Aeroporia, EPA) Moreover, Greece maintains the Hellenic Coast Guard for law enforcement at sea, search and rescue, and port operations. Though it can support the navy during wartime, it resides under the authority of the Ministry of Shipping. Greek military personnel total 367,450, of whom 142,950 are active and 220,500 are reserve. Greece ranks 15th in the world in the number of citizens serving in the armed forces. Mandatory military service is nine months for the Army and one year for the Navy and Air Force.[175] Additionally, Greek males between the ages of 18 and 60 who live in strategically sensitive areas may be required to serve part-time in the National Guard. As a member of NATO, the Greek military participates in exercises and deployments under the auspices of the alliance, although its involvement in NATO missions is minimal.[176] Greece spends over US$7 billion annually on its military, or 2.3 percent of GDP, the 24th-highest in the world in absolute terms, the seventh-highest on a per capita basis, and the second-highest in NATO after the United States. Moreover, Greece is one of only five NATO countries to meet or surpass the minimum defence spending target of 2 percent of GDP. Administrative divisions Main article: Administrative divisions of Greece Since the Kallikratis programme reform entered into effect on 1 January 2011, Greece has consisted of thirteen regions subdivided into a total of 325 municipalities. The 54 old prefectures and prefecture-level administrations have been largely retained as sub-units of the regions. Seven decentralised administrations group one to three regions for administrative purposes on a regional basis. There is also one autonomous area, Mount Athos (Greek: Agio Oros, "Holy Mountain"), which borders the region of Central Macedonia. Map No. Region Capital Area (km²) Area (sq. mi.) Population[177] GDP (bn)[178] 1 Attica Athens 3,808.10 1,470.32 3,828,434 €83.469 2 Central Greece Lamia 15,549.31 6,003.62 547,390 €7.926 3 Central Macedonia Thessaloniki 18,810.52 7,262.78 1,882,108 €23.850 4 Crete Heraklion 8,259 3,189 623,065 €8.654 5 East Macedonia and Thrace Komotini 14,157.76 5,466.34 608,182 €6.709 6 Epirus Ioannina 9,203.22 3,553.38 336,856 €3.843 7 Ionian Islands Corfu 2,306.94 890.71 207,855 €3.064 8 North Aegean Mytilene 3,835.91 1,481.05 199,231 €2.412 9 Peloponnese Tripoli 15,489.96 5,980.71 577,903 €7.683 10 South Aegean Ermoupoli 5,285.99 2,040.93 309,015 €5.888 11 Thessaly Larissa 14,036.64 5,419.58 732,762 €9.006 12 West Greece Patras 11,350.18 4,382.33 679,796 €7.847 13 West Macedonia Kozani 9,451 3,649 283,689 €3.849 No. Autonomous state Capital Area (km²) Area (sq. mi.) Population GDP (bn) (14) Mount Athos Karyes 390 151 1,830 N/A Economy Main articles: Economy of Greece and List of Greek subdivisions by GDP Introduction Graphical depiction of Greece's product exports in 2012 in 28 color-coded categories According to World Bank statistics for the year 2013, the economy of Greece is the 43rd largest by nominal gross domestic product at $242 billion[179] and 52nd largest by purchasing power parity (PPP) at $284 billion.[180] Additionally, Greece is the 15th largest economy in the 27-member European Union.[181] In terms of per capita income, Greece is ranked 38th or 40th in the world at $21,910 and $25,705 for nominal GDP and PPP respectively. The Greek economy is classified as advanced[182][183][184][185][186] and high-income.[187][185] Graphical depiction of Greece's product exports (%) in 2018 Greece is a developed country with a high standard of living and a high ranking in the Human Development Index.[188][189][190] Its economy mainly comprises the service sector (85.0%) and industry (12.0%), while agriculture makes up 3.0% of the national economic output.[191] Important Greek industries include tourism (with 14.9 million[192] international tourists in 2009, it is ranked as the 7th most visited country in the European Union[192] and 16th in the world[192] by the United Nations World Tourism Organization) and merchant shipping (at 16.2%[193] of the world's total capacity, the Greek merchant marine is the largest in the world[193]), while the country is also a considerable agricultural producer (including fisheries) within the union. Greek unemployment stood at 21.7% in April 2017.[194] The youth unemployment rate (42.3% in March 2018) is extremely high compared to EU standards.[195] With an economy larger than all the other Balkan economies combined, Greece is the largest economy in the Balkans,[196][197][198] and an important regional investor.[196][197] Greece is the number-two foreign investor of capital in Albania, the number-three foreign investor in Bulgaria, at the top-three of foreign investors in Romania and Serbia and the most important trading partner and largest foreign investor of North Macedonia. Greek banks open a new branch somewhere in the Balkans on an almost weekly basis.[199][200][201] The Greek telecommunications company OTE has become a strong investor in Yugoslavia and other Balkan countries.[199] Greece was a founding member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC). In 1979 the accession of the country in the European Communities and the single market was signed, and the process was completed in 1982. Greece was accepted into the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union on 19 June 2000, and in January 2001 adopted the Euro as its currency, replacing the Greek drachma at an exchange rate of 340.75 drachma to the Euro.[202] Greece is also a member of the International Monetary Fund and the World Trade Organization, and is ranked 24th on the KOF Globalization Index for 2013. Debt crisis (2010–2018) Main article: Greek government-debt crisis Greece's debt percentage since 1977, compared to the average of the Eurozone The Greek economy had fared well for much of the 20th century, with high growth rates and low public debt[203]). Even until the eve of the Financial crisis of 2007–2008, it featured high rates of growth, which, however, were coupled with high structural deficits, thus maintaining a (roughly unchanged throughout this period) public debt to GDP ratio of just over 100%.[203] The Greek crisis was triggered by the turmoil of the 2007–2009 Great Recession, which led the budget deficits of several Western nations to reach or exceed 10% of GDP.[203] In Greece's case, the high budget deficit (which, after several corrections and revisions, was revealed that it had been allowed to reach 10.2% and 15.1% of GDP in 2008 and 2009, respectively) was coupled with a high public debt to GDP ratio (relatively stable, at just over 100% until 2007 - as calculated after all corrections). Thus, the country appeared to lose control of its public debt to GDP ratio, which already reached 127% of GDP in 2009.[204] In addition, being a member of the Eurozone, the country had essentially no autonomous monetary policy flexibility. Finally, there was an effect of controversies about Greek statistics (due to the aforementioned drastic budget deficit revisions which led to an increase in the calculated value of the Greek public debt by about 10%, i.e., a public debt to GDP of about 100% until 2007), while there have been arguments about a possible effect of media reports. Consequently, Greece was "punished" by the markets which increased borrowing rates, making it impossible for the country to finance its debt since early 2010. The above revisions were largely connected with the fact that in the years before the crisis Goldman Sachs, JPMorgan Chase, and numerous other banks had developed financial products which enabled the governments of Greece, Italy, and many other European countries to hide their borrowing.[205][206][207][208][209][210][211][212][213] Dozens of similar agreements were concluded across Europe whereby banks supplied cash in advance in exchange for future payments by the governments involved; in turn, the liabilities of the involved countries were "kept off the books".[213][214][215][216][217][218] These conditions had enabled Greece as well as other European governments to spend beyond their means, while meeting the deficit targets set out in the Maastricht Treaty.[218][213][219] In May 2010, the Greece's deficit was again revised and estimated to be 13.6%[220] which was the second highest in the world relative to GDP, with Iceland in first place at 15.7% and the United Kingdom in third with 12.6%.[221] Public debt was forecast, according to some estimates, to hit 120% of GDP in the same year,[222] causing a crisis of confidence in Greece's ability pay back loans. To avert a sovereign default, Greece, the other Eurozone members, and the International Monetary Fund agreed on a rescue package which involved giving Greece an immediate €45 billion in loans, with additional funds to follow, totaling €110 billion.[223][224] To secure the funding, Greece was required to adopt harsh austerity measures to bring its deficit under control.[225] A second bail-out amounting to €130 billion ($173 billion) was agreed in 2012, subject to strict conditions, including financial reforms and further austerity measures.[226] A debt haircut was also agreed as part of the deal.[226] Greece achieved a primary government budget surplus in 2013, while in April 2014, it returned to the global bond market. Greece returned to growth after six years of economic decline in the second quarter of 2014,[227] and was the Eurozone's fastest-growing economy in the third quarter.[228] A third bailout was agreed in July 2015, after a confrontation with the newly-elected government of Alexis Tsipras. There was a 25% drop in Greece's GDP, connected with the bailout programmes.[203][229] This had a critical effect: the Debt-to-GDP ratio, the key factor defining the severity of the crisis, would jump from its 2009 level of 127% to about 170%, solely due to the shrinking economy.[citation needed] In a 2013 report, the IMF admitted that it had underestimated the effects of so extensive tax hikes and budget cuts on the country's GDP and issued an informal apology.[230][231][232] The Greek programmes imposed a very rapid improvement in structural primary balance (at least two times faster than for other Eurozone bailed-out countries[233]). The policies have been blamed for worsening the crisis,[234][235] while Greece's president, Prokopis Pavlopoulos, stressed the creditors' share in responsibility for the depth of the crisis.[236][237] Greek Prime Minister, Alexis Tsipras, asserted that errors in the design of the first two programmes which led to a loss of 25% of the Greek economy due to the harsh imposition of excessive austerity.[229] Between 2009 and 2017 the Greek government debt rose from €300 bn to €318 bn, i.e. by only about 6% (thanks, in part, to the 2012 debt restructuring);[204][238] however, during the same period, the critical debt-to-GDP ratio shot up from 127% to 179%[204] basically due to the severe GDP drop during the handling of the crisis.[203] Greece's bailouts successfully ended (as declared) on 20 August 2018.[239] Agriculture Main article: Agriculture in Greece Sun-drying of Zante currant on Zakynthos In 2010, Greece was the European Union's largest producer of cotton (183,800 tons) and pistachios (8,000 tons)[240] and ranked second in the production of rice (229,500 tons)[240] and olives (147,500 tons),[241] third in the production of figs (11,000 tons),[241] almonds (44,000 tons),[241] tomatoes (1,400,000 tons),[241] and watermelons (578,400 tons)[241] and fourth in the production of tobacco (22,000 tons).[240] Agriculture contributes 3.8% of the country's GDP and employs 12.4% of the country's labor force. Greece is a major beneficiary of the Common Agricultural Policy of the European Union. As a result of the country's entry to the European Community, much of its agricultural infrastructure has been upgraded and agricultural output increased. Between 2000 and 2007, organic farming in Greece increased by 885%, the highest change percentage in the EU. Energy Main article: Energy in Greece Solar-power generation potential in Greece Electricity production in Greece is dominated by the state-owned Public Power Corporation (known mostly by its acronym ΔΕΗ, transliterated as DEI). In 2009 DEI supplied for 85.6% of all electric energy demand in Greece,[242] while the number fell to 77.3% in 2010.[242] Almost half (48%) of DEI's power output is generated using lignite, a drop from the 51.6% in 2009.[242] Twelve percent of Greece's electricity comes from hydroelectric power plants[243] and another 20% from natural gas.[243] Between 2009 and 2010, independent companies' energy production increased by 56%,[242] from 2,709 Gigawatt hour in 2009 to 4,232 GWh in 2010.[242] In 2012, renewable energy accounted for 13.8% of the country's total energy consumption,[244] a rise from the 10.6% it accounted for in 2011,[244] a figure almost equal to the EU average of 14.1% in 2012.[244] 10% of the country's renewable energy comes from solar power,[245] while most comes from biomass and waste recycling.[245] In line with the European Commission's Directive on Renewable Energy, Greece aims to get 18% of its energy from renewable sources by 2020.[246] In 2013, according to the independent power transmission operator in Greece (ΑΔΜΗΕ) more than 20% of the electricity in Greece has been produced from renewable energy sources and hydroelectric powerplants. This percentage in April reached 42%. Greece currently does not have any nuclear power plants in operation; however, in 2009 the Academy of Athens suggested that research in the possibility of Greek nuclear power plants begin.[247] Maritime industry Main articles: Greek shipping and List of ports in Greece See also: Economy of Greece » Maritime industry Greece controls 16.2% of the world's total merchant fleet, making it the largest in the world. Greece is ranked in the top 5 for all kinds of ships, including first for tankers and bulk carriers. The shipping industry has been a key element of Greek economic activity since ancient times.[248] Shipping remains one of the country's most important industries, accounting for 4.5 percent of GDP, employing about 160,000 people (4 percent of the workforce), and representing a third of the trade deficit.[249] According to a 2011 report by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, the Greek Merchant Navy is the largest in the world at 16.2 percent of total global capacity,[193] up from 15.96 percent in 2010[250] but below the peak of 18.2 percent in 2006.[251] The country's merchant fleet ranks first in total tonnage (202 million dwt),[193] fourth in total number of ships (at 3,150), first in both tankers and dry bulk carriers, fourth in the number of containers, and fifth in other ships.[252] However, today's fleet roster is smaller than an all-time high of 5,000 ships in the late 1970s.[248] Additionally, the total number of ships flying a Greek flag (includes non-Greek fleets) is 1,517, or 5.3 percent of the world's dwt (ranked fifth globally).[250] During the 1960s, the size of the Greek fleet nearly doubled, primarily through the investment undertaken by the shipping magnates, Aristotle Onassis and Stavros Niarchos.[253] The basis of the modern Greek maritime industry was formed after World War II when Greek shipping businessmen were able to amass surplus ships sold to them by the U.S. government through the Ship Sales Act of the 1940s.[253] Greece has a significant shipbuilding and ship maintenance industry. The six shipyards around the port of Piraeus are among the largest in Europe.[254] In recent years, Greece has also become a leader in the construction and maintenance of luxury yachts.[255] Tourism Main article: Tourism in Greece Santorini, a popular tourist destination, is ranked as the world's top island in many travel magazines and sites.[256][257] Tourism has been a key element of the economic activity in the country and one of the country's most important sectors, contributing 20.6% of the gross domestic product as of 2018.[258] Greece welcomed over 28 million visitors in 2016,[259] which is an increase from the 26.5 million tourists it welcomed in 2015 and the 19.5 million in 2009,[260] and the 17.7 million tourists in 2007,[261] making Greece one of the most visited countries in Europe in the recent years. The vast majority of visitors in Greece in 2007 came from the European continent, numbering 12.7 million,[262] while the most visitors from a single nationality were those from the United Kingdom, (2.6 million), followed closely by those from Germany (2.3 million).[262] In 2010, the most visited region of Greece was that of Central Macedonia, with 18% of the country's total tourist flow (amounting to 3.6 million tourists), followed by Attica with 2.6 million and the Peloponnese with 1.8 million.[260] Northern Greece is the country's most-visited geographical region, with 6.5 million tourists, while Central Greece is second with 6.3 million.[260] In 2010, Lonely Planet ranked Greece's northern and second-largest city of Thessaloniki as the world's fifth-best party town worldwide, comparable to other cities such as Dubai and Montreal.[263] In 2011, Santorini was voted as "The World's Best Island" in Travel + Leisure.[264] Its neighboring island Mykonos, came in fifth in the European category.[264] There are 18 UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Greece,[265] and Greece is ranked 16th in the world in terms of total sites. 14 further sites are on the tentative list, awaiting nomination.[265] Panoramic view of the old Corfu City, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, as seen from the Old Fortress. The Bay of Garitsa is to the left and the port of Corfu is just visible on the top right. Spianada Square is in the foreground. Transport This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Main article: Transport in Greece The Rio–Antirrio bridge connects mainland Greece to the Peloponnese. Since the 1980s, the road and rail network of Greece has been significantly modernised. Important works include the A2 (Egnatia Odos) motorway, that connects northwestern Greece (Igoumenitsa) with northern Greece (Thessaloniki) and northeastern Greece (Kipoi); the Rio–Antirrio bridge, the longest suspension cable bridge in Europe (2,250 m (7,382 ft) long), connecting the Peloponnese (Rio, 7 km (4 mi) from Patras) with Aetolia-Akarnania (Antirrio) in western Greece. Also completed are the A5 (Ionia Odos) motorway that connects northwestern Greece (Ioannina) with western Greece (Antirrio); the last sections of the A1 motorway, connecting Athens to Thessaloniki and Evzonoi in northern Greece; as well as the A8 motorway (part of the Olympia Odos) in Peloponnese, connecting Athens to Patras. The remaining section of Olympia Odos, connecting Patras with Pyrgos, is under planning. Other important projects that are currently underway, include the construction of the Thessaloniki Metro. The Athens Metropolitan Area in particular is served by some of the most modern and efficient transport infrastructure in Europe, such as the Athens International Airport, the privately run A6 (Attiki Odos) motorway network and the expanded Athens Metro system. Most of the Greek islands and many main cities of Greece are connected by air mainly from the two major Greek airlines, Olympic Air and Aegean Airlines. Maritime connections have been improved with modern high-speed craft, including hydrofoils and catamarans. Railway connections play a somewhat lesser role in Greece than in many other European countries, but they too have also been expanded, with new suburban/commuter rail connections, serviced by Proastiakos around Athens, towards its airport, Kiato and Chalkida; around Thessaloniki, towards the cities of Larissa and Edessa; and around Patras. A modern intercity rail connection between Athens and Thessaloniki has also been established, while an upgrade to double lines in many parts of the 2,500 km (1,600 mi) network is underway; along with a new double track, standard gauge railway between Athens and Patras (replacing the old metre-gauge Piraeus–Patras railway) which is currently under construction and opening in stages.[266] International railway lines connect Greek cities with the rest of Europe, the Balkans and Turkey. Telecommunications Main article: Telecommunications in Greece Modern digital information and communication networks reach all areas. There are over 35,000 km (21,748 mi) of fiber optics and an extensive open-wire network. Broadband internet availability is widespread in Greece: there were a total of 2,252,653 broadband connections as of early 2011[update], translating to 20% broadband penetration.[267] According to 2017 data, around 82% of the general population used the internet regularly.[268] Internet cafés that provide net access, office applications and multiplayer gaming are also a common sight in the country, while mobile internet on 3G and 4G- LTE cellphone networks and Wi-Fi connections can be found almost everywhere.[269] 3G/4G mobile internet usage has been on a sharp increase in recent years. Based on 2016 data 70% of Greek internet users have access via 3G/4G mobile.[268] The United Nations International Telecommunication Union ranks Greece among the top 30 countries with a highly developed information and communications infrastructure.[270] Science and technology This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Main article: List of Greek inventions and discoveries Thessaloniki Science Center and Technology Museum Georgios Papanikolaou, a pioneer in cytopathology and early cancer detection The General Secretariat for Research and Technology of the Ministry of Development and Competitiveness is responsible for designing, implementing and supervising national research and technological policy. In 2017, spending on research and development (R&D) reached an all-time high of €2 billion, equal to 1.14 percent of GDP.[271] Although lower than the EU average of 1.93 percent, between 1990 and 1998, total R&D expenditure in Greece enjoyed the third-highest increase in Europe, after Finland and Ireland. Because of its strategic location, qualified workforce, and political and economic stability, many multinational companies such as Ericsson, Siemens, Motorola, Coca-Cola, and Tesla have their regional R&D headquarters in Greece.[272] Greece has several major technology parks with incubator facilities and has been a member of the European Space Agency (ESA) since 2005.[273] Cooperation between ESA and the Hellenic National Space Committee began in 1994 with the signing of the first cooperation agreement. After applying for full membership in 2003, Greece became the ESA's sixteenth member on 16 March 2005. The country participates in the ESA's telecommunication and technology activities and the Global Monitoring for Environment and Security Initiative. The National Centre of Scientific Research "Demokritos" was founded in 1959. The original objective of the center was the advancement of nuclear research and technology. Today, its activities cover several fields of science and engineering. Greece has one of the highest rates of tertiary enrollment in the world,[274] while Greeks are well represented in academia worldwide; numerous leading Western universities employ a disproportionately high number of Greek faculty.[275] Greek scientific publications have grown significantly in terms of research impact, surpassing both the EU and global average from 2012 to 2016.[276] Notable Greek scientists of modern times include Georgios Papanikolaou (inventor of the Pap test), mathematician Constantin Carathéodory (known for the Carathéodory theorems and Carathéodory conjecture), astronomer E. M. Antoniadi, archaeologists Ioannis Svoronos, Valerios Stais, Spyridon Marinatos, Manolis Andronikos (discovered the tomb of Philip II of Macedon in Vergina), Indologist Dimitrios Galanos, botanist Theodoros G. Orphanides, such as Michael Dertouzos, Nicholas Negroponte, John Argyris, John Iliopoulos (2007 Dirac Prize for his contributions on the physics of the charm quark, a major contribution to the birth of the Standard Model, the modern theory of Elementary Particles), Joseph Sifakis (2007 Turing Award, the "Nobel Prize" of Computer Science), Christos Papadimitriou (2002 Knuth Prize, 2012 Gödel Prize), Mihalis Yannakakis (2005 Knuth Prize) and physicist Dimitri Nanopoulos. Demographics Main article: Demographics of Greece Hermoupolis, on the island of Syros, is the capital of the Cyclades. According to the official statistical body of Greece, the Hellenic Statistical Authority (ELSTAT), the country's total population in 2011 was 10,816,286.[7] Eurostat places the current population at 10.7 million in 2018.[277] Greek society has changed rapidly over the last several decades, coinciding with the wider European trend of declining fertility and rapid aging. The birth rate in 2003 stood at 9.5 per 1,000 inhabitants, significantly lower than the rate of 14.5 per 1,000 in 1981. At the same time, the mortality rate increased slightly from 8.9 per 1,000 inhabitants in 1981 to 9.6 per 1,000 inhabitants in 2003. Estimates from 2016 show the birth rate decreasing further still to 8.5 per 1,000 and mortality climbing to 11.2 per 1,000.[278] Population pyramid of Greece in 2017 The fertility rate of 1.41 children per woman is well below the replacement rate of 2.1, and is one of the lowest in the world, considerably below the high of 5.47 children born per woman in 1900.[279] Subsequently, Greece's median age is 44.2 years, the seventh-highest in the world.[280] In 2001, 16.71 percent of the population were 65 years old and older, 68.12 percent between the ages of 15 and 64 years old, and 15.18 percent were 14 years old and younger.[281] By 2016, the proportion of the population age 65 and older had risen to 20.68 percent, while the proportion of those aged 14 and younger declined to slightly below 14 percent. Marriage rates began declining from almost 71 per 1,000 inhabitants in 1981 until 2002, only to increase slightly in 2003 to 61 per 1,000 and then fall again to 51 in 2004.[281] Moreover, divorce rates have seen an increase from 191.2 per 1,000 marriages in 1991 to 239.5 per 1,000 marriages in 2004.[281] As a result of these trends, the average Greek household is smaller and older than in previous generations. The economic crisis has exacerbated this development, with 350,000-450,000 Greeks, predominantly young adults, emigrating since 2010.[282] Cities See also: List of cities in Greece Almost two-thirds of the Greek people live in urban areas. Greece's largest and most influential metropolitan centres are those of Athens and Thessaloniki—that latter commonly referred to as the symprotévousa (συμπρωτεύουσα, lit. 'co-capital'[283])—with metropolitan populations of approximately 4 million and 1 million inhabitants respectively. Other prominent cities with urban populations above 100,000 inhabitants include Patras, Heraklion, Larissa, Volos, Rhodes, Ioannina, Agrinio, Chania, and Chalcis.[284] The table below lists the largest cities in Greece, by population contained in their respective contiguous built up urban areas, which are either made up of many municipalities, evident in the cases of Athens and Thessaloniki, or are contained within a larger single municipality, case evident in most of the smaller cities of the country. The results come from the preliminary figures of the population census that took place in Greece in May 2011.   v t e Largest cities or towns in Greece Hellenic Statistical Authority 2011 census[285] Rank Name Region Pop. Rank Name Region Pop. Athens Thessaloniki 1 Athens Attica 3,090,508 11 Alexandroupoli Eastern Macedonia and Thrace 57,812 Patras Larissa 2 Thessaloniki Central Macedonia 824,676 12 Xanthi Eastern Macedonia and Thrace 56,122 3 Patras Western Greece 167,446 13 Katerini Central Macedonia 55,997 4 Larissa Thessaly 144,651 14 Kalamata Peloponnese 54,100 5 Heraklion Crete 140,730 15 Kavala Eastern Macedonia and Thrace 54,027 6 Volos Thessaly 86,046 16 Chania Crete 53,910 7 Ioannina Epirus 65,574 17 Lamia Central Greece 52,006 8 Trikala Thessaly 61,653 18 Komotini Eastern Macedonia and Thrace 50,990 9 Chalcis Central Greece 59,125 19 Rhodes South Aegean 49,541 10 Serres Central Macedonia 58,287 20 Agrinio Western Greece 46,899 Religion Main articles: Religion in Greece, Greek Orthodox Church, and Church of Greece See also: Muslim minority of Greece, Hellenismos, Ancient Greek religion, and Romaniote Jews Religiosity in Greece (2017)[3]   Eastern Orthodoxy (90%)   Other Christians (exc.Catholics) (3%)   Irreligion (4%)   Islam (2%)   Other religions (inc.Catholics) (1%) The Greek Constitution recognises Eastern Orthodoxy as the 'prevailing' faith of the country, while guaranteeing freedom of religious belief for all.[155][286] The Greek government does not keep statistics on religious groups and censuses do not ask for religious affiliation. According to the U.S. State Department, an estimated 97% of Greek citizens identify themselves as Eastern Orthodox, belonging to the Greek Orthodox Church,[287] which uses the Byzantine rite and the Greek language, the original language of the New Testament. The administration of the Greek territory is shared between the Church of Greece and the Patriarchate of Constantinople. In a 2010 Eurostat–Eurobarometer poll, 79% of Greek citizens responded that they "believe there is a God".[288] According to other sources, 15.8% of Greeks describe themselves as "very religious", which is the highest among all European countries. The survey also found that just 3.5% never attend a church, compared to 4.9% in Poland and 59.1% in the Czech Republic.[289] Estimates of the recognised Greek Muslim minority, which is mostly located in Thrace, range around 100,000,[287][290] (about 1% of the population). Some of the Albanian immigrants to Greece come from a nominally Muslim background, although most are secular in orientation.[291] Following the 1919–1922 Greco-Turkish War and the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, Greece and Turkey agreed to a population transfer based on cultural and religious identity. About 500,000 Muslims from Greece, predominantly those defined as Turks, but also Greek Muslims like the Vallahades of western Macedonia, were exchanged with approximately 1.5 million Greeks from Turkey. However, many refugees who settled in former Ottoman Muslim villages in Central Macedonia, and were defined as Christian Orthodox Caucasus Greeks, arrived from the former Russian Transcaucasus province of Kars Oblast, after it had been retroceded to Turkey prior to the official population exchange.[292] Judaism has been present in Greece for more than 2,000 years. The ancient community of Greek Jews are called Romaniotes, while the Sephardi Jews were once a prominent community in the city of Thessaloniki, numbering some 80,000, or more than half of the population, by 1900.[293] However, after the German occupation of Greece and the Holocaust during World War II, is estimated to number around 5,500 people.[287][290] The Roman Catholic community is estimated to be around 250,000[287][290] of which 50,000 are Greek citizens.[287] Their community is nominally separate from the smaller Greek Byzantine Catholic Church, which recognises the primacy of the Pope but maintains the liturgy of the Byzantine Rite.[294] Old Calendarists account for 500,000 followers.[290] Protestants, including the Greek Evangelical Church and Free Evangelical Churches, stand at about 30,000.[287][290] Other Christian minorities, such as Assemblies of God, International Church of the Foursquare Gospel and various Pentecostal churches of the Greek Synod of Apostolic Church total about 12,000 members.[295] The independent Free Apostolic Church of Pentecost is the biggest Protestant denomination in Greece with 120 churches.[296] There are no official statistics about Free Apostolic Church of Pentecost, but the Orthodox Church estimates the followers as 20,000.[297] The Jehovah's Witnesses report having 28,874 active members.[298] Since 2017, Hellenic Polytheism, or Helenism has been legally recognised as an actively practiced religion in Greece,[299] with estimates of 2,000 active practitioners and an additional 100,000 "sympathisers".[300][301][302] Hellenism refers to various religious movements that continue, revive, or reconstruct ancient Greek religious practices. Languages This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Main articles: Greek language, Languages of Greece, and Minorities in Greece Regions with a traditional presence of languages other than Greek. Today, Greek is the dominant language throughout the country.[303][304][305][306][307][308] The first textual evidence of the Greek language dates back to 15th century BC and the Linear B script which is associated with the Mycenaean Civilization. Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and beyond during Classical Antiquity, and would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire. During the 19th and 20th centuries there was a major dispute known as the Greek language question, on whether the official language of Greece should be the archaic Katharevousa, created in the 19th century and used as the state and scholarly language, or the Dimotiki, the form of the Greek language which evolved naturally from Byzantine Greek and was the language of the people. The dispute was finally resolved in 1976, when Dimotiki was made the only official variation of the Greek language, and Katharevousa fell to disuse. Greece is today relatively homogeneous in linguistic terms, with a large majority of the native population using Greek as their first or only language. Among the Greek-speaking population, speakers of the distinctive Pontic dialect came to Greece from Asia Minor after the Greek genocide and constitute a sizable group. The Cappadocian dialect came to Greece due to the genocide as well, but is endangered and is barely spoken now. Indigenous Greek dialects include the archaic Greek spoken by the Sarakatsani, traditionally transhument mountain shepherds of Greek Macedonia and other parts of Northern Greece. The Tsakonian language, a distinct Greek language deriving from Doric Greek instead of Koine Greek, is still spoken in some villages in the southeastern Peloponnese. The Muslim minority in Thrace, which amounts to approximately 0.95% of the total population, consists of speakers of Turkish, Bulgarian (Pomaks)[308] and Romani. Romani is also spoken by Christian Roma in other parts of the country. Further minority languages have traditionally been spoken by regional population groups in various parts of the country. Their use has decreased radically in the course of the 20th century through assimilation with the Greek-speaking majority. Today they are only maintained by the older generations and are on the verge of extinction. This goes for the Arvanites, an Albanian-speaking group mostly located in the rural areas around the capital Athens, and for the Aromanians and Megleno-Romanians, also known as "Vlachs", whose language is closely related to Romanian and who used to live scattered across several areas of mountainous central Greece. Members of these groups usually identify ethnically as Greek[309] and are today all at least bilingual in Greek. Near the northern Greek borders there are also some Slavic–speaking groups, locally known as Slavomacedonian-speaking, most of whose members identify ethnically as Greeks. It is estimated that after the population exchanges of 1923, Macedonia had 200,000 to 400,000 Slavic speakers.[310] The Jewish community in Greece traditionally spoke Ladino (Judeo-Spanish), today maintained only by a few thousand speakers. Other notable minority languages include Armenian, Georgian, and the Greco-Turkic dialect spoken by the Urums, a community of Caucasus Greeks from the Tsalka region of central Georgia and ethnic Greeks from southeastern Ukraine who arrived in mainly Northern Greece as economic migrants in the 1990s. Migration Main articles: Greek diaspora and Immigration to Greece A map of the fifty countries with the largest Greek diaspora communities. Throughout the 20th century, millions of Greeks migrated to the United States, United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, and Germany, creating a large Greek diaspora. Net migration started to show positive numbers from the 1970s, but until the beginning of the 1990s, the main influx was that of returning Greek migrants or of Pontic Greeks and others from Russia, Georgia, Turkey the Czech Republic, and elsewhere in the former Soviet Bloc.[311] A study from the Mediterranean Migration Observatory maintains that the 2001 census recorded 762,191 persons residing in Greece without Greek citizenship, constituting around 7% of the total population. Of the non-citizen residents, 48,560 were EU or European Free Trade Association nationals and 17,426 were Cypriots with privileged status. The majority come from Eastern European countries: Albania (56%), Bulgaria (5%) and Romania (3%), while migrants from the former Soviet Union (Georgia, Russia, Ukraine, Moldova, etc.) comprise 10% of the total.[312] Some of the immigrants from Albania are from the Greek minority in Albania centred on the region of Northern Epirus. In addition, the total Albanian national population which includes temporary migrants and undocumented persons is around 600,000.[313] The 2011 census recorded 9,903,268 Greek citizens (91,56%), 480,824 Albanian citizens (4,44%), 75,915 Bulgarian citizens (0,7%), 46,523 Romanian citizenship (0,43%), 34,177 Pakistani citizens (0,32%), 27,400 Georgian citizens (0,25%) and 247,090 people had other or unidentified citizenship (2,3%).[314] 189,000 people of the total population of Albanian citizens were reported in 2008 as ethnic Greeks from Southern Albania, in the historical region of Northern Epirus.[311] The greatest cluster of non-EU immigrant population are the larger urban centers, especially the Municipality of Athens, with 132,000 immigrants comprising 17% of the local population, and then Thessaloniki, with 27,000 immigrants reaching 7% of the local population. There is also a considerable number of co-ethnics that came from the Greek communities of Albania and the former Soviet Union.[311] Greece, together with Italy and Spain, is a major entry point for illegal immigrants trying to enter the EU. Illegal immigrants entering Greece mostly do so from the border with Turkey at the Evros River and the islands of the eastern Aegean across from Turkey (mainly Lesbos, Chios, Kos, and Samos). In 2012, the majority of illegal immigrants entering Greece came from Afghanistan, followed by Pakistanis and Bangladeshis.[315] In 2015, arrivals of refugees by sea had increased dramatically mainly due to the ongoing Syrian civil war. There were 856,723 arrivals by sea in Greece, an almost fivefold increase to the same period of 2014, of which the Syrians represent almost 45%.[316] The majority of refugees and migrants use Greece as a transit country, while their intended destinations are northern European Nations such as Austria, Germany and Sweden.[317][318] Education Main article: Education in Greece This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Academy of Athens is Greece's national academy and the highest research establishment in the country. The Ionian Academy in Corfu, the first academic institution of modern Greece. Greeks have a long tradition of valuing and investing in paideia (education), which was upheld as one of the highest societal values in the Greek and Hellenistic world. The first European institution described as a university was founded in fifth-century Constantinople and continued operating in various incarnations until the city's fall to the Ottomans in 1453.[319] The University of Constantinople was Christian Europe's first secular institution of higher learning,[320] and by some measures was the world's first university.[319] Compulsory education in Greece comprises primary schools (Δημοτικό Σχολείο, Dimotikó Scholeio) and gymnasium (Γυμνάσιο). Nursery schools (Παιδικός σταθμός, Paidikós Stathmós) are popular but not compulsory. Kindergartens (Νηπιαγωγείο, Nipiagogeío) are now compulsory for any child above four years of age. Children start primary school aged six and remain there for six years. Attendance at gymnasia starts at age 12 and lasts for three years. Greece's post-compulsory secondary education consists of two school types: unified upper secondary schools (Γενικό Λύκειο, Genikό Lykeiό) and technical–vocational educational schools (Τεχνικά και Επαγγελματικά Εκπαιδευτήρια, "TEE"). Post-compulsory secondary education also includes vocational training institutes (Ινστιτούτα Επαγγελματικής Κατάρτισης, "IEK") which provide a formal but unclassified level of education. As they can accept both Gymnasio (lower secondary school) and Lykeio (upper secondary school) graduates, these institutes are not classified as offering a particular level of education. According to the Framework Law (3549/2007), Public higher education "Highest Educational Institutions" (Ανώτατα Εκπαιδευτικά Ιδρύματα, Anótata Ekpaideytiká Idrýmata, "ΑΕΙ") consists of two parallel sectors:the University sector (Universities, Polytechnics, Fine Arts Schools, the Open University) and the Technological sector (Technological Education Institutions (TEI) and the School of Pedagogic and Technological Education). There are also State Non-University Tertiary Institutes offering vocationally oriented courses of shorter duration (2 to 3 years) which operate under the authority of other Ministries. Students are admitted to these Institutes according to their performance at national level examinations taking place after completion of the third grade of Lykeio. Additionally, students over twenty-two years old may be admitted to the Hellenic Open University through a form of lottery. The Capodistrian University of Athens is the oldest university in the eastern Mediterranean. The Greek education system also provides special kindergartens, primary, and secondary schools for people with special needs or difficulties in learning. There are also specialist gymnasia and high schools offering musical, theological, and physical education. Seventy-two percent of Greek adults aged 25–64 have completed upper secondary education, which is slightly less than the OECD average of 74 percent. The average Greek pupil scored 458 in reading literacy, maths and science in the OECD's 2015 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). This score is lower than the OECD average of 486. On average, girls outperformed boys by 15 points, much more than the average OECD gap of two points.[321] Healthcare system Main article: Health care in Greece Greece has universal health care. The system is mixed, combining a national health service with social health insurance (SHI). 2000 World Health Organization report, its health care system ranked 14th in overall performance of 191 countries surveyed.[322] In a 2013 Save the Children report, Greece was ranked the 19th out of 176 countries for the state of mothers and newborn babies.[323] In 2010, there were 138 hospitals with 31,000 beds, but in 2011, the Ministry of Health announced plans to decrease the number to 77 hospitals with 36,035 beds to reduce expenses and further enhance healthcare standards.[324] However, as of 2014, there were 124 public hospitals, of which 106 were general hospitals and 18 specialised hospitals, with a total capacity of about 30,000 beds.[325] Greece's healthcare expenditures as a percentage of GDP were 9.6% in 2007, just above the OECD average of 9.5%.[326] By 2015, spending declined to 8.4% of GDP (compared with the EU average of 9.5%), a decline of one-fifth since 2010. Nevertheless, the country maintains the highest doctor-to-population ratio of any OECD country[326] and the highest doctor-to-patient ratio in the EU.[327] Life expectancy in Greece is among the highest in the world; a 2011 OECD report placed it at 80.3 years, above the OECD average of 79.5,[326] while a more recent 2017 study found life expectancy in 2015 to be 81.1 years, slightly above the EU average of 80.6.[327] The island of Icaria has the highest percentage of nonagenarians in the world; approximately 33% of islanders are 90 or older.[328] Icaria is subsequently classified as a "blue zone", a region where people allegedly live longer than average and have lower rates of cancer, heart disease, or other chronic illnesses.[329] The 2011 OECD report showed that Greece had the largest percentage of adult daily smokers of any of the 34 OECD members.[326] The country's obesity rate is 18.1%, which is above the OECD average of 15.1%, but considerably lower than the American rate of 27.7%.[326] In 2008, Greece had the highest rate of perceived good health in the OECD, at 98.5%.[330] Infant mortality, with a rate of 3.6 deaths per 1,000 live births, was below the 2007 OECD average of 4.9.[326] Culture Main articles: Culture of Greece, Greeks, and List of Greeks The Ancient Theatre of Epidaurus, still used for theatrical plays. The culture of Greece has evolved over thousands of years, beginning in Mycenaean Greece and continuing most notably into Classical Greece, through the influence of the Roman Empire and its Greek Eastern continuation, the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire. Other cultures and nations, such as the Latin and Frankish states, the Ottoman Empire, the Venetian Republic, the Genoese Republic, and the British Empire have also left their influence on modern Greek culture, although historians credit the Greek War of Independence with revitalising Greece and giving birth to a single, cohesive entity of its multi-faceted culture. In ancient times, Greece was the birthplace of Western culture.[331] Modern democracies owe a debt to Greek beliefs in government by the people, trial by jury, and equality under the law. The ancient Greeks pioneered in many fields that rely on systematic thought, including biology, geometry, history,[332] philosophy,[333] physics and mathematics.[334] They introduced such important literary forms as epic and lyric poetry, history, tragedy, and comedy. In their pursuit of order and proportion, the Greeks created an ideal of beauty that strongly influenced Western art.[335] Visual arts This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) See also: Greek art, Byzantine art, and Modern Greek art Close-up of the Charioteer of Delphi, a celebrated statue from the 5th century BC. Artistic production in Greece began in the prehistoric pre-Greek Cycladic and the Minoan civilizations, both of which were influenced by local traditions and the art of ancient Egypt.[336] There were several interconnected traditions of painting in ancient Greece. Due to their technical differences, they underwent somewhat differentiated developments. Not all painting techniques are equally well represented in the archaeological record. The most respected form of art, according to authors like Pliny or Pausanias, were individual, mobile paintings on wooden boards, technically described as panel paintings. Also, the tradition of wall painting in Greece goes back at least to the Minoan and Mycenaean Bronze Age, with the lavish fresco decoration of sites like Knossos, Tiryns and Mycenae. Much of the figural or architectural sculpture of ancient Greece was painted colourfully. This aspect of Greek stonework is described as polychrome. Ancient Greek sculpture was composed almost entirely of marble or bronze; with cast bronze becoming the favoured medium for major works by the early 5th century. Both marble and bronze are easy to form and very durable. Chryselephantine sculptures, used for temple cult images and luxury works, used gold, most often in leaf form and ivory for all or parts (faces and hands) of the figure, and probably gems and other materials, but were much less common, and only fragments have survived. By the early 19th century, the systematic excavation of ancient Greek sites had brought forth a plethora of sculptures with traces of notably multicolored surfaces. It was not until published findings by German archaeologist Vinzenz Brinkmann in the late 20th century, that the painting of ancient Greek sculptures became an established fact.[337] The art production continued also during the Byzantine era. The most salient feature of this new aesthetic was its "abstract", or anti-naturalistic character. If classical art was marked by the attempt to create representations that mimicked reality as closely as possible, Byzantine art seems to have abandoned this attempt in favour of a more symbolic approach. The Byzantine painting concentrated mainly on icons and hagiographies. The Macedonian art (Byzantine) was the artistic expression of Macedonian Renaissance, a label sometimes used to describe the period of the Macedonian dynasty of the Byzantine Empire (867–1056), especially the 10th century, which some scholars have seen as a time of increased interest in classical scholarship and the assimilation of classical motifs into Christian artwork. Post Byzantine art schools include the Cretan School and Heptanese School. The first artistic movement in the Greek Kingdom can be considered the Greek academic art of the 19th century (Munich School). Notable modern Greek painters include Nikolaos Gyzis, Georgios Jakobides, Theodoros Vryzakis, Nikiforos Lytras, Konstantinos Volanakis, Nikos Engonopoulos and Yannis Tsarouchis, while some notable sculptors are Pavlos Prosalentis, Ioannis Kossos, Leonidas Drosis, Georgios Bonanos and Yannoulis Chalepas. Architecture This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) See also: Ancient Greek architecture, Byzantine architecture, and Modern Greek architecture Towerhouses of Vatheia in Mani peninsula. The architecture of ancient Greece was produced by the ancient Greeks (Hellenes), whose culture flourished on the Greek mainland, the Aegean Islands and their colonies, for a period from about 900 BC until the 1st century AD, with the earliest remaining architectural works dating from around 600 BC. The formal vocabulary of ancient Greek architecture, in particular the division of architectural style into three defined orders: the Doric Order, the Ionic Order and the Corinthian Order, was to have profound effect on Western architecture of later periods. Byzantine architecture is the architecture promoted by the Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, which dominated Greece and the Greek speaking world during the Middle Ages. The empire endured for more than a millennium, dramatically influencing Medieval architecture throughout Europe and the Near East, and becoming the primary progenitor of the Renaissance and Ottoman architectural traditions that followed its collapse. After the Greek Independence, the modern Greek architects tried to combine traditional Greek and Byzantine elements and motives with the western European movements and styles. Patras was the first city of the modern Greek state to develop a city plan. In January 1829, Stamatis Voulgaris, a Greek engineer of the French army, presented the plan of the new city to the Governor Kapodistrias, who approved it. Voulgaris applied the orthogonal rule in the urban complex of Patras.[338] Two special genres can be considered the Cycladic architecture, featuring white-coloured houses, in the Cyclades and the Epirotic architecture in the region of Epirus.[339][340] Important is also the influence of the Venetian style in the Ionian islands and the "Mediterranean style" of Florestano Di Fausto (during the years of the fascist regime) in the Dodecanese islands.[341] After the establishment of the Greek Kingdom, the architecture of Athens and other cities was mostly influenced by the Neoclassical architecture. For Athens, the first King of Greece, Otto of Greece, commissioned the architects Stamatios Kleanthis and Eduard Schaubert to design a modern city plan fit for the capital of a state. As for Thessaloniki, after the fire of 1917, the government ordered for a new city plan under the supervision of Ernest Hébrard. Other modern Greek architects include Anastasios Metaxas, Lysandros Kaftanzoglou, Panagis Kalkos, Ernst Ziller, Xenophon Paionidis, Dimitris Pikionis and Georges Candilis. Theatre This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) See also: Theatre of ancient Greece and Modern Greek theatre Nobile Teatro di San Giacomo di Corfù, the first theatre and opera house of modern Greece. Theatre in its western form was born in Greece.[342] The city-state of Classical Athens, which became a significant cultural, political, and military power during this period, was its centre, where it was institutionalised as part of a festival called the Dionysia, which honoured the god Dionysus. Tragedy (late 6th century BC), comedy (486 BC), and the satyr play were the three dramatic genres to emerge there. During the Byzantine period, the theatrical art was heavily declined. According to Marios Ploritis, the only form survived was the folk theatre (Mimos and Pantomimos), despite the hostility of the official state.[343] Later, during the Ottoman period, the main theatrical folk art was the Karagiozis. The renaissance which led to the modern Greek theatre, took place in the Venetian Crete. Significal dramatists include Vitsentzos Kornaros and Georgios Chortatzis. The modern Greek theatre was born after the Greek independence, in the early 19th century, and initially was influenced by the Heptanesean theatre and melodrama, such as the Italian opera. The Nobile Teatro di San Giacomo di Corfù was the first theatre and opera house of modern Greece and the place where the first Greek opera, Spyridon Xyndas' The Parliamentary Candidate (based on an exclusively Greek libretto) was performed. During the late 19th and early 20th century, the Athenian theatre scene was dominated by revues, musical comedies, operettas and nocturnes and notable playwrights included Spyridon Samaras, Dionysios Lavrangas, Theophrastos Sakellaridis and others. The National Theatre of Greece was opened in 1900 as Royal Theatre.[344] Notable playwrights of the modern Greek theatre include Gregorios Xenopoulos, Nikos Kazantzakis, Pantelis Horn, Alekos Sakellarios and Iakovos Kambanelis, while notable actors include Cybele Andrianou, Marika Kotopouli, Aimilios Veakis, Orestis Makris, Katina Paxinou, Manos Katrakis and Dimitris Horn. Significant directors include Dimitris Rontiris, Alexis Minotis and Karolos Koun. Literature This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Main articles: Greek literature, Byzantine literature, and Modern Greek literature Parnassos Literary Society, painted by Georgios Roilos (Kostis Palamas is at the center) Greek literature can be divided into three main categories: Ancient, Byzantine and modern Greek literature.[345] Athens is considered the birthplace of Western literature.[346] At the beginning of Greek literature stand the two monumental works of Homer: the Iliad and the Odyssey. Though dates of composition vary, these works were fixed around 800 BC or after. In the classical period many of the genres of western literature became more prominent. Lyrical poetry, odes, pastorals, elegies, epigrams; dramatic presentations of comedy and tragedy; historiography, rhetorical treatises, philosophical dialectics, and philosophical treatises all arose in this period. The two major lyrical poets were Sappho and Pindar. The Classical era also saw the dawn of drama. Of the hundreds of tragedies written and performed during the classical age, only a limited number of plays by three authors have survived: those of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The surviving plays by Aristophanes are also a treasure trove of comic presentation, while Herodotus and Thucydides are two of the most influential historians in this period. The greatest prose achievement of the 4th century was in philosophy with the works of the three great philosophers. Byzantine literature refers to literature of the Byzantine Empire written in Atticizing, Medieval and early Modern Greek, and it is the expression of the intellectual life of the Byzantine Greeks during the Christian Middle Ages. Although popular Byzantine literature and early Modern Greek literature both began in the 11th century, the two are indistinguishable.[347] Constantine P. Cavafy, whose work was inspired mainly by the Hellenistic past, while Odysseas Elytis (centre) and Giorgos Seferis (right) were representatives of the Generation of the '30s and Nobel laureates in Literature. Modern Greek literature refers to literature written in common Modern Greek, emerging from late Byzantine times in the 11th century. The Cretan Renaissance poem Erotokritos is undoubtedly the masterpiece of this period of Greek literature. It is a verse romance written around 1600 by Vitsentzos Kornaros (1553–1613). Later, during the period of Greek enlightenment (Diafotismos), writers such as Adamantios Korais and Rigas Feraios prepared with their works the Greek Revolution (1821–1830). Leading figures of modern Greek literature include Dionysios Solomos, Andreas Kalvos, Angelos Sikelianos, Emmanuel Rhoides, Demetrius Vikelas, Kostis Palamas, Penelope Delta, Yannis Ritsos, Alexandros Papadiamantis, Nikos Kazantzakis, Andreas Embeirikos, Kostas Karyotakis, Gregorios Xenopoulos, Constantine P. Cavafy, Nikos Kavvadias, Kostas Varnalis and Kiki Dimoula. Two Greek authors have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature: George Seferis in 1963 and Odysseas Elytis in 1979. Philosophy Main articles: Ancient Greek philosophy and Modern Greek Enlightenment A statue of Plato in Athens. Most western philosophical traditions began in Ancient Greece in the 6th century BC. The first philosophers are called "Presocratics," which designates that they came before Socrates, whose contributions mark a turning point in western thought. The Presocratics were from the western or the eastern colonies of Greece and only fragments of their original writings survive, in some cases merely a single sentence. A new period of philosophy started with Socrates. Like the Sophists, he rejected entirely the physical speculations in which his predecessors had indulged, and made the thoughts and opinions of people his starting-point. Aspects of Socrates were first united from Plato, who also combined with them many of the principles established by earlier philosophers, and developed the whole of this material into the unity of a comprehensive system. Aristotle of Stagira, the most important disciple of Plato, shared with his teacher the title of the greatest philosopher of antiquity. But while Plato had sought to elucidate and explain things from the supra-sensual standpoint of the forms, his pupil preferred to start from the facts given us by experience. Except from these three most significant Greek philosophers other known schools of Greek philosophy from other founders during ancient times were Stoicism, Epicureanism, Skepticism and Neoplatonism.[348] Byzantine philosophy refers to the distinctive philosophical ideas of the philosophers and scholars of the Byzantine Empire, especially between the 8th and 15th centuries. It was characterised by a Christian world-view, but one which could draw ideas directly from the Greek texts of Plato, Aristotle, and the Neoplatonists. On the eve of the Fall of Constantinople, Gemistus Pletho tried to restore the use of the term "Hellene" and advocated the return to the Olympian Gods of the ancient world. After 1453 a number of Greek Byzantine scholars who fled to western Europe contributed to the Renaissance. In modern period, Diafotismos (Greek: Διαφωτισμός, "enlightenment", "illumination") was the Greek expression of the Age of Enlightenment and its philosophical and political ideas. Some notable representatives were Adamantios Korais, Rigas Feraios and Theophilos Kairis. Other modern era Greek philosophers or political scientists include Cornelius Castoriadis, Nicos Poulantzas and Christos Yannaras. Music and dances This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Main article: Music of Greece Cretan dancers of traditional folk music Rebetes in Karaiskaki, Piraeus (1933). Left Markos Vamvakaris with bouzouki. Greek vocal music extends far back into ancient times where mixed-gender choruses performed for entertainment, celebration and spiritual reasons. Instruments during that period included the double-reed aulos and the plucked string instrument, the lyre, especially the special kind called a kithara. Music played an important role in the education system during ancient times. Boys were taught music from the age of six. Later influences from the Roman Empire, Middle East, and the Byzantine Empire also had effect on Greek music. While the new technique of polyphony was developing in the West, the Eastern Orthodox Church resisted any type of change. Therefore, Byzantine music remained monophonic and without any form of instrumental accompaniment. As a result, and despite certain attempts by certain Greek chanters (such as Manouel Gazis, Ioannis Plousiadinos or the Cypriot Ieronimos o Tragoudistis), Byzantine music was deprived of elements of which in the West encouraged an unimpeded development of art. However, this method which kept music away from polyphony, along with centuries of continuous culture, enabled monophonic music to develop to the greatest heights of perfection. Byzantium presented the monophonic Byzantine chant; a melodic treasury of inestimable value for its rhythmical variety and expressive power. Along with the Byzantine (Church) chant and music, the Greek people also cultivated the Greek folk song (Demotiko) which is divided into two cycles, the akritic and klephtic. The akritic was created between the 9th and 10th centuries and expressed the life and struggles of the akrites (frontier guards) of the Byzantine empire, the most well known being the stories associated with Digenes Akritas. The klephtic cycle came into being between the late Byzantine period and the start of the Greek War of Independence. The klephtic cycle, together with historical songs, paraloghes (narrative song or ballad), love songs, mantinades, wedding songs, songs of exile and dirges express the life of the Greeks. There is a unity between the Greek people's struggles for freedom, their joys and sorrow and attitudes towards love and death. Mikis Theodorakis is one of the most popular and significant Greek composers The Heptanesean kantádhes (καντάδες 'serenades'; sing.: καντάδα) became the forerunners of the Greek modern urban popular song, influencing its development to a considerable degree. For the first part of the next century, several Greek composers continued to borrow elements from the Heptanesean style. The most successful songs during the period 1870–1930 were the so-called Athenian serenades, and the songs performed on stage (επιθεωρησιακά τραγούδια 'theatrical revue songs') in revue, operettas and nocturnes that were dominating Athens' theater scene. Rebetiko, initially a music associated with the lower classes, later (and especially after the population exchange between Greece and Turkey) reached greater general acceptance as the rough edges of its overt subcultural character were softened and polished, sometimes to the point of unrecognizability. It was the base of the later laïkó (song of the people). The leading performers of the genre include Vassilis Tsitsanis, Grigoris Bithikotsis, Stelios Kazantzidis, George Dalaras, Haris Alexiou and Glykeria. Regarding the classical music, it was through the Ionian islands (which were under western rule and influence) that all the major advances of the western European classical music were introduced to mainland Greeks. The region is notable for the birth of the first School of modern Greek classical music (Heptanesean or Ionian School, Greek: Επτανησιακή Σχολή), established in 1815. Prominent representatives of this genre include Nikolaos Mantzaros, Spyridon Xyndas, Spyridon Samaras and Pavlos Carrer. Manolis Kalomiris is considered the founder of the Greek National School of Music. In the 20th century, Greek composers have had a significant impact on the development of avant garde and modern classical music, with figures such as Iannis Xenakis, Nikos Skalkottas, and Dimitri Mitropoulos achieving international prominence. At the same time, composers and musicians such as Mikis Theodorakis, Manos Hatzidakis, Eleni Karaindrou, Vangelis and Demis Roussos garnered an international following for their music, which include famous film scores such as Zorba the Greek, Serpico, Never on Sunday, America America, Eternity and a Day, Chariots of Fire, Blade Runner, among others. Greek American composers known for their film scores include also Yanni and Basil Poledouris. Notable Greek opera singers and classical musicians of the 20th and 21st century include Maria Callas, Nana Mouskouri, Mario Frangoulis, Leonidas Kavakos, Dimitris Sgouros and others. During the dictatorship of the Colonels, the music of Mikis Theodorakis was banned by the junta and the composer was jailed, internally exiled, and put in a concentration camp,[349] before finally being allowed to leave Greece due to international reaction to his detention. Released during the junta years, Anthrope Agapa, ti Fotia Stamata (Make Love, Stop the Gunfire), by the pop group Poll is considered the first anti-war protest song in the history of Greek rock.[350] The song was echoing the hippie slogan Make love, not war and was inspired directly by the Vietnam War, becoming a "smash hit" in Greece.[351] Greece participated in the Eurovision Song Contest 35 times after its debut at the 1974 Contest. In 2005, Greece won with the song "My Number One", performed by Greek-Swedish singer Elena Paparizou. The song received 230 points with 10 sets of 12 points from Belgium, Bulgaria, Hungary, the United Kingdom, Turkey, Albania, Cyprus, Serbia & Montenegro, Sweden and Germany and also became a smash hit in different countries and especially in Greece. The 51st Eurovision Song Contest was held in Athens at the Olympic Indoor Hall of the Athens Olympic Sports Complex in Maroussi, with hosted by Maria Menounos and Sakis Rouvas. Cuisine Main articles: Greek cuisine and Greek wine A Greek salad, with feta and olives. Greek cuisine is characteristic of the healthy Mediterranean diet, which is epitomised by dishes of Crete.[352] Greek cuisine incorporates fresh ingredients into a variety of local dishes such as moussaka, pastitsio, classic Greek salad, fasolada, spanakopita and souvlaki. Some dishes can be traced back to ancient Greece like skordalia (a thick purée of walnuts, almonds, crushed garlic and olive oil), lentil soup, retsina (white or rosé wine sealed with pine resin) and pasteli (candy bar with sesame seeds baked with honey). Throughout Greece people often enjoy eating from small dishes such as meze with various dips such as tzatziki, grilled octopus and small fish, feta cheese, dolmades (rice, currants and pine kernels wrapped in vine leaves), various pulses, olives and cheese. Olive oil is added to almost every dish. Some sweet desserts include melomakarona, diples and galaktoboureko, and drinks such as ouzo, metaxa and a variety of wines including retsina. Greek cuisine differs widely from different parts of the mainland and from island to island. It uses some flavorings more often than other Mediterranean cuisines: oregano, mint, garlic, onion, dill and bay laurel leaves. Other common herbs and spices include basil, thyme and fennel seed. Many Greek recipes, especially in the northern parts of the country, use "sweet" spices in combination with meat, for example cinnamon and cloves in stews. Cinema This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Main article: Greek cinema Cinema first appeared in Greece in 1896, but the first actual cine-theatre was opened in 1907 in Athens. In 1914 the Asty Films Company was founded and the production of long films began. Golfo (Γκόλφω), a well known traditional love story, is considered the first Greek feature film, although there were several minor productions such as newscasts before this. In 1931 Orestis Laskos directed Daphnis and Chloe (Δάφνις και Χλόη), containing one of the first nude scene in the history of European cinema; it was also the first Greek movie which was played abroad. In 1944 Katina Paxinou was honoured with the Best Supporting Actress Academy Award for For Whom the Bell Tolls. Theodoros Angelopoulos, winner of the Palme d'Or in 1998, notable director in the history of the European cinema The 1950s and early 1960s are considered by many to be a "golden age" of Greek cinema. Directors and actors of this era were recognised as important figures in Greece and some gained international acclaim: George Tzavellas, Irene Papas, Melina Mercouri, Mihalis Kakogiannis, Alekos Sakellarios, Nikos Tsiforos, Iakovos Kambanelis, Katina Paxinou, Nikos Koundouros, Ellie Lambeti and others. More than sixty films per year were made, with the majority having film noir elements. Some notable films include The Drunkard (1950, directed by George Tzavellas), The Counterfeit Coin (1955, by Giorgos Tzavellas), Πικρό Ψωμί (1951, by Grigoris Grigoriou), O Drakos (1956, by Nikos Koundouros), Stella (1955, directed by Cacoyannis and written by Kampanellis), Woe to the Young (1961, by Alekos Sakellarios), Glory Sky (1962, by Takis Kanellopoulos) and The Red Lanterns (1963, by Vasilis Georgiadis) Cacoyannis also directed Zorba the Greek with Anthony Quinn which received Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Film nominations. Finos Film also contributed in this period with movies such as Λατέρνα, Φτώχεια και Φιλότιμο, Madalena, I theia ap' to Chicago, Το ξύλο βγήκε από τον Παράδεισο and many more. During the 1970s and 1980s, Theo Angelopoulos directed a series of notable and appreciated movies. His film Eternity and a Day won the Palme d'Or and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury at the 1998 Cannes Film Festival. There are also internationally renowned filmmakers in the Greek diaspora, such as the Greek-French Costa-Gavras and the Greek-Americans Elia Kazan, John Cassavetes and Alexander Payne. More recently Yorgos Lanthimos (film and stage director, producer, and screenwriter) has received four Academy Award nominations for his work, including Best Foreign Language Film for Dogtooth (2009), Best Original Screenplay for The Lobster (2015), and Best Picture and Best Director for The Favourite (2018). Sports Main article: Sports in Greece Spyridon Louis entering the Panathenaic Stadium at the end of the marathon; 1896 Summer Olympics. Angelos Charisteas scoring Greece's winning goal in the UEFA Euro 2004 Final Greece is the birthplace of the ancient Olympic Games, first recorded in 776 BC in Olympia, and hosted the modern Olympic Games twice, the inaugural 1896 Summer Olympics and the 2004 Summer Olympics. During the parade of nations Greece is always called first, as the founding nation of the ancient precursor of modern Olympics. The nation has competed at every Summer Olympic Games, one of only four countries to have done so. Having won a total of 110 medals (30 gold, 42 silver and 38 bronze), Greece is ranked 32nd by gold medals in the all-time Summer Olympic medal count. Their best ever performance was in the 1896 Summer Olympics, when Greece finished second in the medal table with 10 gold medals. The Greek national football team, ranking 12th in the world in 2014 (and having reached a high of 8th in the world in 2008 and 2011),[353] were crowned European Champions in Euro 2004 in one of the biggest upsets in the history of the sport.[354] The Greek Super League is the highest professional football league in the country, comprising sixteen teams. The most successful are Olympiacos, Panathinaikos, and AEK Athens. The Greek national basketball team has a decades-long tradition of excellence in the sport, being considered among the world's top basketball powers. As of 2012[update], it ranked 4th in the world and 2nd in Europe.[355] They have won the European Championship twice in 1987 and 2005,[356] and have reached the final four in two of the last four FIBA World Championships, taking the second place in the world in 2006 FIBA World Championship, after a 101–95 win against Team USA in the tournament's semifinal. The domestic top basketball league, A1 Ethniki, is composed of fourteen teams. The most successful Greek teams are Panathinaikos, Olympiacos, Aris Thessaloniki, AEK Athens and P.A.O.K. Greek basketball teams are the most successful in European basketball the last 25 years, having won 9 Euroleagues since the establishment of the modern era Euroleague Final Four format in 1988, while no other nation has won more than 4 Euroleague championships in this period. Besides the 9 Euroleagues, Greek basketball teams (Panathinaikos, Olympiacos, Aris Thessaloniki, AEK Athens, P.A.O.K, Maroussi) have won 3 Triple Crowns, 5 Saporta Cups, 2 Korać Cups and 1 FIBA Europe Champions Cup. After the 2005 European Championship triumph of the Greek national basketball team, Greece became the reigning European Champion in both football and basketball. The Greek national basketball team in 2008. Twice European champions (1987 and 2005) and second in the world in 2006 The Greece women's national water polo team have emerged as one of the leading powers in the world, becoming World Champions after their gold medal win against the hosts China at the 2011 World Championship. They also won the silver medal at the 2004 Summer Olympics, the gold medal at the 2005 World League and the silver medals at the 2010 and 2012 European Championships. The Greece men's national water polo team became the third best water polo team in the world in 2005, after their win against Croatia in the bronze medal game at the 2005 World Aquatics Championships in Canada. The domestic top water polo leagues, Greek Men's Water Polo League and Greek Women's Water Polo League are considered amongst the top national leagues in European water polo, as its clubs have made significant success in European competitions. In men's European competitions, Olympiacos has won the Champions League,[357] the European Super Cup and the Triple Crown in 2002[358] becoming the first club in water polo history to win every title in which it has competed within a single year (National championship, National cup, Champions League and European Super Cup),[359] while NC Vouliagmeni has won the LEN Cup Winners' Cup in 1997. In women's European competitions, Greek water polo teams (NC Vouliagmeni, Glyfada NSC, Olympiacos, Ethnikos Piraeus) are amongst the most successful in European water polο, having won 4 LEN Champions Cups, 3 LEN Trophies and 2 European Supercups. The Greek men's national volleyball team has won two bronze medals, one in the European Volleyball Championship and another one in the Men's European Volleyball League, a 5th place in the Olympic Games and a 6th place in the FIVB Volleyball Men's World Championship. The Greek league, the A1 Ethniki, is considered one of the top volleyball leagues in Europe and the Greek clubs have had significant success in European competitions. Olympiacos is the most successful volleyball club in the country having won the most domestic titles and being the only Greek club to have won European titles; they have won two CEV Cups, they have been CEV Champions League runners-up twice and they have played in 12 Final Fours in the European competitions, making them one of the most traditional volleyball clubs in Europe. Iraklis have also seen significant success in European competitions, having been three times runners-up of the CEV Champions League. In handball, AC Diomidis Argous is the only Greek club to have won a European Cup. Apart from these, cricket is relatively popular in Corfu. Mythology Main article: Greek mythology The numerous gods of the ancient Greek religion as well as the mythical heroes and events of the ancient Greek epics (The Odyssey and The Iliad) and other pieces of art and literature from the time make up what is nowadays colloquially referred to as Greek mythology. Apart from serving a religious function, the mythology of the ancient Greek world also served a cosmological role as it was meant to try to explain how the world was formed and operated. The principal gods of the ancient Greek religion were the Dodekatheon, or the Twelve Gods, who lived on the top of Mount Olympus. The most important of all ancient Greek gods was Zeus, the king of the gods, who was married to his sister, Hera. The other Greek gods that made up the Twelve Olympians were Ares, Poseidon, Athena, Demeter, Dionysus, Apollo, Artemis, Aphrodite, Hephaestus, and Hermes. Apart from these twelve gods, Greeks also had a variety of other mystical beliefs, such as nymphs and other magical creatures. Public holidays and festivals Main article: Public holidays in Greece Procession in honor of the Assumption of Virgin Mary (15 August) According to Greek law, every Sunday of the year is a public holiday. Since the late '70s, Saturday also is a non-school and not working day. In addition, there are four mandatory official public holidays: 25 March (Greek Independence Day), Easter Monday, 15 August (Assumption or Dormition of the Holy Virgin), and 25 December (Christmas). 1 May (Labour Day) and 28 October (Ohi Day) are regulated by law as being optional but it is customary for employees to be given the day off. There are, however, more public holidays celebrated in Greece than are announced by the Ministry of Labour each year as either obligatory or optional. The list of these non-fixed national holidays rarely changes and has not changed in recent decades, giving a total of eleven national holidays each year. In addition to the national holidays, there are public holidays that are not celebrated nationwide, but only by a specific professional group or a local community. For example, many municipalities have a "Patron Saint" parallel to "Name Days", or a "Liberation Day". On such days it is customary for schools to take the day off. Notable festivals, beyond the religious fests, include Patras Carnival, Athens Festival and various local wine festivals. The city of Thessaloniki is also home of a number of festivals and events. The Thessaloniki International Film Festival is one of the most important film festivals in Southern Europe.[360] See also Greece portal Ancient Greece portal Outline of Greece Outline of ancient Greece Index of Greece-related articles Notes ^ The Church of Greece is recognized by the Greek Constitution as the prevailing religion in Greece.[1] and is the only country in the world where Eastern Orthodoxy is clearly recognized as a state religion.[2] ^ Greek: Ελληνική Δημοκρατία, romanized: Elliniki Dimokratia, [eliniˈci ðimokraˈti.a] ^ Greek: Ελλάς, romanized: Ellas, [eˈlas] ^ See:[13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20] ^ See:[27][28][29] ^ On 14 August 1974 Greek forces withdrew from the integrated military structure of NATO in protest at the Turkish occupation of northern Cyprus; Greece rejoined NATO in 1980. ^ See:[140][141][142][143][144] ^ For a diachronic analysis of the Greek party system see Pappas 2003, pp. 90–114, who distinguishes three distinct types of party system which developed in consecutive order, namely, a predominant-party system (from 1952 to 1963), a system of polarised pluralism (between 1963 and 1981), and a two-party system (since 1981). References Citations ^ [1] The Constitution of Greece: Section II Relations of Church and State: Article 3, Hellenic Resources network. ^ Enyedi, Zsolt; Madeley, John T.S. (2 August 2004). Church and State in Contemporary Europe. Routledge. p. 228. ISBN 9781135761417. Both as a state church and as a national church, the Orthodox Church of Greece has a lot in common with Protestant state churches, and even with Catholicism in some countries. ^ a b "Religious Belief and National Belonging in Central and Eastern Europe". Pew Research Center. 10 May 2017. Retrieved 9 September 2017. ^ "Country Comparison: Area". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 7 January 2013. ^ "Surface water and surface water change". Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Retrieved 11 October 2020. ^ "Statistics - ELSTAT". www.statistics.gr. Retrieved 22 May 2020. ^ a b Απογραφή Πληθυσμού – Κατοικιών 2011. ΜΟΝΙΜΟΣ Πληθυσμός [Results of Population-Housing Census 2011 concerning the permanent population of the country] (PDF) (in Greek). 20 March 2014. Retrieved 25 October 2016. ^ "Announcement of the results of the 2011 Population Census for the Resident Population" (PDF). Hellenic Statistical Authority. 28 December 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 November 2013. Retrieved 24 August 2013. ^ a b c d "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects: October 2020". IMF. 15 October 2019. ^ "INCOME INEQUALITY". Piraeus: Hellenic Statistical Authority. 19 June 2020. Retrieved 23 June 2020. ^ Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 15 December 2020. pp. 343–346. ISBN 978-92-1-126442-5. Retrieved 16 December 2020. ^ a b "Government and Politics". Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on 27 December 2019. Retrieved 28 April 2020. ^ "The Strategic Importance of Greece". geopoliticalfutures.com. Retrieved 6 March 2017. ^ "The Geopolitics of Greece: "One cannot afford anymore to manage the Greek crisis without due consideration of its geopolitical consequences"". janelanaweb.com. Archived from the original on 7 March 2017. Retrieved 6 March 2017. ^ "The Geostrategic Value of Greece and Sweden in the Current Struggle between Russia and NATO". atlanticcouncil.org. Retrieved 6 March 2017. ^ "The Geopolitical Importance of Greece through the Ages". academia.edu. Retrieved 6 March 2017. ^ "The Role of Greece in the Geostrategic Chessboard of Natural Gas". naturalgasworld.com. Retrieved 6 March 2017. ^ "Geopolitical Consequences Of 'Grexit' Would Be Huge". bmiresearch.com. Retrieved 6 March 2017. ^ "Greece can still be a geopolitical asset for the EU". europesworld.org. Archived from the original on 11 January 2017. Retrieved 6 March 2017. ^ "Greece and NATO: a long lasting relationship". nato.int. Retrieved 6 March 2017. ^ a b Eugene N. Borza (1992). In the Shadow of Olympus: The Emergence of Macedon. Princeton University Press. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-691-00880-6. ^ Zimmer, Carl (10 July 2019). "A Skull Bone Discovered in Greece May Alter the Story of Human Prehistory - The bone, found in a cave, is the oldest modern human fossil ever discovered in Europe. It hints that humans began leaving Africa far earlier than once thought". The New York Times. Retrieved 11 July 2019. ^ Staff (10 July 2019). "'Oldest remains' outside Africa reset human migration clock". Phys.org. Retrieved 10 July 2019. ^ Harvati, Katerina; et al. (10 July 2019). "Apidima Cave fossils provide earliest evidence of Homo sapiens in Eurasia". Nature. 571 (7766): 500–504. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1376-z. PMID 31292546. S2CID 195873640. ^ Douka, K.; Perles, C.; Valladas, H.; Vanhaeren, M.; Hedges, R.E.M. (2011). "Franchthi Cave revisited: the age of the Aurignacian in south-eastern Europe". Antiquity Magazine: 1133. ^ Perlès, Catherine (2001). The Early Neolithic in Greece: The First Farming Communities in Europe. Cambridge University Press. p. 1. ISBN 9780521000277. ^ Ricardo Duchesne (7 February 2011). The Uniqueness of Western Civilization. BRILL. p. 297. ISBN 978-90-04-19248-5. The list of books which have celebrated Greece as the "cradle" of the West is endless; two more examples are Charles Freeman's The Greek Achievement: The Foundation of the Western World (1999) and Bruce Thornton's Greek Ways: How the Greeks Created Western Civilization (2000) ^ Chiara Bottici; Benoît Challand (11 January 2013). The Myth of the Clash of Civilizations. Routledge. p. 88. ISBN 978-1-136-95119-0. The reason why even such a sophisticated historian as Pagden can do it is that the idea that Greece is the cradle of civilisation is so much rooted in western minds and school curicula as to be taken for granted. ^ William J. Broad (2007). The Oracle: Ancient Delphi and the Science Behind Its Lost Secrets. Penguin Publishing Group. p. 120. ISBN 978-0-14-303859-7. In 1979, a friend of de Boer's invited him to join a team of scientists that was going to Greece to assess the suitability of the ... But the idea of learning more about Greece – the cradle of Western civilization, a fresh example of tectonic forces at ... ^ Slomp, Hans (30 September 2011). Europe, A Political Profile: An American Companion to European Politics: An American Companion to European Politics. ABC-CLIO. p. 50. ISBN 978-0-313-39182-8. Retrieved 5 December 2012. Greek Culture and Democracy. As the cradle of Western civilization, Greece long ago discovered the value and beauty of the individual human being. Around 500 BC, Greece ^ Bulliet, Richard W; Kyle Crossley, Pamela; Headrick, Daniel R; Johnson, Lyman L; Hirsch, Steven W (21 February 2007). The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History to 1550. Cengage. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-618-77150-9. Retrieved 5 December 2012. The emergence of the Minoan civilization on the island of Crete and the Mycenaean civilization of Greece is another... was home to the first European civilization to have complex political and social structures and advanced technologies ^ Pomeroy, Sarah B (1999). Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509742-9. Retrieved 5 December 2012. Written by four leading authorities on the classical world, here is a new history of ancient Greece that dynamically presents a generation of new scholarship on the birthplace of Western civilization. ^ a b Frucht, Richard C (31 December 2004). Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture. ABC-CLIO. p. 847. ISBN 978-1-57607-800-6. Retrieved 5 December 2012. People appear to have first entered Greece as hunter-gatherers from southwest Asia about 50,000 years... of Bronze Age culture and technology laid the foundations for the rise of Europe's first civilization, Minoan Crete ^ Sansone, David (2011). Ancient Greek civilization. Wiley. p. 5. ISBN 9781444358773. ^ a b World and Its Peoples. Marshall Cavendish. September 2009. p. 1458. ISBN 978-0-7614-7902-4. Retrieved 5 December 2012. Greece was home to the earliest European civilizations, the Minoan civilization of Crete, which developed around 2000 BC, and the Mycenaean civilization on the Greek mainland, which emerged about 400 years later. The ancient Minoan ^ Drews, Robert (1995). The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe Ca. 1200 BC. Princeton University Press. p. 3. ISBN 0691025916. ^ Beckman, Gary M.; Bryce, Trevor R.; Cline, Eric H. (2012). "Writings from the Ancient World: The Ahhiyawa Texts" (PDF). Writings from the Ancient World. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature: 6. ISSN 1570-7008. ^ Kelder, Jorrit M. (2010). "The Kingdom of Mycenae: A Great Kingdom in the Late Bronze Age Aegean". academia.edu. Bethesda, MD: CDL Press. pp. 45, 86, 108. Retrieved 18 March 2015. ^ Short, John R (1987). An Introduction to Urban Geography. Routledge. p. 10. ISBN 9780710203724. ^ Vidal-Naquet, Pierre. Le monde d'Homère (The World of Homer), Perrin (2000), p. 19. ^ D.C.H. Rieu's introduction to The Odyssey (Penguin, 2003), p. xi. ^ Dunn, John (1994). Democracy: the unfinished journey 508 BC – 1993 AD. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-827934-1. ^ Raaflaub, Kurt A; Ober, Josiah; Wallace, Robert W (2007). Origin of Democracy in Ancient Greece. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24562-4. ^ Joseph Roisman, Ian Worthington. "A companion to Ancient Macedonia" John Wiley & Sons, 2011. ISBN 144435163X pp 135–138, p 343 ^ Robin Waterfield (19 April 2018). Creators, Conquerors, and Citizens: A History of Ancient Greece. Oxford University Press. p. 148. ISBN 978-0-19-872788-0. They formed an alliance, which we call the Hellenic League, and bound themselves not just to repel the Persians, but to help one another whatever particular enemy threatened the freedom of the Greek cities. This was a real acknowledgment of a shared Greekness, and a first attempt to unify the Greek states under such a banner. ^ John Van Antwerp Fine (1983). The Ancient Greeks: A Critical History. Harvard University Press. p. 297. ISBN 978-0-674-03314-6. This Hellenic League – the first union of Greek states since the mythical times of the Trojan War – was the instrument through which the Greeks organised their successful resistance to Persia. ^ Barry Strauss (16 August 2005). The Battle of Salamis: The Naval Encounter That Saved Greece – and Western Civilization. Simon and Schuster. pp. 1–11. ISBN 978-0-7432-7453-1. ^ Willner, Mark; Hero, George; Wiener, Jerry; Hero, George A. (2006). Global History Volume One: The Ancient World to the Age of Revolution. Barron's Educational Series. p. 79. ISBN 9780764158117. ^ Walbank, Frank W. (26 August 2010). Selected Papers: Studies in Greek and Roman History and Historiography. Cambridge University Press. p. 1. ISBN 9780521136808. Retrieved 8 September 2018. ^ Brice, Lee L. (17 October 2012). Greek Warfare: From the Battle of Marathon to the Conquests of Alexander the Great. ABC-CLIO. p. 5. ISBN 9781610690706. ^ Ian Morris (December 2005). "The growth of Greek cities in the first millennium BC" (PDF). Princeton University. ^ John Ferguson. "Hellenistic Age: Ancient Greek history". Online Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 29 April 2012. ^ Kosso, Cynthia; Scott, Anne (2009). The Nature and Function of Water, Baths, Bathing, and Hygiene from Antiquity Through the Renaissance. Brill. p. 51. ISBN 978-9004173576. ^ Spielvogel, Jackson (2005). Western Civilization. I: To 1715. Thomson Wadsworth. pp. 89–90. ISBN 978-0-534-64603-5. ^ a b Flower, Harriet, ed. (2004). The Roman Republic. pp. 248, 258. ISBN 978-0-521-00390-2. ^ "Antigonid dynasty". Britannica (online ed.). 2008. ^ a b Ward, Allen Mason; et al. (2003). A history of the Roman people. p. 276. ISBN 978-0-13-038480-5. ^ Zoch, Paul (2000). Ancient Rome: An Introductory History. p. 136. ISBN 978-0-8061-3287-7. Retrieved 29 April 2012. ^ Ferguson, Everett (2003). Backgrounds of Early Christianity. pp. 617–18. ISBN 978-0-8028-2221-5. ^ Dunstan, William (2011). Ancient Rome. p. 500. ISBN 978-0-7425-6834-1. Retrieved 29 April 2012. ^ Milburn, Robert (1992). Early Christian Art and Architecture. p. 158. ISBN 9780520074125. Retrieved 29 April 2012. ^ Gerard Friell; Peabody Professor of North American Archaeology and Ethnography Emeritus Stephen Williams; Stephen Williams (8 August 2005). Theodosius: The Empire at Bay. Routledge. p. 105. ISBN 978-1-135-78262-7. ^ Tony Perrottet (8 June 2004). The Naked Olympics: The True Story of the Ancient Games. Random House Digital, Inc. pp. 190–. ISBN 978-1-58836-382-4. Retrieved 1 April 2013. ^ a b c James Allan Stewart Evans (January 2005). The Emperor Justinian and the Byzantine Empire. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 65–70. ISBN 978-0-313-32582-3. ^ J. F. Haldon (1990). Byzantium in the Seventh Century: The Transformation of a Culture. Cambridge University Press. p. 329. ISBN 978-0-521-31917-1. ^ Makrides, Nikolaos (2009). Hellenic Temples and Christian Churches: A Concise History of the Religious Cultures of Greece from Antiquity to the Present. NYU Press. p. 206. ISBN 978-0-8147-9568-2. Retrieved 29 April 2012. ^ Jeffreys, Elizabeth, ed. (2008). The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-19-925246-6. ^ a b Fine 1991, pp. 35–6. ^ a b Fine 1991, pp. 63–6. ^ Gregory, TE (2010). A History of Byzantium. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 169. It is now generally agreed that the people who lived in the Balkans after the Slavic "invasions" were probably for the most part the same as those who had lived there earlier, although the creation of new political groups and arrival of small immigrants caused people to look at themselves as distinct from their neighbors, including the Byzantines. ^ Richard M. Rothaus (2000). Corinth, the First City of Greece: An Urban History of Late Antique Cult and Religion. BRILL. p. 10. ISBN 978-90-04-10922-3. ^ Geanakoplos, Deno John (1984). Byzantium: Church, Society, and Civilization Seen Through Contemporary Eyes. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226284606. ^ a b "Greece During the Byzantine Period: Byzantine recovery". Online. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 28 April 2012. ^ Fine 1991, pp. 79–83. ^ "Greece during the Byzantine period (c. AD 300 – c. 1453), Population and languages, Emerging Greek identity". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Online Edition. ^ a b "Greece During the Byzantine Period: Results of the Fourth Crusade". Online Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 28 April 2012. ^ "Greece During the Byzantine Period: The islands". Online Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 14 May 2012. ^ a b Vasiliev, Alexander A. (1964). History of the Byzantine Empire, 324–1453. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 582. ISBN 9780299809256. ^ Moles, Ian (1969). "Nationalism and Byzantine Greece". Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies: 102. Greek nationalism, in other words, was articulated as the boundaries of Byzantium shrank... the Palaeologian restoration that the two words are brought into definite and cognate relationship with 'nation' (Έθνος). ^ a b Steven Runciman; Sir Steven Runciman (24 October 1985). The Great Church in Captivity: A Study of the Patriarchate of Constantinople from the Eve of the Turkish Conquest to the Greek War of Independence. Cambridge University Press. p. 120. ISBN 978-0-521-31310-0. 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Ltd., 10, 1934 External links Greeceat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel guide from Wikivoyage Resources from Wikiversity Government President of the Hellenic Republic Prime Minister of the Hellenic Republic Hellenic Parliament Greek National Tourism Organisation Greek News Agenda Newsletter General information Greece at the Encyclopædia Britannica. "Greece" (guide). National Geographic Traveler.. Greece. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. "Greece". UCB Libraries GovPubs. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 23 March 2016.. Greece at Curlie "Greece profile". BBC News. 25 December 2013. Retrieved 23 March 2016.. "Greek Council for Refugees". Retrieved 23 March 2016.. "Hellenic History". GR: FHW. Retrieved 23 March 2016.. "Hellenism". Retrieved 23 March 2016. – Everything about Greece. 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en-wikipedia-org-5388	----	Category:Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Help Category:Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 22nd 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 28th 29th 30th 31st 32nd Wikimedia Commons has media related to 27th dynasty of Egypt. Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (525 BCE−402 BCE) — also known as the First Egyptian Satrapy of Persian ruled Achaemenid Egypt. Subcategories This category has the following 4 subcategories, out of 4 total. A ► Artaxerxes I of Persia‎ (6 P) D ► Darius the Great‎ (4 C, 21 P) ► Darius II‎ (5 P) X ► Xerxes I‎ (1 C, 14 P) Pages in category "Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt" The following 16 pages are in this category, out of 16 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more).   Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt A Achaemenes (satrap) Arsames (satrap of Egypt) Artaxerxes I Aryandes B Bardiya Battle of Pelusium (525 BC) C Cambyses II D Darius II I Inaros II P Pherendates Psammetichus IV S Sogdianus U Udjahorresnet X Xerxes I Xerxes II Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Twenty-seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=901813367" Categories: Late Period of ancient Egypt Achaemenid Egypt Dynasties of ancient Egypt 6th century BC in Egypt 5th century BC in Egypt Achaemenid satrapies 6th-century BC establishments in Egypt 5th-century BC disestablishments in Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia categories named after dynasties Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Беларуская Brezhoneg Čeština Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français Galego 한국어 ქართული Magyar Português Русский Slovenčina اردو Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 14 June 2019, at 12:54 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5394	----	Pepi I Meryre - Wikipedia Pepi I Meryre From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Egyptian pharaoh, third ruler of the Sixth Dynasty of Egypt in the late 24th century BC Pepi I Meryre Pepy, Phios, Phius, φιός Lifesize copper statue of Pepi I, Cairo Museum[1] Pharaoh Reign Duration: over 40 years, in the second half of the 24th century BC or early 23rd century BC[note 1] (6th Dynasty) Coregency uncertain, possibly with his son Merenre at the end of his reign Predecessor Userkare Successor Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Nefer za hor Nfr z3 Ḥr Perfect is the protection of Horus[13] Excellent is the protection of Horus[14] Meryre[15] Mry Rˁ Beloved of Re[13] [7] Nomen Pepi ppy[13][7] Horus name Mery Tawy mry t3wy Beloved of the Two Lands[13] Nebty name Mery Khet Nebti mry ẖt nbty Beloved of the Two Ladies' body[13] Golden Horus Biku Nebu bỉkw nbw The triple falcons are golden[13] Consort Ankhesenpepi I, Ankhesenpepi II, Nubwenet, Inenek-Inti, Mehaa, Sebwetet. Uncertain: Nedjeftet, Behenu. One consort responsible for a conspiracy against Pepi known only through her title "Weret-Yamtes" Children Merenre Nemtyemsaf I ♂, probably: Pepi II ♂, Hornetjerkhet ♂, Tetiankh ♂, Meritites IV ♀, Neith ♀, Iput II ♀ Father Teti Mother Iput Burial Pyramid of Pepi I in South Saqqara Monuments Pyramid complex Pepi Men-nefer, at least six pyramids for his consorts and numerous Ka-chapels Pepi I Meryre (also Pepy I) was an Ancient Egyptian pharaoh, third king of the Sixth Dynasty of Egypt, who ruled for over 40 years at the turn of the 24th and 23rd centuries BC, toward the end of the Old Kingdom period. He was the son of Teti, the founder of the dynasty and ascended the throne only after the brief intervening reign of the shadowy Userkare. His mother was Iput, who may have been a daughter of Unas, the final ruler of the preceding Fifth Dynasty. Pepi I, who had at least six consorts, was succeeded by his son Merenre Nemtyemsaf I, with whom he may have shared power in a coregency at the very end of his reign. Pepi II Neferkare, who might also have been Pepi I's son, succeeded Merenre. Several difficulties accumulated during Pepi's reign, beginning with the possible murder of his father and the ensuing reign of Userkare. Later, probably after his twentieth year of reign, Pepi faced a harem conspiracy hatched by one of his consorts who may have tried to have her son designated heir to the throne, and possibly another conspiracy involving his vizier at the end of his reign. Confronted with the protracted decline of pharaonic power at the expense of the emerging dynasties of local officials, Pepi reacted with a vast architectural program involving the construction of temples dedicated to local gods and numerous chapels for his own cult throughout Egypt, reinforcing his presence in the provinces. Egypt's prosperity allowed Pepi to become the most prolific builder of the Old Kingdom. At the same time, Pepi favored the rise of small provincial centres and recruited officials of non-noble extraction to curtail the influence of powerful local families. Continuing Teti's policy, Pepi expanded a network of warehouses accessible to royal envoys and from which taxes and labor could easily be collected. Finally, he buttressed his power after the harem conspiracy by forming alliances with Khui, the provincial nomarch of Abydos, marrying two of his daughters, Ankhesenpepi I and Ankhesenpepi II, and making both Khui's wife Nebet and her son Djau viziers. The Egyptian state's external policy under Pepi comprised military campaigns against Nubia, Sinai and the southern Levant, landing troops on the Levantine coast using Egyptian transport boats. Trade with Byblos, Ebla and the oases of the Western Desert flourished, while Pepi launched mining and quarrying expeditions to Sinai and further afield. Pepi had a pyramid complex built for his funerary cult in Saqqara, next to which he built at least a further six pyramids for his consorts. Pepi's pyramid, which originally stood 52.5 m (172 ft) tall, and an accompanying high temple, followed the standard layout inherited from the late Fifth Dynasty. The most extensive corpus of Pyramid Texts from the Old Kingdom cover the walls of Pepi I's burial chamber, antechamber and much of the corridor leading to it. For the first time, these texts also appear in some of the consorts' pyramids. Excavations revealed a bundle of viscera and a mummy fragment, both presumed to belong to the pharaoh. Pepi's complex, called Pepi Mennefer, remained the focus of his funerary cult well into the Middle Kingdom and ultimately gave its name to the nearby capital of Egypt, Memphis. Pepi's cult stopped early in the Second Intermediate Period. Pepi's monuments began to be quarried for their stone in the New Kingdom, and in the Mamluk era they were almost entirely dismantled. Contents 1 Family 1.1 Parents 1.2 Consorts 1.3 Children 2 Chronology 2.1 Relative chronology 2.2 Length of reign 3 Politics 3.1 Ascending the throne 3.2 Provincial administration 3.3 Conspiracy 3.4 End of reign: coregency 3.5 Military campaigns 4 Economy 4.1 Foreign trade and mining 4.2 Domestic policies 5 Building activities 5.1 Ka-chapels 5.2 Temples 5.3 Pyramid complex 5.3.1 Main pyramid 5.3.2 Mortuary temple 5.4 Necropolis of Pepi I 5.4.1 Pyramid of Nebwenet 5.4.2 Pyramid of Inenek-Inti 5.4.3 Queen of the West 5.4.4 Pyramid of Ankhesenpepi II 5.4.5 Pyramid of Behenu 5.4.6 Pyramid of Mehaa 6 Legacy 6.1 Old Kingdom 6.2 Middle Kingdom 6.3 New Kingdom 6.4 Late Period 7 Notes 8 References 9 Bibliography Family[edit] Parents[edit] Pepi was the son of the pharaoh Teti and Iput.[16] Her parentage is directly attested to by a relief on a decree uncovered in Coptos that mentions Iput as Pepi's mother,[17] by inscriptions in her mortuary temple mentioning her titles as mother of a king and as mother of Pepi,[18][note 2] by the architecture of her tomb which had been changed from an original mastaba form into a pyramid on the accession of her son to the throne,[18] and by her mention as being Pepi's mother on the Sixth Dynasty royal annals.[19] She also bore the title of "king's mother", and her tomb, originally a mastaba, was transformed into a pyramid during Pepi's reign. Iput may have been a daughter of Unas, the last pharaoh of the Fifth Dynasty,[3] although this remains uncertain and debated.[20] She seems to have died before Pepi's accession to the throne.[21] The observation that Teti was most probably Pepi's father follows from the location of Iput's tomb, next to Teti's pyramid as was customary for a queen consort.[19] Consorts[edit] Ankhesenpepi II shown on a relief from her mortuary temple, Imhotep Museum Egyptologists have identified six consorts of Pepi I with near certainty.[22] Pepi's best-attested consorts were Ankhesenpepi I and Ankhesenpepi II,[23][note 3] who both bore future pharaohs and were daughters of the nomarch of Abydos Khui and his wife Nebet.[23][25] Further consorts are Nubwenet,[26][27] Inenek-Inti,[28] who became one of Pepi's viziers,[22] and Mehaa (also called Haaheru). All were buried in pyramids adjacent to that of Pepi.[29] Relief fragments from the necropolis surrounding Pepi's pyramid mention another consort, Sebwetet.[30] Two more consorts have been proposed for Pepi I based on partial evidence. The first is Nedjeftet,[25][31] whose name is recorded on blocks excavated in the necropolis adjacent to Pepi's pyramid. The identification of Nedjeftet as Pepi's consort remains uncertain owing to the lack of inscriptions explicitly naming her husband.[32] Given the location of Nedjeftet's blocks in the necropolis, she may be the owner of a pyramid west of Pepi's.[33][34] The second is another consort, named Behenu, who was buried in the second largest queen pyramid of Pepi's necropolis, north of his. She could either be one of his consorts or a consort of Pepi II.[35] A final unnamed consort, only referred to by her title "Weret-Yamtes"[36] meaning "great of affection",[37] is known from inscriptions uncovered in the tomb of Weni, an official serving Pepi. This consort, whose name is purposefully left unmentioned by Weni,[38] conspired against Pepi and was prosecuted when the conspiracy was discovered.[36] Children[edit] Pepi fathered at least four sons. Ankhesenpepi I probably bore him the future pharaoh Merenre Nemtyemsaf I.[note 4] Ankhesenpepi II was the mother of Pepi II Neferkare,[40] who was probably born at the very end of Pepi I's reign given he was only six upon ascending the throne after Merenre's rule.[39] While a majority of Egyptologists favor this hypothesis,[41] an alternative one holds that Pepi II could be a son of Merenre.[35] Another of Pepi I's sons was Teti-ankh, meaning "Teti lives", whose mother has yet to be identified.[40] Teti-ankh is known only from an ink inscription bearing his name discovered in Pepi's pyramid.[17] Buried nearby is Prince Hornetjerkhet, a son of Pepi with Mehaa.[40] At least three of Pepi I's daughters have been tentatively identified, all future consorts of Pepi II.[42] The first, Meritites IV,[note 5] was the king's eldest daughter and was buried in the necropolis surrounding her father's pyramid.[44] The second is Neith,[45][note 6] whom he fathered with Ankhesenpepi I.[47] She may have been the mother of Pepi II's successor Merenre Nemtyemsaf II.[45] The third is Iput II,[48] whose identity as Pepi's daughter remains uncertain because her title of "daughter of the king" may only be honorary.[42] Chronology[edit] Relative chronology[edit] Pepi I's cartouche reading "Meryre" on the Abydos King List[49] The relative chronology of Pepi I's reign is well established by historical records, contemporary artifacts and archeological evidence, which agree he succeeded Userkare and was succeeded by Merenre I Nemtyemsaf.[50] For example, the near-contemporary South Saqqara Stone, a royal annal inscribed during the reign of Pepi II, gives the succession "Teti → Userkare → Pepi I → Merenre I", making Pepi the third king of the Sixth Dynasty. Two more historical sources agree with this chronology: the Abydos king list, written under Seti I which places Pepi I's cartouche as the 36th entry between those of Userkare and Merenre,[49] and the Turin canon, a list of kings on papyrus dating to the reign of Ramses II which records Pepi I in the fourth column, third row.[51] Historical sources against this order of succession include the Aegyptiaca (Αἰγυπτιακά), a history of Egypt written in the 3rd century BC during the reign of Ptolemy II (283 – 246 BC) by Manetho. No copies of the Aegyptiaca have survived, and it is now known only through later writings by Sextus Julius Africanus and Eusebius. According to the Byzantine scholar George Syncellus, Africanus wrote that the Aegyptiaca mentioned the succession "Othoês → Phius → Methusuphis" at the start of the Sixth Dynasty. Othoês, Phius (in Greek, φιός), and Methusuphis are understood to be the Hellenized forms for Teti, Pepi I and Merenre, respectively,[52][note 7] meaning that the Aegyptiaca omits Userkare. Manetho's reconstruction of the early Sixth Dynasty agrees with the Karnak king list written under Thutmosis III. This list places Pepi's birth name immediately after that of Teti in the seventh entry of the second row.[54] Unlike other sources such as the Turin canon, the purpose of the Karnak king list was not to be exhaustive, but rather to list a selection of royal ancestors to be honoured. Similarly the Saqqara Tablet, written under Ramses II,[55] omits Userkare, with Pepi's name given as the 25th entry after that of Teti.[49] Length of reign[edit] Alabaster statuette of Pepi I dressed for the Sed Festival, Brooklyn Museum[56] The length of Pepi I's reign remains somewhat uncertain, although as of 2021, the consensus is that he ruled over Egypt for over 40 years, possibly 49 or 50 years[57] and possibly longer.[58] During the Old Kingdom period, the Egyptians counted years from the beginning of the reign of the current king. These years were referred to by the number of cattle counts which had taken place since the reign's start.[59] The cattle count was an important event aimed at evaluating the amount of taxes to be levied on the population. This involved counting cattle, oxen and small livestock.[60] During the early Sixth Dynasty, this count was probably biennial,[note 8] occurring every two years.[59][64] The South Saqqara Stone and an inscription in Hatnub both record the 25th cattle count under Pepi I, his highest known date.[65][66] Accepting a biennial count, this indicates that Pepi reigned for 49 years. That a 50th year of reign could have also been recorded on the royal annal cannot be discounted, however, because of the damaged state of the South Saqqara Stone.[67] Another historical source supporting such a long reign is Africanus' epitome of Manetho's Aegyptiaca, which credits Pepi I with a reign of 53 years.[14][52][note 9] Archaeological evidence in favor of a long reign for Pepi I includes his numerous building projects and many surviving objects made in celebration of his first Sed festival, which was meant to rejuvenate the king and was first celebrated on the 30th year of a king's rule. For example, numerous alabaster ointment vessels celebrating Pepi's first Sed festival have been discovered. They bear a standard inscriptions reading, "The king of Upper and Lower Egypt Meryre, may he be given life for ever. The first occasion of the Sed festival."[69] Examples can now be found in museums throughout the world:[5][70][71] Musée du Louvre Walters Art Museum Metropolitan Museum of Art British Museum The Sed festival had a considerable importance for Old Kingdom kings.[63] Representations of it were part of the typical decoration of temples associated with the ruler during the Old Kingdom, whether the king had actually celebrated it or not.[72] As further evidence of the importance of this event in Pepi's case, the state administration seems to have had a tendency to mention his first jubilee repeatedly in the years following its celebration until the end of his rule in connection with building activities. For example, Pepi's final 25th cattle count reported on the Sixth Dynasty royal annals is associated with his first Sed festival even though it probably had taken place some 19 years prior.[63] Politics[edit] Ascending the throne[edit] Kneeling Statuette of Pepi I, Brooklyn Museum[73][note 10] Pepi's accession to the throne may have occurred in times of discord. Manetho, writing nearly 2000 years after Pepi's reign, claims that Pepi's father Teti was assassinated by his own bodyguards.[8][52] The Egyptologist Naguib Kanawati has argued in support of Manetho's claim, noting for example that Teti's reign saw a significant increase in the number of guards at the Egyptian court, who became responsible for the everyday care of the king.[74] At the same time, the figures and names of several contemporary palace officials as represented in their tombs have been erased purposefully.[75] This seems to be an attempt at a damnatio memoriae[76] targeting three men in particular: the vizier Hezi,[note 11] the overseer of weapons Mereri and chief physician Seankhuiptah. These men could therefore be behind the regicide.[78] Pepi may have been too young to be king. In any case, he did not immediately succeed his father. King Userkare succeeded him instead, but Userkare's identity and relationship to the royal family remain uncertain. It is possible Userkare served only as a regent with Pepi's mother Iput as Pepi reached adulthood,[79] occupying the throne in the interregnum until Pepi's coming of age.[80] The apparent lack of resistance to Pepi's eventual accession supports such hypotheses.[79] Against this view, however, Kanawati has argued that Userkare's short reign—lasting perhaps only one year—cannot be a regency as a regent would not have assumed a full royal titulary as Userkare did, nor would he be included in king lists.[74] Rather, Userkare could have been an usurper[note 12] and a descendant of a lateral branch of the Fifth Dynasty royal family who seized power briefly in a coup,[81] possibly with the support of the priesthood of the sun god Ra.[74] This hypothesis finds indirect evidence in Userkare's theophoric name which incorporates the name of Ra, a naming fashion common during the preceding Fifth Dynasty that had fallen out of use since Unas's reign. Further archeological evidence of Userkare's illegitimacy in the eyes of his successor is the absence of any mention of him in the tombs and biographies of the many Egyptian officials who served under both Teti and Pepi I.[14][82] For example, the viziers Inumin and Khentika, who served both Teti and Pepi I, are completely silent about Userkare and none of their activities during his time on the throne are reported in their tomb.[83] The tomb of Mehi, a guard who lived under Teti, Userkare and Pepi, yielded an inscription showing that the name of Teti was first erased to be replaced by that of another king, whose name was itself erased and replaced again by that of Teti.[84] Kanawati argues the intervening name was that of Userkare to whom Mehi may have transferred his allegiance.[85] Mehi's attempt to switch back to Teti was seemingly unsuccessful, as there is evidence that work on his tomb stopped abruptly and that he was never buried there.[86] For the Egyptologist Miroslav Bárta (cs), further troubles might have arisen directly between Pepi and relatives of his father Teti.[76] Bárta and Baud point to Pepi's apparent decision to dismantle the funerary complex of his paternal grandmother[87] Sesheshet, as witnessed by blocks from this queen's complex which were found reused as construction material in Pepi's own mortuary temple.[76][88] On the other hand, Wilfried Seipel disagrees with this interpretation of the blocks being reused by Pepi, instead, he thinks the blocks bear witness to Pepi's foundation of a pious memorial to his grandmother.[89] At the same time as he apparently distanced himself from his father's line, Pepi transformed his mother's tomb into a pyramid and posthumously bestowed a new title on her, "Daughter of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt", thereby emphasising his royal lineage as a descendant of Unas, last ruler of the Fifth Dynasty.[76] Pepi chose the Horus name of Mery-tawy, meaning "He who is loved by the two lands" or "Beloved of the Two Lands", which Nicolas Grimal sees as a clear indication that he desired political appeasement in times of troubles.[90] Similarly, Pepi chose the throne name Nefersahor, meaning "Perfect is the protection of Horus".[9] Bárta adds that Pepi's writing of his own name "Mery-tawy" is also highly unusual: he chose to invert the order of the hieroglyphic signs composing it, placing the sign for "Beloved" before that for "Two Lands". For Bárta and Yannis Gourdon, this deliberate choice shows Pepi's deference to the powerful nobility of the country, on which he was dependent.[76] Although there seems to be no direct relation between Userkare's brief reign and one or more later conspiracies against him, this evidence suggests some form of political instability at the time.[90] Turquoise cylinder seal of an official of Pepi I, "Sole companion, lector priest, who does what is ordered [...] privy to the secret(s) of the king"[91] Provincial administration[edit] In a long trend that began earlier in the Fifth Dynasty, the Old Kingdom Egyptian state was the subject of increasing decentralisation and regionalisation.[92] Provincial families played an increasingly important role, marrying into the royal family, accessing the highest offices of the state administration and having a strong influence at the court, while also consolidating their hold over regional power bases by creating local dynasties.[93] These processes, well under way during Pepi I's reign, progressively weakened the king's primacy and ascendancy over his own administration and would ultimately result in the princedoms of the First Intermediate Period.[94] Teti and Pepi I seem to have developed several policies to counteract this. They both changed the organisation of the territorial administration during their reigns: many provincial governors were nominated, especially in Upper Egypt,[95] while Lower Egypt was possibly under direct royal administration.[96] In addition, Pepi instigated the construction of royal Ka-chapels[note 13] throughout Egypt[94][98] to strengthen the royal presence in the provinces.[99] These expensive policies suggest Egypt was prosperous during Pepi's reign.[51] Small provincial centres in areas historically associated with the crown became more important, suggesting that pharaohs of the Sixth Dynasty tried to diminish the power of regional dynasties by recruiting senior officials who did not belong to them and were loyal to the pharaoh.[100] Some of these new officials have no known background, indicating they were not of noble extraction. The circulation of high officials, who were moved from key positions of power to other duties, occurred at an "astonishing" pace under Teti and Pepi I according to the Egyptologist Juan Carlos Moreno García,[93] in what might have been a deliberate attempt to curtail the concentration of power in the hands of a few officials.[95] The Sixth Dynasty royal annals, only a small part of which are still legible, record further activities during Pepi's reign, including the offering of milk and young cows for a feast of Ra, the building of a "south chapel" on the occasion of the new year and the arrival of messengers at court.[101] Further offerings of lapis-lazuli,[66] cattle, bread and beer are mentioned,[102] for gods including Horus[103] and the Ennead.[104] Conspiracy[edit] Weni shown on a lintel from his tomb with the name of Pepi I's pyramid, Pepi Men-nefer, mentioned on the top row of hieroglyphs, Rosicrucian Egyptian Museum.[105][note 14] At some point in his reign,[note 15] Pepi faced a conspiracy hatched by one of his harem consorts, only known by her title "Weret-Yamtes". Although Weni, who served as a judge during the subsequent trial, does not report the precise nature of her crime, this at least shows that the person of the king was not untouchable.[107] If the conspiracy happened early in Pepi's reign as proposed by Wilfried Seipel and Vivienne Callender, the queen concerned could have been Userkare's mother and Teti's consort rather than Pepi's.[108] Most scholars, however, agree with Hans Goedicke's thesis that the conspiracy occurred after more than two decades into Pepi's reign. For Goedicke, the queen could have been Menere's mother.[39] Nicolas Grimal[note 16] and Baud see this as highly unlikely and outright outlandish respectively,[109] as this queen's son would have been punished along with her.[36] Rather, the queen might have attempted unsuccessfully to secure the throne for her son, whose name is now lost.[108] Perhaps in response to these events, Pepi changed his prenomen Nefersahor to Meryre, meaning "Beloved of Ra", even updating the inscriptions inside his pyramid.[note 17] This late change with Pepi incorporating the sun god Ra's name into his own may reflect some agreement with the influential priesthood of Ra.[110] Around this time, Pepi married two daughters of Khui, the provincial governor of Abydos.[111] This may also have served to counteract the weakening of the king's authority over Middle and Upper Egypt by securing the allegiance of a powerful family.[112] For Baud and Christopher Eyre, this also demonstrates that at the time of the Sixth Dynasty, government and power was still largely determined by family relationships rather than by bureaucracy.[113][114] The political importance of these marriages[114] is furthered by the fact that for the first and last time until the 26th Dynasty some 1800 years later, a woman, Khui's wife Nebet, bore the title of vizier of Upper Egypt. Egyptologists debate whether this title was purely honorific[115] or whether she really assumed the duties of a vizier.[75] Later, Khui's and Nebet's son Djau was made vizier as well. Pepi's marriages might be at the origin[116] of a trend which continued during the later Sixth and Eighth Dynasties, in which the temple of Min in Coptos—Khui's seat of power—was the focus of much royal patronage.[39] The Coptos Decrees, which record successive pharaohs granting tax exemptions to the temple, as well as official honours bestowed by the kings on the local ruling family while the Old Kingdom society was collapsing, manifest this.[117] End of reign: coregency[edit] The end of Pepi's rule may have been no less troubled than his early reign, as Kanawati conjectures that Pepi faced yet another conspiracy against him, in which his vizier Rawer may have been involved. To support his theory, Kanawati observes that Rawer's image in his tomb has been desecrated, with his name, hands and feet chiselled off, while this same tomb is dated to the second half of Pepi's reign on stylistic grounds.[118] Kanawati further posits that the conspiracy may have aimed at having someone else designated heir to the throne at the expense of Merenre. Because of this failed conspiracy, Pepi I may have taken the drastic[note 18] step of crowning Merenre during his own reign,[58] thereby creating the earliest documented coregency in the history of Egypt.[118] That such a coregency took place was first proposed by Étienne Drioton. A gold pendant bearing the names of both Pepi I and Merenre I as living kings,[122][123] and the copper statues of Hierakonpolis, discussed below, indirectly support this.[112] Goedicke has suggested further that an inscription mentioning King Merenre's tenth year of reign in Hatnub, contradicting Manetho's figure of seven years, is evidence that Merenre dated the start of his reign before the end of his father's reign, as a coregency would permit.[124] The coregency remains uncertain. The Sixth Dynasty Royal annals bear no trace either for or against it, but the shape and size of the stone on which the annals are inscribed makes it more probable that Merenre did not start to count his years of reign until soon after the death of his father.[125][note 19] Furthermore, William J. Murnane writes that the gold pendant's context is unknown, making its significance regarding the coregency difficult to appraise. The copper statues are similarly inconclusive as the identity of the smaller one, and whether they originally formed a group, remains uncertain.[127] Military campaigns[edit] Autobiography of Weni, now at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo[128][note 20] Militarily, aggressive expansion into Nubia marked Pepi I's reign.[129][130] The walls of the tombs of the contemporary nomarchs of Elephantine,[129] alabaster vessels bearing Pepi's cartouche found in Kerma[131] and inscriptions in Tumas report this.[80] The Sixth Dynasty royal annals also recount at least one campaign into Nubia. Although the campaign narrative is now largely illegible, according to the Egyptologists Baud and Dobrev, it comprised three phases: first, messengers were sent to Nubia for negotiation and surveillance purposes; then the military campaign took place and finally a booty of men and goods was brought back to Egypt for presentation to the pharaoh.[132] To the north-east of Egypt, Pepi launched at least five military expeditions against the "sand dwellers"[note 21] of Sinai and southern Canaan.[112][134] These campaigns are recounted on the walls of the tomb of Weni, then officially a palace superintendent but given tasks befitting a general.[135] Weni states that he ordered nomarchs in Upper Egypt and the Nile Delta region to "call up the levies of their own subordinates, and these in turn summoned their subordinates down through every level of the local administration".[136] Meanwhile, Nubian mercenaries were also recruited and endowed with the power to enroll men and seize goods,[112][137][note 22] so that in total tens of thousands of men were at Weni's disposal.[135] This is the only text relating the raising of an Egyptian army during the Old Kingdom,[136] and it indirectly reveals the absence of a permanent, standing army at the time.[139] The goal of this army was either to repulse rebelling Semitic people[140][note 23] or to seize their properties and conquer their land in southern Canaan,[note 24] an action possibly motivated by the intense commercial activities between Egypt and this region.[145] The Egyptians campaigned up to what was probably Mount Carmel[142] or Ras Kouroun,[146] landing troops on the coast using transport boats.[112][147] Weni reports that walled towns were destroyed, fig trees and grape vines were cut down, and local shrines were burned.[148] Economy[edit] Ebla's royal palace, destroyed c. 2300 BC The reign of Pepi I marks the apogee of the Sixth Dynasty foreign policy, with flourishing trade, several mining and quarrying expeditions and major military campaigns.[149] Foreign trade and mining[edit] Trade with settlements along the Levantine coast, which had existed during the Fifth Dynasty, seems to have peaked[150] under Pepi I and Pepi II. Their chief trade partner there might have been Byblos, where dozens of inscriptions on stone vessels showing Pepi's cartouches have been found,[151][152] and a large alabaster vessel bearing Pepi's titulary and commemorating his jubilee from the Temple of Baalat Gebal.[153][note 25] The high official, Iny, served Pepi during several successful expeditions to Byblos for which the king rewarded him with the name "Inydjefaw", meaning, "He who brings back provisions".[154] Through Byblos, Egypt, had indirect contacts[155] with the city of Ebla in modern-day Syria.[10][156][note 26] The contact with Ebla is established by alabaster vessels[157] bearing Pepi's name found near its royal palace G,[158][note 27] destroyed in the 23rd century BC, possibly by the Akkadian Empire under Sargon.[160] Trading parties departed Egypt for the Levant from a Nile Dela port called Ra-Hat, "the first mouth [of the Nile]". This trade benefited the nearby city of Mendes, from which one of Pepi's viziers probably originated.[161] Further contacts with Canaan may be inferred from a statue of Pepi, which is said to have been unearthed in Gezer but has since been lost.[162] Expeditions and mining activities that were already taking place in the Fifth and early Sixth Dynasty continued unabated. These include at least one expedition of workmen and their military escort[163] to the mines of turquoise and copper in Wadi Maghareh, Sinai, [156] around Pepi's 36th year on the throne.[80][note 28] In all likelihood, this expedition departed Egypt from the Red Sea coast port of Ayn Soukhna, which was active during Pepi's reign.[165] The same port may also have been the origin of an expedition to the southern Red Sea, possibly to Punt, as witnessed by Ethiopian obsidian discovered on the site.[166] There were also one or more expeditions to Hatnub, where alabaster was extracted[156] at least once in Pepi's 49th year of reign,[80] as well as visits to the Gebel el-Silsila[167] and Sehel Island.[168] A trading expedition fetching lapis-lazuli and lead or tin may also have passed further south through Mirgissa.[169][note 29] Greywacke and siltstone for building projects originated from quarries of the Wadi Hammamat,[156] where some eighty graffiti mention Pepi I.[171] At the same time, an extensive network of caravan routes traversed Egypt's Western Desert, for example, from Abydos to the Kharga Oasis and from there to the Dakhla and Selima Oases.[156] Domestic policies[edit] Agricultural estates affiliated with the crown in the provinces during the preceding dynasty were replaced by novel administrative entities, the ḥwt, which were agricultural centres controlling tracts of land, livestock and workers. Together with temples and royal domains, these numerous ḥwt represented a network of warehouses accessible to royal envoys and from which taxes and labor could easily be collected.[172][173] This territorial mode of organisation disappeared nearly 300 years after Pepi I's reign, at the dawn of the Middle Kingdom period.[172] Pepi decreed tax-exemptions to various institutions. He gave an exemption to a chapel dedicated to the cult of his mother located in Coptos.[174][note 30] Another decree has survived on a stele discovered near the Bent Pyramid in Dashur, whereby in his 21st year of reign, Pepi grants exemptions to the people serving in the two pyramids towns[note 31] of Sneferu:[175] My majesty has commanded that these two pyramid towns be exempt for him throughout the course of eternity from doing any work of the palace, from doing any forced labor for any part of the royal residence throughout the course of eternity, or from doing any forced labor at the word of anybody in the course of eternity.[176] The Egyptologist David Warburton sees such perpetual tax exemptions as capitulations by a king confronted with rampant corruption. Whether they were the result of religious or political motives, exemptions created precedents that encouraged other institutions to request similar treatment, weakening the power of the state as they accumulated over time.[177] Further domestic activities related to agriculture and the economy may be inferred from the inscriptions found in the tomb of Nekhebu, a high official belonging to the family of Senedjemib Inti, a vizier during the late Fifth Dynasty. Nekhebu reports overseeing the excavations of canals in Lower Egypt and at Cusae in Middle Egypt.[178][179] Building activities[edit] Ruins of Pepi I's Ka-chapel in Bubastis[180] Pepi I built extensively throughout Egypt,[181] so much so that in 1900 the Egyptologist Flinders Petrie stated "this king has left more monuments, large and small, than any other ruler before the Twelfth Dynasty".[51] The Egyptologist Jean Leclant reached a similar conclusion in 1999. He sees Pepi's rule as marking the apogee of the Old Kingdom owing to the flurry of building activities, administrative reforms, trade and military campaigns at the time.[14] Pepi devoted most of his building efforts to local cults[147] and royal Ka-chapels,[182] seemingly with the objective of affirming the king's stature and presence in the provinces.[183] Ka-chapels[edit] Ka-chapels were small cult buildings comprising one or more chambers to hold offerings dedicated to the cult of the Ka of a deceased or, in this case, the king.[184] Such chapels dedicated to Pepi I were uncovered or are known from contemporary sources to have stood in Hierakonpolis,[185][186] in Abydos,[187][188][note 32] and in the central Nile Delta region,[178] in Memphis, Zawyet el-Meytin, Assiut, Qus[182] and beyond the Nile Valley in Balat, a settlement of the Dakhla Oasis.[191] In addition, two[192] chapels were built in Bubastis[180] and probably more than one stood in Dendera.[note 33] Finally, yet another chapel is believed to have existed in Elkab, where rock inscriptions refer to his funerary cult.[194] All these buildings were probably peripheral to or inside[189] larger temples hosting extensive cult activities.[195][196] For example, the chapel at Abydos was next to the temple of Khenti-Amentiu.[197] For the Egyptologist Juan Moreno García, this proximity demonstrates the direct power that the king still held over the temples' economic activities and internal affairs during the Sixth Dynasty.[189] The smaller copper statue from Hierakonpolis, representing Merenre or a young Pepi I[1] In an underground store beneath the floor of Hierakonpolis' Ka-chapel of Pepi, the Egyptologist James Quibell uncovered a statue of King Khasekhemwy of the Second Dynasty, a terracota lion cub made during the Thinite era,[198] a golden mask representing Horus and two copper statues.[199] Originally fashioned by hammering plates of copper over a wooden base,[199][200] these statues had been disassembled, placed inside one another and then sealed with a thin layer of engraved copper bearing the titles and names of Pepi I "on the first day of the Heb Sed" feast.[198] The two statues were symbolically "trampling underfoot the Nine bows"—the enemies of Egypt—a stylized representation of Egypt's conquered foreign subjects.[201] While the identity of the larger adult figure as Pepi I is revealed by the inscription, the identity of the smaller statue showing a younger person remains unresolved.[198] The most common hypothesis among Egyptologists is that the young man shown is Merenre.[186] As Alessandro Bongioanni and Maria Croce write: "[Merenre] was publicly associated as his father's successor on the occasion of the Jubilee [the Heb Sed feast]. The placement of his copper effigy inside that of his father would therefore reflect the continuity of the royal succession and the passage of the royal sceptre from father to son before the death of the pharaoh could cause a dynastic split."[202] Alternatively, Bongioanni and Croce have also proposed the smaller statue may represent "a more youthful Pepy I, reinvigorated by the celebration of the Jubilee ceremonies".[203] Temples[edit] The close association between Ka-chapels and temples to deities might have spurred building activities for the latter. For example, the Bubastis ensemble of Pepi I comprised a 95 m × 60 m (312 ft × 197 ft) enclosure wall with a small rectangular Ka-chapel housing eight pillars near its north corner.[204] This ensemble was peripheral to the main Old Kingdom temple dedicated to the goddess Bastet.[186] In Dendera, where a fragmentary statue of a seated Pepi I has been uncovered,[205] Pepi restored the temple complex to the goddess Hathor.[206] He seems particularly to have desired to be associated with her, using the epithet "son of Hathor of Dendera" on numerous vessels found throughout Egypt and abroad.[5][159][188][207] In Abydos,[208] he built a small rock cut chapel dedicated to the local god Khenti-Amentiu,[209] where he is again referred to as "Pepi, son of Hathor of Dendera".[210] Pepi also referred to himself as the son of Atum of Heliopolis, direct evidence for the strengthening of the Heliopolitan cults at the time.[211] At the southern border of Egypt, in Elephantine, several faience plaques bearing Pepi's cartouche[212] have been uncovered in the temple of Satet. These may suggest royal interest in the local cult.[116] An alabaster statue of an ape with its offspring bearing Pepi I's cartouche[213] was uncovered in the same location, but it was probably a gift of the king to a high official who then dedicated it to Satet.[99] In this temple, Pepi built a red granite naos, [99] destined either to house the goddess's statue,[214] or a statue of Pepi I himself, which would mean the naos was yet another Ka-chapel.[215] Pepi I's cartouche and the epithet "beloved of Satet" is inscribed on the naos, which stands 1.32 m (4.3 ft) high.[99] Pepi seems to have undertaken wider works in the temple, possibly reorganising its layout by adding walls and an altar.[216] In this context, the faience tablets bearing his cartouche may be foundation offerings made at the start of the works,[217] although this has been contested.[218] For the Egyptologist David Warburton, the reigns of Pepi I and II mark the first period during which small stone temples dedicated to local deities were built in Egypt.[211] Pyramid complex[edit] Calcite-alabaster jar mentioning the cartouches of Pepi I, the name of his pyramid complex and his first Seb festival, Neues Museum, Berlin.[219] Pepi I had a pyramid complex built for himself in South Saqqara,[220] which he named Men-nefer-Pepi variously translated as "Pepi's splendour is enduring",[221] "The perfection of Pepi is established",[222] "The beauty of Pepi endures",[3] or "The perfection of Pepi endures".[223] The shortened name Mennefer for the pyramid complex progressively became the name of the nearby capital of Egypt—which had originally been called Ineb-hedj. In particular, the Egyptian Mennefer ultimately gave Memphis in Greek, a name which is still in use for this ancient city.[3][201][223][note 34] Pepi I's mortuary complex is neighboured on its south-west corner by a necropolis built during his own reign and the reigns of Merenre and Pepi II. The necropolis housed the pyramids of Pepi I's consorts and their dedicated funerary temples.[22][note 35] Main pyramid[edit] Main article: Pyramid of Pepi I Pepi's main pyramid was constructed in the same fashion as royal pyramids since the reign of Djedkare Isesi some 80 years earlier:[225] a core built six steps high from small roughly dressed blocks of limestone bound together using clay mortar encased with fine limestone blocks.[226] The pyramid, now destroyed, had a base length of 78.75 m (258 ft; 150 cu) converging to the apex at ~ 53° and once stood 52.5 m (172 ft; 100 cu) tall.[222] Its remains now form a meager mound of 12 m (39 ft; 23 cu),[220][221] containing a pit in its centre dug by stone thieves.[227] The substructure of the pyramid was accessed from the north chapel which has since disappeared. From the entrance, a descending corridor gives way to a vestibule leading into the horizontal passage. Halfway along the passage, three granite portcullises guard the chambers. As in preceding pyramids, the substructure contains three chambers: an antechamber on the pyramids vertical axis, a serdab with three recesses to its east, and a burial chamber containing the king's sarcophagus to the west.[228] Extraordinarily, the pink granite canopic chest that is sunk into the floor at the foot of the sarcophagus has remained undisturbed.[222][229] Discovered alongside it was a bundle of viscera presumed to belong to the pharaoh.[229] The provenance of a mummy fragment and fine linen wrappings discovered in the burial chamber are unknown, but they are hypothesized to belong to Pepi I.[230] The walls of Pepi I's antechamber, burial chamber, and much of the corridor[note 36] are covered with vertical columns of inscribed hieroglyphic text.[222][230][234] The hieroglyphs are painted green with ground malachite and gum arabic, a colour symbolising renewal.[235] His sarcophagus is also inscribed on its east side with the king's titles and names, as part of a larger set of spells that includes texts at the bottom of the north and south walls opposite the sarcophagus, and in a line running across the top of the north, west, and south walls of the chamber.[236] The writing comprises 2,263 columns and lines of text from 651 spells, of which 82 are unique to Pepi's pyramid.[237] This is the most extensive corpus of Pyramid Texts from the Old Kingdom.[238] The tradition of inscribing texts inside the pyramid was begun by Unas at the end of the Fifth Dynasty,[3][239][240] but originally discovered in Pepi I's pyramid in 1880.[222][241] Their function, like that of all funerary literature, was to enable the reunion of the ruler's ba and Ka, leading to the transformation into an akh,[242][243] and to secure eternal life among the gods in the sky.[244][245][246] Mortuary temple[edit] Fragments of the pyramid texts from Pepi I's pyramid in South Saqqara, now in the Petrie Museum[247][248][note 37] Pepi's pyramid was part of a wider funerary complex comprising a small cult pyramid and mortuary temple surrounded by an enclosure wall. The purpose of the cult pyramid remains unclear. While it had a burial chamber, it was never used as such and must have been a purely symbolic structure.[249] It may have hosted the pharaoh's Ka,[250] or a miniature statue of the king,[251] and could have been used for ritual performances centring around the burial and resurrection of the Ka spirit during the Sed festival.[251] Excavations of the small cult pyramid yielded statue fragments, pieces of stelae and offering tables which indicate the continuation of Pepi's funerary cult into the Middle Kingdom.[222] A valley temple by the Nile and a causeway leading from this temple up to the pyramid on the desert plateau completed the overall construction.[222] The high temple, next to the pyramid, was laid out according to a standard plan,[252] making it nearly the same as the temples of Djedkare Isesi, Unas, and Teti.[229] The temple had an entrance hall some 6.29 m (20.6 ft) high, now almost completely destroyed, leading into an open columned courtyard. Storage rooms to the north and south flanked the hall. The inner temple contained a chapel with five statue niches, an offering hall and other core chambers.[253] Either the mortuary temple or the causeway might have been lined with statues of kneeling bound captives[254] representing Egypt's traditional enemies.[222] Both the temple and the causeway are now heavily damaged due the activity of lime makers, who extracted and burned the construction stones to turn them into mortar and whitewash in later times. In particular, the original location of the statues remains uncertain as they had been displaced, ready to be thrown into a lime furnace.[222][253] Necropolis of Pepi I[edit] Pepi's mortuary complex was the centre of a wider necropolis which comprised the tombs of the royal family and further afield those of the high officials of the state administration including a tomb for Weni.[255] Pepi had pyramids built for his consorts to the south and south-west of his pyramid. These were all located outside the complex' enclosure wall but inside an area delimited by a street to the west. Three of the main queens' pyramids were built in a row on an east–west axis, each with a base side dimension of about 20 m (66 ft).[33] The Ancient Egyptians referred to the owners of these pyramids as the "Queen of the East", "Queen of the Centre" and "Queen of the West".[33] Layout of the necropolis of Pepi I[22] Pyramid of Nebwenet[edit] The pyramid of the queen of the east belonged to Nebwenet, whose name, image and titles are preserved on a fallen jamb uncovered in the attached mortuary temple.[33] The pyramid had a base of 26.2 m (86 ft), making it similar in size to the other pyramids of the necropolis. On its northern face was a small mudbrick chapel, which hosted a limestone altar, now broken. The pyramid's substructures were accessed from a descending passageway leading first to an antechamber and, from there, to the burial chamber slightly to the south of the pyramid's apex. This chamber yielded fragments of pink granite sarcophagus and pieces of inscribed alabaster. To the east was a serdab and the scant remnants of funerary equipment.[22] Pyramid of Inenek-Inti[edit] Immediately west of the pyramid of the queen of the east was the pyramid of the queen of the centre, Inenek-Inti. The name, image and titles of this queen are inscribed on jambs and two 2.2 m (7.2 ft) high red-painted obelisks on either side of the gateway to the mortuary temple, establishing that Inenek-Inti was buried there.[256] With a base of 22.53 m (73.9 ft), the pyramid size and layout is similar to that of Nebwenet, except that the burial chamber is located precisely beneath the pyramid apex. Fragments of a greywacke sarcophagus and pieces of stone vessels were uncovered there. Unlike Ankhesenpepi II's burial chamber, that of Inenek-Inti had no inscriptions on its walls. Inenek's mortuary temple was much larger than Nebwenet's, surrounding her pyramid on its eastern, northern and southern sides. Inenek's complex also comprised a small cult pyramid, 6.3 m (21 ft) at the base, on the south-east corner of the mortuary temple.[257] Queen of the West[edit] West of Inenek's pyramid is that of the queen of the west. The identity of this pyramid's owner is preserved on an obelisk in front of her pyramid only as "the eldest daughter of the king".[258] The pyramid had a base length of around 20 m (66 ft),[33] similar to those of Inenek and Nebwenet, and now stands 3 m (9.8 ft) tall.[259] Entry into the substructure is gained on the north face.[260] The burial chamber is located under the vertical axis of the pyramid.[259] The location of the serdab is unusual, being to the south of the burial chamber instead of east.[259][260][261] Substantial remains of funerary equipment were found inside including wooden weights, ostrich feathers, copper fish hooks, and fired-clay vessels,[259] but none bore their owner's name.[262] It has a hastily built mortuary temple, with an offering hall and a room with two statue niches. Relief fragments discovered depict scenes of processions and estates, along with an incomplete cartouche of Pepi I's name.[259] Pyramid of Ankhesenpepi II[edit] View of the pyramids and temples of Ankhesenpepi II and III in the necropolis of Pepi I The pyramid of Ankhesenpepi II occupies the south-western extremity of the necropolis of Pepi I.[263] With a base of 31.4 m (103 ft), the pyramid once reached 30 m (98 ft) high, making it the largest of the queens' pyramids.[264] The funerary complex of Ankhesenpepi II was also the largest in the necropolis except for that of Pepi himself, covering an area of 3,500 m2 (38,000 sq ft).[264] It comprised a mortuary temple to the north of the pyramid and 20 storage rooms for offerings. The queen's funerary complex had a monumental entrance with a granite frame, its lintel bearing the queen's name and titles being more than 3.6 m (12 ft) wide and weighing over 17 tons.[265] A small chapel stood on the pyramid northern face, at the entrance of the substructures. Painted reliefs of which only scant remains have been found including a small scene depicting the queen and a princess on a boat among papyrus plants, adorned the accompanying funerary temple.[264] The burial chamber walls were inscribed with spells from the pyramid texts, a privilege that had been the preserve of kings. Fragments from a black basalt sarcophagus were uncovered onsite.[41] Pyramid of Behenu[edit] With a base of 26.2 m (86 ft), Queen Behenu's pyramid was of similar size and layout to the other queens' pyramids of the necropolis. Located on the western end of the necropolis, immediately north-west of Mehaa's tomb on which it intrudes, Behenu's mortuary temple was on the pyramid's southern face with a cult pyramid on its south-east corner. The entrance of the temple, flanked with two granite obelisks, led to several rooms, which once housed statues and offering altars, while a further 10 rooms served for storage.[22] The burial chamber measured 6.24 m × 2.88 m (20.5 ft × 9.4 ft),[266] and its walls were inscribed with numerous spells of the pyramid texts. The head of a wooden statue of the queen as well as her opened basalt sarcophagus were unearthed there.[267] Pyramid of Mehaa[edit] Pepi's consort Mehaa was buried in a pyramid on the south-west corner of Pepi's enclosure wall.[260][261] Directly adjacent to Mehaa's pyramid's eastern face was her mortuary temple, where a relief bearing the name and image of Prince Hornetjerykhet, her son, was uncovered.[261] Mehaa's pyramid is intruded upon by the pyramid of Behenu, establishing that Mehaa was a consort of Pepi I early in his reign while Behenu lived in the later part of his rule.[268] Legacy[edit] Steatite cylinder seal belonging to a land tenant serving in Pepi's pyramid complex[269] Old Kingdom[edit] Pepi I was the object of a funerary cult after his death, with ritual activities taking place in his funerary complex up until the Middle Kingdom. This means that Pepi's cult continued to be celebrated during the First Intermediate Period,[270] a period during which the Egyptian state seems to have collapsed, with only brief interruptions of the cultic activities at times of important political instability.[271] As members of the royal family and high officials had continued to be buried in the necropolis next to Pepi's pyramid during the reigns of Merenre and Pepi II, including Ankhesenpepi II and III and Pepi's daughter Meritites,[272] Pepi's necropolis had grown and had attracted burials from the highest officials such as vizier Weni.[271] Starting with the reign of Pepi II, the necropolis also attracted burials from private individuals[273] as well as popular devotion to him and his consorts.[274] The deposit of numerous offering tables throughout the site confirms this.[273] Middle Kingdom[edit] The conquest of Egypt under Mentuhotep II seems to have interrupted all activities in the necropolis.[275] These resumed towards the end of the Eleventh Dynasty, when the state-sponsored funerary cult of Pepi was renewed,[276] albeit in a more limited form than earlier.[277] At this time, private cultic activities seem to cease in the wider necropolis of Pepi, rather concentrating in Pepi's own mortuary temple, mainly around his statues, then accessible to important officials participating in the pharaoh's cult.[278][279] Meanwhile, the abandonment of certain parts of the mortuary temple and the queens' necropolis led to the installation of novel tombs.[278] The most prominent of these was that of the high official Reheryshefnakht, who had a small pyramid complex built for himself in the midst of the tombs of the Sixth Dynasty royal family.[272] The royal cult of Pepi I seems to have ended with the onset of the Second Intermediate Period.[278] New Kingdom[edit] Head of Khaemweset, Altes Museum The New Kingdom period witnessed renewed private burials in the necropolis of Pepi, including in several rooms of his mortuary temple which were used as a catacomb at the time,[280] although no such tomb was found in the main room hosting the royal funerary cult, suggesting continued use.[280] The individuals buried in the necropolis belonged to the lower ranks of Egyptian society, as shown by the simplicity, if not the absence, of funerary equipment,[281] while those using the catacombs were richer.[280] The consequences of the long-lasting cults of Old Kingdom pharaohs during the New Kingdom are apparent in the Karnak king list. It was composed during the reign of Thutmosis III to honour a selection of royal ancestors. Several pharaohs of the Fifth and Sixth Dynasty including Nyuserre Ini, Djedkare Isesi, Teti and Pepi I are mentioned on the list by their birth name, rather than throne name. The Egyptologist Antonio Morales believes this is because the popular cults for these kings, which existed well into the New Kingdom, referred to these kings using their birth name.[282] Later, during the reign of Ramses II, limited restoration works on the Old Kingdom monuments took place in the Memphite area under the direction of Prince Khaemweset. Pepi's pyramid complex was among those restored, as shown by inscriptions left on-site by Khaemweset,[283] even though it was actively being used for private burials.[280] Pepi I's necropolis was, therefore, probably in a ruined state at this point, with the area with the queens' pyramids serving as a stone quarry.[281] Khaemweset stated he had found the pyramid "abandoned" and "recalled his proprietor for posterity".[284] The progressive accumulation of burials in the passages leading up to the temple cult rooms blocked all access to it, demonstrating that Pepi's funerary cult had ceased.[280] Late Period[edit] The stone quarrying activities, which were limited to Pepi's necropolis during the New Kingdom and had spared his mortuary temple, became widespread during the Late Period of Egypt, with intermittent burials continuing nonetheless.[285] Both the stone robbing and funerary activities stopped at some point during the period, and the necropolis was abandoned until the Mamluk period when intense stone quarrying resumed.[286] Notes[edit] ^ Dates proposed for Pepi I's reign: 2390–2361 BC,[2] 2354–2310 BC,[3][4] 2338–2298 BC,[5] 2335–2285 BC,[6] 2332–2283 BC,[7] 2321–2287 BC,[8][9][10] 2289–2255 BC,[11] 2285–2235 BC,[6] 2276–2228 BC.[12] ^ Among her titles, Iput bore the titles of king's mother (mwt-niswt), mother of the king of Upper and Lower Egypt (mwt-niswt-biti) and king's mother of the pyramid Mennefer-Pepy (mwt-niswt-mn-nfr-ppy).[18] ^ Their names are also rendered as Ankhnespepy I and II. In addition, the Ancient Egyptians also used the variants Ankhesenmeryre I and II.[23][24] ^ In an alternative hypothesis, Hans Goedicke has proposed that Merenre's mother was the consort known only from her title "Weret-Yamtes", responsible for the harem conspiracy against Pepi I. In this widely rejected hypothesis, Ankhesenpepi I was falsely claimed by the Ancient Egyptians to be Merenre's mother to safeguard his claim to the throne.[39] ^ Meritites has also been proposed to be one of Pepi I's consorts rather than daughter,[43] or an Eighth Dynasty queen buried here to indicate her filiation to Pepi I.[43] Both views were proved wrong following excavations in Saqqara indicating she was Pepi's daughter.[44] ^ Vivienne Callendar proposed her as Pepi's eldest daughter,[46] but excavations have now established that Meritites was the king's eldest daughter.[44] ^ In the case of Pepi I, the evolution of the name from Ancient Egyptian to Ancient Greek is understood to be as follows: "Pjpj ~ *Păyắpăyă > *Păyắpyă > *Pyŏ́ pyĕ > *Pyŏ́ p ~ Φίος".[53] ^ There has been some doubt whether the cattle count dating system was strictly biennial or slightly more irregular early in the Sixth Dynasty. That the latter situation appeared to be the case was suggested by the "Year after the 18th Count, 3rd Month of Shemu day 27" inscription from Wadi Hammamat No. 74–75 which mentions the "first occurrence of the Heb Sed" in that year for Pepi. Normally, the Sed festival is first celebrated in a king's 30th year of reign while the 18th cattle count would have taken place in his 36th year, had it been strictly biennial.[61] The Egyptologist Michel Baud points to a similar inscription dated to "Year after the 18th Count, 4th Month of Shemu day 5" in Sinai graffito No. 106.[62] This could imply that the cattle count during the Sixth Dynasty was not regularly biennial, or that it was referenced continuously in the years following it. Michel Baud stresses that the year of the 18th count is preserved in the South Saqqara Stone and writes that: Between the mention of count 18 [here] and the next memorial formula which belongs to count 19, end of register D, the available space for count 18+ is the expected half of the average size of a theoretical [year count] compartment. It is hard to believe that such a narrow space corresponds to the jubilee celebration, which obviously had a considerable importance for this (and every) king."[63] Therefore, the references to Pepi I's first jubilee being celebrated in his 18th cattle count are probably just part of this royal tendency to emphasize the king's first jubilee years after it was first celebrated and Baud notes that the longest year compartment in the South Saqqara Stone appears "at the beginning of register D. Fortuitously or not, this [year] compartment corresponds perfectly to year 30/31, if a strictly biennial system of numbering is presumed" for Pepi I's reign. (i.e. his 15th count) Therefore, the count was most probably biennial during Pepi I's reign and the reference to his final year—the 25 count—implies that he reigned for 49 full years.[63] ^ The Turin King List gives only 20 years on the throne to Pepi I while his successor Merenre I is said to have reigned 44 years. This latter figure contradicts both contemporaneous and archaeological evidence. For example, the royal annals mention no further cattle count under Merenre I beyond his fifth, which might correspond to his tenth year of rule. The Egyptologist Kim Ryholt suggests that the two entries of the Turin king list might have been interchanged.[68] ^ Catalog number 39.121.[73] ^ Because of a typo in Hubschmann 2011, Hezi became also known as "Heri" in various subsequent works.[77] ^ Pepi's claim to the throne, as the son of Iput and thus a male descendant of Unas was the strongest in Kanawati's view, implying that Userkare was an usurper.[74] ^ For the Ancient Egyptians, the Ka was the vital essence which, when it inhabitated the body, made the person alive. At the death of the person, the Ka simply departed the body but continued to exist and had to be sustained through offerings, performed in the Ka-chapel associated with the tomb.[97] ^ Catalog number RC-1771.[105] ^ The precise date when Pepi faced the harem conspiracy is debated. Darrell Baker proposed that this happened early in his rule,[51] while Hans Goedicke proposes Pepi's 21st year of reign as the terminus post quem for this conspiracy,[106] positing that the most probable date is Pepi's 44th year on the throne.[39] ^ Hans Goedicke and Nicolas Grimal both use "Weret-Yamtes" as a proper name rather than a title,[36] but this is strongly opposed by others including Michel Baud.[109] ^ At this point, the Ancient Egyptian royal titulary assumed its definitive standard form.[76] ^ The drastic nature of Pepi's decision—if there was a coregency—is apparent on noting the Ancient Egyptians conception of the kingship as "rulership by a single individual holding a supreme office in a lifelong tenure, most often succeeding on a hereditary principle and wielding [...] great personal power".[119] The emphasis on a single individual holder follows from the Ancient Egyptians' perception of the king as a divine being, offspring of Ra, who upholds Egypt's unity and prosperity as well as the cosmic order preordained by the gods and playing the crucial role of mediator between the people and the gods, with the capacity of conveying the gods' messages and will.[120] The king not only had these unique roles but the institution of kingship was perceived as a divinely established order guarding Egypt against chaos.[121][120] ^ The royal annals mention the feast of the union of the two lands concerning Merenre, a feast normally celebrated once, shortly after the death of a king with the start of his successor's reign. Since it is very unlikely that this feast was celebrated twice for Merenre (that is once at the start of the coregency and once more at the death of his father), Baud and Dobrev deem it likely that the feast happened only once at Pepi's death (as would be normal) and hence everything written on the annals after the mention of the feast must have recorded Merenre's sole reign, had there been a coregency prior to that point or not. While almost all the inscriptions pertaining to Merenre's sole reign are now illegible, the space available for them on the royal annals shows that he may have been sole king for 11 to 14 years. This can be known because every occasion of a cattle count was written in a devoted and well-delimited case in the annals, and these cases are of roughly consistent sizes, allowing a good estimation of the maximum number of illegible cases. That Merenre reigned over a decade as sole king cannot easily be reconciled with Manetho's claim that he reigned only seven years by invoking seven years of sole reign plus an additional number of years as coregent as proponents of the coregency, including Goedicke, had done.[126] ^ Catalog number CGC 1435[128] ^ Transliteration from Ancient Egyptian ḥryw-š.[133] ^ The Dashur decree of Pepi I shows that such mercenaries were already "pacified",[137] integrated into Egyptian society, for example in pyramid towns, where they served as policemen and soldiers.[138] ^ Transliteration from Ancient Egyptian 3'mu often translated "Semite".[141] ^ Or, much less likely,[142][143] in the Eastern Nile Delta.[144] ^ A stone vessel bearing Pepi's name has been dated precisely to Byblos' KIV phase.[10] ^ Pepi is concurrent with Ebla's IIIB.1 phase.[10] ^ For example, an alabaster lid of a precious vessel is inscribed with, "Beloved of the two lands, king of Upper and Lower Egypt, the son of Hathor, lady of Dendera, Pepi." As Hathor was the chief deity of Byblos, it is probable that this vessel was destined to this city and was only later exchanged or given to Ebla.[159] ^ More precisely, the expedition is dated to Pepi's 18th cattle count, fifth day of the fourth month of Shemu, which might correspond to his 36th year of reign, some time between the July 26 and August 4 of that year.[164] ^ The geographical destination of this expedition, mentioned on the funerary texts of an Egyptian official, is uncertain. It may instead have taken place in the Levant.[170] ^ The decree recording this, called a Coptos Decree in modern Egyptology, is now in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo, catalog number 41890.[174] ^ Pyramid towns are areas of accommodation for workers who build pyramids and all crafstmen needed to sustain the construction effort including bakers, carpenters, water carriers and more. These towns continued to be used after the end of the pyramid construction. ^ A chapel in Akhmim attributed to a king "Pepi"[189] might belong to Pepi II.[190] ^ Pepi might have built more than one chapel there, as he seems to have been particularly interested in the cult of Hathor of Dendera,[192] presenting himself as the son of Hathor of Dendera in numerous inscriptions including on vessels traded abroad.[188][5][159][193] ^ The linguistic evolution from the name of Pepi's pyramid to the Greek word Memphis is well understood in modern Egyptology and reconstructed as "Mn-nfr ~ *Mĭ́ n-năfăr > *Mĕ́ mfĕ ~ Μέμφις → Mn-nfrw~ *Mĭn-nắ frŭw > *Mĕn-nŏ́ frĕ ~ ( * ) Μένοφρις".[224] ^ The tombs of Meritites and Ankhesenpepi III, both built after Pepi's reign, and tombs from later periods of Egyptian history in the necropolis are not discussed here.[22] ^ The corridor texts in Pepi I's pyramid are the most extensive, covering the whole horizontal passage, the vestibule, and even a section of the descending corridor.[231][232] Unas' pyramid constrained the texts to the south section of the corridor,[233] as did Teti's.[231] The texts in Merenre I's and Pepi II's pyramids covered the entire corridor and the vestibule.[231] ^ Catalog number UC14540.[247][248] References[edit] ^ a b Tiradritti & de Luca 1999, p. 89. ^ Wright & Pardee 1988, p. 144. ^ a b c d e Verner 2001b, p. 590. ^ Altenmüller 2001, p. 602. ^ a b c d Brooklyn Museum 2020a. ^ a b von Beckerath 1997, p. 188. ^ a b c Clayton 1994, p. 64. ^ a b Rice 1999, p. 150. ^ a b Málek 2000a, p. 104. ^ a b c d Sowada 2009, p. 4. ^ MET Cylinder 2020. ^ Hornung 2012, p. 491. ^ a b c d e f Leprohon 2013, p. 42. ^ a b c d Allen et al. 1999, p. 10. ^ Leprohon 2013, p. 236. ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004, pp. 64–65 & 76. ^ a b Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 78. ^ a b c Jánosi 1992, p. 54. ^ a b Baud & Dobrev 1995, p. 28. ^ Baud 1999b, p. 411. ^ Baud 1999b, p. 410. ^ a b c d e f g Mission Archéologique Franco-Suisse de Saqqâra 2020a. ^ a b c Baud 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ISBN 978-0-203-98283-9. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 121601900 LCCN: n93074046 VIAF: 57474152 WorldCat Identities: viaf-57474152 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pepi_I_Meryre&oldid=1002343301" Categories: Pepi I Meryre 24th-century BC Pharaohs 23rd-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Sixth Dynasty of Egypt 24th-century BC rulers 23rd-century BC rulers 24th century BC in Egypt 23rd century BC in Egypt 23rd-century BC deaths Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 French-language sources (fr) CS1: long volume value Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN 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en-wikipedia-org-539	----	King of Sidon - Wikipedia King of Sidon From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Kings of Sidon) Jump to navigation Jump to search The King of Sidon was the ruler of Sidon, the ancient Phoenician city in what is now Lebanon. Scholars have pieced together the fragmented list from various archaeological finds since the 19th century. Contents 1 Egyptian period 2 Asyrian period 3 Persian period 4 Hellenic period 5 See also 6 References Egyptian period[edit] c.1700s BC Zimrida c. 1300s BC Zimredda of Sidon / Zimrida II c. 1300s BC Iab-nilud Asyrian period[edit] 680–677 BC Abdi-Milkutti Persian period[edit] c. 575–550 BC Eshmunazar I c. 549–539 BC Tabnit I c. 539–525 BC Eshmunazar II; Amoashtart (Amastoreth, interregnum until Eshmunazar's majority) c. 525–515 BC Bodashtart c. 515–486 BC Yatonmilk c. 486–480 BC Anysos c. 480–479 BC Tetramnestos c. 450–423 BC Baalshillem I c. 423–404 BC Baana c. 404–401 BC Baalshillem II c. 365–352 BC Abdashtart I c. 351–346 BC Tennes (Tabnit II) c. 346–343 BC Evagoras II (?) c. 342–333 BC Abdashtart II [1] Hellenic period[edit] 332–329 BC Abdalonymus[2] Philocles, King of Sidon[2] See also[edit] King of Tyre King of Byblos References[edit] ^ Elayi, Josette (2006). "An updated chronology of the reigns of phoenician kings during the Persian period (539-333 BCE)" (PDF). Digitorient. Collège de France - UMR7912 : Proche-Orient—Caucase : langues, archéologie, cultures – via Digitorient. ^ a b Waldemar Heckel (15 April 2008). Who's Who in the Age of Alexander the Great: Prosopography of Alexander's Empire. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 16–. ISBN 978-1-4051-5469-7. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=King_of_Sidon&oldid=1000439190" Categories: Lists of monarchs Kings of Sidon Heads of state of Lebanon Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 15 January 2021, at 03:14 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5406	----	Late Period of ancient Egypt - Wikipedia Late Period of ancient Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Late Period of ancient Egypt c. 664 BC – c. 332 BC Egypt in the 6th century BC (in purple). Capital Sais, Mendes, Sebennytos Common languages Ancient Egyptian Religion Ancient Egyptian religion Government Monarchy Pharaoh   History   • Established c. 664 BC  • Disestablished  c. 332 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Third Intermediate Period of Egypt Ptolemaic Egypt Argead Dynasty Today part of  Egypt Part of a series on the History of Egypt Prehistoric Egypt pre–3150 BC Ancient Egypt Early Dynastic Period 3150–2686 BC Old Kingdom 2686–2181 BC 1st Intermediate Period 2181–2055 BC Middle Kingdom 2055–1650 BC 2nd Intermediate Period 1650–1550 BC New Kingdom 1550–1069 BC 3rd Intermediate Period 1069–664 BC Late Period 664–332 BC Greco-Roman Egypt Argead and Ptolemaic dynasties 332–30 BC Roman and Byzantine Egypt 30 BC–641 AD Sasanian Egypt 619–629 Medieval Egypt Rashidun Egypt 641–661 Umayyad Egypt 661–750 Abbasid Egypt 750–935 Tulunid dynasty 868–905 Ikhshidid dynasty 935–969 Fatimid dynasty 969–1171 Ayyubid dynasty 1171–1250 Mamluk dynasties 1250–1517 Early modern Egypt Ottoman Egypt 1517–1867 French occupation 1798–1801 Muhammad Ali dynasty 1805–1853 Khedivate of Egypt 1867–1914 Late Modern Egypt British occupation 1882–1922 Sultanate of Egypt 1914–1922 Kingdom of Egypt 1922–1953 Republic 1953–present  Egypt portal v t e Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The Late Period of ancient Egypt refers to the last flowering of native Egyptian rulers after the Third Intermediate Period in the 26th Saite Dynasty founded by Psamtik I, but includes the time of Achaemenid Persian rule over Egypt after the conquest by Cambyses II in 525 BC as well. The Late Period existed from 664 BC until 332 BC, following a period of foreign rule by the Nubian 25th dynasty and beginning with a short period of Neo-Assyrian suzerainty, with Psamtik I initially ruling as their vassal. The period ended with the conquests of the Persian Empire by Alexander the Great and establishment of the Ptolemaic dynasty by his general Ptolemy I Soter, one of the Hellenistic diadochi from Macedon in northern Greece. With the Macedonian Greek conquest in the latter half of the 4th century BC, the age of Hellenistic Egypt began. Libyans and Persians alternated rule with native Egyptians, but traditional conventions continued in the arts.[1] Contents 1 History 1.1 26th Dynasty 1.2 27th Dynasty 1.3 28th–30th Dynasties 1.4 31st Dynasty 2 References 3 Bibliography History[edit] 26th Dynasty[edit] Main article: Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt The Twenty-Sixth Dynasty, also known as the Saite Dynasty after its seat of power the city of Sais, reigned from 672 to 525 BC, and consisted of six pharaohs. It started with the unification of Egypt under Psamtik I c. 656 BC, itself a direct consequence of the Sack of Thebes by the Assyrians in 663 BC. Canal construction from the Nile to the Red Sea began. One major contribution from the Late Period of ancient Egypt was the Brooklyn Papyrus. This was a medical papyrus with a collection of medical and magical remedies for victims of snakebites based on snake type or symptoms.[2] Artwork during this time was representative of animal cults and animal mummies. This image shows the god Pataikos wearing a scarab beetle on his head, supporting two human-headed birds on his shoulders, holding a snake in each hand, and standing atop crocodiles.[1] 27th Dynasty[edit] Main article: Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt The First Achaemenid Period (525–404 BC) began with the Battle of Pelusium, which saw Egypt (Old Persian: 𐎸𐎭𐎼𐎠𐎹 Mudrāya) conquered by the expansive Achaemenid Empire under Cambyses, and Egypt become a satrapy. The Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt consists of the Persian emperors - including Cambyses, Xerxes I, and Darius the Great - who ruled Egypt as Pharaohs and governed through their satraps, as well as the Egyptian Petubastis III (522–520 BC) (and possibly the disputed Psammetichus IV), who rebelled in defiance of the Persian authorities. The unsuccessful revolt of Inaros II (460-454), aided by the Athenians as part of the Wars of the Delian League, aspired to the same object. The Persian satraps were Aryandes (525–522 BC; 518–c.496 BC) - whose rule was interrupted by the rebel Pharaoah Petubastis III, Pherendates (c.496–c.486 BC), Achaemenes (c.486–459 BC) - a brother of the emperor Xerxes I, and Arsames (c.454–c.406 BC). 28th–30th Dynasties[edit] Main articles: Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt, Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt, and Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt The Twenty-Eighth Dynasty consisted of a single king, Amyrtaeus, prince of Sais, who rebelled against the Persians. He left no monuments with his name. This dynasty reigned for six years, from 404 BC–398 BC. The Twenty-Ninth Dynasty ruled from Mendes, for the period from 398 to 380 BC. The Thirtieth Dynasty took their art style from the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty. A series of three pharaohs ruled from 380 BC until their final defeat in 343 BC led to the re-occupation by the Persians. The final ruler of this dynasty, and the final native ruler of Egypt until nearly 2,300 years later, was Nectanebo II. 31st Dynasty[edit] Main article: Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt The Second Achaemenid Period saw the re-inclusion of Egypt as a satrapy of the Persian Empire under the rule of the Thirty-First Dynasty, (343–332 BC) which consisted of three Persian emperors who ruled as Pharaoh - Artaxerxes III (343–338 BC), Artaxerxes IV (338–336 BC), and Darius III (336–332 BC) - interrupted by the revolt of the non-Achaemenid Khababash (338–335 BC). Persian rule in Egypt ended with the defeat of the Achaemenid Empire by Alexander the Great, who accepted the surrender of the Persian satrap of Egypt Mazaces in 332BC, and marking the beginning of Hellenistic rule in Egypt, which stabilized after Alexander's death into the Ptolemaic Kingdom. References[edit] ^ a b Bleiberg, Barbash & Bruno 2013, p. 16. ^ Bleiberg, Barbash & Bruno 2013, p. 55. Bibliography[edit] Bleiberg, Edward; Barbash, Yekaterina; Bruno, Lisa (2013). Soulful Creatures: Animal Mummies in Ancient Egypt. Brooklyn Museum. p. 151. ISBN 9781907804274.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Roberto B. Gozzoli: The Writing of History in Ancient Egypt During the First Millennium BCE (ca. 1070–180 BCE). Trend and Perspectives, London 2006, ISBN 0-9550256-3-X Lloyd, Alan B. 2000. "The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw". Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 369–394 Quirke, Stephen. 1996 "Who were the Pharaohs?", New York: Dover Publications. 71–74 Primary sources Herodotus (Histories) Fragments of Ctesias (Persica) Thucydides (History of the Peloponnesian War) Diodorus Siculus (Bibliotheca historica) Fragments of Manetho (Aegyptiaca) v t e Ancient Egypt topics Index Major topics Glossary of artifacts Agriculture Architecture (Egyptian Revival architecture) Art Portraiture Astronomy Chronology Cities (list) Clothing Cuisine Dance Dynasties Funerary practices Geography Great Royal Wives (list) Hieroglyphs History Language Literature Mathematics Medicine Military Music Mythology People Pharaohs (list) Philosophy Religion Sites Technology Trade Writing Egyptology Egyptologists Museums  Ancient Egypt portal Book Category WikiProject Commons Outline v t e Provinces of the Achaemenid Empire (Behistun / Persepolis / Naqsh-e Rustam / Susa / Daiva inscriptions) Akaufaka (Quhistan?) Amyrgoi Arabia Arachosia Aria Armenia Assyria Babylonia Bactria Cappadocia Caria Carmania Caucasian Albania Chorasmia Cilicia Colchis Dahae Drangiana 1st Egypt / 2nd Egypt Eber-Nari (Levant) Elam Kush (Nubia) Gandāra (Gandhara) Gedrosia Hyrcania Ionia Hindush Libya Lydia Maka Margiana Media Lesser Media Massagetae Parthia Persia Phoenicia Phrygia Hellespontine Phrygia Greater Phrygia Saka Samaritan Province Sattagydia Skudra (Thrace) Sogdia Yehud See also Tax Districts of the Achaemenid Empire (according to Herodotus) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Late_Period_of_ancient_Egypt&oldid=996427117" Categories: Late Period of ancient Egypt States and territories established in the 7th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 4th century BC 1st millennium BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Articles containing Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text CS1 maint: ref=harv Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano Lietuvių Magyar Malagasy Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 26 December 2020, at 15:16 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5408	----	Idrieus - Wikipedia Idrieus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Satrap of Caria Idrieus Coinage of Idrieus. Obv: Head of Apollo wearing laurel wreath, drapery at neck. Rev: legend ΙΔΡΙΕΩΣ ("IDRIEOS"), Zeus Labraundos standing. Circa 351/0 to 344/3 BCE.[1] Satrap of Caria Reign 351–344 BC, Predecessor Artemisia II Successor Ada Consort Ada House Hecatomnids Father Hecatomnus Hecatomnid dynasty (Dynasts of Caria) c. 395–377 BCE Hecatomnus c. 377–353 BCE Mausolus c. 353–351 BCE Artemisia II c. 351–344 BCE Idrieus c. 344–340 BCE Ada c. 340–335 BCE Pixodarus c. 334–326 BCE Ada v t e Achaemenid coinage of Caria during the reign of Idrieus. Circa 350-341 BC.[2] Tomb of Idrieus in Labraunda. Idrieus, or Hidrieos (Ancient Greek: Ἱδριεύς, romanized: Hidrieús; died 344 BC) was a ruler of Caria under the Achaemenid Empire, nominally a Satrap, who enjoyed the status of king or dynast by virtue of the powerful position his predecessors of the House of Hecatomnus (the Hecatomnids) created when they succeeded the assassinated Persian Satrap Tissaphernes in the Carian satrapy. Contents 1 Biography 2 References 3 Notes 4 External links Biography[edit] He was the second son of Hecatomnus, and succeeded to the throne on the death of his sister Artemisia II of Caria in 351 BC. Shortly after his accession he was required by the Persian king, Artaxerxes III Ochus, to provide arms and troops for the capture of Cyprus, a request with which he readily complied. He equipped a fleet of 40 triremes and assembled an army of 8000 mercenary troops. These were despatched for use against Cyprus under the command of Evagoras and the Athenian general Phocion. This is the only recorded event preserved from his reign. However; it can be inferred from Isocrates that by 346 BC[3] the friendly relations between Idrieus and the Persian king had not continued and there appears to have been open hostility between the two. But the hostility of Persia did not interfere with Caria's prosperity, for in the same passage by Isocrates, Idrieus is described as one of the most wealthy and powerful of the princes of Asia and Demosthenes advises [4] that Idrieus had added the important islands of Chios, Cos, and Rhodes to his hereditary dominions. That Idrieus was an active builder is attested in Halicarnassus, as it is he who must have finished the Mausoleum, the tomb of his brother Mausolus, begun by their sister, Mausolus' wife, and his own immediate predecessor, Artemisia II, which had been left unfinished at her death; and at Labraunda (alternatively Labranda Ancient Greek: Λάβρανδα), where, continuing the enrichment in the Hellenistic style undertaken there earlier by Mausolus, he restored the temple of Zeus, added the southern and eastern entrances, and built the 'Doric house'.[citation needed] Idrieus died of a disease in 344 BC, after a reign of seven years, leaving in his will the sovereign power over Caria to his sister Ada, to whom he had been married.[5] References[edit] Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, "Idrieus", Boston, (1867) Notes[edit] ^ "Ex von Aulock Collection". Classical Numismatic Group (CNG). 2007. ^ Precise date of 341-334 BC according to Meadows CNG: CARIA, Achaemenid Period. Circa 350-334 BC. AR Tetradrachm (15.07 g, 12h). Struck circa 341-334 BC. ^ Isocrates, Speeches and Letters, "To Philip", 102 ^ Demosthenes, Speeches, "On the Peace", 25 ^ Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca, xvi. 42, 45, 69; Strabo, Geography, xiv. 2; Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri, i. 23 External links[edit] Livius, Idrieus by Jona Lendering  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Idrieus". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Idrieus&oldid=978847576" Categories: 344 BC deaths Carian people Achaemenid satraps of Caria Hecatomnid dynasty Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2013 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Español Français Hrvatski Italiano Polski Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 17 September 2020, at 08:18 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5412	----	Artaphernes - Wikipedia Artaphernes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Artaphernes Achaemenid nobleman, 520-480 BC. Native name Artafarna Allegiance Achaemenid Empire Years of service 513-492 BC Rank Satrap of Lydia Battles/wars Ionian revolt Children Artaphernes II Relations Darius the Great (brother) Artaphernes (Greek: Ἀρταφέρνης, Old Persian: Artafarna,[1] from Median Rtafarnah), flourished circa 513–492 BC, was a brother of the Achaemenid king of Persia, Darius I, satrap of Lydia from the capital of Sardis, and a Persian general. In his position he had numerous contacts with the Greeks, and played an important role in suppressing the Ionian Revolt.[2] Contents 1 Biography 1.1 First contacts with Athens (507 BC) 1.2 Siege of Naxos (499 BC) 1.3 Ionian revolt (499-494 BC) 2 Etymology 3 References 4 Sources Biography[edit] Artaphernes was satrap of Lydia. First contacts with Athens (507 BC)[edit] In 507 BC, Artaphernes, as brother of Darius I and Satrap of Asia Minor in his capital Sardis, received an embassy from Athens, probably sent by Cleisthenes, which was looking for Persian assistance in order to resist the threats from Sparta.[3][4] Artaphernes asked the Athenians for "Earth and Water", a symbol of submission, if they wanted help from the Achaemenid king.[4] The Athenians ambassadors apparently accepted to comply, and to give "Earth and Water".[3] Artaphernes also advised the Athenians that they should receive back the Athenian tyrant Hippias. The Persians threatened to attack Athens if they did not accept Hippias. Coinage of Athens at the time of the Athenian embassy to Artaphernes. Effigy of Athena, with owl and ΑΘΕ, initials of "Athens". Circa 510-500/490 BC. According to Herodotus, the Athenians made the gift of "Earth and Water to the Persians in 507 BC.[5] After that, the Athenians sent to bring back Cleisthenes and the seven hundred households banished by Cleomenes; then they despatched envoys to Sardis, desiring to make an alliance with the Persians; for they knew that they had provoked the Lacedaemonians and Cleomenes to war. When the envoys came to Sardis and spoke as they had been bidden, Artaphrenes son of Hystaspes, viceroy of Sardis, asked them, "What men are you, and where dwell you, who desire alliance with the Persians?" Being informed by the envoys, he gave them an answer whereof the substance was, that if the Athenians gave king Darius earth and water, then he would make alliance with them; but if not, his command was that they should begone. The envoys consulted together and consented to give what was asked, in their desire to make the alliance. So they returned to their own country, and were then greatly blamed for what they had done. — Herodotus 5.73.[5] Nevertheless, the Athenians preferred to remain democratic despite the danger from Persia, and the ambassadors were disavowed and censured upon they return to Athens.[3] There is a possibility though that the Achaemenid ruler now saw the Athenians as subjects who had solemnly promised submission through the gift of "Earth and Water", and that subsequent actions by the Athenians were perceived as a break of oath, and a rebellion to the central authority of the Achaemenid ruler.[3] Siege of Naxos (499 BC)[edit] The Siege of Naxos (499 BC), a failed attempt by the Milesian tyrant Aristagoras, to conquer the island of Naxos in the name of the Persian Empire, was supported by Artaphernes who assisted in the assembly of a force of 200 triremes under the command of Megabates. This was the opening act of the Greco-Persian Wars, which would ultimately last for 50 years. Ionian revolt (499-494 BC)[edit] Soon after this, the Ionian Revolt began, at the instigation of Aristagoras who thus tried to escape punishment for his failure at the Siege of Naxos.[3] Subsequently, Artaphernes played an important role in suppressing the Ionian Revolt.[2] The burning of the Achaemenid Lydian capital of Sardis by the Greeks and the Ionians during the Ionian Revolt in 498 BC. Athens and Eretria responded to the Ionian Greeks’ plea for help against Persia and sent troops. Athenian and Eretrian ships transported the Athenian troops to the Ionian city of Ephesus. There they were joined by a force of Ionians and they marched upon Sardis, leading to the Siege of Sardis (498 BC). Artaphernes successfully resisted the Greek and Ionian siege in the citadel of Sardis.[6] Artaphernes, who had sent most of his troops to besiege Miletus, was taken by surprise. However, Artaphernes was able to retreat to the citadel and hold it. Although the Greeks were unable to take the citadel, they pillaged the town and set fires that burnt Sardis to the ground. Returning to the coast, the Greek forces were met by the Persians, led by Artaphernes, who overpowered the Greeks. Having successfully captured several of the revolting Greek city-states, the Persians under Artaphernes laid siege to Miletus. The decisive Battle of Lade was fought in 494 BC close to the island of Lade, near Miletus' port. Although out-numbered, the Greek fleet appeared to be winning the battle until the ships from Samos and Lesbos retreated. The sudden defection turned the tide of battle, and the remaining Greek fleet was completely destroyed. Miletus surrendered shortly thereafter and the Ionian Revolt effectively came to an end. After the revolt was put down, Artaphernes forced the Ionian cities to agree to arrangements under which all property differences were to be settled through references to him. Artaphernes reorganized the land register by measured out their territories in parasangs and assessed their tributes accordingly (Herodotus vi. 42).[2] The Milesian historian and geographer Hecataeus advised him to be lenient so as not to create feelings of resentment amongst the Ionians. It seems that Artaphernes took this advice and was reasonable and merciful to those who had recently revolted against the Persians.[7] Execution of Histiaeus Histiaeus, who had been an instigator of the Ionian revolt, was captured by the Persian general, Harpagus in 493 BC, as he was attempting to land on the mainland to attack the Persians. Artaphernes did not want to send him back to Susa, where he suspected that Darius would pardon him, so he executed him by impaling him, and sent his head to Darius.[8] According to Herodotus, Darius still did not believe Histiaeus was a traitor and gave his head an honourable burial. In 492 BC Artaphernes was replaced in his satrapy by Mardonius (Herodotus V. 25, 30-32, 35, &c.; Diod. Sic. x. 25).[2] His son of the same name was appointed, together with Datis, to take command of the expedition sent by Darius to punish Athens and Eretria for their roles in the Ionian revolt. Ten years later, he was in command of the Lydians and Mysians (Herod. vi. 94, 119; Vu. 4, sch. Persae, 21).[2] Aeschylus, in his list of Persian kings (Persae, 775 ff.), which is quite unhistorical, mentions two kings with the name Artarenes. Aeschylus may actually be referring to both Artaphernes and his son of the same name.[2] Etymology[edit] Achaemenid lineage: Artaphernes was son of Hystaspes, and brother of Darius I. Artaphernes derives from the Median: Rta + Farnah (endowed with the Glory of Righteousness[9]). The equivalent to Rta in Middle Persian is Arda-/Ard-/Ord- as seen in names such as Ardabil (Arta vila or Arta city), Artabanus (protected or protecting Arta) and Ordibehesht (the best Arta). Arta is a common prefix for Achaemenid names and means correctness, righteousness and ultimate (divine) truth. Farnah is the Median cognate of Avestan Xvarənah meaning "splendour, glory". Farnah is an important concept to pre-Islamic Persians as it signifies a mystic, divine force that is carried by some important or great individuals. So Artafarnah can be said to mean "splendid truth". The concept of "arta" is also mirrored in the Vedic civilization through the Sanskrit word "ŗtá", or righteousness. References[edit] ^ Dandamaev, M. A. (1989). A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire. BRILL. p. 152. ISBN 978-9004091726. Approximately at the same time Darius appointed his half-brother Artaphernes (Old Persian: Artafarna, 'with truthful sacredness') as satrap of Lydia. ^ a b c d e f  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Meyer, Eduard (1911). "Artaphernes". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 661. ^ a b c d e Waters, Matt (2014). Ancient Persia: A Concise History of the Achaemenid Empire, 550–330 BCE. Cambridge University Press. pp. 84–85. ISBN 9781107009608. ^ a b Waters, Matt (2014). Ancient Persia: A Concise History of the Achaemenid Empire, 550–330 BCE. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107009608. ^ a b LacusCurtius • Herodotus — Book V: Chapters 55‑96. ^ CROESUS – Encyclopaedia Iranica. ^ Jona Lendering, "Artaphernes" ^ Waters, Matt (2014). Ancient Persia: A Concise History of the Achaemenid Empire, 550–330 BCE. Cambridge University Press. pp. 85–86. ISBN 9781107009608. ^ Lecoq, P. "ARTAPHRENĒS". Encyclopedia Iranica. Retrieved 2008-05-25. Sources[edit] Pierre Briant, From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire (Eisenbrauns, 2002) v t e Achaemenid Satraps of Lydia (546–334 BC) Tabalus (546–545 BC) Mazares (545–544 BC) Harpagus (540-530 BC) Oroetus (530–520 BC) Bagaeus (520 BC) Otanes (517 BC) Artaphernes (513–492 BC) Artaphernes II (492–480 BC) Pissuthnes (440–415 BC) Tissaphernes (415–408 BC) Cyrus the Younger (408–401 BC) Tissaphernes (400–395 BC) Tithraustes (392–380 BC) Tiribazus (375 BC) Struthas (370 BC) Autophradates (365 BC) Spithridates (365–334 BC) v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Artaphernes&oldid=998039826" Categories: Persian people of the Greco-Persian Wars Ionian Revolt Military leaders of the Achaemenid Empire 5th-century BC Iranian people Achaemenid satraps of Lydia Officials of Darius the Great Family of Darius the Great Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles containing Greek-language text Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Azərbaycanca Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Nederlands Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 3 January 2021, at 14:21 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5413	----	Menes - Wikipedia Menes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Founder of Manetho's 1st dynasty and unifier of Egypt For other uses, see Menes (disambiguation). Menes Africanus: Mênês Eusebius: Mênês The cartouche of Menes on the Abydos King List Pharaoh Reign c. 3200–3000 BC[1] (First Dynasty) Successor Hor-Aha Royal titulary Nomen Menes[2][3][4] Mnj He who endures[5] Horus name Narmer nˁr-mr Fierce catfish of Horus Menes (fl. c. 3200–3000 BC;[6] /ˈmiːniːz/; Ancient Egyptian: mnj, probably pronounced */maˈnij/;[7] Ancient Greek: Μήνης[5]) was a pharaoh of the Early Dynastic Period of ancient Egypt credited by classical tradition with having united Upper and Lower Egypt and as the founder of the First Dynasty.[8] The identity of Menes is the subject of ongoing debate, although mainstream Egyptological consensus identifies Menes with the Naqada III ruler Narmer[2][3][4][9] (most likely) or First Dynasty pharaoh Hor-Aha.[10] Both pharaohs are credited with the unification of Egypt to different degrees by various authorities. Contents 1 Name and identity 1.1 Narmer and Menes 2 Dates 3 History 3.1 Capital 3.2 Cultural influence 3.3 Crocodile episode 3.4 Death 4 In popular culture 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Name and identity[edit] Menes in hieroglyphs The Egyptian form, mnj, is taken from the Turin and Abydos King Lists, which are dated to the Nineteenth Dynasty, whose pronunciation has been reconstructed as */maˈnij/. By the early New Kingdom, changes in the Egyptian language meant his name was already pronounced */maˈneʔ/.[11] The name mnj means "He who endures", which, I.E.S. Edwards (1971) suggests, may have been coined as "a mere descriptive epithet denoting a semi-legendary hero [...] whose name had been lost".[5] Rather than a particular person, the name may conceal collectively the Naqada III rulers: Ka, Scorpion II and Narmer.[5] The commonly-used name Menes derives from Manetho, an Egyptian historian and priest who lived during the pre-Coptic period of the Ptolemaic Kingdom. Manetho noted the name in Greek as Μήνης (transliterated: Mênês).[5][12] An alternative Greek form, Μιν (transliterated: Min), was cited by the fifth-century-BC historian Herodotus,[13] but is a variant no longer accepted; it appears to have been the result of contamination from the name of the god Min.[14] Narmer and Menes[edit] Two Horus names of Hor-Aha (left) and a name of Menes (right) in hieroglyphs. Main article: Narmer Ivory tablet of Menes The ivory label mentioning Hor-Aha along with the mn sign. Reconstructed tablet. The almost complete absence of any mention of Menes in the archaeological record[5] and the comparative wealth of evidence of Narmer, a protodynastic figure credited by posterity and in the archaeological record with a firm claim[3] to the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, has given rise to a theory identifying Menes with Narmer. The chief archaeological reference to Menes is an ivory label from Nagada which shows the royal Horus-name Aha (the pharaoh Hor-Aha) next to a building, within which is the royal nebty-name mn,[15] generally taken to be Menes.[5][a] From this, various theories on the nature of the building (a funerary booth or a shrine), the meaning of the word mn (a name or the verb endures) and the relationship between Hor-Aha and Menes (as one person or as successive pharaohs) have arisen.[2] The Turin and Abydos king lists, generally accepted to be correct,[2] list the nesu-bit-names of the pharaohs, not their Horus-names,[3] and are vital to the potential reconciliation of the various records: the nesu-bit-names of the king lists, the Horus-names of the archaeological record and the number of pharaohs in Dynasty I according to Manetho and other historical sources.[3] Flinders Petrie first attempted this task,[3] associating Iti with Djer as the third pharaoh of Dynasty I, Teti (Turin) (or another Iti (Abydos)) with Hor-Aha as second pharaoh, and Menes (a nebty-name) with Narmer (a Horus-name) as first pharaoh of Dynasty I.[2][3] Lloyd (1994) finds this succession "extremely probable",[3] and Cervelló-Autuori (2003) categorically states that "Menes is Narmer and the First Dynasty begins with him".[4] However, Seidlmayer (2004) states that it is "a fairly safe inference" that Menes was Hor-Aha.[10] Dates[edit] Egyptologists, archaeologists, and scholars from the 19th century have proposed different dates for the era of Menes, or the date of the first dynasty:[16][b] John Gardner Wilkinson (1835) – 2320 BC Jean-François Champollion (Publish posthumously in 1840) – 5867 BC August Böckh (1845) – 5702 BC Christian Charles Josias Bunsen (1848) – 3623 BC Reginald Stuart Poole (1851) – 2717 BC Karl Richard Lepsius (1856) – 3892 BC Heinrich Karl Brugsch (1859) – 4455 BC Franz Joseph Lauth (1869) – 4157 BC Auguste Mariette (1871) – 5004 BC James Strong (1878) – 2515 BC Flinders Petrie (1887) – 4777 BC Modern consensus dates the era of Menes or the start of the first dynasty between c. 3200–3030 BC; some academic literature uses c. 3000 BC.[17] History[edit] Ebony plaque of Menes in his tomb of Abydos By 500 BC, mythical and exaggerated claims had made Menes a culture hero, and most of what is known of him comes from a much later time.[18] Ancient tradition ascribed to Menes the honour of having united Upper and Lower Egypt into a single kingdom[19] and becoming the first pharaoh of the First Dynasty.[20] However, his name does not appear on extant pieces of the Royal Annals (Cairo Stone and Palermo Stone), which is a now-fragmentary king's list that was carved onto a stela during the Fifth Dynasty. He typically appears in later sources as the first human ruler of Egypt, directly inheriting the throne from the god Horus.[21] He also appears in other, much later, king's lists, always as the first human pharaoh of Egypt. Menes also appears in demotic novels of the Hellenistic period, demonstrating that, even that late, he was regarded as an important figure.[22] Menes was seen as a founding figure for much of the history of ancient Egypt, similar to Romulus in ancient Rome.[23] Manetho records that Menes "led the army across the frontier and won great glory".[12][20] Capital[edit] Manetho associates the city of Thinis with the Early Dynastic Period and, in particular, Menes, a "Thinite" or native of Thinis.[12][20] Herodotus contradicts Manetho in stating that Menes founded the city of Memphis as his capital[24] after diverting the course of the Nile through the construction of a levee.[25] Manetho ascribes the building of Memphis to Menes' son, Athothis,[20] and calls no pharaohs earlier than Third Dynasty "Memphite".[26] Herodotus and Manetho's stories of the foundation of Memphis are probably later inventions: in 2012 a relief mentioning the visit to Memphis by Iry-Hor—a predynastic ruler of Upper Egypt reigning before Narmer—was discovered in the Sinai Peninsula, indicating that the city was already in existence in the early 32nd century BC.[27] Cultural influence[edit] Labels from the tomb of Menes Diodorus Siculus stated that Menes had introduced the worship of the gods and the practice of sacrifice[28] as well as a more elegant and luxurious style of living.[28] For this latter invention, Menes' memory was dishonoured by the Twenty-fourth Dynasty pharaoh Tefnakht and Plutarch mentions a pillar at Thebes on which was inscribed an imprecation against Menes as the introducer of luxury.[28] In Pliny's[clarification needed] account, Menes was credited with being the inventor of writing in Egypt. Crocodile episode[edit] Diodorus Siculus recorded a story of Menes related by the priests of the crocodile god Sobek at Crocodilopolis, in which the pharaoh Menes, attacked by his own dogs while out hunting,[29] fled across Lake Moeris on the back of a crocodile and, in thanks, founded the city of Crocodilopolis.[29][30][31] George Stanley Faber (1816), taking the word campsa to mean either crocodile or ark and preferring the latter, identifies Menes with Noah and the entire story as a flood myth.[32] Gaston Maspero (1910), while acknowledging the possibility that traditions relating to other kings may have become mixed up with this story, dismisses the suggestions of some commentators[33] that the story should be transferred to the Twelfth Dynasty pharaoh Amenemhat III and sees no reason to doubt that Diodorus did not correctly record a tradition of Menes.[29] Later, Edwards (1974) states that "the legend, which is obviously filled with anachronisms, is patently devoid of historical value".[30] Death[edit] According to Manetho, Menes reigned for 62 years and was killed by a hippopotamus.[12][20] In popular culture[edit] Alexander Dow (1735/6–79), a Scottish orientalist and playwright, wrote the tragedy Sethona, set in ancient Egypt. The lead part of Menes is described in the dramatis personæ as "next male-heir to the crown" now worn by Seraphis, and was played by Samuel Reddish in a 1774 production by David Garrick at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane.[34] See also[edit] First Dynasty of Egypt family tree Mannus, ancestral figure in Germanic mythology Minos, king of Crete, son of Zeus and Europa Manu (Hinduism), Progenitor of humanity Nu'u, Hawaiian mythological character who built an ark and escaped a Great Flood Nüwa, goddess in Chinese mythology best known for creating mankind Min (god) Hor-Aha Notes[edit] ^ Originally, the full royal title of a pharaoh was Horus name x nebty name y Golden-Horus name z nesu-bit name a Son-of-Ra name b. For brevity's sake, only one element might be used, but the choice varied between circumstances and period. Starting with Dynasty V, the nesu-bit name was the one regularly used in all official documents. In Dynasty I, the Horus-name was used for a living pharaoh, the nebty-name for the dead.[3] ^ Other dates typical of the era are found cited in Capart, Jean, Primitive Art in Egypt, pp. 17–18. References[edit] ^ Kitchen, KA (1991). "The Chronology of Ancient Egypt". World Archaeology. 23 (2): 201–8. doi:10.1080/00438243.1991.9980172. ^ a b c d e Edwards 1971, p. 13. ^ a b c d e f g h i Lloyd 1994, p. 7. ^ a b c Cervelló-Autuori 2003, p. 174. ^ a b c d e f g Edwards 1971, p. 11. ^ Kitchen, KA (1991). "The Chronology of Ancient Egypt". World Archaeology. 23 (2): 201–8. doi:10.1080/00438243.1991.9980172. ^ Loprieno, Antonio (1995). Ancient Egyptian: A linguistic introduction. Cambridge University press. ISBN 0-521-44384-9. ^ Beck et al. 1999. ^ Heagy 2014. ^ a b Seidlmayer 2010. ^ Loprieno 1995, p. 38. ^ a b c d Manetho, Fr. 6, 7a, 7b. Text and translation in Manetho, translated by W.G. Waddell (Cambridge: Harvard University, 1940), pp.26-35 ^ Herodotus: 2.4.1, 2.99.1ff. ^ Lloyd 1994, p. 6. ^ Gardiner 1961, p. 405. ^ Budge, EA Wallis (1885), The Dwellers on the Nile: Chapters on the Life, Literature, History and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, p. 54, Many dates have been fixed by scholars for the reign of this king: Champollion-Figeac thought about BC 5867, Bunsen 3623, Lepsius 3892, Brugsch 4455, and Wilkinson 2320. ^ Kitchen, KA (1991). "The Chronology of Ancient Egypt". World Archaeology. 23 (2): 201–8. doi:10.1080/00438243.1991.9980172. ^ Frank Northen Magill; Alison Aves (1998). Dictionary of World Biography. Taylor & Francis. pp. 726–. ISBN 978-1-57958-040-7. ^ Maspero 1903, p. 331. ^ a b c d e Verbrugghe & Wickersham 2001, p. 131. ^ Shaw & Nicholson 1995, p. 218. ^ Ryholt 2009. ^ Manley 1997, p. 22. ^ Herodotus: 2.99.4. ^ Herodotus: 2.109 ^ Verbrugghe & Wickersham 2001, p. 133. ^ P. Tallet, D. Laisnay: Iry-Hor et Narmer au Sud-Sinaï (Ouadi 'Ameyra), un complément à la chronologie des expéditios minière égyptiene, in: BIFAO 112 (2012), 381-395, available online ^ a b c Elder 1849, p. 1040. ^ a b c Maspero 1910, p. 235. ^ a b Edwards 1974, p. 22. sfn error: no target: CITEREFEdwards1974 (help) ^ Diodorus: 45 ^ Faber 1816, p. 195. ^ Elder 1849, p. 1040, ‘in defiance of chronology’. ^ Dow 1774. Bibliography[edit] Beck, Roger B; Black, Linda; Krieger, Larry S; Naylor, Phillip C; Shabaka, Dahia Ibo (1999), World history: Patterns of interaction, Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell, ISBN 0-395-87274-X Cervelló-Autuori, Josep (2003), "Narmer, Menes and the seals from Abydos", Egyptology at the dawn of the twenty-first century: proceedings of the Eighth International Congress of Egyptologists, 2, Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, ISBN 978-977-424-714-9. Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica, 1 Dow, Alexander (1774), Sethona: a tragedy, as it is performed at the Theatre Royal in Drury Lane, London: T. Becket, hdl:2027/uc2.ark:/13960/t2z31pr8f Edwards, IES (1971), "The early dynastic period in Egypt", The Cambridge Ancient History, 1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Elder, Edward (1849), "Menes", in Smith, William (ed.), Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology, 2, Boston: Charles C. Little & James Brown. Faber, George Stanley (1816), "The origin of pagan idolatry: ascertained from historical testimony and circumstantial evidence", 3, London: F&C Rivingtons, 2. Gardiner, Alan (1961), Egypt of the Pharaohs, Oxford: Oxford University Press. of Halicarnassus, Herodotus, The Histories. Heagy, Thomas C. (2014), "Who was Menes?", Archeo-Nil, 24: 59–92. Available online "[1]".. Lloyd, Alan B. (1994) [1975], Herodotus: Book II, Leiden: EJ Brill, ISBN 90-04-04179-6. Maspero, Gaston (1903), Sayce, Archibald Henry (ed.), History of Egypt, Chaldea, Syria, Babylonia, and Assyria, 9, Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 9780766135017. ——— (1910) [1894], Sayce, Archibald Henry (ed.), The dawn of civilization: Egypt and Chaldæa, translated by McClure, M L, London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, ISBN 978-0-7661-7774-1. Manley, Bill (1997), The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Egypt, London: Penguin, ISBN 0-14-051331-0. Rachewiltz, Boris de (1969), "Pagan and magic elements in Ezra Pound's works", in Hesse, Eva (ed.), New approaches to Ezra Pound, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Ryholt, Kim (2009), "Egyptian historical literature from the Greco-Roman period", in Fitzenreiter, Martin (ed.), Das Ereignis, Geschichtsschreibung zwischen Vorfall und Befund, London: Golden House. Schulz, Regine; Seidel, Matthias (2004), Egypt: The World of the Pharaohs, HF Ullmann, ISBN 978-3-8331-6000-4. Shaw, Ian; Nicholson, Paul (1995), The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt, Harry N Abrams, ISBN 0-8109-9096-2. Seidlmayer, Stephan (2010) [2004], "The Rise of the State to the Second Dynasty", Egypt: The World of the Pharaohs, ISBN 978-3-8331-6000-4. Verbrugghe, Gerald Paul; Wickersham, John Moore (2001) [1996], Berossos and Manetho, introduced and translated: Native Traditions in Ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt, Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, ISBN 978-0-472-08687-0. Waddell, Laurence A (1930), Egyptian civilization: Its Sumerian origin, London, ISBN 978-0-7661-4273-2. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Menes. Menes, Ancient Egypt. "The Contendings of Horus and Seth", Egypt, IL: Reshafim, archived from the original on 2010-09-24, retrieved 2007-07-22. "Menes", Ancient Egyptian Civilization (image), Aldokkan. "Menes" . New International Encyclopedia. 1905. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e First Dynasty of Ancient Egypt Pharaohs Menes/Narmer Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Regents Neithhotep Merneith Queen consorts Benerib Herneith Penebui Nakhtneith (Khenthap) Semat Serethor Seshemetka Betrest Officials Amka Hemaka Sabef Meriiti Other people Ahaneith Artefacts and monuments Narmer macehead Narmer palette Tomb of Anedjib Den seal impressions Abydos boats MacGregor plaque Mastabas S3503 and S3504 Capital Thinis Authority control ISNI: 0000 0000 8223 1785 LCCN: n92057284 VIAF: 41035011 WorldCat Identities: viaf-41035011 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Menes&oldid=1001618431" Categories: 31st-century 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en-wikipedia-org-5447	----	Hecatomnus - Wikipedia Hecatomnus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Satrap of Caria Hecatomnus Portrait of Hekatomnos, from his coinage, circa 392/1-377/6 BC. Satrap of Caria Reign ca. 395–377 BC Predecessor Tissaphernes Successor Mausolus Issue Detail Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus House Hecatomnids Hecatomnid dynasty (Dynasts of Caria) c. 395–377 BCE Hecatomnus c. 377–353 BCE Mausolus c. 353–351 BCE Artemisia II c. 351–344 BCE Idrieus c. 344–340 BCE Ada c. 340–335 BCE Pixodarus c. 334–326 BCE Ada v t e Hecatomnus of Mylasa or Hekatomnos (Greek: Ἑκατόμνος, Carian: 𐊴𐊭𐊪𐊵𐊫 k̂tmno “under-son, descendant(?)”[1]) was an early 4th-century BC ruler of Caria. He was the satrap (governor) of Caria for the Persian Achaemenid king Artaxerxes II (404–358 BC). However, the basis for Hecatomnus' political power was twofold: he was both a high appointed Persian official and a powerful local dynast, who founded the hereditary dynasty of the Hecatomnids. The Hecatomnids followed the earlier autochthonous dynasty of the Lygdamids (520-450 BC) in Caria. Contents 1 Biography 2 Alleged collusion with Evagoras 3 Coinage 4 Tomb 5 References 6 Notes 7 External links Biography[edit] Hecatomnus was the son and successor of Hyssaldomus, a dynastic ruler of Mylasa. It is likely that Hecatomnus had been a supporter of Tissaphernes and might have been employed by him in the subordinate office of hyparch.[2] At some time after 395 BC [3] Hecatomnus became the first satrap of Caria, which was until then part of other satrapies, usually that of Lydia. The designation of Caria as a separate satrapy was part of a reorganization of Persian power in western Anatolia by Artaxerxes II in the aftermath of Cyrus's revolt. Hecatomnus was the first non-Persian official to be elevated to the position of satrap. He acceded as satrap perhaps in 394 BC,[4] but no later than 390 BC,[5] when he was appointed by the Persian king to command the naval forces destined to take part in the war against Evagoras I of Cyprus[6]. Isocrates[7] states that he was still ruling in 380 BC. Stephen Ruzicka places his death in 377/376 BC [8] He left three sons, Mausolus, Idrieus and Pixodarus, and two daughters, Artemisia and Ada, who were married to their brothers, Mausolus and Idrieus[9], all five of whom in turn succeeded him as rulers. Alleged collusion with Evagoras[edit] Hecatomnus coin, with legend EKATOMNΩ. Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology. Two ancient sources, Diodorus [10] and Isocrates, report that Hecatomnus secretly supplied Evagoras with sums of money to raise mercenary troops and was in fact ready to rise against the Persian King. However, Ruzicka strongly doubts the veracity of these reports.[11] Indeed, Hecatomnus had not shown at any other time insubordination or disaffection towards the Persian monarchy. Unlike other rebellious satraps (Cyrus the Younger or Pissuthnes, for example) Hecatomnus was not a Persian of noble or royal blood and could not hope to win the allegiance of other Persian officials. Thus, it seems highly unlikely that he would have engaged in treasonous activity without any tangible hope to benefit from it. Ruzicka offers two possible explanations for the reports by Diodorus and Isocrates, which must have been based on some contemporary rumours. In both cases he names Evagoras as the likely source of the rumours. (i) Evagoras might have wanted to compromise Hecatomnus in the eyes of his master, Artaxerxes. Later, he managed to engineer the recall and disgrace of another satrap (Orontes) who was campaigning against him.[12] (ii) Evagoras might have wanted to create the impression that Hecatomnus was his secret ally in order to impress the Egyptian king Hakor with whom he was negotiating for support against Artaxerxes. From Egypt the rumour could have filtered to Athens through the Athenian general Chabrias who was then serving with Hakor as a military adviser.[13] Coinage[edit] Coinage of Hekatomnos, with effigy of the Satrap. Circa 392/1-377/6 BC. Hecatomnus was a native of Mylasa, and made that city his capital and the seat of his government. Hence the figure of Zeus Labrandenos appears on his coins walking and carrying a labrys over his shoulder, from the celebrated temple of that name near Mylasa.[14] Tomb[edit] Hekatomnos tomb fresco. In 2010 police arrested looters digging for antiquities in what later was believed to be the tomb of Hecatomnus.[15] A marble sarcophagus and numerous frescoes were discovered in the tomb, although many relics had already been taken from the tomb and sold on the black market.[15] The Mausoleum is now classified as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[16] It is considered very important for understanding of Carian art and craftsmanship as it was built by their best architects and sculptors and was a predecessor of the magnificent Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. Recently a golden crown stolen from the tomb has been identified and agreed to be returned to Turkey.[17] References[edit] Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, "Hecatomnus", Boston, (1867) Stephen Ruzicka, Politics of a Persian Dynasty. The Hecatomnids in the Fourth Century B.C., University of Oklahoma Press, 1992. Notes[edit] ^ Adiego Lajara, Ignacio-Javier (2013). "Carian identity and Carian language". Publications de l'Institut Français d'Études Anatoliennes. 28 (1): 15–20. ^ Ruzicka, pp. 18-19 ^ Tissaphernes who was satrap of Lydia and Caria was executed in 395. ^ John Hazel, Who's Who in the Greek World, p. 110 ^ Susan M. Sherwin-White, Ancient Cos, 1978, p. 41 ^ Photius, Bibliotheca,father of mausoel cod. 176; Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca, xiv. 98 ^ Isocrates, Speeches and Letters, "Panegyricus", 162 ^ Ruzicka, p. 29 ^ Strabo, Geography, xiv. 2; Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri, i. 23 ^ Diodorus, xv. 2 ^ Ruzicka, p.27 ^ Ruzicka, p. 27 ^ Ruzicka, p.28 ^ Strabo, ibid. ^ a b "Turkey Discovers Ancient Underground Tomb." Associated Press. August 13, 2010. ^ Mausoleum and Sacred area of Hecatomnus: https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5729/ ^ Golden crown of Hecatomnus to be returned to Turkey: https://archaeologynewsnetwork.blogspot.com/2017/12/golden-crown-of-hecatomnus-to-be.html#H4j4Ai1DMFq2gekO.99 External links[edit] Livius, Hecatomnus of Mylasa by Jona Lendering  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Hecatomnus". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hecatomnus&oldid=985409255" Categories: Carian people 4th-century BC deaths Achaemenid satraps of Caria Hecatomnid dynasty Ancient Mylasians Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Hrvatski Italiano עברית مصرى Português Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 25 October 2020, at 20:00 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5457	----	Twosret - Wikipedia Twosret From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Twosret Tausret, Tawosret Twosret playing the sistrum at Amada Temple, Nubia Pharaoh Reign 1191–1189 BC (19th Dynasty) Predecessor Siptah Successor Setnakhte Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sitre Meryamun S3t-Rˁ-mrj(t)-Jmn Daughter of Ra, beloved of Amun Hieroglyphic variants: Nomen Tausret [Setepenmut] T3-wsr.t-[stp-n-Mwt] Mighty Lady, [chosen of Mut][1] Tausret-Setepen[mut] T3-wsr.t-[stp-n-Mwt] Mighty Lady, chosen [of Mut] Horus name Kanakht Merymaat K3-nḫt-mrj-M3ˁ.t Strong bull, beloved of Maat Kanakht Merymaat Nebanemnisutmiitum K3-nḫt-mrj-M3ˁ.t-nb-ˁn-m-nsw-mj-Jtm Strong bull, beloved of Maat, Lord beautiful of kingship, like Atum Nebty name Geregkemet Wafkhasut Grg-Kmt-wˁf-ḫ3swt Founder of Egypt, who vainquishes foreign countries Died 1189 BC Burial KV14 in the Valley of the Kings Twosret (Tawosret, Tausret, d. 1189 BC conventional chronology) was the last known ruler and the final Pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt. She is recorded in Manetho's Epitome as a certain Thuoris, who in Homer is called Polybus, husband of Alcandra, and in whose time Troy was taken.[2] She was said to have ruled Egypt for seven years, but this figure included the nearly six-year reign of Siptah, her predecessor.[3] Twosret simply assumed Siptah's regnal years as her own. While her sole independent reign would have lasted for perhaps one to one and a half years from 1191 to 1189 BC, this number now appears more likely to be two full years instead, possibly longer. Excavation work by the University of Arizona Egyptian Expedition [1] on her memorial temple ("temple of millions of years") at Gournah strongly suggests that it was completed and functional during her reign and that Twosret started a regnal year 9, which means that she had two and possibly three independent years of rule, once one deducts the nearly six-year reign of Siptah. Her royal name, Sitre Meryamun, means "Daughter of Re, beloved of Amun."[4] Contents 1 Family 2 Queen, regent and pharaoh 3 End of Twosret's reign 4 Monuments and inscriptions 5 Tomb 6 References 7 Bibliography Family[edit] See also: Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Twosret or Tausret's birth date is unknown. Twosret is thought to have been a daughter of Merenptah, possibly a daughter of Takhat, thereby making her sister to Amenmesse. She was thought to be the second royal wife of Seti II. There are no children for Twosret and Seti II, unless tomb KV56 represents the burial of their daughter.[5] Queen, regent and pharaoh[edit] Foundation plaque bearing the double cartouches of Queen Twosret. From the mortuary temple of Twosret (Tawesret, Tausret) at Thebes, Egypt. 19th Dynasty. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London Theodore Davis identified Twosret and her husband in a cache of jewelry found in tomb KV56 in the Valley of the Kings. This tomb also contained objects bearing the name of Rameses II. There is no consensus about the nature of this tomb. Some (Aldred) thought this was the tomb of a daughter of Seti II and Tawosret, but others (Maspero) thought this was a cache of objects originally belonging with the tomb of Tawosret herself.[6] After her husband's death, she became first regent to Seti's heir Siptah jointly with Chancellor Bay. Siptah was likely a stepson of Twosret since his mother is now known to be a certain Sutailja or Shoteraja from Louvre Relief E 26901.[7] When Siptah died, Twosret officially assumed the throne for herself, as the "Daughter of Re, Lady of Ta-merit, Twosret of Mut",[8] and assumed the role of a Pharaoh. While it was commonly believed that she ruled Egypt with the aid of Chancellor Bay, a recently published document by Pierre Grandet in a BIFAO 100 (2000) paper shows that Bay was executed on Siptah's orders during Year 5 of this king's reign. The document is a hieratic ostracon or inscribed potshard and contains an announcement to the workmen of Deir El-Medina of the king's actions. No immediate reason was given to show what caused Siptah to turn against "the great enemy Bay," as the ostracon states. The recto of the document reads thus: Year 5 III Shemu the 27th. On this day, the scribe of the tomb Paser came announcing 'Pharaoh, life, prosperity, and health!, has killed the great enemy Bay'.[9] This date accords well with Bay's last known public appearance in Year 4 of Siptah. The ostracon's information was essentially a royal order for the workmen to stop all further work on Bay's tomb since the latter had now been deemed a traitor to the state.[10] Meanwhile, Egyptian territories in Canaan seem to have become effectively independent under the overlordship of a man called Irsu. Papyrus Harris I, the main source on these events, seems to claim that Irsu and Twosret had allied themselves, leaving Irsu free to plunder and neglect the land.[11] End of Twosret's reign[edit] Twosret's reign ended in a civil war, which is documented in the Elephantine stela of her successor Setnakhte, who became the founder of the Twentieth dynasty. It is not known if she was overthrown by Setnakhte or whether she died peacefully in her own reign; if the latter is the case, then a struggle may have ensued among various factions at court for the throne in which Setnakhte emerged victorious. However, Setnakhte and his son Ramesses III described the late 19th dynasty as a time of chaos. Setnakhte usurped the joint KV14 tomb of Seti II and Twosret but reburied Seti II in tomb KV15, while deliberately replastering and redrawing all images of Twosret in tomb KV14 with those of himself. Setnakhte's decisions here may demonstrate his dislike and presumably hatred for Twosret since he chose to reinter Seti II but not Twosret.[12] Setnakhte's son, Ramesses III, later excluded Twosret and even Siptah of the 19th dynasty from his Medinet Habu list of Egyptian kings thereby delegitimizing them in the eyes of the citizenry.[13] It appears more likely that Setnakhte overthrew Twosret from power in a civil war. Twosret's highest known date is a Year 8 II Shemu day 29 hieratic inscription found on one of the foundation blocks (FB 2) of her mortuary temple at Gournah in 2011 by the University of Arizona Egyptian Expedition.[14] Since this was only a foundation inscription and Twosret's temple, although never finished as planned, was at least partially completed, it is logical to assume that some time must have passed before her downfall and the termination of work on her temple project. Richard Wilkinson stressed that Twosret's mortuary temple was "largely structurally completed," although bearing minimal decoration;[15] therefore, she would have ruled for several more months beyond II Shemu 29 of her 8th Year for her temple to reach completion. Further study by Pearce Paul Creasman has concluded that the temple was "functionally complete." [16] She could, hence, have possibly ruled for 6 to 20 more months after the inscription date to achieve these levels of completion, thus starting her 9th regnal year around the interval of IV Akhet/I Peret—when her husband died (since she assumed Siptah's reign as her own) or perhaps longer—before Setnakhte's rule began. Or she could have had a nearly full 9th year reign, including the 6-year reign of Siptah. Monuments and inscriptions[edit] It is believed that expeditions were conducted during her reign to the turquoise mines in Sinai and in Palestine and statues have been found of her at Heliopolis and Thebes. Her name is also found at Abydos, Hermopolis, Memphis, and in Nubia. Inscriptions with Twosret's name appear in several locations: The Bilgai Stela belonged to Twosret. It records the erection of a monument in the area of Sebennytos.[17] A pair statue of Tawosret and Siptah is now in the Staatliche Sammlung für Ägyptische Kunst Munich (no 122). Siptah is shown seated on Twosret's lap.[18] In the temple at Amada, Twosret is depicted as a Great Royal Wife and God's Wife.[17] A statue from Heliopolis depicts Twosret and her names are inscribed with a mixture of male and female epithets. Twosret herself is depicted as a woman.[17] A cartouche of hers believed to come from Qantir in the Delta has been found Twosret and Siptah's names have been found associated with the turquoise mines at Serabit el Khadim and Timna (in the Sinai & Israel).[19] A faience vase bearing a cartouche of Twosret was found at Tell Deir Alla in Jordan.[19] Twosret constructed a Mortuary temple next to the Ramesseum, but it was never finished and was only partially excavated (by Flinders Petrie in 1897), although recent re-excavation by Richard H. Wilkinson and Pearce Paul Creasman shows it is more complex than first thought. The temple is being excavated by the Tausert Temple Project (2004 to present). Tomb[edit] Twosret's KV14 tomb in the Valley of the Kings has a complicated history; it was started in the reign of Seti II. Scenes show Tawosret accompanying Siptah, but Siptah's name had later been replaced by that of Seti II. The tomb was then usurped by Setnakht, and extended to become the deepest royal tomb in the valley while Tawosret's sarcophagus was reused by Amenherkhepeshef in KV13. Altenmuller believes that Seti II was buried in one of the rooms in KV14 and later reburied in KV15. Others question this scenario.[20] A mummy found in KV35 and known as Unknown Woman D has been identified by some scholars as possibly belonging to Twosret, but there is no other evidence for this other than the correct Nineteenth Dynasty period of mummification.[2] References[edit] ^ Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames & Hudson Ltd, 1994. pp 156 & 158 ^ a b J. Tyldesley, Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt, 2006, Thames & Hudson ^ Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss & David Warburton (editors), Handbook of Ancient Egyptian Chronology, Brill: 2006, p.214 ^ Clayton, p.158 ^ Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton: The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson, 1987 ISBN 0-500-05128-3 ^ Theban Mapping Project Tomb 56 ^ Gae Callender, The Cripple, the Queen & the Man from the North, KMT Volume 17, No.1 (Spring 2006), p.52 ^ Tydlesey, Joyce (2006) "The Complete Queens of Egypt"(American University in Cairo Press) ^ Pierre Grandet, "L'execution du chancelier Bay O.IFAO 1864", BIFAO 100(2000), pp.339-345 ^ Gae Callender, The Cripple, the Queen & the Man from the North, KMT, Spring 2006, p.54 ^ Hans Goedicke, "Irsu the Khasu in Papyrus Harris", Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes, Vol. 71 (1979), pp. 1-17 ^ Hartwig Altenmüller, "The Tomb of Tausert and Setnakht," in Valley of the Kings, ed. Kent R. Weeks (New York: Friedman/Fairfax Publishers, 2001), pp.222-31 ^ Epigraphic Survey, Medinet Habu IV: Festival Scenes of Ramesses III, University of Chicago Oriental Institute Publications, vol. 51 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1940), pl. 203. Cf. Donald B. Redford, Pharaonic King-Lists, Annals, and Day-Books: A Contribution to the Study of the Egyptian Sense of History, SSEA Publication 4 (Mississauga, Canada: Benben Publications, 1986), pp.36-37 ^ Now labeled Foundation Block Text 4. See Richard H. Wilkinson, “Tausert Temple Project: 2010-11 Season,” The Ostracon: The Journal of the Egyptian Study Society, 22 (Fall 2011), 8, fig. 4. Additional foundation inscriptions were discovered in previous seasons. Foundation Block Text 2 was found in the 2007 excavation season and bears the date “Regnal Year seven, I Akhet 23,” and this is the earliest dated inscription found at the temple, so construction most likely began late in the latter half of year seven. The original publication with a mistranslation of this inscription is idem, "Tausert Temple Project: 2007 Season," The Ostracon, 18, No. 1 (Summer 2007), 7, fig. 9. The corrected translation appears in idem, “Tausert Temple Project: 2008 Season,” The Ostracon, 19, No. 1 (Fall 2008), p.7. ^ Richard H. Wilkinson, “History of the Temple,” in The Temple of Tausret: The University of Arizona Egyptian Expedition Tausret Temple Project, 2004-2011, p.166. ^ Pearce Paul Creasman, "Excavations at Pharaoh-Queen Tausret's Temple of Millions of Years: 2012 Season," Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities 39 (2012/2013), pp.15. ^ a b c Vivienne G. Callender, Queen Tausret and the End of Dynasty 19, Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur, Bd. 32, (2004), pp. 81-104 ^ J. von Beckerath: Queen Twosre as guardian of Siptah, in: Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 48 (1962), 70-74 ^ a b Itamar Singer, Merneptah's Campaign to Canaan, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, No. 269 (Feb., 1988), pp. 1-10 ^ Theban Mapping Project, Tomb KV14 Bibliography[edit] Gae Callender, "The Cripple, the Queen & the Man from the North", KMT, Vol:17 No.1, Spring 2006, pp. 49–63 Leonard H. Lesko, "A Little More Evidence for the End of the Nineteenth Dynasty", Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, Vol. 5, (1966), pp. 29–32 (accessible through JSTOR) Richard H. Wilkinson (ed.), Tausret: Forgotten Queen & Pharaoh of Egypt, Oxford University Press, 2012. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Queens of Ancient Egypt Early Dynastic Period to First Intermediate Period  (3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Neithhotep Benerib Khenthap Herneith Nakhtneith Penebui Merneith Seshemetka Semat Serethor Betrest II Nimaathap Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Hetephernebti Djeseretnebti Djefatnebti Meresankh I IV Hetepheres I Meritites I Henutsen Khentetka Meresankh II Hetepheres II Meresankh III Khamerernebty I Persenet Hekenuhedjet Khamerernebty II Rekhetre Bunefer V Khentkaus I Neferhetepes Meretnebty Khentkaus II Khentkaus III Reptynub Khuit I Meresankh IV Setibhor Nebet Khenut VI Iput I Khuit II Ankhesenpepi I Ankhesenpepi II Nubwenet Meritites IV Inenek-Inti Nedjeftet Neith Iput II Udjebten Ankhesenpepi III Ankhesenpepi IV Nitocris Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Neferu I Neferukayet Iah Tem Neferu II Ashayet Henhenet Sadeh Kawit Kemsit XII Neferitatjenen Neferu III Keminub Khenemetneferhedjet I Nofret II Itaweret Khenmet Sithathoriunet Khenemetneferhedjet II Neferthenut Meretseger Aat Khenemetneferhedjet III Sobekneferu 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Nofret Nubhetepti Senebhenas Neni Tjan Ineni Nubkhaes Aya XIV Tati XVI Mentuhotep XVII Nubemhat Sobekemsaf Haankhes Tetisheri Ahhotep I Ahmose Inhapy Sitdjehuti Ahhotep II New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose-Nefertari Ahmose-Sitkamose Ahmose-Henuttamehu Ahmose-Meritamun Ahmose Mutnofret Hatshepsut Iset Satiah Merytre-Hatshepsut Nebtu Menhet, Menwi and Merti Nebsemi Tiaa Nefertari Iaret Mutemwiya Tiye Gilukhipa Sitamun Iset Tadukhipa / Kiya Nefertiti Meritaten Neferneferuaten Ankhesenamun Tey Mutnedjmet Nebetnehat XIX Sitre Tuya Tanedjemet Nefertari Isetnofret Henutmire Maathorneferure Meritamen Bintanath Nebettawy Merytre Isetnofret II Takhat Twosret Tiaa XX Tiy-Merenese Iset Ta-Hemdjert Tyti Tiye Duatentopet Henutwati Tawerettenru Nubkhesbed Baketwernel Tentamun 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Tentamun Mutnedjmet Karimala XXII Karomama Patareshnes Maatkare Tashedkhonsu Nesitaudjatakhet Nesitanebetashru Kapes Karomama I Tadibast III XXIII Karomama II XXV Pebatjma Tabiry Abar Khensa Peksater Arty Qalhata Tabekenamun Takahatenamun Naparaye Atakhebasken Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Mehytenweskhet Khedebneithirbinet I Takhuit Tentkheta Nakhtubasterau Ladice XXVII Atossa Artystone Parmys Amestris Damaspia Parysatis XXXI Stateira I Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Roxana Stateira II Parysatis II Eurydice II of Macedon Ptolemaic Eurydice Berenice I Arsinoe I Arsinoe II Berenice II Arsinoe III Cleopatra I Cleopatra II Cleopatra III Cleopatra IV Cleopatra Selene Berenice III Cleopatra V Cleopatra VI Berenice IV Cleopatra VII Arsinoe IV Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Twosret&oldid=1000308721" Categories: 12th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Female pharaohs Queens consort of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt 12th-century BC women rulers 13th-century BC births 1189 BC deaths 13th-century BC clergy 12th-century BC clergy 13th-century BC Egyptian women Late Bronze Age collapse 12th-century BC Egyptian women Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Asturianu Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Magyar Nederlands Occitan Polski Português Русский සිංහල Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 January 2021, at 15:56 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5469	----	Greek language - Wikipedia Greek language From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the Greek language used during particular eras; see Proto-Greek, Mycenaean Greek, Ancient Greek, Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, and Modern Greek. Indo-European language of Greece, Cyprus and other regions Greek ελληνικά Pronunciation [eliniˈka] Region Greece Cyprus Anatolia Balkans Black Sea coast Eastern Mediterranean Southern Italy Ethnicity Greeks Native speakers 13.5 million (2012)[1] Language family Indo-European Hellenic Greek Early form Proto-Greek Dialects Ancient dialects Modern dialects Writing system Greek alphabet Official status Official language in Cyprus, Greece Regulated by Center for the Greek Language Language codes ISO 639-1 el ISO 639-2 gre (B) ell (T) ISO 639-3 Variously: ell – Modern Greek grc – Ancient Greek cpg – Cappadocian Greek gmy – Mycenaean Greek pnt – Pontic tsd – Tsakonian yej – Yevanic Glottolog gree1276 Linguasphere 56-AAA-a 56-AAA-aa to -am (varieties) Areas where Modern Greek is spoken (in dark blue those areas where it is the official language). This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. Greek (modern Ελληνικά, romanized: Elliniká, ancient Ἑλληνική, Hellēnikḗ) is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece, Cyprus, Albania, other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea. It has the longest documented history of any living Indo-European language, spanning at least 3,400 years of written records.[2] Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history; other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously.[3] The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic, and many other writing systems. The Greek language holds an important place in the history of the Western world.[4] Beginning with the epics of Homer, ancient Greek literature includes many works of lasting importance in the European canon. Greek is also the language in which many of the foundational texts in science and philosophy are composed. The New Testament of the Christian Bible was also written in Greek.[5][6] Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, the study of the Greek texts and society of antiquity constitutes the discipline of Classics. During antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world. It would eventually become the official language of the Byzantine Empire and develop into Medieval Greek.[7] In its modern form, Greek is the official language in Greece and Cyprus, and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union. It is spoken by at least 13.4 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, and Turkey and by the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are often used to coin new words for other languages; Greek and Latin are the predominant sources of international scientific vocabulary. Idealised portrayal of the author Homer Contents 1 History 1.1 Periods 1.2 Diglossia 1.3 Historical unity 2 Geographic distribution 2.1 Official status 3 Characteristics 3.1 Phonology 3.2 Morphology 3.2.1 Nouns and adjectives 3.2.2 Verbs 3.3 Syntax 3.4 Vocabulary 3.5 Greek loanwords in other languages 4 Classification 5 Writing system 5.1 Linear B 5.2 Cypriot syllabary 5.3 Greek alphabet 5.3.1 Diacritics 5.3.2 Punctuation 5.4 Latin alphabet 5.5 Hebrew alphabet 5.6 Arabic alphabet 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 8.1 Citations 8.2 Sources 9 Further reading 10 External links History[edit] Main article: History of Greek Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC,[8] or possibly earlier.[9] The earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC,[10] making Greek the world's oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now-extinct Anatolian languages. Periods[edit] Proto-Greek-speaking area according to linguist Vladimir I. Georgiev The Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods: Proto-Greek: the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age. [note 1] Mycenaean Greek: the language of the Mycenaean civilization. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards. Ancient Greek: in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilization. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire. Ancient Greek fell into disuse in western Europe in the Middle Ages, but remained officially in use in the Byzantine world and was reintroduced to the rest of Europe with the Fall of Constantinople and Greek migration to western Europe. Koine Greek: The fusion of Ionian with Attic, the dialect of Athens, began the process that resulted in the creation of the first common Greek dialect, which became a lingua franca across the Eastern Mediterranean and Near East. Koine Greek can be initially traced within the armies and conquered territories of Alexander the Great and after the Hellenistic colonization of the known world, it was spoken from Egypt to the fringes of India. After the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, because the Apostles used this form of the language to spread Christianity. It is also known as Hellenistic Greek, New Testament Greek, and sometimes Biblical Greek because it was the original language of the New Testament and the Old Testament was translated into the same language via the Septuagint. Distribution of varieties of Greek in Anatolia, 1910. Demotic in yellow. Pontic in orange. Cappadocian Greek in green, with green dots indicating individual Cappadocian Greek villages.[11] Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek: the continuation of Koine Greek, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Medieval Greek is a cover phrase for a whole continuum of different speech and writing styles, ranging from vernacular continuations of spoken Koine that were already approaching Modern Greek in many respects, to highly learned forms imitating classical Attic. Much of the written Greek that was used as the official language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek (Neo-Hellenic):[12] Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period, as early as the 11th century. It is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. Diglossia[edit] Main article: Greek language question In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia: the coexistence of vernacular and archaizing written forms of the language. What came to be known as the Greek language question was a polarization between two competing varieties of Modern Greek: Dimotiki, the vernacular form of Modern Greek proper, and Katharevousa, meaning 'purified', a compromise between Dimotiki and Ancient Greek, which was developed in the early 19th century, and was used for literary and official purposes in the newly formed Greek state. In 1976, Dimotiki was declared the official language of Greece, having incorporated features of Katharevousa and giving birth to Standard Modern Greek, which is used today for all official purposes and in education.[13] Historical unity[edit] The distribution of major modern Greek dialect areas The historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language are often emphasized. Although Greek has undergone morphological and phonological changes comparable to those seen in other languages, never since classical antiquity has its cultural, literary, and orthographic tradition been interrupted to the extent that one can speak of a new language emerging. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language.[14] It is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, "Homeric Greek is probably closer to Demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English".[15] Geographic distribution[edit] Further information: Greeks and Greek diaspora Geographic distribution of Greek language in the Russian Empire (1897 census) Greek is spoken today by at least 13 million people, principally in Greece and Cyprus along with a sizable Greek-speaking minority in Albania near the Greek-Albanian border.[12] A significant percentage of Albania's population has some basic knowledge of the Greek language due in part to the Albanian wave of immigration to Greece in the 1980s and '90s. Prior to the Greco-Turkish War and the resulting population exchange in 1923 a very large population of Greek-speakers also existed in Turkey, though very few remain today.[2] A small Greek-speaking community is also found in Bulgaria near the Greek-Bulgarian border. Greek is also spoken worldwide by the sizable Greek diaspora which as notable communities in the United States, Australia, Canada, South Africa, Chile, Brazil, Argentina, Russia, Ukraine, the United Kingdom, and throughout the European Union, especially in Germany. Historically, significant Greek-speaking communities and regions were found throughout the Eastern Mediterranean, in what are today Southern Italy, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Egypt, and Libya; in the area of the Black Sea, in what are today Turkey, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Russia, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan; and, to a lesser extent, in the Western Mediterranean in and around colonies such as Massalia, Monoikos, and Mainake. It was also used as a liturgical language in Christian Nubian kingdom of Makuria which was in modern day Sudan.[16] Official status[edit] Greek, in its modern form, is the official language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population.[17] It is also the official language of Cyprus (nominally alongside Turkish).[18] Because of the membership of Greece and Cyprus in the European Union, Greek is one of the organization's 24 official languages.[19] Furthermore, Greek is officially recognized as official in Dropull and Himara (Albania), and as a minority language all over Albania,[20] as well as in parts of Italy, Armenia, Romania, and Ukraine as a regional or minority language in the framework of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.[21] Greeks are also a recognized ethnic minority in Hungary.[22] Characteristics[edit] See also: Ancient Greek grammar, Koine Greek grammar, and Modern Greek grammar The phonology, morphology, syntax, and vocabulary of the language show both conservative and innovative tendencies across the entire attestation of the language from the ancient to the modern period. The division into conventional periods is, as with all such periodizations, relatively arbitrary, especially because at all periods, Ancient Greek has enjoyed high prestige, and the literate borrowed heavily from it. Phonology[edit] See also: Modern Greek phonology Spoken Modern Greek Across its history, the syllabic structure of Greek has varied little: Greek shows a mixed syllable structure, permitting complex syllabic onsets but very restricted codas. It has only oral vowels and a fairly stable set of consonantal contrasts. The main phonological changes occurred during the Hellenistic and Roman period (see Koine Greek phonology for details): replacement of the pitch accent with a stress accent. simplification of the system of vowels and diphthongs: loss of vowel length distinction, monophthongisation of most diphthongs and several steps in a chain shift of vowels towards /i/ (iotacism). development of the voiceless aspirated plosives /pʰ/ and /tʰ/ to the voiceless fricatives /f/ and /θ/, respectively; the similar development of /kʰ/ to /x/ may have taken place later (the phonological changes are not reflected in the orthography, and both earlier and later phonemes are written with φ, θ, and χ). development of the voiced plosives /b/, /d/, and /ɡ/ to their voiced fricative counterparts /β/ (later /v/), /ð/, and /ɣ/. Morphology[edit] In all its stages, the morphology of Greek shows an extensive set of productive derivational affixes, a limited but productive system of compounding[23] and a rich inflectional system. Although its morphological categories have been fairly stable over time, morphological changes are present throughout, particularly in the nominal and verbal systems. The major change in the nominal morphology since the classical stage was the disuse of the dative case (its functions being largely taken over by the genitive). The verbal system has lost the infinitive, the synthetically-formed future, and perfect tenses and the optative mood. Many have been replaced by periphrastic (analytical) forms. Nouns and adjectives[edit] Pronouns show distinctions in person (1st, 2nd, and 3rd), number (singular, dual, and plural in the ancient language; singular and plural alone in later stages), and gender (masculine, feminine, and neuter), and decline for case (from six cases in the earliest forms attested to four in the modern language).[note 2] Nouns, articles, and adjectives show all the distinctions except for a person. Both attributive and predicative adjectives agree with the noun. Verbs[edit] The inflectional categories of the Greek verb have likewise remained largely the same over the course of the language's history but with significant changes in the number of distinctions within each category and their morphological expression. Greek verbs have synthetic inflectional forms for: Ancient Greek Modern Greek Person first, second and third also second person formal Number singular, dual and plural singular and plural tense present, past and future past and non-past (future is expressed by a periphrastic construction) aspect imperfective, perfective (traditionally called aorist) and perfect (sometimes also called perfective; see note about terminology) imperfective and perfective/aorist (perfect is expressed by a periphrastic construction) mood indicative, subjunctive, imperative and optative indicative, subjunctive,[note 3] and imperative (other modal functions are expressed by periphrastic constructions) Voice active, middle, and passive active and medio-passive Syntax[edit] Many aspects of the syntax of Greek have remained constant: verbs agree with their subject only, the use of the surviving cases is largely intact (nominative for subjects and predicates, accusative for objects of most verbs and many prepositions, genitive for possessors), articles precede nouns, adpositions are largely prepositional, relative clauses follow the noun they modify and relative pronouns are clause-initial. However, the morphological changes also have their counterparts in the syntax, and there are also significant differences between the syntax of the ancient and that of the modern form of the language. Ancient Greek made great use of participial constructions and of constructions involving the infinitive, and the modern variety lacks the infinitive entirely (instead of having a raft of new periphrastic constructions) and uses participles more restrictively. The loss of the dative led to a rise of prepositional indirect objects (and the use of the genitive to directly mark these as well). Ancient Greek tended to be verb-final, but neutral word order in the modern language is VSO or SVO. Vocabulary[edit] Modern Greek inherits most of its vocabulary from Ancient Greek, which in turn is an Indo-European language, but also includes a number of borrowings from the languages of the populations that inhabited Greece before the arrival of Proto-Greeks,[24] some documented in Mycenaean texts; they include a large number of Greek toponyms. The form and meaning of many words have evolved. Loanwords (words of foreign origin) have entered the language, mainly from Latin, Venetian, and Turkish. During the older periods of Greek, loanwords into Greek acquired Greek inflections, thus leaving only a foreign root word. Modern borrowings (from the 20th century on), especially from French and English, are typically not inflected; other modern borrowings are derived from South Slavic (Macedonian/Bulgarian) and Eastern Romance languages (Aromanian and Megleno-Romanian). Greek loanwords in other languages[edit] Further information: English words of Greek origin Further information: Greek and Latin roots in English Greek words have been widely borrowed into other languages, including English: mathematics, physics, astronomy, democracy, philosophy, athletics, theatre, rhetoric, baptism, evangelist, etc. Moreover, Greek words and word elements continue to be productive as a basis for coinages: anthropology, photography, telephony, isomer, biomechanics, cinematography, etc. and form, with Latin words, the foundation of international scientific and technical vocabulary like all words ending with –logy ("discourse"). There are many English words of Greek origin.[25][26] Classification[edit] Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European language family. The ancient language most closely related to it may be ancient Macedonian,[27] which most scholars suggest may have been a dialect of Greek itself,[28][29][30] but it is poorly attested and it is difficult to conclude. Independently of the Macedonian question, some scholars have grouped Greek into Graeco-Phrygian, as Greek and the extinct Phrygian share features that are not found in other Indo-European languages.[31] Among living languages, some Indo-Europeanists suggest that Greek may be most closely related to Armenian (see Graeco-Armenian) or the Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan), but little definitive evidence has been found for grouping the living branches of the family.[32] In addition, Albanian has also been considered somewhat related to Greek and Armenian by some linguists. If proven and recognized, the three languages would form a new Balkan sub-branch with other dead European languages.[33] Writing system[edit] Greek alphabet Αα Alpha Νν Nu Ββ Beta Ξξ Xi Γγ Gamma Οο Omicron Δδ Delta Ππ Pi Εε Epsilon Ρρ Rho Ζζ Zeta Σσς Sigma Ηη Eta Ττ Tau Θθ Theta Υυ Upsilon Ιι Iota Φφ Phi Κκ Kappa Χχ Chi Λλ Lambda Ψψ Psi Μμ Mu Ωω Omega History Archaic local variants Diacritics Ligatures Numerals ϛ (6) ϟ (90) ϡ (900) Use in other languages Bactrian Coptic Albanian Related topics Use as scientific symbols Book Category v t e See also: Greek Braille Linear B[edit] Main article: Linear B Linear B, attested as early as the late 15th century BC, was the first script used to write Greek.[34] It is basically a syllabary, which was finally deciphered by Michael Ventris and John Chadwick in the 1950s (its precursor, Linear A, has not been deciphered and most likely encodes a non-Greek language).[34] The language of the Linear B texts, Mycenaean Greek, is the earliest known form of Greek.[34] Cypriot syllabary[edit] Main article: Cypriot syllabary Greek inscription in Cypriot syllabic script Another similar system used to write the Greek language was the Cypriot syllabary (also a descendant of Linear A via the intermediate Cypro-Minoan syllabary), which is closely related to Linear B but uses somewhat different syllabic conventions to represent phoneme sequences. The Cypriot syllabary is attested in Cyprus from the 11th century BC until its gradual abandonment in the late Classical period, in favor of the standard Greek alphabet.[35] Greek alphabet[edit] Main articles: Greek alphabet and Greek orthography Ancient epichoric variants of the Greek alphabet from Euboea, Ionia, Athens, and Corinth comparing to modern Greek Greek has been written in the Greek alphabet since approximately the 9th century BC. It was created by modifying the Phoenician alphabet, with the innovation of adopting certain letters to represent the vowels. The variant of the alphabet in use today is essentially the late Ionic variant, introduced for writing classical Attic in 403 BC. In classical Greek, as in classical Latin, only upper-case letters existed. The lower-case Greek letters were developed much later by medieval scribes to permit a faster, more convenient cursive writing style with the use of ink and quill. The Greek alphabet consists of 24 letters, each with an uppercase (majuscule) and lowercase (minuscule) form. The letter sigma has an additional lowercase form (ς) used in the final position: upper case Α Β Γ Δ Ε Ζ Η Θ Ι Κ Λ Μ Ν Ξ Ο Π Ρ Σ Τ Υ Φ Χ Ψ Ω lower case α β γ δ ε ζ η θ ι κ λ μ ν ξ ο π ρ σ ς τ υ φ χ ψ ω Diacritics[edit] Main article: Greek diacritics In addition to the letters, the Greek alphabet features a number of diacritical signs: three different accent marks (acute, grave, and circumflex), originally denoting different shapes of pitch accent on the stressed vowel; the so-called breathing marks (rough and smooth breathing), originally used to signal presence or absence of word-initial /h/; and the diaeresis, used to mark the full syllabic value of a vowel that would otherwise be read as part of a diphthong. These marks were introduced during the course of the Hellenistic period. Actual usage of the grave in handwriting saw a rapid decline in favor of uniform usage of the acute during the late 20th century, and it has only been retained in typography. After the writing reform of 1982, most diacritics are no longer used. Since then, Greek has been written mostly in the simplified monotonic orthography (or monotonic system), which employs only the acute accent and the diaeresis. The traditional system, now called the polytonic orthography (or polytonic system), is still used internationally for the writing of Ancient Greek. Punctuation[edit] In Greek, the question mark is written as the English semicolon, while the functions of the colon and semicolon are performed by a raised point (•), known as the ano teleia (άνω τελεία). In Greek the comma also functions as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ό,τι (ó,ti, 'whatever') from ότι (óti, 'that').[36] Ancient Greek texts often used scriptio continua ('continuous writing'), which means that ancient authors and scribes would write word after word with no spaces or punctuation between words to differentiate or mark boundaries.[37] Boustrophedon, or bi-directional text, was also used in Ancient Greek. Latin alphabet[edit] Greek has occasionally been written in the Latin script, especially in areas under Venetian rule or by Greek Catholics. The term Frankolevantinika / Φραγκολεβαντίνικα applies when the Latin script is used to write Greek in the cultural ambit of Catholicism (because Frankos / Φράγκος is an older Greek term for West-European dating to when most of (Roman Catholic Christian) West Europe was under the control of the Frankish Empire). Frankochiotika / Φραγκοχιώτικα (meaning 'Catholic Chiot') alludes to the significant presence of Catholic missionaries based on the island of Chios. Additionally, the term Greeklish is often used when the Greek language is written in a Latin script in online communications.[38] The Latin script is nowadays used by the Greek-speaking communities of Southern Italy. Hebrew alphabet[edit] The Yevanic dialect was written by Romaniote and Constantinopolitan Karaite Jews using the Hebrew Alphabet.[39] Arabic alphabet[edit] Some Greek Muslims from Crete wrote their Cretan Greek in the Arabic alphabet. The same happened among Epirote Muslims in Ioannina. This usage is sometimes called aljamiado as when Romance languages are written in the Arabic alphabet.[40] See also[edit] Greece portal Language portal Modern Greek Varieties of Modern Greek Medieval Greek Ancient Greek Ancient Greek dialects Hellenic languages List of Greek and Latin roots in English List of medical roots, suffixes and prefixes Notes[edit] ^ A comprehensive overview in J.T. Hooker's Mycenaean Greece (Hooker 1976, Chapter 2: "Before the Mycenaean Age", pp. 11–33 and passim); for a different hypothesis excluding massive migrations and favoring an autochthonous scenario, see Colin Renfrew's "Problems in the General Correlation of Archaeological and Linguistic Strata in Prehistoric Greece: The Model of Autochthonous Origin" (Renfrew 1973, pp. 263–276, especially p. 267) in Bronze Age Migrations by R.A. Crossland and A. Birchall, eds. (1973). ^ The four cases that are found in all stages of Greek are the nominative, genitive, accusative, and vocative. The dative/locative of Ancient Greek disappeared in the late Hellenistic period, and the instrumental case of Mycenaean Greek disappeared in the Archaic period. ^ There is no particular morphological form that can be identified as 'subjunctive' in the modern language, but the term is sometimes encountered in descriptions even if the most complete modern grammar (Holton et al. 1997) does not use it and calls certain traditionally-'subjunctive' forms 'dependent'. Most Greek linguists advocate abandoning the traditional terminology (Anna Roussou and Tasos Tsangalidis 2009, in Meletes gia tin Elliniki Glossa, Thessaloniki, Anastasia Giannakidou 2009 "Temporal semantics and polarity: The dependency of the subjunctive revisited", Lingua); see Modern Greek grammar for explanation. References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Greek at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) Ancient Greek at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) Cappadocian Greek at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) Mycenaean Greek at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) Pontic at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) Tsakonian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (Additional references under 'Language codes' in the information box) ^ a b "Greek language". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 29 April 2014. ^ 1922-, Adrados, Francisco Rodríguez (2005). A history of the Greek language : from its origins to the present. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-12835-4. OCLC 59712402.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) ^ A history of ancient Greek by Maria Chritē, Maria Arapopoulou, Centre for the Greek Language (Thessalonikē, Greece) pg 436 ISBN 0-521-83307-8 ^ Kurt Aland, Barbara Aland The text of the New Testament: an introduction to the critical 1995 p52 ^ Archibald Macbride Hunter Introducing the New Testament 1972 p9 ^ Manuel, Germaine Catherine (1989). A study of the preservation of the classical tradition in the education, language, and literature of the Byzantine Empire. HVD ALEPH. ^ Renfrew 2003, p. 35; Georgiev 1981, p. 192. ^ Gray & Atkinson 2003, pp. 437–438; Atkinson & Gray 2006, p. 102. ^ "Ancient Tablet Found: Oldest Readable Writing in Europe". National Geographic Society. 30 March 2011. Retrieved 22 November 2013. ^ Dawkins & Halliday 1916. ^ a b "Greek". Ethnologue. Retrieved 12 April 2020. ^ Peter, Mackridge (1985). The modern Greek language : a descriptive analysis of standard modern Greek. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-815770-0. OCLC 11134463. ^ Browning 1983. ^ Alexiou 1982, p. 161. ^ Welsby 2002, p. 239. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWelsby2002 (help) ^ "Greece". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 23 January 2010. ^ "The Constitution of Cyprus, App. D., Part 1, Art. 3". Archived from the original on 7 April 2012. states that The official languages of the Republic are Greek and Turkish. However, the official status of Turkish is only nominal in the Greek-dominated Republic of Cyprus; in practice, outside Turkish-dominated Northern Cyprus, Turkish is little used; see A. Arvaniti (2006): Erasure as a Means of Maintaining Diglossia in Cyprus, San Diego Linguistics Papers 2: pp. 25–38 [27]. ^ "The EU at a Glance – Languages in the EU". Europa. European Union. Retrieved 30 July 2010. ^ "Greek". Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. Archived from the original on 18 November 2008. Retrieved 8 December 2008. ^ "List of Declarations Made with Respect to Treaty No. 148". Council of Europe. Archived from the original on 10 April 2020. Retrieved 8 December 2008. ^ "Self-Government in Hungary". Project on Ethnic Relations. 27 September 2006. Archived from the original on 27 September 2006. Retrieved 12 April 2020. ^ Ralli 2001, pp. 164–203. ^ Beekes 2009. ^ Scheler 1977. ^ "Πόσο "ελληνικές" είναι οι ξένες γλώσσες". NewsIt. 18 November 2019. ^ Hamp 2013, pp. 8–10, 13. ^ Crespo, Emilio (2018). "The Softening of Obstruent Consonants in the Macedonian Dialect". In Giannakis, Georgios K.; Crespo, Emilio; Filos, Panagiotis (eds.). Studies in Ancient Greek Dialects: From Central Greece to the Black Sea. Walter de Gruyter. p. 329. ISBN 978-3-11-053081-0. ^ Hatzopoulos, Miltiades B. (2018). "Recent Research in the Ancient Macedonian Dialect: Consolidation and New Perspectives". In Giannakis, Georgios K.; Crespo, Emilio; Filos, Panagiotis (eds.). Studies in Ancient Greek Dialects: From Central Greece to the Black Sea. Walter de Gruyter. p. 299. ISBN 978-3-11-053081-0. ^ Babiniotis 1992, pp. 29–40; Dosuna 2012, pp. 65–78. ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Graeco-Phrygian". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. ^ Renfrew 1990; Gamkrelidze & Ivanov 1990, pp. 110–116; Renfrew 2003, pp. 17–48; Gray & Atkinson 2003, pp. 435–439. ^ Holm 2008, pp. 628–636. ^ a b c T., Hooker, J. (1980). Linear B : an introduction. Bristol: Bristol Classical Press. ISBN 978-0-906515-69-3. OCLC 7326206. ^ "Cypriot syllabary". Britannica Academic. Retrieved 1 August 2017. ^ Nicolas, Nick (2005). "Greek Unicode Issues: Punctuation". Archived from the original on 6 August 2012. Retrieved 7 October 2014. ^ Hugoe, Matthews Peter (March 2014). The concise Oxford dictionary of linguistics. Oxford University Press. (Third ed.). Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-967512-8. OCLC 881847972. ^ Androutsopoulos 2009, pp. 221–249. ^ "Yevanic alphabet, pronunciation and language". www.omniglot.com. Retrieved 18 April 2020. ^ Kotzageorgis, Phokion (2010). Gruber, Christiane J.; Colby, Frederick Stephen (eds.). The Prophet's Ascension: Cross-cultural Encounters with the Islamic Mi'rāj Tales. Indiana University Press. p. 297. ISBN 978-0-253-35361-0. The element that makes this text a unicum is that it is written in Greek script. In the Ottoman Empire, the primary criterion for the selection of an alphabet in which to write was religion. Thus, people who did not speak—or even know—the official language of their religion used to write their religious texts in the languages that they knew, though in the alphabet where the sacred texts of that religion were written. Thus, the Grecophone Catholics of Chios wrote using the Latin alphabet, but in the Greek language (frangochiotika); the Turcophone Orthodox Christians of Cappadocia wrote their Turkish texts using the Greek alphabet (karamanlidika); and the Grecophone Muslims of the Greek peninsula wrote in Greek language using the Arabic alphabet (tourkogianniotika, tourkokretika). Our case is much stranger, since it is a quite early example for that kind of literature and because it is largely concerned with religious themes."; p. 306. The audience for the Greek Mi'rājnāma was most certainly Greek-speaking Muslims, in particular the so-called Tourkogianniotes (literally, the Turks of Jannina). Although few examples have been discovered as yet, it seems that these people developed a religious literature mainly composed in verse form. This literary form constituted the mainstream of Greek Aljamiado literature from the middle of the seventeenth century until the population exchange between Greece and Turkey in 1923. Tourkogianniotes were probably of Christian origin and were Islamized sometime during the seventeenth century. They did not speak any language other than Greek. Thus, even their frequency in attending mosque services did not provide them with the necessary knowledge about their faith. Given their low level of literacy, one important way that they could learn about their faith was to listen to religiously edifying texts such as the Greek Mi'rājnāma. Sources[edit] Alexiou, Margaret (1982). "Diglossia in Greece". In Haas, William (ed.). Standard Languages: Spoken and Written. Manchester: Manchester University Press. pp. 156–192. ISBN 978-0-389-20291-2. Androutsopoulos, Jannis (2009). "'Greeklish': Transliteration Practice and Discourse in a Setting of Computer-Mediated Digraphia" (PDF). In Georgakopoulou, Alexandra; Silk, Michael (eds.). Standard Languages and Language Standards: Greek, Past and Present. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Limited. pp. 221–249.[permanent dead link] Atkinson, Quentin D.; Gray, Russel D. (2006). "Chapter 8: How Old is the Indo-European Language Family? Illumination or More Moths to the Flame?". In Forster, Peter; Renfrew, Colin (eds.). Phylogenetic Methods and the Prehistory of Languages. Cambridge, England: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research. pp. 91–109. ISBN 978-1-902937-33-5. Babiniotis, George (1992). "The Question of Mediae in Ancient Macedonian Greek Reconsidered". In Brogyanyi, Bela; Lipp, Reiner (eds.). Historical Philology: Greek, Latin and Romance. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 29–40. ISBN 9789027277473. Beekes, Robert Stephen Paul (2009). Etymological Dictionary of Greek. Leiden and Boston: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-17418-4. Browning, Robert (1983) [1969]. Medieval and Modern Greek. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-23488-7. Dawkins, Richard McGillivray; Halliday, William Reginald (1916). Modern Greek in Asia Minor: A Study of Dialect of Silly, Cappadocia and Pharasa with Grammar, Texts, Translations and Glossary. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Dosuna, Julián Víctor Méndez (2012). "Ancient Macedonian as a Greek Dialect: A Critical Survey on Recent Work". In Giannakis, Georgios K. (ed.). Ancient Macedonia: Language, History and Culture (in Greek). Thessaloniki: Centre for the Greek Language. pp. 65–78. Gamkrelidze, Tamaz V.; Ivanov, Vyacheslav (March 1990). "The Early History of Indo-European Languages". Scientific American. 262 (3): 110–116. Bibcode:1990SciAm.262c.110G. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0390-110. Archived from the original on 6 January 2014. Georgiev, Vladimir Ivanov (1981). Introduction to the History of the Indo-European Languages. Sofia: Bulgarian Academy of Sciences. Gray, Russel D.; Atkinson, Quentin D. (2003). "Language-tree Divergence Times Support the Anatolian Theory of Indo-European Origin". Nature. 426 (6965): 435–439. Bibcode:2003Natur.426..435G. doi:10.1038/nature02029. PMID 14647380. S2CID 42340. Hamp, Eric P. (August 2013). "The Expansion of the Indo-European Languages: An Indo-Europeanist's Evolving View" (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers. 239. Holm, Hans J. (2008). "The Distribution of Data in Word Lists and its Impact on the Subgrouping of Languages". In Preisach, Christine; Burkhardt, Hans; Schmidt-Thieme, Lars; Decker, Reinhold (eds.). Data Analysis, Machine Learning, and Applications. Proceedings of the 31st Annual Conference of the Gesellschaft für Klassifikation e.V., Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, March 7–9, 2007. Berlin-Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. pp. 628–636. ISBN 978-3-540-78246-9. Hooker, J.T. (1976). Mycenaean Greece. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 9780710083791. Jeffries, Ian (2002). Eastern Europe at the Turn of the Twenty-First Century: A Guide to the Economies in Transition. London and New York: Routledge (Taylor & Francis). ISBN 978-0-415-23671-3. Ralli, Angeliki (2001). Μορφολογία [Morphology] (in Greek). Athens: Ekdoseis Pataki. Renfrew, Colin (1973). "Problems in the General Correlation of Archaeological and Linguistic Strata in Prehistoric Greece: The Model of Autochthonous Origin". In Crossland, R. A.; Birchall, Ann (eds.). Bronze Age Migrations in the Aegean; Archaeological and Linguistic Problems in Greek Prehistory: Proceedings of the first International Colloquium on Aegean Prehistory, Sheffield. London: Gerald Duckworth and Company Limited. pp. 263–276. ISBN 978-0-7156-0580-6. Renfrew, Colin (2003). "Time Depth, Convergence Theory, and Innovation in Proto-Indo-European: 'Old Europe' as a PIE Linguistic Area". In Bammesberger, Alfred; Vennemann, Theo (eds.). Languages in Prehistoric Europe. Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag Winter GmBH. pp. 17–48. ISBN 978-3-8253-1449-1. Renfrew, Colin (1990) [1987]. Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38675-3. Scheler, Manfred (1977). Der englische Wortschatz [English Vocabulary] (in German). Berlin: E. Schmidt. ISBN 978-3-503-01250-3. Tsitselikis, Konstantinos (2013). "A Surviving Treaty: The Lausanne Minority Protection in Greece and Turkey". In Henrard, Kristin (ed.). The Interrelation between the Right to Identity of Minorities and their Socio-economic Participation. Leiden and Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 287–315. ISBN 9789004244740. Further reading[edit] Allen, W. Sidney (1968). Vox Graeca – A Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Greek. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-20626-6. Crosby, Henry Lamar; Schaeffer, John Nevin (1928). An Introduction to Greek. Boston, MA; New York, NY: Allyn and Bacon, Inc. Dionysius of Thrace (c. 100 BC). Τέχνη Γραμματική [Art of Grammar] (in Greek). Check date values in: |date= (help) Holton, David; Mackridge, Peter; Philippaki-Warburton, Irene (1997). Greek: A Comprehensive Grammar of the Modern Language. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-10002-1. Horrocks, Geoffrey (1997). Greek: A History of the Language and Its Speakers. London and New York: Longman Linguistics Library (Addison Wesley Longman Limited). ISBN 978-0-582-30709-4. Krill, Richard M. (1990). Greek and Latin in English Today. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers. ISBN 978-0-86516-241-9. Mallory, James P. (1997). "Greek Language". In Mallory, James P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Chicago, IL: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. pp. 240–246. ISBN 9781884964985. Newton, Brian (1972). The Generative Interpretation of Dialect: A Study of Modern Greek Phonology. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-08497-0. Sihler, Andrew L. (1995). New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-508345-3. Smyth, Herbert Weir; Messing, Gordon (1956) [1920]. Greek Grammar. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-36250-5. External links[edit] Standard Greek edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Pontic Greek edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Wikibooks has more on the topic of: Greek language For a list of words relating to Greek language, see the Greek language category of words in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Ancient Greek test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator Wikimedia Commons has media related to Greek language. Wikivoyage has a phrasebook for Greek. General background Greek Language, Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia. The Greek Language and Linguistics Gateway, useful information on the history of the Greek language, application of modern Linguistics to the study of Greek, and tools for learning Greek. Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, The Greek Language Portal, a portal for Greek language and linguistic education. The Perseus Project has many useful pages for the study of classical languages and literatures, including dictionaries. Ancient Greek Tutorials, Berkeley Language Center of the University of California, Berkeley Language learning Wikiquote has quotations related to: Greek language Hellenistic Greek Lessons Greek-Language.com provides a free online grammar of Hellenistic Greek. komvos.edu.gr, a website for the support of people who are being taught the Greek language. New Testament Greek Three graduated courses designed to help students learn to read the Greek New Testament Books on Greek language that are taught at schools in Greece (page in Greek) Greek Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words (from Wiktionary's Swadesh list appendix) USA Foreign Service Institute Modern Greek basic course Aversa, Alan. "Greek Inflector". University of Arizona. Identifies the grammatical functions of all the words in sentences entered, using Perseus. Dictionaries Greek Lexical Aids, descriptions of both online lexicons (with appropriate links) and Greek Lexicons in Print. The Greek Language Portal, dictionaries of all forms of Greek (Ancient, Hellenistic, Medieval, Modern) scanned images from S. C. Woodhouse's English–Greek dictionary, 1910 Literature Center for Neo-Hellenic Studies, a non-profit organization that promotes modern Greek literature and culture Research lab of modern Greek philosophy, a large e-library of modern Greek texts/books v t e Greek language Origin and genealogy Proto-Greek Pre-Greek substrate Graeco-Armenian Graeco-Aryan Graeco-Phrygian Hellenic languages Periods Mycenaean Greek (c. 1600–1100 BC) Ancient Greek (c. 800–300 BC) Koine Greek (c. 300 BC–AD 330) Medieval Greek (c. 330–1453) Modern Greek (since 1453) Varieties Ancient Aeolic Arcadocypriot Attic and Ionic Doric (Epirote) Homeric Locrian Pamphylian Macedonian Koine Jewish Koine Greek Modern Demotic Katharevousa Cappadocian Misthiotika Cretan Cypriot Himariote Istanbul Italiot Greco/Calabrian Griko/Apulian Maniot Mariupolitan Pontic Tsakonian Yevanic Phonology Ancient (accent/teaching) Koine Standard Modern Grammar Ancient Koine Standard Modern Writing systems Cypriot syllabary Linear B Greek alphabet History Archaic forms Attic numerals Greek numerals Orthography Diacritics Braille Cyrillization and Romanization Greeklish Literature Ancient Byzantine Modern Promotion and study Hellenic Foundation for Culture Center for the Greek Language Other Greek language question Exonyms Morphemes in English Terms of endearment Place names Proverbs Greek Language Day Comparison of Ancient Greek dictionaries v t e Languages of Greece Official language Greek Greek varieties Cretan Cappadocian Pontic Maniot Romano-Greek Tsakonian Yevanic Sign languages Greek Sign Language Other languages Aromanian Arvanitika Balkan Romani Macedonian Slavic Megleno-Romanian Pomak Bulgarian Turkish Vlax Romani v t e Languages of Cyprus Official languages Greek Turkish Semiofficial language English Vernacular languages Cypriot Greek Cypriot Turkish Minority languages Armenian Cypriot Maronite Arabic Russian Sign languages Cypriot Sign Language v t e Languages of Albania Official language Albanian (Tosk) Minority languages Aromanian Greek (Himariote) Macedonian Romani Serbian Sign languages Albanian Sign Language v t e Languages of Turkey Official language Turkish Minority languages Arabic Armenian Bulgarian Georgian Greek Kurdish (Kurmanji) Laz Zaza(ki) Sign languages Turkish Sign Language Mardin Sign Language Central Taurus Sign Language  Turkey portal Category v t e Languages of Italy Historical linguistic minorities: Albanian, Catalan, Croatian, French, Franco-Provençal, Friulian, Germanic, Greek, Ladin, Occitan, Sardinian, Slovene Italo-Dalmatian Venetian[a] Venetian Fiuman Triestine Central Italian Italian Italian Sign Language Regional Italian Tuscan Florentine Corsican Gallurese Sassarese Central Marchigiano Sabino Romanesco Southern Italian Neapolitan Barese Irpinian Molisan Cosentino Tarantino Sicilian Salentino Manduriano Southern Calabrese Cilentan Others Judaeo-Italian Sardinian Sardinian Sardinian Campidanese Logudorese Occitano-Romance Catalan Algherese Occitan Vivaro-Alpine Mentonasc Niçard Gallo-Romance French Aostan Franco-Provençal Valdôtain Faetar Savoyard Gallo-Italic Ligurian Brigasc Genoese Intemelio Monégasque Royasc Lombard Western Lombard Brianzöö dialects Canzés Bustocco and Legnanese Comasco-Lecchese dialects Comasco Laghée Vallassinese Lecchese Milanese Ticinese Ossolano Varesino Southwestern Lombard Pavese Novarese Cremunés Eastern Lombard Bergamasque Emilian-Romagnol Emilian Bolognese Parmigiano Romagnol Forlivese Various Gallo-Italic Piedmontese Judeo-Piedmontese Gallo-Italic of Basilicata Gallo-Italic of Sicily Rhaeto-Romance Rhaeto-Romance Friulian Ladin Cadorino Fornes Nones Italy portal Albanian Arbëresh language Arbëresh Vaccarizzo Albanian South Slavic Croatian Slavomolisano Slovene Brda Gail Valley Inner Carniolan Istrian Karst Natisone Valley Resian Torre Valley Serbian Triestine Serbian Greek Italiot Greek Calabrian Greek Griko German Bavarian Cimbrian Mòcheno Southern Bavarian Other German dialects Austrian German 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en-wikipedia-org-5482	----	Medes - Wikipedia Medes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Median Empire) Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient iranian people This article is about the ancient Iranian people. For other uses, see Medes (disambiguation). For Medians, see Median (disambiguation). This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in French. (February 2020) Click [show] for important translation instructions. View a machine-translated version of the French article. Machine translation like DeepL or Google Translate is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Wikipedia. Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article. You must provide copyright attribution in the edit summary accompanying your translation by providing an interlanguage link to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary Content in this edit is translated from the existing French Wikipedia article at [[:fr:Mèdes]]; see its history for attribution. You should also add the template {{Translated|fr|Mèdes}} to the talk page. For more guidance, see Wikipedia:Translation. Median Dynasty Mādai c. 678 BC–c. 549 BC A map of the Median Empire at its greatest extent (6th century BC), according to Herodotus Capital Ecbatana Common languages Median Religion Ancient Iranian religion (related to Mithraism, early Zoroastrianism) King   Historical era Iron Age • Established c. 678 BC • Conquered by Cyrus the Great c. 549 BC Area 585 BC[1][2] 2,800,000 km2 (1,100,000 sq mi) Preceded by Succeeded by Neo-Assyrian Empire Urartu Achaemenid Empire Part of a series on the History of Iran Mythological history Pishdadian dynasty Kayanian dynasty Ancient period BC Prehistory of Iran Ancient Times–4000 Kura–Araxes culture 3400–2000 Proto-Elamite 3200–2700 Jiroft culture c. 3100 – c. 2200 Elam 2700–539 Akkadian Empire 2400–2150 Lullubi culture c. 2300-700 Kassites c. 1500 – c. 1155 Neo-Assyrian Empire 911–609 Urartu 860–590 Mannaeans 850–616 Imperial period Median Empire 678–550 BC (Scythian Kingdom) 652–625 BC Anshanite Kingdom 635 BC–550 BC Neo-Babylonian Empire 626 BC–539 BC Achaemenid Empire 550 BC–330 BC Kingdom of Armenia 331 BC–428 AD Atropatene c. 323 BC–226 AD Kingdom of Cappadocia 320s BC–17 AD Seleucid Empire 312 BC–63 BC Kingdom of Pontus 281 BC–62 BC Fratarakas 3rd-century BC–132 BC Parthian Empire 247 BC–224 AD Elymais 147 BC–224 AD Characene 141 BC–222 AD Kings of Persis 132 BC–224 AD Indo-Parthian Kingdom 19 AD–224/5 Paratarajas 125–300 Sasanian Empire 224–651 Zarmihrids 6th century–785 Qarinvandids 550s–11th century Medieval period Rashidun Caliphate 632-661 Umayyad Caliphate 661–750 Abbasid Caliphate 750–1258 Dabuyids 642–760 Bavandids 651–1349 Masmughans of Damavand 651–760 Baduspanids 665–1598 Justanids 791 – 11th century Alid dynasties 864 – 14th century Tahirid dynasty 821–873 Samanid Empire 819–999 Saffarid dynasty 861–1003 Ghurid dynasty pre-879 – 1215 Sajid dynasty 889–929 Sallarid dynasty 919–1062 Ziyarid dynasty 930–1090 Ilyasids 932–968 Buyid dynasty 934–1062 Ghaznavid dynasty 977–1186 Kakuyids 1008–1141 Nasrid dynasty 1029–1236 Shabankara 1030–1355 Seljuk Empire 1037–1194 Khwarazmian dynasty 1077–1231 Eldiguzids 1135–1225 Atabegs of Yazd 1141–1319 Salghurids 1148–1282 Hazaraspids 1155–1424 Pishkinid dynasty 1155–1231 Khorshidi dynasty 1184-1597 Qutlugh-Khanids 1223-1306 Mihrabanids 1236–1537 Kurt dynasty 1244–1396 Ilkhanate Empire 1256–1335 Chobanid dynasty 1335–1357 Muzaffarid dynasty 1335–1393 Jalayirid Sultanate 1337–1376 Sarbadars 1337–1376 Injuids 1335–1357 Afrasiyab dynasty 1349–1504 Mar'ashis 1359–1596 Timurid Empire 1370–1507 Kar-Kiya dynasty 1370s–1592 Kara Koyunlu 1406–1468 Aq Qoyunlu 1468–1508 Early modern period Safavid Iran 1501–1736 (Hotak dynasty) 1722–1729 Afsharid dynasty 1736–1796 Talysh Khanate 1747–1826 Zand dynasty 1751–1794 Qajar Iran 1789–1925 Modern period Pahlavi dynasty 1925–1979 Iranian Revolution, Interim Government 1979 Islamic Republic 1979–present Related articles Name Monarchs Heads of state Economic history Military history Wars Timeline  Iran portal v t e The Apadana Palace, 5th century BC Achaemenid bas-relief shows a Mede soldier behind a Persian soldier, in Persepolis, Iran The Medes /ˈmiːdz/[N 1] (Old Persian Māda-, Ancient Greek: Μῆδοι) were an ancient Iranian people[N 2] who spoke the Median language and who inhabited an area known as Media between western and northern Iran. Around the 11th century BC, they occupied the mountainous region of northwestern Iran and the northeastern and eastern region of Mesopotamia located in the region of Hamadan (Ecbatana). Their emergence in Iran is believed to have occurred during the 8th century BC. In the 7th century BC, all of western Iran and some other territories were under Median rule, but their precise geographic extent remains unknown.[5] Although they are generally recognized as having an important place in the history of the ancient Near East, the Medes have left no written source to reconstruct their history, which is known only from foreign sources such as the Assyrians, Babylonians and Greeks, as well as a few Iranian archaeological sites, which are believed to have been occupied by Medes. The accounts relating to the Medes reported by Herodotus have left the image of a powerful people, who would have formed an empire at the beginning of the 7th century BC that lasted until the 550s BC, played a determining role in the fall of the Assyrian Empire and competed with the powerful kingdoms of Lydia and Babylonia. However, a recent reassessment of contemporary sources from the Mede period has altered scholars' perceptions of the Median state. The state remains difficult to perceive in the documentation, which leaves many doubts about it, some specialists even suggesting that there never was a powerful Median kingdom. In any case, it appears that after the fall of the last Median king against Cyrus the Great of the Persian Empire, Media became an important province and prized by the empires which successively dominated it (Achaemenids, Seleucids, Parthians and Sasanids). Contents 1 Tribes 2 Etymology 3 Mythology 4 Archaeology 5 Geography 6 History 6.1 Prehistory 6.2 Rise and fall 6.3 Median dynasty 7 Culture and society 7.1 Language 7.2 Religion 8 Kurds and Medes 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Sources 13 Further reading 14 External links Tribes[edit] According to the Histories of Herodotus, there were six Median tribes:[6] Thus Deioces collected the Medes into a nation, and ruled over them alone. Now these are the tribes of which they consist: the Busae, the Paretaceni, the Struchates, the Arizanti, the Budii, and the Magi. The six Median tribes resided in Media proper, the triangular area between Rhagae, Aspadana and Ecbatana.[7] In present-day Iran,[8] that is the area between Tehran, Isfahan and Hamadan, respectively. Of the Median tribes, the Magi resided in Rhagae,[9] modern Tehran.[10] They were of a sacred caste which ministered to the spiritual needs of the Medes.[11] The Paretaceni tribe resided in and around Aspadana, modern Isfahan,[7][12][13] the Arizanti lived in and around Kashan (Isfahan Province),[7] and the Busae tribe lived in and around the future Median capital of Ecbatana, near modern Hamadan.[7] The Struchates and the Budii lived in villages in the Median triangle.[14] Etymology[edit] The original source for their name and homeland is a directly transmitted Old Iranian geographical name which is attested as the Old Persian "Māda-" (singular masculine).[15] The meaning of this word is not precisely known.[16] However, the linguist W. Skalmowski proposes a relation with the proto-Indo European word "med(h)-", meaning "central, suited in the middle", by referring to the Old Indic "madhya-" and Old Iranian "maidiia-" which both carry the same meaning.[15] The Latin medium, Greek méso, Armenian mej, and English mid are similarly derived from it. Greek scholars during antiquity would base ethnological conclusions on Greek legends and the similarity of names. According to the Histories of Herodotus (440 BC):[17] The Medes were formerly called by everyone Arians, but when the Colchian woman Medea came from Athens to the Arians, they changed their name, like the Persians [did after Perses, son of Perseus and Andromeda].[18] This is the Medes' own account of themselves. Mythology[edit] In the Greek myth of Jason and the Argonauts, Medea is the daughter of King Aeëtes of Colchis and a paternal granddaughter of the sun-god Helios.[19] Following her failed marriage to Jason while in Corinth, for one of several reasons depending on the version,[20] she marries King Aegeus of Athens and bears a son Medus. After failing to make Aegeus kill his older son Theseus, she and her son fled to Aria, where the Medes take their name from her, according to several Greek and later Roman accounts, including in Pausanias' Description of Greece (1st-century AD).[21] According to other versions, such as in Strabo's Geographica (1st-century AD) and Justin's Epitoma Historiarum Philippicarum (2nd or 3rd century AD), she returned home to conquer neighboring lands with her husband Jason, one of which was named after her; while another version related by Diodorus Siculus in Bibliotheca Historica (1st-century BC) states that after being exiled she married an Asian king and bore Medus, who was greatly admired for his courage, after whom they took their name.[22] Archaeology[edit] Excavation from ancient Ecbatana, Hamadan, Iran The discoveries of Median sites in Iran happened only after the 1960s.[23] Prior to the 1960s, the search for Median archeological sources has mostly focused in an area known as the "Median triangle", defined roughly as the region bounded by Hamadān and Malāyer (in Hamadan Province) and Kangāvar (in Kermanshah Province).[23] Three major sites from central western Iran in the Iron Age III period (i.e. 850–500 BC) are:[24] Tepe Nush-i Jan (a primarily religious site of Median period), The site is located 14 km west of Malāyer in Hamadan province.[23] The excavations started in 1967 with David Stronach as the director.[25] The remains of four main buildings in the site are "the central temple, the western temple, the fort, and the columned hall" which according to Stronach were likely to have been built in the order named and predate the latter occupation of the first half of the 6th century BC.[26] According to Stronach, the central temple, with its stark design, "provides a notable, if mute, expression of religious belief and practice".[26] A number of ceramics from the Median levels at Tepe Nush-i Jan have been found which are associated with a period (the second half of the 7th century BC) of power consolidation in the Hamadān areas. These findings show four different wares known as "common ware" (buff, cream, or light red in colour and with gold or silver mica temper) including jars in various size the largest of which is a form of ribbed pithoi. Smaller and more elaborate vessels were in "grey ware", (these display smoothed and burnished surface). The "cooking ware" and "crumbly ware" are also recognized each in single handmade products.[26] Godin Tepe (its period II: a fortified palace of a Median king or tribal chief), The site is located 13 km east of Kangāvar city on the left bank of the river Gamas Āb". The excavations, started in 1965, were led by T. C. Young, Jr. which according to David Stronach, evidently shows an important Bronze Age construction that was reoccupied sometime before the beginning of the Iron III period. The excavations of Young indicate the remains of part of a single residence of a local ruler which later became quite substantial.[23] This is similar to those mentioned often in Assyrian sources.[24] Babajan (probably the seat of a lesser tribal ruler of Media). The site is located in northeastern Lorestan with a distance of roughly 10 km from Nūrābād in Lorestan province. The excavations were conducted by C. Goff in 1966–69. The second level of this site probably dates to the 7th century BC.[27] These sources have both similarities (in cultural characteristics) and differences (due to functional differences and diversity among the Median tribes).[24] The architecture of these archaeological findings, which can probably be dated to the Median period, show a link between the tradition of columned audience halls often seen in the Achaemenid Empire (for example in Persepolis) and Safavid Iran (for example in Chehel Sotoun from the 17th century AD) and what is seen in Median architecture.[24] The materials found at Tepe Nush-i Jan, Godin Tepe, and other sites located in Media together with the Assyrian reliefs show the existence of urban settlements in Media in the first half of the 1st millennium BC which had functioned as centres for the production of handicrafts and also of an agricultural and cattle-breeding economy of a secondary type.[28] For other historical documentation, the archaeological evidence, though rare, together with cuneiform records by Assyrian make it possible, regardless of Herodotus' accounts, to establish some of the early history of Medians.[29] Geography[edit] An early description of Media from the end of the 9th century BC to the beginning of the 7th century BC comes from the Assyrians. The southern border of Media, in that period, is named as the Elamite region of Simaški in present-day Lorestan Province. To the west and northwest, Media was bounded by the Zagros Mountains and from the east by the Dasht-e Kavir desert. This region of Media was ruled by the Assyrians and for them the region fell "along the Great Khorasan Road from just east of Harhar to Alwand, and probably beyond."[30] The location of Harhar is suggested to be "the central or eastern" Mahidasht District in Kermanshah Province.[31] Its borders were limited in the north by the non-Iranian states of Gizilbunda and Mannea, and to its south by Ellipi and Elam.[30][5] Gizilbunda was located in the Qaflankuh Mountains, and Ellipi was located in the south of modern Lorestan Province.[5] On the east and southeast of Media, as described by the Assyrians, another land with the name of "Patušarra" appears. This land was located near a mountain range which the Assyrians call "Bikni" and describe as "Lapis Lazuli Mountain". There are differing opinions on the location of this mountain. Mount Damavand of Tehran and Alvand of Hamadan are two proposed sites. This location is the most remote eastern area that the Assyrians knew of or reached during their expansion until the beginning of the 7th century BC.[32] In Achaemenid sources, specifically from the Behistun Inscription (2.76, 77–78), the capital of Media is Ecbatana, called "Hamgmatāna-" in Old Persian (Elamite:Agmadana-; Babylonian: Agamtanu-) corresponding to modern-day Hamadan.[33] The other cities existing in Media were Laodicea (modern Nahavand)[34] and the mound that was the largest city of the Medes, Rhages (present-day Rey). The fourth city of Media was Apamea, near Ecbatana, whose precise location is now unknown. In later periods, Medes and especially Mede soldiers are identified and portrayed prominently in ancient archaeological sites such as Persepolis, where they are shown to have a major role and presence in the military of the Achaemenid Empire. History[edit] Prehistory[edit] Timeline of Pre-Achaemenid era. At the end of the 2nd millennium BC, the Iranian tribes emerged in the region of northwest Iran. These tribes expanded their control over larger areas. Subsequently, the boundaries of Media changed over a period of several hundred years.[35] Iranian tribes were present in western and northwestern Iran from at least the 12th or 11th centuries BC. But the significance of Iranian elements in these regions were established from the beginning of the second half of the 8th century BC.[36] By this time the Iranian tribes were the majority in what later become the territory of the Median Kingdom and also the west of Media proper.[36] A study of textual sources from the region shows that in the Neo-Assyrian period, the regions of Media, and further to the west and the northwest, had a population with Iranian speaking people as the majority.[37] This period of migration coincided with a power vacuum in the Near East with the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1020 BC), which had dominated northwestern Iran and eastern Anatolia and the Caucasus, going into a comparative decline. This allowed new peoples to pass through and settle. In addition Elam, the dominant power in Iran, was suffering a period of severe weakness, as was Babylonia to the west. In western and northwestern Iran and in areas further west prior to Median rule, there is evidence of the earlier political activity of the powerful societies of Elam, Mannaea, Assyria and Urartu .[36] There are various and up-dated opinions on the positions and activities of Iranian tribes in these societies and prior to the "major Iranian state formations" in the late 7th century BC.[36] One opinion (of Herzfeld, et al.) is that the ruling class were "Iranian migrants" but the society was "autonomous" while another opinion (of Grantovsky, et al.) holds that both the ruling class and basic elements of the population were Iranian.[38] Rhyton in the shape of a ram's head, gold – western Iran – Median, late 7th–early 6th century BC The neighboring Neo-Babylonian Empire at its greatest extent after the destruction of the Neo-Assyrian Empire Protoma in the form of a bull's head, 8th century BC, gold and filigree, National Museum, Warsaw Rise and fall[edit] From the 10th to the late 7th centuries BC, the western parts of Media fell under the domination of the vast Neo-Assyrian Empire based in northern Mesopotamia, which stretched from Cyprus in the west, to parts of western Iran in the east, and Egypt and the north of the Arabian Peninsula. Assyrian kings such as Tiglath-Pileser III, Sargon II, Sennacherib, Esarhaddon, Ashurbanipal and Ashur-etil-ilani imposed Vassal Treaties upon the Median rulers, and also protected them from predatory raids by marauding Scythians and Cimmerians.[39] During the reign of Sinsharishkun (622–612 BC), the Assyrian empire, which had been in a state of constant civil war since 626 BC, began to unravel. Subject peoples, such as the Medes, Babylonians, Chaldeans, Egyptians, Scythians, Cimmerians, Lydians and Arameans quietly ceased to pay tribute to Assyria. Neo-Assyrian dominance over the Medians came to an end during the reign of Median King Cyaxares, who, in alliance with King Nabopolassar of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, attacked and destroyed the strife-riven Neo-Assyrian empire between 616 and 609 BC.[40] The newfound alliance helped the Medes to capture Nineveh in 612 BC, which resulted in the eventual collapse of the Neo-Assyrian Empire by 609 BC. The Medes were subsequently able to establish their Median Kingdom (with Ecbatana as their royal capital) beyond their original homeland and had eventually a territory stretching roughly from northeastern Iran to the Kızılırmak River in Anatolia. After the fall of Assyria between 616 BC and 609 BC, a unified Median state was formed, which together with Babylonia, Lydia, and ancient Egypt became one of the four major powers of the ancient Near East. Cyaxares was succeeded by his son King Astyages. In 553 BC, his maternal grandson Cyrus the Great, the King of Anshan/Persia, a Median vassal, revolted against Astyages. In 550 BC, Cyrus finally won a decisive victory resulting in Astyages' capture by his own dissatisfied nobles, who promptly turned him over to the triumphant Cyrus.[41] After Cyrus's victory against Astyages, the Medes were subjected to their close kin, the Persians.[42] In the new empire they retained a prominent position; in honour and war, they stood next to the Persians; their court ceremony was adopted by the new sovereigns, who in the summer months resided in Ecbatana; and many noble Medes were employed as officials, satraps and generals. Median dynasty[edit] The list of Median rulers and their period of reign is compiled according to two sources. Firstly, Herodotus who calls them "kings" and associates them with the same family. Secondly, the Babylonian Chronicle which in "Gadd's Chronicle on the Fall of Nineveh" gives its own list. A combined list stretching over 150 years is thus: Deioces (700–647 BC) Phraortes (647–625 BC) Scythian rule (624–597 BC) Cyaxares (624–585 BC) Astyages (585–549 BC)[43] However, not all of these dates and personalities given by Herodotus match the other near eastern sources.[43] In Herodotus (book 1, chapters 95–130), Deioces is introduced as the founder of a centralised Median state. He had been known to the Median people as "a just and incorruptible man" and when asked by the Median people to solve their possible disputes he agreed and put forward the condition that they make him "king" and build a great city at Ecbatana as the capital of the Median state.[44] Judging from the contemporary sources of the region and disregarding[45] the account of Herodotus puts the formation of a unified Median state during the reign of Cyaxares or later.[46] Culture and society[edit] Greek references to "Median" people make no clear distinction between the "Persians" and the "Medians"; in fact for a Greek to become "too closely associated with Iranian culture" was "to become Medianized, not Persianized".[24] The Median Kingdom was a short-lived Iranian state and the textual and archaeological sources of that period are rare and little could be known from the Median culture which nevertheless made a "profound, and lasting, contribution to the greater world of Iranian culture".[47] Language[edit] Main article: Median language Median people spoke the Median language, which was an Old Iranian language. Strabo's Geographica (finished in the early first century) mentions the affinity of Median with other Iranian languages: "The name of Ariana is further extended to a part of Persia and of Media, as also to the Bactrians and Sogdians on the north; for these speak approximately the same language, but with slight variations".[48] No original deciphered text has been proven to have been written in the Median language. It is suggested that similar to the later Iranian practice of keeping archives of written documents in Achaemenid Iran, there was also a maintenance of archives by the Median government in their capital Ecbatana. There are examples of "Median literature" found in later records. One is according to Herodotus that the Median king Deioces, appearing as a judge, made judgement on causes submitted in writing. There is also a report by Dinon on the existence of "Median court poets".[49] Median literature is part of the "Old Iranian literature" (including also Saka, Old Persian, Avestan) as this Iranian affiliation of them is explicit also in ancient texts, such as Herodotus's account[17] that many peoples including Medes were "universally called Iranian".[50] Words of Median origin appear in various other Iranian dialects, including Old Persian. A feature of Old Persian inscriptions is the large number of words and names from other languages and the Median language takes in this regard a special place for historical reasons.[51] The Median words in Old Persian texts, whose Median origin can be established by "phonetic criteria",[51] appear "more frequently among royal titles and among terms of the chancellery, military, and judicial affairs".[51] Words of Median origin include: The Ganj Nameh ("treasure epistle") in Ecbatana. The inscriptions are by Darius I and his son Xerxes I. *čiθra-: "origin".[52] The word appears in *čiθrabṛzana- (med.) "exalting his linage", *čiθramiθra- (med.) "having mithraic origin", *čiθraspāta- (med.) "having a brilliant army", etc.[53] Farnah: Divine glory (Avestan: khvarənah‎) Paridaiza: Paradise Spaka- : The word is Median and means "dog".[54] Herodotus identifies "Spaka-" (Gk. "σπάχα" – female dog) as Median rather than Persian.[55] The word is still used in modern Iranian languages including Talyshi, also suggested as a source to the Russian word for dog sobaka.[56][57][58] vazṛka-: "great" (as Western Persian bozorg)[51] vispa-: "all"[59] (as in Avestan). The component appears in such words as vispafryā (Med. fem.) "dear to all", vispatarva- (med.) "vanquishing all", vispavada- (Median-Old Persian) "leader of all", etc.[60] xšayaθiya- (king)[citation needed] xšaθra- (realm; kingship): This Median word (attested in *xšaθra-pā- and continued by Middle Persian šahr "land, country; city") is an example of words whose Greek form (known as romanized "satrap" from Gk. σατράπης satrápēs) mirrors, as opposed to the tradition,[N 3] a Median rather than an Old Persian form (also attested, as xšaça- and xšaçapāvā) of an Old Iranian word.[61] zūra-: "evil" and zūrakara-: "evil-doer".[51] Religion[edit] Apadana Hall, 5th century BC Achaemenid-era carving of Persian and Median soldiers in traditional costume (Medians are wearing rounded hats and boots), in Persepolis, Iran There are very limited sources concerning the religion of Median people. Primary sources pointing to religious affiliations of Medes found so far include the archaeological discoveries in Tepe Nush-e Jan, personal names of Median individuals, and the Histories of Herodotus. The archaeological source gives the earliest of the temple structures in Iran and the "stepped fire altar" discovered there is linked to the common Iranian legacy of the "cult of fire". Herodotus mentions Median Magi as a Median tribe providing priests for both the Medes and the Persians. They had a "priestly caste" which passed their functions from father to son. They played a significant role in the court of the Median king Astyages who had in his court certain Medians as "advisers, dream interpreters, and soothsayers". Classical historians "unanimously" regarded the Magi as priests of the Zoroastrian faith. From the personal names of Medes as recorded by Assyrians (in 8th and 9th centuries BC) there are examples of the use of the Indo-Iranian word arta- (lit. "truth") which is familiar from both Avestan and Old Persian and also examples of theophoric names containing Maždakku and also the name "Ahura Mazdā".[62] Scholars disagree whether these are indications of Zoroastrian religion amongst the Medes. Diakonoff believes that "Astyages and perhaps even Cyaxares had already embraced a religion derived from the teachings of Zoroaster" and Mary Boyce believes that "the existence of the Magi in Media with their own traditions and forms of worship was an obstacle to Zoroastrian proselytizing there".[62] Boyce wrote that the Zoroastrian traditions in the Median city of Ray probably goes back to the 8th century BC.[63] It is suggested that from the 8th century BC, a form of "Mazdaism with common Iranian traditions" existed in Media and the strict reforms of Zarathustra began to spread in western Iran during the reign of the last Median kings in the 6th century BC.[62] It has also been suggested[by whom?] that Mithra is a Median name and Medes may have practised Mithraism and had Mithra as their supreme deity.[64] Kurds and Medes[edit] Main article: Origin of the Kurds Russian historian and linguist Vladimir Minorsky suggested that the Medes, who widely inhabited the land where currently the Kurds form a majority, might have been forefathers of the modern Kurds. He also states that the Medes who invaded the region in the eighth century BC, linguistically resembled the Kurds. This view was accepted by many Kurdish nationalists in the twentieth century. However, Martin van Bruinessen, a Dutch scholar, argues against the attempt to take the Medes as ancestors of the Kurds.[65] "Though some Kurdish intellectuals claim that their people are descended from the Medes, there is no evidence to permit such a connection across the considerable gap in time between the political dominance of the Medes and the first attestation of the Kurds" - van Bruinessen Contemporary linguistic evidence has challenged the previously suggested view that the Kurds are descendants of the Medes.[66][67] Gernot Windfuhr, professor of Iranian Studies, identified the Kurdish languages as Parthian, albeit with a Median substratum.[68] David Neil MacKenzie, an authority on the Kurdish language, said Kurdish was closer to Persian and questioned the "traditional" view holding that Kurdish, because of its differences from Persian, should be regarded as a Northwestern Iranian language.[69] The Kurdologist and Iranologist Garnik Asatrian stated that "The Central Iranian dialects, and primarily those of the Kashan area in the first place, as well as the Azari dialects (otherwise called Southern Tati) are probably the only Iranian dialects, which can pretend to be the direct offshoots of Median... In general, the relationship between Kurdish and Median is not closer than the affinities between the latter and other North Western dialects – Baluchi, Talishi, South Caspian, Zaza, Gurani, Kurdish(Soranî, Kurmancî, Kelhorî)[70][71] Asatrian also stated that "there is no serious ground to suggest a special genetic affinity within North-Western Iranian between this ancient language [Median] and Kurdish. The latter does not share even the generally ephemeric peculiarity of Median."[72] See also[edit] Asia portal Greater Iran Iranian Plateau Linear Elamite – a script possibly used to write Median language List of monarchs of Persia List of rulers of the pre-Achaemenid kingdoms of Iran Madai Qanat – water management system Notes[edit] ^ According to the OED entry "Mede", the word is from Classical Latin Mēdus (usually as plural, Mēdī) from ancient Greek (Attic and Ionic) Μῆδος Mê̄dos [mɛ̂ːdos] (Cypriot Μᾶδοι Mâdœ [mâdoi̯], plural) from Old Persian Māda.[3] ^ A) "Archaeological evidence for the religion of the Iranian-speaking Medes of the ..." (Diakonoff 1985, p. 140). B) "...and the Medes (Iranians of what is now north-west Iran)..." EIEC (1997:30). C) "... succeeded in uniting into a kingdom the many Median tribes" (from Encyclopædia Britannica[4]). D) "Proto-Iranian split into Western (Median, and others) and Eastern (Scythian, Ossetic, Saka, Pamir and others)..." (Kuz'mina, Elena E. (2007), The origin of the Indo-Iranians, J. P. Mallory (ed.), BRILL, p. 303, ISBN 978-90-04-16054-5) ^ "..a great many Old Persian lexemes...are preserved in a borrowed form in non-Persian languages – the so-called "collateral" tradition of Old Persian (within or outside the Achaemenid Empire).... not every purported Old Iranian form attested in this manner is an actual lexeme of Old Persian."[61] References[edit] ^ Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006). "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires". Journal of World-Systems Research. 12 (2): 223. ISSN 1076-156X. Retrieved 16 September 2016. ^ Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.". Social Science History. 3 (3/4): 121. doi:10.2307/1170959. JSTOR 1170959. ^ OED Online "entry Mede, n.": ^ Encyclopædia Britannica Online Media (ancient region, Iran) ^ a b c "MEDIA". Encyclopaedia Iranica. 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(1 January 1973), "Geographical Studies in the Neo-Assyrian Zagros: I", Iran, 11: 1–27, doi:10.2307/4300482, ISSN 0578-6967, JSTOR 4300482 Levine, Louis D. (1 January 1974), "Geographical Studies in the Neo-Assyrian Zagros-II", Iran, 12: 99–124, doi:10.2307/4300506, ISSN 0578-6967, JSTOR 4300506 Schmitt, Rüdiger (2008), "Old Persian", in Woodard, Roger D. (ed.), The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas, Cambridge University Press, pp. 76–100, ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1 Soudavar, Abolala (2003), The aura of kings: legitimacy and divine sanction in Iranian kingship, Mazda Publishers, ISBN 978-1-56859-109-4 Stronach, David (1968), "Tepe Nush-i Jan: A Mound in Media", The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, New Series, 27 (3): 177–186, doi:10.2307/3258384, ISSN 0026-1521, JSTOR 3258384 Stronach, David (1982), "Archeology ii. Median and Achaemenid", in Yarshater, E. (ed.), Encyclopædia Iranica, 2, Routledge & Kegan Paul, pp. 288–296, ISBN 978-0-933273-67-2 Tavernier, Jan (2007), Iranica in the Achaemenid Period (ca. 550-330 B.C.): Linguistic Study of Old Iranian Proper Names and Loanwords, Attested in Non-Iranian Texts, Peeters Publishers, ISBN 978-90-429-1833-7 Van De Mieroop, Marc (2015), A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000-323 BC, Wiley Blackwell Windfuhr, Gernot L. (1991), "Central dialects", in Yarshater, E. (ed.), Encyclopædia Iranica, pp. 242–251, ISBN 978-0-939214-79-2 Young, T. Cuyler, Jr. (1988), "The early history of the Medes and the Persians and the Achaemenid empire to the death of Cambyses", in Boardman, John; Hammond, N. G. L.; Lewis, D. M.; Ostwald, M. (eds.), The Cambridge Ancient History, 4, Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–52, doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521228046.002, ISBN 9781139054317 Young, T. Cuyler (1997), "Medes", in Meyers, Eric M. (ed.), The Oxford encyclopedia of archaeology in the Near East, 3, Oxford University Press, pp. 448–450, ISBN 978-0-19-511217-7 Zadok, Ran (2002), "The Ethno-Linguistic Character of Northwestern Iran and Kurdistan in the Neo-Assyrian Period", Iran, 40: 89–151, doi:10.2307/4300620, ISSN 0578-6967, JSTOR 4300620 Further reading[edit] "Mede." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 16 January 2008. Gershevitch, Ilya (1985), The Cambridge History of Iran, 2, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-20091-2 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Median Empire. Median Empire at Iran Chamber Society website. v t e Ancient Mesopotamia Geography Modern Euphrates Upper Mesopotamia Mesopotamian Marshes Persian Gulf Syrian Desert Taurus Mountains Tigris Zagros Mountains Ancient Akkad Assyria Babylonia Chaldea Elam Hittites Media Mitanni Sumer Urartu Cities History Pre- / Protohistory Acheulean Mousterian Trialetian Zarzian Natufian Nemrikian Khiamian Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) Hassuna/Samarra Halaf Ubaid Uruk Jemdet Nasr Kish civilization History Early Dynastic Akkadian Gutians Simurrum Ur III Isin-Larsa Old Babylonian Kassite Middle Babylonian Neo-Assyrian Neo-Babylonian Achaemenid Seleucid Parthian Roman Sasanian Muslim conquest Timeline of the Assyrian Empire Hakkari Languages Akkadian Amorite Aramaic Eblaite Elamite Gutian Hittite Hurrian Luwian Middle Persian Old Persian Parthian Proto-Armenian Sumerian Urartian Culture / Society Architecture Art Cuneiform Akkadian literature Sumerian literature Music Religion Indus-Mesopotamia relations Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Royal titles Archaeology Looting Destruction by ISIL Tell v t e Median topics Language Median language, Iranian language Cities Ecbatana (Hamadan) Rhagae (Shahre Rey, Tehran) Laodicea (Nahavand) Battles involving Lydia Eclipse of Thales Battles involving Persia Persian Revolt Battle of Hyrba Battle of the Persian Border Siege of Pasargadae Hill Battle of Pasargadae Fall of Ecbatana Kings/Satraps Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Cyaxares II Darius the Mede Other Medians Amytis of Media Artembares Datis Gubaru Mazares Harpagus Aryenis Mandane v t e Median and Achaemenid kings Family tree Median (728–550 BC) Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Achaemenid (550–330 BC) Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Nothus Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Italics indicate kings not directly attested and so possibly legendary. v t e Empires Ancient (Colonies) Akkadian Neo-Sumerian Assyrian Old Assyrian Middle Assyrian Neo-Assyrian Babylonian Old Babylonian Kassite Neo-Babylonian Egyptian Old Kingdom Middle Kingdom New Kingdom Phoenician Carthaginian Chinese Shang Qin Han Three Kingdoms Jin North and South Hellenistic Macedonian Seleucid Hittite Indian Nanda Maurya Satavahana Shunga Gupta Harsha Iranian Median Achaemenid Parthian Sasanian Kushan Mongol Xianbei Roman Western Eastern Teotihuacan Post-classical Aksum Arab Rashidun Umayyad Abbasid Fatimid Aragonese Angevin Ayyubid Aztec Benin Bornu Bruneian Bulgarian First Second Byzantine Nicaea Thessalonica Trebizond Calakmul Chinese Sui Tang Liao Song Jīn Yuan Uyghur Ethiopian Zagwe Solomonic Genoese Georgian Holy-Roman Carolingian Huetar Hunnic Hephthalite Inca Indian Chola Gurjara-Pratihara Pala Eastern Ganga dynasty Delhi Vijayanagara Iranian Samanid Saffarid Kanem Khmer Latin Majapahit Malaccan Mali Egyptian Mamluk Mongol Yuan Golden Horde Chagatai Khanate Ilkhanate Moroccan Idrisid Almoravid Almohad Marinid North Sea Oyo Serbian Singhasari Somali Ajuran Ifatite Adalite Mogadishan Songhai Srivijaya Tibetan Tikal Timurid Tiwanku Toltec Turco-Persian Ghaznavid Great Seljuk Khwarezmian Venetian Vietnamese Dai Viet Wagadou Wari Modern Afghan Ashanti Austrian Austro-Hungarian Brazilian Central African Chinese Ming Qing China Manchukuo Ethiopian Haitian First Second French First Second German First/Old Reich Second Reich Third Reich Indian Mughal Mysorean Sikh Maratha British Raj Iranian Safavid Afsharid Qajar Pahlavi Japanese Johor Korean Mexican First Second Moroccan Saadi Alaouite Russian Somali Gobroon Majeerteen Hobyo Swedish Tongan Ottoman Vietnamese Dainam Vietnam Colonial American Belgian British English Scottish Danish Dutch French German Italian Japanese Omani Polish–Lithuanian Couronian Portuguese Sovereign Military Order of Malta Spanish Swedish Lists Empires largest in India Ancient great powers Medieval great powers Modern great powers European colonialism African empires Miscellaneous The empire on which the sun never sets "Empire" as a description of foreign policy American empire Soviet Empire v t e Provinces of the Achaemenid Empire (Behistun / Persepolis / Naqsh-e Rustam / Susa / Daiva inscriptions) Akaufaka (Quhistan?) Amyrgoi Arabia Arachosia Aria Armenia Assyria Babylonia Bactria Cappadocia Caria Carmania Caucasian Albania Chorasmia Cilicia Colchis Dahae Drangiana 1st Egypt / 2nd Egypt Eber-Nari (Levant) Elam Kush (Nubia) Gandāra (Gandhara) Gedrosia Hyrcania Ionia Hindush Libya Lydia Maka Margiana Media Lesser Media Massagetae Parthia Persia Phoenicia Phrygia Hellespontine Phrygia Greater Phrygia Saka Samaritan Province Sattagydia Skudra (Thrace) Sogdia Yehud See also Tax Districts of the Achaemenid Empire (according to Herodotus) v t e Iran topics History Prehistory Ancient 3400–550 BCE Kura-Araxes culture (3400–2000 BC) Proto-Elamite civilization (3200–2800 BC) Elamite dynasties (2800–550 BC) Lullubi culture (c.2300–700 BC) Akkadian Empire (c.2334 BC–c.2154 BC) Kassites (c.1500–c.1155 BC) Kingdom of Mannai (10th–7th century BC) Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 BC) Urartu (860 BC–590 BC) Median Empire (728–550 BC) (Scythian Kingdom) (652–625 BC) Neo-Babylonian Empire (626–539 BC) 550 BC – AD 224 Achaemenid Empire (550 – 330 BC) Kingdom of Armenia (331 BC – AD 428) Atropatene (320s BC – 3rd century AD) Kingdom of Cappadocia (320s BC – AD 17) Seleucid Empire (330 – 63 BC) Frataraka Kings of Persis Kingdom of Pontus (281 BC – AD 62) Parthian Empire (248 BC –  AD 224) AD 224–651 Sasanian Empire (AD 224–651) Medieval and early modern 637 – 1055 Patriarchal Caliphate (637–651) Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258) Tahirid dynasty (821–873) Alavid dynasty (864–928) Saffarid dynasty (861–1003) Samanid dynasty (819–999) Ziyarid dynasty (928–1043) Buyid dynasty (934–1062) 975–1432 Ghaznavid Empire (975–1187) Ghurid dynasty (1011–1215) Seljuk Empire (1037–1194) Khwarazmian dynasty (1077–1231) Eldiguzids (1135/36-1225) Ilkhanate (1256–1335) Kurt dynasty (1231–1389) Muzaffarid dynasty (1314–1393) Chobanid dynasty (1337–1357) Jalairid Sultanate dynasty (1339–1432) 1370–1925 Timurid Empire (1370–1507) Qara Qoyunlu Turcomans (1375–1468) Ag Qoyunlu Turcomans (1378–1508) 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en-wikipedia-org-5496	----	Tabnit - Wikipedia Tabnit From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the sarcophagus, see Tabnit sarcophagus. For the 4th century king of Sidon also named Tabnit, see Tennes. Tabnit The Tabnit sarcophagus. Allegiance Achaemenid Empire Years of service Circa 490 BC Rank King of Sidon Sidon The capital of Tabnit was Sidon. Tabnit (Phoenician: 𐤕𐤁𐤍𐤕 tbnt) was the Phoenician King of Sidon circa 490 BCE,[1] He was the father of King Eshmunazar II. He is well known from his sarcophagus, decorated with two separate and unrelated inscriptions – one in Egyptian hieroglyphics and one in Phoenician script. It was created in the early 5th century BC, and was unearthed in 1887 by Osman Hamdi Bey at the Ayaa Necropolis near Sidon together with the Alexander Sarcophagus and other related sarcophagi. Tabnit's body was found floating perfectly preserved in the original embalming fluid.[2] Both the sarcophagus and Tabnit's decomposed skeleton are now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museums.[3] The sarcophagus, together with the Eshmunazar II sarcophagus, were possibly acquired by the Sidonians following their participation in the Battle of Pelusium (525 BC),[4] and served as models for later Phoenician sarcophagi.[5] Dating[edit] Both the Tabnit sarcophagus and the Eshmunazar II sarcophagus are thought to originally date from the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt, which had its capital at Sais.[5] This is partially due to their resemblance to similar sarcophagi such as the Psamtik II-era Horkhebit sarcophagus from Saqqara, now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Notes[edit] ^ "Middle East Kingdoms Ancient Central Levant States - Sidon". Kessler Associates. Retrieved 23 May 2017. ^ Gubel, Eric (2003), "Phönizische Anthropoide Sarkophage by Katja Lembke", Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, 332: 98–100, JSTOR 1357812 ^ İstanbul Archaeological Museums ^ Nitschke 2007, p. 71: "Three of these Egyptian sarcophagi manufactured during the twenty-sixth dynasty were apparently acquired by the Sidonians, perhaps as a result of Phoenician participation in Cambyses’ conquest of Egypt in 525 B.C." ^ a b Nitschke 2007, p. 72. References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tabnit. Hamdi Bey, Osman; Reinach, Théodore (1892), Une nécropole royale à Sidon [A royal necropolis in Sidon] (in French) (editio princeps) Hamdi Bey, Osman; Reinach, Théodore (1892), Une nécropole royale à Sidon: fouilles: Planches [A royal necropolis in Sidon: excavations] (in French) (Plates) Jessup, Henry Harris (1910), Fifty-Three Years In Syria, 2, Fleming H. Revell Company, p. 507 Gottheil, Richard (1889), "The Inscription of Tabnit", Hebraica, 5 (2): 197, doi:10.1086/369051, JSTOR 527253 Bommas, Martin (2006), "Die hieroglyphischen Texte auf dem Sarg des Tabnit" [The hieroglyphic texts on the Sarcophagi of Tabnit], Orientalia, 75 (1): 15 Assmann, Jan, "Zur Baugeschichte der Königsgruft von Sidon" [The construction history of the royal tomb of Sidon] (PDF), Archäologischer Anzeiger: 690–716 Nitschke, Jessica (2007), Perceptions of Culture:Interpreting Greco-Near Eastern Hybridity in the Phoenician Homeland (Ph.D.), University of California, BerkeleyCS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Torrey, Charles (1902), "A Phoenician Royal Inscription", Journal of the American Oriental Society, 23: 156–173, JSTOR 592387 v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tabnit&oldid=972670329" Categories: 5th-century BC rulers in Asia Kings of Sidon Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Hidden categories: Commons category link is defined as the pagename CS1 French-language sources (fr) CS1 maint: ref=harv Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Català Español Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 13 August 2020, at 08:13 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5498	----	Category:CS1 Persian-language sources (fa) - Wikipedia Help Category:CS1 Persian-language sources (fa) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This is a tracking category. It is used to build and maintain lists of pages—primarily for the sake of the lists themselves and their use in article and category maintenance. It is not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. More information: This category is hidden on its member pages—unless the corresponding user preference is set. These categories are used to track, build and organize lists of pages needing "attention en masse" (for example, pages using deprecated syntax), or that may need to be edited at someone's earliest convenience. These categories also serve to aggregate members of several lists or sub-categories into a larger, more efficient list (discriminated by classifications). 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en-wikipedia-org-5518	----	File:Clay tablet. The cuneiform text mentions the murder of Xerxes I (r. 485-465 BCE) by his son and a lunar eclipse (609-447 BCE). From Babylon, Iraq. British Museum.jpg - Wikipedia File:Clay tablet. The cuneiform text mentions the murder of Xerxes I (r. 485-465 BCE) by his son and a lunar eclipse (609-447 BCE). From Babylon, Iraq. British Museum.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Metadata Size of this preview: 790 × 600 pixels. Other resolutions: 316 × 240 pixels | 633 × 480 pixels | 1,012 × 768 pixels | 1,280 × 971 pixels | 3,410 × 2,588 pixels. Original file ‎(3,410 × 2,588 pixels, file size: 6.48 MB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary DescriptionClay tablet. The cuneiform text mentions the murder of Xerxes I (r. 485-465 BCE) by his son and a lunar eclipse (609-447 BCE). From Babylon, Iraq. British Museum.jpg English: Clay tablet. The cuneiform text mentions the murder of the Achaemenid king Xerxes I (r. 485-465 BCE) by his son and a lunar eclipse (for at least 609-447 BCE). 4th century BCE. From Babylon, Iraq. British Museum, London. Date 15 March 2016, 18:19:00 Source Own work Author Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin FRCP(Glasg) Licensing I, the copyright holder of this work, hereby publish it under the following license: This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license. You are free: to share – to copy, distribute and transmit the work to remix – to adapt the work Under the following conditions: attribution – You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. 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Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 09:13, 6 November 2020 3,410 × 2,588 (6.48 MB) Neuroforever Uploaded own work with UploadWizard File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Xerxes I Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. If the file has been modified from its original state, some details may not fully reflect the modified file. Camera manufacturer NIKON CORPORATION Camera model NIKON D750 Author Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin Copyright holder Osama SM Amin FRCP(Glasg) Exposure time 1/125 sec (0.008) F-number f/5.6 ISO speed rating 12,800 Date and time of data generation 18:19, 15 March 2016 Lens focal length 300 mm Horizontal resolution 300 dpi Vertical resolution 300 dpi Software used Ver.1.10 File change date and time 11:59, 6 November 2020 Y and C positioning Co-sited Exposure Program Normal program Exif version 2.3 Date and time of digitizing 18:19, 15 March 2016 Meaning of each component Y Cb Cr does not exist Image compression mode 4 Exposure bias 0 Maximum land aperture 5 APEX (f/5.66) Metering mode Pattern Light source Unknown Flash Flash did not fire, compulsory flash suppression User comments OSAMA SM AMIN DateTime subseconds 38 DateTimeOriginal subseconds 38 DateTimeDigitized subseconds 38 Supported Flashpix version 1 Color space sRGB Sensing method One-chip color area sensor File source Digital still camera Scene type A directly photographed image Custom image processing Normal process Exposure mode Auto exposure White balance Auto white balance Digital zoom ratio 1 Focal length in 35 mm film 300 mm Scene capture type Standard Scene control High gain up Contrast Normal Saturation Normal Sharpness Normal Subject distance range Unknown Unique image ID 4f98f50c5696583bf76167bb79e2c1ba IIM version 4 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Clay_tablet._The_cuneiform_text_mentions_the_murder_of_Xerxes_I_(r._485-465_BCE)_by_his_son_and_a_lunar_eclipse_(609-447_BCE)._From_Babylon,_Iraq._British_Museum.jpg" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces File Talk Variants Views Read View on Commons More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Upload file Special pages Printable version Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5520	----	Ninth Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Ninth Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ninth Dynasty of Egypt ca. 2160 BC–ca. 2130 BC Jasper weight with the cartouche of Nebkaure Khety Capital Herakleopolis Magna Common languages Egyptian language Religion ancient Egyptian religion Government Absolute monarchy Historical era Bronze Age • Established ca. 2160 BC • Disestablished ca. 2130 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The Ninth Dynasty of ancient Egypt (Dynasty IX) is often combined with the 7th, 8th, 10th and early 11th Dynasties under the group title First Intermediate Period.[1] The dynasty that seems to have supplanted the 8th Dynasty is extremely obscure. The takeover by the rulers of Herakleopolis was violent and is reflected in Manetho's description of Achthoes, the founder of the dynasty, as 'more terrible than his predecessors', who 'wrought evil things for those in all Egypt". Rulers[edit] The 9th Dynasty was founded at Herakleopolis Magna, and the 10th Dynasty continued there. At this time Egypt was not unified, and there is some overlap between these and other local dynasties. The Turin Canon lists eighteen kings for this royal line, but their names are damaged, unidentifiable, or lost.[2] The following is a possible list of rulers of the Ninth Dynasty based on the Turin Canon, as egyptologists have differing opinions about the order of succession within the two dynasties. Among them, only Meryibre Khety and Nebkaure Khety are undoubtedly attested by archaeological finds: Dynasty IX (according to Hayes) (c. 2160 - 2130 BC)[3] Name Image Comments Meryibre Khety I Manetho's Achthoes, a nomarch who proclaimed himself pharaoh [name lost] - Neferkare VII Might be the Kaneferre mentioned in the tomb of the nomarch Ankhtifi Nebkaure Khety II Also mentioned in The Eloquent Peasant tale Setut - [name lost] - Mery[...] - Shed[...] - H[...] - [three names lost] - User(?)[...] - Wikimedia Commons has media related to 9th dynasty of Egypt. References[edit] ^ Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. p. 480. ISBN 0-19-815034-2. ^ Sir Alan Gardiner, Egypt of the Pharaohs, Oxford University Press, 1961, pp. 112-13. ^ William C. Hayes, in The Cambridge Ancient History, vol 1, part 2, 1971 (2008), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-077915, p. 996. Preceded by Eighth Dynasty Dynasty of Egypt c. 2160 – 2130 BC Succeeded by Tenth Dynasty This article about Egyptology or subjects relating to Ancient Egypt is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ninth_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=981095141" Categories: Ninth Dynasty of Egypt States and territories established in the 3rd millennium BC States and territories disestablished in the 3rd millennium BC Dynasties of ancient Egypt 22nd century BC in Egypt 21st century BC in Egypt 3rd-millennium BC establishments in Egypt 3rd-millennium BC disestablishments in Egypt 3rd millennium BC in Egypt Ancient Egypt stubs Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ქართული Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska தமிழ் Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 30 September 2020, at 07:41 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5526	----	Djehuti - Wikipedia Djehuti From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses of "Djehuty", see Thoth (disambiguation). Sekhemre Sementawy Djehuti Djehuty, Dhout, Dhuti, Tahuti, Tehuti, Thuty Djehuti on a block from Edfu[1] Pharaoh Reign 3 years, c. 1650 BC (uncertain 16th Dynasty,[2][3] or 17th Dynasty) Predecessor uncertain, name lost in a lacuna of the Turin canon (Ryholt), Sobekemsaf I (von Beckerath) Successor Sobekhotep VIII (Ryholt), Seankhenre Mentuhotepi (von Beckerath) Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sekhemre Sementawy Sḫm-Rˁ-s:mn-t3.w(j) The might of Ra, which (re)-establishes the two lands[2] Nomen Djehuti ḏḥwtj Thoth Horus name Itjemnekhtu Jṯj-m-nḫtw He who conquers with force Golden Horus Weserkhau Wsr-ḫˁw He whose apparitions are mighty Karnak king list Sekhemre Sementawy Sḫm-Rˁ-s:mn-t3.w(j) The power of Ra, who establishes the two lands Consort queen Mentuhotep Sekhemre Sementawy Djehuti (also Djehuty and other variants) was possibly the second king[2][3] of the Theban 16th Dynasty reigning over parts of Upper Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period. Alternatively, he may be a king of the late 13th Dynasty[4] or the fourth king of the 17th Dynasty.[5] Djehuty is credited with a reign of 3 years in the first entry of the 11th column of the Turin canon. According to Egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, he was succeeded by Sobekhotep VIII.[2][3] Contents 1 Chronological position 2 Attestations 3 References Chronological position[edit] Djehuti's dynasty remains debated. Indeed, on this point, the Turin Canon is open to interpretations. There are several kings recorded with the name "Sekhemre[...]" and the damage to the original document does not preserve the complete name. As a result, Djehuti, named Sekhemre Sementawy, may in principle correspond to any "Sekhemre[...]" preserved on the king list, i.e. may be a ruler of the 13th, 16th and even 17th Dynasty. The Egyptologists Darrell Baker and Kim Ryholt believe that he was part of the 16th Dynasty, which controlled the Theban region after 1650 BC.[3] Alternatively, two studies by Claude Vandersleyen and Christina Geisen date Djehuti's reign to the very end of the Memphite 13th Dynasty.[4][6] Geisen's datation relies on stylistic considerations of his queen's coffin, which however, Stephen Quirke argues, uses unproven assumptions.[7] An older theory of Jürgen von Beckerath, whose conclusions are shared by Hans Stock, contends that Djehuti was a ruler of the early 17th Dynasty, which arose in Upper Egypt after the collapse of 16th Dynasty following the short-lived Hyksos conquest of Thebes. This theory is supported by the discovery of the tomb of Djehuti's queen, Mentuhotep, which is located in Dra' Abu el-Naga', a necropolis usually associated with the 17th Dynasty. Scholars such as Chris Bennett however, point out that this does not necessarily mean that Djehuti was buried in Dra' Abu el-Naga' as well.[4] Some Egyptologists proposed that Djehuti was married to a granddaughter of the vizier Ibiaw who served under the 13th Dynasty king Wahibre Ibiau c. 1712–1701 BC, and was thus most likely two generations removed from this king.[8][9] In more recent times, however, it was pointed out that the link between Ibiaw and Djehuti's consort Mentuhotep is still unproven and that the proposed temporal correlation between Wahibre Ibiau and Djehuti remains conjectural.[10] Attestations[edit] Cosmetics box of queen Mentuhotep, wife of Djehuti. The box may have been intended to be the king's canopic chest. Djehuti is attested on the Turin Royal Canon and the Karnak king list. All of Djehuti's contemporary attestions come from a 145 kilometres (90 mi) long stretch of the Nile valley from Deir el-Ballas in the north to Edfu in the south.[2] This roughly corresponds to the territory in the sphere of influence of the rulers of the 16th dynasty.[2] Djehuti's nomen and prenomen are known from a single block discovered by Flinders Petrie in Deir el-Ballas. A painted block bearing Djehuti's cartouche and showing him wearing the red crown of Lower Egypt – far beyond his sphere of influence – was uncovered in Edfu[1][4] and otherwise, Djehuti is only attested by objects from his wife's burial. Queen Mentuhotep's tomb was found intact in 1822 and her (now lost) coffin was inscribed with one of the earliest cases of the texts from the Book of the Dead. Mentuhotep's cosmetic box bears Djehuti's nomen, prenomen and cartouche together with funerary formulae and an inscription revealing that the box was a gift from the king.[2] It has been suggested that the unattributed Southern South Saqqara pyramid may have been built for Djehuti. This hypothesis is based on a fragmentary inscription found within the pyramid and reading "Weserkha...", a possible reference to Weserkhau i.e. Djehuti's Golden Horus name.[11] References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Djehuti. ^ a b M. von Falck, S. Klie, A. Schulz: Neufunde ergänzen Königsnamen eines Herrschers der 2. Zwischenzeit. In: Göttinger Miszellen 87, 1985, p. 15–23 ^ a b c d e f g Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, pp. 90-91 ^ a b c d K.S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here. ^ a b c d Christina Geisen, Zur zeitlichen Einordnung des Königs Djehuti an das Ende der 13. Dynastie, Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur, Bd. 32, (2004), pp. 149-157 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz : P. von Zabern, 1999, ISBN 3-8053-2591-6, see p. 126–127. ^ Claude Vandersleyen: Rahotep, Sébekemsaf 1er et Djéhouty, Rois de la 13e Dynastie. In: Revue de l'égyptologie (RdE) 44, 1993, p. 189–191. ^ S. Quirke, Review von Geisen: Die Totentexte…. In: Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions. Nr. 5, 2005, p. 228–238. ^ Labib Habachi: "The Family of Vizier Ibiˁ and His Place Among the Viziers of the Thirteenth Dynasty", in Studien zur altägyptischen Kultur 11 (1984), pp. 113-126. ^ Ryholt, Note 555 page 152 ^ W. Grajetzki, Court Officials of the Egyptian Middle Kingdom, London 2009, p. 40. ^ Christoffer Theis, "Zum Eigentümer der Pyramide Lepsius XLVI / SAK S 6 im Süden von Sakkara", Göttinger Miszellen 218 (2008), pp. 101–105 Preceded by Unknown Pharaoh of Egypt Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt Succeeded by Sobekhotep VIII v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Djehuti&oldid=994000455" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history 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en-wikipedia-org-5531	----	Second Persian invasion of Greece - Wikipedia Second Persian invasion of Greece From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Invasion during the Greco-Persian Wars Second Persian invasion of Greece Part of the Greco-Persian Wars Date 480 BC–479 BC Location Greece Result Greek victory Belligerents Greek city states including Athens and Sparta Persian Empire Commanders and leaders Themistocles Eurybiades Leonidas I † Pausanias Leotychides Xerxes I Artemisia I of Caria Mardonius † Hydarnes (Immortals) Artyphius (Gandarians, Dadicae) Azanes (Sogdians) Artabazus (Parthians and Chorasmians) Strength Land forces: 10,000 Spartans 9,000 Athenians 5,000 Corinthians 2,000 Thespians 1,000 Phocians 30,000 Greeks from other city-states, including Arcadia, Aegina, Eretria, and Plataea Sea forces: 400 triremes 6,000 marines 68,000 oarsmen Total: 125,000 men 400 ships Land forces: 80,000[1]–100,000 soldiers or less (modern estimates) Sea forces: 600[1]–1200 ships (modern estimates) Total: 200,000[1] 300,000–500,000[2][3] (modern estimates) v t e Greco-Persian Wars Ionian Revolt First Persian invasion Second Persian invasion Greek counterattack Wars of the Delian League v t e Second Persian invasion of Greece Thermopylae Artemisium Athens Salamis Potidea Olynthus Plataea Mycale The second Persian invasion of Greece (480–479 BC) occurred during the Greco-Persian Wars, as King Xerxes I of Persia sought to conquer all of Greece. The invasion was a direct, if delayed, response to the defeat of the first Persian invasion of Greece (492–490 BC) at the Battle of Marathon, which ended Darius I's attempts to subjugate Greece. After Darius's death, his son Xerxes spent several years planning for the second invasion, mustering an enormous army and navy. The Athenians and Spartans led the Greek resistance. About a tenth of the Greek city-states joined the 'Allied' effort; most remained neutral or submitted to Xerxes. The invasion began in spring 480 BC, when the Persian army crossed the Hellespont and marched through Thrace and Macedon to Thessaly. The Persian advance was blocked at the pass of Thermopylae by a small Allied force under King Leonidas I of Sparta; simultaneously, the Persian fleet was blocked by an Allied fleet at the straits of Artemisium. At the famous Battle of Thermopylae, the Allied army held back the Persian army for three days, before they were outflanked by a mountain path and the Allied rearguard was trapped and annihilated. The Allied fleet had also withstood two days of Persian attacks at the Battle of Artemisium, but when news reached them of the disaster at Thermopylae, they withdrew to Salamis. After Thermopylae, all of Euboea, Phocis, Boeotia and Attica fell to the Persian army, which captured and burnt Athens. However, a larger Allied army fortified the narrow Isthmus of Corinth, protecting the Peloponnesus from Persian conquest. Both sides thus sought a naval victory that might decisively alter the course of the war. The Athenian general Themistocles succeeded in luring the Persian navy into the narrow Straits of Salamis, where the huge number of Persian ships became disorganised, and were soundly beaten by the Allied fleet. The Allied victory at Salamis prevented a quick conclusion to the invasion, and fearing becoming trapped in Europe, Xerxes retreated to Asia leaving his general Mardonius to finish the conquest with the elite of the army. The following spring, the Allies assembled the largest ever hoplite army and marched north from the isthmus to confront Mardonius. At the ensuing Battle of Plataea, the Greek infantry again proved its superiority, inflicting a severe defeat on the Persians and killing Mardonius in the process. On the same day, across the Aegean Sea an Allied navy destroyed the remnants of the Persian navy at the Battle of Mycale. With this double defeat, the invasion was ended, and Persian power in the Aegean severely dented. The Greeks would now move to the offensive, eventually expelling the Persians from Europe, the Aegean islands and Ionia before the war finally came to an end in 479 BC. Contents 1 Sources 2 Background 3 Persian preparations 3.1 Size of the Persian forces 3.1.1 Army 3.1.2 Fleet 4 Greek preparations 4.1 Hellenic alliance 4.2 Size of allied forces 5 Spring 480 BC: Thrace, Macedonia and Thessaly 6 August 480 BC: Thermopylae and Artemisium 7 September 480 BC: Destruction of Athens, battle of Salamis 8 Autumn/winter 480/479 BC 8.1 Siege of Potidaea 8.2 Siege of Olynthus 9 June 479 BC: Plataea and Mycale 10 Aftermath 11 Tactical analysis 12 Strategic analysis 13 Significance 14 References 15 Bibliography 15.1 Ancient sources 15.2 Modern sources Sources[edit] Main article: Herodotus The main source for the Great Greco-Persian Wars is the Greek historian Herodotus. Herodotus, who has been called the 'Father of History',[4] was born in 484 BC in Halicarnassus, Asia Minor (then under Persian overlordship). He wrote his 'Enquiries' (Greek—Historia; English—(The) Histories) around 440–430 BC, trying to trace the origins of the Greco-Persian Wars, which would still have been relatively recent history (the wars finally ending in 450 BC).[5] Herodotus's approach was entirely novel, and at least in Western society, he does seem to have invented 'history' as we know it.[5] As Holland has it: "For the first time, a chronicler set himself to trace the origins of a conflict not to a past so remote so as to be utterly fabulous, nor to the whims and wishes of some god, nor to a people's claim to manifest destiny, but rather explanations he could verify personally."[5] Some subsequent ancient historians, despite following in his footsteps, criticised Herodotus, starting with Thucydides.[6][7] Nevertheless, Thucydides chose to begin his history where Herodotus left off (at the Siege of Sestos), and therefore evidently felt that Herodotus's history was accurate enough not to need re-writing or correcting.[7] Plutarch criticised Herodotus in his essay "On The Malignity of Herodotus", describing Herodotus as "Philobarbaros" (barbarian-lover), for not being pro-Greek enough, which suggests that Herodotus might actually have done a reasonable job of being even-handed.[8] A negative view of Herodotus was passed on to Renaissance Europe, though he remained well read.[9] However, since the 19th century his reputation has been dramatically rehabilitated by archaeological finds that have repeatedly confirmed his version of events.[10] The prevailing modern view is that Herodotus generally did a remarkable job in his Historia, but that some of his specific details (particularly troop numbers and dates) should be viewed with skepticism.[10] Nevertheless, there are still some historians who believe Herodotus made up much of his story.[11] The Greek historian Diodorus Siculus from Sicily, writing in the 1st century BC in his Bibliotheca Historica, also provides an account of the Greco-Persian wars, partially derived from the earlier Greek historian Ephorus. This account is fairly consistent with Herodotus's.[12] The Greco-Persian wars are also described in less detail by a number of other ancient historians including Plutarch, Ctesias, and are alluded by other authors, such as the playwright Aeschylus. Archaeological evidence, such as the Serpent Column, also supports some of Herodotus's specific claims.[13] Background[edit] Main articles: Greco-Persian Wars and First Persian invasion of Greece A map showing the Greek world at the time of the invasion The Greek city-states of Athens and Eretria had supported the unsuccessful Ionian Revolt against the Persian Empire of Darius I in 499–494 BC. The Persian Empire was still relatively young and prone to revolts among its subject peoples.[14][15] Moreover, Darius was a usurper and had spent considerable time extinguishing revolts against his rule.[14] The Ionian revolt threatened the integrity of his empire, and Darius thus vowed to punish those involved (especially those not already part of the empire).[16][17] Darius also saw the opportunity to expand his empire into the fractious world of Ancient Greece.[17] A preliminary expedition under Mardonius, in 492 BC, to secure the land approaches to Greece ended with the re-conquest of Thrace and forced Macedon to become a fully subordinate kingdom part of Persia.[18][19] It had previously been a vassal as early as the late 6th century BC, but remained having autonomy and not fully subordinate yet.[19] The Spartans throw Persian envoys into a well. In 491 BC, Darius sent emissaries to all the Greek city-states, asking for a gift of 'earth and water' in token of their submission to him.[20] Having had a demonstration of his power the previous year, the majority of Greek cities duly obliged. In Athens, however, the ambassadors were put on trial and then executed; in Sparta, they were simply thrown down a well.[20] This meant that Sparta was also now effectively at war with Persia.[20] (Later, in order to appease Xerxes, who was about to launch the Second Persian invasion of Greece after succeeding his father, Darius, two Spartans were voluntarily sent to Susa for execution, in atonement for the death of the Persian heralds sent earlier by Darius.)[21] Darius thus put together an ambitious task force under Datis and Artaphernes in 490 BC, which attacked Naxos, before receiving the submission of the other Cycladic Islands. The task force then moved on Eretria, which it besieged and destroyed.[22] Finally, it moved to attack Athens, landing at the bay of Marathon, where it was met by a heavily outnumbered Athenian army. At the ensuing Battle of Marathon, the Athenians won a remarkable victory, which resulted in the withdrawal of the Persian army to Asia.[23] Darius therefore began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece; however, in 486 BC, his Egyptian subjects revolted, indefinitely postponing any Greek expedition.[15] Darius then died while preparing to march on Egypt, and the throne of Persia passed to his son Xerxes I.[24] Xerxes crushed the Egyptian revolt, and very quickly restarted the preparations for the invasion of Greece.[25] Persian preparations[edit] Rendition of the Xerxes Canal (seen from north), built over 3 years from 483 BC across the Mount Athos peninsula. It is now filled-up. Preparations of the army of Xerxes, with quarters in Sardis in 481–480 BC, and crossing of the Hellespont at Abydos. Since this was to be a full-scale invasion, it required long-term planning, stock-piling and conscription.[25] It was decided that Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges were to be set up to allow his army to cross the Hellespont to Europe, and that a canal should be dug across the isthmus of Mount Athos (rounding which headland, a Persian fleet had been destroyed in 492 BC).[26] These were both feats of exceptional ambition, which would have been beyond any contemporary state.[26] However, the campaign was delayed one year because of another revolt in Egypt and Babylonia.[27] In 481 BC, after roughly four years of preparation, Xerxes began to muster the troops for the invasion of Europe. Herodotus gives the names of 46 nations from which troops were drafted.[28] The Persian army was gathered in Asia Minor in the summer and autumn of 481 BC. The armies from the Eastern satrapies was gathered in Kritala, Cappadocia and were led by Xerxes to Sardis where they passed the winter.[29] Early in spring it moved to Abydos where it was joined with the armies of the western satrapies.[30] Then the army that Xerxes had mustered marched towards Europe, crossing the Hellespont on two pontoon bridges.[31] Size of the Persian forces[edit] Army[edit] The soldiers of Xerxes I, of all ethnicities,[32] on the tomb of Xerxes I, at Naqsh-e Rostam.[33][34] The numbers of troops that Xerxes mustered for the second invasion of Greece have been the subject of endless dispute because the numbers given in ancient sources are very large indeed. Herodotus claimed that there were, in total, 2.5 million military personnel, accompanied by an equivalent number of support personnel.[35] The poet Simonides, who was a contemporary, talks of four million; Ctesias, based on Persian records, gave 800,000 as the total number of the army (without the support personnel) that was assembled by Xerxes.[36] While it has been suggested that Herodotus or his sources had access to official Persian Empire records of the forces involved in the expedition, modern scholars tend to reject these figures based on knowledge of the Persian military systems, their logistical capabilities, the Greek countryside, and supplies available along the army's route.[2] Modern scholars thus generally attribute the numbers given in the ancient sources to the result of miscalculations or exaggerations on the part of the victors, or disinformation by the Persians in the run up to the war.[3] The topic has been hotly debated but the modern consensus revolves around the figure of 200,000[1] or 300,000–500,000.[2][3] Nevertheless, whatever the real numbers were, it is clear that Xerxes was eager to ensure a successful expedition by mustering overwhelming numerical superiority by land and by sea,[2] and also that much of the army died of starvation and disease, never returning to Asia.[37] Herodotus tells us that the army and navy, while moving through Thrace, was halted at Doriskos for an inspection by Xerxes, and he recounts the numbers of troops found to be present:[38] Units Numbers 1,207 triremes with 200-man crews from 12 ethnic groups: Phoenicians along with the "Syrians of Palestine" (likely Judeans), Egyptians,[39] Cyprians,[40] Cilicians, Pamphylians, Lycians, Dorians of Asia, Carians, Ionians, Aegean islanders, Aeolians, Greeks from Pontus 241,400[41] 30 marines per trireme[Note 1]from the Persians, Medes or Sacae 36,210[41] 3,000 Galleys, including 50-oar penteconters (80-man crew), 30-oared ships, light galleys and heavy horse-transports[42][Note 2] 240,000[41]b Total of ships' complements 517,610[41] Infantry from 47 ethnic groups,[Note 3] including Medes, Cissians, Hyrcanians,[43] Assyrians, Chaldeans,[44] Bactrians, Sacae,[45] Indians,[46] Arians, Parthians, Chorasmians, Sogdians, Gandarians, Dadicae,[47] Caspians, Sarangae, Pactyes,[48] Utians, Mycians, Paricanians,[49] Arabians, Ethiopians of Africa,[50] Ethiopians of Baluchistan,[51] Libyans,[52] Paphlagonians, Ligyes, Matieni, Mariandyni, Cappadocians,[53] Phrygians, Armenians,[54] Lydians, Mysians,[55] Asian Thracians,[56] Lasonii, Milyae,[57] Moschi, Tibareni, Macrones, Mossynoeci,[58] Mares, Colchians, Alarodians, Saspirians[59] and Red Sea islanders.[60] 1,700,000[61] Horse cavalry from the Persians,[62] Sagartians,[63] Medes, Cissians, Indians, Caspians and Paricanians.[64] 80,000[65] Arab camel troops and Libyan charioteers 20,000[41] Total Asian land and sea forces[Note 4] 2,317,610[66] 120 triremes with 200-man crews from the Greeks of Thrace and the islands near it. 24,000[67] Balkan infantry from 13 ethnic groups: European Thracians, Paeonians, Eordi, Bottiaei, Chalcidians, Brygians, Pierians, Macedonians, Perrhaebi, Enienes, Dolopes, Magnesians, Achaeans 300,000[67] Grand Total 2,641,610 ^ The 30 marines are in addition to the figure of 200 given for the ships' crews ^ There is some contradiction in Herodotus's accounts. The figure of 240,000 is derived from 3,000 penteconters ^ The 47th ethnic group is missing from Herodotus's text. ^ The term "Asian" is Herodotus' but under that term he also includes Arabians and north Africans. Herodotus doubles this number to account for support personnel and thus he reports that the whole army numbered 5,283,220 men.[35] Other ancient sources give similarly large numbers. The poet Simonides, who was a near-contemporary, talks of four million; Ctesias gave 800,000 as the total number of the army that assembled in Doriskos.[36] Crossing the Hellespont by Xerxes with his huge army An early and very influential modern historian, George Grote, set the tone by expressing incredulity at the numbers given by Herodotus: "To admit this overwhelming total, or anything near to it, is obviously impossible."[68] Grote's main objection is the supply problem, though he does not analyse the problem in detail. He did not reject Herodotus's account altogether, citing the latter's reporting of the Persians' careful methods of accounting and their stockpiling of supply caches for three years, but drew attention to the contradictions in the ancient sources.[68] A later influential historian, J. B. Bury, calls Herodotus's numbers "wholly fabulous" and judges that the Persian land forces may have been 180,000.[69] A major limiting factor for the size of the Persian army, first suggested by Sir Frederick Maurice (a British transport officer) is the supply of water.[70] Maurice suggested in the region of 200,000 men and 70,000 animals could have been supported by the rivers in that region of Greece. He further suggested that Herodotus may have confused the Persian terms for chiliarchy (1,000) and myriarchy (10,000), leading to an exaggeration by a factor of ten.[70] Other early modern scholars estimated that the land forces participating in the invasion at 100,000 soldiers or less, based on the logistical systems available to the Ancients.[71][72][73][74][75][76][77][78] Munro and Macan note Herodotus giving the names of six major commanders and 29 myriarchs (leaders of a baivabaram, the basic unit of the Persian infantry, which numbered about 10,000-strong[79][80]); this would give a land force of roughly 300,000 men.[81][82] Other proponents of larger numbers suggest figures from 250,000 to 700,000.[83][84] Fleet[edit] The size of the Persian fleet is also disputed, though perhaps less so.[85] According to Herodotus the Persian fleet numbered 1,207 triremes and 3,000 transport and supply ships, including 50-oared galleys (Penteconters) (πεντηκοντήρ).[42] Herodotus gives a detailed breakdown of the Persian triremes by nationality:[86] Xerxes attending the lashing and "chaining" of the Hellespont (Illustration from 1909) Region Number of ships Region Number of ships Region Number of ships Phoenicia and Syria 300 Egypt 200 Cyprus 150 Cilicia 100 Ionia 100 Pontus 100 Caria 70 Aeolia 60 Lycia 50 Pamphylia 30 Dorians from Asia Minor 30 Cyclades 17 Total 1207 Herodotus also records that this was the number at the Battle of Salamis, despite the losses earlier in storms off Sepia and Euboea, and at the battle of Artemisium. He claims that the losses were replenished with reinforcements, though he only records 120 triremes from the Greeks of Thrace and an unspecified number of ships from the Greek islands. Aeschylus, who fought at Salamis, also claims that he faced 1,207 warships there, of which 1,000 were triremes and 207 fast ships.[87] Diodorus [88] and Lysias[89] independently claim there were 1,200 at Doriskos. The number of 1,207 (for the outset only) is also given by Ephorus,[90] while his teacher Isocrates claims there were 1,300 at Doriskos and 1,200 at Salamis.[91][92] Ctesias gives another number, 1,000 ships,[36] while Plato, speaking in general terms refers to 1,000 ships and more.[93] These numbers are (by ancient standards) consistent, and this could be interpreted that a number around 1,200 is correct. Among modern scholars some have accepted this number, although suggesting that the number must have been lower by the Battle of Salamis.[94][95][96] Other recent works on the Persian Wars reject this number—1,207 being seen as more of a reference to the combined Greek fleet in the Iliad—and generally claim that the Persians could have launched no more than around 600 warships into the Aegean.[96][97][98] Greek preparations[edit] Probable Spartan Hoplite, Vix krater, circa 500 BC. The Athenians had been preparing for war with the Persians since the mid-480s BC, and in 482 BC the decision was taken, under the guidance of the politician Themistocles, to build a massive fleet of triremes that would be necessary for the Greeks to fight the Persians.[99] The Athenians did not have the man-power to fight on land and sea; therefore combatting the Persians would require an alliance of several Greek city states. In 481 BC Xerxes sent ambassadors around Greece asking for earth and water, but making the very deliberate omission of Athens and Sparta.[100] Support thus began to coalesce around these two states. Hellenic alliance[edit] A congress of states met at Corinth in late autumn of 481 BC, and a confederate alliance of Greek city-states was formed.[101] This confederation had the power to send envoys asking for assistance and to dispatch troops from the member states to defensive points after joint consultation. Herodotus does not formulate an abstract name for the union but simply calls them "οἱ Ἕλληνες" (the Greeks) and "the Greeks who had sworn alliance" (Godley translation) or "the Greeks who had banded themselves together" (Rawlinson translation).[102] Hereafter, they will be referred to as the 'Allies'. Sparta and Athens had a leading role in the congress but interests of all the states played a part in determining defensive strategy.[103] Little is known about the internal workings of the congress or the discussions during its meetings. Only 70 of the approximately 700 Greek cities sent representatives. Nevertheless, this was remarkable for the disjointed Greek world, especially since many of the city-states in attendance were still technically at war with each other.[104] The majority of other city-states remained more-or-less neutral, awaiting the outcome of the confrontation.[105] Thebes was a major absentee and was suspected of being willing to aid the Persians once the invasion force arrived.[105][106] Not all Thebans agreed with this policy, and 400 "loyalist" hoplites joined the Allied force at Thermopylae (at least according to one possible interpretation).[106] The most notable city actively siding with the Persians ("Medised") was Argos, in the otherwise Spartan-dominated Peloponnese.[107][108] However, the Argives had been severely weakened in 494 BC, when a Spartan-force led by Cleomenes I had annihilated the Argive army in Battle of Sepeia and then massacred the fugitives.[108] Size of allied forces[edit] Further information: Battle of Thermopylae, Battle of Artemisium, Battle of Salamis, Battle of Plataea, and Battle of Mycale The allies had no 'standing army', nor was there any requirement to form one; since they were fighting on home territory, they could muster armies as and when required. Different-sized allied forces thus appeared throughout the campaign. These numbers are discussed fully in the article for each battle. Spring 480 BC: Thrace, Macedonia and Thessaly[edit] The ancient Achaemenid fort at Eion (hill to the left) and the mouth of the Strymon River (right), seen from Ennea Hodoi (Amphipolis). Having crossed into Europe in April 480 BC, the Persian army began its march to Greece. Five major food depots had been set up along the path: at White Headland on the Thracian side of the Hellespont, at Tyrodiza in Perinthian territory, at Doriskos at the Evros river estuary where the Asian army was linked up with the Balkan allies, at Eion on the Strymon river, and at Therme, modern-day Thessaloniki. There, food had been sent from Asia for several years in preparation for the campaign. Animals had been bought and fattened, while the local populations had, for several months, been ordered to grind the grains into flour.[109] The Persian army took roughly three months to travel unopposed from the Hellespont to Therme, a journey of about 600 km (360 mi). It paused at Doriskos where it was joined by the fleet. Xerxes reorganized the troops into tactical units replacing the national formations used earlier for the march.[110] The Allied 'congress' met again in the spring of 480 BC. A Thessalian delegation suggested that the allies could muster in the narrow Vale of Tempe, on the borders of Thessaly, and thereby block Xerxes's advance.[111] A force of 10,000 Allies led by the Spartan polemarch Euenetus and Themistocles was thus dispatched to the pass. However, once there, they were warned by Alexander I of Macedon that the vale could be bypassed by at least two other passes and that the army of Xerxes was overwhelming; the Allies therefore retreated.[112] Shortly afterwards, they received the news that Xerxes had crossed the Hellespont.[112] The abandonment of Tempe meant that all of Thessaly submitted to the Persians, as did many cities to the north of the pass of Thermopylae when it seemed help was not forthcoming.[113] A second strategy was therefore suggested to the Allies by Themistocles. The route to southern Greece (Boeotia, Attica and the Peloponnesus) would require the army of Xerxes to travel through the very narrow pass of Thermopylae. This could easily be blocked by the Allies, despite the overwhelming number of Persians. Furthermore, to prevent the Persians from bypassing Thermopylae by sea, the allied navy could block the straits of Artemisium. This dual strategy was adopted by congress.[114] However, the Peloponnesian cities made fall-back plans to defend the Isthmus of Corinth should it come to it, while the women and children of Athens were evacuated en masse to the Peloponnesian city of Troezen.[115] August 480 BC: Thermopylae and Artemisium[edit] Main articles: Battle of Thermopylae and Battle of Artemisium Battle of Thermopylae and movements to Salamis, 480 BC. When the Allies received the news that Xerxes was clearing paths around Mount Olympus, and thus intending to march towards Thermopylae, it was both the period of truce that accompanied the Olympic games, and the Spartan festival of Carneia, during both of which warfare was considered sacrilegious.[116] Nevertheless, the Spartans considered the threat so grave that they despatched their king Leonidas I with his personal bodyguard (the Hippeis) of 300 men (in this case, the elite young soldiers in the Hippeis were replaced by veterans who already had sons).[116] Leonidas was supported by contingents from the Peloponnesian cities allied to Sparta, and other forces that were picked up en route to Thermopylae.[116] The Allies proceeded to occupy the pass, rebuilt the wall the Phocians had built at the narrowest point of the pass and waited for Xerxes's arrival.[117] The pass of Thermopylae in modern times When the Persians arrived at Thermopylae in mid-August, they initially waited for three days for the Allies to disperse. When Xerxes was eventually persuaded that the Allies intended to contest the pass, he sent his troops to attack.[118] However, the Greek position was ideally suited to hoplite warfare, the Persian contingents being forced to attack the phalanx head on.[119] The Allies thus withstood two full days of battle and everything Xerxes could throw at them. However, at the end of the second day, they were betrayed by a local resident named Ephialtes who revealed to Xerxes a mountain path that led behind the Allied lines. Xerxes then sent his elite guards, the Immortals on a night march to outflank the Allies. When he was made aware of this maneuver (while the Immortals were still en route), Leonidas dismissed the bulk of the Allied army, remaining to guard the rear with 300 Spartans, 700 Thespians, 400 Thebians and perhaps a few hundred others. On the third day of the battle, the remaining Allies sallied forth from the wall to meet the Persians and slaughter as many as they could.[120] Ultimately, however, the Allied rearguard was annihilated, and the pass of Thermopylae opened to the Persians.[121] Achaemenid king killing a Greek hoplite. Circa 500 BC–475 BC, at the time of Xerxes I. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Simultaneous with the battle at Thermopylae, an Allied naval force of 271 triremes defended the Straits of Artemisium against the Persians.[122] Directly before Artemisium, the Persian fleet had been caught in a gale off the coast of Magnesia, losing many ships, but could still probably muster over 800 ships at the start of the battle.[123] On the first day (also the first of the Battle of Thermopylae), the Persians detached 200 seaworthy ships, which were sent to sail around the eastern coast of Euboea. These ships were to round Euboea and block the line of retreat for the Allied fleet.[123] Meanwhile, the Allies and the remaining Persians engaged in the late afternoon, the Allies having the better of the engagement and capturing 30 vessels.[123] That evening, another storm occurred, wrecking the majority of the Persian detachment which had been sent around Euboea.[124] On the second day of the battle, news reached the Allies that their lines of retreat were no longer threatened; they therefore resolved to maintain their position. They staged a hit-and-run attack on some Cilician ships, capturing and destroying them.[125] On the third day, however, the Persian fleet attacked the Allies lines in full force. In a day of savage fighting, the Allies held on to their position, but suffered severe losses[126] (half the Athenian fleet was damaged[127]); nevertheless, the Allies inflicted equal losses on the Persian fleet.[126] That evening, the Allies received news of the fate of Leonidas and the Allies at Thermopylae. Since the Allied fleet was badly damaged, and since it no longer needed to defend the flank of Thermopylae, they retreated from Artemisium to the island of Salamis.[128] September 480 BC: Destruction of Athens, battle of Salamis[edit] Main articles: Destruction of Athens and Battle of Salamis A few Athenians resisted in the Acropolis of Athens, which was stormed and burned down by the Achaemenid Army of Xerxes. Remains of the Old Temple of Athena on the Acropolis, destroyed by the armies of Xerxes I during the Destruction of Athens. Part of the archaeological remains called Perserschutt, or "Persian rubble": remnants of the destruction of Athens by the armies of Xerxes. Photographed in 1866, just after excavation. Victory at Thermopylae meant that all Boeotia fell to Xerxes; the two cities that had resisted him, Thespiae and Plataea, were captured and razed. Attica was also left open to invasion, and the remaining population of Athens was thus evacuated, with the aid of the Allied fleet, to Salamis.[129] The Peloponnesian Allies began to prepare a defensive line across the Isthmus of Corinth, building a wall, and demolishing the road from Megara, thereby abandoning Athens to the Persians.[130] Athens fell a first time in September 480 BC.[131] The small number of Athenians who had barricaded themselves on the Acropolis were eventually defeated, and Xerxes then ordered Athens to be torched.[132] The Acropolis was razed and the Older Parthenon as well as the Old Temple of Athena were destroyed.[133] The Persians had now captured most of Greece, but Xerxes had perhaps not expected such defiance from the Greeks; his priority was now to complete the war as quickly as possible;[134] the huge invasion force could not be supplied indefinitely, and probably Xerxes did not wish to be at the fringe of his empire for so long.[135] Thermopylae had shown that a frontal assault against a well defended Greek position had little chance of success;[136] with the Allies now dug in across the isthmus, there was therefore little chance of the Persians conquering the rest of Greece by land. However, if the isthmus's defensive line could be outflanked, the Allies could be defeated.[137][138] Such an outflanking of the isthmus required the use of the Persian navy, and thus the neutralisation of the Allied navy.[135][138] In summary, if Xerxes could destroy the Allied navy, he would be in a strong position to force a Greek surrender; this seemed the only hope of concluding the campaign in that season.[135] Conversely by avoiding destruction, or as Themistocles hoped, by destroying the Persian fleet, the Greeks could avoid conquest. In the final reckoning, both sides were prepared to stake everything on a naval battle, in the hope of decisively altering the course of the war.[139] Thus it was that the Allied fleet remained off the coast of Salamis into September, despite the imminent arrival of the Persians. Even after Athens fell to the advancing Persian army, the Allied fleet still remained off the coast of Salamis, trying to lure the Persian fleet to battle.[139][140] Partly as a result of subterfuge on the part of Themistocles, the navies finally engaged in the cramped Straits of Salamis.[136] There, the large Persian numbers were an active hindrance, as ships struggled to manoeuvre and became disorganised.[141] Seizing the opportunity, the Greek fleet attacked, and scored a decisive victory, sinking or capturing at least 200 Persian ships, and thus ensuring the Peloponnesus would not be outflanked.[142] According to Herodotus, after this loss Xerxes attempted to build a causeway across the straits to attack Salamis (although Strabo and Ctesias place this attempt before the battle). In any case, this project was soon abandoned. With the Persians' naval superiority removed, Xerxes feared that the Greeks might sail to the Hellespont and destroy the pontoon bridges.[143] According to Herodotus, Mardonius volunteered to remain in Greece and complete the conquest with a hand-picked group of troops, while advising Xerxes to retreat to Asia with the bulk of the army.[144] All of the Persian forces abandoned Attica, with Mardonius over-wintering in Boeotia and Thessaly.[134] Some Athenians were thus able to return to their burnt-out city for the winter.[134] They would have to evacuate again in front of a second advance by Mardonius in June 479 BC.[131] Autumn/winter 480/479 BC[edit] Siege of Potidaea[edit] According to Herodotus a Persian general known as Artabazus escorted Xerxes to the Hellespont with 60,000 men; as he neared Pallene on the return journey to Thessaly: "he thought it right that he should enslave the people of Potidaea, whom he found in revolt.".[145] Despite attempts to capture Potidaea by treachery,[146] the Persians were forced to keep up the siege for three months.[147] Then, attempting to use an unusually low tide to attack the town from sea, the Persian army was caught by the returning tide, many drowning and the survivors being attacked by the Potideans in boats.[147] Artabazus was thus forced to lift the siege, and return to Mardonius in Thessaly with the remnants of his men.[147] Siege of Olynthus[edit] While besieging Potidea, Artabazus also decided to besiege Olynthus, which was also in revolt.[148] The town was held by the Bottiaean tribe, who had been driven out of Macedon.[148] Having taken the town, he massacred the defenders and handed over the town to the Chalcidian people.[148] June 479 BC: Plataea and Mycale[edit] Main articles: Battle of Plataea and Battle of Mycale Battle of Plataea. Over the winter, there seems to have been some tension between the Allies. In particular, the Athenians, who were not protected by the isthmus, but whose fleet were the key to the security of the Peloponnesus, felt hard done by. They demanded an Allied army march north the following year.[149] When the other Allies failed to commit to this, the Athenian fleet probably refused to join the Allied navy in the spring.[150] The navy, now under the command of the Spartan king Leotychides, thus skulked off Delos, while the remnants of the Persian fleet skulked off Samos, both sides unwilling to risk battle.[150] Similarly, Mardonius remained in Thessaly, knowing an attack on the isthmus was pointless, while the Allies refused to send an army outside the Peloponessus.[149] Mardonius moved to break the stalemate, by offering peace, self-government and territorial expansion to the Athenians (with the aim of thereby removing their fleet from the Allied forces), using Alexander I of Macedon as an intermediary.[150] The Athenians made sure that a Spartan delegation was on hand to hear the offer, but rejected it.[150] Athens was thus evacuated again, and the Persians marched south and re-took possession of it.[150] Mardonius brought even more thorough destruction to the city.[131] According to Herodotus, Mardonius "burnt Athens and utterly overthrew or demolished whatever wall or house or temple was left standing".[131] Mardonius now repeated his offer of peace to the Athenian refugees on Salamis. Athens, along with Megara and Plataea, sent emissaries to Sparta demanding assistance, and threatening to accept the Persian terms if not.[151] The Spartans, who were at that time celebrating the festival of Hyacinthus, delayed making a decision for 10 days.[152] However, when the Athenian emissaries then delivered an ultimatum to the Spartans, they were amazed to hear that a task force was in fact already marching to meet the Persians.[153] The main battle at Plataea. The Greek retreat becomes disorganised, and the Persians cross the Asopus to attack. When Mardonius heard that the Allied army was on the march, he retreated into Boeotia, near Plataea, trying to draw the Allies into open terrain where he could use his cavalry.[154] The Allied army however, under the command of the Spartan regent Pausanias, stayed on high ground above Plataea to protect themselves against such tactics.[155] Mardonius ordered a hit-and-run cavalry attack on the Greek lines,[156] but the attack was unsuccessful and the cavalry commander killed.[157] The outcome prompted the Allies to move to a position nearer the Persian camp, still on high ground.[158] As a result, the Allied lines of communication were exposed. The Persian cavalry began to intercept food deliveries and finally managed to destroy the only spring of water available to the Allies.[155] The Allied position now undermined, Pausanias ordered a night-time retreat towards their original positions.[155] This went awry, leaving the Athenians, and Spartans and Tegeans isolated on separate hills, with the other contingents scattered further away, near Plataea itself.[155] Seeing that he might never have a better opportunity to attack, Mardonius ordered his whole army forward.[159][160] However, as at Thermopylae, the Persian infantry proved no match for the heavily armoured Greek hoplites,[161] and the Spartans broke through to Mardonius's bodyguard and killed him.[162] The Persian force thus dissolved in rout; 40,000 troops managed to escape via the road to Thessaly,[163] but the rest fled to the Persian camp where they were trapped and slaughtered by the Allies, thus finalising their victory.[160][164] Achaemenid troops at the Battle of Plataea: Greek allies, Sacae, Indians, Bactrians, Medes and Persians, under General Mardonius. On the afternoon of the Battle of Plataea, Herodotus tells us that rumour of the Allied victory reached the Allied navy, at that time off the coast of Mount Mycale in Ionia.[165] Their morale boosted, the Allied marines fought and won a decisive victory at the Battle of Mycale that same day, destroying the remnants of the Persian fleet.[166] As soon as the Peloponnesians had marched north of the isthmus, the Athenian fleet under Xanthippus had joined up with the rest of the Allied fleet.[166] The fleet, now able to match the Persians, had first sailed to Samos, where the Persian fleet was based.[167] The Persians, whose ships were in a poor state of repair, had decided not to risk fighting and instead drew their ships up on the beach under Mycale. An army of 60,000 men had been left there by Xerxes, and the fleet joined with them, building a palisade around the camp to protect the ships.[167] However, Leotychides decided to attack the camp with the Allied fleet's marines.[166] Seeing the small size of the Allied force, the Persians emerged from the camp, but the hoplites again proved superior and destroyed much of the Persian force.[166] The ships were abandoned to the Allies, who burnt them, crippling Xerxes' sea power, and marking the ascendancy of the Allied fleet.[166] Aftermath[edit] The Serpent Column, a monument dedicated by the victorious Allies Main articles: Greco-Persian Wars and Wars of the Delian League With the twin victories of Plataea and Mycale, the second Persian invasion of Greece was over. Moreover, the threat of future invasion was abated; although the Greeks remained worried that Xerxes would try again, over time it became apparent that the Persian desire to conquer Greece was much diminished.[168] In many ways Mycale represents the start of a new phase of the conflict, the Greek counterattack.[169] After the victory at Mycale, the Allied fleet sailed to the Hellespont to break down the pontoon bridges, but found that this was already done.[170] The Peloponnesians sailed home, but the Athenians remained to attack the Chersonesos, still held by the Persians.[170] The Persians in the region, and their allies made for Sestos, the strongest town in the region, which the Athenians then laid siege to; after a protracted siege, it fell to the Athenians.[171] Herodotus ended his Historia after the Siege of Sestos. Over the next 30 years, the Greeks, primarily the Athenian-dominated Delian League, would expel the Persians from Macedon, Thrace, the Aegean islands and Ionia.[171] The Achaemenid maintained a strong presence at the doorstep of Greece, in Thrace, until circa 465 BC. In 477–455 BC, according to Thucydides, the allies campaigned against the city of Eion, at the mouth of the Strymon river.[172] Eion was one of the Achaemenid garrisons left in Thrace during and after the second Persian invasion, along with Doriskos.[173] Herodotus then alludes to several failed attempts, presumably Athenian, to dislodge the Persian governor of Doriskos, Mascames.[173] The Achaemenids finally removed Mascames and their garrison at Doriskos circa 465 BC. Peace with Persia came in 449 BC with the Peace of Callias, finally ending the half-century of warfare.[171] Tactical analysis[edit] Main articles: Hoplite and Phalanx The Greek style of warfare had been honed over the preceding centuries.[174][175] It revolved around the hoplite, members of the middle-classes (the zeugites) who could afford the armour necessary to fight in this manner.[176] The hoplite was, by the standards of the time, heavily armoured, with linothorax or a breastplate (originally bronze, but probably by this stage made of organic materials such as linen (possibly linothroax) and leather, greaves, a full helmet, and a large round shield (the aspis).[175] Hoplites were armed with a long spear (the doru), which was evidently significantly longer than Persian spears, and a sword (the xiphos).[175] Hoplites fought in the phalanx formation; the exact details are not completely clear, but it was a close-knit formation, presenting a uniform front of overlapping shields, and spears, to the enemy.[174] Properly assembled, the phalanx was a formidable offensive and defensive weapon;[177][178] on occasions when it is recorded to have happened, it took a huge number of light infantry to defeat a relatively small phalanx.[177] It is also possible that the "leather armor" was actually untanned or partially tanned rawhide rather than fully tanned leather, because modern tests have concluded that plain or treated rawhide is a significantly better material for making armor than leather. [179] The phalanx was vulnerable to being outflanked by cavalry, if caught on the wrong terrain, however.[180] The hoplite's heavy armour and long spears made them excellent troops in hand-to-hand combat[175] and gave them significant protection against ranged attacks by light troops and skirmishers. Even if the shield did not stop a missile, there was a reasonable chance the armour would.[175] Diagram reconstructing the armament of a Greek hoplite The Persian infantry used in the invasion were a heterogeneous group drawn from across the empire. However, according to Herodotus, there was at least a general conformity in the type of armour and style of fighting.[181] The troops were, generally speaking, armed with a bow, 'short spear' and sword, carried a wicker shield and wore at most a leather jerkin.[181][182] The one exception to this may have been the ethnic Persian troops, who may have worn a corslet of scaled armour.[181] Some of the contingents may have been armed somewhat differently;[181] for instance, the Saka were renowned axemen.[183] The 'elite' contingents of the Persian infantry seem to have been the ethnic Persians, Medians, Cissians and the Saka.[181] The foremost of the infantry were the royal guards, the Immortals, although they were still armed in the aforementioned style.[181][184] Cavalry was provided by the Persians, Bactrians, Medes, Cissians and Saka; most of these probably fought as lightly armed missile cavalry.[181][185] The style of fighting used by the Persians was probably to stand off from an enemy, using their bows (or equivalent) to wear down the enemy before closing in to deliver the coup de grace with spear and sword.[181] Persian soldiers, possibly Immortals, a frieze in Darius's palace at Susa. Silicious glazed bricks, c. 510 BC, Louvre. The Persians had encountered hoplites in battle before at Ephesus, where their cavalry had easily routed the (probably exhausted) Greeks.[186] However, at the battle of Marathon, the Athenian hoplites had shown their superiority over the Persian infantry, albeit in the absence of any cavalry.[187] It is therefore slightly surprising that the Persians did not bring any hoplites from the Greek regions, especially Ionia, under their control in Asia.[181] Equally, Herodotus tells us that the Egyptian marines serving in the navy were well armed, and performed well against the Greek marines; yet no Egyptian contingent served in the army.[175] The Persians may not have completely trusted the Ionians and Egyptians, since both had recently revolted against Persian rule. However, if this is the case, then it must be questioned why there were Greek and Egyptian contingents in the navy. The Allies evidently tried to play on the Persian fears about the reliability of the Ionians in Persian service;[188][189] but, as far as we can tell, both the Ionians and Egyptians performed particularly well for the Persian navy.[181] It may therefore simply be that neither the Ionians nor Egyptians were included in the army because they were serving in the fleet — none of the coastal regions of the Persian empire appear to have sent contingents with the army.[181] In the two major land battles of the invasion, the Allies clearly adjusted their tactics to nullify the Persian advantage in numbers and cavalry, by occupying the pass at Thermopylae, and by staying on high ground at Plataea.[190] At Thermopylae, until the path outflanking the Allied position was revealed, the Persians signally failed to adjust their tactics to the situation, although the position was well chosen to limit the Persian options.[184][191] At Plataea, the harassing of the Allied positions by cavalry was a successful tactic, forcing the precipitous (and nearly disastrous) retreat; however, Mardonius then brought about a general melee between the infantry, which resulted in the Persian defeat.[192] The events at Mycale reveal a similar story; Persian infantry committing themselves to a melee with hoplites, with disastrous results.[166] It has been suggested that there is little evidence of complex tactics in the Greco-Persian wars.[193] However, as simple as the Greek tactics were, they played to their strengths; the Persians however, may have seriously underestimated the strength of the hoplite, and their failure to adapt to facing the Allied infantry contributed to the eventual Persian defeat.[181][193] Strategic analysis[edit] The Scythians (Sakas) formed a large portion of the Achaemenid army. Detail of the tomb of Xerxes I at Naqsh-e Rostam, circa 480 BC. At the beginning of the invasion, it is clear that the Persians held most advantages.[194] Regardless of its actual size, it is clear that the Persians had brought an overwhelming number of troops and ships to Greece.[2][195] The Persians had a unified command system, and everyone was answerable to the king.[196] They had a hugely efficient bureaucracy, which allowed them to undertake remarkable feats of planning.[26][197][198] The Persian generals had significant experience of warfare over the 80 years in which the Persian empire had been established.[199] Furthermore, the Persians excelled in the use of intelligence and diplomacy in warfare, as shown by their (nearly successful) attempts to divide-and-conquer the Greeks.[200][201][202] The Greeks, by comparison, were fragmented, with only 30 or so city-states actively opposing the Persian invasion; even those were prone to quarrel with each other.[203] They had little experience of large-scale warfare, being largely restricted to small-scale local warfare,[204] and their commanders were chosen primarily on the basis of the political and social standing, rather than because of any experience or expertise.[205] As Lazenby therefore asks: "So why did the Persians fail?"[194] The Persian strategy for 480 BC was probably to simply progress through Greece in overwhelming force.[192] The cities in any territory that the army passed through would be forced to submit or risk destruction; and indeed this happened with the Thessalian, Locrian and Phocian cities who initially resisted the Persians but then were forced to submit as the Persians advanced.[206][207] Conversely, the Allied strategy was probably to try and stop the Persian advance as far north as possible, and thus prevent the submission of as many potential Allies as possible.[194] Beyond this, the Allies seem to have realised that given the Persians' overwhelming numbers, they had little chance in open battle, and thus they opted to try to defend geographical bottle-necks, where the Persian numbers would count for less.[194] The whole Allied campaign for 480 BC can be seen in this context. Initially they attempted to defend the Tempe pass to prevent the loss of Thessaly.[194] After they realised that they could not defend this position, they chose the next-most northerly position, the Thermopylae/Artemisium axis.[194] The Allied performance at Thermopylae was initially effective; however, the failure to properly guard the path that outflanked Thermopylae undermined their strategy, and led to defeat.[194] At Artemisium the fleet also scored some successes, but withdrew due to the losses they had sustained, and since the defeat of Thermopylae made the position irrelevant.[208] Thus far, the Persian strategy had succeeded, while the Allied strategy, though not a disaster, had failed. A Persian soldier of the Achaemenid army. Detail of the tomb of Xerxes I at Naqsh-e Rostam, circa 480 BC. The defence of the Isthmus of Corinth by the Allies changed the nature of the war. The Persians did not attempt to attack the isthmus by land, realising they probably could not breach it.[209][210] This essentially reduced the conflict to a naval one.[194] Themistocles now proposed what was in hindsight the strategic masterstroke in the Allied campaign; to lure the Persian fleet to battle in the straits of Salamis.[194][211] However, as successful as this was, there was no need for the Persians to fight at Salamis to win the war; it has been suggested that the Persians were either overconfident or overeager to finish the campaign.[194][212] Thus, the Allied victory at Salamis must at least partially be ascribed to a Persian strategic blunder.[194] After Salamis, the Persian strategy changed. Mardonius sought to exploit dissensions between the Allies in order to fracture the alliance.[192] In particular, he sought to win over the Athenians, which would leave the Allied fleet unable to oppose Persian landings on the Peloponnesus.[149] Although Herodotus tells us that Mardonius was keen to fight a decisive battle, his actions in the run-up to Plataea are not particularly consistent with this.[194] He seems to have been willing to accept battle on his terms, but he waited either for the Allies to attack, or for the alliance to collapse ignominiously.[194] The Allied strategy for 479 BC was something of a mess; the Peloponnesians only agreed to march north in order to save the alliance, and it appears that the Allied leadership had little idea how to force a battle that they could win.[194] It was the botched attempt to retreat from Plataea that finally delivered the Allies battle on their terms.[192] Mardonius may have been overeager for victory; there was no need to attack the Allies, and by doing so he played to the main Allied tactical strength, combat in the melee.[192] The Allied victory at Plataea can also therefore be seen as partially the result of a Persian mistake.[192] Thus, the Persian failure may be seen partly as a result of two strategic mistakes that handed the Allies tactical advantages, and resulted in decisive defeats for the Persians.[192] The Allied success is often seen as the result of "free men fighting for their freedom".[213] This may have played a part, and certainly the Greeks seem to have interpreted their victory in those terms.[214] One crucial factor in the Allied success was that, having formed an alliance, however fractious, they remained true to it, despite the odds.[192] There appear to have been many occasions when the alliance seemed in doubt, but ultimately it withstood; and while this alone did not defeat the Persians, it meant that even after the occupation of most of Greece, the Allies were not themselves defeated.[194] This is exemplified by the remarkable fact that the citizens of Athens, Thespiae and Plataea chose to carry on fighting from exile rather than submit to the Persians.[215] Ultimately, the Allies succeeded because they avoided catastrophic defeats,[194] stuck to their alliance,[192] took advantage of Persian mistakes,[192] and because in the hoplite they possessed an advantage (perhaps their only real advantage at the start of the conflict), which, at Plataea, allowed them to destroy the Persian invasion force.[175] Significance[edit] Greek hoplite and Persian warrior depicted fighting. Ancient kylix, 5th century BC. The second Persian invasion of Greece was an event of major significance in European history. A large number of historians hold that, had Greece been conquered, the Ancient Greek culture that lies at the basis of Western civilization would have never developed (and by extension Western civilization itself).[216][217][218] While this may be an exaggeration, it is clear that even at the time the Greeks understood that something very significant had happened.[219] Militarily, there was not much in the way of tactical or strategic innovation during the Persian invasion, one commentator suggesting it was something of "a soldier's war" (i.e., it was the soldiers rather than generals that won the war).[220] Thermopylae is often used as a good example of the use of terrain as a force multiplier,[221] while Themistocles's ruse before Salamis is a good example of the use of deception in warfare. The major lesson of the invasion, reaffirming the events at the Battle of Marathon, was the superiority of the hoplite in close-quarters fighting over the more-lightly armed Persian infantry.[168][175] Taking on this lesson, the Persian empire would later, after the Peloponnesian War, start recruiting and relying on Greek mercenaries.[222] References[edit] ^ a b c d Shahbazi 2012, p. 129. ^ a b c d e de Souza, p. 41 ^ a b c Holland, p. 237 ^ Cicero, On the Laws I, 5 ^ a b c Holland, pp. xvi–xvii. ^ Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, e.g. I, 22 ^ a b Finley, p. 15. ^ Holland, p. xxiv. ^ David Pipes. "Herodotus: Father of History, Father of Lies". Archived from the original on December 27, 2007. Retrieved 2008-01-18. ^ a b Holland, p. 377. ^ Fehling, pp. 1–277. ^ Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica, XI, 28–34 ^ Note to Herodotus IX, 81 ^ a b Holland, p. 47–55 ^ a b Holland, p. 203 ^ Herodotus V, 105 ^ a b Holland, 171–178 ^ Herodotus VI, 44 ^ a b Roisman & Worthington 2011, pp. 135–138, 342–345. ^ a b c Holland, pp. 178–179 ^ "Two Spartans of noble birth and great wealth, Sperthias son of Aneristus and Bulis son of Nicolaus, undertook of their own free will that they would make atonement to Xerxes for Darius' heralds who had been done to death at Sparta. Thereupon the Spartans sent these men to Media for execution." in LacusCurtius Herodotus Book VII: Chapter 134. This self-sacrifice occurred shortly after Darius' reign ended, when Xerxes was imminently to invade Greece in the Second Persian Invation. As Herodotus writes: "But to Athens and Sparta Xerxes sent no heralds to demand earth, and this was the reason: when Darius had before sent men with this same purpose, the demanders were cast at the one city into the Pit32 and at the other in case of a well, and bidden to carry thence earth and water to the king. For this cause Xerxes sent no demand. What calamity befel the Athenians for thus dealing with the heralds I cannot say, save that their land and their city was laid waste.." [LacusCurtius Herodotus Book VII: Chapter 133 LacusCurtius Herodotus Book VII: Chapter 134] Check |url= value (help). ^ Herodotus VI, 101 ^ Herodotus VI, 113 ^ Holland, pp. 206–207 ^ a b Holland, pp. 208–211 ^ a b c Holland, pp. 213–214 ^ Herodotus VII, 7 ^ Herodotus VII, 62–80 ^ Herodotus VII, 26 ^ Herodotus VII, 37 ^ Herodotus VII, 35 ^ Soldiers with names, after Walser ^ The Achaemenid Empire in South Asia and Recent Excavations in Akra in Northwest Pakistan Peter Magee, Cameron Petrie, Robert Knox, Farid Khan, Ken Thomas p.713 ^ NAQŠ-E ROSTAM – Encyclopaedia Iranica. ^ a b Herodotus VII, 186 ^ a b c Ctesias, Persica ^ Herodotus VIII, 115 ^ Herodotus VII, 59 ^ Herodotus VII, 89 ^ Herodotus VII 90 ^ a b c d e Herodotus VII, 184 ^ a b Herodotus VII, 97 ^ Herodotus VII, 62 ^ Herodotus VII, 63 ^ Herodotus VII, 64 ^ Herodotus VII, 65 ^ Herodotus VII, 66 ^ Herodotus VII, 67 ^ Herodotus VII, 68 ^ Herodotus VII, 69 ^ Herodotus VII, 70 ^ Herodotus VII, 71 ^ Herodotus VII, 72 ^ Herodotus VII, 73 ^ Herodotus VII, 74 ^ Herodotus, VII, 75 ^ Herodotus VII, 77 ^ Herodotus VII, 78 ^ Herodotus VII, 79 ^ Herodotus VII, 80 ^ Herodotus VII, 60 ^ Herodotus VII, 84 ^ Herodotus VII, 85 ^ Herodotus VII, 86 ^ Herodotus VII, 87 ^ Herodotus VII, 61 ^ a b Herodotus VII, 185 ^ a b Grote, ch. 38 ^ Bury, J. B. (1956). A history of Greece to the death of Alexander the Great 3rd edition. Oxford: Oxford Uni. p. 269. ^ a b Maurice (1930) ^ Delbrück (1920) ^ Warry (1998) ^ Engels (1978) ^ Scott (1915) ^ von Fischer ^ Cohen, p. 164 ^ W. W. Tarn (1908) ^ Ernst Obst (1914) ^ Papademetriou (2005) ^ Sekunda & Chew (1992) ^ Munro (1929) ^ Lazenby, p. 90 ^ "The size of the Persian Army". ^ E Istorika, 19 October 2002 ^ Holland, p. 394 ^ Romm, James (2014). Histories. Hackett Publishing. p. 381. ISBN 9781624661150. ^ Aeschylus, The Persians ^ Diodorus Siculus XI, 3 ^ Lysias II, 27 ^ Ephorus, Universal History ^ Isocrates, Oration VII, 49 ^ Isocrates, Oration IV, 93 ^ Plato, Laws III, 699 ^ Köster (1934) ^ Holland, p. 320 ^ a b Lazenby, pp. 93–94 ^ Green, p. 61 ^ Burn, p. 331 ^ Holland, p. 217–223 ^ Herodotus VII, 32 ^ Herodotus VII, 145 ^ Herodotus, VII, 148 ^ Herodotus VII, 161 ^ Holland, p. 226 ^ a b Holland, p. 225 ^ a b Holland, p. 263 ^ Holland, pp. 246–247 ^ a b Holland, pp. 168–169 ^ Herodotus VII, 25 ^ Herodotus VII, 100 ^ Holland, 248–249 ^ a b Herodotus VII, 173 ^ Herodotus VII, 174 ^ Holland pp. 255–257 ^ Herodotus VIII, 40 ^ a b c Holland, pp 257–259 ^ Holland, pp. 262–264 ^ Herodotus VII, 210 ^ Holland, p. 274 ^ Herodotus VII, 223 ^ Herodotus, VII, 225 ^ Herodotus, VIII, 2 ^ a b c Holland, pp. 276–281 ^ Herodotus VIII, 8 ^ Herodotus VIII, 14 ^ a b Herodotus VIII, 16 ^ Herodotus VIII, 18 ^ Herodotus VIII, 21 ^ Herodotus VIII, 41 ^ Holland, p. 300 ^ a b c d Lynch, Kathleen M. (2011). The Symposium in Context: Pottery from a Late Archaic House Near the Athenian Agora. ASCSA. pp. 20–21, and Note 37. ISBN 9780876615461. ^ Holland, pp. 305–306 ^ Barringer, Judith M.; Hurwit, Jeffrey M. (2010). Periklean Athens and Its Legacy: Problems and Perspectives. University of Texas Press. p. 295. ISBN 9780292782907. ^ a b c Holland, pp. 327–329 ^ a b c Holland, pp. 308–309 ^ a b Holland, pp. 310–315 ^ Holland, p. 294 ^ a b Lazenby, pp. 157–161 ^ a b Holland, p. 303 ^ Holland, p. 319 ^ Herodotus VIII, 89 ^ Holland, pp. 320–326 ^ Herodotus VIII, 97 ^ Herodotus VIII, 100 ^ Herodotus VIII, 126 ^ Herodotus VIII, 128 ^ a b c Herodotus VIII, 129 ^ a b c Herodotus VIII, 127 ^ a b c Holland, pp. 333–335 ^ a b c d e Holland, pp. 336–338 ^ Herodotus IX, 7 ^ Herodotus IX, 6–9 ^ Herodotus IX, 10 ^ Holland, p. 339 ^ a b c d Holland, pp. 342–349 ^ Herodotus IX, 20 ^ Herodotus IX, 23 ^ Herodotus IX, 25 ^ Herodotus IX, 59 ^ a b Holland, pp. 350–355 ^ Herodotus IX, 62 ^ Herodotus IX, 63 ^ Herodotus IX, 66 ^ Herodotus IX, 65 ^ Herodotus IX, 100 ^ a b c d e f Holland, pp. 357–358 ^ a b Herodotus IX, 96 ^ a b Holland, p. 358–359 ^ Lazenby, p. 247 ^ a b Herodotus IX, 114 ^ a b c Holland, pp. 359–363 ^ Thucydides I, 98 ^ a b Herodotus VII, 107 ^ a b Holland, pp. 69–72 ^ a b c d e f g h Lazenby, p. 256 ^ Holland, p. 217 ^ a b Lazenby, pp. 39–41 ^ Holland, p. 74 ^ https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.529983 ^ Holland, pp. 187–192 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Lazenby, pp. 23–29 ^ Holland, p. 196 ^ Holland, pp. 17–18 ^ a b Holland, p. 274–275 ^ Lazenby, p. 232 ^ Holland, pp. 160–161 ^ Holland, pp. 192–197 ^ Herodotus VIII, 22 ^ Herodotus IX, 98 ^ Holland, p. 343 ^ Lazenby, p. 138 ^ a b c d e f g h i j Lazenby, 254–255 ^ a b Lazenby, p. 258 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Lazenby, p. 248–253 ^ Lazenby, p. 29 ^ Lazenby, p. 21 ^ Lazenby, pp. 17–18 ^ Lazenby, p. 30 ^ Lazenby, p. 31 ^ Lazenby, pp. 29–30 ^ Holland, pp. 311–313 ^ Holland, pp. 344–345 ^ Lazenby, pp. 21–22 ^ Lazenby, p. 33 ^ Lazenby, pp. 37–38 ^ Herodotus, IX, 17 ^ Herodotus VII, 172 ^ Lazenby, pp. 149–150 ^ Lazenby, p. 197 ^ Holland, p. 310 ^ Holland, p. 316–317 ^ Holland, pp. 307–308 ^ Green, p. 36 ^ "VDH's Private Papers::History and the Movie "300"". 2009-02-16. Archived from the original on 2009-02-16. Retrieved 2017-02-28.CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) ^ Lazenby, pp. 259–261 ^ Hanson, Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise of Western Power ^ Strauss, pp. 1–294 ^ Holland, pp xvii–xix ^ Holland, pp xvi ^ Lazenby, pp. 257–258 ^ Eikenberry (1996) ^ Xenophon, Anabasis Bibliography[edit] Ancient sources[edit] Herodotus, The Histories Macan translation of books 7–9 of The Histories (The Perseus Digital Library) (1908) Macauley translation of The Histories Diodorus Siculus, Biblioteca Historica Ctesias, Persica (from Photius's Epitome) Modern sources[edit] Holland, Tom (2006). Persian Fire: The First World Empire and the Battle for the West. Abacus, ISBN 0-385-51311-9. Green, Peter (1996). The Greco-Persian Wars. University of California Press. de Souza, Philip (2003). The Greek and Persian Wars, 499–386 BC. Osprey Publishing, ( ISBN 1-84176-358-6) Lazenby, JF (1993). The Defence of Greece 490–479 BC. Aris & Phillips Ltd., ( ISBN 0-85668-591-7) Burn, A.R., "Persia and the Greeks" in The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 2: The Median and Achaemenid Periods, Ilya Gershevitch, ed. (1985). Cambridge University Press. Sekunda, N & Chew, S (1992). The Persian Army (560–330 BC), Elite series, Osprey Publishing. Shahbazi, A. Shapour (2012). "The Achaemenid Persian Empire (550–330 BCE)". In Daryaee, Touraj (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0190208820. Bradford, E. Thermopylae: The Battle for the West. Da Capo Press, ISBN 0-306-81360-2. Strauss, Barry. The Battle of Salamis: The Naval Encounter That Saved Greece—and Western Civilization. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7432-4450-8; paperback, ISBN 0-7432-4451-6). Bury, J. B. & Meiggs, R. (2000). A History of Greece to the Death of Alexander the Great (4th Revised Edition). Palgrave Macmillan. Grote, G. A History of Greece: Part II Maurice, F (1930). "The size of the army of Xerxes in the invasion of Greece 480 BC". Journal of Hellenic Studies vol. 50, pp. 115–128. Delbrück, Hans (1920). History of the Art of War. University of Nebraska Press. Reprint edition, 1990. Translated by Walter, J. Renfroe. 4 Volumes. Warry, J. (1998). Warfare in the Classical World. ISBN 1-84065-004-4. Engels, DW. (1978). Alexander the Great and the Logistics of the Macedonian Army. Berkeley/Los Angeles/London. Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (2011). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-1-44-435163-7. Scott, JA (1915). "Thoughts on the Reliability of Classical Writers, with Especial Reference to the Size of the Army of Xerxes", The Classical Journal 10 (9). von Fischer, R. Das Zahlenproblem in Perserkriege 480–479 v. Chr. Klio, N. F., vol. VII. Cohen, R (1934). La Grece et l'hellenization du monde antique Tarn, WW. (1908). "The Fleet of Xerxes", The Journal of Hellenic Studies v.28 Obst, E. (1914). Der Feldzug des Xerxes. Leipzig Munro, JAR (1929). Cambridge Ancient History vol. IV Köster, AJ (1934). Studien zur Geschichte des Antikes Seewesens. Klio Belheft 32 Οι δυνάμεις των Ελλήνων και των Περσών (The forces of the Greeks and the Persians), E Istorika no. 164 19 October 2002. Papademetriou, K (2005). "Περσικό Πεζικό: Η δύναμη που κατέκτησε τη νοτιοδυτική Ασία" (Persian Infantry: The force that conquered southwest Asia), Panzer magazine, Issue 22 September–October 2005, Periscopio editions Athens. Fehling, D (1989). Herodotus and His "Sources": Citation, Invention, and Narrative Art. Translated by J. G. Howie. Leeds: Francis Cairns. Finley, Moses (1972). "Introduction". Thucydides – History of the Peloponnesian War (translated by Rex Warner). Penguin. ISBN 0-14-044039-9. Eikenberry, Lt. Gen. Karl W. (Summer 1996). "Take No Casualties". Parameters: US Army War College Quarterly. XXVI (2): 109–118. Archived from the original on June 9, 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-17. v t e Ancient Greece Timeline History Geography Periods Cycladic civilization Minoan civilization Mycenaean civilization Greek Dark Ages Archaic period Classical Greece Hellenistic Greece Roman Greece Geography Aegean Sea Aeolis Crete Cyrenaica Cyprus Doris Epirus Hellespont Ionia Ionian Sea Macedonia Magna Graecia Peloponnesus Pontus Taurica Ancient Greek colonies City states Politics Military City states Argos Athens Byzantion Chalcis Corinth Ephesus Miletus Pergamon Eretria Kerkyra Larissa Megalopolis Thebes Megara Rhodes Samos Sparta Syracuse Cyrene Alexandria Antioch Lissus (Crete) Kingdoms Epirus (ancient state) Macedonia (ancient kingdom) Ptolemaic Kingdom Seleucid Empire Greco-Bactrian Kingdom Indo-Greek Kingdom Politics Boule Koinon Proxeny Tagus Tyrant Amphictyonic League Athenian Agora Areopagus Ecclesia Graphe paranomon Heliaia Ostracism Spartan Apella Ephor Gerousia Macedon Synedrion Koinon Military Wars Athenian military Scythian archers Antigonid 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en-wikipedia-org-5533	----	Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt family tree - Wikipedia Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt family tree From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search As with most ancient Egyptian royal dynasties, the family tree for the Twelfth Dynasty is complex and unclear. Senusret Neferet Amenemhat I Neferitatjenen Senusret I Neferu III Amenemhat II Senet Amenemhatankh Ita Itawaret Khenmet Khenemetneferhedjet I Neferet II Senusret II Neferthenut Khnemetneferhedjet II Senusret III Meretseger Sithathoriunet Itakayt Hetepti Aat Amenemhat III Khenemetneferhedjet III Sithathor Menet Senetsenebtysy Meret Amenemhat IV Neferuptah[1] Sobekneferu Hathorhotep References[edit] ^ Possibly daughter of Senusret III Grajetzki, Wolfram (2005) Ancient Egyptian Queens – a hieroglyphic dictionary v t e Royal or noble family trees Monarchies by region Africa Egypt House of Muhammad Ali Ethiopia Solomonic dynasty Madagascar Morocco Tunisia Americas Aztec Brazil Mexico Asia Brunei Cambodia China Ancient Warring States Early Middle Late India Mughal Mughal-Mongol Iran Pre-Islamic: Achaemenid Arsacid Sasanian post-Islamic dynasties Modern: Safavid Afsharid Zand Qajar Pahlavi Japan Shōgun: Kamakura Ashikaga Tokugawa Jerusalem Korea Silla Goryeo Joseon Kuwait Malaysia Johor Kedah Kelantan Negeri Sembilan Pahang Perak Perlis Selangor Terengganu Mongol Borjigin Yuan Ilkhanate Timurid Myanmar Ottoman simplified Seljuk Anatolian Seljuk Sri Lanka Thailand Vietnam Europe Aragon Belgium Bohemia Bosnia Castile Croatia Denmark France simplified House of Bonaparte Greece Hungary Leon Luxembourg Monaco Naples Navarre Netherlands Norway Orange-Nassau Poland Portugal Holy Roman Empire/Germany House of Habsburg (incl. 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Julio-Claudian dynasty Severan dynasty Flavian dynasty Constantinian dynasty Valentinianic dynasty Eastern Roman/Byzantine Emperors See also Family tree Ahnentafel Genealogical numbering systems Quarters of nobility Seize quartiers Royal descent v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Twelfth_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree&oldid=981094349" Categories: Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Ancient Egyptian family trees Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit 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en-wikipedia-org-5541	----	Ptolemy XIV Philopator - Wikipedia Ptolemy XIV Philopator From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Ptolemy XIV) Jump to navigation Jump to search Pharaoh of Egypt from 47 to 44 BC Ptolemy XIV Pharaoh of Egypt Reign 47–44 BC, with Cleopatra VII Predecessor Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Successor Caesarion Born c. 59 BC Died 26 July 44 BC (aged c. 15) Spouse Cleopatra VII (sister) Full name Ptolemy Philopator Greek Πτολεμαίος ΙΔ΄ Φιλοπάτωρ Dynasty Ptolemaic Father Ptolemy XII Auletes Ptolemy XIV Philopator (Koinē Greek: Πτολεμαῖος Φιλοπάτωρ,[1] Ptolemaĩos; c. 59 – 44 BC) was a son of Ptolemy XII of Egypt and one of the last members of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt. Contents 1 Biography 2 Ancestry 3 References 4 External links Biography[edit] Following the death of his older brother Ptolemy XIII of Egypt on January 13, 47 BC, and according to his will, he was proclaimed Pharaoh and co-ruler by their older sister and remaining Pharaoh, Cleopatra VII of Egypt.[2][3] He was about 12 years old when he acceded to the throne.[4] He and his older sister, Cleopatra, were married, but Cleopatra continued to act as lover of Roman dictator Julius Caesar. Ptolemy is considered to have reigned in name only, as a concession to Egyptian tradition, with Cleopatra keeping actual authority.[5] On 15 March 44 BC Caesar was murdered in Rome by a group of conspirators whose most notable members were Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus. Ptolemy soon followed him in death. An inscription mentioning him as alive was dated at 26 July 44 BC.[6] It has been assumed but remains uncertain that Cleopatra poisoned her co-ruler, with aconite, to replace him with his nephew Ptolemy XV Caesar, her son by Caesar who was proclaimed co-ruler on 2 September 44 BC and whom his mother intended to support as successor of his father.[7][8] Ancestry[edit] Ancestors of Ptolemy XIV of Egypt 16. Ptolemy V Epiphanes 8. Ptolemy VIII Physcon 17. Cleopatra I of Egypt 4. Ptolemy IX Lathyros 18. Ptolemy VI Philometor (brother of no. 8) 9. Cleopatra III of Egypt 19. Cleopatra II of Egypt (sister of no. 8) 2. Ptolemy XII Auletes 20. Ptolemy V Epiphanes (=16) 10. Ptolemy VIII Physcon (=8) 21. Cleopatra I of Egypt (=17) 5. Cleopatra IV of Egypt 22. Ptolemy VI Philometor (=18) 11. Cleopatra III of Egypt (=9) 23. Cleopatra II of Egypt (=19) 1. Ptolemy XIV 24. Ptolemy V Epiphanes (=16) 12. Ptolemy VIII Physcon (=8) 25. Cleopatra I of Egypt (=17) 6. Ptolemy X Alexander I 26. Ptolemy VI Philometor (=18) 13. Cleopatra III of Egypt (=9) 27. Cleopatra II of Egypt (=19) 3. Cleopatra V Tryphaena 28. Ptolemy VIII Physcon (=8) 14. Ptolemy IX Lathyros (=4) 29. Cleopatra III of Egypt (=9) 7. Berenice III 30. Ptolemy VIII Physcon (=8) 15. Cleopatra Selene I 31. Cleopatra III of Egypt (=9) References[edit] ^ Volkmann, Hans, "Ptolemaios 36", Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (RE, PW), volume XXIII.2, column 1759–1760 (Stuttgart, 1959). ^ Mahaffy, John Pentland (2014) [1895]. The Empire of the Ptolemies. Cambridge Library Collection. Cambridge, England and New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. xxiv. ISBN 9781108078658. ^ Southern, Patricia (2012) [2010]. Antony & Cleopatra: The Doomed Love Affair That United Ancient Rome & Egypt. Stroud, England: Amberley Publishing Limited. ISBN 9781445608877. ^ Blackaby, Susan (2009). Cleopatra: Egypt's Last and Greatest Queen. Sterling Biographies. New York and London: Sterling Publishing Company, Inc. pp. 27. ISBN 9781402765407. ^ Holbl, Gunther; Hölbl, Günther (2003) [2001]. A History of the Ptolemaic Empire. Translated by Saavedra, Tina. London and New York: Routledge. p. 237. ISBN 9780415201452. ^ Burstein, Stanley Mayer (2007). The Reign of Cleopatra. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. xiii. ISBN 9780806138718. ^ Bevan, Edwyn (2014) [1927]. A History of Egypt under the Ptolemaic Dynasty. Routledge Revivals. New York and London: Routledge. p. 369. ISBN 9781317682257. ^ Rice, E. E. (2006). Wilson, Nigel Guy (ed.). Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece. New York and London: Routledge. p. 172. ISBN 9780415973342. External links[edit] Ptolemy XIV Theos Philopator II entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith Ptolemy XIV Philopator Ptolemaic dynasty Born: c. 59 BC Died: 44 BC Preceded by Cleopatra VII Ptolemy XIII Pharaoh of Egypt 47–44 BC with Cleopatra VII Succeeded by Cleopatra VII Ptolemy XV Caesar v t e Hellenistic rulers Argeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Kings of Cyrene Magas Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Kings of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Kings of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Kings of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Kings of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus Kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon (regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces Asander with Dynamis Mithridates II Asander with Dynamis Scribonius’ attempted rule with Dynamis Dynamis with Polemon Polemon with Pythodorida Aspurgus Mithridates III with Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e This biography of a member of an African royal house is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ptolemy_XIV_Philopator&oldid=994078986" Categories: 1st-century BC births 44 BC deaths 1st-century BC Egyptian people 1st-century BC Pharaohs 1st-century BC rulers in Africa Husbands of Cleopatra Pharaohs of the Ptolemaic dynasty Ancient Egypt people stubs African royalty stubs Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Koinē Greek-language text AC with 0 elements All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Aragonés Български Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Lietuvių Magyar Malagasy مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский සිංහල Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 December 2020, at 00:36 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5549	----	Teti - Wikipedia Teti From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the Italian comune, see Teti, Sardinia. Teti Sistrum inscribed with the name of Teti. Pharaoh Reign 2323–2291 BC (6th Dynasty) Predecessor Unas Successor Userkare Royal titulary Nomen Teti Horus name Hr Sehetep Tawy Horus, who satisfies (pacifies?) the two lands Nebty name Sehetep Nebty Who satisfies the two ladies Golden Horus Hr nebu sema The golden Horus who unites Consort Iput I, Khuit, Khentkaus IV Children Pepi I Tetiankhkem Burial Pyramid of Teti Teti, less commonly known as Othoes, sometimes also Tata, Atat, or Athath in outdated sources, was the first king of the Sixth Dynasty of Egypt. He is buried at Saqqara. The exact length of his reign has been destroyed on the Turin King List but is believed to have been about 12 years. Contents 1 Biography 2 Reign and Possible Assassination 3 Third "subsidiary" pyramid to Teti's tomb 4 Queen Naert's tomb 5 See also 6 References 7 Bibliography 8 External links Biography[edit] Teti had several wives: Iput, the daughter of Unas, the last king of the Fifth dynasty. Iput was the mother of Pepi I. Khuit, who may have been the mother of Userkare (according to Jonosi and Callender)[1] Khentkaus IV[1] Teti is known to have had several children. He was the father of at least three sons and probably ten daughters.[2] Of the sons, two are well attested, a third one is likely: Pepi I Tetiankhkem[3] Nebkauhor, with the name of Idu, "king’s eldest son of his body", buried in the mastaba of Vizier Akhethetep/Hemi, buried in a fallen Vizier’s tomb, within the funerary complex of his maternal grandfather[4] Piriform mace head inscribed with the cartouche of Teti, Imhotep Museum. According to N. Kanawati, Teti had at least nine daughters, by a number of wives, and the fact that they were named after his mother, Sesheshet, allows researchers to trace his family. At least three princesses bearing the name Seshseshet are designated as "king’s eldest daughter", meaning that there were at least three different queens. It seems that there was a tenth one, born of a fourth queen as she is also designated as "king’s eldest daughter". Seshseshet, whose name was Waatetkhéthor, married to Vizier Mereruka, in whose mastaba she has a chapel. She is designated as "king’s eldest daughter of his body". She may have been the eldest daughter of Iput.[5] Seshseshet with the name of Idut, "king’s daughter of his body", who died very young at the beginning of her father’s reign and was buried in the mastaba of Vizier Ihy.[5] Seshseshet Nubkhetnebty, "king’s daughter of his body", wife of Vizier Kagemni, represented in her husband’s mastaba. She was maybe also born of Iput.[6] Seshseshet, also called Sathor, married to Isi, resident governor at Edfu and also titled vizier. She also would have been born of Iput I.[7] Lantern Slide Collection: Views, Objects: Egypt. Chapel, Tomb of Nefer-Seshem-Ptah. Sakkara. 6th Dynasty., n.d. Brooklyn Museum Archives Seshseshet, with the name of Sheshit, king’s eldest daughter of his body and wife of the overseer of the great court Neferseshemptah, and is depicted in her husband’s mastaba. As she is an eldest daughter of the king, she cannot be born of the same mother as Waatkhetethor and therefore may have been a daughter of Queen Khuit.[8] Seshseshet also called Sheshti, "king’s daughter of his body", married to the keeper of the head ornaments Shepsipuptah, and depicted in her husband’s mastaba.[9] Seshseshet with the beautiful name of Merout, entitled "king’s eldest daughter" but without the addition "of his body" and therefore born of a third, maybe a minor queen, and married to Ptahemhat.[10] Seshseshet, wife of Remni, "sole companion" and overseer of the department of the palace guards[11] Seshseshet, married to Pepyankh Senior of Meir[12] The so-called "Queen of the West Pyramid" in King Pepy I cemetery. She is called "king’s eldest daughter of his body" and king's wife of Meryre (the name of Pepy I). Therefore, she is a wife of Pepi and most certainly his half-sister.[13] As she is also an eldest daughter of the king, her mother must be a fourth queen of Teti. Another possible daughter is princess Inti.[14] Reign and Possible Assassination[edit] During Teti's reign, high officials were beginning to build funerary monuments that rivaled that of the pharaoh. His vizier, Mereruka, built a mastaba tomb at Saqqara which consisted of 33 richly carved rooms, the biggest known tomb for an Egyptian nobleman.[15] This is considered to be a sign that Egypt's wealth was being transferred from the central court to the officials, a slow process that culminated in the end to the Old Kingdom.[citation needed] The Egyptian priest and chronicler Manetho states that Teti was murdered by his palace bodyguards in a harem plot, and he appear to have been briefly succeeded by a shortlived usurper, Userkare. Teti was buried in the royal necropolis at Saqqara. His pyramid complex is associated with the mastabas of officials from his reign. Teti's highest date is his Year after the 6th Count 3rd Month of Summer day lost (Year 12 if the count was biannual) from Hatnub Graffito No.1.[16] This information is confirmed by the South Saqqara Stone Annal document from Pepi II's reign which gives him a reign of around 12 years. Third "subsidiary" pyramid to Teti's tomb[edit] Teti's mother was the Queen Sesheshet, who was instrumental in her son's accession to the throne and a reconciling of two warring factions of the royal family.[17] Sesheshet lived between 2323 BC to 2291 BC. Egypt's chief archaeologist Zahi Hawass, secretary general of the Supreme Council of Antiquities, announced, on November 11, 2008, that she was entombed in a 4,300-year-old 5-metre (16-foot) tall pyramid at Saqqara. This is the 118th pyramid discovered thus far in Egypt, the largest portion of its 2-metre wide casing was built with a superstructure 5 metres high. It originally reached 14 metres, with sides 22 metres long.[18][19] Once 5 stories tall, it lay beneath 7 meters (23 feet) of sand, a small shrine and mud-brick walls from later periods. The third known "subsidiary" pyramid to Teti's tomb was originally 46 feet (14 meters) tall and 72 feet (22 meters) square at its base, due to its walls having stood at a 51-degree angle. Buried next to the Saqqara Step Pyramid, its base lies 65 feet underground and is believed to have been 50 feet tall when it was built.[18] Limestone wall block fragment showing the cartouche of king Teti and funerary pyramid texts. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London The ruins of Teti's pyramid (Saqqara) Pyramid texts from Teti I's pyramid at Saqqara Queen Naert's tomb[edit] In January 2021, the tourism and antiquities ministry announced the discovery of more than 50 wooden sarcophagi in 52 burial shafts dating back to the New Kingdom period, as well as a 13ft-long papyrus containing texts from the Book of the Dead. Archaeologists led by Zahi Hawass at Saqqara also found the funerary temple of Naert and warehouses made of bricks.[20][21][22] Previously unknown to researchers, she was a wife of Teti.[23] See also[edit] List of Egyptian pyramids List of megalithic sites References[edit] ^ a b Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids,1994 ^ N. Kanawati, Mereruka and King Teti. The Power behind the Throne, 2007. ^ N. Kanawati, Conspiracies in the Egyption Palace. Unis to Pepy I. 2003, p. 139 ^ N. Kanawati, Mereruka and King Teti. The Power behind the Throne, 2007, p. 14 et 50 ^ a b N. Kanawati, Mereruka and King Teti. The Power behind the Throne, 2007, p. 14, 20 et 50 ^ N. Kanawati, Mereruka and King Teti. The Power behind the Throne, 2007, p. 20, 32 et 50 ^ N. Kanawati, Mereruka and King Teti. The Power behind the Throne, 2007, p. 21-22 et 50 ^ N. Kanawati, Mereruka and King Teti. The Power behind the Throne, 2007, p. 20, 32 et 35 ^ N. Kanawati, Mereruka and King Teti. The Power behind the Throne, 2007, p. 20, 32 et 36 ^ N. Kanawati, Mereruka and King Teti. The Power behind the Throne, 2007, p. 20-21 ^ N. Kanawati, The Teti Cemetery at Saqqara, Volume 9: The Tomb of Remni, 2009 ^ Ali El-Khouli & Naguib Kanawati, Quseir El-Amarna: The Tombs of Pepy-ankh and Khewen-Wekh, 1989 ^ C. Berger, A la quête de nouvelles versions des textes des pyramides, in Hommages à Jean Leclant, 1994, p 73-74 ^ Dodson and Hilton, The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, 2004 ^ Christine Hobson, Exploring the World of the Pharaohs, Thames & Hudson Ltd., 1997. p.85 ^ Anthony Spalinger, "Dated Texts of the Old Kingdom," SAK 21, (1994), p.303 ^ "Egypt: 4,300-year-old pyramid discovered". CNN. 2008-11-11. Archived from the original on December 2, 2008. Retrieved 2008-11-11. ^ a b Bossone, Andrew (11 November 2008). "New Pyramid Found in Egypt: 4,300-Year-Old Queen's Tomb". National Geographic News. ^ Rasmussen, Will; Boulton, Ralph (11 November 2008). "Egypt says has found pyramid built for ancient queen". Reuters. ^ "Queen's temple, 50 coffins, Book of Dead: Ancient Egypt trove 'remakes history' | The Times of Israel". www.timesofisrael.com. Retrieved 2021-01-20. ^ Sunday, 17 Jan 2021 07:54 AM MYT. "Egypt makes 'major discoveries' at Saqqara archaeological site | Malay Mail". www.malaymail.com. Retrieved 2021-01-20. ^ "Egypt makes 'major discoveries' at Saqqara archaeological site". www.msn.com. Retrieved 2021-01-20. ^ Davis-Marks, Isis, Archaeologists Unearth Egyptian Queen’s Tomb, 13-Foot ‘Book of the Dead’ Scroll, Smithsonian, January 21, 2021 Bibliography[edit] Naguib Kanawati, Conspiracies in the Egyptian Palace: Unis to Pepy I, Routledge (2002), ISBN 0-415-27107-X. Osburn, Jr., William (1854). From the visit of Abram to the exodus. Trübner & Co. External links[edit] The South Saqqara Stone: Sixth Dynasty Annals BBC, In pictures: New pyramid found v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 1026995965 ISNI: 0000 0000 2302 5666 LCCN: n00046997 VIAF: 40605654 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n00046997 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Teti&oldid=1002096666" Categories: 23rd-century BC Pharaohs Teti 24th-century BC Pharaohs 24th-century BC murdered monarchs Pharaohs of the Sixth Dynasty of Egypt 24th-century BC rulers 24th century BC in Egypt Ancient murdered monarchs Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2010 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI 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en-wikipedia-org-5572	----	Nebra (pharaoh) - Wikipedia Nebra (pharaoh) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Nebra (Pharaoh)) Jump to navigation Jump to search For the town in Germany, see Nebra (Unstrut). Nebra Raneb, Nebre, Kakau, Kaichoos, Cechous Cartouche name of Nebra in the Abydos King List (cartouche no. 10) Pharaoh Reign 10–14 years (2nd Dynasty; around 2850 B.C.) Predecessor Hotepsekhemwy Successor Nynetjer Royal titulary Nomen Nisut-bitj-Nebty-Nebra Nsw.t-btj-rˁ-nb King of Upper- and Lower Egypt, he of the Two Ladies, Nebra Abydos King List Kakau K3-k3.w Saqqara King List Kakau K3-k3.w Turin Canon ...Kakau ...k3-k3.w Horus name Hor-Nebra Hr-nb-rˁ Lord of the sun of Horus Children Perneb? Burial Saqqara Nebra or Raneb is the Horus name of the second early Egyptian king of the 2nd Dynasty. The exact length of his reign is unknown since the Turin canon is damaged and the year accounts are lost.[1] Manetho suggests that Nebra's reign lasted 39 years,[2] but Egyptologists question Manetho's view as a misinterpretation or exaggeration of information that was available to him. They credit Nebra with either a 10- or 14-year rule.[3] Contents 1 Attestations 2 Name sources 3 Family 4 Identity 5 Reign 6 Tomb 7 Gallery 8 References 9 External links Attestations[edit] Nebra's name appears on several stone vessels, mostly made of schist, alabaster and marble. Most of the bowls were found at Abydos, Giza and Saqqara. The inscriptions contain depictions of cultic buildings such as the Ka-house, depictions of deities such as Bastet, Neith and Seth and also the mentionings of cultic feasts. All found objects present Nebra's name either together with that of his predecessor Hotepsekhemwy or with his successor Nynetjer. Nebra's name never appears alone.[4] Clay seal impressions with Nebra's name were found beneath the causeway of the Pyramid of Unas at Saqqara and inside a large gallery tomb, also at Saqqara. This tomb also yielded several seal impressions with Hotepsekhemwy's name and for this reason it is debated whether the tomb belongs to Nebra or his predecessor Hotepsekhemwy.[5] In 2012, Pierre Tallet and Damien Leisnay reported three rock inscriptions with Nebra's horus name found in the south of the Sinai Peninsula. Each rock inscription can be found in a different wadi: Wadi Abu Madawi, Wadi Abu Koua and Wadi Ameyra. The places where Nebra's name is displayed lie along a very old route used for expeditions from the western shore of the Sinai to its inland, where copper and turquoise mines existed. Along the wadis the names of predynastic kings up to pharaohs of the 4th Dynasty are located at the same places.[6] Name sources[edit] Tomb stela of Nebra, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Nebra's serekh name is of great interest to Egyptologists, since it is written with the hieroglyphic sign of the sun, which had not yet become the object of divine adoration during his lifetime. At the time of king Nebra, the most important religious cults were concentrated on the preservation of the dualistic equal status of the state patrons Horus and Seth. Nothing was more important than keeping that divine balance. The kings themselves were seen as the living representation of that godlike pair. The sun was seen as a celestial object controlled either by Horus or, as in the case of king Seth-Peribsen, by Seth. Therefore, the sun was no independent deity yet. The first definite proof of the existence of the sun-deity Ra occurs at the beginning of the 3rd dynasty during the reign of king Djoser in the names of high officials such as Hesyre. And the first definitive detectable proof for a fully established royal sun cult occurs under king Radjedef, the third ruler of the 4th Dynasty. He was the first king who connected his birth name with the name of Ra, starting the great religious belief that Egyptian kings were the living representation of the sun alongside Horus and Seth.[7][8] Therefore, Nebra's Horus name is problematic regarding its translation and meaning. The typical translation of Nebra's name as "Ra is my lord", which would be read "Raneb", is questionable, as this would assume that the Sun was already being worshiped as an independent deity. Consequently, Egyptologists have proposed the translation "Lord of the sun (of Horus)" which is read "Nebra" and implies the pharaoh's rule over the Sun (as a celestial body), which was indeed also under Horus' or Seth's control. Any solar religion or solar symbolism were not yet established in any useful form and it is now thought that king Nebra might actually have been the first king who adopted extended religious thought about the sun and the sky.[7][8] Family[edit] The wife of Nebra is unknown. A “son of the king” and “priest of Sopdu” named Perneb might have been his son, but since the clay seals providing his name and titles were found in a gallery tomb which is attributed to two kings equally (Nebra and his predecessor, Hotepsekhemwy), it is unclear whose son Perneb really was.[9][10] Identity[edit] Statue of Hotepdief, priest of the mortuary cults of the first 3 rulers of the dynasty, Hotepsekhemwy, Nebra and Nynetjer. The serekh of Nebra is the middle one on the shoulder of the priest. King Nebra is commonly identified with the Ramesside-era cartouche-name Kakau, which can be translated as "The bull of Apis". This links to the anecdote written by Manetho, who said that under king Kêchoós (the Greek version of the name Kakau) the deities Apies, the goat of Mendes and Menevus were "introduced and worshipped as gods". This view is questioned by modern Egyptologists, as there was already a cult of Apis established during the 1st Dynasty, if not earlier. The name "Kakau" itself is problematic for this early pharaoh, as there was no name source from Nebra's time that could have been used to form the word.[11] The birth name of Nebra also remains unclear. A theory by Egyptologist Jochem Kahl says that Nebra was the same person as the mysterious king Weneg-Nebti. He points to a vessel fragment made of volcanic ash, which was found in the tomb of king Peribsen (a later ruler during the 2nd dynasty) at Abydos. On the pot sherd he believes there are traces of the weneg-flower beneath the incised name of king Ninetjer. To the right of Ninetjer's name the depiction of the Ka-house of king Nebra is partially preserved. This arrangement led Kahl to conclude that the weneg-flower and Nebra's name were connected to each other and king Ninetjer replaced the inscription. Kahl also points out that king Ninetjer wrote his name mirrored, so that his name deliberately runs in the opposite direction to Nebra's name.[12] Kahl's theory is the subject of continuing discussion since the vessel inscription is damaged, thus leaving plenty of room for varying interpretations. Egyptologists such as Jürgen von Beckerath and Battiscombe Gunn identify Nebra with another mysterious early pharaoh: Nubnefer. This link is questioned by other scholars, since the rulers of 2nd Dynasty often wrote their birth and Horus names in the same way (for example: Hor-Nebra → Nisut-Bity-Nebty-Nebra). Thus the name "Nubnefer" may be the birth name of a different king.[13][14] Reign[edit] Little is known about Nebra's reign. The discovery of sealings bearing Nebra's name together with sealings of Hotepsekhemwy at Saqqara suggests that Nebra conducted the burial of Hotepsekhemwy and was his direct successor.[15] Additional confirmation of this succession is provided by a statue and a stone bowl both bearing Hotepsekhemwy and Nebra's serekhs in juxtaposition.[citation needed] Other pot inscriptions and seal impressions surviving from his time only name cult-related and administrative events, such as the "Erecting of the pillars of Horus". Under Nebra, the first depiction of the goddess Bastet occurs. The exact duration of Nebra's reign is the subject of investigations. Reconstructions of the well known Palermo Stone, a black basalt table presenting the yearly events of the kings from the beginning of the 1st dynasty up to king Neferirkare in the shape of clearly divided charts, leads to the conclusion that Nebra and his predecessor, king Hotepsekhemwy, ruled altogether for 39 years. Since Nebra has fewer records of his rule than Hotepsekhemwy, Nebra is thought to have ruled for a shorter time. The calculations differ from 29 and 10 years to 25 and 14 years.[16][17][18] According to different authors, Nebra ruled Egypt c. 2850 BC,[19] from 2820 BC to 2790 BC (Donald B. Redford), 2800 BC to 2785 BC (Jürgen von Beckerath) or 2765 BC to 2750 BC (J. Málek).[20] Tomb[edit] The location of Nebra's tomb is unknown. Egyptologists such as Wolfgang Helck and Peter Munro believe that Nebra was buried in the gallery tomb B beneath the causeway of the Pyramid of Unas at Saqqara. Indeed, most of the artifacts bearing Raneb's name were found there.[21][22] Gallery[edit] Stone bowl inscription bearing Nebra and Hotepsekhemwy serekhs before the goddess Bastet[23] References[edit] ^ Alan H. Gardiner: The royal canon of Turin. Griffith Institute of Oxford, Oxford (UK) 1997, ISBN 0-900416-48-3; page 15 & Table I. ^ William Gillian Waddell: Manetho (The Loeb classical Library, Volume 350). Harvard University Press, Cambridge (Mass.) 2004 (Reprint), ISBN 0-674-99385-3, page 37–41. ^ Dietrich Wildung: Die Rolle ägyptischer Könige im Bewusstsein ihrer Nachwelt. Teil 1: Posthume Quellen über die Könige der ersten vier Dynastien; Münchener Ägyptologische Studien, Volume 17. Deutscher Kunstverlag, München/Berlin, 1969. page 31-33. ^ Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, London/New York 1999, ISBN 0-415-18633-1, p. 87. ^ Eva-Maria Engel: Die Siegelabrollungen von Hetepsechemui und Raneb aus Saqqara. In: Ernst Czerny, Irmgard Hein: Timelines - Studies in Honour of Manfred Bietak (= Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta. (OLA), vol. 149). Leuven, Paris/Dudley 2006, p. 28-29, Fig. 6-9. ^ Pierre Tallet, Damien Laisnay: Iry-Hor et Narmer au Sud-Sinaï (Ouadi 'Ameyra), un complément à la chronologie des expéditios minière égyptiene. In: Bulletin de l'Institut Français D'Archéologie Orientale (BIFAO), vol. 112, 2012, p. 389-398. ^ a b Jochem Kahl: Ra is my Lord. Searching for the Rise of the Sun God at the Dawn of Egyptian History. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2007, ISBN 3-447-05540-5. page 4–14. ^ a b Steven Quirke: Ancient Egyptian Religions. Dover Publishing, London 1992, ISBN 0-7141-0966-5, page 22. ^ Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Early dynastic Egypt: Strategy, Society and Security. Routledge, London u. a. 1999, ISBN 0-415-18633-1, page 296. ^ Peter Kaplony: Inschriften der Ägyptischen Frühzeit. Volume 3, (= Ägyptologische Abhandlungen vol. 8). Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1963, ISBN 3-447-00052-X, page 96 as Obj. 367. ^ Walter Bryan Emery: Ägypten. Geschichte und Kultur der Frühzeit. Fourier, München 1964, page 103 & 274. ^ Jochem Kahl: Ra is my Lord - Searching for the rise of the Sun God at the dawn of Egyptian history. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2007, ISBN 3-447-05540-5, page 12–14 & 74. ^ Battiscombe Gunn in: Annales du service des antiquités de l'Égypte - Suppléments, Volume 28. Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale, Kairo 1938, page 152. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der Ägyptischen Königsnamen. Deutscher Kunstverlag, München Berlin 1884, ISBN 3-422-00832-2, page 48 & 49. ^ Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt: Strategies, Society and Security. Routledge, London/New York 2001, ISBN 0-415-26011-6, p. 71 ^ Wolfgang Helck in: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Institut Kairo 30. Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Orient-Abteilung(Hg.). de Gruyter, Berlin 1974, ISSN 0342-1279, page 31. ^ Werner Kaiser in: Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertum 86. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1961, ISSN 0044-216X, page 39. ^ Winfried Barta in: Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertum 108. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1981, ISSN 0044-216X, page 11. ^ M. L. Bierbrier, Historical dictionary of ancient Egypt, M. L. Bierbrier, Scarecrow Press, 2008, p. xvii ^ http://www.phouka.com/pharaoh/pharaoh/dynasties/dyn02/02raneb.html ^ Wolfgang Helck: Wirtschaftsgeschichte des alten Ägypten im 3. und 2. Jahrtausend vor Chr. Brill, Leiden 1975, ISBN 90-04-04269-5, page 21–32. ^ Peter Munro: Der Unas-Friedhof Nordwest I. Von Zabern, Mainz 1993, page 95. ^ Pierre Lacau & Jan-Phillip Lauer: La Pyramide a Degrees IV. Abb.58. External links[edit] Francesco Raffaele: Nebra (Kakaw?) Preceded by Hotepsekhemwy Pharaoh of Egypt Succeeded by Nynetjer v t e Second Dynasty of Ancient Egypt Attested pharaohs Hotepsekhemwy Nebra Weneg Nynetjer Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Khasekhemwy Obscure pharaoh names Horus Ba Ba Horus Sa Hudjefa I Neferkara I Neferkasokar Nubnefer Senedj Sneferka Wadjenes Queen consort Nimaathap Other royals Khenmetptah Satkhnum Sehener Shepset-ipet Wadjitefni (Mesen-ka) Pehen-Ptah Nisuheqet Nefer-Setekh Monument Gisr el-Mudir Capital Thinis v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nebra_(pharaoh)&oldid=995690501" Categories: 29th-century BC Pharaohs 28th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Second Dynasty of Egypt 29th century BC 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en-wikipedia-org-5554	----	Hatshepsut - Wikipedia Hatshepsut From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Egyptian Pharaoh For the 13th dynasty princess, see Hatshepsut (king's daughter). Hatshepsut Statue of Hatshepsut on display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art Pharaoh Reign c. 1479 – 16 January 1458 BC (18th Dynasty) Predecessor Thutmose II Successor Thutmose III Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Maatkare[1] Truth (Ma'at) is the Ka of Re Nomen Khnumt-Amun Hatshepsut[1] Joined with Amun, Foremost of Noble Ladies , , Horus name Wesretkau [1] Mighty of Kas Nebty name Wadjrenput[1] Flourishing of years Golden Horus Netjeretkhau[1] Divine of appearance. Consort Thutmose II Children Neferure Father Thutmose I Mother Ahmose Born c. 1507 BC[2][3] Died 1458 BC (aged 50) Burial KV20 (possibly re-interred in KV60[3]) Monuments Temple of Karnak, Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut, Speos Artemidos Chapelle Rouge Hatshepsut (/hætˈʃɛpsʊt/;[4] also Hatchepsut; Egyptian: ḥꜣt-šps.wt "Foremost of Noble Ladies";[5] 1507–1458 BC) was the fifth pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt. She was the second historically confirmed female pharaoh, the first being Sobekneferu.[6] (Various other women may have also ruled as pharaohs regnant or at least regents before Hatshepsut, as early as Neithhotep around 1,600 years prior.) Hatshepsut came to the throne of Egypt in 1478 BC. Her rise to power was noteworthy as it required her to utilize her bloodline, education, and an understanding of religion. Her bloodline was impeccable as she was the daughter, sister, and wife of a king. Hatshepsut's understanding of religion allowed her to establish herself as the God's Wife of Amun.[7] Officially, she ruled jointly with Thutmose III, who had ascended to the throne the previous year as a child of about two years old. Hatshepsut was the chief wife of Thutmose II, Thutmose III's father. She is generally regarded by Egyptologists as one of the most successful pharaohs, reigning longer than any other woman of an indigenous Egyptian dynasty. According to Egyptologist James Henry Breasted, she is also known as "the first great woman in history of whom we are informed."[8] Hatshepsut was the daughter and only child of Thutmose I and his primary wife, Ahmose.[9] Her husband Thutmose II was the son of Thutmose I and a secondary wife named Mutnofret, who carried the title King's daughter and was probably a child of Ahmose I. Hatshepsut and Thutmose II had a daughter named Neferure. After having their daughter, Hatshepsut could not bear any more children. Thutmose II with Iset, a secondary wife, would father Thutmose III, who would succeed Hatshepsut as pharaoh.[10] Contents 1 Reign 2 Major accomplishments 2.1 Trade routes 2.2 Building projects 2.3 Official lauding 3 Death, burial, and mummification 4 Changing recognition 4.1 Tyldesley hypothesis 4.2 "Hatshepsut Problem" 4.3 Archaeological discoveries 5 In popular culture 5.1 Art 5.2 Television 5.3 Music 5.4 Literature 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links Reign[edit] Jar bearing the cartouche of Hatshepsut. Filled in with cedar resin. Calcite, unfinished. Foundation deposit. 18th Dynasty. From Deir el-Bahari, Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London Trade with other countries was re-established; here trees transported by ship from Punt are shown being moved ashore for planting in Egypt—relief from Hatshepsut mortuary temple Although contemporary records of her reign are documented in diverse ancient sources, Hatshepsut was thought by early modern scholars as only having served as a co-regent from about 1479 to 1458 BC, during years seven to twenty-one of the reign previously identified as that of Thutmose III.[11] Today Egyptologists generally agree that Hatshepsut assumed the position of pharaoh.[12][13] Hatshepsut was described as having a reign of about 21 years by ancient authors. Josephus and Julius Africanus both quote Manetho's king list, mentioning a woman called Amessis or Amensis who has been identified (from the context) as Hatshepsut. In Josephus' work, her reign is described as lasting 21 years and nine months,[14] while Africanus stated it was twenty-two years. At this point in the histories, records of the reign of Hatshepsut end, since the first major foreign campaign of Thutmose III was dated to his 22nd year, which also would have been Hatshepsut's 22nd year as pharaoh.[15] Dating the beginning of her reign is more difficult, however. Her father's reign began in either 1526 or 1506 BC according to the high and low estimates of her reign, respectively.[16] The length of the reigns of Thutmose I and Thutmose II, however, cannot be determined with absolute certainty. With short reigns, Hatshepsut would have ascended the throne 14 years after the coronation of Thutmose I, her father.[17] Longer reigns would put her ascension 25 years after Thutmose I's coronation.[16] Thus, Hatshepsut could have assumed power as early as 1512 BC, or, as late as 1479 BC. The earliest attestation of Hatshepsut as pharaoh occurs in the tomb of Ramose and Hatnofer, where a collection of grave goods contained a single pottery jar or amphora from the tomb's chamber—which was stamped with the date "Year 7".[18] Another jar from the same tomb—which was discovered in situ by a 1935–36 Metropolitan Museum of Art expedition on a hillside near Thebes — was stamped with the seal of the "God's Wife Hatshepsut" while two jars bore the seal of "The Good Goddess Maatkare."[19] The dating of the amphorae, "sealed into the [tomb's] burial chamber by the debris from Senenmut's own tomb," is undisputed, which means that Hatshepsut was acknowledged as king, and not queen, of Egypt by Year 7 of her reign.[19] Major accomplishments[edit] Trade routes[edit] A tree in front of the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut, claimed to have been brought from Punt by Hatshepsut's expedition, which is depicted on the temple walls Hatshepsut re-established the trade networks that had been disrupted during the Hyksos occupation of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, thereby building the wealth of the Eighteenth Dynasty. She oversaw the preparations and funding for a mission to the Land of Punt. This trading expedition to Punt was roughly during the ninth year of Hatshepsut's reign. It set out in her name with five ships, each measuring 70 feet (21 m) long, bearing several sails[dubious – discuss] and accommodating 210 men that included sailors and 30 rowers.[citation needed] Many trade goods were bought in Punt, notably frankincense and myrrh. Hatshepsut's delegation returned from Punt bearing 31 live myrrh trees, the roots of which were carefully kept in baskets for the duration of the voyage. This was the first recorded attempt to transplant foreign trees. It is reported that Hatshepsut had these trees planted in the courts of her mortuary temple complex. Egyptians also returned with a number of other gifts from Punt, among which was frankincense.[20] Hatshepsut would grind the charred frankincense into kohl eyeliner. This is the first recorded use of the resin.[21] Hatshepsut had the expedition commemorated in relief at Deir el-Bahari, which is also famous for its realistic depiction of the Queen of the Land of Punt, Queen Ati.[22] The Puntite Queen is portrayed as relatively tall and her physique was generously proportioned, with large breasts and rolls of fat on her body. Due to the fat deposits on her buttocks, it has sometimes been argued that she may have had steatopygia. However, according to the pathologist Marc Armand Ruffer, the main characteristic of a steatopygous woman is a disproportion in size between the buttocks and thighs, which was not the case with Ati. She instead appears to have been generally obese, a condition that was exaggerated by excessive lordosis or curvature of the lower spine.[23] Hatshepsut also sent raiding expeditions to Byblos and the Sinai Peninsula shortly after the Punt expedition. Very little is known about these expeditions. Although many Egyptologists have claimed that her foreign policy was mainly peaceful,[22] it is possible that she led military campaigns against Nubia and Canaan.[24] Building projects[edit] Djeser-Djeseru is the main building of Hatshepsut's mortuary temple complex at Deir el-Bahri. Designed by Senemut, her vizier, the building is an example of perfect symmetry that predates the Parthenon, and it was the first complex built on the site she chose, which would become the Valley of the Kings Copper or bronze sheet bearing the name of Hatshepsut. From a foundation deposit in "a small pit covered with a mat" found at Deir el-Bahri, Egypt. 18th Dynasty. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London Hatshepsut was one of the most prolific builders in Ancient Egypt, commissioning hundreds of construction projects throughout both Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. Arguably, her buildings were grander and more numerous than those of her Middle Kingdom predecessors'. Later pharaohs attempted to claim some of her projects as theirs. She employed the great architect Ineni, who also had worked for her father, her husband, and for the royal steward Senemut. During her reign, so much statuary was produced that almost every major museum with Ancient Egyptian artifacts in the world has Hatshepsut statuary among their collections; for instance, the Hatshepsut Room in New York City's Metropolitan Museum of Art is dedicated solely to some of these pieces. Following the tradition of most pharaohs, Hatshepsut had monuments constructed at the Temple of Karnak. She also restored the original Precinct of Mut, the ancient great goddess of Egypt, at Karnak that had been ravaged by the foreign rulers during the Hyksos occupation. It later was ravaged by other pharaohs, who took one part after another to use in their own pet projects. The precinct awaits restoration. She had twin obelisks, at the time the tallest in the world, erected at the entrance to the temple. One still stands, as the tallest surviving ancient obelisk on Earth; the other has broken in two and toppled. The official in charge of those obelisks was the high steward Amenhotep.[25] Another project, Karnak's Red Chapel, or Chapelle Rouge, was intended as a barque shrine and originally may have stood between her two obelisks. It was lined with carved stones that depicted significant events in Hatshepsut's life. Later, she ordered the construction of two more obelisks to celebrate her 16th year as pharaoh; one of the obelisks broke during construction and a third was therefore constructed to replace it. The broken obelisk was left at its quarrying site in Aswan, where it still remains. Known as the Unfinished Obelisk, it provides evidence of how obelisks were quarried.[26] Colonnaded design of Hatshepsut temple The Temple of Pakhet was built by Hatshepsut at Beni Hasan in the Minya Governorate south of Al Minya. The name, Pakhet, was a synthesis that occurred by combining Bast and Sekhmet, who were similar lioness war goddesses, in an area that bordered the north and south division of their cults. The cavernous underground temple, cut into the rock cliffs on the eastern side of the Nile, was admired and called the Speos Artemidos by the Greeks during their occupation of Egypt, known as the Ptolemaic Dynasty. They saw the goddess as akin to their hunter goddess, Artemis. The temple is thought to have been built alongside much more ancient ones that have not survived. This temple has an architrave with a long dedicatory text bearing Hatshepsut's famous denunciation of the Hyksos that has been translated by James P. Allen.[27] The Hyksos occupied Egypt and cast it into a cultural decline that persisted until a revival brought about by her policies and innovations. This temple was altered later and some of its inside decorations were usurped by Seti I of the Nineteenth Dynasty, in an attempt to have his name replace that of Hatshepsut. Following the tradition of many pharaohs, the masterpiece of Hatshepsut's building projects was a mortuary temple. She built hers in a complex at Deir el-Bahri. It was designed and implemented by Senenmut at a site on the West Bank of the Nile River near the entrance to what now is called the Valley of the Kings because of all the pharaohs who later chose to associate their complexes with the grandeur of hers. Her buildings were the first grand ones planned for that location. The focal point of the complex was the Djeser-Djeseru or "the Sublime of Sublimes", a colonnaded structure of perfect harmony built nearly one thousand years before the Parthenon. Djeser-Djeseru sits atop a series of terraces that once were graced with lush gardens. Djeser-Djeseru is built into a cliff face that rises sharply above it. Djeser-Djeseru and the other buildings of Hatshepsut's Deir el-Bahri complex are considered to be significant advances in architecture. Another one of her great accomplishments is the Hatshepsut needle[28] (also known as the granite obelisks). Official lauding[edit] See also: Depiction of Hatshepsut's birth and coronation Hyperbole is common to virtually all royal inscriptions of Egyptian history. While all ancient leaders used it to laud their achievements, Hatshepsut has been called the most accomplished pharaoh at promoting her accomplishments.[29] This may have resulted from the extensive building executed during her time as pharaoh, in comparison with many others. It afforded her many opportunities to laud herself, but it also reflected the wealth that her policies and administration brought to Egypt, enabling her to finance such projects. Aggrandizement of their achievements was traditional when pharaohs built temples and their tombs. Large granite sphinx bearing the likeness of the pharaoh Hatshepsut, depicted with the traditional false beard, a symbol of her pharaonic power—Metropolitan Museum of Art Women had a relatively high status in Ancient Egypt and enjoyed the legal right to own, inherit, or will property. A woman becoming pharaoh was rare, however; only Sobekneferu, Khentkaus I and possibly Nitocris preceded her.[30] Nefernferuaten and Twosret may have been the only women to succeed her among the indigenous rulers. In Egyptian history, there was no word for a "queen regnant" as in contemporary history, "king" being the ancient Egyptian title regardless of gender, and by the time of her reign, pharaoh had become the name for the ruler.[citation needed] Hatshepsut is not unique, however, in taking the title of king. Sobekneferu, ruling six dynasties prior to Hatshepsut, also did so when she ruled Egypt. Hatshepsut had been well-trained in her duties as the daughter of the pharaoh. During her father's reign she held the powerful office of God's Wife.[citation needed] She had taken a strong role as queen to her husband and was well experienced in the administration of her kingdom by the time she became pharaoh. There is no indication of challenges to her leadership and, until her death, her co-regent remained in a secondary role, quite amicably heading her powerful army—which would have given him the power necessary to overthrow a usurper of his rightful place, if that had been the case.[citation needed] Hatshepsut assumed all the regalia and symbols of the Pharaonic office in official representations: the Khat head cloth, topped with the uraeus, the traditional false beard, and shendyt kilt.[29] Many existing statues alternatively show her in typically feminine attire as well as those that depict her in the royal ceremonial attire. After this period of transition ended, however, most formal depictions of Hatshepsut as pharaoh showed her in the royal attire, with all the Pharaonic regalia, and some previously feminine depictions were carved over to now be masculine. [31] She also named herself Maatkare, or “Truth is the Soul of the Sun God.” This name emphasized the Pharaoh Maatkare Hatshepsut’s connection to one of the many evolutions of Amun while referencing a Pharaoh's responsibility to maintain “ma’at,” harmony, through respecting tradition. [32] Osirian statues of Hatshepsut at her tomb, one stood at each pillar of the extensive structure, note the mummification shroud enclosing the lower body and legs as well as the crook and flail associated with Osiris—Deir el-Bahri Moreover, the Osirian statues of Hatshepsut — as with other pharaohs — depict the dead pharaoh as Osiris, with the body and regalia of that deity. All the statues of Hatshepsut at her tomb follow that tradition. The promise of resurrection after death was a tenet of the cult of Osiris. The Hawk of the Pharaoh, Hatshepsut—Temple at Luxor One of the most famous examples of the legends about Hatshepsut is a myth about her birth. In this myth, Amun goes to Ahmose in the form of Thutmose I and awakens her with pleasant odors. At this point Amun places the ankh, a symbol of life, to Ahmose's nose, and Hatshepsut is conceived by Ahmose. Khnum, the god who forms the bodies of human children, is then instructed to create a body and ka, or corporal presence/life force, for Hatshepsut. Heket, the goddess of life and fertility, and Khnum then lead Ahmose along to a lioness' bed where she gives birth to Hatshepsut.[citation needed] Reliefs depicting each step in these events are at Karnak and in her mortuary temple. The Oracle of Amun proclaimed that it was the will of Amun that Hatshepsut be pharaoh, further strengthening her position. She reiterated Amun's support by having these proclamations by the god Amun carved on her monuments: Welcome my sweet daughter, my favorite, the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Maatkare, Hatshepsut. Thou art the Pharaoh, taking possession of the Two Lands.[33] Furthermore, on Khnum's potter's wheel, she is depicted as a little boy to further cement her divine right to rule. [32] Hatshepsut claimed that she was her father's intended heir and that he made her the heir apparent of Egypt. Almost all scholars today view this as historical revisionism or prolepsis on Hatshepsut's part, since it was Thutmose II — a son of Thutmose I by Mutnofret — who was her father's heir. Moreover, Thutmose I could not have foreseen that his daughter Hatshepsut would outlive his son within his own lifetime. Thutmose II soon married Hatshepsut and the latter became both his senior royal wife and the most powerful woman at court. Biographer Evelyn Wells, however, accepts Hatshepsut's claim that she was her father's intended successor. Once she became pharaoh herself, Hatshepsut supported her assertion that she was her father's designated successor with inscriptions on the walls of her mortuary temple: Then his majesty said to them: "This daughter of mine, Khnumetamun Hatshepsut—may she live!—I have appointed as my successor upon my throne... she shall direct the people in every sphere of the palace; it is she indeed who shall lead you. Obey her words, unite yourselves at her command." The royal nobles, the dignitaries, and the leaders of the people heard this proclamation of the promotion of his daughter, the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Maatkare—may she live eternally.[34] Death, burial, and mummification[edit] See also: KV20 A stone statue of Hatshepsut Hatshepsut died as she was approaching what we would consider middle age given typical contemporary lifespans, in her twenty-second regnal year.[35] The precise date of Hatshepsut's death—and the time when Thutmose III became the next pharaoh of Egypt—is considered to be Year 22, II Peret day 10 of her reign, as recorded on a single stela erected at Armant[36] or 16 January 1458 BC.[37] This information validates the basic reliability of Manetho's kinglist records since Hatshepsut's known accession date was I Shemu day 4[38] (i.e.: Hatshepsut died nine months into her 22nd year as king, as Manetho writes in his Epitome for a reign of 21 years and nine months). No contemporary mention of the cause of her death has survived. In June 2007, there was a discovery made in the Valley of the Kings. A mummy was discovered in the tomb of Hatshepsut's royal nurse, Setre-In. A tooth fragment found in a jar of organs was used to help identify the body to be Hatshepsut's.[39] If the recent identification of her mummy is correct, however, the medical evidence would indicate that she suffered from diabetes and died from bone cancer which had spread throughout her body while she was in her fifties.[3][40] It also would suggest that she had arthritis and bad teeth.[3] Hatshepsut had begun construction of a tomb when she was the Great Royal Wife of Thutmose II, but the scale of this was not suitable for a pharaoh, so when she ascended the throne, preparation for another burial started. For this, KV20, originally quarried for her father, Thutmose I, and probably the first royal tomb in the Valley of the Kings, was extended with a new burial chamber. Hatshepsut also refurbished the burial of her father and prepared for a double interment of both Thutmose I and her within KV20. It is likely, therefore, that when she died (no later than the twenty-second year of her reign), she was interred in this tomb along with her father.[41] During the reign of Thutmose III, however, a new tomb, (KV38), together with new burial equipment was provided for Thutmose I, who then was removed from his original tomb and re-interred elsewhere. At the same time Hatshepsut's mummy might have been moved into the tomb of her nurse, Sitre In, in KV60. It is possible that Amenhotep II, son to Thutmose III by a secondary wife, was the one motivating these actions in an attempt to assure his own uncertain right to succession. Besides what was recovered from KV20 during Howard Carter's clearance of the tomb in 1903, other funerary furniture belonging to Hatshepsut has been found elsewhere, including a lioness "throne" (bedstead is a better description), a senet game board with carved lioness-headed, red-jasper game pieces bearing her pharaonic title, a signet ring, and a partial shabti figurine bearing her name. In the Royal Mummy Cache at DB320, a wooden canopic box with an ivory knob was found that was inscribed with the name of Hatshepsut and contained a mummified liver or spleen as well as a molar tooth. There was a royal lady of the twenty-first dynasty of the same name, however, and for a while it was thought possible that it could have belonged to her instead.[42] In 1903, Howard Carter had discovered a tomb (KV60) in the Valley of the Kings that contained two female mummies, one identified as Hatshepsut's wetnurse, and the other unidentified. In the spring of 2007, the unidentified body was finally removed from the tomb by Dr. Zahi Hawass and brought to Cairo's Egyptian Museum for testing. This mummy was missing a tooth, and the space in the jaw perfectly matched Hatshepsut's existing molar, found in the DB320 "canopic box".[43][44][45] Her death has since been attributed to a benzopyrene carcinogenic skin lotion found in possession of the Pharaoh, which led to her having bone cancer. Other members of the queen's family are thought to have suffered from inflammatory skin diseases that tend to be genetic. It is likely that Hatshepsut inadvertently poisoned herself while trying to soothe her itchy, irritated skin.[46][47] Changing recognition[edit] Toward the end of the reign of Thutmose III and into the reign of his son, an attempt was made to remove Hatshepsut from certain historical and pharaonic records — a damnatio memoriae. This elimination was carried out in the most literal way possible. Her cartouches and images were chiseled off some stone walls, leaving very obvious Hatshepsut-shaped gaps in the artwork. At the Deir el-Bahari temple, Hatshepsut's numerous statues were torn down and in many cases, smashed or disfigured before being buried in a pit. At Karnak, there even was an attempt to wall up her obelisks. While it is clear that much of this rewriting of Hatshepsut's history occurred only during the close of Thutmose III's reign, it is not clear why it happened, other than the typical pattern of self-promotion that existed among the pharaohs and their administrators, or perhaps saving money by not building new monuments for the burial of Thutmose III and instead, using the grand structures built by Hatshepsut. Amenhotep II, the son of Thutmose III, who became a co-regent toward the end of his father's reign, is suspected by some as being the defacer during the end of the reign of a very old pharaoh. He would have had a motive because his position in the royal lineage was not so strong as to assure his elevation to pharaoh. He is documented, further, as having usurped many of Hatshepsut's accomplishments during his own reign. His reign is marked with attempts to break the royal lineage as well, not recording the names of his queens and eliminating the powerful titles and official roles of royal women, such as God's Wife of Amun.[48] For many years, presuming that it was Thutmose III acting out of resentment once he became pharaoh, early modern Egyptologists presumed that the erasures were similar to the Roman damnatio memoriae. This appeared to make sense when thinking that Thutmose might have been an unwilling co-regent for years. This assessment of the situation probably is too simplistic, however. It is highly unlikely that the determined and focused Thutmose—not only Egypt's most successful general, but an acclaimed athlete, author, historian, botanist, and architect—would have brooded for two decades of his own reign before attempting to avenge himself on his stepmother and aunt. According to renowned Egyptologist Donald Redford: Here and there, in the dark recesses of a shrine or tomb where no plebeian eye could see, the queen's cartouche and figure were left intact ... which never vulgar eye would again behold, still conveyed for the king the warmth and awe of a divine presence.[49] The erasures were sporadic and haphazard, with only the more visible and accessible images of Hatshepsut being removed; had it been more complete, we would not now have so many images of Hatshepsut. Thutmose III may have died before these changes were finished and it may be that he never intended a total obliteration of her memory. In fact, we have no evidence to support the assumption that Thutmose hated or resented Hatshepsut during her lifetime. Had that been true, as head of the army, in a position given to him by Hatshepsut (who was clearly not worried about her co-regent's loyalty), he surely could have led a successful coup, but he made no attempt to challenge her authority during her reign, and her accomplishments and images remained featured on all of the public buildings she built for twenty years after her death. Tyldesley hypothesis[edit] Joyce Tyldesley hypothesized that it is possible that Thutmose III, lacking any sinister motivation, may have decided toward the end of his life to relegate Hatshepsut to her expected place as the regent—which was the traditional role of powerful women in Egypt's court as the example of Queen Ahhotep attests—rather than pharaoh. Tyldesley fashions her concept as, that by eliminating the more obvious traces of Hatshepsut's monuments as pharaoh and reducing her status to that of his co-regent, Thutmose III could claim that the royal succession ran directly from Thutmose II to Thutmose III without any interference from his aunt. The deliberate erasures or mutilations of the numerous public celebrations of her accomplishments, but not the rarely seen ones, would be all that was necessary to obscure Hatshepsut's accomplishments. Moreover, by the latter half of Thutmose III's reign, the more prominent high officials who had served Hatshepsut would have died, thereby eliminating the powerful religious and bureaucratic resistance to a change in direction in a highly stratified culture. Hatshepsut's highest official and closest supporter, Senenmut, seems either to have retired abruptly or died around Years 16 and 20 of Hatshepsut's reign, and was never interred in either of his carefully prepared tombs.[50] According to Tyldesley, the enigma of Senenmut's sudden disappearance "teased Egyptologists for decades" given "the lack of solid archaeological or textual evidence" and permitted "the vivid imagination of Senenmut-scholars to run wild" resulting in a variety of strongly held solutions "some of which would do credit to any fictional murder/mystery plot."[51] In such a scenario, newer court officials, appointed by Thutmose III, also would have had an interest in promoting the many achievements of their master in order to assure the continued success of their own families. Presuming that it was Thutmose III (rather than his co-regent son), Tyldesley also put forth a hypothesis about Thutmose suggesting that his erasures and defacement of Hatshepsut's monuments could have been a cold, but rational attempt on his part to extinguish the memory of an "unconventional female king whose reign might possibly be interpreted by future generations as a grave offence against Ma'at, and whose unorthodox coregency" could "cast serious doubt upon the legitimacy of his own right to rule. Hatshepsut's crime need not be anything more than the fact that she was a woman."[52] Tyldesley conjectured that Thutmose III may have considered the possibility that the example of a successful female king in Egyptian history could demonstrate that a woman was as capable at governing Egypt as a traditional male king, which could persuade "future generations of potentially strong female kings" to not "remain content with their traditional lot as wife, sister and eventual mother of a king" and assume the crown.[53] Dismissing relatively recent history known to Thutmose III of another woman who was king, Sobekneferu of Egypt's Middle Kingdom, she conjectured further that he might have thought that while she had enjoyed a short, approximately four-year reign, she ruled "at the very end of a fading [12th dynasty] Dynasty, and from the very start of her reign the odds had been stacked against her. She was, therefore, acceptable to conservative Egyptians as a patriotic 'Warrior Queen' who had failed" to rejuvenate Egypt's fortunes.[2] In contrast, Hatshepsut's glorious reign was a completely different case: she demonstrated that women were as capable as men of ruling the two lands since she successfully presided over a prosperous Egypt for more than two decades.[2] If Thutmose III's intent was to forestall the possibility of a woman assuming the throne, as proposed by Tyldesley, it was a failure since Twosret and Neferneferuaten (possibly), a female co-regent or successor of Akhenaten, assumed the throne for short reigns as pharaoh later in the New Kingdom. "Hatshepsut Problem"[edit] The erasure of Hatshepsut's name—whatever the reason or the person ordering it—almost caused her to disappear from Egypt's archaeological and written records. When nineteenth-century Egyptologists started to interpret the texts on the Deir el-Bahri temple walls (which were illustrated with two seemingly male kings) their translations made no sense. Jean-François Champollion, the French decoder of hieroglyphs, was not alone in feeling confused by the obvious conflict between words and pictures: If I felt somewhat surprised at seeing here, as elsewhere throughout the temple, the renowned Moeris [Thutmose III], adorned with all the insignia of royalty, giving place to this Amenenthe [Hatshepsut], for whose name we may search the royal lists in vain, still more astonished was I to find upon reading the inscriptions that wherever they referred to this bearded king in the usual dress of the Pharaohs, nouns and verbs were in the feminine, as though a queen were in question. I found the same peculiarity everywhere...[54] The "Hatshepsut Problem" was a major issue in late 19th century and early 20th century Egyptology, centering on confusion and disagreement on the order of succession of early 18th Dynasty pharaohs. The dilemma takes its name from confusion over the chronology of the rule of Queen Hatshepsut and Thutmose I, II, and III.[55] In its day, the problem was controversial enough to cause academic feuds between leading Egyptologists and created perceptions about the early Thutmosid family that persisted well into the 20th century, the influence of which still can be found in more recent works. Chronology-wise, the Hatshepsut problem was largely cleared up in the late 20th century, as more information about her and her reign was uncovered. Archaeological discoveries[edit] The 2006 discovery of a foundation deposit including nine golden cartouches bearing the names of both Hatshepsut and Thutmose III in Karnak may shed additional light on the eventual attempt by Thutmose III and his son Amenhotep II to erase Hatshepsut from the historical record and the correct nature of their relationships and her role as pharaoh.[56] Sphinx of Hatshepsut with unusual rounded ears and ruff that stress the lioness features of the statue, but with five toes – newel post decorations from the lower ramp of her tomb complex. The statue incorporated the nemes headcloth and a royal beard; two defining characteristics of an Egyptian pharaoh. It was placed along with others in Hatshepsut's mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri. Thutmose III later on destroyed them but was resembled by the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Date: 1479–1458 BC. Period: New Kingdom. 18th Dynasty. Medium: Granite, paint.[57] These two statues once resembled each other, however, the symbols of her pharaonic power: the Uraeus, Double Crown, and traditional false beard have been stripped from the left image; many images portraying Hatshepsut were destroyed or vandalized within decades of her death, possibly by Amenhotep II at the end of the reign of Thutmose III, while he was his co-regent, in order to assure his own rise to pharaoh and then, to claim many of her accomplishments as his. The image of Hatshepsut has been deliberately chipped away and removed – Ancient Egyptian wing of the Royal Ontario Museum Dual stela of Hatshepsut (centre left) in the blue Khepresh crown offering wine to the deity Amun and Thutmose III behind her in the hedjet white crown, standing near Wosret – Vatican Museum. Date: 1473–1458 BC. 18th Dynasty. Medium: Limestone.[58] This Relief Fragment Depicting Atum and Hatshepsut was uncovered in Lower Asasif, in the area of Hatshepsut's Valley Temple. It depicts the god Atum, one of Egypt's creator gods, at the left, investing Hatshepsut with royal regalia. Date: 1479–1458 BC. 18th Dynasty. Medium: Painted limestone.[59] Hieroglyphs showing Thutmose III on the left and Hatshepsut on the right, she having the trappings of the greater role — Red Chapel, Karnak A Fallen obelisk of Hatshepsut – Karnak. Life-sized statue of Hatshepsut. She is shown wearing the nemes-headcloth and shendyt-kilt, which are both traditional for an Egyptian king. The statue is more feminine, given the body structure. Traces of blue pigments showed that the statue was originally painted. Date: 1479–1458 BC. Period: New Kingdom. 18th Dynasty. Medium: Indurated limestone, paint. Location: Deir el-Bahri, Thebes, Egypt.[60] A kneeling statue of Hatshepsut located at the central sanctuary in Deir el-Bahri dedicated to the god Amun-Re. The inscriptions on the statue showed that Hatshepsut is offering Amun-Re Maat, which translates to truth, order or justice. This shows that Hatshepsut is indicating that her reign is based on Maat. Date: 1479–1458 BC. Period: New Kingdom. 18th Dynasty. Medium: Granite. Location: Deir el-Bahri, Thebes, Egypt.[61] Left – Knot Amulet. Middle – Meskhetyu Instrument. Right – Ovoid Stone. On the knot amulet, Hatshepsut's name throne name, Maatkare, and her expanded name with Amun are inscribed. The Meskhetyu Instrument was used during a funerary ritual, Opening of the Mouth, to revive the deceased. On the Ovoid Stone, hieroglyphics was inscribed on it. The hieroglyphics translate to "The Good Goddess, Maatkare, she made [it] as her monument for her father, Amun-Re, at the stretching of the cord over Djeser-djeseru-Amun, which she did while alive." The stone may have been used as a hammering stone.[62] Kneeling figure of Queen Hatshepsut, from Western Thebes, Deir el-Bahari, Egypt, c. 1475 BC. Neues Museum In popular culture[edit] This article appears to contain trivial, minor, or unrelated references to popular culture. Please reorganize this content to explain the subject's impact on popular culture, providing citations to reliable, secondary sources, rather than simply listing appearances. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2018) Art[edit] The feminist artwork for The Dinner Party by Judy Chicago features a place setting for Hatshepsut.[63] Television[edit] Farah Ali Abd El Bar portrayed her in the Discovery Channel documentary, Secrets of Egypt's Lost Queen. Sarah Hadland portrayed her in the 2009 TV adaptation of Horrible Histories (written by Terry Deary). The Woman Who Would Be King by Kara Cooney, 2014 She is depicted as a direct ancestor, and the original recipient of the powers, of the titular protagonist of The Secrets of Isis in the series' opening credit sequence Music[edit] A reincarnated Hatshepsut is the subject of the Tina Turner song "I Might Have Been Queen". Musician Jlin names a song after Hatshepsut on her 2017 album Black Origami. Rapper Rapsody names a song after Hatshepsut on her 2019 album Eve. Literature[edit] Hatshepsut has appeared as a fictional character in many novels, including the following: Stephanie Thornton: Daughter of the Gods. Penguin. 2014. Marek Halter: Zipporah: Wife of Moses. New York: Crown (1st US Edition). 2005. ISBN 978-1-4000-5279-0. Eloise Jarvis McGraw: Mara: Daughter of the Nile. Coward-McCann. 1953. Pauline Gedge: Child of the Morning. Macmillan Company of Canada. 1977. ISBN 978-0-7705-1520-1. Judith Tarr: King and Goddess. New York: Tor. 1996. ISBN 978-0-8125-5084-9. Her consolidation of power features prominently in the Amerotke series of murder mysteries by Paul Doherty, in which the fictional detective is a judge in Hatshepsut's service. She is referred to as Hatusu, a shortening of her name, throughout the novels. The first novel in the series, The Mask of Ra, focuses on the death of her husband-brother and her seizure of power. See also[edit] Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Djehuty, overseer of the treasuries under Hatshepsut's rule. Notes[edit] ^ a b c d e "Queen Hatshepsut". Phouka. Retrieved 13 April 2008. ^ a b c Tyldesley, Hatchepsut, p. 226. ^ a b c d Wilford, John Noble (27 June 2007). "Tooth May Have Solved Mummy Mystery". New York Times. Retrieved 29 June 2007. A single tooth and some DNA clues appear to have solved the mystery of the lost mummy of Hatshepsut, one of the great queens of ancient Egypt, who reigned in the 15th century B.C. ^ "Hatshepsut". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 27 July 2007. ^ Clayton, Peter (1994). Chronicle of the Pharaohs. Thames & Hudson. p. 104. ^ Wilkinson, Toby (2010). The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt. London: Bloomsbury. pp. 181, 230. ISBN 978-1-4088-1002-6. ^ Kara., Cooney (2015). Woman Who Would be King. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 978-1-322-38466-5. OCLC 897502797. ^ "Queen Hatshepsut (1500 B.C.)". nbufront.org. Archived from the original on 21 February 2017. ^ Martin, G. (23 December 2012). African Political Thought. Springer. ISBN 978-1-137-06205-5. ^ Roehig, Catherine; Dreyfus, Renee; Keller, Cathleen (2015). Hatshepsut: from Queen to Pharaoh. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. ^ Dodson, Aidan; Dyan, Hilton (2004). The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. p. 130. ISBN 978-0-500-05128-3. ^ Fletcher, Joann (2013). The Search For Nefertiti. Hachette UK. p. 156. ISBN 978-1-4447-8054-3. ^ Stiebing Jr., William H. (2016). Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture. Routledge. p. 177. ISBN 978-1-315-51116-0. ^ Josephus. Against Apion. 1.1.15., Perseus Project Ap.1.15, . ^ Steindorff, George; Seele, Keith (1942). When Egypt Ruled the East. University of Chicago. p. 53. ^ a b Grimal, Nicolas (1988). A History of Ancient Egypt. Librairie Arthéme Fayard. p. 204. ^ Gabolde, Luc (1987), La Chronologie du règne de Tuthmosis II, ses conséquences sur la datation des momies royales et leurs répercutions sur l'histoire du développement de la Vallée des Rois, SAK 14: pp. 61–87. ^ Tyldesley, Joyce (1996). Hatchepsut: The Female Pharaoh (hardback ed.). Penguin Books. p. 99. ISBN 978-0-14-024464-9. ^ a b Tyldesley, Hatchepsut, p. 99. ^ Njoku, Raphael Chijioke (2013). The History of Somalia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 29–31. ISBN 978-0-313-37857-7. ^ Isaac, Michael (2004). A Historical Atlas of Oman. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-8239-4500-9. Retrieved 5 September 2014. ^ a b Joyce Tyldesley, Hatchepsut: The Female Pharaoh, Penguin Books, 1998 paperback, pp. 137–144. ^ Ruffer, Marc Armand (1921). Studies in the Palaeopathology of Egypt. University of Chicago Press. p. 45. Retrieved 5 September 2014. ^ Margaret Bunson, Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, p. 161. ^ JJ Shirley: The Power of the Elite: The Officials of Hatshepsut's Regency and Coregency, in: J. Galán, B.M. Bryan, P.F. Dorman (eds.): Creativity and Innovation in the Reign of Hatshepsut, Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 69, Chicago 2014, ISBN 978-1-61491-024-4, p. 206. ^ Peter Tyson, The Unfinished Obelisk, NOVA online adventure, 16 March 1999. ^ James P. Allen, "The Speos Artemidos Inscription of Hatshepsut" Archived 3 April 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Bulletin of the Egyptological Seminar 16 (2002), pp. 1–17, pls.1+2. ^ Gray, Martin. "Obelisk of Queen Hapshetsut, Karnak". Places of Peace and Power. Retrieved 9 November 2017. ^ a b "Hatshepsut". pbs.org. ^ Nevine El-Aref, "Back in the limelight", Al-Ahram Weekly. ^ > "Hatshepsut". Ancient History Encyclopedia. ^ a b > "Hatshepsut". makingqueerhistory.com. ^ Breasted, James Henry, Ancient Records of Egypt: Historical Documents from the Earliest Times to the Persian Conquest, The University of Chicago Press, 1906, pp. 116–117. ^ Hatshepsut, Female Pharaoh of Egypt Archived 16 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine by Caroline Seawright. ^ Tyldesley, pp. 210. ^ Joyce Tyldesley, Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt, Thames & Hudson, 2006, p. 106. ^ James P. Allen, "The Military Campaign of Thutmose III" in Hatshepsut: From Queen to Pharaoh, ed. Catherine Roehrig, The Metropolitan Museum of Art New York, Yale University Press, 2005, p. 261. Allen writes here that the Armant stela is considered by scholars to mark the occasion of Thutmose III's sole reign since he uses the epithet "Thutmose, Ruler of Maat" twice on this document for the first time in his reign. This means he was asserting his own claim to the administration of Egypt subsequent to that of Hatshepsut, who by then had probably died ^ Jürgen von Beckerath, Chronologie des Pharaonischen Ägypten. Mainz, Philipp von Zabern. 1997, p. 189. ^ "The Search for Hatshepsut and the Discovery of Her Mummy – Dr. Zahi Hawass – The Plateau". guardians.net. Retrieved 26 November 2018. ^ "Tooth Clinches Identification of Egyptian Queen". Reuters. 27 June 2007. Retrieved 13 April 2008. ^ Dennis C. Forbes, Maatkare Hatshepset: The Female Pharaoh, KMT, Fall 2005, pp. 26–42. ^ Bickerstaffe, Dylan, "The Discovery of Hatshepsut's 'Throne'", KMT, Spring 2002, pp. 71–77. ^ "Photo Gallery: Mummy of Egypt's Lost Queen Found". nationalgeographic.com. ^ Ed Pilkington and Mark Tran (27 June 2007). "Tooth solves Hatshepsut mummy mystery". The Guardian. ^ The King Herself, National Geographic, April 2009 ^ Jennie Cohen, "Did Skin Cream Kill Egypt’s Queen Hatshepsut?", History, 19 August 2011. ^ "Deadly ancient Egyptian medication? German scientists shed light on dark secret of Queen Hatshepsut's flacon". ScienceDaily. 2011. ^ Gardiner, Alan, Egypt of the Pharaohs, Oxford University Press, 1964, p. 198. ^ Redford, p. 87. ^ Tyldesley, Hatchepsut, p. 206. ^ Tyldesley, Hatchepsut, p. 207, Tyldesley notes on p. 252 that a detailed discussion of Senenmut's disappearance and a useful list of other publications on this topic is given in A. R. Schulman's 1969–70 paper "Some Remarks on the Alleged 'Fall' of Senmut," JARCE 8, pp. 29–48. ^ Tyldesley, Hatchepsut, p. 225. ^ Tyldesley, Hatchepsut, pp. 225–226. ^ Champollion le Jeune, Nouvelle Edition, 1868. "Thèbes, 18 juin 1829 – Lettres écrites d'Égypte et de Nubie en 1828 et 1829". gutenberg.org (in French).CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Bediz, David. "The Story of Hatshepsut". Archived from the original on 29 June 2007. Retrieved 27 June 2007. ^ Mensan, Romain (Spring 2007). "Tuthmosid foundation deposits at Karnak". Egyptian Archaeology. 30: 21. ^ "Sphinx of Hatshepsut". metmuseum.org. Retrieved 26 November 2018. ^ "Stele of Hatshepsut and Thutmose III – Vatican Museums". Retrieved 3 December 2018. ^ "Relief Fragment Depicting Atum and Hatshepsut". metmuseum.org. Retrieved 3 December 2018. ^ "Seated Statue of Hatshepsut". metmuseum.org. Retrieved 26 November 2018. ^ "Large Kneeling Statue of Hatshepsut". metmuseum.org. Retrieved 26 November 2018. ^ Roehrig, Catharine (2005). Hatshepsut: From Queen to Pharaoh. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 145. ^ Place Settings. Brooklyn Museum. Retrieved 6 August 2015. References[edit] Brown, Chip (April 2009). "The King Herself". National Geographic: 88–111. Fairman, H. W.; B. Grdseloff (1947). "Texts of Hatshepsut and Sethos I inside Speos Artemidos". 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Wells, Evelyn (1969). Hatshepsut. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. Aldred, Cyril (1952). The Development of Ancient Egyptian Art from 3200 to 1315 BC. London: A. Tiranti. Edgerton, William F. (1933). The Thutmosid Succession. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Gardiner, Sir Alan (1961). Egypt of the Pharaohs. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Hayes, William C. (1973). "Egypt: Internal Affairs from Thuthmosis I to the Death of Amenophis III". Cambridge Ancient History: History of the Middle East and the Aegean Region, c. 1800–1380 BC (3rd ed.). London: Cambridge University Press. Maspero, Gaston (1903–1906). History of Egypt, Chaldea, Syria, Babylonia, and Assyria. London: Grolier Society. Nims, Charles F. (1965). Thebes of the Pharaohs: Pattern for Every City. New York: Stein and Day. Roehrig, Catharine H.; Dreyfus, Renée; Keller, Cathleen A., eds. (2005). Hatshepsut: From Queen to Pharaoh. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-1-58839-172-8. Wilson, John A. (1951). The Burden of Egypt. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Armstrong, Kim (2017). "Hatshepsut". Making Queer History. Mark, Joshua (2016). "Hatshepsut". Ancient History Encyclopedia. External links[edit] Hatshepsutat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Resources from Wikiversity Data from Wikidata Hatshepsut – Archaeowiki.org Mummy Of Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut Found Interactive, panoramic online view of Hatshepsut's mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahari, Egypt Video tour the Metropolitan Museum of Art's gallery of Hatshepsut sculptures Hatshepsut – the fifth ruler of the 18th Dynasty 360° Panorama images BBC Radio 4 In Our Time : Hatshepsut Queen Hatshepsut v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Queens of Ancient Egypt Early Dynastic Period to First Intermediate Period  (3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Neithhotep Benerib Khenthap Herneith Nakhtneith Penebui Merneith Seshemetka Semat Serethor Betrest II Nimaathap Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Hetephernebti Djeseretnebti Djefatnebti Meresankh I IV Hetepheres I Meritites I Henutsen Khentetka Meresankh II Hetepheres II Meresankh III Khamerernebty I Persenet Hekenuhedjet Khamerernebty II Rekhetre Bunefer V Khentkaus I Neferhetepes Meretnebty Khentkaus II Khentkaus III Reptynub Khuit I Meresankh IV Setibhor Nebet Khenut VI Iput I Khuit II Ankhesenpepi I Ankhesenpepi II Nubwenet Meritites IV Inenek-Inti Nedjeftet Neith Iput II Udjebten Ankhesenpepi III Ankhesenpepi IV Nitocris Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Neferu I Neferukayet Iah Tem Neferu II Ashayet Henhenet Sadeh Kawit Kemsit XII Neferitatjenen Neferu III Keminub Khenemetneferhedjet I Nofret II Itaweret Khenmet Sithathoriunet Khenemetneferhedjet II Neferthenut Meretseger Aat Khenemetneferhedjet III Sobekneferu 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Nofret Nubhetepti Senebhenas Neni Tjan Ineni Nubkhaes Aya XIV Tati XVI Mentuhotep XVII Nubemhat Sobekemsaf Haankhes Tetisheri Ahhotep I Ahmose Inhapy Sitdjehuti Ahhotep II New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose-Nefertari Ahmose-Sitkamose Ahmose-Henuttamehu Ahmose-Meritamun Ahmose Mutnofret Hatshepsut Iset Satiah Merytre-Hatshepsut Nebtu Menhet, Menwi and Merti Nebsemi Tiaa Nefertari Iaret Mutemwiya Tiye Gilukhipa Sitamun Iset Tadukhipa / Kiya Nefertiti Meritaten Neferneferuaten Ankhesenamun Tey Mutnedjmet Nebetnehat XIX Sitre Tuya Tanedjemet Nefertari Isetnofret Henutmire Maathorneferure Meritamen Bintanath Nebettawy Merytre Isetnofret II Takhat Twosret Tiaa XX Tiy-Merenese Iset Ta-Hemdjert Tyti Tiye Duatentopet Henutwati Tawerettenru Nubkhesbed Baketwernel Tentamun 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Tentamun Mutnedjmet Karimala XXII Karomama Patareshnes Maatkare Tashedkhonsu Nesitaudjatakhet Nesitanebetashru Kapes Karomama I Tadibast III XXIII Karomama II XXV Pebatjma Tabiry Abar Khensa Peksater Arty Qalhata Tabekenamun Takahatenamun Naparaye Atakhebasken Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Mehytenweskhet Khedebneithirbinet I Takhuit Tentkheta Nakhtubasterau Ladice XXVII Atossa Artystone Parmys Amestris Damaspia Parysatis XXXI Stateira I Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Roxana Stateira II Parysatis II Eurydice II of Macedon Ptolemaic Eurydice Berenice I Arsinoe I Arsinoe II Berenice II Arsinoe III Cleopatra I Cleopatra II Cleopatra III Cleopatra IV Cleopatra Selene Berenice III Cleopatra V Cleopatra VI Berenice IV Cleopatra VII Arsinoe IV Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic Authority control BNF: cb11943631b (data) GND: 118546732 ISNI: 0000 0000 9518 9141 LCCN: n79075097 NKC: jn20020619003 NLP: A11816466 PLWABN: 9810584038605606 SUDOC: 027382419 VIAF: 67741469 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79075097 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hatshepsut&oldid=1002507802" Categories: Hatshepsut 16th-century BC births 1458 BC deaths 15th-century BC Pharaohs Female pharaohs Pharaohs of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Queens consort of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ancient Egyptian women in warfare 16th-century BC women rulers 15th-century BC women rulers Historical negationism in ancient Egypt 15th-century BC clergy Ancient Egyptian mummies Androgyny Children of Thutmose I Thutmose II Deaths from bone cancer Deaths from cancer in Egypt Priestesses of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Great Royal Wives Ancient women regents Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list CS1 French-language sources (fr) Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates 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en-wikipedia-org-5604	----	Neferkara I - Wikipedia Neferkara I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Neferkara I Neferka, Aaka, Nephercheres Cartouche name of Neferkara I in the Abydos King List (cartouche no. 19) Pharaoh Reign length of reign unknown (2nd Dynasty; around 2740 B.C.) Predecessor Senedj Successor Neferkasokar Royal titulary Nomen Abydos King List Neferkara Nfr-k3-r3 Turin Canon Neferka Nfr-k3 Turin Canon (alternative reading) Aaka 3ʼ-k3 Neferkara I (also Neferka and, alternatively, Aaka) is the cartouche name of a king (pharaoh) who is said to have ruled during the 2nd Dynasty of Ancient Egypt. The exact length of his reign is unknown since the Turin canon lacks the years of rulership[1] and the ancient Egyptian priest Manetho suggests that Neferkara's reign lasted 25 years.[2] Egyptologists evaluate his statement as misinterpretation or exaggeration. Contents 1 Name sources 2 Identity 3 Reign 4 References 5 External links Name sources[edit] The name “Neferkara I” (meaning “the Ka of Re is beautiful”) appears only in the Abydos King list. The Turin Royal Canon lists a king's name which is disputed for its uncertain reading. Egyptologists such as Alan H. Gardiner read “Aaka”,[1] whilst other Egyptologists, such as Jürgen von Beckerath, read “Neferka”. Both kinglists describe Neferkara I as the immediate successor of king Senedj and as the predecessor of king Neferkasokar.[3][4][5] Identity[edit] There is no contemporary name source for this king and no Horus name could be connected to Neferkara I up to this day.[3][4] In contrast, Egyptologists such as Kim Ryholt believe that Neferkara/Neferka was identical with a sparsely attested king named Sneferka, which is also thought to be a name used by king Qa'a (the last ruler of the 1st dynasty) for a short time only. Ryholt thinks that Ramesside scribes misleadingly added the symbol of the sun to the name “(S)neferka”, ignoring the fact that the sun itself was no object of divine adoration yet during the 2nd dynasty. For a comparison he points to cartouche names such as Neferkara II from the kinglist of Abydos and Nebkara I from the Sakkara table.[6] The ancient historian Manetho called Neferkara I “Népherchêres” and reported that during this king's rulership “the Nile was flowing with honey for eleven days”. Egyptologists think that this collocation was meant to show that the realm was flourishing under king Nephercheres.[5][7] Reign[edit] Egyptologists such as Wolfgang Helck, Nicolas Grimal, Hermann Alexander Schlögl and Francesco Tiradritti believe that king Nynetjer, the third ruler of second dynasty, left a realm that was suffering from an overly complex state administration and that Ninetjer decided to split Egypt to leave it to his two sons (or, at least, rightful throne successors) who would rule two separate kingdoms, in the hope that the two rulers could better administer the states.[8][9] In contrast, Egyptologists such as Barbara Bell believe that an economic catastrophe like a famine or a long lasting drought affected Egypt. Therefore, to address the problem of feeding the Egyptian population, Ninetjer split the realm and his successors founded two independent realms, until the famine came to an end. Bell points to the inscriptions of the Palermo stone, where, in her opinion, the records of the annual Nile floods show constantly low levels during this period.[10] Bell's theory is refuted today by Egyptologists such as Stephan Seidlmayer, who corrected Bell's calculations. Seidlmayer has shown that the annual Nile floods were at usual levels at Ninetjer's time up to the period of the Old Kingdom. Bell had overlooked, that the heights of the Nile floods in the Palermo stone inscription only takes the measurements of the nilometers around Memphis into account, but not elsewhere in Egypt. Any long-lasting drought can therefore be excluded.[11] It is a commonly accepted theory, that Neferkara I had to share his throne with another ruler. It is just unclear yet, with whom. Later kinglists such as the Sakkara list and the Turin canon list the kings Neferkasokar and Hudjefa I as immediate successors. The Abydos list skips all these three rulers and name a king Djadjay (identical with king Khasekhemwy). If Egypt was already divided when Neferkara I gained the throne, kings like Sekhemib and Peribsen would have ruled Upper Egypt, whilst Neferkara I and his successors would have ruled Lower Egypt. The division of Egypt was brought to an end by king Khasekhemwy.[12] References[edit] ^ a b Alan H. Gardiner: The royal canon of Turin. Griffith Institute of Oxford, Oxford (UK) 1997, ISBN 0-900416-48-3; p. 15 & Table I. ^ William Gillian Waddell: Manetho (The Loeb classical Library, Volume 350). Harvard University Press, Cambridge (Mass.) 2004 (Reprint), ISBN 0-674-99385-3, pp. 37–41. ^ a b Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards: The Cambridge ancient history Vol. 1, Pt. 2: Early history of the Middle East, 3rd volume (Reprint). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2006, ISBN 0-521-07791-5, p. 35. ^ a b Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen. Deutscher Kunstverlag, München/Berlin 1984, p. 49. ^ a b Winfried Barta: Die Chronologie der 1. bis 5. Dynastie nach den Angaben des rekonstruierten Annalensteins. In: Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde. (ZAS) volume 108, Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1981, ISSN 0044-216X, pp. 12–14. ^ Kim Ryholt, in: Journal of Egyptian History; vol.1. BRILL, Leiden 2008, ISSN 1874-1657, pp. 159–173. ^ Walter Bryan Emery: Ägypten, Geschichte und Kultur der Frühzeit, 3200-2800 v. Chr. p. 19. ^ Nicolas Grimal: A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley-Blackwell, Weinheim 1994, ISBN 978-0-631-19396-8, p. 55. ^ Francesco Tiradritti & Anna Maria Donadoni Roveri: Kemet: Alle Sorgenti Del Tempo. Electa, Milano 1998, ISBN 88-435-6042-5, p. 80–85. ^ Barbara Bell: Oldest Records of the Nile Floods, In: Geographical Journal, No. 136. 1970, p. 569–573; M. Goedike: Journal of Egypt Archaeology, No. 42. 1998, page 50. ^ Stephan Seidlmayer: Historische und moderne Nilstände: Historische und moderne Nilstände: Untersuchungen zu den Pegelablesungen des Nils von der Frühzeit bis in die Gegenwart. Achet, Berlin 2001, ISBN 3-9803730-8-8, pp. 87–89. ^ Hermann Alexander Schlögl: Das Alte Ägypten: Geschichte und Kultur von der Frühzeit bis zu Kleopatra. Beck, Hamburg 2006, ISBN 3-406-54988-8, pp. 77–78 & 415. External links[edit] Francesco Raffaele: Nwbnefer, Neferkara and Neferkaseker Preceded by Sekhemib Pharaoh of Egypt Succeeded by Neferkasokar v t e Second Dynasty of Ancient Egypt Attested pharaohs Hotepsekhemwy Nebra Weneg Nynetjer Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Khasekhemwy Obscure pharaoh names Horus Ba Ba Horus Sa Hudjefa I Neferkara I Neferkasokar Nubnefer Senedj Sneferka Wadjenes Queen consort Nimaathap Other royals Khenmetptah Satkhnum Sehener Shepset-ipet Wadjitefni (Mesen-ka) Pehen-Ptah Nisuheqet Nefer-Setekh Monument Gisr el-Mudir Capital Thinis v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neferkara_I&oldid=995691098" Categories: 28th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Second Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Čeština Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands Occitan Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Svenska Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 December 2020, at 10:43 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5617	----	Template talk:Median and Achaemenid kings - Wikipedia Template talk:Median and Achaemenid kings From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search WikiProject Biography (Rated Template-class) Biography portal v t e This template is within the scope of WikiProject Biography, a collaborative effort to create, develop and organize Wikipedia's articles about people. All interested editors are invited to join the project and contribute to the discussion. For instructions on how to use this banner, please refer to the documentation.BiographyWikipedia:WikiProject BiographyTemplate:WikiProject Biographybiography articles  Template  This template does not require a rating on the project's quality scale.   WikiProject Ancient Near East (Rated Template-class) v t e This template is within the scope of WikiProject Ancient Near East, a collaborative effort to improve the coverage of Ancient Near East related articles on Wikipedia. If you would like to participate, please visit the project page, where you can join the discussion and see a list of open tasks.Ancient Near EastWikipedia:WikiProject Ancient Near EastTemplate:WikiProject Ancient Near EastAncient Near East articles  Template  This template does not require a rating on the project's quality scale.   WikiProject Iran (Rated Template-class) Iran portal v t e This template is within the scope of WikiProject Iran, an attempt to build a comprehensive and detailed guide to articles related to Iran on Wikipedia. If you would like to participate, please join the project where you can contribute to the discussions and help with our open tasks.IranWikipedia:WikiProject IranTemplate:WikiProject IranIran articles  Template  This template does not require a rating on the project's quality scale.   Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Median_and_Achaemenid_kings&oldid=949326026" Categories: Template-Class biography articles Template-Class Ancient Near East articles NA-importance Ancient Near East articles Ancient Near East articles by assessment Template-Class Iran articles NA-importance Iran articles WikiProject Iran articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Template Talk Variants Views Read Edit New section View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages This page was last edited on 5 April 2020, at 20:55 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5621	----	Pixodarus - Wikipedia Pixodarus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the Carian ruler. For the son-in-law of the Cilician ruler Syennesis, see Pixodarus, son of Mausolus. Satrap of Caria Pixodarus Portrait on Carian coinage of the time of Pixodaros.[1] Satrap of Caria Reign 340–335 BC Predecessor Ada Successor Orontobates House Hecatomnids Father Hecatomnus Hecatomnid dynasty (Dynasts of Caria) c. 395–377 BCE Hecatomnus c. 377–353 BCE Mausolus c. 353–351 BCE Artemisia II c. 351–344 BCE Idrieus c. 344–340 BCE Ada c. 340–335 BCE Pixodarus c. 334–326 BCE Ada v t e Pixodarus or Pixodaros (in Lycian 𐊓𐊆𐊜𐊁𐊅𐊀𐊕𐊀 Pixedara; in Greek Πιξώδαρoς; ruled 340–335 BC), was a ruler of Caria, nominally the Achaemenid Empire Satrap, who enjoyed the status of king or dynast by virtue of the powerful position his predecessors of the House of Hecatomnus (the Hecatomnids) created when they succeeded the assassinated Persian Satrap Tissaphernes in the Carian satrapy. Lycia was also ruled by the Carian dynasts since the time of Mausolus, and the name of Pixodarus as ruler appears in the Xanthos trilingual inscription in Lycia. Contents 1 Biography 2 Decree of Pixodarus 3 Xanthos trilingual inscription 4 Coinage 5 References 6 Notes 7 External links Biography[edit] He was the youngest of the three sons of Hecatomnus, all of whom successively held the sovereignty of their native country. Pixodarus obtained possession of the throne by the expulsion of his sister Ada, the widow and successor of their brother Idrieus, and held it without opposition for a period of five years, 340–335 BC. He cultivated the friendship of Persia, gave his daughter in marriage to a Persian named Orontobates, whom he even seems to have admitted to some share in the sovereign power during his own lifetime. Coinage of Caria, Achaemenid style, during the reign of Pixodarus. Circa 341-334 BC.[2] But he did not neglect to court the alliance of other powers also, and endeavoured to secure the powerful friendship of Philip II, king of Macedonia, by offering the hand of his eldest daughter in marriage to Arrhidaeus, the illegitimate son of the Macedonian monarch. The discontent of the young Alexander at this period led him to offer himself as a suitor for the Carian princess instead of his natural brother — an overture which was eagerly embraced by Pixodarus, but the indignant interference of Philip put an end to the whole scheme. Pixodarus died — apparently a natural death — some time before the landing of Alexander in Asia, 334 BC: and was succeeded by his son-in-law the Persian Orontobates, who had married his daughter Ada II. Orontobates was soon ousted by Alexander the Great in the Siege of Halicarnassus, and replaced by Princess Ada with the approval of Alexander.[3] Decree of Pixodarus[edit] A fragment of a bilingual decree by Pixodarus in Greek and Lycian was discovered at Xanthos in Turkey, and is now held at the British Museum in London. The inscription records grants made by Pixedara (Pixodarus) to the Lycian cities of Arñna (Xanthos), Pñ (Pinara), Tlawa (Tlos) and Xadawãti (Kadyanda).[4] Decree of Pixodaros (British Museum) Content Transcription Transliteration (original Lycian script) Inscription Record of tax privileges from Pixedara (Pixodaros) for the Lycian cities of Arñna (Xanthos), Pñ (Pinara), Tlawa (Tlos) and Xadawãti (Kadyanda).[5][6] eñnẽ pixe[d]ar(a) ekat[m̃mna] arñna se tlawa se p[ñ] se xadawãti meñna ..truweheñneseti ......uti kbijehedi ..........tistwe ñte k ..................illieb ..........................ne. 𐊁𐊑𐊏𐊚𐊓𐊆𐊜𐊁[𐊅]𐊀𐊕(𐊀)𐊁𐊋𐊀𐊗 𐊀𐊕𐊑𐊏𐊀𐊖𐊁𐊗𐊍𐊀𐊇𐊀𐊖𐊁𐊓 𐊖𐊁𐊜𐊀𐊅𐊀𐊇𐊙𐊗𐊆𐊎𐊁𐊑𐊏𐊀 ..𐊗𐊕𐊒𐊇𐊁𐊛𐊁𐊑𐊏𐊁𐊖𐊁𐊗𐊆 ......𐊒𐊗𐊆𐊋𐊂𐊆𐊊𐊁𐊛𐊁𐊅𐊆 ..........𐊗𐊆𐊖𐊗𐊇𐊁𐊑𐊗𐊁𐊋 ..................𐊆𐊍𐊍𐊆𐊁𐊂 ..........................𐊏𐊁 The bilingual Greek-Lycian Decree of Pixodaros, showing the incomplete inscription in the Lycian script, found at Xanthos. Xanthos trilingual inscription[edit] The Xanthos trilingual inscription in Fethiye Museum. Pixadorus is also mentioned in the Xanthos trilingual inscription, confirming the rule of Pixodarus over neighbouring Lycia: In the month Siwan, year 1 of King Artaxerxes. In the fortress of Arñna (Xanthos). Pixodarus son of Katomno (Hecatomnus), the satrap who is in Karka (Caria) and Termmila (Lycia)....[7] When Pixodarus, the son of Hecatomnus, became satrap of Lycia, he appointed as rulers of Lycia Hieron (ijeru) and Apollodotos (natrbbejẽmi), and as governor (asaxlazu) of Xanthus, Artemelis (erttimeli). The Artaxerxes in question is thought to be Artaxerxes IV. Coinage[edit] Coinage of Pixodaros, circa 341/0 to 336/5 BCE. Obv: Head of Apollo facing right, wearing laurel wreath, drapery at neck. Rev: Zeus Labraundos standing right; Legend ΠIΞOΔAPOY, "Pixodaros". Coinage of Pixodaros, circa 341/0 to 336/5 BCE. Obv: Head of Apollo, wearing laurel wreath. Rev: Zeus Labraundos standing right; Legend ΠIΞOΔAPOY, "Pixodaros". References[edit] Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, "Pixodarus (2)", Boston, (1867) Notes[edit] ^ Precise date of 341-334 BC according to Meadows CNG: CARIA, Achaemenid Period. Circa 350-334 BC. AR Tetradrachm (15.07 g, 12h). Struck circa 341-334 BC. ^ Precise date of 341-334 BC according to Meadows CNG: CARIA, Achaemenid Period. Circa 350-334 BC. AR Tetradrachm (15.07 g, 12h). Struck circa 341-334 BC. ^ Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca, xvi. 74; Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri, i. 23; Strabo, Geography, xiv. 2; Plutarch, Parallel Lives, "Alexander", 10 ^ British Museum collection ^ Hansen, Mogens Herman; Nielsen, Thomas Heine; Nielsen, Lecturer in the Department of Greek and Latin Thomas Heine (2004). An Inventory of Archaic and Classical Poleis. OUP Oxford. p. 1141. ISBN 9780198140993. ^ Bresson, Alain (2015). The Making of the Ancient Greek Economy: Institutions, Markets, and Growth in the City-States. Princeton University Press. p. 299. ISBN 9781400852451. ^ Teixidor, Javier (April 1978). "The Aramaic Text in the Trilingual Stele from Xanthus". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 37 (2): 181–185. doi:10.1086/372644. JSTOR 545143. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pixodaros. Livius, Pixodarus by Jona Lendering  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Pixodarus". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pixodarus&oldid=985516314" Categories: 335 BC deaths 4th-century BC rulers Carian people Achaemenid satraps of Caria Hecatomnid dynasty Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages تۆرکجه Български Català Deutsch Español فارسی Français Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Português Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 26 October 2020, at 12:04 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5641	----	Neferirkare Kakai - Wikipedia Neferirkare Kakai From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the lesser known pharaoh of the 8th Dynasty, see Neferirkare. Egyptian pharaoh Neferirkare Kakai Neferirkara, Neferarkare, Nefercherês Neferirkare Kakai, originally depicted as prince Ranefer, on a relief from the mortuary complex of his father Sahure. His royal title and regalia were added later during his own reign.[1][2] Pharaoh Reign Eight, ten, eleven or much less likely twenty years, in the early to mid-25th century BCE.[note 1] (5th Dynasty) Predecessor Sahure Successor Neferefre (most likely) or Shepseskare Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Neferirkare Nfr-jr(.w)-k3-Rˁ The perfect one is the one whom the Ka of Ra has engendered[18] Beautiful is the Soul of Ra[19] Nomen Kakai k3 k3.j Uncertain translation: may be a short form of his throne name[20][21]or a birth name meaning My Ka is a true Ka[18] Horus name Userkhau Wsr ḫˁ.w Strong of appearances[18] Nebty name Khaemnebty Ḫˁ m nbty Who has appeared [by means of] the Two Ladies[18] Userkhau Wsr ḫˁ.w Strong of appearances [by means of] the Two Ladies[18] Golden Horus Sekhemunebu Sḫm.w nb-w The triple power[18] The three powers[22] Consort Khentkaus II Children Neferefre ♂, Nyuserre Ini ♂ likely: Iryenre ♂ uncertain: Khentkaus III ♀ Father Sahure Mother Meretnebty (also known as Neferetnebty) Burial Pyramid of Neferirkare Monuments Pyramid Ba-Neferirkare Sun temple Setibre Neferirkare Kakai (known in Greek as Nefercherês, Νεφερχέρης) was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh, the third king of the Fifth Dynasty. Neferirkare, the eldest son of Sahure with his consort Meretnebty, was known as Ranefer A before he came to the throne. He acceded the day after his father's death and reigned for eight to eleven years, sometime in the early to mid-25th century BCE. He was himself very likely succeeded by his eldest son, born of his queen Khentkaus II, the prince Ranefer B who would take the throne as king Neferefre. Neferirkare fathered another pharaoh, Nyuserre Ini, who took the throne after Neferefre's short reign and the brief rule of the poorly known Shepseskare. Neferirkare was acknowledged by his contemporaries as a kind and benevolent ruler, intervening in favour of his courtiers after a mishap. His rule witnessed a growth in the number of administration and priesthood officials, who used their expanded wealth to build architecturally more sophisticated mastabas, where they recorded their biographies for the first time. Neferirkare was the last pharaoh to significantly modify the standard royal titulary, separating the nomen or birth name, from the prenomen or throne name. From his reign onwards, the former was written in a cartouche preceded by the "Son of Ra" epithet. His rule witnessed continuing trade relations with Nubia to the south and possibly with Byblos on the Levantine coast to the north. Neferirkare started a pyramid for himself in the royal necropolis of Abusir, called Ba-Neferirkare meaning "Neferirkare is a Ba". It was initially planned to be a step pyramid, a form which had not been employed since the days of the Third Dynasty circa 120 years earlier. This plan was modified to transform the monument into a true pyramid, the largest in Abusir, which was never completed owing to the death of the king. In addition, Neferirkare built a temple to the sun god Ra called Setibre, that is "Site of the heart of Ra". Ancient sources state that it was the largest one built during the Fifth Dynasty but as of the early 21st century it has not yet been located. After his death, Neferirkare benefited from a funerary cult taking place in his mortuary temple, which had been completed by his son Nyuserre Ini. This cult seems to have disappeared at the end of the Old Kingdom period, although it might have been revived during the Twelfth Dynasty of the Middle Kingdom, albeit in a very limited form. In all probability, it was also around this time that the story of the Papyrus Westcar was first written, a tale where Userkaf, Sahure and Neferirkare are said to be brothers, the sons of Ra with a woman Rededjet. Contents 1 Sources 1.1 Contemporaneous sources 1.2 Historical sources 2 Family 2.1 Parents and siblings 2.2 Consort and children 3 Reign 3.1 Duration 3.2 Activities in Egypt 3.3 Administration 3.4 Modification of the royal titulary 3.5 Trade and military activities 4 Personality 5 Building activities 5.1 Pyramid complex 5.1.1 Pyramid 5.1.2 Mortuary temple 5.2 Sun temple 5.3 Sun temple of Userkaf 6 Funerary cult 7 Notes, references and sources 7.1 Notes 7.2 References 7.3 Sources 8 External links Sources[edit] Neferirkare's nomen "Kakai" on the Abydos king list. Contemporaneous sources[edit] Neferirkare is well attested in sources contemporaneous with his reign. Beyond his pyramid complex, he is mentioned in the tomb of many of his contemporaries such as his vizier Washptah, the courtier Rawer[23] and the priest Akhethetep.[24] Neferirkare also appears in the nearly contemporaneous Giza writing board, a short list grouping six kings from different dynasties dating to the later Fifth or early Sixth Dynasty.[25] The writing board was uncovered in the tomb of a high official named Mesdjerw, who may have composed it for his use in the afterlife.[26] Historical sources[edit] Neferirkare is attested in two ancient Egyptian king lists, both dating to the New Kingdom. The earliest of these is the Abydos King List written during the reign of Seti I (fl. 1290–1279 BCE). There, Neferirkare's nomen "Kakai" occupies the 28th entry, in between those of Sahure and Neferefre. During the subsequent reign of Ramesses II (fl. 1279–1213 BCE), Neferirkare's prenomen was recorded on the 27th entry of the Saqqara Tablet, but this time as a successor of Sahure and predecessor of Shepseskare.[27] Neferirkare was also given an entry in the Turin canon, a document dating to the reign of Ramesses II as well. Neferirkare's entry is commonly believed to be in the third column-19th row; unfortunately this line has been lost in a large lacuna affecting the papyrus, and neither his reign length nor his successor can be ascertained from the surviving fragments. The Egyptologist Miroslav Verner has furthermore proposed that the Turin canon makes a new dynasty start with this entry and thus that Neferirkare would be its founder.[28][29][30] The division of the Turin canon list of kings into dynasties is a currently debated topic. The Egyptologist Jaromír Málek, for example, sees the divisions between groups of kings occurring in the canon as marking transfers of royal residence rather than the rise and fall of royal dynasties, as this term is currently understood. That usage only began in the Egyptian context with the 3rd-century BCE work of the priest Manetho.[31] Similarly, the Egyptologist Stephan Seidlmeyer, considers the break in the Turin Canon at the end of the Eighth Dynasty to represent the relocation of the royal residence from Memphis to Herakleopolis.[32] The Egyptologist John Baines holds views that are closer to Verner's, believing that the canon was divided into dynasties, with totals for the time elapsed given at the end of each, though only a few such divisions have survived.[33] Similarly, Professor John Van Seters views the breaks in the canon as divisions between dynasties, but in contrast, states that the criterion for these divisions remains unknown. He speculates that the pattern of dynasties may have been taken from the nine divine kings of the Greater and Lesser Enneads.[34] The Egyptologist Ian Shaw believes that the Turin Canon gives some credibility to Manetho's division of dynasties, but considers the king lists to be a form of ancestor worship and not a historical record.[35] This whole problem could be mooted by another of Verner's speculations, where he proposes that Neferirkare's entry may have been located on the 20th line rather than the 19th, as is usually believed. This would credit Neferirkare with a seven-year reign,[29] and would make Sahure the dynasty founder, according to the hypothesis that the canon records such events. Archaeological evidence has established that the transitions from Userkaf to Sahure and from Sahure to Neferirkare were father–son transitions, so that neither Sahure nor Neferirkare can be dynasty founders in the modern sense of the term.[36][37] Neferirkare was mentioned in the Aegyptiaca, a history of Egypt written in the 3rd century BCE during the reign of Ptolemy II (283–246 BCE) by Manetho. No copies of the Aegyptiaca have survived to this day and it is now known only through later writings by Sextus Julius Africanus and Eusebius. The Byzantine scholar George Syncellus reports that Africanus relates that the Aegyptiaca mentioned the succession "Sephrês → Nefercherês → Sisirês" for the early Fifth Dynasty. Sephrês, Nefercherês and Sisirês are believed to be the hellenized forms for Sahure, Neferirkare and Shepseskare, respectively. Thus, Manetho's reconstruction of the Fifth Dynasty is in agreement with the Saqqara tablet.[38] In Africanus' epitome of the Aegyptiaca, Nefercherês is reported to have reigned for 20 years.[39] Family[edit] Parents and siblings[edit] The Westcar Papyrus, on display in the Ägyptisches Museum, dates to the 17th Dynasty but its story was probably first written during the 12th Dynasty.[40] Until 2005, the identity of Neferirkare's parents was uncertain. Some Egyptologists, including Nicolas Grimal, William C. Hayes, Hartwig Altenmüller, Aidan Dodson and Dyan Hilton, viewed him as a son of Userkaf and Khentkaus I, and a brother to his predecessor Sahure.[5][41][42][43][44] The main impetus behind this theory was the Westcar Papyrus, an Ancient Egyptian story narrating the rise of the Fifth Dynasty. In it, a magician prophesizes to Khufu that the future demise of his lineage will be in the form of three brothers – the first three kings of the Fifth Dynasty, born of the god Ra and a woman named Rededjet.[45] Egyptologists such as Verner have sought to discern a historical truth in this account, proposing that Sahure and Neferirkare were siblings born of queen Khentkaus I.[note 2][47] In 2005, excavations of the causeway leading up to Sahure's pyramid yielded new relief fragments which showed indisputably that pharaoh Sahure and his consort, queen Meretnebty, were Neferirkare's parents. Indeed, these reliefs—discovered by Verner and Tarek El Awady—depict Sahure and Meretnebty together with their two sons, Ranefer and Netjerirenre.[36] While both sons are given the title of "king's eldest son", possibly indicating that they were twins,[49] Ranefer is shown closer to Sahure and also given the title of "chief lector-priest", which may reflect that he was born first and thus given higher positions.[50] Since Ranefer is known to have been the name of Neferirkare before he took the throne, as indicated by reliefs from the mortuary temple of Sahure (see below), no doubt remains as to Neferirkare's filiation.[36] Nothing more is known about Netjerirenre, an observation which has led Verner and El-Awady to speculate that he could have attempted to seize the throne upon the unexpected death of Neferirkare's son and successor Neferefre, who died in his early twenties after two years on the throne. In this conjectural hypothesis, he would be the ephemeral Shepseskare.[51][50] Finally, the same relief, as well as an additional one, record a further four sons of Sahure – Khakare,[52] Horemsaf,[53] Raemsaf and Nebankhre. The identity of their mother(s) is unknown,[54] so they are, at minimum, half-brothers to Neferirkare.[55] Fragments of reliefs from the mortuary temple of Sahure showing Neferirkare as a prince. The reliefs were altered during the latter's reign with the addition of royal titles and regalia.[56][57] Consort and children[edit] As of the early 21st century, the only known queen of Neferirkare is Khentkaus II. This is due to the position of her pyramid next to that of Neferirkare as was normal for the consort of a king, as well as her title of "king's wife" and several reliefs representing both of them together.[58] Neferirkare could possibly have had at least one other spouse, as suggested by the presence of a small pyramid next to that of Khentkaus, but this remains conjectural.[57] Statue of Neferefre, Neferirkare's eldest son, discovered in his mortuary temple by Paule Posener-Kriéger.[59] Neferirkare and his consort Khentkaus II were, in all likelihood, the parents of prince Ranefer B, the future pharaoh Neferefre.[4][59][60][61] This relationship is confirmed by a relief on a limestone slab discovered in a house in the village near Abusir[62] depicting Neferirkare and his wife Khentkaus with "the king's eldest son Ranefer",[note 3][63] a name identical with some variants of Neferefre's own.[64] This indicates that, just as for Neferirkare, Ranefer was Neferefre's name when he was still only a crown prince, that is, before his accession to the throne.[65] Neferirkare and Khentkaus II had at least one other child together, the future pharaoh Nyuserre Ini.[61][66] Indeed, Neferirkare's consort Khentkaus II is known to have been Nyuserre's mother, since excavations of her mortuary temple yielded a fragmentary relief showing her facing Nyuserre and his family.[67][68][69] Remarkably, on this relief both Khentkaus and Nyuserre appear on the same scale,[68] an observation which may be connected with Khentkaus' enhanced status during Nyuserre's reign, as he sought to legitimise his rule following the premature death of Neferefre and the possible challenge by Shepseskare.[70][71] Further evidence for the filiation of Nyuserre are the location of his pyramid next to that of Neferirkare, as well as his reuse for his own valley temple of materials from Neferikare's unfinished constructions.[72] Yet another son of Neferirkare and Khentkhaus has been proposed,[73] probably younger[74] than both Neferefre and Nyuserre: Iryenre, a prince iry-pat[note 4] whose relationship is suggested by the fact that his funerary cult was associated with that of his mother, both having taken place in the temple of Khentkaus II.[76][77] Finally, Neferirkare and Khentkaus II may also be the parents of queen Khentkaus III,[78] whose tomb was discovered in Abusir in 2015. Indeed, based on the location and general date for her tomb, as well as her titles of "king's wife" and "king's mother", Khentkaus III was almost certainly Neferefre's consort[79] and the mother of either Menkauhor Kaiu or Shepseskare.[78] Reign[edit] Duration[edit] Manetho's Aegyptiaca assigns Neferirkare a reign of 20 years, but the archaeological evidence now suggests that this is an overestimate. First, the damaged Palermo Stone preserves the year of the 5th cattle count for Neferirkare's time on the throne.[80] The cattle count was an important event aimed at evaluating the amount of taxes to be levied on the population. By the reign of Neferirkare, this involved counting cattle, oxen and small livestock.[81] This event is believed to have been biennial during the Old Kingdom period, that is occurring once every two years, meaning that Neferirkare reigned at least ten years. Given the shape of the Palermo stone, this record must correspond to his final year or be close to it,[82] so that he ruled no more than eleven years. This is further substantiated by two cursive inscriptions left by masons on stone blocks from the pyramids of Khentkaus II and Neferirkare, both of which also date to Neferirkare's fifth cattle count, its highest known regnal year.[80][83] Finally, Verner has pointed out that a 20-year-long reign would be difficult to reconcile with the unfinished state of his pyramid in Abusir.[84] Activities in Egypt[edit] Reconstruction of a ritual[note 5] vase made of sycamore wood with faience and gold inlays showing Neferirkare's cartouche and found in his mortuary temple.[85][28] Now in the Egyptian Museum of Berlin.[85] Beyond his construction of a pyramid and sun temple, little is known of Neferirkare's activities during his time on the throne.[86] Some events dating to his first and final years of reign are recorded on the surviving fragments of the Palermo stone,[87][88][89] a royal annal covering the period from the start of the reign of Menes of the First Dynasty until around the time of Neferirkare's rule.[note 6][91][92] According to the Palermo stone, the future pharaoh Neferirkare, then called prince Ranefer,[note 7] ascended the throne the day after his father Sahure's death, which occurred on the 28th day of the ninth month.[94][95] The annal then records that in his first year as king, Neferirkare granted land to the agricultural estates serving the cults of the Ennead, the Souls of Pe and Nekhen and the gods of Keraha.[note 8][97][49] To Ra and Hathor, he dedicated an offering table provided with 210 daily offerings, and ordered the construction of two store rooms and the employment of new dependents in the host temple.[97] Neferirkare also commanded "the fashioning and opening of the mouth of an electrum statue of [the god] Ihy, escorting [it] to the mrt-chapel of Snefru of the nht-shrine of Hathor".[98][99] Later in his reign, in the year of the fifth cattle count, Neferirkare had a bronze statue of himself erected and set up four barques for Ra and Horus in and around his sun temple, two of which were of copper. The Souls of Pe and Nekhen and Wadjet received electrum endowments, while Ptah was given lands.[100] The fact that the Palermo stone terminates[90] around Neferirkare's rule led some scholars, such as Grimal, to propose that they might have been compiled during his reign.[86] Administration[edit] Few specific administrative actions taken by Neferirkare are known. One decree of his inscribed on a limestone slab was excavated in 1903 in Abydos and is now in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts.[15] The decree exempts personnel belonging to a temple of Khenti-Amentiu from undertaking compulsory labour in perpetuity, under penalty of forfeiture of all property and freedom and be forced to work the fields or in a stone quarry.[101][102][81] This decree indirectly suggests that taxation and compulsory labour was imposed on everybody as a general rule.[103] More generally, Neferirkare's reign saw the growth of the Egyptian administration and priesthood, which amassed more power than in earlier reigns, although the king remained a living god.[4] In particular the positions of viziers and overseer of the expedition, that is the highest offices, were opened to people from outside the royal family.[89] In conjunction with this trend, the mastabas of high officials started to become more elaborate, with, for example, chapels including multiple rooms,[104][105] and from the mid to late Fifth Dynasty, wide entrance porticoes with columns[106] and family tomb complexes.[105] It is also at this time that these officials started to record autobiographies on the walls of their tombs.[60] Modification of the royal titulary[edit] The reign of Neferirkare Kakai saw the last[107] important modification to the titulary of pharaohs. He was the earliest pharaoh to separate the nswt-bjtj ("King of Upper and Lower Egypt") and Z3-Rˁ ("Son of Ra") epithets of the royal titulary. He associated these two epithets with two different, independent names: the prenomen and nomen, respectively. The prenomen or throne name, taken by the new king as he ascended the throne, was written in a cartouche immediately after the bee and sedge signs for nswt-bjtj.[107][108] From Neferirkare's time onwards,[109] the nomen, or birth name, was also written in a cartouche[110] systematically preceded by the glyphs for "Son of Ra", an epithet which had seen little use in preceding times.[41] Trade and military activities[edit] There is little evidence for military action during Neferirkare's reign. William C. Hayes proposed that a few fragmentary limestone statues of kneeling and bound prisoners of war discovered in his mortuary temple[111][112] possibly attest to punitive raids in Libya to the west or the Sinai and Canaan to the east during his reign.[41] The art historian William Stevenson Smith commented that such statues were customary[111] elements of the decoration of royal temples and mastabas, suggesting that they may not be immediately related to actual military campaigns. Similar statues and small wooden figures of kneeling captives were discovered in the mortuary complexes of Neferefre,[113] Djedkare Isesi,[114] Unas,[115] Teti,[116] Pepi I[117] and Pepi II[111] as well as in the tomb of vizier Senedjemib Mehi.[118][119] Trade relations with Nubia are the only ones attested to during Neferirkare's reign.[60] The archaeological evidence for this are seal impressions and ostracon bearing his name uncovered in the fortress of Buhen, on the second cataract of the Nile.[120] Contacts with Byblos on the Levantine coast might also have happened during Neferirkare's rule, as suggested by a single alabaster bowl inscribed with his name unearthed there.[120] Personality[edit] Relief showing Ptahshepses found in his mastaba. Neferirkare's reign was unusual for the significant number of surviving contemporary records which describe him as a kind and gentle ruler. When Rawer, an elderly nobleman and royal courtier, was accidentally touched by the king's mace during a religious ceremony[11]—a dangerous situation which could have caused this official to be put immediately to death[60] or banished from court since the pharaoh was viewed as a living god in Old Kingdom mythology—Neferirkare quickly pardoned Rawer and commanded that no harm should occur to the latter for the incident.[121][122] As Rawer gratefully states in an inscription from his Giza tomb: Now the priest Rawer in his priestly robes was following the steps of the king in order to conduct the royal costume, when the sceptre in the king's hand struck the priest Rawer's foot. The king said, "You are safe". So the king said, and then, "It is the king's wish that he be perfectly safe, since I have not struck at him. For he is more worthy before the king than any man."[23][123][124] Similarly, Neferirkare gave the Priest of Ptah Ptahshepses the unprecedented honour of kissing his feet[11][125] rather than the ground in front of him.[126] Finally, when the vizier Washptah suffered a stroke while attending court, the king quickly summoned the palace's chief doctors to treat his dying vizier.[11] When Washptah died, Neferirkare was reportedly inconsolable and retired to his personal quarters to mourn the loss of his friend. The king then ordered the purification of Washptah's body in his presence and ordered an ebony coffin made for the deceased vizier. Washptah was buried with special endowments and rituals courtesy of Neferirkare.[127] The records of the king's actions are inscribed in Washptah's tomb itself[128] and emphasize Neferirkare's humanity towards his subjects.[129] Building activities[edit] Pyramid complex[edit] Main article: Pyramid of Neferirkare Pyramid[edit] The pyramid of Neferirkare Kakai. The Pyramid of Neferirkare Kakai, known to the Ancient Egyptians as Ba-Neferirkare and variously translated as "Neferirkare is a Ba"[130] or "Neferirkare takes form",[5] is located in the royal necropolis of Abusir.[131] It is the largest one built during the Fifth Dynasty, equalling roughly the size of the Pyramid of Menkaure.[5] Workers and artisans who built the pyramid and its surrounding complex lived in pyramid town "Neferirkare-is-the-soul" or "Kakai-is-the-soul", located in Abusir.[132] The pyramid construction comprised three stages:[133] first built were six steps[28] of rubble, their retaining walls made of locally quarried limestone[134] indicating that the monument was originally planned to be a step pyramid,[135][136] an unusual design for the time which had not been used since the Third Dynasty, some 120 years earlier.[28] At this point the pyramid, had it been completed, would have reached 52 m (171 ft).[28] This plan was then altered by a second construction stage with the addition of filling between the steps meant to transform the monument into a true pyramid.[136] At a later stage, the workers enlarged the pyramid further, adding a girdle of masonry and smooth casing stones of red granite.[136] This work was never finished,[135] even after the works implemented by Nyuserre.[137] With a square base of 108-metre-long (354 ft) sides,[138] the pyramid would have reached 72 m (236 ft) high had it been completed.[28] Today it is in ruins owing to extensive stone robbing.[139] The entrance to the pyramid's substructures was located on its north side. There, a descending corridor with a gable roof made of limestone beams led into a burial chamber. No pieces of the sarcophagus of the king were found there.[136] The pyramid of Neferirkare is surrounded by smaller pyramids and tombs which seem to form an architectural unit, the cemetery of his close family.[28] This ensemble was meant to be reached from the Nile via a causeway and a valley temple near the river. At the death of Neferirkare, only the foundations of both had been laid and Nyuserre later diverted the unfinished causeway to his own pyramid.[136] Mortuary temple[edit] The mortuary temple was far from finished at the death of Neferirkare but it was completed later, by his sons Neferefre and Nyuserre Ini using cheap mudbricks and wood rather than stone.[140] A significant cache of administrative papyri, known as the Abusir papyri, was uncovered there by illegal diggers in 1893 and subsequently by Borchardt in 1903.[141] Further papyri were also uncovered in the mid-seventies during a University of Prague Egyptological Institute excavation.[86] The presence of this cache is due to the peculiar historical circumstances of the mid-Fifth Dynasty.[142] As both Neferirkare and his heir Neferefre died before their pyramid complexes could be finished, Nyuserre altered their planned layout, diverting the causeway leading to Neferirkare's pyramid to his own. This meant that Neferefre's and Neferirkare's mortuary complexes became somewhat isolated on the Abusir plateau, their priests therefore had to live next to the temple premises in makeshift dwellings,[143] and they stored the administrative records onsite.[142] In contrast, the records of other temples were kept in the pyramid town close to Sahure's or Nyuserre's pyramid, where the current level of ground water means any papyrus has long since disappeared.[144] The Abusir papyri record some details pertaining to Neferirkare's mortuary temple. Its central chapel housed a niche with five statues of the king. The central one is described in the papyri as being a representation of the king as Osiris, while the first and last ones depicted him as the king of Upper and Lower Egypt, respectively.[145][146] The temple also comprised store-rooms for the offerings, where numerous stone vessels—now broken—had been deposited.[147] Finally the papyri indicate that of the four boats included in the mortuary complex, two were buried to the north and south of the pyramid, one of which was unearthed by Verner.[148] During the Late Period of ancient Egypt (664–332 BCE) the mortuary temple of Neferirkare was used as a secondary cemetery. A gravestone made of yellow calcite was discovered by Borchardt bearing an Aramaic inscription reading "Belonging to Nesneu, son of Tapakhnum".[149] Another inscription[150] in Aramaic found on a limestone block and dating to the fifth century BCE reads "Mannukinaan son of Sewa".[151] Sun temple[edit] Neferirkare is known from ancient sources to have built a temple to the sun god Ra, which is yet to be identified archaeologically.[5] It was called Setibre,[note 9] meaning "Site of the heart of Ra",[5] and was, according to contemporary sources, the largest one built during the Fifth Dynasty.[4] It is possible that the temple was only built out of mudbricks, with a planned completion in stone which had not started when Neferirkare died. In this case, it would rapidly have turned into ruins that would be very difficult to locate for archaeologists.[153] Alternatively, the Egyptologist Rainer Stadelmann has proposed that the Setibre as well as the sun temples of Sahure and Userkaf were one and the same known building, that attributed to Userkaf in Abusir.[154] This hypothesis has been dispelled in late 2018 thanks to advanced analyses of the verso of the Palermo stone by the Czech Institute of Archeology, which enabled the reading of inscriptions mentioning precisely the architecture of the temple as well as lists of donations it received.[155] Of all the sun temples built during the Fifth Dynasty, the Setibre is the one most commonly cited in ancient sources. Due to this, some details of its layout are known: it had a large central obelisk, an altar and store-rooms, a sealed barque room housing two boats[148] and a "hall of the 'Sed festival'". Religious festivals did certainly take place in sun temples, as is attested to by the Abusir papyri. In the case of the Setibre, the festival of the "Night of Ra"[note 10] is specifically said to have taken place there.[157] This was a festival concerned with Ra's journey during the night and connected with the ideas of renewal and rebirth that were central to sun temples.[156] The temple played an important role in the distribution of food offerings which were brought everyday from there to the mortuary temple of the king.[158][159][160] This journey was made by boat, indicating that the Setibre was not adjacent to Neferirkare's pyramid. This also underscores the dependent position of the king with respect to Ra, as offerings were made to the sun god and then to the deceased king.[158] Sun temple of Userkaf[edit] Main article: Sun temple of Userkaf The Egyptologist Werner Kaiser proposed, based on a study of the evolution of the hieroglyph determinative for "sun temple", that Neferirkare completed the sun temple of Userkaf—known in Ancient Egyptian as Nekhenre[note 11]—sometime around the fifth cattle count of his reign.[162][163] This opinion is shared by the Egyptologists and archaeologists Ogden Goelet, Mark Lehner and Herbert Ricke.[164][161][165] In this hypothesis, Neferirkare would have provided the Nekhenre with its monumental obelisk of limestone and red granite.[166] Verner and the Egyptologist Paule Posener-Kriéger have pointed out two difficulties with the hypothesis. Firstly, it would imply a long interlude between the two phases of construction of Userkaf's temple: nearly 25 years between the erection of the temple and that of its obelisk. Secondly, they observe that both the pyramid and sun temple of Neferirkare were unfinished at his death, raising the question as to why the king would have devoted exceptional effort on a monument of Userkaf when his own still required substantial works to be completed.[167][168] Instead, Verner proposes that it was Sahure who finished the Nekhenre.[169] Funerary cult[edit] Personified agricultural estate of Neferirkare, tomb of Sekhemnefer III. As with the other pharaohs of the Fifth Dynasty, Neferirkare was the object of a funerary cult after his death. Cylinder seals belonging to priests and priestesses serving in this cult attest his existence during the Old Kingdom period. For example, a black steatite seal, now in the Metropolitan Museum bears the inscription "Votary of Hathor and priestess of the good god Neferirkare, beloved of the gods".[170] Some of these officials had roles in the cults of several kings, as well as in their sun temples.[171] Offerings for the funerary cult of deceased rulers were provided by dedicated agricultural estates set up during the king's reign. A few of these are known for Neferirkare, including "The estate of Kakai (named) the i3gt of Kakai",[note 12] "Strong is the power of Kakai",[note 13] "The plantations of Kakai",[note 14] "Nekhbet desires that Kakai lives",[175] "Neferirkare is beloved of the ennead"[97] and "The mansion of the Ba of Neferirkare".[97] Traces of the continued existence of the funerary cult of Neferirkare beyond the Old Kingdom period are scant. A pair of statues belonging to a certain Sekhemhotep were uncovered in Giza, one of which is inscribed with the standard Ancient Egyptian offering formula followed by "of the temple of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Neferirkare, true of voice".[176] The statues, which date to the early 12th Dynasty of the Middle Kingdom period are the only archaeological evidence that Neferirkare's funerary cult still existed or had been revived around Abusir at the time,[177][178] albeit in a very limited form.[179][180] Notes, references and sources[edit] Notes[edit] ^ Proposed dates for Neferirkare Kakai's reign: 2539–2527 BCE,[3] 2492–2482 BCE,[4][5][6][7] 2483–2463 BCE,[8] 2477–2467 BCE,[9] 2475–2455 BCE,[10][11] 2458–2438 BCE[12] 2446–2438 BCE,[13][14][15] 2416–2407 BCE,[16] 2415–2405 BCE.[17] ^ In this theory, Khentkaus I possibly remarried Userkaf after the death of her first husband Shepseskaf[46] and became the mother of Sahure and his successor on the throne Neferirkare Kakai.[47] This theory is based on the fact that Khentkaus was known to have borne the title of mwt nswt bity nswt bity, which could be translated as "mother of two kings". Some Egyptologists have therefore proposed that Khentkaus was the mother of Sahure and the historical figure on which the Rededjet of the Westcar Papyrus is based.[48] Following the discoveries of Verner and El-Awady in Abusir this theory was abandoned and the role of Khentkaus has been re-appraised. In particular, it is now understood that there were two queens Khentkaus, both of whom may have bore two kings, the latest one being the mother of Neferefre and Nyuserre Ini. In addition, an ephemeral pharaoh Djedefptah may have ruled between Shepseskaf and Userkaf, further troubling the circumstances of the rise of the Fifth Dynasty.[46] ^ The transliteration of the inscription is [zȝ-nswt] smsw Rˁ-nfr.[59] ^ Often translated as "Hereditary prince" or "Hereditary noble" and more precisely "Concerned with the nobility", this title denotes a highly exalted position.[75] ^ Ludwig Borchardt, who discovered this heset vase, noticed that the vase was not functional, being of plain wood, plaster, mortar and with no cavity. Consequently, he hypothesised that the vase was meant to be used in funerary rituals as a symbol of the functioning vessels made of precious materials employed in the temple.[85] ^ The surviving fragments of the annal likely date to the much later 25th Dynasty (fl. 760–656 BCE), but they were certainly copied or compiled from Old Kingdom sources.[90] ^ Known in modern Egyptology as Ranefer A since pharaoh Neferefre was also called Ranefer before ascending the throne and is thus called Ranefer B.[93] ^ Located in Heliopolis, Keraha was believed to be the site of the battle between Horus and Seth.[96] ^ Or Setibrau, transliteration St-ib-Rˁ(.w) in Ancient Egyptian.[152] ^ Ancient Egyptian transliteration Grḥ n Rˁ(.w).[156] ^ Nḫn-Rˁ means "Stronghold of Ra".[161] ^ Transliteration ḥwt K3k3i i3gt K3k3i.[172] ^ Transliteration W3š-b3w-K3k3i.[173] ^ Transliteration Šw-K3k3i, uncertain reading[174] References[edit] ^ Borchardt 1910, plates 33 and 34. ^ Allen et al. 1999, p. 337. ^ Hayes 1978, p. 58. ^ a b c d Verner 2001b, p. 589. ^ a b c d e f Altenmüller 2001, p. 598. ^ Hawass & Senussi 2008, p. 10. ^ El-Shahawy & Atiya 2005, p. 85. ^ Strudwick 2005, p. xxx. ^ Clayton 1994, p. 60. ^ Málek 2000a, p. 100. ^ a b c d Rice 1999, p. 132. ^ von Beckerath 1999, p. 285. ^ Allen et al. 1999, p. xx. ^ MET 2002. ^ a b Decree of Neferirkare, BMFA 2017. ^ Strudwick 1985, p. 3. ^ Hornung 2012, p. 491. ^ a b c d e f Leprohon 2013, p. 39. ^ Clayton 1994, p. 61. ^ Leprohon 2013, p. 38. ^ Scheele-Schweitzer 2007, pp. 91–94. ^ Leprohon 2013, p. 39, footnote 52. ^ a b Allen et al. 1999, p. 396. ^ de Rougé 1918, p. 81. ^ Helck 1987, p. 117. ^ Brovarski 1987, pp. 29–52. ^ Mariette 1864, p. 4, plate 17. ^ a b c d e f g Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 77. ^ a b Verner 2001a, p. 395. ^ Verner 2000, p. 587. ^ Málek 2004, p. 84, 103–104. ^ Seidlmeyer 2004, p. 108. ^ Baines 2007, p. 198. ^ Seters 1997, pp. 135–136. ^ Shaw 2004, pp. 7–8. ^ a b c El-Awady 2006, pp. 208–213. ^ El-Awady 2006, pp. 192–198. ^ Verner 2000, p. 581. ^ Waddell 1971, p. 51. ^ Burkard, Thissen & Quack 2003, p. 178. ^ a b c Hayes 1978, p. 66. ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 64. ^ Grimal 1992, pp. 68, 72, 74. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica 2017. ^ Lichteim 2000, pp. 215–220. ^ a b Hayes 1978, pp. 66–68, 71. ^ a b Rice 1999, p. 173. ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 62. ^ a b Bárta 2017, p. 6. ^ a b Verner 2007. ^ El-Awady 2006, pp. 213–214. ^ Baud 1999b, p. 535. ^ Baud 1999b, p. 521. ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004, pp. 62–69. ^ El-Awady 2006, pp. 191–218. ^ Borchardt 1913, Plate 17. ^ a b Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 66. ^ Lehner 2008, p. 145. ^ a b c Verner 1985a, p. 282. ^ a b c d Altenmüller 2001, p. 599. ^ a b Rice 1999, p. 97. ^ Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 135. ^ Posener-Kriéger 1976, vol. II, p. 530. ^ Verner 1980b, p. 261. ^ Verner 1985a, pp. 281–284. ^ Baud 1999a, p. 335. ^ Verner 1980a, p. 161, fig. 5. ^ a b Baud 1999a, p. 234. ^ Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 126. ^ Roth 2001, p. 317. ^ Nolan 2012, pp. 4–5. ^ Grimal 1992, pp. 77–78. ^ Schmitz 1976, p. 29. ^ Verner, Posener-Kriéger & Jánosi 1995, p. 171. ^ Strudwick 2005, p. 27. ^ Baud 1999b, p. 418, see n. 24. ^ Verner, Posener-Kriéger & Jánosi 1995, p. 70. ^ a b Krejčí, Kytnarová & Odler 2015, p. 35. ^ Krejčí, Kytnarová & Odler 2015, p. 34. ^ a b Verner 2001a, p. 393. ^ a b Katary 2001, p. 352. ^ Daressy 1912, p. 176. ^ Verner & Zemina 1994, pp. 76–77. ^ Verner 2001a, pp. 394–395. ^ a b c Allen et al. 1999, p. 345. ^ a b c Grimal 1992, p. 77. ^ Strudwick 2005, pp. 72–74. ^ Wilkinson 2000, p. 179. ^ a b Altenmüller 2001, p. 597. ^ a b Bárta 2017, p. 2. ^ Allen et al. 1999, p. 3. ^ Grimal 1992, p. 46. ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004, pp. 64–66. ^ Verner 2000, p. 590. ^ Schäfer 1902, p. 38. ^ Strudwick 2005, p. 79, footnote 20. ^ a b c d Strudwick 2005, p. 73. ^ Brovarski 2001, p. 92. ^ Sethe 1903, p. 247. ^ Strudwick 2005, p. 74. ^ Strudwick 2005, pp. 98–101. ^ Sethe 1903, pp. 170–172. ^ Schneider 2002, p. 173. ^ Allen et al. 1999, p. 34. ^ a b Brovarski 2001, p. 11. ^ Brovarski 2001, p. 12. ^ a b Teeter 1999, p. 495. ^ Gardiner 1961, pp. 50–51. ^ Grimal 1992, p. 89. ^ Clayton 1994, p. 62. ^ a b c Smith 1949, p. 58. ^ Hayes 1978, p. 115. ^ Verner & Zemina 1994, pp. 146–147, 148–149. ^ Porter, Moss & Burney 1981, p. 424. ^ Porter, Moss & Burney 1981, p. 421. ^ Porter, Moss & Burney 1981, p. 394. ^ Porter, Moss & Burney 1981, p. 422. ^ Smith 1949, plates 126d & e; fig. 130b. ^ Brovarski 2001, p. 158. ^ a b Baker 2008, p. 260. ^ Hornung 1997, p. 288. ^ Baer 1960, pp. 98, 292. ^ Manley 1996, p. 28. ^ Sethe 1903, p. 232. ^ Verner 2001c, p. 269. ^ Breasted 1906, p. 118. ^ Breasted 1906, pp. 243–249. ^ Brovarski 2001, p. 15. ^ Roccati 1982, pp. 108–111. ^ Grimal 1992, p. 115. ^ Allen et al. 1999, p. 24. ^ Verner 2012, p. 407. ^ Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 76. ^ Lehner 1999, p. 784. ^ a b Verner 2001d, p. 91. ^ a b c d e Lehner 2008, p. 144. ^ Verner 2001a, p. 394. ^ Grimal 1992, p. 116. ^ Leclant 1999, p. 865. ^ Verner & Zemina 1994, pp. 77–78. ^ Strudwick 2005, p. 39. ^ a b Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 169. ^ Verner & Zemina 1994, pp. 79, 170. ^ Verner & Zemina 1994, pp. 79, 169. ^ Allen et al. 1999, p. 97. ^ Posener-Kriéger 1976, pp. 502, 544–545. ^ Allen et al. 1999, p. 125. ^ a b Altenmüller 2002, p. 270. ^ Porten, Botta & Azzoni 2013, p. 55. ^ Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 93. ^ Porten, Botta & Azzoni 2013, pp. 67–69. ^ Janák, Vymazalová & Coppens 2010, p. 431. ^ Verner 2005, pp. 43–44. ^ Stadelmann 2000, pp. 541–542. ^ Czech Institute of Egyptology website 2018. ^ a b Janák, Vymazalová & Coppens 2010, p. 438. ^ Posener-Kriéger 1976, pp. 116–118. ^ a b Janák, Vymazalová & Coppens 2010, p. 436. ^ Posener-Kriéger 1976, pp. 259, 521. ^ Allen et al. 1999, p. 350. ^ a b Lehner 2008, p. 150. ^ Kaiser 1956, p. 108. ^ Verner 2001a, p. 388. ^ Goelet 1999, p. 86. ^ Ricke, Edel & Borchardt 1965, pp. 15–18. ^ Verner 2001a, pp. 387–389. ^ Posener-Kriéger 1976, p. 519. ^ Verner 2001a, pp. 388–389. ^ Verner 2001a, p. 390. ^ Hayes 1978, p. 72. ^ Brooklyn Museum 2017. ^ Brovarski 2001, p. 70. ^ Brovarski 2001, pp. 70, 152. ^ Brovarski 2001, p. 152. ^ Murray 1905, plate IX. ^ Málek 2000b, p. 249. ^ Morales 2006, p. 313. ^ Bareš 1985, pp. 87–94. ^ Bareš 1985, p. 93. ^ Málek 2000b, pp. 246–248. 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ISBN 978-0-203-98283-9.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Verner, Miroslav (1980a). "Excavations at Abusir". Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde. 107. pp. 158–169. doi:10.1524/zaes.1980.107.1.158.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Verner, Miroslav (1980b). "Die Königsmutter Chentkaus von Abusir und einige Bemerkungen zur Geschichte der 5. Dynastie". Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur (in German). 8: 243–268. JSTOR 25150079.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Verner, Miroslav (1985a). "Un roi de la Ve dynastie. Rêneferef ou Rênefer ?". Bulletin de l'Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale (in French). 85: 281–284.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Verner, Miroslav; Zemina, Milan (1994). Forgotten pharaohs, lost pyramids: Abusir (PDF). Prague: Academia Škodaexport. ISBN 978-80-200-0022-4. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) Verner, Miroslav; Posener-Kriéger, Paule; Jánosi, Peter (1995). Abusir III : the pyramid complex of Khentkaus. Excavations of the Czech Institute of Egyptology. Prague: Universitas Carolina Pragensis: Academia. ISBN 978-80-200-0535-9.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Verner, Miroslav (2000). "Who was Shepseskara, and when did he reign?". In Bárta, Miroslav; Krejčí, Jaromír (eds.). Abusir and Saqqara in the Year 2000. Prague: Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Oriental Institute. pp. 581–602. ISBN 978-80-85425-39-0.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Verner, Miroslav (2001a). "Archaeological Remarks on the 4th and 5th Dynasty Chronology" (PDF). Archiv Orientální. 69 (3): 363–418.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Verner, Miroslav (2001b). "Old Kingdom: An Overview". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 585–591. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Verner, Miroslav (2001c). The Pyramids; The Mystery, Culture and Science of Egypt's Great Monuments. New York: Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-80-213935-1.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Verner, Miroslav (2001d). "Pyramid". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 3. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 87–95. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Verner, Miroslav (2005). "Die Sonnenheiligtümer der 5. Dynastie". Sokar (in German). 10: 43–44.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Verner, Miroslav (2007). "New Archaeological Discoveries in the Abusir Pyramid Field: Sahure's causeway". Archaeogate. Archived from the original on 16 July 2011.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Verner, Miroslav (2012). "Pyramid towns of Abusir". Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur. 41: 407–410. JSTOR 41812236.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) von Beckerath, Jürgen (1999). Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen. Münchner ägyptologische Studien (in German). 49. Mainz: Philip von Zabern. ISBN 978-3-8053-2591-2.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Waddell, William Gillan (1971). Manetho. Loeb classical library, 350. Cambridge, Massachusetts; London: Harvard University Press; W. Heinemann. OCLC 6246102.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Wilkinson, Toby (2000). Royal annals of ancient Egypt : the Palermo Stone and its associated fragments. Studies in Egyptology. London: Kegan Paul International. ISBN 978-0-71-030667-8.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) External links[edit] Media related to Neferirkare Kakai at Wikimedia Commons Preceded by Sahure Pharaoh of Egypt Fifth Dynasty Succeeded by Neferefre or Shepseskare v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 115874286X VIAF: 1027159474207327661661 WorldCat Identities: viaf-304913150 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neferirkare_Kakai&oldid=994903948" Categories: Neferirkare Kakai 25th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from December 2020 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Featured articles CS1 maint: ref=harv CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 French-language 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en-wikipedia-org-5644	----	Battle of Plataea - Wikipedia Battle of Plataea From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Final land battle during the second Persian invasion of Greece For the battle of the Lamian War, see Battle of Plataea (323 BC). Battle of Plataea Part of the Second Persian invasion of Greece Persians and Spartans fighting at Plataea. 19th century illustration. Date August 479 BC Location Plataea, Greece 38°13′N 23°17′E / 38.21°N 23.29°E / 38.21; 23.29Coordinates: 38°13′N 23°17′E / 38.21°N 23.29°E / 38.21; 23.29 Result Greek victory Territorial changes Persia loses control of Attica and Boeotia Belligerents Greek city-states  Achaemenid Empire Commanders and leaders Pausanias Mardonius † Artabazos Strength 110,000 (Herodotus) 100,000 (Diodorus) 100,000 (Trogus)[citation needed] ~80,000 (modern consensus) 300,000 (Herodotus) plus 50,000 (estimation by Herodotus) Greek allies 500,000 (Diodorus) 70,000–120,000 (modern consensus, including Greek allies and non-combatants such as camp followers) Casualties and losses 10,000+ (Ephorus and Diodorus) 1,360 (Plutarch) 159 (Herodotus) 257,000 (Herodotus) 100,000 (Diodorus) 50,000–90,000 (modern consensus) Location of the battle of Plataea v t e Second Persian invasion of Greece Thermopylae Artemisium Athens Salamis Potidea Olynthus Plataea Mycale The Battle of Plataea was the final land battle during the second Persian invasion of Greece. It took place in 479 BC near the city of Plataea in Boeotia, and was fought between an alliance of the Greek city-states (including Sparta, Athens, Corinth and Megara), and the Persian Empire of Xerxes I (allied with Boeotians, Thessalians, and Macedonians). The previous year the Persian invasion force, led by the Persian king in person, had scored victories at the battles of Thermopylae and Artemisium and conquered Thessaly, Phocis, Boeotia, Euboea and Attica. However, at the ensuing Battle of Salamis, the Allied Greek navy had won an unlikely but decisive victory, preventing the conquest of the Peloponnesus. Xerxes then retreated with much of his army, leaving his general Mardonius to finish off the Greeks the following year. In the summer of 479 BC the Greeks assembled a huge (by ancient standards) army and marched out of the Peloponnesus. The Persians retreated to Boeotia and built a fortified camp near Plataea. The Greeks, however, refused to be drawn into the prime cavalry terrain around the Persian camp, resulting in a stalemate that lasted 11 days. While attempting a retreat after their supply lines were disrupted, the Greek battle line fragmented. Thinking the Greeks in full retreat, Mardonius ordered his forces to pursue them, but the Greeks (particularly the Spartans, Tegeans and Athenians) halted and gave battle, routing the lightly armed Persian infantry and killing Mardonius. A large portion of the Persian army was trapped in its camp and slaughtered. The destruction of this army, and the remnants of the Persian navy allegedly on the same day at the Battle of Mycale, decisively ended the invasion. After Plataea and Mycale the Greek allies would take the offensive against the Persians, marking a new phase of the Greco-Persian Wars. Although Plataea was in every sense a resounding victory, it does not seem to have been attributed the same significance (even at the time) as, for example, the Athenian victory at the Battle of Marathon or the Spartan defeat at Thermopylae. Contents 1 Background 2 Prelude 3 Opposing forces 3.1 Greeks 3.2 Achaemenids 4 Strategic and tactical considerations 5 Battle 6 Accounts of individuals 7 Aftermath 8 Significance 9 Legacy 9.1 Monuments to the battle 10 Sources 11 See also 12 References 13 Bibliography 13.1 Ancient sources 13.2 Modern sources 14 External links Background[edit] Main articles: First Persian invasion of Greece and Second Persian invasion of Greece The Greek city-states of Athens and Eretria had supported the unsuccessful Ionian Revolt against the Persian Empire of Darius I in 499–494 BC. The Persian Empire was still relatively young and prone to revolts by its subject peoples.[1][2] Moreover, Darius was a usurper and had to spend considerable time putting down revolts against his rule.[1] The Ionian Revolt threatened the integrity of his empire, and he thus vowed to punish those involved (especially those not already part of the empire).[3][4] Darius also saw the opportunity to expand his empire into the fractious world of Ancient Greece.[4] A preliminary expedition under Mardonius, in 492 BC, to secure the land approaches to Greece ended with the re-conquest of Thrace and forced Macedon to become a fully subordinate client kingdom of Persia,[5][6] the latter which had been a Persian vassal as early as the late 6th century BC.[7] An amphibious task force was then sent out under Datis and Artaphernes in 490 BC, using Delos as an intermediate base at, successfully sacking Karystos and Eretria,[8] before moving to attack Athens. However, at the ensuing Battle of Marathon, the Athenians won a remarkable victory, resulting in the withdrawal of the Persian army to Asia.[9] A map showing the Greek world at the time of the battle Darius therefore began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece. However, he died before the invasion could begin.[10] The throne of Persia passed to his son Xerxes I, who quickly restarted the preparations for the invasion of Greece, including building two pontoon bridges across the Hellespont.[11] In 481 BC, Xerxes sent ambassadors around Greece asking for earth and water as a gesture of their submission, but making the very deliberate omission of Athens and Sparta (both of whom were at open war with Persia).[12] Support thus began to coalesce around these two leading states. A congress of city states met at Corinth in the late autumn of 481 BC, and a confederate alliance of Greek city-states was formed (hereafter referred to as "the Allies").[13] This was remarkable for the disjointed Greek world, especially since many of the city-states in attendance were still technically at war with each other.[14] The Allies initially adopted a strategy of blocking land and sea approaches to southern Greece.[15] Thus, in August 480 BC, after hearing of Xerxes' approach, a small Allied army led by Spartan King Leonidas I blocked the Pass of Thermopylae, while an Athenian-dominated navy sailed to the Straits of Artemisium. Famously, the massively outnumbered Greek army held Thermopylae for three days before being outflanked by the Persians, who used a little-known mountain path.[16] Although much of the Greek army retreated, the rearguard, formed of the Spartan and Thespian contingents, was surrounded and annihilated.[17] The simultaneous Battle of Artemisium, consisting of a series of naval encounters, was up to that point a stalemate;[18] however, when news of Thermopylae reached them, the Greeks also retreated, since holding the straits was now a moot point.[19] The Achaemenid Empire and its allied Greek states (Macedonia, Thessaly, Malis, Locris, Phocis and Boeotia) at the time of the Battle of Plataea. Movements of the Persian and Greek armies in 480–479 BC Following Thermopylae, the Persian army proceeded to burn and sack the Boeotian cities that had not surrendered, Plataea and Thespiae, before taking possession of the now-evacuated city of Athens. The Allied army, meanwhile, prepared to defend the Isthmus of Corinth.[20] Xerxes wished for a final crushing defeat of the Allies to finish the conquest of Greece in that campaigning season; conversely, the Allies sought a decisive victory over the Persian navy that would guarantee the security of the Peloponnese.[21] The ensuing naval Battle of Salamis ended in a decisive victory for the Allies, marking a turning point in the conflict.[22] Following the defeat of his navy at Salamis, Xerxes retreated to Asia with the bulk of his army.[23] According to Herodotus, this was because he feared the Greeks would sail to the Hellespont and destroy the pontoon bridges, thereby trapping his army in Europe.[24] He left Mardonius, with hand-picked troops, to complete the conquest of Greece the following year.[25] Mardonius evacuated Attica and wintered in Thessaly;[26] the Athenians then reoccupied their destroyed city.[22] Over the winter, there seems to have been some tension among the Allies. The Athenians in particular, who were not protected by the Isthmus but whose fleet was the key to the security of the Peloponnese, felt hard done by and demanded that an Allied army march north the following year.[22] When the Allies failed to commit to this, the Athenian fleet refused to join the Allied navy in the spring. The navy, now under the command of the Spartan king Leotychides, stationed itself off Delos, while the remnants of the Persian fleet remained off Samos, both sides unwilling to risk battle.[27] Similarly, Mardonius remained in Thessaly, knowing an attack on the Isthmus was pointless, while the Allies refused to send an army outside the Peloponnese.[22] Answer of Aristides to the ambassadors of Mardonius: "As long as the sun holds to its present course, we shall never come to terms with Xerxes".[28] Mardonius moved to break the stalemate by trying to win over the Athenians and their fleet through the mediation of Alexander I of Macedon, offering peace, self-government and territorial expansion.[27] The Athenians made sure that a Spartan delegation was also on hand to hear the offer, and rejected it: The degree to which we are put in the shadow by the Medes' strength is hardly something you need to bring to our attention. We are already well aware of it. But even so, such is our love of liberty, that we will never surrender.[27] Upon this refusal, the Persians marched south again. Athens was again evacuated and left to the enemy, leading to the second phase of the Destruction of Athens. Mardonius now repeated his offer of peace to the Athenian refugees on Salamis. Athens, along with Megara and Plataea, sent emissaries to Sparta demanding assistance and threatening to accept the Persian terms if it was not given.[29] According to Herodotus, the Spartans, who were at that time celebrating the festival of Hyacinthus, delayed making a decision until they were persuaded by a guest, Chileos of Tegea, who pointed out the danger to all of Greece if the Athenians surrendered.[29] When the Athenian emissaries delivered an ultimatum to the Spartans the next day, they were amazed to hear that a task force was in fact already en route; the Spartan army was marching to meet the Persians.[30] Prelude[edit] View of the battlefield from above. The battle took place on the hilly plain between the Asopos river (top) and Plataea (center right). The battlefield of Plataea seen from the south, i.e. from the hills of the Cithaeron Range. Modern city of Plataies, near the ruins of old Plataea slightly beyond. When Mardonius learned of the Spartan force, he completed the destruction of Athens, tearing down whatever was left standing.[31] He then retreated towards Thebes, hoping to lure the Greek army into territory that would be suitable for the Persian cavalry.[31] Mardonius created a fortified encampment on the north bank of the Asopus river in Boeotia covering the ground from Erythrae past Hysiae and up to the lands of Plataea.[32] The Athenians sent 8,000 hoplites, led by Aristides, along with 600 Plataean exiles to join the Allied army.[33] The army then marched in Boeotia across the passes of Mount Cithaeron, arriving near Plataea, and above the Persian position on the Asopus.[34] Under the guidance of the commanding general, Pausanias, the Greeks took up position opposite the Persian lines but remained on high ground.[34] Knowing that he had little hope of successfully attacking the Greek positions, Mardonius sought to either sow dissension among the Allies or lure them down into the plain.[34] Plutarch reports that a conspiracy was discovered among some prominent Athenians, who were planning to betray the Allied cause; although this account is not universally accepted, it may indicate Mardonius' attempts of intrigue within the Greek ranks.[34] The initial movements at the Battle of Plataea. The Greek line moves forward to the Asopus ridge. Mardonius also initiated hit-and-run cavalry attacks against the Greek lines, possibly trying to lure the Greeks down to the plain in pursuit.[34] Although having some initial success, this strategy backfired when the Persian cavalry commander Masistius was killed; with his death, the cavalry retreated.[35] Death of Masistius in early skirmishes. Their morale boosted by this small victory, the Greeks moved forward, still remaining on higher ground, to a new position more suited for encampment and better watered.[36] The Spartans and Tegeans were on a ridge to the right of the line, the Athenians on a hillock on the left and the other contingents on the slightly lower ground between.[34] In response, Mardonius brought his men up to the Asopus and arrayed them for battle; However, neither the Persians nor the Greeks would attack; Herodotus claims this is because both sides received bad omens during sacrificial rituals.[37] The armies thus stayed camped in their locations for eight days, during which new Greek troops arrived.[38] Mardonius then sought to break the stalemate by sending his cavalry to attack the passes of Mount Cithaeron; this raid resulted in the capture of a convoy of provisions intended for the Greeks.[38] Two more days passed, during which time the supply lines of the Greeks continued to be menaced.[34] Mardonius then launched another cavalry raid on the Greek lines, which succeeded in blocking the Gargaphian Spring, which had been the only source of water for the Greek army (they could not use the Asopus due to the threat posed by Persian archers).[39] Coupled with the lack of food, the restriction of the water supply made the Greek position untenable, so they decided to retreat to a position in front of Plataea, from where they could guard the passes and have access to fresh water.[40] To prevent the Persian cavalry from attacking during the retreat, it was to be performed that night.[40] However, the retreat went awry. The Allied contingents in the centre missed their appointed position and ended up scattered in front of Plataea itself.[34] The Athenians, Tegeans and Spartans, who had been guarding the rear of the retreat, had not even begun to retreat by daybreak.[34] A single Spartan division was thus left on the ridge to guard the rear, while the Spartans and Tegeans retreated uphill; Pausanias also instructed the Athenians to begin the retreat and if possible join up with the Spartans.[34][41] However, the Athenians at first retreated directly towards Plataea,[41] and thus the Allied battle line remained fragmented as the Persian camp began to stir.[34] Opposing forces[edit] Greeks[edit] According to Herodotus, the Spartans sent 45,000 men – 5,000 Spartiates (full citizen soldiers), 5,000 other Lacodaemonian hoplites (perioeci) and 35,000 helots (seven per Spartiate).[33] This was probably the largest Spartan force ever assembled.[34] The Greek army had been reinforced by contingents of hoplites from the other Allied city-states, as shown in the table. Diodorus Siculus claims in his Bibliotheca historica that the number of the Greek troops approached one hundred thousand.[42] City Number of hoplites City Number of hoplites City Number of hoplites Sparta[33] 10,000 Athens[33] 8,000 Corinth[33] 5,000 Megara[33] 3,000 Sicyon[33] 3,000 Tegea[33] 1,500 Phlius[33] 1,000 Troezen[33] 1,000 Anactorion & Leukas[33] 800 Epidaurus[33] 800 Arcadian Orchomenans Arcadians[33] 600 Eretria & Styra[33] 600 Plataea[33] 600 Aegina[33] 500 Ambracia[33] 500 Chalcis[33] 400 Mycenae & Tiryns[33] 400 Hermione[33] 300 Potidaea[33] 300 Cephalonia[33] 200 Lepreum[33] 200 Total 38,700[43] The Spartan general Pausanias commanded the Allied Greek troops. According to Herodotus, there were a total of 69,500 lightly armed troops – 35,000 helots[43] and 34,500 troops from the rest of Greece; roughly one per hoplite.[43] The number of 34,500 has been suggested to represent one light skirmisher supporting each non-Spartan hoplite (33,700), together with 800 Athenian archers, whose presence in the battle Herodotus later notes.[44] Herodotus tells us that there were also 1,800 Thespians (but does not say how they were equipped), giving a total strength of 108,200 men.[45] The number of hoplites is accepted as reasonable (and possible); the Athenians alone had fielded 10,000 hoplites at the Battle of Marathon.[34] Some historians have accepted the number of light troops and used them as a population census of Greece at the time. Certainly these numbers are theoretically possible. Athens, for instance, allegedly fielded a fleet of 180 triremes at Salamis,[46] manned by approximately 36,000 rowers and fighters.[47] Thus 69,500 light troops could easily have been sent to Plataea. Nevertheless, the number of light troops is often rejected as exaggerated, especially in view of the ratio of seven helots to one Spartiate.[34] For instance, Lazenby accepts that hoplites from other Greek cities might have been accompanied by one lightly armoured retainer each, but rejects the number of seven helots per Spartiate.[48] He further speculates that each Spartiate was accompanied by one armed helot, and that the remaining helots were employed in the logistical effort, transporting food for the army.[48] Both Lazenby and Holland deem the lightly armed troops, whatever their number, as essentially irrelevant to the outcome of battle.[48][49] A further complication is that a certain proportion of the Allied manpower was needed to man the fleet, which amounted to at least 110 triremes, and thus approximately 22,000 men.[50] Since the Battle of Mycale was fought at least near-simultaneously with the Battle of Plataea, then this was a pool of manpower which could not have contributed to Plataea, and further reduces the likelihood that 110,000 Greeks assembled before Plataea.[51] The Greek forces were, as agreed by the Allied congress, under the overall command of Spartan royalty in the person of Pausanias, who was the regent for Leonidas' young son, Pleistarchus, his cousin. Diodorus tells us that the Athenian contingent was under the command of Aristides;[52] it is probable that the other contingents also had their leaders. Herodotus tells us in several places that the Greeks held council during the prelude to the battle, implying that decisions were consensual and that Pausanias did not have the authority to issue direct orders to the other contingents.[36][40] This style of leadership contributed to the way events unfolded during the battle itself. For instance, in the period immediately before the battle, Pausanias was unable to order the Athenians to join up with his forces, and thus the Greeks fought the battle completely separated from each other.[53] Achaemenids[edit] Global number of Achaemenid troops Main Achaemenid troops under Mardonius Persians Medians Sakas Bactrians Indians Main troops of Achaemenid General Mardonius, according to Herodotus: Persians, Medians, Sakas, Bactrians and Indians,[54][55][56] illustrated in the list of troops by ethnicity, on the tomb of Xerxes I at Naqsh-e Rostam. Smaller contingents included Greek allies: Boeotians, Locrians, Malians, Thessalians, Phocians (1000 men), and Macedonians. There were also troops from the Black Sea and Asia Minor: Phrygians, Thracians, Mysians, Paeonians, as well as African troops: "Ethiopians" and Egyptians.[57] According to Herodotus, the Persians numbered 300,000 and were accompanied by troops from Greek city states that supported the Persian cause (including Macedonia, Thessaly and Thebes).[58] Herodotus admits that no one counted the Greek allies of the Achaemenids, but he guesses that there were about 50,000 of them.[58] Mardonius' troops consisted of not only Persians and Medes, but also Bactrians, Scythians, Indians, Boeotians, Locrians, Malians, Thessalians, Macedonians, Thracians, and 1,000 Phocians. Herodotus described the composition of the principal troops of Mardonius:[56][55] Mardonius there chose out first all the Persians called Immortals, save only Hydarnes their general, who said that he would not quit the king's person; and next, the Persian cuirassiers, and the thousand horse, and the Medes and Sacae and Bactrians and Indians, alike their footmen and the rest of the horsemen. He chose these nations entire; of the rest of his allies he picked out a few from each people, the goodliest men and those that he knew to have done some good service... Thereby the whole number, with the horsemen, grew to three hundred thousand men. — Herodotus VIII, 113.[59][56] Diodorus Siculus claims in his Bibliotheca historica that the number of the Persian troops was some five hundred thousand.[42] Nations under the Achaemenids at Plataea Number Persians[60][57] 40,000 Bactrians, Indians, Sakae[60][57] 20,000 Greek allies: Boeotians (Thebans), Locrians, Malians, Thessalians, Phocians (1000 men), Macedonians[61][57] 20,000 Phrygians, Thracians, Mysians, Paeonians, Ethiopians, Egyptians.[57] Smaller contingents Cavalry: Persians, Bactrians, Indians, Sakae[60] 5,000 Total[62] 100,000 The figure of 300,000 has been doubted, along with many of Herodotus' numbers, by many historians; modern consensus estimates the total number of troops for the Persian invasion at around 250,000.[63] According to this consensus, Herodotus' 300,000 Persians at Plataea would self-evidently be impossible. One approach to estimating the size of the Persian army has been to estimate how many men might feasibly have been accommodated within the Persian camp; this approach gives figures of between 70,000 and 120,000 men.[49] Lazenby, for instance, by comparison with later Roman military camps, calculates the number of troops at 70,000, including 10,000 cavalry.[48] Meanwhile, Connolly derives a number of 120,000 from the same-sized camp.[64] Indeed, most estimates for the total Persian force are generally in this range.[65][66][67] For instance, Delbrück, based on the distance the Persians marched in a day when Athens was attacked, concluded that 75,000 was the upper limit for the size of the Persian army, including the supply personnel and other non-combatants.[67] In his battle account of Plataea, Delbrück estimated the Persian army, including allied Greeks, as amounting to 40,000.[68] Composition and order of battle According to modern estimates based on the order of battle described by Herodotus, the detailed composition of the Achaemenid army consisted in about 40,000 Persian troops on the left of the battle line, facing the Spartans, about 20,000 Bactrians, Indians and Sakae in the centre, facing various Greek states,[60] and about 20,000 Greek allies of the Persians (Macedonians, Thessalians, Beotians, Thebeans), positioned on the right wing facing the Athenians.[61] The cavalry, which also consisted of Persians, Bactrians, Indians and Sakae, would total about 5,000.[69][61] Herodotus described in detail the dispositions of the two armies: Disposition of Achaemenid troops beyond the Asopos river at the beginning of the Battle of Plataea. From left to right: Greek allies, Sacae, Indians, Bactrians, Medes and Persians. He posted the Persians facing the Lacedaemonians... Next to the Persians he posted the Medes, fronting the men of Corinth and Potidaea and Orchomenus and Sicyon; next to the Medes, the Bactrians, fronting men of Epidaurus, Troezen, Lepreum, Tiryns, Mycenae, and Phlius. After the Bactrians he set the Indians, fronting the men of Hermione and Eretria and Styra and Chalcis. Next to the Indians he posted the Sacae, fronting the Ampraciots, Anactorians, Leucadians, Paleans, and Aeginetans; next to the Sacae, and over against the Athenians and Plataeans and Megarians, the Boeotian and Locrians and Malians and Thessalians and the thousand that came from Phocis... Besides these, he arrayed against the Athenians Macedonians also and the dwellers about Thessaly. These that I have named were the greatest of the nations set in array by Mardonius that were of most note and account; but there was also in the army a mixed multitude of Phrygians, Thracians, Mysians, Paeonians, and the rest, besides Ethiopians and the Egyptian swordsmen. — Herodotus IX-31/32.[70] Ctesias, who wrote a history of Persia based on Persian archives, claimed there were 120,000 Persian and 7,000 Greek soldiers, but his account is generally garbled (for instance, placing this battle before Salamis, he also says there were only 300 Spartans, 1000 perioeci and 6000 from the other cities at Plataea, perhaps confusing it with Thermopylae).[71] Strategic and tactical considerations[edit] Aristides, commander of the Athenians, informed by Alexander I of Macedon (a nominal ally of the Achaemenids) that delaying the encounter with the Persians would help further diminish their already low supplies. Battle of Plataea, 479 BC. In some ways the run-up to Plataea resembled that at the Battle of Marathon; there was a prolonged stalemate in which neither side risked attacking the other.[34] The reasons for this stalemate were primarily tactical, and similar to the situation at Marathon; the Greek hoplites did not want to risk being outflanked by the Persian cavalry and the lightly armed Persian infantry could not hope to assault well-defended positions.[34][72] The battlefield of Plataea from the Achaemenid (northern) side. According to Herodotus, both sides wished for a decisive battle that would tip the war in their favor.[34][73] However, Lazenby believed that Mardonius' actions during the Plataea campaign were not consistent with an aggressive policy.[72] He interprets the Persian operations during the prelude not as attempts to force the Allies into battle but as attempts to force the Allies into retreat (which indeed became the case).[74] Mardonius may have felt he had little to gain in battle and that he could simply wait for the Greek alliance to fall apart (as it had nearly done over the winter).[72] There can be little doubt from Herodotus' account that Mardonius was prepared to accept battle on his own terms, however. Regardless of the exact motives, the initial strategic situation allowed both sides to procrastinate, since food supplies were ample for both armies.[34][73] Under these conditions, the tactical considerations outweighed the strategic need for action. When Mardonius' raids disrupted the Allied supply chain, it forced the Allies to rethink their strategy. Rather than now moving to attack, however, they instead looked to retreat and secure their lines of communication.[40] Despite this defensive move by the Greeks, it was in fact the chaos resulting from this retreat that finally ended the stalemate. Mardonius perceived this as a full-on retreat, in effect thinking that the battle was already over, and sought to pursue the Greeks.[75] Since he did not expect the Greeks to fight, the tactical problems were no longer an issue and he tried to take advantage of the altered strategic situation he thought he had produced.[34] Conversely, the Greeks had, inadvertently, lured Mardonius into attacking them on the higher ground and, despite being outnumbered, were thus at a tactical advantage.[34][76] Battle[edit] Pausanias offering sacrifice to the Gods before the battle Scene of the Battle of Plataea. 19th century illustration. Once the Persians discovered that the Greeks had abandoned their positions and appeared to be in retreat, Mardonius decided to set off in immediate pursuit with the elite Persian infantry.[77] As he did so, the rest of the Persian army, unbidden, began to move forward.[77] The Spartans and Tegeans had by now reached the Temple of Demeter.[78] The rearguard under Amompharetus began to withdraw from the ridge, under pressure from Persian cavalry, to join them.[78] Pausanias sent a messenger to the Athenians, asking them to join up with the Spartans.[53] However, the Athenians had been engaged by the Theban phalanx and were unable to assist Pausanias.[78] The Spartans and Tegeans were first assaulted by the Persian cavalry,[53] while the Persian infantry made their way forward. They then planted their shields and began shooting arrows at the Greeks, while the cavalry withdrew.[53][78] According to Herodotus, Pausanias refused to advance because good omens were not divined in the goat sacrifices that were performed.[79] At this point, as Greek soldiers began to fall under the barrage of arrows, the Tegeans started to run at the Persian lines.[79] Offering one last sacrifice and a prayer to the heavens in front of the Temple of Hera, Pausanias finally received favourable omens and gave the command for the Spartans to advance, whereupon they also charged the Persian lines.[80] The main phase of the battle at Plataea. The Greek retreat becomes disorganised, and the Persians cross the Asopus to attack. The numerically superior Persian infantry were of the heavy (by Persian standards) sparabara formation, but this was still much lighter than the Greek phalanx.[80] The Persian defensive weapon was a large wicker shield and they used short spears; by contrast, the hoplites were armoured in bronze, with a bronze shield and a long spear.[78] As shown at Marathon, it was a severe mismatch.[80][81] The fight was fierce and long, but the Greeks (Spartans and Tegeans) continued to push into the Persian lines.[78] The Persians tried to break the Greeks' spears by grabbing hold of them, but the Greeks responded by switching to swords.[80] Mardonius was present at the scene, riding a white horse, and surrounded by a bodyguard of 1,000 men; while he remained, the Persians stood their ground.[80] However, the Spartans closed in on Mardonius and a Spartan soldier named Arimnestus killed him.[82] According to Plutarch, Arimnestus killed him by a blow to the head with a stone, a form of death which had been foretold to Mardonius by an oracle;[83] some modern historians have called it unlikely that a Spartan would use such a weapon.[84] With Mardonius dead, the Persians began to flee; although his bodyguard remained, they were annihilated.[78] Herodotus claims that the reason for their discomfort was a lack of armour. Quickly the rout became general, with many Persians fleeing in disorder to their camp.[81] However, Artabazus (who had earlier commanded the Sieges of Olynthus and Potidea), had disagreed with Mardonius about attacking the Greeks,[75] and he had not fully engaged the forces under his command.[85] As the rout commenced, he led these men (40,000, according to Herodotus) away from the battlefield, on the road to Thessaly, hoping to escape eventually to the Hellespont.[85] Scene of the Battle of Plataea on the south frieze of the Temple of Athena Nike, Athens. The scene on the right may show the fight over the body of Masistius.[86] British Museum. On the opposite side of the battlefield the Athenians had triumphed in a tough battle against the Thebans.[87] The other Greeks fighting for the Persians had deliberately fought badly, according to Herodotus.[87] The Thebans retreated from the battle, but in a different direction from the Persians, allowing them to escape without further losses.[88] The Greeks, reinforced by the contingents who had not taken part in the main battle, then stormed the Persian camp.[78][89] Although the Persians initially defended the wall vigorously, it was eventually breached; the Persians, packed tightly together in the camp, were slaughtered by the Greeks.[90] Of the Persians who had retreated to the camp, scarcely 3,000 were left alive.[90] According to Herodotus, only 43,000 Persians survived the battle.[90] The number who died, of course, depends on how many there were in the first place; there would be 257,000 dead by Herodotus' reckoning. Herodotus claims that the Greeks as a whole lost only 159 men.[90] Furthermore, he claims that only Spartans, Tegeans and Athenians died, since they were the only ones who fought.[90] Plutarch, who had access to other sources, gives 1,360 Greek casualties,[91] while both Ephorus and Diodorus Siculus tally the Greek casualties to over 10,000.[92] Accounts of individuals[edit] Macedonian soldier of the Achaemenid Army, wearing the kausia or petasos, around the time of the Battle of Plataea (the "Ionians with shield-hats" on the tomb of Xerxes I at Naqsh-e Rustam, circa 480 BC).[93][94] Herodotus recounts several anecdotes about the conduct of specific Spartans during the battle. Amompharetus: The leader of a battalion of Spartans, he refused to undertake the night-time retreat towards Plataea before the battle, since doing so would be shameful for a Spartan.[95] Herodotus has an angry debate continuing between Pausanias and Amompharetus until dawn, whereupon the rest of the Spartan army finally began to retreat, leaving Amompharetus' division behind.[96] Not expecting this, Amompharetus eventually led his men after the retreating Spartans.[97] However, another tradition remembers Amompharetus as winning great renown at Plataea, and it has thus been suggested that Amompharetus, far from being insubordinate, had instead volunteered to guard the rear.[78] Aristodemus: The lone Spartan survivor of the slaughter of the 300 at the Battle of Thermopylae had, with a fellow Spartiate, been dismissed from the army by Leonidas I because of an eye infection. However, his colleague had insisted on being led into battle, partially blind, by a helot.[98] Preferring to return to Sparta, Aristodemus was branded a coward and suffered a year of reproach before Plataea.[78] Anxious to redeem his name, he charged the Persian lines by himself, killing in a savage fury before being cut down.[99] Although the Spartans agreed that he had redeemed himself, they awarded him no special honour, because he failed to fight in the disciplined manner expected of a Spartan.[78] Callicrates: Considered the "most beautiful man, not among the Spartans only, but in the whole Greek camp", Callicrates was eager to distinguish himself that day as a warrior but was deprived of the chance by a stray arrow that pierced his side while standing in formation. When the battle commenced he insisted on making the charge with the rest, but collapsed within a short distance. His last words, according to Herodotus, were, "I grieve not because I have to die for my country, but because I have not lifted my arm against the enemy."[100] Herodotus also recounts that King Alexander I of Macedonia (an ancestor of Alexander the Great,) who was allied to the Persians and present in their camp, secretly rode to the Greek camp with a warning that the Persians had decided to attack,[101] and that before the main battle Mardonius issued a challenge to the Spartans to fight a special battle between equal numbers of Spartans and Persians, which was declined.[102] Some historians have called these stories improbable.[103][104] Aftermath[edit] Main articles: Battle of Mycale and Second Persian invasion of Greece Greek hoplite and Persian warrior depicted fighting on an ancient kylix. 5th century BC According to Herodotus, the Battle of Mycale occurred on the same afternoon as Plataea. A Greek fleet under the Spartan king Leotychides had sailed to Samos to challenge the remnants of the Persian fleet.[105] The Persians, whose ships were in a poor state of repair, had decided not to risk fighting and instead drew their ships up on the beach at the feet of Mount Mycale in Ionia. An army of 60,000 men had been left there by Xerxes and the fleet joined with them, building a palisade around the camp to protect the ships.[105] However, Leotychides decided to attack the camp with the Allied fleet's marines.[106] Seeing the small size of the Greek force, the Persians emerged from the camp but the Greek hoplites again proved superior and destroyed much of the Persian force.[106] The ships were abandoned to the Greeks, who burned them, crippling Xerxes' sea power and marking the ascendancy of the Greek fleet.[106] With the twin victories of Plataea and Mycale, the second Persian invasion of Greece was over. Moreover, the threat of future invasion was abated; although the Greeks remained worried that Xerxes would try again, over time it became apparent that the Persian desire to conquer Greece was much diminished.[107] The remnants of the Persian army, under the command of Artabazus, tried to retreat back to Asia Minor. Travelling through the lands of Thessaly, Macedonia and Thrace by the shortest road, Artabazus eventually made it back to Byzantium, though losing many men to Thracian attacks, weariness and hunger.[108] After the victory at Mycale, the Allied fleet sailed to the Hellespont to break down the pontoon bridges, but found that this had already been done.[109] The Peloponnesians sailed home, but the Athenians remained to attack the Chersonesos, still held by the Persians.[109] The Persians in the region, and their allies, made for Sestos, the strongest town in the region, and the Athenians laid siege to them there. After a protracted siege Sestos fell to the Athenians, marking the beginning of a new phase in the Greco-Persian Wars, the Greek counter-attack.[110] Herodotus ended his Histories after the Siege of Sestos. Over the next 30 years the Greeks, primarily the Athenian-dominated Delian League, would expel (or help expel) the Persians from Macedon, Thrace, the Aegean islands and Ionia.[110] Peace with Persia came in 449 BC with the Peace of Callias, finally ending a half-century of warfare.[110] Significance[edit] Coin of Alexander I of Macedon in the decade following the Battle of Plataea and the departure of Achaemenid forces (struck in 480/79-470 BC). Plataea and Mycale have great significance in ancient history as the battles that decisively ended the second Persian invasion of Greece, thereby swinging the balance of the Greco-Persian Wars in favour of the Greeks. They kept Persia from conquering all of Greece, although they paid a high price by losing many of their men.[110] The Battle of Marathon showed that the Persians could be defeated, and the Battle of Salamis saved Greece from immediate conquest, but it was Plataea and Mycale that effectively ended that threat.[110] However, neither of these battles is nearly as well known as Thermopylae, Salamis or Marathon.[111] The reason for this discrepancy is not entirely clear; it might, however, be a result of the circumstances in which the battle was fought. The fame of Thermopylae certainly lies in the doomed heroism of the Greeks in the face of overwhelming numbers;[112] and Marathon and Salamis perhaps because they were both fought against the odds, and in dire strategic situations.[23] Conversely, the Battles of Plataea and Mycale were both fought from a relative position of Greek strength, and against lesser odds; the Greeks, in fact, sought out battle on both occasions.[27][110] Militarily, the major lesson of both Plataea and Mycale (since both were fought on land) was to re-emphasise the superiority of the hoplite over the more lightly armed Persian infantry, as had first been demonstrated at Marathon.[107] Taking on this lesson, after the Greco-Persian Wars the Persian empire started recruiting and relying on Greek mercenaries.[113] One such mercenary expedition, the "Anabasis of the 10,000" as narrated by Xenophon, further proved to the Greeks that the Persians were militarily vulnerable even well within their own territory, and paved the way for the destruction of the Persian Empire by Alexander the Great some decades later. Legacy[edit] Reconstitution of the column. An inscription reads "This is the gift the saviors of far-flung Hellas upraised here, Having delivered their states from loathsome slavery's bonds". The Serpent Column dedicated by the victorious Greeks, today located in Istanbul, ancient Constantinople. Monuments to the battle[edit] Main article: Serpent Column A bronze column in the shape of intertwined snakes (the Serpent column) was created from melted-down Persian weapons, acquired in the plunder of the Persian camp, and was erected at Delphi.[114] It commemorated all the Greek city-states that had participated in the battle, listing them on the column, and thus confirming some of Herodotus' claims.[115] Most of it still survives in the Hippodrome of Constantinople (present-day Istanbul), where it was carried by Constantine the Great during the founding of his city on the Greek colony of Byzantium.[116] Sources[edit] The main source for the Greco-Persian Wars is the Greek historian Herodotus. Herodotus, who has been called the 'Father of History',[117] was born in 484 BC in Halicarnassus, Asia Minor (then under Persian overlordship). He wrote his 'Enquiries' (Greek – Historia; English – (The) Histories) around 440–430 BC, trying to trace the origins of the Greco-Persian Wars, which would still have been relatively recent history (the wars finally ending in 450 BC).[112] Herodotus's approach was entirely novel, and at least in Western society, he does seem to have invented 'history' as we know it.[112] As Holland has it: "For the first time, a chronicler set himself to trace the origins of a conflict not to a past so remote so as to be utterly fabulous, nor to the whims and wishes of some god, nor to a people's claim to manifest destiny, but rather explanations he could verify personally".[112] Some subsequent ancient historians, despite following in his footsteps, criticised Herodotus, starting with Thucydides.[118][119] Nevertheless, Thucydides chose to begin his history where Herodotus left off (at the Siege of Sestos), and therefore evidently felt that Herodotus's history was accurate enough not to need re-writing or correcting.[119] Plutarch criticised Herodotus in his essay "On The Malignity of Herodotus", describing Herodotus as "Philobarbaros" (barbarian-lover), for not being pro-Greek enough, which suggests that Herodotus might actually have done a reasonable job of being even-handed.[120] A negative view of Herodotus was passed on to Renaissance Europe, though he remained well read.[121] However, since the 19th century his reputation has been dramatically rehabilitated by archaeological finds which have repeatedly confirmed his version of events.[122] The prevailing modern view is that Herodotus generally did a remarkable job in his Historia, but that some of his specific details (particularly troop numbers and dates) should be viewed with scepticism.[122] Nevertheless, there are still some historians who believe Herodotus made up much of his story.[123] The Sicilian historian Diodorus Siculus, writing in the 1st century BC in his Bibliotheca Historica, also provides an account of the Battle of Plataea. This account is fairly consistent with Herodotus's, but given that it was written much later, it may well have been derived from Herodotus's version.[124] The Battle is also described in less detail by a number of other ancient historians including Plutarch, Ctesias of Cnidus, and is alluded by other authors, such as the playwright Aeschylus. Archaeological evidence, such as the Serpent Column, also supports some of Herodotus's specific claims.[115] See also[edit] Battle of Artemisium Battle of Marathon Battle of Mycale Battle of Salamis Battle of Thermopylae Greco-Persian Wars Mardonius Second Persian invasion of Greece Pausanias (general) References[edit] ^ a b Holland, pp. 47–55 ^ Holland, p. 203 ^ Herodotus V.105 ^ a b Holland, 171–78 ^ Herodotus VI, 43.1–44.1 ^ Roisman & Worthington 2011, pp. 342–45. ^ Roisman & Worthington 2011, p. 343. ^ Herodotus VI.99.1–101.3 ^ Herodotus VI.113 ^ Holland, pp. 206–08 ^ Holland, pp. 208–11 ^ Herodotus VII.32.1 ^ Herodotus VII.145.1 ^ Holland, p. 226 ^ Holland, pp. 255–57 ^ Herodotus VII.205–33 ^ Holland, pp. 292–94 ^ Herodotus VIII.19.1 ^ Herodotus VIII.21.1–2 ^ Herodotus VIII.71.1 ^ Holland, p. 303 ^ a b c d Holland, pp. 333–35 ^ a b Hanson, Victor Davis (2007-12-18). Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-307-42518-8. ^ Herodotus VIII.97.1 ^ Holland, pp. 327–29 ^ Holland, p. 330 ^ a b c d Holland, pp. 336–38 ^ The Histories. Penguin UK. 2013. p. 484. ISBN 9780141393773. ^ a b Herodotus IX.7–9 ^ Herodotus IX.11 ^ a b Herodotus IX.13 ^ Herodotus IX. 15.1–3 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w Herodotus IX.28–29 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Holland, pp. 343–49 ^ Herodotus IX.22.1–3 ^ a b Herodotus, IX.25.1–3 ^ Herodotus, IX.33 ^ a b Herodotus, IX.39–41 ^ Herodotus IX.49 ^ a b c d Herodotus IX.51–52 ^ a b Herodotus IX.54–55 ^ a b Diodorus XI.30.1 ^ a b c Herodotus IX.28.2–29.1 ^ Lazenby, p. 277 ^ Herodotus IX.30 ^ Herodotus VIII.44.1 ^ 180 triremes times 200 men; 170 rowers plus 30 fighters was the usual crew. See Herodotus VII.184, note 1. ^ a b c d Lazenby, pp. 227–28 ^ a b Holland, p. 400 ^ Herodotus VIII.131 ^ Holland, p. 357 ^ Diodorus XI.29.4 ^ a b c d Herodotus IX.60–61 ^ LacusCurtius • Herodotus — Book VIII: Chapters 97‑144. p. Herodotus VIII, 113. ^ a b Shepherd, William (2012). Plataea 479 BC: The most glorious victory ever seen. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 25. ISBN 9781849085557. ^ a b c Tola, Fernando (1986). "India and Greece before Alexander". Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute Vol. 67, No. 1/4. 67 (1/4): 165. JSTOR 41693244.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ a b c d e LacusCurtius • Herodotus — Book IX: Chapters 1‑89. pp. IX–31/32. ^ a b Herodotus IX.32 ^ LacusCurtius • Herodotus — Book VIII: Chapters 97‑144. p. Herodotus VIII, 113. ^ a b c d Shepherd, William (2012). Plataea 479 BC: The most glorious victory ever seen. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 36. ISBN 9781849085557. ^ a b c Shepherd, William (2012). Plataea 479 BC: The most glorious victory ever seen. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 51. ISBN 9781849085557. ^ Shepherd, William (2012). Plataea 479 BC: The most glorious victory ever seen. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 35. ISBN 9781849085557. ^ Holland, p. 237 ^ Connolly, p. 29 ^ Military History Online website ^ Green, pp. 240–60 ^ a b Delbrück, p. 35 ^ Delbrück, p. 112 ^ Shepherd, William (2012). Plataea 479 BC: The most glorious victory ever seen. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 37. ISBN 9781849085557. ^ LacusCurtius • Herodotus — Book IX: Chapters 1‑89. pp. IX–31/32. ^ Ctesias, Persica ^ a b c Lazenby, pp. 217–19 ^ a b Herodotus, IX.41 ^ Lazenby, pp. 221–22 ^ a b Herodotus, IX.58 ^ Lazenby, pp. 254–57 ^ a b Herodotus IX.59 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Holland, pp. 350–55 ^ a b Herodotus IX.61 ^ a b c d e Herodotus IX.62–63 ^ a b Herodotus IX.65 ^ Herodotus IX.63–64 ^ Plutarch, Life of Aristides 19. ^ How, W. W.; Wells, J. (1964). A commentary on Herodotus. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 314. ^ a b Herodotus IX.66 ^ Shepherd, William (2012). Plataea 479 BC: The most glorious victory ever seen. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 55. ISBN 9781849085557. ^ a b Herodotus IX, 67 ^ Herodotus IX.68 ^ Herodotus IX.69 ^ a b c d e Herodotus IX.70 ^ Plutarch, Aristides 19.4 ^ Diodorus XI.33.1 ^ Darius I, DNa inscription, Line 29 ^ Ancient Macedonia. pp. 343–344. ^ Herodotus IX.53 ^ Herodotus IX.56 ^ Herodotus IX.97 ^ Herodotus VII.229 ^ Herodotus IX.71 ^ Herodotus IX.72 ^ Herodotus 9.45 ^ Herodotus 9.48-49. ^ Bury, J. B. (1956). A history of Greece to the death of Alexander the Great, 3rd edition. London: MacMillan. p. 294. ^ How, W. W.; Wells, J (1964). A commentary on Herodotus. v. 2. Oxford. p. 392. ^ a b Herodotus IX.96 ^ a b c Holland, pp. 357–58 ^ a b Holland, pp. 358–59 ^ Herodotus IX.89 ^ a b Herodotus IX.114 ^ a b c d e f Holland, pp. 359–63 ^ For instance, based on the number of Google hits, or the number of books written specifically about those battles ^ a b c d Holland, pp. xvi–xvii. ^ Xenophon, Anabasis ^ Herodotus, IX.81 ^ a b See Herodotus IX.81, note 1. ^ Gibbon, chapters 17 and 68 ^ (in Latin) Cicero, On the Laws I.5 ^ Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, e.g. I.22 ^ a b Finley, p. 15. ^ Holland, p. xxiv. ^ David Pipes. "Herodotus: Father of History, Father of Lies". Archived from the original on January 27, 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-18. ^ a b Holland, p. 377. ^ Fehling, pp. 1–277. ^ Diodorus XI.28–34 Bibliography[edit] Ancient sources[edit] Herodotus (1920). The Histories. with an English translation by A. D. Godley. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. At the Perseus Project of the Tufts University. Ctesias, Persica (excerpt in Photius's epitome) Diodorus Siculus (1967). Library. in Twelve Volumes with an English Translation by C. H. Oldfather. Cambridge, Mass.; London. At the Perseus Project of the Tufts University. Plutarch, Aristides Xenophon, Anabasis Modern sources[edit] Burn, Andrew Robert. The Pelican History of Greece Penguin 1974 Delbrück, Hans. History of the Art of War Vol I. ISBN 978-0-8032-6584-4 Holland, Tom. Persian Fire. Abacus, 2005. ISBN 978-0-349-11717-1 Green, Peter. The Greco-Persian Wars. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970; revised ed., 1996 (hardcover, ISBN 0-520-20573-1); 1998 (paperback, ISBN 0-520-20313-5). Gibbon, Edward. The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. ISBN 978-0-8095-9235-7 Lazenby, JF. The Defence of Greece 490–479 BC. Aris & Phillips Ltd., 1993. ISBN 0-85668-591-7 Fehling, D. Herodotus and His "Sources": Citation, Invention, and Narrative Art. Translated by J.G. Howie. Arca Classical and Medieval Texts, Papers, and Monographs, 21. Leeds: Francis Cairns, 1989. ISBN 978-0-905205-70-0 Connolly, P. Greece and Rome at War, 1981. ISBN 978-1-84832-609-5 Finley, Moses (1972). "Introduction". Thucydides – History of the Peloponnesian War (translated by Rex Warner). Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-044039-3. Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (2011). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-1-44-435163-7. Shepherd, William (2012). Plataea 479 B.C.; The most glorious victory ever seen. Osprey Campaign Series #239. Osprey Publishing. Illustrator: Peter Dennis. ISBN 978-1-84908-554-0 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Battle of Plataea. 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en-wikipedia-org-5648	----	Cilicia - Wikipedia Cilicia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Geographical region in Adana, Turkey Cilicia Kilikya Կիլիկիա قيليقية Geographical region Coordinates: 36°52′N 35°29′E / 36.867°N 35.483°E / 36.867; 35.483Coordinates: 36°52′N 35°29′E / 36.867°N 35.483°E / 36.867; 35.483 Country  Turkey Largest city Adana Provinces Mersin, Adana, Osmaniye, Hatay Area  • Total 38,585.16 km2 (14,897.81 sq mi) Population (2019)[1]  • Total 6,246,018  • Density 161.876/km2 (419.26/sq mi) Demonym(s) Cilician(s) (English) Kilikyalı (Turkish) Կիլիկյան (Armenian) Time zone UTC+3 (FET) Postal code prefixes 33xxx, 01xxx, 80xxx, 31xxx Area code(s) 324, 322, 328, 326 GRP (nominal) $43.14 billion (2018)[2] GRP per capita $6,982 (2018)[2] Languages Turkish, Arabic, Kurmanji Cilicia (/sɪˈlɪʃə/)[3][note 1] is a geo-cultural region in southern Turkey, extending inland from the northeastern coasts of the Mediterranean Sea. Cilicia has a population of over six million, concentrated mostly at the Cilicia plain. The region includes the provinces of Mersin, Adana, Osmaniye, and Hatay. Contents 1 Geography 1.1 Climate 1.2 Geology 2 History 2.1 Early history 2.1.1 Kingdom of Cilicia 2.2 Middle ages 2.3 Turkish rule 2.4 Modern era 3 Governance 3.1 Provinces and districts 4 Economy 4.1 Natural resources 4.2 Manufacturing 4.3 Commerce 4.4 Tourism 5 Population 5.1 Urban areas 6 Places of interest 6.1 Ancient sites 6.2 Parks and conservation areas 7 Education 8 Sports 9 Transportation 9.1 Air 9.2 Sea 9.3 Road 9.4 Railway 10 Society 11 Mythological namesake 12 Notes 13 References 14 Further reading 15 External links Geography[edit] Cilicia extended along the Mediterranean coast east from Pamphylia, to the Nur Mountains, which separated it from Syria. North and east of Cilicia lie the rugged Taurus Mountains that separate it from the high central plateau of Anatolia, which are pierced by a narrow gorge, called in antiquity the Cilician Gates.[4][5] Ancient Cilicia was naturally divided into Cilicia Trachaea and Cilicia Pedias by the Limonlu River.[6] Salamis, the city on the east coast of Cyprus, was included in its administrative jurisdiction. The Greeks invented for Cilicia an eponymous Hellene founder in the purely mythical Cilix, but the historic[7] founder of the dynasty that ruled Cilicia Pedias was Mopsus,[7][8] identifiable in Phoenician sources as Mpš,[9][10] the founder of Mopsuestia[10][11] who gave his name to an oracle nearby.[10] Homer mentions the people of Mopsus, identified as Cilices (Κίλικες), as from the Troad in the northernwesternmost part of Anatolia.[12] The English spelling Cilicia is the same as the Latin, as it was transliterated directly from the Greek form Κιλικία. The palatalization of c occurring in the west in later Vulgar Latin (c. 500–700) accounts for its modern pronunciation in English. Cilicia Trachea ("rugged Cilicia"—Greek: Κιλικία Τραχεῖα; the Assyrian Hilakku, classical "Cilicia")[13][14][15] is a rugged mountain district[16] formed by the spurs of Taurus, which often terminate in rocky headlands with small sheltered harbors,[17] a feature which, in classical times, made the coast a string of havens for pirates[17][18][6] and, in the Middle Ages, outposts for Genoese and Venetian traders.[6] The district is watered by the Calycadnus[19] and was covered in ancient times by forests that supplied timber to Phoenicia and Egypt. Cilicia lacked large cities. Cilicia Pedias ("flat Cilicia"—Ancient Greek: Κιλικία Πεδιάς; Assyrian Kue), to the east, included the rugged spurs of Taurus and a large coastal plain, with rich loamy soil,[6] known to the Greeks such as Xenophon, who passed through with his mercenary group of the Ten Thousand,[20] for its abundance (euthemia),[21] filled with sesame and millet and olives[22] and pasturage for the horses imported by Solomon.[23] Many of its high places were fortified. The plain is watered by the three great rivers, the Cydnus (Tarsus Çay), the Sarus (Seyhan) and the Pyramus (Ceyhan River), each of which brings down much silt from the deforested interior and which fed extensive wetlands. The Sarus now enters the sea almost due south of Tarsus, but there are clear indications that at one period it joined the Pyramus, and that the united rivers ran to the sea west of Kara-tash. Through the rich plain of Issus ran the great highway that linked east and west, on which stood the cities of Tarsus (Tarsa) on the Cydnus, Adana (Adanija) on the Sarus, and Mopsuestia (Missis) on the Pyramus.[6] Climate[edit] The climate of Cilicia shows significant differences at the mountains and the lower plains. At the lower plains, the climate reflects a typical Mediterranean; summers are hot and dry, winters are warm and rainy. In the coldest month (January), the average temperature is 9 °C, and in the warmest month (August), the average temperature is 28 °C. Mountains of Cilicia have an inland climate with snowy winters. The average annual precipitation in the region is 647mm and the average number of rainy days in a year is 76. Mersin and surrounding areas have the highest average temperature in Cilicia. Mersin also has a high annual precipitation (1096mm) and 85 rainy days in a year. Geology[edit] The Mountains of Cilicia are formed from ancient limestones, conglomerate, marlstone and similar materials. The lower plain is the largest alluvial plain in Turkey. Expansion of limestone formations and fourth era alluvials brought by the rivers Seyhan and Ceyhan, formed the plains of the region over the course of time. Akyatan, Akyayan, Salt Lake, Seven lakes at Aladağ, and Karstik Dipsiz lake near Karaisalı are the lakes of the region. The reservoirs in the region are Seyhan, Çatalan, Yedigöze, Kozan and Mehmetli. The major rivers in Cilicia are Seyhan, Ceyhan, Berdan (Tarsus), Asi and Göksu. Seyhan River emerges from the confluence of Zamantı and Göksu rivers which originate from Kayseri Province and flows into the Gulf of Mersin. The river is 560 km long. Ceyhan River emerges from the confluence of Aksu and Hurman rivers and flows into Cape Hürmüz at the Gulf of İskenderun. It is 509 km long and it forms the Akyayan, Akyatan and Kakarat lakes before flowing into the Mediterranean. Berdan River originates from the Taurus Mountains and flows into the Mediterranean, south of Tarsus. Göksu river originates from the Taurus Mountains and flows into the Mediterranean, 16 km southeast of Silifke. It forms the delta of Göksu, including Akgöl Lake and Paradeniz Lagoon. Asi River (Orontes) rises in the great springs of Labweh on the side of the Beqaa Valley and it runs due north, parallel with the coast and flows into the Mediterranean just south of the little port of Samandağı. History[edit] Main article: History of Cilicia Early history[edit] Cilicia was settled from the Neolithic period onwards.[24][25][page needed] Dating of the ancient settlements of the region from Neolithic to Bronze Age is as follows: Aceramic/Neolithic: 8th and 7th millennia BC; Early Chalcolithic: 5800 BC; Middle Chalcolithic (correlated with Halaf and Ubaid developments in the east): c. 5400–4500 BC; Late Chalcolithic: 4500–c. 3400 BC; and Early Bronze Age IA: 3400–3000 BC; EBA IB: 3000–2700 BC; EBA II: 2700–2400 BC; EBA III A-B: 2400–2000 BC.[25]:168–170 Probable captives from Cilicia, on the Nasiriyah stele of Naram-Sin, circa 2200 BC.[26] The area had been known as Kizzuwatna in the earlier Hittite era (2nd millennium BC).[27][28] The region was divided into two parts, Uru Adaniya (flat Cilicia), a well-watered plain, and "rough" Cilicia (Tarza), in the mountainous west. Fugitive slave treaty between Idrimi of Alalakh (now Tell Atchana) and Pillia of Kizzuwatna (now Cilicia), (c. 1480 BC) Ref:131447 . The Cilicians appear as Hilikku in Assyrian inscriptions, and in the early part of the first millennium BC were one of the four chief powers of Western Asia.[6] Homer mentions the plain as the "Aleian plain" in which Bellerophon wandered,[29] but he transferred the Cilicians far to the west and north and made them allies of Troy. The Cilician cities unknown to Homer already bore their pre-Greek names: Tarzu (Tarsus), Ingira (Anchiale), Danuna-Adana, which retains its ancient name, Pahri (perhaps Mopsuestia), Kundu (Kyinda, then Anazarbus) and Azatiwataya (today's Karatepe).[30] There exists evidence that circa 1650 BC both Hittite kings Hattusili I and Mursili I enjoyed freedom of movement along the Pyramus River (now the Ceyhan River in southern Turkey), proving they exerted strong control over Cilicia in their battles with Syria. After the death of Murshili around 1595 BC, Hurrians wrested control from the Hitties, and Cilicia was free for two centuries. The first king of free Cilicia, Išputahšu, son of Pariyawatri, was recorded as a "great king" in both cuneiform and Hittite hieroglyphs. Another record of Hittite origins, a treaty between Išputahšu and Telipinu, king of the Hittites, is recorded in both Hittite and Akkadian.[31] In the next century, Cilician king Pilliya finalized treaties with both King Zidanta II of the Hittites and Idrimi of Alalakh, in which Idrimi mentions that he had assaulted several military targets throughout Eastern Cilicia. Niqmepa, who succeeded Idrimi as king of Alalakh, went so far as to ask for help from a Hurrian rival, Shaushtatar of Mitanni, to try and reduce Cilicia's power in the region. It was soon apparent, however, that increased Hittite power would soon prove Niqmepa's efforts to be futile, as the city of Kizzuwatna soon fell to the Hittites, threatening all of Cilicia. Soon after, King Sunassura II was forced to accept vassalization under the Hittites, becoming the last king of ancient Cilicia.[32] In the 13th century BC a major population shift occurred as the Sea Peoples overran Cilicia.[citation needed] The Hurrians that resided there deserted the area and moved northeast towards the Taurus Mountains, where they settled in the area of Cappadocia.[33] In the 8th century BC, the region was unified under the rule of the dynasty of Mukšuš, whom the Greeks rendered Mopsos[8] and credited as the founder of Mopsuestia,[10] though the capital was Adana. Mopsuestia's multicultural character is reflected in the bilingual inscriptions of the ninth and eighth centuries, written both in Indo-European hieroglyphic Luwian and West Semitic Phoenician. In the ninth century BC it became part of Assyria and remained so until the late seventh century BC. Kingdom of Cilicia[edit] Main article: Kingdom of Cilicia (ancient) Cilicians could protect themselves from Assyrian domination and with the dissolution of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 612BC, they had established their independent kingdom. As being at a geography that is strategically significant, Cilicians could expand their kingdom as north as Halys River in a short period. With the expansions, Cilician Kingdom became as strong as Babylonia, one of the powerhouses of the time. Peaceful governance conducted by the Syennesis dynasty, not only kept the kingdom survive, also prevented Achaemenid Empire to attacks Lydians, after Achaemenid invasions of Median lands. Appuašu, the son of Syennessis, defended the country against the Babylonian king Neriglissar campaign, whose army reached Cilicia and crossed the Taurus mountain range. Achaemenids could manage to defeat Lydians, thus Appuašu had to recognize the authority of the Persians in 549 BC to keep the local administration with the Cilicians. Cilicia became an autonomous satrapy under the reign of Cyrus II.[34] Cilicians were independent in their internal affairs and kept this autonomy for almost 150 years. In 401, Syennesis III and his wife Epyaxa supported the revolt of Cyrus the Younger against his brother Artaxerxes II Mnemon. This was sound policy, because otherwise, Cilicia would have been looted by the rebel army. However, after the defeat of Cyrus at Cunaxa, Syennesis' position was difficult. Most scholars assume that this behavior marked the end of the independence of Cilicia. After 400, it became a normal satrapy.[35] The Persian Pharnabazus, pictured, as Satrap of Cilicia (379-374 BC). British Museum. Under the Persian empire Cilicia (in Old Persian: Karka)[36][6] was apparently governed by tributary native kings who bore a Hellenized name or the title of "Syennesis", but it was officially included in the fourth satrapy by Darius.[37][6] Xenophon found a queen in power, and no opposition was offered to the march of Cyrus the Younger.[6] The great highway from the west existed before Cyrus conquered Cilicia. On its long rough descent from the Anatolian plateau to Tarsus, it ran through the narrow pass between walls of rock called the Cilician Gates. After crossing the low hills east of the Pyramus it passed through a masonry (Cilician) gate, Demir Kapu, and entered the plain of Issus. From that plain one road ran southward through another masonry (Syrian) gate to Alexandretta, and thence crossed Mt. Amanus by the Syrian Gate, Beilan Pass, eventually to Antioch and Syria. Another road ran northwards through a masonry (Armenian) gate, south of Toprak Kale, and crossed Mt. Amanus by the Armenian Gate, Baghche Pass, to northern Syria and the Euphrates. By the last pass, which was apparently unknown to Alexander, Darius crossed the mountains prior to the battle of Issus. Both passes are short and easy and connect Cilicia Pedias geographically and politically with Syria rather than with Anatolia.[6] Alexander forded the Halys River in the summer of 333 BC, ending up on the border of southeastern Phrygia and Cilicia. He knew well the writings of Xenophon, and how the Cilician Gates had been "impassable if obstructed by the enemy". Alexander reasoned that by force alone he could frighten the defenders and break through, and he gathered his men to do so. In the cover of night they attacked, startling the guards and sending them and their satrap into full flight, setting their crops aflame as they made for Tarsus. This good fortune allowed Alexander and his army to pass unharmed through the Gates and into Cilicia.[38] After Alexander's death it was long a battleground of rival Hellenistic monarchs and kingdoms, and for a time fell under Ptolemaic dominion (i.e., Egypt), but finally came to the Seleucids, who, however, never held effectually more than the eastern half.[6] During the Hellenistic era, numerous cities were established in Cilicia, which minted coins showing the badges (gods, animals and objects) associated with each polis.[39] Middle ages[edit] The Roman provinces of Asia Minor under Trajan, including Cilicia. Cilicia Trachea became the haunt of pirates, who were subdued by Pompey in 67 BC following a Battle of Korakesion (modern Alanya), and Tarsus was made the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia. Cilicia Pedias became Roman territory in 103 BC first conquered by Marcus Antonius Orator in his campaign against pirates, with Sulla acting as its first governor, foiling an invasion of Mithridates, and the whole was organized by Pompey, 64 BC, into a province which, for a short time, extended to and included part of Phrygia.[6] A Roman-period triumphal arch at Anazarbus, later converted into the city's south gate It was reorganized by Julius Caesar, 47 BC, and about 27 BC became part of the province Syria-Cilicia Phoenice. At first the western district was left independent under native kings or priest-dynasts, and a small kingdom, under Tarcondimotus I, was left in the east;[40][6] but these were finally united to the province by Vespasian, AD 72.[41][6] Containing 47 known cities, it had been deemed important enough to be governed by a proconsul.[42] Under Emperor Diocletian's Tetrarchy (c. 297), Cilicia was governed by a consularis; with Isauria and the Syrian, Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Libyan provinces, formed the Diocesis Orientis[6] (in the late 4th century the African component was split off as Diocese of Egypt), part of the pretorian prefecture also called Oriens ('the East', also including the dioceses of Asiana and Pontica, both in Anatolia, and Thraciae in the Balkans), the rich bulk of the eastern Roman Empire. After the division of the Roman Empire, Cilicia became part of the eastern Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire. In the 7th century Cilicia was invaded by the Muslim Arabs.[43] The area was for some time an embattled no-man's land. The Arabs succeeded in conquering the area in the early 8th century. Under the Abbasid Caliphate, Cilicia was resettled and transformed into a fortified frontier zone (thughur). Tarsus, re-built in 787/788, quickly became the largest settlement in the region and the Arabs' most important base in their raids across the Taurus Mountains into Byzantine-held Anatolia. The Muslims held the country until it was reoccupied by the Emperor Nicephorus II in 965.[6] From this period onward, the area increasingly came to be settled by Armenians, especially as Imperial rule pushed deeper into the Caucasus over the course of the 11th century. The Kingdom of Cilician Armenia, 1199–1375. During the time of the First Crusade, the area was controlled by the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia. The Seljuk Turkish invasions of Armenia were followed by an exodus of Armenians migrating westward into the Byzantine Empire, and in 1080 Ruben, a relative of the last king of Ani, founded in the heart of the Cilician Taurus a small principality which gradually expanded into the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia. This Christian state, surrounded by Muslim states hostile to its existence, had a stormy history of about 300 years, giving valuable support to the Crusaders, and trading with the great commercial cities of Italy.[6] It prospered for three centuries due to the vast network of fortifications which secured all the major roads as well as the three principal harbours at Ayas, Koŕikos, and Mopsuestia.[44] Through their complex alliances with the Crusader states the Armenian barons and kings often invited the Crusaders to maintain castles in and along the borders of the Kingdom, including Bagras, Trapessac, T‛il Hamtun, Harunia, Selefkia, Amouda, and Sarvandikar. Gosdantin (r. 1095 – c. 1100) assisted the crusaders on their march to Antioch, and was created knight and marquis. Thoros I (r. c. 1100 – 1129), in alliance with the Christian princes of Syria, waged successful wars against the Byzantines and Seljuk Turks. Levon II (Leo the Great (r. 1187–1219)), extended the kingdom beyond Mount Taurus and established the capital at Sis. He assisted the crusaders, was crowned King by the Archbishop of Mainz, and married one of the Lusignans of the crusader kingdom Cyprus.[6] Hetoum I (r. 1226–1270) made an alliance with the Mongols,[6] sending his brother Sempad to the Mongol court in person.[45][46] The Mongols then assisted with the defense of Cilicia from the Mamluks of Egypt, until the Mongols themselves converted to Islam. When Levon V died (1342), John of Lusignan was crowned king as Gosdantin IV; but he and his successors alienated the native Armenians by attempting to make them conform to the Roman Church, and by giving all posts of honor to Latins, until at last the kingdom, falling prey to internal dissensions, ceded Cilia Pedias to Ramadanid-supported Mamluk Sultanate in 1375.[6] Karamanid Principality one of the Turkmen Anatolian beyliks emerged after the collapse of the Anatolian Seljuks took over the rule of Cilicia Thracea. See also: List of monarchs of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia Turkish rule[edit] During Ramadanid era, Cilicia was a buffer state between two Islamic powers. The Ilkhanate lost cohesion after the death of Abu Sa'id, thus could not support Armenian Kingdom in guarding Cilicia. Internal conflicts within Armenian Kingdom and the devastation caused by the Black Death that arrived in 1348, made nomadic Türkmens to turn their eyes to unstable Cilicia. In 1352, Ramazan Beg led Turkmens settled south of Çaldağı and founded their first settlement, Camili. Later that year, Ramazan Beg visited Cairo and was assented by the Sultan to establish the new frontier Turkmen Emirate in Cilicia.[47] In 1359, Mamluk Sultanate Army marched into Cilicia and took over Adana and Tarsus, two major cities of the plain, leaving few castles to Armenians. In 1375, Mamluks gained the control of the remaining areas of Cilicia, thus ending the three centuries rule of Armenians. In 1516, Selim I incorporated the beylik into the Ottoman Empire after his conquest of the Mamluk state. The beys of Ramadanids held the administration of the Ottoman sanjak of Adana in a hereditary manner until 1608, with the last 92 years as a vassal of the Ottomans. Adana Vilayet in 1892 Ottomans ended the Ramadanid administration of Adana sanjak in 1608, and ruled it directly from Constantinople then after. The autonomous sanjak was then split from the Aleppo Eyalet and established as a new province under the name of Adana Eyalet. A governor was appointed to administer the province. In late 1832, Eyalet of Egypt Vali Muhammad Ali Pasha invaded Syria, and reached Cilicia. The Convention of Kütahya that was signed on 14 May 1833, ceded Cilicia to the de facto independent Egypt. After the Oriental crisis, the Convention of Alexandria that was signed on 27 November 1840, required the return of Cilicia to Ottoman sovereignty. The American Civil War that broke down in 1861, disturbed the cotton flow to Europe and directed European cotton traders to fertile Cilicia. The region became the center of cotton trade and one of the most economically strong regions of the Empire within decades. In 1869, Adana Eyalet was re-established as Adana Vilayet, after the re-structuring in the Ottoman Administration. Thriving regional economy, doubling of Cilician Armenian population due to flee from Hamidian massacres, the end of autocratic Abdulhamid rule with the revolution of 1908, empowered the Armenian community and envisioned an autonomous Cilicia. Enraged supporters of Abdulhamid that organized under Cemiyet-i Muhammediye amidst the countercoup,[48] led to a series of anti-Armenian pogroms in 14–27 April 1909.[49] The Adana massacre resulted in the deaths of roughly 25,000 Armenians, orphanized 3500 children and caused heavy destruction of Christian neighborhoods in the entire Vilayet.[50] Cilicia section of the Berlin–Baghdad railway were opened in 1912, connecting the region to Middle East. Over the course of Armenian Genocide, Ottoman telegraph was received by the Governor to deport the more than 70,000 Armenians of the Adana Vilayet to Syria.[51] Armenians of Zeitun had organized a successful resistance against the Ottoman onslaught. In order to finally subjugate Zeitun, the Ottomans had to resort to treachery by forcing an Armenian delegation from Marash to ask the Zeituntsi-s to put down their arms. Both the Armenian delegation, and later, the inhabitants of Zeitun, were left with no choice.[52] Modern era[edit] French taking over Cilicia as General Gouraud arrives Mersin Armistice of Mudros that was signed on 30 October 1918 to end the World War I, ceded the control of Cilicia to France. French Government sent four battalions of the Armenian Legion in December to take over and oversee the repatriation of more than 170,000 Armenians to Cilicia. The French forces were spread too thinly in the region and, as they came under withering attacks by Muslim elements both opposed and loyal to Mustafa Kemal Pasha, eventually reversed their policies in the region. A truce arranged on May 28 between the French and the Kemalists, led to the retreat of the French forces south of the Mersin-Osmaniye railroad. Cilicie palais de gouvernement With the changing political environment and interests, French further reversed their policy: The repatriation was halted, and the French ultimately abandoned all pretensions to Cilicia, which they had originally hoped to attach to their mandate over Syria.[53] Cilicia Peace Treaty was signed on 9 March 1921 between France and Turkish Grand National Assembly. The treaty did not achieve the intended goals and was replaced with the Treaty of Ankara that was signed on 20 October 1921. Based on the terms of the agreement, France recognized the end of the Cilicia War, and French troops together with the remaining Armenian volunteers withdrew from the region in early January 1922.[54] The region become part of the Republic of Turkey in 1921 with the signing of the Treaty of Ankara. On 15 April 1923, just before the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne, the Turkish government enacted the "Law of Abandoned Properties" which confiscated properties of Armenians and Greeks who were not present on their property. Cilicia were one of the regions with the most confiscated property, thus muhacirs (en:immigrants) from Balkans and Crete were relocated in the old Armenian and Greek neighborhoods and villages of the region. All types of properties, lands, houses and workshops were distributed to them. Also during this period, there was a property rush of Muslims from Kayseri and Darende to Cilicia who were granted the ownership of large farms, factories, stores and mansions. Within a decade, Cilicia had a sharp change demographically, socially and economically and lost its diversity by turning into solely Muslim/Turkish.[55] Governance[edit] The modern Cilicia is split into four administrative provinces: Mersin, Adana, Osmaniye and Hatay. Each province is governed by the Central Government in Ankara through an appointed Provincial Governor. Provinces are then divided into districts governed by the District Governors who are under the Provincial Governors. Provinces and districts[edit] Provinces & Districts in Cilicia (from West to East): Mersin Province: Anamur, Bozyazı, Aydıncık, Gülnar, Mut, Silifke, Erdemli, Mersin (composed of Mezitli, Yenişehir Toroslar, Akdeniz), Çamlıyayla, Tarsus Adana Province: Adana (composed of Seyhan, Çukurova, Yüreğir, Sarıçam), Pozantı (Bozantı), Karaisalı, Karataş (İskele), Yumurtalık (Ayas), Ceyhan, İmamoğlu, Aladağ, Kozan (Sis), Feke (Vahka), Saimbeyli (Hadjin), Tufanbeyli (Şar) Osmaniye Province: Sumbas, Kadirli, Toprakkale, Düziçi, Osmaniye, Hasanbeyli, Bahçe Hatay Province: Erzin, Dörtyol, Hassa, İskenderun, Arsuz, Belen, Kırıkhan, Samandağ, Antakya, Defne, Reyhanlı, Kumlu, Yayladağı, Altınözü Economy[edit] Cilicia is well known for the vast fertile land and highly productive agriculture. The region is also industrialized; Tarsus, Adana and Ceyhan host numerous plants. Mersin and İskenderun seaports provide transportation of goods manufactured in Central, South and Southeast Anatolia. Ceyhan hosts oil, natural gas terminals as well as refineries and shipbuilders. Natural resources[edit] Agriculture The Cilicia plain has some of the most fertile soil in the world in which 3 harvests can be taken each year. The region has the second richest flora in the world and it is the producer of all agricultural products of Turkey except hazelnut and tobacco. Cilicia leads Turkey in soy, peanuts and corn harvest and is a major producer of fruits and vegetables. Half of Turkey's citrus export is from Cilicia. Cilicia is the second largest honey producer in Turkey after the Muğla–Aydın region.[56] Samandağ, Yumurtalık, Karataş and Bozyazı are some of the towns in the region where fishing is the major source of income. Gray mullet, red mullet, sea bass, lagos, calamari and gilt-head bream are some of the most popular fish in the region. There are aquaculture farms in Akyatan, Akyağan, Yumurtalık lakes and at Seyhan Reservoir. While not as common as other forms of agriculture, dairy and livestock are also produced throughout the region. Mining Zinc and lead: Kozan-Horzum seam is the major source. Chrome is found around Aladağlar. Baryte resources are around Mersin and Adana. Iron is found around Feke and Saimbeyli. Asbestos mines are mostly in Hatay Province. Limestone reserves are very rich in Cilicia. The region is home to four lime manufacturing plants. Pumice resources are the richest in Turkey. 14% of country's reserves are in Cilicia. Manufacturing[edit] Cilicia is one of the first industrialized regions of Turkey. With the improvements in agriculture and the spike of agricultural yield, agriculture-based industries are built in large numbers. Today, the manufacturing industry is mainly concentrated around Tarsus, Adana and Ceyhan. Textile, leather tanning and food processing plants are plentiful. İsdemir is a large steel plant located in İskenderun. The petrochemical industry is rapidly developing in the region with the investments around the Ceyhan Oil Terminal. Petroleum refineries are being built in the area. Ceyhan is also expected to host the shipbuilding industry. Commerce[edit] Adana is the commercial center of the region where many of the public and private institutions have their regional offices. Mersin and Antakya are also home to regional offices of public institutions. Many industry fairs and congresses are held in the region at venues such as the TÜYAP Congress and Exhibition Center in Adana and the Mersin Congress Center. Mersin Seaport is the third largest seaport in Turkey, after İstanbul and İzmir. There are 45 piers in the port. The total area of the port is 785 square kilometres (194,000 acres), and the capacity is 6,000 ships per year. İskenderun Seaport is used mostly for transfers to Middle East and Southeastern Turkey.[57] Ceyhan Oil Terminal is a marine transport terminal for the Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline (the "BTC"), the Kirkuk–Ceyhan Oil Pipeline, the planned Samsun-Ceyhan and the Ceyhan-Red Sea pipelines. Ceyhan will also be a natural gas terminal for a planned pipeline to be constructed parallel to the Kirkuk-Ceyhan oil pipeline, and for a planned extension of the Blue Stream Gas Pipeline from Samsun to Ceyhan. Dörtyol Oil Terminal is a marine transport terminal for Batman-Dörtyol oil pipeline which started operating in 1967 to market Batman oil. The pipeline is 511 km long and has an annual capacity of 3.5 million tons.[58] Tourism[edit] Yemiskumu Beach (Ayaş, Erdemli district of Mersin Province) While the region has a long coastline, international tourism is not at the level of the neighboring Antalya Province. There are a small number of hotels between Erdemli and Anamur that attracts tourists. Cilicia tourism is mostly cottage tourism serving the Cilicia locals as well as residents of Kayseri, Gaziantep and surrounding areas. Between Silifke and Mersin, high-rise and low-rise cottages line the coast, leaving almost no vacant land. The coastline from Mersin to Karataş is mostly farmland. This area is zoned for resort tourism and is expected to have a rapid development within the next 20 years. Karataş and Yumurtalık coasts are home to cottages with a bird conservatory between the two areas. Arsuz is a seaside resort that is mostly frequented by Antakya and İskenderun residents. Plateaus on the Taurus mountains are cooler escapes for the locals who wants to chill out from hot and humid summers of the lower plains. Gözne and Çamlıyayla (Namrun) in Mersin Province, Tekir, Bürücek and Kızıldağ in Adana Province, Zorkun in Osmaniye Province and Soğukoluk in Hatay Province are the popular high plain resorts of Cilicia which are often crowded in summer. There are a few hotels and camping sites in the Tekir plateau. Lying at a crossroads of three major religions, namely Judaism, Christianity and Islam, the region is home to numerous landmarks that are important for people of faith. Tarsus is the birthplace of St. Paul, who returned to the city after his conversion. The city was a stronghold of Christians after his death. Ashab-ı Kehf cavern, one of the locations claimed to be the resting place of the legendary Seven Sleepers, holy to Christians and Muslims, is located north of Tarsus. Antakya is another destination for the spiritual world, where the followers of Jesus Christ were first called Christians. It is the home of Saint Peter, one of the 12 saints of Jesus.[59] The region is a popular destination for thermal springs. Hamamat Thermal Spring, located on midway from Kırıkhan to Reyhanlı, has a very high sulphur ratio, making it the second in the world after a thermal spring in India.[60] It is the largest spa in the region and attracts many Syrians due to proximity. Haruniye Thermal Spring is located on the banks of the Ceyhan River near Düziçi town and has a serene environment. Thermal springs are a hot spot for people with rheumatism.[61] Kurttepe, Alihocalı and Ilıca mineral springs, all located in Adana Province, are popular for toxic cleansing. Ottoman Palace Thermal Resort & Spa in Antakya is one of Turkey's top resorts for revitalization. Population[edit] Mersin Amphitheater overlooking the Mediterranean Sea. Cilicia is heavily populated due to its abundant resources, climate and plain geography. The population of Cilicia as of December 31, 2019 is 6,246,018.[62] Province Population Adana 2,237,940 Mersin 1,840,425 Hatay 1,628,894 Osmaniye 538,759 Total 6,246,018 Hatay is the most rural province of Cilicia and also Hatay is the only province that the rural population is rising and the urban population is declining. The major reason is the mountainous geography of Hatay as well as the religiously and ethnically diverse culture, with Turks, Kurds, Armenians, and Assyrians inhabiting the region.[63] Hatay joined Turkey in 1939, thus did not face the population exchanges of the 1920. The province has many villages inhabited by Christians as well as the only remaining ethnic Armenian village of Turkey, Vakıflı. Adana Province is the most urbanized province, with most of the population centered in the city of Adana. Mersin Province has a larger rural population than Adana Province, owing to its long and narrow stretch of flat land in between the Taurus Mountains and the Mediterranean. Urban areas[edit] List of settlements in Cilicia with population over 100,000. The Orontes River flowing through Antakya Taşköprü in Adana City Population Adana[64] 1,768,860 Mersin[65] 1,035,632 Antakya-Defne 538,134 Tarsus 342,373 Osmaniye[66] 268,647 İskenderun 248,380 Ceyhan 160,977 Erdemli 141,476 Kozan 131,633 Dörtyol 125,138 Kadirli 125,083 Samandağ 122,223 Silifke 120.873 Kırıkhan 116,876 Reyhanlı 100,151 Agriculture The Cilicia plain has some of the most fertile soil in the world in which 3 harvests can be taken each year. The region has the second richest flora in the world and it is the producer of all agricultural products of Turkey except hazelnut and tobacco. Cilicia leads Turkey in soy, peanuts and corn harvest and is a major producer of fruits and vegetables. Half of Turkey's citrus export is from Cilicia. Anamur is the only sub-tropical area of Turkey where bananas, mango, kiwi and other sub-tropical produce can be harvested. Cilicia is the second largest honey producer in Turkey after the Muğla–Aydın region.[56] Samandağ, Yumurtalık, Karataş and Bozyazı are some of the towns in the region where fishing is the major source of income. Gray mullet, red mullet, sea bass, lagos, calamari and gilt-head bream are some of the most popular fish in the region. There are aquaculture farms in Akyatan, Akyağan, Yumurtalık lakes and at Seyhan Reservoir. While not as common as other forms of agriculture, dairy and livestock are also produced throughout the region. Mining Zinc and lead: Kozan-Horzum seam is the major source. Chrome is found around Aladağlar. Baryte resources are around Mersin and Adana. Iron is found around Feke and Saimbeyli. Asbestos mines are mostly in Hatay Province. Limestone reserves are very rich in Cilicia. The region is home to four lime manufacturing plants. Pumice resources are the richest in Turkey. 14% of country's reserves are in Cilicia. Lying at a crossroads of three major religions, namely Judaism, Christianity and Islam, the region is home to numerous landmarks that are important for people of faith. Tarsus is the birthplace of St. Paul, who returned to the city after his conversion. The city was a stronghold of Christians after his death. Ashab-ı Kehf cavern, one of the locations claimed to be the resting place of the legendary Seven Sleepers, holy to Christians and Muslims, is located north of Tarsus. Antakya is another destination for the spiritual world, where the followers of Jesus Christ were first called Christians. It is the home of Saint Peter, one of the 12 saints of Jesus.[59] The region is a popular destination for thermal springs. Hamamat Thermal Spring, located on midway from Kırıkhan to Reyhanlı, has a very high sulphur ratio, making it the second in the world after a thermal spring in India.[60] It is the largest spa in the region and attracts many Syrians due to proximity. Haruniye Thermal Spring is located on the banks of the Ceyhan River near Düziçi town and has a serene environment. Thermal springs are a hot spot for people with rheumatism.[61] Kurttepe, Alihocalı and Ilıca mineral springs, all located in Adana Province, are popular for toxic cleansing. Ottoman Palace Thermal Resort & Spa in Antakya is one of Turkey's top resorts for revitalization. Places of interest[edit] Ancient sites[edit] Kızkalesi (Korykos) Kizkalesi (Maiden Castle), a fort on a small island across Kızkalesi township, was built during the early 12th century by Armenian kings of the Rubeniyan dynasty, to defend the city of Korykos (today Kızkalesi). Heaven & Hell, situated on a large hill north of Narlıkuyu, consists of the grabens result from assoil of furrings for thousands of years. Natural phenomena of the grabens is named 'Hell & Heaven' because of the exotic effects on people. From an ancient path, 260 meter long mythological giant Typhon's cave can be accessible.[67] The ancient Roman town of Soloi-Pompeiopolis, near the city of Mersin. Yılanlı Kale (Castle of Serpents), an 11th-century crusader castle built on a historical road connecting Taurus mountains to the city of Antakya. Castle has 8 round towers, and there ıs a military guardhouse and a church in the castle. Castle is located 5 km. west of Ceyhan.[68] Anazarbus Castle was built in the 3rd century and served as the center of the ancient metropolis of Anavarza. The city was built on a hill and had a strategic importance, controlling the Cilicia plain. Main castle and the city walls are remains of the city. City wall is 1500m. long and 8-10m. high and there are 4 entrances to the city. Castle is located 80 km. northeast of Adana. Şar (Comona), ancient city located in northernmost Cilicia, some 200 km. north of Adana, near Tufanbeyli. It is a historical center of Hittites. Remaining structures today are, the amphitheatre built during Roman period, ruins of a church from Byzantine and rock works from Hittites.[69] Church of St. Peter in Antakya, was converted into a church while it was a cave on the slopes of Habibi Neccar mountain. The church is known as first Christians' traditional meeting place. The church was declared as "Place of Pilgrimage" for Christians by Pope IV Paul in 1963, and since then special ceremony is held on 29 June of each year. St. Simeon Monastery, a 6th-century giant structure built on a desolate hill 18 km south of Antakya. The most striking features of this monastery are cisterns, storage compartment and the walls. It is believed that St. Simeon lived here for 45 years on a 20-meter stone column. Parks and conservation areas[edit] Akyatan Lagoon is a large wildlife refuge which acts as a stopover for migratory birds voyaging from Africa to Europe. The wildlife refuge has a 14,700-hectare (36,000-acre) area made up of forests, lagoon, marsh, sandy and reedy lands. Akyatan lake is a natural wonder with endemic plants and endangered bird species living in it together with other species of plants and animals. 250 species of birds are observed during a study in 1990. The conservation area is located 30 km south of Adana, near Tuzla.[70] Yumurtalık Nature Reserve covers an area of 16,430 hectares within the Seyhan-Ceyhan delta, with its lakes, lagoons and wide collection of plant and animal species. The area is an important location for many species of migrating birds, the number gets higher during the winters when the lakes become a shelter when other lakes further north freeze.[71] Aladağlar National Park, located north of Adana, is a huge park of around 55,000 hectares, the summit of Demirkazik at 3756 m is the highest point in the middle Taurus mountain range. There is a huge range of flora and fauna, and visitors may fish in the streams full of trout. Wildlife includes wild goats, bears, lynx and sable. The most common species of plant life is black pine and cluster pine trees, with some cedar dotted between, and fir trees in the northern areas with higher humidity. The Alpine region, from the upper borders of the forest, has pastures with rocky areas and little variety of plant life because of the high altitude and slope.[72] Karatepe-Aslantaş National Park located on the west bank of Ceyhan River in Osmaniye Province. The park include the Karatepe Hittite fortress and an open-air museum. Tekköz-Kengerlidüz Nature Reserve, located 30 km north of Dörtyol, is known for having an ecosystem different from the Mediterranean. The main species of trees around Kengerliduz are beech, oak and fir, and around Tekkoz are hornbeam, ash, beach, black pine and silver birch. The main animal species in the area are wild goat, roe deer, bear, hyena, wild cat, wagtail, wolf, jackal and fox.[73] Habibi Neccar Dağı Nature Reserve is famous for its cultural as well as natural value, especially for St Pierre Church, which was carved into the rocks. The Charon monument, 200 m north of the church, is huge sculpture of Haron, known as Boatman of Hell in mythology, carved into the rocks. The main species of tree are cluster pine, oaks and sandalwood. The mountain is also home to foxes, rabbits, partridges and stock doves. Nature reserve is 10 km east of Antakya and can be accessible by public transport.[74] Education[edit] See also: Education in Turkey There are numerous private primary and high schools besides the state schools in the region. Most popular high school in the region is Tarsus American College, founded as a missionary school in 1888 to serve Armenian community and then became a secular school in 1923. In other cities, Anatolian High School and School for Science are the most popular high schools of the city. The region is home to five state and two foundation universities. Çukurova University is a state university founded in 1973 with the union of the faculties of Agriculture and Medicine.. Main campus is in the city of Adana, and the College of Tourism Administration is in Karataş. There is an engineering faculty in Ceyhan, and vocational schools in Kozan, Karaisalı, Pozantı and Yumurtalık. The university is one of the well developed universities of Turkey with many cultural, social and athletic facilities, currently enrolls 40,000 students.[75] Mersin University is a state university founded in 1992, and currently serving with 11 faculties, 6 colleges and 9 vocational schools. The university employs more than 2100 academicians and enrolls 26,980 students.[76] Main campus is in the city of Mersin. In Tarsus, there is Faculty of Technical Education and Applied Technology and Management College. In Silifke and Erdemli, university has colleges and vocational schools. There are also vocational schools in Anamur, Aydıncık, Gülnar, and Mut. Mustafa Kemal University is a state university located in Hatay Province. University was founded in 1992, currently has 9 faculties, 4 colleges and 7 vocational schools. Main campus is in Antakya and Faculty of Engineering is in İskenderun. The university employs 708 academicians and 14,439 students as of 2007.[77] Korkut Ata University was founded in 2007 as a state university with the union of colleges and vocational schools in Osmaniye Province and began enrollment in 2009. The university has 3 faculties and a vocational school at the main campus in the city of Osmaniye and vocational schools in Kadirli, Bahçe, Düziçi and Erzin. University employs 107 academicians and enrolled 4000 students in 2009.[78] Adana Science and Technology University is a recently founded state university that is planned to have ten faculties, two institutions and a college. It will accommodate 1,700 academic, 470 administrative staff, and it is expected to enroll students by 2012.[79] Çağ University is a not-for-profit tuition based university founded in 1997. It is located on midway from Adana to Tarsus. University holds around 2500 students, most of them commuting from Adana, Tarsus and Mersin.[80] Toros University is a not-for-profit tuition based university located in Mersin. The university started enrolling students in 2010.[81] Sports[edit] Football is the most popular sport in Cilicia, professionally represented at all levels of the Football in Turkey. Football Clubs in Cilicia Club Sport League Venue (capacity) Founded Hatayspor Football (men) Süper Lig Hatay Atatürk (6015) 1967 Adanaspor Football (men) TFF First League 5 Ocak Stadium (16,095) 1954 Adana Demir Football (men) TFF First League 5 Ocak Stadium (16,095) 1940 Tarsus İdman Yurdu Football (men) TFF Second League Burhanettin Kocamaz (6000) 1923 Kozan Belediyespor Football (men) TFF Third League İsmet Atlı (2500) 1955 İskenderun FK Football (men) TFF Third League 5 Temmuz (8217) 1978 Payas Belediyespor 1975 Football (men) TFF Third League 5 Temmuz 8217) 1975 Kırıkhanspor Football (men) TFF Third League Kırıkhan Şehir (6500) 1938 İçel İdmanyurdu Football (men) TFF Third League Mersin Arena (25000) 2019 Ceyhanspor Football (men) TFF Third League Ceyhan Şehir (3930) 1967 Adana İdmanyurdu Football (women) First Football League Gençlik Stadium (2000) 1993 Basketball Clubs in Cilicia Club Sport League Venue (capacity) Founded Mersin BŞB Basketball (women) Women's Super League Edip Buran Arena (1750) 1993 Hatay BŞB Basketball (women) Women's Super League Antakya Sport Hall (2500) 2009 Adana Basketbol Kulubü Basketball (women) Women's Super League Adana Atatürk Sports Hall (2000) 2000 Mersin Basketbol Kulübü Basketball (women) Women's Super League Edip Buran Arena (1750) Tosyalı Toyo Osmaniye Basketball (women) Women's Super League Tosyalı Sports Hall 2000 Transportation[edit] Cilicia has a well-developed transportation system with two airports, two major seaports, motorways and railway lines on the historical route connecting Europe to Middle East. Air[edit] Cilicia is served by two airports. Adana Şakirpaşa Airport is an international airport that have flights to European destinations. There are daily domestic flights to İstanbul, Ankara, İzmir, Antalya and Trabzon. Adana Şakirpaşa Airport serves the provinces of Mersin, Adana and Osmaniye. Railway connections of Cilicia Hatay Airport, opened in 2007, is a domestic airport, and currently has flights to İstanbul, Ankara and Nicosia, TRNC. Hatay Airport mostly serves Hatay Province. Another underconstruction airport is Çukurova Regional Airport, According to the newspaper Hürriyet, the project's cost will be 357 million Euro. When finished, it will serve to 15 million people, and the capacity will be doubled in the future. Sea[edit] There are daily seabus and vehicle-passenger ferry services from Taşucu to Kyrenia, Northern Cyprus. From Mersin port, there are ferry services to Famagusta. Road[edit] The O50 - O59 motorways crosses Cilicia. Motorways of Cilicia extends to Niğde on the north, Erdemli on the west and Şanlıurfa on the east, and İskenderun on the south. State road D-400 connects Cilicia to Antalya on the west. Adana–Kozan, Adana–Karataş, İskenderun–Antakya–Aleppo double roads are other regional roads. Railway[edit] Parallel to the highway network in Cilicia, there is an extensive railway network. Adana-Mersin train runs as a commuter train between Mersin, Tarsus and Adana. There are also regional trains from Adana to Ceyhan, Osmaniye and İskenderun. Society[edit] Cilicia was one of the most important regions for the Ottoman Armenians because it managed very well to preserve Armenian character throughout the years. In fact, the Cilician highlands were densely populated by Armenian peasants in small but prosperous towns and villages such as Hadjin and Zeitun, two mountainous areas where autonomy was maintained until the 19th century.[82][83] In ports and cities of the Adana plain, commerce and industry were almost entirely in the hands of the Armenians and they remained so thanks to a constant influx of Armenians from the highlands. Their population was continuously increasing in numbers in Cilicia in contrast to other parts of the Ottoman Empire, where it was, since 1878, decreasing due to repression. Mythological namesake[edit] Greek mythology mentions another Cilicia, as a small region situated immediately southeast of the Troad in northwestern Anatolia, facing the Gulf of Adramyttium. The connection (if any) between this Cilicia and the better-known and well-defined region mentioned above is unclear. This Trojan Cilicia is mentioned in Homer's Iliad and Strabo's Geography, and contained localities such as Thebe, Lyrnessus and Chryse (home to Chryses and Chryseis). These three cities were all attacked and sacked by Achilles during the Trojan War. In Prometheus Bound (v 353), Aeschylus mentions the Cilician caves (probably Cennet and Cehennem), where the earth-born, hundred-headed monster Typhon dwelt before he withstood the gods and was stricken and charred by Zeus's thunderbolt. Notes[edit] ^ Known less often as Kilikia (Armenian: Կիլիկիա; Greek: Κιλικία, Kilikía; Middle Persian: klkyʾy (Klikiyā), Parthian: kylkyʾ (Kilikiyā), Turkish: Kilikya). References[edit] ^ "2019 Population of Cilicia". Nufusune. Retrieved 2020-02-21. ^ a b "81 ilin 2018 yılı GSYH ve büyüme karnesi". dunya.com. Dünya. Retrieved 16 October 2020. ^ "Cilicia". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. Retrieved 6 April 2014.; "Cilicia". Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 25 May 2019. Retrieved 25 May 2019. ^ Ramsay, William Mitchell (1908) The Cities of St. Paul Their Influence on His Life and Thought: The cities of Eastern Asia Minor A.C. Armstrong, New York, page 112, OCLC 353134 ^ Baly, Denis and Tushingham, A. D. (1971) Atlas of the Biblical world World Publishing Company, New York, page 148, OCLC 189385 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Cilicia". Encyclopædia Britannica. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 365–366. ^ a b Edwards, I. E. S. (editor) (2006) The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 2, Part 2, History of the Middle East and the Aegean Region c. 1380–1000 B.C. (3rd edition) Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, page 680, ISBN 0-521-08691-4 ^ a b Fox, Robin Lane (2009) Travelling Heroes: In the Epic Age of Homer Alfred A. Knopf, , New York, pages 211-224, ISBN 978-0-679-44431-2 ^ Fox, Robin Lane (2009) Travelling Heroes: In the Epic Age of Homer Alfred A. Knopf, , New York, page 216, ISBN 978-0-679-44431-2 ^ a b c d Edwards, I. E. S. (editor) (2006) The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 2, Part 2, History of the Middle East and the Aegean Region c. 1380–1000 B.C. (3rd edition) Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, page 364, ISBN 0-521-08691-4 ^ Smith, William (1891) A Classical Dictionary of Biography, Mythology, and Geography based on the Larger Dictionaries (21st edition) J. Murry, London, page 456, OCLC 7105620 ^ Grant, Michael (1997). A Guide to the Ancient World. New York: Barnes & Noble, Inc. p. 168. ISBN 0-7607-4134-4. ^ Sayce, A. H. (October 1922) "The Decipherment of the Hittite Hieroglyphic Texts" The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 4: pp. 537–572, page 554 ^ Edwards, I. E. S. (editor) (2006) The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 2, Part 2, History of the Middle East and the Aegean Region c. 1380–1000 B.C. (3rd edition) Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, page 422, ISBN 0-521-08691-4 ^ Toynbee, Arnold Joseph and Myers, Edward DeLos (1961) A Study of History, Volume 7 Oxford University Press, Oxford, England, page 668, OCLC 6561573 ^ In general see: Bean, George Ewart and Mitford, Terence Bruce (1970) Journeys in Rough Cilicia, 1964–1968 (Volume 102 of Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-Historische Klasse.Denkschriften) Böhlau in Komm., Vienna, ISBN 3-205-04279-4 ^ a b Rife, Joseph L. (2002) "Officials of the Roman Provinces in Xenophon's "Ephesiaca"" Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 138: pp. 93–108 , page 96 ^ See also the history of Side (Σίδη). ^ Wainwright, G. A. (April 1956) "Caphtor - Cappadocia" Vetus Testamentum 6(2): pp. 199–210, pages 205–206 ^ Xenophon, Anabasis 1.2.22, noted the sesame and millet. ^ Remarked by Robin Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes in the Epic Age of Homer, 2008:73 and following pages ^ The modern plain has added cotton fields and orange groves. ^ 1 Kings 10:28, noted by Fox 2008:75 note 15. ^ Akpinar, Ezgi (September 2004). "The Natural Landscape - Hydrology" (PDF). Hellenistic & Roman Settlement Patterns in the Plain of Issus & the Amanus Range (Master of Arts Thesis). Ankara: Bilkent University. p. 12. Retrieved 2019-07-19. ^ a b Mellink, M.J. 1991. Anatolian Contacts with Chalcolithic Cyprus. ^ McKeon, John F. X. (1970). "An Akkadian Victory Stele". Boston Museum Bulletin. 68 (354): 239. ISSN 0006-7997. JSTOR 4171539. ^ Kapur, Selim; Eswaran, Hari; Blum, Winfried E. H. (2010-10-27). Sustainable Land Management: Learning from the Past for the Future. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-3-642-14782-1. ^ Fox, Robin Lane (2008-09-04). Travelling Heroes: Greeks and their myths in the epic age of Homer. Penguin UK. ISBN 978-0-14-188986-3. ^ Iliad 6.201. ^ Fox 2008:75 notes these city names. ^ Hallo, William W. (1971). The Ancient Near East: A History. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. pp. 111–112. ^ Hallo, p. 112. ^ Hallo, pp. 119–120. ^ Kasım Ener. "Adana İl Yıllığı". Adana Valiliği. Retrieved 28 March 2020. ^ Jona Lendering. "Syennesis I". Livius. Retrieved 29 March 2020. ^ https://www.livius.org/sources/content/achaemenid-royal-inscriptions/a2pa/ ^ Grant, Michael (1997). A Guide to the Ancient World. New York: Barnes & Noble, Inc. p. 169. ISBN 0-7607-4134-4. ^ Fox, Robin Lane (1974). Alexander the Great. The Dial Press. pp. 154–155. ^ For a full list of ancient cities and their coins see asiaminorcoins.com - ancient coins of Cilicia ^ WRIGHT, N.L. 2012: "The house of Tarkondimotos: a late Hellenistic dynasty between Rome and the East." Anatolian Studies 62: 69-88. ^ A Dictionary of the Roman Empire. By Matthew Bunson. ISBN 0-19-510233-9. See page 90. ^ Edwards, Robert W., "Isauria" (1999). Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World, eds., G.W. Bowersock, Peter Brown, & Oleg Grabar. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 377. ISBN 0-674-51173-5. ^ Kaegi, Walter Emil (1969). "Initial Byzantine Reactions to the Arab Conquest". Church History. 38 (2): 139–149. doi:10.2307/3162702. ISSN 0009-6407. ^ Edwards, Robert W. (1987). The Fortifications of Armenian Cilicia: Dumbarton Oaks Studies XXIII. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University. pp. 3–288. ISBN 0-88402-163-7. ^ Peter Jackson, Mongols and the West, p. 74. "King Het'um of Lesser Armenia, who had reflected profoundly upon the deliverance afforded by the Mongols from his neighbours and enemies in Rum, sent his brother, the Constable Smbat (Sempad) to Guyug's court to offer his submission." ^ Angus Donal Stewart, "Logic of Conquest", p. 8. "The Armenian king saw alliance with the Mongols – or, more accurately, swift and peaceful subjection to them – as the best course of action." ^ Har-El, Shai (1995). Struggle for Domination in the Middle East: The Ottoman-Mamluk War, 1485-91. Leiden, New York, Köln: E.J. Brill. ISBN 978-9004101807. ^ "106. yıldönümünde Adana Katliamı'nın ardındaki gerçekler". Agos Gazetesi. Retrieved 12 March 2020. ^ Yeghiayan, Puzant (1970), Ատանայի Հայոց Պատմութիւն [The History of the Armenians of Adana] (in Armenian), Beirut: Union of Armenian Compatriots of Adana, pp. 211–272 ^ See Raymond H. Kévorkian, "The Cilician Massacres, April 1909" in Armenian Cilicia, eds. Richard G. Hovannisian and Simon Payaslian. UCLA Armenian History and Culture Series: Historic Armenian Cities and Provinces, 7. Costa Mesa, California: Mazda Publishers, 2008, pp. 351–353. ^ "Adana araştırması ve saha çalışması". Hrant Dink Foundation. Retrieved 12 March 2020. ^ Jernazian, Ephraim K. (1990). Judgment Unto Truth: Witnessing the Armenian Genocide. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers. pp. 53–55. ISBN 0-88738-823-X. ^ Moumjian, Garabet K. "Cilicia Under French Administration: Armenian Aspirations, Turkish Resistance, and French Stratagems" in Armenian Cilicia, pp. 457–489. ^ "Cilicia in the years 1918–1923". Zum.de. Retrieved 2 October 2014. ^ "Ermeni Kültür Varlıklarıyla Adana" (PDF). HDV Yayınları. Retrieved 12 March 2020. ^ a b "Türkiye'de Arıcılık". Assale. Retrieved June 1, 2009.[permanent dead link] ^ "İskenderun Port Authority". Republic of Turkey Privatization Administration. Archived from the original on 2016-12-27. Retrieved 2020-02-21. ^ "Batman-Dörtyol Petrol Boru Hattı (Turkish)". BOTAŞ. Archived from the original on 2011-08-27. Retrieved 2020-02-21. ^ a b "Hatay". Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Archived from the original on 2014-10-23. Retrieved 2020-02-21. ^ a b "Hatay Hamamat Kaplıcası (Turkish)". Kaplıca ve Termal Turizm. Archived from the original on 2016-10-21. Retrieved 2020-02-21. ^ a b "Haruniye Kaplıcaları (Turkish)". Kaplıca ve Termal Turizm. Archived from the original on 2016-08-06. Retrieved 2020-02-21. ^ "2019 Population of Cilicia". Nufusune. Retrieved 2020-02-21. ^ Izady, Mehrdad (3 June 2015). Kurds: A Concise Handbook. ISBN 9781135844905. ^ "2011 Population of Towns in Adana Province". Statistics Institute of Turkey. Archived from the original on 2014-11-29. Retrieved 2020-02-21. ^ "2011 Population of Towns in Mersin Province". Statistics Institute of Turkey. Archived from the original on 2014-11-29. Retrieved 2020-02-21. ^ "2011 Population of Towns in Osmaniye Province". Statistics Institute of Turkey. Archived from the original on 2014-11-29. Retrieved 2020-02-21. ^ "Heaven & Hell". ÇUKTOB. Archived from the original on 2012-02-27. Retrieved 2020-02-21. ^ "Yılanlı Kale". ÇUKTOB. Archived from the original on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2020-02-21. ^ "Adana Governorship (Turkish)". ^ "Akyatan Bird Sanctuary". Çukurova Touristic Hoteliers Association. Archived from the original on 2011-10-09. Retrieved 2020-02-21. ^ "Yumurtalık Nature Reserve". Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2020-02-21. ^ "Aladağlar National Park". Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2020-02-21.[permanent dead link] ^ "Tekkoz-Kengerlidüz Nature Reserve". Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2020-02-21.[permanent dead link] ^ "Habibi Neccar Dagi Nature Reserve". Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2020-02-21.[permanent dead link] ^ "ÇÜ'de Öğrenci Kayıtları (Turkish)". Haber FX. Archived from the original on 2012-08-02. ^ "Student Statistics". Mersin University. Archived from the original on 2010-08-25. Retrieved 2020-02-21. ^ "University History (Turkish)". Mustafa Kemal University. Archived from the original on 2018-10-28. Retrieved 2020-02-21. ^ "Information about University". Korkut Ata University. Archived from the original on 2010-01-23. Retrieved 2020-02-21. ^ "Adana'ya bilim üniversitesi(Turkish)". Radikal. Retrieved March 31, 2011. ^ "Çağ University (Turkish)". Archived from the original on 2009-06-21. ^ "Toros Üniversitesi'ne rektör atandı. (Turkish)". Mersin Ajans. Retrieved 2020-02-21. ^ Bournoutian, Ani Atamian. "Cilician Armenia" in The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, Volume I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century. Ed. Richard G. Hovannisian. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997, pp. 283-290. ISBN 1-4039-6421-1. ^ Bryce, Viscount (2008). The Treatment of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire. Germany: Textor Verlag. pp. 465–467. ISBN 978-3-938402-15-3. Further reading[edit] Pilhofer, Philipp. 2018. Das frühe Christentum im kilikisch-isaurischen Bergland. Die Christen der Kalykadnos-Region in den ersten fünf Jahrhunderten (PDF; 27,4 MB) (Texte und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der altchristlichen Literatur, vol. 184). Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter ( ISBN 978-3-11-057381-7). Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, No. 282/283, Symposium: Chalcolithic Cyprus. pp. 167–175. Engels, David. 2008. "Cicéron comme proconsul en Cilicie et la guerre contre les Parthes", Revue Belge de Philologie et d'Histoire 86, pp. 23–45. Pilhofer, Susanne. 2006. Romanisierung in Kilikien? Das Zeugnis der Inschriften (Quellen und Forschungen zur Antiken Welt 46). Munich: Herbert Utz Verlag ( ISBN 3-8316-0538-6). And: 2., erweiterte Auflage, mit einem Nachwort von Philipp Pilhofer (Quellen und Forschungen zur Antiken Welt 60) Munich: Herbert Utz Verlag ( ISBN 978-3-8316-7184-7) External links[edit] Ancient Cilicia - texts, photographs, maps, inscriptions Jona Lendering, "Ancient Cilicia" Cilicia Photographs and Plans of the Churches and Fortifications in the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia Pilgrimages to Historic Armenia and Cilicia WorldStatesmen- Turkey Armenian Genocide Map's - Map of Kilikia (1909) v t e History of Anatolia v t e Historical regions of Anatolia Aeolis Bithynia Cappadocia Caria Cilicia Doris Galatia Ionia Isauria Lycaonia Lycia Lydia Mysia Pamphylia Paphlagonia Phrygia Pisidia Pontus Troad v t e Provinces of the early Roman Empire (117 AD) Achaea Aegyptus Africa proconsularis Alpes Cottiae Alpes Maritimae Alpes Graiae et Poeninae Arabia Petraea Armenia Asia Assyria Bithynia and Pontus Britannia Cappadocia Cilicia Corsica and Sardinia Crete and Cyrenaica Cyprus Dacia Dalmatia Epirus Galatia Gallia Aquitania Gallia Belgica Gallia Lugdunensis Gallia Narbonensis Germania Inferior Germania Superior Hispania Baetica Hispania Lusitania Hispania Tarraconensis Italia † Iudaea Lycia et Pamphylia Macedonia Mauretania Caesariensis Mauretania Tingitana Mesopotamia Moesia Inferior Moesia Superior Noricum Pannonia Inferior Pannonia Superior Raetia Sicilia Syria Thracia † Italy was never constituted as a province, instead retaining a special juridical status until Diocletian's reforms. v t e Late Roman and Byzantine provinces (4th–7th centuries AD) History As found in the Notitia Dignitatum. Provincial administration reformed and dioceses established by Diocletian, c. 293. Permanent praetorian prefectures established after the death of Constantine I. Empire permanently partitioned after 395. Exarchates of Ravenna and Africa established after 584. After massive territorial losses in the 7th century, the remaining provinces were superseded by the theme system in c. 640–660, although in Asia Minor and parts of Greece they survived under the themes until the early 9th century. Western Roman Empire (395–476) Praetorian Prefecture of Gaul Diocese of Gaul Alpes Poeninae et Graiae Belgica I Belgica II Germania I Germania II Lugdunensis I Lugdunensis II Lugdunensis III Lugdunensis IV Maxima Sequanorum Diocese of Vienne1 Alpes Maritimae Aquitanica I Aquitanica II Narbonensis I Narbonensis II Novempopulania Viennensis Diocese of Spain Baetica Balearica Carthaginensis Gallaecia Lusitania Mauretania Tingitana Tarraconensis Diocese of the Britains Britannia I Britannia II Flavia Caesariensis Maxima Caesariensis Valentia (?) Praetorian Prefecture of Italy Diocese of Suburbicarian Italy Apulia et Calabria Campania Corsica Lucania et Bruttii Picenum Suburbicarium Samnium Sardinia Sicilia Tuscia et Umbria Valeria Diocese of Annonarian Italy Alpes Cottiae Flaminia et Picenum Annonarium Liguria et Aemilia Raetia I Raetia II Venetia et Histria Diocese of Africa2 Africa proconsularis (Zeugitana) Byzacena Mauretania Caesariensis Mauretania Sitifensis Numidia (divided as Cirtensis and Militiana during the Tetrarchy) Tripolitania Eastern Roman/Byzantine Empire (395–c. 640) Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum Diocese of Pannonia3 Dalmatia Noricum mediterraneum Noricum ripense Pannonia I Pannonia II Savia Valeria ripensis Diocese of Dacia Dacia Mediterranea Dacia Ripensis Dardania Moesia I Praevalitana Diocese of Macedonia Achaea Creta Epirus Nova Epirus Vetus Macedonia Prima Macedonia II Salutaris Thessalia Praetorian Prefecture of the East Diocese of Thrace5 Europa Haemimontus Moesia II4 Rhodope Scythia4 Thracia Diocese of Asia5 Asia Caria4 Hellespontus Islands4 Lycaonia (370) Lycia Lydia Pamphylia Pisidia Phrygia Pacatiana Phrygia Salutaris Diocese of Pontus5 Armenia I5 Armenia II5 Armenia Maior5 Armenian Satrapies5 Armenia III (536) Armenia IV (536) Bithynia Cappadocia I5 Cappadocia II5 Galatia I5 Galatia II Salutaris5 Helenopontus5 Honorias5 Paphlagonia5 Pontus Polemoniacus5 Diocese of the East5 Arabia Cilicia I Cilicia II Cyprus4 Euphratensis Isauria Mesopotamia Osroene Palaestina I Palaestina II Palaestina III Salutaris Phoenice I Phoenice II Libanensis Syria I Syria II Salutaris Theodorias (528) Diocese of Egypt5 Aegyptus I Aegyptus II Arcadia Augustamnica I Augustamnica II Libya Superior Libya Inferior Thebais Superior Thebais Inferior Other territories Taurica Quaestura exercitus (536) Spania (552) 1 Later the Septem Provinciae 2 Re-established after reconquest by the Eastern Empire in 534 as the separate Prefecture of Africa 3 Later the Diocese of Illyricum 4 Placed under the Quaestura exercitus in 536 5 Affected (i.e. boundaries modified, abolished or renamed) by Justinian I's administrative reorganization in 534–536 v t e Journeys of Paul the Apostle First journey 1. Antioch 2. Seleucia 3. Cyprus 3a. Salamis 3b. Paphos 4. Perga 5. Antioch of Pisidia 6. Konya (Iconium) 7. Derbe 8. Lystra 9. Antalya 10. Antioch (returns to beginning of journey) Second journey 1. Cilicia 2. Derbe 3. Lystra 4. Phrygia 5. Galatia 6. Mysia (Alexandria Troas) 7. Samothrace 8. Neapolis 9. Philippi 9. Amphipolis 10. Apollonia 11. Thessalonica 12. Beroea 13. Athens 14. Corinth 15. Cenchreae 16. Ephesus 17. Syria 18. Caesarea 19. Jerusalem 20. Antioch Third journey 1. Galatia 2. Phrygia 3. Ephesus 4. Macedonia 5. Corinth 6. Cenchreae 7. Macedonia (again) 8. Troas 9. Assos 10. Mytilene 11. Chios 12. Samos 13. Miletus 14. Cos 15. Rhodes 16. Patara 17. Tyre 18. Ptolemais 19. Caesarea 20. Jerusalem v t e Armenian diaspora Population by country Largest communities Ethnic enclaves Traditional areas of Armenian settlement Artsakh (Nagorno-Karabakh) Nakhichevan Javakhk Western Armenia Cilicia Caucasus Azerbaijan (Baku) Georgia Tbilisi Abkhazia Former Soviet Union Russia Circassia Ukraine Crimea Belarus Moldova Baltic states Lithuania Central Asia Americas Argentina Brazil Canada Mexico United States Los Angeles Uruguay Europe Austria Bulgaria Belgium Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark France Germany Greece Hayhurum Hungary Italy Malta The Netherlands North Macedonia Norway Poland Romania Serbia Spain Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom Middle East Bahrain Egypt Iran Iraq Israel Jordan Kuwait Lebanon Qatar Syria Turkey Istanbul Hidden Armenians United Arab Emirates Asia Afghanistan Bangladesh China India Indonesia Surabaya Myanmar Pakistan Singapore Africa Ethiopia Sudan Oceania Australia Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cilicia&oldid=1000594177" Categories: Cilicia Anatolia Ancient Cilicia Ancient Greek geography Geography of Adana Province Historical regions of Anatolia History of Adana Province Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Turkey Regions of Asia Historical regions Hidden categories: Articles containing Armenian-language text Articles containing Greek-language text Articles containing Turkish-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica CS1 Armenian-language sources (hy) All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from March 2020 Articles with permanently dead external links Articles with dead external links from August 2020 Pages using the EasyTimeline extension Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata Pages using infobox settlement with possible demonym list Pages using infobox settlement with possible area code list Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from September 2010 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2012 Articles containing Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Alemannisch አማርኛ العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Asturianu Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська اردو 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 15 January 2021, at 20:13 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5654	----	Achaemenes - Wikipedia Achaemenes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the founder of the Persian dynasty. For other uses, see Achaemenes (disambiguation). "Hakhamanish" redirects here. For the administrative subdivision of Iran, see Hakhamanish District. Apical ancestor of the Achaemenid dynasty Achaemenes Apical ancestor of the Achaemenid dynasty Position of Achaemenes in the Achaemenid lineage. Successor Teispes Issue Teispes Old Persian Hakhāmaneš House Achaemenid Achaemenes (Old Persian: 𐏃𐎧𐎠𐎶𐎴𐎡𐏁, romanized: Haxāmaniš) was the apical ancestor of the Achaemenid dynasty of rulers of Persia. Other than his role as an apical ancestor, nothing is known of his life or actions. It is quite possible that Achaemenes was only the mythical ancestor of the Persian royal house, but if Achaemenes was a historical person, he would have lived around the end of the 8th century and the beginning of the 7th century BC.[1] Contents 1 Name 2 Historicity 2.1 Behistun inscription 2.2 Greek writers 3 See also 4 References Name[edit] The name used in European languages (Greek: Ἀχαιμένης (Achaiménēs), Latin: Achaemenes) ultimately derives from Old Persian Haxāmaniš (𐏃𐎧𐎠𐎶𐎴𐎡𐏁), as found together with Elamite 𒄩𒀝𒋡𒉽𒉡𒆜 (Ha-ak-ka-man-nu-iš or Hâkamannuiš) and Akkadian 𒀀𒄩𒈠𒉌𒅖𒀪 (A-ḫa-ma-ni-iš-ʾ) in the non-contemporaneous trilingual Behistun Inscription of Darius I. The Old Persian proper name is traditionally derived from haxā- "friend" and manah "thinking power", yielding "having a friend's mind."[2] A more recent interpretation reads haxā- as "follower", giving "characterized by a follower's spirit."[2] The name is spelled هخامنش (Haxâmaneš) in Modern Persian. Historicity[edit] In the Behistun inscription (c. 490 BC), Darius I portrays Achaemenes as the father of Teispes, ancestor of Cyrus II (Cyrus the Great) and Darius I.[1] The mid-5th century BC Histories (7.11) of Herodotus has essentially the same story, but fuses two parallel lines of descent from "Teispes son of Achaemenes". Beyond such brief mentions of the name, nothing is known of the figure behind it, neither from indigenous sources nor from historiographic ones. It may be that Achaemenes was just a mythical ancestor, not a historical one.[1][3] Many scholars believe he was a ruler of Parsumash, a vassal state of the Median Empire, and that from there he led armies against the Assyrian king Sennacherib in 681 BC.[4] Behistun inscription[edit] It may be that the Behistun inscription's claim of descent from Achaemenes was an invention of Darius I, in order to justify the latter's seizure of the throne. Cyrus II does not mention Achaemenes at all in the detailed genealogy given in the Cyrus cylinder.[1] While the patronym haxāmanišiya—"of [the clan of] Achaemenes"—does appear in an inscription at Pasargadae attributed to Cyrus II, this inscription may have been written on the order of Darius I after Cyrus' death.[1][5] As such, Achaemenes could be a retrograde creation of Darius the Great,[6] made in order to legitimize a dynastic relationship to Cyrus the Great. Darius certainly had much to gain in having an ancestor shared by Cyrus and himself (however, Teispes was already one), and may have felt the need for a stronger connection than that provided by his subsequent marriage to Cyrus' daughter Atossa. Greek writers[edit] The Greek writers of antiquity preserve several legends surrounding the figure:[7] The late 4th-century BC Alcibiades (120e) of (Pseudo-)Plato portrays Achaemenes as the hero-founder of the Persái in the same way that the Greeks are descended from Heracles, and that both Achaemenes and Hercules were sons of Perseus, son of Zeus. This is generally assumed to be an identification of Achaemenes with Perses (i.e. the son of Perseus and Andromeda) who in Greek mythology was imagined to be the ancestor of the "Persians". Another version of the tale makes Achaemenes the son of Aegeus, yet another founder-hero of legend. The 3rd-century Aelianus (De nat. anim. 12.21) has Achaemenes being bred by an eagle.[8] See also[edit] Achaemenid family tree References[edit] ^ a b c d e Dandamayev, M. A. (1983), "Achaemenes", Encyclopædia Iranica, vol. I, fasc. 4, Costa Mesa: Mazda, p. 414. ^ a b Schmitt, Rüdiger (1983), "Achaemenid dynasty", Encyclopædia Iranica, vol. I, fasc. 4, Costa Mesa: Mazda, pp. 414–426. ^ Bourke, Stephen (ed.) The Middle East: The Cradle of Civilization Revealed p. 216 ^ "Achaemenes | Persian ruler of Parsumash". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2018-02-25. ^ Bruce Lincoln. Religion, empire, and torture: the case of Achaemenian Persia, 2007, University of Chicago Press, Page 4–5 ^ Jamie Stokes (2009). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East, Volume 1. Infobase Publishing. pp. 2–3. ISBN 978-0-8160-7158-6. ^ Tavernier, Jan (2007), Iranica in the Achaemenid Period (ca. 550–330 B.C.): Linguistic Study of Old Iranian Proper Names and Loanwords, Attested in Non-Iranian Texts, Peeters, ISBN 978-90-429-1833-7. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Achaemenes" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 142. Achaemenes Achaemenid dynasty Born: 8th century BC Died: 7th century BC Preceded by none Succeeded by Teispes v t e Median and Achaemenid kings Family tree Median (728–550 BC) Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Achaemenid (550–330 BC) Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Nothus Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Italics indicate kings not directly attested and so possibly legendary. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Achaemenes&oldid=1002211984" Categories: 7th-century BC Iranian people 7th-century BC rulers in Asia Achaemenid dynasty People whose existence is disputed Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Latin-language text Articles containing Elamite-language text Articles containing Akkadian-language text Articles containing Persian-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages تۆرکجه Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ಕನ್ನಡ Magyar Malagasy مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Татарча/tatarça Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 January 2021, at 10:30 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5658	----	Neferkare Khendu - Wikipedia Neferkare Khendu From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Neferkare Khendu Neferkare IV The cartouche of Neferkare Khendu on the Abydos King List. Pharaoh Reign Unknown (Eighth Dynasty?) Predecessor Djedkare Shemai? Successor Merenhor? Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Neferkare Khendu nfr k3 rˁ ḫndw Perfect is the Ka of Ra, he who treads Neferkare Khendu (also Neferkare IV) was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the Eighth Dynasty during the early First Intermediate Period (2181–2055 BC). According to the Egyptologists Kim Ryholt, Jürgen von Beckerath and Darrell Baker he was the sixth king of the Eighth Dynasty.[1][2][3] Neferkare Khendu's name is attested on the Abydos King List (number 45), a king list dating to the Ramesside-era, and is absent from the Turin canon as a large lacuna in this document affects most kings of the 7th/8th Dynasty.[1] Cylinder seal with the cartouche "Khamudi", tentatively attributed to Neferkare Khendu by Henri Frankfort.[4][5] No attestation is firmly attributable to Neferkare Khendu beyond the Abydos king list, although a cylinder seal inscribed with the cartouche Ḫndy, "Khendy", has been tentatively attributed to him by the egyptologist Henri Frankfort in 1926.[2][4][5] Modern scholarship has shown however that the cartouche on the seal is most likely to read "Khamudi", name of the last king of the Hyksos, and furthermore that this cartouche was inserted on the seal as a space filler rather than as an explicit reference to this king.[6] The seal is now in the Petrie Museum, catalog number UC 11616.[6] References[edit] ^ a b Kim Ryholt: The Late Old Kingdom in the Turin King-list and the Identity of Nitocris, Zeitschrift für ägyptische, 127, 2000, p. 91 ^ a b Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 268-269 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen (Münchner ägyptologische Studien), 1984 ^ a b Henri Frankfort: Egypt and Syria in the First Intermediate Period in JEA, vol 12 (1926), see p. 92 and fig. 6. ^ a b Flinders Petrie: Scarabs and cylinders with names : illustrated by the Egyptian collection in University College, London (1917) available online, see pl. XIX, seal under the name "Khondy". ^ a b Seal with the cartouche of Khamudi Petrie Museum Online Catalog. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neferkare_Khendu&oldid=973449445" Categories: 22nd-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano ქართული Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands Português Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 17 August 2020, at 08:16 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5661	----	Indo-Iranians - Wikipedia Indo-Iranians From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The Sintashta-Petrovka culture (red), expanded into the Andronovo culture (orange) in the 2nd millennium BC, overlapped the Oxus civilization (green) in the south, and includes the area of the earliest chariots (pink) Part of a series on Indo-European topics Languages List of Indo-European languages Historical Albanian Armenian Balto-Slavic Baltic Slavic Celtic Germanic Hellenic Greek Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Italic Romance Extinct Anatolian Tocharian Paleo-Balkan Dacian Illyrian Liburnian Messapian Mysian Paeonian Phrygian Thracian Reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language Phonology: Sound laws, Accent, Ablaut Hypothetical Daco-Thracian Graeco-Armenian Graeco-Aryan Graeco-Phrygian Indo-Hittite Italo-Celtic Thraco-Illyrian Grammar Vocabulary Root Verbs Nouns Pronouns Numerals Particles Other Proto-Albanian Proto-Anatolian Proto-Armenian Proto-Germanic (Proto-Norse) Proto-Celtic Proto-Italic Proto-Greek Proto-Balto-Slavic (Proto-Slavic) Proto-Indo-Iranian (Proto-Iranian) Philology Hittite texts Hieroglyphic Luwian Linear B Rigveda Avesta Homer Behistun Gaulish epigraphy Latin epigraphy Runic epigraphy Ogam Gothic Bible Armenian Bible Slanting Brahmi Old Irish glosses Origins Homeland Proto-Indo-Europeans Society Religion Mainstream Kurgan hypothesis Indo-European migrations Eurasian nomads Alternative and fringe Anatolian hypothesis Armenian hypothesis Indigenous Aryans Baltic homeland Paleolithic Continuity Theory Archaeology Chalcolithic (Copper Age) Pontic Steppe Domestication of the horse Kurgan Kurgan culture Steppe cultures Bug–Dniester Sredny Stog Dnieper–Donets Samara Khvalynsk Yamnaya Mikhaylovka culture Novotitorovka culture Caucasus Maykop East Asia Afanasievo Eastern Europe Usatovo Cernavodă Cucuteni Northern Europe Corded ware Baden Middle Dnieper Bronze Age Pontic Steppe Chariot Yamnaya Catacomb Multi-cordoned ware Poltavka Srubna Northern/Eastern Steppe Abashevo culture Andronovo Sintashta Europe Globular Amphora Corded ware Beaker Unetice Trzciniec Nordic Bronze Age Terramare Tumulus Urnfield Lusatian South Asia BMAC Yaz Gandhara grave Iron Age Steppe Chernoles Europe Thraco-Cimmerian Hallstatt Jastorf Caucasus Colchian India Painted Grey Ware Northern Black Polished Ware Peoples and societies Bronze Age Anatolian peoples (Hittites) Armenians Mycenaean Greeks Indo-Iranians Iron Age Indo-Aryans Indo-Aryans Iranians Iranians Persians Medes Parthians Scythians Saka Sarmatians Massagetae Alans East Asia Wusun Yuezhi Europe Celts Gauls Celtiberians Insular Celts Cimmerians Hellenic peoples Italic peoples Germanic peoples Paleo-Balkan/Anatolia Thracians Dacians Illyrians Paeonians Phrygians Middle Ages East Asia Tocharians Europe Albanians Balts Slavs Norsemen/Medieval Scandinavians Medieval Europe Indo-Aryan Medieval India Iranian Greater Persia Religion and mythology Reconstructed Proto-Indo-European mythology Proto-Indo-Iranian religion Ancient Iranian religion Historical Hittite Indo-Aryan Vedic Hinduism Buddhism Jainism Sikhism Iranian Persian Zoroastrianism Kurdish Yazidism Yarsanism Scythian Ossetian Others Armenian Europe Paleo-Balkan (Albanian · Illyrian · Thracian · Dacian) Greek Roman Celtic Irish Scottish Breton Welsh Cornish Germanic Anglo-Saxon Continental Norse Baltic Latvian Lithuanian Slavic Practices Fire sacrifice Horse sacrifice Sati Winter solstice/Yule Indo-European studies Scholars Marija Gimbutas J. P. Mallory Institutes Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European Publications Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture The Horse, the Wheel and Language Journal of Indo-European Studies Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch Indo-European Etymological Dictionary v t e Indo-Iranian peoples, also known as Indo-Iranic peoples by scholars,[1] and sometimes as Arya or Aryans from their self-designation, were a group of Indo-European peoples who brought the Indo-Iranian languages, a major branch of the Indo-European language family, to major parts of Eurasia in the second part of the 3rd millennium BC. They eventually branched out into Iranian peoples and Indo-Aryan peoples. Contents 1 Nomenclature 2 Origin 3 Expansion 3.1 First wave – Indo-Aryans 3.1.1 The Mitanni of Anatolia 3.1.2 Indian subcontinent – Vedic culture 3.2 Second wave – Iranians 4 Archaeology 5 Language 6 Religion 6.1 Development 6.2 Cognate terms 7 Genetics 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Sources 12 Further reading 13 External links Nomenclature[edit] The term Aryan has been used historically to denote the Indo-Iranians, because Arya is the self designation of the ancient speakers of the Indo-Iranian languages, specifically the Iranian and the Indo-Aryan peoples, collectively known as the Indo-Iranians.[2][3] Some scholars now use the term Indo-Iranian to refer to this group, while the term "Aryan" is used to mean "Indo-Iranian" by other scholars such as Josef Wiesehofer,[4] Will Durant,[5] and Jaakko Häkkinen.[6][7] Population geneticist Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza, in his 1994 book The History and Geography of Human Genes, also uses the term Aryan to describe the Indo-Iranians.[8] Origin[edit] The early Indo-Iranians are commonly identified with the descendants of the Proto-Indo-Europeans known as the Sintashta culture and the subsequent Andronovo culture within the broader Andronovo horizon, and their homeland with an area of the Eurasian steppe that borders the Ural River on the west, the Tian Shan on the east (where the Indo-Iranians took over the area occupied by the earlier Afanasevo culture), and Transoxiana and the Hindu Kush on the south.[9] Based on its use by Indo-Aryans in Mitanni and Vedic India, its prior absence in the Near East and Harappan India, and its 19th–20th century BC attestation at the Andronovo site of Sintashta, Kuzmina (1994) argues that the chariot corroborates the identification of Andronovo as Indo-Iranian.[note 1] Anthony & Vinogradov (1995) harvcoltxt error: no target: CITEREFAnthonyVinogradov1995 (help) dated a chariot burial at Krivoye Lake to about 2000 BC, and a Bactria-Margiana burial that also contains a foal has recently been found, indicating further links with the steppes.[13] Historical linguists broadly estimate that a continuum of Indo-Iranian languages probably began to diverge by 2000 BC, if not earlier,[14]:38–39 preceding both the Vedic and Iranian cultures. The earliest recorded forms of these languages, Vedic Sanskrit and Gathic Avestan, are remarkably similar, descended from the common Proto-Indo-Iranian language. The origin and earliest relationship between the Nuristani languages and that of the Iranian and Indo-Aryan groups is not completely clear. Expansion[edit] Indo-European migrations c. 4000 to 1000 BC according to the Kurgan hypothesis. Magenta indicates the assumed Urheimat (Samara culture, Sredny Stog culture), red the area which may have been settled by Indo-European-speaking peoples up to c. 2500 BC, and orange the area to 1000 BC.[15] Archaeological cultures associated with Indo-Iranian migrations (after EIEC). The Andronovo, BMAC and Yaz cultures have often been associated with Indo-Iranian migrations. The GGC, Cemetery H, Copper Hoard and PGW cultures are candidates for cultures associated with Indo-Aryan movements. Main article: Indo-European migrations Two-wave models of Indo-Iranian expansion have been proposed by Burrow (1973)[16] and Parpola (1999). The Indo-Iranians and their expansion are strongly associated with the Proto-Indo-European invention of the chariot. It is assumed that this expansion spread from the Proto-Indo-European homeland north of the Caspian sea south to the Caucasus, Central Asia, the Iranian plateau, and Indian subcontinent. They also expanded into Mesopotamia and Syria and introduced the horse and chariot culture to this part of the world. First wave – Indo-Aryans[edit] Main article: Indo-Aryan migration The Mitanni of Anatolia[edit] Main article: Mitanni The Mitanni, a people known in eastern Anatolia from about 1500 BC, were of possibly of mixed origins: a Hurrian-speaking majority was supposedly dominated by a non-Anatolian, Indo-Aryan elite.[17]:257 There is linguistic evidence for such a superstrate, in the form of: a horse training manual written by a Mitanni man named Kikkuli, which was used by the Hittites, an Indo-European Anatolian people; the names of Mitanni rulers and; the names of gods invoked by these rulers in treaties. In particular, Kikkuli's text includes words such as aika "one" (i.e. a cognate of the Indo-Aryan eka), tera "three" (tri), panza "five" (pancha), satta "seven", (sapta), na "nine" (nava), and vartana "turn around", in the context of a horse race (Indo-Aryan vartana). In a treaty between the Hittites and the Mitanni, the Ashvin deities Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and Nasatya are invoked. These loanwords tend to connect the Mitanni superstrate to Indo-Aryan rather than Iranian languages – i.e. the early Iranian word for "one" was aiva.[18] Indian subcontinent – Vedic culture[edit] The standard model for the entry of the Indo-European languages into the Indian subcontinent is that this first wave went over the Hindu Kush, either into the headwaters of the Indus and later the Ganges. The earliest stratum of Vedic Sanskrit, preserved only in the Rigveda, is assigned to roughly 1500 BC.[17]:258[19] From the Indus, the Indo-Aryan languages spread from c. 1500 BC to c. 500 BC, over the northern and central parts of the subcontinent, sparing the extreme south. The Indo-Aryans in these areas established several powerful kingdoms and principalities in the region, from south eastern Afghanistan to the doorstep of Bengal. The most powerful of these kingdoms were the post-Rigvedic Kuru (in Kurukshetra and the Delhi area) and their allies the Pañcālas further east, as well as Gandhara and later on, about the time of the Buddha, the kingdom of Kosala and the quickly expanding realm of Magadha. The latter lasted until the 4th century BC, when it was conquered by Chandragupta Maurya and formed the center of the Mauryan empire. In eastern Afghanistan and southwestern Pakistan, whatever Indo-Aryan languages were spoken there were eventually pushed out by the Iranian languages. Most Indo-Aryan languages, however, were and still are prominent in the rest of the Indian subcontinent. Today, Indo-Aryan languages are spoken in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Fiji, Suriname and the Maldives. Second wave – Iranians[edit] The second wave is interpreted as the Iranian wave.[14]:42–43 The first Iranians to reach the Black Sea may have been the Cimmerians in the 8th century BC, although their linguistic affiliation is uncertain. They were followed by the Scythians, who are considered a western branch of the Central Asian Sakas. Sarmatian tribes, of whom the best known are the Roxolani (Rhoxolani), Iazyges (Jazyges) and the Alani (Alans), followed the Scythians westwards into Europe in the late centuries BC and the 1st and 2nd centuries AD (The Age of Migrations). The populous Sarmatian tribe of the Massagetae, dwelling near the Caspian Sea, were known to the early rulers of Persia in the Achaemenid Period. At their greatest reported extent, around 1st century AD, the Sarmatian tribes ranged from the Vistula River to the mouth of the Danube and eastward to the Volga, bordering the shores of the Black and Caspian seas as well as the Caucasus to the south.[20] In the east, the Saka occupied several areas in Xinjiang, from Khotan to Tumshuq. The Medians, Persians and Parthians begin to appear on the Iranian plateau from c. 800 BC, and the Achaemenids replaced Elamite rule from 559 BC. Around the first millennium AD, Iranian groups began to settle on the eastern edge of the Iranian plateau, on the mountainous frontier of northwestern and western Pakistan, displacing the earlier Indo-Aryans from the area. In Eastern Europe, the Iranians were eventually decisively assimilated (e.g. Slavicisation) and absorbed by the Proto-Slavic population of the region,[21][22][23][24] while in Central Asia, the Turkic languages marginalized the Iranian languages as a result of the Turkic expansion of the early centuries AD. Extant major Iranian languages are Persian, Pashto, Kurdish, and Balochi besides numerous smaller ones. Ossetian, primarily spoken in North Ossetia and South Ossetia, is a direct descendant of Alanic, and by that the only surviving Sarmatian language of the once wide-ranging East Iranian dialect continuum that stretched from Eastern Europe to the eastern parts of Central Asia. Archaeology[edit] Archaeological cultures associated with Indo-Iranian expansion include: Europe Poltavka culture (2700–2100 BC) Central Asia Andronovo horizon (2200–1000 BC) Sintashta-Petrovka-Arkaim (2200–1600 BC) Alakul (2100–1400 BC) Fedorovo (1400–1200 BC) Alekseyevka (1200–1000 BC) Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (2200–1700 BC) Srubna culture (2000–1100 BC) Abashevo culture (1700–1500 BC) Yaz culture (1500–1100 BC) Indian subcontinent Cemetery H culture (1900–1300 BC) Swat culture (1600–500 BC) Painted Gray Ware culture (1100–350 BC) Iran Early West Iranian Grey Ware (1500–1000 BC) Late West Iranian Buff Ware (900–700 BC) Parpola (1999) suggests the following identifications: date range archaeological culture identification suggested by Parpola 2800–2000 BC late Catacomb and Poltavka cultures late PIE to Proto–Indo-Iranian 2000–1800 BC Srubna and Abashevo cultures Proto-Iranian 2000–1800 BC Petrovka-Sintashta Proto–Indo-Aryan 1900–1700 BC BMAC "Proto-Dasa" Indo-Aryans establishing themselves in the existing BMAC settlements, defeated by "Proto-Rigvedic" Indo-Aryans around 1700 1900–1400 BC Cemetery H Indian Dasa 1800–1000 BC Alakul-Fedorovo Indo-Aryan, including "Proto–Sauma-Aryan" practicing the Soma cult 1700–1400 BC early Swat culture Proto-Rigvedic = Proto-Dardic 1700–1500 BC late BMAC "Proto–Sauma-Dasa", assimilation of Proto-Dasa and Proto–Sauma-Aryan 1500–1000 BC Early West Iranian Grey Ware Mitanni-Aryan (offshoot of "Proto–Sauma-Dasa") 1400–800 BC late Swat culture and Punjab, Painted Grey Ware late Rigvedic 1400–1100 BC Yaz II-III, Seistan Proto-Avestan 1100–1000 BC Gurgan Buff Ware, Late West Iranian Buff Ware Proto-Persian, Proto-Median 1000–400 BC Iron Age cultures of Xinjiang Proto-Saka Language[edit] Main article: Proto-Indo-Iranian language Indo-Iranian languages The Indo-European language spoken by the Indo-Iranians in the late 3rd millennium BC was a Satem language still not removed very far from the Proto-Indo-European language, and in turn only removed by a few centuries from Vedic Sanskrit of the Rigveda. The main phonological change separating Proto-Indo-Iranian from Proto–Indo-European is the collapse of the ablauting vowels *e, *o, *a into a single vowel, Proto–Indo-Iranian *a (but see Brugmann's law). Grassmann's law and Bartholomae's law were also complete in Proto-Indo-Iranian, as well as the loss of the labiovelars (kw, etc.) to k, and the Eastern Indo-European (Satem) shift from palatized k' to ć, as in Proto–Indo-European *k'ṃto- > Indo-Iran. *ćata- > Sanskrit śata-, Old Iran. sata "100". Among the sound changes from Proto-Indo-Iranian to Indo-Aryan is the loss of the voiced sibilant *z, among those to Iranian is the de-aspiration of the PIE voiced aspirates. Religion[edit] See also: Ancient Iranian religion, Historical Vedic religion, and Proto-Indo-European religion Despite the introduction of later Hindu and Zoroastrian scriptures, Indo-Iranians shared a common inheritance of concepts including the universal force *Hṛta- (Sanskrit rta, Avestan asha), the sacred plant and drink *sawHma- (Sanskrit Soma, Avestan Haoma) and gods of social order such as *mitra- (Sanskrit Mitra, Avestan and Old Persian Mithra, Miϑra) and *bʰaga- (Sanskrit Bhaga, Avestan and Old Persian Baga). Proto-Indo-Iranian religion is an archaic offshoot of Indo-European religion. From the various and dispersed Indo-Iranian cultures, a set of common ideas may be reconstructed from which a common, unattested proto-Indo-Iranian source may be deduced.[25] The pre-Islamic religion of the Nuristani people and extant religion of the Kalash people, is mostly based on the original religion of the Indo-Iranians, some of which are shared with Shinto, one of the national religions of Japan, which has some Indo-Iranian influence owing to contact presumably in the steppes of Central Asia at around 2000 BCE. In Shinto, traces of these can be seen in the myth of the storm god Susanoo slaying a serpent Yamata-no-Orochi and in the myth of the dawn goddess Ame-no-Uzume.[26][27][28] Development[edit] Beliefs developed in different ways as cultures separated and evolved. For example, the cosmo-mythology of the peoples that remained on the Central Asian steppes and the Iranian plateau is to a great degree unlike that of the Indians, focused more on groups of deities (*daiva and *asura) and less on the divinities individually.[citation needed] Indians were less conservative[citation needed] than Iranians in their treatment of their divinities, so that some deities were conflated with others or, conversely, aspects of a single divinity developed into divinities in their own right. By the time of Zoroaster, Iranian culture had also been subject to the upheavals of the Iranian Heroic Age (late Iranian Bronze Age, 1800–800 BC[citation needed]), an influence that the Indo-Aryans were not subject to.[citation needed] Sometimes certain myths developed in altogether different ways. The Rig-Vedic Sarasvati is linguistically and functionally cognate with Avestan *Haraxvaitī Ārəduuī Sūrā Anāhitā[citation needed]. In the Rig-Veda (6,61,5–7) she battles a serpent called Vritra, who has hoarded all of the Earth's water. In contrast, in early portions of the Avesta, Iranian *Harahvati is the world-river that flows down from the mythical central Mount Hara. But *Harahvati does no battle — she is blocked by an obstacle (Avestan for obstacle: vərəϑra) placed there by Angra Mainyu.[25] Cognate terms[edit] The following is a list of cognate terms that may be gleaned from comparative linguistic analysis of the Rigveda and Avesta. Both collections are from the period after the proposed date of separation (c. 2nd millennium BC) of the Proto-Indo-Iranians into their respective Indic and Iranian branches.[25] Indo-Iranian Vedic Sanskrit Avestan Common meaning *Hāpš āp āp "water," āpas "the Waters" *Hapām Napāts Apam Napat, Apām Napāt Apām Napāt the "water's offspring" *aryaman aryaman airyaman "Arya-hood" (lit:** "member of Arya community") *Hr̥tas rta asha/arta "active truth", extending to "order" & "righteousness" *atharwan atharvan āϑrauuan, aϑaurun "priest" *Haǰʰiš ahi azhi, (aži) "dragon, snake", "serpent" *daywas daiva, deva daeva, (daēuua) a class of divinities *manu manu manu "man" *mitra mitra mithra, miϑra "oath, covenant" *Hasuras asura ahura another class of spirits *sarwatāt sarvatat Hauruuatāt "intactness", "perfection" *SaraswatiH Sarasvatī Haraxvaitī (Ārəduuī Sūrā Anāhitā) a controversial (generally considered mythological) river, a river goddess *sawmas sauma, soma haoma a plant, deified *suHar ~ *suHr̥ svar hvar, xvar the Sun, also cognate to Greek helios, Latin sol, Engl. Sun *top ~ *tep Tapati tapaiti Possible fire/solar goddess; see Tabiti (a possibly Hellenised Scythian theonym). Cognate with Latin tepeo and several other terms. *wr̥tras Vrtra- verethra, vərəϑra (cf. Verethragna, Vərəϑraγna) "obstacle" *Yamas Yama Yima son of the solar deity Vivasvant/Vīuuahuuant *yaĵnas yajña yasna, object: yazata "worship, sacrifice, oblation" Genetics[edit] R1a1a (R-M17 or R-M198) is the sub-clade most commonly associated with Indo-European speakers. Most discussions purportedly of R1a origins are actually about the origins of the dominant R1a1a (R-M17 or R-M198) sub-clade. Data so far collected indicates that there are two widely separated areas of high frequency, one in the northern Indian subcontinent, and the other in Eastern Europe, around Poland and Ukraine.[citation needed] The historical and prehistoric possible reasons for this are the subject of on-going discussion and attention amongst population geneticists and genetic genealogists, and are considered to be of potential interest to linguists and archaeologists also. Out of 10 human male remains assigned to the Andronovo horizon from the Krasnoyarsk region, 9 possessed the R1a Y-chromosome haplogroup and one C-M130 haplogroup (xC3). mtDNA haplogroups of nine individuals assigned to the same Andronovo horizon and region were as follows: U4 (2 individuals), U2e, U5a1, Z, T1, T4, H, and K2b. A 2004 study also established that during the Bronze Age/Iron Age period, the majority of the population of Kazakhstan (part of the Andronovo culture during Bronze Age), was of west Eurasian origin (with mtDNA haplogroups such as U, H, HV, T, I and W), and that prior to the 13th–7th century BC, all Kazakh samples belonged to European lineages.[29] See also[edit] Proto–Indo-Iranian language Satemization Ariana Aryavarta Notes[edit] ^ Klejn (1974), as cited in Bryant 2001:206, acknowledges the Iranian identification of the Andronovo culture, but finds the Andronovo culture too late[clarification needed] for an Indo-Iranian identification, giving a later date for the start of the Andronovo culture "in the 16th or 17th century BC, whereas the Aryans appeared in the Near East not later than the 15th to 16th century BCE.[10] Klejn (1974, p.58) further argues that "these [latter] regions contain nothing reminiscent of Timber-Frame Andronovo materials."[10] Brentjes (1981) also gives a later dating for the Andronovo culture.[11] Bryant further refers to Lyonnet (1993) and Francfort (1989), who point to the absence of archaeological remains of the Andronovans south of the Hindu Kush.[11] Bosch-Gimpera (1973) and Hiebert (1998) argue that there also no Andronovo remains in Iran,[11] but Hiebert "agrees that the expansion of the BMAC people to the Iranian plateau and the Indus Valley borderlands at the beginning of the second millennium BCE is 'the best candidate for an archaeological correlate of the introduction of Indo-Iranian speakers to Iran and South Asia' (Hiebert 1995:192)".[12] Sarianidi states that the Andronovo tribes "penetrated to a minimum extent".[11] References[edit] ^ Naseer Dashti (8 October 2012). The Baloch and Balochistan: A historical account from the Beginning to the fall of the Baloch State. Trafford Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4669-5897-5. ^ The "Aryan" Language, Gherardo Gnoli, Instituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente, Roma, 2002. ^ . Schmitt, "Aryans" in Encyclopedia Iranica: Excerpt:"The name “Aryan” (OInd. ā́rya-, Ir. *arya- [with short a-], in Old Pers. ariya-, Av. airiia-, etc.) is the self designation of the peoples of Ancient India and Ancient Iran who spoke Aryan languages, in contrast to the “non-Aryan” peoples of those “Aryan” countries (cf. OInd. an-ā́rya-, Av. an-airiia-, etc.), and lives on in ethnic names like Alan (Lat. Alani, NPers. īrān, Oss. Ir and Iron.". Also accessed online: [1] in May, 2010 ^ Wiesehofer, Joseph: Ancient Persia. New York: 1996. I.B. Tauris. Recommends the use by scholars of the term Aryan to describe the Eastern, not the Western, branch of the Indo-European peoples (see "Aryan" in index) ^ Durant, Will: Our Oriental Heritage. New York: 1954. Simon and Schuster. According to Will Durant on Page 286: “the name Aryan first appears in the [name] Harri, one of the tribes of the Mitanni. In general it was the self-given appellation of the tribes living near or coming from the [southern] shores of the Caspian sea. The term is properly applied today chiefly to the Mitannians, Hittites, Medes, Persians, and Vedic Hindus, i.e., only to the eastern branch of the Indo-European peoples, whose western branch populated Europe.” ^ Häkkinen, Jaakko (2012). "Early contacts between Uralic and Yukaghir". In Tiina Hyytiäinen; Lotta Jalava; Janne Saarikivi; Erika Sandman (eds.). Per Urales ad Orientem (Festschrift for Juha Janhunen on the occasion of his 60th birthday on 12 February 2012) (PDF). Helsinki: Finno-Ugric Society. ISBN 978-952-5667-34-9. Retrieved 12 November 2013. ^ Häkkinen, Jaakko (23 September 2012). "Problems in the method and interpretations of the computational phylogenetics based on linguistic data – An example of wishful thinking: Bouckaert et al. 2012" (PDF). Jaakko Häkkisen puolikuiva alkuperäsivusto. Jaakko Häkkinen. Retrieved 12 November 2013. ^ Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca; Menozzi, Paolo; Piazza, Alberto (1994), The History and Geography of Human Genes, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, p. See "Aryan" in index, ISBN 978-0-691-08750-4 ^ Anthony 2007, p. 49. ^ a b Bryant 2001, p. 206. ^ a b c d Bryant 2001, p. 207. ^ Parpola 2015, p. 76. sfn error: no target: CITEREFParpola2015 (help) ^ Anthony & Vinogradov (1995) harvcoltxt error: no target: CITEREFAnthonyVinogradov1995 (help); Kuzmina (1994), Klejn (1974), and Brentjes (1981), as cited in Bryant (2001:206) ^ a b Mallory 1989 ^ Christopher I. Beckwith (2009), Empires of the Silk Road, Oxford University Press, p.30 ^ Burrow 1973. ^ a b Mallory & Mair 2000 ^ Bachenheimer, Avi (4 October 2018). Old Persian: Dictionary, Glossary and Concordance. John Wiley and Sons. p. 129. Retrieved 31 August 2019. ^ Rigveda – Britannica Online Encyclopedia ^ Apollonius (Argonautica, iii) envisaged the Sauromatai as the bitter foe of King Aietes of Colchis (modern Georgia). ^ Brzezinski, Richard; Mielczarek, Mariusz (2002). The Sarmatians, 600 BC-AD 450. Osprey Publishing. p. 39. (..) Indeed, it is now accepted that the Sarmatians merged in with pre-Slavic populations. ^ Adams, Douglas Q. (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Taylor & Francis. p. 523. (..) In their Ukrainian and Polish homeland the Slavs were intermixed and at times overlain by Germanic speakers (the Goths) and by Iranian speakers (Scythians, Sarmatians, Alans) in a shifting array of tribal and national configurations. ^ Atkinson, Dorothy; et al. (1977). Women in Russia. Stanford University Press. p. 3. (..) Ancient accounts link the Amazons with the Scythians and the Sarmatians, who successively dominated the south of Russia for a millennium extending back to the seventh century B.C. The descendants of these peoples were absorbed by the Slavs who came to be known as Russians. ^ Slovene Studies. 9–11. Society for Slovene Studies. 1987. p. 36. (..) For example, the ancient Scythians, Sarmatians (amongst others), and many other attested but now extinct peoples were assimilated in the course of history by Proto-Slavs. ^ a b c Gnoli, Gherardo (March 29, 2012). "INDO-IRANIAN RELIGION". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved July 10, 2018. ^ Witzel, Michael (2012). The Origin of the World's Mythologies. ^ Witzel, Michael (2005). Vala and Iwato: The Myth of the Hidden Sun in India, Japan, and beyond (PDF). ^ http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/KalashaReligion.pdf ^ Lalueza-Fox, C.; Sampietro, M. L.; Gilbert, M. T.; Castri, L.; Facchini, F.; Pettener, D.; Bertranpetit, J. (2004). "Unravelling migrations in the steppe: Mitochondrial DNA sequences from ancient central Asians". Proceedings. Biological Sciences. 271 (1542): 941–947. doi:10.1098/rspb.2004.2698. PMC 1691686. PMID 15255049. Sources[edit] Anthony, David W. (2007), The Horse The Wheel And Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World, Princeton University Press Bryant, Edwin (2001), The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-513777-4 Burrow, T. (1973), "The Proto-Indoaryans", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 105 (2): 123–140, doi:10.1017/S0035869X00130837, JSTOR 25203451 Diakonoff, Igor M.; Kuz'mina, E. E.; Ivantchik, Askold I. (1995), "Two Recent Studies of Indo-Iranian Origins", Journal of the American Oriental Society, American Oriental Society, 115 (3), pp. 473–477, doi:10.2307/606224, JSTOR 606224. Jones-Bley, K.; Zdanovich, D. G. (eds.), Complex Societies of Central Eurasia from the 3rd to the 1st Millennium BC, 2 vols, JIES Monograph Series Nos. 45, 46, Washington D.C. (2002), ISBN 0-941694-83-6, ISBN 0-941694-86-0. Kuz'mina, Elena Efimovna (1994), Откуда пришли индоарии? (Whence came the Indo-Aryans), Moscow: Российская академия наук (Russian Academy of Sciences). Kuz'mina, Elena Efimovna (2007), Mallory, James Patrick (ed.), The Origin of the Indo-Iranians, Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series, Leiden: Brill Mallory, J.P. (1989), In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology, and Myth, London: Thames & Hudson. Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (1997), "Indo-Iranian Languages", Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture, Fitzroy Dearborn. Mallory, J. P.; Mair, Victor H. (2000), The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest People from the West, London: Thames & Hudson. Parpola, Asko (1999), "The formation of the Aryan branch of Indo-European", in Blench, Roger; Spriggs, Matthew (eds.), Archaeology and Language, III: Artefacts, languages and texts, London and New York: Routledge. Sulimirski, Tadeusz (1970), Daniel, Glyn (ed.), The Sarmatians, Ancient People and Places, Thames & Hudson, ISBN 0-500-02071-X Witzel, Michael (2000), "The Home of the Aryans" (PDF), in Hintze, A.; Tichy, E. (eds.), Anusantatyai. Fs. für Johanna Narten zum 70. Geburtstag, Dettelbach: J.H. Roell, pp. 283–338. Chopra, R. M., "Indo-Iranian Cultural Relations Through The Ages", Iran Society, Kolkata, 2005. Further reading[edit] Vasil’ev, I. B., P. F. Kuznetsov, and A. P. Semenova. "Potapovo Burial Ground of the Indo-Iranic Tribes on the Volga (from original:"Potapovskii kurgannyi mogil’nik indoiranskikh plemen na Volge") (1994). External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Indo-Iranians The Origin of the Pre-Imperial Iranian People by Oric Basirov (2001) The Origin of the Indo-Iranians Elena E. Kuz'mina. Edited by J.P. Mallory (2007) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indo-Iranians&oldid=1001494352" Categories: Indo-Iranian peoples Ancient peoples of Asia Nomadic groups in Eurasia Indo-European peoples Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2019 Harv and Sfn no-target errors All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2013 Articles with unsourced statements from October 2008 Articles with unsourced statements from May 2020 Articles with unsourced statements from July 2010 Articles with unsourced statements from January 2016 CS1: long volume value Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages العربية Български Čeština فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano Lietuvių Malagasy Nederlands नेपाली Norsk bokmål Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi தமிழ் Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 19 January 2021, at 23:12 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-566	----	Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Egypt c. 1580 BC–c. 1550 BC Sarcophagus of Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef, Louvre Museum Capital Thebes Common languages Egyptian language Religion ancient Egyptian religion Government Absolute monarchy Historical era Bronze Age • Established c. 1580 BC • Disestablished c. 1550 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt The Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt (notated Dynasty XVII, alternatively 17th Dynasty or Dynasty 17) is classified as the third dynasty of the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt. The 17th Dynasty dates approximately from 1580 to 1550 BC.[1] Its mainly Theban rulers are contemporary with the Hyksos of the Fifteenth Dynasty and succeed the Sixteenth Dynasty, which was also based in Thebes. In March 2012, French archeologists examining a limestone door in the Precinct of Amun-Re at Karnak discovered hieroglyphs with the name Senakhtenre, the first evidence of this king dating to his lifetime.[2] The last two kings of the dynasty opposed the Hyksos rule over Egypt and initiated a war that would rid Egypt of the Hyksos kings and began a period of unified rule, the New Kingdom of Egypt. Kamose, the second son of Seqenenre Tao and last king of the Seventeenth Dynasty, was the brother of Ahmose I, the first king of the Eighteenth Dynasty. Contents 1 Pharaohs of the 17th Dynasty 2 See also 3 References 4 External links Pharaohs of the 17th Dynasty[edit] The Pharaohs of the 17th Dynasty ruled for approximately 30 years. Known rulers of the 17th Dynasty are as follows:[1] Seventeenth Dynasty pharaohs Pharaoh Image Throne Name / Prenomen Reign Burial Consort(s) Comments Rahotep Sekhemre-wahkhaw c. 1585 BC Sobekemsaf I Sekhemre-wadjkhaw 7 years Nubemhat Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-shedtawy Robbed during the reign of Ramesses IX Nubkhaes Intef V Sekhemre-wepmaat Dra' Abu el-Naga'? Intef VI Nubkheperre Dra' Abu el-Naga' Sobekemsaf Intef VII Sekhemre-heruhermaat Haankhes Ahmose Senakhtenre 1 year Tetisheri Tao Seqenenre c. 1560 (4 years) Ahmose Inhapy Sitdjehuti Ahhotep I Died in battle against the Hyksos Kamose Wadjkheperre 1555 to 1550 BC (5 years) Ahhotep II? Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e Finally, king Nebmaatre may have been a ruler of the early 17th Dynasty.[3] See also[edit] List of pharaohs References[edit] ^ a b Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. p. 481. ISBN 0-19-815034-2. ^ "A Pharaoh of the Seventeenth dynasty identified at Karnak". CFEETK – Centre Franco-Égyptien d'Étude des Temples de Karnak. Archived from the original on 2012-03-11. ^ K. S. B. Ryholt, Adam Bülow-Jacobse, The political situation in Egypt during the second intermediate period, c. 1800-1550 B.C., pp 168, 170, 171, 179, 204, 400 External links[edit] Kings of the Second Intermediate Period: University College London Preceded by 16th Dynasty Dynasty of Egypt 1585−1550 BC Succeeded by 18th Dynasty This article about Egyptology or subjects relating to Ancient Egypt is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seventeenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=1001021750" Categories: Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt States and territories established in the 16th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 16th century BC Dynasties of ancient Egypt 16th century BC in Egypt 2nd-millennium BC establishments in Egypt 2nd-millennium BC disestablishments in Egypt 2nd millennium BC in Egypt Ancient Egypt stubs Hidden categories: All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 17 January 2021, at 21:52 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5691	----	Neferhotep I - Wikipedia Neferhotep I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Egyptian pharaoh "Neferhotep" redirects here. For other uses, see Neferhotep (disambiguation). Neferhotep I Statue of Neferhotep I from the Faiyum, Archaeological Museum of Bologna.[1] Pharaoh Reign 11 years and 1–4 months,[2][3] 1747—1736 BC,[4] 1742–1733 BC,[2] 1741–1730 BC,[5] c. 1740 BC,[6] 1740–1729 BC,[7] 1721–1710 BC,[8] 1705–1694 BC,[9] (13th Dynasty) Coregency Sihathor, then Sobekhotep IV Predecessor Sobekhotep III Successor Sihathor as coregent, then Sobekhotep IV Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Khasekhemre Ḫˁ-sḫm-Rˁ The might of Ra appears Nomen Neferhotep Nfr-ḥtp Beautiful and peaceful Horus name Geregtawy Grg-t3.wj Founder of the two lands Nebty name Wepmaat Wp-m3ˁ.t He who accomplishes the Maat Golden Horus Menmerut Mn-mrwt Stable of love Turin canon[10] Kha[...]re NeferhotepḪˁ-Rˁ-...-nfr-htp [...] of Ra appears, he who is beautiful and peaceful Karnak king list Khasekhemre Ḫˁ-sḫm-Rˁ The might of Ra appears Consort Senebsen Children Haankhef, Kemi, Wahneferhotep Father Haankhef Mother Kemi Burial uncertain, possibly tomb S9 in Abydos, see text Khasekhemre Neferhotep I was an Egyptian pharaoh of the mid Thirteenth Dynasty ruling in the second half of the 18th century BC[2] during a time referred to as the late Middle Kingdom or early Second Intermediate Period, depending on the scholar. One of the best attested rulers of the 13th Dynasty, Neferhotep I reigned for 11 years. The grandson of a non-royal townsman from a Theban family with a military background, Neferhotep I's relation to his predecessor Sobekhotep III is unclear and he may have usurped the throne. Neferhotep I was likely contemporaneous with kings Zimri-Lim of Mari and Hammurabi of Babylon. Little is known of his activities during his decade-long reign and the most important document surviving from his rule is a stela from Abydos recounting the fashioning of an image of Osiris and Neferhotep's determination that it be made "as instructed by the gods at the beginning of time".[6] Towards the end of his reign, Neferhotep I shared the throne with his brother Sihathor, a coregency that lasted a few months to a year.[11] Sihathor died shortly before Neferhotep, who probably then appointed another brother, Sobekhotep IV, as coregent. In any case, Sobekhotep IV succeeded Neferhotep I soon afterwards, and reigned over Egypt for almost a decade. The reigns of the two brothers mark the apex of the 13th Dynasty. Contents 1 Family 1.1 Origins 1.2 Descendants and succession 2 Reign 2.1 Attestations 2.2 Chronology 2.3 Extent of rule 2.4 Activities 2.5 Tomb 3 Coregencies 4 Historical synchronism 5 References Family[edit] Scarab seals of the "Royal sealer, god's father Haankhef", father of Neferhotep I and the "member of the elite, king's daughter Kema", daughter of Neferhotep I.[12] Origins[edit] Neferhotep I seems to have come from a non-royal family of Thebes with a military background.[6] His grandfather, Nehy, held the title "officer of a town regiment". Nehy was married to a woman called Senebtysy. Nothing is known about her other than that she held the common title "lady of the house". Their only known son was called Haankhef.[2] Haankhef always appears in the sources as "God's father" and "royal sealer" and his wife Kemi as "king's mother" indicating that neither of them was of royal birth. The parentage of Neferhotep and Haankhef is directly confirmed by a number of scarab seals from El-Lahun where the latter is said to be the father of the former.[2] Haankhef is also explicitly recorded as the father of Neferhotep I in the Turin canon, a king list compiled during the early Ramesside era and which serves as the primary historical source for the rulers of this time period. This is an extremely rare occurrence as the Turin canon normally only names the pharaohs, while non-royal people are excluded from the list. Beyond Haankhef, the only other exception to this rule is the father of Sobekhotep II.[2] Egyptologists have noted that instead of hiding their non-royal origins, Neferhotep I, his predecessor Sobekhotep III, and his successor Sobekhotep IV, remarkably, proclaimed them on their stelae and scarab seals.[2] This is at odds with the traditional Egyptian system where the legitimacy of the new king rests mainly on his filiation. These proclamations of non-royal origins were possibly made to dissociate these kings from their immediate predecessors, in particular Seth Meribre whose monuments have been usurped and defaced.[2] The reason for this remains unknown.[2] Descendants and succession[edit] Inscriptions from Aswan indicate that Neferhotep I had at least two children, named Haankhef and Kemi like his parents, with a woman called Senebsen.[2][13] He also possibly had another son named Wahneferhotep.[14] In spite of this, Neferhotep I named his brother Sihathor as coregent in the last months of his reign and when both Sihathor and Neferhotep I died around the same time, they were succeeded by another brother, Sobekhotep IV.[2][15] Sobekhotep IV, whose reign marks the apex of the 13th Dynasty, mentions on a stela (Cairo JE 51911) that was placed in the temple of Amun at Karnak that he was born in Thebes:[16] My majesty [came] to the Southern City since I wanted to see the august god; it is my city in which I was born. ... I saw the vigor of his majesty (i.e. Amun) at every single feast when I was a child who could not yet conceive. Similarly, Neferhotep I could well have been born in Thebes; even though the capital of Egypt during the 13th Dynasty was still Itjtawy in the north, near the modern village of el-Lisht. Reign[edit] Attestations[edit] Scarab reading "Son of Re, Neferhotep, born of the Royal Mother, Kemi".[12] Artefacts Neferhotep I is known from a relatively high number of objects found over a large area, from Byblos to the north to the Egyptian fortresses of Buhen[17] and Mirgissa[18] in Lower Nubia to the south[3] through all parts of Egypt, especially in the southern portion of Upper Egypt.[3] A single attestation is known from Lower Egypt, a scarab from Tell el-Yahudiya.[2][19] Other attestations include over 60 scarab seals,[14][20][21][22] 2 cylinder-seals,[23][24] a statue from Elephantine,[25] and 11 rock inscriptions from Wadi el Shatt el-Rigal,[26] Sehel Island,[27][28][29] Konosso[27][29] and Philae.[15][29] The inscriptions record the members of Neferhotep's family as well as two high officials serving him "The royal acquaintance Nebankh" and the "Treasurer Senebi".[2] Two stelae are known from Abydos one of which, usurped from king Wegaf and dated to his fourth regnal year, forbids the construction of tombs on the sacred processional way of Wepwawet.[7][30] Two naoses housing two statues each of Neferhotep, as well as a pedestal bearing Neferhotep's and Sobekhotep IV's cartouches, have been found in Karnak.[2][31] There are also a few attestations from the Faiyum region where the capital of Egypt was located at the time, in particular a statuette of the king dedicated to Sobek and Horus of Shedet, now on display in the Archaeological Museum of Bologna.[3] King lists Beyond these contemporary attestations, Neferhotep is listed on the 34th entry of the Karnak king list[32] as well as the 7th column, 25th row of the Turin canon.[3][33] The Turin king list credits Neferhotep with a reign of 11 years and 1 to 4 months, the second or third longest of the dynasty after Merneferre Ay (23 years) and Sobekhotep IV (9–12 years).[2] Chronology[edit] Inscription on Sehel island showing Anukis giving the life sign to Neferhotep I.[27] Neferhotep I's relative chronological position is secured thanks to the Turin canon as well as contemporary attestations. He was the successor of Sobekhotep III and predecessor of Sobekhotep IV. Since his father Haankhef and mother Kemi are also well attested and not known to have had any title beyond those of "God's father" and "King's mother", respectively, Egyptologists such as Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker believe that Neferhotep I was of non-royal birth and usurped the throne. The military background of his family might have played a role in this.[3] On the other hand, the absolute chronological position of Neferhotep is debated, with Ryholt and Baker seeing him respectively as the 26th and 27th pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty while Detlef Franke and Jürgen von Beckerath contend that he was only the 22nd ruler.[8][34] Similarly, the absolute dating of Neferhotep's reign varies by as much as 40 years between the scholars, with Kim Ryholt dating the beginning of his reign c. 1740 BC and Thomas Schneider c. 1700 BC.[2][9] Extent of rule[edit] Statue of Neferhotep I from his first naos found in Karnak, now in the Egyptian Museum.[35][36] Whether Neferhotep I usurped the throne at the expense of Sobekhotep III or inherited it, it's possible he acceded to power over a fragmented Egypt. The Egyptologist Kim Ryholt believes that the Canaanite 14th Dynasty was already in existence at the time, forming an independent realm controlling at least the Eastern Nile Delta.[2] This could explain why Neferhotep's only attestation in Lower Egypt is a single scarab seal. While this analysis is accepted by some scholars, among whom are Gae Callender, Janine Bourriau and Darrell Baker,[3][7][37] it is rejected by others, including Manfred Bietak, Daphna Ben-Tor and James and Susan Allen, who contend that Neferhotep I reigned over the whole of Egypt.[38][39][40] Examples of evidence for this point of view are the several attestations of Neferhotep found northeast of Egypt, in the Levant, in particular the stela of the Governor of Byblos Yantinu[41] and four scarab seals from Canaan,[20] indicating that he retained enough power to maintain trade relations with this region. Alternatively, recent excavations have yielded seals of Neferhotep's brother Sobekhotep IV in proximity with seals of the powerful Hyksos king Khyan of the 15th Dynasty (c.1650–1550 BC) in a closed archaeological context,[42] possibly indicating that the two were contemporary.[43] If this is so, Neferhotep I would have been contemporary with either Khyan or one of his predecessors, such as Sakir-Har, and would not have reigned over the Nile Delta. This conclusion is strongly debated at the moment since Sobekhotep IV and Khyan are separated by c. 100 years in the conventional Egyptian chronology. Activities[edit] In spite of the numerous attestations known for Neferhotep I, relatively little is known of the activities he undertook during his decade-long reign. The pedestal[31] of Neferhotep I and Sobekhotep IV as well as the naos of Neferhotep discovered by Georges Legrain in Karnak[36] indicate that he undertook some building works there.[2] This is further confirmed by the 2005 discovery in Karnak of a second naos housing a 1.80 m (5.9 ft) tall double statue of Neferhotep holding hands with himself. The naos was located beneath the foundations of the northern obelisk of Hatshepsut.[44][45][46] The most important monument of the king surviving to this day is a large, heavily eroded stela dating to his second regnal year and found in Abydos. The inscription on the stela is one of the few ancient Egyptian royal texts to record how a king might conceive of and order the making of a sculpture. As usual, the stela begins with Neferhotep's titulary:[47][48][49] The Majesty of the Horus: Founder of the Two Lands, He of the Two Ladies: Revealing the Truth, Falcon of Gold: Lasting of Love, King of Upper and Lower Egypt Khasekhemre, Son of Ra Neferhotep, born to the king's mother Kemi, granted life, stability, and dominion like Ra forever. It then describes how Neferhotep, residing in his palace "Exalted of Beauty" likely located in Itjtawy, desires that an image of Osiris be made in order for it to participate in the yearly festival held in the god's honour in Abydos in Upper Egypt.[47] To this end, Neferhotep first enquires to his officials about instructions regarding the making of divine images said to be contained in "the primeval writings of Atum".[47] His officials then bring him to a temple library where the writings are located and he orders a messenger, the "Custodian of the Royal Property", to be sent to the Abydos festival. Meanwhile, or possibly before sending the messenger, the statue of Osiris is made of silver, gold and copper, the work being carried out under the supervision of the king.[47] Finally, the king himself goes to Abydos to celebrate the festival of Osiris.[6] More generally, Neferhotep's time on the throne was likely prosperous as there are many private monuments datable to his reign and that of his brother,[50] and especially in sculpture some remarkably high quality art works were produced. Tomb[edit] Main article: S 9 (Abydos) As of 2017, the tomb of Neferhotep I has not been formally identified, although a strong case now exists for it to be in Abydos. Since 2013 a team of archaeologists from the University of Pennsylvania under the direction of Josef W. Wegner has been excavating a Late Middle Kingdom—Second Intermediate Period royal necropolis in Abydos, at the foot of a natural hill known to the ancient Egyptians as the Mountain of Anubis. The necropolis is located just next to the massive funerary complex of Senusret III of the 12th Dynasty and comprises two further large tombs, likely to have been pyramids built during the mid-13th Dynasty, as well as no less than eight royal tombs, possibly dating to the Abydos Dynasty. One of the large tombs, which was extensively plundered of goods and stones during the Second Intermediate Period, known today as tomb S10, is now believed to belong to king Sobekhotep IV, Neferhotep's brother, on the basis of several finds showing Sobkehotep's name from the nearby royal tombs, such as that of Woseribre Senebkay. As a corollary, Wegner has suggested that the anonymous, large, neighboring tomb S9 could have belonged to Neferhotep I. Egyptologists have also noted that both kings were very active in the Abydos region during their reigns.[51] Older hypotheses concerning the location of Neferhotep's tomb included that proposed by Nicolas Grimal, that Neferhotep was buried in a pyramid at el-Lisht, close to that of Senusret I,[5] an opinion shared by Michael Rice.[6] This remains conjectural, as no artefact permitting the identification of Neferhotep as the owner of such a pyramid has been found. Grimal's hypothesis relies only on indirect evidence: the presence of scarabs of Neferhotep in Lisht as well as the discovery of a shawabti of a prince Wahneferhotep "(King) Neferhotep endures" close to the northern gateway of the mortuary temple of the pyramid complex of Senusret I.[14][52][53] The shawabti was wrapped in linen and placed in a miniature coffin,[54] which is dated to the 13th Dynasty on stylistic grounds. This together with the name of Wahneferhotep and his title of "King's son" indicate that Wahneferhotep was likely a son of Neferhotep I,[14] who may have been buried in the vicinity of his father's pyramid. Alternatively, Dawn Landua-McCormack suggested that the Southern South Saqqara pyramid could have been a candidate for Neferhotep's burial site. This pyramid, datable to the middle 13th Dynasty, was provided with two elaborate sarcophagus chambers which might have been destined for two wealthy brother kings of the dynasty such as Neferhotep I and Sobekhotep IV.[55] Coregencies[edit] Drawing by Karl Richard Lepsius of a rock inscription from Konosso showing Montu, Min and Satet with the cartouches of Neferhotep I.[27] The circumstances of Neferhotep's death after a reign of eleven years are unknown. His successor was his brother, Sobekhotep IV, who is perhaps the most important ruler of the 13th Dynasty.[2] Another brother, Sihathor, appears in the Turin canon as successor, but it seems that he only reigned for a few months as coregent with Neferhotep I and never became an independent ruler, likely because he predeceased his elder brother. After this, it is possible that Neferhotep I designated his younger brother Sobekhotep IV as coregent. There are two inscriptions from Sehel showing Neferhotep I, Sihathor and Sobekhotep IV, which could mean that they reigned for some time together,[11] although Sihathor is declared dead on both lists.[3] Another piece of evidence is an inscription from the Wadi Hammamat showing the cartouches of Neferhotep I and Sobekhotep IV on par, next to each other.[3][56] Some Egyptologists see this as evidence of a coregency between these two kings, while others, including Ryholt, reject this interpretation and believe the inscription was made by Sobekhotep to honour his deceased brother.[2][3] Historical synchronism[edit] A stela bearing Neferhotep I's name is of great importance to archaeologists and historians alike as it enables a concordance between the Egyptian and Near Eastern chronologies.[41] This stela depicts the "Governor of Byblos, Yantinu ... who was begotten by Governor Yakin" seated upon a throne, in front of which are the nomen and prenomen of Neferhotep I.[2] This is significant for two reasons: first, Yakin is plausibly identifiable with a Yakin-Ilu of Byblos known from a cylinder seal of Sehetepibre, indicating that this king and Neferhotep are separated by a generation.[2] Second, a "King of Byblos Yantin-'Ammu" is known from the archives of Mari who is most likely the same person as the Governor of Byblos Yantinu of the stela.[57] Indeed, Byblos was a semi-autonomous Egyptian governorate at the time and "the king of Byblos" must be the Semitic king of the city ruling it in the name of the pharaoh. The archives of Mari predominantly date to the reign of the last king of the city, Zimri-Lim, a contemporary of Hammurabi who ultimately sacked Mari. This provides the synchronism Neferhotep I – Yantinu – Zimri-Lim – Hammurabi.[2] References[edit] ^ S. Pernigotti: La statuaria egiziana nel Museo Civico Archeologico di Bologna, Bologna 1980, 29–30, pl.27–29. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 252–254 ^ Redford, Donald B., ed. (2001). "Egyptian King List". The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 2. Oxford University Press. pp. 626–628. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5. ^ a b Nicolas Grimal: A History of Ancient Egypt, Wiley-Blackwell 1994, ISBN 978-0-631-19396-8, p.184 ^ a b c d e Michael Rice: Who is who in Ancient Egypt, Routledge London & New York 1999, ISBN 0-203-44328-4, see p. 131 ^ a b c Gae Callender: The Middle Kingdom Renaissance (c. 2055–1650 BC) in Ian Shaw (editor): The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press (2004), ISBN 978-0-19-280458-7 ^ a b Erik Hornung (editor), Rolf Krauss (editor), David A. Warburton (editor): Ancient Egyptian Chronology, Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill 2012, ISBN 978-90-04-11385-5, available online copyright-free, see p. 176 & p. 492. ^ a b Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen, Patmos 2002, ISBN 978-3-491-96053-4 ^ Alan H. Gardiner: The royal canon of Turin, Griffith Institute new edition (1988) ISBN 978-0900416484 ^ a b Wolfram Grajetzki: The Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt, London 2006 ISBN 978-0-7156-3435-6, p.71–73 ^ a b Flinders Petrie, Scarabs and cylinders with names (1917), available copyright-free here, pl. XVIII ^ Labib Habachi: New Light on the Neferhotep I Family, as Revealed by Their Inscriptions in the Cataract Area in: Mélange Dunham, Londres 1981, pp. 77–81 ^ a b c d William C. Hayes: The Scepter of Egypt: A Background for the Study of the Egyptian Antiquities in The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Vol. 1, From the Earliest Times to the End of the Middle Kingdom, MET Publications 1978, available online, see p. 342–344 and p. 349–350 ^ a b Michel Dewachter: Le roi Sahathor et la famille de Neferhotep I, Revue d'égyptologie, ISSN 0035-1849 (1976) vol.28, p. 66–73 ^ Pascal Vernus: "Sur deux inscriptions du Moyen Empire (Urk. VII, 36 ; Caire JE. 51911)", Bulletin de la Société d'Égyptologie, Genève (BSEG) 13, 1989, p. 173–181, available online Archived 2015-09-24 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Jewellery from at Buhen, now in the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology E 10755, initially attributed to Amenemhat III, then reattributed to Neferhotep I. Reference: David Randall-MacIver, Sir Leonard Woolley: Buhen, Philadelphia: University Museum 1911, available online p. 192, 201, 234, pl. 74 ^ Seal impression of Neferhotep I at Mirgissa. Reference: Dows Dunham, George Andrew Reisner, Noel F Wheeler: Uronarti, Shalfak, Mirgissa, Boston Museum of Fine Arts 1967, p. 163 and 172 ^ Percy E. Newberry: Scarabs an introduction to the study of Egyptian seals and signet rings, with forty-four plates and one hundred and sixteen illustrations in the text, 1906, available online copyright-free see plate X no 5, and page 122. ^ a b Olga Tufnell: Studies on Scarab Seals, vol. II, Aris & Philips, Warminster, 1984, pp. 142, 180 [2nd, 4th–9th, 11th–13th], see also seals No. 1788, 1803, 2898–2899, 3110–3116, 3118–3130. ^ Two seals of Neferhotep I in the Petrie Museum on Digital Egypt. See also on the online catalog of the museum here and here. ^ Two scarabs of Neferhotep I in the Metropolitan Museum of Art: [1] and [2] ^ Jean Yoyotte: Le Soukhos de la Maréotide et d'autres cultes régionaux du Dieu-Crocodile d'après les cylindres du Moyen Empire, Bulletin de l'Institut Français d'Archeologie Orientale (BIFAO) 56, 1957, p. 81–95 available online Archived 2014-10-06 at the Wayback Machine see p. 86 1.o ^ Flinders Petrie: Buttons and Design Scarabs, 1925, pl. XXIV and XXVI ^ Labib Habachi, Gerhard Haeny et Friedrich Junge: Elephantine IV : The Sanctuary of Heqaib, Philippe von Zabern, Mainz, 1985, p. 115, pl. 201–202 [a-b]. ^ Flinders Petrie: A season in Egypt, 1888, XV [479] ^ a b c d Karl Richard Lepsius: Denkmäler aus Ägypten und Äthiopien , 1849, Tafel II, Band IV, available online see p. 151 plates g and h ^ Robert Delia: New Rock Inscriptions of Senwosret III, Neferhotep I, Penpata, and Others at the First Cataract, Bulletin of the Egyptological Seminar (BES) 1992, vol.11 1991, p. 5–22 ^ a b c Jacques de Morgan, U. Bouriant, Georges Legrain, Gustave Jéquier, Alessandro Barsanti: Catalogue des monuments et inscriptions de l'Égypte antique, Tome I 1894 ^ Stela Cairo JE 35256, description and analysis in Anthony Leahy: A Protective Measure at Abydos in the Thirteenth Dynasty, Journal of Egyptian archaeology A. 1989, vol. 75, pp. 41–60 ^ a b Auguste Mariette-Bey: Karnak. Étude topographique et archéologique avec un appendice comprenant les principaux textes hiéroglyphiques découverts ou recueillis pendant les fouilles exécutées a Karnak, Leipzig, 1875, available online see p. 45 pl. 8. ^ Entry 37th in the numbering followed by Baker in his encyclopedia of the pharaohs ^ Following Kim Ryholt's reconstruction of the Turin canon. This corresponds to the 6th column, 25th row in Alan H. Gardiner and Jürgen von Beckerath's reading of the canon. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz : Philip von Zabern, 1999, ISBN 3-8053-2591-6, see pp.96–97, king No 22. ^ Cairo CG 42022, M. Seidel: Die königlichen Statuengruppen, I, Hildesheim 1996, 112–113, pl. 28. ^ a b Georges Legrain: Statues et statuettes de rois et de particuliers, Le Caire, 1906, Tome I, available online Archived 2015-09-23 at the Wayback Machine see item no. 42022. The naos is now in the Egyptian Museum CG 42022. ^ Janine Bourriau: The Second Intermediate Period (c.1650-1550 BC) in: Ian Shaw (editor): The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, 2000, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-815034-2 ^ Daphna Ben-Tor & James and Susan Allen: Seals and Kings, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research (BASOR) 315, 1999, pp. 47–73. ^ Manfred Bietak: Egypt and Canaan During the Middle Bronze Age, BASOR, 281 (1991), pp. 21–72, esp. p. 38, available online ^ Daphna Ben-Tor: Scarabs, Chronology, and Interconnections: Egypt and Palestine in the Second Intermediate Period, Volume 27 of Orbis biblicus et orientalis / Series archaeologica: Series archaeologica, Academic Press Fribourg 2007, ISBN 978-3-7278-1593-5, excerpts available online ^ a b William Stevenson Smith: Interconnections in the Ancient Near East: A Study of the Relationships Between the Arts of Egypt, the Aegean, and Western Asia, Yale University Press, 1965 ^ N. Moeller, G. Maround, N. Ayers: Discussion of Late Middle Kingdom and Early Second Intermediate Period History and Chronology in Relation to the Khayan Sealings from Tell Edfu, in: Ägypten und Levante XXI (2011), 87-121 online PDF ^ Robert M. Porter: The Second Intermediate Period according to Edfu, Goettinger Mizsellen 239 (2013), p. 75–80 ^ Nicolas Grimal and François Larché: Cahiers de Karnak 12, fascicule 1, Centre franco-égyptien d'étude des temples de Karnak (2007), available online. ^ News of the discovery and photos here ^ Press release of the discovery here Archived 2013-05-08 at the Wayback Machine ^ a b c d The Neferhotep Stela in William Kelley Simpson (editor), Robert K. Ritner (translator), Vincent A. Tobin (translator), Jr. Edward Wente (translator): The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry; Third Edition, Yale University Press; 3rd Revised & enlarged edition (October 11, 2003), ISBN 978-0-300-09920-1. Translation of the stela available online ^ Wolfgang Helck: Historisch-Biographische Texte der 2. Zwischenzeit undNeue Texte der 18. Dynastie, 2nd revised edition, Wiesbaden (1983), No. 32, 21–29 ^ Pieper Max: Die grosse Inschrift des Königs Neferhotep in Abydos, Helsingfors : J.C. Hinrichs, 1929, in: Mitteilungen der vorderasiatisch-aegyptischen Gesellschaft, vol. 32, issue 2 ^ Wolfram Grajetzki: Late Middle Kingdom, 2013, UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, 1(1). UCLA: Department of Near Eastern Languages and Cultures, nelc_uee_8764, available online ^ Josef W., Wegner (2015). "A royal necropolis at south Abydos: New Light on Egypt's Second Intermediate Period". Near Eastern Archaeology. 78 (2): 68–78. ^ The shawabti is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, see the online catalog ^ Dieter Arnold with contributions by Dorothea Arnold and an appendix by Peter F. Dorman: The Pyramid of Senwosret I, MET Publications 1988, available online see pp. 37–40 & 147–149 ^ The coffin is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, see the coffin on the online catalog ^ Dawn Landua-McCormack, Dynasty XIII Kingship in Ancient Egypt: a study of political power and administration through an investigation of the royal tombs of the late Middle Kingdom, University of Pennsylvania 2008, p. 207 (dissertation). ^ F. Debono: Expedition archeologique royale au desert oriental (Kef-Kosseir), ASAE 51 (1951): 1-33. ^ W. M. F. Albright: "An Indirect Synchronism between Egypt and Mesopotamia, cir. 1730 BC", BASOR 99 (1945) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Neferhotep Khasekhemre. Preceded by Sobekhotep III Pharaoh of Egypt 13th Dynasty Succeeded by Sobekhotep IV v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neferhotep_I&oldid=992204703" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Good articles Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Català Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 December 2020, at 01:42 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5696	----	Hor-Aha - Wikipedia Hor-Aha From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Egyptian pharaoh (First Dynasty) Hor-Aha Aha Faience vessel fragment with serekh inscribed with the Horus-name "Aha", on display at the British Museum. Pharaoh Reign 31st century BC (1st Dynasty) Predecessor Narmer Successor Djer Royal titulary Nomen Teti ttj Horus name Hor-Aha Ḥr-ˁḥ3 Horus, the fighter Consort Benerib, Khenthap Children Djer Father Narmer ? Burial Chambers B10, B15, B19, Umm el-Qa'ab Hor-Aha (or Aha or Horus Aha) is considered the second pharaoh of the First Dynasty of Egypt by some Egyptologists, others consider him the first one and corresponding to Menes. He lived around the 31st century BC and is thought to have had a long reign. Contents 1 Identity 1.1 Name 1.2 Theories 2 Reign 2.1 Successor to Narmer 2.2 Interior policy 2.3 Economic development 2.4 Activities outside Egypt 3 Family 4 Tomb 5 Gallery 6 In popular culture 7 See also 8 Citations 9 General bibliography 10 External links Identity[edit] Name[edit] The commonly used name Hor-Aha is a rendering of the pharaoh's Horus-name, an element of the royal titulary associated with the god Horus, and is more fully given as Horus-Aha meaning Horus the Fighter.[1] Manetho's record Aegyptiaca (translating to History of Egypt) lists his Greek name as Athothis, or "Athotís". For the Early Dynastic Period, the archaeological record refers to the pharaohs by their Horus-names, while the historical record, as evidenced in the Turin and Abydos king lists, uses an alternative royal titulary, the nebty-name.[1][2] The different titular elements of a pharaoh's name were often used in isolation, for brevity's sake, although the choice varied according to circumstance and period.[2] Mainstream Egyptological consensus follows the findings of Flinders Petrie in reconciling the two records and connects Hor-Aha (archaeological) with the nebty-name Ity (historical).[1][2][3] Inscription bearing Hor-Aha's serekh together with a Nebty-name expressed with the game-board hieroglyph, which could be read mn. The same process has led to the identification of the historical Menes (a nebty-name) with Narmer (a Horus-name) evidenced in the archaeological record (both figures are credited with the unification of Egypt and as the first pharaoh of Dynasty I) as the predecessor of Hor-Aha (the second pharaoh).[1][2][3] Theories[edit] There has been some controversy about Hor-Aha. Some[4] believe him to be the same individual as the legendary Menes and that he was the one to unify all of Egypt. Others claim he was the son of Narmer, the pharaoh who unified Egypt. Narmer and Menes may have been one pharaoh, referred to with more than one name. Regardless, considerable historical evidence from the period points to Narmer as the pharaoh who first unified Egypt (see Narmer Palette) and to Hor-Aha as his son and heir. Reign[edit] Successor to Narmer[edit] Seal impressions discovered by Günter Dreyer in the Umm El Qa'ab from Den and Qa'a burials identify Hor-Aha as the second pharaoh of the first dynasty.[5] His predecessor Narmer had united Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt into a single kingdom, Upper and Lower Egypt. Hor-Aha probably ascended the throne in the mid 31st century. Interior policy[edit] Hor-Aha seems to have conducted many religious activities. A visit to a shrine of the goddess Neith is recorded on several tablets from his reign.[6] The sanctuary of Neith he visited was located in the north-west of the Nile Delta at Sais.[7] Furthermore, the first known representation of the sacred Henu-bark of the god Seker was found engraved on a year tablet dating from his reign.[8] Mastaba attributed to Neithhotep which is believed to have been built by Hor-Aha. Vessel inscriptions, labels and sealings from the graves of Hor-Aha and Queen Neithhotep suggest that this queen died during the reign of Aha. He arranged for her burial in a magnificent mastaba excavated by Jacques de Morgan.[9] Queen Neithhotep is plausibly Aha's mother[10] The selection of the cemetery of Naqada as the resting place of Neithhotep is a strong indication that she came from this province. This, in turn, supports the view that Narmer married a member of the ancient royal line of Naqada to strengthen the domination of the Thinite kings over the region.[7] However, in January 2016, a rock inscription has demonstrated that Neithhotep was actually a queen regent early during the reign of Djer, Hor-Aha's successor.[11] Therefore, the cemetery evidence above only proves that Neithhotep did live during the reign of Hor-Aha but succeeded him into Djer's reign. Most importantly, the oldest mastaba at the North Saqqara necropolis of Memphis dates to his reign. The mastaba belongs to an elite member of the administration who may have been a relative of Hor-Aha, as was customary at the time.[7] This is a strong indication of the growing importance of Memphis during Aha's reign. Economic development[edit] Few artifacts remain of Hor-Aha's reign. However, the finely executed copper-axe heads, faience vessel fragments,[12] ivory box and inscribed white marbles all testify to the flourishing of craftsmanship during Aha's time in power.[7] Activities outside Egypt[edit] Inscription on an ivory tablet from Abydos suggests that Hor-Aha led an expedition against the Nubians. On a year tablet, a year is explicitly called 'Year of smiting of Ta-Sety' (i.e. Nubia).[13] During Hor-Aha's reign, trade with the Southern Levant seems to have been on the decline. Contrary to his predecessor Narmer, Hor-Aha is not attested outside of the Nile Valley. This may point to a gradual replacement of long-distance trade between Egypt and its eastern neighbors by a more direct exploitation of the local resources by the Egyptians. Vessel fragment analysis from an Egyptian outpost at En Besor suggests that it was active during Hor-Aha's reign. Other Egyptian settlements are known to have been active at the time as well (Byblos and along the Lebanese coast). Finally, Hor-Aha's tomb yielded vessel fragments from the Southern Levant.[14] Family[edit] Main article: First Dynasty of Egypt family tree Clay seal fragment bearing Hor-Aha's serekh together with ḥ and t signs, perhaps meant to signify a personal name Htj Hor-Aha's chief wife was Benerib, whose name was "written alongside his on a number of [historical] pieces, in particular, from tomb B14 at Abydos, Egypt".[15][16][17] Tomb B14 is located directly adjacent to Hor-Aha's sepulchre.[18] Hor-Aha also had another wife, Khenthap,[19] with whom he became father of Djer. She is mentioned as Djer's mother on the Cairo Annals Stone. Hor-Aha's mother is believed to be Neithhotep. She is also believed to be wife of the late Narmer and possibly remarries one of Hor-Aha's top three Grand Viziers by the name of Rekhit after the death of Narmer. The massive Naqada tomb Neithhotep was believed to be buried has 10 inscriptions of her in it. The same tomb also has 15 inscriptions to Rekhit. Tomb[edit] Hor-Aha's tomb comprises three chambers B10, B15 and B19, shown in inset. B14 could be the tomb of Hor-Aha's wife Benerib. The tomb of Hor-Aha is located in the necropolis of the kings of the 1st Dynasty at Abydos, known as the Umm el-Qa'ab. It comprises three large chambers (designated B10, B15, and B19), which are directly adjacent to Narmer's tomb.[20] The chambers are rectangular, directly dug in the desert floor, their walls lined with mud bricks. The tombs of Narmer and Ka had only two adjacent chambers, while the tomb of Hor-Aha comprises three substantially larger yet separated chambers. The reason for this architecture is that it was difficult at that time to build large ceilings above the chambers, as timber for these structures often had to be imported from Palestine. A striking innovation of Hor-Aha's tomb is that members of the royal household were buried with the pharaoh, the earliest known retainer sacrifices in Egypt. It is unclear if they were killed or committed suicide. Among those buried were servants, dwarfs, women and even dogs. A total of 36 subsidiary burials were laid out in three parallel rows north-east of Hor-Aha's main chambers. As a symbol of royalty Hor-Aha was even given a group of young lions. Gallery[edit] Cylinder vessel of Hor-Aha from Saqqara, First Dynasty; Museum August Kestner. Copper tool bearing the serekh of Hor-Aha, on display at the Egyptian Museum of Berlin. Ivory label inscribed with the serekh of Hor-Aha and bearing the name of his wife Benerib. Ivory label bearing the serekh of Hor-Aha. It reports the victory over the "arch-using Setjet-folks" (center) and the visit at the domain "Horus thrives with the cattles" (right). Fragmented ebony label of Hor-Aha relating a visit of the king to the shrine of the goddess Neith of Sais in the Delta, British Museum. Label of King Aha, Abydos In popular culture[edit] Episode 1 of season 4 of Franklin & Bash, "The Curse of Hor-Aha" revolves around a rare Egyptian artifact and the protagonists trying to find it to get their boss back. Murder by the Gods: An Ancient Egyptian Mystery by William G. Collins is a thriller about Prince Aha (later king Hor-Aha), with Narmer included in a secondary role. See also[edit] Ancient Egypt Ancient Egyptian retainer sacrifices History of Egypt List of Pharaohs Pharaoh The Greatest Pharaohs Citations[edit] ^ a b c d Edwards 1971: 13 ^ a b c d Lloyd 1994: 7 ^ a b Cervelló-Autuori 2003: 174 ^ Stephan Seidlmayer, The Rise of the State to the Second Dynasty, quoted in Egypt: The World of the Pharaohs, 2004 (translated from German, 2010), ISBN 978-3-8331-6000-4 ^ Toby A.H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt. S. 69–70 ^ W. M. Flinders Petrie: The Royal Tombs of the Earliest Dynasties 1901, Part II, London 1901, Taf. X,2; XI,2 ^ a b c d Toby A.H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt. S. 291 ^ Toby A.H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt. S. 301 ^ De Morgan Recherches sur les origines de l'Egypte II. Ethnographie préhistorique et tombeau royal de Negadah ^ Silke Roth: Die Königsmütter des Alten Ägypten von der Frühzeit bis zum Ende der 12. Dynastie. Wiesbaden 2001, S. 31–35 ^ Owen Jarus, Live Science, Early Egyptian Queen Revealed in 5,000-Year-Old Hieroglyphs, [1] [2] ^ F. Petrie Abydos, II, London: Egypt Exploration Fund. Memoir 23, A. J. Spencer Early Egypt: The rise of civilisation in the Nile Valley, London: British Museum Press 1993 ^ W. M. Flinders Petrie: The Royal Tombs of the Earliest Dynasties 1901, Part II, London 1901, Taf. XI,1 ^ Toby A.H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt. S. 71 ^ Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson (2004), p.46 ^ Walter Bryan Emery: Ägypten – Geschichte und Kultur der Frühzeit. S. 47f. ^ Toby A.H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt. S. 70 ^ Dodson & Hilton, p.46 ^ Queens of Egypt, informations based on the book The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt ^ W. M. Flinders Petrie: The Royal Tombs of the Earliest Dynasties 1901, Part II, London 1901, S. 7–8, Taf. LIX; and more recently: Werner Kaiser: Einige Bemerkungen zur ägyptischen Frühzeit, In: Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 91 (1964), 86–124, and 96–102 General bibliography[edit] Cervelló-Autuori, Josep (2003), "Narmer, Menes and the seals from Abydos", Egyptology at the dawn of the twenty-first century: proceedings of the Eighth International Congress of Egyptologists, Cairo, 2000, 2, Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, ISBN 9789774247149. Edwards, I. E. S. (1971), "The early dynastic period in Egypt", The Cambridge Ancient History, 1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lloyd, Alan B. (1994) [1975]. Herodotus: Book II. Leiden: E. J. Brill. ISBN 90-04-04179-6. Schulz, Regine; Seidel, Matthias (2004). Egypt: The World of the Pharaohs. H.F. Ullmann. ISBN 978-3-8331-6000-4. Shaw, Ian; Nicholson, Paul (1995). The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt. N.p.: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. ISBN 0-8109-9096-2. Toby A. H. Wilkinson, Early Dynastic Egypt, Routledge, London/New York 1999, ISBN 0-415-18633-1, 70-71 External links[edit] Corpus of Wooden and Ivory Labels - Aha by Francesco Raffaele v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e First Dynasty of Ancient Egypt Pharaohs Menes/Narmer Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Regents Neithhotep Merneith Queen consorts Benerib Herneith Penebui Nakhtneith (Khenthap) Semat Serethor Seshemetka Betrest Officials Amka Hemaka Sabef Meriiti Other people Ahaneith Artefacts and monuments Narmer macehead Narmer palette Tomb of Anedjib Den seal impressions Abydos boats MacGregor plaque Mastabas S3503 and S3504 Capital Thinis v t e Rulers of the Ancient Near East Territories/ dates [1][2][3][4] Egypt Canaan Ebla Mari Akshak/ Akkad Kish Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period 4000–3200 BCE Naqada culture (4000–3100 BCE) Proto-Cannaanites Sumerian period (4000–2340 BCE) Susa I Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE) Naqada I Naqada II Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests") Legendary ante-deluvian rulers: In Eridu: Alulim, Alalngar, then in Bad-tibira: En-men-lu-ana, En-men-gal-ana, Dumuzid, the Shepherd, then in Larag: En-sipad-zid-ana, then in Zimbir: En-men-dur-ana, then in Shuruppag: Ubara-Tutu "then the flood swept over"[5] Susa II (Uruk influence or control) 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ DenAnedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100-2700 BCE) Great Flood 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) First kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman En-me-barage-si ("made the land of Elam submit")[6] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba Uruk II dynasty Enshakushanna Mug-si Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions (3 kings)[7] Shushuntarana Napilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Urur Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun) Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion of Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[7] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian Empire (Semitic) Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Second Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) (Vassals of UR III) Shakkanakku dynasty (Semitic) Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Neo-Sumerian Period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians) Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (Vassals of Ur III)[8] Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal 2100 BCE Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin Ibbi-Sin 2050 BCE 2000 BCE Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV circa 2000 BCE Amorite invasions Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) 2025-1763 BCE Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ Third Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 1894–1595 BCE Second Intermediate Period Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham (Biblical) Yamhad First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Phoenicia Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Middle Assyrian Empire Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt 626–539 BCE Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116-117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ "The Sumerian king list: translation". etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2008-05-08. ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ a b Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hor-Aha&oldid=1001831589" Categories: Hor-Aha 31st-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the First Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans አማርኛ العربية Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Plattdüütsch Polski Português Ripoarisch Română Русский සිංහල Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Türkmençe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 21 January 2021, at 15:41 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-571	----	Achaemenid family tree - Wikipedia Achaemenid family tree From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The Achaemenid Empire was the first Persian empire, founded in 550 BC by Cyrus the Great. This article contains the Achaemenid family tree. Contents 1 Family tree 2 See also 3 Notes 4 References Family tree[edit] AchaemenesKing of Persia[*] 705–675 TeispesKing of Persia 675–640 Cyrus IKing of Persia 640–600 AriaramnesPrince[*] Cambyses IKing of Persia 600–559 Arukku ArsamesPrince[*] Cyrus II the GreatKing of Persia 559–530/28 HystaspesPrince[*] Pharnaces I satrap of Phrygia Pharnacid dynasty Megabates military leader ArtystonePrincess Smerdis (Bardiya)Prince (imposter Gaumata ruled as Smerdis[*]) 522 Cambyses IIKing of Persia 530–522 AtossaPrincess Darius I the GreatKing of Persia 522–486 Artaphernes I general satrap of Lydia Artabanus councelor Megabazus general Parmys (by daughter of Gobryas) Ariabignes admiral (by Atossa) Masistes satrap of Bactria (by Atossa) Xerxes I the GreatKing of Persia 485–465 (by Atossa) Achaemenes satrap of Egypt (by Artystone) Artazostre married Mardonius (by Parmys) Ariomardus Artaphernes II general satrap of Lydia Artyphius commander Artaynte Artaxerxes I Long-handedKing of Persia 465–424 Darius crown prince Hystaspes satrap of Bactria Arsames (I) satrap of Egypt Amytis married Megabyzus Xerxes IIKing of Persia 424 SogdianusKing of Persia 424–423 Darius II NothusKing of Persia 423–404 Arsitessatrap of Phrygia Parysatis (I)Princess BagapaiosPrince Artaxerxes II MnemonKing of Persia 404–358 AmestrisPrincess Cyrus the YoungerPrince OstanesPrince Artaxerxes III OchusKing of Persia 358–338 Ariaspes prince Rodrogune married Orontes I satrap of Sophene & Metiene Apama married Pharnabazus II satrap of Phrygia SisygambisPrincess Arsames (II)Prince Darius III CodomannusKing of Persia 336–330 OxathresPrince Artaxerxes IV ArsesKing of Persia 338–336 Parysatis (II) Princess Alexander III the GreatKing of Macedon and Persia 329–323 Stateira IIPrincess Drypetis married Hephestion general Amastrine married Craterus general; Dionysius tyrant of Heraclea; Lysimachus king of Thrace See also[edit] Template:Cyrus-tree Notes[edit] *1 2 3 4 5 : Unconfirmed rulers, due to the Behistun Inscription. References[edit] "Family Tree of Darius the Great" (JPG). Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 2011-03-28. v t e Royal or noble family trees Monarchies by region Africa Egypt House of Muhammad Ali Ethiopia Solomonic dynasty Madagascar Morocco Tunisia Americas Aztec Brazil Mexico Asia Brunei Cambodia China Ancient Warring States Early Middle Late India Mughal Mughal-Mongol Iran Pre-Islamic: Achaemenid Arsacid Sasanian post-Islamic dynasties Modern: Safavid Afsharid Zand Qajar Pahlavi Japan Shōgun: Kamakura Ashikaga Tokugawa Jerusalem Korea Silla Goryeo Joseon Kuwait Malaysia Johor Kedah Kelantan Negeri Sembilan Pahang Perak Perlis Selangor Terengganu Mongol Borjigin Yuan Ilkhanate Timurid Myanmar Ottoman simplified Seljuk Anatolian Seljuk Sri Lanka Thailand Vietnam Europe Aragon Belgium Bohemia Bosnia Castile Croatia Denmark France simplified House of Bonaparte Greece Hungary Leon Luxembourg Monaco Naples Navarre Netherlands Norway Orange-Nassau Poland Portugal Holy Roman Empire/Germany House of Habsburg (incl. Holy Roman Empire after 1440) Romania Russia Serbia Medieval: Vlastimirović Vojislavljević Vukanović Nemanjić Lazarević Branković Modern: Karađorđević Obrenović Sicily Spain Sweden United Kingdom England simplified) (Wessex Mercia Northumbria Scotland Wales after 1603 Visigoths Oceania Hawaii Kamehameha Lunalilo Kalākaua Huahine Mangareva Samoa Malietoa Tui Manua Tupua Tamasese Tahiti Tonga Dukes, princes and counts Artois Brittany Aquitaine Brabant Lorraine Burgundy Bourbon Condé Conti Flanders Fujiwara Hainault Holland Jagiello La Fayette Lithuania Norfolk Swabia Monarchies of the ancient world Egypt 1st 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st, 22nd & 23rd 25th 26th Near East Yamhad Israel/Judah Georgia Iberia Bagrationi of Tao-Klarjeti and Georgia Kartli Kakheti Imereti Greece and Hellenistic World House of Atreus Erechtheids of Athens Alcmaeonids of Athens Heraclidae Kings of Sparta Argead dynasty Ptolemies Attalid Seleucids Rome Roman Emperors Caecilii Metelli Cornelii Scipiones Julio-Claudian dynasty Severan dynasty Flavian dynasty Constantinian dynasty Valentinianic dynasty Eastern Roman/Byzantine Emperors See also Family tree Ahnentafel Genealogical numbering systems Quarters of nobility Seize quartiers Royal descent v t e Median and Achaemenid kings Family tree Median (728–550 BC) Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Achaemenid (550–330 BC) Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Nothus Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Italics indicate kings not directly attested and so possibly legendary. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Achaemenid Empire History Kingdom Family tree Timeline History of democracy Art Achaemenid Persian Lion Rhyton Achaemenid coinage Danake Persian daric Architecture Achaemenid architecture Persepolis Pasargadae Tomb of Cyrus Naqsh-e Rostam Ka'ba-ye Zartosht Mausoleum at Halicarnassus Tombs at Xanthos Harpy Tomb Nereid Monument Tomb of Payava Culture Persepolis Administrative Archives Old Persian cuneiform Old Persian Behistun Inscription Xerxes I's inscription at Van Ganjnameh Warfare Persian Revolt Battle of Hyrba Battle of the Persian Border Lydian-Persian Wars Battle of Pteria Battle of Thymbra Siege of Sardis (547 BC) Battle of Opis First conquest of Egypt Battle of Cunaxa Conquest of the Indus Valley Scythian campaign of Darius I Greco-Persian Wars Ionian Revolt Battle of Thermopylae Battle of Artemisium Battle of Salamis Battle of Plataea Battle of Mycale Battle of Marathon Delian League Battle of Lade Siege of Eretria Siege of Naxos (499 BC) Wars of the Delian League Battle of the Eurymedon Peloponnesian War Battle of Cyzicus Corinthian War Battle of Cnidus Great Satraps' Revolt Second conquest of Egypt Wars of Alexander the Great Battle of Gaugamela Battle of the Granicus Battle of the Persian Gate Battle of Issus Siege of Gaza Siege of Halicarnassus Siege of Miletus Siege of Perinthus Siege of Tyre (332 BC) Related Achaemenid dynasty Pharnacid dynasty Peace of Antalcidas Peace of Callias Kingdom of Pontus Mithridatic dynasty Kingdom of Cappadocia Ariarathid dynasty 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire Districts of the Empire Royal Road Xanthian Obelisk v t e Cyrus the Great Teispids, Achaemenid Empire Family Cambyses I Mandane of Media Cassandane Amitis Children Cambyses II Bardiya Atossa Artystone Battles Persian Revolt Hyrba Persian Border Pasargadae Pteria Thymbra Sardis Opis Related "Cyrus" (name) Pasargadae Cyrus Cylinder Cyropaedia Tomb Cyrus in the Bible Cyrus's edict Cyrus in the Quran Dhul-Qarnayn Kay Bahman Cyrus the Great Day Cyrus the Great (screenplay) Ciro riconosciuto Category Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_family_tree&oldid=995854833" Categories: Achaemenid dynasty Dynasty genealogy Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Čeština Deutsch فارسی Français ქართული Magyar Македонски Polski Русский සිංහල Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 23 December 2020, at 06:35 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5731	----	Thamphthis - Wikipedia Thamphthis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Thamphthis in hieroglyphs Length of reign: unknown Predecessor: Shepseskaf? Successor: Userkaf? Saqqara table [1] Turin canon (Column III, line 16) Thamphthis is the hellenized name of an ancient Egyptian ruler (pharaoh) of the 4th Dynasty in the Old Kingdom, who may have ruled around 2500 BC under the name Djedefptah for between two and nine years. His original Egyptian name is lost, but it may have been Djedefptah or Ptahdjedef ("he endures like Ptah") according to William C. Hayes.[2] Thamphthis is one of the shadowy rulers of the Old Kingdom, since he is completely unattested in contemporary sources. For this reason, his historical figure is discussed intensely by historians and Egyptologists. Contents 1 Background 2 Name sources and contradictions 3 Literature 4 References Background[edit] Since Thamphthis' name was found in the historical works of Manetho, the Aegyptiacae,[3] Egyptologists are trying to connect this ruler with contemporary kings to build up a continuous chronology, which resulted in controversies and debates. As early as 1887, Eduard Meyer viewed Thamphthis as a mere usurper, who was not allowed to be mentioned in royal annals or have his own mortuary cult because he gained the throne illegitimately.[4] Peter Jánosi goes further and says that Thamphthis is a fiction, due to the lack of archaeological support. He claims that Thamphthis should be erased from modern kinglists.[5] Winfried Seipel and Hermann Alexander Schlögl instead postulate that the historical figure behind Thamphthis could have been queen Khentkaus I.[6] This theory is supported by Khentkaus being depicted in her mortuary temple as a ruling pharaoh with nemes-headdress, king's beard and uraeus-diadem on her forehead. But this theory is problematic since Khentkaus' name never appears inside a serekh or royal cartouche.[7] Wolfgang Helck points out that Khentkaus I could have been the mother of Thamphthis, so Thamphthis would have been the son of king Shepseskaf. As a possible wife of Thamphthis he proposes a princess named Bunefer, who may have been the daughter of Shepseskaf. She was a priestess of Shepseskaf.[8][9] Name sources and contradictions[edit] In the Manethonian tradition of the historian Sextus Julius Africanus, who translated Manetho, Thamphthis is described as the last ruler of the 4th dynasty with a reign of nine years. In the tradition of the historians Eusebius and Eratosthenes his name is missed. Eusebius gives the reason that Thamphthis was not meant to be named, for he "didn't do something worth to be mentioned".[3][10] A further source for the chronology of rulers of the Old Kingdom is the Royal Canon of Turin, composed during the 19th dynasty around 1300 BC. It names kings which are omitted in many other kinglists. But the Turin Canon is damaged at several spots, so many royal names are fragmentary or completely lost in lacunae today. For this reason it cannot be excluded that Thamphthis' name was originally present in this document too, since the Aegyptiacae of Manetho are mostly consistent with the Turin Canon. In column III, line 12 king Khafre is mentioned, after him, in line 13, a lacuna appears. After king Shepseskaf, mentioned in line 15, a second lacuna appears. Whilst line 13 may possibly be assigned to a king Baka, the missing line 16 could have originally held Thamphthis' name. These lacunae cover two years during which a king could have reigned.[11] The Royal kinglist of Saqqara from the tomb of Tjuneroy (19th dynasty) lists nine kings for the 4th dynasty, whilst the Abydos King List gives only six names. Curiously the Saqqara-Table has after Shepseskaf two cartouches before Userkaf, but both are heavily damaged, so the original names are no longer legible. Whilst one of these two cartouches once may have held Thamphthis' name, the other cartouche remains a mystery.[12] A rock inscription in the Wadi Hammamat made in the Middle Kingdom presents a list of the cartouche-names of Khufu, Djedefre, Baufra and prince Djedefhor (also recorded as Hordjedef). Curiously Djedefhor's name is written in a cartouche, too. This leads to the possibility that he could have been a king for a very short while himself. If this was true, this fact would close the chronological gaps. But contemporary sources don't show Djedefhor and Baufra as kings; they give to these two only the titles of princes and call them both "son of the king".[13] The tomb inscriptions of several high officials, princes and priests do not preserve any evidence that some kind of internal political conflict had arisen or that a usurper had seized the throne of Egypt. Prince Sekhemkare reports about his career under the kings Khafre, Menkaura, Shepseskaf, Userkaf and even Sahure, but makes no mention of Thamphthis. The same goes for the high official Netjer-pu-nesut, who was honoured under the kings Djedefre, Khafre, Menkaura, Shepseskaf, Userkaf and Sahure. Again no Thamphthis is mentioned. The 5th dynasty high priest and official Ptahshepses who served under king Niuserre and took care of the mortuary cults of king Menkaura and Shepseskaf also made no reference to Thamphthis.[14] The late Patrick F. O'Mara in a GM 158 paper notes that "no royal monument private tomb in the cemeteries of Gizeh and Saqqara record names of any other [except the aforementioned] kings for the [fourth] dynasty. No names of estates of the period compounded with royal names make mention of any other [fourth dynasty] kings than these, nor do the names of the royal grandchildren, who often bore the name of a royal ancestor as a component of their own" names.[15] The lack of contemporary attestations for Thamphthis does not by itself prove that he was a "faux king" or "phantom king" since he may well have been a short-lived ruler of the 4th Dynasty. The stela of the 5th Dynasty official Khau-Ptah is informative: while this official lists his career in an uninterrupted sequence of Sahure, Neferirkare, Raneferef and Niuserre, he completely omits Shepseskare.[16] Shepseskare or Sisires likely did not rule Egypt for the seven years assigned to him by both Manetho and the Turin Canon judging by the paucity of contemporary records for his rule, but he certainly ruled Egypt for a brief period of time.[17] This is established by the existence of two cylinder seals identifying him[18] and four or five fragments of clay sealings bearing his name.[19] In more recent years, "several new sealings [of Shepseskare]" which were found in Abusir also show that Shepseskare did exist.[20] Verner argues that the archaeological context of the sealings show that Shepseskare succeeded Raneferef (rather than the reverse as Manetho and the Turin Canon states) and that a dynastic struggle ensued in which Shepseskare was soon overthrown by Niuserre, Raneferef's brother, after a very brief reign. This would explain the surprising omission of Shepseskare by Khau-ptah since the former was a usurper who briefly seized the throne after Raneferef's death. But there is no evidence for any dynastic difficulties in the late 4th Dynasty and the complete lack of contemporary attestations for Thamphthis is strong evidence for regarding him as a phantom king. In this situation, the two year figure assigned to him by later Egyptian records could possibly be added to Shepseskaf's existing 4-year reign. Literature[edit] Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, von Zabern, Mainz 1999, ISBN 3-422-00832-2 Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägypten, von Zabern, Mainz 1997 ISBN 3-8053-2310-7 Iowerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards: The Cambridge ancient history, Band 3. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2000, ISBN 978-0-521-07791-0 William C. Hayes: The Scepter of Egypt, Band 1: From the Earliest Times to the End of the Middle Kingdom. Yale University Press, New York 1990 (Neuauflage), ISBN 978-0-300-09159-5 Wolfgang Helck: Geschichte des Alten Ägypten. BRILL, Leiden 1981, ISBN 90-04-06497-4 Peter Jánosi: Giza in der 4. Dynastie. Die Baugeschichte und Belegung einer Nekropole des Alten Reiches. Band I: Die Mastabas der Kernfriedhöfe und die Felsgräber. Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien 2005, ISBN 3-7001-3244-1 Alan B. Lloyd: Herodotus, book II: commentary 99-182. BRILL, Leiden 1988, ISBN 978-90-04-04179-0 Eduard Meyer, Johannes Duemichen: Geschichte des alten Aegyptens. Band 1 von: Allgemeine Geschichte in Einzeldarstellungen. Grote, Hamburg 1887 Kim Ryholt, Adam Bülow-Jacobsen: The political situation in Egypt during the second Intermediate Period. Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, ISBN 978-87-7289-421-8 Wilfried Seipel: Untersuchungen zu den ägyptischen Königinnen der Frühzeit und des Alten Reiches. University of California, 1980 Ian Shaw: The Oxford history of ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press, Oxford (UK) 2002, ISBN 978-0-19-280293-4 William Gillian Waddell: Manetho - The Loeb classical library; 350 -. Harvard University Press, Cambridge (Mass.) 2004 (Reprint), ISBN 0-674-99385-3 References[edit] ^ Alan H. Gardiner: The royal canon of Turin. Griffith Institute, Oxford (UK) 1997, ISBN 0-900416-48-3, p. 16; table II. ^ William C. Hayes: The Scepter of Egypt, Band 1. p. 66; cifer: Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, pp. 53–54, 180. ^ a b William Gillian Waddell: Manetho (The Loeb classical library 350). pp. 47–49 ^ Eduard Meyer, Johannes Dümichen: Geschichte des alten Aegyptens. page 114. ^ Peter Jánosi: Die Gräberwelt der Pyramidenzeit. p. 151. ^ Wilfried Seipel: Untersuchungen zu den ägyptischen Königinnen der Frühzeit und des Alten Reiches. pp. 189–190. ^ Hermann Alexander Schlögl: Das Alte Ägypten. pp. 99–100. ^ Wolfgang Helck: Geschichte des Alten Ägypten. pp. 57 & 61. ^ Jánosi, Peter. "G 4712 - Ein Datierungsproblem." Göttinger Miszellen 133 (1993), pp. 56, 60–62. ^ Alan B. Lloyd: Herodotus, book II.. pp. 77ff. ^ Kim Ryholt, Adam Bülow-Jacobsen: Inclusion of Fictitious Kings. In: The political situation in Egypt during the second Intermediate Period. p. 17. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägypten. page 24 & 216. ^ Peter Jánosi: Giza in der 4. Dynastie. pp. 64 & 65. ^ I. E. S. Edwards: The Cambridge ancient history, Band 3. page 176. ^ Patrick F. O'Mara, Manetho and the Turin Canon: A Comparison of Regnal Years, GM 158, 1997, p .51 O'Mara notes that his records are based on an examination of Ld. II, Urk I, and A. Mariette, Mastabas de l'ancien empire. ^ A. Mariette, Mastabas de l'ancien empire, 295 ^ Miroslav Verner, Archaeological Remarks on the 4th and 5th Dynasty Chronology, Archiv Orientální, Volume 69: 2001, pp.395-400 ^ G. Daressy, ASAE 15, 1915, 94f ^ P. Kaplony, Die Rollsiegel des Altes Reiches. Katalog der Rollsiegel, Bruxelles 1981, A. Text, 289–294 and B. Talfen, 81f ^ Miroslav Verner, Who was Shepseskare and when did he reign?, in Abusir and Saqqara in the Year 2000 (ArOr Suppl.9, 2000,) pp. 581–602 v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thamphthis&oldid=998792593" Categories: 3rd-millennium BC births 3rd-millennium BC deaths 25th-century BC Pharaohs 26th-century BC Pharaohs People whose existence is disputed Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit 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en-wikipedia-org-5732	----	Osorkon IV - Wikipedia Osorkon IV From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Osorkon IV Shilkanni, So Relief thought to depict Osorkon IV, from Tanis[1] Pharaoh Reign 730 – 715/13 BC (22nd or 23rd Dynasty) Predecessor Shoshenq V or Pedubast II Successor end of the dynasty Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Usermaa(t)re Wsr-mȝˁ(t)-Rˁ[2] Powerful is the maat of Ra Nomen Osorkonu Wsrknw [3] Osorkon(u) Mother Tadibast III Died before 712 BC Usermaatre Osorkon IV was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh during the late Third Intermediate Period. Traditionally considered the last king of the 22nd Dynasty, he was de facto little more than ruler in Tanis and Bubastis, in Lower Egypt. He is generally – though not universally – identified with the King Shilkanni mentioned by Assyrian sources, and with the biblical So, King of Egypt mentioned in the second Books of Kings (17:4). Osorkon ruled during one of the most chaotic and politically fragmented periods of ancient Egypt, in which the Nile Delta was dotted with small Libyan kingdoms and principalities and Meshwesh dominions; as the last heir of the Tanite rulers, he inherited the easternmost parts of these kingdoms, the most involved in all the political and military upheavals that soon would afflict the Near East. During his reign, he had to face the power, and ultimately submit himself—to the Kushite King Piye during Piye's conquest of Egypt. Osorkon IV also had to deal with the threatening Neo-Assyrian Empire outside his eastern borders. Contents 1 Reign 1.1 Early years 1.2 The Assyrian threat 1.3 End 2 Identification with Shilkanni and So 3 Attestations 3.1 About the throne name 4 See also 5 References 6 Bibliography 7 External links Reign[edit] Early years[edit] Osorkon IV ascended to the throne of Tanis in c. 730 BC,[4] at the end of the long reign of his predecessor Shoshenq V of the 22nd Dynasty,[5][6][7][8] who was possibly also his father.[9] However, this somewhat traditional collocation was first challenged in 1970 by Karl-Heinz Priese, who preferred to place Osorkon IV in a lower–Egyptian branch of the 23rd Dynasty, right after the reign of the shadowy pharaoh Pedubast II;[10] this placement found the support of a certain number of scholars.[11][12][13][14] Osorkon's mother, named on an electrum aegis of Sekhmet now in the Louvre, was Tadibast III.[15] Osorkon IV's realm was restricted only to the district of Tanis (Rˁ-nfr) and the territory of Bubastis, both in the eastern Nile Delta.[16] His neighbors were Libyan princes and Meshwesh chiefs who ruled their small realms outside of his authority.[17] Closeup of the Victory Stela of Piye. Osorkon IV is the left one among the prostrating kings. Around 729/28 BC, soon after his accession, Osorkon IV faced the crusade led by the Kushite pharaoh Piye of the Nubian 25th Dynasty. Along with other rulers of Lower and Middle Egypt – mainly Nimlot of Hermopolis and Iuput II of Leontopolis – Osorkon IV joined the coalition led by the Chief of the West Tefnakht in order to oppose the Nubian.[18] However, Piye's advance was unstoppable and the opposing rulers surrendered one after another: Osorkon IV found it wise to reach the Temple of Ra at Heliopolis and pay homage to his new overlord Piye personally—[19] an action which was soon imitated by the other rulers. As reported on his Victory Stela, Piye accepted their submission, but Osorkon and most of the rulers were not allowed to enter the royal enclosure because they were not circumcised and had eaten fish, both abominations in the eyes of the Nubian.[20][21] Nevertheless, Osorkon IV and the others were allowed to keep their former domains and authority.[22][23] The Assyrian threat[edit] In 726/25 BC Hoshea, the last King of Israel, rebelled against the Assyrian King Shalmaneser V who demanded an annual tribute, and, according to the second Book of Kings, sought the support of So, King of Egypt (2 Kings 17:4) who, as already mentioned, was most likely Osorkon IV (see below). For reasons which remained unknown – possibly in order to remain neutral towards the powerful Neo-Assyrian Empire, or simply because he did not have enough power or resources – King So did not help Hoshea, who was subsequently defeated and deposed by Shalmaneser V. The Kingdom of Israel ceased to exist, many Israelites were brought to Assyria as exiles,[24] and Assyrian and Babylonian settlers occupied Israel.[25][26][27] Sargon II, Osorkon's Assyrian opponent. In 720 BC, a revolt occurred in Palestine against the new Assyrian King Sargon II, led by King Hanno (also Hanun and Hanuna) of Gaza who sought the help of "Pirʾu of Musri", a term most probably meaning "Pharaoh of Egypt" and referring to Osorkon IV. Assyrian sources claim that this time the Egyptian king did send a turtanu (an army–commander) called Reʾe or Reʾu (his Egyptian name was Raia, though in the past it was read Sibʾe) as well as troops in order to support his neighboring ally. However, the coalition was defeated in battle at Raphia. Reʾe fled back to Egypt, Raphia and Gaza were looted and Hanno was burnt alive by the Assyrians.[28][29] In 716 BC, Sargon II almost reached Egypt's boundaries. Feeling directly threatened this time, Osorkon IV (here called Shilkanni by Assyrian sources, see below) was carefully diplomatic: he personally met the Assyrian king at the "Brook of Egypt" (most likely el-Arish) and tributed him with a present which Sargon personally described as "twelve large horses of Egypt without equals in Assyria". The Assyrian king appreciated his gifts and did not take action against Osorkon IV.[30] End[edit] No mention of Osorkon IV is known after 716 BC. Some archaeological findings[31] suggest that shortly after this date, Bocchoris (Bakenrenef) of the 24th Dynasty may have expanded his realm eastward, supplanting Osorkon at Tanis. In 712 BC, Piye's successor Shebitku marched northward and defeated Bocchoris.[32] When around the same year King Iamani of Ashdod sought refuge from Sargon II in Egypt, Shebitku was in fact the sole ruler of Egypt, and returned Iamani to the Assyrians in chains.[33][34] In any case, Osorkon IV was seemingly dead before that year.[35] A few years later a man called Gemenefkhonsbak, possibly a descendant of the now-defunct 22nd Dynasty, claimed for himself the pharaonic royal titles and ruled in Tanis as its prince.[36] Identification with Shilkanni and So[edit] It is believed that Shilkanni is a rendering of (U)shilkan, which in turn is derived from (O)sorkon – hence Osorkon IV – as first proposed by William F. Albright in 1956.[37][38] This identification is accepted by several scholars[39][40][41][42][43][44][45] while others remain uncertain[46] or even skeptical.[47] Shilkanni is reported by Assyrians as "King of Musri": this location, once believed to be a country in northern Arabia by the Orientalist Hans Alexander Winckler, is certainly to be identified with Egypt instead.[48] In the same way, the "Pir'u of Musri" to whom Hanno of Gaza asked for help in 720 BC could only have been Osorkon IV.[49] The identity of the biblical King So is somewhat less definite. Generally, an abbreviation of (O)so(rkon) is again considered the most likely by several scholars,[50][51][52][53][54][55][56][57] but the concurrent hypothesis which equates So with the city of Sais, hence with King Tefnakht, is supported by a certain number of scholars.[58][59][60][61] Attestations[edit] Small aegis of Sekhmet with the name of Osorkon and Tadibast, in the Louvre. Osorkon IV is attested by Assyrian documents (as Shilkanni and other epithets) and probably also by the Books of Kings (as King So), while Manetho's epitomes seem to have ignored him.[62] He is undoubtedly attested by the well-known Victory Stela of Piye[63] on which he is depicted while prostrating in front of the owner of the stela along with other submitted rulers. Another finding almost certainly referring to him is the aforementioned aegis of Sekhmet, found at Bubastis and mentioning a King Osorkon son of queen Tadibast who–as the name does not coincide with those of any of the other Osorkon kings' mothers–can only be Osorkon IV's mother.[64] About the throne name[edit] Osorkon's throne name was thought to be Aakheperre Setepenamun from a few monuments naming a namesake pharaoh Osorkon, such as a faience seal and a relief–block, both in the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden in Leiden,[65] but this attribution was questioned by Frederic Payraudeau in 2000. According to him, these findings could rather be assigned to an earlier Aakheperre Osorkon – i.e., the distant predecessor Osorkon the Elder of the 21st Dynasty – thus implying that Osorkon IV's real throne name was unknown.[66] Furthermore, in 2010/11 a French expedition discovered in the Temple of Mut at Tanis two blocks bearing a relief of a King Usermaa(t)re Osorkonu, depicted in a quite archaizing style, which at first were attributed to Osorkon III.[67] In 2014, on the basis of the style of both the relief and the royal name, Aidan Dodson rejected the identification of this king with both the already-known kings Usermaatre Osorkon (Osorkon II and III) and stated that he was rather Osorkon IV with his true throne name.[68] A long-known, archaizing "glassy faience" statuette fragment from Memphis now exhibited at the Petrie Museum (UC13128) which is inscribed for one King Usermaatre, had been tentatively attributed to several pharaohs from Piye to Rudamun of the Theban 23rd Dynasty and even to Amyrtaios of the 28th Dynasty, but may in fact represent Osorkon IV.[69] See also[edit] Pharaohs in the Bible for other historical or conjectural pharaohs cited in the Bible References[edit] ^ Dodson (2014), pp. 7–8 ^ Dodson (2014), pp. 9–10 ^ Dodson (2014), pp. 9–10 ^ Kitchen (1996), p. 92 ^ Berlandini (1979), pp. 100–101 ^ Edwards (1982), p. 569 ^ Schneider (1985), pp. 261–263 ^ Mitchell (1991), p. 340 ^ Grimal (1992), pp. 330–331 ^ Priese (1970), p. 20, n. 23 ^ Leahy (1990), p. 89 ^ von Beckerath (1997), p. 99 ^ see also Jansen-Winkeln 2006, pp. 246–47 and references therein. ^ Wilkinson (2011, p. XVIII) recognizes Osorkon IV as the last ruler of the 22nd Dynasty, though placing Pedubast II before him. ^ Berlandini (1979), pp. 100–101 ^ Kitchen (1996), pp. 82; 92 ^ Grimal (1992), pp. 330–331 ^ Kitchen (1996), p. 325 ^ Grimal (1992), p. 398 ^ Kitchen (1996), pp. 325–326 ^ Wilkinson (2011), pp. 397 ^ Grimal (1992), p. 339 ^ Wilkinson (2011), pp. 398 ^ 2 Kings 17:6 ^ 2 Kings 17:24 ^ Grimal (1992), pp. 341–342 ^ Kitchen (1996), pp. 333ff ^ Grimal (1992), pp. 341–342 ^ Kitchen (1996), pp. 333ff ^ Kitchen (1996), p. 336 ^ Yoyotte (1971), pp. 44–45 ^ Payraudeau (2014), pp. 124–127 ^ Kitchen (1996), pp. 463–464 ^ Payraudeau (2014), pp. 124–127 ^ Kitchen (1996), p. 526; revised table 6 ^ Kitchen (1996), p. 357 ^ Albright (1956), p. 24 ^ Kitchen (1996), p. 115 ^ Dodson (2014), pp. 9–10 ^ Grimal (1992), pp. 341–342 ^ Edwards (1982), p. 576 ^ Schneider (1985), pp. 261–263 ^ Mitchell (1991), p. 345 ^ Kitchen (1996), pp. 115; 463 ^ Wilkinson (2011), pp. 399–400 ^ Jansen-Winkeln (2006), p. 260 & n. 117 ^ Yoyotte (1971), pp. 43–44 ^ Kitchen (1996), p. 115 ^ Kitchen (1996), pp. 335; 463 ^ Edwards (1982), p. 576 ^ Schneider (1985), pp. 261–263 ^ Mitchell (1991), p. 345 ^ Kitchen (1996), pp. 333ff; 463–464 ^ Patterson (2003), pp. 196–197 ^ Clayton (2006), pp. 182–183 ^ Dodson (2014), p. 9 ^ Theis (2020), pp. 107–113 ^ Goedicke (1963), pp. 64–66 ^ Redford (1985), pp. 197 & n. 56 ^ see also Kitchen 1996, § 463 and references therein. ^ Kahn (2001), pp. 13–14 ^ Kitchen (1996), p. 418 ^ Jansen-Winkeln (2006), p. 246; n. 91 ^ Berlandini (1979), pp. 100–101 ^ Schneider (1985), pp. 261–263 ^ Payraudeau (2000), pp. 78ff ^ Dodson (2014), pp. 7–8 ^ Dodson (2014), pp. 9–10 ^ Brandl (2011), pp. 17–18 Bibliography[edit] Albright, William F. (1956). "Further Synchronisms between Egypt and Asia in the Period 935-685 BC". BASOR. 141: 23–27. von Beckerath, Jürgen (1994). "Osorkon IV = Herakles". Göttinger Miszellen. 139: 7–8. von Beckerath, Jürgen (1997). Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens. Mainz am Rhein: Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46. Berlandini, Jocelyne (1979). "Petits monuments royaux de la XXIe à la XXVe dynastie". Hommages à la mémoire de Serge Sauneron, vol. I, Egypte pharaonique. Cairo, Imprimerie de l'Institut d'Archeologie Orientale. pp. 89–114. Brandl, Helmut (2011). "Eine archaisierende Königsfigur der späten Libyerzeit (Osorkon IV ?)". In Bechtold, E.; Gulyás, A.; Hasznos, A. (eds.). From Illahun to Djeme. Papers Presented in Honour of Ulrich Luft. Archaeopress. pp. 11–23. ISBN 978 1 4073 0894 4. Clayton, Peter A. (2006). Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28628-0. Dodson, Aidan (2014). "The Coming of the Kushites and the Identity of Osorkon IV". In Pischikova, Elena (ed.). Thebes in the First Millennium BC PDF. Cambridge Scholars publishing. pp. 6–12. ISBN 978-1-4438-5404-7. Dodson, Aidan; Hilton, Dyan (2004). The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05128-3. Edwards, I.E.S. (1982). "Egypt: from the Twenty-second to the Twenty-fourth Dynasty". In Edwards, I.E.S. (ed.). The Cambridge Ancient History (2nd ed.), vol. III, part 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 534–581. ISBN 0 521 22496 9. Goedicke, Hans (1963). "The end of "So, King of Egypt"". BASOR. 171: 64–66. Grimal, Nicolas (1992). A History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Blackwell Books. p. 512. ISBN 9780631174721. Jansen-Winkeln, Karl (2006). "Third Intermediate Period". In Hornung, Erik; Krauss, Rolf; Warburton, David A. (eds.). Ancient Egyptian Chronology. Brill, Leiden/Boston. pp. 234–264. ISBN 978 90 04 11385 5. Kahn, Dan'el (2001). "The Inscription of Sargon II at Tang-I Var and the Chronology of Dynasty 25". Orientalia. 70: 1–18. Kitchen, Kenneth A. (1996). The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100–650 BC). Warminster: Aris & Phillips Limited. p. 608. ISBN 0-85668-298-5. Leahy, Anthony, ed. (1990). Libya and Egypt c. 1300–750 BC. University of London. Centre of Near and Middle Eastern Studies. p. 200. ISBN 0 521 22717 8. Mitchell, T. C. (1991). "Israel and Judah c. 750–700 B.C.". In Edwards, I.E.S. (ed.). The Cambridge Ancient History (2nd ed.), vol. III, part 2. Cambridge University Press. pp. 322–370. ISBN 0 521 22717 8. Patterson, Richard D. (2003). "The Divided Monarchy: Sources, Approaches, and Historicity". In Grisanti, Michel A.; Howard, David M. (eds.). Giving the sense: understanding and using Old Testament historical texts. Kregel. pp. 179–200. ISBN 978-0-8254-2892-0. Payraudeau, Frederic (2000). "Remarques sur l'identité du premier et du dernier Osorkon". Göttinger Miszellen. 178: 75–80. Payraudeau, Frédéric (2014). "Retour sur la succession Shabaqo-Shabataqo". NeHeT. 1: 115–127. Porter, Robert M. (2011). "Osorkon III of Tanis: the Contemporary of Piye?". Göttinger Miszellen. 230: 111–112. Priese, Karl-Heinz (1970). "Der Beginn der Kuschitischen Herrschaft in Ägypten". ZÄS. 98: 16–32. Redford, Donald B. (1985). "The Relations between Egypt and Israel from El-Amarna to the babylonian Conquest". Proceedings of the International Congress on Biblical Archaeology, Jerusalem, April 1984. Biblical Archaeology Today. pp. 192–203. Schneider, Hans D. (1985). "A royal epigone of the 22nd Dynasty. Two documents of Osorkon IV in Leiden". Mélanges Gamal Eddin Mokhtar, vol. II. Institut français d'archéologie orientale du Caire. pp. 261–267. Theis, Christoffer (2020). "Contributions to the Vocabulary of the Old Testament: The Connection of the Name סוֹא with Greek Σηγωρ in 2 Kings 17, 4". Biblica. 101: 107–13. Wilkinson, Toby (2011). The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt. New York: Random House. p. 560. ISBN 9780747599494. Yoyotte, Jean (1971). "Notes et documents pour servir à l'historie de Tanis". Kêmi. XXI: 36–45. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Osorkon IV. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Osorkon_IV&oldid=991852486" Categories: 8th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Pharaohs of the Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt 8th-century BC biblical rulers 8th century BC in Egypt Pharaohs in the Bible Hidden categories: Good articles Commons category link from Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate 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en-wikipedia-org-576	----	Popular culture - Wikipedia Popular culture From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Set of norms or trends dominant in a society at a given time "Pop Culture" redirects here. For the Madeon song, see Pop Culture (song). "In popular culture" redirects here. For Wikipedia essay on such sections in articles, see Wikipedia:"In popular culture" content. Popular culture (also called mass culture and pop culture) is generally recognized by members of a society as a set of the practices, beliefs, and objects that are dominant or prevalent in a society at a given point in time. Popular culture also encompasses the activities and feelings produced as a result of interaction with these dominant objects. Heavily influenced in modern times by mass media, this collection of ideas permeates the everyday lives of people in a given society. Therefore, popular culture has a way of influencing an individual's attitudes towards certain topics.[1] However, there are various ways to define pop culture.[2] Because of this, popular culture is something that can be defined in a variety of conflicting ways by different people across different contexts.[3] It is generally viewed in contrast to other forms of culture such as folk cults, working-class culture, or high culture, and also through different high praised perspectives such as psychoanalysis, structuralism, postmodernism, and more. The most common pop-culture categories are: entertainment (such as film, music, television and video games), sports, news (as in people/places in the news), politics, fashion, technology, and slang.[4] Popular culture in the West has been critiqued for its being a system of commercialism that privileges products selected and mass-marketed by the upper-class capitalist elite; such criticisms are most notable in many Marxist theorists such as Herbert Marcuse, Theodor Adorno, Max Horkheimer, Antonio Gramsci, Guy Debord, Fredric Jameson, Terry Eagleton, as well as certain postmodern philosophers such as Jean-François Lyotard, who has written about the commercialisation of information under capitalism,[5] and Jean Baudrillard, as well as others.[6] Contents 1 History 2 Definition 2.1 Levels 2.2 Folklore 3 Criticism 3.1 The Culture Industry 3.2 Imperialism 3.3 Propaganda 3.4 Consumerism 4 Sources 4.1 Print culture 4.2 Radio culture 4.3 Films 4.4 Television programs 4.5 Music 4.6 Sports 4.7 Corporate branding 4.8 Personal branding 4.9 Social media 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links History[edit] See also: Cultural history The term "popular culture" was coined in the 19th century or earlier.[7] Traditionally, popular culture was associated[by whom?] with poor education and with the lower classes,[8] as opposed to the "official culture" and higher education of the upper classes.[9][10] Victorian-era With the rise of the Industrial Revolution in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Britain experienced social changes that resulted in increased literacy rates, and with the rise of capitalism and industrialization, people began to spend more money on entertainment, like the commercial idea of pubs and sports. Reading also gained traction. Labelling penny dreadfuls the Victorian equivalent of video games, The Guardian in 2016 described penny fiction as "Britain's first taste of mass-produced popular culture for the young".[11] A growing consumer culture and an increased capacity for travel via the newly invented railway (the first public railway, Stockton and Darlington Railway, opened in north-east England in 1825) created both a market for cheap popular literature, and the ability for its distribution on a large scale. The first penny serials were published in the 1830s to meet the growing demand.[12][13] The stress in the distinction from "official culture" became more pronounced towards the end of the 19th century,[14][need quotation to verify] a usage that became established by the interbellum period.[15][need quotation to verify] From the end of World War II, following major cultural and social changes brought by mass media innovations, the meaning of popular culture began to overlap with those of mass culture, media culture, image culture, consumer culture, and culture for mass consumption.[16] The abbreviated form "pop" for popular, as in pop music, dates from the late 1950s.[17] Although terms "pop" and "popular" are in some cases used interchangeably, and their meaning partially overlap, the term "pop" is narrower. Pop is specific of something containing qualities of mass appeal, while "popular" refers to what has gained popularity, regardless of its style.[18][19] Definition[edit] According to author John Storey, there are various definitions of popular culture.[20] The quantitative definition of culture has the problem that much "high culture" (e.g., television dramatizations of Jane Austen) is also "popular." "Pop culture" is also defined as the culture that is "leftover" when we have decided what high culture is. However, many works straddle the boundaries, e.g., William Shakespeare and Charles Dickens, Leo Tolstoy, and George Orwell. A third definition equates pop culture with "mass culture" and ideas. This is seen as a commercial culture, mass-produced for mass consumption by mass media.[21] From a Western European perspective, this may be compared to American culture.[clarification needed] Alternatively, "pop culture" can be defined as an "authentic" culture of the people, but this can be problematic as there are many ways of defining the "people."[page needed] Storey argued that there is a political dimension to popular culture; neo-Gramscian hegemony theory "... sees popular culture as a site of struggle between the 'resistance' of subordinate groups in society and the forces of 'incorporation' operating in the interests of dominant groups in society." A postmodernist approach to popular culture would "no longer recognize the distinction between high and popular culture." Jean Baudrillard argued that the vague conception “Public Opinion” is a subjective and inaccurate illusion which is more complicit in populism rather than in factuality, for it attributes a sovereignty to consumers that they do not really possess.[22] Storey claims that popular culture emerged from the urbanization of the Industrial Revolution. Studies of Shakespeare (by Weimann, Barber, or Bristol, for example) locate much of the characteristic vitality of his drama in its participation in Renaissance popular culture, while contemporary practitioners like Dario Fo and John McGrath use popular culture in its Gramscian sense that includes ancient folk traditions (the commedia dell'arte for example).[23][24][need quotation to verify] Popular culture is constantly evolving and occurs uniquely in place and time. It forms currents and eddies, and represents a complex of mutually interdependent perspectives and values that influence society and its institutions in various ways. For example, certain currents of pop culture may originate from, (or diverge into) a subculture, representing perspectives with which the mainstream popular culture has only limited familiarity. Items of popular culture most typically appeal to a broad spectrum of the public. Important contemporary contributions for understanding what popular culture means have been given by the German researcher Ronald Daus, who studies the impact of extra-European cultures in North America, Asia, and especially in Latin America. Levels[edit] Within the realm of popular culture, there exists an organizational culture. From its beginning, popular culture has revolved around classes in society and the push-back between them. Within popular culture, there are three levels that have emerged, high and low. High culture can be described as art and works considered of superior value, historically, aesthetically and socially. Low culture is regarded by some as that of the lower classes, historically.[25] Folklore[edit] Main article: Folklore Adaptations based on traditional folklore provide a source of popular culture.[26] This early layer of cultural mainstream still persists today, in a form separate from mass-produced popular culture, propagating by word of mouth rather than via mass media, e.g. in the form of jokes or urban legends. With the widespread use of the Internet from the 1990s, the distinction between mass media and word-of-mouth has become blurred.[citation needed] Although the folkloric element of popular culture engages heavily with the commercial element, communities amongst the public have their own tastes and they may not always embrace every cultural or subcultural item sold. Moreover, certain beliefs and opinions about the products of commercial culture may spread by word-of-mouth, and become modified in the process and in the same manner that folklore evolves.[citation needed] Criticism[edit] The Culture Industry[edit] Main article: Culture industry The most influential critiques of popular culture came from Marxist theorists of the Frankfurt School during the twentieth century. Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer analysed the dangers of the culture industry in their influential work the Dialectic of Enlightenment by drawing upon the works of Kant, Marx, Nietzsche and others. Capitalist popular culture, as Adorno argued, was not an authentic culture of the people but a system of homogenous and standardised artworks produced in the service of capitalist domination by the elite. The consumer demand for Hollywood films, pop tunes and consumable books is encouraged by the hegemony of the corporate elite who control the media and the corporations. Adorno wrote, “The industry bows to the vote it has itself rigged”.[27] It is the elite who commodify products in accordance with their narrow ideological values and criteria, and Adorno argues that the audience becomes accustomed to these formulaic conventions, making intellectual contemplation impossible.[28] Adorno's work has had a considerable influence on culture studies, philosophy and the New Left.[29] Writing in the New Yorker in 2014, music critic Alex Ross, argued that Adorno's work has a renewed importance in the digital age: "The pop hegemony is all but complete, its superstars dominating the media and wielding the economic might of tycoons...Culture appears more monolithic than ever, with a few gigantic corporations—Google, Apple, Facebook, Amazon—presiding over unprecedented monopolies."[30] Scholar Jack Zipes critiqued the mass commercialisation and corporate hegemony behind the Harry Potter franchise. He argued that the commodities of the culture industry are “popular” because they are homogenous and obey standard conventions; the media then influences the tastes of children. In his analysis of Harry Potter's global brand, Zipes wrote, "It must conform to the standards of exception set by the mass media and promoted by the culture industry in general. To be a phenomenon means that a person or commodity must conform to the hegemonic groups that determine what makes up a phenomenon".[31] Imperialism[edit] Main articles: Imperialism and Cultural imperialism According to John M. MacKenzie, many products of popular culture have been designed to promote imperialist ideologies and to glorify the British upper classes rather than present a democratic view of the world. [32] Although there are many films which do not contain such propaganda, there have been many films that promote racism and militarist imperialism. [33] Propaganda[edit] Main article: Propaganda Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky critiqued the mass media in their 1988 work Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media. They argue that mass media is controlled by a powerful hegemonic elite who are motivated by their own interests that determine and manipulate what information is present in the mainstream. The mass media is therefore a system of propaganda. In sum, a propaganda approach to media coverage suggests a systematic and highly political dichotomization in news coverage based on serviceability to important domestic power interests. This should be observable in dichotomized choices of story and in the volume and quality of coverage... such dichotomization in the mass media is massive and systematic: not only are choices for publicity and suppression comprehensible in terms of system advantage, but the modes of handling favored and inconvenient materials (placement, tone, context, fullness of treatment) differ in ways that serve political ends.[34] Consumerism[edit] Main article: Consumerism According to the postmodern sociologist Jean Baudrillard, the individual is trained into the duty of seeking the relentless maximisation of pleasure lest he or she become asocial.[35] Therefore, “enjoyment” and “fun” become indistinguishable from the need to consume. Whereas the Frankfurt School believed consumers were passive, Baudrillard argued that consumers were trained to consume products in a form of active labour in order to achieve upward social mobility.[36] Thus, consumers under capitalism are trained to purchase products such as pop albums and consumable fiction in order to signal their devotion to social trends, fashions and subcultures. Although the consumption may arise from an active choice, the choice is still the consequence of a social conditioning which the individual is unconscious of. Baudrillard says, “One is permanently governed by a code whose rules and meaning-constraints — like those of language — are, for the most part, beyond the grasp of individuals”.[37] In Baudrillard's understanding, the products of capitalist popular culture can only give the illusion of rebellion, since they are still complicit in a system controlled by the powerful. Baudrillard stated in an interview, critiquing the content and production of The Matrix: The Matrix paints the picture of a monopolistic superpower, like we see today, and then collaborates in its refraction. Basically, its dissemination on a world scale is complicit with the film itself. On this point it is worth recalling Marshall McLuhan: the medium is the message. The message of The Matrix is its own diffusion by an uncontrollable and proliferating contamination.[38] Sources[edit] Sources of popular culture include: Films Television programs Television advertisements[no section] Animation[no section] Popular music Sports Corporations Fashion Books Comics[no section] Radio Video games[no section] The Internet[no section][39] Print culture[edit] Main article: Print culture With the invention of the printing press in the sixteenth century, mass-produced, cheap books became widely available to the public. With this, the transmission of common knowledge and ideas was possible.[40] Radio culture[edit] Main article: Radio broadcasting In the 1890s, Nikola Tesla and Guglielmo Marconi created the radiotelegraph, allowing for the modern radio to be born. This led to the radio being able to influence a more "listened-to" culture, with individuals being able to feel like they have a more direct impact.[41] This radio culture is vital, because it was imperative to advertising, and it introduced the commercial. Films[edit] Main article: Film Films and cinema are highly influential to popular culture, as films as an art form are what people seem to respond to the most.[42] With moving pictures being first captured by Eadweard Muybridge in 1877, films have evolved into elements that can be cast into different digital formats, spreading to different cultures. Films started massive popular culture.[43][failed verification] The impact of films and cinema are most evident when analyzing in the search of what the films aim to portray.[44] Films are used to seek acceptance and understanding of many subjects because of the influence the films carry an example of an early representation of this can be seen in Casablanca 1942, the film introduced war subjects to the public after the United States entered World War ll, and it meant to increase pro war sentiment for the allies.[45] The films themselves are only a small part of the function, popular culture entails that film to reach the public in different mannersthat are identified within the public as generations. Parallels can be found in what people of your generation care about with what was major film in their generation. Although, the effectiveness of an individual films may not be exactly interpreted without massive research. The knowledge that films carry a vast influence is evident when assessing the popular culture to the films released during parallel years. Films are a known massive influencer to popular culture yet not all films create a movement that contributes enough to be part of the popular culture that starts movements. The content must resonate to most of the public so the knowledge in the material connects with the majority. Popular culture is a set of beliefs in trends and entail to change a person’s set of ideologies and create social transformation.[46] The beliefs are still a trend that change more rapidly in the modern age that carries a continuation of outpouring media and more specifically films. The trend does not last but it also carries a different effect based on individuals that can be grouped to generalized groups based on age and education. The creation of culture by films is seen in fandoms, religions, ideologies, and movements. The culture of film is more evident in the modern, social media is an instant source of feedback and it creates large movements at a faster pace.  Netflix is a massive trend setter in the modern era of popular culture. A repeating event that has been set in modern culture within the trend setting phase is the creation of movements in social media platforms to defend a featured subject on a film.[47] Popular culture or mass culture, is reached easily with films which are easily shared and reached worldwide.[42] Television programs[edit] Main article: Television program A television program is a segment of audiovisual content intended for broadcast (other than a commercial, trailer, or other content not serving as attraction for viewership). Television programs may be fictional (as in comedies and dramas), or non-fictional (as in documentary, news and reality television). They may be topical (as in the case of a local newscast and some made-for-television movies), or historical (as in the case of many documentaries and fictional series). They can be primarily instructional or educational, or entertaining as is the case in situation comedy and game shows.[citation needed] Music[edit] Main article: Popular music Popular music is music with wide appeal[48][49] that is typically distributed to large audiences through the music industry. These forms and styles can be enjoyed and performed by people with little or no musical training.[48] It stands in contrast to both art music[50][51] and traditional or "folk" music. Art music was historically disseminated through the performances of written music, although since the beginning of the recording industry, it is also disseminated through recordings. Traditional music forms such as early blues songs or hymns were passed along orally, or to smaller, local audiences.[50] Sports[edit] Main article: Sport Sports include all forms of competitive physical activity or games which,[52] through casual or organised participation, aim to use, maintain or improve physical ability and skills while providing enjoyment to participants, and in some cases, entertainment for spectators.[53] Corporate branding[edit] Main article: Corporate branding Corporate branding refers to the practice of promoting the brand name of a corporate entity, as opposed to specific products or services.[54] Personal branding[edit] Main article: Personal branding Personal branding includes the use of social media to promotion to brands and topics to further good repute among professionals in a given field, produce an iconic relationship between a professional, a brand and its audience that extends networks past the conventional lines established by the mainstream and to enhance personal visibility. Popular culture: is generally recognized by members of a society as a set of the practices, beliefs, and objects that are dominant or prevalent in a society at a given point in time.[55][circular reference] As celebrities online identities are extremely important in order to create a brand to line-up sponsorships, jobs, and opportunities. As influencers, micro-celebrities, and users constantly need to find new ways to be unique or stay updated with trends, in order to maintain followers, views, and likes.[56] For example, Ellen DeGeneres has created her own personal branding through her talk show The Ellen DeGeneres Show. As she developed her brand we can see the branches she created to extend her fan base such as Ellen clothing, socks, pet beds, and more. Social media[edit] Main article: Social media See also: Information Age Social media is interactive computer-mediated technologies that facilitate the creation or sharing of information, ideas, career interests and other forms of expression via virtual communities and networks.[57][circular reference] Social media platforms such as Instagram, Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, TikTok and Snapchat are the most popular applications used on a daily basis for younger generations. Social media tends to be implemented into the daily routine of individuals in our current society. Social media is a vital part of our culture as it continues to impact the forms of communication used to connect with those in our communities, families, or friend groups.[58] We often see that terms or slang is used online that is not used in face to face conversations, thus, adding to a persona users create through the screens of technology.[58] For example, some individuals respond to situations with a hashtag or emojis. In face to face conversations we do not respond with "smiley face" or "#bless" in response to a peer.[58] See also[edit] Society portal Bread and circuses Culture industry Fads Folklore Journal of Popular Culture Lowbrow Low culture MTV Generation Pop art Pop icon Pop culture fiction Popular culture studies Notes[edit] ^ McGaha, Julie. "Popular Culture & Globalization". Multicultural Education 23.1 (2015): 32–37. SocINDEX with Full Text. Web. 5 Aug. 2016. ^ Strinati, D. (2004). An introduction to theories of popular culture. Routledge. ^ Storey, J. (2018). Cultural theory and popular culture: An introduction. Routledge. ^ "What Is Pop Culture? By Gary West". Archived from the original on 2016-08-29. Retrieved 2015-03-17. ^ Lyotard, Jean-François (1979). La condition postmoderne: rapport sur le savoir. Paris: Minuit. ^ Frederic Jameson: Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. 1991. ^ Although the Oxford English Dictionary lists the first use as 1854, it appears in an address by Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi in 1818: Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich (1818). The Address of Pestalozzi to the British Public. I see that it is impossible to attain this end without founding the means of popular culture and instruction upon a basis which cannot be got at otherwise than in a profound examination of Man himself; without such an investigation and such a basis all is darkness. ^ Per Adam Siljeström [sv], The educational institutions of the United States, their character and organization, J. Chapman, 1853, p. 243: "Influence of European emigration on the state of civilization in the United States: Statistics of popular culture in America". John Morley presented an address On Popular Culture at the Birmingham Town Hall in 1876, dealing with the education of the lower classes. ^ Rabelais and Bakhtin: Popular Culture in "Gargantua and Pantagruel" p.13 ^ Rabelais's Radical Farce p. 9 ^ "Penny dreadfuls: the Victorian equivalent of video games". The Guardian. Retrieved 23 November 2018. ^ "Penny dreadfuls". The British Library. Retrieved 2020-06-29. ^ Johnson, Charles (1836). Lives of the Most Notorious Highwaymen, Footpads and Murderers. Lloyd, Purkess & Strange. ^ "Learning is dishonored when she stoops to attract," cited in a section "Popular Culture and True Education" in University extension, Issue 4, The American society for the extension of university teaching, 1894. ^ e.g. "the making of popular culture plays [in post-revolutionary Russian theater]", Huntly Carter, The new spirit in the Russian theatre, 1917–28: And a sketch of the Russian kinema and radio, 1919–28, showing the new communal relationship between the three, Ayer Publishing, 1929, p. 166. ^ "one look at the sheer mass and volume of what we euphemistically call our popular culture suffices", from Winthrop Sargeant, 'In Defense of the High-Brow', an article from LIFE magazine, 11 April 1949, p. 102. ^ The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, volume 15, p. 85 entry Pop music ^ Steinem, Gloria. Outs of pop culture, in LIFE magazine, 20 August 1965, p. 73 quotations: Pop Culture-although big, mercurial, and slippery to define-is really an umbrella term that covers anything currently in fashion, all or most of whose ingredients are familiar to the public-at-large. The new dances are a perfect example... Pop Art itself may mean little to the average man, but its vocabulary...is always familiar. ^ Bill Lamb, "What Is Pop Music? A Definition", About.com, retrieved 8 March 2012 quotation: It is tempting to confuse pop music with popular music. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, the musicologist's ultimate reference resource, identifies popular music as the music since industrialization in the 1800s that is most in line with the tastes and interests of the urban middle class. This would include an extremely wide range of music from vaudeville and minstrel shows to heavy metal. Pop music, on the other hand, has primarily come into usage to describe music that evolved out of the rock 'n roll revolution of the mid-1950s and continues in a definable path to today. ^ John Storey. Cultural Theory and Popular Culture, pp. 4–8 ^ Sérgio Campos Gonçalves, "Cultura e Sociedade de Consumo: um olhar em retrospecto", InRevista – Núcleo de Produção Científica em Comunicação – UNAERP (Ribeirão Preto), v. 3, pp. 18–28, 2008, ISSN 1980-6418. ^ Baudrillard. J. (1998). The Consumer Society: Myths and Structures. Page 86 ^ Robert Weimann [de], Shakespeare and the Popular Tradition (1967) ^ Robert Shaughnessy, The Cambridge companion to Shakespeare and popular culture (2007) p. 24 ^ Danesi, Marcel (2018-07-12). Popular Culture: Introductory Perspectives. TAMU Libraries: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 6,7. ISBN 9781538107447. ^ On the Ambiguity of the Three Wise Monkeys A. W. Smith Folklore, Vol. 104, No. 1/2 (1993), pp. 144–150 ^ Adorno & Horkheimer: Dialectic of Enlightenment. Page 106. ^ Adorno & Horkheimer: Dialectic of Enlightenment. Page 100. ^ Held, D. (1980).Introduction to Critical Theory: Horkheimer to Habermas.Berkeley, University of California Press. ^ https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/09/15/naysayers ^ Zipes, J. (2002). Page 175 Sticks and Stones: The Troublesome Success of Children's Literature from Slovenly Peter to Harry Potter. ^ John M. MacKenzie. "Imperialism and Popular Culture". 1986, Manchester University Press 155 ^ John M. MacKenzie. "Imperialism and Popular Culture". 1986, Manchester University Press 155 ^ Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media. 1988. Page 19-20. Noam Chomsky & Edward S. Herman ^ Baudrillard. J. (1998). The Consumer Society: Myths and Structures. Page 80 ^ Baudrillard. J. (1998). The Consumer Society: Myths and Structures. Page 110 ^ Baudrillard. J. (1998). The Consumer Society: Myths and Structures. Page 61 ^ https://baudrillardstudies.ubishops.ca/the-matrix-decoded-le-nouvel-observateur-interview-with-jean-baudrillard/ ^ "Pop Culture: An Overview | Issue 64 | Philosophy Now". philosophynow.org. Retrieved 2018-07-06. ^ Danesi, Marcel (2018-07-12). Popular Culture: Introductory Perspectives. TAMU Libraries: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 112. ISBN 9781538107447. ^ Danesi, Marcel (2018-07-12). Popular Culture: Introductory Perspectives. TAMU Libraries: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 157. ISBN 9781538107447. ^ a b Danesi, Marcel (2018-07-12). Popular Culture: Introductory Perspectives. TAMU Libraries: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 195. ISBN 9781538107447. ^ "Film History". Greatest Films. Retrieved July 2, 2018. ^ "Films as Social and Cultural History". historymatters.gmu.edu. Retrieved 2020-12-01. ^ Jackson, Kathy (2000). "Playing it again and again: Casablanca's impact on American mass media and popular culture". Journal of Popular Film & Television. 27 (4): 33–41, 9p. doi:10.1080/01956050009602813. S2CID 191490559. ^ Kubrak, Tina (2020). "Impact of Films: Changes in Young People's Attitudes after Watching a Movie". Behavioral Sciences (2076-328X). 10 (5): 86. doi:10.3390/bs10050086. PMC 7288198. PMID 32370280. ^ Hallinan, Blake. "Recommended for you: The Netflix Prize and the production of algorithmic culture". News Media and Society. 2016: 117–137. ^ a b Popular Music. (2015). Funk & Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia ^ "Definition of "popular music" | Collins English Dictionary". www.collinsdictionary.com. Retrieved 2015-11-15. ^ a b Arnold, Denis (1983). The New Oxford Companion Music, Volume 1: A–J. Oxford University Press. p. 111. ISBN 978-0-19-311316-9. ^ Tagg, Philip (1982). "Analysing popular music: theory, method and practice" (PDF). Popular Music. 2: 37–67. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.628.7469. doi:10.1017/S0261143000001227. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-07-21. ^ "Definition of sport". SportAccord. Archived from the original on 28 October 2011. ^ Council of Europe. "The European sport charter". Retrieved 5 March 2012. ^ "Pop Culture: An Overview – Issue 64". Philosophy Now. Retrieved July 2, 2018. ^ "Popular culture", Wikipedia, 2020-03-31, retrieved 2020-04-03 ^ Harris, L; Rae, A (2011). "Building a personal brand through social networking". Journal of Business Strategy. Emerald Group Publishing Limited. doi:10.1108/02756661111165435. ^ "Social media", Wikipedia, 2020-04-03, retrieved 2020-04-04 ^ a b c "How social media influences culture and language". The Johns Hopkins News-Letter. Retrieved 2020-04-04. References[edit] Ashby, LeRoy. "The Rising of Popular Culture: A Historiographical Sketch," OAH Magazine of History, 24 (April 2010), 11–14. Ashby, LeRoy. With Amusement for All: A History of American Popular Culture since 1830 (2006). Moritz Baßler [de]: Der deutsche Pop-Roman. Die neuen Archivisten (The German Pop-Novel. The new archivists), C.H. Beck, München 2002, ISBN 3-406-47614-7. Bakhtin, M. M. and Michael Holquist, Vadim Liapunov, Kenneth Brostrom (1981). The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays (University of Texas Press Slavic Series). Ed. Michael Holquist. Trans. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist. Austin and London: University of Texas Press. Browne, Ray B. and Pat Browne, eds. The Guide to U.S. Popular Culture (2001), 1010 pages; essays by experts on many topics. Burke, Peter. "Popular Culture Reconsidered," Storia della Storiografia 1990, Issue 17, pp. 40–49. Freitag, Sandria B. "Popular Culture in the Rewriting of History: An Essay in Comparative History and Historiography," Journal of Peasant Studies, 1989, Vol. 16 Issue 3, pp. 169–198. Gans, Herbert J. Popular Culture and High Culture: an Analysis and Evaluation of Taste. New York: Basic Books, 1974. xii, 179 p. ISBN 0-465-06021-8 Gerson, Stéphane. "' A World of Their Own': Searching for Popular Culture in the French Countryside," French Politics, Culture and Society, Summer 2009, Vol. 27 Issue 2, pp. 94–110 Golby, J. M. and A.W. Purdue, The civilisation of the crowd: popular culture in England, 1750–1900 (1985) online Griffin, Emma. "Popular Culture in Industrializing England," Historical Journal, (2002) 45#3 pp. 619–635. online, Historiography Hassabian, Anahid (1999). "Popular", Key Terms in Popular Music and Culture, eds.: Horner, Bruce and Swiss, Thomas. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 0-631-21263-9. Knight, Robert H. The Age of Consent: the Rise of Relativism and the Corruption of Popular Culture. Dallas, Tex.: Spence Publishing Co., 1998. xxiv, 253, [1] p. ISBN 1-890626-05-8 Ross, Andrew. No Respect: Intellectuals & Popular Culture. New York: Routledge, 1989. ix, 269 p. ISBN 0-415-90037-9 (pbk.) Seabrook, John. NoBrow : the culture of marketing the marketing of culture, New York: A.A. Knopf, 2000. ISBN 0-375-40504-6. Storey, John (2006). Cultural theory and popular culture. Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-13-197068-7. Stoykov, Lubomir. Politics and pop culture. Celebrity and communicative perspectives of the modern politician. // Media and social communications. The University of National and World Economy / Alma communication, №19, January 2014. Available from:http://www.media-journal.info/?p=item&aid=355 Swirski, Peter (2010). Ars Americana Ars Politica: Partisan Expression in Contemporary American Literature and Culture. Montreal, London: McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 978-0-7735-3766-8. Swirski, Peter (2005). From Lowbrow to Nobrow. Montreal, London: McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 978-0-7735-3019-5. On Religion and Popular Culture Further reading[edit] Duncan, Barry (1988). Mass Media and Popular Culture. Toronto, Ont.: Harcourt, Brace & Co. Canada. ISBN 0-7747-1262-7. Rosenberg, Bernard, and David Manning White, joint. eds. Mass Culture: the Popular Arts in America. [New York]: Free Press of Glencoe, 1957. Cowen, Tyler, "For Some Developing Countries, America's Popular Culture Is Resistible". The New York Times, 22 February 2007, sec. C, p. 3. Furio, Joanne, "The Significance of MTV and Rap Music in Popular Culture". The New York Times, 29 December 1991, sec. VI, p. 2. 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en-wikipedia-org-5781	----	Ariamnes - Wikipedia Ariamnes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 4th-century BC satrap of Cappadocia For the spider genus, see Ariamnes (spider). For the ruler of Cappadocia from 280 BC, see Ariamnes of Cappadocia. Ariamnes was satrap of Achaemenid Cappadocia. Ariamnes I (Ancient Greek: Ἀριάμνης Ariámnēs; fl. 4th century BC; ruled 362–350 BC) was satrap of Cappadocia under Persian suzerainty. Son of Datames and father of Ariarathes I and his brother Orophernes (Holophernes), Diodorus states that Ariamnes governed fifty years[1] although it is unclear how this could be correct given the dates that his father Datames (ruled 385-362 BC) and his son Ariarathes I (ruled 350-331 BC) were satraps of Cappadocia. Notes[edit] ^ Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca, xxxi. 3 References[edit] Hazel, John; Who's Who in the Greek World, "Ariamnes I" (1999) Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, "Ariamnes I", Boston (1867)  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Ariamnes". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. p. 283. Preceded by Datames Satrap of Cappadocia Succeeded by Ariarathes I v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC This Ancient Near East biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ariamnes&oldid=898688262" Categories: Achaemenid satraps of Cappadocia 4th-century BC rulers Ancient Near East people stubs Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Brezhoneg Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Français Galego Hrvatski Italiano مصرى Polski Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 May 2019, at 08:26 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5783	----	Virtual International Authority File - Wikipedia Virtual International Authority File From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from VIAF (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search International authority file For use of VIAF with Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Authority control and Wikipedia:VIAF/errors. Virtual International Authority File Screenshot 2012 Acronym VIAF Organisation OCLC Introduced 6 August 2003 (2003-08-06) Example 106965171 Website viaf.org The Virtual International Authority File (VIAF) is an international authority file. It is a joint project of several national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center (OCLC).[1] Contents 1 History 2 VIAF clusters 3 Participating libraries and organizations 3.1 Libraries added for testing purposes 4 See also 5 References 6 Sources 7 External links History[edit] Discussion about having a common international authority started in the late 1990s. After a series of failed attempts to come up with a unique common authority file, the new idea was to link existing national authorities. This would present all the benefits of a common file without requiring a large investment of time and expense in the process.[2] The VIAF concept was introduced at the 2003 World Library and Information Congress, hosted by the International Federation of Library Associations.[3] The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress (LC), the German National Library (DNB) and the OCLC on 6 August 2003.[4][5] The Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF) joined the project on 5 October 2007. The project transitioned to being a service of the OCLC on 4 April 2012.[6] The aim is to link the national authority files (such as the German Name Authority File) to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together. A VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary "see" and "see also" records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are made available online and are available for research and data exchange and sharing. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH) protocol. The file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata.[7][8] Christine L. Borgman groups VIAF with the International Standard Name Identifier and ORCID systems, describing all three as "loosely coordinated efforts to standardize name forms".[9] Borgman characterizes all three systems as attempts to solve the problem of author name disambiguation, which has grown in scale as the quantity of data multiplies.[9] She notes that VIAF, unlike the other two systems, is led by libraries, as opposed to individual authors or creators.[9] VIAF clusters[edit] VIAF's clustering algorithm is run every month. As more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records.[10] Participating libraries and organizations[edit] English Wikipedia entry name Identifier Native-language name Location Country Bibliotheca Alexandrina EGAXA Arabic: مكتبة الإسكندرية‎ Alexandria Egypt Biblioteca Nacional de Chile BNCHL Spanish: Biblioteca Nacional de Chile Santiago Chile Biblioteca Nacional de España BNE Spanish: Biblioteca Nacional de España Madrid Spain Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal PTBNP Portuguese: Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal Lisbon Portugal Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec B2Q French: Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec Quebec Canada Bibliothèque nationale de France BnF French: Bibliothèque nationale de France Paris France Bibliothèque Nationale du Royaume du Maroc (BNRM) MRBNR Arabic: المكتبة الوطنية للمملكة المغربية‎ French: Bibliothèque nationale du Royaume du Maroc Rabat Morocco Biografisch Portaal BPN Dutch: Biografisch Portaal The Hague Netherlands British Library – London England Danish Agency for Culture and Palaces Danish: Kulturstyrelsen Copenhagen Denmark Danish Bibliographic Centre DBC Danish: Dansk BiblioteksCenter Ballerup Denmark German National Library (DNB) GND German: Deutsche Nationalbibliothek Frankfurt Germany International Standard Name Identifier[11] ISNI – London United Kingdom Israel Museum Hebrew: מוזיאון ישראל‎ Jerusalem Israel Istituto Centrale per il Catalogo Unico ICCU SBN Italian: Istituto Centrale per il Catalogo Unico Rome Italy Lebanese National Library LNL Arabic: المكتبة الوطنية‎ Beirut Lebanon Library and Archives Canada LAC French: Bibliothèque et Archives Canada Ottawa, Ontario Canada Library of Congress NACO consortium (Name Authority Cooperative Program)[12] LCCN – Washington, D.C. United States National and University Library in Zagreb NSK Croatian: Nacionalna i sveučilišna knjižnica u Zagrebu Zagreb Croatia National and University Library of Slovenia Slovene: Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica Ljubljana Slovenia National Central Library NCL CYT Chinese: 國家圖書館 Taipei Taiwan National Diet Library NDL Japanese: 国立国会図書館 Tokyo Kyoto Japan National Institute of Informatics NII CiNii Japanese: 国立情報学研究所 Tokyo Japan National Library Board NLB – – Singapore National Library of Australia NLA – Canberra Australia National Library of Brazil BLBNB Portuguese: Biblioteca Nacional do Brasil Rio de Janeiro Brazil National Library of Catalonia BNC Catalan: Biblioteca de Catalunya Barcelona Spain National Library of Estonia ERRR Estonian: Eesti Rahvusraamatukogu Tallinn Estonia National and University Library of Iceland (NULI) UIY Icelandic: Háskólabókasafn Reykjavík Iceland National Library of Ireland N6I Irish: Leabharlann Náisiúnta na hÉireann Dublin Ireland National Library of Israel NLI Hebrew: הספרייה הלאומית‎ Jerusalem Israel National Library of Korea KRNLK Korean: 국립중앙도서관 Seoul Korea National Library of Latvia LNB Latvian: Latvijas Nacionālā bibliotēka Riga Latvia National Library of Luxembourg BNL Luxembourgish: Nationalbibliothéik Lëtzebuerg French: Bibliothèque nationale de Luxembourg Luxembourg City Luxembourg National Library of Mexico BNM Spanish: Biblioteca Nacional de México Mexico City Mexico National Library of the Netherlands NTA Dutch: Koninklijke Bibliotheek The Hague Netherlands National Library of New Zealand – Wellington New Zealand National Library of Norway BIBSYS W2Z Norwegian: Nasjonalbiblioteket Trondheim Norway National Library of Poland NLP Polish: Biblioteka Narodowa Warsaw Poland National Library of Russia NLR Russian: Российская национальная библиотека Saint Petersburg Russia National Library of Scotland Scottish Gaelic: Leabharlann Nàiseanta na h-Alba Scots: Naitional Leebrar o Scotland Edinburgh Scotland National Library of South Africa Afrikaans: Staats-Bibliotheek der Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek Cape Town Pretoria South Africa National Library of Sweden SELIBR Swedish: Kungliga biblioteket - Sveriges nationalbibliotek Stockholm Sweden National Library of Wales Welsh: Llyfrgell Genedlaethol Cymru Aberystwyth Wales National Library of the Czech Republic NKC Czech: Národní knihovna České republiky Prague Czech Republic National Széchényi Library NSZL Hungarian: Országos Széchényi Könyvtár Budapest Hungary Perseus Project PERSEUS – Medford, Massachusetts United States RERO (Library Network of Western Switzerland) RERO German: Westschweizer Bibliothekverbund French: Réseau des bibliothèques de Suisse occidentale Italian: Rete delle bibliotheche della Svizzera occidentale Martigny Switzerland Répertoire International des Sources Musicales RISM – Frankfurt Germany Système universitaire de documentation SUDOC French: Système universitaire de documentation – France Syriac Reference Portal SRP – Nashville, Tennessee United States Swiss National Library SWNL German: Schweizerische Nationalbibliothek French: Bibliothèque nationale suisse Italian: Biblioteca nazionale svizzera Romansh: Biblioteca naziunala svizra Bern Switzerland Narodowy Uniwersalny Katalog Centralny, NUKAT [pl] NUKAT Polish: Narodowy Uniwersalny Katalog Centralny – Poland Union List of Artist Names – Getty Research Institute ULAN JPG – Los Angeles, California United States United States National Agricultural Library NALT – Beltsville, Maryland United States United States National Library of Medicine – Bethesda, Maryland United States Vatican Library BAV Latin: Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana – Vatican City Vlaamse openbare bibliotheken (VLACC): Bibnet [nl] VLACC Dutch: Vlaamse Centrale Catalogus Brussels Belgium Wikidata WKP – Berlin, Germany International Libraries added for testing purposes[edit] English Wikipedia entry name Identifier Native-language name Location Country Lithuanian National Library LIH Lithuanian: Lietuvos nacionalinė Martyno Mažvydo biblioteka Vilnius Lithuania National and University Library of Slovenia / COBISS SIMACOB Slovene: Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, NUK Ljubljana Slovenia See also[edit] Authority control Faceted Application of Subject Terminology (FAST) Integrated Authority File (GND) International Standard Authority Data Number (ISADN) International Standard Name Identifier (ISNI) Wikipedia's authority control template for articles References[edit] ^ Kelley, Michael; Schwartz, Meredith (2012). "VIAF service transitions to OCLC". Library Journal. Media Source Inc. 137 (8): 16.  ^ O'Neill, Edward T. (12 August 2016). "VIAF: Origins" (Video presentation). Authority Data on the Web, a Satellite Meeting of the 2016 IFLA World Library and Information Congress. OCLC. ^ Loesch, Martha Fallahay (28 February 2011). "The Virtual International Authority File". Technical Services Quarterly. 28 (2): 255–256. doi:10.1080/07317131.2011.546304. ISSN 0731-7131. S2CID 62694070. ^ Morris, Susan R. (September 2003). "Virtual International Authority". Library of Congress Information Bulletin. Library of Congress. Retrieved 5 January 2021. ^ Agnew, Grace (2008). Digital Rights Management: A Librarian's Guide to Technology and Practise. Chandos Publishing. p. 180. ISBN 978-1-84334-125-3. OCLC 62715356. ^ Murphy, Bob (4 April 2012). "Virtual International Authority File service transitions to OCLC; contributing institutions continue to shape direction through VIAF Council" (Press release). OCLC. Dublin, OH. ^ Klein, Max; Renspie, Melissa (7 December 2012). "VIAFbot Edits 250,000 Wikipedia Articles to Reciprocate All Links from VIAF into Wikipedia". OCLC. ^ Klein, Maximilian; Kyrios, Alex (14 October 2013). "VIAFbot and the Integration of Library Data on Wikipedia". The Code4Lib Journal (22). ISSN 1940-5758. ^ a b c Borgman 2015, p. 260. ^ Hickey, Thomas B.; Toves, Jenny A. (July 2014). "Managing Ambiguity In VIAF". D-Lib Magazine. Corporation for National Research Initiatives. 20 (7/8). doi:10.1045/july2014-hickey. ^ MacEwan, Andrew (12 August 2016). "ISNI and VIAF" (Video presentation). Authority Data on the Web, a Satellite Meeting of the 2016 IFLA World Library and Information Congress. OCLC. ^ "NACO - Name Authority Cooperative Program". Library of Congress. Sources[edit] Borgman, Christine L. (2015). Big Data, Little Data, No Data: Scholarship in the Networked World. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-32786-2. OCLC 900409008. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to VIAF. Wikidata has the property: VIAF ID (P214) (see uses) Official website VIAF at OCLC v t e International numbering standards Standards ISO 2108: International Standard Book Number (ISBN) ISO 3297: International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) ISO 3901: International Standard Recording Code (ISRC) ISO 6166: International Securities Identification Number (ISIN) ISO/IEC 7812: Issuer Identification Number (IIN) ISO 9362: Business Entity Identifier (BIC) ISO 10957: International Standard Music Number (ISMN) ISO 13616: International Bank Account Number (IBAN) ISO 15511: International Standard Identifier for Libraries... (ISIL) ISO 15706: International Standard Audiovisual Number (ISAN) ISO 15707: International Standard Musical Work Code (ISWC) ISO 17316: International Standard Link Identifier (ISLI) ISO 17442: Legal Entity Identifier (LEI) ISO 21047: International Standard Text Code (ISTC) ISO 26324: Digital Object Identifier System (DOI) ISO 27729: International Standard Name Identifier (ISNI) ISO 27730: International Standard Collection Identifier (ISCI) CAE/IPI Virtual International Authority File (VIAF) v t e Authority control files AAG • ACM DL • ADB • AGSA • autores.uy • AWR • BALaT • BIBSYS • Bildindex • BNC • BNE • BNF • Botanist • BPN • CANTIC • CiNii • CWGC • DAAO • DBLP • DSI • FNZA • GND • HDS • IAAF • ICCU • ICIA • ISNI • Joconde • KulturNav • LCCN • LIR • LNB • Léonore • MBA • MGP • NARA • NBL • NDL • NGV • NKC • NLA • NLG • NLI • NLK • NLP • NLR • NSK • NTA • ORCID • PIC • PLWABN • ResearcherID • RERO • RKD • RKDimages ID • RSL • SELIBR • SIKART • SNAC • SUDOC • S2AuthorId • TA98 • TDVİA • TE • TePapa • TH • TLS • Trove • UKPARL • ULAN • US Congress • VcBA • VIAF • WorldCat Identities Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virtual_International_Authority_File&oldid=1000820529" Categories: Identifiers Library cataloging and classification Library of Congress OCLC Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from January 2021 Articles containing Arabic-language text Articles containing Spanish-language text Articles containing Portuguese-language text Articles containing French-language text Articles containing Dutch-language text Articles containing Danish-language text Articles containing German-language text Articles containing Hebrew-language text Articles containing Italian-language text Articles containing Croatian-language text Articles containing Slovene-language text Articles containing Chinese-language text Articles containing Japanese-language text Articles containing Catalan-language text Articles containing Estonian-language text Articles containing Icelandic-language text Articles containing Irish-language text Articles containing Korean-language text Articles containing Latvian-language text Articles containing Luxembourgish-language text Articles containing Norwegian-language text Articles containing Polish-language text Articles containing Russian-language text Articles containing Scottish Gaelic-language text Articles containing Scots-language text Articles containing Afrikaans-language text Articles containing Swedish-language text Articles containing Welsh-language text Articles containing Czech-language text Articles containing Hungarian-language text Articles containing Romansh-language text Articles containing Latin-language text Articles containing Lithuanian-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Asturianu বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ भोजपुरी Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latviešu Ligure Magyar Македонски मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська اردو Vèneto Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 16 January 2021, at 22:02 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5796	----	Book sources - Wikipedia Book sources Jump to navigation Jump to search This page allows users to search for multiple sources for a book given the 10- or 13-digit ISBN number. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN number do not matter. Search for book sourcesISBN: Search Wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources For assistance, see Help:ISBN. This page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its International Standard Book Number (ISBN). If you arrived at this page by clicking an ISBN link in a Wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. To search for a different book, type that book's individual ISBN into this ISBN search box. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. 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Contents 1 Online text 2 Online databases 3 Subscription eBook databases 4 Libraries 4.1 Worldwide 4.2 Africa 4.2.1 Nigeria 4.2.2 South Africa 4.2.3 Zimbabwe 4.3 Central America and the Caribbean 4.3.1 Barbados 4.3.2 Guatemala 4.3.3 Jamaica 4.3.4 Mexico 4.3.5 Trinidad and Tobago 4.4 Canada 4.4.1 Public libraries 4.4.2 Universities and colleges 4.5 United States 4.5.1 Public libraries by state 4.5.2 Universities and colleges 4.6 South America 4.6.1 Argentina 4.6.2 Brazil 4.6.3 Colombia 4.6.4 Ecuador 4.7 Asia 4.7.1 Bangladesh 4.7.2 China, People's Republic 4.7.3 Hong Kong, S.A.R. of China 4.7.4 India 4.7.5 Indonesia 4.7.6 Iran 4.7.7 Israel 4.7.8 Japan 4.7.9 Korea 4.7.10 Malaysia 4.7.11 Philippines 4.7.11.1 Universities and colleges 4.7.11.2 Other libraries 4.7.12 Singapore 4.7.13 Taiwan, Republic of China 4.7.14 Thailand 4.8 Australasia and Oceania 4.8.1 Australia 4.8.1.1 Public libraries 4.8.1.2 Academic libraries 4.8.2 New Zealand 4.8.2.1 Public libraries 4.8.2.2 Academic libraries 4.9 Europe 4.9.1 Austria 4.9.2 Belgium 4.9.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.9.4 Croatia 4.9.5 Czech Republic 4.9.6 Denmark 4.9.7 Estonia 4.9.8 Finland 4.9.9 France 4.9.10 Germany 4.9.11 Greece 4.9.12 Hungary 4.9.13 Iceland 4.9.14 Ireland 4.9.15 Italy 4.9.16 Luxembourg 4.9.17 Montenegro 4.9.18 Netherlands 4.9.19 Norway 4.9.20 Poland 4.9.21 Portugal 4.9.22 Russia 4.9.23 Serbia 4.9.24 Slovenia 4.9.25 Spain 4.9.26 Sweden 4.9.27 Switzerland 4.9.28 Turkey 4.9.29 United Kingdom 4.9.29.1 Public libraries 4.9.29.2 Universities 5 Bookselling and swapping 5.1 Price comparison sites 5.2 Search many booksellers 5.3 Individual booksellers 5.4 Book-swapping websites 6 Non-English book sources 7 Bibliographical information 8 Find other editions 9 Find on Wikipedia 10 See also Online text Find this book on Google Books Find this book at the Open Library Find this book on Amazon.com (or .au, .br, .ca, .cn, .de, .es, .fr, .in, .it, .jp, .mx, .nl, .uk). 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en-wikipedia-org-5804	----	Scorpion II - Wikipedia Scorpion II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Protodynastic Egyptian king This article is about Scorpion II. For the first, see Scorpion I. For other uses, see Scorpion King (disambiguation). Scorpion Weha, Selk Pharaoh Scorpion II on the Scorpion Macehead, Ashmolean Museum. Pharaoh Predecessor Ka? Successor Narmer? Royal titulary Horus name Weha / Selk Wḥˁ / Srq Scorpion ? Scorpion II (Ancient Egyptian: possibly Selk or Weha[1]), also known as King Scorpion, was a ruler during the Protodynastic Period of Upper Egypt (c. 3200–3000 BC). Contents 1 Identity 1.1 Name 1.2 Historical figure 2 Attestations 2.1 Macehead 2.2 Ivory tags 2.3 Rock and vessel inscriptions 3 Reign 3.1 Political situation 3.2 Religious and cultic situation 4 Mesopotamian influences under king Scorpion II 5 Tomb 6 Scorpion's name in popular culture 7 References 8 Sources 9 Bibliography Identity Name Torso of a man with the Horus name of King Scorpion below the left breast. Anorthositic gneiss, Protodynastic period, circa 3200 BCE. Munich, Staatliches Museum Ägyptischer Kunst, ÄS 7149. King Scorpion's name and title are of great dispute in modern Egyptology. His name is often introduced by a six- or seven-leafed, golden rosette or flower(?)-sign. This emblem can be found on numerous objects from the Dynasty 0 and Dynasty I periods; it vanishes until the end of the Third Dynasty, when it re-appears under high-ranked officials, such as Khabawsokar and A'a-akhty (both dated to the end of the Third Dynasty). Its precise meaning has been intensely discussed; the most common interpretation is that of an emblem meaning 'nomarch' or 'high lord'. During the protodynastic and early dynastic eras, it was evidently used as a designation for kings; in much later periods, it was bestowed on high-ranked officials and princes, especially on those who served as priests for the goddess Seshat. Thus, the golden rosette became an official emblem of Seshat.[2] The reading of the rosette sign is also disputed. Most linguists and Egyptologists read it Neb (for 'lord') or Nesw (for 'king'), and they are convinced that the golden rosette was some kind of forerunner to the later serekh.[3][4] The scorpion fetish, which underlies the name of Scorpion II, is generally linked to the later-introduced goddess Selket, but Egyptologists and linguists such as L.D. Morenz, H. Beinlich, Toby Wilkinson and Jan Assmann have pointed out that the goddess was introduced no earlier than the late Old Kingdom period. In this view, the scorpion fetish of the protodynastic period should not be associated with Selket. Morenz points out that, in cases where a fetish animal is included in a ruler's name, the animal generally has a different, rather cultic and political meaning. The scorpion animal commonly stood for dangerous things, such as 'poison' and 'illness', but it could also mean 'bad breath', in military contexts 'storm' and 'attack', or 'gale whiff'.[ambiguous] Since it is unclear what actual meaning was reserved for the serekh animal of Scorpion II, scholars usually refer to him as 'King Scorpion II'.[3][5][6] Historical figure There are several theories regarding his identity and chronological position. Some Egyptologists, such as Bernadette Menu, argue that, because Egyptian kings of the First Dynasty seem to have had multiple names, Scorpion was the same person as Narmer, simply with an alternative name, or additional title. They also argue that the artistic style seen on the macehead of Scorpion II shows conspicuous similarities to that on the famous Narmer macehead.[7] Other scholars, including T. H. Wilkinson, Renée Friedman and Bruce Trigger, have identified king Scorpion II as the 'Gegenkönig' (opponent ruler) of Narmer and Ka (or Sekhen). At the time of Scorpion II, Egypt was divided into several minor kingdoms that were fighting each other. It is likewise conjectured that Narmer simply conquered the realms of Ka and Scorpion II, thus unifying the whole of Egypt for the first time.[6] Attestations Macehead Main article: Scorpion Macehead Scorpion Macehead Macehead of Scorpion II. Scorpion II on the macehead (drawing). The only pictorial evidence of his existence is the so-called Scorpion Macehead, which was found in the Main deposit by archeologists James E. Quibell and Frederick W. Green in a temple at Nekhen (Hierakonpolis) during the dig season of 1897–1898.[8] It is currently on display at the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. The stratigraphy of this macehead was lost due to the methods of its excavators, but its style seems to date it to the very end of the Predynastic Period.[9] The Scorpion Macehead depicts a single, large figure wearing the White Crown of Upper Egypt. He holds a hoe, which has been interpreted as a ritual either involving the pharaoh ceremonially cutting the first furrow in the fields, or opening the dikes to flood them. The use and placement of the iconography is similar to the depiction of the pharaoh Narmer on the obverse side of the Narmer Palette. The king is preceded by servants, the first in row seems to throw seeds from a basket into the freshly hacked ground. A second servant (his depiction is partially damaged) wears a huge bundle of grain sheafs, which strengthens the interpretation of a seed sowing ceremony, possibly connected to the Sed festival or a founding ceremony. Maybe Scorpion II was the founder of Nekhen or Buto, which would explain why the macehead was found in Hierakonpolis. Above the servants, a row of standard bearers, who carry the same standards as seen on the Narmer palette, precede the king. Below the royal servants, a road and a landscape with people and houses is preserved.[10][11] Behind the king (on the left side) two fan bearers follow the king. Left of the fan bearer, bundles of papyrus groves are depicted. Behind these, in the upper section, a group of dancers and a priest are visible; the priest guards a Repw.t-palanquin. The lower section is lost due to damage. The festive parade looks into the opposite direction of the king and his standard bearers; an outstretched complete view reveals that both processions meet each other in the center of the whole macehead relief scene. In this very center, scholars such as K. M. Ciałowicz, E. J. Baumgärtel and T. H. Wilkinson believe that they see the tiny traces of the feet and the coil of the Red Crown; a second golden rosette is clearly visible. The traces strengthen the presumption that the scene on the Scorpion macehead once contained the depiction of a second figure of the king, wearing the Red Crown of Lower Egypt. In this case, the Scorpion macehead would show king Scorpion II as the ruler of the whole of Egypt.[10][11] The uppermost scene on the macehead shows a row of divine standards. Each standard is surmounted by a god (Set, Min and Nemty, for example) or nome crest. The original number of standards is unknown, but it is clearly visible that one half shows hanged lapwings, the other shows hanged hunting bows. Both standard rows face each other. Lapwings stood for 'Lower Egyptian folks' or 'common folks' and the bows stood for 'folk of archers', pointing to hostile Asian tribes. Their hanging is interpreted as evidence that Scorpion II began the attacks on Lower Egypt and Egyptian enemies at the border lands, which eventually resulted in Narmer's victory and unification of the country.[10] Ivory tags Numerous small ivory tags showing the depiction of a scorpion were found. They come from Abydos, Minshat Abu Omar and Tarkhan. Some of them show the scorpion holding the hieroglyphic sign for "nome/garden/land" (Gardiner sign N24) and it is disputed, if this clear sign combination has a deeper meaning: the scorpion could represent King Scorpion II in his role as a ruler of a certain (but unnamed) nome. Some other tags show the scorpion close over a swallow sign, which reads 'the scorpion is great'. One unique tag shows the scorpion holding a long stick, smiting an enemy. Since many of the tags show a shrine with a heron on the roof at the backsite, it is thought that Scorpion II originated from Buto.[12][13][14] Clay mark with the name of king Scorpion II (after Dietrich Wildung).[15] Rock and vessel inscriptions At Tarkhan and Minshat Abu Omar, several stone- and clay vessels were found. They have royal serekhs incarved at their bellies and the reading of the name inside is disputed. Several Egyptologists (including Thomas Schneider, Dietrich Wildung and Herman TeVelde) are convinced that the serekhs present a strongly stylized figure of a scorpion. Others, such as Günter Dreyer and Wolfgang Helck, are not so sure and read it as a sloppily drawn version of the name of King Ka.[12][13][14] At the second cataract of the Nile, not far from the Nasser-reservoire at Gebel Sheikh Suliman (Sudan), a large rock cutting depicts a big scorpion figure striding over killed enemies. Their death is demonstrated by depicting them standing upside-down and being hit by arrows; two further figures are still holding their own bows and shooting. Thanks to the ostrich feathers and the bows, the enemies can be identified as Nubians, since ostrich feather and bow were the typical attributes for the Egyptians to mark the Nubians. The scorpion faces a human figure with an artificial beard and ceremonial knife in a belt; the figure holds a long cord, to which captured Nubians are tied. The whole scene is interpreted as representing King Scorpion II celebrating his victory against the hostile Nubians.[16][17] Reign Political situation Numerous artifacts with relief decoration and pottery markings made of black ink point to a flourishing trade economy at the time of Scorpion's rulership. For the first time, the inscriptions give the hieroglyphic writings for 'Lower Egypt' and/or 'Upper Egypt'. Therefore, both parts of Egypt slowly started to work together. But, since it seems clear that Egypt was divided into at least two coexisting kingdoms, scholars wonder on which kind of power factor the rulership of protodynastic kings was based. Conquering and warfare had to be economically promoted, warriors and guardians had to be fed. Based on this cognition, scholars such as K. M Ciałowitz, T. H. Wilkinson, Karl Butzer, and Michael A. Hoffman point to the irrigation systems, which were founded in huge quantities. Numerous palettes (such as the Hunters Palette, the Libyan Palette, and the Narmer Palette, for example) and the maceheads of Scorpion II and Narmer show depictions of rivers, plants, trees and several different animals (birds, mammals, and fishes) in surprising natural detail. Alongside these motifs, human figures performing agricultural work are depicted. Ciałowitz, Wilkinson, Butzer and Hoffman see the power source of the protodynastic kings in these agricultural developments. Irrigation systems allowed increasing settlements, cattle possessions and vegetable cultivation. The scholars wonder if the kings kept the irrigations scarce on purpose, to ensure their power, influence and wealth.[10][18][19] Religious and cultic situation The numerous decorations on the artifacts also depict large numbers of fetishes and standards, surmounted by gods, which reveals an already very complex religion and cult system. Since the standards often guide the battle scenes, battles and conquests might have been seen as cultic events as well. The earliest recognizable gods are Horus, Seth, Min, Nemty, Nekhbet, Bat, and Wepwawet. But it is unknown where these gods had their cultic centers and shrines, because the hieroglyphs depicting the place names were not introduced yet.[10][11][18][20] Another aspect of cultic and religious beliefs under Scorpion II are the numerous depictions of mythical creatures, such as the 'serpopard' and the 'winged chimera'. The "serpopard" (also named "snake neck panther") appears on the famous Narmer palette and the so-called Two dogs palette. He was named Swdja, which means "undestroyable". In Egyptian mythology the serpopard was described as "the one who moves the sun". On the Narmer palette, two serpopards are entwining their necks. This picture is thought to be an allegoric display of the unification of Egypt. Under Scorpion II, two serpopards are lacerating a gazelle, which might imply that the serpopards were under the control of the king (they attack on command).[10][11][18][20][21] The "winged chimeras" were named Sefer in Egyptian and they represent chaos and violence. They appear on the Two-dogs-palette and on several ivory artifacts. Scholars point to the fact that creatures such as the chimera and the serpopards were of Mesopotamian origin.[10][11][18][20][21] A further motif of Scorpion's era, that is clearly of Mesopotamian origin, is that of a warrior fighting two lions with his bare hands. He holds one lion in each hand, both at his sides. A similar motif shows the warrior with two giraffes. In later dynasties, this motif became a hieroglyph, registered as Gardiner A38 and Gardiner A39. It reads Qjs and it was used as the emblem of the city of Cusae.[10][11][18][20][21] Mesopotamian influences under king Scorpion II Main article: Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Possible Mesopotamia-Egypt trade routes from the 4th millennium BCE.[22][23] All listed motifs and emblems, but also tomb architecture and traded items (such as tools, bead collars and cylinder seals) prove a surprisingly strong and extensive influence of Mesopotamian culture and religion to the early Egyptians. This cognition is promoted by the evaluations of architectural developments, visible at burial places such as Minshat Abu Omar, Hierakonpolis and Naqada. The architectural methods used for building complex and stable tombs were clearly copied from Mesopotamian buildings. It is not fully clarified why the Egyptians fostered their amicable relationship with Mesopotamia so intensively; proponents of the Dynastic race theory believe that the first Egyptian chieftains and rulers were themselves of Mesopotamian origin, but this is still unproven. During the rulership of King Scorpion II and his immediate successors, the influence seems to decrease and Egypt begins to foster its own, more independent culture. This surely was a further important step toward Egypt's future as a powerful and wealthy kingdom.[10][11][18][20][21] Hierakonpolis revetment of Temple basement Hierakonpolis cylindrical limestone vase Hierakonpolis ivory cylinder with kneeling men, with impression (drawing). Tomb The exact burial place of Scorpion II is unknown. There are two tombs that are both seen as candidates. The first one is registered as Tomb B50 and lies at Umm el-Qa'ab (close to Abydos). It is a nearly quadratic chamber divided into four rooms by a simple, cross-shaped mud wall. Several ivory tags with scorpion figures were found here. The second one is located at Hierakonpolis and is registered as Tomb HK6-1. It measures 3.5 m × 6.5 m, has a depth of 2.5 m, and is strengthened with mud. Several ivory tags with scorpion figures were found here.[24] Scorpion's name in popular culture Golding, William (1971), The Scorpion God (novella) is loosely based upon this period of Egyptian history. The Scorpion King's name was used in the 2001 film The Mummy Returns, and its spin-offs The Scorpion King (2002), The Scorpion King 2: Rise of a Warrior (2008), The Scorpion King 3: Battle for Redemption (2012) and The Scorpion King 4: Quest for Power (2015). An action-adventure video game The Scorpion King: Rise of the Akkadian was released in 2002. The 2007 children's novel Pharaoh by Jackie French deals with events in the court of King Scorpion, and the rivalry between his sons Narmer and Prince Hawk. References ^ Hannig 2006, p. 225, 790 & 1281. ^ Moortgat 1994, pp. 359–371. ^ a b Ludwig David Morenz: Bild-Buchstaben und symbolische Zeichen: Die Herausbildung der Schrift der hohen Kultur Altägyptens. (= Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis, vol. 205). Fribourg 2004, ISBN 3-7278-1486-1, p.151–154. ^ Hannig 2006, p. 455. ^ Assmann 2003, p. 91. ^ a b Toby Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt: Strategy, Society and Security. Routledge, London 1999, ISBN 0-415-18633-1, p. 38, 56 & 57. ^ Menu 1996, pp. 339–342. ^ "The Narmer Palette", The Ancient Egypt, archived from the original on June 15, 2006, retrieved September 19, 2007. ^ Shaw & Nicholson 1995, p. 254. ^ a b c d e f g h i Krzysztof Marek Ciałowicz: La naissance d'un royaume: L’Egypte dès la période prédynastique à la fin de la Ière dynastie. Institute of Archaeology, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, 2001, ISBN 83-7188-483-4, pp. 97–98. ^ a b c d e f g Elise Jenny Baumgärtel, Ludwig David Morenz: "Scorpion and Rosette and the Fragment of the Large Hierakonpolis Macehead". In: Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde (ZÄS), Vol. 93. Akademie-Verlag Berlin 1998, p. 9–13. ^ a b Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, p. 276. ^ a b Günter Dreyer: "Horus Krokodil: Ein Gegenkönig der Dynastie 0". In: Renee Friedman, Barbara Adams: The Followers of Horus: Studies dedicated to Michael Allen Hoffman, 1949–1990. Oxford 1992, ISBN 0-946897-44-1, p. 259–263. ^ a b Peter Kaplony: Die Inschriften der ägyptischen Frühzeit. Bd. 2 (= Ägyptologische Abhandlungen. Bd. 8, 2). Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1963, p. 1090. ^ Wildung 1981, obj. 36. ^ Kaiser & Dreyer 1982, p. 70. ^ Needler 1967, pp. 87–91. ^ a b c d e f Michael Allan Hoffman: Egypt before the pharaohs: The prehistoric foundations of Egyptian Civilization. Routledge and Kegan Paul, London 1980, ISBN 0-7100-0495-8, p. 312–326. ^ Jochem Kahl: "Ober- und Unterägypten: Eine dualistische Konstruktion und ihre Anfänge". In: Rainer Albertz (Hrsg.): Räume und Grenzen: Topologische Konzepte in den antiken Kulturen des östlichen Mittelmeerraums. Utz, München 2007, ISBN 3-8316-0699-4, p. 16. ^ a b c d e Whitney Davis: Masking the Blow: The Scene of Representation in Late Prehistoric Egyptian Art. Berkeley, Oxford (Los Angeles) 1992, ISBN 0-5200-7488-2, pp. 67, 97–113. ^ a b c d Béatrix Midant-Reynes: The prehistory of Egypt. From the first Egyptians to the first pharaohs. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford 2000, ISBN 0-6312-1787-8, pp. 240–242. ^ Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 22. ^ Hartwig, Melinda K. (2014). A Companion to Ancient Egyptian Art. John Wiley & Sons. p. 427. ISBN 9781444333503. ^ Michael Allan Hoffman: "Before the Pharaohs: How Egypt Became the World's First Nation-State". In: The Sciences. New York Academy of Sciences, New York 1988, pp. 40–47. Sources Assmann, Jan (2003). Stein und Zeit: Mensch und Gesellschaft im Alten Ägypten (in German). München: W. Fink. ISBN 978-3-77-052681-9. Hannig, Rainer (2006). Großes Handwörterbuch Ägyptisch-Deutsch: (2800–950 v. Chr.): die Sprache der Pharaonen. Kulturgeschichte der antiken Welt (in German). 64. Mainz: Philip von Zabern. ISBN 978-3-80-531771-9. Kaiser, Werner; Dreyer, Günter (1982). "Umm el-Qaab: Nachuntersuchungen im frühzeitlichen Königsfriedhof. 2. Vorbericht". Mitteilungen des Deutschen archäologischen Instituts (MDAIK). Abteilung Kairo. (in German). Mainz: Philipp von Zabern. 38. ISBN 978-3-80-530552-5. Menu, Bernadette (1996). "Enseignes et porte-étendarts". Bulletin de l'Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale (in French). Cairo: Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale. 96: 339–342. Moortgat, Anton (1994). "Die Goldrosette – ein Schriftzeichen?". Altorientalische Forschungen (in German). Berlin: Institut für Orientforschung. 21: 359–371. Needler, Winifred (1967). "A Rock-drawing on Gebel Sheikh Suliman (near Wadi Halfa) showing a Scorpion and human Figures". Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns: 87–91. Shaw, Ian; Nicholson, Paul (1995). The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt. London: The British Museum Press. ISBN 978-0-71-411909-0. Wildung, Dietrich (1981). Ägypten vor den Pyramiden – Münchner Ausgrabungen in Ägypten (in German). Mainz: Philipp von Zabern. ISBN 978-3-80-530523-5. Bibliography Wikimedia Commons has media related to King Scorpion II. Clayton, Peter A (2006), Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson, ISBN 0-500-28628-0. Edwards, IES (1965), "The Early Dynastic Period in Egypt", in Edwards, IES; et al. (eds.), The Cambridge Ancient History, 1, Cambridge University Press. Preceded by Ka? King of Thinis Protodynastic Succeeded by Narmer? v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Rulers of the Ancient Near East Territories/ dates [1][2][3][4] Egypt Canaan Ebla Mari Akshak/ Akkad Kish Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period 4000–3200 BCE Naqada culture (4000–3100 BCE) Proto-Cannaanites Sumerian period (4000–2340 BCE) Susa I Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE) Naqada I Naqada II Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests") Legendary ante-deluvian rulers: In Eridu: Alulim, Alalngar, then in Bad-tibira: En-men-lu-ana, En-men-gal-ana, Dumuzid, the Shepherd, then in Larag: En-sipad-zid-ana, then in Zimbir: En-men-dur-ana, then in Shuruppag: Ubara-Tutu "then the flood swept over"[5] Susa II (Uruk influence or control) 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ DenAnedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100-2700 BCE) Great Flood 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) First kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman En-me-barage-si ("made the land of Elam submit")[6] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba Uruk II dynasty Enshakushanna Mug-si Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions (3 kings)[7] Shushuntarana Napilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Urur Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun) Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion of Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[7] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian Empire (Semitic) Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Second Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) (Vassals of UR III) Shakkanakku dynasty (Semitic) Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Neo-Sumerian Period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians) Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (Vassals of Ur III)[8] Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal 2100 BCE Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin Ibbi-Sin 2050 BCE 2000 BCE Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV circa 2000 BCE Amorite invasions Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) 2025-1763 BCE Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ Third Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 1894–1595 BCE Second Intermediate Period Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham (Biblical) Yamhad First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Phoenicia Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Middle Assyrian Empire Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt 626–539 BCE Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116-117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ "The Sumerian king list: translation". etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2008-05-08. ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ a b Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scorpion_II&oldid=998705568" Categories: 32nd-century BC Pharaohs Predynastic pharaohs Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Wikipedia articles needing clarification from March 2016 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 French-language sources (fr) Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Occitan Polski Português Română Русский සිංහල Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 January 2021, at 17:22 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5848	----	Sekheperenre - Wikipedia Sekheperenre From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sekheperenre Skheperenre Scarab seal of Sekheperenre. Ashmolean Museum (AN1935.100a) Pharaoh Reign 2 months and 1 to 5 days, some time between 1690 BC and 1649 BC [1] (14th dynasty) Predecessor [...]re Successor Djedkherewre Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sekheperenre S-ḫpr.n-rˁ He whom Ra causes to come into being Variant: Sekheperenre was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 14th Dynasty of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period. According to the Egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, Sekheperenre was the twenty-second king of the dynasty; alternatively, Jürgen von Beckerath sees him as the seventeenth ruler.[1][2][3] As a king of the 14th Dynasty, Sekheperenre would have reigned from Avaris over the eastern Nile Delta and possibly over the western Delta as well.[1] Attestation[edit] With Nehesy, Nebsenre and Merdjefare, Sekheperenre is one of only four undisputed pharaohs of the 14th Dynasty to have left any attestation beyond the Turin canon, a king list compiled in the early Ramesside period.[2] Indeed, Sekheperenre is attested by a single scarab seal bearing his name. The seal, donated by A. S. Hunt and of unknown provenance, is currently in the Ashmolean Museum.[1][2] Chronological position[edit] Sekheperenre's relative position in the 14th Dynasty is somewhat secured by the Turin canon, which mentions him in column 9, line 16 (Gardiner entry 8.16).[4] According to the latest reading of the king list by Ryholt, Sekheperenre reigned 2 months and 1 to 5 days. In the previous authoritative study of the Turin canon, Alan Gardiner had read Sekheperenre's reign length as 2 years,[4] but Ryholt established that the number of years attributed to Sekheperenre by the canon was nil.[1] Sekheperenre was preceded by a king whose name is partially lost "[...]re" and succeeded by Djedkherewre.[1] The seal has a coil pattern, common in the twelfth to fourteenth dynasties and seal typology may be used to provide supporting evidence for the position and dating of Sekheperenre. At the opposite, Sekheperenre's absolute chronological position is debated. According to Egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, Sekheperenre was the twenty-second king of the 14th dynasty.[1] Ryholt's reconstruction of the early 14th Dynasty is controversial however and other specialists, such as Manfred Bietak and Jürgen von Beckerath, believe that the dynasty started shortly before Nehesy c. 1710 BC rather than c. 1805 BC as proposed by Ryholt. In this case, Sekheperenre would only be the seventeenth king of the dynasty.[5][6] References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here. ^ a b c Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 374 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz : P. von Zabern, 1999, ISBN 3-8053-2591-6, available online see p. 110-111 ^ a b Alan Gardiner, editor. Royal Canon of Turin. Griffith Institute, 1959. (Reprint 1988. ISBN 0-900416-48-3) ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46, Mainz am Rhein, 1997 Preceded by [...]re Pharaoh of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Djedkherewre v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sekheperenre&oldid=976978901" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Italiano ქართული Magyar Nederlands Slovenščina ไทย Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 6 September 2020, at 06:10 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5853	----	Senebkay - Wikipedia Senebkay From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Senebkay Seneb Kay Drawing of Senebkay's cartouche Pharaoh Reign c. 1650 BC (uncertain, Abydos Dynasty or 16th Dynasty) Predecessor ? Successor ? Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Woseribre Wsr-jb-Rˁ Powerful is the Heart of Re [1] Nomen Senebkay Snb-k3jj Burial Abydos, tomb CS9 Woseribre Senebkay (alternatively Seneb Kay) was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh during the Second Intermediate Period. The discovery of his tomb in January 2014 supports the existence of an independent Abydos Dynasty, contemporary with the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Dynasties during the Second Intermediate Period.[2] He might also appear in the Turin Canon, where there appear two kings with the throne name "Weser... re" (the names are only partly preserved). A further possible object with his name is a magical wand bearing the name Sebkay. The wand was found at Abydos but could refer to one or possibly two kings of the earlier 13th Dynasty.[3] The existence of the so-called Abydos Dynasty was first proposed by Detlef Franke[4] and later further developed by Kim Ryholt in 1997.[2] Tomb[edit] The cartouche of pharaoh Woseribre Senebkay, inside the king’s burial tomb. Senebkay's tomb (CS9) was discovered in 2014 by Josef W. Wegner of the University of Pennsylvania and a team of Egyptian archaeologists in the southern part of Abydos, Egypt.[5][6] The four-chamber tomb has a decorated limestone burial chamber. Most blocks of the chamber were reused from older structures, such as the stela of Idudju-iker. On the east, short wall there is a painted depiction of the two Wadjet-eyes. Left and right are standing the goddess Neith and Nut. Over the scene is depicted a winged sun disc. On the North wall is depicted a standing goddess; her name is destroyed. There are short text lines mentioning the deities Duamutef and Qebehsenuf. In the center of the wall appears the cartouche with the king's name Senebkay. The South wall is much destroyed. There are visible the remains of two female deities. Texts mention the deities Amset and Hapi.[7] The head of the king was once decorated with a mummy mask.[8] The texts record the pharaoh's titulary and call him the "king of Upper and Lower Egypt, Woseribre, the son of Re, Senebkay".[2] Senebkay's name was found inscribed inside a royal cartouche. Some of the burial equipment, such as the wooden canopic box, were taken from older tombs. The remains of the canopic box was originally inscribed for a king Sobekhotep,[8] likely from the nearby tomb S10, now believed to belong to Sobekhotep IV.[9] The tomb did not house many funerary goods and may have been robbed in ancient times.[10] The king was around 5 feet 10 inches (1.78 metres) tall and died between the ages of 35 and 40.[11] Studies on his skeleton reveal he was most likely killed in battle. There are eighteen wounds on his bones, impacting his lower back, feet and ankles. The cutting angles suggest he was hit from below, perhaps while he was on a chariot or on horseback. Upon falling to the ground, he was killed by several axe blows to the skull. The curvature of the wounds on the skull indicate the use of battle axes contemporary to the Second Intermediate Period.[11] See also[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Senebkay. List of pharaohs References[edit] ^ J. Wegner: A Royal Necropolis at Abydos, in: Near Eastern Archaeology, 78 (2), 2015, p. 74 Fig. 9 (name in original without cartouche) ^ a b c "Giant Sarcophagus Leads Penn Museum Team in Egypt To the Tomb of a Previously Unknown Pharaoh". Penn Museum. January 2014. Retrieved 16 January 2014. ^ finding-a-lost-pharaoh Archived 28 January 2014 at Archive.today archaeology and arts Retrieved 28 Jan 2014 ^ Franke, Detlef (1988). "Zur Chronologie des Mittleren Reiches. Teil II: Die sogenannte Zweite Zwischenzeit Altägyptens". Orientalia. 57: 259. ^ Mintz, Zoe (15 January 2014). "New Pharaoh Discovered In Egypt, King Seneb Kay Had 'The Longest Rule' Of His Time". International Business Times. ^ The Associated Press (15 January 2014). "New Pharaonic Tomb Discovered in Egypt". Cairo: ABC News. ^ Josef Wegner: Raise yourself up: Mortuary Imaginary in the Tomb of Woseribre Seneb-Kay, in: G. Miniaci, M. Betrò, S. Quirke (editors): Company of Images, Modelling the Imaginary World of Middle Kingdom Egypt (2000-1500 BC), (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 262), Leuven, Paris, Bristol, CT, 2017, ISBN 978-90-429-3495-5, pp. 485-487. ^ a b Josef Wegner: Kings of Abydos, solving an Ancient Egyptian Mystery, in: Current World Archaeology, Magazine, 64, April/May 2014, Volume 6, no. 4, p. 26 ^ Wegner, Josef W. (2015). "A royal necropolis at south Abydos: New Light on Egypt's Second Intermediate Period". Near Eastern Archaeology. 78 (2): 69–70. See p. 70 ^ Holloway, April (15 January 2014). "New Pharaoh Discovered In Egypt – Introducing King Seneb Kay". Ancient Origins. Retrieved 16 January 2014. ^ a b Lorenzi, Rossella (25 February 2015). "Pharaoh Brutally Killed in Battle, Analysis Shows". Discovery. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Senebkay&oldid=976984499" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt 2014 archaeological discoveries 2nd-millennium BC births 2nd-millennium BC deaths Pharaohs of the Abydos Dynasty Monarchs killed in action Axe murder Hidden categories: Webarchive template archiveis links Use dmy dates from January 2014 Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia 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en-wikipedia-org-5902	----	Latin - Wikipedia Latin From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Indo-European language of the Italic family For other uses, see Latin (disambiguation). Latin lingua latīna Latin inscription, in the Colosseum of Rome, Italy Pronunciation [laˈtiːna] Native to Latium Roman Kingdom / Republic / Empire Ethnicity Latins Era Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, 6th to 9th centuries; the formal language continued as the scholarly lingua franca of medieval Europe and Cilicia, as well as the liturgical language of the Catholic Church. Language family Indo-European Italic Latino-Faliscan Latin Writing system Latin alphabet  Official status Regulated by Antiquity: Roman schools of grammar/rhetoric[1] Today: Pontifical Academy for Latin Language codes ISO 639-1 la ISO 639-2 lat ISO 639-3 lat Glottolog impe1234 lati1261 Linguasphere 51-AAB-aa to 51-AAB-ac Map indicating the greatest extent of the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan (c. 117 AD) and the area governed by Latin speakers (dark red). Many languages other than Latin were spoken within the empire. Range of the Romance languages, the modern descendants of Latin, in Europe. This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. Latin (latīnum, [laˈtiːnʊ̃] or lingua latīna, [ˈlɪŋɡʷa laˈtiːna]) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken in the area around Rome, known as Latium.[2] Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language in Italy, and subsequently throughout the western Roman Empire. Latin has contributed many words to the English language. In particular, Latin (and Ancient Greek) roots are used in English descriptions of theology, the sciences, medicine, and law. By the late Roman Republic (75 BC), Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin. Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence[3] and author Petronius. Late Latin is the written language from the 3rd century; its colloquial form Vulgar Latin developed in the 6th to 9th centuries into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Sardinian, Venetian, Neapolitan, Sicilian, Piedmontese, Lombard, French, Franco-Provençal, Occitan, Corsican, Ladin, Friulan, Romansh, Catalan/Valencian, Aragonese, Spanish, Asturian, Galician, and Portuguese. Medieval Latin was used as a literary language from the 9th century to the Renaissance which used Renaissance Latin. Later, Early Modern Latin and New Latin evolved. Latin was the language of international communication, scholarship and science until well into the 18th century, when vernaculars (including the Romance languages) supplanted it. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the official language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Latin is a highly inflected language, with three distinct genders, six or seven noun cases, five declensions, four verb conjugations, six tenses, three persons, three moods, two voices, two or three aspects, and two numbers. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets and ultimately from the Phoenician alphabet. Contents 1 History 1.1 Old Latin 1.2 Classical Latin 1.3 Vulgar Latin 1.4 Medieval Latin 1.5 Renaissance Latin 1.6 New Latin 1.7 Contemporary Latin 1.7.1 Religious use 1.7.2 Use of Latin for mottos 1.7.3 Other modern uses 2 Legacy 2.1 Inscriptions 2.2 Literature 2.3 Influence on present-day languages 2.4 Education 2.5 Official status 3 Phonology 3.1 Consonants 3.2 Vowels 3.2.1 Simple vowels 3.2.2 Diphthongs 3.3 Syllables 3.3.1 Length 3.3.2 Stress 4 Orthography 4.1 Alternative scripts 5 Grammar 5.1 Nouns 5.2 Adjectives 5.2.1 First and second-declension adjectives 5.2.2 Third declension adjectives 5.2.3 Participles 5.3 Prepositions 5.4 Verbs 5.4.1 Deponent verbs 6 Vocabulary 7 Phrases (Neo-Latin) 8 Numbers 9 Example text 10 See also 11 References 12 Bibliography 13 External links 13.1 Language tools 13.2 Courses 13.3 Grammar and study 13.4 Phonetics 13.5 Latin language news and audio 13.6 Latin language online communities History[edit] Main article: History of Latin The linguistic landscape of Central Italy at the beginning of Roman expansion A number of historical phases of the language have been recognized, each distinguished by subtle differences in vocabulary, usage, spelling, morphology, and syntax. There are no hard and fast rules of classification; different scholars emphasize different features. As a result, the list has variants, as well as alternative names. In addition to the historical phases, Ecclesiastical Latin refers to the styles used by the writers of the Roman Catholic Church from Late Antiquity onward, as well as by Protestant scholars. After the Western Roman Empire fell in 476 and Germanic kingdoms took its place, the Germanic people adopted Latin as a language more suitable for legal and other, more formal uses.[citation needed] Old Latin[edit] Main article: Old Latin The Lapis Niger, probably the oldest extant Latin inscription, from Rome, c. 600 BC during the semi-legendary Roman Kingdom The earliest known form of Latin is Old Latin, which was spoken from the Roman Kingdom to the later part of the Roman Republic period. It is attested both in inscriptions and in some of the earliest extant Latin literary works, such as the comedies of Plautus and Terence. The Latin alphabet was devised from the Etruscan alphabet. The writing later changed from what was initially either a right-to-left or a boustrophedon[4][5] script to what ultimately became a strictly left-to-right script.[6] Classical Latin[edit] Main article: Classical Latin During the late republic and into the first years of the empire, a new Classical Latin arose, a conscious creation of the orators, poets, historians and other literate men, who wrote the great works of classical literature, which were taught in grammar and rhetoric schools. Today's instructional grammars trace their roots to such schools, which served as a sort of informal language academy dedicated to maintaining and perpetuating educated speech.[7][8] Vulgar Latin[edit] Main articles: Vulgar Latin, Late Latin, and Romance languages Philological analysis of Archaic Latin works, such as those of Plautus, which contain snippets of everyday speech, indicates that a spoken language, Vulgar Latin (termed sermo vulgi, "the speech of the masses", by Cicero), existed concurrently with literate Classical Latin. The informal language was rarely written, so philologists have been left with only individual words and phrases cited by classical authors and those found as graffiti.[9] As it was free to develop on its own, there is no reason to suppose that the speech was uniform either diachronically or geographically. On the contrary, romanised European populations developed their own dialects of the language, which eventually led to the differentiation of Romance languages.[10] The decline of the Roman Empire meant a deterioration in educational standards that brought about Late Latin, a postclassical stage of the language seen in Christian writings of the time. It was more in line with everyday speech, not only because of a decline in education but also because of a desire to spread the word to the masses.[citation needed] Despite dialectal variation, which is found in any widespread language, the languages of Spain, France, Portugal, and Italy retained a remarkable unity in phonological forms and developments, bolstered by the stabilising influence of their common Christian (Roman Catholic) culture. It was not until the Moorish conquest of Spain in 711, cutting off communications between the major Romance regions, that the languages began to diverge seriously.[11] The Vulgar Latin dialect that would later become Romanian diverged somewhat more from the other varieties, as it was largely separated from the unifying influences in the western part of the Empire. One key marker of whether a given Romance feature was found in Vulgar Latin is to compare it with its parallel in Classical Latin. If it was not preferred in Classical Latin, then it most likely came from the undocumented contemporaneous Vulgar Latin. For example, the Romance for "horse" (Italian cavallo, French cheval, Spanish caballo, Portuguese cavalo and Romanian cal) came from Latin caballus. However, Classical Latin used equus. Therefore, caballus was most likely the spoken form.[12] Vulgar Latin began to diverge into distinct languages by the 9th century at the latest, when the earliest extant Romance writings begin to appear. They were, throughout the period, confined to everyday speech, as Medieval Latin was used for writing.[13][14] Medieval Latin[edit] Main article: Medieval Latin The Latin Malmesbury Bible from 1407. Medieval Latin is the written Latin in use during that portion of the postclassical period when no corresponding Latin vernacular existed. The spoken language had developed into the various incipient Romance languages; however, in the educated and official world, Latin continued without its natural spoken base. Moreover, this Latin spread into lands that had never spoken Latin, such as the Germanic and Slavic nations. It became useful for international communication between the member states of the Holy Roman Empire and its allies. Without the institutions of the Roman empire that had supported its uniformity, medieval Latin lost its linguistic cohesion: for example, in classical Latin sum and eram are used as auxiliary verbs in the perfect and pluperfect passive, which are compound tenses. Medieval Latin might use fui and fueram instead.[15] Furthermore, the meanings of many words have been changed and new vocabularies have been introduced from the vernacular. Identifiable individual styles of classically incorrect Latin prevail.[15] Renaissance Latin[edit] Main article: Renaissance Latin Most 15th-century printed books (incunabula) were in Latin, with the vernacular languages playing only a secondary role.[16] The Renaissance briefly reinforced the position of Latin as a spoken language by its adoption by the Renaissance Humanists. Often led by members of the clergy, they were shocked by the accelerated dismantling of the vestiges of the classical world and the rapid loss of its literature. They strove to preserve what they could and restore Latin to what it had been and introduced the practice of producing revised editions of the literary works that remained by comparing surviving manuscripts. By no later than the 15th century they had replaced Medieval Latin with versions supported by the scholars of the rising universities, who attempted, by scholarship, to discover what the classical language had been.[17][13] New Latin[edit] Main article: New Latin During the Early Modern Age, Latin still was the most important language of culture in Europe. Therefore, until the end of the 17th century the majority of books and almost all diplomatic documents were written in Latin. Afterwards, most diplomatic documents were written in French (a Romance language) and later native or other languages. Contemporary Latin[edit] Main articles: Contemporary Latin and Ecclesiastical Latin Despite having no native speakers, Latin is still used for a variety of purposes in the contemporary world. Religious use[edit] The signs at Wallsend Metro station are in English and Latin as a tribute to Wallsend's role as one of the outposts of the Roman Empire. The largest organisation that retains Latin in official and quasi-official contexts is the Catholic Church. Latin remains the language of the Roman Rite; the Tridentine Mass is celebrated in Latin. Although the Mass of Paul VI is usually celebrated in the local vernacular language, it can be and often is said in Latin, in part or in whole, especially at multilingual gatherings. It is the official language of the Holy See, the primary language of its public journal, the Acta Apostolicae Sedis, and the working language of the Roman Rota. Vatican City is also home to the world's only automatic teller machine that gives instructions in Latin.[18] In the pontifical universities postgraduate courses of Canon law are taught in Latin, and papers are written in the same language. In the Anglican Church, after the publication of the Book of Common Prayer of 1559, a Latin edition was published in 1560 for use in universities such as Oxford and the leading "public schools" (English private academies), where the liturgy was still permitted to be conducted in Latin.[19] There have been several Latin translations since, including a Latin edition of the 1979 USA Anglican Book of Common Prayer.[20] The polyglot European Union has adopted Latin names in the logos of some of its institutions for the sake of linguistic compromise, an "ecumenical nationalism" common to most of the continent and as a sign of the continent's heritage (such as the EU Council: Consilium) Use of Latin for mottos[edit] In the Western world, many organizations, governments and schools use Latin for their mottos due to its association with formality, tradition, and the roots of Western culture.[citation needed] Canada's motto A mari usque ad mare ("from sea to sea") and most provincial mottos are also in Latin. The Canadian Victoria Cross is modelled after the British Victoria Cross which has the inscription "For Valour". Because Canada is officially bilingual, the Canadian medal has replaced the English inscription with the Latin Pro Valore. Spain's motto PLVS VLTRA, meaning "further beyond", is also Latin in origin.[21] It is taken from the personal motto of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain (as Charles I), and is a reversal of the original phrase Non terrae plus ultra ("No land further beyond"). This was said to have been inscribed as a warning on the Pillars of Hercules at the Strait of Gibraltar, which marked the edge of the known world. Charles adopted the motto following the discovery of the New World by Columbus, and it also has metaphorical suggestions of taking risks and striving for excellence. Several states of the United States have Latin mottos: such as Connecticut's motto Qui transtulit sustinet ("He who transplanted sustains"); Kansas's Ad astra per aspera ("To the stars through hardships"); Colorado's Nil sine numine ("Nothing without providence"); Michigan's Si quaeris peninsulam amoenam, circumspice ("If you seek a pleasant peninsula, look about you"); Missouri's Salus populi suprema lex esto ("The health of the people should be the highest law"); North Carolina's Esse quam videri ("To be rather than to seem"); Virginia's Sic semper tyrannis ("Thus always to tyrants"); and West Virginia's Montani semper liberi ("Mountaineers are always free"). Many military organizations today have Latin mottos, such as Semper paratus ("always ready"), the motto of the United States Coast Guard; Semper fidelis ("always faithful"), the motto of the United States Marine Corps; Semper Supra (“always above”), the motto of the United States Space Force; and Per ardua ad astra ("Through adversity/struggle to the stars"), the motto of the Royal Air Force (RAF). Some colleges and universities have adopted Latin mottos, for example Harvard University's motto is Veritas ("truth"). Veritas was the goddess of truth, a daughter of Saturn, and the mother of Virtue. Other modern uses[edit] Switzerland has adopted the country's Latin short name Helvetia on coins and stamps, since there is no room to use all of the nation's four official languages. For a similar reason, it adopted the international vehicle and internet code CH, which stands for Confœderatio Helvetica, the country's full Latin name. Some films of ancient settings, such as Sebastiane and The Passion of the Christ, have been made with dialogue in Latin for the sake of realism. Occasionally, Latin dialogue is used because of its association with religion or philosophy, in such film/television series as The Exorcist and Lost ("Jughead"). Subtitles are usually shown for the benefit of those who do not understand Latin. There are also songs written with Latin lyrics. The libretto for the opera-oratorio Oedipus rex by Igor Stravinsky is in Latin. The continued instruction of Latin is often seen as a highly valuable component of a liberal arts education. Latin is taught at many high schools, especially in Europe and the Americas. It is most common in British public schools and grammar schools, the Italian liceo classico and liceo scientifico, the German Humanistisches Gymnasium and the Dutch gymnasium. Occasionally, some media outlets, targeting enthusiasts, broadcast in Latin. Notable examples include Radio Bremen in Germany, YLE radio in Finland (the Nuntii Latini broadcast from 1989 until it was shut down in June 2019),[22] and Vatican Radio & Television, all of which broadcast news segments and other material in Latin.[23][24][25] There are many websites and forums maintained in Latin by enthusiasts. The Latin Wikipedia has more than 100,000 articles. Legacy[edit] Italian, French, Portuguese, Spanish, Romanian, Catalan, Romansh, and other Romance languages are direct descendants of Latin. There are also many Latin derivatives in English as well as a few in German, Dutch, Norwegian, Danish, and Swedish. Latin is still spoken in Vatican City, a city-state situated in Rome that is the seat of the Catholic Church. Inscriptions[edit] Some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL). Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same: volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance and relevant information. The reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. About 270,000 inscriptions are known. Literature[edit] Julius Caesar's Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the Roman Republic. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part, in substantial works or in fragments to be analyzed in philology. They are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. Their works were published in manuscript form before the invention of printing and are now published in carefully annotated printed editions, such as the Loeb Classical Library, published by Harvard University Press, or the Oxford Classical Texts, published by Oxford University Press. Latin translations of modern literature such as The Hobbit, Treasure Island, Robinson Crusoe, Paddington Bear, Winnie the Pooh, The Adventures of Tintin, Asterix, Harry Potter, Le Petit Prince, Max and Moritz, How the Grinch Stole Christmas!, The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, "fabulae mirabiles", are intended to garner popular interest in the language. Additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissner's Latin Phrasebook. Influence on present-day languages[edit] The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. In the Middle Ages, borrowing from Latin occurred from ecclesiastical usage established by Saint Augustine of Canterbury in the 6th century or indirectly after the Norman Conquest, through the Anglo-Norman language. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed "inkhorn terms", as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, but some useful ones survived, such as 'imbibe' and 'extrapolate'. Many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and Dutch vocabularies.[26][27][28] Those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. The influence of Roman governance and Roman technology on the less-developed nations under Roman dominion led to the adoption of Latin phraseology in some specialized areas, such as science, technology, medicine, and law. For example, the Linnaean system of plant and animal classification was heavily influenced by Historia Naturalis, an encyclopedia of people, places, plants, animals, and things published by Pliny the Elder. Roman medicine, recorded in the works of such physicians as Galen, established that today's medical terminology would be primarily derived from Latin and Greek words, the Greek being filtered through the Latin. Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole. Latin law principles have survived partly in a long list of Latin legal terms. A few international auxiliary languages have been heavily influenced by Latin. Interlingua is sometimes considered a simplified, modern version of the language.[dubious – discuss] Latino sine Flexione, popular in the early 20th century, is Latin with its inflections stripped away, among other grammatical changes. The Logudorese dialect of the Sardinian language is the closest contemporary language to Latin.[29] Education[edit] A multivolume Latin dictionary in the University Library of Graz. Throughout European history, an education in the classics was considered crucial for those who wished to join literate circles. Instruction in Latin is an essential aspect. In today's world, a large number of Latin students in the US learn from Wheelock's Latin: The Classic Introductory Latin Course, Based on Ancient Authors. This book, first published in 1956,[30] was written by Frederic M. Wheelock, who received a PhD from Harvard University. Wheelock's Latin has become the standard text for many American introductory Latin courses. The Living Latin movement attempts to teach Latin in the same way that living languages are taught, as a means of both spoken and written communication. It is available at the Vatican and at some institutions in the US, such as the University of Kentucky and Iowa State University. The British Cambridge University Press is a major supplier of Latin textbooks for all levels, such as the Cambridge Latin Course series. It has also published a subseries of children's texts in Latin by Bell & Forte, which recounts the adventures of a mouse called Minimus. Latin and Ancient Greek at Duke University, 2014. In the United Kingdom, the Classical Association encourages the study of antiquity through various means, such as publications and grants. The University of Cambridge,[31] the Open University,[32] a number of prestigious independent schools, for example Eton, Harrow, Haberdashers' Aske's Boys' School, Merchant Taylor’s School, Via Facilis and Rugby,[33] a London-based charity, run Latin courses. In the United States and in Canada, the American Classical League supports every effort to further the study of classics. Its subsidiaries include the National Junior Classical League (with more than 50,000 members), which encourages high school students to pursue the study of Latin, and the National Senior Classical League, which encourages students to continue their study of the classics into college. The league also sponsors the National Latin Exam. Classicist Mary Beard wrote in The Times Literary Supplement in 2006 that the reason for learning Latin is because of what was written in it.[34] Official status[edit] Latin was or is the official language of European states:  Hungary – Latin was an official language in the Kingdom of Hungary from the 11th century to the mid 19th century, when Hungarian became the exclusive official language in 1844. The best known Latin language poet of Croatian-Hungarian origin was Janus Pannonius.  Croatia – Latin was the official language of Croatian Parliament (Sabor) from the 13th to the 19th century (1847). The oldest preserved records of the parliamentary sessions (Congregatio Regni totius Sclavonie generalis) – held in Zagreb (Zagabria), Croatia – date from 19 April 1273. An extensive Croatian Latin literature exists. Latin is still used on Croatian coins on even years.[35]  Poland, Kingdom of Poland – officially recognised and widely used[36][37][38][39] between the 10th and 18th centuries, commonly used in foreign relations and popular as a second language among some of the nobility.[39] Phonology[edit] Main article: Latin phonology and orthography The ancient pronunciation of Latin has been reconstructed; among the data used for reconstruction are explicit statements about pronunciation by ancient authors, misspellings, puns, ancient etymologies, the spelling of Latin loanwords in other languages, and the historical development of Romance languages.[40] Consonants[edit] The consonant phonemes of Classical Latin are as follows:[41] Labial Dental Palatal Velar Glottal plain labial Plosive voiced b d ɡ ɡʷ voiceless p t k kʷ Fricative voiced (z) voiceless f s h Nasal m n (ŋ) Rhotic r Approximant l j w /z/ was not native to Classical Latin. It appeared in Greek loanwords starting around the first century BC, when it was probably pronounced [z] initially and doubled [zz] between vowels, in contrast to Classical Greek [dz] or [zd]. In Classical Latin poetry, the letter ⟨z⟩ between vowels always counts as two consonants for metrical purposes.[42][43] The consonant b usually sounds as [b]; however, when a t or s precedes b then it is pronounced as in [pt] or [ps]. Further, consonants do not blend together. So, ch, ph, and th are all sounds that would be pronounced as [ch], [ph], and [th]. In Latin, q is always followed by the vowel u. Together they make a [kw] sound.[44] In Old and Classical Latin, the Latin alphabet had no distinction between uppercase and lowercase, and the letters ⟨J U W⟩ did not exist. In place of ⟨J U⟩, ⟨I V⟩ were used, respectively; ⟨I V⟩ represented both vowels and consonants. Most of the letterforms were similar to modern uppercase, as can be seen in the inscription from the Colosseum shown at the top of the article. The spelling systems used in Latin dictionaries and modern editions of Latin texts, however, normally use ⟨j u⟩ in place of Classical-era ⟨i v⟩. Some systems use ⟨j v⟩ for the consonant sounds /j w/ except in the combinations ⟨gu su qu⟩ for which ⟨v⟩ is never used. Some notes concerning the mapping of Latin phonemes to English graphemes are given below: Notes Latin grapheme Latin phoneme English examples ⟨c⟩, ⟨k⟩ [k] Always as k in sky (/skaɪ/) ⟨t⟩ [t] As t in stay (/steɪ/) ⟨s⟩ [s] As s in say (/seɪ/) ⟨g⟩ [ɡ] Always as g in good (/ɡʊd/) [ŋ] Before ⟨n⟩, as ng in sing (/sɪŋ/) ⟨n⟩ [n] As n in man (/mæn/) [ŋ] Before ⟨c⟩, ⟨x⟩, and ⟨g⟩, as ng in sing (/sɪŋ/) ⟨l⟩ [l] When doubled ⟨ll⟩ and before ⟨i⟩, as "light L", [l̥] in link ([l̥ɪnk]) (l exilis)[45][46] [ɫ] In all other positions, as "dark L", [ɫ] in bowl ([boʊɫ]) (l pinguis) ⟨qu⟩ [kʷ] Similar to qu in quick (/kwɪk/) ⟨u⟩ [w] Sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, or after ⟨g⟩ and ⟨s⟩, as /w/ in wine (/waɪn/) ⟨i⟩ [j] Sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, as y (/j/) in yard (/jaɹd/) [ij] "y" (/j/), in between vowels, becomes "i-y", being pronounced as parts of two separate syllables, as in capiō (/kapiˈjo:/) ⟨x⟩ [ks] A letter representing ⟨c⟩ + ⟨s⟩: as x in English axe (/æks/) In Classical Latin, as in modern Italian, double consonant letters were pronounced as long consonant sounds distinct from short versions of the same consonants. Thus the nn in Classical Latin annus "year" (and in Italian anno) is pronounced as a doubled /nn/ as in English unnamed. (In English, distinctive consonant length or doubling occurs only at the boundary between two words or morphemes, as in that example.) Vowels[edit] Simple vowels[edit] Front Central Back Close iː ɪ ʊ uː Mid eː ɛ ɔ oː Open a aː In Classical Latin, ⟨U⟩ did not exist as a letter distinct from V; the written form ⟨V⟩ was used to represent both a vowel and a consonant. ⟨Y⟩ was adopted to represent upsilon in loanwords from Greek, but it was pronounced like ⟨u⟩ and ⟨i⟩ by some speakers. It was also used in native Latin words by confusion with Greek words of similar meaning, such as sylva and ὕλη. Classical Latin distinguished between long and short vowels. Then, long vowels, except for ⟨I⟩, were frequently marked using the apex, which was sometimes similar to an acute accent ⟨Á É Ó V́ Ý⟩. Long /iː/ was written using a taller version of ⟨I⟩, called i longa "long I": ⟨ꟾ⟩. In modern texts, long vowels are often indicated by a macron ⟨ā ē ī ō ū⟩, and short vowels are usually unmarked except when it is necessary to distinguish between words, when they are marked with a breve ⟨ă ĕ ĭ ŏ ŭ⟩. However, they would also signify a long vowel by writing the vowel larger than other letters in a word or by repeating the vowel twice in a row.[44] The acute accent, when it is used in modern Latin texts, indicates stress, as in Spanish, rather than length. Long vowels in Classical Latin are, technically, pronounced as entirely different from short vowels. The difference is described in the table below: Pronunciation of Latin vowels Latin grapheme Latin phone modern examples ⟨a⟩ [a] similar to the last a in attack (/ətæk/) [aː] similar to a in father (/fɑːðəɹ/) ⟨e⟩ [ɛ] as e in pet (/pɛt/) [eː] similar to e in hey (/heɪ/) ⟨i⟩ [ɪ] as i in grid (/ɡɹɪd/) [iː] similar to i in machine (/məʃiːn/) ⟨o⟩ [ɔ] as o in cloth (/klɔθ/) [oː] similar to o in rose (/ɹoʊz/) ⟨u⟩ [ʊ] as oo in hood (/hʊd/) [uː] similar to ue in true (/tɹuː/) ⟨y⟩ [ʏ] does not exist in English; as ü in German Stück (/ʃtʏk/) [yː] does not exist in English; as üh in German früh (/fʀyː/) This difference in quality is posited by W. Sidney Allen in his book Vox Latina. However, Andrea Calabrese has disputed that short vowels differed in quality from long vowels, based upon the observation that [ɪ] and [ʊ] do not exist even in very conservative Romance languages such as Sardinian, with the difference in vowel quality more associated with Germanic languages. A vowel letter followed by ⟨m⟩ at the end of a word, or a vowel letter followed by ⟨n⟩ before ⟨s⟩ or ⟨f⟩, represented a long nasal vowel, as in monstrum [mõːstrũː]. Diphthongs[edit] Classical Latin had several diphthongs. The two most common were ⟨ae au⟩. ⟨oe⟩ was fairly rare, and ⟨ui eu ei⟩ were very rare, at least in native Latin words.[47] There has also been debate over whether ⟨ui⟩ is truly a diphthong in Classical Latin, due to its rarity, absence in works of Roman grammarians, and the roots of Classical Latin words (i.e. hui ce to huic, quoi to cui, etc.) not matching or being similar to the pronunciation of classical words if ⟨ui⟩ were to be considered a diphthong.[48] The sequences sometimes did not represent diphthongs. ⟨ae⟩ and ⟨oe⟩ also represented a sequence of two vowels in different syllables in aēnus [aˈeː.nʊs] "of bronze" and coēpit [kɔˈeː.pɪt] "began", and ⟨au ui eu ei ou⟩ represented sequences of two vowels or of a vowel and one of the semivowels /j w/, in cavē [ˈka.weː] "beware!", cuius [ˈkʊj.jʊs] "whose", monuī [ˈmɔn.ʊ.iː] "I warned", solvī [ˈsɔɫ.wiː] "I released", dēlēvī [deːˈleː.wiː] "I destroyed", eius [ˈɛj.jʊs] "his", and novus [ˈnɔ.wʊs] "new". Old Latin had more diphthongs, but most of them changed into long vowels in Classical Latin. The Old Latin diphthong ⟨ai⟩ and the sequence ⟨āī⟩ became Classical ⟨ae⟩. Old Latin ⟨oi⟩ and ⟨ou⟩ changed to Classical ⟨ū⟩, except in a few words whose ⟨oi⟩ became Classical ⟨oe⟩. These two developments sometimes occurred in different words from the same root: for instance, Classical poena "punishment" and pūnīre "to punish".[47] Early Old Latin ⟨ei⟩ usually changed to Classical ⟨ī⟩.[49] In Vulgar Latin and the Romance languages, ⟨ae oe⟩ merged with ⟨e ē⟩. During the Classical Latin period this form of speaking was deliberately avoided by well-educated speakers.[47] Diphthongs classified by beginning sound Front Back Close ui /ui̯/ Mid ei /ei̯/ eu/eu̯/ oe /oe̯/ ou /ou̯/ Open ae /ae̯/ au /au̯/ Syllables[edit] Syllables in Latin are signified by the presence of diphthongs and vowels. The number of syllables is the same as the number of vowel sounds.[44] Further, if a consonant separates two vowels, it will go into the syllable of the second vowel. When there are two consonants between vowels, the last consonant will go with the second vowel. An exception occurs when a phonetic stop and liquid come together. In this situation, they are thought to be a single consonant, and as such, they will go into the syllable of the second vowel.[44] Length[edit] Syllables can also be seen as long. Within a word, a syllable may either be long by nature or long by position.[44] A syllable that is long by nature has a long vowel or diphthong. On the other hand, a syllable that is long by position has a short vowel that is followed by more than one consonant.[44] Stress[edit] There are two rules that define which syllable is stressed in the Latin language.[44] In a word with only two syllables, the emphasis will be on the first syllable. In a word with more than two syllables, there are two cases. If the second-to-last syllable is long, that syllable will have stress. If the second-to-last syllable is not long, the syllable before that one will be stressed instead.[44] Orthography[edit] Main article: Latin alphabet The Duenos Inscription, from the 6th century BC, is one of the earliest known Old Latin texts. Latin was written in the Latin alphabet, derived from the Etruscan alphabet, which was in turn drawn from the Greek alphabet and ultimately the Phoenician alphabet.[50] This alphabet has continued to be used over the centuries as the script for the Romance, Celtic, Germanic, Baltic, Finnic, and many Slavic languages (Polish, Slovak, Slovene, Croatian, Bosnian and Czech); and it has been adopted by many languages around the world, including Vietnamese, the Austronesian languages, many Turkic languages, and most languages in sub-Saharan Africa, the Americas, and Oceania, making it by far the world's single most widely used writing system. The number of letters in the Latin alphabet has varied. When it was first derived from the Etruscan alphabet, it contained only 21 letters.[51] Later, G was added to represent /ɡ/, which had previously been spelled C, and Z ceased to be included in the alphabet, as the language then had no voiced alveolar fricative.[52] The letters Y and Z were later added to represent Greek letters, upsilon and zeta respectively, in Greek loanwords.[52] W was created in the 11th century from VV. It represented /w/ in Germanic languages, not Latin, which still uses V for the purpose. J was distinguished from the original I only during the late Middle Ages, as was the letter U from V.[52] Although some Latin dictionaries use J, it is rarely used for Latin text, as it was not used in classical times, but many other languages use it. Classical Latin did not contain sentence punctuation, letter case,[53] or interword spacing, but apices were sometimes used to distinguish length in vowels and the interpunct was used at times to separate words. The first line of Catullus 3, originally written as lv́géteóveneréscupꟾdinésqve ("Mourn, O Venuses and Cupids") or with interpunct as lv́géte·ó·venerés·cupꟾdinésqve would be rendered in a modern edition as Lugete, o Veneres Cupidinesque or with macrons Lūgēte, ō Venerēs Cupīdinēsque or with apices Lúgéte, ó Venerés Cupídinésque. A replica of the Old Roman Cursive inspired by the Vindolanda tablets, the oldest surviving handwritten documents in Britain. The Roman cursive script is commonly found on the many wax tablets excavated at sites such as forts, an especially extensive set having been discovered at Vindolanda on Hadrian's Wall in Britain. Most notable is the fact that while most of the Vindolanda tablets show spaces between words, spaces were avoided in monumental inscriptions from that era. Alternative scripts[edit] Occasionally, Latin has been written in other scripts: The Praeneste fibula is a 7th-century BC pin with an Old Latin inscription written using the Etruscan script. The rear panel of the early 8th-century Franks Casket has an inscription that switches from Old English in Anglo-Saxon runes to Latin in Latin script and to Latin in runes. Grammar[edit] Main articles: Latin grammar and Latin syntax Latin is a synthetic, fusional language in the terminology of linguistic typology. In more traditional terminology, it is an inflected language, but typologists are apt to say "inflecting". Words include an objective semantic element and markers specifying the grammatical use of the word. The fusion of root meaning and markers produces very compact sentence elements: amō, "I love," is produced from a semantic element, ama-, "love," to which -ō, a first person singular marker, is suffixed. The grammatical function can be changed by changing the markers: the word is "inflected" to express different grammatical functions, but the semantic element usually does not change. (Inflection uses affixing and infixing. Affixing is prefixing and suffixing. Latin inflections are never prefixed.) For example, amābit, "he (or she or it) will love", is formed from the same stem, amā-, to which a future tense marker, -bi-, is suffixed, and a third person singular marker, -t, is suffixed. There is an inherent ambiguity: -t may denote more than one grammatical category: masculine, feminine, or neuter gender. A major task in understanding Latin phrases and clauses is to clarify such ambiguities by an analysis of context. All natural languages contain ambiguities of one sort or another. The inflections express gender, number, and case in adjectives, nouns, and pronouns, a process called declension. Markers are also attached to fixed stems of verbs, to denote person, number, tense, voice, mood, and aspect, a process called conjugation. Some words are uninflected and undergo neither process, such as adverbs, prepositions, and interjections. Nouns[edit] Main article: Latin declension A regular Latin noun belongs to one of five main declensions, a group of nouns with similar inflected forms. The declensions are identified by the genitive singular form of the noun. The first declension, with a predominant ending letter of a, is signified by the genitive singular ending of -ae. The second declension, with a predominant ending letter of us, is signified by the genitive singular ending of -i. The third declension, with a predominant ending letter of i, is signified by the genitive singular ending of -is. The fourth declension, with a predominant ending letter of u, is signified by the genitive singular ending of -ūs. The fifth declension, with a predominant ending letter of e, is signified by the genitive singular ending of -ei. There are seven Latin noun cases, which also apply to adjectives and pronouns and mark a noun's syntactic role in the sentence by means of inflections. Thus, word order is not as important in Latin as it is in English, which is less inflected. The general structure and word order of a Latin sentence can therefore vary. The cases are as follows: Nominative – used when the noun is the subject or a predicate nominative. The thing or person acting: the girl ran: puella cucurrit, or cucurrit puella Genitive – used when the noun is the possessor of or connected with an object: "the horse of the man", or "the man's horse"; in both instances, the word man would be in the genitive case when it is translated into Latin. It also indicates the partitive, in which the material is quantified: "a group of people"; "a number of gifts": people and gifts would be in the genitive case. Some nouns are genitive with special verbs and adjectives: The cup is full of wine. (Poculum plēnum vīnī est.) The master of the slave had beaten him. (Dominus servī eum verberāverat.) Dative – used when the noun is the indirect object of the sentence, with special verbs, with certain prepositions, and if it is used as agent, reference, or even possessor: The merchant hands the stola to the woman. (Mercātor fēminae stolam trādit.) Accusative – used when the noun is the direct object of the subject and as the object of a preposition demonstrating place to which.: The man killed the boy. (Vir puerum necāvit.) Ablative – used when the noun demonstrates separation or movement from a source, cause, agent or instrument or when the noun is used as the object of certain prepositions; adverbial: You walked with the boy. (Cum puerō ambulāvistī.) Vocative – used when the noun is used in a direct address. The vocative form of a noun is often the same as the nominative, with the exception of second-declension nouns ending in -us. The -us becomes an -e in the vocative singular. If it ends in -ius (such as fīlius), the ending is just -ī (filī), as distinct from the nominative plural (filiī) in the vocative singular: "Master!" shouted the slave. ("Domine!" clāmāvit servus.) Locative – used to indicate a location (corresponding to the English "in" or "at"). It is far less common than the other six cases of Latin nouns and usually applies to cities and small towns and islands along with a few common nouns, such as the words domus (house), humus (ground), and rus (country). In the singular of the first and second declensions, its form coincides with the genitive (Roma becomes Romae, "in Rome"). In the plural of all declensions and the singular of the other declensions, it coincides with the ablative (Athēnae becomes Athēnīs, "at Athens"). In the fourth-declension word domus, the locative form, domī ("at home") differs from the standard form of all other cases. Latin lacks both definite and indefinite articles so puer currit can mean either "the boy is running" or "a boy is running". Adjectives[edit] Main article: Latin declension There are two types of regular Latin adjectives: first- and second- declension and third-declension. They are so-called because their forms are similar or identical to first- and second-declension and third-declension nouns, respectively. Latin adjectives also have comparative (more --, -er) and superlative (most --, est) forms. There are also a number of Latin participles. Latin numbers are sometimes declined as adjectives. See Numbers below. First and second-declension adjectives[edit] First and second-declension adjectives are declined like first-declension nouns for the feminine forms and like second-declension nouns for the masculine and neuter forms. For example, for mortuus, mortua, mortuum (dead), mortua is declined like a regular first-declension noun (such as puella (girl)), mortuus is declined like a regular second-declension masculine noun (such as dominus (lord, master)), and mortuum is declined like a regular second-declension neuter noun (such as auxilium (help)). Third declension adjectives[edit] Third-declension adjectives are mostly declined like normal third-declension nouns, with a few exceptions. In the plural nominative neuter, for example, the ending is -ia (omnia (all, everything)), and for third-declension nouns, the plural nominative neuter ending is -a or -ia (capita (heads), animalia (animals)) They can have one, two or three forms for the masculine, feminine, and neuter nominative singular. Participles[edit] Latin participles, like English participles, are formed from a verb. There are a few main types of participles: Present Active Participles, Perfect Passive Participles, Future Active Participles, and Future Passive Participles. Prepositions[edit] Latin sometimes uses prepositions, depending on the type of prepositional phrase being used. Most prepositions are followed by a noun in either the accusative or ablative case: "apud puerum" (with the boy), with "puerum" being the accusative form of "puer", boy, and "sine puero" (without the boy, "puero" being the ablative form of "puer". A few adpositions, however, govern a noun in the genitive (such as "gratia" and "tenus"). Verbs[edit] Main articles: Latin grammar and Latin conjugation A regular verb in Latin belongs to one of four main conjugations. A conjugation is "a class of verbs with similar inflected forms."[54] The conjugations are identified by the last letter of the verb's present stem. The present stem can be found by omitting the -re (-rī in deponent verbs) ending from the present infinitive form. The infinitive of the first conjugation ends in -ā-re or -ā-ri (active and passive respectively): amāre, "to love," hortārī, "to exhort"; of the second conjugation by -ē-re or -ē-rī: monēre, "to warn", verērī, "to fear;" of the third conjugation by -ere, -ī: dūcere, "to lead," ūtī, "to use"; of the fourth by -ī-re, -ī-rī: audīre, "to hear," experīrī, "to attempt".[55] Irregular verbs may not follow the types or may be marked in a different way. The "endings" presented above are not the suffixed infinitive markers. The first letter in each case is the last of the stem so the conjugations are also called a-conjugation, e-conjugation and i-conjugation. The fused infinitive ending is -re or -rī. Third-conjugation stems end in a consonant: the consonant conjugation. Further, there is a subset of the third conjugation, the i-stems, which behave somewhat like the fourth conjugation, as they are both i-stems, one short and the other long.[55] The stem categories descend from Indo-European and can therefore be compared to similar conjugations in other Indo-European languages. There are six general "tenses" in Latin (present, imperfect, future, perfect, pluperfect and future perfect), three moods (indicative, imperative and subjunctive, in addition to the infinitive, participle, gerund, gerundive and supine), three persons (first, second and third), two numbers (singular and plural), two voices (active and passive) and two aspects (perfective and imperfective). Verbs are described by four principal parts: The first principal part is the first-person singular, present tense, active voice, indicative mood form of the verb. If the verb is impersonal, the first principal part will be in the third-person singular. The second principal part is the present active infinitive. The third principal part is the first-person singular, perfect active indicative form. Like the first principal part, if the verb is impersonal, the third principal part will be in the third-person singular. The fourth principal part is the supine form, or alternatively, the nominative singular of the perfect passive participle form of the verb. The fourth principal part can show one gender of the participle or all three genders (-us for masculine, -a for feminine and -um for neuter) in the nominative singular. The fourth principal part will be the future participle if the verb cannot be made passive. Most modern Latin dictionaries, if they show only one gender, tend to show the masculine; but many older dictionaries instead show the neuter, as it coincides with the supine. The fourth principal part is sometimes omitted for intransitive verbs, but strictly in Latin, they can be made passive if they are used impersonally, and the supine exists for such verbs. There are six "tenses" in the Latin language. These are divided into two tense systems: the present system, which is made up of the present, imperfect and future tenses, and the perfect system, which is made up of the perfect, pluperfect and future perfect tenses. Each tense has a set of endings corresponding to the person, number, and voice of the subject. Subject (nominative) pronouns are generally omitted for the first (I, we) and second (you) persons except for emphasis. The table below displays the common inflected endings for the indicative mood in the active voice in all six tenses. For the future tense, the first listed endings are for the first and second conjugations, and the second listed endings are for the third and fourth conjugations: Tense Singular Plural 1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person 1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person Present -ō/m -s -t -mus -tis -nt Future -bō, -am -bis, -ēs -bit, -et -bimus, -ēmus -bitis, -ētis -bunt, -ent Imperfect -bam -bās -bat -bāmus -bātis -bant Perfect -ī -istī -it -imus -istis -ērunt Future Perfect -erō -eris/erīs -erit -erimus/-erīmus -eritis/-erītis -erint Pluperfect -eram -erās -erat -erāmus -erātis -erant Deponent verbs[edit] Some Latin verbs are deponent, causing their forms to be in the passive voice but retain an active meaning: hortor, hortārī, hortātus sum (to urge). Vocabulary[edit] As Latin is an Italic language, most of its vocabulary is likewise Italic, ultimately from the ancestral Proto-Indo-European language. However, because of close cultural interaction, the Romans not only adapted the Etruscan alphabet to form the Latin alphabet but also borrowed some Etruscan words into their language, including persona "mask" and histrio "actor".[56] Latin also included vocabulary borrowed from Oscan, another Italic language. After the Fall of Tarentum (272 BC), the Romans began Hellenising, or adopting features of Greek culture, including the borrowing of Greek words, such as camera (vaulted roof), sumbolum (symbol), and balineum (bath).[56] This Hellenisation led to the addition of "Y" and "Z" to the alphabet to represent Greek sounds.[57] Subsequently, the Romans transplanted Greek art, medicine, science and philosophy to Italy, paying almost any price to entice Greek skilled and educated persons to Rome and sending their youth to be educated in Greece. Thus, many Latin scientific and philosophical words were Greek loanwords or had their meanings expanded by association with Greek words, as ars (craft) and τέχνη (art).[58] Because of the Roman Empire's expansion and subsequent trade with outlying European tribes, the Romans borrowed some northern and central European words, such as beber (beaver), of Germanic origin, and bracae (breeches), of Celtic origin.[58] The specific dialects of Latin across Latin-speaking regions of the former Roman Empire after its fall were influenced by languages specific to the regions. The dialects of Latin evolved into different Romance languages. During and after the adoption of Christianity into Roman society, Christian vocabulary became a part of the language, either from Greek or Hebrew borrowings or as Latin neologisms.[59] Continuing into the Middle Ages, Latin incorporated many more words from surrounding languages, including Old English and other Germanic languages. Over the ages, Latin-speaking populations produced new adjectives, nouns, and verbs by affixing or compounding meaningful segments.[60] For example, the compound adjective, omnipotens, "all-powerful," was produced from the adjectives omnis, "all", and potens, "powerful", by dropping the final s of omnis and concatenating. Often, the concatenation changed the part of speech, and nouns were produced from verb segments or verbs from nouns and adjectives.[61] Phrases (Neo-Latin)[edit] Main article: List of Latin phrases The phrases are mentioned with accents to show where stress is placed.[62] In Latin, words are normally stressed either on the second-to-last (penultimate) syllable, called in Latin paenultima or syllaba paenultima,[63] or on the third-to-last syllable, called in Latin antepaenultima or syllaba antepaenultima.[63] In the following notation, accented short vowels have an acute diacritic, accented long vowels have a circumflex diacritic (representing long falling pitch), and unaccented long vowels are marked simply with a macron. This reflects the tone of the voice with which, ideally, the stress is phonetically realized; but this may not always be clearly articulated on every word in a sentence.[64] Regardless of length, a vowel at the end of a word may be significantly shortened or even altogether deleted if the next word begins with a vowel also (a process called elision), unless a very short pause is inserted. As an exception, the following words: est (English "is"), es ("[you (sg.)] are") lose their own vowel e instead. sálvē to one person / salvête to more than one person – hello ávē to one person / avête to more than one person – greetings válē to one person / valête to more than one person – goodbye cûrā ut váleās – take care exoptâtus to male / exoptâta to female, optâtus to male / optâta to female, grâtus to male / grâta to female, accéptus to male / accépta to female – welcome quômodo válēs?, ut válēs? – how are you? béne – good béne váleō – I'm fine mále – bad mále váleō – I'm not good quaêsō (roughly: ['kwaeso:]/['kwe:so:]) – please amâbō tē – please íta, íta est, íta vêrō, sîc, sîc est, étiam – yes nôn, mínimē – no grâtiās tíbi, grâtiās tíbi ágō – thank you, I give thanks to you mágnās grâtiās, mágnās grâtiās ágō – many thanks máximās grâtiās, máximās grâtiās ágō, ingéntēs grâtiās ágō – thank you very much áccipe sīs to one person / accípite sîtis to more than one person, libénter – you're welcome quā aetâte es? – how old are you? 25 (vīgíntī quînque) ánnōs nâtus sumby male /25 ánnōs nâta sum by female – I am 25 years old úbi lātrîna est? – where is the toilet? scîs (tū) ... – do you speak (literally: "do you know") ... Latînē? – Latin? Graêcē? (roughly: ['graeke:]/['gre:ke:]) – Greek? Ánglicē? – English? Itálicē? – Italian? Gállicē? – French? Hispânicē? – Spanish? (or: Hispânē) Lūsitânē? – Portuguese? Theodíscē?/Germânicē? – German? (sometimes also: Teutónicē) Sînicē? – Chinese? Iapônicē? – Japanese? Coreânē? – Korean? Arábicē? – Arabic? Pérsicē? – Persian? Índicē? – Hindi? Rússicē? – Russian? (sometimes Rutênicē) Cámbricē? – Welsh? Suêticē? – Swedish? (or: Suêcicē) Polônicē? – Polish? ámō tē / tē ámō – I love you Numbers[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Further information: Latin numerals (linguistics) In ancient times, numbers in Latin were written only with letters. Today, the numbers can be written with the Arabic numbers as well as with Roman numerals. The numbers 1, 2 and 3 and every whole hundred from 200 to 900 are declined as nouns and adjectives, with some differences. ūnus, ūna, ūnum (masculine, feminine, neuter) I one duo, duae, duo (m., f., n.) II two trēs, tria (m./f., n.) III three quattuor IIII or IV four quīnque V five sex VI six septem VII seven octō VIII eight novem VIIII or IX nine decem X ten quīnquāgintā L fifty centum C one hundred quīngentī, quīngentae, quīngenta (m., f., n.) D five hundred mīlle M one thousand The numbers from 4 to 100 do not change their endings. As in modern descendants such as Spanish, the gender for naming a number in isolation is masculine, so that "1, 2, 3" is counted as ūnus, duo, trēs. Example text[edit] Commentarii de Bello Gallico, also called De Bello Gallico (The Gallic War), written by Gaius Julius Caesar, begins with the following passage: Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tres, quarum unam incolunt Belgae, aliam Aquitani, tertiam qui ipsorum lingua Celtae, nostra Galli appellantur. Hi omnes lingua, institutis, legibus inter se differunt. Gallos ab Aquitanis Garumna flumen, a Belgis Matrona et Sequana dividit. Horum omnium fortissimi sunt Belgae, propterea quod a cultu atque humanitate provinciae longissime absunt, minimeque ad eos mercatores saepe commeant atque ea quae ad effeminandos animos pertinent important, proximique sunt Germanis, qui trans Rhenum incolunt, quibuscum continenter bellum gerunt. Qua de causa Helvetii quoque reliquos Gallos virtute praecedunt, quod fere cotidianis proeliis cum Germanis contendunt, cum aut suis finibus eos prohibent aut ipsi in eorum finibus bellum gerunt. Eorum una pars, quam Gallos obtinere dictum est, initium capit a flumine Rhodano, continetur Garumna flumine, Oceano, finibus Belgarum; attingit etiam ab Sequanis et Helvetiis flumen Rhenum; vergit ad septentriones. Belgae ab extremis Galliae finibus oriuntur; pertinent ad inferiorem partem fluminis Rheni; spectant in septentrionem et orientem solem. Aquitania a Garumna flumine ad Pyrenaeos montes et eam partem Oceani quae est ad Hispaniam pertinet; spectat inter occasum solis et septentriones. The same text may be marked for all long vowels (before any possible elisions at word boundary) with apices over vowel letters, including customarily before "nf" and "ns" where a long vowel is automatically produced: Gallia est omnis dívísa in partés trés, quárum únam incolunt Belgae, aliam Aquítání, tertiam quí ipsórum linguá Celtae, nostrá Gallí appellantur. Hí omnés linguá, ínstitútís, légibus inter sé differunt. Gallós ab Aquítánís Garumna flúmen, á Belgís Mátrona et Séquana dívidit. Hórum omnium fortissimí sunt Belgae, proptereá quod á cultú atque húmánitáte próvinciae longissimé absunt, miniméque ad eós mercátórés saepe commeant atque ea quae ad efféminandós animós pertinent important, proximíque sunt Germánís, quí tráns Rhénum incolunt, quibuscum continenter bellum gerunt. Quá dé causá Helvétií quoque reliquós Gallós virtúte praecédunt, quod feré cotídiánís proeliís cum Germánís contendunt, cum aut suís fínibus eós prohibent aut ipsí in eórum fínibus bellum gerunt. Eórum úna pars, quam Gallós obtinére dictum est, initium capit á flúmine Rhodanó, continétur Garumná flúmine, Óceanó, fínibus Belgárum; attingit etiam ab Séquanís et Helvétiís flúmen Rhénum; vergit ad septentriónés. Belgae ab extrémís Galliae fínibus oriuntur; pertinent ad ínferiórem partem flúminis Rhéní; spectant in septentriónem et orientem sólem. Aquítánia á Garumná flúmine ad Pýrénaeós montés et eam partem Óceaní quae est ad Hispániam pertinet; spectat inter occásum sólis et septentriónés. See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal Language portal Catholicism portal Accademia Vivarium Novum Classical compound Contemporary Latin Greek and Latin roots in English Hybrid word Latin grammar Latin mnemonics Latin obscenity Latin school Latino sine flexione (Latin without Inflections) List of Greek and Latin roots in English List of Latin abbreviations List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names List of Latin phrases List of Latin translations of modern literature List of Latin words with English derivatives List of Latinised names Lorem ipsum Romanization (cultural) Toponymy Vulgar Latin References[edit] ^ "Schools". Britannica (1911 ed.). ^ Sandys, John Edwin (1910). A companion to Latin studies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 811–812. ^ Clark 1900, pp. 1–3 ^ Diringer 1996, pp. 533–4 ^ Collier's Encyclopedia: With Bibliography and Index. Collier. 1 January 1958. p. 412. Archived from the original on 21 April 2016. Retrieved 15 February 2016. In Italy, all alphabets were originally written from right to left; the oldest Latin inscription, which appears on the lapis niger of the seventh century BC, is in bustrophedon, but all other early Latin inscriptions run from right to left. ^ Sacks, David (2003). Language Visible: Unraveling the Mystery of the Alphabet from A to Z. London: Broadway Books. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-7679-1172-6. ^ Pope, Mildred K (1966). From Latin to modern French with especial consideration of Anglo-Norman; phonology and morphology. Publications of the University of Manchester, no. 229. French series, no. 6. Manchester: Manchester university press. p. 3. ^ Monroe, Paul (1902). Source book of the history of education for the Greek and Roman period. London, New York: Macmillan & Co. pp. 346–352. ^ Herman & Wright 2000, pp. 17–18 ^ Herman & Wright 2000, p. 8 ^ Pei, Mario; Gaeng, Paul A. (1976). The story of Latin and the Romance languages (1st ed.). New York: Harper & Row. pp. 76–81. ISBN 978-0-06-013312-2. ^ Herman & Wright 2000, pp. 1–3 ^ a b Pulju, Timothy. "History of Latin". Rice University. Retrieved 3 December 2019. ^ Posner, Rebecca; Sala, Marius (1 August 2019). "Romance Languages". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 3 December 2019. ^ a b Elabani, Moe (1998). Documents in medieval Latin. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. pp. 13–15. ISBN 978-0-472-08567-5. ^ "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue". British Library. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 2 March 2011. ^ Ranieri, Luke (3 March 2019). "What is Latin? the history of this ancient language, and the proper way we might use it". YouTube. Retrieved 3 December 2019. ^ Moore, Malcolm (28 January 2007). "Pope's Latinist pronounces death of a language". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 26 August 2009. ^ "Liber Precum Publicarum, The Book of Common Prayer in Latin (1560). Society of Archbishop Justus, resources, Book of Common Prayer, Latin, 1560. Retrieved 22 May 2012". Justus.anglican.org. Archived from the original on 12 June 2012. Retrieved 9 August 2012. ^ "Society of Archbishop Justus, resources, Book of Common Prayer, Latin, 1979. Retrieved 22 May 2012". Justus.anglican.org. Archived from the original on 4 September 2012. Retrieved 9 August 2012. ^ "La Moncloa. Símbolos del Estado". www.lamoncloa.gob.es (in Spanish). Retrieved 30 September 2019. ^ "Finnish broadcaster ends Latin news bulletins". RTÉ News. 24 June 2019. Archived from the original on 25 June 2019. ^ "Latein: Nuntii Latini mensis lunii 2010: Lateinischer Monats rückblick" (in Latin). Radio Bremen. Archived from the original on 18 June 2010. Retrieved 16 July 2010. ^ Dymond, Jonny (24 October 2006). "Finland makes Latin the King". BBC Online. Archived from the original on 3 January 2011. Retrieved 29 January 2011. ^ "Nuntii Latini" (in Latin). YLE Radio 1. Archived from the original on 18 July 2010. Retrieved 17 July 2010. ^ Finkenstaedt, Thomas; Dieter Wolff (1973). Ordered Profusion; studies in dictionaries and the English lexicon. C. Winter. ISBN 978-3-533-02253-4. ^ Uwe Pörksen, German Academy for Language and Literature’s Jahrbuch [Yearbook] 2007 (Wallstein Verlag, Göttingen 2008, pp. 121-130) ^ Loanwords in the World's Languages: A Comparative Handbook (PDF). Walter de Gruyter. 2009. p. 370. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 March 2017. Retrieved 9 February 2017. ^ Pei, Mario (1949). Story of Language. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-397-00400-3. ^ LaFleur, Richard A. (2011). "The Official Wheelock's Latin Series Website". The Official Wheelock's Latin Series Website. Archived from the original on 8 February 2011. Retrieved 17 February 2011. ^ "University of Cambridge School Classics Project – Latin Course". Cambridgescp.com. Retrieved 23 April 2014. ^ "Open University Undergraduate Course – Reading classical Latin". .open.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 27 April 2014. Retrieved 23 April 2014. ^ "The Latin Programme – Via Facilis". Thelatinprogramme.co.uk. Archived from the original on 29 April 2014. Retrieved 23 April 2014. ^ Beard, Mary (10 July 2006). "Does Latin "train the brain"?". The Times Literary Supplement. Archived from the original on 14 January 2012. No, you learn Latin because of what was written in it – and because of the sexual side of life direct access that Latin gives you to a literary tradition that lies at the very heart (not just at the root) of Western culture. ^ "Coins". Croatian National Bank. 30 September 2016. Archived from the original on 16 November 2017. Retrieved 15 November 2017. ^ Who only knows Latin can go across the whole Poland from one side to the other one just like he was at his own home, just like he was born there. So great happiness! I wish a traveler in England could travel without knowing any other language than Latin!, Daniel Defoe, 1728 ^ Anatol Lieven, The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and the Path to Independence, Yale University Press, 1994, ISBN 0-300-06078-5, Google Print, p.48 ^ Kevin O'Connor, Culture And Customs of the Baltic States, Greenwood Press, 2006, ISBN 0-313-33125-1, Google Print, p.115 ^ a b Karin Friedrich et al., The Other Prussia: Royal Prussia, Poland and Liberty, 1569–1772, Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-521-58335-7, Google Print, p.88 Archived 15 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine ^ Allen 2004, pp. viii–ix ^ Sihler, Andrew L. (1995). New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-508345-3. Archived from the original on 9 November 2016. ^ Levy, p. 150 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLevy (help) ^ Allen 1978, pp. 45, 46 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFAllen1978 (help) ^ a b c d e f g h Wheelock, Frederic M. (7 June 2011). Wheelock's Latin. LaFleur, Richard A. (7th ed.). New York. ISBN 978-0-06-199721-1. OCLC 670475844. ^ Sihler 2008, p. 174. ^ Allen 2004, pp. 33–34 ^ a b c Allen 2004, pp. 60–63 ^ Husband, Richard (1910). "The Diphthong -ui in Latin". Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association. 41: 19–23. doi:10.2307/282713. JSTOR 282713.[dead link] ^ Allen 2004, pp. 53–55 ^ Diringer 1996, pp. 451, 493, 530 ^ Diringer 1996, p. 536 ^ a b c Diringer 1996, p. 538 ^ Diringer 1996, p. 540 ^ "Conjugation". Webster's II new college dictionary. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 1999. ^ a b Wheelock, Frederic M. (2011). Wheelock's Latin (7th ed.). New York: CollinsReference. ^ a b Holmes & Schultz 1938, p. 13 ^ Sacks, David (2003). Language Visible: Unraveling the Mystery of the Alphabet from A to Z. London: Broadway Books. p. 351. ISBN 978-0-7679-1172-6. ^ a b Holmes & Schultz 1938, p. 14 ^ Norberg, Dag; Johnson, Rand H, Translator (2004) [1980]. "Latin at the End of the Imperial Age". Manuel pratique de latin médiéval. University of Michigan. Retrieved 20 May 2015. ^ Jenks 1911, pp. 3, 46 ^ Jenks 1911, pp. 35, 40 ^ Ebbe Vilborg – Norstedts svensk-latinska ordbok – Second edition, 2009. ^ a b Tore Janson – Latin – Kulturen, historien, språket – First edition, 2009. ^ Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria (95 CE) Bibliography[edit] Allen, William Sidney (2004). Vox Latina – a Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-22049-1. Baldi, Philip (2002). The foundations of Latin. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Bennett, Charles E. (1908). Latin Grammar. Chicago: Allyn and Bacon. ISBN 978-1-176-19706-0. Buck, Carl Darling (1904). A grammar of Oscan and Umbrian, with a collection of inscriptions and a glossary. Boston: Ginn & Company. Clark, Victor Selden (1900). Studies in the Latin of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Lancaster: The New Era Printing Company. Diringer, David (1996) [1947]. The Alphabet – A Key to the History of Mankind. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Private Ltd. ISBN 978-81-215-0748-6. Herman, József; Wright, Roger (Translator) (2000). Vulgar Latin. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 978-0-271-02000-6. Holmes, Urban Tigner; Schultz, Alexander Herman (1938). A History of the French Language. New York: Biblo-Moser. ISBN 978-0-8196-0191-9. Janson, Tore (2004). A Natural History of Latin. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926309-7. Jenks, Paul Rockwell (1911). A Manual of Latin Word Formation for Secondary Schools. New York: D.C. Heath & Co. Palmer, Frank Robert (1984). Grammar (2nd ed.). Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England; New York, N.Y., U.S.A.: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-81-206-1306-5. Sihler, Andrew L (2008). New comparative grammar of Greek and Latin. New York: Oxford University Press. Vincent, N. (1990). "Latin". In Harris, M.; Vincent, N. (eds.). The Romance Languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-520829-0. Waquet, Françoise; Howe, John (Translator) (2003). Latin, or the Empire of a Sign: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Centuries. Verso. ISBN 978-1-85984-402-1. Wheelock, Frederic (2005). Latin: An Introduction (6th ed.). Collins. ISBN 978-0-06-078423-2. Curtius, Ernst (2013). European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages. Princeton University. ISBN 978-0-691-15700-9. External links[edit] Latin edition of Wikisource, the free library Latin edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Wikiquote has quotations related to: Latin proverbs Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Latin Wikiversity has learning resources about Latin For a list of words relating to Latin, see the Latin language category of words in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Latin language. Language tools[edit] "Latin Dictionary Headword Search". Perseus Hopper. Tufts University. Searches Lewis & Short's A Latin Dictionary and Lewis's An Elementary Latin Dictionary. Online results. "Online Latin Dictionary with conjugator and declension tool". Olivetti Media Communication. Search on line Latin-English and English-Latin dictionary with complete declension or conjugation. Online results. "Latin Word Study Tool". Perseus Hopper. Tufts University. Identifies the grammatical functions of words entered. Online results. Aversa, Alan. "Latin Inflector". University of Arizona. Identifies the grammatical functions of all the words in sentences entered, using Perseus. "Latin Verb Conjugator". Verbix. Displays complete conjugations of verbs entered in first-person present singular form. "Online Latin Verb Conjugator". Archived from the original on 18 May 2016. Retrieved 30 September 2014. Displays conjugation of verbs entered in their infinitive form. Whittaker, William. "Words". Notre Dame Archives. Archived from the original on 18 June 2006. Identifies Latin words entered. Translates English words entered. "Alpheios". Alpheios Project. Combines Whittakers Words, Lewis and Short, Bennett's grammar and inflection tables in a browser addon. Latin Dictionaries at Curlie Dymock, John (1830). A new abridgment of Ainsworth's Dictionary, English and Latin, for the use of Grammar Schools (4th ed.). Glasgow: Hutchison & Brookman. "Classical Language Toolkit" (CLTK). A Natural Language Processing toolkit for Python offering a variety of functionality for Latin and other classical languages. Courses[edit] Latin Lessons (free online through the Linguistics Research Center at UT Austin) Free 47-Lesson Online Latin Course, Learnlangs Learn Latin Grammar, vocabulary and audio Latin Links and Resources, Compiled by Fr. Gary Coulter der Millner, Evan (2007). "Latinum". Latin Latin Course on YouTube and audiobooks. Molendinarius. Retrieved 2 February 2012. Byrne, Carol (1999). "Simplicissimus" (PDF). The Latin Mass Society of England and Wales. Retrieved 20 April 2011. (a course in ecclesiastical Latin). Harsch, Ulrich (1996–2010). "Ludus Latinus Cursus linguae latinae". Bibliotheca Augustiana (in Latin). Augsburg: University of Applied Sciences. Retrieved 24 June 2010. Beginners' Latin on The National Archives (United Kingdom) Grammar and study[edit] Bennett, Charles E. (2005) [1908]. New Latin Grammar (2nd ed.). Project Gutenberg. ISBN 978-1-176-19706-0. Griffin, Robin (1992). A student's Latin Grammar (3rd ed.). University of Cambridge. ISBN 978-0-521-38587-9. Lehmann, Winifred P.; Slocum, Jonathan (2008). "Latin Online". The University of Texas at Austin. Retrieved 17 April 2020. Phonetics[edit] Cui, Ray (2005). "Phonetica Latinae-How to pronounce Latin". Ray Cui. Retrieved 25 June 2010. "Latin Language" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. Latin language news and audio[edit] Ephemeris, online Latin newspaper Nuntii Latini, from Finnish YLE Radio 1 Nuntii Latini, monthly review from German Radio Bremen (Bremen Zwei) Classics Podcasts in Latin and Ancient Greek, Haverford College Latinum Latin Language course and Latin Language YouTube Index Latin language online communities[edit] Grex Latine Loquentium (Flock of those Speaking Latin) Circulus Latinus Interretialis (Internet Latin Circle) Latinitas Foundation, at the Vatican v t e Italic languages Latino-Faliscan Latin Faliscan Praenestinian Lanuvian Osco-Umbrian Oscan Umbrian Volscian Sabine South Picene Marsian Paeligni Hernican Marrucinian Pre-Samnite Unknown Sicel? (possibly not Italic) Venetic? (possibly Celtic, transitional or independent) Aequian Vestinian Lusitanian? 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en-wikipedia-org-5912	----	Merkheperre - Wikipedia Merkheperre From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Merkheperre Mercheperre, Ra-mer-kheper Scarab seal of pharaoh Merkheperre, now in the British Museum BM EA 42204.[1] Pharaoh Reign unknown duration, some time between 1663 BC and 1649 BC [2] (13th dynasty) Predecessor Mer[...]re (Ryholt) or Mershepsesre Ini II (von Beckerath) Successor Merkare Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Merkheperre Mr-ḫpr-Rˁ Beloved manifestation of Ra Merkheperre was an Egyptian pharaoh of the late 13th Dynasty of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period reigning some time between 1663 BC and 1649 BC.[2] As such, Merkheperre would have reigned either over Upper Egypt from Thebes or over Middle and Upper Egypt from Memphis. At the time, the Eastern Nile Delta was under the domination of the 14th Dynasty. Attestations[edit] Merkheperre appears on the Turin canon, a king list compiled in the early Ramesside period.[3] According to the egyptologist Kim Ryholt, the canon gives his prenomen on the 8th column, line 17[2] (Gardiner entry 7.22 [4]). The Turin papyrus is damaged on the section covering the late 13th Dynasty and Merkheperre's reign length is lost in a lacuna. Merkheperre is also attested by two artefacts dating to his reign: a glazed weight of grey schist bearing his cartouche, now in the Petrie Museum UC 16372[5][6] and a scarab inscribed with his name. Although the scarab is accepted as evidence of Merkheperre by Darrell Baker, Jürgen von Beckerath, Stephen Quirke and others, Kim Ryholt rejects this attribution.[3] Ryholt points to its lack of royal attributes and insignia as well as its stylistic features which depart from other royal seals of the 13th Dynasty. Rather, Ryholt proposes that the scarab simply represents Khepri pushing the sun.[2] Chronological position[edit] The exact chronological position of Merkheperre is not known for certain as the damaged state of the Turin canon only allows for conjectural reconstructions of the late 13th dynasty. According to Ryholt he was the forty-seventh ruler of the dynasty, while Baker sees him as the forty-sixth and von Beckerath as the fifty-seventh.[2][3][7][8] All agree that he was succeeded by Merkare, however von Beckerath proposed that his predecessor was Mershepsesre Ini II, when a new reconstruction of the Turin canon led Ryholt and Baker to propose that his predecessor was Mer[...]re. References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Merkheperre. ^ Henry Reginald Hall: Catalogue of Egyptian scarabs, etc., in the British Museum (1913) available copyright-free online scarab num. 200, see p. 21 ^ a b c d e K.S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here. ^ a b c Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 214 ^ Alan H. Gardiner: The Royal Canon of Turin, Oxford 1959, Vol. III, 6.14, Warminster 1987, ISBN 0-900416-48-3. ^ Weight of Merkheperre on Digital Egypt for Universities ^ Catalogue of the Petrie museum ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46. Mainz am Rhein, 1997 Preceded by Mer[...]re Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Merkare v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Merkheperre&oldid=972492340" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Español Euskara Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Slovenščina ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 12 August 2020, at 10:34 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5916	----	Sihathor - Wikipedia Sihathor From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sihathor Sahathor, Menuazra[1] Sihathor's name on the Turin canon (second row from bottom) Pharaoh Reign less than a year, "[...] months and 3 days" as a coregent with Neferhotep I[1] (13th dynasty) Coregency Neferhotep I Predecessor Neferhotep I Successor Sobekhotep IV Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Ra Sihathor (Rˁ)-s3-Ḥtḥr Ra, the son of Hathor Nomen Menwadjre Mn-w3ḏ-Rˁ Ra, he whose prosperity is lasting Father Haankhef Mother Kemi Burial likely intended to be in Abydos close to those of his brothers Menwadjre Sihathor was an ephemeral ruler of the 13th Dynasty during the late Middle Kingdom. Sihathor may never have enjoyed an independent reign, possibly only ruling for a few months as a coregent with his brother Neferhotep I. According to Egyptologist Kim Ryholt, Sihathor died in 1733 BC[2] while Detlef Franke dates his short reign to 1694 BC.[3] His tomb is likely to be the unfinished one located between the tombs of his brothers S9 and S10, in Abydos. Contents 1 Attestations 2 Family 3 Tomb 4 References Attestations[edit] According to the latest reading of the Turin canon by Ryholt, Sihathor is recorded there on column 7, line 26 (Gardiner col. 6, line 26).[2] Sihathor is attested on two statues from the Hekaib sanctuary in Elephantine as a "king's son", which is here an honorary title referring to his brother Neferhotep I being king.[2] Two rock inscriptions from Philae and Sehel Island further mention Sihathor as a brother to Neferhotep I.[2] According to Ryholt and Stephen Quirke, Sihathor is also attested as a king on a steatite cylinder seal, now in the Petrie Museum (UC1157), and a bead of unknown provenance, now in the Brooklyn Museum.[1][2][4] A few further seals mentioning a king's son Sihathor are known, but Ryholt concludes that they may correspond to another Sihathor.[2] Finally, Vivian Davies points to the existence of a statue of Sihathor made after his death and where he is only given the title of "king's son".[5] Family[edit] Scarab seals of the "Royal seal bearer, divine father Haankhef", the father of Sihathor, and "Princess, royal daughter Kema", daughter of Neferhotep, niece of Sihathor.[6] The family of Sihathor is known thanks to the rock inscriptions of Philae and Sehel made by his brother Neferhotep I. Sihathor's father is thus known to be Haankhef, his mother was Kemi and his brothers were Neferhotep I and Sobekhotep IV, the later of whom eventually succeeded him on the throne.[2] Tomb[edit] The Egyptologist and archaeologist Josef W. Wegner of the University of Pennsylvania has led excavations of the tomb and funerary complex of Senusret III in Abydos as well as of the surrounding necropolis. This necropolis was found to comprise royal tombs dating to the Second Intermediate Period as well as from the earlier late Middle Kingdom. Two large tombs in particular, S9 and S10 are now believed to belong to Sihathor's pharaoh brothers, Neferhotep I and Sobekhotep IV. Indeed, evidences gathered from the neighbouring tombs reveal that a king Sobekhotep was buried in S10, who must be Sobekhotep IV given the size of the tomb, its general datation and location in Abydos. By extension, S9 is likely to belong to Neferhotep I.[7][8] These attributions are crucial for locating Sihathor's tomb, as indeed Wegner has found an unfinished royal burial at the immediate north-east of S10, east of S9. According to him, its position suggest very strongly that it was intended for Neferhotep's chosen heir Sihathor. The burial seems to have been abandoned at the death of its intended owner, its massive granite sarcophagus reused at a later time, during the chaotic Second Intermediate Period.[9] References[edit] ^ a b c Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 430 ^ a b c d e f g K.S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here ^ Thomas Schneider: The Relative Chronology of the Middle Kingdom and the Hyksos Period (Dyns. 12–17), in: Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss, David A. Warburton (editors): Ancient Egyptian Chronology (= Handbook of Oriental studies. Section One. The Near and Middle East. vol 83). Brill, Leiden/Boston 2006, ISBN 978-90-04-11385-5, pp. 168–196. ^ Picture of the cylinder seal ^ Vivian Davies: A Statue of the King's Son, Sahathor, from Thebes, in: Stationen Beiträge zur Kulturgeschichte Ägyptens Rainer Stadelmann editor, Heike Guksch, Daniel Polz, pp. 177 - 179, ISBN 3-8053-2526-6 ^ Flinders Petrie: Scarabs and cylinders with names (1917), available copyright-free here, pl. XVIII ^ Wegner, Josef W. (2015). "A royal necropolis at south Abydos: New Light on Egypt's Second Intermediate Period". Near Eastern Archaeology. 78 (2): 68–78. ^ Wegner, J.; Cahail, K. (2015). "Royal Funerary Equipment of a King Sobekhotep at South Abydos: Evidence for the Tombs of Sobekhotep IV and Neferhotep I?". JARCE. 15: 123–164. ^ Josef W. Wegner, lecture at the University of Chicago Oriental Institute. On Youtube The Pharaohs of Anubis-Mountain, 28 October 2015. Preceded by Neferhotep I Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Sobekhotep IV v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sihathor&oldid=992217151" Categories: 18th-century BC deaths 18th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Deutsch Español Euskara Français Italiano Magyar مصرى Nederlands Русский Slovenščina ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 4 December 2020, at 03:08 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5920	----	Sewadjkare - Wikipedia Sewadjkare From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sewadjkare Sewadjkare I Pharaoh Reign very short reign c. 1781 BC (Ryholt) or c. 1737 BC (Schneider) (13th Dynasty) Predecessor Sehetepibre (Ryholt & Baker), Siharnedjheritef Hotepibre (von Beckerath & Franke) Successor Nedjemibre Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sewadjkare S.w3ḏ-k3-Rˁ He whom the Ka or Ra causes to flourish Sewadjkare (more exactly Sewadjkare I) was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty during the early Second Intermediate Period. According to Egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker he was the eleventh ruler of the dynasty, reigning for a short time c. 1781 BC.[1][2] Alternatively, Thomas Schneider, Detlef Franke and Jürgen von Beckerath see him as the tenth king of the 13th Dynasty, with Schneider placing his reign at c. 1737 BC.[3][4][5][6][7] Contents 1 Evidence 2 Reign length 3 Identity 4 References Evidence[edit] No contemporary attestation of Sewadjkare survives to this day and this pharaoh is only known to us thanks to the Turin canon. This king list was redacted during the early Ramesside period from older documents and serves as the primary source for kings of the Second Intermediate Period. Sewadjkare's name appears on the 7th column, 13th line of the papyrus.[1] Reign length[edit] The Turin canon normally gives the reign length of the kings it lists; however, the duration of Sewadjkare's reign is lost in a lacuna. Only the number of days is partially preserved and was read by Ryholt as eleven to fourteen days. The space apparently taken by the total duration of the reign as recorded on the Turin canon led Ryholt to propose a minimum reign length of half a month.[1] Given the total absence of contemporary attestation for Sewadjkare, it seems likely that he was an ephemeral ruler. Identity[edit] Sewadjkare should not be confused with two other pharaohs bearing the same prenomen, and who reigned later in the Second Intermediate Period. Sewadjkare Hori II, also known as Hori II, reigned at the very end of the 13th Dynasty, from c. 1669 until 1664 BC. The other ruler with the same prenomen is Sewadjkare III of the 14th Dynasty, who is also known only thanks to the Turin canon. Sewadjkare III reigned for a short while, some time between c. 1699 and 1694 BC.[1] References[edit] ^ a b c d K.S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here. ^ Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 417 ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen, Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3 ^ Thomas Schneider: Ancient Egyptian Chronology - Edited by Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss, And David a. Warburton, available online, see p. 176 ^ Detlef Franke: Zur Chronologie des Mittleren Reiches (12.-18. Dynastie) Teil 1 : Die 12. Dynastie, in Orientalia 57 (1988) ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46. Mainz am Rhein, 1997 Preceded by Sehetepibre Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Nedjemibre v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sewadjkare&oldid=977190563" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages አማርኛ العربية Català Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Slovenščina ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 7 September 2020, at 12:30 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5952	----	Darius (son of Xerxes I) - Wikipedia Darius (son of Xerxes I) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Crown Prince of Persia Darius Crown Prince of Persia Died 465 BC Persia Spouse Artaynte Dynasty Achaemenid Father Xerxes I of Persia Mother Amestris Darius was crown prince of the Persian Empire. He was the eldest son of the Persian king Xerxes I and his wife Amestris, the daughter of Onophas. His younger brothers were Hystaspes and Artaxerxes, and his younger sisters were Rhodogyne and Amytis. Circa 478 BC, before the revolt at Bactria, Darius was married to his cousin Artaynte at Sardis. She was the daughter of his uncle Masistes. At the behest of Xerxes, Artaynte committed adultery with him (Xerxes). When Amestris found out, she did not seek revenge against Artaynte, but against her mother, Masistes' wife, as Amestris thought that it was due to her connivance. On Xerxes' birthday, Amestris sent for his guards and mutilated Artaynte's mother. On seeing this, Masistes fled to Bactria to start a revolt, but was intercepted by Xerxes' army who killed him and his sons. In 465 BC, Darius may have ascended to the throne as King of Persia after his father was murdered[1] in a conspiracy carried out by Artabanus and Aspamitres the eunuch,[2] who were confidential advisers of Xerxes. Afterwards, they deceived Artaxerxes into believing that it was his older brother, Darius, who murdered his father. Darius was then taken to the palace of Artaxerxes and put to death. Artabanus may have had personal ambitions for the throne since, subsequently, he conspired with Megabyzus to have Artaxerxes killed. But Megabyzus revealed the plot to Artaxerxes, who put Artabanus and Aspamitres to death for the murders of Xerxes, Darius[3] and his own attempted murder. Artabanus was killed by sword, whilst Aspamitres was left in a tub where he was eaten by insects. Contents 1 Classical sources 2 Bibliography 3 External links 4 Notes Classical sources[edit] Ctesias, Persica, books XIV - XVII Diodorus of Sicily, Bibliotheca historica, XI, 69 Herodotus, Histories, book IX Bibliography[edit] Jacoby, Felix. (1923-1959) Die Fragmente er griechischen Historiker, Berlin Jacoby, Felix. (1922) "Ktesias", RE XI, 2032-2073 Henry, René. (1959) Photius: La Bibliothèque, Paris Lenfant, Dominique. (2004) Ctésias. La Perse. L’Inde. Autres fragments. Paris Godley, Alfred Denis (1921–24). "Histories book 9". Herodotus, with an English translation. OCLC 1610641. External links[edit] Photius' Excerpt of Ctesias' Persica Notes[edit] ^ According to Diodorus of Sicily, however, Darius was killed before ascending the throne. ^ Mithridates the eunuch according to Diodorus of Sicily. ^ Artaxerxes made the co-conspirators responsible for Darius' death. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Darius_(son_of_Xerxes_I)&oldid=991819986" Categories: 465 BC deaths 5th-century BC Iranian people 5th-century BC rulers Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata CS1: abbreviated year range Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Edit links This page was last edited on 2 December 2020, at 00:10 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5977	----	Artasyrus - Wikipedia Artasyrus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Satrap of Armenia Artasyrus Satrap of Armenia Reign 5th century BC Predecessor Hidarnes III Successor Orontes I Issue Orontes I Full name Artasyrus Dynasty Orontid Dynasty Artasyrus (Old Iranian: Rtasūrā) was recorded as being the Satrap of Armenia during the reign of king Artaxerxes II. Referred to as the "King's Eye", Artasyrus was of Bactrian origin.[1][2] His more "well known" son, Orontes, who was therefore sometimes referred to as "Orontes the Bactrian",[1][3] served as the Satrap of Sophene and Matiene (Mitanni) during the reign of Artaxerxes II. There appears to be confusion in the historical records as to whether Artasyrus and Artaxerxes II were the same person. The daughter of Artaxerxes II, Rhodogune, was the wife of the satrap Orontes I. There are few English language sources to fully explain who he was, when he was born or died.[4] According to H. Khachatrian, one of the rare accounts of Ardashir was that before his death he gathered his sons and told them that the duty of every king of the Orontid Dynasty was to build at least one water channel, which would last for centuries; as he had not managed to build one, he left all his fortune to his sons for them to build them for him.[5] References[edit] ^ a b Gershevitch 1985, p. 354. ^ Chahin 2001, p. 185. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFChahin2001 (help) ^ Chahin, M. (2001). The Kingdom of Armenia: A History. Psychology Press. p. 185. ISBN 978-0700714520. (...) son of Artasyras, the "King's Eye", sometimes called "Orontes the Bactrian", because of his princely, Bactrian parentage. ^ 'The Persian Empire', J. M. Cook, Barnes & Noble Books, 1993, ISBN 1-56619-115-7 ^ Khachatryan, Hayk (2006). 141 Kings of the Armenians. Erevan: Amaras. ISBN 978-99930-1-192-7 Sources[edit] Chahin, M. (2001). The Kingdom of Armenia: A History. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0700714520.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Gershevitch, Ilya, ed. (1985). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 2: The Median and Achaemenian periods. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521200912.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) See also[edit] Satrapy of Armenia v t e Armenian kings Orontid Dynasty Orontes I Sakavakyats Tigranes Vahagn Hidarnes I Hidarnes II Hidarnes III Artasyrus (satrap) Orontes I (satrap) Darius III (satrap) Orontes II (satrap) Mithrenes (satrap) Orontes III Sames Arsames I Xerxes Orontes IV Abdissares Artaxiad Dynasty Artaxias I Tigranes I Artavasdes I Tigranes the Great Artavasdes II Artaxias II Tigranes III Tigranes IV with Erato Roman and Parthian non-dynastic candidates Ariobarzanes II Artavasdes III Tigranes V Vonones I Artaxias III Arsaces I Orodes Mithridates Rhadamistus Tiridates I Arsacid Dynasty Tigranes VI Sanatruk Axidares Parthamasiris Vologases I Sohaemus Bakur Vologases II Khosrov I Tiridates II Khosrov II Tiridates III Khosrov III Tiran Arshak II Pap Varazdat Arshak III Khosrov IV Vramshapuh Artaxias IV Bagratid Armenia Ashot I Smbat I Ashot II Abas I Ashot III Smbat II Gagik I Hovhannes-Smbat III Ashot IV Gagik II Cilicia Leo I Isabella Hethum I Leo II Hethum II Thoros Sempad Constantine I Leo III Oshin Leo IV Constantine II Constantine III Constantine IV Leo V v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC This biography of an Armenian ruler or member of a royal family is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e This Ancient Near East biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Artasyrus&oldid=1002470130" Categories: Orontid dynasty 5th-century BC rulers Artaxerxes II of Persia Achaemenid satraps of Armenia 5th-century BC Iranian people Armenian royalty stubs Ancient Near East people stubs Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn multiple-target errors Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata CS1 maint: ref=harv AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages تۆرکجه Deutsch Ελληνικά فارسی Հայերեն ქართული Português Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 16:40 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5986	----	Osorkon III - Wikipedia Osorkon III From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Osorkon III Kneeling statue of Osorkon III pushing a barque of Seker, from Karnak Pharaoh Reign 28 years (23rd Dynasty) Predecessor Shoshenq VI Successor Takelot III Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Usermaatre Setepenamun Wsr-Mȝˁt-Rˁ-stp-n-Jmn Rich in Maat is Ra, the chosen one of Amun Nomen Userken Meryamun Saiset Wsrkn-s3-3st-mrj-Jmn Osorkon, beloved of Amun, son of Isis Horus name Kanakht Khaimwaset K3-nḫt-ḫ3j-m-W3st Strong bull appearing in Thebes Nebty name Setibtawy St-jb-tȝwj The place of the heart of the two lands[1] Consort Karoadjet, Tentsai Children Shepenupet I, Takelot III, Rudamun Father Takelot II Mother Karomama II Usermaatre Setepenamun Osorkon III Si-Ese was Pharaoh of Egypt in the 8th Century BC. He is the same person as the Crown Prince and High Priest of Amun Osorkon B, son of Takelot II by his Great Royal Wife Karomama II. Prince Osorkon B is best attested by his Chronicle—which consists of a series of texts documenting his activities at Thebes—on the Bubastite Portal at Karnak.[2] He later reigned as king Osorkon III in Upper Egypt for twenty-eight years after defeating the rival forces of Pedubast I/Shoshenq VI who had apparently resisted the authority of his father here. Osorkon ruled the last five years of his reign in coregency with his son, Takelot III, according to Karnak Nile Level Text No. 13.[3] Osorkon III's formal titulary was long and elaborate: Usermaatre Setepenamun, Osorkon Si-Ese Meryamun, Netjer-Heqa-waset.[4] Contents 1 Accession 2 Identity 3 Consorts 4 References 5 Bibliography Accession[edit] Osorkon III's precise accession date is unknown. Various Egyptologists have suggested it may have been from around the mid-790s BC to as late as 787 BC.[5] The issue is complicated by the fact that Prince Osorkon B did not immediately declare himself king after his successful conquest of Thebes and defeat of Shoshenq VI. This is evidenced by the fact that he dated this seminal event to Year 39 of Shoshenq III rather than Year 1 of his reign. Osorkon III may, therefore, have waited for a minimum of one or two years before proclaiming himself as a Pharaoh of the Theban-based 23rd Dynasty. Osorkon may also have been motivated to defeat or pacify any remaining supporters of the Pedubast I/Shoshenq VI rival faction in other regions of Upper Egypt whether they were in Elephantine, the Western Desert Oasis region—where Pedubast I is monumentally attested—or elsewhere in order to consolidate his position. Hence, Year 1 of Osorkon III is likely equivalent to Year 1 or Year 2 of Shoshenq IV instead, rather than Year 39 of Shoshenq III. Identity[edit] A relief depicting Osorkon in his early career, when he was the High Priest of Amun during the reign of his father Takelot II. The relief also bears his ancestry as a son of queen Karomama II, daughter of Nimlot C, son of Osorkon II. Osorkon III is attested by numerous impressive donation stelae and stone blocks from Herakleopolis Magna through to Thebes. He is generally thought to have been a contemporary of the Lower Egyptian 22nd Dynasty kings, Shoshenq IV, Pami, and the first decade of Shoshenq V's reign. Osorkon III's chief wife was Queen Karoadjet but his second wife was named Tentsai. A stela of Prince Osorkon B calls his spouse Tent[...] with part of the name being lost. The latter name can be rendered as either Tentsai or Tentamun. Significantly, however, both men have a daughter called Shepenupet. Secondly, according to Ōhshiro Michinori,[6] Anthony Leahy,[7] and Karl Jansen-Winkeln,[8] an important donation stela[9] discovered in 1982 at Ṭihnā al-Ǧabal (ancient Akoris) reveals that Osorkon III was once a High Priest of Amun in his own right. The document explicitly calls Osorkon III, the High Priest of Amun. Osorkon III, thus, was almost certainly the High Priest Osorkon B, who defeated his father's opponents at Thebes in Year 39 of Shoshenq III, as Leahy notes. The identification of HPA Osorkon with King Osorkon III was first proposed by David Rohl and Peter James in 1982 where they state the following: The chronicle of the High Priest of Amun (HPA) – Prince Osorkon states that he served King Takelot II from the latter’s Year 11 to 25 and then under King Shoshenk III from Year 22 to Year 39. The conventional chronology interposes 21 years between these two periods of office, on the assumption that Takelot II and Shoshenk III reigned consecutively, and is forced to postulate that HPA Osorkon lost his hold over the Thebaid and ‘disappeared from the scene’ in the intervening years. We, however, contend that Year 22 of Shoshenk shortly followed the death of Takelot in his 25th year as the inscription logically suggests. This would mean that Shoshenk III began his reign in Busiris sometime during the 4th year of Takelot II. (…) In the conventional chronology it would have been highly unlikely for HPA Prince Osorkon to have eventually attained the throne as Osorkon III, since he would have been at least 73 years old (assuming a minimum age of 20 years when he became High Priest, plus 14 years under Takelot, plus 39 years under Shoshenk). Adding to this the 28 regnal years of Osorkon III, he would have died at the ripe of age of 101! By eradicating the erroneous 21 years of so-called ‘exile’, his identification with Osorkon III, dying at the age of 80, becomes eminently more feasible. This is strongly supported by another piece of evidence – Prince Osorkon’s mother was Karomama Merytmut, whilst Osorkon III gave his mother’s name as Kamama Merytmut.[10] This theory has now been accepted by many Egyptologists, including Jürgen von Beckerath,[11] Karl Jansen-Winkeln,[12] Gerard Broekman,[13] and Aidan Dodson, among others, with the notable exception of Kenneth Kitchen.[14] Aidan Dodson and Dyan Hilton sum up the evidence by noting: That Osorkon B is the same person as King Osorkon III is indicated by the fact that the former's last appearance as High Priest of Amun seems to directly precede Osorkon III's assumption of the throne, reinforcing a stela from Tehna which mentions the latter with the additional title of High Priest—an unusual occurrence.[15] Osorkon probably lived into his eighties, which explains why he appointed his son Takelot III as the junior coregent to the throne in his final years. He would have been in failing health by this time. Osorkon III's coregency with Takelot III is the last attested royal coregency in ancient Egyptian history. Later dynasties from Nubia, Sais, and Persia all ruled Egypt with a single king on the throne. Karnak Nile Level Texts No. 6 and 7,[16] dated to Year 5 and 6 of Osorkon III, calls his mother the "Chief Queen Kamama Merymut."[17] Similarly, Prince Osorkon B's mother was identified as Queen Ka<ra>mama Merymut II, wife of Takelot II.[18] The slightly different renderings of this Queen's name almost certainly refers to the same person here: Osorkon B/III. Consorts[edit] According to Kenneth Kitchen, Osorkon III's chief consort, Queen Karoadjet, was the mother of Shepenupet I, the God's Wife and Divine Adoratrice of Amun, while his lesser wife Tentsai was the mother of Osorkon III's two sons: Takelot III and Rudamun.[19] Shepenupet I outlived both her half-brothers as the serving God's Wife of Amun at Thebes and survived into the reign of the Nubian ruler, Shebitku, where she is depicted on the small temple Osiris-Heqa-djet in the Amun precinct of Karnak, which was partially decorated by this king. References[edit] ^ Digital Egypt for Universities ^ Caminos 1958. ^ von Beckerath 1966:50. ^ von Beckerath 1999:194, 195. ^ Kitchen [1996]:§ 448. ^ Ōhshiro 1999. ^ Leahy 1990:192. ^ Jansen-Winkeln 1995:138 ^ The Paleological Association of Japan inc. (Egyptian Committee) 1995:301–305, plate 116. ^ Rohl D. & James P.: 'An Alternative to the Velikovskian Chronology for Ancient Egypt' in SIS Workshop, vol. 5, no. 2, 1982/83, point 8. ^ von Beckerath 1995. ^ Jansen-Winkeln 1995. ^ Broekman 2002:174. ^ Kitchen [1996], § BB. ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004:226. ^ von Beckerath 1966:49. ^ Kitchen [1996]:§ 74. ^ Kitchen [1996]:§ 290. ^ Kitchen [1996]:§ 309. Bibliography[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Osorkon III. Caminos, Ricardo Augusto (1958). The Chronicle of Prince Osorkon. Roma: Pontificium Institutum Biblicum. von Beckerath, Jürgen (1966). "The Nile Record Level Records at Karnak and Their Importance for the History of the Libyan Period (Dynasties XXII and XXIII)". Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt. 5: 43–55. doi:10.2307/40000171. JSTOR 40000171. Redford, Donald B. (1978). "Osorkho... called Herakles". JSSEA. 9: 33–36. Leahy, M. Anthony (1990). "Abydos in the Libyan Period". In M. Anthony Leahy (ed.). (ed.). Libya and Egypt c1300–750 BC. London: School of Oriental and African Studies, Centre of Near and Middle Eastern Studies, and The Society for Libyan Studies. pp. 155–200. Jansen-Winkeln, Karl (1995). "Historische Probleme der 3. Zwischenzeit" (PDF). Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 81: 129–149. doi:10.2307/3821812. JSTOR 3821812. 学協会エジプト委員会 [The Paleological Association of Japan inc. (Egyptian Committee)] (1995). Akoris: Report of the Excavations at Akoris in Middle Egypt 1981–1992. 京都 [Kyōto]: 晃洋書房 [Kōyō Shobō]. von Beckerath, Jürgen (1995). "Beiträge zur Geschichte der Libyerzeit: II. Die Zeit der Osorkon-Chronik". Göttinger Miszellen. 144: 9–13. Kitchen, Kenneth A. (1996). The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100–650 BC) (3rd ed.). Warminster: Aris & Phillips Limited. 大城 道則 [Ōhshiro Michinori] (1999). "The Identity of Osorkon III: The Revival of an Old Theory (Prince Osorkon = Osorkon III)". 古代オリエント博物館紀要 [Bulletin of the Ancient Orient Museum]. 20: 33–49. [article language is English] von Beckerath, Jürgen (1999). Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen (2nd ed.). Mainz am Rhein: Verlag Philipp von Zabern. Broekman, Gerardus P. F. (2002). "The Nile Level Records of the Twenty-second and Twenty-third Dynasties in Karnak: A Reconsideration of Their Chronological Order". Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 88: 163–178. doi:10.2307/3822342. JSTOR 3822342. Dodson, Aidan M.; Hilton, Dyan (2004). The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Cairo, London, and New York: The American University in Cairo Press and Thames and Hudson. ISBN 977-424-878-3. Porter, Robert M. (2011). "Osorkon III of Tanis: the Contemporary of Piye?". Göttinger Miszellen. 230: 111–112. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Osorkon_III&oldid=991968633" Categories: 8th-century BC Pharaohs 8th-century BC clergy Pharaohs of the Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Theban High Priests of Amun 8th century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links 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en-wikipedia-org-6012	----	Amélie Kuhrt - Wikipedia Amélie Kuhrt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Amélie Kuhrt FBA (born 1944) is a historian and specialist in the history of the ancient Near East. She was educated at King's College London, University College London and SOAS. Professor Emerita at University College London, she specialises in the social, cultural and political history of the region from c.3000-100 BC, especially the Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian and Seleucid empires. She was co-organiser of the Achaemenid History Workshops from 1983 to 1990. Kuhrt was elected a Fellow of the British Academy in 2001.[1] She is currently a member of the British Academy's Projects Committee, which is responsible for assessing the scope for new projects and initiatives sponsored by the Academy.[2] Contents 1 Awards and honours 2 Publications 2.1 Selected books 2.2 Selected articles 3 References 4 External links Awards and honours[edit] In 1997, her book The Ancient Near East : c.3000-330 BC was awarded the annual American History Association's James Henry Breasted Prize for the best book in English on any field of history prior to the year 1000 AD.[3] Publications[edit] Selected books[edit] The Persian Empire: A Corpus of Sources of the Achaemenid Period. London: Routledge, 2007. ISBN 0-415-43628-1 The Ancient Near East : c.3000-330 BC. London : Routledge, 1995. ISBN 0-415-01353-4 (v.1), ISBN 0-415-12872-2 (v.2) Images of Women in Antiquity. With Averil Cameron. London : Routledge, 1993. ISBN 0-415-09095-4 Selected articles[edit] "Ancient Near Eastern History: The Case of Cyrus the Great of Persia", in Hugh G. M. Williamson (ed), Understanding the History of Ancient Israel. OUP/British Academy 2007. ISBN 0-19-726401-8, pp. 107–127 "Cyrus the Great of Persia: Images and Realities", in M. Heinz & M. H. Feldman (eds), Representations of Political Power: Case Histories from Times of Change and Dissolving Order in the Ancient Near East, pp. 174–175. Eisenbrauns, 2007. ISBN 1-57506-135-X "The Problem of Achaemenid Religious Policy", in B. Groneberg & H. Spieckermann (eds.), Die Welt der Gotterbilder, Walter de Gruyter, 2007, pp. 117–142 "Sennacherib's Siege of Jerusalem", in A.K. Bowman et al. (eds) Representations of Empire: Rome and the Mediterranean World, pp. 13 – 33. OUP/British Academy 2004. ISBN 0-19-726276-7 "The Achaemenid Persian empire (c. 550-c. 330 BCE): continuities, adaptations, transformations", in S.E. Alcock et al. (eds.), Empires: perspectives from archaeology and history, Cambridge University Press, 2001, pp. 93–123 "Women and War", Journal of Gender Studies in Antiquity 2 (1) (2001) 1 - 25 "The Persian Kings and their subjects: A unique relationship?", Orientalistische Literaturzeitung, vol.96 no.2 (2001), pp. 165–172 "Israelite and Near Eastern historiography," in A. Lemaire & M. Saebo (eds), Vetus Testamentum Supplementum 80 (2000), pp. 257–279 "Usurpation, conquest and ceremonial: From Babylon to Persia", in D. Cannadine, S. Price (eds), Rituals of Royalty: Power and Ceremonial in Traditional Societies, Cambridge University Press, 1992, pp. 20–55 "Babylonia from Cyrus to Xerxes", in John Boardman (ed), The Cambridge Ancient History: Vol IV - Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean, p. 124. Cambridge University Press, 1982. ISBN 0-521-22804-2 "The Cyrus Cylinder and Achaemenid imperial policy", Journal of Studies of the Old Testament 25 (1983), pp. 83–97 References[edit] ^ Directory of Ordinary Fellows - K Archived June 6, 2011, at the Wayback Machine, British Academy ^ "Research programmes". British Academy. Accessed 2008-11-11. ^ "AHA Award Recipients - James Henry Breasted Prize". American History Association. Accessed 2008-11-11. External links[edit] Professor Amélie Kuhrt profile and contact page Authority control BNE: XX1175764 BNF: cb12026990k (data) CANTIC: a12377673 GND: 143238124 ISNI: 0000 0001 2321 5598 LCCN: n80007609 NLG: 81619 NTA: 069557535 SUDOC: 028433696 S2AuthorId: 12855264 VIAF: 109996479 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80007609 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amélie_Kuhrt&oldid=993050078" Categories: 1944 births Living people Alumni of King's College London British historians Fellows of the British Academy Iranologists People associated with the History Department, University College London Assyriologists Iran's Book of the Year Awards recipients Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Semantic Scholar author identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Date of birth missing (living people) Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch فارسی Français مصرى Edit links This page was last edited on 8 December 2020, at 15:02 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6013	----	Ramesses XI - Wikipedia Ramesses XI From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ramesses XI[1] Also written Ramses and Rameses Ramesses XI from the Temple of Khonsu in Karnak, drawn by Karl Richard Lepsius Pharaoh Reign 1107–1078/77 BC (20th Dynasty) Predecessor Ramesses X Successor Smendes Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Menmaatre Setepenptah Mn-m3ˁt-Rˁ-stp-n-Ptḥ The justice of Ra is enduring, the chosen one of Ptah Nomen Ramesses Khaemwaset Mereramun Netjerheqaiunu[2] Rˁ-msj-sw-Ḫ3-m-W3st-mrj-Jmn-nṯr-ḥq3-Jwnw Ra fashioned him, he appears in Waset, beloved of Amun, divine ruler of Iunu Hieroglyphic variants: Horus name Kanakht Meryre K3-nḫt-mrj-Rˁ Strong bull, beloved of Ra Nebty name Userkhepesh Hedhefenu Wsr-ḫpš hd-ḥfnw He whose blow is powerful, he whose attacks are countless Golden Horus Werpehtisankhtawy Ityankhwedjaseneb Seheribmaat Seheteptawy Wr-pḥtj-s.ˁnḫ-t3wy-jty-ˁnḫ-wḏ-snb-shr-ib-M3ˁt-s.ḥtp-t3wy He whose power is great, he gives new life to the two lands, life, prosperity, health, he reconciles the two lands under the majesty of Maat Consort Tentamun Children Duathathor-Henuttawy, Tentamun, Nodjmet Father Ramesses X? Died 1078 or 1077 BC Burial KV4 Menmaatre Ramesses XI (also written Ramses and Rameses) reigned from 1107 BC to 1078 BC or 1077 BC and was the tenth and final pharaoh of the Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt and as such, was the last king of the New Kingdom period. He ruled Egypt for at least 29 years although some Egyptologists think he could have ruled for as long as 30. The latter figure would be up to 2 years beyond this king's highest known date of Year 10 of the Whm Mswt era or Year 28 of his reign.[3] One scholar, Ad Thijs, has suggested that Ramesses XI could even have reigned as long as 33 years.[4] It is believed that Ramesses ruled into his Year 29 since a graffito records that the general and High Priest of Amun Piankh returned to Thebes from Nubia on III Shemu day 23—or just 3 days into what would have been the start of Ramesses XI's 29th regnal year. Piankh is known to have campaigned in Nubia during Year 28 of Ramesses XI's reign (or Year 10 of the Whm Mswt) and would have returned home to Egypt in the following year. Contents 1 Background 2 The whm-mswt era 3 Length of reign 4 Late New Kingdom chronology of Ramesses XI 5 Burial 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Background[edit] Ramesses XI was once thought to be the son of Ramesses X by Queen Tyti who was a King's Mother, King's Wife and King's Daughter in her titles.[5] However, recent scholarly research into certain copies of parts of the Harris papyrus (or Papyrus BM EA 10052)--made by Anthony Harris—which discusses a harem conspiracy against Ramesses III reveals that Tyti was rather a queen of pharaoh Ramesses III instead.[6] Hence, Ramesses XI's mother was not Tyti and although he could have been a son of his predecessor, this is not established either. Ramesses XI is believed to have married Tentamun, the daughter of Nebseny, with whom he is assumed to have fathered Duathathor-Henuttawy—the future wife of the high priest Pinedjem I. Ramesses XI may have had another daughter named Tentamun who became king Smendes' future wife in the next dynasty. Sometime during his reign, the High Priest of Amun, Amenhotep, was ousted from office by Pinehesy, the Viceroy of Kush who for some time took control of the Thebais. Although this “suppression of the High Priest of Amun” used to be dated quite early in the reign (prior to year 9 of the reign),[7] recently the communis opinio has changed to the view that it took place only shortly before the start of the Whm Mswt or Renaissance, an era which was inaugurated in regnal Year 19, probably to stress the return of normal conditions following the coup of Pinehesy. The whm-mswt era[edit] Mold with the name of Ramesses XI or IX at LACMA Ramesses XI's reign is notable for a large number of important papyri that have been discovered, including the Adoption Papyrus, which mentions regnal years 1 and 18 of his reign; Pap. B.M. 10052, Pap. Mayer A, Pap. B.M. 10403 and Pap. B.M. 10383 (the last four containing the accounts of tomb-robbery trials conducted during the first two years of the Whm Mswt); Pap. Ambras (containing a list of documents which were repurchased in year 6 of the Whm Mswt, after having been stolen from some temple archive, most probably during the chaotic period of the suppression of the High Priest of Amun Amenhotep);[8] the Turin Taxation Papyrus, of an unspecified year 12; Pap. B.M. 10068, which includes on its verso two lists, called the House-list (from an unspecified year 12) and the Srmt-list (undated, but slightly later than the Houselist);[9] Pap. B.M. 9997, of an unspecified year 14 and 15; and an entire series of Late Ramesside Letters written by -among others- the scribes of the Necropolis Dhutmose, Butehamun, and the High Priest Piankh. Late Ramesside Letter no. 9 establishes that the Whm Mswt period lasted into a 10th year (which more or less equates year 28 proper of Ramesses XI).[10] Ad Thijs, in a GM 173 paper, notes that the House-list, which is anonymously dated to Year 12 of Ramesses XI (i.e., the document was compiled in either Year 12 of the pre-Renaissance period or during the Whm Mswt era itself), mentions two officials: the Chief Doorkeeper Pnufer, and the Chief Warehouseman Dhutemhab.[11] These individuals were recorded as only an ordinary Doorkeeper and Warehouseman in Papyri BM 10403 and BM 10052 respectively, which are explicitly dated to Year 1 and 2 of the Whm Mswt period.[12] This would suggest at first glance that the Year 12 House-list postdates these two documents and was created in Year 12 of the Whm Mswt era instead (or Regnal Year 30 proper of Ramesses XI), which would account for these two individuals' promotions. Thijs proceeds to use several anonymous Year 14 and 15 dates in another papyrus, BM 9997, to argue that Ramesses XI lived at least into his 32nd and 33rd Regnal Years (or Years 14 and 15 of the Whm Mswt). This document mentions a certain Sermont, who was only titled an ordinary Medjay (Nubian 'policeman') in the Year 12 House-list but is called "Chief of the Medjay" in Papyrus BM 9997. Sermont's promotion would thus mean that BM 9997 postdates the House-list Papyrus and must be placed late in the Renaissance period. If true, then Ramesses XI should have survived into his 33rd Regnal Year or Year 15 of the Whm Mswt era before dying. However, one could argue that there are occasional inconsistencies in the description of an individual's precise title even within the same source document itself: Whereas Papyrus Mayer A several times mentions a “Dhuthope, Chief Doorkeeper of the temple of Amun”, in col. 5, line 15 this same individual is clearly presented as a mere “Doorkeeper”, which would strongly weaken Thijs’ case.[13] On the other hand, as Goelet notes with regard to this last entry: “instead of recounting the usual beatings and confessions, the record simply states: ‘There was brought the doorkeeper Djehuty-hotep’”.[14] Since there are no further details added, which is an anomaly within the papyrus, this suggests that the pertinent entry was abandoned by the scribe, perhaps because he realised that he had made a mistake. Nevertheless, Thijs' case for a Year 33 proper for Ramesses XI should be treated with caution. Since there are two attested promotions of individuals in 2 separate papyri, however, there is a possibility that Ramesses XI did live into his 33rd regnal Year. Thijs in his GM 173 paper, also demonstrated that the House-list and the Turin Taxation papyrus were close in time to each other since both documents mention a year 12 date and name certain individuals such as the chief of the Medjay Nesamun, the herdsman Penhasi and the fisherman Kadore.[15] Due to this connection, Thijs argued that the Taxation Papyrus also belonged to the whm-mswt era. However, this would imply that in year 12 of the whm-mswt the viceroy Pinehesy returned to office to supervise in the collection of taxes in the Theban area, after he had become an enemy of the state earlier in the era, due to his role in temporarily suppressing the High Priest Amenhotep.[16] In P. BM 10383 2, 4-5 (from year 2 of the whm-mswt, although the era is not explicitly mentioned in the heading) a certain Peison states that, sometime earlier, Pinehesy suppressed his (viz., Peison's) superior, which is taken by most Egyptologists as a reference to Pinehesy ousting the High Priest Amenhotep. Pinehesy was subsequently designated as an enemy in several papyri from year 1 and 2 of the whm-mswt (equalling year 19 and 20 proper of Ramesses XI) where his name was consistently associated "by the nDs [or] (‘bad’) bird as its determinative" in these papyri.[17] How exactly the anarchic period of the Suppression was ended and who ultimately forced Pinehesy out of Thebes is unknown, due to a lack of explicit sources. However, it seems that Pinehesy retreated to Nubia and succeeded in maintaining some sort of powerbase there for over a decade. In year 10 of the whm-mswt the then general and High Priest Piankh goes on an expedition to Nubia to "meet Pinehesy". Although it is often postulated that it was the aim of this campaign to fight the former Viceroy,[18] this is by no means certain. The sources are actually ambiguous on this point and the political climate may well have changed over the years. There is some evidence that at this time Piankh may no longer have been a loyal servant of Ramesses XI, which allows for the possibility that he was secretly negotiating with Pinehesy,[19][20] possibly even plotting against the reigning king. E. Wente wrote: "One has the impression that the viceroy and his Nubian troops were loyalists, for the remarks made by his opponent Piankh in letter No. 301 are quite disparaging of the pharaoh, Ramesses XI."[21] In this letter, better known as LRL no. 21, Piankh remarks:[22] As for Pharaoh, l.p.h., how shall he reach this land? And of whom is Pharaoh, l.p.h., superior still? In the same letter and two others (LRL no. 34 and no. 35) Piankh gives the order to the Scribe of the Necropolis Tjaroy (=Dhutmose), the lady Nodjmet and a certain Payshuuben to secretly arrest and question two Medjay policemen about certain things they had apparently said:[23] If they find out that (it is) true, you shall place them (in) two baskets and (they) shall be thrown (into) this water by night. But do not let anybody in the land find out. Whereas Piankh would probably have had the authority to have people executed, it is noteworthy that his correspondents are explicitly urged to keep the matter secret. It has been argued that, given Piankh's supreme position at the time, the secrecy can only have concerned the king.[24][25] If this is correct, it follows that the political situation of the time must have been very complex, with Piankh possibly acting on some hidden agenda. Unfortunately, due to the very limited nature of the sources, the exact relationships between the three main protagonists, Piankh, Pinehesy and Ramesses XI remain far from clear. Some scholars believe that the Nubian campaign was part of an ongoing power struggle between the High Priest of Amun and the Viceroy of Kush[26] However, it is equally possible that Piankh came to the rescue of Pinehesy against some common enemy. The verb often translated as "to attack (Pinehesy)" only means "to meet/ to go to".[27] In fact, neither the aim of the expedition nor its outcome are beyond doubt. The issue is further complicated by the ongoing debate about [1] the order of High Priests (either Herihor before Piankh or Piankh before Herihor)[28] and [2] the correct ascription (either to the pre-Renaissance period or to the whm-mswt itself) of several documents from the reign of Ramesses XI.[29] At present, Thijs' suggestion that Pinehesy was apparently rehabilitated by Ramesses XI in year 11 or 12 of the whm-mswt has only been explicitly accepted by the Egyptologist A. Dodson.[30] Length of reign[edit] Neither the length of the Renaissance nor the ascription of certain documents from the reign of Ramesses XI are beyond dispute. At present, Thijs' proposal that Papyrus BM 10054 dates to the Whm-Mswt has been confirmed by other scholars such as Von Beckerath and Annie Gasse—the latter in a JEA 87 (2001) paper which studied several newly discovered fragments belonging to this document.[31] Consequently, it would appear that Ramesses XI's highest undisputed date is presently Year 11 of the Whm-Mswt (or Year 29 proper) of his reign, when Piankh's Nubian campaign terminated which means that the pharaoh had a minimum reign of 29 years when he died—-which can perhaps be extended to 30 years due to the "gap between the beginning of Dynasty 21 and the reign of Ramesses XI."[32] with 33 years being hypothetical. Krauss and Warburton specifically write that due to the existence of this time gap, Egyptologists generally concede that his reign could have ended 1 or 2 years later than year 10 of the wehem mesut era = regnal year 28.[33] Aidan Dodson, however, allows for a 'year 15' of the Whm-Mswt on the basis of P. BM 9997.[34] Either during the reign of Ramesses XI or shortly afterwards, the village of Deir El Medina was abandoned, apparently because the Royal Necropolis was shifted northward to Tanis and there was no further need for their services at Thebes. Late New Kingdom chronology of Ramesses XI[edit] The conventional Egyptian chronology view is that Ramesses XI had an independent reign of between 29 and 30 or 33 full years between Ramesses X and Smendes before dying. Shortly before his death, he transferred Egypt's political capital to Tanis where he died and was buried by Smendes who succeeded him but only ruled Lower Egypt while Herihor ruled Upper Egypt as the High Priest of Egypt at Thebes. Thijs' separate proposal that the first 17 years of Ramesses XI's reign were entirely contemporary with the reigns of Ramesses IX (Years 5-19) and Ramesses X (Years 1-3)[35] is not currently accepted by most Egyptologists except Aidan Dodson in his 2012 book Afterglow of Empire.[36] Burial[edit] Sometime during this troubled period, Ramesses XI died under unknown circumstances. While he had a tomb prepared for himself in the Valley of the Kings (KV4), it was left unfinished and only partly decorated since Ramesses XI instead arranged to have himself buried away from Thebes, possibly near Memphis. This pharaoh's tomb, however, includes some unusual features, including four rectangular, rather than square, pillars in its burial chamber and an extremely deep central burial shaft– at over 30 feet or 10 metres long– which was perhaps designed as an additional security device to prevent tomb robbery.[37] During the 21st dynasty, under the reign of the High Priest of Thebes, Pinedjem I,[38] Ramesses XI's tomb was used as a workshop for processing funerary materials from the burials of Hatshepsut, Thutmose III and perhaps Thutmose I. Ramesses XI's tomb has stood open since antiquity and was used as a dwelling by the Copts.[39] Since Ramesses XI had himself buried in Lower Egypt, Smendes rose to the kingship of Egypt, based on the well known custom that he who buried the king inherited the throne. Since Smendes buried Ramesses XI, he could legally assume the crown of Egypt and inaugurate the 21st Dynasty from his hometown at Tanis, even if he did not control Middle and Upper Egypt, which were now effectively in the hands of the High Priests of Amun at Thebes. References[edit] ^ Titulary from von Beckerath, Königsnamen, pp. 174–175 (T2 and E2) ^ [1] Ramesses XI Menmaatre-setpenptah ^ Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss & David Warburton (editors), Handbook of Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies), Brill: 2006, p.475 ^ Ad Thijs, "Reconsidering the End of the Twentieth Dynasty. Part III: Some Hitherto Unrecognised Documents from the Whm Mswt," Göttinger Miszellen 173 (1999), pp. 175-192. ^ Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton: The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson, 2004, p.191 ^ Mark Collier, Aidan Dodson, & Gottfried Hamernik, P. BM 10052, Anthony Harris and Queen Tyti, JEA 96 (2010), pp.242-247 ^ Cyril Aldred, More Light on the Ramesside Tomb Robberies, in: J. Ruffle, G.A. Gaballa & K.A.. Kitchen (eds), Glimpses of Ancient Egypt, (Festschrift Fairman), Warminster 1979, 92-99 ^ Ad Thijs, Reconsidering the End of the Twentieth Dynasty Part V, P. Ambras as an advocate of a shorter chronology, GM 179 (2000), 69-83 ^ Ad Thijs, Some observations on the Tomb-Robbery Papyri, in: A.I. Blöbaum, M. Eaton-Krauss, A. Wüthrich (eds), Pérégrinations avec Erhart Graefe, Festschrift zu seinem 75. Geburtstag (Ägypten und Altes Testament 87), 519-536. ^ Late Ramesside Letter 9 in "Late Ramesside Letters" by Edward F. Wente, The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization (SAOC) 33, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois, 1967. pp.11-12 & 37-38 ^ Thijs, GM 173 (1999), pp. 185-86 ^ Thijs, GM 173 (1999), pp. 185-86 ^ T. E. Peet, The Mayer Papyri A & B, London 1920 ^ O. Goelet, JEA 82 (1996), 121 ^ Thijs, GM 173, p.187 ^ Jaroslav Cerny, Egypt: From the Death of Ramesses III to the End of the Twenty-first Dynasty', in I.E.S. Edwards, C.J. Gadd, N.G.L. Hammond and E. Sollberger (eds), Cambridge Ancient History Vol. II, Pt. 2, 634. 1965 (reprinted 1975) Cambridge University Press: Cambridge ^ The High Priests of Amun at the End of the Twentieth Dynasty by Jennifer Palmer, Birmingham Egyptologial Journal (2014), pp.7-9 ^ László Török, The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meriotic Civilization, Brill Academic Publishers 1997 ^ A. Niwiński, in: I. Gamer-Wallert & W. Helck (eds), Gegengabe (Festschrift Emma Brunner-Traut), Tübingen 1992, 257-258 ^ Ad Thijs, "I was thrown out from my city" -Fecht's views on Pap. Pushkin 127 in a new light, SAK 35 (2006), 323-324, this is a paragraph which erroneously got dropped from SAK 31 (2003), 299 ^ E. Wente, Letters from Ancient Egypt, Atlanta 1990, 171; the number 301 is only given to this letter in this particular publication ^ E. Wente, Late Ramesside Letters, SAOC 33, 1967, 53. ^ E. Wente, Late Ramesside Letters, SAOC 33, 1967, p.53 ^ Ad Thijs, The Troubled Careers of Amenhotep and Panehsy: The High Priest of Amun and the Viceroy of Kush under the Last Ramessides, SAK 31 (2003), 301-302 ^ Jennifer Palmer, Birmingham Egyptology Journal 2014.2, 10-11 ^ e.g. Jennifer Palmer, Birmingham Egyptology Journal 2014.2, 11 ^ E. Wente, Late Ramesside Letters, SAOC 33, 1967, 24, 25 ^ Karl Jansen-Winkeln, Das Ende des Neuen Reiches, ZAS 119 (1992), pp.22-37 ^ Ad Thijs, Once More, the Length of the Ramesside Renaissance, GM 240 (2014) pp.69-81 ^ Aidan Dodson, Afterglow of Empire, Egypt from the Fall of the New Kingdom to the Saite Renaissance, AUC Press 2012, p. 16, 19-21. ^ Annie Gasse, "Panakhemipet et ses complices (À propos du papyrus BM EA 10054, R° 2, 1–5)", JEA 87 (2001), pp.81-92 ^ Hornung, Krauss & Warburton, p.475 ^ Hornung, Krauss & Warburton, p.475 ^ Aidan Dodson, Afterglow of Empire, Egypt from the Fall of the New Kingdom to the Saite Renaissance, AUC Press 2012, p. 12. ^ Ad Thijs, Pap. Turin 2018, the journeys of the scribe Dhutmose and the career of the Chief Workman Bekenmut, GM 199 (2004), pp.79-88 ^ see this book review by David Aston in Egyptian Archaeology, February 2014 ^ Nicholas Reeves & Richard H. Wilkinson, The Complete Valley of the Kings, Thames & Hudson Ltd., 1996. p.173 ^ Reeves & Wilkinson, p.173 ^ Reeves & Nicholson, p.172 Further reading[edit] Darrell D. Baker, The Encyclopedia of the Egyptian Pharaohs, Volume I: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty (3300–1069 BC), Bannerstone Press, London 2008, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, S. 334–336. Christian Cannuyer, Encore la Date de l'accession au Thrône de Ramsès XI, GM 132 (1993), 19-20 Aidan Dodson, Afterglow of Empire, Egypt from the Fall of the New Kingdom to the Saite Renaissance, AUC Press 2012 Klaus Ohlhafer, Zum Thronbesteigungsdatum Ramses' XI. und zur Abfolge der Grabräuberpapyri aus Jahr 1 und 2 whm-mswt, GM 135 (1993), 59-72 Kim Ridealgh, A Tale of Semantics and Suppressions: Reinterpreting Papyrus Mayer A and the So-called 'War of the High Priest' during the Reign of Ramesses XI, SAK 43 (2014), 359-373 Ad Thijs, "Some observations on the Tomb-Robbery Papyri", in: A.I. Blöbaum, M. Eaton-Krauss, A. Wüthrich (eds), Pérégrinations avec Erhart Graefe, Festschrift zu seinem 75. Geburtstag (Ägypten und Altes Testament 87), 519-536 Edward Wente, The Suppression of the High Priest Amenhotep, JNES 25 (1966), 73-87 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ramses XI. Ramesses XI at Find a Grave v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control LCCN: n2006062207 VIAF: 33888420 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n2006062207 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ramesses_XI&oldid=977952305" Categories: Ramesses XI 12th-century BC Pharaohs 11th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt 12th-century BC births 1070s BC deaths 12th century BC in Egypt 11th century BC in Egypt 12th-century BC rulers 11th-century BC rulers Ramesses X Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools 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en-wikipedia-org-6017	----	Sobekemsaf I - Wikipedia Sobekemsaf I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sobekemsaf I Relief of Sekhemre Wadjkhaw Sobekemsaf at the Temple of karnak. Pharaoh Predecessor Rahotep Successor Sobekemsaf II Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sobekemsaf Sbk m s3=f Sobek is his protection Nomen Sekhemrewadjkhaw Sḫm-Rˁ-w3ḏ-ḫˁw Powerful Ra, whose apparitions are flourishing Horus name Hotep-netjeru Htp-nṯrw The peace of the gods Nebty name Asa-kheperu ˁš(3)-ḫprw The two ladies whose apparitions are numerous Golden Horus Bik nebu Ineqtawy bik nbw jnq-t3.w(j) The golden falcon who embraces the two lands Consort Nubemhat Children prince Sobekemsaf (future Sobekemsaf II), Sobekemheb Sekhemre Wadjkhaw Sobekemsaf I was a pharaoh of Egypt during the 17th Dynasty. He is attested by a series of inscriptions mentioning a mining expedition to the rock quarries at Wadi Hammamat in the Eastern Desert during his reign. One of the inscriptions is explicitly dated to his Year 7.[1] He also extensively restored and decorated the Temple of Monthu at Medamud where a fine relief of this king making an offering before the gods has survived.[2] Sobekemsaf I's son—similarly named Sobekemsaf after his father—is attested in Cairo Statue CG 386 from Abydos which depicts this young prince prominently standing between his father's legs in a way suggesting that he was his father's chosen successor.[3] Sobekemsaf's chief wife was Queen Nubemhat; she and their daughter (Sobekemheb) are known from a stela of Sobekemheb's husband, a Prince Ameni, who might have been a son of Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef or possibly Senakhtenre Ahmose.[4] The "burial equipment of Sobekemsaf W[adjkhaw] does not contain his prenomen, but can nevertheless be assigned with certainty to this king" since the tomb of Sobekemsaf Shedtawy "was thoroughly robbed in antiquity" by tomb robbers as recorded in Papyrus Abbott III 1-7.[5] On this basis, Kim Ryholt assigns a large heart-scarab, "which was, and indeed still is, set in a large gold mount" containing the name of 'Sobekemsaf' to Sekhemre Wadjkhau Sobekemsaf I here since the tomb robbers would not overlook such a large object on the mummy of the king if it came from Sobekemsaf II's tomb.[6] For much the same reason, a wooden canopic chest also bearing the name 'Sobekemsaf' on it has also been attributed to this king by Ryholt and Aidan Dodson. In contrast to the extensive damage that might have been expected had the chest been in the burned and looted tomb of Sobekemsaf II, "the damage suffered by Cat. 26 (i.e., Sobekemsaf I's chest) is minor, consistent with what it might have suffered at the hands of Qurnawi dealers."[7] Contents 1 Position within the 17th dynasty 1.1 After the Intef kings 1.2 Before the Intef kings 2 Polz's critique of Ryholt's view on Intefmose 3 References Position within the 17th dynasty[edit] After the Intef kings[edit] A red granite statue of Sekhemre Wadjkhaw Sobekemsaf (British Museum) [1]. Relief of Sobekemsaf I at the Temple of Monthu (Medamud). Aidan Dodson dates Sekhemre Wadjkhaw Sobekemsaf's reign after those of Djehuti and Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef. First he remarks that Sobekemsaf's canopic chest is slightly larger—4.1 cm longer and 3.4 cm higher—than the canopic chests belonging to the latter two kings. He also points to the fact that the inscriptions on Sekhemre Wadjkhaw Sobekemsaf's box were "written vertically, rather than in the horizontal arrangement found on those of Djehuti and Sekhemre Wepmaet [Intef]."[8] The Danish Egyptologist Kim Ryholt similarly dated Sobekemsaf I's reign after those of Sekhmre-Wepmaat Intef and Nubkheperre Intef. First, he remarked that a "king's son Antefmose" (or Intefmose) is praised by a king Sobekemsaf for his role during a festival of Sokar on statuette BM EA 13329.[9][10][11] But according to Ryholt "in any case the name Antefmose is basilophorous" and so the king Sobekemsaf who praised him must have been a successor" of the Intef kings, "to one of whom the name (Antefmose) refers."[12] Furthermore, since Sekhemre Wadjkhaw Sobekemsaf I's son and presumable successor was also named Sobekemsaf rather than Intef, Ryholt concluded that this king must have ruled after the Intef kings.[13] Secondly, Ryholt suggested that Sobekemsaf Wadjkaw ruled after Nubkheperre Intef because while the former ruler carried out extensive restoration works at the temple of Monthu at Medamud, "there is no trace" of Nubkheperre Intef there. For Ryholt, this "may suggest that this temple was restored and put into service again only after Sekhemre Wadjkhaw Sobekemsaf reign".[14] Consequently, Ryholt concluded that Sekhemre Wadjkhaw Sobekemsaf ruled after Nubkheperre Intef and should be numbered as Sobekemsaf II. Before the Intef kings[edit] At the opposite end, Daniel Polz, who rediscovered Nubkheperre Intef's tomb at Dra Abu el Naga' in 2001, argues that Nubkheperre Intef ruled very late in the 17th dynasty. This means that Sekhemre Wadjkhaw Sobekemsaf could not have reigned between the Intef line of kings and the final three 17th dynasty Ahmoside family of kings (Senakhtenre, Seqenenre and Kamose). From inscriptions found on a doorjamb discovered in the remains of a 17th Dynasty temple at Gebel Antef on the Luxor-Farshut road, it is known today that Nubkheperre Intef and, by implication, his brother and immediate predecessor on the throne —Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef— were sons of one of the two Sobekemsaf kings. This king was most likely Sekhemre Shedtawy Sobekemsaf II since Sekhemre Wadjkhaw Sobekemsaf's son was also named Sobekemsaf.[15] Ryholt's interpretation of the lineage here has also been accepted by the British Egyptologist Aidan Dodson.[16] Polz also accepts this view but he placed Nubkheperre Intef just prior to the three final Ahmoside kings of the 17th dynasty in his 2003 book.[17] Since then, he has inserted Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef as a short-lived successor of Nubkheperre before Senakhtenre but his hypothesis remains essentially the same:[18] Polz maintains that Sekemre Wadjkhaw Sobekemsaf I was the father of Sekhemre Shedtawy Sobekemsaf. Indeed, this king's son is known from the statue at Abydos to have also held the name Sobekemsaf and is designated as this king's successor on the same statue.[19] Polz states that this is the most plausible reconstruction of the relationship between the two kings with the name Sobekemsaf in the 17th dynasty.[20] Hence, Sekhemre Shedtawy Sobekemsaf would be Sobekemsaf II —Sobekemsaf I's son and successor— while Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef and Nubkheperre Intef would be grandsons of Sekhemre Wadjkhaw Sobekemsaf I. This ultimately implies that Sekhemre Wadjkhaw Sobekemsaf ruled early in the 17th dynasty, before the Intef kings and that he must be numbered Sobekemsaf I. Polz's hypothesis and placement of Nubkheperre Intef as one of the last kings in the Sobekemsaf-Intef family line is also supported "by the evidence of the box of Minemhat, who was governor of Coptos" in Year 3 of Nubkheperre Intef.[21] This box "was part of the funerary equipment of an Hornakht (formerly known as 'Aqhor' in the past literature) who lived under Seqenenre."[22] While no one knows precisely when Hornakht died, the fact that his funerary equipment contained a box which belonged to Minemhat suggests that Nubkheperre Intef and Seqenenre Tao ruled closely in time and that their reigns should not be separated by the intrusion of various other long lived kings of the 17th dynasty such as Sekhemre Wajdkhaw Sobekemsaf I who is attested by a Year 7 inscription. As the late Middle Kingdom German Egyptologist Detlef Franke (1952–2007) succinctly wrote in a journal article which was published in 2008—a year after his death: Contrary to Ryholt, I see no place for a king Sobekemsaf who ruled after Nubkheperra Antef. Nubkheperra Antef (c.1560 BC) is the best attested (from Abydos to Edfu, e.g. BM 631, EA 1645, coffin 6652) and [the] most important of the three Antefs.[23] In addition, Polz argued that Ryholt's rejection of the evidence in Cairo Statue CG 386—which named king Sekhemre Wadjkhaw Sobekemsaf's son as another Sobekemsaf—in not giving any indication of the sequence of the known 17th dynasty Theban rulers is untenable.[24] While Ryholt acknowledges in his 1997 book on the Second Intermediate Period that Anthony Spalinger suggested the prince Sobekemsaf who is attested in "a statue from Abydos (Cairo CG 386)" and "has the additional title of prophet, may be identical with Sobkemsaf II Sekhemreshedtawy",[25] Ryholt simply writes that: this identification is not possible with the [i.e., my] present arrangement of the two Sobkemsaf kings according to which one Sobkemsaf, Sekhemreshedtawy, ruled before to the Antef group [of kings] and the other, Sekhemrewadjkhaw, after them.[26] Polz notes that although Sekhemre Wadjkhaw Sobekemsaf ruled in a time during the Second Intermediate Period when few documentary sources exist, one cannot simply accept Ryholt's theory that Sekhemre Wadjkhaw Sobekemsaf I's son and designated successor did not succeed his own father as the next king merely because Ryholt's hypothesis did not allow another Sobekemsaf to follow Sekhemre Wadjkhaw Sobekemsaf on the throne due to his theory of the succession of 17th dynasty kings as being: Sekhemre-Shedtawy Sobekemsaf->Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef->Nubkheperre Intef->Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef->Sekhemre Wadjkhaw Sobekemsaf->Senakhtenre->etc.[27][28] Indeed, Polz stresses rather that it is more logical to view Sekhemre Wadjkhaw Sobekemsaf I as a predecessor of the Intef line of kings instead; his known son, the Prince Sobekemsaf on Cairo Statue CG 386, would then be the future king Sekhemre Shedtawy Sobekemsaf II and father of two of the three Intef kings: Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef and Nubkheperre Intef based on a doorjamb found on the Luxor-Farsut road in 1992-93[29] (the doorjamb mentions a king Sobekem[saf] as the father of Nubkheperre Intef--[Nubkheperre] Antef/[Intef] begotten of Sobekem...—but this king must be king Sobekemsaf II since Sobekemsaf Wadjkhaw Sobekemsaf's son was named Sobekemsaf based on Cairo Statue CG 386).[30] Statue of Sobekemsaf I, Cairo Museum.[31] Polz's critique of Ryholt's view on Intefmose[edit] Daniel Polz also rejected Ryholt's arguments that the praise which a certain king Sobekemsaf lavished onto a king's son named Antefmose or Intefmose on statuette BM EA 13329 has any chronological implications regarding the temporal position of this king after the Intef kings. Polz writes that Ryholt's so-called Point 3: is implicitly assuming that persons with the name Intef formed on the name of two (or three) kings of that name at the time of the 17th Dynasty can be related, yet [this] completely ignores the fact that these kings themselves chose their own names in conscious style of the same kings of the early 11th dynasty - including even assuming additional names such as ("the Great") as [in the case of] Wep-maat Intef. Ryholt's argument on this point do not make sense. Even if one assumes that the prince [named Intefmose] followed one of the Intef 17th Dynasty kings and he was hence a contemporary of the successor of this [Intef] ruler, [this is] but an interpretation that the Prince was honoured at the statue of a ruling king Sobekemsaf - only then would Ryholt's argument with regards to the 17th Dynasty ruler sequence prove meaningful. In contrast, if the [Intefmose] statuette and, therefore, the Prince was chronologically younger than the Intef-kings, and a successor of king Sobekemsaf was recognized, a worship of the prince by a king Sobekemsaf says nothing about the temporal position of the latter [pharaoh] and thus [of] the succession of the [17th dynasty] rulers of that time.[32] References[edit] ^ Kim S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c.1800-1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications," vol.20. (Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997) ISBN 87-7289-421-0, p.174 ^ Ryholt, p.170 ^ Ryholt, p.272 ^ Dodson, Aidan & Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05128-3 (2004), p.119 ^ Ryholt, p.167 ^ Ryholt, pp.168-169 ^ Aidan Dodson, The Canopic Equipment of the Kings of Egypt, (Kegan Paul Intl: 1994), p.41 ^ Dodson, The Canopic Equipment, p.40 ^ The statuette at the British Museum ^ Pascal Vernus, Le surnom au Moyen Empire: répertoire, procédés d'expression et structures de la double identité du début de la XIIe dynastie à la fin de la XVIIe dynastie, Biblical Institute Press, 1986. 16 [67] ^ Ryholt, p.170 ^ Ryholt, p.170 ^ Ryholt, p.170 ^ Ryholt, p.170 ^ K.S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800-1550 BC, (Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications), vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, p.270 ^ Aidan Dodson, University of Bristol November 1998 book review of K.S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800-1550 BC (Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, with an Appendix by Adam Bulow-Jacobsen vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, in Bibliotheca Orientalis LVII No 1/2, January–April 2000, p.51 ^ D. Polz & A. Seiler, Die Pyramidenanlage des Königs Nub-Chep-Re Intef in Dra' Abu el-Naga. Ein Vorbericht (Mainz: DAIKS 24, 2003) ^ Daniel Polz, Der Beginn des Neuen Reiches. Zur Vorgeschichte einer Zeitenwende. Sonderschriften des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo, 31. Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2007. pp.25-34 & 50 ^ Daniel Polz, Der Beginn des Neuen Reiches, p.50 ^ Daniel Polz, Der Beginn des Neuen Reiches, p.50 ^ see the Coptos Decree ^ Herbert Winlock, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 10 (1924) 258 with n.1 & Thomas Schneider, "The Relative Chronology of the Middle Kingdom and the Hyksos Period (Dyns. 12-17)" in Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss & David Warburton (editors), Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies), Brill, 2006. p.187 ^ Detlef Franke, The Late Middle Kingdom (Thirteenth to Seveenth Dynasties): The Chronological Framework, Journal of Egyptian History, Vol.1 No.2 (2008) Koninklijke Brill, p.279 ^ Polz, Der Beginn des Neuen Reiches, p.49 ^ Anthony Spalinger, LÄ, V, 1032. ^ Ryholt, p.272 ^ Polz, Der Beginn des Neuen Reiches, p.50 ^ Ryholt, pp.170-171 & 272 ^ Polz, Der Beginn des Neuen Reiches, pp.34-38 & 48-50 ^ mentioned by Ryholt, pp.266-270 394 File 17/4.6 & p.270 ^ Statue of Sobekemsaf I n. 386, description and translation of the inscriptions p. 5-6. ^ translated from: Polz, Der Beginn des Neuen Reiches, p.49 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sobekemsaf I. Preceded by Rahotep Pharaoh of Egypt Seventeenth Dynasty Succeeded by Sobekemsaf II v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sobekemsaf_I&oldid=1002509972" Categories: 16th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ Català Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Italiano ქართული مصرى 日本語 Polski Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 19:53 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6019	----	Tenth Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Tenth Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Tenth Dynasty of Egypt ca. 2130 BC–ca. 2040 BC Inscription on the tomb Khety II, nomarch of Pharaoh Merykare, Mariette Capital Herakleopolis Magna Common languages Egyptian language Religion ancient Egyptian religion Government Absolute monarchy Historical era Bronze Age • Established ca. 2130 BC • Disestablished ca. 2040 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The Tenth Dynasty of ancient Egypt (Dynasty X) is often combined with the 7th, 8th, 9th and early 11th Dynasties under the group title First Intermediate Period.[1] Rulers[edit] The 9th Dynasty was founded at Herakleopolis Magna, and the 10th Dynasty continued there. At this time Egypt was not unified, and there is some overlap between these and other local dynasties. The Turin Canon lists eighteen kings for this royal line, but their names are damaged, unidentifiable, or lost.[2] The following is a possible list of rulers of the Tenth Dynasty based on the Turin Canon, as Egyptologists have differing opinions about the order of succession within the two dynasties. Among them, only Wahkare Khety and Merykare are undoubtedly attested by archaeological finds: Tenth Dynasty (according to Hayes) (c. 2130 – 2040 BC)[3] Name Image Comments Meryhathor(?) Existence doubtful, known from a damaged graffito at Hatnub Neferkare VIII Might be the Kaneferre mentioned in the tomb of the nomarch Ankhtifi Wahkare Khety III Possibly the purported author of the Teaching for King Merykare Merykare Main opponent of the Theban pharaoh Mentuhotep II [name lost] An ephemeral ("x months") successor of Merykare Wikimedia Commons has media related to 10th dynasty of Egypt. References[edit] ^ Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. p. 480. ISBN 0-19-815034-2. ^ Sir Alan Gardiner, Egypt of the Pharaohs, Oxford University Press, 1961, pp. 112-13. ^ William C. Hayes, in The Cambridge Ancient History, vol 1, part 2, 1971 (2008), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-077915, p. 996. Preceded by Ninth Dynasty Dynasty of Egypt c. 2130 – 2040 BC Succeeded by Eleventh Dynasty This article about Egyptology or subjects relating to Ancient Egypt is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=981095190" Categories: Tenth Dynasty of Egypt States and territories established in the 3rd millennium BC States and territories disestablished in the 3rd millennium BC Dynasties of ancient Egypt 3rd millennium BC in Egypt 21st century BC in Egypt 3rd-millennium BC establishments in Egypt 3rd-millennium BC disestablishments in Egypt Ancient Egypt stubs Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ქართული Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски தமிழ் Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 30 September 2020, at 07:42 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6032	----	Category:Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is for articles with NKC identifiers. Please do not add subcategories. For more information, see Wikipedia:Authority control. Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. They are not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. 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en-wikipedia-org-6033	----	Arsinoe III of Egypt - Wikipedia Arsinoe III of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Arsinoe III Philopator) Jump to navigation Jump to search For other Arsinoes, see Arsinoe (disambiguation). Queen of Egypt Arsinoe III Thea Philopator Queen of Egypt Born c. 246–245 BC Died 204 BC Spouse Ptolemy IV Issue Ptolemy V Epiphanes Full name Arsinoe III Thea Philopator Dynasty Ptolemaic Father Ptolemy III Mother Berenice II Arsinoe III Philopator (Ancient Greek: Ἀρσινόη ἡ Φιλοπάτωρ, which means "Arsinoe the father-loving", 246 or 245 BC – 204 BC) was Queen of Egypt in 220 – 204 BC. She was a daughter of Ptolemy III and Berenice II.[1] She was the first Ptolemaic queen to bear her own brother's child. Arsinoe and her spouse Ptolemy IV were loved and well respected by the Egyptian public.[2] Contents 1 Life 2 Issue 3 Legacy 4 References Life[edit] Between late October and early November 220 BC she was married to her younger brother, Ptolemy IV. She took active part in the government of the country, at least in the measure that it was tolerated by the all-powerful minister Sosibius. In 217 BC, she accompanied Ptolemy IV along with 55,000 troops at the Battle of Raphia in Palestine against Antiochus the Great with 68,000 troops.[3] Arsinoe may have commanded a section of the infantry phalanx.[3] Both sides employed cavalry, elephants, and specialized troops such as archers, as well as traditional Macedonian phalanx.[3] When the battle went poorly, she appeared before the troops and exhorted them to fight to defend their families. She also promised two minas of gold to each of them if they won the battle, which they did.[4] In summer, 204 BC, Ptolemy IV died. His two leading favorites, Agathocles and Sosibius, fearing that Arsinoe would secure the regency, had her murdered in a palace coup[5] before she heard of her husband's death, thereby securing the regency for themselves. Issue[edit] Ptolemy V Legacy[edit] Eratosthenes wrote a manuscript called the Arsinoe, which is lost, the subject being a memoir of the queen. It is quoted by many ancient scholars.[6] References[edit] ^ Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004. ISBN 0-500-05128-3. ^ Tyldesley, Joyce (2006). Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt: From Early Dynastic Times to the Death of Cleopatra. London, UK: Thames & Huson Ltd. pp. 194. ISBN 0500051453. ^ a b c Pennington, Reina (2003). Amazons to Fighter Pilots: A Biographical Dictionary of Military Women. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. p. 25. ISBN 0313327076. ^ Meyers, Carol; Craven, Tony; Kraemer, Ross S., eds. (2000). Women in Scripture: A Dictionary of Named and Unnamed Women in the Hebrew Bible, the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books, and the New Testament. New York: Houghton Mifflin. p. 397. ISBN 0-395-70936-9. ^ Arsinoe III Archived July 16, 2011, at the Wayback Machine by Chris Bennett ^ Alexander the Great. “Arsinoe III.” Macedonian People | Arsinoe III, Alexander the Great, www.alexander-the-great.org/people/arsinoe-III.php. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Queens of Ancient Egypt Early Dynastic Period to First Intermediate Period  (3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Neithhotep Benerib Khenthap Herneith Nakhtneith Penebui Merneith Seshemetka Semat Serethor Betrest II Nimaathap Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Hetephernebti Djeseretnebti Djefatnebti Meresankh I IV Hetepheres I Meritites I Henutsen Khentetka Meresankh II Hetepheres II Meresankh III Khamerernebty I Persenet Hekenuhedjet Khamerernebty II Rekhetre Bunefer V Khentkaus I Neferhetepes Meretnebty Khentkaus II Khentkaus III Reptynub Khuit I Meresankh IV Setibhor Nebet Khenut VI Iput I Khuit II Ankhesenpepi I Ankhesenpepi II Nubwenet Meritites IV Inenek-Inti Nedjeftet Neith Iput II Udjebten Ankhesenpepi III Ankhesenpepi IV Nitocris Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Neferu I Neferukayet Iah Tem Neferu II Ashayet Henhenet Sadeh Kawit Kemsit XII Neferitatjenen Neferu III Keminub Khenemetneferhedjet I Nofret II Itaweret Khenmet Sithathoriunet Khenemetneferhedjet II Neferthenut Meretseger Aat Khenemetneferhedjet III Sobekneferu 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Nofret Nubhetepti Senebhenas Neni Tjan Ineni Nubkhaes Aya XIV Tati XVI Mentuhotep XVII Nubemhat Sobekemsaf Haankhes Tetisheri Ahhotep I Ahmose Inhapy Sitdjehuti Ahhotep II New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose-Nefertari Ahmose-Sitkamose Ahmose-Henuttamehu Ahmose-Meritamun Ahmose Mutnofret Hatshepsut Iset Satiah Merytre-Hatshepsut Nebtu Menhet, Menwi and Merti Nebsemi Tiaa Nefertari Iaret Mutemwiya Tiye Gilukhipa Sitamun Iset Tadukhipa / Kiya Nefertiti Meritaten Neferneferuaten Ankhesenamun Tey Mutnedjmet Nebetnehat XIX Sitre Tuya Tanedjemet Nefertari Isetnofret Henutmire Maathorneferure Meritamen Bintanath Nebettawy Merytre Isetnofret II Takhat Twosret Tiaa XX Tiy-Merenese Iset Ta-Hemdjert Tyti Tiye Duatentopet Henutwati Tawerettenru Nubkhesbed Baketwernel Tentamun 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Tentamun Mutnedjmet Karimala XXII Karomama Patareshnes Maatkare Tashedkhonsu Nesitaudjatakhet Nesitanebetashru Kapes Karomama I Tadibast III XXIII Karomama II XXV Pebatjma Tabiry Abar Khensa Peksater Arty Qalhata Tabekenamun Takahatenamun Naparaye Atakhebasken Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Mehytenweskhet Khedebneithirbinet I Takhuit Tentkheta Nakhtubasterau Ladice XXVII Atossa Artystone Parmys Amestris Damaspia Parysatis XXXI Stateira I Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Roxana Stateira II Parysatis II Eurydice II of Macedon Ptolemaic Eurydice Berenice I Arsinoe I Arsinoe II Berenice II Arsinoe III Cleopatra I Cleopatra II Cleopatra III Cleopatra IV Cleopatra Selene Berenice III Cleopatra V Cleopatra VI Berenice IV Cleopatra VII Arsinoe IV Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic Authority control GND: 137885172 VIAF: 86055773 WorldCat Identities: viaf-86055773 This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arsinoe_III_of_Egypt&oldid=988869996" Categories: 204 BC deaths 240s BC births 3rd-century BC Pharaohs 3rd-century BC women rulers 3rd-century BC Greek people 3rd-century BC Macedonians Ancient Egyptian women in warfare Queens consort of the Ptolemaic dynasty Women in Hellenistic warfare 3rd-century BC Egyptian people Female pharaohs 3rd-century BC Egyptian women Ancient Egypt people stubs Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Беларуская Български Català Чӑвашла Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский සිංහල Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 15 November 2020, at 19:16 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6046	----	Book of Esther - Wikipedia Book of Esther From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the 2013 film, see The Book of Esther (film). Book of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament A 13th/14th-century scroll of the Book of Esther from Fez, Morocco, held at the Musée du quai Branly in Paris. Traditionally, a scroll of Esther is given only one roller, fixed to its lefthand side, rather than the customary two.[1] Tanakh (Judaism) Torah  (Instruction) Genesis Bereshit Exodus Shemot Leviticus Wayiqra Numbers Bemidbar Deuteronomy Devarim Nevi'im  (Prophets) Former Joshua Yehoshua Judges Shofetim Samuel Shemuel Kings Melakhim Latter Isaiah Yeshayahu Jeremiah Yirmeyahu Ezekiel Yekhezqel Minor Hosea Joel Amos Obadiah Jonah Micah Nahum Habakkuk Zephaniah Haggai Zechariah Malachi Ketuvim  (Writings) Poetic Psalms Tehillim Proverbs Mishlei Job Iyov Five Megillot (Scrolls) Song of Songs Shir Hashirim Ruth Rut Lamentations Eikhah Ecclesiastes Qohelet Esther Ester Historical Daniel Daniyyel Ezra–Nehemiah Ezra Chronicles Divre Hayyamim Old Testament (Christianity) Pentateuch Genesis Exodus Leviticus Numbers Deuteronomy Historical Joshua Judges Ruth 1 and 2 Samuel 1 and 2 Kings 1 and 2 Chronicles Ezra Nehemiah Esther Wisdom Job Psalms Proverbs Ecclesiastes Song of Songs Prophetic Major prophets Isaiah Jeremiah Lamentations Ezekiel Daniel Minor prophets Hosea Joel Amos Obadiah Jonah Micah Nahum Habakkuk Zephaniah Haggai Zechariah Malachi Deuterocanonical Tobit Judith Additions to Esther 1 Maccabees 2 Maccabees Wisdom of Solomon Sirach Baruch / Letter of Jeremiah Additions to Daniel Orthodox only 1 Esdras 2 Esdras Prayer of Manasseh Psalm 151 3 Maccabees 4 Maccabees Odes Orthodox Tewahedo 1 Enoch Jubilees 1, 2, and 3 Meqabyan Paralipomena of Baruch Broader canon Bible portal v t e The Book of Esther (hebrew: מְגִלַּת אֶסְתֵּר, Megillat Esther), also known in Hebrew as "the Scroll" (Megillah), is a book in the third section (Ketuvim, "Writings") of the Jewish Tanakh (the Hebrew Bible). It is one of the five Scrolls (Megillot) in the Hebrew Bible and later became part of the Christian Greek Old Testament. The book relates the story of a Hebrew woman in Persia, born as Hadassah but known as Esther, who becomes queen of Persia and thwarts a genocide of her people. The story forms the core of the Jewish festival of Purim, during which it is read aloud twice: once in the evening and again the following morning. The books of Esther and Song of Songs are the only books in the Hebrew Bible that do not mention God.[2] Contents 1 Setting and structure 1.1 Setting 1.2 Structure 2 Summary 3 Authorship and date 4 Historicity 5 Historical reading 6 Interpretation 7 Additions to Esther 8 Modern retelling 9 Notes 10 References 10.1 Citations 10.2 Sources 11 External links 11.1 Text and translations 11.2 Physical relics Setting and structure[edit] Setting[edit] The biblical Book of Esther is set in the Persian capital of Susa (Shushan) in the third year of the reign of the Persian king Ahasuerus. The name Ahasuerus is equivalent to Xerxes[3] (both deriving from the Persian Khshayārsha),[4] and Ahasuerus is usually identified in modern sources as Xerxes I,[5][6] who ruled between 486 and 465 BC,[3] as it is to this monarch that the events described in Esther are thought to fit the most closely.[4][7] Assuming that Ahasuerus is indeed Xerxes I, the events described in Esther began around the years 483–82 BC, and concluded in March 473 BC. Classical sources such as Josephus, the Jewish commentary Esther Rabbah and the Christian theologian Bar-Hebraeus,[8] as well as the Greek Septuagint translation of Esther, instead identify Ahasuerus as either Artaxerxes I (reigned 465 to 424 BC) or Artaxerxes II (reigned 404 to 358 BC).[8] On his accession, however, Artaxerxes II lost Egypt to pharaoh Amyrtaeus, after which it was no longer part of the Persian empire. In his Historia Scholastica Petrus Comestor identified Ahasuerus (Esther 1:1) as Artaxerxes III (358–38 BC) who reconquered Egypt.[9] Structure[edit] The Book of Esther consists of an introduction (or exposition) in chapters 1 and 2; the main action (complication and resolution) in chapters 3 to 9:19; and a conclusion in 9:20–10:3.[10] The plot is structured around banquets (mishteh), a word that occurs twenty times in Esther and only 24 times in the rest of the Hebrew bible. This is appropriate given that Esther describes the origin of a Jewish feast, the feast of Purim, but Purim itself is not the subject and no individual feast in the book is commemorated by Purim. The book's theme, rather, is the reversal of destiny through a sudden and unexpected turn of events: the Jews seem destined to be destroyed, but instead are saved. In literary criticism such a reversal is termed "peripety", and while on one level its use in Esther is simply a literary or aesthetic device, on another it is structural to the author's theme, suggesting that the power of God is at work behind human events.[11] Summary[edit] King Ahasuerus, ruler of the Persian Empire, holds a lavish 180-day banquet, initially for his court and dignitaries and afterwards a seven-day banquet for all inhabitants of the capital city, Shushan (Esther 1:1–9). On the seventh day of the latter banquet, Ahasuerus orders the queen, Vashti, to display her beauty before the guests by coming before them wearing her crown (1:10–11). She refuses, infuriating Ahasuerus, who on the advice of his counselors removes her from her position as an example to other women who might be emboldened to disobey their husbands (1:12–19). A decree follows that "every man should bear rule in his own house" (1:20–22). Esther is crowned in this 1860 woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld Ahasuerus then makes arrangements to choose a new queen from a selection of beautiful young women from throughout the empire (2:1–4). Among these women is a Jewish orphan named Esther, who was raised by her cousin or uncle, Mordecai (2:5–7). She finds favour in the King's eyes, and is crowned his new queen, but does not reveal her Jewish heritage (2:8–20). Shortly afterwards, Mordecai discovers a plot by two courtiers, Bigthan and Teresh, to assassinate Ahasuerus. The conspirators are apprehended and hanged, and Mordecai's service to the King is recorded (2:21–23). Ahasuerus appoints Haman as his viceroy (3:1). Mordecai, who sits at the palace gates, falls into Haman's disfavour, as he refuses to bow down to him (3:2–5). Haman discovers that Mordecai refused to bow on account of his Jewishness, and in revenge plots to kill not just Mordecai, but all the Jews in the empire (3:6). He obtains Ahasuerus' permission to execute this plan, against payment of ten thousand talents of silver, and casts lots ("purim") to choose the date on which to do this – the thirteenth of the month of Adar (3:7–12). A royal decree is issued throughout the kingdom to slay all Jews on that date. (3:13–15). When Mordecai discovers the plan, he goes into mourning and implores Esther to intercede with the King (4:1–5). But she is afraid to present herself to the King unsummoned, an offense punishable by death (4:6–12). Instead, she directs Mordecai to have all Jews fast for three days for her, and vows to fast as well (4:15–16.). On the third day she goes to Ahasuerus, who stretches out his sceptre to her to indicate that she is not to be punished (5:1–2). She invites him to a feast in the company of Haman (5:3–5). During the feast, she asks them to attend a further feast the next evening (5:6–8). Meanwhile, Haman is again offended by Mordecai and, at his wife's suggestion, has a gallows built to hang him (5:9–14). That night, Ahasuerus cannot sleep, and orders the court records be read to him (6:1). He is reminded that Mordecai interceded in the previous plot against his life, and discovers that Mordecai never received any recognition (6:2–3). Just then, Haman appears to request the King's permission to hang Mordecai, but before he can make this request, Ahasuerus asks Haman what should be done for the man that the King wishes to honor (6:4–6). Assuming that the King is referring to Haman himself, Haman suggests that the man be dressed in the King's royal robes, and crown and led around on the King's royal horse, while a herald calls: "See how the King honours a man he wishes to reward!" (6:7–9). To his surprise and horror, the King instructs Haman to do so to Mordecai (6:10–11). Mordecai is honored in this 1860 woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld. Immediately after, Ahasuerus and Haman attend Esther's second banquet. The King promises to grant her any request, and she reveals that she is Jewish and that Haman is planning to exterminate her people, including her (7:1–6). Overcome by rage, Ahasuerus leaves the room; meanwhile Haman stays behind and begs Esther for his life, falling upon her in desperation (7:7). The King returns in at this very moment and thinks Haman is assaulting the queen; this makes him angrier and he orders Haman hanged on the very gallows that Haman had prepared for Mordecai (7:8–10). Unable to annul a formal royal decree, the King instead adds to it, permitting the Jews to join together and destroy any and all of those seeking to kill them[12][13] (8:1–14). On 13 Adar, Haman's ten sons and 500 other men are killed in Shushan (9:1–12). Upon hearing of this Esther requests it be repeated the next day, whereupon 300 more men are killed (9:13–15). Over 75,000 people are slaughtered by the Jews, who are careful to take no plunder (9:16–17). Mordecai and Esther send letters throughout the provinces instituting an annual commemoration of the Jewish people's redemption, in a holiday called Purim (lots) (9:20–28). Ahasuerus remains very powerful and continues his reign, with Mordecai assuming a prominent position in his court (10:1–3). Authorship and date[edit] Scroll of Esther (Megillah) The Megillat Esther (Book of Esther) became the last of the 24 books of the Tanakh to be canonized by the Sages of the Great Assembly. According to the Talmud, it was a redaction by the Great Assembly of an original text by Mordecai.[14] It is usually dated to the 4th century BC.[15][16] Shemaryahu Talmon, however, suggests that "the traditional setting of the book in the days of Xerxes I cannot be wide off the mark."[17] The Greek book of Esther, included in the Septuagint, is a retelling of the events of the Hebrew Book of Esther rather than a translation and records additional traditions which do not appear in the traditional Hebrew version, in particular the identification of Ahasuerus with Artaxerxes and details of various letters. It is dated around the late 2nd to early 1st century BC.[18][19] The Coptic and Ethiopic versions of Esther are translations of the Greek rather than the Hebrew Esther. A Latin version of Esther was produced by Jerome for the Vulgate. It translates the Hebrew Esther but interpolates translations of the Greek Esther where the latter provides additional material. Several Aramaic targums of Esther were produced in the Middle Ages of which two survive – the Targum Rishon ("First Targum") and Targum Sheni ("Second Targum")[20][21] dated c. 500–1000 AD.[22] These were not targums ("translations") in the true sense but like the Greek Esther are retellings of events and include additional legends relating to Purim.[20] There is also a 16th-century recension of the Targum Rishon, sometimes counted as Targum Shelishi ("Third Targum").[21] Historicity[edit] The opening chapter of a hand-written scroll of the Book of Esther, with reader's pointer The apparent historical difficulties, the internal inconsistencies, the pronounced symmetry of themes and events, the plenitude of quoted dialogue, and the gross exaggeration in the reporting of numbers (involving time, money, and people) all point to Esther as a work of fiction, its vivid characters (except for Xerxes) being the product of the author's creative imagination.[23] There is no reference to known historical events in the story; a general consensus, though this consensus has been challenged,[24][25] has maintained that the narrative of Esther was invented in order to provide an aetiology for Purim, and the name Ahasuerus is usually understood to refer to a fictionalized Xerxes I, who ruled the Achaemenid Empire between 486 and 465 BCE.[26] According to some sources, it is a historical novella, written to explain the origin of the Jewish holiday of Purim.[27][28] As noted by biblical scholar Michael D. Coogan, the book contains specific details regarding certain subject matter (for example, Persian rule) which are historically inaccurate. For example, Coogan discusses an apparent inaccuracy regarding the age of Esther's cousin (or, according to others, uncle) Mordecai.[27][28] In Esther 2:5–6, either Mordecai or his great-grandfather Kish is identified as having been exiled from Jerusalem to Babylon by King Nebuchadnezzar II in 597 BC: "Mordecai son of Jair, the son of Shimei, the son of Kish, who had been carried into exile from Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, among those taken captive with Jeconiah king of Judah". If this refers to Mordecai, he would have had to live over a century to have witnessed the events described in the Book of Esther.[27] However, the verse may be read as referring not to Mordecai's exile to Babylon, but to his great-grandfather Kish's exile.[29][30][31] In her article "The Book of Esther and Ancient Storytelling", biblical scholar Adele Berlin discusses the reasoning behind scholarly concern about the historicity of Esther. Much of this debate relates to the importance of distinguishing history and fiction within biblical texts, as Berlin argues, in order to gain a more accurate understanding of the history of the Israelite people.[32] Berlin quotes a series of scholars who suggest that the author of Esther did not mean for the book to be considered as a historical writing, but intentionally wrote it to be a historical novella.[33] The genre of novellas under which Esther falls was common during both the Persian and Hellenistic periods to which scholars have dated the book of Esther.[27][32] There are certain elements of the book of Esther that are historically accurate. The story told in the book of Esther takes place during the rule of Ahasuerus, who amongst others has been identified as the 5th-century Persian king Xerxes I (reigned 486–465 BC).[6] The author also displays an accurate knowledge of Persian customs and palaces.[30] However, according to Coogan, considerable historical inaccuracies remain throughout the text, supporting the view that the book of Esther is to be read as a historical novella which tells a story describing historical events but is not necessarily historical fact.[27] Edwin M. Yamauchi has questioned the reliability of other historical sources, such as Herodotus, to which Esther has been compared. Yamauchi wrote, "[Herodotus] was, however, the victim of unreliable informants and was not infallible."[34] The reason for questioning the historical accuracy of such ancient writers as Herodotus is that he is one of the primary sources of knowledge for this time period, and it has been frequently assumed that his account may be more accurate than Esther's account. Historical reading[edit] The Feast of Esther (Feest van Esther, 1625) by Jan Lievens, North Carolina Museum of Art. Those arguing in favour of a historical reading of Esther most commonly identify Ahasuerus with Xerxes I (ruled 486–465 BC),[6] although in the past it was often assumed that he was Artaxerxes II (ruled 405–359 BC). The Hebrew Ahasuerus (ʔaḥašwērōš) is most likely derived from Persian Xšayārša, the origin of the Greek Xerxes. The Greek historian Herodotus wrote that Xerxes sought his harem after being defeated in the Greco-Persian Wars. He makes no reference to individual members of the harem except for a domineering Queen consort named Amestris, whose father, Otanes, was one of Xerxes's generals. (In contrast, the Greek historian Ctesias refers to a similar father-in-law/general figure named Onaphas.) Amestris has often been identified with Vashti, but this identification is problematic, as Amestris remained a powerful figure well into the reign of her son, Artaxerxes I, whereas Vashti is portrayed as dismissed in the early part of Xerxes's reign.[citation needed] Alternative attempts have been made to identify her with Esther, although Esther is an orphan whose father was a Jew named Abihail. As for the identity of Mordecai, the similar names Marduka and Marduku have been found as the name of officials in the Persian court in over thirty texts from the period of Xerxes I and his father Darius I, and may refer to up to four individuals, one of whom might be the model for the biblical Mordecai. The "Old Greek" Septuagint version of Esther translates the name Ahasuerus as Artaxerxes,[35] a Greek name derived from the Persian Artaxšaϑra. Josephus too relates that this was the name by which he was known to the Greeks, and the Midrashic text Esther Rabba also makes the identification. Bar-Hebraeus identified Ahasuerus explicitly as Artaxerxes II; however, the names are not necessarily equivalent: Hebrew has a form of the name Artaxerxes distinct from Ahasuerus, and a direct Greek rendering of Ahasuerus is used by both Josephus and the Septuagint for occurrences of the name outside the Book of Esther. Instead, the Hebrew name Ahasuerus accords with an inscription of the time that notes that Artaxerxes II was named also Aršu, understood as a shortening of Aḫšiyaršu the Babylonian rendering of the Persian Xšayārša (Xerxes), through which the Hebrew ʔaḥašwērōš (Ahasuerus) is derived.[36] Ctesias related that Artaxerxes II was also called Arsicas which is understood as a similar shortening with the Persian suffix -ke that is applied to shortened names. Deinon related that Artaxerxes II was also called Oarses which is also understood to be derived from Xšayārša.[36] Another view attempts to identify him instead with Artaxerxes I (ruled 465–424 BC), whose Babylonian concubine, Kosmartydene, was the mother of his son Darius II (ruled 424–405 BC). Jewish tradition relates that Esther was the mother of a King Darius and so some try to identify Ahasuerus with Artaxerxes I and Esther with Kosmartydene. Based on the view that the Ahasuerus of the Book of Tobit is identical with that of the Book of Esther, some have also identified him as Nebuchadnezzar's ally Cyaxares (ruled 625–585 BC). In certain manuscripts of Tobit, the former is called Achiachar, which, like the Greek Cyaxares, is thought to be derived from Persian Huwaxšaϑra. Depending on the interpretation of Esther 2:5–6, Mordecai or his great-grandfather Kish was carried away from Jerusalem with Jeconiah by Nebuchadnezzar, in 597 BC. The view that it was Mordecai would be consistent with the identification of Ahasuerus with Cyaxares. Identifications with other Persian monarchs have also been suggested. Jacob Hoschander has argued that evidence of the historicity of Haman and his father Hamedatha is seen in Omanus and Anadatus mentioned by Strabo as being honoured with Anahita in the city of Zela. Hoschander argues that these were not deities as Strabo supposed but garbled forms of "Haman" and "Hamedatha" who were being worshipped as martyrs. The names are indeed unattested in Persian texts as gods, however the Talmud (Sanhedrin 61b) and Rashi both record a practice of deifying Haman and Josephus speaks of him being worshipped.[36] Attempts have been made to connect both "Omanus" and "Haman" with the Zoroastrian term Vohu Mana; however this denotes the principle of "Good Thoughts" and is not the name of a deity.) In his Historia Scholastica Petrus Comestor identified Ahasuerus (Esther 1:1) as Artaxerxes III who reconquered Egypt.[37] Interpretation[edit] In the Book of Esther the Tetragrammaton does not appear, but it is present, in hidden form, in four complex acrostics in Hebrew: the initial or last letters of four consecutive words, either forwards or backwards comprise YHWH. These letters were distinguished in at least three ancient Hebrew manuscripts in red.[38][note 1] Christine Hayes contrasts the Book of Esther with apocalyptic writings, the Book of Daniel in particular: both Esther and Daniel depict an existential threat to the Jewish people, but while Daniel commands the Jews to wait faithfully for God to resolve the crisis, in Esther the crisis is resolved entirely through human action and national solidarity. God, in fact, is not mentioned, Esther is portrayed as assimilated to Persian culture, and Jewish identity in the book is an ethnic category rather than a religious one.[39] This contrasts with traditional Jewish commentaries, such as the commentary of the Vilna Gaon, which states "But in every verse it discusses the great miracle. However, this miracle was in a hidden form, occurring through apparently natural processes, not like the Exodus from Egypt, which openly revealed the might of God."[40] This follows the approach of the Talmud,[41] which states that "(The Book of) Esther is referenced in the Torah in the verse 'And I shall surely hide (in Hebrew, 'haster astir,' related to 'Esther') My Face from them on that day.[42] Although marriages between Jews and Gentiles are not permitted in orthodox Judaism, even in case of Pikuach nefesh, Esther is not regarded as a sinner, because she remained passive, and risked her life to save that of the entire Jewish people.[43] Additions to Esther[edit] An additional six chapters appear interspersed in Esther in the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Bible. This was noted by Jerome in compiling the Latin Vulgate. Additionally, the Greek text contains many small changes in the meaning of the main text. Jerome recognized the former as additions not present in the Hebrew Text and placed them at the end of his Latin translation. This placement and numbering system is used in Catholic Bible translations based primarily on the Vulgate, such as the Douay–Rheims Bible and the Knox Bible. In contrast, the 1979 revision of the Vulgate, the Nova Vulgata, incorporates the additions to Esther directly into the narrative itself, as do most modern Catholic English translations based on the original Hebrew and Greek (e.g., Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition, New American Bible, New Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition). The numbering system for the additions differs with each translation. The Nova Vulgata accounts for the additional verses by numbering them as extensions of the verses immediately following or preceding them (e.g., Esther 11:2–12 in the old Vulgate becomes Esther 1:1a–1k in the Nova Vulgata), while the NAB and its successor, the NABRE, assign letters of the alphabet as chapter headings for the additions (e.g., Esther 11:2–12:6 in the Vulgate becomes Esther A:1–17). The RSVCE and the NRSVCE place the additional material into the narrative, but retain the chapter and verse numbering of the old Vulgate. These additions include:[44] an opening prologue that describes a dream had by Mordecai the contents of the decree against the Jews prayers for God's intervention offered by Mordecai and by Esther an expansion of the scene in which Esther appears before the king, with a mention of God's intervention a copy of the decree in favor of the Jews a passage in which Mordecai interprets his dream (from the prologue) in terms of the events that followed a colophon appended to the end, which reads: "In the fourth year of the reign of Ptolemy and Cleopatra, Dositheus, who said that he was a priest and a Levite, and his son Ptolemy brought to Egypt the preceding Letter about Purim, which they said was authentic and had been translated by Lysimachus son of Ptolemy, one of the residents of Jerusalem" (NRSV). It is unclear to which version of Greek Esther this colophon refers, and who exactly are the figures mentioned in it.[45] By the time the Greek version of Esther was written, the foreign power visible on the horizon as a future threat to Judah was the Macedonians of Alexander the Great, who defeated the Persian empire about 150 years after the time of the story of Esther; the Septuagint version noticeably calls Haman a "Bougaion" (βουγαῖον)[incomprehensible] where the Hebrew text describes him as an Agagite. The canonicity of these Greek additions has been a subject of scholarly disagreement practically since their first appearance in the Septuagint – Martin Luther, being perhaps the most vocal Reformation-era critic of the work, considered even the original Hebrew version to be of very doubtful value.[46] Luther's complaints against the book carried past the point of scholarly critique and may reflect Luther's antisemitism. The Council of Trent, the summation of the Roman Catholic Counter-Reformation, reconfirmed the entire book, both Hebrew text and Greek additions, as canonical. The Book of Esther is used twice in commonly used sections of the Catholic Lectionary. In both cases, the text used is not only taken from a Greek addition, the readings also are the prayer of Mordecai, and nothing of Esther's own words is ever used. The Eastern Orthodox Church uses the Septuagint version of Esther, as it does for all of the Old Testament. In contrast, the additions are included in the Biblical apocrypha, usually printed in a separate section (if at all) in Protestant bibles. The additions, called "The rest of the Book of Esther", are specifically listed in the Thirty-Nine Articles, Article VI, of the Church of England as non-canonical.[47] Modern retelling[edit] There are several paintings depicting Esther and her story, including The Punishment of Haman by Michelangelo, in a corner of the Sistine Chapel ceiling.[48] In 1660, Rembrandt van Rijn's painting of Esther's Banquet depicts how Esther approached the men at their level to make the request of erasing the decree. The Italian Renaissance poet Lucrezia Tornabuoni chose Esther as one of biblical figures on which she wrote poetry.[49] In 1689, Jean Baptiste Racine wrote Esther, a tragedy, at the request of Louis XIV's wife, Françoise d'Aubigné, marquise de Maintenon. In 1718, Handel wrote the oratorio Esther based on Racine's play. In 1958, a book entitled Behold Your Queen! was written by Gladys Malvern and illustrated by her sister, Corinne Malvern. It was chosen as a selection of the Junior Literary Guild. The play entitled Esther (1960), written by Welsh dramatist Saunders Lewis, is a retelling of the story in Welsh. A 1960 movie about the story, Esther and the King, starring Joan Collins. A 1978 miniseries entitled The Greatest Heroes of the Bible starred Victoria Principal as Esther, Robert Mandan as Xerxes, and Michael Ansara as Haman. Episode 25 of the 1981 anime series Superbook involves this story. The 1983 musical entitled Swan Esther was written by J. Edward Oliver and Nick Munns and released as a concept album with Stephanie Lawrence and Denis Quilley. Swan Esther has been performed by the Young Vic, a national tour produced by Bill Kenwright and some amateur groups. A 1986 Israeli film directed by Amos Gitai entitled Esther. In 1992, a 30-minute, fully animated video, twelfth in Hanna-Barbera's The Greatest Adventure series, titled Queen Esther features the voices of Helen Slater as Queen Esther, Dean Jones as King Ahasuerus, Werner Klemperer as Haman, and Ron Rifkin as Mordecai.[50][51] A 1999 TV movie from the Bible Collection that follows the biblical account very closely, Esther, starred Louise Lombard in the title role and F. Murray Abraham as Mordecai.[52] In 2000, VeggieTales released "Esther... The Girl Who Became Queen". Chosen: The Lost Diaries of Queen Esther by Ginger Garrett. 2005, NavPress.[importance?] A 2006 movie about Esther and Ahasuerus, entitled One Night with the King, stars Tiffany Dupont and Luke Goss. It was based on the novel Hadassah: One Night with the King by Tommy Tenney and Mark Andrew Olsen. Esther is one of the five heroines of the Order of the Eastern Star. On March 8, 2011, the Maccabeats released a music video called "Purim Song".[53] The Book of Esther is a 2013 movie starring Jen Lilley as Queen Esther and Joel Smallbone as King Xerxes.[54] In 2012, a graphic adaptation of the Book of Esther was illustrated by J. T. Waldman and appeared in volume one of The Graphic Canon, edited by Russ Kick and published by Seven Stories Press. Notes[edit] ^ These are Est 1:20; 5:4, 13 and 7:7. Additionally, Est 7:5 there is an acrostic referring to the title of God of Exodus 3:14. References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Rossel, Seymour (2007). The Torah: Portion by Portion. Los Angeles: Torah Aura Productions. p. 212. ISBN 978-1-891662-94-2. Retrieved 13 October 2013. ^ Blumenthal, David R. "Where God is Not: The Book of Esther and Song of Songs". Archived from the original on January 17, 2019. Retrieved April 19, 2016. ^ a b Baumgarten, Albert I.; Sperling, S. David; Sabar, Shalom (2007). Skolnik, Fred; Berenbaum, Michael (eds.). Encyclopaedia Judaica. 18 (2nd ed.). Farmington Hills, MI: Macmillan Reference USA. p. 216. ^ a b Larkin, Katrina J.A. (1996). Ruth and Esther (Old Testament Guides). Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press. p. 71. ^ Crawford, Sidnie White (1998). "Esther". In Newsom, Carol A.; Ringe, Sharon H. (eds.). Women's Bible Commentary. Louisville: Westminster John Knox. p. 202. ^ a b c Middlemas, Jill (2010). Becking, Bob E.J.H.; Grabbe, Lester (eds.). Between Evidence and Ideology. Leiden: Brill. p. 145. ISBN 978-9004187375. ^ Moore, Carey A. (1971). Esther (Anchor Bible). Garden City, NY: Doubleday. p. XXXV. ^ a b E.A.W. Budge, The Chronography of Bar Hebraeus, Gorgias Press, reprint 2003 ^ "Historia Scholastica/Esther". Wikisource. ^ Clines 1984, p. 9. ^ Jobes 2011, pp. 40–41. ^ "Esther - Chapter 8". ^ "Esther: Bible | Jewish Women's Archive". ^ Babylonian Talmud: Tractate Baba Bathra 15a ^ NIV Study Bible, Introductions to the Books of the Bible, Esther, Zondervan, 2002 ^ Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc Zvi; Fishbane, Michael, eds. (2004). The Jewish Study Bible. Oxford University Press. p. 1625. ISBN 978-0195297515. ^ Shemaryahu Talmon, "Wisdom in the Book of Esther", Vetus Testamentum 13 (1963), p. 453 (at JSTOR, free subscription needed) ^ Freedman, David Noel; Myers, Allen C.; Beck, Astrid B. (2000). Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 428. ISBN 9780802824004. ^ George Lyons, Additions to Esther, Wesley Center for Applied Theology, 2000 ^ a b Prof. Michael Sokoloff, The Targums to the Book of Esther, Bar-Ilan University 's Parashat Hashavua Study Center, Parashat Tezaveh/Zakhor 5764 March 6, 2004 ^ a b S. Kaufman, Cal Targum Texts, Text base and variants, The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon, Hebrew Union College – Jewish Institute of Religion ^ Alan J. Hauser, Duane Frederick Watson, A History of Biblical Interpretation: The Ancient Period, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2003 ^ Barton, John; Muddiman, John (2007). The Oxford Bible Commentary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199277186. ^ David J. A. Clines, The Esther Scroll: The Story of the Story, A&C Black, 1984 ISBN 978-0-905-77466-4 pp.26,50, 155ff. ^ Tsaurayi Kudakwashe Mapfeka, Esther in Diaspora: Toward an Alternative Interpretive Framework, BRILL, 2019 ISBN 978-9-004-40656-8 pp.2,15,28ff ^ Browning, W. R. F., ed. (2009), "Ahasuerus", A Dictionary of the Bible (2nd ed.), Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780199543984.001.0001/acref-9780199543984-e-56, ISBN 978-0-19-954398-4, retrieved 2020-04-17, The story is fictitious and written to provide an account of the origin of the feast of Purim; the book contains no references to the known historical events of the reign of Xerxes. ^ a b c d e Coogan, Michael David, A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament: The Hebrew Bible in Its Context (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 396. ^ a b Sidnie White Crawford, "Esther", in The New Interpreters Study Bible New Revised Standard Version with the Apocrypha, ed. Walter J. Harrison and Donald Senior (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2003), 689–90. ^ New King James Version, translation of Esther 2:6 ^ a b Bromiley, Geoffrey W., ed. (1982). "Book of Esther". International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Volume II. Wm. B. Eerdmans Pub. Co. p. 159. ^ Wiersbe, Warren W. (2004). Bible Exposition Commentary: Old Testament History. David C Cook. p. 712. ISBN 9780781435314. ^ a b Adele Berlin, "The Book of Esther and Ancient Storytelling", Journal of Biblical Literature 120, no. 1 (Spring 2001): 3–14. ^ Berlin, 2001: 6. ^ "The archaeological background of Esther: archaeological backgrounds of the exilic and postexilic era, pt 2". Bibliotheca sacra 137, no. 546 (1980), 102. ^ http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/nets/edition/17-esther-nets.pdf Note on two Greek versions of the book of Esther. ^ a b c Jacob Hoschander, The Book of Esther in the Light of History, Oxford University Press, 1923 ^ "Historia Scholastica/Esther - Wikisource". ^ The Name of Jehovah in the Book of Esther., appendix 60, Companion Bible. ^ Hayes, Christine (2006). "Introduction to the Old Testament (Hebrew Bible): Lecture 24 – Alternative Visions: Esther, Ruth, and Jonah". Open Yale Courses. Yale University. ^ Commentary of the Vilna Gaon to the Book of Esther 1:1 ^ Chullin 139b ^ Deut. 31:18 ^ Yehuda Shurpin: How Could Esther Marry a Non-Jewish King?, Chabad.org. ^ see the NRSV online for the additions ^ Angiolillo, Patrick (2019). "Lysimachus". Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception. 17: 273. doi:10.1515/ebr.lysimachus. ^ Frederic W. Bush, "The Book of Esther: Opus non gratum in the Christian Canon", Bulletin for Biblical Research 8 (1998), p. 39 ^ www.churchofengland.org: they are included in the section headed: "And the other Books (as Hierome saith) the Church doth read for example of life and instruction of manners; but yet doth it not apply them to establish any doctrine; such are these following:..." ^ The Punishment of Haman ^ Robin, Larsen and Levin. Encyclopedia of women in the Renaissance: Italy, France, and England. p. 368. ^ Books of the Bible Christian Bookstore. "I Have A Song – Shannon Wexelberg". ^ "The Internet Antique Shop – The Web's largest antiques & collectibles mall serving collectors since 1995". ^ Tania B (5 November 2000). "Esther". IMDb. ^ "The Maccabeats – Purim Song". YouTube. Retrieved 2011-08-09. ^ "The Book of Esther (2013)". IMDb. 11 June 2013. Sources[edit] Clines, David J.A. (1984). The Esther Scroll. A&C Black. ISBN 9780567157133. Jobes, Karen H. (2011). Esther. Zondervan. ISBN 9780310872146. Beal, Timothy K (Timothy Beal). The Book of Hiding: Gender, Ethnicity, Annihilation, and Esther. NY: Routledge, 1997. Postmodern theoretical apparatus, e.g. Jacques Derrida, Emmanuel Levinas Extract from The JPS Bible Commentary: Esther by Adele Berlin: Liberal Jewish view. Grossman, Jonathan, Esther: The Outer Narrative and the Hidden Reading, Winona Lake, IN.: Eisenbrauns, 2011. Fox, Michael V. (April 2010). Character and Ideology in the Book of Esther. ISBN 9781608994953. Sasson, Jack M. "Esther" in Alter and Kermode, pp. 335–341, literary view The Historicity of Megillat Esther: Gil Student's survey of scholarship supporting a historical reading of Esther Esther, Book of: A Christian perspective of the book. Thespis: Ritual, Myth, and Drama in the Ancient Near East by Theodor Gaster. 1950. White, Sidnie Ann. "Esther: A Feminine Model for Jewish Diaspora" in Newsom Esther (Judaica Press) translation [with Rashi's commentary] at Chabad.org Cumming, Rev. J. Elder DD The Book of Esther: Its spiritual teaching London: The Religious Tract Society, 1913 Ecker, Ronald L. The Book of Esther, Ecker's Biblical Web Pages, 2007. Fischer, James A. Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther. Collegeville Bible Commentary. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1986. Fox, Michael V. Character and Ideology in the Book of Esther. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2001. Hudson, J. Francis Esther: For Such a Time as This. From Character and Charisma series. Kingsway, 2000. Levenson, Jon D. Esther. Old Testament Library Series. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1997. McConville, John C. L. Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther. Daily Study Bible Series. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1985. Moore, Carey A. Esther. Anchor Bible, vol. 7B. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1971. Paton, Lewis B. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Esther. International Critical Commentary. Edinburgh, Scotland: T&T Clark, 1908. Hazony, Yoram. God and Politics in Esther. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016. Shurpin, Yehuda, How Could Esther Marry a Non-Jewish King?, Chabad.org. "Esther, Book of" . New International Encyclopedia. 1905. "Esther, Apocryphal Book of" . New International Encyclopedia. 1905. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Book of Esther. Wikisource has original text related to this article: Esther Wikisource has original text related to this article: The King James Version of Rest of Esther Text and translations[edit] Jewish translations Esther (Judaica Press) translation [with Rashi's commentary] at Chabad.org Purim insights to Megillat Esther Mechon Mamre Full text, Aleppo Codex: text of Esther in Hebrew Reading the Megilla and Publicizing the Miracle, minhagim (customs) and halachot (laws) by Rabbi Eliezer Melamed Hearing the Book of Esther with a short translation by Rabbi Yonadav Zar In Hebrew (Audio) Christian translations Online Bible at GospelHall.org The Book of Esther Full text, KJV, (also available at Arabic) Esther in the NAB Esther NRSV translation with photos of Susa Esther: 2012 Critical Translation with Audio Drama at biblicalaudio Introduction to the Book of Esther Bible: Esther public domain audiobook at LibriVox Physical relics[edit] A Megillah (scroll of the Book of Esther), found in Vilna after World War II Esther scrolls in the Bezalel Narkiss Index of Jewish Art, the Center for Jewish Art at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Scroll of the Book of Esther, illustrated, Italy, 1747. Book of Esther History books Preceded by Ecclesiastes Hebrew Bible Succeeded by Daniel Preceded by Nehemiah Protestant Old Testament Succeeded by Job Preceded by Judith Roman Catholic Old Testament Succeeded by 1 Maccabees E. 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en-wikipedia-org-6064	----	Crocodile (pharaoh) - Wikipedia Crocodile (pharaoh) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Provisional name of an Egyptian predynastic ruler Crocodile Shendjw black ink inscription from Tarkhan Pharaoh Reign Naqada III (Predynastic Egypt) Predecessor unknown Successor unknown Royal titulary Horus name Hor-Shendjw Šndjw The subduer Burial TT 1549 Crocodile (also read as Shendjw[1]) is the provisional name of a predynastic ruler, who might have ruled during the late Naqada III epoch. The few alleged ink inscriptions showing his name are drawn very sloppily, and the reading and thus whole existence of king "Crocodile" are highly disputed. His tomb is unknown. Contents 1 Name sources 2 Reign and datation 3 See also 4 References Name sources[edit] The proposed existence of Crocodile is based on Günter Dreyer's and Edwin van den Brink's essays. They are convinced that Crocodile was a local king who ruled at the region of Tarkhan. According to Dreyer, Crocodile's name appears in black ink inscriptions on burnt earthen jars and on several seal impressions found in tomb TT 1549 at Tarkhan and tomb B-414 at Abydos. He sees a crawling crocodile and a rope curl beneath it and reads Shendjw ("the subduer").[1] Van den Brink thinks alike and reads Shendjw, too, but sees only a large rope curl sign inside the serekh.[2] Reign and datation[edit] Almost nothing is known about Crocodile's reign. If he existed, he might have had his capital at Tarkhan, where his proposed tomb was excavated. Dreyer places him in a time shortly before the kings Iry-Hor, Ka and Narmer. He points to guiding inscriptions on the jars mentioning a Hen-mehw ("brought from Lower Egypt"). This specific diction of designations of origin is archaeologically proven for the time before three mentioned kings, from King Ka onward, it was Inj-mehw (with the same meaning).[1] One interesting artifact that possibly depicts King Crocodile, was found at Hierakonpolis in the so-called Main deposit. The artifact is a piece of a broken mace head which shows traces of a once completed relief scene. The conserved part of the relief shows the head and upper torso of a seated king figure inside a hebsed-pavilion. It wears the Red Crown of Upper Egypt, a hebsed cloak and a flail. Right before the face of the king traces of a golden rosette (the predynastic crest of the kings) and a certain hieroglyph are visible. Unfortunately, all but the hieroglyph are damaged, leaving room for interpretations. Mainstream Egyptologists consider the sign to be either the name of Crocodile or King Scorpion II.[3] A clay seal impression from Minshat Abu Omar is also of special interest to Egyptologists: in the centre of the impression it shows a serekh-like frame with a bucranium above and a crocodile crawling through grass inside. Right of this crest a divine standard is depicted, a recumbent crocodile with two projectings (either lotus buds[1] or ostrich feathers[4]) sprouting out of its back and is sitting on that standard. The whole arrangement is surrounded by rows of crocodiles with rope curls beneath, which seems to point to the proposed reading of Crocodile's royal serekh. But Egyptologists Van den Brink and Ludwig David Morenz argue against the idea that the seal impression talks about the ruler. In their opinion, the inscription celebrates the foundation of a shrine for the god Sobek at a city named Shedyt (alternatively Shedet).[2] The city and the shrine are known from Old Kingdom inscriptions; the main cult centre was located at Medinet el-Fayum. For this reason, Sobek was worshipped during early dynasties as "Sobek of Shedyt".[5] See also[edit] List of pharaohs References[edit] ^ a b c d Günter Dreyer (1992). "Horus Krokodil, ein Gegenkönig der Dynastie 0". In Renee Friedman; Barbara Adams (eds.). The Followers of Horus, Studies dedicated to Michael Allen Hoffman, 1949–1990. Egyptian Studies Association Publication. 2. Bloomington, IN: Oxbow Publications. pp. 259–263. ISBN 0946897441. ^ a b Edwin van den Brink (1992). The Nile Delta in Transition - from 4th - 3rd Millennium BC. Tel Aviv: Institute of Archaeology and Arabic Studies. pp. 28–35. ^ Barbara Adams (1974). Ancient Hierakonpolis. Warminster: Aris and Phillips. pp. 15–19, obj. 2. ISBN 9780856680038. ^ Toby A.H. Wilkinson (2002). Early Dynastic Egypt. London: Routledge. p. 256. ISBN 1134664206. ^ Marco Zecchi (2010). Sobek of Shedet, The Crocodile God in the Fayyum in the Dynastic Period. Todi, Perugia. pp. 5–6. ISBN 978-88-6244-115-5. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crocodile_(pharaoh)&oldid=996920194" Categories: 32nd-century BC Pharaohs 32nd-century BC rulers People whose existence is disputed Predynastic Egypt Predynastic pharaohs Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar Македонски مصرى Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Suomi ไทย Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 29 December 2020, at 05:14 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6065	----	Alexander I of Macedon - Wikipedia Alexander I of Macedon From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Vassal of Achaemenid Persia Alexander I Vassal of Achaemenid Persia Subordinate King to Achaemenid Persia Coin from the end of the reign of Alexander I, struck circa 460-450 BC. Young male head right, wearing petasos. King of Macedon Reign 498–454 BC Predecessor Amyntas I Successor Alcetas II Spouse unknown Issue Alcetas II Perdiccas II Philip Menelaus Amyntas Stratonice House Macedon (Ancient Greece) Dynasty Argead Father Amyntas I Mother Queen Eurydice Religion Ancient Greek religion Alexander I of Macedon (Greek: Ἀλέξανδρος ὁ Μακεδών), known with the title Philhellene (Greek: φιλέλλην, literally "fond of the Greeks", "patriot") was the ruler of the ancient kingdom of Macedon from c. 498 BC until his death in 454 BC. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Alcetas II. Contents 1 Biography 2 Family 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Biography[edit] Early coinage of Alexander I, under Achaemenid Macedonia, Aegae, circa 500-480 BC. Goat kneeling right, head reverted; pellet above and before / Quadripartite incuse square. Alexander was the son of Amyntas I and Queen Eurydice (Greek: Εὐρυδίκη). He had a sister named Gygaea (Greek: Γυγαίη).[1] He gave his sister in marriage to the Persian general Bubares, in the late 6th century BC who was in Macedon at the time, in order to stop him from searching for Persian soldiers who had been killed by Alexander's men following his commands.[2][1] Coin of Alexander I in the decade following the Second Persian invasion of Greece (struck in 480-470 BC). Silver tetradrachm of Alexander I, struck at the end of his reign, circa 465-460 BC. Alexander I came to the throne during the era of the kingdom's vassalage to Achaemenid Persia, dating back to the time of his father, Amyntas I, although Macedon retained a broad scope of autonomy.[3] In 492 BC it was made a fully subordinate part of the Persian Empire by Mardonius' campaign.[4] Alexander acted as a representative of the Persian governor Mardonius during peace negotiations after the Persian defeat at the Battle of Salamis in 480 BC. In later events, Herodotus several times mentions Alexander as a man who was on Xerxes' side and followed his orders.[5] Aristides, commander of the Athenians, informed by Alexander I of Macedon that delaying the encounter with the Persians would help further diminish their already low supplies. Battle of Plataea, 479 BC. From the time of Mardonius' conquest of Macedon, Herodotus refers to Alexander I as hyparchos, meaning viceroy.[5] Despite his cooperation with Persia, Alexander I frequently gave supplies and advice to the Greek city states, and warned them of Mardonius' plans before the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC. For example, Alexander I warned the Greeks in Tempe to leave before the arrival of Xerxes' troops, and notified them of an alternate route into Thessaly through upper Macedonia.[6] After their defeat in Plataea, the Persian army under the command of Artabazus tried to retreat all the way back to Asia Minor. Most of the 43,000 survivors were attacked and killed by the forces of Alexander at the estuary of the Strymon river. Alexander eventually regained Macedonian independence after the end of the Persian Wars. Alexander claimed descent from Argive Greeks and Heracles. After a court of Elean hellanodikai determined his claim to be true, he was permitted to participate in the Olympic Games[7][8][9] possibly in 504 BC,[10] a right reserved only for Greeks. He modelled his court after Athens and was a patron of the poets Pindar and Bacchylides, both of whom dedicated poems to Alexander.[11] The earliest reference to an Athenian proxenos, who lived during the time of the Persian wars (c. 490 BC), is that of Alexander I.[12] Alexander I was given the title "philhellene" (Greek: "φιλέλλην", fond of the Greeks, lover of the Greeks), a title used for Greek patriots.[13][14] Family[edit] Alexander had five sons and a daughter: Alcetas II, future king of Macedon. Perdiccas II, future king of Macedon. Philip, father of Amyntas II[15] Menelaus. Amyntas, whose son Arrhidaeus was the father of Amyntas III.[15] He was thought to be the father of Balacrus, father of Meleager and grandfather of Arsinoe of Macedon[16] Stratonice, married by her brother Perdiccas II to Seuthes II of Thrace.[17] See also[edit] Ancient Macedonians List of ancient Macedonians References[edit] ^ a b Herodotus, Book 5: Terpsichore, 21 ^ Joseph Roisman,Ian Worthington. "A Companion to Ancient Macedonia" p136 ^ Joseph Roisman,Ian Worthington. "A companion to Ancient Macedonia" John Wiley & Sons, 2011. ISBN 144435163X pp 343 ^ Joseph Roisman,Ian Worthington. "A companion to Ancient Macedonia" John Wiley & Sons, 2011. ISBN 144435163X pp 135-138 ^ a b Joseph Roisman,Ian Worthington. "A Companion to Ancient Macedonia" p138 ^ Herodotus (1954). The Histories. Aubrey De Selincourt (trans.). Penguin Group. p. 477. ISBN 9780140449082. ^ Malcolm Errington, "A History of Macedonia", University of California Press, 1993, p.4: "Ancient allegations that the Macedonians were non-Greeks all had their origin in Athens at the time of the struggle with Philip II. Then as now, political struggle created the prejudice. The orator Aeschines once even found it necessary, in order to counteract the prejudice vigorously fomented by his opponents, to defend Philip on this issue and describe him at a meeting of the Athenian Popular Assembly as being 'Entirely Greek'. Demosthenes' allegations were lent an appearance of credibility by the fact, apparent to every observer, that the life-style of the Macedonians, being determined by specific geographical and historical conditions, was different from that of a Greek city-state. This alien way of life was, however, common to western Greeks of Epiros, Akarnania and Aitolia, as well as to the Macedonians, and their fundamental Greek nationality was never doubted. Only as a consequence of the political disagreement with Macedonia was the issue raised at all." ^ Herodotus 5.22 ^ Justin-7.2.14 ^ A History of Macedonia. Volume 2 Review: John Cole ^ Thucydides and Pindar: Historical Narrative and the World of Epinikian Poetry Page 180 By Simon Hornblower ISBN 0-19-924919-9 ^ Conrad Lashley; Paul Lynch; Alison J. Morrison, eds. (2006). Hospitality : a social lens (1st ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 25. ISBN 0-08-045093-8. ^ φιλέλλην, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus ^ Plato, Republic, 5.470e, Xenophon Agesilaus, 7.4 (in Greek) ^ a b Roisman, Joseph (2010), "Classical Macedonia to Perdiccas III", in Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.), A Companion to Ancient Macedonia, Blackwell Publishing, pp. 145–165, ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2 ^ Satyrus the Peripatetic, FGrH 631 fr 2 ^ Carney, Elizabeth (2000). Women and Monarchy in Macedonia. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3212-4. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Alexander I of Macedon Smith, William (1867). "Alexander I". In William Smith (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 1. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. p. 118. Alexander I Argead dynasty  Died: 454 BC Royal titles Preceded by Amyntas I King of Macedon 498–454 BC Succeeded by Alcetas II v t e Kings of Macedon Argead Caranus Coenus Tyrimmas Perdiccas I Argaeus I Philip I Aeropus I Alcetas I Amyntas I Alexander I Alcetas II Perdiccas II Archelaus I Craterus Orestes / Aeropus II Archelaus II Amyntas II Pausanias Argaeus II Amyntas III Alexander II Perdiccas III Amyntas IV Philip II Alexander III (Alexander the Great) Philip III Alexander IV Regents Ptolemy of Aloros Perdiccas Peithon and Arrhidaeus Antipater Polyperchon Cassander Antipatrid Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Antigonid Demetrius I Antigonus II Demetrius II Antigonus III Philip V Perseus Andriscus (Philip VI) Non-dynastic Lysimachus Pyrrhus Ptolemy Keraunos Meleager v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC v t e Ancient Olympic Games General Archaeological Museum of Olympia Ancient Greek Olympic festivals Hellanodikai Stadium at Olympia Sports Foot races Diaulos Dolichos Hoplitodromos Stadion Horse races Apene Chariot of polos Decapolon Kalpe Keles Perfect chariot Polos Synoris Synoris of polos Tethrippon Tethrippon of polos Combat Boxing Pankration Wrestling Special Herald and Trumpet contest Pentathlon Winners Acanthus of Sparta Agasias of Arcadia Agesarchus of Tritaea Alcibiades of Athens Alexander I of Macedon Anaxilas of Messenia Aratus of Sicyon Archelaus I of Macedon Arrhichion of Phigalia Arsinoe II Astylos of Croton Berenice I of Egypt Bilistiche Chaeron of Pellene Chilon of Patras Chionis of Sparta Cimon Coalemos Coroebus of Elis Cylon of Athens Cynisca of Sparta Damarchus Demaratus of Sparta Desmon of Corinth Diagoras of Rhodes Diocles of Corinth Ergoteles of Himera Euryleonis Herodorus of Megara Hiero I of Syracuse Hypenus of Elis Hysmon of Elis Iccus of Taranto Leonidas of Rhodes Leophron Milo of Croton Nero Caesar Augustus Oebotas of Dyme Onomastus of Smyrna Orsippus of Megara Peisistratos of Athens Phanas of Pellene Philinus of Cos Philip II of Macedon Philippus of Croton Phrynon of Athens Polydamas of Skotoussa Pythagoras of Laconia Pythagoras of Samos Sostratus of Pellene Theagenes of Thasos Theron of Acragas Tiberius Caesar Augustus Timasitheus of Delphi Troilus of Elis Varazdat of Armenia Xenophon of Aegium Xenophon of Corinth Lists of winners Ancient Olympic victors Stadion race Archaic period Classical period Hellenistic period Roman period Category Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexander_I_of_Macedon&oldid=997862631" Categories: 6th-century BC births 454 BC deaths 5th-century BC Macedonian monarchs Argead kings of Macedonia Ancient Olympic competitors Ancient Macedonian athletes 5th-century BC rulers 5th-century BC Macedonians 6th-century BC Macedonians Proxenoi Achaemenid Macedon Battle of Plataea Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages Afrikaans العربية تۆرکجه বাংলা Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 2 January 2021, at 16:26 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6083	----	Hyrcania - Wikipedia Hyrcania From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Hyrcania (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Hercynia. Historical region in the south-east of the Caspian sea Hyrcania Gurgān Province of the Median, Achaemenid, Seleucid, Arsacid, and Sasanian Empire 548 BC–651 AD Achaemenid Empire, with Province of Hyrcania Capital Zadracarta (548 BC–225 AD) Gurgān (225–651 AD) Historical era Antiquity • Established 548 BC • Fall of the Sasanian Empire 651 AD Today part of  Iran  Turkmenistan Hyrcania (/hərˈkeɪniə/) (Greek: Ὑρκανία Hyrkania,[1] Old Persian: 𐎺𐎼𐎣𐎠𐎴 Varkâna,[2] Middle Persian: 𐭢𐭥𐭫𐭢𐭠𐭭 Gurgān, Akkadian: Urqananu)[2] is a historical region composed of the land south-east of the Caspian Sea in modern-day Iran and Turkmenistan, bound in the south by the Alborz mountain range and the Kopet Dag in the east.[3] The region served as a satrapy (province) of the Median Empire, a sub-province of the Achaemenid Empire, and a province within its successors, the Seleucid, Arsacid and Sasanian empires. Hyrcania bordered Parthia to the east (later known as Abarshahr), Dihistan to the north, Media to the south and Mardia to the west. Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Pre-Hellenistic Period 2.2 Hellenistic Period 2.3 Post-Hellenistic Period 3 Religion 4 Literary references 5 List of governors 6 See also 7 References 8 Sources Etymology[edit] Hyrcania (Ὑρκανία) is the Greek name for the region, a borrowing from the Old Persian Verkâna as recorded in Darius the Great's Behistun Inscription (522 BC), as well as in other Old Persian cuneiform inscriptions. Verkā means "wolf" in Old Iranian, cf. Avestan vəhrkō, Gilaki and Mazandarani Verk, Modern Persian gorg, and Sanskrit Vŗka (वृक). Consequently, Hyrcania means "Wolf-land". The name was extended to the Caspian Sea and underlie the name of the city Sari (Zadracarta), the then-largest city and the capital of ancient Hyrcania. Another archaic name, Dahistān (not to be confused with dehestan – a modern Iranian word for "district" or "county") is sometimes used interchangeably with Hyrcania. Dahistān refers, strictly speaking to the "place of the Dahae": an extinct people who lived immediately north of Hyrcania, as early as the 5th century BC.[4] Apart from the geographical proximity of the Dahae, their ethnonym may have etymological similarities to "Hyrcanians"; for example, religious historian David Gordon White, reiterating a point made by previous scholars, suggests that Dahae resembles the Proto-Indo-European *dhau "strangle", which was apparently also a euphemism for "wolf".[5] History[edit] Pre-Hellenistic Period[edit] Hyrcania formed part of the Median Empire by 600 BC, and according to Nicolaus Damascenus, was administered as a satrapy by the time of the last Median king, Astyages, who appointed a certain Artasyras as satrap (governor).[6] Upon the fall of the Median Empire, the region willingly submitted to the Achaemenid Empire and was occupied by Cyrus the Great in 549-548 BC,[7] and for a time Artasyras continued as satrap under Cyrus,[8] prior to his replacement by Astyages himself.[6] According to Ctesias, Astyages' grandson Megabernes also served as satrap of Hyrcania.[6] Hyrcanians gave their name to the Hyrcanian plain in the middle Hermus valley in Lydia where they were settled, most likely during the reign of Cyrus the Great, as part of a policy to establish military colonies in Asia Minor.[9] Under the Achaemenid Empire, Hyrcania served as a sub-province of the satrapy of Parthia, which was also known as the satrapy of Parthia and Hyrcania.[6] At times, Cadusia may have been administered as part of Hyrcania.[10] Fortifications to protect Hyrcania against nomadic incursions were constructed during the Achaemenid period.[11] Following Darius the Great's victory over the Magian usurper, Gaumata, in September 522 BC, revolts spread throughout the empire.[12] In December 522 BC, a revolt in support of the Median leader Phraortes erupted in Hyrcania,[2] and in March 521 BC, the Hyrcanian rebels unsuccessfully attacked Hystaspes, satrap of Parthia.[13] In May, Phraortes was defeated and Hyrcania returned to Achaemenid rule.[13] Darius later settled Hyrcanians in the settlement of Dareionkome (Greek: Δαρειονκώμη) in the Hyrcanian Plain in Lydia.[9] Other Hyrcanian settlements in the Hermus valley include Ormoita and Tyanolla.[14] According to Herodotus, Hyrcanian soldiers participated in the Second Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BC under the command of Megapanus.[15] After the war, a garrison composed of Hyrcanian soldiers was posted in the valleys of the rivers Hermus and Caicus.[2] Under Xerxes I, Hyrcania was likely detached from the satrapy of Parthia and administered separately.[16] Some sources imply Hyrcania was later administered as a sub-province of Media.[16] According to Ctesias, Artaxerxes I appointed his illegitimate son Ochus as satrap of Hyrcania in c. 425 BC,[17] who later assumed the throne as Darius II and appointed Idernes as satrap.[15] Idernes' son Terituchmes succeeded him as satrap of Hyrcania following his death and was married to Amestris, daughter of Darius II, but Terituchmes was murdered by Udiastes, a henchman of Terituchmes, for conspiring to murder Amestris and revolt against Darius so he could wed his half-sister Roxana.[15] By the time of Alexander the Great's invasion of the Achaemenid Empire in 334 BC, Hyrcania was reattached to the satrapy of Parthia and administered as a sub-province.[16] Hyrcanian soldiers are mentioned in the Battle of Gaugamela against Alexander in 331 BC. After the death of Darius III in 330 BC, many Persian noblemen fled to Hyrcania.[2] Alexander reached Hyrcania in 330 BC, where he accepted the surrender of Phrataphernes, satrap of Hyrcania and Parthia, and chiliarch Nabarzanes.[15] Alexander seized Zadracarta, the capital of Hyrcania, hereafter known as Syrinx, later that year and received the surrender of other satraps and nobles.[18] Whilst in Hyrcania, Alexander appointed his general Amminapes as satrap of Hyrcania and Parthia,[19] but was succeeded as satrap of Hyrcania by Autophradates, satrap of Mardia and Tapuria, not long after.[20] In 328 BC, Autophradates rebelled against Alexander and Phrataphernes, who had been reinstated as satrap of Parthia, was sent to quell the revolt.[21] Autophradates was defeated and executed by Alexander at Pasargadae in 324 BC and Phrataphernes was granted the satrapies of Hyrcania, Tapuria, and Mardia.[21] Hellenistic Period[edit] Following the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, his empire was divided amongst the Diadochi in the Partition of Babylon, which confirmed Phrataphernes' control of Hyrcania and Parthia.[21] The Partition of Triparadisus in 321 BC granted Parthia and Hyrcania to Philip,[21] however, Philip was killed by Peithon, satrap of Media, in 318 BC and Peithon appointed his brother Eudemus as satrap.[15] Eudemus was driven from Parthia and Hyrcania in 317 BC by Peithon, satrap of the Indus, who was subsequently defeated in 315 BC by Antigonus, allowing Antigonus to take control of the Asian territories of the empire.[22] Antigonus appointed Nicanor satrap of Hyrcania and Parthia, also known as the upper satrapies, in 315 BC and continued in this office until his death during the Babylonian War in battle against Seleucus in 310 BC which allowed Seleucus to conquer the eastern territories of the empire and form the Seleucid Empire.[23] Seleucus' son, Antiochus I, appointed Andragoras as satrap of Parthia and Hyrcania at an unknown date prior to 266 BC, but rebelled against his successor Antiochus II in c. 245 BC.[24] Andragoras may have founded the city of Dehestān during his tenure as satrap.[15] Andragoras was killed in 238 BC during the Parni conquest of Parthia, led by Arsaces, who went on to conquer Hyrcania in 235 BC, thereafter forming part of the Arsacid Empire.[25] Seleucus II attempted to reassert Seleucid control of Hyrcania and Parthia in 231 BC, but was unsuccessful as he was forced to return to Asia Minor to quell unrest.[26] Following the Battle of Mount Labus in 209 BC, Antiochus III invaded Hyrcania and seized the cities of Tambrax and Syrinx,[15] forcing Arsaces II, who was permitted to continue his rule over Hyrcania and Parthia, to become a vassal of the Seleucid Empire.[27] During the siege of Syrinx, when the wall was breached, the garrison slaughtered the Greek inhabitants and attempted to flee.[28] Arsaces II may have reasserted his independence in 189 BC, following Antiochus' defeat at the hands of the Romans at the Battle of Magnesia in 190 BC.[29] During the reign of Antiochus IV, in the late 2nd century BC, Hyrcania still formed part of the Seleucid Empire.[30] After Mithridates' conquest of Media in 148 BC, Hyrcanians launched an unsuccessful revolt, which was crushed by Mithridates shortly afterwards.[31] Hyrcania served as a royal retreat and Mithridates retired there in 141 BC.[15] In 139 BC, Demetrius II launched an invasion of the Arsacid Empire only to be defeated and captured, following which he was provided a princely residence in Hyrcania and married to Rhodogune, daughter of Mithridates.[31] In 129 BC, the Saka tribes invaded and pillaged Hyrcania, alongside other eastern provinces, and defeated and killed two successive Arsacid kings.[32] Soon after his ascension to the throne in 124 BC, Mithridates II, recovered Hyrcania and re-established Arsacid control.[33] Post-Hellenistic Period[edit] Artabanus, king of Hyrcania, belonging to a collateral branch of the Arsacid dynasty, led a revolt against the Roman-backed Vonones I in 10 AD and successfully usurped the throne, becoming Artabanus III.[34] Roman interference in the Arsacid Empire resulted in the ascension of Tiridates III in 36 AD, exiling Artabanus III to Hyrcania for a short time.[15] During his exile in Hyrcania, Artabanus III adopted Gotarzes, son of Ardawan,[35] satrap of Hyrcania.[36] Artabanus III retrieved the throne and was succeeded by his son Vardanes I in 38 AD, however, Gotarzes unsuccessfully attempted to usurp the throne and was forced into exile amongst the Dahae.[31] Gotarzes invaded Hyrcania in 46 AD with the support of the Hyrcanians and Dahae to press his claim to the throne, however, upon Gotarzes' discovery of a plot amongst the nobles to remove both Gotarzes and Vardanes I and place another upon the throne, the two brothers made peace.[31] Gotarzes agreed to not press his claim to the throne and was appointed satrap of Hyrcania, only to revolt with the support of a number of nobles and attempt to press his claim once more.[31] Gotarzes was defeated in Hyrcania and forced into exile amongst the Dahae until the death of Vardanes I in 47 AD, thus becoming Gotarzes II.[37] Under the Arsacid Empire, the Great Wall of Gorgan, a series of forts and outposts with the plains of Hyrcania, was constructed to aid in the defence of Hyrcania against raids undertaken by the neighbouring Dahae tribes.[38] At the beginning of the Roman–Parthian War of 58–63, a rebellion erupted in Hyrcania and rebels sent envoys to Emperor Nero requesting aid.[39] The rebellion raged until 60 AD when Vologases I hastily concluded a peace treaty with the rebels to allow him to deal with the threat posed by the Romans.[40] However, the peace treaty did not last and the Hyrcanians launched another revolt that continued until at least 75 AD.[31] In 75 AD, the Hyrcanian rebels allied with nomadic Alan tribes and granted them safe passage through Hyrcania into Media, allowing the Alans to pillage Media and Armenia.[31] In the time of the reign of the Emperor Antoninus Pius (138–161), Hyrcania had made itself independent and was not considered part of the Arsacid Empire.[41] Hyrcania is mentioned as Li-chien (or Li-kan, 黎幹) in the 2nd century AD Book of Han.[42] Hyrcania was annexed to the Sasanian Empire in 225 AD by Ardashir I,[15] after which the provincial centre was moved to Gurgān, which lent its name to the province during this period.[43] The House of Aspahbadh, one of the Seven Great Houses, held lands principally within the region.[44] Whilst staying in Hyrcania in 420 AD, Yazdegerd I was assassinated by the nobility who alleged that he had been killed by a white horse that emerged from and disappeared into a stream.[45] The myth propagated by the nobility led people to believe the white horse was an angel sent by Ahura Mazda to end Yazdegerd's tyranny.[46] Gurgān is known to have held a mint as early as the reign of Yazdegerd II.[43] An unsuccessful revolt led by Vahan Amatuni, assistant governor of Armenia, led to his, and other members of the Amatuni noble family, exile in Hyrcania in 451 AD.[47] Priests and other nobles who had led the revolt against Yazdegerd II were also deported to Hyrcania where they stayed until they were moved to the city of New-Shapur in Abarshahr in 453 AD.[48] During the reign of Peroz I, the Hepthalites invaded Hyrcania and quartered at Gurgan in 465/469 AD. Peroz and his son Kavadh rallied against the Hepthalites and were defeated and captured in battle near Gurgan.[49] At the time of the usurper Bahrām Chōbin's movement eastward into Abarshahr in 591 AD, Hyrcania was governed by the House of Karen, one of the Seven Great Houses.[50] Following the defeat of the usurper Bahrām Chōbin in 591 AD, Khosrow II appointed Vistahm marzban (governor) of Hyrcania as a reward for his support during the rebellion, however, Khosrow's mistrust for Vistahm led him to attempt to execute him by luring him to the royal court. Vistahm was informed of Khosrow's intentions and rose in revolt, conquering much of the eastern provinces of the Sasanian Empire prior to his death and defeat in battle against Smbat Bagratuni in 596 AD.[51] Smbat was rewarded and appointed marzban of Hyrcania, which he served as until 602 AD,[52] during which time the region is known to have prospered.[53] Religion[edit] Hyrcania, and the rest of Iran in Antiquity, was dominated by Zoroastrianism which was practised by the majority of the population.[54] Christianity and Judaism was also practised in the region, and, Barshabba, the apocryphal 4th century AD bishop of Merv, is attributed to the foundation of Christian monasteries in Hyrcania.[55] A diocese of Gurgan of the Church of the East is known to have existed from 424 AD.[56] According to Paulus Orosius, following the suppression of a revolt in Phoenicia and the conquest of Egypt in 343 BC, Artaxerxes III deported Phoenician and Egyptian Jews to Hyrcania as punishment for opposing him.[57][58] Some Hyrcanian Jews returned to Palestine, however, they maintained a presence within the region as late as the 4th century AD.[58] Literary references[edit] In Latin literature, Hyrcania is often mentioned in relationship to tigers, which were apparently particularly abundant there during the Classical Age (though extinct in the area since the early 1970s).[59][60] Virgil, in the Aeneid, had the abandoned Dido accuse Aeneas: Nec tibi diva parens generis nec Dardanus auctor, perfide, sed duris genuit te cautibus horrens Caucasus Hyrcanaeque admorunt ubera tigres. (IV.365-7) "You had neither a goddess for a parent, nor was Dardanus the author of your race, faithless one, but the horrible Caucasus produced you from hard crags, and Hyrcanian tigers nursed you." Following its geographical listing by Isidore of Seville in the early 7th century Etymologiae (a standard Mediaeval textbook), the name of Hyrcania became known and taught as far off as Ireland, where it was included in poems such as Cú-cen-máthair by Luccreth moccu Chiara (665 AD), the Auraicept na n-Éces, and Lebor Gabála Érenn (11th century). Hyrcania is mentioned in the short story "Rinconete y Cortadillo" by Miguel de Cervantes, and constitutes one of his exemplary stories which were published in 1613. Cervantes uses this reference to portray the illiteracy of Juliana la Cariharta, a member of Monipodio's guild. She is intending to make reference to Ocaña, a provincial town in Toledo, Spain; but she has misheard it and does not realise the difference. Shakespeare, relying on his Latin sources, makes repeated references in his plays to the "Hyrcan tiger" (Macbeth, III.iv.1281) or "th' Hyrcanian beast" (Hamlet, II.ii.447) as an emblem of bloodthirsty cruelty. In Henry VI, Part 3, the Duke of York compares Queen Margaret unfavorably to "Tygers of Hyrcania" (I.iv.622) for her inhumanity.[61] Even in Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice, the Prince of Morocco also made references to Hyrcania. He said (an excerpt), "The Hyrcanian deserts and the vasty wilds/Of wild Arabia are as thoroughfares now." Sir Walter Scott in an epigraph to the thirty-fifth chapter of Ivanhoe refers to "the tiger of the Hyrcanian deserts" as a "lesser [...] risk than [...] the slumbering fire of wild fanaticism" (the epigraph is cited as being written by an anonymous author).[62] The comic book heroine Red Sonja is described as coming from Hyrkania, an imaginary locale bordering an inland sea based loosely on Hyrcania and set in Robert E. Howard's fictional Hyborian Age. Howard's Conan the Barbarian also has various adventures set in this locale, including as a pirate on the inland sea. List of governors[edit] Although the below list is incomplete, they are the known governors of Hyrcania. Artasyras Astyages Megabernes Ochus (c. 425-423 BC) Idernes (423 BC-?) Terituchmes Phrataphernes (?-330 BC) Amminapes (330 BC) Autophradates (330-324 BC) Phrataphernes (324-321 BC) Philip (321-318 BC) Eudemus (318-317 BC) Nicanor (315-310 BC) Andragoras (?-238 BC) Artabanus (?-10 AD) Ardawan Gotarzes (46-47 AD) Vistahm (591-596 AD) Smbat Bagratuni (596-602 AD) See also[edit] Gorgan Gonbad-e Kavus Golestan Province Mazandaran Gilan Name of Georgia (country) Amol Sari References[edit] ^ Woodhouse (1910), p. 1013 ^ a b c d e Lendering (1996) ^ Sherwin-White & Kuhrt (1993), p. 81 ^ François de Blois & Willem Vogelsang, 2011, "Dahae", Encyclopedia Iranica (23 May 2015). ^ David Gordon White, 1991, Myths of the Dog-Man, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, pp. 27, 239. ^ a b c d Jacobs (2006) ^ Dandamayev (1993), pp. 516-521 ^ Dandamayev (1986), p. 652 ^ a b Ramsay (1890), p. 124 ^ Schmitt (1990), p. 612 ^ Lendering (2005) ^ Rawlinson (1867) ^ a b Lendering (2000) ^ Ramsay (1890), p. 125 ^ a b c d e f g h i j Bivar (2002), pp. 151-153 ^ a b c Frye (1983), p. 112 ^ Brunner (2004) ^ Walbank (2015) ^ Lendering (2004) ^ Dandamayev (1987), p. 29 ^ a b c d Badian (2015) ^ Lendering (1999) ^ Lendering (2002) ^ Frye (1985), p. 26 ^ Frye (1983), p. 208 ^ Schippmann (1986), pp. 525-536 ^ Debevoise (1938), p. 18 ^ Boyce & Grenet (1991), p. 30 ^ Frye (1963), p. 173 ^ Strootman (2015) ^ a b c d e f g Rawlinson (1873) ^ Yarshater (1983), p. 54 ^ Yarshater (1983), p. 55 ^ Frye (1983), p. 237 ^ Nasrollahzadeh (2011), pp. 157-175 ^ Verstandig (2008), pp. 251-252 ^ Boyce et al. (2001), pp. 31-39 ^ Jakubiak (2008) ^ Frye (1983), p. 283 ^ Tacitus, Annals XV.2 ^ Frye (1983), p. 243 ^ Pulleyblank (1991); Anthony François Paulus Hulsewé (ed.), China in Central Asia: The Early Stage: 125 BC - AD 23, an annotated translation of Chapters 61 and 96 of the History of the Former Han Dynasty, with an introduction by M.A.N.Loewe. Volume 14 of Sinica Leidensia, Leiden, Brill Archive, 1979, p.118. ^ a b Kiani (2002), pp. 148-151 ^ Pourshariati (2008), p. 49 ^ Pourshariati (2008), pp. 66-67 ^ Shahbazi (2003) ^ Toumanoff (1989), pp. 928-929 ^ Perry et al. (1994), pp. 297-312 ^ Schippmann (1999), pp. 631-632 ^ Pourshariati (2008), p. 112 ^ Shahbazi (1989), pp. 180-182 ^ Toumanoff (1988), pp. 419-422 ^ Garsoian (2005) ^ Choksy (2015) ^ Sims-Williams (1988), p. 823 ^ Chabot, 285 ^ Bruce (1990), p. 117 ^ a b Sarshar (2014), p. 15 ^ Humphreys, P., Kahrom, E. (1999). Lion and Gazelle: The Mammals and Birds of Iran. Images Publishing, Avon. ^ Firouz, E. (2005). The complete fauna of Iran. I. B. Tauris. pp. 5–67. ISBN 978-1-85043-946-2. ^ Shakespeare 1.4.622 ^ 1771-1832., Scott, Walter (1997). Ivanhoe : a romance (Modern Library ed.). New York: Modern Library. pp. 388. ISBN 0679602631. OCLC 35919304.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) Sources[edit] Badian, Ernst (2015). "PHRATAPHERNES". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Bivar, A. D. H. (2002). "GORGĀN v. Pre-Islamic history". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Boyce, Mary; Grenet, Frantz; Beck, Roger (1991). A History of Zoroastrianism: Zoroastrianism under Macedonian and Roman rule. 3. Boyce, Mary; Bivar, A. D. H.; Shahbazi, A. Shapur (2001). "GŌDARZ". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Bruce, Frederick Fyvie (1990). The Acts of the Apostles: The Greek Text with Introduction and Commentary. Brunner, C. J. (2004). "IRAN v. PEOPLES OF IRAN (2) Pre-Islamic". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Chabot, Jean-Baptiste (1902). Synodicon orientale ou recueil de synodes nestoriens (PDF). Paris: Imprimerie Nationale. Choksy, Jamsheed K. (2015). "ZOROASTRIANISM ii. Historical Review: from the Arab Conquest to Modern Times". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Dandamayev, M. A. (1986). "ARTASYRAS". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Dandamayev, M. A. (1987). "AUTOPHRADATES". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Dandamayev, M. A. (1993). "CYRUS iii. Cyrus II The Great". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Debevoise, Neilson Carel (1938). A Political History of Parthia. ISBN 9781258469610. Frye, Richard N. (1963). The Heritage of Persia: The pre-Islamic History of One of the World's Great Civilizations. Frye, Richard N. (1983). The History of Ancient Iran. Frye, Richard N. (1985). "ANDRAGORAS". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Garsoian, N. (2005). "SMBAT BAGRATUNI". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Jacobs, Bruno (2006). "ACHAEMENID SATRAPIES". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Jakubiak, Krzysztof (2008). "ARSACIDS viii. Military Architecture Of Parthia". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Kiani, Muhammad Yusof (2002). "GORGĀN iv. Archeology". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Lendering, Jona (1996). "Hyrcania". Livius. Lendering, Jona (1999). "Peithon (1)". Livius. Lendering, Jona (2000). "Phraortes". Livius. Lendering, Jona (2002). "Nicanor". Livius. Lendering, Jona (2004). "Amminapes". Livius. Lendering, Jona (2005). "Wall of Alexander". Livius. Nasrollahzadeh, Cyrus (2011). "Inscriptional Literature: A Review of Parthian Inscription of Sare Pol-e Zohab". Journal of Language Researches. 2. Perry, John R.; Shahbazi, A. Shapur; Kettenhofen, Erich (1994). "DEPORTATIONS". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Pourshariati, Parvaneh (2008). Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran. ISBN 9781845116453. Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (1991). "CH'IEN HAN SHU". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Ramsay, W. M. (1890). The Historical Geography of Asia Minor. ISBN 9781108014533. Rawlinson, George (1867). The Seven Great Monarchies Of The Ancient Eastern World, Vol 5: Persia. Rawlinson, George (1873). The Seven Great Monarchies Of The Ancient Eastern World, Vol 6: Parthia. Sarshar, Houman (2014). The Jews of Iran: The History, Religion and Culture of a Community in the Islamic World. ISBN 9781780768885. Schippmann, K. (1986). "ARSACIDS ii. The Arsacid dynasty". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Schippmann, K. (1999). "FĪRŪZ". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Schmitt, Rüdiger (1990). "CADUSII". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Shahbazi, A. Shapur (1989). "BESṬĀM O BENDŌY". BESṬĀM O BENDŌY – Encyclopaedia Iranica. Encyclopaedia Iranica. Archived from the original on 2013-09-22. Retrieved 2017-01-01. Shahbazi, A. Shapur (2003). "YAZDEGERD I". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Shakespeare, William (2013). Bevington, David (ed.). Henry VI, Part 3. Archived from the original on 2016-12-31. Retrieved 2016-12-30. Sherwin-White, Susan M.; Kuhrt, Amélie (1993). From Samarkhand to Sardis: A New Approach to the Seleucid Empire. ISBN 9780520081833. Sims-Williams, N. (1988). "BARŠABBĀ". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Strootman, Rolf (2015). "SELEUCID EMPIRE". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Tacitus (1876). Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb, ed. Annals. Toumanoff, C. (1988). "BAGRATIDS". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Toumanoff, C. (1989). "AMATUNI". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Verstandig, A. (2001). Histoire de L'Empire Parthe (-250-227). Walbank, Frank W. (2015). "Alexander the Great". Encyclopædia Britannica. Woodhouse, S. C. (1910). English-Greek Dictionary: A Vocabulary of the Attic Language. Yarshater, E. (1983). "Introduction". The Cambridge History of Iran: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian periods (1). ISBN 9780521200929. v t e Provinces of the Achaemenid Empire (Behistun / Persepolis / Naqsh-e Rustam / Susa / Daiva inscriptions) Akaufaka (Quhistan?) Amyrgoi Arabia Arachosia Aria Armenia Assyria Babylonia Bactria Cappadocia Caria Carmania Caucasian Albania Chorasmia Cilicia Colchis Dahae Drangiana 1st Egypt / 2nd Egypt Eber-Nari (Levant) Elam Kush (Nubia) Gandāra (Gandhara) Gedrosia Hyrcania Ionia Hindush Libya Lydia Maka Margiana Media Lesser Media Massagetae Parthia Persia Phoenicia Phrygia Hellespontine Phrygia Greater Phrygia Saka Samaritan Province Sattagydia Skudra (Thrace) Sogdia Yehud See also Tax Districts of the Achaemenid Empire (according to Herodotus) v t e Provinces of the Sasanian Empire Abarshahr Adurbadagan Albania Arbayistan Armenia Asoristan Balasagan Dihistan Egypt* Eran-Khwarrah-Yazdegerd* Garamig ud Nodardashiragan Garmekan Gurgan Harev Hind Iberia Kadagistan* Khuzistan Kirman Kushanshahr Khwarazm Lazica* Machelonia Makuran Marw Mazun Media Meshan Nodardashiragan Paradan Padishkhwargar Pars Sakastan Sogdia Spahan Suristan Turan Yemen * indicates short living provinces Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hyrcania&oldid=995591471" Categories: States and territories established in the 6th century BC Hyrcania Iranian countries and territories Achaemenid satrapies Provinces of the Sasanian Empire Hidden categories: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Former country articles requiring maintenance Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Greek-language text Articles containing Sanskrit-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina Lietuvių Nederlands Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 21 December 2020, at 22:03 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6103	----	Datames - Wikipedia Datames From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Datames Coin of Datames. The reverse shows Datames wearing a Persian dress whilst inspecting an arrow, and the observe shows Baal Born c. 407 BC Died c. 362 BC Allegiance Achaemenid Empire Rank Satrap of Cappadocia (under the Achaemenids) Battles/wars Great Satraps' Revolt Relations Camisares (father) Scythissa (mother) Ariamnes (son) Sysinas (son) Datames (Old Persian: Dātama or Dātāma, Aramaic: Tadanmu, Ancient Greek: Δατάμης, romanized: Datámēs; 407 BC – 362 BC), also known as Tarkamuwa, was an Iranian military leader, who served as the governor (satrap) of the Achaemenid satrapy of Cappadocia from 380 BC to 362 BC. A Carian by birth, he was the son of Camissares by a Paphlagonian mother. His father being satrap of Cilicia under Artaxerxes II, and high in the favour of that monarch, Datames became one of the king's bodyguards; and having in this capacity distinguished himself in the war against the Cadusii, was appointed to succeed his father (who had fallen in that war) in the government of his province. Here he distinguished himself both by his military abilities and his zeal in the service of the king; and reduced to subjection two officials who had revolted from Artaxerxes, Thyus, governor of Paphlagonia, and Aspis of Cataonia. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Background 3 Revolt against Artaxerxes II 4 Evaluation 5 References 6 Sources Etymology[edit] "Datames" is the Hellenized form of the Old Iranian *Dātama- or *Dātāma-, either from Dātamiθra ("Gift of Mithra") or *Data-ama ("to whom force is given").[1] The name is attested in Aramaic as Tadanmu.[2] Background[edit] Datames was born in c. 407 BC.[3] He was a son of Camisares, an Iranian satrap who governed Cilicia under the Achaemenid king Artaxerxes II (r. 404–358 BC).[4] Camisares was most likely from a Persian noble-family that settled in Caria, and was one of the nobles who sided with Artaxerxes II during the revolt of Cyrus the Younger.[5] Datames' mother was a Paphlagonian princess named Scythissa, who was married to Camisares sometime before 401 BC.[6] Revolt against Artaxerxes II[edit] He was in consequence entrusted by the Persian king with the chief command of a force designed for the recovery of Egypt, following the failure of Pharnabazus II; but the machinations of his enemies at the Persian court, and the risks to which he was in consequence exposed, induced him to change his plan, and throw off his allegiance to the king (c.370 BC). He withdrew with the troops under his command into Cappadocia, and made common cause with the other satraps who had revolted from Persia (the "Satraps' Revolt"). Datames was satrap of Achaemenid Cappadocia. Artabazos, the satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia, one of the generals that remained faithful to the king, advanced against him from Pisidia, but was entirely defeated. The great reputation that Datames had acquired induced Artaxerxes to direct his utmost exertions to effect his subjection, but Autophradates, who was sent against him with a large army, was obliged to retreat with heavy loss. Datames, however, though constantly victorious against open foes, ultimately fell a victim to treachery, and, after evading numerous plots that had been formed against his life, was assassinated at a conference by Mithridates, the son of Ariobarzanes, who had gained his confidence by assuming the appearance of hostility to the king.[7] Evaluation[edit] Datames appears to have obtained the highest reputation in his day for courage and ability in war, which caused his fame to extend even among the Greeks, though he did not come into personal collision with them. Cornelius Nepos (to whose biographical sketch we owe the only connected narrative of his life) calls him the bravest and most able of all non-Greek and non-Roman generals, except Hamilcar and Hannibal; but there is much confusion in the accounts transmitted to us, and it is difficult to assign the anecdotes of him recorded by Polyaenus to their proper place in his history. The chronology of the events related by Nepos is also very obscure; but according to that author and Diodorus it would appear that Datames must have died before Artaxerxes, probably 362 BC. He was succeeded by his son Ariamnes I ( Ancient Greek: Ἀριάμνης, Ariámnēs) who ruled 362 BC–330 BC as satrap of Cappadocia under Persian suzerainty. Preceded by Satrap of Cappadocia Succeeded by Ariamnes References[edit] ^ Sekunda 1988, p. 35; Schmitt 1994, pp. 115–117 ^ Sekunda 1988, p. 35. ^ Sekunda 1988, p. 38; Schmitt 1994, pp. 115–117 ^ Bing 1998, p. 44; Sekunda 1988, p. 36 ^ Bing 1998, p. 44; Sekunda 1988, p. 36 ^ Sekunda 1988, p. 37. ^ Nepos, Datames, x; Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca, xv. 91; Polyaenus, Stratagemata, vii. 21, vii. 29 Sources[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Datames. Bing, J. Daniel (1998). "Datames and Mazaeus: The Iconography of Revolt and Restoration in Cilicia". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 47 (1): 41–76. JSTOR 4436493. (registration required) Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. pp. 1–1196. ISBN 9781575061207. Schmitt, Rüdiger (1994). "Datames". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VII, Fasc. 2. pp. 115–117. Sekunda, Nicholas Victor (1988). "Some Notes on the Life of Datames". Iran. Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 26: 35–53. doi:10.2307/4299799. JSTOR 4299799. (registration required) v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Datames&oldid=1001251969" Categories: Achaemenid satraps of Cappadocia 4th-century BC rulers 362 BC deaths 4th-century BC Iranian people Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Pages with login required references or sources Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Hrvatski Italiano Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 18 January 2021, at 22:04 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6105	----	Nehesy - Wikipedia Nehesy From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Nehesy Nehesi, Nehsy, Nehasi Four sides of the obelisk of pharaoh Nehesy from Raahu. Pharaoh Reign less than a year, c. 1705 BC[1] (14th dynasty) Predecessor uncertain, Sheshi (Ryholt) Successor uncertain, Khakherewre Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Aasehre ˁ3-sḥ-Rˁ The Hall of Council of Ra is great Nomen Nehesy Nḥsj The Nubian Turin canon Nḥsj The Nubian Father uncertain, Sheshi (Ryholt) Mother uncertain, Tati (Ryholt) Nehesy Aasehre (Nehesi) was a ruler of Lower Egypt during the fragmented Second Intermediate Period. He is placed by most scholars into the early 14th Dynasty, as either the second or the sixth pharaoh of this dynasty. As such he is considered to have reigned for a short time c. 1705 BC[1] and would have ruled from Avaris over the eastern Nile Delta. Recent evidence makes it possible that a second person with this name, a son of a Hyksos king, lived at a slightly later time during the late 15th Dynasty c. 1580 BC. It is possible that most of the artefacts attributed to the king Nehesy mentioned in the Turin canon, in fact belong to this Hyksos prince. Contents 1 Family 2 Attestation 3 Reign 4 See also 5 References Family[edit] In his review of the Second Intermediate Period, egyptologist Kim Ryholt proposed that Nehesy was the son and direct successor of the pharaoh Sheshi with a Nubian Queen named Tati.[1] Egyptologist Darrell Baker, who also shares this opinion, posits that Tati must have been Nubian or of Nubian descent, hence Nehesy's name meaning The Nubian.[2][3] The 14th dynasty being of Canaanite origin, Nehesy is also believed to be of Canaanite descent.[2] Four scarabs found, including one from Semna in Nubia and three of unknown provenance, point to a temporary coregency with his father. Furthermore, one scarab mentions Nehesy as King's son and a further 22 as Eldest king son. Ryholt and Baker thus hold the view that Nehesy became the heir to the throne after the death of his elder brother, Prince Ipqu.[1][2] Manfred Bietak and Jürgen von Beckerath believe that Nehesy was the second ruler of the 14th dynasty. Bietak further posits that his father was an Egyptian military officer or administrator, who funded an independent kingdom centered on Avaris. The kingdom controlled the northeastern Nile Delta, at the expense of the concurrent 13th dynasty. Attestation[edit] Scarab of Nehesy, now in the Petrie Museum. In spite of a very short reign of around a year, Nehesy is the best attested ruler of the 14th dynasty. According to Ryholt's latest reading of the Turin canon, Nehesy is attested there on the 1st entry of the 9th column (Gardiner, entry 8.1) and is the first king of the 14th dynasty whose name is preserved on this king list. Nehesy is also attested by numerous contemporary artefacts, foremost among which are scarab seals. In addition, a fragmentary obelisk from the Temple of Seth in Raahu bears his name together with the inscription "king's eldest son". A seated statue, later usurped by Merneptah, is believed to have originally belonged to Nehesy. It is inscribed with "Seth, Lord of Avaris" and was found in Tell el Muqdam. Nehesy is also attested by two relief fragments inscribed with the names of the king, which were unearthed in Tell el-Dab'a in the mid 1980s.[4] Finally, two further stelae are known from Tell-Habuwa (ancient Tjaru): one bearing Nehesy's birth name, the other one the throne of the king Aahsere.[5] Thanks to these stelae it was possible to connect the name Nehesy with the throne name Aahsere ˁ3-sḥ-Rˁ. Before this discovery, Aasehre was regarded as a Hyksos king. In 2005, a further stele of Nehesy was discovered in the fortress city of Tjaru, once the starting point of the Way of Horus, the major road leading out of Egypt into Canaan. The stele shows a king's son Nehesy offering oil to the god Banebdjedet and also bears an inscription mentioning the king's sister Tany.[6] A woman with this name and title is known from other sources around the time of the Hyksos king Apophis, who ruled at the end of the Second Intermediate Period c. 1580 BC.[7] Daphna Ben-Tor, who studied the scarabs of Nehesy, concludes that those referring to the king's son Nehesy are different in style from those referring to Nehesy as a king. She thus wonders whether the king's son Nehesy might be a different person from the better known king of the same name. In this situation, king Nehesy would still be an early 14th Dynasty ruler, however some of the attestations attributed to him would in fact belong to a Hyksos prince.[8] Reign[edit] According to the Austrian Egyptologist Manfred Bietak, Nehesy's 14th Dynasty kingdom started during the late 13th Dynasty, around or just after 1710 BC, as a result of the slow disintegration of the 13th Dynasty. After this event, "no single ruler was able to control the whole of Egypt" until Ahmose I captured this city.[9] Alternatively, Ryholt believes that the 14th dynasty started a century before Nehesy's reign, c. 1805 BC during Sobekneferu's reign. Since the 13th dynasty was the direct continuation of the 12th, he proposes that the birth of the 14th is the origin of the distinction between the 12th and the 13th in the Egyptian tradition.[1] Nehesy's authority may have "encompassed the eastern Delta from Tell el-Muqdam to Tell el-Habua (where his name occurs), but the universal practise of usurpation and quarrying of earlier monuments complicates the picture. Given that the only examples that were certainly found at the sites where they once stood are those from Tell el-Habua and Tell el-Daba, his kingdom may actually have been much smaller."[10] After Nehesy's death, the 14th dynasty continued to rule in the Delta region of Lower Egypt with a number of ephemeral or short-lived rulers until 1650 BC when the Hyksos 15th Dynasty conquered the Delta.[11] Nehesy seems to have been remembered long after his death as several locations in the eastern Delta bore names such as "The mansion of Pinehsy" and "The Place of the Asiatic Pinehsy", Pinehsy being a late Egyptian rendering of Nehesy. See also[edit] List of pharaohs References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nehesy. ^ a b c d e K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here. ^ a b c Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 277 ^ Rice, Michael (1999). Who's Who in Ancient Egypt. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-203-75152-3. p. 136 ^ Manfred Bietak: Zum Königreich des ˁ3-sḥ-Rˁ, in: Studien zur altägyptischen Kultur 11 (1984), pp. 59-75 ^ M. Abd el-Maqsoud: Un monument du roi ˁ3-sḥ-Rˁ Nehsy à Tell-Habua (Sinaï Nord), ASAE 69 (1983), 3-5 ^ News of the discovery together with a photograph of the stele here Archived 2010-07-31 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Mohamed 'Abd El-Maksoud, Dominique Valbelle: Tell Héboua-Tjarou. L'apport de l'épigraphie, in: Revue d'Égyptologie, 56 (2005), 2005, p. 1-44 ^ Daphna Ben-Tor: Scarabs, Chronology, and Interconnections, Egypt and Palestine in the Second Intermediate Period, OBO, Series Archaeologica 27, Fribourg, Göttingen 2007, ISBN 978-3-7278-1593-5, p. 110 ^ Janine Bourriau, "The Second Intermediate Period (c.1650-1550 BC)" in Ian Shaw (ed.) The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press, 2000. pp.190, 192 & 194 ^ Bourriau in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, p.191 ^ Bourriau in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, p.194 Preceded by Sheshi Pharaoh of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Khakherewre v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nehesy&oldid=976342594" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Egyptian people of Nubian descent Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Català Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Português Slovenščina Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá Edit links This page was last edited on 2 September 2020, at 12:39 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6119	----	Unas - Wikipedia Unas From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the king of ancient Egypt. For other uses, see Unas (disambiguation). Egyptian pharaoh Unas Oenas, Onnos, Unis, Wenis Black greywacke[1] sarcophagus in the funerary chamber of Unas' pyramid Pharaoh Reign duration uncertain; 15 to 30 years in the mid-24th century BC.[a] (Fifth Dynasty) Predecessor Djedkare Isesi Successor Teti Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Unas[13] Wnjs Translation uncertain: Behold the being[14] (if Unas is read As-un) The swift one (name of the goddess Wenet) The one who truly exists[15] Nomen Unas[13][16] wnjs Translation uncertain: Behold the being[14] (if Unas is read As-un) The swift one (name of the goddess Wenet) The one who truly exists[15] Hieroglyphic variant: Horus name Wadjtawy[13][16] W3ḏ-t3.w(j) Flourishing of the Two Lands Alternative translation: The sturdy one of the Two Lands[17] Nebty name Wadjemnebty[13][16] W3ḏ-m-nb.tj He who flourishes through the Two Ladies Golden Horus Bik-nebw-Wadj[13][16] Bjk-nb.w-w3ḏ The golden falcon who flourishes Consort Nebet, Khenut Children Hemetre Hemi ♀, Khentkaues ♀, Neferut ♀, Nefertkaues Iku ♀, Sesheshet Idut ♀. Uncertain: Unas-ankh ♂, Iput ♀. Conjectured: Nebkauhor ♂, Shepsespuptah ♂. Father possibly Djedkare Isesi Mother possibly Setibhor Burial Pyramid of Unas Unas /ˈjuːnəs/ or Wenis, also spelled Unis (Ancient Egyptian: wnjs, hellenized form Oenas /ˈiːnəs/ or Onnos), was a pharaoh, the ninth and last ruler of the Fifth Dynasty of Egypt during the Old Kingdom. Unas reigned for 15 to 30 years in the mid-24th century BC (circa 2345–2315 BC), succeeding Djedkare Isesi, who might have been his father. Little is known of Unas' activities during his reign, which was a time of economic decline. Egypt maintained trade relations with the Levantine coast and Nubia, and military action may have taken place in southern Canaan. The growth and decentralization of the administration in conjunction with the lessening of the king's power continued under Unas, ultimately contributing to the collapse of the Old Kingdom some 200 years later. Unas built a pyramid in Saqqara, the smallest of the royal pyramids completed during the Old Kingdom. The accompanying mortuary complex with its high and valley temples linked by a 750-metre-long (2,460 ft) causeway was lavishly decorated with painted reliefs, whose quality and variety surpass the usual royal iconography.[6] Furthermore, Unas was the first pharaoh to have the Pyramid Texts carved and painted on the walls of the chambers of his pyramid, a major innovation that was followed by his successors until the First Intermediate Period (c. 2160 – c. 2050 BC). These texts identify the king with Ra and with Osiris, whose cult was on the rise in Unas' time, and were meant to help the king reach the afterlife. Unas had several daughters and possibly one or two sons who are believed to have predeceased him. Manetho, a third-century BC Egyptian priest of the Ptolemaic Kingdom and author of the first history of Egypt, claims that with Unas' death the Fifth Dynasty came to an end. Unas was succeeded by Teti, the first pharaoh of the Sixth Dynasty, possibly after a short crisis. However, the archaeological evidence suggests that the Egyptians at the time made no conscious break with the preceding dynasty and the distinction between the Fifth and Sixth dynasties might be illusory. The funerary cult of Unas established at his death continued until the end of the Old Kingdom and may have survived during the chaotic First Intermediate Period. The cult was still in existence or revived during the later Middle Kingdom (c. 2050 – c. 1650 BC). This did not prevent Amenemhat I and Senusret I (c. 1990 – c. 1930 BC) from partially dismantling the mortuary complex of Unas for its materials. In parallel to the official cult, Unas may have received popular veneration as a local god of Saqqara until as late as the Late Period (664–332 BC), nearly 2000 years after his death. Contents 1 Attestations 1.1 Historical sources 1.2 Contemporaneous sources 2 Reign 2.1 Family 2.2 Duration 2.3 Activities 2.4 Death and end of a dynasty 3 Evolution of religion and kingship 4 Pyramid complex 4.1 Mortuary complex 4.2 Pyramid Texts 5 Legacy 6 Notes 7 References 8 Bibliography Attestations[edit] Historical sources[edit] Unas is well attested by historical sources with three ancient Egyptian king lists dating to the New Kingdom period mentioning him.[18] He occupies the 33rd entry of the Abydos King List, which was written during the reign of Seti I (1290–1279 BC). Unas' name is also present on the Saqqara Tablet (32nd entry)[19] and on the Turin canon (third column, 25th row), both of which were written during the reign of Ramses II (1279–1213 BC).[18] The Turin canon further credits Unas with 30 years of reign.[18][20] These sources all place Unas as the ninth and final ruler of the Fifth Dynasty, succeeding Djedkare Isesi and preceding Teti on the throne.[21] This relative chronology is corroborated by archaeological evidence, for example in the tomb of officials serving under these kings.[22] In addition to these sources, Unas was also likely mentioned in the Aegyptiaca, a history of Egypt written in the 3rd century BC during the reign of Ptolemy II (283–246 BC) by the Egyptian priest Manetho. No copies of the Aegyptiaca have survived to this day and it is known to us only through later writings by Sextus Julius Africanus and Eusebius. Africanus relates that the Aegyptiaca mentioned a pharaoh "Onnos" reigning for 33 years at the end of the Fifth Dynasty. Onnos is believed to be the hellenized form for Unas, and Africanus' 33-year figure fits well with the 30 years of reign given to Unas on the Turin canon.[18] Contemporaneous sources[edit] Alabaster globular vase of Unas, Louvre[23] The primary contemporaneous sources attesting to Unas' activities are the many reliefs from his pyramid complex. Excluding these, surprisingly few documents dating to Unas' reign have survived to this day, considering the 30-year length that later records give for his reign. Excavations at Abusir, the royal necropolis of the Fifth Dynasty, have produced only four dated inscriptions safely attributable to Unas. They explicitly mention his third, fourth, sixth and eighth years on the throne.[24] Unas also left a rock inscription on the island of Elephantine, next to the First Cataract of the Nile in Nubia.[25] In addition, several alabaster vases bearing Unas' cartouche are known. A complete vessel and additional fragments originating from Byblos[16] on the Levantine coast are now in the National Museum of Beirut.[26] A vase of unknown provenance is located in the National Archaeological Museum of Florence and reads "Horus Wadjtawy, living eternally, king of Upper and Lower Egypt, son of Ra, Unas, living eternally".[27][28][b] Another vessel, of unknown origins, is on display at the Louvre Museum. It is a 17-centimetre-tall (6.7 in), 13.2-centimetre-wide (5.2 in) globular alabaster vase finely decorated with a falcon with outstretched wings and two uraei, or rearing cobras, holding ankh signs surrounding Unas' cartouche.[23] An ointment jar bearing Unas' cartouche and Horus name is in the Brooklyn Museum.[30] Finally, a fragment of a calcite vase rim bearing two cartouches of Unas is on display in the Petrie Museum.[31][c] Reign[edit] Family[edit] Unas assumed the throne at the death of his predecessor Djedkare Isesi. Djedkare is thought to have been Unas' father,[2] in spite of the complete lack of evidence bearing on the question.[33] The succession from Djedkare Isesi to Unas seems to have been smooth.[34] Unas had at least two queens, Nebet[35] and Khenut,[36] who were buried in a large double mastaba adjacent to their husband's pyramid. Unas and Nebet possibly had a son, the "king's son", "royal chamberlain", "priest of Maat" and "overseer of Upper Egypt" Unas-Ankh,[37] who died about 10 years into Unas' reign.[38] The filiation of Unas-Ankh is indirectly hinted at by his name and titles and by the presence of his tomb near those of Nebet and Unas[39] but is not universally accepted.[40][41][d] Two other sons have been proposed, Nebkauhor[43] and Shepsespuptah,[44] but these filiations are conjectural and contested.[45] Unas likely died without a male heir.[45] Unas had at least five daughters named Hemetre Hemi,[46] Khentkaues,[47] Neferut,[48] Nefertkaues Iku,[49] and Sesheshet Idut.[50] The status of another possible daughter, Iput, is uncertain.[51] Duration[edit] Relief of Sahure wearing the tunic of the Sed festival,[52] similar to the relief depicting Unas' Sed festival from his mortuary complex[53] The duration of Unas' reign is uncertain. As indicated above, historical sources credit him with 30 and 33 years on the throne, figures that have been adopted by many Egyptologists, including Flinders Petrie,[54] William C. Hayes,[55] Darrell Baker,[16] Peter Munro,[56] and Jaromir Malek.[6] In favor of such a long reign are scenes[57] of a Sed festival found in Unas' mortuary temple.[58][2] This festival was normally celebrated only after 30 years of reign and was meant to rejuvenate the pharaoh's strength and power. Mere depictions of the festival do not necessarily imply a long reign, however. For example, a relief showing pharaoh Sahure in the tunic of the Sed festival has been found in his mortuary temple,[52][59] although both historical sources and archeological evidence agree that he ruled Egypt for less than 14 full years.[60][10][11] Other Egyptologists suspect a reign of less than 30 years for Unas, owing to the scarcity of artefacts datable to his reign as well as the lack of documents dated to beyond his eighth year on the throne.[61] Hence, Jürgen von Beckerath believes that Unas ruled Egypt for 20 years[10] while Rolf Krauss, David Warburton and Erik Hornung shortened this number to 15 years in their 2012 study of Egyptian chronology.[11] Krauss and Miroslav Verner further question the credibility of the Turin Canon concerning the Fourth and Fifth Dynasties, so that the 30-year figure credited to Unas by the canon might not be reliable.[62] Excavations[63] of the tomb of Nikau-Isesi under the direction of Naguib Kanawati at Saqqara have yielded evidence in support of a shorter reign.[64] Nikau-Isesi was an official who started his career during the reign of Djedkare Isesi. He lived through that of Unas and died as overseer of Upper-Egypt under Unas' successor Teti.[22] Nikau-Isesi is known to have died on the year of the eleventh cattle count during Teti's reign, an event consisting of counting the livestock throughout the country to evaluate the amount of taxes to be levied. It is traditionally believed that such counts occurred every two years during the Old Kingdom and every year during the later Middle Kingdom (c. 2055–c. 1650 BC).[22] Thus, Nikau-Isesi would have lived for 22 years after Teti took the throne and together with the 30 years of reign credited to Unas, would have died past 70 years old.[22] However, forensic examination of his mummy yielded an age at death of no more than 45 years old. This suggests that the cattle count occurred more than once every two years during Unas and Teti's time, possibly irregularly. If so, Unas' 30-year figure on the Turin canon, understood to mean 15 cattle counts, could translate into as little as 15 years, which together with just 11 years during Teti's reign would account for Nikau-Isesi's death at around 40 to 45 years of age.[22] Activities[edit] Drawing[54] of the rock inscription of Unas on Elephantine[e] Trade and warfare Owing to the scarcity of evidence dating to Unas' reign, we know very little about his activities.[16] Existing trade relations with foreign countries and cities, in particular Byblos,[67] seem to have continued during Unas' time on the throne. Reliefs from the causeway of his pyramid complex show two large seagoing ships coming back from an expedition to the Levantine coast with Syro-Canaanite men, who were either the boat crews or slaves.[68][69] Another relief depicts a military campaign,[70] Egyptians armed with bows and daggers attacking Canaanite nomads called the Shasu.[71] Similar reliefs have been found in preceding pyramid complexes, such as that of Sahure, and they may thus be standard themes rather than depictions of actual events.[70] Other sources tend to confirm the accuracy of these depictions; for example, the autobiography of Weni relates many punitive raids against Canaanite nomads in the early Sixth Dynasty.[70][72] To the South of Egypt, inscriptions of Unas on Elephantine record a visit of the king to Lower Nubia, possibly to receive tribute from local chieftains[58] or because of growing unrest in the region.[73] In addition, a relief from the causeway of Unas leading to his pyramid shows a giraffe, suggesting trade relations with Nubia.[74] Domestic Relief showing starving nomads from Unas' causeway at Saqqara Unas' reign was a time of economic decline[73] although, as the French Egyptologist Nicolas Grimal writes, it was "by no means a time of decadence".[33] Indeed, the Egyptian state was still capable of mounting important expeditions to provide building stones for the king's pyramid complex.[2] These expeditions are depicted on unique reliefs found in Unas' causeway[75][76][2] and are also referred to in the autobiographical stela of an administration official.[77][f] This official reports the transport of 10.40-metre-tall (34.1-foot) palmiform[g] columns of red granite from Elephantine to Saqqara in only four days, a feat for which he was praised by the king.[77] In addition to the important construction works undertaken in Saqqara for the construction of his pyramid complex, building activities also took place on Elephantine.[33] Until 1996, the domestic situation during Unas' reign was thought to have been disastrous, based on reliefs from the causeway of his pyramid complex showing emaciated people and thus suggesting times of famine.[5][79] This changed when excavations at Abusir in 1996 yielded similar reliefs in the mortuary complex of Sahure, who reigned at a prosperous time in the early Fifth Dynasty.[80] In addition, research showed that the starving people are likely to be desert dwellers, nomads distinguished by their specific hair-style, rather than Egyptians.[81] Thus, these reliefs are now understood to be standard representations of the generosity of the king towards the destitute and of the hardships of life in the desert regions bordering Egypt[82] rather than referring to actual events.[81] Death and end of a dynasty[edit] In his history of Egypt Manetho states that with the death of Unas the Fifth Dynasty came to an end.[33] This may be because Unas died without a male heir,[73] his probable son Unas-Ankh having predeceased him. This might have caused a succession crisis[73] hinted at by the personal name chosen by Teti upon his accession to the throne: "Seheteptawy" meaning "He who reconciles/pacifies the two lands".[33][73] Teti's claim to the throne could have relied on his marriage to Iput, who may have been a daughter of Unas.[83][84][85] This possibility is heavily debated, as the interpretation of Iput's titles that would indicate that she was the daughter of a king is uncertain.[h][51] Furthermore, the idea that Teti could legitimate his claim by marrying into the royal family is rejected by many Egyptologists, including Munro, Dobrev, Baud, Mertz, Pirenne, and Robin, who do not think that the right to the pharaonic throne passed through the female line.[86] In addition to Manetho's statement, the Turin king list presents a special break point between Unas and his successor Teti. Although the king list is not organized in dynasties–which were invented by Manetho–the Egyptologist Jaromir Malek explains that "the criterion for such divisions in the Turin Canon invariably was the change of location of the capital and royal residence."[84] Malek thus suggests that the capital of Egypt, then known as Inbu-Hedj,[i] was indeed supplanted at the time by settlements located to the South, East of South Saqqara, where Unas' palace may have been located. In the second millennium BC these cities finally merged and gave rise to Memphis.[88][j] Whatever the basis for Manetho's choice to end the Fifth Dynasty with Unas, Egyptians living at the time probably perceived no particular change from one dynasty to the next.[33] The administration of the state shows no evidence of disturbances, with many officials continuing their careers from Unas' onto Teti's reign.[33] These include the viziers Mehu, Kagemni and Nikau-Isesi and the overseer of the province of Edfu Isi.[89] Given that the Egyptians of the Old Kingdom might not have conceived of dynasties,[90] the distinction between the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties might be illusory.[33] Evolution of religion and kingship[edit] The reigns of Djedkare Isesi and of Unas were a time of changes in Ancient Egyptian religion and in the ideology of kingship, changes that are first demonstrable under Unas.[91] A statistical analysis of clay seal fragments bearing Horus names of pharaohs of the Fifth Dynasty points to a marked decline of the cult of the king during Unas' time on the throne.[92] This continued under Unas' successor Teti, for whom we know only two seals bearing his Horus name.[93] This trend reflects the lessening of the king's power in conjunction with the growth of the administration and priesthood.[73] Meanwhile, the cult of Osiris was becoming more important[94] with this god replacing the king as the guarantor of life after death for the pharaoh's subjects.[84][95] The German Egyptologist Hartwig Altenmüller writes that for an Egyptian of the time "the [...] afterlife no longer depends on the relationship between the individual mortal and the king, [...] instead it is linked to his ethical position in direct relation to Osiris".[95] In contrast, the cult of the sun god Ra was in apparent decline,[96] even though Ra was still the most important deity of the Egyptian pantheon.[95] Thus, Djedkare Isesi and Unas did not build a sun temple in contrast with most of their Fifth Dynasty predecessors.[94][97] In addition, the names of Menkauhor Kaiu and Unas do not incorporate any reference to Ra, in rupture with a tradition which held since the reign of Userkaf, about a century earlier. The Pyramid Texts found in Unas' pyramid demonstrate the importance of Osiris and Ra in ancient Egyptian religion at the time. Both gods were believed to play the key roles in accessing the afterlife, with Ra as the source of life and Osiris as the force through which the next life would be attained.[98][k] Pyramid complex[edit] The pyramid of Unas at Saqqara Main article: Pyramid of Unas Unas had a pyramid built for himself in North Saqqara, between the pyramid of Sekhemkhet and the southwestern corner of the pyramid complex of Djoser, in symmetry with the pyramid of Userkaf located at the northeastern corner.[102] In the process, workers leveled and covered older tombs located in the area,[2] most notably the tomb of the Second Dynasty pharaoh Hotepsekhemwy (c. 2890 BC).[102] The original Egyptian name of the pyramid was "Nefer Isut Unas", meaning "Beautiful are the places of Unas".[103] The pyramid of Unas is the smallest[102] of the pyramids completed during the Old Kingdom, having a square base of 57.7 m × 57.7 m (189 ft × 189 ft) for a height of 43 m (141 ft).[102][103] Mortuary complex[edit] A restored section of the causeway of Unas The pyramid of Unas is part of a larger mortuary complex built around it. It was approached via an ancient lake[104] on the shores of which Unas' valley temple was located. This temple received the provisions for the cult of the king and the offerings to be made were prepared there. At the back of the valley temple was the beginning of a 750-metre (2,460-foot) causeway, equaled only by that of Khufu,[102] and leading to an upper temple adjacent to the pyramid. A thin slit in the roof of the causeway allowed the light to illuminate its walls covered for their entire length in painted reliefs. These depicted the Egyptian seasons, processions of people from the nomes of Egypt, craftsmen at work, offerings bearers, battle scenes and the transport of granite columns for the construction of the pyramid complex.[105] At the end of the causeway was a large hall leading to a pillared open court surrounded by magazine chambers.[105] The court led into the mortuary temple proper which housed statues of the king and where the offerings to the deceased took place.[105] This was immediately adjacent to the eastern side of the pyramid, which was surrounded by an enclosure wall defining the sacred space. At the southeast corner of the enclosure was a small satellite pyramid for the Ka of the king.[102] The internal chambers of the pyramid were entered in 1881 by Gaston Maspero, who thus discovered the pyramid texts. The burial chamber housed nothing but a black greywacke[1] sarcophagus sunk into the floor and a canopic chest. The sarcophagus proved to contain scattered bones, which may belong to Unas.[102] Pyramid Texts[edit] Main article: Pyramid Texts The Pyramid Texts inscribed on the walls of Unas' burial chamber The main innovation of the pyramid of Unas is the first appearance of the Pyramid Texts,[6] one of the oldest religious texts in Egypt to have survived to this day.[l] In doing so, Unas initiated a tradition that would be followed in the pyramid of the kings and queens of the Sixth to Eighth Dynasties, until the end of the Old Kingdom circa 200 years later.[107] In total 283 magical spells,[106][m] also known as utterances, were carved and the signs painted blue on the walls of the corridor, antechamber, and burial chamber of Unas' pyramid.[109] They constitute the most complete rendition of the Pyramid Texts existing today.[110] These spells were intended to help the king in overcoming hostile forces and powers in the Underworld and thus join with the sun god Ra, his divine father in the afterlife.[111] By writing the texts on the walls of the pyramid internal chambers, the architects of Unas' pyramid ensured that the king would benefit from their potency even if the funerary cult was to cease.[2][112] Hence, the Pyramid Texts of the pyramid of Unas incorporate instructions for ritual actions and words to be spoken, suggesting that they were precisely those performed and recited during the cult of the king in his mortuary temple.[113] The good preservation of the texts in Unas' pyramid shows that they were arranged so as to be read by the Ba of Unas, as it arose from the sarcophagus thanks to resurrection utterances and surrounded by protective spells and ritual offerings.[110][114] The Ba would then leave the burial chamber, which incorporates texts identifying the king with Osiris in the Duat, and would move to the antechamber symbolizing the Akhet. Included in the spells written on the walls of the antechamber of Unas are two utterances known as the Cannibal Hymn, which portrays the pharaoh as flying to heaven through a stormy sky and eating both gods and men. In doing so the king would receive the life force of the gods.[110][n][o] At this point the Ba of Unas would face east, the direction of the sunrise, and beyond the pyramid masonry, the false door of the mortuary temple where funerary rituals were performed. Finally, turning left the Ba would join Ra in the sky by passing through the pyramid corridor.[110] An example of a spell from the pyramid of Unas is Utterance 217:[111] Re-Atum, this Unas comes to you A spirit indestructible Your son comes to you This Unas comes to you May you cross the sky united in the dark May you rise in lightland, the place in which you shine! Legacy[edit] Scarab bearing Unas' name[117] Unas' most immediate legacy is his funerary cult, which continued at least until the end of the Old Kingdom. This cult is attested by the tombs at Saqqara of seven priests responsible for the religious duties to be performed in the funerary complex. Three of these tombs date to the early Sixth Dynasty in the time following the death of Pepi I. Three more tombs date to the reign of Pepi II and the last one dates to the very end of the Old Kingdom (c. 2180 BC). The priests of the cult of Unas adopted basilophorous names, incorporating that of the king, possibly upon taking office.[118] Unas' funerary cult appears to have survived during the chaotic First Intermediate Period until the Middle Kingdom.[119] By the time of the 12th Dynasty (c. 1990–c. 1800 BC), the lector-priest Unasemsaf[p] and his family were involved in the cult of Unas.[120][121] In spite of this, Unas' funerary complex was partially dismantled and its materials reemployed for the construction of Amenemhat I and Senusret I own pyramid complexes.[122][123] In addition to his official cult, Unas was deified and became a local god of the Saqqara necropolis. Grimal attributes this directly to the grandeur of his funerary complex.[33] Malek doubts the existence of a popular cult of Unas during the Old Kingdom but acknowledges it from the Middle Kingdom onwards.[124] He attributes this Middle Kingdom revival to the geographic position of Unas' complex making it a natural gateway to the Saqqara necropolis.[125] The popular cult of the deified Unas continued for nearly 2,000 years as shown by the numerous scarabs bearing Unas' name found in Saqqara and dated from the New Kingdom (c.1550–c.1077 BC) until the Late Period (664–332 BC).[117][126][127][128] The epicenter of this cult was not the pyramid of Unas nor the associated mortuary temple but rather the statues of the king in the valley temple.[129] This activity could explain why the pyramid complex of Unas was the object of restoration works under the impulse of Prince Khaemweset, a son of Ramesses II (1279–1213 BC).[105] Notes[edit] ^ Proposed dates for Unas' reign: 2404–2374 BC,[2][3] 2375–2345 BC,[4][5][6][7] 2367–2347 BC,[8] 2353–2323 BC,[9] 2342–2322 BC,[10] 2321–2306 BC[11] 2312–2282 BC.[12] ^ Inventory number 3253.[29] ^ Reference number UC13258.[32] ^ In particular the title of "king's son" was given to both actual royal sons and non-royal high officials.[42] ^ The text of the inscription reads "Horus Wadjtawy, the king of Upper and Lower Egypt Unas, lord of the foreign lands, given life and dominion for ever, beloved of Khnum, given life for ever".[65][66] ^ Stela CG 1433, Egyptian Museum, Cairo.[77] ^ A palmiform column is a column whose capital has the form of palm leaves. This style is for example present in the mortuary complex of king Sahure.[78] ^ Iput held the title of z3t nswt-bjtj, which literally means "Daughter of the king of Upper and Lower Egypt". However, this title could equally well be a variant of z3t-ntjr, meaning that she was the mother of a king (Pepi I)[51] ^ Inbu-Hedj means "White Walls".[87] ^ From "Mennefer", meaning "Perfect and enduring", the name of the pyramid of Pepi I next to which Mennefer was located.[87] ^ Another important religious work, the Memphite Theology, may have been written during the reign of Unas.[73] The Memphite Theology is a story of the creation of the world and of the religious and social order of ancient Egypt through the word and will of the god Ptah. The king himself is described as the personified Horus and an aspect of Ptah.[99] It is now widely believed, however, that this theological text dates to either to the 19th Dynasty or to the much later 25th Dynasty (760–656 BC).[100][101] ^ Note that the archaic style of certain sections of the Pyramid Texts indicate that these are much older than Unas' reign.[106] ^ The number reported differs from scholar to scholar. Clayton mentions 228 spells;[108] Allen gives 236.[107] ^ While most historians believe that it is unlikely that Unas himself engaged in cannibalism, the Egyptologist Ernest Alfred Wallis Budge proposed that the Cannibal Hymn may harken back to an earlier time in Egyptian history when cannibalism was in fact practiced.[115] ^ This inspired the American technical death metal band Nile, which recorded an 11:43-long song titled "Unas, Slayer of the Gods" based on the Cannibal Hymn. It appears on their 2002 album In Their Darkened Shrines.[116] ^ Unasemsaf means "Unas is his protection". References[edit] ^ a b Verner 2001d, p. 334. ^ a b c d e f g Altenmüller 2001, p. 600. ^ Hawass & Senussi 2008, p. 10. ^ Clayton 1994, p. 60. ^ a b Rice 1999, p. 213. ^ a b c d Malek 2000a, p. 102. ^ Lloyd 2010, p. xxxiv. ^ Strudwick 2005, p. xxx. ^ Arnold 1999. ^ a b c von Beckerath 1999, p. 283. ^ a b c Hornung 2012, p. 491. ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 288. ^ a b c d e Barsanti 1901, p. 254. ^ a b Petrie 1917, p. 18 & p. 63. ^ a b Leprohon 2013, p. 41, footnote 65. ^ a b c d e f g Baker 2008, p. 482. ^ Leprohon 2013, p. 40. ^ a b c d Baker 2008, pp. 482–483. ^ Mariette 1864, p. 15. ^ Gardiner 1959, pl. II & Col. III num. 25. ^ von Beckerath 1999, pp. 60–61, king no. 9. ^ a b c d e Kanawati 2001, pp. 1–2. ^ a b Ziegler in Allen et al. 1999, pp. 361–362, "123. Jar inscribed with the name of king Unis". ^ Verner 2001a, pp. 410–411. ^ Petrie 1907, p. 84 & fig. 49 p. 82. ^ Porter, Moss & Burney 1951, p. 390. ^ Guidotti 1991, p. 82, no. 18. ^ Vase of Unas 2015. ^ Touring Club Italiano 1993, p. 352. ^ Brooklyn Museum Catalog 2015. ^ Brunton 2015. ^ Digital Egypt 2000. ^ a b c d e f g h i Grimal 1992, p. 80. ^ Baud 1999, p. 563. ^ Baud 1999, p. 489. ^ Baud 1999, p. 545. ^ Williams 1981, p. 31. ^ Onderka 2009, p. 166. ^ Baud 1999, p. 422. ^ Schmitz 1976, p. 31 & 89. ^ Onderka 2009, p. 150 & pp. 167–170. ^ Onderka 2009, pp. 149–150. ^ Munro 1993, pp. 20–33. ^ Baud 1999, pp. 580–582. ^ a b Onderka 2009, p. 170. ^ Baud 1999, p. 519. ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 64. ^ Baud 1999, p. 499. ^ Baud 1999, pp. 496–497. ^ Baud 1999, pp. 564–565. ^ a b c Baud 1999, pp. 410–411. ^ a b Borchardt 1913, Blatt 45. ^ Labrousse, Lauer & Leclant 1977, p. 86, fig. 57. ^ a b Petrie 1907, p. 82. ^ Hayes 1978, p. 58. ^ Munro 1993, p. 8ff. ^ Labrousse, Lauer & Leclant 1977, p. 85, fig. 56 & p. 86 fig. 57. ^ a b Baker 2008, p. 483. ^ Richter 2013. ^ Rice 1999, p. 173. ^ Verner 2001a, p. 411. ^ Verner 2001a, p. 416. ^ Kanawati & ʻAbd-ar-Rāziq 2000. ^ Verner 2001a, p. 412. ^ Strudwick 2005, p. 133, num. 48. ^ Sethe 1903, entry 69. ^ Malek 2000a, p. 106. ^ Hayes 1978, p. 67. ^ Wachsmann 1998, p. 12 & p. 18. ^ a b c Malek 2000a, p. 105. ^ Stevenson Smith 1971, p. 189. ^ Lichtheim 1973, pp. 18–23. ^ a b c d e f g Verner 2001b, p. 590. ^ Stevenson Smith 1971, p. 188. ^ Landström 1970, p. 62, fig. 185. ^ Lehner 1997, p. 202. ^ a b c Fischer 1975. ^ Lehner 1997, pp. 142–144. ^ Dodson 1995, pp. 38–39. ^ Hawass & Verner 1996, pp. 184–185. ^ a b Ziegler in Allen et al. 1999, pp. 360, "122. Starving bedouin". ^ Coulon 2008, p. 2. ^ Stevenson Smith 1971, p. 190. ^ a b c Malek 2000a, p. 103. ^ Baker 2008, p. 461. ^ Baud & Dobrev 1995, p. 58. ^ a b Jeffreys 2001, p. 373. ^ Malek 2000a, p. 104. ^ Altenmüller 2001, p. 602. ^ Baud & Dobrev 1995, pp. 55–58. ^ Goedicke 1971, p. 155. ^ Verner 2001a, pp. 408–409. ^ Verner 2001a, p. 409. ^ a b Dorman 2015. ^ a b c Altenmüller 2001, p. 601. ^ Verner 2001b, p. 589. ^ Verner 2003, p. 84. ^ Allen & Der Manuelian 2005, pp. 7–8, The Function of the Pyramid Texts. ^ Arieh Tobin 2001, p. 471. ^ Arieh Tobin 2001, p. 470. ^ Ockinga 2010, p. 113. ^ a b c d e f g Lehner 1997, p. 154. ^ a b Grimal 1992, p. 118, Table 3. ^ Lehner 1997, p. 83. ^ a b c d Lehner 1997, p. 155. ^ a b Lehner 1997, pp. 154–155. ^ a b Allen 2001, p. 95. ^ Clayton 1994, p. 63. ^ Verner 2001c, p. 92. ^ a b c d Lehner 1997, p. 33. ^ a b Oakes & Gahlin 2002, p. 94. ^ Lehner 1997, p. 95. ^ Lehner 1997, pp. 32–33. ^ Allen 2001, p. 96. ^ Budge 1988, p. 323. ^ Music Song Lyrics 2015, Nile Unas Slayer Of The Gods lyrics. ^ a b Petrie 1917, Plate IX & p. 34, see the scarabs. ^ Altenmüller 1974, pp. 3–4. ^ Morales 2006, p. 314. ^ Moussa 1971. ^ Moussa & Altenmüller 1975. ^ Goedicke 1971. ^ Malek 2000b, p. 257. ^ Malek 2000b, pp. 250–251. ^ Malek 2000b, p. 256. ^ Newberry 2003, Plate IV. Scarabs 32, 33 & 34. ^ MFA Online catalog 2015. ^ MMA Online catalog 2015. ^ Gundlach 2001, p. 375. Bibliography[edit] Allen, James; Allen, Susan; Anderson, Julie; Arnold, Arnold; Arnold, Dorothea; Cherpion, Nadine; David, Élisabeth; Grimal, Nicolas; Grzymski, Krzysztof; Hawass, Zahi; Hill, Marsha; Jánosi, Peter; Labée-Toutée, Sophie; Labrousse, Audran; Lauer, Jean-Phillippe; Leclant, Jean; Der Manuelian, Peter; Millet, N. B.; Oppenheim, Adela; Craig Patch, Diana; Pischikova, Elena; Rigault, Patricia; Roehrig, Catharine H.; Wildung, Dietrich; Ziegler, Christiane (1999). Egyptian Art in the Age of the Pyramids. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0-8109-6543-0. OCLC 41431623. Allen, James (2001). "Pyramid Texts". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. 3. Oxford University Press. pp. 95–98. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5. Allen, James; Der Manuelian, Peter (2005). The ancient Egyptian pyramid texts. Writings from the Ancient World. 23. 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Verner, Miroslav (2003). Abusir: The Realm of Osiris. The American University in Cairo Press. ISBN 978-977-424-723-1. Wachsmann, Shelley (1998). Seagoing Ships and Seamanship in the Bronze Age Levant. College Station: Texas A & M University Press. ISBN 978-0-89096-709-6. Williams, Bruce (1981). Walsten, David (ed.). "The Tomb Chapels of Netjer-User and Unis-Ankh". Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin. Chicago: 26–32. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Unas. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pyramid of Unas. Preceded by Djedkare Isesi Pharaoh of Egypt Fifth Dynasty (end of dynasty) Succeeded by Teti v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Unas&oldid=1002247560" Categories: 24th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Featured articles Articles containing Ancient Egyptian-language text CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1: long volume value CS1 French-language sources (fr) CS1 Italian-language sources (it) Commons category link is on Wikidata Commons category link is locally defined AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 January 2021, at 14:54 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6120	----	Ramesses V - Wikipedia Ramesses V From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ramesses V Also written Ramses and Rameses Obelisk of Ramesses V. Archaeological Museum of Bologna, KS 1884 Pharaoh Reign 1149–1145 BC (20th Dynasty) Predecessor Ramesses IV Successor Ramesses VI Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Usermaatre Sekheperenre Wsr-m3ˁt-Rˁ-s-ḫpr-n-Rˁ Ra is rich in Maat, he who Ra has raised Nomen Ramesisu Imen(her)khepeschef Rˁ msj sw Jmn (ḥr) ḫpš.f Ra is the one who created him; Amun is his force Horus name Kanekhetmenmaat K3-nḫt-mn-m3ˁt Strong bull, whose Maat is permanent Golden Horus User-renput-mer-Atum Wsr-rnpwt-mr-Jtm Rich in years like Atum Consort Henutwati and Tawerettenru Father Ramesses IV Mother Duatentopet Died 1145 BC Burial KV9 Usermaatre Sekheperenre Ramesses V (also written Ramses and Rameses) was the fourth pharaoh of the Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt and was the son of Ramesses IV and Duatentopet. Contents 1 Reign 2 Death 3 References 4 Further reading 5 External links Reign[edit] Ramesses V's reign was characterized by the continued growth of the power of the priesthood of Amun, which controlled much of the temple land in the country and the state finances, at the expense of the ruling pharaohs. The Turin 1887 papyrus records a financial scandal during Ramesses' reign that involved the priests of Elephantine. A period of domestic instability also afflicted his reign, as evidenced by the fact that, according to the Turin Papyrus Cat. 2044, the workmen of Deir el-Medina periodically stopped work on Ramesses V's KV9 tomb in this king's first regnal year, out of fear of "the enemy", presumably Libyan raiding parties, who had reached the town of Per-Nebyt and "burnt its people."[1] Another incursion by these raiders into Thebes is recorded a few days later.[2] This shows that the Egyptian state was having difficulties ensuring the security of its own elite tomb workers, let alone the general populace, during this troubled time. The Wilbour Papyrus, believed to date to Year 4 of Ramesses V's reign, was a major land survey and tax assessment document which covered various lands "extending from near Crocodilopolis (Medinet el-Fayyum) southwards to a little short of the modern town of El-Minya, a distance of some 90 miles."[3] It reveals most of Egypt's land was controlled by the Amun temples, which also directed the country's finances. The document highlights the increasing power of the High Priest of Amun Ramessesnakht whose son, a certain Usimare'nakhte, held the office of chief tax master. Death[edit] This section may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may interest only a particular audience. Please help by spinning off or relocating any relevant information, and removing excessive detail that may be against Wikipedia's inclusion policy. (May 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The circumstances of Ramesses V's death are unknown but it is believed he had a reign of almost four full years. It is possible he was dethroned by his paternal uncle and successor, Ramesses VI because Ramesses VI usurped his predecessor's KV9 tomb.[4] An ostracon records that this king was only buried in Year 2 of Ramesses VI, which was highly irregular since Egyptian tradition required a king to be mummified and buried precisely 70 days into the reign of his successor.[5] Ramesses V's mummified head. However, another reason for the much delayed burial of Ramesses V in Year 2, second month of Akhet day 1 of Ramesses VI's reign (see KRI, VI, 343) may have been connected with Ramesses VI's need "to clear out any Libyans [invaders] from Thebes and to provide a temporary tomb for Ramesses V until plans for a double burial within tomb KV9 could be put into effect."[2] Moreover, a Theban work journal (P. Turin 1923) dated to Year 2 of Ramesses VI's reign shows that a period of normality had returned to the Theban West Bank by this time.[2] The mummy of Ramesses V was recovered in 1898 and seemed to indicate that he suffered and subsequently died from smallpox, due to lesions found on his face. He was thought to be one of the earliest known victims of the disease.[6][7] While a 2016 discovery has found that the shared ancestral form of smallpox dates back to 1580 AD, this study merely indicates that the strains of smallpox circulating at the time of smallpox eradication had a common ancestor in the late 16th century, specifically that "the VARV lineages eradicated during the 20th century had only been in existence for ∼200 years, at a time of rapidly expanding human movement and population size in the face of increasingly widespread inoculation and vaccination." Indeed, they say merely about ancient cases of smallpox that "if they were indeed due to smallpox, these early cases were caused by virus lineages that were no longer circulating at the point of eradication in the 1970s."[8] It is little surprise that the advent of vaccination or indeed even variolation in China and Japan during the middle ages could have altered the relative presence of smallpox strains and diminished the presence of ancient strains.[9] A 2015 review summarizing recent research into the question of smallpox evolution and divergence from its common ancestors suggests it is most likely that smallpox evolved 3000–4000 years ago in East Africa or India, which is not inherently contradicted by the study described[10] the latter of which contains descriptions of smallpox from before the first century AD at least. Finally, another genomic analysis places the evolution of smallpox at even 16,000 years before present, and mentions Ramses V specifically, writing that "if the pustular eruption of Ramses V was from smallpox, it could represent a smallpox outbreak from imported cases... rather than regional endemic disease. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that only three mummies in that period had similar lesions."[11] References[edit] ^ A.J. Peden, The Reign of Ramesses IV, (Aris & Phillips Ltd: 1994), p.21 Peden's source on these recorded disturbances is KRI, VI, 340-343 ^ a b c Peden, p.21 ^ Alan Gardiner, Egypt of the Pharaohs, 1961 ^ Peter Clayton, Chronology of the Pharaohs, Thames & Hudson Ltd, (1994), p.168 ^ Clayton, p.167 ^ Erik Hornung, "The Pharaoh" p.292 in The Egyptians (ed.) Sergio Donadoni and Robert Bianchi, University of Chicago Press, 1997 [1] ^ Donald, R. Hopkins, "Ramses V" ^ Duggan, Ana T.; Perdomo, Maria F.; Piombino-Mascali, Dario; Marciniak, Stephanie; Poinar, Debi; Emery, Matthew V.; Buchmann, Jan P.; Duchêne, Sebastian; Jankauskas, Rimantas; Humphreys, Margaret; Golding, G. Brian; Southon, John; Devault, Alison; Rouillard, Jean-Marie; Sahl, Jason W.; Dutour, Olivier; Hedman, Klaus; Sajantila, Antti; Smith, Geoffrey L.; Holmes, Edward C.; Poinar, Hendrik N. (19 December 2016). "17th Century Variola Virus Reveals the Recent History of Smallpox". Current Biology. 26 (24): 3407–3412. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2016.10.061. PMC 5196022. PMID 27939314. ^ https://biotech.law.lsu.edu/blaw/bt/smallpox/who/red-book/Chp%2006.pdf/ Early Efforts at Control: Variolation, Vaccination, and Isolation and Quarantine ^ Babkin, Igor; Babkina, Irina (10 March 2015). "The Origin of the Variola Virus". Viruses. 7 (3): 1100–1112. doi:10.3390/v7031100. PMC 4379562. PMID 25763864. ^ Li, Y.; Carroll, D. S.; Gardner, S. N.; Walsh, M. C.; Vitalis, E. A.; Damon, I. K. (27 September 2007). "On the origin of smallpox: Correlating variola phylogenics with historical smallpox records". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 104 (40): 15787–15792. doi:10.1073/pnas.0609268104. PMC 2000395. PMID 17901212. Further reading[edit] A.J. Peden, Where did Ramesses VI bury his nephew?, GM 181 (2001), 83-88 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ramses V. Ramesses V at Find a Grave v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ramesses_V&oldid=993647635" Categories: Ramesses V 12th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Ancient Egyptian mummies 1145 BC deaths Deaths from smallpox 12th century BC in Egypt 12th-century BC rulers Ramesses IV Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles that are excessively detailed from May 2020 All articles that are excessively detailed Wikipedia articles with style issues from May 2020 All articles with style issues Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Български Bosanski Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 11 December 2020, at 18:52 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6137	----	Arsames - Wikipedia Arsames From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search son of Ariaramnes and perhaps briefly Achaemenid king of Persia (c. 520 BC) For other uses, see Arsames (disambiguation). Position of Arsames in the Achaemenid lineage according to Darius the Great in the Behistun inscription. Arsames (Old Persian: 𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠𐎶[1] Aršāma,[2] modern Persian:،آرسام، آرشام‎[3] Arshām, Greek: Ἀρσάμης; – ca. 520 BC) was the son of Ariaramnes and perhaps briefly the king of Persia during the Achaemenid dynasty, but he gave up the throne and declared loyalty to Cyrus II of Persia. After this, Arsames most likely retired to his family estate in the Persian heartland of Parsa, and lived out the rest of his long years there peacefully, though he may nominally have exercised the duties of a "lesser king" under the authority of the "Great King". In an inscription allegedly found in Hamadan[4] he is called "king of Persia", but some scholars believe it is a fraud, either modern or ancient. Another attestation of his reign is the Behistun Inscription, where his grandson Darius I lists him among his royal forebears and counts him among the eight kings who preceded him. Arsames was the father of Hystaspes, satrap of Parthia, of Pharnaces, satrap of Phrygia and of Megabates, general. Arsames would live to see his grandson, Darius I, become the Great King of the Persian Empire, though he would die during his reign. In any case, he would seem to have been one of the longest-surviving royals anywhere in the world at that time, possibly living well into his nineties. The name translates to "having a hero's strength".[5] The feminine version of the name is Aršāmā (modern Persian:ارشاما [Arshāmā], Greek: Arsamē [6]), and was the name of the daughter of Darius I.[7] References[edit] ^ Akbarzadeh (2006), page 56 ^ Kent (2005), page 393 ^ Kent (2005), page 392 ^ The inscription is known among Old Persian scholars by the code AsH. ^ "ARŠĀMA – Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2020-04-09. ^ "ARŠĀMA – Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2020-04-09. ^ "ARŠĀMA – Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2020-04-09. Bibliography[edit] Akbarzadeh, D.; A. Yahyanezhad (2006). The Behistun Inscriptions (Old Persian Texts) (in Persian). Khaneye-Farhikhtagan-e Honarhaye Sonati. ISBN 964-8499-05-5. Kent, Ronald Grubb (2005). Old Persian: Grammar, Text, Glossary (in Persian). translated into Persian by S. Oryan. p. 393. ISBN 964-421-045-X. A. Sh. Shahbazi: "Arsama", in Encyclopaedia Iranica. External links[edit] Arsames page at livius.org Arsames Achaemenid dynasty Born: ?? Died: c. 520 BC Preceded by Ariamenes King of Persia Succeeded by Cyrus II v t e Median and Achaemenid kings Family tree Median (728–550 BC) Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Achaemenid (550–330 BC) Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Nothus Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Italics indicate kings not directly attested and so possibly legendary. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC This biography of an Iranian ruler or member of a royal family is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arsames&oldid=997132247" Categories: Ancient Persian people Kings of the Achaemenid Empire 5th-century BC rulers 6th-century BC Iranian people Iranian royalty stubs Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text CS1 Persian-language sources (fa) All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Hrvatski Kurdî Magyar Malagasy Bahasa Melayu Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 30 December 2020, at 03:57 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6153	----	Merankhre Mentuhotep - Wikipedia Merankhre Mentuhotep From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Merankhre Mentuhotep VI Montuhotep VI Statue of Mentuhotep VI, British Museum EA 65429. Pharaoh Reign short, ca. 1585 BC (16th dynasty) Predecessor uncertain, Djedankhre Montemsaf [1][2] Successor uncertain, Senusret IV [1][2] Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Merankhre Mr-ˁnḫ-Rˁ He whose life is beloved by Ra Nomen Mentuhotep Mn-ṯw-ḥtp Montu is content Consort Sitmut ? Children Herunefer ? Merankhre Mentuhotep VI was a Theban king of the Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt based in Upper Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period. He was perhaps the 14th king of the dynasty.[3] Contents 1 Attestations 2 Chronological position 3 References Attestations[edit] Merankhre Mentuhotep is only attested through two statuettes, JE 37418/CG 42021 and BM EA 65429. The first, discovered in the Karnak cachette by Georges Legrain,[4] is missing its head and feet and gives the king's nomen and prenomen as well as a dedication to the god Sobek, lord of smnw.[2][3] The second statuette whose origin is unknown also bears the titulary of the king but with no dedication. Another possible attestation of Merankhre Mentuhotep VI is given by a fragment of a wooden coffin, now in the British Museum under the catalog number BM EA 29997. The coffin bears the following text:[2] The Patrician, Royal Representative, Eldest King's son, the Senior Commander Herunefer, true of voice, who was begotten by king Mentuhotep, true of voice, and borne by the senior Queen Sitmut. The prenomen of the king Mentuhotep is missing and the identification of this Mentuhotep remains problematic. Kim Ryholt notes however that the coffin is also inscribed with an early version of passages of the Book of the Dead, which is one of only two pre-New Kingdom inscriptions of this text. Thus, Ryholt argues that this Mentuhotep must have reigned during the late Second Intermediate Period. Thus three kings could possibly be the one mentioned on the coffin: Seankhenre Mentuhotepi, Sewadjare Mentuhotep V and Merankhre Mentuhotep VI. Although it sounds similar to Mentuhotep, Ryholt has shown that Mentuhotepi is a different name than Mentuhotep and would therefore not have been reported as Mentuhotep. To decide between the two remaining kings, Ryholt notes that the other instance of the Book of the Dead is found on the coffin of queen Mentuhotep, wife of Djehuti, the second pharaoh of the 16th Dynasty who reigned c. 1645 BC. In this case, the text is almost identical to that found on Herunefer's coffin, which argues for a close proximity in time between the two. While Sewadjare Mentuhotep reigned c. 10 years before Djehuti, Merankhre Mentuhotep is believed to have reigned 60 years after him. Hence, Ryholt concludes that Sewadjare Mentuhotep is the Mentuhotep of the coffin, Sitmut his queen and Herunefer his son. This identification is far from certain however, and Aidan Dodson and Dyan Hilton have instead dated the coffin to the end of the 16th dynasty, thereby giving Herunefer as the son of Merankhre Mentuhotep VI and Sitmut as his wife.[5] Chronological position[edit] Merankhre Mentuhotep is not attested on the surviving fragments of the Turin canon, his reign and those of four other kings of the end of the 16th Dynasty being lost in a lacuna.[2] For this reason, the exact chronological position as well as the length of his reign cannot be ascertained. Ryholt proposes that Merankhre Mentuhotep was a king of the late 16th dynasty based on two arguments. First, his prenomen Merankhre has the form X-ankh-re, similar to that of Djedankhre Montemsaf and both kings bear the nomen Montu-X which indicates that they succeeded one another closely in time. Second, the first statuette of Merankhre Mentuhotep is dedicated to Sobek of smnw (Sumenu) and was therefore probably set up at el-Mahamid Qibli near Gebelein where both Dedumose II and Djedankhre Montemsaf are attested before being moved to the Karnak cachette at a later point in time, perhaps at the collapse of the dynasty. In an older study conducted in 1964 by Jürgen von Beckerath, Merankhre Mentuhotep was classified as a king of the 13th Dynasty.[6] References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Merankhre Mentuhotep. ^ a b New arrangement on Digital Egypt for Universities ^ a b c d e Kim Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c.1800-1550 B.C, Museum Tusculanum Press, (1997) ^ a b Darell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300 - 1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 232 ^ IFAO, The Karnak cachette: complete list of objects ^ Aidan Dodson, Dyan Hilton: The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, Thames and Hudson, 2004. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt 1964, S. 63, 255–256 (XIII G.) v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Merankhre_Mentuhotep&oldid=972461906" Categories: 16th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 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en-wikipedia-org-6160	----	View source for Template:Persepolis - Wikipedia View source for Template:Persepolis ← Template:Persepolis Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 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en-wikipedia-org-6168	----	Caesarion - Wikipedia Caesarion From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the Rome episode, see Caesarion (Rome). Not to be confused with Caesarean section. Pharaoh of Ptolemaic Egypt Caesarion Caesarion, from the "Unravel the Mystery" Cleopatra exhibit Pharaoh of Ptolemaic Egypt Reign 2 September 44 BC – 12 August 30 BC alongside Cleopatra VII Philopator 12 August 30 BC - late August 30 BC alone; de jure Predecessor Cleopatra Successor Augustus (Roman emperor) Born 23 June 47 BC Ptolemaic Kingdom Died late August 30 BC (aged 17) Alexandria, Roman Egypt Koine Greek Πτολεμαῖος Φιλοπάτωρ Φιλομήτωρ Καῖσαρ, Καισαρίων Transliteration Ptolemaĩos Philopátōr Philomḗtōr Kaĩsar, Kaisaríōn House Julio-Claudian Father Julius Caesar Mother Cleopatra Ptolemy XV Caesar[3] (Koinē Greek: Πτολεμαῖος, Ptolemaĩos; 23 June 47 BC – late August 30 BC), nicknamed Caesarion (Καισαρίων), was the last pharaoh of ancient Egypt, reigning with his mother Cleopatra from 2 September 44 BC until her death by 12 August 30 BC, and as sole ruler until his death was ordered by Octavian, who would later become the first Roman emperor as Augustus. Caesarion was the eldest son of Cleopatra and the only biological son of Julius Caesar, after whom he was named. He was the last sovereign member of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt. Contents 1 Early life 2 Pharaoh 3 Death 4 Depictions 5 Egyptian names 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Early life[edit] Left: reliefs of Cleopatra and Caesarion at the Temple of Dendera Right: a limestone stela of the High Priest of Ptah bearing the cartouches of Cleopatra and Caesarion, Egypt, Ptolemaic Period, the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London Ptolemy Caesar Philopator Philometor (Koinē Greek: Πτολεμαῖος Καῖσαρ Φιλοπάτωρ Φιλομήτωρ, romanized: Ptolemaĩos Kaĩsar Philopátōr Philomḗtōr, lit. 'Ptolemy Caesar, Beloved of his Father, Beloved of his Mother') was born in Egypt on 23 June 47 BC. His mother Cleopatra insisted that he was the son of Roman politician and dictator Julius Caesar, and while he was said to have inherited Caesar's looks and manner, Caesar did not officially acknowledge him. One of Caesar's supporters, Gaius Oppius, even wrote a pamphlet which attempted to prove that Caesar could not have fathered Caesarion. Nevertheless, Caesar may have allowed Caesarion to use his name.[4] The matter became contentious when Caesar's adopted son, Octavian, came into conflict with Cleopatra.[5] In some medical literature, Caesarion is said to have suffered from epilepsy, a neurological condition apparently inherited from his father.[6] This thesis has been disputed by paleopathologist Francesco M. Galassi and surgeon Hutan Ashrafian, who have argued that the first mention of potential epileptic attacks can only be found in 20th-century novels, instead of ancient primary sources. Additionally, they claimed that this controversial assumption had been mistakenly used in the historico-medical debate on Julius Caesar's alleged epilepsy to strengthen the notion that the dictator really suffered from that disease.[7] Caesarion spent two of his infant years, from 46 to 44 BC, in Rome, where he and his mother were Caesar's guests at his villa, Horti Caesaris. Cleopatra hoped that her son would eventually succeed his father as the head of the Roman Republic, as well as of Egypt. After Caesar's assassination on 15 March 44 BC, Cleopatra and Caesarion returned to Egypt. Caesarion was named co-ruler by his mother on 2 September 44 BC at the age of three,[8] although he was pharaoh in name only, with Cleopatra keeping actual authority. Cleopatra compared her relationship to her son with that of the Egyptian goddess Isis and her divine child Horus.[4] There is no historical record of Caesarion between 44 BC until the Donations of Antioch in 36 BC. Two years later he also appears at the Donations of Alexandria. Cleopatra and Antony staged both "Donations" to donate lands dominated by Rome and Parthia to Cleopatra's children: Caesarion, the twins Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene II, and Ptolemy Philadelphus (the last three were his maternal half-siblings fathered by Mark Antony). Octavian gave public approval to the Donations of Antioch in 36 BC, which have been described as an Antonian strategy to rule the East making use of Cleopatra's unique royal Seleucid lineage in the regions donated.[9] Pharaoh[edit] In 34 BC, Antony granted further eastern lands and titles to Caesarion and his own three children with Cleopatra in the Donations of Alexandria. Caesarion was proclaimed to be a god, a son of [a] god, and "King of Kings". This grandiose title was "unprecedented in the management of Roman client-king relationships" and could be seen as "threatening the 'greatness' of the Roman people".[10] Antony also declared Caesarion to be Caesar's true son and heir. This declaration was a direct threat to Octavian (whose claim to power was based on his status as Julius Caesar's grandnephew and adopted son). These proclamations partly caused the fatal breach in Antony's relations with Octavian, who used Roman resentment over the Donations to gain support for war against Antony and Cleopatra.[11] Death[edit] Roman painting from Pompeii, early 1st century AD, most likely depicting Cleopatra VII, wearing her royal diadem, taking poison in an act of suicide, while Caesarion, also wearing a royal diadem, stands behind her[12] After the defeat of Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, Cleopatra seems to have groomed Caesarion to take over as "sole ruler without his mother".[4] She may have intended to go into exile, perhaps with Antony, who may have hoped that he would be allowed to retire as Lepidus had. Caesarion reappears in the historical record in 30 BC, when Octavian invaded Egypt and searched for him. Cleopatra may have sent Caesarion, 17 years old at the time, to the Red Sea port of Berenice for safety, possibly as part of plans for an escape to India; he may have been sent years earlier, but the sources are unclear. Plutarch does say that Caesarion was sent to India, but also that he was lured back by false promises of the kingdom of Egypt: Caesarion, who was said to be Cleopatra's son by Julius Caesar, was sent by his mother, with much treasure, into India, by way of Ethiopia. There Rhodon, another tutor like Theodorus, persuaded him to go back, on the ground that [Octavian] Caesar invited him to take the kingdom.[13] Octavian captured the city of Alexandria on 1 August 30 BC, the date that marks the official annexation of Egypt to the Roman Republic. Around this time Mark Antony and Cleopatra died, traditionally said to be by suicide, though murder has been suggested.[14] Details of the narratives in Plutarch are generally challenged and not taken literally.[15] Caesarion's guardians, including his tutor, were themselves either lured by false promises of mercy into returning him to Alexandria or simply betrayed him; the records are unclear.[citation needed] Octavian is supposed to have had Pharaoh Caesarion executed in Alexandria, following the advice of Arius Didymus, who said "Too many Caesars is not good" (a pun on a line in Homer).[16] It is popularly thought that he was strangled, but the exact circumstances of his death have not been documented.[citation needed] Octavian then assumed absolute control of Egypt. The year 30 BC was considered the first year of the new ruler's reign according to the traditional chronological system of Egypt.[citation needed] Depictions[edit] This mid-1st century BC Roman wall painting in Pompeii, Italy, showing Venus holding a cupid is most likely a depiction of Cleopatra VII of Ptolemaic Egypt as Venus Genetrix, with her son Caesarion as the cupid.[17][18][19] One of two statues of the falcon god Horus behind a smaller depiction of Caesarion at the Temple of Edfu in Edfu, Upper Egypt[20] Few images of Caesarion survive. He is thought to be depicted in a partial statue found in the harbor of Alexandria in 1997 and is also portrayed twice in relief, as an adult pharaoh, with his mother on the Temple of Hathor at Dendera. His infant image appears on some bronze coins of Cleopatra.[21] Egyptian names[edit] In addition to his Greek name and nicknames, Caesarion also had a full set of royal names in the Egyptian language: Iwapanetjer entynehem – "Heir of the god who saves" Setepenptah – "Chosen of Ptah" Irmaatenre – "Carrying out the rule of Ra" or "Sun of righteousness" Sekhemankhamun – "Living image of Amun"[22] See also[edit] Caesareum of Alexandria Gens Julia Reign of Cleopatra List of unsolved murders References[edit] ^ RE Ptolemaios 37 ^ Oxford Classical Dictionary, "Ptolemy XV Caesar" ^ Later full name: Ptolemy Caesar Theos Philopator Philometor (Koinē Greek: Πτολεμαῖος Καῖσαρ Θεὸς Φιλοπάτωρ Φιλομήτωρ).[1][2] ^ a b c Duane W. Roller, Cleopatra: A Biography, Oxford University Press US, 2010, pp. 70–3 ^ "Caesarion | Armstrong Economics". Retrieved 4 November 2020. ^ Hughes J.R. (October 2004). "Dictator Perpetuus. Julius Caesar – Did he have seizures? If so, what was the etiology?". Epilepsy Behav. 5 (5): 765–764. doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2004.06.002. PMID 15380132. S2CID 40812322. ^ Francesco M. Galassi; Hutan Ashrafian (2016). Julius Caesar's Disease. A New Diagnosis. Pen and Sword Books. pp. 45–46. ^ King, Arienne. "Caesarion". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 29 August 2020. ^ Rolf Strootman (2010). "Queen of Kings: Cleopatra VII and the Donations of Alexandria". In M. Facella; T. Kaizer (eds.). Kingdoms and Principalities in the Roman Near East. Occidens et Oriens. 19. Stuttgart, DE: Franz Steiner Verlag. pp. 139–158. ^ Meyer Reinhold (2002). Studies in Classical History and Society. US: Oxford University Press. p. 58. ^ Burstein, Stanley Mayer (2007). The Reign of Cleopatra. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 29. ^ Roller, Duane W. (2010). Cleopatra: A Biography. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 178–179. ISBN 9780195365535. ^ Plutarch, Life of Antony. As found in the Loeb Classical Library, Plutarch's Lives: With an English Translation by Bernadotte Perrin. Volume 9. p. 321. ^ Pat Brown (19 February 2013). The Murder of Cleopatra: History's Greatest Cold Case. Prometheus Books. ^ The Victorian scholar Arthur Hugh Clough, who updated the poet John Dryden's superb translation of Plutarch to give us the best available version in English, remarked in an introduction: It cannot be denied that [Plutarch] is careless about numbers, and occasionally contradicts his own statements. A greater fault, perhaps, is his passion for anecdote; he cannot forbear from repeating stories, the improbability of which he is the first to recognise. Morrow, Lance (July 2004). "Plutarch's Exemplary Lives". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 26 February 2015. ^ David Braund et al, Myth, History and Culture in Republican Rome: Studies in Honour of T.P. Wiseman, University of Exeter Press, 2003, p. 305. The original line was "ουκ αγαθόν πολυκοιρανίη" ("ouk agathon polukoiranie"): "too many leaders are not good", or "the rule of many is a bad thing". (Homer's Iliad, Book II. vers 204–205) In Greek "ουκ αγαθόν πολυκαισαρίη" ("ouk agathon polukaisarie") is a variation on "ουκ αγαθόν πολυκοιρανίη" ("ouk agathon polukoiranie"). "Καισαρ" (Caesar) replacing "κοίρανος", meaning leader. ^ The wall-painting of Venus Genetrix is similar in appearance to the now-lost statue of Cleopatra erected by Julius Caesar in the Temple of Venus Genetrix, within the Forum of Caesar. The owner of the House at Pompeii of Marcus Fabius Rufus, walled off the room with this painting, most likely in immediate reaction to the execution of Caesarion on orders of Augustus in 30 BC, when artistic depictions of Caesarion would have been considered a sensitive issue for the ruling regime. ^ Roller, Duane W. (2010). Cleopatra: A Biography. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 175. ISBN 9780195365535. ^ Walker, Susan (2008). "Cleopatra in Pompeii?". Papers of the British School at Rome. 76: 35–46, 345–348. doi:10.1017/S0068246200000404. ^ Fletcher, Joann (2008), Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend, New York: Harper, pp. 219, image plates and caption between 246–247, ISBN 978-0-06-058558-7 ^ Sear. Greek Coins and Their Values. II. ^ Peter Clayton (1994), Chronicle of the Pharaohs, ISBN 0-500-05074-0 External links[edit] Ptolemy XV Caesarion entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith Caesarion Ptolemaic dynasty Born: 47 BC Died: 30 BC Preceded by Cleopatra VII Philopator Pharaoh of Egypt 44–30 BCE with Cleopatra VII Egypt annexed by Rome v t e Hellenistic rulers Argeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Kings of Cyrene Magas Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Kings of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Kings of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Kings of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Kings of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus Kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon (regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces Asander with Dynamis Mithridates II Asander with Dynamis Scribonius’ attempted rule with Dynamis Dynamis with Polemon Polemon with Pythodorida Aspurgus Mithridates III with Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Julius Caesar Major life events Early life and career First Triumvirate Lucca Conference Gallic Wars Caesar's Civil War Crossing the Rubicon Constitutional reforms Dictator perpetuo Assassination Military campaigns Gallic Wars Arar Bibracte Vosges Axona Sabis Atuatuci Octodurus Invasions of Britain Ambiorix's revolt Avaricum Gergovia Alesia Uxellodunum Civil War Corfinium Brundisium Ilerda Dyrrhachium Gomphi Pharsalus Nile Alexandria Zela Ruspina Thapsus Munda Planned invasion of the Parthian Empire Works Laudatio Iuliae amitae Anticato Commentarii de Bello Civili Commentarii de Bello Gallico De analogia Poems by Julius Caesar Portraits Green Caesar Tusculum portrait Arles bust Buildings Forum of Caesar Curia Julia Basilica Julia Temple of Venus Genetrix Caesar's Rhine bridges Quotes Alea iacta est Veni, vidi, vici Ut est rerum omnium magister usus last words Family Wives Cossutia (disputed) Cornelia Pompeia Calpurnia Children Julia Caesarion Augustus (adopted) Other Gaius Julius Caesar (father) Aurelia (mother) Julia Major (sister) Julia Minor (sister) Legacy Cultural depictions of Julius Caesar Temple of Caesar Caesar's Comet Caesarism Julio-Claudian dynasty Related Julia gens Mark Antony Cleopatra Servilia Marcus Junius Brutus Category Authority control GND: 131750240 ISNI: 0000 0000 2555 1002 LCCN: n85216105 PLWABN: 9810611167505606 RERO: 02-A010137104 VIAF: 67910474 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n85216105 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Caesarion&oldid=1001924368" Categories: 47 BC births 30 BC deaths 1st-century BC executions 1st-century BC Pharaohs Caesarion Children of Cleopatra Children of Julius Caesar Executed ancient Egyptian people Executed monarchs Male murder victims Missing person cases in Egypt People executed by the Roman Republic Pharaohs of the Ptolemaic dynasty Unsolved murders in Egypt Hidden categories: Articles containing Koinē Greek-language text Use dmy dates from September 2020 Articles with short description Short description is different from 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version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية تۆرکجه Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский සිංහල Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 January 2021, at 00:38 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-617	----	Apries - Wikipedia Apries From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Wahibre" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Wahibre Ibiau and Wahibre Psamtik I. Apries Wahibre head of Apries, Louvre Pharaoh Reign 589–570 BC (26th dynasty) Predecessor Psamtik II Successor Amasis II Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Haaibre Ḥˁˁ jb r՚ Jubilant is the Heart of Re Forever[1] Nomen Wahibre Waḫ jb r՚ Constant is the Heart of Re[1] Horus name Wahib Waḫ jb He whose heart is constant Children Chedebnitjerbone II Mother Takhuit Died 567 BC Apries (Ancient Greek: Ἁπρίης) is the name by which Herodotus (ii. 161) and Diodorus (i. 68) designate Wahibre Haaibre, a pharaoh of Egypt (589 BC – 570 BC), the fourth king (counting from Psamtik I) of the Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt.[2] He was equated with the Waphres of Manetho, who correctly records that he reigned for 19 years. Apries is also called Hophra in Jeremiah 44:30 (Hebrew: חָפְרַע‎, Modern: Ḥofra', Tiberian: H̱op̄ra'; Greek: Ουαφρη[ς], romanized: Ouafri[s]).[3] Apries inherited the throne from his father, pharaoh Psamtik II, in February 589 BC and his reign continued his father's history of foreign intrigue in Judean affairs.[1] Apries was an active builder who constructed "additions to the temples at Athribis (Tell Atrib), Bahariya Oasis, Memphis and Sais."[4] In Year 4 of his reign, Apries' sister Ankhnesneferibre was adopted as the new God's Wife of Amun at Thebes.[4] However, Apries' reign was also fraught with internal problems. In 588 BC, Apries dispatched a force to Jerusalem to protect it from Babylonian forces sent by Nebuchadnezzar II (Jer. 37:5; 34:21). His forces quickly withdrew, however, apparently avoiding a major confrontation with the Babylonians.[5] Jerusalem, following an 18-month-long siege, was destroyed by the Babylonians in either 587 BC or 586 BC. Apries's unsuccessful attempt to intervene in the politics of the Kingdom of Judah was followed by a mutiny of soldiers from the strategically important Aswan garrison.[1][5] While the mutiny was contained, Apries later attempted to protect Libya from incursions by Dorian Greek invaders, but his efforts backfired spectacularly, as his forces were mauled by the Greek invaders.[1] When the defeated army returned home, a civil war broke out in the Egyptian army between the indigenous troops and the foreign mercenaries. The Egyptians threw their support to Amasis II, a general who had led Egyptian forces in a highly successful invasion of Nubia in 592 BC under Pharaoh Psamtik II, Apries' father.[1] Amasis quickly declared himself pharaoh in 570 BC, and Apries fled Egypt and sought refuge in a foreign country. When Apries marched back to Egypt in 567 BC with the aid of a Babylonian army to reclaim the throne of Egypt, he was likely killed in battle with Amasis' forces.[6][4][7] Alternatively, Herodotus (Histories 2.169) holds that Apries survived the battle, and was captured and treated well by the victorious Amasis, until the Egyptian people demanded justice against him, whereby he was placed into their hands and strangled to death.[8] Amasis thus secured his kingship over Egypt and was then its unchallenged ruler. Amasis, however, reportedly treated Apries' mortal remains with respect and observed the proper funerary rituals by having Apries' body carried to Sais and buried there with "full military honours."[4] Amasis, the former general who had declared himself pharaoh, also married Apries' daughter, Chedebnitjerbone II, to legitimise his accession to power. While Herodotus claimed that the wife of Apries was called Nitetis (Νιτῆτις) (in Greek), "there are no contemporary references naming her" in Egyptian records.[4] Apries' obelisk in Rome is known as the 'Pulcino della Minerva' Eusebius placed the eclipse of Thales in 585 BC, in the eighth or twelfth year of Apries' reign. Monuments[edit] An obelisk which Apries erected at Sais was moved by the 3rd century AD Roman Emperor Diocletian and originally placed at the Temple of Isis in Rome. It is today located in front of the Santa Maria sopra Minerva basilica church in Rome. Sphinx of Pharaoh Apries, from the collection of Count Caylus, now in the Louvre Museum Head of statue of Apries See also[edit] Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt family tree List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources References[edit] ^ a b c d e f Clayton, Peter A. (2006). Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt (Paperback ed.). Thames & Hudson. pp. 195–197. ISBN 0-500-28628-0. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Apries" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 230. ^ Cf. Theis, Christoffer (2011). "Sollte Re sich schämen? Eine subliminale Bedeutung von עפרח in Jeremia 44,30". Ugarit-Forschungen (in German). 42: 677–691. ISSN 0342-2356 for the writing of this particular name. ^ a b c d e Shaw, Ian; Nicholson, Paul (1995). The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt. Harry N. Abrams. pp. 36–37. ISBN 0-8109-3225-3. ^ a b Miller, J. Maxwell; Hayes, John H. (1986). A History of Ancient Israel and Judah (Hardback ed.). Westminster Press. p. 414. ISBN 0-664-21262-X. ^ Wahibre ^ Shaw & Nicholson write that Apries "probably died in battle in 567 BC" ^ Herodotus, Histories, Book II, Chapter 169 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Apries. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 102380902 VIAF: 398519 WorldCat Identities: viaf-398519 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apries&oldid=1002341929" Categories: 570 BC deaths 6th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt 6th century BC in Egypt Pharaohs in the Bible Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference CS1 German-language sources (de) Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 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en-wikipedia-org-6198	----	Dynasty - Wikipedia Dynasty From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sequence of rulers considered members of the same family This article is about the general concept of a line of rulers. For other uses, see Dynasty (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Royal family, Royal household, or Political family. For a list, see List of dynasties. Charles I of England and his son, the future James II of England, from the House of Stuart. The Qing dynasty was the final imperial dynasty of China, established in 1636 and ended in 1912, with a brief restoration in 1917. A dynasty (UK: /ˈdɪnəsti/, US: /ˈdaɪnəsti/) is a sequence of rulers from the same family,[1] usually in the context of a feudal or monarchical system, but sometimes also appearing in elective republics. Alternative terms for "dynasty" may include "house", "family" and "clan", among others. The longest-surviving dynasty in the world is the Imperial House of Japan, otherwise known as the Yamato dynasty, whose reign is traditionally dated to 660 BC. The dynastic family or lineage may be known as a "noble house",[2] which may be styled as "imperial", "royal", "princely", "ducal", "comital", "baronial" etc., depending upon the chief or present title borne by its members. Historians periodize the histories of many nations and civilizations, such as Ancient Egypt (3100–30 BC) and Imperial China (221 BC–AD 1912), using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the term "dynasty" may be used to delimit the era during which a family reigned, and also to describe events, trends and artifacts of that period (e.g., "a Ming-dynasty vase"). The word "dynasty" itself is often dropped from such adjectival references (e.g., "a Ming vase"). Until the 19th century, it was taken for granted that a legitimate function of a monarch was to aggrandize his dynasty: that is, to expand the wealth and power of his family members.[3] Prior to the 20th century, dynasties throughout the world have traditionally been reckoned patrilineally, such as under the Frankish Salic law. In nations where it was permitted, succession through a daughter usually established a new dynasty in her husband's ruling house. This has changed in some places in Europe, where succession law and convention have maintained dynasties de jure through a female. For instance, the House of Windsor will be maintained through the children of Queen Elizabeth II, as it did with the monarchy of the Netherlands, whose dynasty remained the House of Orange-Nassau through three successive queens regnant. The earliest such example among major European monarchies was in the Russian Empire in the 18th century, where the name of the House of Romanov was maintained through Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna. This also happened in the case of Queen Maria II of Portugal, who married Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, but whose descendants remained members of the House of Braganza, per Portuguese law. In Limpopo Province of South Africa, Balobedu determined descent matrilineally, while rulers have at other times adopted the name of their mother's dynasty when coming into her inheritance. Less frequently, a monarchy has alternated or been rotated, in a multi-dynastic (or polydynastic) system—that is, the most senior living members of parallel dynasties, at any point in time, constitute the line of succession. Not all feudal states or monarchies were or are ruled by dynasties; modern examples are the Vatican City State, the Principality of Andorra, and the Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of Saint John of Jerusalem, of Rhodes and of Malta. Throughout history, there were monarchs that did not belong to any dynasty; non-dynastic rulers include King Arioald of the Lombards and Emperor Phocas of the Byzantine Empire. Dynasties ruling subnational monarchies do not possess sovereign rights; two modern examples are the monarchies of Malaysia and the royal families of the United Arab Emirates. The word "dynasty" is sometimes used informally for people who are not rulers but are, for example, members of a family with influence and power in other areas, such as a series of successive owners of a major company. It is also extended to unrelated people, such as major poets of the same school or various rosters of a single sports team.[1] Contents 1 Etymology 2 Dynast 2.1 Gallery 3 Extant dynasties ruling sovereign monarchies 4 Political dynasties in republics and constitutional monarchies 5 Influential and wealthy families 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References Etymology[edit] The word "dynasty" derives from Latin dynastia, which comes from Greek dynastéia (δυναστεία), where it referred to "power", "dominion", and "rule" itself.[4] It was the abstract noun of dynástēs (δυνάστης),[5] the agent noun of dynamis (δύναμις), "power" or "ability",[6] from dýnamai (δύναμαι), "to be able".[7] Dynast[edit] A ruler from a dynasty is sometimes referred to as a "dynast", but this term is also used to describe any member of a reigning family who retains a right to succeed to a throne. For example, King Edward VIII ceased to be a dynast of the House of Windsor following his abdication. In historical and monarchist references to formerly reigning families, a "dynast" is a family member who would have had succession rights, were the monarchy's rules still in force. For example, after the 1914 assassinations of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his morganatic wife, their son Maximilian, Duke of Hohenberg, was bypassed for the Austro-Hungarian throne because he was not a Habsburg dynast. Even since the abolition of the Austrian monarchy, Duke Maximilian and his descendants have not been considered the rightful pretenders by Austrian monarchists, nor have they claimed that position. The term "dynast" is sometimes used only to refer to agnatic descendants of a realm's monarchs, and sometimes to include those who hold succession rights through cognatic royal descent. The term can therefore describe overlapping but distinct sets of people. For example, David Armstrong-Jones, 2nd Earl of Snowdon, a nephew of Queen Elizabeth II, is in the line of succession to the British crown; making him a British dynast. On the other hand, since he is not a patrilineal member of the British royal family, he is therefore not a dynast of the House of Windsor. Comparatively, the German aristocrat Prince Ernst August of Hanover, a male-line descendant of King George III of the United Kingdom, possesses no legal British name, titles or styles (although he is entitled to reclaim the former royal dukedom of Cumberland). He was born in the line of succession to the British throne and was bound by Britain's Royal Marriages Act 1772 until it was repealed when the Succession to the Crown Act 2013 took effect on 26 March 2015.[8] Thus, he requested and obtained formal permission from Queen Elizabeth II to marry the Roman Catholic Princess Caroline of Monaco in 1999. Yet, a clause of the English Act of Settlement 1701 remained in effect at that time, stipulating that dynasts who marry Roman Catholics are considered "dead" for the purpose of succession to the British throne.[9] That exclusion, too, ceased to apply on 26 March 2015, with retroactive effect for those who had been dynasts prior to triggering it by marriage to a Roman Catholic.[8] A "dynastic marriage" is one that complies with monarchical house law restrictions, so that the descendants are eligible to inherit the throne or other royal privileges. The marriage of King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands to Queen Máxima Zorreguieta in 2002 was dynastic, for example, making their eldest child Princess Catharina-Amalia the heir apparent to the Crown of the Netherlands. However, the marriage of his younger brother Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau in 2003 lacked governmental support and parliamentary approval. Thus, Prince Friso forfeited his place in the order of succession to the Dutch throne, and consequently lost his title as a "Prince of the Netherlands", and left his children without dynastic rights. Gallery[edit] Zhao Kuangyin, the Emperor Taizu of Song, was the founder of the Song dynasty in China. Hongwu Emperor, the Emperor Taizu of Ming, was the founder of the Ming dynasty in China. Sukapha, of the Ahom dynasty, was the first King of the Ahom Dynasty in Assam, India. Babur, of the Timurid dynasty, was the first emperor of the Mughal Empire in India. Suleiman the Magnificent, from the House of Osman, was the longest-reigning Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1520 until 1566. Muhammad Ali Pasha, founder of the Muhammad Ali dynasty, ruled Egypt and Sudan from 1805 to 1848. Peter I, from the House of Romanov, was the first Russian monarch to rule as emperor. Constantine XI Palaiologos, of the Palaiologos dynasty, was the final monarch of the Byzantine Empire. Pedro II, from the Most Serene House of Braganza, ruled Brazil from 1831 to 1889. Kalākaua, founder of the House of Kalākaua, was the penultimate sovereign ruler of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi. Asahito, the Emperor Higashiyama, from the Imperial House of Japan, was the 113th Japanese emperor. Emperor Meiji, from the Imperial House of Japan, was the 122th Japanese emperor. Christian I, from the House of Oldenburg, served as king of Denmark, Norway and Sweden. Aisin Gioro Xuanye, the Kangxi Emperor, of the Qing dynasty, was the longest reigning emperor of China. Mohammad Shah Qajar was a king of Persia from the Qajar dynasty. Yi Dan, King Taejo of Joseon, ruled Korea from 1392 to 1398 as the first king of Joseon. Nikola I, of the Petrović-Njegoš dynasty, ruled Montenegro from 1860 to 1918. Nguyễn Phúc Bửu Lân, the Emperor Thành Thái, of the Nguyễn dynasty, was emperor of Vietnam from 1889 to 1907. Ahmad al-Mansur, of the Saadi dynasty, was sultan of Morocco from 1578 to 1603. Louis XIV, from the House of Bourbon, reigned as king of France from 1643 to 1715. Napoleon I, from the House of Bonaparte, ruled over France and Italy. Thibaw Min was the last monarch of the Konbaung dynasty in Myanmar. Henry VIII, from the House of Tudor, reigned as king of England and Ireland from 1509 to 1547. Edward VI, from the House of Tudor, reigned as king of England and Ireland from 1547 to 1553. Elizabeth I, from the House of Tudor, reigned as king of England and Ireland from 1558 to 1603. Ranavalona I, of the Hova dynasty, was queen regnant of Madagascar from 1828 to 1861. Shō Tai, of the Second Shō dynasty, was the final sovereign ruler of the Ryukyu Kingdom. Zaman Shah Durrani Sadozai, of the Durrani dynasty, ruled Afghanistan from 1793 to 1800. Wanyan Aguda, the Emperor Taizu of Jin, was the progenitor of the Jin dynasty in China. Trần Thuyên, the Emperor Trần Anh Tông, of the Trần dynasty, ruled Vietnam from 1293 to 1314. Otto I, from the House of Wittelsbach, was king of Greece from 1832 to 1862. Tamar was queen regnant of the Bagrationi dynasty in Georgia. Khayishan, the Külüg Khan and Emperor Wuzong of Yuan, was the seventh khagan of the Mongol Empire and the third emperor of the Yuan dynasty in China. Milan I, of the Obrenović dynasty, ruled Serbia from 1868 to 1889. Agustín I was the first and only Mexican emperor from the House of Iturbide. Sigismund III, from the House of Vasa, was monarch of Poland, Lithuania, Sweden and Finland. Leopold I, from the House of Habsburg, was emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, and king of Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia. Wang Jeon, King Gongmin of Goryeo, ruled Korea from 1351 to 1374 as king of Goryeo. Frederick the Great, from the House of Hohenzollern, was the King of Prussia from 1740 to 1786. Wilhelm I, from the House of Hohenzollern, was the first German emperor. Victor Emmanuel II, from the House of Savoy, was the first king of Italy. Gediminas, King of Lithuania, started the Gediminids dynasty in 1315. Extant dynasties ruling sovereign monarchies[edit] For non-sovereign dynasties currently ruling subnational monarchies, see Non-sovereign monarchy and List of current constituent monarchs. There are 44 sovereign states with a monarch as head of state, of which 42 are ruled by dynasties.[a] There are currently 26 sovereign dynasties. Dynasty Realm Reigning monarch Dynastic founder[b] Dynastic place of origin[c] House of Windsor[d][e]  Antigua and Barbuda Queen Elizabeth II King-Emperor George V[f] Thuringia and Bavaria (in modern Germany)  Commonwealth of Australia[g]  Commonwealth of The Bahamas  Barbados[h]  Belize  Canada  Grenada  Jamaica New Zealand[i]  Independent State of Papua New Guinea  Federation of Saint Christopher and Nevis  Saint Lucia  Saint Vincent and the Grenadines  Solomon Islands  Tuvalu  United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland[j] House of Khalifa  Kingdom of Bahrain King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa Sheikh Khalifa bin Mohammed Najd (in modern Saudi Arabia) House of Belgium[k]  Kingdom of Belgium King Philippe King Albert I[l] Thuringia and Bavaria (in modern Germany) House of Wangchuck  Kingdom of Bhutan Druk Gyalpo Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck Druk Gyalpo Ugyen Wangchuck Bhutan House of Bolkiah  Nation of Brunei, the Abode of Peace Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah Sultan Muhammad Shah Tarim[m] (in modern Yemen) House of Norodom[n]  Kingdom of Cambodia King Norodom Sihamoni King Norodom Prohmbarirak Cambodia House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg[o]  Kingdom of Denmark[p] Queen Margrethe II Duke Friedrich Wilhelm Glücksburg (in modern Germany)  Kingdom of Norway King Harald V House of Dlamini  Kingdom of Eswatini King Mswati III Chief Dlamini I East Africa Imperial House of Japan[q]  Japan Emperor Naruhito Emperor Jimmu[r] Nara (in modern Japan) House of Hashim[s]  Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan King Abdullah II King Hussein ibn Ali al-Hashimi Hejaz (in modern Saudi Arabia) House of Sabah  State of Kuwait Emir Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah Sheikh Sabah I bin Jaber Najd (in modern Saudi Arabia) House of Moshesh  Kingdom of Lesotho King Letsie III Paramount Chief Moshoeshoe I Lesotho House of Liechtenstein  Principality of Liechtenstein Prince Hans-Adam II Prince Karl I Lower Austria (in modern Austria) House of Luxembourg-Nassau[t]  Grand Duchy of Luxembourg Grand Duke Henri Grand Duke Adolphe Nassau (in modern Germany) Bendahara dynasty[u]  Malaysia[v] Yang di-Pertuan Agong Abdullah Bendahara Tun Habib Abdul Majid Johor (in modern Malaysia) House of Grimaldi  Principality of Monaco Prince Albert II François Grimaldi Genoa (in modern Italy) Alaouite dynasty  Kingdom of Morocco King Mohammed VI Sultan Abul Amlak Sidi Muhammad as-Sharif ibn 'Ali Tafilalt (in modern Morocco) House of Orange-Nassau[w]  Kingdom of the Netherlands[x] King Willem-Alexander Prince William I Nassau (in modern Germany) House of Said  Sultanate of Oman Sultan Haitham bin Tariq Sultan Ahmad bin Said al-Busaidi Yemen House of Thani  State of Qatar Emir Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani Sheikh Thani bin Mohammed Najd (in modern Saudi Arabia) House of Saud  Kingdom of Saudi Arabia King Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud Emir Saud I Diriyah (in modern Saudi Arabia) House of Borbón-Anjou[y]  Kingdom of Spain King Felipe VI King Philip V Bourbon-l'Archambault (in modern France) House of Bernadotte  Kingdom of Sweden King Carl XVI Gustaf King Charles XIV John Pau (in modern France) Chakri dynasty  Kingdom of Thailand King Vajiralongkorn King Rama I Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya (in modern Thailand) House of Tupou  Kingdom of Tonga King Tupou VI King George Tupou I Tonga House of Nahyan[z]  United Arab Emirates[aa] President Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan Sheikh Dhiyab bin Isa Al Nahyan Liwa Oasis (in modern United Arab Emirates) Political dynasties in republics and constitutional monarchies[edit] Main article: List of political families Though in elected governments, rule does not pass automatically by inheritance, political power often accrues to generations of related individuals in the elected positions of republics, and constitutional monarchies. Eminence, influence, tradition, genetics, and nepotism may contribute to the phenomenon. Family dictatorships are a different concept in which political power passes within a family because of the overwhelming authority of the leader, rather than informal power accrued to the family. Some political dynasties in republics: Family of Ziaur Rahman of Bangladesh Family of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman of Bangladesh Family of Aung San of Myanmar (Burma) House of Medici of Florence Nehru–Gandhi family of India Jinnah family of Pakistan and India Bhutto family of Pakistan Sharif family of Pakistan Chiang family of the Republic of China Family of Sukarno of Indonesia Koirala family of Nepal Somoza family of Nicaragua Lee family of Singapore Family of Solomon West Ridgeway Dias Bandaranaike of Sri Lanka (Ceylon) Family of John Churchill of the United Kingdom Trudeau family of Canada Adams family of the United States Bush family of the United States Clinton family of the United States Cuomo family of the United States Harrison family of Virginia of the United States Kennedy family of the United States Kheshgi family of Afghanistan, India and Pakistan Lee family of the United States Long family of the United States Roosevelt family of the United States Taft family of the United States Trump family of the United States Udall family of the United States Influential and wealthy families[edit] The Agnelli family (Italy) The Ambani family (India) The Anheuser family (United States) The Arison family (United States) The Asper family (Canada) The Astor family (United States and United Kingdom) The Bamford family (United Kingdom) The Bacardi family (Cuba and United States) The Bancroft family (United States) The Baring family (United Kingdom) The Bazalgette family (United Kingdom) The Berenberg-Gossler-Seyler family (Germany) The Bertarelli family (Italy and Switzerland) The Bhutto family (Pakistan) The Botín family (Spain) The Bonnier family (Sweden) The Bronfman family (Canada) The Bulgari family (Italy) The Burke family (Ireland and United Kingdom) The Bush family (United States) The Busch family (United States) The Cabot family (United States) The Cadbury family (United Kingdom) The Carnegie family (United States) The Cholmondeley family (United Kingdom) The Churchill family (United Kingdom) The Cojuangco family (Philippines) The Conran family (United Kingdom) The Curzon family (United Kingdom) The Darwin–Wedgwood family (United Kingdom) The Desmarais family (Canada) The Disney family (United States) The Du Pont family (United States) The Egerton family (United Kingdom) The Faber-Castell family (Germany) The Fabergé family (Russia and United Kingdom) The Fleming family (United Kingdom) The Florio family (Italy) The Forbes family (United States) The Forbes family (publishers) (United States) The Ford family (United States) The Forte family (United Kingdom) The Freud family (Austria and United Kingdom) The Fugger family (Germany) The Getty family (United States) The Goldsmith family (Sweden and United Kingdom) The Gooderham family (Canada) The Gough-Calthorpe family (United Kingdom) The Grosvenor family (United Kingdom) The Guggenheim family (United States) The Guinness family (Ireland) The Gyllenhaal family (Sweden and United States) The Hearst family (United States) The Heinz Family (United States) The Harmsworth family (United Kingdom) The Hilton family (United States) The Howard family (United Kingdom) The Irving family (Canada) The Jinnah family (India and Pakistan) The Kennedy family (United States) The Keswick family (East Asia and United Kingdom) The Kheshgi family (South Asia) The Kim family (North Korea) The Koç family (Turkey) The Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach family (Germany) The Lascelles family (United Kingdom) The Latsis family (Greece) The Lee family (United States) The Lehman family (United States) The Li family (China) The Livingston family (United States) The Louis-Dreyfus family (France and United States) The Mason family (United States) The McCormick family (United States) The Medici family (Italy) The Mellon family (United States) The Mendelssohn family (Europe) The Merck family (Germany and United States) The Mirvish family (Canada) The Mittal family (United Kingdom and India) The Molson family (Canada) The Molyneux family (United Kingdom) The Montefiore family (Morocco, Italy and United Kingdom) The Morgan family (United States) The Murdoch family (Australia and United States) The Newhouse family (United States) The Oppenheim family (Germany) The Oppenheimer family (South Africa) The Packer Family (Australia) The Pattison family (Canada) The Peugeot family (France) The Porsche family (Austria) The Premji family (India) The Pritzker family (United States) The Rausing family (Sweden and United Kingdom) The Redpath family (Canada) The Roosevelt family (United States) The Rothschild family (France and United Kingdom) The Rockefeller family (United States) The Rupert family (South Africa) The Sackler family (United States) The Sainsbury family (United Kingdom) The Sassoon family (Iraq, India, China and United Kingdom) The Sawiris family (Egypt) The Schröder family (United Kingdom) The Shinawatra family (Thailand) The Spencer family (United Kingdom) The Stroganov family (Russia and Eastern Europe) The Sulzberger family (United States) The Swire family (East Asia and United Kingdom) The Taft family (United States) The Taittinger family (France) The Tata family (India) The Thomson family (Canada) The Thynn family (United Kingdom) The Thyssen family (Germany) The Tjin-A-Djie family (Suriname) The Tolstoy family (Russia and United Kingdom) The Toyoda family (Japan) The Trump family (United States) The Vanderbilt family (United States) The Villiers family (United Kingdom) The Wallenberg family (Sweden) The Walton family (United States) The Warburg family (Germany) The Welser family (Germany) The Weston family (Canada) The Whitney family (United States) The Wittgenstein family (Austria) The Zardari family (Pakistan) The Zobel de Ayala family (Philippines) See also[edit] Main article: Lists of dynasties Cadet branch Commonwealth realm Conquest dynasty Dynastic cycle Dynastic order Dynastic union Elective monarchy Family dictatorship Family seat Heads of former ruling families Hereditary monarchy Iranian Intermezzo List of current constituent monarchs List of current monarchies List of current monarchies by continent List of current monarchs of sovereign states List of current pretenders List of empires List of family trees List of kingdoms and royal dynasties List of largest empires List of monarchies List of noble houses Non-sovereign monarchy Realm Royal family Royal household Royal intermarriage Self-proclaimed monarchy Notes[edit] ^ Existing sovereign entities ruled by non-dynastic monarchs include:  Principality of Andorra Holy See (ruling the   Vatican City State)  Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of Saint John of Jerusalem, of Rhodes and of Malta ^ The founder of a dynasty need not necessarily equate to the first monarch of a particular realm. For example, while William I was the dynastic founder of the House of Orange-Nassau which currently rules over the Kingdom of the Netherlands, he was never a monarch of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. ^ Not to be confused with dynastic seat. ^ The House of Windsor is descended from the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, which is a branch of the House of Wettin. The dynastic name was changed from "Saxe-Coburg and Gotha" to "Windsor" in AD 1917. ^ A sovereign state with Elizabeth II as its monarch and head of state is known as a Commonwealth realm. ^ George V was formerly a member of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha prior to AD 1917. ^ Including: Australian Antarctic Territory Coral Sea Islands Territory Territory of Ashmore and Cartier Islands  Territory of Christmas Island  Territory of Cocos (Keeling) Islands Territory of Heard and McDonald Islands  Territory of Norfolk Island ^ The Barbadian monarchy is to be abolished by November 2021.[10][11] In consequence, the House of Windsor will cease to be the ruling dynasty of Barbados. ^ The Realm of New Zealand consists of:  Cook Islands  New Zealand  Niue Ross Dependency  Tokelau ^ Including:  Anguilla Bailiwick of Guernsey (Crown dependency)  Bailiwick of Jersey (Crown dependency)  Bermuda  British Antarctic Territory  British Indian Ocean Territory  Cayman Islands  Falkland Islands  Gibraltar  Isle of Man (Crown dependency)  Montserrat  Pitcairn, Henderson, Ducie and Oeno Islands Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha  South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia  Turks and Caicos Islands  Virgin Islands The crown dependencies of the Bailiwick of Guernsey, the Bailiwick of Jersey, and the Isle of Man are neither part of the United Kingdom nor British overseas territories. ^ The House of Belgium is descended from the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, which is a branch of the House of Wettin. The dynastic name was changed from "Saxe-Coburg and Gotha" to "Belgium" in AD 1920. ^ Albert I was formerly a member of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha prior to AD 1920. ^ Claimed by the royal house, but the historicity is questionable. ^ The House of Norodom is a branch of the Varman dynasty. ^ The House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg is a branch of the House of Oldenburg. ^ Including:  Faroe Islands  Greenland ^ The Imperial House of Japan, or the Yamato dynasty, is the world's oldest continuous dynasty. The dynasty has produced an unbroken succession of Japanese monarchs since the legendary founding year of 660 BC. ^ Most historians regard Emperor Jimmu to have been a mythical ruler. Emperor Ōjin, traditionally considered the 15th emperor, is the first who is generally thought to have existed, while Emperor Kinmei, the 29th emperor according to traditional historiography, is the first monarch for whom verifiable regnal dates can be assigned. ^ The House of Hashim is descended from Banu Qatada, which was a branch of the House of Ali. ^ The House of Luxembourg-Nassau is descended from the House of Nassau-Weilburg, which is a branch of the House of Nassau and the House of Bourbon-Parma. ^ The Bendahara dynasty is the ruling dynasty of Pahang Darul Makmur and Terengganu. The Sultan of Pahang is the reigning Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia. ^ The throne of Malaysia rotates among the nine constituent monarchies of Malaysia, each ruled by a dynasty. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong is elected by the Conference of Rulers. ^ The House of Orange-Nassau is a branch of the House of Nassau. Additionally, Willem-Alexander is also linked to the House of Lippe through Beatrix of the Netherlands. ^ The Kingdom of the Netherlands consists of:  Aruba  Curaçao  Netherlands  Sint Maarten ^ The House of Borbón-Anjou is a branch of the House of Bourbon. ^ The House of Nahyan is the ruling dynasty of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi. The Emir of Abu Dhabi is the incumbent President of the United Arab Emirates. ^ The President of the United Arab Emirates is elected by the Federal Supreme Council. The office has been held by the Emir of Abu Dhabi since the formation of the United Arab Emirates in AD 1971. References[edit] Look up dynasty in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ^ a b Oxford English Dictionary, 1st ed. "dynasty, n." Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1897. ^ Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed. "house, n.¹ and int, 10. b." Oxford University Press (Oxford), 2011. ^ Thomson, David (1961). "The Institutions of Monarchy". Europe Since Napoleon. New York: Knopf. pp. 79–80. The basic idea of monarchy was the idea that hereditary right gave the best title to political power...The dangers of disputed succession were best avoided by hereditary succession: ruling families had a natural interest in passing on to their descendants enhanced power and prestige...Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, Maria Theresa of Austria, were alike infatuated with the idea of strengthening their power, centralizing government in their own hands as against local and feudal privileges, and so acquiring more absolute authority in the state. Moreover, the very dynastic rivalries and conflicts between these eighteenth-century monarchs drove them to look for ever more efficient methods of government ^ Liddell, Henry George & al. A Greek–English Lexicon: "δυναστεία". Hosted by Tufts University's Perseus Project. ^ Liddell & al. A Greek–English Lexicon: "δυνάστης". ^ Liddell & al. A Greek–English Lexicon: "δύναμις". ^ Liddell & al. "δύναμαι". ^ a b Statement by Nick Clegg MP, UK parliament website, 26 March 2015 (retrieved on same date). ^ "Monaco royal taken seriously ill". BBC News. London. 8 April 2005. Retrieved 27 January 2013. ^ "Barbados to remove Queen Elizabeth II as head of state and declare republic". The Independent. 16 September 2020. Retrieved 16 September 2020. ^ "Barbados ready to dismiss Queen Elizabeth II as its head of state". The Washington Post. 17 September 2020. Retrieved 17 September 2020. 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en-wikipedia-org-6209	----	Template:Persepolis - Wikipedia Template:Persepolis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search v t e Persepolis Palace Tachara Gate of All Nations Other sections Tomb of Artaxerxes III builders Darius the Great Xerxes I Artaxerxes I of Persia Researchers Heidemarie Koch Erich Schmidt (archaeologist) Alireza Shapour Shahbazi Related Tangeh Bolaghi 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire Sivand Dam Persepolis Administrative Archives Waterskin Achaemenid architecture Category:Persepolis Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Persepolis&oldid=933170944" Categories: Achaemenid Empire templates Ancient Persia templates Persepolis Hidden categories: Navboxes using background colours Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Template Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية فارسی Edit links This page was last edited on 30 December 2019, at 10:31 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6212	----	Thrace - Wikipedia Thrace From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search geographical and historical region in Southeast Europe For other uses, see Thrace (disambiguation). The modern boundaries of Thrace in Bulgaria, Greece, and Turkey. The physical–geographical boundaries of Thrace: the Balkan Mountains, the Rhodope Mountains and the Bosporus. The Rhodope mountain range is highlighted. The Roman province of Thrace The Byzantine thema of Thrace. Map of Ancient Thrace made by Abraham Ortelius in 1585, stating both the names Thrace and Europe. Thrace and the Thracian Odrysian Kingdom under Sitalces c. 431–324 BC, showing the territories of several Thracian tribes. Thrace in the Odrysian Kingdom showing several Thracian tribes. Sapeia was Northern Thrace and Asteia was Southern Thrace. Thrace /ˈθreɪs/ (Greek: Θράκη, Thráki; Bulgarian: Тракия, Trakiya; Turkish: Trakya) is a geographical and historical region in Southeast Europe, now split among Bulgaria, Greece, and Turkey, which is bounded by the Balkan Mountains to the north, the Aegean Sea to the south, and the Black Sea to the east. It comprises southeastern Bulgaria (Northern Thrace), northeastern Greece (Western Thrace), and the European part of Turkey (East Thrace). The region's boundaries are based on that of the Roman Province of Thrace; the lands inhabited by the ancient Thracians extended in the north to modern-day Northern Bulgaria and Romania and to the west into the region of Macedonia. Contents 1 Etymology 1.1 Mythology 2 Geography 2.1 Borders 2.2 Cities 3 Demographics and religion 3.1 Ancient Greek mythology 4 History 4.1 Ancient and Roman history 4.2 Medieval history 4.3 Ottoman period 4.4 Modern history 5 Notable Thracians 6 Legacy 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 External links Etymology[edit] The word Thrace was first used by the Greeks when referring to the Thracian tribes, from ancient Greek Thrake (Θρᾴκη),[1] descending from Thrāix (Θρᾷξ).[2] It referred originally to the Thracians, an ancient people inhabiting Southeast Europe. The name Europe first referred to Thrace proper, prior to the term vastly extending to refer to its modern concept.[3][4] The region could have been named after the principal river there, Hebros, possibly from the Indo-European arg "white river" (the opposite of Vardar, meaning "black river"),[5] According to an alternative theory, Hebros means "goat" in Thracian.[6] In Turkey, it is commonly referred to as Rumeli, Land of the Romans, owing to this region being the last part of the Eastern Roman Empire that was conquered by the Ottoman Empire. Mythology[edit] In terms of ancient Greek mythology the name appears to derive from the heroine and sorceress Thrace, who was the daughter of Oceanus and Parthenope, and sister of Europa. Geography[edit] Borders[edit] The historical boundaries of Thrace have varied. The ancient Greeks employed the term "Thrace" to refer to all of the territory which lay north of Thessaly inhabited by the Thracians,[7] a region which "had no definite boundaries" and to which other regions (like Macedonia and even Scythia) were added.[8] In one ancient Greek source, the very Earth is divided into "Asia, Libya, Europa and Thracia".[8] As the Greeks gained knowledge of world geography, "Thrace" came to designate the area bordered by the Danube on the north, by the Euxine Sea (Black Sea) on the east, by northern Macedonia in the south and by Illyria to the west.[8] This largely coincided with the Thracian Odrysian kingdom, whose borders varied over time. After the Macedonian conquest, this region's former border with Macedonia was shifted from the Struma River to the Mesta River.[9][10] This usage lasted until the Roman conquest. Henceforth, (classical) Thrace referred only to the tract of land largely covering the same extent of space as the modern geographical region.[clarification needed] In its early period, the Roman province of Thrace was of this extent, but after the administrative reforms of the late 3rd century, Thracia's much reduced territory became the six small provinces which constituted the Diocese of Thrace. The medieval Byzantine theme of Thrace contained only what today is East Thrace. Cities[edit] Main article: List of cities of Thrace The largest cities of Thrace are: Istanbul, Plovdiv, Çorlu, Tekirdağ, Burgas, Edirne, Stara Zagora, Sliven, Yambol, Haskovo, Komotini, Alexandroupoli, Xanthi, and Kırklareli. Demographics and religion[edit] Main articles: Demographics of Bulgaria, Demographics of Greece, and Demographics of Turkey See also: Thracian Bulgarians and Turks of Western Thrace Most of the Bulgarian and Greek population are Orthodox Christians, while most of the Turkish inhabitants of Thrace are Sunni Muslims. Ancient Greek mythology[edit] Ancient Greek mythology provides the Thracians with a mythical ancestor Thrax, the son of the war-god Ares, who was said to reside in Thrace. The Thracians appear in Homer's Iliad as Trojan allies, led by Acamas and Peiros. Later in the Iliad, Rhesus, another Thracian king, makes an appearance. Cisseus, father-in-law to the Trojan elder Antenor, is also given as a Thracian king. Homeric Thrace was vaguely defined, and stretched from the River Axios in the west to the Hellespont and Black Sea in the east. The Catalogue of Ships mentions three separate contingents from Thrace: Thracians led by Acamas and Peiros, from Aenus; Cicones led by Euphemus, from southern Thrace, near Ismaros; and from the city of Sestus, on the Thracian (northern) side of the Hellespont, which formed part of the contingent led by Asius. Ancient Thrace was home to numerous other tribes, such as the Edones, Bisaltae, Cicones, and Bistones in addition to the tribe that Homer specifically calls the "Thracians". Greek mythology is replete with Thracian kings, including Diomedes, Tereus, Lycurgus, Phineus, Tegyrius, Eumolpus, Polymnestor, Poltys, and Oeagrus (father of Orpheus). Thrace is mentioned in Ovid's Metamorphoses, in the episode of Philomela, Procne, and Tereus: Tereus, the King of Thrace, lusts after his sister-in-law, Philomela. He kidnaps her, holds her captive, rapes her, and cuts out her tongue. Philomela manages to get free, however. She and her sister, Procne, plot to get revenge, by killing her son Itys (by Tereus) and serving him to his father for dinner. At the end of the myth, all three turn into birds – Procne into a swallow, Philomela into a nightingale, and Tereus into a hoopoe. The Dicaea city in Thrace was named after, the son of Poseidon, Dicaeus.[11] History[edit] See also: History of Western Thrace and History of East Thrace Ancient and Roman history[edit] Main article: Thracians Skudrian (Thracian) soldier of the Achaemenid army, circa 480 BCE. Xerxes I tomb relief. Thracian Tomb of Kazanlak. The indigenous population of Thrace was a people called the Thracians, divided into numerous tribal groups. The region was controlled by the Persian Empire at its greatest extent,[12] and Thracian soldiers were known to be used in the Persian armies. Later on, Thracian troops were known to accompany neighboring ruler Alexander the Great when he crossed the Hellespont which abuts Thrace, during the invasion of the Persian Empire itself. The Thracians did not describe themselves by name; terms such as Thrace and Thracians are simply the names given them by the Greeks.[13] Divided into separate tribes, the Thracians did not form any lasting political organizations until the founding of the Odrysian state in the 4th century BC. Like Illyrians, the locally ruled Thracian tribes of the mountainous regions maintained a warrior tradition, while the tribes based in the plains were purportedly more peaceable. Recently discovered funeral mounds in Bulgaria suggest that Thracian kings did rule regions of Thrace with distinct Thracian national identity.[citation needed] During this period, a subculture of celibate ascetics called the Ctistae lived in Thrace, where they served as philosophers, priests, and prophets. Sections of Thrace particularly in the south started to become hellenized before the Peloponnesian War as Athenian and Ionian colonies were set up in Thrace before the war. Spartan and other Doric colonists followed them after the war. The special interest of Athens to Thrace is underlined by the numerous finds of Athenian silverware in Thracian tombs.[14] In 168 BC, after the Third Macedonian war and the subjugation of Macedonia to the Romans, Thrace also lost its independence and became tributary to Rome. Towards the end of the 1st century BC Thrace lost its status as a client kingdom as the Romans began to directly appoint their kings.[15] This situation lasted until 46 AD, when the Romans finally turned Thrace into a Roman province (Romana provincia Thracia)[16] During the Roman domination, within the geographical borders of ancient Thrace, there were two separate Roman provinces, namely Thrace ("provincia Thracia") and Lower Moesia ("Moesia inferior"). Later, in the times of Diocletian, the two provinces were joined and formed the so-called "Dioecesis Thracia".[17] The establishment of Roman colonies and mostly several Greek cities, as was Nicopolis, Topeiros, Traianoupolis, Plotinoupolis, and Hadrianoupolis resulted from the Roman Empire's urbanization. The Roman provincial policy in Thrace favored mainly not the Romanization but the Hellenization of the country, which had started as early as the Archaic period through the Greek colonisation and was completed by the end of Roman antiquity.[18] As regards the competition between the Greek and Latin language, the very high rate of Greek inscriptions in Thrace extending south of Haemus Mountains proves the complete language Hellenization of this region. The boundaries between the Greek and Latin speaking Thrace are placed just above the northern foothills of Haemus Mountains.[19] During the imperial period many Thracians – particularly members of the local aristocracy of the cities – had been granted the right of the Roman citizenship (civitas Romana) with all its privileges. Epigraphic evidence show a large increase in such naturalizations in the times of Trajan and Hadrian, while in 212 AD the emperor Caracalla granted, with his well-known decree (constitutio Antoniniana), the Roman citizenship to all the free inhabitants of the Roman Empire.[20] During the same period (in the 1st-2nd century AD), a remarkable presence of Thracians is testified by the inscriptions outside the borders (extra fines) both in the Greek territory[21] and in all the Roman provinces, especially in the provinces of Eastern Roman Empire.[22] Medieval history[edit] Main articles: Macedonia (theme) and Thrace (theme) By the mid 5th century, as the Western Roman Empire began to crumble, Thracia fell from the authority of Rome and into the hands of Germanic tribal rulers. With the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Thracia turned into a battleground territory for the better part of the next 1,000 years. The surviving eastern portion of the Roman Empire in the Balkans, later known as the Byzantine Empire, retained control over Thrace until the 7th century when the northern half of the entire region was incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire and the remainder was reorganized in the Thracian theme. The Empire regained the lost regions in the late 10th century until the Bulgarians regained control of the northern half at the end of the 12th century. Throughout the 13th century and the first half of the 14th century, the region was changing in the hands of the Bulgarian and the Byzantine Empire (excluding Constantinople). In 1265 the area suffered a Mongol raid from the Golden Horde, led by Nogai Khan, and between 1305 and 1307 was raided by the Catalan company.[23] Ottoman period[edit] Flag of rebels of Thrace during the Greek War of Independence. In 1352, the Ottoman Turks conducted their first incursion into the region subduing it completely within a matter of two decades and occupying it for five centuries. In 1821, several parts of Thrace, such as Lavara, Maroneia, Sozopolis, Aenos, Callipolis, and Samothraki rebelled during the Greek War of Independence. Modern history[edit] Proposal to cede East Thrace to Greece during World War I. This photocopy came from a larger color map. With the Congress of Berlin in 1878, Northern Thrace was incorporated into the semi-autonomous Ottoman province of Eastern Rumelia, which united with Bulgaria in 1885. The rest of Thrace was divided among Bulgaria, Greece and Turkey at the beginning of the 20th century, following the Balkan Wars, World War I and the Greco-Turkish War. In Summer 1934, up to 10,000 Jews[24] were maltreated, bereaved, and then forced to quit the region (see 1934 Thrace pogroms). Today, Thracian is a geographical term used in Greece, Turkey, and Bulgaria. Notable Thracians[edit] Orpheus was, in Ancient Greek mythology, the chief representative of the art of song and playing the lyre. Protagoras was a Greek philosopher from Abdera, Thrace (c. 490–420 BC.) An expert in rhetorics and subjects connected to virtue and political life, often regarded as the first sophist. He is known primarily for three claims: (1) that man is the measure of all things, often interpreted as a sort of moral relativism, (2) that he could make the "worse (or weaker) argument appear the better (or stronger)" (see Sophism), and (3) that one could not tell if the gods existed or not (see Agnosticism). Herodicus was a Greek physician of the fifth century BC who is considered the founder of sports medicine. He is believed to have been one of Hippocrates' tutors. Democritus was a Greek philosopher and mathematician from Abdera, Thrace (c. 460–370 BC.) His main contribution is the atomic theory, the belief that all matter is made up of various imperishable indivisible elements which he called atoms. Spartacus was a Thracian who led a large slave uprising in what is now Italy in 73–71 BC. His army of escaped gladiators and slaves defeated several Roman legions in what is known as the Third Servile War. A number of Roman emperors of the 3rd–5th century were of Thraco-Roman backgrounds (Maximinus Thrax, Licinius, Galerius, Aureolus, Leo the Thracian, etc.). These emperors were elevated via a military career, from the condition of common soldiers in one of the Roman legions to the foremost positions of political power. Legacy[edit] The Trakiya Heights in Antarctica "are named after the historical region."[25] See also[edit] 1989 expulsion of Turks from Bulgaria Celtic settlement of Eastern Europe Dacia Dardania Destruction of Thracian Bulgarians in 1913 Hawks of Thrace Macedon Moesia Moesogoths Music of Thrace Paionia Thracian treasure Turkish Republic of Thrace Notes[edit] ^ Θρᾴκη. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project ^ Θρᾷξ. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project ^ Greek goddess Europa adorns new five-euro note ^ Pagden, Anthony (2002). "Europe: Conceptualizing a Continent" (PDF). In Pagden, Anthony (ed.). The idea of Europe: from antiquity to the European Union. Washington, DC; Cambridge; New York: Woodrow Wilson Center Press ; Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511496813. ISBN 9780511496813. ^ Pieter, Jan (1989). Thracians and Mycenaeans: Proceedings of the Fourth International Congress. ISBN 978-9004088641. ^ "The Plovdiv Project". ^ Swinburne Carr, Thomas (1838). The history and geography of Greece. Simpkin, Marshall & Company. p. 56. ^ a b c Smith, Sir William (1857). Dictionary of Greek and Roman geography. London. p. 1176. ^ Johann Joachim Eschenburg, Nathan Welby Fiske (1855). Manual of classical literature. E.C. Biddle. p. 20 n. ^ Adam, Alexander (1802). A summary of geography and history, both ancient and modern. A. Strahan. p. 344. ^ Stephanus of Byzantium, Ethnica, §D230.14 ^ Joseph Roisman,Ian Worthington. "A companion to Ancient Macedonia" John Wiley & Sons, 2011. ISBN 144435163X p 343 ^ The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 3, Part 2: The Assyrian and Babylonian Empires and Other States of the Near East, from the Eighth to the Sixth Centuries BC by John Boardman, I. E. S. Edwards, E. Sollberger, and N. G. L. Hammond , ISBN 0-521-22717-8,1992,page 597: "We have no way of knowing what the Thracians called themselves and if indeed they had a common name...Thus the name of Thracians and that of their country were given by the Greeks to a group of tribes occupying the territory..." ^ A. Sideris, Theseus in Thrace. The Silver Lining on the Clouds of the Athenian-Thracian Relations in the 5th Century BC (Sofia 2015), pp. 13-14, 79-82. ^ D. C. Samsaris, Le royaume client thrace aux temps de Tibere et la tutelle romaine de Trebellenus Rufus (Le stade transitif de la clientele a la provincialisation de la Thrace), Dodona 17 (1), 1988, p. 159-168 ^ [1] D. C. Samsaris, The Hellenization of Thrace during the Greek and Roman Antiquity (Diss. in Greek), Thessaloniki 1980, p. 26-36 ^ D. C. Samsaris, Historical Geography of Western Thrace during the Roman Antiquity (in Greek), Thessaloniki 2005, p. 7-14 ^ [2] D. C. Samsaris, The Hellenization of Thrace, passim ^ [3] D. C. Samsaris, The Hellenization of Thrace, p. 320-330 ^ D. C. Samsaris, Surveys in the history, topography and cults of the Roman provinces of Macedonia and Thrace (in Greek), Thessaloniki 1984, p. 131-302 ^ D. C. Samsaris, Les Thraces dans l' Empire romain d' Orient (Le territoire de la Grèce actuelle). Etude ethno-démographique, sociale, prosopographique et anthroponymique, Jannina (Université) 1993, pp. 372 ^ D. C. Samsaris, Les Thraces dans l' Empire romain d' Orient (Asie Mineure, Syrie, Palestine et Arabie). Etude ethno-démographique et sociale, VIe Symposium Internazionale di Tracologia (Firenze 11-13 maggio 1989), Roma 1992, p. 184-204 [= Dodona 19(1990), fasc. 1, p. 5-30] ^ La Venjança catalana. Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana. ^ see footnote 4 ^ Trakiya Heights. SCAR Composite Antarctic Gazetteer. References[edit] Hoddinott, R. F., The Thracians, 1981. Ilieva, Sonya, Thracology, 2001 External links[edit] Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Thrace. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ancient Thrace and Ancient Thracians. Ethnological Museum of Thrace, comprehensive website on Thracian history and culture. Bulgaria's Thracian Heritage. including images of the comprehensive art collection of Thracian gold found on the territory of contemporary Bulgaria. Information on Ancient Thrace The People of the God-Sun Ar and Areia (modern Thrace) [4] Authority control GND: 4078277-3 NDL: 00577011 NKC: ge117026 VIAF: 246534538 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 246534538 Coordinates: 42°N 26°E / 42°N 26°E / 42; 26 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thrace&oldid=992854669" Categories: Thrace Ancient Greek geography Historical regions in Greece History of Thrace Thracians History of Turkey Geography of Turkey Historical regions in Bulgaria Historical regions in Turkey Divided regions Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Articles containing Bulgarian-language text Articles containing Turkish-language text Wikipedia articles needing clarification from December 2016 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2020 Commons link is locally defined Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Coordinates on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikivoyage Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Ænglisc العربية Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Lumbaart Magyar Македонски मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Polski Ποντιακά Português Qırımtatarca Română Русский Sardu Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 7 December 2020, at 13:32 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6217	----	Herodotus - Wikipedia Herodotus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 5th century BC Greek historian and author of The Histories For other uses, see Herodotus (disambiguation). Herodotus Ἡρόδοτος A Roman copy (2nd century AD) of a Greek bust of Herodotus from the first half of the 4th century BC Born c. 484 BC Halicarnassus, Caria, Asia Minor, Persian Empire Died c. 425 BC (aged approximately 60) Thurii, Calabria or Pella, Macedon Occupation Historian Notable work The Histories Parent(s) Lyxes (father) Dryotus (mother) Relatives Theodorus (brother) Panyassis (uncle or cousin) Herodotus (/hɪˈrɒdətəs/; Ancient Greek: Ἡρόδοτος, Hēródotos, Attic Greek pronunciation: [hɛː.ró.do.tos]; c. 484 – c. 425 BC) was an ancient Greek historian who was born in Halicarnassus in the Persian Empire (modern-day Bodrum, Turkey). He is known for having written the book The Histories (Greek: Ἱστορίαι Historíai), a detailed record of his "inquiry" (ἱστορία historía) on the origins of the Greco-Persian Wars. He is widely considered to have been the first writer to have treated historical subjects using a method of systematic investigation—specifically, by collecting his materials and then critically arranging them into an historiographic narrative. On account of this, he is often referred to as "The Father of History," a title first conferred on him by the first-century BC Roman orator Cicero.[1] Despite Herodotus's historical significance, little is known about his personal life. His Histories primarily deals with the lives of Croesus, Cyrus, Cambyses, Smerdis, Darius, and Xerxes and the battles of Marathon, Thermopylae, Artemisium, Salamis, Plataea, and Mycale; however, his many cultural, ethnographical, geographical, historiographical, and other digressions form a defining and essential part of the Histories and contain a wealth of information. Herodotus has been criticized for the fact that his book includes many obvious legends and fanciful accounts. Many authors, starting with the late fifth-century BC historian Thucydides, have accused him of making up stories for entertainment. However, Herodotus states that he is merely reporting what he has seen and been told, on several occasions saying that he does not himself believe the story that he reports. A sizable portion of the information he provides has since been confirmed by historians and archaeologists. Contents 1 Place in history 1.1 Predecessors 1.2 Writing style 1.3 Contemporary and modern critics 2 Life 2.1 Childhood 2.2 Early travels 2.3 Later life 2.4 Author and orator 3 Reliability 3.1 Babylon 3.2 Egypt 3.3 Scientific reasoning 3.4 Accusations of bias 3.5 Use of sources and sense of authority 4 Mode of explanation 4.1 Types of causality 5 Herodotus and myth 6 See also 7 Critical editions 8 Translations 9 Notes 10 References 10.1 Sources 11 Further reading 12 External links Place in history[edit] Herodotus announced the purpose and scope of his work at the beginning of his Histories:[a] Here are presented the results of the inquiry carried out by Herodotus of Halicarnassus. The purpose is to prevent the traces of human events from being erased by time, and to preserve the fame of the important and remarkable achievements produced by both Greeks and non-Greeks; among the matters covered is, in particular, the cause of the hostilities between Greeks and non-Greeks. — Herodotus, The Histories Robin Waterfield translation (2008) Predecessors[edit] His record of the achievements of others was an achievement in itself, though the extent of it has been debated. Herodotus's place in history and his significance may be understood according to the traditions within which he worked. His work is the earliest Greek prose to have survived intact. However, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, a literary critic of Augustan Rome, listed seven predecessors of Herodotus, describing their works as simple, unadorned accounts of their own and other cities and people, Greek or foreign, including popular legends, sometimes melodramatic and naïve, often charming – all traits that can be found in the work of Herodotus himself.[3] Modern historians regard the chronology as uncertain, but according to the ancient account, these predecessors included Dionysius of Miletus, Charon of Lampsacus, Hellanicus of Lesbos, Xanthus of Lydia and, the best attested of them all, Hecataeus of Miletus. Of these, only fragments of Hecataeus's works survived, and the authenticity of these is debatable,[4] but they provide a glimpse into the kind of tradition within which Herodotus wrote his own Histories. Writing style[edit] In his introduction to Hecataeus' work, Genealogies: Fragment from the Histories VIII on Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 2099, early 2nd century AD Hecataeus the Milesian speaks thus: I write these things as they seem true to me; for the stories told by the Greeks are various and in my opinion absurd. This points forward to the "folksy" yet "international" outlook typical of Herodotus. However, one modern scholar has described the work of Hecataeus as "a curious false start to history,"[5] since despite his critical spirit, he failed to liberate history from myth. Herodotus mentions Hecataeus in his Histories, on one occasion mocking him for his naive genealogy and, on another occasion, quoting Athenian complaints against his handling of their national history.[6] It is possible that Herodotus borrowed much material from Hecataeus, as stated by Porphyry in a quote recorded by Eusebius.[7] In particular, it is possible that he copied descriptions of the crocodile, hippopotamus, and phoenix from Hecataeus's Circumnavigation of the Known World (Periegesis / Periodos ges), even misrepresenting the source as "Heliopolitans" (Histories 2.73).[8] But Hecataeus did not record events that had occurred in living memory, unlike Herodotus, nor did he include the oral traditions of Greek history within the larger framework of oriental history.[9] There is no proof that Herodotus derived the ambitious scope of his own work, with its grand theme of civilizations in conflict, from any predecessor, despite much scholarly speculation about this in modern times.[5][10] Herodotus claims to be better informed than his predecessors by relying on empirical observation to correct their excessive schematism. For example, he argues for continental asymmetry as opposed to the older theory of a perfectly circular earth with Europe and Asia/Africa equal in size (Histories 4.36 and 4.42). However, he retains idealizing tendencies, as in his symmetrical notions of the Danube and Nile.[11] His debt to previous authors of prose "histories" might be questionable, but there is no doubt that Herodotus owed much to the example and inspiration of poets and story-tellers. For example, Athenian tragic poets provided him with a world-view of a balance between conflicting forces, upset by the hubris of kings, and they provided his narrative with a model of episodic structure. His familiarity with Athenian tragedy is demonstrated in a number of passages echoing Aeschylus's Persae, including the epigrammatic observation that the defeat of the Persian navy at Salamis caused the defeat of the land army (Histories 8.68 ~ Persae 728). The debt may have been repaid by Sophocles because there appear to be echoes of The Histories in his plays, especially a passage in Antigone that resembles Herodotus's account of the death of Intaphernes (Histories 3.119 ~ Antigone 904–920).[12] However, this point is one of the most contentious issues in modern scholarship.[13] Homer was another inspirational source.[b] Just as Homer drew extensively on a tradition of oral poetry, sung by wandering minstrels, so Herodotus appears to have drawn on an Ionian tradition of story-telling, collecting and interpreting the oral histories he chanced upon in his travels. These oral histories often contained folk-tale motifs and demonstrated a moral, yet they also contained substantial facts relating to geography, anthropology, and history, all compiled by Herodotus in an entertaining style and format.[15] Contemporary and modern critics[edit] It is on account of the many strange stories and the folk-tales he reported that his critics have branded him "The Father of Lies."[16][17] Even his own contemporaries found reason to scoff at his achievement. In fact, one modern scholar[18] has wondered if Herodotus left his home in Greek Anatolia, migrating westwards to Athens and beyond, because his own countrymen had ridiculed his work, a circumstance possibly hinted at in an epitaph said to have been dedicated to Herodotus at one of his three supposed resting places, Thuria: Herodotus the son of Sphynx lies; in Ionic history without peer; a Dorian born, who fled from slander's brand and made in Thuria his new native land.[19] Yet it was in Athens where his most formidable contemporary critics could be found. In 425 BC, which is about the time that Herodotus is thought by many scholars to have died, the Athenian comic dramatist Aristophanes created The Acharnians, in which he blames the Peloponnesian War on the abduction of some prostitutes – a mocking reference to Herodotus, who reported the Persians' account of their wars with Greece, beginning with the rapes of the mythical heroines Io, Europa, Medea, and Helen.[20][21] Similarly, the Athenian historian Thucydides dismissed Herodotus as a "logos-writer" (story-teller).[22] Thucydides, who had been trained in rhetoric, became the model for subsequent prose-writers as an author who seeks to appear firmly in control of his material, whereas with his frequent digressions Herodotus appeared to minimize (or possibly disguise) his authorial control.[23] Moreover, Thucydides developed a historical topic more in keeping with the Greek world-view: focused on the context of the polis or city-state. The interplay of civilizations was more relevant to Greeks living in Anatolia, such as Herodotus himself, for whom life within a foreign civilization was a recent memory.[22] Before the Persian crisis, history had been represented among the Greeks only by local or family traditions. The "Wars of Liberation" had given to Herodotus the first genuinely historical inspiration felt by a Greek. These wars showed him that there was a corporate life, higher than that of the city, of which the story might be told; and they offered to him as a subject the drama of the collision between East and West. With him, the spirit of history was born into Greece; and his work, called after the nine Muses, was indeed the first utterance of Clio. — Richard Claverhouse Jebb[24] Life[edit] Modern scholars generally turn to Herodotus's own writing for reliable information about his life,[25] supplemented with ancient yet much later sources, such as the Byzantine Suda, an 11th-century encyclopedia which possibly took its information from traditional accounts. The data are so few – they rest upon such late and slight authority; they are so improbable or so contradictory, that to compile them into a biography is like building a house of cards, which the first breath of criticism will blow to the ground. Still, certain points may be approximately fixed ... — George Rawlinson[26] Childhood[edit] Modern accounts of his life typically[27][28] go something like this: Herodotus was born at Halicarnassus around 485 BC. There is no reason to disbelieve the Suda's information about his family: that it was influential and that he was the son of Lyxes and Dryo, and the brother of Theodorus, and that he was also related to Panyassis – an epic poet of the time. The town was within the Persian Empire at that time, making Herodotus a Persian subject,[29][30] and it may be that the young Herodotus heard local eyewitness accounts of events within the empire and of Persian preparations for the invasion of Greece, including the movements of the local fleet under the command of Artemisia I of Caria. Inscriptions recently discovered at Halicarnassus indicate that her grandson Lygdamis negotiated with a local assembly to settle disputes over seized property, which is consistent with a tyrant under pressure. His name is not mentioned later in the tribute list of the Athenian Delian League, indicating that there might well have been a successful uprising against him sometime before 454 BC. The epic poet Panyassis – a relative of Herodotus – is reported to have taken part in a failed uprising. Herodotus expresses affection for the island of Samos (III, 39–60), and this is an indication that he might have lived there in his youth. So it is possible that his family was involved in an uprising against Lygdamis, leading to a period of exile on Samos and followed by some personal hand in the tyrant's eventual fall. The statue of Herodotus in his hometown of Halicarnassus, modern Bodrum, Turkey Herodotus wrote his Histories in the Ionian dialect, yet he was born in Halicarnassus, which was a Dorian settlement. According to the Suda, Herodotus learned the Ionian dialect as a boy living on the island of Samos, to which he had fled with his family from the oppressions of Lygdamis, tyrant of Halicarnassus and grandson of Artemisia. The Suda also informs us that Herodotus later returned home to lead the revolt that eventually overthrew the tyrant. Due to recent discoveries of inscriptions at Halicarnassus dated to about Herodotus's time, we now know that the Ionic dialect was used in Halicarnassus in some official documents, so there is no need to assume (like the Suda) that he must have learned the dialect elsewhere.[31] Further, the Suda is the only source which we have for the role played by Herodotus as the heroic liberator of his birthplace. That itself is a good reason to doubt such a romantic account.[32] Early travels[edit] As Herodotus himself reveals, Halicarnassus, though a Dorian city, had ended its close relations with its Dorian neighbours after an unseemly quarrel (I, 144), and it had helped pioneer Greek trade with Egypt (II, 178). It was, therefore, an outward-looking, international-minded port within the Persian Empire, and the historian's family could well have had contacts in other countries under Persian rule, facilitating his travels and his researches. Herodotus's eyewitness accounts indicate that he traveled in Egypt in association with Athenians, probably sometime after 454 BC or possibly earlier, after an Athenian fleet had assisted the uprising against Persian rule in 460–454 BC. He probably traveled to Tyre next and then down the Euphrates to Babylon. For some reason, possibly associated with local politics, he subsequently found himself unpopular in Halicarnassus, and sometime around 447 BC, migrated to Periclean Athens – a city whose people and democratic institutions he openly admires (V, 78). Athens was also the place where he came to know the local topography (VI, 137; VIII, 52–55), as well as leading citizens such as the Alcmaeonids, a clan whose history features frequently in his writing. According to Eusebius[33] and Plutarch,[34] Herodotus was granted a financial reward by the Athenian assembly in recognition of his work. It is possible that he unsuccessfully applied for Athenian citizenship, a rare honour after 451 BC, requiring two separate votes by a well-attended assembly. Later life[edit] In 443 BC or shortly afterwards, he migrated to Thurium as part of an Athenian-sponsored colony. Aristotle refers to a version of The Histories written by "Herodotus of Thurium," and some passages in the Histories have been interpreted as proof that he wrote about southern Italy from personal experience there (IV, 15,99; VI, 127). Intimate knowledge of some events in the first years of the Peloponnesian War (VI, 91; VII, 133, 233; IX, 73) indicate that he might have returned to Athens, in which case it is possible that he died there during an outbreak of the plague. Possibly he died in Macedonia instead, after obtaining the patronage of the court there; or else he died back in Thurium. There is nothing in the Histories that can be dated to later than 430 BC with any certainty, and it is generally assumed that he died not long afterwards, possibly before his sixtieth year. Author and orator[edit] Herodotus would have made his researches known to the larger world through oral recitations to a public crowd. John Marincola writes in his introduction to the Penguin edition of The Histories that there are certain identifiable pieces in the early books of Herodotus's work which could be labeled as "performance pieces." These portions of the research seem independent and "almost detachable," so that they might have been set aside by the author for the purposes of an oral performance. The intellectual matrix of the 5th century, Marincola suggests, comprised many oral performances in which philosophers would dramatically recite such detachable pieces of their work. The idea was to criticize previous arguments on a topic and emphatically and enthusiastically insert their own in order to win over the audience.[35] It was conventional in Herodotus's day for authors to "publish" their works by reciting them at popular festivals. According to Lucian, Herodotus took his finished work straight from Anatolia to the Olympic Games and read the entire Histories to the assembled spectators in one sitting, receiving rapturous applause at the end of it.[36] According to a very different account by an ancient grammarian,[37] Herodotus refused to begin reading his work at the festival of Olympia until some clouds offered him a bit of shade – by which time the assembly had dispersed. (Hence the proverbial expression "Herodotus and his shade" to describe someone who misses an opportunity through delay.) Herodotus's recitation at Olympia was a favourite theme among ancient writers, and there is another interesting variation on the story to be found in the Suda: that of Photius[38] and Tzetzes,[39] in which a young Thucydides happened to be in the assembly with his father, and burst into tears during the recital. Herodotus observed prophetically to the boy's father, "Your son's soul yearns for knowledge." Eventually, Thucydides and Herodotus became close enough for both to be interred in Thucydides' tomb in Athens. Such at least was the opinion of Marcellinus in his Life of Thucydides.[40] According to the Suda, he was buried in Macedonian Pella and in the agora in Thurium.[41] Reliability[edit] Dedication in the Histories, translated into Latin by Lorenzo Valla, Venice 1494 The accuracy of the works of Herodotus has been controversial since his own era. Kenton L. Sparks writes, "In antiquity, Herodotus had acquired the reputation of being unreliable, biased, parsimonious in his praise of heroes, and mendacious". The historian Duris of Samos called Herodotus a "myth-monger".[42] Cicero (On the Laws I.5) said that his works were full of legends or "fables".[43] The controversy was also commented on by Aristotle, Flavius Josephus and Plutarch.[44][45] The Alexandrian grammarian Harpocration wrote a whole book on "the lies of Herodotus".[46] Lucian of Samosata went as far as to deny the "father of history" a place among the famous on the Island of the Blessed in his Verae Historiae. The works of Thucydides were often given preference for their "truthfulness and reliability",[47] even if Thucydides basically continued on foundations laid by Herodotus, as in his treatment of the Persian Wars.[48] In spite of these lines of criticism, Herodotus' works were in general kept in high esteem and regarded as reliable by many. Many scholars, ancient and modern (such as Strabo, A. H. L. Heeren, etc.), routinely cited Herodotus. To this day, some scholars regard his works as being at least partly unreliable. Detlev Fehling writes of "a problem recognized by everybody", namely that Herodotus frequently cannot be taken at face value.[49] Fehling argues that Herodotus exaggerated the extent of his travels and invented his sources.[50] For Fehling, the sources of many stories, as reported by Herodotus, do not appear credible in themselves. Persian and Egyptian informants tell stories that dovetail neatly into Greek myths and literature, yet show no signs of knowing their own traditions. For Fehling, the only credible explanation is that Herodotus invented these sources, and that the stories themselves were concocted by Herodotus himself.[51] Like many ancient historians, Herodotus preferred an element of show[c] to purely analytic history, aiming to give pleasure with "exciting events, great dramas, bizarre exotica."[53] As such, certain passages have been the subject of controversy[54][55] and even some doubt, both in antiquity and today.[56][57][58][59][60][61][62] Despite the controversy,[63] Herodotus has long served and still serves as the primary, often only, source for events in the Greek world, Persian Empire, and the broader region in the two centuries leading up to his own days.[16][64] So even if the Histories were criticized in some regards since antiquity, modern historians and philosophers generally take a more positive view as to their source and epistemologic value.[65] Herodotus is variously considered "father of comparative anthropology,"[16] "the father of ethnography,"[64] and "more modern than any other ancient historian in his approach to the ideal of total history."[65] Discoveries made since the end of the 19th century have generally added to Herodotus' credibility. He described Gelonus, located in Scythia, as a city thousands of times larger than Troy; this was widely disbelieved until it was rediscovered in 1975. The archaeological study of the now-submerged ancient Egyptian city of Heracleion and the recovery of the so-called "Naucratis stela" give credibility to Herodotus's previously unsupported claim that Heracleion was founded during the Egyptian New Kingdom. Babylon[edit] Reconstruction of the Oikoumene (inhabited world), ancient map based on Herodotus, c. 450 BC Herodotus claimed to have visited Babylon. The absence of any mention of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon in his work has attracted further attacks on his credibility. In response, Dalley has proposed that the Hanging Gardens may have been in Nineveh rather than in Babylon.[60] Egypt[edit] The reliability of Herodotus's writing about Egypt is sometimes questioned.[62] Alan B. Lloyd argues that, as a historical document, the writings of Herodotus are seriously defective, and that he was working from "inadequate sources."[56] Nielsen writes: "Though we cannot entirely rule out the possibility of Herodotus having been in Egypt, it must be said that his narrative bears little witness to it."[58] German historian Detlev Fehling questions whether Herodotus ever traveled up the Nile River, and considers doubtful almost everything that he says about Egypt and Ethiopia.[66][61] Fehling states that "there is not the slightest bit of history behind the whole story" about the claim of Herodotus that Pharaoh Sesostris campaigned in Europe, and that he left a colony in Colchia.[59][57] Fehling concludes that the works of Herodotus are intended as fiction. Boedeker concurs that much of the content of the works of Herodotus are literary devices.[59][52] However, a recent discovery of a baris (described in The Histories) during an excavation of the sunken Egyptian port city of Thonis-Heracleion lends credence to Herodotus's travels and storytelling.[67] Herodotus' contribution to the history and ethnography of ancient Egypt and Africa was especially valued by various historians of the field (such as Constantin François de Chassebœuf, comte de Volney, W. E. B. Du Bois, Pierre Montet, Martin Bernal, Basil Davidson, Derek A. Welsby, Henry T. Aubin). Many scholars explicitly mention the reliability of Herodotus's work (such as on the Nile Valley) and demonstrate corroboration of Herodotus' writings by modern scholars. A. H. L. Heeren quoted Herodotus throughout his work and provided corroboration by scholars regarding several passages (source of the Nile, location of Meroë, etc.).[68] Cheikh Anta Diop provides several examples (like the inundations of the Nile) which, he argues, support his view that Herodotus was "quite scrupulous, objective, scientific for his time." Diop argues that Herodotus "always distinguishes carefully between what he has seen and what he has been told." Diop also notes that Strabo corroborated Herodotus' ideas about the Black Egyptians, Ethiopians, and Colchians.[69][70] Martin Bernal has relied on Herodotus "to an extraordinary degree" in his controversial book Black Athena.[71] British egyptologist Derek A. Welsby said that "archaeology graphically confirms Herodotus's observations."[72] To further his work on the Egyptians and Assyrians, historian and fiction writer Henry T. Aubin used Herodotus' accounts in various passages. For Aubin, Herodotus was "the author of the first important narrative history of the world."[73] Scientific reasoning[edit] On geography Herodotus provides much information about the nature of the world and the status of science during his lifetime, often engaging in private speculation likewise. For example, he reports that the annual flooding of the Nile was said to be the result of melting snows far to the south, and he comments that he cannot understand how there can be snow in Africa, the hottest part of the known world, offering an elaborate explanation based on the way that desert winds affect the passage of the Sun over this part of the world (2:18ff). He also passes on reports from Phoenician sailors that, while circumnavigating Africa, they "saw the sun on the right side while sailing westwards", although, being unaware of the existence of the southern hemisphere, he says that he does not believe the claim. Owing to this brief mention, which is included almost as an afterthought, it has been argued that Africa was circumnavigated by ancient seafarers, for this is precisely where the sun ought to have been.[74] His accounts of India are among the oldest records of Indian civilization by an outsider.[75][76][77] On biology The Indian Gold Hunters, after Herodotus: gold ants pursuing gold hunters. After journeys to India and Pakistan, French ethnologist Michel Peissel claimed to have discovered an animal species that may illuminate one of the most bizarre passages in the Histories.[78] In Book 3, passages 102 to 105, Herodotus reports that a species of fox-sized, furry "ants" lives in one of the far eastern, Indian provinces of the Persian Empire. This region, he reports, is a sandy desert, and the sand there contains a wealth of fine gold dust. These giant ants, according to Herodotus, would often unearth the gold dust when digging their mounds and tunnels, and the people living in this province would then collect the precious dust. Later Pliny the Elder would mention this story in the gold mining section of his Naturalis Historia. The Himalayan marmot Peissel reports that, in an isolated region of northern Pakistan on the Deosai Plateau in Gilgit–Baltistan province, there is a species of marmot – the Himalayan marmot, a type of burrowing squirrel – that may have been what Herodotus called giant ants. The ground of the Deosai Plateau is rich in gold dust, much like the province that Herodotus describes. According to Peissel, he interviewed the Minaro tribal people who live in the Deosai Plateau, and they have confirmed that they have, for generations, been collecting the gold dust that the marmots bring to the surface when they are digging their burrows. Peissel offers the theory that Herodotus may have confused the old Persian word for "marmot" with the word for "mountain ant." Research suggests that Herodotus probably did not know any Persian (or any other language except his native Greek) and was forced to rely on many local translators when travelling in the vast multilingual Persian Empire. Herodotus did not claim to have personally seen the creatures which he described.[78][79] Herodotus did, though, follow up in passage 105 of Book 3 with the claim that the "ants" are said to chase and devour full-grown camels. Accusations of bias[edit] Some "calumnious fictions" were written about Herodotus in a work titled On the Malice of Herodotus by Plutarch, a Chaeronean by birth, (or it might have been a Pseudo-Plutarch, in this case "a great collector of slanders"), including the allegation that the historian was prejudiced against Thebes because the authorities there had denied him permission to set up a school.[80] Similarly, in a Corinthian Oration, Dio Chrysostom (or yet another pseudonymous author) accused the historian of prejudice against Corinth, sourcing it in personal bitterness over financial disappointments[81] – an account also given by Marcellinus in his Life of Thucydides.[82] In fact, Herodotus was in the habit of seeking out information from empowered sources within communities, such as aristocrats and priests, and this also occurred at an international level, with Periclean Athens becoming his principal source of information about events in Greece. As a result, his reports about Greek events are often coloured by Athenian bias against rival states – Thebes and Corinth in particular.[83] Use of sources and sense of authority[edit] Croesus Receiving Tribute from a Lydian Peasant, by Claude Vignon It is clear from the beginning of Book 1 of the Histories that Herodotus utilizes (or at least claims to utilize) various sources in his narrative. K. H. Waters relates that "Herodotos did not work from a purely Hellenic standpoint; he was accused by the patriotic but somewhat imperceptive Plutarch of being philobarbaros, a pro-barbarian or pro-foreigner."[84] Herodotus at times relates various accounts of the same story. For example, in Book 1 he mentions both the Phoenician and the Persian accounts of Io.[85] However, Herodotus at times arbitrates between varying accounts: "I am not going to say that these events happened one way or the other. Rather, I will point out the man who I know for a fact began the wrong-doing against the Greeks."[86] Again, later, Herodotus claims himself as an authority: "I know this is how it happened because I heard it from the Delphians myself."[87] Throughout his work, Herodotus attempts to explain the actions of people. Speaking about Solon the Athenian, Herodotus states "[Solon] sailed away on the pretext of seeing the world, but it was really so that he could not be compelled to repeal any of the laws he had laid down."[88] Again, in the story about Croesus and his son's death, when speaking of Adrastus (the man who accidentally killed Croesus' son), Herodotus states: "Adrastus ... believing himself to be the most ill-fated man he had ever known, cut his own throat over the grave."[89] Mode of explanation[edit] Herodotus writes with the purpose of explaining; that is, he discusses the reason for or cause of an event. He lays this out in the preamble: "This is the publication of the research of Herodotus of Halicarnassus, so that the actions of people shall not fade with time, so that the great and admirable achievements of both Greeks and barbarians shall not go unrenowned, and, among other things, to set forth the reasons why they waged war on each other."[90] This mode of explanation traces itself all the way back to Homer,[91] who opened the Iliad by asking: Which of the immortals set these two at each other's throats? Apollo, Zeus’ son and Leto’s, offended by the warlord. Agamemnon had dishonored Chryses, Apollo's priest, so the god struck the Greek camp with plague, and the soldiers were dying of it.[92] Both Homer and Herodotus begin with a question of causality. In Homer's case, "who set these two at each other's throats?" In Herodotus's case, "Why did the Greeks and barbarians go to war with each other?" Herodotus's means of explanation does not necessarily posit a simple cause; rather, his explanations cover a host of potential causes and emotions. It is notable, however, that "the obligations of gratitude and revenge are the fundamental human motives for Herodotus, just as ... they are the primary stimulus to the generation of narrative itself."[93] Some readers of Herodotus believe that his habit of tying events back to personal motives signifies an inability to see broader and more abstract reasons for action. Gould argues to the contrary that this is likely because Herodotus attempts to provide the rational reasons, as understood by his contemporaries, rather than providing more abstract reasons.[94] Types of causality[edit] Herodotus attributes cause to both divine and human agents. These are not perceived as mutually exclusive, but rather mutually interconnected. This is true of Greek thinking in general, at least from Homer onward.[95] Gould notes that invoking the supernatural in order to explain an event does not answer the question "why did this happen?" but rather "why did this happen to me?" By way of example, faulty craftsmanship is the human cause for a house collapsing. However, divine will is the reason that the house collapses at the particular moment when I am inside. It was the will of the gods that the house collapsed while a particular individual was within it, whereas it was the cause of man that the house had a weak structure and was prone to falling.[96] Some authors, including Geoffrey de Ste-Croix and Mabel Lang, have argued that Fate, or the belief that "this is how it had to be," is Herodotus's ultimate understanding of causality.[97] Herodotus's explanation that an event "was going to happen" maps well on to Aristotelean and Homeric means of expression. The idea of "it was going to happen" reveals a "tragic discovery" associated with fifth-century drama. This tragic discovery can be seen in Homer's Iliad as well.[98] John Gould argues that Herodotus should be understood as falling in a long line of story-tellers, rather than thinking of his means of explanation as a "philosophy of history" or "simple causality." Thus, according to Gould, Herodotus's means of explanation is a mode of story-telling and narration that has been passed down from generations prior:[99] Herodotus' sense of what was 'going to happen' is not the language of one who holds a theory of historical necessity, who sees the whole of human experience as constrained by inevitability and without room for human choice or human responsibility, diminished and belittled by forces too large for comprehension or resistance; it is rather the traditional language of a teller of tales whose tale is structured by his awareness of the shape it must have and who presents human experience on the model of the narrative patterns that are built into his stories; the narrative impulse itself, the impulse towards 'closure' and the sense of an ending, is retrojected to become 'explanation'.[100] Herodotus and myth[edit] Although Herodotus considered his "inquiries" a serious pursuit of knowledge, he was not above relating entertaining tales derived from the collective body of myth, but he did so judiciously with regard for his historical method, by corroborating the stories through enquiry and testing their probability.[101] While the gods never make personal appearances in his account of human events, Herodotus states emphatically that "many things prove to me that the gods take part in the affairs of man" (IX, 100). In Book One, passages 23 and 24, Herodotus relates the story of Arion, the renowned harp player, "second to no man living at that time," who was saved by a dolphin. Herodotus prefaces the story by noting that "a very wonderful thing is said to have happened," and alleges its veracity by adding that the "Corinthians and the Lesbians agree in their account of the matter." Having become very rich while at the court of Periander, Arion conceived a desire to sail to Italy and Sicily. He hired a vessel crewed by Corinthians, whom he felt he could trust, but the sailors plotted to throw him overboard and seize his wealth. Arion discovered the plot and begged for his life, but the crew gave him two options: that either he kill himself on the spot or jump ship and fend for himself in the sea. Arion flung himself into the water, and a dolphin carried him to shore.[102] Herodotus clearly writes as both historian and teller of tales. Herodotus takes a fluid position between the artistic story-weaving of Homer and the rational data-accounting of later historians. John Herington has developed a helpful metaphor for describing Herodotus's dynamic position in the history of Western art and thought – Herodotus as centaur: The human forepart of the animal ... is the urbane and responsible classical historian; the body indissolubly united to it is something out of the faraway mountains, out of an older, freer and wilder realm where our conventions have no force.[103] Herodotus is neither a mere gatherer of data nor a simple teller of tales – he is both. While Herodotus is certainly concerned with giving accurate accounts of events, this does not preclude for him the insertion of powerful mythological elements into his narrative, elements which will aid him in expressing the truth of matters under his study. Thus to understand what Herodotus is doing in the Histories, we must not impose strict demarcations between the man as mythologist and the man as historian, or between the work as myth and the work as history. As James Romm has written, Herodotus worked under a common ancient Greek cultural assumption that the way events are remembered and retold (e.g. in myths or legends) produces a valid kind of understanding, even when this retelling is not entirely factual.[104] For Herodotus, then, it takes both myth and history to produce truthful understanding. See also[edit] Histories (Herodotus) Historiography (the history of history and historians) Thucydides, ancient Greek historian who is also often said to be "the father of history" Strabo Geographica Pliny the Elder Naturalis Historia The Padaei Pseudo-Herodotus Sostratos of Aegina The Herodotus Machine Critical editions[edit] C. Hude (ed.) Herodoti Historiae. Tomvs prior: Libros I–IV continens. (Oxford 1908) C. Hude (ed.) Herodoti Historiae. Tomvs alter: Libri V–IX continens. (Oxford 1908) H. B. Rosén (ed.) Herodoti Historiae. Vol. I: Libros I–IV continens. (Leipzig 1987) H. B. Rosén (ed.) Herodoti Historiae. Vol. II: Libros V–IX continens indicibus criticis adiectis (Stuttgart 1997) N. G. Wilson (ed.) Herodoti Historiae. Tomvs prior: Libros I–IV continens. (Oxford 2015) N. G. Wilson (ed.) Herodoti Historiae. Tomvs alter: Libri V–IX continens. (Oxford 2015) Translations[edit] Several English translations of The Histories of Herodotus are readily available in multiple editions. The most readily available are those translated by: Henry Cary (judge), translation 1849: text Internet Archive George Rawlinson, translation 1858–1860. Public domain; many editions available, although Everyman Library and Wordsworth Classics editions are the most common ones still in print. A. D. Godley 1920; revised 1926. Reprinted 1931, 1946, 1960, 1966, 1975, 1981, 1990, 1996, 1999, 2004. Available in four volumes from Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-99130-3 Printed with Greek on the left and English on the right: A. D. Godley Herodotus : The Persian Wars : Volume I : Books 1–2 (Cambridge, Massachusetts 1920) A. D. Godley Herodotus : The Persian Wars : Volume II : Books 3–4 (Cambridge, Massachusetts 1921) A. D. Godley Herodotus : The Persian Wars : Volume III : Books 5–7 (Cambridge, Massachusetts 1922) A. D. Godley Herodotus : The Persian Wars : Volume IV : Books 8–9 (Cambridge, Massachusetts 1925) Aubrey de Sélincourt, originally 1954; revised by John Marincola in 1996. Several editions from Penguin Books available. David Grene, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985. Robin Waterfield, with an Introduction and Notes by Carolyn Dewald, Oxford World Classics, 1997. ISBN 978-0-19-953566-8 Strassler, Robert B., (ed.), and Purvis, Andrea L. (trans.), The Landmark Herodotus, Pantheon, 2007. ISBN 978-0-375-42109-9 with adequate ancillary information. The Histories of Herodotus Interlinear English Translation by Heinrich Stein (ed.) and George Macaulay (trans.), Lighthouse Digital Publishing, 2013. Herodotus. Herodotus: The Histories: The Complete Translation, Backgrounds, Commentaries. Translated by Walter Blanco. Edited by Jennifer Tolbert Roberts. New York: W. W. Norton &, 2013. "The Histories, Herodotus." Translated by Tom Holland, with introduction and notes by Paul Cartledge. New York, Penguin, 2013. Notes[edit] ^ For the past several hundred years, the title of Herodotus's work has been translated rather roughly as The Histories or The History. The original title can be translated from the Greek as "researches" or "inquiries".[2] ^ “In the scheme and plan of his work, in the arrangement and order of its parts, in the tone and character of the thoughts, in ten thousand little expressions and words, the Homeric student appears.”[14] ^ Boedeker comments on Herodotus's use of literary devices.[52] References[edit] ^ T. James Luce, The Greek Historians, 2002, p. 26. ^ "Herodotus" Encyclopedia of World Biography. The Gale Group. Retrieved March 11, 2018. ^ Burn (1972), p. 23, citing Dionysius On Thucydides ^ Burn (1972), p. 27 ^ a b Murray (1986), p. 188 ^ Herodotus, Histories 2.143, 6.137 ^ Preparation of the Gospel, X, 3 ^ Immerwahr (1985), pp. 430, 440 ^ Immerwahr (1985), p. 431 ^ Burn (1972), pp. 22–23 ^ Immerwahr (1985), p. 430 ^ Immerwahr (1985), pp. 427, 432 ^ Richard Jebb (ed), Antigone, Cambridge University Press, 1976, pp. 181–182, n. 904–920 ^ Rawlinson (1859), p. 6 ^ Murray (1986), pp. 190–191 ^ a b c Burn (1972), p. 10 ^ David Pipes. "Herodotus: Father of History, Father of Lies". Retrieved 16 November 2009. ^ Rawlinson (1859) ^ Burn (1972), p. 13 ^ Lawrence A. Tritle. (2004). The Peloponnesian War. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 147–148 ^ John Hart. (1982). Herodotus and Greek History. Taylor and Francis. p. 174 ^ a b Murray (1986), p. 191 ^ Waterfield, Robin (trans.) and Dewald, Carolyn (ed.). (1998). The Histories by Herodotus. University of Oxford Press. “Introduction”, p. xviii ^ Richard C. Jebb, The Genius of Sophocles, section 7 ^ Burn (1972), p. 7 ^ Rawlinson (1859), p. 1 ^ Rawlinson (1859), Introduction ^ Burn (1972), Introduction ^ Dandamaev, M. A. (1989). A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire. Brill. p. 153. ISBN 978-90-04-09172-6. The ‘Father of History’, Herodotus, was born at Halicarnassus, and before his emigration to mainland Greece was a subject of the Persian empire. ^ Kia, Mehrdad (2016). The Persian Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 161. ISBN 978-1-61069-391-2. At the time of Herodotus’ birth southwestern Asia Minor, including Halicarnassus, was under Persian Achaemenid rule. ^ Burn (1972), p. 11 ^ Rawlinson (1859), p. 11 ^ Eusebius Chron. Can. Pars. II p. 339, 01.83.4, cited by Rawlinson (1859), Introduction ^ Plutarch De Malign. Herod. II p. 862 A, cited by Rawlinson (1859), Introduction ^ The Histories. Introduction and Notes by John Marincola; Trans. by Aubrey de Selincourt. Penguin Books. 2003. pp. xii.CS1 maint: others (link) ^ Rawlinson (1859), p. 14 ^ Montfaucon’s Bibliothec. Coisl. Cod. clxxvii p. 609, cited by Rawlinson (1859), p. 14 ^ Photius Bibliothec. Cod. lx p. 59, cited by Rawlinson (1859), p. 15 ^ Tzetzes Chil. 1.19, cited by Rawlinson (1859), p. 15 ^ Marcellinus, in Vita. Thucyd. p. ix, cited by Rawlinson (1859), p. 25 ^ Rawlinson (1859), p. 25 ^ Marincola (2001), p. 59 ^ Roberts (2011), p. 2 ^ Sparks (1998), p. 58 ^ Asheri, Lloyd & Corcella (2007) ^ Cameron (2004), p. 156 ^ Neville Morley: The Anti-Thucydides: Herodotus and the Development of Modern Historiography. In: Jessica Priestly and Vasiliki Zali (eds.): Brill's Companion to the Reception of Herodotus in Antiquity and Beyond. Brill, Leiden and Boston 2016, pp. 143–166, here especially p. 148 ff. ^ Vassiliki Zali: Herodotus and His Successors: The Rhetoric of the Persian Wars in Thucydides and Xenophon. In: Priestly and Zali (eds.): Brill's Companion to the Reception of Herodotus in Antiquity and Beyond. Brill, Leiden and Boston 2016, pp. 34–58, here p. 38. ^ Fehling (1994), p. 2 ^ Fehling (1989) ^ Fehling (1989), pp. 4, 53–54 ^ a b Boedeker (2000), pp. 101–102 ^ Saltzman (2010) ^ Archambault (2002), p. 171 ^ Farley (2010), p. 21 ^ a b Lloyd (1993), p. 4 ^ a b Fehling (1994), p. 13 ^ a b Nielsen (1997), pp. 42–43 ^ a b c Marincola (2001), p. 34 ^ a b Dalley (2003) ^ a b Baragwanath & de Bakker (2010), p. 19 ^ a b Dalley (2013) ^ Mikalson (2003), pp. 198–200 ^ a b Jones (1996) ^ a b Murray (1986), p. 189 ^ Fehling (1994), pp. 4–6 ^ Solly, Meilan. "Wreck of Unusual Ship Described by Herodotus Recovered From Nile Delta". Smithsonian. ^ Heeren (1838), pp. 13, 379, 422–424 ^ Diop (1981), p. 1 ^ Diop (1974), p. 2 ^ Norma Thompson: Herodotus and the Origins of the Political Community: Arion's Leap. Yale University Press, New Haven and London 1996, p. 113. ^ Welsby (1996), p. 40 ^ Aubin (2002), pp. 94–96, 100–102, 118–121, 141–144, 328, 336 ^ "Herodotus on the First Circumnavigation of Africa". Livius.org. 1996. Retrieved 12 June 2019. ^ The Indian Empire. The Imperial Gazetteer of India. 2. 1909. p. 272 – via Digital South Asia Library. ^ Jain, Meenakshi (1 January 2011). The India They Saw: Foreign Accounts. 1–4. Delhi: Prabhat Prakashan. ISBN 978-81-8430-106-9. ^ Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (1981). The Classical Accounts of India: Being a Compilation of the English Translations of the Accounts Left by Herodotus, Megasthenes, Arrian, Strabo, Quintus, Diodorus, Siculus, Justin, Plutarch, Frontinus, Nearchus, Apollonius, Pliny, Ptolemy, Aelian, and Others with Maps. Calcutta: Firma KLM. pp. 504. OCLC 247581880. ^ a b Peissel (1984) ^ Simons, Marlise (25 November 1996). "Himalayas offer clue to legend of gold-digging 'ants'". The New York Times. The New York Times Company. p. 5. Retrieved 23 February 2016. ^ Rawlinson (1859), pp. 13–14 ^ "Dio Chrysostom Orat. xxxvii, p11". Penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 13 September 2012. ^ Marcellinus, Life of Thucydides ^ Burn (1972), pp. 8, 9, 32–34 ^ Waters (1985), p. 3 ^ Blanco (2013), pp. 5–6, §1.1, 1.5 ^ Blanco (2013), p. 6, §1.5 ^ Blanco (2013), p. 9, §1.20 ^ Blanco (2013), p. 12, §1.29 ^ Blanco (2013), p. 17, §1.45, ¶2 ^ Blanco (2013), p. 5 ^ Gould (1989), p. 64 ^ Homer, Iliad, trans. Stanley Lombardo (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1997): 1, Bk. 1, lines 9–16. ^ Gould (1989), p. 65 ^ Gould (1989), p. 67 ^ Gould (1989), pp. 67–70 ^ Gould (1989), p. 71 ^ Gould (1989), pp. 72–73 ^ Gould (1989), pp. 75–76 ^ Gould (1989), pp. 76–78 ^ Gould (1989), pp. 77–78 ^ Wardman (1960) ^ Histories 1.23–24. ^ Romm (1998), p. 8 ^ Romm (1998), p. 6 Sources[edit] Archambault, Paul (2002). "Herodotus (c. 480–c. 420)". In Alba della Fazia Amoia; Bettina Liebowitz Knapp (eds.). Multicultural Writers from Antiquity to 1945: a Bio-bibliographical Sourcebook. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 168–172. ISBN 978-0-313-30687-7. Asheri, David; Lloyd, Alan; Corcella, Aldo (2007). A Commentary on Herodotus, Books 1–4. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814956-9. Aubin, Henry (2002). The Rescue of Jerusalem. New York: Soho Press. ISBN 978-1-56947-275-0. Baragwanath, Emily; de Bakker, Mathieu (2010). Herodotus. Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-980286-9. Blanco, Walter (2013). The Histories. Herodotus. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-93397-0. Boedeker, Deborah (2000). "Herodotus' genre(s)". In Depew, Mary; Obbink, Dirk (eds.). Matrices of Genre: Authors, Canons, and Society. Harvard University Press. pp. 97–114. ISBN 978-0-674-03420-4. Burn, A.R. (1972). Herodotus: The Histories. Penguin Classics. Cameron, Alan (2004). Greek Mythography in the Roman World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-803821-4. Dalley, S. (2003). "Why did Herodotus not mention the Hanging Gardens of Babylon?". In Derow, P.; Parker, R. (eds.). Herodotus and his World. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 171–189. ISBN 978-0-19-925374-6. Dalley, S. (2013). The Mystery of the Hanging Garden of Babylon: an Elusive World Wonder Traced. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-966226-5. Diop, Cheikh Anta (1974). The African Origin of Civilization. Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books. ISBN 978-1-55652-072-3. Diop, Cheikh Anta (1981). Civilization or Barbarism. Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books. ISBN 978-1-55652-048-8. Evans, J. A. S (1968). "Father of History or Father of Lies; The Reputation of Herodotus". Classical Journal. 64: 11–17. Farley, David G. (2010). Modernist Travel Writing: Intellectuals Abroad. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press. ISBN 978-0-8262-7228-7. Fehling, Detlev (1989) [1971]. Herodotos and His 'Sources': Citation, Invention, and Narrative Art. Arca Classical and Medieval Texts, Papers and Monographs. 21. Translated from the German by J.G. Howie. Leeds: Francis Cairns. ISBN 978-0-905205-70-0. Fehling, Detlev (1994). "The art of Herodotus and the margins of the world". In Z.R.W.M. von Martels (ed.). Travel Fact and Travel Fiction: Studies on Fiction, Literary Tradition, Scholarly Discovery, and Observation in Travel Writing. Brill's studies in intellectual history. 55. Leiden: Brill. pp. 1–15. ISBN 978-90-04-10112-8. Gould, John (1989). Herodotus. Historians on historians. London: George Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-79339-7. Heeren, A.H.L. (1838). Historical Researches into the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the Carthaginians, Ethiopians, and Egyptians. Oxford: D.A. Talboys. ASIN B003B3P1Y8. Immerwahr, Henry R. (1985). "Herodotus". In Easterling, P.E.; Knox, B.M.W. (eds.). Greek Literature. The Cambridge History of Classical Greek Literature. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-21042-3. Jones, C.P. (1996). "ἔθνος and γένος in Herodotus". The Classical Quarterly. new series. 46 (2): 315–320. doi:10.1093/cq/46.2.315. Jain, Meenakshi (2011). The India they saw: Foreign Accounts. Delhi: Ocean Books. ISBN 978-81-8430-106-9. Lloyd, Alan B. (1993). Herodotus, Book II. Études préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l'Empire romain. 43. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-07737-9. Majumdar, R.C. (1981). The Classical accounts of India: Being a compilation of the English translations of the accounts left by Herodotus, Megasthenes, Arrian, Strabo, Quintus, Diodorus, Siculus, Justin, Plutarch, Frontinus, Nearchus, Apollonius, Pliny, Ptolemy, Aelian, and others with maps. Calcutta: Firma KLM. ISBN 978-0-8364-0704-4 Marincola, John (2001). Greek Historians. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-922501-9. Mikalson, Jon D. (2003). Herodotus and Religion in the Persian Wars. Chapel Hill, NC: Univ of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-2798-7. Murray, Oswyn (1986). "Greek historians". In Boardman, John; Griffin, Jasper; Murray, Oswyn (eds.). The Oxford History of the Classical World. Oxford University Press. pp. 186–203. ISBN 978-0-19-872112-3. Nielsen, Flemming A.J. (1997). The Tragedy in History: Herodotus and the Deuteronomistic History. A&C Black. ISBN 978-1-85075-688-0. Peissel, Michel (1984). The Ants' Gold: The Discovery of the Greek El Dorado in the Himalayas. Collins. ISBN 978-0-00-272514-9. Rawlinson, George (1859). The History of Herodotus. 1. New York: D. Appleton and Company. Roberts, Jennifer T. (2011). Herodotus: a Very Short Introduction. OXford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-957599-2. Romm, James (1998). Herodotus. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-07229-7. Saltzman, Joe (2010). "Herodotus as an ancient journalist: reimagining antiquity's historians as journalists". The IJPC Journal. 2: 153–185. Sparks, Kenton L. (1998). Ethnicity and Identity in Ancient Israel: Prolegomena to the Study of Ethnic Sentiments and their Expression in the Hebrew Bible. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1-57506-033-0. Wardman, A.E. (1960). "Myth in Greek historiography". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 9 (4): 403–413. JSTOR 4434671. Waters, K.H. (1985). Herodotos the Historian: His Problems, Methods and Originality. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-1928-1. Welsby, Derek (1996). The Kingdom of Kush. London: British Museum Press. ISBN 978-0-7141-0986-2. Further reading[edit] Bakker, Egbert J.; de Jong, Irene J.F.; van Wees, Hans, eds. (2002). Brill's companion to Herodotus. Leiden: E.J. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-12060-0. Baragwanath, Emily (2010). Motivation and Narrative in Herodotus. Oxford Classical Monographs. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-964550-3. Bury, J.B.; Meiggs, Russell (1975). A History of Greece (Fourth ed.). London: MacMillan Press. pp. 251–252. ISBN 978-0-333-15492-2. De Selincourt, Aubrey (1962). The World of Herodotus. London: Secker and Warburg. Dewald, Carolyn; Marincola, John, eds. (2006). The Cambridge companion to Herodotus. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-83001-0. Evans, J.A.S. (2006). The beginnings of history: Herodotus and the Persian Wars. Campbellville, Ont.: Edgar Kent. ISBN 978-0-88866-652-9. Evans, J.A.S. (1982). Herodotus. Boston: Twayne. ISBN 978-0-8057-6488-8. Evans, J.A.S. (1991). Herodotus, explorer of the past: three essays. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-06871-8. Flory, Stewart (1987). The archaic smile of Herodotus. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8143-1827-0. Fornara, Charles W. (1971). Herodotus: An Interpretative Essay. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Giessen, Hans W. Giessen (2010). Mythos Marathon. Von Herodot über Bréal bis zur Gegenwart. Landau: Verlag Empirische Pädagogik (= Landauer Schriften zur Kommunikations- und Kulturwissenschaft. Band 17). ISBN 978-3-941320-46-8. Harrington, John W. (1973). To see a world. Saint Louis: G.V. Mosby Co. ISBN 978-0-8016-2058-4. Hartog, François (2000). "The Invention of History: The Pre-History of a Concept from Homer to Herodotus". History and Theory. 39 (3): 384–395. doi:10.1111/0018-2656.00137. Hartog, François (1988). The mirror of Herodotus: the representation of the other in the writing of history. Janet Lloyd, trans. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-05487-5. How, Walter W.; Wells, Joseph, eds. (1912). A Commentary on Herodotus. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Hunter, Virginia (1982). Past and process in Herodotus and Thucydides. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-03556-7. Immerwahr, H. (1966). Form and Thought in Herodotus. Cleveland: Case Western Reserve University Press. Kapuściński, Ryszard (2007). Travels with Herodotus. Klara Glowczewska, trans. New York: Knopf. ISBN 978-1-4000-4338-5. Lateiner, Donald (1989). The historical method of Herodotus. Toronto: Toronto University Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-5793-8. Pitcher, Luke (2009). Writing Ancient History: An Introduction to Classical Historiography. New York: I.B. Taurus & Co Ltd. Marozzi, Justin (2008). The way of Herodotus: travels with the man who invented history. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-81621-5. Momigliano, Arnaldo (1990). The classical foundations of modern historiography. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-06890-2. Myres, John L. (1971). Herodotus : father of history. Chicago: Henry Regnrey. ISBN 978-0-19-924021-0. Pritchett, W. Kendrick (1993). The liar school of Herodotus. Amsterdam: Gieben. ISBN 978-90-5063-088-7. Selden, Daniel (1999). "Cambyses' Madness, or the Reason of History". Materiali e Discussioni per l'Analisi dei Testi Classici. 42 (42): 33–63. doi:10.2307/40236137. JSTOR 40236137. Thomas, Rosalind (2000). Herodotus in context: ethnography, science and the art of persuasion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-66259-8. Waters, K.H. (1985). Herodotus the Historian: His Problems, Methods and Originality. Beckenham: Croom Helm Ltd. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Herodotus. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Herodotus Wikisource has original works written by or about: Herodotos Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Ἡρόδοτος Library resources about Herodotus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Herodotus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Herodotus on the Web Herodotus of Halicarnassus at Livius.org "Herodotus" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 13 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 381–384. Mendelsohn, Daniel (28 April 2008). "Arms and the Man". The New Yorker. Retrieved 27 April 2008. Works by Herodotus at Project Gutenberg The History of Herodotus, vol. 1 at Project Gutenberg (translation by George Campbell Macaulay, 1852–1915) The History of Herodotus, vol. 2 at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Herodotus at Internet Archive Works by Herodotus at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) The History of Herodotus, at The Internet Classics Archive (translation by George Rawlinson). Parallel Greek and English text of the History of Herodotus at the Internet Sacred Text Archive Excerpts of Sélincourt's translation Herodotus Histories on Perseus The Histories of Herodotus, A.D. 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en-wikipedia-org-6271	----	Sobekhotep VIII - Wikipedia Sobekhotep VIII From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sekhemre Seusertawy Sobekhotep VIII Sobkhotep, Sebekhotep Sobekhotep VIII (left) facing the god Hapi, from the Inundation Stela Pharaoh Reign 16 years, 1645-1629 BC [1] (16th Dynasty) Predecessor Djehuti Successor Neferhotep III Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sekhemre Seusertawy Sḫm-Rˁ-s-wsr-t3.wj Powerful is Ra, he who makes the two lands strong Nomen Sobekhotep Sbk-ḥtp Sobek is satisfied Sekhemre Seusertawy Sobekhotep VIII was possibly the third king of the 16th Dynasty of Egypt reigning over the Theban region in Upper Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period.[1][2] Alternatively, he may be a ruler of the 13th or 17th Dynasty. If he was a king of the 16th Dynasty, Sobekhotep VIII would be credited 16 years of reign by the Turin canon, starting c. 1650 BC, at the time of the Hyksos invasion of Egypt. Contents 1 Chronological position 2 Attestation 3 References Chronological position[edit] The 2nd line of the 11th column of the Turin canon reads Sekhem[...]re and refers, according to Egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, to Sekhemre Seusertawy, which is Sobekhotep VIII's nomen. If this identification is correct, then Sobekhotep VIII reigned for 16 years as the third king of the 16th Dynasty. This would make him the direct successor of Djehuti and the predecessor to Neferhotep III, although his relation to both of these kings remains unknown.[1][2] In his reconstruction of the chronology of the Second Intermediate Period, Ryholt proposes that Sobekhotep VIII reigned from 1645 BC until 1629 BC, shortly after the Hyksos 15th Dynasty took over the Nile Delta and the city of Memphis, thereby precipitating the collapse of the 13th Dynasty. In older studies by Egyptologists Jürgen von Beckerath and Labib Habachi, Sobekhotep VIII was considered to be a king of the 13th Dynasty.[3][4] Attestation[edit] The only contemporary attestation of Sobekhotep VIII is a stela found inside the third pylon at Karnak. This stela was used as construction material to fill the pylon during Amenhotep III's extensive works at the site. The stela is dated to the epagomenal, or final five days, of Sobekhotep VIII's fourth regnal year, and describes his attitude at a temple, probably that of Karnak, during a massive Nile flood:[5] (Life to) the son of Ra Sobekhotep, beloved of the great inundation, given life for ever. Year 4, fourth month of Shemu, the epagonal days, under the auspices of the person of this god, living for ever. His person went to the hall of this temple in order to see the great inundation. His person came to the hall of this temple which was full of water. Then his person waded there[...] According to Egyptologist John Baines, who studied the stela in detail, by coming to the temple as it was flooded, the king reenacted the Egyptian story of the creation of the world in imitating the actions of the creator god Amun-Ra, to which the stela iconography closely associates the king, ordering the waters to recede from around the primordial mount.[5] References[edit] ^ a b c Kim Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c.1800-1550 B.C, Museum Tusculanum Press, (1997) ^ a b Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 454 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Augustin, Glückstadt 1964, pp. 66, 259-260 (XIII K) ^ Labib Habachi: A high inundation in the temple of Amenre at Karnak in the thirteenth dynasty, in: Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur. 1 (1974), p. 207–214 and 296. ^ a b Translation by John Baines in: The Inundation Stela of Sobekhotep VIII, Acta Orientalia (1974), pp. 36, 39-54, Available online Preceded by Djehuti Pharaoh of Egypt Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt Succeeded by Neferhotep III v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sobekhotep_VIII&oldid=954562088" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Pharaohs of the Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages አማርኛ العربية Català Deutsch Español فارسی Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Simple English Slovenščina Tagalog ไทย Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 3 May 2020, at 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en-wikipedia-org-6278	----	Template:Hellenistic rulers - Wikipedia Template:Hellenistic rulers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search v t e Hellenistic rulers Argeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Kings of Cyrene Magas Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Kings of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Kings of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Kings of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Kings of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus Kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon (regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces Asander with Dynamis Mithridates II Asander with Dynamis Scribonius’ attempted rule with Dynamis Dynamis with Polemon Polemon with Pythodorida Aspurgus Mithridates III with Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories. 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en-wikipedia-org-6290	----	Bakenranef - Wikipedia Bakenranef From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Egyptian Pharaoh Bakenranef (Bocchoris) Apis stela dated to Year 6 of Bakenranef's reign, found in Saqqara. Pharaoh Reign 725-720 BC (24th Dynasty (Western Delta)) Predecessor Tefnakht Successor None (Egypt united under Shebitqo, Upper Kingdom Pharaoh) Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Wahkare Constant is the Heart of Re Nomen Bakenranef Servant in his name Bakenranef, known by the ancient Greeks as Bocchoris,[1] was briefly a king of the Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt. Based at Sais in the western Delta, he ruled Lower Egypt from c. 725 to 720 BC. Though the Ptolemaic period Egyptian historian Manetho[2] considers him the sole member of the Twenty-fourth dynasty, modern scholars include his father Tefnakht in that dynasty. Although Sextus Julius Africanus quotes Manetho as stating that "Bocchoris" ruled for six years, some modern scholars again differ and assign him a shorter reign of only five years, based on evidence from an Apis Bull burial stela. It establishes that Bakenranef's reign ended only at the start of his 6th regnal year which, under the Egyptian dating system, means he had a reign of 5 full years. Bakenranef's prenomen or royal name, Wahkare, means "Constant is the Spirit of Re" in Egyptian.[3] Manetho is the source for two events from Bakenranef's reign. The first is the story that a lamb uttered the prophecy that Egypt would be conquered by the Assyrians, a story later repeated by such classical authors as Claudius Aelianus (De Natura Animalis 12.3). The second was that Bakenranef was captured by Shebitqo, a king of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty, who executed Bakenrenef by having him burned alive. A Kushite king, Shebitqo extended his rule over the whole of Egypt, which had been split since the Twenty-first dynasty. Diodorus Siculus, writing about three centuries after Manetho, adds some different details. Diodorus states that although Bakenranef was "contemptible in appearance", he was wiser than his predecessors (1.65). The Egyptians attributed to him a law concerning contracts, which provided for a way to discharge debts where no bond was signed; it was observed down to Diodorus' time (1.79). For this, and other acts, Diodorus included "Bocchoris" as one of the six most important lawgivers of ancient Egypt. For a minor kinglet briefly in control of the Nile Delta, this is an unexpectedly prominent ranking: "He was a surprising choice," Robin Lane Fox observes,[4] "Perhaps some Greeks, unknown to us, had had close dealings with him; from his reign we have scarab-seals bearing his Egyptian name, one of which found its way into a contemporary Greek grave on Ischia up near the Bay of Naples." Ischia was the earliest of eighth-century BC Greek colonies in Italy. The Roman historian Tacitus mentions that many Greek and Roman writers thought he had a part in the origin of the Jewish nation: Most writers, however, agree in stating that once a disease, which horribly disfigured the body, broke out over Egypt; that king Bocchoris, seeking a remedy, consulted the oracle of Hammon, and was bidden to cleanse his realm, and to convey into some foreign land this race detested by the gods. The people, who had been collected after diligent search, finding themselves left in a desert, sat for the most part in a stupor of grief, till one of the exiles, Moses by name, warned them not to look for any relief from God or man, forsaken as they were of both, but to trust to themselves, taking for their heaven-sent leader that man who should first help them to be quit of their present misery. They agreed, and in utter ignorance began to advance at random. Nothing, however, distressed them so much as the scarcity of water, and they had sunk ready to perish in all directions over the plain, when a herd of wild asses was seen to retire from their pasture to a rock shaded by trees. Moses followed them, and, guided by the appearance of a grassy spot, discovered an abundant spring of water. This furnished relief. After a continuous journey for six days, on the seventh they possessed themselves of a country, from which they expelled the inhabitants, and in which they founded a city and a temple. — Tacitus, Histories, 5.3 Contents 1 Legal reforms 2 Contemporary records 3 References 4 External links Legal reforms[edit] King Bakenranef has been credited with initiating a land reform, but the brevity of his reign and the small geographical extent of the area he ruled, together with the indirect character of the historical evidence for it, has cast some doubt upon this.[5] Diodorus credits Bakenranef with abolishing debt slavery, a claim based upon a now-lost work by the historian Hecateus of Abdera. It is possible that Hecateus invented the story in order to support an ideological debate over debt slavery in Greek society.[6] Shebitqo deposed and executed Bakenranef by burning him alive at the stake. This effectively ended the short-lived 24th Dynasty of Egypt as a potential rival to the Nubian 25th Dynasty. Although the Manethonic and classical traditions maintain that it was Shebitku's invasion which brought Egypt under Kushite rule, the king burning his opponent, Bocchoris-Bakenranef, alive, there is no direct evidence that Shabaqo did slay Bakenranef, and although earlier scholarship generally accepted the tradition, it has recently been treated more sceptically.[7] Contemporary records[edit] Despite the importance implied by these writers, few contemporary records of Bakenranef have survived. The chief inscription of his reign concerns the death and burial of an Apis bull during Years 5 and 6 of his reign; the remainder are a few stelae that Auguste Mariette recovered while excavating the Serapeum in Saqqara. In a tomb in Tarquinia in Italy was found an inscribed vase with his names. References[edit] ^ Bakenranef's name is consistently Bocchoris in the Greek accounts and in Tacitus; the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphics has permitted the reconstruction of his authentic Egyptian name. ^ Manetho, frags. 64, 65; translation in W.G. Waddell, Manetho (Cambridge: Harvard University, 1997), p. 165 ^ Peter A. Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt, Thames and Hudson, London, 1994. p.188 ^ Fox, Travelling Heroes in the Epic Age of Homer, 2008:31. ^ Markiewicz, Tomasz (2008). "Bocchoris the Lawgiver—or was He Really?". Journal of Egyptian History. 1 (2): 309–330. doi:10.1163/187416608786121293. ^ Markiewicz, Tomasz (2005). "Security for debt in the demotic papyri". Journal of Juristic Papyrology. 35: 141–167. ^ Wenig, Steffen (1999). Studien Zum Antiken Sudan: Akten Der 7. Internationalen Tagung Für Meroitische Forschungen Vom 14. Bis 19. September 1992 in Gosen/bei Berlin. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 203. ISBN 9783447041393. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bakenranef. Preceded by Tefnakht Pharaoh of Egypt Twenty-fourth Dynasty Succeeded by Conquered by Shebitqo v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 189544538 VIAF: 220920596 WorldCat Identities: viaf-220920596 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bakenranef&oldid=992392817" Categories: 8th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt 8th-century BC births 8th-century BC deaths Executed Egyptian people Executed ancient Egyptian people Nile Delta People executed by ancient Egypt People executed by Egypt by burning 1st-millennium BC executions 8th century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Alemannisch العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Polski Português Română Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Tagalog Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 5 December 2020, at 01:15 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6291	----	Achaemenid Empire - Wikipedia Achaemenid Empire From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search First Iranian empire, founded by Cyrus the Great from c. 550–330 BC Achaemenid Empire 𐎧𐏁𐏂 Xšāça 550 BC–330 BC Standard of Cyrus the Great[a] The Achaemenid Empire at its greatest territorial extent, under the rule of Darius I (522 BC to 486 BC).[2][3][4][5] Capital Babylon[6] (main capital), Pasargadae, Ecbatana, Susa, Persepolis Common languages Old Persian (official)[a] Aramaic (official, lingua franca)[b] Babylonian[7] Median Greek[8] Elamite[9] Sumerian[c] Egyptian many others Religion Zoroastrianism, Mithraism,[10]:21 Babylonian religion[11] Government Monarchy King[b] or King of Kings[c]   • 559–529 BC Cyrus the Great • 336–330 BC Darius III Historical era Classical antiquity • Persian Revolt 550 BC • Conquest of Lydia 547 BC • Conquest of Babylon 539 BC • Conquest of Egypt 525 BC • Greco-Persian Wars 499–449 BC • Corinthian War 395–387 BC • Second conquest of Egypt 343 BC • Fall to Macedonia 330 BC Area 500 BC[12][13] 5,500,000 km2 (2,100,000 sq mi) Population • 500 BC[14] 17 million to 35 million Currency Daric, siglos Preceded by Succeeded by Median Empire Neo-Babylonian Empire Lydia Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Gandhara Sogdia Massagetae Empire of Alexander the Great Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt a. ^ Native language. b. ^ Official language and lingua franca.[15] c. ^ Literary language in Babylonia. The Achaemenid Empire (/əˈkiːmənɪd/; Old Persian: 𐎧𐏁𐏂, romanized: Xšāça, lit. 'The Empire'), also called the First Persian Empire,[16] was an ancient Iranian empire based in Western Asia founded by Cyrus the Great. Ranging at its greatest extent from the Balkans and Eastern Europe proper in the west to the Indus Valley in the east, it was larger than any previous empire in history, spanning 5.5 million square kilometers (2.1 million square miles).[12][13] It is notable for its successful model of a centralised, bureaucratic administration (through satraps under the King of Kings), for its multicultural policy, for building infrastructure such as road systems and a postal system, the use of an official language across its territories, and the development of civil services and a large professional army. The empire's successes inspired similar systems in later empires.[17] By the 7th century BC, the Persians had settled in the south-western portion of the Iranian Plateau in the region of Persis, which came to be their heartland.[18] From this region, Cyrus the Great advanced to defeat the Medes, Lydia, and the Neo-Babylonian Empire, establishing the Achaemenid Empire. Alexander the Great, an avid admirer of Cyrus the Great,[19] conquered most of the empire by 330 BC.[20] Upon Alexander's death, most of the empire's former territory fell under the rule of the Ptolemaic Kingdom and Seleucid Empire, in addition to other minor territories which gained independence at that time. The Iranian elites of the central plateau reclaimed power by the second century BC under the Parthian Empire.[18] The Achaemenid Empire is noted in Western history as the antagonist of the Greek city-states during the Greco-Persian Wars and for the emancipation of the Jewish exiles in Babylon. The historical mark of the empire went far beyond its territorial and military influences and included cultural, social, technological and religious influences as well. For example, many Athenians adopted Achaemenid customs in their daily lives in a reciprocal cultural exchange,[21] some being employed by or allied to the Persian kings. The impact of Cyrus's edict is mentioned in Judeo-Christian texts, and the empire was instrumental in the spread of Zoroastrianism as far east as China. The empire also set the tone for the politics, heritage and history of Iran (also known as Persia).[22] Contents 1 Name 2 History 2.1 Achaemenid timeline 2.2 Origin 2.3 Formation and expansion 2.4 Greco-Persian Wars 2.5 Cultural phase 2.6 Second conquest of Egypt 2.7 Fall of the empire 2.8 Descendants in later Persian dynasties 2.9 Causes of decline 3 Government 3.1 Achaemenid coinage 3.2 Tax districts 3.3 Transportation and Communication 4 Military 4.1 Military composition 4.2 Infantry 4.3 Cavalry 4.4 Navy 5 Culture 5.1 Languages 5.2 Customs 5.3 Religion 5.4 Art and architecture 5.5 Tombs 6 Legacy 7 Achaemenid kings and rulers 7.1 Unattested 7.2 Attested 8 Gallery 9 See also 10 Explanatory notes 11 References 11.1 Citations 11.2 General sources 12 External links Name[edit] The term Achaemenid means "of the family of the Achaemenis/Achaemenes" (Old Persian: 𐏃𐎧𐎠𐎶𐎴𐎡𐏁 Haxāmaniš;[23] a bahuvrihi compound translating to "having a friend's mind").[24] Achaemenes was himself a minor seventh-century ruler of the Anshan in southwestern Iran, and a vassal of Assyria.[25][dead link] Around 850 BC the original nomadic people who began the empire called themselves the Parsa and their constantly shifting territory Parsua, for the most part localized around Persis.[18] The name "Persia" is a Greek and Latin pronunciation of the native word referring to the country of the people originating from Persis (Old Persian: 𐎱𐎠𐎼𐎿, Pārsa).[25] The Persian term Xšāça (𐎧𐏁𐏂), meaning "The Empire" was used by the Achaemenids to refer to their multinational state.[26] History[edit] See also: Achaemenid Kingdom Part of a series on the History of Iran Mythological history Pishdadian dynasty Kayanian dynasty Ancient period BC Prehistory of Iran Ancient Times–4000 Kura–Araxes culture 3400–2000 Proto-Elamite 3200–2700 Jiroft culture c. 3100 – c. 2200 Elam 2700–539 Akkadian Empire 2400–2150 Lullubi culture c. 2300-700 Kassites c. 1500 – c. 1155 Neo-Assyrian Empire 911–609 Urartu 860–590 Mannaeans 850–616 Imperial period Median Empire 678–550 BC (Scythian Kingdom) 652–625 BC Anshanite Kingdom 635 BC–550 BC Neo-Babylonian Empire 626 BC–539 BC Achaemenid Empire 550 BC–330 BC Kingdom of Armenia 331 BC–428 AD Atropatene c. 323 BC–226 AD Kingdom of Cappadocia 320s BC–17 AD Seleucid Empire 312 BC–63 BC Kingdom of Pontus 281 BC–62 BC Fratarakas 3rd-century BC–132 BC Parthian Empire 247 BC–224 AD Elymais 147 BC–224 AD Characene 141 BC–222 AD Kings of Persis 132 BC–224 AD Indo-Parthian Kingdom 19 AD–224/5 Paratarajas 125–300 Sasanian Empire 224–651 Zarmihrids 6th century–785 Qarinvandids 550s–11th century Medieval period Rashidun Caliphate 632-661 Umayyad Caliphate 661–750 Abbasid Caliphate 750–1258 Dabuyids 642–760 Bavandids 651–1349 Masmughans of Damavand 651–760 Baduspanids 665–1598 Justanids 791 – 11th century Alid dynasties 864 – 14th century Tahirid dynasty 821–873 Samanid Empire 819–999 Saffarid dynasty 861–1003 Ghurid dynasty pre-879 – 1215 Sajid dynasty 889–929 Sallarid dynasty 919–1062 Ziyarid dynasty 930–1090 Ilyasids 932–968 Buyid dynasty 934–1062 Ghaznavid dynasty 977–1186 Kakuyids 1008–1141 Nasrid dynasty 1029–1236 Shabankara 1030–1355 Seljuk Empire 1037–1194 Khwarazmian dynasty 1077–1231 Eldiguzids 1135–1225 Atabegs of Yazd 1141–1319 Salghurids 1148–1282 Hazaraspids 1155–1424 Pishkinid dynasty 1155–1231 Khorshidi dynasty 1184-1597 Qutlugh-Khanids 1223-1306 Mihrabanids 1236–1537 Kurt dynasty 1244–1396 Ilkhanate Empire 1256–1335 Chobanid dynasty 1335–1357 Muzaffarid dynasty 1335–1393 Jalayirid Sultanate 1337–1376 Sarbadars 1337–1376 Injuids 1335–1357 Afrasiyab dynasty 1349–1504 Mar'ashis 1359–1596 Timurid Empire 1370–1507 Kar-Kiya dynasty 1370s–1592 Kara Koyunlu 1406–1468 Aq Qoyunlu 1468–1508 Early modern period Safavid Iran 1501–1736 (Hotak dynasty) 1722–1729 Afsharid dynasty 1736–1796 Talysh Khanate 1747–1826 Zand dynasty 1751–1794 Qajar Iran 1789–1925 Modern period Pahlavi dynasty 1925–1979 Iranian Revolution, Interim Government 1979 Islamic Republic 1979–present Related articles Name Monarchs Heads of state Economic history Military history Wars Timeline  Iran portal v t e Achaemenid timeline[edit] Astronomical year numbering Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details Origin[edit] Main articles: Achaemenes, Teispids, and Achaemenid family tree The Persian nation contains a number of tribes as listed here. ... : the Pasargadae, Maraphii, and Maspii, upon which all the other tribes are dependent. Of these, the Pasargadae are the most distinguished; they contain the clan of the Achaemenids from which spring the Perseid kings. Other tribes are the Panthialaei, Derusiaei, Germanii, all of which are attached to the soil, the remainder—the Dai, Mardi, Dropici, Sagarti, being nomadic. — Herodotus, Histories 1.101 & 125 Family tree of the Achaemenid rulers. The Achaemenid Empire was created by nomadic Persians. The Persians were an Iranian people who arrived in what is today Iran c. 1000 BC and settled a region including north-western Iran, the Zagros Mountains and Persis alongside the native Elamites.[27] For a number of centuries they fell under the domination of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 BC), based in northern Mesopotamia.[citation needed] The Persians were originally nomadic pastoralists in the western Iranian Plateau. The Achaemenid Empire was not the first Iranian empire, as the Medes, another group of Iranian peoples, established a short-lived empire and played a major role in the overthrow of the Assyrians.[28] The Achaemenids were initially rulers of the Elamite city of Anshan near the modern city of Marvdasht;[29] the title "King of Anshan" was an adaptation of the earlier Elamite title "King of Susa and Anshan".[30] There are conflicting accounts of the identities of the earliest Kings of Anshan. According to the Cyrus Cylinder (the oldest extant genealogy of the Achaemenids) the kings of Anshan were Teispes, Cyrus I, Cambyses I and Cyrus II, also known as Cyrus the Great, who created the empire[29] (the later Behistun Inscription, written by Darius the Great, claims that Teispes was the son of Achaemenes and that Darius is also descended from Teispes through a different line, but no earlier texts mention Achaemenes[31]). In Herodotus' Histories, he writes that Cyrus the Great was the son of Cambyses I and Mandane of Media, the daughter of Astyages, the king of the Median Empire.[32] Formation and expansion[edit] Further information: Battle of the Persian Border, Persian Revolt, Battle of Pteria, Battle of Opis, Battle of Pelusium (525 BC), Achaemenid invasion of the Indus Valley, and European Scythian campaign of Darius I Map of the expansion process of Achaemenid territories Cyrus revolted against the Median Empire in 553 BC, and in 550 BC succeeded in defeating the Medes, capturing Astyages and taking the Median capital city of Ecbatana.[33][34][35] Once in control of Ecbatana, Cyrus styled himself as the successor to Astyages and assumed control of the entire empire.[36] By inheriting Astyages' empire, he also inherited the territorial conflicts the Medes had had with both Lydia and the Neo-Babylonian Empire.[37] King Croesus of Lydia sought to take advantage of the new international situation by advancing into what had previously been Median territory in Asia Minor.[38][39] Cyrus led a counterattack which not only fought off Croesus' armies, but also led to the capture of Sardis and the fall of the Lydian Kingdom in 546 BC.[40][41][d] Cyrus placed Pactyes in charge of collecting tribute in Lydia and left, but once Cyrus had left Pactyes instigated a rebellion against Cyrus.[41][42][43] Cyrus sent the Median general Mazares to deal with the rebellion, and Pactyes was captured. Mazares, and after his death Harpagus, set about reducing all the cities which had taken part in the rebellion. The subjugation of Lydia took about four years in total.[44] When power in Ecbatana changed hands from the Medes to the Persians, many tributaries to the Median Empire believed their situation had changed and revolted against Cyrus.[45] This forced Cyrus to fight wars against Bactria and the nomadic Saka in Central Asia.[46] During these wars, Cyrus established several garrison towns in Central Asia, including the Cyropolis.[47] Cyrus the Great is said in the Bible to have liberated the Hebrew captives in Babylon to resettle and rebuild Jerusalem, earning him an honored place in Judaism. Nothing is known of Persian-Babylonian relations between 547 BC and 539 BC, but it is likely that there were hostilities between the two empires for several years leading up to the war of 540–539 BC and the Fall of Babylon.[48] In October 539 BC, Cyrus won a battle against the Babylonians at Opis, then took Sippar without a fight before finally capturing the city of Babylon on 12 October, where the Babylonian king Nabonidus was taken prisoner.[49][48][50] Upon taking control of the city, Cyrus depicted himself in propaganda as restoring the divine order which had been disrupted by Nabonidus, who had promoted the cult of Sin rather than Marduk,[51][52][53] and he also portrayed himself as restoring the heritage of the Neo-Assyrian Empire by comparing himself to the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal.[54][55][53] The Hebrew Bible also unreservedly praises Cyrus for his actions in the conquest of Babylon, referring to him as Yahweh's anointed.[56][57] He is credited with freeing the people of Judah from their exile and with authorizing the reconstruction of much of Jerusalem, including the Second Temple.[56][58] The tomb of Cyrus the Great, founder of the Achaemenid Empire In 530 BC, Cyrus died while on a military expedition against the Massagetae in Central Asia. He was succeeded by his eldest son Cambyses II, while his younger son Bardiya[e] received a large territory in Central Asia.[61][62] By 525 BC, Cambyses had successfully subjugated Phoenicia and Cyprus and was making preparations to invade Egypt with the newly created Persian navy.[63][64] The great Pharaoh Amasis II had died in 526 BC and had been succeeded by Psamtik III, resulting in the defection of key Egyptian allies to the Persians.[64] Psamtik positioned his army at Pelusium in the Nile Delta. He was soundly defeated by the Persians in the Battle of Pelusium before fleeing to Memphis, where the Persians defeated him and took him prisoner.[64][65] Herodotus depicts Cambyses as openly antagonistic to the Egyptian people and their gods, cults, temples and priests, in particular stressing the murder of the sacred bull Apis.[66] He says that these actions led to a madness that caused him to kill his brother Bardiya (who Herodotus says was killed in secret),[67] his own sister-wife[68] and Croesus of Lydia.[69] He then concludes that Cambyses completely lost his mind,[70] and all later classical authors repeat the themes of Cambyses' impiety and madness. However, this is based on spurious information, as the epitaph of Apis from 524 BC shows that Cambyses participated in the funeral rites of Apis styling himself as pharaoh.[71] Following the conquest of Egypt, the Libyans and the Greeks of Cyrene and Barca in Libya surrendered to Cambyses and sent tribute without a fight.[64][65] Cambyses then planned invasions of Carthage, the oasis of Ammon and Ethiopia.[72] Herodotus claims that the naval invasion of Carthage was cancelled because the Phoenicians, who made up a large part of Cambyses' fleet, refused to take up arms against their own people,[73] but modern historians doubt whether an invasion of Carthage was ever planned at all.[64] However, Cambyses dedicated his efforts to the other two campaigns, aiming to improve the Empire's strategic position in Africa by conquering the Kingdom of Meroë and taking strategic positions in the western oases. To this end, he established a garrison at Elephantine consisting mainly of Jewish soldiers, who remained stationed at Elephantine throughout Cambyses' reign.[64] The invasions of Ammon and Ethiopia themselves were failures. Herodotus claims that the invasion of Ethiopia was a failure due to the madness of Cambyses and the lack of supplies for his men,[74] but archaeological evidence suggests that the expedition was not a failure, and a fortress at the Second Cataract of the Nile, on the border between Egypt and Kush, remained in use throughout the Achaemenid period.[64][75] The events surrounding Cambyses' death and Bardiya's succession are greatly debated as there are many conflicting accounts.[60] According to Herodotus, as Bardiya's assassination had been committed in secret, the majority of Persians still believed him to be alive. This allowed two Magi to rise up against Cambyses, with one of them sitting on the throne able to impersonate Bardiya because of their remarkable physical resemblance and shared name (Smerdis in Herodotus' accounts[e]).[76] Ctesias writes that when Cambyses had Bardiya killed he immediately put the magus Sphendadates in his place as satrap of Bactria due to a remarkable physical resemblance.[77] Two of Cambyses' confidants then conspired to usurp Cambyses and put Sphendadates on the throne under the guise of Bardiya.[78] According to the Behistun Inscription, written by the following king Darius the Great, a magus named Gaumata impersonated Bardiya and incited a revolution in Persia.[59] Whatever the exact circumstances of the revolt, Cambyses heard news of it in the summer of 522 BC and began to return from Egypt, but he was wounded in the thigh in Syria and died of gangrene, so Bardiya's impersonator became king.[79][f] The account of Darius is the earliest, and although the later historians all agree on the key details of the story, that a magus impersonated Bardiya and took the throne, this may have been a story created by Darius to justify his own usurpation.[81] Iranologist Pierre Briant hypothesises that Bardiya was not killed by Cambyses, but waited until his death in the summer of 522 BC to claim his legitimate right to the throne as he was then the only male descendant of the royal family. Briant says that although the hypothesis of a deception by Darius is generally accepted today, "nothing has been established with certainty at the present time, given the available evidence".[82] The Achaemenid Empire at its greatest extent, c. 500 BC According to the Behistun Inscription, Gaumata ruled for seven months before being overthrown in 522 BC by Darius the Great (Darius I) (Old Persian Dāryavuš, "who holds firm the good", also known as Darayarahush or Darius the Great). The Magi, though persecuted, continued to exist, and a year following the death of the first pseudo-Smerdis (Gaumata), saw a second pseudo-Smerdis (named Vahyazdāta) attempt a coup. The coup, though initially successful, failed.[83] Herodotus writes[84] that the native leadership debated the best form of government for the empire. Ever since the Macedonian king Amyntas I surrendered his country to the Persians in about 512–511, Macedonians and Persians were strangers no more as well. Subjugation of Macedonia was part of Persian military operations initiated by Darius the Great (521–486) in 513—after immense preparations—a huge Achaemenid army invaded the Balkans and tried to defeat the European Scythians roaming to the north of the Danube river.[85] Darius' army subjugated several Thracian peoples, and virtually all other regions that touch the European part of the Black Sea, such as parts of nowadays Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, and Russia, before it returned to Asia Minor.[85][86] Darius left in Europe one of his commanders named Megabazus whose task was to accomplish conquests in the Balkans.[85] The Persian troops subjugated gold-rich Thrace, the coastal Greek cities, as well as defeating and conquering the powerful Paeonians.[85][87][88] Finally, Megabazus sent envoys to Amyntas, demanding acceptance of Persian domination, which the Macedonians did. The Balkans provided many soldiers for the multi-ethnic Achaemenid army. Many of the Macedonian and Persian elite intermarried, such as the Persian official Bubares who married Amyntas' daughter, Gygaea. Family ties the Macedonian rulers Amyntas and Alexander enjoyed with Bubares ensured them good relations with the Persian kings Darius and Xerxes I. The Persian invasion led indirectly to Macedonia's rise in power and Persia had some common interests in the Balkans; with Persian aid, the Macedonians stood to gain much at the expense of some Balkan tribes such as the Paeonians and Greeks. All in all, the Macedonians were "willing and useful Persian allies. Macedonian soldiers fought against Athens and Sparta in Xerxes' army.[85] The Persians referred to both Greeks and Macedonians as Yauna ("Ionians", their term for "Greeks"), and to Macedonians specifically as Yaunã Takabara or "Greeks with hats that look like shields", possibly referring to the Macedonian kausia hat.[89] The Persian queen Atossa, daughter of Cyrus the Great, sister-wife of Cambyses II, Darius the Great's wife, and mother of Xerxes I By the 5th century BC the Kings of Persia were either ruling over or had subordinated territories encompassing not just all of the Persian Plateau and all of the territories formerly held by the Assyrian Empire (Mesopotamia, the Levant, Cyprus and Egypt), but beyond this all of Anatolia and Armenia, as well as the Southern Caucasus and parts of the North Caucasus, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, all of Bulgaria, Paeonia, Thrace and Macedonia to the north and west, most of the Black Sea coastal regions, parts of Central Asia as far as the Aral Sea, the Oxus and Jaxartes to the north and north-east, the Hindu Kush and the western Indus basin (corresponding to modern Afghanistan and Pakistan) to the far east, parts of northern Arabia to the south, and parts of northern Libya to the south-west, and parts of Oman, China, and the UAE.[90][91][92][93][94][95][96] Greco-Persian Wars[edit] Main article: Greco-Persian Wars This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Map showing events of the first phases of the Greco-Persian Wars Greek hoplite and Persian warrior depicted fighting, on an ancient kylix, 5th century BC The Ionian Revolt in 499 BC, and associated revolts in Aeolis, Doris, Cyprus and Caria, were military rebellions by several regions of Asia Minor against Persian rule, lasting from 499 to 493 BC. At the heart of the rebellion was the dissatisfaction of the Greek cities of Asia Minor with the tyrants appointed by Persia to rule them, along with the individual actions of two Milesian tyrants, Histiaeus and Aristagoras. In 499 BC, the then-tyrant of Miletus, Aristagoras, launched a joint expedition with the Persian satrap Artaphernes to conquer Naxos, in an attempt to bolster his position in Miletus (both financially and in terms of prestige). The mission was a debacle, and sensing his imminent removal as tyrant, Aristagoras chose to incite the whole of Ionia into rebellion against the Persian king Darius the Great.[citation needed] The Persians continued to reduce the cities along the west coast that still held out against them, before finally imposing a peace settlement in 493 BC on Ionia that was generally considered to be both just and fair. The Ionian Revolt constituted the first major conflict between Greece and the Achaemenid Empire, and as such represents the first phase of the Greco-Persian Wars. Asia Minor had been brought back into the Persian fold, but Darius had vowed to punish Athens and Eretria for their support of the revolt.[97] Moreover, seeing that the political situation in Greece posed a continued threat to the stability of his Empire, he decided to embark on the conquest of all of Greece. The first campaign of the invasion was to bring the territories in the Balkan peninsula back within the empire.[98] The Persian grip over these territories had loosened following the Ionian Revolt. In 492 BC, the Persian general Mardonius re-subjugated Thrace and made Macedon a fully subordinate part of the empire; it had been a vassal as early as the late 6th century BC, but retained a great deal of autonomy.[98] However, in 490 BC the Persian forces were defeated by the Athenians at the Battle of Marathon and Darius would die before having the chance to launch an invasion of Greece.[99] Xerxes I (485–465 BC, Old Persian Xšayārša "Hero Among Kings"), son of Darius I, vowed to complete the job. He organized a massive invasion aiming to conquer Greece. His army entered Greece from the north, meeting little or no resistance through Macedonia and Thessaly, but was delayed by a small Greek force for three days at Thermopylae. A simultaneous naval battle at Artemisium was tactically indecisive as large storms destroyed ships from both sides. The battle was stopped prematurely when the Greeks received news of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated. The battle was a strategic victory for the Persians, giving them uncontested control of Artemisium and the Aegean Sea.[citation needed] Following his victory at the Battle of Thermopylae, Xerxes sacked the evacuated city of Athens and prepared to meet the Greeks at the strategic Isthmus of Corinth and the Saronic Gulf. In 480 BC the Greeks won a decisive victory over the Persian fleet at the Battle of Salamis and forced Xerxes to retire to Sardis.[100] The land army which he left in Greece under Mardonius retook Athens but was eventually destroyed in 479 BC at the Battle of Plataea. The final defeat of the Persians at Mycale encouraged the Greek cities of Asia to revolt, and the Persians lost all of their territories in Europe; Macedonia once again became independent.[85] Cultural phase[edit] After Xerxes I was assassinated, he was succeeded by his eldest son Artaxerxes I. It was during his reign that Elamite ceased to be the language of government, and Aramaic gained in importance. It was probably during this reign that the solar calendar was introduced as the national calendar. Under Artaxerxes I, Zoroastrianism became the de facto religion of state.[101] After Persia had been defeated at the Battle of Eurymedon (469 BC or 466 BC[102]), military action between Greece and Persia was halted. When Artaxerxes I took power, he introduced a new Persian strategy of weakening the Athenians by funding their enemies in Greece. This indirectly caused the Athenians to move the treasury of the Delian League from the island of Delos to the Athenian acropolis. This funding practice inevitably prompted renewed fighting in 450 BC, where the Greeks attacked at the Battle of Cyprus. After Cimon's failure to attain much in this expedition, the Peace of Callias was agreed between Athens, Argos and Persia in 449 BC.[103][104] Artaxerxes I offered asylum to Themistocles, who was the winner of the Battle of Salamis, after Themistocles was ostracized from Athens. Also, Artaxerxes I gave him Magnesia, Myus, and Lampsacus to maintain him in bread, meat, and wine. In addition, Artaxerxes I gave him Palaescepsis to provide him with clothes, and he also gave him Percote with bedding for his house.[105] Achaemenid gold ornaments, Brooklyn Museum When Artaxerxes died in 424 BC at Susa, his body was taken to the tomb already built for him in the Naqsh-e Rustam Necropolis. It was Persian tradition that kings begin constructing their own tombs while they were still alive. Artaxerxes I was immediately succeeded by his eldest son Xerxes II, who was the only legitimate son of Artaxerxes.[106] However, after a few days on the throne, he was assassinated while drunk by Pharnacyas and Menostanes on the orders of his illegitimate brother: Sogdianus who apparently had gained the support of his regions. He reigned for six months and fifteen days before being captured by his half-brother, Ochus, who had rebelled against him. Sogdianus was executed by being suffocated in ash because Ochus had promised he would not die by the sword, by poison or by hunger.[107] Ochus then took the royal name Darius II. Darius' ability to defend his position on the throne ended the short power vacuum.[citation needed] From 412 BC Darius II, at the insistence of Tissaphernes, gave support first to Athens, then to Sparta, but in 407 BC, Darius' son Cyrus the Younger was appointed to replace Tissaphernes and aid was given entirely to Sparta which finally defeated Athens in 404 BC. In the same year, Darius fell ill and died in Babylon. His death gave an Egyptian rebel named Amyrtaeus the opportunity to throw off Persian control over Egypt. At his death bed, Darius' Babylonian wife Parysatis pleaded with him to have her second eldest son Cyrus (the Younger) crowned, but Darius refused. Queen Parysatis favoured Cyrus more than her eldest son Artaxerxes II. Plutarch relates (probably on the authority of Ctesias) that the displaced Tissaphernes came to the new king on his coronation day to warn him that his younger brother Cyrus (the Younger) was preparing to assassinate him during the ceremony. Artaxerxes had Cyrus arrested and would have had him executed if their mother Parysatis had not intervened. Cyrus was then sent back as Satrap of Lydia, where he prepared an armed rebellion. Cyrus assembled a large army, including a contingent of Ten Thousand Greek mercenaries, and made his way deeper into Persia. The army of Cyrus was stopped by the royal Persian army of Artaxerxes II at Cunaxa in 401 BC, where Cyrus was killed. The Ten Thousand Greek Mercenaries including Xenophon were now deep in Persian territory and were at risk of attack. So they searched for others to offer their services to but eventually had to return to Greece.[100][108] Artaxerxes II was the longest reigning of the Achaemenid kings and it was during this 45-year period of relative peace and stability that many of the monuments of the era were constructed. Artaxerxes moved the capital back to Persepolis, which he greatly extended. Also the summer capital at Ecbatana was lavishly extended with gilded columns and roof tiles of silver and copper.[109] The extraordinary innovation of the Zoroastrian shrines can also be dated to his reign, and it was probably during this period that Zoroastrianism spread from Armenia throughout Asia Minor and the Levant. The construction of temples, though serving a religious purpose, was not a purely selfless act, as they also served as an important source of income. From the Babylonian kings, the Achaemenids had taken over the concept of a mandatory temple tax, a one-tenth tithe which all inhabitants paid to the temple nearest to their land or other source of income.[110] A share of this income called the Quppu Sha Sharri, "king's chest"—an ingenious institution originally introduced by Nabonidus—was then turned over to the ruler. In retrospect, Artaxerxes is generally regarded as an amiable man who lacked the moral fiber to be a really successful ruler. However, six centuries later Ardeshir I, founder of the second Persian Empire, would consider himself Artaxerxes' successor, a grand testimony to the importance of Artaxerxes to the Persian psyche.[citation needed] Persian Empire timeline including important events and territorial evolution – 550–323 BC Artaxerxes II became involved in a war with Persia's erstwhile allies, the Spartans, who, under Agesilaus II, invaded Asia Minor. In order to redirect the Spartans' attention to Greek affairs, Artaxerxes II subsidized their enemies: in particular the Athenians, Thebans and Corinthians. These subsidies helped to engage the Spartans in what would become known as the Corinthian War. In 387 BC, Artaxerxes II betrayed his allies and came to an arrangement with Sparta, and in the Treaty of Antalcidas he forced his erstwhile allies to come to terms. This treaty restored control of the Greek cities of Ionia and Aeolis on the Anatolian coast to the Persians, while giving Sparta dominance on the Greek mainland. In 385 BC he campaigned against the Cadusians. Although successful against the Greeks, Artaxerxes II had more trouble with the Egyptians, who had successfully revolted against him at the beginning of his reign. An attempt to reconquer Egypt in 373 BC was completely unsuccessful, but in his waning years the Persians did manage to defeat a joint Egyptian–Spartan effort to conquer Phoenicia. He quashed the Revolt of the Satraps in 372–362 BC. He is reported to have had a number of wives. His main wife was Stateira, until she was poisoned by Artaxerxes II's mother Parysatis in about 400 BC. Another chief wife was a Greek woman of Phocaea named Aspasia (not the same as the concubine of Pericles). Artaxerxes II is said to have had more than 115 sons from 350 wives.[111] In 358 BC Artaxerxes II died and was succeeded by his son Artaxerxes III. In 355 BC, Artaxerxes III forced Athens to conclude a peace which required the city's forces to leave Asia Minor and to acknowledge the independence of its rebellious allies.[112] Artaxerxes started a campaign against the rebellious Cadusians, but he managed to appease both of the Cadusian kings. One individual who successfully emerged from this campaign was Darius Codomannus, who later occupied the Persian throne as Darius III.[citation needed] Artaxerxes III then ordered the disbanding of all the satrapal armies of Asia Minor, as he felt that they could no longer guarantee peace in the west and was concerned that these armies equipped the western satraps with the means to revolt.[113] The order was however ignored by Artabazos II of Phrygia, who asked for the help of Athens in a rebellion against the king. Athens sent assistance to Sardis. Orontes of Mysia also supported Artabazos and the combined forces managed to defeat the forces sent by Artaxerxes III in 354 BC. However, in 353 BC, they were defeated by Artaxerxes III's army and were disbanded. Orontes was pardoned by the king, while Artabazos fled to the safety of the court of Philip II of Macedon. In around 351 BC, Artaxerxes embarked on a campaign to recover Egypt, which had revolted under his father, Artaxerxes II. At the same time a rebellion had broken out in Asia Minor, which, being supported by Thebes, threatened to become serious. Levying a vast army, Artaxerxes marched into Egypt, and engaged Nectanebo II. After a year of fighting the Egyptian Pharaoh, Nectanebo inflicted a crushing defeat on the Persians with the support of mercenaries led by the Greek generals Diophantus and Lamius.[114] Artaxerxes was compelled to retreat and postpone his plans to reconquer Egypt. Soon after this defeat, there were rebellions in Phoenicia, Asia Minor and Cyprus.[citation needed] Darius vase The "Darius Vase" at the Achaeological Museum of Naples. c. 340–320 BC. Detail of Darius, with a label in Greek (ΔΑΡΕΙΟΣ, top right) giving his name. In 343 BC, Artaxerxes committed responsibility for the suppression of the Cyprian rebels to Idrieus, prince of Caria, who employed 8,000 Greek mercenaries and forty triremes, commanded by Phocion the Athenian, and Evagoras, son of the elder Evagoras, the Cypriot monarch.[115][116] Idrieus succeeded in reducing Cyprus. Artaxerxes initiated a counter-offensive against Sidon by commanding Belesys, satrap of Syria, and Mazaeus, satrap of Cilicia, to invade the city and to keep the Phoenicians in check. Both satraps suffered crushing defeats at the hands of Tennes, the Sidonese king, who was aided by 40,000 Greek mercenaries sent to him by Nectanebo II and commanded by Mentor of Rhodes. As a result, the Persian forces were driven out of Phoenicia.[116] After this, Artaxerxes personally led an army of 330,000 men against Sidon. Artaxerxes' army comprised 300,000-foot soldiers, 30,000 cavalry, 300 triremes, and 500 transports or provision ships. After gathering this army, he sought assistance from the Greeks. Though refused aid by Athens and Sparta, he succeeded in obtaining a thousand Theban heavy-armed hoplites under Lacrates, three thousand Argives under Nicostratus, and six thousand Æolians, Ionians, and Dorians from the Greek cities of Asia Minor. This Greek support was numerically small, amounting to no more than 10,000 men, but it formed, together with the Greek mercenaries from Egypt who went over to him afterwards, the force on which he placed his chief reliance, and to which the ultimate success of his expedition was mainly due. The approach of Artaxerxes sufficiently weakened the resolution of Tennes that he endeavoured to purchase his own pardon by delivering up 100 principal citizens of Sidon into the hands of the Persian king, and then admitting Artaxerxes within the defences of the town. Artaxerxes had the 100 citizens transfixed with javelins, and when 500 more came out as supplicants to seek his mercy, Artaxerxes consigned them to the same fate. Sidon was then burnt to the ground, either by Artaxerxes or by the Sidonian citizens. Forty thousand people died in the conflagration.[116] Artaxerxes sold the ruins at a high price to speculators, who calculated on reimbursing themselves by the treasures which they hoped to dig out from among the ashes.[117] Tennes was later put to death by Artaxerxes.[118] Artaxerxes later sent Jews who supported the revolt to Hyrcania on the south coast of the Caspian Sea.[119][120] Second conquest of Egypt[edit] Relief showing Darius I offering lettuces to the Egyptian deity Amun-Ra Kamutef, Temple of Hibis The 24 countries subject to the Achaemenid Empire at the time of Darius, on the Egyptian Statue of Darius I. The reduction of Sidon was followed closely by the invasion of Egypt. In 343 BC, Artaxerxes, in addition to his 330,000 Persians, had now a force of 14,000 Greeks furnished by the Greek cities of Asia Minor: 4,000 under Mentor, consisting of the troops that he had brought to the aid of Tennes from Egypt; 3,000 sent by Argos; and 1000 from Thebes. He divided these troops into three bodies, and placed at the head of each a Persian and a Greek. The Greek commanders were Lacrates of Thebes, Mentor of Rhodes and Nicostratus of Argos while the Persians were led by Rhossaces, Aristazanes, and Bagoas, the chief of the eunuchs. Nectanebo II resisted with an army of 100,000 of whom 20,000 were Greek mercenaries. Nectanebo II occupied the Nile and its various branches with his large navy.[citation needed] The character of the country, intersected by numerous canals and full of strongly fortified towns, was in his favour and Nectanebo II might have been expected to offer a prolonged, if not even a successful, resistance. However, he lacked good generals, and, over-confident in his own powers of command, he was out-manoeuvred by the Greek mercenary generals and his forces were eventually defeated by the combined Persian armies at the Battle of Pelusium (343 BC). After his defeat, Nectanebo hastily fled to Memphis, leaving the fortified towns to be defended by their garrisons. These garrisons consisted of partly Greek and partly Egyptian troops; between whom jealousies and suspicions were easily sown by the Persian leaders. As a result, the Persians were able to rapidly reduce numerous towns across Lower Egypt and were advancing upon Memphis when Nectanebo decided to quit the country and flee southwards to Ethiopia.[116] The Persian army completely routed the Egyptians and occupied the Lower Delta of the Nile. Following Nectanebo fleeing to Ethiopia, all of Egypt submitted to Artaxerxes. The Jews in Egypt were sent either to Babylon or to the south coast of the Caspian Sea, the same location that the Jews of Phoenicia had earlier been sent.[citation needed] After this victory over the Egyptians, Artaxerxes had the city walls destroyed, started a reign of terror, and set about looting all the temples. Persia gained a significant amount of wealth from this looting. Artaxerxes also raised high taxes and attempted to weaken Egypt enough that it could never revolt against Persia. For the 10 years that Persia controlled Egypt, believers in the native religion were persecuted and sacred books were stolen.[121] Before he returned to Persia, he appointed Pherendares as satrap of Egypt. With the wealth gained from his reconquering Egypt, Artaxerxes was able to amply reward his mercenaries. He then returned to his capital having successfully completed his invasion of Egypt.[citation needed] After his success in Egypt, Artaxerxes returned to Persia and spent the next few years effectively quelling insurrections in various parts of the Empire so that a few years after his conquest of Egypt, the Persian Empire was firmly under his control. Egypt remained a part of the Persian Empire until Alexander the Great's conquest of Egypt.[citation needed] After the conquest of Egypt, there were no more revolts or rebellions against Artaxerxes. Mentor and Bagoas, the two generals who had most distinguished themselves in the Egyptian campaign, were advanced to posts of the highest importance. Mentor, who was governor of the entire Asiatic seaboard, was successful in reducing to subjection many of the chiefs who during the recent troubles had rebelled against Persian rule. In the course of a few years Mentor and his forces were able to bring the whole Asian Mediterranean coast into complete submission and dependence.[citation needed] Bagoas went back to the Persian capital with Artaxerxes, where he took a leading role in the internal administration of the Empire and maintained tranquillity throughout the rest of the Empire. During the last six years of the reign of Artaxerxes III, the Persian Empire was governed by a vigorous and successful government.[116] The Persian forces in Ionia and Lycia regained control of the Aegean and the Mediterranean Sea and took over much of Athens' former island empire. In response, Isocrates of Athens started giving speeches calling for a 'crusade against the barbarians' but there was not enough strength left in any of the Greek city-states to answer his call.[122] Although there were no rebellions in the Persian Empire itself, the growing power and territory of Philip II of Macedon in Macedon (against which Demosthenes was in vain warning the Athenians) attracted the attention of Artaxerxes. In response, he ordered that Persian influence was to be used to check and constrain the rising power and influence of the Macedonian kingdom. In 340 BC, a Persian force was dispatched to assist the Thracian prince, Cersobleptes, to maintain his independence. Sufficient effective aid was given to the city of Perinthus that the numerous and well-appointed army with which Philip had commenced his siege of the city was compelled to give up the attempt.[116] By the last year of Artaxerxes' rule, Philip II already had plans in place for an invasion of the Persian Empire, which would crown his career, but the Greeks would not unite with him.[123] In 338 BC Artaxerxes was poisoned by Bagoas with the assistance of a physician.[124] Fall of the empire[edit] The Battle of Issus, between Alexander the Great on horseback to the left, and Darius III in the chariot to the right, represented in a Pompeii mosaic dated 1st century BC – Naples National Archaeological Museum Alexander's first victory over Darius, the Persian king depicted in medieval European style in the 15th century romance The History of Alexander's Battles Artaxerxes III was succeeded by Artaxerxes IV Arses, who before he could act was also poisoned by Bagoas. Bagoas is further said to have killed not only all Arses' children, but many of the other princes of the land. Bagoas then placed Darius III, a nephew of Artaxerxes IV, on the throne. Darius III, previously Satrap of Armenia, personally forced Bagoas to swallow poison. In 334 BC, when Darius was just succeeding in subduing Egypt again, Alexander and his battle-hardened troops invaded Asia Minor.[citation needed] Alexander the Great (Alexander III of Macedon) defeated the Persian armies at Granicus (334 BC), followed by Issus (333 BC), and lastly at Gaugamela (331 BC). Afterwards, he marched on Susa and Persepolis which surrendered in early 330 BC. From Persepolis, Alexander headed north to Pasargadae where he visited the tomb of Cyrus, the burial of the man whom he had heard of from the Cyropedia.[citation needed] In the ensuing chaos created by Alexander's invasion of Persia, Cyrus's tomb was broken into and most of its luxuries were looted. When Alexander reached the tomb, he was horrified by the manner in which it had been treated, and questioned the Magi, putting them on trial.[125][126] By some accounts, Alexander's decision to put the Magi on trial was more an attempt to undermine their influence and display his own power than a show of concern for Cyrus's tomb.[127] Regardless, Alexander the Great ordered Aristobulus to improve the tomb's condition and restore its interior, showing respect for Cyrus.[125] From there he headed to Ecbatana, where Darius III had sought refuge.[128] Darius III was taken prisoner by Bessus, his Bactrian satrap and kinsman. As Alexander approached, Bessus had his men murder Darius III and then declared himself Darius' successor, as Artaxerxes V, before retreating into Central Asia leaving Darius' body in the road to delay Alexander, who brought it to Persepolis for an honourable funeral. Bessus would then create a coalition of his forces, in order to create an army to defend against Alexander. Before Bessus could fully unite with his confederates at the eastern part of the empire,[129] Alexander, fearing the danger of Bessus gaining control, found him, put him on trial in a Persian court under his control, and ordered his execution in a "cruel and barbarous manner."[130] Alexander generally kept the original Achaemenid administrative structure, leading some scholars to dub him as "the last of the Achaemenids".[131] Upon Alexander's death in 323 BC, his empire was divided among his generals, the Diadochi, resulting in a number of smaller states. The largest of these, which held sway over the Iranian plateau, was the Seleucid Empire, ruled by Alexander's general Seleucus I Nicator. Native Iranian rule would be restored by the Parthians of northeastern Iran over the course of the 2nd century BC.[132] Descendants in later Persian dynasties[edit] "Frataraka" Governors of the Seleucid Empire Frataraka dynasty ruler Vadfradad I (Autophradates I). 3rd century BC. Istakhr (Persepolis) mint.[133] Main article: Frataraka Several later Persian rulers, forming the Frataraka dynasty, are known to have acted as representatives of the Seleucids in the region of Fārs.[134] They ruled from the end of the 3rd century BC to the beginning of the 2nd century BC, and Vahbarz or Vādfradād I obtained independence circa 150 BC, when Seleucid power waned in the areas of southwestern Persia and the Persian Gulf region.[134] Kings of Persis, under the Parthian Empire Main article: Kings of Persis Dārēv I (Darios I) used for the first time the title of mlk (King). 2nd century BC. During an apparent transitional period, corresponding to the reigns of Vādfradād II and another uncertain king, no titles of authority appeared on the reverse of their coins. The earlier title prtrk' zy alhaya (Frataraka) had disappeared. Under Dārēv I however, the new title of mlk, or king, appeared, sometimes with the mention of prs (Persis), suggesting that the kings of Persis had become independent rulers.[135] When the Parthian Arsacid king Mithridates I (c. 171–138 BC) took control of Persis, he left the Persian dynasts in office, known as the Kings of Persis, and they were allowed to continue minting coins with the title of mlk ("King").[134] Sasanian Empire Main article: Sasanian Empire With the reign of Šābuhr, the son of Pāpag, the kingdom of Persis then became a part of the Sasanian Empire. Šābuhr's brother and successor, Ardaxšir (Artaxerxes) V, defeated the last legitimate Parthian king, Artabanos V in 224 CE, and was crowned at Ctesiphon as Ardaxšir I (Ardashir I), šāhanšāh ī Ērān, becoming the first king of the new Sasanian Empire.[135] Kingdom of Pontus The Achaemenid line would also be carried on through the Kingdom of Pontus, based in the Pontus region of northern Asia Minor. This Pontic Kingdom, a state of Persian origin,[136][137][138][139] may even have been directly related to Darius the Great and the Achaemenid dynasty.[139] It was founded by Mithridates I in 281 BC and lasted until its conquest by the Roman Republic in 63 BC. The kingdom grew to its largest extent under Mithridates VI the Great, who conquered Colchis, Cappadocia, Bithynia, the Greek colonies of the Tauric Chersonesos and for a brief time the Roman province of Asia. Thus, this Persian dynasty managed to survive and prosper in the Hellenistic world while the main Persian Empire had fallen.[citation needed] Despite Greek influence on the Kingdom of Pontus, Pontics continued to maintain their Achaemenid lineage.[139] Winged sphinx from the Palace of Darius the Great at Susa, Louvre Both the later dynasties of the Parthians and Sasanians would on occasion claim Achaemenid descent. Recently there has been some corroboration for the Parthian claim to Achaemenid ancestry via the possibility of an inherited disease (neurofibromatosis) demonstrated by the physical descriptions of rulers and from evidence of familial disease on ancient coinage.[140] Causes of decline[edit] Part of the cause of the Empire's decline had been the heavy tax burden put upon the state, which eventually led to economic decline.[141][142] An estimate of the tribute imposed on the subject nations was up to U.S. $180M per year. This does not include the material goods and supplies that were supplied as taxes.[143] After the high overhead of government—the military, the bureaucracy, whatever the satraps could safely dip into the coffers for themselves—this money went into the royal treasury. According to Diodorus, at Persepolis, Alexander III found some 180,000 Attic talents of silver besides the additional treasure the Macedonians were carrying that already had been seized in Damascus by Parmenion.[144][better source needed] This amounted to U.S. $2.7B. On top of this, Darius III had taken 8,000 talents with him on his flight to the north.[143][better source needed] Alexander put this static hoard back into the economy, and upon his death some 130,000 talents had been spent on the building of cities, dockyards, temples, and the payment of the troops, besides the ordinary government expenses.[145][better source needed] Additionally, one of the satraps, Harpalus, had made off to Greece with some 6,000 talents, which Athens used to rebuild its economy after seizing it during the struggles with the Corinthian League.[146][better source needed] Due to the flood of money from Alexander's hoard entering Greece, however, a disruption in the economy occurred, in agriculture, banking, rents, the great increase in mercenary soldiers that cash allowed the wealthy, and an increase in piracy.[147][better source needed] Another factor contributing to the decline of the Empire, in the period following Xerxes, was its failure to ever mold the many subject nations into a whole; the creation of a national identity was never attempted.[148] This lack of cohesion eventually affected the efficiency of the military.[149] Government[edit] Daric of Artaxerxes II Cyrus the Great founded the empire as a multi-state empire, governed from four capital cities: Pasargadae, Babylon, Susa and Ecbatana. The Achaemenids allowed a certain amount of regional autonomy in the form of the satrapy system. A satrapy was an administrative unit, usually organized on a geographical basis. A 'satrap' (governor) was the governor who administered the region, a 'general' supervised military recruitment and ensured order, and a 'state secretary' kept the official records. The general and the state secretary reported directly to the satrap as well as the central government. At differing times, there were between 20 and 30 satrapies.[150] Cyrus the Great created an organized army including the Immortals unit, consisting of 10,000 highly trained soldiers[151] Cyrus also formed an innovative postal system throughout the empire, based on several relay stations called Chapar Khaneh.[152] Achaemenid coinage[edit] Main article: Achaemenid coinage The Persian daric was the first gold coin which, along with a similar silver coin, the siglos, introduced the bimetallic monetary standard of the Achaemenid Persian Empire which has continued till today.[153] This was accomplished by Darius the Great, who reinforced the empire and expanded Persepolis as a ceremonial capital;[154] he revolutionized the economy by placing it on the silver and gold coinage. Tax districts[edit] See also: Districts of the Achaemenid Empire Volume of annual tribute per district, in the Achaemenid Empire, according to Herodotus.[155][156][157] Darius also introduced a regulated and sustainable tax system that was precisely tailored to each satrapy, based on their supposed productivity and their economic potential. For instance, Babylon was assessed for the highest amount and for a startling mixture of commodities – 1000 silver talents, four months supply of food for the army. India was clearly already fabled for its gold; Egypt was known for the wealth of its crops; it was to be the granary of the Persian Empire (as later of Rome's) and was required to provide 120,000 measures of grain in addition to 700 talents of silver. This was exclusively a tax levied on subject peoples.[158] There is evidence that conquered and/or rebellious enemies could be sold into slavery.[159] Alongside its other innovations in administration and taxation, the Achaemenids may have been the first government in the ancient Near East to register private slave sales and tax them using an early form of sales tax.[160] Achaemenid tax collector, calculating on an Abax or Abacus, according to the Darius Vase (340–320 BC).[161] Other accomplishments of Darius' reign included codification of the data, a universal legal system, and construction of a new capital at Persepolis.[128] Transportation and Communication[edit] Under the Achaemenids, the trade was extensive and there was an efficient infrastructure that facilitated the exchange of commodities in the far reaches of the empire. Tariffs on trade were one of the empire's main sources of revenue, along with agriculture and tribute.[158][162] Letter from the Satrap of Bactria to the governor of Khulmi, concerning camel keepers, 353BC The satrapies were linked by a 2,500-kilometer highway, the most impressive stretch being the Royal Road from Susa to Sardis, built by command of Darius I. It featured stations and caravanserais at specific intervals. The relays of mounted couriers (the angarium) could reach the remotest of areas in fifteen days. Herodotus observes that "there is nothing in the world that travels faster than these Persian couriers. Neither snow, nor rain, nor heat, nor gloom of night stays these courageous couriers from the swift completion of their appointed rounds."[163] Despite the relative local independence afforded by the satrapy system, royal inspectors, the "eyes and ears of the king", toured the empire and reported on local conditions.[citation needed] Another highway of commerce was the Great Khorasan Road, an informal mercantile route that originated in the fertile lowlands of Mesopotamia and snaked through the Zagros highlands, through the Iranian plateau and Afghanistan into the Central Asian regions of Samarkand, Merv and Ferghana, allowing for the construction of frontier cities like Cyropolis. Following Alexander's conquests, this highway allowed for the spread of cultural syncretic fusions like Greco-Buddhism into Central Asia and China, as well as empires like the Kushan, Indo-Greek and Parthian to profit from trade between East and West. This route was greatly rehabilitated and formalized during the Abbasid Caliphate, during which it developed into a major component of the famed Silk Road.[164] Military[edit] Despite its humble origins in Persis, the empire reached an enormous size under the leadership of Cyrus the Great. Cyrus created a multi-state empire where he allowed regional rulers, called the "satrap", to rule as his proxy over a certain designated area of his empire called the satrapy. The basic rule of governance was based upon loyalty and obedience of each satrapy to the central power, or the king, and compliance with tax laws.[165] Due to the ethno-cultural diversity of the subject nations under the rule of Persia, its enormous geographic size, and the constant struggle for power by regional competitors,[18] the creation of a professional army was necessary for both maintenance of the peace and to enforce the authority of the king in cases of rebellion and foreign threat.[17][151] Cyrus managed to create a strong land army, using it to advance in his campaigns in Babylonia, Lydia, and Asia Minor, which after his death was used by his son Cambyses II, in Egypt against Psamtik III. Cyrus would die battling a local Iranian insurgency in the empire, before he could have a chance to develop a naval force.[166] That task would fall to Darius the Great, who would officially give Persians their own royal navy to allow them to engage their enemies on multiple seas of this vast empire, from the Black Sea and the Aegean Sea, to the Persian Gulf, Ionian Sea and the Mediterranean Sea.[citation needed] Military composition[edit] Relief of throne-bearing soldiers in their native clothing at the tomb of Xerxes I, demonstrating the satrapies under his rule. The empire's great armies were, like the empire itself, very diverse, having:[g] Persians,[168] Macedonians,[85] European Thracians, Paeonians, Medes, Achaean Greeks, Cissians, Hyrcanians,[169] Assyrians, Chaldeans,[170] Bactrians, Sacae,[171] Arians, Parthians, Caucasian Albanians,[172] Chorasmians, Sogdians, Gandarians, Dadicae,[173] Caspians, Sarangae, Pactyes,[174] Utians, Mycians, Phoenicians, Judeans, Egyptians,[175] Cyprians,[176] Cilicians, Pamphylians, Lycians, Dorians of Asia, Carians, Ionians, Aegean islanders, Aeolians, Greeks from Pontus, Paricanians,[177] Arabians, Ethiopians of Africa,[178] Ethiopians of Baluchistan,[179] Libyans,[180] Paphlagonians, Ligyes, Matieni, Mariandyni, Cappadocians,[181] Phrygians, Armenians,[182] Lydians, Mysians,[183] Asian Thracians,[184] Lasonii, Milyae,[185] Moschi, Tibareni, Macrones, Mossynoeci,[186] Mares, Colchians, Alarodians, Saspirians,[187] Red Sea islanders,[188] Sagartians,[189] Indians,[190] Eordi, Bottiaei, Chalcidians, Brygians, Pierians, Perrhaebi, Enienes, Dolopes, and Magnesians.[citation needed] Infantry[edit] Achaemenid king killing a Greek hoplite. c. 500 BC–475 BC, at the time of Xerxes I. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Persian soldiers (left) fighting against Scythians. Cylinder seal impression.[191] The Achaemenid infantry consisted of three groups: the Immortals, the Sparabara, and the Takabara, though in the later years of the Achaemenid Empire, the Cardaces, were introduced.[citation needed] The Immortals were described by Herodotus as being heavy infantry, led by Hydarnes, that were kept constantly at a strength of exactly 10,000 men. He claimed that the unit's name stemmed from the custom that every killed, seriously wounded, or sick member was immediately replaced with a new one, maintaining the numbers and cohesion of the unit.[192] They had wicker shields, short spears, swords or large daggers, bow and arrow. Underneath their robes they wore scale armour coats. The spear counterbalances of the common soldiery were of silver; to differentiate commanding ranks, the officers' spear butt-spikes were golden.[192] Surviving Achaemenid coloured glazed bricks and carved reliefs represent the Immortals as wearing elaborate robes, hoop earrings and gold jewellery, though these garments and accessories were most likely worn only for ceremonial occasions.[193] Color reconstruction of Achaemenid infantry on the Alexander Sarcophagus (end of 4th century BC). The Sparabara were usually the first to engage in hand-to-hand combat with the enemy. Although not much is known about them today, it is believed that they were the backbone of the Persian army who formed a shield wall and used their two-metre-long spears to protect more vulnerable troops such as archers from the enemy. The Sparabara were taken from the full members of Persian society, they were trained from childhood to be soldiers and when not called out to fight on campaigns in distant lands they practised hunting on the vast plains of Persia. However, when all was quiet and the Pax Persica held true, the Sparabara returned to normal life farming the land and grazing their herds. Because of this they lacked true professional quality on the battlefield, yet they were well trained and courageous to the point of holding the line in most situations long enough for a counter-attack. They were armoured with quilted linen and carried large rectangular wicker shields as a form of light manoeuvrable defence. This, however, left them at a severe disadvantage against heavily armoured opponents such as the hoplite, and his two-metre-long spear was not able to give the Sparabara ample range to plausibly engage a trained phalanx. The wicker shields were able to effectively stop arrows but not strong enough to protect the soldier from spears. However, the Sparabara could deal with most other infantry, including trained units from the East.[citation needed] The Achaemenids relied heavily on archery. Major contributing nations were the Scythians, Medes, Persians, and the Elamites. The composite bow was used by the Persians and Medes, who adopted it from the Scythians and transmitted it to other nations, including the Greeks.[194] The socketed, three-bladed (also known as trilobate or Scythian) arrowheads made of copper alloy was the arrowhead variant normally used by the Achaemenid army. This variant required more expertise and precision to build.[195][196] The Takabara were a rare unit who were a tough type of peltasts.[197] They tended to fight with their own native weapons which would have included a crescent-shaped light wickerwork shield and axes as well as light linen cloth and leather. The Takabara were recruited from territories that incorporated modern Iran. Cavalry[edit] Seal of Darius the Great hunting in a chariot, reading "I am Darius, the Great King" in Old Persian (𐎠𐎭𐎶𐏐𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁𐎴 𐏋, "adam Dārayavaʰuš xšāyaθiya"), as well as in Elamite and Babylonian. The word 'great' only appears in Babylonian. British Museum.[198][199] The armoured Persian horsemen and their death dealing chariots were invincible. No man dared face them — Herodotus The Persian cavalry was crucial for conquering nations, and maintained its importance in the Achaemenid army to the last days of the Achaemenid Empire. The cavalry were separated into four groups. The chariot archers, horse cavalry, the camel cavalry, and the war elephants.[citation needed] Achaemenid calvalryman in the satrapy of Hellespontine Phrygia, Altıkulaç Sarcophagus, early 4th century BC. In the later years of the Achaemenid Empire, the chariot archer had become merely a ceremonial part of the Persian army, yet in the early years of the Empire, their use was widespread. The chariot archers were armed with spears, bows, arrows, swords, and scale armour. The horses were also suited with scale armour similar to scale armour of the Sassanian cataphracts. The chariots would contain imperial symbols and decorations. Armoured cavalry: Achaemenid Dynast of Hellespontine Phrygia attacking a Greek psiloi, Altıkulaç Sarcophagus, early 4th century BC. The horses used by the Achaemenids for cavalry were often suited with scale armour, like most cavalry units. The riders often had the same armour as Infantry units, wicker shields, short spears, swords or large daggers, bow and arrow and scale armour coats. The camel cavalry was different, because the camels and sometimes the riders, were provided little protection against enemies, yet when they were offered protection, they would have spears, swords, bow, arrow, and scale armour. The camel cavalry was first introduced into the Persian army by Cyrus the Great, at the Battle of Thymbra. The elephant was most likely introduced into the Persian army by Darius I after his conquest of the Indus Valley. They may have been used in Greek campaigns by Darius and Xerxes I, but Greek accounts only mention 15 of them being used at the Battle of Gaugamela.[citation needed] Navy[edit] Main article: Achaemenid navy Since its foundation by Cyrus, the Persian empire had been primarily a land empire with a strong army, but void of any actual naval forces. By the 5th century BC, this was to change, as the empire came across Greek, and Egyptian forces, each with their own maritime traditions and capabilities. Darius the Great (Darius I) was the first Achaemenid king to invest in a Persian fleet.[200] Even by then no true "imperial navy" had existed either in Greece or Egypt. Persia would become the first empire, under Darius, to inaugurate and deploy the first regular imperial navy.[200] Despite this achievement, the personnel for the imperial navy would not come from Iran, but were often Phoenicians (mostly from Sidon), Egyptians and Greeks chosen by Darius the Great to operate the empire's combat vessels.[200] Reconstitution of Persian landing ships at the Battle of Marathon. At first the ships were built in Sidon by the Phoenicians; the first Achaemenid ships measured about 40 meters in length and 6 meters in width, able to transport up to 300 Persian troops at any one trip. Soon, other states of the empire were constructing their own ships, each incorporating slight local preferences. The ships eventually found their way to the Persian Gulf.[200] Persian naval forces laid the foundation for a strong Persian maritime presence in the Persian Gulf. Persians were not only stationed on islands in the Persian Gulf, but also had ships often of 100 to 200 capacity patrolling the empire's various rivers including the Karun, Tigris and Nile in the west, as well as the Indus.[200] Greek ships against Achaemenid ships at the Battle of Salamis. The Achaemenid navy established bases located along the Karun, and in Bahrain, Oman, and Yemen. The Persian fleet was not only used for peace-keeping purposes along the Karun but also opened the door to trade with India via the Persian Gulf.[200] Darius's navy was in many ways a world power at the time, but it would be Artaxerxes II who in the summer of 397 BC would build a formidable navy, as part of a rearmament which would lead to his decisive victory at Knidos in 394 BC, re-establishing Achaemenid power in Ionia. Artaxerxes II would also utilize his navy to later on quell a rebellion in Egypt.[201] The construction material of choice was wood, but some armoured Achaemenid ships had metallic blades on the front, often meant to slice enemy ships using the ship's momentum. Naval ships were also equipped with hooks on the side to grab enemy ships, or to negotiate their position. The ships were propelled by sails or manpower. The ships the Persians created were unique. As far as maritime engagement, the ships were equipped with two mangonels that would launch projectiles such as stones, or flammable substances.[200] Xenophon describes his eyewitness account of a massive military bridge created by joining 37 Persian ships across the Tigris. The Persians utilized each boat's buoyancy, in order to support a connected bridge above which supply could be transferred.[200] Herodotus also gives many accounts of Persians utilizing ships to build bridges.[202][203] Darius the Great, in an attempt to subdue the Scythian horsemen north of the Black Sea, crossed over at the Bosphorus, using an enormous bridge made by connecting Achaemenid boats, then marched up to the Danube, crossing it by means of a second boat bridge.[204] The bridge over the Bosphorus essentially connected the nearest tip of Asia to Europe, encompassing at least some 1000 meters of open water if not more. Herodotus describes the spectacle, and calls it the "bridge of Darius":[205] "Strait called Bosphorus, across which the bridge of Darius had been thrown is hundred and twenty furlongs in length, reaching from the Euxine, to the Propontis. The Propontis is five hundred furlongs across, and fourteen hundred long. Its waters flow into the Hellespont, the length of which is four hundred furlongs ..." Years later, a similar boat bridge would be constructed by Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I), in his invasion of Greece. Although the Persians failed to capture the Greek city states completely, the tradition of maritime involvement was carried down by the Persian kings, most notably Artaxerxes II. Years later, when Alexander invaded Persia and during his advancement into India, he took a page from the Persian art of war, by having Hephaestion and Perdiccas construct a similar boat-bridge at the Indus river, in India in the spring of 327 BC.[206] Culture[edit] Iconic relief of lion and bull fighting, Apadana of Persepolis Achaemenid golden bowl with lioness imagery of Mazandaran The ruins of Persepolis Herodotus, in his mid-5th century BC account of Persian residents of the Pontus, reports that Persian youths, from their fifth year to their twentieth year, were instructed in three things—to ride a horse, to draw a bow, and to speak the Truth.[207] He further notes that:[207] the most disgraceful thing in the world [the Persians] think, is to tell a lie; the next worst, to owe a debt: because, among other reasons, the debtor is obliged to tell lies.[citation needed][208] In Achaemenid Persia, the lie, druj, is considered to be a cardinal sin, and it was punishable by death in some extreme cases. Tablets discovered by archaeologists in the 1930s[209] at the site of Persepolis give us adequate evidence about the love and veneration for the culture of truth during the Achaemenian period. These tablets contain the names of ordinary Persians, mainly traders and warehouse-keepers.[210] According to Stanley Insler of Yale University, as many as 72 names of officials and petty clerks found on these tablets contain the word truth.[211] Thus, says Insler, we have Artapana, protector of truth, Artakama, lover of truth, Artamanah, truth-minded, Artafarnah, possessing splendour of truth, Artazusta, delighting in truth, Artastuna, pillar of truth, Artafrida, prospering the truth and Artahunara, having nobility of truth. It was Darius the Great who laid down the ordinance of good regulations during his reign. King Darius' testimony about his constant battle against the lie is found in cuneiform inscriptions. Carved high up in the Behistun mountain on the road to Kermanshah, Darius the Great (Darius I) testifies:[212] I was not a lie-follower, I was not a doer of wrong ... According to righteousness I conducted myself. Neither to the weak or to the powerful did I do wrong. The man who cooperated with my house, him I rewarded well; who so did injury, him I punished well.[citation needed] Darius had his hands full dealing with large-scale rebellion which broke out throughout the empire. After fighting successfully with nine traitors in a year, Darius records his battles against them for posterity and tells us how it was the lie that made them rebel against the empire. At Behistun, Darius says: I smote them and took prisoner nine kings. One was Gaumata by name, a Magian; he lied; thus he said: I am Smerdis, the son of Cyrus ... One, Acina by name, an Elamite; he lied; thus he said: I am king in Elam ... One, Nidintu-Bel by name, a Babylonian; he lied; thus he said: I am Nebuchadnezzar, the son of Nabonidus.[citation needed] King Darius then tells us, The Lie made them rebellious, so that these men deceived the people.[213] Then advice to his son Xerxes, who is to succeed him as the great king: Thou who shalt be king hereafter, protect yourself vigorously from the Lie; the man who shall be a lie-follower, him do thou punish well, if thus thou shall think. May my country be secure![citation needed] Languages[edit] Gold foundation tablets of Darius I for the Apadana Palace, in their original stone box. The Apadana coin hoard had been deposited underneath c. 510 BC. One of the two gold deposition plates. Two more were in silver. They all had the same trilingual inscription (DPh inscription).[214] During the reign of Cyrus and Darius, and as long as the seat of government was still at Susa in Elam, the language of the chancellery was Elamite. This is primarily attested in the Persepolis fortification and treasury tablets that reveal details of the day-to-day functioning of the empire.[210] In the grand rock-face inscriptions of the kings, the Elamite texts are always accompanied by Akkadian (Babylonian dialect) and Old Persian inscriptions, and it appears that in these cases, the Elamite texts are translations of the Old Persian ones. It is then likely that although Elamite was used by the capital government in Susa, it was not a standardized language of government everywhere in the empire. The use of Elamite is not attested after 458 BC.[215] A section of the Old Persian part of the trilingual Behistun inscription. Other versions are in Babylonian and Elamite. A copy of the Behistun inscription in Aramaic on a papyrus. Aramaic was the lingua franca of the empire. Following the conquest of Mesopotamia, the Aramaic language (as used in that territory) was adopted as a "vehicle for written communication between the different regions of the vast empire with its different peoples and languages. The use of a single official language, which modern scholarship has dubbed "Official Aramaic" or "Imperial Aramaic", can be assumed to have greatly contributed to the astonishing success of the Achaemenids in holding their far-flung empire together for as long as they did."[216] In 1955, Richard Frye questioned the classification of Imperial Aramaic as an "official language", noting that no surviving edict expressly and unambiguously accorded that status to any particular language.[217] Frye reclassifies Imperial Aramaic as the lingua franca of the Achaemenid territories, suggesting then that the Achaemenid-era use of Aramaic was more pervasive than generally thought. Many centuries after the fall of the empire, Aramaic script and—as ideograms—Aramaic vocabulary would survive as the essential characteristics of the Pahlavi writing system.[218] Although Old Persian also appears on some seals and art objects, that language is attested primarily in the Achaemenid inscriptions of Western Iran, suggesting then that Old Persian was the common language of that region. However, by the reign of Artaxerxes II, the grammar and orthography of the inscriptions was so "far from perfect"[219] that it has been suggested that the scribes who composed those texts had already largely forgotten the language, and had to rely on older inscriptions, which they to a great extent reproduced verbatim.[220] When the occasion demanded, Achaemenid administrative correspondence was conducted in Greek, making it a widely used bureaucratic language.[8] Even though the Achaemenids had extensive contacts with the Greeks and vice versa, and had conquered many of the Greek-speaking areas both in Europe and Asia Minor during different periods of the empire, the native Old Iranian sources provide no indication of Greek linguistic evidence.[8] However, there is plenty of evidence (in addition to the accounts of Herodotus) that Greeks, apart from being deployed and employed in the core regions of the empire, also evidently lived and worked in the heartland of the Achaemenid Empire, namely Iran.[8] For example, Greeks were part of the various ethnicities that constructed Darius' palace in Susa, apart from the Greek inscriptions found nearby there, and one short Persepolis tablet written in Greek.[8] Customs[edit] This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2015) An Achaemenid drinking vessel Herodotus mentions that the Persians were invited to great birthday feasts (Herodotus, Histories 8), which would be followed by many desserts, a treat which they reproached the Greeks for omitting from their meals. He also observed that the Persians drank wine in large quantities and used it even for counsel, deliberating on important affairs when drunk, and deciding the next day, when sober, whether to act on the decision or set it aside.[221] Bowing to superiors, or royalty was one of the many Persian customs adopted by Alexander the Great.[citation needed] Religion[edit] Religious toleration has been described as a "remarkable feature" of the Achaemenid Empire.[222] The Old Testament reports that king Cyrus the Great released the Jews from their Babylonian captivity in 539–530 BC, and permitted them to return to their homeland.[223] Cyrus the Great assisted in the restoration of the sacred places of various cities.[222] It was during the Achaemenid period that Zoroastrianism reached South-Western Iran, where it came to be accepted by the rulers and through them became a defining element of Persian culture. The religion was not only accompanied by a formalization of the concepts and divinities of the traditional Iranian pantheon but also introduced several novel ideas, including that of free will.[224][225] Under the patronage of the Achaemenid kings, and by the 5th century BC as the de facto religion of the state, Zoroastrianism reached all corners of the empire. Bas-relief of Farvahar at Persepolis During the reign of Artaxerxes I and Darius II, Herodotus wrote "[the Persians] have no images of the gods, no temples nor altars, and consider the use of them a sign of folly. This comes, I think, from their not believing the gods to have the same nature with men, as the Greeks imagine."[226] He claims the Persians offer sacrifice to: "the sun and moon, to the earth, to fire, to water, and to the winds. These are the only gods whose worship has come down to them from ancient times. At a later period they began the worship of Urania, which they borrowed from the Arabians and Assyrians. Mylitta is the name by which the Assyrians know this goddess, to whom the Persians referred as Anahita."[226] (The original name here is Mithra, which has since been explained to be a confusion of Anahita with Mithra, understandable since they were commonly worshipped together in one temple).[citation needed] From the Babylonian scholar-priest Berosus, who—although writing over seventy years after the reign of Artaxerxes II Mnemon—records that the emperor had been the first to make cult statues of divinities and have them placed in temples in many of the major cities of the empire.[227] Berosus also substantiates Herodotus when he says the Persians knew of no images of gods until Artaxerxes II erected those images. On the means of sacrifice, Herodotus adds "they raise no altar, light no fire, pour no libations."[228] This sentence has been interpreted to identify a critical (but later) accretion to Zoroastrianism. An altar with a wood-burning fire and the Yasna service at which libations are poured are all clearly identifiable with modern Zoroastrianism, but apparently, were practices that had not yet developed in the mid-5th century. Boyce also assigns that development to the reign of Artaxerxes II (4th century BC), as an orthodox response to the innovation of the shrine cults.[citation needed] Herodotus also observed that "no prayer or offering can be made without a magus present"[228] but this should not be confused with what is today understood by the term magus, that is a magupat (modern Persian: mobed), a Zoroastrian priest. Nor does Herodotus' description of the term as one of the tribes or castes of the Medes necessarily imply that these magi were Medians. They simply were a hereditary priesthood to be found all over Western Iran and although (originally) not associated with any one specific religion, they were traditionally responsible for all ritual and religious services. Although the unequivocal identification of the magus with Zoroastrianism came later (Sassanid era, 3rd–7th century AD), it is from Herodotus' magus of the mid-5th century that Zoroastrianism was subject to doctrinal modifications that are today considered to be revocations of the original teachings of the prophet. Also, many of the ritual practices described in the Avesta's Vendidad (such as exposure of the dead) were already practised by the magu of Herodotus' time.[citation needed] Art and architecture[edit] Main article: Achaemenid architecture This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2015) Achaemenid architecture includes large cities, temples, palaces, and mausoleums such as the tomb of Cyrus the Great. The quintessential feature of Persian architecture was its eclectic nature with elements of Median, Assyrian, and Asiatic Greek all incorporated, yet maintaining a unique Persian identity seen in the finished products.[229] Its influence pervades the regions ruled by the Achaemenids, from the Mediterranean shores to India, especially with its emphasis on monumental stone-cut design and gardens subdivided by water-courses.[230] Achaemenid art includes frieze reliefs, Metalwork such as the Oxus Treasure, decoration of palaces, glazed brick masonry, fine craftsmanship (masonry, carpentry, etc.), and gardening. Although the Persians took artists, with their styles and techniques, from all corners of their empire, they produced not simply a combination of styles, but a synthesis of a new unique Persian style.[231] Cyrus the Great in fact had an extensive ancient Iranian heritage behind him; the rich Achaemenid gold work, which inscriptions suggest may have been a speciality of the Medes, was for instance in the tradition of the delicate metalwork found in Iron Age II times at Hasanlu and still earlier at Marlik.[citation needed] One of the most remarkable examples of both Achaemenid architecture and art is the grand palace of Persepolis, and its detailed workmanship, coupled with its grand scale. In describing the construction of his palace at Susa, Darius the Great records that: Yaka timber was brought from Gandara and from Carmania. The gold was brought from Sardis and from Bactria ... the precious stone lapis-lazuli and carnelian ... was brought from Sogdiana. The turquoise from Chorasmia, the silver and ebony from Egypt, the ornamentation from Ionia, the ivory from Ethiopia and from Sindh and from Arachosia. The stone-cutters who wrought the stone, those were Ionians and Sardians. The goldsmiths were Medes and Egyptians. The men who wrought the wood, those were Sardians and Egyptians. The men who wrought the baked brick, those were Babylonians. The men who adorned the wall, those were Medes and Egyptians.[citation needed] This was imperial art on a scale the world had not seen before. Materials and artists were drawn from all corners of the empire, and thus tastes, styles, and motifs became mixed together in an eclectic art and architecture that in itself mirrored the Persian empire.[citation needed] The legacy of the Persian garden throughout the Middle East and South Asia starts in the Achaemenid period, especially with the construction of Pasargadae by Cyrus the Great. In fact, the English word 'paradise' derives from the Greek parádeisos which ultimately comes from the Old Persian pairi-daêza, used to describe the walled gardens of ancient Persia. Distinct characteristics including flowing watercourses, fountains and water-channels, a structured orientational scheme (chahar-bagh) and a variety of flower and fruit-bearing trees brought from across the empire, all key features that served as a key inspiration for Islamic gardens ranging from Spain to India.[232][233] The famous Alhambra complex in Spain (built by Andalusian Arabs), Safavid parks and boulevards at Isfahan and Mughal gardens of India and Pakistan (including those at the Taj Mahal) are all descendants of this cultural tradition. Engineering innovations were required to maintain Persian gardens amid the aridity and difficulty of attaining fresh water in the Iranian plateau. Persepolis was the center of an empire that reached Greece and India.,[234] was supplied with water through underground channels called qanat, allowing maintenance of its gardens and palaces. These structures consist of deep vertical shafts into water reservoirs, followed by gently-sloping channels bringing fresh water from high-altitude aquifers to valleys and lowland plains. The influence of the qanat is widespread throughout the Middle East and Central Asia (including in Xinjiang region of Western China)[235] due to its productivity and efficiency in arid environments. The acequias of southern Spain were brought by Arabs from Iraq and Persia to advance agriculture in the dry Mediterranean climate of Al-Andalus, and from there, were implemented in southwestern North America for irrigation during Spanish colonization of the Americas.[236] The American wife of an Iranian diplomat, Florence Khanum, wrote of Tehran that: "The air is the most marvellous I ever was in, in any city. Mountain air, so sweet, dry and "preserving", delicious and life-giving.' She told of running streams, and fresh water bubbling up in the gardens. (This omnipresence of water, which doubtless spread from Persia to Baghdad and from there to Spain during its Muslim days, has given Spanish many a water-word: aljibe, for example, is Persian jub, brook; cano or pipe, is Arabic qanat—reed, canal. Thus J. T. Shipley, Dictionary of Word Origins)." Also supplemented by the qanat are yakhchal, 'ice-pit' structures that use the rapid passage of water to aerate and cool their inner chambers.[234] Reconstruction of the Palace of Darius at Susa. The palace served as a model for Persepolis. Lion on a decorative panel from Darius I the Great's palace, Louvre Nishat Bagh in Srinagar, Kashmir (built during Mughal rule), a quintessential example of a Persian Garden with tree-lined avenues and flowing watercourses. Tombs[edit] Tomb of Artaxerxes III in Persepolis Many Achaemenid rulers built tombs for themselves. The most famous, Naqsh-e Rustam, is an ancient necropolis located about 12 km north-west of Persepolis, with the tombs of four of the kings of the dynasty carved in this mountain: Darius I, Xerxes I, Artaxerxes I and Darius II. Other kings constructed their own tombs elsewhere. Artaxerxes II and Artaxerxes III preferred to carve their tombs beside their spring capital Persepolis, the left tomb belonging to Artaxerxes II and the right tomb belonging to Artaxerxes III, the last Achaemenid king to have a tomb. The tomb of the founder of the Achaemenid dynasty, Cyrus the Great, was built in Pasargadae (now a world heritage site).[citation needed] Legacy[edit] The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, one of the Seven wonders of the ancient world, was built by Greek architects for the local Persian satrap of Caria, Mausolus (Scale model) The Achaemenid Empire left a lasting impression on the heritage and cultural identity of Asia, Europe, and the Middle East, and influenced the development and structure of future empires. In fact, the Greeks, and later on the Romans, adopted the best features of the Persian method of governing an empire.[237] The Persian model of governance was particularly formative in the expansion and maintenance of the Abbasid Caliphate, whose rule is widely considered the period of the 'Islamic Golden Age'. Like the ancient Persians, the Abbasid dynasty centered their vast empire in Mesopotamia (at the newly founded cities of Baghdad and Samarra, close to the historical site of Babylon), derived much of their support from Persian aristocracy and heavily incorporated the Persian language and architecture into Islamic culture (as opposed to the Greco-Roman influence on their rivals, the Umayyads of Spain).[238] Historian Arnold Toynbee regarded Abassid society as a "reintegration" or "reincarnation" of Achaemenid society, as the synthesis of Persian, Turkic and Islamic modes of governance and knowledge allowed for the spread of Persianate culture over a wide swath of Eurasia through the Turkic-origin Seljuq, Ottoman, Safavid and Mughal empires.[238] Historian Bernard Lewis wrote that The work of Iranians can be seen in every field of cultural endeavor, including Arabic poetry, to which poets of Iranian origin composing their poems in Arabic made a very significant contribution. In a sense, Iranian Islam is a second advent of Islam itself, a new Islam sometimes referred to as Islam-i-Ajam. It was this Persian Islam, rather than the original Arab Islam, that was brought to new areas and new peoples: to the Turks, first in Central Asia and then in the Middle East in the country which came to be called Turkey, and of course to India. The Ottoman Turks brought a form of Iranian civilization to the walls of Vienna. [...] By the time of the great Mongol invasions of the thirteenth century, Iranian Islam had become not only an important component; it had become a dominant element in Islam itself, and for several centuries the main centers of the Islamic power and civilization were in countries that were, if not Iranian, at least marked by Iranian civilization ... The major centers of Islam in the late medieval and early modern periods, the centers of both political and cultural power, such as India, Central Asia, Iran, Turkey, were all part of this Iranian civilization. Georg W. F. Hegel in his work The Philosophy of History introduces the Persian Empire as the "first empire that passed away" and its people as the "first historical people" in history. According to his account; The Persian Empire is an empire in the modern sense—like that which existed in Germany, and the great imperial realm under the sway of Napoleon; for we find it consisting of a number of states, which are indeed dependent, but which have retained their own individuality, their manners, and laws. The general enactments, binding upon all, did not infringe upon their political and social idiosyncrasies, but even protected and maintained them; so that each of the nations that constitute the whole, had its own form of constitution. As light illuminates everything—imparting to each object a peculiar vitality—so the Persian Empire extends over a multitude of nations, and leaves to each one its particular character. Some have even kings of their own; each one its distinct language, arms, way of life and customs. All this diversity coexists harmoniously under the impartial dominion of Light ... a combination of peoples—leaving each of them free. Thereby, a stop is put to that barbarism and ferocity with which the nations had been wont to carry on their destructive feuds.[239] American Orientalist Arthur Upham Pope (1881–1969) said: "The western world has a vast unpaid debt to the Persian Civilization!"[240] Will Durant, the American historian and philosopher, during one of his speeches, "Persia in the History of Civilization", as an address before the Iran–America Society in Tehran on 21 April 1948, stated: For thousands of years Persians have been creating beauty. Sixteen centuries before Christ there went from these regions or near it ... You have been here a kind of watershed of civilization, pouring your blood and thought and art and religion eastward and westward into the world ... I need not rehearse for you again the achievements of your Achaemenid period. Then for the first time in known history an empire almost as extensive as the United States received an orderly government, a competence of administration, a web of swift communications, a security of movement by men and goods on majestic roads, equalled before our time only by the zenith of Imperial Rome.[241] Achaemenid kings and rulers[edit] Unattested[edit] There were four unattested kings who ruled as satraps to the Neo-Assyrian Empire and the Median Empire. Name Image Comments Dates Achaemenes First ruler of the Achaemenid kingdom 705 BC Teispes Son of Achaemenes 640 BC Cyrus I Son of Teispes 580 BC Cambyses I Son of Cyrus I and father of Cyrus II 550 BC Attested[edit] There were 13 attested kings during the 220 years of the Achaemenid Empire's existence. The reign of Artaxerxes II was the longest, lasting 47 years. Name Image Comments Dates Cyrus the Great Founder of the empire; King of the "four corners of the world" 560–530 BC Cambyses II King of Persia in addition to Pharaoh of Egypt 530–522 BC Bardiya/Smerdis King of Persia, allegedly an imposter 522 BC Darius I King of Persia in addition to Pharaoh of Egypt 522–486 BC Xerxes I King of Persia in addition to Pharaoh of Egypt 486–465 BC Artaxerxes I King of Persia in addition to Pharaoh of Egypt 465–424 BC Xerxes II King of Persia in addition to Pharaoh of Egypt 424 BC (45 days) Sogdianus King of Persia in addition to Pharaoh of Egypt 424–423 BC Darius II King of Persia in addition to Pharaoh of Egypt 423–405 BC Artaxerxes II King of Persia 405–358 BC Artaxerxes III King of Persia in addition to Pharaoh of Egypt (Regained control over Egypt after 50 years) 358–338 BC Artaxerxes IV King of Persia in addition to Pharaoh of Egypt 338–336 BC Darius III King of Persia in addition to Pharaoh of Egypt; last ruler of the empire 336–330 BC Gallery[edit] Ruins of Throne Hall, Persepolis Apadana Hall, Persian and Median soldiers at Persepolis Lateral view of tomb of Cambyses II, Pasargadae, Iran Plaque with horned lion-griffins. The Metropolitan Museum of Art See also[edit] Asia portal Achaemenid family tree Achaemenid Persian Lion Rhyton History of Iran List of Zoroastrian states and dynasties Wars of Cyrus the Great Explanatory notes[edit] ^ Reconstruction, based on an Achaemenid tile. The Alexander Mosaic instead shows the standard in red (probably based on an original purple) and gold.[1] ^ xšāyaϑiya ^ xšāyaϑiya xšāyaϑiyānām ^ The chronology of the reign of Cyrus is uncertain, and these events are alternatively dated in 542–541 BC.[37] ^ a b Bardiya is referred to by a variety of names in Greek sources, including Smerdis, Tanyoxarces, Tanoxares, Mergis and Mardos. The earliest account to mention him is the Behistun Inscription, which has his name as Bardiya.[59][60] ^ Sources differ on the circumstances of Cambyses' death. According to Darius the Great in the Behistun Inscription, he died of natural causes.[59] According to Herodotus, he died after accidentally wounding himself in the thigh.[80] The true cause of death remains uncertain.[62] ^ All peoples listed (except for the Caucasian Albanians) are the ones that took part in the Second Persian invasion of Greece.[167] The total amount of ethnicities could very well amount to much more.[citation needed] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ "DERAFŠ". Encyclopædia Iranica. Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation. 21 November 2011. Retrieved 7 April 2019. ^ 2002 Oxford Atlas of World History p.42 (West portion of the Achaemenid Empire) and p.43 (East portion of the Achaemenid Empire). ^ O'Brien, Patrick Karl (2002). Atlas of World History. Oxford University Press. pp. 42–43. ISBN 9780195219210. ^ Visible online: Philip's Atlas of World History (1999) ^ The Times Atlas of World History, p.79 (1989): Barraclough, Geoffrey (1997). The Times Atlas of World History. Times Books. ISBN 978-0-7230-0906-1. ^ Yarshater, Ehsan (1993). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. p. 482. ISBN 978-0-521-20092-9. Of the four residences of the Achaemenids named by Herodotus—Ecbatana, Pasargadae or Persepolis, Susa and Babylon—the last [situated in Iraq] was maintained as their most important capital, the fixed winter quarters, the central office of bureaucracy, exchanged only in the heat of summer for some cool spot in the highlands. Under the Seleucids and the Parthians the site of the Mesopotamian capital moved slightly to the north on the Tigris—to Seleucia and Ctesiphon. It is indeed symbolic that these new foundations were built from the bricks of ancient Babylon, just as later Baghdad, a little further upstream, was built out of the ruins of the Sassanian double city of Seleucia-Ctesiphon. ^ Kittel, Harald; Frank, Armin Paul; House, Juliane; Greiner, Norbert; Schultze, Brigitte; Koller, Werner (2007). 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Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archäologie. 79: 80–101. doi:10.1515/zava.1989.79.1.80. S2CID 162232807. ^ Williams, Michael R. (1998). A history of computing technology (2nd ed., 2nd print. ed.). Los Alamitos, Calif.: IEEE Computer Soc. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-8186-7739-7. ^ "Darius I (Darius the Great), King of Persia (from 521 BC)". 1902encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 7 January 2011. ^ The words are actually inscribed on the frieze of the James A. Farley Post Office Building in the borough of Manhattan in New York City, New York. The inscription is based on: Herodotus with George Rawlinson, trans., The History of Herodotus (New York, New York: Tandy-Thomas Co., 1909), vol. 4, Book 8, § 98, p. 147. ^ "The Diary of Young Explorers: Iran and the Royal Road | SILK ROADS". en.unesco.org. Retrieved 11 April 2020. ^ Palmira Johnson Brummett; Robert R. Edgar; Neil J. Hackett; Robert R. Edgar; Neil J. Hackett (2003). Civilization past & present, Volume 1. Longman. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-321-09097-3. ^ A history of Greece, Volume 2, By Connop Thirlwall, Longmans, 1836, p. 174 ^ Herodotus VII, 59 ^ Herodotus VII, 84 ^ Herodotus VII, 62 ^ Herodotus VII, 63 ^ Herodotus VII, 64 ^ Chaumont, M.L. Albania Archived 10 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine. "Encyclopædia Iranica. ^ Herodotus VII, 66 ^ Herodotus VII, 67 ^ Herodotus VII, 89 ^ Herodotus VII 90 ^ Herodotus VII, 68 ^ Herodotus VII, 69 ^ Herodotus VII, 70 ^ Herodotus VII, 71 ^ Herodotus VII, 72 ^ Herodotus VII, 73 ^ Herodotus VII, 74 ^ Herodotus, VII, 75 ^ Herodotus VII, 77 ^ Herodotus VII, 78 ^ Herodotus VII, 79 ^ Herodotus VII, 80 ^ Herodotus VII, 85 ^ Herodotus VII, 65 ^ Hartley, Charles W.; Yazicioğlu, G. Bike; Smith, Adam T. (2012). The Archaeology of Power and Politics in Eurasia: Regimes and Revolutions. Cambridge University Press. p. 83. ISBN 978-1-107-01652-1. ^ a b Jona, Lendering (1997). "Immortals". Livius.org. Retrieved 16 May 2009. ^ Volume IX, Encyclopædia Britannica, Fifteenth Edition 1983 ^ Potts, D. T. (1999). The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge University Press. p. 345. ISBN 978-0-521-56496-0. ^ Delrue, Parsival (2007). "Trilobate Arrowheads at Ed-Dur (U.A.E, Emirate of Umm Al-Qaiwain)". Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy. 18 (2): 239–250. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0471.2007.00281.x. ^ "Collection online: arrow-head". British Museum.[failed verification] ^ Sekunda, Nicholas (1992). The Persian Army 560–330 BC. Osprey Publishing. p. 30. ISBN 978-1-85532-250-9. ^ "The Darius Seal". British Museum. ^ "Darius' seal: photo – Livius". www.livius.org. ^ a b c d e f g h Kaveh Farrokh (2007). Shadows in the desert: ancient Persia at war. Osprey Publishing. p. 68. ISBN 978-1-84603-108-3. ^ Elspeth R.M. Dusinberre (2002). Aspects of empire in Achaemenid Sardis. Cambridge University Press. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-521-81071-5. ^ Ehsan Yar-Shater (1982). Encyclopaedia Iranica, Volume 4, Issues 5–8. Routledge & Kegan Paul. ^ John Manuel Cook (1983). The Persian Empire. Schocken Books. ^ E.V. Cernenko; Angus McBride; M.V. Gorelik (24 March 1983). The Scythians, 700–300 BC. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-0-85045-478-9. ^ Herodotus (1859). The History of Herodotus: a new English version, Volume 3. Translated by George Rawlinson; Sir Henry Creswicke Rawlinson; Sir John Gardner Wilkinson. John Murray. p. 77 (Chp. 86). ^ Waldemar Heckel (2006). Who's who in the age of Alexander the Great: prosopography of Alexander's empire. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 134. ISBN 978-1-4051-1210-9. ^ a b Herodotus (2009) [publication date]. The Histories. Translated by George Rawlinson. Digireads.Com. pp. 43–44. ISBN 978-1-4209-3305-5. ^ Herodotus. "The History of Herodotus". The Internet Classics Archive. Translated by George Rawlinson. Retrieved 21 June 2020. ^ Garrison, Mark B.; Root, Margaret C. (2001). Seals on the Persepolis Fortification Tablets, Volume 1. Images of Heroic Encounter (OIP 117). Chicago: Online Oriental Institute Publications. Archived from the original on 5 January 2007. Retrieved 9 January 2007. ^ a b Dandamayev, Muhammad (2002). "Persepolis Elamite Tablets". Encyclopedia Iranica. Retrieved 1 November 2013. ^ Insler, Stanley (1975). "The Love of Truth in Ancient Iran". Archived from the original on 5 May 2007. Retrieved 9 January 2007. In Insler, Stanley; Duchesne-Guillemin, J., eds. (1975). The Gāthās of Zarathustra (Acta Iranica 8). Liege: Brill. ^ Brian Carr; Brian Carr; Indira Mahalingam (1997). Companino Encyclopedia of Asian philosophy. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-03535-4. ^ "Darius, Behishtan (DB), Column 1". From Kent, Roland G. (1953). Old Persian: Grammar, texts, lexicon. New Haven: American Oriental Society. ^ DPh – Livius. ^ "Culture – National Radio TV of Afghanistan". Baztab News. Retrieved 24 May 2020. ^ Shaked, Saul (1987). "Aramaic". Encyclopedia Iranica. 2. 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ISBN 978-0-521-20091-2. ^ "Book of Ezra | King James Bible". Kingjamesbibletrust.org. Archived from the original on 10 May 2011. Retrieved 21 March 2011. ^ A. V. Williams Jackson (2003). Zoroastrian Studies: The Iranian Religion and Various Monographs (1928). Kessinger Publishing. p. 224. ISBN 978-0-7661-6655-4. ^ Virginia Schomp (2009). The Ancient Persians. Marshall Cavendish. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-7614-4218-9. ^ a b Herodotus, I.131 ^ Berosus, III.65 ^ a b Herodotus, I.132 ^ Charles Henry Caffin (1917). How to study architecture. Dodd, Mead and Company. p. 80. ^ MacDonald, Eve. "Iran's cultural heritage reflects the grandeur and beauty of the golden age of the Persian empire". The Conversation. Retrieved 15 February 2020. ^ Edward Lipiński; Karel van Lerberghe; Antoon Schoors; Karel Van Lerberghe; Antoon Schoors (1995). Immigration and emigration within the ancient Near East. Peeters Publishers. p. 119. ISBN 978-90-6831-727-5. ^ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Pasargadae". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 15 February 2020. ^ Rose, Steve (6 January 2020). "Here's what could be lost if Trump bombs Iran's cultural treasures". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 15 February 2020. ^ a b Bekhrad, Joobin. "Iran's ancient engineering marvel". www.bbc.com. Retrieved 24 February 2020. ^ Jacobs, Andrew (21 September 2016). "In a Parched Corner of Xinjiang, Ancient Water Tunnels Are Running Dry". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 27 March 2020. ^ "How The Middle Eastern Irrigation Ditch Called Acequia Changed The American Southwest – AramcoWorld". www.aramcoworld.com. Retrieved 27 March 2020. ^ "Mastering World History" by Philip L. Groisser, New York, 1970, p. 17 ^ a b Hovannisian, Richard G.; Sabagh, Georges; Yāršātir, Iḥsān (19 November 1998). The Persian Presence in the Islamic World. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59185-0. ^ George W.F. Hegel (2007). The Philosophy of History. ISBN 978-1-60206-438-6. ^ "The History of the Persian Civilization" by Arthur Pope, P. 11 ^ Durant, Will. "Persia in the History of Civilization" (PDF). Addressing 'Iran-America Society. Mazda Publishers, Inc. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 July 2011. General sources[edit] Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 978-1-57506-031-6. Brosius, Maria (2006). The Persians. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-32089-4. Cook, John Manuel (2006). The Persian Empire. Barnes & Noble. ISBN 978-1-56619-115-9. Dandamaev, M. A. (1989). A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-09172-6. Heidorn, Lisa Ann (1992). The Fortress of Dorginarti and Lower Nubia during the Seventh to Fifth Centuries B.C. (PhD). University of Chicago. Kosmin, Paul J. (2014). The Land of the Elephant Kings: Space, Territory, and Ideology in Seleucid Empire. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-72882-0. Kuhrt, Amélie (1983). "The Cyrus Cylinder and Achaemenid Imperial Policy". Journal for the Study of the Old Testament. 8 (25): 83–97. doi:10.1177/030908928300802507. S2CID 170508879. Kuhrt, Amélie (2013). The Persian Empire: A Corpus of Sources from the Achaemenid Period. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-01694-3. Howe, Timothy; Reames, Jeanne (2008). Macedonian Legacies: Studies in Ancient Macedonian History and Culture in Honor of Eugene N. Borza. Regina Books. ISBN 978-1-930053-56-4. Olmstead, Albert T. (1948). History of the Persian Empire. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-62777-9. Tavernier, Jan (2007). Iranica in the Achaeamenid Period (ca. 550-330 B.C.): Lexicon of Old Iranian Proper Names and Loanwords, Attested in Non-Iranian Texts. Peeters Publishers. ISBN 978-90-429-1833-7. Wallinga, Herman (1984). "The Ionian Revolt". Mnemosyne. 37 (3/4): 401–437. doi:10.1163/156852584X00619. Wiesehöfer, Josef (2001). Ancient Persia. Translated by Azodi, Azizeh. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-86064-675-1. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Achaemenid Empire. Look up Achaemenid Empire in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Persian History Livius.org on Achaemenids Swedish Contributions to the Archaeology of Iran Artikel i Fornvännen (2007) by Carl Nylander Čišpiš The Behistun Inscription Livius.org on Achaemenid Royal Inscriptions Achaemenid art on Iran Chamber Society (www.iranchamber.com) Persepolis Fortification Archive Project Photos of the tribute bearers from the 23 satrapies of the Achaemenid empire, from Persepolis Coins, medals and orders of the Persian empire Dynasty Achaemenid Iran, The Forgotten Glory – Documentary Film About Ancient Iran (achaemenids & Sassanids) Achemenet an electronic resource for the study of the history, literature and archaeology of the Persian Empire Persepolis Before Incursion (Virtual tour project) Musée achéménide virtuel et interactif (Mavi) a "Virtual Interactive Achemenide Museum" of more than 8000 items of the Persian Empire Persian history in detail v t e Achaemenid Empire History Kingdom Family tree Timeline History of democracy Art Achaemenid Persian Lion Rhyton Achaemenid coinage Danake Persian daric Architecture Achaemenid architecture Persepolis Pasargadae Tomb of Cyrus Naqsh-e Rostam Ka'ba-ye Zartosht Mausoleum at Halicarnassus Tombs at Xanthos Harpy Tomb Nereid Monument Tomb of Payava Culture Persepolis Administrative Archives Old Persian cuneiform Old Persian Behistun Inscription Xerxes I's inscription at Van Ganjnameh Warfare Persian Revolt Battle of Hyrba Battle of the Persian Border Lydian-Persian Wars Battle of Pteria Battle of Thymbra Siege of Sardis (547 BC) Battle of Opis First conquest of Egypt Battle of Cunaxa Conquest of the Indus Valley Scythian campaign of Darius I Greco-Persian Wars Ionian Revolt Battle of Thermopylae Battle of Artemisium Battle of Salamis Battle of Plataea Battle of Mycale Battle of Marathon Delian League Battle of Lade Siege of Eretria Siege of Naxos (499 BC) Wars of the Delian League Battle of the Eurymedon Peloponnesian War Battle of Cyzicus Corinthian War Battle of Cnidus Great Satraps' Revolt Second conquest of Egypt Wars of Alexander the Great Battle of Gaugamela Battle of the Granicus Battle of the Persian Gate Battle of Issus Siege of Gaza Siege of Halicarnassus Siege of Miletus Siege of Perinthus Siege of Tyre (332 BC) Related Achaemenid dynasty Pharnacid dynasty Peace of Antalcidas Peace of Callias Kingdom of Pontus Mithridatic dynasty Kingdom of Cappadocia Ariarathid dynasty 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire Districts of the Empire Royal Road Xanthian Obelisk v t e Provinces of the Achaemenid Empire (Behistun / Persepolis / Naqsh-e Rustam / Susa / Daiva inscriptions) Akaufaka (Quhistan?) Amyrgoi Arabia Arachosia Aria Armenia Assyria Babylonia Bactria Cappadocia Caria Carmania Caucasian Albania Chorasmia Cilicia Colchis Dahae Drangiana 1st Egypt / 2nd Egypt Eber-Nari (Levant) Elam Kush (Nubia) Gandāra (Gandhara) Gedrosia Hyrcania Ionia Hindush Libya Lydia Maka Margiana Media Lesser Media Massagetae Parthia Persia Phoenicia Phrygia Hellespontine Phrygia Greater Phrygia Saka Samaritan Province Sattagydia Skudra (Thrace) Sogdia Yehud See also Tax Districts of the Achaemenid Empire (according to Herodotus) v t e Ancient Syria and Mesopotamia Syria Northern Mesopotamia Southern Mesopotamia c. 3500–2350 BCE Semitic nomads Sumerian city-states c. 2350–2200 BCE Akkadian Empire c. 2200–2100 BCE Gutians c. 2100–2000 BCE Third Dynasty of Ur (Sumerian Renaissance) c. 2000–1800 BCE Mari and other Amorite city-states Old Assyrian Empire (Northern Akkadians) Isin/Larsa and other Amorite city-states c. 1800–1600 BCE Old Hittite Kingdom Old Babylonian Empire (Southern Akkadians) c. 1600–1400 BCE Mitanni (Hurrians) Karduniaš (Kassites) c. 1400–1200 BCE Middle Hittite Kingdom Middle Assyria c. 1200–1150 BCE Bronze Age Collapse ("Sea Peoples") Arameans c. 1150–911 BCE Phoenicia Neo-Hittite city-states Aram- Damascus Arameans Middle Babylonia Chal- de- ans 911–729 BCE Neo-Assyrian Empire 729–609 BCE 626–539 BCE Neo-Babylonian Empire (Chaldeans) 539–331 BCE Achaemenid Empire 336–301 BCE Macedonian Empire (Ancient Greeks and Macedonians) 311–129 BCE Seleucid Empire 129–63 BCE Seleucid Empire Parthian Empire 63 BCE–243 CE Roman Empire/Byzantine Empire (Syria) 243–636 CE Sassanid Empire v t e Empires Ancient (Colonies) Akkadian Neo-Sumerian Assyrian Old Assyrian Middle Assyrian Neo-Assyrian Babylonian Old Babylonian Kassite Neo-Babylonian Egyptian Old Kingdom Middle Kingdom New Kingdom Phoenician Carthaginian Chinese Shang Qin Han Three Kingdoms Jin North and South Hellenistic Macedonian Seleucid Hittite Indian Nanda Maurya Satavahana Shunga Gupta Harsha Iranian Median 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Ethiopian Haitian First Second French First Second German First/Old Reich Second Reich Third Reich Indian Mughal Mysorean Sikh Maratha British Raj Iranian Safavid Afsharid Qajar Pahlavi Japanese Johor Korean Mexican First Second Moroccan Saadi Alaouite Russian Somali Gobroon Majeerteen Hobyo Swedish Tongan Ottoman Vietnamese Dainam Vietnam Colonial American Belgian British English Scottish Danish Dutch French German Italian Japanese Omani Polish–Lithuanian Couronian Portuguese Sovereign Military Order of Malta Spanish Swedish Lists Empires largest in India Ancient great powers Medieval great powers Modern great powers European colonialism African empires Miscellaneous The empire on which the sun never sets "Empire" as a description of foreign policy American empire Soviet Empire v t e Iran topics History Prehistory Ancient 3400–550 BCE Kura-Araxes culture (3400–2000 BC) Proto-Elamite civilization (3200–2800 BC) Elamite dynasties (2800–550 BC) Lullubi culture (c.2300–700 BC) Akkadian Empire (c.2334 BC–c.2154 BC) Kassites (c.1500–c.1155 BC) Kingdom of Mannai (10th–7th century BC) Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 BC) Urartu (860 BC–590 BC) Median Empire (728–550 BC) (Scythian Kingdom) (652–625 BC) Neo-Babylonian Empire (626–539 BC) 550 BC – AD 224 Achaemenid Empire (550 – 330 BC) Kingdom of Armenia (331 BC – AD 428) Atropatene (320s BC – 3rd century AD) Kingdom of Cappadocia (320s BC – AD 17) Seleucid Empire (330 – 63 BC) Frataraka Kings of Persis Kingdom of Pontus (281 BC – AD 62) Parthian Empire (248 BC –  AD 224) AD 224–651 Sasanian Empire (AD 224–651) Medieval and early modern 637 – 1055 Patriarchal Caliphate (637–651) Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258) Tahirid dynasty (821–873) Alavid dynasty (864–928) Saffarid dynasty (861–1003) Samanid dynasty (819–999) Ziyarid dynasty (928–1043) Buyid dynasty (934–1062) 975–1432 Ghaznavid Empire (975–1187) Ghurid dynasty (1011–1215) Seljuk Empire (1037–1194) Khwarazmian dynasty (1077–1231) Eldiguzids (1135/36-1225) Ilkhanate (1256–1335) Kurt dynasty (1231–1389) Muzaffarid dynasty (1314–1393) Chobanid dynasty (1337–1357) Jalairid Sultanate dynasty (1339–1432) 1370–1925 Timurid Empire (1370–1507) Qara Qoyunlu Turcomans (1375–1468) Ag Qoyunlu Turcomans (1378–1508) Safavid Empire (1501–1736) Afsharid Empire (1736–50) Zand Dynasty (1750–94) Qajar Empire (1796–1925) Khanates of the Caucasus (18th–20th centuries) Modern 1925–1979 Pahlavi dynasty (1925–1979) 1946 Iran crisis Iran Constituent Assembly, 1949 1953 coup d'état Iranian Revolution (1979) Interim Government Islamic Republic 1979–present History (1979–) Arab separatism in Khuzestan Embassy siege (1980) Shatt al-Arab clashes Iran–Iraq War (1980–88) Iranian pilgrim massacre (1987) Iran Air Flight 655 shootdown (1988) PJAK insurgency Balochistan conflict Green Movement Syrian Civil War Military intervention against ISIL Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action United States withdrawal 2017–18 protests 2018–19 protests COVID-19 pandemic See also Ancient Iran Greater Iran Iranic peoples (languages) Kura–Araxes culture Jiroft culture Aryans Persian people Azerbaijanis Caucasian peoples Kings of Persia Heads of state Cities Military history History of democracy List of years in Iran Geography Borders Cities (list) Earthquakes Iranian Azerbaijan Iranian Balochistan Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests Caucasus Iranian Kurdistan Iranian Plateau Lake Urmia Islands Mountains Provinces Wildlife Politics General Censorship Constitution (Persian Constitutional Revolution) Elections (2009 presidential) Foreign relations Human rights (LGBT) Judicial system Military (Army Air Force Navy) Ministry of Intelligence and National Security Cyberwarfare Nuclear program (UN Security Council Resolution 1747) Political parties Principlists Propaganda Reformists Terrorism (state-sponsorship allegations) White Revolution (1963) Women's rights movement Councils Assembly (or Council) of Experts Expediency Discernment Council City and Village Councils 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Telecommunications and IT (TCI) Transport (airlines metro railways shipping) Tourism State-owned companies Defense Industries Organization (DIO) Industrial Development and Renovation Organization (IDRO) Iran Aviation Industries Organization (IAIO) Iran Electronics Industries (IEI) National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC) National Development Fund Places Asaluyeh industrial corridor Chabahar Free Trade-Industrial Zone Kish Island Free Trade Zone Research centers Society Demographics Languages Persian (Farsi) Armenian Azerbaijani Kurdish Hebrew Georgian Neo-Aramaic Iranian languages Peoples Iranian citizens (abroad) Ethnic minorities Armenians Assyrians Azerbaijanis Circassians Georgians Kurds Jews Turkmen Religion Islam Baháʼí Faith (persecution) Christianity Zoroastrians (persecution) minorities Other Corruption Crime Education (higher scientists and scholars universities) Brain drain Health care International rankings Nationality Water supply and sanitation Women Culture Architecture (Achaemenid architects) Art (modern / contemporary) Astronomy Blogs Calendars (Persian New Year (Nowruz)) Fashion Chicago Persian antiquities dispute Cinema Crown jewels Cuisine Folklore Intellectual movements Iranians Iranian studies Islam (Islamization) Literature Media (news agencies (student) newspapers) Mythology National symbols (Imperial Anthem) Opium consumption Persian gardens Persian name Philosophy Public holidays Scouting Sport (football) Music Folk Jazz Pop Rap and hip-hop Rock Traditional Ey Iran Other topics Science and technology Anti-Iranian sentiment Tehrangeles Category Portal WikiProject Commons v t e Rulers of the Ancient Near East Territories/ dates [1][2][3][4] Egypt Canaan Ebla Mari Akshak/ Akkad Kish Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period 4000–3200 BCE Naqada culture (4000–3100 BCE) Proto-Cannaanites Sumerian period (4000–2340 BCE) Susa I Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE) Naqada I Naqada II Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests") Legendary ante-deluvian rulers: In Eridu: Alulim, Alalngar, then in Bad-tibira: En-men-lu-ana, En-men-gal-ana, Dumuzid, the Shepherd, then in Larag: En-sipad-zid-ana, then in Zimbir: En-men-dur-ana, then in Shuruppag: Ubara-Tutu "then the flood swept over"[5] Susa II (Uruk influence or control) 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ DenAnedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100-2700 BCE) Great Flood 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) First kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman En-me-barage-si ("made the land of Elam submit")[6] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba Uruk II dynasty Enshakushanna Mug-si Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions (3 kings)[7] Shushuntarana Napilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Urur Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun) Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion of Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[7] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian Empire (Semitic) Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Second Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) (Vassals of UR III) Shakkanakku dynasty (Semitic) Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Neo-Sumerian Period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians) Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (Vassals of Ur III)[8] Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal 2100 BCE Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin Ibbi-Sin 2050 BCE 2000 BCE Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV circa 2000 BCE Amorite invasions Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) 2025-1763 BCE Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ Third Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 1894–1595 BCE Second Intermediate Period Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham (Biblical) Yamhad First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Phoenicia Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Middle Assyrian Empire Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt 626–539 BCE Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116-117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ "The Sumerian king list: translation". etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 8 May 2008. ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ a b Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4. 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en-wikipedia-org-6326	----	Shoshenq I - Wikipedia Shoshenq I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Pharaoh of Egypt Shoshenq I Sesonkhosis, Sesonkhis (Σέσωγχις) Sphinx of king Shoshenq I, Brooklyn Museum, New York City Pharaoh Reign 943–922 BC[1] (22nd Dynasty) Predecessor Psusennes II Successor Osorkon I Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Hedjkheperre Setepenre ḥḏ-ḫpr-Rˁ stp.n-Rˁ Radiant is the manifestation of Ra, the chosen one of Ra Nomen Shoshenq Meriamun Ššnq mrj Jmn Shoshenq, beloved of Amun Variant: Shoshenq Meriamun Netjerheqaiunu Ššnq mrj Jmn nṯr hq3 Iwnw Shoshenq, beloved of Amun, divine ruler of Iunu Horus name Kanakht Meryre Sekhafemnisuterzematawy kȝ nḫt mrj-Rˁ sḫˁj.f-m-nsw-r-zm3-t3wj Strong bull, beloved of Ra, he who causes the king to unite the two lands Nebty name Khaemsekhemtimihorsaaset Sehotepnetjeruemmaat ḫˁj-m-sḫmtj-mj-Ḥr-z3-3st sḥtp-nṯrw-m-M3ˁt The double crown appears as Horus son of Isis, he who satisfies the gods in Maat Golden Horus Sekhempehti Huipedjut-9 Wernekhtutaunebu sḫm-pḥtj ḥwj-pḏt-psḏt wr-nḫtw-(m)-t3w-nbw He whose mighty power vanquishes the nine bows (enemies of Egypt), he who is great of victories in all countries Consort Patareshnes, Karomama A Children Osorkon I, Iuput A, Nimlot B Father Nimlot A Hedjkheperre Setepenre Shoshenq I (Egyptian ššnq,:, reigned c. 943–922 BC)—also known as Shashank or Sheshonk or Sheshonq I[note 1]—was a pharaoh of ancient Egypt and the founder of the Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt. Of Meshwesh ancestry,[2] Shoshenq I was the son of Nimlot A, Great Chief of the Ma, and his wife Tentshepeh A, a daughter of a Great Chief of the Ma herself. He is presumed to be the Shishak mentioned in the Hebrew Bible, and his exploits are carved on the Bubastite Portal at Karnak. Contents 1 Chronology 2 Biblical Shishak 3 Origins and family 4 Foreign policy 5 Domestic policy 6 Burial 7 Notes 8 References 9 Bibliography 10 External links Chronology[edit] Picture of a scarab of Hedjkheperre Shoshenq I by Flinders Petrie.[3] Birth and throne names of Shoshenq I The conventional dates for his reign as established by Kenneth Kitchen are 945–924 BC but his time-line has recently been revised upwards by a few years to 943–922 BC, since he may well have lived for up to two to three years after his successful campaign in Canaan,[dubious – discuss] conventionally dated to 925 BC. As Edward Wente of the University of Chicago noted on page 276 of his JNES 35(1976) Book Review of Kitchen's study of the Third Intermediate Period, there is "no certainty" that Shoshenq's 925 BC campaign terminated just prior to this king's death a year later in 924 BC. The English Egyptologist, Morris Bierbrier also dated Shoshenq I's accession "between 945–940 BC" in his seminal 1975 book concerning the genealogies of Egyptian officials who served during the late New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period.[4] Bierbrier based his opinion on Biblical evidence collated by W. Albright in a BASOR 130 paper. This development would also account for the mostly unfinished state of decorations of Shoshenq's building projects at the Great Temple of Karnak where only scenes of the king's Palestinian military campaign are fully carved. Building materials would first have had to be extracted and architectural planning performed for his great monumental projects here. Such activities usually took up to a year to complete before work was even begun. This would imply that Shoshenq I likely lived for a period in excess of one year after his 925 BC campaign. On the other hand, if the Karnak inscription was concurrent with Shoshenq's campaign into Canaan, the fact that it was left unfinished would suggest this campaign occurred in the last year of Shoshenq's reign. This possibility would also permit his 945 BC accession date to be slightly lowered to 943 BC. A 2005 study by Rolf Krauss of Ancient Egyptian chronology suggests that Shoshenq I came to power in 943 BC rather than 945 BC as is conventionally assumed based on epigraphic evidence from the Great Dakhla stela, which dates to Year 5 of his reign.[5] Krauss and David Warburton write in the 2006 book Ancient Egyptian Chronology: The chronology of early Dyn. 22 depends on dead reckoning. The sum of the highest attested regnal dates for Osorkon II, Takelot I, Osorkon I, and Shoshenq I, added to 841 BC as year 1 of Shoshenq III, yields 938 BC at the latest for year 1 of Shoshenq I...[However] The large Dakhla stela provides a lunar date in the form of a wrš feast in year 5 of Shoshenq [I], yielding 943 BC as his year 1.[6] The Year 5 wrš feast is recorded to have been celebrated at Dakhla oasis on IV Peret day 25 and Krauss' exploration of the astronomical data leads him to conclude that the only 'fit' within the period of 950 to 930 BC places the accession of Shoshenq I between December 944 and November 943 BC—or 943 BC for the most part.[7] However, Dr. Anthony Leahy has suggested that "the identification of the wrš-festival of Seth as [a] lunar [festival] is hypothetical, and [thus] its occurrence on the first day of a lunar month an assumption. Neither has been proven incontrovertibly."[8] Thus far, however, only Dr. Kenneth Kitchen is on record as sharing the same academic view.[9] A 2010 study by Thomas Schneider argued that Shoshenq reigned from 962 to 941 BCE,[10][11] though this theory has failed to gain acceptance in mainstream academia and Egyptology.[citation needed] Biblical Shishak[edit] See also: Shishak Shoshenq I is frequently identified with the Egyptian king Shishak (שׁישׁק Šîšaq, transliterated),[12] referred to in the Hebrew Bible at 1 Kings 11:40, 14:25 and 2 Chronicles 12:2–9.[13] According to these passages, Jeroboam fled from Solomon and stayed with Shishaq until Solomon died, and Shishaq invaded Judah, mostly the area of Benjamin, during the fifth year of the reign of Rehoboam, taking with him most of the treasures of the temple built by Solomon. Shoshenq I is generally attributed with the raid on Judah: this is corroborated with a stele discovered at Tel Megiddo. Bible apologists such as Kenneth Kitchen claim that Shoshenq's successor, Osorkon I, lavished 383 tons of gold and silver on Egyptian temples during the first four years of his reign and correlate it directly to the looting,[14] while other scholars such as Israel Finkelstein propose that the looting narrative in question "should probably be seen as a theological construct rather than as historical references".[15] Shishak/Sousakim was also related to Jeroboam: "the wife of Jeroboam" is a character in the Hebrew Bible. She is unnamed in the Masoretic Text, but according to the Septuagint, she was an Egyptian princess called Ano: And Sousakim gave to Jeroboam Ano the eldest sister of Thekemina his wife, to him as wife; she was great among the king's daughters...[16] Origins and family[edit] The Bubastite Portal at Karnak, depicting Shoshenq I and his second son, the High Priest Iuput A Shoshenq I was the son of Nimlot A and Tentsepeh A. His paternal grandparents were the Chief of the Ma Shoshenq A and his wife Mehytenweskhet A.[17] Prior to his reign, Shoshenq I had been the Commander-in-Chief of the Egyptian Army, and chief advisor to his predecessor Psusennes II, as well as the father-in-law of Psusennes' daughter Maatkare. He also held his father's title of Great Chief of the Ma or Meshwesh, which is an Egyptian word for Ancient Libyans. His ancestors had settled in Egypt during the late New Kingdom, probably at Herakleopolis Magna,[18] though Manetho claims Shoshenq himself came from Bubastis, a claim for which no supporting physical evidence has yet been discovered. Significantly, his uncle Osorkon the Elder had already served on the throne for at least six years in the preceding 21st Dynasty; hence, Shoshenq I's rise to power was not wholly unexpected. As king, Shoshenq chose his eldest son, Osorkon I, as his successor and consolidated his authority over Egypt through marriage alliances and appointments. He assigned his second son, Iuput A, the prominent position of High Priest of Amun at Thebes as well as the title of Governor of Upper Egypt and Commander of the Army to consolidate his authority over the Thebaid.[19] Finally, Shoshenq I designated his third son, Nimlot B, as the "Leader of the Army" at Herakleopolis in Middle Egypt.[20] Foreign policy[edit] The Triumphal Relief of Shoshenq I near the Bubastite Portal at Karnak, depicting the god Amun-Re receiving a list of cities and villages conquered by the king in his Near Eastern military campaigns. He pursued an aggressive foreign policy in the adjacent territories of the Middle East, towards the end of his reign. This is attested, in part, by the discovery of a statue base bearing his name from the Lebanese city of Byblos, part of a monumental stela from Megiddo bearing his name, and a list of cities in the region comprising Syria, Philistia, Phoenicia, the Negev, and the Kingdom of Israel, among various topographical lists inscribed on the walls of temples of Amun at al-Hibah and Karnak. The fragment of a stela bearing his cartouche from Megiddo has been interpreted as a monument Shoshenq erected there to commemorate his victory.[21] Some of these conquered cities include ancient Israelite fortresses such as Megiddo, Taanach and Shechem. There are other problems with Shoshenq being the same as the biblical Shishak: Shoshenq's Karnak list does not include Jerusalem—his biggest prize according to the Bible. His list focuses on places either north or south of Judah, as if he did not raid the center. The fundamental problem facing historians is establishing the aims of the two accounts and linking up the information in them.[22] There have been some possible suggestions and proposals from scholars regarding this issue. Some argue that the mention of Jerusalem was erased from the list over time. Others believe that Rehoboam's tribute to Shoshenq saved the city from destruction and therefore from the Bubastite Portal's lists. Some scholars even propose that Shoshenq claimed a conquest that he did not enact and copied the list of conquered territories from an old Pharaoh's conquest list.[23] As an addendum to his foreign policy, Shoshenq I carved a report of campaigns in Nubia and Israel, with a detailed list of conquests in Israel. This is the first military action outside Egypt formally commemorated for several centuries.[24] This report of conquests is the only surviving late Iron Age text concerning Canaan.[25] Domestic policy[edit] Libyan concepts of rule allowed for the parallel existence of leaders who were related by marriage and blood. Shoshenq and his immediate successors used that practice to consolidate their grasp on all of Egypt. Shoshenq terminated the hereditary succession of the high priesthood of Amun. Instead he and his successors appointed men to the position, most often their own sons, a practice that lasted for a century.[26] Burial[edit] Canopic chest and lid of Shoshenq I at the Neues Museum, Berlin He was succeeded by his son Osorkon I after a reign of 21 years. According to the British Egyptologist Aidan Dodson, no trace has yet been found of the tomb of Shoshenq I; the sole funerary object linked to Shoshenq I is a canopic chest of unknown provenance that was donated to the Egyptian Museum of Berlin (ÄMB 11000) by Julius Isaac in 1891.[27] This may indicate his tomb was looted in antiquity, but this hypothesis is unproven. Egyptologists differ over the location of Shoshenq I's burial and speculate that he may have been buried somewhere in Tanis—perhaps in one of the anonymous royal tombs here—or in Bubastis. However, Troy Sagrillo in a GM 205 (2005) paper observes that "there are only a bare handful of inscribed blocks from Tanis that might name the king (i.e., Shoshenq I) and none of these come from an in situ building complex contemporary with his reign."[28] Hence, it is more probable that Shoshenq was buried in another city in the Egyptian Delta. Sagrillo offers a specific location for Shoshenq's burial—the Ptah temple enclosure of Memphis—and notes that this king built: fairly widely in the area, undoubtedly including a pylon and forecourt at the Ptah temple (Kitchen, TIPE 1996, pp. 149–150) ...It is, therefore, not completely improbable that he (i.e., Shoshenq I) built his tomb in the region. The funerary cult surrounding his "House of Millions of Years of Shoshenq, Beloved of Amun" was functioning several generations after its establishment at the temple (Ibrahem Aly Sayed 1996, p. 14). The "House of Millions of Years of Shoshenq, Beloved of Amun" was probably the forecourt and pylon of the Ptah temple, which, if the royal necropoleis at Tanis, Saïs, and Mendes are taken as models, could very well have contained a royal burial within it or the temenos.[29] Sagrillo concludes by observing that if Shoshenq I's burial place was located at Memphis, "it would go far in explaining why this king's funerary cult lasted for some time at the site after his death."[29] While Shoshenq's tomb is currently unknown, the burial of one of his prominent state officials at Thebes, the Third Prophet of Amun Djedptahiufankh, was discovered intact in tomb DB320 in the 19th Century. Inscriptions on Djedptahiufankh's Mummy bandages show that he died in or after Year 11 of this king. His mummy was discovered to contain various gold bracelets, amulets and precious carnelian objects and give a small hint of the vast treasures that would have adorned Shoshenq I's tomb. Notes[edit] ^ for discussion of the spelling, see Shoshenq References[edit] ^ R. Krauss & D.A. Warburton "Chronological Table for the Dynastic Period" in Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss & David Warburton (editors), Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies), Brill, 2006. p. 493 ^ "He came from a line of princes or sheikhs of Libyan tribal descent", The New Encyclopædia Britannica, 2002, v.7, p.733. An updated on-line version of the same article, containing the same quote and last updated as of 2014, can be found online at Encyclopædia Britannica. ^ Flinders Petrie: Scarabs and cylinders with names (1917), pl. XLIX ^ M. Bierbrier, The Late New Kingdom in Egypt (c. 1300–664 BC), Aris & Philips Ltd (1975), p. 111 ^ Rolf Krauss, Das wrŝ-Datum aus Jahr 5 von Shoshenq [I], Discussions in Egyptology 62 (2005), pp.43-48 ^ Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss & David Warburton (editors), Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies), Brill: 2006, p.474 ^ Anthony Leahy, The date of the 'larger' Dakhleh stela (Oxford, Ashmolean Museum 1894.107a), GM 226 (2010), p.47 ^ Leahy, GM 226 p.52 ^ see 'The Libyan Period in Egypt.' Historical and Cultural Studies into the 21st-24th Dynasties: Proceedings of a Conference at Leiden University 25–27 October 2007, G. Broekman, RJ Demaree & O.E. Kaper (eds), Peeters Leuven 2009, p.167 where Kitchen states that there is 'no evidence whatsoever' that the wrš festival was a lunar one ^ Schneider, Thomas, (2010). "Contributions to the Chronology of the New Kingdom and the Third Intermediate Period", in AeL 20, pp. 373-403. ^ Finkelstein, Israel, (2020). "Saul and Highlands of Benjamin Update: The Role of Jerusalem", in Joachim J. Krause, Omer Sergi, and Kristin Weingart (eds.), Saul, Benjamin, and the Emergence of Monarchy in Israel: Biblical and Archaeological Perspectives, SBL Press, p. 49. ^ Troy Leiland Sagrillo, 2015, Shoshenq I and biblical Šîšaq: A philological defense of their traditional equation in Solomon and Shishak: Current perspectives from archaeology, epigraphy, history and chronology; proceedings of the third BICANE colloquium held at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge 26–27 March 2011, edited by Peter J. James, Peter G. van der Veen, and Robert M. Porter. British Archaeological Reports (International Series) 2732. Oxford: Archaeopress. 61–81 ^ E.g. Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges on 1 King 11, accessed 4 June 2017 ^ K.A. Kitchen, On the Reliability of the Old Testament, William Eerdmans & Co, 2003. p. 134 ^ Finkelstein, Israel (2006). "The Last Labayu: King Saul and the Expansion of the First North Israelite Territorial Entity". In Amit, Yairah; Ben Zvi, Ehud; Finkelstein, Israel; et al. (eds.). Essays on Ancient Israel in Its Near Eastern Context: A Tribute to Nadav Naʼaman. Eisenbrauns. pp. 171 ff. ISBN 9781575061283. ^ 1 Kings 12:24e, New English Translation of the Septuagint ^ Kitchen, Kenneth Anderson (1986). The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt, 1100-650 B.C. Aris & Phillips. p. 112. ISBN 9780856682988. ^ Troy Leiland Sagrillo, 'The Geographic Origins of the "Bubastite" Dynasty and Possible Locations for the Royal Residence and Burial Place of Shoshenq I.' In The Libyan period in Egypt: Historical and cultural studies into the 21st–24th Dynasties, edited by G.P.F. Broekman, R.J. Demarée, and O. Kaper. Egyptologische Uitgaven 23, Leuven: Uitgeverij Peeters. 2009:341–359. ^ K.A. Kitchen, "The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (c.1100-650 BC)," Aris & Phillips Ltd. third edition. 1996. p.289 ^ Kitchen, "The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt" p.290 ^ K.A. Kitchen, On the Reliability of the Old Testament, William Erdsman & Co, 2003. pp.10, 32-34 & p.607 Page 607 of Kitchen's book depicts the surviving fragment of Shoshenq I's Megiddo stela ^ de Mieroop, Marc Van (2007). A History of Ancient Egypt. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. p. 400. ISBN 9781405160711. ^ Biblical Archaeology Society Staff (27 March 2017). "Did Pharaoh Sheshonq Attack Jerusalem". Biblical History Daily. Biblical Archaeology Society. Retrieved 3 September 2017. ^ de Mieroop, Marc Vab (2007). A History of Ancient Egypt. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. p. 400. ISBN 9781405160711. ^ Finkelstein, Israel (2006). "The Last Labayu: King Saul and the Expansion of the First North Israelite Territorial Entity". In Amit, Yairah; Ben Zvi, Ehud; Finkelstein, Israel; et al. (eds.). Essays on Ancient Israel in Its Near Eastern Context: A Tribute to Nadav Naʼaman. Eisenbrauns. p. 171. ISBN 9781575061283. Retrieved 5 April 2017. ^ De Mieroop, Marc Van (2007). A History of Ancient Egypt. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. p. 400. ISBN 9781405160711. ^ Aidan Dodson, The Canopic Equipment of the Kings of Egypt, Kegan Paul Intl, (1994), pp.83-84 ^ Troy Leiland Sagrillo, "The Mummy of Shoshenq I Re-discovered?," Göttinger Miszellen 205 (2005), p.99 ^ a b Sagrillo, p. 100 Bibliography[edit] M. Bierbrier, The Late New Kingdom in Egypt (c.1300-664 BC), Aris & Philips Ltd, (1975) Ricardo A. Caminos, Gebel Es-Silsilah No. 100, JEA 38 (1952), pp. 46–61 Rupert L. Chapman III, Putting Shoshenq I in his Place, Palestine Exploration Quarterly 141, 1 (2009), pp. 4–17 M. Georges Daressy, Les Parents de Chéchanq Ier, ASAE 16 (1916), 3 Aidan Dodson, The Canopic Equipment of the Kings of Egypt, Kegan Paul Intl, (1994) Erika Feucht, Zwei Reliefs Scheschonqs I. aus El Hibeh, SAK 6 (1978), 69-77 Alan H. Gardiner, The Dakhleh Stela, JEA 19 (1933), 19-30 Rolf Krauss, Das wrš-Datum aus Jahr 5 von Shoshenq [I], Discussions in Egyptology 62 (2005), pp. 43–48 Troy Leiland Sagrillo, 'The Mummy of Shoshenq I Re-discovered?,' GM 205 (2005), pp. 95–102 Troy Leiland Sagrillo, 'The Geographic Origins of the "Bubastite" Dynasty and Possible Locations for the Royal Residence and Burial Place of Shoshenq I.' In The Libyan period in Egypt: Historical and cultural studies into the 21st–24th Dynasties, edited by G.P.F. Broekman, R.J. Demarée, and O. Kaper. Egyptologische Uitgaven 23, Leuven: Uitgeverij Peeters. 2009: pp. 341–359 Troy Leiland Sagrillo, 'Šîšaq’s army: 2 Chronicles 12:2–3 from an Egyptological perspective' In The ancient Near East in the 12th–10th Centuries BCE: Culture and history; proceedings of the international conference held at the University of Haifa, 2–5 May 2010, edited by Gershon Galil, Ayelet Gilboa, Aren M. Maeir, and Dan’el Kahn. Alter Orient und Altes Testament: Veröffentlichungen zur Kultur und Geschichte des Alten Orients und des Alten Testaments 392. Münster: Ugarit-Verlag. 2012: pp. 425–450. Troy Leiland Sagrillo. 2015. "Shoshenq I and biblical Šîšaq: A philological defense of their traditional equation." In Solomon and Shishak: Current perspectives from archaeology, epigraphy, history and chronology; proceedings of the third BICANE colloquium held at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge 26–27 March 2011, edited by Peter J. James, Peter G. van der Veen, and Robert M. Porter. British Archaeological Reports (International Series) 2732. Oxford: Archaeopress. 61–81. Ad Thijs,'From the Lunar Eclipse of Takeloth II back to Shoshenq I and Shishak' In: P. James and P. van der Veen (eds.), Solomon and Shishak, BAR International Series 2732, Archaeopress, Oxford, 2015: pp. 42–60 Peter van der Veen, The name Shishak, an update, JACF 10(2005), pp. 8, 42 Peter van der Veen, 'The Name Shishaq: Shoshenq or Shyshu/q? Responding to the Critics and Assessing the Evidence ' In: P. James and P. van der Veen (eds.), Solomon and Shishak, BAR International Series 2732, Archaeopress, Oxford, 2015 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Shoshenq I. The Campaign of Pharaoh Shoshenq I in Palestine, by Kevin A. Wilson. The Palestine Campaign of Sheshonq I v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 131575104 VIAF: 129763893 WorldCat Identities: viaf-129763893 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shoshenq_I&oldid=1000866234" Categories: Shoshenq I 10th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Chiefs of the Ma 10th-century BC people 10th century BC in Egypt Ancient Libyans Pharaohs in the Bible Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from April 2017 Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All accuracy disputes Articles with disputed statements from July 2019 All articles with unsourced statements Articles 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National Library of Latvia Latvijas Nacionālā bibliotēka Country Latvia Type National library Established 29 August 1919 (101 years ago) (1919-08-29) Location 2 buildings in Riga and in Ropaži Municipality Collection Size 4.2 million books and other publications Other information Director Andris Vilks Staff 372 Website https://www.lnb.lv Map The National Library of Latvia (Latvian: Latvijas Nacionālā bibliotēka), also known as Castle of Light (Gaismas pils), is a national cultural institution under the supervision of the Ministry of Culture of Latvia. The National Library of Latvia was formed in 1919 after the independent Republic of Latvia was proclaimed in 1918. The first supervisor of the Library was Jānis Misiņš, a librarian and the founder of the Latvian scientific bibliography (1862–1945). The current building was designed in 1989 by noted Latvian-American architect Gunnar Birkerts (1925-2017), who emigrated to the United States and made his career there. It was constructed in the early 21st century and opened in 2014. Today the Library plays an important role in the development of Latvia's information society, providing Internet access to residents and supporting research and lifelong education. The historical main building, Krišjāņa Barona iela 14 Contents 1 History 1.1 Interwar period 1.2 German and Soviet occupation 1.3 Renewed independence 2 Collections 3 Lettonica 4 New building 4.1 Current projects 5 See also 6 References 7 External links History[edit] Interwar period[edit] The National Library was founded on 29 August 1919, one year after independence, as the State Library (Valsts Bibliotēka).[1] Its first chief librarian and bibliographer was Jānis Misiņš (1862-1944), who made his immense private collection the basis of the new library.[2] Within a year, until 1920, the stocks had grown to 250,000 volumes.[3] Starting in the same year, all publishers were obliged to hand in a deposit copy of their works. Since 1927, the Library has published the National Bibliography of Latvia. There were significant additions in 1939 and 1940, when the State Library took over many of the libraries and collections of the Baltic Germans. Most resettled to the Nazi German Reich. Among these collections was a large part of the collection of the Society for History and Archaeology of Russia's Baltic Provinces, est. 1834, the primary historical society of the Baltic Germans.[1] In 1940, holdings encompassed 1.7 million volumes,[3] so that they had to be stored in two different locations in the Old Town (Jēkaba iela 6/8 and Anglikāņu iela 5). German and Soviet occupation[edit] During World War II, Germany invaded Latvia and occupied Riga (1941-1944). At that time, German authorities renamed the State Library as Country Library (Zemes bibliotēka), eliminating reference to a sovereign Latvian state). Following the war, Latvia was under Soviet rule, and the institution was known as State Library of the Latvian SSR (Latvijas PSR Valsts bibliotēka).[1] According to Soviet customs, in 1966 the library received an honorary name, commemorating Vilis Lācis, a writer and the late prime minister of Soviet Latvia. From 1946, literature deemed 'dangerous' from the Soviet perspective was withdrawn from the shelves and until 1988, when the Soviet Union gave up control, could be accessed only with a special permit.[4] In 1956, the State Library moved into a new building at Krišjāņa Barona iela. Renewed independence[edit] Since the reestablishment of Lativan national independence in 1991, the institution has been called National Library of Latvia. In 1995, it received as a permanent loan the Baltic Central Library of Otto Bong (1918-2006), a collection pertaining to the history, regional studies and languages of the Baltic countries.[5] In 2006, the National Library joined the European Library online service. Collections[edit] The Library's holdings today encompass more than 5 million titles, incl. about 18,000 manuscripts from the 14th century up to modern times.[6] One of the characteristic cornerstones of the NLL, which characterizes every national library, is the formation of the collection of national literature, its eternal storage and long-term access. The NLL is a centre of theoretical research and practical analyses of the activities of Latvian libraries. The Library carries out the functions of the centre of Latvia Interlibrary Loan, ensures the library and information service to the Parliament of the Republic of Latvia – the Saeima, implements the standardisation of the branch. Since the very outset, its main concern has been the national bibliography. The massive union catalogue Seniespiedumi latviešu valodā (Ancient Prints in Latvian 1525–1855, published in Riga, 1999)[7] received the Spīdola Prize in 2000 and was awarded The Beautiful Book of the Year 99.[8] In 2005, the Letonikas grāmatu autoru rādītājs (1523-1919) (Index of the Authors of Lettonica Books (1523–1919)) was published,[9] providing information about versatile branches of science and representatives of various nations, Latvia being the main focus of their publications. The NLL includes several collections of posters (artists Oskars Šteinbergs (1882–1937), Sigismunds Vidbergs (1890–1970), Raoul Dufy (1877–1953), Bernhard Borchert (1863–1945), Niklāvs Strunke (1894–1966) and others).[10] Lettonica[edit] Digitising collections at the NLL started in 1999. At present the Latvian National Digital Library Letonica, which was formed in 2006, holds digitized collections of newspapers, pictures, maps, books, sheet-music and audio recordings. In 2008 NLL launched two major digital projects. Periodika.lv is the NLL's collection of digitized historical periodicals in Latvian with the possibility to read full texts and search page by page.[11] Latvia has a tradition of Song and Dance Festivals organized every four years. The historical materials from the first Song Festival in 1864 till the Latgale Song Festival in 1940 can be explored in another digital collection of the National Library of Latvia.[12] New building[edit] Interior of the library Conference hall Ziedonis An amphora-shaped sculpture in front of the library. The surface of the sculpture is covered in letters. The first discussions about the need for a new National Library began as early as 1928, and the significance of the project of this century was confirmed by high-level international recognition of the value of its collections. In 1999 almost all 170 UNESCO member states adopted a resolution during its General Conference,[13] calling on member states and the international community to ensure all possible support for the implementation of the NLL project. The continuous growth of the Library had made it necessary to transfer parts of the stocks into other buildings. By NLL had its holdings distributed among five locations in Riga.[14] Furthermore, since 1998, some stocks had to be stored in a depot in Silakrogs outside the capital.[4] The Parliament finally authorized a new building to be constructed on the left bank of the Daugava River. On 15 May 2008, after discussions lasting for many years, the state agency Three New Brothers and the Union of National Construction Companies signed the contract on the construction of the new National Library of Latvia. On 18 May 2014, the main facility of the Library at Krišjāņa Barona iela was closed for the move.[15] In 2008, construction started according to the design of noted Latvian-American architect Gunnar Birkerts, who had been based in the Detroit, Michigan area since the early 1950s.[16] He had been commissioned to design the building in 1989.[17] He was inspired by the Glass Mountain of Latvian mythology. The new building has 13 floors[18] and is 68 m high.[19] Construction costs were given as 193 million euros.[20] 480 people work there. As part of Riga's programme for its title as European Capital of Culture, selected holdings were symbolically carried from the old to the new building by a human chain on 18 January 2014. The new building was finally opened on 29 August that year, the Library's 95th anniversary.[21] Today the NLL building is a dominant landmark on the Riga cityscape. It has space for conferences and conventions, and other community events. Among others, it hosted the 4th summit of the EU's Eastern Partnership programme in May 2015,[22] and a debate chaired by the BBC's Jonathan Dimbleby on 14 March 2016.[23] Current projects[edit] LIBER 43rd Annual Conference Development of the digital library services Dissemination and Exploitation via Libraries: for Success and Sustainability of LLP Results Effective training tools application to qualification improvement in library sector (ETQI) Europeana Awareness Europeana Inside Europeana Newspapers Europeana Sounds The Exhibition "Book 1514–2014" and Academic readings "Content of the 21st Century" The Impact of Digital text and Multimedia Format on Childhood Learning: a Multidimensional Approach See also[edit] List of national libraries Latvian ISBN Agency References[edit] ^ a b c Klöker, Martin (2004). "Bibliotheksgeschichtliche Einleitung". In Garber, Klaus (ed.). Handbuch des personalen Gelegenheitsschrifttums in europäischen Bibliotheken und Archiven. Vol. 7: Riga - Tallinn. Part 3: Riga (in German). Hildesheim: Olms. p. 41. ISBN 3-487-11405-4. ^ Zanders, Viesturs (1997). "Bibliotheken in Lettland". In Fabian, Bernhard (ed.). Handbuch deutscher historischer Buchbestände in Europa. Eine Übersicht über Sammlungen in ausgewählten Bibliotheken. Bd. 7, Teil 2: Finnland, Estland, Lettland, Litauen (in German). Hildesheim: Olms. p. 145. ISBN 3-487-10361-3. ^ a b Zanders, Viesturs (1997). "Latvijas Nacionālā bibliotēka – Lettische Nationalbibliothek". In Fabian, Bernhard (ed.). Handbuch deutscher historischer Buchbestände in Europa. Eine Übersicht über Sammlungen in ausgewählten Bibliotheken. Bd. 7, Teil 2: Finnland, Estland, Lettland, Litauen. Hildesheim: Olms. p. 151. ^ a b "LNB vēstures fakti" (in Latvian). Retrieved 18 May 2014. ^ Zanders, Viesturs (1997). "Latvijas Nacionālā bibliotēka – Lettische Nationalbibliothek". In Fabian, Bernhard (ed.). Handbuch deutscher historischer Buchbestände in Europa. Eine Übersicht über Sammlungen in ausgewählten Bibliotheken. Bd. 7, Teil 2: Finnland, Estland, Lettland, Litauen. Hildesheim: Olms. p. 152. ^ Klöker, Martin (2004). "Bibliotheksgeschichtliche Einleitung". In Garber, Klaus (ed.). Handbuch des personalen Gelegenheitsschrifttums in europäischen Bibliotheken und Archiven. Vol. 7: Riga - Tallinn. Part 3: Riga (in German). Hildesheim: Olms. p. 42. ISBN 3-487-11405-4. ^ Šiško, Silvija, ed. (1999). Seniespiedumi latviešu valodā 1525–1855. Kopkatalogs / Die älteren Drucke in lettischer Sprache 1525–1855 (in Latvian and German). Riga: Latvijas Nacionālā Bibliotēka. ISBN 9984-607-19-4. ^ "About collection of NLL". lnb.lv. Retrieved 31 August 2008. ^ Bočarova, Rita, ed. (2005). Letonikas grāmatu autoru rādītājs (1523–1919) / Autoren-Verzeichnis der Lettonika-Bücher (in Latvian and German). Riga: Latvijas Nacionālā Bibliotēka. ISBN 9984-607-68-2. ^ "Treasures of the National Library of Latvia". theeuropeanlibrary.org. Retrieved 31 August 2008. ^ "Latvijas Nacionālā digitālā bibliotēka" (in Latvian). periodika.lv. Retrieved 2 September 2008. ^ "Latviešu Dziesmu svētki (1864–1940)" (in Latvian). lndb.lv. Retrieved 2 September 2008. ^ "Resolution 38 adopted at the 30th session of the UNESCO General Conference" (PDF). ^ "[Addresses of NLL's branches]" (in Latvian). Archived from the original on 19 May 2014. Retrieved 31 December 2013. ^ "[Press release]" (in Latvian). 15 May 2014. Retrieved 18 May 2014. ^ Berndsen, Silke (2010). "'Gut zehn Jahre haben wir über unsere Bibliothek diskutiert, aber gebaut haben wir sie nicht.' Die lettische Nationalbibliothek und ihr Neubau". Bibliotheksdienst (in German). 44: 930–940. ^ "Architekt: Nationalbibliothek ist Symbol für freies Lettland" (in German). 14 January 2014. Retrieved 17 January 2014. ^ Brill, Klaus (2 January 2014). "Die singende Schöne. Riga putzt sich für seine Rolle als Kulturhauptstadt Europas 2014 heraus". Süddeutsche Zeitung (in German). ^ "National Library of Latvia". Retrieved 17 January 2014. ^ "Jaunumi". Archived from the original on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 17 January 2014. ^ "Jaunā LNB ēka" (in Latvian). Retrieved 3 January 2015. ^ Brössler, Daniel (21 May 2015). "Geschichte schrreiben. Beim Gipfel in Riga wollen die Staats- und Regierungschefs der EU unter Beweis stellen, dass ihre Ostpolitik nicht gescheitert ist". Süddeutsche Zeitung (in German). p. 7. ^ BBC World Service report, 14 March 2016 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to National Library of Latvia. Official site of the National Library of Latvia Project of the new building of the NLL Friends of the National Library of Latvia National Library of Latvia at Google Cultural Institute Message to the future readers Live from the construction site World Wide Science Coordinates: 56°57′03″N 24°07′15″E / 56.950882°N 24.120897°E / 56.950882; 24.120897 v t e Riga cityscape Old Town Castle Cat House Convent Yard Dannenstern House House of the Blackheads House of the Livonian Noble Corporation Large Guild Powder Tower Small Guild Swedish Gate Three Brothers Hotels Grand Palace Radisson Blu Daugava Gallery Park Monuments & memorials Brothers' Cemetery Bikernieki Memorial Forest Cemetery Freedom Monument Great Cemetery Pokrov Cemetery Monument to the Liberators of Soviet Latvia and Riga Parks & gardens Bastejkalns University of Latvia Botanical Garden Vērmane Garden Victory Park Museums & galleries Museum of the History of Riga and Navigation National Museum of Art Museum of the Occupation of Latvia The Ethnographic Open-Air Museum of Latvia Museum of Natural History War Museum Art Museum Riga Bourse Museum of National History Theatres Dailes Theatre Latvian National Opera Latvian National Theatre Palladium Riga New Riga Theatre Mikhail Chekhov Riga Russian Theatre Places of worship Nativity Cathedral Cathedral St. Peter's Church St. James's Cathedral Bridges Island Bridge Railway Bridge Southern Bridge Stone Bridge Vanšu Bridge Structures Radio and TV Tower Other National Library of Latvia Central Market Latvian Academy of Sciences Zoo Mežaparks Great Bandstand Palace of Justice Laima Clock Waterways Daugava River Streets Alberta iela Brīvības iela Kaļķu iela v t e National libraries of Europe Sovereign states Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Kazakhstan Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Malta 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UKPARL • ULAN • US Congress • VcBA • VIAF • WorldCat Identities Authority control BNF: cb15014038q (data) GND: 5198443-X ISNI: 0000 0001 1016 0284 LCCN: n93025426 LNB: 000001029 NKC: ko2003197165 SUDOC: 067152783 VcBA: 494/21831 VIAF: 148127403 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n93025426 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_Library_of_Latvia&oldid=1002175753" Categories: Library buildings completed in 1919 Buildings and structures in Riga Latvian culture National libraries Latvian digital libraries 1919 establishments in Latvia Libraries established in 1919 Deposit libraries Libraries in Latvia Hidden categories: CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 Latvian-language sources (lv) Use dmy dates from November 2015 Articles to be expanded from January 2015 All articles to be expanded Articles needing translation from Latvian Wikipedia Articles needing translation from German Wikipedia Infobox mapframe without OSM relation ID on Wikidata Articles containing 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en-wikipedia-org-634	----	Category:CS1: long volume value - Wikipedia Help Category:CS1: long volume value From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This is a tracking category. It is used to build and maintain lists of pages—primarily for the sake of the lists themselves and their use in article and category maintenance. It is not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. More information: This category is hidden on its member pages—unless the corresponding user preference is set. These categories are used to track, build and organize lists of pages needing "attention en masse" (for example, pages using deprecated syntax), or that may need to be edited at someone's earliest convenience. These categories also serve to aggregate members of several lists or sub-categories into a larger, more efficient list (discriminated by classifications). Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! 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Contents: Top 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z * # 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 • A Aa Ae Aj Ao At • B Ba Be Bj Bo Bt • C Ca Ce Cj Co Ct • D Da De Dj Do Dt • E Ea Ee Ej Eo Et • F Fa Fe Fj Fo Ft • G Ga Ge Gj Go Gt • H Ha He Hj Ho Ht • I Ia Ie Ij Io It • J Ja Je Jj Jo Jt • K Ka Ke Kj Ko Kt • L La Le Lj Lo Lt • M Ma Me Mj Mo Mt • N Na Ne Nj No Nt • O Oa Oe Oj Oo Ot • P Pa Pe Pj Po Pt • Q Qa Qe Qj Qo Qt • R Ra Re Rj Ro Rt • S Sa Se Sj So St • T Ta Te Tj To Tt • U Ua Ue Uj Uo Ut • V Va Ve Vj Vo Vt • W Wa We Wj Wo Wt • X Xa Xe Xj Xo Xt • Y Ya Ye Yj Yo Yt • Z Za Ze Zj Zo Zt Subcategories This category has the following 2 subcategories, out of 2 total. M ► Michael Stephens locomotives‎ (6 P) W ► William Milne locomotives‎ (3 P) Pages in category "CS1: long volume value" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 60,036 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). (previous page) (next page)¡ ¡Que Vida! . .225 Winchester .300 Winchester Magnum ' 'Abd al-Ilah Battle of 'Auja " "Helen Butte" vs. Masonna Pussy Badsmell ( (277810) 2006 FV35 (316179) 2010 EN65 (523635) 2010 DN93 (CH-VOX) (E)-Stilbene (N-acetylneuraminyl)-galactosylglucosylceramide N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase (R)-benzylsuccinyl-CoA dehydrogenase (RS)-MCPG (RS)-norcoclaurine 6-O-methyltransferase (S)-norcoclaurine synthase + +incinerate 0–9 0-4-0 0-4-2 0-6-0 0-6-0+0-6-0 0-6-2 0-6-4 0-6-6-0 0-8-0 I Brigade, Royal Horse Artillery (T.F.) 1st Cavalry Division (United Kingdom) 1 Corinthians 3 1 Corinthians 8 1 Corinthians 10 1 Corinthians 15 1 Peter 2 1 Peter 3 1 Peter 5 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate synthase 1,2,3-Benzothiadiazole 1,2,4-Triazole 1,3-Diphenylisobenzofuran 1st (Risalpur) Cavalry Brigade 1st Airborne Command Control Squadron 1st Airborne Division (United Kingdom) 1st Arkansas 30 Day Volunteer Regiment 1st Armoured Brigade (Australia) 1st Armoured Regiment 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lyase 3.7 cm Pak 36 3D printing processes 3D sound synthesis 3d Special Operations Squadron 3d Troop Carrier Squadron 3rd (Lahore) Division 3rd (Meerut) Cavalry Brigade 3rd and 4th Divisions (Royal Navy) 3rd Battalion (Australia) 3rd Brigade (Australia) 3rd Cavalry Brigade (United Kingdom) 3rd Combat Engineer Regiment (Australia) 3rd Field Ambulance (Australia) 3rd Fighter Training Squadron 3rd General Assembly of Newfoundland 3rd General Assembly of Nova Scotia (previous page) (next page) Media in category "CS1: long volume value" The following 18 files are in this category, out of 18 total. A File:Aldford House plans.gif C File:Caproni Ca.18 front.jpg E File:Elema dance mask from New Guinea.jpg File:Ewart's Improved Cattle Gauge.png I File:IBM 5550 advert 1986.jpg J File:John Lennox Monteith.jpg K File:Karamagara Bridge, Cappadocia, Turkey. Pic 01.jpg File:Keller US NEDU.jpg L File:London hay-cart.png P File:Paratarsotomus macropalpis palps, claws and mandibles.png File:PC-8001 advert June 1979.jpg R File:Ralph Patt.jpg File:Rosemary Branch tavern.png S File:Savoia-Marchetti S.66.jpg File:Savoia-Marchetti S.83.jpg T File:TK-80 advert Sep 1976.jpg File:Trussing tools.png File:Turnstiles in Agas Map of London 1561.png Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:CS1:_long_volume_value&oldid=985888610" Hidden categories: Hidden categories Tracking categories Template Large category TOC via CatAutoTOC on category with over 20,000 pages CatAutoTOC generates Large category TOC CS1 properties Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية भोजपुरी Cymraeg Ilokano Jawa Македонски മലയാളം မြန်မာဘာသာ ଓଡ଼ିଆ Scots Shqip සිංහල Simple English Slovenščina Tagalog 粵語 Edit links This page was last edited on 28 October 2020, at 15:18 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-637	----	Book sources - Wikipedia Book sources Jump to navigation Jump to search This page allows users to search for multiple sources for a book given the 10- or 13-digit ISBN number. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN number do not matter. Search for book sourcesISBN: Search Wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources For assistance, see Help:ISBN. This page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its International Standard Book Number (ISBN). If you arrived at this page by clicking an ISBN link in a Wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. To search for a different book, type that book's individual ISBN into this ISBN search box. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. 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Contents 1 Online text 2 Online databases 3 Subscription eBook databases 4 Libraries 4.1 Worldwide 4.2 Africa 4.2.1 Nigeria 4.2.2 South Africa 4.2.3 Zimbabwe 4.3 Central America and the Caribbean 4.3.1 Barbados 4.3.2 Guatemala 4.3.3 Jamaica 4.3.4 Mexico 4.3.5 Trinidad and Tobago 4.4 Canada 4.4.1 Public libraries 4.4.2 Universities and colleges 4.5 United States 4.5.1 Public libraries by state 4.5.2 Universities and colleges 4.6 South America 4.6.1 Argentina 4.6.2 Brazil 4.6.3 Colombia 4.6.4 Ecuador 4.7 Asia 4.7.1 Bangladesh 4.7.2 China, People's Republic 4.7.3 Hong Kong, S.A.R. of China 4.7.4 India 4.7.5 Indonesia 4.7.6 Iran 4.7.7 Israel 4.7.8 Japan 4.7.9 Korea 4.7.10 Malaysia 4.7.11 Philippines 4.7.11.1 Universities and colleges 4.7.11.2 Other libraries 4.7.12 Singapore 4.7.13 Taiwan, Republic of China 4.7.14 Thailand 4.8 Australasia and Oceania 4.8.1 Australia 4.8.1.1 Public libraries 4.8.1.2 Academic libraries 4.8.2 New Zealand 4.8.2.1 Public libraries 4.8.2.2 Academic libraries 4.9 Europe 4.9.1 Austria 4.9.2 Belgium 4.9.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.9.4 Croatia 4.9.5 Czech Republic 4.9.6 Denmark 4.9.7 Estonia 4.9.8 Finland 4.9.9 France 4.9.10 Germany 4.9.11 Greece 4.9.12 Hungary 4.9.13 Iceland 4.9.14 Ireland 4.9.15 Italy 4.9.16 Luxembourg 4.9.17 Montenegro 4.9.18 Netherlands 4.9.19 Norway 4.9.20 Poland 4.9.21 Portugal 4.9.22 Russia 4.9.23 Serbia 4.9.24 Slovenia 4.9.25 Spain 4.9.26 Sweden 4.9.27 Switzerland 4.9.28 Turkey 4.9.29 United Kingdom 4.9.29.1 Public libraries 4.9.29.2 Universities 5 Bookselling and swapping 5.1 Price comparison sites 5.2 Search many booksellers 5.3 Individual booksellers 5.4 Book-swapping websites 6 Non-English book sources 7 Bibliographical information 8 Find other editions 9 Find on Wikipedia 10 See also Online text Find this book on Google Books Find this book at the Open Library Find this book on Amazon.com (or .au, .br, .ca, .cn, .de, .es, .fr, .in, .it, .jp, .mx, .nl, .uk). Google Books and Amazon.com may be particularly helpful if you want to verify citations in Wikipedia articles, because they often enable you to search an online version of the book for specific words or phrases, or you can browse through the book (although for copyright reasons the entire book is usually not available). Online databases Find this book at Karlsruhe Virtual Catalog, a metasearch engine addressing many of the databases linked here and also some major commercial booksellers. 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en-wikipedia-org-6365	----	Egypt - Wikipedia Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Egypt (disambiguation). Country spanning Northern Africa and Western Asia Coordinates: 26°N 30°E / 26°N 30°E / 26; 30 Arab Republic of Egypt جمهورية مصر العربية Arabic: Jumhūrīyat Miṣr al-ʻArabīyah Egyptian: Gomhoreyyet Maṣr el-ʿArabeyya Flag Coat of arms Anthem: "Bilady, Bilady, Bilady" "بلادي، بلادي، بلادي" (English: "My country, my country, my country") Capital and largest city Cairo 30°2′N 31°13′E / 30.033°N 31.217°E / 30.033; 31.217 Official languages Arabic National language Egyptian Arabic[a] Religion See Religion in Egypt Demonym(s) Egyptian Government Unitary semi-presidential republic • President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi • Prime Minister Moustafa Madbouly • House Speaker Ali Abdel Aal Legislature House of Representatives Establishment • Unification of Upper and Lower Egypt[1][2][b] c. 3150 BC • Muhammad Ali dynasty inaugurated 9 July 1805[3] • Independence from United Kingdom 28 February 1922 • Revolution Day 23 July 1952 • Republic declared 18 June 1953 • Current constitution 18 January 2014 Area • Total 1,010,408[4] km2 (390,121 sq mi) (29th) • Water (%) 0.632 Population • 2020 estimate 100,075,480 [5][6] (13th) • 2017 census 94,798,827[7] • Density 100/km2 (259.0/sq mi) (83rd) GDP (PPP) 2019 estimate • Total $1.391 trillion[8] (19th) • Per capita $14,023[8] (94th) GDP (nominal) 2019 estimate • Total $302.256 billion[8] (40th) • Per capita $3,047[8] (126th) Gini (2015)  31.8[9] medium · 51st HDI (2019)  0.707[10] high · 116th Currency Egyptian pound (E£) (EGP) Time zone UTC+2[c] (EET) Driving side right Calling code +20 ISO 3166 code EG Internet TLD .eg مصر. ^ Literary Arabic is the sole official language.[11] Egyptian Arabic is the spoken language. Other dialects and minority languages are spoken regionally. ^ "Among the peoples of the ancient Near East, only the Egyptians have stayed where they were and remained what they were, although they have changed their language once and their religion twice. In a sense, they constitute the world's oldest nation".[1] Arthur Goldschmidt Jr. ^ See Daylight saving time in Egypt. Egypt (/ˈiːdʒɪpt/ (listen) EE-jipt; Arabic: مِصر‎ Miṣr), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip (Palestine) and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba and the Red Sea to the east, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, across the Red Sea lies Saudi Arabia, and across the Mediterranean lie Greece, Turkey and Cyprus, although none share a land border with Egypt. Egypt has one of the longest histories of any country, tracing its heritage along the Nile Delta back to the 6th–4th millennia BCE. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt saw some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government.[12] Iconic monuments such as the Giza Necropolis and its Great Sphinx, as well the ruins of Memphis, Thebes, Karnak, and the Valley of the Kings, reflect this legacy and remain a significant focus of scientific and popular interest. Egypt's long and rich cultural heritage is an integral part of its national identity, which has endured, and often assimilated, various foreign influences, including Greek, Persian, Roman, Arab, Ottoman Turkish, and Nubian. Egypt was an early and important centre of Christianity, but was largely Islamised in the seventh century and remains a predominantly Muslim country, albeit with a significant Christian minority. Modern Egypt dates back to 1922, when it gained independence from the British Empire as a monarchy. Following the 1952 revolution, Egypt declared itself a republic, and in 1958 it merged with Syria to form the United Arab Republic, which dissolved in 1961. Throughout the second half of the 20th century, Egypt endured social and religious strife and political instability, fighting several armed conflicts with Israel in 1948, 1956, 1967 and 1973, and occupying the Gaza Strip intermittently until 1967. In 1978, Egypt signed the Camp David Accords, officially withdrawing from the Gaza Strip and recognising Israel. The country continues to face challenges, from political unrest, including the recent 2011 revolution and its aftermath, to terrorism and economic underdevelopment. Egypt's current government, a semi-presidential republic has been described by a number of watchdogs as authoritarian or heading an authoritarian regime, responsible for perpetuating the country's problematic human rights record. Islam is the official religion of Egypt and Arabic is its official language.[13] With over 100 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa, the Middle East, and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa (after Nigeria and Ethiopia), and the thirteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres (15,000 sq mi), where the only arable land is found. The large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypt's territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypt's residents live in urban areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria and other major cities in the Nile Delta. Egypt is considered to be a regional power in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world, and a middle power worldwide.[14] With one of the largest and most diversified economies in the Middle East, which is projected to become one of the largest in the world in the 21st century, Egypt has the third-largest economy in Africa, the world's 40th-largest economy by nominal GDP, and the 19-largest by PPP. Egypt is a founding member of the United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Arab League, the African Union, and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Contents 1 Names 2 History 2.1 Prehistory and Ancient Egypt 2.1.1 Achaemenid Egypt 2.2 Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt 2.3 Middle Ages (7th century – 1517) 2.3.1 Abbasid period 2.3.2 The Fatimid Caliphate and the Mamluks 2.4 Early modern: Ottoman Egypt (1517–1867) 2.4.1 The Muhammad Ali dynasty 2.5 Khedivate of Egypt (1867–1914) 2.6 Sultanate of Egypt (1914–1922) 2.7 Kingdom of Egypt (1922–1953) 2.8 Republic of Egypt (1953–1958) 2.8.1 President Nasser (1956–1970) 2.9 United Arab Republic (1958–1971) 2.10 Arab Republic of Egypt (1971–present) 2.10.1 President Sadat (1970–1981) 2.10.2 President Mubarak (1981–2011) 2.10.3 Revolution (2011) 2.10.4 President Morsi (2012–2013) 2.10.5 Political crisis (2013) 2.10.6 President el-Sisi (2014–present) 3 Geography 3.1 Climate 3.2 Biodiversity 4 Government 4.1 Law 4.1.1 Human rights 4.1.2 Freedom of the press 4.2 Military and foreign relations 4.3 Administrative divisions 5 Economy 5.1 Tourism 5.2 Energy 5.3 Transport 5.3.1 Suez Canal 5.4 Water supply and sanitation 5.5 Irrigated land and crops 6 Demographics 6.1 Ethnic groups 6.2 Languages 6.3 Religion 6.4 Largest cities 7 Culture 7.1 Arts 7.2 Literature 7.3 Media 7.4 Cinema 7.5 Music 7.6 Dances 7.7 Museums 7.8 Festivals 7.9 Cuisine 7.10 Sports 8 Telecommunication 8.1 Post 8.2 Social media 9 Education 10 Health 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 14 External links Names The English name "Egypt" is derived from the Ancient Greek "Aígyptos" ("Αἴγυπτος"), via Middle French "Egypte" and Latin "Aegyptus". It is reflected in early Greek Linear B tablets as "a-ku-pi-ti-yo". The adjective "aigýpti-"/"aigýptios" was borrowed into Coptic as "gyptios", and from there into Arabic as "qubṭī", back formed into "قبط" ("qubṭ"), whence English "Copt". The Greek forms were borrowed from Late Egyptian (Amarna) Hikuptah or "Memphis", a corruption of the earlier Egyptian name (⟨ḥwt-kȝ-ptḥ⟩ 𓉗𓏏𓉐𓂓𓏤𓊪𓏏𓎛), meaning "home of the ka (soul) of Ptah", the name of a temple to the god Ptah at Memphis.[15] "Miṣr" (Arabic pronunciation: [mesˤɾ]; "مِصر") is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern official name of Egypt, while "Maṣr" (Egyptian Arabic pronunciation: [mɑsˤɾ]; مَصر) is the local pronunciation in Egyptian Arabic.[16] The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew "מִצְרַיִם‎" ("Mitzráyim"). The oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian "mi-iṣ-ru" ("miṣru")[17][18] related to miṣru/miṣirru/miṣaru, meaning "border" or "frontier".[19] The Neo-Assyrian Empire used the derived term , Mu-ṣur.[20] The ancient Egyptian name of the country was (𓆎𓅓𓏏𓊖) km.t, which means black land, likely referring to the fertile black soils of the Nile flood plains, distinct from the deshret (⟨dšṛt⟩), or "red land" of the desert.[21][22] This name is commonly vocalised as Kemet, but was probably pronounced [kuːmat] in ancient Egyptian.[23] The name is realised as kēme and kēmə in the Coptic stage of the Egyptian language, and appeared in early Greek as Χημία (Khēmía).[24] Another name was ⟨tꜣ-mry⟩ "land of the riverbank".[25] The names of Upper and Lower Egypt were Ta-Sheme'aw (⟨tꜣ-šmꜥw⟩) "sedgeland" and Ta-Mehew (⟨tꜣ mḥw⟩) "northland", respectively. History Main article: History of Egypt Prehistory and Ancient Egypt Main articles: Prehistoric Egypt and Ancient Egypt Temple of Derr ruins in 1960 There is evidence of rock carvings along the Nile terraces and in desert oases. In the 10th millennium BCE, a culture of hunter-gatherers and fishers was replaced by a grain-grinding culture. Climate changes or overgrazing around 8000 BCE began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, forming the Sahara. Early tribal peoples migrated to the Nile River where they developed a settled agricultural economy and more centralised society.[26] By about 6000 BCE, a Neolithic culture rooted in the Nile Valley.[27] During the Neolithic era, several predynastic cultures developed independently in Upper and Lower Egypt. The Badarian culture and the successor Naqada series are generally regarded as precursors to dynastic Egypt. The earliest known Lower Egyptian site, Merimda, predates the Badarian by about seven hundred years. Contemporaneous Lower Egyptian communities coexisted with their southern counterparts for more than two thousand years, remaining culturally distinct, but maintaining frequent contact through trade. The earliest known evidence of Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions appeared during the predynastic period on Naqada III pottery vessels, dated to about 3200 BCE.[28] The Giza Necropolis is the oldest of the ancient Wonders and the only one still in existence. A unified kingdom was founded c. 3150 BCE by King Menes, leading to a series of dynasties that ruled Egypt for the next three millennia. Egyptian culture flourished during this long period and remained distinctively Egyptian in its religion, arts, language and customs. The first two ruling dynasties of a unified Egypt set the stage for the Old Kingdom period, c. 2700–2200 BCE, which constructed many pyramids, most notably the Third Dynasty pyramid of Djoser and the Fourth Dynasty Giza pyramids. The First Intermediate Period ushered in a time of political upheaval for about 150 years.[29] Stronger Nile floods and stabilisation of government, however, brought back renewed prosperity for the country in the Middle Kingdom c. 2040 BCE, reaching a peak during the reign of Pharaoh Amenemhat III. A second period of disunity heralded the arrival of the first foreign ruling dynasty in Egypt, that of the Semitic Hyksos. The Hyksos invaders took over much of Lower Egypt around 1650 BCE and founded a new capital at Avaris. They were driven out by an Upper Egyptian force led by Ahmose I, who founded the Eighteenth Dynasty and relocated the capital from Memphis to Thebes. The Weighing of the Heart from the Book of the Dead of Ani The New Kingdom c. 1550–1070 BCE began with the Eighteenth Dynasty, marking the rise of Egypt as an international power that expanded during its greatest extension to an empire as far south as Tombos in Nubia, and included parts of the Levant in the east. This period is noted for some of the most well known Pharaohs, including Hatshepsut, Thutmose III, Akhenaten and his wife Nefertiti, Tutankhamun and Ramesses II. The first historically attested expression of monotheism came during this period as Atenism. Frequent contacts with other nations brought new ideas to the New Kingdom. The country was later invaded and conquered by Libyans, Nubians and Assyrians, but native Egyptians eventually drove them out and regained control of their country.[30] Achaemenid Egypt Egyptian soldier of the Achaemenid army, c. 480 BCE. Xerxes I tomb relief. In 525 BCE, the powerful Achaemenid Persians, led by Cambyses II, began their conquest of Egypt, eventually capturing the pharaoh Psamtik III at the battle of Pelusium. Cambyses II then assumed the formal title of pharaoh, but ruled Egypt from his home of Susa in Persia (modern Iran), leaving Egypt under the control of a satrapy. The entire Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt, from 525 to 402 BCE, save for Petubastis III, was an entirely Persian ruled period, with the Achaemenid Emperors all being granted the title of pharaoh. A few temporarily successful revolts against the Persians marked the fifth century BCE, but Egypt was never able to permanently overthrow the Persians.[31] The Thirtieth Dynasty was the last native ruling dynasty during the Pharaonic epoch. It fell to the Persians again in 343 BCE after the last native Pharaoh, King Nectanebo II, was defeated in battle. This Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt, however, did not last long, for the Persians were toppled several decades later by Alexander the Great. The Macedonian Greek general of Alexander, Ptolemy I Soter, founded the Ptolemaic dynasty. Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt Main articles: Ptolemaic Kingdom and Egypt (Roman province) The Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra VII and her son by Julius Caesar, Caesarion, at the Temple of Dendera. The Ptolemaic Kingdom was a powerful Hellenistic state, extending from southern Syria in the east, to Cyrene to the west, and south to the frontier with Nubia. Alexandria became the capital city and a centre of Greek culture and trade. To gain recognition by the native Egyptian populace, they named themselves as the successors to the Pharaohs. The later Ptolemies took on Egyptian traditions, had themselves portrayed on public monuments in Egyptian style and dress, and participated in Egyptian religious life.[32][33] The last ruler from the Ptolemaic line was Cleopatra VII, who committed suicide following the burial of her lover Mark Antony who had died in her arms (from a self-inflicted stab wound), after Octavian had captured Alexandria and her mercenary forces had fled. The Ptolemies faced rebellions of native Egyptians often caused by an unwanted regime and were involved in foreign and civil wars that led to the decline of the kingdom and its annexation by Rome. Nevertheless, Hellenistic culture continued to thrive in Egypt well after the Muslim conquest. Christianity was brought to Egypt by Saint Mark the Evangelist in the 1st century.[34] Diocletian's reign (284–305 CE) marked the transition from the Roman to the Byzantine era in Egypt, when a great number of Egyptian Christians were persecuted. The New Testament had by then been translated into Egyptian. After the Council of Chalcedon in CE 451, a distinct Egyptian Coptic Church was firmly established.[35] Middle Ages (7th century – 1517) Main article: Egypt in the Middle Ages The Amr ibn al-As mosque in Cairo, recognized as the oldest in Africa The Byzantines were able to regain control of the country after a brief Sasanian Persian invasion early in the 7th century amidst the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 during which they established a new short-lived province for ten years known as Sasanian Egypt, until 639–42, when Egypt was invaded and conquered by the Islamic Empire by the Muslim Arabs. When they defeated the Byzantine armies in Egypt, the Arabs brought Sunni Islam to the country. Early in this period, Egyptians began to blend their new faith with indigenous beliefs and practices, leading to various Sufi orders that have flourished to this day.[34] These earlier rites had survived the period of Coptic Christianity.[36] In 639 an army of some 4,000 men were sent against Egypt by the second caliph, Umar, under the command of Amr ibn al-As. This army was joined by another 5,000 men in 640 and defeated a Byzantine army at the battle of Heliopolis. Amr next proceeded in the direction of Alexandria, which was surrendered to him by a treaty signed on 8 November 641. Alexandria was regained for the Byzantine Empire in 645 but was retaken by Amr in 646. In 654 an invasion fleet sent by Constans II was repulsed. From that time no serious effort was made by the Byzantines to regain possession of the country. The Arabs founded the capital of Egypt called Fustat, which was later burned down during the Crusades. Cairo was later built in the year 986 to grow to become the largest and richest city in the Arab Empire, and one of the biggest and richest in the world. Abbasid period The Ibn Tulun Mosque in Cairo, of Ahmad Ibn Tulun The Abbasid period was marked by new taxations, and the Copts revolted again in the fourth year of Abbasid rule. At the beginning of the 9th century the practice of ruling Egypt through a governor was resumed under Abdallah ibn Tahir, who decided to reside at Baghdad, sending a deputy to Egypt to govern for him. In 828 another Egyptian revolt broke out, and in 831 the Copts joined with native Muslims against the government. Eventually the power loss of the Abbasids in Baghdad has led for general upon general to take over rule of Egypt, yet being under Abbasid allegiance, the Tulunid dynasty (868–905) and Ikhshidid dynasty (935–969) were among the most successful to defy the Abbasid Caliph. The Fatimid Caliphate and the Mamluks See also: Fatimid Caliphate and Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo) The Al-Hakim Mosque in Cairo, of Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, the sixth caliph, as renovated by Dawoodi Bohra Muslim rulers nominated by the Caliphate remained in control of Egypt for the next six centuries, with Cairo as the seat of the Fatimid Caliphate. With the end of the Kurdish Ayyubid dynasty, the Mamluks, a Turco-Circassian military caste, took control about 1250. By the late 13th century, Egypt linked the Red Sea, India, Malaya, and East Indies.[37] The mid-14th-century Black Death killed about 40% of the country's population.[38] Early modern: Ottoman Egypt (1517–1867) Napoleon defeated the Mamluk troops in the Battle of the Pyramids, 21 July 1798, painted by Lejeune. Main article: Egypt Eyalet Egypt was conquered by the Ottoman Turks in 1517, after which it became a province of the Ottoman Empire. The defensive militarisation damaged its civil society and economic institutions.[37] The weakening of the economic system combined with the effects of plague left Egypt vulnerable to foreign invasion. Portuguese traders took over their trade.[37] Between 1687 and 1731, Egypt experienced six famines.[39] The 1784 famine cost it roughly one-sixth of its population.[40] Egypt was always a difficult province for the Ottoman Sultans to control, due in part to the continuing power and influence of the Mamluks, the Egyptian military caste who had ruled the country for centuries. Egypt remained semi-autonomous under the Mamluks until it was invaded by the French forces of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1798 (see French campaign in Egypt and Syria). After the French were defeated by the British, a power vacuum was created in Egypt, and a three-way power struggle ensued between the Ottoman Turks, Egyptian Mamluks who had ruled Egypt for centuries, and Albanian mercenaries in the service of the Ottomans. The Muhammad Ali dynasty Main article: History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty Egypt under Muhammad Ali dynasty Muhammad Ali was the founder of the Muhammad Ali dynasty and the first Khedive of Egypt and Sudan. After the French were expelled, power was seized in 1805 by Muhammad Ali Pasha, an Albanian military commander of the Ottoman army in Egypt. While he carried the title of viceroy of Egypt, his subordination to the Ottoman porte was merely nominal.[citation needed] Muhammad Ali massacred the Mamluks and established a dynasty that was to rule Egypt until the revolution of 1952. The introduction in 1820 of long-staple cotton transformed its agriculture into a cash-crop monoculture before the end of the century, concentrating land ownership and shifting production towards international markets.[41] Muhammad Ali annexed Northern Sudan (1820–1824), Syria (1833), and parts of Arabia and Anatolia; but in 1841 the European powers, fearful lest he topple the Ottoman Empire itself, forced him to return most of his conquests to the Ottomans. His military ambition required him to modernise the country: he built industries, a system of canals for irrigation and transport, and reformed the civil service.[41] He constructed a military state with around four percent of the populace serving the army to raise Egypt to a powerful positioning in the Ottoman Empire in a way showing various similarities to the Soviet strategies (without communism) conducted in the 20th century.[42] Muhammad Ali Pasha evolved the military from one that convened under the tradition of the corvée to a great modernised army. He introduced conscription of the male peasantry in 19th century Egypt, and took a novel approach to create his great army, strengthening it with numbers and in skill. Education and training of the new soldiers became mandatory; the new concepts were furthermore enforced by isolation. The men were held in barracks to avoid distraction of their growth as a military unit to be reckoned with. The resentment for the military way of life eventually faded from the men and a new ideology took hold, one of nationalism and pride. It was with the help of this newly reborn martial unit that Muhammad Ali imposed his rule over Egypt.[43] The policy that Mohammad Ali Pasha followed during his reign explains partly why the numeracy in Egypt compared to other North-African and Middle-Eastern countries increased only at a remarkably small rate, as investment in further education only took place in the military and industrial sector.[44] Muhammad Ali was succeeded briefly by his son Ibrahim (in September 1848), then by a grandson Abbas I (in November 1848), then by Said (in 1854), and Isma'il (in 1863) who encouraged science and agriculture and banned slavery in Egypt.[42] Khedivate of Egypt (1867–1914) Main article: Khedivate of Egypt Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty remained nominally an Ottoman province. It was granted the status of an autonomous vassal state or Khedivate in 1867, a legal status which was to remain in place until 1914 although the Ottomans had no power or presence. The Suez Canal, built in partnership with the French, was completed in 1869. Its construction was financed by European banks. Large sums also went to patronage and corruption. New taxes caused popular discontent. In 1875 Isma'il avoided bankruptcy by selling all Egypt's shares in the canal to the British government. Within three years this led to the imposition of British and French controllers who sat in the Egyptian cabinet, and, "with the financial power of the bondholders behind them, were the real power in the Government."[45] Other circumstances like epidemic diseases (cattle disease in the 1880s), floods and wars drove the economic downturn and increased Egypt's dependency on foreign debt even further.[46] Local dissatisfaction with the Khedive and with European intrusion led to the formation of the first nationalist groupings in 1879, with Ahmed ʻUrabi a prominent figure. After increasing tensions and nationalist revolts, the United Kingdom invaded Egypt in 1882, crushing the Egyptian army at the Battle of Tell El Kebir and militarily occupying the country.[47] Following this, the Khedivate became a de facto British protectorate under nominal Ottoman sovereignty.[48] In 1899 the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement was signed: the Agreement stated that Sudan would be jointly governed by the Khedivate of Egypt and the United Kingdom. However, actual control of Sudan was in British hands only. In 1906, the Denshawai incident prompted many neutral Egyptians to join the nationalist movement. Sultanate of Egypt (1914–1922) Main article: Sultanate of Egypt The battle of Tel el-Kebir in 1882 during the Anglo-Egyptian War In 1914 the Ottoman Empire entered World War I in alliance with the Central Empires; Khedive Abbas II (who had grown increasingly hostile to the British in preceding years) decided to support the motherland in war. Following such decision, the British forcibly removed him from power and replaced him with his brother Hussein Kamel.[49][50] Hussein Kamel declared Egypt's independence from the Ottoman Empire, assuming the title of Sultan of Egypt. Shortly following independence, Egypt was declared a protectorate of the United Kingdom. Female nationalists demonstrating in Cairo, 1919 After World War I, Saad Zaghlul and the Wafd Party led the Egyptian nationalist movement to a majority at the local Legislative Assembly. When the British exiled Zaghlul and his associates to Malta on 8 March 1919, the country arose in its first modern revolution. The revolt led the UK government to issue a unilateral declaration of Egypt's independence on 22 February 1922.[51] Kingdom of Egypt (1922–1953) Main article: Kingdom of Egypt Fuad I of Egypt with Edward, Prince of Wales, 1932 Following independence from the United Kingdom, Sultan Fuad I assumed the title of King of Egypt; despite being nominally independent, the Kingdom was still under British military occupation and the UK still had great influence over the state. British infantry near El Alamein, 17 July 1942 The new government drafted and implemented a constitution in 1923 based on a parliamentary system. The nationalist Wafd Party won a landslide victory in the 1923–1924 election and Saad Zaghloul was appointed as the new Prime Minister. In 1936, the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty was concluded and British troops withdrew from Egypt, except for the Suez Canal. The treaty did not resolve the question of Sudan, which, under the terms of the existing Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement of 1899, stated that Sudan should be jointly governed by Egypt and Britain, but with real power remaining in British hands.[52] Britain used Egypt as a base for Allied operations throughout the region, especially the battles in North Africa against Italy and Germany. Its highest priorities were control of the Eastern Mediterranean, and especially keeping the Suez Canal open for merchant ships and for military connections with India and Australia. The government of Egypt, and the Egyptian population, played a minor role in the Second World War. When the war began in September 1939, Egypt declared martial law and broke off diplomatic relations with Germany. It did not declare war on Germany, but the Prime Minister associated Egypt with the British war effort. It broke diplomatic relations with Italy in 1940, but never declared war, even when the Italian army invaded Egypt. King Farouk took practically a neutral position, which accorded with elite opinion among the Egyptians. The Egyptian army did no fighting. It was apathetic about the war, with the leading officers looking on the British as occupiers and sometimes holding some private sympathy with the Axis. In June 1940 the King dismissed Prime Minister Aly Maher, who got on poorly with the British. A new coalition Government was formed with the Independent Hassan Pasha Sabri as Prime Minister. Following a ministerial crisis in February 1942, the ambassador Sir Miles Lampson, pressed Farouk to have a Wafd or Wafd-coalition government replace Hussein Sirri Pasha's government. On the night of 4 February 1942, British troops and tanks surrounded Abdeen Palace in Cairo and Lampson presented Farouk with an ultimatum. Farouk capitulated, and Nahhas formed a government shortly thereafter. However, the humiliation meted out to Farouk, and the actions of the Wafd in cooperating with the British and taking power, lost support for both the British and the Wafd among both civilians and, more importantly, the Egyptian military. Most British troops were withdrawn to the Suez Canal area in 1947 (although the British army maintained a military base in the area), but nationalist, anti-British feelings continued to grow after the War. Anti-monarchy sentiments further increased following the disastrous performance of the Kingdom in the First Arab-Israeli War. The 1950 election saw a landslide victory of the nationalist Wafd Party and the King was forced to appoint Mostafa El-Nahas as new Prime Minister. In 1951 Egypt unilaterally withdrew from the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936 and ordered all remaining British troops to leave the Suez Canal. As the British refused to leave their base around the Suez Canal, the Egyptian government cut off the water and refused to allow food into the Suez Canal base, announced a boycott of British goods, forbade Egyptian workers from entering the base and sponsored guerrilla attacks, turning the area around the Suez Canal into a low level war zone. On 24 January 1952, Egyptian guerrillas staged a fierce attack on the British forces around the Suez Canal, during which the Egyptian Auxiliary Police were observed helping the guerrillas. In response, on 25 January, General George Erskine sent out British tanks and infantry to surround the auxiliary police station in Ismailia and gave the policemen an hour to surrender their arms on the grounds the police were arming the guerrillas. The police commander called the Interior Minister, Fouad Serageddin, Nahas's right-hand man, who was smoking cigars in his bath at the time, to ask if he should surrender or fight. Serageddin ordered the police to fight "to the last man and the last bullet". The resulting battle saw the police station levelled and 43 Egyptian policemen killed together with 3 British soldiers. The Ismailia incident outraged Egypt. The next day, 26 January 1952 was "Black Saturday", as the anti-British riot was known, that saw much of downtown Cairo which the Khedive Ismail the Magnificent had rebuilt in the style of Paris, burned down. Farouk blamed the Wafd for the Black Saturday riot, and dismissed Nahas as prime minister the next day. He was replaced by Aly Maher Pasha.[53] On July 22–23, 1952, the Free Officers Movement, led by Muhammad Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser, launched a coup d'état (Egyptian Revolution of 1952) against the king. Farouk I abdicated the throne to his son Fouad II, who was, at the time, a seven month old baby. The Royal Family left Egypt some days later and the Council of Regency, led by Prince Muhammad Abdel Moneim was formed, The council, however, held only nominal authority and the real power was actually in the hands of the Revolutionary Command Council, led by Naguib and Nasser. Popular expectations for immediate reforms led to the workers' riots in Kafr Dawar on 12 August 1952, which resulted in two death sentences. Following a brief experiment with civilian rule, the Free Officers abrogated the monarchy and the 1923 constitution and declared Egypt a republic on 18 June 1953. Naguib was proclaimed as president, while Nasser was appointed as the new Prime Minister. Republic of Egypt (1953–1958) Main article: History of the Republic of Egypt Following the 1952 Revolution by the Free Officers Movement, the rule of Egypt passed to military hands and all political parties were banned. On 18 June 1953, the Egyptian Republic was declared, with General Muhammad Naguib as the first President of the Republic, serving in that capacity for a little under one and a half years. President Nasser (1956–1970) Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser in Mansoura, 1960 Naguib was forced to resign in 1954 by Gamal Abdel Nasser – a Pan-Arabist and the real architect of the 1952 movement – and was later put under house arrest. After Naguib's resignation, the position of President was vacant until the election of Gamal Abdel Nasser in 1956.[54] In October 1954 Egypt and the United Kingdom agreed to abolish the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement of 1899 and grant Sudan independence; the agreement came into force on 1 January 1956. Nasser assumed power as president in June 1956. British forces completed their withdrawal from the occupied Suez Canal Zone on 13 June 1956. He nationalised the Suez Canal on 26 July 1956; his hostile approach towards Israel and economic nationalism prompted the beginning of the Second Arab-Israeli War (Suez Crisis), in which Israel (with support from France and the United Kingdom) occupied the Sinai peninsula and the Canal. The war came to an end because of US and USSR diplomatic intervention and the status quo was restored. United Arab Republic (1958–1971) Smoke rises from oil tanks beside the Suez Canal hit during the initial Anglo-French assault on Egypt, 5 November 1956 In 1958, Egypt and Syria formed a sovereign union known as the United Arab Republic. The union was short-lived, ending in 1961 when Syria seceded, thus ending the union. During most of its existence, the United Arab Republic was also in a loose confederation with North Yemen (or the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen), known as the United Arab States. In 1959, the All-Palestine Government of the Gaza Strip, an Egyptian client state, was absorbed into the United Arab Republic under the pretext of Arab union, and was never restored. The Arab Socialist Union, a new nasserist state-party was founded in 1962. In the early 1960s, Egypt became fully involved in the North Yemen Civil War. The Egyptian President, Gamal Abdel Nasser, supported the Yemeni republicans with as many as 70,000 Egyptian troops and chemical weapons. Despite several military moves and peace conferences, the war sank into a stalemate. Egyptian commitment in Yemen was greatly undermined later. In mid May 1967, the Soviet Union issued warnings to Nasser of an impending Israeli attack on Syria. Although the chief of staff Mohamed Fawzi verified them as "baseless",[55][56] Nasser took three successive steps that made the war virtually inevitable: on 14 May he deployed his troops in Sinai near the border with Israel, on 19 May he expelled the UN peacekeepers stationed in the Sinai Peninsula border with Israel, and on 23 May he closed the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping.[57] On 26 May Nasser declared, "The battle will be a general one and our basic objective will be to destroy Israel".[58] Israel re-iterated that the Straits of Tiran closure was a Casus belli. This prompted the beginning of the Third Arab Israeli War (Six-Day War) in which Israel attacked Egypt, and occupied Sinai Peninsula and the Gaza Strip, which Egypt had occupied since the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. During the 1967 war, an Emergency Law was enacted, and remained in effect until 2012, with the exception of an 18-month break in 1980/81.[59] Under this law, police powers were extended, constitutional rights suspended and censorship legalised.[citation needed] At the time of the fall of the Egyptian monarchy in the early 1950s, less than half a million Egyptians were considered upper class and rich, four million middle class and 17 million lower class and poor.[60] Fewer than half of all primary-school-age children attended school, most of them being boys. Nasser's policies changed this. Land reform and distribution, the dramatic growth in university education, and government support to national industries greatly improved social mobility and flattened the social curve. From academic year 1953–54 through 1965–66, overall public school enrolments more than doubled. Millions of previously poor Egyptians, through education and jobs in the public sector, joined the middle class. Doctors, engineers, teachers, lawyers, journalists, constituted the bulk of the swelling middle class in Egypt under Nasser.[60] During the 1960s, the Egyptian economy went from sluggish to the verge of collapse, the society became less free, and Nasser's appeal waned considerably.[61] Arab Republic of Egypt (1971–present) President Sadat (1970–1981) Egyptian tanks advancing in the Sinai desert during the Yom Kippur War, 1973 In 1970, President Nasser died of a heart attack and was succeeded by Anwar Sadat. Sadat switched Egypt's Cold War allegiance from the Soviet Union to the United States, expelling Soviet advisors in 1972. He launched the Infitah economic reform policy, while clamping down on religious and secular opposition. In 1973, Egypt, along with Syria, launched the Fourth Arab-Israeli War (Yom Kippur War), a surprise attack to regain part of the Sinai territory Israel had captured 6 years earlier. It presented Sadat with a victory that allowed him to regain the Sinai later in return for peace with Israel.[62] Celebrating the signing of the 1978 Camp David Accords: Menachem Begin, Jimmy Carter, Anwar Sadat In 1975, Sadat shifted Nasser's economic policies and sought to use his popularity to reduce government regulations and encourage foreign investment through his program of Infitah. Through this policy, incentives such as reduced taxes and import tariffs attracted some investors, but investments were mainly directed at low risk and profitable ventures like tourism and construction, abandoning Egypt's infant industries.[63] Even though Sadat's policy was intended to modernise Egypt and assist the middle class, it mainly benefited the higher class, and, because of the elimination of subsidies on basic foodstuffs, led to the 1977 Egyptian Bread Riots. In 1977, Sadat dissolved the Arab Socialist Union and replaced it with the National Democratic Party. Sadat made a historic visit to Israel in 1977, which led to the 1979 peace treaty in exchange for Israeli withdrawal from Sinai. Sadat's initiative sparked enormous controversy in the Arab world and led to Egypt's expulsion from the Arab League, but it was supported by most Egyptians.[64] Sadat was assassinated by an Islamic extremist in October 1981. President Mubarak (1981–2011) Hosni Mubarak came to power after the assassination of Sadat in a referendum in which he was the only candidate.[65] Hosni Mubarak reaffirmed Egypt's relationship with Israel yet eased the tensions with Egypt's Arab neighbours. Domestically, Mubarak faced serious problems. Even though farm and industry output expanded, the economy could not keep pace with the population boom. Mass poverty and unemployment led rural families to stream into cities like Cairo where they ended up in crowded slums, barely managing to survive. On 25 February 1986 Security Police started rioting, protesting against reports that their term of duty was to be extended from 3 to 4 years. Hotels, nightclubs, restaurants and casinos were attacked in Cairo and there were riots in other cities. A day time curfew was imposed. It took the army 3 days to restore order. 107 people were killed.[66] In the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s, terrorist attacks in Egypt became numerous and severe, and began to target Christian Copts, foreign tourists and government officials.[67] In the 1990s an Islamist group, Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya, engaged in an extended campaign of violence, from the murders and attempted murders of prominent writers and intellectuals, to the repeated targeting of tourists and foreigners. Serious damage was done to the largest sector of Egypt's economy—tourism[68]—and in turn to the government, but it also devastated the livelihoods of many of the people on whom the group depended for support.[69] During Mubarak's reign, the political scene was dominated by the National Democratic Party, which was created by Sadat in 1978. It passed the 1993 Syndicates Law, 1995 Press Law, and 1999 Nongovernmental Associations Law which hampered freedoms of association and expression by imposing new regulations and draconian penalties on violations.[citation needed] As a result, by the late 1990s parliamentary politics had become virtually irrelevant and alternative avenues for political expression were curtailed as well.[70] Cairo grew into a metropolitan area with a population of over 20 million On 17 November 1997, 62 people, mostly tourists, were massacred near Luxor. In late February 2005, Mubarak announced a reform of the presidential election law, paving the way for multi-candidate polls for the first time since the 1952 movement.[71] However, the new law placed restrictions on the candidates, and led to Mubarak's easy re-election victory.[72] Voter turnout was less than 25%.[73] Election observers also alleged government interference in the election process.[74] After the election, Mubarak imprisoned Ayman Nour, the runner-up.[75] Human Rights Watch's 2006 report on Egypt detailed serious human rights violations, including routine torture, arbitrary detentions and trials before military and state security courts.[76] In 2007, Amnesty International released a report alleging that Egypt had become an international centre for torture, where other nations send suspects for interrogation, often as part of the War on Terror.[77] Egypt's foreign ministry quickly issued a rebuttal to this report.[78] Constitutional changes voted on 19 March 2007 prohibited parties from using religion as a basis for political activity, allowed the drafting of a new anti-terrorism law, authorised broad police powers of arrest and surveillance, and gave the president power to dissolve parliament and end judicial election monitoring.[79] In 2009, Dr. Ali El Deen Hilal Dessouki, Media Secretary of the National Democratic Party (NDP), described Egypt as a "pharaonic" political system, and democracy as a "long-term goal". Dessouki also stated that "the real center of power in Egypt is the military".[80] Revolution (2011) Main article: Egyptian revolution of 2011 Top: Celebrations in Tahrir Square after the announcement of Hosni Mubarak's resignation; Bottom: Protests in Tahrir Square against President Morsi on 27 November 2012. On 25 January 2011, widespread protests began against Mubarak's government. On 11 February 2011, Mubarak resigned and fled Cairo. Jubilant celebrations broke out in Cairo's Tahrir Square at the news.[81] The Egyptian military then assumed the power to govern.[82][83] Mohamed Hussein Tantawi, chairman of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces, became the de facto interim head of state.[84][85] On 13 February 2011, the military dissolved the parliament and suspended the constitution.[86] A constitutional referendum was held on 19 March 2011. On 28 November 2011, Egypt held its first parliamentary election since the previous regime had been in power. Turnout was high and there were no reports of major irregularities or violence.[87] President Morsi (2012–2013) Mohamed Morsi was elected president on 24 June 2012.[88] On 2 August 2012, Egypt's Prime Minister Hisham Qandil announced his 35-member cabinet comprising 28 newcomers, including four from the Muslim Brotherhood.[89] Liberal and secular groups walked out of the constituent assembly because they believed that it would impose strict Islamic practices, while Muslim Brotherhood backers threw their support behind Morsi.[90] On 22 November 2012, President Morsi issued a temporary declaration immunising his decrees from challenge and seeking to protect the work of the constituent assembly.[91] The move led to massive protests and violent action throughout Egypt.[92] On 5 December 2012, tens of thousands of supporters and opponents of President Morsi clashed, in what was described as the largest violent battle between Islamists and their foes since the country's revolution.[93] Mohamed Morsi offered a "national dialogue" with opposition leaders but refused to cancel the December 2012 constitutional referendum.[94] Political crisis (2013) Main article: 2013 Egyptian coup d'état On 3 July 2013, after a wave of public discontent with autocratic excesses of Morsi's Muslim Brotherhood government,[95] the military removed Morsi from office, dissolved the Shura Council and installed a temporary interim government.[96] On 4 July 2013, 68-year-old Chief Justice of the Supreme Constitutional Court of Egypt Adly Mansour was sworn in as acting president over the new government following the removal of Morsi. The new Egyptian authorities cracked down on the Muslim Brotherhood and its supporters, jailing thousands and forcefully dispersing pro-Morsi and/or pro-Brotherhood protests.[97][98] Many of the Muslim Brotherhood leaders and activists have either been sentenced to death or life imprisonment in a series of mass trials.[99][100][101] On 18 January 2014, the interim government instituted a new constitution following a referendum approved by an overwhelming majority of voters (98.1%). 38.6% of registered voters participated in the referendum[102] a higher number than the 33% who voted in a referendum during Morsi's tenure.[103] President el-Sisi (2014–present) Women in Cairo wear face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic in Egypt in March 2020 On 26 March 2014, Field Marshal Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, Egyptian Defence Minister and Commander-in-Chief Egyptian Armed Forces, retired from the military, announcing he would stand as a candidate in the 2014 presidential election.[104] The poll, held between 26 and 28 May 2014, resulted in a landslide victory for el-Sisi.[105] Sisi was sworn into office as President of Egypt on 8 June 2014. The Muslim Brotherhood and some liberal and secular activist groups boycotted the vote.[106] Even though the interim authorities extended voting to a third day, the 46% turnout was lower than the 52% turnout in the 2012 election.[107] A new parliamentary election was held in December 2015, resulting in a landslide victory for pro-Sisi parties, which secured a strong majority in the newly formed House of Representatives. In 2016, Egypt entered in a diplomatic crisis with Italy following the murder of researcher Giulio Regeni: in April 2016, Prime Minister Matteo Renzi recalled the Italian ambassador from Cairo because of lack of co-operation from the Egyptian Government in the investigation. The ambassador was sent back to Egypt in 2017 by the new Prime Minister Paolo Gentiloni. El-Sisi was re-elected in 2018, facing no serious opposition. In 2019, a series of constitutional amendments were approved by the parliament, further increasing the President's and the military's power, increasing presidential terms from 4 years to 6 years and allowing El-Sisi to run for other two mandates. The proposals were approved in a referendum. The dispute between Egypt and Ethiopia over the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam escalated in 2020.[108][109] Egypt sees the dam as an existential threat,[110] fearing that the dam will reduce the amount of water it receives from the Nile.[111] Geography Main article: Geography of Egypt Nile valley near Luxor. Rocky landscape in Marsa Alam. Egypt lies primarily between latitudes 22° and 32°N, and longitudes 25° and 35°E. At 1,001,450 square kilometres (386,660 sq mi),[112] it is the world's 30th-largest country. Due to the extreme aridity of Egypt's climate, population centres are concentrated along the narrow Nile Valley and Delta, meaning that about 99% of the population uses about 5.5% of the total land area.[113] 98% of Egyptians live on 3% of the territory.[114] Egypt is bordered by Libya to the west, the Sudan to the south, and the Gaza Strip and Israel to the east. Egypt's important role in geopolitics stems from its strategic position: a transcontinental nation, it possesses a land bridge (the Isthmus of Suez) between Africa and Asia, traversed by a navigable waterway (the Suez Canal) that connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Indian Ocean by way of the Red Sea. Apart from the Nile Valley, the majority of Egypt's landscape is desert, with a few oases scattered about. Winds create prolific sand dunes that peak at more than 30 metres (100 ft) high. Egypt includes parts of the Sahara desert and of the Libyan Desert. These deserts protected the Kingdom of the Pharaohs from western threats and were referred to as the "red land" in ancient Egypt. Towns and cities include Alexandria, the second largest city; Aswan; Asyut; Cairo, the modern Egyptian capital and largest city; El Mahalla El Kubra; Giza, the site of the Pyramid of Khufu; Hurghada; Luxor; Kom Ombo; Port Safaga; Port Said; Sharm El Sheikh; Suez, where the south end of the Suez Canal is located; Zagazig; and Minya. Oases include Bahariya, Dakhla, Farafra, Kharga and Siwa. Protectorates include Ras Mohamed National Park, Zaranik Protectorate and Siwa. On 13 March 2015, plans for a proposed new capital of Egypt were announced.[115] Climate Main article: Climate of Egypt Köppen climate classification for Egypt Saint Catherine in southern Sinai, on a snowy winter morning. Most of Egypt's rain falls in the winter months.[116] South of Cairo, rainfall averages only around 2 to 5 mm (0.1 to 0.2 in) per year and at intervals of many years. On a very thin strip of the northern coast the rainfall can be as high as 410 mm (16.1 in),[117] mostly between October and March. Snow falls on Sinai's mountains and some of the north coastal cities such as Damietta, Baltim and Sidi Barrani, and rarely in Alexandria. A very small amount of snow fell on Cairo on 13 December 2013, the first time in many decades.[118] Frost is also known in mid-Sinai and mid-Egypt. Egypt is the driest and the sunniest country in the world, and most of its land surface is desert. The Qattara Depression in Egypt's north west. Egypt has an unusually hot, sunny and dry climate. Average high temperatures are high in the north but very to extremely high in the rest of the country during summer. The cooler Mediterranean winds consistently blow over the northern sea coast, which helps to get more moderated temperatures, especially at the height of the summertime. The Khamaseen is a hot, dry wind that originates from the vast deserts in the south and blows in the spring or in the early summer. It brings scorching sand and dust particles, and usually brings daytime temperatures over 40 °C (104 °F) and sometimes over 50 °C (122 °F) in the interior, while the relative humidity can drop to 5% or even less. The absolute highest temperatures in Egypt occur when the Khamaseen blows. The weather is always sunny and clear in Egypt, especially in cities such as Aswan, Luxor and Asyut. It is one of the least cloudy and least rainy regions on Earth. Prior to the construction of the Aswan Dam, the Nile flooded annually (colloquially The Gift of the Nile) replenishing Egypt's soil. This gave Egypt a consistent harvest throughout the years. The potential rise in sea levels due to global warming could threaten Egypt's densely populated coastal strip and have grave consequences for the country's economy, agriculture and industry. Combined with growing demographic pressures, a significant rise in sea levels could turn millions of Egyptians into environmental refugees by the end of the 21st century, according to some climate experts.[119][120] Biodiversity Main article: Wildlife of Egypt Egypt signed the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on 9 June 1992, and became a party to the convention on 2 June 1994.[121] It has subsequently produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, which was received by the convention on 31 July 1998.[122] Where many CBD National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans neglect biological kingdoms apart from animals and plants,[123] Egypt's plan was unusual in providing balanced information about all forms of life. The plan stated that the following numbers of species of different groups had been recorded from Egypt: algae (1483 species), animals (about 15,000 species of which more than 10,000 were insects), fungi (more than 627 species), monera (319 species), plants (2426 species), protozoans (371 species). For some major groups, for example lichen-forming fungi and nematode worms, the number was not known. Apart from small and well-studied groups like amphibians, birds, fish, mammals and reptiles, the many of those numbers are likely to increase as further species are recorded from Egypt. For the fungi, including lichen-forming species, for example, subsequent work has shown that over 2200 species have been recorded from Egypt, and the final figure of all fungi actually occurring in the country is expected to be much higher.[124] For the grasses, 284 native and naturalised species have been identified and recorded in Egypt.[125] Government Main article: Politics of Egypt Abdel Fattah el-Sisi is the current President of Egypt. The House of Representatives, whose members are elected to serve five-year terms, specialises in legislation. Elections were last held between November 2011 and January 2012 which was later dissolved. The next parliamentary election was announced to be held within 6 months of the constitution's ratification on 18 January 2014, and were held in two phases, from 17 October to 2 December 2015.[126] Originally, the parliament was to be formed before the president was elected, but interim president Adly Mansour pushed the date.[127] The Egyptian presidential election, 2014, took place on 26–28 May 2014. Official figures showed a turnout of 25,578,233 or 47.5%, with Abdel Fattah el-Sisi winning with 23.78 million votes, or 96.9% compared to 757,511 (3.1%) for Hamdeen Sabahi.[128] After a wave of public discontent with autocratic excesses of the Muslim Brotherhood government of President Mohamed Morsi,[95] on 3 July 2013 then-General Abdel Fattah el-Sisi announced the removal of Morsi from office and the suspension of the constitution. A 50-member constitution committee was formed for modifying the constitution which was later published for public voting and was adopted on 18 January 2014.[129] In 2013, Freedom House rated political rights in Egypt at 5 (with 1 representing the most free and 7 the least), and civil liberties at 5, which gave it the freedom rating of "Partly Free".[130] Egyptian nationalism predates its Arab counterpart by many decades, having roots in the 19th century and becoming the dominant mode of expression of Egyptian anti-colonial activists and intellectuals until the early 20th century.[131] The ideology espoused by Islamists such as the Muslim Brotherhood is mostly supported by the lower-middle strata of Egyptian society.[132] Egypt has the oldest continuous parliamentary tradition in the Arab world.[133] The first popular assembly was established in 1866. It was disbanded as a result of the British occupation of 1882, and the British allowed only a consultative body to sit. In 1923, however, after the country's independence was declared, a new constitution provided for a parliamentary monarchy.[133] Law Main article: Egyptian Civil Code The High Court of Justice in Downtown Cairo. The legal system is based on Islamic and civil law (particularly Napoleonic codes); and judicial review by a Supreme Court, which accepts compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction only with reservations.[53] Islamic jurisprudence is the principal source of legislation. Sharia courts and qadis are run and licensed by the Ministry of Justice.[134] The personal status law that regulates matters such as marriage, divorce and child custody is governed by Sharia. In a family court, a woman's testimony is worth half of a man's testimony.[135] On 26 December 2012, the Muslim Brotherhood attempted to institutionalise a controversial new constitution. It was approved by the public in a referendum held 15–22 December 2012 with 64% support, but with only 33% electorate participation.[136] It replaced the 2011 Provisional Constitution of Egypt, adopted following the revolution. The Penal code was unique as it contains a "Blasphemy Law."[137] The present court system allows a death penalty including against an absent individual tried in absentia. Several Americans and Canadians were sentenced to death in 2012.[138] On 18 January 2014, the interim government successfully institutionalised a more secular constitution.[139] The president is elected to a four-year term and may serve 2 terms.[139] The parliament may impeach the president.[139] Under the constitution, there is a guarantee of gender equality and absolute freedom of thought.[139] The military retains the ability to appoint the national Minister of Defence for the next two full presidential terms since the constitution took effect.[139] Under the constitution, political parties may not be based on "religion, race, gender or geography".[139] Human rights Main article: Human rights in Egypt See also: Sudanese refugees in Egypt, August 2013 Rabaa massacre, and Persecution of Copts The Egyptian Organization for Human Rights is one of the longest-standing bodies for the defence of human rights in Egypt.[140] In 2003, the government established the National Council for Human Rights.[141] Shortly after its foundation, the council came under heavy criticism by local activists, who contend it was a propaganda tool for the government to excuse its own violations[142] and to give legitimacy to repressive laws such as the Emergency Law.[143] Protesters from the Third Square movement, which supported neither the former Morsi government nor the Armed Forces, 31 July 2013 The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life ranks Egypt as the fifth worst country in the world for religious freedom.[144][145] The United States Commission on International Religious Freedom, a bipartisan independent agency of the US government, has placed Egypt on its watch list of countries that require close monitoring due to the nature and extent of violations of religious freedom engaged in or tolerated by the government.[146] According to a 2010 Pew Global Attitudes survey, 84% of Egyptians polled supported the death penalty for those who leave Islam; 77% supported whippings and cutting off of hands for theft and robbery; and 82% support stoning a person who commits adultery.[147] Coptic Christians face discrimination at multiple levels of the government, ranging from underrepresentation in government ministries to laws that limit their ability to build or repair churches.[148] Intolerance towards followers of the Baháʼí Faith, and those of the non-orthodox Muslim sects, such as Sufis, Shi'a and Ahmadis, also remains a problem.[76] When the government moved to computerise identification cards, members of religious minorities, such as Baháʼís, could not obtain identification documents.[149] An Egyptian court ruled in early 2008 that members of other faiths may obtain identity cards without listing their faiths, and without becoming officially recognised.[150] Clashes continued between police and supporters of former President Mohamed Morsi. During violent clashes that ensued as part of the August 2013 sit-in dispersal, 595 protesters were killed[151] with 14 August 2013 becoming the single deadliest day in Egypt's modern history.[152] Egypt actively practices capital punishment. Egypt's authorities do not release figures on death sentences and executions, despite repeated requests over the years by human rights organisations.[153] The United Nations human rights office[154] and various NGOs[153][155] expressed "deep alarm" after an Egyptian Minya Criminal Court sentenced 529 people to death in a single hearing on 25 March 2014. Sentenced supporters of former President Mohamed Morsi were to be executed for their alleged role in violence following his removal in July 2013. The judgement was condemned as a violation of international law.[156] By May 2014, approximately 16,000 people (and as high as more than 40,000 by one independent count, according to The Economist),[157] mostly Brotherhood members or supporters, have been imprisoned after Morsi's removal[158] after the Muslim Brotherhood was labelled as terrorist organisation by the post-Morsi interim Egyptian government.[159] According to human rights groups there are some 60,000 political prisoners in Egypt.[160][161] After Morsi was ousted by the military, the judiciary system aligned itself with the new government, actively supporting the repression of Muslim Brotherhood members. This resulted in a sharp increase in mass death sentences that arose criticism from then-U.S. President Barack Obama and the General Secretary of the UN, Ban Ki Moon. Homosexuality is illegal in Egypt.[162] According to a 2013 survey by the Pew Research Center, 95% of Egyptians believe that homosexuality should not be accepted by society.[163] In 2017, Cairo was voted the most dangerous megacity for women with more than 10 million inhabitants in a poll by Thomson Reuters Foundation. Sexual harassment was described as occurring on a daily basis.[164] Freedom of the press Reporters Without Borders ranked Egypt in their 2017 World Press Freedom Index at No. 160 out of 180 nations. At least 18 journalists were imprisoned in Egypt, as of August 2015[update]. A new anti-terror law was enacted in August 2015 that threatens members of the media with fines ranging from about US$25,000 to $60,000 for the distribution of wrong information on acts of terror inside the country "that differ from official declarations of the Egyptian Department of Defense".[165] Some critics of the government have been arrested for allegedly spreading false information about the COVID-19 pandemic in Egypt.[166][167] Military and foreign relations Main articles: Egyptian Armed Forces and Foreign relations of Egypt Egyptian honor guard soldiers during a visit of U.S. Navy Adm. Mike Mullen The military is influential in the political and economic life of Egypt and exempts itself from laws that apply to other sectors. It enjoys considerable power, prestige and independence within the state and has been widely considered part of the Egyptian "deep state".[65][168][169] According to the former chair of Israel's Knesset Foreign Affairs and Defense Committee, Yuval Steinitz, the Egyptian Air Force has roughly the same number of modern warplanes as the Israeli Air Force and far more Western tanks, artillery, anti-aircraft batteries and warships than the IDF.[170] Egypt is speculated by Israel to be the second country in the region with a spy satellite, EgyptSat 1[171] in addition to EgyptSat 2 launched on 16 April 2014.[172] Top: Former President Hosni Mubarak with former US President George W. Bush at Camp David in 2002; Bottom: President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi and Russian President Vladimir Putin in Sochi, August 2014. The United States provides Egypt with annual military assistance, which in 2015 amounted to US$1.3 billion.[173] In 1989, Egypt was designated as a major non-NATO ally of the United States.[174] Nevertheless, ties between the two countries have partially soured since the July 2013 overthrow of Islamist president Mohamed Morsi,[175] with the Obama administration denouncing Egypt over its crackdown on the Muslim Brotherhood, and cancelling future military exercises involving the two countries.[176] There have been recent attempts, however, to normalise relations between the two, with both governments frequently calling for mutual support in the fight against regional and international terrorism.[177][178][179] However, following the election of Republican Donald Trump as the President of the United States, the two countries were looking to improve the Egyptian-American relations. al-Sisi and Trump had met during the opening of the seventy-first session of the United Nations General Assembly in September 2016.[180] The absence of Egypt in President Trump's travel ban towards seven Muslim countries was noted in Washington although the Congress has voiced human rights concerns over the handling of dissidents.[181] On 3 April 2017 al-Sisi met with Trump at the White House, marking the first visit of an Egyptian president to Washington in 8 years. Trump praised al-Sisi in what was reported as a public relations victory for the Egyptian president, and signaled it was time for a normalization of the relations between Egypt and the US.[182] The Egyptian military has dozens of factories manufacturing weapons as well as consumer goods. The Armed Forces' inventory includes equipment from different countries around the world. Equipment from the former Soviet Union is being progressively replaced by more modern US, French, and British equipment, a significant portion of which is built under license in Egypt, such as the M1 Abrams tank.[citation needed] Relations with Russia have improved significantly following Mohamed Morsi's removal[183] and both countries have worked since then to strengthen military[184] and trade ties[185] among other aspects of bilateral co-operation. Relations with China have also improved considerably. In 2014, Egypt and China established a bilateral "comprehensive strategic partnership".[186] In July 2019, UN ambassadors of 37 countries, including Egypt, have signed a joint letter to the UNHRC defending China's treatment of Uyghurs in the Xinjiang region.[187] The permanent headquarters of the Arab League are located in Cairo and the body's secretary general has traditionally been Egyptian. This position is currently held by former foreign minister Ahmed Aboul Gheit. The Arab League briefly moved from Egypt to Tunis in 1978 to protest the Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty, but it later returned to Cairo in 1989. Gulf monarchies, including the United Arab Emirates[188] and Saudi Arabia,[189] have pledged billions of dollars to help Egypt overcome its economic difficulties since the overthrow of Morsi.[190] President el-Sisi with US President Donald Trump, 21 May 2017 Following the 1973 war and the subsequent peace treaty, Egypt became the first Arab nation to establish diplomatic relations with Israel. Despite that, Israel is still widely considered as a hostile state by the majority of Egyptians.[191] Egypt has played a historical role as a mediator in resolving various disputes in the Middle East, most notably its handling of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and the peace process.[192] Egypt's ceasefire and truce brokering efforts in Gaza have hardly been challenged following Israel's evacuation of its settlements from the strip in 2005, despite increasing animosity towards the Hamas government in Gaza following the ouster of Mohamed Morsi,[193] and despite recent attempts by countries like Turkey and Qatar to take over this role.[194] Ties between Egypt and other non-Arab Middle Eastern nations, including Iran and Turkey, have often been strained. Tensions with Iran are mostly due to Egypt's peace treaty with Israel and Iran's rivalry with traditional Egyptian allies in the Gulf.[195] Turkey's recent support for the now-banned Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt and its alleged involvement in Libya also made both countries bitter regional rivals.[196] Egypt is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement and the United Nations. It is also a member of the Organisation internationale de la francophonie, since 1983. Former Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister Boutros Boutros-Ghali served as Secretary-General of the United Nations from 1991 to 1996. In 2008, Egypt was estimated to have two million African refugees, including over 20,000 Sudanese nationals registered with UNHCR as refugees fleeing armed conflict or asylum seekers. Egypt adopted "harsh, sometimes lethal" methods of border control.[197] Administrative divisions Main articles: Governorates of Egypt and Subdivisions of Egypt Egypt is divided into 27 governorates. The governorates are further divided into regions. The regions contain towns and villages. Each governorate has a capital, sometimes carrying the same name as the governorate.[198] Governorates of Egypt 1. Matrouh 2. Alexandria 3. Beheira 4. Kafr El Sheikh 5. Dakahlia 6. Damietta 7. Port Said 8. North Sinai 9. Gharbia 10. Monufia 11. Qalyubia 12. Sharqia 13. Ismailia 14. Giza 15. Faiyum 16. Cairo 17. Suez 18. South Sinai 19. Beni Suef 20. Minya 21. New Valley 22. Asyut 23. Red Sea 24. Sohag 25. Qena 26. Luxor 27. Aswan Economy Main article: Economy of Egypt Share of world GDP (PPP)[199] Year Share 1980 0.69% 1990 0.83% 2000 0.86% 2010 0.96% 2017 0.95% Egypt Exports by Product (2014) from Harvard Atlas of Economic Complexity Egypt's economy depends mainly on agriculture, media, petroleum imports, natural gas, and tourism; there are also more than three million Egyptians working abroad, mainly in Libya, Saudi Arabia, the Persian Gulf and Europe. The completion of the Aswan High Dam in 1970 and the resultant Lake Nasser have altered the time-honoured place of the Nile River in the agriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly growing population, limited arable land, and dependence on the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress the economy. The government has invested in communications and physical infrastructure. Egypt has received United States foreign aid since 1979 (an average of $2.2 billion per year) and is the third-largest recipient of such funds from the United States following the Iraq war. Egypt's economy mainly relies on these sources of income: tourism, remittances from Egyptians working abroad and revenues from the Suez Canal.[200] Egypt has a developed energy market based on coal, oil, natural gas, and hydro power. Substantial coal deposits in the northeast Sinai are mined at the rate of about 600,000 tonnes (590,000 long tons; 660,000 short tons) per year. Oil and gas are produced in the western desert regions, the Gulf of Suez, and the Nile Delta. Egypt has huge reserves of gas, estimated at 2,180 cubic kilometres (520 cu mi),[201] and LNG up to 2012 exported to many countries. In 2013, the Egyptian General Petroleum Co (EGPC) said the country will cut exports of natural gas and tell major industries to slow output this summer to avoid an energy crisis and stave off political unrest, Reuters has reported. Egypt is counting on top liquid natural gas (LNG) exporter Qatar to obtain additional gas volumes in summer, while encouraging factories to plan their annual maintenance for those months of peak demand, said EGPC chairman, Tarek El Barkatawy. Egypt produces its own energy, but has been a net oil importer since 2008 and is rapidly becoming a net importer of natural gas.[202] Economic conditions have started to improve considerably, after a period of stagnation, due to the adoption of more liberal economic policies by the government as well as increased revenues from tourism and a booming stock market. In its annual report, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) has rated Egypt as one of the top countries in the world undertaking economic reforms.[203] Some major economic reforms undertaken by the government since 2003 include a dramatic slashing of customs and tariffs. A new taxation law implemented in 2005 decreased corporate taxes from 40% to the current 20%, resulting in a stated 100% increase in tax revenue by the year 2006. Smart Village, a business district established in 2001 to facilitate the growth of high-tech businesses. Foreign direct investment (FDI) in Egypt increased considerably before the removal of Hosni Mubarak, exceeding $6 billion in 2006, due to economic liberalisation and privatisation measures taken by minister of investment Mahmoud Mohieddin.[citation needed] Since the fall of Hosni Mubarak in 2011, Egypt has experienced a drastic fall in both foreign investment and tourism revenues, followed by a 60% drop in foreign exchange reserves, a 3% drop in growth, and a rapid devaluation of the Egyptian pound.[204] Although one of the main obstacles still facing the Egyptian economy is the limited trickle down of wealth to the average population, many Egyptians criticise their government for higher prices of basic goods while their standards of living or purchasing power remains relatively stagnant. Corruption is often cited by Egyptians as the main impediment to further economic growth.[205][206] The government promised major reconstruction of the country's infrastructure, using money paid for the newly acquired third mobile license ($3 billion) by Etisalat in 2006.[207] In the Corruption Perceptions Index 2013, Egypt was ranked 114 out of 177.[208] The Suez Canal. Egypt's most prominent multinational companies are the Orascom Group and Raya Contact Center. The information technology (IT) sector has expanded rapidly in the past few years, with many start-ups selling outsourcing services to North America and Europe, operating with companies such as Microsoft, Oracle and other major corporations, as well as many small and medium size enterprises. Some of these companies are the Xceed Contact Center, Raya, E Group Connections and C3. The IT sector has been stimulated by new Egyptian entrepreneurs with government encouragement.[citation needed] An estimated 2.7 million Egyptians abroad contribute actively to the development of their country through remittances (US$7.8 billion in 2009), as well as circulation of human and social capital and investment.[209] Remittances, money earned by Egyptians living abroad and sent home, reached a record US$21 billion in 2012, according to the World Bank.[210] Egyptian society is moderately unequal in terms of income distribution, with an estimated 35–40% of Egypt's population earning less than the equivalent of $2 a day, while only around 2–3% may be considered wealthy.[211] Tourism Main article: Tourism in Egypt Tourists riding a Arabian camel in front of Pyramid of Khafre. The Giza Necropolis is one of Egypt's main tourist attractions. Tourism is one of the most important sectors in Egypt's economy. More than 12.8 million tourists visited Egypt in 2008, providing revenues of nearly $11 billion. The tourism sector employs about 12% of Egypt's workforce.[212] Tourism Minister Hisham Zaazou told industry professionals and reporters that tourism generated some $9.4 billion in 2012, a slight increase over the $9 billion seen in 2011.[213] Sahl Hasheesh, a resort town near Hurghada. The Giza Necropolis is one of Egypt's best-known tourist attractions; it is the only one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World still in existence. Egypt's beaches on the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, which extend to over 3,000 kilometres (1,900 miles), are also popular tourist destinations; the Gulf of Aqaba beaches, Safaga, Sharm el-Sheikh, Hurghada, Luxor, Dahab, Ras Sidr and Marsa Alam are popular sites. Energy Main article: Energy in Egypt An offshore platform in the Darfeel Gas Field. Egypt produced 691,000 bbl/d of oil and 2,141.05 Tcf of natural gas in 2013, making the country the largest non-OPEC producer of oil and the second-largest dry natural gas producer in Africa. In 2013, Egypt was the largest consumer of oil and natural gas in Africa, as more than 20% of total oil consumption and more than 40% of total dry natural gas consumption in Africa. Also, Egypt possesses the largest oil refinery capacity in Africa 726,000 bbl/d (in 2012).[201] Egypt is currently planning to build its first nuclear power plant in El Dabaa, in the northern part of the country, with $25 billion in Russian financing.[214] Transport Main article: Transport in Egypt Transport in Egypt is centred around Cairo and largely follows the pattern of settlement along the Nile. The main line of the nation's 40,800-kilometre (25,400 mi) railway network runs from Alexandria to Aswan and is operated by Egyptian National Railways. The vehicle road network has expanded rapidly to over 34,000 km (21,000 mi), consisting of 28 line, 796 stations, 1800 train covering the Nile Valley and Nile Delta, the Mediterranean and Red Sea coasts, the Sinai, and the Western oases. The Cairo Metro (line 2) The Cairo Metro in Egypt is the first of only two full-fledged metro systems in Africa and the Arab World. It is considered one of the most important recent projects in Egypt which cost around 12 billion Egyptian pounds. The system consists of three operational lines with a fourth line expected in the future. EgyptAir, which is now the country's flag carrier and largest airline, was founded in 1932 by Egyptian industrialist Talaat Harb, today owned by the Egyptian government. The airline is based at Cairo International Airport, its main hub, operating scheduled passenger and freight services to more than 75 destinations in the Middle East, Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas. The Current EgyptAir fleet includes 80 aeroplanes. Suez Canal Main article: Suez Canal The Suez Canal Bridge. The Suez Canal is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt considered the most important centre of the maritime transport in the Middle East, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in November 1869 after 10 years of construction work, it allows ship transport between Europe and Asia without navigation around Africa. The northern terminus is Port Said and the southern terminus is Port Tawfiq at the city of Suez. Ismailia lies on its west bank, 3 kilometres (1 7⁄8 miles) from the half-way point. The canal is 193.30 km (120 1⁄8 mi) long, 24 metres (79 feet) deep and 205 m (673 ft) wide as of 2010[update]. It consists of the northern access channel of 22 km (14 mi), the canal itself of 162.25 km (100 7⁄8 mi) and the southern access channel of 9 km (5 1⁄2 mi). The canal is a single lane with passing places in the Ballah By-Pass and the Great Bitter Lake. It contains no locks; seawater flows freely through the canal. In general, the canal north of the Bitter Lakes flows north in winter and south in summer. The current south of the lakes changes with the tide at Suez. On 26 August 2014 a proposal was made for opening a New Suez Canal. Work on the New Suez Canal was completed in July 2015.[215][216] The channel was officially inaugurated with a ceremony attended by foreign leaders and featuring military flyovers on 6 August 2015, in accordance with the budgets laid out for the project.[217][218] Water supply and sanitation Main article: Water supply and sanitation in Egypt The piped water supply in Egypt increased between 1990 and 2010 from 89% to 100% in urban areas and from 39% to 93% in rural areas despite rapid population growth. Over that period, Egypt achieved the elimination of open defecation in rural areas and invested in infrastructure. Access to an improved water source in Egypt is now practically universal with a rate of 99%. About one half of the population is connected to sanitary sewers.[219] Partly because of low sanitation coverage about 17,000 children die each year because of diarrhoea.[220] Another challenge is low cost recovery due to water tariffs that are among the lowest in the world. This in turn requires government subsidies even for operating costs, a situation that has been aggravated by salary increases without tariff increases after the Arab Spring. Poor operation of facilities, such as water and wastewater treatment plants, as well as limited government accountability and transparency, are also issues. Green irrigated land along the Nile amidst the desert and in the delta Irrigated land and crops Due to the absence of appreciable rainfall, Egypt's agriculture depends entirely on irrigation. The main source of irrigation water is the river Nile of which the flow is controlled by the high dam at Aswan. It releases, on average, 55 cubic kilometres (45,000,000 acre·ft) water per year, of which some 46 cubic kilometres (37,000,000 acre·ft) are diverted into the irrigation canals.[221] In the Nile valley and delta, almost 33,600 square kilometres (13,000 sq mi) of land benefit from these irrigation waters producing on average 1.8 crops per year.[221] Demographics Main articles: Demographics of Egypt and Egyptians Egypt's population density (people per km2). Historical populations in thousands Year Pop. ±% p.a. 1882 6,712 —     1897 9,669 +2.46% 1907 11,190 +1.47% 1917 12,718 +1.29% 1927 14,178 +1.09% 1937 15,921 +1.17% 1947 18,967 +1.77% 1960 26,085 +2.48% 1966 30,076 +2.40% 1976 36,626 +1.99% 1986 48,254 +2.80% 1996 59,312 +2.08% 2006 72,798 +2.07% 2017 94,798 +2.43% Source: Population in Egypt[222][7] Egypt is the most populated country in the Arab world and the third most populous on the African continent, with about 95 million inhabitants as of 2017[update].[223] Its population grew rapidly from 1970 to 2010 due to medical advances and increases in agricultural productivity[224] enabled by the Green Revolution.[225] Egypt's population was estimated at 3 million when Napoleon invaded the country in 1798.[226] Egypt's people are highly urbanised, being concentrated along the Nile (notably Cairo and Alexandria), in the Delta and near the Suez Canal. Egyptians are divided demographically into those who live in the major urban centres and the fellahin, or farmers, that reside in rural villages. The total inhabited area constitutes only 77,041 km², putting the physiological density at over 1,200 people per km2, similar to Bangladesh. While emigration was restricted under Nasser, thousands of Egyptian professionals were dispatched abroad in the context of the Arab Cold War.[227] Egyptian emigration was liberalised in 1971, under President Sadat, reaching record numbers after the 1973 oil crisis.[228] An estimated 2.7 million Egyptians live abroad. Approximately 70% of Egyptian migrants live in Arab countries (923,600 in Saudi Arabia, 332,600 in Libya, 226,850 in Jordan, 190,550 in Kuwait with the rest elsewhere in the region) and the remaining 30% reside mostly in Europe and North America (318,000 in the United States, 110,000 in Canada and 90,000 in Italy).[209] The process of emigrating to non-Arab states has been ongoing since the 1950s.[229] Ethnic groups Ethnic Egyptians are by far the largest ethnic group in the country, constituting 99.7% of the total population.[53] Ethnic minorities include the Abazas, Turks, Greeks, Bedouin Arab tribes living in the eastern deserts and the Sinai Peninsula, the Berber-speaking Siwis (Amazigh) of the Siwa Oasis, and the Nubian communities clustered along the Nile. There are also tribal Beja communities concentrated in the southeasternmost corner of the country, and a number of Dom clans mostly in the Nile Delta and Faiyum who are progressively becoming assimilated as urbanisation increases. Some 5 million immigrants live in Egypt, mostly Sudanese, "some of whom have lived in Egypt for generations."[230] Smaller numbers of immigrants come from Iraq, Ethiopia, Somalia, South Sudan, and Eritrea.[230] The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees estimated that the total number of "people of concern" (refugees, asylum seekers, and stateless people) was about 250,000. In 2015, the number of registered Syrian refugees in Egypt was 117,000, a decrease from the previous year.[230] Egyptian government claims that a half-million Syrian refugees live in Egypt are thought to be exaggerated.[230] There are 28,000 registered Sudanese refugees in Egypt.[230] The once-vibrant and ancient Greek and Jewish communities in Egypt have almost disappeared, with only a small number remaining in the country, but many Egyptian Jews visit on religious or other occasions and tourism. Several important Jewish archaeological and historical sites are found in Cairo, Alexandria and other cities. Languages Main article: Languages of Egypt The official language of the Republic is Arabic.[231] The spoken languages are: Egyptian Arabic (68%), Sa'idi Arabic (29%), Eastern Egyptian Bedawi Arabic (1.6%), Sudanese Arabic (0.6%), Domari (0.3%), Nobiin (0.3%), Beja (0.1%), Siwi and others.[citation needed] Additionally, Greek, Armenian and Italian, and more recently, African languages like Amharic and Tigrigna are the main languages of immigrants. The main foreign languages taught in schools, by order of popularity, are English, French, German and Italian. Historically Egyptian was spoken, of which the latest stage is Coptic Egyptian. Spoken Coptic was mostly extinct by the 17th century but may have survived in isolated pockets in Upper Egypt as late as the 19th century. It remains in use as the liturgical language of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria.[232][233] It forms a separate branch among the family of Afroasiatic languages. Religion Main article: Religion in Egypt Egypt has the largest Muslim population in the Arab world, and the sixth world's largest Muslim population, and home for (5%) of the world's Muslim population.[234] Egypt also has the largest Christian population in the Middle East and North Africa.[235] Egypt is a predominantly Sunni Muslim country with Islam as its state religion. The percentage of adherents of various religions is a controversial topic in Egypt. An estimated 85–90% are identified as Muslim, 10–15% as Coptic Christians, and 1% as other Christian denominations, although without a census the numbers cannot be known. Other estimates put the Christian population as high as 15–20%.[note 1] Non-denominational Muslims form roughly 12% of the population.[242][243] Egypt was a Christian country before the 7th century, and after Islam arrived, the country was gradually Islamised into a majority-Muslim country.[244][245] It is not known when Muslims reached a majority variously estimated from c. 1000 CE to as late as the 14th century. Egypt emerged as a centre of politics and culture in the Muslim world. Under Anwar Sadat, Islam became the official state religion and Sharia the main source of law.[246] It is estimated that 15 million Egyptians follow Native Sufi orders,[247][248][249] with the Sufi leadership asserting that the numbers are much greater as many Egyptian Sufis are not officially registered with a Sufi order.[248] At least 305 people were killed during a November 2017 attack on a Sufi mosque in Sinai.[250] There is also a Shi'a minority. The Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs estimates the Shia population at 1 to 2.2 million[251] and could measure as much as 3 million.[252] The Ahmadiyya population is estimated at less than 50,000,[253] whereas the Salafi (ultra-conservative Sunni) population is estimated at five to six million.[254] Cairo is famous for its numerous mosque minarets and has been dubbed "The City of 1,000 Minarets".[255] St. Mark Coptic Cathedral in Alexandria Of the Christian population in Egypt over 90% belong to the native Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, an Oriental Orthodox Christian Church.[256] Other native Egyptian Christians are adherents of the Coptic Catholic Church, the Evangelical Church of Egypt and various other Protestant denominations. Non-native Christian communities are largely found in the urban regions of Cairo and Alexandria, such as the Syro-Lebanese, who belong to Greek Catholic, Greek Orthodox, and Maronite Catholic denominations.[257] Ethnic Greeks also made up a large Greek Orthodox population in the past. Likewise, Armenians made up the then larger Armenian Orthodox and Catholic communities. Egypt also used to have a large Roman Catholic community, largely made up of Italians and Maltese. These non-native communities were much larger in Egypt before the Nasser regime and the nationalisation that took place. Egypt hosts the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria. It was founded back in the first century, considered to be the largest church in the country. Egypt is also the home of Al-Azhar University (founded in 969 CE, began teaching in 975 CE), which is today the world's "most influential voice of establishment Sunni Islam" and is, by some measures, the second-oldest continuously operating university in world.[258] Egypt recognises only three religions: Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. Other faiths and minority Muslim sects practised by Egyptians, such as the small Baháʼí Faith and Ahmadiyya communities, are not recognised by the state and face persecution by the government, which labels these groups a threat to Egypt's national security.[259][260] Individuals, particularly Baháʼís and atheists, wishing to include their religion (or lack thereof) on their mandatory state issued identification cards are denied this ability (see Egyptian identification card controversy), and are put in the position of either not obtaining required identification or lying about their faith. A 2008 court ruling allowed members of unrecognised faiths to obtain identification and leave the religion field blank.[149][150] Largest cities See also: List of cities and towns in Egypt   v t e Largest cities or towns in Egypt 2017 census Rank Name Governorate Pop. Rank Name Governorate Pop. Cairo Alexandria 1 Cairo Cairo 9,153,135 11 Asyut Asyut 462,061 Giza Shubra El Kheima 2 Alexandria Alexandria 5,039,975 12 Khusus Qalyubia 459,586 3 Giza Giza 4,146,340 13 Ismailia Ismailia 386,372 4 Shubra El Kheima Qalyubia 1,165,914 14 Zagazig Sharqia 383,703 5 Port Said Port Said 751,073 15 6th of October Giza 350,018 6 Suez Suez 660,592 16 Aswan Aswan 321,761 7 Mansoura Dakahlia 548,259 17 New Cairo Cairo 298,343 8 El Mahalla El Kubra Gharbia 522,799 18 Damietta Damietta 282,879 9 Tanta Gharbia 508,754 19 Damanhur Beheira 262,505 10 Faiyum Faiyum 475,139 20 Minya Minya 245,478 Culture Main article: Culture of Egypt Egypt is a recognised cultural trend-setter of the Arabic-speaking world. Contemporary Arabic and Middle-Eastern culture is heavily influenced by Egyptian literature, music, film and television. Egypt gained a regional leadership role during the 1950s and 1960s, giving a further enduring boost to the standing of Egyptian culture in the Arabic-speaking world.[261] Al-Azhar Park is listed as one of the world's sixty great public spaces by the Project for Public Spaces Egyptian identity evolved in the span of a long period of occupation to accommodate Islam, Christianity and Judaism; and a new language, Arabic, and its spoken descendant, Egyptian Arabic which is also based on many Ancient Egyptian words.[262] The work of early 19th century scholar Rifa'a al-Tahtawi renewed interest in Egyptian antiquity and exposed Egyptian society to Enlightenment principles. Tahtawi co-founded with education reformer Ali Mubarak a native Egyptology school that looked for inspiration to medieval Egyptian scholars, such as Suyuti and Maqrizi, who themselves studied the history, language and antiquities of Egypt.[263] Egypt's renaissance peaked in the late 19th and early 20th centuries through the work of people like Muhammad Abduh, Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed, Muhammad Loutfi Goumah, Tawfiq el-Hakim, Louis Awad, Qasim Amin, Salama Moussa, Taha Hussein and Mahmoud Mokhtar. They forged a liberal path for Egypt expressed as a commitment to personal freedom, secularism and faith in science to bring progress.[264] Arts The weighing of the heart scene from the Book of the Dead. The Egyptians were one of the first major civilisations to codify design elements in art and architecture. Egyptian blue, also known as calcium copper silicate is a pigment used by Egyptians for thousands of years. It is considered to be the first synthetic pigment. The wall paintings done in the service of the Pharaohs followed a rigid code of visual rules and meanings. Egyptian civilisation is renowned for its colossal pyramids, temples and monumental tombs. Well-known examples are the Pyramid of Djoser designed by ancient architect and engineer Imhotep, the Sphinx, and the temple of Abu Simbel. Modern and contemporary Egyptian art can be as diverse as any works in the world art scene, from the vernacular architecture of Hassan Fathy and Ramses Wissa Wassef, to Mahmoud Mokhtar's sculptures, to the distinctive Coptic iconography of Isaac Fanous. The Cairo Opera House serves as the main performing arts venue in the Egyptian capital. Literature Main article: Egyptian literature Naguib Mahfouz, the first Arabic-language writer to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. Egyptian literature traces its beginnings to ancient Egypt and is some of the earliest known literature. Indeed, the Egyptians were the first culture to develop literature as we know it today, that is, the book.[265] It is an important cultural element in the life of Egypt. Egyptian novelists and poets were among the first to experiment with modern styles of Arabic literature, and the forms they developed have been widely imitated throughout the Arab world.[266] The first modern Egyptian novel Zaynab by Muhammad Husayn Haykal was published in 1913 in the Egyptian vernacular.[267] Egyptian novelist Naguib Mahfouz was the first Arabic-language writer to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. Egyptian women writers include Nawal El Saadawi, well known for her feminist activism, and Alifa Rifaat who also writes about women and tradition. Vernacular poetry is perhaps the most popular literary genre among Egyptians, represented by the works of Ahmed Fouad Negm (Fagumi), Salah Jaheen and Abdel Rahman el-Abnudi.[citation needed] Media Main article: Media of Egypt Egyptian media are highly influential throughout the Arab World, attributed to large audiences and increasing freedom from government control.[268][269] Freedom of the media is guaranteed in the constitution; however, many laws still restrict this right.[268][270] Cinema Main article: Cinema of Egypt Suad Husni, film star. Egyptian cinema became a regional force with the coming of sound. In 1936, Studio Misr, financed by industrialist Talaat Harb, emerged as the leading Egyptian studio, a role the company retained for three decades.[271] For over 100 years, more than 4000 films have been produced in Egypt, three quarters of the total Arab production.[citation needed] Egypt is considered the leading country in the field of cinema in the Arab world. Actors from all over the Arab world seek to appear in the Egyptian cinema for the sake of fame. The Cairo International Film Festival has been rated as one of 11 festivals with a top class rating worldwide by the International Federation of Film Producers' Associations.[272] Music Main article: Music of Egypt Egyptian music is a rich mixture of indigenous, Mediterranean, African and Western elements. It has been an integral part of Egyptian culture since antiquity. The ancient Egyptians credited one of their gods Hathor with the invention of music, which Osiris in turn used as part of his effort to civilise the world. Egyptians used music instruments since then.[273] Contemporary Egyptian music traces its beginnings to the creative work of people such as Abdu al-Hamuli, Almaz and Mahmoud Osman, who influenced the later work of Sayed Darwish, Umm Kulthum, Mohammed Abdel Wahab and Abdel Halim Hafez whose age is considered the golden age of music in Egypt and the whole Arab world. Prominent contemporary Egyptian pop singers include Amr Diab and Mohamed Mounir. Dances Tanoura dancers performing in Wekalet El Ghoury, Cairo. Today, Egypt is often considered the home of belly dance. Egyptian belly dance has two main styles – raqs baladi and raqs sharqi. There are also numerous folkloric and character dances that may be part of an Egyptian-style belly dancer's repertoire, as well as the modern shaabi street dance which shares some elements with raqs baladi. Museums Main article: List of museums in Egypt The Egyptian Museum of Cairo Egypt has one of the oldest civilisations in the world. It has been in contact with many other civilisations and nations and has been through so many eras, starting from prehistoric age to the modern age, passing through so many ages such as; Pharonic, Roman, Greek, Islamic and many other ages. Because of this wide variation of ages, the continuous contact with other nations and the big number of conflicts Egypt had been through, at least 60 museums may be found in Egypt, mainly covering a wide area of these ages and conflicts. Tutankhamun's burial mask is one of the major attractions of the Egyptian Museum of Cairo The three main museums in Egypt are The Egyptian Museum which has more than 120,000 items, the Egyptian National Military Museum and the 6th of October Panorama. The Grand Egyptian Museum (GEM), also known as the Giza Museum, is an under construction museum that will house the largest collection of ancient Egyptian artifacts in the world, it has been described as the world's largest archaeological museum.[274] The museum was scheduled to open in 2015 and will be sited on 50 hectares (120 acres) of land approximately two kilometres (1.2 miles) from the Giza Necropolis and is part of a new master plan for the plateau. The Minister of Antiquities Mamdouh al-Damaty announced in May 2015 that the museum will be partially opened in May 2018.[275] Festivals Egypt celebrates many festivals and religious carnivals, also known as mulid. They are usually associated with a particular Coptic or Sufi saint, but are often celebrated by Egyptians irrespective of creed or religion. Ramadan has a special flavour in Egypt, celebrated with sounds, lights (local lanterns known as fawanees) and much flare that many Muslim tourists from the region flock to Egypt to witness during Ramadan. The ancient spring festival of Sham en Nisim (Coptic: Ϭⲱⲙ‘ⲛⲛⲓⲥⲓⲙ shom en nisim) has been celebrated by Egyptians for thousands of years, typically between the Egyptian months of Paremoude (April) and Pashons (May), following Easter Sunday. Cuisine Main article: Egyptian cuisine Kushari, one of Egypt's national dishes. Egyptian cuisine is notably conducive to vegetarian diets, as it relies heavily on legume and vegetable dishes. Although food in Alexandria and the coast of Egypt tends to use a great deal of fish and other seafood, for the most part Egyptian cuisine is based on foods that grow out of the ground. Meat has been very expensive for most Egyptians throughout history, so a great number of vegetarian dishes have been developed. Some consider kushari (a mixture of rice, lentils, and macaroni) to be the national dish. Fried onions can be also added to kushari. In addition, ful medames (mashed fava beans) is one of the most popular dishes. Fava bean is also used in making falafel (also known as "ta‘miya"), which may have originated in Egypt and spread to other parts of the Middle East. Garlic fried with coriander is added to molokhiya, a popular green soup made from finely chopped jute leaves, sometimes with chicken or rabbit. Sports A crowd at Cairo Stadium to watch the Egypt national football team. Football is the most popular national sport of Egypt. The Cairo Derby is one of the fiercest derbies in Africa, and the BBC picked it as one of the 7 toughest derbies in the world.[276] Al Ahly is the most successful club of the 20th century in the African continent according to CAF, closely followed by their rivals Zamalek SC. They're known as the "African Club of the Century". With twenty titles, Al Ahly is currently the world's most successful club in terms of international trophies, surpassing Italy's A.C. Milan and Argentina's Boca Juniors, both having eighteen.[277] The Egyptian national football team, known as the Pharaohs, won the African Cup of Nations seven times, including three times in a row in 2006, 2008, and 2010. Considered the most successful African national team and one which has reached the top 10 of the FIFA world rankings, Egypt has qualified for the FIFA World Cup three times. Two goals from star player Mohamed Salah in their last qualifying game took Egypt through to the 2018 FIFA World Cup.[278] The Egyptian Youth National team Young Pharaohs won the Bronze Medal of the 2001 FIFA youth world cup in Argentina. Egypt was 4th place in the football tournament in the 1928 and the 1964 Olympics. Squash and tennis are other popular sports in Egypt. The Egyptian squash team has been competitive in international championships since the 1930s. Amr Shabana and Ramy Ashour are Egypt's best players and both were ranked the world's number one squash player. Egypt has won the Squash World Championships four times, with the last title being in 2017. In 1999, Egypt hosted the IHF World Men's Handball Championship, and will host it again in 2021. In 2001, the national handball team achieved its best result in the tournament by reaching fourth place. Egypt has won in the African Men's Handball Championship five times, being the best team in Africa. In addition to that, it also championed the Mediterranean Games in 2013, the Beach Handball World Championships in 2004 and the Summer Youth Olympics in 2010. Among all African nations, the Egypt national basketball team holds the record for best performance at the Basketball World Cup and at the Summer Olympics.[279][280] Further, the team has won a record number of 16 medals at the African Championship. Egypt has taken part in the Summer Olympic Games since 1912 and has hosted several other international competitions including the first Mediterranean Games in 1951, the 1991 All-Africa Games, the 2009 FIFA U-20 World Cup and the 1953, 1965 and 2007 editions of the Pan Arab Games. Telecommunication Main article: Telecommunications in Egypt The wired and wireless telecommunication industry in Egypt started in 1854 with the launch of the country's first telegram line connecting Cairo and Alexandria. The first telephone line between the two cities was installed in 1881.[281] In September 1999 a national project for a technological renaissance was announced reflecting the commitment of the Egyptian government to developing the country's IT-sector. Post Main article: Egypt Post Egypt Post is the company responsible for postal service in Egypt. Established in 1865, it is one of the oldest governmental institutions in the country. Egypt is one of 21 countries that contributed to the establishment of the Universal Postal Union, initially named the General Postal Union, as signatory of the Treaty of Bern. Social media In September 2018, Egypt ratified the law granting authorities the right to monitor social media users in the country as part of tightening internet controls.[282][283] Education Main article: Education in Egypt Cairo University. Egyptian literacy rate among the population aged 15 years and older by UNESCO Institute of Statistics The illiteracy rate has decreased since 1996 from 39.4 to 25.9 percent in 2013. The adult literacy rate as of July 2014[update] was estimated at 73.9%.[284] The illiteracy rate is highest among those over 60 years of age being estimated at around 64.9%, while illiteracy among youth between 15 and 24 years of age was listed at 8.6 percent.[285] A European-style education system was first introduced in Egypt by the Ottomans in the early 19th century to nurture a class of loyal bureaucrats and army officers.[286] Under British occupation investment in education was curbed drastically, and secular public schools, which had previously been free, began to charge fees.[286] In the 1950s, President Nasser phased in free education for all Egyptians.[286] The Egyptian curriculum influenced other Arab education systems, which often employed Egyptian-trained teachers.[286] Demand soon outstripped the level of available state resources, causing the quality of public education to deteriorate.[286] Today this trend has culminated in poor teacher–student ratios (often around one to fifty) and persistent gender inequality.[286] Basic education, which includes six years of primary and three years of preparatory school, is a right for Egyptian children from the age of six.[287] After grade 9, students are tracked into one of two strands of secondary education: general or technical schools. General secondary education prepares students for further education, and graduates of this track normally join higher education institutes based on the results of the Thanaweya Amma, the leaving exam.[287] Technical secondary education has two strands, one lasting three years and a more advanced education lasting five. Graduates of these schools may have access to higher education based on their results on the final exam, but this is generally uncommon.[287] Cairo University is ranked as 401–500 according to the Academic Ranking of World Universities (Shanghai Ranking)[288] and 551–600 according to QS World University Rankings. American University in Cairo is ranked as 360 according to QS World University Rankings and Al-Azhar University, Alexandria University and Ain Shams University fall in the 701+ range.[289] Egypt is currently opening new research institutes for the aim of modernising research in the nation, the most recent example of which is Zewail City of Science and Technology. Health Main article: Health in Egypt 57357 Hospital Egyptian life expectancy at birth was 73.20 years in 2011, or 71.30 years for males and 75.20 years for females. Egypt spends 3.7 percent of its gross domestic product on health including treatment costs 22 percent incurred by citizens and the rest by the state.[290] In 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 4.66% of the country's GDP. In 2009, there were 16.04 physicians and 33.80 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants.[291] As a result of modernisation efforts over the years, Egypt's healthcare system has made great strides forward. Access to healthcare in both urban and rural areas greatly improved and immunisation programs are now able to cover 98% of the population. Life expectancy increased from 44.8 years during the 1960s to 72.12 years in 2009. There was a noticeable decline of the infant mortality rate (during the 1970s to the 1980s the infant mortality rate was 101-132/1000 live births, in 2000 the rate was 50-60/1000, and in 2008 it was 28-30/1000).[292] According to the World Health Organization in 2008, an estimated 91.1% of Egypt's girls and women aged 15 to 49 have been subjected to genital mutilation,[293] despite being illegal in the country. In 2016 the law was amended to impose tougher penalties on those convicted of performing the procedure, pegging the highest jail term at 15 years. Those who escort victims to the procedure can also face jail terms up to 3 years.[294] The total number of Egyptians with health insurance reached 37 million in 2009, of which 11 million are minors, providing an insurance coverage of approximately 52 percent of Egypt's population.[295] See also Egypt portal Index of Egypt-related articles Outline of ancient Egypt Outline of Egypt Notes ^ The population of Egypt is estimated as being 90% Muslim, 9% Coptic Christian and 1% other Christian, though estimates vary.[236][237][238] Microsoft Encarta Online similarly estimates the Sunni population at 90% of the total.[239] The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life gave a higher estimate of the Muslim population, at 94.6%.[240] In 2017, the government-owned newspaper Al Ahram estimated the percentage of Christians at 10 to 15%.[241] References ^ a b Goldschmidt, Arthur (1988). Modern Egypt: The Formation of a Nation-State. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-86531-182-4. Archived from the original on 17 December 2020. Retrieved 20 June 2015. Among the peoples of the ancient Near East, only the Egyptians have stayed where they were and remained what they were, although they have changed their language once and their religion twice. In a sense, they constitute the world's oldest nation. For most of their history, Egypt has been a state, but only in recent years has it been truly a nation-state, with a government claiming the allegiance of its subjects on the basis of a common identity. ^ "Background Note: Egypt". United States Department of State Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs. 10 November 2010. Retrieved 5 March 2011. ^ Pierre Crabitès (1935). Ibrahim of Egypt. Routledge. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-415-81121-7. Archived from the original on 9 May 2013. Retrieved 10 February 2013. ... on July 9, 1805, Constantinople conferred upon Muhammad Ali the pashalik of Cairo ... ^ "Total area km2, pg.15" (PDF). Capmas.Gov – Arab Republic of Egypt. 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en-wikipedia-org-6380	----	Mentuhotep I - Wikipedia Mentuhotep I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Mentuhotep I[1] Montuhotep I, Mentuhotep-aa Sitting statue of Mentuhotep I from Elephantine, now in Cairo Pharaoh Reign c. 2135 BC (11th dynasty) Predecessor Intef the Elder Successor Intef I Royal titulary Nomen Mentuhotepaa mnṯw-ḥtp(w)ˁ3 Mentuhotep the great (litt. Montu is content, the great)[2] Alternative form: Itnetjeru Mentuhotepaa Merysatetnebetabu It-nṯrw mnṯw-ḥtp(w)ˁ3 mry sṯt nbt Abw Father of the gods, Mentuhotep the great, beloved of Satet, lady of Abu Horus name Hor Tepia Ḥr.(w)-tp [j] ˁ Horus the ancestor Consort Queen Neferu I Children Intef I ? Intef II ? Father possibly Intef the Elder Mentuhotep I (also Mentuhotep-aa, i.e. "the Great"[3]) may have been a Theban nomarch and independent ruler of Upper Egypt during the early First Intermediate Period. Alternatively, Mentuhotep I may be a fictional figure created during the later Eleventh Dynasty, which rose to prominence under Intef II and Mentuhotep II, playing the role of a founding father. Contents 1 Identity 2 Family 3 Reign 4 References Identity[edit] Mentuhotep was possibly a local Egyptian nomarch at Thebes during the early first intermediate period, ca. 2135 BC. The Karnak king list found in the Festival Hall of Thutmose III preserves, in position No. 12, the partial name "Men-" in a royal cartouche, distinct from those of Mentuhotep II (No. 29) or Mentuhotep III (No. 30). The available fragments of the Karnak list do not seem to represent past pharaohs in any chronological order, and thus one cannot ascertain if or when this "Men-" pharaoh lived. Many scholars have argued from the list that a Mentuhotep I, who might have been merely a Theban nomarch, was posthumously given a royal titulary by his successors; thus this conjectured personage is referred to conventionally as "Mentuhotep I".[4][5][6][7] The fact that no contemporary monument can safely be attributed to a king "Mentuhotep I" has led some Egyptologists to propose that he is a fictional ancestor and founder of the Eleventh dynasty, invented for that purpose during the later part of the dynasty. Karnak king list showing the partial name "Men..." in a cartouche (No. 12). On the base of a statue from the sanctuary of Heqaib on Elephantine, a Mentuhotep is referred to as "Father of the gods".[8][9] This title probably refers to Mentuhotep's immediate successors, Intef I and Intef II who reigned as kings over Upper Egypt. From this title, many Egyptologists argued that this Mentuhotep was probably the father of Intef I and II,[4][8][10] and also that he was never a pharaoh, as this title was usually reserved for the non-royal ancestors of pharaohs.[5][6][7][8] The throne name of Mentuhotep is unknown; since he might not have been a king, or no subsequent 11th Dynasty king bore any throne name until Mentuhotep II, it is probable that he never had one. His Horus name Tepi-a, "The ancestor" was certainly given to him posthumously.[11] Family[edit] See also: Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt family tree Mentuhotep's wife might have been Neferu I and the statue from Heqaib may be interpreted to show that he was the father of Intef I and II. The Karnak king list has apparently one non-royal personage (without cartouche), named Intef, in position no. 13. This could possibly refer to Intef the elder, son of Iku, a Theban nomarch loyal to the Herakleopolitan kings in the early first intermediate period. However, the kings on the remaining fragments are not listed in chronological order, so this is not at all certain. Reign[edit] As Theban nomarch, Mentuhotep's dominion perhaps extended south to the first cataract. Mentuhotep might hypothetically have formed an alliance with the nomarch of Coptos, which then brought his successor Intef I to war with the Herakleopolitan kings of the 10th Dynasty ruling over Lower Egypt and their powerful nomarch allies in Middle Egypt, in particular Ankhtifi. References[edit] ^ Annales du Service des Antiquités de l´Egypt Le Caire. Nr. 55, 1900, p. 178. ^ Clayton, Peter A. Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. p72. 2006. ISBN 0-500-28628-0 ^ Wolfram Grajetzki, The Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt: History, Archaeology and Society, Duckworth Egyptology, London 2006, ISBN 978-0715634356, pp. 10–11 ^ a b William C. Hayes, The Middle Kingdom in Egypt. Internal History from the Rise of the Heracleopolitans to the Death of Ammenemes III., in The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. I, part 2, Cambridge University Press, 1971, ISBN 0 521 077915, p. 476 ^ a b Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt (Oxford: Blackwell Books, 1992), p. 143. ^ a b Jürgen von Beckerath, Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen (= Münchner ägyptologische Studien, vol 46), Mainz am Rhein: Verlag Philipp von Zabern, 1999. ISBN 3-8053-2310-7, pp. 76–77. ^ a b Kim Ryholt, The Royal Canon of Turin, in Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss and David A. Warburton (eds.), Ancient Egyptian Chronology, Brill, Leiden/Boston, 2006, ISBN 978 90 04 11385 5, p. 30. ^ a b c Labib Habachi: "God's fathers and the role they played in the history of the First Intermediate Period", ASAE 55, p. 167ff. ^ Labib Habachi: The Sanctuary of Hequaib, Mainz 1985, photos of the statue: vol. II, pp. 187-89. ^ Louise Gestermann: Kontinuität und Wandel in Politik und Verwaltung des frühen Mittleren Reiches in Ägypten, Wiesbaden 1987, p. 26. ^ The name is preserved only on an old drawing of Émile Prisse d'Avennes, see Habachi, Figure 4. Preceded by As nomarch of Thebes: Intef the Elder Pharaoh of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty Succeeded by Intef I v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 11873296X VIAF: 20475582 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 20475582 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mentuhotep_I&oldid=994305677" Categories: Mentuhotep I 22nd-century BC Pharaohs Nomarchs People whose existence is disputed Pharaohs of the Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 15 December 2020, at 01:25 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6403	----	Category:5th-century BC Babylonian kings - Wikipedia Help Category:5th-century BC Babylonian kings From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is for 5th-century BC monarchs of Babylon. 10th BC 9th BC 8th BC 7th BC 6th BC 5th BC 4th BC 3rd BC 2nd BC 1st BC 1st Pages in category "5th-century BC Babylonian kings" The following 7 pages are in this category, out of 7 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). A Artaxerxes I Artaxerxes II D Darius the Great Darius II S Sogdianus X Xerxes I Xerxes II Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:5th-century_BC_Babylonian_kings&oldid=951479411" Categories: 5th-century BC monarchs 5th-century BC rulers in Asia Babylonian kings Hidden categories: CatAutoTOC generates no TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 17 April 2020, at 10:58 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6426	----	Sivand Dam - Wikipedia Sivand Dam From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sivand Dam is a dam built in 2007 in Fars Province, Iran.[1] Named after the nearby town of Sivand located northwest of Shiraz, it was the center of worldwide concern because of the flooding it would cause in historical and archaeologically rich areas of Ancient Persia and possible harm it may cause to the nearby UNESCO World Heritage Sites of Persepolis and Pasargadae.[2] Contents 1 Planning and history 2 Potential effects on Pasargadae 3 Completion 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Planning and history[edit] The Iranian government planned Sivand Dam for over 10 years, with a location on the Polvar River in the Tangeh Bolaghi (Bolaghi Gorge) in between the ruins of Persepolis and Pasargadae. Intended to allow irrigation in the arid region, the planning and initial site construction began in 1992, then was stopped for further planning and was reactivated in 2003. For the first decade, much of the planning was not made public; Iran's own Iranian Cultural Heritage Organization (ICHO) was not aware of total area of flooding until 2003. When the intentions for the dam were made public, international concern was raised regarding damage to any archaeological sites, particularly the two World Heritage Sites. Rumors spread that the dam would place the two ruins under water, spurring outcry and petitions of concerned experts and individuals. Scientists with the dam project dismissed the rumors outright, and Iranian officials pointed some blame for the rumors on the political opposition parties from outside Iran. Iranian Ministry of Energy studies have placed the furthest reaches of the lake approximately 7 kilometers to south of the plain of Murqab; that is 9 kilometers from Pasargadae and more than 70 kilometers from Persepolis. However, Iranian officials from the Ministry of Energy and ICHO did acknowledge that the lake will flood 130 Persian archeological sites and invited international teams to help excavate the area before construction commenced. In 2004, the United Nations issued an urgent international appeal for archaeologists to join the domestic effort to unearth and record what they could before the flooding. Teams from Germany, France, Italy, Japan, Poland, and the United States responded to the request for help.[2] One consequence of the dam's construction was an opportunity for extensive archaeological work in a historically rich area in a short amount of time. The oldest sites the international teams found were caves inhabited about 7,000 years ago.[citation needed] The archaeologists uncovered a narrow 9-mile dirt road believed to be the Royal Passage of the Achaemenids, connecting the two ancient cities, that was in use until the 18th century. The archaeological work caused the construction schedule of Sivand Dam to be pushed back. The area was originally supposed to be flooded by end of February 2006, but the discovery of an Achaemenid-era village and cemetery caused it to be delayed. Potential effects on Pasargadae[edit] Besides the certain flooding of 130 archaeological sites, larger concern has been levied at the dam's effect on nearby World Heritage Sites, particularly Pasargadae, an ancient capital of the Persian Empire built by Cyrus the Great and the site of his tomb. Experts involved with planning the dam deny this claim, noting that the site is well above and away from the eventual waterline. However, it is unknown how the dampness caused by the dam will affect the ruins. Archaeologists and scientists agree that the rise in humidity from the new lake will speed up the destruction of Pasargadae to some degree.[2] Although no preliminary environmental research has been carried out to assess the effects of humidity upon the constructions at Pasargadae, the Ministry of Energy believes it could be compensated by controlling the water level of the dam reservoir. In 2010, studies of the Pasargadae showed that groundwater levels in the area had risen as a result of the dam and lake. The higher groundwater levels and increased humidity were said to be directly affecting foundation failures and the forming of newer cracks in walls and platforms throughout the ruins.[3] Completion[edit] Sivand Dam was completed in 2007,[1] but the height of the lake behind it was delimited so that it would not harm the site of Cyrus the Great Mausoleum. Dr. Shahriar Adl was active in preserving the site.[4] See also[edit] Three Gorges Dam References[edit] ^ a b Cyrus the Great tomb needs constant monitoring of moisture Tehran Times, 6 August 2008 ^ a b c http://www.minervamagazine.com/news.html ^ Archaeology News Network, December 2010 ^ Lamentable Loss: Dr. Shahriar Adl died on June 21 2015 Date of Sivand Dam Inundation Not Yet Agreed Upon, Cultural Heritage News Agency, 29 May 2006, Accessed Sept. 15, 2006. Sivand Dam Waits for Excavations to be Finished, Cultural Heritage News Agency, 26 February 2006, Accessed Sept. 15, 2006. Sivand Dam’s Inundation Postponed for 6 Months, Cultural Heritage News Agency, 29 November 2005, Accessed Sept. 15, 2006. Nazila Fathi, A Rush to Excavate Ancient Iranian Sites, The New York Times, November 27, 2005; also accessible in full here. Ali Mousavi, Cyrus can rest in peace: Pasargadae and rumors about the dangers of Sivand Dam, Iranian.com, September 16, 2005 Pasargadae Will Never Drown, Cultural Heritage News Agency, 12 September 2005, Accessed Sept. 15, 2006. Rémy Boucharlat, News from Pasargadae, ANE: DISCUSSION LIST FOR THE STUDY OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST, University of Chicago listerv, 29 Dec 2004, Accessed Sept. 15, 2006 (Boucharlat is now the head of the French archaeological team in the region). Ancient Pasargadae threatened by construction of dam, Mehr News Agency, 28 August 2004, Accessed Sept. 15, 2006 External links[edit] Deutsches Archäologisches Institut (German Archaeological Institute), Iran: Darre-ye Bolāghi (in English). Kamyar Abdi, Sensationalism vs. Rationalism. The Sivand Dam: political sensationalism vs. archaeological rationalism, September 12, 2005, Iranian.com. Ali Mousavi, Cyrus can rest in peace. Pasargadae and rumors about the dangers of Sivand Dam, September 16, 2005, Iranian.com. v t e Persepolis Palace Tachara Gate of All Nations Other sections Tomb of Artaxerxes III builders Darius the Great Xerxes I Artaxerxes I of Persia Researchers Heidemarie Koch Erich Schmidt (archaeologist) Alireza Shapour Shahbazi Related Tangeh Bolaghi 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire Sivand Dam Persepolis Administrative Archives Waterskin Achaemenid architecture Category:Persepolis v t e Fars Province Capital Shiraz Counties and cities Abadeh County Abadeh Bahman Izadkhvast Soghad Surmaq Abadeh Tashk County Abadeh Tashk Arsanjan County Arsanjan Beyza County Beyza Bavanat County Surian Chenar Shahijan County Qaemiyeh Darab County Darab Jannat Shahr Eqlid County Eqlid Sedeh Estahban County Estahban Ij Runiz Evaz County Evaz Fishvar Farashband County Farashband Dehram Nujin Fasa County Fasa Now Bandegan Sheshdeh Zahedshahr Firuzabad County Firuzabad Meymand Gerash County Gerash Arad Jahrom County Jahrom Duzeh Qotbabad Kavar County Kavar Kazerun County Kazerun Baladeh Khesht Konartakhteh Nowdan Kharameh County Kharameh Khonj County Khonj Khorrambid County Safashahr Qaderabad Lamerd County Lamerd Ahel Alamarvdasht Eshkanan Larestan County Lar Beyram Banaruiyeh Juyom Khur Latifi Mamasani County Nurabad Khumeh Zar Marvdasht County Marvdasht Kamfiruz Ramjerd Seyyedan Mohr County Mohr Asir Galleh Dar Varavi Neyriz County Neyriz Meshkan Qatruyeh Pasargad County Saadat Shahr Qir and Karzin County Qir Efzar Karzin Rostam County Masiri Sarchehan County Korehi Sarvestan County Sarvestan Sepidan County Ardakan Hamashahr Zarqan County Lapui Zarqan Shiraz County Shiraz Darian Zarrin Dasht County Hajjiabad Dowbaran Shahr-e Pir Khafr County Bab Anar Khavaran Landmarks Afif-Abad Garden Amir's dam Arg of Karim Khan Barmdelak lagoon Bishapur Delgosha Garden Eram Garden Istakhr Ghal'eh Dokhtar Ka'ba-ye Zartosht Kazerun fire temple Lake Parishan Naqsh-e Rajab Naqsh-e Rustam Palace of Ardashir Sangtarashan cave Pars Museum Pasargadae Persepolis Qavam House Qur'an Gate Saadi's mausoleum Sarvestan Sassanian palace Shah Cheragh Colossal Statue of Shapur I in Shapur cave Tangeh Bolaghi Hāfezieh Tounbbot Vakil Bath Vakil Bazaar Vakil Mosque Populated places List of cities, towns and villages in Fars Province v t e Dams and reservoirs in Iran Major reservoirs and dams in Iran Alavian Dam Amir Kabir Dam Azad Dam Bust-e gez Dam Daryan Dam Dez Dam Doroodzan Dam Ashavan Dam Garan Dam Gavoshan Dam Iran–Turkmenistan Friendship Dam Jiroft dam Shahid Abbaspour Dam Masjed Soleyman Dam Karun-3 Dam Karun-4 Dam Karkheh dam Khoda Afarin Dam Kouhrang 1 Dam Kouhrang 2 Dam Lar Dam Latyan Dam Mahabad Dam Mamloo Dam Marun Dam Rudbar Lorestan Dam Sardasht Dam Sefidrud Dam Seimare Dam Shahid Rajaee Dam Shahid Talebi Dam Shamo Dam Siah Bishe Pumped Storage Power Plant Silveh Dam Sivand Dam Sumbar Dam Tarik Dam Upper Gotvand Dam Zayanderud Dam Under construction Aras Watershed Dam Bakhtiari Dam Khersan-3 Dam Kouhrang 3 Dam Ancient dams Band-e Kaisar Boz Dam Jaber Dam Jawid Dam Kebar Dam Kurit Dam Shahi Dam Great Hagi Jaffar Dam Also See: Dams and reservoirs in Iran Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sivand_Dam&oldid=933231267" Categories: Dams completed in 2007 Dams in Iran Reservoirs in Iran Buildings and structures in Fars Province Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2007 Fars Province articles missing geocoordinate data All articles needing coordinates Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages فارسی Edit links This page was last edited on 30 December 2019, at 18:33 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6429	----	Thessaly - Wikipedia Thessaly From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the historical and geographical region of Greece. For the ancient region, see Ancient Thessaly. For the Vertigo Comics character, see Thessaly (comics). "Thessalia" redirects here. For the namesake butterfly genus, see Chlosyne. "Thessalian" redirects here. For the ancient Thessalian dialect, see Aeolic Greek. administrative region of Greece Place in Thessaly and Central Greece, Greece Thessaly Θεσσαλία  (Greek) Administrative region of Greece Traditional region of Greece Thessaly within Greece Coordinates: 39°36′N 22°12′E / 39.6°N 22.2°E / 39.6; 22.2Coordinates: 39°36′N 22°12′E / 39.6°N 22.2°E / 39.6; 22.2 Country  Greece Decentralized Administration Thessaly and Central Greece Cession 1881 Capital Larissa Port city Volos Regional units List Karditsa Larissa Magnesia Trikala Sporades Government  • Regional governor Konstantinos Agorastos [el] (New Democracy) Area  • Total 14,036.64 km2 (5,419.58 sq mi) Population (2011)[1]  • Total 732,762  • Density 52/km2 (140/sq mi) Demonym(s) Thessalian Time zone UTC+2 (EET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+3 (EEST) ISO 3166 code GR-E HDI (2018) 0.850[2] very high · 9th Website www.pthes.gov.gr Thessaly (Greek: Θεσσαλία, romanized: Thessalía, [θesaˈli.a]; ancient Thessalian: Πετθαλία, Petthalía) is a traditional geographic and modern administrative region of Greece, comprising most of the ancient region of the same name. Before the Greek Dark Ages, Thessaly was known as Aeolia (Ancient Greek: Αἰολία, Aiolía), and appears thus in Homer's Odyssey. Thessaly became part of the modern Greek state in 1881, after four and a half centuries of Ottoman rule. Since 1987 it has formed one of the country's 13 regions[3] and is further (since the Kallikratis reform of 2011) sub-divided into five regional units and 25 municipalities. The capital of the region is Larissa. Thessaly lies in northern Greece and borders the regions of Macedonia on the north, Epirus on the west, Central Greece on the south, and the Aegean Sea on the east. The Thessaly region also includes the Sporades islands. Contents 1 Mythology 2 History 2.1 Ancient history 2.2 Byzantine period 2.3 Late Medieval and Ottoman period 2.4 Modern 2.5 Language 3 Geography 3.1 Climate 4 Demographics 5 Major communities 6 Economy 7 Transport 8 Administration 9 Ancient coinage 10 See also 11 References 12 Sources 13 External links Mythology[edit] In Homer's epic, the Odyssey, the hero Odysseus visited the kingdom of Aeolus, which was the old name for Thessaly. The Plain of Thessaly, which lies between Mount Oeta/Othrys and Mount Olympus, was the site of the battle between the Titans and the Olympians. According to legend, Jason and the Argonauts launched their search for the Golden Fleece from the Magnesia Peninsula. History[edit] Main article: History of Thessaly Map of ancient Thessaly The first ancient theatre of Larissa. It was constructed inside the ancient city's centre during the reign of Antigonus II Gonatas towards the end of the 3rd century BC. The theatre was in use for six centuries, until the end of the 3rd century AD Ancient history[edit] Further information: Ancient Thessaly and Roman Greece Thessaly was home to extensive Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures around 6000–2500 BC (see Cardium pottery, Dimini and Sesklo). Mycenaean settlements have also been discovered, for example at the sites of Iolcos, Dimini and Sesklo (near Volos). In Archaic and Classical times, the lowlands of Thessaly became the home of baronial families, such as the Aleuadae of Larissa or the Scopads of Crannon. In the summer of 480 BC, the Persians invaded Thessaly. The Greek army that guarded the Vale of Tempe evacuated the road before the enemy arrived. Not much later, Thessaly surrendered to the Persians.[4] The Thessalian family of Aleuadae joined the Persians subsequently. In the 4th century BC, after the Greco-Persian Wars had long ended, Jason of Pherae transformed the region into a significant military power, recalling the glory of Early Archaic times. Shortly after, Philip II of Macedon was appointed Archon of Thessaly, and Thessaly was thereafter associated with the Macedonian Kingdom for the next centuries. Thessaly later became part of the Roman Empire as part of the province of Macedonia; when that was broken up, the name resurfaced in two of its late Roman successor provinces: Thessalia Prima and Thessalia Secunda. Byzantine period[edit] Further information: Byzantine Greece Part of the Byzantine castle of Trikala View of the Panagia Olympiotissa Monastery in Elassona Thessaly remained part of the East Roman "Byzantine" Empire after the collapse of Roman power in the west, and subsequently suffered many invasions, such as by the Slavic tribe of the Belegezites in the 7th century AD.[5] The Avars had arrived in Europe in the late 550s.[6]:29 They asserted their authority over many Slavs, who were divided into numerous petty tribes.[7] Many Slavs were galvanized into an effective infantry force, by the Avars. In the 7th century the Avar-Slav alliance began to raid the Byzantine Empire, laying siege to Thessalonica and even the imperial capital Constantinople itself. By the 8th century, Slavs had occupied most of the Balkans from Austria to the Peloponnese, and from the Adriatic to the Black seas, with the exception of the coastal areas and certain mountainous regions of the Greek peninsula.[8] Relations between the Slavs and Greeks were probably peaceful apart from the (supposed) initial settlement and intermittent uprisings.[9] Being agriculturalists, the Slavs probably traded with the Greeks inside towns.[10] It is likely that the re-Hellenization had already begun by way of this contact. This process would be completed by a newly reinvigorated Byzantine Empire. With the abatement of Arab-Byzantine Wars, the Byzantine Empire began to consolidate its power in those areas of mainland Greece occupied by Proto-Slavic tribes. Following the campaigns of the Byzantine general Staurakios in 782–783, the Byzantine Empire recovered Thessaly, taking many Slavs as prisoners.[11] Apart from military expeditions against Slavs, the re-Hellenization process begun under Nicephorus I involved (often forcible) transfer of peoples.[12] Many Slavs were moved to other parts of the empire such as Anatolia and made to serve in the military.[13] In return, many Greeks from Sicily and Asia Minor were brought to the interior of Greece, to increase the number of defenders at the Emperor's disposal and dilute the concentration of Slavs.[14] Late Medieval and Ottoman period[edit] Further information: Great Vlachia, Duchy of Neopatria, and Ottoman Greece Coat of arms of the Duchy of Neopatras. In 977 Byzantine Thessaly was raided by the Bulgarian Empire. In 1066 dissatisfaction with the taxation policy led the Aromanian and Bulgarian population of Thessaly to revolt against the Byzantine Empire under the leadership of a local lord, Nikoulitzas Delphinas. The revolt, which began in Larissa, soon expanded to Trikala and later northwards to the Byzantine-Bulgarian border.[15] In 1199–1201 another unsuccessful revolt was led by Manuel Kamytzes, son-in-law of Byzantine emperor Alexios III Angelos, with the support of Dobromir Chrysos, the autonomous ruler of Prosek. Kamytzes managed to establish a short-lived principality in northern Thessaly, before he was overcome by an imperial expedition.[16] "The Hyperian Fountain at Pherae", during the Ottoman era, by Edward Dodwell. Following the siege of Constantinople and the dissolution of the Byzantine Empire by the Fourth Crusade in April 1204, Thessaly passed to Boniface of Montferrat's Kingdom of Thessalonica in the wider context of the Frankokratia.[17][18] In 1212, Michael I Komnenos Doukas, ruler of Epirus, led his troops into Thessaly. Larissa and much of central Thessaly came under Epirote rule, thereby separating Thessalonica from the Crusader principalities in southern Greece.[19] Michael's work was completed by his half-brother and successor, Theodore Komnenos Doukas, who by 1220 completed the recovery of the entire region.[20] One of the flags used in Thessaly during the Greek War of Independence (designed by Anthimos Gazis). The Vlachs of Thessaly (originally a chiefly transhumant Romance-speaking population)[21][22] first appear in Byzantine sources in the 11th century, in the Strategikon of Kekaumenos and Anna Komnene's Alexiad).[21][22] In the 12th century, the Jewish traveller Benjamin of Tudela records the existence of the district of "Vlachia" near Halmyros in eastern Thessaly, while the Byzantine historian Niketas Choniates places "Great Vlachia" near Meteora. The term is also used by the 13th-century scholar George Pachymeres, and it appears as a distinct administrative unit in 1276, when the pinkernes Raoul Komnenos was its governor (kephale).[21] From 1271 to 1318 Thessaly was an independent despotate that extended to Acarnania and Aetolia, run by John I Doukas. In 1309 the Almogavars or Catalan Company of the East (Societas Catalanorum Magna), settled in Thessaly. In 1310, after lifting the siege of Thessalonica, the Almogavars withdrew as mercenaries in the pay of the sebastokrator John II Doukas and took over the country. From there they departed to the Duchy of Athens, called by the duke Walter I. In 1318, with the extinction of the Angelid dynasty, the Almogavars occupied Siderokastron and southern Thessaly (1319) and formed the Duchy of Neopatria. In 1348, Thessaly was invaded and occupied by the Serbs under Preljub. After the latter's death in 1356, the region was conquered by Nikephoros Orsini, and after his death three years later, it was taken over by the self-proclaimed Serbian emperor Simeon Uroš. Simeon's son John Uroš succeeded in 1370 but abdicated in 1373, and Thessaly was administered by the Greek Angeloi-Philanthropenoi clan until the Ottoman conquest c. 1393. Ottoman control was disputed by the Byzantines until the 1420s when it was consolidated by Turahan Bey, who settled Turkomans in the province and founded the town of Tyrnavos. The territory was ruled through the Sanjak of Tirhala administrative division during the Ottoman period. Modern[edit] The port of Volos In 1600, a short-lived rebellion broke out in the region. Rigas Feraios, the important Greek intellectual and forerunner of the Greek War of Independence was from the region. He was born in Velestino,[23] near the ancient town of Pherae. In 1821, parts of Thessaly and Magnesia participated in the initial uprisings in the Greek War of Independence, but these revolts were swiftly crushed. Thessaly became part of the modern Greek state in 1881, after the Convention of Constantinople except the area around the town of Elassona, which remained in Ottoman hands until 1912. It was briefly captured by Ottomans during the Greco-Turkish War of 1897. After the Treaty of Constantinople (1897), Greece was forced to cede minor border areas and to pay heavy reparations. The remaining part of Thessaly held by the Ottomans was finally regained by the Greeks during the First Balkan War in 1912. During World War II, Thessaly was occupied by the Kingdom of Italy from April 1941 to September of 1943. After the Armistice of Cassibile, Germany occupied Thessaly until October 1944. Language[edit] The Aeolic dialect of Thessalian was spoken in Thessaly. This included several local varieties, in particular the variants of Pelasgiotis and Thessaliotis. The language was not written.[24] Geography[edit] Panoramic view of Meteora valley Vale of Tempe Volos view from Pelion mountain. Litheos river flowing through the city of Trikala Skiathos island Thessaly occupies the east side of the Pindus watershed, extending south from Macedonia to the Aegean Sea. The northern tier of Thessaly is defined by a generally southwest-northeast spur of the Pindus range that includes Mount Olympus, close to the Macedonian border. Within that broken spur of mountains are several basins and river valleys. The easternmost extremity of the spur extends southeastward from Mount Olympus along the Aegean coast, terminating in the Magnesia Peninsula that envelops the Pagasetic Gulf (also called the Gulf of Volos), and forms an inlet of the Aegean Sea. Thessaly's major river, the Pineios, flows eastward from the central Pindus Range just south of the spur, emptying into the Thermaic Gulf. The Trikala and Larissa lowlands form a central plain which is surrounded by a ring of mountains. It has distinct summer and winter seasons, with summer rains augmenting the fertility of the plains. This has led to Thessaly occasionally being called the "breadbasket of Greece". The region is well delineated by topographical boundaries. The Chasia and Kamvounia mountains lie to the north, the Mount Olympus massif to the northeast. To the west lies the Pindus mountain range, to the southeast the coastal mountains of Óssa and Pelion. Several tributaries of the Pineios flow through the region. Climate[edit] Most of the province has a hot summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csa), but also found is a cold semi-arid climate (BSk) including the capital Larissa (on its Mediterranean edge of category). Even in the north of Thessaly a rare humid subtropical climate (Cfa) can be found, although it is different from a climate typically below or above the tropics, it also marks the limit of this rare Cf subtype on the European continent (e. g. the small village of Kalvia).[25] Demographics[edit] According to the census conducted by ESYE in 2011, the population of the region of Thessaly is 732,762 and represents 6.8% of the total population of the country. A 2.8% decrease in the population since 2001 was noted, but Thessaly remains the third largest region in the country in terms of population. The population break-down is 44% urban, 40% agrarian, and 16% semi-urban. A decrease in the agrarian population has been accompanied by an increase in the semi-urban population. The metropolitan area of Larissa, the capital of Thessaly, is home to more than 230,000 people, making it the biggest city of the region. Major communities[edit] Kardítsa (Καρδίτσα) Lárisa (Λάρισα) Tríkala (Τρίκαλα) Vólos (Βόλος) Néa Ionía (Νέα Ιωνία) (Metropolitan area of Volos) Elassóna (Ελασσόνα) Fársala (Φάρσαλα) Economy[edit] The alluvial soils of the Pineios Basin and its tributaries make Thessaly a vital agricultural area, particularly for the production of grain, cattle, and sheep. Modernization of agricultural practices in the mid-20th century has controlled the chronic flooding that had restricted agricultural expansion and diversification in the low-lying plains. Thessaly is the leading cattle-raising area of Greece, and Vlach shepherds move large flocks of sheep and goats seasonally between higher and lower elevations. In the last few decades, there has been a rise in the cultivation of dried nuts such as almonds, pistachios, and walnuts, especially in the region of Almyros. An increase in the number of olive oil trees has been also observed. The nearly landlocked Gulf of Pagasai provides a natural harbor at Volos for shipping agricultural products from the plains and chromium from the mountains. The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the province was 9.7 billion € in 2018, accounting for 5.2% of Greek economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 16,100 € or 53% of the EU27 average in the same year. The GDP per employee was 65% of the EU average.[26] The unemployment rate stood at 20.6% in 2017.[27] Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 unemployment rate (in %) 8.2 7.8 8.3 9.2 12.1 16.8 22.6 25.4 25.4 26.9 25.5 20.6 Transport[edit] There are a number of highways such as E75, and the main railway from Athens to Thessaloniki (Salonika) crosses Thessaly. The region is directly linked to the rest of Europe through International Airport of Central Greece, which is located in Nea Anchialos, a small distance from Volos and Larisa. Charter flights link the region and bring tourists to the wider area, mainly in Pelion and Meteora. The new infrastructure includes a brand new terminal ready to serve 1500 passengers per hour and new airplanes. Administration[edit] Although the historical region of Thessaly extended south into Phthiotis and at times north into West Macedonia, today the term 'Thessaly' is identified with the modern Administrative Region which was established in the 1987 administrative reform. With the 2010 Kallikratis plan, the powers and authority of the region were redefined and extended. Along with Central Greece, it is supervised by the Decentralized Administration of Thessaly and Central Greece, based at Larissa. The region of Thessaly is divided into five regional units (four were pre-Kallikratis prefectures), Karditsa, Larissa, Magnesia, the Sporades and Trikala, which are further subdivided into twenty-five municipalities. Municipal Populations in Thessaly Regional Unit Municipality Population (2011) Larissa Agia 11,470 Larissa Elassona 32,121 Larissa Farsala 18,545 Larissa Kileler 20,854 Larissa Larissa 162,591 Larissa Tempi 13,712 Larissa Tyrnavos 25,032 Sporades Skiathos 6,610 Sporades Skopelos 4,960 Sporades Alonnisos 2,750 Magnesia Almyros 18,614 Magnesia Rigas Feraios 10,922 Magnesia South Pelion 10,216 Magnesia Volos 144,449 Magnesia Zagora-Mouresi 5,809 Karditsa Argithea 3,450 Karditsa Karditsa 56,747 Karditsa Lake Plastiras 4,635 Karditsa Mouzaki 13,122 Karditsa Palamas 16,726 Karditsa Sofades 18,864 Trikala Farkadona 13,396 Trikala Kalampaka 21,991 Trikala Pyli 14,343 Trikala Trikala 81,355 The region's governor is Konstantinos Agorastos [el] (New Democracy), who was elected in the 2010 local elections and re-elected in 2014 and 2019. Ancient coinage[edit] Silver hemidrachm of Pharsalos struck 450-400 BC Silver hemidrachm of Trikka struck 440-400 BC Silver hemidrachm of Thessalian League struck 470-460 BC Bronze coin of Ekkarra struck 325-320 BC Bronze coin of Krannon struck 400-344 BC Hemidrachm coin of Pelinna struck 460-420 BC See also[edit] Vale of Tempe List of traditional Greek place names CERETETH, Center of Technology Thessaly References[edit] ^ "Demographic and social characteristics of the Resident Population of Greece according to the 2011 Population" (PDF). Housing Census. Hellenic Statistical Authority. September 12, 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 8, 2015. Retrieved March 20, 2014. ^ "Sub-national HDI - Area Database - Global Data Lab". hdi.globaldatalab.org. Retrieved 2018-09-13. ^ Π.Δ. (March 6, 1987). Καθορισμός των Περιφερειών της Χώρας για το σχεδιασμό κ.λ.π. της Περιφερειακής Ανάπτυξης [Determination of the Regions of the Country for the planning etc. of the development of the regions]. ΦΕΚ. pp. 51/87. ^ Rhodes, P.J. (September 30, 2014). A Short History of Ancient Greece. I.B. Tauris. p. 59. ISBN 9781780765945. Retrieved December 24, 2014. ^ de Laet, Sigfried J.; Herrmann, Joachim (January 1, 1996). "The Invasion of Slaves and Avars (c. 568 to 626)". In Tapkova-Zaimova, Vasilka (ed.). History of Humanity: From the seventh century B.C. to the seventh century A.D. UNESCO. p. 252. ISBN 978-92-3-102812-0. ^ Fine, John V. A., Jr. 1983, Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey From the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century, University of Michigan Press ISBN 9780472100255 ^ Fine 1991, p. 30. ^ Fine 1991, p. 36. ^ Fine 1991, p. 63. ^ Fine 1991, p. 61. ^ Fine 1991, p. 79. ^ Fine 1991, p. 81. ^ Fine 1991, p. 66. ^ Fine 1991, p. 82. ^ Fine 1991, p. 216. ^ Fine 1994, p. 32. ^ Fine 1994, pp. 63. ^ Fine 1994, pp. 64. ^ Fine 1994, p. 68. ^ Fine 1994, p. 114. ^ a b c Kazhdan 1991, p. 2183. ^ a b Kazhdan 1991, p. 2184. ^ Daskalov, Roumen Dontchev; Marinov, Tchavdar (June 13, 2013). Entangled Histories of the Balkans: National Ideologies and Language Policies. 1. Brill Publishers. p. 159. ISBN 978-9004250765. ^ Frits Waanders, “Thessalian”, in: Encyclopedia of Ancient Greek Language and Linguistics, Managing Editors Online Edition: First Last. Consulted online on 31 August 2020 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2214-448X_eagll_COM_00000349> ^ "Updated Köppen-Geiger climate map of the world". people.eng.unimelb.edu.au. Retrieved 2019-01-18. ^ "Regional GDP per capita ranged from 30% to 263% of the EU average in 2018". Eurostat. ^ "Regional Unemployment by NUTS2 Region". Eurostat. Sources[edit] Fine, John V. A. Jr. (1991) [1983]. The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08149-7. Fine, John Van Antwerp (1994) [1987]. The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08260-4. Kazhdan, Alexander (1991). "Vlachia". In Kazhdan, Alexander (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Smith, William, ed. (1857). "Thessalia". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography. 2. Walton and Mayberly. pp. 1165–1170. Retrieved 12 October 2018. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Thessalia. Official website (in Greek) Bagnall, R., J. Drinkwater, A. Esmonde-Cleary, W. Harris, R. Knapp, S. Mitchell, S. Parker, C. Wells, J. Wilkes, R. Talbert, M. E. Downs, M. Joann McDaniel, B. Z. Lund, T. Elliott, S. Gillies. "Places: 991374 (Thessalia)". Pleiades. Retrieved March 8, 2012.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) v t e Administrative division of the Thessaly Region Area 14,037 km2 (5,420 sq mi) Population 732,762 (as of 2011) Municipalities 25 (since 2011) Capital Larissa Regional unit of Karditsa Argithea Karditsa Lake Plastiras Mouzaki Palamas Sofades Regional unit of Larissa Agia Elassona Farsala Kileler Larissa Tempi Tyrnavos Regional unit of Magnesia Almyros Rigas Feraios South Pelion Volos Zagora-Mouresi Regional unit of the Sporades Alonnisos Skiathos Skopelos Regional unit of Trikala Farkadona Meteora Pyli Trikala Regional governor Konstantinos Agorastos [el] (reelected 2014) Decentralized Administration Thessaly and Central Greece v t e Administrative regions of Greece Attica Central Greece Central Macedonia Crete Eastern Macedonia and Thrace Epirus Ionian Islands Northern Aegean Peloponnese Southern Aegean Thessaly Western Greece Western Macedonia v t e Traditional geographic regions of Greece Aegean Islands Central Greece (Attica) Crete Epirus Ionian Islands Macedonia Peloponnese Thessaly Thrace Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thessaly&oldid=997539822" Categories: Thessaly NUTS 2 statistical regions of the European Union Administrative regions of Greece Northern Greece Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Short description is different from Wikidata Pages using infobox settlement with bad settlement type Articles containing Greek-language text Coordinates on Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Commons category link is locally defined Articles with Greek-language sources (el) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Alemannisch Asturianu Azərbaycanca Bân-lâm-gú Brezhoneg Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Føroyskt Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Македонски მარგალური Nederlands 日本語 Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk پنجابی Polski Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 1 January 2021, at 01:10 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6432	----	Ptolemy VIII Physcon - Wikipedia Ptolemy VIII Physcon From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II Coin of Ptolemy VIII Pharaoh from the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt Reign c. 169–164 BC with Ptolemy VI and Cleopatra II c. 144–132/1 BC with Cleopatra II and Cleopatra III c. 126–116 BC with Cleopatra II and Cleopatra III (Ptolemaic) Predecessor Ptolemy VI and Cleopatra II Successor Ptolemy IX and Cleopatra III Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) jwꜤ-n-nṯrwj-prwj stp.n-ptḥ jrj-mꜢꜤt-rꜤ sḫm-Ꜥnḫ-n-jmn Iwaennetjerwyperwy setepenptah irymaatre sekhemankhenamun Heir of the two gods, chosen by Ptah, who has accomplished the Maat (of?) Ra, the living image of Amun Nomen ptwlmjs Ꜥnḫ-ḏt mrj-ptḥ Ptolemys ankhdjet meryptah Ptolemaios, living forever, beloved of Ptah Horus name ḥwnw ḥkn.tw-m-Ꜥnḫ.f-ḥr-nst-jt.f mꜤr-zpw ḏsr-msḫꜤw.f-ḥnꜤ-ḥpw-Ꜥnḫ Hunu hekentuemankhefhernesetitef marzepu djesermeskhauefhenahapuankh The youthful one, about whose life on his father’s throne one is joyful, successful of deeds, and whose appearances with the living Apis bull are sacred Second Horus name: ḥwnw ḥkn.tw-ḥr-nst-jt.f tjt-ḏsr(t)-nt-nsw-nṯrw stp-n-jmn-ḏs.f Hunu hekentuhernesutitef titdjeser(et)netnesunetjeru setepenamundjesef The youthful one, about whose father’s throne one is joyful, the sacred image of the king of the gods, chosen by Atum himself Third Horus name: ḥwnw ḥri-tp-pḏt zꜢ-wsjrj msj-n-Ꜣst šzp-n.f-nsyt-rꜤ-mꜤ-jt.f Hunu heryteppedjet zausiry mesyenaset shesepenefnesytramaitef The youthful one, leader of the Nine Bows, the son of Osiris, whom Isis has borne, who has received for himself the kingship of Ra from his father’s hand Nebty name shrw-jb-tꜢwj Seheruibtawy Who has pleased the Two Lands Golden Horus wr-pḥtj nb-ḥbw-sd-mj-jt.f-ptḥ-tꜢ-ṯnn-jt-nṯrw-jty-mj-rꜤ Werpehty nebhabusedmitefptahtatjenenitnetjeruitymire The one great of strength, a possessor of Sed festivals like his father Ptah Tatenen, the father of the gods, and a sovereign like Ra Consort Cleopatra II of Egypt Cleopatra III of Egypt Children By Cleopatra II: Ptolemy Memphites By Cleopatra III: Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander I Cleopatra IV Tryphaena Cleopatra Selene I By Eirene(?): Ptolemy Apion Father Ptolemy V Epiphanes Mother Cleopatra I Syra Born c. 184 BC[1] Died 28 June 116 BC (aged around 68)[1][2] Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II Tryphon[note 1] (Greek: Πτολεμαῖος Εὐεργέτης Τρύφων, Ptolemaĩos Euergétēs Tryphon "Ptolemy the Benefactor, the luxurious"; c. 184 BC – 28 June 116 BC), nicknamed Physcon (Φύσκων "Fatty"), was a king of the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt. He was the younger son of Ptolemy V Epiphanes and Cleopatra I Syra. His reign was characterised by fierce political and military conflict with his older brother Ptolemy VI Philometor and his sister Cleopatra II. Ptolemy VIII was originally made co-ruler with his older siblings in the run-up to the Sixth Syrian War. In the course of that war, Ptolemy VI was captured and Ptolemy VIII became sole king of Egypt. When the war ended and Ptolemy VI was restored to the throne in 168 BC, the two brothers continued to quarrel. In 164 BC Ptolemy VIII drove out his brother and became sole king of the Ptolemaic empire, but he was expelled in turn in 163 BC. As a result of Roman intervention, Ptolemy VIII was awarded control of Cyrenaica. From there he repeatedly tried to capture Cyprus, which had also been promised to him by the Romans, from his brother. After Ptolemy VI's death in 145 BC, Ptolemy VIII returned to Egypt as co-ruler with his sister. His cruel treatment of opposition and his decision to marry his niece Cleopatra III and promote her to the status of co-regent led to a civil war from 132 to 126 BC, in which Cleopatra II controlled Alexandria and enjoyed the support of the Greek population of the country, while Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III controlled most of the rest of Egypt and were supported by the native Egyptians. During this war, native Egyptians were promoted to the highest echelons of the Ptolemaic government for the first time. Ptolemy was victorious and ruled alongside Cleopatra II and Cleopatra III until his death in 116 BC. The ancient Greek sources on Ptolemy VIII are extremely hostile, characterising him as cruel and mocking him as fat and degenerate, as part of a contrast with Ptolemy VI, whom they present extremely positively. The historian Günther Höbl calls him "one of the most brutal and at the same time one of the shrewdest politicians of the Hellenistic Age."[2] Contents 1 Background and early life 2 First reign (170–163 BC) 2.1 Accession and the Sixth Syrian War (170–168 BC) 2.2 From joint rule to sole rule (168–163 BC) 3 Reign in Cyrenaica (163–145 BC) 4 Second reign (145–132 BC) 5 Civil war (132–126 BC) 6 Third reign (126–116 BC) 7 Regime 7.1 Ptolemaic dynastic cult 7.2 Pharaonic ideology and traditional Egyptian religion 7.3 Alexandrian Scholarship 7.4 Indian Ocean trade 8 Marriage and issue 9 Ancestry 10 Notes 11 References 12 Bibliography 13 External links Background and early life[edit] Coin of Ptolemy V Epiphanes, the father of Ptolemy VIII. Ptolemy was the younger son of Ptolemy V Epiphanes, who reigned from 204-180 BC. Ptolemy V's reign had been dominated by the Fifth Syrian War (204–198 BC), in which the Ptolemaic realm fought against the Seleucid king Antiochus III, who ruled the Near East and Asia Minor. In that war, Antiochus III had completely defeated the Ptolemaic forces, had annexed Coele-Syria and Judaea to his empire, and reduced Egypt to a subordinate position.[3] The new situation was solidified with a peace treaty, in which Ptolemy V married Antiochus' daughter Cleopatra I in 194 BC.[4] Ptolemy VI Philometor was the eldest son of the couple, born in 186 BC, and was the heir to the throne from birth. The exact date of Ptolemy VIII's birth is unknown, but it was probably around 184 BC.[1] He also had an elder sister, Cleopatra II, who was probably born between 186 and 184 BC. The defeat in the Fifth Syrian War cast a shadow over the rest of Ptolemy V's reign. One prominent faction within the Ptolemaic court agitated for a return to war in order to restore Egyptian prestige, while another faction resisted the expense involved in rebuilding and remilitarising the realm.[3] When Ptolemy V died unexpectedly in September 180 BC, at the age of only 30, he was succeeded by Ptolemy VI. Since the new king was only six years old, actual power rested with the regents - first Cleopatra I (180–178/7 BC) and then Eulaeus and Lenaeus (178/7–170 BC). These regents were more closely associated with the peaceful faction and, as a result, members of the warhawk faction seem to have begun to look to the young Ptolemy VIII as a potential figurehead for their movement.[5] First reign (170–163 BC)[edit] Accession and the Sixth Syrian War (170–168 BC)[edit] Antiochus IV Epiphanes Main article: Sixth Syrian War The Seleucid king Seleucus IV, who had followed a generally peaceful policy, was murdered in 175 BC and after two months of conflict his brother Antiochus IV Epiphanes secured the throne.[6] The unsettled situation empowered the warhawks in the Ptolemaic court and Eulaeus and Lenaeus made efforts to conciliate them. By 172 BC, they seem to have embraced the warhawks' position.[7] In October 170 BC, Ptolemy VIII, now about sixteen, was promoted to the status of co-regent and incorporated into the Ptolemaic dynastic cult as one of the Theoi Philometores (Mother-loving gods) alongside his brother and sister, who had now been married to one another. The current year was declared the first year of a new era.[1][8][9] John Grainger argues that the these ceremonies were intended to paper over the factional differences that had developed in the court and to promote unity in the run-up to war.[5] Ptolemy VI remained the senior king, as demonstrated later in 170 BC by the declaration of Ptolemy VI's adulthood and the celebration of his coming-of-age ceremony (the anakleteria), marking the formal end of the regency government. In practice, however, the regents Eulaeus and Lenaeus remained in charge of the government.[10][11][1] The Sixth Syrian War broke out shortly after this, probably in early 169 BC.[11] Ptolemy VIII probably remained in Alexandria, while the Ptolemaic army set out from the border fort of Pelusium to invade Palestine. The Ptolemaic army was intercepted and decimated by Antiochus IV's army in the Sinai.[12] The defeated army withdrew to the Nile Delta, while Antiochus seized Pelusium and then moved on the Delta.[13] As a result of this defeat, Eulaeus and Lenaeus were toppled by a military coup and replaced with two prominent Ptolemaic generals, Comanus and Cineas.[14] As Antiochus advanced on Alexandria, Ptolemy VI went out to meet him. They negotiated an agreement of friendship, which in effect reduced Egypt to a Seleucid client state.[15][16] When news of the agreement reached Alexandria, the people of the city rioted. Comanus and Cineas rejected the agreement, rejected Ptolemy VI's authority and declared Ptolemy VIII the sole king (Cleopatra II's position remained unchanged).[17][18] Antiochus responded by placing Alexandria under siege, but he was unable to take the city and withdrew from Egypt in September 169 BC, as winter approached, leaving Ptolemy VI as his puppet king in Memphis and retaining a garrison in Pelusium.[19][20] Within two months, Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra II reconciled with Ptolemy VI and he returned to Alexandria as their co-regent. The restored government repudiated the agreement that Ptolemy VI had made with Antiochus and began to recruit new troops from Greece.[21][22] In response, in spring 168 BC, Antiochus invaded Egypt for a second time. Officially, this invasion was justified by the claim that Ptolemy VIII had unjustly appropriated his older brother's authority.[23] Antiochus quickly occupied Memphis and was crowned king of Egypt and advanced on Alexandria.[24] However, the Ptolemies had appealed to Rome for help over the winter and a Roman embassy led by Gaius Popillius Laenas confronted Antiochus at the town of Eleusis and forced him to agree to a settlement, bringing the war to an end.[25][26][27] From joint rule to sole rule (168–163 BC)[edit] Ring of Ptolemy VI Philometor as Egyptian pharaoh (Louvre) Initially, the joint rule of the two brothers and Cleopatra II, which had been established during the war, continued. But the complete failure of the Egyptian forces in the Sixth Syrian War had left the Ptolemaic monarchy's prestige seriously diminished and it caused a permanent rift between Ptolemy VI and Ptolemy VIII.[28] In 165 BC, Dionysius Petosarapis, a prominent courtier who appears to have been of native Egyptian origin, attempted to take advantage of the conflict between the brothers in order to take control of the government. He announced to the people of Alexandria that Ptolemy VI had tried to get him to assassinate Ptolemy VIII and tried to whip up a mob to support him. Ptolemy VI managed to convince Ptolemy VIII that the charges were untrue and the two brothers appeared publicly together in the stadium, defusing the crisis. Dionysius fled the city and convinced some military contingents to mutiny. Heavy fighting took place in the Fayyum over the next year.[29][30][28] This and another revolt in the Thebaid – the latest in a series of rebellions that had attempted to overthrow the Ptolemies and re-establish native Egyptian rule. Ptolemy VI successfully suppressed the rebellion after a bitter siege at Panopolis.[31][30][28] Late in 164 BC,[1] probably not long after Ptolemy VI had returned from the south, Ptolemy VIII, who was now about twenty years old, somehow expelled Ptolemy VI and Cleopatra II from power. Ptolemy VI fled to Rome and then Cyprus.[32] The exact course of events is not known, but Diodorus Siculus reports that the instigator of the expulsion was a man named Timotheus, who then became the dominant minister. Ptolemy VIII now assumed the epithet Euergetes ('benefactor'), which recalled his ancestor Ptolemy III Euergetes and distinguished him from Ptolemy VI and Cleopatra II who both bore the epithet Philometor. Ptolemy VIII is said to have behaved tyrannically, and his minister Timotheus used torture and arbitrary executions to eliminate his enemies. In summer 163 BC, the people of Alexandria rioted against Ptolemy VIII, expelling him in turn and recalling Ptolemy VI.[33][34][35] Reign in Cyrenaica (163–145 BC)[edit] On his return to power, a pair of Roman agents convinced Ptolemy VI to grant Ptolemy VIII control of Cyrenaica. Ptolemy VIII departed for Cyrene, but he was not satisfied. In late 163 or early 162 BC, he went to Rome to request help. The Senate was convinced that the division was unfair, declaring that Ptolemy VIII ought to receive Cyprus as well. The ancient historian Polybius believed that the Senate made this decision with the conscious goal of weakening Ptolemaic power. Titus Manlius Torquatus and Gnaeus Cornelius Merula were sent as envoys to force Ptolemy VI to concede this. From Rome, Ptolemy VIII went to Greece where he recruited soldiers in preparation for an expedition to seize Cyprus by force. He had sailed to Rhodes with this fleet when he encountered Torquatus and Merula, who convinced him to discharge his troops and return to Cyrene. He went to the border between Egypt and Cyrene, waiting with a force of 1,000 Cretan mercenaries at a small town just west of Paraetonium for the results of the Roman negotiations with Ptolemy VI. Ptolemy VIII had been waiting there for forty days when Ptolemy Sempetesis, the governor that Ptolemy VIII had left in charge of Cyrene in his absence, suddenly raised a revolt. Ptolemy marched to suppress the revolt and was defeated in battle. He regained control over Cyrene by the end of 162 BC, but it is not known whether he achieved this by negotiation or military action.[36][37][38] However, when Torquatus and Merula arrived in Alexandria, Ptolemy VI successfully put them off until he heard about the revolt, at which point he refused their demands. They had to return to Rome without achieving their goal. In winter 162/61 BC, the Roman Senate responded to this by breaking off relations with Ptolemy VI and to grant Ptolemy VIII permission to use force to take control of Cyprus, but they offered him no tangible support. He launched a military expedition to Cyprus in 161 BC.[39] This expedition lasted up to a year, before fierce Cypriot resistance forced him to abandon the enterprise.[40][37][38] In 156 or 155 BC, Ptolemy VIII faced a failed assassination attempt, which he attributed to his older brother.[41] Ptolemy VIII went to Rome and displaying the scars he had received in the attempt to the Senate. As a result of the embassy, the Roman Senate agreed to send a second embassy in 154 BC, led by Gnaeus Cornelius Merula and Lucius Minucius Thermus, with an honour guard of troops, in order to enforce the transfer of Cyprus to Ptolemy VIII's control.[42] Ptolemy VIII was besieged by his older brother at Lapethus and was captured. Ptolemy VIII was persuaded to withdraw from Cyprus, in exchange for continued possession of Cyrenaica, an annual payment of grain, and a promise of marriage to one of Ptolemy VI's infant daughters (probably Cleopatra Thea) once she came of age.[43][44][45] Relations with Rome Cornelia pushes away Ptolemy's crown, by Laurent de La Hyre Throughout his time as king in Cyrene, Ptolemy VIII maintained extremely close relations with Rome. From 162 BC, he was an official amicus et socius (friend and ally) of the Roman Republic. During his time in Rome he is said to have met Cornelia. In 152 BC, after the death of her husband, Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, Ptolemy VIII allegedly asked for her hand in marriage, which she refused.[46] This encounter was popular in neoclassical art, but it is unlikely that it ever actually took place.[47] Even if untrue, the story may reflect close ties between Ptolemy VIII and the gentes Cornelia and Sempronia. By contrast, Ptolemy VI seems to have maintained ties with Cato the Elder.[44] An inscription of 155 BC, set up in the aftermath of the assassination attempt records Ptolemy VIII's will, in which he bequeaths Cyrenaica to Rome if he died childless.[41] This act is not mentioned by any literary source but it fits with the very close alignment between Ptolemy VIII and the Romans that is attested in the literary sources. Similar testaments are known from other contemporary monarchs, notably Attalus III of Pergamum. They were often used by monarchs as an attempt to protect themselves from assassination or coup. Ptolemy VIII's will would be the earliest example of this practice.[44] However, L. Criscuolo has argued that the inscription of Ptolemy's will is actually a forgery produced by the Romans after they gained control of Cyrenaica in 96 BC.[48] Spectacle and construction As king of Cyrene, Ptolemy VIII attempted to display the Hellenistic royal virtue of tryphe (luxury). The main priesthood in Cyrene was the position of the priest of Apollo. Ptolemy assumed this position and discharged his duties, especially the hosting of feasts, extremely sumptuously. He also engaged in a wide-ranging construction project in the city. A large tomb west of Ptolemais seems to have been intended as his final resting place.[44] Second reign (145–132 BC)[edit] Ptolemy VIII being crowned as Pharaoh by Nekhbet and Wadjet, personifications of Upper and Lower Egypt, in the Temple of Horus at Edfu. Ptolemy VIII as Egyptian Pharaoh Ptolemy VI died on campaign in Syria in 145 BC. Ptolemy VI seems to have intended for his seven-year-old son, also called Ptolemy, to succeed him, but after three weeks, the Alexandrians called on Ptolemy VIII to return from Cyrene, assume the kingship and marry his older sister, Cleopatra II. The royal couple were incorporated into the dynastic cult as the Theoi Euergetai ('benefactor gods') - Cleopatra having previously been one of the Theoi Philometores with Ptolemy VI. Ptolemy was proclaimed pharaoh in Memphis in 144 or 143 BC, during which the couple's first and only child, Ptolemy Memphites, was born.[49] [50][51] On his return to Alexandria in 145 BC, Ptolemy VIII is reported to have launched a purge of those who had opposed him and supported Ptolemy VI.[52] This purge is luridly described in the literary sources, though it is sometimes difficult to determine whether specific anecdotes belong to this event or his later reconquest of Alexandria in 126 BC. Justin reports that Ptolemy let his soldiers rampage through the streets of Alexandria, murdering indiscriminately, until he was "left alone with his soldiers in so large a city, and found himself a king, not of men, but of empty houses."[52] Valerius Maximus says that when the young men of Alexandria took refuge in the gymnasion, Ptolemy set the building on fire.[53] It is probably in this period that Ptolemy gained a number of perforative nicknames, including Physcon (fatty)[54] and Kakergetes (malefactor) - a pun on his official epithet Euergetes (benefactor).[55] Ptolemy's accession also marked the end of Ptolemaic presence in the Aegean Sea. Within months of his accession, he had withdrawn all troops from Itanos, Thera, and Methana, the last remaining Ptolemaic bases in the Aegean. The Ptolemaic empire was now limited to Egypt, Cyprus, and Cyrene.[51] Ptolemy VIII probably also had the young son of Ptolemy VI and Cleopatra II, who was also called Ptolemy, murdered. According to Justin, Ptolemy VIII did the deed personally, on the night of his wedding to Cleopatra in 145 BC, and the boy died in his mother's arms.[52] Documentary evidence from papyri indicates that in reality, the boy was initially maintained as heir and only removed after the birth of Ptolemy Memphites.[50] By the late 140s BC, Ptolemy Memphites had been promoted to co-regent.[51] Around 140 BC, Ptolemy VIII married his niece Cleopatra III (daughter of Ptolemy VI and Cleopatra II) and made her a co-ruler, without divorcing his older sister, Cleopatra II. According to Livy, Ptolemy VIII had initiated a relationship with her shortly after his accession which he now made official.[56] Daniel Ogden has argued that the marriage may not have been planned from the outset, but a measure taken to prevent her from being married to someone else who might use that marriage in order to claim the throne.[57] However, the new arrangement led to conflict with Cleopatra II. Apparently in response to this new marriage and with the support of Cleopatra II, a former Ptolemaic officer called Galaestes initiated a revolt. Galaestes had been a trusted official under Ptolemy VI but had been forced into exile in 145 BC. In Greece, he gathered an army of other Ptolemaic exiles, then announced that he had a young son of Ptolemy VI in his care and crowned this boy as king. Galaestes then invaded Egypt, intending to put this child on the throne. Ptolemy VIII's mercenaries, whose pay was in arrears, nearly defected to the rebellion, but their commander, Hierax, prevented this by paying their wages from his own money. By February 139 BC, Galaestes had been defeated and Ptolemy had issued a decree affirming the rights and privileges of the Egyptian priesthood, in which he represented himself, Cleopatra II, and Cleopatra III as harmoniously ruling together.[58] In the same year, Ptolemy VIII received a Roman embassy, led by Scipio Aemilianus, which was intended to effect a peaceful settlement of all affairs in the Eastern Mediterranean. The ancient sources emphasise the sumptuous greeting that the Romans received, mostly in order to contrast it with the austere behaviour of the Romans. By this point he was apparently enormously fat and was transported everywhere in a litter.[59][58] Civil war (132–126 BC)[edit] In late 132 BC, the conflict between the royal siblings finally erupted into open warfare, with Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III on one side opposing Cleopatra II on the other. At first, Ptolemy retained control of Alexandria, but in late 131 BC the people of Alexandria rioted in favour of Cleopatra II and set fire to the royal palace.[60] Ptolemy VIII, Cleopatra III, and their children escaped to Cyprus. Cleopatra II meanwhile had herself crowned as sole queen - the first time that a Ptolemaic woman had done this - and assumed the title of Thea Philometor Soteira (Mother-loving, Saviour Goddess), which served to link her to her deceased husband Ptolemy VI Philometor and to the dynastic founder, Ptolemy I Soter[52][53][61][62] Although Alexandria had sided with Cleopatra II and she tended to be supported by Greeks and Jews throughout the country, Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III were more popular with the native Egyptian population. Most of Egypt continued to acknowledge Ptolemy VIII as king. In the south of the country, however, a man named Harsiesi took advantage of the chaos to rebel - following in the footsteps of the rebellion of Hugronaphor and Ankhmakis (206-185 BC). Harsiesi probably declared himself Pharaoh and managed to seize control of Thebes in August or September of 131 BC. He was expelled in November and pursued by Paos, the strategos of the Thebaid, who was also an Egyptian.[63][62] Coin of Demetrius II Nicator Coin of Alexander II Zabinas Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III had returned from Cyprus to Egypt by the beginning of 130 BC. By spring, they were in charge of Memphis. Impressed by Paos' success against Harsiesi, they promoted him to command over the whole of Upper Egypt and put him in charge of the whole military apparatus - the first time that a native Egyptian had held such a prominent position. Harsiesi was finally captured and executed in September 130 BC.[63] Alexandria was placed under siege but Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III were unable to capture it. Cleopatra II also maintained strongholds throughout the country – Harmonthis in the Thebaid was still under her control in October 130 BC. Cleopatra II had planned to have her son Ptolemy Memphites, who was now twelve years old and residing in Cyrene, recalled to Alexandria and acclaimed as king. Ptolemy VIII was able to get hold of the boy in 130 BC, killed him, and sent the dismembered pieces back to Cleopatra II on her birthday.[64] Both parties appealed to Rome, but the Senate did not intervene in the conflict.[65][62] Growing desperate, in 129 BC Cleopatra II offered the throne of Egypt to the Seleucid king Demetrius II Nicator. He had just returned to power in the Seleucid realm after years in Parthian captivity and was the husband of Cleopatra Thea (daughter of Cleopatra II and Ptolemy VI). Accordingly, Demetrius II launched an invasion of Egypt in 128 BC, but his forces were still in the eastern desert, besieging the border fortress of Pelusium, when news arrived that Cleopatra Thea had installed their son, the future Antiochus VIII as king of Syria. The Seleucid troops mutinied and Demetrius II had to return to Syria.[66][67][62] In order to prevent Demetrius from returning once he had dealt with these revolts, Ptolemy VIII agreed to a request that he had received from a group of rebels in Syria, who had asked him to send them a royal pretender to lead them. Ptolemy selected Alexander II Zabinas, whom he presented as the son of an earlier Seleucid king, Alexander I Balas (r. 152–145 BC).[68] The resulting conflict in the Seleucid realm continued for years and meant that Seleucid intervention in opposition to Ptolemy VIII was no longer possible.[69][62] In 127 BC, Cleopatra II took her treasury and fled Alexandria for the court of Demetrius II.[70][71] In her absence, Ptolemy VIII finally reconquered Alexandria in 126 BC.[72] This reconquest was accompanied by a bloody purge of the supporters of Cleopatra II. It is difficult to tell whether various anecdotes recording the bloody slaughter that Ptolemy VIII presided over belong to this event or to the earlier purge of 145 BC.[62] Third reign (126–116 BC)[edit] Wall relief of Cleopatra III, Cleopatra II and Ptolemy VIII before Horus After this, Ptolemy began negotiations to reconcile with Cleopatra II and the Seleucid court. In 124 BC, Ptolemy VIII abandoned his support for Alexander II Zabinas and agreed to support Demetrius II's son and successor, Antiochus VIII Philometor instead. He sealed the agreement by sending his second daughter by Cleopatra III, Tryphaena, to marry the Seleucid king.[73] Cleopatra II returned to Egypt from the Seleucid court and was once more acknowledged as co-regent with Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III. She appears along with them in papyrus documents from July 124 BC onwards.[71][74][75] The reconciliation of Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III with Cleopatra II was nevertheless a long process. To solidify their reconciliation and restore peace and prosperity to Egypt, the royal trio issued the Amnesty Decree in April 118 BC, which survives in a number of papyrus copies.[76] This decree pardoned all crimes other than murder and temple robbing committed before 118 BC, encouraged refugees to return home and reclaim their property, waived all back-taxes, confirmed land grants made to soldiers during the civil war, affirmed temple land holdings and tax privileges, and instructed tax officials to use standardised weights and measures on pain of death. In addition, the decree established the jurisdiction of courts in legal disputes between Egyptians and Greeks. Henceforth, this would be determined by the language that the documents at the heart of the legal dispute were written in: the chrematistai (money-judges) would decide disputes over Greek documents, while the laokritai (folk-judges) would resolve disputes over Egyptian documents. The chrematistai were no longer allowed to drag Egyptians into their courts, as had apparently been occurring previously.[75] Ptolemy VIII died on 28 June 116 BC. He was succeeded by his eldest surviving son, Ptolemy IX, alongside Cleopatra II and Cleopatra III. Justin reports that he left the throne to Cleopatra III and whichever of her sons she preferred. Although she preferred her younger son, Ptolemy X, the people of Alexandria forced her to choose Ptolemy IX. This account is probably a false one, invented after Ptolemy IX was deposed by Ptolemy X.[77] Regime[edit] Ptolemaic dynastic cult[edit] Ptolemaic Egypt had a dynastic cult, which centred on the Ptolemaia festival and the annual Priest of Alexander the Great, whose full title included the names of all the Ptolemaic ruling couples and appeared in official documents as part of the date formula. In October 170 BC when Ptolemy VIII first became co-regent with his brother and sister, who were already worshipped as the Theoi Philometores (Mother-loving gods), he was simply added to their cult as a third Mother-loving God.[1][8] When he seized sole power in 164 BC, he seems to have assumed the new epithet Euergetes, but it is not clear what the implications of this were for the dynastic cult. After his expulsion from Alexandria in 163 BC, the Theoi Philometores are attested once more.[35] At the start of Ptolemy VIII's second reign in 145 BC, he was definitely incorporated into the dynastic cult, with him and Cleopatra II becoming the Theoi Euergetai ('benefactor gods').[51][71] Cleopatra III was added as a third Benefactor god in 142 or 141 BC, some time before she married Ptolemy VIII and was promoted to the status of co-regent.[78] During the period of the civil war, Cleopatra II removed the Theoi Euergetai from the dynastic cult in Alexandria, but Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III maintained their own rival priest of Alexander from 130 BC until they recovered Alexandria in 127 BC. He is distinguished in documents as the 'Priest of Alexander... in the king's camp.'[62] The situation before the civil war was restored in 124 BC after the reconciliation of the siblings and it continued until Ptolemy VIII's death. From May 118 BC, shortly after the final reconciliation of the royal trio, a new king was incorporated into the dynastic cult, Theos Neos Philopator (New Father-loving God). This appears to have been a posthumous cult for one of the princes killed by Ptolemy VIII, either Ptolemy Eupator (son of Ptolemy VI and Cleopatra II) or Ptolemy Memphites (son of Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra II). Ptolemy Memphites is generally the preferred candidate, with the deification serving as an indication that the prince had posthumously reconciled with his father and murderer.[75] Since the death of Arsinoe II, deceased Ptolemaic queens had been honoured with a separate dynastic cult of their own, including a separate priestess who marched in religious processions in Alexandria behind the priest of Alexander the Great and whose names also appeared in dating formulae. In 131 or 130 BC, Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III took advantage of this tradition, in their conflict against Cleopatra II, by establishing a new priesthood in honour of Cleopatra III. This new position was called the 'Hieros Polos (sacred foal) of Isis, Great Mother of the Gods' and was placed immediately after the priest of Alexander and ahead of all the priestesses of the previous queens in the order of precedence. The position was unlike the previous priesthoods in that it was established for a living queen rather than a deceased one and because the holder was a priest rather than a priestess. The position is not attested after 105 BC.[62][78] Pharaonic ideology and traditional Egyptian religion[edit] Stele attributed to Ptolemy VIII, glorifying his rule and describing his support of Egyptian gods. The stele was written in Egyptian hieroglyphs as well as Greek. From the beginning of the Ptolemaic dynasty, the Ptolemies had taken on the traditional role of the Egyptian Pharaoh and pursued a symbiotic alliance with the Egyptian priestly elite. The degree of investment of the Ptolemies in this aspect of their rulership steadily increased over the third and second centuries BC. Ptolemy VIII nevertheless represents a new stage in this process, since in the conflict with Cleopatra II he proved more popular among the Egyptians as their Pharaoh than among the Greeks as their king. In the Amnesty decree that announced the reconciliation of Ptolemy VIII, Cleopatra III, and Cleopatra II in 118 BC, the royal trio undertook to support reconstruction and repair work at temples throughout Egypt. They also promised to pay for the mummification and entombment of the Apis and Mnevis bulls.[75] Alexandrian Scholarship[edit] Ptolemy VIII was an active participant in Greek scholarship, especially philology. He is reported to have written a study of Homer at some point before 145 BC and twenty-four books of Hypomnemata ('Notes'), a miscellaneous collection of paradoxography, including stories about historical and contemporary monarchs, as well as exotic wildlife, and other topics. The surviving fragments are collected in Felix Jacoby's Fragmente der griechischen Historiker[79] Despite this interest, Ptolemy's reign saw a serious decline in the importance of Alexandria as an intellectual centre, in part due to the massacres that he carried out on taking control of the city in 145 BC and again in 126 BC. Among his victims on the first occasion were a number of prominent intellectuals, including Aristarchus of Samothrace and Apollodorus of Athens.[55] The rest of the Alexandrian intellectuals appear to have been sent into exile, mostly relocating to Athens or Rhodes.[80] Indian Ocean trade[edit] Main article: Eudoxus of Cyzicus The Ptolemies had long retained a network of trading stations throughout the Red Sea, which enabled them to acquire gold, ivory, and elephants from the Horn of Africa. In the very last years of Ptolemy VIII's reign these sailors discovered that the annual reversal of the Indian Monsoon Current made it possible to cross the Indian Ocean by sea in summer and then return in winter. The first Greek to make this journey was Eudoxus of Cyzicus, who is reported to have travelled to India in 118 BC and again in 116 BC.[81] The discovery opened up the possibility of direct seaborne trade with India. Previously, trade between the Mediterranean region and India had relied on intermediaries - sailors from the Arabian centres in the Gulf of Aden and the Persian Gulf and then desert caravans led by the Nabataeans to carry goods across the Arabian desert to the Mediterranean coast. Henceforth sailors from Ptolemaic Egypt began to make the full journey themselves. This marks the beginning of the Indian Ocean trade, which would become a major part of the Eurasian economic world system that operated from the first century BC until the fourth century AD.[2] Marriage and issue[edit] Ptolemy VIII Euergetes married his older sister, Cleopatra II, on his accession in 145 BC and she bore him one son: Name Image Birth Death Notes Ptolemy Memphites 144–142 BC 130 BC Murdered by his father in 130 BC, possibly after a brief period as co-regent. In 142 or 141 BC, Ptolemy also married his niece, Cleopatra III, daughter of Ptolemy VI and Cleopatra II. They had a number of children: Name Image Birth Death Notes Ptolemy IX Soter 142 BC December 81 BC Co-ruler of Egypt alongside his mother and grandmother from 116–107 BC, when he was exiled to Cyprus, then co-ruler with his mother once more from 88–81 BC. Ptolemy X Alexander 140 BC? 88-87 BC King of Cyprus from 114–107 BC, when he became co-ruler of Egypt alongside his mother, until expelled in 88 BC. Tryphaena c. 140 BC 110/09 BC Married the Seleucid king Antiochus VIII Grypus. Cleopatra IV 138–135 BC? 112 BC Married to Ptolemy IX and co-ruler with him from 116–115 BC, when she was divorced from him and remarried to the Seleucid king Antiochus IX Cyzicenus. Cleopatra Selene 135–130 BC? 69 BC Married to Ptolemy IX from 115 BC until probably 107 BC, when she was possibly remarried to Ptolemy X. Then married in succession to the Seleucid kings Antiochus VIII, Antiochus IX, and Antiochus X. By a concubine, perhaps Eirene, Ptolemy had further issue: Name Image Birth Death Notes Ptolemy Apion 96 BC King of Cyrenaica from an uncertain date until 96 BC Ancestry[edit] Ancestors of Ptolemy VIII Physcon 16. Ptolemy II Philadelphus 8. Ptolemy III Euergetes 17. Arsinoe I 4. Ptolemy IV Philopator 18. Magas of Cyrene 9. Berenice II of Egypt 19. Apama II (sister of #24; cousin of #25 and #26) 2. Ptolemy V Epiphanes 20. =16. Ptolemy II Philadelphus 10. =8. Ptolemy III Euergetes 21. =17. Arsinoe I 5. Arsinoe III of Egypt 22. =18. Magas of Cyrene 11. =9. Berenice II of Egypt 23. =19. Apama II 1. Ptolemy VIII Physcon 24. Antiochus II Theos (brother of #19; cousin of #25 and #26) 12. Seleucus II Callinicus 25. Laodice I (sister of #26; cousin of #19 and #24) 6. Antiochus III the Great 26. Andromachus (brother of #25; cousin of #19 and #24) 13. Laodice II 3. Cleopatra I Syra 28. Ariobarzanes of Pontus 14. Mithridates II of Pontus 7. Laodice III 30. =24. Antiochus II Theos 15. Laodice (wife of Mithridates II of Pontus) 31. =25. Laodice I Notes[edit] ^ Numbering the Ptolemies is a modern convention. Older sources may give a number one higher or lower. The most reliable way of determining which Ptolemy is being referred to in any given case is by epithet (e.g. "Philopator"). References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g Chris Bennett. "Ptolemy VIII". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Tyndale House. Retrieved 2 October 2019. ^ a b c Hölbl 2001, p. 204 ^ a b Grainger 2010, p. 274 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGrainger2010 (help) ^ Chris Bennett. "Cleopatra I". Tyndale House. Retrieved 28 September 2019. ^ a b Grainger 2010, p. 294-5 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGrainger2010 (help) ^ II Maccabees 3. ^ Grainger 2010, p. 284-8 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGrainger2010 (help) ^ a b Skeat, T.C. (1961). "The twelfth year which is also the first": the invasion of Egypt by Antiochos Epiphanes". Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 47: 107–113. ^ Hölbl 2001, p. 172 ^ Polybius 28.12.8 ^ a b Walbank, F. W. (1979). Commentary on Polybius III: Commentary on Books XIX–XL. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. pp. 321ff. ^ Porphyry, FGrH 260 F 49a ^ Grainger 2010, p. 296-7 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGrainger2010 (help) ^ Polybius 28.19 ^ Polybius 20.23 ^ Grainger 2010, p. 297-300 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGrainger2010 (help) ^ Polybius 29.23.4; Porphyry FGrH 260 F 2.7 ^ Grainger 2010, p. 300-1 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGrainger2010 (help) ^ Hölbl 2001, p. 144-6 ^ Grainger 2010, p. 301-2 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGrainger2010 (help) ^ Polybius 29.23.4; Livy 45.11.2-7 ^ Grainger 2010, p. 303-4 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGrainger2010 (help) ^ Diodorus 31.1 ^ Mooren, L. (1978–1979). "Antiochos IV Epiphanes und das Ptolemäische Königtum". Actes du XVe Congrès Internationale du Papyrologie. Brussels. pp. IV.78-84. ^ Polybius 9.27; Diodorus 31.2-3. ^ Hölbl 2001, p. 146-8 ^ Grainger 2010, p. 305-8 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGrainger2010 (help) ^ a b c Grainger 2010, p. 310-1 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGrainger2010 (help) ^ Diodorus 31.15a ^ a b McGing, B.C. (1997). "Revolt Egyptian Style: Internal Opposition to Ptolemaic Rule". Archiv Für Papyrusforschung. 43 (2): 289–90. ^ Diodorus 31.17b ^ Diodorus 31.18 ^ Diodorus 31.20 & 31.17c; Polybius 31.18.14 ^ Grainger 2010, p. 312 & 319-320 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGrainger2010 (help) ^ a b Hölbl 2001, p. 183-4 ^ Polybius 31.10, 17-18 ^ a b Grainger 2010, p. 325 & 327 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGrainger2010 (help) ^ a b Hölbl 2001, p. 185-186 ^ Polybius 31.19-20 ^ Polybius 33.11.4-7 ^ a b IG Cyr. 011200: text and translation at Dobias-Lalou, Catherine. "Will of Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II". Inscriptions of Greek Cyrenaica. CRR-MM, Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna. Retrieved 4 October 2019. ^ Polybius 33.11 ^ Polybius 39.7; Diodorus 31.33 ^ a b c d Hölbl 2001, p. 187-189 ^ Grainger 2010, p. 327-328 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGrainger2010 (help) ^ Plutarch Life of Tiberius Gracchus 1. ^ Günther, L.-M. (1990). "Cornelia und Ptolemaios VIII. Zur Historizität des Heiratsantrages (Plut. TG 1, 3)". Historia. 39: 124–128. ^ Criscuolo, L. (2011). "I due testamenti di Tolemeo VIII Evergete II". In Jördens, A.; Quack, J.Fr. (eds.). Ägypten zwischen innerem Zwist und äusserem Druck: die Zeit Ptolemaios' VI. bis VIII.: internationales Symposion Heidelberg 16.-19.9.2007, Wiesbaden. pp. 132–150. ^ Justin 38.8.2-3; Diodorus 33.13. ^ a b Chris Bennett. "Ptolemy". Tyndale House. Retrieved 4 October 2019.; Chris Bennett. "Ptolemy". Tyndale House. Retrieved 4 October 2019. ^ a b c d Hölbl 2001, p. 194-195 ^ a b c d Justin Epitome of Pompeius Trogus 38.8 ^ a b Valerius Maximus Memorable Deeds and Sayings IX.ext.5 ^ Strabo, Geography 17.1.11; Plutarch Life of Coriolanus 11.2 ^ a b Menecles of Barca FGrH 270 F9 ^ Livy Periochae 59; Justin, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus 38.8 ^ Ogden, Daniel (1999). Polygamy, Prostitutes and Death: The Hellenistic Dynasties. London: Duckworth. pp. 96–98. ^ a b Hölbl 2001, p. 196 ^ Diodorus Bibliotheca 33.28b; Poseidonius FGrH 87 F7; Justin, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus 38.8.8-11 ^ Justin, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus 38.8.11-15; Livy, Periochae 59. ^ Chris Bennett. "Ptolemy". Tyndale House. Retrieved 4 October 2019. ^ a b c d e f g h Hölbl 2001, p. 197-200 ^ a b Chris Bennett. "Harsiesi". Tyndale House. Retrieved 10 November 2019. ^ Diodorus Bibliotheca 34/35.14; Justin, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus 38.8.13-15 ^ Livy, Periochae 59 ^ Justin, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus 38.9 & 39.1; Eusebius 1.257 ^ Houghton, Arthur; Le Rider, Georges (1988). "Un premier règne d'Antiochos VIII à Antioche en 128". Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique. 112: 401–411.; Chrubasik 2016, p. 143 ^ Eusebius, Chronographia I.257; Justin Epitome of Pompeius Trogus 39.1 ^ Grainger 2011, pp. 375-82 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGrainger2011 (help) ^ Justin Epitome of Pompeius Trogus XXXIX.1 ^ a b c Chris Bennett. "Cleopatra II". Tyndale House. Retrieved 4 October 2019. ^ Grainger 2011, pp. 382-3 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGrainger2011 (help) ^ Justin Epitome of Pompeius Trogus 39.2 ^ Grainger 2011, pp. 383-4 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGrainger2011 (help) ^ a b c d Hölbl 2001, p. 201-203 ^ P. Tebt. I 5 (with text and translation at [1]. ^ Chris Bennett. "Ptolemy IX". Tyndale House. Retrieved 4 October 2019. ^ a b Chris Bennett. "Cleopatra III". Tyndale House. Retrieved 10 November 2019. ^ Ptolemy VIII, FGrH 234 ^ Hölbl 2001, p. 203 ^ Strabo Geography 2.3 (Text on LacusCurtius). Bibliography[edit] Chrubasik, Boris (2016). Kings and Usurpers in the Seleukid Empire: The Men who would be King. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198786924. Peter Green, Alexander to Actium (University of California Press, 1990) ISBN 0-520-05611-6 Hölbl, Günther (2001). A History of the Ptolemaic Empire. London & New York: Routledge. pp. 143–152 & 181–194. ISBN 0415201454. Peter Nadig, Zwischen König und Karikatur: Das Bild Ptolemaios’ VIII. im Spannungsfeld der Überlieferung (C.H. Beck, 2007) ISBN 978-3-406-55949-5 External links[edit] Ptolemy Euergetes II at LacusCurtius — (Chapter X of E. R Bevan's House of Ptolemy, 1923) The Will of Ptolemy VIII Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemaic Dynasty Born: 182 BC Died: 116 BC Preceded by Ptolemy VI and Cleopatra II Pharaoh of Egypt 169–164 BC With: Ptolemy VI and Cleopatra II Succeeded by Ptolemy VI and Cleopatra II Preceded by Ptolemy VI and Cleopatra II Pharaoh of Egypt 144–132/131 BC With: Cleopatra II and Cleopatra III Succeeded by Cleopatra II Preceded by Cleopatra II Pharaoh of Egypt 126–116 BC With: Cleopatra II and Cleopatra III Succeeded by Cleopatra II, Ptolemy IX and Cleopatra III v t e Hellenistic rulers Argeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Kings of Cyrene Magas Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Kings of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Kings of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Kings of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Kings of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus Kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon (regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces Asander with Dynamis Mithridates II Asander with Dynamis Scribonius’ attempted rule with Dynamis Dynamis with Polemon Polemon with Pythodorida Aspurgus Mithridates III with Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 118946811 LCCN: nb2007018630 NTA: 303476729 SELIBR: 293350 VcBA: 495/52123 VIAF: 155419788 WorldCat Identities: lccn-nb2007018630 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ptolemy_VIII_Physcon&oldid=1001365225" Categories: 2nd-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Ptolemaic dynasty 2nd-century BC Greek people Kings of Cyrene Ancient child rulers 2nd-century BC rulers 2nd-century BC Egyptian people 180s BC births 116 BC deaths Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Use dmy dates from January 2021 Articles 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en-wikipedia-org-6442	----	Taharqa - Wikipedia Taharqa From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Egyptian Pharaoh Taharqa Statue of Taharqa. His name appears on the center of his belt: 𓇿𓉔𓃭𓈎 (tꜣ-h-rw-k, "Taharqa"). The statue is 2.7 meters tall. Taharqa has a striding pose, the arms held tight, and holds the mekes staff. He wears a pleated kilt called shendjyt and on the head the double uraeus signifying the double rule over Nubia and Egypt. Kerma Museum.[1] Pharaoh Reign 690–664 BC (25th dynasty) Predecessor Shabaka Successor Tantamani Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Nefertemkhure Nefertum is his Protector[2] Nomen   Horus name   Nebty name   Golden Horus   Consort Great Queen Takahatenamun, Atakhebasken, Naparaye, Tabekenamun[3] Children Amenirdis II, Ushankhuru, Nesishutefnut Father Piye Mother Abar Died 664 BC nomen or birth name t h r ḳ (Taharqo) in hieroglyphs Taharqa, also spelled Taharka or Taharqo (Egyptian: '𓇿𓉔𓃭𓈎' tꜣ-h-rw-k, Neo-Assyrian: Tar-qu-u2, Hebrew: תִּרְהָקָה‎, Modern: Tirhaqa, Tiberian: Tirehāqā, Manetho's Tarakos, Strabo's Tearco), was a pharaoh of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt and qore (king) of the Kingdom of Kush (present day Sudan), from 690 to 664 BC. He was one of the "Ethiopian Pharaohs" who ruled over Egypt for nearly a century.[4][5] Contents 1 Early life 2 Ruling period 3 Irregular accession to power 4 Reign 5 War between Taharqa and Assyria 6 Death 6.1 Nuri pyramid 7 Biblical references 8 Depictions 9 Monuments of Taharqa 9.1 Taharqa in Karnak 9.2 Shrine of Taharqa in Kawa 9.3 Taharqa in Jebel Barkal 10 Museum artifacts 11 See also 12 References 13 Sources 14 Further reading Early life[edit] See also: Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Taharqa was the son of Piye, the Nubian king of Napata who had first conquered Egypt. Taharqa was also the cousin and successor of Shebitku.[6] The successful campaigns of Piye and Shabaka paved the way for a prosperous reign by Taharqa. Ruling period[edit] Taharqa's reign can be dated from 690 BC to 664 BC.[7] Evidence for the dates of his reign is derived from the Serapeum stele, catalog number 192. This stela records that an Apis bull born and installed (fourth month of Season of the Emergence, day 9) in year 26 of Taharqa died in Year 20 of Psamtik I (4th month of Shomu, day 20), having lived 21 years. This would give Taharqa a reign of 26 years and a fraction, in 690–664 BC.[8] Taharqa portrait, Nubian Museum Irregular accession to power[edit] Taharqa explicitly states in Kawa Stela V, line 15, that he succeeded his predecessor (generally assumed to be Shebitku but now established to be Shabaka instead) after the latter's death with this statement: "I received the Crown in Memphis after the Falcon flew to heaven."[9] The reference to Shebitku was an attempt by Taharqa to legitimise his accession to power.[10] However, Taharqa never mentions the identity of the royal falcon and completely omits any mention of Shabaka's intervening reign between Shebitku and Taharqa possibly because he ousted Shabaka from power.[11] In Kawa IV, line 7-13, Taharqa states: He (Taharqa) sailed northward to Thebes amongst the beautiful young people that His Majesty, the late King Shabataqo/Shebitku, had sent from Nubia. He was there (in Thebes) with him. He appreciated him more than any of his brothers. (There here follows a description of the [poor] state of the temple of Kawa as observed by the prince). The heart of his Majesty was in sadness about it until his Majesty became king, crowned as King of Upper and Lower Egypt (...). It was during the first year of his reign he remembered what he had seen of the temple when he was young.[12] Statue of Taharqa, in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts In Kawa V: line 15, Taharqa states I was brought from Nubia amongst the royal brothers that his Majesty had brought. As I was with him, he liked me more than all his brothers and all his children, so that he distinguished me. I won the heart of the nobles and was loved by all. It was only after the hawk had flown to heaven that I received the crown in Memphis.[13] Therefore, Taharqa says that King Shebitku, who was very fond of him, brought him with him to Egypt and during that trip he had the opportunity to see the deplorable state of the temple of Amun at Kawa, an event he remembered after becoming king. But on Kawa V Taharqa says that sometime after his arrival in Egypt under a different king whom this time he chose not to name, there occurred the death of this monarch (Shabaka here) and then his own accession to the throne occurred. Taharqa's evasiveness on the identity of his predecessor suggests that he assumed power in an irregular fashion and chose to legitimise his kingship by conveniently stating the possible fact or propaganda that Shebitku favoured him "more than all his brothers and all his children."[10] Moreover, in lines 13 – 14 of Kawa stela V, His Majesty (who can be none other but Shebitku), is mentioned twice, and at first sight the falcon or hawk that flew to heaven, mentioned in the very next line 15, seems to be identical with His Majesty referred to directly before (i.e. Shebitku).[14] However, in the critical line 15 which recorded Taharqa's accession to power, a new stage of the narrative begins, separated from the previous one by a period of many years, and the king or hawk/falcon that flew to heaven is conspicuously left unnamed in order to distinguish him from His Majesty, Shebitku. Moreover, the purpose of Kawa V, was to describe several separate events that occurred at distinct stages of Taharqa's life, instead of telling a continuous story about it.[14] Therefore, the Kawa V text began with the 6th year of Taharqa and referred to the High Nile flood of that year before abruptly jumping back to Taharqa's youth at the end of line 13.[14] In the beginning of line 15, Taharqa's coronation is mentioned (with the identity of the hawk/falcon—now known to be Shabaka—left unnamed but if it was Shebitku, Taharqa's favourite king, Taharqa would clearly have identified him) and there is a description given of the extent of the lands and foreign countries under Egypt's control but then (in the middle of line 16) the narrative switches abruptly back again to Taharqa's youth: "My mother was in Ta-Sety …. Now I was far from her as a twenty year old recruit, as I went with His Majesty to the North Land".[14] However, immediately afterwards (around the middle of line 17) the text jumps forward again to the time of Taharqa's accession: "Then she came sailing downstream to see me after a long period of years. She found me after I had appeared on the throne of Horus...".[14] Hence, the Kawa V narrative switches from one event to another, and has little to no chronological coherence or value. Reign[edit] Kushite heartland, and Kushite Empire of the 25th dynasty of Egypt, under Taharqa[15] Although Taharqa's reign was filled with conflict with the Assyrians, it was also a prosperous renaissance period in Egypt and Kush.[16][17] The empire flourished under Taharqa, due in part to a particularly large Nile river flood, abundant crops,[16] and the "intellectual and material resources set free by an efficient central government."[17] Taharqa's inscriptions indicate that he gave large amounts of gold to the temple of amun at Kawa.[18] The Nile valley empire was as large as it had been since the New Kingdom.[19] Taharqa and the 25th dynasty revived Egyptian culture.[20] Religion, arts, and architecture were restored to their glorious Old, Middle, and New Kingdom forms. During Taharqa's reign, the "central features of Theban theology were merged with Egyptian Middle and New Kingdom imperial ideology.".[17] Under Taharqa, the cultural integration of Egypt and Kush reached such a point that it could not be reversed, even after the Assyrian conquest.[17] Portrait of Taharqa, Kerma Museum Taharqa restored existing temples and built new ones. Particularly impressive were his additions to the Temple at Karnak, new temple at Kawa, and temples at Jebel Barkal.[20][21][22][23][24] Taharqa continued the 25th dynasty's ambitious program to develop Jebel Barkal into a "monumental complex of sancturies...centered around the great temple of...Amun."[17] The similarity of Jebel Barkal to Karnak "seems to be central to the builders at Jebel Barkal.".[17] The rest of Taharqa's constructions served to create "Temple Towns", which were "local centers of government, production, and redistribution."[17] It was during the 25th dynasty that the Nile valley saw the first widespread construction of pyramids (many in modern Sudan) since the Middle Kingdom.[22][25][26] Taharqa built the largest pyramid (52 square meters at base) in the Nubian region at Nuri (near El-Kurru) with the most elaborate Kushite rock-cut tomb.[27] Taharqa was buried with "over 1070 shabtis of varying sizes and made of granite, green ankerite, and alabaster."[28] War between Taharqa and Assyria[edit] Main article: Assyrian conquest of Egypt The Victory stele of Esarhaddon was created following the king's victory in Egypt and depicts Esarhaddon in a majestic pose with a war mace in his hand and royal captives kneeling before him. One is Ushankhuru, the son of Taharqa, shackled with a rope around his neck, but wearing the Kushite crown. Taharqa began cultivating alliances with elements in Phoenicia and Philistia who were prepared to take a more independent position against Assyria.[29] Taharqa's army undertook successful military campaigns, as attested by the "list of conquered Asiatic principalities" from the Mut temple at Karnak and "conquered peoples and countries (Libyans, Shasu nomads, Phoenicians?, Khor in Palestine)" from Sanam temple inscriptions.[17] Torok mentions the military success was due to Taharqa's efforts to strengthen the army through daily training in long-distance running, as well as Assyria's preoccupation with Babylon and Elam.[17] Taharqa also built military settlements at the Semna and Buhen forts and the fortified site of Qasr Ibrim.[17] Imperial ambitions of the Mesopotamian based Assyrian Empire made war with the 25th dynasty inevitable. In 701 BC, Taharqa and his army aided Judah and King Hezekiah in withstanding a siege by King Sennacherib of the Assyrians (2 Kings 19:9; Isaiah 37:9).[30] There are various theories (Taharqa's army,[31] disease, divine intervention, Hezekiah's surrender, Herodotus' mice theory) as to why the Assyrians failed to take Jerusalem and withdrew to Assyria.[32] Many historians claim that Sennacherib was the overlord of Khor following the siege in 701 BC. Sennacherib's annals record Judah was forced into tribute after the siege.[33] However, this is contradicted by Khor's frequent utilization of an Egyptian system of weights for trade,[34] the 20 year cessation in Assyria's pattern (before 701 and after Sennacherib's death) of repeatedly invading Khor,[35] Khor paying tribute to Amun of Karnak in the first half of Taharqa's reign,[17] and Taharqa flouting Assyria's ban on Lebanese cedar exports to Egypt, while Taharqa was building his temple to Amun at Kawa.[36] Statue of Pharaoh Taharqa in the National Museum of Sudan In 679 BC, Sennacherib's successor, King Esarhaddon, campaigned into Khor and took a town loyal to Egypt. After destroying Sidon and forcing Tyre into tribute in 677-676 BC, Esarhaddon invaded Egypt proper in 674 BC. Taharqa and his army defeated the Assyrians outright in 674 BC, according to Babylonian records.[37] This invasion, which only a few Assyrian sources discuss, ended in what some scholars have assumed was possibly one of Assyria's worst defeats.[38] In 672 BC, Taharqa brought reserve troops from Kush, as mentioned in rock inscriptions.[17] Taharqa's Egypt still held sway in Khor during this period as evidenced by Esarhaddon's 671 BC annal mentioning that Tyre's King Ba'lu had "put his trust upon his friend Taharqa", Ashkelon's alliance with Egypt, and Esarhaddon's inscription asking "if the Kushite-Egyptian forces 'plan and strive to wage war in any way' and if the Egyptian forces will defeat Esarhaddon at Ashkelon."[39] However, Taharqa was defeated in Egypt in 671 BC when Esarhaddon conquered Northern Egypt, captured Memphis, imposed tribute, and then withdrew.[16] Although the Pharaoh Taharqa had escaped to the south, Esarhaddon captured the Pharaoh's family, including "Prince Nes-Anhuret, royal wives,"[17] and most of the royal court[citation needed], which were sent to Assyria as hostages. Cuneiform tablets mention numerous horses and gold headdresses were taken back to Assyria.[17] In 669 BC, Taharqa reoccupied Memphis, as well as the Delta, and recommenced intrigues with the king of Tyre.[16] Taharqa intrigued in the affairs of Lower Egypt, and fanned numerous revolts.[40] Esarhaddon again led his army to Egypt and on his death in 668 BC, the command passed to Ashurbanipal. Ashurbanipal and the Assyrians again defeated Taharqa and advanced as far south as Thebes, but direct Assyrian control was not established."[16] The rebellion was stopped and Ashurbanipal appointed as his vassal ruler in Egypt Necho I, who had been king of the city Sais. Necho's son, Psamtik I was educated at the Assyrian capital of Nineveh during Esarhaddon's reign.[41] As late as 665 BC, the vassal rulers of Sais, Mendes, and Pelusium were still making overtures to Taharqa in Kush.[17] The vassal's plot was uncovered by Ashurbanipal and all rebels but Necho of Sais were executed.[17] Death[edit] Taharqa died in the city of Thebes[42] in 664 BC. He was followed by his appointed successor Tantamani, a son of Shabaka, himself succeeded by a son of Taharqa, Atlanersa. Taharqa was buried at Nuri, in North Sudan.[43] Egypt was still seen as vulnerable and Tantamani invaded Egypt in hopes of restoring his family to the throne. This led to a renewed conflict with Ashurbanipal and the sack of the city by the Assyrians in 663 BCE. Nuri pyramid[edit] The ruins of the pyramid of Taharqa at Nuri. It is the earliest and largest pyramid of the Nuri site. Main article: Nuri Taharqa chose the site of Nuri to build his pyramid, away from the traditional burial site of El-Kurru. It was the first and the largest pyramid of Nuri, and he was followed by close to twenty later kings at the site. Pyramids of the successors of Taharqa, seen from the top of his pyramid at Nuri, the first pyramid to be built, and the largest, at the site Biblical references[edit] Mainstream scholars agree that Taharqa is the Biblical "Tirhakah", king of Ethiopia (Kush), who waged war against Sennacherib during the reign of King Hezekiah of Judah (2 Kings 19:9; Isaiah 37:9).[44][31] The events in the biblical account are believed to have taken place in 701 BC, whereas Taharqa came to the throne some ten years later. If the title of king in the biblical text refers to his future royal title, he still may have been too young to be a military commander.[45] Aubin mentions that the biblical account in Genesis 10:6-7 (Table of Nations) lists Taharqa's predecessors, Shebitku and Shabako.[46] Concerning Taharqa's successor, the sack of Thebes was a momentous event that reverberated throughout the Ancient Near East. It is mentioned in the Book of Nahum chapter 3:8-10: Profile of Taharqa on the Taharqa Shrine, Ashmolean Museum Art thou better than populous No, that was situate among the rivers, that had the waters round about it, whose rampart was the sea, and her wall was from the sea? Ethiopia and Egypt were her strength, and it was infinite; Put and Lubim were thy helpers. Yet was she carried away, she went into captivity: her young children also were dashed in pieces at the top of all the streets: and they cast lots for her honourable men, and all her great men were bound in chains Depictions[edit] Taharqa, under the name "Tearco the Aethiopian", was described by the Ancient Greek historian Strabo. Strabo mentioned Taharqa in a list of other notable conquerors (Cyrus the Great, Xerxes, Sesotris) and mentioned that these princes had undertaken "expeditions to lands far remote."[47] Strabo mentions Taharqa as having "Advanced as far as Europe",[48] and (citing Megasthenes), even as far as the Pillars of Hercules in Spain:[49] Similarly, in 1534 the Muslim scholar Ibn-l-Khattib al-Makkary wrote an account of Taharqa's "establishment of a garrison in the south of Spain in approximately 702 BC."[50] However, Sesostris, the Aegyptian, he adds, and Tearco the Aethiopian advanced as far as Europe; and Nabocodrosor, who enjoyed greater repute among the Chaldaeans than Heracles, led an army even as far as the Pillars. Thus far, he says, also Tearco went — Strabo, Geographia, XV.1.6.[51] The two snakes in the crown of pharaoh Taharqa show that he was the king of both the lands of Egypt and Nubia. Monuments of Taharqa[edit] Karnak Kawa Jebel Barkal Thebes Memphis Nuri Saqqara Tanis Location of Taharqa's monuments Stele commemorating the death of an Apis bull enthroned in "Year 26 of Taharqa". Found in the Serapeum of Saqqara, Saqqara. Louvre Museum. Stele of the Great Temple of Tanis, written in the "Year 6 of Taharqa"[52] Taharqa has left monuments throughout Egypt and Nubia. In Memphis, Thebes, and Napata he rebuilt or restored the Temple of Amon.[53] Taharqa in Karnak[edit] Taharqa is known for various monuments in Karnak. Taharqa column Kiosk of Taharqa in Kanark Chapel of Taharqa and Shepenwepet in Karnak Taharqa's kiosk. Karnak Temple Shrine of Taharqa in Kawa[edit] A small temple of Tahaqa was once located at Kawa in Nubia (modern Sudan). It is located today in the Ashmolean Museum.[54] The Shrine of Taharqa, Ashmolean Museum Shrine and Sphinx of Taharqa. Taharqa appears between the legs of the Ram-Spinx The Ram-Spinx and Taharqa Relief of Taharqa on the shrine Taharqa cartouche on the Shrine King Taharqa and the gods of Thebes. Standing on the left, he offers "a white loaf" to his father Amun-Re, who is accompanied by Mut, Khonsu and Montu, Kawa shrine.[55] Taharqa and the gods of Gematen (the Temple of Kawa). He makes an offering to the ram-headed god Amun-Re. Kawa shrine.[56] Taharqa (left) embracing Horus (Re-Horakhty) on the Kawa shrine[57] Taharqa in Jebel Barkal[edit] Taharqa is depicted in various reliefs in Jebel Barkal, particularly in the Temple of Mut. Taharqa in the Temple of Mut Taharqa before the god Amun in Gebel Barkal (Sudan), in Temple of Mut, Jebel Barkal Taharqa followed by his mother Queen Abar. Gebel Barkal - room C Taharqa with Queen Takahatamun at Gebel Barkal Lion-headed God Appademak with Pharaoh Taharqa (right) in the Jebel Barkal Temple of Mut Taharqa, followed by the sistrum shaking queen Takahatenamun in the Jebel Barkal Temple of Mut Taharqa making dedications to Egyptian Gods, in the Temple of Mut, Jebel Barkal, Sudan. His name appears in the second cartouche: 𓇿𓉔𓃭𓈎 (tꜣ-h-rw-k, "Taharqa"). Museum artifacts[edit] Taharqa offering wine jars to Falcon-god Hemen Taharqa, ca. 690-64 BCE, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen Taharqa under a sphinx, British Museum Taharqa appears as the tallest statue in the back (2.7 meters), Kerma Museum.[58] Granite sphinx of Taharqa from Kawa in Sudan Serpentine weight of 10 daric. Inscribed for Taharqa in the midst of Sais. 25th Dynasty. From Egypt, probably from Nesaft. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London Taharqa as a sphinx Taharqa close-up Pharaoh Taharqa. 25th dynasty of Egypt Shabti of King Taharqa See also[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Taharqa. List of monarchs of Kush List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources Takhar (the deity) Victory stele of Esarhaddon Statues of Amun in the form of a ram protecting King Taharqa Sphinx of Taharqo References[edit] ^ Elshazly, Hesham. "Kerma and the royal cache". Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ Clayton, Peter A. Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. p.190. 2006. ISBN 0-500-28628-0 ^ Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, (London: Thames & Hudson, 2004) ISBN 0-500-05128-3, pp.234-6 ^ Burrell, Kevin (2020). Cushites in the Hebrew Bible: Negotiating Ethnic Identity in the Past and Present. BRILL. p. 79. ISBN 978-90-04-41876-9. ^ "Pharaoh Taharqa ruled from 690 to 664 BCE and in all likelihood was the last black pharaoh to rule over all of Egypt" in Dijk, Lutz van (2006). A History of Africa. Tafelberg. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-624-04257-0. ^ Toby Wilkinson, The Thames and Hudson Dictionary of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson, 2005. p.237 ^ Kitchen 1996, p. 380-391. ^ Kitchen 1996, p. 161. ^ Kitchen 1996, p. 167. ^ a b Payraudeau 2014, p. 115-127. ^ Payraudeau 2014, p. 122-3. ^ [52 – JWIS III 132-135; FHN I, number 21, 135-144.] ^ [53 – JWIS III 135-138; FHN I, number 22, 145-158.] ^ a b c d e Broekman, G.P.F. (2015). The order of succession between Shabaka and Shabataka. A different view on the chronology of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. GM 245. p. 29. ^ "Dive beneath the pyramids of Sudan's black pharaohs". National Geographics. 2 July 2019. ^ a b c d e Welsby, Derek A. (1996). The Kingdom of Kush. London, UK: British Museum Press. p. 158. ISBN 071410986X. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Török, László (1998). The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meroitic Civilization. Leiden: BRILL. pp. 132–133, 170–184. ISBN 90-04-10448-8. ^ Welsby, Derek A. (1996). The Kingdom of Kush. London, UK: British Museum Press. p. 169. ISBN 071410986X. ^ Török, László. The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meroitic Civilization. Leiden: Brill, 1997. Google Scholar. Web. 20 Oct. 2011. ^ a b Diop, Cheikh Anta (1974). The African Origin of Civilization. Chicago, Illinois: Lawrence Hill Books. pp. 219–221. ISBN 1-55652-072-7. ^ Bonnet, Charles (2006). The Nubian Pharaohs. New York: The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 142–154. ISBN 978-977-416-010-3. ^ a b Mokhtar, G. (1990). General History of Africa. California, USA: University of California Press. pp. 161–163. ISBN 0-520-06697-9. ^ Emberling, Geoff (2011). Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa. New York: Institute for the Study of the Ancient World. pp. 9–11. ISBN 978-0-615-48102-9. ^ Silverman, David (1997). Ancient Egypt. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 36–37. ISBN 0-19-521270-3. ^ Emberling, Geoff (2011). Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa. New York: Institute for the Study of the Ancient World. pp. 9–11. ^ Silverman, David (1997). Ancient Egypt. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 36–37. ISBN 0-19-521270-3. ^ Welsby, Derek A. (1996). The Kingdom of Kush. London, UK: British Museum Press. pp. 103, 107–108. ISBN 071410986X. ^ Welsby, Derek A. (1996). The Kingdom of Kush. London, UK: British Museum Press. p. 87. ISBN 071410986X. ^ Coogan, Michael David; Coogan, Michael D. (2001). The Oxford History of the Biblical World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 53. ISBN 0-19-513937-2. ^ Aubin, Henry T. (2002). The Rescue of Jerusalem. New York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. x, 141–144. ISBN 1-56947-275-0. ^ a b Aubin, Henry T. (2002). The Rescue of Jerusalem. New York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. x, 127, 129–130, 139–152. ISBN 1-56947-275-0. ^ Aubin, Henry T. (2002). The Rescue of Jerusalem. New York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. x, 119. ISBN 1-56947-275-0. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq (Third ed.). London: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-012523-X. ^ Aubin, Henry T. (2002). The Rescue of Jerusalem. New York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. x, 155–156. ISBN 1-56947-275-0. ^ Aubin, Henry T. (2002). The Rescue of Jerusalem. New York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. x, 152–153. ISBN 1-56947-275-0. ^ Aubin, Henry T. (2002). The Rescue of Jerusalem. New York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. x, 155. ISBN 1-56947-275-0. ^ Aubin, Henry T. (2002). The Rescue of Jerusalem. New York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. x, 158–161. ISBN 1-56947-275-0. ^ Ephʿal 2005, p. 99. ^ Aubin, Henry T. (2002). The Rescue of Jerusalem. New York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. x, 159–161. ISBN 1-56947-275-0. ^ Budge, E. A. Wallis (17 July 2014). Egyptian Literature (Routledge Revivals): Vol. II: Annals of Nubian Kings. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-07813-3. ^ Mark 2009. ^ Historical Prism inscription of Ashurbanipal I by Arthur Carl Piepkorn page 36. Published by University of Chicago Press ^ Why did Taharqa build his tomb at Nuri? Conference of Nubian Studies ^ http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/14403-tirhakah ^ Stiebing Jr, William H. (2016). Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture. Routledge. p. 279. ISBN 9781315511160. Retrieved 23 December 2018. ^ Aubin, Henry T. (2002). The Rescue of Jerusalem. New York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. x, 178. ISBN 1-56947-275-0. ^ Aubin, Henry T. (2002). The Rescue of Jerusalem. New York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. x, 162. ISBN 1-56947-275-0. ^ Strabo (2006). Geography. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 7. ISBN 0-674-99266-0. ^ Snowden, Before Color Prejudice: The Ancient View of Blacks. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1983, p.52 ^ Peggy Brooks-Bertram (1996). Celenko, Theodore (ed.). Egypt in Africa. Indiana, USA: Indianapolis Museum of Art. pp. 101–102. ISBN 0253332699. ^ "LacusCurtius Strabo Geography Book XV Chapter 1 (§§ 1-25)". penelope.uchicago.edu. ^ "L'An 6 de Taharqa" (PDF). Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ Cf. D. Meeks, Hommage à Serge Sauneron , 1979, Une fondation Memphite de Taharqa (Stèle du Caire JE 36861), p. 221-259. ^ "Taharqa Shrine". Ashmolean Museum. ^ Museum notice ^ Museum notice ^ Museum notice ^ Elshazly, Hesham. "Kerma and the royal cache". Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Sources[edit] Mark, Joshua J. (2009). "Ashurbanipal". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 28 November 2019. Ephʿal, Israel (2005). "Esarhaddon, Egypt, and Shubria: Politics and Propaganda". Journal of Cuneiform Studies. University of Chicago Press. 57 (1): 99–111. doi:10.1086/JCS40025994. Mark, Joshua J. (2014). "Esarhaddon". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 23 November 2019. Radner, Karen (2003). "The Trials of Esarhaddon: The Conspiracy of 670 BC". ISIMU: Revista sobre Oriente Próximo y Egipto en la antigüedad. Universidad Autónoma de Madrid. 6: 165–183. Radner, Karen (2012). "After Eltekeh: Royal Hostages from Egypt at the Assyrian Court". Stories of long ago. Festschrift für Michael D. Roaf. Ugarit-Verlag: 471–479. Radner, Karen (2015). Ancient Assyria: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-871590-0. Grayson, A. K. (1970). "Assyria: Sennacherib and Esarhaddon (704–669 BC)". The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 3 Part 2: The Assyrian and Babylonian Empires and Other States of the Near East, from the Eighth to the Sixth Centuries BC. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-3111033587. Luckenbill, Daniel David (1927). Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia Volume 2: Historical Records of Assyria From Sargon to the End. University of Chicago Press. Further reading[edit] Kitchen, Kenneth Anderson (1996). The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100–650 BC) (3rd ed.). Aris & Phillips Ltd. p. 608. ISBN 9780856682988. Payraudeau, Frédéric (2014). Retour sur la succession Shabaqo-Shabataqo (in French). pp. 115–127. Morkot, Robert (2000). The Black Pharaohs: Egypt's Nubian Rulers. The Rubicon Press. p. 342. ISBN 0-948695-23-4. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Rulers of the Ancient Near East Territories/ dates [1][2][3][4] Egypt Canaan Ebla Mari Akshak/ Akkad Kish Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period 4000–3200 BCE Naqada culture (4000–3100 BCE) Proto-Cannaanites Sumerian period (4000–2340 BCE) Susa I Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE) Naqada I Naqada II Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests") Legendary ante-deluvian rulers: In Eridu: Alulim, Alalngar, then in Bad-tibira: En-men-lu-ana, En-men-gal-ana, Dumuzid, the Shepherd, then in Larag: En-sipad-zid-ana, then in Zimbir: En-men-dur-ana, then in Shuruppag: Ubara-Tutu "then the flood swept over"[5] Susa II (Uruk influence or control) 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ DenAnedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100-2700 BCE) Great Flood 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) First kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman En-me-barage-si ("made the land of Elam submit")[6] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba Uruk II dynasty Enshakushanna Mug-si Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions (3 kings)[7] Shushuntarana Napilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Urur Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun) Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion of Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[7] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian Empire (Semitic) Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Second Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) (Vassals of UR III) Shakkanakku dynasty (Semitic) Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Neo-Sumerian Period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians) Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (Vassals of Ur III)[8] Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal 2100 BCE Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin Ibbi-Sin 2050 BCE 2000 BCE Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV circa 2000 BCE Amorite invasions Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) 2025-1763 BCE Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ Third Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 1894–1595 BCE Second Intermediate Period Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham (Biblical) Yamhad First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Phoenicia Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Middle Assyrian Empire Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt 626–539 BCE Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116-117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ "The Sumerian king list: translation". etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 8 May 2008. ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ a b Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4. Authority control GND: 128804289 VIAF: 62609951 WorldCat Identities: viaf-62609951 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taharqa&oldid=1000486192" Categories: Taharqa Nubian people 7th-century BC Pharaohs 7th-century BC monarchs of Kush Pharaohs of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt Egyptian people of Nubian descent 664 BC deaths Kingdom of Kush 7th century BC in Egypt Pharaohs in the Bible Hidden categories: CS1 errors: missing periodical Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from September 2020 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2020 Commons category link is on Wikidata CS1 French-language sources (fr) Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 15 January 2021, at 08:36 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6448	----	Mithrapata - Wikipedia Mithrapata From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Mithrapata Portrait of Mithrapata, from his coinage. Allegiance Achaemenid Empire Years of service fl. 390 – 370 BC Rank Dynast of Lycia Location of Lycia. Anatolia/Asia Minor in the Greco-Roman period. The classical regions, including Lycia, and their main settlements Miθrapāta (circa 390-370 BC) was dynast of Lycia in the early 4th century BC, at a time when this part of Anatolia was subject to the Persian, or Achaemenid, Empire. Present-day knowledge of Lycia in the period of classical antiquity comes mostly from archaeology, in which this region is unusually rich. Believed to have been based at Antiphellus, Mithrapata is known to have competed for power with another man named Arttumpara.[1] The name of Mithrapata, which is of Persian origin, is known from Lycian coins and also from inscriptions.[2] During the fifth and fourth centuries B.C., the Lycian nobility was using Persian names,[3] so Mithrapata may have been one of them. However, it has also been suggested that he may have been a Persian sent to rule Lycia by Artaxerxes II.[4] Coinage[edit] Together with Pericles, Mithrapata was the last ruler of Lycia to issue coins. After about 360 BC, the region of Lycia was taken over by the Carian dynast Mausolus.[5] As with Pericles, the portrait of Mithrapata seen on his coins does not show him wearing the head-dress of an Achaemenid satrap, which suggests a degree of independence from the Achaemenid Empire. His name appears in the Greek alphabet as "Methrapata".[6] Coin of Mithrapata, c. 390-370 BC Coin of Mithrapata, c. 390-370 BC Notes[edit] ^ D. T. Potts, A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East (2012), p. 912: "...c. 380–370 BC, two western Lycian dynasts named Arttumpara and Mithrapata claimed power simultaneously." ^ Lisbeth S. Fried, The Priest and the Great King: Temple-palace Relations in the Persian Empire (Eisenbrauns, 2004), p. 150 ^ Muhammad A. Dandamaev, Vladimir G. Lukonin, The Culture and Social Institutions of Ancient Iran (2004), p. 300 ^ Trevor Bryce, Jan Zahle, The Lycians: The Lycians in literary and epigraphic sources (1986), p. 162 ^ CNG: DYNASTS of LYCIA. Mithrapata. Circa 390-370 BC. AR Stater (23mm, 9.73 g, 5h). ^ CNG: DYNASTS of LYCIA. Mithrapata. Circa 390-370 BC. AR Stater (23mm, 9.73 g, 5h). v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mithrapata&oldid=1002463097" Categories: Lycians 4th-century BC rulers Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 16:06 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6454	----	Esagila - Wikipedia Esagila From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Reconstruction of the peribolos at Babylon, including the temple of Esagila, from The excavations at Babylon (1914) Coordinates: 32°32′2″N 44°25′17″E / 32.53389°N 44.42139°E / 32.53389; 44.42139 Asia portal Babylonian clay brick from sixth century BC cuneiform inscription "Nebuchadnezzar support Esagila temple and temple Ezida (Borsippa). Eldest son of Nabopolassar, king of Babylon. Hecht Museum Haifa The Ésagila (Sumerian: 𒂍𒊕𒅍𒆷 É-SAǦ-ÍL.LA, "temple whose top is lofty")[1] was a temple dedicated to Marduk, the protector god of Babylon. It lay south of the ziggurat Etemenanki. Contents 1 Description 2 Esagila tablet 3 Notes 4 External links Description[edit] Clay tablet mentioning the dimensions of the Temples of Esagila and Ezida at Babylon. From Babylon, Iraq. 8th-7th century BCE. Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin In this temple was the statue of Marduk, surrounded by cult images of the cities that had fallen under the hegemony of the Babylonian Empire from the 18th century BC; there was also a little lake which was named Abzu by the Babylonian priests. This Abzu was a representation of Marduk's father, Enki, who was god of the waters and lived in the Abzu that was the source of all the fresh waters. Esarhaddon, king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (681 – 669 BC), reconstructed the temple. He claimed that he built the temple from the foundation to the battlements, a claim corroborated by dedicatory inscriptions found on the stones of the temple's walls on the site.[2] The Esagila complex, completed in its final form by Nebuchadnezzar II (604–562 BC) encasing earlier cores, was the center of Babylon. It comprised a large court (ca. 40×70 meters), containing a smaller court (ca. 25×40 meters), and finally the central shrine, consisting of an anteroom and the inner sanctum which contained the statues of Marduk and his consort Sarpanit. According to Herodotus, Xerxes had a statue removed from the Esagila when he flooded Babylon in 482 BC, desecrated the Esagila and sacked the city. Alexander the Great ordered restorations, and the temple continued to be maintained throughout the 2nd century BC, as one of the last strongholds of Babylonian culture, such as literacy in the cuneiform script, but as Babylon was gradually abandoned under the Parthian Empire, the temple fell into decay in the 1st century BC. Under the enormous heap of debris that lay over it, Esagila was rediscovered by Robert Koldewey in November 1900, but it did not begin to be seriously examined until 1910. The rising water table has obliterated much of the sun-dried brick and other oldest material. Most of the finds at Babylon reflect the Neo-Babylonian period and later. This temple is square, and each side is two stadia in length. In the centre is a massive tower, of one stadium in length and breadth; on this tower stands another tower, and another again upon this, and so on up to eight. — Herodotus (I, 178-182)[3] Esagila tablet[edit] Data from the Esagila tablet,[4] which was copied from older texts in 229 BC and describes Esagila in lines 1–15 before passing on to the ziggurat of Etemenanki, have aided in the temple's reconstruction. The tablet, described by George Smith in 1872, disappeared for some time into private hands before it resurfaced and began to be interpreted.[5] The Esagila tablet hold Babylonian calculating methods considered to be sacred as they read in the back "let the initiate show the initiate, the non-initiate must not see this". On the front, the tablet explains the history and engineering of the 7-floor high Etemenanki temple (the equivalent of the Tower of Babel in the Bible).[3] Notes[edit] ^ W. F. Albright, reviewing Friedrich Wetzel and F. H. Weissbach, Das Hauptheiligtum des Marduk in Babylon: Esagila und Etemenanki in American Journal of Archaeology 48.3 (July, 1944), p. 305f. ^ Barbara N. Porter, Images, Power, and Politics: Figurative Aspects of Esarhaddon's ..., Volume 208, Books.google.com, p.53 ^ a b The "Esagila" tablet, Louvre.fr ^ Schmid calls it the Anubelshunu Tablet (Hansjörg Schmid, Der Tempelturm Etemenanki in Babylon 1995. ^ The tablet has been republished in emended form by A.R. George, Babylonian Topographical Texts (Louvain) 1992:418. External links[edit] Esagila (livius.org) The Ancient Middle Eastern Capital City — Reflection and Navel of the World by Stefan Maul ("Die altorientalische Hauptstadt — Abbild und Nabel der Welt," in Die Orientalische Stadt: Kontinuität. Wandel. Bruch. 1 Internationales Kolloquium der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft. 9.-10. Mai 1996 in Halle/Saale, Saarbrücker Druckerei und Verlag (1997), p. 109–124. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Esagila&oldid=1000922240" Categories: Babylonia Ancient Near East temples Esarhaddon Nebuchadnezzar II Hidden categories: Coordinates on Wikidata Articles containing Sumerian-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Беларуская Български Català Čeština Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français Italiano עברית Magyar مصرى 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Svenska Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 17 January 2021, at 11:03 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6459	----	File:Trilingual inscription of Xerxes, Van, 1973.JPG - Wikipedia File:Trilingual inscription of Xerxes, Van, 1973.JPG From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 496 pixels. Other resolutions: 320 × 198 pixels | 640 × 397 pixels | 1,024 × 635 pixels | 1,568 × 972 pixels. Original file ‎(1,568 × 972 pixels, file size: 711 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. DescriptionTrilingual inscription of Xerxes, Van, 1973.JPG English: Inscription of Xerxes, Van, Turkey It is a trilingual inscription, written in Old Persian, Babylonian and Elamite (from left to right). See [1]. Date 1973 Source I took this photo myself using a 300 mm lens with 2X extender on a Pentax camera Author John Hill Permission (Reusing this file) CC-BY-SA-2.5,2.0,1.0; Released under the GNU Free Documentation License. Other versions Image: Inscription of Xerxes, Van, 1973.JPG Licensing John Hill, the copyright holder of this work, hereby publishes it under the following licenses: Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled GNU Free Documentation License.http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.htmlGFDLGNU Free Documentation Licensetruetrue This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license. Attribution: John Hill You are free: to share – to copy, distribute and transmit the work to remix – to adapt the work Under the following conditions: attribution – You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use. share alike – If you remix, transform, or build upon the material, you must distribute your contributions under the same or compatible license as the original. This licensing tag was added to this file as part of the GFDL licensing update.http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/CC-BY-SA-3.0Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0truetrue This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.5 Generic, 2.0 Generic and 1.0 Generic license. Attribution: John Hill You are free: to share – to copy, distribute and transmit the work to remix – to adapt the work Under the following conditions: attribution – You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use. share alike – If you remix, transform, or build upon the material, you must distribute your contributions under the same or compatible license as the original. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5 CC BY-SA 2.5 Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.5 truetrue You may select the license of your choice. Original upload log The original description page was here. All following user names refer to en.wikipedia. 2007-08-26 07:52 John Hill 1608×1038×8 (271027 bytes) I took this photo myself using a 300 mm lens with 2X extender on a Pentax camera at Van in 1973. ~~~~ Captions EnglishAdd a one-line explanation of what this file represents Items portrayed in this file depicts copyright status copyrighted copyright license Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 1.0 Generic Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 2.0 Generic GNU Free Documentation License, version 1.2 or later Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 2.5 Generic inception 1973 File history Click on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. 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(talk) 06:35, 17 November 2007 (UTC) I took this photo myself using a 300 mm lens with 2X extender on a Pentax camera at Van in File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Epigraphy Xerxes I Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on ar.wikipedia.org الإمبراطورية الأخمينية Usage on avk.wikipedia.org Tushpa Usage on az.wikipedia.org Tuşpa Usage on bar.wikipedia.org Benutzer:Luki/Keuschrift Keuschrift Usage on ba.wikipedia.org Әһәмәниҙәр дәүләте Usage on bjn.wikipedia.org Tulisan Paku Usage on cv.wikipedia.org Авалхи перс чĕлхи Usage on de.wikipedia.org 486 v. Chr. 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Orientation Normal Horizontal resolution 72 dpi Vertical resolution 72 dpi Software used GIMP 2.6.6 File change date and time 18:05, 3 June 2010 Y and C positioning Centered Exif version 2.2 DateTime subseconds 890 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Trilingual_inscription_of_Xerxes,_Van,_1973.JPG" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces File Talk Variants Views Read View on Commons More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Upload file Special pages Printable version Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6471	----	Achaemenid Kingdom - Wikipedia Achaemenid Kingdom From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The Achaemenid Kingdom (Persian: پادشاهی هخامنشی, pādšāhie haxāmaneši) refers to the pre-imperial history of the Achaemenid dynasty. The first king of the kingdom was Achaemenes, who was the forefather of the Achamenids, and also gave his name to the dynasty.[1] The Achaemenid kingdom was the ruling kingdom of Persia (a region in south-western Iran) and Anshan (also in south-western Iran). According to the Achaemenid tradition, Achaemenes was succeeded by Teispes, who divided his kingdom between his sons, Ariaramnes and Cyrus I. Contents 1 History 2 Rulers 2.1 Achaemenid kings of Anshan 3 Legacy 4 References History[edit] It is not known if the first member of the dynasty, Achaemenes, was a mythical figure or an actual king. But historical or mythical, he was known to the later Achaemenids as the father of Teispes.[1] Apparently, the Achaemenid kingdom was divided by Teispes between his sons, Ariaramnes and Cyrus I. From then on, the dynasty had two branches, while the Ariaramnids were kings of Pars (Persis or Persia, a province in south of Iran), the Cyrusids were kings of Anshan. Cambyses I, son of Cyrus I and father of Cyrus II, reigned under the overlordship of Astyages, King of Media and married Mandane, daughter of the Great King. But soon Cambyses rebelled against Astyages. While Cambyses was killed in the rebellion, his son, Cyrus the Great, successfully conquered the realm of his grandfather and started the Achaemenid Empire. Rulers[edit] In his cylinder, Cyrus the Great introduced himself as a descendant of Teispes. However, there is no mention of Achaemenes:[2] I am Cyrus, king of the universe, the great king, the powerful king, king of Babylon, king of Sumer and Akkad, king of the four quarters of the world, son of Cambyses, the great king, king of the city of Anshan, grandson of Cyrus, the great king, king of the city of Anshan, descendant of Teispes, the great king, king of Anshan. — Cyrus the Great In the Behistun Inscription, Darius the Great said Achaemenes was the father of Teispes: My father is Hystaspes; the father of Hystaspes was Arsames; the father of Arsames was Ariaramnes; the father of Ariaramnes was Teispes; the father of Teispes was Achaemenes. — Darius the Great According to Darius, there were eight Achaemenid kings before him: That is why we are called Achaemenids; from antiquity we have been noble; from antiquity has our dynasty been royal. Eight of my dynasty were kings before me; I am the ninth. Nine in succession we have been kings. — Darius the Great The genealogy of the Achaemenids is also reported by Herodotus. According to him, Darius, Hystaspes, Arsames, Ariaramnes and Teispes were the Achaemenid kings of Darius's branch, while Cyrus [II], Cambyses [I], Teispes and Achaemenes were kings of the other branch.[3] Plato also describes Achaemenes as son of the Greek god, Perseus, son of Zeus.[4] Achaemenid kings of Anshan[edit] Portrait Name Family relations Reign Notes Achaemenid dynasty (~705–559 BC) Achaemenes ~705 BC First ruler of the Achaemenid kingdom Teispes Son of Achaemenes ~640 BC Cyrus I Son of Teispes ~580 BC Cambyses I Son of Cyrus I and father of Cyrus II ~550 BC Legacy[edit] Main article: Achaemenid Empire Extent of the Achaemenid Empire Once a minor dynasty in south of Iran, the Achaemenid dynasty would rule much of the ancient world for more than two centuries. Cyrus the Great, a member of the dynasty, conquered Media, Babylon and Lydia, while his son Cambyses II, conquered Egypt.[5] References[edit] ^ a b "ACHAEMENES – Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2019-04-05. ^ "The Cyrus Cylinder". British Museum. Retrieved 2019-04-05. ^ "ACHAEMENID DYNASTY – Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org. Archived from the original on 2011-04-29. Retrieved 2019-04-05. ^ "Plato, Alcibiades 1, section 120e". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2019-04-05. ^ "ACHAEMENID DYNASTY – Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org. Archived from the original on 2011-04-29. Retrieved 2019-04-05. v t e Achaemenid Empire History Kingdom Family tree Timeline History of democracy Art Achaemenid Persian Lion Rhyton Achaemenid coinage Danake Persian daric Architecture Achaemenid architecture Persepolis Pasargadae Tomb of Cyrus Naqsh-e Rostam Ka'ba-ye Zartosht Mausoleum at Halicarnassus Tombs at Xanthos Harpy Tomb Nereid Monument Tomb of Payava Culture Persepolis Administrative Archives Old Persian cuneiform Old Persian Behistun Inscription Xerxes I's inscription at Van Ganjnameh Warfare Persian Revolt Battle of Hyrba Battle of the Persian Border Lydian-Persian Wars Battle of Pteria Battle of Thymbra Siege of Sardis (547 BC) Battle of Opis First conquest of Egypt Battle of Cunaxa Conquest of the Indus Valley Scythian campaign of Darius I Greco-Persian Wars Ionian Revolt Battle of Thermopylae Battle of Artemisium Battle of Salamis Battle of Plataea Battle of Mycale Battle of Marathon Delian League Battle of Lade Siege of Eretria Siege of Naxos (499 BC) Wars of the Delian League Battle of the Eurymedon Peloponnesian War Battle of Cyzicus Corinthian War Battle of Cnidus Great Satraps' Revolt Second conquest of Egypt Wars of Alexander the Great Battle of Gaugamela Battle of the Granicus Battle of the Persian Gate Battle of Issus Siege of Gaza Siege of Halicarnassus Siege of Miletus Siege of Perinthus Siege of Tyre (332 BC) Related Achaemenid dynasty Pharnacid dynasty Peace of Antalcidas Peace of Callias Kingdom of Pontus Mithridatic dynasty Kingdom of Cappadocia Ariarathid dynasty 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire Districts of the Empire Royal Road Xanthian Obelisk Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Kingdom&oldid=987113242" Categories: Achaemenid Empire Ancient Persia Empires and kingdoms of Iran Monarchy in Persia and Iran History of Iran Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages فارسی Edit links This page was last edited on 5 November 2020, at 00:24 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-647	----	Philip III of Macedon - Wikipedia Philip III of Macedon From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Philip III of Macedon" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) King of Macedonia Philip III of Macedon Tetradrachm of Philip III Arrhidaeus King of Macedonia Reign traditional: 323–317 BC Predecessor Alexander III Successor Alexander IV Pharaoh of Egypt Reign traditional: 323–317 BC Predecessor Alexander III Successor Alexander IV Royal titulary Nomen plwypwsꜣ Pelupuisa Philippos Horus name kꜢ-nḫt mrj-mꜢꜤt Kanakht merymaat The strong bull, beloved of Maat Nebty name ḥḳꜢ-ḫꜢswt Heqakhasut The ruler of foreign countries Golden Horus mrjw Meriu The beloved one Spouse Eurydice Dynasty Argead dynasty Father Philip II Mother Philinna of Larissa Religion Ancient Greek religion Philip III Arrhidaeus (Ancient Greek: Φίλιππος Γ΄ ὁ Ἀρριδαῖος; c. 359 BC – 25 December, 317 BC) reigned as king of Macedonia from after 11 June 323 BC until his death. He was a son of King Philip II of Macedon by Philinna of Larissa, and thus an elder half-brother of Alexander the Great. Named Arrhidaeus at birth, he assumed the name Philip when he ascended to the throne. As Arrhidaeus grew older it became apparent that he had mild learning difficulties. Plutarch was of the view that he became disabled by means of an attempt on his life by Philip II's wife, Queen Olympias, who wanted to eliminate a possible rival to her son, Alexander, through the employment of pharmaka (drugs/spells); however, most modern authorities doubt the truth of this claim.[1] Alexander was fond of Arrhidaeus and took him on his campaigns[citation needed], both to protect his life and to prevent his use as a pawn in any prospective challenge for the throne. After Alexander's death in Babylon in 323 BC, the Macedonian army in Asia proclaimed Arrhidaeus as king;[2] however, he served merely as a figurehead and as the pawn of a series of powerful generals. Contents 1 Biography 2 Tomb 3 Arrhidaeus in fiction 4 References 5 External links Biography[edit] Philip III as pharaoh on a relief in Karnak Even though Arrhidaeus and Alexander were about the same age, Arrhidaeus appears never to have been a danger as an alternative choice for Alexander's succession to Philip II; nevertheless, when the Persian satrap of Caria, Pixodarus, proposed his daughter in marriage to Philip, the king declined, offering his son Arrhidaeus as husband instead, and Alexander thought it prudent to block the dynastic union (which might have produced a possible future heir to Philip's domain before Alexander himself did), resulting in considerable irritation on the part of his father (337 BC).[3] Arrhidaeus' whereabouts during the reign of his brother Alexander are unclear from the extant sources; what is certain is that no civil or military command was given to him in those thirteen years (336–323 BC). He was in Babylon at the time of Alexander's death on 10 June 323 BC. A succession crisis ensued. Arrhidaeus was the most obvious candidate, but he was mentally disabled and thus unfit to rule.[4] A conflict then arose between Perdiccas, leader of the cavalry, and Meleager, who commanded the phalanx: the first wanted to wait to see if Roxana, Alexander's pregnant wife, would deliver a male baby, while the second objected that Arrhidaeus was the closest living relative and so should be chosen king. Meleager was killed, and a compromise was engineered: Arrhidaeus would become king, with the name of Philip, and he would be joined by Roxana's yet-unborn child as co-sovereign should that child prove a male. This eventuality did indeed arise and resulted in Roxana's son, Alexander, becoming with his uncle Phillip III co-sovereign on the throne of Macedon. It was immediately decided that Philip Arrhidaeus would reign, but not rule: this was to be the prerogative of the new regent, Perdiccas. When news arrived in Macedonia that Arrhidaeus had been chosen as king, Cynane, a daughter of Philip II, developed a plan to travel to Asia and offer the new king her daughter Eurydice for wife. This move was an obvious affront to the regent, whom Cynane had completely bypassed, and to prevent the marriage, Perdiccas sent his brother, Alcetas, to kill Cynane. The reaction among the troops generated by this murder was such that the regent had to give up his opposition to the proposed match and accept the marriage. From that moment on, Philip Arrhidaeus was to be under the sway of his bride, a proud and determined woman bent on substantiating her husband's power. Coin of Philip III Arrhidaios. 323-317 BC. AR Tetradrachm (17.20 g, 1h). Babylon mint. Struck under Perdikkas, circa 323-320 BC. Head of Herakles right, wearing lion skin headdress / [BASILEWS FILIPPOU], Zeus Aëtophoros seated left; wheel and monogram in left field, monogram below throne. Eurydice's chance to increase her husband's power came when the first war of the Diadochi sealed the fate of Perdiccas, making a new settlement necessary. An agreement was made at Triparadisus in Syria in 321 BC. Eurydice moved deftly enough to achieve the removal of the first two designated regents, Peithon and Arrhidaeus (a namesake of her husband), but was powerless to block the aspirations of Antipater, whose position proved too powerful, and the latter was made the new regent; Philip Arrhidaeus and Eurydice were forced to follow Antipater back to Macedonia. The regent died of natural causes the following year, nominating as his successor not his son Cassander, but his friend and lieutenant, Polyperchon. Cassander's refusal to accept his father's decision sparked the Second War of the Diadochi, in which Eurydice saw once again a chance to free Philip from the control of the regent. An opportunity presented itself in 317 BC when Cassander expelled Polyperchon from Macedonia. Eurydice immediately allied herself with Cassander and persuaded her husband to nominate him as the new regent. Cassander reciprocated by leaving her in full control of the country when he left to campaign in Greece. But individual circumstances and events at this time were subject to rapid change. That same year, Polyperchon and Olympias allied with her cousin, Aeacides, king of Epirus, and invaded Macedonia. The Macedonian troops refused to fight Olympias, the mother of Alexander. Philip and Eurydice had no choice but to escape, only to be captured at Amphipolis and thrown into prison. It soon became clear that Philip was too dangerous to be left alive, as Olympias' many enemies saw him as a useful tool against her, and so on 25 December 317 BC, she had him executed, while his wife was forced to commit suicide. Tomb[edit] Main article: Philip II of Macedon § Archaeological findings Golden Larnax (Chrysi Larnaka) (with the Sun of Vergina on the lid) that contains the remains (bones) from the burial of King Philip II of Macedonia and the royal golden wreath. Formerly located at the Thessaloniki Archaeological Museum, since 1997) displayed in the underground museum of Vergina, inside the Great Tumulus.[5] In 1977, important excavations were made near Vergina leading to the discovery of a two-chambered royal tomb, with an almost perfectly preserved male skeleton. Manolis Andronikos, the chief archaeologist at the site, along with a number of other archaeologists, decided it was the skeleton of Philip II, but others have disputed this attribution and instead proposed it to be the remains of Philip Arrhidaeus. Arrhidaeus in fiction[edit] He appears as one of the main characters in the novel Funeral Games by Mary Renault. In Renault's version, the villainous Cassander slows down his advance on Macedonia to give Olympias enough time to kill Arrhidaeus and Eurydice. Arrhidaeus is also a main character in Annabel Lyon's novel The Golden Mean. In it, the young Arrhidaeus is tutored by Aristotle while he also mentors his younger half-brother, the future Alexander the Great. Alexander, who is initially disgusted with his brother's inferior intellect, learns to love him before he sets out to conquer the world. In the Japanese fiction manga Historie, he was shown as an intellectually disabled young child, who became happy when Eumenes made him a toy chariot and became sad when Alexander the Great destroyed his toy. Eumenes later replaced it with a new one, telling him to bury the chariot. Arrhideaus is also portrayed in the Indian historical drama series Porus. References[edit] Habicht, Christian (1998). Ελληνιστική Αθήνα [Hellenistic Athens] (in Greek). Athens: Odysseas. ISBN 960-210-310-8. Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, "Arrhidaeus (1)", "Eurydice (3)", Boston, (1867) ^ Elizabeth Donnelly Carney (2006). Olympias: mother of Alexander the Great. Taylor & Francis. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-0-415-33316-0. Retrieved 14 June 2011. ^ Siculus, Diodorus. Bibliotheca Historica, 18.2.1-4. ^ Plutarch. Alex.. 10.2-3. ^ Habicht 1998, p. 69. ^ Stella Drougou, Chrysoula Saatsoglou-Paliadeli. Verghina, Hellenic Minister of Culture, Athens, 2005 (p. 45, p. 59) ISBN 960-214-385-1 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Philip III of Macedon. Wiki Classical Dictionary: Arrhidaeus Page about coinage during his reign An archaeological report about his grave and remains A National Geographic article about the group of tombs, one of which is now said to be his (April 2008) Philip III of Macedon Argead dynasty Born: 359 BC Died: 317 BC Regnal titles Preceded by Alexander the Great King of Macedon King of Asia Pharaoh of Egypt 323 BC – 317 BC Succeeded by Alexander IV v t e Kings of Macedon Argead Caranus Coenus Tyrimmas Perdiccas I Argaeus I Philip I Aeropus I Alcetas I Amyntas I Alexander I Alcetas II Perdiccas II Archelaus I Craterus Orestes / Aeropus II Archelaus II Amyntas II Pausanias Argaeus II Amyntas III Alexander II Perdiccas III Amyntas IV Philip II Alexander III (Alexander the Great) Philip III Alexander IV Regents Ptolemy of Aloros Perdiccas Peithon and Arrhidaeus Antipater Polyperchon Cassander Antipatrid Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Antigonid Demetrius I Antigonus II Demetrius II Antigonus III Philip V Perseus Andriscus (Philip VI) Non-dynastic Lysimachus Pyrrhus Ptolemy Keraunos Meleager v t e Hellenistic rulers Argeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Kings of Cyrene Magas Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Kings of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Kings of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Kings of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Kings of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus Kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon (regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces Asander with Dynamis Mithridates II Asander with Dynamis Scribonius’ attempted rule with Dynamis Dynamis with Polemon Polemon with Pythodorida Aspurgus Mithridates III with Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control BNF: cb12218685s (data) GND: 11902716X ISNI: 0000 0000 2219 3449 LCCN: nr92018626 NTA: 202737454 SUDOC: 172085853 VIAF: 5731985 WorldCat Identities: lccn-nr92018626 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Philip_III_of_Macedon&oldid=998809347" Categories: 350s BC births 317 BC deaths 4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs 4th-century BC Pharaohs 4th-century BC Babylonian kings 4th-century BC Macedonians 4th-century BC rulers Argead kings of Macedonia Monarchs of Persia Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty Executed monarchs People who died under the regency of Polyperchon Family of Alexander the Great Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from May 2013 All articles needing additional references Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2013 CS1 Greek-language sources (el) Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia 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en-wikipedia-org-6488	----	List of pharaohs - Wikipedia List of pharaohs From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Canide (Pharaoh)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia list article This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "List of pharaohs" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Pharaoh of Egypt The Pschent combined the Red Crown of Lower Egypt and the White Crown of Upper Egypt. A typical depiction of a pharaoh. Details Style Five-name titulary First monarch Narmer (a.k.a. Menes) Last monarch Nectanebo II (last native)[1] Cleopatra and Caesarion (last actual) Maximinus Daia (last to be referred to as Pharaoh) [2] Formation c. 3100 BC Abolition 343 BC (last native pharaoh)[1] 30 BC (last Greek pharaohs) 314 AD (last Roman Emperor to be called Pharaoh)[2] Residence Varies by era Appointer Divine right The title "Pharaoh" is used for those rulers of Ancient Egypt who ruled after the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt by Narmer during the Early Dynastic Period, approximately 3100 BC. However, the specific title "Pharaoh" was not used to address the kings of Egypt by their contemporaries until the rule of Merneptah in the 19th Dynasty, c. 1200 BC. Along with the title Pharaoh for later rulers, there was an Ancient Egyptian royal titulary used by Egyptian kings which remained relatively constant during the course of Ancient Egyptian history, initially featuring a Horus name, a Sedge and Bee (nswt-bjtj) name and a Two Ladies (nbtj) name, with the additional Golden Horus, nomen and prenomen titles being added successively during later dynasties. Egypt was continually governed, at least in part, by native pharaohs for approximately 2500 years, until it was conquered by the Kingdom of Kush in the late 8th century BC, whose rulers adopted the traditional pharaonic titulature for themselves. Following the Kushite conquest, Egypt experienced another period of independent native rule before being conquered by the Achaemenid Empire, whose rulers also adopted the title of "Pharaoh". The last native pharaoh of Egypt was Nectanebo II, who was pharaoh before the Achaemenids conquered Egypt for a second time. Achaemenid rule over Egypt came to an end through the conquests of Alexander the Great in 332 BC, after which it was ruled by the Hellenic Pharaohs of the Ptolemaic Dynasty. Their rule, and the independence of Egypt, came to an end when Egypt became a province of Rome in 30 BC. Augustus and subsequent Roman emperors were styled as Pharaoh when in Egypt until the reign of Maximinus Daia in 314 AD. The dates given in this list of pharaohs are approximate. They are based primarily on the conventional chronology of Ancient Egypt, mostly based on the Digital Egypt for Universities[3] database developed by the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, but alternative dates taken from other authorities may be indicated separately. Contents 1 Ancient Egyptian king lists 2 Predynastic period 2.1 Lower Egypt 2.2 Upper Egypt 2.3 Predynastic rulers: Dynasty 0 3 Early Dynastic Period 3.1 First Dynasty 3.2 Second Dynasty 4 Old Kingdom 4.1 Third Dynasty 4.2 Fourth Dynasty 4.3 Fifth Dynasty 4.4 Sixth Dynasty 5 First Intermediate Period 5.1 Seventh and Eighth Dynasties (combined) 5.2 Ninth Dynasty 5.3 Tenth Dynasty 5.4 Eleventh Dynasty 6 Middle Kingdom 6.1 Eleventh Dynasty continued 6.2 Enigmatic kings, only attested in Lower Nubia 6.3 Twelfth Dynasty 7 Second Intermediate Period 7.1 Thirteenth Dynasty 7.2 Fourteenth Dynasty 7.3 Fifteenth Dynasty 7.4 Abydos Dynasty 7.5 Sixteenth Dynasty 7.6 Seventeenth Dynasty 8 New Kingdom 8.1 Eighteenth Dynasty 8.2 Nineteenth Dynasty 8.3 Twentieth Dynasty 9 Third Intermediate Period 9.1 Twenty-First Dynasty 9.2 Theban High Priests of Amun 9.3 Twenty-Second Dynasty 9.4 Twenty-Third Dynasty 9.5 Twenty-Fourth Dynasty 9.6 Twenty-Fifth Dynasty (Nubian/Kushite Period) 10 Late Period 10.1 Twenty-Sixth Dynasty 10.2 Twenty-Seventh Dynasty (First Persian Period) 10.3 Twenty-Eighth Dynasty 10.4 Twenty-Ninth Dynasty 10.5 Thirtieth Dynasty 10.6 Thirty-First Dynasty (Second Persian Period) 11 Hellenistic period 11.1 Argead Dynasty 11.2 Ptolemaic Dynasty 12 Rome 13 See also 14 References 15 Further reading 16 External links Ancient Egyptian king lists[edit] Modern lists of pharaohs are based on historical records, including Ancient Egyptian king lists and later histories, such as Manetho's Aegyptiaca, as well as archaeological evidence. Concerning ancient sources, Egyptologists and historians alike call for caution in regard to the credibility, exactitude and completeness of these sources, many of which were written long after the reigns they report.[4] An additional problem is that ancient king lists are often damaged, inconsistent with one another and/or selective. The following ancient king lists are known (along with the dynasty under which they were created)):[5] Den seal impressions (1st Dynasty); found on a cylinder seal in Den's tomb. It lists all 1st Dynasty kings from Narmer to Den by their Horus names.[6] Palermo stone (5th Dynasty); carved on an olivine-basalt slab. Broken into pieces and thus today incomplete. Giza writing board (6th Dynasty); painted with red, green and black ink on gypsum and cedar wood. Very selective. South Saqqara Stone (6th Dynasty); carved on a black basalt slab. Very selective. Karnak King List (18th Dynasty); carved on limestone. Very selective. Abydos King List of Seti I (19th Dynasty); carved on limestone. Very detailed, but omitting the First Intermediate Period. Abydos King List of Ramesses II (19th Dynasty); carved on limestone. Very selective. Ramesseum king list (19th Dynasty); carved on limestone. Contains most of the New Kingdom pharaohs up to Ramesses II. Saqqara Tablet (19th Dynasty), carved on limestone. Very detailed, but omitting most kings of the 1st Dynasty for unknown reasons. Turin King List (19th Dynasty); written with red and black ink on papyrus. Likely the most complete king-list in history, today damaged. Medinet Habu king list (20th Dynasty); carved on limestone and very similar to the Ramesseum king list. Manetho's Aegyptiaca (Greek Period); possibly written on papyrus. The original writings are lost today and many anecdotes assigned to certain kings seem fictitious. Predynastic period[edit] Main article: Prehistoric Egypt Lower Egypt[edit] Main article: Lower Egypt Lower Egypt geographically consisted of the northern Nile and the Nile delta. The following list may be incomplete: Name Image Comments Reign Hedju Hor Only known from two clay jugs from Tura Naqada II?? Ny-Hor Only known from clay and stone vessels found in tombs near Tarchan, Tura, Tarjan, and Nagada Naqada II?? King 01 (missing) Only known from the Palermo stone[7] Unknown Hsekiu / Seka Only known from the Palermo stone[8] Unknown Khayu Only known from the Palermo stone[9] Unknown Tiu / Teyew Only known from the Palermo stone[10] Unknown Thesh / Tjesh Only known from the Palermo stone[11] Unknown Neheb Only known from the Palermo stone[12] Unknown Wazner Only known from the Palermo stone[13] Ruled around or earlier than 3180 BC Hat-Hor — Around 3180 BC Mekh Only known from the Palermo stone[14] Unknown King 09 (destroyed) Only known from the Palermo stone[14] Unknown Double Falcon May also have ruled in Upper Egypt Naqada III (32nd century BC) Wash Only known from the Narmer Palette[15] Around 3150 BC Naqada III Upper Egypt[edit] Main article: Dynasty 00 Regrouped here are predynastic rulers of Upper Egypt belonging to the late Naqada III period, sometimes informally described as Dynasty 00. Name Image Comments Reign Finger Snail — The existence of this king is very doubtful.[16] Naqada III Fish[17] — Only known from artifacts that bear his mark, around 3250–3220 BC. He most likely never existed.[16] Naqada III Elephant[18] Around 3240–3220 BC; more than likely never existed Naqada III Stork[19][20] — most likely never existed.[16] Naqada III Bull — most likely never existed.[16] Naqada III Scorpion I — First ruler of Upper Egypt, Around 3250–3200 BC. Naqada III Predynastic rulers: Dynasty 0[edit] Main article: Dynasty 0 The following list of predynastic rulers may be incomplete. Since these kings precede the First Dynasty, they have been informally grouped as "Dynasty 0". Name Image Comments Dates Iry-Hor Correct chronological position unclear.[21] Around 3170 BC Crocodile Potentially read Shendjw; identity and existence are disputed.[22] Around 3170 BC Ka Maybe read Sekhen rather than Ka. Correct chronological position unclear.[23] Around 3170 BC Scorpion II Potentially read Serqet; possibly the same person as Narmer.[24] Around 3170 BC Early Dynastic Period[edit] Main article: Early Dynastic Period of Egypt The Early Dynastic Period of Egypt stretches from around 3100 to 2686 BC.[25] First Dynasty[edit] Main article: First Dynasty of Egypt The First Dynasty ruled from around 3100 to 2890 BC.[25] Name Image Comments Dates Narmer Believed to be the same person as Menes and to have unified Upper and Lower Egypt. Around 3100 BC[25] Hor-Aha Son of Narmer Greek form: Athotís. Around 3050 BC Djer Son of Hor-Aha Greek form: Uenéphes (after his Gold name In-nebw); His name and titulary appear on the Palermo Stone. His tomb was later thought to be the legendary tomb of Osiris. 54 years[26] Djet Brother of Djer Greek form: Usapháis. 10 years[27] Den Son of Djet Greek form: Kénkenes (after the ramesside diction of his birthname: Qenqen[28]). First pharaoh depicted wearing the double crown of Egypt, first pharaoh with a full niswt bity-name. 42 years[27] Anedjib Grandson of Djet & nephew of Den Greek form: Miebidós. Known for his ominous nebwy-title.[29] 10 years Semerkhet Son of Anedjib or brother of him Greek form: Semempsés. First Egyptian ruler with a fully developed Nebty name. His complete reign is preserved on the Cairo stone. 8½ years[27] Qa'a Son of Semerkhet Greek form: Bienéches. Ruled very long, his tomb is the last one with subsidiary tombs. 34 years Sneferka Unknown son of Qa’a? Very short reign, correct chronological position unknown. Around 2900 BC Horus Bird Brother? Very short reign, correct chronological position unknown. Around 2900 BC Second Dynasty[edit] Main article: Second Dynasty of Egypt The Second Dynasty ruled from 2890 to 2686 BC.[25] Name Image Comments Dates Hotepsekhemwy[30] Manetho names him Boëthos and claims that under this ruler an earthquake killed many people. 15 years Nebra[31] Greek form: Kaíechós (after the Ramesside cartouche name Kakaw). First ruler who uses the sun-symbol in his royal name, could be identical to king Weneg. 14 years Nynetjer[32] Greek form: Binóthris. May have divided Egypt between his successors, allegedly allowed women to rule like pharaohs. 43–45 years Weneg-Nebty[33] Greek form: Ougotlas/Tlás. Could be an independent ruler or the same as Peribsen, Sekhemib-Perenmaat or Raneb. Around 2740 BC Senedj[34] Greek form: Sethenes. Possibly the same person as Peribsen. This, however, is highly disputed.[35] 47 years (Supposedly) Seth-Peribsen Used a Seth-animal above his serekh rather than an Horus falcon. He promoted the sun-cult in Egypt and reduced the powers of officials, nomarchs and palatines. Some scholars believe that he ruled over a divided Egypt.[36] Unknown Sekhemib-Perenmaat Could be the same person as Seth-Peribsen.[37] Around 2720 BC Neferkara I Greek form: Néphercherés. Known only from Ramesside king lists, not archaeologically attested. 25 years(according to Manetho) Neferkasokar Greek form: Sesóchris. Known only from Ramesside king lists, not archaeologically attested. Old Kingdom legends claim that this ruler saved Egypt from a long lasting drought.[38] 8 years Hudjefa I Known only from Ramesside king lists, his "name" is actually a paraphrase pointing out that the original name of the king was already lost in Ramesside times. 11 years(According to the Turin Canon) Khasekhem(wy)[39][40] Greek form: Chenerés. May have reunified Egypt after a period of trouble, his serekh name is unique for presenting both Horus and Set. 18 years Old Kingdom[edit] Main article: Old Kingdom of Egypt The Old Kingdom of Egypt is the point of Egypt which succeeded the Early Dynastic Egypt and precedes the troubled First Intermediate Period. The kingdom ruled from 2686 to 2181 BC.[41] Third Dynasty[edit] Main article: Third Dynasty of Egypt The Third Dynasty ruled from 2686 to 2613 BC.[41] Name Image Comments Dates Djoser[42][43] Hellenized names Sesorthos and Tosórthros. Commissioned the first Pyramid in Egypt, created by chief architect and scribe Imhotep. 19 or 28 years, possibly around 2650 BC[44] Sekhemkhet[45] Greek form: Tyréis (after the ramesside cartouche name for Sekhemkhet, Teti). In the necropolis of his unfinished step pyramid, the remains of a 2-year old infant were found.[46] 2649–2643 BC Sanakht Likely to be identified with the throne name Nebka; Hellenized names Necherôchis and Necherôphes. May have reigned 6 years if identified with the penultimate king of the Dynasty on the Turin canon. Around 2650 BC Khaba Possibly built an unfinished step pyramid, could be identical with Huni. 2643–2637 BC Huni[47] Greek form: Áches. Could be the same as Qahedjet or Khaba. Possibly built an unfinished step pyramid and several cultic pyramids throughout Egypt. Huni was for a long time credited with the building of the pyramid of Meidum. This, however, is disproved by New Kingdom graffiti that praise king Snofru, not Huni. 2637–2613 BC Fourth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Fourth Dynasty of Egypt The Fourth Dynasty ruled from 2613 to 2496 BC.[41] Name Image Comments Dates Sneferu Greek form: Sóris. Reigned 48 years, giving him enough time to build the Meidum Pyramid, the Bent Pyramid and the Red Pyramid. Some scholars believe that he was buried in the Red Pyramid. For a long time it was thought that the Meidum Pyramid was not Sneferu's work, but that of king Huni. Ancient Egyptian documents describe Sneferu as a pious, generous and even accostable ruler.[48] 2613–2589 BC[41] Khufu Greek form: Cheops and Suphis. Built the Great pyramid of Giza. Khufu is depicted as a cruel tyrant by ancient Greek authors, Ancient Egyptian sources however describe him as a generous and pious ruler. He is the main protagonist of the famous Westcar Papyrus. The first imprinted papyri originate from Khufu's reign, which may have made ancient Greek authors believe that Khufu wrote books in attempt to praise the gods. 2589–2566 BC Djedefre Greek form: Rátoises. Some scholars believe he created the Great Sphinx of Giza as a monument for his deceased father. He also created a pyramid at Abu Rawash. However, this pyramid is no longer extant; it is believed the Romans re-purposed the materials from which it was made. 2566–2558 BC Khafre Greek form: Chéphren and Suphis II. His pyramid is the second largest in Giza. Some scholars prefer him as the creator of the Great Sphinx before Djedefra. Ancient Greek authors describe Khafra as likewise cruel as Khufu. 2558–2532 BC Baka/Bauefrê Greek form: Bikheris. Could be the owner of the Unfinished Northern Pyramid of Zawyet el'Aryan. Around 2570 BC Menkaure Greek form: Menchéres. His pyramid is the third and smallest in Giza. A legend claims that his only daughter died due to an illness and Menkaura buried her in a golden coffin in shape of a cow. 2532–2503 BC Shepseskaf Greek form: Seberchéres. Owner of the Mastabat el-Fara'un. 2503–2498 BC Thamphthis — According to Manetho the last king of the 4th dynasty. He is not archaeologically attested and thus possibly fictional. Around 2500 BC Fifth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Fifth Dynasty of Egypt The Fifth Dynasty ruled from 2496 to 2345 BC.[41] Name Image Comments Dates Userkaf Buried in a pyramid in Saqqara. Built the first solar temple at Abusir. 2496–2491 BC Sahure Moved the royal necropolis to Abusir, where he built his pyramid. 2490–2477 BC Neferirkare Kakai Son of Sahure, born with the name Ranefer 2477–2467 BC Neferefre Son of Neferirkare 2460–2458 BC Shepseskare Reigned most likely after Neferefre and for only a few months, possibly a son of Sahure.[49] A few months Nyuserre Ini Brother to Neferefre, built extensively in the Abusir necropolis. 2445–2422 BC Menkauhor Kaiu Last pharaoh to build a sun temple 2422–2414 BC Djedkare Isesi Effected comprehensive reforms of the Egyptian administration. Enjoyed the longest reign of his dynasty, with likely more than 35 years on the throne. 2414–2375 BC Unas The Pyramid of Unas is inscribed with the earliest instance of the pyramid texts 2375–2345 BC Sixth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Sixth Dynasty of Egypt The Sixth Dynasty ruled from 2345 to 2181 BC.[41] Name Image Comments Dates Teti According to Manetho, he was murdered. 2345–2333 BC Userkare Reigned 1 to 5 years, may have usurped the throne at the expense of Teti 2333–2332 BC Meryre Pepi I Faced conspiracies and political troubles yet became the most prolific builder of his dynasty 2332–2283 BC Merenre Nemtyemsaf I — 2283–2278 BC Neferkare Pepi II Possibly the longest reigning monarch of human history with 94 years on the throne. Alternatively, may have reigned "only" 64 years. 2278–2184 BC Neferka — Reigned during Pepi II; was possibly his son or co-ruler. 2200–2199 BC Merenre Nemtyemsaf II[50] Short lived pharaoh, possibly an aged son of Pepi II. 1 year and 1 month c. 2184 BC Neitiqerty Siptah Identical with Netjerkare. This male king gave rise to the legendary queen Nitocris of Herodotus and Manetho.[51] Sometimes classified as the first king of the combined 7th/8th Dynasties. Short reign: c. 2184–2181 BC First Intermediate Period[edit] Main article: First Intermediate Period of Egypt The First Intermediate Period (2181–2060 BC) is a period of disarray and chaos between the end of the Old Kingdom and the advent of the Middle Kingdom. The Old Kingdom rapidly collapsed after the death of Pepi II. He had reigned for more than 64 and likely up to 94 years, longer than any monarch in history. The latter years of his reign were marked by inefficiency because of his advanced age. The union of the Two Kingdoms fell apart and regional leaders had to cope with the resulting famine. The kings of the 7th and 8th Dynasties, who represented the successors of the 6th Dynasty, tried to hold onto some power in Memphis but owed much of it to powerful nomarchs. After 20 to 45 years, they were overthrown by a new line of pharaohs based in Herakleopolis Magna. Some time after these events, a rival line based at Thebes revolted against their nominal Northern overlords and united Upper Egypt. Around 2055 BC, Mentuhotep II, the son and successor of pharaoh Intef III defeated the Herakleopolitan pharaohs and reunited the Two Lands, thereby starting the Middle Kingdom. Seventh and Eighth Dynasties (combined)[edit] Main articles: Seventh Dynasty of Egypt and Eighth Dynasty of Egypt The Seventh and Eighth Dynasties ruled for approximately 20–45 years (possibly 2181 to 2160 BC[52]). They comprise numerous ephemeral kings reigning from Memphis over a possibly divided Egypt and, in any case, holding only limited power owing to the effectively feudal system into which the administration had evolved. The list below is based on the Abydos King List dating to the reign of Seti I and taken from Jürgen von Beckerath's Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen[53] as well as from Kim Ryholt's latest reconstruction of the Turin canon, another king list dating to the Ramesside Era.[54] Name Image Comments Dates Menkare Likely attested by a relief fragment from the tomb of queen Neit.[55][56][57] Probably short, Around 2181 BC Neferkare II — Unknown Neferkare (III) Neby Attested by inscriptions in the tomb of his mother Ankhesenpepi, started the construction of a pyramid in Saqqara. Unknown Djedkare Shemai — Unknown Neferkare (IV) Khendu — Unknown Merenhor — Unknown Neferkamin — Unknown Nikare Possibly attested by a cylinder-seal. Unknown Neferkare (V) Tereru — Unknown Neferkahor Attested by a cylinder seal. Unknown Neferkare (VI) Pepiseneb — Unknown to 2171 BC Neferkamin Anu — Around 2170 BC Qakare Ibi Built a pyramid at Saqqara inscribed with the last known instance of the Pyramid Texts 2169–2167 BC Neferkaure Attested by one to three decrees from the temple of Min at Coptos. 2167–2163 BC Neferkauhor Khuwihapi Attested by eight decrees from the temple of Min and an inscription in the tomb of Shemay. 2163–2161 BC Neferirkare Possibly to be identified with horus Demedjibtawy, in which case he is attested by a decree from the temple of Min. 2161–2160 BC Ninth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Ninth Dynasty of Egypt The Ninth Dynasty[58] ruled from 2160 to 2130 BC.[59] The Turin King List has 18 kings reigning in the Ninth and Tenth Dynasties. Of these, twelve names are missing and four are partial.[58] Name Image Comments Dates Meryibre Khety I (Acthoes I) Manetho states that Achthoes founded this dynasty. 2160 BC–unknown — — — Unknown Neferkare VII — — Unknown Nebkaure Khety II (Acthoes II) — Unknown Senenh— or Setut — — Unknown — — — Unknown Mery— — — Unknown Shed— — — Unknown H— — — Unknown Tenth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Tenth Dynasty of Egypt The Tenth Dynasty was a local group that held sway over Lower Egypt that ruled from 2130 to 2040 BC.[59] Name Image Comments Dates Meryhathor — 2130 BC–unknown Neferkare VIII — — Between 2130 and 2040 BCE Wahkare Khety (Acthoes III) — Unknown Merykare — Unknown–2040 BC Eleventh Dynasty[edit] Main article: Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt The Eleventh Dynasty was a local group with roots in Upper Egypt that ruled from 2134 to 1991 BC. The 11th dynasty originated from a dynasty of Theban nomarchs serving kings of the 8th, 9th or 10th dynasty. Name Image Comments Dates Intef the Elder Iry-pat Theban nomarch serving an unnamed king, later considered a founding figure of the 11th Dynasty. Unknown The successors of Intef the Elder, starting with Mentuhotep I, became independent from their northern overlords and eventually conquered Egypt under Mentuhotep II. Name Image Comments Dates Mentuhotep I Tepy-a Nominally a Theban nomarch but may have ruled independently. Unknown–2133 BC[59] Sehertawy Intef I First member of the dynasty to claim a Horus name. 2133–2117 BC[59] Wahankh Intef II Conquered Abydos and its nome. 2117–2068 BC[59] Nakhtnebtepnefer Intef III Conquered Asyut and possibly moved further North up to the 17th nome.[60] 2068–2060 BC[59] Middle Kingdom[edit] Main article: Middle Kingdom of Egypt The Middle Kingdom (2060–1802 BC) is the period from the end of the First Intermediate Period to the beginning of the Second Intermediate Period. In addition to the Twelfth Dynasty, some scholars include the Eleventh, Thirteenth and Fourteenth Dynasties in the Middle Kingdom. The Middle Kingdom can be noted for the expansion of trade outside of the kingdom that occurred during this time. Eleventh Dynasty continued[edit] The second part of the Eleventh Dynasty is considered to be part of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt. Name Image Comments Dates Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II[61] Gained all Egypt c. 2015 BC, Middle Kingdom begins, becomes first pharaoh of Middle Kingdom. 2060–2040 BC[59] (King of Upper Egypt Only) 2060–2009 BC[59] (King of Upper and Lower Egypt) Sankhkare Mentuhotep III[62] Commanded the first expedition to Punt of the Middle Kingdom 2009–1997 BC[59] Nebtawyre Mentuhotep IV[63] Obscure pharaoh absent from later king lists; tomb unknown. May have been overthrown by his vizier and successor Amenemhat I. 1997–1991 BC[59] Enigmatic kings, only attested in Lower Nubia[edit] Name Image Comments Dates Segerseni[64] Obscure pharaoh absent from later king lists; tomb unknown. Only attested in Lower Nubia, most likely an usurper at the end of the Eleventh Dynasty or early Twelfth Dynasty. Early 20th century BC Qakare Ini[64] Obscure pharaoh absent from later king lists; tomb unknown. Only attested in Lower Nubia, most likely an usurper at the end of the Eleventh Dynasty or early Twelfth Dynasty. Early 20th century BC Iyibkhentre[64] Obscure pharaoh absent from later king lists; tomb unknown. Only attested in Lower Nubia, most likely an usurper at the end of the Eleventh Dynasty or early Twelfth Dynasty. Early 20th century BC Twelfth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt The Twelfth Dynasty ruled from 1991 to 1802 BC. Name Image Comments Dates Sehetepibre Amenemhat I[65][66] Possibly overthrew Mentuhotep IV. Assassinated by his own guards. 1991–1962 BC Kheperkare Senusret I[67] (Sesostris I) Built the White Chapel 1971–1926 BC Nubkaure Amenemhat II[68] Ruled for at least 35 years. 1929–1895 BC Khakheperre Senusret II[69] (Sesostris II) — 1897–1878 BC Khakaure Senusret III[70] (Sesostris III) Most powerful of the Middle Kingdom pharaohs. 1878–1860 BC Nimaatre Amenemhat III[71] — 1860–1815 BC Maakherure Amenemhat IV[72] Had a co-regency lasting at least 1 year based on an inscription at Knossos. 1815–1807 BC Sobekkare Sobekneferu[73] The first known archeologically attested female Pharaoh. 1807–1802 BC The position of a possible additional ruler, Seankhibtawy Seankhibra, is uncertain. He may be an ephemeral king, or a name variant of a king of the 12th or 13th Dynasty. Second Intermediate Period[edit] Main article: Second Intermediate Period of Egypt The Second Intermediate Period (1802–1550 BC) is a period of disarray between the end of the Middle Kingdom, and the start of the New Kingdom. It is best known as when the Hyksos, whose reign comprised the Fifteenth Dynasty, made their appearance in Egypt. The Thirteenth Dynasty was much weaker than the Twelfth Dynasty, and was unable to hold onto the two lands of Egypt. Either at the start of the dynasty, c. 1805 BC or toward the middle of it in c. 1710 BC, the provincial ruling family in Xois, located in the marshes of the eastern Delta, broke away from the central authority to form the Canaanite Fourteenth Dynasty. The Hyksos made their first appearance during the reign of Sobekhotep IV, and around 1720 BC took control of the town of Avaris (the modern Tell el-Dab'a/Khata'na), conquering the kingdom of the 14th dynasty. Sometime around 1650 BC the Hyksos, perhaps led by Salitis the founder of the Fifteenth Dynasty, conquered Memphis, thereby terminating the 13th dynasty. The power vacuum in Upper Egypt resulting from the collapse of the 13th dynasty allowed the 16th dynasty to declare its independence in Thebes, only to be overrun by the Hyksos kings shortly thereafter. Subsequently, as the Hyksos withdrew from Upper Egypt, the native Egyptian ruling house in Thebes set itself up as the Seventeenth Dynasty. This dynasty eventually drove the Hyksos back into Asia under Seqenenre Tao, Kamose and finally Ahmose, first pharaoh of the New Kingdom. Thirteenth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt The Thirteenth Dynasty (following the Turin King List) ruled from 1802 to around 1649 BC and lasted 153 or 154 years according to Manetho. This table should be contrasted with Known kings of the 13th Dynasty. Name Image Comments Dates Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep I Founded the 13th Dynasty. His reign is well attested. Referred to as Sobekhotep I in dominant hypothesis, known as Sobekhotep II in older studies 1802–1800 BC[74] Sonbef Perhaps a brother of Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep and son of Amenemhat IV[74] 1800–1796 BC[74] Nerikare Attested on a Nile record from Semna.[75] 1796 BC Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ruled for 3 to 4 years[74] 1796–1793 BC[74] Ameny Qemau Buried in his pyramid in south Dashur 1795–1792 BC Hotepibre Qemau Siharnedjheritef Also called Sehotepibre 1792–1790 BC Iufni — Only attested on the Turin canon Very short reign, possibly c. 1790 – 1788 BC[74] Seankhibre Amenemhet VI Attested on the Turin Canon.[76] 1788–1785 BC Semenkare Nebnuni Attested on the Turin Canon[77] 1785–1783 BC[74] or 1739 BC[78] Sehetepibre Sewesekhtawy Attested on the Turin Canon[79] 1783–1781 BC[74] Sewadjkare — Known only from the Turin canon 1781 BCE Nedjemibre — Known only from the Turin canon 7 months, 1780 BC[74] or 1736 BC[78] Khaankhre Sobekhotep Referred to as Sobekhotep II in dominant hypothesis, known as Sobekhotep I in older studies Reigned c. 3 years, 1780–1777 BC[74] Renseneb — 4 months 1777 BC[74] Awybre Hor I Famous for his intact tomb treasure and Ka statue Reigned 1 year and 6 months, 1777–1775 BC[74] Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Possibly a son of Hor Awibre Estimated reign 3 years, 1775–1772 BC[74] Djedkheperew Possibly a son of Hor Awibre and brother of Khabaw, previously identified with Khendjer Estimated reign 2 years, 1772–1770 BC[74] Sebkay Possibly two kings, Seb and his son Kay.[74] Sedjefakare A well known king attested on numerous stelas and other documents. 5 to 7 years or 3 years, 1769–1766 BC[74] Khutawyre Wegaf Founder of the dynasty in old studies Around 1767 BC Khendjer Possibly the first semitic pharaoh, built a pyramid at Saqqara Minimum 4 years and 3 months c. 1765 BC Imyremeshaw Attested by two colossal statues Reigned less than 10 years, starting 1759 BC[74] or 1711 BC.[80] Sehetepkare Intef IV — Less than 10 years Seth Meribre — Reign ended 1749 BCE Sekhemresewadjtawy Sobekhotep III 4 years and 2 months 1755–1751 BC Khasekhemre Neferhotep I 11 years 1751–1740 BC Menwadjre Sihathor Ephemeral coregent with his brother Neferhotep I, may not have reigned independently. 1739 BC[74] Khaneferre Sobekhotep IV 10 or 11 years 1740–1730 BC Merhotepre Sobekhotep V — 1730 BC Khahotepre Sobekhotep VI 4 years 8 months and 29 days Around 1725 BC Wahibre Ibiau 10 years and 8 months 1725–1714 BC or 1712–1701 BC[74] Merneferre Ay I Longest reigning king of the dynasty 23 years, 8 months and 18 days, 1701–1677 BC[74] or 1714–1691 BC Merhotepre Ini Possibly a son of his predecessor 2 Years 3 or 4 Months and 9 days, 1677–1675 BC[74] or 1691–1689 BC Sankhenre Sewadjtu — Attested only on the Turin canon 3 years and 2–4 months, 1675–1672 BC[74] Mersekhemre Ined May be the same person as Neferhotep II 3 years, 1672–1669 BC[74] Sewadjkare Hori — 5 years 5 years Merkawre Sobekhotep VII 2 years and 6 months[74] 1664–1663 BC[74] Seven kings — Names lost in a lacuna of the Turin canon[74] 1663 BC –?[74] Mer[...]re — — Unknown Merkheperre — Some time between 1663 BC and 1649 BC[74] Merkare — Attested only on the Turin canon Some time between 1663 BC and 1649 BC[74] Name lost — — Unknown Sewadjare Mentuhotep V — Around 1655 BC[74] [...]mosre — — Unknown Ibi [...]maatre — — Unknown Hor[...] [...]webenre — — Unknown Se...kare — Unknown Unknown Seheqenre Sankhptahi May be the son of his predecessor Between 1663-1649 BC ...re — Unknown Unknown Se...enre — Unknown Unknown–1649 BC[74] The position of the following kings is uncertain: Name Image Comments Dates Dedumose I Possibly a king of the 16th dynasty Around 1654 Dedumose II Possibly a king of the 16th dynasty Unknown Sewahenre Senebmiu Late 13th dynasty. After 1660 BC.[74] Snaaib Possibly a king of the Abydos Dynasty Unknown Mershepsesre Ini II Late 13th dynasty. Unknown Fourteenth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt The Fourteenth Dynasty was a local group from the eastern Delta, based at Avaris,[81] that ruled from either from 1805 BC or c. 1710 BC until around 1650 BC. The dynasty comprised many rulers with West Semitic names and is thus believed to have been Canaanite in origin. It is here given according to Ryholt, however this reconstruction of the dynasty is heavily debated with the position of the five kings preceding Nehesy highly disputed. Name Image Comments Dates Yakbim Sekhaenre Chronological position uncertain, here given according to Ryholt[81] 1805–1780 BC Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Chronological position uncertain, here given per Ryholt[81] 1780–1770 BC Qareh Khawoserre[81] Chronological position uncertain, here given per Ryholt[81] 1770–1760 BC 'Ammu Ahotepre[81] Chronological position uncertain, here given per Ryholt[81] 1760–1745 BC Sheshi[82] Chronological position, duration of reign and extend of rule uncertain, here given according to Ryholt.[81] Alternatively, he could be an early Hyksos king, a Hyksos ruler of the second part of the 15th Dynasty or a vassal of the Hyksos. 1745–1705 BC Nehesy Short reign, perhaps a son of Sheshi[81] Around 1705 Khakherewre — — Unknown Nebefawre — — Around 1704 BC Sehebre — Possibly identifiable with Wazad or Sheneh[74] Around 1704 to 1699 BC Merdjefare Possibly identifiable with Wazad or Sheneh[74] Around 1699 BC Sewadjkare III — — Unknown Nebdjefare — — 1694 BC Webenre — — Unknown — — — Unknown Djefare? — — Unknown Webenre — — Around 1690 BC Nebsenre[81] Attested by a jar bearing his prenomen At least 5 months of reign, some time between 1690 BC and 1649 BC Sekheperenre[81] Attested by a single scarab seal 2 months, some time between 1690 BC and 1649 BC Anati Djedkare[81] — Only known from the Turin canon Unknown Bebnum[81] — Only known from the Turin canon Some time between 1690 BC and 1649 BC 'Apepi[81] — Possibly attested as a king's son by 5 scarabs-seals c. 1650 BC The position and identity of the following pharaohs is uncertain: Name Image Comments Dates Nuya[74] Attested by a scarab-seal Unknown Wazad[74] May be identifiable with Sehebre or Merdjefare Around 1700 BC ? Sheneh[74] May be identifiable with Sehebre or Merdjefare Unknown Shenshek[74] Attested by a scarab-seal Unknown Khamure[74] — Unknown Yakareb[74] — Unknown Yaqub-Har[82] May belong to the 14th dynasty, the 15th dynasty or be a vassal of the Hyksos. Possibly the Pharaoh that was mentioned in Genesis 41. 17th–16th centuries BC The Turin King List provides additional names, none of which are attested beyond the list. Fifteenth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt The Fifteenth Dynasty arose from among the Hyksos people who emerged from the Fertile Crescent to establish a short-lived governance over much of the Nile region, and ruled from 1674 to 1535 BC. Name Image Comments Dates Semqen Chronological position uncertain. 1649 BC – Unknown 'Aper-'Anat Chronological position uncertain. Unknown Sakir-Har — — Unknown Khyan Apex of the Hyksos' power, conquered Thebes toward the end of his reign 30–40 years Apepi — 40 years or more Khamudi — 1555–1544 BC Abydos Dynasty[edit] Main article: Abydos Dynasty The Second Intermediate Period may include an independent dynasty reigning over Abydos from c. 1650 BC until 1600 BC.[83][84][85] Four attested kings may be tentatively attributed to the Abydos Dynasty, and they are given here without regard for their (unknown) chronological order: Name Image Comments Dates Sekhemraneferkhau Wepwawetemsaf May belong to the late 16th Dynasty[86] Uncertain Sekhemrekhutawy Pantjeny May belong to the late 16th Dynasty[86] Uncertain Menkhaure Snaaib May belong to the late 13th Dynasty.[87][88][89] Uncertain Woseribre Senebkay Tomb discovered in 2014. Perhaps identifiable with a Woser[...]re of the Turin canon. Around 1650 BC Sixteenth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt The Sixteenth Dynasty was a native Theban dynasty emerging from the collapse of the Memphis-based 13th dynasty c. 1650 BC and finally conquered by the Hyksos 15th dynasty c. 1580 BC. The 16th dynasty held sway over Upper Egypt only. Name Image Comments Dates — — Name of the first king is lost here in the Turin King List and cannot be recovered Unknown Sekhemresementawy Djehuti – 3 years Sekhemreseusertawy Sobekhotep VIII – 16 years Sekhemresankhtawy Neferhotep III – 1 year Seankhenre Mentuhotepi May be a king of the 17th Dynasty[88] 1 year Sewadjenre Nebiryraw I – 26 years Neferkare(?) Nebiryraw II – Around 1600 BC Semenre – Around 1600 BC Seuserenre Bebiankh – 12 years Djedhotepre Dedumose I May be a king of the 13th Dynasty[88] Around 1588-1582 BC Djedneferre Dedumose II – Around 1588-1582 BC Djedankhre Montemsaf – Around 1590 BC Merankhre Mentuhotep VI – Short reign, around 1585 BC Seneferibre Senusret IV – Unknown Sekhemre Shedwast — May be the same as Sekhemre Shedtawy Sobekemsaf II Unknown The 16th Dynasty may also have comprised the reigns of pharaohs Sneferankhre Pepi III[90] and Nebmaatre. Their chronological position is uncertain.[87][88] Seventeenth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt The Seventeenth Dynasty was based in Upper Egypt and ruled from 1650 to 1550 BC: Name Image Comments Dates Sekhemrewahkhaw Rahotep — Around 1620 BC Sekhemre Wadjkhaw Sobekemsaf I — At least 7 years Sekhemre Shedtawy Sobekemsaf II His tomb was robbed and burned during the reign of Ramesses IX. Unknown to around 1573 BC Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef V — Possibly around 1573-1571 BC Nubkheperre Intef VI Reigned more than 3 years Around 1571 to the mid-1560s BC Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef VII — Late 1560s BC Senakhtenre Ahmose — Around 1558 BC Seqenenre Tao Died in battle against the Hyksos. 1558–1554 BC Wadjkheperre Kamose — 1554–1549 BC The early 17th Dynasty may also have included the reign of a pharaoh Nebmaatre, whose chronological position is uncertain.[74] New Kingdom[edit] Main article: New Kingdom of Egypt The New Kingdom (1550–1077 BC) is the period covering the Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth dynasty of Egypt, from the 16th to the 11th century BC, between the Second Intermediate Period, and the Third Intermediate Period. Through military dominance abroad, the New Kingdom saw Egypt's greatest territorial extent. It expanded far into Nubia in the south, and held wide territories in the Near East. Egyptian armies fought with Hittite armies for control of modern-day Syria. Three of the best known pharaohs of the New Kingdom are Akhenaten, also known as Amenhotep IV, whose exclusive worship of the Aten is often interpreted as the first instance of monotheism, Tutankhamun known for the discovery of his nearly intact tomb, and Ramesses II who attempted to recover the territories in modern Israel/Palestine, Lebanon and Syria that had been held in the Eighteenth Dynasty. His reconquest led to the Battle of Qadesh, where he led the Egyptian armies against the army of the Hittite king Muwatalli II. Eighteenth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt The Eighteenth Dynasty ruled from c. 1550 to 1292 BC: Name Image Comments Dates Nebpehtire Ahmose I, Ahmosis I Brother and successor to Kamose, conquered north of Egypt from the Hyksos. Around 1550–1525 BC; Radiocarbon date range for the start of his reign is 1570–1544 BC, the mean point of which is 1557 BC[91] Djeserkare Amenhotep I Son of Ahmose I. 1541–1520 BC Aakheperkare Thutmose I Father unknown, though possibly Amenhotep I. His mother is known to be Senseneb. Expanded Egypt's territorial extent during his reign. 1520–1492 BC Aakheperenre Thutmose II Son of Thutmose I. Grandson of Amenhotep I through his mother, Mutnofret. 1492–1479 BC Maatkare Hatshepsut The second known female ruler of Egypt. May have ruled jointly with her nephew Thutmose III during the early part of her reign. Famous for her expedition to Punt documented on her famous Mortuary Temple at Deir el-Bahari. Built many temples and monuments. Ruled during the height of Egypt's power. Was the daughter of Thutmose I and the Great Wife of her brother Thutmose II. 1479–1458 BC Menkheperre Thutmose III Son of Thutmose II. May have ruled jointly with Hatshepsut, his aunt and step-mother, during the early part of her reign. Famous for his territorial expansion into the Levant and Nubia. Under his reign, the Ancient Egyptian Empire was at its greatest extent. Ruled during the height of Egypt's Power. Before the end of his reign, he obliterated Hatshepsut's name and image from temples and monuments. 1458–1425 BC Aakheperrure Amenhotep II Son of Thutmose III. Ruled during the height of Egypt's Power. 1425–1400 BC Menkheperure Thutmose IV Famous for his Dream Stele. Son of Amenhotep II. Ruled during the height of Egypt's Power. 1400–1390 BC Nebmaatre Amenhotep III The Magnificent King Father of Akhenaten and grandfather of Tutankhamun. Ruled Egypt at the height of its power. Built many temples and monuments, including his enormous Mortuary Temple. Was the son of Thutmose IV. 1390–1352 BC Neferkheperure-waenre Amenhotep IV/Akhenaten Founder of the Amarna Period in which he changed the state religion from the polytheistic Ancient Egyptian religion to the Monotheistic Atenism, centered around the worship of the Aten, an image of the sun disc. He moved the capital to Akhetaten. Was the second son of Amenhotep III. He changed his name from Amenhotep (Amun is pleased) to Akhenaten (Effective for the Aten) to reflect his religion change. 1352–1336 BC Ankhkheperure Smenkhkare Ruled jointly with Akhenaten during the later years of his reign. Unknown if Smenkhare ever ruled in his own right. Identity and even the gender of Smenkhare is uncertain. Some suggest he may have been the son of Akhenaten, possibly the same person as Tutankhamun; others speculate Smenkhare may have been Nefertiti or Meritaten. May have been succeeded by or identical with a female Pharaoh named Neferneferuaten. 1335–1334 BC Ankhkheperure-mery-Neferkheperure/Neferneferuaten A female Pharaoh, possibly the same ruler as Smenkhkare. Archaeological evidence relates to a woman who reigned as pharaoh toward the end of the Amarna Period. It is likely she was Nefertiti. 1334-1332 BC Nebkheperure Tutankhaten/Tutankhamun Commonly believed to be the son of Akhenaten, most likely reinstated the polytheistic Ancient Egyptian religion. His name change from Tutankhaten to Tutankhamun reflects the change in religion from the monolatristic Atenism to the classic religion, of which Amun is a major deity. He is thought to have taken the throne at around age eight or nine and to have died around age eighteen or nineteen, giving him the nickname "The Boy King." Tutankhamun was a weak ruler suffering from multiple health issues. However, he became famous for being buried in a decorative tomb intended for someone else called KV62. 1332–1324 BC Kheperkheperure Ay (II) Was Grand Vizier to Tutankhamun and an important official during the reigns of Akhenaten and Smenkhkare. Possibly the brother of Tiye, Great Wife of Amenhotep III, and also possibly father of Nefertiti, Great Wife of Akhenaten. Believed to have been born into nobility, but not royalty. Succeeded Tutankhamun due to his lack of an heir. 1324–1320 BC Djeserkheperure-setpenre Horemheb Born a Commoner. Was a General during the Amarna Period. Obliterated Images of the Amarna Pharaohs and destroyed and vandalized buildings and monuments associated with them. Succeeded Ay despite Nakhtmin being the intended heir. 1320–1292 BC Nineteenth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt The Nineteenth Dynasty ruled from 1292 to 1186 BC and includes one of the greatest pharaohs: Rameses II the Great. Name Image Comments Dates Menpehtire Ramesses I[92] Of non-royal birth. Succeeded Horemheb due to his lack of an heir. 1292–1290 BC Menmaatre Seti I Regained much of the territory that was lost under the reign of Akhenaten. 1290–1279 BC Usermaatre-setpenre Ramesses II the Great Continued expanding Egypt's territory until he reached a stalemate with the Hittite Empire at the Battle of Kadesh in 1275 BC, after which the famous Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty was signed in 1258 BC. Had one of the longest Egyptian reigns. 1279–1213 BC Banenre Merenptah[93] Thirteenth son of Ramesses II. 1213–1203 BC Menmire-setpenre Amenmesse Most likely a usurper to the throne. Possibly ruled in opposition to Seti II. Suggested son of Merneptah. 1203–1200 BC Userkheperure Seti II[94] Son of Merneptah. May have had to overcome a contest by Amenmesse before he could solidify his claim to the throne. 1203–1197 BC Sekhaenre/Akhenre Merenptah Siptah[95] Possibly son of Seti II or Amenmesse, ascended to throne at a young age. 1197–1191 BC Satre-merenamun Tausret Probably the wife of Seti II. Also known as Twosret or Tawosret. 1191–1190 BC Twentieth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt The Twentieth Dynasty ruled from 1190 to 1077 BC: Name Image Comments Dates Userkhaure Setnakhte Not related to Seti II, Siptah, or Tausret. May have usurped the throne from Tausret. Did not recognize Siptah or Tausret as legitimate rulers. Possibly a member of a minor line of the Ramesside royal family. Also called Setnakt. 1190–1186 BC Usermaatre-meryamun Ramesses III Son of Setnakhte. Fought the Sea Peoples in 1175 BC. Possibly assassinated (Harem conspiracy). 1186–1155 BC Usermaatre/Heqamaatre-setpenamun Ramesses IV Son of Ramesses III. During his reign, Egyptian power started to decline. 1155–1149 BC Usermaatre-sekheperenre Ramesses V Son of Ramesses IV 1149–1145 BC Nebmaatre-meryamun Ramesses VI Son of Ramesses III. Brother of Ramesses IV. Uncle of Ramesses V. 1145–1137 BC Usermaatre-setpenre-meryamun Ramesses VII Son of Ramesses VI. 1137–1130 BC Usermaatre-akhenamun Ramesses VIII An obscure Pharaoh, who reigned only around a year. Identifiable with Prince Sethiherkhepeshef II. Son of Ramesses III. Brother of Ramesses IV and Ramesses VI. Uncle of Ramesses V and Ramesses VII. He is the sole Pharaoh of the Twentieth Dynasty whose tomb has not been found. 1130–1129 BC Neferkare-setpenre Ramesses IX Probably grandson of Ramesses III through his father, Montuherkhopshef. First cousin of Ramesses V and Ramesses VII. 1129–1111 BC Khepermaatre-setpenptah Ramesses X[96] A poorly documented Pharaoh, his reign was between 3 and 10 years long. His origins are completely uncertain. 1111–1107 BC Menmaatre-setpenptah Ramesses XI[97] Possibly the son of Ramesses X. During the second half of his reign, High Priest of Amun Herihor ruled over the south from Thebes, limiting his power to Lower (Northern) Egypt. He was succeeded in the north by Smendes. 1107–1077 BC Third Intermediate Period[edit] Main article: Third Intermediate Period of Egypt The Third Intermediate Period (1077–664 BC) marked the end of the New Kingdom after the collapse of the Egyptian empire. A number of dynasties of Libyan origin ruled, giving this period its alternative name of the Libyan Period. Twenty-First Dynasty[edit] Main article: Twenty-first dynasty of Egypt The Twenty-First Dynasty was based at Tanis and was a relatively weak group. Theoretically, they were rulers of all Egypt, but in practice their influence was limited to Lower Egypt. They ruled from 1069 to 943 BC. Name Image Comments Dates Hedjkheperre-setpenre Nesbanebdjed I (Smendes I)[98] Married to Tentamun, probable daughter of Ramesses XI. 1077–1051 BC Neferkare Heqawaset Amenemnisu Obscure four-year reign. 1051–1047 BC Aakheperre Pasebakhenniut I (Psusennes I) Son of Pinedjem I, a High Priest of Amun. Ruled for 40 to 51 years. Famous for his intact tomb at Tanis. Known as "The Silver Pharaoh" due to the magnificent silver coffin he was buried in. One of the most powerful rulers of the Dynasty. 1047–1001 BC Usermaatre Amenemope Son of Psusennes I. 1001–992 BC Aakheperre Setepenre Osorkon (Osorkon the Elder) Son of Shoshenq A, Great Chief of the Meshwesh (Libya). Also known as Osochor. 992–986 BC Netjerikheperre-setpenamun Siamun-meryamun Unknown Origins. Built extensively for a third intermediate period Pharaoh. One of the most powerful rulers of the dynasty. 986–967 BC Titkheperure Pasebakhenniut II (Psusennes II) Son of Pinedjem II, a High Priest of Amun. 967–943 BC Theban High Priests of Amun[edit] Main article: Theban High Priests of Amun Though not officially pharaohs, the High Priests of Amun at Thebes were the de facto rulers of Upper Egypt during the Twenty-first dynasty, writing their names in cartouches and being buried in royal tombs. Name Image Comments Dates Herihor First High Priest of Amun to claim to be pharaoh. He ruled in the south in Thebes, while Ramesses XI ruled from the north in Pi-Ramesses. Some sources suggest he may have reigned after Piankh. 1080–1074 BC Piankh Some sources suggest he may have reigned before Herihor. 1074–1070 BC Pinedjem I Son of Piankh. Father of Psusennes I. 1070–1032 BC Masaharta Son of Pinedjem I. 1054–1045 BC Djedkhonsuefankh Son of Pinedjem I. 1046–1045 BC Menkheperre Son of Pinedjem I. 1045–992 BC Nesbanebdjed II (Smendes II) Son of Menkheperre. 992–990 BC Pinedjem II Son of Menkheperre, Father of Psusennes II. 990–976 BC Pasebakhaennuit III (Psusennes III) — Possibly the same person as Psusennes II. Either he or Pinedjem II is generally considered to be the last High Priest of Amun to consider himself as a pharaoh-like figure. 976–943 BC Twenty-Second Dynasty[edit] Main article: Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt The pharaohs of the Twenty-Second Dynasty were Libyans, ruling from around 943 to 728 BC: Name Image Comments Dates Hedjkheperre-setepenre Shoshenq I Son of Nimlot A, a brother of Osorkon the Elder and a Great Chief of the Meshwesh (Libya). Possibly the biblical Shishaq. 943–922 BC Sekhemkheperre Osorkon I Son of Shoshenq I. 922–887 BC Heqakheperre Shoshenq II Obscure pharaoh, possibly a usurper. 887–885 BC Tutkheperre Shoshenq IIb — Obscure pharaoh, placement uncertain. 880s BC Hedjkheperre Harsiese An obscure rebel, at Thebes. 880–860 BC Takelot I Son of Osorkon I. 885–872 BC Usermaatre-setepenamun Osorkon II Son of Takelot I. 872–837 BC Usermaatre-setepenre Shoshenq III — 837–798 BC Shoshenq IV — 798–785 BC Usermaatre-setepenre Pami — 785–778 BC Aakheperre Shoshenq V — 778–740 BC Usermaatre Osorkon IV — 740–720 BC Twenty-Third Dynasty[edit] Main article: Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt The Twenty-Third Dynasty was a local group, again of Libyan origin, based at Herakleopolis and Thebes that ruled from 837 to c. 735 BC: Name Image Comments Dates Hedjkheperre-setpenre Takelot II Previously thought to be a 22nd Dynasty pharaoh, he is now known to be the founder of the 23rd. 837–813 BC Usermaatre-setepenamun Pedubast A rebel—seized Thebes from Takelot II. 826–801 BC Usermaatre-setepenamun Iuput I — Co-regent with Pedubast. 812–811 BC Usermaatre Shoshenq VI — Successor to Pedubast. 801–795 BC Usermaatre-setepenamun Osorkon III Son of Takelot II; recovered Thebes, then proclaimed himself king. 795–767 BC Usermaatre-setpenamun Takelot III Co-reign with his father Osorkon III for the first five years of his reign. 773–765 BC Usermaatre-setpenamun Rudamun Younger son of Osorkon III and brother of Takelot III. 765–762 BC Hedjkheperre Setepenre Shoshenq VII A poorly attested king. Rudamun was succeeded in Thebes by a local ruler: Name Image Comments Dates Menkheperre Ini Reigned at Thebes only. 762–Unknown BC Twenty-Fourth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt The Twenty-fourth Dynasty was a short-lived rival dynasty located in the western Delta (Sais), with only two pharaohs ruling from 732 to 720 BC. Name Image Comments Dates Shepsesre Tefnakhte — 732–725 BC Wahkare Bakenrenef (Bocchoris) — 725–720 BC Twenty-Fifth Dynasty (Nubian/Kushite Period)[edit] Main article: Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt Nubians invaded Lower Egypt and took the throne of Egypt under Piye although they already controlled Thebes and Upper Egypt in the early years of Piye's reign. Piye's conquest of Lower Egypt established the Twenty-fifth Dynasty which ruled until 656 BC. Name Image Comments Dates Usermaatre Piye King of Nubia; conquered Egypt in his 20th year; full reign at least 24 years, possibly 30+ years 744–714 BC, according to Frédéric Payraudeau[99] Djedkaure Shebitku Believed to be Shabaka's successor until the 2010s 714–705 BC, according to Frédéric Payraudeau[99] Neferkare Shabaka Believed to be Shebitku's predecessor until the 2010s 705–690 BC, according to Frédéric Payraudeau[99] Khuinefertemre Taharqa Died in 664 BC 690–664 BC[100] Bakare Tantamani Lost control of Upper Egypt in 656 BC when Psamtik I extended his authority into Thebes in that year. 664–653 BC They were ultimately driven back into Nubia, where they established a kingdom at Napata (656–590), and, later, at Meroë (590 BC – AD 500). Late Period[edit] Main article: Late Period of Ancient Egypt The Late Period runs from around 664 to 332 BC, and includes periods of rule by native Egyptians and Persians. Twenty-Sixth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt The Twenty-sixth Dynasty ruled from around 664 to 525 BC.[101] Name Image Comments Dates Tefnakht II Manetho's Stephinates. May have been a descendant of the Twenty-fourth Dynasty. The father of Necho I. 685–678 BC Nekauba — Manetho's Nechepsos. His existence has been questioned. 678–672 BC Menkheperre Nekau I (Necho I) Was killed by an invading Kushite force in 664 BC under Tantamani. Father of Psamtik I. 672–664 BC The son and successor of Necho I, Psamtik I, managed to reunify Egypt and is generally regarded as the founder of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty. Name Image Comments Dates Wahibre Psamtik I (Psammetichus I) Reunified Egypt. Son of Necho I and father of Necho II. 664–610 BC[100] Wehemibre Necho II (Necho II) Most likely the pharaoh mentioned in several books of the Bible and the death of Josiah. Son of Psamtik I and father of Psamtik II. 610–595 BC[100] Neferibre Psamtik II (Psammetichus II) Son of Necho II and father of Apries. 595–589 BC[100] Haaibre Wahibre (Apries) Fled Egypt after Amasis II (who was a general at the time) declared himself pharaoh following a civil war. Son of Psamtik II. 589–570 BC[100] Khnemibre Ahmose II (Amasis II) He was the last great ruler of Egypt before the Persian conquest. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, he was of common origins. Father of Psamtik III. 570–526 BC[100] Ankhkaenre Psamtik III (Psammetichus III) Son of Amasis II. Ruled for about six months before being defeated by the Persians in the Battle of Pelusium and subsequently executed for attempting to revolt. 526–525 BC[100] Twenty-Seventh Dynasty (First Persian Period)[edit] Main article: Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt Egypt was conquered by the Persian Empire in 525 BC and constituted a satrapy as part of this empire until 404 BC. The Achaemenid Shahanshahs were acknowledged as Pharaohs in this era, forming the 27th Dynasty: Name Image Comments Dates Cambyses (Cambyses II) Defeated Psamtik III at the Battle of Pelusium at 525 BC. 525–1 July 522 BC[100] Smerdis (Bardiya) — Son of Cyrus the Great. 522 BC[100] Petubastis III[102] A native Egyptian rebel in the Delta. 522/21–520 BC Darius I the Great Ascended throne by overthrowing Gaumata[103] 522–November 486 BC[100] Psammetichus IV[102] — A proposed native Egyptian rebel leader. Exact date uncertain. Possibly in the 480s BC Xerxes I the Great Assassinated by Artabanus of Persia. November 486–December 465 BC[100] Artabanus the Hyrcanian — — 465-464 BC Artaxerxes I Longhand Died in 424 BC 464–424 BC Xerxes II — A claimant. 424–423 BC[100] Sogdianus — A claimant. 423–July 423 BC[100] Darius II Died in 404 BC July 423–March 404 BC[100] Twenty-Eighth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt The Twenty-eighth Dynasty lasted only 6 years, from 404 to 398 BC, with one pharaoh: Name Image Comments Dates Amyrtaeus Descendant of the Saite pharaohs of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty; led a successful revolt against the Persians. 404–398 BC Twenty-Ninth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt The Twenty-ninth Dynasty ruled from 398 to 380 BC: Name Image Comments Dates Baenre Nefaarud I Also known as Nepherites. Defeated Amyrtaeus in open battle and had him executed. 399–393 BC Khenemmaatre Hakor (Achoris) Son of Nefaarud I. Around 392–around 391 BC Psammuthes Possibly dethroned Hakor for a year. Around 391 BC Hakor (restored) Retook the throne from Psammuthes. Around 390–around 379 BC Nefaarud II — Was deposed and likely killed by Nectanebo I after ruling for only 4 months. Son of Hakor. Around 379 BC Thirtieth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt The Thirtieth Dynasty ruled from 380 until Egypt once more came under Persian rule in 343 BC:[104] Name Image Comments Dates Kheperkare Nekhtnebef (Nectanebo I) Also known as Nekhtnebef. Deposed and likely killed Nefaarud II, starting the last dynasty of native Egyptians. Father of Teos. 379–361 BC Irimaatenre Djedher (Teos) Co-regent with his father Nectanebo I from about 365 BC. Was overthrown by Nectanebo II with the aid of Agesilaus II of Sparta. 361–359 BC Senedjemibre Nakhthorhebyt (Nectanebo II) Last native ruler of ancient Egypt[105] to be recognized by Manetho. 359–342 BC Thirty-First Dynasty (Second Persian Period)[edit] Main article: Thirty-first dynasty of Egypt Egypt again came under the control of the Achaemenid Persians. After the practice of Manetho, the Persian rulers from 343 to 332 BC are occasionally designated as the Thirty-first Dynasty: Name Image Comments Dates Artaxerxes III Egypt came under Persian rule for the second time. 343–September 338 BC[104] Artaxerxes IV Arses Only reigned in Lower Egypt. 338–336 BC Khababash Rebel pharaoh who led an invasion in Nubia. 338–335 BC[104] Darius III Upper Egypt returned to Persian control in 335 BC. The Persian Empire was conquered by Alexander the Great in 332 B.C. 336–332 BC Hellenistic period[edit] Main article: Hellenistic period Argead Dynasty[edit] Main article: Argead dynasty The Macedonian Greeks under Alexander the Great ushered in the Hellenistic period with his conquest of Persia and Egypt. The Argeads ruled from 332 to 309 BC: Name Image Comments Dates Setepenre-meryamun Alexander III (Alexander the Great) Macedon conquered Persia and Egypt. 332–13 June 323 BC[106] Philip III Arrhidaeus Feeble-minded half-brother of Alexander the Great. 323–317 BC Haaibre Alexander IV Son of Alexander III the Great and Roxana. 317–309 BC Ptolemaic Dynasty[edit] Main article: Ptolemaic Kingdom The second Hellenistic dynasty, the Ptolemies, ruled Egypt from 305 BC until Egypt became a province of Rome in 30 BC (whenever two dates overlap, that means there was a co-regency). The most famous member of this dynasty was Cleopatra VII, in modern times known simply as Cleopatra, who was successively the consort of Julius Caesar and, after Caesar's death, of Mark Antony, having children with both of them. Cleopatra strove to create a dynastic and political union between Egypt and Rome, but the assassination of Caesar and the defeat of Mark Antony doomed her plans.[citation needed] Caesarion (Ptolemy XV Philopator Philometor Caesar) was the last king of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, and he reigned jointly with his mother Cleopatra VII of Egypt, from September 2, 47 BC. He was the eldest son of Cleopatra VII, and possibly the only son of Julius Caesar, after whom he was named. Between the alleged death of Cleopatra, on August 12, 30 BC, up to his own alleged death on August 23, 30 BC, he was nominally the sole pharaoh. It is tradition that he was hunted down and killed on the orders of Octavian, who would become the Roman emperor Augustus, but the historical evidence does not exist.[citation needed] Name Image Comments Dates Setepenre-meryamun Ptolemy I Soter Abdicated in 285 BC[citation needed] 7 November 305–January 282 BC[104] Weserkare-meryamun Ptolemy II Philadelphos — 28 March 284–28 January 246 BC Arsinoe II Wife of Ptolemy II c. 277–July 270 BC[104] Ptolemy III Euergetes I — 28 January 246–November/December 222 BC Berenice II Wife of Ptolemy III. Was Murdered. 244/243–222 BC Ptolemy IV Philopator Died in unclear circumstances, possibly by fire in the palace or murder. November/December 222–July/August 204 BC Arsinoe III Wife of Ptolemy IV. Was Murdered. 220–204 BC Hugronaphor — Revolutionary pharaoh in the South 205–199 BC Ankhmakis — Revolutionary pharaoh in the South 199–185 BC Ptolemy V Epiphanes Upper Egypt in revolt 207–186 BC July/August 204–September 180 BC Cleopatra I Wife of Ptolemy V, co-regent with Ptolemy VI during his minority c. February 193–176 BC[107] Ptolemy VI Philometor Died 145 BC 180–October 164 BC[107] Cleopatra II Wife of Ptolemy VI 175-October 164 BC Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II Proclaimed king by Alexandrians in 170 BC; ruled jointly with Ptolemy VI Philometor and Cleopatra II from 169 to 164 BC. Died 116 BC 171–163 BC Ptolemy VI Philometor Egypt under the control of Ptolemy VIII 164 BC–163 BC; Ptolemy VI restored 163 BC 163–July 145 BC[107] Cleopatra II Married Ptolemy VIII; led revolt against him in 131 BC and became sole ruler of Egypt. 163–127 BC Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Proclaimed co-ruler by his father; later ruled under regency of his mother Cleopatra II 145–144 BC Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II Restored 145–131 BC Cleopatra III Second wife of Ptolemy VIII. Was murdered by her own son Ptolemy X. 142–131 BC Ptolemy Memphites — Proclaimed King by Cleopatra II; soon killed by Ptolemy VIII 131 BC Harsiesi — Revolutionary pharaoh in the South 131–130 BC Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II Restored 127–116 BC Cleopatra III Restored with Ptolemy VIII; later co-regent with Ptolemy IX and X. 127–107 BC Cleopatra II Reconciled with Ptolemy VIII; co-ruled with Cleopatra III and Ptolemy until 116. 124–116 BC Ptolemy IX Soter II Died 80 BC 116–110 BC Cleopatra IV Briefly married to Ptolemy IX, but was pushed out by Cleopatra III. Later murdered. 116–115 BC Ptolemy X Alexander I Died 88 BC 110–109 BC Berenice III Forced to marry Ptolemy XI; murdered on his orders 19 days later 81–80 BC Ptolemy XI Alexander II — Young son of Ptolemy X Alexander; installed by Sulla; ruled for 80 days before being lynched by citizens for killing Berenice III 80 BC Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos (Auletes) Son of Ptolemy IX; died 51 BC 80–58 BC Cleopatra V Tryphaena — Wife of Ptolemy XII, mother of Berenice IV 79–68 BC Cleopatra VI — Daughter of Ptolemy XII, but theorised by some Egyptologists to actually be the same person as Cleopatra V.[108] 58–57 BC Berenice IV — Daughter of Ptolemy XII; forced to marry Seleucus Kybiosaktes, but had him strangled. Joint rule with Cleopatra VI until 57 BC. 58–55 BC Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Restored; reigned briefly with his daughter Cleopatra VII before his death 55–51 BC Cleopatra VII Jointly with her father Ptolemy XII, her brother Ptolemy XIII, her brother-husband Ptolemy XIV, and her son Ptolemy XV; in modern usage, the stand-alone use of Cleopatra with no ordinal number usually refers to Cleopatra VII. Committed suicide. 31 May 52[109]–12 August 30 BC Ptolemy XIII Brother of Cleopatra VII 51–13 January 47 BC Arsinoe IV In opposition to Cleopatra VII December 48–January 47 BC Ptolemy XIV Younger brother of Cleopatra VII and Ptolemy XIII 13 January 47–26 July 44 BC Ptolemy XV Infant son of Cleopatra VII; aged 3 when proclaimed co-ruler with Cleopatra. Last known ruler of ancient Egypt when Rome took over. 2 September 44–August 30 BC Rome[edit] Main article: Roman pharaoh Egyptian relief depicting the Roman Emperor Trajan (right, reigned 98–117 AD) in full pharaonic style. Cleopatra VII had affairs with Roman dictator Julius Caesar and Roman general Mark Antony, but it was not until after her suicide (after Mark Antony was defeated by Octavian, who would later be Emperor Augustus Caesar) that Egypt became a province of the Roman Republic in 30 BC. Subsequent Roman emperors were accorded the title of pharaoh, although exclusively while in Egypt. The last Roman emperor to be conferred the title of pharaoh was Maximinus Daia (reigned 311–313 AD).[2][110] See also[edit] Ancient Egypt portal Monarchy portal Egyptian chronology History of Egypt List of Ancient Egyptian Royal Consorts References[edit] ^ a b Clayton 1995, p. 217. "Although paying lip-service to the old ideas and religion, in varying degrees, pharaonic Egypt had in effect died with the last native pharaoh, Nectanebo II in 343 BC" ^ a b c von Beckerath, Jürgen (1999). Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen. Verlag Philipp von Zabern. pp. 266–267. ISBN 978-3422008328. ^ "Digital Egypt for Universities". www.ucl.ac.uk. Retrieved 2019-02-12. ^ Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Royal Annals Of Ancient Egypt. Routledge, London 2012, ISBN 1-136-60247-X, p. 50. ^ Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Royal Annals Of Ancient Egypt. Routledge, London 2012, ISBN 1-136-60247-X, p. 61. ^ Cervello-Autuori, Josep (2003). "Narmer, Menes and the Seals from Abydos". In Hawass, Zahi (ed.). Egyptology at the Dawn of the Twenty-first Century: Proceedings of the Eighth International Congress of Egyptologists, 2000. 2. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press. pp. 168–75. ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, p. 259. ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, p. 259. ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, p. 139. ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, p. 199. ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, p. 138. ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, p. 181. ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, p. 311. ^ a b Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, p. 137. ^ Felde, Rolf: Gottheiten, Pharaonen und Beamte im alten Ägypten, Norderstedt 2017, S. 125. ^ a b c d Barry Kemp (a1), Andrew Boyce and James Harrell, The Colossi from the Early Shrine at Coptos in Egypt, in: Cambridge Archaeological Journal Volume 10, Issue 2April 2000, 233 ^ zur Altägyptischen Kultur, Band 37 ^ Ludwig David Morenz: Bild-Buchstaben und symbolische Zeichen. Die Herausbildung der Schrift der hohen Kultur Altägyptens (= Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis 205). Fribourg 2004, ISBN 3-7278-1486-1, p. 91. ^ [1] ^ [2] ^ P. Tallet, D. Laisnay: Iry-Hor et Narmer au Sud-Sinaï (Ouadi 'Ameyra), un complément à la chronologie des expéditios minière égyptiene. In: Bulletin de L'Institute Français D'Archéologie Orientale (BIFAO) 112. Ausgabe 2012, S. 381–395. ^ Günter Dreyer: Horus Krokodil, ein Gegenkönig der Dynastie 0. In: Renee Friedman and Barbara Adams (Hrsg.): The Followers of Horus, Studies dedicated to Michael Allen Hoffman, 1949–1990 (= Egyptian Studies Association Publication, vol. 2). Oxbow Publications, Bloomington (IN) 1992, ISBN 0-946897-44-1, p. 259–263. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen (= Münchner ägyptologische Studien, vol. 49. von Zabern, Mainz 1999, ISBN 3-8053-2591-6, p. 36–37. ^ Toby Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt: Strategy, Society and Security. Routeledge, London 1999, ISBN 0-415-18633-1, p. 38, 56 & 57. ^ a b c d Stewart, John (1989). African States and Rulers. London: McFarland. p. 81. ISBN 0-89950-390-X. ^ Wolfgang Helck: Untersuchungen zur Thinitenzeit (= Ägyptologische Abhandlungen (ÄA), Vol. 45). Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1987, ISBN 3-447-02677-4, p. 124. ^ a b c Wolfgang Helck: Untersuchungen zur Thinitenzeit (Agyptologische Abhandlungen), ISBN 3-447-02677-4, O. Harrassowitz (1987), p. 124 ^ William Matthew Flinders Petrie: The Royal Tombs of the Earliest Dynasties. Cambridge University Press, New York 2013 (reprint of 1901), ISBN 1-108-06612-7, p. 49. ^ Nicolas-Christophe Grimal: A History of Ancient Egypt. Blackwell, Oxford UK/ Cambridge USA 1992, ISBN 978-0-631-19396-8, p. 53. ^ Wilkinson (1999) pp. 83–84 ^ Dietrich Wildung: Die Rolle ägyptischer Könige im Bewußtsein ihrer Nachwelt. Teil I. Posthume Quellen über die Könige der ersten vier Dynastien. In: Münchener Ägyptologische Studien, vol. 17. Deutscher Kunstverlag, Munich/Berlin 1969, p. 31–33. ^ Wilkinson (1999) p. 79 ^ Wilkinson (1999) pp. 87–88 ^ Pascal Vernus, Jean Yoyotte, The Book of the Pharaohs, Cornell University Press 2003, p.27 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen. Deutscher Kunstverlag, München/Berlin 1984, ISBN 3-422-00832-2, page 171. ^ Toby A.H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, London/New York 2002, ISBN 1-134-66420-6, p. 75–76. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen. 2. verbesserte und erweiterte Auflage. von Zabern, Mainz 1999, S. 44–45. ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, page 175. ^ [3] King Khasekhem ^ [4] King Khasekhemwy ^ a b c d e f Stewart, John (1989). African States and Rulers. London: McFarland. p. 82. ISBN 0-89950-390-X. ^ Wilkinson, Toby (1999). Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge. pp. 83 & 95. ISBN 0-415-18633-1. ^ Wilkinson, Toby. Royal Annals of Ancient Egypt. pp. 79 & 258. ^ "Pharaohs - Timeline Index". www.timelineindex.com. Retrieved 2020-03-23. ^ Clayton (1994) p.32 ^ Lehner, Mark (1997). Geheimnis der Pyramiden (in German). Düsseldorf: Econ. pp. 94–96. ISBN 3-572-01039-X. ^ Clayton (1994) p.42 ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, S. 278–279. ^ Miroslav Verner (2000): Who was Shepseskara, and when did he reign?, in: Miroslav Bárta, Jaromír Krejčí (editors): Abusir and Saqqara in the Year 2000, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Oriental Institute, Prague, ISBN 80-85425-39-4, p. 581–602, available online Archived 2011-02-01 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Dodson & Hilton (2004) p.73 ^ Ryholt & Bardrum (2000) pp.87–100. ^ Stewart, John (1989). African States and Rulers. London: McFarland. p. 82-83. ISBN 0-89950-390-X. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz : P. von Zabern, 1999, ISBN 3-8053-2591-6, available online Archived 2015-12-22 at the Wayback Machine ^ Kim Ryholt: "The Late Old Kingdom in the Turin King-list and the Identity of Nitocris", Zeitschrift für ägyptische, 127, 2000, p. 99 ^ Gustave Jéquier, Maṣlaḥat al-Āthār (1993): Les pyramides des reines Neit et Apouit (in French), Cairo: Institut français d'archéologie orientale, OCLC 195690029, see plate 5. ^ Percy Newberry (1943): Queen Nitocris of the Sixth Dynasty, in: The Journal of Egyptian Archeology, vol. 29, pp=51–54 ^ Gae Callender: Queen Neit-ikrety/Nitokris, in: Miroslav Barta, Filip Coppens, Jaromic Krecji (editors): Abusir and Saqqara in the year 2010/1, Prague: Czech Institute of Egyptology, Faculty of Arts, Charles University, 2011, ISBN 978-80-7308-384-7, see pp. 249–250 ^ a b Turin Kinglist, Columns IV,18 to V,10, Ancient Egypt dot org. Accessed 10 February 2010. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Stewart, John (1989). African States and Rulers. London: McFarland. p. 83. ISBN 0-89950-390-X. ^ Margaret Bunson: Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Infobase Publishing, 2009, ISBN 978-1-4381-0997-8, available online, see p. 181 ^ Labib Habachi: King Nebhepetre Menthuhotep: his monuments, place in history, deification and unusual representations in form of gods, in: Annales du Service des Antiquités de l'Égypte 19 (1963), pp. 16–52 ^ Wolfram Grajetzki (2006) pp. 23–25 ^ Wolfram Grajetzki (2006) pp. 25–26 ^ a b c Wolfram Grajetzki (2006) pp. 27–28 ^ [5] Amenemhat I ^ Wolfram Grajetzki (2006) pp. 28–35 ^ Murnane (1977) p.2 ^ Murnane (1977) p.7 ^ Murnane (1977) p.9 ^ Josef Wegner, The Nature and Chronology of the Senwosret III–Amenemhat III Regnal Succession: Some Considerations based on new evidence from the Mortuary Temple of Senwosret III at Abydos, JNES 55, Vol.4, (1996), pp.251 ^ Wolfram Grajetzki (2006) pp. 56–61 ^ "Amenemhat IV Maakherure (1807/06-1798/97 BC)". Digital Egypt for Universities. ^ Grajetzki (2006) pp. 61–63 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao K.S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997 ^ "Nerikare", Wikipedia, 2018-11-02, retrieved 2019-10-06 ^ "Amenemhet VI", Wikipedia, 2019-09-21, retrieved 2019-10-06 ^ "Semenkare Nebnuni", Wikipedia, 2019-08-14, retrieved 2019-10-06 ^ a b Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen, Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3 ^ "Sehetepibre", Wikipedia, 2018-11-02, retrieved 2019-10-06 ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen, Albatros, 2002 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997 ^ a b Kings of the 2nd Intermediate Period ^ Detlef Franke: Zur Chronologie des Mittleren Reiches. Teil II: Die sogenannte Zweite Zwischenzeit Altägyptens, In Orientalia 57 (1988), p. 259 ^ Ryholt, K.S.B. (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800–1550 B.C. Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 164. ISBN 978-87-7289-421-8. ^ "Giant Sarcophagus Leads Penn Museum Team in Egypt To the Tomb of a Previously Unknown Pharaoh". Penn Museum. January 2014. Retrieved 16 Jan 2014. ^ a b Marcel Marée: A sculpture workshop at Abydos from the late Sixteenth or early Seventeenth Dynasty, in: Marcel Marée (editor): The Second Intermediate period (Thirteenth-Seventeenth Dynasties), Current Research, Future Prospects, Leuven, Paris, Walpole, MA. 2010 ISBN 978-90-429-2228-0. p. 247, 268 ^ a b Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964 ^ a b c d Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46. Mainz am Rhein, 1997 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien 49, Mainz 1999. ^ Wolfgang Helck, Eberhard Otto, Wolfhart Westendorf, Stele – Zypresse: Volume 6 of Lexikon der Ägyptologie, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1986, Page 1383 ^ Christopher Bronk Ramsey et al., Radiocarbon-Based Chronology for Dynastic Egypt, Science 18 June 2010: Vol. 328. no. 5985, pp. 1554–1557. ^ "Ramesses I Menpehtire". Digital Egypt. University College London. 2001. Retrieved 2007-09-29. ^ "King Merenptah". Digital Egypt. University College London. 2001. Retrieved 2007-09-29. ^ "Sety II". Digital Egypt. University College London. 2001. Retrieved 2007-10-27. ^ "Siptah Sekhaenre/Akhenre". Digital Egypt. University College London. 2001. Retrieved 2007-10-27. ^ Grimal (1992) p.291 ^ "Ramesses XI Menmaatre-setpenptah". Retrieved 2007-10-28. ^ Cerny p.645 ^ a b c F. Payraudeau, Retour sur la succession Shabaqo-Shabataqo, Nehet 1, 2014, p. 115-127 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Stewart, John (1989). African States and Rulers. London: McFarland. p. 88. ISBN 0-89950-390-X. ^ "Late Period Kings". Retrieved 2007-10-27. ^ a b Placed in this dynasty only for chronological reasons, as he was not related to the Achaemenids. ^ "Darius the Great", Wikipedia, 2019-09-25, retrieved 2019-10-06 ^ a b c d e Stewart, John (1989). African States and Rulers. London: McFarland. p. 89. ISBN 0-89950-390-X. ^ "Nakhthorhebyt". Digital Egypt for Universities. Retrieved March 1, 2011. ^ Stewart, John (1989). African States and Rulers. London: McFarland. p. 10. ISBN 0-89950-390-X. ^ a b c Stewart, John (1989). African States and Rulers. London: McFarland. p. 90. ISBN 0-89950-390-X. ^ Tyldesley, Joyce (2006), Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt, p. 200, ISBN 0-500-05145-3. ^ Roller, Duane W. (2010). Cleopatra: a Biography. Oxford University Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-195-36553-5. ^ Vernus, Pascal; Yoyotte, Jean (2003). The Book of the Pharaohs. Cornell University Press. pp. 238–256. ISBN 9780801440502. maximinus pharaoh. Further reading[edit] J. H. Breasted, History of Egypt from the Earliest Time to the Persian Conquest, 1909 J. Cerny, 'Egypt from the Death of Ramesses III to the End of the Twenty-First Dynasty' in The Middle East and the Aegean Region c.1380–1000 BC, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-08691-4 Clayton, Peter A. (1995). Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. The Chronicles Series (Reprinted ed.). London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05074-3. Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004. ISBN 0-500-05128-3 Sir Alan Gardiner Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs, Third Edition, Revised. London: Oxford University Press, 1964. Excursus A, pp. 71–76. Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, (Blackwell Books: 1992) Murnane, William J. Ancient Egyptian Coregencies, Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization. No. 40. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 1977 Michael Rice, Who's Who in Ancient Egypt, Routledge 1999 Ryholt, Kim & Steven Bardrum. 2000. "The Late Old Kingdom in the Turin King-list and the Identity of Nitocris." Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 127 Shaw, Garry. The Pharaoh, Life at Court and on Campaign, Thames and Hudson, 2012. Toby A. H. Wilkinson, Early Dynastic Egypt, Routledge 1999, ISBN 0-415-18633-1 Verner, Miroslav,The Pyramids – Their Archaeology and History, Atlantic Books, 2001, ISBN 1-84354-171-8 Egypt, History & Civilisation By Dr. R Ventura. Published by Osiris, PO Box 107 Cairo. External links[edit] Egyptian Royal Genealogy Manetho and the King Lists Review of different primary king lists Chronology Table - 0 Dynasty&History Period, by Dariusz Sitek Multi-pages of list of pharaohs in different king lists, without the god kings, in Egyptian hieroglyphs and English Egyptian Journey 2003: History: King Lists Hyperlink texts of the Manetho, Abydos & Turin king lists, without the god-kings Digital Egypt for Universities List of all female Pharaohs v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Ancient Egypt topics Index Major topics Glossary of artifacts Agriculture Architecture (Egyptian Revival architecture) Art Portraiture Astronomy Chronology Cities (list) Clothing Cuisine Dance Dynasties Funerary practices Geography 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en-wikipedia-org-6489	----	Nebsenre - Wikipedia Nebsenre From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Nebsenre Ranebsen Small jar and jar lid with cartouche of Nebsenre Pharaoh Reign at least 5 months in the first half of the 17th century BCE (14th Dynasty) Predecessor Heribre Successor unknown Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Nebsenre Nb.sn Rˁ Their Lord is Ra[1] [2] Nebsenre (meaning "Their Lord is Ra"[1]) was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 14th Dynasty of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period. Nebsenre reigned for a least five months over the Eastern and possibly Western Nile Delta, some time during the first half of the 17th century BCE.[3] As such Nebsenre was a contemporary of the Memphis based 13th Dynasty. Contents 1 Attestations 1.1 Historical source 1.2 Contemporary artefact 2 Chronological position 3 Notes 4 References 5 Bibliography Attestations[edit] Historical source[edit] The prenomen "Nebsenre" is preserved on the ninth column, 14th row[note 1] of the Turin canon, a list of kings written during the reign of Ramses II (1279–1213 BCE) which serves as the primary historical source for the Second Intermediate Period.[5] The canon further credits Nebsenre with a lost number of years, five months and 20 days of reign following Heribre on the throne.[6] The prenomen of Nebsenre's successor is written as wsf on the Turin king list,[6][7] indicating that his name was already lost in a lacuna of the document from which the canon was copied in Ramesside times.[8] Contemporary artefact[edit] Nebsenre is one of only four[9] kings of the 14th Dynasty to be attested by an artefact contemporary with his reign: a jar of unknown provenance bearing his prenomen, which was in the private Michailidis collection.[10][4] Chronological position[edit] According to the Egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, Nebsenre was the 14th king of the 14th Dynasty,[11] a line of rulers of Canaanite descent reigning over the Eastern Nile Delta from c. 1700 BCE until c. 1650 BCE.[note 2] Alternatively the Egyptologist Jürgen von Beckerath sees him as the fifteenth ruler, due to a differing reconstruction of the early 14th Dynasty.[14] Notes[edit] ^ Following Ryholt's reconstruction of the Turin canon. This corresponds to the eighth column, fourteenth row in the reconstruction of the canon of Gardiner and von Beckerath.[4] ^ Ryholt dates the beginning of the 14th Dynasty to c. 1800 BCE,[3] adding five kings to it before Nehesy. This is rejected by most Egyptologists who consider Nehesy to have been either the founder[12] or the second king of the dynasty.[13] References[edit] ^ a b Leprohon 2013, p. 205. ^ Baker 2008, pp. 247–248. ^ a b Ryholt 1997, p. 409. ^ a b Baker 2008, p. 248. ^ Ryholt 1997, pp. 9–18. ^ a b Ryholt 1997, p. 198. ^ Ryholt 2012, p. 31. ^ Ryholt 1997, p. 10–11. ^ Bourriau 2003, p. 178. ^ Kaplony 1973, p. 15, pl. 10, 23 [Cat. 41]. ^ Ryholt 1997, p. 98. ^ Quirke 2001, p. 261. ^ von Beckerath 1999, pp. 108–109, king 2. ^ von Beckerath 1999, pp. 108–109, king 15. Bibliography[edit] Baker, Darrell D. (2008). The Encyclopedia of the Egyptian Pharaohs. Volume I: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty (3300–1069 BC). London: Bannerstone Press. ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Bourriau, Janine (2003). "The Second Intermediate Period (c. 1650–1550 BC)". In Shaw, Ian (ed.). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (new ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280458-7.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Kaplony, Peter (1973). Beschriftete Kleinfunde in der Sammlung Georges Michailidis: Ergebnisse einer Bestandsaufnahme im Sommer 1968. Uitgaven van het Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologisch Instituut te İstanbul, 32. Istanbul: Nederlands Historisch-Archeologisch Instituut in het Nabije Oosten. OCLC 1064212.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Leprohon, Ronald J. (2013). The great name: ancient Egyptian royal titulary. Writings from the ancient world, no. 33. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature. ISBN 978-1-58-983736-2.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Quirke, Stephen (2001). "Second Intermediate Period". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 3. Oxford University Press. pp. 260–265. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Ryholt, Kim (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800–1550 B.C. CNI publications, 20. Carsten Niebuhr Institute of Near Eastern Studies, University of Copenhagen : Museum Tusculanum Press. ISBN 978-87-7289-421-8.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Ryholt, Kim (2012). "The Royal Canon of Turin". In Hornung, Erik; Krauss, Rolf; Warburton, David (eds.). Ancient Egyptian Chronology. Handbook of Oriental Studies. Leiden, Boston: Brill. pp. 26–32. ISBN 978-90-04-11385-5. ISSN 0169-9423.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) von Beckerath, Jürgen (1999). Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen (in German). Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz : Philip von Zabern. ISBN 978-3-8053-2591-2.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Preceded by Heribre Pharaoh of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty Succeeded by unknown v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nebsenre&oldid=980333063" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: CS1 maint: ref=harv CS1 German-language sources (de) AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Italiano עברית Magyar Nederlands Slovenščina ไทย Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 25 September 2020, at 22:36 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6522	----	Neferkaure - Wikipedia Neferkaure From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Neferkaure Neferkawre, Kha[bau?] The cartouche of Neferkaure on the Abydos King List. Pharaoh Reign 4 years and 2 months, c. 2160 BC (Eighth Dynasty) Predecessor Qakare Ibi Successor Neferkauhor Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Neferkaure Nfr k3.w Rˁ Perfect are the Kas of Ra Horus name Kha[bau?] Ḫ3-[...] Neferkaure was a pharaoh of ancient Egypt during the First Intermediate Period. According to the Abydos King List and the latest reconstruction of the Turin canon by Kim Ryholt, he was the 15th king of the Eighth Dynasty.[1] This opinion is shared by the Egyptologists Jürgen von Beckerath, Thomas Schneider and Darell Baker.[2][3][4] As a pharaoh of the Eighth Dynasty, Neferkaure's seat of power was Memphis[5] and he may not have held power over all of Egypt. Attestations[edit] Neferkaure is named on the 54th entry of the Abydos King List, a king list redacted some 900 years after the First Intermediate Period during the reign of Seti I. Neferkaure's name is lost in a lacuna of the Turin canon affecting column 5, line 11 of the document. The length of Neferkaure's reign is nonetheless preserved with "4 years, 2 months and 0 days".[1][4][6] Neferkaure is also known from a contemporary inscription, a fragmentary decree inscribed on a limestone slab known as Coptos Decree h and concerning offerings for the temple of Min at Coptos.[4] One of the two existing fragments of this decree was given by Edward Harkness to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, where it is now on display in Gallery 103.[7] The decree is dated to the fourth regnal year of Neferkaure, which is the highest attested date of any king of the Eighth Dynasty.[8] The first sign of the king's Horus name is clearly present while the second sign is debated. von Beckerath commits only to the first sign and reads Kha[...], while Baker and William C. Hayes read Khabau.[2][4][8] The decree is addressed to the then governor of Upper Egypt, Shemay, and requires that fixed amounts of offerings be given at regular intervals to the god Min and then possibly to a statue of the king.[8] References[edit] ^ a b Kim Ryholt: The Late Old Kingdom in the Turin King-list and the Identity of Nitocris, Zeitschrift für ägyptische, 127, 2000, p. 99 ^ a b Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen. Deutscher Kunstverlag, München/ Berlin 1984, ISBN 3-422-00832-2, p. 59, 187. ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, p. 174. ^ a b c d Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 272-273 ^ Ian Shaw: The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, ISBN 978-0192804587 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: The Date of the End of the Old Kingdom of Egypt, JNES 21 (1962), p.143 ^ The decree on the catalog of the MET ^ a b c William C. Hayes: The Scepter of Egypt: A Background for the Study of the Egyptian Antiquities in The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Vol. 1, From the Earliest Times to the End of the Middle Kingdom , MetPublications, 1978, pp.136-138, available online Preceded by Qakare Ibi Pharaoh of Egypt Eighth Dynasty Succeeded by Neferkauhor v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neferkaure&oldid=973457871" Categories: 22nd-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Eighth Dynasty of Egypt 22nd-century BC rulers 22nd century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us 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en-wikipedia-org-6523	----	Neheb - Wikipedia Neheb From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Neheb Closeup of the Palermo Stone. Neheb is the no. 6 Pharaoh Reign Unknown (Predynastic Period) Predecessor Thesh? Successor Wazner? Royal titulary Neheb in hieroglyphs [1] Neheb Nj hb He who belongs to the plow Neheb is mentioned in the Palermo Stone as a Predynastic Egyptian king who ruled in Lower Egypt. As there is no other evidence of such a ruler, he may be a mythical king preserved through oral tradition,[2] or may even be completely fictitious.[3][4] References[edit] ^ From: Palermo Stone ^ Helck, Untersuchungen zu Manetho und den ägyptischen Königslisten 1956, Berlin: Akademie-Verlag. Untersuchungen zur Geschichte und Altertumskunde Ägyptens 18 ^ O'Mara, Was there an Old Kingdom historiography? Is it datable? 1996, Orientalia 65: 197-208 ^ Wilkinson, Toby A. H. (2000). Royal Annals of Ancient Egypt. p.85 New York: Columbia University Press). ISBN 0-7103-0667-9. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neheb&oldid=993411002" Categories: People whose existence is disputed Pharaohs only mentioned in the Palermo Stone Ancient Egypt people stubs Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Bahasa Indonesia ქართული Magyar مصرى Polski Português Русский Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Suomi Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 December 2020, at 13:51 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6559	----	Hellespontine Phrygia - Wikipedia Hellespontine Phrygia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Hellespontine Phrygia Satrapy of the Persian Empire 525 BC–321 BC The location of Hellespontine Phrygia, and the provincial capital of Dascylium, in the Achaemenid Empire, c. 500 BC. Capital Dascylium History   • Established 525 BC • Disestablished 321 BC Succeeded by Macedonian Empire An Achaemenid dynast of Hellespontine Phrygia attacking a Greek psilos, Altıkulaç Sarcophagus, early 4th century BC. Hellespontine Phrygia (Ancient Greek: Ἑλλησποντιακὴ Φρυγία, romanized: Hellēspontiakē Phrygia) or Lesser Phrygia (Ancient Greek: μικρᾶ Φρυγία, romanized: mikra Phrygia) was a Persian satrapy (province) in northwestern Anatolia, directly southeast of the Hellespont.[1] Its capital was Dascylium, and for most of its existence it was ruled by the hereditary Persian Pharnacid dynasty.[2] Together with Greater Phrygia, it made up the administrative provinces of the wider Phrygia region.[3] Contents 1 History 2 Persian satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia 2.1 Achaemenid satraps 2.2 Alexandrian satraps 3 References 4 Sources 5 External links History[edit] The Polyxena sarcophagus from Hellespontine Phrygia, in Late Greek Archaic style, 520-500 BC. Çanakkale Archaeological Museum. The satrapy was created in the beginning of the fifth century BC, during the time of administrative reorganisations of the territories in western Asia Minor,[4] which were amongst the most important Achaemenid territories. The first Achaemenid ruler of Hellespontine Phrygia was Mitrobates (ca. 525–522 BC), who was appointed by Cyrus the Great and continued under Cambises. He was killed and his territory absorbed by the satrap of neighbouring Lydia, Oroetes. Following the reorganization of Darius I, Mitrobates was succeeded by Oebares II (c.493), son of Megabazus. Artabazus then became satrap circa 479 BC and started the Pharnacid dynasty, which would rule Hellespontine Phrygia until the conquests of Alexander the Great (338 BC).[5][6][7] As Alexander the Great was conquering and incorporating the Achaemenid Empire, he appointed Calas, a Macedonian General to govern Hellespontine Phrygia in 334 BC, after he had sent Parmenion to secure Dascylium, the provincial capital.[8] Calas, being the very first non-Achaemenid ruler of the province, was awarded the Persian title of "satrap", rather than a Macedonian title, and Alexander instructed him to collect the same tribute from his subjects that had been paid to Darius III.[8] After Alexander's death in 323, the satrapy was awarded to Leonnatus, who was killed in action in the Lamian War. The region was seized by Lysimachus, was added to the Seleucid Empire after the Battle of Corupedium (281 BC), and was finally integrated in the Bithynian kingdom.[9] Persian satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia[edit] Achaemenid satraps[edit] Pharnacid dynasty (Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia) c.550–497 BC (Pharnaces) c.480–455 BC Artabazus I c.455–430 BC Pharnabazus I c.430–420 BC Pharnaces II c.413–374 BC Pharnabazus II c.407–362 BC Ariobarzanes c.389–329 BC Artabazus II c.370–320 BC Pharnabazus III v t e Mitrobates (circa 520 BC) Megabazus (circa 500 BC) Oebares II (circa 493 BC) Artabazos I of Phrygia - r. 477 - 455 (?) Pharnabazus I - r. 455 (?) - before 430 Pharnaces II - r. before 430 - after 422 Pharnabazus II - r. before 413 - 387 Ariobarzanes of Phrygia - r. 387-363/362 Artabazos II - r. 363/362-353 Arsites - r. 353-334 Alexandrian satraps[edit] Calas - r. 334-323 Leonnatus - r. 323-321 References[edit] ^ Jona Lendering. "Hellespontine Phrygia". Livius. Livius.org. Retrieved 28 December 2015. ^ Jona Lendering. "Hellespontine Phrygia". Livius. Livius.org. Retrieved 28 December 2015. ^ Scott 1995, p. 183. ^ Kinzl 2008, p. 551. ^ Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. p. 351. ISBN 9781575061207. ^ Jona Lendering. "Hellespontine Phrygia". Livius. Livius.org. Retrieved 28 December 2015. ^ Jona Lendering. "Pharnabazus (2)". Livius. Livius.org. Retrieved 28 December 2015. ^ a b Lyons 2015, p. 30. ^ Jona Lendering. "Hellespontine Phrygia". Livius. Livius.org. Retrieved 28 December 2015. Sources[edit] Kinzl, Konrad H. (2008). A Companion to the Classical Greek World. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1405172011. Lyons, Justin D. (2015). Alexander the Great and Hernán Cortés: Ambiguous Legacies of Leadership. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-1498505284. Scott, James M. (1995). Paul and the Nations: The Old Testament and Jewish Background of Paul's Mission to the Nations with Special Reference to the Destination of Galatians. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 978-3161463778. External links[edit] Weiskopf, Michael (1994). "DASCYLIUM". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VII, Fasc. 1. pp. 85–90. v t e Provinces of the Achaemenid Empire (Behistun / Persepolis / Naqsh-e Rustam / Susa / Daiva inscriptions) Akaufaka (Quhistan?) Amyrgoi Arabia Arachosia Aria Armenia Assyria Babylonia Bactria Cappadocia Caria Carmania Caucasian Albania Chorasmia Cilicia Colchis Dahae Drangiana 1st Egypt / 2nd Egypt Eber-Nari (Levant) Elam Kush (Nubia) Gandāra (Gandhara) Gedrosia Hyrcania Ionia Hindush Libya Lydia Maka Margiana Media Lesser Media Massagetae Parthia Persia Phoenicia Phrygia Hellespontine Phrygia Greater Phrygia Saka Samaritan Province Sattagydia Skudra (Thrace) Sogdia Yehud See also Tax Districts of the Achaemenid Empire (according to Herodotus) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hellespontine_Phrygia&oldid=999445808" Categories: States and territories established in the 6th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 4th century BC Hellespontine Phrygia States and territories established in the 5th century BC Achaemenid satrapies in Anatolia Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Беларуская Español Français Русский 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 January 2021, at 05:59 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6562	----	Book sources - Wikipedia Book sources Jump to navigation Jump to search This page allows users to search for multiple sources for a book given the 10- or 13-digit ISBN number. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN number do not matter. Search for book sourcesISBN: Search Wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources For assistance, see Help:ISBN. This page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its International Standard Book Number (ISBN). If you arrived at this page by clicking an ISBN link in a Wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. To search for a different book, type that book's individual ISBN into this ISBN search box. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. 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Special:BookSources in other language Wikipedias ISBN Prefix Ranges Wikipedia 0 1 English (this page) 2 979-10 French 3 German 4 (Japan) Japanese 5 (Russia, former USSR) Russian 7 (China, PR) 957/986 (Taiwan, ROC) 962/988 (Hong Kong, SAR) 981 (Singapore) 99937 (Macau, SAR) Chinese 80 (Czech Republic) Czech 83 (Poland) Polish 84 (Spain) 950 (Argentina) 956 (Chile) 958 (Colombia) 959 (Cuba) 968/970 (Mexico) 980 (Venezuela) 9942/9978 (Ecuador) Spanish 85 (Brasil) 972 (Portugal) Portuguese 86 (Serbia, Montenegro) Serbian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 953 (Croatia) Croatian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 961 (Slovenia) Slovenian 87 Danish 88 Italian 89 Korean 90 Dutch 91 Swedish 92 International organizations (multilingual) 93 (India) Hindi 93 (India) 955 (Sri Lanka) Tamil 951/952 (Finland) Finnish 953 Bulgarian 955 (Sri Lanka) Sinhalese 960 Greek 963 Hungarian 964/600 (Iran) Persian 965 (Israel) Hebrew 966 (Ukraine) Ukrainian 967 (Malaysia) Malay 969 (Pakistan) Pashto 971 (Philippines) Tagalog 973 (Romania) Romanian 974 (Thailand) Thai 975/9944/605 (Turkey) Turkish 976 (Caribbean Community) See English, Spanish... 977 (Egypt) 978 (Nigeria) 9960/603 (Saudi Arabia) 9931/9947/9961(Algeria) Arabic 979 (Indonesia) Indonesian 982 (South Pacific) See English, French, ... 984 (Bangladesh) Bangla Welsh Bibliographical information These links produce citations in various referencing styles. 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See also Wikipedia:Book sources – "Wikipedia:Book sources" will be clickable in the non-editable version of this page, and will take one to the editable version of this page. Wikipedia talk:Book sources – For questions and discussion about this page. Wikipedia:ISBN – Explanation of MediaWiki software treatment of ISBN numbers. List of academic databases and search engines List of digital library projects List of online encyclopedias List of online databases Wikipedia:List of bibliographies The Wikipedia Library (talk | e) Apply for free access to research! 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en-wikipedia-org-6564	----	Upper Egypt - Wikipedia Upper Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Ṣaʿīd" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Saʿīd. Upper Egypt ⲙⲁⲣⲏⲥ (Coptic) ta shemaw[1] (Egyptian) Άνω Αίγυπτος (Greek) صعيد مصر (Arabic) الصعيد (Egyptian Arabic) Aegyptus superior (Latin) c. 3400 BC–c. 3150 BC Hedjet Thinis Nekhen Thebes Naqada Map of Upper Egypt showing important sites that were occupied during Naqada III (clickable map) Capital Thinis Common languages Ancient Egyptian Religion Ancient Egyptian religion Government Monarchy King   • c. 3400 BC Scorpion I (first) • c. 3150 BC Narmer (last) History   • Established c. 3400 BC • Disestablished c. 3150 BC Succeeded by Early Dynastic Period (Egypt) Today part of  Egypt Upper Egypt (Arabic: صعيد مصر‎ Ṣaʿīd Miṣr, shortened to الصعيد Egyptian Arabic pronunciation: [es.sˤe.ˈʕiːd], locally: [es.sˤɑ.ˈʕiːd], Coptic: ⲙⲁⲣⲏⲥ) is the southern portion of Ancient Egypt and is composed of the lands on both sides of the Nile that extend downriver between Nubia and Lower Egypt in the north. In ancient Egypt, Upper Egypt was known as tꜣ šmꜣw,[2] literally "the Land of Reeds" or "the Sedgeland"[3] It is believed to have been united by the rulers of the supposed Thinite Confederacy who absorbed their rival city states during Naqada III and its unification with Lower Egypt ushered in the Early Dynastic period.[4] Both Upper and Lower Egypt became imbedded within the symbolism of the sovereignty in Ancient Egypt such as the Pschent double crown.[5] Upper Egypt remained as a historical distinction even after the classical period. Contents 1 Geography 2 History 2.1 Predynastic Egypt 2.2 Dynastic Egypt 2.3 Medieval Egypt 2.4 20th-century Egypt 3 List of rulers of prehistoric Upper Egypt 4 List of nomes 5 See also 6 Further reading 7 Notes 8 References 8.1 Bibliography 9 External links Geography[edit] Upper Egypt is between the Cataracts of the Nile beyond modern-day Aswan, downriver (northward) to the area of El-Ayait,[6] which places modern-day Cairo in Lower Egypt. The northern (downriver) part of Upper Egypt, between Sohag and El-Ayait, is also known as Middle Egypt. In Arabic, inhabitants of Upper Egypt are known as Sa'idis and they generally speak Sai'idi Egyptian Arabic. History[edit] Hedjet, the White Crown of Upper Egypt Predynastic Egypt[edit] The main city of prehistoric Upper Egypt was Nekhen.[7] The patron deity was the goddess Nekhbet, who is depicted as a vulture.[8] By approximately 3600 BC, Neolithic Egyptian societies along the Nile had based their culture on the raising of crops and the domestication of animals.[9] Shortly after 3600 BC, Egyptian society began to grow and increase in complexity.[10] A new and distinctive pottery, which was related to the Levantine ceramics, appeared during this time. Extensive use of copper became common during this time.[10] The Mesopotamian process of sun-drying adobe and architectural principles—including the use of the arch and recessed walls for decorative effect—became popular during this time.[10] Concurrent with these cultural advances, a process of unification of the societies and towns of the upper Nile River, or Upper Egypt, occurred. At the same time the societies of the Nile Delta, or Lower Egypt, also underwent a unification process.[10] Warfare between Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt occurred often.[10] During his reign in Upper Egypt, King Narmer defeated his enemies on the delta and united both of the kingdoms of Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt under his single rule,[11] which endured throughout Dynastic Egypt. Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e Dynastic Egypt[edit] For most of Egypt's ancient history, Thebes was the administrative center of Upper Egypt. Upper Egypt was represented by the tall White Crown Hedjet, and its symbols were the flowering lotus and the sedge. Its patron deity, Nekhbet, was depicted by the vulture. After unification of the two kingdoms, the patron deities of both Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt were represented together as the Two Ladies, to protect all of the ancient Egyptians, just as the two crowns became united throughout the dynasties that followed. After its devastation by the Assyrians, the importance of Egypt declined. Under the Ptolemies, Ptolemais Hermiou took over the role of the capital city of Upper Egypt.[12] Medieval Egypt[edit] In the eleventh century, large numbers of pastoralists, known as Hilalians, fled Upper Egypt and moved westward into Libya and as far as Tunis.[13] It is believed that degraded grazing conditions in Upper Egypt, associated with the beginning of the Medieval Warm Period, were the root cause of the migration.[14] 20th-century Egypt[edit] In the twentieth-century Egypt, the title Prince of the Sa'id (meaning Prince of Upper Egypt) was used by the heir apparent to the Egyptian throne.[Note 1] Although the Kingdom of Egypt was abolished after the Egyptian revolution of 1952, the title continues to be used by Muhammad Ali, Prince of the Sa'id. List of rulers of prehistoric Upper Egypt[edit] The following list may not be complete (there are many more of uncertain existence): Name Image Comments Dates Elephant End of 4th millennium BC Bull 4th millennium BC Scorpion I Oldest tomb at Umm el-Qa'ab had scorpion insignia c. 3200 BC? Iry-Hor Possibly the immediate predecessor of Ka. c. 3150 BC? Ka[16][17] May be read Sekhen rather than Ka. Possibly the immediate predecessor of Narmer. c. 3100 BC Scorpion II Potentially read Serqet; possibly the same person as Narmer. c. 3150 BC Narmer The king who combined Upper and Lower Egypt.[18] c. 3150 BC List of nomes[edit] Map of Ancient Egypt with its historical nomes, "Upper Egypt" is in the lower portion of the map Number Ancient Name Capital Modern Capital Translation 1 Ta-khentit Abu / Yebu (Elephantine) Aswan The Frontier/Land of the Bow 2 Wetjes-Hor Djeba (Apollonopolis Magna) Edfu Throne of Horus 3 Nekhen Nekhen (Hierakon polis) al-Kab Shrine 4 Waset Niwt-rst / Waset (Thebes) Karnak Sceptre 5 Harawî Gebtu (Coptos) Qift Two Falcons 6 Aa-ta Iunet / Tantere (Tentyra) Dendera Crocodile 7 Seshesh Seshesh (Diospolis Parva) Hu Sistrum 8 Abdju Abdju (Abydos) al-Birba Great Land 9 Min Apu / Khen-min (Panopolis) Akhmim Min 10 Wadjet Djew-qa / Tjebu (Aphroditopolis) Edfu Cobra 11 Set Shashotep (Hypselis) Shutb Set animal 12 Tu-ph Hut-Sekhem-Senusret (Antaeopolis) Qaw al-Kebir Viper Mountain 13 Atef-Khent Zawty (Lycopolis) Asyut Upper Sycamore and Viper 14 Atef-Pehu Qesy (Cusae) al-Qusiya Lower Sycamore and Viper 15 Wenet Khemenu (Hermopolis) Hermopolis Hare[19] 16 Ma-hedj Herwer? Hur? Oryx[19] 17 Anpu Saka (Cynopolis) al-Kais Anubis 18 Sep Teudjoi / Hutnesut (Alabastronopolis) el-Hiba Set 19 Uab Per-Medjed (Oxyrhynchus) el-Bahnasa Two Sceptres 20 Atef-Khent Henen-nesut (Heracleopolis Magna) Ihnasiyyah al-Madinah Southern Sycamore 21 Atef-Pehu Shenakhen / Semenuhor (Crocodilopolis, Arsinoë) Faiyum Northern Sycamore 22 Maten Tepihu (Aphroditopolis) Atfih Knife Part of a series on the History of Egypt Prehistoric Egypt pre–3150 BC Ancient Egypt Early Dynastic Period 3150–2686 BC Old Kingdom 2686–2181 BC 1st Intermediate Period 2181–2055 BC Middle Kingdom 2055–1650 BC 2nd Intermediate Period 1650–1550 BC New Kingdom 1550–1069 BC 3rd Intermediate Period 1069–664 BC Late Period 664–332 BC Greco-Roman Egypt Argead and Ptolemaic dynasties 332–30 BC Roman and Byzantine Egypt 30 BC–641 AD Sasanian Egypt 619–629 Medieval Egypt Rashidun Egypt 641–661 Umayyad Egypt 661–750 Abbasid Egypt 750–935 Tulunid dynasty 868–905 Ikhshidid dynasty 935–969 Fatimid dynasty 969–1171 Ayyubid dynasty 1171–1250 Mamluk dynasties 1250–1517 Early modern Egypt Ottoman Egypt 1517–1867 French occupation 1798–1801 Muhammad Ali dynasty 1805–1853 Khedivate of Egypt 1867–1914 Late Modern Egypt British occupation 1882–1922 Sultanate of Egypt 1914–1922 Kingdom of Egypt 1922–1953 Republic 1953–present  Egypt portal v t e See also[edit] Sa'idi people Upper and Lower Egypt Geography of Egypt Further reading[edit] Edel, Elmar (1961) Zu den Inschriften auf den Jahreszeitenreliefs der "Weltkammer" aus dem Sonnenheiligtum des Niuserre Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen, OCLC 309958651, in German. Notes[edit] ^ The title was first used by Prince Farouk, the son and heir of King Fouad I. Prince Farouk was officially named Prince of the Sa'id on 12 December 1933.[15] References[edit] ^ Ermann & Grapow, op.cit. Wb 5, 227.4-14 ^ Ermann & Grapow 1982, Wb 5, 227.4-14. ^ Ermann & Grapow (1982), Wb 4, 477.9-11 ^ Brink, Edwin C. M. van den (1992). The Nile Delta in Transition: 4th.-3rd. Millennium B.C. : Proceedings of the Seminar Held in Cairo, 21.-24. October 1990, at the Netherlands Institute of Archaeology and Arabic Studies. E.C.M. van den Brink. ISBN 978-965-221-015-9. ^ Griffith, Francis Llewellyn, A Collection of Hieroglyphs: A Contribution to the History of Egyptian Writing, the Egypt Exploration Fund 1898, p.56 ^ See list of nomes. Maten (Knife land) is the northernmost nome in Upper Egypt on the right bank, while Atef-Pehu (Northern Sycamore land) is the northernmost on the left bank. Brugsch, Heinrich Karl (2015). A History of Egypt under the Pharaohs. 1. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 487., originally published in 1876 in German. ^ Bard & Shubert (1999), p. 371 ^ David (1975), p. 149 ^ Roebuck (1966), p. 51 ^ a b c d e Roebuck (1966), pp. 52–53 ^ Roebuck (1966), p. 53 ^ Chauveau (2000), p. 68 ^ Ballais (2000), p. 133 ^ Ballais (2000), p. 134 ^ Brice (1981), p. 299 ^ Rice 1999, p. 86. ^ Wilkinson 1999, p. 57f. ^ Shaw 2000, p. 196. ^ a b Grajetzki (2006), pp. 109–111 Bibliography[edit] Ballais, Jean-Louis (2000). "Conquests and land degradation in the eastern Maghreb". In Graeme Barker; David Gilbertson (eds.). Sahara and Sahel. The Archaeology of Drylands: Living at the Margin. 1, Part III. London: Routledge. pp. 125–136. ISBN 978-0-415-23001-8. Bard, Katheryn A.; Shubert, Steven Blake (1999). Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-18589-0. Brice, William Charles (1981). An Historical Atlas of Islam. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 90-04-06116-9. OCLC 9194288. Chauveau, Michel (2000). Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra: History and Society Under the Ptolemies. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-3597-8. David, Ann Rosalie (1975). The Egyptian Kingdoms. London: Elsevier Phaidon. OCLC 2122106. Ermann, Johann Peter Adolf; Grapow, Hermann (1982). Wörterbuch der Ägyptischen Sprache [Dictionary of the Egyptian Language] (in German). Berlin: Akademie. ISBN 3-05-002263-9. Grajetzki, Wolfram (2006). The Middle Kingdom of ancient Egypt: History, Archaeology and Society. London: Duckworth Egyptology. ISBN 978-0-7156-3435-6. Rice, Michael (1999). Who's Who in Ancient Egypt. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-15449-9. Roebuck, Carl (1966). The World of Ancient Times. New York, NY: Charles Scribner's Sons Publishing. Shaw, Ian (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280458-7. Wilkinson, Toby A. H. (1999). Early Dynastic Egypt. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-18633-1. External links[edit] Media related to Upper Egypt at Wikimedia Commons v t e Upper Egyptian cities Akhmim Aswan Asyut Beni Suef Faiyum Hurghada Luxor Mallawi Minya Safaga Qena Sohag v t e Ancient Egypt topics Index Major topics Glossary of artifacts Agriculture Architecture (Egyptian Revival architecture) Art Portraiture Astronomy Chronology Cities (list) Clothing Cuisine Dance Dynasties Funerary practices Geography Great Royal Wives (list) Hieroglyphs History Language Literature Mathematics Medicine Military Music Mythology People Pharaohs (list) Philosophy Religion Sites Technology Trade Writing Egyptology Egyptologists Museums  Ancient Egypt portal Book Category WikiProject Commons Outline v t e Regions of Africa Central Guinea region Gulf of Guinea Cape Lopez Mayombe Igboland Mbaise Pool Malebo Congo Basin Chad Basin Cameroonian Highlands forests East Sudanian savanna Congolian rainforests Ouaddaï highlands Ennedi Plateau East African Great Lakes Albertine Rift East African Rift Great Rift Valley Gregory Rift Rift Valley lakes Virunga Mountains Kavirondo Zanj East African montane forests Eastern Arc Mountains Serengeti Horn of Africa Afar Triangle Al-Habash Barbaria Danakil Alps Danakil Desert Ethiopian Highlands Dahlak Archipelago Hanish Islands Gulf of Aden Gulf of Tadjoura Red Sea Indian Ocean islands Comoro Islands Lamu Archipelago Madagascar Central Highlands (Madagascar) Northern Highlands Zanzibar Archipelago Swahili coast North Eastern Desert Maghreb Ancient Libya Atlas Mountains Barbary Coast Bashmur Gibraltar Arc Ifriqiya Nile Valley Nile Delta Cataracts of the Nile Darfur Lower Egypt Lower Nubia Middle Egypt Nile Delta Nuba Mountains Nubia The Sudans Upper Egypt Tibesti Mountains Western Sahara South Rhodesia North South Thembuland Succulent Karoo Nama Karoo Bushveld Maputaland Highveld Fynbos Indian Ocean coastal belt Albany thickets Cape Floristic Region Skeleton Coast Kalahari Desert Okavango Delta Cape Peninsula False Bay West Pepper Coast Gold Coast Slave Coast Ivory Coast Cape Palmas Cape Mesurado Guinea region Guinean Forests of West Africa Upper Guinean forests Lower Guinean forests Guinean forest-savanna mosaic Guinea Highlands Gulf of Guinea Dahomey Gap Niger Basin Niger Delta Inner Niger Delta West Sudanian savanna Yorubaland Macro-regions Aethiopia Afromontane Arab world Commonwealth realm Equatorial Africa Françafrique Greater Middle East Guineo-Congolian region Islands of Africa List of countries where Arabic is an official language Mediterranean Basin MENA MENASA Middle East Miombo woodlands Mittelafrika Negroland Northeast Africa Portuguese-speaking African countries Sahara Sahel Sub-Saharan Africa Sudan (region) Sudanian savanna Tropical Africa Zambezian region Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Upper_Egypt&oldid=1000078839" Categories: Upper Egypt States and territories established in the 4th millennium BC States and territories disestablished in the 4th millennium BC Geography of ancient Egypt Regions of Egypt Historical regions Hidden categories: Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the symbol caption or type parameters Articles containing Arabic-language text Articles containing Coptic-language text CS1: long volume value CS1 German-language sources (de) Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikivoyage Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska עברית ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Simple English سنڌي Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Zazaki Edit links This page was last edited on 13 January 2021, at 13:23 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6580	----	Ionia - Wikipedia Ionia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Region in Turkey For other uses, see Ionia (disambiguation). Ionia (Ἰωνία) Ancient region of Anatolia Mount Mycale, site of the Panionium Location Western Anatolia State existed 7th–6th centuries BC (as Ionian League) Language Ionic Greek Biggest city Delos Persian satrapy Yauna Roman province Europe – Asia Asia Minor/Anatolia in the Greco-Roman period. The classical regions and their main settlements, including Ionia. One of the earliest electrum coins struck in Ephesus, 620–600 BC. Obverse: Forepart of stag. Reverse: Square incuse punch. Ionia (/aɪˈoʊniə/; Ancient Greek: Ἰωνία /i.ɔː.ní.aː/, Iōnía or Ἰωνίη, Iōníē) was an ancient region on the central part of the western coast of Anatolia in present-day Turkey, the region nearest İzmir, which was historically Smyrna. It consisted of the northernmost territories of the Ionian League of Greek settlements. Never a unified state, it was named after the Ionian tribe who, in the Archaic Period (600–480 BC), settled mainly the shores and islands of the Aegean Sea. Ionian states were identified by tradition and by their use of Eastern Greek. Ionia proper comprised a narrow coastal strip from Phocaea in the north near the mouth of the river Hermus (now the Gediz), to Miletus in the south near the mouth of the river Maeander, and included the islands of Chios and Samos. It was bounded by Aeolia to the north, Lydia to the east and Caria to the south. The cities within the region figured large in the strife between the Persian Empire and the Greeks. According to Greek tradition, the cities of Ionia were founded by colonists from the other side of the Aegean. Their settlement was connected with the legendary history of the Ionic people in Attica, which asserts that the colonists were led by Neleus and Androclus, sons of Codrus, the last king of Athens. In accordance with this view the "Ionic migration", as it was called by later chronologers, was dated by them one hundred and forty years after the Trojan War, or sixty years after the return of the Heracleidae into the Peloponnese.[1][2] Contents 1 Geography 1.1 Physical 1.2 Political 2 Demography 3 History 3.1 Settlement 3.2 Brief autonomy 3.3 Under the last Anatolian empire 3.4 Satrapy of the Achaemenids 3.5 Autonomy under the Athenian empire 3.6 Satrapy again (387-335 BC) 3.7 Hellenistic period 3.8 Under Rome 4 Legacy 5 Literary references 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References Geography[edit] Physical[edit] Ionia was of small extent, not exceeding 150 kilometres (90 mi) in length from north to south, with a breadth varying from 60 to 90 kilometres (40 to 60 mi), but to this must be added the peninsula of Mimas, together with the two islands. So intricate is the coastline that the voyage along its shores was estimated at nearly four times the direct distance. A great part of this area was, moreover, occupied by mountains. Of these the most lofty and striking were Mimas and Corycus, in the peninsula which stands out to the west, facing the island of Chios; Sipylus, to the north of Smyrna, Corax, extending to the south-west from the Gulf of Smyrna, and descending to the sea between Lebedus and Teos; and the strongly marked range of Mycale, a continuation of Messogisin the interior, which forms the bold headland of Trogilium or Mycale, opposite Samos. None of these mountains attains a height of more than 1,200 metres (3,940 ft). The district comprised three extremely fertile valleys formed by the outflow of three rivers, among the most considerable in Asia Minor: the Hermus in the north, flowing into the Gulf of Smyrna, though at some distance from the city of that name; the Caster, which flowed under the walls of Ephesus; and the Maeander, which in ancient times discharged its waters into the deep gulf that once bathed the walls of Miletus, but which has been gradually filled up by this river's deposits. With the advantage of a peculiarly fine climate, for which this part of Asia Minor has been famous in all ages, Ionia enjoyed the reputation in ancient times of being the most fertile of all the rich provinces of Asia Minor.[2] Northern Ionia, view from space. Political[edit] The ruins of the ancient city of Pergamon The geography of Ionia placed it in a strategic position that was both advantageous and disadvantageous. Ionia was always a maritime power founded by a people who made their living by trade in peaceful times and marauding in unsettled times. The coast was rocky and the arable land slight. The native Luwians for the most part kept their fields further inland and used the rift valleys for wooded pasture. The coastal cities were placed in defensible positions on islands or headlands situated so as to control inland routes up the rift valleys. The people of those valleys were of different ethnicity. The populations of the cities came from many civilizations in the eastern Mediterranean.[citation needed] Demography[edit] Ancient demographics are available only from literary sources. Herodotus states that in Asia the Ionians kept the division into twelve cities that had prevailed in Ionian lands of the north Peloponnese, their former homeland, which became Achaea after they left.[3] These twelve cities (aka Ionian League) were (from south to north) Miletus, Myus, Priene, Ephesus, Colophon, Lebedos, Teos, Erythrae, Clazomenae and Phocaea, together with Samos and Chios.[4] Smyrna, originally an Aeolic colony, was afterwards occupied by Ionians from Colophon, and became an Ionian city — an event which had taken place before the time of Herodotus.[5] Art relics from the Ionian cities of Asia These cities do not match those of Achaea. Moreover, the Achaea of Herodotus' time spoke Doric (Corinthian), but in Homer it is portrayed as being in the kingdom of Mycenae, which most likely spoke Mycenaean Greek, which is not Doric. If the Ionians came from Achaea, they departed during or after the change from East Greek to West Greek there. Mycenaean continued to evolve in the mountainous region of Arcadia. There is no record of any people named Ionians in Late Bronze Age Anatolia but Hittite texts record the Achaeans of Ahhiyawa, of location not completely certain, but in touch with the Hittites of that time. Miletus and some other cities founded earlier by non-Greeks received populations of Mycenaean Greeks probably under the name of Achaeans. The tradition of Ionian colonizers from Achaea suggests that they may have been known by both names even then. In the absence of archaeological evidence of discontinuity at Miletus the Achaean population whatever their name appears to have descended to archaic Ionia, which does not exclude the possibility of another colonizing and founding event from Athens. In the Indian (e.g.: Sanskrit) historic literary texts, the Ionians are referred to as "yavana" or "yona", and are described as wearing leather and wielding whips. In modern Turkish, the people of that region and the Greeks were called "yunan" (plural "yunanlar") and the country that is now Greece is known as "Yunanistan". Herodotus expresses some impatience at the ethnic views of his countrymen concerning Ionia: "for it would be foolishness to say that these are more truly Ionian or better born ...."[6] He lists other ethnic populations among the settlers: Abantes from Euboea, Minyans from Orchomenus, Cadmeians, Dryopians, Phocians, Molossians, Arcadian Pelasgians, Dorians of Epidaurus, and others. The presence of Doric Ionians is somewhat contradictory, but Herodotus himself, a major author of the Ionic dialect, was from a Doric city, Halicarnassus. Even " the best born of the Ionians", the Athenians, married girls from Caria. "Yet since they set more store by the name than the rest of the Ionians, let it be granted that those of pure birth are Ionians."[7] History[edit] Greek settlements in western Asia Minor, Ionian area in green. From the 18th century BC the region was a part of the Hittite Empire with possible name Arzawa, which was destroyed by invaders during the 12th century BC together with the collapse of the Empire. Ionia was settled by the Greeks probably during the 11th century BC. The most important city was Miletus (the Millawanda/Milawata of Hittites). Several centuries later Ionia was the place where Western philosophy began and was the homeland of Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes and Heraclitus. They were natural-philosophers of the Ionian School of philosophy and tried to explain phenomena according to non-supernatural laws. They also searched for a simple material form behind the appearances of things (origin) and this conception had a great influence on the early archaic art in Greece. Settlement[edit] Main article: First Greek colonisation During the late 13th century BC the peoples of the Aegean Sea took to marauding and resettling as a way of life and were called by the Egyptians the Sea Peoples.[citation needed] Mycenaean Greeks must have been among them. They settled lightly on the shores of Luwian Anatolia often by invitation. In the background was the stabilizing influence of the Hittites, who monitored maritime movement and suppressed piracy. When that power was gone the Luwian people remained in the vacuum as a number of coastal splinter states that were scarcely able now to defend themselves. Ionian Greeks took advantage of opportunities for coastal raiding: an inscription of Sargon II (ca 709–07, recording a naval expedition of 715) boasts "in the midst of the sea" he had "caught the Ionians like fish and brought peace to the land of Que Cilicia and the city of Tyre".[8] For a full generation earlier Assyrian inscriptions had recorded troubles with the Ionians, who escaped on their boats.[8] Caria and Lycia came to the attention of Athens, most powerful state remaining in Greece, which also had lost its central government ruling from Mycenae, now burned and nearly vacant. Ionians had been expelled from the Peloponnesus by the Dorians and had sought refuge in Athens. The Athenian kings decided to relieve the crowding by resettling the coast of Lydia with Ionians from the Peloponnesus under native Athenian leadership. The site of Miletus, once coastal, now inland. The plain was a bay in Classical Greece. They were not the only Greeks to have such a perception and reach such a decision. The Aeolians of Boeotia contemporaneously settled the coast to the north of the Ionians and the newly arrived Dorians of Crete and the islands the coast of Caria. The Greeks descended on the Luwians of the Anatolian coast in the 10th century BC. The descent was not peaceful and the Luwians were not willing. Gorgone with serpent, Ionia, 575-550 BC. Pausanias gives a thumbnail sketch of the resettlement.[9] Miletus was the first city attacked, where there had been some Mycenaean Greeks apparently under the rule of Cretans. After overthrowing the Cretan government and settling there the Ionians widened their attack to Ephesus, Samos and Priene. Combining with Aeolians from Thebes they founded Myus. Colophon was already in the hands of Aeolians who had arrived via Crete in Mycenaean times. The Ionians "swore a treaty of union" with them. They took Lebedos driving out the Carians and augmented the Aeolian population of Teos. They settled on Chios, took Erythrae from the Carians, Pamphylians (both Luwian) and Cretans. Clazomenae and Phocaea were settled from Colophon. Somewhat later they took Smyrna from the Aeolians. Brief autonomy[edit] Main articles: Ionian League, Panionium, and Delos The Ionian cities formed a religious and cultural (as opposed to a political or military) confederacy, the Ionian League, of which participation in the Panionic festival was a distinguishing characteristic. This festival took place on the north slope of Mt. Mycale in a shrine called the Panionium. In addition to the Panionic festival at Mycale, which was celebrated mainly by the Asian Ionians, both European and Asian coast Ionians convened on Delos Island each summer to worship at the temple of the Delian Apollo. But like the Amphictyonic league in Greece, the Ionic was rather of a sacred than a political character; every city enjoyed absolute autonomy, and, though common interests often united them for a common political object, they never formed a real confederacy like that of the Achaeans or Boeotians. The advice of Thales of Miletus to combine in a political union was rejected. The colonies naturally became prosperous. Miletus especially was at an early period one of the most important commercial cities of Greece; and in its turn became the parent of numerous other colonies, which extended all around the shores of the Euxine Sea and the Propontis from Abydus and Cyzicus to Trapezus and Panticapaeum. Phocaea was one of the first Greek cities whose mariners explored the shores of the western Mediterranean. Ephesus, though it did not send out any colonies of importance, from an early period became a flourishing city and attained to a position corresponding in some measure to that of Smyrna at the present day. Under the last Anatolian empire[edit] The temple of Artemis in Sardis. Possible coin of Ionia. Circa 600-550 BC About 700 BC Gyges, first Mermnad king of Lydia, invaded the territories of Smyrna and Miletus, and is said to have taken Colophon as his son Ardys did Priene. The first event in the history of Ionia for which there is a trustworthy account is the inroad of the Cimmerii, who ravaged a great part of Asia Minor, including Lydia, and sacked Magnesia on the Maeander, but were foiled in their attack upon Ephesus. This event may be referred to the middle of the 7th century BC. It was not until the reign of Croesus (560–545 BC) that the cities of Ionia fell completely under Lydian rule. Satrapy of the Achaemenids[edit] Main article: Ionia (satrapy) Ionian soldier of the Achaemenid army, circa 480 BCE. Xerxes I tomb relief. 15th-century map showing Ionia. The defeat of Croesus by Cyrus the Great was followed by the conquest of all the Ionian cities in 547 BC.[10] These became subject to the Persian monarchy with the other Greek cities of Asia. In this position they enjoyed a considerable amount of autonomy, but were for the most part subject to local despots, most of whom were creatures of the Persian king. It was at the instigation of one of these despots, Histiaeus of Miletus, that in about 500 BC the principal cities ignited the Ionian Revolt against Persia. They were at first assisted by the Athenians and Eretria, with whose aid they penetrated into the interior and burnt Sardis, an event which ultimately led to the Persian invasion of Greece. But the fleet of the Ionians was defeated off the island of Lade, and the destruction of Miletus after a protracted siege was followed by the reconquest of all the Asiatic Greeks, insular as well as continental. Autonomy under the Athenian empire[edit] The victories of the Greeks during the great Persian war and the liberation of Thrace, Macedon, and Ionia from the Persian Empire had the effect of enfranchising their kinsmen on the other side of the Aegean; and the Battle of Mycale (479 BC), in which the defeat of the Persians was in great measure owing to the Ionians, secured their emancipation. They henceforth became the dependent allies of Athens (see Delian League), though still retaining their autonomy, which they preserved until the Peace of Antalcidas in 387 BC once more placed them as well as the other Greek cities in Asia under the nominal dominion of Persia. Satrapy again (387-335 BC)[edit] Ionia, Achaemenid Period. Uncertain satrap. Circa 350-333 BC Ionian cities appear to have retained a considerable amount of freedom until the conquest of Asia Minor by Alexander the Great. Hellenistic period[edit] After the battle of the Granicus most of the Ionian cities submitted to the rule of Alexander the Great and his Diadochi. As such Ionia enjoyed a great prosperity during the Hellenistic times with the notable exception of Miletus, which, being the only city of the Ionian League to deny homage to Alexander, was finally leveled after a long siege at 334 BC, never regaining its splendor. Under Rome[edit] Ionia became part of the Roman province of Asia in 133 BC.[11] Legacy[edit] The Library of Celsus in Ephesus was built by the Romans in 114–117.[12] The Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, built by king Croesus of Lydia in the 6th century BC, was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.[13] Ionia has a long roll of distinguished men of letters and science (notably the Ionian School of philosophy) and distinct school of art. This school flourished between 700 and 500 BC. The great names of this school are Theodorus and Rhoecus of Samos; Bathycles of Magnesia on the Maeander; Glaucus of Chios, Melas, Micciades, Archermus, Bupalus and Athenis of Chios. Notable works of the school still extant are the famous archaic female statues found on the Athenian Acropolis in 1885–1887, the seated statues of Branchidae, the Nike of Archermus found at Delos, and the objects in ivory and electrum found by D.G. Hogarth in the lower strata of the Artemision at Ephesus. The Persian designation for Greek is Younan (یونان), a transliteration of "Ionia", through Old Persian Yauna.[14] The same is true for the Hebrew word, "Yavan" (יוון) and the Sanskrit word "yavana". The word was later adopted in Arabic, Turkish, and Urdu as well as in other places. Literary references[edit] Ionia appears as the major setting in these novels: The Ionia Sanction (2011), by Gary Corby The Ionian Mission (1981), by Patrick O'Brian See also[edit] Ancient regions of Anatolia Regions of ancient Greece Ionians List of traditional Greek place names Population exchange between Greece and Turkey Notes[edit] ^ Smith, William (1857). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography: Volume II Iabadius-Zymethus. London: Walton and Maberly. pp. Ionia pages 60–61. ^ a b "Ionia". Encyclopædia Britannica. 1911. ^ Herodotus, 1.145. ^ Herodotus, 1.142. ^ Herodotus, 1.143, 1.149–150. ^ Herodotus, 1.146. ^ Herodotus, 1.147. ^ a b Sargon's inscription in A. Fuchs, Die Inschriften Sargons II aus Khorsabad (1994:40) noted in Robin Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes in the Epic Age of Homer, 2008:29f. ^ Guide to Greece Book 7 Sections 5–7. ^ Wilson, Nigel (31 October 2013). Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece. ISBN 9781136787997. Retrieved 31 December 2014. ^ Breder, Jan (26 October 2012). "Ionia". In Bagnall, Roger S; Brodersen, Kai; Champion, Craige B; Erskine, Andrew; Huebner, Sabine R (eds.). The Encyclopedia of Ancient History. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. doi:10.1002/9781444338386. ISBN 9781405179355. OCLC 230191195. ^ Mark Cartwright. "Celsus Library". Ancient.eu. Retrieved 2 February 2017. ^ "The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus: The Un-Greek Temple and Wonder". ancient.eu. Retrieved 17 February 2017. ^ Lindner, Rudi Paul (2007). Explorations in Ottoman Prehistory. Michigan: University of Michigan Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-47209-507-0. The name "Yunan" comes from Ionia; cf. Old Persian "Yauna" (...) References[edit] Herodotus; Histories, A. D. Godley (translator), Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1920; ISBN 0-674-99133-8. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Jan Paul Crielaard, "The Ionians in the Archaic period: Shifting identities in a changing world," in Ton Derks, Nico Roymans (ed.), Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity: The Role of Power and Tradition (Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, 2009) (Amsterdam Archaeological Studies, 13), 37–84. Alan M. Greaves, The Land of Ionia: Society and Economy in the Archaic Period (Chichester/Malden, MA, Wiley–Blackwell, 2010). Wikisource has the text of a 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article about Ionia. 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en-wikipedia-org-6585	----	Yakareb - Wikipedia Yakareb From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Yakareb Yak'reb, Yekeb-Baal, Yakba'al(?), Yekeb-Bor, Ykb-l Scarab of Yakareb photographed by Flinders Petrie and now in the Petrie Museum[1][2] Pharaoh Reign unknown duration (uncertain, possibly 14th dynasty) Predecessor unknown Successor unknown Royal titulary Nomen Yakareb Ya-k-ˁ-r-b Yakareb may have been a ruler of some part of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, possibly during the 17th century BC, and likely belonging to the Fourteenth Dynasty.[3][4] As such he would have ruled from Avaris over the eastern Nile Delta and possibly over the Western Delta as well. His chronological position and identity are unclear. Attestations[edit] Yakareb is one of the few attested kings of the 14th Dynasty with two scarab seals attributable to him, both of unknown provenance.[3][4] One of the two scarabs is currently housed in the Egyptian Museum of Berlin, catalog number 293/73, while the other is in the Petrie Museum, under the catalog number 11810.[3][5][6][7] Since "Yakareb" is this king's nomen, it is not possible to assert whether or not Yakareb is listed on the Turin canon. The Turin canon is a king list redacted in the early Ramesside period, which serves as the primary historical source for the 14th Dynasty but which records only the prenomen of the kings. Moreover, the document is fragmentary and Yakareb's prenomen may be lost in a lacuna.[4] Thus, Yakareb is attested for certain by only the two scarabs, both of which are crudely made, and it is possible that "Yakareb" is a garbled or variant form of the name of a better known king of this time period.[6] Chronological position[edit] Although the chronological position of Yakareb is uncertain, the Egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker proposed that he ruled in the 14th Dynasty some time before Yaqub-Har. This estimation is based on a seriation of the scarabs dating to the Second Intermediate Period.[3] References[edit] ^ Flinders Petrie: Scarabs and cylinders with names, illustrated by the Egyptian collection in University College, London by W. M. Flinders Petrie, British school of archaeology in Egypt and Egyptian research account, London 1917, available online copyright-free see pl. xxii, num 16.h.1 ^ Percy E. Newberry: Scarabs an introduction to the study of Egyptian seals and signet rings, with forty-four plates and one hundred and sixteen illustrations in the text, 1906, available online copyright-free see plate XXII, num 8, p. 151. ^ a b c d K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here. ^ a b c Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 500–501 ^ Olga Tufnell: Studies on Scarab Seals Vol. 2, Aris & Phillips 1984, ISBN 978-0856681301, see seal num. 3493 ^ a b The scarab on Digital Egypt, Petrie Museum. ^ The scarab on the catalog of the Petrie Museum v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yakareb&oldid=982281536" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages ქართული Magyar Slovenščina ไทย Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 7 October 2020, at 06:04 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6592	----	Oebares II - Wikipedia Oebares II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the officer of Cyrus, see Oebares. Oebares became satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia. Oebares II (Old Persian: Vaubara) was, according to Herodotus (Herodotus 6.33) a son of Megabazus, himself a first degree cousin of Darius I. Oebares became satrap of Daskyleion (Hellespontine Phrygia) in 493 BC, after his father.[1][2] Herodotus mentions Oebares, when writing about the retaliatory actions of the Achaemenid fleet following the Ionian revolt: "The Phoenicians, having burnt these places aforesaid, turned against Proconnesus and Artace, and having given these also to the flames sailed back to the Chersonese to make an end of the remnant of the towns, as many as they had not destroyed at their former landing. But against Cyzicus they did not so much as sail at all; for the Cyzicenes had before this visitation of the fleet already made themselves the king's subjects, by an agreement which they made with the viceroy at Dascyleum, Oebares son of Megabazus." — Herodotus, VI-33[3] Megabates was a brother of Oebares. He was a commander of the Achaemenid fleet that sailed against Naxos in 500/499 BC. He also was Satrap of Daskyleion in the early 470s.[2][4] In 479 BC, Artabazos was named the new satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia. He was the first official satrap of the Pharnacid dynasty, named after his illustrious father Pharnaces. This office was passed down to his descendants, down to the conquests of Alexander the Great. References[edit] ^ LacusCurtius • Herodotus — Book VI, 33. ^ a b DASCYLIUM – Encyclopaedia Iranica. ^ LacusCurtius • Herodotus — Book VI: Chapters 1‑42. ^ Thucydides, 1.129; Herodotus, 5.32-35, 6.32 v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oebares_II&oldid=1002032378" Categories: Military leaders of the Achaemenid Empire 5th-century BC Iranian people Satraps of the Achaemenid Empire Family of Darius the Great Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 22 January 2021, at 14:23 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6642	----	Nedjemibre - Wikipedia Nedjemibre From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Nedjemibre Pharaoh Reign 7 months, c. 1780 BC or 1736 BC[1][2] (13th dynasty) Predecessor Sewadjkare I Successor Khaankhre Sobekhotep Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Nedjemibre Nḏm-jb-Rˁ Ra he who is pleasing of heart Nomen Unknown, possibly though not likely Amenemhet in which case he would the father of a Ranisonb [3] Nedjemibre was an ephemeral Egyptian pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period reigning c. 1780 BC[1] or 1736 BC.[2] According to Egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker he was the twelfth pharaoh of the dynasty,[1][4] while Detlef Franke and Jürgen von Beckerath see him as the eleventh ruler.[5][6][7][8] Nedjemibre is known solely from the Turin canon, a king list compiled in the early Ramesside period.[4] The canon gives his name on the 7th column, line 14 (Gardiner entry 6.14 [9]) and credits him with a very short reign of "7 months and [lost days]".[1][4] The fact that Nedjemibre's successor, Khaankhre Sobekhotep, is well attested and never mentions his parentage led Ryholt to propose that Khaankhre Sobekhotep was not of royal birth and usurped the throne at the expense of Nedjemibre.[1] References[edit] ^ a b c d e K.S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here. ^ a b Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen, Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3 ^ See Ryholt p.216 ^ a b c Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 248-249 ^ Thomas Schneider: Ancient Egyptian Chronology - Edited by Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss, And David a. Warburton, available online, see p. 176 ^ Detlef Franke: Zur Chronologie des Mittleren Reiches (12.-18. Dynastie) Teil 1 : Die 12. Dynastie, in Orientalia 57 (1988) ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46. Mainz am Rhein, 1997 ^ Alan H. Gardiner: The Royal Canon of Turin, Oxford 1959, Vol. III, 6.14, Warminster 1987, ISBN 0-900416-48-3. Preceded by Sewadjkare I Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Khaankhre Sobekhotep v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nedjemibre&oldid=969402346" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages አማርኛ العربية Azərbaycanca Català Deutsch Español Euskara Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands Slovenščina ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 25 July 2020, at 06:02 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-665	----	Artabazos I of Phrygia - Wikipedia Artabazos I of Phrygia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Artabazos I Allegiance Achaemenid Empire Years of service fl. 480 BC - 455 BC Rank Satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia Children Pharnabazus I Artabazos (Ancient Greek: Ἀρτάβαζος; fl. 480 BC - 455 BC) was a Persian general in the army of Xerxes I, and later satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia (now northwest Turkey) under the Achaemenid dynasty, founder of the Pharnacid dynasty of satraps. He was the son of Pharnaces, who was the younger brother of Hystaspes, father of Darius I. Artabazos was therefore a first cousin of the great Achaemenid ruler Darius I. Contents 1 General in the Second Persian invasion of Greece 2 Satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia 3 Egypt and Cyprus campaigns 3.1 Origin of the Egyptian campaign 3.2 Siege of Memphis (459-455 BC) 3.3 Siege of Prosopitis (455 BC) 4 Succession 5 See also 6 Notes General in the Second Persian invasion of Greece[edit] Parthian soldier Chorasmian soldier Artabazus was one of the generals of Xerxes in the 480 BC Second Persian invasion of Greece, in command of the Parthians and the Chorasmians in the Achaemenid army.[1] He was particularly in charge of the reserve forces guarding the route back to Asia, and responsible for suppressing a revolt in Potidaea.[2] The invasion ended the following year with the Commander in Chief Mardonius, ignoring advice from Artabazus and others, meeting the Greeks in pitched battle at the Battle of Plataea and being defeated (479 BC). The Greeks followed up their victory by sailing to Ionia, where they destroyed the garrisoning forces under Tigranes at Mycale in the same year. Artabazus, however, had refrained from engaging his troops at the Battle of Plataea, and thus managed to lead the remnant portion of a greatly reduced Achaemenid army out of Greece and back to Ionia.[3] According to Herodotus and Plutarch this force consisted of 40,000 men. Herodotus claims that in Thessaly he did not reveal the defeat as he would have been attacked, but claimed he needed to go to Thrace on a special mission. He was able to return to Persian territory despite losing men in attacks in Thrace. Satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia[edit] Coinage of Hellespontine Phrygia at the time of Artabazos I, Kyzikos, Mysia. Circa 500-450 BC. This type of electrum coins was treated as gold coinage, and competed alongside Achaemenid Darics.[4] Artabazos I was Satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia. Pharnacid dynasty (Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia) c.550–497 BC (Pharnaces) c.480–455 BC Artabazus I c.455–430 BC Pharnabazus I c.430–420 BC Pharnaces II c.413–374 BC Pharnabazus II c.407–362 BC Ariobarzanes c.389–329 BC Artabazus II c.370–320 BC Pharnabazus III v t e As a reward, Artabazus was made satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia. He was already preceded in this role by several Achaemenid satraps: the first Achaemenid ruler of Hellespontine Phrygia had been Mitrobates (ca. 525–522 BC), who was appointed by Cyrus the Great and continued under Cambises. He was killed and his territory absorbed by the satrap of neighbouring Lydia, Oroetes. Following the reorganization of Darius I, Mitrobates was succeeded by Oebares II (c.493), son of Megabazus. Artabazus was named satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia in 479 BC. He was the first official satrap of the Pharnacid dynasty, named after his illustrious father Pharnaces. This office was passed down to his descendants, down to the conquests of Alexander the Great. Egypt and Cyprus campaigns[edit] Main article: Wars of the Delian League Artabazos, together with Megabyzus, then satrap of Syria, had command of the Persian armies sent to put down the revolt of Inarus in Egypt. They arrived in 456 BC, and within two years had put down the revolt, capturing Inarus and various Athenians supporting him.[5] They then turned their attention to Cyprus, which was under attack by the Athenians, led by Cimon. Shortly afterwards hostilities between Persia and Athens ceased, called the peace of Callias. Origin of the Egyptian campaign[edit] When Xerxes I was assassinated in 465 BC, he was succeeded by his son Artaxerxes I, but several parts of the Achaemenid empire soon revolted, foremost of which were Bactria and Egypt. The Egyptian Inarus defeated the Persian satrap of Egypt Achaemenes, a brother of Artaxerxes, and took control of Lower Egypt. He contacted the Greeks, who were also officially still at war with Persia, and in 460 BC, Athens sent an expeditionary force of 200 ships and 6000 heavy infantry to support Inarus. The Egyptian and Athenian troops defeated the local Persian troops of Egypt, and captured the city of Memphis, except for the Persian citadel which they besieged for several years. Siege of Memphis (459-455 BC)[edit] Megabyzus fought against the Athenians and the Egyptians in the Siege of Memphis (459-455 BC) and the Siege of Prosopitis (455 BC). Egyptian soldier, circa 470 BC. Xerxes I tomb relief. The Athenians and Egyptians had settled down to besiege the local Persian troops in Egypt, at the White Castle. The siege evidently did not progress well, and probably lasted for at least four years, since Thucydides says that their whole expedition lasted 6 years,[6] and of this time the final 18 months was occupied with the Siege of Prosoptis.[7] According to Thucydides, at first Artaxerxes sent Megabazus to try and bribe the Spartans into invading Attica, to draw off the Athenian forces from Egypt. When this failed, he instead assembled a large army under Megabyzus, and dispatched it to Egypt.[7] Diodorus has more or less the same story, with more detail; after the attempt at bribery failed, Artaxerxes put Megabyzus and Artabazus in charge of 300,000 men, with instructions to quell the revolt. They went first from Persia to Cilicia and gathered a fleet of 300 triremes from the Cilicians, Phoenicians and Cypriots, and spent a year training their men. Then they finally headed to Egypt.[8] Modern estimates, however, place the number of Persian troops at the considerably lower figure of 25,000 men given that it would have been highly impractical to deprive the already strained satrapies of any more man power than that.[9] Thucydides does not mention Artabazus, who is reported by Herodotus to have taken part in the second Persian invasion; Diodorus may be mistaken about his presence in this campaign.[10] It is clearly possible that the Persian forces did spend some prolonged time in training, since it took four years for them to respond to the Egyptian victory at Papremis. Although neither author gives many details, it is clear that when Megabyzus finally arrived in Egypt, he was able to quickly lift the Siege of Memphis, defeating the Egyptians in battle, and driving the Athenians from Memphis.[7][11] Siege of Prosopitis (455 BC)[edit] The Athenians now fell back to the island of Prosopitis in the Nile delta, where their ships were moored.[7][11] There, Megabyzus laid siege to them for 18 months, until finally he was able to drain the river from around the island by digging canals, thus "joining the island to the mainland".[7] In Thucydides's account the Persians then crossed over to the former island, and captured it.[7] Only a few of the Athenian force, marching through Libya to Cyrene survived to return to Athens.[6] In Diodorus's version, however, the draining of the river prompted the Egyptians (whom Thucydides does not mention) to defect and surrender to the Persians. The Persians, not wanting to sustain heavy casualties in attacking the Athenians, instead allowed them to depart freely to Cyrene, whence they returned to Athens.[11] Since the defeat of the Egyptian expedition caused a genuine panic in Athens, including the relocation of the Delian treasury to Athens, Thucydides's version is probably more likely to be correct.[12] Succession[edit] He was succeeded by his son, Pharnabazus I (fl. 455 BC - 430 BC), of whom little is known, and then by his grandson Pharnaces II of Phrygia (fl. 430 BC - 413 BC), who is known to have been satrap at the outset of the Peloponnesian War. Pharnaces was in turn succeeded by his son, Pharnabazus II (fl. 413 BC - 373 BC), who is well known for his rivalry with Tissaphernes and wars against the Spartans. See also[edit] Pharnacid Dynasty Notes[edit] ^ "The Parthians and Chorasmians had for their commander Artabazus son of Pharnaces, the Sogdians Azanes son of Artaeus, the Gandarians and Dadicae Artyphius son of Artabanus." in Herodotus VII 64-66 ^ Herodotus 8,126-129 ^ Herodotus 9,89 ^ CNG: MYSIA, Kyzikos. Circa 500-450 BC. EL Stater (20mm, 16.23 g). ^ Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, I.104, 109. ^ a b Thucydides I, 110 ^ a b c d e f Thucydides I, 109 ^ Diodorus XI, 74–75 ^ Ray, Fred (1949). Land Battles in 5th Century BC Greece: A History and Analysis of 173 Engagements. McFarland & Company, Inc. pp. 109–110. ^ Herodotus VIII, 126 ^ a b c Diodorus XI, 77 ^ Holland, p. 363. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Artabazos_I_of_Phrygia&oldid=997317042" Categories: 5th-century BC rulers Persian people of the Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Chalcidice Achaemenid satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Military leaders of the Achaemenid Empire Pharnacid dynasty 5th-century BC Iranian people Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული مصرى Nederlands Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 30 December 2020, at 23:37 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6621	----	Jews - Wikipedia Jews From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the Jewish people. For their religion, see Judaism. "Jew" redirects here. For other uses, see Jew (disambiguation). Ancient nation and ethnoreligious group from the Levant Jews יְהוּדִים‬ (Yehudim) The Star of David which is a common symbol of the Jewish people. Total population 14.6–17.8 million Enlarged population (includes full or partial Jewish ancestry): 20.7 million[1] (2018, est.) Regions with significant populations  Israel 6,558,000–6,958,000[1]  United States 5,700,000–10,000,000[1]  France 453,000–600,000[1]  Canada 391,000–550,000[1]  United Kingdom 290,000–370,000[1]  Argentina 180,000–330,000[1]  Russia 172,000–440,000[1]  Germany 116,000–225,000[1]  Australia 113,000–140,000[1]  Brazil 93,000–150,000[1]  South Africa 69,000–80,000[1]  Ukraine 50,000–140,000[1]  Hungary 47,000–100,000[1]  Mexico 40,000–50,000[1]  Netherlands 30,000–52,000[1]  Belgium 29,000–40,000[1]  Italy 28,000–41,000[1]   Switzerland 19,000–25,000[1]  Chile 18,000–26,000[1]  Uruguay 17,000–25,000[1]  Turkey 15,000–21,000[1]  Sweden 15,000–25,000[1] Languages Predominantly spoken:[2] Modern Hebrew English Russian French Historical: Yiddish Ladino Judeo-Arabic others Sacred: Biblical Hebrew Biblical Aramaic Talmudic Aramaic Religion Judaism Related ethnic groups Samaritans[3][4][5] Other Levantines and Semitic peoples such as[4][6][7][8] Arabs[4][9] and Assyrians[4][8][5] This article contains Hebrew text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Hebrew letters. Part of a series on Jews and Judaism Etymology Who is a Jew? Religion God in Judaism (names) Principles of faith Mitzvot (613) Halakha Shabbat Holidays Prayer Tzedakah Land of Israel Brit Bar and Bat Mitzvah Marriage Bereavement Philosophy Ethics Kabbalah Customs Synagogue Rabbi Texts Tanakh Torah Nevi'im Ketuvim Talmud Mishnah Gemara Rabbinic Midrash Tosefta Targum Beit Yosef Mishneh Torah Tur Shulchan Aruch Zohar Communities Ashkenazim Mizrahim Sephardim Teimanim Beta Israel Gruzinim Juhurim Bukharim Italkim Romanyotim Cochinim Bene Israel Related groups Bnei Anusim Lemba Crimean Karaites Krymchaks Kaifeng Jews Igbo Jews Samaritans Crypto-Jews Mosaic Arabs Subbotniks Noahides Population Judaism by country Lists of Jews Diaspora Historical population comparisons Genetic studies Land of Israel Old Yishuv New Yishuv Israeli Jews Europe Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Bulgaria Cyprus Czech Republic Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Italy Latvia Lithuania Moldova Netherlands Poland Portugal Romania Russia Spain Sweden Ukraine United Kingdom Asia Afghanistan China India Indonesia Iran Iraq Japan Lebanon Malaysia Philippines Syria Turkey Uzbekistan Vietnam Yemen Africa Algeria Egypt Ethiopia Libya Morocco South Africa Tunisia Zimbabwe North America Canada United States Latin America and Caribbean Argentina Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia Cuba Dominican Republic El Salvador Guyana Haiti Jamaica Mexico Paraguay Puerto Rico Suriname Uruguay Venezuela Oceania Australia Fiji Guam New Zealand Palau Denominations Orthodox Modern Haredi Hasidic Reform Conservative Karaite Reconstructionist Renewal Humanistic Haymanot Messianic Judaism Culture Yiddish theatre Dance Humour Minyan Wedding Clothing Niddah Pidyon haben Kashrut Shidduch Zeved habat Conversion to Judaism Hiloni Music Religious Secular Cuisine American Ashkenazi Bukharan Ethiopian Israeli Israelite Mizrahi Sephardic Yemenite Literature Israeli Yiddish American Languages Hebrew Biblical Yiddish Yeshivish Jewish Koine Greek Yevanic Juhuri Shassi Judaeo-Iranian Ladino Ghardaïa Sign Bukharian Knaanic Zarphatic Italkian Gruzinic Judeo-Aramaic Judeo-Arabic Judeo-Berber Judeo-Malayalam History Timeline Name "Judea" Leaders Twelve Tribes of Israel Ancient history Kingdom of Judah Temple in Jerusalem Babylonian captivity Assyrian captivity Yehud Medinata Second Temple Jerusalem (in Judaism timeline) Hasmonean dynasty Sanhedrin Schisms Pharisees Hellenistic Judaism Jewish–Roman wars History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire Christianity and Judaism Hinduism and Judaism Islamic–Jewish relations Middle Ages Golden Age Sabbateans Hasidism Haskalah Emancipation Antisemitism Anti-Judaism Persecution The Holocaust Israel Land of Israel Aliyah Jewish atheism Baal teshuva Arab–Israeli conflict Politics Politics of Israel Judaism and politics World Agudath Israel Anarchism Bundism Feminism Leftism Zionism General Green Labor Neo-Zionism Religious Revisionist Post-Zionism Category Portal v t e Jews (Hebrew: יְהוּדִים‎ ISO 259-2 Yehudim, Israeli pronunciation [jehuˈdim]) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group[10] and a nation[11][12] originating from the Israelites[13][14][15] and Hebrews[16][17] of historical Israel and Judah. Jewish ethnicity, nationhood, and religion are strongly interrelated,[18][19] as Judaism is the ethnic religion of the Jewish people, while its observance varies from strict observance to complete nonobservance.[20] Jews originated as an ethnic and religious group in the Middle East during the second millennium BCE,[9] in the part of the Levant known as the Land of Israel.[21] The Merneptah Stele appears to confirm the existence of a people of Israel somewhere in Canaan as far back as the 13th century BCE (Late Bronze Age).[22][23] The Israelites, as an outgrowth of the Canaanite population,[24] consolidated their hold with the emergence of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Some consider that these Canaanite sedentary Israelites melded with incoming nomadic groups known as 'Hebrews'.[25] Though few sources mention the exilic periods in detail,[26][failed verification] the experience of diaspora life, from the Babylonian captivity and exile to the Roman occupation and exile, and the historical relations between Jews and their homeland thereafter, became a major feature of Jewish history, identity and memory.[27] In the millennia following, Jewish diaspora communities coalesced into major distinct ethnic groups: Ashkenazim (European Jews), and Sephardim (Iberian Jews); furthermore, Mizrahim (Oriental Jews) are often—particularly in Israel—regarded as separate from Sephardim.[28] Prior to World War II, the worldwide Jewish population reached a peak of 16.7 million,[29] representing around 0.7 percent of the world population at that time. Approximately 6 million Jews were systematically murdered during the Holocaust.[30][31] Since then the population has slowly risen again, and as of 2018[update] was estimated at 14.6–17.8 million by the Berman Jewish DataBank,[1] less than 0.2 percent of the total world population.[32][note 1] The modern State of Israel is the only country where Jews form a majority of the population. It defines itself as a Jewish and democratic state in the Basic Laws, Human Dignity and Liberty in particular, which is based on the Declaration of Independence. Israel's Law of Return grants the right of citizenship to Jews who have expressed their desire to settle in Israel.[34] Despite their small percentage of the world's population, Jews have significantly influenced and contributed to human progress in many fields, both historically and in modern times, including philosophy,[35] ethics,[36] literature,[37] politics,[37] business,[37] fine arts and architecture,[37] music, theatre[38] and cinema, medicine,[39][40] and science and technology,[37] as well as religion; Jews authored the Bible,[41][42] founded Early Christianity[43] and had a profound influence on Islam.[44] Jews have also played a significant role in the development of Western Civilization.[45][46] Contents 1 Name and etymology 2 Who is a Jew? 3 Origins 4 History 4.1 Babylon and Rome 4.2 Diaspora 4.3 Enlightenment 5 Culture 5.1 Religion 5.2 Languages 5.3 Leadership 5.4 Theories on ancient Jewish national identity 6 Demographics 6.1 Ethnic divisions 6.2 Genetic studies 6.3 Population centers 6.3.1 Israel 6.3.2 Diaspora (outside Israel) 6.4 Demographic changes 6.4.1 Assimilation 6.4.2 War and persecution 6.4.3 Migrations 6.4.4 Growth 7 Contributions 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Name and etymology Main article: Jew (word) For a more comprehensive list, see List of Jewish ethnonyms. The English word "Jew" continues Middle English Gyw, Iewe. These terms were loaned via the Old French giu, which itself evolved from the earlier juieu, which in turn derived from judieu/iudieu which through elision had dropped the letter "d" from the Medieval Latin Iudaeus, which, like the New Testament Greek term Ioudaios, meant both "Jew" and "Judean" / "of Judea".[47] The Greek term was a loan from Aramaic Y'hūdāi, corresponding to Hebrew יְהוּדִי Yehudi, originally the term for a member of the tribe of Judah or the people of the kingdom of Judah. According to the Hebrew Bible, the name of both the tribe and kingdom derive from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob.[48] Genesis 29:35 and 49:8 connect the name "Judah" with the verb yada, meaning "praise", but scholars generally agree that the name of both the patriarch and the kingdom instead have a geographic origin—possibly referring to the gorges and ravines of the region.[49] The Hebrew word for "Jew" is יְהוּדִי‎ Yehudi, with the plural יְהוּדִים‎ Yehudim.[50] Endonyms in other Jewish languages include the Ladino ג׳ודיו‎ Djudio (plural ג׳ודיוס‎, Djudios) and the Yiddish ייִד‎ Yid (plural ייִדן‎ Yidn). The etymological equivalent is in use in other languages, e.g., يَهُودِيّ yahūdī (sg.), al-yahūd (pl.), in Arabic, "Jude" in German, "judeu" in Portuguese, "Juif" (m.)/"Juive" (f.) in French, "jøde" in Danish and Norwegian, "judío/a" in Spanish, "jood" in Dutch, "żyd" in Polish etc., but derivations of the word "Hebrew" are also in use to describe a Jew, e.g., in Italian (Ebreo), in Persian ("Ebri/Ebrani" (Persian: عبری/عبرانی‎)) and Russian (Еврей, Yevrey).[51] The German word "Jude" is pronounced [ˈjuːdə], the corresponding adjective "jüdisch" [ˈjyːdɪʃ] (Jewish) is the origin of the word "Yiddish".[52] According to The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, fourth edition (2000), It is widely recognized that the attributive use of the noun Jew, in phrases such as Jew lawyer or Jew ethics, is both vulgar and highly offensive. In such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a practice that carries risks of its own. In a sentence such as There are now several Jews on the council, which is unobjectionable, the substitution of a circumlocution like Jewish people or persons of Jewish background may in itself cause offense for seeming to imply that Jew has a negative connotation when used as a noun.[53] Who is a Jew? Main articles: Who is a Jew? and Jewish identity Map of Canaan Judaism shares some of the characteristics of a nation,[11][54][12][55][56][57] an ethnicity,[10] a religion, and a culture,[58][59][60] making the definition of who is a Jew vary slightly depending on whether a religious or national approach to identity is used.[61][62] Generally, in modern secular usage Jews include three groups: people who were born to a Jewish family regardless of whether or not they follow the religion, those who have some Jewish ancestral background or lineage (sometimes including those who do not have strictly matrilineal descent), and people without any Jewish ancestral background or lineage who have formally converted to Judaism and therefore are followers of the religion.[63] Historical definitions of Jewish identity have traditionally been based on halakhic definitions of matrilineal descent, and halakhic conversions. These definitions of who is a Jew date back to the codification of the Oral Torah into the Babylonian Talmud, around 200 CE. Interpretations of sections of the Tanakh, such as Deuteronomy 7:1–5, by Jewish sages, are used as a warning against intermarriage between Jews and Canaanites because "[the non-Jewish husband] will cause your child to turn away from Me and they will worship the gods of others."[24] Leviticus 24:10 says that the son in a marriage between a Hebrew woman and an Egyptian man is "of the community of Israel." This is complemented by Ezra 10:2–3, where Israelites returning from Babylon vow to put aside their gentile wives and their children.[64][65] A popular theory is that the rape of Jewish women in captivity brought about the law of Jewish identity being inherited through the maternal line, although scholars challenge this theory citing the Talmudic establishment of the law from the pre-exile period.[66] Another argument is that the rabbis changed the law of patrilineal descent to matrilineal descent due to the widespread rape of Jewish women by Roman soldiers.[67] Since the anti-religious Haskalah movement of the late 18th and 19th centuries, halakhic interpretations of Jewish identity have been challenged.[68] According to historian Shaye J. D. Cohen, the status of the offspring of mixed marriages was determined patrilineally in the Bible. He brings two likely explanations for the change in Mishnaic times: first, the Mishnah may have been applying the same logic to mixed marriages as it had applied to other mixtures (Kil'ayim). Thus, a mixed marriage is forbidden as is the union of a horse and a donkey, and in both unions the offspring are judged matrilineally.[69] Second, the Tannaim may have been influenced by Roman law, which dictated that when a parent could not contract a legal marriage, offspring would follow the mother.[69] Rabbi Rivon Krygier follows a similar reasoning, arguing that Jewish descent had formerly passed through the patrineal descent and the law of matrilineal descent had its roots in the Roman legal system.[66] Origins Further information: Canaan, Israelites, Origins of Judaism, and History of ancient Israel and Judah Egyptian depiction of the visit of Western Asiatics in colorful garments, labeled as Aamu. The painting is from the tomb of a 12th dynasty official Khnumhotep II at Beni Hasan, and dated to c. 1900 BCE. Their nearest Biblical contemporaries were the earliest of Hebrews, such as Abraham and Joseph.[70][71][72][73] Depiction of King Jehu, tenth king of the northern Kingdom of Israel, on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, 841–840 BCE.[74] This is "the only portrayal we have in ancient Near Eastern art of an Israelite or Judaean monarch".[75] A factual reconstruction for the origin of the Jews is a difficult and complex endeavor. It requires examining at least 3,000 years of ancient human history using documents in vast quantities and variety written in at least ten near Eastern languages. As archaeological discovery relies upon researchers and scholars from diverse disciplines, the goal is to interpret all of the factual data, focusing on the most consistent theory. The prehistory and ethnogenesis of the Jews are closely intertwined with archaeology, biology, and historical textual records, as well as religious literature and mythology. The ethnic stock to which Jews originally trace their ancestry was a confederation of Iron Age Semitic-speaking tribes known as the Israelites that inhabited a part of Canaan during the tribal and monarchic periods.[76] Modern Jews are named after and also descended from the southern Israelite Kingdom of Judah.[77][78][79][80][81][82] According to the Hebrew Bible narrative, Jewish ancestry is traced back to the Biblical patriarchs such as Abraham, his son Isaac, Isaac's son Jacob, and the Biblical matriarchs Sarah, Rebecca, Leah, and Rachel, who lived in Canaan. The Twelve Tribes are described as descending from the twelve sons of Jacob. Jacob and his family migrated to Ancient Egypt after being invited to live with Jacob's son Joseph by the Pharaoh himself. The patriarchs' descendants were later enslaved until the Exodus led by Moses, after which the Israelites conquered Canaan under Moses' successor Joshua, went through the period of the Biblical judges after the death of Joshua, then through the mediation of Samuel became subject to a king, Saul, who was succeeded by David and then Solomon, after whom the United Monarchy ended and was split into a separate Kingdom of Israel and a Kingdom of Judah. The Kingdom of Judah is described as comprising the Tribe of Judah, the Tribe of Benjamin, partially the Tribe of Levi, and later adding remnants of other tribes who migrated there from the Kingdom of Israel.[83][84] Modern Jews claim lineage from those tribes since the ten northern tribes were lost following Assyrian captivity.[85] Modern archaeology has largely discarded the historicity of this narrative,[86] with it being reframed as constituting the Israelites' inspiring national myth narrative. The Israelites and their culture, according to the modern archaeological account, did not overtake the region by force, but instead branched out of the Canaanite peoples and culture through the development of a distinct monolatristic—and later monotheistic—religion centered on Yahweh. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of cultic practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite ethnic group, setting them apart from other Canaanites.[87][88][89] The Israelites become visible in the historical record as a people between 1200 and 1000 BCE.[90] It is not certain if a period like that of the Biblical judges occurred[91][92][93][94][95] nor if there was ever a United Monarchy.[96][97][98][99] There is well accepted archeological evidence referring to "Israel" in the Merneptah Stele, which dates to about 1200 BCE,[22][23] and the Canaanites are archeologically attested in the Middle Bronze Age.[100][101] There is debate about the earliest existence of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah and their extent and power, but historians agree that a Kingdom of Israel existed by c. 900 BCE[97]:169–95[98][99] and that a Kingdom of Judah existed by c. 700 BCE.[102] It is widely accepted that the Kingdom of Israel was destroyed around 720 BCE, when it was conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire.[83] History Main article: Jewish history The term Jew originated from the Roman "Judean" and denoted someone from the southern kingdom of Judah.[103] The shift of ethnonym from "Israelites" to "Jews" (inhabitant of Judah), although not contained in the Torah, is made explicit in the Book of Esther (4th century BCE),[104] a book in the Ketuvim, the third section of the Jewish Tanakh. In 587 BCE Nebuchadnezzar II, King of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, besieged Jerusalem, destroyed the First Temple, and deported the most prominent citizens of Judah.[105] Tribes of Israel The Tribes Reuben Simeon Levi Judah Dan Naphtali Gad Asher Issachar Zebulun Joseph Manasseh Ephraim Benjamin Related topics Leaders Israelites Ten Lost Tribes Jews Samaritans v t e According to the Book of Ezra, the Persian Cyrus the Great ended the Babylonian exile in 538 BCE,[106] the year after he captured Babylon.[107] The exile ended with the return under Zerubbabel the Prince (so-called because he was a descendant of the royal line of David) and Joshua the Priest (a descendant of the line of the former High Priests of the Temple) and their construction of the Second Temple in the period 521–516 BCE.[106] The Cyrus Cylinder, an ancient tablet on which is written a declaration in the name of Cyrus referring to restoration of temples and repatriation of exiled peoples, has often been taken as corroboration of the authenticity of the biblical decrees attributed to Cyrus,[108] but other scholars point out that the cylinder's text is specific to Babylon and Mesopotamia and makes no mention of Judah or Jerusalem.[108] Professor Lester L. Grabbe asserted that the "alleged decree of Cyrus" regarding Judah, "cannot be considered authentic", but that there was a "general policy of allowing deportees to return and to re-establish cult sites". He also stated that archaeology suggests that the return was a "trickle" taking place over decades, rather than a single event.[109] As part of the Persian Empire, the former Kingdom of Judah became the province of Judah (Yehud Medinata)[110] with different borders, covering a smaller territory.[109] The population of the province was greatly reduced from that of the kingdom, archaeological surveys showing a population of around 30,000 people in the 5th to 4th centuries BCE.[97]:308 The region was under control of the Achaemenids until the fall of their empire in c. 333 BCE to Alexander the Great. Jews were also politically independent during the Hasmonean dynasty spanning from 110 to 63 BCE and to some degree under the Herodian dynasty from 37 BCE to 6 CE.[111] Since the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, most Jews have lived in diaspora.[112] Genetic studies on Jews show that most Jews worldwide bear a common genetic heritage which originates in the Middle East, and that they share certain genetic traits with other Gentile peoples of the Fertile Crescent.[113][114][115] The genetic composition of different Jewish groups shows that Jews share a common gene pool dating back four millennia, as a marker of their common ancestral origin.[116] Despite their long-term separation, Jewish communities maintained their unique commonalities, propensities, and sensibilities in culture, tradition, and language.[117] Babylon and Rome Further information: History of the Jews in the Roman Empire After the destruction of the Second Temple, Judaism lost much of its sectarian nature.[118]:69 Without a Temple, Greek-speaking Jews no longer looked to Jerusalem in the way they had before. Judaism separated into a linguistically Greek and a Hebrew / Aramaic sphere.[119]:8–11 The theology and religious texts of each community were distinctively different.[119]:11–13 Hellenized Judaism never developed yeshivas to study the Oral Law. Rabbinic Judaism (centered in the Land of Israel and Babylon) almost entirely ignores the Hellenized Diaspora in its writings.[119]:13–14 Hellenized Judaism eventually disappeared as its practitioners assimilated into Greco-Roman culture, leaving a strong Rabbinic eastern Diaspora with large centers of learning in Babylon.[119]:14–16 By the first century, the Jewish community in Babylonia, to which Jews were exiled after the Babylonian conquest as well as after the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 CE, already held a speedily growing[120] population of an estimated one million Jews, which increased to an estimated two million[121] between the years 200 CE and 500 CE, both by natural growth and by immigration of more Jews from the Land of Israel, making up about one-sixth of the world Jewish population at that era.[121] The 13th-century author Bar Hebraeus gave a figure of 6,944,000 Jews in the Roman world; Salo Wittmayer Baron considered the figure convincing.[122] The figure of seven million within and one million outside the Roman world in the mid-first century became widely accepted, including by Louis Feldman. However, contemporary scholars now accept that Bar Hebraeus based his figure on a census of total Roman citizens, the figure of 6,944,000 being recorded in Eusebius' Chronicon.[123][124] Louis Feldman, previously an active supporter of the figure, now states that he and Baron were mistaken.[125]:185 Feldman's views on active Jewish missionizing have also changed. While viewing classical Judaism as being receptive to converts, especially from the second century BCE through the first century CE, he points to a lack of either missionizing tracts or records of the names of rabbis who sought converts as evidence for the lack of active Jewish missionizing.[125]:205–06 Feldman maintains that conversion to Judaism was common and the Jewish population was large both within the Land of Israel and in the Diaspora.[125]:183–203, 206 Other historians believe that conversion during the Roman era was limited in number and did not account for much of the Jewish population growth, due to various factors such as the illegality of male conversion to Judaism in the Roman world from the mid-second century. Another factor that made conversion difficult in the Roman world was the halakhic requirement of circumcision, a requirement that proselytizing Christianity quickly dropped. The Fiscus Judaicus, a tax imposed on Jews in 70 CE and relaxed to exclude Christians in 96 CE, also limited Judaism's appeal.[126] Diaspora Further information: History of the Jews in Europe, History of European Jews in the Middle Ages, Mizrahi Jews, and Sephardi Jews Map of the Jewish diaspora.   Israel   + 1,000,000   + 100,000   + 10,000 Following the Roman conquest of Judea and the siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE, hundreds of thousands of Jews were taken as slaves to Rome, where they later immigrated to other European lands. The Jews who immigrated to Iberia and North Africa comprise the Sephardic Jews, while those who immigrated to the Rhineland and France comprise the Ashkenazi Jews. Additionally both before and after the Roman conquest of Judea many Jews lived in Persia and Babylon as well as other Middle eastern countries, these Jews comprise the Mizrachi Jews.[127] In Francia, Jews like Isaac Judaeus and Armentarius occupied prominent social and economic positions, as opposed to in Spain, where Jews were persecuted under Visigoth rule. In Babylon, from the 7th to 11th centuries the Pumbedita and Sura academies lead the Arab and to an extant the entire Jewish world. The deans and students of said academies defined the Geonic period in Jewish history.[128] Following this period were the Rishonim who lived from the 11th to 15th centuries, it was during this time that the Ashkenazi Jews began experiencing extreme persecution in France and especially the Rhineland, which resulted in mass immigration to Poland and Lithuania. Meanwhile Sephardic Jews experienced a golden age under Muslim rule, however following the Reconquista and subsequent Alhambra decree in 1492, most of the Spanish Jewish population immigrated to North Africa and the Ottoman Empire. However some Jews choose to remain and pretended to practice Catholicism. These Jews would form the members of Crypto-Judaism.[129] Enlightenment This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2020) Culture Main article: Jewish culture Religion Main article: Judaism Part of a series on Judaism      Movements Orthodox Haredi Hasidic Modern Conservative Reform Karaite Reconstructionist Renewal Humanistic Haymanot Philosophy Principles of faith Kabbalah Messiah Ethics Chosenness God Names Musar movement Texts Tanakh Torah Nevi'im Ketuvim Ḥumash Siddur Piyutim Zohar Rabbinic Mishnah Talmud Midrash Tosefta Law Mishneh Torah Tur Shulchan Aruch Mishnah Berurah Aruch HaShulchan Kashrut Tzniut Tzedakah Niddah Noahide laws Holy cities / places Jerusalem Safed Hebron Tiberias Synagogue Beth midrash Mikveh Sukkah Chevra kadisha Holy Temple Tabernacle Important figures Abraham Isaac Jacob Moses Aaron David Solomon Sarah Rebecca Rachel Leah Rabbinic sages Chazal Tannaim Amoraim Savoraim Geonim Rishonim Acharonim Religious roles Rabbi Rebbe Posek Hazzan Dayan Rosh yeshiva Mohel Kohen Culture and education Brit Pidyon haben Bar and Bat Mitzvah Marriage Bereavement Yeshiva Kolel Cheder Ritual objects Sefer Torah Tallit Tefillin Tzitzit Kippah Mezuzah Menorah Shofar Four species Etrog Lulav Hadass Arava Kittel Gartel Prayers Shema (Sh'ma) Amidah Aleinu Kaddish Minyan Birkat Hamazon Shehecheyanu Hallel Havdalah Tachanun Kol Nidre Selichot (S'lichot) Major holidays Rosh Hashana Yom Kippur Sukkot Pesach Shavuot Purim Hanukkah Other religions Judaism and Christianity Hinduism Islam Mormonism Samaritanism Abrahamic religions Judeo-Christian Pluralism Related topics Jews Zionism Israel Criticism Antisemitism Anti-Judaism Holocaust theology Music Jesus Muhammad  Judaism portal v t e The Jewish people and the religion of Judaism are strongly interrelated. Converts to Judaism typically have a status within the Jewish ethnos equal to those born into it.[130] However, several converts to Judaism, as well as ex-Jews, have claimed that converts are treated as second-class Jews by many born Jews.[131] Conversion is not encouraged by mainstream Judaism, and it is considered a difficult task. A significant portion of conversions are undertaken by children of mixed marriages, or would-be or current spouses of Jews.[132] The Hebrew Bible, a religious interpretation of the traditions and early history of the Jews, established the first of the Abrahamic religions, which are now practiced by 54 percent of the world. Judaism guides its adherents in both practice and belief, and has been called not only a religion, but also a "way of life,"[133] which has made drawing a clear distinction between Judaism, Jewish culture, and Jewish identity rather difficult. Throughout history, in eras and places as diverse as the ancient Hellenic world,[134] in Europe before and after The Age of Enlightenment (see Haskalah),[135] in Islamic Spain and Portugal,[136] in North Africa and the Middle East,[136] India,[137] China,[138] or the contemporary United States[139] and Israel,[140] cultural phenomena have developed that are in some sense characteristically Jewish without being at all specifically religious. Some factors in this come from within Judaism, others from the interaction of Jews or specific communities of Jews with their surroundings, and still others from the inner social and cultural dynamics of the community, as opposed to from the religion itself. This phenomenon has led to considerably different Jewish cultures unique to their own communities.[141] Languages Main article: Jewish languages Hebrew is the liturgical language of Judaism (termed lashon ha-kodesh, "the holy tongue"), the language in which most of the Hebrew scriptures (Tanakh) were composed, and the daily speech of the Jewish people for centuries. By the 5th century BCE, Aramaic, a closely related tongue, joined Hebrew as the spoken language in Judea.[142] By the 3rd century BCE, some Jews of the diaspora were speaking Greek.[143] Others, such as in the Jewish communities of Babylonia, were speaking Hebrew and Aramaic, the languages of the Babylonian Talmud. These languages were also used by the Jews of Israel at that time.[citation needed] For centuries, Jews worldwide have spoken the local or dominant languages of the regions they migrated to, often developing distinctive dialectal forms or branches that became independent languages. Yiddish is the Judaeo-German language developed by Ashkenazi Jews who migrated to Central Europe. Ladino is the Judaeo-Spanish language developed by Sephardic Jews who migrated to the Iberian peninsula. Due to many factors, including the impact of the Holocaust on European Jewry, the Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries, and widespread emigration from other Jewish communities around the world, ancient and distinct Jewish languages of several communities, including Judaeo-Georgian, Judaeo-Arabic, Judaeo-Berber, Krymchak, Judaeo-Malayalam and many others, have largely fallen out of use.[2] Tombstone of the Maharal in the Old Jewish Cemetery, Prague. The tombstones are inscribed in Hebrew. For over sixteen centuries Hebrew was used almost exclusively as a liturgical language, and as the language in which most books had been written on Judaism, with a few speaking only Hebrew on the Sabbath.[144] Hebrew was revived as a spoken language by Eliezer ben Yehuda, who arrived in Palestine in 1881. It had not been used as a mother tongue since Tannaic times.[142] Modern Hebrew is designated as the "State language" of Israel.[145] Despite efforts to revive Hebrew as the national language of the Jewish people, knowledge of the language is not commonly possessed by Jews worldwide and English has emerged as the lingua franca of the Jewish diaspora.[146][147][148][149][150] Although many Jews once had sufficient knowledge of Hebrew to study the classic literature, and Jewish languages like Yiddish and Ladino were commonly used as recently as the early 20th century, most Jews lack such knowledge today and English has by and large superseded most Jewish vernaculars. The three most commonly spoken languages among Jews today are Hebrew, English, and Russian. Some Romance languages, particularly French and Spanish, are also widely used.[2] Yiddish has been spoken by more Jews in history than any other language,[151] but it is far less used today following the Holocaust and the adoption of Modern Hebrew by the Zionist movement and the State of Israel. In some places, the mother language of the Jewish community differs from that of the general population or the dominant group. For example, in Quebec, the Ashkenazic majority has adopted English, while the Sephardic minority uses French as its primary language.[152][153][154] Similarly, South African Jews adopted English rather than Afrikaans.[155] Due to both Czarist and Soviet policies,[156][157] Russian has superseded Yiddish as the language of Russian Jews, but these policies have also affected neighboring communities.[158] Today, Russian is the first language for many Jewish communities in a number of Post-Soviet states, such as Ukraine[159][160][161][162] and Uzbekistan,[163] as well as for Ashkenazic Jews in Azerbaijan,[164][165] Georgia,[166] and Tajikistan.[167][168] Although communities in North Africa today are small and dwindling, Jews there had shifted from a multilingual group to a monolingual one (or nearly so), speaking French in Algeria,[169] Morocco,[164] and the city of Tunis,[170][171] while most North Africans continue to use Arabic or Berber as their mother tongue.[citation needed] Leadership Main article: Jewish leadership There is no single governing body for the Jewish community, nor a single authority with responsibility for religious doctrine.[172] Instead, a variety of secular and religious institutions at the local, national, and international levels lead various parts of the Jewish community on a variety of issues.[173] Today, many countries have a Chief Rabbi who serves as a representative of that country's Jewry. Although many Hassidic Jews follow a certain hereditary Hasidic dynasty, there is no one commonly accepted leader of all Hasidic Jews. Many Jews believe that the Messiah will act a unifying leader for Jews and the entire world.[174] Theories on ancient Jewish national identity Bible manuscript in Hebrew, 14th century. Hebrew language and alphabet were the cornerstones of the Jewish national identity in antiquity. A number of modern scholars of nationalism support the existence of Jewish national identity in antiquity. One of them is David Goodblatt,[175] who generally believes in the existence of nationalism before the modern period. In his view, the Bible, the parabiblical literature and the Jewish national history provide the base for a Jewish collective identity. Although many of the ancient Jews were illiterate (as were their neighbors), their national narrative was reinforced through public readings, a common practice in the ancient eastern Mediterranean area. The Hebrew language also constructed and preserved national identity. Although it was not spoken by most of the Jews after the 5th century BCE, Goodblatt contends that: “the mere presence of the language in spoken or written form could invoke the concept of a Jewish national identity. Even if one knew no Hebrew or was illiterate, one could recognize that a group of signs was in Hebrew script. … It was the language of the Israelite ancestors, the national literature, and the national religion. As such it was inseparable from the national identity. Indeed its mere presence in visual or aural medium could invoke that identity.”[176][177] It is believed that Jewish nationalist sentiment in antiquity was encouraged because under foreign rule (Persians, Greeks, Romans) Jews were able to claim that they were an ancient nation. This claim was based on the preservation and reverence of their scriptures, the Hebrew language, the Temple and priesthood, and other traditions of their ancestors.[178] Demographics Further information: Jewish population by country Ethnic divisions Main article: Jewish ethnic divisions Ashkenazi Jews of late-19th-century Eastern Europe portrayed in Jews Praying in the Synagogue on Yom Kippur (1878), by Maurycy Gottlieb Sephardi Jewish couple from Sarajevo in traditional clothing. Photo taken in 1900. Yemenite Jew blows shofar, 1947 Within the world's Jewish population there are distinct ethnic divisions, most of which are primarily the result of geographic branching from an originating Israelite population, and subsequent independent evolutions. An array of Jewish communities was established by Jewish settlers in various places around the Old World, often at great distances from one another, resulting in effective and often long-term isolation. During the millennia of the Jewish diaspora the communities would develop under the influence of their local environments: political, cultural, natural, and populational. Today, manifestations of these differences among the Jews can be observed in Jewish cultural expressions of each community, including Jewish linguistic diversity, culinary preferences, liturgical practices, religious interpretations, as well as degrees and sources of genetic admixture.[179] Jews are often identified as belonging to one of two major groups: the Ashkenazim and the Sephardim. Ashkenazim, or "Germanics" (Ashkenaz meaning "Germany" in Hebrew), are so named denoting their German Jewish cultural and geographical origins, while Sephardim, or "Hispanics" (Sefarad meaning "Spain/Hispania" or "Iberia" in Hebrew), are so named denoting their Spanish/Portuguese Jewish cultural and geographic origins. The more common term in Israel for many of those broadly called Sephardim, is Mizrahim (lit. "Easterners", Mizrach being "East" in Hebrew), that is, in reference to the diverse collection of Middle Eastern and North African Jews who are often, as a group, referred to collectively as Sephardim (together with Sephardim proper) for liturgical reasons, although Mizrahi Jewish groups and Sephardi Jews proper are ethnically distinct.[180] Smaller groups include, but are not restricted to, Indian Jews such as the Bene Israel, Bnei Menashe, Cochin Jews, and Bene Ephraim; the Romaniotes of Greece; the Italian Jews ("Italkim" or "Bené Roma"); the Teimanim from Yemen; various African Jews, including most numerously the Beta Israel of Ethiopia; and Chinese Jews, most notably the Kaifeng Jews, as well as various other distinct but now almost extinct communities.[181] The divisions between all these groups are approximate and their boundaries are not always clear. The Mizrahim for example, are a heterogeneous collection of North African, Central Asian, Caucasian, and Middle Eastern Jewish communities that are no closer related to each other than they are to any of the earlier mentioned Jewish groups. In modern usage, however, the Mizrahim are sometimes termed Sephardi due to similar styles of liturgy, despite independent development from Sephardim proper. Thus, among Mizrahim there are Egyptian Jews, Iraqi Jews, Lebanese Jews, Kurdish Jews, Moroccan Jews, Libyan Jews, Syrian Jews, Bukharian Jews, Mountain Jews, Georgian Jews, Iranian Jews, Afghan Jews, and various others. The Teimanim from Yemen are sometimes included, although their style of liturgy is unique and they differ in respect to the admixture found among them to that found in Mizrahim. In addition, there is a differentiation made between Sephardi migrants who established themselves in the Middle East and North Africa after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain and Portugal in the 1490s and the pre-existing Jewish communities in those regions.[181] Ashkenazi Jews represent the bulk of modern Jewry, with at least 70 percent of Jews worldwide (and up to 90 percent prior to World War II and the Holocaust). As a result of their emigration from Europe, Ashkenazim also represent the overwhelming majority of Jews in the New World continents, in countries such as the United States, Canada, Argentina, Australia, and Brazil. In France, the immigration of Jews from Algeria (Sephardim) has led them to outnumber the Ashkenazim.[182] Only in Israel is the Jewish population representative of all groups, a melting pot independent of each group's proportion within the overall world Jewish population.[183] Genetic studies Main article: Genetic studies on Jews This section relies too much on references to primary sources. Please improve this section by adding secondary or tertiary sources. (September 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Y DNA studies tend to imply a small number of founders in an old population whose members parted and followed different migration paths.[184] In most Jewish populations, these male line ancestors appear to have been mainly Middle Eastern. For example, Ashkenazi Jews share more common paternal lineages with other Jewish and Middle Eastern groups than with non-Jewish populations in areas where Jews lived in Eastern Europe, Germany and the French Rhine Valley. This is consistent with Jewish traditions in placing most Jewish paternal origins in the region of the Middle East.[185][186] Conversely, the maternal lineages of Jewish populations, studied by looking at mitochondrial DNA, are generally more heterogeneous.[187] Scholars such as Harry Ostrer and Raphael Falk believe this indicates that many Jewish males found new mates from European and other communities in the places where they migrated in the diaspora after fleeing ancient Israel.[188] In contrast, Behar has found evidence that about 40 percent of Ashkenazi Jews originate maternally from just four female founders, who were of Middle Eastern origin. The populations of Sephardi and Mizrahi Jewish communities "showed no evidence for a narrow founder effect."[187] Subsequent studies carried out by Feder et al. confirmed the large portion of non-local maternal origin among Ashkenazi Jews. Reflecting on their findings related to the maternal origin of Ashkenazi Jews, the authors conclude "Clearly, the differences between Jews and non-Jews are far larger than those observed among the Jewish communities. Hence, differences between the Jewish communities can be overlooked when non-Jews are included in the comparisons."[9][189][190] A study showed that 7% of Ashkenazi Jews have the haplogroup G2c, which is mainly found in Pashtuns and on lower scales all major Jewish groups, Palestinians, Syrians, and Lebanese.[191][192] Studies of autosomal DNA, which look at the entire DNA mixture, have become increasingly important as the technology develops. They show that Jewish populations have tended to form relatively closely related groups in independent communities, with most in a community sharing significant ancestry in common.[193] For Jewish populations of the diaspora, the genetic composition of Ashkenazi, Sephardi, and Mizrahi Jewish populations show a predominant amount of shared Middle Eastern ancestry. According to Behar, the most parsimonious explanation for this shared Middle Eastern ancestry is that it is "consistent with the historical formulation of the Jewish people as descending from ancient Hebrew and Israelite residents of the Levant" and "the dispersion of the people of ancient Israel throughout the Old World".[194] North African, Italian and others of Iberian origin show variable frequencies of admixture with non-Jewish historical host populations among the maternal lines. In the case of Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews (in particular Moroccan Jews), who are closely related, the source of non-Jewish admixture is mainly southern European, while Mizrahi Jews show evidence of admixture with other Middle Eastern populations. Behar et al. have remarked on a close relationship between Ashkenazi Jews and modern Italians.[194][195] A 2001 study found that Jews were found to be more closely related to groups of the Fertile Crescent (Kurds, Turks, and Armenians) than to their Arab neighbors, the geographic distribution of whose genetic signature was found to correlate with the pattern of the Islamic conquests.[185][196] The studies also show that persons of Sephardic Bnei Anusim origin (those who are descendants of the "anusim" who were forced to convert to Catholicism) throughout today's Iberia (Spain and Portugal) and Ibero-America (Hispanic America and Brazil), estimated at up to 19.8 percent of the modern population of Iberia and at least 10 percent of the modern population of Ibero-America, have Sephardic Jewish ancestry within the last few centuries. The Bene Israel and Cochin Jews of India, Beta Israel of Ethiopia, and a portion of the Lemba people of Southern Africa, meanwhile, despite more closely resembling the local populations of their native countries, also have some more remote ancient Jewish descent.[197][194][198][190] Population centers For a more comprehensive list, see List of urban areas by Jewish population. The New York City is home to 1.1 million Jews, making it the largest Jewish community outside of Israel. Although historically, Jews have been found all over the world, in the decades since World War II and the establishment of Israel, they have increasingly concentrated in a small number of countries.[199][200] In 2013, the United States and Israel were collectively home to more than 80 percent of the global Jewish population, each country having approximately 41 percent of the world's Jews.[201] According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics there were 13,421,000 Jews worldwide in 2009, roughly 0.19 percent of the world's population at the time.[202] According to the 2007 estimates of The Jewish People Policy Planning Institute, the world's Jewish population is 13.2 million.[203] Adherents.com cites figures ranging from 12 to 18 million.[204] These statistics incorporate both practicing Jews affiliated with synagogues and the Jewish community, and approximately 4.5 million unaffiliated and secular Jews.[citation needed] According to Sergio Della Pergola, a demographer of the Jewish population, in 2015 there were about 6.3 million Jews in Israel, 5.7 million in the United States, and 2.3 million in the rest of the world.[205] Israel Main article: Israeli Jews Jewish people in Jerusalem, Israel Israel, the Jewish nation-state, is the only country in which Jews make up a majority of the citizens.[206] Israel was established as an independent democratic and Jewish state on 14 May 1948.[207] Of the 120 members in its parliament, the Knesset,[208] as of 2016[update], 14 members of the Knesset are Arab citizens of Israel (not including the Druze), most representing Arab political parties. One of Israel's Supreme Court judges is also an Arab citizen of Israel.[209] Between 1948 and 1958, the Jewish population rose from 800,000 to two million.[210] Currently, Jews account for 75.4 percent of the Israeli population, or 6 million people.[211][212] The early years of the State of Israel were marked by the mass immigration of Holocaust survivors in the aftermath of the Holocaust and Jews fleeing Arab lands.[213] Israel also has a large population of Ethiopian Jews, many of whom were airlifted to Israel in the late 1980s and early 1990s.[214] Between 1974 and 1979 nearly 227,258 immigrants arrived in Israel, about half being from the Soviet Union.[215] This period also saw an increase in immigration to Israel from Western Europe, Latin America, and North America.[216] A trickle of immigrants from other communities has also arrived, including Indian Jews and others, as well as some descendants of Ashkenazi Holocaust survivors who had settled in countries such as the United States, Argentina, Australia, Chile, and South Africa. Some Jews have emigrated from Israel elsewhere, because of economic problems or disillusionment with political conditions and the continuing Arab–Israeli conflict. Jewish Israeli emigrants are known as yordim.[217] Diaspora (outside Israel) Main article: Jewish diaspora In this Rosh Hashana greeting card from the early 1900s, Russian Jews, packs in hand, gaze at the American relatives beckoning them to the United States. Over two million Jews fled the pogroms of the Russian Empire to the safety of the U.S. between 1881 and 1924.[218] A menorah dominating the main square in Birobidzhan. An estimated 70,000 Jews live in Siberia.[219] The waves of immigration to the United States and elsewhere at the turn of the 19th century, the founding of Zionism and later events, including pogroms in Imperial Russia (mostly within the Pale of Settlement in present-day Ukraine, Moldova, Belarus and Poland), the massacre of European Jewry during the Holocaust, and the founding of the state of Israel, with the subsequent Jewish exodus from Arab lands, all resulted in substantial shifts in the population centers of world Jewry by the end of the 20th century.[220] More than half of the Jews live in the Diaspora (see Population table). Currently, the largest Jewish community outside Israel, and either the largest or second-largest Jewish community in the world, is located in the United States, with 5.2 million to 6.4 million Jews by various estimates. Elsewhere in the Americas, there are also large Jewish populations in Canada (315,000), Argentina (180,000–300,000), and Brazil (196,000–600,000), and smaller populations in Mexico, Uruguay, Venezuela, Chile, Colombia and several other countries (see History of the Jews in Latin America).[221] According to a 2010 Pew Research Center study, about 470,000 people of Jewish heritage live in Latin-America and the Caribbean.[222] Demographers disagree on whether the United States has a larger Jewish population than Israel, with many maintaining that Israel surpassed the United States in Jewish population during the 2000s, while others maintain that the United States still has the largest Jewish population in the world. Currently, a major national Jewish population survey is planned to ascertain whether or not Israel has overtaken the United States in Jewish population.[223] Western Europe's largest Jewish community, and the third-largest Jewish community in the world, can be found in France, home to between 483,000 and 500,000 Jews, the majority of whom are immigrants or refugees from North African countries such as Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia (or their descendants).[224] The United Kingdom has a Jewish community of 292,000. In Eastern Europe, the exact figures are difficult to establish. The number of Jews in Russia varies widely according to whether a source uses census data (which requires a person to choose a single nationality among choices that include "Russian" and "Jewish") or eligibility for immigration to Israel (which requires that a person have one or more Jewish grandparents). According to the latter criteria, the heads of the Russian Jewish community assert that up to 1.5 million Russians are eligible for aliyah.[225][226] In Germany, the 102,000 Jews registered with the Jewish community are a slowly declining population,[227] despite the immigration of tens of thousands of Jews from the former Soviet Union since the fall of the Berlin Wall.[228] Thousands of Israelis also live in Germany, either permanently or temporarily, for economic reasons.[229] Prior to 1948, approximately 800,000 Jews were living in lands which now make up the Arab world (excluding Israel). Of these, just under two-thirds lived in the French-controlled Maghreb region, 15 to 20 percent in the Kingdom of Iraq, approximately 10 percent in the Kingdom of Egypt and approximately 7 percent in the Kingdom of Yemen. A further 200,000 lived in Pahlavi Iran and the Republic of Turkey. Today, around 26,000 Jews live in Arab countries[230] and around 30,000 in Iran and Turkey. A small-scale exodus had begun in many countries in the early decades of the 20th century, although the only substantial aliyah came from Yemen and Syria.[231] The exodus from Arab and Muslim countries took place primarily from 1948. The first large-scale exoduses took place in the late 1940s and early 1950s, primarily in Iraq, Yemen and Libya, with up to 90 percent of these communities leaving within a few years. The peak of the exodus from Egypt occurred in 1956. The exodus in the Maghreb countries peaked in the 1960s. Lebanon was the only Arab country to see a temporary increase in its Jewish population during this period, due to an influx of refugees from other Arab countries, although by the mid-1970s the Jewish community of Lebanon had also dwindled. In the aftermath of the exodus wave from Arab states, an additional migration of Iranian Jews peaked in the 1980s when around 80 percent of Iranian Jews left the country.[citation needed] Outside Europe, the Americas, the Middle East, and the rest of Asia, there are significant Jewish populations in Australia (112,500) and South Africa (70,000).[29] There is also a 6,800-strong community in New Zealand.[232] Demographic changes Main article: Historical Jewish population comparisons Assimilation Main articles: Jewish assimilation and Interfaith marriage in Judaism Since at least the time of the Ancient Greeks, a proportion of Jews have assimilated into the wider non-Jewish society around them, by either choice or force, ceasing to practice Judaism and losing their Jewish identity.[233] Assimilation took place in all areas, and during all time periods,[233] with some Jewish communities, for example the Kaifeng Jews of China, disappearing entirely.[234] The advent of the Jewish Enlightenment of the 18th century (see Haskalah) and the subsequent emancipation of the Jewish populations of Europe and America in the 19th century, accelerated the situation, encouraging Jews to increasingly participate in, and become part of, secular society. The result has been a growing trend of assimilation, as Jews marry non-Jewish spouses and stop participating in the Jewish community.[235] Rates of interreligious marriage vary widely: In the United States, it is just under 50 percent,[236] in the United Kingdom, around 53 percent; in France; around 30 percent,[237] and in Australia and Mexico, as low as 10 percent.[238][239] In the United States, only about a third of children from intermarriages affiliate with Jewish religious practice.[240] The result is that most countries in the Diaspora have steady or slightly declining religiously Jewish populations as Jews continue to assimilate into the countries in which they live.[citation needed] War and persecution Further information: Persecution of Jews, Antisemitism, and Jewish military history The Roman Emperor Nero sends Vespasian with an army to destroy the Jews, 69 CE. The Jewish people and Judaism have experienced various persecutions throughout Jewish history. During Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages the Roman Empire (in its later phases known as the Byzantine Empire) repeatedly repressed the Jewish population, first by ejecting them from their homelands during the pagan Roman era and later by officially establishing them as second-class citizens during the Christian Roman era.[241][242] According to James Carroll, "Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire. By that ratio, if other factors had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million."[243] Later in medieval Western Europe, further persecutions of Jews by Christians occurred, notably during the Crusades—when Jews all over Germany were massacred—and a series of expulsions from the Kingdom of England, Germany, France, and, in the largest expulsion of all, Spain and Portugal after the Reconquista (the Catholic Reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula), where both unbaptized Sephardic Jews and the ruling Muslim Moors were expelled.[244][245] In the Papal States, which existed until 1870, Jews were required to live only in specified neighborhoods called ghettos.[246] World War I poster showing a soldier cutting the bonds from a Jewish man, who says, "You have cut my bonds and set me free—now let me help you set others free!" Islam and Judaism have a complex relationship. Traditionally Jews and Christians living in Muslim lands, known as dhimmis, were allowed to practice their religions and administer their internal affairs, but they were subject to certain conditions.[247] They had to pay the jizya (a per capita tax imposed on free adult non-Muslim males) to the Islamic state.[247] Dhimmis had an inferior status under Islamic rule. They had several social and legal disabilities such as prohibitions against bearing arms or giving testimony in courts in cases involving Muslims.[248] Many of the disabilities were highly symbolic. The one described by Bernard Lewis as "most degrading"[249] was the requirement of distinctive clothing, not found in the Quran or hadith but invented in early medieval Baghdad; its enforcement was highly erratic.[249] On the other hand, Jews rarely faced martyrdom or exile, or forced compulsion to change their religion, and they were mostly free in their choice of residence and profession.[250] Notable exceptions include the massacre of Jews and forcible conversion of some Jews by the rulers of the Almohad dynasty in Al-Andalus in the 12th century,[251] as well as in Islamic Persia,[252] and the forced confinement of Moroccan Jews to walled quarters known as mellahs beginning from the 15th century and especially in the early 19th century.[253] In modern times, it has become commonplace for standard antisemitic themes to be conflated with anti-Zionist publications and pronouncements of Islamic movements such as Hezbollah and Hamas, in the pronouncements of various agencies of the Islamic Republic of Iran, and even in the newspapers and other publications of Turkish Refah Partisi."[254] Throughout history, many rulers, empires and nations have oppressed their Jewish populations or sought to eliminate them entirely. Methods employed ranged from expulsion to outright genocide; within nations, often the threat of these extreme methods was sufficient to silence dissent. The history of antisemitism includes the First Crusade which resulted in the massacre of Jews;[244] the Spanish Inquisition (led by Tomás de Torquemada) and the Portuguese Inquisition, with their persecution and autos-da-fé against the New Christians and Marrano Jews;[255] the Bohdan Chmielnicki Cossack massacres in Ukraine;[256] the Pogroms backed by the Russian Tsars;[257] as well as expulsions from Spain, Portugal, England, France, Germany, and other countries in which the Jews had settled.[245] According to a 2008 study published in the American Journal of Human Genetics, 19.8 percent of the modern Iberian population has Sephardic Jewish ancestry,[258] indicating that the number of conversos may have been much higher than originally thought.[259][260] Jews in Minsk, 1941. Before World War II some 40 percent of the population was Jewish. By the time the Red Army retook the city on 3 July 1944, there were only a few Jewish survivors. The persecution reached a peak in Nazi Germany's Final Solution, which led to the Holocaust and the slaughter of approximately 6 million Jews.[261] Of the world's 15 million Jews in 1939, more than a third were murdered in the Holocaust.[262][263] The Holocaust—the state-led systematic persecution and genocide of European Jews (and certain communities of North African Jews in European controlled North Africa) and other minority groups of Europe during World War II by Germany and its collaborators remains the most notable modern-day persecution of Jews.[264] The persecution and genocide were accomplished in stages. Legislation to remove the Jews from civil society was enacted years before the outbreak of World War II.[265] Concentration camps were established in which inmates were used as slave labour until they died of exhaustion or disease.[266] Where the Third Reich conquered new territory in Eastern Europe, specialized units called Einsatzgruppen murdered Jews and political opponents in mass shootings.[267] Jews and Roma were crammed into ghettos before being transported hundreds of kilometres by freight train to extermination camps where, if they survived the journey, the majority of them were murdered in gas chambers.[268] Virtually every arm of Germany's bureaucracy was involved in the logistics of the mass murder, turning the country into what one Holocaust scholar has called "a genocidal nation."[269] Migrations Further information: Expulsions of Jews Expulsions of Jews in Europe from 1100 to 1600 Throughout Jewish history, Jews have repeatedly been directly or indirectly expelled from both their original homeland, the Land of Israel, and many of the areas in which they have settled. This experience as refugees has shaped Jewish identity and religious practice in many ways, and is thus a major element of Jewish history.[270] The patriarch Abraham is described as a migrant to the land of Canaan from Ur of the Chaldees[271] after an attempt on his life by King Nimrod.[272] His descendants, the Children of Israel, in the Biblical story (whose historicity is uncertain) undertook the Exodus (meaning "departure" or "exit" in Greek) from ancient Egypt, as recorded in the Book of Exodus.[273] Etching of the expulsion of the Jews from Frankfurt in 1614. The text says: "1380 persons old and young were counted at the exit of the gate". Jews fleeing pogroms, 1882 Centuries later, Assyrian policy was to deport and displace conquered peoples, and it is estimated some 4,500,000 among captive populations suffered this dislocation over 3 centuries of Assyrian rule.[274] With regard to Israel, Tiglath-Pileser III claims he deported 80  of the population of Lower Galilee, some 13,520 people.[275] Some 27,000 Israelites, 20 to 25  of the population of the Kingdom of Israel, were described as being deported by Sargon II, and were replaced by other deported populations and sent into permanent exile by Assyria, initially to the Upper Mesopotamian provinces of the Assyrian Empire,[276][277] Between 10,000 and 80,000 people from the Kingdom of Judah were similarly exiled by Babylonia,[274] but these people were then returned to Judea by Cyrus the Great of the Persian Achaemenid Empire.[278] Many Jews were exiled again by the Roman Empire.[279] The 2,000 year dispersion of the Jewish diaspora beginning under the Roman Empire,[citation needed] as Jews were spread throughout the Roman world and, driven from land to land,[citation needed] settled wherever they could live freely enough to practice their religion. Over the course of the diaspora the center of Jewish life moved from Babylonia[280] to the Iberian Peninsula[281] to Poland[282] to the United States[283] and, as a result of Zionism, back to Israel.[284] There were also many expulsions of Jews during the Middle Ages and Enlightenment in Europe, including: 1290, 16,000 Jews were expelled from England, see the (Statute of Jewry); in 1396, 100,000 from France; in 1421 thousands were expelled from Austria. Many of these Jews settled in Eastern Europe, especially Poland.[285] Following the Spanish Inquisition in 1492, the Spanish population of around 200,000 Sephardic Jews were expelled by the Spanish crown and Catholic church, followed by expulsions in 1493 in Sicily (37,000 Jews) and Portugal in 1496. The expelled Jews fled mainly to the Ottoman Empire, the Netherlands, and North Africa, others migrating to Southern Europe and the Middle East.[286] During the 19th century, France's policies of equal citizenship regardless of religion led to the immigration of Jews (especially from Eastern and Central Europe).[287] This contributed to the arrival of millions of Jews in the New World. Over two million Eastern European Jews arrived in the United States from 1880 to 1925.[288] In summary, the pogroms in Eastern Europe,[257] the rise of modern antisemitism,[289] the Holocaust,[290] and the rise of Arab nationalism[291] all served to fuel the movements and migrations of huge segments of Jewry from land to land and continent to continent, until they arrived back in large numbers at their original historical homeland in Israel.[284] In the latest phase of migrations, the Islamic Revolution of Iran caused many Iranian Jews to flee Iran. Most found refuge in the US (particularly Los Angeles, California and Long Island, New York) and Israel. Smaller communities of Persian Jews exist in Canada and Western Europe.[292] Similarly, when the Soviet Union collapsed, many of the Jews in the affected territory (who had been refuseniks) were suddenly allowed to leave. This produced a wave of migration to Israel in the early 1990s.[217] Growth Praying at the Western Wall Israel is the only country with a Jewish population that is consistently growing through natural population growth, although the Jewish populations of other countries, in Europe and North America, have recently increased through immigration. In the Diaspora, in almost every country the Jewish population in general is either declining or steady, but Orthodox and Haredi Jewish communities, whose members often shun birth control for religious reasons, have experienced rapid population growth.[293] Orthodox and Conservative Judaism discourage proselytism to non-Jews, but many Jewish groups have tried to reach out to the assimilated Jewish communities of the Diaspora in order for them to reconnect to their Jewish roots. Additionally, while in principle Reform Judaism favors seeking new members for the faith, this position has not translated into active proselytism, instead taking the form of an effort to reach out to non-Jewish spouses of intermarried couples.[294] There is also a trend of Orthodox movements reaching out to secular Jews in order to give them a stronger Jewish identity so there is less chance of intermarriage. As a result of the efforts by these and other Jewish groups over the past 25 years, there has been a trend (known as the Baal teshuva movement) for secular Jews to become more religiously observant, though the demographic implications of the trend are unknown.[295] Additionally, there is also a growing rate of conversion to Jews by Choice of gentiles who make the decision to head in the direction of becoming Jews.[296] Contributions Jews have made many contributions to humanity in a broad and diverse range of fields, including the sciences, arts, politics, and business.[297] For example, over 20 percent[298][299][300][301][302][303] of Nobel Prize laureates have been of Jewish descent, with multiple winners in each category.[304] Jewish people have also won Fields Medals,[305][better source needed] ACM Turing Awards,[306][better source needed] World chess championships including 8 of the top 100 world chess players,[307][failed verification] and Westinghouse Science Talent Search awards.[305][better source needed] See also Judaism portal Jewish studies Lists of Jews Notes ^ The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure. In addition to issues with census methodology, disputes among proponents of halakhic, secular, political, and ancestral identification factors regarding who is a Jew may affect the figure considerably depending on the source.[33] References ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Dashefsky, Arnold; Della Pergola, Sergio; Sheskin, Ira, eds. (2018). World Jewish Population (PDF) (Report). Berman Jewish DataBank. Retrieved 22 June 2019. ^ a b c "Links". Beth Hatefutsoth. Archived from the original on 26 March 2009. Retrieved 2 April 2012. ^ Kiaris, Hippokratis (2012). Genes, Polymorphisms and the Making of Societies: How Genetic Behavioral Traits Influence Human Cultures. Universal Publishers. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-61233-093-8. ^ a b c d Shen, Peidong; Lavi, Tal; Kivisild, Toomas; Chou, Vivian; Sengun, Deniz; Gefel, Dov; Shpirer, Issac; Woolf, Eilon; Hillel, Jossi; Feldman, Marcus W.; Oefner, Peter J. (September 2004). "Reconstruction of patrilineages and matrilineages of Samaritans and other Israeli populations from Y-Chromosome and mitochondrial DNA sequence Variation". Human Mutation. 24 (3): 248–260. doi:10.1002/humu.20077. PMID 15300852. S2CID 1571356. ^ a b Ridolfo, Jim (2015). Digital Samaritans: Rhetorical Delivery and Engagement in the Digital Humanities. University of Michigan Press. p. 69. ISBN 978-0-472-07280-4. ^ Wade, Nicholas (9 June 2010). "Studies Show Jews' Genetic Similarity". The New York Times. ^ Nebel, Almut; Filon, Dvora; Weiss, Deborah A.; Weale, Michael; Faerman, Marina; Oppenheim, Ariella; Thomas, Mark G. (December 2000). "High-resolution Y chromosome haplotypes of Israeli and Palestinian Arabs reveal geographic substructure and substantial overlap with haplotypes of Jews". Human Genetics. 107 (6): 630–641. doi:10.1007/s004390000426. PMID 11153918. S2CID 8136092. ^ a b "Jews Are The Genetic Brothers Of Palestinians, Syrians, And Lebanese". Sciencedaily.com. 9 May 2000. Retrieved 12 April 2013. ^ a b c Atzmon, Gil; Hao, Li; Pe'er, Itsik; Velez, Christopher; Pearlman, Alexander; Palamara, Pier Francesco; Morrow, Bernice; Friedman, Eitan; Oddoux, Carole; Burns, Edward; Ostrer, Harry (June 2010). "Abraham's Children in the Genome Era: Major Jewish Diaspora Populations Comprise Distinct Genetic Clusters with Shared Middle Eastern Ancestry". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 86 (6): 850–859. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2010.04.015. PMC 3032072. PMID 20560205. ^ a b Ethnic minorities in English law. Books.google.co.uk. Retrieved on 23 December 2010. Edgar Litt (1961). "Jewish Ethno-Religious Involvement and Political Liberalism". Social Forces. 39 (4): 328–32. doi:10.2307/2573430. JSTOR 2573430. Craig R. Prentiss (2003). Religion and the Creation of Race and Ethnicity: An Introduction. NYU Press. pp. 85–. ISBN 978-0-8147-6700-9. The Avraham Harman Institute of Contemporary Jewry The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Eli Lederhendler Stephen S. Wise Professor of American Jewish History and Institutions (2001). Studies in Contemporary Jewry : Volume XVII: Who Owns Judaism? Public Religion and Private Faith in America and Israel: Volume XVII: Who Owns Judaism? Public Religion and Private Faith in America and Israel. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 101–. ISBN 978-0-19-534896-5. Ernest Krausz; Gitta Tulea. Jewish Survival: The Identity Problem at the Close of the Twentieth Century; [... International Workshop at Bar-Ilan University on the 18th and 19th of March, 1997]. Transaction Publishers. pp. 90–. ISBN 978-1-4128-2689-1. John A. Shoup III (2011). Ethnic Groups of Africa and the Middle East: An Encyclopedia: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 133. ISBN 978-1-59884-363-7. Tet-Lim N. Yee (2005). Jews, Gentiles and Ethnic Reconciliation: Paul's Jewish identity and Ephesians. Cambridge University Press. pp. 102–. ISBN 978-1-139-44411-8. ^ a b M. Nicholson (2002). International Relations: A Concise Introduction. NYU Press. pp. 19–. ISBN 978-0-8147-5822-9. "The Jews are a nation and were so before there was a Jewish state of Israel" ^ a b Alan Dowty (1998). The Jewish State: A Century Later, Updated With a New Preface. University of California Press. pp. 3–. ISBN 978-0-520-92706-3. "Jews are a people, a nation (in the original sense of the word), an ethnos" ^ Raymond P. Scheindlin (1998). A Short History of the Jewish People: From Legendary Times to Modern Statehood. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–. ISBN 978-0-19-513941-9. Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites" ^ Facts On File, Incorporated (2009). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East. Infobase Publishing. pp. 337–. ISBN 978-1-4381-2676-0."The people of the Kingdom of Israel and the ethnic and religious group known as the Jewish people that descended from them have been subjected to a number of forced migrations in their history" ^ Harry Ostrer MD (2012). Legacy: A Genetic History of the Jewish People. Oxford University Press. pp. 26–. ISBN 978-0-19-997638-6. ^ "In the broader sense of the term, a Jew is any person belonging to the worldwide group that constitutes, through descent or conversion, a continuation of the ancient Jewish people, who were themselves descendants of the Hebrews of the Old Testament." Jew at Encyclopædia Britannica ^ "Hebrew, any member of an ancient northern Semitic people that were the ancestors of the Jews." Hebrew (People) at Encyclopædia Britannica ^ Eli Lederhendler (2001). Studies in Contemporary Jewry: Volume XVII: Who Owns Judaism? Public Religion and Private Faith in America and Israel. Oxford University Press. pp. 101–. ISBN 978-0-19-534896-5. "Historically, the religious and ethnic dimensions of Jewish identity have been closely interwoven. In fact, so closely bound are they, that the traditional Jewish lexicon hardly distinguishes between the two concepts. Jewish religious practice, by definition, was observed exclusively by the Jewish people, and notions of Jewish peoplehood, nation, and community were suffused with faith in the Jewish God, the practice of Jewish (religious) law and the study of ancient religious texts" ^ Tet-Lim N. Yee (2005). Jews, Gentiles and Ethnic Reconciliation: Paul's Jewish identity and Ephesians. Cambridge University Press. pp. 102–. ISBN 978-1-139-44411-8. "This identification in the Jewish attitude between the ethnic group and religious identity is so close that the reception into this religion of members not belonging to its ethnic group has become impossible." ^ Ernest Krausz; Gitta Tulea (1997). Jewish Survival: The Identity Problem at the Close of the Twentieth Century; [... International Workshop at Bar-Ilan University on the 18th and 19th of March, 1997]. Transaction Publishers. pp. 90–. ISBN 978-1-4128-2689-1. "A person born Jewish who refutes Judaism may continue to assert a Jewish identity, and if he or she does not convert to another religion, even religious Jews will recognize the person as a Jew" ^ "Facts About Israel: History". GxMSDev. ^ a b K. L. Noll (2012), Canaan and Israel in Antiquity: A Textbook on History and Religion, A&C Black, rev.ed. pp. 137ff. ^ a b Thomas L. Thompson (2000),Early History of the Israelite People: From the Written & Archaeological Sources, Brill, pp. 275–76: 'They are rather a very specific group among the population of Palestine which bears a name that occurs here for the first time that at a much later stage in Palestine's history bears a substantially different signification.' ^ a b John Day (2005), In Search of Pre-Exilic Israel, Bloomsbury Publishing, pp. 47.5 [48] 'In this sense, the emergence of ancient Israel is viewed not as the cause of the demise of Canaanite culture but as its upshot'. ^ Day, pp. 31–33, p. 57, n. 33. ^ Rainer Albertz (2003), Israel in Exile: The History and Literature of the Sixth Century B.C.E. Society of Biblical Lit, pp. 45ff: 'Since the exilic era constitutes a gaping hole in the historical narrative of the Bible, historical reconstruction of this era faces almost insurmountable difficulties. Like the premonarchic period and the late Persian period, the exilic period, though set in the bright light of Ancient Near Eastern history, remains historically obscure. Since there are very few Israelite sources, the only recourse is to try to cast some light on this darkness from the history of the surrounding empires under whose dominion Israel came in this period.' ^ Marvin Perry (2012). Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume I: To 1789. Cengage Learning. p. 87. ISBN 978-1-111-83720-4. Botticini, Maristella and Zvi Eckstein. "From Farmers to Merchants, Voluntary Conversions and Diaspora: A Human Capital Interpretation of History." pp. 18–19. August 2006. Accessed 21 November 2015. "The death toll of the Great Revolt against the Roman empire amounted to about 600,000 Jews, whereas the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 caused the death of about 500,000 Jews. Massacres account for roughly 40 percent of the decrease of the Jewish population in Palestine. Moreover, some Jews migrated to Babylon after these revolts because of the worse economic conditions. After accounting for massacres and migrations, there is an additional 30 to 40 percent of the decrease in the Jewish population in Palestine (about 1–1.3 million Jews) to be explained" (p. 19). Boyarin, Daniel, and Jonathan Boyarin. 2003. Diaspora: Generation and the Ground of Jewish Diaspora. p. 714 "...it is crucial to recognize that the Jewish conception of the Land of Israel is similar to the discourse of the Land of many (if not nearly all) "indigenous" peoples of the world. Somehow the Jews have managed to retain a sense of being rooted somewhere in the world through twenty centuries of exile from that someplace (organic metaphors are not out of place in this discourse, for they are used within the tradition itself). It is profoundly disturbing to hear Jewish attachment to the Land decried as regressive in the same discursive situations in which the attachment of native Americans or Australians to their particular rocks, trees, and deserts is celebrated as an organic connection to the Earth that "we" have lost" p. 714. Cohen, Robin (1997), Global Diasporas: An Introduction. p. 24 London: UCL Press. "...although the word Babylon often connotes captivity and oppression, a rereading of the Babylonian period of exile can thus be shown to demonstrate the development of a new creative energy in a challenging, pluralistic context outside the natal homeland. When the Romans destroyed the Second Temple in AD 70, it was Babylon that remained as the nerve- and brain-centre for Jewish life and thought...the crushing of the revolt of the Judaeans against the Romans and the destruction of the Second Temple by the Roman general Titus in AD 70 precisely confirmed the catastrophic tradition. Once again, Jews had been unable to sustain a national homeland and were scattered to the far corners of the world" (p. 24). Johnson, Paul A History of the Jews "The Bar Kochba Revolt," (HarperPerennial, 1987) pp. 158–61: Paul Johnson analyzes Cassius Dio's Roman History: Epitome of Book LXIX para. 13–14 (Dio's passage cited separately) among other sources: "Even if Dio's figures are somewhat exaggerated, the casualties amongst the population and the destruction inflicted on the country would have been considerable. According to Jerome, many Jews were also sold into slavery, so many, indeed, that the price of Jewish slaves at the slave market in Hebron sank drastically to a level no greater than that for a horse. The economic structure of the country was largely destroyed. The entire spiritual and economic life of the Palestinian Jews moved to Galilee. Jerusalem was now turned into a Roman colony with the official name Colonia Aelia Capitolina (Aelia after Hadrian's family name: P. Aelius Hadrianus; Capitolina after Jupiter Capitolinus). The Jews were forbidden on pain of death to set foot in the new Roman city. Aelia thus became a completely pagan city, no doubt with the corresponding public buildings and temples... We can...be certain that a statue of Hadrian was erected in the centre of Aelia, and this was tantamount in itself to a desecration of Jewish Jerusalem." p. 159. Cassius Dio's Roman History: Epitome of Book LXIX para. 13–14: "13 At first the Romans took no account of them. Soon, however, all Judaea had been stirred up, and the Jews everywhere were showing signs of disturbance, were gathering together, and giving evidence of great hostility to the Romans, partly by secret and partly by overt acts; 2 many outside nations, too, were joining them through eagerness for gain, and the whole earth, one might almost say, was being stirred up over the matter. Then, indeed, Hadrian sent against them his best generals. First of these was Julius Severus, who was dispatched from Britain, where he was governor, against the Jews. 3 Severus did not venture to attack his opponents in the open at any one point, in view of their numbers and their desperation, but by intercepting small groups, thanks to the number of his soldiers and his under-officers, and by depriving them of food and shutting them up, he was able, rather slowly, to be sure, but with comparatively little danger, to crush, exhaust and exterminate them. Very few of them in fact survived. Fifty of their most important outposts and nine hundred and eighty-five of their most famous villages were razed to the ground. Five hundred and eighty thousand men were slain in the various raids and battles, and the number of those that perished by famine, disease and fire was past finding out. 2 Thus nearly the whole of Judaea was made desolate, a result of which the people had had forewarning before the war. For the tomb of Solomon, which the Jews regard as an object of veneration, fell to pieces of itself and collapsed, and many wolves and hyenas rushed howling into their cities. 3 Many Romans, moreover, perished in this war. Therefore Hadrian in writing to the senate did not employ the opening phrase commonly affected by the emperors, 'If you and our children are in health, it is well; I and the legions are in health'" (para. 13–14). Safran, William. 2005. The Jewish Diaspora in a Comparative and Theoretical Perspective. Israel Studies 10 (1): 36.[dead link] "...diaspora referred to a very specific case—that of the exile of the Jews from the Holy Land and their dispersal throughout several parts of the globe. Diaspora [galut] connoted deracination, legal disabilities, oppression, and an often painful adjustment to a hostland whose hospitality was unreliable and ephemeral. It also connoted the existence on foreign soil of an expatriate community that considered its presence to be transitory. Meanwhile, it developed a set of institutions, social patterns, and ethnonational and/or religious symbols that held it together. These included the language, religion, values, social norms, and narratives of the homeland. Gradually, this community adjusted to the hostland environment and became itself a center of cultural creation. All the while, however, it continued to cultivate the idea of return to the homeland." (p. 36). Sheffer, Gabriel. 2005. Is the Jewish Diaspora Unique? Reflections on the Diaspora's Current Situation. Israel Studies 10 (1): pp. 3–4 "...the Jewish nation, which from its very earliest days believed and claimed that it was the "chosen people," and hence unique. This attitude has further been buttressed by the equally traditional view, which is held not only by the Jews themselves, about the exceptional historical age of this diaspora, its singular traumatic experiences its singular ability to survive pogroms, exiles, and Holocaust, as well as its "special relations" with its ancient homeland, culminating in 1948 with the nation-state that the Jewish nation has established there... First, like many other members of established diasporas, the vast majority of Jews no longer regard themselves as being in Galut [exile] in their host countries.…Perceptually, as well as actually, Jews permanently reside in host countries of their own free will, as a result of inertia, or as a result of problematic conditions prevailing in other hostlands, or in Israel. It means that the basic perception of many Jews about their existential situation in their hostlands has changed. Consequently, there is both a much greater self- and collective-legitimatization to refrain from making serious plans concerning "return" or actually "making Aliyah" [to emigrate, or "go up"] to Israel. This is one of the results of their wider, yet still rather problematic and sometimes painful acceptance by the societies and political systems in their host countries. It means that they, and to an extent their hosts, do not regard Jewish life within the framework of diasporic formations in these hostlands as something that they should be ashamed of, hide from others, or alter by returning to the old homeland" (p. 4). Davies, William David; Finkelstein, Louis; Katz, Steven T. (1984). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Although Dio's figure of 985 as the number of villages destroyed during the war seems hyperbolic, all Judaean villages, without exception, excavated thus far were razed following the Bar Kochba Revolt. This evidence supports the impression of total regional destruction following the war. Historical sources note the vast number of captives sold into slavery in Palestine and shipped abroad. ... The Judaean Jewish community never recovered from the Bar Kochba war. In its wake, Jews no longer formed the majority in Palestine, and the Jewish center moved to the Galilee. Jews were also subjected to a series of religious edicts promulgated by Hadrian that were designed to uproot the nationalistic elements with the Judaean Jewish community, these proclamations remained in effect until Hadrian's death in 138. An additional, more lasting punitive measure taken by the Romans involved expunging Judaea from the provincial name, changing it from Provincia Judaea to Provincia Syria Palestina. Although such name changes occurred elsewhere, never before or after was a nation's name expunged as the result of rebellion. Dalit Rom-Shiloni, Exclusive Inclusivity: Identity Conflicts Between the Exiles and the People who Remained (6th–5th Centuries BCE), A&C Black, 2013 p. xv n.3: 'it is argued that biblical texts of the Neo-Babylonian and the early Persian periods show a fierce adversarial relationship(s) between the Judean groups. We find no expressions of sympathy to the deported community for its dislocation, no empathic expressions towards the People Who Remained under Babylonian subjugation in Judah. The opposite is apparent: hostile, denigrating, and denunciating language characterizes the relationships between resident and exiled Judeans throughout the sixth and fifth centuries.' (p. xvii) ^ Dosick (2007), pp. 59, 60. ^ a b "The Jewish Population of the World (2014)". Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved 30 June 2015., based on American Jewish Year Book. American Jewish Committee. ^ "Holocaust | Basic questions about the Holocaust". www.projetaladin.org. Retrieved 10 November 2015. ^ "The Holocaust". HISTORY.com. Retrieved 10 November 2015. ^ "Jews make up only 0.2% of mankind". ynetnews. October 2012. ^ Pfeffer, Anshel (12 September 2007). "Jewish Agency: 13.2 million Jews worldwide on eve of Rosh Hashanah, 5768". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 19 March 2009. Retrieved 24 January 2009. ^ A 1970 amendment to Israel's Law of Return defines "Jew" as "a person who was born of a Jewish mother or has become converted to Judaism and who is not a member of another religion." "Law of Return". ^ "Maimonides – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy". utm.edu. Retrieved 26 August 2015. ^ Sekine, Seizo (20 January 2005). A Comparative Study of the Origins of Ethical Thought: Hellenism and Hebraism. Sheed & Ward. ISBN 978-1-4616-7459-7.[page needed] ^ a b c d e Jonathan Daly (2013). The Rise of Western Power: A Comparative History of Western Civilization. A&C Black. pp. 21–. ISBN 978-1-4411-1851-6."Upon the foundation of Judaism, two civilizations centered on monotheistic religion emerged, Christianity and Islam. To these civilizations, the Jews added a leaven of astonishing creativity in business, medicine, letters, science, the arts, and a variety of other leadership roles." ^ "Broadway Musicals: A Jewish Legacy". DC Theatre Scene. ^ Roni Caryn Rabin Exhibition Traces the emergence of Jews as medical innovators, The New York Times (14 May 2012). Accessed 16 August 2015. ^ Shatzmiller, Joseph. Doctors to Princes and Paupers: Jews, Medicine, and Medieval Society. Berkeley: U of California, 1995. Print. ^ Max I. Dimont (2004). Jews, God, and History. Penguin Publishing Group. pp. 102–. ISBN 978-1-101-14225-7. "During the subsequent five hundred years, under Persian, Greek and Roman domination, the Jews wrote, revised, admitted and canonized all the books now comprising the Jewish Old Testament" ^ Julie Galambush (2011). The Reluctant Parting: How the New Testament's Jewish Writers Created a Christian Book. HarperCollins. pp. 3–. ISBN 978-0-06-210475-5."The fact that Jesus and his followers who wrote the New Testament were first-century Jews, then, produces as many questions as it does answers concerning their experiences, beliefs, and practices" ^ John M. G. Barclay; John Philip McMurdo Sweet (1996). Early Christian Thought in Its Jewish Context. Cambridge University Press. pp. 20–. ISBN 978-0-521-46285-3."Early Christianity began as a Jewish movement in first-century Palestine" ^ Dr. Andrea C. Paterson (2009). Three Monotheistic Faiths – Judaism, Christianity, Islam: An Analysis and Brief History. AuthorHouse. pp. 41–. ISBN 978-1-4520-3049-4. "Judaism also contributed to the religion of Islam for Islam derives its ideas of holy text, the Qur'an, ultimately from Judaism. The dietary and legal codes of Islam are based on those of Judaism. The basic design of the mosque, the Islamic house of worship, comes from that of the early synagogues. The communal prayer services of Islam and their devotional routines resembles those of Judaism." ^ Cambridge University Historical Series, An Essay on Western Civilization in Its Economic Aspects, p. 40: Hebraism, like Hellenism, has been an all-important factor in the development of Western Civilization; Judaism, as the precursor of Christianity, has indirectly had had much to do with shaping the ideals and morality of western nations since the christian era. ^ Role of Judaism in Western culture and civilization, "Judaism has played a significant role in the development of Western culture because of its unique relationship with Christianity, the dominant religious force in the West". Judaism at Encyclopædia Britannica ^ Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East, Facts On File Inc., Infobase Publishing, 2009, p. 336 ^ "Jew", Oxford English Dictionary. ^ Botterweck, G. Johannes; Ringgren, Helmer, eds. (1986). Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. V. Translated by Green, David E. Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans. pp. 483–84. ISBN 978-0-8028-2329-8. ^ Grintz, Yehoshua M. (2007). "Jew". In Fred Skolnik (ed.). Encyclopaedia Judaica. 11 (2d ed.). Farmington Hills, Mich.: Thomson Gale. p. 253. ISBN 978-0-02-865928-2. ^ Falk, Avner (1996). A Psychoanalytic History of the Jews. Madison, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p. 131. ISBN 0-8386-3660-8. ^ "Yiddish". Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (11th ed.). Springfield, Massachusetts: Merriam-Webster. 2004. p. 1453. ISBN 0-87779-809-5. ^ Kleinedler, Steven; Spitz, Susan; et al., eds. (2005). The American Heritage Guide to Contemporary Usage and Style. Houghton Mifflin Company. Jew. ISBN 978-0-618-60499-9. ^ Jacob Neusner (1991). An Introduction to Judaism: A Textbook and Reader. Westminster John Knox Press. pp. 375–. ISBN 978-0-664-25348-6. "That there is a Jewish nation can hardly be denied after the creation of the State of Israel" ^ Brandeis, Louis (25 April 1915). "The Jewish Problem: How To Solve It". University of Louisville School of Law. Retrieved 2 April 2012. Jews are a distinctive nationality of which every Jew, whatever his country, his station or shade of belief, is necessarily a member ^ Palmer, Edward Henry (2002) [First published 1874]. A History of the Jewish Nation: From the Earliest Times to the Present Day. Gorgias Press. ISBN 978-1-931956-69-7. OCLC 51578088. Retrieved 2 April 2012. Lay summary. ^ Einstein, Albert (21 June 1921). "How I Became a Zionist" (PDF). Einstein Papers Project. Princeton University Press. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 November 2015. Retrieved 5 April 2012. The Jewish nation is a living fact ^ David M. Gordis; Zachary I. Heller (2012). Jewish Secularity: The Search for Roots and the Challenges of Relevant Meaning. University Press of America. pp. 1–. ISBN 978-0-7618-5793-8.: "Judaism is a culture and a civilization which embraces the secular as well" ^ Seth Daniel Kunin (2000). Themes and Issues in Judaism. A&C Black. pp. 1–. ISBN 978-0-304-33758-3.: Although culture - and Judaism is a culture (or cultures) as well as religion - can be subdivided into different analytical categories..." ^ Paul R. Mendes-Flohr (1991). Divided Passions: Jewish Intellectuals and the Experience of Modernity. Wayne State University Press. pp. 421–. ISBN 0-8143-2030-9.: "Although Judaism is a culture - or rather has a culture - it is eminently more than a culture" ^ "What Makes a Jew Jewish?". Chabad.org. Retrieved 2 October 2013. ^ Weiner, Rebecca (2007). "Who is a Jew?". Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved 6 October 2007. ^ Fowler, Jeaneane D. (1997). World Religions: An Introduction for Students. Sussex Academic Press. p. 7. ISBN 1-898723-48-6. ^ "What is the origin of Matrilineal Descent?". Shamash.org. 4 September 2003. Archived from the original on 18 October 1996. Retrieved 9 January 2009. ^ "What is the source of the law that a child is Jewish only if its mother is Jewish?". Torah.org. Archived from the original on 24 December 2008. Retrieved 9 January 2009. ^ a b Emma Klein (2016). Lost Jews: The Struggle for Identity Today. Springer. pp. 6–. ISBN 978-1-349-24319-8. ^ Robin May Schott (2010). Birth, Death, and Femininity: Philosophies of Embodiment. Indiana University Press. pp. 67–. ISBN 978-0-253-00482-6. ^ Dosick (2007), pp. 56–57. ^ a b Shaye J.D. Cohen (1999). The Beginnings of Jewishness. U. California Press. pp. 305–06. ISBN 0-585-24643-2. ^ Mieroop, Marc Van De (2010). A History of Ancient Egypt. John Wiley & Sons. p. 131. ISBN 978-1-4051-6070-4. ^ Bard, Kathryn A. (2015). An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. John Wiley & Sons. p. 188. ISBN 978-1-118-89611-2. ^ Curry, Andrew (2018). "The Rulers of Foreign Lands – Archaeology Magazine". www.archaeology.org. ^ Kamrin, Janice (2009). "The Aamu of Shu in the Tomb of Khnumhotep II at Beni Hassan". Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections. 1 (3): 22–36. S2CID 199601200. ^ Kuan, Jeffrey Kah-Jin (2016). Neo-Assyrian Historical Inscriptions and Syria-Palestine: Israelite/Judean-Tyrian-Damascene Political and Commercial Relations in the Ninth-Eighth Centuries BCE. Wipf and Stock Publishers. pp. 64–66. ISBN 978-1-4982-8143-0. ^ Cohen, Ada; Kangas, Steven E. (2010). Assyrian Reliefs from the Palace of Ashurnasirpal II: A Cultural Biography. UPNE. p. 127. ISBN 978-1-58465-817-7. ^ Ostrer, Harry (2012). Legacy: A Genetic History of the Jewish People. Oxford University Press (published 8 May 2012). ISBN 978-0-19-537961-7. ^ Ann E. Killebrew, Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity. An Archaeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanites, Philistines and Early Israel 1300–1100 B.C.E. (Archaeology and Biblical Studies), Society of Biblical Literature, 2005 ^ Schama, Simon (2014). The Story of the Jews: Finding the Words 1000 BC–1492 AD. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-233944-7. ^ * "In the broader sense of the term, a Jew is any person belonging to the worldwide group that constitutes, through descent or conversion, a continuation of the ancient Jewish people, who were themselves the descendants of the Hebrews of the Old Testament." "The Jewish people as a whole, initially called Hebrews (ʿIvrim), were known as Israelites (Yisreʾelim) from the time of their entrance into the Holy Land to the end of the Babylonian Exile (538 BC)." Jew at Encyclopædia Britannica ^ Ostrer, Harry (2012). Legacy: A Genetic History of the Jewish People. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-970205-3. ^ Brenner, Michael (2010). A Short History of the Jews. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-14351-4. ^ Adams, Hannah (1840). The History of the Jews: From the Destruction of Jerusalem to the Present Time. London Society House. ^ a b Broshi, Maguen (2001). Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 174. ISBN 1-84127-201-9. ^ "Israelite refugees found high office in Kingdom of Judah, seals found in Jerusalem show". www.haaretz.com. ^ "Judah". Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 1 April 2018. ^ Dever, William (2001). What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and When Did They Know It?. Eerdmans. pp. 98–99. ISBN 3-927120-37-5. After a century of exhaustive investigation, all respectable archaeologists have given up hope of recovering any context that would make Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob credible "historical figures" [...] archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus has similarly been discarded as a fruitless pursuit. ^ Tubb, 1998. pp. 13–14[full citation needed] ^ Mark Smith in "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" states "Despite the long regnant model that the Canaanites and Israelites were people of fundamentally different culture, archaeological data now casts doubt on this view. The material culture of the region exhibits numerous common points between Israelites and Canaanites in the Iron I period (c. 1200–1000 BCE). The record would suggest that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. Given the information available, one cannot maintain a radical cultural separation between Canaanites and Israelites for the Iron I period." (pp. 6–7). Smith, Mark (2002) "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" (Eerdman's) ^ Rendsberg, Gary (2008). "Israel without the Bible". In Frederick E. Greenspahn. The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship. NYU Press, pp. 3–5 ^ Spielvogel, Jackson J. (2012). Western civilization (8th ed.). Australia: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-495-91324-5. What is generally agreed, however, is that between 1200 and 1000 B.C.E., the Israelites emerged as a distinct group of people, possibly united into tribes or a league of tribes ^ For a bibliography of scholars who doubt anything like the period of the Judges ever occurred, see John C. Yoder (2015). Power and Politics in the Book of Judges: Men and Women of Valor. Fortress Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-4514-9642-0. ^ Marc Zvi Brettler (2002). The Book of Judges. Psychology Press. p. 107. ISBN 978-0-415-16216-6. ^ Thomas L. Thompson (2000). Early History of the Israelite People: From the Written & Archaeological Sources. Brill. p. 96. ISBN 90-04-11943-4. ^ Hjelm, Ingrid; Thompson, Thomas L, eds. (2016). History, Archaeology and The Bible Forty Years After "Historicity": Changing Perspectives. Routledge. p. 4. ISBN 978-1-317-42815-2. ^ Philip R. Davies (1995). In Search of "Ancient Israel": A Study in Biblical Origins. A&C Black. p. 26. ISBN 978-1-85075-737-5. ^ Lipschits, Oded (2014). "The History of Israel in the Biblical Period". In Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc Zvi (eds.). The Jewish Study Bible (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-997846-5. ^ a b c Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2001). The Bible unearthed : archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories (1st Touchstone ed.). New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-86912-8. ^ a b Kuhrt, Amiele (1995). The Ancient Near East. Routledge. p. 438. ISBN 978-0-415-16762-8. ^ a b Wright, Jacob L. (July 2014). "David, King of Judah (Not Israel)". The Bible and Interpretation. ^ Jonathan M Golden,Ancient Canaan and Israel: An Introduction, OUP USA, 2009 pp. 3–4. ^ Lemche, Niels Peter (1998). The Israelites in History and Tradition. Westminster John Knox Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-664-22727-2. ^ The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995 Quote: "For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date." ^ Julia Phillips Berger; Sue Parker Gerson (2006). Teaching Jewish History. Behrman House, Inc. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-86705-183-4. ^ The people and the faith of the Bible by André Chouraqui, Univ of Massachusetts Press, 1975, p. 43 [1] ^ The Hebrews: A Learning Module from Washington State University, © Richard Hooker, reprinted by permission by the Jewish Virtual Library under The Babylonian Exile ^ a b "Second Temple Period (538 BCE. to 70 CE) Persian Rule". Biu.ac.il. Retrieved 15 March 2014. ^ Harper's Bible Dictionary, ed. by Achtemeier, etc., Harper & Row, San Francisco, 1985, p. 103 ^ a b Becking, Bob (2006). ""We All Returned as One!": Critical Notes on the Myth of the Mass Return". In Lipschitz, Oded; Oeming, Manfred (eds.). Judah and the Judeans in the Persian Period. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-57506-104-7. ^ a b Grabbe, Lester L. (2004). A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: Yehud - A History of the Persian Province of Judah v. 1. T & T Clark. p. 355. ISBN 978-0-567-08998-4. ^ Yehud being the Aramaic equivalent of the Hebrew Yehuda, or "Judah", and "medinata" the word for province ^ Peter Fibiger Bang; Walter Scheidel (2013). The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean. OUP USA. pp. 184–87. ISBN 978-0-19-518831-8. ^ Johnson (1987), p. 82. ^ Jared Diamond (1993). "Who are the Jews?" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 8 November 2010. Natural History 102:11 (November 1993): 12–19. ^ Hammer, MF; Redd, AJ; Wood, ET; et al. (June 2000). "Jewish and Middle Eastern non-Jewish populations share a common pool of Y-chromosome biallelic haplotypes". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 97 (12): 6769–74. Bibcode:2000PNAS...97.6769H. doi:10.1073/pnas.100115997. PMC 18733. PMID 10801975. ^ Wade, Nicholas (9 May 2000). "Y Chromosome Bears Witness to Story of the Jewish Diaspora". The New York Times. Retrieved 10 October 2012. ^ Balter, Michael (3 June 2010). "Tracing the Roots of Jewishness". Science. Retrieved 4 October 2018. ^ Genes, Behavior, and the Social Environment:: Moving Beyond the Nature ...By Committee on Assessing Interactions Among Social, Behavioral, and Genetic Factors in Health, Board on Health Sciences Policy, Institute of Medicine, Lyla M. Hernandez. National Academies Press. 2006. p. 100. ISBN 978-0-309-10196-7. ^ Jodi Magness (2011). "Sectarianism before and after 70 CE". In Daniel R. Schwartz; Zeev Weiss (eds.). Was 70 CE a Watershed in Jewish History?: On Jews and Judaism before and after the Destruction of the Second Temple. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-21744-7. ^ a b c d Mark Avrum Ehrlich, ed. (2009). Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture, Volume 1. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-85109-873-6. ^ מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת "עם ישראל – תולדות 4000 שנה – מימי האבות ועד חוזה השלום", ע"מ 95. (Translation: Mordechai Vermebrand and Betzalel S. Ruth – "The People of Israel – the history of 4000 years – from the days of the Forefathers to the Peace Treaty", 1981, p. 95) ^ a b Dr. Solomon Gryazel, "History of the Jews – From the destruction of Judah in 586 BC to the present Arab Israeli conflict", p. 137 ^ Salo Wittmayer Baron (1937). A Social and Religious History of the Jews, by Salo Wittmayer Baron ... Volume 1 of A Social and Religious History of the Jews. Columbia University Press. p. 132. ^ Jews in the Hellenistic and Roman Cities. Routledge. London and New york. 2002. pp. 90, 94, 104–05. ISBN 978-0-203-44634-8. ^ Leonard Victor Rutgers (1998). The Hidden Heritage of Diaspora Judaism: Volume 20 of Contributions to biblical exegesis and theology. Peeters Publishers. p. 202. ISBN 978-90-429-0666-2. ^ a b c Louis H. Feldman (2006). Judaism And Hellenism Reconsidered. Brill. ^ Goodman, Martin (26 February 2010). "Secta and natio". The Times Literary Supplement. 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ISBN 0-8143-2651-X. ^ Johnson, Lonnie R. (1996). Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 145. ISBN 0-19-510071-9. ^ a b Sharot (1997), pp. 29–30. ^ Sharot (1997), pp. 42–43. ^ Sharot (1997), p. 42. ^ Fishman, Sylvia Barack (2000). Jewish Life and American Culture. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press. p. 38. ISBN 0-7914-4546-1. ^ Kimmerling, Baruch (1996). The Israeli State and Society: Boundaries and Frontiers. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press. p. 169. ISBN 0-88706-849-9. ^ Lowenstein, Steven M. (2000). The Jewish Cultural Tapestry: International Jewish Folk Traditions. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 228. ISBN 0-19-513425-7. ^ a b Grintz, Jehoshua M. (March 1960). "Hebrew as the Spoken and Written Language in the Last Days of the Second Temple". Journal of Biblical Literature. The Society of Biblical Literature. 79 (1): 32–47. doi:10.2307/3264497. JSTOR 3264497. ^ Feldman (2006), p. 54. ^ Parfitt, T. V. (1972). "The Use Of Hebrew In Palestine 1800–1822". Journal of Semitic Studies. 17 (2): 237–252. doi:10.1093/jss/17.2.237. ^ "Basic Law: Israel - The Nation State Of The Jewish People" (PDF). The Knesset. Knesset of the State of Israel. Retrieved 3 September 2020. ^ Nava Nevo (2001). International Handbook of Jewish Education. Springer. p. 428. ISBN 978-94-007-0354-4. In contrast to other peoples who are masters of their national languages, Hebrew is not the 'common possession' of all Jewish people, and it mainly—if not exclusively—lives and breathes in Israel.... Although there are oases of Hebrew in certain schools, it has not become the Jewish lingua franca and English is rapidly taking its place as the Jewish people's language of communication. Even Hebrew-speaking Israeli representatives tend to use English in their public appearances at international Jewish conventions. ^ Chaya Herman (2006). Prophets and Profits: Managerialism and the Restructuring of Jewish Schools in South Africa. HSRC Press. p. 121. ISBN 978-0-7969-2114-7. It is English rather than Hebrew that emerged as the lingua franca of the Jews towards the late 20th century.... This phenomenon occurred despite efforts to make Hebrew a language of communication, and despite the fact that the teaching of Hebrew was considered the raison d'être of the Jewish day schools and the 'nerve center' of Jewish learning. ^ Elana Shohamy (2010). Negotiating Language Policy in Schools: Educators as Policymakers. Routledge. p. 185. ISBN 978-1-135-14621-4. This priority given to English is related to the special relationship between Israel and the United States, and the current status of English as a lingua franca for Jews worldwide. ^ Elan Ezrachi (2012). Dynamic Belonging: Contemporary Jewish Collective Identities. Bergahn Books. p. 214. ISBN 978-0-85745-258-0. As Stephen P. Cohen observes: 'English is the language of Jewish universal discourse.' ^ "Jewish Languages – How Do We Talk To Each Other?". Jewish Agency. 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Retrieved 18 July 2012. ^ Pfeffer, Anshel (6 January 2008). "Percent of world Jewry living in Israel climbed to 41% in 2007". Haaretz. Retrieved 10 October 2012. ^ "Judaism, continued..." adherents.com. Retrieved 26 August 2015. ^ "The Jewish people in 2050: 2 very different scenarios". ynet. ^ "Iran must attack Israel by 2014". The Jerusalem Post. 9 February 2012. Retrieved 3 April 2012. ^ "Israel". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 19 June 2007. Retrieved 20 July 2007. ^ "The Electoral System in Israel". The Knesset. Retrieved 8 August 2007. ^ "Israel". Freedom in the World. Freedom House. 2009. ^ "Population, by Religion and Population Group". Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. 2006. Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 7 August 2007. ^ "Jewish New Year: Israel's population nears 8M mark". Ynetnews.com. 20 June 1995. Retrieved 12 April 2013. ^ Harriet Sherwood in Jerusalem (1 January 2013). "Israel's Jewish population passes 6 million mark". Guardian. Retrieved 12 April 2013. ^ Dekmejian 1975, p. 247. "And most [Oriental-Sephardic Jews] came... because of Arab persecution resulting from the very attempt to establish a Jewish state in Palestine." ^ "airlifted tens of thousands of Ethiopian Jews". Retrieved 7 July 2005. ^ Alexeyeva, Lyudmila (1983). История инакомыслия в СССР [History of Dissident Movement in the USSR] (in Russian). Vilnius. ^ Goldstein (1995) p. 24 ^ a b Dosick (2007), p. 340. ^ Gurock, Jeffrey S. (1998). East European Jews in America, 1880–1920: Immigration and Adaptation. New York: Routledge. p. 54. ISBN 0-415-91924-X. ^ "Planting Jewish roots in Siberia". Fjc.ru. 24 May 2004. Archived from the original on 27 August 2009. ^ Gartner (2001), p. 213. ^ "Annual Assessment" (PDF). Jewish People Policy Planning Institute (Jewish Agency for Israel). 2007. p. 15., based on Annual Assessment 2007. 106. American Jewish Committee. 2006. ^ "Jews - Pew Research Center". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 28 March 2018. ^ "Israel May Be Main Topic In Next National Jewish Population Survey of the U.S." Jewish Journal. 14 March 2013. Retrieved 12 April 2013. ^ Gartner (2001), pp. 410–10. ^ "Исследование: Около 1,5 млн людей с еврейскими корнями проживают в России" [Study: About 1.5 Million People with Jewish Roots Live in Russia]. Moscow Urban News Agency. 20 October 2017. Retrieved 28 October 2017. ^ "В России проживает около миллиона иудеев" [In Russia, There Are About a Million Jews]. Interfax. 26 February 2015. Retrieved 28 October 2017. ^ Jewish community in Germany: Mitgliederstatistik der jüdischen Gemeinden und Landesverbände in Deutschland für das Jahr 2012, p. 4 ^ Waxman, Chaim I. (2007). "Annual Assessment 2007" (PDF). Jewish People Policy Planning Institute (Jewish Agency for Israel). pp. 40–42. Retrieved 3 July 2008. ^ "Israelis in Berlin". Jewish Community of Berlin. Retrieved 11 October 2012. ^ The Rebirth of the Middle East, Jerry M. Rosenberg, Hamilton Books, 2009, p. 44 ^ Simon, Reeva Spector; Laskier, Michael Menachem; Reguer, Sara, eds. (2003). The Jews of the Middle East and North Africa in Modern Times. Columbia University Press. p. 327. ISBN 978-0-231-50759-2. Before the 1940s only two communities, Yemen and Syria, made substantial aliyah. ^ "Community in New Zealand," World Jewish Congress, July 2017. Retrieved 20 December 2018. ^ a b Johnson (1987), p. 171. ^ Edinger, Bernard (15 December 2005). "Chinese Jews: Reverence for Ancestors". Shavei Israel. Archived from the original on 3 October 2012. Retrieved 2 April 2012. ^ Elazar (2003), p. 434. ^ "NJPS: Defining and Calculating Intermarriage". Archived from the original on 12 August 2011. Retrieved 2 April 2012. ^ Cohen, Erik H. (November 2002). "Les juifs de France: La lente progression des mariages mixtes" [The Jews of France: The slow progression of mixed marriages] (PDF) (in French). Akadem. ^ "Australia". World Jewish Congress. Archived from the original on 21 May 2012. Retrieved 2 April 2012. ^ "The Virtual Jewish History Tour – Mexico". Retrieved 7 July 2005. ^ Waxman, Chaim I. (2007). "Annual Assessment 2007" (PDF). Jewish People Policy Planning Institute (Jewish Agency for Israel). p. 61. Retrieved 3 July 2008. ^ Goldenberg (2007), pp. 131, 135–36. ^ Johnson (1987), pp. 164–65. ^ Carroll, James. Constantine's Sword (Houghton Mifflin, 2001) ISBN 0-395-77927-8 p. 26 ^ a b Johnson (1987), pp. 207–08. ^ a b Johnson (1987), pp. 213, 229–31. ^ Johnson (1987), pp. 243–44. ^ a b Lewis (1984), pp. 10, 20 ^ Lewis (1987), pp. 9, 27 ^ a b Lewis (1999), p.131 ^ Lewis (1999), p. 131; (1984), pp. 8, 62 ^ Lewis (1984), p. 52; Stillman (1979), p. 77 ^ Lewis (1984), pp. 17–18, 94–95; Stillman (1979), p. 27 ^ Lewis (1984), p. 28. ^ Lewis, Bernard (June 1998). "Muslim Anti-Semitism". Middle East Quarterly. Middle East Forum. ^ Johnson (1987), pp. 226–29. ^ Johnson (1987), pp. 259–60. ^ a b Johnson (1987), pp. 364–65. ^ Adams, Susan M. (2008). "The Genetic Legacy of Religious Diversity and Intolerance: Paternal Lineages of Christians, Jews, and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 83 (6): 725–36. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.11.007. ISSN 0002-9297. PMC 2668061. PMID 19061982. ^ "DNA study shows 20 percent of Iberian population has Jewish ancestry". The New York Times. 4 December 2008. ^ Adams, SM; Bosch, E; Balaresque, PL; et al. (December 2008). "The Genetic Legacy of Religious Diversity and Intolerance: Paternal Lineages of Christians, Jews, and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula". American Society of Human Genetics. Cell.com. 83 (6): 725–36. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.11.007. PMC 2668061. PMID 19061982. Retrieved 12 November 2011. ^ Johnson (1987), p. 512. ^ "History of the Holocaust – An Introduction". Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. 19 April 1943. Retrieved 13 November 2011. ^ Luke Harding in Moscow (5 June 2007). "Pipeline workers find mass grave of Jews killed by Nazis". The Guardian. UK. Retrieved 13 November 2011. ^ Donald L Niewyk, The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust, Columbia University Press, 2000, p. 45: "The Holocaust is commonly defined as the murder of more than 5,000,000 Jews by the Germans in World War II." However, the Holocaust usually includes all of the different victims who were systematically murdered. ^ Johnson (1987), pp. 484–88. ^ Johnson (1987), pp. 490–92. ^ "Ukrainian mass Jewish grave found". BBC News Online. 5 June 2007. Retrieved 10 October 2012. ^ Johnson (1987), pp. 493–98. ^ Berenbaum, Michael. The World Must Know," United States Holocaust Museum, 2006, p. 103. ^ de Lange (2002), pp. 41–43. ^ Johnson (1987), p. 10. ^   Hirsch, Emil G.; Seligsohn, Max; Bacher, Wilhelm (1901–1906). "NIMROD". In Singer, Isidore; et al. (eds.). The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. ^ Johnson (1987), p. 30. ^ a b Daniel L. Smith-Christopher,The Religion of the Landless: The Social Context of the Babylonian Exile , Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2015 pp. 30ff. ^ Baruch Halpern, in Jerrold S. Cooper, Glenn M. Schwartz (eds.), The Study of the Ancient Near East in the Twenty-first Century: The William Foxwell Albright Centennial Conference, Eisenbrauns, 1996 p. 311. ^ Megan Bishop Moore, Brad E. Kelle, Biblical History and Israel S Past: The Changing Study of the Bible and History, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2011 p. 307. ^ Sarah J. Dille, Mixing Metaphors: God as Mother and Father in Deutero-Isaiah, A&C Black, 2004 p. 81 ^ Johnson (1987), pp. 85–86. ^ Johnson (1987), p. 147. ^ Johnson (1987), p. 163. ^ Johnson (1987), p. 177. ^ Johnson (1987), p. 231. ^ Johnson (1987), p. 460. ^ a b Gartner (2001), p. 431. ^ Gartner (2001), pp. 11–12. ^ Johnson (1987), pp. 229–31. ^ Johnson (1987), p. 306. ^ Johnson (1987), p. 370. ^ Gartner (2001), pp. 213–15. ^ Gartner (2001), pp. 357–70. ^ Johnson (1987), pp. 529–30. ^ Netzer, Amnon (2007). "Iran". In Fred Skolnik (ed.). Encyclopaedia Judaica. 10 (2d ed.). Farmington Hills, Mich.: Thomson Gale. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-02-865928-2. ^ Gartner (2001), pp. 400–01. ^ Kaplan (2003), p. 301. ^ Danzger, M. Herbert (2008). "The 'Return' to Traditional Judaism at the End of the Twentieth Century: Cross-Cultural Comparisons". The Blackwell Companion to Judaism. pp. 495–511. doi:10.1002/9780470758014.ch27. ISBN 978-0-470-75801-4. ^ de Lange (2002), p. 220. ^ Schwartz, Richard H. (2001). Judaism and Global Survival. New York: Lantern Books. p. 153. ISBN 1-930051-87-5. ^ Shalev, Baruch (2005). 100 Years of Nobel Prizes. p. 57. A striking fact... is the high number of Laureates of the Jewish faith—over 20% of the total Nobel Prizes (138); including: 17% in Chemistry, 26% in Medicine and Physics, 40% in Economics and 11% in Peace and Literature each. These numbers are especially startling in light of the fact that only some 14 million people (0.2% of the world's population) are Jewish. ^ Dobbs, Stephen Mark (12 October 2001). "As the Nobel Prize marks centennial, Jews constitute 1/5 of laureates". j. Retrieved 3 April 2012. Throughout the 20th century, Jews, more so than any other minority, ethnic or cultural group, have been recipients of the Nobel Prize—perhaps the most distinguished award for human endeavor in the six fields for which it is given. Remarkably, Jews constitute almost one-fifth of all Nobel laureates. This, in a world in which Jews number just a fraction of 1 percent of the population. ^ "Jewish Nobel Prize Winners". Retrieved 25 November 2011. ^ Ted Falcon; David Blatner (2001). "28". Judaism for dummies. John Wiley & Sons. Similarly, because Jews make up less than a quarter of one percent of the world's population, it's surprising that over 20 percent of Nobel prizes have been awarded to Jews or people of Jewish descent. ^ Lawrence E. Harrison (2008). The Central Liberal Truth: How Politics Can Change a Culture and Save It. Oxford University Press. p. 102. That achievement is symbolized by the fact that 15 to 20 percent of Nobel Prizes have been won by Jews, who represent two tenths of one percent of the world's population. ^ Jonathan B. Krasner; Jonathan D. Sarna (2006). The History of the Jewish People: Ancient Israel to 1880s America. Behrman House, Inc. p. 1. These accomplishments account for 20 percent of the Nobel Prizes awarded since 1901. What a feat for a people who make up only .2 percent of the world's population! ^ "Jewish Nobel Prize Winners". Jinfo.org. Retrieved 16 March 2016. At least 194 Jews and people of half- or three-quarters-Jewish ancestry have been awarded the Nobel Prize, accounting for 22% of all individual recipients worldwide between 1901 and 2015, and constituting 36% of all US recipients during the same period. In the scientific research fields of Chemistry, Economics, Physics, and Physiology/Medicine, the corresponding world and US percentages are 26% and 38%, respectively. Among women laureates in the four research fields, the Jewish percentages (world and US) are 33% and 50%, respectively. Of organizations awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, 22% were founded principally by Jews or by people of half-Jewish descent. Since the turn of the century (i.e., since the year 2000), Jews have been awarded 25% of all Nobel Prizes and 28% of those in the scientific research fields. ^ a b Entine, Jon (2007). Abraham's Children: Race, Identity, and the DNA of the Chosen People. Hachette Digital, Inc. p. 211. ISBN 978-0-446-58063-2. ^ Cochran, Gregory; Hardy, Jason; Harpending, Henry (September 2006). "Natural History of Ashkenazi Intelligence". Journal of Biosocial Science. 38 (5): 659–693. doi:10.1017/S0021932005027069. PMID 16867211. ^ "Top 100 Players October 2013 FIDE Top players archive". Ratings.fide.com. Retrieved 31 October 2013. Further reading Baron, Salo Wittmayer (1952). A Social and Religious History of the Jews, Volume II, Ancient Times, Part II. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. Carr, David R. (2003) [2000]. "Judaism in Christendom". In Neusner, Jacob; Avery-Peck, Alan J. (eds.). The Blackwell Companion to Judaism. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-57718-058-5. Cowling, Geoffrey (2005). Introduction to World Religions. Singapore: First Fortress Press. ISBN 0-8006-3714-3. Dekmejian, R. Hrair (1975). Patterns of Political Leadership: Egypt, Israel, Lebanon. State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-87395-291-X. de Lange, Nicholas (2002) [2000]. An Introduction to Judaism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-46073-5. Dosick, Wayne (2007). Living Judaism. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-062179-7. Elazar, Daniel J. (2003) [2000]. "Judaism as a Theopolitical Phenomenon". In Neusner, Jacob; Avery-Peck, Alan J. (eds.). The Blackwell Companion to Judaism. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-57718-058-5. Feldman, Louis H. (2006). Judaism and Hellenism Reconsidered. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. ISBN 90-04-14906-6. Gartner, Lloyd P. (2001). History of the Jews in Modern Times. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-289259-2. Goldenberg, Robert (2007). The Origins of Judaism: From Canaan to the Rise of Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84453-6. Goldstein, Joseph (1995). Jewish History in Modern Times. Sussex Academic Press. ISBN 1-898723-06-0. Gould, Allan (1991). What did they think of the Jews?. J. Aronson. ISBN 978-0-87668-751-2. Johnson, Paul (1987). A History of the Jews. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-091533-1. Kaplan, Dana Evan (2003) [2000]. "Reform Judaism". In Neusner, Jacob; Avery-Peck, Alan J. (eds.). The Blackwell Companion to Judaism. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-57718-058-5. Katz, Shmuel (1974). Battleground: Fact and Fantasy in Palestine. Taylor Productions. ISBN 0-929093-13-5. Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00807-8 Lewis, Bernard (1999). Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice. W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-31839-7 Littman, David (1979). "Jews Under Muslim Rule: The Case Of Persia". The Wiener Library Bulletin. XXXII (New series 49/50). Neusner, Jacob (1991). Studying Classical Judaism: A Primer. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0-664-25136-6. Poliakov, Leon (1974). The History of Anti-semitism. New York: The Vanguard Press. Ruderman, David B. Early Modern Jewry: A New Cultural History (Princeton University Press; 2010) 326 pages. Examines print culture, religion, and other realms in a history emphasizing the links among early modern Jewish communities from Venice and Kraków to Amsterdam and Smyrna. Sharot, Stephen (1997). "Religious Syncretism and Religious Distinctiveness: A Comparative Analysis of Pre-Modern Jewish Communities". In Endelman, Todd M. (ed.). Comparing Jewish Societies. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-06592-0. Stillman, Norman (1979). The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. ISBN 0-8276-0198-0 Tausch, Arno (8 January 2018). "The Effects of 'Nostra Aetate:' Comparative Analyses of Catholic Antisemitism More Than Five Decades after the Second Vatican Council". SSRN 3098079. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Sweeney, Marvin A. (2003) [2000]. "The Religious World of Ancient Israel to 586 BCE". In Neusner, Jacob; Avery-Peck, Alan J. (eds.). The Blackwell Companion to Judaism. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-57718-058-5. 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en-wikipedia-org-6675	----	Satibarzanes - Wikipedia Satibarzanes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Eastern territories of the Achaemenid Empire, including Aria (around the city of Areia). Arian soldier, on a relief of the tomb of Artaxerxes III (circa 338 BCE). Satibarzanes (In Median: Šātibṛzana, Greek: Σατιβαρζάνης; died 330 BC), a Persian, was satrap of Aria under Darius III, king of Persia. In 330 BC, Alexander the Great, marching through the borders of Aria on his way from Hyrcania against the Parthians, was met at a city named Susia by Satibarzanes, who made submission to him, and was rewarded for it by the restoration of his satrapy. In order to prevent the commission of any hostilities against the Arians by the Macedonian troops which were following from the west, Alexander left behind with Satibarzanes forty horse-dartmen, under the command of Anaxippus. These, however, together with their commander, were soon after murdered by the satrap, who excited the Arians to rebellion, and gathered his forces together at the city of Artacoana. On the approach of Alexander, he fled to join the traitor Bessus; and the city, after a short siege, was captured by the Macedonians. Towards the end of the same year (330 BC), Alexander, heard that Satibarzanes had again entered Aria with 2000 horses, supplied by Bessus, and had excited the Arians to another revolt. According to Arrian, upon this, he sent a force against him, led by Artabazus, Erigyius, Caranus, and Andronicus of Olynthus. In a battle which ensued, and of which the issue was yet doubtful, Satibarzanes came forward and defied any one of the enemy's generals to single combat. The challenge was accepted by Erigyius, and Satibarzanes was slain.[1] References[edit] Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, "Satibarzanes", Boston, (1867) Notes[edit] ^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri, iii. 25, 28; Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca, xvii. 78, 81, 83; Curtius Rufus, Historiae Alexandri Magni, vi. 6, vii. 3-4 External links[edit] Livius.org: Satibarzanes v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC v t e Hellenistic satraps Satraps under Alexander the Great (334-323 BC) Ada (Queen of Caria) Asander, Menander (Lydia) Calas, Demarchus (Hellespontine Phrygia) Antigonus (Greater Phrygia) Balakros, Menes (Cilicia) Abistamenes (Cappadocia) Abdalonymus (Sidon) Mithrenes (Armenia) Mazaeus, Stamenes (Babylon) Mazakes (Mesopotamia) Abulites (Susiana) Oxydates, Atropates (Media) Phrasaortes, Oxines, Peucestas (Persis) Cleomenes of Naucratis (Egypt) Satibarzanes (Aria) Sibyrtius (Carmania) Autophradates (Tapuri, Mardi) Andragoras (Parthia) Amminapes, Phrataphernes, Pharismanes (Hyrcania and Parthia) Artabazos, Cleitus the Black, Amyntas (Bactria) Oxyartes (Paropamisia) Philip, Eudemus (India) Peithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara) Taxiles (Punjab) Porus (Indus) Satraps at the Partition of Babylon (323 BC) Antipater (Macedon and Greece) Philo (Illyria) Lysimachus (Thrace) Leonnatus (Hellespontine Phrygia) Antigonus (Phrygia) Asander (Caria) Nearchus (Lycia and Pamphylia) Menander (Lydia) Philotas (Cilicia) Eumenes (Cappadocia and Paphlagonia) Ptolemy (Egypt) Laomedon of Mytilene (Syria) Neoptolemus (Armenia) Peucestas (Persis) Arcesilaus (Mesopotamia) Peithon (Greater Media) Atropates (Lesser Media) Scynus (Susiana) Tlepolemus (Persia) Nicanor (Parthia) Phrataphernes (Armenia, Parthia) Antigenes (Susiana) Archon (Pelasgia) Philip (Hyrcania) Stasanor (Aria and Drangiana) Sibyrtius (Arachosia and Gedrosia) Amyntas (Bactria) Scythaeus (Sogdiana) Oxyartes (Paropamisia) Taxiles (Punjab) Peithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara) Porus (Indus) Satraps at the Partition of Triparadisus (321 BC) Antipater (Macedon and Greece) Lysimachus (Thrace) Arrhidaeus (Hellespontine Phrygia) Antigonus (Phrygia, Lycia and Pamphylia) Cassander (Caria) Cleitus the White (Lydia) Philoxenus (Cilicia) Nicanor (Cappadocia and Paphlagonia) Ptolemy (Egypt) Laomedon of Mytilene (Syria) Peucestas (Persis) Amphimachus (Mesopotamia) Peithon (Media) Tlepolemus (Carmania) Philip (Parthia) Antigenes (Susiana) Seleucus (Babylonia) Stasanor (Bactria and Sogdiana) Stasander (Aria and Drangiana) Sibyrtius (Arachosia and Gedrosia) Oxyartes (Paropamisia) Taxiles (Punjab) Peithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara) Porus (Indus) Later Satraps Peithon, son of Agenor (Babylon) Sibyrtius (Arachosia, Drangiana) Eudemus (Indus) Bagadates, Ardakhshir I, Wahbarz, Vadfradad I, Vadfradad II, Alexander c.220 BC (Persis) Andragoras (Parthia) Demodamas (Bactria, Sogdiana) Diodotus (Bactria) Alexander (Lydia) Molon c.220 BC, Timarchus, c.175 BC (Media) Apollodorus (Susiana) Ptolemaeus (Commagene) Noumenios, Hyspaosines c.150 BC (Characene) Hellenistic satraps were preceded by Achaemenid rulers, and followed or ruled by Hellenistic rulers  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Satibarzanes". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Satibarzanes&oldid=1002031237" Categories: Alexander the Great History of Herat 4th-century BC Iranian people History of Herat Province Satraps of the Achaemenid Empire 330 BC deaths Hidden categories: Articles containing Greek-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Deutsch Español فارسی Hrvatski עברית مصرى Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 22 January 2021, at 14:15 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6694	----	Serse - Wikipedia Serse From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be confused with Xerxes. ‹ The template below (Handel) is being considered for deletion. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus. › George Frideric Handel Operas Almira (1705) Rodrigo (1707) Florindo (1708) Agrippina (1709) Rinaldo (1711) Il pastor fido (1712) Silla (1713) Teseo (1713) Amadigi di Gaula (1715) Acis and Galatea (1718) Radamisto (1720) Muzio Scevola (1721) Floridante (1721) Ottone (1723) Flavio (1723) Giulio Cesare (1724) Tamerlano (1724) Rodelinda (1725) Scipione (1726) Alessandro (1726) Admeto (1727) Riccardo Primo (1727) Siroe (1728) Tolomeo (1728) Lotario (1729) Partenope (1730) Poro (1731) Ezio (1732) Sosarme (1732) Orlando (1733) Arianna in Creta (1734) Parnasso in festa (1734) Oreste (1734) Ariodante (1735) Alcina (1735) Atalanta (1736) Arminio (1737) Giustino (1737) Berenice (1737) Faramondo (1738) Alessandro Severo (1738) Serse (1738) Giove in Argo (1739) Imeneo (1740) Deidamia (1741) Semele (1744) Alceste (1750) See also: Handel's lost Hamburg operas List of operas Oratorios Il trionfo del Tempo e del Disinganno (1707) La resurrezione (1708) Brockes Passion (1715) Esther (1732) Deborah (1733) Athalia (1733) Alexander's Feast (1736) Il trionfo del Tempo e della Verità (1737) Saul (1738) Israel in Egypt (1738) L'Allegro, il Penseroso ed il Moderato (1740) Messiah (1741) Samson (1741) Semele (1743) Joseph and his Brethren (1743) Hercules (1744) Belshazzar (1744) Occasional Oratorio (1746) Judas Maccabaeus (1746) Joshua (1747) Alexander Balus (1747) Susanna (1748) Solomon (1748) Theodora (1749) The Choice of Hercules (1750) Jephtha (1752) The Triumph of Time and Truth (1757) Cantatas (partial list) Tra le fiamme (Il consiglio) (1707) Un'alma innamorata (1707) Ero e Leandro (1707) Clori, Tirsi e Fileno (1707) O lucenti, o sereni occhi (1707) Aure soavi e lieti (1707) Allor ch'io dissi addio (1707–08) Del bell'idolo mio (1707–09) Aci, Galatea e Polifemo (1708) Dalla guerra amorosa (1709) Apollo e Dafne (1710) Ode for the Birthday of Queen Anne (1713) Ode for St. Cecilia's Day (1739) Wikipedia Book v t e Serse (Italian pronunciation: [ˈsɛrse]; English title: Xerxes; HWV 40) is an opera seria in three acts by George Frideric Handel. It was first performed in London on 15 April 1738. The Italian libretto was adapted by an unknown hand from that by Silvio Stampiglia (1664–1725) for an earlier opera of the same name by Giovanni Bononcini in 1694. Stampiglia's libretto was itself based on one by Niccolò Minato (ca.1627–1698) that was set by Francesco Cavalli in 1654. The opera is set in Persia (modern-day Iran) about 470 BC and is very loosely based upon Xerxes I of Persia. Serse, originally sung by a mezzo soprano castrato, is now usually performed by a mezzo-soprano or counter-tenor. The opening aria, "Ombra mai fu", sung by Xerxes to a plane tree (Platanus orientalis), is set to one of Handel's best-known melodies, and is often known as Handel's "Largo" (despite being marked "larghetto" in the score). Contents 1 Composition history 2 Performance history 3 Roles 4 Synopsis 4.1 Act 1 4.2 Act 2 4.3 Act 3 5 Historical motives 6 Media 7 Recordings 7.1 Audio recordings 7.2 Video recording 8 References 9 External links Composition history[edit] Xerxes. An Opera, title page of the libretto, London 1738 In late 1737 the King's Theatre, London, commissioned Handel to write two new operas. The first, Faramondo, was premiered on 3 January 1738. By this time, Handel had already begun work on Serse. The first act was composed between 26 December 1737 and 9 January 1738, the second was ready by 25 January, the third by 6 February, and Handel put the finishing touches to the score on 14 February. Serse was first performed at the King's Theatre, Haymarket on 15 April 1738.[1] The first production was a complete failure.[2] The audience may have been confused by the innovative nature of the work. Unlike his other operas for London, Handel included comic (buffo) elements in Serse. Although this had been typical for 17th-century Venetian works such as Cavalli's original setting of the libretto, by the 1730s an opera seria was expected to be wholly serious, with no mixing of the genres of tragedy and comedy or high and low class characters. The musicologist Charles Burney later took Serse to task for violating decorum in this way, writing: "I have not been able to discover the author of the words of this drama: but it is one of the worst Handel ever set to Music: for besides feeble writing, there is a mixture of tragic-comedy and buffoonery in it, which Apostolo Zeno and Metastasio had banished from serious opera."[3] Another unusual aspect of Serse is the number of short, one-part arias, when a typical opera seria of Handel's time was almost wholly made up of long, three-part da capo arias. This feature particularly struck the Earl of Shaftesbury, who attended the premiere and admired the opera. He noted "the airs too, for brevity's sake, as the opera would otherwise be too long [,] fall without any recitativ' intervening from one into another[,] that tis difficult to understand till it comes by frequent hearing to be well known. My own judgment is that it is a capital opera notwithstanding tis called a ballad one."[3] It is likely that Handel had been influenced, both as regards the comedy and the absence of da capo arias, by the success in London of ballad operas such as The Beggar's Opera and John Frederick Lampe's The Dragon of Wantley, the latter of which was visited by Handel.[4] Performance history[edit] London King's Theatre Haymarket, where Serse was first performed Serse disappeared from the stage for almost two hundred years. It enjoyed its first modern revival in Göttingen on 5 July 1924 in a version by Oscar Hagen. By 1926 this version had been staged at least 90 times in 15 German cities. Serse's success has continued.[5] According to Winton Dean, Serse is Handel's most popular opera with modern audiences after Giulio Cesare.[6] The very features which 18th-century listeners found so disconcerting - the shortness of the arias and the admixture of comedy - may account for its appeal to the 20th and the 21st centuries.[7] Serse was produced for the stage at the La Scala Theater in Milan, Italy in January 1962. The production was conducted by Piero Bellugi, and an all-star cast featuring Mirella Freni, Rolando Panerai, Fiorenza Cossotto, Irene Companez, Leonardo Monreale, Franco Calabrese, and Luigi Alva in the title role. Because Handel operas were still in a relatively early stage of their return to the stage, musicians had not yet thought to ornament the da capo sections (repetition of the A section) of the arias and thus, they were not ornamented. A complete recording was made in 1979. A particularly highly acclaimed production, sung in English, was staged by the English National Opera in 1985, to mark the 300th anniversary of the composer's birth. Conducted by Sir Charles Mackerras, it was directed by Nicholas Hytner, who also translated the libretto, and starred Ann Murray in the title role, with Valerie Masterson as Romilda, Christopher Robson as Arsamene, and Lesley Garrett as Atalanta.[8] The production returned for a sixth revival to the London Coliseum in September 2014, starring Alice Coote as Xerxes.[9] Hytner's production was also performed by San Francisco Opera in 2011.[10] Numerous performances around the world include the Royal Opera of Versailles in 2017[11] and the Opernhaus Düsseldorf in 2019.[12] Roles[edit] Caffarelli, who created the role of Serse Roles, voice types, and premiere cast Role Voice type Premiere Cast, 15 April 1738[13] Serse (Xerxes), King of Persia soprano castrato Gaetano Majorano ("Caffarelli") Arsamene, brother of Serse, in love with Romilda contralto Maria Antonia Marchesini ("La Lucchesina") Amastre, princess of a neighbouring kingdom, betrothed to Serse but jilted by him contralto Antonia Merighi Romilda, daughter of Ariodate, in love with Arsamene soprano Élisabeth Duparc ("La Francesina") Atalanta, Romilda's sister, also in love with Arsamene soprano Margherita Chimenti ("La Droghierina") Ariodate, a prince under Serse's command,father of Romilda and Atalanta bass Antonio Montagnana Elviro, Arsamene's servant baritone Antonio Lottini Synopsis[edit] Place:Abydos, Persia Time: about 470 BC Act 1[edit] Élisabeth Duparc, who created the role of Romilda A garden with a large plane tree and a summerhouse on the side The King of Persia, Serse, gives effusive, loving thanks to the plane tree for furnishing him with shade (Arioso: Ombra mai fu). His brother Arsamene, with his buffoonish servant Elviro, enters, looking for Arsamene's sweetheart Romilda. They stop as they hear her singing from the summerhouse. Romilda is making gentle fun of Serse with her song. He is in love with a tree, but the tree does not return his affection. Serse does not know that his brother is in love with the singer, and entranced by her music, Serse announces that he wants her to be his. Arsamene is horrified when Serse orders him to tell Romilda of his love. Arsamene warns Romilda of what Serse wants — this encourages Atalanta, Romilda's sister, who is secretly in love with Arsamene also and hopes that Romilda will be Serse's and then she can have Arsamene. Serse tells Romilda that he wants her for his queen and when Arsamene remonstrates Serse banishes him. Romilda is determined to remain faithful to the man she loves, Arsamene. Outside the palace Princess Amastre now arrives, disguised as a man. She was engaged to Serse but he jilted her and she is furiously determined to be revenged. Ariodate, general to Serse and father of Romilda and Atalanta, enters with news of a great military victory he has won. Serse is grateful to him and promises that as a reward his daughter Romilda will marry a man equal in rank to the King himself. Arsamene gives Elviro a letter for Romilda, telling her how distressed he is at their forced separation and pledging to try to visit her in secret. Romilda's sister Atalanta, hoping to secure Arsamene for herself, tells Romilda that Arsamene is in love with another girl, but Romilda does not believe it. Act 2[edit] Antonia Merighi, who created the role of Amastre, in a caricature by Antonio Maria Zanetti A square in the city Elviro has disguised himself as a flower-seller in order to deliver his master Arsamene's letter to Romilda, and is also putting on a rural accent. He does not approve of the King's desire to marry a mere subject such as Romilda and makes this clear. Princess Amastre, in her disguise as a man, hears Elviro expressing this and she is aghast at the King's plan to marry another when he promised to be hers (Aria: Or che siete speranze tradite). Amastre leaves in despair and rage and Atalanta enters. Elviro tells her he has a letter for her sister and Atalanta takes it, promising to give it to Romilda. Instead she mischievously shows the letter to the King, telling him that Arsamene sent it to her and no longer loves Romilda. Serse takes the letter and shows it to Romilda, telling her Arsamene is now in love with Atalanta, not her. Romilda is shaken (Aria: È Gelosia). Princess Amastre has decided to kill herself but Elviro arrives in time to stop her. She resolves to confront the King with his ill-treatment of her. Elviro tells Amastre that Romilda now loves Serse: Amastre is devastated (Aria: Anima infida). By the newly-constructed bridge spanning the Hellespont and thus uniting Asia and Europe Sailors hail the completion of the bridge, constructed under Serse's orders, and Serse orders his general Ariodate to cross the bridge with his army and invade Europe. Serse encounters his heart-broken brother Arsamene and tells him to cheer up, he can marry the woman he now loves, Atalanta, no problem. Arsamene is confused and insists he loves Romilda, not Atalanta. Hearing this, the King advises Atalanta to forget about Arsamene, but she says that is impossible. Elviro watches as a violent storm threatens to destroy the new bridge. He calms his nerves with drink. Outside the city in a garden Serse and Arsamene are both suffering from jealousy and the tribulations of the love lorn. Serse again implores Romilda to marry him but she remains firm in her refusal. The violently furious Amastre appears and draws a sword on the King but Romilda intervenes. Amastre says Romilda should not be forced to marry a man she does not love, and Romilda praises those who are true to their hearts (Aria: Chi cede al furore). Act 3[edit] Katarina Karnéus as Xerxes, Stockholm, Royal Swedish Opera, 2009 A gallery Romilda and Arsamene are having a lovers' spat about that letter, but calm down when Atalanta appears and admits her deception. She has decided she will have to find another boyfriend somewhere else. Serse again implores Romilda to marry him and she tells him to seek her father's permission, if he consents, she will. Arsamenes bitterly reproaches her for this (Aria: Amor, tiranno Amor). Serse once more asks Ariodate if he is happy for his daughter Romilda to marry someone equal in rank to the King. Ariodate thinks Serse means Arsamene and happily gives his consent. Serse tells Romilda that her father has agreed to their marriage but Romilda, trying to put him off, tells him that Arsamene loves her and in fact he has kissed her. Serse, furious, orders his brother to be put to death. Amastre asks Romilda to take a letter to the King, telling her that this will help her. Amastre bewails her plight, having been abandoned by Serse, who promised to be hers (Aria: Cagion son io). Arsamene blames Romilda for the fact that he has been sentenced to death, and the lovers again quarrel (Duet: Troppo oltraggi la mia fede). The temple of the sun Arsamene and Romilda have been summoned to the temple and they come in, still quarreling, but they are amazed and overjoyed when Ariodate tells them that Serse has agreed to their wedding and he marries them then and there. Serse enters, ready to marry Romilda, and is enraged when he discovers that it is too late, Ariodate has married his daughter to Arsamene. Serse bitterly denounces Ariodate for that and is even more enraged when a letter arrives, apparently from Romilda, accusing him of faithlessness. When he discovers that the letter is actually from his previous fiance Amastre, whom he jilted, his fury only increases (Aria: Crude Furie degl' orridi abissi). Serse takes his sword and orders Arsamene to kill Romilda with it; but Amastre interrupts this and asks Serse if he truly wants treachery and infidelity to be punished. Serse says he does whereupon Amastre reveals her true identity as Serse's betrothed. Serse, abashed, admits his fault - he will marry Amastre as he promised, he wishes his brother Arsamene and Romilda happiness in their marriage, and all celebrate the fortunate outcome of events (Chorus: Ritorna a noi la calma).[14][15] Historical motives[edit] Xerxes crossing the Hellespont The libretto includes some motives that are based upon events that actually happened. Serse, Amastre and Arsamene are all based on historical persons. The story of Xerxes wanting to marry the love of his brother Arsamenes is based upon a real story. In reality though, it was a wife of another brother Xerxes fell in love with but failed to marry himself.[16] The collapsing of a bridge over the Hellespont and Xerxes returning from a catastrophic campaign in Greece are real events during the reign of Xerxes, though they are anachronistic here. Media[edit] "Ombra mai fù" "Ombra mai fù" (and the introductory recitative) as performed by Enrico Caruso in 1920. Problems listening to the files? See media help. Recordings[edit] Audio recordings[edit] Serse discography, audio recordings Year Cast: Serse, Romilda, Arsamene, Amastre, Atalanta, Elviro, Ariodate Conductor, Orchestra Label[17] 1965 Maureen Forrester, Lucia Popp, Maureen Lehane, Mildred Miller, Marilyn Tyler, Owen Brannigan, Thomas Hemsley Brian Priestman Vienna Radio Orchestra CD: Deutsche Grammophon Cat: 0289 477 8339 8 1979 Carolyn Watkinson, Barbara Hendricks, Paul Esswood, Ortrun Wenkel, Anne-Marie Rodde, Ulrich Studer, Ulrik Cold Jean-Claude Malgoire La Grande Écurie et la Chambre du Roy CD: Sony Cat: 88985397842 1997 Ann Murray, Yvonne Kenny, Christopher Robson, Patricia Bardon, Julie Kaufmann, Jan Zinkler, Umberto Chiummo Ivor Bolton Bayerische Staatsoper CD: Farao Cat: B108010 2003 Anne Sofie von Otter, Elizabeth Norberg-Schulz, Lawrence Zazzo, Silvia Tro Santafe, Sandrine Piau, Antonio Abete, Giovanni Furlanetto William Christie Les Arts Florissants CD: Erato Records Cat: 9029590062 2013 Anna Stéphany, Rosemary Joshua, David Daniels, Hilary Summers, Joélle Harvey, Andreas Wolf, Brindley Sherratt Christian Curnyn Early Opera Company CD: Chandos Records Cat: CHAN0797(3) 2018 Franco Fagioli, Inga Kalna, Vivica Genaux, Delphine Galou, Francesca Aspromonte, Biagio Pizzuti, Andrea Mastroni Maxim Emelyanychev Il Pomo d'Oro CD: Deutsche Grammophon Cat: 4835784 Video recording[edit] Serse discography, audio recordings Year Cast: Serse, Romilda, Arsamene, Amastre, Atalanta, Elviro, Ariodate Conductor, Orchestra Stage director Label 2018 Gaëlle Arquez, Elizabeth Sutphen, Lawrence Zazzo, Tanja Ariane Baumgartner, Louise Alder, Thomas Faulkner, Brandon Cedel Constantinos Carydis Frankfurter Opern- und Museumsorchester Tilmann Köhler Blu-ray: C Major Cat: 748004 References[edit] Notes ^ Best p.14 ^ Dean in Opera and the Enlightenment, p.135 ^ a b Best p.15 ^ Keates (2014), p. 10. ^ Opera and the Enlightenment p.166. Dean calls Hagen's vocal score of Serse "a grinning parody". ^ Opera and the Enlightenment p.135 ^ Best p.18 ^ Evan Dickerson, "Seen and Heard Opera Review" on Seen and Heard International website, retrieved 2 October 2014 ^ William Hartston, "Handel's Xerxes by the English National Opera: Astonishing comedy, glorious fun", Daily Express (London), 17 September 2014. Accessed 2 October 2014. ^ Rowe, Georgia. "Serse". www.operanews.com. Retrieved 4 January 2020. ^ Servidei, Laura. "Baroque pyrotechnics: Handel's Serse dazzles at Versailles". bachtrack.com. Retrieved 3 January 2020. ^ Rye, Matthew. "All the world's a stage: Xerxes as a comedy of backstage rivalry". bachtrack.com. Retrieved 3 January 2020. ^ "Serse". Handel & Hendrix in London. Retrieved 16 April 2018. ^ Hicks, Anthony (2001). "Serse ('Xerxes')". In Root, Deane L. (ed.). The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Oxford University Press.‎ ^ "Serse". handelhendrix.org. Retrieved 16 August 2018. ^ Herodotus, Histories: IX, 108–110 ^ "Classical recordings - Search: serse handel (page 1 of 44) | Presto Classical". www.prestomusic.com. Sources Dean, Winton (2006), Handel's Operas, 1726–1741, Boydell Press, ISBN 1843832682 The second of the two volume definitive reference on the operas of Handel Winton Dean, "Handel's Serse" in Opera and the Enlightenment ed. Thomas Bauman (Cambridge University Press, 1995) Terence Best's booklet notes to the Virgin recording by Christie Keates, Jonathan (2014). "Musical London 1737–38", in Xerxes, (programme of the English National Opera production revial). pp. 10–13. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Serse. Serse: Scores at the International Music Score Library Project Libretto in Italian (PDF file) v t e George Frideric Handel List of operas List of compositions Operas Handel's lost Hamburg operas Almira Florindo Rodrigo Agrippina Rinaldo Il pastor fido Teseo Silla Amadigi di Gaula Acis and Galatea Radamisto Muzio Scevola Floridante Ottone Flavio Giulio Cesare Tamerlano Rodelinda Scipione Alessandro Admeto Riccardo Primo Siroe Tolomeo Lotario Partenope Poro Ezio Sosarme Orlando Arianna in Creta Parnasso in festa Oreste Ariodante Alcina Atalanta Arminio Giustino Berenice Faramondo Alessandro Severo Serse Giove in Argo Imeneo Deidamia Opera excerpts "Lascia ch'io pianga" "Ombra mai fu" "Svegliatevi nel core" "Va tacito e nascosto" Incidental music The Alchemist Comus Alceste Oratorios Il trionfo del Tempo e del Disinganno / Il trionfo del Tempo e della Verità / The Triumph of Time and Truth La resurrezione Brockes Passion Esther Deborah Athalia Saul Israel in Egypt L'Allegro, il Penseroso ed il Moderato Messiah Structure Part I Part II Part III Der Messias (Mozart arr.) Scratch Messiah Samson Semele Joseph and his Brethren Hercules Belshazzar Occasional Oratorio Judas Maccabaeus Joshua Alexander Balus Susanna Solomon Theodora The Choice of Hercules Jephtha Odes and masques Aci, Galatea e Polifemo Ode for the Birthday of Queen Anne Alexander's Feast Ode For St. Cecilia's Day Cantatas Agrippina condotta a morire or Dunque sarà pur vero Allor ch'io dissi addio Aure soavi e lieti Clori, Tirsi e Fileno Dalla guerra amorosa Del bell'idolo mio Apollo e Dafne O lucenti, o sereni occhi Ero e Leandro Tra le fiamme (Il consiglio) Un'alma innamorata Latin church music Dixit Dominus Gloria Nisi Dominus Salve Regina Anthems As Pants the Hart Zadok the Priest The Ways of Zion Do Mourn / Funeral Anthem for Queen Caroline Sing Unto God/Anthem for the Wedding of Frederick, Prince of Wales Chandos Anthems Wedding anthem for Princess Anne Foundling Hospital Anthem Canticles Utrecht Te Deum and Jubilate Dettingen Te Deum Queen Caroline Te Deum Chandos Jubilate Oboe Oboe Concerto No. 3 Oboe Concerto No. 1 Oboe Concerto No. 2 Orchestral suites Water Music Music for the Royal Fireworks Flute, solo and XV solo sonatas 358 "Fitzwilliam" 359a 359b 360 361 362 363a 363b 364a 364b 365 366 367a 367b 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 378 379 Opus Organ concertos, Op. 4 Organ concertos, Op. 7 Concerti Grossi, Op. 3 Concerti grossi, Op. 6 Other Nabal Gideon Keyboard suite in D minor (HWV 437) Catalogs and collections Handel Reference Database Händel-Werke-Verzeichnis Händel-Gesellschaft Hallische Händel-Ausgabe Festivals Göttingen Halle London Related articles British citizenship Letters and writings Will Handel at Cannons Handel House Handel & Hendrix in London Georg Händel Category Commons Audio Authority control BNF: cb13913132z (data) GND: 300065752 MBW work: 813a0567-48aa-40d1-8171-074cd9a7647d VIAF: 184446027 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 184446027 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Serse&oldid=1001647787" Categories: Operas by George Frideric Handel Italian-language operas Opera seria 1738 operas Operas Cultural depictions of Xerxes I Operas based on real people Operas set in ancient Persia Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating the Cite Grove template Wikipedia articles incorporating the Cite Grove template without a link parameter Use dmy dates from July 2019 Commons category link from Wikidata Works with IMSLP links Articles with International Music Score Library Project links Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz work identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Alemannisch Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Euskara Français 한국어 Հայերեն Italiano Latina Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Português Русский Simple English Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 20 January 2021, at 17:11 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6695	----	Mary Boyce - Wikipedia Mary Boyce From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the Dean of SEAS at Columbia University, see Mary Cunningham Boyce. British scholar Mary Boyce Born Nora Elisabeth Mary Boyce (1920-08-02)2 August 1920 Darjeeling, British India Died 4 April 2006(2006-04-04) (aged 85) Occupation Philologist Known for Authority on Zoroastrianism Nora Elisabeth Mary Boyce (2 August 1920 – 4 April 2006) was a British scholar of Iranian languages, and an authority on Zoroastrianism. She was Professor of Iranian Studies at the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) of the University of London.[1] The Royal Asiatic Society's annual Boyce Prize for outstanding contributions to the study of religion is named after her. Contents 1 Early years 2 Academic career 3 Awards and recognition 4 Publications 4.1 Selected works 5 References 6 Notes 7 External links Early years[edit] She was born in Darjeeling where her parents were vacationing to escape the heat of the plains during the summer. Her father, William H. Boyce, was a Judge at the Calcutta high-court, then an institution of the British imperial government. Her mother Nora (née Gardiner) was a granddaughter of the historian Samuel Rawson Gardiner.[2] Boyce was educated at Wimbledon High School and then Cheltenham Ladies' College. At Newnham College, Cambridge she studied English, archaeology and anthropology, graduating with a double first.[2] Academic career[edit] In 1944, Boyce joined the faculty of the Royal Holloway College, University of London, where she taught Anglo-Saxon literature and archaeology until 1946. Simultaneously she continued her studies, this time in Persian languages,[3] under the guidance of Vladimir Minorsky at the School of Oriental and African Studies from 1945 to 1947. There she met her future mentor, Walter Bruno Henning, under whose tutelage she began to study Middle Iranian languages. In 1948, Boyce was appointed lecturer of Iranian Studies at SOAS, specialising in Manichaean, Zoroastrian Middle Persian and Parthian texts. In 1952, she was awarded a doctorate in Oriental Studies from the University of Cambridge. At SOAS, she was promoted to Reader (1958–1961) and subsequently awarded the University of London's professorship in Iranian Studies following Henning's transfer to the University of California at Berkeley. Boyce remained professor at SOAS until her retirement in 1982, continuing as Professor Emerita and a professorial research associate until her death in 2006. Her speciality remained the religions of speakers of Eastern Iranian languages, in particular Manichaeanism and Zoroastrianism. Awards and recognition[edit] Boyce was a recipient of the Royal Asiatic Society's Burton Medal, and of the Sykes Medal of the Royal Society of Asian Affairs. She was a member of the Council of the Royal Asiatic Society, honorary member of the American Oriental Society, member of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters, and was the first secretary and treasurer of the Corpus Inscriptionum Iranicarum. She served on the editorial board of numerous academic publications, including Asia Major, the Encyclopaedia Iranica, the Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, and the Journal of the American Oriental Society. Publications[edit] In 1963–64, Boyce spent a research year among orthodox Zoroastrians of the 24 villages of Yazd, Iran. The results of her research there were formative to her understanding of Zoroastrianism and she discovered that much of the previously established scholarship on the ancient faith was terribly misguided. In 1975, Boyce presented the results of her research at her Ratanbai Katrak lecture series at Oxford University. In the same year she published the first volume of her magnum opus, The History of Zoroastrianism, which appeared in the monograph series Handbuch der Orientalistik (Leiden:Brill). Her Ratanbai Katrak lecture series were published in 1977 as A Persian Stronghold of Zoroastrianism. In 1979, Boyce published Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, which not only summarised her previous publications (in particular volume 1 of History), but anthologised the role of Zoroastrianism during subsequent eras as well. This was followed by volume 2 of History of Zoroastrianism in 1982 (also as a part of the Orientalistik monograph series), and volume 3 in 1991 which she co-authored with Frantz Grenet. In 1992, she published Zoroastrianism: Its Antiquity and Constant Vigour as part of the Columbia Lectures on Iranian Studies which she had delivered there in 1985. Selected works[edit] 1954, The Manichaean hymn-cycles in Parthian (London Oriental Series, Vol. 3). London: Oxford University Press. 1975, A History of Zoroastrianism, Vol. 1 (Handbuch der Orientalistik Series). Leiden: Brill; Repr. 1996 as A History of Zoroastrianism: Vol 1, The Early Period. 1977, Zoroastrianism: The rediscovery of missing chapters in man's religious history (Teaching aids for the study of Inner Asia). Asian Studies Research Institute: Indiana University Press. 1977, A Persian Stronghold of Zoroastrianism. London: Oxford University Press; Repr. 2001 1978, A Reader in Manichaean Middle Persian and Parthian (Acta Iranica Monograph Series). Leiden: Brill. 1979, Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices (Library of religious beliefs and practices). London:Routledge/Kegan Paul; Corrected repr. 1984; repr. with new foreword 2001. 1982, A History of Zoroastrianism, Vol. 2 (Handbuch der Orientalistik Series). Leiden: Brill. Repr. 1996 as "A History of Zoroastrianism: Vol 2, Under the Achaemenians". 1984, Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism (Textual Sources for the Study of Religion). London:Rowman & Littlefield. Repr. 1990 1987, Zoroastrianism: A Shadowy but Powerful Presence in the Judaeo-Christian World. Friends of Dr. Williams: London. 1988, "The religion of Cyrus the Great", in A. Kuhrt and H. Sancisi-Weerdenburg Achaemenid History III: Method and Theory, Leiden: Brill. 1991, A History of Zoroastrianism: Vol. 3, Zoroastrianism Under Macedonian and Roman Rule (Handbuch der Orientalistik Series). With Frantz Grenet, Leiden: Brill. 1992, Zoroastrianism: Its Antiquity and Constant Vigour (Columbia Lectures on Iranian Studies, No 7). Costa Mesa: Mazda. Forthcoming: A History of Zoroastrianism: Vols 4–7, under the editorship of Albert de Jong. References[edit] ^ Hinnells, John (2010). "BOYCE, MARY". Encyclopaedia Iranica.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) ^ a b John R. Hinnells, ‘Boyce, (Nora Elisabeth) Mary (1920–2006)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, Jan 2010; online edn, Sept 2012 accessed 8 Jan 2017 ^ John Hinnells, Mary Boyce, The Guardian, 11 April 2006 Obituary, Retrieved 8 January 2017 Notes[edit] A. D. H. Bivar, Professor Mary Boyce, The Times, 13 April 2006 [1] Albert de Jong, Professor Mary Boyce, The Independent, 28 April 2006 [2] Almut Hintze, Professor Mary Boyce, Daily Telegraph, 28 April 2006 [3] Parsi, Touradj (7 April 2006), "Remembering Mary Boyce", The Iranian International Committee: Mary Boyce, Encyclopædia Iranica. Works by or about Mary Boyce in libraries (WorldCat catalog) External links[edit] Mary Boyce article at Encyclopædia Iranica v t e Zoroastrianism Date Zoroaster Vishtaspa Firooz Bahram High School Concepts Ahura Mazda Yazata Ahriman Amesha Spenta Saoshyant Zurvanism Asha Haoma Magi Anahita Fravashi Chinvat Bridge Frashokereti Mobad Vohu Manah Spenta Armaiti Haurvatat Mordad Atash Behram The forces of evil Ahriman Demon Apaosha Jahi Aka Manah Indra Important people Vishtaspa Kartir Paul the Persian Adurbad-i Mahraspand Babak Khorramdin Farhang Mehr Jamasp Maneckji Nusserwanji Dhalla Mazdak Book of Arda Viraf Zartosht Bahram-e Pazhdo Mazyar Ardashir I Shapur II Khosrow I Keikhosrow Shahrokh Maneckji Limji Hataria Zubin Mehta Jamsetji Tata Meher Baba Jahangir Oshidri Rostam Giv Farangis Yeganegi Sacred mirrors and places Zoroastrian festivals Xwedodah Gahambars Navjote Barsom Kushti Trial by ordeal Zoroastrian calendar Ka'ba-ye Zartosht Fire temple Ossuary Tower of Silence Chak Chak, Yazd Khordad Sal Zartosht No-Diso Nava Vihara Adur Burzen-Mihr Adur Gushnasp Zoroastrian music Fire Temple of Yazd Cypress of Kashmar Atashgah castle Religious writings Avesta Gathas Yasna Haptanghaiti Khordeh Avesta Bundahishn Denkard Shāyest nē Shāyest Zend Pazend Menog-i Khrad Book of Arda Viraf Dadestan-i Denig Yasht Middle Persian literature Dabestan-e Mazaheb Avesta scholars Ebrahim Pourdavoud Mary Boyce Karl Friedrich Geldner James Darmesteter Maneckji Nusserwanji Dhalla Friedrich von Spiegel Émile Benveniste Abraham Hyacinthe Anquetil-Duperron Friedrich Heinrich Hugo Windischmann Charles-Joseph de Harlez de Deulin Martin Haug Gherardo Gnoli Mythical places Vourukasha Mazandaran Alborz Daitya Airyanem Vaejah Azerbaijan Sistan Hamun Lake Nishapur Mount Damavand Chak Chak, Yazd Kashmar Personalities Kay Lohrasp Vishtaspa Jamasp Mashya and Mashyana Arash Tahmuras Hushang Jamshid Esfandiyār Peshotanu Arjasp Abtin Zoroastrian communities Zoroastrianism in Armenia Zoroastrianism in Azerbaijan Zoroastrianism in India Irani Parsis Zoroastrianism in Iran Zoroastrianism in Iraq Zoroastrianism in Pakistan Zoroastrianism in the United States Related animals Simurgh Dragon Chamrosh Also See: Category:Zoroastrianism Authority control BNF: cb12052837h (data) CANTIC: a11426858 GND: 118514113 ISNI: 0000 0001 1441 9601 LCCN: n50043127 LNB: 000108000 NDL: 00434079 NKC: jx20091030002 NLK: KAC201105554 NLP: A11715480 NTA: 071303960 PLWABN: 9810616900305606 SUDOC: 028758331 Trove: 795177 VcBA: 495/124989 VIAF: 36937488 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n50043127 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mary_Boyce&oldid=999753987" Categories: Iranologists British historians of religion British women academics Linguists from the United Kingdom Women linguists 1920 births 2006 deaths People from Darjeeling Alumni of Newnham College, Cambridge Alumni of SOAS University of London Academics of Royal Holloway, University of London Academics of SOAS University of London Fellows of the Royal Asiatic Society People educated at Wimbledon High School British women historians 20th-century British historians Zoroastrian studies scholars 20th-century British women writers 20th-century translators 20th-century linguists Hidden categories: CS1 maint: ref=harv Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata EngvarB from August 2014 Use dmy dates from August 2014 Articles with hCards Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLP identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Deutsch Ελληνικά فارسی Հայերեն مصرى 日本語 Norsk bokmål Русский Svenska Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 11 January 2021, at 20:07 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6708	----	File:Caylus vase 1762.jpg - Wikipedia File:Caylus vase 1762.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this preview: 380 × 600 pixels. Other resolutions: 152 × 240 pixels | 481 × 759 pixels. Original file ‎(481 × 759 pixels, file size: 432 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary DescriptionCaylus vase 1762.jpg English: Caylus vase 1762 Date 1 January 1762 Source This file has been extracted from another file: Caylus vase publication by Caylus, 1762.jpg Author Count Caylus (18th century) Licensing Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse This work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 70 years or fewer. You must also include a United States public domain tag to indicate why this work is in the public domain in the United States. Note that a few countries have copyright terms longer than 70 years: Mexico has 100 years, Jamaica has 95 years, Colombia has 80 years, and Guatemala and Samoa have 75 years. This image may not be in the public domain in these countries, which moreover do not implement the rule of the shorter term. Côte d'Ivoire has a general copyright term of 99 years and Honduras has 75 years, but they do implement the rule of the shorter term. Copyright may extend on works created by French who died for France in World War II (more information), Russians who served in the Eastern Front of World War II (known as the Great Patriotic War in Russia) and posthumously rehabilitated victims of Soviet repressions (more information). This file has been identified as being free of known restrictions under copyright law, including all related and neighboring rights. https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/PDMCreative Commons Public Domain Mark 1.0falsefalse Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1926. Public domain works must be out of copyright in both the United States and in the source country of the work in order to be hosted on the Commons. If the work is not a U.S. work, the file must have an additional copyright tag indicating the copyright status in the source country. PD-1923Public domain in the United States//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Caylus_vase_1762.jpg Captions EnglishCaylus vase 1762 Items portrayed in this file depicts File history Click on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 05:48, 10 June 2020 481 × 759 (432 KB) पाटलिपुत्र Uploaded a work by Count Caylus (18th century) from {{extracted from|File:Caylus vase publication by Caylus, 1762.jpg}} with UploadWizard File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Anne Claude de Caylus Caylus vase Cuneiform Georg Friedrich Grotefend Jar of Xerxes I Old Persian cuneiform Xerxes I Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on sl.wikipedia.org Klinopis Caylusova vaza Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. If the file has been modified from its original state, some details may not fully reflect the modified file. Width 481 px Height 759 px Horizontal resolution 72 dpi Vertical resolution 72 dpi Software used PaintShop Pro 20,00 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Caylus_vase_1762.jpg" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces File Talk Variants Views Read View on Commons More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Upload file Special pages Printable version Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6719	----	Sobekhotep VI - Wikipedia Sobekhotep VI From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Khahotepre Sobekhotep VI Kneeling statue of Khahotepre Sobekhotep VI, on display at the Altes Museum, Berlin Pharaoh Reign 4 years, 8 months and 29 days, 1719-1715 BC[1] (13th Dynasty) Predecessor Sobekhotep V Successor Wahibre Ibiau Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Khahotepre Ḫˁ-ḥtp-Rˁ The satisfaction of Ra appears Nomen Sobekhotep Sbk ḥtp Sobek is satisfied Karnak king list Khahotepre Ḫˁ-ḥtp-Rˁ The satisfaction of Ra appears Turin King List Khahotep Rahotep Ḫˁ-ḥtp-Rˁ-ḥtp The satisfaction of Ra appears Consort Nubhotepti ? Khaenoub ? Father Sobekhotep IV ? Mother Tjan ? Khahotepre Sobekhotep VI (also known as Sobekhotep V) was an Egyptian king of the 13th Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. According to Egyptologist Kim Ryholt he was the thirty-first pharaoh of the dynasty, while Darrell Baker believes instead that he was its thirtieth ruler.[1][2] Alternatively, Jürgen von Beckerath and Detlef Franke see him as the twenty-fifth king of the dynasty.[3][4][5] Contents 1 Identity 2 Attestations 3 Family 4 References 5 External links Identity[edit] Until Ryholt's study of the Second Intermediate Period, it was believed that Sobekhotep VI's prenomen was Merhotepre. Reevaluating the archeological evidence, however, Ryholt attributed Merhotepre to Sobekhotep V and Khahotepre to Sobekhotep VI. Because of this change of prenomen, Merhotepre Sobekhotep and Khahotepre Sobekhotep are respectively called Sobekhotep VI and Sobekhotep V in older studies.[1][2] Attestations[edit] Khahotepre Sobekhotep VI is listed in the Turin canon as the successor of Sobekhotep IV. However, this only occurs because one line is missing within a lacuna in the king list, below the line for Sobekhotep IV. This lacuna would have preserved the reign of Merhotepre Sobekhotep.[6] Khahotepre Sobekhotep VI is credited a reign of 4 years, 8 months and 29 days,[7] which Ryholt dates to 1719-1715 BC.[1] In spite of this relatively long reign for the period, there are only very few objects directly attesting Sobekhotep VI. There exists a scarab seal from Abydos[8] and a kneeling statuette of the king, possibly from Kerma. Items of unknown provenance include 6 scarab seals, a cylinder seal[9] and a seal impression. Finally, a scarab bearing the prenomen Khahotepre was found in a tomb in Jericho, which could be evidence of trade relations between the 13th dynasty state and the Levant.[2] Family[edit] Khahotepre Sobekhotep VI's father was perhaps Sobekhotep IV, the best attested king of the entire second intermediate period. This hypothesis is based on an inscription found in the Wadi el-Hudi which attests that Sobekhotep IV had a son called 'Sobekhotep'. If this son is indeed Sobekhotep VI, then his mother would be possibly Tjan, wife of Sobekhotep IV. Sobekhotep VI's queen may have been named Khaenoub (also Khaesnebou) or Nubhotepti.[2] References[edit] ^ a b c d K. S. B. Ryholt, The political situation in Egypt during the second intermediate period, c. 1800–1550 B.C. Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, pp 37, 233 ^ a b c d Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46, Mainz am Rhein, 1997 ^ Thomas Schneider: Ancient Egyptian Chronology - Edited by Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss, And David a. Warburton, available online, see p. 176 ^ Ryholt, pp.22-23 ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen, p. 257 ^ Scarab of Khahotepre Sobekhotep, Metropolitan Museum of Art ^ Cylinder seal of SObekhotep VI, Petrie Museum External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sebekhotep Khahotepre. Sobekhotep VI from Digital Egypt (University College. London) Preceded by Merhotepre Sobekhotep Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Wahibre Ibiau v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sobekhotep_VI&oldid=977848436" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is locally defined AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Català Deutsch Español Euskara Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands Português Русский Slovenščina ไทย Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 11 September 2020, at 09:49 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-674	----	Neferkahor - Wikipedia Neferkahor From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Neferkahor The cartouche of Neferkahor on the Abydos King List. Pharaoh Reign Unknown (Eighth Dynasty?) Predecessor Neferkare Tereru? Successor Neferkare Pepiseneb? Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Neferkahor Nfr-k3-Ḥr Perfect is the Ka of Horus Neferkahor was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the Eighth Dynasty during the First Intermediate Period.[1] According to Egyptologists Jürgen von Beckerath and Darrell Baker, he was the eleventh king of this dynasty.[2][1] His name is attested on the Abydos King List (number 50) and on a black steatite cylinder seal of unknown provenance.[3] His name is absent from the Turin King List, a lacuna affecting the 7th/8th dynasty where his name would have been listed. References[edit] ^ a b Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 261-262 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath:Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen (Münchner ägyptologische Studien), 1984 ^ Peter Kaplony, Die Rollsiegel des Alten Reichs. vol. II: Katalog der Rollsiegel. pl. 144. External links[edit] First Intermediate Period on Digital Egypt for Universities, Accessed April 19, 2014 v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neferkahor&oldid=973277142" Categories: 22nd-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Eighth Dynasty of Egypt 22nd-century BC rulers 22nd century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands Português Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 16 August 2020, at 10:02 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6781	----	Mithrobuzanes - Wikipedia Mithrobuzanes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Mithrobuzanes was satrap of Achaemenid Cappadocia. Mithrobuzanes (Old Iranian: Miθrabaujana, Greek: Μιθροβουζάνης; d. 334 BC) was a Persian governor (satrap) of Cappadocia in the 4th century BC, during the reign of Darius III. He was probably a son of Ariarathes.[1] As a Persian military commander he was killed at the Battle of Granicus fighting Alexander the Great.[2][3] The victorious Alexander appointed Abistamenes in his place.[4][5] References[edit] ^ Marquart 1895, 495 ^ Arrian 1.16.3 ^ Diodorus 17.21.3 ^ Arrian 2.4.2 ^ Curtius Rufus 3.4.1 Sources[edit] Heckel, Waldemar (2006). Who’s Who in the Age of Alexander the Great: Prosopography of Alexander’s Empire. Blackwell Publishing. External links[edit] Original text of The Anabasis of Alexander English version of The Anabasis of Alexander v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC This biographical article related to the military of Iran is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mithrobuzanes&oldid=1002463746" Categories: Achaemenid satraps of Cappadocia Alexander the Great 334 BC deaths 4th-century BC Iranian people Military personnel killed in action Darius III Asian military personnel stubs Iranian people stubs Iranian military stubs Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Year of birth unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Galego Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 16:09 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6798	----	Mount Athos - Wikipedia Mount Athos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Mountain and peninsula in northeastern Greece This article is about the mountain and peninsula in Greece. For the Eastern Orthodox monastic community, see Monastic Republic of Mount Athos. For other uses, see Athos. Athos / Holy Mountain Άθως / Άγιον Όρος Location and extent of Mount Athos (red) in Greece Capital Karyesa Languages List Greek Bulgarian Georgian Romanian Russian Serbian Religion Eastern Orthodoxy Demonym(s) Athonite (Αθωνίτης) Agiorite (Αγιορείτης) Country  Greece Government Autonomous theocratic society led by ecclesiastical council • Civil Administrator Athanasios Martinos • Protos (Elder Monk) Elder Symeon Dionysiates Autonomy within Greece • Established under the Constitution of Greece 1927[1] • Reaffirmed 1975 Area • Total 335.63 km2 (129.59 sq mi) Population • 2011 census 1,811 • Density 5.40/km2 (14.0/sq mi) Currency Euro[note 1] (€) (EUR) Time zone EET Location of the primary church (the Protaton) for the Athonite administration[2] and the seat of the Protos (elder monk) since 911. Sovereign monasteries Great Lavra (Μεγίστη Λαύρα, Megísti Lávra) Vatopedi (Βατοπέδι or Βατοπαίδι) Iviron (Ιβήρων, Iverta monasteri; ივერთა მონასტერი) Hilandar (Χιλανδαρίου, Chilandariou; Хиландар) Dionysiou (Διονυσίου) Koutloumousiou (Κουτλουμούσι) Pantokrator (Παντοκράτορος, Pantokratoros) Xeropotamou (Ξηροποτάμου) Zografou (Ζωγράφου; Зограф) Dochiariou (Δοχειαρίου) Karakalou (Καρακάλλου) Filotheou (Φιλοθέου) Simonos Petra (Σίμωνος Πέτρα or Σιμωνόπετρα) Saint Paul's (Αγίου Παύλου, Agiou Pavlou) Stavronikita (Σταυρονικήτα) Xenophontos (Ξενοφώντος) Osiou Grigoriou (Οσίου Γρηγορίου) Esfigmenou (Εσφιγμένου) Saint Panteleimon's (Αγίου Παντελεήμονος, Agiou Panteleimonos, Пантелеймонов; or Rossikon, Ρωσικό) Konstamonitou (Κωνσταμονίτου) Mount Athos Highest point Elevation 2,033[3] m (6,670 ft) Prominence 2,012 m (6,601 ft) Listing Ultra Coordinates 40°09′26″N 24°19′35″E / 40.15722°N 24.32639°E / 40.15722; 24.32639Coordinates: 40°09′26″N 24°19′35″E / 40.15722°N 24.32639°E / 40.15722; 24.32639  Geography Location Greece UNESCO World Heritage Site Type Mixed Criteria i, ii, iv, v, vi, vii Designated 1988 (12th session) Reference no. 454 State Party Greece Region Europe Mount Athos (/ˈæθɒs/; Greek: Άθως, [ˈa.θos]) is a mountain and peninsula in northeastern Greece and an important centre of Eastern Orthodox monasticism. It is governed as an autonomous polity within the Hellenic Republic. Mount Athos is home to 20 monasteries under the direct jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople. Mount Athos is commonly referred to in Greek as the Agion Oros (Άγιον Όρος, 'Holy Mountain'), and the entity as the "Athonite State" (Αθωνική Πολιτεία, Athonikí Politía). Other languages of Orthodox tradition also use names translating to 'Holy Mountain'. This includes Bulgarian, Macedonian and Serbian (Света гора, Света Гора, Sveta Gora); Russian (Святая Гора, Svyataya Gora); and Georgian (მთაწმინდა, mtats’minda). However, not all languages spoken in the region use this name; in Romanian, it is simply called Muntele Athos or Muntele Atos. In the classical era, while the mountain was called Athos, the peninsula was known as Acté or Akté (Koinē Greek: Ἀκτή). Mount Athos has been inhabited since ancient times and is known for its long Christian presence and historical monastic traditions, which date back to at least AD 800 and the Byzantine era. Today, over 2,000 monks from Greece and many other countries, including Eastern Orthodox countries such as Romania, Moldova, Georgia, Bulgaria, Serbia and Russia, live an ascetic life in Athos, isolated from the rest of the world. The Athonite monasteries feature a rich collection of well-preserved artifacts, rare books, ancient documents, and artworks of immense historical value, and Mount Athos has been listed as a World Heritage site since 1988. Although Mount Athos is legally part of the European Union like the rest of Greece, the Monastic State of the Holy Mountain and the Athonite institutions have a special jurisdiction which was reaffirmed during the admission of Greece to the European Community (precursor to the EU).[4] This empowers the Monastic State's authorities to regulate the free movement of people and goods in its territory; in particular, only males are allowed to enter. Contents 1 Geography 2 Access 3 History 3.1 Antiquity 3.2 Early Christianity 3.3 Byzantine era: the first monasteries 3.4 Serbian era and influences 3.5 Ottoman era 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Bibliography 8 External links Geography[edit] Mount Athos - view from NW A map of Mount Athos The peninsula, the easternmost "leg" of the larger Chalkidiki peninsula in central Macedonia, protrudes 50 km (31 mi)[5] into the Aegean Sea at a width of between 7 and 12 km (4.3 and 7.5 mi) and covers an area of 335.6 km2 (130 sq mi). The actual Mount Athos has steep, densely forested slopes reaching up to 2,033 m (6,670 ft). The surrounding seas, especially at the end of the peninsula, can be dangerous. In ancient Greek history two fleet disasters in the area are recorded: In 492 BC Darius, the king of Persia, lost 300 ships under general Mardonius.[6] In 411 BC the Spartans lost a fleet of 50 ships under admiral Epicleas.[7] Though land-linked, Mount Athos is practically accessible only by boat. The Agios Panteleimon and Axion Estin ferries travel daily (weather permitting) between Ouranoupolis and Dafni, with stops at some monasteries on the western coast. There is also a smaller speed boat, the Agia Anna, which travels the same route, but with no intermediate stops. It is possible to travel by ferry to and from Ierissos for direct access to monasteries along the eastern coast. Access[edit] The number of daily visitors to Mount Athos is restricted, and all are required to obtain a special entrance permit valid for a limited period. Only men are permitted to visit the territory, which is called the "Garden of Virgin Mary" by the monks,[8] with Orthodox Christians taking precedence in permit issuance procedures. Residents on the peninsula must be men aged 18 and over who are members of the Eastern Orthodox Church and also either monks or workers. As part of measures to fight the COVID-19 pandemic, visits to Mount Athos were suspended from 19–30 March 2020.[9] History[edit] A 3D model of Athos Antiquity[edit] Imaginary view of the Alexander monument, proposed by Dinocrates. Engraving by Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, 1725 In Greek mythology, Athos is the name of one of the Gigantes that challenged the Greek gods during the Gigantomachia. Athos threw a massive rock against Poseidon which fell in the Aegean sea and became Mount Athos. According to another version of the story, Poseidon used the mountain to bury the defeated giant. Homer mentions the mountain Athos in the Iliad.[10] Herodotus writes that, during the Persian invasion of Thrace in 492 BC, the fleet of the Persian commander Mardonius was wrecked with losses of 300 ships and 20,000 men, by a strong North wind while attempting to round the coast near Mount Athos.[11] Herodotus mentions the peninsula, then called Akte, telling us that Pelasgians from the island of Lemnos populated it and naming five cities thereon, Sane, Kleonai (Cleonae), Thyssos (Thyssus), Olophyxos (Olophyxus), and Akrothoon (Acrothoum).[12] Strabo also mentions the cities of Dion (Dium) and Akrothoon.[13] Eretria also established colonies on Akte. At least one other city was established in the Classical period: Akanthos (Acanthus). Some of these cities minted their own coins. The peninsula was on the invasion route of Xerxes I, who spent three years[14] excavating the Xerxes Canal across the isthmus to allow the passage of his invasion fleet in 483 BC. After the death of Alexander the Great, the architect Dinocrates (Deinokrates) proposed carving the entire mountain into a statue of Alexander. The history of the peninsula during latter ages is shrouded by the lack of historical accounts. Archaeologists have not been able to determine the exact location of the cities reported by Strabo. It is believed that they must have been deserted when Athos' new inhabitants, the monks, started arriving some time before the ninth century AD.[15] Early Christianity[edit] The peninsula as seen from the summit of Mount Athos ( 40°9′28″N 24°19′36″E / 40.15778°N 24.32667°E / 40.15778; 24.32667) According to the Athonite tradition, the Blessed Virgin Mary was sailing accompanied by St John the Evangelist from Joppa to Cyprus to visit Lazarus. When the ship was blown off course to then-pagan Athos, it was forced to anchor near the port of Klement, close to the present monastery of Iviron. The Virgin walked ashore and, overwhelmed by the wonderful and wild natural beauty of the mountain, she blessed it and asked her Son for it to be her garden. A voice was heard saying, "Ἔστω ὁ τόπος οὗτος κλῆρος σὸς καὶ περιβόλαιον σὸν καὶ παράδεισος, ἔτι δὲ καὶ λιμὴν σωτήριος τῶν θελόντων σωθῆναι" (Translation: "Let this place be your inheritance and your garden, a paradise and a haven of salvation for those seeking to be saved"). From that moment the mountain was consecrated as the garden of the Mother of God and was out of bounds to all other women.[note 2] Historical documents on ancient Mount Athos history are very few. It is certain that monks have been there since the fourth century, and possibly since the third. During Constantine I's reign (324–337) both Christians and pagans were living there. During the reign of Julian the Apostate (361–363), the churches of Mount Athos were destroyed, and Christians hid in the woods and inaccessible places.[16] Later, during Theodosius I's reign (379–395), the pagan temples were destroyed. The lexicographer Hesychius of Alexandria states that in the fifth century there was still a temple and a statue of "Zeus Athonite". After the Islamic conquest of Egypt in the seventh century, many Orthodox monks from the Egyptian desert tried to find another calm place; some of them came to the Athos peninsula. An ancient document states that monks "built huts of wood with roofs of straw [...] and by collecting fruit from the wild trees were providing themselves improvised meals."[17] Byzantine era: the first monasteries[edit] A Byzantine watch tower, protecting the dock (αρσανάς, arsanás) of Xeropotamou monastery The chroniclers Theophanes the Confessor (end of 8th century) and Georgios Kedrenos (11th century) wrote that the 726 eruption of the Thera volcano was visible from Mount Athos, indicating that it was inhabited at the time. The historian Genesios recorded that monks from Athos participated at the seventh Ecumenical Council of Nicaea of 787. Following the Battle of Thasos in 829, Athos was deserted for some time due to the destructive raids of the Cretan Saracens. Around 860, the famous monk Efthymios the Younger[18] came to Athos and a number of monk-huts ("skete of Saint Basil") were created around his habitation, possibly near Krya Nera. During the reign of emperor Basil I the Macedonian, the former Archbishop of Crete (and later of Thessaloniki) Basil the Confessor built a small monastery at the place of the modern harbour (arsanás) of Hilandariou Monastery. Soon after this, a document of 883 states that a certain Ioannis Kolovos built a monastery at Megali Vigla. On a chrysobull of emperor Basil I, dated 885, the Holy Mountain is proclaimed a place of monks, and no laymen or farmers or cattle-breeders are allowed to be settled there. The next year, in an imperial edict of emperor Leo VI the Wise we read about the "so-called ancient seat of the council of gerondes (council of elders)", meaning that there was already a kind of monks' administration and that it was already "ancient". In 887, some monks expostulate to the emperor Leo the Wise that as the monastery of Kolovos is growing more and more, they are losing their peace.[citation needed] In 908 the existence of a Protos ("First monk"), the "head" of the monastic community, is documented. In 943 the borders of the monastic state were precisely mapped; we know that Karyes was already the capital and seat of the administration, named "Megali Mesi Lavra" (Big Central Assembly). In 956, a decree offered land of about 940,000 m2 (230 acres) to the Xeropotamou monastery, which means that this monastery was already quite big. Emperor Nicephorus Phocas Athanasios the Athonite Holy Mount Athos: The Holy Mount Athos: Sheltering the Oldest Orthodox Literary Treasures (1926), by Alphonse Mucha, The Slav Epic In 958, the monk Athanasios the Athonite (Άγιος Αθανάσιος ο Αθωνίτης) arrived on Mount Athos. In 962 he built the big central church of the "Protaton" in Karies. In the next year, with the support of his friend Emperor Nicephorus Phocas, the monastery of Great Lavra was founded, still the largest and most prominent of the twenty monasteries existing today. It enjoyed the protection of the Byzantine emperors during the following centuries, and its wealth and possessions grew considerably.[19] From the 10th to the 13th centuries, there was a Benedictine monastery on Mount Athos (between Magisti Lavra and Philotheou Karakallou[20]) known as Amalfion after the people of Amalfi who founded it.[21] During the 11th century, Mount Athos offered a meeting place for Serbian and Russian monk Scribes. Russian monks first settled there in the 1070s, in Xylourgou Monastery (now Skiti Bogoroditsa); in 1089 they moved to the St. Panteleimon Monastery, while the Serbs took over the Xylourgou. From 1100 to 1169 the St. Panteleimon Monastery was in a state of decay and such Russian monks as remained in Mount Athos lived at Xylourgou among the Serbs. In 1169 the Serbs received St. Panteleimon, which they shared with the Russians until 1198, when the Serbs moved to the Hilandar monastery, which became the main centre of Serbian monasticism; the Russians then remained in possession of St. Panteleimon, known since as Rossikon. The Fourth Crusade in the 13th century brought new Roman Catholic overlords, which forced the monks to complain and ask for the intervention of Pope Innocent III until the restoration of the Byzantine Empire. The peninsula was raided by Catalan mercenaries in the 14th century in the so-called Catalan vengeance due to which the entry of people of Catalan origin was prohibited until 2005. The 14th century also saw the theological conflict over the hesychasm practised on Mount Athos and defended by Gregory Palamas (Άγιος Γρηγόριος ο Παλαμάς). In late 1371 or early 1372 the Byzantines defeated an Ottoman attack on Athos.[19] Serbian era and influences[edit] Serbian lords of the Nemanjić dynasty offered financial support to the monasteries of Mount Athos, while some of them also made pilgrimages and became monks there. Stefan Nemanja helped build the Hilandar monastery on Mount Athos together with his son Archbishop Saint Sava in 1198.[22][23] From 1342 until 1372 Mount Athos was under Serbian administration. Emperor Stefan Dušan helped Mount Athos with many large donations to all monasteries. In The charter of emperor Stefan Dušan to the Monastery of Hilandar[24] the Emperor gave to the monastery Hilandar direct rule over many villages and churches, including the church of Svetog Nikole u Dobrušti in Prizren, the church of Svetih Arhanđela in Štip, the Church of Svetog Nikole in Vranje and surrounding lands and possessions. He also gave large possessions and donations to the Karyes Hermitage of St. Sabas and the Holy Archangels in Jerusalem[25] and to many other monasteries. Dušan was the only medieval lord who spent a lot of his time in Mount Athos and at the same time from there ruled the Empire,[citation needed] spending 9 months there together with his wife around 1347.[citation needed] Empress Jelena, wife of the Emperor Stefan Dušan, was among the very few women allowed to visit and stay in Mount Athos.[26] Thanks to the donations by Dušan, the Serbian monastery of Hilandar was enlarged to more than 10,000 hectares, thus having the largest possessions on Mount Athos among other monasteries, and occupying 1/3 of the area. Serbian nobleman Antonije Bagaš, together with Nikola Radonja, bought and restored the ruined Agiou Pavlou monastery between 1355 and 1365, becoming its abbot.[27] The time of the Serbian Empire was a prosperous period for Hilandar and of other monasteries in Mount Athos and many of them were restored and rebuilt and significantly enlarged.[26] Donations continued after the fall of the Serbian empire and Lazar of Serbia and the later Branković dynasty continued to support the monastic community.[citation needed] Serbian magnate Radič (veliki čelnik) restored the Konstamonitou Monastery after the 1420 fire and then took monastic vows and received the name Roman (after 1433).[citation needed] Serbian princess Mara Branković was the second Serbian woman that was granted permissions to visit area.[28] As a wife of Murad II, Mara Branković used her influence on the Ottoman court to secure the special status of Mount Athos inside the Ottoman Empire.[citation needed] At the end of the 15th century five monasteries on Mount Athos had Serbian monks and were under the Serbian Prior: Docheiariou, Grigoriou, Ayiou Pavlou, Ayiou Dionysiou and Hilandar[29] Under Ottoman rule many Serbian nobles including ones who were under direct Ottoman rule or had accepted the Muslim faith continued their support for Mount Athos.[citation needed] In modern times after the end of Ottoman rule new Serbian kings from the Obrenović dynasty and Karađorđević dynasty and the new bourgeois class continued their support of Mount Athos. After the dissolution of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia many presidents and prime ministers of Serbia visited Mount Athos.[30] Ottoman era[edit] The Byzantine Empire ceased to exist in the 15th century and the Ottoman Empire took its place.[31] The Athonite monks tried to maintain good relations with the Ottoman Sultans, and therefore when Murad II conquered Thessaloniki in 1430 they immediately pledged allegiance to him. In return, Murad recognized the monasteries' properties, something which Mehmed II formally ratified after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. In this way Athonite independence was preserved. From the account of the Russian pilgrim Isaiah, by the end of the 15th century half of the monasteries were either Slav or Albanian. In particular, Docheiariou, Grigoriou, Ayiou Pavlou, Ayiou Dionysiou, and Chilandariou were Serbian; Karakalou and Philotheou were Albanian; Panteleïmon was Russian; Simonopetra was Bulgarian; Pantokratoros and Stavronikita were Greek; and Zographou, Kastamonitou, Xeropotamou, Koutloumousiou, Xenophontos, Iviron and Protaton did not bear any designation.[32] The 15th and 16th centuries were particularly peaceful for the Athonite community. This led to relative prosperity for the monasteries. An example of this is the foundation of Stavronikita monastery which completed the current number of Athonite monasteries. Following the conquest of the Serbian Despotate by the Ottomans many Serbian monks came to Athos. The extensive presence of Serbian monks is depicted in the numerous elections of Serbian monks to the office of the Protos during the era. View of the area around Vatopedi monastery Sultan Selim I was a substantial benefactor of the Xeropotamou monastery. In 1517, he issued a fatwa and a Hatt-i Sharif ("noble edict") that "the place, where the Holy Gospel is preached, whenever it is burned or even damaged, shall be erected again." He also endowed privileges to the Abbey and financed the construction of the dining area and underground of the Abbey as well as the renovation of the wall paintings in the central church that were completed between the years 1533–1541.[33] Although most time the monasteries were left on their own, the Ottomans heavily taxed them and sometimes they seized important land parcels from them.[citation needed] This eventually culminated in an economic crisis in Athos during the 17th century. This led to the adoption of the so-called "idiorrhythmic" lifestyle (a semi-eremitic variant of Christian monasticism) by a few monasteries at first and later, during the first half of the 18th century, by all. This new way of monastic organization was an emergency measure taken by the monastic communities to counter their harsh economic environment. Contrary to the cenobitic system, monks in idiorrhythmic communities have private property, work for themselves, they are solely responsible for acquiring food and other necessities and they dine separately in their cells, only meeting with other monks at church. At the same time, the monasteries' abbots were replaced by committees and at Karyes the Protos was replaced by a four-member committee.[34] In 1749, with the establishment of the Athonite Academy near Vatopedi monastery, the local monastic community took a leading role in the modern Greek Enlightenment movement of the 18th century.[35] This institution offered high level education, especially under Eugenios Voulgaris, where ancient philosophy and modern physical science were taught.[36] Russian tsars, and princes from Moldavia, Wallachia and Serbia (until the end of the 15th century), helped the monasteries survive with large donations. The population of monks and their wealth declined over the next centuries, but were revitalized during the 19th century, particularly by the patronage of the Russian government. As a result, the monastic population grew steadily throughout the century, reaching a high point of over 7,000 monks in 1902. In November 1912, during the First Balkan War, the Ottomans were forced out by the Greek Navy.[37] Greece claimed the peninsula as part of the peace treaty of London signed on 30 May 1913. As a result of the shortcomings of the Treaty of London, the Second Balkan War broke out between the combatants in June 1913. A final peace was agreed at the Treaty of Bucharest on 10 August 1913. In June 1913, a small Russian fleet, consisting of the gunboat Donets and the transport ships Tsar and Kherson, delivered the archbishop of Vologda, and a number of troops to Mount Athos to intervene in the theological controversy over imiaslavie (a Russian Orthodox movement). The archbishop held talks with the imiaslavtsy and tried to make them change their beliefs voluntarily, but was unsuccessful. On 31 July 1913, the troops stormed the St. Panteleimon Monastery. Although the monks were not armed and did not actively resist, the troops showed very heavy-handed tactics. After the storming of St. Panteleimon Monastery, the monks from the Andreevsky Skete (Skiti Agiou Andrea) surrendered voluntarily. The military transport Kherson was converted into a prison ship and more than a thousand imiaslavtsy monks were sent to Odessa where they were excommunicated and dispersed throughout Russia. After a brief diplomatic conflict between Greece and Russia over sovereignty, the peninsula formally came under Greek sovereignty after World War I. View of Dafni See also[edit] Byzantine Empire Eastern Orthodox Church Hesychasm History of the Byzantine Empire List of historic Greek countries and regions New Athos Postage stamps and postal history of Mount Athos Sacred mountains Notes[edit] ^ Drachma before 2001. ^ St Gregory Palamas included this tradition in his book Life of Petros the Athonite, p. 150, 1005 AD. References[edit] ^ "Σύνταγμα της Ελληνικής Δημοκρατίας" (PDF). hellenicparliament.gr. 1927. Retrieved 23 April 2011. ^ "The Protaton church at Karyes". Macedonian-heritage.gr. Retrieved 1 June 2011. ^ "Mount Athos Home". Archived from the original on 1 October 2015. Retrieved 11 June 2016. ^ "Official Journal of the European Communities: L 291 - Volume 22 - 19 November 1979". Eur-lex.europa.eu. Eur-lex.europa.eu. Retrieved 2 January 2020. ^ Robert Draper, "Mount Athos" Archived 11 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine, National Geographic magazine, December 2009 ^ Herodotus, Histories, book VI ("Erato"); Aeschylus, The Persians. ^ Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica XIII 41, 1–3. ^ Athonite monasticism at the dawn of the third millennium, Pravmir Portal, September 2007. ^ James J. Williams. "Coronavirus: Mount Athos Closes for Pilgrims and Visitors until March 30", Belle News, 20 March 2020. Retrieved on 20 March 2020. ^ Homer, Iliad 14,229. ^ Herodotus, Histories 6,44. ^ Herodotus, Histories 7,22. ^ Strabo, Geography 7,33,1. ^ Warry, J. 1998 Warfare in the Classical World Salamander Book Ltd., London p 35 ^ Kadas, Sotiris. The Holy Mountain (in Greek). Athens: Ekdotike Athenon. p. 9. ISBN 978-960-213-199-2. ^ Speake 2002, p. 27. ^ Biography of Saint Athanasius the Athonite ^ Kazhdan, Alexander P., ed. (2005). "Euthymios the Younger". The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195046526.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6. Retrieved 15 March 2017. also called Euthymios of Thessalonike, saint; baptismal name Niketas; born village of Opso, Galatia 823/4 ^ a b Fine, John (1987). The Late Medieval Balkans. University of Michigan Press. pp. 381. ISBN 978-0-472-10079-8. ^ https://www.johnsanidopoulos.com/2010/07/amalfion-benedictine-monastery-on-mount.html ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20120112043133/http://allmercifulsavior.com/Liturgy/Amalfion%20Oct%202002.pdf ^ 100 najznamenitijih Srba. Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts. 1993. ISBN 978-86-82273-08-0.; 1st place ^ Mileusnić 2000, p. 38. ^ Komatina, Ivana. "I. Komatina, Povelja cara Stefana Dušana manastiru Hilandaru (The charter of emperor Stefan Dušan to the Monastery Hilandar), SSA 13 (2014)". Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ "Serbian Church in History". atlantaserbs.com. ^ a b (redjasna@yahoo.com), Veselin Ostojin (happynose@geocities.com), Jasmina Maric. "Srpsko Nasledje". srpsko-nasledje.rs. ^ Angold, Michael (17 August 2006). The Cambridge History of Christianity: Volume 5, Eastern Christianity. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521811132 – via Google Books. ^ "SERBIA". fmg.ac. ^ Bakalopulos, A. E. (11 April 1973). "History of Macedonia, 1354–1833. [By] A.E. Vacalopoulos" – via Google Books. ^ Pešić, Milenko. "Blagoslov Hilandara za kraljeve i predsednike". ^ John Anthony McGuckin (15 December 2010). The Encyclopedia of Eastern Orthodox Christianity. John Wiley & Sons. p. 182. ISBN 978-1-4443-9254-8. After the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, Byzantine political influence was effectively ended, but the prerogatives of the Greek Church remained and were amalgamated by the Sultans. ^ Vacalopoulos, A.E. (1973). History of Macedonia, 1354–1833. pp. 166–167. At the end of the 15th century, the Russian pilgrim Isaiah relates that the monks support themselves with various kinds of work including the cultivation of their vineyards....He also tells us that nearly half the monasteries are Slav or Albanian. As Serbian he instances Docheiariou, Grigoriou, Ayiou Pavlou, a monastery near Ayiou Pavlou and dedicated to St. John the Theologian (he no doubt means the monastery of Ayiou Dionysiou), and Chilandariou. Panteleïmon is Russian, Simonopetra is Bulgarian, and Karakallou and Philotheou are Albanian. Zographou, Kastamonitou (see fig. 58), Xeropotamou, Koutloumousiou, Xenophontos, Iveron and Protaton he mentions without any designation; while Lavra, Vatopedi (see fig. 59), Pantokratoros, and Stavronikita (which had been recently founded by the patriarch Jeremiah I) he names specifically as being Greek (see map 6). ^ Municipality of Stagira, Acanthos Archived 27 December 2004 at the Wayback Machine ^ Kadas, Sotiris. The Holy Mountain (in Greek). Athens: Ekdotike Athenon. pp. 14–16. ISBN 978-960-213-199-2. ^ Facaros, Dana; Theodorou, Linda (2003). Greece. New Holland Publishers. p. 578. ISBN 978-1-86011-898-2. ^ Scupoli, Lorenzo; Nicodemus of the Holy Mountain (1978). Unseen warfare: the Spiritual combat and Path to paradise of Lorenzo Scupoli. St Vladimir's Seminary Press. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-913836-52-1. ^ "The Famous Abode of Monks in Greek Hands". London Standard. London. 16 November 1912. p. 9. Bibliography[edit] Holy Mountain. Stone Arched Bridges and Aqueducts ( ISBN 978-618-00-0827-2) by Frangiscos Martinos. Edited by Dimitri Michalopoulos (Athens, 2019). Mount Athos ISBN 960-213-075-X by Sotiris Kadas. An illustrated guide to the monasteries and their history (Athens 1998). With many illustrations of the Byzantine art treasures on Mount Athos. Athos The Holy Mountain by Sydney Loch. Published 1957 & 1971 (Librairie Molho, Thessaloniki). Loch spent most of his life in the Byzantine tower at Ouranopolis, close to Athos, and describes his numerous visits to the Holy Mountain. The Station: Athos: Treasures and Men by Robert Byron. First published 1931, reprinted with an introduction by John Julius Norwich, 1984. Dare to be Free ISBN 0-330-10629-5 by Walter Babington Thomas. Offers insights into the lives of the monks of Mt Athos during World War II, from the point of view of an escaped POW who spent a year on the peninsula evading capture. Blue Guide: Greece ISBN 0-393-30372-1, pp. 600–03. Offers history and tourist information. Mount Athos: Renewal in Paradise ISBN 978-0300093537, by Graham Speake. Published by Yale University Press in 2002. An extensive book about Athos in the past, the present and the future. Includes valuable tourist information. Features numerous full-colour photographs of the peninsula and daily life in the monasteries. 2nd edition published by Denise Harvey in 2014, which includes revisions, updates, and a new chapter documenting the changes that have occurred in the twelve years since its first publication. From the Holy Mountain by William Dalrymple. ISBN 0-8050-6177-0. Published 1997. Ульянов О. Г. The influence of the monasticism of Holy Mount Athos on the liturgical reform movement in the Late Byzantine // Church, Society and Monasticism. The second international monastic symposium at Sant’Anselmo. Roma, 2006. Ivanov, Emil: Das Bildprogramm des Narthex im Rila-Kloster in Bulgarien unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Wasserweihezyklen auf dem Athos, Diss., Erlangen, 2002. Ivanov, Emil: Apokallypsedarstellungen in der nachbyzantinischen Kunst, in: Das Münster, 3, 2002, 208–217. "Mount Athos". National Geographic. Vol. 164 no. 6. December 1983. pp. 738–766. ISSN 0027-9358. OCLC 643483454. Mileusnić, Slobodan (2000) [1989]. Sveti Srbi (in Serbian). Novi Sad: Prometej. ISBN 978-86-7639-478-4. OCLC 44601641. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Άγιο Όρος (category) Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Mount Athos. 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en-wikipedia-org-6814	----	Syracuse, Sicily - Wikipedia Syracuse, Sicily From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Syracuse, Italy) Jump to navigation Jump to search city in Sicily, Italy This article is about the city in Sicily. For other places sharing the same name, see Syracuse (disambiguation). Comune in Sicily, Italy Syracuse Siracusa  (Italian) Sarausa  (Sicilian) Comune Comune di Siracusa Ortygia island, where Syracuse was founded in ancient Greek times. Mount Etna is visible in the distance. Coat of arms Location of Syracuse Syracuse Location of Syracuse in Italy Show map of Italy Syracuse Syracuse (Sicily) Show map of Sicily Coordinates: 37°04′09″N 15°17′15″E / 37.06917°N 15.28750°E / 37.06917; 15.28750Coordinates: 37°04′09″N 15°17′15″E / 37.06917°N 15.28750°E / 37.06917; 15.28750 Country Italy Region Sicily Province Syracuse (SR) Government  • Mayor Francesco Italia Area[2]  • Total 207.78 km2 (80.22 sq mi) Elevation[3] 17 m (56 ft) Population (31 December 2017)[4]  • Total 121,605[1] Demonym(s) Syracusan,[5] Syracusian[6] (en) Siracusano (it) Time zone UTC+1 (CET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+2 (CEST) Postal code 96100 Dialing code 0931 Patron saint Saint Lucy Saint day 13 December Website comune.siracusa.it Syracuse[a] is a historic city on the Italian island of Sicily, the capital of the Italian province of Syracuse. The city is notable for its rich Greek and Roman history, culture, amphitheatres, architecture, and as the birthplace of the preeminent mathematician and engineer Archimedes.[8] This 2,700-year-old city played a key role in ancient times, when it was one of the major powers of the Mediterranean world. Syracuse is located in the southeast corner of the island of Sicily, next to the Gulf of Syracuse beside the Ionian Sea. The city was founded by Ancient Greek Corinthians and Teneans[9] and became a very powerful city-state. Syracuse was allied with Sparta and Corinth and exerted influence over the entirety of Magna Graecia, of which it was the most important city. Described by Cicero as "the greatest Greek city and the most beautiful of them all",[10] it equaled Athens in size during the fifth century BC.[11] It later became part of the Roman Republic and the Byzantine Empire. Under Emperor Constans II, it served as the capital of the Byzantine Empire (663–669). Palermo later overtook it in importance, as the capital of the Kingdom of Sicily. Eventually the kingdom would be united with the Kingdom of Naples to form the Two Sicilies until the Italian unification of 1860. In the modern day, the city is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site along with the Necropolis of Pantalica. In the central area, the city itself has a population of around 125,000 people. Syracuse is mentioned in the Bible in the Acts of the Apostles book at 28:12 as Paul stayed there.[12] The patron saint of the city is Saint Lucy; she was born in Syracuse and her feast day, Saint Lucy's Day, is celebrated on 13 December. Contents 1 History 1.1 Greek period 1.2 Imperial Roman and Byzantine period 1.3 Emirate of Sicily 1.4 High medieval period 1.5 16th–20th centuries 1.6 Modern history 2 Geography 2.1 Climate 3 Government 4 Demographics 5 Tourism 5.1 Buildings of the Greek period 5.2 Buildings of the Christian period 5.3 Other notable buildings 5.4 Famous people 6 Sports 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links History[edit] See also: Timeline of Syracuse, Sicily Greek period[edit] See also: Magna Graecia and List of Tyrants of Syracuse A Syracusan tetradrachm (c. 415–405 BC), sporting Arethusa and a quadriga. Decadrachm struck at Syracuse, by the die-master Euainetos Syracusian tetradrachm with the portrait of Athena by Eukleidas, c. 400 BC Tetradrachm, circa 485–479 BC, with Arethusa on the obverse, and a quadriga driven by a male charioteer on the reverse. The siege of Syracuse in a 17th-century engraving. Syracuse and its surrounding area have been inhabited since ancient times, as shown by the findings in the villages of Stentinello, Ognina, Plemmirio, Matrensa, Cozzo Pantano and Thapsos, which already had a relationship with Mycenaean Greece. Syracuse was founded in 734 or 733 BC by Greek settlers from Corinth and Tenea, led by the oecist (colonizer) Archias. There are many attested variants of the name of the city including Συράκουσαι Syrakousai, Συράκοσαι Syrakosai and Συρακώ Syrakō.[7] A possible origin of the city's name was given by Vibius Sequester citing[13] first Stephanus Byzantius[7][14] in that there was a Syracusian marsh (λίμνη) called Syrako and secondly Marcian's Periegesis wherein Archias gave the city the name of a nearby marsh; hence one gets Syrako (and thereby Syrakousai and other variants) for the name of Syracuse, a name also attested by Epicharmus.[7][15] The settlement of Syracuse was a planned event, as a strong central leader, Arkhias the aristocrat, laid out how property would be divided up for the settlers, as well as plans for how the streets of the settlement should be arranged, and how wide they should be.[16] The nucleus of the ancient city was the small island of Ortygia. The settlers found the land fertile and the native tribes to be reasonably well-disposed to their presence. The city grew and prospered, and for some time stood as the most powerful Greek city anywhere in the Mediterranean. Colonies were founded at Akrai (664 BC), Kasmenai (643 BC), Akrillai (7th century BC), Helorus (7th century BC) and Kamarina (598 BC). The descendants of the first colonists, called Gamoroi, held power until they were expelled by the Killichiroi, the lower class of the city. The former, however, returned to power in 485 BC, thanks to the help of Gelo, ruler of Gela. Gelo himself became the despot of the city, and moved many inhabitants of Gela, Kamarina and Megara to Syracuse, building the new quarters of Tyche and Neapolis outside the walls. His program of new constructions included a new theatre, designed by Damocopos, which gave the city a flourishing cultural life: this in turn attracted personalities as Aeschylus, Ario of Methymna and Eumelos of Corinth. The enlarged power of Syracuse made unavoidable the clash against the Carthaginians, who ruled western Sicily. In the Battle of Himera, Gelo, who had allied with Theron of Agrigento, decisively defeated the African force led by Hamilcar. A temple dedicated to Athena (on the site of today's Cathedral), was erected in the city to commemorate the event. Syracuse grew considerably during this time. Its walls encircled 120 hectares (300 acres) in the fifth century, but as early as the 470s BC the inhabitants started building outside the walls. The complete population of its territory approximately numbered 250,000 in 415 BC and the population size of the city itself was probably similar to Athens.[11] Gelo was succeeded by his brother Hiero, who fought against the Etruscans at Cumae in 474 BC. His rule was eulogized by poets like Simonides of Ceos, Bacchylides and Pindar, who visited his court. A democratic regime was introduced by Thrasybulos (467 BC).[17] The city continued to expand in Sicily, fighting against the rebellious Siculi, and on the Tyrrhenian Sea, making expeditions up to Corsica and Elba. In the late 5th century BC, Syracuse found itself at war with Athens, which sought more resources to fight the Peloponnesian War. The Syracusans enlisted the aid of a general from Sparta, Athens' foe in the war, to defeat the Athenians, destroy their ships, and leave them to starve on the island (see Sicilian Expedition). In 401 BC, Syracuse contributed a force of 300 hoplites and a general to Cyrus the Younger's Army of the Ten Thousand.[18] Then in the early 4th century BC, the tyrant Dionysius the Elder was again at war against Carthage and, although losing Gela and Camarina, kept that power from capturing the whole of Sicily. After the end of the conflict Dionysius built a massive fortress on Ortygia and 22 km-long walls around all of Syracuse. Another period of expansion saw the destruction of Naxos, Catania and Lentini; then Syracuse entered again in war against Carthage (397 BC). After various changes of fortune, the Carthaginians managed to besiege Syracuse itself, but were eventually pushed back by a pestilence. A treaty in 392 BC allowed Syracuse to enlarge further its possessions, founding the cities of Adranon, Tyndarion and Tauromenos, and conquering Rhegion on the continent. In the Adriatic, to facilitate trade, Dionysius the Elder founded Ancona, Adria and Issa. Apart from his battle deeds, Dionysius was famous as a patron of art, and Plato himself visited Syracuse several times, where Dionysius, offended by Plato's daring to disagree with the king, imprisoned the philosopher and sold him into slavery. His successor was Dionysius the Younger, who was however expelled by Dion in 356 BC. But the latter's despotic rule led in turn to his expulsion, and Dionysius reclaimed his throne in 347 BC. Dionysius was besieged in Syracuse by the Syracusan general Hicetas in 344 BC. The following year the Corinthian Timoleon installed a democratic regime in the city after he exiled Dionysius and defeated Hicetas. The long series of internal struggles had weakened Syracuse's power on the island, and Timoleon tried to remedy this, defeating the Carthaginians in the Battle of the Crimissus (339 BC). After Timoleon's death the struggle among the city's parties restarted and ended with the rise of another tyrant, Agathocles, who seized power with a coup in 317 BC. He resumed the war against Carthage, with alternate fortunes. He was besieged in Syracuse by the Carthaginians in 311 BC, but he escaped from the city with a small fleet. He scored a moral success, bringing the war to the Carthaginians' native African soil, inflicting heavy losses to the enemy. The defenders of Syracuse destroyed the Carthaginian army which besieged them. However, Agathocles was eventually defeated in Africa as well. The war ended with another treaty of peace which did not prevent the Carthaginians from interfering in the politics of Syracuse after the death of Agathocles (289 BC). They laid siege to Syracuse for the fourth and last time in 278 BC. They retreated at the arrival of king Pyrrhus of Epirus, whom Syracuse had asked for help. After a brief period under the rule of Epirus, Hiero II seized power in 275 BC. Hiero inaugurated a period of 50 years of peace and prosperity, in which Syracuse became one of the most renowned capitals of Antiquity. He issued the so-called Lex Hieronica, which was later adopted by the Romans for their administration of Sicily; he also had the theatre enlarged and a new immense altar, the "Hiero's Ara", built. Under his rule lived the most famous Syracusan, the mathematician and natural philosopher Archimedes. Among his many inventions were various military engines including the claw of Archimedes, later used to resist the Roman siege of 214–212 BC. Literary figures included Theocritus and others. Hiero's successor, the young Hieronymus (ruled from 215 BC), broke the alliance with the Romans after their defeat at the Battle of Cannae and accepted Carthage's support. The Romans, led by consul Marcus Claudius Marcellus, besieged the city in 214 BC. The city held out for three years, but fell in 212 BC. The successes of the Syracusians in repelling the Roman siege had made them overconfident. In 212 BC, the Romans received information that the city's inhabitants were to participate in the annual festival to their goddess Artemis. A small party of Roman soldiers approached the city under the cover of night and managed to scale the walls to get into the outer city and with reinforcements soon took control, killing Archimedes in the process, but the main fortress remained firm. After an eight-month siege and with parleys in progress, an Iberian captain named Moeriscus is believed to have let the Romans in near the Fountains of Arethusa. On the agreed signal, during a diversionary attack, he opened the gate. After setting guards on the houses of the pro-Roman faction, Marcellus gave Syracuse to plunder. Imperial Roman and Byzantine period[edit] The Roman amphitheatre The Temple of Apollo Piazza Duomo The Cathedral Though declining slowly through the years, Syracuse maintained the status of capital of the Roman government of Sicily and seat of the praetor. It remained an important port for trade between the Eastern and the Western parts of the Empire. Christianity spread in the city through the efforts of Paul of Tarsus and Saint Marziano, the first bishop of the city, who made it one of the main centres of proselytism in the West. In the age of Christian persecutions massive catacombs were carved, whose size is second only to those of Rome. After a period of Vandal rule, 469–477, Syracuse and the island was recovered for Roman rule under Odoacer, 476–491 and Theodoric the Great, 491–526, by Belisarius for the Byzantine Empire (31 December 535).[19] From 663 to 668 Syracuse was the seat of the Greek-speaking Emperor Constans II, as well as a capital of the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire and metropolis of the whole Sicilian Church. Constans II was assassinated when his plans to permanently replace the Byzantine capital of Constantinople with Syracuse became suspected. Emirate of Sicily[edit] Main article: Emirate of Sicily The city was besieged by the Aghlabids for almost a year in 827–828, but Byzantine reinforcements prevented its fall. It remained the center of Byzantine resistance to the gradual Muslim conquest of Sicily until it fell to the Aghlabids after another siege on 20/21 May 878. During the two centuries of Muslim rule, the capital of the Emirate of Sicily was moved from Syracuse to Palermo. The cathedral was converted into a mosque and the quarter on the Ortygia island was gradually rebuilt along Islamic styles. The city, nevertheless, maintained important trade relationships, and housed a relatively flourishing cultural and artistic life: several Arab poets, including Ibn Hamdis, the most important Sicilian Arab poet of the 12th century, flourished in the city. In 1038, the Byzantine general George Maniakes reconquered the city, sending the relics of St. Lucy to Constantinople. The eponymous castle on the cape of Ortygia bears his name, although it was built under the Hohenstaufen rule. In 1085 the Normans entered Syracuse, one of the last Arab strongholds, after a summer-long siege by Roger I of Sicily and his son Jordan of Hauteville, who was given the city as count. New quarters were built, and the cathedral was restored, as well as other churches. High medieval period[edit] In 1194, Emperor Henry VI occupied the Sicilian kingdom, including Syracuse. After a short period of Genoese rule (1205–1220) under the notorious admiral and pirate Alamanno da Costa, which favoured a rise of trades, royal authority was re-asserted in the city by Frederick II. He began the construction of the Castello Maniace, the Bishops' Palace and the Bellomo Palace. Frederick's death brought a period of unrest and feudal anarchy. In the War of the Sicilian Vespers between the Angevin and Aragonese dynasties for control of Sicily, Syracuse sided with the Aragonese and expelled the Angevins in 1298, receiving from the Spanish sovereigns great privileges in reward. The preeminence of baronial families is also shown by the construction of the palaces of Abela, Chiaramonte, Nava, Montalto . 16th–20th centuries[edit] The city was struck by two ruinous earthquakes in 1542 and 1693, and a plague in 1729. The 17th century destruction changed the appearance of Syracuse forever, as well as the entire Val di Noto, whose cities were rebuilt along the typical lines of Sicilian Baroque, considered one of the most typical expressions of the architecture of Southern Italy. The spread of cholera in 1837 led to a revolt against the Bourbon government. The punishment was the move of the province capital seat to Noto, but the unrest had not been totally choked, as the Siracusani took part in the Sicilian revolution of 1848. After the Unification of Italy of 1865, Syracuse regained its status of provincial capital. In 1870 the walls were demolished and a bridge connecting the mainland to Ortygia island was built. In the following year a railway link was constructed. Modern history[edit] Both Allied and German bombings in 1943 caused heavy destruction during World War II. Operation Husky, the codename for the Allied invasion of Sicily, was launched on the night between 9–10 July 1943 with British forces attacking the southeast of the island. The plan was for the British 5th Infantry Division, part of General Sir Bernard Montgomery's Eighth Army to capture Syracuse on the first day of the invasion. This part of the operation went completely according to plan, and British forces captured Syracuse on the first night of the operation.[20] The port was then used as a base for the British Royal Navy.[21] To the west of the city is a Commonwealth War Graves cemetery where about 1,000 men are buried. After the end of the war the northern quarters of Syracuse experienced a heavy, often chaotic, expansion, favoured by the quick process of industrialization. Syracuse today has about 125,000 inhabitants and numerous attractions for the visitor interested in historical sites (such as the Ear of Dionysius). A process of recovering and restoring the historical centre has been ongoing since the 1990s. Nearby places of note include Catania, Noto, Modica and Ragusa. Geography[edit] Climate[edit] Syracuse experiences a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csa) with mild, wet winters and warm to hot, dry summers. Snow is infrequent but not rare at all; the last heavy snowfall in the city occurred in December 2014[22] but frosts are very rare, the last one happening in December 2014 with 0 °C. Climate data for Syracuse Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 18.6 (65.5) 19.6 (67.3) 21.6 (70.9) 24.4 (75.9) 28.9 (84.0) 34.0 (93.2) 36.5 (97.7) 35.8 (96.4) 32.7 (90.9) 28.7 (83.7) 24.1 (75.4) 20.0 (68.0) 36.5 (97.7) Average high °C (°F) 14.8 (58.6) 15.3 (59.5) 17.1 (62.8) 19.7 (67.5) 23.7 (74.7) 28.2 (82.8) 31.3 (88.3) 31.2 (88.2) 28.1 (82.6) 24.0 (75.2) 19.6 (67.3) 16.3 (61.3) 22.4 (72.3) Daily mean °C (°F) 11.1 (52.0) 11.4 (52.5) 12.9 (55.2) 15.2 (59.4) 18.8 (65.8) 23.0 (73.4) 26.0 (78.8) 26.2 (79.2) 23.7 (74.7) 20.0 (68.0) 15.8 (60.4) 12.6 (54.7) 18.1 (64.6) Average low °C (°F) 7.3 (45.1) 7.5 (45.5) 8.7 (47.7) 10.7 (51.3) 13.9 (57.0) 17.8 (64.0) 20.7 (69.3) 21.2 (70.2) 19.2 (66.6) 16.0 (60.8) 12.1 (53.8) 9.0 (48.2) 13.7 (56.7) Record low °C (°F) 3.0 (37.4) 3.1 (37.6) 4.3 (39.7) 6.6 (43.9) 9.7 (49.5) 13.8 (56.8) 17.0 (62.6) 17.9 (64.2) 15.3 (59.5) 11.0 (51.8) 7.1 (44.8) 0.0 (32.0) 0.0 (32.0) Average precipitation mm (inches) 75 (3.0) 52 (2.0) 44 (1.7) 30 (1.2) 16 (0.6) 5 (0.2) 3 (0.1) 7 (0.3) 44 (1.7) 78 (3.1) 94 (3.7) 78 (3.1) 526 (20.7) Average precipitation days 9 7 6 4 3 1 1 1 4 7 8 9 60 Average ultraviolet index 2 3 5 7 8 9 10 9 7 5 3 2 6 Source: Archivio climatico Enea-Casaccia[23] and Weather Atlas[24] Government[edit] See also: List of mayors of Syracuse, Sicily Demographics[edit] In 2016, there were 122,051[1] people residing in Syracuse, located in the province of Syracuse, Sicily, of whom 48.7% were male and 51.3% were female. Minors (children ages 18 and younger) totalled 18.9 percent of the population compared to pensioners who number 16.9 percent. This compares with the Italian average of 18.1 percent (minors) and 19.9 percent (pensioners). The average age of Syracuse resident is 40 compared to the Italian average of 42. In the five years between 2002 and 2007, the population of Syracuse declined by 0.5 percent, while Italy as a whole grew by 3.6 percent. The reason for decline is a population flight to the suburbs, and northern Italy.[25][26] The current birth rate of Syracuse is 9.75 births per 1,000 inhabitants compared to the Italian average of 9.45 births. As of 2006[update], 97.9% of the population was of Italian descent. The largest immigrant group came from other European nations (particularly those from Poland, and the United Kingdom): 0.6%, North Africa (mostly Tunisian): 0.5%, and South Asia: 0.4%. Tourism[edit] Syracuse and the Rocky Necropolis of Pantalica UNESCO World Heritage Site The Greek theatre of Syracuse Criteria Cultural: ii, iii, iv, vi Reference 1200 Inscription 2005 (29th session) Area 898.46 ha Buffer zone 5,519.4 ha Since 2005, the entire city of Syracuse, along with the Necropolis of Pantalica which falls within the province of Syracuse, were listed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. This programme aims to catalogue, name and conserve sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common heritage of humanity. The deciding committee which evaluates potential candidates described their reasons for choosing Syracuse because "monuments and archeological sites situated in Syracuse are the finest example of outstanding architectural creation spanning several cultural aspects; Greek, Roman and Baroque", following on that Ancient Syracuse was "directly linked to events, ideas and literary works of outstanding universal significance".[27] Buildings of the Greek period[edit] The Temple of Apollo, at Piazza Emanuele Pancali, adapted to a church in Byzantine times and to a mosque under Arab rule. The Fountain of Arethusa, on the Ortygia island. According to a legend, the nymph Arethusa, hunted by Alpheus, took shelter here. The Greek Theatre, whose cavea is one of the largest ever built by the ancient Greeks: it has 67 rows, divided into nine sections with eight aisles. Only traces of the scene and the orchestra remain. The edifice (still used today) was modified by the Romans, who adapted it to their different style of spectacles, including also circus games. Near the theatre are the latomìe, stone quarries, also used as prisons in ancient times. The most famous latomìa is the Orecchio di Dionisio ("Ear of Dionysius"). The Roman amphitheatre. It was partly carved out from the rock. In the centre of the area is a rectangular space which was used for the scenic machinery. The Tomb of Archimede, in the Grotticelli Nechropolis. Decorated with two Doric columns. The Temple of Olympian Zeus, about 3 kilometres (2 miles) outside the city, built around 6th century BC. Buildings of the Christian period[edit] Santa Lucia Alla Badia in the Piazza Duomo The Cathedral of Syracuse (Italian: Duomo) was built by bishop Zosimo in the 7th century over the great Temple of Athena (5th century BC), on Ortygia island. This was a Doric edifice with six columns on the short sides and 14 on the long sides: these can still be seen incorporated in the walls of the current church. The base of the temple had three steps. The interior of the church has a nave and two aisles. The roof of the nave is from Norman times, as well as the mosaics in the apses. The façade was rebuilt by Andrea Palma in 1725–1753, with a double order of Corinthian columns, and statues by Ignazio Marabitti. The most interesting pieces of the interior are a font with marble basin (12th–13th century), a silver statue of St. Lucy by Pietro Rizzo (1599), a ciborium by Luigi Vanvitelli, and a statue of the Madonna della Neve ("Madonna of the Snow", 1512) by Antonello Gagini. Basilica of Santa Lucia Extra moenia, a Byzantine church built (after Norman rebuilt), according to tradition, in the same place of the martyrdom of the saint in 303 AD. The current appearance is from the 15th–16th centuries. The most ancient parts still preserved include the portal, the three half-circular apses and the first two orders of the belfry. Under the church are the Catacombs of St. Lucy. For this church Caravaggio painted the Burial of St. Lucy, now housed in the Church of Santa Lucìa alla Badìa. Our Lady of Tears Shrine (20th century). Church of San Filippo Apostolo with downstair his Jewish Mikvah (18th century). Church of San Paolo (18th century). Church of San Cristoforo (14th century, rebuilt in the 18th century). Church of Santa Lucìa alla Badìa, a Baroque edifice built after the 1693 earthquake. It houses the Burial of St. Lucy by Caravaggio Church of San Giovanni Battista (14th century). Church of Santa Maria dei Miracoli (14th century). Church of the Spirito Santo (18th century). Church of the Jesuit College, a majestic, Baroque building. Church of St. Benedict (16th century, restored after 1693). It houses a painting of the Death of Saint Benedict by the Caravaggisti Mario Minniti. Chiesa della Concezione (14th century, rebuilt in the 18th century), with the annexed Benedictine convent. Church of San Francesco all'Immacolata, with a convex façade intermingled by columns and pilaster strips. It housed and ancient celebration, the Svelata ("Revelation"), in which an image of the Madonna was unveiled at dawn of 29 November. Basilica of St. John the Evangelist, built by the Normans and destroyed in 1693. Only partially restored, it was erected over an ancient crypt of the martyr San Marciano, later destroyed by the Arabs. The main altar is Byzantine. It includes the Catacombs of San Giovanni, featuring a maze of tunnels and passages, with thousands of tombs and several frescoes. Other notable buildings[edit] The Maniace Castle Detail of Palazzo Beneventano Del Bosco Detail of the Fountain of Diana Castello Maniace, constructed between 1232 and 1240, is an example of the military architecture of Frederick II's reign. It is a square structure with circular towers at each of the four corners. The most striking feature is the pointed portal, decorated with polychrome marbles. The important Archaeological Museum, with collections including findings from the mid-Bronze Age to 5th century BC. Palazzo Lanza Buccheri (16th century). Palazzo Bellomo (12th century), which contains an art museum that houses Antonello da Messina's Annunciation (1474). Palazzo Montalto (14th century), which conserves the old façade from the 14th century, with a pointed portal. The Archbishop's Palace (17th century, modified in the following century). It houses the Alagonian Library, founded in the late 18th century. The Palazzo Vermexio, the current Town Hall, which includes fragments of an Ionic temple of the 5th century BC. Palazzo Francica Nava, with parts of the original 16th century building surviving. Palazzo Beneventano del Bosco, originally built in the Middle Ages but extensively modified between 1779 and 1788. It has a pleasant internal court. Palazzo Migliaccio (15th century), with notable lava inlay decorations. The Senate Palace, housing in the court an 18th-century coach. The Castle of Euryalos, built 9 kilometres (6 miles) outside the city by Dionysius the Elder and which was one of the most powerful fortresses of ancient times. It had three moats with a series of underground galleries which allowed the defenders to remove the materials the attackers could use to fill them. The Mikveh: a bath used for the purpose of ritual immersion in Judaism, built during the Byzantine era. It is situated in the Giudecca: the ancient Jewish Ghetto of Syracuse. Famous people[edit] Archimedes, classical Greek mathematician, physicist and engineer Achaeus of Syracuse, a Greek tragedian Themistogenes, Greek historian. He wrote about the Anabasis and some other works about the Syracuse.[28] Saint Lucy, Roman martyr Pope Stephen III Ibn Hamdis, Sicilian Arab poet Vincenzo Mirabella, humanist and pioneer of archaeology Sports[edit] Syracuse is home to association football club A.S.D. Città di Siracusa, the latest reincarnation of several clubs dating back to 1924. The common feature is the azure shirts, hence the nickname Azzurri. Siracusa play at the Stadio Nicola De Simone with an approximate capacity between 5,000 and 6,000. See also[edit] Cassibile (village) Greek coinage of Italy and Sicily Malèna – a 2000 romantic comedy-drama film starring Monica Bellucci and Giuseppe Sulfaro was mostly produced in Syracuse Peloponnesian League Sicilian Wars Siracusa International Institute for Criminal Justice and Human Rights Siracusa railway station Notes[edit] ^ /ˈsɪrəkjuːs, -kjuːz/; Italian: Siracusa [siraˈkuːza] (listen); Sicilian: Sarausa [saɾaˈuːsa] or Seragusa [seɾaˈguːsa]; Latin: Syrācūsae Classical Latin: [sʏ.raːˈkuː.sae̯] Vulgar Latin pronunciation: [se.raˈɡuː.se̞] Medieval Latin: [si.raˈkuː.zɛ]; Attic Greek: Συράκουσαι, romanized: Syrákousai Attic Greek: [sy.rǎː.kuː.sai̯]; Doric Greek: Συράκοσαι, romanized: Syrā́kosai Doric Greek: [sy.raː.kó.sai̯];[7] Medieval Greek: Συρακοῦσαι, romanized: Syrakoûsai Byzantine Greek: [sy.raˈku.sɛ̝] References[edit] ^ a b "Statistiche demografiche ISTAT". demo.istat.it. ^ "Superficie di Comuni Province e Regioni italiane al 9 ottobre 2011". Istat. Retrieved 16 March 2019. ^ 'City' population (i.e. that of the comune or municipality) from demographic balance: January–April 2009[dead link], ISTAT. ^ "Popolazione Residente al 1° Gennaio 2018". Istat. Retrieved 16 March 2019. ^ "Syracusan, adj. and n.", Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1919 ^ "† Syracusian, adj. and n.", Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1919 ^ a b c d Συράκουσαι. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project ^ "BBC – History – Archimedes". ^ Strabo (1927). Jones, H. L. (ed.). Geography. 4. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 8.6.22. ISBN 978-0-674-99201-6. ^ Marcus Tullius Cicero (1903). "Against Verres". In Yonge, C. D. (ed.). The Orations of Marcus Tullius Cicero. London: George Bell & Sons. 2.4.52. ^ a b Morris, Ian (2008). "The Greater Athenian State". In Morris, Ian; Scheidel, Walter (eds.). The Dynamics of Ancient Empires: State Power from Assyria to Byzantium. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. p. 115. ISBN 978-0-19-970761-4. ^ "Acts Facts: Syracuse". SimplyBible.com. 8 January 2008. ^ Vibius Sequester. "Tyraca". De Fluminibus Fontibus Lacubus Nemoribus Paludibus Montibus Gentibus quorum apud poeta mentio fit. apud Amandum König. p. 287. ^ Ethnika 592.18–21,593.1–8, i.e. Stephanus Byzantinus' Ethnika (kat'epitomen), lemma Συράκουσαι Meineke, Augustus, ed. (1849). Stephani Byzantii Ethnicorvm quae svpersvnt. Prior. Impensis G. Reimeri. pp. 592–593. ^ Epicharmi Fragmenta. apud Vincentium Loosjes. 1834. p. 111. ^ Neer, Richard (2012). Greek Art and Archaeology. New York City: Thames and Hudson. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-500-28877-1. ^ Aristotle's Politics 5.1312b ^ Xenophon. Anabasis, book 1, chapter 2, IX ^ . J. B. Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire, 1958 Edition, pp. Vol I, 254, 327, 410; Vol II p. 171 ^ Bitter Victory: The Battle for Sicily, 1943 by Carlo D'Este, pg. 148 ^ "Operation Husky, Sicily 1943". olive-drab.com. 12 April 2008. ^ Peppe Caridi (31 December 2014). "Storica nevicata a Siracusa: città imbiancata con 0 °C, non-era mai successo prima [FOTO e VIDEO]". MeteoWeb. ^ "Profilo climatico dell'Italia: Siracusa" (in Italian). Ente per la Nuove tecnologie, l'Energia e l'Ambiente. Retrieved 19 December 2014. ^ d.o.o, Yu Media Group. "Syracuse, Italy – Detailed climate information and monthly weather forecast". Weather Atlas. Retrieved 27 June 2019. ^ "Statistiche demografiche ISTAT". Demo.istat.it. Retrieved 5 May 2009. ^ "Statistiche demografiche ISTAT". Demo.istat.it. Retrieved 5 May 2009. ^ "Syracuse and the Rocky Necropolis of Pantalica". UNESCO. 8 January 2008. ^ Suda, §th.123 Further reading[edit] See also: Bibliography of the history of Syracuse, Sicily Dummett, Jeremy (2015). Syracuse City of Legends: A Glory of Sicily (Paperback). London: I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-78453-306-9. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Siracusa. Syracuse (Italy) travel guide from Wikivoyage Coins from ancient Syracuse and Sicily Livius.org: History of Syracuse Photos of Ortigia in Syracuse v t e Sicily · Comuni of the Province of Syracuse Augusta Avola Buccheri Buscemi Canicattini Bagni Carlentini Cassaro Ferla Floridia Francofonte Lentini Melilli Noto Pachino Palazzolo Acreide Portopalo di Capo Passero Priolo Gargallo Rosolini Syracuse Solarino Sortino v t e Archaeological sites in Sicily Province of Agrigento Heraclea Minoa Akragas Valle dei Templi - Temple of Concordia - Temple of Heracles - Temple of Juno - Temple of Olympian Zeus Province of Caltanissetta Gela Bosco Littorio Greek baths of Gela Gibil Gabib Monte Bubbonia Polizzello archaeological site Sabucina Vassallaggi Province of Catania Aetna (city) Katáne Palike Sant'Ippolito (Caltagirone) Province of Enna Centuripe Morgantina Villa Romana del Casale Province of Messina Abacaenum Halaesa Naxos Ancient theatre of Taormina Tindari Villa Romana di Patti Province of Palermo Entella Grotta dell'Addaura Hippana Ietas Himera Pirama Soluntum Province of Ragusa Akrillai Hybla Heraea Kamarina Kaukana Province of Syracuse Akrai Santoni Casmenae Cava del Rivettazzo Colonne di San Basilio Helorus Netum Megara Hyblaea Syrakousai Roman amphitheatre of Syracuse Altar of Hieron Ear of Dionysius Galermi Aqueduct Greek Theatre of Syracuse Grotta del Ninfeo Temple of Athena Temple of Apollo Necropolis of Cassibile Necropolis of Pantalica Thapsos Villa Romana del Tellaro Province of Trapani Eryx/Erice Drepanum Halyciae Grotta del Genovese Monte Polizzo Motya Segesta Selinunte Temple C Temple E Temple F Cave di Cusa Roman furnaces in Alcamo v t e World Heritage Sites in Italy Northwest Crespi d'Adda Genoa Ivrea Mantua and Sabbioneta Monte San Giorgio1 Porto Venere, Palmaria, Tino and Tinetto, Cinque Terre Corniglia Manarola Monterosso al Mare Riomaggiore Vernazza Residences of the Royal House of Savoy Castle of Moncalieri Castle of Racconigi Castle of Rivoli Castello del Valentino Royal Palace of Turin Palazzo Carignano Palazzo Madama, Turin Palace of Venaria Palazzina di caccia of Stupinigi Villa della Regina Rhaetian Railway in the Albula / Bernina Landscapes1 Rock Drawings in Valcamonica Sacri Monti of Piedmont and Lombardy Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan Vineyard Landscape of Piedmont: Langhe-Roero and Monferrato Northeast Aquileia The Dolomites Ferrara Le Colline del Prosecco di Conegliano e Valdobbiadene Modena Cathedral, Torre della Ghirlandina and Piazza Grande, Modena Orto botanico di Padova Ravenna Venice Verona City of Vicenza and the Palladian Villas of the Veneto Central Assisi Basilica of Saint Francis of Assisi Etruscan Necropolises of Cerveteri and Tarquinia Florence Hadrian's Villa Medici villas Piazza del Duomo, Pisa Pienza Rome2 San Gimignano Siena Urbino Val d'Orcia Villa d'Este South Alberobello Amalfi Coast Castel del Monte, Apulia Cilento and Vallo di Diano National Park, Paestum and Velia, Certosa di Padula Herculaneum Oplontis and Villa Poppaea Naples Royal Palace of Caserta, Aqueduct of Vanvitelli and San Leucio Complex Pompeii Sassi di Matera Islands Aeolian Islands Arab-Norman Palermo and the Cathedral Churches of Cefalù and Monreale Archaeological Area of Agrigento Barumini nuraghes Mount Etna Syracuse and Necropolis of Pantalica Val di Noto Caltagirone Catania Militello in Val di Catania Modica Noto Palazzolo Acreide Ragusa Scicli Villa Romana del Casale Countrywide Longobards in Italy, Places of Power (568–774 A.D.) 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cb11956461n (data) GND: 4106466-5 ISNI: 0000 0001 2158 6483 LCCN: n81018794 MBAREA: 58e2d7f4-2a28-4c51-97bd-6251c82c706f NKC: ge192279 VIAF: 131280663 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n81018794 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Syracuse,_Sicily&oldid=1000591112" Categories: Syracuse, Sicily 8th-century BC establishments in Italy Archaeological sites in Sicily Cities and towns in Sicily Coastal towns in Sicily Corinthian colonies Dorian colonies in Magna Graecia Mediterranean port cities and towns in Italy Municipalities of the Province of Syracuse Populated places established in the 8th century BC Sicilian Baroque World Heritage Sites in Italy Greek city-states Hidden categories: Articles containing Italian-language text Articles with hAudio microformats Articles containing Sicilian-language text Articles containing Latin-language text Articles containing Attic Greek-language text Articles containing Doric Greek-language text Articles containing Medieval 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en-wikipedia-org-6816	----	Aeolis - Wikipedia Aeolis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the region of planet Mars, see Aeolis quadrangle. Not to be confused with Aeolus. Ancient Region of Anatolia Aeolis (Αἰολίς) Location Western Anatolia State existed: 8th-6th centuries BC (as Dodecapolis) Language Aeolic Greek Biggest city Smyrna Roman province Asia Map of Asia Minor/Anatolia in the Greco-Roman period. Aeolis (Ancient Greek: Αἰολίς, Aiolís), or Aeolia (/iːˈoʊliə/; Αἰολία, Aiolía), was an area that comprised the west and northwestern region of Asia Minor, mostly along the coast, and also several offshore islands (particularly Lesbos), where the Aeolian Greek city-states were located. Aeolis incorporated the southern parts of Mysia, and is bounded by it to the north, Ionia to the south, and Lydia to the east. Contents 1 Geography 2 History 3 Notable people 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References Geography[edit] Aeolis was an ancient district on the western coast of Asia Minor. It extended along the Aegean Sea from the entrance of the Hellespont (now the Dardanelles) south to the Hermus River (now the Gediz River). It was named for the Aeolians, some of whom migrated there from Greece before 1000 BC. Aeolis was, however, an ethnological and linguistic enclave rather than a geographical unit. The district often was considered part of the larger northwest region of Mysia. History[edit] Greek settlements in western Asia Minor, Aeolian area in dark red. According to Homer's Odyssey, Odysseus, after his stay with the Cyclopes, reached the floating island of Aeolia, where Aeolus son of Hippotas provided him with the west wind Zephyr.[1] Aeolis, Kyme; Tetradrachm; Silver; circa 165-140 BC; Obverse: Head of the Amazon Kyme right, wearing taenia; Reverse: Horse walking right, skyphos (one handled cup) below, ΚΥΜΑΙΩΝ left, ΣΕΥΘΗΣ (magistrate) in exergue, all within laurel-wreath; 34.2mm, 16.409g; Reference: SNG Von Aulock 1640; Oakley obv. die 59; Sg4183 var By the 8th century BC the Aeolians' twelve most important cities were independent. They formed a league of twelve cities (a Dodecapolis): Cyme (also called Phriconis); Larissa; Neonteichos; Temnus; Cilla; Notion; Aegiroessa; Pitane; Aegae; Myrina; Gryneion; and Smyrna.[2] The most celebrated of the cities was Smyrna (modern Izmir, Turkey), but in 699 BC, Smyrna became part of an Ionian confederacy.[citation needed] This league or confederation, known as the Ionian League, also called the Panionic League, was formed at the end of the Meliac War in the mid-7th century BC.[3] Croesus, king of Lydia (reigned 560-546 BC), conquered the remaining cities. Later they were held successively by the Persians, Macedonians, Seleucids, and Pergamenes.[4] Attalus III, the last king of Pergamum, bequeathed Aeolis to the Roman Republic in 133 BC. Shortly afterwards it became part of the Roman province of Asia. At the partition of the Roman Empire (395 AD), Aeolis was assigned to the East Roman (Byzantine) empire and remained largely under Byzantine rule until the early 15th century,[citation needed] when the Ottoman Turks occupied the area.[5] Notable people[edit] Autolycus of Pitane Andriscus Elias Venezis See also[edit] Ancient regions of Anatolia Regions of ancient Greece Notes[edit] ^ http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0218:book=10:card=1 - "Thence we went on to the Aeolian island where lives Aeolus son of Hippotas, dear to the immortal gods. It is an island that floats (as it were) upon the sea, iron bound with a wall that girds it." ^ Herodotus. The Histories: 1.149. Compare Ionian League. ^ Editors (2005). "Recent Finds in Archaeology: Panionion Sanctuary Discovered in Southwest Turkey". Athena Review. 4 (2): 10–11. Archived from the original on 2012-03-23. Retrieved 2018-05-30.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) ^ Each of the cities minted coins of its own, using different gods, animals and objects as identifying city badges. See asiaminorcoins.com - ancient coins of Aeolis ^ Smyrna fell to the Seljuk Turk Tzachas in 1076, to the Turkish Beylik of Aydın about 1330 and to the Turco-Mongol Timur in 1402 (after the Siege of Smyrna). References[edit] Pierluigi Bonanno, Aiolis. Storia e archeologia di una regione dell’Asia Minore alla fine del II millennio a.C., USA, 2006 v t e Historical regions of Anatolia Aeolis Bithynia Cappadocia Caria Cilicia Doris Galatia Ionia Isauria Lycaonia Lycia Lydia Mysia Pamphylia Paphlagonia Phrygia Pisidia Pontus Troad v t e Ancient Greece Timeline History Geography Periods Cycladic civilization Minoan civilization Mycenaean civilization Greek Dark Ages Archaic period Classical Greece Hellenistic Greece Roman Greece Geography Aegean Sea Aeolis Crete Cyrenaica Cyprus Doris Epirus Hellespont Ionia Ionian Sea Macedonia Magna Graecia Peloponnesus Pontus Taurica Ancient Greek colonies City states Politics Military City states Argos Athens Byzantion Chalcis Corinth Ephesus Miletus Pergamon Eretria Kerkyra Larissa Megalopolis Thebes Megara Rhodes Samos Sparta Syracuse Cyrene Alexandria Antioch Lissus (Crete) Kingdoms Epirus (ancient state) Macedonia (ancient kingdom) Ptolemaic Kingdom Seleucid Empire Greco-Bactrian Kingdom Indo-Greek Kingdom Politics Boule Koinon Proxeny Tagus Tyrant Amphictyonic League Athenian Agora Areopagus Ecclesia Graphe paranomon Heliaia Ostracism Spartan Apella Ephor Gerousia Macedon Synedrion Koinon Military Wars Athenian military Scythian archers Antigonid Macedonian army Army of Macedon Ballista Cretan archers Hellenistic armies Hippeis Hoplite Hetairoi Macedonian phalanx Phalanx Peltast Pezhetairos Sarissa Sacred Band of Thebes Sciritae Seleucid army Spartan army Strategos Toxotai Xiphos Xyston People List of ancient Greeks Rulers Kings of Argos Archons of Athens Kings of Athens Kings of Commagene Diadochi Kings of Macedonia Kings of Paionia Attalid kings of Pergamon Kings of Pontus Kings of Sparta Tyrants of Syracuse Philosophers Anaxagoras Anaximander Anaximenes Antisthenes Aristotle Democritus Diogenes of Sinope Empedocles Epicurus Gorgias Heraclitus Hypatia Leucippus Parmenides Plato Protagoras Pythagoras Socrates Thales Zeno Authors Aeschylus Aesop Alcaeus Archilochus 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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6825	----	Arsinoe II - Wikipedia Arsinoe II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Arsinoe (disambiguation). Arsinoe II Head of Ptolemy II Philadelphus with Arsinoe II behind. The Greek inscription ΑΔΕΛΦΩΝ means "[coin] of the siblings". Arsinoë II (Koinē Greek: Ἀρσινόη, 316 BC – unknown date between July 270 and 260 BC) was a Ptolemaic queen and co-regent of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of ancient Egypt. Arsinoe was queen of Thrace, Anatolia and Macedonia by marriage to King Lysimachus and co-ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom with her brother-husband, Pharaoh Ptolemy II Philadelphus. Arsinoe was given the unprecedented Egyptian title "King of Upper and Lower Egypt", marking her a full pharaoh.[1] Contents 1 Life 1.1 Early life 1.2 Queen of Lysimachus 1.3 Queen of Ptolemy Keraunos 1.4 Queen of Egypt 2 Deification 3 Marriage and issue 4 See also 5 References 6 Bibliography 7 Further reading 8 External links Life[edit] Pottery head of Arsinoe II Early life[edit] Arsinoë was the first daughter of Pharaoh Ptolemy I Soter, founder of the Hellenistic state of Egypt, and his second wife Berenice I of Egypt.[2] She was maybe born in Memphis, but was raised in the new city of Alexandria, where her father moved his capital.[3] Nothing is known of her childhood or education, but judging from her later life as patron of scholars and noted for her learning, she is estimated to have been given a high education.[4]Her brothers were tutored by intellectuals hired by their fathers, and it is regarded likely that she attended these lessons as well: she corresponded with the intellectual Strato of Lampsacus later in life, and he may have previously been her tutor.[5] Queen of Lysimachus[edit] At about age 15, Arsinoë married King Lysimachus (who was then around 60 years old),[6]with whom she had three sons: Ptolemy Epigonos,[7][8] Lysimachus,[8] and Philip.[8] In order to position her sons for the throne, she had Lysimachus' first son, Agathocles, poisoned on account of treason. Arsinoe reportedly paid for a rotunda in the Samothrace temple complex, where she was likely an initiate. [9] Queen of Ptolemy Keraunos[edit] After Lysimachus' death in battle in 281 BC, she fled to Cassandreia (Κασσάνδρεια) and married her paternal half-brother Ptolemy Keraunos, one of the sons of Ptolemy I Soter from his previous wife, Eurydice of Egypt. The marriage was for political reasons as they both claimed the throne of Macedonia and Thrace (by the time of his death Lysimachus was ruler of both regions, and his power extended to southern Greece and Anatolia). Their relationship was never good. As Ptolemy Keraunos was becoming more powerful, she decided it was time to stop him and conspired against him with her sons. This action caused Ptolemy Keraunus to kill two of her sons, Lysimachus and Philip, while the eldest, Ptolemy, was able to escape and to flee north, to the kingdom of the Dardanians. She herself sought refuge in the Samothrace temple complex, which she had benefited during her tenure as queen.[10] She eventually left from Samothrace for Alexandria, Egypt, to seek protection from her brother, Ptolemy II Philadelphus.[11] It is not known which year she left for Egypt. She may have left so early as 280, directly after the murder of the younger sons, or as late as 276, when the claim of her eldest son to the Macedonian throne had clearly failed after the succession of Antigonus II Gonatas.[5] The Gonzaga Cameo in the Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg. The gem measures 15,7 x 11,8 cm. Queen of Egypt[edit] In Egypt, she is believed to have instigated the accusation and exile of her brother Ptolemy II's first wife, Arsinoe I. Whether this was actually true is unknown: it is not known which year she arrived in Egypt, and her sister-in-law may already have been exiled at that point, or her divorce may have taken place without her involvement.[12] Whatever the case, after the divorce of Ptolemy, Arsinoe II then married her younger brother. As a result, both were given the epithet "Philadelphoi" (Koinē Greek: Φιλάδελφοι "Sibling-lovers"). The closer circumstances and reasons behind the marriage is not known.[13] Her role as queen was unprecedented in the dynasty at the time and became a role model for later Ptolemaic queens: she acted alongside her brother in ritual and public display, became a religious and literal patron and was included in the Egyptian and Greek cults created by him for them.[14] Sharing in all of her brother's titles,[15] she apparently was quite influential, having towns dedicated to her, her own cult (as was Egyptian custom), appearing on coinage and contributing to foreign policy,[16] including Ptolemy II's victory in the First Syrian War between Egypt and the Seleucid Empire. According to Posidippus, she won three chariot races at the Olympic Games, probably in 272 BC.[17][18] Deification[edit] Coin of Arsinoe II struck under the rule of her husband-brother Ptolemy II Philadelphus, including her main divine attributes: the ram's horn and the double cornucopia. Faience oinochoe with remains of gilding, depicting Arsinoe II After her death, Ptolemy II established a cult of Arsinoe Philadelphus. She received burial and deification rites at Mendes, where she had been a priestess, which are commemorated in the Mendes stele. This stele also includes the decree of Ptolemy II announcing her cult. All temples in Egypt were required to include a cult statue of Arsinoe II alongside the main god of the sanctuary. In the relief at the top of the stele, Arsinoe is depicted among the deities receiving sacrifice from Ptolemy - an image which recurs throughout the country. Separate temples were also constructed for Arsinoe, at Memphis and elsewhere. The Fayyum region became the Arsinoite nome, with Arsinoe as its patron goddess. From 263 BC, a portion of tax on orchard and vineyard produce in each nome of Egypt was dedicated to funding the nome's cult of Arsinoe.[19] Arsinoe's cult was also propagated in Alexandria. An annual priesthood, known as the Canephorus of Arsinoe Philadelphus, was established by 269 BC. The holder of the office was included as part of the dating formula in all official documents until the late second century BC. An annual procession was held in Arsinoe's honour, led by the Canephorus. Every household along the procession's route was required to erect a small altar of sand and sacrifice birds and lentils for Arsinoe.[20] A large temple was erected by the harbour in Alexandria. The admiral Callicrates of Samos erected another sanctuary at Cape Zephyrium, at the eastern end of the harbour, where Arsinoe was worshipped as Aphrodite Euploia (Aphrodite of the good-sailing). Similar sanctuaries were established at a number of port-cities under Ptolemaic control, including Citium in Cyprus, Delos in the Nesiotic League, and Thera. As a result of these sanctuaries, Arsinoe became closely associated with protection from shipwrecks. Coinage and statuettes depicting the divine Arsinoe survive.[19] Her divine attributes are a small ram's horn behind her ear - symbolising her connection to the ram of Mendes - and a pair of cornucopiae which she carries. She appears in this guise on a set of mass-produced faience Oenochoae, which seem to have been associated with funerary ritual in Alexandria.[21] Arsinoe seems to have been a genuinely popular goddess throughout the Ptolemaic period, with both Greeks and Egyptians, in Egypt and beyond. 'Arsinoe' is one of the few Greek names to be naturalised as an Egyptian personal name in the period. Altars and dedicatory plaques in her honour are found throughout Egypt and the Aegean, while hundreds of her faience oenochoae have been found in the cemeteries of Alexandria. Marriage and issue[edit] Arsinoe married Lysimachus of Thrace in 300 or 299 BC and had three children: Name Birth Death Notes Ptolemy 299/8 BC February 240 BC Co-regent of Egypt with her younger brother, Ptolemy II (267-259 BC), rebelled in 259 BC, subsequently Ptolemaic vassal ruler of Telmessus until 240 BC. Lysimachus 297/6 BC 279 BC Murdered by Ptolemy Keraunos. Philip 294 BC 279 BC Murdered by Ptolemy Keraunos. After Lysimachus' death in 281 BC, Arsinoe was briefly married to her half-brother Ptolemy Ceraunus from 280 to 279 BC and then to her full-blooded, younger brother Ptolemy II of Egypt from the late 270s BC until her death. Ptolemy II's children by his first wife Arsinoe I, including his eventual successor Ptolemy III were posthumously declared to be children of Arsinoe II in the late 260s BC. See also[edit] Arsinoitherium References[edit] ^ Carney 2013, p. 115. ^ Lorenzi 2010. ^ Carney, p. 16. sfn error: no target: CITEREFCarney (help) ^ Carney 2013, p. 17. ^ a b Carney 2013. ^ Carney 2013, p. 31. ^ Billows 1995, p. 110. ^ a b c Bengtson 1977, p. 569. ^ Carney 2013, p. 38. ^ Carney 2013, p. 60-63. ^ Carney 2013, p. 66. ^ Carney 2013, p. 67-70. ^ Carney 2013, p. 70-82. ^ Carney 2013, p. 95-100. ^ Carney 2013, p. 85. ^ Carney 2013, p. 90-95. ^ Posidippus, p. VIII 309. ^ Carney 2013, p. 142. ^ a b Holbl 2001, pp. 101–104 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHolbl2001 (help) ^ P. Oxy 27.2465. ^ Thompson, D.B. (1973). Ptolemaic Oinochoai and Portraits in Faience: Aspects of the Ruler-Cult. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Bibliography[edit] Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly (2013). Arsinoe of Egypt and Macedon: A Royal Life. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-971101-7. Lorenzi, Rossella (December 2, 2010). "Did female Egyptian pharaoh rule before Cleopatra?". NBC News. Retrieved 2010-12-05. Billows, R.A. (1995). Kings and colonists: aspects of Macedonian imperialism. Brill. Bengtson, H. (1977). Griechische Geschichte von den Anfängen bis in die römische Kaiserzeit. C.H.Beck. Posidippus. Milan Papyrus aka P. Mil. Vogl. Further reading[edit] S.M. Burstein, "Arsinoe II Philadelphos: A Revisionist View", in W.L. Adams and E.N. Borza (eds), Philip II, Alexander the Great and the Macedonian Heritage (Washington, 1982), 197-212 P. McKechnie and P. Guillaume (eds) Ptolemy II Philadelphus and his World. Leiden, 2008. M. Nilsson, The Crown of Arsinoë II: The Creation of an Image of Authority. Oxford, 2012. D. L. Selden, Daniel L. "Alibis". Classical Antiquity 17 (2), October 1998. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Arsinoe II. Coin with her portrait Encyclopædia Britannica Arsinoe II entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Queens of Ancient Egypt Early Dynastic Period to First Intermediate Period  (3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Neithhotep Benerib Khenthap Herneith Nakhtneith Penebui Merneith Seshemetka Semat Serethor Betrest II Nimaathap Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Hetephernebti Djeseretnebti Djefatnebti Meresankh I IV Hetepheres I Meritites I Henutsen Khentetka Meresankh II Hetepheres II Meresankh III Khamerernebty I Persenet Hekenuhedjet Khamerernebty II Rekhetre Bunefer V Khentkaus I Neferhetepes Meretnebty Khentkaus II Khentkaus III Reptynub Khuit I Meresankh IV Setibhor Nebet Khenut VI Iput I Khuit II Ankhesenpepi I Ankhesenpepi II Nubwenet Meritites IV Inenek-Inti Nedjeftet Neith Iput II Udjebten Ankhesenpepi III Ankhesenpepi IV Nitocris Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Neferu I Neferukayet Iah Tem Neferu II Ashayet Henhenet Sadeh Kawit Kemsit XII Neferitatjenen Neferu III Keminub Khenemetneferhedjet I Nofret II Itaweret Khenmet Sithathoriunet Khenemetneferhedjet II Neferthenut Meretseger Aat Khenemetneferhedjet III Sobekneferu 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Nofret Nubhetepti Senebhenas Neni Tjan Ineni Nubkhaes Aya XIV Tati XVI Mentuhotep XVII Nubemhat Sobekemsaf Haankhes Tetisheri Ahhotep I Ahmose Inhapy Sitdjehuti Ahhotep II New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose-Nefertari Ahmose-Sitkamose Ahmose-Henuttamehu Ahmose-Meritamun Ahmose Mutnofret Hatshepsut Iset Satiah Merytre-Hatshepsut Nebtu Menhet, Menwi and Merti Nebsemi Tiaa Nefertari Iaret Mutemwiya Tiye Gilukhipa Sitamun Iset Tadukhipa / Kiya Nefertiti Meritaten Neferneferuaten Ankhesenamun Tey Mutnedjmet Nebetnehat XIX Sitre Tuya Tanedjemet Nefertari Isetnofret Henutmire Maathorneferure Meritamen Bintanath Nebettawy Merytre Isetnofret II Takhat Twosret Tiaa XX Tiy-Merenese Iset Ta-Hemdjert Tyti Tiye Duatentopet Henutwati Tawerettenru Nubkhesbed Baketwernel Tentamun 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Tentamun Mutnedjmet Karimala XXII Karomama Patareshnes Maatkare Tashedkhonsu Nesitaudjatakhet Nesitanebetashru Kapes Karomama I Tadibast III XXIII Karomama II XXV Pebatjma Tabiry Abar Khensa Peksater Arty Qalhata Tabekenamun Takahatenamun Naparaye Atakhebasken Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Mehytenweskhet Khedebneithirbinet I Takhuit Tentkheta Nakhtubasterau Ladice XXVII Atossa Artystone Parmys Amestris Damaspia Parysatis XXXI Stateira I Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Roxana Stateira II Parysatis II Eurydice II of Macedon Ptolemaic Eurydice Berenice I Arsinoe I Arsinoe II Berenice II Arsinoe III Cleopatra I Cleopatra II Cleopatra III Cleopatra IV Cleopatra Selene Berenice III Cleopatra V Cleopatra VI Berenice IV Cleopatra VII Arsinoe IV Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic v t e Ancient Olympic Games General Archaeological Museum of Olympia Ancient Greek Olympic festivals Hellanodikai Stadium at Olympia Sports Foot races Diaulos Dolichos Hoplitodromos Stadion Horse races Apene Chariot of polos Decapolon Kalpe Keles Perfect chariot Polos Synoris Synoris of polos Tethrippon Tethrippon of polos Combat Boxing Pankration Wrestling Special Herald and Trumpet contest Pentathlon Winners Acanthus of Sparta Agasias of Arcadia Agesarchus of Tritaea Alcibiades of Athens Alexander I of Macedon Anaxilas of Messenia Aratus of Sicyon Archelaus I of Macedon Arrhichion of Phigalia Arsinoe II Astylos of Croton Berenice I 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en-wikipedia-org-6827	----	Aria - Wikipedia Aria From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Musical piece for a single voice as part of a larger work For other uses, see Aria (disambiguation). "Arias" redirects here. For other uses, see Arias (surname). The farewell aria of Sultan Bazajet in Handel's opera Tamerlano. (Note the da capo instruction.) First edition, London, 1719. In music, an aria ([ˈaːrja]; Italian: air; plural: arie [ˈaːrje], or arias in common usage, diminutive form arietta [aˈrjetta], plural ariette, or in English simply air) is a self-contained piece for one voice, with or without instrumental or orchestral accompaniment, normally part of a larger work. An aria is a formal musical composition unlike its counterpart, the recitative. The typical context for arias is opera, but vocal arias also feature in oratorios and cantatas, sharing features of the operatic arias of their periods. The term was originally used to refer to any expressive melody, usually, but not always, performed by a singer. Contents 1 Origins of the term 2 In opera 2.1 Aria form in late 17th century French and Italian opera 2.2 18th century 2.3 19th century 3 Concert arias 4 Instrumental music 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Origins of the term[edit] The term, which derives from the Greek ἀήρ and Latin aer (air) first appeared in relation to music in the 14th century when it simply signified a manner or style of singing or playing. By the end of the 16th century, the term 'aria' refers to an instrumental form (cf. Santino Garsi da Parma lute works, 'Aria del Gran Duca'). By the early 16th century it was in common use as meaning a simple setting of strophic poetry; melodic madrigals, free of complex polyphony, were known as madrigale arioso.[1] In opera[edit] Aria form in late 17th century French and Italian opera[edit] In the context of staged works and concert works, arias evolved from simple melodies into structured forms. In such works, the sung, melodic, and structured aria became differentiated from the more speech-like (parlando) recitative – broadly, the latter tended to carry the story-line, the former carried more emotional freight and became an opportunity for singers to display their vocal talent. The aria evolved typically in one of two forms. Binary form arias were in two sections (A–B); arias in ternary form (A–B–A) were known as da capo arias (literally 'from the head', i.e. with the opening section repeated, often in a highly decorated manner).[2] In the da capo aria the 'B' episode would typically be in a different key – the dominant or relative major key. Other variants of these forms are found in the French operas of the late 17th century such as those of Jean-Baptiste Lully which dominated the period of the French baroque; vocal solos in his operas (denominated of course by the French term, airs) are frequently in extended binary form (ABB') or sometimes in rondeau form (ABACA),[3] (a shape which is analogous to the instrumental rondo). In the Italian school of composers of the late 17th and early 18th century, the da capo form of aria came gradually to be associated with the ritornello (literally, 'little return'), a recurring instrumental episode which was interspersed with the elements of the aria and eventually provided, in early operas, the opportunity for dancing or entries of characters.[4] This version of aria form with ritornelli became a dominant feature of European opera throughout the 18th century. It is thought by some writers to be the origin of the instrumental forms of concerto and sonata form.[5] The ritornelli became essential to the structure of the aria – "while the words determine the character of a melody the ritornello instruments often decided in what terms it shall be presented."[6] 18th century[edit] By the early 18th century, composers such as Alessandro Scarlatti had established the aria form, and especially its da capo version with ritornelli, as the key element of opera seria. "It offered balance and continuity, and yet gave scope for contrast. [...] The very regularity of its conventional features enabled deviations from the normal to be exploited with telling effect."[7] In the early years of the century, arias in the Italian style began to take over in French opera, giving rise eventually to the French genre of ariette, normally in a relatively simple ternary form.[8] Types of operatic aria became known by a variety of terms according to their character – e.g.aria parlante ('speaking-style', narrative in nature),[9] aria di bravura (typically given to a heroine),[10] aria buffa (aria of a comic type, typically given to a bass or bass-baritone),[11] and so on. M. F. Robinson describes the standard aria in opera seria in the period 1720 to 1760 as follows: The first section normally began with an orchestral ritornello after which the singer entered and sang the words of the first stanza in their entirety. By the end of this first vocal paragraph the music, if it were in a major key as it usually was, had modulated to the dominant. The orchestra then played a second ritornello usually shorter than the first. The singer re-entered and sang the same words through a second time. The music of this second paragraph was often slightly more elaborate than that of the first. There were more repeats of words and perhaps more florid vocalisations. The key worked its way back to the tonic for the final vocal cadence after which the orchestra rounded the section off with a final ritornello.[12] Gluck in a 1775 portrait by Joseph Duplessis The nature and allocation of the arias to the different roles in opera seria was highly formalized. According to the playwright and librettist Carlo Goldoni, in his autobiography, The three principal personages of the drama ought to sing five arias each; two in the first act, two in the second, and one in the third. The second actress and the second soprano can only have three, and the inferior characters must be satisfied with a single aria each, or two at the most. The author of the words must [...] take care that two pathetic [i.e. melancholy] arias do not succeed one another. He must distribute with the same precaution the bravura arias, the arias of action, the inferior arias, and the minuets and rondeaus. He must, above all things, avoid giving impassioned arias, bravura arias, or rondeaus, to inferior characters.[13] By contrast, arias in opera buffa (comic opera) were often specific in character to the nature of the character being portrayed (for example the cheeky servant-girl or the irascible elderly suitor or guardian).[14] By later in the century it was clear that these formats were becoming fossilized. Christoph Willibald Gluck thought that both opera buffa and opera seria had strayed too far from what opera should really be, and seemed unnatural. The jokes of opera buffa were threadbare and the repetition of the same characters made them seem no more than stereotypes. In opera seria the singing was devoted to superficial effects and the content was uninteresting and stale. As in opera buffa, the singers were often masters of the stage and the music, decorating the vocal lines so floridly that audiences could no longer recognise the original melody. Gluck wanted to return opera to its origins, focusing on human drama and passions and making words and music of equal importance. The effects of these Gluckist reforms were seen not only in his own operas but in the later works of Mozart; the arias now become far more expressive of the individual emotions of the characters and are both more firmly anchored in, and advance, the storyline. Richard Wagner was to praise Gluck's innovations in his 1850 essay "Opera and Drama": " The musical composer revolted against the wilfulness of the singer"; rather than "unfold[ing] the purely sensuous contents of the Aria to their highest, rankest, pitch", Gluck sought "to put shackles on Caprice's execution of that Aria, by himself endeavouring to give the tune [...] an expression answering to the underlying Word-text".[15] This attitude was to underlie Wagner's would-be deconstruction of aria in his concept of Gesamtkunstwerk. 19th century[edit] Despite the ideals of Gluck, and the trend to organise libretti so that arias had a more organic part in the drama rather than merely interrupting its flow, in the operas of the early 19th century, (for example those of Gioachino Rossini and Gaetano Donizetti), bravura arias remained focal attractions, and they continued to play a major role in grand opera, and in Italian opera through the 19th century. A favoured form of aria in the first half of the 19th century in Italian opera was the cabaletta, in which a songlike cantabile section is followed by a more animated section, the cabaletta proper, repeated in whole or in part. Typically such arias would be preceded by recitative, the whole sequence being termed a scena. There might also be opportunities for participation by orchestra or chorus. An example is Casta diva from the opera Norma of Vincenzo Bellini.[16] After around 1850, aria forms in Italian opera began to show more variety – many of the operas of Giuseppe Verdi offer extended narrative arias for leading roles that enable, in their scope, intensification of drama and characterisation. Examples include Rigoletto's condemnation of the court, "Cortigiani, vil razza dannata!" (1851).[16] Later in the century, the post-1850 operas of Wagner were through-composed, with fewer elements being readily identifiable as self-contained arias;[17] whilst the Italian genre of verismo opera also sought to integrate arioso elements although still allowing some 'show-pieces'.[16] Title page of the Goldberg Variations (first edition, 1741) Concert arias[edit] Concert arias, which are not part of any larger work, (or were sometimes written to replace or insert arias in their own operas or operas of other composers) were written by composers to provide the opportunity for vocal display for concert singers;[18] examples are Ah! perfido, Op. 65, by Beethoven, and a number of concert arias by Mozart, including Conservati fedele. Instrumental music[edit] The term 'aria' was frequently used in the 17th and 18th centuries for instrumental music used for dancing or variation, and modelled on vocal music.[19] For example, J. S. Bach's so-called "Goldberg Variations" were titled at their 1741 publication "Clavier Ubung bestehend in einer ARIA mit verschiedenen Verænderungen" ("Keyboard exercise, consisting of one ARIA with diverse variations.") The word is sometimes used in contemporary music as a title for instrumental pieces, e.g. Robin Holloway's 1980 'Aria' for chamber ensemble.[20] or Harrison Birtwistle's brass band piece, 'Grimethorpe Aria' (1973).[21] See also[edit] See Category:Arias for notable arias which have articles on Wikipedia. References[edit] Notes ^ Westrup et al. (n.d.), 1: Derivation ^ Westrup et al. (n.d.), 2: Seventeenth century vocal music ^ Anthony (1991), 202–205. ^ Talbot (n.d.); Solie (1977), 54–5 ^ Solie (1977), 31. See also e.g. Rosen (1988) ^ Lewis (1959), 97. ^ Lewis (1959), 96 ^ Anthony (1991) 213–5. ^ Merriam-Webster dictionary online Archived 2013-02-02 at the Wayback Machine accessed 21 March 2013. ^ Moore, John Weeks (1880) [1854]. "Aria di bravura" . Complete Encyclopaedia of Music. New York: C. H. Ditson & Company. ^ "Aria buffa" in Webster's 1913 Dictionary ^ Robinson (1962) 34–5. ^ Cited in Robinson (1962) 33. (Translation slightly adapted). ^ Platoff (1990) 99–100. ^ Wagner (1995) 26–7. ^ a b c Westrup (n.d), §5.1. ^ Westrup (n.d), §5.2. ^ The Oxford Companion to Music, "Concert aria" ^ Westrup et al. (n.d.), Introduction ^ Boosey and Hawkes Archived 2013-05-04 at the Wayback Machine website, accessed 21 March 2013 ^ "Birtwistle - Grimethorpe Aria for brass ensemble - Universal Edition". Universal Edition. Archived from the original on 28 April 2018. Retrieved 28 April 2018. Sources Anthony, James R. (1991), "Air and Aria added to French Opera from the Death of Lully to 1720", in Révue de Musicologie, vol.77/2, pp. 201–219. Lewis, Anthony (1959), "Handel and the Aria", in Proceedings of the Royal Musical Association, vol. 85, pp. 95–107. Platoff, John (1990), "The Buffa Aria in Mozart's Vienna", in Cambridge Opera Journal, vol.2 no.2, pp. 99–120 Robinson, M. F. (1962), "The Aria in Opera Seria, 1725–1780", in Proceedings of the Royal Musical Association, vol. 88, pp. 31–43. Rosen, Charles (1988), Sonata Forms, New York: Norton ISBN 9780393302196 Solie, John F. (1977), "Aria Structure and Ritornello Form in the Music of Albinoni", in The Musical Quarterly, vol.63 no. 1, pp. 31–47 Talbot, Michael (n.d.), "Ritornello", in Grove Music Online (subscription only), accessed 22 March 2013. Wagner, Richard (1995), tr. W. Ashton Ellis, Opera and Drama, Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 9780803297654. Westrup, Jack, et al. (n.d.), "Aria", in Grove Music Online (subscription only), accessed 20 March 2013. External links[edit] Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Aria. Dictionary definition of aria and arietta at Wiktionary The Aria Database v t e Opera terms by origin English Breeches role Chest voice Concert performance Duodrama Head voice Insertion aria Mad scene Melodrama Monodrama Number Opera house Patter song Prompter Sung-through Surtitles French Claque Coup de glotte Divertissement Encore Entr'acte Haute-contre Intermède Overture Répétiteur Roulade Timbre Tragédie en musique Travesti German Fach Gesamtkunstwerk Kammersänger Kapellmeister Leitmotif Literaturoper Regieoper Singspiel Sitzprobe Spieloper Sprechgesang Italian Aria Aria di sorbetto Arioso Banda Bel canto Bravura Brindisi Burletta Cabaletta Cadenza Cantabile Castrato Cavatina Chiaroscuro Coloratura Comprimario Contralto Convenienze Da capo aria Diva Falsetto Falsettone Fioritura Impresario Intermezzo Legato Libretto Licenza Maestro Melodramma Messa di voce Mezzo-soprano Musico Opera seria Ossia Passaggio Pasticcio Portamento Prima donna Recitative Ritornello Sinfonia Solita forma Soprano Soprano sfogato Spinto Squillo Stagione Stile rappresentativo Tenore contraltino Tenore di grazia Tessitura Verismo Vibrato Other Hovsångare Opera portal Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aria&oldid=995449826" Categories: Arias Italian opera terminology Song forms Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the Complete Encyclopaedia of Music Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Italian-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Alemannisch العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Ido Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu Монгол Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 21 December 2020, at 02:44 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6831	----	Pedubast II - Wikipedia Pedubast II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Pedubast II Part of a statue bearing the titulary of Pedubast II, from Memphis. Pharaoh Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sehetepibenre Nomen Pedubast Father Iuput II? Pedubast II was a pharaoh of Ancient Egypt associated with the 22nd or more likely the 23rd Dynasty. Not mentioned in all King lists, he is mentioned as a possible son and successor to Shoshenq V by Aidan Dodson and Dyan Hilton in their 2004 book, The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. They date his reign at about 743–733 BC, between Shoshenq V and Osorkon IV.[1] Jürgen von Beckerath places Pedubast II within the reign of Piye and in the 23rd Dynasty and proposes a reign of about 736–731 BC for this pharaoh. The exact length of Pedubast's II's reign is uncertain.[2] Pedubast II may have been the son of Iuput II and the then serving nomarch in Athribis because the king list of Piye places next to Osorkon IV a Pedubast who is called a Prince of Athribis. Pedubast's II's royal name or prenomen was Sehetepibenre and he is attested as a king at Tanis—or at least a local Delta ruler who controlled this city—by several stone blocks found there bearing his royal titulary.[3] Kenneth Kitchen, however, prefers to date Pedubast II's kingship around the time of the Assyrian invasion under Esarhaddon and then Ashurbanipal in the mid-660s BC.[4] Such is the degree of uncertainty surrounding this king's timeline during the Third Intermediate Period of Egypt (c. 1069 BC – 664 BC). References[edit] ^ Aidan Dodson, Dyan Hilton: The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson, London 2004, ISBN 0-500-05128-3, S. 210–223. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Das Verhältnis der 22. Dynastie gegenüber der 23. Dynastie. In: Nicole Cloth: Es werde niedergelegt als Schriftstück – Festschrift für Hartwig Altenmüller zum 65. Geburtstag. Buske, Hamburg 2003. ISBN 3-87548-341-3, S. 31–35. ^ K.A. Kitchen, "The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (c.1100–650 BC)," Aris & Phillips Ltd. 3rd edition (1996), pp.97 & 129 ^ Kitchen, p.396 Further reading[edit] N. Dautzenberg, Bemerkungen zu Schoschenq II., Takeloth II. und Pedubastis II, Göttinger Miszellen 144 (1995), 21–29 Dan'el Kahn, A Problem of Pedubasts?, Antigua Oriente 4 (2006), 23–42 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pedubast_II&oldid=974665181" Categories: 8th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Pharaohs of the Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt 8th century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Deutsch Français Italiano Magyar 日本語 Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 24 August 2020, at 08:36 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-683	----	Djoser - Wikipedia Djoser From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 3rd dynasty Djoser Netjerikhet, Tosorthros, Sesorthos Limestone Ka statue of Djoser from his pyramid serdab Pharaoh Reign 19 or 28 years ca. ca. 2686 BC - 2648 BC,[1] 2687-2668 BC,[2] 2668-2649 BC,[3] 2667-2648 BC,[4][5] or 2630 BC - 2611BC[6] (3rd Dynasty) Predecessor Khasekhemwy (most likely) or Nebka Successor Sekhemkhet (most likely) or Sanakhte Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Nisut-Bity-Nebty-Netjerikhetnebu nsw.t-bty-nb.ty nṯrj-ẖt-nbw King of Upper and Lower Egypt, he of the two ladies, with a divine body of gold Nomen Nub-Hor Nbw-Ḥr Golden Horus Horus name Hor-Netjerikhet Hr-nṯrj.ẖt Horus, divine of body Nebty name Netjerikhet Nb.tj Nṯrj-ẖt The two Ladies, divine of body Golden Horus Nub-Ra Nbw-Rˁ Golden one of Ra Abydos King List ....djeser-sa[a] ...-ḏsr-s3 ...sublime protector Saqqara Tablet Djoser ḏsr The sublime Turin King List Djoserit Ḏsr-jt Consort Hetephernebti Children Inetkawes, maybe Sekhemkhet ? Father Khasekhemwy Mother Nimaethap Died c. 2649 BC or c. 2611 BC Burial Step pyramid at Saqqara Monuments Step pyramid Egyptian Museum: Base of a Djoser statue with royal titulary Djoser (also read as Djeser and Zoser) was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 3rd Dynasty during the Old Kingdom and the founder of this epoch. He is also known by his Hellenized names Tosorthros (from Manetho) and Sesorthos (from Eusebius). He was the son of king Khasekhemwy and queen Nimaathap, but whether he also was the direct throne successor is still unclear. Most Ramesside Kinglists name a king Nebka before him, but since there are still difficulties in connecting that name with contemporary Horus names, some Egyptologists question the received throne sequence. Contents 1 Identity 2 Family 3 Reign 3.1 Third Dynasty 3.2 Length of reign 3.3 Period of reign 3.4 Political activities 4 Djoser and Imhotep 5 Tomb 5.1 The pyramid 5.2 Subterranean structure 5.3 Serdab Statue of Djoser 5.4 Funerary complex 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Bibliography 10 Further reading 11 External links Identity[edit] Cartouche name ...djeser-sah in the king list of Abydos. Note the upper part of the cartouche, which shows signs of erased hieroglyphs. The painted limestone statue of Djoser, now in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, is the oldest known life-sized Egyptian statue.[7] Today at the site in Saqqara where it was found, a plaster copy of the statue stands in place of the original. The statue was found during the Antiquities Service Excavations of 1924–1925. In contemporary inscriptions, he is called Netjerikhet, meaning "divine of body." Later sources, which include a New Kingdom reference to his construction, help confirm that Netjerikhet and Djoser are the same person. While Manetho names Necherophes and the Turin King List names Nebka as the first ruler of the Third Dynasty, many Egyptologists now believe Djoser was first king of this dynasty, pointing out that the order in which some predecessors of Khufu are mentioned in the Westcar Papyrus suggests Nebka should be placed between Djoser and Huni, not before Djoser. More significantly, the English Egyptologist Toby Wilkinson has demonstrated that burial seals found at the entrance to Khasekhemwy's tomb in Abydos name only Djoser, rather than Nebka. This supports the view that it was Djoser who buried and, hence, directly succeeded Khasekhemwy, rather than Nebka.[8] Family[edit] Djoser is linked to Khasekhemwy, the last king of the Second Dynasty of Egypt, through his wife Queen Nimaethap (Nimaat-hap) via seals found in Khasekhemwy's tomb and at Beit Khallaf. The seal at Abydos names Nimaat-hap as the "mother of the king's children, Nimaat-hap". On mastaba K1 at Beit Khallaf, the same person is mentioned as the "mother of the dual king". Dating of other seals at the Beit Khallaf site place them to the reign of Djoser. This evidence suggests that Khasekhemwy is either the direct father of Djoser or that Nimaat-hap had him through a previous husband.[9] German Egyptologist Gunter Dreyer found Djoser's sealings at Khasekhemwy's tomb, further suggesting that Djoser was the direct successor of Khasekhemwy and that he finished the construction of the tomb.[10] Her cult seems to have still been active in the later reign of Sneferu. Hetephernebti is identified as one of Djoser's queens "on a series of boundary stela from the Step Pyramid enclosure (now in various museums) and a fragment of relief from a building at Hermopolis" currently in the Egyptian museum of Turin.[11] Inetkawes was their only daughter known by name. There was also a third royal female attested during Djoser's reign, but her name is destroyed. The relationship between Djoser and his successor, Sekhemkhet, is not known, and the date of his death is uncertain. Reign[edit] Third Dynasty[edit] The lands of Upper and Lower Egypt were united into a single kingdom sometime around 2686 BC. The period following the unification of the crowns was one of prosperity, marked by the start of the Third Dynasty and the Old Kingdom of Egypt. The exact identity of the founder of the dynasty is a matter of debate, due to the fragmentary nature of the records from the period. Djoser is one of the principal candidates for the founder of the Third Dynasty. Other candidates are Nebka and Sanakht. Complicating matters further is the possibility that Nebka and Sanakht are referring to the same person.[12] Egyptologist Toby Wilkinson believes that the weight of archeological evidence favours Djoser (Netjerikhet) as Khasekhemwy's successor and therefore founder of the Third Dynasty. A seal from Khasekhemwy's tomb at Abydos, in combination with a seal from mastaba K1 at Beit Khallaf dated to Djoser's reign, links the two pharaohs together as father and son respectively. The seal at Abydos names a 'Nimaat-hap' as the mother of Khasekhemwy's children, while the other seal at Beit Khallaf names the same person as the 'mother of the dual-king'. Further archaeological evidence linking the reigns of the two pharaohs together are found at Shunet et-Zebib, which suggest that Djoser oversaw the burial of his predecessor. Ritual stone vessels found at the sites of the tombs – Khasekhemwy's tomb at Abydos and Djoser's tomb at Saqqara – of the two pharaohs also appear to have come from the same collection, as samples from both sites contain identical imagery of the god Min. This archeological evidence is supplemented by at least one historical source, the Saqqara king list, which names Djoser as the immediate successor of Beby – a misreading of Khasekhemwy.[13] Length of reign[edit] Manetho states Djoser ruled Egypt for twenty-nine years, while the Turin King List states it was only nineteen years. Because of his many substantial building projects, particularly at Saqqara, some scholars argue Djoser must have enjoyed a reign of nearly three decades. Manetho's figure appears to be more accurate, according to Wilkinson's analysis and reconstruction of the Royal Annals. Wilkinson reconstructs the Annals as giving Djoser "28 complete or partial years", noting that the cattle counts recorded on Palermo stone register V, and Cairo Fragment 1, register V, for the beginning and ending of Djoser's reign, would most likely indicate his regnal years 1–5 and 19–28. Unfortunately, next to all entries are illegible today. The Year of coronation is preserved, followed by the year events receiving the twin-pillars and stretching the cords for the fortress Qau-Netjerw ("hills of the gods").[14] Period of reign[edit] Various sources provide various dates for Djoser's reign. Professor of Ancient Near East history Marc van de Mieroop dates Djoser's reign to somewhere between 2686 BC to 2648 BC.[1] Authors Joann Fletcher and Michael Rice date his reign from 2667 BC to 2648 BC giving a regnal period of 18 partial or complete years.[4][5] Rice further states that Nebkha was Djoser's brother and predecessor. Writer Farid Atiya provides a similar regnal period to Fletcher and Rice, offset by a single year – 2668 BC to 2649 BC.[3] This dating is supported by authors Rosalie and Charles Baker in Ancient Egypt: People of the Pyramids.[15] Egyptologist Abeer el-Shahawy in association with the Egyptian Museum in Cairo places Djoser's reign to the period of 2687 BC to 2668 BC for a similar 18 partial or complete years.[2] Author Margaret Bunson places Djoser as the second ruler of the Third Dynasty, and places his reign to the period of 2630 BC to 2611 BC for 19 partial or complete year reign.[6] In her chronology, Djoser is preceded by Nebka as the "Founder of the Third Dynasty", reigning for the period 2649 BC to 2630 BC.[16] She, like Rice, makes Nebka a brother of Djoser.[17] Political activities[edit] The Famine Stela, mentioning Djoser. Djoser dispatched several military expeditions to the Sinai Peninsula, during which the local inhabitants were subdued. He also sent expeditions there to mine for valuable minerals such as turquoise and copper. This is known from inscriptions found in the desert there, sometimes displaying the banner of Set alongside the symbols of Horus, as had been more common under Khasekhemwy. The Sinai was also strategically important as a buffer between the Nile valley and Asia. His most famous monument was his step pyramid, which entailed the construction of several mastaba tombs one over another.[18] These forms would eventually lead to the standard pyramid tomb in the later Old Kingdom. Manetho, many centuries later, alludes to architectural advances of this reign, mentioning that "Tosorthros" discovered how to build with hewn stone, in addition to being remembered as the physician Aesculapius, and for introducing some reforms in the writing system. Modern scholars think that Manetho originally ascribed (or meant to ascribe) these feats to Imuthes, who was later deified as Aesculapius by the Greeks and Romans, and who corresponds to Imhotep, the famous minister of Djoser who engineered the Step Pyramid's construction. Some fragmentary reliefs found at Heliopolis and Gebelein mention Djoser's name, and suggest he commissioned construction projects in those cities. Also, he may have fixed the southern boundary of his kingdom at the First Cataract. An inscription known as the Famine Stela and claiming to date to the reign of Djoser, but probably created during the Ptolemaic Dynasty, relates how Djoser rebuilt the temple of Khnum on the island of Elephantine at the First Cataract, thus ending a seven-year famine in Egypt. Some consider this ancient inscription as a legend at the time it was inscribed. Nonetheless, it does show that more than two millennia after his reign, Egyptians still remembered Djoser. Although he seems to have started an unfinished tomb at Abydos (Upper Egypt), Djoser was eventually buried in his famous pyramid at Saqqara in Lower Egypt. Since Khasekhemwy, a pharaoh from the 2nd dynasty, was the last pharaoh to be buried at Abydos, some Egyptologists infer that the shift to a more northerly capital was completed during Djoser's time. Djoser and Imhotep[edit] One of the most famous contemporaries of king Djoser was his vizier (tjaty), "head of the royal shipyard" and "overseer of all stone works", Imhotep. Imhotep oversaw stone building projects such as the tombs of King Djoser and King Sekhemkhet. It is possible that Imhotep was mentioned in the also famous Papyrus Westcar, in a story called "Khufu and the magicians". But because the papyrus is badly damaged at the beginning, Imhotep's name is lost today. A papyrus from the ancient Egyptian temple of Tebtunis, dating to the 2nd century AD, preserves a long story in the demotic script about Djoser and Imhotep. In Djoser's time, Imhotep was of such importance and fame that he was honoured by being mentioned on statues of king Djoser in his necropolis at Saqqara. Tomb[edit] Step Pyramid of Djoser, old photograph. Main article: Pyramid of Djoser Step pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara, Egypt King Djoser running for the Heb-Sed celebration (relief from the underground galleries) Djoser was buried in his famous step pyramid at Saqqara. This pyramid was originally built as a nearly square mastaba, but then five further mastabas were literally piled one upon another, each smaller than the previous one, until the monument became Egypt's first step pyramid. Supervisor of the building constructions was the high lector priest Imhotep. The pyramid[edit] Step Pyramid and limestone columns. The step pyramid is made of limestone. It is massive and contains only one tight corridor leading to the close midst of the monument, ending in a rough chamber where the entrance to the tomb shaft was hidden. This inner construction was later filled with rubble, for it was of no use anymore. The pyramid was once 62 metres high and had a base measurement of ca. 125 X 109 metres. It was tightly covered in finely polished, white limestone.[19] Subterranean structure[edit] West colonnade of the Djoser necropolis. Beneath the step pyramid, a large maze of corridors and chambers was dug. The burial chamber lies in the midst of the subterranean complex; a 28 metres deep shaft leads directly from the surface down to the burial. The shaft entrance was sealed by a plug stone with a weight of 3.5 tons. The subterranean burial maze contains four magazine galleries, each pointing straight to one cardinal direction. The eastern gallery contained three limestone reliefs depicting king Djoser during the celebration of the Heb-Sed (rejuvenation feast). The walls around and between these reliefs were decorated with bluish faience tiles. They were thought to imitate reed mats, as an allusion to the mythological underworld waters. The other galleries remained unfinished. At the eastern side of the pyramid, very close to the blue chambers, eleven tomb shafts lead straight down for 30 – 32 metres, and then deviate in a right angle to the west. Shafts I – V were used for the burials of royal family members; shafts VI – XI were used as symbolic tombs for the grave goods of royal ancestors from dynasties I – II. More than 40,000 vessels, bowls and vases made of various kinds of stone were found in these galleries. Royal names such as of kings Den, Semerkhet, Nynetjer and Sekhemib were incised on the pots. It is now thought that Djoser once restored the original tombs of the ancestors, and then sealed the grave goods in the galleries in an attempt to save them. Serdab Statue of Djoser[edit] The statue of Djoser is walled into the serdab. The main purpose of the statue was to allow the king to manifest himself and be able to see the rituals performed in and out the serdab. This painted statue is plastered and made out of limestone. Each characteristic of the statue represents something, the striated tripartite wig he is wearing assimilates him to the living world as a dead king. The striped head cloth that covers the wig was used to cover all of his hair. This was a ritual that began to be used by kings in the fourth dynasty. The body is wrapped under a long robe, his hands are placed in a specific way. His right arm is horizontally displayed on his chest while his left arm is resting on his thigh. The placement of his arms are a resemblance to Khasekhem seat.[20][21]One of the oldest representations of the Nine bows, and the first representation of the nine bows fully developed, is on the seated statue of Pharaoh Djoser. His feet rest upon part of the nine bows, which may have referred to Nubians during his reign because of their use of bows and arrows.[22] [23] Funerary complex[edit] Aerial view of king Djoser's funerary complex. The funerary complex is the first architectural project to be built entirely out of stone. This complex had fourteen entrances but only one was functional. It is made up of the Great South Court, and the Heb-sed north court with Djoser’s step pyramid in the center. The complex is enclosed by a 10.5 meters high stone wall, referred to as the enclosure wall. Along with the main courts there is a Roofed Colonnade Entrance located within the south court and a Serdab chamber that holds the seated statue of the king Djoser.[24] See also[edit] List of pharaohs Notes[edit] ^ For unknown reasons, the first sign was deliberately removed. References[edit] ^ a b Mieroop 2010, p. 55. ^ a b El-Shahawy & Al-Masri 2005, p. 39. ^ a b Atiya 2006, pp. 30 & 103. ^ a b Fletcher 2015, p. 7. ^ a b Rice 1999, p. 50. ^ a b Bunson 2014, p. 103. ^ Berrett 1996, p. 265. ^ Wilkinson 2001, pp. 83 & 95. ^ Wilkinson 2001, p. 79. ^ Bard 2015, p. 140. ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 48. ^ Baker & Baker 2001, p. 15. ^ Wilkinson 2001, pp. 79 & 81. ^ Wilkinson 2000, pp. 79 & 258. ^ Baker & Baker 2001, p. 17. ^ Bunson 2014, pp. 105 & 264. ^ Bunson 2014, p. 264. ^ Atiya 2006, p. 103. ^ Adès 2007, p. 48. ^ Robins 2014, p. 44. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFRobins2014 (help) ^ Baker & Baker 2001, pp. 17–19. ^ "Enemies of Civilization: Attitudes toward Foreigners in Ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China", Mu-chou Poo, Mu-chou Poo Muzhou Pu. SUNY Press, Feb 1, 2012. p. 43. Retrieved 7 jan 2017 ^ Bestock, Laurel (2017). Violence and power in ancient Egypt : Image and Ideology Before the New Kingdom. Abingdon, United Kingdom: Routledge. p. 149. ISBN 9780367878542. ^ Robins, Gay (2014). The Art of Ancient Egypt. The British Museum. pp. 40–44. Bibliography[edit] Adès, Harry (2007). A Traveller's History of Egypt. Interlink Books. ISBN 978-1-566-56654-4. Atiya, Farid (2006). Ancient Egypt. American University in Cairo Press. pp. 104–11. ISBN 977-17-3634-5. Baker, Rosalie; Baker, Charles (2001). Ancient Egyptians: People of the Pyramids. USA: Oxford University Press. pp. 15–19. ISBN 0-195-12221-6. Bard, Kathryn (2015). An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt (2 ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 140–145. ISBN 978-1-118-89611-2. Berrett, LaMar C. (1 April 1996). Discovering the World of the Bible. Cedar Fort. ISBN 978-0-910523-52-3. Brock, Lyla Pinch (2003). Egyptology at the Dawn of the Twenty-first Century: Proceedings of the Eight International Congress of Egyptologists, Volume 2. American University in Cairo Press. pp. 215–220. ISBN 9-774-24714-0. Bunson, Margaret (2014). Encyclopaedia of Ancient Egypt. Infobase Publishing. p. 103. ISBN 978-1-438-10997-8. Dieter, Arnold (2005). Temples of Ancient Egypt. I.B.Tauris. pp. 40–47. ISBN 1-850-43945-1. Dodson, Aiden; Hilton, Dyan (2004). The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05128-3. Edwards, Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen; Gadd, Cyril John; Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lampiere (1971). The Cambridge Ancient History (Third ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 145–169. ISBN 0-521-07791-5. El-Shahawy, Abeer; Al-Masri, Mathaf (2005). The Egyptian Museum in Cairo. American University in Cairo Press. p. 39. ISBN 9-771-72183-6. Fletcher, Joann (2015). The Story of Egypt. Hachette UK. ISBN 978-1-444-78515-9. Kleiner, Fred; Mamiya, Christin (2009). Gardner's Art Through The Ages: A Global History. Cengage Learning. pp. 57–59. ISBN 978-0-495-41058-4. Kleiner, Fred (2015). Gardner's Art Through The Ages: A Global History. Cengage Learning. pp. 59–61. ISBN 978-1-305-54484-0. Mieroop, Marc van der (2010). A History of Ancient Egypt. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 56–57. ISBN 978-1-405-16070-4. Rice, Michael (1999). Who's who in Ancient Egypt. Psychology Press. pp. 50–51. ISBN 0-415-15448-0. Robins, Gay (2014). The Art of Ancient Egypt. British Museum Press. p. 44. Romer, John (2007). The Great Pyramid: Ancient Egypt Revisited. Cambridge University Press. p. 251. ISBN 978-0-521-87166-2. Wilkinson, Toby (2001). Early Dynastic Egypt. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415260116. Wilkinson, Toby (2000). Royal Annals of Ancient Egypt: the Palermo Stone and Its Associated Fragments. London: Kegan Paul International. ISBN 0710306679. Further reading[edit] Rosanna Pirelli, "Statue of Djoser" in Francesco Tiradritti (editor): The Treasures of the Egyptian Museum. American University in Cairo Press, Cairo 1999, p. 47. Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen, Edwards: The Pyramids of Egypt. West Drayton 1947; Rev. ed. Harmondsworth 1961; Rev. ed. Harmondsworth 1985 (deutsche Ausgabe: Die ägyptischen Pyramiden, 1967) External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Djoser. A Detailed profile of Djoser v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 124402682 ISNI: 0000 0004 4888 0545 LCCN: no00004306 VIAF: 78316350 WorldCat Identities: lccn-no00004306 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Djoser&oldid=999724220" Categories: Djoser 27th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Third Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn multiple-target errors Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu 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en-wikipedia-org-6840	----	Nectanebo I - Wikipedia Nectanebo I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Nectanebo I Statue of Nectanebo I with khepresh crown Pharaoh Reign 379/8–361/0 BCE[1][2] (30th Dynasty) Predecessor Nepherites II (29th Dynasty) Successor Teos Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Kheperkare Ḫpr-k3-Rˁ The manifestation of the Ka of Ra Nomen Nakhtnebef Nḫt nb.f The strong one of his lord Horus name Tjemaa Ṯm3ˁ He whose arm is strong Nebty name Semenkhtawy Smnḫ-t3wj He who makes the two lands admirable Golden Horus Irimeretnetjeru Jrj-mrt-nṯrw He who does what the gods love [3] Titulary of Nectanebo from the Temple of Atum at Heliopolis. Children Teos, Tjahapimu Father Djedhor Mother unknown Kheperkare Nakhtnebef, better known by his hellenized name Nectanebo I, was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh, founder of the last native dynasty of Egypt, the XXXth. Contents 1 Reign 1.1 Accession and family 1.2 Activities in Egypt 1.3 Invasion by Persia 2 Succession 3 References 3.1 Bibliography 4 Further reading 5 External links Reign[edit] Accession and family[edit] Nectanebo was an army general from Sebennytos, son of an important military officer named Djedhor and of a lady whose name is only partially recorded, [...]mu.[4] A stele found at Hermopolis[5] provides some evidence that he came to power by overthrowing, and possibly putting to death, the last pharaoh of the 29th Dynasty Nepherites II.[6] It has been suggested that Nectanebo was assisted in the coup by the Athenian general Chabrias. Nectanebo carried out the coronation ceremony in c. 379/8 BCE in both Sais and Memphis,[7] and shifted the capital from Mendes to Sebennytos.[8] The relationships between Nectanebo and the pharaohs of the previous dynasty are not entirely clear. He showed little regard for both Nepherites II and his father Achoris, calling the former inept and the latter an usurper.[9][10] He seemed to have had a higher regard for Nepherites I, who was formerly believed to be Nectanebo's father or grandfather, although it is now believed that this view was due to a misinterpretation of the Demotic Chronicle.[6] However, it has been suggested that both Achoris and Nectanebo may have been Nepherites I's relatives in some way.[10] Nectanebo had two known sons: Teos, who was his appointed successor, and Tjahapimu.[6] Activities in Egypt[edit] Vestibule of the Temple of Isis at Philae Nectanebo was a great builder and restorer, to an extent not seen in Egypt for centuries.[9] He ordered work on many of the temples across the country.[11] On the sacred island of Philae near Aswan, he began the temple of Isis, which would become one of the most important religious sites in ancient Egypt, by erecting its vestibule.[11][12] Nectanebo also began the First Pylon in the Precinct of Amun-Re at Karnak, and it is believed that the earliest known mammisi, which was found at Dendera, was built by him.[12][13] The cult of sacred animals, which became prominent between the two Persian occupation periods (the 27th and 31st dynasties respectively), was supported by Nectanebo as evidenced by archaeological findings at Hermopolis, Hermopolis Parva, Saft el-Hinna and Mendes. Further works ordered by the pharaoh have been found in religious buildings at Memphis, Tanis and El Kab.[13][14] First Pylon, Karnak Nectanebo was also generous towards the priesthood. A decree dated to his first year and discovered on a stele at Naucratis, required that 10 percent of taxes collected both from imports and from local production in this city were to be used for the temple of Neith at Sais.[15] A twin of this stele was recently discovered in the now-submerged city of Heracleion.[16] The aforementioned stele from Hermopolis, placed before a pylon of Ramesses II, lists the donations made by Nectanebo to the local deities, and other benefits were also granted to the priesthood of Horus at Edfu.[15] Nectanebo's prodigality showed his devotion to the gods and at the same time financially supported the largest holders of wealth of the country and for expenditure on the defence of the country.[9] Invasion by Persia[edit] In 374/3 BCE Nectanebo had to face a Persian attempt to retake Egypt, which was still considered by the Achaemenid king Artaxerxes II nothing more than a rebel satrapy. After a six-year preparation and applying pressure on Athens to recall the Greek general Chabrias,[17] Artaxerxes dispatched a great army led by the Athenian general Iphicrates and the Persian Pharnabazus. It has been recorded that the army was composed of over 200,000 troops including Persian soldiers and Greek mercenaries and around 500 ships. Fortifications on the Pelusiac branch of the Nile ordered by Nectanebo forced the enemy fleet to seek another way to sail up the Nile. Eventually the fleet managed to find its way up the less-defended Mendesian branch.[17] Athenian General Chabrias (left) with Spartan king Agesilaus (center), in the service of Egyptian king Nectanebo I, Egypt 361 BCE. At this point, the mutual distrust that had arisen between Iphicrates and Pharnabazus prevented the enemy from reaching Memphis. Then the annual Nile flood and the Egyptian defenders' resolve to defend their territory turned what had initially appeared as certain defeat for Nectanebo I and his troops into a complete victory.[18] From 368 BCE many western satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire started to rebel against Artaxerxes II, so Nectanebo provided financial support to the rebelling satraps and re-established ties with both Sparta and Athens.[13] Succession[edit] Nectanebo died during his 19th year as ruler. His tomb, sarcophagus and mummy have never been found. Towards the end of his reign (in Year 16 – 364/3 BCE), probably to remedy the dynastic problems that plagued his predecessors, Nectanebo restored the long-lost practice of the co-regency, associating his son Teos to the throne. However, shortly after Teos' accession, his brother Tjahapimu betrayed him and managed to put his own son Nakhthorheb (Nectanebo II) onto the Egyptian throne.[6] References[edit] ^ Lloyd (1994), p. 358 ^ Depuydt (2006), p. 279 ^ von Beckerath (1999), pp. 226–227 ^ Dodson & Hilton (2004), p. 256 ^ Erman & Wilcken (1900) ^ a b c d Lloyd (1994), pp. 340–341 ^ Grimal (1992), p. 372 ^ Wilkinson (2010), p. 458 ^ a b c Wilkinson (2010), pp. 456–457 ^ a b Grimal (1992), p. 373 ^ a b Clayton (1994), p. 203 ^ a b Lloyd (1994), p. 353 ^ a b c Grimal (1992), p. 377 ^ Lloyd (1994), p. 354 ^ a b Lloyd (1994), p. 343 ^ Yoyotte (2006) ^ a b Grimal (1992), pp. 375–376 ^ Lloyd (1994), p. 348 Bibliography[edit] von Beckerath, Jürgen (1999). Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen. Münchner ägyptologische Studien. 46. Mainz am Rhein: Philipp von Zabern. ISBN 3-8053-2310-7. Clayton, Peter A. (1994). Chronicle of the Pharaohs. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05074-3. Depuydt, Leo (2006). "Saite and Persian Egypt, 664 BC – 332 BC". In Erik Hornung; Rolf Krauss; David A. Warburton (eds.). Ancient Egyptian Chronology. Leiden/Boston: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-11385-5. Dodson, Aidan; Hilton, Dyan (2004). The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames & Hudson Ltd. ISBN 0-500-05128-3. Erman, Adolf; Wilcken, Ulrich (1900). "Die Naukratisstele". Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde. 38: 127–135. Grimal, Nicolas (1992). A History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Blackwell Books. ISBN 978-0-631-19396-8. Lloyd, Alan B. (1994). "Egypt, 404–332 B.C.". The Fourth Century B.C. The Cambridge Ancient History. VI. ISBN 0-521-23348-8. Wilkinson, Toby (2010). The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt. London: Bloomsbury. ISBN 9781408810026. Yoyotte, Jean (2006). "An extraordinary pair of twins: the steles of the Pharaoh Nektanebo I". In F. Goddio; M. Clauss (eds.). Egypt's Sunken Treasures. Munich. pp. 316–323. Further reading[edit] de Meulenaere, Herman (1963). "La famille royale des Nectanébo". Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde. 90: 90–93. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nectanebo I. Nectanebo I Preceded by Nepherites II Pharaoh of Egypt Succeeded by Teos v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nectanebo_I&oldid=995059185" Categories: 4th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt 360s BC deaths Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 December 2020, at 00:36 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6849	----	Edwin Long - Wikipedia Edwin Long From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search British painter This article may be in need of reorganization to comply with Wikipedia's layout guidelines. Please help by editing the article to make improvements to the overall structure. (March 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Edwin Long Born Edwin Longsden Long (1829-07-12)12 July 1829 Bath, Somersetshire, England Died 15 May 1891(1891-05-15) (aged 61) Hampstead, England Nationality English Education James Mathews Leigh, London Known for Painter Movement Orientalist Edwin Longsden Long RA (12 July 1829 – 15 May 1891) was a British genre, history, biblical and portrait painter. Contents 1 Life and works 2 Paintings 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Life and works[edit] Queen Esther (1878) Long was born in Bath, Somerset, the son of James Long, a hairdresser, (from Kelston in Somerset), and was educated at Dr. Viner's School in Bath. Adopting the profession of a painter, Long came to London and studied in the British Museum. He was subsequently a pupil in the school of James Mathews Leigh in Newman Street London, and practised first as a portrait artist painting Charles Greville, Lord Ebury and others. Long made the acquaintance of John Phillip RA, and accompanied him to Spain, where they spent much time. Long was greatly influenced by the paintings of Velasquez and other Spanish masters, and his earlier pictures, such as La Posada (1864) and Lazarilla and the blind beggar (1870), were painted under Spanish influence. His first important pictures were The Suppliants (1872) and The Babylonian marriage market (both subsequently purchased by Thomas Holloway). In 1874, he visited Egypt and Syria, and subsequently his work took a new direction. He became thoroughly imbued with middle-eastern archaeology and painted oriental scenes including The Egyptian Feast (1877), The Gods and their makers (1878). Long was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1870 and an academician (RA) in 1881. His pictures always attracted attention and his Diana or Christ? (1881) greatly enhanced his reputation at the time. His pictures suited the taste and appealed to the religious sentiment of a large portion of the public, and their popularity was increased by a wide circulation of engravings. He consequently determined to exhibit his next pictures in a separate gallery of his own in Bond Street, London and there in 1883, and the following years, his Anno Domini and Zeuxis at Crotona met with great commercial success. The Finding of Moses (1886) Long died from pneumonia resulting from influenza, at his home, "Kelston" in Netherhall Gardens, Hampstead, on 15 May 1891, in his sixty-second year. He was buried in West Hampstead Cemetery. The will signed by him on the day of his death was the subject of a lawsuit, to which his relatives were parties, but the matter in dispute was amicably settled.[1] Long married a daughter of Dr. William Aiton, by whom he left a family, of whom a son, Maurice Long, was killed in a railway accident at Burgos in Spain on 23 September 1891. Besides the Edwin Long Gallery in Old Bond Street, a number of his pictures was collected together after his death, and formed the nucleus of a gallery of Christian Art which replaced the works of Gustave Doré in the well-known gallery in New Bond Street. Long had considerable practice as a portrait painter but his success in that line was not conspicuous, although he obtained high patronage and very large prices. He painted for the Baroness Burdett Coutts (his chief patron) portraits of herself, her friend Mrs. Brown, and Henry Irving. Among other portraits of his latter years were a memorial portrait of the Earl of Iddesleigh, of which he painted a replica for the National Portrait Gallery, portraits of Cardinal Manning (perhaps his best effort in this line), Samuel Cousins, Sir Edmund Henderson and others. According to art historian Lionel Cust, "In his earlier works Long showed great power and thoroughly deserved his success and popularity", but added that his later works "suffered from a continual repetition of types which resulted in monotony". The Babylonian Marriage Market Paintings[edit] Begging for the Monastery (1867) The Suppliants (1864) Uncle Tom and Little Eva (1866) A Spanish Flower Seller (1867) The Gamekeeper (1869) "Usted Gusta" (1870) A Question of Propriety (1870) A Street Scene in Spain (1871) The Approval (1873) The Moorish proselytes of Archbishop Ximines (1873) Primero Segundo y Basso Profondo (1873) The Babylonian Marriage Market (1875) A Dorcas Meeting in the 6th Century (1873–1877) An Egyptian Feast (1877) The Gods and their Makers (1878) Queen Esther (1878) Vashti Refuses the King's Summons (1879) The Eastern Favourite (1880) To Her Listening Ear Responsive Chords of Music Came Familiar (1881) Diana or Christ? (1881) Anno Domini (1883) Glauke: Pensive (1883) The Chosen Five (1885) Eastern Lily (1885) Jepthah's Vow: the Martyr (1885) Love's Labour Lost (1885) The Finding of Moses (1886) Alethe Attendant of the Sacred Ibis in the Temple of Isis (1888) Sacred to Pasht (1888) Preparing For The Festival Of Anubis (1889) Thisbe (1884) Little Eva and Uncle Tom (1886) See also[edit] List of Orientalist artists Orientalism References[edit] ^ (Times, 13 and 14 Dec. 1892). Attribution  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: "Long, Edwin Longsden". Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Edwin Long. 66 paintings by or after Edwin Long at the Art UK site Edwin Long online (ArtCyclopedia) Edwin Long biography Biography + paintings (ArtMagick) Biography and works (Art Renewal Center) Long's portrait works (National Portrait Gallery, London) Love's Labour Lost (1885 oil on canvas - Dahesh Museum of Art) Authority control BNF: cb135118274 (data) GND: 120999048 ISNI: 0000 0000 6681 4681 LCCN: n98047563 NGV: 1089 RKD: 50715 SNAC: w60g6m62 SUDOC: 050384058 ULAN: 500007608 VIAF: 30381624 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n98047563 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edwin_Long&oldid=982995934" Categories: 1829 births 1891 deaths 19th-century English painters Artists' Rifles soldiers English male painters British genre painters English romantic painters English portrait painters English orientalists Orientalist painters Royal Academicians Deaths from the 1889–1890 flu pandemic 19th-century male artists Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from October 2019 Wikipedia articles needing reorganization from March 2017 Articles with hCards Articles incorporating Cite DNB template Articles incorporating DNB text with Wikisource reference Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NGV identifiers Wikipedia articles with RKDartists identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Español Euskara Français Italiano עברית Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 11 October 2020, at 16:48 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6860	----	Xerxes Canal - Wikipedia Xerxes Canal From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Xerxes Canal Map of the base of the Athos peninsula, with the course of the canal marked. Mount Athos peninsula from the stratosphere (at an altitude of 23 km), and simulation of the Xerxes Canal (seen from north). The Xerxes Canal (Greek: Διώρυγα του Ξέρξη) was a navigable canal through the base of the Mount Athos peninsula in Chalkidiki, northern Greece, built by king Xerxes I of Persia in the 5th century BCE. It is one of the few monuments left by the Persian Empire in Europe.[1] Contents 1 Location 2 History 3 Archaeology 4 See also 5 References 6 Bibliography 6.1 Ancient sources 6.2 Modern sources Location[edit] The canal is located near the village of Nea Roda in the Athos peninsula. Starting to the east of Nea Roda on the north coast it follows a fairly straight south-westerly direction towards the south coast where it ends west of the village Tripiti. The canal is completely covered by sediments, but its outline is visible from air photos, and has been detected by several surveys. The total length of the canal was two km, its width was 30 meters, and it was three meters deep, enough for a trireme to pass.[1] One end is at: 40°22′52.8″N 23°55′43.2″E / 40.381333°N 23.928667°E / 40.381333; 23.928667 (Northern end) , the other at 40°21′54.2″N 23°54′53.9″E / 40.365056°N 23.914972°E / 40.365056; 23.914972 (Southern end) . History[edit] Map of troop movements during the first and second Persian invasion of Greece. The Xerxes Canal is shown in the middle of the map on the purple line. According to the Histories of the ancient Greek historian Herodotus, which recounts the events of the Greco-Persian Wars, the Persian commander Mardonios, in 492 BCE, lost a great part of his fleet, 300 ships and 20,000 men, in a storm going around the cliffs of the Athos peninsula, during the First Persian invasion of Greece.[2] Xerxes, in preparation for the Second Persian invasion of Greece, in 483 BCE ordered a channel built through the Athos isthmus in order to avoid falling prey to the same catastrophe.[3] Herodotus speculates that pride also was a motivating factor: As far as I can judge by conjecture, Xerxes gave the command for this digging out of pride, wishing to display his power and leave a memorial; with no trouble they could have drawn their ships across the isthmus, yet he ordered them to dig a canal from sea to sea, wide enough to float two triremes rowed abreast.[4] The work, led by the two Persians Bubares and Artachaies, lasted three years. It was completed in 480 BCE by forcibly recruited locals, as well as Egyptian and Phoenician workers.[5] The length, according to Herodotus, was 12 stadia,[3] and it was capped at both ends by dikes to prevent surf from clogging it.[6] The canal soon fell into disrepair as it was not used after the Persian fleet had passed through on their way first to the battle of Artemisium and then on to that of Salamis.[1] The canal still formed part of the landscape 80 years later as it is mentioned in passing by Thucidydes in The History of the Peloponnesian War from around 400 BCE: After the taking of Amphipolis, Brasidas and his allies marched to the so-called Actè, or coastland, which runs out from the canal made by the Persian King and extends into the peninsula; it ends in Athos, a high mountain projecting into the Aegean sea.[7] Archaeology[edit] Northern end of the Canal of Xerxes, now filled up. Funeral mound at the southern end of the Canal of Xerxes Location of the northern entrance of the canal (cove to the left). The veracity of Herodotus' claims was doubted already in ancient times, but land surveys and geophysical investigations of the peninsula have confirmed the existence of the canal.[1] In the second century BCE, Demetrius of Scepsis stated based on first hand information that there indeed had been a canal there, but he could not trace all of it.[1] Three separate modern land surveys, led by the Frenchman M. Choiseul-Gouffier in the 18th century, by T. Spratt of England in 1838, and by the German A. Struck in 1901, all found evidence of the canal in the central part of the isthmus. But as late as 1990 the length and width of the canal was in dispute, as was the question of whether the canal reached all the way across the isthmus or if ships were dragged through parts of it.[1] A British and Greek collaborative geophysical investigation launched in the 1990s found through the use of seismic survey and sediment analysis that the canal had crossed the whole isthmus. Herodotus' account was vindicated as they also confirmed that the canal was constructed rapidly and that it was only used for a short period of time.[1] Recent studies suggest the workers were both regular Achaemenid soldiers and recruited local Balkan people (Thracians and Greeks) with the legal status of kurtaš who were paid for and fed from the Persian treasury.[8] See also[edit] Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g B. S. J. Isserlin, R. E. Jones, V. Karastathis, S. P. Papamarinopoulos, G. E. Syrides and J. Uren "The Canal of Xerxes: Summary of Investigations 1991-2001" The Annual of the British School at Athens Vol. 98 (2003), pp. 369-385 JSTOR 30073214. ^ Herodotus VI, 44 ^ a b Herodotus VII, 22 ^ Herodotus VII, 24 ^ Herodotus VII, 23–25 ^ Herodotus VII, 37 ^ Thucydides IV, 109 ^ Izdimirski, Miroslav. "M. Izdimirski Xerxes' Canal at Mount Athos and the Achaemenid Administrative and Economic System - Thracia, XXIV, 2019, 222-235". Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Bibliography[edit] Ancient sources[edit] Herodotus, The Histories Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War Modern sources[edit] B.S.J. Isserlin, R.E. Jones, V. Karastathis, S.P. Papamarinopoulos, G.E. Syrides, J. Uren: "The Canal of Xerxes: Summary of Investigations 1991–2001" Annual of the British School at Athens Vol. 98 (2003), pp. 369–85 https://www.jstor.org/stable/30073214 B.S.J. Isserlin: ”The Canal of Xerxes: Facts and Problems”. Annual of the British School at Athens 86 (1991), 83–91. B.S.J. Isserlin, R.E. Jones, S.P. Papamarinopoulos, J. Uren: “The Canal of Xerxes: Preliminary Investigations in 1991 and 1992”. Annual of the British School at Athens 89 (1994), 277–84. B.S.J. Isserlin, R.E. Jones, S.P. Papamarinopoulos, G.E. Syrides, Y. Maniatis, Y. Facorellis, J. Uren: “The Canal of Xerxes: Investigations in 1993–1994”. Annual of the British School at Athens 91 (1996), 329–40. B.S.J. Isserlin, R.E. Jones, V. Karastathis, S.P. Papamarinopoulos, G.E. Syrides, J. Uren: "The Canal of Xerxes: Summary of Investigations 1991–2001". Annual of the British School at Athens Vol. 98 (2003), pp. 369–85 https://www.jstor.org/stable/30073214 R.E. Jones, B.S.J. Isserlin, V.K. Karastathis, S.P. Papamarinopoulos, G.E. Syrides, J. Uren, I. Balatsas, Ch. Kapopoulos, Y. Maniatis, Y. Facorellis: ”Exploration of the Canal of Xerxes, Northern Greece: the Role of Geophysical and Other Yechniques“. Archaeological Prospection 7 (2000), 147–70 (Abstract). V.K. Karastathis, S.P. Papamarinopoulos: ”Preliminary Results of the Implementation of the Shallow Seismic Techniques in Order to Detect the King Xerxes' Canal“. Extended Abstract. Newsletter (European Geophysical Society) 53 (1994), 8–9. V.K. Karastathis, S.P. Papamarinopoulos: “The Detection of the Xerxes Canal by the Use of Shallow Reflection and Refraction Seismics – Preliminary Results”. Geophysical Prospecting 45 (1997), 389–401 (Abstract). V.K. Karastathis, S.P. Papamarinopoulos, R.E. Jones: “2-D Velocity Structure of the Buried Ancient Canal of Xerxes: An Application of Seismic Methods in Archaeology”. Journal of Applied Geophysics 47 (2001), 29–43. Y. Bhattacharjee: “Persian Canal Discovery Is Testament to Ancient Engineering Skills”. The New York Times, 13. November 2001 (Text). Coordinates: 40°22′24″N 23°55′28″E / 40.3732°N 23.9245°E / 40.3732; 23.9245 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_Canal&oldid=989827243" Categories: Canals in Greece Chalkidiki Greco-Persian Wars Achaemenid Empire Ancient canals Ship canals Mount Athos Xerxes I Hidden categories: CS1 errors: missing periodical Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles containing Greek-language text Coordinates on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Italiano Nederlands Română Русский Türkçe Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 21 November 2020, at 07:32 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6862	----	Borsippa - Wikipedia Borsippa From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Babylonian city Not to be confused with Nimrud. Coordinates: 32°23′31.19″N 44°20′30.08″E / 32.3919972°N 44.3416889°E / 32.3919972; 44.3416889 Borsippa The mountain of Borsippa (in antiquity Babel). Drawn by Faucher-Gudin. Borsippa Today part of Iraq Borsippa (Sumerian: BAD.SI.(A).AB.BAKI; Akkadian: Barsip and Til-Barsip)[1] or Birs Nimrud (having been identified with Nimrod) is an archeological site in Babylon Province, Iraq. The ziggurat is today one of the most vividly identifiable surviving ones, identified in the later Talmudic and Arabic culture with the Tower of Babel. However, modern scholarship concludes that the Sumero-Akkadian builders of the Ziggurat in reality erected it as a religious edifice in honour of the local god Nabu, called the "son" of Babylon's Marduk, as would be appropriate for Babylon's lesser sister-city. Borsippa was an important ancient city of Sumer, built on both sides of a lake about 17.7 km (11.0 mi) southwest of Babylon on the east bank of the Euphrates. Contents 1 History 2 Archaeology 3 Gallery 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links History[edit] Borsippa is mentioned, usually in connection with Babylon, in texts from the Ur III period through the Seleucid period and even in early Islamic texts. It is also mentioned in the Babylonian Talmud (Shabbat 36a). Borsippa was dependent upon Babylon and was never the seat of a regional power. From the 9th century BC, Borsippa was on the borderland south of which lay the tribal "houses" of Chaldea. The Jewish historian, Josephus, mentions the city in relation to the war between Cyrus the Great and Nabonnedus.[2] The temple to Nabu at Borsippa was destroyed in 484 BC during the suppression of a revolt against the Achaemenid king Xerxes.[3] Archaeology[edit] Ruins of the ziggurat and temple of Nabu at Borsippa, Babylonia, Iraq In 1854, work at Borsippa was conducted under the direction of Henry Creswicke Rawlinson, with most of the actual digging done by his subordinates.[4] Rawlinson personally uncovered the foundation prisms from Nebuchadnezzar II's restoration on the Nabu temple. Between 1879 and 1881 the site was excavated by Hormuzd Rassam for the British Museum.[5][6] He concentrated primarily on Ezida, the temple of Nabu. In 1902, Robert Koldewey worked at Borsippa during his main effort at Babylon also mainly on the Nabu temple.[7] Since 1980, the Austrian team from the Leopold-Franzens-Universität Innsbruck led by Helga Piesl-Trenkwalder and Wilfred Allinger-Csollich excavated for sixteen seasons at the site. Early work concentrated on the large ziggurat E-ur-imin-an-ki and later on the Nabu temple. Excavations can currently not be carried out due to political events. The elaboration of the results of excavations within the project "Comparative studies of Borsippa - Babylon" are conducted.[8][9] Many legal administrative and astronomical texts on cuneiform tablets have originated at Borsippa and have turned up on the black market. Archives began to be published in the 1980s. An inscription of Nebuchadnezzar II, the "Borsippa inscription," tells how he restored the temple of Nabu, "the temple of the seven spheres," with "bricks of noble lapis lazuli." that must have been covered with a rich blue glaze, surely a memorable sight. The Austrian archeologists have determined that Nebuchadnezzar's ziggurat encased the ruins of a smaller tower from the second millennium BC. When it was completed it reached a height of 70 meters, in seven terraces; even in ruin it still stands a striking 52 meters over the perfectly flat plain. Some tablets have been recovered, but archeologists still hope to uncover a temple archive of cuneiform tablets, of which there were some copies in ancient Assyrian libraries. An inscribed foundation stone has been recovered, which details Nebuchadnezzar's plan to have the Borsippa ziggurat built on the same design as that at Babylon, of which only the foundation survives. Nebuchadnezzar declared that Nabu's tower would reach the skies, another inscription states. The reconstruction under the patronage of Bel-Marduk is summarized on a cylinder in Akkadian of Antiochus I, an example of the region's remarkable cultural continuity.[10] Gallery[edit] The original ancient gypsum plaster between mud-bricks, Borsippa, Babel, Iraq Stamped mud-brick from the ziggurat and temple of Nabu at Borsippa, Iraq, 6th century BC Ruins around the ziggurat and temple of the god Nabu at Borsippa, Babel Governorate, Iraq Original tiles at the upper surface of the ziggurat and temple of Nabu at Borsippa, Iraq The upper surface of the ruins of the ziggurat and temple of Nabu at Borsippa, Iraq Modern cement covering ancient bricks at the upper surface of the ziggurat and temple of Nabu, Borsippa, Iraq Ruins of the lower part of the ziggurat and temple of Nabu at Borsippa, Babel Governorate, Iraq Stamped mud-brick from the ziggurat and temple of Nabu, Borsippa, Iraq The upper part of the Tongue Tower of the ziggurat and temple of Nabu at Borsippa, Iraq The ruins of the so-called Tongue Tower of the ziggurat and temple of the god Nabu at Borsippa, Babel Governorate, Iraq. 6th century BC The ruins of the so-called Tongue Tower of the ziggurat of Nabu at Borsippa, Babel Governorate, Iraq. 6th century BC The ruins of the so-called Tongue Tower of the ziggurat and temple of Nabu at Borsippa, Iraq Ruins of the ziggurat and temple of god Nabu, Borsippa, Babel Governorate, Iraq, sixth century BC Ruins of the ziggurat and temple of god Nabu at Borsippa, Babel Governorate, Iraq See also[edit] Cities of the Ancient Near East Short chronology timeline Notes[edit] ^ The Cambridge Ancient History: Prolegomena & Prehistory: Vol. 1, Part 1. Accessed 15 Dec 2010. ^ Josephus, Against Apion (Book 1, section 20) ^ M. A. Dandamayev, "Ezida Temple and the Cult of Nabu in Babilonia of the First Millennium", Vestnik drevnej istorii, no. 3, pp. 87-94, 2009 ^ Henry C. Rawlinson, "On the Birs Nimrud, or the Great Temple of Borsippa", The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. 18, pp. 1-34, 1861 ^ Hormuzd Rassam (1897). "Asshur and the Land of Nimrod: Being an Account of the Discoveries Made in the Ancient Ruins of Nineveh, Asshur, Sepharvaim, Calah, (etc)..." (PDF). Curts & Jennings. ^ J. E. Reade," Rassam's Excavations at Borsippa and Kutha, 1879-82", Iraq, vol. 48, pp. 105-116, 1986 ^ Robert Koldewey. The excavations at Babylon, University of Michigan Library, 1914; Robert Koldewey, "Die Tempel von Babylon und Borsippa", WVDOG 15, Leipzig, 1911, ISSN 0342-118X ^ W. Allinger-Csollich: Birs Nimrud I. Die Baukörper der Ziqqurat von Borsippa, ein Vorbericht. Baghdader Mitteilungen (BaM). Gbr. Mann, Berlin, vol. 22, pp. 383-499, 1991, ISSN 0418-9698 ^ W. Allinger-Csollich, Birs Nimrud II: Tieftempel-Hochtempel: Vergleichende Studien Borsippa - Babylon, Baghdader Mitteilungen, vol. 29, pp. 95-330, 1998, ISSN 0418-9698 ^ A. Kuhrt and S. Selwin-White, "Aspects of Seleucid Royal Ideology : The Cylinder of Antiochus I from Borsippa", Journal of Hellenic Studies 111 (1991:71-86) References[edit] G. Frame, The "First Families" of Borsippa during the Early Neo-Babylonian Period, Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 67–80, 1984 John P. Peters, The Tower of Babel at Borsippa, Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 41, pp. 157–159, 1921 Francis Joannes, Archives de Borsippa la famille Ea-Iluta-Bani : etude d'un lot d'archives familiales en Babylonie du VIIIe au Ve siecle av. J.-C, Droz, 1989 Susan Sherwin-White, Aspects of Seleucid Royal Ideology: The Cylinder of Antiochus I from Borsippa, The Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. 111, pp. 71–86, 1991 Caroline Waerzeggers, The Carians of Borsippa, Iraq, vol. 68, pp. 1–22, 2006 Caroline Waerzeggers, The Ezida temple of Borsippa Priesthood, cult, archives (Achaemenid History vol. 15), Leiden, 2010 ISBN 978-90-6258-415-4 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Borsippa. Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Borsippa. Google Maps link to the Borsippa ziggurat. Birs Nimrud - Iraq Cultural Heritage. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Borsippa&oldid=990471647" Categories: Babil Governorate Sumerian cities Former populated places in Iraq Archaeological sites in Iraq Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Башҡортса Català Cebuano Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 November 2020, at 17:37 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6866	----	Merenre Nemtyemsaf I - Wikipedia Merenre Nemtyemsaf I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Merenre Antyemsaf A small wooden box inscribed with the names and titles of Merenre Nemtyemsaf I, Musée du Louvre Pharaoh Reign 2287–2278 BC 9 years (6th Dynasty) Predecessor Pepi I Meryre Successor Pepi II Neferkare Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Nemtyemsaf Nemty is his protection Nomen Merenre Beloved of Re Horus name Ankh Khaw Living of apparitions Nebty name Ankh Khaw Living of apparitions Golden Horus Bikwi Nebu Two golden falcons Children Ankhesenpepi III Father Pepi I Meryre Mother Ankhesenpepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I (reigned 2287–2278 BC) was the fourth king of the Sixth Dynasty of Egypt. His nomen, theophorically referring to Nemty, was formerly read as Antyemsaf, a reading now known to be incorrect. Contents 1 Biography 2 Pyramid 3 References 4 External links Biography[edit] Merenre was a son of Pepi I and Ankhesenpepi I, and grandson of the female vizier Nebet and her spouse Khui. While Merenre Nemtyemsaf was once believed to have served as a brief co-regent to his father Pepi I Meryre before ruling in his own right, the publication of the South Saqqara Stone annal document in 1995 by Vassil Dobrev and Michel Baud shows that Merenre directly succeeded his father in power with no interregnum or coregency. The badly damaged document preserves the record of Pepi I's final year—his 25th Count and proceeds immediately to the first year count of Merenre[1] Merenre shared his father's fascination with Nubia and continued to explore deep into the region. He also began a process of royal consolidation, appointing Weni as the first governor of all of Upper Egypt and expanding the power of several other governors. While he was once assumed to have died at an early age, recent archaeological discoveries discount this theory. Two contemporary objects suggests that Merenre's reign lasted slightly more than a decade. The South Saqqara Stone Annals preserves his Year after the 2nd Count[2] whereas Merenre's Year after the 5th Count (Year 10 if the count was biennial) is attested in a quarry inscription from Hatnub Inscription No.6, according to Anthony Spalinger.[3] The same South Saqqara Stone – which was created during Pepi II's reign – credits Merenre with a minimum reign of 11 to 13 years, however (based on a strictly biennial count), which would increase Merenre's reign length from the more traditional figure of 5 to 6 years.[4] The British Egyptologists Ian Shaw and Paul Nicholson in a 1995 book raised Merenre I's reign from the traditional 6 year figure to 9 years.[5] However, they were unaware of the contents of the South Saqqara Stone which was published in the same year by Baud & Dobrev and shows that Merenre had a minimum reign of 11 years with no co-regency with his father, Pepi I. One must note that cattle counts were not always biennial; for example, 18 had been performed by the 30th year of Pepi I's reign. It is therefore entirely possible that Merenre ruled for fewer than 11 years. Sixth dynasty royal seals and stone blocks found at Saqqara demonstrate that Merenre's aunt, Queen Ankhesenpepi II, was the wife of both Pepi I and then Merenre himself. Since the South Saqqara Stone shows Merenre's reign intervened between Pepi I and Pepi II and lasted for a minimum of slightly over a decade, this indirectly indicates that Merenre I was actually Pepi II's father, rather than Pepi I as was traditionally assumed. Merenre's daughter was Ankhesenpepi III, the future wife of Pepi II. Pyramid[edit] The pyramid of Merenre was constructed during the Sixth Dynasty of Egypt at Saqqara 450 metres (1,480 ft) to the south-west of the pyramid of Pepi I and a similar distance to the pyramid of Djedkare.[6] References[edit] ^ Michel Baud, Vassil Dobrev, De nouvelles annales de l'Ancien Empire égyptien. Une "Pierre de Palerme" pour la VIe dynastie, BIFAO 95 (1995), pp.23-92 ^ Baud & Dobrev, BIFAO 95 (1995), pp.23-92 ^ Anthony Spalinger, Dated Texts of the Old Kingdom, SAK 21 (1994), p.307 ^ Baud & Dobrev, BIFAO 95 (1995), pp.23-92 ^ Ian Shaw and Paul Nicholson, The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt, London, 1995, p.220 ^ Kinnaer, Jacques. "The Pyramid of Merenre I". Accessed September 20, 2008. External links[edit] The South Saqqara Stone: Sixth Dynasty Annals v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 1049352572 VIAF: 307310520 WorldCat Identities: viaf-307310520 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Merenre_Nemtyemsaf_I&oldid=985942613" Categories: 23rd-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Sixth Dynasty of Egypt 23rd-century BC rulers 23rd century BC in Egypt 23rd-century BC deaths Pepi I Meryre Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Occitan Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 28 October 2020, at 21:36 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6867	----	Babylon - Wikipedia Babylon From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Kingdom in ancient Mesopotamia from the 18th to 6th centuries BC For other uses, see Babylon (disambiguation). "Babilu" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Babalu. Babylon Bābilim A partial view of the ruins of Babylon, as seen from Saddam Hussein's Summer Palace Shown within Near East Show map of Near East Babylon (Iraq) Show map of Iraq Alternative name Arabic: بابل‎ Babil Akkadian: 𒆍𒀭𒊏𒆠 Bābili(m)[1] Sumerian: 𒆍𒀭𒊏𒆠 KÁ.DIG̃IR.RAKI[1] Aramaic: 𐡁𐡁𐡋‎ Babil[1] Greek: Βαβυλών Babylṓn Hebrew: בָּבֶל‎ Bavel Old Persian: 𐎲𐎠𐎲𐎡𐎽𐎢 Bābiru Elamite: 𒀸𒁀𒉿𒇷 Babili Kassite: Karanduniash Location Hillah, Babil Governorate, Iraq Region Mesopotamia Coordinates 32°32′11″N 44°25′15″E / 32.53639°N 44.42083°E / 32.53639; 44.42083Coordinates: 32°32′11″N 44°25′15″E / 32.53639°N 44.42083°E / 32.53639; 44.42083 Type Settlement Part of Babylonia Area 9 km2 (3.5 sq mi) History Founded c. 1894 BC Abandoned c. AD 1000 Cultures Akkadian, Amorite, Kassite, Assyrian, Chaldean, Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sasanian Site notes Archaeologists Hormuzd Rassam, Robert Koldewey Condition Ruined Ownership Public UNESCO World Heritage Site Official name Babylon Criteria Cultural: (iii), (vi) Designated 2019 (43rd session) Reference no. 278 State Party  Iraq Region Arab States This article contains special characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols. Babylon was the capital city of the ancient Babylonian empire, which itself is a term referring to either of two separate empires in the Mesopotamian area in antiquity. These two empires achieved regional dominance between the 19th and 15th centuries BC, and again between the 7th and 6th centuries BC. The city, built along both banks of the Euphrates river, had steep embankments to contain the river's seasonal floods. The earliest known mention of Babylon as a small town appears on a clay tablet from the reign of Sargon of Akkad (2334–2279 BC) of the Akkadian Empire. The site of the ancient city lies just south of present-day Baghdad. The last known record of habitation of the town dates from the 10th century AD, when it was referred to[by whom?] as the small village of Babel. The town became part of a small independent city-state with the rise of the First Babylonian dynasty in the 19th century BC. The Amorite king Hammurabi founded the short-lived Old Babylonian Empire in the 18th century BC. He built Babylon into a major city and declared himself its king. Southern Mesopotamia became known as Babylonia, and Babylon eclipsed Nippur as the region's holy city. The empire waned under Hammurabi's son Samsu-iluna, and Babylon spent long periods under Assyrian, Kassite and Elamite domination. After the Assyrians had destroyed and then rebuilt it, Babylon became the capital of the short-lived Neo-Babylonian Empire, a neo-Assyrian successor state, from 609 to 539 BC. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon ranked as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. After the fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, the city came under the rule of the Achaemenid, Seleucid, Parthian, Roman, and Sassanid empires. It has been estimated[by whom?] that Babylon was the largest city in the world c. 1770 – c. 1670 BC, and again c. 612 – c. 320 BC. It was perhaps the first city to reach a population above 200,000.[2] Estimates for the maximum extent of its area range from 890[3] to 900 hectares (2,200 acres).[4] The remains of the city are in present-day Hillah, Babil Governorate, Iraq, about 85 kilometres (53 mi) south of Baghdad. They comprise a large tell of broken mud-brick buildings and debris. The main sources of information about Babylon—excavation of the site itself, references in cuneiform texts found elsewhere in Mesopotamia, references in the Bible, descriptions in other classical writing (especially by Herodotus), and second-hand descriptions (citing the work of Ctesias and Berossus)—present an incomplete and sometimes contradictory picture of the ancient city, even at its peak in the sixth century BC.[5] UNESCO inscribed Babylon as a World Heritage Site in 2019. Contents 1 Name 2 Geography 3 Sources 3.1 Early references 3.2 Classical dating 4 History 4.1 Old Babylonian period 4.2 Middle Babylon 4.3 Assyrian period 4.4 Neo-Babylonian Empire 4.5 Persian conquest 4.6 Hellenistic period 4.7 Renewed Persian rule 4.8 Muslim conquest 5 Modern era 5.1 Excavation and research 5.2 Iraqi Government 5.3 US and Polish occupation 5.4 Present day 6 Cultural importance 6.1 Biblical narrative 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 9.1 Sources 9.2 Further reading 10 External links Name[edit] The spelling Babylon is the Latin representation of Greek Babylṓn (Βαβυλών), derived from the native (Babylonian) Bābilim, meaning "gate of the god(s)". The cuneiform spelling was 𒆍𒀭𒊏𒆠 KA2.DIG̃IR.RAKI.[6][failed verification] This would correspond to the Sumerian phrase kan diŋirak[7] The 𒆍 KA2 is the ideograph for "gate", 𒀭 DIG̃IR is "god", and the 𒊏 ra is a genitive suffix. The final 𒆠 KI is the determinative for a place name. Archibald Sayce, writing in the 1870s, postulated that the Semitic name was a loan-translation of the original Sumerian name.[8][9] However, the "gate of god" interpretation is increasingly viewed as a Semitic folk etymology to explain an unknown original non-Semitic placename.[10] I.J. Gelb in 1955 argued that the original name was Babil or Babilla, of unknown meaning and origin, as there were other similarly named places in Sumer, and there are no other examples of Sumerian place-names being replaced with Akkadian translations. He deduced that it later transformed into Akkadian Bāb-ili(m), and that the Sumerian name Ka-dig̃irra was a loan translation of the Semitic folk etymology, and not the original name.[11][12] The re-translation of the Semitic name into Sumerian would have taken place at the time of the "Neo-Sumerian" Third Dynasty of Ur.[13] (Bab-Il). In the Hebrew Bible, the name appears as Babel (Hebrew: בָּבֶל‎ Bavel, Tib. בָּבֶל Bāḇel; Classical Syriac: ܒܒܠ‎ Bāwēl, Aramaic: בבל‎ Babel; in Arabic: بَابِل‎ Bābil), interpreted in the Book of Genesis to mean "confusion",[14] from the verb bilbél (בלבל, "to confuse").[15] The modern English verb, to babble ("to speak foolish, excited, or confusing talk"), is popularly thought to derive from this name but there is no direct connection.[16] Ancient records in some situations use "Babylon" as a name for other cities, including cities like Borsippa within Babylon's sphere of influence, and Nineveh for a short period after the Assyrian sack of Babylon.[17][18] Geography[edit] Schematic showing Babylon on the Euphrates River with major areas within inner and outer walls Babylon in 1932 Brick structures in Babylon, photographed in 2016 The remains of the city are in present-day Hillah,[9] Babil Governorate, Iraq, about 85 kilometers (53 mi) south of Baghdad, comprising a large tell of broken mud-brick buildings and debris. The site at Babylon consists of a number of mounds covering an area of about 2 by 1 kilometer (1.24 mi × 0.62 mi), oriented north to south, along the Euphrates to the west. Originally, the river roughly bisected the city, but the course of the river has since shifted so that most of the remains of the former western part of the city are now inundated. Some portions of the city wall to the west of the river also remain. Only a small portion of the ancient city (3% of the area within the inner walls; 1.5% of the area within the outer walls; 0.1% at the depth of Middle and Old Babylon) has been excavated.[19] Known remains include: Kasr – also called Palace or Castle, it is the location of the Neo-Babylonian ziggurat Etemenanki and lies in the center of the site. Amran Ibn Ali – the highest of the mounds at 25 meters (82 ft) to the south. It is the site of Esagila, a temple of Marduk that also contained shrines to Ea and Nabu. Homera – a reddish-colored mound on the west side. Most of the Hellenistic remains are here. Babil – a mound about 22 meters (72 ft) high at the northern end of the site. Its bricks have been subject to looting since ancient times. It held a palace built by Nebuchadnezzar. Archaeologists have recovered few artifacts predating the Neo-Babylonian period. The water table in the region has risen greatly over the centuries, and artifacts from the time before the Neo-Babylonian Empire are unavailable to current standard archaeological methods. Additionally, the Neo-Babylonians conducted significant rebuilding projects in the city, which destroyed or obscured much of the earlier record. Babylon was pillaged numerous times after revolting against foreign rule, most notably by the Hittites and Elamites in the 2nd millennium, then by the Neo-Assyrian Empire and the Achaemenid Empire in the 1st millennium. Much of the western half of the city is now beneath the river, and other parts of the site have been mined for commercial building materials. Only the Koldewey expedition recovered artifacts from the Old Babylonian period. These included 967 clay tablets, stored in private houses, with Sumerian literature and lexical documents.[19] Nearby ancient settlements are Kish, Borsippa, Dilbat, and Kutha. Marad and Sippar were 60 kilometers (37 mi) in either direction along the Euphrates.[19] Sources[edit] Illustration by Leonard William King of fragment K. 8532, a part of the Dynastic Chronicle listing rulers of Babylon grouped by dynasty. Historical knowledge of early Babylon must be pieced together from epigraphic remains found elsewhere, such as at Uruk, Nippur, and Haradum. Information on the Neo-Babylonian city is available from archaeological excavations and from classical sources. Babylon was described, perhaps even visited, by a number of classical historians including Ctesias, Herodotus, Quintus Curtius Rufus, Strabo, and Cleitarchus. These reports are of variable accuracy and some of the content was politically motivated, but these still provide useful information.[20] Early references[edit] References to the city of Babylon can be found in Akkadian and Sumerian literature from the late third millennium BC. One of the earliest is a tablet describing the Akkadian king Šar-kali-šarri laying the foundations in Babylon of new temples for Annūnı̄tum and Ilaba. Babylon also appears in the administrative records of the Third Dynasty of Ur, which collected in-kind tax payments and appointed an ensi as local governor.[12][21] The so-called Weidner Chronicle (also known as ABC 19) states that Sargon of Akkad (c. 23d century BC in the short chronology) had built Babylon "in front of Akkad" (ABC 19:51). A later chronicle states that Sargon "dug up the dirt of the pit of Babylon, and made a counterpart of Babylon next to Akkad". (ABC 20:18–19). Van de Mieroop has suggested that those sources may refer to the much later Assyrian king Sargon II of the Neo-Assyrian Empire rather than Sargon of Akkad.[18] Classical dating[edit] Ctesias, quoted by Diodorus Siculus and in George Syncellus's Chronographia, claimed to have access to manuscripts from Babylonian archives, which date the founding of Babylon to 2286 BC, under the reign of its first king, Belus.[22] A similar figure is found in the writings of Berossus, who according to Pliny,[23] stated that astronomical observations commenced at Babylon 490 years before the Greek era of Phoroneus, indicating 2243 BC. Stephanus of Byzantium wrote that Babylon was built 1002 years before the date given by Hellanicus of Lesbos for the siege of Troy (1229 BC), which would date Babylon's foundation to 2231 BC.[24] All of these dates place Babylon's foundation in the 23rd century BC; however, cuneiform records have not been found to correspond with these classical (post-cuneiform) accounts. History[edit] The Queen of the Night relief. The figure could be an aspect of the goddess Ishtar, Babylonian goddess of sex and love. By around the 19th century BC, much of southern Mesopotamia was occupied by Amorites, nomadic tribes from the northern Levant who were Northwest Semitic speakers, unlike the native Akkadians of southern Mesopotamia and Assyria, who spoke East Semitic. The Amorites at first did not practice agriculture like more advanced Mesopotamians, preferring a semi-nomadic lifestyle, herding sheep. Over time, Amorite grain merchants rose to prominence and established their own independent dynasties in several south Mesopotamian city-states, most notably Isin, Larsa, Eshnunna, Lagash, and later, founding Babylon as a state. Old Babylonian period[edit] Map showing the Babylonian territory upon Hammurabi's ascension in 1792 BC and upon his death in 1750 BC Old Babylonian cylinder seal, hematite. This seal was probably made in a workshop at Sippar (about 40 miles (64 km) north of Babylon on the map above) either during, or shortly before, the reign of Hammurabi.[25] It depicts the king making an animal offering to the sun god Shamash. Linescan camera image of the cylinder seal above (reversed to resemble an impression). According to a Babylonian date list, Amorite[a] rule in Babylon began (c. 19th or 18th century BC) with a chieftain named Sumu-abum, who declared independence from the neighboring city-state of Kazallu. Sumu-la-El, whose dates may be concurrent with those of Sumu-abum, is usually given as the progenitor of the First Babylonian dynasty. Both are credited with building the walls of Babylon. In any case, the records describe Sumu-la-El's military successes establishing a regional sphere of influence for Babylon.[26] Babylon was initially a minor city-state, and controlled little surrounding territory; its first four Amorite rulers did not assume the title of king. The older and more powerful states of Assyria, Elam, Isin, and Larsa overshadowed Babylon until it became the capital of Hammurabi's short lived empire about a century later. Hammurabi (r. 1792–1750 BC) is famous for codifying the laws of Babylonia into the Code of Hammurabi. He conquered all of the cities and city states of southern Mesopotamia, including Isin, Larsa, Ur, Uruk, Nippur, Lagash, Eridu, Kish, Adab, Eshnunna, Akshak, Akkad, Shuruppak, Bad-tibira, Sippar, and Girsu, coalescing them into one kingdom, ruled from Babylon. Hammurabi also invaded and conquered Elam to the east, and the kingdoms of Mari and Ebla to the northwest. After a protracted struggle with the powerful Assyrian king Ishme-Dagan of the Old Assyrian Empire, he forced his successor to pay tribute late in his reign, spreading Babylonian power to Assyria's Hattian and Hurrian colonies in Asia Minor. After the reign of Hammurabi, the whole of southern Mesopotamia came to be known as Babylonia, whereas the north had already coalesced centuries before into Assyria. From this time, Babylon supplanted Nippur and Eridu as the major religious centers of southern Mesopotamia. Hammurabi's empire destabilized after his death. Assyrians defeated and drove out the Babylonians and Amorites. The far south of Mesopotamia broke away, forming the native Sealand Dynasty, and the Elamites appropriated territory in eastern Mesopotamia. The Amorite dynasty remained in power in Babylon, which again became a small city state. Texts from Old Babylon often include references to Shamash, the sun-god of Sippar, treated as a supreme deity, and Marduk, considered as his son. Marduk was later elevated to a higher status and Shamash lowered, perhaps reflecting Babylon's rising political power[12] Middle Babylon[edit] In 1595 BC[b] the city was overthrown by the Hittite Empire from Asia Minor. Thereafter, Kassites from the Zagros Mountains of north western Ancient Iran captured Babylon, ushering in a dynasty that lasted for 435 years, until 1160 BC. The city was renamed Karanduniash during this period. Kassite Babylon eventually became subject to the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1053 BC) to the north, and Elam to the east, with both powers vying for control of the city. The Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I took the throne of Babylon in 1235 BC. By 1155 BC, after continued attacks and annexing of territory by the Assyrians and Elamites, the Kassites were deposed in Babylon. An Akkadian south Mesopotamian dynasty then ruled for the first time. However, Babylon remained weak and subject to domination by Assyria. Its ineffectual native kings were unable to prevent new waves of foreign West Semitic settlers from the deserts of the Levant, including the Arameans and Suteans in the 11th century BC, and finally the Chaldeans in the 9th century BC, entering and appropriating areas of Babylonia for themselves. The Arameans briefly ruled in Babylon during the late 11th century BC. Assyrian period[edit] Sennacherib of Assyria during his Babylonian war, relief from his palace in Nineveh During the rule of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 BC), Babylonia was under constant Assyrian domination or direct control. During the reign of Sennacherib of Assyria, Babylonia was in a constant state of revolt, led by a chieftain named Merodach-Baladan, in alliance with the Elamites, and suppressed only by the complete destruction of the city of Babylon. In 689 BC, its walls, temples and palaces were razed, and the rubble was thrown into the Arakhtu, the sea bordering the earlier Babylon on the south. Destruction of the religious center shocked many, and the subsequent murder of Sennacherib by two of his own sons while praying to the god Nisroch was considered an act of atonement. Consequently, his successor Esarhaddon hastened to rebuild the old city and make it his residence during part of the year. After his death, Babylonia was governed by his elder son, the Assyrian prince Shamash-shum-ukin, who eventually started a civil war in 652 BC against his own brother, Ashurbanipal, who ruled in Nineveh. Shamash-shum-ukin enlisted the help of other peoples against to Assyria, including Elam, Persia, Chaldeans, and Suteans of southern Mesopotamia, and the Canaanites and Arabs dwelling in the deserts south of Mesopotamia. Once again, Babylon was besieged by the Assyrians, starved into surrender and its allies were defeated. Ashurbanipal celebrated a "service of reconciliation", but did not venture to "take the hands" of Bel. An Assyrian governor named Kandalanu was appointed as ruler of the city. Ashurbanipal did collect texts from Babylon for inclusion in his extensive library at Ninevah.[19] After the death of Ashurbanipal, the Assyrian empire destabilized due to a series of internal civil wars throughout the reigns of Assyrian kings Ashur-etil-ilani, Sin-shumu-lishir and Sinsharishkun. Eventually Babylon, like many other parts of the near east, took advantage of the chaos within Assyria to free itself from Assyrian rule. In the subsequent overthrow of the Assyrian Empire by an alliance of peoples, the Babylonians saw another example of divine vengeance.[27] Neo-Babylonian Empire[edit] Cuneiform cylinder from reign of Nebuchadnezzar II honoring the exorcism and reconstruction of the ziggurat Etemenanki by Nabopolassar.[28] Detail of a relief from the reconstruction of the Ishtar Gate A reconstruction of the blue-tiled Ishtar Gate, which was the northern entrance to Babylon. It was named for the goddess of love and war. Bulls and dragons, symbols of the god Marduk, decorated the gate. Main article: Neo-Babylonian Empire Under Nabopolassar, a previously Caldanian King, Babylon escaped Assyrian rule, and in an alliance with Cyaxares, king of the Medes who was his son in law together with Cimmerians, finally destroyed the Assyrian Empire between 612 BC and 605 BC. Babylon thus became the capital of the Neo-Babylonian (sometimes and possibly erroneously called the Chaldean) or Caldanian Empire.[29][30][31] With the recovery of Babylonian independence, a new era of architectural activity ensued, particularly during the reign of his son Nebuchadnezzar II (604–561 BC).[32] Nebuchadnezzar ordered the complete reconstruction of the imperial grounds, including the Etemenanki ziggurat, and the construction of the Ishtar Gate—the most prominent of eight gates around Babylon. A reconstruction of the Ishtar Gate is located in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin. Nebuchadnezzar is also credited with the construction of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon—one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World—said to have been built for his homesick wife Amyitis. Whether the gardens actually existed is a matter of dispute. German archaeologist Robert Koldewey speculated that he had discovered its foundations, but many historians disagree about the location. Stephanie Dalley has argued that the hanging gardens were actually located in the Assyrian capital, Nineveh.[33] Nebuchadnezzar is also notoriously associated with the Babylonian exile of the Jews, the result of an imperial technique of pacification, used also by the Assyrians, in which ethnic groups in conquered areas were deported en masse to the capital.[34] According to the Hebrew Bible, he destroyed Solomon's Temple and exiled the Jews to Babylon. The defeat was also recorded in the Babylonian Chronicles.[35][36] Persian conquest[edit] In 539 BC, the Neo-Babylonian Empire fell to Cyrus the Great, king of Persia, with a military engagement known as the Battle of Opis. Babylon's walls were considered impenetrable. The only way into the city was through one of its many gates or through the Euphrates River. Metal grates were installed underwater, allowing the river to flow through the city walls while preventing intrusion. The Persians devised a plan to enter the city via the river. During a Babylonian national feast, Cyrus' troops upstream diverted the Euphrates River, allowing Cyrus' soldiers to enter the city through the lowered water. The Persian army conquered the outlying areas of the city while the majority of Babylonians at the city center were unaware of the breach. The account was elaborated upon by Herodotus[37][20] and is also mentioned in parts of the Hebrew Bible.[38][39] Herodotus also described a moat, an enormously tall and broad wall cemented with bitumen and with buildings on top, and a hundred gates to the city. He also writes that the Babylonians wear turbans and perfume and bury their dead in honey, that they practice ritual prostitution, and that three tribes among them eat nothing but fish. The hundred gates can be considered a reference to Homer, and following the pronouncement of Archibald Henry Sayce in 1883, Herodotus' account of Babylon has largely been considered to represent Greek folklore rather than an authentic voyage to Babylon. However, recently, Dalley and others have suggested taking Herodotus' account seriously.[37][40] Babylonian soldier in the Achaemenid army, circa 470 BCE, Xerxes I tomb. According to 2 Chronicles 36 of the Hebrew Bible, Cyrus later issued a decree permitting captive people, including the Jews, to return to their own lands. Text found on the Cyrus Cylinder has traditionally been seen by biblical scholars as corroborative evidence of this policy, although the interpretation is disputed because the text only identifies Mesopotamian sanctuaries but makes no mention of Jews, Jerusalem, or Judea. Under Cyrus and the subsequent Persian king Darius I, Babylon became the capital city of the 9th Satrapy (Babylonia in the south and Athura in the north), as well as a center of learning and scientific advancement. In Achaemenid Persia, the ancient Babylonian arts of astronomy and mathematics were revitalized, and Babylonian scholars completed maps of constellations. The city became the administrative capital of the Persian Empire and remained prominent for over two centuries. Many important archaeological discoveries have been made that can provide a better understanding of that era.[41][42] The early Persian kings had attempted to maintain the religious ceremonies of Marduk, but by the reign of Darius III, over-taxation and the strain of numerous wars led to a deterioration of Babylon's main shrines and canals, and the destabilization of the surrounding region. There were numerous attempts at rebellion and in 522 BC (Nebuchadnezzar III), 521 BC (Nebuchadnezzar IV) and 482 BC (Bel-shimani and Shamash-eriba) native Babylonian kings briefly regained independence. However these revolts were quickly repressed and Babylon remained under Persian rule for two centuries, until Alexander the Great's entry in 331 BC. Hellenistic period[edit] In October of 331 BC, Darius III, the last Achaemenid king of the Persian Empire, was defeated by the forces of the Ancient Macedonian ruler Alexander at the Battle of Gaugamela. Under Alexander, Babylon again flourished as a center of learning and commerce. However, following Alexander's death in 323 BC in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar, his empire was divided amongst his generals, the Diadochi, and decades of fighting soon began. The constant turmoil virtually emptied the city of Babylon. A tablet dated 275 BC states that the inhabitants of Babylon were transported to Seleucia, where a palace and a temple (Esagila) were built. With this deportation, Babylon became insignificant as a city, although more than a century later, sacrifices were still performed in its old sanctuary.[43] Renewed Persian rule[edit] Main article: Babylonia § Persian Babylonia Under the Parthian and Sassanid Empires, Babylon (like Assyria) became a province of these Persian Empires for nine centuries, until after AD 650. It maintained its own culture and people, who spoke varieties of Aramaic, and who continued to refer to their homeland as Babylon. Examples of their culture are found in the Babylonian Talmud, the Gnostic Mandaean religion, Eastern Rite Christianity and the religion of the philosopher Mani. Christianity was introduced to Mesopotamia in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, and Babylon was the seat of a Bishop of the Church of the East until well after the Arab/Islamic conquest. Muslim conquest[edit] Main article: Muslim conquest of Persia In the mid-7th century, Mesopotamia was invaded and settled by the expanding Muslim Empire, and a period of Islamization followed. Babylon was dissolved as a province and Aramaic and Church of the East Christianity eventually became marginalized. Ibn Hauqal mentions a small village called Babel in the tenth century; subsequent travelers describe only ruins.[44] Babylon is mentioned in medieval Arabic writings as a source of bricks,[19] said to have been used in cities from Baghdad to Basra.[45] European travelers in many cases could not discover the city's location, or mistook Fallujah for it. Benjamin of Tudela, a 12th-century traveller, mentions Babylon but it is not clear if he went there. Others referred to Baghdad as Babylon or New Babylon and described various structures encountered in the region as the Tower of Babel.[46] Pietro della Valle found the ancient site in the 17th century and noted the existence of both baked and dried mudbricks cemented with bitumen.[45] Modern era[edit] From the accounts of modern travellers, I had expected to have found on the site of Babylon more, and less, than I actually did. Less, because I could have formed no conception of the prodigious extent of the whole ruins, or of the size, solidity, and perfect state, of some of the parts of them; and more, because I thought that I should have distinguished some traces, however imperfect, of many of the principle structures of Babylon. I imagined, I should have said: "Here were the walls, and such must have been the extent of the area. There stood the palace, and this most assuredly was the tower of Belus." – I was completely deceived: instead of a few insulated mounds, I found the whole face of the country covered with vestiges of building, in some places consisting of brick walls surprisingly fresh, in others merely of a vast succession of mounds of rubbish of such indeterminate figures, variety and extent, as to involve the person who should have formed any theory in inextricable confusion. Claudius J. Rich, Memoir on the Ruins of Babylon (1815), pp. 1–2.[47] Lion of Babylon The eighteenth century saw an increasing flow of travelers to Babylon, including Carsten Niebuhr and Pierre-Joseph de Beauchamp, as well as measurements of its latitude. Beauchamp's memoir, published in English translation in 1792, provoked the British East India Company to direct its agents in Baghdad and Basra to acquire Mesopotamian relics for shipment to London.[48] Excavation and research[edit] Claudius Rich, working for the British East India Company in Baghdad, excavated Babylon in 1811–12 and again in 1817.[49][50] Robert Mignan explored the site briefly in 1827.[51] William Loftus visited there in 1849.[52] "Entry of Alexander into Babylon", a 1665 painting by Charles LeBrun, depicts Alexander the Great's uncontested entry into the city of Babylon, envisioned with pre-existing Hellenistic architecture. Austen Henry Layard made some soundings during a brief visit in 1850 before abandoning the site.[53] Fulgence Fresnel and Julius Oppert heavily excavated Babylon from 1852 to 1854. However, many of the fruits of their work were lost when a raft containing over 40 crates of artifacts sank into the Tigris river.[54][55] Original tiles of the processional street. Ancient Babylon, Mesopotamia, Iraq. Henry Rawlinson and George Smith worked there briefly in 1854. The next excavation was conducted by Hormuzd Rassam on behalf of the British Museum. Work began in 1879, continuing until 1882, and was prompted by widespread looting of the site. Using industrial scale digging in search of artifacts, Rassam recovered a large quantity of cuneiform tablets and other finds. The zealous excavation methods, common at the time, caused significant damage to the archaeological context.[56][57] Many tablets had appeared on the market in 1876 before Rassam's excavation began.[19] Mušḫuššu (sirrush) and aurochs on either side of the processional street. Ancient Babylon, Mesopotamia, Iraq A team from the German Oriental Society led by Robert Koldewey conducted the first scientific archaeological excavations at Babylon. The work was conducted daily from 1899 until 1917. Primary efforts of the dig involved the temple of Marduk and the processional way leading up to it, as well as the city wall.[58][59][60][61][62][63] Artifacts including pieces of the Ishtar Gate and hundreds of recovered tablets were sent back to Germany, where Koldewey's colleague Walter Andrae reconstructed them into displays at Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin.[64][65] The German archaeologists fled before oncoming British troops in 1917 and again many objects went missing in the following years.[19] Further work by the German Archaeological Institute was conducted by Heinrich J. Lenzen in 1956 and Hansjörg Schmid in 1962. Lenzen's work dealt primarily with the Hellenistic theatre, and Schmid focused on the temple ziggurat Etemenanki.[66] The site was excavated in 1974 on behalf of the Turin Centre for Archaeological Research and Excavations in the Middle East and Asia and the Iraqi-Italian Institute of Archaeological Sciences.[67][68] The focus was on clearing up issues raised by re-examination of the old German data. Additional work in 1987–1989 concentrated on the area surrounding the Ishara and Ninurta temples in the Shu-Anna city-quarter of Babylon.[69][70] During the restoration efforts in Babylon, the Iraqi State Organization for Antiquities and Heritage conducted extensive research, excavation and clearing, but wider publication of these archaeological activities has been limited.[71][72] Indeed, most of the known tablets from all modern excavation remain unpublished.[19] Iraqi Government[edit] The site of Babylon has been a cultural asset to Iraq since the creation of the modern Iraqi state in 1921. The site was officially protected and excavated by the Kingdom of Iraq under British Administration, which later became the Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq, and its successors: the Arab Federation, the Iraqi Republic, Ba'athist Iraq (also officially called the Iraqi Republic), and the Republic of Iraq. Babylonian images periodically appear on Iraqi postcards and stamps. In the 1960s, a replica of the Ishtar Gate and a reconstruction of Ninmakh Temple were built on site.[73] On 14 February 1978, the Ba'athist government of Iraq under Saddam Hussein began the "Archaeological Restoration of Babylon Project": reconstructing features of the ancient city atop its ruins. These features included the Southern Palace of Nebuchandnezzar, with 250 rooms, five courtyards, and a 30-meter entrance arch. The project also reinforced the Processional Way, the Lion of Babylon, and an amphitheater constructed in the city's Hellenistic era. In 1982 the government minted a set of seven coins displaying iconic features of Babylon. A Babylon International Festival was held in September 1987, and annually thereafter until 2002 (excepting 1990 and 1991), to showcase this work. Proposed reconstruction of the Hanging Gardens and the great ziggurat never took place.[74][73][75] Hussein installed a portrait of himself and Nebuchadnezzar at the entrance to the ruins and inscribed his name on many of the bricks, in imitation of Nebuchadnezzar. One frequent inscription reads: "This was built by Saddam Hussein, son of Nebuchadnezzar, to glorify Iraq". These bricks became sought after as collectors' items after Hussein's downfall.[76] Similar projects were conducted at Nineveh, Nimrud, Assur and Hatra, to demonstrate the magnificence of Arab achievement.[77] When the 1991 Gulf War ended, Hussein wanted to build a modern palace called Saddam Hill over some of the old ruins, in the pyramidal style of a ziggurat. In 2003, he intended the construction of a cable car line over Babylon, but plans were halted by the 2003 invasion of Iraq. US and Polish occupation[edit] US Marines in front of the rebuilt ruins of Babylon, 2003 Play media World Monuments Fund video on conservation of Babylon Following the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the area around Babylon came under the control of US troops, before being handed over to Polish forces in September 2003.[78] US forces under the command of General James T. Conway of the I Marine Expeditionary Force were criticized for building the military base "Camp Alpha", with a helipad and other facilities on ancient Babylonian ruins during the Iraq War. US forces have occupied the site for some time and have caused irreparable damage to the archaeological record. In a report of the British Museum's Near East department, Dr. John Curtis described how parts of the archaeological site were levelled to create a landing area for helicopters, and parking lots for heavy vehicles. Curtis wrote of the occupation forces: They caused substantial damage to the Ishtar Gate, one of the most famous monuments from antiquity [...] US military vehicles crushed 2,600-year-old brick pavements, archaeological fragments were scattered across the site, more than 12 trenches were driven into ancient deposits and military earth-moving projects contaminated the site for future generations of scientists.[79] A US Military spokesman claimed that engineering operations were discussed with the "head of the Babylon museum".[80] The head of the Iraqi State Board for Heritage and Antiquities, Donny George, said that the "mess will take decades to sort out" and criticised Polish troops for causing "terrible damage" to the site.[81][82] Poland resolved in 2004 to place the city under Iraq control, and commissioned a report titled Report Concerning the Condition of the Preservation of the Babylon Archaeological Site, which it presented at a meeting on 11–13 December 2004.[74] In 2005 the site was handed over to the Iraqi Ministry of Culture.[78] In April 2006, Colonel John Coleman, former Chief of Staff for the 1st Marine Expeditionary Force, offered to issue an apology for the damage done by military personnel under his command. However, he also claimed that the US presence had deterred far greater damage by other looters.[83] An article published in April 2006 stated that UN officials and Iraqi leaders have plans to restore Babylon, making it into a cultural center.[84][85] Two museums and a library, containing replicas of artifacts and local maps and reports, were raided and destroyed.[86] Present day[edit] In May 2009, the provincial government of Babil reopened the site to tourists, but not many have come as yet. An oil pipeline runs through an outer wall of the city.[87][88] On July 5, 2019, the site of Babylon was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[89] Panoramic view of ruins in Babylon photographed in 2005 during a tour for U.S. soldiers. Cultural importance[edit] Woodcut in 1493 Nuremberg Chronicle depicting the fall of Babylon. "The Walls of Babylon and the Temple of Bel (Or Babel)", by 19th-century illustrator William Simpson – influenced by early archaeological investigations. Before modern archaeological excavations in Mesopotamia, the appearance of Babylon was largely a mystery, and typically envisioned by Western artists as a hybrid between ancient Egyptian, classical Greek, and contemporary Ottoman culture.[90] Due to Babylon's historical significance as well as references to it in the Bible, the word "Babylon" in various languages has acquired a generic meaning of a large, bustling diverse city. Examples include: Babylon is used in reggae music as a concept in the Rastafari belief system, denoting the materialistic capitalist world: it refers equally to the British Empire, which engineered the slave trade and to the modern oppressive governments of the US and her allies, as they are considered to be one and the same imperialist evil. It's believed that the Babylon actively seeks to exploit and oppress the people of the world, especially people of African descent. It's believed that the Babylon forbids the smoking of ganja because this sacred herb opens men's minds to the truth.[citation needed] Freemasonry, which has its own versions of biblical legends, classically considered Babylon as its birthplace and a haven for science and knowledge.[91] Babylon 5 – a science fiction series set on a futuristic space station that acts as a trading and diplomatic nexus between many different cultures. Many stories focus on the theme of different societies and cultures uniting, respecting differences, and learning from each other rather than fighting or looking on each other with prejudice and suspicion.[citation needed] Babylon A.D. takes place in New York City, decades in the future.[non-primary source needed] Babilonas (Lithuanian name for "Babylon") – a real estate development in Lithuania[non-primary source needed] Babylon - a song by Lady Gaga that uses allusions to Ancient Biblical themes to discuss gossip[non-primary source needed] Biblical narrative[edit] In the Book of Genesis (Genesis 10:10), Babel (Babylon) is described as founded by Nimrod along with Uruk, Akkad and perhaps Calneh—all of them in Shinar ("Calneh" is now sometimes translated not as a proper name but as the phrase "all of them"). Another story is given in Genesis 11, which describes a united human race, speaking one language, migrating to Shinar to establish a city and tower—the Tower of Babel. God halts construction of the tower by scattering humanity across the earth and confusing their communication so they are unable to understand each other in the same language. Babylon appears throughout the Hebrew Bible, including several prophecies and in descriptions of the destruction of Jerusalem and subsequent Babylonian captivity, most of which are found in the Book of Daniel. These include the episode of Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego, and Belshazzar's feast. Consequently, in Jewish tradition, Babylon symbolizes an oppressor against which righteous believers must struggle[citation needed]. In Christianity, Babylon symbolizes worldliness and evil.[92] Prophecies sometimes symbolically link the kings of Babylon with Lucifer. Nebuchadnezzar II, sometimes conflated with Nabonidus, appears as the foremost ruler in this narrative.[93] The Book of Revelation in the Christian Bible refers to Babylon many centuries after it ceased to be a major political center. The city is personified by the "Whore of Babylon", riding on a scarlet beast with seven heads and ten horns, and drunk on the blood of the righteous. Some scholars of apocalyptic literature believe this New Testament "Babylon" to be a dysphemism for the Roman Empire.[94] Other scholars suggest that Babylon in the book of Revelation has a symbolic significance that extends beyond mere identification with the first century Roman empire. [95] See also[edit] Cities of the ancient Near East Jehoiachin's Rations Tablets List of Kings of Babylon Tomb of Daniel Notes[edit] ^ The Amorites were not native to Mesopotamia, but were semi-nomadic Canaanite Northwest Semitic invaders from the northern Levant. They (together with the Elamites to the east) had originally been prevented from taking control of the Akkadian states of southern Mesopotamia by the intervention of powerful Assyrian kings of the Old Assyrian Empire during the 21st and 20th centuries BC, intervening from northern Mesopotamia. However, when the Assyrians turned their attention to expanding their colonies in Asia Minor, the Amorites eventually began to supplant native rulers across the region. ^ Please see Chronology of the ancient Near East for more discussion on dating events in the 2nd millennium BC, including the Sack of Babylon. References[edit] ^ a b c Edwards, I. E. S.; Gadd, C. J.; Hammond, N. . L. (1981). Prolegomena and Prehistory. The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol 1 Part 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29821-6. ^ Tertius Chandler. Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth: An Historical Census (1987), St. David's University Press ( "etext.org". Archived from the original on 2008-02-11. Retrieved 2010-04-18.CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)). ISBN 0-88946-207-0. See Historical urban community sizes. ^ Mieroop, Marc van de (1997). The Ancient Mesopotamian City. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 95. ISBN 9780191588457. ^ Boiy, T. (2004). Late Achaemenid and Hellenistic Babylon. Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta. 136. Leuven: Peeters Publishers. p. 233. ISBN 9789042914490. ^ Seymour 2006, pp. 140-142. ^ Sayce 1878, p. 182. ^ Ernest A. Budge (1880). The history of Esarhaddon (son of Sennacherib) King of Assyria, B.C. 681-668;. Trübner & Co. pp. 135–136. OCLC 977799662. ^ Sayce, Archibald Henry (1872). The Origin of Semitic Civilisation, Chiefly Upon Philological Evidence. Harrison and Sons. p. 5. OCLC 459000074. ^ a b Sayce, Archibald Henry (1878b). "Babylon–Babylonia" . Encyclopædia Britannica. III (9th ed.). p. 182. ^ Liane Jakob-Rost, Joachim Marzahn: Babylon, ed. Staatliche Museen zu Berlin. Vorderasiatisches Museum, (Kleine Schriften 4), 2. Auflage, Putbus 1990, p. 2 ^ Gelb, I. J. (1994). "The Name of Babylon". In Hess, Richard S.; Tsumura, David Toshio (eds.). I studied inscriptions from before the flood : ancient Near Eastern, literary, and linguistic approaches to Genesis 1–11. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns. pp. 266–269. ISBN 9780931464881. OCLC 31239619. ^ a b c Wilfred G. Lambert, "Babylon: Origins"; in Cancik-Kirschbaum et al. (2011), pp. 71–76. ^ Dietz-Otto Edzard: Geschichte Mesopotamiens. Von den Sumerern bis zu Alexander dem Großen, Beck, München 2004, p. 121. ^ Gen. 11:9. ^ Magnus Magnusson, BC: The Archaeology of the Bible Lands. BBC Publications 1977, pp. 198–199. ^ [babble definition - Google Search https://www.google.com/search?ie=UTF-8&client=ms-android-mpcs-us-revc&source=android-browser&q=babble "Oxford"] Check |url= value (help). line feed character in |url= at position 34 (help) ^ Dalley, Stephanie (1994). "Nineveh, Babylon and the Hanging Gardens: Cuneiform and Classical Sources Reconciled". Iraq. 56: 45–58. doi:10.2307/4200384. ISSN 0021-0889. JSTOR 4200384. ^ a b Dalley, Stephanie (18–22 July 2005). Babylon as a name for other cities including Nineveh (PDF). Proceedings of the 51st Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale. SAOC. 62. pp. 25–33. OCLC 938410607. ^ a b c d e f g h Olof Pedersén, "Excavated and Unexcavated Libraries in Babylon", in Cancik-Kirschbaum et al. (2011), pp. 47–67. ^ a b MacGinnis, John (1986). "Herodotus' Description of Babylon". Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies. 33: 67–86. doi:10.1111/j.2041-5370.1986.tb00185.x. Retrieved 18 March 2015. ^ Vedeler (2006), pp. 7–8. ^ Records of the Past, Archibald Sayce, 2nd series, Vol. 1, 1888, p. 11. ^ N.H. vii. 57 ^ The Seven Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World, George Rawlinson, Vol. 4, p. 526–527. ^ Al-Gailani Werr, L., 1988. Studies in the chronology and regional style of Old Babylonian Cylinder Seals. Bibliotheca Mesopotamica, Volume 23. ^ Vedeler (2006), pp. 8–15. "However, this later tradition is almost certainly a simplification or even a reworking of the actual events surrounding Sumu-abum, who was never regarded as an actual ancestor to the other kings of the Babylon I dynasty (Edzard 1957:122); in reality the relationship of Sumu-abum to Babylon was much more complex. It was long been noted that many of Sumu-abum's year names are identical or virtually identical to the year names of Sumu-la-el, whom we know for certain was king of Babylon. Goddeeris (2002:319–320) sums these parallels up as follows: Sa 1 and 2 / Sl 5 and 6: building the wall of Babylon. Sa 9 / Sl 'b': building the wall of Dilbat. Sa 13/14 / Sl 20/21: the destruction and seizure of Kazallu." ^ Albert Houtum-Schindler, "Babylon," Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed. ^ Spar, Ira; Jursa, Michael (2014). The Ebabbar Temple Archive and Other Texts from the Fourth to the First Millennium B.C. Cuneiform Texts in The Metropolitan Museum of Art. IV. Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 288–290. ISBN 978-1-57506-327-0. ^ Bradford, Alfred S. (2001). With Arrow, Sword, and Spear: A History of Warfare in the Ancient World. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 47–48. ISBN 978-0-275-95259-4. ^ Curtis, Adrian (2007). Oxford Bible Atlas. OUP Oxford. p. 122. ISBN 978-0-19-100158-1. ^ von Soden, Wolfram (1994). The Ancient Orient. Wm. B. Eerdmans. p. 60. ISBN 978-0-8028-0142-5. ^ Saggs, H.W.F. (2000). Babylonians, p. 165. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-20222-8. ^ Stephanie Dalley, (2013) The Mystery of the Hanging Garden of Babylon: an elusive World Wonder traced, OUP ISBN 978-0-19-966226-5 ^ Seymour 2006, pp. 88-89: "Preventing uprisings on the fringes of the empire was a major concern for Assyrian kings, and a number of policies developed to meet this need, among them mass deportations. When new territory was conquered or a rebellious vassal crushed, an increased imperial presence in the trouble spot was often complemented by the removal of large numbers of the indigenous population to the imperial core, effectively breaking up the rebellious population and reducing the potential for future resistance. This practice was effective, and continued throughout the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian empires until 539 BC and Cyrus's conquest of Babylon. The majority of the immigrant population were not slaves (Yamauchi 2002: 365), and some did rise to high status positions at the core of the empire (a possibility reflected in the career of the biblical Daniel, who rises to the status of trusted royal confidant)." ^ "British Museum – Cuneiform tablet with part of the Babylonian Chronicle (605–594 BCE)". Archived from the original on 30 October 2014. Retrieved 30 October 2014. ^ "ABC 5 (Jerusalem Chronicle) – Livius". www.livius.org. ^ a b Godley, Alfred Denis (1920). "Ch. 178-200". Herodotus, The Histories. Book 1. Harvard University Press. OCLC 4559420.; or see "Herodotus' Description of Babylon and the Babylonians". shsu.edu. 2017. Archived from the original on 2017-05-05. ^ Isaiah 44:27 ^ Jeremiah 50–51 ^ Seymour 2006, pp. 107-115. ^ Cyrus Cylinder The British Museum. Retrieved July 23, 2011. ^ "Mesopotamia: The Persians". Wsu.edu:8080. 1999-06-06. Archived from the original on 6 December 2010. Retrieved 2010-11-09. ^ Sayce 1911, p. 98 ^ Seymour 2006, p. 148. ^ a b Julian E. Reade, "Disappearance and rediscovery"; in Finkel & Seymour, eds., Babylon (2009); pp. 13–30. ^ Seymour 2006, pp. 148-151. ^ Seymour 2006, p. 175. ^ Seymour 2006, pp. 169-173. ^ Claudius J. Rich, Memoirs on the Ruins of Babylon, 1815 ^ Claudius J. Rich, Second memoir on Babylon; containing an inquiry into the correspondence between the ancient descriptions of Babylon, and the remains still visible on the site, 1818 ^ Mignan, Robert (1829). Travels in Chaldaea: Including a Journey from Bussorah to Bagdad, Hillah and Babylon, Performed on Foot in 1827. Henry Colburn and Richard Bentley. OCLC 1003963534. ^ [ Loftus, William Kennett (1857). Travels and researches in Chaldaea and Susiana: with an account of excavations at Warka, the "Erech" of Nimrod, and Shush, "Shushan the Palace" of Esther, in 1849-52. Robert Carter & Brothers. ^ A. H. Layard, Discoveries among the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon; New York: Harper & Brothers, 1853. ^ J. Oppert, Expédition scientifique en Mésopotamie exécutée par ordre du gouvernement de 1851 à 1854. Tome I: Rélation du voyage et résultat de l'expédition, 1863 (also as ISBN 0-543-74945-2) Tome II: Déchiffrement des inscriptions cuneiforms, 1859 (also as ISBN 0-543-74939-8) ^ H V. Hilprecht, Exploration in the Bible Lands During the 19th Century; Philadelphia: A. J. Holman and Company, 1903. ^ Hormuzd Rassam, Asshur and the Land of Nimrod: Being an Account of the Discoveries Made in the Ancient Ruins of Nineveh, Asshur, Sepharvaim, Calah, [...], Curts & Jennings, 1897. ^ Julian Reade, Hormuzd Rassam and his discoveries, Iraq, vol. 55, pp. 39–62, 1993 ^ Robert Koldewey, Das wieder erstehende Babylon, die bisherigen Ergebnisse der deutschen Ausgrabungen, J.C. Hinrichs, 1913; Agnes Sophia Griffith Johns (translator), The Excavations at Babylon, Macmillan and Co., 1914. "Up to the present time only about half the work has been accomplished, although since it began we have worked daily, both summer and winter, with from 200 to 250 workmen" (p. v). ^ R. Koldewey, Die Tempel von Babylon und Borsippa, WVDOG, vol. 15, pp. 37–49, 1911 (in German) ^ R. Koldewey, Das Ischtar-Tor in Babylon, WVDOG, vol. 32, 1918 ^ F. Wetzel, Die Stadtmauren von Babylon, WVDOG, vol. 48, pp. 1–83, 1930 ^ F. Wetzel and F.H. Weisbach, Das Hauptheiligtum des Marduk in Babylon: Esagila und Etemenanki, WVDOG, vol. 59, pp. 1–36, 1938 ^ F. Wetzel et al., Das Babylon der Spätzeit, WVDOG, vol. 62, Gebr. Mann, 1957 (1998 reprint ISBN 3-7861-2001-3) ^ Brittney Garcia, "Ishtar Gate", Ancient History Encyclopedia, 23 August 2013. ^ Bilsel, Can (2012). Antiquity on Display: Regimes of the Authentic in Berlin's Pergamon Museum. OUP Oxford. pp. 163–183. ISBN 978-0-19-957055-3. ^ Hansjörg Schmid, Der Tempelturm Etemenanki in Babylon, Zabern, 1995, ISBN 3-8053-1610-0 ^ Centro Ricerche Archeologiche e Scavi di Torino per il Medio Oriente e l'Asia. Projects: IRAQ: Babylon Archived 2017-05-09 at the Wayback Machine and The Iraqi-Italian Institute of Archaeological Sciences and the Iraqi-Italian Centre for the Restoration of Monuments in Baghdad Archived 2017-06-28 at the Wayback Machine. ^ G. Bergamini, "Levels of Babylon Reconsidered", Mesopotamia, vol. 12, pp. 111–152, 1977 ^ G. Bergamini, "Excavations in Shu-anna Babylon 1987", Mesopotamia, vol. 23, pp. 5–17, 1988 ^ G. Bergamini, "Preliminary report on the 1988–1989 operations at Babylon Shu-Anna", Mesopotamia, vol. 25, pp. 5–12, 1990 ^ "Excavations in Iraq 1981–1982", Iraq, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 199–224, 1983 ^ Farouk N. H. Al-Rawi, Nabopolassar's Restoration Work on the Wall "Imgur-Enlil at Babylon, Iraq, vol. 47, pp. 1–13, 1985 ^ a b John Curtis, "The Present Condition of Babylon"; in Cancik-Kirschbaum et al. (2011). ^ a b John Curtis, "The Site of Babylon Today"; in Finkel & Seymour, eds., Babylon (2009); pp. 213–220. ^ Paul Lewis, "Babylon Journal; Ancient King's Instructions to Iraq: Fix My Palace" (archive), New York Times, 19 April 1989. ^ "Saddam removed from ancient Babylon 'brick by brick'", ABC News 20 April 2003. ^ Lawrence Rothfield (1 Aug 2009). The Rape of Mesopotamia: Behind the Looting of the Iraq Museum. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226729435. ^ a b McCarthy, Rory; Kennedy, Maev (2016-05-15). "Babylon wrecked by war". The Guardian. Retrieved 2016-08-20. ^ Bajjaly, Joanne Farchakh (2005-04-25). "History lost in dust of war-torn Iraq". BBC News. Retrieved 2013-06-07. ^ Leeman, Sue (January 16, 2005). "Damage seen to ancient Babylon". The Boston Globe. ^ Marozzi, Justin (2016-08-08). "Lost cities #1: Babylon – how war almost erased 'mankind's greatest heritage site'". The Guardian. Retrieved 2016-08-20. ^ Heritage News from around the world Archived 2016-02-02 at the Wayback Machine, World Heritage Alert!. Retrieved April 19, 2008. ^ Cornwell, Rupert. US colonel offers Iraq an apology of sorts for devastation of Babylon, The Independent, April 15, 2006. Retrieved April 19, 2008. ^ Gettleman, Jeffrey. Unesco intends to put the magic back in Babylon, International Herald Tribune, April 21, 2006. Retrieved April 19, 2008. Archived June 12, 2006, at the Wayback Machine ^ McBride, Edward. Monuments to Self: Baghdad's grands projects in the age of Saddam Hussein, MetropolisMag. Retrieved April 19, 2008. Archived December 10, 2005, at the Wayback Machine ^ Maryam U. Musa, "The Situation of the Babylon Archaeological Site until 2006", in Cancik-Kirschbaum et al. (2011). ^ Arawa Damon, "Bringing Babylon back from the dead", CNN, 4 April 2013. ^ Steven Lee Myers, "Babylon Ruins Reopen in Iraq, to Controversy", New York Times, 2 May 2009. ^ "Ancient city of Babylon heads list of new Unesco world heritage sites". The Guardian. 5 July 2019. ^ Liverani 2016, pp. 21–22. "In practice, the solution adopted to visualize cities which were in fact unknown was a mixture of classical (Greek) and Egyptian elements, with long colonnades, even built on more than one level—which will then prove totally foreign to the unfired brick architecture of Mesopotamian cities—and with plenty of obelisks and the odd sphinx. To this mixture is added, often and willingly, something of Ottoman architecture, showing cupolas and minarets, clearly useful in picturing an unchangeable Near East which therefore needed to retain elements of remote antiquity in a modern age." ^ Albert Mackey, History of Freemasonry (Vol. 1); New York and London: Masonic History Company, 1898/1906; p. 61. ^ "What is the significance of the Babylonian Empire in biblical history?". GotQuestions.org. Retrieved 2018-01-21. ^ Seymour 2006, pp. 91-101. ^ Merrill Tenney: New Testament Survey, Inter-varsity Press, 1985, pp383 ^ Craig R. Koester, Revelation (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014), 506, 684 Sources[edit] Cancik-Kirschbaum, Eva, Margarete van Ess, & Joachim Marzahn, eds. (2011). Babylon: Wissenskultur in Orient und Okzident. Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-022212-8. Finkel, I. L. and M. J. Seymour, eds. Babylon. Oxford University Press, 2009. ISBN 0-19-538540-3 . Exhibition organized by British Museum, Musée du Louvre & Réunion des Musées Nationaux, and Staatliche Museen zu Berlin. Liverani, Mario. Imagining Babylon: The Modern Story of an Ancient City. Translated from Italian to English by Ailsa Campbell. Boston: De Gruyter, 2016. ISBN 978-1-61451-602-6. Originally published as Immaginare Babele in 2013. Sayce, Archibald Henry (1878). "Babel" . In Baynes, T. S. (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. III (9th ed.). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 178.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Sayce, Archibald Henry (1911). "Babylon" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 98–99.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Seymour, M. J. (2006). The idea of Babylon: archaeology and representation in Mesopotamia (Doctoral thesis). University College London. OCLC 500097655. Vedeler, Harold Torger. A Social and Economic Survey of the Reign of Samsuiluna of Babylon (1794–1712 BC). PhD dissertation accepted at Yale, May 2006. Further reading[edit] "Babel" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 3 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 91.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Oates, Joan (1986). Babylon. Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-02095-7. and ISBN 0-500-27384-7 (paperback) Maul, Stefan (1997). "The Ancient Middle Eastern Capital City – Reflection and Navel of the World". Stanford Presidential Lectures and Symposia in the Humanities and Arts. – originally published in German "Die altorientalische Hauptstadt – Abbild und Nabel der Wel". Die Orientalische Stadt: Kontinuitat. Wandel. Bruch. 1 Internationale Colloquium der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft. 9–10. Mai 1996 in Halle/Saale. Saarbrücker Druckerei und Verlag: 109–124. 1997. Rich, Claudius: 1815. Memoir on the Ruins of Babylon. Third Edition, 1818. 1818. Second Memoir on Babylon. 1839. Narrative of a journey to the site of Babylon in 1811. Posthumous compilation. "UNESCO: Iraq invasion harmed historic Babylon". Associated Press. 10 July 2009. External links[edit] Look up 𒆍𒀭𒊏𒆠 in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Babylon. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Babylon. Babylon on In Our Time at the BBC Iraq Image – Babylon Satellite Observation Site Photographs of Babylon – Oriental Institute Encyclopædia Britannica, Babylon 1901–1906 Jewish Encyclopedia, Babylon Beyond Babylon: art, trade, and diplomacy in the second millennium B.C., Issued in connection with an exhibition held Nov. 18, 2008-Mar. 15, 2009, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Osama S. M. Amin, "Visiting the ancient city of Babylon", Ancient History Et Cetera, 17 November 2014. Video of reconstructed palace: Iraq elections: The palace that Nebuchadnezzar built Babylon wrecked by war, The Guardian, January 15, 2005 "Experts: Iraq invasion harmed historic Babylon". Associated Press. July 10, 2009. UNESCO Final Report on Damage Assessment in Babylon v t e World Heritage Sites in Iraq Assur Ahwar of Southern Iraq Babylon Citadel of Erbil Hatra Samarra Authority control GND: 4004101-3 LCCN: sh86001922 NKC: ge128703 VIAF: 146198874 WorldCat Identities: viaf-146198874 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Babylon&oldid=1000218773" Categories: Babylon Amorite cities Archaeological sites in Iraq Babil Governorate Former populated places in Iraq Hebrew Bible cities Historic Jewish communities Levant Nimrod Populated places established in the 3rd millennium BC Populated places disestablished in the 10th century 1811 archaeological discoveries Populated places on the Euphrates River World Heritage Sites in Iraq Hidden categories: CS1: long volume value CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from EB9 CS1 errors: invisible characters CS1 errors: URL Articles with German-language sources (de) Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages Articles containing Arabic-language text Articles containing Akkadian-language text Articles containing Sumerian-language text Articles containing Aramaic-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Hebrew-language text Articles containing Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text Articles containing Elamite-language text Coordinates on Wikidata Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from December 2020 All articles with failed verification Articles with failed verification from February 2018 Articles containing Classical Syriac-language text Articles containing explicitly cited English-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2020 All pages needing factual verification Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from October 2020 Articles with unsourced statements from January 2018 CS1 maint: ref=harv Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Articles containing video clips Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikivoyage Languages Afrikaans አማርኛ Ænglisc العربية ܐܪܡܝܐ Արեւմտահայերէն Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Kurdî Кыргызча Ladin Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Македонски Malagasy मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Na Vosa Vakaviti Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی پښتو Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русский Gagana Samoa Scots Shqip Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча/tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Võro 文言 Winaray Wolof 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 January 2021, at 04:27 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-687	----	Category:Battle of Thermopylae - Wikipedia Help Category:Battle of Thermopylae From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The main article for this category is Battle of Thermopylae. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Battle of Thermopylae. Subcategories This category has only the following subcategory. X ► Xerxes I‎ (1 C, 14 P) Pages in category "Battle of Thermopylae" The following 35 pages are in this category, out of 35 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more).   Battle of Thermopylae 0–9 300 (comics) 300 (film) The 300 Spartans 300: March to Glory A Abrocomes Aristodemus of Sparta Artapanus (general) C Carnea Come and take it Battle of Thermopylae in popular culture D Demaratus Demophilus of Thespiae Dienekes E Ephialtes of Trachis Eurytus of Sparta G Gates of Fire Gorgo, Queen of Sparta H The Hot Gates Hydarnes II Hyperanthes I Immortals (Achaemenid Empire) K Kolonos Hill L Last Stand of the 300 Leonidas I M Mardonius (general) Meet the Spartans Megistias Molon labe O Opuntian Locris P Pantites Polish Thermopylae T Thermopylae X Xerxes (graphic novel) Xerxes I Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Battle_of_Thermopylae&oldid=726990745" Categories: Battles involving Sparta Battles of the Greco-Persian Wars Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia categories named after battles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه Català Deutsch فارسی Français 한국어 Latina Монгол Português Русский Türkçe Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 25 June 2016, at 21:32 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6885	----	Merneferre Ay - Wikipedia Merneferre Ay From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Merneferre Ay Aya, Eje, Aye, Iy, Mernoferre, Ay I An inscribed section of the pyramidion of king Merneferre Ay's tomb. Pharaoh Reign 23 years, 8 months and 18 days, 1701–1677 BC,[1] 1695–1685 BC,[2] 1684–1661 BC[3] (13th Dynasty) Predecessor Wahibre Ibiau Successor Merhotepre Ini Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Merneferre mr-nfr-Rˁ He who loves the perfection of Ra Nomen Ay Iii Turin King List: Merneferre mr-nfr-Rˁ Consort Ineni? Merneferre Ay (also spelled Aya or Eje, sometimes known as Ay I) was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the mid 13th Dynasty. The longest reigning pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty, he ruled a likely fragmented Egypt for over 23 years in the early to mid 17th century BC. A pyramidion bearing his name shows that he possibly completed a pyramid, probably located in the necropolis of Memphis. Merneferre Ay is the last pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty to be attested outside Upper Egypt. In spite of his long reign, the number of artefacts attributable to him is comparatively small. This may point to problems in Egypt at the time and indeed, by the end of his reign, "the administration [of the Egyptian state] seems to have completely collapsed".[1][3] It is possible that the capital of Egypt since the early Middle Kingdom, Itjtawy was abandoned during or shortly after Ay's reign. For this reason, some scholars consider Merneferre Ay to be the last pharaoh of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt. Contents 1 Chronology 1.1 Chronological position 1.2 Reign length 2 Reign and attestations 2.1 Attestations 3 Legacy 4 Ay 5 See also 6 References Chronology[edit] Chronological position[edit] Globular jar of Merneferre Ay, Metropolitan Museum of Art The relative chronological position of Merneferre Ay as a king of the mid 13th Dynasty is well established by the Turin canon, a king list redacted during the early Ramesside period (1292–1069 BC) and which serves as the primary historical source for the Second Intermediate Period. The king list records Ay's name on column 8 line 3 (column 6 line 3 in Alan Gardiner's reading of the Turin canon and entry 7.3 in von Beckerath's reading) and establishes that Merneferre Ay was preceded by Wahibre Ibiau and succeeded by Merhotepre Ini, who was possibly his son.[1] The precise chronological placement of Merneferre Ay varies between scholars, with Jürgen von Beckerath and Aidan Dodson seeing him as the 27th king of the dynasty[4] while Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker place him in the 32nd and 33rd positions, respectively.[1][5] Similarly, the absolute datation of Ay's reign is debated and varies by 17 years between Ryholt's 1701–1677 BC[1] and Schneider's 1684–1661 BC.[3] Reign length[edit] Until recently, the duration of Merneferre Ay's reign, which is recorded in the Turin canon, was disputed by Jürgen von Beckerath who read the damaged figure on the papyrus fragment as 13 years[6] while both Alan Gardiner and Kenneth Kitchen maintained it should be read as 23 years.[7][8] The dispute was settled in the latest study of the Turin canon by Kim Ryholt who confirms that Merneferre Ay's reign length as recorded on the papyrus is "23 years, 8 months and 18 days".[1] Ryholt insists that "the tick that distinguishes 20 and 30 from 10 is preserved and beyond dispute. Accordingly, 23 years or, less likely, 33 years must be read."[1] This makes Merneferre Ay the longest-ruling pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty at a time when numerous short-lived kings ruled Egypt. Reign and attestations[edit] Green glazed steatite scarab of Merneferre Ay, British Museum.[9] As a king of the mid 13th Dynasty, Merneferre Ay reigned over Middle and Upper Egypt concurrently with the 14th Dynasty, which controlled at least the Eastern Nile Delta. The egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker contend that Mernferre usurped the throne at the expense of his predecessor Wahibre Ibiau.[1][5] They base this conclusion on the total absence of filiative nomina, that is references to the name of his father on the artefacts attributable to him.[1] They believe that this should have been the case had his father been a pharaoh, and indeed a number of 13th Dynasty kings used filiative nomina. Little is known of Ay's consorts, he was possibly married to Ineni whose scarabs are stylistically similar to those of Ay.[1] Attestations[edit] Merneferre Ay is well attested; no fewer than 62 scarab seals and one cylinder-seal[10] bearing his name are known, 51 of which are of unknown provenance[5][11][12] Among the scarabs of known provenance, three are from Lower Egypt, more precisely one from Bubastis and two from Heliopolis.[1][5] The rest of the scarabs of known provenance are from Abydos, Coptos and Lisht, all localities being in Middle or Upper Egypt. Other attestations of Ay include an obsidian globular jar now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art,[13] a ball dedicated to Sobek,[14] an inscribed limestone block, part of a lintel, discovered in 1908 by Georges Legrain in Karnak and a pyramidion.[5][15][16] The pyramidion was confiscated from robbers by the Egyptian police in 1911 at Faqus, close to the ancient city of Avaris. It is carved with the name of Ay and shows him offering to Horus "Lord of heaven", demonstrating that a pyramid was built for him during his long reign.[16][17] The fact that the pyramidion was probably discovered by the robbers in modern-day Khatana, part of the ancient city of Avaris (modern-day Qantir) is important since it was likely the capital of the 14th Dynasty during Ay's lifetime. Egyptologists believe that the pyramidion originates in fact from Memphis, in the necropolis of which Ay's pyramid must be located. Accordingly, this suggests that the pyramid was looted at the time of the Hyksos invasion c. 1650 BC and the pyramidion taken to Avaris at this moment.[1][5] This is vindicated by the "damaged text on the pyramidion [which] originally invoked four gods" two of whom were Ptah and Re-Horus (for Ra-Horakhty). The cults of these gods were based in the Memphite necropolis, not in Avaris.[1] Other objects which suffered the same fate include two colossal statues of the 13th Dynasty king Imyremeshaw. Legacy[edit] Lintel of Merneferre Ay.[15] Even though Merneferre Ay is well attested, the number of objects attributable to him is relatively small given his nearly 24 year-long reign.[5] This may point to serious problems in Egypt at the time and indeed Ryholt and others believe that by the end of Ay's reign "the administration [of the Egyptian state] seems to have completely collapsed".[1] Merneferre Ay is the last Egyptian king of the 13th Dynasty who is attested by objects from outside of Upper Egypt.[3] This may indicate the abandonment of the old capital of the Middle Kingdom Itjtawy in favor of Thebes.[18] Daphna Ben Tor believes that this event was triggered by the invasion of the eastern Delta and the Memphite region by Canaanite rulers. Indeed some egyptologists believe that by the end of Ay's reign the 13th dynasty had lost control of Lower Egypt, including the Delta region and possibly Memphis itself. For these authors, this marks the end of the Middle Kingdom and the beginning of the Second Intermediate Period.[18] This analysis is rejected by Ryholt and Baker however, who note that the stele of Seheqenre Sankhptahi, reigning toward the very end of the 13th Dynasty, strongly suggests that he reigned over Memphis. Unfortunately, the stele is of unknown provenance.[1][5] Ay[edit] Merneferre Ay is sometimes confused with Ay, a ruler at the end of the 18th Dynasty (1549–1292 BC). However, both kings ruled in completely different dynasties and have nothing in common other than a similar name. See also[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Merneferre Ay. List of pharaohs References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here. ^ Gae Callender: 'The Middle Kingdom Renaissance (c. 2055–1650 BC) in: Ian Shaw (editor): The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, OUP Oxford (2003), ISBN 978-0192804587. ^ a b c d Thomas Schneider in: Ancient Egyptian Chronology - Edited by Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss, and David A. Warburton, available online, see p. 181, 497 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz : Philip von Zabern, 1999, ISBN 3-8053-2591-6, see p. 98–99 ^ a b c d e f g h Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 65–66 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, J.J. Augustin, 1964 ^ Alan Gardiner: The Royal Canon of Turin, Griffith Institute new edition (1988), ISBN 978-0900416484 ^ Kenneth Kitchen: The Basics of Egyptian Chronology in Relation to the Bronze Age at the "High, Middle or Low", University of Göteborg conference, 1987, JSTOR 505957 ^ Harry Reginald Hall: Catalogue of Egyptian scarabs, etc., in the British Museum, vol 1 (1913), available not-in-copyright here, p. 20., scarab is now in London, British Museum EA 16567 ^ Cylinder Seal of King Merneferre Aya, Metropolitan Museum of Art, see the online catalog [1] ^ Five scarab-seals of Merneferre Ay are now in the Petrie Museum, see three of them on Digital Egypt ^ Olga Tufnell: Studies on Scarab Seals, vol. II, Aris & Philips, Warminster, 1984, pp. 159–161, 181, 184–187, 200, 368–369, seals No. 3168–3183, pl. LV–LVI. ^ Globular Jar of King Merneferre Aya, Metropolitan Museum of Art, see the online catalog [2] ^ Gerard Godron: Deux objets du Moyen-Empire mentionnant Sobek, BIFAO 63 (1965), p. 197–200, available online Archived 2014-09-07 at the Wayback Machine ^ a b Georges Legrain: Notes d'inspection - Sur le Roi Marnofirrì, in Annales du Service des antiquités de l'Egypte (ASAE) 9 (1908) available not-in-copyright here, p. 276. ^ a b Labib Habachi: "Khata'na-Qantir: Importance", ASAE 52 (1954) pp. 471–479, pl.16–17 ^ Labib Habachi: Tell el-Dab'a and Qantir, Osterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (2001), pp. 172–174, no. 18, ISBN 978-3-7001-2986-8 ^ a b Daphna Ben Tor: Sequences and chronology of Second Intermediate Period royal-name scarabs, based on excavated series from Egypt and the Levant, in: The Second Intermediate Period (Thirteenth-Seventeenth Dynasties), Current Research, Future Prospects edited by Marcel Maree, Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta, 192, 2010, p. 91 Preceded by Wahibre Ibiau Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Merhotepre Ini v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Merneferre_Ay&oldid=993051983" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 8 December 2020, at 15:15 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-688	----	Category:Year of birth uncertain - Wikipedia Help Category:Year of birth uncertain From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a hidden category. It is not shown on its member pages, unless the corresponding user preference (appearance → show hidden categories) is set. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Year of birth uncertain. This category contains individuals whose year of birth is uncertain or disputed. Contents: Top 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z * # 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 • A Aa Ae Aj Ao At • B Ba Be Bj Bo Bt • C Ca Ce Cj Co Ct • D Da De Dj Do Dt • E Ea Ee Ej Eo Et • F Fa Fe Fj Fo Ft • G Ga Ge Gj Go Gt • H Ha He Hj Ho Ht • I Ia Ie Ij Io It • J Ja Je Jj Jo Jt • K Ka Ke Kj Ko Kt • L La Le Lj Lo Lt • M Ma Me Mj Mo Mt • N Na Ne Nj No Nt • O Oa Oe Oj Oo Ot • P Pa Pe Pj Po Pt • Q Qa Qe Qj Qo Qt • R Ra Re Rj Ro Rt • S Sa Se Sj So St • T Ta Te Tj To Tt • U Ua Ue Uj Uo Ut • V Va Ve Vj Vo Vt • W Wa We Wj Wo Wt • X Xa Xe Xj Xo Xt • Y Ya Ye Yj Yo Yt • Z Za Ze Zj Zo Zt Pages in category "Year of birth uncertain" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 8,480 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). (previous page) (next page)A Manuel Abad y Queipo Baldo Angelo Abati Jai Abberton William Abbey Robert Abbot (politician) Walter Abbott (American football) Abd al-Malik I (Samanid emir) Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan Abd al-Qadir II Abd al-Rahman III ʽAbd al-Shakur ibn Yusuf Abda of Dair-Koni Mohamed Abdelaziz (Libyan politician) Mohamed Hikam Sheikh Abdirahman Muyesser Abdul'ehed Hajiakbar Abdulghupur Mullah Abdullah Aisha Abubakar Abdulwahab Dawut Abdurehim Abel of Reims Adam Abell Georgina Abernethy Abhinavagupta Abibus of Edessa Eustace Abington Abiodun (Oyo ruler) Afwerki Abraha Abraham of Farshut Laurentius Abstemius Abu 'l-Asakir Jaysh ibn Khumarawayh Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad ibn Saʿd ibn Mardanīsh Abu 'Ali al-Khayyat Abu Bakr bin Yahya al-Suli Abu Bakr Ibn Mujāhid Abu Bishr Matta ibn Yunus Abu Kamil Elia Abu Madi Abu Sa'id al-Jannabi Abu Tahir al-Jannabi Imad Abu Zahra Abū Zayd ibn Muḥammad ibn Abī Zayd Abu Zurʽa al-Razi Abu'l-Fadl al-Abbas ibn Fasanjas Meir Abulafia Naomi Ackie Sir Hugh Acland, 5th Baronet John Acland (died 1620) Jacopo Aconcio Joan d'Acosta William Acquavella Giacomo Antonio Acquaviva R. G. Acton William Acton (MP for Bridgnorth) Ada of Scotland Adalard of Paris Adalbero III of Luxembourg Adalbert I, Count of Vermandois Adalbert I, Margrave of Tuscany Adalbert II, Count of Ballenstedt Adalbert II, Margrave of Tuscany Adalbert of Babenberg Adam de Everingham, 2nd Baron Everingham Adam de Harvington Adam Ephraim Adam I Adam of Perseigne Johann Adam (composer) John Adam (actor) James B. Adams (composer) Jody Adams (chef) John Adams (Carmarthen MP) John Adams (Pembroke MP) Fatuma Abdulkadir Adan Farah Weheliye Addo Saif al-Adel Adelaide of Guelders Adelaide of Paris Adelaide of Savoy, Duchess of Swabia Adelaide of Susa Adele of Meaux Adele of Vermandois Adelaide of Meissen Adeliza Adelperga Ahmed Adil Aditya I Sonya Adler Admiral Dot Adolf IV of Holstein Adolph, Count of Oldenburg-Delmenhorst Adriaen van der Goes Adrian, Count of Orléans Gwen Adshead Adso of Montier-en-Der Ælfheah of Canterbury Ælfthryth, Countess of Flanders Ælfwald I of Northumbria Ælfweard of Wessex Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus Lucius Aelius Lamia Plautius Aelianus Publius Aelius Paetus Pieter van Aelst III Aemilia Hilaria Aemilianus Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (consul 6) Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (consul 187 BC) Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (consul 78 BC) Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir) Paullus Aemilius Lepidus Lucius Aemilius Mamercus Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus Marcus Aemilius Scaurus (consul 115 BC) Æscwig of Dorchester Æthelflæd Æthelred I, King of Wessex Æthelstan of Kent Æthelweard (son of Alfred) Æthelwold of East Anglia Æthelwold of Winchester Æthelwulf of Berkshire Ernie Afaganis Bodour Osman Abu Affan Christian Afrikaner Alireza Afshar Agatha (wife of Edward the Exile) Agatha of Lorraine Age & Scarpelli Memiş Agha Agilbert William Aglionby Agnes of Aquitaine, Queen of Aragon Agnes of Babenberg Agnes of Brunswick-Lüneburg Agnes of Brunswick-Grubenhagen Agnes of Waiblingen Agnes of Holstein Agnes of Landsberg Agnes of Meissen Agnes of Poitou Agnes of Zator Agnes, daughter of Ottokar II Battista Agnese John Agnew (New Brunswick politician) Agricola (consul 421) Luigi Agricola Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa Kondom Agaundo Rebecca Aguilar Abelardo Aguilú Jr. Elsa Aguirre Philip Agustin Mohammed Hamdi al-Ahdal Allison Ahlfeldt Ahmad al-Muhajir Jamal Uddin Ahmad Wasil Ahmad Melek Ahmed Pasha Ahuntsic (missionary) Aikanaka (mythology) Charles Joseph d'Ailleboust des Muceaux Yusuf Soalih Ajura Bernard Akana Dorothy Akerele Behnaz Akhgar Malik Akhmedilov James Akin Said Akl Isaac Akrish Israel Aksenfeld Al-Qifti Alaeddin Pasha Muthu Alagappan Alain II Hir Omotade Alalade Amir-Hossein Khozeimé Alam Mahbub Alam (politician) Alamanda de Castelnau Alan II, Duke of Brittany Alan IV, Duke of Brittany Alan III, Viscount of Rohan Alan, Count of Nantes (988–90) Alaric II Dennis Albaugh Lopo Soares de Albergaria Albert I, Duke of Brunswick-Grubenhagen Albert I, Duke of Saxony Albert II, Margrave of Brandenburg Albert III, Margrave of Brandenburg-Salzwedel Albert III, Count of Gorizia Albert IV, Count of Tyrol Albert Azzo I, Margrave of Milan Albert Azzo II, Margrave of Milan Albert II of Saxe-Wittenberg Albert, Count of Chiny Adriana Albini Alejandro Albizu Antonio Albizu Charlie Albone Albrecht van Loo John Aldag William de Aldeburgh, 2nd Baron Aldeburgh (previous page) (next page) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Year_of_birth_uncertain&oldid=945100625" Categories: Articles missing birth or death information Births by year Hidden categories: Hidden categories Commons link from Wikidata Template Large category TOC via CatAutoTOC on category with 5,001–10,000 pages CatAutoTOC generates Large category TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية বাংলা Esperanto فارسی Français Norsk bokmål Scots Slovenčina کوردی اردو Edit links This page was last edited on 11 March 2020, at 20:29 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6913	----	Sekhemkare - Wikipedia Sekhemkare From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search See Amenemhat, for other individuals with this name. Amenemhat V Statue of Amenemhat V, from Elephantine. Pharaoh Reign 1796 BC–1793 BC (Ryholt) or 1746 BC–1743 BC (Franke) (13th Dynasty) Predecessor Nerikare (Ryholt), Pantjeny (von Beckerath) Successor Ameny Qemau (Ryholt), Sehotepibre (Franke, von Beckerath) Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sekhemkare Sḫm-k3-Rˁ Mighty is the Ka of Ra Nomen Amenemhat Jmn m ḥ3.t Amun is in front Turin canon: Amenemhat Jmn m ḥ3.t Amun is in front Children possibly Ameny Qemau[1] Sekhemkare Amenemhat V was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. According to Egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, he was the 4th king of the dynasty, reigning from 1796 BC until 1793 BC.[1][2] The identity of Amenemhat V is debated by a minority of Egyptologists, as he could be the same person as Sekhemkare Amenemhat Sonbef, the second ruler of the 13th Dynasty. Contents 1 Attestations 2 Identity 3 See also 4 References Attestations[edit] Amenemhat V is attested on column 7, line 7 of the Turin canon, which credits him with a reign of three to four years. This may be confirmed by a papyrus from Lahun which mentions a year three, some months and days of a king Sekhemkare, which could either be Amenemhat V or Sonbef.[2] In addition, Amenemhat V is attested by a single artefact contemporaneous with his lifetime, a statue of him from Elephantine, originally set up in the Temple of Satet and inscribed with the following dedication: The good god, lord of the two lands, lord of the ceremonies, the king of Upper and Lower Egypt Sekhemkare, the son of Ra Amenemhat, beloved of Satet, lady of Elephantine, may he live for ever. The head and arms of the statue were discovered in the 19th century in the ruins of a temple built to honor a nomarch named Heqaib and are in Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna. The body of the statue bearing the above inscription was discovered in the year 1932 and is now in the Aswan Museum.[1][2] Identity[edit] There is a debate between Egyptologists as whether Sekhemkare Amenemhat V is the same king as Sekhemkare Sonbef, whom Kim Ryholt, Jürgen von Beckerath and Darrell Baker see as the 2nd ruler of the 13th Dynasty. Indeed, Sonbef called himself "Amenemhat Sonbef", which Ryholt argues must be understood as "Amenemhat [Sa] Sonbef", The Son of Amenemhat Sonbef, i.e. Sonbef would be the son of Amenemhat IV. In particular, they see Sonbef and Amenemhat V as two different rulers.[1][2][3][4] Ryholt and Baker further posit that Sonbef's and Amenemhat's rules were separated by the ephemeral reign of Nerikare, while von Beckerath believes it was Sekhemre Khutawy Pantjeny who reigned between the two.[3][4] At the opposite Detlef Franke and Stephen Quirke believe that the "Amenemhat" in Sonbef's title is part of his name and identifies him as Amenemhat V, thus seeing the two kings as one and the same person.[5][6] In other terms, Franke and others regard "Amenemhat Sonbef" as a double name. Indeed double naming was common in Egypt and especially in the late 12th and 13th Dynasty.[7] See also[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Amenemhat Sekhemkare. List of Pharaohs References[edit] ^ a b c d K.S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800-1550 BC, (Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications,, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997), 336-337, file 13/2 and 13/4. ^ a b c d Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008 ^ a b Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964 ^ a b Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46. Mainz am Rhein, 1997 ^ Detlef Franke: Zur Chronologie des Mittleren Reiches (12.-18. Dynastie) Teil 1 : Die 12. Dynastie, in Orientalia 57 (1988) ^ New arrangement of the 13th Dynasty, on digital Egypt. ^ Stephen Quirke: In the Name of the King: on Late Middle Kingdom Cylinders, in: Timelines, Studies in Honour of Manfred Bietak, Leuven, Paris, Dudley, MA. ISBN 90-429-1730-X, 263-64 Preceded by Nerikare Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Ameny Qemau v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sekhemkare&oldid=976825629" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related 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en-wikipedia-org-6944	----	Artaxerxes II - Wikipedia Artaxerxes II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Artaxerxes II of Persia) Jump to navigation Jump to search King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire, 404–358 BC King of Kings Artaxerxes II Mnemon 𐎠𐎼𐎫𐎧𐏁𐏂𐎠 King of Kings Great King King of Persia King of Countries Relief of Artaxerxes II on his tomb at Persepolis, Iran. King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Reign 404 to 358 BC (46 years) Predecessor Darius II Successor Artaxerxes III Born Arsames 453 or 445 BC[1] Died 358 BC (aged 86 or 94) Burial 358 BC Persepolis Consort Stateira Issue Artaxerxes III Full name Artaxerxes II Mnemon House Achaemenid Father Darius II Mother Parysatis Religion Zoroastrianism Artaxerxes II Mnemon /ˌɑːrtəˈzɜːrksiːz/ (Old Persian: 𐎠𐎼𐎫𐎧𐏁𐏂𐎠, lit. 'whose reign is through truth')[1] was the King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire from 404 BC until his death in 358 BC. He was a son of Darius II and Parysatis. Greek authors gave him the epithet "Mnemon" (Ancient Greek: Μνήμων; Old Persian: abiataka), meaning "remembering"; "having a good memory."[2] Contents 1 Rise to power 1.1 Dynastic conflict with Cyrus the Younger (401 BC) 2 Reign 2.1 Conflict against Sparta (396-387 BC) 2.1.1 Final agreement with Sparta (387 BC) 2.2 Egypt campaign (373 BC) 2.2.1 Unfolding of the Egyptian campaign 2.3 Revolt of the Satraps (372-362 BC) 2.4 Peace mediation in the Theban–Spartan War (368-366 BC) 3 Building projects 3.1 Tomb at Persepolis 4 Legacy 5 Identification 6 Issue 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Rise to power[edit] Darius II died in 404 BC, just before the final victory of the Egyptian general, Amyrtaeus, over the Persians in Egypt. His successor was his eldest son Arsames, who was crowned as Artaxerxes II in Pasargadae. Portrait of Artaxerxes II Dynastic conflict with Cyrus the Younger (401 BC)[edit] Before Artaxerxes II could take the throne, he encountered an issue that would threaten his legitimacy as ruler of the Achaemenid Empire. Cyrus the Younger, who at the time was the appointed governor of Asia Minor, had also made claims to the throne. These claims of dethroning Artaxerxes II came to his attention from Tissaphernes, who was a satrap of Caria at the time. Tissapherenes noted that Cyrus the Younger's claims to be on a military expedition to attack the Pisidians had many flaws that led him to believe that Cyrus was planning to revolt. These claims became realized when Cyrus began to seek political support for his campaign. Cyrus found support with Sparta, who sent soldiers to aid the campaign against Artaxerxes II. Notably, Cyrus found support with a Persian kingdom of Cilicia, who contributed to the effort through funds. During this time, due to Tissaphernes' reports, Artaxerxes II began to build up a force to contend with his younger brother's revolt.[3] By the time of Darius II's death, Cyrus had already been successful in defeating the Syrians and Cilicians and was commanding a large army made up of his initial supporters plus those who had joined him in Phrygia and beyond. Upon hearing of his father's death, Cyrus the Younger declared his claim to the throne, based on the argument that he was born to Darius and Parysatis after Darius had ascended to the throne, while Artaxerxes was born prior to Darius II's gaining the throne. Retreat of the Ten Thousand, at the Battle of Cunaxa, Jean Adrien Guignet Artaxerxes II initially wanted to resolve the conflict peacefully, but the negotiations fell through.[4] Cyrus also ran into issues with the locals, who were loyal to Artaxerxes. Artaxerxes defended his position against his brother Cyrus the Younger, who with the aid of a large army of Greek mercenaries called the "Ten Thousand", attempted to usurp the throne. Though Cyrus' mixed army fought to a tactical victory at the Battle of Cunaxa in Babylon (401 BC), Cyrus himself was killed in the exchange by Mithridates, rendering his victory irrelevant. Greek historian Xenophon, himself one of the leaders of the Greek troops, would later recount this battle in the Anabasis, focusing on the struggle of the now-stranded Greek mercenaries to return home. Reign[edit] Conflict against Sparta (396-387 BC)[edit] Armoured cavalry of Achaemenid Hellespontine Phrygia attacking a Greek psiloi at the time of Artaxerxes II and his Satrap Pharnabazus II, Altıkulaç Sarcophagus, early fourth century BCE Main article: Corinthian War Artaxerxes became involved in a war with Persia's erstwhile allies, the Spartans, during the Corinthian War (395-387 BC). The Spartans under their king Agesilaus II had started by invading Asia Minor in 396-395 BC. To redirect the Spartans' attention to Greek affairs, Artaxerxes subsidized their enemies through his envoy Timocrates of Rhodes; in particular, the Athenians, Thebans, and Corinthians received massives subsidies. Tens of thousands of darics, the main currency in Achaemenid coinage, were used to bribe the Greek states to start a war against Sparta.[5] These subsidies helped to engage the Spartans in what would become known as the Corinthian War. According to Plutarch, Agesilaus said upon leaving Asia Minor, "I have been driven out by 10,000 Persian archers", a reference to "Archers" (Toxotai) the Greek nickname for the darics from their obverse design, because that much money had been paid to politicians in Athens and Thebes to start a war against Sparta.[6][5][7] The Achaemenids, allied with Athens, managed to utterly destroy the Spartan fleet at the Battle of Cnidus (394 BC). After that, the Achaemenid satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia, Pharnabazus II, together with former Athenian admiral Conon, raided the coasts of Peloponnesia, putting increased pressure on the Spartans. This encouraged the resurgence of Athens, which started to bring back under her control the Greek cities of Asia Minor, thus worrying Artaxerxes II that his Athenian allies were becoming too powerful. Final agreement with Sparta (387 BC)[edit] The King's Peace, promulgated by Artaxerxes II in 387 BC, put an end to the Corinthian War under the guarantee of the Achaemenid Empire. In 386 BC, Artaxerxes II betrayed his allies and came to an arrangement with Sparta, and in the Treaty of Antalcidas, he forced his erstwhile allies to come to terms. This treaty restored control of the Greek cities of Ionia and Aeolis on the Anatolian coast to the Persians, while giving Sparta dominance on the Greek mainland. In 385 BC, he campaigned against the Cadusians. Egypt campaign (373 BC)[edit] Although successful against the Greeks, Artaxerxes had more trouble with the Egyptians, who had successfully revolted against him at the beginning of his reign. An attempt to reconquer Egypt in 373 BC under the command of Pharnabazus, satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia, was completely unsuccessful, but in his waning years, the Persians did manage to defeat a joint Egyptian–Spartan effort to conquer Phoenicia. Unfolding of the Egyptian campaign[edit] In 377 BC, Pharnabazus was reassigned by Artaxerxes II to help command a military expedition into rebellious Egypt, having proven his ability against the Spartans.[8] Achaemenid campaign of Pharnabazus II against Egypt in 373 BC. After four years of preparations in the Levant, Pharnabazus gathered an expeditionary force of 200,000 Persian troops, 300 triremes, 200 galleys, and 12,000 Greeks under Iphicrates.[9] The Achaemenid Empire had also been applying pressure on Athens to recall the Greek general Chabrias, who was in the service of the Egyptians, but in vain.[10] The Egyptian ruler Nectanebo I was thus supported by Athenian General Chabrias and his mercenaries.[11] The Achaemenid force landed in Egypt with the Athenian general Iphicrates near Mendes in 373 BC.[12] The expedition force was too slow, giving time to the Egyptians to strengthen defenses. Pharnabazus and Iphicrates appeared before Pelusium, but retired without attacking it, Nectanebo I, king of Egypt, having added to its former defences by laying the neighboring lands under water, and blocking up the navigable channels of the Nile by embankments. (Diodorus Siculus xv. 42; Cornelius Nepos, Iphicrates c. 5.) Fortifications on the Pelusiac branch of the Nile ordered by Nectanebo forced the enemy fleet to seek another way to sail up the Nile. Eventually the fleet managed to find its way up the less-defended Mendesian branch.[10] At this point, the mutual distrust that had arisen between Iphicrates and Pharnabazus prevented the enemy from reaching Memphis. Then, the annual Nile flood and the Egyptian defenders' resolve to defend their territory turned what had initially appeared as certain defeat for Nectanebo I and his troops into a complete victory.[13] After several weeks, the Persians and their Greek mercenaries under Iphicrates had to re-embark. The expedition against Egypt had failed.[12] It was the end of the career of Pharnabazus, who was now over 70 years old.[14] Pharnabazes was replaced by Datames to lead a second expedition to Egypt, but he failed and then started the "Satraps' Revolt" against the Great King.[14] Revolt of the Satraps (372-362 BC)[edit] Main article: Great Satraps' Revolt The Achaemenid defeat in Egypt led to unrest among the Achaemenid nobility. From 372 BC, many western satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire started to rebel against Artaxerxes II, in the Great Satraps' Revolt, starting with the powerful satrap Datames. Following the failure of Pharnabazus II in Egypt, Datames had been entrusted by the Persian king with the chief command of a force designed for the recovery of Egypt, but the machinations of his enemies at the Persian court, and the risks to which he was in consequence exposed, induced him to change his plan, and throw off his allegiance to the king. He withdrew with the troops under his command into Cappadocia, and made common cause with the other satraps who were revolting from Persia. The Pharaoh Nectanebo provided financial support to the rebelling satraps and re-established ties with both Sparta and Athens.[15] Artaxerxes II finally quashed the revolt of the satraps by 362 BC. Peace mediation in the Theban–Spartan War (368-366 BC)[edit] Daric of Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes again attempted to mediate in conflicts between the Greek city-states at the time of the Theban hegemony, especially the Theban–Spartan War. He sent Philiscus of Abydos, a hyparch (vice-regent) and military commander of the Achaemenid satrap Ariobarzanes, to Delphi in order to help the Greek negotiate peace.[16][17][18] The objective of Philicus of Abydos was such to help broker a Common Peace between the Greek belligerents reunited at Delphi.[18] The negotiation collapsed when Thebes refused to return Messenia to the Spartans.[18] Before returning to Abydos, Philicus used Achaemenid funds to finance an army for the Spartans, suggesting that he was acting in support of the Spartans from the beginning.[18] With the Achaemenid financing of a new army, Sparta was able to continue the war.[19] Among the mercenaries whom he had recruited, Philiscus gave 2,000 to the Spartans.[16] He also probably provided funds to the Athenians and promised them, on behalf of the King, to help them recover the Chersonese militarily.[16] Both Philiscus and Ariobarzanes were made citizens of Athens, a remarkable honor suggesting important services rendered to the city-state.[16] During autumn of 367 BCE, first the Spartans, soon followed by the Athenians, the Arcadians, the Argives, the Eleans, the Thebans, and other Greek city-states, sent envoys to Susa in attempts to obtain the support of Achaemenid king Artaxerxes II in the Greek conflict.[18] The Achaemenid king proposed a new peace treaty, this time highly tilted in favour of Thebes, which required Messenia to remain independent and that the Athenian fleet to be dismantled. This Peace proposal was rejected by most Greek parties except Thebes.[20][19] Sparta and Athens, dissatisfied with the Persian king's support of Thebes, decided to provide careful military support to the opponents of the Achaemenid king. Athens and Sparta provided support for the revolted satraps, in particular Ariobarzanes. Sparta sent a force to Ariobarzanes under an aging Agesilaus II, while Athens sent a force under Timotheus, which was however diverted when it became obvious that Ariobarzanes had entered frontal conflict with the Achaemenid king.[19][17] An Athenian mercenary force under Chabrias was also sent to the Egyptian Pharao Tachos, who was also fighting against the Achaemenid king.[19] Building projects[edit] Ethnicities of the soldiers of the Empire, on the tomb of Artaxerxes II. On the lintel over each figure appears a trilingual inscription describing each ethnicity.[21] These are known collectively as "Inscription A2Pa". Much of Artaxerxes' wealth was spent on building projects. He restored the Palace of Darius I at Susa,[22] and also the fortifications; including a strong redoubt at the south-east corner of the enclosure and gave Ecbatana a new apadana and sculptures. Tomb at Persepolis[edit] The tomb of Artaxerxes II is located at Persepolis, and was built on the model of his predecessors at Naqsh-e Rustam. On the upper register of the tomb appear reliefs of the Emperor, supported by the soldiers of all ethnicities of the Empire. On the lintel over each figure appears a trilingual inscription describing each ethnicity.[21] These are known collectively as "Inscription A2Pa". Tomb of Artaxerxes II in Persepolis. Upper Relief of the tomb of Artaxerxes II. Soldiers of many ethnicities on the upper relief Legacy[edit] The Persian Empire under Artaxerxes II was viewed[by whom?] as a political power that had many unfortunate complications, such as the many wars with Greece. One aspect of his legacy which would have great influence upon his successors was his conflict with Cyrus the Younger. This conflict was remembered due to the power vacuum that followed, allowing the Satrap Revolt and the rebellion of Egypt. Artaxerxes II was also remembered for his works to restore monuments of his predecessors. His largest restoration was that of the Palace of Darius in Susa. He would also be remembered for his tomb in Persepolis. The image of Artaxerxes from contemporary foreign sources depicts him in a similar light to his image among those in the Achaemenid Empire. The Greek portrayal highlights his long rule with many conflicts and shortcomings of Artaxerxes II in his ability to control his empire. Greek sources also focus on his problems in his court with his harem and eunuchs. Greek sources portray Artaxerxes II as sad in his reign.[23] Identification[edit] The Jewish high priest Johanan is mentioned in the Elephantine papyri[24][25] dated to 407 BC, i.e., during Darius II's reign, and is also mentioned in Ezra 10:6 after the reign of Darius (Ezra 6:1) and during the rule of Artaxerxes (Ezra 7:1), thereby supporting the chronological sequence. Amongst others, it has been suggested that Artaxerxes II was the Ahasuerus mentioned in the Book of Esther. Plutarch in his Lives (AD 75) records alternative names Oarses and Arsicas for Artaxerxes II Mnemon given by Deinon (c. 360–340 BC[26]) and Ctesias (Artexerxes II's physician[27]) respectively.[28] These derive from the Persian name Khshayarsha as do "Ahasuerus" ("(Arta)Xerxes") and the hypocoristicon "Arshu" for Artaxerxes II found on a contemporary inscription (LBAT 162[29]). These sources thus arguably identify Ahasuerus as Artaxerxes II in light of the names used in the Hebrew and Greek sources and accords with the contextual information from Pseudo-Hecataeus and Berossus[30] as well as agreeing with Al-Tabari and Masudi's placement of events. The 13th century Syriac historian Bar-Hebraeus in his Chronography, also identifies Ahasuerus as Artaxerxes II citing the sixth century AD historian John of Ephesus.[31][32] Issue[edit] Artaxerxes II is reported to have had a number of wives. His main wife was Stateira, until she was poisoned by Artaxerxes' mother Parysatis in about 400 BC. Another chief wife was a Greek woman of Phocaea named Aspasia (not the same as the concubine of Pericles). Artaxerxes II is said to have more than 115 sons from 350 wives.[33] By Stateira Artaxerxes III Darius Ariaspes or Ariarathes Rhodogune, wife of satrap Orontes I Atossa, wife of Artaxerxes II & then Artaxerxes III By other wives Arsames Mithridates Phriapatius(?), probable ancestor of Arsacids Amestris, wife of Artaxerxes II Apama, wife of Pharnabazus Ocha, mother of an unnamed wife of Artaxerxes III The unnamed wife of Tissaphernes 112 other unnamed sons See also[edit] Artaxerxes I History of Persia The Anabasis Ten Thousand (Greek) References[edit] ^ a b R. Schmitt. "ARTAXERXES". Encyclopædia Iranica. 15 December 1986. Retrieved 12 March 2012. ^ electricpulp.com. "ARTAXERXES II – Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 4 February 2018. ^ "Cyrus the Younger - Livius". www.livius.org. Retrieved 2019-05-08. ^ "The Achaemenid Empire". Iranologie.com. 2014-04-25. Retrieved 2019-04-30. ^ a b Snodgrass, Mary Ellen (2015). Coins and Currency: An Historical Encyclopedia. McFarland. p. 125. ISBN 9781476611204. ^ "Persian coins were stamped with the figure of an archer, and Agesilaus said, as he was breaking camp, that the King was driving him out of Asia with ten thousand "archers"; for so much money had been sent to Athens and Thebes and distributed among the popular leaders there, and as a consequence those people made war upon the Spartans" Plutarch 15-1-6 in Delphi Complete Works of Plutarch (Illustrated). Delphi Classics. 2013. pp. 1031, Plutarch 15-1-6. ISBN 9781909496620. ^ Schwartzwald, Jack L. (2014). The Ancient Near East, Greece and Rome: A Brief History. McFarland. p. 73. ISBN 9781476613079. ^ Ruzicka, Stephen (2012). Trouble in the West: Egypt and the Persian Empire, 525-332 BC. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 55–62. ISBN 978-0-19-976662-8. ^ Gershevitch, I.; Fisher, William Bayne; Boyle, John Andrew; Yarshater, Ehsan; Frye, Richard Nelson (1985). The Cambridge History of Iran. Cambridge University Press. p. 372. ISBN 9780521200912. ^ a b Grimal (1992), pp. 375–376 harvp error: no target: CITEREFGrimal1992 (help) ^ Ruzicka, Stephen (2012). Trouble in the West: Egypt and the Persian Empire, 525-332 BC. Oxford University Press. pp. 99–105. ISBN 9780199908776. ^ a b Gershevitch, I.; Fisher, William Bayne; Boyle, John Andrew; Yarshater, Ehsan; Frye, Richard Nelson (1985). The Cambridge History of Iran. Cambridge University Press. p. 373. ISBN 9780521200912. ^ Lloyd (1994), p. 348 harvp error: no target: CITEREFLloyd1994 (help) ^ a b Gershevitch, I.; Fisher, William Bayne; Boyle, John Andrew; Yarshater, Ehsan; Frye, Richard Nelson (1985). The Cambridge History of Iran. Cambridge University Press. p. 374. ISBN 9780521200912. ^ Grimal (1992), p. 377 harvp error: no target: CITEREFGrimal1992 (help) ^ a b c d Heskel, Julia (1997). The North Aegean Wars, 371-360 B.C. Franz Steiner Verlag. p. 113. ISBN 9783515069175. ^ a b Heskel, Julia (1997). The North Aegean Wars, 371-360 B.C. Franz Steiner Verlag. p. 96. ISBN 9783515069175. ^ a b c d e Fine, John Van Antwerp (1983). The Ancient Greeks: A Critical History. Harvard University Press. p. 584. ISBN 9780674033146. ^ a b c d Souza, Philip de; France, John (2008). War and Peace in Ancient and Medieval History. Cambridge University Press. p. 41. ISBN 9781139469487. ^ Fine, John Van Antwerp (1983). The Ancient Greeks: A Critical History. Harvard University Press. p. 585. ISBN 9780674033146. ^ a b Briant, Pierre (2015). Darius in the Shadow of Alexander. Harvard University Press. p. 25. ISBN 9780674493094. ^ "Achaemenid Royal Inscriptions: A2Sa". www.livius.org. Retrieved 2015-06-21. ^ Briant, Pierre (2015). Darius in the Shadow of Alexander. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674493094. ^ Pritchard, James B. ed., Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, Princeton University Press, third edition with supplement 1969, ISBN 9780691035031, p. 492 ^ Bezalel Porten (Author), J. J. Farber (Author), C. J. F. Martin (Author), G. Vittmann (Author), The Elephantine Papyri in English (Documenta Et Monumenta Orientis Antiqui, book 22), Koninklijke Brill NV, The Netherlands, 1996, ISBN 9781589836280, p 125-153. ^ Wolfgang Felix, Encyclopaedia Iranica, entry Dinon, 1996–2008 ^ Jona Lendering, Ctesias of Cnidus, Livius, Articles on Ancient History, 1996–2008 ^ John Dryden, Arthur Hugh Clough, Plutarch's Lives, Little, Brown and Company, 1885 ^ M. A. Dandamaev, W. J. Vogelsang, A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire, BRILL, 1989 ^ Jacob Hoschander, The Book of Esther in the Light of History, Oxford University Press, 1923 ^ E. A. W. Budge, The Chronography of Bar Hebraeus, Gorgias Press LLC, reprinted 2003 ^ Jan Jacob van Ginkel, John of Ephesus. A Monophysite Historian in Sixth-century Byzantium, Groningen, 1995 ^ "The Achaemenid Empire". Retrieved 2015-06-21.[1] Archived 2008-06-19 at the Wayback Machine External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Artaxerxes II. Artaxerxes by Plutarch H. Hunger & R.J. van der Spek, "An astronomical diary concerning Artaxerxes II (year 42 = 363-2 BC). Military operations in Babylonia" in: Arta 2006.002 Inscriptions of Artaxerxes II in transcribed Persian and in English translation. [2] Artaxerxes II Achaemenid dynasty Born: c. 436 BC Died: 358 BC Preceded by Darius II Great King (Shah) of Persia 404 BC – 358 BC Succeeded by Artaxerxes III v t e Median and Achaemenid kings Family tree Median (728–550 BC) Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Achaemenid (550–330 BC) Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Nothus Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Italics indicate kings not directly attested and so possibly legendary. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC v t e Works of Plutarch Works Parallel Lives Moralia "De genio Socratis" "On the Malice of Herodotus" Pseudo-Plutarch Lives Alcibiades and Coriolanus1 Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar Aratus of Sicyon / Artaxerxes and Galba / Otho2 Aristides and Cato the Elder1 Crassus and Nicias1 Demetrius and Antony1 Demosthenes and Cicero1 Dion and Brutus1 Fabius and Pericles1 Lucullus and Cimon1 Lysander and Sulla1 Numa and Lycurgus1 Pelopidas and Marcellus1 Philopoemen and Flamininus1 Phocion and Cato the Younger Pompey and Agesilaus1 Poplicola and Solon1 Pyrrhus and Gaius Marius Romulus and Theseus1 Sertorius and Eumenes1 Agis / Cleomenes1 and Tiberius Gracchus / Gaius Gracchus Timoleon and Aemilius Paulus1 Themistocles and Camillus Translators and editors Jacques Amyot Arthur Hugh Clough John Dryden Philemon Holland Thomas North 1 Comparison extant 2 Four unpaired Lives Authority control BNF: cb14979312q (data) GND: 137407769 LCCN: n2007055710 NKC: jn20000700082 NLP: A1181990X PLWABN: 9810613500605606 SUDOC: 084334347 VIAF: 224111652 WorldCat Identities: viaf-191745641 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Artaxerxes_II&oldid=998333131" Categories: Artaxerxes II of Persia 5th-century BC Kings of the Achaemenid Empire 4th-century BC Kings of the Achaemenid Empire 5th-century BC Babylonian kings 4th-century BC Babylonian kings 430s BC births 358 BC deaths 4th-century BC rulers 5th-century BC rulers Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Anabasis (Xenophon) Babylonian captivity 5th-century BC Iranian people 4th-century BC Iranian people Ahasuerus Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from June 2019 Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers 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en-wikipedia-org-6945	----	Berenice II of Egypt - Wikipedia Berenice II of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Berenice II) Jump to navigation Jump to search Queen of Egypt Berenice II Euergetis Queen of Egypt Bust of Berenice II in the Munich Glyptothek Born c. 267 – 266 BC Died 221 BC Spouse Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy III Euergetes Issue Ptolemy IV Arsinoe III Alexander Magas of Egypt Berenice Full name Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Bereniket Meritnetjerou Berenice Euergetes, the Goddess, Beloved of the Gods Horus name Satheqa Iretenheqa The King's Daughter, Created by the King Dynasty Ptolemaic Father Magas of Cyrene Mother Apama II Berenice II Euergetis (267 or 266 BC – 221 BC; Greek: Βερενίκη Ευεργέτες, Berenikē Euergetes, "Berenice the Benefactress"[1]) was ruling queen of Cyrenaica from around 250 BC and queen and co-regent of Ptolemaic Egypt from 246 BC to 222 BC as the wife of Ptolemy III Euergetes. She inherited the rule of Cyrene from her father, Magas in 249 BC. After a short power struggle with her mother, Berenice married her cousin Ptolemy III, the third ruler of the Ptolemaic kingdom. This marriage led to the re-incorporation of Cyrenaica into the Ptolemaic empire. As queen of Egypt, Berenice participated actively in government, was incorporated into the Ptolemaic state cult alongside her husband and worshipped as a goddess in her own right. She is best-known for sacrificing her hair as a votive offering, which led to the constellation Coma Berenices being named after her. Berenice was murdered by the regent Sosibius shortly after the accession of her son Ptolemy IV Philopator in 221 BC. Contents 1 Life 1.1 Queen of Cyrene 1.2 Queen of Egypt 1.2.1 Ruler cult 1.2.2 Berenice's Lock 1.2.3 Panhellenic Games 1.2.4 Death 2 Issue 3 Legacy 4 References 5 Bibliography 6 External links Life[edit] Cyrenaica had been incorporated into the Ptolemaic realm in 323 BC, by Ptolemy I Soter shortly after the death of Alexander the Great. The region proved difficult to control and around 300 BC, Ptolemy I entrusted the region to Magas, son of his wife Berenice I by an earlier marriage. After Ptolemy I's death, Magas asserted his independence and engaged in warfare with his successor Ptolemy II Philadelphus. Around 275 BC, Magas married Apama, who came from the Seleucid dynasty, which had become enemies of the Ptolemies.[2] Berenice II was their only child. When Ptolemy II renewed his efforts to reach a settlement with Magas of Cyrene in the late 250s BC, it was agreed that Berenice would be married to her cousin, the future Ptolemy III, who was Ptolemy II's heir.[3][4] The astronomer Gaius Julius Hyginus claims that when Berenice's father Magas and his troops were routed in battle, Berenice mounted a horse, rallied the remaining forces, killed many of the enemy, and drove the rest to retreat.[5] The veracity of this story is unclear and the battle in question is not otherwise attested, but "it is not on the face of it impossible."[6] Queen of Cyrene[edit] Around 250 BC, Magas died, making Berenice ruling queen of Cyrene. At this point, Berenice's mother Apame refused to honour the marriage agreement with the Ptolemies and invited an Antigonid prince, Demetrius the Fair to Cyrene to marry Berenice instead. With Apame's help, Demetrius seized control of the city. Allegedly, Demetrius and Apame became lovers. Berenice is said to have discovered them in bed together and had him assassinated. Apame was spared.[7] Control of Cyrene was then entrusted to a republican government, led by two Cyrenaeans named Ecdelus and Demophanes, until Berenice's actual wedding to Ptolemy III in 246 BC after his accession to the throne.[4][8] Queen of Egypt[edit] Coin of Berenice II A mosaic from Thmuis (Mendes), Egypt, created by the Hellenistic artist Sophilos (signature) in about 200 BC, now in the Greco-Roman Museum in Alexandria, Egypt; the woman depicted is probably Berenice II. Her crown showing a ship's prow and her anchor-shaped brooch symbolised the Ptolemaic Empire's naval prowess.[9] A seated woman in a fresco from the Roman Villa Boscoreale, dated mid-1st century BC, that likely represents Berenice II of Ptolemaic Egypt wearing a stephane (i.e. royal diadem) on her head[10] Berenice married Ptolemy III in 246 BC after his accession to the throne.[8] This brought Cyrenaica back into the Ptolemaic realm, where it would remain until her great-great-grandson Ptolemy Apion left it to the Roman Republic in his will in 96 BC. Ruler cult[edit] In 244 or 243 BC, Berenice and her husband were incorporated into the Ptolemaic state cults and worshipped as the Theoi Euergetai (Benefactor Gods), alongside Alexander the Great and the earlier Ptolemies.[8][11] Berenice was also worshipped as a goddess on her own, Thea Euergetis (Benefactor Goddess). She was often equated with Aphrodite and Isis and came to be particularly associated with protection against shipwrecks. Most of the evidence for this cult derives from the reign of Ptolemy IV or later, but a cult in her honour is attested in the Fayyum in Ptolemy III's reign.[12] This cult closely parallels that offered to her mother-in-law, Arsinoe II, who was also equated with Aphrodite and Isis, and associated with protection from shipwrecks. The parallelism is also presented on the gold coinage minted posthumously in honour of the two queens. The coinage of Arsinoe II bears a pair of cornucopiae on the reverse side, while that of Berenice bears a single cornucopia. Berenice's Lock[edit] Main article: Coma Berenices Coma Berenices constellation noted Berenice's divinity is closely connected with the story of "Berenice's Lock". According to this story, Berenice vowed to sacrifice her long hair as a votive offering if Ptolemy III returned safely from battle during the Third Syrian War. She dedicated her tresses to and placed them in the temple at Cape Zephyrium in Alexandria, where Arsinoe II was worshipped as Aphrodite, but the next morning the tresses had disappeared. Conon of Samos, the court astronomer identified a constellation as the missing hair, claiming that Aphrodite had placed it in the sky as an acknowledgement of Berenice's sacrifice. The constellation is known to this day as Coma Berenices (Latin for 'Berenice's Lock').[13] It is unclear whether this event took place before or after Ptolemy's return; Branko Van Oppen de Ruiter suggests that it happened after Ptolemy's return (around March–June or May 245 BC).[14] This episode served to link Berenice with the goddess Isis in her role as goddess of rebirth, since she was meant to have dedicated a lock of her own hair at Koptos in mourning for her husband Osiris.[15][12] The story was widely propagated by the Ptolemaic court. Seals were produced depicting Berenice with a shaved head and the attributes of Isis/Demeter.[16][12] The poet Callimachus, who was based in the Ptolemaic court, celebrated the event in a poem, The Lock of Berenice, of which only a few lines remain.[17] The first century BC Roman poet Catullus produced a loose translation or adaptation of the poem in Latin,[18] and a prose summary appears in Hyginus' De Astronomica.[5][13] The story was popular in the early modern period, when it was illustrated by many neoclassical painters. Panhellenic Games[edit] Berenice entered a chariot team in the Nemean Games of 243 or 241 BC and was victorious. The success is celebrated in another poem by Callimachus' Victory of Berenice. This poem connects Berenice with Io, a lover of Zeus in Greek mythology, who was also connected with Isis by contemporary Greeks.[19][12] According to Hyginus, she also entered a team in the Olympic games at some unknown date.[5][8] Death[edit] Ptolemy III died in late 222 BC and was succeeded by his son by Berenice, Ptolemy IV Philopator. Berenice died soon after, in early 221 BC. Polybius states that she was poisoned, as part of a general purge of the royal family by the new king's regent Sosibius.[20][8] She continued to be venerated in the state ruler cult. By 211 BC, she had her own priestess, the athlophorus ('prize-bearer'), who marched in processions in Alexandria behind the priest of Alexander the Great and the Ptolemies, and the canephorus of the deified Arsinoe II.[6] Issue[edit] With Ptolemy III she had the following children:[21] Name Image Birth Death Notes Arsinoe III 246/5 BC 204 BC Married her brother Ptolemy IV in 220 BC. Ptolemy IV Philopator May/June 244 BC July/August 204 BC King of Egypt from 222 - 204 BC. A son July/August 243 BC Perhaps 221 BC Name unknown, possibly 'Lysimachus'. He was probably killed in or before the political purge of 221 BC.[22] Alexander September/October 242 BC Perhaps 221 BC He was probably killed in or before the political purge of 221 BC.[23] Magas November/December 241 BC 221 BC Scalded to death in his bath by Theogos or Theodotus, at the orders of Ptolemy IV.[24] Berenice January/February 239 BC February/March 238 BC Posthumously deified on 7 March 238 BC by the Canopus Decree, as Berenice Anasse Parthenon (Berenice, mistress of virgins).[25] Legacy[edit] The city of Euesperides (now the Libyan city of Benghazi) was renamed Berenice in her honour, a name it retained until the Middle Ages. The asteroid 653 Berenike, discovered in 1907, also is named after Queen Berenice.[26] References[edit] ^ "Berenice II Euergetis". Ancient History Encyclopedia. ^ Hölbl 2001, pp. 38–39 ^ Justin 26.3.2 ^ a b Hölbl 2001, pp. 44–46 ^ a b c Gaius Julius Hyginus De Astronomica 2.24 ^ a b Clayman 2014, p. 157 ^ Justin 26.3.3-6; Catullus 66.25-28 ^ a b c d e Berenice II Archived February 25, 2015, at the Wayback Machine by Chris Bennett ^ Daszewski, W.A. (1986). "La personnification de la Tyché d'Alexandrie. Réinterprétation de certains monuments". In Kahil, L.; Auge, C.; Linant de Bellefonds, P. (eds.). Iconographie classique et identités régionales'. Paris: De Boccard. pp. 299–309. ^ Pfrommer, Michael; Towne-Markus, Elana (2001). Greek Gold from Hellenistic Egypt. Los Angeles: Getty Publications (J. Paul Getty Trust). ISBN 0-89236-633-8, pp. 22–23. ^ Hölbl 2001, p. 49 ^ a b c d Hölbl 2001, p. 105 ^ a b Barentine, John C. (2016). Uncharted Constellations: Asterisms, Single-Source and Rebrands. Springer. p. 17. ISBN 978-3-319-27619-9. ^ Van Oppen de Ruiter 2015, p. 110 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFVan_Oppen_de_Ruiter2015 (help) ^ Plutarch, De Iside et Osiride 14. ^ Pantos, P. A. (1987). "Bérénice II Démèter". Bulletin des correspondence hellenique (in French). 111: 343–352. doi:10.3406/bch.1987.1777. ^ Callimachus fragment 110 Pfeiffer. ^ Catullus 66 ^ Parsons, P. J. (1977). "Callimachus: Victoria Berenices". Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik. 25: 1–50. ^ Polybius 15.25.2; Zenobius 5.94 ^ Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004. ISBN 0-500-05128-3 ^ Lysimachus by Chris Bennett ^ Alexander by Chris Bennett ^ Magas by Chris Bennett ^ Berenice by Chris Bennett ^ Use of tree Oils. "Varnish and Berenice." Retrieved on September 02, 2010 Bibliography[edit] Clayman, Dee L. (2014). Berenice II and the golden age of Ptolemaic Egypt. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195370881. Hölbl, Günther (2001). A History of the Ptolemaic Empire. London & New York: Routledge. pp. 143–152 & 181–194. ISBN 0415201454. van Oppen de Ruiter, Branko (2016). Berenice II Euergetis: Essays in Early Hellenistic Queenship. Springer. ISBN 9781137494627. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Berenice II. Bevan, E.R., The House of Ptolemy, Methuen Publishing, London, 1927 - Chapter 3, "The Second Ptolemy, "Philadelphus" v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Queens of Ancient Egypt Early Dynastic Period to First Intermediate Period  (3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Neithhotep Benerib Khenthap Herneith Nakhtneith Penebui Merneith Seshemetka Semat Serethor Betrest II Nimaathap Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Hetephernebti Djeseretnebti Djefatnebti Meresankh I IV Hetepheres I Meritites I Henutsen Khentetka Meresankh II Hetepheres II Meresankh III Khamerernebty I Persenet Hekenuhedjet Khamerernebty II Rekhetre Bunefer V Khentkaus I Neferhetepes Meretnebty Khentkaus II Khentkaus III Reptynub Khuit I Meresankh IV Setibhor Nebet Khenut VI Iput I Khuit II Ankhesenpepi I Ankhesenpepi II Nubwenet Meritites IV Inenek-Inti Nedjeftet Neith Iput II Udjebten Ankhesenpepi III Ankhesenpepi IV Nitocris Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Neferu I Neferukayet Iah Tem Neferu II Ashayet Henhenet Sadeh Kawit Kemsit XII Neferitatjenen Neferu III Keminub Khenemetneferhedjet I Nofret II Itaweret Khenmet Sithathoriunet Khenemetneferhedjet II Neferthenut Meretseger Aat Khenemetneferhedjet III Sobekneferu 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Nofret Nubhetepti Senebhenas Neni Tjan Ineni Nubkhaes Aya XIV Tati XVI Mentuhotep XVII Nubemhat Sobekemsaf Haankhes Tetisheri Ahhotep I Ahmose Inhapy Sitdjehuti Ahhotep II New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose-Nefertari Ahmose-Sitkamose Ahmose-Henuttamehu Ahmose-Meritamun Ahmose Mutnofret Hatshepsut Iset Satiah Merytre-Hatshepsut Nebtu Menhet, Menwi and Merti Nebsemi Tiaa Nefertari Iaret Mutemwiya Tiye Gilukhipa Sitamun Iset Tadukhipa / Kiya Nefertiti Meritaten Neferneferuaten Ankhesenamun Tey Mutnedjmet Nebetnehat XIX Sitre Tuya Tanedjemet Nefertari Isetnofret Henutmire Maathorneferure Meritamen Bintanath Nebettawy Merytre Isetnofret II Takhat Twosret Tiaa XX Tiy-Merenese Iset Ta-Hemdjert Tyti Tiye Duatentopet Henutwati Tawerettenru Nubkhesbed Baketwernel Tentamun 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Tentamun Mutnedjmet Karimala XXII Karomama Patareshnes Maatkare Tashedkhonsu Nesitaudjatakhet Nesitanebetashru Kapes Karomama I Tadibast III XXIII Karomama II XXV Pebatjma Tabiry Abar Khensa Peksater Arty Qalhata Tabekenamun Takahatenamun Naparaye Atakhebasken Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Mehytenweskhet Khedebneithirbinet I Takhuit Tentkheta Nakhtubasterau Ladice XXVII Atossa Artystone Parmys Amestris Damaspia Parysatis XXXI Stateira I Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Roxana Stateira II Parysatis II Eurydice II of Macedon Ptolemaic Eurydice Berenice I Arsinoe I Arsinoe II Berenice II Arsinoe III Cleopatra I Cleopatra II Cleopatra III Cleopatra IV Cleopatra Selene Berenice III Cleopatra V Cleopatra VI Berenice IV Cleopatra VII Arsinoe IV Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic Authority control BIBSYS: 65213 BNF: cb12105700r (data) GND: 118655833 LCCN: n86123801 SELIBR: 264396 SUDOC: 079973426 ULAN: 500354968 VIAF: 96149106265668492202 WorldCat Identities: viaf-31976536 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berenice_II_of_Egypt&oldid=996708202" Categories: 3rd-century BC Pharaohs Queens consort of the Ptolemaic dynasty Remarried royal consorts 3rd-century BC Greek women 260s BC births 221 BC deaths 3rd-century BC Greek people 3rd-century BC Egyptian people Female pharaohs 3rd-century BC Egyptian women 3rd-century BC women rulers Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Harv and Sfn no-target errors CS1 French-language sources (fr) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Soomaaliga Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 28 December 2020, at 05:23 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-694	----	Nebmaatre - Wikipedia Nebmaatre From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Nebmaatre Base of the lion amulet of Nebmaatre, now in the Petrie Museum (UC 11587).[1] Pharaoh Reign unknown duration (uncertain dynasty, possibly early 17th dynasty or late 16th dynasty) Predecessor unknown Successor unknown Royal titulary Nomen Netjer Nefer Nebmaatre Nṯr-nfr-nb-m3ˁt-Rˁ The good god, the lord of truth is Ra Nebmaatre is the prenomen of a poorly attested ruler of the late Second Intermediate Period of Ancient Egypt. Nebmaatre may have been a member of the early 17th Dynasty and as such would have reigned over the Theban region.[2] Alternatively, Jürgen von Beckerath believes that Nebmaatre was a ruler of the late 16th Dynasty.[3][4] Contents 1 Attestations 2 Chronological position 3 Other Ancient Egyptians named Nebmaatre 4 References Attestations[edit] The prenomen Nebmaatre is attested on a bronze axe-head discovered in a tomb at Mostagedda in Middle Egypt and now in the British Museum under the catalog number BM EA 63224. The same prenomen is inscribed on a black steatite amulet representing a lion of unknown provenance and now in the Petrie Museum under the catalog number 11587.[1] A degree of uncertainty affects the ownership of these artifacts since Amenhotep III's prenomen was Nebmaatre as well. However, the axe-head can be dated to the late Second Intermediate Period based on stylistic grounds and provenance while according to Flinders Petrie the amulet is of too rough a workmanship to be attributable to Amenhotep III.[5][6] Instead Petrie suggested that the amulet be attributable to Ibi, an obscure ruler of the late 13th Dynasty whose prenomen is partially preserved in the Turin canon as "[...]maatre". However, Kim Ryholt's recent study of the Turin canon precludes this identification as a vertical stroke in the lacuna just prior to "maatre" rules out the hieroglyph for "neb".[5] Chronological position[edit] The chronological position of Nebmaatre in the Second Intermediate Period is highly uncertain. The Egyptologist Jürgen von Beckerath proposes that Nebmaatre was a ruler of a compounded 15th–16th Dynasty, which he sees as an entirely Hyksos line of kings.[7] Alternatively, Kim Ryholt put forth the hypothesis that Nebmaatre was a king of the 17th Dynasty, although he left his position in the dynasty unspecified. [8] Ryholt's datation is based on the observation that the axe-head bearing Nebmaatre's name was found in a tomb belonging to the Pan-grave culture.[9] The Pan-grave people were Nubian mercenaries employed by rulers of the 17th Dynasty in their fight against the Hyksos foe.[5] Egyptologist Darrell Baker points out that the Theban rulers of the period might indeed have provided such weapons to their mercenaries.[5] Other Ancient Egyptians named Nebmaatre[edit] Nebmaatre was the prenomen of pharaoh Amenhotep III of the 18th Dynasty, whose reign marked the apex of Egypt's power. It was also the throne name of a Nubian king, Amanitenmemide. A 20th Dynasty prince and High priest of Ra in Heliopolis was also named Nebmaatre.[10] References[edit] ^ a b The amulet of the Petrie Museum ^ K. S. B. Ryholt, Adam Bülow-Jacobse, The political situation in Egypt during the second intermediate period, c. 1800-1550 B.C., pp 168, 170, 171, 179, 204, 400 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46. Mainz am Rhein, 1997 ^ a b c d Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Egyptian Pharaohs. Volume I: Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty (3300-1069 BC), Bannerstone Press, London 2008, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, p. 244 ^ Flinders Petrie: Scarabs and Cylinders with Names, 1978, Aris & Philips, Ltd. (reprint of the 1917 original edition published by BSAE). ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der agyptische Konigsnamen, Muncher. Agyptologische Studien, 49 Mainz, 1999, pp.118-119 ^ Kim Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c.1800-1550 B.C, Museum Tusculanum Press, (1997) ^ Manfred Bietak: the Pan-grave culture Archived 2013-10-24 at the Wayback Machine ^ Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton: The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson, 2004, ISBN 0-500-05128-3, pp. 191,193 v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nebmaatre&oldid=973269040" Categories: 16th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Español Français Italiano ქართული Magyar Slovenščina Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 16 August 2020, at 08:35 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6958	----	David Farrar (actor) - Wikipedia David Farrar (actor) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search David Farrar Farrar in Black Narcissus (1947) Born (1908-08-21)21 August 1908 Forest Gate, Essex, England, UK Died 31 August 1995(1995-08-31) (aged 87) KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa Resting place Ashes scattered into the Indian Ocean Years active 1937–1962 Spouse(s) Irene Elliot ​ ​ (m. 1929; died 1976)​ Children 1 David Farrar (21 August 1908 – 31 August 1995) was an English stage and film actor. His film roles include as the male lead in the Powell and Pressburger films Black Narcissus (1947), The Small Back Room (1949) and Gone to Earth (1950). According to one obituary, "He was particularly adept at conveying the weaknesses and human qualities in figures of authority and intelligence... and he could be considered an early exponent of 'anti-hero' roles."[1] In 1949, exhibitors voted him the ninth-most popular British star.[2] Director Michael Powell once spoke of his handsome appearance and distinctive "violet eyes", and his exceptional timing in films. Powell also stated that had Farrar been more interested in cinema and cared more about his career, he could have been a much more high-profile actor, as successful as any.[3] Contents 1 Career 1.1 Early years 1.2 Leading man 1.3 Stardom 1.4 Hollywood 1.5 Final films 2 Personal life 3 Filmography 4 References 5 External links Career[edit] Farrar was born in Forest Gate, Essex (now in the London Borough of Newham). He joined the Morning Advertiser on leaving school at 14 and worked as a journalist for a number of years. He became an assistant editor at 17 and earned a BA through night school when 19 whilst becoming increasingly interested in amateur theatricals.[4] Early years[edit] In 1932 Farrar received an offer to tour with a repertory company at £7 a week. He quit his job and went on tour for 18 months.[4] He ran a repertory company with his wife for 18 months until 1937, then went on tour again. He was seen in a play by an employee of the American RKO studio who was interested in Farrar's potential as a film actor. His first film role was in the Jessie Matthews musical Head Over Heels (1937). He also had small roles in Return of a Stranger (1937), Silver Top (1938), and A Royal Divorce (1938). He played agent Granite Grant in Sexton Blake and the Hooded Terror (1938) and had a small role in Q Planes (1939). Farrar returned to the stage and performed in a production of the Wandering Jew for seven months. However, after a bomb damaged the theatre he decided to try films again.[4] Leading man[edit] Farrar had his first leading role in Danny Boy (1941), which he followed with Sheepdog of the Hills (1941) and Suspected Person (1942). These were "B" movies but Farrar had a good role in an "A", Went the Day Well? (1942), as a villainous German. He had strong roles in The Dark Tower (1943) and They Met in the Dark (1943), as well as the leads in Headline (1943) and The Night Invader (1944). He was a heroic commander of an air-sea rescue unit in For Those in Peril (1944), an accountant in The Hundred Pound Window (1944), and a pilot in The World Owes Me a Living (1945). Farrar starred as Sexton Blake in two films, Meet Sexton Blake (1945) and The Echo Murders (1945), and was an intelligence officer in Lisbon Story (1946).[4] These low-budget thrillers were enormously popular in their day. By 1945 he was receiving 800 fan letters a week.[5][6] Stardom[edit] Farrar was transformed into a star when he was cast as the British agent Mr. Dean in Black Narcissus (1947) who arouses the passions of the nuns played by Deborah Kerr and Kathleen Byron. Made by the team of Powell and Pressburger, the movie was popular and has since come to be regarded as one of the finest films in British cinema. Farrar followed it up by playing the officer who brings home a German wife (Mai Zetterling) in Frieda (1947), directed by Basil Dearden; it was the ninth biggest film in Britain of the year.[7] Farrar played a charismatic school teacher in Mr. Perrin and Mr. Traill (1948) and was then reunited with Powell and Pressburger for The Small Back Room (1949) in which he played an alcoholic bomb disposal expert. According to his obituary, "Farrar was given a true star's entrance in the film, the camera tracking along a bar of customers until coming to rest upon the actor's back. His character's name is called and he turns to face the camera in full close-up."[1] Gainsborough Pictures next gave him the lead of a "British Western" shot in South Africa, Diamond City (1949), playing Stafford Parker but the film was a flop. He reunited with Dearden for Cage of Gold (1950) and Powell and Pressburger for Gone to Earth (1950), another box office disappointment. Farrar would later cite his three films for Powell and Pressburger, and Cage of Gold, as the artistic highlights of his career.[1] However Farrar's stardom soon lost momentum with the low-key films The Late Edwina Black (1951), and Night Without Stars (1951). Hollywood[edit] He was offered an heroic part in The Golden Horde (1951), at Universal with Ann Blyth, and the film was a minor hit. He was in I Vinti (1953) in Italy, then played villains in Hollywood films such as Duel in the Jungle (1954), and The Black Shield of Falworth (1954). He supported Anna Neagle in Lilacs in the Spring (1955) and was a supporting actor in Escape to Burma (1955), The Sea Chase (1955), and Pearl of the South Pacific (1956). Farrar returned to the UK for the lead in Lost (1956), and then was back to supporting parts in I Accuse! (1958), The Son of Robin Hood (1958), Watusi (1959), John Paul Jones (1959), and Solomon and Sheba (1959). Final films[edit] He returned to Britain for Beat Girl (1960), and The Webster Boy (1962), but following his role as Xerxes in The 300 Spartans (1962) he retired from the screen. Farrar later admitted, "I'd always been the upstanding young man and I was afraid of the parts that were being hinted at for uncles or for the girl's father instead of her lover! I just felt 'the hell with it all' and walked out into the sunset."[1] Personal life[edit] After the death of his wife Irene in 1976, he moved to South Africa to be with their daughter, Barbara. He died on 31 August 1995 in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, 10 days after his 87th birthday. Filmography[edit] Return of a Stranger (1937) – Dr. Young (uncredited) Silver Top (1938) – Babe A Royal Divorce (1938) – Louis Bonaparte Sexton Blake and the Hooded Terror (1938) – Granite Grant Q Planes (1939) – Viking Bo'sun (uncredited) Danny Boy (1941) – Harold Martin Sheepdog of the Hills (1941) – Reverend Michael Varney Penn of Pennsylvania (1941) – (uncredited) Suspected Person (1942) – Inspector Thompson Went the Day Well? (1942) – Lieut. Jung The Dark Tower (1943) – Tom Danton They Met in the Dark (1943) – Commander Lippinscott Headline (1943) – 'Brookie ' Brooks The Night Invader (1943) – Dick Marlow For Those in Peril (1944) – Flt.Lt. Murray The Hundred Pound Window (1944) – George Graham The World Owes Me a Living (1945) – Paul Collyer Meet Sexton Blake (1945) – Sexton Blake The Echo Murders (1945) – Sexton Blake Lisbon Story (1946) – David Warren Black Narcissus (1947) – Mr. Dean Frieda (1947) – Robert Mr. Perrin and Mr. Traill (1948) – David Traill The Small Back Room (1949) – Sammy Rice Diamond City (1949) – Stafford Parker Cage of Gold (1950) – Bill Gone to Earth (1950) (aka 'The Wild Heart') – Jack Reddin The Late Edwina Black (1951) – Gregory Black Night Without Stars (1951) – Giles Gordon The Golden Horde (1951) – Sir Guy of Devon I Vinti (1953) Duel in the Jungle (1954) – Perry Henderson / Arthur Henderson The Black Shield of Falworth (1954) – Gilbert Blunt, Earl of Alban Lilacs in the Spring (1954) – Charles King / King Charles II Escape to Burma (1955) – Cardigan The Sea Chase (1955) – Commander Jeff Napier Pearl of the South Pacific (1955) – Bully Hague Lost (1956) – Det. Insp. Craig The Battle of the River Plate (1956) – Narrator I Accuse! (1958) – Mathieu Dreyfus The Son of Robin Hood (1958) – Des Roches Watusi (1959) – Rick Cobb John Paul Jones (1959) – John Wilkes Solomon and Sheba (1959) – Pharaoh Beat Girl (1960) – Paul Linden The Webster Boy (1962) – Paul Webster The 300 Spartans (1962) – Xerxes (final film role) References[edit] ^ a b c d Vallance, Tom (28 September 1995). "OBITUARIES: David Farrar". The Independent. Retrieved 15 August 2017. ^ "Bob Hope Takes Lead from Bing In Popularity". The Canberra Times. 31 December 1949. p. 2. Retrieved 24 April 2012 – via National Library of Australia. ^ Black Narcissus (The Criterion Collection) (2001) DVD commentary ^ a b c d "About David Farrar". The Advocate. Tasmania, Australia. 20 February 1948. p. 6. Retrieved 15 August 2017 – via National Library of Australia. ^ "FILM CABLE FROM LONDON:". The Sunday Times. Perth. 17 March 1946. p. 13 Supplement: The Sunday Times MAGAZINE. Retrieved 11 July 2012 – via National Library of Australia. ^ "Strange Story Of England's "Unknown" Top-ranker". Townsville Daily Bulletin. Qld. 20 November 1945. p. 4. Retrieved 2 February 2014 – via National Library of Australia. ^ "James Mason 1947 Film Favourite". The Irish Times. Dublin, Ireland. 2 January 1948. p. 7. External links[edit] David Farrar at Find a Grave David Farrar on IMDb David Farrar at the BFI's Screenonline Authority control BNE: XX1551940 BNF: cb141764017 (data) GND: 1062303636 ISNI: 0000 0000 6310 1408 LCCN: n88240617 SUDOC: 066932238 VIAF: 46971146 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n88240617 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=David_Farrar_(actor)&oldid=1000732634" Categories: 1908 births 1995 deaths Male actors from London English male film actors English male stage actors People from Forest Gate 20th-century English male actors British expatriate male actors in the United States Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from August 2016 Use British English from August 2016 Articles with hCards Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Deutsch Español فارسی Français Italiano Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 16 January 2021, at 12:42 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6959	----	Ariobarzanes of Phrygia - Wikipedia Ariobarzanes of Phrygia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the satrap of Persis and opponent of Alexander the Great, see Ariobarzanes (satrap of Persis). Pharnacid dynasty (Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia) c.550–497 BC (Pharnaces) c.480–455 BC Artabazus I c.455–430 BC Pharnabazus I c.430–420 BC Pharnaces II c.413–374 BC Pharnabazus II c.407–362 BC Ariobarzanes c.389–329 BC Artabazus II c.370–320 BC Pharnabazus III v t e Ariobarzanes was Satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia. Armoured cavalry: Achaemenid Dynast of Hellespontine Phrygia attacking a Greek psiloi, Altıkulaç Sarcophagus, early 4th century BCE. Ariobarzanes (in Greek Ἀριoβαρζάνης), (Old Persian: Ariyabrdhna, Ariyaubrdhna) Ariobarzan or spelled as Ario Barzan or Aryo Barzan, perhaps signifying "exalting the Aryans" [1] (death: crucified in c. 362 BCE), sometimes known as Ariobarzanes I of Cius, was a Persian Satrap of Phrygia and military commander, leader of an independence revolt, and the first known of the line of rulers of the Greek town of Cius from which were eventually to stem the kings of Pontus in the 3rd century BCE. Ariobarzanes was apparently a cadet member of the Achaemenid dynasty, possibly son of Pharnabazus II, and part of the Pharnacid dynasty which had settled to hold Dascylium of Hellespont in the 470s BCE. Cius is located near Dascylium, and Cius seemingly was a share of family holdings for the branch of Ariobarzanes. Ariobarzanes' one predecessor was a (kinsman) named Mithradates (possibly Mithradates, Satrap of Cappadocia). The archaeologist Walther Judeich claims that Ariobarzanes was that Mithradates' son, but Brian C. McGing refutes that specific filiation. Seemingly, no classical source itself calls them son and father, the filiation being a later reconstruction on basis of successorship. Contents 1 Rule 2 Delphi embassy (368 BC) 3 Great Satraps' Revolt 4 Notes 5 Sources Rule[edit] Pharnabazus, Satrap of Phrygia (fl. 413 – 373 BCE), son of Pharnaces of Phrygia, is indicated to have shared his rule and territories with his brothers in the late 5th century BCE when Pharnabazos had recently succeeded to the position. Mithradates, Satrap of Cappadocia, might have been one of such brothers. Ariobarzanes of Cius might have also been one of those brothers. The classical source Appianus relates that Ariobarzanes was of a cadet line of the family of the Persian Great King Dareios (Darius the Great). It is highly probable he is the same Ariobarzanes who, around 407 BCE, was the Persian envoy to the Greek city-states and cultivated the friendship of Athens and Sparta. Ariobarzanes conducted the Athenian ambassadors, in 405 BCE, to his sea-town of Cius in Mysia, after they had been detained three years by order of Cyrus the Younger.[2] Ariobarzanes was mentioned as under-satrap in Anatolia in late 5th century BCE. He then apparently succeeded his presumed kinsman (possibly elder brother) Pharnabazus (fl. 413 – 373 BCE) as satrap of Phrygia and Lydia, assigned by Pharnabazos himself when he departed to the Persian court to marry Apama, daughter of the Persian king. Thus Ariobarzanes became the satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia, in what is now the northwest of Turkey. Pharnabazos lived well into the 370s BCE, having obtained higher positions in the Persian monarchy than merely the Phrygian satrapship. Ariobarzanes assisted Antalcidas in 388 BCE.[3] Delphi embassy (368 BC)[edit] He appears to have still held some high office in the Persian court in 368 BCE, as we find him, apparently on behalf of the king, sending an embassy led by Philiscus of Abydos to Greece in that year.[4] Both Philiscus and Ariobarzanes, as well as three of his sons, were made citizens of Athens, a remarkable honor suggesting important services rendered to the city-state.[5] Ariobarzanes, who is called by Diodorus[6] satrap of Phrygia, and by Nepos[7] satrap of Lydia, Ionia, and Phrygia, revolted against Artaxerxes II in 362. Demosthenes speaks of Ariobarzanes and his three sons having been lately made Athenian citizens.[8] He mentions him again[9] in the following year and says, that the Athenians had sent Timotheus to his assistance; but that when the Athenian general saw that Ariobarzanes was in open revolt against the king, he refused to assist him. Great Satraps' Revolt[edit] Main article: Great Satraps' Revolt When Pharnabazos' other son, Artabazos II of Phrygia, wanted to regain the satrapy from his brother, Ariobarzanes refused. Ultimately, in about 366 BCE, Ariobarzanes joined an unsuccessful revolt of the satraps of western Anatolia against the Achamenian King Artaxerxes II (Revolt of the Satraps). Several other satraps sided with Ariobarzanes, including Mausolus of Caria (briefly), Orontes I of Armenia, Autophradates of Lydia and Datames of Cappadocia. The rebel satraps also received support from the pharaoh of Egypt, Teos, as well as from some of the Greek city states, with the Spartan king Agesilaus II coming to their assistance with a mercenary force. Ariobarzanes withstood a siege at Adramyttium in 366 BC, from Mausolus of Caria and Autophradates of Lydia, until Agesilaus negotiated the besiegers' retreat.[10] Ariobarzanes was betrayed by his son Mithridates to his overlord, the Persian king,[11] who had Ariobarzanes crucified.[12][13] Family tree after Pharnabazus II. Notes[edit] ^ Dandamayev, M. A.; A. Sh. Shahbazi; P. Lecoq. "Ariobarzanes". Encyclopedia Iranica. Retrieved 9 May 2013. ^ Xenophon, Hellenica, i. 4 .7 ^ Xenophon, Hellenica, v. 1 .28 ^ Xenophon, Hellenica vii. 1. 27 ^ Heskel, Julia (1997). The North Aegean Wars, 371-360 B.C. Franz Steiner Verlag. p. 113. ISBN 9783515069175. ^ Diodorus, xv. 90 ^ Nepos, “Datames,” 2 The Tertullian Project ^ Demosthenes, “Against Aristocrates” Tufts University, Tufts University ^ Demosthenes, “For the Liberty of the Rhodians” ^ Gershevitch 1985, p. 378 ^ Xenophon, Cyropaedia viii. 8; Aristotle, v. 10 ^ Xenophon, Cyropaedia viii. 8; Aristotle, v. 10 ^ Brosius 2006, p. 29 Sources[edit] Aristotle, Politics, H. Rackham (translator), Cambridge, MA - London, (1944) Brosius, Maria (2006). The Persians: an introduction. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9780415320894. Demosthenes, Speeches, C. A. Vince & J. H. Vince (translators), Cambridge—London, (1926) Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca, C. H. Oldfather (translator), Cambridge, MA - London, (1989) Gershevitch, Ilya (1985). The Cambridge history of Iran: The Median and Achaemenian periods. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521246996. McGing, Brian C. (1986) "The Kings of Pontus: Some Problems of Identity and Date,". Rheinisches Museum für Philologie, vol. 129 (1986), pp 248..259. Nepos, Cornetlius (1866) Lives of Eminent Commanders, John Selby Watson (translator), (1886) Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, "Ariobarzanes I", Boston, (1867) Xenophon, Cyropaedia, Cambridge, MA - London, (1979–83) Xenophon, Hellenica, Cambridge, MA—London, (1985–86)  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Ariobarzanes". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ariobarzanes_of_Phrygia&oldid=982237856" Categories: 5th-century BC births 5th-century BC rulers 4th-century BC deaths Iranian rebels Achaemenid satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Military leaders of the Achaemenid Empire Pharnacid dynasty 5th-century BC Iranian people 4th-century BC Iranian people Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Hrvatski Italiano Kurdî مصرى Nederlands Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 6 October 2020, at 23:11 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6974	----	Sewadjkare Hori - Wikipedia Sewadjkare Hori From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sewadjkare Hori Hori II, Sewadjkare II Pharaoh Reign 5 years, ..., and 8 days[1] (13th dynasty) Predecessor Mersekhemre Ined Successor Merkawre Sobekhotep Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sewadjkare[2] Swˁḏ-k3-Rˁ He who causes the Ka of Ra to flourish Nomen Hori ...-ḥr-j Sewadjkare Hori (also known as Hori II) was a pharaoh of the late 13th Dynasty, possibly the thirty-sixth king of this dynasty.[2] He reigned over Middle and Upper Egypt for five years, either during the early or mid-17th century, from 1669 until 1664 BC[1] or from 1648 until 1643 BC.[3] Attestation[edit] Sewadjkare Hori is only known for certain from the Turin canon, row 8, column 7 (Gardiner, von Beckerath: row 7, column 7). The Turin canon provides the prenomen Sewadjkare and the nomen Hori for this king. Jürgen von Beckerath assigns to him a stone fragment from El-Tod inscribed with the prenomen "Sewadj[...]re". However, since there are two other rulers from the Second Intermediate Period bearing the same prenomen, this identification remains conjectural.[4] Identity[edit] Sewadjkare Hori should not be confused with Sewadjkare, a pharaoh of the early 13th Dynasty, and with another Sewadjkare from the mid 14th Dynasty. Both of these pharaohs enjoyed shorter reigns than Sewadjkare Hori.[1] References[edit] ^ a b c K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800-1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997 ^ a b Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300 - 1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 119 ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt 1964, S. 61, 254 (XIII 31.) Preceded by Mersekhemre Ined Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Merkawre Sobekhotep v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sewadjkare_Hori&oldid=977192266" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages አማርኛ العربية Català Deutsch Español Euskara Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 7 September 2020, at 12:44 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6979	----	Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt 664 BC–525 BC Portrait of a Pharaoh of the Saite Dynasty Capital Sais Common languages Egyptian language Religion Ancient Egyptian religion Government Monarchy Pharaoh   • 664–610 BC Psamtik I (first) • 526–525 BC Psamtik III (last) History   • Established 664 BC • Disestablished 525 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt The Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt (notated Dynasty XXVI, alternatively 26th Dynasty or Dynasty 26) was the last native dynasty to rule Egypt before the Persian conquest in 525 BC (although others followed). The dynasty's reign (664–525 BC) is also called the Saite Period after the city of Sais, where its pharaohs had their capital, and marks the beginning of the Late Period of ancient Egypt.[1] Contents 1 History 1.1 Archaeology 2 Art 3 Pharaohs of the 26th Dynasty 4 Timeline of the 26th Dynasty 5 See also 6 References 7 Bibliography History[edit] In 605 BCE, an Egyptian force under Necho II of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty fought the Babylonians at the Battle of Carchemish, helped by the remnants of the army of the former Assyria, but this was met with defeat. Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e This dynasty traced its origins to the Twenty-fourth Dynasty. Psamtik I was probably a descendant of Bakenranef, and following the Neo-Assyrian Empire's invasions during the reigns of Taharqa and Tantamani, he was recognized as sole king over all of Egypt. While the Neo-Assyrian Empire was preoccupied with revolts and civil war over control of the throne, Psamtik threw off his ties to the Assyrians circa 655 BC, formed alliances with King Gyges of Lydia, and recruited mercenaries from Caria and ancient Greece to resist Assyrian attacks. With the sack of Nineveh in 612 BC and the fall of the Assyrian Empire, both Psamtik and his successors attempted to reassert Egyptian power in the Near East, but were driven back by the Neo-Babylonian Empire under Nebuchadnezzar II. With the help of Greek mercenaries, Apries was able to hold back Babylonian attempts to conquer Egypt. The Persians would eventually invade Egypt in 525 BCE, when their king, Cambyses II, captured and later executed Psamtik III. Archaeology[edit] In May 2020, an Egyptian-Spanish archaeological mission headed by Esther Ponce revealed a unique cemetery, which consists of one room built with glazed limestone dating back to the 26th Dynasty (so-called the El-Sawi era) at the site of ancient Oxyrhynchus. Archaeologists also uncovered bronze coins, clay seals, Roman tombstones and small crosses.[2][3][4] On October 3, 2020, Egypt unveiled 59 coffins of priests and clerks from the 26th dynasty, dating to nearly 2,500 years ago.[5] Art[edit] Pottery vessel showing the face of god Bes, from the 26th Dynasty. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London Female figure, Louvre Museum. The name of Psamtik I is inscribed under the feet. Sphinx of Apries, from the collection of Count Caylus Pharaohs of the 26th Dynasty[edit] For a more comprehensive list, see List of pharaohs. Psamtik I enters Ashdod, in the Fall of Ashdod in 635 BCE. The 26th Dynasty may be related to the 24th Dynasty. Manetho begins the dynasty with: Ammeris the Nubian, 12 (or 18) years Stephinates, 7 years Nechepsos, 6 years Necho, 8 years. When the Nubian King Shabaka defeated Bakenranef, son of Tefnakht, he likely installed a Nubian commander as governor at Sais. This may be the man named Ammeris. Stephinates may be a descendant of Bakenrenef. He is sometimes referred to as Tefnakht II in the literature. Nechepsos has been identified with a local king named Nekauba (678–672 BC). Manetho's Necho is King Necho I (672–664 BC); Manetho gives his reign as 8 years.[6] Necho was killed during a conflict with the Nubian king Tantamani. Psamtik I fled to Nineveh – capital of the Neo-Assyrian Empire – and returned to Egypt when Ashurbanipal defeated Tantamani and drove him back south.[1] Scholars now start the 26th Dynasty with the reign of Psamtik I.[1][6] Sextus Julius Africanus states in his often accurate version of Manetho's Epitome that the dynasty numbered 9 pharaohs, beginning with a "Stephinates" (Tefnakht II) and ending with Psamtik III. Africanus also notes that Psamtik I and Necho I ruled for 54 and 8 years respectively. Name of Pharaoh Image Reign Throne name Burial Consort(s) Comments Psamtik I Psammetichus I 664–610 BC Wahibre Sais Mehytenweskhet Reunified Egypt and ended the Nubian control of Upper Egypt. Manetho gives his reign as 54 years. Necho II 610–595 BC Wehemibre Khedebneithirbinet I Necho II is the Pharaoh most likely mentioned in several books of the Bible. Psamtik II Psammetichus II 595–589 BC Neferibre Takhuit Wahibre Haaibre (Apries) 589–570 BC Haaibre Overthrown and forced into exile by Amasis II. Returned to Egypt at the head of a Babylonian army, but was defeated and likely killed. Manetho gives his reign as 19 years. Amasis II Ahmose II 570–526 BC Khnem-ib-re Sais Tentkheta Nakhtubasterau Herodotus claims that when Cambyses II invaded Egypt, realizing he was not able to exact revenge for Amasis's previous misdeeds and trickery, he exhumed his body, desecrated it and burned what remained of the mummy. Psamtik III Psammetichus III 526–525 BC Ankhkaenre Ruled for only 6 months according to Herodotus before a Persian invasion led by Cambyses II. Timeline of the 26th Dynasty[edit] See also[edit] History of ancient Egypt Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Late Period of ancient Egypt Saite Oracle Papyrus References[edit] ^ a b c Aidan Dodson, Dyan Hilton. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press, London 2004 ^ Mahmoud, Rasha (2020-05-26). "Egypt makes major archaeological discovery amid coronavirus crisis". Al-Monitor. Retrieved 2020-09-09. ^ "Unique cemetery dating back to el-Sawi era discovered in Egypt amid coronavirus crisis". Zee News. 2020-05-28. Retrieved 2020-09-09. ^ "StackPath". dailynewsegypt.com. Retrieved 2020-09-09. ^ "Egypt unveils 59 ancient coffins in major archaeological discovery". Reuters. October 3, 2020. Retrieved 3 October 2020. ^ a b Kitchen, Kenneth A. The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt, 1100-650 B.C. (Book & Supplement) Aris & Phillips. 1986 ISBN 978-0-85668-298-8 Bibliography[edit] Aidan Dodson, Dyan Hilton. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press, London, 2004. Kenneth Kitchen, The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt, 1100–650 B.C. (Book & Supplement) Aris & Phillips. 1986 ISBN 978-0-85668-298-8. Karl Jansen-Winkeln, Bild und Charakter der ägyptischen 26. Dynastie, Altorientalische Forschungen, 28 (2001), 165–182. v t e Ancient Egypt topics Index Major topics Glossary of artifacts Agriculture Architecture (Egyptian Revival architecture) Art Portraiture Astronomy Chronology Cities (list) Clothing Cuisine Dance Dynasties Funerary practices Geography Great Royal Wives (list) Hieroglyphs History Language Literature Mathematics Medicine Military Music Mythology People Pharaohs (list) Philosophy Religion Sites Technology Trade Writing Egyptology Egyptologists Museums  Ancient Egypt portal Book Category WikiProject Commons Outline Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Twenty-sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=995812522" Categories: Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt States and territories established in the 7th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 6th century BC Dynasties of ancient Egypt Nile Delta 7th century BC in Egypt 6th century BC in Egypt 664 BC 7th-century BC establishments in Egypt 6th-century BC disestablishments 525 BC 1st-millennium BC disestablishments in Egypt Hidden categories: Pages using the EasyTimeline extension Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 December 2020, at 00:52 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6985	----	Pherendates - Wikipedia Pherendates From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be confused with Pherendatis. Pherendates Satrap of Egypt Pherendates was satrap of the Achaemenid Province of Egypt. Predecessor Aryandes Successor Achaemenes Dynasty 27th Dynasty Pharaoh Darius I Father Megabazus Pherendates (from the Old Persian Farnadāta[1]) was an Achaemenid satrap of ancient Egypt during the 5th century BCE, at the time of the Achaemenid 27th Dynasty of Egypt. Career[edit] A son of Megabazus, a commander under king Darius I,[2] Pherendates is mainly attested from three letters written in Egyptian Demotic. He replaced the satrap Aryandes who was deposed by Darius around 496 BCE;[1] although the exact accession date of Pherendates is unknown. Pherendates was definitely the satrap in 492 BCE.[3] In the aforementioned letters, certain priests of the local temple of Khnum at Elephantine asked Pherendates to take care of some of their business in their place, a rather standard request to the pharaoh (or his representative, such as in this case) in any period of ancient Egyptian history.[1] In 486–485 BCE a revolt occurred in Egypt, only for being quelled in 484 BCE by a new satrap, Achaemenes. It is possible that Pherendates lost his life during the turmoil.[1] References[edit] ^ a b c d Ray, John D. (2006). "Egypt, 525–404 B.C.". In Boardman, John; Hammond, N.D.L.; Lewis, D.M.; Ostwald, M. (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History (2nd ed.), vol. IV – Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean c. 525 to 479 B.C. Cambridge University Press. p. 266. ISBN 0 521 22804 2. ^ http://asiaminor.ehw.gr/Forms/fLemmaBody.aspx?lemmaId=7970#noteendNote_10 ^ ARYANDES at the Encyclopædia Iranica. Further reading[edit] Hughes, G.R. (1984). Grammata Demotika. Wiesbaden. pp. 75–86. Spiegelberg, Wilhelm (1928). "Drei demotische Schreiben aus der Korrespondenz des Pherendates". Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, phil-hist. Klasse (Berlin): 604ff. Preceded by Aryandes Satrap of Egypt c.496 – c.486 BCE Succeeded by Achaemenes v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pherendates&oldid=1002470382" Categories: Achaemenid satraps of Egypt 5th-century BC Iranian people 5th century BC in Egypt Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt Officials of Darius the Great Ancient Egypt people stubs Hidden categories: Year of birth unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Hrvatski Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 16:41 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7002	----	Esther - Wikipedia Esther From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Biblical Jewish queen of Persia and Medes This article is about the heroine of the Book of Esther. For the book of Esther, see Book of Esther. For other uses, see Esther (disambiguation). Biblical Queen of Persia Esther Biblical Queen of Persia Queen Esther (1879) by Edwin Long Predecessor Vashti Born Hadassah Achaemenid Empire Spouse Ahasuerus Father Abihail (biological) Mordecai (adoptive) Religion Judaism Esther[a] is described in all versions[b] of the Book of Esther as the Jewish queen of a Persian king Ahasuerus.[1] In the narrative, Ahasuerus seeks a new wife after his queen, Vashti, refuses to obey him, and Esther is chosen for her beauty. The king's chief adviser, Haman, is offended by Esther's cousin and guardian, Mordecai, and gets permission from the king to have all the Jews in the kingdom killed. Esther foils the plan, and wins permission from the king for the Jews to kill their enemies, and they do so. Her story provides a traditional background for Purim, which is celebrated on the date given in the story for when Haman's order was to go into effect, which is the same day that the Jews killed their enemies after the plan was reversed. Contents 1 Etymology 2 In the Bible 3 Purim 4 Historicity 5 Interpretations 5.1 Esther as rhetorical model 6 Persian culture 7 Depictions of Esther 8 Canonicity in Christianity 9 Music 10 Notes 10.1 Citations 11 Sources 12 Further reading 13 External links Etymology[edit] It was a common Jewish practice in antiquity, attested especially in the Book of Daniel (1:7) and I Maccabees (2:2-5), to have not only a Hebrew name but also one redolent of pagan connotations.[2] In the Tanakh Esther is given two names: Hadassah/Esther (2:7). Various hypotheses vie for the etymology of the latter. Hebrew hadassah is the feminine form of the word for myrtle,[3][c] a plant that has a resonance with the idea of hope.[d] Early rabbinical views varied. According to the Bavli (Megillah 13a), Rabbi Nehemiah thought her second name was a heteronym used by Gentiles, based on אסתהר ( 'īstəhăr), the morning star Venus,[4] an association preserved by Yalkut Shimoni (1053:7) and in Targum Sheni. Conversely, Rabbi Jehoshua maintained that Esther was her original name, and that she was called Hadassah (myrtle) in Hebrew because she had an (olive-)green complexion.[5] In modern times, the view of the German Assyriologist Peter Jensen that the theonym for the Babylonian goddess Ishtar lay behind Esther gained a general consensus. He also thought that the Hebrew name was to be linked to an Akkadian word meaning 'bride' (ḫadašatu) which happens to be an epithet often attached to the Babylonian goddess. His other speculation, that ḫadašatu itself also meant myrtle, has no empirical basis in Akkadian texts.[6][e] Abraham Yahuda conjectured in 1946 that, particularly in light of the Persian setting, the first syllable of 'Esther' (es-) must reflect the Persian word for myrtle, ās (سآ)), and therefore her name was the Persian equivalent of "Hadassah" with both meaning myrtle. This required him to hypothesize that behind ās lay an earlier old Iranian word, *aça (as(s)a) meaning 'myrtle', which would be reproduced in a conjectural Medic form *astra, preserved in the Hebrew name אסתר.[7][8] His premise assumed that the Semitic word was a loanword from old Persian, a highly improbable assumption since the Semitic word is attested long before contact with Persian-speakers.[9][f] In 1986 Ran Zadok dismissed the etymological correlation between Babylonian Ishtar and Esther on two grounds. One regards the principles governing phonological shifts in Semitic loanwords. The Hebrew form 'str in Esther cannot represent Akkadian Ištar for neo-Akkadian borrowings into Aramaic conserve the original š rather than altering it to 's', as would be the case here were the two linked. Secondly, Ishtar is a theonym, never an anthroponym unless modified significantly.[10][g] Zadok then ventured an alternative derivation, suggesting that the only plausible etymology would be from the Old Iranian word for 'star' (ستاره (setāre)), usually transcribed as stara, cognate with Greek ἀστήρ (astér as in 'astronomy'),[h] the word Hellenistic Jews used to interprete her name.[11][12] David Testen advanced in 1996 a simpler solution than Yasuda's, by suggesting that as a name 'ester' could be a compound term conflating Semitic ās with the Old Iranian term for a tree ( dā́ru./drau-) to yield 'myrtle tree').[9] In the Bible[edit] Main article: Book of Esther Esther Denouncing Haman by Ernest Normand In the narrative, King Ahasuerus is drunk at a celebration of the third year of his reign, and orders his queen, Vashti, to appear before him and his guests in the nude to display her beauty. When she refuses to appear, he has her banished and seeks a new queen. Beautiful maidens gather together at the harem in the citadel of Susa under the authority of the eunuch Hegai.[13] Esther, cousin of Mordecai, was a member of the Jewish community in the Exilic Period who claimed as an ancestor Kish, a Benjamite who had been taken from Jerusalem into captivity. She was the orphaned daughter of Mordecai's uncle, another Benjamite named Abihail. Upon the king's orders Esther is taken to the palace where Hegai prepares her to meet the king. Even as she advances to the highest position of the harem, perfumed with myrrh and allocated certain foods and servants, she is under strict instructions from Mordecai, who meets with her each day, to conceal her Jewish origins. The king falls in love with her and makes her his Queen.[13] Following Esther's coronation, Mordecai learns of an assassination plot by Bigthan and Teresh to kill King Ahasuerus. Mordecai tells Esther, who tells the king in the name of Mordecai, and he is saved. This act of great service to the king is recorded in the Annals of the Kingdom. After Mordecai saves the king's life, Haman the Agagite is made Ahasuerus' highest adviser, and orders that everyone bow down to him. When Mordecai (who had stationed himself in the street to advise Esther) refuses to bow to him, Haman pays King Ahasuerus 10,000 Silver Talents for the right to exterminate all of the Jews in Ahasuerus' kingdom. Haman casts lots, Purim, using supernatural means, and sees that the thirteenth day of the Month of Adar is a fortuitous day for the genocide. Using the seal of the king, in the name of the king, Haman sends an order to the provinces of the kingdom to allow the extermination of the Jews on the thirteenth of Adar. When Mordecai learns of this, he tells Esther to reveal to the king that she is Jewish and ask that he repeal the order. Esther hesitates, saying that she could be put to death if she goes to the king without being summoned; nevertheless, Mordecai urges her to try. Esther asks that the entire Jewish community fast and pray for three days before she goes to see the king; Mordecai agrees. On the third day, Esther goes to the courtyard in front of the king's palace, and she is welcomed by the king, who stretches out his sceptre for her to touch, and offers her anything she wants "up to half of the kingdom". Esther invites the king and Haman to a banquet she has prepared for the next day. She tells the king she will reveal her request at the banquet. During the banquet, the king repeats his offer again, whereupon Esther invites both the king and Haman to a banquet she is making on the following day as well. Seeing that he is in favor with the king and queen, Haman takes counsel from his wife and friends to build a gallows upon which to hang Mordecai; as he is in their good favours, he believes he will be granted his wish to hang Mordecai the very next day. After building the gallows, Haman goes to the palace in the middle of the night to wait for the earliest moment he can see the king. That evening, the king, unable to sleep, asks that the Annals of the Kingdom be read to him so that he will become drowsy. The book miraculously opens to the page telling of Mordecai's great service, and the king asks if he had already received a reward. When his attendants answer in the negative, Ahasuerus is suddenly distracted, and demands to know who is standing in the palace courtyard in the middle of the night. The attendants answer that it is Haman. Ahasuerus invites Haman into his room. Haman, instead of requesting that Mordecai be hanged, is ordered to take Mordecai through the streets of the capital on the Royal Horse wearing the Royal Robes. Haman is also instructed to yell, "This is what shall be done to the man whom the king wishes to honour!" After spending the entire day honoring Mordecai, Haman rushes to Esther's second banquet, where Ahasuerus is already waiting. Ahasuerus repeats his offer to Esther of anything "up to half of the kingdom". Esther tells Ahasuerus that while she appreciates the offer, she must put before him a more basic issue: she explains that there is a person plotting to kill her and her entire people, and that this person's intentions are to harm the king and the kingdom. When Ahasuerus asks who this person is, Esther points to Haman and names him. Upon hearing this, an enraged Ahasuerus goes out to the garden to calm down and consider the situation. While Ahasuerus is in the garden, Haman throws himself at Esther's feet asking for mercy. Upon returning from the garden, the king is further enraged. As it was the custom to eat on reclining couches, it appears to the king as if Haman is attacking Esther. He orders Haman to be removed from his sight. While Haman is being led out, Harvona, a civil servant, tells the king that Haman had built a gallows for Mordecai, "who had saved the king's life". In response, the king says "Hang him (Haman) on it". After Haman is put to death, Ahasuerus gives Haman's estate to Esther. Esther tells the king about Mordecai being her relative, and the king makes Mordecai his adviser. When Esther asks the king to revoke the order exterminating the Jews, the king is initially hesitant, saying that an order issued by the king cannot be repealed. Ahasuerus allows Esther and Mordecai to draft another order, with the seal of the king and in the name of the king, to allow the Jewish people to defend themselves and fight with their oppressors on the thirteenth day of Adar. On the thirteenth day of Adar, the same day that Haman had set for them to be killed, the Jews defend themselves in all parts of the kingdom and rest on the fourteenth day of Adar. The fourteenth day of Adar is celebrated with the giving of charity, exchanging foodstuffs, and feasting. In Susa, the Jews of the capital were given another day to kill their oppressors; they rested and celebrated on the fifteenth day of Adar, again giving charity, exchanging foodstuffs, and feasting as well.[14] Early 3rd century CE Roman painting of Esther and Mordechai, Dura-Europos synagogue, Syria. The Shrine venerated as the tomb of Esther and Mordecai in Hamadan, Iran Purim[edit] Main article: Purim The Jews established an annual feast, the feast of Purim, in memory of their deliverance. Haman having set the date of the thirteenth of Adar to commence his campaign against the Jews, this determined the date of the festival of Purim.[15] Historicity[edit] Because the text lacks any references to known events, some historians believe that the narrative of Esther is fictional, and the name Ahasuerus is used to refer to a fictionalized Xerxes I, in order to provide an aetiology for Purim.[i][j][k] Some historians additionally argue that, because the Persian kings did not marry outside of seven Persian noble families, it is unlikely that there was a Jewish queen Esther and that in any case the historical Xerxes's queen was Amestris.[16][17][l] However, Amestris herself did not descend from these families, and Darius I is also said to have married a woman who did not belong to them.[18] That being said, many Jews and Christians believe the story to be a true historical event, especially Persian Jews who have a close relationship to Esther.[19] Interpretations[edit] Further information: Esther in rabbinic literature Dianne Tidball argues that while Vashti is a "feminist icon", Esther is a post-feminist icon.[20] Abraham Kuyper notes some "disagreeable aspects" to her character: that she should not have agreed to take Vashti's place, that she refrained from saving her nation until her own life was threatened, and that she carries out bloodthirsty vengeance.[21] The tale opens with Esther as beautiful and obedient, but also a relatively passive figure. During the course of the story, she evolves into someone who takes a decisive role in her own future and that of her people.[22] According to Sidnie White Crawford, "Esther's position in a male court mirrors that of the Jews in a Gentile world, with the threat of danger ever present below the seemingly calm surface."[23] Esther is related to Daniel in that both represent a "type" for Jews living in Diaspora, and hoping to live a successful life in an alien environment. Esther as rhetorical model[edit] According to Susan Zaeske, by virtue of the fact that Esther used only rhetoric to convince the king to save her people, the story of Esther is a "rhetoric of exile and empowerment that, for millennia, has notably shaped the discourse of marginalized peoples such as Jews, women, and African Americans", persuading those who have power over them.[24] Persian culture[edit] Interior of the structure venerated as the tomb of Esther and Mordecai Given the great historical link between Persian and Jewish history, modern day Persian Jews are called "Esther's Children". A building venerated as being the Tomb of Esther and Mordechai is located in Hamadan, Iran,[25] although the village of Kfar Bar'am in northern Israel also claims to be the burial place of Queen Esther.[26] Depictions of Esther[edit] See also: Book of Esther § Modern retelling The Feast of Esther by Johannes Spilberg the Younger, c.1644 Esther and Mordecai Writing the First Purim Letter by Aert de Gelder, c.1685 There are several paintings depicting Esther. The Heilspiegel Altarpiece by Konrad Witz depicts Esther appearing before the king to beg mercy for the Jews, despite the punishment for appearing without being summoned being death.[13] Esther before Ahasuerus by Tintoretto (1546-47, Royal Collection) shows what became one of the most commonly depicted parts of the story. Esther's faint had not often been depicted in art before Tintoretto. It is shown in the series of cassone scenes of the Life of Esther attributed variously to Sandro Botticelli and Filippino Lippi from the 1470s. In other cassone depictions, for example by Filippino Lippi, Esther's readiness to show herself before the court is contrasted to Vashti's refusal to expose herself to the public assembly.[27][28] Esther was regarded in Catholic theology as a typological forerunner[29] of the Virgin Mary in her role as intercessor[30] Her regal election parallels Mary's Assumption and as she becomes queen of Persia, Mary becomes queen of heaven; Mary's epithet as 'stella maris' parallels Esther as a 'star' and both figure as sponsors of the humble before the powerful,[31] because Esther being allowed an exception to the strict Persian law on uninvited entry to the king's presence was seen as paralleling the unique Immaculate Conception of Mary.[citation needed] Contemporary viewers would probably have recognized a similarity between the faint and the motif of the Swoon of the Virgin, which was very common in depictions of the Crucifixion of Jesus.[32] The fainting became a much more popular subject in the Baroque painting of the following century, with examples including the Esther before Ahasuerus by Artemisia Gentileschi.[33] Canonicity in Christianity[edit] There are mixed views about the status of Esther as a canonical book in early Jewish and Christian tradition. The inclusion of the work in the Septuagint suggests that it was so among Greek-speaking Jews in the diaspora. That Esther shares bed and board with a gentile king, and the book itself makes no mention of God may have contributed to early Jewish doubts about its canonicity. The Mishnah mentions that it was read in synagogues during Purim (Megillah 1.1), and this liturgical custom perhaps accounts for its definitive acceptance in the Masoretic recension.[17] Christian references to the book are rare in the writings of the Eastern Church Fathers, and had only marginal importance for several centuries in that tradition.[34] Esther does not appear in the lists of titles defining the canon produced by Melito, Athanasius, Cyril, Gregory of Nazianzus, and others. Additionally, no copies or fragments of Esther were found at Qumran in the contents of the Dead Sea Scrolls.[17][m][35][36][37] It was accepted by Cyril of Jerusalem, and by the Synod of Laodicea (364-365 CE), and confirmed as such at the Council of Rome (388) and the Synod of Hippo (393).[17] Subsequently, the Western church tradition generally followed the influential Augustine's lead in defining a much larger biblical corpus, which included Esther.[37] Esther is commemorated as a matriarch in the Calendar of Saints of the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod on May 24. She is also recognized as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church, commemorated on the Sunday before Christmas, and in the Coptic Orthodox Church. "The Septuagint edition of Esther contains six parts (totaling 107 verses) not found in the Hebrew Bible. Although these interpretations originally may have been composed in Hebrew, they survive only in Greek texts. Because the Hebrew Bible's version of Esther's story contains neither prayers nor even a single reference to God, Greek redactors apparently felt compelled to give the tale a more explicit religious orientation, alluding to "God" or the "Lord" fifty times."[38] These additions to Esther in the Apocrypha were added approximately in the second or first century BCE.[39][40] The story of Esther is also made reference to in chapter 28 of 1 Meqabyan, a book considered canonical in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. Music[edit] Marc-Antoine Charpentier, Historia Esther, H.396, for soloist, chorus, strings and continuo, 1677. George Frideric Handel, Esther, with a libretto based on a play by Jean Racine, 1718 and 1732. Elisabeth Jacquet de la Guerre, Esther, for soprano and continuo, 1708. Notes[edit] ^ /ˈɛstər/; Hebrew: אֶסְתֵּר‎, romanized: 'Estēr), born Hadassah (Hebrew: הֲדַסָּה‎, Modern: Hadasa, Tiberian: Haḏasā. ^ "The origin of the Book of Esther is somewhat obscure, not least because the book exists in two distinct forms: a shorter version in Hebrew (as found in Jewish and Protestant Bibles) and a longer version in Greek (as found in Catholic and Orthodox Bibles)." (Hahn & Mitch 2019, p. 71) ^ The biblical and Mishnaic masculine form is hặḏas. (Testen 1998, p. 281) ^ For the association of myrtle with hope in the Bible see Nehemiah 8:14; Isaiah 55:13 (Phillips 2008, p. 188) ^ ḫadašatu appears to be related etymologically to the verb ḫašādu ('to make love'). (Yahuda 1946, p. 175 n.1) ^ Testen himself did not exclude the possible that the various semitic terms for myrtle came ultimately from a non-Semitic source, with a phonological shape *adss-. (Testen 1998, p. 288) ^ Leith writes however that her name is 'cognate with Ishtar, the Mesopotamian goddess of love and war, whose name was used as a personal name in this period.' (Leith 2011, p. 252) ^ According to John Huehnergard, the Proto-Semitic word for 'morning/evening star', namely the reconstructed form ∗ʕaθtar is one of several that bear a resemblance to Indo-European roots, in this case PIE ∗h2ste:r-. The significance of such similitaries remains obscure, (Huehnergard 2008, p. 243) ^ "Today there is general agreement that it is essentially a work of fiction, the purpose of which was to justify the Jewish appropriation of an originally non-Jewish holiday. What is not generally agreed upon is the identity or nature of that non-Jewish festival which came to be appropriated by the Jews as Purim, and whose motifs are recapitulated in disguised form in Esther." (Polish 1999) ^ "The story is fictitious and written to provide an account of the origin of the feast of Purim; the book contains no references to the known historical events of the reign of Xerxes." (Browning 2009) ^ "Although the details of its setting are entirely plausible and the story may even have some basis in actual events, in terms of literary genre the book is not history." (Tucker 2004) ^ "Xerxes could not have wed a Jewess because this was contrary to the practices of Persian monarchs who married only into one of the seven leading Persian families. History records that Xerxes was married to Amestris, not Vashti or Esther. There is no historical record of a personage known as Esther, or a queen called Vashti or a vizier Haman, or a high placed courtier Mordecai. Mordecai was said to have been among the exiles deported from Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, but that deportation occurred 112 years before Xerxes became king." (Littman 1975a:146) ^ Józef Tadeusz Milik argued however that some fragments found in 4Q were suggestive of an Aramaic story of Esther predating the Hebrew version. (Milik 1992, pp. 321–406) Citations[edit] ^ Littman 1975b, pp. 145,155 p.?. ^ Macchi 2019. ^ Yahuda 1946, p. 174. ^ Koller 2014, p. 38,n.11. ^ Yahuda 1946, p. 174, n.2. ^ Yahuda 1946, pp. 174–175. ^ Yahuda 1946, pp. 175–177. ^ Meyers 2007, p. 324. ^ a b Testen 1998, p. 281,n.2. ^ Zadok 1986, p. 107. ^ Zadok 1986, p. 107&n.17. ^ Yamauchi & Phillips 2017, p. 249. ^ a b c Solle 2006, p. 107. ^ Hirsch, Prince & Schechter 1936. ^ Crawford, Sidnie White. "Esther: Bible", Jewish Women's Archive. ^ Fox 2010, pp. 131–140. ^ a b c d Hahn & Mitch 2019, p. 71. ^ Yamauchi 1996, p. 233. ^ Saba Soomekh, From the Shahs to Los Angeles: Three Generations of Iranian Jewish Women between Religion and Culture, SUNY Press 2012 ISBN 978-1-438-44385-0p.38 ^ Tidball 2001. ^ Kuyper 2010, pp. 175–76. ^ Coogan et al. 2007. ^ Crawford 2003. ^ Zaeske 2000, p. 194. ^ Vahidmanesh 2010. ^ Schaalje 2001. ^ Baskins 1995, p. 38. ^ Wind 1940–1941, p. 114. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWind1940–1941 (help) ^ Baskins 1995, p. 37. ^ Bergsma & Pitre 2018. ^ Baskins 1995, p. 40. ^ Whitaker & Clayton 2007. ^ Metropolitan Museum of Art. ^ Miller 2015, p. 2. ^ Crawford 1996, pp. 307–325. ^ Silverstein 2014, p. 552. ^ a b McDonald 2006, pp. 56,109,128,131. ^ Harris & Platzner 2007, p. 375. ^ Vanderkam & Flint, p. 182. ^ EC Marsh: LXX. Sources[edit] Baskins, Cristelle L. (1995) [First published 1993]. "Typology, sexuality and the Renaissance Esther". In Turner, James (ed.). Sexuality and Gender in Early Modern Europe: Institutions, Texts, Images. Cambridge University Press. pp. 31–54. ISBN 978-0-521-44605-1. Bergsma, John; Pitre, Brant (2018). A Catholic Introduction to the Bible: The Old Testament. Ignatius Press. ISBN 978-1-642-29048-6. Browning, W. R. F., ed. (2009). "Ahasuerus". A Dictionary of the Bible (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780199543984.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-954398-4. Coogan, Michael David; Brettler, Marc Zvi; Newsom, Carol Ann; Perkins, Pheme (2007). The New Oxford Annotated Bible. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19528880-3. Crawford, Sidnie White (November 1996). "Has "Esther" been found at Qumran? 4QProto-Esther and the "Esther" corpus". Revue de Qumrân. 17 (1/4): 307–325. JSTOR 24610146. Crawford, Sidnie White (2003). "Esther". In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Wm. B. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-80283711-0. Dalley, Stephanie (2007). Esther's Revenge at Susa: From Sennacherib to Ahasuerus. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-199-21663-5. "Esther", LXX, EC Marsh. "Esther before Ahasuerus". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 22 August 2019. Fox, Michael V. (2010). Character and Ideology in the Book of Esther ((2) ed.). Wipf and Stock. ISBN 978-1-608-99495-3. Hahn, Scott; Mitch, Curtis (2019). Tobit, Judith, and Esther. Ignatius Press. ISBN 978-1-621-64185-8. Harris, Stephen; Platzner, Robert (2007). The Old Testament: An Introduction to the Hebrew Bible. p. 375. ISBN 978-0072990515. Hirsch, Emil G.; Prince, John Dyneley; Schechter, Solomon (1936). "Esther (Hebrew, אֶסְתֵּר; Greek, Εσθήρ)". Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls Co. Huehnergard, John (2008). "Appendix 1: Afro-Asiatic". In Woodard, Roger D. (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia. Cambridge University Press. pp. 225–46. ISBN 978-1-13946934-0. Koller, Aaron (2014). Esther in Ancient Jewish Thought. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-72980-3. Kuyper, Abraham (5 October 2010). Women of the Old Testament. Zondervan. pp. 175–76. ISBN 978-0-31086487-5. Leith, Mary Joan Winn (2011). "Esther". In Coogan, Michael D. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Books of the Bible. Oxford University Press. pp. 252–261. ISBN 978-0-195-37737-8. Littman, Robert J. (1975a). "The Religious Policy of Xerxes and the "Book of Esther"". The Jewish Quarterly Review. 65 (3): 146. doi:10.2307/1454354. JSTOR 1454354. Littman, Robert J. (January 1975b). "The Religious Policy of Xerxes and the Book of Esther". The Jewish Quarterly Review. 65 (3): 145–155. doi:10.2307/1454354. JSTOR 1454354. Macchi, Jean-Daniel (2019). Esther. Kohlhammer Verlag. ISBN 978-3-170-31028-5. McDonald, Lee Martin (2006). The Biblical Canon: Its Origin, Transmission, and Authority. Baker Books. ISBN 978-1-441-24164-1. Meyers, Carol (2007). "Esther". In Barton, John; Muddiman, John (eds.). The Oxford Bible Commentary. Oxford University Press. pp. 324–330. ISBN 978-0-199-27718-6. Milik, Józef T. (1992). "Les modèles Araméens du Livre d'Esther dans la Grotte 4 de Qumrān". Revue de Qumrân. 15 (3/59): 321–406. JSTOR 24609021. Miller, Tricia (2015). Jews and Anti-Judaism in Esther and the Church. Lutterworth Press. ISBN 978-0-227-90258-5. Polish, Daniel F. (1 September 1999). "Aspects of Esther: A Phenomenological Exploration of the Megillah of Esther and the Origins of Purim". Journal for the Study of the Old Testament. 24 (85): 85–106. doi:10.1177/030908929902408505. ISSN 0309-0892. S2CID 143019872. Phillips, E. A. (2008). "Esther 6: Person". In Longman III, Tremper; Enns, Peter (eds.). Dictionary of the Old Testament: Wisdom, Poetry & Writings: A Compendium of Contemporary Biblical Scholarship. InterVarsity Press. pp. 188–193. ISBN 978-0-830-81783-2. Schaalje, Jacqueline (June 2001). "Ancient synagogues in Bar'am and Capernaum". Jewish Magazine. Silverstein, Adam J. (2014). "The Samaritan Version of the Esther Story". In Ahmed, Asad Q.; Sadeghi, Behnam; Hoyland, Robert G.; Silverstein, Adam (eds.). Islamic Cultures, Islamic Contexts: Essays in Honor of Professor Patricia Crone. Brill. pp. 551–564. ISBN 978-9-004-28171-4. Silverstein, Adam J. (2018). Veiling Esther, Unveiling Her Story: The Reception of a Biblical Book in Islamic Lands. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-192-51773-9. Solle, Dorothee (2006). Great Women of the Bible: In Art and Literature. Fortress Press. p. 107. ISBN 0800635574. Testen, David (October 1998). "Semitic Terms for "Myrtle": A Study in Covert". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 57 (4): 281–290. doi:10.1086/468653. JSTOR 545452. Tidball, Dianne (2001). Esther, a True First Lady: A Post-Feminist Icon in a Secular World. Christian Focus Publications. ISBN 978-1-85792671-2. Tucker, Gene M. (2004) [First published 1993]. "Esther, The Book of". In Metzger, Bruce M.; Coogan, Michael D. (eds.). The Oxford Companion to the Bible. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195046458.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-504645-8. Vahidmanesh, Parvaneh (5 May 2010). "Sad Fate of Iran's Jews". Payvand. Vanderkam, James; Flint, Peter. The Meaning of the Dead Sea Scrolls. p. 182.. Whitaker, Lucy; Clayton, Martin (2007). The Art of Italy in the Royal Collection; Renaissance and Baroque. Royal Collection Publications. ISBN 978-1-902163-291. Wind, Edgar (October 1941 – January 1941). "The Subject of Botticelli's "Derelitta"". Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes. 4 (1/2): 114–117. doi:10.2307/750127. JSTOR 750127. Yahuda, Abraham (1946). "The Meaning of the Name Esther". JRAS. 78 (2): 174–178. doi:10.1017/S0035869X00100413. JSTOR 25222106. Yamauchi, Edwin; Phillips, Elaine A. (2017). Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther. Zondervan Academic. ISBN 978-0-310-53182-1. Yamauchi, Edwin (1996). "Persia and the Bible". Grand Rapids. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Zadok, Ran (1984). "Historical Background of the Book of Esther". Biblische Notizen. 24: 18–23. Zadok, Ran (1986). "Notes on Esther". ZAW. 98: 105–110. Zaeske, Susan (2000). "Unveiling Esther as a Pragmatic Radical Rhetoric". Philosophy and Rhetoric. 33 (3 On Feminizing the Philosophy of Rhetoric): 193–220. doi:10.1353/par.2000.0024. JSTOR 40231721. S2CID 171068760. Further reading[edit] Beal, Timothy K. (11 December 1997). The Book of Hiding: Gender, Ethnicity, Annihilation, and Esther (1st ed.). London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-41516780-2. Postmodern theoretical apparatus, e.g., Jacques Derrida, Emmanuel Levinas. "Esther before Ahasuerus c. 1546-7 by Jacopo Tintoretto (1519-94)". Royal Collection Trust. Retrieved 24 May 2020. Fox, Michael V. (1 April 2010). Character and Ideology in the Book of Esther: Second Edition with a New Postscript on a Decade of Esther Scholarship (2nd ed.). Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock. ISBN 978-1-60899495-3. Grossman, Jonathan (2011). Esther: The Outer Narrative and the Hidden Reading. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1-57506221-1. Kahr, Madlyn Millner (1968). The Book of Esther in Seventeenth-century Dutch Art. New York University. Sasson, Jack M. (1990). "Esther". In Alter, Robert; Kermode, Frank (eds.). The Literary Guide to the Bible. Harvard University Press. pp. 335–41. ISBN 978-0-67487531-9. Webberley, Helen (February 2008). "Rembrandt and The Purim Story". The Jewish Magazine. White, Sidnie Ann (1 January 1989). "Esther: A Feminine Model for Jewish Diaspora". In Day, Peggy Lynne (ed.). Gender and Difference in Ancient Israel. Fortress Press. ISBN 978-1-45141576-6. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Esther (Biblical figure). "Esther" . New International Encyclopedia. 1905. "Esther" in the Ecumenical Lexicon of Saints Fachartikel in: Michaela Bauks, Klaus Koenen (Hgg.): Das wissenschaftliche Bibellexikon im Internet (WiBiLex). 2007ff. Jewish Encyclopedia: Esther v t e Prophets in the Hebrew Bible Pre-Patriarchal Abel Kenan Enoch Noah (in rabbinic literature) Patriarchs / Matriarchs Abraham Isaac Jacob Levi Joseph Sarah Rebecca Rachel Leah Israelite prophets in the Torah Moses (in rabbinic literature) Aaron Miriam Eldad and Medad Phinehas Mentioned in the Former Prophets Joshua Deborah Gideon Samson Eli Elkanah Hannah Abigail Samuel Gad Nathan David Solomon Jeduthun Ahijah Shemaiah Elijah Elisha Iddo Hanani Jehu Micaiah Jahaziel Eliezer Zechariah ben Jehoiada Huldah Major Isaiah (in rabbinic literature) Jeremiah Ezekiel Daniel (in rabbinic literature) Minor Hosea Joel Amos Obadiah Jonah (in rabbinic literature) Micah Nahum Habakkuk Zephaniah Haggai Zechariah Malachi Noahide Beor Balaam Job (in rabbinic literature) Other Amoz Beeri Baruch Agur Uriah Buzi Mordecai Esther (in rabbinic literature) Oded Azariah Italics indicate persons whose status as prophets is not universally accepted. v t e Purim  (פּוּרִים) Overview Gragger Purim spiel Purim Torah Foods Hamantash Fazuelos Impade Kreplach Mishloach manot Background Book of Esther Esther (in rabbinic literature) Haman (in rabbinic literature) Mordecai Ahasuerus Bigthan and Teresh Vashti Zeresh Religious Fast of Esther Shushan Purim Purim HaMeshulash Purim Katan Second Purim Authority control GND: 118682431 LCCN: n79109094 PLWABN: 9810601008705606 VIAF: 37710366 WorldCat Identities: viaf-37710366 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Esther&oldid=1001030075" Categories: Prophets of the Hebrew Bible Esther 5th-century BC Iranian people Christian female saints from the Old Testament Jewish royalty Order of the Eastern Star People celebrated in the Lutheran liturgical calendar People whose existence is disputed Persian queens consort Women in the Hebrew Bible Hidden categories: Articles containing Hebrew-language text Harv and Sfn no-target errors Use Oxford spelling from May 2020 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from May 2020 Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Persian-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2020 CS1 errors: missing periodical Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the New International Encyclopedia Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages Afrikaans العربية تۆرکجه Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Euskara فارسی Français Frysk 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Lietuvių Magyar Malagasy Malti Nederlands 日本語 Norsk nynorsk پنجابی Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Suomi Tagalog தமிழ் Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt ייִדיש Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 17 January 2021, at 22:46 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7029	----	Mersekhemre Ined - Wikipedia Mersekhemre Ined From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Egyptian pharaoh Mersekhemre Ined Mersekhemre Neferhotep II ? Statue of Mersekhemre Neferhotep II, who could be the same person as Mersekhemre Ined. Discovered in the Karnak cachette, now on display in the Egyptian Museum, CG 42024. Pharaoh Reign 3 years, 1 to 4 months and 1 day (13th Dynasty) Predecessor Sankhenre Sewadjtu Successor Sewadjkare Hori Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Mersekhemre[1][2] Mr-sḫm-Rˁ He who loves the power of Ra Turin canon: Mersekhemre Ined Mr.j-sḫm-Rˁ-ind He who loves the power of Ra, Ined Nomen (if the same person as Neferhotep II) Neferhotep Nfr-ḥtp Perfect and content Mersekhemre Ined was a pharaoh of the late 13th Dynasty, possibly the thirty-fifth king of this dynasty.[1] As such he would have reigned from Memphis over Middle and Upper Egypt for a short time either during the early or mid-17th century, from 1672 until 1669 BC[3] or from 1651 until 1648 BC.[4] He may be the same king as Mersekhemre Neferhotep II. Identity[edit] The identity of Mersekhemre Ined with respect to Neferhotep II is still in doubt. Two royal statues of a king named Mersekhemre Neferhotep were uncovered by Georges Legrain in 1903 in the Karnak Cachette and are now in the Egyptian Museum, CG 42023 and CG 42024.[5][6] Additionally, a king Mersekhemre Ined is mentioned in entry 7.6 of the Turin Canon and a king Mersekhemre appears in the Karnak king list, entry VI, 2. Egyptologists Jürgen von Beckerath, Detlef Franke, Jacques Kinnaer, Rolf Krauss and Donald B. Redford conclude that the Mersekhemre Ined of the Turin canon and Mersekhemre Neferhotep are one and the same person.[7] In contrast, Kim Ryholt sees in these documents the references to two distinct rulers with the same official royal name, as for example in the case of Merhotepre Sobekhotep V and Merhotepre Ini. Rather, Ryholt identifies Neferhotep II with a king "Mer...re" on column 8 row 16 of the Turin canon, which would place Neferhotep II at the very end of the 13th Dynasty, possibly the dynasty's 46th ruler.[1] However, this entry of the Turin canon may refer to Mershepsesre Ini II instead, with Neferhotep II being the same king as Mersekhemre Ined.[1] Statue CG 42023 of Mersekhemre Neferhotep II, possibly the same person as Mersekhemre Ined. Reign[edit] According to the latest reading of the Turin canon by Kim Ryholt, Mersekhemre Ined reigned for 3 years, 1 to 4 months and 1 day.[3] He likely ruled Middle and Upper Egypt while the Hyksos 14th or 15th Dynasty probably already controlled large parts of the Delta region during Mersekhemre Ined's time on the throne in the late 13th Dynasty. References[edit] ^ a b c d Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300 - 1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 137 ^ Titulary of Ined Archived 2011-11-24 at the Wayback Machine ^ a b K.S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800-1550 BC, (Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, p.71 & p.192 ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen ^ The Karnak cachette on the Institut Francais d'Archeologie Orientale, CG 42023 ^ The Karnak cachette on the Institut Francais d'Archeologie Orientale, CG 42024 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten. Glückstadt 1964, p. 60, 254 (XIII 30) Preceded by Sankhenre Sewadjtu Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Sewadjkare Hori v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mersekhemre_Ined&oldid=971093989" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help 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en-wikipedia-org-7036	----	Bodashtart - Wikipedia Bodashtart From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Bodashtart King of Sidon Reign 525–515 BC Predecessor Eshmunazar II Successor Yatonmilk Phoenician language 𐤁𐤃𐤏𐤔𐤕𐤓𐤕‎ Dynasty Eshmunazar I dynasty Religion Canaanite polytheism You may need rendering support to display the Phoenician alphabet characters in this article correctly. Phoenician king of Sidon The first known Bodashtart inscription, known today as CIS I 4, currently in the Louvre as AO 4838 Bodashtart (also transliterated Bodʿaštort, meaning "from the hand of Astarte"; Phoenician: 𐤁𐤃𐤏𐤔𐤕𐤓𐤕) was a Phoenician King of Sidon (c. 525–515 BC), the grandson of king Eshmunazar I, and a vassal of the Achaemenid Empire.[1][2][3][4] He succeeded his cousin Eshmunazar II to the throne of Sidon; scholars believe that he was succeeded by his son and proclaimed heir Yatonmilk. Bodashtart was a prolific builder, and his name is attested on some 30 eponymous inscriptions found at the Temple of Eshmun and elsewhere in the hinterland of the city of Sidon in Lebanon. The first of Bodashtart's inscriptions, honoring the goddess Astarte, was excavated in Sidon in 1858 and donated to the Louvre. The temple of Eshmun podium inscriptions were discovered between 1900 and 1922 and are classified into two groups. The inscriptions of the first group, known as KAI 15, commemorate building activities in the temple and attribute the works to Bodashtart. The second group of inscriptions, known as KAI 16, were found on podium restoration blocks; they credit Bodashtart and his son Yatonmilk with the construction project and emphasize Yatonmilk's legitimacy as heir. Three of Bodashtart's Eshmun temple inscriptions are left in situ; the others are housed in museums in Paris, Istanbul, and Beirut. A last inscription found on the bank of the Bostrenos river, not far from the temple of Eshmun, credits the king with the building of water canals to supply the temple on his seventh regnal year. Bodashtart is believed to have reigned for at least seven years, as evidenced by the Bostrenos river bank inscription. Little is known about his reign other than what has emerged from his dedicatory inscriptions. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Chronology 3 Historical context 4 Epigraphic sources 5 Genealogy 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 Notes Etymology[edit] The name Bodashtart is the Latinized form of the Phoenician 𐤁𐤃𐤏𐤔𐤕𐤓𐤕‎, meaning "from the hand of Astarte".[5] Alternate spellings include Bodashtort,[6] Bodʿashtart,[7] Bodʿaštort,[8] and Bodachtart.[9] Chronology[edit] The absolute chronology of the Kings of Sidon from the dynasty of Eshmunazar I has been much treated in the literature; traditionally placed in the course of the fifth century, the dates of the inscriptions of this dynasty were raised on the basis of recent numismatic, historical and archaeological evidence. The most complete work addressing the dates of reign of these Sidonian kings is by the French historian Josette Elayi who shifted away from the use of biblical chronology. Elayi used all of the currently available documentation and included recently excavated inscribed Tyrian seals and stamps,[10][11][12][13] newly discovered Phoenician inscriptions in Sidon,[14] and the systematic study of Sidonian coins which were the first dated coins in Antiquity.[15][16] Elayi placed the reigns of the descendants of Eshmunazar I between the middle and the end of the sixth century; according to her work Bodashtart reigned from c.525 BC to c.515 BC.[15][4] Historical context[edit] Two bronze fragments from an Assyrian palace gate depicting the collection of tribute from the Phoenician cities of Tyre and Sidon (859–824 BC). British Museum. Sidon, which was a flourishing and independent city-state, came under Mesopotamian occupation in the ninth century BC. The Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II (883–859 BC) conquered the Lebanon mountain range and its coastal cities including, Sidon.[17] In 705, the Sidonian king Luli joined with the Egyptians and Judah in an unsuccessful rebellion against Assyrian rule,[18][19] but was forced to flee to Kition with the arrival of the Assyrian army headed by Sennacherib. Sennacherib instated Ittobaal on the throne of Sidon and reimposed the annual tribute.[20] When Abdi-Milkutti ascended to Sidon's throne in 680 BC, he also rebelled against the Assyrians. In response, the Assyrian king Esarhaddon captured and beheaded Abdi-Milkutti in 677 BC after a three-year siege; Sidon was stripped of its territory, which was awarded to Baal I, the king of rival Tyre and loyal vassal to Esarhaddon.[21] Sidon returned to its former level of prosperity while Tyre was besieged for 13 years (586–573 BC) by the Chaldean king Nebuchadnezzar II.[22] After the Achaemenid conquest in 529 BC Phoenicia was divided into four vassal kingdoms: Sidon, Tyre, Byblos and Arwad.[23] Eshmunazar I, a priest of Astarte and the founder of his namesake dynasty, was instated by the Achaemenids on the throne of Sidon immediately after their conquest of the Levant.[24] During the first phase of Achaemenid rule Sidon flourished and reclaimed its former standing as Phoenicia's chief city, and the Phoenician kings began an extensive program of monumental constructions.[24] Epigraphic sources[edit] Main article: Bodashtart inscriptions The ashlar podium at the Eshmun temple, Bustan el-Sheikh (near Sidon) Bodashtart carried out an extensive expansion and restoration project of the Temple of Eshmun and left some 30 dedicatory inscriptions at the temple site.[25][26] The first phase of the works involved adding a second podium at the base of the temple.[25] During this construction phase, inscriptions were carved on the added podium's foundation stones; these inscriptions, known as KAI 15, mention Bodashtart alone.[27][28] A second set of inscriptions (KAI 16) were placed on restoration ashlar stones; these inscriptions mention Bodashtart and his son Yatonmilk and emphasize the latter's legitimacy as heir,[note 1][27][28] and assign him a share of credit with the construction project.[6][29][30] Yatonmilk is believed to have succeeded Bodashtart to the throne of Sidon; this is inferred solely from the Bodashtart inscriptions as there is no extant literary or archaeological evidence left by Yatonmilk himself.[31] The first of the inscriptions, known today as CIS I 4, was found during excavations in Sidon in 1858. It was donated by French archaeologist Melchior de Vogüé to the Louvre where it still is today.[32][33] The interpretation of inscription CIS I 4 is still a matter of debate; some scholars construe the text as a commemoration of building a temple to Astarte during the first year of Bodashtart's reign, while others posit that the text records the dedication of the Sharon plain to the temple of said goddess.[note 2][27][35][34] Phoenician inscription of King Bodashtart found on the Temple of Eshmun's podium. Bustan el-Sheikh, Sidon, 6th century BC.[29] It belongs to the KAI 16 group of Bodashtart inscriptions that mention both the king and his heir Yatonmilk. The KAI 15 and KAI 16 inscriptions were excavated from the Temple of Eshmun site between 1900 and 1922; they are exhibited in the Louvre, the Istanbul Archaeology Museums, and the Archaeological Museum of the American University of Beirut; three inscriptions were left in situ.[36] According to Polish biblical scholar JT Milik, Bodashtart's the KAI 15 inscriptions commemorate the building of the Eshmun temple and indicate the names of the quarters and territories of the kingdom of Sidon; he interpreted the inscription thus: "King Bodashtart, king of the Sidonians, grandson of king Eshmunazar, king of the Sidonians, (who reigns/dwells) in maritime Sidon (bṣdn ym): (in the districts of) High-Heavens (šmm rmm), Land-of-Rešafim (ʾrṣ ršpm), Royal Sidon (ṣdn mšl), that are part of it (ʾš bn), as well as in continental Sidon (wṣdn šd), this temple he built to his God Eshmun of the holy territory (ʾšmn šd qdš)."[note 3][8][37] The KAI 16 Bodashtart inscriptions read: "The king Bodashtart and his legitimate heir Yatonmilk, king of the Sidonians, grandson of king Eshmunazar, king of the Sidonians, built this temple to his god Eshmun, the Sacred Prince".[38][39] Another translation reads: "King Bodashtart, and his pious son (or legitimate successor), Yatonmilk, king of the Sidonians, descendants (bn bn) of King Eshmunazar, king of the Sidonians, this house he built to his god, to Eshmun, lord/god of the sanctuary".[40] Another in situ inscription, which was recorded on the Bostrenos river bank 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) upstream from the Temple of Eshmun, credits Bodashtart for building water installations to supply the temple. This inscription is dated in his seventh regnal year, which indicates that he ruled for at least this length of time.[note 4][27][42][41] Apart from inscriptions detailing Bodashtart's building activity, little is known about his reign.[27] Genealogy[edit] Bodashtart was a descendant of Eshmunazar I's dynasty. Eshmunazar's heir was his son Tabnit, who fathered Eshmunazar II from his sister Amoashtart. Tabnit died before the birth of Eshmunazar II, and Amoashtart ruled in the interlude until the birth of her son, then was co-regent until he reached adulthood. Bodashtart was the nephew of Tabnit and Amoashtart and acceded to the throne after Eshmunazar II.[25] Some scholars misidentified Yatonmilk as the father of Bodashtart;[43] this was successfully contested by later epigraphists.[44][45][39] Eshmunazar I dynasty Eshmunazar I Tabnit Amoashtart ? Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk See also[edit] Bodashtart inscriptions – A group of Phoenician inscriptions referring to king Bodashtart King of Sidon – A list of the ancient rulers of the city of Sidon Temple of Eshmun – A temple dedicated to the Phoenician god of healing where a number of inscriptions referring to king Bodashtart were found Yatonmilk – The son and proclaimed heir of king Bodashtart References[edit] ^ Zamora 2007, pp. 100–114. ^ Elayi 2006, p. 31. ^ Lipiński 1995, p. 135. ^ a b Amadasi Guzzo 2012, p. 6. ^ Gordon, Rendsburg & Winter 1987, p. 137. ^ a b Halpern 2016, p. 19. ^ Amadasi Guzzo 2012, p. 12. ^ a b c Milik 1967, p. 575. ^ Bordreuil 2002, p. 105. ^ Elayi 2006, p. 2. ^ Chéhab 1983, p. 171. ^ Xella & López 2005b. ^ Greenfield 1985, p. 129–134. ^ Dunand 1965, p. 105–109. ^ a b Elayi 2006. ^ Elayi & Elayi 2004. ^ Bryce 2009, p. 651. ^ Netanyahu 1964, pp. 243–244. ^ Yates 1942, p. 109. ^ Elayi 2018b, p. 58. ^ Bromiley 1979, pp. 501, 933–934. ^ Aubet 2001, p. 58–60. ^ Boardman et al. 2000, p. 156. ^ a b Zamora 2016, p. 253. ^ a b c d Elayi 2006, p. 5. ^ Chabot & Clermont-Ganneau 1905, p. 154–160. ^ a b c d e Elayi 2006, p. 7. ^ a b Xella & López 2005a, p. 119. ^ a b Conteneau 1924, p. 16. ^ Elayi 2018a, p. 234. ^ Elayi 2006, pp. 5, 8. ^ Vogüé 1860, p. 55. ^ Zamora 2007, p. 100. ^ a b Amadasi Guzzo 2012, p. 9. ^ Bonnet 1995, p. 215. ^ Bordreuil & Gubel 1990, p. 493–499. ^ Teixidor 1969, p. 332. ^ Dussaud 1923, p. 149. ^ a b Xella & López 2005a, p. 121. ^ Halpern 2016, p. 20. ^ a b Amadasi Guzzo 2012, p. 11. ^ Xella & López 2004, p. 294. ^ Bordreuil & Gubel 1990, p. 496. ^ Elayi 2006, pp. 5,7. ^ Bonnet 1995, p. 216. Bibliography[edit] Amadasi Guzzo, Maria Giulia (2012). "Sidon et ses sanctuaires" [Sidon and its sanctuaries]. Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archéologie orientale (in French). Presses Universitaires de France. 106: 5–18. doi:10.3917/assy.106.0005. ISSN 0373-6032. JSTOR 42771737 – via JSTOR. Aubet, María Eugenia (2001). The Phoenicians and the West: Politics, Colonies and Trade (2, illustrated, revised ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521795432. Boardman, John; Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière; Lewis, David Malcolm; Ostwald, Martin (2000). The Cambridge Ancient History: Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean c.525 to 479 B.C. 4. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521228046. Bromiley, Geoffrey (1979). The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: Q–Z. The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. 4. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 9780802837844. Chabot, Jean-Baptiste; Clermont-Ganneau, Charles, eds. (1905). Répertoire d'épigraphie sémitique [Semitic Epigraphy Directory]. Académie des Inscriptions & Belles-Lettres Commission du Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum (in French). Paris: Imprimerie nationale. Bonnet, Corinne (1995). "Phénicien šrn = Akkadien šurinnu – A propos de l'inscription de Bodashtart CIS I 4*" [Phoenician šrn = Akkadian šurinnu – A study of Bodashtart inscription CIS I 4*]. Orientalia (in French). Gregorian Biblical BookShop. 64 (3): 214–222. JSTOR 43078086 – via JSTOR. Bordreuil, Pierre; Gubel, Eric (1990). "Bulletin d'Antiquités Archéologiques du Levant Inédites ou Méconnues" [Bulletin of unpublished or unknown archaeological antiquities of the Levant]. Syria (in French). Institut Francais du Proche-Orient. 67 (2): 483–520. ISSN 0039-7946. JSTOR 4198843 – via JSTOR.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Bordreuil, Pierre (2002). "À propos des temples dédiés à Echmoun par les rois Echmounazor et Bodachtart" [About temples dedicated to Echmoun by Kings Echmounazor and Bodachtart]. In Ciasca, Antonia; Amadasi, Maria Giulia; Liverani, Mario; Matthiae, Paolo (eds.). Da Pyrgi a Mozia : studi sull'archeologia del Mediterraneo in memoria di Antonia Ciasca [From Pyrgi to Mozia: studies on the archaeology of the Mediterranean in memory of Antonia Ciasca]. Vicino oriente (in French). Rome: Università degli studi di Roma "La sapienza". pp. 105–108. Bryce, Trevor (2009). The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia: From the Early Bronze Age to the Fall of the Persian Empire. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780415394857. Chéhab, Maurice (1983). "Découvertes phéniciennes au Liban" [Phoenician discoveries in Lebanon]. Atti del I congresso internazionale di studi Fenici e Punici [Proceedings of the first International Congress of Phoenician and Punic studies] (in French). Conteneau, Gaston (1924). "Deuxième mission archéologique à Sidon (1920)" [The second archaeological mission in Sidon (1920)]. Syria (in French). Institut Francais du Proche-Orient. 5 (1): 9–23. doi:10.3406/syria.1924.3094. Retrieved 31 August 2009 – via Persee. Dunand, Maurice (1965). "Nouvelles inscriptions phéniciennes du temple d'Echmoun, près Sidon" [New Phoenician inscriptions from the temple of Echmoun, near Sidon]. Bulletin du Musée de Beyrouth (in French). Ministère de la Culture - Direction Générale des Antiquités (Liban). 18: 105–109. Dussaud, René (1923). "Les travaux et les découvertes archéologiques de Charles Clermont-Ganneau (1846–1923)" [The archaeological works and discoveries of Charles Clermont-Ganneau (1846-1923)]. Syria. Institut Francais du Proche-Orient. 4 (2): 140–173. doi:10.3406/syria.1923.2984 – via Persee. Elayi, Josette; Elayi, A. G. (2004). Le monnayage de la cité phénicienne de Sidon à l'époque perse (Ve-IVe s. av. J.-C.): Texte [The coinage of the Phoenician city of Sidon in the Persian era (V-IV s. av. J.-C.): Text] (in French). Paris: Gabalda. ISBN 9782850211584. Elayi, Josette (2006). "An updated chronology of the reigns of Phoenician kings during the Persian period (539–333 BCE)" (PDF). Digitorient. Collège de France – UMR7912. Elayi, Josette (2018a). The History of Phoenicia. Atlanta, Georgia: Lockwood Press. ISBN 9781937040819. Elayi, Josette (2018b). Sennacherib, King of Assyria. Atlanta: SBL Press. ISBN 978-0-88414-318-5. Gordon, Cyrus Herzl; Rendsburg, Gary; Winter, Nathan H. (1987). Eblaitica: Essays on the Ebla Archives and Eblaite Language. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns. ISBN 9780931464348. Greenfield, Jonas C. (1985). "A Group of Phoenician City Seals". Israel Exploration Journal. Israel Exploration Society. 35 (2/3): 129–134. ISSN 0021-2059. JSTOR 27925980 – via JSTOR. Halpern, Baruch (2016). "Annotations to royal Phoenician inscriptions from Persian Sidon, Zincirli (Kilamuwa), Karatepe (Azitawadda) and Pyrgi". Eretz-Israel: Archaeological, Historical and Geographical Studies. Israel Exploration Society. 32: 18–27. ISSN 0071-108X. JSTOR 26732492 – via JSTOR. Lipiński, Edward (1995). Dieux et déesses de l'univers phénicien et punique [Gods and goddesses of the Phoenician and Punic universe] (in French). Leuven: Peeters Publishers. ISBN 9789068316902. Milik, J. T. (1967). "Les papyrus araméens d'Hermoupolis et les cultes syro-phéniciens en Égypte perse" [The Aramaic papyri of Hermoupolis and the Syro-Phoenician cults in Persian Egypt]. Biblica (in French). Gregorian Biblical Press. 48 (4): 546–622. ISSN 0006-0887. JSTOR 42618436 – via JSTOR. Netanyahu, Benzion (1964). The World History of the Jewish People. Tel Aviv: Jewish History Publications Limited. Teixidor, Javier (1969). "Bulletin d'épigraphie sémitique: 1969" [Semitic Epigraphy Bulletin: 1969]. Syria (in French). Institut Francais du Proche-Orient. 46 (3/4): 319–358. doi:10.3406/syria.1969.6101. ISSN 0039-7946. JSTOR 4237190 – via JSTOR. Xella, Paolo; López, José-Ángel Zamora (2005a). "L'inscription phénicienne de Bodashtart in situ à Bustān eš-Šēḫ (Sidon) et son apport à l'histoire du sanctuaire" [The in situ Phoenician inscription of Bodashtart in Bustān eš-Šēḫ (Sidon) and its contribution to the history of the sanctuary]. Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins (in French). Deutscher verein zur Erforschung Palästinas. 121 (2): 119–129. ISSN 0012-1169. JSTOR 27931768 – via JSTOR. Xella, Paolo; López, José-Ángel Zamora (2005b). "Nouveaux documents phéniciens du sanctuaire d'Eshmoun à Bustan esh-Sheikh (Sidon)" [New Phoenician documents from the sanctuary of Eshmun in Bustan esh-Sheikh (Sidon)]. In Arruda, A. M. (ed.). Atti del VI congresso internazionale di studi Fenici e Punici [Proceedings of the 6th International Congress of Phoenician and Punic studies] (in French). Lisbon. Xella, Paolo; López, José-Ángel Zamora (2004). "Une nouvelle inscription de Bodashtart, roi de Sidon, sur la rive du Nahr el-Awwāli, près de Bustān ēš-Šēḫ" [A new inscription by Bodashtart, King of Sidon, on the Bank of the Nahr El-Awwāli, near Bustān òš-Šēḫ]. BAAL (in French). Ministère de la Culture - Direction Générale des Antiquités (Liban). 8: 273–300 – via Open edition journals. Vogüé, Melchior de (1860). "Mémoire sur une nouvelle inscription Phénicienne" [Memoir on a new Phoenician inscription]. Mémoires présentés par divers savants étrangers à l'Académie (in French). Institut de France. 6 (1): 55–73. doi:10.3406/mesav.1860.1032 – via Persee. Yates, Kyle Monroe (1942). Preaching from the Prophets. New York: Harper & brothers. Zamora, José Ángel (2007). "The inscription from the first year of King Bodashtart of Sidon's reign: CIS I, 4". Orientalia. Gregorian Biblical Press. 76 (1): 100–113. ISSN 0030-5367. JSTOR 43077614 – via JSTOR. Zamora, José-Ángel (2016). "Autres rois, autre temple: la dynastie d'Eshmounazor et le sanctuaire extra-urbain de Eshmoun à Sidon" [Other kings, other temple: the dynasty of Eshmunazor and the extra-urban sanctuary of Eshmun in Sidon]. In Russo Tagliente, Alfonsina; Guarneri, Francesca (eds.). Santuari mediterranei tra Oriente e Occidente : interazioni e contatti culturali : atti del Convegno internazionale, Civitavecchia – Roma 2014 [Mediterranean sanctuaries between East and West: interactions and cultural contacts: Proceedings of the International Conference, Civitavecchia–Rome 2014] (in French). Rome: Scienze e lettere. pp. 253–262. ISBN 9788866870975. Notes[edit] ^ Yatonmilk is styled by Bodashtart as BN ṢDQ, meaning "true son" or "pious son".[25] ^ 1." Au mois de MP' dans l'année de son accession 2. à la royauté (lit. de son devenir roi), du roi Bod'ashtart 3. roi de Sidon, voici que le roi Bod'ashtart 4. roi de Sidon constuisit ce SRN du pays 5. de la mer pour sa divinité Astarté ". In English: 1.'In the month of MP' in the year of his accession 2. to royalty (lit. of his becoming king), of King bod'ashtart 3. King of Sidon, behold, King bod'ashtart 4. King of Sidon built this SRN of the land 5. of the sea for his deity Astarte ".[34] ^  : mlk bdʿštrt mlk ṣdnm bn bn mlk ʾšmnʿzr mlk ṣdnm bṣdn ym šmm rmm ʾrṣ ršpm ṣdn mšl ʾš bn wṣdn šd ʾyt hbt z bn lʾly lʾšmn šd qdš Je traduirais ce texte difficile de la façon suivante; j'ajoute des explications entre parenthèses: "Le roi Bodʿaštort, roi des Sidoniens, petit-fils du roi Esmunʿazor, roi des Sidoniens, (qui règne, ou: qui habitent) dans la Sidon maritime (c.-à-d. dans la plaine côtière, avec ses zones ou quartiers du) Ciel-Haut, Terre-des-Rešafim, Sidon (de résidence, ou: de propriété) Royale, (les quartiers) qui en font partie, ainsi que dans la Sidon continentale (à savoir, dans le territoire de montagne, qui allait jusqu'à l' Anti-Liban et la vallée du Jourdain) - ce temple-ci, il (l') a construit à son dieu Eshmun du Territoire Saint".[8] ^ "1. ... dans l’année sept de son règne (litt. de son être roi) le roi Bod'ashtart 2. roi de Sidon petit-fils du roi Eshmun‘azor roi de Sidon /(3a)qui avait construit/ dans Sidon de la Mer, 3. Cieux élevés, Pays des Resheps, en outre, à Sidon des Champs voici qu'il construisit et fit le roi Bod'ashtart roi de Sidon ce/le (?)... " In english: "1. ... in year seven of his reign (litt. of his being king) King Bod'ashtart 2. King of Sidon grandson of King Eshmun'azor King of Sidon / (3a) who had built / in Sidon of the Sea, 3. High heavens, Land of the Resheps, moreover, in Sidon of the fields behold, he built and made the King bod'ashtart King of Sidon this / the (?)... " [41] Preceded by Eshmunazar II King of Sidon c. 525–515 BC Succeeded by Yatonmilk v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bodashtart&oldid=1002268081" Categories: 6th-century BC rulers Kings of Sidon Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Hidden categories: Good articles Use dmy dates from December 2020 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Phoenician-language text CS1 French-language sources (fr) CS1 maint: ref=harv Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Français Bahasa Indonesia Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 23 January 2021, at 16:54 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7056	----	Mardonius (general) - Wikipedia Mardonius (general) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 5th century BC Persian military commander during the wars with Greece For other uses, see Mardonius (disambiguation). Mardonius (Ancient Greek: Μαρδόνιος Mardonios, Old Persian: 𐎶𐎼𐎯𐎢𐎴𐎡𐎹, Marduniya, literally: "the mild one";[1] died 479 BC) was a leading Persian military commander during the Persian Wars with Greece in the early 5th century BC who died at the Battle of Plataea. Contents 1 Early years 2 Persian Wars with the Greeks 2.1 First Persian invasion of Greece 2.2 Second Persian invasion of Greece 2.2.1 Plataea and death of Mardonius 3 In popular culture 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links Early years[edit] Gobryas, father of Mardonius, on the tomb of Darius I.[2] Mardonius was the son of Gobryas, a Persian nobleman who had assisted the Achaemenid prince Darius when he claimed the throne. The alliance between the new king and his friend was cemented by diplomatic marriages: Darius married Gobryas' daughter, and Gobryas married Darius' sister. Furthermore, Mardonius married Darius' daughter Artozostra. Thus Darius the Great was simultaneously Mardonius' uncle, father-in-law, and half-brother-in-law.[3] Persian Wars with the Greeks[edit] First Persian invasion of Greece[edit] Main article: First Persian invasion of Greece Darius appointed Mardonius as one of his generals and, after the Ionian Revolt, sent him in 492 BC to punish the Greek city-state of Athens for assisting the Ionians. On his way to Athens, he used his army in the Ionian cities to depose the Greek tyrants and set up democratic governments, an action which surprised the Greeks at that time. Historians consider that he may have taken this action so that the Ionians would not revolt a second time after the Persian army had passed through.[4] His fleet and army then passed across the Hellespont. Mardonius first attacked Thasos, a Greek island which possessed gold mines. It became a tributary of the Achaemenid empire. The navy and the army continued onto Macedonia, which was soon added to the Persian Empire as a fully subordinate client kingdom, becoming also part of its administrative system.[5][6] However, after these victories, Mardonius’ fleet was destroyed in a storm off the coast near Mount Athos. According to Herodotus, the Persians lost 300 ships and 20,000 men. Around this time, Mardonius was commanding the army in a battle in Thrace. While Mardonius was wounded in the battle, he was victorious, re-subjugating Thrace into the empire.[7] Nevertheless, the loss of the fleet meant that he had to retreat back into Asia Minor.[8] He was relieved of his command by Darius, who appointed Datis and Artaphernes junior to lead the invasion of Greece in 490 BC, and though they were subsequently successful in capturing Naxos and destroying Eretria, they were later defeated at the Battle of Marathon. Second Persian invasion of Greece[edit] Main article: Second Persian invasion of Greece Mardonius came back into favour under Darius' successor Xerxes I, Mardonius' cousin and brother-in-law. Xerxes was at first not interested in renewing the war with Greece, but Mardonius, who had the most influence on Xerxes in all of Persia,[9] repeatedly tried to convince him that he must avenge Darius' defeat. This view was opposed by another of Xerxes’ advisors, Artabanus, who urged more caution in the matter. Herodotus, who portrays Mardonius as a somewhat evil adviser (as opposed to a number of other good advisers whose arguments are never followed), says that Mardonius simply wanted to become satrap (governor) of Greece and had a love for 'mischief and adventure'.[10] He was present at the Battle of Thermopylae, and after the Persian defeat at the Battle of Salamis, he attempted to convince Xerxes to stay and fight yet another campaign. This time Mardonius could not persuade Xerxes, but when Xerxes left he did become governor of those parts of Greece that had been conquered by the Persians. He subdued Macedon, ruled at that time by King Alexander I, but Alexander himself gave valuable information about Mardonius' plans to the Athenians, saying that, as a Greek, he could not bear to see Greece defeated. Mardonius led the Destruction of Athens. Part of the archaeological remains called Perserschutt, or "Persian rubble". After the first part of the campaign directly under the orders Xerxes I, Mardonius remained in Greece with 300,000 elite troops, who fought in the last stages of the war, destroying Athens, but being finally vanquished at the Battle of Platea:[11] Mardonius there chose out first all the Persians called Immortals, save only Hydarnes their general, who said that he would not quit the king's person; and next, the Persian cuirassiers, and the thousand horse, and the Medes and Sacae and Bactrians and Indians, alike their footmen and the rest of the horsemen. He chose these nations entire; of the rest of his allies he picked out a few from each people, the goodliest men and those that he knew to have done some good service... Thereby the whole number, with the horsemen, grew to three hundred thousand men. — Herodotus VIII, 113.[12][11] Answer of the Athenian Aristides to the ambassadors of Mardonius: "As long as the sun holds to its present course, we shall never come to terms with Xerxes".[13] Mardonius captured and sacked Athens, which had been deserted before the Battle of Salamis. He offered to return Athens and help rebuild the city if the Athenians would accept a truce, but the Athenians rejected the truce and prepared for another battle. Plataea and death of Mardonius[edit] Main article: Battle of Plataea Camp of Mardonius and disposition of Achaemenid troops at the Battle of Plataea (479 BC), in which Mardonius was killed. From left to right: Greek allies, Sacae, Indians, Bactrians, Medes and Persians. Mardonius prepared to meet them at the Plataea, despite the opposition from another Persian commander, Artabazus, who, like Artabanus, did not think that the Persian army could automatically defeat the Greeks. Mardonius was killed in the ensuing battle by the Spartans (see Battle of Plataea). It is claimed by Herodotus[14] and Plutarch[15] a Plataean called Aeimnestus killed Mardonius. This led to his army breaking up. Herodotus relates of the Spartan leader Pausanias’ response when an Aeginetan suggests mounting on a pole the head of the slain Persian general Mardonius, as Xerxes had done to Leonidas after the battle of Thermopylae—a suggestion taken by Pausanias to threaten the very root of civilization: "Such doings befit barbarians rather than Greeks, and even in barbarians we detest them...Come not before me again with such a speech nor with such counsel, and thank my forbearance that you are not now punished". In popular culture[edit] His name is given to the genus Mardonius (family Spirostreptidae), which contains nine species of giant African millipedes. In the movie The 300 Spartans (1962), Mardonius is portrayed by actor Kostas Baladimas uncredited[16] In the novel Creation by Gore Vidal, Mardonius is portrayed as a lifelong friend of Xerxes and Cyrus Spitama the grandson of the prophet Zoroaster. In the video game 300: March to Glory, Mardonius is the top boss that you must fight 4 times: In the end of "The Third Day", and 3 times in "Battle of Plataea": once on his rhino, once with his armour and once where you kill him as Dillios. In the novel Gates of Fire by Steven Pressfield, Mardonius is portrayed as one of Xerxes's most trusted advisors, along with Orontes, captain of the Immortals, and the warrioress Artemisia. See also[edit] Amompharetus Xerxes Canal Notes[edit] ^ Jan Tavernier (2007). Iranica in the Achaemenid Period (ca. 550-330 B.C.). Peeters Publishers. p. 19. ISBN 978-9042918337. ^ Kuhrt, Amélie (2013). The Persian Empire: A Corpus of Sources from the Achaemenid Period. Routledge. p. 450. ISBN 9781136017025. ^ Gobryas (conspirator) - Livius. ^ Herodotus 6, 43 ^ Joseph Roisman,Ian Worthington. "A companion to Ancient Macedonia" John Wiley & Sons, 2011. ISBN 144435163X pp 343-345 ^ Vasilev 2015, p. 156. ^ Joseph Roisman,Ian Worthington. "A companion to Ancient Macedonia" John Wiley & Sons, 2011. ISBN 144435163X pp 343-345 ^ Herodotus 6, 44-45 ^ Herodotus (1998). The Histories. Oxford University: Oxford University Press. ^ Herodotus 7, 5-6 ^ a b Tola, Fernando (1986). "India and Greece before Alexander". Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute Vol. 67, No. 1/4. 67 (1/4): 159–194. JSTOR 41693244.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ LacusCurtius • Herodotus — Book VIII: Chapters 97‑144. p. Herodotus VIII, 113. ^ The Histories. Penguin UK. 2013. p. 484. ISBN 9780141393773. ^ Herodotus 9, 65 ^ Plutarch's Lives, Aristides 19 ^ "The 300 Spartans (1962) Full Cast & Crew". IMDb. Retrieved 2013-10-24. References[edit] Herodotus - The Histories, with an English translation by A. D. Godley. Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1920. OCLC: 1610641 ISBN 0-674-99130-3, ISBN 0-674-99131-1, 0674991338, 0674991346 [1] Vasilev, Miroslav Ivanov (2015). The Policy of Darius and Xerxes towards Thrace and Macedonia. BRILL. ISBN 978-9-00-428215-5.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) External links[edit] Livius.org: Mardonius Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mardonius_(general)&oldid=972969236" Categories: 479 BC deaths Persian people of the Greco-Persian Wars Military personnel of the Achaemenid Empire killed in action Battle of Plataea Battle of Thermopylae Ionian Revolt Military leaders of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenid Macedon 5th-century BC Iranian people Generals of Darius the Great Hidden categories: CS1 maint: location Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text CS1 maint: ref=harv Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 August 2020, at 18:32 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7058	----	Achaemenes (satrap) - Wikipedia Achaemenes (satrap) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other people named Achaemenes, see Achaemenes (disambiguation). Achaemenes Satrap of Egypt Achaemenes was satrap of the Achaemenid Province of Egypt. Predecessor Pherendates Successor Arsames Dynasty 27th Dynasty Pharaoh Xerxes I and Artaxerxes I Father Darius I Mother Atossa Achaemenes (also incorrectly called Achaemenides by Ctesias, from the Old Persian Haxāmaniš[1]) was an Achaemenid general and satrap of ancient Egypt during the early 5th century BC, at the time of the 27th Dynasty of Egypt. Career[edit] A son of king Darius I by his queen Atossa and thus a full brother of Xerxes I,[1] Achaemenes was appointed satrap of Egypt some time between 486 and 484 BC, shortly after Xerxes' accession. At the time, Egypt was revolting against Achaemenid rule, and it appears likely that the previous satrap Pherendates lost his life in the turmoil.[2] The rebellion, possibly led by a self-proclaimed pharaoh named Psammetichus IV,[3] was eventually quelled by Achaemenes around 484 BC. After the victory, Achaemenes adopted a more repressive policy in order to discourage new rebellions, although the effect was actually the opposite.[4] When Xerxes launched the second Persian invasion of Greece (480–479 BC), Achaemenes was called to arms at the head of the Persian-allied Egyptian fleet and took part in the battle of Salamis (480 BC). Achaemenes survived the defeat, and was sent back to Egypt in order to resume his duties as satrap.[2][1] In 460 BC, under the leadership of a native prince named Inaros, Egypt revolted once more against Persian rule. Achaemenes confronted Inaros in the Battle of Papremis (459 BC) but was defeated and slain. Achaemenes' body was sent to king Artaxerxes I as an admonition.[2][1] References[edit] ^ a b c d M. A. Dandamayev, “Achaemenes,” Encyclopædia Iranica, I/4, p. 414; an updated version is available online at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenes-greek ^ a b c Ray, John D. (2006). "Egypt, 525–404 B.C.". In Boardman, John; Hammond, N.D.L.; Lewis, D.M.; Ostwald, M. (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History (2nd ed.), vol. IV – Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean c. 525 to 479 B.C. Cambridge University Press. p. 266. ISBN 0 521 22804 2. ^ Eugène Cruz-Uribe, "On the Existence of Psammetichus IV". Serapis. American Journal of Egyptology 5 (1980), pp. 35–39. ^ Ray, John D. (2006). "Egypt, 525–404 B.C.". In Boardman, John; Hammond, N.D.L.; Lewis, D.M.; Ostwald, M. (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History (2nd ed.), vol. IV – Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean c. 525 to 479 B.C. Cambridge University Press. pp. 266, 275–276. ISBN 0 521 22804 2. Preceded by Pherendates Satrap of Egypt c.486 – 459 BC Succeeded by Arsames v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Achaemenes_(satrap)&oldid=994300364" Categories: Military personnel of the Achaemenid Empire killed in action Achaemenid satraps of Egypt 459 BC deaths 5th-century BC Iranian people 5th century BC in Egypt Admirals of the Achaemenid Empire Persian people of the Greco-Persian Wars Battle of Salamis Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt Family of Darius the Great Achaemenid dynasty Hidden categories: Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Hrvatski Italiano Nederlands Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 15 December 2020, at 00:48 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7064	----	Pherendates II - Wikipedia Pherendates II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Achaemenid satrap of Egypt Pherendates II Satrap of Egypt Pherendates II was satrap of the restored Achaemenid Province of Egypt. Predecessor office restored Successor Sabaces Dynasty 31st Dynasty Pharaoh Artaxerxes III Pherendates II (from the Old Persian Farnadāta) was an Achaemenid satrap of ancient Egypt during the 4th century BCE, at the time of the 31st Dynasty of Egypt. Almost nothing is known about him. In his Bibliotheca historica, Diodorus Siculus[1] reports that, after the battle of Pelusium (343 BCE) and the subsequent Achaemenid conquest of Egypt, Artaxerxes III appointed Pherendates II as satrap.[2] His office must have been very brief, since his successor Sabaces was killed in the battle of Issus (333 BCE) while serving Darius III.[3][4][5] References[edit] ^ Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica 16.46.4; 16.51.3 ^ ARTAXERXES III at the Encyclopædia Iranica. ^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri 2.11.8 ^ Siculus, op. cit. 17.34.5 ^ Quintus Curtius Rufus, Historiae Alexandri Magni 3.11.10; 4.1.28 Preceded by office restored Satrap of Egypt c.343 – before 333 BCE Succeeded by Sabaces v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC This Iranian biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pherendates_II&oldid=1002470417" Categories: Achaemenid satraps of Egypt 4th-century BC Iranian people 4th century BC in Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt Iranian people stubs Ancient Egypt people stubs Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Year of birth unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Hrvatski Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 16:42 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7066	----	Cleopatra I Syra - Wikipedia Cleopatra I Syra From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Queen of Ptolemaic Egypt For other Cleopatras, see Cleopatra (disambiguation). Cleopatra I Syra Queen of Egypt Royal titulary Horus name Hunu Zatheqa Iretenheqa Mereneterubaqet Kheqerenshenemu Tatetzat Huti Werpehti Sehertawi Redinesnebetirekhitenneferu Qenisinetnebzau Tenisiathoremmeruts The young girl, daughter of the ruler, created by the ruler, beloved of the Gods of Egypt, adorned by Khnum, the regent of Thoth whose might is great, who pleases the two Lands, who gives the people in perfection to the Two Ladies, who Neith, the Lady of Sais, makes strong, who Hathor praises for her popularity [...] [1] Queen of Egypt Reign 193 - 176 BC Coronation 192 BC Predecessor Ptolemy V of Egypt Successor Ptolemy VI of Egypt Co-regent Ptolemy V of Egypt and Ptolemy VI of Egypt Born c. 204 BC Died 176 BC[2] or 178/177 BC[3] Spouse Ptolemy V of Egypt Issue Ptolemy VI of Egypt Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra II of Egypt Dynasty Ptolemaic Father Antiochus III the Great Mother Laodice III Cleopatra I Syra (Greek: Κλεοπάτρα Σύρα; c. 204 – 176 BC) was a princess of the Seleucid Empire, Queen of Ptolemaic Egypt by marriage to Ptolemy V of Egypt, and regent of Egypt during the minority of their son, Ptolemy VI, from her husband’s death in 180 BC until her own death in 176 BC. Contents 1 Life 1.1 Queen 1.2 Queen Regent 2 Issue 3 Ancestry 4 Trivia 5 Notes 6 References Life[edit] Cleopatra I was the daughter of Antiochus III the Great, King of the Seleucid Empire, and Queen Laodice III. Queen[edit] In 197 BC, Antiochus III had captured a number of cities in Asia Minor previously under the control of the Ptolemaic kingdom of Egypt. The Romans supported the Egyptian interests, when they negotiated with the Seleucid king in Lysimachia in 196 BC. In response, Antiochus III indicated his willingness to make peace with Ptolemy V and to have his daughter Cleopatra I marry Ptolemy V. They were betrothed in 195 BC and their marriage took place in 193 BC in Raphia.[4] At that time Ptolemy V was about 16 years and Cleopatra I about 10 years old. Later on, Egypt's Ptolemaic kings were to argue that Cleopatra I had received Coele-Syria as her dowry and, therefore, this territory again belonged to Egypt. It is not clear if this was the case. However, in practice, Coele-Syria remained a Seleucid possession after the Battle of Panium in 198 BC.[5] In Alexandria, Cleopatra I was called the Syrian.[6] As part of the Ptolemaic cult she was honoured with her husband as Theoi Epiphaneis. In line with ancient Egyptian tradition, she was also named adelphe (= sister) of Ptolemy V. A synod of priests held at Memphis in 185 BC transferred all honours that Ptolemy V had received in 196 BC (written on the Rosetta stone) to his wife. In 187 BC, Cleopatra I was appointed vizier. Queen Regent[edit] Upon her husband's death in 180 BC, she ruled on behalf of her young son, Ptolemy VI. She was the first Ptolemaic queen to rule without her husband. This can be concluded from date formulas on the papyri written in the years from 179 BC to 176 BC, where Cleopatra I is called Thea Epiphanes and her name is written before that of her son. She also minted her own coins, which also bear her name before that of her son. Just before his death, Ptolemy V had planned to conduct a war against the Seleucid kingdom but when Cleopatra I became sole ruler, she immediately ended the war preparations directed against her brother Seleucus IV Philopator. Cleopatra I died around 176 BC. The year after her death, her son Ptolemy VI and her daughter Cleopatra II married. Issue[edit] Cleopatra and Ptolemy V had three children:[7][8] Name Image Birth Death Notes Ptolemy VI Philometor May/June 186 BC 145 BC Succeeded as King under the regency of his mother in 180 BC, co-regent and spouse of Cleopatra II from 170-164 BC and again 163-145 BC. Cleopatra II 186-184 BC 6 April 115 BC Co-regent and wife of Ptolemy VI from 170-145 BC, co-regent and spouse of Ptolemy VIII from 145-132 BC, claimed sole rule 132-127 BC, co-regent and spouse of Ptolemy VIII again from 124-115 BC, co-regent with Cleopatra III and Ptolemy IX from 116-115 BC. Ptolemy VIII c. 184 BC 26 June 116 BC Co-regent with Ptolemy VI and Cleopatra II from 169-164 BC, expelled Ptolemy VI in 164, expelled in turn 163 BC, King of Cyrenaica from 163-145 BC, co-regent with Cleopatra II and Cleopatra III from 145-132 BC and again from 124-116 BC. Ancestry[edit] Ancestors of Cleopatra I Syra 16. (=28.)Antiochus I Soter 8. (=14.)Antiochus II Theos 17. (=29.)Princess Stratonice of Syria 4. Seleucus II Callinicus 18. (=20., 30.)Achaeus 9. (=15.)Laodice 2. Antiochus III the Great 20. (=18., 30.)Achaeus 10. Andromachus 5. Laodice 1. Cleopatra I Syra, Queen of Egypt 24. Mithridates I, King of Pontus 12. Ariobarzanes, King of Pontus 6. Mithridates II, King of Pontus 3. Princess Laodice of Pontus[9] 28. (=16.)Antiochus I Soter 14. (=8.)Antiochus II Theos 29. (=17.)Princess Stratonice of Syria 7. Princess Laodice of the Seleucid Empire 30. (=18., 20.)Achaeus 15. (=9.)Laodice Trivia[edit] On June 22, 2010, archaeologists uncovered a gold coin bearing Cleopatra's image at Tel Kedesh in Israel near the Lebanon border. It was reported to be the heaviest and most valuable gold coin ever found in Israel.[10] Notes[edit] ^ Beckerath, J. Handbuch der Ägyptischen Königsnamen, MÄS 49 (1999): 289 ^ Werner Huß, Ägypten in hellenistischer Zeit (Egypt in Hellenistic times). Munich 2001, p. 540 ^ Cleopatra I by Chris Bennett ^ Polybius 18.51.10 and 28.20.9; Livy 33.40.3 and 35.13.4; Appian, Syriaca 3.13 and 5.18 ^ Polybius 28.1.2-3 and 28.20.6-10; Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 12.154-155; Appian, Syriaca 5.18 ^ Appian, Syriaca 5.18 ^ Aidan Dodson, Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, 2004 ^ Chris Bennett. "Cleopatra I". Tyndale House. Retrieved September 28, 2019. ^ Laodice III, prior to her marriage to Antiochus III the Great, was a Princess of Pontus and was styled as such. ^ Retrieved 12/21/2019 References[edit] Stähelin, Kleopatra 14). In: Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft, vol. XI 1, 1921, col. 738-740. Werner Huß, Ägypten in hellenistischer Zeit (Egypt in the Hellenistic Period). Munich 2001, p. 499; 514f.; 535; 537-540. Günther Hölbl, Geschichte des Ptolemäerreichs (History of the Ptolemaic Empire). Darmstadt 1994, p. 125; 127f.; 147f.; 153. Cleopatra I Syra Ptolemaic dynasty Born: 204 BC Died: 176 BC Preceded by Ptolemy V Ptolemaic dynasty 193 BC–176 BC with Ptolemy V and Ptolemy VI Succeeded by Ptolemy VI Philometor v t e Hellenistic rulers Argeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Kings of Cyrene Magas Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Kings of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Kings of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Kings of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Kings of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus Kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon (regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces Asander with Dynamis Mithridates II Asander with Dynamis Scribonius’ attempted rule with Dynamis Dynamis with Polemon Polemon with Pythodorida Aspurgus Mithridates III with Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Queens of Ancient Egypt Early Dynastic Period to First Intermediate Period  (3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Neithhotep Benerib Khenthap Herneith Nakhtneith Penebui Merneith Seshemetka Semat Serethor Betrest II Nimaathap Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Hetephernebti Djeseretnebti Djefatnebti Meresankh I IV Hetepheres I Meritites I Henutsen Khentetka Meresankh II Hetepheres II Meresankh III Khamerernebty I Persenet Hekenuhedjet Khamerernebty II Rekhetre Bunefer V Khentkaus I Neferhetepes Meretnebty Khentkaus II Khentkaus III Reptynub Khuit I Meresankh IV Setibhor Nebet Khenut VI Iput I Khuit II Ankhesenpepi I Ankhesenpepi II Nubwenet Meritites IV Inenek-Inti Nedjeftet Neith Iput II Udjebten Ankhesenpepi III Ankhesenpepi IV Nitocris Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Neferu I Neferukayet Iah Tem Neferu II Ashayet Henhenet Sadeh Kawit Kemsit XII Neferitatjenen Neferu III Keminub Khenemetneferhedjet I Nofret II Itaweret Khenmet Sithathoriunet Khenemetneferhedjet II Neferthenut Meretseger Aat Khenemetneferhedjet III Sobekneferu 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Nofret Nubhetepti Senebhenas Neni Tjan Ineni Nubkhaes Aya XIV Tati XVI Mentuhotep XVII Nubemhat Sobekemsaf Haankhes Tetisheri Ahhotep I Ahmose Inhapy Sitdjehuti Ahhotep II New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose-Nefertari Ahmose-Sitkamose Ahmose-Henuttamehu Ahmose-Meritamun Ahmose Mutnofret Hatshepsut Iset Satiah Merytre-Hatshepsut Nebtu Menhet, Menwi and Merti Nebsemi Tiaa Nefertari Iaret Mutemwiya Tiye Gilukhipa Sitamun Iset Tadukhipa / Kiya Nefertiti Meritaten Neferneferuaten Ankhesenamun Tey Mutnedjmet Nebetnehat XIX Sitre Tuya Tanedjemet Nefertari Isetnofret Henutmire Maathorneferure Meritamen Bintanath Nebettawy Merytre Isetnofret II Takhat Twosret Tiaa XX Tiy-Merenese Iset Ta-Hemdjert Tyti Tiye Duatentopet Henutwati Tawerettenru Nubkhesbed Baketwernel Tentamun 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Tentamun Mutnedjmet Karimala XXII Karomama Patareshnes Maatkare Tashedkhonsu Nesitaudjatakhet Nesitanebetashru Kapes Karomama I Tadibast III XXIII Karomama II XXV Pebatjma Tabiry Abar Khensa Peksater Arty Qalhata Tabekenamun Takahatenamun Naparaye Atakhebasken Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Mehytenweskhet Khedebneithirbinet I Takhuit Tentkheta Nakhtubasterau Ladice XXVII Atossa Artystone Parmys Amestris Damaspia Parysatis XXXI Stateira I Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Roxana Stateira II Parysatis II Eurydice II of Macedon Ptolemaic Eurydice Berenice I Arsinoe I Arsinoe II Berenice II Arsinoe III Cleopatra I Cleopatra II Cleopatra III Cleopatra IV Cleopatra Selene Berenice III Cleopatra V Cleopatra VI Berenice IV Cleopatra VII Arsinoe IV Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic Authority control GND: 11928488X SUDOC: 193575671 TePapa: 49547 VIAF: 69735484 WorldCat Identities: viaf-69735484 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cleopatra_I_Syra&oldid=998417823" Categories: 2nd-century BC Pharaohs 2nd-century BC women rulers Queens consort of the Ptolemaic dynasty Ancient Egyptian queens regnant 2nd-century BC Egyptian people 200s BC births 176 BC deaths Seleucid princesses Female pharaohs 2nd-century BC Egyptian women Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with TePapa identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Asturianu Беларуская Български Català Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский සිංහල Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 5 January 2021, at 08:22 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-706	----	Ameny Qemau - Wikipedia Ameny Qemau From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ameny Qemau Ameny Kemau, Aminikimau, Kemau, Ameny-Amu,[1] Emnikamaw[2] Drawing of a plaque bearing Qemau's name, now in a private collection[3] Pharaoh Reign 1793 BC – 1791 BC[4] (13th Dynasty) Predecessor Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Successor Hotepibre Qemau Siharnedjheritef Royal titulary Nomen Ameny Qemau Jmny [s3]ḳm3w Ameny['s son] Qemau[1] Children possibly Hotepibre Qemau Siharnedjheritef and princess Hatshepsut Father possibly Amenemhat V Burial Pyramid of Ameny Qemau in south Dahshur Ameny Qemau was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. According to Egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, he was the 5th king of the dynasty, reigning for 2 years over most of Egypt, except perhaps the eastern Nile Delta, from 1793 BC until 1791 BC.[1][4] Contents 1 Family 2 Attestations 3 Pyramid 4 See also 5 References Family[edit] The Egyptologist Kim Ryholt notes that Ameny Qemau's name is essentially a filiative nomen, that is, a name specifying the filiation of its holder. Indeed, Ameny Qemau could be read as "Ameny['s son] Qemau". Ryholt concludes that the Ameny in question was Qemau's predecessor Sekhemkare Amenemhat V and that Qemau was his son.[4] This opinion is shared by Egyptologist Darrell Baker but not by Jürgen von Beckerath, who left Ameny Qemau's position within the 13th Dynasty undetermined in his handbook of Egyptian pharaohs.[1][5] The successor of Ameny Qemau, Qemau Siharnedjheritef may have been his son as "Qemau Siharnedjheritef" may be read "The son of Qemau, Horus protects his father". Attestations[edit] Beyond his pyramid in Dahshur, Ameny Qemau is a poorly attested king: his name does not appear on the Turin canon and the only contemporary attestations of him are fragments of four inscribed canopic jars found in the pyramid. An additional plaquette of unknown provenance bears his name[3] but may be a modern forgery.[1] Ameny Qemau's identity is therefore uncertain and attempts have been made to identify him with better attested kings of the period, in particular with Sehotepibre, who appears on the Turin canon after Amenemhat V.[6] Ryholt however believes that Qemau's name was lost in a wsf lacuna of the Turin canon located just before Amenemhat V. A wsf (literally "missing") lacuna denotes a lacuna in the original document from which the canon was copied in Ramesside times.[4] Pyramid[edit] Main article: Pyramid of Ameny Qemau Ameny Qemau had a pyramid built for himself in the south of Dahshur. The pyramid was discovered in 1957 by Charles Musès and only investigated in 1968. It originally measured 50 square meters at its base and stood 35 meters high but is now completely ruined due to stone robbing. The substructures have also been extensively damaged. The burial chamber of the king was made of a single large block of quartzite, similar to those found in the pyramid of Amenemhat III at Hawara and the Mazghuna pyramids.[1][7][8] The block was hewn to receive the sarcophagus and canopic jars of the king but only fragments of these and unidentified bones where found onsite.[9] Additionally, the name of Ameny Qemau is believed to appear on an inscribed block which was found in a newly-discovered pyramid at Dahshur whose existence was announced in April 2017.[10] Many Egyptologists such as James P. Allen, Aidan Dodson and Thomas Schneider agrees that the royal name on the block is that of Ameny Qemau. Dodson further speculated that, given the relatively poor quality of the inscription and the oddity for a pharaoh to be the owner of two pyramids, the newly-discovered one may have originally belonged to one of Qemau's predecessors, and that he may have usurped the structure by chiseling out the royal names on the block and superimposing his own cartouches on it.[10] Among the artifacts found in the burial chamber were a sarcophagus, canopic jars, and boxes of wrappings. Inscriptions on the boxes mention one of the daughters of Ameny Qemau, Hatshepsut, suggesting that the pyramid may have been usurped for his daughter and may explain why he has two pyramids.[11] See also[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ameni Qemau. List of pharaohs References[edit] ^ a b c d e f Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 304 ^ El-Aref, Nevine (11 May 2017). "Egypt 'uncovers burial chamber of pharaoh's daughter'". BBC News. Retrieved 12 May 2017. ^ a b Goedicke, Hans (1959). "A Puzzling Inscription". Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 45: 98–99. doi:10.2307/3855469. JSTOR 3855469. ^ a b c d K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800-1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Hanbuch der agyptische Konigsnamen, Muncher. Agyptologische Studien 49, Mainz, (1999), p. 102-103 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten. Glückstadt/ New York 1964, p. 41-42, 233, XIII. B ^ Miroslav Verner: The Pyramids – Their Archaeology and History, Atlantic Books, 2001, ISBN 1-84354-171-8 ^ Mark Lehner: The Complete Pyramids, London: Thames and Hudson (1997) p.185 ISBN 0-500-05084-8. ^ Nabil M. Swelim, Aidan Dodson: On the Pyramid of Ameny-Qemau and its Canopic Equipment, In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo 54 (1998), p. 319 - 334 ^ a b Jarus, Owen (4 April 2017). "2nd Pyramid Bearing Pharaoh Ameny Qemau's Name Is Found". Live Science. Retrieved 8 April 2017. ^ Martinez, Alanna (12 May 2017). "3,700-Year-Old Egyptian Pyramid Was Probably Built for a Princess". The New York Observer. New York Observer, LP. Preceded by Amenemhat V Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Qemau Siharnedjheritef v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ameny_Qemau&oldid=999890832" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Català Deutsch Español Euskara Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands Português Русский Slovenščina ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 12 January 2021, at 13:29 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7070	----	Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Kushite Empire" redirects here. For the kingdom south of Egypt, see Kingdom of Kush. Ethiopian period of Ancient Egypt Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt 744 BC–656 BC Kushite heartland, and Kushite Empire of the 25th dynasty of Egypt, circa 700 BC.[1] Capital Napata Memphis Thebes Common languages Egyptian, Meroitic Religion ancient Egyptian religion Government Monarchy Pharaoh   • 744–714 BC Piye (first) • 664–656 BC Tantamani (last) History   • Established 744 BC • Disestablished 656 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Kingdom of Kush Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Kingdom of Kush Statues of various rulers of the late 25th Dynasty–early Napatan period. From left to right: Tantamani, Taharqa (rear), Senkamanisken, again Tantamani (rear), Aspelta, Anlamani, again Senkamanisken. Kerma Museum.[2] The Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt (notated Dynasty XXV, alternatively 25th Dynasty or Dynasty 25), also known as the Nubian Dynasty or the Kushite Empire, was the last dynasty of the Third Intermediate Period of Egypt that occurred after the Nubian invasion. The 25th dynasty was a line of pharaohs who originated in the Kingdom of Kush, located in present-day northern Sudan and Upper Egypt. Most of this dynasty's kings saw Napata as their spiritual homeland. They reigned in part or all of Ancient Egypt from 744–656 BC.[3] The dynasty began with Kashta's invasion of Upper Egypt and culminated in several years of both successful and unsuccessful wars with the Mesopotamia-based Neo-Assyrian Empire. The 25th Dynasty's reunification of Lower Egypt, Upper Egypt, and Kush created the largest Egyptian empire since the New Kingdom. They assimilated into society by reaffirming Ancient Egyptian religious traditions, temples, and artistic forms, while introducing some unique aspects of Kushite culture.[4] It was during the 25th dynasty that the Nile valley saw the first widespread construction of pyramids (many in what is now Sudan) since the Middle Kingdom.[5][6][7] After the emperors Sargon II and Sennacherib defeated attempts by the Nubian kings to gain a foothold in the Near East, their successors, Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal , invaded, defeated and drove out the Nubians. War with Assyria resulted in the end of Kushite power in Northern Egypt and the conquest of Egypt by the Neo-Assyrian Empire. They were succeeded by the Twenty-sixth Dynasty, initially a puppet dynasty installed by and vassals of the Assyrians, the last native dynasty to rule Egypt before the Achaemenid Empire invaded them. The fall of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty also marks the beginning of the Late Period of ancient Egypt. Contents 1 History 1.1 Piye 1.2 Shabaka and Shebitku Chronology Dispute 1.3 Shebitku 1.4 Shabaka 1.5 Taharqa 1.6 Tantamani 1.7 Revenge of Psamtik II 2 Art and architecture 3 Pharaohs of the 25th Dynasty 4 Timeline of the 25th Dynasty 5 See also 6 Representation in Media 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links History[edit] Piye[edit] Main article: Piye The twenty-fifth dynasty originated in Kush, which is presently in Northern Sudan. The city-state of Napata was the spiritual capital and it was from there that Piye (spelled Piankhi or Piankhy in older works) invaded and took control of Egypt.[8] Piye personally led the attack on Egypt and recorded his victory in a lengthy hieroglyphic filled stele called the "Stele of Victory." The stele announces Piye as Pharaoh of all Egypt and highlights his divine kingship by naming him "Son of Re" (Ruler of Lower Egypt) and "Beloved of Amun" (Ruler of Upper Egypt).[3]:166 Piye's success in achieving the double kingship after generations of Kushite planning resulted from "Kushite ambition, political skill, and the Theban decision to reunify Egypt in this particular way", and not Egypt's utter exhaustion, "as frequently suggested in Egyptological studies."[6] Piye revived one of the greatest features of the Old and Middle Kingdoms, pyramid construction. An energetic builder, he constructed the oldest known pyramid at the royal burial site of El-Kurru. He also expanded the Temple of Amun at Jebel Barkal[6] by adding "an immense colonnaded forecourt."[3]:163–164 Piye made various unsuccessful attempts to extend Egyptian influence in the Near East, then controlled from Mesopotamia by the Semitic Assyrian Empire. In 720 BC he sent an army in support of a rebellion against Assyria in Philistia and Gaza, however, Piye was defeated by Sargon II, and the rebellion failed.[9] Although Manetho does not mention the first king, Piye, mainstream Egyptologists consider him the first Pharaoh of the 25th dynasty.[5][6][7][10] Manetho also does not mention the last king, Tantamani, although inscriptions exist to attest to the existence of both Piye and Tantamani. The "Stele of Victory" inscription describes Piye as very religious, compassionate, and loved horses.[11] Piye scolded those that abused horses, demanded horses as gifts, and had eight of his horses buried with him.[11] Studies of horse skeletons at el Kurru, textual evidence, and iconographical evidence related to the use of horses in Kushite warfare indicate that "the finest horses used in Egypt and Assyria were bred in, and exported from Nubia."[3]:157–158 Better horses, chariots, and the development of cavalry tactics helped Piye to defeat Tefnakht and his allies.[3]:158 Shabaka and Shebitku Chronology Dispute[edit] Although the Manethonic and classical traditions maintain that it was Shabaka's invasion which brought Egypt under Kushite rule, the most recent archaeological evidence shows that Shabaka ruled Egypt after Shebitku and not before, as previously thought. The confusion may stem from Shabaka's accession via Kushite collateral succession versus Egyptian patrilinear succession.[3]:168 The construction of the tomb of Shebitku (Ku. 18) resembles that of Piye (Ku. 17) while that of Shabaka (Ku. 15) is similar to that of Taharqa (Nu. 1) and Tantamani (Ku. 16) [39 – D. Dunham, El-Kurru, The Royal Cemeteries of Kush, I, (1950) 55, 60, 64, 67; also D. Dunham, Nuri, The Royal Cemeteries of Kush, II, (1955) 6–7; J. Lull, Las tumbas reales egipcias del Tercer Periodo Intermedio (dinastías XXI-XXV). Tradición y cambios, BAR-IS 1045 (2002) 208.] .[12] Secondly, Payraudeau notes in French that "the Divine Adoratrix Shepenupet I, the last Libyan Adoratrix, was still alive during the reign of Shebitku because she is represented performing rites and is described as "living" in those parts of the Osiris-Héqadjet chapel built during his reign (wall and exterior of the gate) [45 – G. Legrain, "Le temple et les chapelles d’Osiris à Karnak. Le temple d’Osiris-Hiq-Djeto, partie éthiopienne", RecTrav 22 (1900) 128; JWIS III, 45.].[12] In the rest of the room it is Amenirdis I, (Shabaka's sister), who is represented with the Adoratrix title and provided with a coronation name. The succession Shepenupet I - Amenirdis I thus took place during the reign of Shebitku/Shabataqo. This detail in itself is sufficient to show that the reign of Shabaka cannot precede that of Shebitku/Shabataqo.[12] Finally, Gerard Broekman's GM 251 (2017) paper shows that Shebitku reigned before Shabaka since the upper edge of Shabaka's NLR #30's Year 2 Karnak quay inscription was carved over the left-hand side of the lower edge of Shebitku's NLR#33 Year 3 inscription.[13] This can only mean that Shabaka ruled after Shebitku. Shebitku[edit] Shebitku, Nubian Museum According to the newer chronology, Shebitku conquered the entire Nile Valley, including Upper and Lower Egypt, around 712 BC. Shebitku had Bocchoris of the preceding Sais dynasty burned to death for resisting him. After conquering Lower Egypt, Shebitku transferred the capital to Memphis.[13] Dan'el Kahn suggested that Shebitku was king of Egypt by 707/706 BC.[14] This is based on evidence from an inscription of the Assyrian king Sargon II, which was found in Persia (then a colony of Assyria) and dated to 706 BC. This inscription calls Shebitku the king of Meluhha, and states that he sent back to Assyria a rebel named Iamanni in handcuffs. Kahn's arguments have been widely accepted by many Egyptologists including Rolf Krauss, and Aidan Dodson[15] and other scholars at the SCIEM 2000 (Synchronisation of Civilisations of the Eastern Mediterranean in the Second Millennium B.C.) project with the notable exception of Kenneth Kitchen and Manfred Bietak at present. Shabaka[edit] Shabaka According to the traditional chronology, Shabaka "brought the entire Nile Valley as far as the Delta under the empire of Kush and is 'reputed' to have had Bocchoris, dynast of Sais, burnt to death."[5][3]:166–167 There is no direct evidence that Shabaqo did slay Bakenranef, and although earlier scholarship generally accepted the tradition, it has recently been treated more skeptically.[16] Initially, Shabaka maintained good relations with Assyria, as shown by his extradition of the rebel, Iamani of Ashdod, to Assyria in 712 BC.[3]:167 Shabaka supported an uprising against the Assyrians in the Philistine city of Ashdod, however he and his allies were defeated by Sargon II.[citation needed] Shabaka "transferred the capital to Memphis"[3]:166 and restored the great Egyptian monuments and temples, "unlike his Libyan predecessors".[3]:167–169 Shabaka ushered in the age of Egyptian archaism, or a return to a historical past, which was embodied by a concentrated effort at religious renewal and restoration of Egypt's holy places.[3]:169 Shabaka also returned Egypt to a theocratic monarchy by becoming the first priest of Amon. In addition, Shabaka is known for creating a well-preserved example of Memphite theology by inscribing an old religious papyrus into the Shabaka Stone. Taharqa[edit] Main article: Taharqa See also: Assyrian conquest of Egypt Pharaoh Taharqa of Ancient Egypt's 25th Dynasty. Ashmolean Museum, Oxford UK Portrait of Taharqa, Kerma Museum Assyrian siege of an Egyptian fort, probably a scene from the war in 667 BC. Sculpted in 645 – 635 BC, under Ashurbanipal. British Museum.[17] In 690 BC,[3] Taharqa was crowned in Memphis[11] and ruled Upper and Lower Egypt as Pharaoh from Tanis in the Delta.[18][5] Taharqa's reign was a prosperous time in the empire with a particularly large Nile river flood and abundant crops and wine.[19][3] Taharqa's inscriptions indicate that he gave large amounts of gold to the temple of Amun at Kawa.[20] He restored and constructed great works throughout the Nile Valley, including works at Jebel Barkal, Kawa (with Lebanese cedar),[3] Qasr Ibrim, and Karnak.[21][22] "Thebes was enriched on a monumental scale."[3] At Karnak, the Sacred Lake structures, the kiosk in the first court, and the colonnades at the temple entrance are all owed to Taharqa and Mentuemhet. Taharqa and the Kushites marked a renaissance in Pharaonic art.[23] Taharqa built the largest pyramid (52 square meters at base) in the Nubian region at Nuri (near El-Kurru) with the most elaborate Kushite rock-cut tomb.[24] Taharqa was buried with "over 1070 shabtis of varying sizes and made of granite, green ankerite, and alabaster."[25] Taharqa's army undertook successful military campaigns, as attested by the "list of conquered Asiatic principalities" from the Mut temple at Karnak and "conquered peoples and countries (Libyans, Shasu nomads, Phoenicians?, Khor in Palestine)" from Sanam temple inscriptions.[3] Imperial ambitions of the Mesopotamian based Assyrian Empire made war with the 25th dynasty inevitable. In 701 BC, Taharqa and his army aided Judah and King Hezekiah in withstanding a siege by King Sennacherib of the Assyrians (2 Kings 19:9; Isaiah 37:9).[26] There are various theories (Taharqa's army,[27] disease, divine intervention, Hezekiah's surrender) as to why the Assyrians failed to take the city and withdrew to Assyria.[28] Torok mentions that Egypt's army "was beaten at Eltekeh" under Taharqa's command, but "the battle could be interpreted as a victory for the double kingdom", since Assyria did not take Jerusalem and "retreated to Assyria."[3]:170 Many historians claim that Sennacherib was the overlord of Khor following the siege in 701 BC. Sennacherib's annals record Judah was forced into tribute after the siege.[9] However, this is contradicted by Khor's frequent utilization of an Egyptian system of weights for trade,[29] the 20 year cessation in Assyria's pattern (before 701 and after Sennacherib's death) of repeatedly invading Khor,[30] Khor paying tribute to Amun of Karnak in the first half of Taharqa's reign,[3] and Taharqa flouting Assyria's ban on Lebanese cedar exports to Egypt, while Taharqa was building his temple to amun at Kawa.[31] Sennacherib was murdered by his own sons in revenge for the destruction of the rebellious Mesopotamian city of Babylon, a city sacred to all Mesopotamians, the Assyrians included.[citation needed] In 679 BC, Sennacherib's successor, King Esarhaddon, campaigned into Khor and took a town loyal to Egypt. After destroying Sidon and forcing Tyre into tribute in 677-676 BC, Esarhaddon invaded Egypt in 674 BC. Taharqa and his army defeated the Assyrians outright in 674 BC, according to Babylonian records.[32] Taharqa's Egypt still held sway in Khor during this period as evidenced by Esarhaddon's 671 BC annal mentioning that Tyre's King Ba'lu had "put his trust upon his friend Taharqa", Ashkelon's alliance with Egypt, and Esarhaddon's inscription asking "if the Egyptian forces will defeat Esarhaddon at Ashkelon."[33] However, Taharqa was defeated in Egypt in 671 BC when Esarhaddon conquered Northern Egypt, captured Memphis, imposed tribute, and then withdrew.[18] In 669 BC, Taharqa reoccupied Memphis, as well as the Delta, and recommenced intrigues with the king of Tyre.[18] Esarhaddon again led his army to Egypt and on his death, the command passed to Ashurbanipal. Ashurbanipal and the Assyrians advanced as far south as Thebes, but direct Assyrian control was not established."[18] Taharqa retreated to Nubia, where he died in 664 BC. Taharqa remains an important historical figure in Sudan and elsewhere, as is evidenced by Will Smith's recent project to depict Taharqa in a major motion picture.[34] As of 2017, the status of this project is unknown. A study of the sphinx that was created to represent Taharqa indicates that he was a Kushite pharaoh from Nubia.[35] Tantamani[edit] Main article: Tantamani Tantamani in Kerma Museum. Taharqa's successor, Tantamani sailed north from Napata, through Elephantine, and to Thebes with a large army to Thebes, where he was "ritually installed as the king of Egypt."[3]:185 From Thebes, Tantamani began his reconquest[3]:185 and regained control of Egypt, as far north as Memphis.[18] Tantamani's dream stele states that he restored order from the chaos, where royal temples and cults were not being maintained.[3]:185 After defeating Sais and killing Assyria's vassal, Necho I, in Memphis, "some local dynasts formally surrendered, while others withdrew to their fortresses."[3]:185 Tantamani proceeded north of Memphis, invading Lower Egypt and, besieged cities in the Delta, a number of which surrendered to him.[citation needed] Portrait of Tantamani from his tomb in El-Kurru Necho's son Psamtik I fled Egypt to Assyria and returned in 664 BC with Ashurbanipal and a large army comprising Carian mercenaries.[citation needed] Upon the Assyrians arrival in Egypt, Tantamani fled to Thebes, where he was pursued by the Assyrians.[3]:186–187 Then, Tantamani escaped to Nubia and the Assyrian army sacked Thebes "and devastated the area" in 663 BC[18] Psamtik I was placed on the throne of Lower Egypt as a vassal of Ashurbanipal.[citation needed] Psamtik quickly unified Lower Egypt and expelled the Assyrian army, becoming the first ruler of the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty.[3]:186 In 656 BC, Psamtik sent a large fleet southwards to Thebes, peacefully taking control of the still rebellious Upper Egypt thereby unifying all of Egypt. Tantamani and the Nubians never again posed a threat to either Assyria or Egypt. Upon his death, Tantamani was buried in the royal cemetery of El-Kurru, upstream from the Kushite capital of Napata. He was succeeded by a son of Taharqa, king Atlanersa.[9] In total, the Twenty-fifth Dynasty ruled Egypt for a little more than one hundred years. The successors of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty settled back in their Nubian homeland, where they continued their kingdom at Napata (656–590 BC), and continued to make empty claims to Egyptian kingship during the next 60 years, while the effective control of Egypt was in the hands of Psamtik I and his successors.[36] The Kushite next ruled further south at Meroë (590 BC – 4th century AD).[9] Revenge of Psamtik II[edit] Psamtik II, the third ruler of the following dynasty, the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty, deliberately destroyed monuments belonging to the 25th Dynasty of Kushite kings in Egypt, erasing their names and their emblems of royalty from statues and reliefs in Egypt. He then sent an army to Nubia in 592 BCE to erase all traces of their rule, during the reign of the Kushite King Aspelta. This expedition and its destructions are recorded on several victory stelae, especially the Victory Stela of Kalabsha. The Egyptian army "may have gone on to sack Napata, although there is no good evidence to indicate that they actually did so."[18]:65 This led to the transfer of the Kushite capital farther south at Meroë.[37][38] Art and architecture[edit] Main article: Art of Ancient Egypt Although the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty controlled Ancient Egypt for only 73 years (744–671 BC), it holds an important place in Egyptian history due to the restoration of traditional Egyptian values, culture, art, and architecture. Relief of a High Official, c. 670–650 BC. 1996.146.3, Brooklyn Museum; This relief's style makes it possible to attribute it to one of the palatial tombs of Dynasty XXV and Dynasty XXVI built by great officials such as Montuemhat, governor of Upper Egypt. Kashta, sometimes considered the first King of the 25th dynasty, took control of parts of Upper Egypt and installed his daughter Amenirdis I as Chief Priestess of Amun at Thebes. Above are the names of Amenirdis (left) and Kashta (right). Piye was a Nubian king who conquered Upper Egypt and brought it under his control. During the 25th dynasty Egypt was ruled from Napata. Pictured is his pyramid at Al Kurru, Sudan. Kneeling statuette of a man with a seated figure of Osiris between his thighs. Steatite. Nubian 25th Dynasty. From Saqqara, H5-105, Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London 25th Dynasty royal monumental statues from Doukki-Gel. Nubian Pyramids at Meroë Pharaohs of the 25th Dynasty[edit] Main article: List of pharaohs The pharaohs of the 25th Dynasty ruled for approximately seventy-three years in Egypt, from 744 BC to 671 BC. Pharaoh Image Throne Name Reign Pyramid Consort(s) Comments Piye Usimare c. 744–714 BC Kurru 17 Tabiry (Kurru 53) Abar (Nuri 53?) Khensa (Kurru 4) Peksater (Kurru 54) Nefrukekashta (Kurru 52) Kashta is sometimes considered the first pharaoh of the dynasty, as opposed to Piye. Shebitku Djedkare 714–705 BC Kurru 18 Arty (Kurru 6) Shabaka Nefer-ka-re 705–690 BC Kurru 15 Qalhata (Kurru 5) Mesbat Tabekenamun? Taharqa Khunefertumre 690–664 BC Nuri 1 Takahatenamun (Nuri 21?) Atakhebasken (Nuri 36) Naparaye (Kurru 3) Tabekenamun? Tantamani Bakare 664–656 BC Kurru 16 Piankharty [..]salka Malaqaye? (Nuri 59) Lost control of Upper Egypt in 656 BC when Psamtik I captured Thebes in that year. The period starting with Kashta and ending with Malonaqen is sometimes called the Napatan Period. The later Kings from the twenty-fifth dynasty ruled over Napata, Meroe, and Egypt. The seat of government and the royal palace were in Napata during this period, while Meroe was a provincial city. The kings and queens were buried in El-Kurru and Nuri.[39] Alara, the first known Nubian king and predecessor of Kashta was not a 25th dynasty king since he did not control any region of Egypt during his reign. While Piye is viewed as the founder of the 25th dynasty, some publications may include Kashta who already controlled some parts of Upper Egypt. A stela of his was found at Elephantine and Kashta likely exercised some influence at Thebes (although he did not control it) since he held enough sway to have his daughter Amenirdis I adopted as the next Divine Adoratrice of Amun there. Timeline of the 25th Dynasty[edit] See also[edit] Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e History of Ancient Egypt List of monarchs of Kush Twenty-fifth dynasty of Egypt family tree Representation in Media[edit] The 25th Dynasty[40] was dramatised in a short animation by Jason Young.[41] References[edit] ^ "Dive beneath the pyramids of Sudan's black pharaohs". National Geographic. 2 July 2019. ^ Elshazly, Hesham. "Kerma and the royal cache". Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Török, László (1998). The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meroitic Civilization. Leiden: BRILL. p. 132-133,153-184. ISBN 90-04-10448-8. ^ Bonnet, Charles (2006). The Nubian Pharaohs. New York: The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 142–154. ISBN 978-977-416-010-3. ^ a b c d Mokhtar, G. (1990). General History of Africa. California, USA: University of California Press. pp. 161–163. ISBN 0-520-06697-9. ^ a b c d Emberling, Geoff (2011). Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa. New York: Institute for the Study of the Ancient World. pp. 9–11. ISBN 978-0-615-48102-9. ^ a b Silverman, David (1997). Ancient Egypt. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 36–37. ISBN 0-19-521270-3. ^ Herodotus (2003). The Histories. Penguin Books. pp. 106–107, 133–134. ISBN 978-0-14-044908-2. ^ a b c d Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq (Third ed.). London: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-012523-X. ^ Mokhtar, G. (1990). General History of Africa. California, USA: University of California Press. p. 67. ISBN 0-520-06697-9. ^ a b c Haynes, Joyce (1992). Harvey, Fredrica (ed.). Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa. Boston, Massachusetts, USA: Museum of Fine Arts. pp. 25–30. ISBN 0878463623. ^ a b c Payraudeau, F. (2014). "Retour sur la succession Shabaqo-Shabataqo" (PDF). Nehet. 1: 115–127. ^ a b Broekman, Gerard P. F. (2017). "Genealogical considerations regarding the kings of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty in Egypt". Göttinger Miszellen. 251: 13–20. ISSN 0344-385X. ^ Kahn, Dan'el (2001). "The Inscription of Sargon II at Tang-i Var and the Chronology of Dynasty 25". Orientalia. 70 (1): 1–18. JSTOR 43076732. ^ Sidebotham, Steven E. (2002). "Newly Discovered Sites in the Eastern Desert". Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 82: 181–192 [p. 182 n. 24]. doi:10.1177/030751339608200118. JSTOR 3822121. S2CID 192102954. ^ Wenig, Steffen (1999). Studien Zum Antiken Sudan: Akten Der 7. Internationalen Tagung Für Meroitische Forschungen Vom 14. Bis 19. September 1992 in Gosen/bei Berlin. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 203. ISBN 9783447041393. ^ "Wall panel; relief British Museum". The British Museum. ^ a b c d e f g Welsby, Derek A. (1996). The Kingdom of Kush. London, UK: British Museum Press. pp. 64–65. ISBN 071410986X. ^ Welsby, Derek A. (1996). The Kingdom of Kush. London, UK: British Museum Press. p. 158. ISBN 071410986X. ^ Welsby, Derek A. (1996). The Kingdom of Kush. London, UK: British Museum Press. p. 169. ISBN 071410986X. ^ Welsby, Derek A. (1996). The Kingdom of Kush. London, UK: British Museum Press. pp. 16–34, 62–64, 175, 183. ISBN 071410986X. ^ Diop, Cheikh Anta (1974). The African Origin of Civilization. Chicago, Illinois: Lawrence Hill Books. pp. 219–221. ISBN 1-55652-072-7. ^ Welsby, Derek A. (1996). The Kingdom of Kush. London, UK: British Museum Press. p. 178. ISBN 071410986X. ^ Welsby, Derek A. (1996). The Kingdom of Kush. London, UK: British Museum Press. pp. 103, 107–108. ISBN 071410986X. ^ Welsby, Derek A. (1996). The Kingdom of Kush. London, UK: British Museum Press. p. 87. ISBN 071410986X. ^ Aubin, Henry T. (2002). The Rescue of Jerusalem. New York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. x, 141–144. ISBN 1-56947-275-0. ^ Aubin, Henry T. (2002). The Rescue of Jerusalem. New York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. x, 127, 129–130, 139–152. ISBN 1-56947-275-0. ^ Aubin, Henry T. (2002). The Rescue of Jerusalem. New York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. x, 119. ISBN 1-56947-275-0. ^ Aubin, Henry T. (2002). The Rescue of Jerusalem. New York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. x, 155–156. ISBN 1-56947-275-0. ^ Aubin, Henry T. (2002). The Rescue of Jerusalem. New York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. x, 152–153. ISBN 1-56947-275-0. ^ Aubin, Henry T. (2002). The Rescue of Jerusalem. New York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. x, 155. ISBN 1-56947-275-0. ^ Aubin, Henry T. (2002). The Rescue of Jerusalem. New York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. x, 158–161. ISBN 1-56947-275-0. ^ Aubin, Henry T. (2002). The Rescue of Jerusalem. New York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. x, 159–161. ISBN 1-56947-275-0. ^ Fleming, Michael (7 September 2008). "Will Smith puts on 'Pharaoh' hat". Variety. Retrieved 23 July 2016. ^ Nöthling, F. J. (1989). Pre-Colonial Africa: Her Civilisations and Foreign Contacts. Southern Book Publishers. p. 43. Retrieved 2 April 2018. He moved his capital to Thebes and became king of Kush and Misr (Egypt) forming the 25th dynasty. Kushite power stretched from the Mediterranean Sea to the present Ethiopian boundary. Some Egyptians welcomed the Kushite presence and saw them as civilised people and not as barbarians. Their culture was a mixture of indigenous Egyptian and Sudanese elements and physically their appearance included Egyptian, Berber-Libyan and other Mediterranean elements as well as the Negroid blood coming from the region of the fifth and sixth cataracts ^ "The next six decades, they and their successors would continue to make fictive claims to Egyptian kingship" Kendall, Timothy. Jebel Barkal Guide (PDF). p. 6. ^ Leahy, Anthony (1992). "Royal Iconography and Dynastic Change, 750-525 BC: The Blue and Cap Crowns". The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 78: 238. doi:10.2307/3822074. ISSN 0307-5133. JSTOR 3822074. ^ Elshazly, Hesham. "Kerma and the royal cache": 26–77. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ Dunham, Dows (1946). "Notes on the History of Kush 850 BC-A. D. 350". American Journal of Archaeology. 50 (3): 378–388. doi:10.2307/499459. JSTOR 499459. ^ "The 25th Dynasty". 15 September 2012 – via IMDb. ^ "Jason Young". IMDb. Further reading[edit] Reisner, G. A. (1919). "Discovery of the Tombs of the Egyptian XXVth Dynasty". Sudan Notes and Records. 2 (4): 237–254. JSTOR 41715805. Morkot, R. G. (2000). The Black Pharaohs, Egypt's Nubian Rulers. London: Rubicon Press. External links[edit] Media related to 25th dynasty of Egypt at Wikimedia Commons (in French) Voyage au pays des pharaons noirs Travel in Sudan : pictures and notes on the Nubian history v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Rulers of the Ancient Near East Territories/ dates [1][2][3][4] Egypt Canaan Ebla Mari Akshak/ Akkad Kish Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period 4000–3200 BCE Naqada culture (4000–3100 BCE) Proto-Cannaanites Sumerian period (4000–2340 BCE) Susa I Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE) Naqada I Naqada II Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests") Legendary ante-deluvian rulers: In Eridu: Alulim, Alalngar, then in Bad-tibira: En-men-lu-ana, En-men-gal-ana, Dumuzid, the Shepherd, then in Larag: En-sipad-zid-ana, then in Zimbir: En-men-dur-ana, then in Shuruppag: Ubara-Tutu "then the flood swept over"[5] Susa II (Uruk influence or control) 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ DenAnedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100-2700 BCE) Great Flood 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) First kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman En-me-barage-si ("made the land of Elam submit")[6] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba Uruk II dynasty Enshakushanna Mug-si Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions (3 kings)[7] Shushuntarana Napilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Urur Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun) Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion of Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[7] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian Empire (Semitic) Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Second Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) (Vassals of UR III) Shakkanakku dynasty (Semitic) Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Neo-Sumerian Period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians) Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (Vassals of Ur III)[8] Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal 2100 BCE Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin Ibbi-Sin 2050 BCE 2000 BCE Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV circa 2000 BCE Amorite invasions Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) 2025-1763 BCE Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ Third Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 1894–1595 BCE Second Intermediate Period Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham (Biblical) Yamhad First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Phoenicia Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Middle Assyrian Empire Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt 626–539 BCE Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116-117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ "The Sumerian king list: translation". etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 8 May 2008. ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ a b Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=1001668586" Categories: Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt States and territories established in the 8th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 7th century BC 740s BC History of Nubia Kingdom of Kush Kings of Kush Dynasties of ancient Egypt Egyptian people of Nubian descent 8th-century BC establishments in Egypt 7th-century BC disestablishments in Egypt Hidden categories: Pages using the EasyTimeline extension CS1 errors: missing periodical Use dmy dates from September 2020 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2020 Commons category link from Wikidata Articles with French-language sources (fr) Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 20 January 2021, at 19:03 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7072	----	Tiu (pharaoh) - Wikipedia Tiu (pharaoh) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Tiu Teyew Closeup of the Palermo Stone. Tiu is the no. 4 Pharaoh Reign Unknown (Predynastic Period) Predecessor Khayu? Successor Thesh? Royal titulary Tiu, also known as Teyew, is mentioned in the Palermo Stone as a Predynastic Egyptian king who ruled in Lower Egypt. As there is no other evidence of such a ruler, he may be a mythical king preserved through oral tradition,[1] or may even be completely fictitious.[2][3] References[edit] ^ Helck, Untersuchungen zu Manetho und den ägyptischen Königslisten 1956, Berlin: Akademie-Verlag. Untersuchungen zur Geschichte und Altertumskunde Ägyptens 18 ^ O'Mara, Was there an Old Kingdom historiography? Is it datable? 1996, Orientalia 65: 197-208 ^ Wilkinson, Toby A. H. (2000). Royal Annals of Ancient Egypt. p.85 New York: Columbia University Press). ISBN 0-7103-0667-9. Tiu in hieroglyphs [1] Tiu v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e ^ From: Palermo Stone Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tiu_(pharaoh)&oldid=993410870" Categories: Pharaohs only mentioned in the Palermo Stone People whose existence is disputed Ancient Egypt people stubs Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Brezhoneg Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia עברית ქართული Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Bahasa Melayu 日本語 Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 December 2020, at 13:50 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7103	----	National Library of Australia - Wikipedia National Library of Australia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from NLA (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search National reference library in Canberra, Australia National Library of Australia Type Reference library Scope Commonwealth of Australia Established 23 March 1961; 59 years ago (1961-03-23) Reference to legal mandate National Library Act 1960 Location Canberra, Australian Capital Territory Coordinates 35°17′47″S 149°07′46″E / 35.296379°S 149.129448°E / -35.296379; 149.129448Coordinates: 35°17′47″S 149°07′46″E / 35.296379°S 149.129448°E / -35.296379; 149.129448 Collection Items collected Books, magazines, pictures, photographs, maps, sheet music, manuscripts, websites Size 6.93 million items Criteria for collection Publications made available to the Australian public Legal deposit Digital and hard-copy Australian published materials Other information Budget A$57,800,000 (2015–16) Director Marie-Louise Ayres Staff 400 (2016) Website www.nla.gov.au Map Building details National Library of Australia as viewed from Lake Burley Griffin, Canberra General information Status Complete Architectural style Late Twentieth Century Stripped Classical Address Parkes Place and King Edward Terrace, Parkes, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory Country Australia Construction started 1961 Inaugurated 15 August 1968 (1968-08-15) by Prime Minister John Gorton Cost A$8 million (1968) Technical details Material Marble, granite, bronze, slate, trachyte, and copper Design and construction Architect Walter Bunning Architecture firm Bunning and Madden Other designers Leonard French (stained-glass windows) Mathieu Matégot (Aubusson tapestries x3) Tom Bass (copper sculpture) Henry Moore (sculpture) Commonwealth Heritage List Official name National Library of Australia and Surrounds, Parkes Pl, Parkes, ACT, Australia Type Listed place Criteria A., D., E., F., G., H. Designated 22 June 2004 Reference no. 105470 References: [1][2][3][4][5][6] The original National Library building on Kings Avenue, Canberra, was designed by Edward Henderson. Originally intended to be several wings, only one wing was completed and was demolished in 1968. Now the site of the Edmund Barton Building. The National Library of Australia (NLA), formerly the Commonwealth National Library and Commonwealth Parliament Library, is the largest reference library in Australia, responsible under the terms of the National Library Act 1960 for "maintaining and developing a national collection of library material, including a comprehensive collection of library material relating to Australia and the Australian people", thus functioning as a national library. It is located in Parkes, Canberra, ACT. Created in 1960 by the National Library Act, by the end of June 2019 its collection contained 7,717,579 items, with its manuscript material occupying 17,950 metres (58,890 ft) of shelf space. The NLA also hosts and manages the renowned Trove cultural heritage discovery service, which includes access to the Australian Web Archive and National edeposit (NED), a large collection of digitised newspapers, official documents, manuscripts and images, as well as born-digital material. Contents 1 History 2 Building 2.1 Reading rooms 3 Collections 3.1 Australian & General Collection 3.1.1 Digital collections 3.2 Asian Collections 3.3 Pictures and manuscripts 4 Services 4.1 Trove 4.2 Membership 5 Directors-General 6 Funding problems 7 See also 8 References 8.1 Attribution 8.2 Bibliography 9 External links History[edit] In 1901 the Commonwealth Parliament Library[7] was established to serve the newly formed Federal Parliament of Australia. From its inception the Commonwealth Parliamentary Library was driven to development of a truly national collection. In 1907 the Joint Parliamentary Library Committee under the Chairmanship of the Speaker, Sir Frederick William Holder defined the objective of the Commonwealth Parliamentary Library in the following words:[8] The Library Committee is keeping before it the ideal of building up, for the time when Parliament shall be established in the Federal Capital, a great Public Library on the lines of the world-famed Library of Congress at Washington; such a library, indeed, as shall be worthy of the Australian Nation; the home of the literature, not of a State, or of a period, but of the world, and of all time. From 1923, two forms of name were used concurrently: Commonwealth National Library and Commonwealth Parliament Library, to designate the national and parliamentary collections respectively.[7] In 1960 the National Library of Australia was created[7] by the National Library Act 1960,[9] and each library became a separate entity.[7] Building[edit] The present library building was opened on 15 August 1968 by Prime Minister John Gorton.[10][11] The building was designed by the architectural firm of Bunning and Madden in the Late Twentieth Century Stripped Classical style. The foyer is decorated in marble, with stained-glass windows by Leonard French and three tapestries by Mathieu Matégot.[12] The building was listed on the Australian Commonwealth Heritage List on 22 June 2004.[5] Reading rooms[edit] The large National Library building is home to various reading rooms and collections. On the ground floor is the Main Reading Room — this is where the bulk of the Library's Internet access terminals are located, and where wireless internet access is available. Services are also delivered on-site from the Newspaper & Family History zone on the ground floor, Special Collections Reading Room on the 1st floor, and Asian Collections on level 3. Collections[edit] Australian & General Collection[edit] The Library collects material produced by Australians, for Australians or about the Australian experience in all formats—not just printed works—books, serials, newspapers, maps, posters, music and printed ephemera—but also online publications and unpublished material such as manuscripts, pictures and oral histories. Hazel de Berg began recording Australian writers, artists, musicians and others in the Arts community in 1957. She conducted nearly 1300 interviews. Together with the Library, she was a pioneer in the field in Australia, working together for twenty-seven years.[13] A core Australiana collection is that of John A. Ferguson.[14] The Library has particular collection strengths in the performing arts, including dance. The Library contains a considerable collection of general overseas and rare book materials, as well as world-class Asian and Pacific collections which augment the Australiana collections. The print collections are further supported by extensive microform holdings. The Library also maintains the National Reserve Braille Collection. As a national library, the NLA is required by legal deposit provisions enshrined in the Copyright Act 1968 to collect a copy of every Australian publication in the country, which publishers must submit upon publication of the material.[15][16] At the end of the Australian financial year of 2018–2019, the National Library collection comprised 7,717,579 items, and an additional 17,950 metres (58,890 ft) of manuscript material.[3] The Library's collections of Australiana have developed into the nation's single most important resource of materials recording the Australian cultural heritage. Australian writers, editors and illustrators are actively sought and well represented, whether published in Australia or overseas. The Library's collection includes all formats of material, from books, journals, websites and manuscripts to pictures, photographs, maps, music, oral history recordings, manuscript papers and ephemera.[17] Approximately 94.1% of the Library's collection had been catalogued by July 2019, a total of 5,453,888 items[3] and these are discoverable through the online catalogue.[18] Digital collections[edit] The Library is a world leader in digital preservation techniques,[19] and has maintained an Internet-accessible archive of selected Australian websites called the Pandora Archive since 1996. The Australian Web Archive, released in March 2019, combines records from PANDORA, the Australian Government Web Archive (AGWA), and other websites published in Australia. In the 2019 federal budget, the government allocated A$10 million to the library, intended to be spread over four years to set up a digitisation fund.[20] As of June 2019[update], the Library had digitised a total of 5,508,008 images.[21] Where possible, these are delivered these directly across the Internet. Since a 2016 amendment to the Copyright Act, all born-digital content must also be deposited in the library (with varying provisions for state libraries as well). The NLA has since May 2019 hosted and managed the National edeposit (NED) service. Libraries ACT, Libraries Tasmania, Northern Territory Library, State Library of New South Wales, State Library of Queensland, State Library of South Australia, State Library Victoria and the State Library of Western Australia are the member organisations of the collaboration.[22][23] Asian Collections[edit] The Library houses the largest and most actively developing research resource on Asia in Australia, and the largest Asian language collections in the Southern hemisphere, with over half a million volumes in the collection, as well as extensive online and electronic resources. The Library collects resources about all Asian countries in Western languages extensively, and resources in the following Asian languages: Burmese, Chinese, Persian, Indonesian, Japanese, Khmer, Korean, Lao, Manchu, Mongolian, Thai, Timorese, and Vietnamese. The Library has acquired a number of important Western and Asian language scholarly collections from researchers and bibliophiles. These collections include: Australian Buddhist Library Collection Braga Collection (Portuguese in Asia)[24] Claasz Collection (Sri Lanka)[25] Coedes Collection (Indo-China)[26] London Missionary Society Collection (China) Luce Collection (Burma) McLaren-Human Collection (Korea)[27] Otley Beyer Collection (Philippines) Sakakibara Collection (Japan) Sang Ye Collection (China) Simon Collection (East Asia) Harold S. Williams Collection (Japan) The Asian Collections are searchable via the National Library's catalogue.[28] Pictures and manuscripts[edit] Play media Discussion of the acquisition and preservation process of Joan Blaeu's Archipelagus Orientalis (1663) by the National Library (2013) The National Library holds an extensive collection of pictures and manuscripts. The manuscript collection contains about 26 million separate items, covering in excess of 10,492 meters of shelf space (ACA Australian Archival Statistics, 1998). The collection relates predominantly to Australia, but there are also important holdings relating to Papua New Guinea, New Zealand and the Pacific. The collection also holds a number of European and Asian manuscript collections or single items have been received as part of formed book collections. The Australian manuscript collections date from the period of maritime exploration and settlement in the 18th century until the present, with the greatest area of strength dating from the 1890s onwards. The collection includes a large number of outstanding single items, such as the 14th century Chertsey Cartulary, the journal of James Cook on HM Bark Endeavour, inscribed on the Memory of the World[29] Register in 2001, the diaries of Robert O'Hara Burke and William John Wills from the Burke and Wills expedition, and Charles Kingsford Smith's and Charles Ulm's log of the Southern Cross. A wide range of individuals and families are represented in the collection, with special strength in the fields of politics, public administration, diplomacy, theatre, art, literature, the pastoral industry and religion. Examples are the papers of Alfred Deakin, Sir John Latham, Sir Keith Murdoch, Sir Hans Heysen, Sir John Monash, Vance Palmer and Nettie Palmer, A.D. Hope, Manning Clark, David Williamson, W.M. Hughes, Sir Robert Menzies, Sir William McMahon, Lord Casey, Geoffrey Dutton, Peter Sculthorpe, Daisy Bates, Jessie Street, and Eddie Mabo and James Cook both of whose papers were inscribed on UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme Register in 2001.[30][31] The Library has also acquired the records of many national non-governmental organisations. They include the records of the Federal Secretariats of the Liberal party, the A.L.P, the Democrats, the R.S.L., the Australian Inland Mission, the Australian Union of Students, The Australian Ballet, the Australian Elizabethan Theatre Trust, the Australian Institute of Urban Studies, Australian Industries Protection League, the Australian Conservation Foundation, and the Australian Council of National Trusts. Finally, the Library holds about 37,000 reels of microfilm of manuscripts and archival records, mostly acquired overseas and predominantly of Australian and Pacific interest. The National Library's Pictures collection focuses on Australian people, places and events, from European exploration of the South Pacific to contemporary events. Art works and photographs are acquired primarily for their informational value, and for their importance as historical documents.[32] Media represented in the collection include photographs, drawings, watercolours, oils, lithographs, engravings, etchings and sculpture/busts.[33] Services[edit] The National Library of Australia provides a national leadership role in developing and managing collaborative online services with the Australian library community, making it easier for users to find and access information resources at the national level. It provides services to libraries and publishers and the general public, with membership available to residents of Australia providing access to additional services.[34][35] Some of the components of the services are:[34] For publishers: Prepublication Data Service,[36] ISSNs and ISMNs for Australian publishers. National edeposit (NED), to fulfill legal deposit obligations.[37] NLA hosts and manages the service, whereby all born-digital content published in Australia, as required by legal deposit legislation under the Copyright Act 1968, is deposited remotely by the publisher, stored and made accessible to member libraries and the public.[23][38][39][22] For librarians: The Australian National Bibliographic Database (ANBD)[40] and offers free access through the Libraries Australia[41] subscription-based service. It is used for reference, collection development, cataloguing and interlibrary lending. National Libraries Gateway. Online, for the general public: The Australian Web Archive, which now incorporates PANDORA (established 1996), the Australian Government Web Archive (AWA) and the ".au" domain archive. National Library of Australia Catalogue, a catalogue of resources in NLA which are available to the general public.[42] Trove[edit] The Trove logo Main article: Trove The online services mentioned above, and more, are accessible via the Trove service, which was launched in 2009. Trove is an online library database aggregator, a centralised national service built with the collaboration of major libraries of Australia.[43] Trove's most well known feature is the digitised collection of Australian newspapers. Most NLA resource discovery services are now fully integrated with Trove. The service is able to locate resources about Australia and Australians, which reaches many locations otherwise unavailable to external search engines.[44] Membership[edit] Free registration with the library is allowed for all Australian residents, with cards sent to a physical address before use is allowed. Membership confers some extra benefits for users of the library, such as requesting items for use onsite in the reading rooms, and access to a select range of licensed electronic resources from offsite, such as the full text of Encyclopaedia Britannica.[45] Electronic copies of some items are able to be ordered, and for members who can visit the library in person, inter-library loans may be obtained to use in the reading rooms.[46] Directors-General[edit] The library seen from Lake Burley Griffin in autumn. The following individuals have been appointed as Director-General or any precedent titles: Directors-General of the National Library of Australia Ordinal Officeholder Title Term begin Term end Time in office Notes 1 Arthur Wadsworth Interim Commonwealth Parliamentary Librarian 1901 1927 25–26 years 2 Kenneth Binns CBE Commonwealth Parliamentary Librarian 1927 1947 19–20 years 3 Harold Leslie White CBE National Librarian 1947 1970 22–23 years 4 Allan Percy Fleming CBE 1970 1974 3–4 years 5 George Chandler Director-General 1974 1980 5–6 years 6 Harrison Bryan AO 1980 1985 4–5 years 7 Warren Horton AM 1985 1999 13–14 years 8 Jan Fullerton AO 1999 2010 10–11 years [47][48] 9 Anne-Marie Schwirtlich 2011 2017 5–6 years [49] 10 Dr Marie-Louise Ayres 2017 present 3 years [50] Funding problems[edit] In 2016, with threatened funding cuts to Trove, a public campaign led to a government commitment of A$16.4 million in December 2016, spread over four years.[44][51] By early 2020, with the surge in demand for all types of digital services, the National Library was having to cope with increasingly dwindling staff resources to develop services on Trove and National edeposit, and undertook a restructure of its staffing and operations.[52] See also[edit] Australia portal Architecture portal List of national and state libraries National and State Libraries Australia Parliamentary Triangle, Canberra Parliamentary Library of Australia References[edit] ^ "NATIONAL LIBRARY ACT 1960 - NOTES". www.austlii.edu.au. Retrieved 31 July 2017. ^ "NLA Annual Report 2015-2016 | National Library of Australia" (PDF). nla.gov.au. Retrieved 25 July 2017. ^ a b c "Collection statistics". National Library of Australia. Retrieved 5 May 2020. ^ "CDP - How we collect". National Library of Australia. Retrieved 31 July 2017. ^ a b "National Library of Australia and Surrounds, Parkes Pl, Parkes, ACT, Australia (Place ID 105470)". Australian Heritage Database. Department of the Environment. Retrieved 22 March 2019. ^ "Our Building". nla.gov.au. National Library of Australia. Retrieved 25 July 2018. ^ a b c d "Commonwealth National Library (Australia) - Full record view". Libraries Australia Search. Retrieved 2 May 2020. ^ "History of the National Library collections until 1980 (extract from Burmester) | National Library of Australia". www.nla.gov.au. Retrieved 2 May 2020. ^ "National Library Act 1960". Federal Register of Legislation. 29 April 2011. Retrieved 2 May 2020. ^ Reid, David; National Library of Australia (1968), Prime Minister John Gorton addressing officials and dignitaries at the opening of the National Library of Australia, Canberra, 15 August 1968, National Library of Australia, retrieved 13 August 2018 ^ National Library of Australia; White, Harold Leslie Sir, 1905-1992 (1968), Publications relating to the opening of the National Library of Australia, 15th August, 1968, retrieved 13 August 2018CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Sue Ebury (2008). The Many Lives of Kenneth Myer. The Miegunyah Press. p. 319. ISBN 0-522-85546-6. ^ Artists' Portraits: selected and introduced by Geoffrey Dutton. Canberra, Australian Capitol Territory: National Library of Australia. 1992. p. 1. ISBN 0642105790. ^ "Ferguson Collection | National Library of Australia". www.nla.gov.au. Retrieved 2 February 2017. ^ "What is legal deposit?". National Library of Australia. 17 February 2016. Retrieved 3 May 2020. ^ "Legal deposit in Australia". National and State Libraries Australia. 1 June 2019. Retrieved 3 May 2020. ^ "National Library of Australia – Our Collections". nla.gov.au. Retrieved 3 August 2012. ^ "Catalogue Home | National Library of Australia". nla.gov.au. Retrieved 12 November 2013. ^ "NLA.gov.au". NLA.gov.au. Archived from the original on 24 August 2011. Retrieved 30 May 2012. ^ "Check Out Australia's Web Archive". Southern Phone. 11 April 2019. Retrieved 8 May 2020. ^ "Digitisation of Library collections". National Library of Australia. 30 June 2019. Retrieved 5 May 2020. ^ a b "What is National edeposit (NED)?". NED. Retrieved 3 May 2020. ^ a b "National Library of Australia Annual Report 2018–2019: 2.5 Strategic Priority Three: Collaborate". Australian Government. Transparency Portal. 30 October 2019. Retrieved 5 May 2020. ^ "NLA.gov.au". NLA.gov.au. 12 December 1984. Retrieved 30 May 2012. ^ "NLA.gov.au". NLA.gov.au. Retrieved 30 May 2012. ^ Coedès Collection, National Library of Australia ^ "NLA.gov.au" (PDF). Retrieved 30 May 2012. ^ Asian collections, National Library of Australia ^ "Portal.unesco.org". Portal.unesco.org. Archived from the original on 4 August 2009. Retrieved 30 May 2012. ^ "The Mabo Case Manuscripts". UNESCO Memory of the World Programme. 16 May 2008. Archived from the original on 19 September 2008. Retrieved 11 December 2009. ^ "The Endeavour Journal of James Cook". UNESCO Memory of the World Programme. 16 May 2008. Archived from the original on 4 August 2009. Retrieved 11 December 2009. ^ "National Library of Australia – Pictures Collection Development Policy". nla.gov.au. Retrieved 3 August 2012. ^ "National Library of Australia – Pictures". nla.gov.au. Retrieved 3 August 2012. ^ a b "Services". National Library of Australia. 23 March 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2020. ^ "Using the library". National Library of Australia. 23 March 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2020. ^ "Prepublication Data Service | National Library of Australia". www.nla.gov.au. Retrieved 9 August 2019. ^ "Legal deposit". National Library of Australia. 23 March 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2020. ^ "Our work". National and State Libraries Australia. Retrieved 3 May 2020. ^ "National edeposit (NED)". National and State Libraries Australia. 30 May 2019. Retrieved 3 May 2020. ^ "NLA.gov.au". NLA.gov.au. 1 October 2007. Retrieved 30 May 2012. ^ "NLA.gov.au". Libraries Australia. Retrieved 30 May 2012. ^ "Services". National Library of Australia. NLA.gov.au. Retrieved 1 February 2016. ^ "National Library unveils web-based treasure Trove". ABC News. 28 April 2010. ^ a b Stainforth, Liz (26 October 2018). "Treasuring Trove: Why Australia's digital heritage platform is so special". Pursuit. University of Melbourne. Retrieved 10 May 2020. ^ "Get a library card". National Library of Australia. Retrieved 10 May 2020. ^ "Copies and interlibrary loans for individuals". National Library of Australia. 23 March 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2020. ^ "HISTORY OF THE LIBRARY". National Library of Australia. Retrieved 1 April 2015. ^ "Friends Farewell Jan Fullerton". National Library of Australia. 15 September 2010. Retrieved 29 September 2010. ^ Library Council Director-General and Executive Member Anne-Marie Schwirtlich, National Library of Australia Archived 27 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine Archived ^ Director-General and Executive Member Dr Marie-Louise Ayres, National Library of Australia ^ Villiers, Annelie de (23 February 2016). "#FundTROVE". Identity & Archives. Retrieved 10 May 2020. ^ Rollins, Adrian (28 February 2020). "Job cuts a 'live possibility' in National Library of Australia restructure". The Canberra Times. Retrieved 9 May 2020. 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en-wikipedia-org-7108	----	Bardiya - Wikipedia Bardiya From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Gaumata" redirects here. See also Gautama. For other uses, see Bardiya (disambiguation). Son of Cyrus the Great King of Kings Bardiya 𐎲𐎼𐎮𐎡𐎹 King of Kings Great King King of Persia King of Babylon Pharaoh of Egypt King of Countries Portrait of the Achaemenid ruler toppled by Darius, as appearing on the Behistun inscription: he was either the legitimate Bardiya, or, as claimed by Darius, an imposter named Gaumāta. King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Reign 522 BC Predecessor Cambyses II Successor Darius the Great Pharaoh of Egypt Reign 525–522 BC Predecessor Cambyses II Successor Darius the Great Burial 522 BC Spouse Phaidyme Issue Parmys Dynasty Achaemenid Father Cyrus II (the Great) Mother Cassandane Religion Zoroastrianism Bardiya (Old Persian: 𐎲𐎼𐎮𐎡𐎹[1] Bạrdiya),[2] also known as Smerdis among the Greeks[3] (Ancient Greek: Σμέρδις Smerdis) (possibly died 522 BC), was a son of Cyrus the Great and the younger brother of Cambyses II, both Persian kings. There are sharply divided views on his life. Bardiya either ruled the Achaemenid Empire for a few months in 522 BC, or was impersonated by a magus called Gaumāta (Old Persian: 𐎥𐎢𐎶𐎠𐎫), until he was toppled by Darius the Great.[4][5] Contents 1 Name and sources 2 Traditional view 2.1 In Herodotus' Histories 2.2 In Ctesias' Persika 3 Modern view 4 Aftermath 5 Bardiya in fiction 6 References Name and sources[edit] The prince's name is listed variously in the historical sources. In Darius the Great's Behistun inscription, his Persian name is Bardiya or Bardia. Herodotus calls him Smerdis, which is the prevalent Greek form of his name; the Persian name has been assimilated to the Greek (Asiatic) name Smerdis or Smerdies, a name which also occurs in the poems of Alcaeus and Anacreon. He is called Tanyoxarces (Sphendadates) by Ctesias,[6] he is called Tanooxares by Xenophon, who takes the name from Ctesias,[7] and he is called Mardos by Justin[8] and Aeschylus.[9] In English-language histories he has traditionally been called Smerdis, following Herodotus' example, but recent histories tend to call him Bardiya.[10][11] Traditional view[edit] Gaumata under Darius I's boot engraved at Behistun Inscription in Kermanshah. The traditional view is based on several ancient sources, including the Behistun inscription[12] as well as Herodotus,[13] in Ctesias,[14] and Justin, although there are minor differences among them. The three oldest surviving sources agree that Gaumata/Pseudo-Smerdis/Sphendadates was overthrown by Darius and others in a coup d'état, and that Darius then ascended the throne. Most sources (including Darius himself, Herodotus and Ctesias) have Darius as part of a group of seven conspirators. In Greek and Latin sources, Darius subsequently gained kingship by cheating in a contest. Bardiya was the younger son of Cyrus the Great and a full or half-brother of Cambyses II. According to Ctesias, on his deathbed Cyrus appointed Bardiya as satrap (governor) of some of the far-eastern provinces.[15] According to Darius the Great, Cambyses II, after becoming king of Persia but before setting out for Egypt, killed Bardiya and kept this secret. However, according to Herodotus (who gives two detailed stories), Bardiya went to Egypt with Cambyses and was there for some time but later Cambyses sent him back to Susa out of envy, because “Bardiya alone could draw the bow brought from the Ethiopian king.” Herodotus then states that "Cambyses had a dream in which he saw his brother sitting on the royal throne. As a result of this dream Cambyses sent his trusted counselor Prexaspes from Egypt to Susa with the order to kill Smerdis" (i.e., Bardiya).[16] Bardiya's death was not known to the people, and so in the spring of 522 BC, a usurper pretended to be him and proclaimed himself king on a mountain near the Persian town of Paishiyauvada. Darius claimed that the real name of the usurper was Gaumata, a Magian priest from Media; this name has been preserved by Justin but given to his brother Cambyses (called Patizeithes by Herodotus), who is said to have been the real promoter of the intrigue. According to Herodotus, the name of the Magian usurper was Oropastes, but according to Ctesias it was Sphendadates.[citation needed] Gaumata being trampled upon by Darius the Great, Behistun inscription. The Old Persian inscription reads "This is Gaumâta, the Magian. He lied, saying "I am Smerdis, the son of Cyrus, I am king"."[17] The despotic rule of Cambyses, coupled with his long absence in Egypt, contributed to the fact that "the whole people, Persians, Medes and all the other nations," acknowledged the usurper, especially as he granted a tax relief for three years.[18] Cambyses began to march against him, but died in the spring of 522 BC in disputed circumstances. Before his death he confessed to the murder of his brother, and publicly explained the whole fraud, but this was not generally believed. Nobody had the courage to oppose the new king, who ruled for seven months over the whole empire. The new king transferred the seat of government to Media. A number of Persian nobles discovered that their new ruler was an impostor, and a group of seven nobles formed a plot to kill him. They surprised him at a castle in Nisa, home of the Nisean horses, and stabbed him to death in September 522 BC. One of the seven, Darius, was proclaimed as ruler shortly after.[citation needed] While the primary sources do not agree on the names and many other details, the three oldest surviving sources (Darius himself, Herodotus and Ctesias) all portray Gaumata/Pseudo-Smerdis/Sphendadates as an imposter who usurped the throne by posing as one of the sons of Cyrus the Great, i.e. as one of the brothers of Cambyses II. In Darius' trilingual Behistun inscription, the prince being impersonated is named "Pirtiya" in Elamite, "Bardiya" in Old Persian, and "Barziya" in Akkadian. In Herodotus' Histories, the prince and his imposter have the same name (Smerdis). For Ctesias, Sphendadates poses as 'Tanyoxarces'. Other Greek sources have various other names for the figure being impersonated, including 'Tanoxares', 'Mergis' and 'Mardos'.[19]:98 In Herodotus' Histories[edit] Phaedyme is sent by her father Otanes, to check if King Smerdis has ears under his turban, as the suspected imposter was known to have had them cut off in punishment for a crime. She found that indeed the king did not have ears anymore, which proved that he was an imposter, and justified the coup in favour of Darius I. "The struggle between Gobryas and the false Smerdis", 19th century print. Bardiya / Smerdis in relation to his successor Darius the Great in the Achaemenid lineage. A longer version of the story appears in Book 3 of Herodotus' Histories, written c. 450 BC. That story there (3.1–38, 3.61–88) can be roughly summarized as follows:[20][13] While in Egypt, Cambyses wounds the thigh of the sacred bull worshipped as the god Apis, and when the sacred bull dies from the wound, Cambyses loses his already tenuous grasp on sanity (3.27–3.30). Jealous of his brother Smerdis' skill with a particular bow brought from the king of Ethiopia, Cambyses sends Smerdis back to Persis. Cambyses then has a dream in which Smerdis would supplant him, so he sends a henchman to murder him secretly (3.30). The assassination succeeds and is meant to be kept secret. One of the few that know of Smerdis' death is Patizeithes, the steward of Cambyses' palace at Susa. That steward has a brother who greatly resembles Smerdis in appearance, and whose name is also Smerdis (3.61.1). The steward then puts his brother on the throne, and has him pretend that he is the brother of Cambyses. The false Smerdis succeeds in the deception by not allowing anyone who knew the real Smerdis into his presence (3.61). Still in Egypt, Cambyses learns of the false Smerdis, and knowing that the real Smerdis is dead, recognises the deception. Cambyses then readies his army to return to Susa, but while mounting his horse accidentally injures his thigh with the point of his sword. Cambyses dies from the wound a few days later (3.63–3.66). On his death bed, Cambyses perceives Smerdis as favouring a return to Median hegemony (3.65). The false Smerdis then continues to rule at Susa for some time, and gains support from everyone except the Persians when he grants a three-year military draft and tax exemption to the various peoples of the empire (3.67). Meanwhile, Otanes, a nobleman of Persis, suspects that the king is not the brother of Cambyses, but rather the Smerdis whose ears Cyrus had commanded be cut off "for some grave reason" (3.69.6). To confirm his suspicion, Otanes asks his daughter Phaidyme – who is a member of the harem and thus has access to the king – to check whether the man has ears. Phaidyme does as asked, and one night while the king is asleep, confirms that the king does not in fact have ears. His suspicions confirmed, Otanes then gathers six noblemen and plots to get rid of the false Smerdis. A seventh nobleman, Darius, arrives at the capital shortly thereafter, and is then included in the group. The seven conspirators charge into the chambers of the king, and while five deal with the guards, Darius and Megabyzus kill the false Smerdis and a companion. Five days later, after the tumult has died down, the seven meet again to discuss a suitable form of government (3.80–82). After some discussion over the merits of democracy (proposed by Otanes) and oligarchy (proposed by Megabyzus) and monarchy (proposed by Darius), four of the seven vote in favour of a monarchy. They then decide to hold a contest whereby whichever of them got his horse to neigh first after sunrise shall become king. Darius cheats and ascends the throne (3.84–3.87). In Ctesias' Persika[edit] Ctesias' version (c. 400 BC) runs as follows (XI/F9.8 and XII/F13.11-17, via Photius Bibl. 72):[21][14] King Cyrus, as he lay dying, appointed his elder son, Cambyses, to the throne and appointed his younger son, Tanyoxarces, governor of the provinces of Bactria, Chorasmia, Parthia, and Carmania. Shortly after Cambyses ascends the throne, a certain Sphendadates who had been whipped by Tanyoxarces for some offence, informs Cambyses that his brother is plotting against him. As proof of this he declares that Tanyoxarces would refuse to come if summoned. When Tanyoxarces does not immediately accede to the summons, Cambyses begins to believe Sphendadates, who then begins to slander Tanyoxarces more freely. By the time Tanyoxarces finally arrives, Cambyses is determined to put him to death, but hesitates. Sphendadates suggests that, since he (Sphendadates) looks very much like Tanyoxarces, he could take the prince's place. Cambyses agrees, and Tanyoxarces is killed by being forced to drink bull's blood. Sphendadates then takes the place as governor of the eastern provinces. Five years later, while in Babylon, Cambyses accidentally wounds himself in the thigh, and dies eleven days later. Upon hearing of Cambyses death, Sphendadates (alias Tanyoxarces) returns to the capital and succeeds Cambyses. Meanwhile, Izabates, a confidant of Cambyses who knew of the killing of Tanyoxarces, is on his way with the body of Cambyses. Upon arriving at the capital and finding Sphendadates on the throne, Izabates exposes the fraud. Then, seven noblemen (among them Darius) conspire against Sphendadates. The seven are admitted to the palace by a co-conspirator, where Sphendadates is then killed. The seven then decide to hold a contest whereby whichever of them got his horse to neigh first after sunrise shall become king. Darius gets his horse to be the first to neigh (F13.17: "the result of a cunning stratagem") and he ascends the throne. Modern view[edit] Medieval image of Bardiya. Most modern historians do not consider Darius' version of events convincing, and assume that the person who ruled for a few months was the real son of Cyrus, and that the story of his impersonation by a magus was an invention of Darius to justify his seizure of the throne.[22][23][24][25][26] The key argument against a fabrication is that there is no evidence for it, and lacking further discoveries that view "must remain hypothetical".[27] However the idea that Gaumata was a fabrication is nonetheless appealing because "it was vital for a man like Darius, who had no particular rights to the throne, to invent a character (Gaumāta) condemned for his acts against gods and men."[28] There are some implausibilities in the official story, e.g. the impostor resembled the real Bardiya so closely that most of his wives did not spot the difference, except for queen Phaidyme.[29][30] Darius often accused rebels and opponents of being impostors (such as Nebuchadnezzar III) and it could be straining credulity to say that they all were.[11][25][31] Aftermath[edit] In the next year, another person claiming to be Bardiya, named Vahyazdāta (Old Persian: 𐎺𐏃𐎹𐏀𐎭𐎠𐎫[32]) rose against Darius in eastern Persia and met with great success, but he was finally defeated, taken prisoner and executed.[33] Perhaps he is identical with the King Maraphis "the Maraphian," name of a Persian tribe, who occurs as successor in the list of Persian kings given by Aeschylus.[34] The real Bardiya had only one daughter, called Parmys, who eventually married Darius the Great. Some contracts dating from his reign have been found in Babylonia, where his name is spelt Barziya or Bardiya.[35] Darius says that Bardiya destroyed some temples, which Darius later restored. Bardiya also took away the herds and houses of the people, which Darius corrected once he gained the throne.[36] The death of the false Bardiya was annually celebrated in Persia by a feast called "the killing of the magian," (Magiophani) at which no magian was allowed to show himself.[37][38] Bardiya in fiction[edit] This episode is dealt with by Gore Vidal in his novel Creation. He takes the view that the person who ruled for a few months was the real Bardiya. "The impostor magician Smerdis" is mentioned in the short story by Jorge Luis Borges, Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius. He is the only historical character that the protagonist is able to recognize when discovering the article on the fictitious nation of Uqbar, and it is stated that his name has been invoked mainly as a metaphor. References[edit] ^ Akbarzadeh, D.; A. Yahyanezhad (2006). The Behistun Inscriptions (Old Persian Texts) (in Persian). Khaneye-Farhikhtagan-e Honarhaye Sonati. p. 59. ISBN 964-8499-05-5. ^ Kent, Roland G. (1950). Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon. ^ "Bardiya | king of Persia". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-08-14. ^ Akbarzadeh, D.; A. Yahyanezhad (2006). The Behistun Inscriptions (Old Persian Texts) (in Persian). Khaneye-Farhikhtagan-e Honarhaye Sonati. p. 60. ISBN 964-8499-05-5. ^ Kent, Roland G. (1950). Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon. ^ Ctesias Pers. 8 ^ Xenophon Cyrop. Vin. 7.ii ^ Justin i.9, Mergis ^ Aeschylus Pers. 774 ^ Leick, Gwendolyn Who's Who in the Ancient Near East ^ a b Van de Mieroop, Marc A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 B.C. 2nd edition (Oxford 2007) pp. 290–291 ^ livius.org/articles/place/behistun ^ a b A. D. Godley Herodotus : The Persian Wars : Books 3–4 (Cambridge, MA 1921) pp. 38–41, 76–117 Commons:File:Smerdis(Herodotus).pdf ^ a b Ctesias; Stronk, Jan P., tr. (2010), Ctesias' Persian History: Introduction, text, and translation, Wellem, pp. 323–325. ^ Ctesias, Persica: Book 11, Fragment 9, taken from Photius' excerpt https://www.livius.org/ct-cz/ctesias/photius_persica.html#%A78 cf. Xenophon Cyrop. vin. 7, if ^ Dandamaev, M. (2001). "Bardia". Encyclopaedia Iranica. 3. New York. ^ Behistun, minor inscriptions DBb inscription- Livius. ^ Herodotus III.68 ^ Briant, Pierre (2002), From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire, Eisenbrauns. ^ Herodotus; Godley, A. D., tr. (1931), Herodotus, with an English translation by A. D. Godley, London: Heinemann. ^ Ctesias; Nicols, Andrew, ed., tr. (2008), The Complete Fragments of Ctesias of Cnidus, University of Florida (PhD thesis), pp. 25, 90, 92–93. ^ Olmstead, A. T. (1959), History of the Persian Empire, University of Chicago Press. ^ Axworthy, Michael (2008), Iran: Empire of the Mind, New York: Basic Books. ^ Van De Mieroop, Marc (2006), A History of the Ancient Near East (2nd ed.), Blackwell. ^ a b Holland, Tom Persian Fire ^ Allen, Lindsay (2005), The Persian Empire, London: The British Museum press, p. 42. ^ Dandamayev, M. A. (1988), "Bardiya", Encyclopedia Iranica, vol. 3, fasc. 8, Costa Mesa: Mazda, pp. 785–786. ^ Briant, Pierre (2000), "Gaumāta", Encyclopedia Iranica, vol. X, fasc. 3, New York: Routledge, Kegan Paul, pp. 333–335. ^ http://www.persepolis.nu/queens.htm#phaidyme ^ Bourke, Dr. Stephen (chief consultant) The Middle East: Cradle of Civilisation Revealed p. 225, ISBN 978-0-500-25147-8 ^ Behistun Inscription 4.1 (52) ^ Akbarzadeh, D.; A. Yahyanezhad (2006). The Behistun Inscriptions (Old Persian Texts) (in Persian). Khaneye-Farhikhtagan-e Honarhaye Sonati. p. 115. ISBN 964-8499-05-5. ^ Behistun Inscription ~ 40 if. ^ Aeschylus Pers. 778 ^ For the chronology, see Parker & Dubberstein, Babylonian Chronology. ^ Behistun Inscription i.14 ^ Herodotus III.79 ^ Ctesias Pers. 15  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Smerdis". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Bardiya Achaemenid dynasty Born: ?? Died: 522 BC Preceded by Cambyses II King of Kings of Persian Empire 522 BC Succeeded by Darius the Great Pharaoh of Egypt 522 BC Wikimedia Commons has media related to Smerdis. v t e Median and Achaemenid kings Family tree Median (728–550 BC) Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Achaemenid (550–330 BC) Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Nothus Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Italics indicate kings not directly attested and so possibly legendary. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC v t e Cyrus the Great Teispids, Achaemenid Empire Family Cambyses I Mandane of Media Cassandane Amitis Children Cambyses II Bardiya Atossa Artystone Battles Persian Revolt Hyrba Persian Border Pasargadae Pteria Thymbra Sardis Opis Related "Cyrus" (name) Pasargadae Cyrus Cylinder Cyropaedia Tomb Cyrus in the Bible Cyrus's edict Cyrus in the Quran Dhul-Qarnayn Kay Bahman Cyrus the Great Day Cyrus the Great (screenplay) Ciro riconosciuto Category Authority control GND: 119178729 LCCN: nr94018056 VIAF: 26945854 WorldCat Identities: viaf-35260727 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bardiya&oldid=1001268234" Categories: 6th-century BC Kings of the Achaemenid Empire 6th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Achaemenid dynasty of Egypt Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt 522 BC deaths 6th-century BC murdered monarchs Murdered Persian monarchs Deaths by stabbing in Iran Impostor pretenders Persian masculine given names Achaemenid dynasty 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en-wikipedia-org-7111	----	Ny-Hor - Wikipedia Ny-Hor From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ny-Hor Ni-Hor, Pharaoh Reign c. 3200–3175 BC (Predynastic Period) Predecessor Hedju Hor? Successor ? Royal titulary Horus name Ḥr-nw Children Unknown Father Unknown Mother Unknown Ny-Hor in hieroglyphs Ny-Hor Ḥr-nw Map of locations for Pharaoh Ny-hor Ny-Hor was a possible pharaoh from the Predynastic Period. His name means "The Hunter" according to egyptologist Werner Kaiser.[1] He may have ruled during the 31st century BC.[2] Contents 1 Name 2 Evidence 3 Biography 4 References Name[edit] Although the interpretation is controversial, it is believed that his Horus name Ḥr-nj / Ḥr-nw means He belongs to Horus / Hunter of Horus.[3] However, unlike later pharaohs, his serekh name does not include a Horus falcon. The exact reason for this is unknown, but it may be because he predates this practice, or that he was not considered a king, as was later understood. Variant names include: Ni-Hor, Hor-ni, or Ny-Hor. Evidence[edit] Ny-Hor's name appears predominantly on clay and stone vessels found in tombs near Tarkhan, and in Tura[4] and Tarjan[5] and Nagada. Evidence of his rule is very poor and its existence is doubted by some of the research, and opinion about the actual reading and interpretation of the name are divided. Some Egyptologists believe that Ny-Hor is an alternative naming for the Pharaoh Narmer.[6] William Matthew Flinders Petrie was undecided due to the improperly executed representation of the character assigned this king and was unwilling to ascribe him as Pharaoh Narmer.[7] Thomas Schneider, Günter Dreyer, and Werner Kaiser, on the other hand, consider that Ny-Hor was not Narmer as bones found in the graves of Tarkhan predate the time in which Narmer lived.[8] Egyptologist Ludwig D. Morenz, on the other hand, warns against specifying any concrete option, since the evidence is too tenuous at this time. Biography[edit] Very little is known of his rule, and his existence remains controversial. Horus Ny (Ny-Hor) was a (possible) ruler of Lower Egypt during the Pre-Dynastic era who lived, according to tradition, and reigned around 3200–3175 BC in. Inscriptions of his name come from Tarkhan, Tura, and Naqada. It is assumed that he would have been from a rival dynasty to that of the rulers of Thinis, 150 years before those kings conquered his lands and established Dynasty I. References[edit] ^ "Ancient Egypt - Dynasty 0". www.narmer.pl. Retrieved 2019-10-06. ^ "Egypt - Protodynastic Period - 3200 to 3100 BCE". www.soaringweb.org. Retrieved 2019-10-06. ^ Ludwig David Morenz: Bild-Buchstaben und symbolische Zeichen. Die Herausbildung der Schrift der hohen Kultur Altägyptens (= Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis 205). Fribourg 2004, ISBN 3-7278-1486-1. page 31-32. ^ Werner Kaiser & Günter Dreyer: Umm el-Qaab - Nachuntersuchungen im frühzeitlichen Königsfriedhof. page. 211–269. ^ W. Kayser, G. Dreyer: Umm el-Qaab. Nachuntersuchungen im frühzeitlichen Königsfriedhof. 2. Vorbericht, Mitteilungen des deutschen archäologischen Instituts Kairo 38 (1982), p.p. 211-269 ^ Toby: A. H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt, London 1999, S. 54, ISBN 0415186331 ^ Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt - Strategy, Security and Society. Routledge, London 1999, ISBN 0-415-18633-1. page 54. ^ Werner Kaiser, Günter Dreyer: Umm el-Qaab. Nachuntersuchungen im frühzeitlichen Königsfriedhof. 2. Vorbericht. In: Mitteilungen des deutschen archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo. (MDAIK) Nr. 38, von Zabern, Mainz 1982. page 211–269. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ny-Hor&oldid=997882543" Categories: 32nd-century BC Pharaohs 32nd-century BC rulers People whose existence is disputed Predynastic Egypt Predynastic pharaohs Hidden categories: Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related 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en-wikipedia-org-712	----	Category:5th-century BC murdered monarchs - Wikipedia Help Category:5th-century BC murdered monarchs From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 10th BC 9th BC 8th BC 7th BC 6th BC 5th BC 4th BC 3rd BC 2nd BC 1st BC 1st Pages in category "5th-century BC murdered monarchs" The following 9 pages are in this category, out of 9 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). A An Ruzi D Duke Dao of Qi J Duke Jian of Qi S King Sheng of Chu King Si of Zhou Sogdianus X Xerxes I Xerxes II Y Duke You of Jin Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:5th-century_BC_murdered_monarchs&oldid=951296184" Categories: Ancient murdered monarchs Murdered monarchs by century 5th-century BC monarchs 5th-century BC deaths Hidden categories: CatAutoTOC generates no TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية فارسی 한국어 Edit links This page was last edited on 16 April 2020, at 13:26 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7150	----	Talk:Xerxes I - Wikipedia Talk:Xerxes I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This is the talk page for discussing improvements to the Xerxes I article. This is not a forum for general discussion of the article's subject. Put new text under old text. Click here to start a new topic. Sign your posts by typing four tildes (~~~~). New to Wikipedia? Welcome! Learn to edit; get help. Assume good faith Be polite and avoid personal attacks Be welcoming to newcomers Seek dispute resolution if needed Article policies No original research Neutral point of view Verifiability Find sources: Google (books · news · newspapers · scholar · free images · WP refs) · FENS · JSTOR · NYT · TWL Xerxes I has been listed as a level-4 vital article in People. If you can improve it, please do. 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If you would like to participate, you can visit the project page, where you can join the project and see a list of open tasks.PhoeniciaWikipedia:WikiProject PhoeniciaTemplate:WikiProject PhoeniciaPhoenicia articles  C  This article has been rated as C-Class on the project's quality scale.  Mid  This article has been rated as Mid-importance on the project's importance scale.   Archives Talk:Xerxes I of Persia/Archive 1 Page views of this article over the last 90 days: Contents 1 The empire on which the sun never sets 2 Esther 3 Persian in Arabic script 4 Pronunciation 5 The 2007 film 300 6 The Great? 7 Question on Birth Year of Xerxes I 8 Xerxes king in Babylon before Darius died? 9 Pronounciation 10 Salamis 11 Ethiopians? 12 Artaynte 13 Clarify Actual Ramification of Thermopylae 14 Is the phrase "Born in the Purple" appropriate? 15 What are the sources for the discussion of the Athens fire? 16 Problem in "Youth and rise to power" section 17 Name "Xerxes I" or "Xerxes the Great" 18 Orphaned references in Xerxes I 19 bad data 20 Name in Farsi (Modern Persian) is omitted at the top ?! 21 Error in the content 22 WP:OR in the Cultural depictions section 23 Names in the lead 24 Hieroglyphs 25 Contradiction: Artaxerxes I of Persia uses a different photograph of the same rock relief 26 Another possible duplicate picture 27 Who is the Real Fourth? 28 Dupelicate images 29 Herodotus The empire on which the sun never sets[edit] Georg Büchmann traces the idea to a speech in Herodotus' Histories made by Xerxes I of Persia before invading Greece:[1] γῆν τὴν Περσίδα ἀποδέξομεν τῷ Διὸς αἰθέρι ὁμουρέουσαν. οὐ γὰρ δὴ χώρην γε οὐδεμίαν κατόψεται ἥλιος ὅμουρον ἐοῦσαν τῇ ἡμετέρῃ[2] ("we shall extend the Persian territory as far as God's heaven reaches. The sun will then shine on no land beyond our borders")[3] Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_empire_on_which_the_sun_never_sets Please add the above to the article. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 87.99.30.61 (talk) 08:51, 22 July 2010 (UTC) Esther[edit] Curious as to why there is no discussion in the main article regarding the traditional identification of Xerxes I as the Persian King named Ahasuerus in the biblical book of Esther. There are countless books and websites that reference this traditional connection, so why not at least mention it? A few references found within a few minutes of googling: Princeton grad student wiki, Identification of Darius the Mede by George R. Law p 95, Encyclopedia Britannica Vol I 1890 p 422, Encyclopaedia perthensis, or, Universal dictionary of the arts, sciences, literature, etc, Volume 9 page 82 2nd Ed 1816, and of course The Jewish Encyclopedia Regardless whether these sites embody full academic merit, or whether this identification is historically factual at all, the longstanding traditional association and present-day debate, in and of themselves, deserve mention. 70.66.148.34 (talk) 23:02, 25 September 2013 (UTC) "Xerxes is also retarded and idiotic to be weird the king in the biblical Book of Esther" There's no evidence to suggest this is him. It's just pointless speculation. As a matter of fact.. there's little evidence to suggest a lot of things in the biblical book of whoever, but... anyway :P This is probably one of the Artaxerxes's who are often confused with Xerxes, such as the king called "that wicked man" by Egyptian priests, was not Xerxes as the cartouche would suggest but most likely Artaxerxes III. But I'm just a fucking High School student, so what would I know. While I'm all for punishing ignorance, perhaps a more civil discussion is in order. For example, we could trim the above post right at, "There's no evidence to suggest this is him." I'd rather see evidence from both sides instead of useless remarks. 71.118.143.244 09:02, 11 March 2007 (UTC) As far as the connection of Ahasuerus to Xerxes, I think it would be useful to consult the Septuagint (Greek)translation of Esther, where Ahauerus is called Artaxerxes (Septuagint; Esther 1:1,2,9...etc.; 2003 Hendrickson Publishers, ed. by Sir Lancelot C.L. Brenton). If Ahasuerus had been Xerxes himself, you'd think his name would have translated as such into Greek. Historydude1978 For the two comments above I would council the authors that nameing in the ancient world can be difficult. Josephus complaining that the Greeks renamed everyone to suit their own tongue, which makes a hard job even harder: he himself noting this. Not to mention the Alexandrian Library going up in flames repeatedly, doesn't make it any easier. Please see my additions to the section (~ in the Bible) and you will find that it is linguistically possible to trace Ahasuerus. It is even logical as you progress in a westerly direction from Persia across linguistic groups: hence Persian is transliterated into Babylonian, which is altered to suit it's sister Hebrew language which was then immortalised in Latin by the Romans and appears in Jerome's Latin Vulgate version of the Bible; which in turn was probably maintained in this form for consistency in the King James Version, even though the then commonly available Septuagint’s clearly renders 'Αρτάξερξου (Artaxerxes). As regarding Historydude1978's comment regarding the LXX version's Artaxerxes rendering, please note that the academic community considers this to be nothing other than a simple scribal mistake; probably similar to it's rendering that Haman was of ό Μακεδων (Macedonian) descent without a single precedent (LXX Esther 9:24). But here is the clincher: Taking an atheists point of view so as to assume that the book of Ester was nothing other than fiction for the audience of the day, then the story would be implausible and would even be rejected as 'historical fiction'; furthermore it would be unworthy of the effort required to maintain ancient handwritten documents. Why? Because key characters would be too old for historical consistency. The key being "a certain Jew, whose name was Mordecai, ... a Benjamite; Who had been carried away from Jerusalem with the captivity..." of "Jeconiah", also known as Jehoiachin. Esther 2:5-6 Using the Archaeological Babylonian Chronicle, we find that Nebuchadnezzar defeated the defending Egyptians in the late spring or early summer of 605 BC opening Syria and Palastine to the Babylonian arms. Eventually in Nebuchadnezzar's eighth year of his reign by Hebrew reckoning (2 Kings 24:12), he carried away the captivity of 'Jehoiachin'; which the author of Ester claimed Mordecai had been part of. This means that if Mordecai had been a new born infant in his mother's arms, he would have survived the entire Babylonian period and reached to the very height of the Persian Empire during the reign of Xerxes 'the Great'. Yet if Ahasuerus were Artaxerxes I, Mordacai would be even older. If the story is set in the reign of Xerxes, Mordecai would be no less than 115 years old! But if we argue for Artaxerxes, Mordecai would be no less than 136/7 years old! Hence this would explain why he Mordecai is found sitting at the king's palace gateway, as he was just too old for anything else! Neither are these old ages unknown in the ancient world, for Herodotus speaks of the Ethiopians (Cushites) regularly reaching 120 years of age. While these considerations are by no means conclusive, that does make a Xerxes rendering to be the more plausible. Secondly the feast of Purim exerts the strongest evidence for the validity of the Book of Esther, as it is a living memorial to the things contained in the manuscript. To start this festivity at a much later date one would have to deceive an entire nation simultaneously to enact an historical memorial festivity of genocidal proportions. It would be like trying to tell our American friends that they never had a war with Great Britain, or that their Independence Day was not actually on the 4th of July! --Avanduyn 05:21, 11 October 2007 (UTC) Another possible discrepancy I've found is that the article on Haman from the Book of Esther mentions that he is generally thought to be Xerxes I. The story of Haman and the timeline don't seem to support this. Thoughts? Saturn 5 19:25, 10 September 2007 (UTC) As regarding your comment on Haman being Xerxes, well, people always love the fanciful... the article gives no credible reference other than a questionable public opinion confinded to limited circles. Neither will you even find a hint of such ideas in the academic literature. --Avanduyn 05:21, 11 October 2007 (UTC) Whether you belive the Book's events happeend or not the Author's intent was clearly to Identify Xerxes, the Septuigant was the orign of the mistakeing him for Artexerxes, but his 1 refrence in Ezra shows he reigne dbetween Darius and Artxerxes. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.144.33.65 (talk) 06:00, 21 December 2010 (UTC) Persian in Arabic script[edit] Why should the modern Persian form of the name be given in Arabic script at the beginning of the article? Persian wasn't written in Arabic script until a thousand years after he was dead... AnonMoos 05:09, 12 February 2006 (UTC) idk - its not arabic script that's the script the present persians can read. it uses arabic letters but it is persian/farsi. I bet you know that. -Mohseng 14:58, 27 April 2007 (UTC). Don't worry coz In Linguistics, scripts are the least worthy elements of a language, you can write the same language in almost any scripts without any changes in the language itself. " I added the name in Persian using the current Persian alphabet which is a revised version of the Arabic alphabet with a different grammar and a handful of added symbols created to fit the sounds that come with the Persian language. Many people whether native speakers or not, who study Persian and would like to search for sources written in Persian, can this way know how the name is written in Persian. Many Iranians and other Persian speakers have written about this matter and these sources have not all been translated. " —Preceding unsigned comment added by خرمدین۸۹ (talk • contribs) 20:57, 27 March 2010 (UTC) First of all, this article on Wikipedia reads as though it was written by a 10 year-old. Secondly, I find it interesting that you "scholars" are so wise as to know in advance which historical documents are legitimate and which are not. You discount the book of Esther out of hand while accepting conflicting stories found in various Greek and Roman histories. Your prejudices are both obvious and irrational. Weak sauce, to be sure. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 173.164.20.110 (talk) 08:52, 5 May 2013 (UTC) Pronunciation[edit] How is the name Xerxes pronounced in English? --Cotoco 05:16, 21 October 2006 (UTC) in English (I'm Aussie so non-rhotic): IPA /'zəːcsiːz/ (how you'd say 'zerk-sees') (note: Americans would probably put an 'r' at the end of the first syllable) but how is it pronounced in persian? Danlibbo 09:09, 12 November 2006 (UTC) Actually Americans say "zerk-sees" too, but I've heard it said "zur-sees". 71.0.240.88 05:24, 29 January 2007 (UTC) Odd, Ive ONLY ever heard americans pronounce it Zur-sees. odd...--71.97.138.104 (talk) 19:53, 28 April 2008 (UTC) Persians don't call him Xerxes, they call him as it's written in the article's Lead (Khashayar-shah)Lordpezhman 21:30, 16 March 2007 (UTC) Everyone (I live in the US) I have ever heard say this pronounced it zerk-sees. J.delanoygabsadds 20:42, 28 April 2008 (UTC) Bold text==Xerxes = "King of Heroes" (?)== Actually, it doesn't, and it's nonsense to say it does. Xerxes' name in Old Persian (Khshayārshā, not Khashâyârshâ like the article says) almost certainly means "ruling man". The "shāh" stated as maning "king" is Persian, not Old Persian. Shāh is short for Old Persian khshāyathiya. Thus, Xerxes' real name would be Khshayār-khshāyathiya, which we know is not the case (and it would sound ridiculous, anyhow). Scholars believe Khshayārshā is made from the Old Persian prefix khshaya-, which means "king" or "ruling", and arshan-, which means "man". In the persian wikipedia it's written: نام خشایارشا از دو جزء خشای (شاه) و آرشا (مرد) تشکیل شده و به معنی «شاه مردان» است Translated it means, that the name khashayarshah is composed of two words, khashay (king) og arshah (man), combined it means something like king of men. Is the persian wikipedia wrong? Is it "Ruler of heroes" as the english wikipedia states? And the is Xšayāršā pronounced khashayarshah? Anyone knows? Mr Mo 22:19, 14 May 2007 (UTC) The 2007 film 300[edit] Note: discussion of 300 (film) belongs at Talk:300 (film). Former discussion here has been moved to that talkpage, where it may be relevant. I removed the pop image. Rant about the apparently monumentally forgettable movie does not belong in this article. --Wetman 03:01, 16 March 2007 (UTC) "...your moving of the contents of the Xxs talkpage to talk:300 was very ill-advised. In case somebody tries to re-add a similar image later, a record of the previous arguments made on the subject would be useful." This sensible suggestion was made at User talk:Wetman by Hornplease 04:23, 16 March 2007 (UTC) (Copied here by Wetman 04:37, 16 March 2007 (UTC)) I think a movie version picture of Xerxes has a very good place in this article. If someone wants to use the single image next to the popular culture section, then I say good on them. JayKeaton 12:16, 24 March 2007 (UTC) Adding an image of a 7-foot androgynous man with obscene amounts of piercings and jewelry and hardly any clothes from a work of fiction seems like the worst possible candidate for an image to be placed in a factual, historical article.--Charibdis 23:24, 16 April 2007 (UTC) "A 7-foot androgynous man with obscene amounts of piercings and jewelry and hardly any clothes from a work of fiction" best comment ever. But I must disagree with your point; the popular culture section is not historical and the picture would work well. 069952497a (talk) 16:52, 1 February 2013 (UTC) a looser in fight may make a giant or devil from a winner of war they did so.they must have rationalized their weakness.and they have to do it now. when persians lived in civilized world they lived in their caves or on top of the trees so they must create some thing to be proud of it .if iwas them i would do so. they have to make a history. they are so hopless thet they heve to cheat.they wish they could change the reality. poor people!! It's not about what he looks like, it's the fact that it is a representation of Xerxes in modern mass media JayKeaton 15:23, 20 April 2007 (UTC) Not of the historical Xxs, it isn't. Hornplease 19:38, 20 April 2007 (UTC) Oh please. So should we now discriminate against including mentions of other historical figures in popular culture sections of Wikis if we don't like the way they're visually depicted?! If so, we're going to have to re-do just about every WP entry on pre-modern historical figures. The fact is that neither you nor I know if the real Xerxes was or wasn't "a 7-foot tall androgynous man with obscene amounts of piercings and jewelry and hardly any clothes". The photographs from that era are all rather blurry. The ONLY depictions we have of him are the schematical images of him that only differentiate him from all other depictions of other men in his milieu by adding kingly accouterments. For all we know (and it's very likely), he had an immense hook nose, was missing a few front teeth, had a bald patch, was 5-foot 2, and spoke with a lisp. The only salient fact for this WP entry is that Xerxes is depicted in "300" doing what Xerxes is historically recorded as having done at Thermopylae. In that sense, it is the "historical Xerxes". That's the point of including the citation of the movie here. Bricology 03:47, 6 June 2007 (UTC) Errr, what other kind of "XXs" page is there, exactly? The Lzbth 2 page has a cartoon image of her and a photo of her being played in a movie, and Lzbth onest has actress's playing her. TELrnc has film poster images of himself. If your worrying about historical slander, then I would hate to break it to you but there is no such thing. Besides, slander is something you say or do, something in print or on a webpage is actually libel. But he's dead and been dead for quite some time. The fact is, this is the defining image of Xerxes 1 for the modern age and is probably the only image of him in a motion picture for the past 2500 years. JayKeaton 14:40, 21 April 2007 (UTC) When there's a page on "Ten doot tall androgynous Xerxes", you can put it there. Unless you're claiming that Helen Mirren looks as much like L2 as Rodrigo Whatever did our best guess of XtG? Oh you're not? OK, then. Hornplease 07:44, 26 April 2007 (UTC) elizabeth II has no comic image on her page not does it has a photo of her being played in a movie, and by the way even if she did, theres still around 10 other pictures of her here, about elizabeth I, there is not one image of an actress playing her, but about 5 of them and TE lawrence displays the poster for the critically acclaimed and most famous movie by david lean (which is one of historys most important movies btw). Regarding Xerxes I, there is 2 pictures of old representations of him (in one of them you can see his back) and one for the highly criticized by historians flick 300, in which xerxes was so completely redone one has to wonder if its fictional one instead of being the historical xerxes I. As per the consensus here, the re-added image has been removed. Hornplease 19:48, 7 July 2007 (UTC) Xerxes wasn't androgynous he was eccentric in the film but he was still obviously a man! 69.209.222.187 19:21, 12 August 2007 (UTC) There is another film featuring Xerxes, "One Night with the King." I prefer that image to the one of "300." Here he is sensitive, sensual, attractive but not yet the warrior King that he would become later. It all balances out. —Preceding unsigned comment added by PEACE BE UNTO YOU (talk • contribs) 18:30, 9 September 2007 (UTC) " This is a scientific discussion page, not a ring were we would fight our flavour of Hollywood costumes. The Hollywood film "300" is a perfect example of Orientalist. Any scholar can prove to you with a thousand sources why the film has nothing to do with Iran or Persia. During the time of the Film, Islam did not yet exist, nor had Arabs any presence in that region, the film features a lot of Islamic elements. Khashayar Shah/ King Xerxes did not resemble the character of the film at all, no source, visual, oral or written tradition refers to such an image as that of the film. The film is part of a campaign on portraying the Middle East and Central Asia as negative, this has been done for years. " Not without my daughter" "The Wrestler" "Midnight Express" and of course the classical movies of the past. P.S: Let's keep it friendly and professional, God bless." —Preceding unsigned comment added by خرمدین۸۹ (talk • contribs) 21:06, 27 March 2010 (UTC) The Great?[edit] As an ancient historian, I dispute this epithet being given to Xerxes and cannot recall it ever being used about him in the ancient or modern works relating to the Persian Empire. It is certainly applicable to his grandfather Cyrus, who founded the Persian Empire, but not to this man. I would therefore propose removing all references to him as "the Great". Simply being known as the "Great King", which the early Persian Kings were called, does not make him "great". bigpad 11:06, 7 August 2007 (UTC) Well, a search for the phrase "Xerxes the great" but excluding "the Great King" phrase in Google Books returns about 700 results. It may not be common usage, but it is not unknown. Hornplease 16:24, 13 September 2007 (UTC) Doesn't make it correct though. If you want to say sth like "sometimes known as 'Xerxes the Great'," that's probably ok bigpad 23:33, 22 September 2007 (UTC) Friends, reading over this dispute I see validity to the original argument but find some narrowness in it at the same time. While intermediately trained in the ancient Greek language, I can not say I have read every work nor speak with absolute authority as I still prefer to read English, but it may be so that Xerxes' contempories failed to title him "the Great"; yet that does not make him unworthy. The title "του μεγάλου βασιλέως" (the great king) carries the obvious and simple overtones of: "the king of kings," "Ruler of the World" as used for "Artaxerxes the great king" in the LLX version of the book of Ester (which I believe to be a scribal mistake for Xerxes I - see the latter part of the article '~ in the Bible'). But note that this is vastly different from the salutation Cyrus takes for himself as in Ezra 1:2; "Κύρου του βασιλέως Περσων," (i.e. Lord / Master of the kingdom of the Persians). Considering that this is after the fall of Babylon, Cyrus, who we would not hesitate to call 'great' did not call himself great; even after this victory! Nor was Cyrus called 'great' by Ezra in the reign of Artaxerxes I Longimanus: even though he was certainly worthy. We also have those such as Antiochus 'The Great' who may have been addressed and known by that title by his contempories and those following him, but he was anything but worthy: for he was adversely involved in the increase of Roman dominion over Macedonia. So, it seems to me that superfluous salutations mean very little, what matters is the benefit of hindsight. Thus History is the great judge of us all and we have come to call him "The Great" in memory if his ambitious designs, the vastness of his arms, his successful submission of the rebellions, the wealth of his reign situated at the hight of the Persian Empire - even though it may have been ill fortuned and perhaps unsuccessful. This title also contrasts him from others which happened to bear his name: for his attempts and deeds were far greater than any other Xerxes that appeared in the theatre of history. Hence, while I acknowledge the original point, I must state my vote for leaving the title of Xexres 'the Great' unmolested. Regards to you all. --Avanduyn 05:07, 11 October 2007 (UTC) Wow I was just about to start a section on this but bigpad beat me to it. No matter what ancient Persians, Greeks and Germans called him, what matters here is what modern English-speakers call him. "Xerxes the Great" apparently exists on the internet but it has significantly limited use and shouldn't be preferred over plain Xerxes I. Yet some editors insist on using the former when linking to this article. Miskin 13:23, 10 November 2007 (UTC) well we might as well start arguing about Alexander the "great", and how "great" he and his army were. The "greatness" of a person comes from speaker. I find it very offensive as Persian to hear people calling Alexander or Chingiz khan great, but never the less I go with it.I'm gonna put the neame Xerxes the great back up. Ddd0dd (talk)Ddd0dd —Preceding undated comment was added at 19:34, 13 February 2009 (UTC). Question on Birth Year of Xerxes I[edit] this is a very false and icorrect article do not use in any form this will get you a very bad grade if u use this in a report and to prove it scroll to the bottom of the page you will notice it says he was born in 465 B.C. The correct birth date of xerxes was in 520 B.C big difference right? this article is very faulty and misprinted —Preceding unsigned comment added by 66.252.54.145 (talk) 02:29, 14 December 2007 (UTC) I think you will find that there is no contradiction at all my friend. The article never claimed that he was born in 465, but rather that he died in that year. --Avanduyn (talk) 23:45, 9 January 2008 (UTC) I am looking for a historical reference that Xerxes was about 35 when his dad died. Can anyone help? Dandamayev and the Britannica claim it without giving the reference. Andrejanna (talk) 13:29, 7 April 2013 (UTC) ok, I found. According to Herodotus (7.2.2) Xerxes was born in the early part of the reign of Darius, his father.Andrejanna (talk) 14:47, 7 April 2013 (UTC) Xerxes king in Babylon before Darius died?[edit] Jean-Louis Huot wrote an Encyclopedia Britannica article in which he states that in 486 BC, "Xerxes was about 35 years old and had already governed Babylonia for a dozen years." I haven't been able to find any reference to this piece of trivia in other encyclopedias, any idea where Huot got it from? If so, is it worth mentioning here? jdbartlett (talk) 17:38, 16 June 2008 (UTC) Pronounciation[edit] It is requested that one or more audio files demonstrating correct pronunciation of this article's title be uploaded to Wikimedia Commons and included in this article to improve its quality. Please see Wikipedia:Requested recordings for more on this request. Can somebody provide an .ogg file with the pronunciation. Even though, I know that the pronunciation of Xerxes comes to zurk-sees, all other Wikipedians who read this article may not understand the pronunciation. A pronunciation would be greatly appreciated. Mr.TrustWorthy----Got Something to Tell Me? 01:52, 8 August 2009 (UTC) There is already a phoenetic pronunciation given in the 'Names and etymology section; The name Xerxes (English pronunciation: /'zɝksiːz/) comes, via Latin, from Ancient Greek: Ξέρξης, which in turn derives from Old Persian: 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠 (Xšayāršā). Note that the IPA link does explain pronunciation. I've added the {{|Reqaudio-pr}} template here, to make the request.  Chzz  ►  08:55, 11 October 2009 (UTC) Salamis[edit] I'm confused why this sentence is in the article. Not only does it adopt an argumentative point of view towards unnamed historians, but it directly contradicts the article that it links to, which espouses the commonly held view that Salamis was one of the most pivotal battles in world history. Xerxes withdrew personally with much of his army after this defeat and left the conquest of Greece to his subordinate. The defeat at Plataea could not have occurred without this victory. (The Battle of Salamis (September 29, 480 BC) was won by the Greek fleet. Although the loss was a setback, it was not a disaster as some Greek historians have claimed, and Xerxes set up a winter camp in Thessaly.) —Preceding unsigned comment added by Khadgar1337 (talk • contribs) 06:51, 31 January 2010 (UTC) Ethiopians?[edit] Under "Invasion of the Greek mainland" it is suggested that Xerxes wishes to punish amongst others the Ethiopians. I think someone has confused Eretria and Eritrea here, the people involved were the Eretrians. See Herodotus' Histories, Book 6, chapter 43. Regards, Teun, 82.169.201.114 (talk) 20:55, 2 February 2010 (UTC) Arab writing was not used in Old Persian period. It is awfully inappropriate in the name of Xerxes. --217.140.233.210 (talk) 19:10, 31 December 2010 (UTC) Artaynte[edit] does this stub make any sense, is it even true?Mercurywoodrose (talk) 06:39, 22 June 2011 (UTC) Clarify Actual Ramification of Thermopylae[edit] "After Thermopylae, Athens was captured and the Athenians and Spartans were driven back to their last line of defense at the Isthmus of Corinth and in the Saronic Gulf. The delay caused by the Spartans allowed Athens to be evacuated." At best this statement is highly debatable; I'd say it was flat out incorrect. Heroic and inspiring as it was, the Spartan's delay at Thermopylae is not generally considered to have been strategically important (see the page on Thermopylae for the full analysis). The Persians were still some distance away from Athens and were not going terribly fast, so 3 days did not make the difference that allowed the evacuation of the city. If someone has sources that say otherwise, please cite for this particular section. The Cap'n (talk) 16:51, 9 August 2011 (UTC) Is the phrase "Born in the Purple" appropriate?[edit] This phrase in the first sentence feels awkward and pretentious. It also feels wrong in that it may not be culturally appropriate. My sense is that the color purple was symbolic of royalty in Europe, but I have doubts as to whether this was true to the Persians at this time period (if ever). Seems like the article is using European/Western culture to describe Persian culture as if there is some kind of common bond between them. In any case, the phrase creates distance between the reader and the article and serves no constructive purpose.Jonny Quick (talk) 04:29, 7 November 2011 (UTC) What are the sources for the discussion of the Athens fire?[edit] In section 2.2 Thermopylae and Athens, the claim is made that it was equally likely the Athenians burned athens than it was the persians. The source is "persian scholars" but no citation is given. Can someone clarify where this information came from? I think it is reasonable, but I would love a source. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Luke643 (talk • contribs) 14:26, 26 November 2012 (UTC) Problem in "Youth and rise to power" section[edit] The second paragraph of the Youth and rise to power section, beginning "Artabazanes claimed the crown as the eldest of all the children," directly contradicts the third paragraph, which states "Xerxes was crowned and succeeded his father in October–December 486 BC[7] when he was about 36 years old.[3] The transition of power to Xerxes was smooth...." The Artabazanes linked to in the second paragraph ruled in 221 BCE, according to his Wikipedia article, while Xerxes I's reign began in 486 BCE, according to this article. The first source in the second paragraph, [5] What Do I Know About Iran No. 75, by Reza Shabani does exist but I can't find an English copy I am able to access after a cursory search (I don't have a strong interest in this article, this was just an obvious error). The second source, [6] Olmstead: the history of Persian empire, is not listed in the Bibliography and when I click on the hyperlink simply brings me back to this article. I'm pointing all this out so that someone with more time/motivation/access/expertise than I can check up on these sources, remove the second paragraph if they don't pan out, or re-word the second and/or third paragraphs if they do. 65.33.41.171 (talk) 04:29, 5 January 2013 (UTC) As at October 2016 this article still appears internally inconsistent. Compare also (A) "Xerxes was crowned... when he was about 36 years old"; and (B) "Born 518 BC" and reigning from 486 BC, which would mean he was crowned at the age of very late 32 or early 33 years old. Name "Xerxes I" or "Xerxes the Great"[edit] A new user was edit warring over the naming here. Per discussions at talk:Darius I, both that article and this one should use the naming "Xerxes I" and not "Xerxes the Great". I'm not seeing anywhere that indicates that consensus has changed, so I believe that this edit needs to be undone. --- Barek (talk • contribs) - 18:16, 18 November 2013 (UTC) Orphaned references in Xerxes I[edit] I check pages listed in Category:Pages with incorrect ref formatting to try to fix reference errors. One of the things I do is look for content for orphaned references in wikilinked articles. I have found content for some of Xerxes I's orphans, the problem is that I found more than one version. I can't determine which (if any) is correct for this article, so I am asking for a sentient editor to look it over and copy the correct ref content into this article. Reference named "books.google.nl": From Achaemenid Empire: Joseph Roisman,Ian Worthington A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. pp. 342-345. John Wiley & Sons, 7 jul. 2011 ISBN 144435163X From Iran: The Sword of Persia: Nader Shah, from Tribal Warrior to Conquering Tyrant. Retrieved 27 May 2014. I apologize if any of the above are effectively identical; I am just a simple computer program, so I can't determine whether minor differences are significant or not. AnomieBOT⚡ 13:40, 18 July 2015 (UTC) bad data[edit] The data box at the top should list the official queen Amestris, not Esther, unless there's hard evidence that he had a queen other than Amestris. The Esther identification is not supported within the article by current archaeological data, only by "yestercentury" material which may be speculative or overturned by modern research. 108.18.136.147 (talk) 12:13, 23 August 2015 (UTC) Name in Farsi (Modern Persian) is omitted at the top ?![edit] It is very strange and irregular to not have the name of this Iranian King in Farsi (Modern Persian) at the top of this article. M. Neshat 08:09, 9 October 2015 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Mneshat (talk • contribs) I don't see anything irregular in that, this is en.wiki not fa.wiki, and Xerxes was an Achaemenid Persian, not Iranian. To the same extent, people like for example Augustus or Caesar were ancient Romans, not Italians, thus there is obviously no need of their modern Italian names in their articles. Khruner (talk) 06:27, 13 October 2015 (UTC) I respectfully and strongly disagree. Your argument is flawed, and derogatory. According to User:Khruner, and in reference to the page as is, mentioning and spelling the name of this Persian King in Greek language and alphabet (in addition to English) is acceptable, while it should be forbidden in Persian. Why does he have no objection to those references to his name at the top?! That is clearly a double standard. I personally think that it is appropriate to see the Greek name and corresponding spelling in regard to the historical context; but according to his logic, then this page should belong to the Greek version of Wikipedia! Editor of this page should seriously note that his deletion is in contrast to the norm applied in comparable pages for other kings of the same period in the "English version" of Wikipedia. Furthermore, I find his deletion of the "Persian name of this Iranian King" in this manner and on this basis a violation of Wikipedia norms of civility and Ethics. M. Neshat.Ph.D. M. Neshat 00:33, 14 October 2015 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Mneshat (talk • contribs) "Editor of this page should seriously note that his deletion is in contrast to the norm applied in comparable pages for other kings of the same period in the "English version" of Wikipedia." I don't see any similar thing in other Achaemenid rulers, just check the several Darius and Artaxerxes. If there is one who is changing the norm applied, this is you, not me. "I personally think that it is appropriate to see the Greek name and corresponding spelling in regard to the historical context." So what are we talking about? The same could not be applied with Farsi, is quite obvious. Xerxes it the name the anglophone world use for him, and is clearly about the same name/derived by the old Greek one. Like I said before, I never dream to put/see the Italian name Ottaviano Augusto just next to Augustus' English and Latin names in his article. Your are accusing me of being derogatory and using double standard, but in light of what I said, I do not see any of the two things. Khruner (talk) 07:22, 14 October 2015 (UTC) You are out of line! You have deliberately stated that centuries of history of a Nation should be wiped out and strictly renamed according to you (Quote from User:Khruner : “Xerxes was an Achaemenid Persian, not Iranian”) This is similar to saying Hanoverians or Stuarts were not British. I am stunned as to how you can contradict yourself on the record in black and white as such (in reference to other spellings that you don't mind on that page i.e. Greek, Hebrew, other). You state that the norm that I am referring to in other pages does not exist and bring forth the example of Artaxerxes I. I exactly stated it because of those pages. You should refer to those pages and see that the Persian spelling of the name is stated, as it should be. If selectively deleted in some pages, it will be reinstated. This is not a complicated matter! It is apparent that you do not have an objective opinion on the matter and should not have the authority to selectively delete accurate and informative information that is normally included in such biographies in comparable pages (I can provide you with a ridiculously long list if necessary). Again, your statement and actions are biased and against the code of Ethics of Wikipedia (not to mention others). M. Neshat, Ph.D. M. Neshat 08:51, 14 October 2015 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Mneshat (talk • contribs) MneshatI don't think that personal attacks will resolve anything here, nobody is biased in anyway against anybody here: in general disagreements do not stem from deeper rejections between the interlocutors. I would like to recenter the discussion around the problem at hand, namely the presence of the name of Xerxes in Farsi on the article. For the sake of simplicity, we should be able to decide this here without refering to other articles. First, I believe the Greek name is given because it is how a number of ancient sources name Xerxes and it may be useful to be able to identify Xerxes when reading these historical sources. Second, the name of Xerxes in his ancient language has to be given (if possible). In particular I think that this "real" name (i.e. the one he would have recognized), if known, would be more appropriate/exact as the name of the article than Xerxes. Practically speaking however, modern English speakers recognize "Xerxes" and would certainly not recognize the Ancient name, explaining why this was chosen as article name. In constrast, I do not see the necessity for his name to be given in modern Farsi since it cannot be found in historical documents referring to the king nor does it correspond to the real name of Xerxes. I don't see how this is biased: Xerxes was certainly a mighty Emperor whose legacy lives on in modern day Iran, just as Caesar is remembered in Italy. Iry-Hor (talk) 09:49, 14 October 2015 (UTC) I don't see how you could find statements such as “I respectfully disagree,…” as personal attacks. On the contrary, User:Khruner statements such as "what are you talking about?" or “Xerxes was an Achaemenid Persian, not Iranian” is false, biased, derogatory and out of line. I have no hesitation to reinstate it. As I mentioned earlier, the name of this king is cited in this page in numerous languages, but claimed prohibited to appear in Persian by the above user. This should be a very simple, small and straight forward matter. If not, then those who do not see it as such must have some other issues that should be resolved elsewhere. As to your comments, you have stated that “for the sake of simplicity” we should not compare this page with other comparable pages in English Wikipedia. I do not want to be nor am that simplistic. The question is already answered and applied in many comparable pages of the English version of Wikipedia for many years . Users in question should not have the authority to delete an accurate, historically relevant, informative, and routinely permitted addition to the page based on ad hoc arguments or bias. M. Neshat, Ph.D. M. Neshat 12:22, 14 October 2015 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Mneshat (talk • contribs) Sure. And with "You are out of line!" you surely meant "I'll buy you a beer", not to be confused with a personal attack. And with "You should refer to those pages" you intended something more than Cyrus II, Cambyses II and Artaxerxes I who are the only Achaemenids that I checked with the Parsi name? "I can provide you with a ridiculously long list if necessary". Amusing. Longer that the hundreds of pharaohs without modern Egyptian names, all the Roman emperors without Italian names, nearly all the Assyrian and Babylonian kings "lacking" their modern corresponding? "the name of this king is cited in this page in numerous languages". Yes, English because we are on en.wiki, Old Persian because it was his original name, Greek because his modern name is known thanks to the Greek translitteration, and Hebrew - but below, and that is the weakest one maybe - because he appears in the Bible. Anyway the only way here is to ask an admin what should be done. Khruner (talk) 12:53, 14 October 2015 (UTC) Admins really have little role in a dispute like this. As an experienced editor I can't see a reason for the Farsi translation to be in the English language version of Wikipedia. Iry-Hor is correct in saying that we should settle this here without referring to other articles. However the title of this article is correct for the English Wikipedia because it's the most commonly used name in English reliable sources. As an experienced editor I can also say that where something isn't covered by guideline or policy, decisions are generally made by agreement on the talk page. Now, with my Admin hat on, I will say that Mneshat needs to read WP:AGF and WP:NPA and stop discussing other editors. Doug Weller (talk) 18:50, 14 October 2015 (UTC) As mentioned earlier, Editor of this page and other supervising editors should clarify why: "an accurate, historically relevant, informative, and routinely permitted addition in comparable pages" should be selectively denied to me and prohibited to the public to benefit by. I am very glad to see all forms of the name, but why such insistence in prohibiting the language of the country that the king belongs to, while many others are permitted. Why in fact insist to inaccurately and actively dissociate him from that language. That is just plain wrong information and inconsistent with Wikipedia AGF and NPA. Again the comment of User:Khruner was incorrect and offensive. He blatantly states that the King in question was not a historical king of Iran. Is the editor defending this view? That should be answered! Please note that all arguments of his have been answered, have been refuted, and proven ad hoc. Also, I don't understand the statement that Admins have little say in matters like this. This issue is simple and minor. Why the name of a Persian King not allowed in the language of his country with such severity? That is not consistent with rules of Wikipedia as practiced. Respectfully, M. Neshat, Ph.D. M. Neshat 23:45, 14 October 2015 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Mneshat (talk • contribs) Mneshat there are obsviously two issues here: one about Xerxes name, the other about what Khruner said. Regarding the first issue, user Khruner has detailed the reasons motivating the presence of Xerxes' name in English, ancient Greek, Old Persian and ancient Hebrew on the article. Note how this is a rather restricted list, far from "all forms of the name": after all Xerxes was reigning over a vast empire and one could argue that Xerxes' name should be given in all the ancient languages spoken in his realm. In particular, before one includes modern Persian, these languages should take precedence and there are also more possible candidates, e.g. Avestan for obvious reasons. Seeing that few versions of the name are given, and that only the English one is modern, it appears reasonable that the only modern version given to English readers is in English. Regarding the second issue, it is best to always assume good intent, I honestly don't think Khruner comments were meant to be derogatory and I cannot imagine how not having Xerxes' name in modern Persian would be a targeted attempt at dissociating Xerxes from modern Iran. By the way, in my opinion the best way to strenghtened the relation Xerxes / Iran is not his name in modern Persian but you could write a small section on Xerxes' legacy (which is obviously lacking in the current article) in modern Iran and beyond. Now this would definitely be detailed, reliable, encyclopedic way of relating Xerxes and Iran! Iry-Hor (talk) 07:14, 15 October 2015 (UTC) I respectfully disagree. In the current page, the name is spelled from Egyptian to Hebrew to Greek to English and other; but was not allowed as in other pages (as other Iranian, Chinese, Turk, or ... Emperors) to be spelled in the language of the land. That cannot be right, according to innumerable examples in Wikipedia. M. Neshat, Ph. D. 71.103.146.125 (talk) 07:40, 15 October 2015 (UTC) And all we respectfully disagree with your point of view. So I was offensive by saying that Xerxes was an Achaemenid Persian king rather than Iranian, thus belonging to a nation that was created centuries after his life and death, cool. Again, it's pretty the same of calling Montezuma I a Mexican or Vespasianus an Italian: you can do that with your friends, but is basically incorrect to write that on an encyclopedia. About the name, we already explained to you why English, Old Persian, Greek (and Hebrew) forms suits well here, and common sense clearly suggests that Farsi name only suits on fa.wiki instead. Every issue that you've raised has been treated (quite easy, these are always the same), so honestly I don't get why you insist in that. (On a separate note, if you check better, before I didn't said "what are you talking about?" but rather "what are we talking about?". Quite different.) Khruner (talk) 09:09, 15 October 2015 (UTC) No, Not Correct! As in Wrong! There are very few Iranians and especially even fewer non-Iranians that agree with you. You deliberately have stated as the basis of your argument that "this King is not a historical King of Iran". Again, that is derogatory and highly incorrect. (As a side note, this exchange is a great historical reflection of realities of OUR times in History! Name of a Persian King is prohibited to appear in Persian in Wikipedia?!) Much of what "All=2" have stated above is justification for presence of the name in multiple languages. I couldn't agree more! That is my argument! The issue is not in what languages the name appears as is in the page(Egyptian, Hebrew, Greek, English, Other). The issue is in what language it was prohibited to appear(8 characters in the language of its Nation) and the manner that it was deleted. This prohibition is not acceptable based on argument and precedence (not to mention Humanity). Your arguments are ad hoc, in the true Scientific and Philosophical sense of the word. Briefly, it justifies what it wants by selectively omitting or including information. (Wikipedia: ad hoc means the addition of extraneous hypotheses to a theory to save it from being falsified. (as in: lets not compare this page with hundreds of other pages that have no problem with this issue in Wikipedia) Ad hoc hypotheses compensate for anomalies not anticipated by the theory in its unmodified form. ( As in: justification for its name to appear in any language, prominently in Egyptian, but not allowed in Persian because Xerxes was not a historical king of Iran?!) Scientists are often skeptical of theories that rely on frequent, unsupported adjustments to sustain them.) In your argument, you justify spelling his name in multiple languages (I support that), but you find it so absolutely not permissible for it to be even mentioned in 8 Persian characters (I resent and will not allow since clearly permitted elsewhere as it obviously should be) As a scientist, it is in that sense that I object. As a Human, I believe there should be no objection for the name of a historic king to appear in the language of his land for reference, as is very routinely practiced in Wikipedia. M. Neshat, Ph.D. M. Neshat 21:04, 15 October 2015 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Mneshat (talk • contribs) Let me try to explain it one more time, in a possibly even simplier form. You are accusing me of not accepting the name of Xerxes - may he forgive us for all that bothering - written in the language of his nation. This is clearly wrong, I could not agree more in putting this name, but someone before me and you already did that, and there it is: Old Persian: 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠. Check any Roman emperor, king, or consul or whatever, I challenge you in find one of them on en.wiki bearing his Italian name besides the English and Latin ones. And this is just ok because we are on en.wiki, not it.wiki. But you're pretending that THE SAME thing should be done with Achaemenid kings. Claiming that Xerxes was "an historical king of Iran" is exactly the same that calling Vespasianus "an historical emperor of Italy" which is simply meaningless (not sure is someone ever claimed such a title, maybe in Early Middle Ages) as Italy and Roman empire clearly are different entities, just like Iran and Achaemenid empire. So, to your "hundreds of other pages that have no problem with this issue in Wikipedia", I have already opposed with the hundred of pharaohs (English + Ancient Egyptian), Roman emperors (English + Latin), kings of Babylonia (English + Akkadian) and Assyria (English + Akkadian/Aramaic)... And I find natural that the same thing should be followed for the Achaemenid kings (English + Achaemenian, also called Old Persian + Greek for the aforementioned reason). Another thing; considering read Wikipedia:Signatures, and please stop putting the name again without having reached a consensus here in the talk page. Khruner (talk) 09:15, 16 October 2015 (UTC) PS. I just noticed that the Farsi name is already present since before you put it the first time (de facto duplicating it), just check the note 1. I am inclined to take it as an acceptable compromise. Khruner (talk) 09:22, 16 October 2015 (UTC) I share Khruner's conclusions, furthermore I insist that if you or anyone whishes to stress the connection between Xerxes and Iran, the best way to do so is to write a seciton on Xerxes' legacy in the modern world, which would nicely present ans justify a discussion of the perception of Xerxes in modern Iran as well as give its Farsi name. I cannot see how this is not acceptable to Mneshat other than Mneshat may not be willing to do so given the amount of efforts this involves. Yet it seems a far better way to talk about Xerxes and Iran than putting Xerxes' Farsi name all over the place. Iry-Hor (talk) 12:02, 16 October 2015 (UTC) Thanks Iry-Hor. Just a clarification Mneshat, please don't take my point of view as a form of hostility towards Persia and/or Iran, because it is not. I feel a sincere esteem towards ancient Persia, almost equal to that I feel for ancient Egypt. It may not interest you at all, but one of the nicknames used by me is Dareios, in honor of the ruler of this former empire who I admire most. Khruner (talk) 12:51, 16 October 2015 (UTC) Again, let me strongly reinstate my position to “All=2” in this forum. You can call yourself whatever you want, but the basis of your argument is false and derogatory. You have deliberately and repeatedly stated that the king in question is not a historical king of Iran thereby his name should not appear in the language of his land as is routinely permitted elsewhere in Wikipedia for Persian and non-Persian personalities. Everybody knows that this is incorrect and plain rubbish. To say he is not a historical king of Iran is similar to saying David is not a king of Isreal, or Stuarts were not British. “Xerxes is not a historical king of Iran” is the justification of these two users to censor through persistence 8 Persian characters to appear next to the name of a Persian King. Not allowed! The template for documenting king David’s name in Wikipedia is appropriately: David (/ˈdeɪvɪd/; Hebrew: דוד, Modern David, Tiberian Dāwîḏ; ISO 259-3 Dawid; Arabic: داوُود‎ Dāwūd; Syriac: ܕܘܝܕ Dawid; Ancient Greek: Δαυίδ; Strong's: Daveed). Note in this and hundreds of other examples that the old and modern language are referenced together for the information of the reader. Why then here 8 characters in Persian should stimulate such overt reaction. All that I insist, and I will insist, is that the Persian name next to the cuneiform to not be deleted! That is the norm practiced in Wikipedia! Wikipedia should clarity its position in this regard for the record and for posterity. A user blatantly states as the basis of his argument that Xerxes I is not a historic king of Iran. On that basis an alphabet that he thinks threatening is thereby banned for appearing next to his name, while the Egyptian, Hebrew, Greek, English and other are prominantly permissible. That is plain non-sense bias (for a lack of a better term), and against the code ethics of this entity! One should not be allowed to censor accurate, informative, otherwise allowed information in comparable pages based on a fallacy! That is the same as saying I cannot state the circumference of the earth because someone believes earth is flat! — Preceding unsigned comment added by Mneshat (talk • contribs) 03:58, 17 October 2015 (UTC) Above statement was autosigned, but for clarity it was from Mehran Neshat, Ph. D. M. Neshat 04:30, 17 October 2015 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Mneshat (talk • contribs) You know pal, I'm getting tired of this sterile, unidiretional conversation. So do the hell you want with that, put the name in Ostrogothic, Adunaic and Pinguese too, I really care no more, anything but not to hear hear that whining again and always the same playing-victim script. Again, read Wikipedia:Signatures. And don't remove reliable sources as you did before. When you're done, since you're so loyal to this guideline - which, as Doug Weller said above, does not (yet) exist - you can start putting Italian names on the Roman kings, consuls and finally emperors; a kick-off as a present, Romulus is Romolo. Happy editing. Khruner (talk) 09:21, 17 October 2015 (UTC) Thank you! But, I didn't understand what you meant by "don't remove reliable sources"? I thought the whole issue was you removing the Persian spelling of his name. Also, because of your previous statements, please refrain to refer to me in terms such as the ones you started the paragraph and then throughout. Thank You, again. M. Neshat, Ph.D. M. Neshat 09:56, 17 October 2015 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Mneshat (talk • contribs) The Iranica (reference 1). You removed it before, now it is recovered. Please learn how to sign, four of this ~ in a row. Ph.D. and other degree abbreviations are quite unnecessary here, we are not signing academic or institutional documents: on wiki we are just a bunch of good fellas behind a nickname, eager to contribute in something we know (or think to know). Khruner (talk) 10:28, 17 October 2015 (UTC) I did put 4 of ~ in reference to your suggestion, and I did not delete ref. 1! M. Neshat, Ph.D. M. Neshat 11:30, 17 October 2015 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Mneshat (talk • contribs) There's clearly no consensus for this, just steamrollering by a single, and apparently single-purpose, account. William Avery (talk) 10:13, 17 October 2015 (UTC) It was not possible to reach a consensus, so the wisest thing to do seemed to me to give up and play Huniepop. I give you the baton. Khruner (talk) 10:28, 17 October 2015 (UTC) Mr. Avery, I don't understand. Not clear or intelligently stated. M. Neshat, Ph.D. M. Neshat 11:57, 17 October 2015 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Mneshat (talk • contribs) To William Avery, Khruner is right: Mneshat is playing deaf, he hasn't replied to any of our arguments and keep stating his over and over again (peppered with personal attacks, mostly against Khruner). For example, Mneshat keeps stating that our opinion is a deliberately biased one or that the name is allowed in many languages, when we have proven that the list only included English, Ancient Persian, Ancient Greek and Hebrew and for each we have given good reasons. I can understand that our arguments haven't convinced Mneshat (although it is clear he never wanted to discuss the issue), however Mneshat has also refused two middle ground solutions proposed by Khruner and I. Thus, I am not ready to let Mneshat have his way only because we are speaking to a wall. We should simply vote on this issue and the majority will decide whether the name in modern Farsi should be included or not. I vote against. Iry-Hor (talk) 08:21, 18 October 2015 (UTC) Iry-Hor, I have to admire your ability to stand up to this discussion. I don't have such diplomatic and English abilities and in the long term my sarcasm can lead me to a block maybe, so I gave up. Now Mneshat is blocked until this afternoon indeed, but I am sure as hell that he will resume his edits once unblocked even more stubborn and with more conspiracy-victimism than before, thus making any discussion here perfectly pointless. Khruner (talk) 09:44, 18 October 2015 (UTC) My only reason for becoming involved here is that I thought Khruner provided a very thorough reasoning that agreed with my initial intuitive reaction: that this addition is not needed. The "playing deaf" by Mneshat was compounded by that editor proceeding as though pushing another editor into a state of exasperation, whereby they thought that their best option was to retire, was equivalent to forming an editorial consensus. With regard to the substantive question of adding the name in Farsi I take it as a given that, as part of the lead, the parenthesis in question must be kept strictly within bounds and free of unjustifiable matter. I feel that to the overwhelming majority of readers of the English Wikipedia the Farsi script will be nothing more than a meaningless 'squiggle', even less justifiable than the illuminating hypothetical additions of modern Italian to Roman emperors that Khruner raised. This doesn't rule out some relevant addition to the body of the article describing the Farsi, if it can be sourced. I am in no position to write or source it, but it might give information about whether the original meaning is still apparent, whether it sounds similar to the original, and so on. William Avery (talk) 11:48, 18 October 2015 (UTC) William Avery Look I agree with your last observation: I have proposed to Mneshat that a section on Xerxes' legacy could be written, which would include a discussion on the perception of Xerxes in modern Iran as well as something about his Farsi name (and its pronunciation etc.). Although I understand that Mneshat may be reluctant to write such a section given the effort it requires, I don't understand why he doesn't seem to have even considered the option (as seems to be the case since he hasn't even mentioned this proposition in his responses). Let's hope Mneshat will respond this time (in particular I would really like the article to be improved!) Iry-Hor (talk) 17:27, 18 October 2015 (UTC) Mr. William Avery and other users above should please seriously note that addition of 8 characters in Persian as the name of this Persian king is not a "Squiggle" as RUDELY stated above. Such reference is routinely presented in multiple relevant languages in Wikipedia biographies for the information of readers and to allow cross referencing (see above arguments and many examples including King David:(/ˈdeɪvɪd/; Hebrew: דוד, Modern David, Tiberian Dāwîḏ; ISO 259-3 Dawid; Arabic: داوُود‎ Dāwūd; Syriac: ܕܘܝܕ Dawid; Ancient Greek: Δαυίδ; Strong's: Daveed)). Modern Persian in the case of this Persian king is a very appropriate reference to appear next to Egyptian, Hebrew, Greek, English and other. Much is written academically in this language in reference to this king, and this language has been the language of his land for centuries. This is a very neutral format and in practice in Wikipedia without issue by millions and millions; but found not permissible and repeatedly censored by above 3 users. To reply again: 1) Above user has stated as the basis of his argument that "Xerxes I is not a historical king of Iran". This statement is not only offensive, but importantly: False! If one is or pretends to be that ill-informed, then Wikipedia - History of Iran is a good starting point to educate themselves. 2) Other arguments above expand on justification for all languages, but then go on to exclude Persian. In this regard, I find his argument ad hoc. I couldn't agree more that all languages present are informative and their reference justified. But, the issue is not what languages it appears in, but what languages it is prohibited to appear. Such selective exclusion is ad hoc. I have previously explained this matter (see above) for those familiar with the Scientific sense of the term! 3) The other argument has been that this is English Wikipedia, so why write in Persian there. I don't think this requires explanation for many, but for the sake of completeness: Text and Sentences are not written in Persian in this page. They are in English. That is why it is called English Wikipedia. Here, the name has appeared in multiple languages for reference as this is an encyclopedia. That is the norm practiced for Biographies of ancient personalities of any background. Above user is confused about this distinction. However, I find it most peculiar that he does not mind any other language (Egyptian, multiple forms of Hebrew, multiple forms of Greek, English, other) other than Modern Persian. To reiterate, the arguments that the above users have presented are at the level of: his name should not appear in Modern Persian because "Xerxes I is not a historical king of Iran", or his name is nothing more to us three than a "Squiggle"?! I have no hesitation to state that these type of statements are false, unnecessary and insulting to many. I have so far very patiently explained why it is incorrect to censor this very neutral, small, appropriate, informative, and routine addition in the manner above. I think your insistence over such minor and neutral issue is quite telling by itself. What above users are requesting boils down to selective censor of an addition that is permitted, factual, and relevant. I and many believe they should not be allowed. Mehran Neshat, Ph.D. M. Neshat 18:33, 18 October 2015 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Mneshat (talk • contribs) Mneshat Ok the word "squiggle" was a bad choice, although William Avery probably did not have any ill intent when using it (I guess it was written in the sense that latin script would also be a squiggle to Farsi speakers). Coming back to your arguments, let me address your three points above: 1) Nobody denies that Xerxes' kingdom was centered on a region located in modern Iran, however you have to admit that Iran did not exist back then, as well as some of the defining aspects of its modern culture (such as Islam). That modern Iranians perceive Xerxes as one of their past kings is perfectly fine (its their right!) and justifies a discussion of Xerxes' legacy in the article (especially since you seem to know some literature on the subject). As I have stated three times before, this section should include Xerxes' name in Farsi as well as his perception in modern Iranian society. I believe this subject to be highly interesting and would make a great addition to the article. The fact that you have avoided to even respond to this proposition three times already makes be doubt your true intents. 2) and 3) To clarify things once more, note that there are no other languages beyond English, Ancient Greek, Ancient Persian and Hebrew in the article, i.e. none of the other (thousands) of languages existing on Earth appear in the article. This indicates that there are reasons motivating specifically the use of these English, Greek, Old Persian and Hebrew, which have been detailed before, and that Farsi is not particularly targeted. By your reasoning excluding any or all of the other languages existing on Earth would be just as ad-hoc. I hope we can discuss constructively on this issue, in particular I am, once more, waiting for your response on point 1) above. Iry-Hor (talk) 06:48, 19 October 2015 (UTC) This is a purely editorial decision, and, not surprisingly, I don't see any new substantive arguments here. Perhaps we should file a request at Wikipedia:Requests for comment. William Avery (talk) 11:55, 19 October 2015 (UTC) Again, the norm in English Wikipedia and elsewhere is to state the name of historical personalities in their biographies in relevant ancient and modern languages for its information and to allow cross referencing. That is in addition to English which is the language where content throughout the text is explained in English sentences. I don’t think anybody disagrees with that (except user: Khruner and Mr. Avery with their comments at the top: This is en.wiki not farsi wiki, name in farsi is no more than a wiggle ?!) In that context, no objection is made to presence of Egyptian, multiple forms of Greek, multiple forms of Hebrew and other forms of the name in any other language. Above 3 users should be informed that all of these information are historically relevant and furthermore all allow cross referencing to academic and non-academic literature in thousands of libraries across the world. To this norm however, above 3 users insist to exclude and only exclude Modern Persian. I have previously stated but will address this ad hoc logic again briefly: above 3 users state as the basis of their argument (among derogatory statements) that “Xerxes is not a historical king of Iran” to which I have referred them to any academic source to further educate themselves if really that ill-informed in regard to the topic. This includes Wikipedia history of Iran, Britanica, and countless many…. If still not convinced, I suggest to them to scroll up to the top of this page and see that this page is labeled as part of WIKI.PROJECT.IRAN. Above critics not only dissect the history of this nation solely to their preference, but segregate the culture away from the historical continuum. Here similarly, they should refer to hundreds of thousands of Western academic research of this culture as one throughout centuries. Importantly, one user states that Xerxes is not a historical king of Iran, because now “Islam” is a component of its culture. This statement stands for itself for being irrelevant and to lack any merit (for lack of a better term). How can this justify the name of this Persian king not being allowed to appear in Persian next to other languages? Furthermore, this properly reflects the underlying extreme religious basis for this oblique objection to such neutral academic addition to this page. Appearance of 8 Persian characters as his name is written in Modern Persian is a permitted, informative and a relevant addition. It is absolutely neutral and does not reflect anything beyond how the name is written for cross referencing and its information. Its inclusion should not be allowed to be censored based on poor non factual arguments centered on extreme an incorrect views. Mehran Neshat, Ph.D. M. Neshat 18:39, 19 October 2015 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Mneshat (talk • contribs) Mneshat you deliberately ignored my point 1) above for the fourth time and you continue to grossly misrepresent my (and others) arguments. In addition, not only do you insult me and others by consistently accusing us of racism/bias/religious bias but this also constitute your sole argument in this discussion. Consequently I must conclude that discussing with you is absolutely pointless and so we will resort to wikipedia's rule concerning the matter at hand. We shall simply vote on the issue. For the sake of peace, I will also ignore your attacks and will continue to wonder why you have never considered writing something on Xerxes' legacy in modern Iran. But then again, everything indicates that you only want to make a fuss and accuse everyone of racism. Iry-Hor (talk) 19:26, 19 October 2015 (UTC) That point is answered many times and every time. The answer is Xerxes is a historic king of Iran, Achaemenids are an ancient dynasty of Iran. In contrast to what you state, Wkipedia, Webster, common knowledge and other sources reflect that. Accordingly and because of that, this page is recognized as part of Project.Wiki.Iran for obvious reasons that every one agrees with. Thereby it is relevant to state his name in Modern Persian as is the norm for all historical biographies for information and cross referencing to literature in thousands of libraries across the world. M. Neshat Ph.D. M. Neshat 23:11, 19 October 2015 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Mneshat (talk • contribs) I have not insulted anybody and my respectful statements in contrast to some are above. As to the issue, arguments are clearly and intelligently stated and your points refuted. As for the history and culture of Iran, your statements are in contrast to academic sources and common knowledge. Many find those comments unnecessary and derogatory. Mehran Neshat, Ph.D. M. Neshat 22:51, 19 October 2015 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Mneshat (talk • contribs) It took more than I thought, but welcome to the club, Iry-Hor. "Many find those comments unnecessary and derogatory." where "many" actually means you, but at the same time when I said that "all we respectfully disagree with your point of view", "we" only means 2. Interesting. And finally seeing the aforementioned "norm" of wikipedia which permits to put an foreign, unnecessary name in a biography should be interesting too. Of course Xerxes' article is in "wikiproject:Iran": lacking a "wikiproject:Achaemenid Empire", Xerxes should be relocated in some other project. Just like our friend Nebuchadnezzar II: lacking a "wikiproject:Babylon" he was relocate to "wikiproject:Iraq". Should this be enough to call Nebuchadnezzar II "an historical king of Iraq"? Of course not. Or should we call Basil II Bulgaroktonos (for those not familiar, probably the greatest Bizantine emperor), "an historical Emperor of Greece"? Likewise not. And there is nothing "derogatory" in that. I don't get it: if I am reading Xerxes' article on en.wiki, and suddendly ask to myself "Oh, I would love to know how Xerxes is called in, let's see... Japanese. What could I do? Oh yes, I can scroll the left column where the interlinks to the others wiki are, and if I am lucky enough some good pal from Japan have written the corresponding article. So check check... Here we are! "Xerxes" in Japanese is 日本語. Wow..." Now replace Japanese with Farsi and Japan with Iran and the result will be فارسی: smooth as soap on a frictionless surface. At this point one could say "no no, I want to know Xerxes' original Persian name, the one of the country he belonged!" "Oh, no need to check elsewhere, it's in the lead! Here: Old Persian: 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠!" But beside all that discussion, the Farsi name is ALREADY in the article (see note 1) so your previous edits only put an unnecessary duplicate in the article. Yes I know this is futile, but I tried again. Khruner (talk) 12:59, 20 October 2015 (UTC) Khruner Mneshat I couldn't have put it better than Khruner did! I entirely agree with this line of thoughts. I just want to contrast Mneshat's statement "I have not insulted anybody with my respectful statements" with his own words, quoted verbatim: "Your argument is flawed, and derogatory", "clearly a double standard", "I find his deletion [...] a violation of Wikipedia norms of civility and Ethics", "You are out of line!", "your statement and actions are biased and against the code of Ethics", "User:Khruner statements [...] is false, biased, derogatory and out of line.", " then those who do not see it as such must have some other issues that should be resolved elsewhere", "Users [...] should not have the authority to [delete something] based on ad hoc arguments or bias", "the comment of User:Khruner was incorrect and offensive", "No, Not Correct! As in Wrong!", "that is derogatory and highly incorrect", "your argument is false and derogatory", "this is incorrect and plain rubbish", "that is plain non-sense bias", "not clear or intelligently stated", "RUDELY", "statement is not only offensive, but importantly: False!","these type of statements are false, unnecessary and insulting to many", "statement stands for itself for being irrelevant and to lack any merit", "properly reflects the underlying extreme religious basis for this oblique objection", "based on poor non factual arguments centered on extreme an incorrect views". Iry-Hor (talk) 19:38, 20 October 2015 (UTC) 日本語 is Japanese for "Japanese", not for "Xerxes". فارسی is Farsi for "Farsi", not for "Xerxes" ... Furius (talk) 13:04, 17 April 2016 (UTC) I so thank the above user as to so reflect my objections to un-factual and false points above in the manner he did. I and many more stand to those statements in context. But strangely enough you missed: “I respectfully and strongly disagree”, “I respectfully disagree”. ”incorrect, very strange and irregular”,” I do not want to be nor am that simplistic”, “my respectful statements in contrast to some”. Why exclude those in your list? It appears that selective exclusion is favored by you. That is ad hoc! All languages are permissible in this page but somehow the neutral and informative addition of 8 characters in Persian proves enough to stimulate such strong response for you! Why? I suggest a more inclusive approach. Why don’t you propose, in the scope of your interests, to extend this page to other projects in Wikipedia? M. Neshat , Ph.D M. Neshat 08:47, 21 October 2015 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Mneshat (talk • contribs) 08:21, 21 October 2015 (UTC) Mneshat You seem to misunderstand the purpose of my last post: I am not claiming that every single thing you said was disrepectful, rather I am pointing out that, contrary to your statement, you did say some things that are not as respecteful as you claim. I did not "strangely" omit the things you said that are respectful, rather I listed those that are not. Coming back to Xerxes, being accused of systematic bias (and what kind of bias could that be?) is insulting to me. It is clear that for some reasons, you absolutely want to present our opposition to your opinion under a purely biased light, that is, that me and Khruner would stand against Farsi in particular because we are racists (again what kind of bias are you talking about if not racism?). But guess what, this time you are wrong, I am not racist, and not standing against Farsi, in fact I even used to be able to read some Avestan (I taught myself for a few years using http://www.avesta.org/language/Combined_Avesta_Grammar.pdf), precisely because I got interested in Ancient Persia. Finally, I guess it is useless to point out again that contrary to what you just said once more, not all languages are permitted in the article, only 4 are. Also, I am not sure to understand your last proposition "Why don’t you propose, in the scope of your interests, to extend this page to other projects in Wikipedia?". Iry-Hor (talk) 12:26, 21 October 2015 (UTC) Dear Dr., points in reference to the question at hand have been answered before. Re-writing of a nation's history and segregation of its culture from the continuum is neither justifiable nor allowed! In reference to your other question, and to address any doubt, in regard to Queen Esther (Dear, Noble [and more] to me as a Persian) she is represented in Wikipedia as part of WikiProject Bible, WikiProject Religion, WikiProject Biography, WikiProject Judaism, WikiProject Iran, WikiProject Christianity / Saints, WikiProject Women's History. That full reference is not represented in Xerxes I page, similar to the name of the king in question in 8 characters in Modern Persian (i.e. the language of his land for information and cross referencing to literature). That can be extended as part of your efforts. That is what I meant as to answer most directory to your question. I am anything but a Xerxes fanatic, but not allowing his name to appear in Persian when 4 other languages are allowed is too much ?! (in plain language for common understanding!! As my first Personal note presented so far: I understand that French is your native language. I can explain this in French for your attention, since I have had my first 12 years of education in that language, but again I have lived in the States for the last third of a century, and since we both understand plain English, why bother?) In English, Let me state that I strongly believe that above historical crossings should be highlighted as opposed to censored. M. Neshat, Ph.D. M. Neshat 05:42, 22 October 2015 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Mneshat (talk • contribs) Error in the content[edit] Hi; I was interested in learning more about Xerxes, but upon reading the first paragraph I noticed the following error: He ruled from 486 BC until his assassination in 465 BC....indicating that he had died 20 years before he ruled. I don't want to correct, since I don't know the true dates. Thanks — Preceding unsigned comment added by 63.250.121.138 (talk) 17:10, 11 February 2016 (UTC) No, BC(E) dates count down to 1, then the counting starts again with 1 CE. It's right. Doug Weller talk 17:13, 11 February 2016 (UTC) WP:OR in the Cultural depictions section[edit] These parts seem like OR to me, and I´m thinking of cutting them, unless they can be reliably sourced. I´m not saying they aren´t to some extent correct, but IMO they can´t be stated in WP:s voice like this. Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, and particularly the Battle of Thermopylae, has led to Xerxes' portrayal in works of popular culture, although more often than not in a negative light, often portraying him as ranging from unsympathetic to megalomaniacal. This can be blamed largely on the fact that most sources from the period are of Greek origin. The authors of these sources generally demonize Xerxes in a manner that is reflected in more modern works. (a blatant historical inaccuracy as regards Zoroastrianism). Gråbergs Gråa Sång (talk) 10:31, 30 March 2016 (UTC) I think they are uncited rather than OR. They might be npov. The source which would be useful for improving this section would be Bridges, Emma, Imagining Xerxes : ancient perspectives on a Persian king (2015, London : Bloomsbury) Furius (talk) 11:25, 30 March 2016 (UTC) Fair enough, perhaps someone with access to that source could help. I´m removing the second point for now, it´s not like '300' is a documentary. Gråbergs Gråa Sång (talk) 16:23, 30 March 2016 (UTC) Names in the lead[edit] Hate to revive discussion on this topic, since I was very happy with the conclusions reached last time it was discussed, but User:Prinsgezinde has removed the Hebrew name and I'd be pretty keen to see it restored. Prinsgezinde's justification was that the first sentance was getting too long, which is fair. My counter-argument would be that the prominence of the name in the Bible justifies its presence in the lead. Furius (talk) 13:01, 17 April 2016 (UTC) Furius: Hmm, my mistake for not reading the talk page. I had no idea it had been discussed before and hadn't considered his place in the Bible. Thanks for opening a discussion over it though (and notifying me). I have no problem with you reinstating it if you feel it deserves to be there. Bataaf van Oranje (talk) 14:50, 17 April 2016 (UTC) Hieroglyphs[edit] Is there a source for the name in hieroglyphs? Furius (talk) 18:11, 1 June 2016 (UTC) @Furius: Jürgen von Beckerath (1999), Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Mainz am Rhein: von Zabern. ISBN 3-8053-2310-7, pp. 220–21. Khruner (talk) 21:46, 3 July 2016 (UTC) Contradiction: Artaxerxes I of Persia uses a different photograph of the same rock relief[edit] Supposedly Xerxes Supposedly Artaxerxes In this article, there is a photo of a rock relief supposedly of Xerxes I (i.e. who reigned 486–465 BC). However, the article Artaxerxes I of Persia has a different photograph, but clearly of the same rock relief, and claims that it is Artaxerxes I (i.e. who reigned 465–424 BC). Anyone know which one is correct? --- Wikitiki89 (talk) - 20:58, 27 March 2017 (UTC) The image File:Xerxes Image.png has a link to here with supporting evidence that it is attributed to Xerxes I, whereas the image File:Xerxes I of Persia (2).jpg does not give any explanation. However, the English Wikipedia article on Xerxes I is the only one to use the image, whereas most of the Artaxerxes I articles in other Wikipedia's use the image for him, but not for Xerxes. The French Wiki claims the tomb with the image belongs to Artaxerxes I. I'm going to do more digging and I'll let you know what I find. I think it basically boils down to who the tomb belongs to, and it might just not be known who it is. Psychotic Spartan 123 20:24, 28 March 2017 (UTC) @PsychoticSpartan123: Have you found anything? If it is not known who the tomb belongs to, then we should probably not use this image on either page. --- Wikitiki89 (talk) - 20:23, 6 October 2017 (UTC) Wikitiki89 With this picture of Naqsh-e Rustam and the notion from the Naqsh-e Rustam article that the order of the four tombs from left to right is: Darius II, Artaxerxes I, Darius I and Xerxes I, by comparing the rock pattern I believe that both pictures represent Xerxes I. Sadly, it appears that this shabby picture is all we have about Artaxerxes I. Furthermore, of the four tombs in Naqsh-e Rustam, only the one of Darius I is securely attributable to him. Khruner (talk) 19:42, 6 November 2017 (UTC) @Khruner: Thanks! That's definitely progress. It would be nice to verify this with a reliable source. --- Wikitiki89 (talk) - 20:06, 6 November 2017 (UTC) Wikitiki89 How about the Iranica, here? Search for "On Tomb II, which is ascribed to Xerxes" with link to figure 5. Khruner (talk) 20:29, 6 November 2017 (UTC) @Khruner: That works for me. Shall we say this is resolved? --- Wikitiki89 (talk) - 21:22, 6 November 2017 (UTC) I guess so. Khruner (talk) 16:17, 7 November 2017 (UTC)== Another possible duplicate picture[edit] The picture of the carving of Xerxes in this article looks virtually identical to the carving of Artaxerxes III. Both images are cropped from a larger picture of a tomb carving, both of which also look identical: Artaxerxes I vs. Xerxes I. Note that I've also raised this issue on the Artaxerxes III talk page. Spirit of Eagle (talk) No, these two images are different - look at the pattern of smashing on the two fire altars and on the coils of the left leg of the throne. Furius (talk) 10:00, 22 April 2018 (UTC) Who is the Real Fourth?[edit] Both this article and Darius I list their respective kings as the 4th in the Achaemenid Empire. I suspect this has to do with conflict on Wikipedia over whether or not Bardiya should be counted, but I thought I'd bring it up in case it could be resolved. Given that Bardiya's wikipedia page indicates that someone by that name ruled the Achaemenid Empire for seven months, I'd suggest that we change this article to say 5th King of Kings, under the logic that whether it was Bardiya or Gaumata claiming to be Bardiya, there was still another Achaemenid ruler between Cambyses II and Darius I. --2601:85:4500:2F22:1923:222F:F538:5F8F (talk) 04:33, 17 August 2018 (UTC) Dupelicate images[edit] I can't figure out why the Hyroglyphs image is duplicated, or, more to the point, why no one has noticed. I can't delete the dupe because I'm not an admin, but can someone please do something about it? I checked and dupe images meet the Criteria for Speedy Deletion. TheAppleAuthority (talk) 10:01, 2 May 2018 (UTC) Herodotus[edit] I added sourced information about Herodotus's statements about Xerxes I to the "children" section. The source I used is Ancient.eu. An editor suggested that the source may not be reliable, but it obviously is. Please see this. Plus, the source totally fits WP:HISTRS. Ancient.eu has been recommended by institutions like Oxford University and the University of Minnesota. It also collaborates with the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization or UNESCO. The concerns about Herodotus not being a reliable historian (although absurd to me) don't really matter. First of all, Herodotus has been used on many articles related to Achaemenid kings on WP. Second, his words are already used in this article. Third, it is not our job to determine which ancient historians are reliable and which are not, that is OR. Our job is to state what reliable sources say. I specifically put "According to Herodotus" in the article, because that is what the source said. Modern historians have used Herodotus's writings as evidence for many things. Also, Plutarch is widely considered to be an unreliable historian but his words are plastered all over WP. Again, it is not our job to determine which historians are reliable. We are supposed to defer to historians and reliable sources. Finally, the text that I added totally fits the scope of the section. I apologize if I came off as antagonistic in the edit summaries. I would like to have a calm, civil, and short discussion. -TrynaMakeADollar (talk) 23:17, 11 April 2020 (UTC) Apology accepted. I've barely done much research on Achaemenid-related stuff, and yet I've already seen three sources who have questioned Herodotus' (or Greek) work. "The conclusion seems undeniable: Herodotus recorded spurious information" (From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire, by Pierre Bryant, p. 57). Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran (from the Medes section of the source, cant be bothered to download and find the precise page atm): "Yet so far, contemporary evidence for a unified Median state in the eighth and seventh centuries has proven to be elusive. Excavations in sites such as Nush-e Jan, Baba Jan, and Godin Tepe support the idea of small independent states centered on fortresses controlling the region and passage through it, which emerges so clearly from the Assyrian sources. On the other hand, archaeological evidence for a unified Median state stretching from Iran to Inner Anatolia is conspicuously lacking while (p. 454) the Assyrian sources fail to back up any part of Herodotus’ account on the genesis of such a state. Recent scholarship therefore prefers to see Herodotus’ Medikos Logos as largely fictitious and cautions against its use as a historical source for the history of the Medes". Last but not least, here's a statement regarding Greek/Roman sources regarding Iranian marriage habits which once again goes to show that Greek sources should be used very carefully (Queen Mousa, Mother and Wife(?) of King Phraatakes of Parthia: A Re-evaluation of the Evidence, p. 44): "Greek and Roman authors from the fifth century B.C. onwards, it is true, repeatedly assert that it was allowable for Persians, and later on for Parthians, to marry mother. daughter or sister, and many scholars take these claims at face value, a number of them believing that the reference is to Zoroastrian next-of-kin marriage" -> (a few lines later) "As for the Greek and Roman statements, we can surely dismiss them, for there is good reason to believe that they are based on little other than a love of sensationalism and outright bias towards anything non-Greek or non-Roman." There is also "Xerxes: A Persian Life" by Richard Stoneman, which goes in depth regarding the reliability of Greek sources about the Achaemenids, especially Xerxes. I'm reading it atm, since I plan to overhaul Xerxes in the near future. Also, if I'm not mistaken, Herodotus is the same person who famously stated that 2 million Persians or so participated in the Battle of Theromamplye (yes I know it is mentioned in the article, I will take that up soon), so how come the statement of Herodotus being unreliable appears as "absurd" to you? Generally a rule of thumb is to use modern academic scholarship above ancient historians, since they often recorded spurious or biased information. Regarding https://www.ancient.eu/, I think it would be a good idea to take it to the reliable source noticeboard (or whatever its called). It doesn't look one bit reliable to me, or at least of very low quality. We have better sources than that. EDIT: Here's what it says about Joshua J. Mark in the same page, the person who wrote the article: "A freelance writer and former part-time Professor of Philosophy at Marist College, New York, Joshua J. Mark has lived in Greece and Germany and traveled through Egypt. He has taught history, writing, literature, and philosophy at the college level." Yeah no, we deffo have much better opinions than him. Also, a source (whether its Plutarch or Herodotus) being used in various articles does not justify it being used further. We should instead try to fix the issue, instead of making it worse. I'm not saying Herodotus is completely unreliable, however it can't be ignored that there are large amounts of his works is questionable, which is what we have academic modern sources for. --HistoryofIran (talk) 23:52, 11 April 2020 (UTC) Just found this in Pierre Bryants book as well, regarding the bit you tried to add (didn't copy it all, was too much, it's on page 515-516 [1]; "Injected into the story of Greek victories in Asia Minor, these tales fostered the image of a king subject to the nefarious influences of the women of the place and more interested in slaking his guilty passions than in defending the territorial inheritance of Darius. In reality, placing such an emphasis on the story of Xerxes and his sister-in-law results from a highly questionable methodology. On the hand, the story is a romance, characterized by a whole series of repetitive motifs on which it is extremely imprudent to base any historical extrapolation. On the other hand, Herodotus's tale contains many other informative elements that are much more convincing about the policy and strategy followed by Xerxes after his return from Salamis-at least if the historian chooses to free himself from the overwhelming weight of stereotypes." --HistoryofIran (talk) 03:31, 12 April 2020 (UTC) This can serve as a placeholder while I work on my full response. I hope you'll forgive me if I take a little while to finally write the whole thing up. But from what I can gather from a skim of your response is that you have a problem with the source I used because it seems unreliable. I do think that it fits WP:HISTRS quite well for all the reasons I listed above, but either way if I were to use a more reliable source that also supports the text, would you be ok with that? Or do you have a problem with Herodotus's work being used at all? What if there was a disclaimer after the text that talked about the potential unreliability of some of Herodotus's statements? Also, much of what know about the Achaemenid Empire comes from Herodotus, and sometimes Herodotus is the only source. So considering him unreliable when it comes to the Achaemenid Empire would cut out many things from this article and others like it. Of course we should use modern historians as our sources, but modern historians have to base their findings off of something...and they often get that from ancient historians that were alive during the same time. Thanks for reminding me of that book by Pierre Briant. Just ordered it! -TrynaMakeADollar (talk) 06:16, 12 April 2020 (UTC) As I've already said, I don't consider Herodotus fully unreliable. Well, I've already given you a source (that isnt of low quality) that is Briant. Or if you can wait then I do plan to overhaul the Xerxes article myself, where I'll ofc add everything, including the reliablity of the sources regarding him [2]. --HistoryofIran (talk) 13:12, 12 April 2020 (UTC) Looks like you've added Herodotus's possible unreliability near the beginning of this article. I have re-added info about Herodotus's writings to the "Children" section. The supposed unreliability of Herodotus is already established in the beginning of the article so the reader can make up their own mind about the writings. His work is prominently featured in this article already along with a note of his possible unreliability. So that works. -TrynaMakeADollar (talk) 11:25, 27 April 2020 (UTC) @TrynaMakeADollar: Sigh, the source is still bad though. Are you going to find another? I'm sure you'll find it in Herodotus' book if it's what he said. --HistoryofIran (talk) 13:02, 27 April 2020 (UTC) Actually wait, I've completely forgot what I've said several times, seems you have as well. We should use academic sources instead of Herodotus, since he is clearly not reliable in many instaces. There's a lot of antagonistic/biased work in his book. His actual believable/factual/whatever u wanna call it statements are no doubt mentioned by scholars. --HistoryofIran (talk) 23:26, 27 April 2020 (UTC) Well either way, it does seem like the work related to the text that I added to the section is mentioned by scholars. I will add a cite for it soon. -TrynaMakeADollar (talk) 00:11, 28 April 2020 (UTC) @TrynaMakeADollar: Well? --HistoryofIran (talk) 19:12, 12 May 2020 (UTC) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Xerxes_I&oldid=985925802" Categories: Wikipedia level-4 vital articles in People Wikipedia C-Class vital articles in People Wikipedia C-Class level-4 vital articles C-Class Iran articles High-importance Iran articles WikiProject Iran articles C-Class Ancient Egypt articles Mid-importance Ancient Egypt articles C-Class biography articles C-Class biography (royalty) articles Mid-importance biography (royalty) articles Royalty work group articles WikiProject Biography articles C-Class Bible articles Low-importance Bible articles WikiProject Bible articles C-Class Classical Greece and Rome articles Top-importance Classical Greece and Rome articles C-Class Greek articles Mid-importance Greek articles WikiProject Greece general articles C-Class Ancient Near East articles High-importance Ancient Near East articles Ancient Near East articles by assessment C-Class European history articles High-importance European history articles C-Class Phoenicia articles Mid-importance Phoenicia articles Wikipedia requested audio of pronunciations Hidden categories: All Wikipedia vital articles All Wikipedia level-4 vital articles All Wikipedia vital articles in People All Wikipedia C-Class vital articles Pages using the Graph extension Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit New section View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages This page was last edited on 28 October 2020, at 19:33 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7156	----	Sedjefakare - Wikipedia Sedjefakare From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sedjefakare Amenemhat Amenemhat VII, Kay Amenemhat A pair of cylinder seals of Sedjefakare from the Faiyum region, now in the Petrie Museum Pharaoh Reign 1770 to 1765 BC[1] (13th Dynasty) Predecessor Sebkay Successor Wegaf Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sedjefakare Sḏf3-k3-Rˁ The Ka of Ra is flourishing Nomen Kay Amenemhat K3jj-Jmn-m-ḥ3.t Kay Amun is in the front Horus name Heriteptawy Ḥrj-tp-t3.w(j) Leader of the two lands Nebty name Netjeribaw Nṯr.j-b3w Divine of Bas Golden Horus Aapehti ˁ3-phtj The golden falcon, great of strength Turin King List Sedjefakare Sḏf3-k3-Rˁ The Ka of Ra is flourishing Sedjefakare Kay Amenemhat VII was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty, known from the Turin King List, and several other objects, including six cylinder seals,[2] one bark stand from Medamud[3] and two scarab seals.[4] His name appears as graffito in the tomb of queen Khuit I at Saqqara. Ryholt assigns him without further evidence a reign of 6–7 years.[5] Footnotes[edit] ^ Thomas Schneider, Lexikon der Pharaonen, Bibliographisches Institut, Mannheim, 2nd ed. (2002), ISBN 3491960533 ^ Swiss Private Collection; Brooklyn Museum 44.123.77; Ex Hilton Price 4250; New York MMA 10.130.1640, Petrie Museum UCL 11533; Petrie Museum UCL 11534 ^ Cairo JE 15900 ^ Cairo, New York MMA 26.7.85 ^ Ryholt, The Political Situation, p. 408 See also[edit] List of Pharaohs Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kay Amenemhat Sedjefakare. References[edit] K.S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period (Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997), 341, File 13/20. Preceded by Sebkay Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Wegaf v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sedjefakare&oldid=976676423" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Azərbaycanca Català Deutsch Español Euskara Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Русский Slovenščina ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 4 September 2020, at 09:52 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7171	----	Sparta - Wikipedia Sparta From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the ancient Greek city-state. For modern-day Sparta, see Sparta, Laconia. For other uses, see Sparta (disambiguation). "Spartan" redirects here. For other uses, see Spartan (disambiguation). City-state in ancient Greece Coordinates: 37°4′55″N 22°25′25″E / 37.08194°N 22.42361°E / 37.08194; 22.42361 Lacedaemon Λακεδαίμων  (Ancient Greek) 900s–192 BC The letter lambda was used by the Spartan army as a symbol of Lacedaemon Territory of ancient Sparta Capital Sparta Common languages Doric Greek Religion Greek polytheism Government Diarchy King   • 1104–1066 BC Eurysthenes • 1104–1062 BC Procles • 489–480 BC Leonidas I • 192 BC Laconicus Legislature Ephors Gerousia Historical era Classical antiquity • Foundation 900s BC • Messenian War 685–668 BC • Battle of Thermopylae 480 BC • Peloponnesian War 431–404 BC • Battle of Mantinea 362 BC • Annexed by Achaea 192 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Greek Dark Ages Achaean League Roman Republic This article contains special characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols. Hollow Lacedaemon. Site of the Menelaion, the ancient shrine to Helen and Menelaus constructed in the Bronze Age city that stood on the hill of Therapne on the left bank of the Eurotas River overlooking the future site of Dorian Sparta. Across the valley the successive ridges of Mount Taygetus are in evidence. Sparta (Doric Greek: Σπάρτα, Spártā; Attic Greek: Σπάρτη, Spártē) was a prominent city-state in ancient Greece. In antiquity, the city-state was known as Lacedaemon (Λακεδαίμων, Lakedaímōn), while the name Sparta referred to its main settlement on the banks of the Eurotas River in Laconia, in south-eastern Peloponnese.[1] Around 650 BCE, it rose to become the dominant military land-power in ancient Greece. Given its military pre-eminence, Sparta was recognized as the leading force of the unified Greek military during the Greco-Persian Wars, in rivalry with the rising naval power of Athens.[2] Sparta was the principal enemy of Athens during the Peloponnesian War (between 431 and 404 BCE),[3] from which it emerged victorious. The decisive Battle of Leuctra in 371 BCE ended the Spartan hegemony, although the city-state maintained its political independence until the Roman conquest of Greece in 146 BCE. After the division of the Roman Empire, Sparta underwent a long period of decline, especially in the Middle Ages, when many of its citizens moved to Mystras. Modern Sparta is the capital of the southern Greek region of Laconia and a center for processing citrus and olives. Sparta was unique in ancient Greece for its social system and constitution, which were supposedly introduced by the semi-mythical legislator Lycurgus. His laws configured the Spartan society to maximize military proficiency at all costs, focusing all social institutions on military training and physical development. The inhabitants of Sparta were stratified as Spartiates (citizens with full rights), mothakes (free non-Spartiate people descended from Spartans), perioikoi (free non-Spartiates), and helots (state-owned enslaved non-Spartan locals). Spartiate men (and some mothakes and perioikoi[citation needed]) underwent the rigorous agoge training regimen, and Spartan phalanx brigades were widely considered to be among the best in battle. Spartan women also enjoyed considerably more rights and equality with men than elsewhere in classical antiquity. Sparta was frequently a subject of fascination in its own day, as well as in Western culture following the revival of classical learning. The admiration of Sparta is known as laconophilia. Bertrand Russell wrote: Sparta had a double effect on Greek thought: through the reality, and through the myth.... The reality enabled the Spartans to defeat Athens in war; the myth influenced Plato's political theory, and that of countless subsequent writers.... [The] ideals that it favors had a great part in framing the doctrines of Rousseau, Nietzsche, and National Socialism.[4] Contents 1 Names 2 Geography 3 Mythology 4 Archaeology of the classical period 4.1 Menelaion 5 History 5.1 Prehistory, "dark age" and archaic period 5.2 Classical Sparta 5.3 Hellenistic and Roman Sparta 5.4 Postclassical and modern Sparta 6 Structure of Classical Spartan society 6.1 Constitution 6.2 Citizenship 6.3 Non citizens 6.3.1 Helots 6.3.2 Perioikoi 6.4 Economy 7 Life in Classical Sparta 7.1 Birth and death 7.2 Education 7.3 Military life 7.4 Agriculture, food, and diet 7.5 Marriage 8 Role of women 8.1 Political, social, and economic equality 8.2 Historic women 9 Laconophilia 10 Notable ancient Spartans 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 14 Sources 15 Further reading 16 External links Names The earliest attested term referring to Lacedaemon is the Mycenaean Greek 𐀨𐀐𐀅𐀖𐀛𐀍, ra-ke-da-mi-ni-jo, "Lakedaimonian", written in Linear B syllabic script,[5][n 1] the equivalent of the later Greek Λακεδαιμόνιος, Lakedaimonios (Latin: Lacedaemonius).[11][12] Eurotas River The ancient Greeks used one of three words to refer to the Spartan city-state and its location. First, "Sparta" refers primarily to the main cluster of settlements in the valley of the Eurotas River.[13] The second word, "Lacedaemon" (Λακεδαίμων),[14] was often used as an adjective and is the name referenced in the works of Homer and the historians Herodotus and Thucydides. The third term, "Laconice" (Λακωνική), referred to the immediate area around the town of Sparta, the plateau east of the Taygetos mountains,[15] and sometimes to all the regions under direct Spartan control, including Messenia. Herodotus seems to use "Lacedaemon" for the Mycenaean Greek citadel at Therapne, in contrast to the lower town of Sparta. This term could be used synonymously with Sparta, but typically it denoted the terrain in which the city was located.[16] In Homer it is typically combined with epithets of the countryside: wide, lovely, shining and most often hollow and broken (full of ravines),[17] suggesting the Eurotas Valley. "Sparta" on the other hand is described as "the country of lovely women", an epithet for people. The residents of Sparta were often called Lacedaemonians. This epithet utilized the plural of the adjective Lacedaemonius (Greek: Λακεδαιμόνιοι; Latin: Lacedaemonii, but also Lacedaemones). The ancients sometimes used a back-formation, referring to the land of Lacedaemon as Lacedaemonian country. As most words for "country" were feminine, the adjective was in the feminine: Lacedaemonia (Λακεδαιμονία, Lakedaimonia). Eventually, the adjective came to be used alone. "Lacedaemonia" was not in general use during the classical period and before. It does occur in Greek as an equivalent of Laconia and Messenia during the Roman and early Byzantine periods, mostly in ethnographers and lexica of place names. For example, Hesychius of Alexandria's Lexicon (5th century CE) defines Agiadae as a "place in Lacedaemonia" named after Agis.[18] The actual transition may be captured by Isidore of Seville's Etymologiae (7th century CE), an etymological dictionary. Isidore relied heavily on Orosius' Historiarum Adversum Paganos (5th century CE) and Eusebius of Caesarea's Chronicon (early 5th century CE), as did Orosius. The latter defines Sparta to be Lacedaemonia Civitas,[19] but Isidore defines Lacedaemonia as founded by Lacedaemon, son of Semele, which is consistent with Eusebius' explanation.[20] There is a rare use, perhaps the earliest of "Lacedaemonia", in Diodorus Siculus' The Library of History,[21] but probably with Χώρα (‘’chōra’’, "country") suppressed. Lakedaimona was until 2006 the name of a province in the modern Greek prefecture of Laconia. Geography Antique Map of Classical City of Sparta (based on ancient sources and not archaeology). Sparta is located in the region of Laconia, in the south-eastern Peloponnese. Ancient Sparta was built on the banks of the Eurotas River, the largest river of Laconia, which provided it with a source of fresh water. The valley of the Eurotas is a natural fortress, bounded to the west by Mt. Taygetus (2,407 m) and to the east by Mt. Parnon (1,935 m). To the north, Laconia is separated from Arcadia by hilly uplands reaching 1000 m in altitude. These natural defenses worked to Sparta's advantage and protected it from sacking and invasion. Though landlocked, Sparta had a vassal harbor, Gytheio, on the Laconian Gulf. Mythology Lacedaemon (Greek: Λακεδαίμων) was a mythical king of Laconia.[22] The son of Zeus by the nymph Taygete, he married Sparta, the daughter of Eurotas, by whom he became the father of Amyclas, Eurydice, and Asine. As king, he named his country after himself and the city after his wife.[22] He was believed to have built the sanctuary of the Charites, which stood between Sparta and Amyclae, and to have given to those divinities the names of Cleta and Phaenna. A shrine was erected to him in the neighborhood of Therapne. Archaeology of the classical period The theater of ancient Sparta with Mt. Taygetus in the background. Thucydides wrote: Suppose the city of Sparta to be deserted, and nothing left but the temples and the ground-plan, distant ages would be very unwilling to believe that the power of the Lacedaemonians was at all equal to their fame. Their city is not built continuously, and has no splendid temples or other edifices; it rather resembles a group of villages, like the ancient towns of Hellas, and would therefore make a poor show.[23][24] Until the early 20th century, the chief ancient buildings at Sparta were the theatre, of which, however, little showed above ground except portions of the retaining walls; the so-called Tomb of Leonidas, a quadrangular building, perhaps a temple, constructed of immense blocks of stone and containing two chambers; the foundation of an ancient bridge over the Eurotas; the ruins of a circular structure; some remains of late Roman fortifications; several brick buildings and mosaic pavements.[23] The remaining archaeological wealth consisted of inscriptions, sculptures, and other objects collected in the local museum, founded by Stamatakis in 1872 and enlarged in 1907. Partial excavation of the round building was undertaken in 1892 and 1893 by the American School at Athens. The structure has been since found to be a semicircular retaining wall of Hellenic origin that was partly restored during the Roman period.[23] Ruins from the ancient site In 1904, the British School at Athens began a thorough exploration of Laconia, and in the following year excavations were made at Thalamae, Geronthrae, and Angelona near Monemvasia. In 1906, excavations began in Sparta itself.[23] A "small circus" (as described by Leake) proved to be a theatre-like building constructed soon after CE 200 around the altar and in front of the temple of Artemis Orthia. It is believed that musical and gymnastic contests took place here, as well as the famous flogging ordeal administered to Spartan boys (diamastigosis). The temple, which can be dated to the 2nd century BCE, rests on the foundation of an older temple of the 6th century, and close beside it were found the remains of a yet earlier temple, dating from the 9th or even the 10th century. The votive offerings in clay, amber, bronze, ivory and lead dating from the 9th to the 4th centuries BCE, which were found in great profusion within the precinct range, supply invaluable information about early Spartan art.[23] In 1907, the location of the sanctuary of Athena "of the Brazen House" (Χαλκίοικος, Chalkioikos) was determined to be on the acropolis immediately above the theatre. Though the actual temple is almost completely destroyed, the site has produced the longest extant archaic inscription in Laconia, numerous bronze nails and plates, and a considerable number of votive offerings. The city-wall, built in successive stages from the 4th to the 2nd century, was traced for a great part of its circuit, which measured 48 stades or nearly 10 km (6 miles) (Polyb. 1X. 21). The late Roman wall enclosing the acropolis, part of which probably dates from the years following the Gothic raid of CE 262, was also investigated. Besides the actual buildings discovered, a number of points were situated and mapped in a general study of Spartan topography, based upon the description of Pausanias.[23] Menelaion Main article: Menelaion The Menelaion is a shrine associated with Menelaus, located east of Sparta, by the river Eurotas, on the hill Profitis Ilias (Coordinates: 37°03′57″N 22°27′13″E / 37.0659°N 22.4536°E / 37.0659; 22.4536). Built around the early 8th century BCE, the Spartans believed it had been the former residence of Menelaus. In 1970 the British School in Athens started excavations around the Menelaion in an attempt to locate Mycenaean remains in the area. Among other findings, they uncovered the remains of two Mycenaean mansions and found the first offerings dedicated to Helen and Menelaus. These mansions were destroyed by earthquake and fire, and archaeologists consider them the possible palace of Menelaus himself.[25][better source needed] Excavations made from the early 1990s to the present suggest that the area around the Menelaion in the southern part of the Eurotas valley seems to have been the center of Mycenaean Laconia.[26] The Mycenaean settlement was roughly triangular in shape, with its apex pointed towards the north. Its area was approximately equal to that of the "newer" Sparta, but denudation has wreaked havoc with its buildings and nothing is left of its original structures save for ruined foundations and broken potsherds.[23] History Main article: History of Sparta Prehistory, "dark age" and archaic period The prehistory of Sparta is difficult to reconstruct because the literary evidence was written far later than the events it describes and is distorted by oral tradition.[27] The earliest certain evidence of human settlement in the region of Sparta consists of pottery dating from the Middle Neolithic period, found in the vicinity of Kouphovouno some two kilometres (1.2 miles) south-southwest of Sparta.[28] These are the earliest traces of the original Mycenaean Spartan civilisation represented in Homer's Iliad.[citation needed] This civilization seems to have fallen into decline by the late Bronze Age, when, according to Herodotus, Macedonian tribes from the north (called Dorians by those they conquered) marched into the Peloponnese and, subjugating the local tribes, settled there.[27] The Dorians seem to have set about expanding the frontiers of Spartan territory almost before they had established their own state.[29] They fought against the Argive Dorians to the east and southeast, and also the Arcadian Achaeans to the northwest. The evidence suggests that Sparta, relatively inaccessible because of the topography of the Taygetan plain, was secure from early on: it was never fortified.[29] Lycurgus Nothing distinctive in the archaeology of the Eurotas River Valley identifies the Dorians or the Dorian Spartan state. The prehistory of the Neolithic, the Bronze Age and the Dark Age (the Early Iron Age) at this moment must be treated apart from the stream of Dorian Spartan history. The legendary period of Spartan history is believed to fall into the Dark Age. It treats the mythic heroes such as the Heraclids and the Perseids, offering a view of the occupation of the Peloponnesus that contains both fantastic and possibly historical elements. The subsequent proto-historic period, combining both legend and historical fragments, offers the first credible history. Between the 8th and 7th centuries BCE the Spartans experienced a period of lawlessness and civil strife, later attested by both Herodotus and Thucydides.[30] As a result, they carried out a series of political and social reforms of their own society which they later attributed to a semi-mythical lawgiver, Lycurgus.[31] These reforms mark the beginning of the history of Classical Sparta. Classical Sparta In the Second Messenian War, Sparta established itself as a local power in the Peloponnesus and the rest of Greece. During the following centuries, Sparta's reputation as a land-fighting force was unequalled.[32] At its peak around 500 BCE, Sparta had some 20,000–35,000 citizens, plus numerous helots and perioikoi. The likely total of 40,000–50,000 made Sparta one of the larger Greek city-states;[33][34] however, according to Thucydides, the population of Athens in 431 BCE was 360,000–610,000, making it much larger.[n 2] In 480 BCE a small force led by King Leonidas (about 300 full Spartiates, 700 Thespians, and 400 Thebans, although these numbers were lessened by earlier casualties) made a legendary last stand at the Battle of Thermopylae against the massive Persian army, inflicting very high casualties on the Persian forces before finally being overwhelmed.[36] The superior weaponry, strategy, and bronze armour of the Greek hoplites and their phalanx fighting formation again proved their worth one year later when Sparta assembled its full strength and led a Greek alliance against the Persians at the battle of Plataea. Ancient Sparta. The decisive Greek victory at Plataea put an end to the Greco-Persian War along with Persian ambitions to expand into Europe. Even though this war was won by a pan-Greek army, credit was given to Sparta, who besides providing the leading forces at Thermopylae and Plataea, had been the de facto leader of the entire Greek expedition.[37] In later Classical times, Sparta along with Athens, Thebes, and Persia were the main powers fighting for supremacy in the northeastern Mediterranean. In the course of the Peloponnesian War, Sparta, a traditional land power, acquired a navy which managed to overpower the previously dominant flotilla of Athens, ending the Athenian Empire. At the peak of its power in the early 4th century BCE, Sparta had subdued many of the main Greek states and even invaded the Persian provinces in Anatolia (modern day Turkey), a period known as the Spartan Hegemony. During the Corinthian War, Sparta faced a coalition of the leading Greek states: Thebes, Athens, Corinth, and Argos. The alliance was initially backed by Persia, which feared further Spartan expansion into Asia.[38] Sparta achieved a series of land victories, but many of her ships were destroyed at the battle of Cnidus by a Greek-Phoenician mercenary fleet that Persia had provided to Athens. The event severely damaged Sparta's naval power but did not end its aspirations of invading further into Persia, until Conon the Athenian ravaged the Spartan coastline and provoked the old Spartan fear of a helot revolt.[39] After a few more years of fighting, in 387 BCE the Peace of Antalcidas was established, according to which all Greek cities of Ionia would return to Persian control, and Persia's Asian border would be free of the Spartan threat.[39] The effects of the war were to reaffirm Persia's ability to interfere successfully in Greek politics and to affirm Sparta's weakened hegemonic position in the Greek political system.[40] Sparta entered its long-term decline after a severe military defeat to Epaminondas of Thebes at the Battle of Leuctra. This was the first time that a full strength Spartan army lost a land battle. As Spartan citizenship was inherited by blood, Sparta increasingly faced a helot population that vastly outnumbered its citizens. The alarming decline of Spartan citizens was commented on by Aristotle. Hellenistic and Roman Sparta Medieval depiction of Sparta from the Nuremberg Chronicle (1493) Sparta never fully recovered from its losses at Leuctra in 371 BCE and the subsequent helot revolts. Nonetheless, it was able to continue as a regional power for over two centuries. Neither Philip II nor his son Alexander the Great attempted to conquer Sparta itself. Even during its decline, Sparta never forgot its claim to be the "defender of Hellenism" and its Laconic wit. An anecdote has it that when Philip II sent a message to Sparta saying "If I enter Laconia, I will raze Sparta", the Spartans responded with the single, terse reply: αἴκα, "if".[41][42][43] When Philip created the League of Corinth on the pretext of unifying Greece against Persia, the Spartans chose not to join, since they had no interest in joining a pan-Greek expedition unless it were under Spartan leadership. Thus, upon defeating the Persians at the Battle of the Granicus, Alexander the Great sent to Athens 300 suits of Persian armour with the following inscription: "Alexander, son of Philip, and all the Greeks except the Spartans, give these offerings taken from the foreigners who live in Asia". During Alexander's campaigns in the east, the Spartan king Agis III sent a force to Crete in 333 BCE with the aim of securing the island for Sparta.[44] Agis next took command of allied Greek forces against Macedon, gaining early successes, before laying siege to Megalopolis in 331 BCE. A large Macedonian army under general Antipater marched to its relief and defeated the Spartan-led force in a pitched battle.[45] More than 5,300 of the Spartans and their allies were killed in battle, and 3,500 of Antipater's troops.[46] Agis, now wounded and unable to stand, ordered his men to leave him behind to face the advancing Macedonian army so that he could buy them time to retreat. On his knees, the Spartan king slew several enemy soldiers before being finally killed by a javelin.[47] Alexander was merciful, and he only forced the Spartans to join the League of Corinth, which they had previously refused.[48] During the Punic Wars, Sparta was an ally of the Roman Republic. Spartan political independence was put to an end when it was eventually forced into the Achaean League after its defeat in the decisive Laconian War by a coalition of other Greek city-states and Rome and the resultant overthrow of its final king Nabis. Sparta played no active part in the Achaean War in 146 BCE when the Achaean League was defeated by the Roman general Lucius Mummius. Subsequently, Sparta became a free city under Roman rule, some of the institutions of Lycurgus were restored,[49] and the city became a tourist attraction for the Roman elite who came to observe exotic Spartan customs.[n 3] In 214 CE Roman emperor Caracalla, in his preparation for his campaign against Parthia, recruited a 500-man Spartan cohort (lokhos). Herodian described this unit as a phalanx, implying it fought like the old Spartans as hoplites, or even as a Macedonian phalanx. Despite this, a gravestone of a fallen legionary named Marcus Aurelius Alexys shows him lightly armed, with a pilos-like cap and a wooden club. The unit was presumably discharged in 217 after Caracalla was assassinated.[54] An exchange of letters in the deutero-canonical First Book of Maccabees expresses a Jewish claim to kinship with the Spartans: Areus king of the Lacedemonians to Onias the high priest, greeting: It is found in writing, that the Lacedemonians and Jews are brethren, and that they are of the stock of Abraham: Now therefore, since this is come to our knowledge, ye shall do well to write unto us of your prosperity. We do write back again to you, that your cattle and goods are ours, and ours are yours. — Authorized King James Version 1 Maccabees 12.20 The letters are reproduced in a variant form by Josephus.[55] Jewish historian Uriel Rappaport notes that the relationship between the Jews and the Spartans expressed in this correspondence has "intrigued many scholars, and various explanations have been suggested for the problems raised ... including the historicity of the Jewish leader and high priest Jonathan's letter to the Spartans, the authenticity of the letter of Arius to Onias, cited in Jonathan's letter, and the supposed 'brotherhood' of the Jews and the Spartans." Rappaport is clear that "the authenticity of [the reply] letter of Arius is based on even less firm foundations than the letter of Jonathan".[56] Postclassical and modern Sparta In 396 CE, Sparta was sacked by Visigoths under Alaric I who sold inhabitants into slavery.[57][58] According to Byzantine sources, some parts of the Laconian region remained pagan until well into the 10th century CE. Doric-speaking populations survive today in Tsakonia. In the Middle Ages, the political and cultural center of Laconia shifted to the nearby settlement of Mystras, and Sparta fell further in even local importance. Modern Sparti was re-founded in 1834, by a decree of King Otto of Greece. Structure of Classical Spartan society Constitution Main article: Spartan Constitution Structure of the Spartan Constitution Sparta was an oligarchy. The state was ruled by two hereditary kings of the Agiad and Eurypontid families,[59] both supposedly descendants of Heracles and equal in authority, so that one could not act against the power and political enactments of his colleague.[23] The duties of the kings were primarily religious, judicial, and military. As chief priests of the state, they maintained communication with the Delphian sanctuary, whose pronouncements exercised great authority in Spartan politics. In the time of Herodotus c. 450 BCE, their judicial functions had been restricted to cases dealing with heiresses, adoptions and the public roads. Aristotle describes the kingship at Sparta as "a kind of unlimited and perpetual generalship" (Pol. iii. 1285a), while Isocrates refers to the Spartans as "subject to an oligarchy at home, to a kingship on campaign" (iii. 24).[23] Civil and criminal cases were decided by a group of officials known as the ephors, as well as a council of elders known as the gerousia. The gerousia consisted of 28 elders over the age of 60, elected for life and usually part of the royal households, and the two kings.[60] High state decisions were discussed by this council, who could then propose policies to the damos, the collective body of Spartan citizenry, who would select one of the alternatives by vote.[61][62] Royal prerogatives were curtailed over time. From the period of the Persian wars, the king lost the right to declare war and was accompanied in the field by two ephors. He was supplanted by the ephors also in the control of foreign policy. Over time, the kings became mere figureheads except in their capacity as generals. Political power was transferred to the ephors and gerousia.[23] An assembly of citizens called the apella[23] was responsible for electing men to the gerousia for life. Citizenship Main article: Spartiate The Spartan education process known as the agoge was essential for full citizenship. However, usually the only boys eligible for the agoge were Spartiates, those who could trace their ancestry to the original inhabitants of the city. There were two exceptions. Trophimoi or "foster sons" were foreign students invited to study. The Athenian general Xenophon, for example, sent his two sons to Sparta as trophimoi. Also, the son of a helot could be enrolled as a syntrophos[63] if a Spartiate formally adopted him and paid his way; if he did exceptionally well in training, he might be sponsored to become a Spartiate.[64] Spartans who could not afford to pay the expenses of the agoge could lose their citizenship. These laws meant that Sparta could not readily replace citizens lost in battle or otherwise, which eventually proved near fatal as citizens became greatly outnumbered by non-citizens, and even more dangerously by helots. Non citizens The other classes were the perioikoi, free inhabitants who were non-citizens, and the helots,[65] state-owned serfs. Descendants of non-Spartan citizens were forbidden the agoge. Helots Main article: Helots The Spartans were a minority of the Lakonian population. The largest class of inhabitants were the helots (in Classical Greek Εἵλωτες / Heílôtes).[66][67] The helots were originally free Greeks from the areas of Messenia and Lakonia whom the Spartans had defeated in battle and subsequently enslaved. In contrast to populations conquered by other Greek cities[citation needed] (e.g. the Athenian treatment of Melos), the male population was not exterminated and the women and children turned into chattel slaves. Instead, the helots were given a subordinate position in society more comparable to serfs in medieval Europe than chattel slaves in the rest of Greece.[citation needed] Helots did not have voting or political rights. The Spartan poet Tyrtaios refers to Helots being allowed to marry and retaining 50% of the fruits of their labor.[68] They also seem to have been allowed to practice religious rites and, according to Thucydides, own a limited amount of personal property.[69] Initially Helots couldn't be freed but during the middle Hellenistic period, some 6,000 helots accumulated enough wealth to buy their freedom, for example, in 227 BCE. In other Greek city-states, free citizens were part-time soldiers who, when not at war, carried on other trades. Since Spartan men were full-time soldiers, they were not available to carry out manual labour.[70] The helots were used as unskilled serfs, tilling Spartan land. Helot women were often used as wet nurses. Helots also travelled with the Spartan army as non-combatant serfs. At the last stand of the Battle of Thermopylae, the Greek dead included not just the legendary three hundred Spartan soldiers but also several hundred Thespian and Theban troops and a number of helots.[71] There was at least one helot revolt (c. 465–460 BCE), and Thucydides remarked that "Spartan policy is always mainly governed by the necessity of taking precautions against the helots."[72][73] On the other hand, the Spartans trusted their helots enough in 479 BCE to take a force of 35,000 with them to Plataea, something they could not have risked if they feared the helots would attack them or run away. Slave revolts occurred elsewhere in the Greek world, and in 413 BCE 20,000 Athenian slaves ran away to join the Spartan forces occupying Attica.[74] What made Sparta's relations with her slave population unique was that the helots, precisely because they enjoyed privileges such as family and property, retained their identity as a conquered people (the Messenians) and also had effective kinship groups that could be used to organize rebellion.[citation needed] As the Spartiate population declined and the helot population continued to grow, the imbalance of power caused increasing tension. According to Myron of Priene[75] of the middle 3rd century BCE: They assign to the Helots every shameful task leading to disgrace. For they ordained that each one of them must wear a dogskin cap (κυνῆ / kunễ) and wrap himself in skins (διφθέρα / diphthéra) and receive a stipulated number of beatings every year regardless of any wrongdoing, so that they would never forget they were slaves. Moreover, if any exceeded the vigour proper to a slave's condition, they made death the penalty; and they allotted a punishment to those controlling them if they failed to rebuke those who were growing fat.[76] Plutarch also states that Spartans treated the Helots "harshly and cruelly": they compelled them to drink pure wine (which was considered dangerous – wine usually being cut with water) "...and to lead them in that condition into their public halls, that the children might see what a sight a drunken man is; they made them to dance low dances, and sing ridiculous songs..." during syssitia (obligatory banquets).[77] Each year when the Ephors took office, they ritually declared war on the helots, allowing Spartans to kill them without risk of ritual pollution.[78] This fight seems to have been carried out by kryptai (sing. κρύπτης kryptēs), graduates of the agoge who took part in the mysterious institution known as the Krypteia.[79] Thucydides states: The helots were invited by a proclamation to pick out those of their number who claimed to have most distinguished themselves against the enemy, in order that they might receive their freedom; the object being to test them, as it was thought that the first to claim their freedom would be the most high spirited and the most apt to rebel. As many as two thousand were selected accordingly, who crowned themselves and went round the temples, rejoicing in their new freedom. The Spartans, however, soon afterwards did away with them, and no one ever knew how each of them perished.[80][81] Perioikoi Main article: Perioeci The Perioikoi came from similar origins as the helots but occupied a significantly different position in Spartan society. Although they did not enjoy full citizen-rights, they were free and not subjected to the same restrictions as the helots. The exact nature of their subjection to the Spartans is not clear, but they seem to have served partly as a kind of military reserve, partly as skilled craftsmen and partly as agents of foreign trade.[82] Perioikoic hoplites served increasingly with the Spartan army, explicitly at the Battle of Plataea, and although they may also have fulfilled functions such as the manufacture and repair of armour and weapons,[83] they were increasingly integrated into the combat units of the Spartan army as the Spartiate population declined.[84] Economy Name vase of the Spartan artist known as the Rider Painter (black-figured kylix, c. 550–530 BCE) Full citizen Spartiates were barred by law from trade or manufacture, which consequently rested in the hands of the Perioikoi.[23] This lucrative monopoly, in a fertile territory with a good harbors, ensured the loyalty of the perioikoi.[85] Despite the prohibition on menial labor or trade, there is evidence of Spartan sculptors,[86] and Spartans were certainly poets, magistrates, ambassadors, and governors as well as soldiers. Allegedly, Spartans were prohibited from possessing gold and silver coins, and according to legend Spartan currency consisted of iron bars to discourage hoarding.[87][88] It was not until the 260s or 250s BCE that Sparta began to mint its own coins.[89] Though the conspicuous display of wealth appears to have been discouraged, this did not preclude the production of very fine decorated bronze, ivory and wooden works of art as well as exquisite jewellery, attested in archaeology.[90] Allegedly as part of the Lycurgan Reforms in the mid-8th century BCE, a massive land reform had divided property into 9,000 equal portions. Each citizen received one estate, a kleros, which was expected to provide his living.[91] The land was worked by helots who retained half the yield. From the other half, the Spartiate was expected to pay his mess (syssitia) fees, and the agoge fees for his children. However, we know nothing of matters of wealth such as how land was bought, sold, and inherited, or whether daughters received dowries.[92] However, from early on there were marked differences of wealth within the state, and these became more serious after the law of Epitadeus some time after the Peloponnesian War, which removed the legal prohibition on the gift or bequest of land.[23][93] By the mid-5th century, land had become concentrated in the hands of a tiny elite, and the notion that all Spartan citizens were equals had become an empty pretence. By Aristotle's day (384–322 BCE) citizenship had been reduced from 9,000 to less than 1,000, then further decreased to 700 at the accession of Agis IV in 244 BCE. Attempts were made to remedy this by imposing legal penalties upon bachelors,[23] but this could not reverse the trend. Life in Classical Sparta Jean-Pierre Saint-Ours, The Selection of Children in Sparta, 1785. A Neoclassical imaging of what Plutarch describes. Birth and death Sparta was above all a militarist state, and emphasis on military fitness began virtually at birth. Shortly after birth, a mother would bathe her child in wine to see whether the child was strong. If the child survived it was brought before the Gerousia by the child's father. The Gerousia then decided whether it was to be reared or not.[23] It is commonly stated that if they considered it "puny and deformed", the baby was thrown into a chasm on Mount Taygetos known euphemistically as the Apothetae (Gr., ἀποθέται, "Deposits").[94][95] This was, in effect, a primitive form of eugenics.[94] Sparta is often viewed as being unique in this regard, however, anthropologist Laila Williamson notes that "Infanticide has been practiced on every continent and by people on every level of cultural complexity, from hunter gatherers to high civilizations. Rather than being an exception, then, it has been the rule."[96]:61There is controversy about the matter in Sparta, since excavations in the chasm only uncovered adult remains, likely belonging to criminals.[97] When Spartans died, marked headstones would only be granted to soldiers who died in combat during a victorious campaign or women who died either in service of a divine office or in childbirth.[98] Education Main article: Agoge Bronze appliqué of Spartan manufacture, possibly depicting Orestes, 550–525 BCE (Getty Villa) When male Spartans began military training at age seven, they would enter the agoge system. The agoge was designed to encourage discipline and physical toughness and to emphasize the importance of the Spartan state. Boys lived in communal messes and, according to Xenophon, whose sons attended the agoge, the boys were fed "just the right amount for them never to become sluggish through being too full, while also giving them a taste of what it is not to have enough."[99] In addition they were trained to survive in times of privation, even if it meant stealing.[100] Besides physical and weapons training, boys studied reading, writing, music and dancing. Special punishments were imposed if boys failed to answer questions sufficiently 'laconically' (i.e. briefly and wittily).[101] Sparta boys were expected to take an older male mentor, usually an unmarried young man. According to some sources, the older man was expected to function as a kind of substitute father and role model to his junior partner; however, others believe it was reasonably certain that they had sexual relations (the exact nature of Spartan pederasty is not entirely clear). Xenophon, an admirer of the Spartan educational system whose sons attended the agoge, explicitly denies the sexual nature of the relationship.[102][99] Some Spartan youth apparently became members of an irregular unit known as the Krypteia. The immediate objective of this unit was to seek out and kill vulnerable helot Laconians as part of the larger program of terrorising and intimidating the helot population.[103] Less information is available about the education of Spartan girls, but they seem to have gone through a fairly extensive formal educational cycle, broadly similar to that of the boys but with less emphasis on military training. In this respect, classical Sparta was unique in ancient Greece. In no other city-state did women receive any kind of formal education.[104] Military life Main articles: Spartan army and Spartiate The so-called Leonidas sculpture (5th century BCE), Archaeological Museum of Sparta, Greece At age 20, the Spartan citizen began his membership in one of the syssitia (dining messes or clubs), composed of about fifteen members each, of which every citizen was required to be a member.[23] Here each group learned how to bond and rely on one another. The Spartans were not eligible for election for public office until the age of 30. Only native Spartans were considered full citizens and were obliged to undergo the training as prescribed by law, as well as participate in and contribute financially to one of the syssitia.[105] Sparta is thought to be the first city to practice athletic nudity, and some scholars claim that it was also the first to formalize pederasty.[106] According to these sources, the Spartans believed that the love of an older, accomplished aristocrat for an adolescent was essential to his formation as a free citizen. The agoge, the education of the ruling class, was, they claim, founded on pederastic relationships required of each citizen,[107] with the lover responsible for the boy's training. However, other scholars question this interpretation. Xenophon explicitly denies it,[99] but not Plutarch.[108] Spartan men remained in the active reserve until age 60. Men were encouraged to marry at age 20 but could not live with their families until they left their active military service at age 30. They called themselves "homoioi" (equals), pointing to their common lifestyle and the discipline of the phalanx, which demanded that no soldier be superior to his comrades.[109] Insofar as hoplite warfare could be perfected, the Spartans did so.[110] Thucydides reports that when a Spartan man went to war, his wife (or another woman of some significance) would customarily present him with his hoplon (shield) and say: "With this, or upon this" (Ἢ τὰν ἢ ἐπὶ τᾶς, Èi tàn èi èpì tàs), meaning that true Spartans could only return to Sparta either victorious (with their shield in hand) or dead (carried upon it).[111] Unfortunately, poignant as this image may be, it is almost certainly propaganda. Spartans buried their battle dead on or near the battle field; corpses were not brought back on their hoplons.[112] Nevertheless, it is fair to say that it was less of a disgrace for a soldier to lose his helmet, breastplate or greaves than his hoplon, since the former were designed to protect one man, whereas the hoplon also protected the man on his left. Thus the shield was symbolic of the individual soldier's subordination to his unit, his integral part in its success, and his solemn responsibility to his comrades in arms – messmates and friends, often close blood relations. According to Aristotle, the Spartan military culture was actually short-sighted and ineffective. He observed: It is the standards of civilized men not of beasts that must be kept in mind, for it is good men not beasts who are capable of real courage. Those like the Spartans who concentrate on the one and ignore the other in their education turn men into machines and in devoting themselves to one single aspect of city's life, end up making them inferior even in that.[113] One of the most persistent myths about Sparta that has no basis in fact is the notion that Spartan mothers were without feelings toward their off-spring and helped enforce a militaristic lifestyle on their sons and husbands.[114][115] The myth can be traced back to Plutarch, who includes no less than 17 "sayings" of "Spartan women," all of which paraphrase or elaborate on the theme that Spartan mothers rejected their own offspring if they showed any kind of cowardice. In some of these sayings, mothers revile their sons in insulting language merely for surviving a battle. These sayings purporting to be from Spartan women were far more likely to be of Athenian origin and designed to portray Spartan women as unnatural and so undeserving of pity.[112] Agriculture, food, and diet Sparta's agriculture consisted mainly of barley, wine, cheese, grain, and figs. These items were grown locally on each Spartan citizen's kleros and were tended to by helots. Spartan citizens were required to donate a certain amount of what they yielded from their kleros to their syssitia, or mess. These donations to the syssitia were a requirement for every Spartan citizen. All the donated food was then redistributed to feed the Spartan population of that syssitia.[116] The helots who tended to the lands were fed using a portion of what they harvested.[117] Marriage Plutarch reports the peculiar customs associated with the Spartan wedding night: The custom was to capture women for marriage(...) The so-called 'bridesmaid' took charge of the captured girl. She first shaved her head to the scalp, then dressed her in a man's cloak and sandals, and laid her down alone on a mattress in the dark. The bridegroom – who was not drunk and thus not impotent, but was sober as always – first had dinner in the messes, then would slip in, undo her belt, lift her and carry her to the bed.[118] The husband continued to visit his wife in secret for some time after the marriage. These customs, unique to the Spartans, have been interpreted in various ways. One of them decidedly supports the need to disguise the bride as a man in order to help the bridegroom consummate the marriage, so unaccustomed were men to women's looks at the time of their first intercourse. The "abduction" may have served to ward off the evil eye, and the cutting of the wife's hair was perhaps part of a rite of passage that signaled her entrance into a new life.[119] Role of women Main article: Women in ancient Sparta Political, social, and economic equality Spartan women, of the citizenry class, enjoyed a status, power, and respect that was unknown in the rest of the classical world. The higher status of females in Spartan society started at birth; unlike Athens, Spartan girls were fed the same food as their brothers.[120] Nor were they confined to their father's house and prevented from exercising or getting fresh air as in Athens, but exercised and even competed in sports.[120] Most important, rather than being married off at the age of 12 or 13, Spartan law forbade the marriage of a girl until she was in her late teens or early 20s. The reasons for delaying marriage were to ensure the birth of healthy children, but the effect was to spare Spartan women the hazards and lasting health damage associated with pregnancy among adolescents. Spartan women, better fed from childhood and fit from exercise, stood a far better chance of reaching old age than their sisters in other Greek cities, where the median age for death was 34.6 years or roughly 10 years below that of men.[121] Unlike Athenian women who wore heavy, concealing clothes and were rarely seen outside the house, Spartan women wore dresses (peplos) slit up the side to allow freer movement and moved freely about the city, either walking or driving chariots. Girls as well as boys exercised, possibly in the nude, and young women as well as young men may have participated in the Gymnopaedia ("Festival of Nude Youths").[122][123] Another practice that was mentioned by many visitors to Sparta was the practice of “wife-sharing”. In accordance with the Spartan belief that breeding should be between the most physically fit parents, many older men allowed younger, more fit men, to impregnate their wives. Other unmarried or childless men might even request another man's wife to bear his children if she had previously been a strong child bearer.[124] For this reason many considered Spartan women polygamous or polyandrous.[125] This practice was encouraged in order that women bear as many strong-bodied children as they could. The Spartan population was hard to maintain due to the constant absence and loss of the men in battle and the intense physical inspection of newborns.[126] Spartan women were also literate and numerate, a rarity in the ancient world. Furthermore, as a result of their education and the fact that they moved freely in society engaging with their fellow (male) citizens, they were notorious for speaking their minds even in public.[127] Plato, in the middle of the fourth century, described women's curriculum in Sparta as consisting of gymnastics and mousike (music and arts). Plato goes on to praise Spartan women's ability when it came to philosophical discussion.[128] Most importantly, Spartan women had economic power because they controlled their own properties, and those of their husbands. It is estimated that in later Classical Sparta, when the male population was in serious decline, women were the sole owners of at least 35% of all land and property in Sparta.[129] The laws regarding a divorce were the same for both men and women. Unlike women in Athens, if a Spartan woman became the heiress of her father because she had no living brothers to inherit (an epikleros), the woman was not required to divorce her current spouse in order to marry her nearest paternal relative.[130] Historic women Many women played a significant role in the history of Sparta.[131] Queen Gorgo, heiress to the throne and the wife of Leonidas I, was an influential and well-documented figure. Herodotus records that as a small girl she advised her father Cleomenes to resist a bribe. She was later said to be responsible for decoding a warning that the Persian forces were about to invade Greece; after Spartan generals could not decode a wooden tablet covered in wax, she ordered them to clear the wax, revealing the warning.[132] Plutarch's Moralia contains a collection of "Sayings of Spartan Women", including a laconic quip attributed to Gorgo: when asked by a woman from Attica why Spartan women were the only women in the world who could rule men, she replied "Because we are the only women who are mothers of men".[133] Laconophilia Main article: Laconophilia Laconophilia is love or admiration of Sparta and its culture or constitution. Sparta was subject of considerable admiration in its day, even in rival Athens. In ancient times "Many of the noblest and best of the Athenians always considered the Spartan state nearly as an ideal theory realised in practice."[134] Many Greek philosophers, especially Platonists, would often describe Sparta as an ideal state, strong, brave, and free from the corruptions of commerce and money. The French classicist François Ollier in his 1933 book Le mirage spartiate (The Spartan Mirage) warned that a major scholarly problem is that all surviving accounts of Sparta were by non-Spartans who often excessively idealized their subject.[135] Young Spartans Exercising by Edgar Degas (1834–1917) With the revival of classical learning in Renaissance Europe, Laconophilia re-appeared, for example in the writings of Machiavelli. The Elizabethan English constitutionalist John Aylmer compared the mixed government of Tudor England to the Spartan republic, stating that "Lacedemonia [was] the noblest and best city governed that ever was". He commended it as a model for England. The philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau contrasted Sparta favourably with Athens in his Discourse on the Arts and Sciences, arguing that its austere constitution was preferable to the more sophisticated Athenian life. Sparta was also used as a model of austere purity by Revolutionary and Napoleonic France.[136] A German racist strain of Laconophilia was initiated by Karl Otfried Müller, who linked Spartan ideals to the supposed racial superiority of the Dorians, the ethnic sub-group of the Greeks to which the Spartans belonged. In the 20th century, this developed into Fascist admiration of Spartan ideals. Adolf Hitler praised the Spartans, recommending in 1928 that Germany should imitate them by limiting "the number allowed to live". He added that "The Spartans were once capable of such a wise measure... The subjugation of 350,000 Helots by 6,000 Spartans was only possible because of the racial superiority of the Spartans." The Spartans had created "the first racialist state".[137] Certain early Zionists, and particularly the founders of Kibbutz movement in Israel, were influenced by Spartan ideals, particularly in education. Tabenkin, a founding father of the Kibbutz movement and the Palmach strikeforce, prescribed that education for warfare "should begin from the nursery", that children should from kindergarten be taken to "spend nights in the mountains and valleys".[138][139] In modern times, the adjective "spartan" means simple, frugal, avoiding luxury and comfort.[140] The term "laconic phrase" describes the very terse and direct speech characteristic of the Spartans. Sparta also features prominently in modern popular culture, most famously the Battle of Thermopylae (see Battle of Thermopylae in popular culture). Notable ancient Spartans Agesilaus II – king Agis I – king Agis II – king Chilon – philosopher Chionis (7th century BCE) – athlete Clearchus of Sparta – mercenary in the army of the Ten Thousand. Cleomenes I – king Cleomenes III – king and reformer Cynisca (4th century BCE) – princess and athlete Gorgo – queen and politician Helen – princess in the Trojan War Leonidas I (c. 520–480 BCE) – king, commander at the Battle of Thermopylae Lycurgus (10th century BCE) – lawgiver Lysander (5th–4th century BCE) – general Menelaus – king during the Trojan War Nabis – king Xanthippus of Carthage – Spartan mercenary in the first Punic war See also List of Kings of Sparta List of ancient Greek cities Notes ^ Found on the following tablets: TH Fq 229, TH Fq 258, TH Fq 275, TH Fq 253, TH Fq 284, TH Fq 325, TH Fq 339, TH Fq 382.[6] There are also words like 𐀨𐀐𐀅𐀖𐀛𐀍𐀄𐀍, ra-ke-da-mo-ni-jo-u-jo – found on the TH Gp 227 tablet[6] – that could perhaps mean "son of the Spartan".[7][8] Moreover, the attested words 𐀨𐀐𐀅𐀜 , ra-ke-da-no and 𐀨𐀐𐀅𐀜𐀩, ra-ke-da-no-re could possibly be Linear B forms of Lacedaemon itself; the latter, found on the MY Ge 604 tablet, is considered to be the dative case form of the former which is found on the MY Ge 603 tablet. It is considered much more probable though that ra-ke-da-no and ra-ke-da-no-re correspond to the anthroponym Λακεδάνωρ, Lakedanor, though the latter is thought to be related etymologically to Lacedaemon.[6][9][10] ^ According to Thucydides, the Athenian citizens at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War (5th century BC) numbered 40,000, making with their families a total of 140,000 people in all. The metics, i.e. those who did not have citizen rights and paid for the right to reside in Athens, numbered a further 70,000, whilst slaves were estimated at between 150,000 to 400,000.[35] ^ Especially the Diamastigosis at the Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia, Limnai outside Sparta. There an amphitheatre was built in the 3rd century AD to observe the ritual whipping of Spartan youths.[50][51] Visiting Romans came to see Sparta as having degraded to a disgusting cult of fetish brutality.[52][53] References ^ Cartledge 2002, p. 91 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFCartledge2002 (help) ^ Cartledge 2002, p. 174 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFCartledge2002 (help) ^ Cartledge 2002, p. 192 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFCartledge2002 (help) ^ Russell, Bertrand (2015-08-27). "Chapter XII: The Influence of Sparta". History of western philosophy. ISBN 978-1138127043. OCLC 931802632. ^ "The Linear B word ra-ke-da-mi-ni-jo". Palaeolexicon. Word study tool of Ancient languages. ^ a b c "TH 229 Fq (305)". "TH Fq 258 (305)". "TH 275 Fq (305)". "TH 253 Fq (305)". "TH 284 Fq (305)". "TH 325 Fq (305)". "TH 339 Fq (305)". "TH 382 Fq (305)". "TH 227 Gp (306)". "MY 603 Ge + frr. (58a)". "MY 604 Ge (58a)". DĀMOS Database of Mycenaean at Oslo. University of Oslo. ^ Thompson, Rupert (2010). "Mycenaean Greek". In Bakker, Egbert J. (ed.). A Companion to the Ancient Greek Language. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 223. ISBN 978-1-4051-5326-3. ^ Beekes, R.S.P. (2010). "s.v. υἱός". Etymological Dictionary of Greek. 2. With the assistance of Lucien van Beek. Leiden, Boston: Brill. p. 1528. ISBN 9789004174184. ^ Raymoure, K.A. "ra-ke-da-no". Minoan Linear A & Mycenaean Linear B. Deaditerranean. Archived from the original on 2013-10-12. Retrieved 2014-03-23. ^ Jasanoff, Jay H.; Nussbaum, Alan (1996). Lefkowitz, Mary R.; Rogers Maclean, Guy (eds.). Black Athena Revisited. The University of North Carolina Press. p. 193. ISBN 0807845558. ^ LIddell & Scott 1940, Λακεδαιμόνιος, s.v. Λακεδαίμων harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLIddellScott1940 (help). ^ Lacedaemonius, s.v. Lacedaemon. Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short. A Latin Dictionary on Perseus Project. ^ LIddell & Scott 1940, Σπάρτη harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLIddellScott1940 (help). ^ Liddell & Scott 1940, Λακεδαίμων. ^ Cartledge 2002, p. 4 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFCartledge2002 (help) ^ MacBean, Alexander; Johnson, Samuel (1773). "Lacedaemon". A Dictionary of Ancient Geography [etc.] London: G. Robinson [etc.]. ^ Autenrieth 1891, Λακεδαίμων. ^ Schmidt, Maurice, ed. (1863). "s.v. Ἀγιάδαι". Hesychii Alexandrini Lexicon (in Greek). Jena: Frederick Mauk.. At the Internet Archive ^ Orosius, 1.21.12. ^ Wiener, Leo (1920). Contributions toward a History of Arabico-Gothic Culture. V. III: Tacitus' Germania & Other Forgeries. Philadelphia: Innes & Sones. p. 20. ^ Diodorus Siculus, Library, 19.70.2. ^ a b Pausanias 1918, Description of Greece, ΙΙΙ.1.2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Tod, Marcus Niebuhr (1911). "Sparta". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 609–14. ^ Thucydides, i. 10 ^ The British School at Athens, Home. ^ The Mycenaean presence in the southeastern Eurotas valley: Vouno Panagias and Ayios Georgios, by Emilia Banou. ^ a b Herodot, Book I, 56.3 ^ Cartledge 2002, p. 28 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFCartledge2002 (help) ^ a b Ehrenberg 2004, p. 31 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFEhrenberg2004 (help) ^ Ehrenberg 2004, p. 36 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFEhrenberg2004 (help) ^ Ehrenberg 2004, p. 33 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFEhrenberg2004 (help) ^ "A Historical Commentary on Thucydides". David Cartwright, p. 176 ^ Morris, Ian (December 2005), The growth of Greek cities in the first millennium BC. v.1 (PDF), Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics ^ Nielsen, Thomas Heine (29 December 2017). Once Again: Studies in the Ancient Greek Polis. Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 9783515084383 – via Google Books. ^ Wilson, Nigel Guy, ed. (2006). Encyclopedia Of Ancient Greece. Routledge (UK). pp. 214–15. ISBN 0-415-97334-1. ^ Green 1998, p. 10 ^ Britannica ed. 2006, "Sparta" ^ "Dictionary of Ancient & Medieval Warfare". Matthew Bennett, p. 86 ^ a b "The Oxford Illustrated History of Greece and the Hellenistic World" p. 141, John Boardman, Jasper Griffin, Oswyn Murray ^ Fine, The Ancient Greeks, 556–59 ^ Davies 1998, p. 133 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFDavies1998 (help). ^ Plutarch 1874, De garrulitate, 17. ^ Plutarch 1891, De garrulitate, 17; in Greek. ^ "Agis III – Livius". www.livius.org. ^ Badian, E. (29 December 1967). "Agis III". Hermes. 95 (2): 170–92. JSTOR 4475455. ^ Diodorus, World History ^ Diodorus, World History, 17.62.1–63.4; tr. C.B. Welles ^ Alexander the Great and his time. By Agnes Savill. p. 44 ISBN 0-88029-591-0 ^ Cartledge & Spawforth 2001, p. 82 ^ Cicero (1918). "II.34". In Pohlenz, M. (ed.). Tusculanae Disputationes (in Latin). Leipzig: Teubner. At the Perseus Project. ^ Michell, Humfrey (1964). Sparta. Cambridge University Press. p. 175. ^ Thomas J. Figueira, "Population Patterns in Late Archaic and Classical Sparta", Transactions of the American Philological Association (1974-2014), Vol. 116 (1986), The Johns Hopkins University Press, pp. 165-213 ^ Myke Cole, Legion versus Phalanx: The Epic Struggle for Infantry Supremacy in the Ancient World, Osprey Publishing, 2018 ^ Cartledge, Paul (2002). Hellenistic and Roman Sparta. Psychology Press. p. 108. ^ Erich S. Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism: The Reinvention of Jewish Tradition, 1998, p. 254, ISBN 0-520-23506-1 (2002) ^ Rappaport, U., 47. 1 Maccabees in Barton, J. and Muddiman, J. (2001), The Oxford Bible Commentary, p. 729 ^ Alexander Gillespie (2011-10-07). A History of the Laws of War: Volume 2: The Customs and Laws of War with ... ISBN 9781847318626 – via Google Książki. ^ Howatson, M. C. (2013-08-22). The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature. ISBN 9780199548552 – via Google Książki. ^ Cartledge 2002, p. 89 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFCartledge2002 (help) ^ The Greeks at War By Philip De Souza, Waldemar Heckel, Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones, Victor Davis Hanson ^ The Politics By Aristotle, Thomas Alan Sinclair, Trevor J. Saunders ^ A companion to Greek studies By Leonard Whibley ^ σύντροφος in Liddell and Scott. ^ The Greek World By Anton Powell ^ Ancient Greece By Sarah B. Pomeroy, Stanley M. Burstein, Walter Donlan, Jennifer Tolbert Roberts ^ Herodotus (IX, 28–29) ^ Xenophon, Hellenica, III, 3, 5 ^ West 1999, p. 24 ^ Cartledge 2002, p. 141 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFCartledge2002 (help) ^ Cartledge 2002, p. 140 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFCartledge2002 (help) ^ Ehrenberg 2004, p. 159 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFEhrenberg2004 (help) ^ Thucydides (IV, 80); the Greek is ambiguous ^ Cartledge 2002, p. 211 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFCartledge2002 (help) ^ Thucydides (VII, 27) ^ Talbert, p. 26. ^ Apud Athenaeus, 14, 647d = FGH 106 F 2. Trans. by Cartledge, p. 305. ^ Life of Lycurgus 28, 8–10. See also, Life of Demetrios, 1, 5; Constitution of the Lacedemonians 30; De Cohibenda Ira 6; De Commmunibus Notitiis 19. ^ (Plutarch, Life of Lycurgus 28, 7) ^ Powell 2001, p. 254 ^ Thucydides (Book IV 80.4). ^ Classical historian Anton Powell has recorded a similar story from 1980s El Salvador. Cf. Powell, 2001, p. 256 ^ Cartledge 2002, pp. 153–55 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFCartledge2002 (help) ^ Cartledge 2002, pp. 158, 178 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFCartledge2002 (help) ^ "Population Patterns in Late Archaic and Classical Sparta" by Thomas Figueira, Transactions of the American Philological Association 116 (1986), pp. 165–213 ^ Paul Cartledge, Sparta and Lakonia, Routledge, London, 1979, pp. 154–59 ^ Conrad Stibbe, Das Andere Sparta, Verlag Philipp von Zabern, Mainz, 1996, pp. 111–27 ^ Excel HSC Ancient History By Peter Roberts, ISBN 1-74125-178-8, 978-1-74125-178-4 ^ Greene, Robert (2000), The 48 Laws of Power, Penguin Books, p. 420, ISBN 0-14-028019-7 ^ Hodkinson, Stephen (2000), Property and Wealth in Classical Sparta, p. 154 ^ Conrad Stibbe, Das Andere Sparta, Verlag Philipp von Zabern, Mainz, 1996 ^ A.H.M. Jones, Sparta, Basel Blackwell and Mott Ltd.,1967, pp. 40–43 ^ Stephen Hodkinson, Property and Wealth in Classical Sparta, The Classical Press of Wales, Swansea, 2000. See also Paul Cartledge's discussion of property in Sparta in Sparta and Lakonia, pp. 142–44. ^ Social Conflict in Ancient Greece By Alexander Fuks, ISBN 965-223-466-4, 978-965-223-466-7 ^ a b Cartledge 2001, p. 84 ^ Plutarch 2005, p. 20 ^ Williamson, Laila (1978). "Infanticide: an anthropological analysis". In Kohl, Marvin (ed.). Infanticide and the Value of Life. NY: Prometheus Books. pp. 61–75. ^ Ancient Sparta – Research Program of Keadas Cavern Archived 2013-10-02 at the Wayback Machine Theodoros K. Pitsios ^ Plutarch, Lycurgus 27.2–3. However this may be conflating later practice with that of the classical period. See Not the Classical Ideal: Athens and the Construction of the Other in Greek Art ed. Beth Cohen, p. 263, note 33, 2000, Brill. ^ a b c Xenophon, Spartan Society, 2 ^ Kagan, Donald; Ozment, Steven; Frank, Turner; Frank, Alison (2013). "The Rise of Greek Civilization". Western Heritage. Pearson. pp. 44, Spartan Society. ^ Cartledge 2001, p. 85 ^ Cartledge 2001, pp. 91–105 ^ Cartledge 2001, p. 88 ^ Cartledge 2001, pp. 83–84 ^ E. David (1984). Aristophanes and Athenian Society of the Early Fourth Century B.C. Brill Archive. ISBN 9004070621. ^ Scanlon, Thomas F. (2005). "The Dispersion of Pederasty and the Athletic Revolution in Sixth-Century BC Greece". J Homosex. 49 (3–4): 63–85. doi:10.1300/j082v49n03_03. PMID 16338890. S2CID 19140503. Same-Sex Desire and Love in Greco-Roman Antiquity and in the Classical Tradition of the West, pp. 64–70. ^ Erich Bethe, Die Dorische Knabenliebe: ihre Ethik und ihre Ideen (The Doric pederasty: their ethics and their ideas), Sauerländer, 1907, 441, 444. ISBN 978-3921495773 ^ Plutarch, The Life of Lycurgus, 18 ^ Readers Companion Military Hist p. 438. Cowley ^ Adcock 1957, pp. 8–9 ^ Plutarch 2004, p. 465 ^ a b Helena P. Schrader (2011). "Sons and Mothers". ΣPARTA: Journal of Ancient Spartan and Greek History. Markoulakis Publications. 7 (4). ISSN 1751-0007. Retrieved September 14, 2013. (subscription required) ^ Forrest 1968, p. 53 ^ Sarah B. Pomeroy (2002). Spartan Women. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-8030002.[page needed] ^ The Greeks, H. D. F. Kitto, ISBN 0-202-30910-X, 978-0202309101 ^ Langridge-Noti, Elizabeth (2015). "Unchanging Tastes: First Steps Towards Correlation of the Evidence for Food Preparation and Consumption in Ancient Laconia". In Spataro, Michela; Villing, Alexandra (eds.). Ceramics, Cuisine and Culture. United Kingdom: Oxbow Books. pp. 148–55. ISBN 978-1-78297-947-0. ^ Figueira, Thomas (1984). "Mess Contributions and Subsistence at Sparta". Transactions of the American Philological Association. 114: 87–109. doi:10.2307/284141. JSTOR 284141. ^ Plutarch, The Life of Lycurgus ^ Pomeroy 2002, p. 42 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFPomeroy2002 (help) ^ a b Xenophon, Spartan Society, 1 ^ Susan Blundell, "Women in Ancient Greece," British Museum Press, London, 1999 ^ Guttentag and Secord, 1983; Finley, 1982; Pomeroy, 1975 ^ Pomeroy 2002, p. 34 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFPomeroy2002 (help) ^ Powell 2001, p. 248 ^ Blundell 1995, p. 154 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBlundell1995 (help) ^ Powell 2001, p. 246 ^ Maria Dettenhofer, "Die Frauen von Sparta," Reine Männer Sache, Munich, Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 1994, p. 25. ^ Pomeroy, Sarah (2002). Spartan Women. Oxford University Press. p. 9. ^ Pomeroy, 1975 ^ Pomeroy, Sarah B. Goddess, Whores, Wives, and Slaves: Women in Classical Antiquity. New York: Schocken Books, 1995 pp. 60–62 ^ "Gorgo and Spartan Women". 2009-10-27. Archived from the original on 2009-10-27. Retrieved 2011-08-10. ^ Helena Schrader (2010-07-11). "Sparta Reconsidered—Spartan Women". Elysiumgates.com. Retrieved 2011-08-10. ^ Plutarch 2004, p. 457 ^ Mueller: Dorians II, 192 ^ Hodkinson, Stephen "The Imaginary Spartan Politeria" pp. 22–81 from The Imaginary Polis: Symposium, January 7–10, 2004 edited by Mogens Herman Hansen, Copenhagen: Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, 2005 p. 222. ^ Žižek, Slavoj. "The True Hollywood Left". www.lacan.com. ^ "Professor Ben Kiernan, Hitler, Pol Pot, and Hutu Power: Distinguishing Themes of Genocidal Ideology, Holocaust and the United Nations Discussion Paper". Un.org. Retrieved 2011-08-10. ^ The Making of Israeli Militarism, By Uri Ben-Eliezer, Indiana University Press, 1998, p. 63 ^ Land and Power: The Zionist Resort to Force, 1881–1948, By Anita Shapira, Stanford University Press 1999, 300 ^ Webster Dictionary http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Spartan%5B2%5Dhttp://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Spartan[permanent dead link] Sources Davies, Norman (1997) [1996]. Europe: a History. Random House. ISBN 0712666338. Adcock, F.E. (1957), The Greek and Macedonian Art of War, Berkeley: University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-00005-6 Autenrieth, Georg (1891). A Homeric Dictionary for Schools and Colleges. New York: Harper and Brothers. Missing or empty |title= (help) Bradford, Ernle (2004), Thermopylae: The Battle for the West, New York: Da Capo Press, ISBN 0-306-81360-2 Buxton, Richard (1999), From Myth to Reason?: Studies in the Development of Greek Thought, Oxford: Clarendon Press, ISBN 0-7534-5110-7 Cartledge, Paul (2002), Sparta and Lakonia: A Regional History 1300 to 362 BC (2 ed.), Oxford: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-26276-3 Cartledge, Paul (2001), Spartan Reflections, London: Duckworth, ISBN 0-7156-2966-2 Cartledge, Paul. "What have the Spartans Done for us?: Sparta's Contribution to Western Civilization", Greece & Rome, Vol. 51, Issue 2 (2004), pp. 164–179. Cartledge, Paul; Spawforth, Antony (2001), Hellenistic and Roman Sparta (2 ed.), Oxford: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-26277-1 Ehrenberg, Victor (1973), From Solon to Socrates: Greek History and Civilisation between the 6th and 5th centuries BC (2 ed.), London: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-04024-8 Forrest, W.G. (1968), A History of Sparta, 950–192 B.C., New York: W. W. Norton & Co. Green, Peter (1998), The Greco-Persian Wars (2 ed.), Berkeley: University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-20313-5 Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (1940). Jones, Henry Stuart (ed.). A Greek-English Lexicon. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Missing or empty |title= (help). Morris, Ian (1992), Death-Ritual and Social Structure in Classical Antiquity, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-37611-4 Pomeroy, Sarah B. (2002), Spartan Women, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-513067-6 Powell, Anton (2001), Athens and Sparta: Constructing Greek Political and Social History from 478 BC (2 ed.), London: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-26280-1 Pausanias (1918). Description of Greece. with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA; London. Plutarch (1874), Plutarch's Morals, Plutarch, Translated from the Greek by several hands. Corrected and revised by. William W. Goodwin, PH. D., Boston, Cambridge Plutarch (1891), Bernardakis, Gregorius N. (ed.), Moralia, Plutarch (in Greek), Leipzig: Teubner Plutarch (2005), Richard J.A. Talbert (ed.), On Sparta (2 ed.), London: Penguin Books, ISBN 0-14-044943-4 Plutarch (2004), Frank Cole Babbitt (ed.), Moralia Vol. III, Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-99270-9 Thompson, F. Hugh (2002), The Archaeology of Greek and Roman Slavery, London: Duckworth, ISBN 0-7156-3195-0 Thucydides (1974), M.I. Finley, Rex Warner (ed.), History of the Peloponnesian War, London: Penguin Books, ISBN 0-14-044039-9 West, M.L. (1999), Greek Lyric Poetry, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-954039-6 Further reading David, Ephraim. 1989. "Dress in Spartan Society." Ancient World 19:3–13. Flower, Michael A. 2009. "Spartan “Religion” and Greek “Religion.”" In Sparta: Comparative Approaches. Edited by Stephen Hodkinson, 193–229. Swansea, UK: Classical Press of Wales. Hodkinson, Stephen, and Ian MacGregor Morris, eds. 2010. Sparta in Modern Thought. Swansea, UK: Classical Press of Wales. Low, Polly. 2006. "Commemorating the Spartan War-Dead." In Sparta and War. Edited by Stephen Hodkinson and Anton Powell, 85–109. Swansea, UK: Classical Press of Wales. Rabinowitz, Adam. 2009. "Drinking from the Same Cup: Sparta and late Archaic Commensality." In Sparta: Comparative Approaches. Edited by Stephen Hodkinson, 113–191. Swansea, UK: Classical Press of Wales. External links Library resources about Sparta Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sparta. Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Sparta. Sparta on In Our Time at the BBC GTP – Sparta GTP – Ancient Sparta Schrader, Helena P. (2001–2010). "Sparta Reconsidered: An Introduction". The Spartans: Warrior Philosophers of the Ancient World. Elysium Gates. Archived from the original on 2002-10-05. Papakyriakou-Anagnostou, Ellen (2000–2011). "History of Sparta". 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en-wikipedia-org-7174	----	First Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia First Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Dynasty of ancient Egypt First Dynasty of Egypt c. 3100 BC–c. 2900 BC Narmer Palette (circa 3200–3000 BC) Capital Thinis Common languages Egyptian language Religion Ancient Egyptian religion Government Absolute monarchy Historical era Bronze Age • Established c. 3100 BC • Disestablished c. 2900 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Predynastic Egypt Second Dynasty of Egypt Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The First Dynasty of ancient Egypt (Dynasty I)[1] covers the first series of Egyptian kings to rule over a unified Egypt. It immediately follows the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, possibly by Narmer,[2] and marks the beginning of the Early Dynastic Period, a time at which power was centered at Thinis. The date of this period is subject to scholarly debate about the Egyptian chronology. It falls within the early Bronze Age and is variously estimated to have begun anywhere between the 34th and the 30th centuries BC. In a 2013 study based on radiocarbon dates, the beginning of the First Dynasty—the accession of Narmer (commonly known as Menes)—was placed at 3100 BC give or take a century (3218–3035, with 95% confidence).[3] Contents 1 The dynasty 2 Human sacrifice 3 Rulers 4 See also 5 References 5.1 Citations 5.2 Bibliography The dynasty[edit] Information about this dynasty is derived from a few monuments and other objects bearing royal names, the most important being the Narmer Palette and Narmer Macehead, as well as Den and Qa'a king lists.[4][5][6] No detailed records of the first two dynasties have survived, except for the terse lists on the Palermo Stone. The account in Manetho's Aegyptiaca contradicts both the archeological evidence and the other historical records: Manetho names nine rulers of the First Dynasty, only one of whose names matches the other sources, and offers information for only four of them.[7] Egyptian hieroglyphs were fully developed by then, and their shapes would be used with little change for more than three thousand years. Large tombs of pharaohs at Abydos and Naqada, in addition to cemeteries at Saqqara and Helwan near Memphis, reveal structures built largely of wood and mud bricks, with some small use of stone for walls and floors. Stone was used in quantity for the manufacture of ornaments, vessels, and occasionally, for statues. Tamarix ("tamarisk" or "salt cedar") was used to build boats such as the Abydos boats. One of the most important indigenous woodworking techniques was the fixed mortise and tenon joint. A fixed tenon was made by shaping the end of one timber to fit into a mortise (hole) that is cut into a second timber. A variation of this joint using a free tenon eventually became one of the most important features in Mediterranean and Egyptian shipbuilding. It creates a union between two planks or other components by inserting a separate tenon into a cavity (mortise) of the corresponding size cut into each component."[8] The Narmer Palette Narmer Macehead Necklaces with different types of beads. Carnelian, coral, and garnet. Pottery jar with integral strainer. Human sacrifice[edit] Human sacrifice was practiced as part of the funerary rituals associated with all of the pharaohs of the first dynasty. It is clearly demonstrated as existing during this dynasty by retainers being buried near each pharaoh's tomb as well as animals sacrificed for the burial. The tomb of Djer is associated with the burials of 338 individuals.[9] The people and animals sacrificed, such as donkeys, were expected to assist the pharaoh in the afterlife. For unknown reasons, this practice ended with the conclusion of the dynasty. Rulers[edit] Known rulers in the history of Egypt for the First Dynasty are as follows: Name Image Comments Dates Narmer Believed to be the same person as Menes and to have unified Upper and Lower Egypt. Possibly married Neithhotep. Around 3100 BC Hor-Aha Greek form: Athotís.Led an expedition against the Nubians.Married Benerib and Khenthap. Around 3050 BC Djer Greek form: Uenéphes (after his Gold name In-nebw); His name and titulary appear on the Palermo Stone. His tomb was later thought to be the legendary tomb of Osiris. 54 years[10] Djet Greek form: Usapháis.Possibly married Ahaneith. 10 years[11] Merneith Possibly first female Pharaoh (or ruled as regent to her son Den or ruled as both king/queen and regent) Merneith was buried close to Djet and Den. Her tomb is of the same scale as the tombs of the kings of that period [12] Around 2950 BC[13] Den Greek form: Kénkenes (after the ramesside diction of his birthname: Qenqen[14]). First pharaoh depicted wearing the double crown of Egypt, first pharaoh with a full niswt bity-name. 42 years[11] Anedjib Greek form: Miebidós. Known for his ominous nebwy-title.[15] 10 years Semerkhet Greek form: Semempsés. First Egyptian ruler with a fully developed Nebty name. His complete reign is preserved on the Cairo stone. 8½ years[11] Qa'a Greek form: Bienéches. Ruled very long, his tomb is the last one with subsidiary tombs. 34 years Sneferka Very short reign, correct chronological position unknown. Around 2900 BC Horus Bird Very short reign, correct chronological position unknown. Around 2900 BC See also[edit] Dynasties of ancient Egypt Early Dynastic Period (Egypt) Predynastic Egypt References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Kuhrt (1995), p. 118. ^ Heagy, Thomas C. (2014). "Who was Menes?". Archeo-Nil. 24: 59–92. Available online "[1]". ^ Dee, M.; Wengrow, D.; Shortland, A.; Stevenson, A.; Brock, F.; Girdland Flink, L.; Bronk Ramsey, C. (4 September 2013). "An absolute chronology for early Egypt using radiocarbon dating and Bayesian statistical modelling". Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 469 (2159): 20130395–20130395. doi:10.1098/rspa.2013.0395. PMC 3780825. PMID 24204188. ^ "Qa'a and Merneith lists", Xoomer, IT: Virgilio. ^ The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/1553 ^ The Narmer Catalog http://narmer.org/inscription/4048 ^ Manetho, Fr. 6, 7a, 7b. Text and translation in Manetho, translated by W.G. Waddell (Cambridge: Harvard University, 1940), pp. 27–35 ^ "Early ship construction – Khufu's solar boat", Egypt (Timeline), IL: Reshafim, January 2001, retrieved October 29, 2008. ^ Shaw (2000), p. 68. ^ Wolfgang Helck: Untersuchungen zur Thinitenzeit (= Ägyptologische Abhandlungen (ÄA), Vol. 45). Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1987, ISBN 3-447-02677-4, p. 124. ^ a b c Wolfgang Helck: Untersuchungen zur Thinitenzeit (Agyptologische Abhandlungen), ISBN 3-447-02677-4, O. Harrassowitz (1987), p. 124 ^ Tyldesley, J. (2006). Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt. Thames & Hudson. ^ Teeter, Emily (ed.) (2011). Before the Pyramids, The Origins of Egyptian Civilization. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. p. 207.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) ^ William Matthew Flinders Petrie: The Royal Tombs of the Earliest Dynasties. Cambridge University Press, New York 2013 (reprint of 1901), ISBN 1-108-06612-7, p. 49. ^ Nicolas-Christophe Grimal: A History of Ancient Egypt. Blackwell, Oxford UK/ Cambridge USA 1992, ISBN 978-0-631-19396-8, p. 53. Bibliography[edit] Kuhrt, Amélie (1995), The Ancient Near East: c. 3000–330 BC, London: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-01353-6. Shaw, Ian (2000), The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-280458-8 Preceded by Pre-dynastic Egypt Dynasty of Egypt c. 3100 – 2890 BC Succeeded by Second Dynasty v t e Ancient Egypt topics Index Major topics Glossary of artifacts Agriculture Architecture (Egyptian Revival architecture) Art Portraiture Astronomy Chronology Cities (list) Clothing Cuisine Dance Dynasties Funerary practices Geography Great Royal Wives (list) Hieroglyphs History Language Literature Mathematics Medicine Military Music Mythology People Pharaohs (list) Philosophy Religion Sites Technology Trade Writing Egyptology Egyptologists Museums  Ancient Egypt portal Book Category WikiProject Commons Outline v t e First Dynasty of Ancient Egypt Pharaohs Menes/Narmer Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Regents Neithhotep Merneith Queen consorts Benerib Herneith Penebui Nakhtneith (Khenthap) Semat Serethor Seshemetka Betrest Officials Amka Hemaka Sabef Meriiti Other people Ahaneith Artefacts and monuments Narmer macehead Narmer palette Tomb of Anedjib Den seal impressions Abydos boats MacGregor plaque Mastabas S3503 and S3504 Capital Thinis Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=First_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=1001976933" Categories: First Dynasty of Egypt States and territories established in the 4th millennium BC States and territories disestablished in the 3rd millennium BC Dynasties of ancient Egypt 31st century BC in Egypt 30th century BC in Egypt 29th century BC in Egypt 4th-millennium BC establishments 3rd-millennium BC disestablishments in Egypt 4th millennium BC in Egypt 3rd millennium BC in Egypt Hidden categories: CS1 maint: extra text: authors list Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca বাংলা Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ქართული Magyar Македонски مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский සිංහල Simple English Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 January 2021, at 06:21 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7216	----	Ariobarzanes of Persis - Wikipedia Ariobarzanes of Persis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (April 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Ariobarzanes of Persis *Āriya-bṛdāna- Born 368 BC Persepolis, Persia Died 20 January 330 BC Persian Gates, near Persepolis Known for Commanding the Persian Army at the Battle of the Persian Gates Title Satrap of Persis Parent(s) Artabazus (father) Relatives Youtab (sister) Ariobarzanes ( Median: Āryabṛzāna, meaning "exalting the Aryans", Ancient Greek: Ἀριοβαρζάνης;), also (Persian: آریوبرزن‎; died 330 BC)[1] and commonly known as Ariobarzanes the Brave,[citation needed] was an Achaemenid prince, satrap and a Persian military commander who led a last stand of the Persian army at the Battle of the Persian Gate against Macedonian King Alexander the Great in the winter of 330 BC. Contents 1 Life 2 Death 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Life[edit] Though the exact birth-date of Ariobarzanes is unknown, it is speculated that he was born around 368 BC. His sister was the ancient Persian noblewoman and warrior Youtab. Ariobarzanes was made satrap of Persis (the southern province of Fars in present-day Iran) in 335 BC by Darius III Codomannus. Historians are surprised that Darius III appointed a satrap for Persepolis and Persis; apparently that office did not previously exist. Ariobarzanes commanded part of the Persian Army fighting against the Macedonians at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC. Death[edit] Following the Persian defeat at Gaugamela, Darius III realized he could not defend his capital Persepolis and travelled east to rebuild his armies, leaving Ariobarzanes in command. Meanwhile, Alexander the Great split his army and led his 14,000-strong force towards the Persian capital via the Persian Gates. There Ariobarzanes successfully ambushed Alexander the Great's army, inflicting heavy casualties. The Persian success at the Battle of the Persian Gate was short lived though; after being held off for 30 days, Alexander the Great outflanked and destroyed the defenders. Some sources indicate that the Persians were betrayed by a captured tribal chief who showed the Macedonians an alternate path that allowed them to outflank Ariobarzanes in a reversal of Thermopylae. Ariobarzanes himself was killed either during the battle or during the retreat to Persepolis. Afterwards, Alexander continued towards Persepolis, seizing the city and its treasury, and eventually looting the city months after its fall. Alexander the Great replaced him with Phrasaortes as Hellenistic satrap of Persis.[2] See also[edit] Battle of the Persian Gate References[edit] ^ Shahbazi, A. Sh. "ARIOBARZANES". Encyclopedia Iranica. Retrieved 2008-03-05. ^ Roisman, Joseph (2002). Brill's Companion to Alexander the Great. BRILL. p. 189. ISBN 9789004217553. External links[edit] Ariobarzanes: An Article by Jona Lendering. Pharnabazus, The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition 2006. King Darius III: A Research Article on Darius-III Codomannus Gabae: The name of two places in Persia and Sogdiana. Persian Gates: Photos of the battlefield. Ariobarzanes of Persis by Nabil Rastani v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Authority control SUDOC: 236210491 VIAF: 25156251685707990172 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 25156251685707990172 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ariobarzanes_of_Persis&oldid=1002473546" Categories: Iranian generals 368 BC births 330 BC deaths 4th-century BC Iranian people Governors of Fars Satraps of the Achaemenid Empire Military personnel killed in action Hidden categories: Articles lacking in-text citations from April 2017 All articles lacking in-text citations Articles with hCards Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Persian-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2018 Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Català Deutsch Español فارسی Français گیلکی Hrvatski Italiano עברית مصرى Nederlands Occitan Português Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 16:56 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7220	----	Wikipedia:Contact us - Wikipedia Wikipedia:Contact us From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Introduction Readers How to report a problem with an article, or find out more information. Article subjects Problems with articles about you, your company, or somebody you represent. Licensing How to copy Wikipedia's information, donate your own, or report unlicensed use of your information. Donors Find out about the process, how to donate, and information about how your money is spent. Press and partnerships If you're a member of the press looking to contact Wikipedia, or have a business proposal for us. Back to main page Thank you for your interest in contacting Wikipedia. Before proceeding, some important disclaimers: Wikipedia has no central editorial board. Contributions are made by a large number of volunteers at their own discretion. Edits are neither the responsibility of the Wikimedia Foundation (the organisation that hosts the site) nor of its staff and edits will not generally be made in response to an email request. Although Wikipedia was founded by Jimmy Wales, he is not personally responsible for our content. If you have questions about the concept of Wikipedia rather than a specific problem, the About Wikipedia page may help. If you want to ask other users for help with editing or using Wikipedia, stop by the Teahouse, Wikipedia's live help channel, or the help desk to ask someone for assistance. If you disagree with an article's content, or are involved in a content dispute, see Dispute resolution. The links on the left should direct you to how to contact us or resolve problems. If you cannot find your issue listed there, you can email helpful, experienced volunteers at info-enwikimedia.org. Please refrain from emailing about disagreements with content; they will not be resolved via email. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Contact_us&oldid=967537943" Categories: Wikipedia tutorials Wikipedia quick introductions Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Project page Talk Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Meta-Wiki Wikibooks Wikinews Wikiquote Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wiktionary Languages Alemannisch العربية تۆرکجه বাংলা Banjar Basa Banyumasan भोजपुरी Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Davvisámegiella Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Jawa Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Magyar Malti Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча پښتو Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русиньскый Русский Scots Shqip Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Tagalog Татарча/tatarça ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو Vèneto Tiếng Việt ייִדיש 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 13 July 2020, at 20:45 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7222	----	List of kings of Babylon - Wikipedia List of kings of Babylon From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from King of Babylon) Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia list article King of Babylon šar Bābili Reconstruction of a typical c. 16th/15th–10th century BC Babylonian king Details First monarch Sumu-abum Last monarch Nabonidus (last native king) Shamash-eriba or Nidin-Bel (last native rebel) Phraates IV (last accorded title) Formation c. 1894 BC Abolition 539 BC (last native king) 484 BC or 336/335 BC (last native rebel) c. 2 BC (last accorded title) Appointer Divine right and the Babylonian priesthood The king of Babylon (Akkadian: šar Bābili) was the ruler of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Babylon and its kingdom, Babylonia, which existed as an independent realm from the 19th century BC to its fall in the 6th century BC. For the majority of its existence as an independent kingdom, Babylon ruled most of southern Mesopotamia, composed of the ancient regions of Sumer and Akkad. The city experienced two major periods of ascendancy, when Babylonian kings rose to dominate large parts of the Ancient Near East; the First Babylonian Empire (or Old Babylonian Empire; 1894–1595 BC according to the middle chronology) and the Second Babylonian Empire (or Neo-Babylonian Empire; 626–539 BC). The title šar Bābili was applied to Babylonian rulers relatively late, from the 8th century BC and onwards. Preceding Babylonian kings had typically used the title viceroy of Babylon (Akkadian: šakkanakki Bābili) out of reverence for Babylon's patron deity Marduk, considered the city's formal "king". Other titles frequently used by the Babylonian monarchs included the geographical titles king of Sumer and Akkad (Akkadian: šar māt Šumeri u Akkadi) and king of Karduniash (Akkadian: šar Karduniaš), "Karduniash" being the name applied to Babylon's kingdom by the city's third dynasty (the Kassites). Many of Babylon's kings were of foreign origin. Throughout the city's nearly two-thousand year history, it was ruled by kings of native Babylonian, Amorite, Kassite, Assyrian, Elamite, Chaldean, Persian, Hellenic and Parthian origin. A king's cultural and ethnic background does not appear to have been important for the Babylonian perception of kingship, the important matter instead being whether the king was capable of executing the duties traditionally ascribed to the Babylonian king; establishing peace and security, upholding justice, honoring civil rights, refraining from unlawful taxation, respecting religious traditions, constructing temples and providing gifts to the gods in them as well as maintaining cultic order. Babylonian revolts of independence directed against Assyrian and Persian rulers probably had little to do with said rulers not being Babylonians and more to do with the rulers rarely visiting Babylon and failing to partake in the city's rituals and traditions. Babylon's last native king was Nabonidus, who reigned from 556 to 539 BC. Nabonidus's rule was ended through Babylon being conquered by Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid Empire. Though early Achaemenid kings continued to place importance on Babylon and continued using the title "king of Babylon", later Achaemenid rulers being ascribed the title is probably only something done by the Babylonians themselves, with the kings having abandoned it. Though it is doubtful if any later monarchs claimed the title, Babylonian scribes continued to accord it to the rulers of the empires that controlled Babylonia until the time of the Parthian Empire, when Babylon was gradually abandoned. Though Babylonia never regained independence after the Achaemenid conquest, there were several attempts by Babylonians to drive out their foreign rulers and re-establish their kingdom, possibly as late as 336 BC under the rebel Nidin-Bel. Contents 1 Titles 2 Role and legitimacy 3 Amorite dynasty (c. 1894–1595 BC) 4 Interim kings 4.1 First Sealand dynasty 4.2 Early Kassite rulers 5 Kassite dynasty (c. 16th century BC – 1155 BC) 6 Second dynasty of Isin (c. 1157–1026 BC) 7 Second Sealand dynasty (c. 1025–1005 BC) 8 Bazi dynasty (c. 1004–985 BC) 9 Elamite dynasty (c. 984–979 BC) 10 Uncertain/mixed dynasties (c. 978 – 770 BC) 11 Dynasty of E (c. 770–732 BC) 12 Shapi dynasty (732–729 BC) 13 Assyrian dynasty (729–626 BC) 14 Chaldean dynasty (626–539 BC) 15 Post-Neo-Babylonian kings 15.1 Achaemenid dynasty (539–331 BC) 15.2 Argead dynasty (331–309 BC) 15.3 Seleucid dynasty (311–141 BC) 15.4 Arsacid dynasty (141 – c. 2 BC) 16 See also 17 Notes 18 References 18.1 Citations 18.2 Bibliography 18.3 Web sources Titles[edit] See also: Akkadian royal titulary Kings Marduk-nadin-ahhe (r. c. 1099–1082 BC, left) and Marduk-zakir-shumi I (r. c. 855–819 BC, right), showing how Babylonian royal attire changed over time Throughout the city's long history, various titles were used to designate the ruler of Babylon and its kingdom, the most common[1] of which were "viceroy/governor of Babylon" (šakkanakki Bābili),[2] "king of Karduniash" (šar Karduniaš)[3] and "king of Sumer and Akkad" (šar māt Šumeri u Akkadi).[4] "viceroy/governor of Babylon" emphasizes the political dominion of the city, whereas the other two refer to southern Mesopotamia as a whole.[1] Use of one of the titles did not mean that the others could not be used simultaneously. For instance, the Neo-Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser III, who conquered Babylon in 729 BC, used all three.[5] The reason why "governor/viceroy of Babylon" was used rather than "king of Babylon" (šar Bābili)[6] for much of the city's history was that the true king of Babylon was formally considered to be its national deity, Marduk. By being titled as šakkanakki rather than šar, the Babylonian king thus showed reverence to the city's god. This practice was ended by the Neo-Assyrian king Sennacherib, who in 705 BC took the title šar Bābili rather than šakkanakki Bābili, something which alongside various other perceived offences contributed to widespread negative reception of the king in Babylonia.[7] Sennacherib's immediate successors, including his son Esarhaddon (r. 681–669 BC) typically used šakkanakki Bābili,[8] though there are examples of Esarhaddon and Esarhaddon's successor Shamash-shum-ukin (r. 668–648 BC) using šar Bābili as well.[9] "King of Babylon", rather than "governor/viceroy", was then used for all following kings. It was used by the Neo-Babylonian kings,[10] and by the early Achaemenid Persian rulers.[6] The Achaemenids used the title king of Babylon and king of the Lands until it was gradually abandoned by Xerxes I in 481 BC after he had to deal with numerous Babylonian revolts.[11] The last Achaemenid king whose inscriptions use this title was Artaxerxes I, the successor of Xerxes I.[12] Later monarchs likely rarely (if at all) used the title, but the rulers of Mesopotamia continued to be accorded it for centuries by the Babylonians themselves, as late as the Parthian period. The Parthian kings were styled in inscriptions as LUGAL (the inscription of šar).[13] The standard Parthian formula, applied for the last few kings mentioned in Akkadian-language sources, was "ar-šá-kam lugal.lugal.meš" (Aršákam šar šarrāni; "Arsaces, king of kings").[14] The final Babylonian documents that mention and name a king are the astronomical diaries LBAT 1184 and LBAT 1193,[14] written during the reign of the Parthian king Phraates IV (r. 37–2 BC), dated to 11 BC and 5 BC, respectively.[15] The title "king of Sumer and Akkad" was introduced during the Third Dynasty of Ur, centuries before Babylon was founded, and allowed rulers to connect themselves to the culture and legacy of the Sumerian and Akkadian civilizations,[16] as well as lay claim on the political hegemony achieved during the ancient Akkadian Empire. Furthermore, the title was a geographical one in that southern Mesopotamia was typically divided into regions called Sumer (the southern regions) and Akkad (the north), meaning that "king of Sumer and Akkad" referred to rule over the entire country.[17] Alongside "king of Babylon", "king of Sumer and Akkad" was used by Babylonian monarchs until the fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BC.[4] The title was also used by Cyrus the Great, who conquered Babylon in 539 BC.[18][19][20] "King of Karduniash" was introduced during Babylon's third dynasty, when the city and southern Mesopotamia as a whole was ruled by the Kassites. Karduniaš was the Kassite name for the kingdom centered on Babylon and its territory.[17] The title continued being used long after the Kassites had lost control of Babylon, used for instance as late as by the native Babylonian king Nabu-shuma-ukin I (r. c. 900–888 BC)[21] and by Esarhaddon.[8] Role and legitimacy[edit] The Statue of Marduk as depicted on a 9th century BC cylinder seal The Babylonian kings derived their right to rule from divine appointment by Babylon's patron deity Marduk and through consecration by the city's priests.[22] Marduk's main cult image (often conflated with the god himself), the Statue of Marduk, was prominently used in the coronation rituals for the kings, who received their crowns "out of the hands" of Marduk during the New Year's festival, symbolizing them being bestowed with kingship by the deity.[11] The king's rule and his role as Marduk's vassal on Earth were reaffirmed annually at this time of year, when the king entered the Esagila alone on the fifth day of the New Year's Festival each year and met with the chief priest. The chief priest removed the regalia from the king, slapped him across the face and made him kneel before Marduk's statue. The king would then tell the statue that he had not oppressed his people and that he had maintained order throughout the year, whereafter the chief priest would reply (on behalf of Marduk) that the king could continue to enjoy divine support for his rule, returning the royal regalia.[23] Through being a patron of Babylon's temples, the king extended his generosity towards the Mesopotamian gods, who in turn empowered his rule and lent him their authority.[22] Babylonian kings were expected to establish peace and security, uphold justice, honor civil rights, refrain from unlawful taxation, respect religious traditions and maintain cultic order. None of the king's responsibilities and duties required him to be ethnically or even culturally Babylonian; any foreigner sufficiently familiar with the royal customs of Babylonia could adopt the title,[22] though they might then require the assistance of the native priesthood and the native scribes. Ethnicity and culture does not appear to have been important in the Babylonian perception of kingship; many foreign kings enjoyed support from the Babylonians and several native kings were despised.[24] That the rule of some foreign kings was not supported by the Babylonians probably has little to do with their ethnic or cultural background.[25] What was always more important was whether the ruler was capable of executing the duties of the Babylonian king properly, in line with established Babylonian tradition.[26] The frequent Babylonian revolts against foreign rulers, such as the Assyrians and the Persians, can most likely be attributed to the Assyrian and Persian kings being perceived as failing in their duties as Babylonian monarchs. Since their capitals were elsewhere, they did not regularly partake in the city's rituals (meaning that they could not be celebrated in the same way that they traditionally were) and they rarely performed their traditional duties to the Babylonian cults through constructing temples and presenting cultic gifts to the city's gods. This failure might have been interpreted as the kings thus not having the necessary divine endorsement to be considered true kings of Babylon.[27] Amorite dynasty (c. 1894–1595 BC)[edit] Main article: First Babylonian dynasty The Old Babylonian Empire under Hammurabi (r. c. 1792–1750 BC) The regnal dates below (and for the rest of the list, where applicable) follow Chen (2020),[28] which in turn follows the middle chronology of Mesopotamian history, the chronology most commonly encountered in literature, including most current textbooks on the archaeology and history of the Ancient Near East.[29][30][31] Image Name Reign Succession & notes Ref — Sumu-abum Šumu-abum c. 1894 – 1881 BC Babylon's first king; liberated the city from the control of the city-state Kazallu [28] — Sumu-la-El Šumu-la-El c. 1880 – 1845 BC Unclear succession [28] — Sabium Sabūm c. 1844 – 1831 BC Son of Sumu-la-El [28] — Apil-Sin Apil-Sîn c. 1830 – 1813 BC Son of Sabium [28] — Sin-Muballit Sîn-Muballit c. 1812 – 1793 BC Son of Apil-Sin [28] Hammurabi Ḫammu-rāpi c. 1792 – 1750 BC Son of Sin-Muballit [28] — Samsu-iluna Šamšu-iluna c. 1749 – 1712 BC Son of Hammurabi [28] — Abishi Abiši c. 1711 – 1684 BC Son of Samsu-iluna [28] — Ammi-Ditana Ammi-ditāna c. 1683 – 1647 BC Son of Abishi [28] — Ammi-Saduqa Ammi-Saduqa c. 1646 – 1626 BC Son of Ammi-Ditana [28] — Samsu-Ditana Šamšu-ditāna c. 1625 – 1595 BC Son of Ammi-Saduqa [28] Interim kings[edit] Conquest of the Sea-Land by the Kassites. 20th century reconstruction. Samsu-Ditana's reign ended (according to the middle chronology) in 1595 BC with the sack and destruction of Babylon by the Hittites. Babylon and its kingdom would not be firmly re-established until the reign of the Kassite king Agum II.[32] Babylonian king lists consider the kings listed in this section as kings of Babylon between the Amorite dynasty and the Kassite dynasty, though most of them are unlikely to have ruled Babylon itself and the three dynasties likely overlapped significantly.[33] Precise dates for the reigns of these kings are not known.[28] First Sealand dynasty[edit] Main article: Sealand Dynasty The First Sealand dynasty might only have ruled Babylonia itself for the briefest of periods, being based in formerly Sumerian regions south of it. Nevertheless, it is often traditionally numbered the Second Dynasty of Babylon. Little is known of these rulers. They were counted as kings of Babylon in later king lists, succeeding the Amorite dynasty despite overlapping reigns.[33] Ilum-ma-ili (Ilum-ma-ilī), 60 years.[28] Itti-ili-nibi (Itti-ili-nībī), 56(?) years.[28] Damqi-ilishu (Damqi-ilišu), 26(?) years.[28] Ishkibal (Iškibal), 15 years.[28] Shushushi (Šušši), 24 years.[28] Gulkishar (Gulkišar), 55 years.[28] mDIŠ+U-EN (mDIŠ-U-EN; reading unknown), 12 years.[28] Peshgaldaramesh (Pešgaldarameš), son of Gulkishar, 50 years.[28] Ayadaragalama (Ayadaragalama), son of Peshgaldaramesh, 28 years.[28] Akurduana (Akurduana), 26 years.[28] Melamkurkurra (Melamkurkurra), 7 years.[28] Ea-gamil (Ea-gamil), 9 years.[28] Early Kassite rulers[edit] Main article: Early Kassite rulers These kings also did not actually rule Babylon, but succeeding Kassite kings did. Little is known of these rulers. They were counted as kings of Babylon in later king lists, succeeding the Sealand dynasty despite overlapping reigns.[33] Gandash (Gandaš), 26 years.[28] Agum I Mahru (Agum Maḫrû), son of Gandash, 22 years.[28] Kashtiliash I (Kaštiliašu), son of Agum I, 22 years.[28] Abi-Rattash (Abi-Rattaš or Uššiašu), son of Kashtiliash I, 8(?) years.[28] Kashtiliash II (Kaštiliašu).[28] Urzigurumash (Ur-zigurumaš or Tazzigurumaš).[28] Hurbazum (Ḫurbazum or Ḫarba-Šipak).[28] Shipta'ulzi (Šipta’ulzi or Tiptakzi).[28] Kassite dynasty (c. 16th century BC – 1155 BC)[edit] Main article: Kassites Map of Kassite Babylonia in the 13th century BC Map of the Ancient Near East c. 1400 BC Map of the Ancient Near East c. 1300 BC Map of the Ancient Near East c. 1200 BC Image Name Reign Succession & notes Ref — Agum II Kakrime Agum-Kakrime Uncertain Re-established Babylon; son of Urzigurumash [28] — Burnaburiash I Burna-Buriaš Uncertain Son of Agum II [28] — Kashtiliash III Kaštiliašu Uncertain Son of Burnaburiash I [28] — Ulamburiash Ulam-Buriaš Uncertain Son of Burnaburiash I [28] — Agum III Agum Uncertain Son of Kashtiliash III [28] — Karaindash Karaindaš Uncertain Unclear succession [28] — Kadashman-harbe I Kadašman-Ḫarbe Uncertain Unclear succession [28] — Kurigalzu I Kuri-Galzu Uncertain Son of Kadashman-harbe I [28] Kadashman-Enlil I Kadašman-Enlil c. 1374 – 1360 BC Son of Kurigalzu I [28] — Burnaburiash II Burna-Buriaš c. 1359 – 1333 BC Son of Kadashman-Enlil I (?) [28] — Karahardash Kara-ḫardaš c. 1333 BC Son of Burnaburiash II [28] — Nazibugash Nazi-Bugaš or Šuzigaš c. 1333 BC Unrelated to other kings; usurped the throne from Karahardash [28] Kurigalzu II Kuri-Galzu c. 1332 – 1308 BC Son of Burnaburiash II; appointed by the Assyrian king Ashur-uballit I [28] — Nazimaruttash Nazi-Maruttaš c. 1307 – 1282 BC Son of Kurigalzu II [28] — Kadashman-Turgu Kadašman-Turgu c. 1281 – 1264 BC Son of Nazi-Maruttash [28] — Kadashman-Enlil II Kadašman-Enlil c. 1263 – 1255 BC Son of Kadashman-Turgu [28] — Kudur-Enlil Kudur-Enlil c. 1254 – 1246 BC Son of Kadashman-Enlil II [28] — Shagarakti-Shuriash Šagarakti-Šuriaš c. 1245 – 1233 BC Son of Kudur-Enlil [28] — Kashtiliash IV Kaštiliašu c. 1232 – 1225 BC Son of Shagarakti-Shuriash [28] — Enlil-nadin-shumi Enlil-nādin-šumi c. 1224 BC Unclear succession [28] — Kadashman-harbe II Kadašman-Ḫarbe c. 1223 BC Unclear succession [28] — Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-šuma-iddina c. 1222 – 1217 BC Unclear succession [28] — Adad-shuma-usur Adad-šuma-uṣur c. 1216 – 1187 BC Descendant (son?) of Kashtiliash IV [28] Meli-Shipak Meli-Šipak or Melišiḫu c. 1186 – 1172 BC Son of Adad-shuma-usur [28] Marduk-apla-iddina I Marduk-apla-iddina c. 1171 – 1159 BC Son of Meli-Shipak [28] Zababa-shuma-iddin Zababa-šuma-iddina c. 1158 BC Unclear succession [28] — Enlil-nadin-ahi Enlil-nādin-aḫe or Enlil-šuma-uṣur c. 1157 – 1155 BC Unclear succession [28] Second dynasty of Isin (c. 1157–1026 BC)[edit] Map of the Ancient Near East c. 1100 BC Named in reference to the ancient Sumerian (First) Dynasty of Isin. Contemporary Babylonian documents refer to this dynasty as BALA PA.ŠE, a paronomasia (play on words) on the term išinnu ("stalk", written as PA.ŠE), interpreted by some as an apparent reference to the city Isin.[34] Image Name Reign Succession & notes Ref — Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Marduk-kabit-aḫḫēšu c. 1157 – 1140 BC Unclear succession; early reign overlaps with Enlil-nadin-ahi's reign [28] — Itti-Marduk-balatu Itti-Marduk-balāṭu c. 1139 – 1132 BC Son of Marduk-kabit-ahheshu [28] — Ninurta-nadin-shumi Ninurta-nādin-šumi c. 1131 – 1126 BC Unclear succession [28] Nebuchadnezzar I Nabû-kudurri-uṣur c. 1125 – 1104 BC Son of Ninurta-nadin-shumi [28] — Enlil-nadin-apli Enlil-nādin-apli c. 1103 – 1100 BC Son of Nebuchadnezzar I [28] Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-nādin-aḫḫē c. 1099 – 1082 BC Son of Ninurta-nadin-shumi; usurped the throne from Enlil-nadin-apli [28] — Marduk-shapik-zeri Marduk-šāpik-zēri c. 1081 – 1069 BC Possibly son of either Marduk-nadin-ahhe or Ninurta-nadin-shumi [28] — Adad-apla-iddina Adad-apla-iddina c. 1068 – 1047 BC Appointed by the Assyrian king Ashur-bel-kala [28] — Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-aḫḫē-erība c. 1046 BC Unclear succession [28] — Marduk-zer-X Marduk-zer-X c. 1045 – 1034 BC Unclear succession [28] — Nabu-shum-libur Nabû-šumu-libūr c. 1033 – 1026 BC Unclear succession [28] Second Sealand dynasty (c. 1025–1005 BC)[edit] Evidence that these kings were Kassites, a common assertion, is somewhat lacking.[35] Image Name Reign Succession & notes Ref — Simbar-shipak Simbar-Šipak c. 1025 – 1008 BC Usurped the throne from Nabu-shum-libur [28] — Ea-mukin-zeri Ea-mukin-zēri c. 1008 BC Usurped the throne from Simpar-shipak [28] — Kashshu-nadin-ahi Kaššu-nādin-aḫi c. 1007 – 1005 BC Usurped the throne from Ea-mukin-zeri [28] Bazi dynasty (c. 1004–985 BC)[edit] Map of the Ancient Near East c. 1000 BC The Bazi (or Bīt-Bazi) dynasty was a minor Kassite clan. They ruled Babylonia from the city Kar-Marduk, an otherwise unknown location which might have been better protected against raids from nomadic groups than Babylon itself.[36] Image Name Reign Succession & notes Ref — Eulmash-shakin-shumi Eulmaš-šākin-šumi c. 1004 – 988 BC Unclear succession [28] — Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Ninurta-kudurrῑ-uṣur c. 987 – 985 BC Unclear succession [28] — Shirikti-shuqamuna Širikti-šuqamuna c. 985 BC Brother of Ninurta-kudurri-usur I [28] Elamite dynasty (c. 984–979 BC)[edit] The Elamite dynasty only contains a single king, Mar-biti-apla-usur.[28] Image Name Reign Succession & notes Ref — Mar-biti-apla-usur Mār-bīti-apla-uṣur c. 984 – 979 BC Described as having Elamite ancestry; unclear succession [28] Uncertain/mixed dynasties (c. 978 – 770 BC)[edit] Map of the Ancient Near East c. 900 BC Sometimes considered part of the subsequent Dynasty of E.[37] Image Name Reign Succession & notes Ref Nabu-mukin-apli Nabû-mukin-apli c. 978 – 943 BC Unclear succession [28] — Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Ninurta-kudurrῑ-uṣur c. 943 BC Son of Nabu-mukin-apli [28] — Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Mār-bῑti-aḫḫē-idinna Uncertain Son of Nabu-mukin-apli [28] — Shamash-mudammiq Šamaš-mudammiq Uncertain Unclear succession [28] — Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabû-šuma-ukin Uncertain Unclear succession [28] Nabu-apla-iddina Nabû-apla-iddina Uncertain, 33 years? Son of Nabu-shuma-ukin I [28] Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-zâkir-šumi Uncertain, 27 years? Son of Nabu-apla-iddina [28] — Marduk-balassu-iqbi Marduk-balāssu-iqbi Uncertain Son of Marduk-zakir-shumi I [28] — Baba-aha-iddina Bāba-aḫa-iddina Uncertain Unclear succession [28] Interregnum: Babylon experiences a brief interregnum following the end of Baba-aha-iddina's reign. Five consecutive kings, whose names are not recorded, rule briefly during this time.[28] — Ninurta-apla-X Ninurta-apla-X Uncertain Unclear succession [28] — Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-bēl-zēri Uncertain Unclear succession [28] — Marduk-apla-usur Marduk-apla-uṣur Uncertain Unclear succession [28] Dynasty of E (c. 770–732 BC)[edit] The Dynasty of E contains five kings, most of them seemingly unrelated, from Eriba-Marduk to Nabu-shuma-ukin II.[28] Some reconstructions of the line of Babylonian kings consider the entire period from 979 to 732 BC to be the Dynasty of E, including the kings of uncertain/mixed dynasties above.[37] Image Name Reign Succession & notes Ref — Eriba-Marduk Erība-Marduk c. 770 – 760 BC A Chaldean chief; unclear succession [28][38] — Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabû-šuma-iškun c. 760 – 748 BC A Chaldean chief; unclear succession [28] — Nabonassar Nabû-nāṣir 748 – 734 BC A Native Babylonian; usurped the throne from Nabu-shuma-ishkun [28] — Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabû-nādin-zēri 734 – 732 BC Son of Nabonassar [28] — Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabû-šuma-ukin 732 BC A Chaldean chief; usurped the throne from Nabu-nadin-zeri [28] Shapi dynasty (732–729 BC)[edit] The brief Shapi dynasty contains only a single king, immediately preceding the Assyrian conquest of Babylon.[28] The sole king of the dynasty, Nabu-mukin-zeri, is sometimes considered part of the subsequent Assyrian dynasty instead (then numbered as Babylon's ninth or tenth dynasty).[37] Image Name Reign Succession & notes Ref — Nabu-mukin-zeri Nabû-mukin-zēri 732 – 729 BC A Chaldean chief; usurped the throne from Nabu-shuma-ukin II [28] Assyrian dynasty (729–626 BC)[edit] Main articles: Neo-Assyrian Empire and Sargonid dynasty The Neo-Assyrian Empire in the reign of Tiglath-Pileser III The Neo-Assyrian Empire at the apex of its power in 671 BC, in the reign of Esarhaddon The Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser III conquered Babylonia in 729 BC.[39] From his rule and onwards, most of the Assyrian kings were also titled as Kings of Babylon, ruling both Assyria and Babylonia in something akin to a personal union.[40] Vassal kings, sometimes appointed instead of the Assyrian king ruling Babylonia directly, are indicated with darker grey background color. Native Babylonians who rebelled against the ruling dynasty of the Neo-Assyrian Empire and attempted to restore Babylonia's independence are indicated with beige background color. Image Name Reign Succession & notes Ref Tiglath-Pileser (Tiglath-Pileser III) Tukultī-apil-Ešarra 729 – 727 BC King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire; conquered Babylon [28] Shalmaneser (Shalmaneser V) Šulmanu-ašaridu 727 – 722 BC Son of Tiglath-Pileser III [28] Marduk-apla-iddina II Marduk-apla-iddina (first reign) 722 – 710 BC Native Babylonian rebel; seized power in Babylonia after Shalmaneser V's death, also known as Merodach-Baladan [28] Sargon (Sargon II) Šarru-kīn 710 – 705 BC Claimed to be the son of Tiglath-Pileser III; usurped the throne from Shalmaneser V, conquered Babylon in 710 BC [28] Sennacherib Sîn-ahhe-erība 705 – 703 BC Son of Sargon II [28] — Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-zâkir-šumi 703 BC Native Babylonian rebel [28] Marduk-apla-iddina II Marduk-apla-iddina (second reign) 703 BC Native Babylonian rebel, previously king 722–710 BC; usurped the throne from Marduk-zakir-shumi II [28] — Bel-ibni Bel-ibni 703 – 700 BC Vassal king appointed by Sennacherib [28] — Ashur-nadin-shumi Aššur-nādin-šumi 700 – 694 BC Vassal king appointed by Sennacherib; son of Sennacherib [28] — Nergal-ushezib Nergal-ušezib 694 – 693 BC Native Babylonian rebel [28] — Mushezib-Marduk Mušezib-Marduk 693 – 689 BC Native Babylonian rebel [28] Interregnum 689 – 680 BC: Sennacherib destroyed Babylon in 689 BC, hoping to destroy Babylonia as a political entity after its many rebellions against his rule.[41] The city's reconstruction was announced by his son and successor Esarhaddon in 680 BC.[42] Sennacherib is sometimes listed as Babylon's king during this period.[28] Esarhaddon Aššur-aḫa-iddina 680 – 669 BC Son and successor of Sennacherib in Assyria; rebuilt Babylon [28] Shamash-shum-ukin Šamaš-šuma-ukin 668 – 648 BC Vassal king under Esarhaddon's successor Ashurbanipal; brother of Ashurbanipal and son of Esarhaddon [28] — Kandalanu Kandalānu 648 – 627 BC Vassal king appointed by Ashurbanipal [28] Interregnum 627 – 626 BC: Rule in Assyria was contested between Sinsharishkun and the usurper Sin-shumu-lishir and though both briefly controlled Babylon, neither used the title "king of Babylon", instead using only "king of Assyria".[43] Sinsharishkun and Sin-shumu-lishir are sometimes considered to be the Kings of Babylon 627–626 BC in modern scholarship.[28] Chaldean dynasty (626–539 BC)[edit] Main articles: Neo-Babylonian Empire and Chaldean dynasty Map of the Neo-Babylonian Empire at its height during the reign of its final king, Nabonidus (r. 556–539 BC) The rebel Nabopolassar, proclaimed as Babylon's king in 626 BC, successfully drove out the Assyrians from southern Mesopotamia and had united and consolidated all of Babylonia under his rule by 620 BC, founding the Neo-Babylonian Empire.[44] The Neo-Babylonian (or Chaldean)[28] dynasty was Babylonia's last dynasty of native Mesopotamian monarchs and the fall of their empire in 539 BC marked the end of Babylonia as an independent kingdom.[45] Image Name Reign Succession & notes Ref — Nabopolassar Nabû-apla-uṣur 626 – 605 BC Native Babylonian rebel; successfully drove out the Assyrians and re-established Babylonia as an independent kingdom [28] Nebuchadnezzar II Nabû-kudurri-uṣur 605 – 562 BC Son of Nabopolassar [28] — Amel-Marduk Amēl-Marduk 562 – 560 BC Son of Nebuchadnezzar II [28] — Neriglissar Nergal-šar-uṣur 560 – 556 BC Son-in-law of Nebuchadnezzar II; usurped the throne [28][46] — Labashi-Marduk Labaši-Marduk 556 BC Son of Neriglissar [28] Nabonidus Nabû-naʾid 556 – 539 BC Possibly son-in-law of Nebuchadnezzar II (or unrelated); usurped the throne from Labashi-Marduk [28][46] Post-Neo-Babylonian kings[edit] Achaemenid dynasty (539–331 BC)[edit] Main article: Achaemenid Empire Borders of the Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus the Great Map of the Ancient Near East c. 500 BC Map of the Achaemenid Empire and its satrapies c. 480 BC In 539, Cyrus the Great of the Persian Achaemenid Empire conquered Babylon, which would never again successfully regain independence. The Babylonians had resented their last native king, Nabonidus, over his religious practices and some of his political choices and Cyrus could thus claim to be the legitimate successor of the ancient Babylonian kings and the avenger of Baylon's national deity, Marduk.[47] The early Achaemenid rulers had great respect for Babylonia, regarding the region as a separate entity or kingdom united with their own kingdom in something akin to a personal union.[11] Despite this, the native Babylonians grew to resent their foreign rulers, as they had with the Assyrians earlier, and rebelled several times. The Achaemenid kings continued to use the title "king of Babylon" alongside their other royal titles until the reign of Xerxes I, who dropped the title in 481 BC, divided the previously large Babylonian satrapy and desecrated Babylon after having had to put down a Babylonian revolt.[11] In the king lists of the Babylonians, the Achaemenid kings continued to be recognized as Kings of Babylon until the end of the Achaemenid Empire. The Akkadian (Babylonian) names of the monarchs listed here follow the renderings of the names of these monarchs in the Uruk King List (also known as "King List 5") and the Babylonian King List of the Hellenistic Period (also known as BKLHP or “King List 6”), as well as how their names are rendered in contract tablets.[48][49] These lists records rulers, identifying them as "kings of Babylon".[50] Native Babylonians who rebelled against the Achaemenids and attempted to restore Babylonia's independence are indicated with beige background color. Vassal kings are indicated with darker grey background color. Image Name Reign Succession & notes Ref Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Kuraš 539 – 530 BC King of the Achaemenid Empire; conquered Babylon [48] Cambyses (Cambyses II) Kambuzīa 538 BC, 530 – 522 BC Son of Cyrus; briefly vassal king under (or co-ruler with) his father in 538 BC as King of Babylon before being dismissed; king again upon Cyrus's death in 530 BC [48][51][52] Bardiya Barzia 522 BC Son of Cyrus or possibly an impostor [49] Nebuchadnezzar III Nabû-kudurri-uṣur 522 BC Native Babylonian rebel; claimed to be a son of Nabonidus, his revolt against Persian rule lasted from October to December 522 BC [53] Darius I the Great Dariamuš 522 – 486 BC Son of Hystaspes, a third cousin of Cyrus; usurped the throne from Bardiya [48] Nebuchadnezzar IV Nabû-kudurri-uṣur 521 BC Babylonian rebel of Armenian descent; claimed to be a son of Nabonidus, his revolt lasted from 25 August to 27 November 521 BC [53] Xerxes I the Great Aḥšiaršu 486 – 465 BC Son of Darius I [11] — Bel-shimanni Bêl-šimânni 484 BC Native Babylonian rebel; rebelled in the summer of 484 BC, ally or rival of Shamash-eriba [54] — Shamash-eriba Šamaš-eriba 484 BC Native Babylonian rebel; rebelled in the summer of 484 BC, ally or rival of Bel-shimanni [54] Artaxerxes I Artakšatsu 465 – 424 BC Son of Xerxes I; the last Achaemenid king documented to have incorporated "king of Babylon" into his own titulary [11][12][49] Xerxes II Aḥšiaršu 424 BC Son of Artaxerxes I [49] — Sogdianus Sogdianu 424 – 423 BC Son of Artaxerxes I; usurped the throne from Xerxes II [49] Darius II Dariamuš 423 – 404 BC Son of Artaxerxes I; usurped the throne from Sogdianus [49] Artaxerxes II Artakšatsu 404 – 358 BC Son of Darius II [49] Artaxerxes III Artakšatsu 358 – 338 BC Son of Artaxerxes II [49] Artaxerxes IV Artakšatsu 338 – 336 BC Son of Artaxerxes III [49] — Nidin-Bel Nidin-Bêl 336 BC or 336 – 335 BC Only mentioned in the Uruk King List; either a scribal error or a native Babylonian rebel who led a brief revolt [48] Darius III Dariamuš 336/335 – 331 BC Great-grandson of Darius II; usurped the throne from Artaxerxes IV [48] Argead dynasty (331–309 BC)[edit] Main article: Macedonian Empire Map of Alexander the Great's empire and the route of his campaigns Map of Alexander the Great's empire and its satrapies c. 323 BC Though they probably did not use the title themselves, Babylonian king lists continue to consider the monarchs of the Hellenistic Argead dynasty, which conquered Babylonia and the rest of the Persian Empire under Alexander the Great in 331 BC, as kings of Babylon. The Akkadian (Babylonian) names of the monarchs listed here follow how their names are rendered in these lists.[48][49][50] Image Name Reign Succession & notes Ref Alexander I the Great (Alexander III) Aliksāndar 331 – 323 BC King of Macedon; conquered the Achaemenid Empire [48] Philip Arrhidaeus (Philip III) Pīlipsu 323 – 317 BC Brother of Alexander the Great [48] Alexander II (Alexander IV) Aliksāndarusu 323 – 309 BC Son of Alexander the Great [50] Image Name Reign Succession & notes Ref Antigonus Monophthalmus (Antigonus I) Antigūnusu 317 – 311 BC Mentioned in some king lists; Babylonian sources suggest that the Babylonians considered Antigonus's rule illegal and that he should have accepted the sovereignty of Alexander the Great's son [48][50] Seleucid dynasty (311–141 BC)[edit] Main article: Seleucid Empire Map of the Seleucid Empire and the other Diadochi c. 300 BC Babylonian king lists continue to consider the monarchs of the Hellenistic Seleucid dynasty, which succeeded the Argeads in Mesopotamia and Persia, as Kings of Babylon. The Akkadian (Babylonian) names of the monarchs listed here follow how their names are rendered in these lists, as well as how their names are rendered in contract tablets.[48][50] The Antiochus Cylinder of Antiochus I (r. 271–261 BC) is the last known example of an ancient Akkadian royal titulary and it accords him several traditional Mesopotamian titles, such as king of Babylon and king of the Universe.[55] Rebel leaders (though none were native Babylonians) and local rulers/usurpers who seized the city and were recognized as kings of Babylon by the Babylonians are marked with light blue color. Image Name Reign Succession & notes Ref Seleucus I Nicator Siluku 311 – 281 BC General (Diadochus) of Alexander the Great; seized Babylonia and much of Alexander's former eastern lands after Alexander's death, Seleucus did not proclaim himself king until 305 BC but Babylonian sources consider him as such from 311 BC onwards [48] Antiochus I Soter Anti'ukusu 281 – 261 BC Son of Seleucus I [48] Antiochus II Theos Anti'ukusu 261 – 246 BC Son of Antiochus I [48] Seleucus II Callinicus Siluku 246 – 225 BC Son of Antiochus II [48] Seleucus III Ceraunus Siluku 225 – 223 BC Son of Seleucus II [50] Antiochus III the Great Anti'ukusu 222 – 187 BC Son of Seleucus II [50] Seleucus IV Philopator Siluku 187 – 175 BC Son of Antiochus III [50] Antiochus IV Epiphanes Anti'ukusu 175 – 164 BC Son of Antiochus III [50] Antiochus V Eupator Anti'ukusu 164 – 161 BC Son of Antiochus IV [56] Demetrius I Soter Demeṭri 161 – 150 BC Son of Seleucus IV [50] Timarchus Timarkusu 161 – 160 BC Satrap of Media; rebelled against Demetrius I, seized Babylon and was briefly recognized there as king [57] Alexander III Balas (Alexander I) Aliksāndar 150 – 145 BC Claimed to be the son of Antiochus IV; usurped the throne from Demetrius I [58] Demetrius II Nicator Demeṭri 145 – 141 BC Son of Demetrius I; usurped the throne from Alexander Balas [50] Arsacid dynasty (141 – c. 2 BC)[edit] Main article: Parthian Empire Map of the Ancient Near East c. 100 BC, showing the Parthian Empire in the east Borders of the Parthian Empire in the late 1st century BC Babylon and the rest of Mesopotamia was lost by the Seleucids to the Parthian Empire in 141 BC. There are no Babylonian king lists which record any ruler after the Seleucids as a King of Babylon.[50] King List 6 ends, after Demetrius II, with a passage referencing "Arsaces the king", indicating that the list was created in the early years of Parthian rule in Mesopotamia (Arsaces being the regnal name used by all Parthian kings). Because the list is so fragmentary, it is unclear if this Arsaces was formally considered a King of Babylon (as the Persian and Hellenic rulers had been) by the list's author.[59] Under the Parthians, Babylon was gradually abandoned as a major urban center and the old Akkadian culture diminished.[60] Critically, the nearby and newer cities of Seleucia and later Ctesiphon overshadowed Babylon and became the imperial capitals of the region.[61] In the first century or so of Parthian rule, Babylon continued to be somewhat important[60] and documents from this time suggest a continued recognition of at least the early Parthian kings as Babylonian monarchs.[62] The few Babylonian documents that survive from the Parthian era suggest a growing sense of alarm and alienation among the last few Babylonians as the Parthian kings were mostly absent from the city and the Babylonian culture slowly slipped away.[63] When exactly Babylon was abandoned is unclear. Roman author Pliny the Elder wrote in 50 AD that proximity to Seleucia had turned Babylon into a "barren waste" and during their campaigns in the east, Roman emperors Trajan (in 115 AD) and Septimius Severus (in 199 AD) supposedly found the city destroyed and deserted. Archaeological evidence and the writings of Abba Arikha (c. 219 AD) indicate that at least the temples of Babylon were still active in the early 3rd century.[61] Religious reforms in the early Sasanian Empire c. 230 AD would have decisively wiped out the last remnants of the old Babylonian culture, if it still existed at that point.[64] Rebel leaders (though none were native Babylonians) and local rulers/usurpers who seized the city and were recognized as kings of Babylon by the Babylonians are marked with light blue color. Seleucid rulers (who briefly regained Babylon) are indicated with pink color. Image Name Reign Succession & notes Ref Mithridates I the Great Aršákā 141 – 132 BC King of the Parthian Empire; conquered Babylon and the rest of Mesopotamia [65] Phraates I (Phraates II) Aršákā 132 – 130 BC Son of Mithridates I [66][67] Antiochus VI Sidetes (Antiochus VII) Anti'ukusu 130 – 129 BC Seleucid king; restored Seleucid control of Babylonia in 130 BC [68] Artabanus (Artabanus I) Aršákā and Ártabana 129 – 124 BC Brother of Mithridates I; Babylonian documents suggest that the Parthians were recognized as kings again in 129 BC [68][69][70] Hyspaosines Aspāsinē 127 BC Originally a seleucid satrap and then King of Characene; briefly captured Babylon in 127 BC and was recognized by the Babylonians as their king for a few months [69] Mithridates II the Great Aršákā 124 – 91 BC Son of Artabanus [71] Gotarzes (Gotarzes I) Aršákā and Gutárzā 91 – 80 BC[n 1] Son of Mithridates II [73][74] Orodes I Aršákā and Úrudā 80 – 75 BC Son of Gotarzes [75] — Arsaces (Arsaces XVI) Aršákā 75 – 67 BC Obscure Parthian king attested by some sources; Orodes I's more known successor, Sinatruces, is not mentioned in any Babylonian sources, suggesting he never ruled the city [76] Phraates II (Phraates III) Aršákám 67 – 57 BC Son of Sinatruces; captured Babylon [77] Mithridates III (Mithridates IV) Aršákám 57 BC, 55–54 BC Son of Phraates III; lost the throne to Orodes II shortly after gaining it, retook Babylon and the rest of Mesopotamia briefly 55–54 BC [78] Orodes II Aršákám 57–55 BC, 54–37 BC Son of Phraates III; contended with his brother Mithridates in the early years of his reign [78] Phraates III (Phraates IV) Aršákám 37 – 2 BC Son of Orodes II; final ruler attested as king in Babylonian sources (in an astronomical diary from 5 BC)[n 2] [14][15] See also[edit] List of Assyrian kings List of Mesopotamian dynasties Sumerian King List Notes[edit] ^ Some historians place an additional Parthian king, Mithridates III of Parthia, between Gotarzes I and Orodes I, reigning c. 87–80 BC. Babylonian documents only corroborate the rule of Gotarzes I and Orodes I.[72] ^ There are a handful of later cuneiform tablets, but none explicitly name a king. The latest datable tablet is W22340a, dated to 79/80 AD (from the reign of Parthian king Artabanus III). W22340a preserves the word LUGAL (king) but it is too fragmentary to firmly indicate that the intended king is Artabanus III.[79] Furthermore, the tablet was recovered at Uruk,[80] not Babylon (which might have been abandoned at this point).[61] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ a b Soares 2017, p. 23. ^ Karlsson 2017, p. 2. ^ Goetze 1964, p. 98. ^ a b Da Riva 2013, p. 72. ^ Soares 2017, p. 24. ^ a b Shayegan 2011, p. 260. ^ Luckenbill 1924, p. 9. ^ a b Soares 2017, p. 28. ^ Karlsson 2017, pp. 6, 11. ^ Stevens 2014, p. 68. ^ a b c d e f Dandamaev 1989, pp. 185–186. ^ a b Waerzeggers 2018, p. 3. ^ Assar 2006, p. 65. ^ a b c Boiy 2004, p. 187. ^ a b Steele 1998, p. 193. ^ Soares 2017, p. 21. ^ a b Soares 2017, p. 22. ^ New Cyrus Cylinder Translation. ^ Cyrus Cylinder Translation. ^ Peat 1989, p. 199. ^ Van Der Meer 1955, p. 42. ^ a b c Zaia 2019, p. 3. ^ Laing & Frost 2017. ^ Zaia 2019, p. 4. ^ Zaia 2019, p. 6. ^ Zaia 2019, p. 7. ^ Zaia 2019, pp. 6–7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br bs bt bu bv bw bx by bz ca cb cc cd ce cf cg ch ci cj ck cl cm cn co cp cq cr cs ct cu cv cw cx cy cz da db dc dd de df dg dh di dj dk dl dm dn do dp dq dr ds Chen 2020, pp. 202–206. ^ Kuhrt 1997, p. 12. ^ Mieroop 2015, p. 4. ^ Sagona & Zimansky 2009, p. 251. ^ Brinkman 1976, pp. 97–98. ^ a b c Synchronic King List. ^ Brinkman 1999, pp. 183–184. ^ Meissner 1999, p. 8. ^ Brinkman 1982, pp. 296–297. ^ a b c Beaulieu 2018, p. 12. ^ Brinkman & Kennedy 1983, p. 63. ^ Brinkman 1973, p. 90. ^ Van Der Spek 1977, p. 57. ^ Frahm 2014, p. 210. ^ Porter 1993, p. 67. ^ Beaulieu 1997, p. 386. ^ Lipschits 2005, p. 16. ^ Hanish 2008, p. 32. ^ a b Wiseman 1983, p. 12. ^ Nijssen 2018. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Lendering 2005. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Bertin 1891, p. 51. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Van Der Spek 2004. ^ Dandamaev 1990, pp. 726–729. ^ Briant 2002, p. 519. ^ a b Lendering 1998. ^ a b Waerzeggers 2018, p. 12. ^ Stevens 2014, p. 72. ^ Lendering 2006a. ^ Houghton 1979, p. 215. ^ Lendering 2006b. ^ Sachs & Wiseman 1954, p. 209. ^ a b Van Der Spek 2001, p. 449. ^ a b c Brown 2008, p. 77. ^ Van Der Spek 2001, p. 451. ^ Haubold 2019, p. 276. ^ George 2007, p. 64. ^ Van Der Spek 2001, p. 450. ^ Shayegan 2011, pp. 128-129. ^ Assar 2006, p. 58. ^ a b Boiy 2004, p. 172. ^ a b Shayegan 2011, p. 111. ^ Schippmann 1986, pp. 647–650. ^ Van Der Spek 2001, p. 454. ^ Sellwood 1962, p. 73. ^ Van Der Spek 2001, p. 455. ^ Assar 2006, p. 62. ^ Sellwood 1962, pp. 73, 75. ^ Assar 2006, pp. 56, 85. ^ Assar 2006, pp. 87–88. ^ a b Bivar 1983, p. 49. ^ Hunger & de Jong 2014, p. 185. ^ Hunger & de Jong 2014, p. 182. 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"Cyrus "King of Lands," Cambyses "King of Babylon": The Disputed Co-Regency". Journal of Cuneiform Studies. 41 (2): 199–216. doi:10.2307/1359915. JSTOR 1359915. S2CID 163504463. Porter, Barbara N. (1993). Images, Power, and Politics: Figurative Aspects of Esarhaddon's Babylonian Policy. American Philosophical Society. ISBN 9780871692085. Sachs, A. J.; Wiseman, D. J. (1954). "A Babylonian King List of the Hellenistic Period". Iraq. 16 (2): 202–212. doi:10.2307/4199591. JSTOR 4199591. Sagona, A.; Zimansky, P. (2009). Ancient Turkey. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-28916-0. Sancisi-Weerdenburg, Heleen (2002). "The Personality of Xerxes, King of Kings". Brill's Companion to Herodotus. BRILL. pp. 579–590. doi:10.1163/9789004217584_026. ISBN 9789004217584. Schippmann, K. (1986). "Artabanus (Arsacid kings)". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 6. pp. 647–650. Sellwood, D. G. (1962). "The Parthian Coins of Gotarzes I, Orodes I and Sinatruces". 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ISBN 978-90-429-3670-6. v t e Ancient Mesopotamia Geography Modern Euphrates Upper Mesopotamia Mesopotamian Marshes Persian Gulf Syrian Desert Taurus Mountains Tigris Zagros Mountains Ancient Akkad Assyria Babylonia Chaldea Elam Hittites Media Mitanni Sumer Urartu Cities History Pre- / Protohistory Acheulean Mousterian Trialetian Zarzian Natufian Nemrikian Khiamian Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) Hassuna/Samarra Halaf Ubaid Uruk Jemdet Nasr Kish civilization History Early Dynastic Akkadian Gutians Simurrum Ur III Isin-Larsa Old Babylonian Kassite Middle Babylonian Neo-Assyrian Neo-Babylonian Achaemenid Seleucid Parthian Roman Sasanian Muslim conquest Timeline of the Assyrian Empire Hakkari Languages Akkadian Amorite Aramaic Eblaite Elamite Gutian Hittite Hurrian Luwian Middle Persian Old Persian Parthian Proto-Armenian Sumerian Urartian Culture / Society Architecture Art Cuneiform Akkadian literature Sumerian literature Music Religion Indus-Mesopotamia relations Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Royal titles Archaeology Looting Destruction by ISIL Tell v t e Kings of Babylon Period Dynasty Kings  (rebel vassal king Assyrian ruler†) Old Babylonian Empire (1894–1595 BC) Amorite Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sabium Apil-Sin Sin-Muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-Eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana 1st Sealand Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Kassite period (1595–1157 BC) Kassite Gandash Agum I Kashtiliashu I Abi-Rattash Kashtiliashu II Ur-zigurumash Hurbazum Shipta'ulzi Agum II Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Babylonian period (1157–729 BC) 2nd Isin Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur 2nd Sealand Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Bazi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Elamite Mar-biti-apla-usur Mixed Nabû-mukin-apli Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur E Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Shapi Nabu-mukin-zeri Neo-Assyrian period (729–626 BC) Assyrian Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Shamash-shum-ukin† Kandalanu Neo-Babylonian Empire (626–539 BC) Chaldean Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Persian period (539–331 BC) Achaemenid Cyrus Cambyses Bardiya Nebuchadnezzar III Darius I Nebuchadnezzar IV Xerxes I Bel-shimanni Shamash-eriba Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Nidin-Bel (?) Darius III Hellenistic period (331–141 BC) Argead Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I (Timarchus) Alexander III Demetrius II Parthian period (141–2 BC) Arsacid Mithridates I Phraates II (Antiochus VII) (Hyspaosines) Artabanus I Mithridates II Gotarzes I Orodes I Arsaces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV v t e Ancient Mesopotamian royal titulature Dominion over the world King of All Peoples (šar kiššat nišē) King of the Four Corners of the World (šar kibrāt erbetti) King of the Universe (šar kiššatim) More Dominion over Mesopotamia King of Kings (šar šarrāni) King of Sumer and Akkad (šar māt Šumeri u Akkadi) King of the Lands (šar mātāti) More The king's person Great King (šarru rabu) Mighty King (šarrum dannum) More Specific locations King of Akkad (šar māt Akkadi) King of Assyria (šar māt Aššur) King of Babylon (šar Bābili) King of Sumer (šar māt Šumeri) More Titles rendered in Akkadian language. v t e Rulers of the Ancient Near East Territories/ dates [1][2][3][4] Egypt Canaan Ebla Mari Akshak/ Akkad Kish Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period 4000–3200 BCE Naqada culture (4000–3100 BCE) Proto-Cannaanites Sumerian period (4000–2340 BCE) Susa I Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE) Naqada I Naqada II Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests") Legendary ante-deluvian rulers: In Eridu: Alulim, Alalngar, then in Bad-tibira: En-men-lu-ana, En-men-gal-ana, Dumuzid, the Shepherd, then in Larag: En-sipad-zid-ana, then in Zimbir: En-men-dur-ana, then in Shuruppag: Ubara-Tutu "then the flood swept over"[5] Susa II (Uruk influence or control) 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ DenAnedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100-2700 BCE) Great Flood 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) First kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman En-me-barage-si ("made the land of Elam submit")[6] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba Uruk II dynasty Enshakushanna Mug-si Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions (3 kings)[7] Shushuntarana Napilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Urur Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun) Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion of Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[7] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian Empire (Semitic) Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Second Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) (Vassals of UR III) Shakkanakku dynasty (Semitic) Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Neo-Sumerian Period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians) Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (Vassals of Ur III)[8] Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal 2100 BCE Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin Ibbi-Sin 2050 BCE 2000 BCE Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV circa 2000 BCE Amorite invasions Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) 2025-1763 BCE Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ Third Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 1894–1595 BCE Second Intermediate Period Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham (Biblical) Yamhad First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Phoenicia Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Middle Assyrian Empire Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt 626–539 BCE Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116-117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ "The Sumerian king list: translation". etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2008-05-08. ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ a b Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_kings_of_Babylon&oldid=1002559860" Categories: Babylonian kings Babylonia Lists of monarchs Iraq-related lists Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images CS1: long volume value CS1 errors: missing periodical Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Башҡортса Български Català Čeština Deutsch Español فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Italiano עברית ქართული Lietuvių Magyar Nederlands Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська اردو 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 January 2021, at 00:54 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7246	----	Rodrigo Santoro - Wikipedia Rodrigo Santoro From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Brazilian actor This name uses Portuguese naming customs: the first or maternal family name is Junqueira dos Reis and the second or paternal family name is Santoro. Rodrigo Santoro Santoro at the 2017 San Diego Comic-Con Born (1975-08-22) 22 August 1975 (age 45) Petrópolis, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Occupation Actor, voice actor Years active 1993–present Partner(s) Mel Fronckowiak (2013–present) Children 1 Website www.rodrigo-santoro.com Rodrigo Junqueira dos Reis Santoro (Portuguese pronunciation: [ʁoˈdɾiɡu ʒũ'kejɾɐ dus 'hejs sɐ̃ˈtɔɾu]; born 22 August 1975) is a Brazilian actor and voice actor. He has appeared in many successful movies, including Brainstorm (2001), Carandiru (2003), Love Actually (2003), Che (2008), I Love You Phillip Morris (2009), and Rio (2011). He is perhaps most famous for his portrayal of Persian King Xerxes in the movie 300 (2006) and its sequel 300: Rise of an Empire (2014). He was a series regular on the television series Lost portraying the character Paulo, and played Hector Escaton in HBO's Westworld (2016–2020). Contents 1 Early life 2 Career 3 Personal life 4 Filmography 5 Music Video 6 Awards and nominations 6.1 Other nominations and honors 7 References 8 External links Early life[edit] Santoro was born in Petrópolis, Rio de Janeiro state, to Francesco Santoro, an Italian engineer with roots in Paola, Province of Cosenza, Calabria,[1] and Maria José Junqueira dos Reis, a Brazilian artist of Portuguese ancestry.[2][3][4][5][6][7] Career[edit] Santoro at the 2013 San Diego Comic-Con International, promoting 300: Rise of an Empire. In 1993, as Santoro was studying Journalism at PUC-Rio, he entered the Actor's Workshop of Rede Globo. Santoro went on to play parts in many of Globo's telenovelas, such as Olho no Olho (1993), Pátria Minha (1994), Explode Coração (1995), O Amor Está no Ar (1997), Suave Veneno (1999) and Mulheres Apaixonadas (2003), as well as the miniseries Hilda Furacão (1998), in the role of a priest. Santoro was also the voice actor of the titular character in Stuart Little and its sequel in the Brazilian dubbed copies. His first major role in a cinema production came in 2001, with Bicho de Sete Cabeças (Brainstorm) by Brazilian director Laís Bodansky. By the end of the film, he received a standing ovation from the audience.[8][9] He also went on to win the festival's best actor trophy. After Bicho, his reputation as an actor had been solidified and he was cast as the male lead in Abril Despedaçado (Behind the Sun), one of the nominees for best foreign film in the 2002 Golden Globe Awards. He had another performance in the 2003 Hector Babenco film Carandiru, where he played a transsexual prisoner known as "Lady Di". Canadian director Robert Allan Ackerman signed Santoro for his TV production The Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone after being mesmerised by his performance in Bicho de Sete Cabeças. Since Santoro did not have an agent in North America, Ackerman contacted Santoro's father. He spent two months filming in Rome, alongside renowned actors such as Helen Mirren and Anne Bancroft. Soon after he finished shooting for Mrs. Stone, he received an offer from Columbia Pictures for a part in the blockbuster Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle. His performance in Charlie's Angels kick-started his career in Hollywood. After Charlie's Angels, he played the character of Karl, the enigmatic chief designer and love interest of Laura Linney's character, in the romantic comedy Love Actually, which also features Colin Firth, Lucia Moniz, Hugh Grant, Emma Thompson, Keira Knightley, and Rowan Atkinson. He also started getting work in the advertising business as he appeared in a commercial campaign with Gisele Bündchen in 2002. He played the male lead in No. 5 The Film, the 3-minute-long commercial for Chanel, directed by Baz Luhrmann alongside Nicole Kidman in 2004. In 2006, Santoro joined the cast of Lost as survivor of Oceanic Flight 815, Paulo. His first appearance was in episode titled, "Further Instructions". His character was killed off in the episode "Exposé". He also voices his character Paulo in the Portuguese dub for Brazil. Santoro was cast as Persian emperor Xerxes in the film 300, based on the Frank Miller comic of the same name, in 2006. The role had many special requirements, such as intensive workout for the physicality of the role (Santoro had lost 24 pounds to work in a Brazilian miniseries), extensive CG work to portray the 6'2" Santoro as the 7-foot God-King, a four-and-a-half-hour makeup application process and the complete removal of Santoro's body hair first by waxing and then by shaving when that proved too painful.[10] His eyebrows were kept intact, however, covered over with prosthetics and drawn in rather than being shaved.[11] Santoro read the works of Herodotus, an Ancient Greek historian, in order to prepare for his part. Regarding Xerxes, he has stated: He's rich, he's arrogant, he's a very unstable megalomaniac. He just wants to conquer the world. His ambition is unlimited. He wants glory; he wants victory; he wants eternal fame. Underneath all that wanting, though, he's ultimately weak and very insecure.[10] For his role on 300, Santoro became the first Brazilian actor nominated to the MTV Movie Awards in the category of Best Villain. He did not win however, and the award went to Jack Nicholson for The Departed. He plays the late footballer Heleno de Freitas in the 2012 film Heleno.[12] Santoro co-starred alongside Arnold Schwarzenegger in the 2013 film The Last Stand. Santoro played Garriga in the Will Smith drama film Focus (2015). Santoro plays Jesus in the 2016 historical action film Ben-Hur and received personal blessings from Pope Francis for this role.[13] Personal life[edit] Santoro has been in a relationship with Brazilian actress Mel Fronckowiak since 2013. On 22 May 2017, they welcomed their first child, a daughter named Nina. [14] Filmography[edit] Santoro at the premiere of What to Expect When You're Expecting, 9 May 2012, New York Film Year Film Role Notes 1996 Depois do Escuro[15] Roberto 1998 Como Ser Solteiro Himself 1999 O Trapalhão e a Luz Azul Musketeer Stuart Little Stuart Little Voice (Brazilian dub) 2001 Bicho de Sete Cabeças Wilson Souza Neto[16] Abril Despedaçado Tonho 2002 Stuart Little 2 Stuart Little Voice (Brazilian dub) 2003 The Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone Young Man Carandiru Lady Di Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle Randy Emmers Love Actually Karl 2004 A Dona da História Luiz Cláudio 2006 300 Xerxes I[17][18] 2007 Não por Acaso Pedro 2008 Live, Love, Laugh, But... Bellboy Short film Os Desafinados Joaquim Redbelt Bruno Silva Leonera Ramiro Che Raul Castro 2009 I Love You Phillip Morris Jimmy Kemple Post Grad David Santiago 2010 Manual Para Se Defender de Alienígenas, Zumbis e Ninjas Ninja Short film There Be Dragons Oriol 2011 Meu País Marcos Rio Túlio / Soccer Announcer Voice (also in the Brazilian Version) 2012 Hemingway & Gellhorn Paco Zarra Heleno Heleno de Freitas What To Expect When You're Expecting Alex Castillo Reis e Ratos Roni Rato 2013 The Last Stand Frank Martinez Rio 2096: A Story of Love and Fury Piatã / Júnior 2014 300: Rise of an Empire Xerxes I Rio 2 Túlio Voice (also in the Brazilian version) Rio, I Love You Ele 2015 Focus Garriga The 33 Laurence Golborne 2016 Jane Got a Gun Fitchum Ben-Hur Jesus Christ Dominion Carlos Pelé: Birth of a Legend Brazilian announcer 2018 A Translator (Un Traductor) Malin 2019 Monica's Gang: Bonds Nutty Ned Live action of Monica's Gang Klaus Jesper Johansson Voice (Brazilian dub) 2020 Project Power Biggie Television Year TV show Role Note 1993–94 Olho no Olho Pedro Main role 1994–95 Pátria Minha Fernando Main role 1995–96 Explode Coração Sérgio Main role 1996 Sai de Baixo Gama "O Sexo Nosso de Cada Dia" (Season 1, episode 6) 1996 Comédia da Vida Privada Diogo "Mulheres" (Season 2, episode 6) 1998 Hilda Furacão Frei Malthus Main role 1997 O Amor Está no Ar Léo Main role 1999 Belo e as Feras Henrique "Só o Amor Destrói" (Season 1, episode 1) Suave Veneno Eliseu Vieira Main role 2001 Os Normais Júlio "Grilar é Normal" (Season 1, episode 19) Estrela-Guia Carlos Charles Pimenta Main role 2002 Pastores da Noite Padre Gomes Main role 2003 Mulheres Apaixonadas Diogo Ribeiro Alves Main role 2005 Hoje É Dia de Maria Amado Main role Hoje é Dia de Maria: Segunda Jornada Dom Chico Chicote Main role 2006 Lost Paulo Main role (Season 3) 2009 Som & Fúria Sanjay Main role 2010 Afinal, o Que Querem as Mulheres? Rodrigo Santoro (fictional version) "Elas?" (Season 1, episode 3) Papai Noel Existe Robson Luiz Television special 2012 As Brasileiras Carioca "A Indomável do Ceará" (Season 1, episode 9) 2016 Velho Chico Afrânio de Sá Ribeiro Main role 2016–2020 Westworld Hector Escaton Main role (season 1–2) Guest role (season 3) 2018 Solteira e Boa Rapariga TBA Guest role 2019 Reprisal Joel Kelly Main role Music Video[edit] Music Year Singer Song Notes 2018 Alok Ocean (with Zeeba and IRO) Awards and nominations[edit] Santoro holding the statue he won at the 44th Festival de Brasília for the movie Meu País, in 2011. Year Award Category Result 2000 Festival de Brasília Best Actor for Bicho de Sete Cabeças Won 2001 Recife Film Festival Won Brazil Quality Award Won Santo Domingo Film Festival Won SESC Best Film Festival Won 2002 Cinema Brazilian Grand Prix Won APCA Trophy Won Cartagena Film Festival Won Cero Latitud Film Festival Won 2003 Festival de Brasília Best Actor for Carandiru Won 2004 Cannes Film Festival Chopard Trophy of Male Revelation Won 2007 MTV Movie Awards Best Villain for 300 Nominated 2011 Festival de Brasília Best Actor for Meu País Won Havana Film Festival Best Actor for Heleno Won 2012 Lima Film Festival Won ALMA Awards Best Actor for What to Expect When You're Expecting Nominated 2013 Grande Prêmio do Cinema Brasileiro Best Actor for Heleno Nominated 2016 Troféu APCA Best Actor for Velho Chico Nominated 2016 Prêmio Extra de Televisão Best Actor for Velho Chico Nominated 2018 Filming Italy Sardegna Festival movie highlights and series in the year Won 2018 Cinema PE - Audiovisual Festival work set Won Other nominations and honors[edit] 2004: On People Magazine's 50 Most Beautiful list 2004 2006: 12th position on People Magazine's 2006 Sexiest Man Alive 2008: 16th position on E!'s 2008 Sexiest man of the world References[edit] ^ Morre Salvatore Santoro ^ Rodrigo Santoro Biography ^ https://movies.yahoo.com/person/rodrigo-santoro/biography.html ^ http://www.think4.com.br, Think4 -. "Família não se deslumbra com fama internacional de Rodrigo Santoro - Ofuxico". ^ "Rodrigo Santoro Interview". NuvoTV. Archived from the original on 4 March 2014. Retrieved 1 November 2016. ^ Wieselman, Jarett (15 April 2011). "Rodrigo Santoro: I'm half Italian and half Brazilian – I breathe passion". Page Six. ^ "Rodrigo Santoro - A Profile of Lost's Rodrigo Santoro". Archived from the original on 19 August 2017. ^ BastaClicar – A Web em suas Maos (6 April 2011). "BastaClicar Cinema: Rodrigo Santoro". Bastaclicar.com.br. Archived from the original on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 4 June 2011. ^ Olá (22 August 2011). "Rodrigo Santoro faz 36 anos como galã do cinema e da TV; o que você sabe sobre ele? – Famosos e TV – R7". Entretenimento.r7.com. Retrieved 21 May 2012. ^ a b Brevet, Brad (6 March 2007). "INTERVIEW: Rodrigo Santoro for '300', Celebrity Interviews, RopeofSilicon.com Entertainment News". Ropeofsilicon.com. Archived from the original on 19 November 2007. Retrieved 4 June 2011. ^ "Rodrigo Santoro Becomes Xerxes of Legend in "300"". Rotten Tomatoes. 31 May 2011. Retrieved 4 June 2011. ^ Honeycutt, Kirk (16 September 2011). "Heleno: Toronto Review". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 15 January 2012. ^ (Press release) (18 April 2015). "Pope Francis blesses actor playing Jesus in 'Ben-Hur' film". Christian Today. Retrieved 15 March 2016. ^ "Nasce a filha de Rodrigo Santoro e Mel Fronckowiak". ^ Cinemateca Brasileira Depois do Escuro [em linha] ^ "O Bicho de 7 Cabeças". Cinemateca Brasileira. ^ "2007 MTV Movie Awards - Vote For Best Villain". MTV Networks. Archived from the original on 8 May 2007. ^ Carroll, Larry; Adler, Shawn (8 May 2007). "MTV Movie Awards Nominees: Pirates, Spartans — And That Crazy Kazakh". MTV Networks. Archived from the original on 2 December 2009. Retrieved 20 December 2007. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rodrigo Santoro. Rodrigo Santoro on IMDb v t e Trophée Chopard 2000s Eduardo Noriega / Audrey Tautou (2001) Hayden Christensen / Paz Vega/ Ludivine Sagnier (2002) Gael García Bernal / Diane Kruger (2003) Rodrigo Santoro / Marion Cotillard (2004) Jonathan Rhys Meyers / Kelly Reilly (2005) Kevin Zegers / Jasmine Trinca (2006) Nick Cannon / Archie Panjabi (2007) Omar Metwally / Tang Wei (2008) David Kross / Léa Seydoux (2009) 2010s Edward Hogg / Liya Kebede (2010) Niels Schneider / Àstrid Bergès-Frisbey (2011) Ezra Miller / Shailene Woodley (2012) Jeremy Irvine / Blanca Suárez (2013) Logan Lerman / Adèle Exarchopoulos (2014) Jack O'Connell / Lola Kirke (2015) John Boyega / Bel Powley (2016) George MacKay / Anya Taylor-Joy (2017) Joe Alwyn / Elizabeth Debicki (2018) François Civil / Florence Pugh (2019) Authority control BNE: XX4821578 BNF: cb146204515 (data) GND: 140973427 ISNI: 0000 0001 1497 5982 LCCN: nr2002033597 NTA: 265758580 PLWABN: 9810644803005606 SUDOC: 080481183 VIAF: 120234639 WorldCat Identities: lccn-nr2002033597 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rodrigo_Santoro&oldid=992139729" Categories: 1975 births Living people Male actors from Petrópolis Brazilian people of Italian descent Brazilian people of Portuguese descent Brazilian male television actors Brazilian male film actors Male actors of Italian descent 20th-century Brazilian male actors 21st-century Brazilian male actors Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro alumni Brazilian expatriates in the United States Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from January 2020 Articles with hCards Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Magyar მარგალური مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 3 December 2020, at 18:34 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7249	----	Tutankhamun - Wikipedia Tutankhamun From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "King Tut" redirects here. For other uses, see King Tut (disambiguation). 14th century BCE (18th dynasty) Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamun Tutankhaten, Tutankhamen[1] Tutankhamun's golden mask Pharaoh Reign c. 1334 – 1325 BC, New Kingdom (18th Dynasty) Predecessor Neferneferuaten Successor Ay (granduncle/grandfather-in-law) Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Neb-kheperu-re[2][3] The possessor of the manifestation of Re.[4] Nomen Tut-ankh-imen, heqa iunu shemau[2][4] The living image of Amun, Ruler of Southern Heliopolis.[4] Horus name Ka nakht tut mesut[2][3] Victorious bull, the (very) image of (re)birth.[4] Nebty name Nefer hepu, segereh tawy[5][3] Perfect of laws, who has quieted down the Two Lands.[4] Golden Horus Wetjes khau, sehetep netjeru[2][3] Elevated of appearances, who has satisfied the gods.[4] Consort Ankhesenamun (half-sister) Children Two stillborn daughters, 317a and 317b Father KV55 mummy,[6] identified as most likely Akhenaten Mother The Younger Lady Born c. 1342 BC Died c. 1325 BC (aged 18–19) Burial KV62 Tutankhamun (/ˌtuːtənkɑːˈmuːn/, Ancient Egyptian: twt-ꜥnḫ-jmn), Egyptological pronunciation Tutankhamen (/ˌtuːtənˈkɑːmɛn/)[7] (c. 1342 – c. 1325 BC), was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh who was the last of his royal family to rule during the end of the 18th Dynasty (ruled c. 1334 – 1325 BC in the conventional chronology) during the New Kingdom of Egyptian history. His father was the pharaoh Akhenaten, believed to be the mummy found in the tomb KV55. His mother is his father's sister, identified through DNA testing as an unknown mummy referred to as "The Younger Lady" who was found in KV35.[8] Tutankhamun took the throne at eight or nine years of age under the unprecedented viziership of his eventual successor, Ay, to whom he may have been related. He married his half sister Ankhesenamun. During their marriage they lost two daughters, one at 5–6 months of pregnancy and the other shortly after birth at full-term.[9] His names—Tutankhaten and Tutankhamun—are thought to mean "Living image of Aten" and "Living image of Amun", with Aten replaced by Amun after Akhenaten's death. A small number of Egyptologists, including Battiscombe Gunn, believe the translation may be incorrect and closer to "The-life-of-Aten-is-pleasing" or, as Professor Gerhard Fecht believes, reads as "One-perfect-of-life-is-Aten". Tutankhamun restored the Ancient Egyptian religion after its dissolution by his father, enriched and endowed the priestly orders of two important cults and began restoring old monuments damaged during the previous Amarna period. He moved his father's remains to the Valley of the Kings as well as moving the capital from Akhetaten to Thebes. Tutankhamun was physically disabled with a deformity of his left foot along with bone necrosis that required the use of a cane, several of which were found in his tomb. He had other health issues including scoliosis and had contracted several strains of malaria. The 1922 discovery by Howard Carter of Tutankhamun's nearly intact tomb, in excavations funded by Lord Carnarvon,[10] received worldwide press coverage. With over 5,000 artifacts, it sparked a renewed public interest in ancient Egypt, for which Tutankhamun's mask, now in the Egyptian Museum, remains a popular symbol. The deaths of a few involved in the discovery of Tutankhamun's mummy have been popularly attributed to the curse of the pharaohs. He has, since the discovery of his intact tomb, been referred to colloquially as "King Tut". Some of his treasure has traveled worldwide with unprecedented response. The Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities allowed tours beginning in 1962 with the exhibit at the Louvre in Paris, followed by the Kyoto Municipal Museum of Art in Tokyo, Japan. The exhibits drew in millions of visitors. The 1972–1979 exhibit was shown in United States, Soviet Union, Japan, France, Canada, and West Germany. There were no international exhibitions again until 2005–2011. This exhibit featured Tutankhamun's predecessors from the 18th Dynasty, including Hatshepsut and Akhenaten, but did not include the golden death mask. The treasures 2019–2022 tour began in Los Angeles and will end in 2022 at the new Grand Egyptian Museum in Cairo, which, for the first time, will be displaying the full Tutankhamun collection, gathered from all of Egypt's museums and storerooms. Contents 1 Family 2 Reign 2.1 End of Armarna period 3 Campaigns, monuments, and construction 4 Health and death 5 Tomb 5.1 Rediscovery 5.2 Contents 5.3 Rumored curse 6 Legacy 6.1 International exhibitions 7 Ancestry 8 See also 9 Notes 10 Citations 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links Family See also: Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Tutankhamun and his queen, Ankhesenamun Tutankhamun was the son of Akhenaten (originally named Amenhotep IV,[11]) who is believed to be the mummy found in tomb KV55.[12] His mother is one of Akhenaten's sisters.[6] At birth he was named Tutankhaten, a name reflecting the Atenist beliefs of his father. His wet nurse was a woman called Maia, known from her tomb at Saqqara.[13][14][15] While some suggestions have been made that Tutankhamun's mother was Meketaten, (the second daughter of Akhenaten and Nefertiti) based on a relief from the Royal Tomb at Amarna,[a] given that she was about 10 years old at the time of her death, this has been deemed unlikely.[17] Another interpretation of the relief names Nefertiti as his mother.[b][19] In 2008, genetic analysis was carried out on the mummified remains of Tutankhamun and others thought or known to be New Kingdom royalty by a team from University of Cairo. The results indicated that his father was the KV55 mummy, identified as Akhenaten, and that his mother was the KV35 Younger Lady, who was found to be a full sister of her husband.[20] This means that the KV35 Younger Lady cannot be identified as Nefertiti as she was not known to be a sister of Akhenaten.[21] The team reported it was over 99.99 percent certain that Amenhotep III was the father of the individual in KV55, who was in turn the father of Tutankhamun.[22] The validity and reliability of the genetic data from mummified remains has been questioned due to possible degradation due to decay.[23] Researchers such as Marc Gabolde and Aidan Dodson claim that Nefertiti was indeed Tutankhamun's mother. In this interpretation of the DNA results the genetic closeness is not due to a brother-sister pairing but the result of three generations of first cousin marriage, making Nefertiti a first cousin of Akhenaten.[24] When Tutankhamun became king, he married his half-sister, Ankhesenpaaten, who later changed her name to Ankhesenamun.[25] They had two daughters, neither of whom survived infancy.[20] While only an incomplete genetic profile was obtained from the two mummified foetuses, it was enough to confirm that Tutankhamun was their father.[20] Likewise, only partial data for the two female mummies from KV21 has been obtained so far. KV21A has been suggested as the mother of the foetuses but the data is not statistically significant enough to allow her to be securely identified as Ankhesenamun.[20] Computed tomography studies published in 2011 revealed that one daughter was born prematurely at 5–6 months of pregnancy and the other at full-term, 9 months.[26] Tutankhamun's death marked the end of the royal line of the 18th Dynasty.[27] Reign Cartouche left: Nomen "Tutankhamun, ruler of Upper Heliopolis".[28] [29] Right: Prenomen "Nebkheperura".[29] Tutankhamun was between eight and nine years of age when he ascended the throne and became Pharaoh,[30] taking the throne name Nebkheperure.[31] He reigned for about nine years.[32] During Tutankhamun's reign the position of Vizier had been split between Upper and Lower Egypt. The principal vizier for Upper Egypt was Usermontu. Another figure named Pentju was also vizier but it is unclear of which lands. It is not entirely known if Ay, Tutankhamun's successor, actually held this position. A gold foil fragment from KV58 seems to indicate, but not certainly, that Ay was referred to as a Priest of Maat along with an epithet of "vizier, doer of maat." The epithet does not fit the usual description used by the regular vizier but might indicate an informal title. It might be that Ay used the title of vizier in an unprecedented manner.[33] An Egyptian priest named Manetho wrote a comprehensive history of ancient Egypt where he refers to a king named Orus, who ruled for 36 years and had a daughter named Acencheres who reigned twelve years and her brother Rathotis who ruled for only nine years.[34][35] The Armana rulers are central in the list but which name corresponds with which historic figure is not agreed upon by researchers. Orus and Acencheres have been identified with Horemheb and Akhenaten and Rathotis with Tutankhamun. The names are also associated with Smenkhkare, Amenhotep III, Ay and the others in differing order.[36] Kings were venerated after their deaths through mortuary cults and associated temples. Tutankhamun was one of the few kings worshiped in this manner during his lifetime.[37] A stela discovered at Karnak and dedicated to Amun-Ra and Tutankhamun indicates that the king could be appealed to in his deified state for forgiveness and to free the petitioner from an ailment caused by sin. Temples of his cult were built as far away as in Kawa and Faras in Nubia. The title of the sister of the Viceroy of Kush included a reference to the deified king, indicative of the universality of his cult.[38] In order for the pharaoh, who held divine office, to be linked to the people and the gods, special epithets were created for them at their accession to the throne. The ancient Egyptian titulary also served to demonstrate one's qualities and link them to the terrestrial realm. The five names were developed over the centuries beginning with the Horus Name.[c][39][40] Tutankhamun's[d] original nomen was Tutankhaten,[41] which did not have a Nebty name[e] or a Gold Falcon name[f] associated with it[43] as nothing has been found with the full five name protocol.[g] Tutankhaten was believed to mean "Living-image-of-Aten" as far back as 1877; however, not all Egyptologists agree with this interpretation. English Egyptologist Battiscombe Gunn believed that the older interpretation did not fit with Akhenaten's theology. Gunn believed that such an name would have been blasphemous. He saw tut as a verb and not a noun and gave his translation in 1926 as The-life-of-Aten-is-pleasing. Professor Gerhard Fecht also believed the word tut was a verb. He noted that Akhenaten used tit as a word for 'image', not tut. Fecht translated the verb tut as "To be perfect/complete". Using Aten as the subject, Fecht's full translation was "One-perfect-of-life-is-Aten". The Hermopolis Block (two carved block fragments discovered in Ashmunein) has a unique spelling of the first nomen written as Tutankhuaten; it uses ankh as a verb, which does support the older translation of Living-image-of-Aten.[43] End of Armarna period Egyptian art of the Armarna period Once crowned and after "Taking council" with the god Amun, Tutankhamun made several endowments that enriched and added to the priestly numbers of the cults of Amun and Ptah. He commissioned new statues of the deities from the best metals and stone and had new processional barques made of the finest cedar from Lebanon and had them embellished with gold and silver. The priests and all of the attending dancers, singers and attendants had their positions restored and a decree of royal protection granted to insure their future stability.[44] Tutankhamun's second year as pharaoh began the return to the old Egyptian order. Both he and his queen removed 'Aten' from their names, replacing it with Amun and moved the capital from Akhetaten to Thebes. He renounced the god Aten, relegating it to obscurity and returned Egyptian religion to its polytheistic form. His first act as a pharaoh was to remove his father's mummy from his tomb at Akhetaten and rebury it in the Valley of the Kings. This helped strengthen his reign. Tutankhamun rebuilt the stelae, shrines and buildings at Karnak. He added works to Luxor as well as beginning the restoration of other temples throughout Egypt that were pillaged by Akhenaten.[45] Campaigns, monuments, and construction The country was economically weak and in turmoil following the reign of Akhenaten. Diplomatic relations with other kingdoms had been neglected, and Tutankhamun sought to restore them, in particular with the Mitanni. Evidence of his success is suggested by the gifts from various countries found in his tomb. Despite his efforts for improved relations, battles with Nubians and Asiatics were recorded in his mortuary temple at Thebes. His tomb contained body armor, folding stools appropriate for military campaigns, and bows, and he was trained in archery.[46] However, given his youth and physical disabilities, which seemed to require the use of a cane in order to walk, most historians speculate that he did not personally take part in these battles.[8][47] Given his age, the king probably had advisers which presumably included Ay (who succeeded Tutankhamun) and General Horemheb, Ay's possible son in law and successor. Horemheb records that the king appointed him "lord of the land" as hereditary prince to maintain law. He also noted his ability to calm the young king when his temper flared.[47] In his third regnal year Tutankhamun reversed several changes made during his father's reign. He ended the worship of the god Aten and restored the god Amun to supremacy. The ban on the cult of Amun was lifted and traditional privileges were restored to its priesthood. The capital was moved back to Thebes and the city of Akhetaten was abandoned.[48] As part of his restoration, the king initiated building projects, in particular at Karnak in Thebes, where he laid out the sphinx avenue leading to the temple of Mut. The sphinxes were originally made for Akhenaten and Nefertiti; they were given new ram heads and small statues of the king.[49] At Luxor temple he completed the decoration of the entrance colonnade of Amenhotep III.[50] Monuments defaced under Akhenaten were restored, and new cult images of the god Amun were created. The traditional festivals were now celebrated again, including those related to the Apis Bull, Horemakhet, and Opet. His Restoration Stela erected in front of Karnak temple says: The temples of the gods and goddesses ... were in ruins. Their shrines were deserted and overgrown. Their sanctuaries were as non-existent and their courts were used as roads ... the gods turned their backs upon this land ... If anyone made a prayer to a god for advice he would never respond.[51] A building called the Temple-of-Nebkheperure-Beloved-of-Amun-Who-Puts-Thebes-in-Order, which may be identical to a building called Temple-of-Nebkheperre-in-Thebes, a possible mortuary temple, used recycled talatat from Akhenaten's east Karnak Aten temples indicating that the dismantling of these temples was already underway.[52] Many of Tutankhamun's construction projects were uncompleted at the time of his death and were completed by or usurped by his successors, especially Horemheb. The sphinx avenue was completed by his successor Ay and the whole was usurped by Horemheb. The Restoration Stele was usurped by Horemheb; pieces of the Temple-of-Nebkheperure-in-Thebes were recycled into Horemheb's own building projects.[53] Health and death Main article: Tutankhamun's mummy Close-up of Tutankhamun's head Tutankhamun was slight of build, and roughly 167 cm (5 ft 6 in) tall.[54][55] He had large front incisors and an overbite characteristic of the Thutmosid royal line to which he belonged.[56] Analysis of the clothing found in his tomb, particularly the dimensions of his loincloths and belts indicates that he had a narrow waist and rounded hips.[57] In attempts to explain both his unusual depiction in art and his early death it has been theorised that Tutankhamun suffered from gynecomastia,[58] Marfan syndrome, Wilson–Turner X-linked intellectual disability syndrome, Fröhlich syndrome (adiposogenital dystrophy), Klinefelter syndrome, androgen insensitivity syndrome, aromatase excess syndrome in conjunction with sagittal craniosynostosis syndrome, Antley–Bixler syndrome or one of its variants.[59] It has also been suggested that he suffered from inherited temporal lobe epilepsy in a bid to explain the religiosity of his great-grandfather Thutmose IV and father Akhenaten and their early deaths.[60] However, caution has been urged in this diagnosis.[61] In January 2005 Tutankhamun's mummy was CT scanned. The results showed that Tutankhamun had a partially cleft hard palate and possibly a mild case of scoliosis.[62][63] The scan also showed his right foot was flat with hypophalangism, while his left foot was clubbed and suffered bone necrosis of the second and third metatarsals (Freiberg disease or Köhler disease II).[64] The affliction may have forced Tutankhamun to walk with the use of a cane, many of which were found in his tomb.[20] Genetic testing through STR analysis rejected the hypothesis of gynecomastia and craniosynostoses (e.g., Antley–Bixler syndrome) or Marfan syndrome.[8] Genetic testing for STEVOR, AMA1, or MSP1 genes specific for Plasmodium falciparum revealed indications of malaria tropica in 4 mummies, including Tutankhamun's.[8] This is currently the oldest known genetic proof of the ailment.[65] The team discovered DNA from several strains of the parasite, indicating that he was repeatedly infected with the most severe strain of malaria. His malaria infections may have caused a fatal immune response in the body or triggered circulatory shock.[66] The CT scan also showed that he had suffered a compound left leg fracture. This injury being the result of modern damage was ruled out based on the ragged edges of the fracture; modern damage features sharp edges. Embalming substances were present within the fracture indicating that it was associated with an open wound; no signs of healing were present.[67] There are no surviving records of the circumstances of Tutankhamun's death; it has been the subject of considerable debate and major studies.[68] Ultimately it has been determined that his death was likely the result of the combination of his multiple weakening disorders, a leg fracture, perhaps as the result of a fall, and a severe malarial infection.[69] The placement of the mummy's embalming incision is unique.[70] This, combined with the two levels of resin inside his skull, have led to suggestions that an initial mummification was carried out by an inexperienced embalmer.[71] Murder by a blow to the head was theorised as a result of the 1968 x-ray which showed two bone fragments inside the skull.[72] This theory was disproved by further analysis of the x-rays and the CT scan. The inter-cranial bone fragments were determined to be the result of the modern unwrapping of the mummy as they are loose and not adherent to the embalming resin.[73] No evidence of bone thinning or calcified membranes, which could be indicative of a fatal blow to the head, were found.[74] It has also been suggested that the young king was killed in a chariot accident due to a pattern of crushing injuries, including the fact that the front part of his chest wall and ribs are missing.[75][76] However, the missing ribs are unlikely to be a result of an injury suffered at the time of death; photographs taken at the conclusion of Carter's excavation in 1926 show that the chest wall of the king was intact, still wearing a beaded collar with falcon-headed terminals. The absence of both the collar and chest wall was noted in the 1968 x-ray[77] and further confirmed by the CT scan.[63] It is likely that the front part of his chest was removed by robbers during the theft of the beaded collar; the intricate beaded skullcap the king was pictured wearing in 1926 was also missing by 1968.[78] A facial reconstruction of Tutankhamun was carried out in 2005 by the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities and National Geographic. Three separate teams—Egyptian, French, and American—worked separately to approximate the face of the boy king. While the Egyptian and French teams knew their subject was Tutankhamun, the American team worked blind. All teams produced very similar results, but it was that of the French team that was ultimately cast in silicone.[79] Tomb Main article: KV62 Tutankhamun was buried in a tomb that was unusually small considering his status. His death may have occurred unexpectedly, before the completion of a grander royal tomb, causing his mummy to be buried in a tomb intended for someone else. This would preserve the observance of the customary 70 days between death and burial.[80] His tomb was robbed at least twice in antiquity, but based on the items taken (including perishable oils and perfumes) and the evidence of restoration of the tomb after the intrusions, these robberies likely took place within several months at most of the initial burial. The location of the tomb was lost because it had come to be buried by debris from subsequent tombs, and workers' houses were built over the tomb entrance.[81] Rediscovery George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon The concession rights for excavating the Valley of the Kings was held by Theodore Davis from 1905 until 1914. In that time he had unearthed ten tombs including the nearly intact but non-royal tomb of Queen Tiye's parents, Yuya and Tjuyu. As he continued working there in the later years, he uncovered nothing of major significance.[82] Davis did find several objects in KV58 referring to Tutankhamun, which included knobs and handles bearing his name most significantly the embalming cache of the king (KV54). He believed this to be the pharaoh's lost tomb and published his findings as such with the line; "I fear the Valley of the Tombs is exhausted".[83][84] In 1907, Howard Carter was invited by William Garstin and Gaston Maspero to excavate for George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon in the Valley. The Earl of Carnarvon and Carter had hoped this would lead to their gaining the concession when Davis gave it up but had to be satisfied with excavations in different parts of the Theban Necropolis for seven more years.[85] After a systematic search, beginning in 1915, Carter discovered the actual tomb of Tutankhamun (KV62) in November 1922.[86] By February 1923 the antechamber had been cleared of everything but two sentinel statues. A day and time were selected to unseal the tomb with about twenty appointed witnesses that included Lord Carnarvon, several Egyptian officials, museum representatives and the staff of the Government Press Bureau. On 17 February 1923 at just after two o'clock, the seal was broken.[87] Contents Diagram of Tutankhamun's tomb There were 5,398 items found in the tomb, including a solid gold coffin, face mask, thrones, archery bows, trumpets, a lotus chalice, two Imiut fetishes, gold toe stalls, furniture, food, wine, sandals, and fresh linen underwear. Howard Carter took 10 years to catalog the items.[88] Recent analysis suggests a dagger recovered from the tomb had an iron blade made from a meteorite; study of artifacts of the time including other artifacts from Tutankhamun's tomb could provide valuable insights into metalworking technologies around the Mediterranean at the time.[89][90] Almost 80% of Tutankhamun's burial equipment originated from the female pharaoh Neferneferuaten's funerary goods, including the Mask of Tutankhamun.[91][92] In 2015, English Egyptologist Nicholas Reeves published evidence showing that an earlier cartouche on Tutankhamun's famous gold mask read "Ankhkheperure mery-Neferkheperure" (Ankhkheperure beloved of Akhenaten); therefore, the mask was originally made for Nefertiti, Akhenaten's chief queen, who used the royal name Ankhkheperure when she most likely assumed the throne after her husband's death.[93][34][94] Neferneferuaten may have been deposed in a struggle for power and possibly deprived of a royal burial, or she was buried with a different set of Akhenaten's funerary equipment by Tutankhamun's officials, since Tutankhamun succeeded her as king.[95] Neferneferuaten was likely succeeded by Tutankhamun based on the presence of her funerary goods in his tomb.[93][96] On 4 November 2007, 85 years to the day after Carter's discovery, Tutankhamun's mummy was placed on display in his underground tomb at Luxor, when the linen-wrapped mummy was removed from its golden sarcophagus to a climate-controlled glass box. The case was designed to prevent the heightened rate of decomposition caused by the humidity and warmth from tourists visiting the tomb.[97] In 2009, the tomb was closed for restoration by the Ministry of antiquities and the Getty Conservation Institute. While the closure was originally planned for five years to restore the walls affected by humidity, the Egyptian revolution of 2011 set the project back. The tomb re-opened in February 2019.[98] Rumored curse Howard Carter examining the innermost coffin of Tutankhamun For many years, rumors of a "curse of the pharaohs" (probably fueled by newspapers seeking sales at the time of the discovery)[99] persisted, emphasizing the early death of some of those who had entered the tomb. The most prominent was George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon, who died on 5 April 1923, five months after the discovery of the first step leading down to the tomb on 4 November 1922.[100] The cause of Carnarvon's death was pneumonia supervening on [facial] erysipelas (a streptococcal infection of the skin and underlying soft tissue).[101] The Earl had been in an automobile accident in 1901 making him very unhealthy and frail. His doctor recommended a warmer climate so in 1903 the Carnarvons traveled to Egypt where the Earl became interested in Egyptology.[100] Along with the stresses of the excavation, Carnarvon was already in a weakened state when an infection led to pneumonia.[102] A study showed that of the 58 people who were present when the tomb and sarcophagus were opened, only eight died within a dozen years;[103] Howard Carter died of lymphoma in 1939 at the age of 64.[104] The last survivors included Lady Evelyn Herbert, Lord Carnarvon's daughter who was among the first people to enter the tomb after its discovery in November 1922, who lived for a further 57 years and died in 1980,[105] and American archaeologist J.O. Kinnaman who died in 1961, 39 years after the event.[106] Legacy The "Egyptian Number" of Life, 19 Apr 1923 Tutankhamun's fame is primarily the result of his well-preserved tomb and the global exhibitions of his associated artifacts. As Jon Manchip White writes, in his foreword to the 1977 edition of Carter's The Discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamun, "The pharaoh who in life was one of the least esteemed of Egypt's Pharaohs has become in death the most renowned".[107] The discoveries in the tomb were prominent news in the 1920s. Tutankhamen came to be called by a modern neologism, "King Tut". Ancient Egyptian references became common in popular culture, including Tin Pan Alley songs; the most popular of the latter was "Old King Tut" by Harry Von Tilzer from 1923, which was recorded by such prominent artists of the time as Jones & Hare and Sophie Tucker. "King Tut" became the name of products, businesses, and the pet dog of U.S. President Herbert Hoover.[108] International exhibitions Further information: Exhibitions of artifacts from the tomb of Tutankhamun San Francisco's M. H. de Young Memorial Museum hosted an exhibition of Tutankhamun artifacts in 2009[109] Tutankhamun's artifacts have traveled the world with unprecedented visitorship.[110] The exhibitions began in 1962 when Algeria won its independence from France. With the ending of that conflict, the Louvre Museum in Paris was quickly able to arrange an exhibition of Tutankhamun's treasures through Christiane Desroches Noblecourt. The French Egyptologist was already in Egypt as part of a UNESCO appointment. The French exhibit drew 1.2 million visitors. Noblecourt had also convinced the Egyptian Minister of Culture to allow British photographer George Rainbird to re-photograph the collection in color. The new color photos as well as the Louvre exhibition began a Tutankhamun revival.[111] In 1965, the Tutankhamun exhibit traveled to Tokyo, Japan where it garnered more visitors than the future New York exhibit in 1979. The exhibit was held at the Kyoto Municipal Museum of Art with almost 1.75 million visitors. The blockbuster attraction exceeded all other exhibitions of Tutankhamun's treasures for the next 60 years.[110][112] The Treasures of Tutankhamun tour ran from 1972 to 1979. This exhibition was first shown in London at the British Museum from 30 March until 30 September 1972. More than 1.6 million visitors saw the exhibition.[110][113] The exhibition moved on to many other countries, including the United States, Soviet Union, Japan, France, Canada, and West Germany. The Metropolitan Museum of Art organized the U.S. exhibition, which ran from 17 November 1976 through 15 April 1979. More than eight million attended.[114][115] In 2005, Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities, in partnership with Arts and Exhibitions International and the National Geographic Society, launched a tour of Tutankhamun treasures and other 18th Dynasty funerary objects, this time called Tutankhamun and the Golden Age of the Pharaohs. It featured the same exhibits as Tutankhamen: The Golden Hereafter in a slightly different format. It was expected to draw more than three million people but exceeded that with almost four million people attending just the first four tour stops.[116] The exhibition started in Los Angeles, then moved to Fort Lauderdale, Chicago, Philadelphia and London before finally returning to Egypt in August 2008. An encore of the exhibition in the United States ran at the Dallas Museum of Art.[117] After Dallas the exhibition moved to the de Young Museum in San Francisco, followed by the Discovery Times Square Exposition in New York City.[118] Tutankhamun exhibition in 2018 The exhibition visited Australia for the first time, opening at the Melbourne Museum for its only Australian stop before Egypt's treasures returned to Cairo in December 2011.[119] The exhibition included 80 exhibits from the reigns of Tutankhamun's immediate predecessors in the 18th Dynasty, such as Hatshepsut, whose trade policies greatly increased the wealth of that dynasty and enabled the lavish wealth of Tutankhamun's burial artifacts, as well as 50 from Tutankhamun's tomb. The exhibition did not include the gold mask that was a feature of the 1972–1979 tour, as the Egyptian government has decided that damage which occurred to previous artifacts on tours precludes this one from joining them.[120] In 2018, it was announced that the largest collection of Tutankhamun artifacts, amounting to forty percent of the entire collection, would be leaving Egypt again in 2019 for an international tour entitled; "King Tut: Treasures of the Golden Pharaoh".[121] The 2019-2022 tour began with an exhibit called; "Tutankhamun, Pharaoh’s Treasures," which launched in Los Angeles and then traveled to Paris. The exhibit featured at the Grande Halle de la Villette in Paris ran from March to September 2019. The exhibit featured one hundred and fifty gold coins, along with various pieces of jewelry, sculpture and carvings, as well as the renowned gold mask of Tutankhamun. Promotion of the exhibit filled the streets of Paris with posters of the event. The full international tour ends with the opening of the new Grand Egyptian Museum in Cairo where the treasures will be permanently housed.[122] Ancestry v t e Tutankhamun ascending family history Based on genetic testing and archeological evidence Thutmose IV (m) Mutemwiya (f) Tjuyu (f)[i] Yuya (m)[i] Amenhotep III (m)[i] Tiye (f)[i] Body identified as KV55EL Nefertiti (f) Akhenaten (m)[i] Body identified in KV55 The Younger Lady (f)[i] Body identified as KV35YL Possibly Nebetah or Beketaten Ankhesenamun (f) Body believed to be KV21A Tutankhamun (m)[i] Child 1 (f) Child 2 (f) Explanatory notes and reference sources Notes: ^ a b c d e f g Cooney - Jasno - pp. 219 - 220 "DNA indicated a probability in excess of 99.99%" that Amenhotep III was the father of the man interred in KV55. The probability that the man interred in KV55 is the father of Tutankhamun was equally as great." "[T]he lock of hair found in Tutankhamun's tomb seemed to link him in some intimate way to KV35EL". "Tiye's parents, Yuya and Thuya, had been found.." "..genetic analysis confirmed KV35EL as their daughter." "Furthermore, and as anticipated, the KV55 mummy genetically matched as the offspring of KV35EL." "Perhaps the most curious results of the genetic fingerprinting came from KV35YL. She proved to be not only a daughter of Amenhotep III and Tiye but also the mother of Tutankhamun."[α] ^ Cooney, Kathlyn M.; Jasnow, Richard (25 August 2015). Joyful in Thebes: Egyptological Studies in Honor of Betsy M. Bryan. Lockwood Press. ISBN 978-1-937040-41-3. See also Anubis Shrine Head of Nefertem Tutankhamun's mummy Tutankhamun's meteoric iron dagger Tutankhamun's trumpets Notes ^ The relief depicts a child in the arms of a nurse outside a chamber in which Meketaten is being mourned by her parents and siblings, which has been interpreted to indicate she died in childbirth.[16] ^ Part of this interpretation is based on a block from Hermopolis that names a 'King's Son' in conjunction with a 'King's Daughter'.[18] ^ Tutankhamun's Horus Name was Ka nakht tut mesut,[3] translated as; Victorious bull, the (very) image of (re)birth.[4] ^ His second full nomen (also called the Son of Re Name) was; Tut ankh imen, heqa iunu shemau, translated as; The living image of Amun, Ruler of Southern Heliopolis.[4] ^ Tutankahmun's Nebty or Two Ladies Name was; (1): Nefer hepu, segereh tawy,[3] translated as; Perfect of laws, who has quieted down the Two Lands.[4] (2): Nefer hepu, segereh tawy sehetep netjeru nebu, translated as; Perfect of laws, who has quieted down the Two Lands and pacified all the gods.[4] (3): Wer ah imen, translated as; The great one of the palace of Amun.[42] ^ Tutankhamun's Gold Falcon Name was: (1): Wetjes khau, sehetep netjeru[3] translated as; Elevated of appearances, who has satisfied the gods.[4] *Gold Falcon name (2): Wetjes khau it ef ra, translates as; Who has elevated the appearances of his father Re.[42] ^ Tutankhamun's Prenomen (Throne Name) was: Neb kheperu re,[3][42] translated as: The possessor of the manifestation of Re.[4] which had an epithet added: Heqa maat, translated as; Ruler of Maat.[42] Citations ^ Clayton 2006, p. 128. ^ a b c d Osing & Dreyer 1987, pp. 110–123. ^ a b c d e f g h "Digital Egypt for Universities: Tutankhamun". University College London. 22 June 2003. Retrieved 5 August 2006. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Leprohon 2013, p. 206. ^ Osing & Dreyer 1987, pp. 110-123. ^ a b Hawass et al. 2010, pp. 640–641. ^ "Tutankhamun or Tutankhamen". Collins English Dictionary. n.d. Retrieved 24 September 2014. ^ a b c d Hawass et al. 2010, pp. 638–647. ^ Hawass & Saleem 2011, pp. W829-W831. ^ Hawass 2004, p. 73. ^ Roberts 2006, p. 187. ^ Cooney & Jasnow 2015, p. 219. ^ Zivie 1998, pp. 33–54. ^ Chyla, Rosińska-Balik & Debowska-Ludwin 2017, p. 113. ^ Gundlach & Taylor 2009, p. 160. ^ Arnold et al. 1996, p. 115. ^ Brand & Cooper 2009, p. 88. ^ Dodson 2009, p. 13. ^ Gabolde 2000, pp. 107–110. ^ a b c d e Hawass et al. 2010, pp. 642–645. ^ Dodson & Hilton 2010, p. 146. ^ Hawass & Saleem 2016, p. 123. ^ Eaton-Krauss 2015, pp. 6–10. ^ Dodson 2009, pp. 16–17. ^ Hawass & Saleem 2016, p. 89. ^ Hawass & Saleem 2011, pp. W829–W831. ^ Morkot 2004, p. 161. ^ Robinson 2009, pp. 90–91. ^ a b Collier & Manley 2003, p. 28. ^ Hawass 2004, p. 56. ^ "Classroom TUTorials: The Many Names of King Tutankhamun" (PDF). Michael C. Carlos Museum. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 October 2013. Retrieved 10 July 2013. ^ Baker & Baker 2001, p. 137. ^ Dodson 2009, p. 112. ^ a b Cooney 2018, p. 361. ^ Barclay 2006, p. 62. ^ Booysen 2013, p. 188. ^ Redford 2003, p. 85. ^ Booth 2007, p. 120. ^ Toby A.H. Wilkinson (11 September 2002). Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge. p. 172. ISBN 978-1-134-66420-7. ^ Leprohon 2013. ^ The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. Egypt Exploration Fund. 1998. p. 212. ^ a b c d Leprohon 2013, pp. 1–15. ^ a b Eaton-Krauss 2015, pp. 28–29. ^ John Coleman Darnell; Colleen Manassa (3 August 2007). Tutankhamun's Armies: Battle and Conquest During Ancient Egypt's Late Eighteenth Dynasty. John Wiley & Sons. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-471-74358-3. ^ Mey Zaki (2008). Legacy of Tutankhamun: Art and History. American Univ in Cairo Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-977-17-4930-1. ^ Gilbert, Holt & Hudson 1976, pp. 28–9. ^ a b Booth 2007, pp. 86–87. ^ Erik Hornung, Akhenaten and the Religion of Light, Translated by David Lorton, Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8014-8725-0. ^ Forbes, D. C. (2000). "Seven Battered Osiride Figures in the Cairo Museum and the Sphinx Avenue of Tutankhamen at Karnak". Amarna Letters. 4: 82–87. ^ Dodson 2009, p. 70. ^ Hart, George (1990). Egyptian Myths. University of Texas Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-292-72076-3. ^ Dodson 2009, pp. 66–67. ^ Dodson 2009, pp. 66–68. ^ Hawass & Saleem 2016, p. 94. ^ Carter, Howard; Derry, Douglas E. (1927). The Tomb of Tutankhamen. Cassel and Company, LTD. p. 157. ^ Pausch, Niels Christian; Naether, Franziska; Krey, Karl Friedrich (December 2015). "Tutankhamun's Dentition: The Pharaoh and his Teeth". Brazilian Dental Journal. 26 (6): 701–704. doi:10.1590/0103-6440201300431. PMID 26963220. Retrieved 8 January 2020. ^ Vogelsang-Eastwood, G. M. (1999). Tutankhamun's Wardrobe : garments from the tomb of Tutankhamun. Rotterdam: Barjesteh van Waalwijk van Doorn. pp. 18–19. ISBN 90-5613-042-0. ^ Paulshock, Bernadine Z. (11 July 1980). "Tutankhamun and His Brothers". JAMA. 244 (2): 160–164. doi:10.1001/jama.1980.03310020036024. ^ Markel, H. (17 February 2010). "King Tutankhamun, modern medical science, and the expanding boundaries of historical inquiry". JAMA. 303 (7): 667–668. doi:10.1001/jama.2010.153. PMID 20159878. ^ Ashrafian, Hutan (September 2012). "Familial epilepsy in the pharaohs of ancient Egypt's eighteenth dynasty". Epilepsy & Behavior. 25 (1): 23–31. doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2012.06.014. PMID 22980077. S2CID 20771815. ^ Cavka, Mislav; Kelava, Tomislav (April 2013). "Comment on: Familial epilepsy in the pharaohs of ancient Egypt's eighteenth dynasty". Epilepsy & Behavior. 27 (1): 278. doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2012.11.044. PMID 23291226. 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Mace (19 October 2012). The Discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamen. Courier Corporation. p. 178. ISBN 978-0-486-14182-4. ^ Williams, A. R. (24 November 2015). "King Tut: The Teen Whose Death Rocked Egypt". National Geographic News. Retrieved 26 November 2015. ^ Daniela Comelli; Massimo D'orazio; Luigi Folco; Mahmud El‐Halwagy; Tommaso Frizzi; Roberto Alberti; Valentina Capogrosso; Abdelrazek Elnaggar; Hala Hassan; Austin Nevin; Franco Porcelli; Mohamed G. Rashed; Gianluca Valentini; et al. "The meteoritic origin of Tutankhamun's iron dagger blade - Comelli - 2016 - Meteoritics & Planetary Science - Wiley Online Library". Meteoritics and Planetary Science. 51 (7): 1301. Bibcode:2016M&PS...51.1301C. doi:10.1111/maps.12664. ^ Walsh, Declan (2 June 2016). "King Tut's Dagger Made of 'Iron From the Sky,' Researchers Say". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 June 2016. ^ Reeves 2015. ^ Peter Hessler (28 September 2015). "Inspection of King Tut's Tomb Reveals Hints of Hidden Chambers". National Geographic Society. Retrieved 7 September 2019. ^ a b Seidel, Jamie (12 May 2019). "Was King Tut a fraud?". Herald Sun. Retrieved 12 July 2019. ^ Reeves, Nicholas (2003). "THE GOLD MASK OF ANKHKHEPERURE NEFERNEFERUATEN". Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections. 7 (4). doi:10.2458/azu_jaei_v07i4_reeves. Retrieved 3 September 2019. ^ Reeves 2015, pp. 523–524. ^ "8 things you (probably) didn't know about Tutankhamun". History Extra. Retrieved 12 July 2019. ^ Michael McCarthy (5 October 2007). "3,000 years old: the face of Tutankhaten". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 5 November 2007. ^ Nada Deyaa’ (3 February 2019). "Long awaited for Tutankhamun's tomb reopened after restoration". Daily News Egypt. Retrieved 2 September 2019. ^ Hankey, Julie (2007). A Passion for Egypt: Arthur Weigall, Tutankhamun and the 'Curse of the Pharaohs'. Tauris Parke Paperbacks. pp. 3–5. ISBN 978-1-84511-435-0. ^ a b Kathryn A. Bard (27 January 2015). An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. John Wiley & Sons. p. 249. ISBN 978-0-470-67336-2. ^ Carl Nicholas Reeves (1993). Howard Carter: Before Tutankhamun. H.N. Abrams. pp. 62–156. ISBN 978-0-8109-3186-2. ^ Lorna Oakes; Lucia Gahlin (2005). Ancient Egypt: an illustrated reference to the myths, religions, pyramids and temples of the land of the pharaohs. Hermes House. p. 495. ISBN 978-1-84477-451-7. ^ Gordon, Stuart (1995). The Book of Spells, Hexes, and Curses. New York: Carol Publishing Group. ISBN 978-08065-1675-2. ^ David Vernon in Skeptical – a Handbook of Pseudoscience and the Paranormal, ed. Donald Laycock, David Vernon, Colin Groves, Simon Brown, Imagecraft, Canberra, 1989, ISBN 0-7316-5794-2, p. 25. ^ Bill Price (21 January 2009). Tutankhamun, Egypt's Most Famous Pharaoh. Harpenden : Pocket Essentials. p. 138. ISBN 9781842432402. ^ "Death Claims Noted Biblical Archaeologist". Lodi News-Sentinel. 8 September 1961. Retrieved 9 May 2014. ^ Carter, Howard; Mace, A.C. (1977). The Discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamen. Dover Publications. ISBN 0486235009. ^ "The First Family's Pets". hoover.archives.gov. The Herbert Hoover Presidential Library and Museum. 8 May 2017. Retrieved 12 July 2019. ^ Travel and Tourism Market Research Yearbook. Richard K. Miller Associates. 2008. p. 200. ^ a b c Sarah Anne Hughes (20 June 2019). Museum and Gallery Publishing: From Theory to Case Study. Taylor & Francis. p. 36. ISBN 978-1-317-09309-1. ^ William Carruthers (11 July 2014). Histories of Egyptology: Interdisciplinary Measures. Routledge. p. 168. ISBN 978-1-135-01457-5. ^ Thomas R.H. Havens (14 July 2014). Artist and Patron in Postwar Japan: Dance, Music, Theater, and the Visual Arts, 1955-1980. Princeton University Press. p. 134. ISBN 978-1-4008-5539-1. ^ "Record visitor figures". British Museum. Retrieved 9 December 2018. ^ Mona L. Russell (2013). Egypt. ABC-CLIO. p. 260. ISBN 978-1-59884-233-3. ^ Riggs 2018, p. 216. ^ Paul Cartledge; Fiona Rose Greenland (20 January 2010). Responses to Oliver Stone's Alexander: Film, History, and Cultural Studies. Univ of Wisconsin Press. p. 330. ISBN 978-0-299-23283-2. ^ Fritze 2016, p. 242. ^ Nici 2015, p. 31. ^ Proceedings of the 1st International Conference in Safety and Crisis Management in the Construction, Tourism and SME Sectors. Universal-Publishers. p. 254. ISBN 978-1-61233-557-5. ^ Jenny Booth (6 January 2005). "CT scan may solve Tutankhamun death riddle". The Times. London: Times Newspapers Limited. ^ Staff writer (16 June 2018). "Tutankhamun exhibition to be hosted in Sydney in 2021 - Egypt Today". Egypt Today. Egypt Today. Retrieved 30 August 2019. ^ Mira Maged (20 March 2019). "King Tutankhamun exhibition in Paris sells 130,000 tickets - Egypt Independent". Al-Masry Al-Youm. Retrieved 30 August 2019. References Arnold, Dorothea; Metropolitan Museum of Art Staff; Green, L.; Allen, James P. (1996). The Royal Women of Amarna: Images of Beauty from Ancient Egypt. Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0-87099-816-4. OCLC 35292712. Baker, Rosalie F.; Baker, Charles F. (2001). Ancient Egyptians: People of the Pyramids. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-512221-3. Barclay, John M.G. (2006). Flavius Josephus: Translation and Commentary, Volume 10: Against Apion. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-474-0405-7. Booysen, Riaan (2013). Thera and the Exodus: The Exodus Explained in Terms of Natural Phenomena and the Human Response to It. John Hunt Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78099-450-5. Brand, Peter Peter James; Cooper, Louise (2009). Causing His Name to Live: Studies in Egyptian Epigraphy and History in Memory of William J. Murnane. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-17644-7. OCLC 318869912. Braun, David (2012). National Geographic Tales of the Weird: Unbelievable True Stories. National Geographic Society. ISBN 978-1-4262-0965-9.</ref> Booth, Charlotte (2007). The Boy Behind the Mask: Meeting the Real Tutankhamun. Oneworld. ISBN 978-1-85168-544-8. OCLC 191804020. Chyla, Julia; Rosińska-Balik, Karolina; Debowska-Ludwin, Joanna (2017). Current Research in Egyptology 17. Oxbow Books. ISBN 978-1-78570-603-5. OCLC 1029884966. Clayton, Peter A. (2006). Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-28628-9. OCLC 869729880. Collier, Mark; Manley, Bill (2003). How to Read Egyptian Hieroglyphs: A Step-by-step Guide to Teach Yourself. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-23949-4. OCLC 705578614. Cooney, Kathlyn M.; Jasnow, Richard (2015). Joyful in Thebes: Egyptological Studies in Honor of Betsy M. Bryan. Lockwood Press. ISBN 978-1-937040-41-3. OCLC 960643348. Cooney, Kara (30 October 2018). When Women Ruled the World: Six Queens of Egypt. National Geographic Society. ISBN 978-1-4262-1978-8. OCLC 1100619021. Dodson, Aidan (2009). Amarna Sunset: Nefertiti, Tutankhamun, Ay, Horemheb, and the Egyptian Counter-Reformation. American University in Cairo Press. ISBN 978-1-61797-050-4. OCLC 1055144573. Dodson, Aidan; Hilton, Dyan (2010). The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-28857-3. Eaton-Krauss, Marianne (2015). The Unknown Tutankhamun. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4725-7563-0. OCLC 1049775714. Gabolde, Marc (2000). D'Akhenaton à Toutânkhamon. Université Lumière-Lyon 2, Institut d'archéologie et d'histoire de l'antiquité. ISBN 9782911971020. OCLC 607262790. Gilbert, Katherine Stoddert; Holt, Joan K.; Hudson, Sara, eds. (1976). Treasures of Tutankhamun. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0-87099-156-1. OCLC 865140073. Gundlach, Rolf; Taylor, John H. (2009). 4. Symposium Zur Ägyptischen Königsideologie. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-05888-9. OCLC 500749022. Fritze, Ronald H. (2016). Egyptomania: A History of Fascination, Obsession and Fantasy. Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-78023-685-8. OCLC 1010951566. Hawass, Zahi; et al. (17 February 2010). "Ancestry and Pathology in King Tutankhamun's Family" (PDF). The Journal of the American Medical Association. 303 (7): 638–647. doi:10.1001/jama.2010.121. PMID 20159872. Retrieved 27 August 2019. Hawass, Zahi (2004). The Golden Age of Tutankhamun. American Univ in Cairo Press. p. 56. ISBN 978-977-424-836-8. OCLC 56358390. Hawass, Zahi; Saleem, Sahar (2016). Scanning the Pharaohs: CT Imaging of the New Kingdom Royal Mummies. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-977-416-673-0. OCLC 1078493215. Hawass, Zahi; Saleem, Sahar (2011). "Mummified Daughters of King Tutankhamun: Archeologic and CT Studies". American Journal of Roentgenology. 197 (5): W829–W836. doi:10.2214/AJR.11.6837. ISSN 0361-803X. PMID 22021529. Hoving, Thomas (2002). Tutankhamun: The Untold Story. Cooper Square Press. ISBN 978-1-4617-3214-3. OCLC 3965932. Kozma, Chahira (2008). "Skeletal dysplasia in ancient Egypt". American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A. 146A (23): 3104–3112. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.32501. ISSN 1552-4825. PMID 19006207. S2CID 20360474. Leprohon, Ronald J. (2013). The Great Name: Ancient Egyptian Royal Titulary. SBL Press. ISBN 978-1-58983-736-2. Mackowiak, Philip A. (2013). Diagnosing Giants: Solving the Medical Mysteries of Thirteen Patients Who Changed the World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-936114-4. Morkot, Robert (10 November 2004). The Egyptians: An Introduction. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-48857-5. OCLC 60448544. Nici, John (2015). Famous Works of Art—And How They Got That Way. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4422-4955-4. OCLC 1035635529. Osing, Jürgen; Dreyer, Günter (1987). Form und Mass: Beiträge zur Literatur, Sprache und Kunst des alten Ägypten : Festschrift für Gerhard Fecht zum 65. Geburtstag am 6. Februar 1987. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-02704-5. Redford, Donald B. (2003). The Oxford Essential Guide to Egyptian Mythology. Berkley Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-425-19096-8. Reeves, Carl Nicholas (1990). The Complete Tutankhamun: The King, the Tomb, the Royal Treasure. Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-27810-9. OCLC 1104938097. Reeves, Nicholas (2015). "Tutankhamun's Mask Reconsidered (2015)". Bulletin of the Egyptological Seminar. 19: 511–526. Retrieved 7 September 2019 – via Academia.edu. Reeves, Nicholas; Wilkinson, Richard H. (1996). The Complete Valley of the Kings. London: Thames and Hudson. OCLC 809290016. Riggs, Christina (2018). Photographing Tutankhamun: Archaeology, Ancient Egypt, and the Archive. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-350-03853-0. OCLC 1114957945. Roberts, Peter (2006). HSC Ancient History. Pascal Press. ISBN 978-1-74125-179-1. OCLC 225398561. Robinson, Andrew (27 August 2009). Writing and Script: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. pp. 90–91. ISBN 978-0-19-956778-2. OCLC 654777745. Zivie, A. (1998). "La nourrice royale Maïa et ses voisins: cinq tombeaux du Nouvel Empire récemment découverts à Saqqara". Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (in French). 142 (1). Further reading Andritsos, John. Social Studies of Ancient Egypt: Tutankhamun. Australia 2006. Brier, Bob. The Murder of Tutankhamun: A True Story. Putnam Adult, 13 April 1998, ISBN 0-425-16689-9 (paperback), ISBN 0-399-14383-1 (hardcover), ISBN 0-613-28967-6 (School & Library Binding). Carter, Howard and Arthur C. Mace, The Discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamun. Courier Dover Publications, 1 June 1977, ISBN 0-486-23500-9 The semi-popular account of the discovery and opening of the tomb written by the archaeologist responsible. Desroches-Noblecourt, Christiane. Sarwat Okasha (Preface), Tutankhamun: Life and Death of a Pharaoh. New York: New York Graphic Society, 1963, ISBN 0-8212-0151-4 (1976 reprint, hardcover), ISBN 0-14-011665-6 (1990 reprint, paperback). Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities, The Mummy of Tutankhamun: The CT Scan Report, as printed in Ancient Egypt, June/July 2005. Haag, Michael. The Rough Guide to Tutankhamun: The King: The Treasure: The Dynasty. London 2005. ISBN 1-84353-554-8. Hoving, Thomas. The Search for Tutankhamun: The Untold Story of Adventure and Intrigue Surrounding the Greatest Modern archeological find. New York: Simon & Schuster, 15 October 1978, ISBN 0-671-24305-5 (hardcover), ISBN 0-8154-1186-3 (paperback) This book details a number of anecdotes about the discovery and excavation of the tomb. James, T. G. H. Tutankhamun. New York: Friedman/Fairfax, 1 September 2000, ISBN 1-58663-032-6 (hardcover) A large-format volume by the former Keeper of Egyptian Antiquities at the British Museum, filled with colour illustrations of the funerary furnishings of Tutankhamun, and related objects. Neubert, Otto. Tutankhamun and the Valley of the Kings. London: Granada Publishing Limited, 1972, ISBN 0-583-12141-1 (paperback) First hand account of the discovery of the Tomb. Rossi, Renzo. Tutankhamun. Cincinnati (Ohio) 2007 ISBN 978-0-7153-2763-0, a work all illustrated and coloured. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tutankhamun. Library resources about Tutankhamun Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Grim secrets of Pharaoh's city—BBC News Tutankhamun and the Age of the Golden Pharaohs website British Museum Tutankhamun highlight "Swiss geneticists examine Tutankhamun's genetic profile" by Reuters Ultimate Tut Documentary produced by the PBS Series Secrets of the Dead v t e Tutankhamun Family Akhenaten (father) "The Younger Lady" (mother) Ankhesenamun (wife) 317a and 317b mummies (daughters) Amenhotep III (grandfather) Tiye (grandmother) Discovery Howard Carter George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon KV62 (Tutankhamun's tomb) Mask Mummy Anubis Shrine Head of Nefertem Lotus chalice Trumpets Meteoric iron dagger Other Curse of the pharaohs Exhibitions Popular culture Steve Martin song Of Time, Tombs and Treasures (1977 documentary) The Curse of King Tut's Tomb (1980 film) Mysteries of Egypt (1998 film) Tutenstein (2003 series) The Curse of King Tut's Tomb (2006 film) Tut (2015 miniseries) Tutankhamun (2016 miniseries) v t e Amarna Period Pharaohs Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten Tutankhamun Ay Royal family Tiye Nefertiti Kiya "The Younger Lady" Tey Children Meritaten Meketaten Ankhesenamun Neferneferuaten Tasherit Neferneferure Setepenre Meritaten Tasherit Ankhesenpaaten Tasherit Nobles Officials Mutbenret Aperel Bek Huya Meryre II Nakhtpaaten Panehesy Parennefer Penthu Thutmose Locations Akhetaten Karnak KV55 KV62 Amarna Tombs Other Amarna letters Amarna succession Aten Atenism Dakhamunzu Amarna Art Style v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control BNF: cb12008509v (data) GND: 118624792 ISNI: 0000 0000 9993 1817 LCCN: n79066005 NKC: jn20030210005 NLI: 000133311 SUDOC: 028202171 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en-wikipedia-org-7253	----	Parthia - Wikipedia Parthia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Parthia 𐎱𐎼𐎰𐎺 Historical region of Iran The region of Parthia within the empire of Medes, c. 600 BC; from a historical atlas illustrated by William Robert Shepherd Capital Nisa Today part of Iran and Turkmenistan Historical region located in north-eastern Iran For other uses, see Parthia (disambiguation). Parthia (Old Persian: 𐎱𐎼𐎰𐎺 Parθava; Parthian: 𐭐𐭓𐭕𐭅 Parθaw; Middle Persian: 𐭯𐭫𐭮𐭥𐭡𐭥‎ Pahlaw) is a historical region located in north-eastern Iran. It was conquered and subjugated by the empire of the Medes during the 7th century BC, was incorporated into the subsequent Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus the Great in the 6th century BC, and formed part of the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire following the 4th-century-BC conquests of Alexander the Great. The region later served as the political and cultural base of the Eastern-Iranian Parni people and Arsacid dynasty, rulers of the Parthian Empire (247 BC – 224 AD). The Sasanian Empire, the last state of pre-Islamic Iran, also held the region and maintained the Seven Parthian clans as part of their feudal aristocracy. Contents 1 Name 2 Geography 3 History 3.1 Under the Achaemenids 3.2 Under the Seleucids 3.3 Under the Arsacids 3.4 Under the Sasanians 4 Language and literature 5 Society 6 Parthian cities 7 See also 8 References 9 Bibliography Name[edit] Xerxes I tomb, Parthian soldier circa 470 BCE The name "Parthia" is a continuation from Latin Parthia, from Old Persian Parthava, which was the Parthian language self-designator signifying "of the Parthians" who were an Iranian people. In context to its Hellenistic period, Parthia also appears as Parthyaea.[citation needed] Geography[edit] Parthia roughly corresponds to a region in northeastern Iran, though part is in Turkmenistan. It was bordered by the Karakum desert in the north, included Kopet Dag mountain range and the Dasht-e-Kavir desert in the south. It bordered Media on the west, Hyrcania on the north west, Margiana on the north east, and Aria on the south east.[citation needed] During Arsacid times, Parthia was united with Hyrcania as one administrative unit, and that region is therefore often (subject to context) considered a part of Parthia proper.[citation needed] History[edit] Under the Achaemenids[edit] Parthia (𓊪𓃭𓍘𓇋𓍯𓈉, P-rw-t-i-wꜣ), as one of the 24 subjects of the Achaemenid Empire, in the Egyptian Statue of Darius I. As the region inhabited by Parthians, Parthia first appears as a political entity in Achaemenid lists of governorates ("satrapies") under their dominion. Prior to this, the people of the region seem to have been subjects of the Medes,[1] and 7th century BC Assyrian texts mention a country named Partakka or Partukka (though this "need not have coincided topographically with the later Parthia").[2] A year after Cyrus the Great's defeat of the Median Astyages, Parthia became one of the first provinces to acknowledge Cyrus as their ruler, "and this allegiance secured Cyrus' eastern flanks and enabled him to conduct the first of his imperial campaigns – against Sardis."[3] According to Greek sources, following the seizure of the Achaemenid throne by Darius I, the Parthians united with the Median king Phraortes to revolt against him. Hystaspes, the Achaemenid governor of the province (said to be father of Darius I), managed to suppress the revolt, which seems to have occurred around 522–521 BC.[citation needed] The first indigenous Iranian mention of Parthia is in the Behistun inscription of Darius I, where Parthia is listed (in the typical Iranian clockwise order) among the governorates in the vicinity of Drangiana.[4] The inscription dates to c. 520 BC. The center of the administration "may have been at [what would later be known as] Hecatompylus".[5] The Parthians also appear in Herodotus' list of peoples subject to the Achaemenids; the historiographer treats the Parthians, Chorasmians, Sogdians and Areioi as peoples of a single satrapy (the 16th), whose annual tribute to the king he states to be only 300 talents of silver. This "has rightly caused disquiet to modern scholars."[6] At the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC between the forces of Darius III and those of Alexander the Great, one such Parthian unit was commanded by Phrataphernes, who was at the time Achaemenid governor of Parthia. Following the defeat of Darius III, Phrataphernes surrendered his governorate to Alexander when the Macedonian arrived there in the summer of 330 BC. Phrataphernes was reappointed governor by Alexander.[citation needed] Under the Seleucids[edit] Following the death of Alexander, in the Partition of Babylon in 323 BC, Parthia became a Seleucid governorate under Nicanor. Phrataphernes, the former governor, became governor of Hyrcania. In 320 BC, at the Partition of Triparadisus, Parthia was reassigned to Philip, former governor of Sogdiana. A few years later, the province was invaded by Peithon, governor of Media Magna, who then attempted to make his brother Eudamus governor. Peithon and Eudamus were driven back, and Parthia remained a governorate in its own right.[citation needed] In 316 BC, Stasander, a vassal of Seleucus I Nicator and governor of Bactria (and, it seems, also of Aria and Margiana) was appointed governor of Parthia. For the next 60 years, various Seleucids would be appointed governors of the province.[citation needed] Coin of Andragoras, the last Seleucid satrap of Parthia. He proclaimed independence around 250 BC. In 247 BC, following the death of Antiochus II, Ptolemy III seized control of the Seleucid capital at Antioch, and "so left the future of the Seleucid dynasty for a moment in question."[7] Taking advantage of the uncertain political situation, Andragoras, the Seleucid governor of Parthia, proclaimed his independence and began minting his own coins.[citation needed] Meanwhile, "a man called Arsaces, of Scythian or Bactrian origin, [was] elected leader of the Parni",[8] an eastern-Iranian peoples from the Tajen/Tajend River valley, south-east of the Caspian Sea.[9] Following the secession of Parthia from the Seleucid Empire and the resultant loss of Seleucid military support, Andragoras had difficulty in maintaining his borders, and about 238 BC – under the command of "Arsaces and his brother Tiridates"[8][10] – the Parni invaded[11] Parthia and seized control of Astabene (Astawa), the northern region of that territory, the administrative capital of which was Kabuchan (Kuchan in the vulgate).[citation needed] A short while later the Parni seized the rest of Parthia from Andragoras, killing him in the process. Although an initial punitive expedition by the Seleucids under Seleucus II was not successful, the Seleucids under Antiochus III recaptured Arsacid controlled territory in 209 BC from Arsaces' (or Tiridates') successor, Arsaces II. Arsaces II sued for peace and accepted vassal status,[10] and it was not until Arsaces II's grandson (or grand-nephew) Phraates I, that the Arsacids/Parni would again begin to assert their independence.[12] Under the Arsacids[edit] Main article: Parthian Empire Parthian horseman now on display at the Palazzo Madama, Turin. Coin of Mithridates I (R. 171–138 BC). The reverse shows Heracles, and the inscription ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΜΕΓΑΛΟΥ ΑΡΣΑΚΟΥ ΦΙΛΕΛΛΗΝΟΣ "Great King Arsaces, friend of Greeks". Reproduction of a Parthian archer as depicted on Trajan's Column. A sculpted head (broken off from a larger statue) of a Parthian soldier wearing a Hellenistic-style helmet, from the Parthian royal residence and necropolis of Nisa, 2nd century BC From their base in Parthia, the Arsacid dynasts eventually extended their dominion to include most of Greater Iran. They also quickly established several eponymous branches on the thrones of Armenia, Iberia, and Caucasian Albania. Even though the Arsacids only sporadically had their capital in Parthia, their power base was there, among the Parthian feudal families, upon whose military and financial support the Arsacids depended. In exchange for this support, these families received large tracts of land among the earliest conquered territories adjacent to Parthia, which the Parthian nobility then ruled as provincial rulers. The largest of these city-states were Kuchan, Semnan, Gorgan, Merv, Zabol and Yazd.[citation needed] From about 105 BC onwards, the power and influence of this handful of Parthian noble families was such that they frequently opposed the monarch, and would eventually be a "contributory factor in the downfall" of the dynasty.[13] From about 130 BC onwards, Parthia suffered numerous incursions by various nomadic tribes, including the Sakas, the Yuezhi, and the Massagetae. Each time, the Arsacid dynasts responded personally, doing so even when there were more severe threats from Seleucids or Romans looming on the western borders of their empire (as was the case for Mithridates I). Defending the empire against the nomads cost Phraates II and Artabanus I their lives.[13] The Roman Crassus attempted to conquer Parthia in 52 BC but was decisively defeated at the Battle of Carrhae. Caesar was planning another invasion when he was assassinated in 44 BC. A long series of Roman-Parthian wars followed.[citation needed] Around 32 BC, civil war broke out when a certain Tiridates rebelled against Phraates IV, probably with the support of the nobility that Phraates had previously persecuted. The revolt was initially successful, but failed by 25 BC.[14] In 9/8, the Parthian nobility succeeded in putting their preferred king on the throne, but Vonones proved to have too tight a budgetary control, so he was usurped in favor of Artabanus II, who seems to have been a non-Arsacid Parthian nobleman. But when Artabanus attempted to consolidate his position (at which he was successful in most instances), he failed to do so in the regions where the Parthian provincial rulers held sway.[15] By the 2nd century AD, the frequent wars with neighboring Rome and with the nomads, and the infighting among the Parthian nobility had weakened the Arsacids to a point where they could no longer defend their subjugated territories. The empire fractured as vassalaries increasingly claimed independence or were subjugated by others, and the Arsacids were themselves finally vanquished by the Persian Sassanids, a formerly minor vassal from southwestern Iran, in April 224.[citation needed] Under the Sasanians[edit] Under Sasanian (Sassanid) rule, Parthia was folded into a newly formed province, Khorasan,[citation needed] and henceforth ceased to exist as a political entity. Some of the Parthian nobility continued to resist Sasanian dominion for some time, but most switched their allegiance to the Sasanians very early. Several families that claimed descent from the Parthian noble families became a Sasanian institution known as the "Seven houses", five of which are "in all probability" not Parthian, but contrived genealogies "in order to emphasize the antiquity of their families."[16] Language and literature[edit] Main article: Parthian language Hercules, Hatra, Iraq, Parthian period, 1st–2nd century AD. The Parthians spoke Parthian, a north-western Iranian language. No Parthian literature survives from before the Sassanid period in its original form,[17] and they seem to have written down only very little. The Parthians did, however, have a thriving oral minstrel-poet culture, to the extent that their word for minstrel – gosan – survives to this day in many Iranian languages as well as especially in Armenian ("gusan"), on which it practised heavy (especially lexical and vocabulary) influence,.[18] These professionals were evident in every facet of Parthian daily life, from cradle to grave, and they were entertainers of kings and commoners alike, proclaiming the worthiness of their patrons through association with mythical heroes and rulers.[19] These Parthian heroic poems, "mainly known through Persian of the lost Middle Persian Xwaday-namag, and notably through Firdausi's Shahnameh, [were] doubtless not yet wholly lost in the Khurasan of [Firdausi's] day."[20] In Parthia itself, attested use of written Parthian is limited to the nearly 3,000 ostraca found (in what seems to have been a wine storage) at Nisa, in present-day Turkmenistan. A handful of other evidence of written Parthian has also been found outside Parthia; the most important of these being the part of a land-sale document found at Avroman (in the Kermanshah province of Iran), and more ostraca, graffiti and the fragment of a business letter found at Dura-Europos in present-day Syria.[citation needed] The Parthian Arsacids do not seem to have used Parthian until relatively late, and the language first appears on Arsacid coinage during the reign of Vologases I (51–58 AD).[21] Evidence that use of Parthian was nonetheless widespread comes from early Sassanid times; the declarations of the early Persian kings were – in addition to their native Middle Persian – also inscribed in Parthian.[citation needed] Society[edit] Parthian waterspout, 1st–2nd century AD. City-states of "some considerable size" existed in Parthia as early as the 1st millennium BC, "and not just from the time of the Achaemenids or Seleucids."[22] However, for the most part, society was rural, and dominated by large landholders with large numbers of serfs, slaves, and other indentured labor at their disposal.[22] Communities with free peasants also existed.[citation needed] By Arsacid times, Parthian society was divided into the four classes (limited to freemen). At the top were the kings and near family members of the king. These were followed by the lesser nobility and the general priesthood, followed by the mercantile class and lower-ranking civil servants, and with farmers and herdsmen at the bottom.[citation needed] Little is known of the Parthian economy, but agriculture must have played the most important role in it. Significant trade first occurs with the establishment of the Silk road in 114 BC, when Hecatompylos became an important junction.[citation needed] Parthian cities[edit] Nisa (Nissa, Nusay) or Mithridatkirt, located on a main trade route, was one of the earliest capitals of the Parthian Empire (c. 250 BC). The city is located in the northern foothills of the Kopetdag mountains, 11 miles west of present-day city of Ashgabat (the capital of Turkmenistan).[23] Nisa had a "soaring two-story hall in the Hellenistic Greek style"[24] and temple complexes used by early Arsaces dynasty. During the reign of Mithridates I of Parthia (c. 171 BC–138 BC) it was renamed Mithradatkirt ("fortress of Mithradates"). Merv (modern-day Mary) was another Parthian city.[citation needed] Asaak Hecatompylos Gurgan See also[edit] List of Parthian kings Khwarasan Greater Khorasan Adur Burzen-Mihr Parthian shot References[edit] ^ Diakonoff 1985, p. 127. ^ Diakonoff 1985, p. 104,n.1. ^ Mallowan 1985, p. 406. ^ "Parthia | ancient region, Iran". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2017-09-20. Retrieved 2017-09-20. ^ Cook 1985, p. 248. ^ Cook 1985, p. 252. ^ Bivar 2003, para. 6. ^ a b Curtis 2007, p. 7 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFCurtis2007 (help). ^ Lecoq 1987, p. 151. ^ a b Bivar 1983, p. 29. ^ Bickerman 1983, p. 19. ^ Bivar 1983, p. 31. ^ a b Schippmann 1987, p. 527. ^ Schippmann 1987, p. 528. ^ Schippmann 1987, p. 529. ^ Lukonin 1983, p. 704. ^ Boyce 1983, p. 1151. ^ electricpulp.com. "ARMENIA AND IRAN iv. Iranian influences – Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org. Archived from the original on 17 November 2017. Retrieved 28 April 2018. ^ Boyce 1983, p. 1115. ^ Boyce 1983, p. 1157. ^ Boyce 1983, p. 1153. ^ a b Schippmann 1987, p. 532. ^ "Старая и Новая Ниса :: Исторические памятники Туркменистана". www.turkmenistan.orexca.com. Archived from the original on 30 December 2013. Retrieved 28 April 2018. ^ Starr, S. Frederick (2013). Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-691-15773-3. Bibliography[edit] Bickerman, Elias J. (1983), "The Seleucid Period", in Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.), Cambridge History of Iran, 3, Cambridge University Press, pp. 3–20. Bivar, A.D.H. (1983), "The Political History of Iran under the Arsacids", in Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.), Cambridge History of Iran, 3, Cambridge UP, pp. 21–99. Bivar, A.D.H. (2003), "Gorgan v.: Pre-Islamic History", Encyclopaedia Iranica, 11, New York: iranica.com. Boyce, Mary (1983), "Parthian writings and literature", in Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.), Cambridge History of Iran, 3, Cambridge UP, pp. 1151–1165. Cook, J.M. (1985), "The Rise of the Achaemenids and Establishment of their Empire", in Gershevitch, Ilya (ed.), Cambridge History of Iran, 2, Cambridge University Press, pp. 200–291. Diakonoff, I.M. (1985), "Media I: The Medes and their Neighbours", in Gershevitch, Ilya (ed.), Cambridge History of Iran, 2, Cambridge University Press, pp. 36–148. Lecoq, Pierre (1987), "Aparna", Encyclopaedia Iranica, 2, New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, p. 151. Lukonin, Vladimir G. (1983), "Political, Social and Administrative Institutions", in Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.), Cambridge History of Iran, 3, Cambridge University Press, pp. 681–747. Mallowan, Max (1985), "Cyrus the Great", in Gershevitch, Ilya (ed.), Cambridge History of Iran, 2, Cambridge University Press, pp. 392–419. Olbrycht, Marek Jan (1998), Parthia et ulteriores gentes. Die politischen Beziehungen zwischen dem arsakidischen Iran und den Nomaden der eurasischen Steppen, Munich. Olbrycht, Marek Jan (2016), "Manpower Resources and Army Organisation in the Arsakid Empire", Ancient Society, 46, pp. 291-338 (DOI: 10.2143/AS.46.0.3167457). Schippmann, Klaus (1987), "Arsacids II: The Arsacid Dynasty", Encyclopaedia Iranica, 2, New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, pp. 525–536. Verstandig Andre,(2001) Histoire de l'Empire Parthe. Brussels, Le Cri. Wolski, Józef (1993), L’Empire des Arsacides (= Acta Iranica 32), Lovanii: Peeters Yarshater, Ehsan (2006), "Iran ii. Iranian History: An Overview", Encyclopaedia Iranica, 13, New York: iranica.com. Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Parthia. v t e Provinces of the Achaemenid Empire (Behistun / Persepolis / Naqsh-e Rustam / Susa / Daiva inscriptions) Akaufaka (Quhistan?) Amyrgoi Arabia Arachosia Aria Armenia Assyria Babylonia Bactria Cappadocia Caria Carmania Caucasian Albania Chorasmia Cilicia Colchis Dahae Drangiana 1st Egypt / 2nd Egypt Eber-Nari (Levant) Elam Kush (Nubia) Gandāra (Gandhara) Gedrosia Hyrcania Ionia Hindush Libya Lydia Maka Margiana Media Lesser Media Massagetae Parthia Persia Phoenicia Phrygia Hellespontine Phrygia Greater Phrygia Saka Samaritan Province Sattagydia Skudra (Thrace) Sogdia Yehud See also Tax Districts of the Achaemenid Empire (according to Herodotus) v t e Provinces of the Sasanian Empire Abarshahr Adurbadagan Albania Arbayistan Armenia Asoristan Balasagan Dihistan Egypt* Eran-Khwarrah-Yazdegerd* Garamig ud Nodardashiragan Garmekan Gurgan Harev Hind Iberia Kadagistan* Khuzistan Kirman Kushanshahr Khwarazm Lazica* Machelonia Makuran Marw Mazun Media Meshan Nodardashiragan Paradan Padishkhwargar Pars Sakastan Sogdia Spahan Suristan Turan Yemen * indicates short living provinces v t e Parthian Empire Origins Parni Dahae Parni conquest of Parthia Dynasty List of Parthian monarchs List of rulers of Parthian sub-kingdoms Arsacid dynasty of Armenia Arsacid dynasty of Iberia Arsacid dynasty of Caucasian Albania Chosroid dynasty Indo-Parthian Kingdom Noble clans Seven Great Houses of Iran House of Ispahbudhan House of Karen House of Mihran House of Spandiyadh House of Suren House of Varaz House of Zik Culture Parthian language Parthian art Parthian dress Parthian coinage Wars Seleucid–Parthian Wars Battle of Ecbatana Roman–Parthian Wars Roman–Parthian War of 58–63 Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 Antony's Atropatene campaign Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BC Battle of Ctesiphon (165) Battle of Ctesiphon (198) Battle of Carrhae Battle of the Cilician Gates Battle of Mount Gindarus Battle of Amanus Pass Battle of Nisibis (217) Parthian war of Caracalla Armenian–Parthian War Bactrian–Parthian War Other related topics Parthia Parthian shot Roman–Iranian relations Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parthia&oldid=1000128683" Categories: Historical regions of Iran Parthia Parthian Empire Provinces of the Sasanian Empire Achaemenid satrapies Iranian countries and territories Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Former country articles requiring maintenance Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages Articles containing Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text Articles containing Parthian-language text Articles containing Middle Persian-language text Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2021 Articles with unsourced statements from December 2013 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Башҡортса Беларуская Català Чӑвашла Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Қазақша Kurdî Lietuvių Malagasy 日本語 پنجابی پښتو Polski Português Русский Scots سنڌي Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски தமிழ் Türkmençe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 13 January 2021, at 18:42 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-725	----	Lower Egypt - Wikipedia Lower Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Northernmost region of Egypt This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Lower Egypt" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize its key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (October 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Lower Egypt ⲧⲥⲁϦⲏⲧ, ⲡⲥⲁⲙⲉⲛϩⲓⲧ مصر السفلى Unknown–c. 3150 BC Capital Memphis Common languages Ancient Egyptian Religion Ancient Egyptian religion Government Monarchy King   • Unknown Unknown (first) • c. 3150 BC Unknown (last) History   • Established Unknown • Disestablished c. 3150 BC Succeeded by Early Dynastic Period (Egypt) Today part of  Egypt Memphis Map of Lower Egypt showing important sites that were occupied during the Protodynastic Period of Egypt (clickable map) Deshret, the Red Crown of Lower Egypt Map of Lower Egypt with its historical nomes Lower Egypt (Arabic: مصر السفلى‎ Miṣr as-Suflā, Coptic: ⲧⲥⲁϦⲏⲧ Tsakhit) is the northernmost region of Egypt, which consists of the fertile Nile Delta between Upper Egypt and the Mediterranean Sea, from El Aiyat, south of modern-day Cairo, and Dahshur. Historically, the Nile River split into seven branches of the delta in Lower Egypt. Lower Egypt was divided into nomes and began to advance as a civilization after 3600 BC.[1] Today, it contains two major channels that flow through the delta of the Nile River. Contents 1 Name 2 Geography 3 History 4 List of kings of the Predynastic Period of Lower Egypt 5 List of nomes 6 See also 7 References Name[edit] In Ancient Egyptian Lower Egypt was known as mḥw and means "north".[2] Later on, during Antiquity and the Middle Ages, Greeks and Romans called it Κάτω Αἴγυπτος or Aegyptus Inferior both meaning "Lower Egypt". Native Coptic Egyptian population carried on using the old name related to north – Tsakhit (Coptic: ⲧⲥⲁϦⲏⲧ) or Psanamhit (Coptic: ⲡⲥⲁⲛⲉⲙϩⲓⲧ) "Northern part", which they also divided into three regions – western part called ⲛⲓⲫⲁⲓⲁⲧ Niphaiat ("Libyans"), central part called ⲡⲉⲧⲙⲟⲩⲣ Badmur ("the one which bounds, girds", Greek: Πτιμυρις[3]) and eastern one called ϯⲁⲣⲁⲃⲓⲁ Diarabia ("Arabia").[4] Geography[edit] In ancient times, Pliny the Elder, in Natural History (Book 5, chapter 11), said that upon reaching the delta the Nile split into seven branches (from east to west): the Pelusiac, the Tanitic, the Mendesian, the Phatnitic, the Sebennytic, the Bolbitine, and the Canopic. Today there are two principal channels that the Nile takes through the river delta: one in the west at Rashid and one in the east at Damietta. The delta region is well watered, crisscrossed by channels and canals. Owing primarily to its proximity to the Mediterranean Sea, the climate in Lower Egypt is milder than that of Upper Egypt, the southern portion of the country. Temperatures are less extreme and rainfall is more abundant in Lower Egypt. History[edit] It was divided into twenty districts called nomes, the first of which was at el-Lisht. Because Lower Egypt was mostly undeveloped scrubland, filled with all types of plant life such as grasses and herbs, the organization of the nomes underwent several changes. The capital of Lower Egypt was Memphis. Its patron goddess was the goddess Wadjet, depicted as a cobra. Lower Egypt was represented by the Red Crown Deshret, and its symbols were the papyrus and the bee. After unification the patron deities of both Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt were represented together as the Two Ladies, Wadjet and Nekhbet (depicted as a vulture), to protect all of the ancient Egyptians. By approximately 3600 BC, Neolithic Egyptian societies along the Nile River had based their culture on the raising of crops and the domestication of animals.[5] Shortly after 3600 BC Egyptian society began to grow and advance rapidly toward refined civilization.[1] A new and distinctive pottery, which was related to the pottery in the Southern Levant, appeared during this time. Extensive use of copper became common during this time.[1] The Mesopotamian process of sun-dried bricks, and architectural building principles—including the use of the arch and recessed walls for decorative effect—became popular during this time.[1] Concurrent with these cultural advances, a process of unification of the societies and towns of the upper Nile River, or Upper Egypt, occurred. At the same time the societies of the Nile Delta, or Lower Egypt also underwent a unification process.[1] Warfare between Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt occurred often.[1] During his reign in Upper Egypt, King Narmer defeated his enemies in the Delta and merged the kingdoms of Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt under his single rule.[6] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lower Egypt. List of kings of the Predynastic Period of Lower Egypt[edit] Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The Palermo stone, a royal annal written in the mid Fifth Dynasty (c. 2490 BC – c. 2350 BC) records a number of kings reigning over Lower Egypt before Narmer. These are completely unattested outside these inscriptions: Name Hsekiu[7] Khayu[7] Tiu[7] Thesh[7] Neheb[7] Wazner[7] Mekh[7] (destroyed)[7] In contrast, the following kings are attested through archeological finds from Sinai and Lower Egypt: Double Falcon, Crocodile. List of nomes[edit] Part of a series on the History of Egypt Prehistoric Egypt pre–3150 BC Ancient Egypt Early Dynastic Period 3150–2686 BC Old Kingdom 2686–2181 BC 1st Intermediate Period 2181–2055 BC Middle Kingdom 2055–1650 BC 2nd Intermediate Period 1650–1550 BC New Kingdom 1550–1069 BC 3rd Intermediate Period 1069–664 BC Late Period 664–332 BC Greco-Roman Egypt Argead and Ptolemaic dynasties 332–30 BC Roman and Byzantine Egypt 30 BC–641 AD Sasanian Egypt 619–629 Medieval Egypt Rashidun Egypt 641–661 Umayyad Egypt 661–750 Abbasid Egypt 750–935 Tulunid dynasty 868–905 Ikhshidid dynasty 935–969 Fatimid dynasty 969–1171 Ayyubid dynasty 1171–1250 Mamluk dynasties 1250–1517 Early modern Egypt Ottoman Egypt 1517–1867 French occupation 1798–1801 Muhammad Ali dynasty 1805–1853 Khedivate of Egypt 1867–1914 Late Modern Egypt British occupation 1882–1922 Sultanate of Egypt 1914–1922 Kingdom of Egypt 1922–1953 Republic 1953–present  Egypt portal v t e Number Egyptian Name Capital Modern name of capital site English Translation 1 Inebu-hedj Ineb Hedj / Men-nefer / Menfe (Memphis) Mit Rahina White Walls 2 Khensu Khem (Letopolis) Ausim Cow's thigh 3 Ahment Imu (Apis) Kom el-Hisn West 4 Sapi-Res Ptkheka Tanta Southern shield 5 Sap-Meh Zau (Sais) Sa el-Hagar Northern shield 6 Khaset Khasu (Xois) Sakha Mountain bull 7 A-ment (Hermopolis Parva, Metelis) Damanhur West harpoon 8 A-bt Tjeku / Per-Atum (Heroonpolis, Pithom) Tell el-Maskhuta East harpoon 9 Ati Djed (Busiris) Abu Sir Bara Andjeti 10 Ka-khem Hut-hery-ib (Athribis) Banha (Tell Atrib) Black bull 11 Ka-heseb Taremu (Leontopolis) Tell el-Urydam Heseb bull 12 Theb-ka Tjebnutjer (Sebennytos) Samanud Calf and Cow 13 Heq-At Iunu (Heliopolis) Materiya (suburb of Cairo) Prospering Sceptre 14 Khent-abt Tjaru (Sile, Tanis) Tell Abu Sefa Eastmost 15 Tehut Ba'h / Weprehwy (Hermopolis Parva) Baqliya Ibis 16 Kha Djedet (Mendes) Tell el-Rubˁ Fish 17 Semabehdet Semabehdet (Diospolis Inferior) Tell el-Balamun The throne 18 Am-Khent Per-Bastet (Bubastis) Tell Bastah (near Zagazig) Prince of the South 19 Am-Pehu Dja'net (Leontopolis Tanis) Tell Nebesha or San el-Hagar Prince of the North 20 Sopdu Per-Sopdu Saft el-Hinna Plumed Falcon See also[edit] Upper Egypt Middle Egypt Upper and Lower Egypt Nomes of Egypt Geography of Egypt Ancient Egypt References[edit] ^ a b c d e f Carl Roebuck, The World of Ancient Times (Charles Scribner's Sons: New York, 1966) p. 52-53. ^ "TM Places". www.trismegistos.org. Retrieved 2019-11-16. ^ "TM Places". www.trismegistos.org. Retrieved 2020-03-06. ^ Champollion, Jean-François (1814). L'Égypte sous les pharaons, ou recherches sur la géographie, la religion, la langue, les écritures et l'histoire de l'Égypte avant l'invasion de Cambyse. Paris: Bure. p. 5. ^ Carl Roebuck, The World of Ancient Times (Charles Scribner's Sons Publishing: New York, 1966) p. 51. ^ Carl Roebuck, The World of Ancient Times (Charles Scribner's Sons Publishers: New York, 1966), p. 53. ^ a b c d e f g h Breasted (1909) p.36 v t e Ancient Egypt topics Index Major topics Glossary of artifacts Agriculture Architecture (Egyptian Revival architecture) Art Portraiture Astronomy Chronology Cities (list) Clothing Cuisine Dance Dynasties Funerary practices Geography Great Royal Wives (list) Hieroglyphs History Language Literature Mathematics Medicine Military Music Mythology People Pharaohs (list) Philosophy Religion Sites Technology Trade Writing Egyptology Egyptologists Museums  Ancient Egypt portal Book Category WikiProject Commons Outline v t e Regions of Africa Central Guinea region Gulf of Guinea Cape Lopez Mayombe Igboland Mbaise Pool Malebo Congo Basin Chad Basin Cameroonian Highlands forests East Sudanian savanna Congolian rainforests Ouaddaï highlands Ennedi Plateau East African Great Lakes Albertine Rift East African Rift Great Rift Valley Gregory Rift Rift Valley lakes Virunga Mountains Kavirondo Zanj East African montane forests Eastern Arc Mountains Serengeti Horn of Africa Afar Triangle Al-Habash Barbaria Danakil Alps Danakil Desert Ethiopian Highlands Dahlak Archipelago Hanish Islands Gulf of Aden Gulf of Tadjoura Red Sea Indian Ocean islands Comoro Islands Lamu Archipelago Madagascar Central Highlands (Madagascar) Northern Highlands Zanzibar Archipelago Swahili coast North Eastern Desert Maghreb Ancient Libya Atlas Mountains Barbary Coast Bashmur Gibraltar Arc Ifriqiya Nile Valley Nile Delta Cataracts of the Nile Darfur Lower Egypt Lower Nubia Middle Egypt Nile Delta Nuba Mountains Nubia The Sudans Upper Egypt Tibesti Mountains Western Sahara South Rhodesia North South Thembuland Succulent Karoo Nama Karoo Bushveld Maputaland Highveld Fynbos Indian Ocean coastal belt Albany thickets Cape Floristic Region Skeleton Coast Kalahari Desert Okavango Delta Cape Peninsula False Bay West Pepper Coast Gold Coast Slave Coast Ivory Coast Cape Palmas Cape Mesurado Guinea region Guinean Forests of West Africa Upper Guinean forests Lower Guinean forests Guinean forest-savanna mosaic Guinea Highlands Gulf of Guinea Dahomey Gap Niger Basin Niger Delta Inner Niger Delta West Sudanian savanna Yorubaland Macro-regions Aethiopia Afromontane Arab world Commonwealth realm Equatorial Africa Françafrique Greater Middle East Guineo-Congolian region Islands of Africa List of countries where Arabic is an official language Mediterranean Basin MENA MENASA Middle East Miombo woodlands Mittelafrika Negroland Northeast Africa Portuguese-speaking African countries Sahara Sahel Sub-Saharan Africa Sudan (region) Sudanian savanna Tropical Africa Zambezian region Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lower_Egypt&oldid=997653346" Categories: Lower Egypt States and territories established in the 4th millennium BC States and territories disestablished in the 4th millennium BC Geography of ancient Egypt Nile Delta Regions of Egypt Historical regions Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles needing additional references from April 2015 All articles needing additional references Wikipedia introduction cleanup from October 2018 All pages needing cleanup Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from October 2018 All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify Articles with multiple maintenance issues Articles containing Arabic-language text Articles containing Coptic-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikivoyage Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский සිංහල Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Zazaki Edit links This page was last edited on 1 January 2021, at 16:18 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7287	----	Phrataphernes - Wikipedia Phrataphernes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Phrataphernes (Median: Fratafarnah, Ancient Greek: Φραταφέρνης; lived 4th century BC) was a Persian who held the government of Parthia and Hyrcania, under the king Darius III Codomannus, and joined that monarch with the contingents from the provinces subject to his rule, shortly before the battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC. He afterwards accompanied the king on his flight into Hyrcania. Service with Alexander the Great[edit] Phrataphernes retained the Hellenistic satrapy of Parthia, in the Partition of Babylon (323 BC) following Alexander's death. After the death of Darius, Phrataphernes surrendered voluntarily to Alexander the Great, by whom he was kindly received, and appears to have been shortly after reinstated in his satrapy. At least he is termed by Arrian satrap of Parthia, during the advance of Alexander against Bessus, when he was detached by the king, together with Erigyius and Caranus to crush the revolt of Satibarzanes, in Aria (329 BC). He rejoined the king at Zariaspa in 328 BC. The next winter (328–327 BC), during the stay of Alexander at Nautaca, Phrataphernes was again despatched to reduce the disobedient satrap of the Mardi and Tapuri, Autophradates, a service which he successfully performed, and brought the rebel as a captive to the king, by whom he was subsequently put to death. He rejoined Alexander in India, shortly after the defeat of Porus, but he seems to have again returned to his satrapy, from whence we find him sending his son Pharasmanes with a large train of camels and beasts of burden, laden with provisions for the supply of the army during the toilsome march through Gedrosia.[1] From this time we hear no more of him until after the death of Alexander (323 BC). In the first division of the provinces consequent on that event, the Partition of Babylon (323 BC), he retained his government,[2] but it is probable that he died prior to the second partition at Triparadisus (321 BC), as on that occasion we find the satrapy of Parthia bestowed on Philip, who had been previously governor of Sogdiana. References[edit] Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, "Phrataphernes (1)", Boston, (1867) Notes[edit] ^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri, iii. 8, 23, 28, iv. 7, 18, v. 20, vi. 27; Curtius Rufus, Historiae Alexandri Magni, vi. 4, viii. 3, ix. 10 ^ Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca, xviii. 3 v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC v t e Hellenistic satraps Satraps under Alexander the Great (334-323 BC) Ada (Queen of Caria) Asander, Menander (Lydia) Calas, Demarchus (Hellespontine Phrygia) Antigonus (Greater Phrygia) Balakros, Menes (Cilicia) Abistamenes (Cappadocia) Abdalonymus (Sidon) Mithrenes (Armenia) Mazaeus, Stamenes (Babylon) Mazakes (Mesopotamia) Abulites (Susiana) Oxydates, Atropates (Media) Phrasaortes, Oxines, Peucestas (Persis) Cleomenes of Naucratis (Egypt) Satibarzanes (Aria) Sibyrtius (Carmania) Autophradates (Tapuri, Mardi) Andragoras (Parthia) Amminapes, Phrataphernes, Pharismanes (Hyrcania and Parthia) Artabazos, Cleitus the Black, Amyntas (Bactria) Oxyartes (Paropamisia) Philip, Eudemus (India) Peithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara) Taxiles (Punjab) Porus (Indus) Satraps at the Partition of Babylon (323 BC) Antipater (Macedon and Greece) Philo (Illyria) Lysimachus (Thrace) Leonnatus (Hellespontine Phrygia) Antigonus (Phrygia) Asander (Caria) Nearchus (Lycia and Pamphylia) Menander (Lydia) Philotas (Cilicia) Eumenes (Cappadocia and Paphlagonia) Ptolemy (Egypt) Laomedon of Mytilene (Syria) Neoptolemus (Armenia) Peucestas (Persis) Arcesilaus (Mesopotamia) Peithon (Greater Media) Atropates (Lesser Media) Scynus (Susiana) Tlepolemus (Persia) Nicanor (Parthia) Phrataphernes (Armenia, Parthia) Antigenes (Susiana) Archon (Pelasgia) Philip (Hyrcania) Stasanor (Aria and Drangiana) Sibyrtius (Arachosia and Gedrosia) Amyntas (Bactria) Scythaeus (Sogdiana) Oxyartes (Paropamisia) Taxiles (Punjab) Peithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara) Porus (Indus) Satraps at the Partition of Triparadisus (321 BC) Antipater (Macedon and Greece) Lysimachus (Thrace) Arrhidaeus (Hellespontine Phrygia) Antigonus (Phrygia, Lycia and Pamphylia) Cassander (Caria) Cleitus the White (Lydia) Philoxenus (Cilicia) Nicanor (Cappadocia and Paphlagonia) Ptolemy (Egypt) Laomedon of Mytilene (Syria) Peucestas (Persis) Amphimachus (Mesopotamia) Peithon (Media) Tlepolemus (Carmania) Philip (Parthia) Antigenes (Susiana) Seleucus (Babylonia) Stasanor (Bactria and Sogdiana) Stasander (Aria and Drangiana) Sibyrtius (Arachosia and Gedrosia) Oxyartes (Paropamisia) Taxiles (Punjab) Peithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara) Porus (Indus) Later Satraps Peithon, son of Agenor (Babylon) Sibyrtius (Arachosia, Drangiana) Eudemus (Indus) Bagadates, Ardakhshir I, Wahbarz, Vadfradad I, Vadfradad II, Alexander c.220 BC (Persis) Andragoras (Parthia) Demodamas (Bactria, Sogdiana) Diodotus (Bactria) Alexander (Lydia) Molon c.220 BC, Timarchus, c.175 BC (Media) Apollodorus (Susiana) Ptolemaeus (Commagene) Noumenios, Hyspaosines c.150 BC (Characene) Hellenistic satraps were preceded by Achaemenid rulers, and followed or ruled by Hellenistic rulers  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Phrataphernes". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. This Iranian biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phrataphernes&oldid=1002031722" Categories: Satraps of the Alexandrian Empire 320s BC deaths 4th-century BC Iranian people Parthia Satraps of the Achaemenid Empire Iranian people stubs Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM Year of birth unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Hrvatski Italiano مصرى Nederlands Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 22 January 2021, at 14:19 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7299	----	Artabanus of Persia - Wikipedia Artabanus of Persia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (May 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Artabanus of Persia (or Artabanus the Hyrcanian; Ancient Greek: Ἀρτάβανος) was a Persian political figure during the Achaemenid dynasty who was reportedly Regent of Persia for a few months (465 BC – 464 BC). Artabanus probably originated from the province of Hyrcania and reportedly served as the chief official of Xerxes I. He is considered to have served either as his vizier or as his head bodyguard. This Artabanus is not to be confused with Xerxes' uncle of the same name: Artabanus, son of Hystaspes (and thus brother of Xerxes' father Darius I). According to Aristotle, Artabanus was responsible for the death of Crown Prince Darius. He then became afraid that Xerxes would seek revenge and proceeded to assassinate the King. On the other hand, Junianus Justinus reported that Artabanus had personal ambitions for the throne. He first secretly murdered Xerxes and then accused Darius of parricide, resulting in his execution. The order of events remains uncertain but Xerxes and Darius certainly left the throne vacant. Artabanus' course of action is also uncertain. Some accounts have him usurping the throne for himself. Others consider him to have named young Artaxerxes I as King and to have acted as Regent and power behind the throne. This state of affairs would not last more than a few months. Artaxerxes reportedly slew him with his own sword, either in battle or by surprise. Artabanus is occasionally listed among the Kings of the Achaemenid dynasty though he was not related to them. In Popular Culture[edit] A character based on the historical Artabanus appears in the Assassin's Creed series numerous times under the alias "Darius". His first appearance is marked in Assassin's Creed II, as the first person to wield the game franchise's signature weapon of the Assassins, the Hidden Blade. Darius is properly introduced in Assassin's Creed Odyssey's DLC expansion, Legacy of the First Blade. Unlike other major characters in the series who uses the Hidden Blade, he is not an Assassin proper, but rather a freedom fighter whose ideals and organization would give rise to those of the Hidden Ones and the Assassin Brotherhood. In Legacy of the First Blade, Darius is initially presented as an antagonist with indeterminate motivations, and later as an ally who fights alongside the player character. He reveals that the Order of the Ancients, and antecedent to the Templars, supported the reigns and conquests of the Achaemenid kings Darius I and his son Xerxes I. He personally assassinated King Xerxes like his historical counterpart and namesake, using a newly created weapon, which is considered to be the first known usage of the Hidden Blade in series lore. By the Renaissance, Darius' remains were transferred to the Santa Maria Novella in Florence, Italy, where his body lay with an Assassin Seal needed to get access to the armor of Altaïr Ibn-LaʼAhad hidden inside the sanctuary in Monteriggioni. In 1478, his tomb was explored and sarcophagus was opened by Ezio Auditore da Firenze, who took the Seal and later obtained the armor of Altaïr Ibn-LaʼAhad. He is voiced by Canadian actor, Michael Benyaer. Classical sources[edit] Aristotle, Politics 5.131Ib Diodorus Siculus, Historical Library 11.69 [1] Justin, Epitome of Philipic Histories of Pompeius Trogus III 1 [2] [3] Photius, Epitome of Persica of Ctesias 20 [4] Plutarch, Life of Themistocles 27 See also[edit] Artapanus (general) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Artabanus_of_Persia&oldid=996227942" Categories: 464 BC deaths 5th-century BC Pharaohs Ancient murderers Regents Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Regicides 5th-century BC Iranian people Hyrcania Hidden categories: Articles lacking in-text citations from May 2009 All articles lacking in-text citations Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano مصرى Português Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 December 2020, at 08:09 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-729	----	Johann Christian Bach - Wikipedia Johann Christian Bach From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search German composer, known as the "English Bach" (1735–1782) Johann Christian Bach, painted in London by Thomas Gainsborough, (National Portrait Gallery, London) Johann Christian Bach (September 5, 1735 – January 1, 1782) was a German composer of the Classical era, the eighteenth child of Johann Sebastian Bach, and the youngest of his eleven sons.[1] After a spell in Italy, Bach moved to London in 1762,[2] where he became known as "the London Bach".[3] He is also sometimes known as "the English Bach", and during his time spent living in the British capital, he came to be known as John Bach. He is noted for playing a role in influencing the concerto styles of Haydn and Mozart. He contributed significantly to the development of the new sonata principle.[4] Contents 1 Life 2 Legacy 3 Works 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links Life[edit] Johann Christian Bach was born to Johann Sebastian and Anna Magdalena Bach in Leipzig, Germany. His distinguished father was already 50 at the time of his birth—an age gap exemplified by the sharp differences in the musical styles of father and son. Even so, father Bach instructed Johann Christian in music until his death in 1750.[5] After his father's death, he worked (and lived) with his second-oldest half brother Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach,[5] who was twenty-one years his senior and considered at the time to be the most musically gifted of Bach's sons. He enjoyed a promising career, first as a composer then as a performer playing alongside Carl Friedrich Abel, the notable player of the viola da gamba. He composed cantatas, chamber music, keyboard and orchestral works, operas and symphonies. J. C. Bach's memorial, St Pancras Churchyard, London Bach lived in Italy for many years starting in 1750,[1] studying with Padre Martini in Bologna. He became organist at the Milan cathedral in 1760. During his time in Italy, he converted from Lutheranism to Catholicism[citation needed] and devoted much time to the composition of church music, including music for a Requiem Mass and a Te Deum.[6] His first major work was a Mass, which received an excellent performance and acclaim in 1757.[6] In 1762, Bach travelled to London to première three operas at the King's Theatre, including Orione on 19 February 1763. In 1764 or 65 the castrato Giusto Fernando Tenducci, who became a close friend, created the title role in his opera Adriano in Siria at King's.[7] That established his reputation in England, and he became music master to Queen Charlotte. In 1766, Bach met soprano Cecilia Grassi, who was eleven years his junior, and married her shortly thereafter. They had no children. J. C. Bach performed symphonies and concertos at the Hanover Square Rooms on the corner of Hanover Square and Hanover Street. This was London’s premier concert venue in the heart of fashionable Mayfair. The surrounding Georgian homes offered well-to-do clientele for his performances. One of London’s primary literary circles, which included Jane Timbury, Robert Gunnell Esq., Lord Beauchamp, and the Duchess of Buccleuch, was acquainted with Bach, and members were regular attendees at his events. In 1777 he won a landmark case, Bach v Longman, which established that (in English law) copyright law applied to musical scores. By the late 1770s, both his popularity and finances were in decline. By the time of Bach's death on New Year's Day 1782,[8] he had become so indebted (in part due to his steward embezzling his money), that Queen Charlotte stepped in to cover the expenses of the estate and provided a life pension for Bach's widow. He was buried in the graveyard of St. Pancras Old Church, London. Legacy[edit] Sinfonia in G minor, Op. 6, No. 6 I. Allegro Performed by Camerata Budapest, Hanspeter Gmur (conductor), courtesy of Naxos Records Problems playing this file? See media help. A full account of J. C. Bach's career is given in the fourth volume of Charles Burney's History of Music. There are two others named Johann Christian Bach in the Bach family tree, but neither was a composer. In 1764 Bach met with Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, who was aged eight at the time and had been brought to London by his father.[9] Bach then spent five months teaching Mozart in composition.[9] Bach is widely regarded as having a strong influence on the young Mozart, with scholars such as Téodor de Wyzewa and Georges de Saint-Foix describing him as "The only, true teacher of Mozart".[9] Mozart arranged three sonatas from Bach's Op. 5 into keyboard concertos, and in later life Mozart "often acknowledged the artistic debt he owed" to Johann Christian.[10] Upon hearing of Bach's death in 1782, Mozart commented, "What a loss to the musical world!"[11] Works[edit] Main article: List of compositions by Johann Christian Bach The works of J. C. Bach are given 'W' numbers, from Ernest Warburton's Thematic catalog of his works (New York City: Garland Publishing, 1999). Bach's compositions include eleven operas,[1] as well as chamber music, orchestral music and compositions for keyboard music.[5] References[edit] Notes ^ a b c Bagnoli, Giorgio (1993). The La Scala Encyclopedia of the Opera. Simon and Schuster. p. 38. ISBN 9780671870423. ^ Burnett, Henry (2017). Composition, Chromaticism and the Developmental Process: A New Theory of Tonality. Routledge. p. 211. ISBN 9781351571333. ^ Siblin, Eric (2011). The Cello Suites: J. S. Bach, Pablo Casals, and the Search for a Baroque Masterpiece. p. 234. ISBN 9780802197979. ^ Norwich, John Julius (1985–1993). Oxford illustrated encyclopedia. Judge, Harry George., Toyne, Anthony. Oxford [England]: Oxford University Press. p. 28. ISBN 0-19-869129-7. OCLC 11814265. ^ a b c "Johann Christian Bach". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 3 September 2017. ^ a b "The Catholic Bach", Cantica Nova Publications ^ Baldwin, Olive; Wilson, Thelma (2004). "Tenducci, Giusto Ferdinando". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/67196.(subscription required) ^ Stephenson, Joseph. Johann Christian Bach at AllMusic ^ a b c Shore, Rebecca Ann (2002). Baby Teacher: Nurturing Neural Networks From Birth to Age Five. R&L Education. p. 86. ISBN 9781461648079. ^ Denis Arnold and Basil Smallman, "Bach family", in Oxford Companion to Music, ed. Alison Latham, Oxford University Press, 2002, p. 80. ISBN 978-0-19-866212-9 ^ Mersmann, Hans (1972). Letters of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. New York: Dover Publications. p. 194. ISBN 0-486-22859-2. Further reading[edit] Hans T. David, A. Mendel, C. Wolff. The New Bach Reader: A Life of Johann Sebastian Bach in Letters and Documents (New York: Norton, 1998). Heinz Gärtner (trans. by Reinhard Pauly). John Christian Bach: Mozart's Friend and Mentor. (Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press, 1994). Philipp Spitta (trans. by Clara Bell & J. A. Fuller-Maitland). Johann Sebastian Bach, his work and influence on the music of Germany, 1685–1750, 3 vols. (London: Novello & Co., 1899): Vol I, Vol II, Vol III Charles Sanford Terry. John Christian Bach (London: Oxford University Press, 1967). Christoph Wolff et al. The New Grove Bach Family. (New York: Norton, 1983) pp. 315ff. ISBN 0-393-30088-9. Percy M. Young. The Bachs: 1500–1850 (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1970). External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Johann Christian Bach. Information Johann Christian Bach at the Encyclopædia Britannica J. C. Bach (classical.net) J C Bach (classicalarchives.com) J C Bach (pianosociety.com) "Gainsborough and Music" by Brian Robins Music Free scores by Johann Christian Bach at the International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP) Piano sonatas Op. 17, 1–6 on YouTube Concerto in D major, Op. 13, No. 2, 1st movement on YouTube Quartet in B-flat major on YouTube Flute sonatas, W. B 10–15, 1780 edition (from the Sibley Music Library Digital Scores Collection) v t e Bach family Members (showing relationship to Johann Sebastian Bach) Anna Magdalena Bach (2nd wife) Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach (son) Christoph Bach (grandfather) Elisabeth Lämmerhirt (mother) Georg Christoph Bach (uncle) Gottfried Heinrich Bach (son) Johann Aegidius Bach (uncle) Johann Ambrosius Bach (father) Johann Bernhard Bach (2nd cousin) Johann Bernhard Bach the Younger (nephew) Johann Christian Bach (son) Johann Christoph Altnickol (son-in-law) Johann Christoph Bach (1st cousin once removed) Johann Christoph Bach (organist at Ohrdruf) (brother) Johann Christoph Bach (musician at Arnstadt) (uncle) Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach (son) Johann Ernst Bach (musician at Saxe-Weimar) (2nd cousin once removed) Johann Gottfried Bernhard Bach (son) Johann Jacob Bach (brother) Johann Ludwig Bach (3rd cousin) Johann Michael Bach (father-in-law) Johann Michael Bach (musician at Wuppertal) (nephew) Johann Nicolaus Bach (2nd cousin) Johann Sebastian Bach (self) Johann Sebastian Bach the Younger (grandson) Johannes Bach Maria Barbara Bach (1st wife/2nd cousin) Veit Bach (great-great-grandfather) Wilhelm Friedemann Bach (son) Wilhelm Friedrich Ernst Bach (grandson) Compositions Altbachisches Archiv Bach Digital by Carl Philipp Emanuel by Johann Christian by Johann Sebastian v t e Classical period List of Classical-era composers Composers First Viennese School Haydn Mozart Beethoven Schubert Mannheim school Beck Cannabich Fränzl Richter C. Stamitz J. Stamitz Filtz Gluck C. P. E. Bach L. Mozart G. Benda Traetta Piccinni Sarti Sacchini Spohr J. C. Bach Mysliveček Dittersdorf Wanhal Paisiello Boccherini Koželuch Cimarosa Clementi Salieri Soler Zingarelli Martín y Soler Gyrowetz Instrumentation Classical orchestra String quartet Genres Galant music Intermezzo Pastorale Sensitive style Techniques Notes inégales Background Baroque music Common practice period 18th-century philosophy Classicism  ← Baroque music Romantic music →  Category Portal WikiProject Biography portal Classical music portal Authority control BIBSYS: 90220595 BNE: XX879147 BNF: cb138910300 (data) CANTIC: a12204043 CiNii: DA04822384 GND: 118505521 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\063756 ISNI: 0000 0001 1079 2185 LCCN: n80008104 LNB: 000036959 MBA: 470967b1-f9ef-4712-82df-6971b517ebdb NDL: 00882978 NKC: jn20000600610 NLA: 35753134 NLI: 000013980 NLK: KAC199601286 NLP: A1264903X NTA: 069558310 PLWABN: 9810671381405606 SELIBR: 176435 SNAC: w6d21zdk SUDOC: 031541887 Trove: 1071834 VcBA: 495/284057 VIAF: 100191935 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80008104 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Johann_Christian_Bach&oldid=999004630" Categories: German male classical composers German classical composers German Classical-period composers Bach family German opera composers Male opera composers Converts to Roman Catholicism from Lutheranism German Roman Catholics 1735 births 1782 deaths 18th-century German people German expatriates in England Burials at St Pancras Old Church 18th-century classical composers Pupils of Johann Sebastian Bach 18th-century German composers 18th-century male musicians People educated at the St. Thomas School, Leipzig Hidden categories: Pages containing links to subscription-only content Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2020 Articles with hAudio microformats Commons category link is on Wikidata Articles with Encyclopædia Britannica links Composers with IMSLP links Articles with International Music Score Library Project links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLP identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers AC with 25 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Български Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaelg Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски मराठी مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 8 January 2021, at 01:30 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7304	----	Xerxes I inscription at Van - Wikipedia Xerxes I inscription at Van From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Xerses I's inscription at Van) Jump to navigation Jump to search Inscription of Xerxes the Great near the Van Fortress, written in Old Persian, Elamite and Babylonian Van Fortress Location of Xerxes I's inscription at Van The Xerxes I inscription at Van, also known as the XV inscription,[1][2] is a trilingual cuneiform inscription of the Achaemenid King Xerxes I (r. 486–465 BC).[3][4] It is located on the southern slope of a mountain adjacent to the Van Fortress, near Lake Van in present-day Turkey.[4][1] When inscribed it was located in the Achaemenid province of Armenia.[3] The inscription is inscribed on a smoothed section of the rock face near the fortress, approximately 20 metres (70 feet) above the ground. The niche was originally carved out by Xerxes' father, King Darius (r. 522–486 BC), but he left the surface blank.[5][4] Contents 1 Text 2 Position 3 Assessment 4 See also 5 Languages 6 References 7 Sources Text[edit] The inscription, located high up on the cliff. Van Citadel, approach from the west. The inscription consists of 27 lines of writing in Old Persian, Elamite and Babylonian.[3][1] The inscription reads the same in each language. A translation into English reads:[3][4][5] "A great god is Ahuramazda, the greatest of the gods, who created this earth, who created yonder sky, who created man, created happiness for man, who made Xerxes king, one king of many, one lord of many. I (am) Xerxes, the great king, king of kings, king of all kinds of people, king on this earth far and wide, the son of Darius the king, the Achaemenid. Xerxes the great king proclaims: King Darius, my father, by the favor of Ahuramazda, made much that is good, and this niche he ordered to be cut; as he did not have an inscription written, then I ordered that this inscription be written. Me may Ahuramazda protect, together with the gods, and my kingdom and what I have done." Position[edit] Placed high off the ground, in a region where there was very little literacy, the text had an additional meaning for those who were able to read, or to whom it was read aloud.[6] In the opening sentence, Xerxes I mentions Ahuramazda, thus connecting himself to the religion of his father Darius, making use of language similar to that his father used for his imperial inscriptions in Iran proper.[6] In this inscription, Xerxes I makes it clear that he reigns through the legitimation of his god Ahuramazda, the greatest god, the creator god.[6] By mentioning his descent from Darius, Xerxes I asserts that he is the lawful ruler of the Achaemenid Empire.[6] Xerxes I also shows that he is a good son and a good king, as he finished the work initiated by his father.[6] According to Elspeth R. M. Dusinberre (2013): "The inscription practically reiterates the campaign against Greece that was responsible for Xerxes' personal presence in Anatolia".[6] She thus concludes that the inscription at Van is far from "a mildly risible description of filling an empty space; rather, it serves as a highly visible and exceptionally powerful royal statement of empire and authority, situated in a spot charged with historical meaning and kingly significance".[7] Another photograph of the inscription Amélie Kuhrt (2007) wonders why Darius chose this particular spot for an inscription: "The siting of the niche is in a prominent position, but the reason for Darius' wish to leave an inscription here in particular is unknown. Could it have been connected with the many battles he fought in this region following the seizure of the throne?"[8] Lori Khatchadourian (2016) states that the spot was specifically chosen to show that the area was now part of another power.[4] By placing the inscription at the fortress of Tushpa (i.e. the Van Fortress), in the center of the former entity of Urartu, Darius and Xerxes "were making a claim on the former foundations of authority that had long prevailed in the region", now remade as a province of the Achaemenid Empire.[4] Assessment[edit] The inscription at Van carries numerous messages.[9] Being one of only few attested Old Persian inscriptions outside Iran, it "overtly extends kingly reach into the "mountains and valleys of Anatolia" according to Dusinberre.[9] According to Dusinberre, by making use of only "Mesopotamian and Persian languages", the Achaemenid kings made a firm statement about that kingly reach: "This is a conquering overlord, a foreigner of power, who now exerts authority over the ancient lands of Urartu".[9] The fact that the inscription was not translated into the local language supports this, according to Dusinberre.[6] There had been a long history of military conflict between Urartu and Assyria; the choice of these specific languages was an outright affirmation of Achaemenid control over Armenia, and of Achaemenid military superiority over Assyria.[6] Dusinberre adds that the Old Persian text takes up twice as much room as the Babylonian and Elamite versions.[6] Furthermore, the Old Persian text is "carved slightly larger" and with more "generous spacing between the characters".[6] According to Dusinberre: "This may be intended similarly to convey a comment about the superiority of the Achaemenid Persians over the ancient Mesopotamian peoples".[6] As the inscription is located high off the ground, and so is difficult to read from ground level, Dusinberre deems these small visual details important.[6] See also[edit] History of Achaemenid Egypt List of Iranian artifacts abroad Languages[edit] Xerxes I inscription at Van, copy by Friedrich Eduard Schulz in 1827 Inscription in Old Persian Inscription in Elamite Inscription in Babylonian References[edit] ^ a b c Bachenheimer 2018, p. 23. ^ Dusinberre 2013, p. xxi. ^ a b c d Dusinberre 2013, p. 51. ^ a b c d e f Khatchadourian 2016, p. 151. ^ a b Kuhrt 2007, p. 301. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Dusinberre 2013, p. 52. ^ Dusinberre 2013, pp. 52–53. ^ Kuhrt 2007, p. 301, note 4. ^ a b c Dusinberre 2013, pp. 51–52. Sources[edit] Bachenheimer, Avi (2018). Old Persian: Dictionary, Glossary and Concordance. John Wiley & Sons. Dusinberre, Elspeth R. M. (2013). Empire, Authority, and Autonomy in Achaemenid Anatolia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1107577152. Khatchadourian, Lori (2016). Imperial Matter: Ancient Persia and the Archaeology of Empires. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520964952. Kuhrt, Amélie (2007). The Persian Empire: A Corpus of Sources from the Achaemenid Period. Routledge. 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en-wikipedia-org-7329	----	Pharaoh - Wikipedia Pharaoh From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Pharaoh (disambiguation). For a list of the pharaohs, see List of pharaohs. Title of Ancient Egyptian rulers Pharaoh of Egypt The Pschent combined the Red Crown of Lower Egypt and the White Crown of Upper Egypt A typical depiction of a pharaoh usually depicted the king wearing the nemes headdress, a false beard, and an ornate shendyt (skirt) (after Djoser of the Third Dynasty) Details Style Five-name titulary First monarch King Narmer or King Menes (by tradition) (first use of the term pharaoh for a king, rather than the royal palace, was c.1210 B.C. with Merneptah during the nineteenth dynasty) Last monarch Nectanebo II (last native)[1] Caesarion (last actual) Maximinus Daia (last to be referred to as pharaoh) [2] Formation c. 3150 BC Abolition 343 BC (last native pharaoh)[1] 30 BC (last Greek pharaohs) 314 AD (last Roman Emperor to be called pharaoh)[2] Residence Varies by era Appointer Divine right pr-ˤ3 "Great house" in hieroglyphs nswt-bjt "King of Upper and Lower Egypt" in hieroglyphs Pharaoh (/ˈfɛəroʊ/, US also /ˈfeɪ.roʊ/;[3] Coptic: ⲡⲣ̅ⲣⲟ Pǝrro) is the common title now used for the monarchs of ancient Egypt from the First Dynasty (c. 3150 BCE) until the annexation of Egypt by the Roman Empire in 30 BCE,[4] although the term "pharaoh" was not used contemporaneously for a ruler until Merneptah, c. 1210 BCE, during the Nineteenth dynasty, "king" being the term used most frequently until the middle of the Eighteenth Dynasty. In the early dynasties, ancient Egyptian kings used to have up to three titles: the Horus, the Sedge and Bee (nswt-bjtj), and the Two Ladies or Nebty (nbtj) name. The Golden Horus as well as the nomen and prenomen titles were added later. In Egyptian society, religion was central to everyday life. One of the roles of the pharaoh was as an intermediary between the deities and the people. The pharaoh thus deputised for the deities in a role that was both as civil and religious administrator. The pharaoh owned all of the land in Egypt, enacted laws, collected taxes, and defended Egypt from invaders as the commander-in-chief of the army.[5] Religiously, the pharaoh officiated over religious ceremonies and chose the sites of new temples. The pharaoh was responsible for maintaining Maat (mꜣꜥt), or cosmic order, balance, and justice, and part of this included going to war when necessary to defend the country or attacking others when it was believed that this would contribute to Maat, such as to obtain resources.[6] During the early days prior to the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, the Deshret or the "Red Crown", was a representation of the kingdom of Lower Egypt, while the Hedjet, the "White Crown", was worn by the kings of the kingdom of Upper Egypt. After the unification of both kingdoms into one united Egypt, the Pschent, the combination of both the red and white crowns was the official crown of kings. With time new headdresses were introduced during different dynasties such as the Khat, Nemes, Atef, Hemhem crown, and Khepresh. At times, it was depicted that a combination of these headdresses or crowns would be worn together. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Regalia 2.1 Scepters and staves 2.2 The Uraeus 3 Crowns and headdresses 3.1 Deshret 3.2 Hedjet 3.3 Pschent 3.4 Khat 3.5 Nemes 3.6 Atef 3.7 Hemhem 3.8 Khepresh 3.9 Physical evidence 4 Titles 4.1 Horus name 4.2 Nesu Bity name 4.3 Nebty name 4.4 Golden Horus 4.5 Nomen and prenomen 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Etymology The word pharaoh ultimately derives from the Egyptian compound pr ꜥꜣ, */ˌpaɾuwˈʕaʀ/ "great house", written with the two biliteral hieroglyphs pr "house" and ꜥꜣ "column", here meaning "great" or "high". It was used only in larger phrases such as smr pr-ꜥꜣ "Courtier of the High House", with specific reference to the buildings of the court or palace.[7] From the Twelfth Dynasty onward, the word appears in a wish formula "Great House, May it Live, Prosper, and be in Health", but again only with reference to the royal palace and not the person. Sometime during the era of the New Kingdom, Second Intermediate Period, pharaoh became the form of address for a person who was king. The earliest confirmed instance where pr ꜥꜣ is used specifically to address the ruler is in a letter to Akhenaten (reigned c. 1353–1336 BCE) that is addressed to "Great House, L, W, H, the Lord".[8][9] However, there is a possibility that the title pr ꜥꜣ was applied to Thutmose III (c. 1479–1425 BCE), depending on whether an inscription on the Temple of Armant can be confirmed to refer to that king.[10] During the Eighteenth dynasty (sixteenth to fourteenth centuries BCE) the title pharaoh was employed as a reverential designation of the ruler. About the late Twenty-first Dynasty (tenth century BCE), however, instead of being used alone as before, it began to be added to the other titles before the ruler's name, and from the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty (eighth to seventh centuries BCE) it was, at least in ordinary usage, the only epithet prefixed to the royal appellative.[11] From the Nineteenth dynasty onward pr-ꜥꜣ on its own, was used as regularly as ḥm, "Majesty".[12][note 1] The term, therefore, evolved from a word specifically referring to a building to a respectful designation for the ruler presiding in that building, particularly by the Twenty-Second Dynasty and Twenty-third Dynasty.[citation needed] For instance, the first dated appearance of the title pharaoh being attached to a ruler's name occurs in Year 17 of Siamun on a fragment from the Karnak Priestly Annals. Here, an induction of an individual to the Amun priesthood is dated specifically to the reign of Pharaoh Siamun.[13] This new practice was continued under his successor Psusennes II and the subsequent kings of the twenty-second dynasty. For instance, the Large Dakhla stela is specifically dated to Year 5 of king "Pharaoh Shoshenq, beloved of Amun", whom all Egyptologists concur was Shoshenq I—the founder of the Twenty-second Dynasty—including Alan Gardiner in his original 1933 publication of this stela.[14] Shoshenq I was the second successor of Siamun. Meanwhile, the old custom of referring to the sovereign simply as pr-ˤ3 continued in traditional Egyptian narratives.[citation needed] By this time, the Late Egyptian word is reconstructed to have been pronounced *[parʕoʔ] whence Herodotus derived the name of one of the Egyptian kings, Koinē Greek: Φερων.[15] In the Hebrew Bible, the title also occurs as Hebrew: פרעה‎ [parʕoːh];[16] from that, in the Septuagint, Koinē Greek: φαραώ, romanized: pharaō, and then in Late Latin pharaō, both -n stem nouns. The Qur'an likewise spells it Arabic: فرعون‎ firʿawn with n (here, always referring to the one evil king in the Book of Exodus story, by contrast to the good king in surah Yusuf's story). The Arabic combines the original ayin from Egyptian along with the -n ending from Greek. In English, the term was at first spelled "Pharao", but the translators of the King James Bible revived "Pharaoh" with "h" from the Hebrew. Meanwhile, in Egypt itself, *[par-ʕoʔ] evolved into Sahidic Coptic ⲡⲣ̅ⲣⲟ pərro and then ərro by mistaking p- as the definite article "the" (from ancient Egyptian pꜣ).[17] Other notable epithets are nswt, translated to "king"; ḥm, "Majesty"; jty for "monarch or sovereign"; nb for "lord";[12][note 2] and ḥqꜣ for "ruler". Regalia Scepters and staves Beaded scepter of Khasekhemwy (Museum of Fine Arts in Boston) Sceptres and staves were a general sign of authority in ancient Egypt.[18] One of the earliest royal scepters was discovered in the tomb of Khasekhemwy in Abydos.[18] Kings were also known to carry a staff, and Pharaoh Anedjib is shown on stone vessels carrying a so-called mks-staff.[19] The scepter with the longest history seems to be the heqa-sceptre, sometimes described as the shepherd's crook.[20] The earliest examples of this piece of regalia dates to prehistoric Egypt. A scepter was found in a tomb at Abydos that dates to Naqada III. Another scepter associated with the king is the was-sceptre.[20] This is a long staff mounted with an animal head. The earliest known depictions of the was-scepter date to the First Dynasty. The was-scepter is shown in the hands of both kings and deities. The flail later was closely related to the heqa-scepter (the crook and flail), but in early representations the king was also depicted solely with the flail, as shown in a late pre-dynastic knife handle that is now in the Metropolitan museum, and on the Narmer Macehead.[21] The Uraeus The earliest evidence known of the Uraeus—a rearing cobra—is from the reign of Den from the first dynasty. The cobra supposedly protected the pharaoh by spitting fire at its enemies.[22] Crowns and headdresses Main article: Crowns of Egypt Narmer Palette Narmer wearing the white crown Narmer wearing the red crown Deshret The red crown of Lower Egypt, the Deshret crown, dates back to pre-dynastic times and symbolised chief ruler. A red crown has been found on a pottery shard from Naqada, and later, Narmer is shown wearing the red crown on both the Narmer Macehead and the Narmer Palette. Hedjet The white crown of Upper Egypt, the Hedjet, was worn in the Predynastic Period by Scorpion II, and, later, by Narmer. Pschent This is the combination of the Deshret and Hedjet crowns into a double crown, called the Pschent crown. It is first documented in the middle of the First Dynasty of Egypt. The earliest depiction may date to the reign of Djet, and is otherwise surely attested during the reign of Den.[23] Khat Den The khat headdress consists of a kind of "kerchief" whose end is tied similarly to a ponytail. The earliest depictions of the khat headdress comes from the reign of Den, but is not found again until the reign of Djoser. Nemes The Nemes headdress dates from the time of Djoser. It is the most common type of crown that has been depicted throughout Pharaonic Egypt. Any other type of crown, apart from the Khat headdress, has been commonly depicted on top of the Nemes. The statue from his Serdab in Saqqara shows the king wearing the nemes headdress.[23] Statuette of Pepy I (ca. 2338-2298 B.C.E.) wearing a nemes headdress Brooklyn Museum Atef Osiris is shown to wear the Atef crown, which is an elaborate Hedjet with feathers and disks. Depictions of pharaohs wearing the Atef crown originate from the Old Kingdom. Hemhem The Hemhem crown is usually depicted on top of Nemes, Pschent, or Deshret crowns. It is an ornate triple Atef with corkscrew sheep horns and usually two uraei. The usage (depiction) of this crown begins during the Early Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt. Khepresh Also called the blue crown, the Khepresh crown has been depicted in art since the New Kingdom. It is often depicted being worn in battle, but it was also frequently worn during ceremonies. It used to be called a war crown by many, but modern historians refrain from defining it thus. Physical evidence Egyptologist Bob Brier has noted that despite their widespread depiction in royal portraits, no ancient Egyptian crown has ever been discovered. Tutankhamun's tomb, discovered largely intact, did contain such regalia as his crook and flail, but no crown was found among the funerary equipment. Diadems have been discovered.[24] It is presumed that crowns would have been believed to have magical properties. Brier's speculation is that crowns were religious or state items, so a dead pharaoh likely could not retain a crown as a personal possession. The crowns may have been passed along to the successor.[25] Titles Main article: Ancient Egyptian royal titulary During the Early Dynastic Period kings had three titles. The Horus name is the oldest and dates to the late pre-dynastic period. The Nesu Bity name was added during the First Dynasty. The Nebty name (Two Ladies) was first introduced toward the end of the First Dynasty.[23] The Golden falcon (bik-nbw) name is not well understood. The prenomen and nomen were introduced later and are traditionally enclosed in a cartouche.[26] By the Middle Kingdom, the official titulary of the ruler consisted of five names; Horus, Nebty, Golden Horus, nomen, and prenomen[27] for some rulers, only one or two of them may be known. Horus name The Horus name was adopted by the king, when taking the throne. The name was written within a square frame representing the palace, named a serekh. The earliest known example of a serekh dates to the reign of king Ka, before the First Dynasty.[28] The Horus name of several early kings expresses a relationship with Horus. Aha refers to "Horus the fighter", Djer refers to "Horus the strong", etc. Later kings express ideals of kingship in their Horus names. Khasekhemwy refers to "Horus: the two powers are at peace", while Nebra refers to "Horus, Lord of the Sun".[23] Nesu Bity name The Nesu Bity name, also known as prenomen, was one of the new developments from the reign of Den. The name would follow the glyphs for the "Sedge and the Bee". The title is usually translated as king of Upper and Lower Egypt. The nsw bity name may have been the birth name of the king. It was often the name by which kings were recorded in the later annals and king lists.[23] Nebty name The earliest example of a Nebty (Two Ladies) name comes from the reign of king Aha from the First Dynasty. The title links the king with the goddesses of Upper and Lower Egypt Nekhbet and Wadjet.[23][26] The title is preceded by the vulture (Nekhbet) and the cobra (Wadjet) standing on a basket (the neb sign).[23] Golden Horus The Golden Horus or Golden Falcon name was preceded by a falcon on a gold or nbw sign. The title may have represented the divine status of the king. The Horus associated with gold may be referring to the idea that the bodies of the deities were made of gold and the pyramids and obelisks are representations of (golden) sun-rays. The gold sign may also be a reference to Nubt, the city of Set. This would suggest that the iconography represents Horus conquering Set.[23] Nomen and prenomen The prenomen and nomen were contained in a cartouche. The prenomen often followed the King of Upper and Lower Egypt (nsw bity) or Lord of the Two Lands (nebtawy) title. The prenomen often incorporated the name of Re. The nomen often followed the title Son of Re (sa-ra) or the title Lord of Appearances (neb-kha).[26] Nomen and prenomen of Ramesses III See also Ancient Egypt portal Monarchy portal List of pharaohs Roman pharaoh Coronation of the pharaoh Curse of the pharaohs Egyptian chronology Pharaohs in the Bible Notes ^ The Bible refers to Egypt as the "Land of Ham". ^ nb.f means "his lord", the monarchs were introduced with (.f) for his, (.k) for your.[12] References ^ a b Clayton 1995, p. 217. "Although paying lip-service to the old ideas and religion, in varying degrees, pharaonic Egypt had in effect died with the last native pharaoh, Nectanebo II in 343 BC" ^ a b von Beckerath, Jürgen (1999). Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen. Verlag Philipp von Zabern. pp. 266–267. ISBN 978-3422008328. ^ Wells, John C. (2008), Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.), Longman, ISBN 9781405881180 ^ Clayton, Peter A. Chronicle of the Pharaohs the Reign-by-reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames & Hudson, 2012. Print. ^ "Pharaoh". AncientEgypt.co.uk. The British Museum. 1999. Retrieved 20 December 2017. ^ Mark, Joshua (2 September 2009). "Pharaoh - Ancient History Encyclopedia". ancient.eu. Ancient History Encyclopedia Limited. Retrieved 20 December 2017. ^ A. Gardiner, Ancient Egyptian Grammar (3rd edn, 1957), 71–76. ^ Hieratic Papyrus from Kahun and Gurob, F. LL. Griffith, 38, 17. ^ Petrie, W. M. (William Matthew Flinders); Sayce, A. H. (Archibald Henry); Griffith, F. Ll (Francis Llewellyn) (1891). Illahun, Kahun and Gurob : 1889-1890. Cornell University Library. London : D. Nutt. pp. 50. ^ Robert Mond and O.H. Meyers. Temples of Armant, a Preliminary Survey: The Text, The Egypt Exploration Society, London, 1940, 160. ^ "pharaoh" in Encyclopædia Britannica. Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008. ^ a b c Doxey, Denise M. (1998). Egyptian Non-Royal Epithets in the Middle Kingdom: A Social and Historical Analysis. BRILL. p. 119. ISBN 90-04-11077-1. ^ J-M. Kruchten, Les annales des pretres de Karnak (OLA 32), 1989, pp. 474–478. ^ Alan Gardiner, "The Dakhleh Stela", Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, Vol. 19, No. 1/2 (May, 1933) pp. 193–200. ^ Herodotus, Histories 2.111.1. See Anne Burton (1972). Diodorus Siculus, Book 1: A Commentary. Brill., commenting on ch. 59.1. ^ Elazar Ari Lipinski: "Pesach – A holiday of questions. About the Haggadah-Commentary Zevach Pesach of Rabbi Isaak Abarbanel (1437–1508). Explaining the meaning of the name Pharaoh." Published first in German in the official quarterly of the Organization of the Jewish Communities of Bavaria: Jüdisches Leben in Bayern. Mitteilungsblatt des Landesverbandes der Israelitischen Kultusgemeinden in Bayern. Pessach-Ausgabe Nr. 109, 2009, ZDB-ID 2077457-6, S. 3–4. ^ Walter C. Till: "Koptische Grammatik". VEB Verläg Enzyklopädie, Leipzig, 1961. p. 62. ^ a b Wilkinson, Toby A.H. Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, 2001, p. 158. ^ Wilkinson, Toby A.H. Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, 2001, p. 159. ^ a b Wilkinson, Toby A.H. Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, 2001, p. 160. ^ Wilkinson, Toby A.H. Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, 2001, p. 161. ^ Wilkinson, Toby A.H. Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, 2001, p. 162. ^ a b c d e f g h Wilkinson, Toby A.H. Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, 2001 ISBN 978-0-415-26011-4 ^ Shaw, Garry J. The Pharaoh, Life at Court and on Campaign. Thames and Hudson, 2012, pp. 21, 77. ^ Bob Brier, The Murder of Tutankhamen, 1998, p. 95. ^ a b c Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004. ISBN 0-500-05128-3 ^ Ian Shaw, The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press 2000, p. 477 ^ Toby A. H. Wilkinson, Early Dynastic Egypt, Routledge 1999, pp. 57f. Bibliography Shaw, Garry J. The Pharaoh, Life at Court and on Campaign, Thames and Hudson, 2012. Sir Alan Gardiner Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs, Third Edition, Revised. London: Oxford University Press, 1964. Excursus A, pp. 71–76. Jan Assmann, "Der Mythos des Gottkönigs im Alten Ägypten," in Christine Schmitz und Anja Bettenworth (hg.), Menschen - Heros - Gott: Weltentwürfe und Lebensmodelle im Mythos der Vormoderne (Stuttgart, Franz Steiner Verlag, 2009), pp. 11–26. External links Pharaohat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Digital Egypt for Universities Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Pharaohs. v t e Ancient Egypt topics Index Major topics Glossary of artifacts Agriculture Architecture (Egyptian Revival architecture) Art Portraiture Astronomy Chronology Cities (list) Clothing Cuisine Dance Dynasties Funerary practices Geography Great Royal Wives (list) Hieroglyphs History Language Literature Mathematics Medicine Military Music Mythology People Pharaohs (list) Philosophy Religion Sites Technology Trade Writing Egyptology Egyptologists Museums  Ancient Egypt portal Book Category WikiProject Commons Outline v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Ancient Egyptian titulary Royal titulary Great Royal Wife Khenemetneferhedjet Pharaoh Religious titulary Divine Adoratrice of Amun God's Wife God's Wife of Amun High Priest of Amun High Priest of Osiris High Priest of Ptah High Priest of Ra Lector priest Servant in the Place of Truth Two Ladies Courtly and administrative titulary Fan-bearer on the Right Side of the King Haty-a High steward Iry-pat Khekeret-nisut Nomarch Overseer of the treasuries Overseer of Upper Egypt Treasurer Viceroy of Kush Vizier Book  Ancient Egypt portal Authority control BNE: XX528957 BNF: cb11954986w (data) GND: 4133037-7 LCCN: sh85100578 SUDOC: 027528928 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pharaoh&oldid=993192713" Categories: Ancient Egyptian titles Heads of state Royal titles Noble titles Pharaohs Positions of authority Torah monarchs Torah people Titles of national or ethnic leadership Deified people Egyptian royal titles Hidden 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en-wikipedia-org-732	----	File:Tachar Persepolis Iran.JPG - Wikipedia File:Tachar Persepolis Iran.JPG From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixels. Other resolutions: 320 × 240 pixels | 640 × 480 pixels | 1,024 × 768 pixels | 1,280 × 960 pixels | 2,592 × 1,944 pixels. Original file ‎(2,592 × 1,944 pixels, file size: 2.87 MB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary DescriptionTachar Persepolis Iran.JPG English: Tachara palace, Persepolis, Iran. فارسی: کاخ تچر در تخت‌جمشید، ایران Date 30 August 2007 Source Own work Author درفش کاویانی  This is a featured picture on the Persian language Wikipedia (نگاره‌های برگزیده) and is considered one of the finest images. See its nomination here. 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If you have an image of similar quality that can be published under a suitable copyright license, be sure to upload it, tag it, and nominate it. azərbaycanca · Bahasa Indonesia · Bahasa Melayu · català · čeština · Cymraeg · dansk · Deutsch · eesti · English · español · Esperanto · euskara · français · Gagauz · galego · hrvatski · italiano · Lëtzebuergesch · lietuvių · magyar · Malti · Plattdüütsch · Nederlands · norsk bokmål · norsk nynorsk · polski · português · português do Brasil · română · Schweizer Hochdeutsch · sicilianu · slovenščina · suomi · svenska · Tagalog · Tiếng Việt · Türkçe · Yorùbá · Zazaki · Ελληνικά · беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ · қазақша · македонски · нохчийн · русский · српски / srpski · татарча/tatarça · українська · հայերեն · ქართული · हिन्दी · বাংলা · অসমীয়া · मराठी · മലയാളം · தமிழ் · ไทย · 한국어 · 조선말 · 日本語 · 中文（简体）‎ · 中文（繁體）‎ · עברית · فارسی · کوردی · العربية · +/− Licensing I, the copyright holder of this work, hereby publish it under the following license: This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license. 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Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 04:29, 6 January 2012 2,592 × 1,944 (2.87 MB) Darafsh File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): 2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire Achaemenid architecture Alireza Shapour Shahbazi Artaxerxes I Darius the Great Erich Schmidt (archaeologist) Fars Province Gate of All Nations Heidemarie Koch Marvdasht Persepolis Persepolis Administrative Archives Sivand Dam Tachara Tangeh Bolaghi Waterskin Xerxes I User:Iranianson Wikipedia:Featured picture candidates/February-2012 Wikipedia:Featured picture candidates/Tachar Persepolis Iran.JPG Template:Persepolis Category:Persepolis Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on ar.wikipedia.org خشايارشا الأول دارا الأول تخت جمشيد علي رضا شابور شهبازي ذكرى 2500 عام لإنشاء مملكة فارس أرتحششتا الأول بوابة:شيراز بوابة:شيراز/معلم مختار بوابة:شيراز/معلم مختار/أرشيف بوابة:شيراز/معلم مختار/3 قصر بوابة كل الأمم إريك شميت هايديماري كوش ضريح أردشير الثالث الأخميني قصر تتشر قائمة قصور إيران قالب:تخت جمشيد عمارة أخمينية Usage on ckb.wikipedia.org مەرودەشت Usage on cs.wikipedia.org Dareiův palác Usage on de.wikipedia.org Wikipedia:Quiz/Geschichte Usage on es.wikipedia.org Tachara Usage on fa.wikipedia.org استان فارس تخت جمشید شیراز فیروزآباد مرودشت شاهنشاهی هخامنشی لار تنگه بلاغی داراب خشایارشا جهرم فسا آباده اردشیر یکم (هخامنشی) کازرون کاربر:ماني/دم دستی‌ها داریوش بزرگ سد سیوند جشن‌های ۲۵۰۰ ساله شاهنشاهی ایران ایران الگو:تخت جمشید رده:تخت جمشید موزه هخامنشی علیرضا شاپور شهبازی بحث کاربر:Darafsh/بایگانی ۱ کتیبه سلوک الگو:پرجمعیت‌ترین شهرهای استان فارس کتیبه‌های پی‌بنای کاخ آپادانا تخت جمشید View more global usage of this file. 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Camera manufacturer SONY Camera model DSC-F828 Exposure time 1/500 sec (0.002) F-number f/7.1 ISO speed rating 64 Date and time of data generation 08:56, 30 August 2007 Lens focal length 10.6 mm Orientation Normal Horizontal resolution 72 dpi Vertical resolution 72 dpi Software used Adobe Photoshop CS Windows File change date and time 21:20, 4 September 2007 Y and C positioning Co-sited Exposure Program Landscape mode (for landscape photos with the background in focus) Exif version 2.2 Date and time of digitizing 08:56, 30 August 2007 Meaning of each component Y Cb Cr does not exist Image compression mode 4 Exposure bias −1 Maximum land aperture 2.0625 APEX (f/2.04) Metering mode Pattern Light source Other light source Flash Flash did not fire, compulsory flash suppression Supported Flashpix version 1 Color space sRGB File source Digital still camera Scene type A directly photographed image Custom image processing Normal process Exposure mode Manual exposure White balance Manual white balance Scene capture type Landscape Contrast Normal Saturation Normal Sharpness Normal Supported Flashpix version 1 Image width 2,592 px Image height 1,944 px Date metadata was last modified 00:50, 5 September 2007 IIM version 2 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tachar_Persepolis_Iran.JPG" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces File Talk Variants Views Read View on Commons More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Upload file Special pages Printable version Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
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en-wikipedia-org-736	----	Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt 380 BC–343 BC Stele of Nectanebo I Capital Sebennytos Common languages Egyptian language Religion Ancient Egyptian religion Government Absolute monarchy Historical era Classical antiquity • Deposition of Nefaarud II 380 BC • Fall of Pelusium 343 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt The Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt (notated Dynasty XXX, alternatively 30th Dynasty or Dynasty 30) is usually classified as the fifth Dynasty of the Late Period of ancient Egypt. It was founded after the overthrow of Nepherites II in 380 BC by Nectanebo I, and was disestablished upon the invasion of Egypt by the Achaemenid emperor Artaxerxes III in 343 BC. This is the final native dynasty of ancient Egypt; after the deposition of Nectanebo II, Egypt fell under foreign domination. Contents 1 History 2 Pharaohs of the 30th Dynasty 3 Timeline of the 30th Dynasty 4 Family tree[5] 5 References History[edit] A 30th dynasty Egyptian funerary mask Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e Nectanebo I had gained control of all of Egypt by November of 380 BC, but spent much of his reign defending his kingdom from Persian reconquest with the occasional help of Sparta or Athens. In 365 BC, Nectanebo made his son, Teos, co-king and heir, and until his death, in 363 BC father and son reigned together. After his father's death, Teos invaded the Persian territories of modern Syria and Israel and was beginning to meet with some successes when he lost his throne due to the machinations of his own brother Tjahapimu.[1]:377 Tjahepimu took advantage of Teos' unpopularity within Egypt by declaring his son—and Teos' nephew, Nectanebo II—king. The Egyptian army rallied around Nectanebo which forced Teos to flee to the court of the king of Persia.[1]:379 Nectanebo II's reign was dominated by the efforts of the Persian rulers to reconquer Egypt, which they considered a satrapy in revolt. For the first ten years, Nectanebo avoided the Persian reconquest because Artaxerxes III was forced to consolidate his control of the realm. Artaxerxes then attempted an unsuccessful invasion of Egypt in the winter of 351/350 BC; the repercussions of his defeat prompted revolts in Cyprus, Phoenicia, and Cilicia.[1]:379–380 Although Nectanebo gave support to these revolts, Artaxerxes would eventually suppress these rebellions and was once again able to invade Egypt in 343 BC. This second invasion proved successful, and Nectanebo was forced to withdraw from his defenses in the Nile Delta to Memphis, where he saw that his cause was lost. He thereupon fled south to Nubia, where he is assumed to have found refuge at the court of King Nastasen of Napata. Nectanebo, however, may have managed to maintain some form of independent rule in the south of Egypt for 2 more years since a document from Edfu is dated to his eighteenth year.[1]:380–381 Although a shadowy figure named Khababash proclaimed himself king and led a rebellion against the Persians from about 338 to 335 BC, Nectanebo has been considered the last native pharaoh of Egypt. His flight marked the end of Egypt as an independent entity.[1]:381 Pharaohs of the 30th Dynasty[edit] Main article: List of pharaohs Name of Pharaoh Image Reign Throne Name Comments Nectanebo I 380-362 BC Kheperkare Son of a military official named Teos (not to be confused with his own son and successor) and himself a prominent general, he deposed and likely killed Nefaarud II to end the Twenty-ninth Dynasty. The elder Nectanebo moved the capital of Egypt from Mendes to Sebennytos.[2] He also engaged in many building projects across Egypt, perhaps outdoing many of his predecessors; Nectanebo is credited with beginning the construction of the Temple of Isis at Philae, among other things.[2] He respected religion and attempted to bring Egypt closer to the gods by restoring monuments and giving them gifts, as well as defended Egypt from the aggressive Achaemenid Empire.[2] Teos 362-360 BC Irmaatenre Co-regent with his father Nectanebo I from about 365 BC, Teos became unpopular with the Egyptian people because he raised taxes to fund a military campaign to conquer Achaemenid Syria and Palestine, including the satrapies of Eber-Nari and Phoenicia.[2] The king's brother, Tjahapimu, took advantage of this to install his own son, Nectanebo II, on the throne. Nectanebo II 360-343 BC Senedjemibra Setenpeninhur The last native ruler of ancient Egypt, his deposition marked the end of Egyptian hegemony until 1952. Nectanebo, however, was a very competent pharaoh, perhaps the most energetic of the dynasty, as he engaged in building and repairing monuments on a scale exceeding that of his grandfather's, forged alliances with the Greek poleis, and boosted the economy.[3] He was overthrown by Artaxerxes III around 343 BC and fled to Nubia; his subsequent fate is lost to history, although some believe he died shortly after.[4] Timeline of the 30th Dynasty[edit] Family tree[5][edit] Djedhor A [...]mu (♀) Nectanebo I Meryethapi (♀) Nesibanebdjedet A Teos Tjahapimu Udjashu (♀) Tikhabes (♀) Pediamun Khedebneithirbinet II (?) (♀) Nectanebo II Nakhtnebef A unnamed son References[edit] ^ a b c d e Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, Blackwell Books: 1992. ^ a b c d Mark, Joshua J. (2016-10-12). "Late Period of Ancient Egypt - Ancient History Encyclopedia". ancient.eu. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2017-12-21. ^ Ancient History Encyclopedia ^ Emmanuel K. Akyeampong and Henry Louis Gates, Jr (2012). Dictionary of African Biographies - Gooogle Books. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195382075. Retrieved 2017-12-17. ^ * Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson, 2004, p. 256. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Ancient Egypt topics Index Major topics Glossary of artifacts Agriculture Architecture (Egyptian Revival architecture) Art Portraiture Astronomy Chronology Cities (list) Clothing Cuisine Dance Dynasties Funerary practices Geography Great Royal Wives (list) Hieroglyphs History Language Literature Mathematics Medicine Military Music Mythology People Pharaohs (list) Philosophy Religion Sites Technology Trade Writing Egyptology Egyptologists Museums  Ancient Egypt portal Book Category WikiProject Commons Outline Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thirtieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=998309720" Categories: Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt States and territories established in the 4th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 4th century BC Dynasties of ancient Egypt 4th century BC in Egypt 380 BC 380s BC establishments 4th-century BC establishments in Egypt 4th-century BC disestablishments in Egypt 343 BC Hidden categories: Pages using the EasyTimeline extension Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia 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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7375	----	Amytis - Wikipedia Amytis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the wife of Nebuchadnezzar II, see Amytis of Media. For the first wife of Cyrus the Great, see Amitis Shahbanu. Amytis (Greek Ámitys, Old Persian *Umati)[1] was an Achaemenid princess, daughter of king Xerxes I and queen Amestris, and sister of king Artaxerxes I. She was given in marriage to the nobleman Megabyzus. Amytis and her mother are portrayed in Ctesias' account as the most powerful women during Artaxerxes' reign. Near 445 BC, her husband Megabyzus started a successful revolt in Syria against Artaxerxes I. Initially, Amytis stayed with the king during the war; however, she later participated, along with Amestris and the satrap Artarius, in the reconciliation negotiations between the rebel and the king. Notwithstanding this, Megabyzus again fell in disgrace and was expelled from the court and exiled to a town on the Persian Gulf. After five years in exile, Megabyzus was forgiven and allowed to return to the court, again thanks to the intercession of Amytis and Amestris. Amytis bore Megabyzus two sons: Zopyrus and Artyphius. After the death of his father and mother, Zopyrus fled to Athens, where, according to Ctesias, he "was well received owing to the services his mother had rendered to the Athenians".[2] Greek sources portray Amytis as a licentious woman. According to Ctesias, during Xerxes' reign she was accused of adultery by Megabyzus. The same historian further affirms that, after her husband's death, she had a love affair with the Greek physician Apollonides of Cos, and that when the affair was discovered, Apollonides was tortured and put to death by queen mother Amestris. Dinon, another Greek historian, describes Amytis as the most beautiful and licentious woman of Asia. The most difficult challenge in using historians as Ctesias or Dinon as reliable sources is the fact that they tended to write amazing stories that would better appeal to their readers, often without much attention to historical rigor. The lack of primary sources makes it therefore impossible to have an accurate image of Amytis.[3] Classical references[edit] Photius' epitome of Ctesias account: 24, 26, 33, 34, 42-45. Dinon, cited by Athenaeus of Naucratis: Deipnosophistae 13. 89, where her name is misspelled as Anoutis. Notes[edit] ^ Schmitt 1985. Only the Greek form of the name is known; the Persian form is a modern reconstruction, as indicated by the asterisk. ^ Photius' excerpt of Ctesias' Persica (2) ^ Sancisi-Weerdenburg 1987. The work of Ctesias and Dinon is an important precursor to the Greek “romance”; one such example of this style is the Alexander Romance. Bibliography[edit] Brosius, M (1998): Women in Ancient Persia, 559-331 BC, Clarendon Press, Oxford. Lendering, J: "Megabyzus (2)", at http://www.livius.org Sancisi-Weerdenburg, H (1987): "Decadence in the empire or decadence in the sources. From source to synthesis: Ctesias", in H. Sancisi-Weerdenburg (ed.), Achaemenid History I: Sources, Structures and Synthesis. Proceedings of the Groningen 1983 Achaemenid History Workshop. Schmitt, R (1985): "Amytis", in Encyclopædia Iranica vol. I. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amytis&oldid=1002350479" Categories: Women of the Achaemenid Empire 5th-century BC women 5th-century BC Iranian people Ancient princesses Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Español فارسی Bahasa Indonesia Polski Português Tagalog Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 00:50 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7380	----	Dardanelles - Wikipedia Dardanelles From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Hellespont) Jump to navigation Jump to search Narrow strait in northwestern Turkey For other uses, see Dardanelles (disambiguation). "Hellespont" redirects here. For the ancient town, see Hellespontine Phrygia. For the Roman province, see Hellespontus (province). Dardanelles (Çanakkale Boğazı) Strait of Gallipoli Close-up topographic map of the Dardanelles Dardanelles (Çanakkale Boğazı) Show map of Turkey Dardanelles (Çanakkale Boğazı) Show map of Europe Coordinates 40°12′N 26°24′E / 40.2°N 26.4°E / 40.2; 26.4Coordinates: 40°12′N 26°24′E / 40.2°N 26.4°E / 40.2; 26.4 Type Strait Part of Turkish Straits Basin countries Turkey Max. length 61 km (38 mi) Min. width 1.2 km (0.75 mi) A map depicting the locations of the Turkish Straits, with the Dardanelles in red. The sovereign national territory of Turkey is highlighted in green. Map showing the location of the Dardanelles (yellow), relative to the Bosporus (red), the Sea of Marmara, the Aegean Sea, and the Black Sea. View of the Dardanelles taken from the Landsat 7 satellite in September 2006. The body of water on the left is the Aegean Sea, while the one on the upper right is the Sea of Marmara. The Dardanelles is the tapered waterway running diagonally between the two seas, from the northeast to the southwest. The long, narrow upper peninsula on the northern shores of the strait is Gallipoli (Turkish: Gelibolu), and constitutes the banks of the continent of Europe, while the lower peninsula is Troad (Turkish: Biga) and constitutes the banks of the continent of Asia. The city of Çanakkale is visible along the shores of the lower peninsula, centered at the only point where a sharp outcropping juts into the otherwise-linear Dardanelles. The Dardanelles (/dɑːrdəˈnɛlz/; Turkish: Çanakkale Boğazı, lit. 'Strait of Çanakkale', Greek: Δαρδανέλλια, romanized: Dardanéllia), also known as Strait of Gallipoli from Gallipoli Peninsula or from Classical Antiquity as the Hellespont (/ˈhɛlɪspɒnt/; Classical Greek: Ἑλλήσποντος, romanized: Hellēspontos, lit. 'Sea of Helle'), is a narrow, natural strait and internationally significant waterway in northwestern Turkey that forms part of the continental boundary between Europe and Asia, and separates Asian Turkey from European Turkey. One of the world's narrowest straits used for international navigation, the Dardanelles connects the Sea of Marmara with the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas, while also allowing passage to the Black Sea by extension via the Bosphorus. The Dardanelles is 61 kilometres (38 mi) long, and 1.2 to 6 kilometres (0.75 to 3.73 mi) wide, averaging 55 metres (180 ft) deep with a maximum depth of 103 metres (338 ft) at its narrowest point abreast the city of Çanakkale. Most of the northern shores of the strait along the Gallipoli Peninsula (Turkish: Gelibolu) are sparsely settled, while the southern shores along the Troad Peninsula (Turkish: Biga) are inhabited by the city of Çanakkale's urban population of 110,000. Together with the Bosphorus, the Dardanelles forms the Turkish Straits. Contents 1 Name 2 Geography 2.1 Present morphology 3 History 3.1 Ancient Greek, Persian, Roman, and Byzantine eras (pre-1454) 3.1.1 Greek and Persian history 3.1.2 Byzantine history 3.2 Ottoman era (1354–1922) 3.2.1 Nineteenth century 3.2.2 World War I 3.3 Turkish republican and modern eras (1923–present) 4 Crossings 4.1 Maritime 4.2 Land 4.3 Subsea 5 Image gallery 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Name[edit] The contemporary Turkish name Çanakkale Boğazı, meaning 'Çanakkale Strait', is derived from the eponymous midsize city that adjoins the strait, itself meaning 'pottery fort'—from چاناق (çanak, 'pottery') + قلعه (kale, 'fortress')—in reference to the area's famous pottery and ceramic wares, and the landmark Ottoman fortress of Sultaniye. The English name Dardanelles is an abbreviation of Strait of the Dardanelles. During Ottoman times there was a castle on each side of the strait. These castles together were called the Dardanelles,[1][2] probably named after Dardanus, an ancient city on the Asian shore of the strait which in turn was said to take its name from Dardanus, the mythical son of Zeus and Electra. The ancient Greek name Ἑλλήσποντος (Hellēspontos) means "Sea of Helle", and was the ancient name of the narrow strait. It was variously named in classical literature Hellespontium Pelagus, Rectum Hellesponticum, and Fretum Hellesponticum. It was so called from Helle, the daughter of Athamas, who was drowned here in the mythology of the Golden Fleece. Geography[edit] As a maritime waterway, the Dardanelles connects various seas along the Eastern Mediterranean, the Balkans, the Near East, and Western Eurasia, and specifically connects the Aegean Sea to the Sea of Marmara. The Marmara further connects to the Black Sea via the Bosphorus, while the Aegean further links to the Mediterranean. Thus, the Dardanelles allows maritime connections from the Black Sea all the way to the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean via Gibraltar, and the Indian Ocean through the Suez Canal, making it a crucial international waterway, in particular for the passage of goods coming in from Russia. The strait is located at approximately 40°13′N 26°26′E / 40.217°N 26.433°E / 40.217; 26.433. Present morphology[edit] The strait is 61 kilometres (38 mi) long, and 1.2 to 6 kilometres (0.7 to 3.7 mi) wide, averaging 55 metres (180 ft) deep with a maximum depth of 103 metres (338 ft) at its narrowest point at Nara Burnu, abreast Çanakkale.[3] There are two major currents through the strait: a surface current flows from the Black Sea towards the Aegean Sea, and a more saline undercurrent flows in the opposite direction.[4] The Dardanelles is unique in many respects. The very narrow and winding shape of the strait is more akin to that of a river. It is considered one of the most hazardous, crowded, difficult and potentially dangerous waterways in the world. The currents produced by the tidal action in the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara are such that ships under sail must await at anchorage for the right conditions before entering the Dardanelles. History[edit] As part of the only passage between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, the Dardanelles has always been of great importance from a commercial and military point of view, and remains strategically important today. It is a major sea access route for numerous countries, including Russia and Ukraine. Control over it has been an objective of a number of hostilities in modern history, notably the attack of the Allied Powers on the Dardanelles during the 1915 Battle of Gallipoli in the course of World War I. Ancient Greek, Persian, Roman, and Byzantine eras (pre-1454)[edit] Greek and Persian history[edit] An artist's illustration depicting Xerxes' alleged "punishment" of the Hellespont. The ancient city of Troy was located near the western entrance of the strait, and the strait's Asiatic shore was the focus of the Trojan War. Troy was able to control the marine traffic entering this vital waterway. The Persian army of Xerxes I of Persia and later the Macedonian army of Alexander the Great crossed the Dardanelles in opposite directions to invade each other's lands, in 480 BC and 334 BC respectively. Herodotus says that, circa 482 BC, Xerxes I (the son of Darius) had two pontoon bridges built across the width of the Hellespont at Abydos, in order that his huge army could cross from Persia into Greece. This crossing was named by Aeschylus in his tragedy The Persians as the cause of divine intervention against Xerxes.[5] According to Herodotus (vv.34), both bridges were destroyed by a storm and Xerxes had those responsible for building the bridges beheaded and the strait itself whipped. The Histories of Herodotus vii.33–37 and vii.54–58 give details of building and crossing of Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges. Xerxes is then said to have thrown fetters into the strait, given it three hundred lashes and branded it with red-hot irons as the soldiers shouted at the water.[6] Herodotus commented that this was a "highly presumptuous way to address the Hellespont" but in no way atypical of Xerxes. (vii.35) Harpalus the engineer eventually helped the invading armies to cross by lashing the ships together with their bows facing the current and, so it is said, two additional anchors. From the perspective of ancient Greek mythology, it was said that Helle, the daughter of Athamas, was drowned at the Dardanelles in the legend of the Golden Fleece. Likewise, the strait was the scene of the legend of Hero and Leander, wherein the lovesick Leander swam the strait nightly in order to tryst with his beloved, the priestess Hero, and was drowned in a storm. Byzantine history[edit] The Dardanelles were vital to the defence of Constantinople during the Byzantine period. Also, the Dardanelles was an important source of income for the ruler of the region. At the Istanbul Archaeological Museum a marble plate contains a law by the Byzantine Emperor Anastasius I (491–518 AD), that regulated fees for passage through the customs office of the Dardanelles. Translation: ... Whoever dares to violate these regulations shall no longer be regarded as a friend, and he shall be punished. Besides, the administrator of the Dardanelles must have the right to receive 50 golden Litrons, so that these rules, which we make out of piety, shall never ever be violated... ... The distinguished governor and major of the capital, who already has both hands full of things to do, has turned to our lofty piety in order to reorganize the entry and exit of all ships through the Dardanelles... ... Starting from our day and also in the future, anybody who wants to pass through the Dardanelles must pay the following: – All wine merchants who bring wine to the capital (Constantinopolis), except Cilicians, have to pay the Dardanelles officials 6 follis and 2 sextarius of wine. – In the same manner, all merchants of olive-oil, vegetables and lard must pay the Dardanelles officials 6 follis. Cilician sea-merchants have to pay 3 follis and in addition to that, 1 keration (12 follis) to enter, and 2 keration to exit. – All wheat merchants have to pay the officials 3 follis per modius, and a further sum of 3 follis when leaving. Since the 14th century the Dardanelles have almost continuously been controlled by the Turks. Ottoman era (1354–1922)[edit] The Dardanelles continued to constitute an important waterway during the period of the Ottoman Empire, which conquered Gallipoli in 1354. Ottoman control of the strait continued largely without interruption or challenges until the 19th century, when the Empire started its decline. Nineteenth century[edit] Gaining control of or guaranteed access to the strait became a key foreign-policy goal of the Russian Empire during the 19th century. During the Napoleonic Wars, Russia—supported by Great Britain in the Dardanelles Operation—blockaded the straits in 1807. Following the Ottoman Empire's defeat in the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829, in 1833 Russia pressured the Ottomans to sign the Treaty of Hunkiar Iskelesi—which required the closing of the straits to warships of non-Black Sea powers at Russia's request. That would have effectively given Russia a free hand in the Black Sea. That treaty alarmed the losers,[clarification needed] who were concerned that the consequences of potential Russian expansionism in the Black Sea and Mediterranean regions could conflict with their own possessions and economic interest in the region. At the London Straits Convention in July 1841, the United Kingdom, France, Austria, and Prussia pressured Russia to agree that only Turkish warships could traverse the Dardanelles in peacetime. The United Kingdom and France subsequently sent their fleets through the straits to defend the Danube front and to attack the Crimean Peninsula during the Crimean War of 1853–1856 – but they did so as allies of the Ottoman Empire. Following the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War, the Congress of Paris in 1856 formally reaffirmed the London Straits Convention. It remained technically in force into the 20th and 21st centuries. World War I[edit] Main articles: Occupation of Constantinople and Chanak Crisis Main article: Gallipoli Campaign 1915 Landing of French troops in Moudros (Lemnos island) during the Gallipoli Campaign Landing at Gallipoli in April 1915 Anzac Cove The Sphinx overlooking Anzac Cove In 1915 the Allies sent a substantial invasion force of British, Indian, Australian, New Zealand, French and Newfoundland troops to attempt to open up the straits. In the Gallipoli campaign, Turkish troops trapped the Allies on the coasts of the Gallipoli peninsula. The campaign did damage to the career of Winston Churchill, then the First Lord of the Admiralty (in office 1911–1915), who had eagerly promoted the unsuccessful use of Royal Navy sea-power to force open the straits. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, later founder of the Republic of Turkey, served as a commander for the Ottomans during the land campaign. The Turks mined the straits to prevent Allied ships from penetrating them, but in minor actions, two submarines, one British and one Australian, did succeed in penetrating the minefields. The British submarine sank an obsolete Turkish pre-dreadnought battleship off the Golden Horn of Istanbul. Sir Ian Hamilton's Mediterranean Expeditionary Force failed in its attempt to capture the Gallipoli peninsula, and the British cabinet ordered its withdrawal in December 1915, after eight months' fighting. Total Allied deaths included 43,000 British, 15,000 French, 8,700 Australians, 2,700 New Zealanders, 1,370 Indians and 49 Newfoundlanders.[7] Total Turkish deaths were around 60,000. Following the war, the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres demilitarized the strait and made it an international territory under the control of the League of Nations. The Ottoman Empire's non-ethnically Turkish territories were broken up and partitioned among the Allied Powers, and Turkish jurisdiction over the straits curbed. Turkish republican and modern eras (1923–present)[edit] After the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire following a lengthy campaign by Turks as part of the Turkish War of Independence against both the Allied Powers and the Ottoman court, the Republic of Turkey was created in 1923 by the Treaty of Lausanne, which established most of the modern sovereign territory of Turkey and restored the straits to Turkish territory, with the condition that Turkey keep them demilitarized and allow all foreign warships and commercial shipping to traverse the straits freely. As part of its national security strategy, Turkey eventually rejected the terms of the treaty, and subsequently remilitarized the straits area over the following decade. Following extensive diplomatic negotiations, the reversion was formalized under the Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Turkish Straits on 20 July 1936. That convention, which is still in force today, treats the straits as an international shipping lane while allowing Turkey to retain the right to restrict the naval traffic of non-Black Sea states. During World War II, through February 1945, when Turkey was neutral for most of the length of the conflict, the Dardanelles were closed to the ships of the belligerent nations. Turkey declared war on Germany in February 1945, but it did not employ any offensive forces during the war. In July 1946, the Soviet Union sent a note to Turkey proposing a new régime for the Dardanelles that would have excluded all nations except the Black Sea powers. The second proposal was that the straits should be put under joint Turkish-Soviet defence. This meant that Turkey, the Soviet Union, Bulgaria and Romania would be the only states having access to the Black Sea through the Dardanelles. The Turkish government however, under pressure from the United States, rejected these proposals.[8] Turkey joined NATO in 1952, thus affording its straits even more strategic importance as a commercial and military waterway. In more recent years,[when?] the Turkish Straits have become particularly important for the oil industry. Russian oil, from ports such as Novorossyisk, is exported by tankers primarily to western Europe and the U.S. via the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles straits. Crossings[edit] Maritime[edit] The waters of the Dardanelles are traversed by numerous passenger and vehicular ferries daily, as well as recreational and fishing boats ranging from dinghies to yachts owned by both public and private entities. The strait also experiences significant amounts of international commercial shipping traffic by freighters and tankers. Land[edit] At present, there are no vehicular crossings across the strait. However, as part of planned expansions to the Turkish National Highway Network, the Turkish Government is considering the construction of a suspension bridge between Sarıçay (a district of Çanakkale Province) on the Asian side, to Kilitbahir on the European side, at the narrowest part of the strait.[9] In March 2017, construction of the Çanakkale 1915 Bridge between the cities of Gelibolu and Lapseki started. Subsea[edit] 2 submarine cable systems transmitting electric power at 400 kV voltage bridge the Dardanelles to feed west and east of Istanbul. They have their own landing stations in Lapseki and Sütlüce. The first, situated in the northeast quarter portion of the strait, has been energised in April 2015 and leads 2 GW via 6 phases 400 kV AC 3.9 km far thru the sea. The second, somewhat in the middle of the strait, has been still under construction in June 2016 and has quite similar data. Both subsea power lines cross 4 optical fibre data lines laid earlier along the strait.[10] A published map shows communication lines leading from Istanbul into the Mediterranean, named MedNautilus and landing at Athens, Sicily and elsewhere.[11] Image gallery[edit] Marble plate with 6th century AD Byzantine law regulating payment of customs in the Dardanelles. Historic map of the Dardanelles by Piri Reis. The ANZACs at Gallipoli in 1915. Map of the Dardanelles drawn by G.F. Morrell, 1915, showing the Gallipoli peninsula and the west coast of Turkey, as well as the location of front line troops and landings during the Gallipoli Campaign. A view of the Dardanelles from Gallipoli peninsula. A view of Çanakkale from the Dardanelles. Ferry line across the Dardanelles in Çanakkale. Aerial view of the city of Çanakkale. See also[edit] Action of 26 June 1656 Battle of the Dardanelles (disambiguation) Dardanelles Commission List of maritime incidents in the Turkish Straits Old Maps of the Dardanelles, Eran Laor Cartographic collection, The National Library of Israel References[edit] ^ David van Hoogstraten and Matthaeus Brouërius van Nidek, Groot algemeen historisch, geografisch, genealogisch, en oordeelkundig woordenboek, Volume 5, Amsterdam/Utrecht/The Hague 1729, p. 25, s.v. 'Dardanellen Archived 24 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine' ^ George Crabb, Universal Historical Dictionary, Volume 1, London 1825, s.v. 'Dardanelles Archived 28 April 2018 at the Wayback Machine' ^ Nautical Chart at GeoHack-Dardanelles, Map Tech ^ Rozakēs, Chrēstos L. (1987). The Turkish Straits. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 1. ISBN 9024734649. Retrieved 1 August 2017. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 19 November 2003. Retrieved 26 September 2003.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link); the play. ^ Green, Peter The Greco-Persian Wars (London 1996) 75. ^ 11 ^ Cabell, Phillips, The Truman presidency : the history of a triumphant succession (New York 1966), 102 – 103. ^ "Bosphorus Technical Consulting Corporation". www.botek.info. Archived from the original on 6 November 2013. ^ Gülnazi Yüce: Submarine Cable Projects (2-03) Archived 9 April 2018 at the Wayback Machine presented at First South East European Regional CIGRÉ Conference (SEERC), Portoroz, Slovenis, 7–8 June 2016, retrieved 8 April 2018. – PDF ^ Submarine Cable Map 2017 Archived 28 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine telegeography.com, retrieved 9 April 2018. Stowers, Richard. "Gallipoli casualties by country". New Zealand History. New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage. Retrieved 6 November 2020. "Courtesy of NZ Ministry for Culture and Heritage. Last updated 1 March 2016. Statistics from Bloody Gallipoli by Richard Stowers External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dardanelles. 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en-wikipedia-org-7391	----	Nebkaure Khety - Wikipedia Nebkaure Khety From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Nebkaure Khety Kheti, Akhtoy, Achtoi Jasper weight with the cartouche of Nebkaure Khety Pharaoh Reign between 2160 and 2130 BCE[1] (9th Dynasty) Predecessor Neferkare Successor Setut Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Nebkaure Nb-kꜣw-rˁ Lord of the ka is Ra Nomen Khety ẖtj(j) Nebkaure Khety was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 9th or 10th Dynasty, during the First Intermediate Period. Contents 1 Reign 2 Attestations 3 References 4 External links Reign[edit] Practically nothing is known about the events of Nebkaure's reign; due to the contrasting opinions of scholars, even its datation is still difficult. Many Egyptologists assign Nebkaure to the 9th Dynasty, possibly the fourth king (and the second king bearing the name Khety), just after Neferkare.[2][3][4] On the other hand, other scholars such as Jürgen von Beckerath believe instead that Nebkaure reigned during the subsequent 10th Dynasty, possibly before Meryibre Khety.[5] Attestations[edit] Like many of the kings who preceded or succeeded him, attestations of Nebkaure Khety are scant. On the Turin King List he was tentatively placed in the register 4.21. The only contemporary object bearing his cartouche is a weight made from red jasper which was unearthed by Flinders Petrie at Tell el-Retabah, a location along the Wadi Tumilat in the eastern Delta; this weight is now exhibited at the Petrie Museum (UC11782).[6][7] The name of a king Nebkaure also appears on a late Middle Kingdom papyrus (Berlin 3023[5]) containing part of the well known and popular story The Eloquent Peasant; it is very likely that the king Nebkaure who enjoyed the peasant's magniloquence so much was Nebkaure Khety indeed.[2][4][7] References[edit] ^ William C. Hayes, in The Cambridge Ancient History, vol 1, part 2, 1971 (2008), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-077915, p. 996. ^ a b William C. Hayes, in The Cambridge Ancient History, vol 1, part 2, 1971 (2008), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-077915, p. 465. ^ Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford, Blackwell Books, 1992, p. 140. ^ a b Michael Rice, Who is who in Ancient Egypt, 1999 (2004), Routledge, London, ISBN 0-203-44328-4, pp. 5-6. ^ a b Jürgen von Beckerath, Handbuch der Ägyptischen Königsnamen, 2nd edition, Mainz, 1999, p. 74. ^ Nebkaure's weight UC11782 in the Petrie Museum ^ a b Alan Gardiner, Egypt of the Pharaohs. An introduction, Oxford University Press, 1961, p. 112. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Khety Nebkaure. External links[edit] Royal Titulary of Nebkaure Khety on Eglyphica.net (search in the Tenth Dynasty). v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nebkaure_Khety&oldid=973268542" Categories: 22nd-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Pharaohs of the Tenth Dynasty of Egypt 22nd-century BC rulers 22nd century BC in Egypt Wadi Tumilat Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute 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en-wikipedia-org-7397	----	Arsinoe IV - Wikipedia Arsinoe IV From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other Arsinoes, see Arsinoe (disambiguation). Queen of Egypt Arsinoë IV Rescue of Arsinoe, by Jacopo Tintoretto, 1555-1556 Queen of Egypt Reign September 48 BC with Ptolemy XIII (December 48 – January 47 BC) Successor Ptolemy XIV of Egypt and Cleopatra VII Born betw. 68 – 59 BC Alexandria, Egypt Died 41 BC Ephesus Burial Ephesus Dynasty Ptolemaic Father Ptolemy XII Auletes Mother Unknown Arsinoë IV (Greek: Ἀρσινόη; between 68 and 63 BC – 41 BC) was the fourth of six children and the youngest daughter of Ptolemy XII Auletes. Queen and co-ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt with her brother Ptolemy XIII from 48 BC – 47 BC, she was one of the last members of the Ptolemaic dynasty of ancient Egypt. Arsinoë IV was also the half sister of Cleopatra VII.[1][2][3][4] For her role in conducting the Siege of Alexandria (47 BC) against her sister Cleopatra, Arsinoë was taken as a prisoner of war to Rome by the Roman triumvir Julius Caesar following the defeat of Ptolemy XIII in the Battle of the Nile. Arsinoë was then exiled to the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus in Roman Anatolia, but she was executed there by orders of triumvir Mark Antony in 41 BC at the behest of his lover Cleopatra. Contents 1 History 2 Year of birth 3 Tomb at Ephesus 4 References 5 External links History[edit] Arsinoë was the third, possibly fourth daughter of Ptolemy XII by an unknown woman (presumably since Cleopatra VII's probable mother Cleopatra V had died or been repudiated not long after Cleopatra VII was born.)[1][2][3][4] When Ptolemy XII died in 51 BC, he left his eldest son and daughter, Ptolemy and Cleopatra, as joint rulers of Egypt, but Ptolemy soon dethroned Cleopatra and forced her to flee from Alexandria. Julius Caesar arrived in Alexandria in 48 BC pursuing his rival, Pompey, whom he had defeated at the Battle of Pharsalus. When he arrived in Alexandria, he was presented with Pompey's head. The execution of his longtime friend and foe ended the possibility of an alliance between Caesar and Ptolemy, and he sided with Cleopatra's faction. He declared that in accordance with Ptolemy XII's will, Cleopatra and Ptolemy would rule Egypt jointly, and in a similar motion restored Cyprus, which had been annexed by Rome in 58 BC, to Egypt's rule and gave it to Arsinoë and her youngest brother, Ptolemy XIV.[5][6] Caesar had Ptolemy's regent, the eunuch Pothinus, executed while the general Achillas escaped and began besieging Alexandria. However Arsinoë then escaped from the capital with her mentor, the eunuch Ganymedes, and took command of the Egyptian army. She also proclaimed herself Queen as Arsinoë IV, executed Achillas, and placed Ganymedes second in command of the army immediately below herself.[7][8] Under Arsinoë's leadership, the Egyptians enjoyed some success against the Romans. The Egyptians trapped Caesar in a section of the city by building walls to close off the streets. Then Arsinoë directed Ganymedes to pour seawater into the canals that supplied Caesar’s cisterns which caused panic among Caesar’s troops.[citation needed] Caesar countered this measure by digging wells into the porous limestone beneath the city that contained fresh water. This only partially alleviated the situation, so he then sent ships out along the coast to search for more fresh water there.[9] Caesar realized that he would need to break out of the city and hoped to do so by gaining control of the harbor. He launched an attack to seize control of the Lighthouse of Alexandria but Arsinoë's forces drove him back. Recognizing his imminent defeat, Caesar removed his armor and purple cloak so that he could swim to the safety of a nearby Roman ship. The leading Egyptian officers, having become disappointed with Ganymedes, and under a pretext of wanting peace, negotiated with Caesar to exchange Arsinoë for Ptolemy XIII.[10][11] After Ptolemy was released he continued the war until the Romans received reinforcements and inflicted a decisive defeat upon the Egyptians. Arsinoë, now in Roman captivity, was transported to Rome, where in 46 BC she was forced to appear in Caesar's triumph and was paraded behind a burning effigy of the Lighthouse of Alexandria, which had been the scene of her victory over him.[12] Despite the custom of strangling prominent prisoners in triumphs when the festivities concluded, Caesar was pressured to spare Arsinoë and granted her sanctuary at the temple of Artemis in Ephesus. Arsinoë lived in the temple for a few years, always keeping a watchful eye on her sister Cleopatra, who perceived Arsinoë as a threat to her power. In 41 BC, at Cleopatra's instigation, Mark Antony ordered Arsinoë's execution on the steps of the temple. Her murder was a gross violation of the temple sanctuary and an act that scandalised Rome.[13] The eunuch priest (Megabyzos) who had welcomed Arsinoë on her arrival at the temple as "queen" was only pardoned when an embassy from Ephesus made a petition to Cleopatra.[14] Year of birth[edit] Arsinoë's year of birth is generally regarded as being between 68 and 63 BC: The Encyclopedia Britannica cites 63 BC, making her 15 at the time of her uprising and defeat against Julius Caesar and 22 at her death,[15] while the researcher Alissa Lyon cites 68 BC making her 27 at her death.[16] Joyce Tyldesley places her birth date as between 68 and 65 BC.[17] An alternate hypothesis was in the docudrama "Cleopatra: Portrait of a Killer", in which it was alleged a headless skeleton of a female child between the ages of 15 and 18 may be Arsinoë.[18] Her actions in the brief war against Caesar naturally suggest that she was older than that and thus, would make it impossible for her to be the headless female child buried in the tomb. Perhaps the strongest evidence that she was in fact exercising her own authority is that Caesar, after the Pharos debacle, was prepared to release Ptolemy XIII — a male, who continued the war against Caesar — just to get his hands on her.[19][20] Stacy Schiff, who places Arsinoë's age at around seventeen during the events of 48-47 BC, notes that Arsinoë "burned with ambition" and was "not the kind of girl who inspired complacency," writing that once Arsinoë escaped the royal palace she became more vocal against her half-sister and that she assumed her position as head of the army alongside anti-Caesar courtier Achillas.[21] Tomb at Ephesus[edit] In the 1990s, an octagonal monument situated in the centre of Ephesus was hypothesized by Hilke Thür of the Austrian Academy of Sciences to be the tomb of Arsinoë.[13] Although no inscription remains on the tomb, it was dated to between 50 and 20 BC. In 1926 the headless skeleton of a female estimated to be between the ages of 15 and 18 years at the time of her death was found in the burial chamber.[22][23] Thür's identification of the skeleton was based on the shape of the tomb, which was octagonal, like the second tier of the Lighthouse of Alexandria, the carbon dating of the bones (between 200 and 20 BC), the gender of the skeleton, and the age of the child at death.[24][25] It was also claimed that the tomb boasts Egyptian motifs, such as "papyri-bundle" columns.[13] A DNA test was also attempted to determine the identity of the child. However, it was impossible to get an accurate reading since the bones had been handled too many times,[26] and the skull had been lost in Germany during World War II. Hilke Thür examined the old notes and photographs of the now-missing skull,[27][28] which was reconstructed using computer technology by forensic anthropologist Caroline Wilkinson to show what the woman may have looked like.[29] Thür alleged that it shows signs of African ancestry mixed with classical Grecian features[13] – despite the fact that Boas, Gravlee, Bernard and Leonard, and others have demonstrated that skull measurements are not a reliable indicator of race,[30] and the measurements were jotted down in 1920 before modern forensic science took hold.[29] Furthermore, Arsinoë and Cleopatra, shared the same father (Ptolemy XII Auletes) but had different mothers,[31] with Thür claiming the alleged African ancestry came from the skeleton's mother. Mary Beard wrote a dissenting essay criticizing the findings, pointing out that first, there is no surviving name on the tomb and that the claim the tomb is alleged to invoke the shape of the Pharos Lighthouse "doesn't add up"; second, the skull doesn't survive intact and the age of the skeleton is too young to be that of Arsinoë's (the bones said to be that of a 15-18 year old, with Arsinoë being around her mid twenties at her death); and thirdly, since Cleopatra and Arsinoë were not known to have the same mother, "the ethnic argument goes largely out of the window."[23] Furthermore, craniometry as used by Thür to determine race is based in scientific racism that is now generally considered a pseudoscience that supported "exploitation of groups of people" to "perpetuate racial oppression" and "distorted future views of the biological basis of race."[32] A writer from The Times described the identification of the skeleton as "a triumph of conjecture over certainty".[33] If the monument is the tomb of Arsinoë, she would be the only member of the Ptolemaic dynasty whose remains have been recovered.[34] Forensic and archaeological analysis of the origins of the skeleton and tomb are ongoing. To date, it has never been definitively proven the skeleton is that of Arsinoë IV. References[edit] Citations ^ a b Grant, Michael (14 July 2011). Cleopatra. p. 35. ISBN 9781780221144. ^ a b Kleiner, Diana E. E. (30 June 2009). Cleopatra and Rome. p. 102. ISBN 9780674039667. ^ a b Roberts, Peter (2006). HSC Ancient History. p. 125. ISBN 9781741251791. ^ a b Beard, Mary "The skeleton of Cleopatra's sister? Steady on." Times Literary Supplement, March 16, 2009 ^ "Arsinoe IV". www.reocities.com. Archived from the original on 2017-06-13. Retrieved 2017-04-07. ^ "Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt: Cleopatra VII". www.ancientegyptonline.co.uk. Retrieved 2017-04-04. ^ "Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt: Cleopatra VII". www.ancientegyptonline.co.uk. Retrieved 2017-04-07. ^ Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Civili 3.112.10-12; De Bello Alexandrino 4; Cassius Dio, Roman History 42.39.1-2; 42.40.1; Lucan, Pharsalia 10.519-523 ^ "The Internet Classics Archive | The Alexandrian Wars by Julius Caesar". classics.mit.edu. Retrieved 2017-04-14. ^ De Bello Alexandrino 23-24 and, with some deviations, Cassius Dio, Roman History 42.42 ^ "E. R. Bevan: The House of Ptolemy • Chap. XIII". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2017-04-14. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History 43.19.2-3; Appian, Civil Wars 2.101.420 ^ a b c d BBC One documentary, Cleopatra: Portrait of a Killer ^ Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 15.89; Josephus, Contra Apion 2.57; inaccurate Appian, Civil Wars 5.9.34-36 and Cassius Dio Roman History 48.24.2 ^ https://www.britannica.com/biography/Arsinoe-IV ^ “ANP455: Archaeology of Ancient Egypt, 25 September 2014. http://anthropology.msu.edu/anp455-fs14/2014/09/25/arsinoe-iv/ ^ Joyce Tyldesley: Cleopatra, Last Queen of Egypt, Profile Books Ltd, 2008, p. 27. ^ “Cleopatra: Portrait of a Killer”, BBC, 2009. http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00jhv9g ^ “Dangerous Women”, Karen Murdarasi, 2016 ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, vols 42-43 ^ Stacy Schiff: Cleopatra: A Life, Little, Brown and Company, 2010, pp. 48-49 ^ Josef Keil (1929) Excavations In Ephesos ^ a b "The skeleton of Cleopatra's sister? Steady on". The Times Literary Supplement. Retrieved 2018-06-12. ^ Dr. Fabian Kanz, "Arsinoe IV of Egypt: Sister of Cleopatra identified?" April 2009 ^ http://insidecatholic.com/Joomla/index.php?option=com_myblog&show=The-BBC-invents-its-own-Cleopatra..html&Itemid=102[permanent dead link] ^ "Have Bones of Cleopatra's Murdered Sister Been Found?". Live Science. Retrieved 2017-04-07. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2011-06-29. Retrieved 2010-04-15.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ Cleopatra's mother 'was African' - BBC (2009) ^ a b rogueclassicist, David Meadows ~ (2009-03-15). "Cleopatra, Arsinoe, and the Implications". rogueclassicism. Retrieved 2017-04-14. ^ Clarence C. Gravlee, H. Russell Bernard, and William R. Leonard. "Heredity, Environment, and Cranial Form: A Re-Analysis of Boas’s Immigrant Data" American Anthropologist 105[1]:123–136, 2003. ^ The Lives of Cleopatra and Octavia, By Sarah Fielding, Christopher D. Johnson, p. 154, Bucknell University Press, ISBN 978-0-8387-5257-9 ^ "Phrenology and "Scientific Racism" in the 19th Century". Vassar College Word Press. Retrieved January 16, 2019. ^ http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/tv_and_radio/article5931845.ece[dead link] ^ Hilke Thür: Arsinoë IV, eine Schwester Kleopatras VII, Grabinhaberin des Oktogons von Ephesos? Ein Vorschlag. ("Arsinoë IV, a sister of Cleopatra VII, grave owner of the Octagon in Ephesus? A suggestion.") In: Jahreshefte des Österreichischen Archäologischen Instituts, vol. 60, 1990, p. 43–56. Bibliography Encyclopædia Britannica, 2003 edition External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Arsinoe IV. livius.org: Arsinoe IV Biography by Christopher Bennett: Arsinoe IV Pockley.S: Video of a bust of Arsinoë IV being copied Nov 2012 Arsinoe IV v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Queens of Ancient Egypt Early Dynastic Period to First Intermediate Period  (3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Neithhotep Benerib Khenthap Herneith Nakhtneith Penebui Merneith Seshemetka Semat Serethor Betrest II Nimaathap Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Hetephernebti Djeseretnebti Djefatnebti Meresankh I IV Hetepheres I Meritites I Henutsen Khentetka Meresankh II Hetepheres II Meresankh III Khamerernebty I Persenet Hekenuhedjet Khamerernebty II Rekhetre Bunefer V Khentkaus I Neferhetepes Meretnebty Khentkaus II Khentkaus III Reptynub Khuit I Meresankh IV Setibhor Nebet Khenut VI Iput I Khuit II Ankhesenpepi I Ankhesenpepi II Nubwenet Meritites IV Inenek-Inti Nedjeftet Neith Iput II Udjebten Ankhesenpepi III Ankhesenpepi IV Nitocris Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Neferu I Neferukayet Iah Tem Neferu II Ashayet Henhenet Sadeh Kawit Kemsit XII Neferitatjenen Neferu III Keminub Khenemetneferhedjet I Nofret II Itaweret Khenmet Sithathoriunet Khenemetneferhedjet II Neferthenut Meretseger Aat Khenemetneferhedjet III Sobekneferu 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Nofret Nubhetepti Senebhenas Neni Tjan Ineni Nubkhaes Aya XIV Tati XVI Mentuhotep XVII Nubemhat Sobekemsaf Haankhes Tetisheri Ahhotep I Ahmose Inhapy Sitdjehuti Ahhotep II New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose-Nefertari Ahmose-Sitkamose Ahmose-Henuttamehu Ahmose-Meritamun Ahmose Mutnofret Hatshepsut Iset Satiah Merytre-Hatshepsut Nebtu Menhet, Menwi and Merti Nebsemi Tiaa Nefertari Iaret Mutemwiya Tiye Gilukhipa Sitamun Iset Tadukhipa / Kiya Nefertiti Meritaten Neferneferuaten Ankhesenamun Tey Mutnedjmet Nebetnehat XIX Sitre Tuya Tanedjemet Nefertari Isetnofret Henutmire Maathorneferure Meritamen Bintanath Nebettawy Merytre Isetnofret II Takhat Twosret Tiaa XX Tiy-Merenese Iset Ta-Hemdjert Tyti Tiye Duatentopet Henutwati Tawerettenru Nubkhesbed Baketwernel Tentamun 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Tentamun Mutnedjmet Karimala XXII Karomama Patareshnes Maatkare Tashedkhonsu Nesitaudjatakhet Nesitanebetashru Kapes Karomama I Tadibast III XXIII Karomama II XXV Pebatjma Tabiry Abar Khensa Peksater Arty Qalhata Tabekenamun Takahatenamun Naparaye Atakhebasken Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Mehytenweskhet Khedebneithirbinet I Takhuit Tentkheta Nakhtubasterau Ladice XXVII Atossa Artystone Parmys Amestris Damaspia Parysatis XXXI Stateira I Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Roxana Stateira II Parysatis II Eurydice II of Macedon Ptolemaic Eurydice Berenice I Arsinoe I Arsinoe II Berenice II Arsinoe III Cleopatra I Cleopatra II Cleopatra III Cleopatra IV Cleopatra Selene Berenice III Cleopatra V Cleopatra VI Berenice IV Cleopatra VII Arsinoe IV Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic Authority control GND: 120177463 VIAF: 15594220 WorldCat Identities: viaf-15594220 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arsinoe_IV&oldid=998441479" Categories: 60s BC births 41 BC deaths 1st-century BC Pharaohs Cleopatra Ancient Egyptian queens regnant Pharaohs of the Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemaic princesses 1st-century BC women rulers 1st-century BC Greek 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en-wikipedia-org-7419	----	Help:Authority control - Wikipedia Help:Authority control From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia help page about authority control For editor information, see Wikipedia:Authority control. Wikipedia information page This is an information page. It is not one of Wikipedia's policies or guidelines, but rather intends to describe some aspect(s) of Wikipedia's norms, customs, technicalities, or practices. It may reflect varying levels of consensus and vetting. Shortcut H:AC Readers' FAQ About Wikipedia Administration FAQs Authority control Books Categories Censorship Copyright Disambiguation Images and multimedia ISBN Microformats Mobile access Offline access Navigation Other languages Page names Portals Searching Student help Researching with Wikipedia Citing Wikipedia Readers' glossary Readers' index Reader's guide to Wikipedia v t e Authority control is a way of associating a unique identifier to articles on Wikipedia. This is useful to disambiguate different items with similar or identical headings, as well as establish a single standard title for an item that is commonly known by two or more titles. When used, authority control data links can be found near the bottom of Wikipedia pages, linking to bibliographical records on worldwide library catalogs. Authority control is often used on biographical articles because it is quite common for more than one person to share the same name. 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en-wikipedia-org-741	----	Eshmunazar II sarcophagus - Wikipedia Eshmunazar II sarcophagus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sarcophagus found in Lebanon Eshmunazar II sarcophagus The sarcophagus in the Louvre Material Amphibolite Size 2.56 x 1.25 m Writing Phoenician language Created c.500 BCE Discovered 1855 Present location Louvre Identification AO 4806 The Eshmunazar II sarcophagus is an early 5th century BCE sarcophagus unearthed in 1855 at a site near Sidon and now in the Louvre, which contains a Phoenician inscription which was of great significance on its discovery – it was the first discovered in the Phoenician language from the area known as Phoenicia, and was the most detailed such inscription ever found anywhere up to that point.[1][2] Eshmunazar II (Phoenician: 𐤀𐤔𐤌𐤍𐤏𐤆𐤓 ʾšmnʿzr, a theophoric name meaning 'Eshmun helps' or 'helper of Eshmun', similar to Eleazar or Eliezer) was a Phoenician King of Sidon and the son of King Tabnit (possibly the Greek Tenes). The sarcophagus was likely created in Egypt, being carved from amphibolite from Wadi Hammamat. The inscription states that the "Lord of Kings" granted the Sidonian kings "Dor and Joppa, the mighty lands of Dagon, which are in the plain of Sharon".[3] More than a dozen scholars across Europe and the United States rushed to translate it and to interpret its details in the two years after its discovery was first published.[4] Jean-Joseph-Léandre Bargès wrote that the language of the inscription is "identical with Hebrew, except for the final inflections of a few words and certain expressions, in very small numbers, which are not found in the biblical texts which have come down to us; the fact that Hebrew was written and spoken in Sidon, at a time when the Jews returning from captivity no longer heard this language, is proof that it was preserved among the Phoenicians longer than among the Hebrews themselves."[5] Contents 1 Discovery 2 Inscription 3 Translation 4 References 5 Notes 6 External links Discovery[edit] Announcement of the discovery in the The Journal of Commerce Announcement of the discovery was made in a letter dated 11 February 1855 by a correspondent of the The Journal of Commerce. The sarcophagus had been discovered on 19 January 1855 at the Cemetery of Aadloun. On the discovery of the sarcophagus, a dispute broke out between the Beirut consuls of Britain and France (Aimé Péretié, Chancellor of the Consulate General of France in Beirut): In the mean time a controversy has arisen in regard to the ownership of the discovered monument, between the English and French Consuls in this place - one having made a contract with the owner of the land, by which he was entitled to whatever he should discover in it; and the other having engaged an Arab to dig for him, who came upon the sarcophagus in the other consul's limits, or , as the Californians would say, within his “claim". It was purchased later in the same year by Honoré Théodoric d'Albert de Luynes, who donated it to the Louvre.[6] A list of early published translations is below:[4] Several other well known scholars worked on the translation, including Josiah Willard Gibbs, William Henry Green, James Murdock, Rev. Dr. William Jenks, W. A. Miller, and Christian Frederic Crusé; William McClure Thomson and Eli Smith were living in Syria at the time and were understood to have successfully read most of the inscription in early 1855, but did not produce any publications.[7] Author. Preliminary Translation Memoir Previous Interpretations consulated Reference Edward E. Salisbury 31 May 1855 Phoenician Inscription of Sidon William Wadden Turner 31 May 1855 3 July 1855 The Sidon Inscription Emil Rödiger 15 June 1855 Bemerkungen über die phönikische Inschrift eines am 19. Januar 1855 nahe bei Sidon gefundenen Königs-Sarkophag's Franz Dietrich and Johann Gildemeister 25 April 1855 1 July 1855 Zwei Sidonische Inschriften, eine griechische aus christlicher Zeit und eine altphönicische Königsinschrift Ferdinand Hitzig 30 September 1855 Rödiger, Dietrich. Die Grabschrift des Eschmunazar Konstantin Schlottmann December 1855 Rödiger, Dietrich, Hitzig, De Luynes and Ewald. Die Inschrift Eschmunazar's, Königs der Sidonier Honoré Théodoric d'Albert de Luynes 14 August 1855 15 December 1855 Mémoire sur le Sarcophage et inscription funéraire d'Esmunazar, roi de Sidon Heinrich Ewald 19 January 1856 Salisbury, Turner, Roidiger, Dietrich, Hitzig. Erklärung der grossen phönikischen inschrift von Sidon und einer ägyptisch-aramäischen : mit den zuverlässigen abbildern beider Jean-Joseph-Léandre Bargès February 1856 1856 Salisbury, Turner, Rödiger, Dietrich, Hitzig, De Luynes, Ewald (?). Mémoire sur le sarcophage et l'inscription funéraire d'Eschmounazar, roi de Sidon Salomon Munk 6 April 1855 Salisbury, Turner, Rödiger, Dietrich, Hitzig, DeLuynes, Barges. Essais sur l'inscription phénicienne du sarcophage d'Eschmoun-'Ezer, roi de Sidon Moritz Abraham Levy August 1856 Salisbury, Turner, Rödiger, Dietrich, Hitzig, Ewald, De Luynes, Munk Phonizisches Worterbuch Inscription[edit] Copy of the inscription at the Jaffa museum The sarcophagus bears a 22 line inscription, known as KAI-14,[8] written in the Phoenician Canaanite language, in the Phoenician alphabet. The inscription identifies the king inside and warns people not to disturb his repose.[9] The language used in the inscription is a Canaanite dialect mutually intelligible with Biblical Hebrew. As in other Phoenician inscriptions, the text seems to use no, or hardly any, matres lectionis. As in Aramaic, the preposition אית (ʾyt) is used as an accusative marker, while את (ʾt) is used for "with".[8] Translation[edit] The translation below is based on that by Julius Oppert,[6] amended with the help of a more recent translation in Prichard & Fleming.[10] In the month of Bul,[nb 1] in the fourteenth year of the royalty of King Eshmunazar,[nb 2] King of the two Sidons, son of King Tabnit, King of the two Sidons, King Eshmunazar, King of the two Sidons, said as follows: I am carried away, before my time, the son of (few) days, an orphan, the son of a widow. And I am lying in this coffin, and in this tomb, in the place which I have built. Whoever you are, of royal race or an ordinary man, may he not open this resting-place, and may he not search after anything, for nothing whatsoever has been placed into it. May he not move the coffin in which I am resting, nor carry me away from this resting-place to another resting-place. Whatever a man may tell thee, do not listen to him: For every royal race and every ordinary man, who will open this resting-place or who will carry away the coffin where I repose, or who will carry me away from this resting-place: may they not have any funeral couch with the embalmers (the Ropheïm), may they not be buried in a grave, and may there not be a son or offspring to succeed to them, and may the sacred gods abandon them to a mighty ruler who (might) rule them, in order to exterminate that royal race or man who will open this resting-place or who will take away this coffin, and also the offspring of this royal race, or of that ordinary man. There shall be to them no root below, nor fruit above, nor living form under the sun. For I am carried away, before my time, the son of (few) days, an orphan, the son of a widow. For I, Eshmunazar, King of the two Sidons, son of King Tabnit, King of the two Sidons, the grandson of King Eshmunazar, King of the two Sidons, And my mother Amoashtart, the Priestess of Astarte, our mistress, the Queen, the daughter of King Eshmunazar, King of the two Sidons: It is we who have built the temple of the gods, and the temple of Astaroth, on the seaside Sidon,[nb 3] and have placed there (the image of) Astaroth in Shamem-Addirim. And it is we who have built a temple for Eshmun, the holy prince, at the purpleshells River on the mountain, and have established him in Shamem-Addirim. And it is we who have built the temples for the gods of the two Sidons, in the seaside Sidon, the temple of Baal-Sidon and the temple of Ashtart-Shem-Baal. Moreover, the Lord of Kings[nb 4] gave us Dor and Joppa, the mighty lands of Dagon, which are in the plain of Saron, in accordance with the important deeds which I did. And we annexed them to the boundary of the land, that they would belong to the two Sidons for ever. Whoever you are, of royal race or ordinary man, may he not open it and may he not uncover me and may he not carry me away from this resting-place. Otherwise, the sacred gods shall abandon them and exterminate this royal race and this ordinary man and their offspring for ever. Latin transcription byrḥ bl bšnt ʿsr wʾrbʿ 14 lmlky mlk ʾšmnʿzr mlk ṣdnm bn mlk tbnt mlk ṣdnm dbr mlk ʾšmnʿzr mlk ṣdnm lʾmr ngzlt bl ʿty bn msk ymm ʾzrm ytm bn ʾlmt wškb ʾnk bḥlt z wbqbr z bmqm ʾš bnt qnmy ʾt kl mmlkt wkl ʾdm ʾl yptḥ ʾyt mškb z w ʾl ybqš bn mnm k ʾy šm bn mnm wʾl yšʾ ʾyt ḥlt mškby wʾl yʿm sn bmškb z ʿlt mškb šny ʾp ʾm ʾdmm ydbrnk ʾl tšmʿ bdnm k kl mmlkt w kl ʾdm ʾš yptḥ ʿlt mškb z ʾm ʾš yšʾ ʾyt ḥlt mškby ʾm ʾš yʿmsn bm škb z ʾl ykn lm mškb ʾt rpʾm wʾl yqbr bqbr wʾl ykn lm bn wzrʿ tḥtnm wysgrnm hʾlnm hqdšm ʾt mmlk(t) ʾdr ʾš mšl bnm lq ṣtnm ʾyt mmlkt ʾm ʾdm hʾ ʾš yptḥ ʿlt mškb z ʾm ʾš yšʾ ʾyt ḥlt z wʾyt zrʿ mmlt hʾ ʾm ʾdmm hmt ʾl ykn lm šrš lmṭ w pr lmʿl wtʾr bḥym tḥt šmš k ʾnk nḥn ngzlt bl ʿty bn ms k ymm ʾzrm ytm bn ʾlmt ʾnk k ʾnk ʾšmnʿzr mlk ṣdnm bn mlk tbnt mlk ṣdnm bn bn mlk ʾšmnʿzr mlk ṣdnm wʾmy ʾm ʿštrt khnt ʿštrt rbtn hmlkt bt mlk ʾšmnʿzr mlk ṣdnm ʾm bnn ʾyt bt ʾlnm ʾyt (...)t bṣdn ʾrṣ ym wyšrn ʾyt ʿštrt šmm ʾdrm wʾnḥn ʾš bnn bt lʾšmn (?)r qdš ʿnydll bhr wyšbny šmm ʾdrm wʾnḥn ʾš bnn btm lʾln ṣdnm bṣdn ʾrṣ ym bt lbʿl ṣdn wbt lʿštrt šm bʿl wʿd ytn ln ʾdn mlkm ʾyt dʾr wypy ʾrṣt dgn hʾdrt ʾš bšd šrn lmdt ʿṣmt ʾš pʿlt wyspnnm ʿlt gbl ʾrṣ lknnm lṣdnm lʿl(?) qnmy ʾt kl mmlkt wkl ʾdm ʾl yptḥ ʿlty wʾl yʿr ʿlty wʾl yʿmsn bmškb z wʾl yšʾ ʾyt ḥlt mškby lm ysgrnm ʾlnm hqdšm ʾl wyqṣn hmmlkt hʾ whʾdmm hmt wzrʿm lʿlm Line # 16 "wyšrn" = "to set" or "to place" and Line # 17 "wyšbny" = "to establish" use the same root but were spelled by the engraver (the Scribe)differently. Line # 16 used "R" and Line # 17 used "B". In the Phoenician script they are similar and there could be a mistake here by the Scribe or by the person making the drawing of the inscription in the 19th Century. The correct usage is "wyšbn" and Line # 16 is the error,[11] Hebrew transcription The text of the 22 line inscription, on the front side of the sarcophagus, follows, with one-to one transliteration into the Hebrew alphabet. The original text contains no word breaks; these are merely suggested; numbers appear in the original inscription in an Egyptian standard. [12]בירח בֻּל[13] בשנת עסר[14] וארבע 14 למלכי מֶלֶך אֶשמֻנעַזָר מלך צִדֹנִם [15]בן מֶלֶך תַּבּנִת מֶלֶך צדנם דבר מֶלֶך אֶשמֻנעַזָר מֶלֶך צדנם לֵאמֹר נגזלתִ בל עתי[16] בן מסך[17] יָמִם[18] אזרם[19] יתֹם[20] בן אלמת[21] ושֹׁכֵב אָנֹכִ[22] בחלת[23] זֶ[24] ובקבר ז במָקֹם[25] אֲשֶׁ[26] בָּנִתִ[27] קֹנֶ[28] מי אַתָּ[29] כֹּל ממלכת[30] וכל אדם אל יפתח אֶית[31] משכב ז ו אל יבקש בן מִנִם[32] כִּ[33] אִי שָׂמֻ[34] בנ מנם ואל ישא אית חלת משכבי ואל יַעֲמִ סֵנִ[35] במשכב ז עלת[36] משכב שני אף אִם אדמם[37] יְדַבְּרוּנךָ[38] אל תשמע בדנמ כ כל ממלכת ו כל אדם אש יפתח עלת משכב ז אם אש ישא אית חלת משכבי אם אש יַעֲמִסֵנִ במ שכב ז אל יִכֹּן לָמֹ[39] משכב את רפָאִם[40] ואל יקבר בקבר ואל יִכֹּן למֹ בן וזרע תחתנם[41] ויסגרנם[42] האלנם[43] הקְדֹשִם את ממלכ(ת) אַדִּר[44] אש מֹשֵל בנם לק צתנם[45] אית ממלכת אם אדם הֻא אש יפתח עלת משכב ז אמ אש ישא אית חלת ז ואית זרע ממלת הא אמ אדממ המת אל יכנ למ שרש למט ו פר למעל ותאר בחימ תחת שמש כ אנכ נחנ נגזלת בל עתי בנ מס כ יממ אזרמ יתמ בנ אלמת אנכ כ אנכ אֶשמֻנעַזָר מלכ צדנמ בנ מלכ תַּבּנִת מֶלֶכ צדנמ בנ בנ מֶלֶכ אֶשמֻנעַזָר מֶלֶכ צדנמ ואמי אמ עשתרתכהנת כהנת עשתרת רבתנ המלכת בת מֶלֶכ אֶשמֻנעַזָר מֶלֶכ צדנמ אמ בננ אית בת אלנמ אית (...)ת בצדנ ארצ ימ וישרנ אית עשתרת שממ אדרמ ואנחנ אש בננ בת לאשמנ (?)ר קדש ענידלל בהר וישבני שממ אדרמ ואנחנ אש בננ בתמ לאלנ צדנמ בצדנ ארצ ימ בת לבעל צדנ ובת לעשתרת שמ בעל ועד יתנ לנ אדנ מלכמ אית דאר ויפי ארצת דגנ האדרת אש בשד שרנ למדת עצמת אש פעלת ויספננמ עלת גבל ארצ לכננמ לצדנמ לעל(?) קנמי את כל ממלכת וכל אדמ אל יפתח עלתי ואל יער עלתי ואל יעמסנ במשכב ז ואל ישא אית חלת משכבי למ יסגרנמ אלנמ הקדשמ אל ויקצנ הממלכת הא והאדממ המת וזרעמ לעלמ Original Phoenician text 𐤁𐤉𐤓𐤇 𐤁𐤋 𐤁𐤔𐤍𐤕 𐤏𐤎𐤓 𐤅𐤀𐤓𐤁𐤏 𐤗𐤖𐤖𐤖𐤖 𐤋𐤌𐤋𐤊𐤉 𐤌𐤋𐤊 𐤀𐤔𐤌𐤍𐤏𐤆𐤓 𐤌𐤋𐤊 𐤑𐤃𐤍𐤌‎ 𐤁𐤍 𐤌𐤋𐤊 𐤕𐤁𐤍𐤕 𐤌𐤋𐤊 𐤑𐤃𐤍𐤌 𐤃𐤁𐤓 𐤌𐤋𐤊 𐤀𐤔𐤌𐤍𐤏𐤆𐤓 𐤌𐤋𐤊 𐤑𐤃𐤍𐤌 𐤋𐤀𐤌𐤓 𐤍𐤂𐤆𐤋𐤕‎ 𐤁𐤋 𐤏𐤕𐤉 𐤁𐤍 𐤌𐤎𐤊 𐤉𐤌𐤌 𐤀𐤆𐤓𐤌 𐤉𐤕𐤌 𐤁𐤍 𐤀𐤋𐤌𐤕 𐤅𐤔𐤊𐤁 𐤀𐤍𐤊 𐤁𐤇𐤋𐤕 𐤆 𐤅𐤁𐤒𐤁𐤓 𐤆‎ 𐤁𐤌𐤒𐤌 𐤀𐤔 𐤁𐤍𐤕 𐤒𐤍𐤌𐤉 𐤀𐤕 𐤊𐤋 𐤌𐤌𐤋𐤊𐤕 𐤅𐤊𐤋 𐤀𐤃𐤌 𐤀𐤋 𐤉𐤐𐤕𐤇 𐤀𐤉𐤕 𐤌𐤔𐤊𐤁 𐤆 𐤅‎ 𐤀𐤋 𐤉𐤁𐤒𐤔 𐤁𐤍 𐤌𐤍𐤌 𐤊 𐤀𐤉 𐤔𐤌 𐤁𐤍 𐤌𐤍𐤌 𐤅𐤀𐤋 𐤉𐤔𐤀 𐤀𐤉𐤕 𐤇𐤋𐤕 𐤌𐤔𐤊𐤁𐤉 𐤅𐤀𐤋 𐤉𐤏𐤌‎ 𐤎𐤍 𐤁𐤌𐤔𐤊𐤁 𐤆 𐤏𐤋𐤕 𐤌𐤔𐤊𐤁 𐤔𐤍𐤉 𐤀𐤐 𐤀𐤌 𐤀𐤃𐤌𐤌 𐤉𐤃𐤁𐤓𐤍𐤊 𐤀𐤋 𐤕𐤔𐤌𐤏 𐤁𐤃𐤍𐤌 𐤊 𐤊𐤋 𐤌𐤌𐤋𐤊𐤕 𐤅‎ 𐤊𐤋 𐤀𐤃𐤌 𐤀𐤔 𐤉𐤐𐤕𐤇 𐤏𐤋𐤕 𐤌𐤔𐤊𐤁 𐤆 𐤀𐤌 𐤀𐤔 𐤉𐤔𐤀 𐤀𐤉𐤕 𐤇𐤋𐤕 𐤌𐤔𐤊𐤁𐤉 𐤀𐤌 𐤀𐤔 𐤉𐤏𐤌𐤎𐤍 𐤁𐤌‎ 𐤔𐤊𐤁 𐤆 𐤀𐤋 𐤉𐤊𐤍 𐤋𐤌 𐤌𐤔𐤊𐤁 𐤀𐤕 𐤓𐤐𐤀𐤌 𐤅𐤀𐤋 𐤉𐤒𐤁𐤓 𐤁𐤒𐤁𐤓 𐤅𐤀𐤋 𐤉𐤊𐤍 𐤋𐤌 𐤁𐤍 𐤅𐤆𐤓𐤏‎ 𐤕𐤇𐤕𐤍𐤌 𐤅𐤉𐤎𐤂𐤓𐤍𐤌 𐤄𐤀𐤋𐤍𐤌 𐤄𐤒𐤃𐤔𐤌 𐤀𐤕 𐤌𐤌𐤋𐤊(𐤕) 𐤀𐤃𐤓 𐤀𐤔 𐤌𐤔𐤋 𐤁𐤍𐤌 𐤋𐤒‎ 𐤑𐤕𐤍𐤌 𐤀𐤉𐤕 𐤌𐤌𐤋𐤊𐤕 𐤀𐤌 𐤀𐤃𐤌 𐤄𐤀 𐤀𐤔 𐤉𐤐𐤕𐤇 𐤏𐤋𐤕 𐤌𐤔𐤊𐤁 𐤆 𐤀𐤌 𐤀𐤔 𐤉𐤔𐤀 𐤀𐤉𐤕‎ 𐤇𐤋𐤕 𐤆 𐤅𐤀𐤉𐤕 𐤆𐤓𐤏 𐤌𐤌𐤋𐤕 𐤄𐤀 𐤀𐤌 𐤀𐤃𐤌𐤌 𐤄𐤌𐤕 𐤀𐤋 𐤉𐤊𐤍 𐤋𐤌 𐤔𐤓𐤔 𐤋𐤌𐤈 𐤅‎ 𐤐𐤓 𐤋𐤌𐤏𐤋 𐤅𐤕𐤀𐤓 𐤁𐤇𐤉𐤌 𐤕𐤇𐤕 𐤔𐤌𐤔 𐤊 𐤀𐤍𐤊 𐤍𐤇𐤍 𐤍𐤂𐤆𐤋𐤕 𐤁𐤋 𐤏𐤕𐤉 𐤁𐤍 𐤌𐤎‎ 𐤊 𐤉𐤌𐤌 𐤀𐤆𐤓𐤌 𐤉𐤕𐤌 𐤁𐤍 𐤀𐤋𐤌𐤕 𐤀𐤍𐤊 𐤊 𐤀𐤍𐤊 𐤀𐤔𐤌𐤍𐤏𐤆𐤓 𐤌𐤋𐤊 𐤑𐤃𐤍𐤌 𐤁𐤍‎ 𐤌𐤋𐤊 𐤕𐤁𐤍𐤕 𐤌𐤋𐤊 𐤑𐤃𐤍𐤌 𐤁𐤍 𐤁𐤍 𐤌𐤋𐤊 𐤀𐤔𐤌𐤍𐤏𐤆𐤓 𐤌𐤋𐤊 𐤑𐤃𐤍𐤌 𐤅𐤀𐤌𐤉 𐤀𐤌 𐤏𐤔𐤕𐤓𐤕‎ 𐤊𐤄𐤍𐤕 𐤏𐤔𐤕𐤓𐤕 𐤓𐤁𐤕𐤍 𐤄𐤌𐤋𐤊𐤕 𐤁𐤕 𐤌𐤋𐤊 𐤀𐤔𐤌𐤍𐤏𐤆𐤓 𐤌𐤋𐤊 𐤑𐤃𐤍𐤌 𐤀𐤌 𐤁𐤍𐤍 𐤀𐤉𐤕 𐤁𐤕‎ 𐤀𐤋𐤍𐤌 𐤀𐤉𐤕 (...)𐤕 𐤁𐤑𐤃𐤍 𐤀𐤓𐤑 𐤉𐤌 𐤅𐤉𐤔𐤓𐤍 𐤀𐤉𐤕 𐤏𐤔𐤕𐤓𐤕 𐤔𐤌𐤌 𐤀𐤃𐤓𐤌 𐤅𐤀𐤍𐤇𐤍‎ 𐤀𐤔 𐤁𐤍𐤍 𐤁𐤕 𐤋𐤀𐤔𐤌𐤍 (?)𐤓 𐤒𐤃𐤔 𐤏𐤍𐤉𐤃𐤋𐤋 𐤁𐤄𐤓 𐤅𐤉𐤔𐤁𐤍𐤉 𐤔𐤌𐤌 𐤀𐤃𐤓𐤌 𐤅𐤀𐤍𐤇𐤍 𐤀𐤔 𐤁𐤍𐤍 𐤁𐤕𐤌‎ 𐤋𐤀𐤋𐤍 𐤑𐤃𐤍𐤌 𐤁𐤑𐤃𐤍 𐤀𐤓𐤑 𐤉𐤌 𐤁𐤕 𐤋𐤁𐤏𐤋 𐤑𐤃𐤍 𐤅𐤁𐤕 𐤋𐤏𐤔𐤕𐤓𐤕 𐤔𐤌 𐤁𐤏𐤋 𐤅𐤏𐤃 𐤉𐤕𐤍 𐤋𐤍 𐤀𐤃𐤍 𐤌𐤋𐤊𐤌‎ 𐤀𐤉𐤕 𐤃𐤀𐤓 𐤅𐤉𐤐𐤉 𐤀𐤓𐤑𐤕 𐤃𐤂𐤍 𐤄𐤀𐤃𐤓𐤕 𐤀𐤔 𐤁𐤔𐤃 𐤔𐤓𐤍 𐤋𐤌𐤃𐤕 𐤏𐤑𐤌𐤕 𐤀𐤔 𐤐𐤏𐤋𐤕 𐤅𐤉𐤎𐤐𐤍𐤍𐤌‎ 𐤏𐤋𐤕 𐤂𐤁𐤋 𐤀𐤓𐤑 𐤋𐤊𐤍𐤍𐤌 𐤋𐤑𐤃𐤍𐤌 𐤋𐤏𐤋(?) 𐤒𐤍𐤌𐤉 𐤀𐤕 𐤊𐤋 𐤌𐤌𐤋𐤊𐤕 𐤅𐤊𐤋 𐤀𐤃𐤌 𐤀𐤋 𐤉𐤐𐤕𐤇 𐤏𐤋𐤕𐤉‎ 𐤅𐤀𐤋 𐤉𐤏𐤓 𐤏𐤋𐤕𐤉 𐤅𐤀𐤋 𐤉𐤏𐤌𐤎𐤍 𐤁𐤌𐤔𐤊𐤁 𐤆 𐤅𐤀𐤋 𐤉𐤔𐤀 𐤀𐤉𐤕 𐤇𐤋𐤕 𐤌𐤔𐤊𐤁𐤉 𐤋𐤌 𐤉𐤎𐤂𐤓𐤍𐤌‎ 𐤀𐤋𐤍𐤌 𐤄𐤒𐤃𐤔𐤌 𐤀𐤋 𐤅𐤉𐤒𐤑𐤍 𐤄𐤌𐤌𐤋𐤊𐤕 𐤄𐤀 𐤅𐤄𐤀𐤃𐤌𐤌 𐤄𐤌𐤕 𐤅𐤆𐤓𐤏𐤌 𐤋𐤏𐤋𐤌‎ References[edit] ^ Lehmann, Reinhard G. (2013). "Wilhelm Gesenius and the Rise of Phoenician Philology" (PDF). Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft. Berlin / Boston: De Gruyter. 427: 209–266. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2015-04-08. Quote: "Alas, all these were either late or Punic, and came from Cyprus, from the ruins of Kition, from Malta, Sardinia, Athens, and Carthage, but not yet from the Phoenician homeland. The first Phoenician text as such was found as late as 1855, the Eshmunazor sarcophagus inscription from Sidon." ^ William Wadden Turner, 3 July 1855, The Sidon Inscription, p.259: "Its interest is greater both on this account and as being the first inscription properly so-called that has yet been found in Phoenicia proper, which had previously furnished only some coins and an inscribed gem. It is also the longest inscription hitherto discovered, that of Marseilles—which approaches it the nearest in the form of its characters, the purity of its language, and its extent — consisting of but 21 lines and fragments of lines." ^ Louvre website: "The favor of the Persian king had increased the territory of Sidon by granting it part of Philistine: "The Lord of Kings gave us Dor and Yapho, the rich wheat-lands that are in the Plain of Sharon, in recognition of the great deeds that I accomplished and we have added to the lands that are forever those of the Sidonians."" ^ a b Turner, W. (1860). Remarks on the Phœnician Inscription of Sidon. Journal of the American Oriental Society, 7, 48-59. doi:10.2307/592156 (the list is on page 49) ^ Bargès, Jean-Joseph Léandre (1856), Benjamin Duprat (ed.), Mémoire sur le sarcophage et l'inscription funéraire d'Eschmounazar, roi de Sidon (editio princeps ed.), p. 39, Sous le rapport de la linguistique, il nous fournit de précieux renseignements sur la nature de la langue parlée en Phénicie quatre siècles environ avant l'ère chrétienne; cette langue s'y montre identique avec l'hébreu, sauf les inflexions finales de quelques mots et certaines expressions, en très-petit nombre, qui ne se retrouvent pas dans les textes bibliques parvenus jusqu'à nous ; le fait de l'hébreu écrit et parlé à Sidon, à une époque où les Juifs de retour de la captivité n'entendaient déjà plus cette langue, est une preuve qu'elle s'est conservée chez les Phéniciens plus longtemps que chez les Hébreux eux-mêmes. [Translation: With regard to linguistics, it provides us with valuable information on the nature of the language spoken in Phoenicia about four centuries before the Christian era; this language is shown to be identical with Hebrew, except for the final inflections of a few words and certain expressions, in very small numbers, which are not found in the biblical texts which have come down to us; the fact that Hebrew was written and spoken in Sidon, at a time when the Jews returning from captivity no longer heard this language, is proof that it was preserved among the Phoenicians longer than among the Hebrews themselves.] ^ a b Samuel Birch, Records of the past: Being English Translations of the Ancient Monuments of Egypt and Western Asia, vol. 9, 1877, p. 111. ^ Edward E. Salisbury, Phoenician Inscription of Sidon, p.230 ^ a b "Kanaanäische und Aramäische Inschriften", Herbert Donner, Wolfgang Röllig , ISBN 3-447-04587-6. ^ Cline, Austin. "Sidon Sarcophagus: Illustration of the Sarcophagus of Eshmunazar II Found Near Sidon, Lebanon". About.com. Retrieved 2009-03-27. ^ James B. Prichard and Daniel E. Fleming, The Ancient Near East: An Anthology of Texts and Pictures, 2011, p. 311. ^ pages 42 "Ifil" and 107 "wyšbn", see Glossary of Phoenician, by Harris, Zellig S.,: A Grammar of the Phoenician Language, New Haven, 1936 ^ = צידונים 'Sidonians'. ^ = בּוּל, the month Bul, mentioned in 1Kings 6:38: "in the month of Bul, which is the eighth month". Identical to Cheshvan in the current Hebrew calendar, which uses the Babylonian names. ^ = עשׂר 'ten' ^ = נגזלתי 'I was taken away by force'. ^ parallel to Biblical בלא עִתִי 'before my time' as in Ecclesiastes 7:17 (בְּלֹא עִתֶּךָ 'before your time'). ^ different opinions, likely מסך corresponds to Hebrew סָך 'sum total' (as in Hebrew סך הכול), which implies a limited total (as in the parallel Aramaic/Syriac ܣܟܐ/סכא 'limit, bound'): the expression מסך ימם corresponding to Hebrew סך ימים and meaning '(limited) total of days'. cf Phoenician-Punic Dictionary by Charles R. Krahmalkov (entry MSK 2). ^ = ימים 'days' ^ according to the traditional opinion, אזרם = 'infant sacrificial victim', to which the King compares himself because of his untimely death ("I was taken away before my time like an infant sacrificial victim"). cf Phoenician-Punic Dictionary by Charles R. Krahmalkov (entry 'ZRM). ^ = יתום 'orphan' ^ = אלמנה 'widow'. The 'נ' disappeared in Phoenician, similarly to Akkadian almattu. ^ = אָנוֹכִי 'I' ^ חלת = coffin, likely from the root חלל 'cavity', חלול 'hollow'. ^ = זֶה ^ = מקום ^ = אשר as usual in Phoenician (Hebrew אשר = Phoenician אש). ^ = בָּנִיתִי 'I built' ^ = קונה: acquirer. ^ = אתה ^ = מַמְלֶכֶת 'kingdom' and hence 'king'. ^ = אֶת as usual in Phoenician. ^ בן מִנִם = something, parallel to Hebrew כל מיני, Akkadian mīnummê 'whatever, everything'. ^ = כי ^ = שָׂמוּ 'they put' ^ = יַעֲמִיסֵנִי = 'load me, transport me' ^ = על 'on'. cf Phoenician-Punic Dictionary by Charles R. Krahmalkov (entry עלת). ^ plural of אדם 'man' ^ = יְדַבְּרוּךָ 'they will tell you' (final nun as in Aramaic). ^ = לָמוֹ 'to them, to him', Biblical Hebrew poetic form of לו. ^ = Rephaim. ^ = תחתם 'under them', inflected form of תחת 'under' ^ = יַסְגִּירוּם 'will deliver them', with final nun as usual in Phoenician. ^ = האלים 'the Gods' with added נ in the masculine plural. cf Phoenician-Punic Dictionary by Charles R. Krahmalkov (entry 'lm). ^ = אדיר 'mighty' ^ form equivalent to Hebrew לְקַצְּצָם 'cut off/exterminate them', root קצץ as in קץ 'end'. Notes[edit] ^ The eighth month of the Phoenician year which was identical with the Judaic, where it is now called Cheshvan. The name is mentioned in the Hebrew Bible (1Kings 6:38: "in the month of Bul, which is the eighth month"). ^ King Eshmunazar lived in the fourth century B.C., this is generally admitted on account of the form of the sarcophagus, which was certainly Egyptian; there are even in the middle of it traces of hieroglyphs which have been erased. The King Tabnit may be the Tennes of Greek authors. ^ The seaside Sidon' Sidon eres yam, seems to be one of the two Sidons, the other may have been the Sidon of the mountain. Sennacherib speaks also of the two Sidons, the great and the little one ^ The "Lords of the Kings" seem not to be the Kings of Persia, but an epithet applicable to a divine king. External links[edit] Bargès, l'Abbé Jean-Joseph Léandre (1856), Benjamin Duprat (ed.), Mémoire sur le sarcophage et l'inscription funéraire d'Eschmounazar, roi de Sidon, p. 40 Description at the Louvre GIF image of the inscription. Information on the Eshmunazar inscription (in Spanish). A photograph of the sarcophagus. English translation of the inscription v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eshmunazar_II_sarcophagus&oldid=1000670904" Categories: 5th-century BC works 1855 archaeological discoveries Kings of Sidon Phoenician inscriptions KAI inscriptions Ancient Near East steles Sarcophagi Phoenician art Archaeology of the Achaemenid Empire 1855 in the Ottoman Empire Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Català Español עברית Edit links This page was last edited on 16 January 2021, at 04:18 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7441	----	Abrocomas - Wikipedia Abrocomas From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 4th-century BC Iranian satrap Possible coinage of Abrocomas, Sinope, Paphlagonia.[1] Abrocomas (Greek: Ἀβρόκoμας) was satrap of Syria for the Achaemenid king Artaxerxes II Mnemon.[2][3] He may also have been satrap of Paphlagonia, with its capital at Sinope, according to the reading of some of the coinage of Sinope: the Aramaic reading "ˈbrkmw" has been identified as the name rendered in Greek as "Abrocomas",[4] but this is not universally accepted.[1] Abrocomas was sent with an army of 300,000 men to oppose Cyrus the Younger on his march into Upper Asia.[5] On Cyrus's arrival at Tarsus in 401 BC, Abrocomas was said to be on the Euphrates.[6] At Issus four hundred heavy-armed Greeks, who had deserted Abrocomas, joined Cyrus. Abrocomas did not defend the Syrian passes, as was expected, but marched to join the king. He burnt some boats to prevent Cyrus from crossing the Euphrates, but did not arrive in time for the battle of Cunaxa.[7] In about 385, with Persian generals Pharnabazus and Tithraustes, Abrocomas unsuccessfully attempted to reconquer Egypt for the Persian Empire.[8] Notes[edit] ^ a b Frye, Richard Nelson (1984). The History of Ancient Iran. C.H.Beck. p. 115. ISBN 9783406093975. ^ Bury, J. B. (2018). The Ancient World 401-330 BC. Perennial Press. p. 11. ISBN 9781531260279. ^ Brownson, Carlson L. (Carleton Lewis) (1886). Xenophon;. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press. p. 39. ^ Jacques, Duchesne Guillemin (1974). Acta iranica: collection fondée à l'occasion du 2500e anniversaire de la fondation de l'empire Perse par Cyrus le grand (in French). Bibliothèque Pahlavi. p. iv. ISBN 9789004039025. ^ Smith, William (2005). A Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology. By various writers. Ed. by William Smith. Illustrated by numerous engravings on wood. p. 3. ^ Brownson, Carlson L. (Carleton Lewis) (1886). Xenophon;. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press. p. 33. ^ Xenophon, Anabasis, i. 3-4, 7; Suda, s.v. "Abrokamas" ^ Isocrates, Panegyricus References[edit] Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, "Abrocamas", Boston (1867)  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Abrocomas". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. External links[edit] Abrocomas at the Encyclopædia Iranica v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC This Ancient Near East biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abrocomas&oldid=977216577" Categories: Satraps of the Achaemenid Empire 5th-century BC births 4th-century BC deaths 4th-century BC Iranian people 5th-century BC Iranian people Ancient Near East people stubs Hidden categories: CS1 French-language sources (fr) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM AC with 0 elements All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Español فارسی Hrvatski Italiano Nederlands Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 7 September 2020, at 16:00 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7456	----	Qakare Ibi - Wikipedia Qakare Ibi From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be confused with Qakare Ini. Qakare Ibi Aba, Iby, Kakare, Kakaure, Qaikare, Qakaure Qakare Ibi's cartouche on the Abydos king list. Pharaoh Reign 2 years 1 month and 1 day,[1][2] c. 2170 BC (Eighth Dynasty) Predecessor Neferkamin Anu Successor Neferkaure II Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Qakare Q3j-k3-Rˁ Mighty is the soul of Re Nomen Ibi jbj Abydos King List Qai-kau-Re Q3j-k3w-Rˁ Mighty is the soul of Re Turin King List Ibi jbj Burial Pyramid of Ibi 29°50′30″N 31°13′4″E / 29.84167°N 31.21778°E / 29.84167; 31.21778 Qakare Ibi was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh during the early First Intermediate Period (2181–2055 BC) and the 14th ruler of the Eighth Dynasty.[1][2][3] As such Qakare Ibi's seat of power was Memphis[4] and he probably did not hold power over all of Egypt. Qakare Ibi is one of the best attested pharaohs of the Eighth Dynasty due to the discovery of his small pyramid in South Saqqara. Contents 1 Attestations 2 Pyramid complex 2.1 The pyramid 2.2 Internal structures 2.3 Chapel 3 See also 4 References 5 Bibliography Attestations[edit] Qakare Ibi is attested on the 53rd entry of the Abydos King List, a king list which was redacted some 900 years after the First Intermediate Period during the reign of Seti I.[2][5] According to Kim Ryholt's latest reconstruction of the Turin canon, another king list compiled in the Ramesside era, Qakare Ibi is also attested there on column 5, line 10 (Gardiner 4.11, von Beckerath 4.10). The Turin canon further indicates that he reigned for "2 years, 1 month and 1 day".[1][2] The only other attestion for Qakare Ibi is his pyramid in South Saqqara. Pyramid complex[edit] Qakare Ibi was buried in a small pyramid at Saqqara-South. It was discovered by Karl Richard Lepsius in the 19th century who listed it as the number XL in his pioneering list of pyramids.[6] The pyramid was excavated from 1929 until 1931 by Gustave Jéquier.[7] Ibi's pyramid is the last built in Saqqara, located to the northeast of Shepseskaf's tomb and near the causeway of the Pyramid of Pepi II.[8] It is very similar in plan, dimensions and decorations to the pyramids of the queens of Pepi II, the last great pharaoh of the Old Kingdom. Consequently it was proposed that the pyramid was originally that of Ankhnespepi IV (ˁnḫ-n=s ppj, "Pepi lives for her") a wife of Pepi II, and was only later appropriated by Ibi.[9] Adjacent to the pyramid is a small chapel where the funerary cult took place. No trace of a causeway nor of a valley temple has been found to this day, and it is likely that there never was any. Pyramid complex of Qakare Ibi, Saqqara. The pyramid[edit] Ibi's pyramid is not oriented to any cardinal point, being rather on a northwest–southeast axis. The edifice would have been around 31.5 m (103 ft) large and 21 m (69 ft) high with a slope of 53°7′ at the time of its construction.[2] The core of the pyramid was built with limestone blocks of local origin, most of which are now gone, probably reused in later constructions. As a result, the monument appears today as a 3 m (9.8 ft) high heap of mud and limestone chips in the sands of Saqqara. On some of the remaining blocks, inscriptions in red ink were found mentioning a chief of the Libyans, the meaning of which is unclear. It seems that even though the foundations for the outer casing of the pyramid were laid, the casing itself was never mounted. Internal structures[edit] On the north side of the edifice, Jéquier found a 8 m (26 ft) long limestone-clad corridor leading down with an inclination of 25° to a large granite portcullis.[2][7] Behind this portcullis lay the king's burial chamber. Both the corridor and the walls of the burial chamber were inscribed with the last known instance of the Pyramid Texts.[2][7] The texts seem to have been directly inscribed for Ibi rather than appropriated by him. Jéquier judged the quality of the inscriptions as "very average".[7] Furthermore, the placement of the spells appears relatively indiscriminate.[9] The burial chamber's ceiling was flat and decorated with stars. It was probably made of a single 5 m (16 ft) long block of Tura limestone[7] now missing. Today a large block of concrete protects the chamber. On the west side of the burial chamber is a false door and a huge granite block on which once stood the sarcophagus of the king. On the east side there is a serdab for the statue of the Ka of the deceased. Chapel[edit] Adjacent to the east side of the pyramid is a small mudbrick chapel which served as temple for the cult of the dead king.[2] The entrance of the chapel is located on its north side. Inside the temple, immediately against the pyramid wall is an offering hall where Jequier found a stone washbasin as well as stele or a false door of which only the foundations remain. An alabaster tray and obsidian mortar tools were also discovered there. The south part of the chapel is occupied by magazine rooms. See also[edit] List of Egyptian pyramids List of megalithic sites References[edit] ^ a b c Kim Ryholt: The Late Old Kingdom in the Turin King-list and the Identity of Nitocris, Zeitschrift für ägyptische, 127, 2000, p. 99 ^ a b c d e f g h Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 302 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz : P. von Zabern, 1999, ISBN 3-8053-2591-6, available online Archived 2015-12-22 at the Wayback Machine see pp. 68-69 ^ Ian Shaw: The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, p.107, ISBN 978-0192804587 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: The Date of the End of the Old Kingdom of Egypt, JNES 21 (1962) ^ Karl Richard Lepsius: Denkmäler aus Aegypten und Aethiopien, available online. ^ a b c d e Gustave Jéquier, La pyramide d'Aba, 1935 ^ "Saqqara, City of the Dead: The Pyramid of Ibi" The Ancient Egypt Site Archived September 27, 2007, at the Wayback Machine ^ a b Rainer Stadelmann: The Egyptian pyramids. From brick to the wonders of the world. 3rd edition of Saverne, Mainz, 1997, ISBN 3-8053-1142-7, pp. 203-204. Bibliography[edit] Mark Lehner. The secret of the pyramids of Egypt, Orbis, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-572-01039-X, p. 164 Christopher Theis: The Pyramids of the First Intermediate Period. After philological and archaeological sources (= studies of ancient Egyptian culture. Vol 39, 2010). pp. 321–339. Miroslav Verner. The Pyramids Universe Books, New 1998, ISBN 3-499-60890-1, pp. 415–416. Preceded by Neferkamin Anu Pharaoh of Egypt Eighth Dynasty Succeeded by Neferkaure II v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Qakare_Ibi&oldid=994523830" Categories: 22nd-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Eighth Dynasty of Egypt 22nd-century BC rulers 22nd century BC in Egypt Pyramids of the Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Saqqara Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community 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en-wikipedia-org-7458	----	Category:CS1 errors: missing periodical - Wikipedia Help Category:CS1 errors: missing periodical From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This is a tracking category. It is used to build and maintain lists of pages—primarily for the sake of the lists themselves and their use in article and category maintenance. It is not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. More information: This category is hidden on its member pages—unless the corresponding user preference is set. These categories are used to track, build and organize lists of pages needing "attention en masse" (for example, pages using deprecated syntax), or that may need to be edited at someone's earliest convenience. These categories also serve to aggregate members of several lists or sub-categories into a larger, more efficient list (discriminated by classifications). Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! 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M File:Metacarta-screenshot-for-Petroleum-Users-Group-circa-2005.png Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:CS1_errors:_missing_periodical&oldid=985887300" Hidden categories: Hidden categories Tracking categories Template Large category TOC via CatAutoTOC on category with over 20,000 pages CatAutoTOC generates Large category TOC CS1 errors Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans العربية Ilokano Jawa ქართული Македонски മലയാളം ଓଡ଼ିଆ Scots Shqip සිංහල Slovenščina Tagalog 粵語 Edit links This page was last edited on 28 October 2020, at 15:08 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7467	----	Battle of Artemisium - Wikipedia Battle of Artemisium From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Naval battle of the Xerxes' invasion of Greece Battle of Artemisium Part of the Second Persian invasion of Greece Date August 7[1] or September 8–10,[2] 480 BC Location Artemisium, Euboea 39°3′0″N 23°12′0″E / 39.05000°N 23.20000°E / 39.05000; 23.20000 Result Tactical stalemate, Persian strategic victory; Persians gain control of Euboea Belligerents Greek city-states  Persian Empire Commanders and leaders Eurybiades Themistocles Adeimantus Achaemenes Ariabignes Artemisia I Damasithymos Strength 271 ships 4,065 marines 46,070 oarsmen 1,207 ships 36,210 marines 205,190 oarsmen Casualties and losses 100 ships lost Unknown number of marines and oarsmen killed or drowned 400 ships lost Unknown number of marines and oarsmen killed or drowned Location of the naval battle of Artemisium v t e Second Persian invasion of Greece Thermopylae Artemisium Athens Salamis Potidea Olynthus Plataea Mycale The Battle of Artemisium, or Battle of Artemision, was a series of naval engagements over three days during the second Persian invasion of Greece. The battle took place simultaneously with the land battle at Thermopylae, in August or September 480 BC, off the coast of Euboea and was fought between an alliance of Greek city-states, including Sparta, Athens, Corinth and others, and the Persian Empire of Xerxes I. The Persian invasion was a delayed response to the defeat of the first Persian invasion of Greece, which had been ended by the Athenian victory at the Battle of Marathon. King Xerxes had amassed a huge army and navy, and set out to conquer all of Greece. The Athenian general Themistocles proposed that the Allied Greeks block the advance of the Persian army at the pass of Thermopylae and simultaneously block the Persian navy at the Straits of Artemisium. An Allied naval force of 271 triremes was thus dispatched to await the arrival of the Persians. Approaching Artemisium towards the end of summer, the Persian navy was caught in a gale off the coast of Magnesia and lost around a third of their 1200 ships. After arriving at Artemisium, the Persians sent a detachment of 200 ships around the coast of Euboea in an attempt to trap the Greeks, but these were caught in another storm and shipwrecked. The main action of the battle took place after two days of smaller engagements. The two sides fought all day, with roughly equal losses; however, the smaller Allied fleet could not afford the losses. After the engagement, the Allies received news of the defeat of the Allied army at Thermopylae. Since their strategy required both Thermopylae and Artemisium to be held, and given their losses, the Allies decided to withdraw to Salamis. The Persians overran and gained control over Phocis, then Boeotia, and finally entered Attica where they captured the now-evacuated Athens. However, seeking a decisive victory over the Allied fleet, the Persians were later defeated at the Battle of Salamis in late 480 BC. Fearing being trapped in Europe, Xerxes withdrew with much of his army to Asia, leaving Mardonius to complete the conquest of Greece. The following year, however, saw an Allied army decisively defeat the Persians at the Battle of Plataea, thereby ending the Persian invasion. Contents 1 Background 2 Prelude 2.1 Chronology 3 Opposing forces 3.1 Persian fleet 3.2 Greek fleet 4 Strategic and tactical considerations 5 Battle 5.1 First day 5.2 Second day 5.3 Third day 6 Aftermath 7 Significance 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Bibliography 11.1 Ancient sources 11.2 Modern sources 12 External links Background[edit] Main articles: Greco-Persian Wars and Second Persian invasion of Greece Site of the Battle of Artemisium (center). The location of the Battle of Thermopylae appears in the lower left corner. The Greek city-states of Athens and Eretria had supported the unsuccessful Ionian Revolt against the Persian Empire of Darius I in 499–494 BC. The Persian Empire was still relatively young, and prone to revolts amongst its subject peoples.[3][4] Moreover, Darius was an usurper, and had spent considerable time extinguishing revolts against his rule.[3] The Ionian revolt threatened the integrity of his empire, and Darius thus vowed to punish those involved (especially those not already part of the empire).[5][6] Darius also saw the opportunity to expand his empire into the fractious world of Ancient Greece.[6] A preliminary expedition under Mardonius in 492 BC, to secure the land approaches to Greece, re-conquered Thrace, and forced Macedon to become a fully subordinate client kingdom part of Persia.[7][8][9] It had been made a vassal or ally as early as the late 6th century BC, but remained having autonomy.[9] Mardonius' campaign of 492 BC changed this.[9] In 491 BC, Darius sent emissaries to all the Greek city-states, asking for a gift of 'earth and water' in token of their submission to him.[10] Having had a demonstration of his power the previous year, the majority of Greek cities duly obliged. In Athens, however, the ambassadors were put on trial and then executed by throwing them in a pit; in Sparta, they were simply thrown down a well.[10][11] This meant that Sparta was also effectively at war with Persia.[10] Darius thus put together an amphibious task force under Datis and Artaphernes in 490 BC, which attacked Naxos, before receiving the submission of the other Cycladic Islands. The task force then moved on Eretria, which it besieged and destroyed.[12] Finally, it moved to attack Athens, landing at the bay of Marathon, where it was met by a heavily outnumbered Athenian army. At the ensuing Battle of Marathon, the Athenians won a remarkable victory, which resulted in the withdrawal of the Persian army to Asia.[13] A map showing the Greek world at the time of the battle Darius therefore began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece; however, in 486 BC, his Egyptian subjects revolted, indefinitely postponing any Greek expedition.[4] Darius then died whilst preparing to march on Egypt, and the throne of Persia passed to his son Xerxes I.[14] Xerxes crushed the Egyptian revolt, and very quickly restarted the preparations for the invasion of Greece.[15] Since this was to be a full-scale invasion, it required long-term planning, stock-piling and conscription.[15] Xerxes decided that the Hellespont would be bridged to allow his army to cross to Europe, and that a canal should be dug across the isthmus of Mount Athos (rounding which headland, a Persian fleet had been destroyed in 492 BC).[16] These were both feats of exceptional ambition, which would have been beyond any contemporary state.[16] By early 480 BC, the preparations were complete, and the army Xerxes had mustered at Sardis marched towards Europe, crossing the Hellespont on two pontoon bridges.[17] The Athenians had also been preparing for war with the Persians since the mid-480s BC, and in 482 BC the decision was taken, under the guidance of the Athenian politician Themistocles, to build a massive fleet of triremes that would be necessary for the Greeks to fight the Persians.[18] However, the Athenians did not have the manpower to fight on land and sea; and therefore combating the Persians would require an alliance of Greek city states. In 481 BC, Xerxes sent ambassadors around Greece asking for earth and water, but making the very deliberate omission of Athens and Sparta.[19] Support thus began to coalesce around these two leading states. A congress of city states met at Corinth in late autumn of 481 BC,[20] and a confederate alliance of Greek city-states was formed. It had the power to send envoys asking for assistance and to dispatch troops from the member states to defensive points after joint consultation. This was remarkable for the disjointed Greek world, especially since many of the city-states in attendance were still technically at war with each other.[21] The 'congress' met again in the spring of 480 BC. A Thessalian delegation suggested that the allies could muster in the narrow Vale of Tempe, on the borders of Thessaly, and thereby block Xerxes's advance.[22] A force of 10,000 hoplites was dispatched to the Vale of Tempe, through which they believed the Persian army would have to pass. However, once there, they were warned by Alexander I of Macedon that the vale could be bypassed through the Sarantoporo Pass, and that the army of Xerxes was overwhelming, the Greeks retreated.[23] Shortly afterwards, they received the news that Xerxes had crossed the Hellespont.[22] Themistocles therefore suggested a second strategy to the allies. The route to southern Greece (Boeotia, Attica and the Peloponnesus) would require the army of Xerxes to travel through the very narrow pass of Thermopylae. The pass could easily be blocked by the Greek hoplites, despite the overwhelming numbers of Persians. Furthermore, to prevent the Persians bypassing Thermopylae by sea, the Athenian and allied navies could block the straits of Artemisium. This dual strategy was adopted by the congress.[24] However, the Peloponnesian cities made fall-back plans to defend the Isthmus of Corinth should all else fail, whilst the women and children of Athens were evacuated en masse to the Peloponnesian city of Troezen.[25] Prelude[edit] Beach at Cape Artemisium. Magnesia in the distance. The Allied fleet sailed north to Cape Artemisium once it became known that the Persian army was advancing along the coast past Mount Olympus, probably around late July or the beginning of August.[26] The Allies took up station at Artemisium, most likely beaching their ships at the headland, from which they could quickly launch them as needed.[27] The Allies sent three ships to Skiathos as scouts to provide warning of the approach of the Persian fleet but[28] two weeks passed without sight. Finally, ten Sidonian triremes arrived off Skiathos, and the main Allied fleet was informed by a fire-beacon lit on the island.[28][29] However, the Allied patrol ships themselves were caught unaware and two were captured, whilst one ran aground.[27] According to Herodotus, in the ensuing confusion, unsure whether or not the beacon heralded the arrival of the whole Persian fleet, as a precaution the whole Allied fleet launched into the straits of Artemisium.[27][29] Once it became clear that the Persian fleet was not going to arrive that day, they decided to sail to Chalcis, halfway down on the western coast of Euboea, leaving men on the heights of Euboea to warn of the actual arrival of the Persian ships.[29] Departure of the Grecian fleet for Thessaly. Historians suggest that the Allies may have misinterpreted the Persian movements and come to the mistaken conclusion that the Persians were sailing east around Skiathos, aiming to sail around the eastern side of Euboea.[30] The signals sent by fire beacons must have been very simplistic, and potentially interpreted wrongly; alternatively, the signallers may have genuinely believed that the Persian fleet was sailing to the east of Skiathos.[30] If the Persians sailed around the outer, eastern side of Euboea, they could head straight to Attica, and thereby cut off the Allied fleet's line of retreat.[30] Furthermore, the Persians had enough ships to attempt to both attack the Straits of Artemisium, and sail around Euboea.[27] The withdrawal to Chalcis therefore gave the Allies the opportunity to escape from the Straits of Euboea if the Persians did travel around the outside of Euboea, but also allowed them to return to Artemisium if necessary. In this context, the watchers left on Euboea could inform the Allies if the Persian fleet did indeed sail east of Euboea.[30] The Allied fleet thus continued to wait at Chalcis.[27] Nevertheless, the Allies, undoubtedly anxious about facing a Persian fleet that so greatly outnumbered them, may have somewhat overreacted.[27] Map showing Greek & Persian advances to Thermopylae and Artemisium Around ten days later, the Persian army arrived at Thermopylae, and the Allies at Chalcis were informed by a ship, captained by Abronichus, which had been appointed to liaise between the army and the fleet.[27] However, there was still no sign of the Persian fleet, and the first day the Persians spent at Thermopylae passed without them launching an attack.[31] The next day, the Persian fleet finally drew near to Artemisium, heading for the Gap of Skiathos (between the coast of Magnesia and Skiathos), when a summer gale (a 'Hellesponter' – probably a north-easterly storm[32]) broke, driving the Persian fleet onto the mountainous coast.[31][33] The storm lasted two days, wrecking approximately one third of the Persian ships.[31][34] Meanwhile, at Thermopylae, the Persians had continued to wait for the Greeks to disperse, also choosing not to attack during the storm.[31] The day after the storm finished, the Allied fleet returned to Artemisium to protect the flank of the army at Thermopylae.[31] The following day, (the fifth since the Persians had arrived at Thermopylae) the Persian army began their attacks on the Allied army at Thermopylae. The same day, the Persian fleet finally appeared through the Gap of Sciathos, and began mooring on the coast opposite Artemisium, at Aphetae.[34] According to Herodotus, 15 Persian ships blundered into the Allied lines, and were captured.[35] Although clearly storm damaged, the Persian fleet still probably outnumbered the Allies by nearly 3:1.[34] As a result, the Allies contemplated withdrawing completely.[36] The Euboeans, not wanting to be abandoned to the Persians, bribed Themistocles to try to ensure that the Allied fleet remained.[36] Since the joint operation at Thermopylae and Artemisium was his strategy in the first place, it is likely this is exactly what Themistocles wanted, and this bribe allowed him in turn to bribe the Spartan and Corinthian admirals, Eurybiades and Adeimantus to remain at Artemisium.[34] Later on that day, a deserter from the Persian fleet, a Greek called Scyllias, swam into the Allied camp. He brought bad news for the Allies – whilst most of the Persian fleet was undergoing repairs, the Persians had detached 200 seaworthy ships to sail around the outer coast of Euboea, to block the escape route of the Allied fleet.[34][37] The Persians did not want to attack the Allies yet, because they thought the Allies would simply flee, and so they sought to trap them.[38] The Allies resolved to go and meet this detachment, to prevent being trapped, though they planned to leave by nightfall to prevent the Persians becoming aware of their plans.[39] The Allies most likely realised that this situation presented them with an opportunity to destroy an isolated part of the Persian fleet.[32][34] Herodotus is not clear on where the Allies planned to meet this detachment, only that they resolved to do so. One possibility is that they planned to sail down the Straits of Euboea, and hope that the other Allied ships, patrolling the coast of Attica,[Note 1] followed the Persians as they entered the Straits of Euboea from the south; then the Persians might themselves be caught in a trap.[34] Alternatively, the Allies may have planned to ambush the detachment as it passed by Artemisium, on its journey from Aphetae.[32] Either way, they decided to make a demonstration towards the Persian lines during what remained of the day, to convince the Persians that they were planning to stay at Artemisium.[32][34] Herodotus also suggests that this was an opportunity for them to assess Persian seamanship and tactics.[39] The Allies probably waited until late afternoon so that there was little chance of being drawn into a full scale engagement; they did not want to suffer casualties before sailing to meet to the Persian detachment.[32] These decisions finally led to the beginning of the battle.[34] Chronology[edit] The exact chronology of the battles of Thermopylae and Artemisium, and their relation to each other is somewhat unclear. The chronology below represents an estimated reconstruction of the time-line, following Lazenby and Holland.[40][41] Day Events −15 Persian army leaves Therma c. -13 Persian reconnaissance fleet arrives at Skiathos. Allies retreat to Chalcis. −4 Persian army arrives at Thermopylae. Persian fleet leaves Therma. −3 First day of the storm. −2 Second day of the storm. −1 Storm ends. Allied fleet returns to Artemisium. 1 First day of Persian attacks at Thermopylae. Persian fleet arrives at Artemisium. Persian detachment sent around Euboea. First engagement of the Battle of Artemisium. 2 Second day of both battles. 3 Third day of both battles. Rearguard at Thermopylae outflanked and destroyed. Opposing forces[edit] Persian fleet[edit] The Ionian fleet, here seen joining with Persian forces at the Bosphorus in preparation of the European Scythian campaign of Darius I in 513 BC, was part of the Achaemenid fleet at Artemisium. 19th century illustration. Herodotus gives a detailed description of the Persian fleet that assembled at Doriskos in spring 480 BC (see table).[42] However, after the fleet was struck the storm off the coast of Magnesia, approximately one third of the fleet was lost.[33] Thus, by Herodotus's reckoning, the Persian fleet would have had approximately 800 triremes at Artemisium.[34] Region Number of ships Region Number of ships Region Number of ships Phoenicia and Syria[42] 300 Egypt[42] 200 Cyprus[43] 150 Cilicia[44] 100 Ionia[45] 100 Pontus[46] 100 Caria[47] 70 Aeolia[46] 60 Lycia[48] 50 Pamphylia[44] 30 Dorians from Asia Minor[47] 30 Cyclades[46] 17 Total 1207 Some modern scholars have accepted these numbers, especially since the ancient sources are unusually consistent on this point.[49][50][51] Other authors reject this number, with 1,207 being seen as more of a reference to the combined Greek fleet in the Iliad, and generally claim that the Persians could have launched no more than around 600 warships into the Aegean.[51][52][53] Greek fleet[edit] Herodotus claims there were 280 ships in the Greek fleet at the Battle of Artemisium, made up of the following contingents (numbers in parentheses refer to Penteconters, other ships are all Triremes): City Number of ships City Number of ships City Number of ships Athens[54] 127 Corinth[54] 40 Aegina[54] 18 Chalcis[54] 20 Megara[54] 20 Sicyon[54] 12 Sparta[54] 10 Epidaurus[54] 8 Eretria[54] 7 Troezen[54] 5 Styra[54] 2 Ceos[54] 2 (2) Opuntian Locris[54] (7) Total 271 (9)[55] The Athenians had been building up a large fleet since 483 BC, ostensibly for their ongoing conflict with Aegina.[56][57] However, it is probable that this build up, initiated by Themistocles, was also made with a future conflict with the Persians in mind.[56][57] The Athenians initially requested command of the Allied fleet, but let Eurybiades of Sparta command it to preserve unity.[58] Strategic and tactical considerations[edit] Strategically, the Allied mission was simple. The fleet needed to protect the flank of the army at Thermopylae, whilst not being cut off themselves.[32][59] For the Persians, the strategic situation was equally simple, although with more options. They needed to force their way through either one of Thermopylae or Artemisium (since holding both was necessary for the Allied effort), or to outflank either position.[32][60][61] Outflanking the Straits of Artemisium was theoretically much easier than outflanking Thermopylae, by sailing around the east coast of Euboea.[61] The Greek position at Artemisium may have been chosen in order to watch for such attempts. If narrowness of the channel had been the only determinant, the Allies could have found a better position near the city of Histiaea.[61] The Persians were at a significant tactical advantage, outnumbering the Allies and having "better sailing" ships.[62] The "better sailing" that Herodotus mentions was probably due to the superior seamanship of the crews;[62] most of the Athenian ships (and therefore the majority of the fleet) were newly built, and had inexperienced crews.[63] The most common naval tactics in the Mediterranean area at the time were ramming (triremes were equipped with a ram at the bows), or boarding by ship-borne marines (which essentially turned a sea battle into a land one).[64] The Persians and Asiatic Greeks had by this time begun to use a manoeuver known as diekplous. It is not entirely clear what this was, but it probably involved sailing into gaps between enemy ships and then ramming them in the side.[64] This maneuver would have required skilled sailing, and therefore the Persians would have been more likely to employ it. The Allies, however, developed tactics specifically to counter this.[64] Herodotus suggests that the Allied ships were heavier and, by implication, less maneuverable.[65] Their weight would further reduce the likelihood of the Allied ships employing the diekplous.[64] The source of this heaviness is uncertain; possibly the Allied ships were bulkier in construction.[64] Another suggestion is that the heaviness was caused by the weight of fully armoured hoplite marines.[64] The Allies may have had extra marines on board if their ships were less maneuverable, since boarding would then be the main tactic available to them (at the cost of making the ships even heavier).[64] Indeed, Herodotus refers to the Greeks capturing ships, rather than sinking them.[66] Battle[edit] First day[edit] Sketch reconstruction of a Greek Trireme When the Persians saw the Allied fleet rowing towards them, they decided to seize the opportunity to attack, even though it was late in the day, as they thought they would win an easy victory.[67] They quickly advanced on the much smaller Allied fleet.[67] However, the Allies had come up with a tactic for this situation, where they turned their "bows on to the barbarians, [and] they drew their sterns together in the middle".[66] This is usually taken to mean that they formed into a circle, with their rams pointing outwards;[34][62] Thucydides reports that in the Peloponnesian War, Peloponnesian fleets twice adopted a circular formation, with their sterns together.[62] However, Herodotus does not actually use the word circle, and Lazenby points out the difficulty of forming a circle of 250 ships (the Peloponnesian fleets had 30–40 ships).[62] It is thus possible the Allies formed into more of a crescent formation, with the wings drawn back to prevent the Persian ships sailing around the Allied line.[62] Whatever the case, it seems likely that this maneuver was intended to negate the superior Persian seamanship, and perhaps specifically the use of diekplous.[62][66] Disaster to the Persian fleet off Euboea's eastern shore. Having assumed this formation upon the giving of a prearranged signal, the Allied ships moved suddenly outwards from this position at a second signal, rowing into the Persian ships and catching them off guard.[34] Their superior seamanship negated, the Persians came off worst from the encounter with 30 of their ships captured or sunk.[66] During the battle a Greek ship, captained by Antidorus of Lemnos, defected to the Allies.[66] Nightfall then ended the battle, with the Allies having fared better than they possibly expected to.[34] Euboea's eastern shore, the "Hollows", where a large part of the Achaemenid fleet was shipwrecked. During the night, another storm broke (this time probably a thunder-storm, possibly with a south easterly wind),[32] preventing the Allies from setting off southwards to counter the Persian detachment sent around the outside of Euboea.[34] However, the storm also hit the Persian detachment of ships, driving them off course and onto the rocky coast of 'the Hollows' of Euboea.[68] This part of the Persian fleet was thus also shipwrecked, losing most of the ships.[69] Second day[edit] The following day, which was also the second day of Battle of Thermopylae, the Persian fleet, now recovering from the two storms, declined to attack the Allies, and instead attempted to make the fleet seaworthy again.[34][69] News of the shipwreck off Euboea reached the Allies that day, as well as a reinforcement of 53 ships from Athens.[69] Again waiting until late afternoon, the Allies took the opportunity to attack a patrol of Cilician ships, destroying them, before retreating as night fell.[69] These ships were possibly survivors of the wrecked detachment sent around Euboea, or were perhaps anchored in an isolated harbour.[62] Third day[edit] On the third day of the battle the Persian fleet was ready to attack the Allied lines in full force.[70] Seeing the Persian fleet assemble, the Allies attempted to block the Straits of Artemisium as best they could, and waited for the Persians to attack.[34] The Persians formed their ships into a semicircle and tried to enclose the Allied fleet, upon which the Allies rowed forward and joined battle.[71] The battle raged all day long, with the Allies hard put to defend their line.[34] When the fleets finally disengaged at nightfall, both sides had suffered roughly equal losses.[71] However, the smaller Allied fleet could scarcely afford such losses;[34] half the Athenian ships (the largest contingent in the fleet) were damaged or lost.[72] The heavily equipped Egyptians fought successfully against the Greek hoplites.[73] According to Herodotus, the Athenians were the best fighters on the Allied side. On the Achaemenid side, the best results had been achieved by the Egyptians, who wore a heavy individual equipment comparable to Greek hoplites, and were able to vanquish five Greek ships:[73] In that sea‑fight of all Xerxes' fighters the Egyptians bore themselves best; besides other great feats of arms that they achieved, they took five Greek ships and their crews withal. Of the Greeks on that day the Athenians bore themselves best; and of the Athenians Clinias son of Alcibiades; he brought to the war two hundred men and a ship of his own, all at his private charges. — Herodotus 8.17.[74] Returning to Artemisium, the Allies saw that they would probably not be able to hold the line for another day, such were their losses.[34] They thus debated whether they should withdraw from Artemisium, whilst they awaited news from Thermopylae.[34] Themistocles ordered the men to slaughter and barbecue the flocks of the Euboeans, so that they would not fall into Persian hands.[75] Abronichus arrived on the liaison ship from Thermopylae and told the Allies of the destruction of the Allied rearguard at Thermopylae.[76] Since holding the Straits of Artemisium now no longer held any strategic purpose, and given their losses, the Allies decided to evacuate immediately.[76] Aftermath[edit] Main articles: Second Persian invasion of Greece and Battle of Salamis Ionians and Carians of the Achaemenid army Ionian soldier of the Achaemenid army, circa 480 BC. Xerxes I tomb relief. Carian soldier of the Achaemenid army, circa 480 BC. Xerxes I tomb relief. The Persians were alerted to the withdrawal of the Greeks by a boat from Histiaea, but did not at first believe it.[77] They sent some ships to see if this was the case, and finding that it was, the whole fleet set sail for Artemisium in the morning.[77] The Persians then sailed on to Histiaea and sacked the surrounding region.[77] The Allied fleet sailed to Salamis, off the coast of Attica, to assist with the evacuation of the remaining Athenians. En route, Themistocles left inscriptions addressed to the Ionian Greek crews of the Persian fleet on all springs of water that they might stop at, asking them to defect to the Allied cause:[78] "Men of Ionia, that what you are doing is not proper, campaigning against your fathers and wishing to enslave Greece. It would be best if you came on our side. But if this is not possible, at least during the battle stand aside and also beg the Carians to do the same with you. But if you can not do either the one or the other, if you are chained by higher force and you can not defect during the operations, when we come at hand, act purposely as cowards remembering that we are of the same blood and that the first cause of animosity with the barbarians came from you."[78] Following Thermopylae, the Persian army burned and sacked the Boeotian cities that had not submitted to them—Plataea and Thespiae—and then marched on the now evacuated city of Athens.[79] Meanwhile, the Allies (for the most part Peloponnesian) prepared to defend the Isthmus of Corinth, demolishing the single road that led through it, and building a wall across it.[80] As at Thermopylae, to make this an effective strategy required the Allied navy to stage a simultaneous blockade, barring the passage of the Persian navy across the Saronic Gulf, so that troops could not be landed directly on the Peloponnese.[81] However, instead of a mere blockade, Themistocles persuaded the Allies to seek a decisive victory against the Persian fleet. Luring the Persian navy into the Straits of Salamis in September, the Allied fleet was able to destroy much of the Persian fleet, which essentially ended the threat to the Peloponnese.[82] Fearing that the Greeks might attack the bridges across the Hellespont and trap his army in Europe, Xerxes retreated with much of the army back to Asia.[83] He left a hand picked force under Mardonius to complete the conquest the following year.[84] However, under pressure from the Athenians, the Peloponnesian Allies eventually agreed to try to force Mardonius to battle, and marched on Attica.[85] Mardonius withdrew to Boeotia to lure the Greeks into open terrain and the two sides eventually met near the city of Plataea.[85] There, at the Battle of Plataea in August 479 BC, the Greek army won a decisive victory, destroying much of the Persian army, and ending the invasion of Greece.[85] Meanwhile, at the near-simultaneous naval Battle of Mycale the Greeks destroyed much of the remaining Persian fleet, thereby reducing the threat of further invasions.[86] Significance[edit] Considered by itself, Artemisium was a relatively insignificant battle. The Allies did not defeat the Persian navy, nor prevent it from advancing further along the coast of Greece.[34] Conversely, neither did the Persians destroy the Greek fleet, nor irreparably weaken it.[87] The battle was thus an indecisive one, which pleased neither side.[34][87] Nevertheless, in the wider context of the Greco-Persian wars, it was a very significant battle for the Allies. The Allies had demonstrated to themselves that they could stand up to the Persian navy, even having the better of some encounters.[34] For many of the Allied crews, it was their first taste of battle, and the experience gained was invaluable at the forthcoming Battle of Salamis.[88] Moreover, fighting the Persians at Artemisium allowed the Greek admirals to see how the Persian fleet performed, and gave them insights into how it might be beaten.[88][89] In addition, the events before and during Artemisium were crucial in cutting down the size of the Persian fleet (even if this was not all due to military action), meaning that the odds faced by the Allies at the Battle of Salamis were not overwhelming.[34][68][90] As the poet Pindar put it, Artemisium was "where the sons of the Athenians laid the shining foundation-stone of freedom".[90] See also[edit] Hydna of Scione Notes[edit] Herodotus does not explicitly mention other ships. Since there were at probably 100 more ships at the Battle of Salamis than at Artemisium, Holland assumes that the remainder were patrolling the coast of Attica.[34] References[edit] ^ Lemprière, p. 10 ^ Greswell, p. 374 ^ a b Holland, p47–55 ^ a b Holland, p203 ^ Herodotus V, 105 ^ a b Holland, 171–178 ^ Herodotus VI, 44 ^ Roisman & Worthington 2011, pp. 135-138. ^ a b c Roisman & Worthington 2011, pp. 342-345. ^ a b c Holland, pp178–179 ^ Herodotus VII, 133 ^ Herodotus VI, 101 ^ Herodotus VI, 113 ^ Holland, pp206–206 ^ a b Holland, pp208–211 ^ a b Holland, pp213–214 ^ VII, 35 ^ Holland, p217–223 ^ Herodotus VII, 32 ^ Herodotus VII, 145 ^ Holland, p226 ^ a b Holland, pp248–249 ^ Herodotus VII, 173 ^ Holland, pp255–257 ^ Herodotus VIII, 40 ^ Holland, p257–258 ^ a b c d e f g Holland, p264–269 ^ a b Herodotus VII, 179 ^ a b c Herodotus VII, 183 ^ a b c d Lazenby, pp123–125 ^ a b c d e Holland, pp271–273 ^ a b c d e f g h Lazenby, pp128–130 ^ a b Herodotus VII, 188 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y Holland, pp276–281 ^ Herodotus VII, 194 ^ a b Herodotus VIII, 4 ^ Herodotus VIII, 7 ^ Herodotus VIII, 6 ^ a b Herodotus VIII, 9 ^ Lazenby, pp118–121 ^ Holland, p396 ^ a b c Herodotus VII, 89 ^ Herodotus VII, 90 ^ a b Herodotus VII, 91 ^ Herodotus VII, 94 ^ a b c Herodotus VII, 95 ^ a b Herodotus VII, 93 ^ Herodotus VII, 92 ^ Köster (1934) ^ Holland, p320 ^ a b Lazenby, pp93–94 ^ Green, p61 ^ Burn, p331 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Herodotus VIII, 1 ^ Herodotus VIII, 2 ^ a b Holland, p221 ^ a b Lazenby, p83 ^ Holland, p258 ^ Holland, p255 ^ Lazenby, pp137–138 ^ a b c Lazenby, p125 ^ a b c d e f g h Lazenby, pp138–140 ^ Holland, pp222–224 ^ a b c d e f g Lazenby, pp34–37 ^ Herodotus VIII, 60 ^ a b c d e Herodotus VIII, 11 ^ a b Herodotus VIII, 10 ^ a b Herodotus VIII, 13 ^ a b c d Herodotus VIII, 14 ^ Herodotus VIII, 15 ^ a b Herodotus VIII, 16 ^ Herodotus VIII, 17 ^ a b Shepherd, William (2012). Plataea 479 BC: The most glorious victory ever seen. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 28. ISBN 9781849085557. ^ LacusCurtius • Herodotus – Book VIII: Chapters 1‑39. ^ Herodotus VIII, 19 ^ a b Herodotus VIII, 21 ^ a b c Herodotus VIII, 23 ^ a b Herodotus VIII, 22 ^ Herodotus VIII, 50 ^ Herodotus VIII, 71 ^ Holland, pp299–303 ^ Holland, pp327–334 ^ Herodotus VIII, 97 ^ Holland, p327–329 ^ a b c Holland, pp338–341 ^ Holland, p357–359 ^ a b Holland, p294–295 ^ a b Holland, p317 ^ Holland, p303 ^ a b Lazenby, p150 Bibliography[edit] Ancient sources[edit] Herodotus, The Histories Perseus online version Ctesias, Persica (excerpt in Photius's epitome) Diodorus Siculus, Biblioteca Historica. Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War Cicero, On the Laws Modern sources[edit] Holland, Tom. Persian Fire. London: Abacus, 2005 ( ISBN 978-0-349-11717-1) Green, Peter. The Greco-Persian Wars. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970; revised ed., 1996 (hardcover, ISBN 0-520-20573-1); 1998 (paperback, ISBN 0-520-20313-5). Lazenby, JF. The Defence of Greece 490–479 BC. Aris & Phillips Ltd., 1993 ( ISBN 0-85668-591-7) Fehling, D. Herodotus and His "Sources": Citation, Invention, and Narrative Art. Translated by J.G. Howie. Leeds: Francis Cairns, 1989. Burn, A.R., "Persia and the Greeks" in The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 2: The Median and Achaemenid Periods, Ilya Gershevitch, ed. (1985). Cambridge University Press. Köster, A.J. Studien zur Geschichte des Antikes Seewesens. Klio Belheft 32 (1934). Finley, Moses (1972). "Introduction". Thucydides – History of the Peloponnesian War (translated by Rex Warner). Penguin. ISBN 0-14-044039-9. Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (2011). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-5163-7.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) External links[edit] The Academic Publishing Wiki has a journal article about this subject: The struggle for Greece: Marathon and Artemision Livius Picture Archive: the naval battle of Artemisium (480 BC) Reed Classics, extracts from Herodotus Book Eight Artemisium Coordinates: 39°03′N 23°12′E / 39.05°N 23.2°E / 39.05; 23.2 v t e Achaemenid Empire History Kingdom Family tree Timeline History of democracy Art Achaemenid Persian Lion Rhyton Achaemenid coinage Danake Persian daric Architecture Achaemenid architecture Persepolis Pasargadae Tomb of Cyrus Naqsh-e Rostam Ka'ba-ye Zartosht Mausoleum at Halicarnassus Tombs at Xanthos Harpy Tomb Nereid Monument Tomb of Payava Culture Persepolis Administrative Archives Old Persian cuneiform Old Persian Behistun Inscription Xerxes I's inscription at Van Ganjnameh Warfare Persian Revolt Battle of Hyrba Battle of the Persian Border Lydian-Persian Wars Battle of Pteria Battle of Thymbra Siege of Sardis (547 BC) Battle of Opis First conquest of Egypt Battle of Cunaxa Conquest of the Indus Valley Scythian campaign of Darius I Greco-Persian Wars Ionian Revolt Battle of Thermopylae Battle of Artemisium Battle of Salamis Battle of Plataea Battle of Mycale Battle of Marathon Delian League Battle of Lade Siege of Eretria Siege of Naxos (499 BC) Wars of the Delian League Battle of the Eurymedon Peloponnesian War Battle of Cyzicus Corinthian War Battle of Cnidus Great Satraps' Revolt Second conquest of Egypt Wars of Alexander the Great Battle of Gaugamela Battle of the Granicus Battle of the Persian Gate Battle of Issus Siege of Gaza Siege of Halicarnassus Siege of Miletus Siege of Perinthus Siege of Tyre (332 BC) Related Achaemenid dynasty Pharnacid dynasty Peace of Antalcidas Peace of Callias Kingdom of Pontus Mithridatic dynasty Kingdom of Cappadocia Ariarathid dynasty 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire Districts of the Empire Royal Road Xanthian Obelisk Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Artemisium&oldid=990124629" Categories: Battle of Artemisium 480 BC 480s BC conflicts Naval battles involving the Achaemenid Empire Naval battles of the Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Euboea Naval battles involving Athens Battles involving Phoenicia Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata CS1 maint: ref=harv Coordinates on Wikidata Good articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه Bosanski Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 22 November 2020, at 23:21 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7480	----	Sobekemsaf II - Wikipedia Sobekemsaf II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sekhemre Shedtawy Sobekemsaf Sitting statuette of Sobekemsaf II, likely from Thebes.[1] Pharaoh Reign c.1570s BC (17th Dynasty of Egypt) Predecessor Sobekemsaf I Successor Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sekhemre Shedtawy Sḫm-Rˁ-šd-t3.w(j) Mighty Re, savior of the two lands Nomen Sobekemsaf Sbk m s3=f Sobek protects him Consort Nubkhaes Children Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef, Nubkheperre Intef Father Sobekemsaf I Sekhemre Shedtawy Sobekemsaf II was an Egyptian king of the Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt who reigned during the Second Intermediate Period, when Egypt was ruled by multiple kings (he was once thought to belong to the late Thirteenth Dynasty). His throne name, Sekhemre Shedtawy, means "Powerful is Re; Rescuer of the Two Lands."[2] It is now believed by Egyptologists that Sobekemsaf II was the father of both Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef and Nubkheperre Intef based on an inscription carved on a doorjamb discovered in the ruins of a 17th Dynasty temple at Gebel Antef in the early 1990s which was built under Nubkheperre Intef. The doorjamb mentions a king Sobekem[saf] as the father of Nubkheperre Intef/Antef VII--(Antef begotten of Sobekem...)[3] He was in all likelihood the Prince Sobekemsaf who is attested as the son and designated successor of king Sobekemsaf I on Cairo Statue CG 386.[4] According to the Abbott Papyrus and the Leopold-Amherst Papyrus, which is dated to Year 16 of Ramesses IX, Sekhemre Shedtawy Sobekemsaf was buried along with his chief Queen Nubkhaes in his royal tomb. Contents 1 Placement in the 17th Dynasty 2 The robbery of Sobekemsaf's tomb 3 References 4 Bibliography 5 Further reading Placement in the 17th Dynasty[edit] The German Egyptologist Daniel Polz, who rediscovered Nubkheperre Intef's tomb at Dra Abu el Naga', strongly maintains that Nubkheperre Intef ruled very late in the 17th Dynasty, which means that Sekhemre Wadjkhau Sobekemsaf (I) cannot have intervened between the Intef line of kings and the Ahmoside family of kings: Senakhtenre, Seqenenre and Kamose. Polz's hypothesis that Nubkheperre Intef ruled late in the 17th Dynasty is supported "by the evidence of the box of Minemhat, who was governor of Coptos" in Year 3 of Nubkheperre Intef[5] "which was part of the funerary equipment of an Aqher who lived under Seqenenre [Tao]."[6] This discovery strongly suggests that the reigns of Nubkheperre Intef and Seqenenre Tao were separated by only a few years in time rather than 15 to 20 years at a time when few pharaohs enjoyed long reigns in the 17th Dynasty. The late Middle Kingdom German Egyptologist Detlef Franke (1952–2007) also supported this view in an article which was published in 2008—a year after his death—where he wrote: Contrary to Ryholt, I see no place for a king Sobekemsaf who ruled [Egypt] after Nubkheperra Antef.[7] Ryholt believed that Sekhemre Wadjkhaw Sobekemsaf intervened between the line of Intef kings and the accession of Senakhtenre—the first 17th Dynasty kings from the Ahmoside family line. Polz argues that Sekemre Wadjkhaw Sobekemsaf was instead the father of Sekhemre Shedtawy Sobekemsaf (II) and the grandfather of the Intef kings since a statue of Sekhemre Wadjkhaw Sobekemsaf shows that his eldest son was also named Sobekemsaf as Anthony Spalinger notes.[8] This means that Sekhemre Wadjkhaw Sobekemsaf ruled on the throne before the Intef kings took power early in the 17th Dynasty—and that he would be Sobekemsaf I instead and the father of Sobekemsaf II. Since Sekhemre Shedtawy Sobekemsaf (II) himself is known to be the father of Nubkheperre Intef, this means that both he and Sobekemsaf I ruled Egypt before Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef and Nubkheperre Intef assumed the throne. Sobekemsaf II would, therefore, be the son of Sobekemsaf I and the father of his two immediate successors: Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef and Nubkheperre Intef. The robbery of Sobekemsaf's tomb[edit] The Abbott and Leopold-Amherst Papyruses, which are dated to Year 16 of Ramesses IX, state that this king's royal pyramid tomb was violated and destroyed by tomb robbers. The confessions and tomb robbery trials of the men responsible for the looting of Sekhemre Shedtawy Sobekemsaf's tomb are detailed in the latter papyrus which is dated to Year 16, III Peret day 22 of Ramesses IX. This document relates that a certain Amenpnufer, son of Anhernakhte, a stonemason from the Temple of Amun Re "fell into the habit of robbing the tombs [of noblemen in West Thebes] in company with the stonemason Hapiwer" and mentions that they robbed Sobekemsaf's tomb along with six other accomplices in Year 13 of Ramesses IX.[9] Amenpnufer confesses that they ...went to rob the tombs...and we found the pyramid of [king] Sekhemre Shedtaui, the son of Re Sebekemsaf, this being not at all like the pyramids and tombs of the nobles which we habitually went to rob.[9] In his trial, Amenpnufer testifies that he and his companions dug a tunnel into the king's pyramid with their copper tools: Then we broke through the rubble...and we found this god (king) lying at the back of his burial-place. And we found that the burial-place of Nubkhaes, his queen, situated beside him...We opened their sarcophagi and their coffins in which they were, and found the noble mummy of this King equipped with a falcon; a large number of amulets and jewels of gold were upon his neck, and his head-piece of gold was upon him. The noble mummy of this King was completely bedecked with gold, and his coffins were adorned with gold and silver inside and out and inlaid with all kinds of precious stones. We collected the gold on the noble mummy of this god...and we collected all that we found on her (the Queen) likewise; and we set fire to their coffins. We took their furniture...consisting of articles of gold, silver and bronze, and divided them amongst ourselves...Then we crossed over to Thebes. And after some days the District Superintendent of Thebes heard that we had been stealing in the west, and they seized me and imprisoned me in the office of the Mayor of Thebes. And I took the twenty deben of gold which had fallen to me as my portion and gave them to Khaemope, the scribe of the quarter attached to the landing place of Thebes. He released me, and I rejoined my companions, and they compensated me with a portion once again. Thus I, together, with other thieves who are with me, have continued to this day in the practise of robbing the tombs of the nobles and the [deceased] people of the land who rest in the west of Thebes.[10] Amenpnufer states that the treasures taken from the two royal mummies amounted to "160 deben of gold" or 32 lbs (14.5 kg).[11] The document ends with the conviction of the thieves—with a probable death sentence—and notes that a copy of the official trial transcripts was dispatched to Ramesses IX in Lower Egypt. Amenpnufer himself would have been sentenced to death by impalement, a punishment which "was reserved for [only] the most heinous crimes" in Ancient Egypt.[12] References[edit] ^ Flinders Petrie, A History of Egypt, vol. I, p. 223. ^ Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames and Hudson Ltd, paperback 2006. p.94 ^ mentioned by Kim Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c.1800–1550 B.C, pp.266-270 394 File 17/4.6 & p.270 ^ Daniel Polz, Der Beginn des Neuen Reiches. Zur Vorgeschichte einer Zeitenwende. Sonderschriften des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo, 31. Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2007. pp.49-50 ^ see the Coptos Decree ^ Herbert Winlock, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 10 (1924) 258 with n.1 & Thomas Schneider, "The Relative Chronology of the Middle Kingdom and the Hyksos Period (Dyns. 12-17)" in Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss & David Warburton (editors), Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies), Brill, 2006. p.187 ^ Detlef Franke, The Late Middle Kingdom (Thirteenth to Seveenth Dynasties): The Chronological Framework, Journal of Egyptian History, Vol.1 No.2 (2008) Koninklijke Brill, p.279 ^ Anthony Spalinger, LÄ, V, 1032. ^ a b Leonard Cottrell, The Lost Pharaohs, Pan Books, London and Sydney, 8th printing:1977, p.135 ^ Cottrell, pp.135-36 ^ Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames & Hudson Ltd, 1994, p.171 ^ Anton Gill, "Ancient Egyptians: The Kingdom of the Pharaohs brought to Life," Harper Collins Entertainment, 2003. pp.176-77 Bibliography[edit] Kim Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c.1800–1550 B.C, Museum Tuscalanum Press, 1997. ISBN 87-7289-421-0, 393 File 17/2 Further reading[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sobekemsaf Sekhemre-Shedtawy. Franke, Detlef (2010). ""When the sun goes down..." – Early solar hymns on a pyramidion stela from the reign of Sekhemra-shedtawy Sobekemsaf". In Marée, Marcel (ed.). The Second Intermediate Period (13th-17th Dynasties), Current Research, Future Prospects. Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta. Peeters. pp. 283–302. ISBN 978-9042922280. Preceded by Sobekemsaf I Pharaoh of Egypt Seventeenth Dynasty Succeeded by Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sobekemsaf_II&oldid=1002512876" Categories: 16th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload 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en-wikipedia-org-7481	----	Bardiya - Wikipedia Bardiya From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Gaumata) Jump to navigation Jump to search "Gaumata" redirects here. See also Gautama. For other uses, see Bardiya (disambiguation). Son of Cyrus the Great King of Kings Bardiya 𐎲𐎼𐎮𐎡𐎹 King of Kings Great King King of Persia King of Babylon Pharaoh of Egypt King of Countries Portrait of the Achaemenid ruler toppled by Darius, as appearing on the Behistun inscription: he was either the legitimate Bardiya, or, as claimed by Darius, an imposter named Gaumāta. King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Reign 522 BC Predecessor Cambyses II Successor Darius the Great Pharaoh of Egypt Reign 525–522 BC Predecessor Cambyses II Successor Darius the Great Burial 522 BC Spouse Phaidyme Issue Parmys Dynasty Achaemenid Father Cyrus II (the Great) Mother Cassandane Religion Zoroastrianism Bardiya (Old Persian: 𐎲𐎼𐎮𐎡𐎹[1] Bạrdiya),[2] also known as Smerdis among the Greeks[3] (Ancient Greek: Σμέρδις Smerdis) (possibly died 522 BC), was a son of Cyrus the Great and the younger brother of Cambyses II, both Persian kings. There are sharply divided views on his life. Bardiya either ruled the Achaemenid Empire for a few months in 522 BC, or was impersonated by a magus called Gaumāta (Old Persian: 𐎥𐎢𐎶𐎠𐎫), until he was toppled by Darius the Great.[4][5] Contents 1 Name and sources 2 Traditional view 2.1 In Herodotus' Histories 2.2 In Ctesias' Persika 3 Modern view 4 Aftermath 5 Bardiya in fiction 6 References Name and sources[edit] The prince's name is listed variously in the historical sources. In Darius the Great's Behistun inscription, his Persian name is Bardiya or Bardia. Herodotus calls him Smerdis, which is the prevalent Greek form of his name; the Persian name has been assimilated to the Greek (Asiatic) name Smerdis or Smerdies, a name which also occurs in the poems of Alcaeus and Anacreon. He is called Tanyoxarces (Sphendadates) by Ctesias,[6] he is called Tanooxares by Xenophon, who takes the name from Ctesias,[7] and he is called Mardos by Justin[8] and Aeschylus.[9] In English-language histories he has traditionally been called Smerdis, following Herodotus' example, but recent histories tend to call him Bardiya.[10][11] Traditional view[edit] Gaumata under Darius I's boot engraved at Behistun Inscription in Kermanshah. The traditional view is based on several ancient sources, including the Behistun inscription[12] as well as Herodotus,[13] in Ctesias,[14] and Justin, although there are minor differences among them. The three oldest surviving sources agree that Gaumata/Pseudo-Smerdis/Sphendadates was overthrown by Darius and others in a coup d'état, and that Darius then ascended the throne. Most sources (including Darius himself, Herodotus and Ctesias) have Darius as part of a group of seven conspirators. In Greek and Latin sources, Darius subsequently gained kingship by cheating in a contest. Bardiya was the younger son of Cyrus the Great and a full or half-brother of Cambyses II. According to Ctesias, on his deathbed Cyrus appointed Bardiya as satrap (governor) of some of the far-eastern provinces.[15] According to Darius the Great, Cambyses II, after becoming king of Persia but before setting out for Egypt, killed Bardiya and kept this secret. However, according to Herodotus (who gives two detailed stories), Bardiya went to Egypt with Cambyses and was there for some time but later Cambyses sent him back to Susa out of envy, because “Bardiya alone could draw the bow brought from the Ethiopian king.” Herodotus then states that "Cambyses had a dream in which he saw his brother sitting on the royal throne. As a result of this dream Cambyses sent his trusted counselor Prexaspes from Egypt to Susa with the order to kill Smerdis" (i.e., Bardiya).[16] Bardiya's death was not known to the people, and so in the spring of 522 BC, a usurper pretended to be him and proclaimed himself king on a mountain near the Persian town of Paishiyauvada. Darius claimed that the real name of the usurper was Gaumata, a Magian priest from Media; this name has been preserved by Justin but given to his brother Cambyses (called Patizeithes by Herodotus), who is said to have been the real promoter of the intrigue. According to Herodotus, the name of the Magian usurper was Oropastes, but according to Ctesias it was Sphendadates.[citation needed] Gaumata being trampled upon by Darius the Great, Behistun inscription. The Old Persian inscription reads "This is Gaumâta, the Magian. He lied, saying "I am Smerdis, the son of Cyrus, I am king"."[17] The despotic rule of Cambyses, coupled with his long absence in Egypt, contributed to the fact that "the whole people, Persians, Medes and all the other nations," acknowledged the usurper, especially as he granted a tax relief for three years.[18] Cambyses began to march against him, but died in the spring of 522 BC in disputed circumstances. Before his death he confessed to the murder of his brother, and publicly explained the whole fraud, but this was not generally believed. Nobody had the courage to oppose the new king, who ruled for seven months over the whole empire. The new king transferred the seat of government to Media. A number of Persian nobles discovered that their new ruler was an impostor, and a group of seven nobles formed a plot to kill him. They surprised him at a castle in Nisa, home of the Nisean horses, and stabbed him to death in September 522 BC. One of the seven, Darius, was proclaimed as ruler shortly after.[citation needed] While the primary sources do not agree on the names and many other details, the three oldest surviving sources (Darius himself, Herodotus and Ctesias) all portray Gaumata/Pseudo-Smerdis/Sphendadates as an imposter who usurped the throne by posing as one of the sons of Cyrus the Great, i.e. as one of the brothers of Cambyses II. In Darius' trilingual Behistun inscription, the prince being impersonated is named "Pirtiya" in Elamite, "Bardiya" in Old Persian, and "Barziya" in Akkadian. In Herodotus' Histories, the prince and his imposter have the same name (Smerdis). For Ctesias, Sphendadates poses as 'Tanyoxarces'. Other Greek sources have various other names for the figure being impersonated, including 'Tanoxares', 'Mergis' and 'Mardos'.[19]:98 In Herodotus' Histories[edit] Phaedyme is sent by her father Otanes, to check if King Smerdis has ears under his turban, as the suspected imposter was known to have had them cut off in punishment for a crime. She found that indeed the king did not have ears anymore, which proved that he was an imposter, and justified the coup in favour of Darius I. "The struggle between Gobryas and the false Smerdis", 19th century print. Bardiya / Smerdis in relation to his successor Darius the Great in the Achaemenid lineage. A longer version of the story appears in Book 3 of Herodotus' Histories, written c. 450 BC. That story there (3.1–38, 3.61–88) can be roughly summarized as follows:[20][13] While in Egypt, Cambyses wounds the thigh of the sacred bull worshipped as the god Apis, and when the sacred bull dies from the wound, Cambyses loses his already tenuous grasp on sanity (3.27–3.30). Jealous of his brother Smerdis' skill with a particular bow brought from the king of Ethiopia, Cambyses sends Smerdis back to Persis. Cambyses then has a dream in which Smerdis would supplant him, so he sends a henchman to murder him secretly (3.30). The assassination succeeds and is meant to be kept secret. One of the few that know of Smerdis' death is Patizeithes, the steward of Cambyses' palace at Susa. That steward has a brother who greatly resembles Smerdis in appearance, and whose name is also Smerdis (3.61.1). The steward then puts his brother on the throne, and has him pretend that he is the brother of Cambyses. The false Smerdis succeeds in the deception by not allowing anyone who knew the real Smerdis into his presence (3.61). Still in Egypt, Cambyses learns of the false Smerdis, and knowing that the real Smerdis is dead, recognises the deception. Cambyses then readies his army to return to Susa, but while mounting his horse accidentally injures his thigh with the point of his sword. Cambyses dies from the wound a few days later (3.63–3.66). On his death bed, Cambyses perceives Smerdis as favouring a return to Median hegemony (3.65). The false Smerdis then continues to rule at Susa for some time, and gains support from everyone except the Persians when he grants a three-year military draft and tax exemption to the various peoples of the empire (3.67). Meanwhile, Otanes, a nobleman of Persis, suspects that the king is not the brother of Cambyses, but rather the Smerdis whose ears Cyrus had commanded be cut off "for some grave reason" (3.69.6). To confirm his suspicion, Otanes asks his daughter Phaidyme – who is a member of the harem and thus has access to the king – to check whether the man has ears. Phaidyme does as asked, and one night while the king is asleep, confirms that the king does not in fact have ears. His suspicions confirmed, Otanes then gathers six noblemen and plots to get rid of the false Smerdis. A seventh nobleman, Darius, arrives at the capital shortly thereafter, and is then included in the group. The seven conspirators charge into the chambers of the king, and while five deal with the guards, Darius and Megabyzus kill the false Smerdis and a companion. Five days later, after the tumult has died down, the seven meet again to discuss a suitable form of government (3.80–82). After some discussion over the merits of democracy (proposed by Otanes) and oligarchy (proposed by Megabyzus) and monarchy (proposed by Darius), four of the seven vote in favour of a monarchy. They then decide to hold a contest whereby whichever of them got his horse to neigh first after sunrise shall become king. Darius cheats and ascends the throne (3.84–3.87). In Ctesias' Persika[edit] Ctesias' version (c. 400 BC) runs as follows (XI/F9.8 and XII/F13.11-17, via Photius Bibl. 72):[21][14] King Cyrus, as he lay dying, appointed his elder son, Cambyses, to the throne and appointed his younger son, Tanyoxarces, governor of the provinces of Bactria, Chorasmia, Parthia, and Carmania. Shortly after Cambyses ascends the throne, a certain Sphendadates who had been whipped by Tanyoxarces for some offence, informs Cambyses that his brother is plotting against him. As proof of this he declares that Tanyoxarces would refuse to come if summoned. When Tanyoxarces does not immediately accede to the summons, Cambyses begins to believe Sphendadates, who then begins to slander Tanyoxarces more freely. By the time Tanyoxarces finally arrives, Cambyses is determined to put him to death, but hesitates. Sphendadates suggests that, since he (Sphendadates) looks very much like Tanyoxarces, he could take the prince's place. Cambyses agrees, and Tanyoxarces is killed by being forced to drink bull's blood. Sphendadates then takes the place as governor of the eastern provinces. Five years later, while in Babylon, Cambyses accidentally wounds himself in the thigh, and dies eleven days later. Upon hearing of Cambyses death, Sphendadates (alias Tanyoxarces) returns to the capital and succeeds Cambyses. Meanwhile, Izabates, a confidant of Cambyses who knew of the killing of Tanyoxarces, is on his way with the body of Cambyses. Upon arriving at the capital and finding Sphendadates on the throne, Izabates exposes the fraud. Then, seven noblemen (among them Darius) conspire against Sphendadates. The seven are admitted to the palace by a co-conspirator, where Sphendadates is then killed. The seven then decide to hold a contest whereby whichever of them got his horse to neigh first after sunrise shall become king. Darius gets his horse to be the first to neigh (F13.17: "the result of a cunning stratagem") and he ascends the throne. Modern view[edit] Medieval image of Bardiya. Most modern historians do not consider Darius' version of events convincing, and assume that the person who ruled for a few months was the real son of Cyrus, and that the story of his impersonation by a magus was an invention of Darius to justify his seizure of the throne.[22][23][24][25][26] The key argument against a fabrication is that there is no evidence for it, and lacking further discoveries that view "must remain hypothetical".[27] However the idea that Gaumata was a fabrication is nonetheless appealing because "it was vital for a man like Darius, who had no particular rights to the throne, to invent a character (Gaumāta) condemned for his acts against gods and men."[28] There are some implausibilities in the official story, e.g. the impostor resembled the real Bardiya so closely that most of his wives did not spot the difference, except for queen Phaidyme.[29][30] Darius often accused rebels and opponents of being impostors (such as Nebuchadnezzar III) and it could be straining credulity to say that they all were.[11][25][31] Aftermath[edit] In the next year, another person claiming to be Bardiya, named Vahyazdāta (Old Persian: 𐎺𐏃𐎹𐏀𐎭𐎠𐎫[32]) rose against Darius in eastern Persia and met with great success, but he was finally defeated, taken prisoner and executed.[33] Perhaps he is identical with the King Maraphis "the Maraphian," name of a Persian tribe, who occurs as successor in the list of Persian kings given by Aeschylus.[34] The real Bardiya had only one daughter, called Parmys, who eventually married Darius the Great. Some contracts dating from his reign have been found in Babylonia, where his name is spelt Barziya or Bardiya.[35] Darius says that Bardiya destroyed some temples, which Darius later restored. Bardiya also took away the herds and houses of the people, which Darius corrected once he gained the throne.[36] The death of the false Bardiya was annually celebrated in Persia by a feast called "the killing of the magian," (Magiophani) at which no magian was allowed to show himself.[37][38] Bardiya in fiction[edit] This episode is dealt with by Gore Vidal in his novel Creation. He takes the view that the person who ruled for a few months was the real Bardiya. "The impostor magician Smerdis" is mentioned in the short story by Jorge Luis Borges, Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius. He is the only historical character that the protagonist is able to recognize when discovering the article on the fictitious nation of Uqbar, and it is stated that his name has been invoked mainly as a metaphor. References[edit] ^ Akbarzadeh, D.; A. Yahyanezhad (2006). The Behistun Inscriptions (Old Persian Texts) (in Persian). Khaneye-Farhikhtagan-e Honarhaye Sonati. p. 59. ISBN 964-8499-05-5. ^ Kent, Roland G. (1950). Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon. ^ "Bardiya | king of Persia". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-08-14. ^ Akbarzadeh, D.; A. Yahyanezhad (2006). The Behistun Inscriptions (Old Persian Texts) (in Persian). Khaneye-Farhikhtagan-e Honarhaye Sonati. p. 60. ISBN 964-8499-05-5. ^ Kent, Roland G. (1950). Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon. ^ Ctesias Pers. 8 ^ Xenophon Cyrop. Vin. 7.ii ^ Justin i.9, Mergis ^ Aeschylus Pers. 774 ^ Leick, Gwendolyn Who's Who in the Ancient Near East ^ a b Van de Mieroop, Marc A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 B.C. 2nd edition (Oxford 2007) pp. 290–291 ^ livius.org/articles/place/behistun ^ a b A. D. Godley Herodotus : The Persian Wars : Books 3–4 (Cambridge, MA 1921) pp. 38–41, 76–117 Commons:File:Smerdis(Herodotus).pdf ^ a b Ctesias; Stronk, Jan P., tr. (2010), Ctesias' Persian History: Introduction, text, and translation, Wellem, pp. 323–325. ^ Ctesias, Persica: Book 11, Fragment 9, taken from Photius' excerpt https://www.livius.org/ct-cz/ctesias/photius_persica.html#%A78 cf. Xenophon Cyrop. vin. 7, if ^ Dandamaev, M. (2001). "Bardia". Encyclopaedia Iranica. 3. New York. ^ Behistun, minor inscriptions DBb inscription- Livius. ^ Herodotus III.68 ^ Briant, Pierre (2002), From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire, Eisenbrauns. ^ Herodotus; Godley, A. D., tr. (1931), Herodotus, with an English translation by A. D. Godley, London: Heinemann. ^ Ctesias; Nicols, Andrew, ed., tr. (2008), The Complete Fragments of Ctesias of Cnidus, University of Florida (PhD thesis), pp. 25, 90, 92–93. ^ Olmstead, A. T. (1959), History of the Persian Empire, University of Chicago Press. ^ Axworthy, Michael (2008), Iran: Empire of the Mind, New York: Basic Books. ^ Van De Mieroop, Marc (2006), A History of the Ancient Near East (2nd ed.), Blackwell. ^ a b Holland, Tom Persian Fire ^ Allen, Lindsay (2005), The Persian Empire, London: The British Museum press, p. 42. ^ Dandamayev, M. A. (1988), "Bardiya", Encyclopedia Iranica, vol. 3, fasc. 8, Costa Mesa: Mazda, pp. 785–786. ^ Briant, Pierre (2000), "Gaumāta", Encyclopedia Iranica, vol. X, fasc. 3, New York: Routledge, Kegan Paul, pp. 333–335. ^ http://www.persepolis.nu/queens.htm#phaidyme ^ Bourke, Dr. Stephen (chief consultant) The Middle East: Cradle of Civilisation Revealed p. 225, ISBN 978-0-500-25147-8 ^ Behistun Inscription 4.1 (52) ^ Akbarzadeh, D.; A. Yahyanezhad (2006). The Behistun Inscriptions (Old Persian Texts) (in Persian). Khaneye-Farhikhtagan-e Honarhaye Sonati. p. 115. ISBN 964-8499-05-5. ^ Behistun Inscription ~ 40 if. ^ Aeschylus Pers. 778 ^ For the chronology, see Parker & Dubberstein, Babylonian Chronology. ^ Behistun Inscription i.14 ^ Herodotus III.79 ^ Ctesias Pers. 15  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Smerdis". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Bardiya Achaemenid dynasty Born: ?? Died: 522 BC Preceded by Cambyses II King of Kings of Persian Empire 522 BC Succeeded by Darius the Great Pharaoh of Egypt 522 BC Wikimedia Commons has media related to Smerdis. v t e Median and Achaemenid kings Family tree Median (728–550 BC) Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Achaemenid (550–330 BC) Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Nothus Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Italics indicate kings not directly attested and so possibly legendary. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC v t e Cyrus the Great Teispids, Achaemenid Empire Family Cambyses I Mandane of Media Cassandane Amitis Children Cambyses II Bardiya Atossa Artystone Battles Persian Revolt Hyrba Persian Border Pasargadae Pteria Thymbra Sardis Opis Related "Cyrus" (name) Pasargadae Cyrus Cylinder Cyropaedia Tomb Cyrus in the Bible Cyrus's edict Cyrus in the Quran Dhul-Qarnayn Kay Bahman Cyrus the Great Day Cyrus the Great (screenplay) Ciro riconosciuto Category Authority control GND: 119178729 LCCN: nr94018056 VIAF: 26945854 WorldCat Identities: viaf-35260727 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bardiya&oldid=1001268234" Categories: 6th-century BC Kings of the Achaemenid Empire 6th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Achaemenid dynasty of Egypt Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt 522 BC deaths 6th-century BC murdered monarchs Murdered Persian monarchs Deaths by stabbing in Iran Impostor pretenders Persian masculine given names Achaemenid dynasty 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en-wikipedia-org-7485	----	Category:Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is for articles with NTA identifiers. Please do not add subcategories. For more information, see Wikipedia:Authority control. Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. They are not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. 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en-wikipedia-org-7493	----	Hydarnes - Wikipedia Hydarnes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Satrap of Parthia, Hyrcania, Media, Matiene and Sophene Hydarnes Satrap of Parthia, Hyrcania, Media, Matiene and Sophene Darius I, and five other conspirators, including Hydarnes, invoking the sun to become King. Reign 521 - 480 BC Issue Hydarnes II, Stateira, Terituchmes, Sisamnes Full name Vidarna House Achaemenid Dynasty Orontid Hydarnes I or Hidarnes I (Greek: Ὑδάρνης, from Old Persian Vidaṛna), also known as Hidarnes the Old by contrast with his son Hidarnes the Young, son of Bagābigna, was a Persian nobleman of the Orontid dynasty during the Achaemenid Empire in the late 6th and early 5th centuries BC. He was one of the seven conspirators against the usurper, Gaumâta, who killed him and then proclaimed Darius I as the Persian king. His name appears in the Behistun inscription among the six conspirators who supported the rise of Darius the Great. Hydarnes then served Darius I as a commander and remained influential during his reign. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Life 3 Descendance 4 References 5 Notes Etymology[edit] The etymology of Vidarna is debatable[citation needed]. It is possible that it is from the root vida meaning knowledge with Vidarna signifying "the one who knows"[citation needed]. Others believe the compound vi-drna suggests "strike" as in "one who strikes"[citation needed]. The latter etymology raises an interesting prospect, for in Modern Persian and Urdu there is a possible surviving variant of the name in H(a)idar (حیدر) long thought to be of Arabic origin due to its literation but which means lion (the striking animal)[citation needed]. If this is so, Vidarna could be rendered lion-like. for the lion also had obvious associations with Mithra, a major god of the Achaemenid religion[citation needed]. Life[edit] In 522 BC, a Magian named Gaumâta seized power in the Achaemenid empire, claiming to be Smerdis, the brother of the legitimate king Cambyses. Hydarnes was one of the seven conspirators along with Otanes, Ardumanish, Gobryas, Intaphrenes, Megabyzos and Darius against the usurper Gaumâta. After they killed Gaumâta in September 522 BC, they proclaimed Darius the new Great King of Persia.[1] After the successful transfer of power, Hydarnes served Darius I as a commander against the rebellious Medes under Phraortes[citation needed]. In 521 BC, the Persians defeated the Medes in a battle near Maruš (Mehriz, thirty kilometres south of modern Yazd).[2] Hydarnes remained an influential man during the reign of Darius. From tablets found at Persepolis, it is known that he was satrap of Media in 499 BC.[3] The influence of Hydarnes also secured the appointment of his sons as satraps. Herodotus states that Hydarnes’ son Sisamnes was the satrap of Aria and that the younger Hydarnes was "in command of the whole Asian seaboard".[4] During the Second Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BC, the younger Hydarnes was given command of the "Immortals";[5] while Sisamnes was given command of a levy of Arian troops.[6] Hidarnes established the "Yervandakan" feast in the name of the Orontid Dynasty, which sounds in Armenian as "Yervanduni". The feast was dedicated to the Orontid Dynasty, Van city or, as it was called in those days, Yervandakan, Lake Van and Hayots Canion Gorge.[7] Descendance[edit] Satrap Tissaphernes (445 BC–395 BC) was a grandson of Hydarnes. Tissaphernes, 4th century BC satrap of Lydia, was the great-grandson of Hydarnes. References[edit] Pierre Briant: From Cyrus to Alexander. A History of the Persian Empire. Translated by Peter T Daniels Eisenbrauns, 2002, ISBN 1-57506-031-0 Herodotus, Herodotus, with an English translation by A. D. Godley. Cambridge. Harvard University Press. 1920. Notes[edit] ^ Herodotus: Histories III, 70 ^ Behistun Inscription, Column 2, §25. ^ "Livius.org Articles on ancient history". Hydarnes (1). 1 January 2015. Retrieved 8 February 2015. ^ Herodotus, Histories VI,133 ^ Herodotus: Histories. VII, 83 ^ Herodotus: Histories. VII, 66 ^ Khachatryan, Hayk (2006). 141 Kings of the Armenians. Erevan: Amaras. ISBN 978-99930-1-192-7 v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC This Ancient Near East biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e    This Iranian history-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydarnes&oldid=1002461603" Categories: 5th-century BC Iranian people 6th-century BC Iranian people Achaemenid satraps of Media Officials of Darius the Great Ancient Near East people stubs Iranian history stubs Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2015 All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages تۆرکجه Български Català Deutsch Español فارسی Français Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia עברית ქართული Latina 日本語 Norsk bokmål Português Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Winaray Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 15:59 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7499	----	Babylonia - Wikipedia Babylonia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Babylonians) Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the ancient (pre-539 BC) empires. For the region called Babylonia by Jewish sources in the later, Talmudic period, see Talmudic Academies in Babylonia. For other uses, see Babylonia (disambiguation). Ancient Akkadian region in Mesopotamia This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (May 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Babylonia 𒆳𒆍𒀭𒊏𒆠  (Akkadian) māt Akkadī 1895 BC–539 BC The extent of the Babylonian Empire at the start and end of Hammurabi's reign, located in what today is modern day Kuwait and Iraq Capital Babylon Official languages Akkadian Sumerian Aramaic Common languages Akkadian Aramaic Religion Babylonian religion History   • Established 1895 BC • Disestablished 539 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Sumeria Akkadian Empire Achaemenid Empire Today part of  Iraq  Syria Part of a series on the History of Iraq Prehistory Ubaid period Hassuna culture Halaf culture Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period Samarra culture (Eridu) Uruk period Jemdet Nasr Period Bronze Age Sumer Assyria Akkadian Empire Simurrum Babylonia Neo-Assyrian Empire Neo-Babylonian Empire Median Kingdom Iron Age Achaemenid Assyria Seleucid Babylonia Parthian Babylonia Roman Mesopotamia Sasanian Asorestan Middle Ages Islamic conquest Rashidun Caliphate Umayyad Caliphate Abbasid Caliphate Hamdanids Buyid amirate of Iraq Marwanids Uqaylids Al-Mazeedi Ayyubids Seljuk Empire Zengids Ilkhanate Jalairid Sultanate Kara Koyunlu Aq Qoyunlu Early modern period Safavids Ottoman Iraq Mamluk dynasty Modern Iraq Mandatory Iraq Kingdom of Iraq Republic (1958–68) Ba'athist rule (1968–2003) Occupation (2003–11) Recent history  Iraq portal v t e Ancient history Preceded by prehistory Near East Sumer · Egypt · Elam · Akkad · Assyria · Babylonia · Mitanni · Hittites · Sea Peoples · Anatolia · Israel and Judah · Arabia · Berbers · Phoenicia · Persia Europe Minoans · Greece · Illyrians · Argaric · Nuragic · Tartessos · Iberia · Celts · Germanics · Etruscans · Rome · Slavs · Daco-Thracians Horn of Africa Land of Punt · Opone · Macrobia · Kingdom of Dʿmt · Axumite Empire · Mosylon · Sarapion Eurasian Steppe Proto-Indo-Europeans · Afanasievo · Indo-Iranians · Scythia · Tocharians · Huns · Xionites · Turks East Asia China · Japan · Korea · Mongolia South Asia History of India · Outline of ancient India · Indus Valley Civilisation · Vedic period · Mahajanapadas · Nanda Empire · Maurya Empire · Satavahana dynasty · Sangam period · Middle Kingdoms · Gupta Empire Mississippi and Oasisamerica Adena · Hopewell · Mississippian · Puebloans Mesoamerica Olmecs · Epi-Olmec · Zapotec · Mixtec · Maya · Teotihuacan · Toltec Empire Andes Norte Chico · Sechin · Chavín · Paracas · Nazca · Moche · Lima · Tiwanaku · Wari West Africa Dhar Tichitt · Oualata · Nok · Senegambia · Djenné-Djenno · Bantu · Ghana Empire Southeast Asia and Oceania Vietnam · Austronesians · Australia · Polynesia · Funan · Tarumanagara See also Human history · Ancient maritime history Protohistory · Axial Age · Iron Age Historiography · Ancient literature Ancient warfare · Cradle of civilization Category Followed by Post-classical history v t e Babylonia (/ˌbæbɪˈloʊniə/) was an ancient Akkadian-speaking state and cultural area based in central-southern Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq and Syria). A small Amorite-ruled state emerged in 1894 BCE, which contained the minor administrative town of Babylon.[1] It was merely a small provincial town during the Akkadian Empire (2335–2154 BCE) but greatly expanded during the reign of Hammurabi in the first half of the 18th century BCE and became a major capital city. During the reign of Hammurabi and afterwards, Babylonia was called "the country of Akkad" (Māt Akkadī in Akkadian), a deliberate archaism in reference to the previous glory of the Akkadian Empire.[2][3] It was often involved in rivalry with the older state of Assyria to the north and Elam to the east in Ancient Iran. Babylonia briefly became the major power in the region after Hammurabi (fl. c. 1792–1752 BCE middle chronology, or c. 1696–1654 BCE, short chronology) created a short-lived empire, succeeding the earlier Akkadian Empire, Third Dynasty of Ur, and Old Assyrian Empire. The Babylonian Empire rapidly fell apart after the death of Hammurabi and reverted to a small kingdom. Like Assyria, the Babylonian state retained the written Akkadian language (the language of its native populace) for official use, despite its Northwest Semitic-speaking Amorite founders and Kassite successors, who spoke a language isolate, not being native Mesopotamians. It retained the Sumerian language for religious use (as did Assyria), but already by the time Babylon was founded, this was no longer a spoken language, having been wholly subsumed by Akkadian. The earlier Akkadian and Sumerian traditions played a major role in Babylonian and Assyrian culture, and the region would remain an important cultural center, even under its protracted periods of outside rule. The earliest mention of the city of Babylon can be found in a clay tablet from the reign of Sargon of Akkad (2334–2279 BCE), dating back to the 23rd century BCE. Babylon was merely a religious and cultural centre at this point and neither an independent state nor a large city; like the rest of Mesopotamia, it was subject to the Akkadian Empire which united all the Akkadian and Sumerian speakers under one rule. After the collapse of the Akkadian Empire, the south Mesopotamian region was dominated by the Gutian people for a few decades before the rise of the Third Dynasty of Ur, which restored order to the region and which, apart from northern Assyria, encompassed the whole of Mesopotamia, including the town of Babylon. Contents 1 History 1.1 Pre-Babylonian Sumero-Akkadian period 1.2 First Babylonian dynasty – Amorite dynasty, 1894–1595 BCE 1.2.1 Empire Of Hammurabi 1.2.2 Decline 1.2.3 The sack of Babylon and ancient Near East chronology 1.3 Kassite dynasty, 1595–1155 BCE 1.4 Early Iron Age – Native rule, second dynasty of Isin, 1155–1026 BCE 1.5 Period of chaos, 1026–911 BCE 1.6 Assyrian rule, 911–619 BCE 1.6.1 Destruction of Babylon 1.6.2 Restoration and rebuilding 1.6.3 Babylonian revolt 1.7 Neo-Babylonian Empire (Chaldean Empire) 1.8 Persian Babylonia 2 Culture 2.1 Babylonian culture 2.1.1 Art and architecture 2.1.2 Astronomy 2.1.3 Medicine 2.1.4 Literature 2.2 Neo-Babylonian culture 2.2.1 Astronomy 2.2.2 Mathematics 2.2.3 Philosophy 3 Legacy 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Bibliography 8 External links History[edit] Pre-Babylonian Sumero-Akkadian period[edit] Mesopotamia had already enjoyed a long history prior to the emergence of Babylon, with Sumerian civilization emerging in the region c. 3500 BC, and the Akkadian-speaking people appearing by the 30th century BC.[citation needed] During the 3rd millennium BCE, an intimate cultural symbiosis occurred between Sumerian and Akkadian-speakers, which included widespread bilingualism.[4] The influence of Sumerian on Akkadian and vice versa is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a massive scale, to syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence.[4] This has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian in the third millennium as a sprachbund.[4] Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as the spoken language of Mesopotamia somewhere around the turn of the third and the second millennium BC (the precise timeframe being a matter of debate).[5] From c. 3500 BC until the rise of the Akkadian Empire in the 24th century BCE, Mesopotamia had been dominated by largely Sumerian cities and city states, such as Ur, Lagash, Uruk, Kish, Isin, Larsa, Adab, Eridu, Gasur, Assur, Hamazi, Akshak, Arbela and Umma, although Semitic Akkadian names began to appear on the king lists of some of these states (such as Eshnunna and Assyria) between the 29th and 25th centuries BCE. Traditionally, the major religious center of all Mesopotamia was the city of Nippur where the god Enlil was supreme, and it would remain so until replaced by Babylon during the reign of Hammurabi in the mid-18th century BCE.[citation needed] The Akkadian Empire (2334–2154 BCE) saw the Akkadian Semites and Sumerians of Mesopotamia unite under one rule, and the Akkadians fully attain ascendancy over the Sumerians and indeed come to dominate much of the ancient Near East. The empire eventually disintegrated due to economic decline, climate change, and civil war, followed by attacks by the Gutians from the Zagros Mountains. Sumer rose up again with the Third Dynasty of Ur in the late 22nd century BCE, and ejected the Gutians from southern Mesopotamia in 2161 BCE as suggested by surviving tablets and astronomical simulations.[6] They also seem to have gained ascendancy over much of the territory of the Akkadian kings of Assyria in northern Mesopotamia for a time. Followed by the collapse of the Sumerian "Ur-III" dynasty at the hands of the Elamites in 2002 BCE, the Amorites ("Westerners"), a foreign Northwest Semitic-speaking people, began to migrate into southern Mesopotamia from the northern Levant, gradually gaining control over most of southern Mesopotamia, where they formed a series of small kingdoms, while the Assyrians reasserted their independence in the north. The states of the south were unable to stem the Amorite advance, and for a time may have relied on their fellow Akkadians in Assyria for protection.[citation needed] King Ilu-shuma (c. 2008–1975 BCE) of the Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1750 BCE) in a known inscription describes his exploits to the south as follows: The freedom[n 1] of the Akkadians and their children I established. I purified their copper. I established their freedom from the border of the marshes and Ur and Nippur, Awal, and Kish, Der of the goddess Ishtar, as far as the City of (Ashur).[7] Past scholars originally extrapolated from this text that it means he defeated the invading Amorites to the south and Elamites to the east, but there is no explicit record of that, and some scholars believe the Assyrian kings were merely giving preferential trade agreements to the south. These policies were continued by his successors Erishum I and Ikunum. However, when Sargon I (1920–1881 BCE) succeeded as king in Assyria in 1920 BCE, he eventually withdrew Assyria from the region, preferring to concentrate on continuing the vigorous expansion of Assyrian colonies in Anatolia and the Levant, and eventually southern Mesopotamia fell to the Amorites, a Northwest Semitic-speaking people from the northern Levant. During the first centuries of what is called the "Amorite period", the most powerful city states in the south were Isin, Eshnunna and Larsa, together with Assyria in the north. First Babylonian dynasty – Amorite dynasty, 1894–1595 BCE[edit] Main article: First Babylonian dynasty Hammurabi (standing), depicted as receiving his royal insignia from Shamash (or possibly Marduk). Hammurabi holds his hands over his mouth as a sign of prayer[8] (relief on the upper part of the stele of Hammurabi's code of laws). One of these Amorite dynasties founded a small kingdom of Kazallu which included the then still minor town of Babylon circa 1894 BCE, which would ultimately take over the others and form the short-lived first Babylonian empire, also called the First Babylonian dynasty. An Amorite chieftain named Sumu-abum appropriated a tract of land which included the then relatively small city of Babylon from the neighbouring Amorite ruled Mesopotamian city state of Kazallu, of which it had initially been a territory, turning his newly acquired lands into a state in its own right. His reign was concerned with establishing statehood amongst a sea of other minor city states and kingdoms in the region. However, Sumuabum appears never to have bothered to give himself the title of King of Babylon, suggesting that Babylon itself was still only a minor town or city, and not worthy of kingship.[9] He was followed by Sumu-la-El, Sabium, Apil-Sin, each of whom ruled in the same vague manner as Sumuabum, with no reference to kingship of Babylon itself being made in any written records of the time. Sin-Muballit was the first of these Amorite rulers to be regarded officially as a king of Babylon, and then on only one single clay tablet. Under these kings, the nation in which Babylon lay remained a small nation which controlled very little territory, and was overshadowed by neighbouring kingdoms that were both older, larger, and more powerful, such as; Isin, Larsa, Assyria to the north and Elam to the east in ancient Iran. The Elamites occupied huge swathes of southern Mesopotamia, and the early Amorite rulers were largely held in vassalage to Elam. Empire Of Hammurabi[edit] Babylon remained a minor town in a small state until the reign of its sixth Amorite ruler, Hammurabi, during 1792–1750 BCE (or c. 1728 – 1686 BC in the short chronology). He conducted major building work in Babylon, expanding it from a small town into a great city worthy of kingship. A very efficient ruler, he established a bureaucracy, with taxation and centralized government. Hammurabi freed Babylon from Elamite dominance, and indeed drove the Elamites from southern Mesopotamia entirely. He then systematically conquered southern Mesopotamia, including the cities of Isin, Larsa, Eshnunna, Kish, Lagash, Nippur, Borsippa, Ur, Uruk, Umma, Adab, Sippar, Rapiqum, and Eridu. His conquests gave the region stability after turbulent times, and coalesced the patchwork of small states into a single nation; it is only from the time of Hammurabi that southern Mesopotamia acquired the name Babylonia. Hammurabi turned his disciplined armies eastwards and invaded the region which a thousand years later became Iran, conquering Elam, Gutians, Lullubi and Kassites. To the west, he conquered the Amorite states of the Levant (modern Syria and Jordan) including the powerful kingdoms of Mari and Yamhad. Hammurabi then entered into a protracted war with the Old Assyrian Empire for control of Mesopotamia and dominance of the Near East. Assyria had extended control over much of the Hurrian and Hattian parts of southeast Anatolia from the 21st century BC, and from the latter part of the 20th century BC had asserted itself over the northeast Levant and central Mesopotamia. After a protracted struggle over decades with the powerful Assyrian kings Shamshi-Adad I and Ishme-Dagan I, Hammurabi forced their successor Mut-Ashkur to pay tribute to Babylon c. 1751 BCE, giving Babylonia control over Assyria's centuries-old Hattian and Hurrian colonies in Anatolia.[10] One of Hammurabi's most important and lasting works was the compilation of the Babylonian law code, which improved the much earlier codes of Sumer, Akkad and Assyria. This was made by order of Hammurabi after the expulsion of the Elamites and the settlement of his kingdom. In 1901, a copy of the Code of Hammurabi was discovered on a stele by Jacques de Morgan and Jean-Vincent Scheil at Susa in Elam, where it had later been taken as plunder. That copy is now in the Louvre. From before 3000 BC until the reign of Hammurabi, the major cultural and religious center of southern Mesopotamia had been the ancient city of Nippur, where the god Enlil was supreme. Hammurabi transferred this dominance to Babylon, making Marduk supreme in the pantheon of southern Mesopotamia (with the god Ashur, and to some degree Ishtar, remaining the long-dominant deity in northern Mesopotamian Assyria). The city of Babylon became known as a "holy city" where any legitimate ruler of southern Mesopotamia had to be crowned. Hammurabi turned what had previously been a minor administrative town into a large, powerful and influential city, extended its rule over the entirety of southern Mesopotamia, and erected a number of impressive buildings. The Amorite-ruled Babylonians, like their predecessor states, engaged in regular trade with the Amorite and Canaanite city-states to the west, with Babylonian officials or troops sometimes passing to the Levant and Canaan, and Amorite merchants operating freely throughout Mesopotamia. The Babylonian monarchy's western connections remained strong for quite some time. Ammi-Ditana, great-grandson of Hammurabi, still titled himself "king of the land of the Amorites". Ammi-Ditana's father and son also bore Amorite names: Abi-Eshuh and Ammi-Saduqa. Decline[edit] Cylinder seal, ca. 18th–17th century BC. Babylonia Southern Mesopotamia had no natural, defensible boundaries, making it vulnerable to attack. After the death of Hammurabi, his empire began to disintegrate rapidly. Under his successor Samsu-iluna (1749–1712 BCE) the far south of Mesopotamia was lost to a native Akkadian-speaking king Ilum-ma-ili who ejected the Amorite-ruled Babylonians. The south became the native Sealand Dynasty, remaining free of Babylon for the next 272 years.[11] Both the Babylonians and their Amorite rulers were driven from Assyria to the north by an Assyrian-Akkadian governor named Puzur-Sin c. 1740 BCE, who regarded king Mut-Ashkur as both a foreign Amorite and a former lackey of Babylon. After six years of civil war in Assyria, a native king named Adasi seized power c. 1735 BCE, and went on to appropriate former Babylonian and Amorite territory in central Mesopotamia, as did his successor Bel-bani. Amorite rule survived in a much reduced Babylon, Samshu-iluna's successor Abi-Eshuh made a vain attempt to recapture the Sealand Dynasty for Babylon, but met defeat at the hands of king Damqi-ilishu II. By the end of his reign Babylonia had shrunk to the small and relatively weak nation it had been upon its foundation, although the city itself was far larger than the small town it had been prior to the rise of Hammurabi. He was followed by Ammi-Ditana and then Ammi-Saduqa, both of whom were in too weak a position to make any attempt to regain the many territories lost after the death of Hammurabi, contenting themselves with peaceful building projects in Babylon itself. Samsu-Ditana was to be the last Amorite ruler of Babylon. Early in his reign he came under pressure from the Kassites, a people speaking an apparent language isolate originating in the mountains of what is today northwest Iran. Babylon was then attacked by the Indo-European-speaking, Anatolia-based Hittites in 1595 BCE. Shamshu-Ditana was overthrown following the "sack of Babylon" by the Hittite king Mursili I. The Hittites did not remain for long, but the destruction wrought by them finally enabled their Kassite allies to gain control. The sack of Babylon and ancient Near East chronology[edit] This section is missing information about the event itself, as opposed to just its role in chronological calculations. Please expand the section to include this information. Further details may exist on the talk page. (February 2019) The date of the sack of Babylon by the Hittites under king Mursili I is considered crucial to the various calculations of the early chronology of the ancient Near East, as it is taken as a fixed point in the discussion. Suggestions for its precise date vary by as much as 230 years, corresponding to the uncertainty regarding the length of the "Dark Age" of the much later Late Bronze Age collapse, resulting in the shift of the entire Bronze Age chronology of Mesopotamia with regard to the Egyptian chronology. Possible dates for the sack of Babylon are: ultra-short chronology: 1499 BCE short chronology: 1531 BCE middle chronology: 1595 BCE long chronology: 1651 BCE (favored by astronomical events reconstruction)[6] ultra-long chronology: 1736 BCE[12] Kassite dynasty, 1595–1155 BCE[edit] Main article: Kassites The extent of the Babylonian Empire during the Kassite dynasty The Kassite dynasty was founded by Gandash of Mari. The Kassites, like the Amorite rulers who had preceded them, were not originally native to Mesopotamia. Rather, they had first appeared in the Zagros Mountains of what is today northwestern Iran. The ethnic affiliation of the Kassites is unclear. Still, their language was not Semitic or Indo-European, and is thought to have been either a language isolate or possibly related to the Hurro-Urartian language family of Anatolia,[13] although the evidence for its genetic affiliation is meager due to the scarcity of extant texts. That said, several Kassite leaders may have borne Indo-European names, and they may have had an Indo-European elite similar to the Mitanni elite that later ruled over the Hurrians of central and eastern Anatolia.[14][15] The Kassites renamed Babylon Karduniaš and their rule lasted for 576 years, the longest dynasty in Babylonian history. This new foreign dominion offers a striking analogy to the roughly contemporary rule of the Hyksos in ancient Egypt. Most divine attributes ascribed to the Amorite kings of Babylonia disappeared at this time; the title "god" was never given to a Kassite sovereign. Babylon continued to be the capital of the kingdom and one of the holy cities of western Asia, where the priests of the ancient Mesopotamian religion were all-powerful, and the only place where the right to inheritance of the short lived old Babylonian empire could be conferred.[16] Babylonia experienced short periods of relative power, but in general proved to be relatively weak under the long rule of the Kassites, and spent long periods under Assyrian and Elamite domination and interference. It is not clear precisely when Kassite rule of Babylon began, but the Indo-European Hittites from Anatolia did not remain in Babylonia for long after the sacking of the city, and it is likely the Kassites moved in soon afterwards. Agum II took the throne for the Kassites in 1595 BCE, and ruled a state that extended from Iran to the middle Euphrates; The new king retained peaceful relations with Erishum III, the native Mesopotamian king of Assyria, but successfully went to war with the Hittite Empire, and twenty-four years after, the Hittites took the sacred statue of Marduk, he recovered it and declared the god equal to the Kassite deity Shuqamuna. Map of Mesopotamia c. 1450 BC Burnaburiash I succeeded him and drew up a peace treaty with the Assyrian king Puzur-Ashur III, and had a largely uneventful reign, as did his successor Kashtiliash III. The Sealand Dynasty of southern Mesopotamia remained independent of Babylonia and in native Akkadian-speaking hands. Ulamburiash managed to attack it and conquered parts of the land from Ea-gamil, a king with a distinctly Sumerian name, around 1450 BC, whereupon Ea-Gamil fled to his allies in Elam. The Sealand Dynasty region still remained independent, and the Kassite king seems to have been unable to finally conquer it. Ulamburiash began making treaties with ancient Egypt, which then was ruling southern Canaan, and Assyria to the north. Karaindash built a bas-relief temple in Uruk and Kurigalzu I (1415–1390 BCE) built a new capital Dur-Kurigalzu named after himself, transferring administrative rule from Babylon. Both of these kings continued to struggle unsuccessfully against the Sealand Dynasty. Agum III also campaigned against the Sealand Dynasty, finally wholly conquering the far south of Mesopotamia for Babylon, destroying its capital Dur-Enlil in the process. From there Agum III extended farther south still, invading what was many centuries later to be called the Arabian Peninsula or Arabia, and conquering the pre-Arab state of Dilmun (in modern Bahrain). Karaindash strengthened diplomatic ties with the Assyrian king Ashur-bel-nisheshu and the Egyptian Pharaoh Thutmose III and protected Babylonian borders with Elam. Kadašman-Ḫarbe I succeeded Karaindash, and briefly invaded Elam before being eventually defeated and ejected by its king Tepti Ahar. He then had to contend with the Suteans, ancient Semitic-speaking peoples from the southeastern Levant who invaded Babylonia and sacked Uruk. He describes having "annihilated their extensive forces", then constructed fortresses in a mountain region called Ḫiḫi, in the desert to the west (modern Syria) as security outposts, and "he dug wells and settled people on fertile lands, to strengthen the guard".[17] Kurigalzu I succeeded the throne, and soon came into conflict with Elam, to the east. When Ḫur-batila, the successor of Tepti Ahar took the throne of Elam, he began raiding the Babylonia, taunting Kurigalzu to do battle with him at Dūr-Šulgi. Kurigalzu launched a campaign which resulted in the abject defeat and capture of Ḫur-batila, who appears in no other inscriptions. He went on to conquer the eastern lands of Elam. This took his army to the Elamite capital, the city of Susa, which was sacked. After this a puppet ruler was placed on the Elamite throne, subject to Babylonia. Kurigalzu I maintained friendly relations with Assyria, Egypt and the Hittites throughout his reign. Kadashman-Enlil I (1374–1360 BC) succeeded him, and continued his diplomatic policies. Burna-Buriash II ascended to the throne in 1359 BCE, he retained friendly relations with Egypt, but the resurgent Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1050 BCE) to the north was now encroaching into northern Babylonia, and as a symbol of peace, the Babylonian king took the daughter of the powerful Assyrian king Ashur-uballit I in marriage. He also maintained friendly relations with Suppiluliuma I, ruler of the Hittite Empire. He was succeeded by Kara-ḫardaš (who was half Assyrian, and the grandson of the Assyrian king) in 1333 BC, a usurper named Nazi-Bugaš deposed him, enraging Ashur-uballit I, who invaded and sacked Babylon, slew Nazi-Bugaš, annexed Babylonian territory for the Middle Assyrian Empire, and installed Kurigalzu II (1345–1324 BCE) as his vassal ruler of Babylonia. Soon after Arik-den-ili succeeded the throne of Assyria in 1327 BC, Kurigalzu III attacked Assyria in an attempt to reassert Babylonian power. After some impressive initial successes he was ultimately defeated, and lost yet more territory to Assyria. Between 1307 BCE and 1232 BCE his successors, such as Nazi-Maruttash, Kadashman-Turgu, Kadashman-Enlil II, Kudur-Enlil and Shagarakti-Shuriash, allied with the empires of the Hittites and the Mitanni, (who were both also losing swathes of territory to the resurgent Assyrians). in a failed attempt to stop Assyrian expansion, which nevertheless continued unchecked. Kashtiliash IV's (1242–1235 BCE) reign ended catastrophically as the Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I (1243–1207 BCE) routed his armies, sacked and burned Babylon and set himself up as king, ironically becoming the first native Mesopotamian to rule the state, its previous rulers having all been non-Mesopotamian Amorites and Kassites.[11] Kashtiliash himself was taken to Ashur as a prisoner of war. An Assyrian governor/king named Enlil-nadin-shumi was placed on the throne to rule as viceroy to Tukulti-Ninurta I, and Kadashman-Harbe II and Adad-shuma-iddina succeeded as Assyrian governor/kings, subject to Tukulti-Ninurta I until 1216 BC. Babylon did not begin to recover until late in the reign of Adad-shuma-usur (1216–1189 BCE), as he too remained a vassal of Assyria until 1193 BC. However, he was able to prevent the Assyrian king Enlil-kudurri-usur from retaking Babylonia, which, apart from its northern reaches, had mostly shrugged off Assyrian domination during a short period of civil war in the Assyrian empire, in the years after the death of Tukulti-Ninurta. Meli-Shipak II (1188–1172 BCE) seems to have had a peaceful reign. Despite not being able to regain northern Babylonia from Assyria, no further territory was lost, Elam did not threaten, and the Late Bronze Age collapse now affecting the Levant, Canaan, Egypt, the Caucasus, Anatolia, Mediterranean, North Africa, northern Iran and Balkans seemed (initially) to have little impact on Babylonia (or indeed Assyria and Elam). War resumed under subsequent kings such as Marduk-apla-iddina I (1171–1159 BCE) and Zababa-shuma-iddin (1158 BCE). The long reigning Assyrian king Ashur-dan I (1179–1133 BCE) resumed expansionist policies and conquered further parts of northern Babylonia from both kings, and the Elamite ruler Shutruk-Nakhunte eventually conquered most of eastern Babylonia. Enlil-nadin-ahhe (1157–1155 BCE) was finally overthrown and the Kassite dynasty ended after Ashur-dan I conquered yet more of northern and central Babylonia, and the equally powerful Shutruk-Nahhunte pushed deep into the heart of Babylonia itself, sacking the city and slaying the king. Poetical works have been found lamenting this disaster. Despite the loss of territory, general military weakness, and evident reduction in literacy and culture, the Kassite dynasty was the longest-lived dynasty of Babylon, lasting until 1155 BCE, when Babylon was conquered by Shutruk-Nakhunte of Elam, and reconquered a few years later by the Nebuchadnezzar I, part of the larger Late Bronze Age collapse. Early Iron Age – Native rule, second dynasty of Isin, 1155–1026 BCE[edit] The Elamites did not remain in control of Babylonia long, instead entering into an ultimately unsuccessful war with Assyria, allowing Marduk-kabit-ahheshu (1155–1139 BCE) to establish the Dynasty IV of Babylon, from Isin, with the very first native Akkadian-speaking south Mesopotamian dynasty to rule Babylonia, with Marduk-kabit-ahheshu becoming only the second native Mesopotamian to sit on the throne of Babylon, after the Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I. His dynasty was to remain in power for some 125 years. The new king successfully drove out the Elamites and prevented any possible Kassite revival. Later in his reign he went to war with Assyria, and had some initial success, briefly capturing the south Assyrian city of Ekallatum before ultimately suffering defeat at the hands of Ashur-Dan I. Itti-Marduk-balatu succeeded his father in 1138 BCE, and successfully repelled Elamite attacks on Babylonia during his 8-year reign. He too made attempts to attack Assyria, but also met with failure at the hands of the still reigning Ashur-Dan I. Ninurta-nadin-shumi took the throne in 1137 BCE, and also attempted an invasion of Assyria, his armies seem to have skirted through eastern Aramea (modern Syria) and then made an attempt to attack the Assyrian city of Arbela (modern Erbil) from the west. However, this bold move met with defeat at the hands of Ashur-resh-ishi I who then forced a treaty in his favour upon the Babylonian king. Nebuchadnezzar I (1124–1103 BCE) was the most famous ruler of this dynasty. He fought and defeated the Elamites and drove them from Babylonian territory, invading Elam itself, sacking the Elamite capital Susa, and recovering the sacred statue of Marduk that had been carried off from Babylon during the fall of the Kassites. Shortly afterwards, the king of Elam was assassinated and his kingdom disintegrated into civil war. However, Nebuchadnezzar failed to extend Babylonian territory further, being defeated a number of times by Ashur-resh-ishi I (1133–1115 BCE), king of the Middle Assyrian Empire, for control of formerly Hittite-controlled territories in Aram and Anatolia. The Hittite Empire of the northern and western Levant and eastern Anatolia had been largely annexed by the Middle Assyrian Empire, and its heartland finally overrun by invading Phrygians from the Balkans. In the later years of his reign, Nebuchadnezzar I devoted himself to peaceful building projects and securing Babylonia's borders against the Assyrians, Elamites and Arameans. Nebuchadnezzar was succeeded by his two sons, firstly Enlil-nadin-apli (1103–1100), who lost territory to Assyria. The second of them, Marduk-nadin-ahhe (1098–1081 BCE) also went to war with Assyria. Some initial success in these conflicts gave way to a catastrophic defeat at the hands of the powerful Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser I (1115–1076 BCE), who annexed huge swathes of Babylonian territory, thus further expanding the Assyrian Empire. Following this a terrible famine gripped Babylon, inviting attacks and migrations from the northwest Semitic tribes of Aramaeans and Suteans from the Levant. In 1072 BC Marduk-shapik-zeri signed a peace treaty with Ashur-bel-kala (1075–1056 BCE) of Assyria, however, his successor Kadašman-Buriaš was not so friendly to Assyria, prompting the Assyrian king to invade Babylonia and depose him, placing Adad-apla-iddina on the throne as his vassal. Assyrian domination continued until c. 1050 BC, with Marduk-ahhe-eriba and Marduk-zer-X regarded as vassals of Assyria. After 1050 BCE the Middle Assyrian Empire descended into a period of civil war, followed by constant warfare with the Arameans, Phrygians, Neo-Hittite states and Hurrians, allowing Babylonia to once more largely free itself from the Assyrian yoke for a few decades. However, East Semitic-speaking Babylonia soon began to suffer further repeated incursions from West Semitic nomadic peoples migrating from the Levant during the Bronze Age collapse, and during the 11th century BCE large swathes of the Babylonian countryside was appropriated and occupied by these newly arrived Arameans and Suteans. Arameans settled much of the countryside in eastern and central Babylonia and the Suteans in the western deserts, with the weak Babylonian kings being unable to stem these migrations. Period of chaos, 1026–911 BCE[edit] The ruling Babylonian dynasty of Nabu-shum-libur was deposed by marauding Arameans in 1026 BCE, and the heart of Babylonia, including the capital city itself descended into anarchic state, and no king was to rule Babylon for over 20 years. However, in southern Mesopotamia (a region corresponding with the old Dynasty of the Sealand), Dynasty V (1025–1004 BC) arose, this was ruled by Simbar-shipak, leader of a Kassite clan, and was in effect a separate state from Babylon. The state of anarchy allowed the Assyrian ruler Ashur-nirari IV (1019–1013 BCE) the opportunity to attack Babylonia in 1018 BC, and he invaded and captured the Babylonian city of Atlila and some northern regions for Assyria. The south Mesopotamian dynasty was replaced by another Kassite Dynasty (Dynasty VI; 1003–984 BCE) which also seems to have regained control over Babylon itself. The Elamites deposed this brief Kassite revival, with king Mar-biti-apla-usur founding Dynasty VII (984–977 BCE). However, this dynasty too fell, when the Arameans once more ravaged Babylon. Babylonian rule was restored by Nabû-mukin-apli in 977 BCE, ushering in Dynasty VIII. Dynasty IX begins with Ninurta-kudurri-usur II, who ruled from 941 BCE. Babylonia remained weak during this period, with whole areas of Babylonia now under firm Aramean and Sutean control. Babylonian rulers were often forced to bow to pressure from Assyria and Elam, both of which had appropriated Babylonian territory. Assyrian rule, 911–619 BCE[edit] Babylonia remained in a state of chaos as the 10th century BCE drew to a close. A further migration of nomads from the Levant occurred in the early 9th century BCE with the arrival of the Chaldeans, another nomadic northwest Semitic people described in Assyrian annals as the "Kaldu". The Chaldeans settled in the far southeast of Babylonia, joining the already long extant Arameans and Suteans. By 850 BCE the migrant Chaldeans had established their own land in the extreme southeast of Mesopotamia. From 911 BCE with the founding of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BCE) by Adad-nirari II, Babylon found itself once again under the domination and rule of its fellow Mesopotamian state for the next three centuries. Adad-nirari II twice attacked and defeated Shamash-mudammiq of Babylonia, annexing a large area of land north of the Diyala River and the towns of Hīt and Zanqu in mid Mesopotamia. He made further gains over Babylonia under Nabu-shuma-ukin I later in his reign. Tukulti-Ninurta II and Ashurnasirpal II also forced Babylonia into vassalage, and Shalmaneser III (859–824 BCE) sacked Babylon itself, slew king Nabu-apla-iddina, subjugated the Aramean, Sutean and Chaldean tribes settled within Babylonia, and installed Marduk-zakir-shumi I (855–819 BCE) followed by Marduk-balassu-iqbi (819–813 BCE) as his vassals. It was during the late 850's BCE, in the annals of Shalmaneser III, that the Chaldeans and Arabs are first mentioned in the pages of written recorded history. Upon the death of Shalmaneser II, Baba-aha-iddina was reduced to vassalage by the Assyrian queen Shammuramat (known as Semiramis to the Persians, Armenians and Greeks), acting as regent to his successor Adad-nirari III who was merely a boy. Adad-nirari III eventually killed Baba-aha-iddina and ruled there directly until 800 BCE until Ninurta-apla-X was crowned. However, he too was subjugated by Adad-Nirari II. The next Assyrian king, Shamshi-Adad V then made a vassal of Marduk-bel-zeri. Prism of Sennacherib (705–681 BC), containing records of his military campaigns, culminating with Babylon's destruction. Exhibited at the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Babylonia briefly fell to another foreign ruler when Marduk-apla-usur ascended the throne in 780 BCE, taking advantage of a period of civil war in Assyria. He was a member of the Chaldean tribe who had a century or so earlier settled in a small region in the far southeastern corner of Mesopotamia, bordering the Persian Gulf and southwestern Elam. Shalmaneser IV attacked him and retook northern Babylonia, forcing a border treaty in Assyria's favour upon him. However, he was allowed to remain on the throne, and successfully stabilised the part of Babylonia he controlled. Eriba-Marduk, another Chaldean, succeeded him in 769 BCE and his son, Nabu-shuma-ishkun in 761 BCE. Babylonia appears to have been in a state of chaos during this time, with the north occupied by Assyria, its throne occupied by foreign Chaldeans, and civil unrest prominent throughout the land. The Babylonian king Nabonassar overthrew the Chaldean usurpers in 748 BCE, and successfully stabilised Babylonia, remaining untroubled by Ashur-nirari V of Assyria. However, with the accession of Tiglath-Pileser III (745–727 BCE) Babylonia came under renewed attack. Babylon was invaded and sacked and Nabonassar reduced to vassalage. His successors Nabu-nadin-zeri, Nabu-suma-ukin II and Nabu-mukin-zeri were also in servitude to Tiglath-Pileser III, until in 729 BCE the Assyrian king decided to rule Babylon directly as its king instead of allowing Babylonian kings to remain as vassals of Assyria as his predecessors had done for two hundred years. It was during this period that Eastern Aramaic was introduced by the Assyrians as the lingua franca of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, and Mesopotamian Aramaic began to supplant Akkadian as the spoken language of the general populace of both Assyria and Babylonia. The Assyrian king Shalmaneser V was declared king of Babylon in 727 BCE, but died whilst besieging Samaria in 722 BCE. Revolt was then fomented against Assyrian domination by Marduk-apla-iddina II, a Chaldean malka (chieftain) of the far southeast of Mesopotamia, with strong Elamite support. Marduk-apla-iddina managed to take the throne of Babylon itself between 721–710 BCE whilst the Assyrian king Sargon II (722–705 BCE) were otherwise occupied in defeating the Scythians and Cimmerians who had attacked Assyria's Persian and Median vassal colonies in ancient Iran. Marduk-apla-iddina II was eventually defeated and ejected by Sargon II of Assyria, and fled to his protectors in Elam. Sargon II was then declared king in Babylon. Destruction of Babylon[edit] Sennacherib (705–681 BCE) succeeded Sargon II, and after ruling directly for a while, he placed his son Ashur-nadin-shumi on the throne. However, Merodach-Baladan and his Elamite protectors continued to unsuccessfully agitate against Assyrian rule. Nergal-ushezib, an Elamite, murdered the Assyrian prince and briefly took the throne. This led to the infuriated Assyrian king Sennacherib invading and subjugating Elam and sacking Babylon, laying waste to and largely destroying the city. Sennacherib was soon murdered by his own sons while praying to the god Nisroch in Nineveh in 681 BC. A puppet king Marduk-zakir-shumi II was placed on the throne by the new Assyrian king Esarhaddon. However, Marduk-apla-iddina returned from exile in Elam, and briefly deposed him, forcing Esarhaddon to attack and defeat him, whereupon he once more fled to his masters in Elam, where he died in exile. Restoration and rebuilding[edit] Esarhaddon (681–669 BCE) ruled Babylon personally, he completely rebuilt the city, bringing rejuvenation and peace to the region. Upon his death, and in an effort to maintain harmony within his vast empire (which stretched from the Caucasus to Egypt and Nubia and from Cyprus to Iran), he installed his eldest son Shamash-shum-ukin as a subject king in Babylon, and his youngest, the highly educated Ashurbanipal (669–627 BCE), in the more senior position as king of Assyria and overlord of Shamash-shum-ukin. Babylonian revolt[edit] Babylonian prisoners under the surveillance of an Assyrian guard, reign of Ashurbanipal 668-630 BCE, Nineveh, British Museum ME 124788 Despite being an Assyrian himself, Shamash-shum-ukin, after decades subject to his brother Ashurbanipal, declared that the city of Babylon (and not the Assyrian city of Nineveh) should be the seat of the immense empire. He raised a major revolt against his brother, Ashurbanipal. He led a powerful coalition of peoples also resentful of Assyrian subjugation and rule, including Elam, the Persians, Medes, the Babylonians, Chaldeans and Suteans of southern Mesopotamia, the Arameans of the Levant and southwest Mesopotamia, the Arabs and Dilmunites of the Arabian Peninsula and the Canaanites-Phoenicians. After a bitter struggle Babylon was sacked and its allies vanquished, Shamash-shum-ukim being killed in the process. Elam was destroyed once and for all, and the Babylonians, Persians, Chaldeans, Arabs, Medes, Elamites, Arameans, Suteans and Canaanites were violently subjugated, with Assyrian troops exacting savage revenge on the rebelling peoples. An Assyrian governor named Kandalanu was placed on the throne to rule on behalf of the Assyrian king.[11] Upon Ashurbanipal's death in 627 BCE, his son Ashur-etil-ilani (627–623 BCE) became ruler of Babylon and Assyria. However, Assyria soon descended into a series of brutal internal civil wars which were to cause its downfall. Ashur-etil-ilani was deposed by one of his own generals, named Sin-shumu-lishir in 623 BCE, who also set himself up as king in Babylon. After only one year on the throne amidst continual civil war, Sinsharishkun (622–612 BCE) ousted him as ruler of Assyria and Babylonia in 622 BC. However, he too was beset by constant unremitting civil war in the Assyrian heartland. Babylonia took advantage of this and rebelled under Nabopolassar, a previously unknown malka (chieftain) of the Chaldeans, who had settled in southeastern Mesopotamia by c. 850 BCE. It was during the reign of Sin-shar-ishkun that Assyria's vast empire began to unravel, and many of its former subject peoples ceased to pay tribute, most significantly for the Assyrians; the Babylonians, Chaldeans, Medes, Persians, Scythians, Arameans and Cimmerians. Neo-Babylonian Empire (Chaldean Empire)[edit] Main articles: Neo-Babylonian Empire and Chaldea The Neo-Babylonian Empire Panorama view of the reconstructed Southern Palace of Nebuchadnezzar II, 6th century BCE, Babylon, Iraq In 620 BC Nabopolassar seized control over much of Babylonia with the support of most of the inhabitants, with only the city of Nippur and some northern regions showing any loyalty to the beleaguered Assyrian king.[11] Nabopolassar was unable to utterly secure Babylonia, and for the next four years he was forced to contend with an occupying Assyrian army encamped in Babylonia trying to unseat him. However, the Assyrian king, Sin-shar-ishkun was plagued by constant revolts among his people in Nineveh, and was thus prevented from ejecting Nabopolassar. The stalemate ended in 615 BCE, when Nabopolassar entered the Babylonians and Chaldeans into alliance with Cyaxares, an erstwhile vassal of Assyria, and king of the Iranian peoples; the Medes, Persians, Sagartians and Parthians. Cyaxares had also taken advantage of the Assyrian destruction of the formerly regionally dominant pre-Iranian Elamite and Mannean nations and the subsequent anarchy in Assyria to free the Iranic peoples from three centuries of the Assyrian yoke and regional Elamite domination. The Scythians from north of the Caucasus, and the Cimmerians from the Black Sea who had both also been subjugated by Assyria, joined the alliance, as did regional Aramean tribes. In 615 BCE, while the Assyrian king was fully occupied fighting rebels in both Babylonia and Assyria itself, Cyaxares launched a surprise attack on the Assyrian heartlands, sacking the cities of Kalhu (the Biblical Calah, Nimrud) and Arrapkha (modern Kirkuk), Nabopolassar was still pinned down in southern Mesopotamia and thus not involved in this breakthrough. From this point on the coalition of Babylonians, Chaldeans, Medes, Persians, Scythians, Cimmerians and Sagartians fought in unison against a civil war ravaged Assyria. Major Assyrian cities such as Ashur, Arbela (modern Irbil), Guzana, Dur Sharrukin (modern Khorsabad), Imgur-Enlil, Nibarti-Ashur, Gasur, Kanesh, Kar Ashurnasipal and Tushhan fell to the alliance during 614 BCE. Sin-shar-ishkun somehow managed to rally against the odds during 613 BCE, and drove back the combined forces ranged against him. However, the alliance launched a renewed combined attack the following year, and after five years of fierce fighting Nineveh was sacked in late 612 BCE after a prolonged siege, in which Sin-shar-ishkun was killed defending his capital. House to house fighting continued in Nineveh, and an Assyrian general and member of the royal household, took the throne as Ashur-uballit II (612–605 BCE). He was offered the chance of accepting a position of vassalage by the leaders of the alliance according to the Babylonian Chronicle. However, he refused and managed to successfully fight his way out of Nineveh and to the northern Assyrian city of Harran in Upper Mesopotamia where he founded a new capital. The fighting continued, as the Assyrian king held out against the alliance until 607 BCE, when he was eventually ejected by the Medes, Babylonians, Scythians and their allies, and prevented in an attempt to regain the city the same year. Stele of Nabonidus exhibited in the British Museum. The king is shown praying to the Moon, the Sun and Venus and is depicted as being the closest to the Moon. The Egyptian Pharaoh Necho II, whose dynasty had been installed as vassals of Assyria in 671 BCE, belatedly tried to aid Egypt's former Assyrian masters, possibly out of fear that Egypt would be next to succumb to the new powers without Assyria to protect them, having already been ravaged by the Scythians. The Assyrians fought on with Egyptian aid until what was probably a final decisive victory was achieved against them at Carchemish in northwestern Assyria in 605 BCE. The seat of empire was thus transferred to Babylonia[18] for the first time since Hammurabi over a thousand years before. Nabopolassar was followed by his son Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BCE), whose reign of 43 years made Babylon once more the ruler of much of the civilized world, taking over portions of the former Assyrian Empire, with the eastern and northeastern portion being taken by the Medes and the far north by the Scythians.[18] Nebuchadnezzar II may have also had to contend with remnants of the Assyrian resistance. Some sections of the Assyrian army and administration may have still continued in and around Dur-Katlimmu in northwest Assyria for a time, however, by 599 BCE Assyrian imperial records from this region also fell silent. The fate of Ashur-uballit II remains unknown, and he may have been killed attempting to regain Harran, at Carchemish, or continued to fight on, eventually disappearing into obscurity. The Scythians and Cimmerians, erstwhile allies of Babylonia under Nabopolassar, now became a threat, and Nebuchadnezzar II was forced to march into Anatolia and rout their forces, ending the northern threat to his Empire. The Egyptians attempted to remain in the Near East, possibly in an effort to aid in restoring Assyria as a secure buffer against Babylonia and the Medes and Persians, or to carve out an empire of their own. Nebuchadnezzar II campaigned against the Egyptians and drove them back over the Sinai. However, an attempt to take Egypt itself as his Assyrian predecessors had succeeded in doing failed, mainly due to a series of rebellions from the Israelites of Judah and the former kingdom of Ephraim, the Phoenicians of Caanan and the Arameans of the Levant. The Babylonian king crushed these rebellions, deposed Jehoiakim, the king of Judah and deported a sizeable part of the population to Babylonia. Cities like Tyre, Sidon and Damascus were also subjugated. The Arabs and other South Arabian peoples who dwelt in the deserts to the south of the borders of Mesopotamia were then also subjugated. In 567 BCE he went to war with Pharaoh Amasis, and briefly invaded Egypt itself. After securing his empire, which included marrying a Median princess, he devoted himself to maintaining the empire and conducting numerous impressive building projects in Babylon. He is credited with building the fabled Hanging Gardens of Babylon.[19] Amel-Marduk succeeded to the throne and reigned for only two years. Little contemporary record of his rule survives, though Berosus later stated that he was deposed and murdered in 560 BCE by his successor Neriglissar for conducting himself in an "improper manner". Neriglissar (560–556 BCE) also had a short reign. He was the son in law of Nebuchadnezzar II, and it is unclear if he was a Chaldean or native Babylonian who married into the dynasty. He campaigned in Aram and Phoenicia, successfully maintaining Babylonian rule in these regions. Neriglissar died young however, and was succeeded by his son Labashi-Marduk (556 BCE), who was still a boy. He was deposed and killed during the same year in a palace conspiracy. Of the reign of the last Babylonian king, Nabonidus (Nabu-na'id, 556–539 BCE) who is the son of the Assyrian priestess Adda-Guppi and who managed to kill the last Chaldean king, Labashi-Marduk, and took the reign, there is a fair amount of information available. Nabonidus (hence his son, the regent Belshazzar) was, at least from the mother's side, neither Chaldean nor Babylonian, but ironically Assyrian, hailing from its final capital of Harran (Kharranu). His father's origins remain unknown. Information regarding Nabonidus is chiefly derived from a chronological tablet containing the annals of Nabonidus, supplemented by another inscription of Nabonidus where he recounts his restoration of the temple of the Moon-god Sin at Harran; as well as by a proclamation of Cyrus issued shortly after his formal recognition as king of Babylonia.[18] A number of factors arose which would ultimately lead to the fall of Babylon. The population of Babylonia became restive and increasingly disaffected under Nabonidus. He excited a strong feeling against himself by attempting to centralize the polytheistic religion of Babylonia in the temple of Marduk at Babylon, and while he had thus alienated the local priesthoods, the military party also despised him on account of his antiquarian tastes. He seemed to have left the defense of his kingdom to his son Belshazzar (a capable soldier but poor diplomat who alienated the political elite), occupying himself with the more congenial work of excavating the foundation records of the temples and determining the dates of their builders.[18] He also spent time outside Babylonia, rebuilding temples in the Assyrian city of Harran, and also among his Arab subjects in the deserts to the south of Mesopotamia. Nabonidus and Belshazzar's Assyrian heritage is also likely to have added to this resentment. In addition, Mesopotamian military might had usually been concentrated in the martial state of Assyria. Babylonia had always been more vulnerable to conquest and invasion than its northern neighbour, and without the might of Assyria to keep foreign powers in check and Mesopotamia dominant, Babylonia was ultimately exposed. It was in the sixth year of Nabonidus (549 BCE) that Cyrus the Great, the Achaemenid Persian "king of Anshan" in Elam, revolted against his suzerain Astyages, "king of the Manda" or Medes, at Ecbatana. Astyages' army betrayed him to his enemy, and Cyrus established himself at Ecbatana, thus putting an end to the empire of the Medes and making the Persian faction dominant among the Iranic peoples.[20] Three years later Cyrus had become king of all Persia, and was engaged in a campaign to put down a revolt among the Assyrians. Meanwhile, Nabonidus had established a camp in the desert of his colony of Arabia, near the southern frontier of his kingdom, leaving his son Belshazzar (Belsharutsur) in command of the army. In 539 BCE Cyrus invaded Babylonia. A battle was fought at Opis in the month of June, where the Babylonians were defeated; and immediately afterwards Sippar surrendered to the invader. Nabonidus fled to Babylon, where he was pursued by Gobryas, and on the 16th day of Tammuz, two days after the capture of Sippar, "the soldiers of Cyrus entered Babylon without fighting." Nabonidus was dragged from his hiding place, where the services continued without interruption. Cyrus did not arrive until the 3rd of Marchesvan (October), Gobryas having acted for him in his absence. Gobryas was now made governor of the province of Babylon, and a few days afterwards Belshazzar the son of Nabonidus died in battle. A public mourning followed, lasting six days, and Cyrus' son Cambyses accompanied the corpse to the tomb.[21] One of the first acts of Cyrus accordingly was to allow the Jewish exiles to return to their own homes, carrying with them their sacred temple vessels. The permission to do so was embodied in a proclamation, whereby the conqueror endeavored to justify his claim to the Babylonian throne.[21] Cyrus now claimed to be the legitimate successor of the ancient Babylonian kings and the avenger of Bel-Marduk, who was assumed to be wrathful at the impiety of Nabonidus in removing the images of the local gods from their ancestral shrines to his capital Babylon.[21] The Chaldean tribe had lost control of Babylonia decades before the end of the era that sometimes bears their name, and they appear to have blended into the general populace of Babylonia even before this (for example, Nabopolassar, Nebuchadnezzar II and their successors always referred to themselves as Shar Akkad and never as Shar Kaldu on inscriptions), and during the Persian Achaemenid Empire the term Chaldean ceased to refer to a race of people, and instead specifically to a social class of priests educated in classical Babylonian literature, particularly Astronomy and Astrology. By the mid Seleucid Empire (312–150 BCE) period this term too had fallen from use. Persian Babylonia[edit] Further information: Achaemenid Assyria and Fall of Babylon Babylonian soldier of the Achaemenid army, circa 480 BC. Relief of the tomb of Xerxes I. Babylonia was absorbed into the Achaemenid Empire in 539 BC. A year before Cyrus' death, in 529 BCE, he elevated his son Cambyses II in the government, making him king of Babylon, while he reserved for himself the fuller title of "king of the (other) provinces" of the empire. It was only when Darius I acquired the Persian throne and ruled it as a representative of the Zoroastrian religion, that the old tradition was broken and the claim of Babylon to confer legitimacy on the rulers of western Asia ceased to be acknowledged.[21] Immediately after Darius seized Persia, Babylonia briefly recovered its independence under a native ruler, Nidinta-Bel, who took the name of Nebuchadnezzar III, and reigned from October 522 BCE to August 520 BCE, when Darius took the city by storm, during this period Assyria to the north also rebelled. A few years later, probably 514 BCE, Babylon again revolted under the Armenian king Nebuchadnezzar IV; on this occasion, after its capture by the Persians, the walls were partly destroyed. The Esagila, the great temple of Bel, however, still continued to be kept in repair and to be a center of Babylonian religious feelings.[21] Alexander the Great conquered Babylon in 333 BCE for the Greeks, and died there in 323 BCE. Babylonia and Assyria then became part of the Greek Seleucid Empire.[citation needed] It has long been maintained that the foundation of Seleucia diverted the population to the new capital of southern Mesopotamia, and that the ruins of the old city became a quarry for the builders of the new seat of government,[21] but the recent publication of the Babylonian Chronicles has shown that urban life was still very much the same well into the Parthian Empire (150 BC to 226 AD). The Parthian king Mithridates conquered the region into the Parthian Empire in 150 BCE, and the region became something of a battleground between Greeks and Parthians. There was a brief interlude of Roman conquest (the provinces of Assyria and Mesopotamia; 116–118 AD) under Trajan, after which the Parthians reasserted control. The satrapy of Babylonia was absorbed into Asōristān (meaning The land of the Assyrians in Persian) in the Sasanian Empire, which began in 226 AD, and by this time East Syriac Rite Syriac Christianity (which emerged in Assyria and Upper Mesopotamia the first century AD) had become the dominant religion among the native Assyrian-Babylonian populace, who had never adopted the Zoroastrianism or Hellenic religions and languages of their rulers. Apart from the small 2nd century BCE to 3rd century AD independent Neo-Assyrian states of Adiabene, Osroene, Assur, Beth Garmai, Beth Nuhadra and Hatra in the north, Mesopotamia remained under largely Persian control until the Arab Muslim conquest of Persia in the seventh century AD. Asōristān was dissolved as a geopolitical entity in 637 AD, and the native Eastern Aramaic-speaking and largely Christian populace of southern and central Mesopotamia (with the exception of the Mandeans) gradually underwent Arabization and Islamization in contrast to northern Mesopotamia where an Assyrian continuity endures to the present day. Culture[edit] Bronze Age to Early Iron Age Mesopotamian culture is sometimes summarized as "Assyro-Babylonian", because of the close ethnic, linguistic and cultural interdependence of the two political centers. The term "Babylonia", especially in writings from around the early 20th century, was formerly used to also include Southern Mesopotamia's earliest pre-Babylonian history, and not only in reference to the later city-state of Babylon proper. This geographic usage of the name "Babylonia" has generally been replaced by the more accurate term Sumer or Sumero-Akkadian in more recent writing, referring to the pre-Assyro-Babylonian Mesopotamian civilization. Babylonian culture[edit] Old Babylonian Cylinder Seal, hematite, The king makes an animal offering to Shamash. This seal was probably made in a workshop at Sippar.[22] Art and architecture[edit] Further information: Architecture of Mesopotamia and Art of Mesopotamia Man and woman, Old-Babylonian fired clay plaque from Southern Mesopotamia, Iraq In Babylonia, an abundance of clay, and lack of stone, led to greater use of mudbrick; Babylonian, Sumerian and Assyrian temples were massive structures of crude brick which were supported by buttresses, the rain being carried off by drains. One such drain at Ur was made of lead. The use of brick led to the early development of the pilaster and column, and of frescoes and enameled tiles. The walls were brilliantly coloured, and sometimes plated with zinc or gold, as well as with tiles. Painted terracotta cones for torches were also embedded in the plaster. In Babylonia, in place of the relief, there was greater use of three-dimensional figures—the earliest examples being the Statues of Gudea, that are realistic if somewhat clumsy. The paucity of stone in Babylonia made every pebble precious, and led to a high perfection in the art of gem-cutting.[23] Astronomy[edit] Main article: Babylonian astronomy Tablets dating back to the Old Babylonian period document the application of mathematics to the variation in the length of daylight over a solar year. Centuries of Babylonian observations of celestial phenomena are recorded in the series of cuneiform script tablets known as the 'Enūma Anu Enlil'. The oldest significant astronomical text that we possess is Tablet 63 of 'Enūma Anu Enlil', the Venus tablet of Ammi-Saduqa, which lists the first and last visible risings of Venus over a period of about 21 years and is the earliest evidence that the phenomena of a planet were recognized as periodic. The oldest rectangular astrolabe dates back to Babylonia c. 1100 BC. The MUL.APIN, contains catalogues of stars and constellations as well as schemes for predicting heliacal risings and the settings of the planets, lengths of daylight measured by a water clock, gnomon, shadows, and intercalations. The Babylonian GU text arranges stars in 'strings' that lie along declination circles and thus measure right-ascensions or time-intervals, and also employs the stars of the zenith, which are also separated by given right-ascensional differences.[24][25][26] Medicine[edit] Medical diagnosis and prognosis Medical recipe concerning poisoning. Terracotta tablet, from Nippur, Iraq, 18th century BC. Ancient Orient Museum, Istanbul We find [medical semiotics] in a whole constellation of disciplines. ... There was a real common ground among these [Babylonian] forms of knowledge ... an approach involving analysis of particular cases, constructed only through traces, symptoms, hints. ... In short, we can speak about a symptomatic or divinatory [or conjectural] paradigm which could be oriented toward past present or future, depending on the form of knowledge called upon. Toward future ... that was the medical science of symptoms, with its double character, diagnostic, explaining past and present, and prognostic, suggesting likely future. ... — Carlo Ginzburg[27] The oldest Babylonian (i.e., Akkadian) texts on medicine date back to the First Babylonian dynasty in the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE[28] although the earliest medical prescriptions appear in Sumerian during the Third Dynasty of Ur period.[29] The most extensive Babylonian medical text, however, is the Diagnostic Handbook written by the ummânū, or chief scholar, Esagil-kin-apli of Borsippa,[30] during the reign of the Babylonian king Adad-apla-iddina (1069–1046 BCE).[31] Along with contemporary ancient Egyptian medicine, the Babylonians introduced the concepts of diagnosis, prognosis, physical examination, and prescriptions. In addition, the Diagnostic Handbook introduced the methods of therapy and aetiology and the use of empiricism, logic and rationality in diagnosis, prognosis and therapy. The text contains a list of medical symptoms and often detailed empirical observations along with logical rules used in combining observed symptoms on the body of a patient with its diagnosis and prognosis.[32] The symptoms and diseases of a patient were treated through therapeutic means such as bandages, creams and pills. If a patient could not be cured physically, the Babylonian physicians often relied on exorcism to cleanse the patient from any curses. Esagil-kin-apli's Diagnostic Handbook was based on a logical set of axioms and assumptions, including the modern view that through the examination and inspection of the symptoms of a patient, it is possible to determine the patient's disease, its aetiology and future development, and the chances of the patient's recovery.[30] Esagil-kin-apli discovered a variety of illnesses and diseases and described their symptoms in his Diagnostic Handbook. These include the symptoms for many varieties of epilepsy and related ailments along with their diagnosis and prognosis.[33] Later Babylonian medicine resembles early Greek medicine in many ways. In particular, the early treatises of the Hippocratic Corpus show the influence of late Babylonian medicine in terms of both content and form.[34] Literature[edit] Main article: Akkadian literature There were libraries in most towns and temples; an old Sumerian proverb averred that "he who would excel in the school of the scribes must rise with the dawn". Women as well as men learned to read and write,[35][36] and in Semitic times, this involved knowledge of the extinct Sumerian language, and a complicated and extensive syllabary.[35] A considerable amount of Babylonian literature was translated from Sumerian originals, and the language of religion and law long continued to be written in the old agglutinative language of Sumer. Vocabularies, grammars, and interlinear translations were compiled for the use of students, as well as commentaries on the older texts and explanations of obscure words and phrases. The characters of the syllabary were all arranged and named, and elaborate lists of them were drawn up.[35] There are many Babylonian literary works whose titles have come down to us. One of the most famous of these was the Epic of Gilgamesh, in twelve books, translated from the original Sumerian by a certain Sin-liqi-unninni, and arranged upon an astronomical principle. Each division contains the story of a single adventure in the career of Gilgamesh. The whole story is a composite product, and it is probable that some of the stories are artificially attached to the central figure .[35] Neo-Babylonian culture[edit] The brief resurgence of Babylonian culture in the 7th to 6th centuries BCE was accompanied by a number of important cultural developments. Astronomy[edit] Main articles: Babylonian astronomy and Chronology of the ancient Near East Among the sciences, astronomy and astrology still occupied a conspicuous place in Babylonian society. Astronomy was of old standing in Babylonia. The zodiac was a Babylonian invention of great antiquity; and eclipses of the sun and moon could be foretold.[35] There are dozens of cuneiform records of original Mesopotamian eclipse observations. Babylonian astronomy was the basis for much of what was done in ancient Greek astronomy, in classical , in Sasanian, Byzantine and Syrian astronomy, astronomy in the medieval Islamic world, and in Central Asian and Western European astronomy.[35][24] Neo-Babylonian astronomy can thus be considered the direct predecessor of much of ancient Greek mathematics and astronomy, which in turn is the historical predecessor of the European (Western) scientific revolution.[37] During the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Babylonian astronomers developed a new approach to astronomy. They began studying philosophy dealing with the ideal nature of the early universe and began employing an internal logic within their predictive planetary systems. This was an important contribution to astronomy and the philosophy of science and some scholars have thus referred to this new approach as the first scientific revolution.[38] This new approach to astronomy was adopted and further developed in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy. In Seleucid and Parthian times, the astronomical reports were of a thoroughly scientific character;[35] how much earlier their advanced knowledge and methods were developed is uncertain. The Babylonian development of methods for predicting the motions of the planets is considered to be a major episode in the history of astronomy. The only Babylonian astronomer known to have supported a heliocentric model of planetary motion was Seleucus of Seleucia (b. 190 BC).[39][40][41] Seleucus is known from the writings of Plutarch. He supported the heliocentric theory where the Earth rotated around its own axis which in turn revolved around the Sun. According to Plutarch, Seleucus even proved the heliocentric system, but it is not known what arguments he used. Mathematics[edit] Main article: Babylonian mathematics Babylonian mathematical texts are plentiful and well edited.[37] In respect of time they fall in two distinct groups: one from the First Babylonian dynasty period (1830–1531 BCE), the other mainly Seleucid from the last three or four centuries BC. In respect of content there is scarcely any difference between the two groups of texts. Thus Babylonian mathematics remained stale in character and content, with very little progress or innovation, for nearly two millennia.[dubious – discuss][37] The Babylonian system of mathematics was sexagesimal, or a base 60 numeral system. From this we derive the modern-day usage of 60 seconds in a minute, 60 minutes in an hour, and 360 (60 × 6) degrees in a circle. The Babylonians were able to make great advances in mathematics for two reasons. First, the number 60 has many divisors (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, and 30), making calculations easier. Additionally, unlike the Egyptians and Romans, the Babylonians had a true place-value system, where digits written in the left column represented larger values (much as in our base-ten system: 734 = 7×100 + 3×10 + 4×1). Among the Babylonians' mathematical accomplishments were the determination of the square root of two correctly to seven places (YBC 7289). They also demonstrated knowledge of the Pythagorean theorem well before Pythagoras, as evidenced by this tablet translated by Dennis Ramsey and dating to c. 1900 BCE: 4 is the length and 5 is the diagonal. What is the breadth? Its size is not known. 4 times 4 is 16. And 5 times 5 is 25. You take 16 from 25 and there remains 9. What times what shall I take in order to get 9? 3 times 3 is 9. 3 is the breadth. The ner of 600 and the sar of 3600 were formed from the unit of 60, corresponding with a degree of the equator. Tablets of squares and cubes, calculated from 1 to 60, have been found at Senkera, and a people acquainted with the sun-dial, the clepsydra, the lever and the pulley, must have had no mean knowledge of mechanics. A crystal lens, turned on the lathe, was discovered by Austen Henry Layard at Nimrud along with glass vases bearing the name of Sargon; this could explain the excessive minuteness of some of the writing on the Assyrian tablets, and a lens may also have been used in the observation of the heavens.[42] The Babylonians might have been familiar with the general rules for measuring the areas. They measured the circumference of a circle as three times the diameter and the area as one-twelfth the square of the circumference, which would be correct if π were estimated as 3. The volume of a cylinder was taken as the product of the base and the height, however, the volume of the frustum of a cone or a square pyramid was incorrectly taken as the product of the height and half the sum of the bases. Also, there was a recent discovery in which a tablet used π as 3 and 1/8. The Babylonians are also known for the Babylonian mile, which was a measure of distance equal to about 11 kilometres (7 mi) today. This measurement for distances eventually was converted to a time-mile used for measuring the travel of the Sun, therefore, representing time. (Eves, Chapter 2) The Babylonians used also space time graphs to calculate the velocity of Jupiter. This is an idea that is considered highly modern, traced to the 14th century England and France and anticipating integral calculus.[43] Philosophy[edit] Further information: Babylonian literature § Philosophy The origins of Babylonian philosophy can be traced back to early Mesopotamian wisdom literature, which embodied certain philosophies of life, particularly ethics, in the forms of dialectic, dialogs, epic poetry, folklore, hymns, lyrics, prose, and proverbs. Babylonian reasoning and rationality developed beyond empirical observation.[44] It is possible that Babylonian philosophy had an influence on Greek philosophy, particularly Hellenistic philosophy. The Babylonian text Dialogue of Pessimism contains similarities to the agonistic thought of the sophists, the Heraclitean doctrine of contrasts, and the dialogs of Plato, as well as a precursor to the maieutic Socratic method of Socrates.[45] The Milesian philosopher Thales is also known to have studied philosophy in Mesopotamia. Legacy[edit] Babylonia, and particularly its capital city Babylon, has long held a place in the Abrahamic religions as a symbol of excess and dissolute power. Many references are made to Babylon in the Bible, both literally (historical) and allegorically. The mentions in the Tanakh tend to be historical or prophetic, while New Testament apocalyptic references to the Whore of Babylon are more likely figurative, or cryptic references possibly to pagan Rome, or some other archetype. The legendary Hanging Gardens of Babylon and the Tower of Babel are seen as symbols of luxurious and arrogant power respectively. Early Christians sometimes referred to Rome as Babylon: The apostle Peter ends his first letter with this advice: "She who is in Babylon [Rome], chosen together with you, sends you her greetings, and so does my son Mark." (1 Peter 5:13). Revelation 14:8 says: "A second angel followed and said, 'Fallen! Fallen is Babylon the Great,' which made all the nations drink the maddening wine of her adulteries". Other examples can be found in Revelation 16:19 and Revelation 18:2. Babylon is referred to in Quran in verse 102 of chapter 2 of Surah Baqarah (The Cow): The Quran, chapter 2 (Al-Baqara), verse 102:[46] And they followed [instead] what the devils had recited during the reign of Solomon. It was not Solomon who disbelieved, but the devils disbelieved, teaching people magic and that which was revealed to the two angels at Babylon, Harut and Marut. But the two angels do not teach anyone unless they say, "We are a trial, so do not disbelieve [by practicing magic]". And [yet] they learn from them that by which they cause separation between a man and his wife. But they do not harm anyone through it except by permission of Allah. And the people learn what harms them and does not benefit them. But the Children of Israel certainly knew that whoever purchased the magic would not have in the Hereafter any share. And wretched is that for which they sold themselves, if they only knew. — translated by Sahih International See also[edit] Asia portal Timeline of the Assyrian Empire Notes[edit] ^ Freedom = Akk. addurāru. References[edit] ^ F. Leo Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia ^ Aliraqi - Babylonian Empire ^ Babylonian Empire - Livius ^ a b c Deutscher, Guy (2007). Syntactic Change in Akkadian: The Evolution of Sentential Complementation. Oxford University Press US. pp. 20–21. ISBN 978-0-19-953222-3. ^ Woods C. 2006 "Bilingualism, Scribal Learning, and the Death of Sumerian". In S.L. Sanders (ed) Margins of Writing, Origins of Culture: 91–120 Chicago [1] ^ a b Khalisi, Emil (2020), The Double Eclipse at the Downfall of Old Babylon, arXiv:2007.07141 ^ A. K. Grayson (1972). Assyrian Royal Inscriptions, Volume 1. Otto Harrassowitz. pp. 7–8. ^ Roux, Georges (27 August 1992), "The Time of Confusion", Ancient Iraq, Penguin Books, p. 266, ISBN 9780141938257 ^ Robert William Rogers, A History of Babylonia and Assyria, Volume I, Eaton and Mains, 1900. ^ Oppenheim Ancient Mesopotamia ^ a b c d Georges Roux, Ancient Iraq ^ Eder, Christian., Assyrische Distanzangaben und die absolute Chronologie Vorderasiens, AoF 31, 191–236, 2004. ^ Schneider, Thomas (2003). "Kassitisch und Hurro-Urartäisch. Ein Diskussionsbeitrag zu möglichen lexikalischen Isoglossen". Altorientalische Forschungen (in German) (30): 372–381. ^ "India: Early Vedic period". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 8 September 2012. ^ "Iranian art and architecture". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 8 September 2012. ^ Sayce 1911, p. 104. ^ H. W. F. Saggs (2000). Babylonians. British Museum Press. p. 117. ^ a b c d Sayce 1911, p. 105. ^ "World Wide Sechool". History of Phoenicia – Part IV. Archived from the original on 2012-09-18. Retrieved 2007-01-09. ^ Sayce 1911, pp. 105–106. ^ a b c d e f Sayce 1911, p. 106. ^ Al-Gailani Werr, L., 1988. Studies in the chronology and regional style of Old Babylonian Cylinder Seals. Bibliotheca Mesopotamica, Volume 23. ^ Sayce 1911, p. 108. ^ a b Pingree, David (1998), "Legacies in Astronomy and Celestial Omens", in Dalley, Stephanie (ed.), The Legacy of Mesopotamia, Oxford University Press, pp. 125–137, ISBN 978-0-19-814946-0 ^ Rochberg, Francesca (2004), The Heavenly Writing: Divination, Horoscopy, and Astronomy in Mesopotamian Culture, Cambridge University Press ^ Evans, James (1998). The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. Oxford University Press. pp. 296–297. ISBN 978-0-19-509539-5. Retrieved 2008-02-04. ^ Ginzburg, Carlo (1984). "Morelli, Freud, and Sherlock Holmes: Clues and Scientific Method". In Eco, Umberto; Sebeok, Thomas (eds.). The Sign of Three: Dupin, Holmes, Peirce. Bloomington, IN: History Workshop, Indiana University Press. pp. 81–118. ISBN 978-0-253-35235-4. LCCN 82049207. OCLC 9412985. Ginzburg stresses the significance of Babylonian medicine in his discussion of the conjectural paradigm as evidenced by the methods of Giovanni Morelli, Sigmund Freud and Sherlock Holmes in the light of Charles Sanders Peirce's logic of making educated guesses or abductive reasoning ^ Leo Oppenheim (1977). Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization. University of Chicago Press. p. 290. ^ R D. Biggs (2005). "Medicine, Surgery, and Public Health in Ancient Mesopotamia". Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies. 19 (1): 7–18. ^ a b H. F. J. Horstmanshoff, Marten Stol, Cornelis Tilburg (2004), Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine, p. 99, Brill Publishers, ISBN 90-04-13666-5. ^ Marten Stol (1993), Epilepsy in Babylonia, p. 55, Brill Publishers, ISBN 90-72371-63-1. ^ H. F. J. Horstmanshoff, Marten Stol, Cornelis Tilburg (2004), Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine, p. 97–98, Brill Publishers, ISBN 90-04-13666-5. ^ Marten Stol (1993), Epilepsy in Babylonia, p. 5, Brill Publishers, ISBN 90-72371-63-1. ^ M. J. Geller (2004). H. F. J. Horstmanshoff; Marten Stol; Cornelis Tilburg (eds.). West Meets East: Early Greek and Babylonian Diagnosis. Magic and rationality in ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman medicine. 27. Brill Publishers. pp. 11–186. ISBN 978-90-04-13666-3. PMID 17152166. ^ a b c d e f g Sayce 1911, p. 107. ^ Tatlow, Elisabeth Meier Women, Crime, and Punishment in Ancient Law and Society: The Ancient Near East Continuum International Publishing Group Ltd. (31 March 2005) ISBN 978-0-8264-1628-5 p. 75 [2] ^ a b c Aaboe, Asger. "The culture of Babylonia: Babylonian mathematics, astrology, and astronomy". The Assyrian and Babylonian Empires and other States of the Near East, from the Eighth to the Sixth Centuries B.C. Eds. John Boardman, I. E. S. Edwards, N. G. L. Hammond, E. Sollberger and C. B. F. Walker. Cambridge University Press, (1991) ^ D. Brown (2000), Mesopotamian Planetary Astronomy-Astrology, Styx Publications, ISBN 90-5693-036-2. ^ Otto E. Neugebauer (1945). "The History of Ancient Astronomy Problems and Methods", Journal of Near Eastern Studies 4 (1), pp. 1–38. ^ George Sarton (1955). "Chaldaean Astronomy of the Last Three Centuries B.C.", Journal of the American Oriental Society 75 (3), pp. 166–173 [169]. ^ William P. D. Wightman (1951, 1953), The Growth of Scientific Ideas, Yale University Press p. 38. ^ Sayce 1911, pp. 107–108. ^ Ossendrijver, Mathieu (29 January 2016). "Ancient Babylonian astronomers calculated Jupiter's position from the area under a time-velocity graph". Science. 351 (6272): 482–484. Bibcode:2016Sci...351..482O. doi:10.1126/science.aad8085. PMID 26823423. S2CID 206644971. ^ Giorgio Buccellati (1981), "Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia", Journal of the American Oriental Society 101 (1), pp. 35–47. ^ Giorgio Buccellati (1981), "Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia", Journal of the American Oriental Society 101 (1), pp. 35–47 [43]. ^ The Qur'an. Center for Muslim–Jewish Engagement, University of Southern California. 2008. Archived from the original on 18 June 2017. Bibliography[edit] Theophilus G. Pinches, The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (Many deities' names are now read differently, but this detailed 1906 work is a classic.) Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Babylonian and Assyrian Religion" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Sayce, Archibald Henry (1911). "Babylonia and Assyria". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Sayce, Archibald Henry (1878). "Babylon–Babylonia" . In Baynes, T. S. (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 3 (9th ed.). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 182–194. Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Babylonia" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. The History Files Ancient Mesopotamia Legends of Babylon and Egypt in Relation to Hebrew Tradition, by Leonard W. King, 1918 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format) The Babylonian Legends of the Creation and the Fight between Bel and the Dragon, as told by Assyrian Tablets from Nineveh, 1921 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format) The Civilization of Babylonia and Assyria; its remains, language, history, religion, commerce, law, art, and literature, by Morris Jastrow, Jr. ... with map and 164 illustrations, 1915 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format or [httpw://www.wisdomlib.org/mesopotamian/book/the-civilization-of-babylonia-and-assyria/index.html Readable HTML]) External links[edit] Old Babylonian Period From under the Dust of Ages by William St. Chad Boscawen The Chaldean account of Genesis by George Smith Babylonian Mathematics Babylonian Numerals Babylonian Astronomy/Astrology Bibliography of Babylonian Astronomy/Astrology Recordings of modern scholars reading Babylonian poetry in the original language (http://www.speechisfire.com). 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en-wikipedia-org-7510	----	Phrygia - Wikipedia Phrygia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Greater Phrygia) Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Phrygia (name). Ancient kingdom in Anatolia This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (January 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This article relies too much on references to primary sources. Please improve this by adding secondary or tertiary sources. (January 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Phrygia Ancient Kingdom of Anatolia Location Central Anatolia Language Phrygian State existed Dominant kingdom in Asia Minor from c. 1200–700 BC Capital Gordium Persian satrapy Hellespontine Phrygia, Greater Phrygia Roman province Galatia, Asia Part of a series on Indo-European topics Languages List of Indo-European languages Historical Albanian Armenian Balto-Slavic Baltic Slavic Celtic Germanic Hellenic Greek Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Italic Romance Extinct Anatolian Tocharian Paleo-Balkan Dacian Illyrian Liburnian Messapian Mysian Paeonian Phrygian Thracian Reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language Phonology: Sound laws, Accent, Ablaut Hypothetical Daco-Thracian Graeco-Armenian Graeco-Aryan Graeco-Phrygian Indo-Hittite Italo-Celtic Thraco-Illyrian Grammar Vocabulary Root Verbs Nouns Pronouns Numerals Particles Other Proto-Albanian Proto-Anatolian Proto-Armenian Proto-Germanic (Proto-Norse) Proto-Celtic Proto-Italic Proto-Greek Proto-Balto-Slavic (Proto-Slavic) Proto-Indo-Iranian (Proto-Iranian) Philology Hittite texts Hieroglyphic Luwian Linear B Rigveda Avesta Homer Behistun Gaulish epigraphy Latin epigraphy Runic epigraphy Ogam Gothic Bible Armenian Bible Slanting Brahmi Old Irish glosses Origins Homeland Proto-Indo-Europeans Society Religion Mainstream Kurgan hypothesis Indo-European migrations Eurasian nomads Alternative and fringe Anatolian hypothesis Armenian hypothesis Indigenous Aryans Baltic homeland Paleolithic Continuity Theory Archaeology Chalcolithic (Copper Age) Pontic Steppe Domestication of the horse Kurgan Kurgan culture Steppe cultures Bug–Dniester Sredny Stog Dnieper–Donets Samara Khvalynsk Yamnaya Mikhaylovka culture Novotitorovka culture Caucasus Maykop East Asia Afanasievo Eastern Europe Usatovo Cernavodă Cucuteni Northern Europe Corded ware Baden Middle Dnieper Bronze Age Pontic Steppe Chariot Yamnaya Catacomb Multi-cordoned ware Poltavka Srubna Northern/Eastern Steppe Abashevo culture Andronovo Sintashta Europe Globular Amphora Corded ware Beaker Unetice Trzciniec Nordic Bronze Age Terramare Tumulus Urnfield Lusatian South Asia BMAC Yaz Gandhara grave Iron Age Steppe Chernoles Europe Thraco-Cimmerian Hallstatt Jastorf Caucasus Colchian India Painted Grey Ware Northern Black Polished Ware Peoples and societies Bronze Age Anatolian peoples (Hittites) Armenians Mycenaean Greeks Indo-Iranians Iron Age Indo-Aryans Indo-Aryans Iranians Iranians Persians Medes Parthians Scythians Saka Sarmatians Massagetae Alans East Asia Wusun Yuezhi Europe Celts Gauls Celtiberians Insular Celts Cimmerians Hellenic peoples Italic peoples Germanic peoples Paleo-Balkan/Anatolia Thracians Dacians Illyrians Paeonians Phrygians Middle Ages East Asia Tocharians Europe Albanians Balts Slavs Norsemen/Medieval Scandinavians Medieval Europe Indo-Aryan Medieval India Iranian Greater Persia Religion and mythology Reconstructed Proto-Indo-European mythology Proto-Indo-Iranian religion Ancient Iranian religion Historical Hittite Indo-Aryan Vedic Hinduism Buddhism Jainism Sikhism Iranian Persian Zoroastrianism Kurdish Yazidism Yarsanism Scythian Ossetian Others Armenian Europe Paleo-Balkan (Albanian · Illyrian · Thracian · Dacian) Greek Roman Celtic Irish Scottish Breton Welsh Cornish Germanic Anglo-Saxon Continental Norse Baltic Latvian Lithuanian Slavic Practices Fire sacrifice Horse sacrifice Sati Winter solstice/Yule Indo-European studies Scholars Marija Gimbutas J. P. Mallory Institutes Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European Publications Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture The Horse, the Wheel and Language Journal of Indo-European Studies Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch Indo-European Etymological Dictionary v t e In classical antiquity, Phrygia (/ˈfrɪdʒiə/; Ancient Greek: Φρυγία, Phrygía [pʰryɡía]; Turkish: Frigya) (also known as the Kingdom of Muska)[1] was a kingdom in the west central part of Anatolia, in what is now Asian Turkey, centred on the Sangarios River. After its conquest, it became a region of the great empires of the time. Stories of the heroic age of Greek mythology tell of several legendary Phrygian kings: Gordias, whose Gordian Knot would later be cut by Alexander the Great Midas, who turned whatever he touched to gold Mygdon, who warred with the Amazons According to Homer's Iliad, the Phrygians participated in the Trojan War as close allies of the Trojans, fighting against the Achaeans. Phrygian power reached its peak in the late 8th century BC under another, historical, king: Midas, who dominated most of western and central Anatolia and rivaled Assyria and Urartu for power in eastern Anatolia. This later Midas was, however, also the last independent king of Phrygia before Cimmerians sacked the Phrygian capital, Gordium, around 695 BC. Phrygia then became subject to Lydia, and then successively to Persia, Alexander and his Hellenistic successors, Pergamon, the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire. Over this time Phrygians became christian and Greek-speaking, assimilating into the Byzantine state; after the Turkish conquest of Byzantine Anatolia in the late Middle Ages, the name "Phrygia" passed out of usage as a territorial designation. Contents 1 Geography 2 Origins 2.1 Legendary ancient migrations 2.2 Phrygian language 2.3 Recent migration hypotheses 2.4 Relation to their Hittite predecessors 2.5 Relation to the later Armenians 3 History 3.1 Around the time of the Trojan war 3.2 Peak and destruction of the Phrygian kingdom 3.3 As a Lydian province 3.4 As Persian province(s) 3.5 Under Alexander and his successors 3.6 Celts and Attalids 3.7 Under Rome and Byzantium 4 Culture 5 Mythic past 6 Christian period 7 See also 8 References 9 Bibliography 10 External links Geography[edit] Location of Phrygia in Anatolia Gordion archeological site Phrygia describes an area on the western end of the high Anatolian plateau, an arid region quite unlike the forested lands to the north and west. Phrygia begins in the northwest where an area of dry steppe is diluted by the Sakarya and Porsuk river system and is home to the settlements of Dorylaeum near modern Eskişehir, and the Phrygian capital Gordion. The climate is harsh with hot summers and cold winters; olives will not easily grow here and the land is mostly used for livestock grazing and the production of barley. South of Dorylaeum, there an important Phrygian settlement, Midas City (Yazılıkaya, Eskişehir), is situated in an area of hills and columns of volcanic tuff. To the south again, central Phrygia includes the cities of Afyonkarahisar (ancient Akroinon) with its marble quarries at nearby Docimium (İscehisar), and the town of Synnada. At the western end of Phrygia stood the towns of Aizanoi (modern Çavdarhisar) and Acmonia. From here to the southwest lies the hilly area of Phrygia that contrasts to the bare plains of the region's heartland. Southwestern Phrygia is watered by the Maeander (Büyük Menderes River) and its tributary the Lycus, and contains the towns of Laodicea on the Lycus and Hierapolis.[2] Origins[edit] Zeus Temple in ancient city of Aizanoi belongs to Phrygia. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site Theatre complex of Aizanoi in Phrygia Legendary ancient migrations[edit] According to ancient tradition among Greek historians, the Phrygians anciently migrated to Anatolia from the Balkans. Herodotus says that the Phrygians were called Bryges when they lived in Europe.[3] He and other Greek writers also recorded legends about King Midas that associated him with or put his origin in Macedonia; Herodotus, for example, says a wild rose garden in Macedonia was named after Midas.[4] Some classical writers[which?] also connected the Phrygians with the Mygdones, the name of two groups of people, one of which lived in northern Macedonia and another in Mysia. Likewise, the Phrygians have been identified[by whom?] with the Bebryces, a people said to have warred with Mysia before the Trojan War and who had a king named Mygdon at roughly the same time as the Phrygians were said to have had a king named Mygdon. The classical historian Strabo groups Phrygians, Mygdones, Mysians, Bebryces and Bithynians together as peoples that migrated to Anatolia from the Balkans.[5] This image of Phrygians as part of a related group of northwest Anatolian cultures seems the most likely explanation for the confusion over whether Phrygians, Bebryces and Anatolian Mygdones were or were not the same people. Phrygian language[edit] Phrygian continued to be spoken until the 6th century AD, though its distinctive alphabet was lost earlier than those of most Anatolian cultures.[2] One of the Homeric Hymns describes the Phrygian language as not mutually intelligible with that of Troy,[6] and inscriptions found at Gordium make clear that Phrygians spoke an Indo-European language with at least some vocabulary similar to Greek. Phrygian clearly did not belong to the family of Anatolian languages spoken in most of the adjacent countries, such as Hittite.[7][8] The apparent similarity of the Phrygian language to Greek and its dissimilarity with the Anatolian languages spoken by most of their neighbors is also taken as support for a European origin of the Phrygians.[2] Phrygian soldiers. Detail from a reconstruction of a Phrygian building at Pararli, Turkey, 7th–6th centuries BC. Eric P. Hamp in his 2012 Indo-European family tree classified the Phrygian language together with Italo-Celtic as a member of a "Northwest Indo-European" group.[9] In Hamp's view, Northwest Indo-Europeans are likely to have been the first inhabitants of Hallstatt with the Pre-Phrygians moving east and south to Anatolia in the same manner as the Galatians did later on.[9] In 2010, Raymund Carl mentions that the Lausitz culture was one such Hallstatt-associated culture.[10] Recent migration hypotheses[edit] Some scholars dismiss the claim of a Phrygian migration as a mere legend, likely arising from the coincidental similarity of their name to the Bryges, and have theorized that migration into Phrygia could have occurred more recently than classical sources suggest. They have sought to fit the Phrygian arrival into a narrative explaining the downfall of the Hittite Empire and the end of the high Bronze Age in Anatolia,.[11] According to the "recent migration" theory, the Phrygians invaded just before or after the collapse of the Hittite Empire at the beginning of the 12th century BC, filling the political vacuum in central-western Anatolia, and may have been counted among the "Sea Peoples" that Egyptian records credit with bringing about the Hittite collapse. The so-called Handmade Knobbed Ware found in Western Anatolia during this period has been tentatively identified as an import connected to this invasion. Relation to their Hittite predecessors[edit] Some scholars accept as factual the Iliad's account that the Phrygians were established on the Sakarya River before the Trojan War, and thus must have been there during the later stages of the Hittite Empire, and probably earlier, and consequently dismiss proposals of recent immigration to Phrygia. These scholars seek instead to trace the Phrygians' origins among the many nations of western Anatolia who were subject to the Hittites.[12] This interpretation also gets support from Greek legends about the founding of Phrygia's main city Gordium by Gordias and of Ancyra by Midas,[13] which suggest that Gordium and Ancyra were believed to date from the distant past before the Trojan War. No one has conclusively identified which of the many subjects of the Hittites might have represented early Phrygians. According to a classical tradition, popularized by Josephus, Phrygia can be equated with the country called Togarmah by the ancient Hebrews, which has in turn been identified as the Tegarama of Hittite texts and Til-Garimmu of Assyrian records. Josephus called Togarmah "the Thrugrammeans, who, as the Greeks resolved, were named Phrygians". However, the Greek source cited by Josephus is unknown, and it is unclear if there was any basis for the identification other than name similarity. Scholars of the Hittites believe Tegarama was in eastern Anatolia – some locate it at Gurun – far to the east of Phrygia. Some scholars have identified Phrygia with the Assuwa league, and noted that the Iliad mentions a Phrygian (Queen Hecuba's brother) named Asios.[14] Another possible early name of Phrygia could be Hapalla, the name of the easternmost province that emerged from the splintering of the Bronze Age western Anatolian empire Arzawa. However, scholars are unsure if Hapalla corresponds to Phrygia or to Pisidia, further south. Relation to the later Armenians[edit] Herodotus also claims that Phrygian colonists founded the Armenian nation.[3] This is likely a reference to a third group of people called Mygdones living in northern Mesopotamia who were apparently allied to the Armenians; Xenophon describes them in his Anabasis in a joint army with the Armenians.[citation needed] However, little is known about these eastern Mygdones, and no evidence of the Phrygian language in that region has been found.[citation needed] History[edit] Around the time of the Trojan war[edit] According to the Iliad, the homeland of the Phrygians was on the Sangarius River, which would remain the centre of Phrygia throughout its history. Phrygia was famous for its wine and had "brave and expert" horsemen. According to the Iliad, before the Trojan War, a young king Priam of Troy had taken an army to Phrygia to support it in a war against the Amazons. Homer calls the Phrygians "the people of Otreus and godlike Mygdon".[15] According to Euripides, Quintus Smyrnaeus and others, this Mygdon's son, Coroebus, fought and died in the Trojan War; he had sued for the hand of the Trojan princess Cassandra in marriage. The name Otreus could be an eponym for Otroea, a place on Lake Ascania in the vicinity of the later Nicaea, and the name Mygdon is clearly an eponym for the Mygdones, a people said by Strabo to live in northwest Asia Minor, and who appear to have sometimes been considered distinct from the Phrygians.[16] However, Pausanias believed that Mygdon's tomb was located at Stectorium in the southern Phrygian highlands, near modern Sandikli.[17] Horseman and griffin, Phrygia, 600–550 BC. According to the Bibliotheca, the Greek hero Heracles slew a king Mygdon of the Bebryces in a battle in northwest Anatolia that if historical would have taken place about a generation before the Trojan War. According to the story, while traveling from Minoa to the Amazons, Heracles stopped in Mysia and supported the Mysians in a battle with the Bebryces.[18] According to some interpretations, Bebryces is an alternate name for Phrygians and this Mygdon is the same person mentioned in the Iliad. King Priam married the Phrygian princess Hecabe (or Hecuba[19]) and maintained a close alliance with the Phrygians, who repaid him by fighting "ardently" in the Trojan War against the Greeks. Hecabe was a daughter of the Phrygian king Dymas, son of Eioneus, son of Proteus. According to the Iliad, Hecabe's younger brother Asius also fought at Troy (see above); and Quintus Smyrnaeus mentions two grandsons of Dymas that fell at the hands of Neoptolemus at the end of the Trojan War: "Two sons he slew of Meges rich in gold, Scion of Dymas – sons of high renown, cunning to hurl the dart, to drive the steed in war, and deftly cast the lance afar, born at one birth beside Sangarius' banks of Periboea to him, Celtus one, and Eubius the other." Teleutas, father of the maiden Tecmessa, is mentioned as another mythical Phrygian king. There are indications in the Iliad that the heart of the Phrygian country was further north and downriver than it would be in later history. The Phrygian contingent arrives to aid Troy coming from Lake Ascania in northwest Anatolia, and is led by Phorcys and Ascanius, both sons of Aretaon. In one of the so-called Homeric Hymns, Phrygia is said to be "rich in fortresses" and ruled by "famous Otreus".[6] Peak and destruction of the Phrygian kingdom[edit] Detail from a reconstruction of a Phrygian building at Pararli, Turkey, 7th–6th centuries BC: Museum of Anatolian Civilisations, Ankara. A griffin, sphinx and two centaurs are shown. During the 8th century BC, the Phrygian kingdom with its capital at Gordium in the upper Sakarya River valley expanded into an empire dominating most of central and western Anatolia and encroaching upon the larger Assyrian Empire to its southeast and the kingdom of Urartu to the northeast. According to the classical historians Strabo,[20] Eusebius and Julius Africanus, the king of Phrygia during this time was another Midas. This historical Midas is believed to be the same person named as Mita in Assyrian texts from the period and identified as king of the Mushki. Scholars figure that Assyrians called Phrygians "Mushki" because the Phrygians and Mushki, an eastern Anatolian people, were at that time campaigning in a joint army.[21] This Midas is thought to have reigned Phrygia at the peak of its power from about 720 BC to about 695 BC (according to Eusebius) or 676 BC (according to Julius Africanus). An Assyrian inscription mentioning "Mita", dated to 709 BC, during the reign of Sargon of Assyria, suggests Phrygia and Assyria had struck a truce by that time. This Midas appears to have had good relations and close trade ties with the Greeks, and reputedly married an Aeolian Greek princess. A system of writing in the Phrygian language developed and flourished in Gordium during this period, using a Phoenician-derived alphabet similar to the Greek one. A distinctive Phrygian pottery called Polished Ware appears during this period. However, the Phrygian Kingdom was then overwhelmed by Cimmerian invaders, and Gordium was sacked and destroyed. According to Strabo and others, Midas committed suicide by drinking bulls' blood. Tomb at Midas City (6th century BC), near Eskişehir A series of digs have opened Gordium as one of Turkey's most revealing archeological sites. Excavations confirm a violent destruction of Gordium around 675 BC. A tomb from the period, popularly identified as the "Tomb of Midas", revealed a wooden structure deeply buried under a vast tumulus, containing grave goods, a coffin, furniture, and food offerings (Archaeological Museum, Ankara). As a Lydian province[edit] After their destruction of Gordium, the Cimmerians remained in western Anatolia and warred with Lydia, which eventually expelled them by around 620 BC, and then expanded to incorporate Phrygia, which became the Lydian empire's eastern frontier. The Gordium site reveals a considerable building program during the 6th century BC, under the domination of Lydian kings including the proverbially rich King Croesus. Meanwhile, Phrygia's former eastern subjects fell to Assyria and later to the Medes. There may be an echo of strife with Lydia and perhaps a veiled reference to royal hostages, in the legend of the twice-unlucky Phrygian prince Adrastus, who accidentally killed his brother and exiled himself to Lydia, where King Croesus welcomed him. Once again, Adrastus accidentally killed Croesus' son and then committed suicide. As Persian province(s)[edit] The location of Hellespontine Phrygia, and the provincial capital of Dascylium, in the Achaemenid Empire, c. 500 BC. Some time in the 540s BC, Phrygia passed to the Achaemenid (Great Persian) Empire when Cyrus the Great conquered Lydia. After Darius the Great became Persian Emperor in 521 BC, he remade the ancient trade route into the Persian "Royal Road" and instituted administrative reforms that included setting up satrapies. The Phrygian satrapy (province) lay west of the Halys River (now Kızıl River) and east of Mysia and Lydia. Its capital was established at Dascylium, modern Ergili. In the course of the 5th century, the region was divided in two administrative satrapies: Hellespontine Phrygia and Greater Phrygia.[22] Under Alexander and his successors[edit] The Macedonian Greek conqueror Alexander the Great passed through Gordium in 333 BC and severed the Gordian Knot in the temple of Sabazios ("Zeus"). According to a legend, possibly promulgated by Alexander's publicists, whoever untied the knot would be master of Asia. With Gordium sited on the Persian Royal Road that led through the heart of Anatolia, the prophecy had some geographical plausibility. With Alexander, Phrygia became part of the wider Hellenistic world. Upon Alexander's death in 323 BC, the Battle of Ipsus took place in 301 BC.[23] Celts and Attalids[edit] In the chaotic period after Alexander's death, northern Phrygia was overrun by Celts, eventually to become the province of Galatia. The former capital of Gordium was captured and destroyed by the Gauls soon afterwards and disappeared from history. In 188 BC, the southern remnant of Phrygia came under the control of the Attalids of Pergamon. However, the Phrygian language survived, although now written in the Greek alphabet. Under Rome and Byzantium[edit] The two Phrygian provinces within the Diocese of Asia, c. 400 AD. In 133 BC, the remnants of Phrygia passed to Rome. For purposes of provincial administration, the Romans maintained a divided Phrygia, attaching the northeastern part to the province of Galatia and the western portion to the province of Asia. During the reforms of Diocletian, Phrygia was divided anew into two provinces: "Phrygia I", or Phrygia Salutaris (meaning "healthy" in Latin), and Phrygia II, or Pacatiana (Greek Πακατιανή, "peaceful"), both under the Diocese of Asia. Salutaris with Synnada as its capital comprised the eastern portion of the region and Pacatiana with Laodicea on the Lycus as capital of the western portion. The provinces survived up to the end of the 7th century, when they were replaced by the Theme system. In the Late Roman, early "Byzantine" period, most of Phrygia belonged to the Anatolic theme. It was overrun by the Turks in the aftermath of the Battle of Manzikert (1071).[24] The Turks had taken complete control in the 13th century, but the ancient name of Phrygia remained in use until the last remnant of the Byzantine Empire was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1453. Culture[edit] The Flaying of Marsyas by Titian, 1570s, with King Midas at right, and the man with a knife in a Phrygian cap The ruins of Gordion and Midas City prove that Phrygia had developed an advanced Bronze Age culture. This Phrygian culture interacted in a number of ways with Greek culture in various periods of history.[2] The "Great Mother", Cybele, as the Greeks and Romans knew her, was originally worshiped in the mountains of Phrygia, where she was known as "Mountain Mother". In her typical Phrygian form, she wears a long belted dress, a polos (a high cylindrical headdress), and a veil covering the whole body. The later version of Cybele was established by a pupil of Phidias, the sculptor Agoracritus, and became the image most widely adopted by Cybele's expanding following, both in the Aegean world and at Rome. It shows her humanized though still enthroned, her hand resting on an attendant lion and the other holding the tympanon, a circular frame drum, similar to a tambourine. The Phrygians also venerated Sabazios, the sky and father-god depicted on horseback. Although the Greeks associated Sabazios with Zeus, representations of him, even in Roman times, show him as a horseman god. His conflicts with the indigenous Mother Goddess, whose creature was the Lunar Bull, may be surmised in the way that Sabazios' horse places a hoof on the head of a bull, in a Roman relief at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. The earliest traditions of Greek music derived from Phrygia, transmitted through the Greek colonies in Anatolia, and included the Phrygian mode, which was considered to be the warlike mode in ancient Greek music. Phrygian Midas, the king of the "golden touch", was tutored in music by Orpheus himself, according to the myth. Another musical invention that came from Phrygia was the aulos, a reed instrument with two pipes. Marsyas, the satyr who first formed the instrument using the hollowed antler of a stag, was a Phrygian follower of Cybele. He unwisely competed in music with the Olympian Apollo and inevitably lost, whereupon Apollo flayed Marsyas alive and provocatively hung his skin on Cybele's own sacred tree, a pine. Phrygia was also the scene of another musical contest, between Apollo and Pan. Midas was either a judge or spectator, and said he preferred Pan's pipes to Apollo's lyre, and was given donkey's ears as a punishment. The two stories were often confused or conflated, as by Titian. Classical Greek iconography identifies the Trojan Paris as non-Greek by his Phrygian cap, which was worn by Mithras and survived into modern imagery as the "Liberty cap" of the American and French revolutionaries. The Phrygians spoke an Indo-European language. (See Phrygian language.) Although the Phrygians adopted the alphabet originated by the Phoenicians, only a few dozen inscriptions in the Phrygian language have been found, primarily funereal, and so much of what is thought to be known of Phrygia is second-hand information from Greek sources. Mythic past[edit] The name of the earliest known mythical king was Nannacus (aka Annacus).[25] This king resided at Iconium, the most eastern city of the kingdom of Phrygia at that time; and after his death, at the age of 300 years, a great flood overwhelmed the country, as had been foretold by an ancient oracle. The next king mentioned in extant classical sources was called Manis or Masdes. According to Plutarch, because of his splendid exploits, great things were called "manic" in Phrygia.[26] Thereafter, the kingdom of Phrygia seems to have become fragmented among various kings. One of the kings was Tantalus, who ruled over the north western region of Phrygia around Mount Sipylus. Tantalus was endlessly punished in Tartarus, because he allegedly killed his son Pelops and sacrificially offered him to the Olympians, a reference to the suppression of human sacrifice. Tantalus was also falsely accused of stealing from the lotteries he had invented. In the mythic age before the Trojan war, during a time of an interregnum, Gordius (or Gordias), a Phrygian farmer, became king, fulfilling an oracular prophecy. The kingless Phrygians had turned for guidance to the oracle of Sabazios ("Zeus" to the Greeks) at Telmissus, in the part of Phrygia that later became part of Galatia. They had been instructed by the oracle to acclaim as their king the first man who rode up to the god's temple in a cart. That man was Gordias (Gordios, Gordius), a farmer, who dedicated the ox-cart in question, tied to its shaft with the "Gordian Knot". Gordias refounded a capital at Gordium in west central Anatolia, situated on the old trackway through the heart of Anatolia that became Darius's Persian "Royal Road" from Pessinus to Ancyra, and not far from the River Sangarius. Man in Phrygian costume, Hellenistic period (3rd–1st century BC), Cyprus The Phrygians are associated in Greek mythology with the Dactyls, minor gods credited with the invention of iron smelting, who in most versions of the legend lived at Mount Ida in Phrygia. Gordias's son (adopted in some versions) was Midas. A large body of myths and legends surround this first king Midas.[27] connecting him with a mythological tale concerning Attis.[28] This shadowy figure resided at Pessinus and attempted to marry his daughter to the young Attis in spite of the opposition of his lover Agdestis and his mother, the goddess Cybele. When Agdestis and/or Cybele appear and cast madness upon the members of the wedding feast. Midas is said to have died in the ensuing chaos. King Midas is said to have associated himself with Silenus and other satyrs and with Dionysus, who granted him a "golden touch". In one version of his story, Midas travels from Thrace accompanied by a band of his people to Asia Minor to wash away the taint of his unwelcome "golden touch" in the river Pactolus. Leaving the gold in the river's sands, Midas found himself in Phrygia, where he was adopted by the childless king Gordias and taken under the protection of Cybele. Acting as the visible representative of Cybele, and under her authority, it would seem, a Phrygian king could designate his successor. The Phrygian Sibyl was the priestess presiding over the Apollonian oracle at Phrygia. According to Herodotus,[29] the Egyptian pharaoh Psammetichus II had two children raised in isolation in order to find the original language. The children were reported to have uttered bekos, which is Phrygian for "bread", so Psammetichus admitted that the Phrygians were a nation older than the Egyptians. Christian period[edit] Visitors from Phrygia were reported to have been among the crowds present in Jerusalem on the occasion of Pentecost as recorded in Acts 2:10. In Acts 16:6 the Apostle Paul and his companion Silas travelled through Phrygia and the region of Galatia proclaiming the Christian gospel. Their plans appear to have been to go to Asia but circumstances or guidance, "in ways which we are not told, by inner promptings, or by visions of the night, or by the inspired utterances of those among their converts who had received the gift of prophecy" [30] prevented them from doing so and instead they travelled westwards towards the coast.[31] The Christian heresy known as Montanism, and still known in Orthodoxy as "the Phrygian heresy", arose in the unidentified village of Ardabau in the 2nd century AD, and was distinguished by ecstatic spirituality and women priests. Originally described as a rural movement, it is now thought to have been of urban origin like other Christian developments. The new Jerusalem its adherents founded in the village of Pepouza has now been identified in a remote valley that later held a monastery.[2] See also[edit] Ancient regions of Anatolia Phrygians Bryges Paleo-Balkan languages Phrygian cap Phrygian language References[edit] ^ https://archaeologynewsnetwork.blogspot.com/2020/02/archaeologists-discover-lost-city-that.html ^ a b c d e Peter Thonemann (ed), 2013, Roman Phrygia: culture and society, Cambridge University Press ^ a b Herodotus VII.73. ^ Herodotus VII.73, VIII.138. ^ Strabo 7.3.3. ^ a b Homeric Hymns number 5, To Aphrodite. ^ Claude Brixhe, Phrygian, in Roger D. Woodard (editor), The ancient Languages of Asia Minor, Cambridge University Press, 2008, p. 72 ^ Bolaris, Miltiades E. (2010). "Midas and the Phrygians". ^ a b Hamp, Eric P. (August 2013). "The Expansion of the Indo-European Languages: An Indo-Europeanist's Evolving View" (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers. 239: 8, 10. Retrieved 25 July 2014. ^ Celtic from the West, 2010 ^ See for example Encyclopædia Britannica. ^ Phillip Clapham, "Hittites and Phrygians", C&AH IV:2, pp.71–121. ^ Pausanias 1.4.5. ^ CAH, Vol 2, Part 2, p. 418. ^ Homer, Iliad III.216–225. ^ Homer, Iliad II.1055–1057; Smith, William (1878). A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography. London: J. Murray. p. 230. ^ Pausanias 10.27 ^ Bibliotheca 2.5.10. ^ Homer, Iliad XVI.873–875. ^ Strabo, I.3.21. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica. ^ Scott 1995, p. 183. ^ "Kingdoms of the Successors of Alexander: After the Battle of Ipsus, B.C. 301". World Digital Library. 1800–1884. Retrieved 2013-07-27. ^ Swain, Simon; Adams, J. Maxwell; Janse, Mark (2002). Bilingualism in ancient society: language contact and the written word. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. pp. 246–266. ISBN 0-19-924506-1. ^ Suidas s. v. Νάννακος; Stephanus of Byzantium s.v. Ἰκόνιον; Both passages are translated in: A new system: or, An analysis of ancient mythology by Jacob Bryant (1807) pp. 12–14 ^ Plutarch, On Isis and Osiris, Chapter 24 ^ There were seven all together ^ Pausanias Description of Greece 7:17; Arnobius Against the Pagans 5.5 ^ Histories 2.9 ^ Ellicott's Commentary for English Readers, accessed 18 September 2015 ^ Acts 16:7–8 Bibliography[edit] Scott, James M. (1995). Paul and the Nations: The Old Testament and Jewish Background of Paul's Mission to the Nations with Special Reference to the Destination of Galatians. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 978-3161463778. Thonemann, Peter, ed. (2013). Roman Phrygia: culture and society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-03128-9. Tamsü, Rahşan; Polat, Yusuf (February 19–24, 2007). "The Phrygian rock cut altars and their restoration and conservation proposals". International Conference on Environment: Survival and Sustainability (EES 2007). Nicosia, Northern Cyprus (published 2009). 3: 1005–1014. ISBN 978-975-8359-55-4. Tamsü, Rahşan (February 24–26, 2005). "Observations on the Phrygian rock-cut altars". Symposium on Mediterranean Archaeology (SOMA 2005). Chieti-Pescara, Italy: Chieti University (published 2008): 439–445. ISBN 978-1-4073-0181-5. Tamsü, Rahşan; Polat, Yusuf (2010). "Yeni Buluntular Işığında Phryg Kaya Altarları Ve Bir Tipoloji Önerisi". Anadolu Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi (in Turkish). Eskişehir. 10 (1): 203–222. ISSN 1303-0876. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Phrygia. "Phrygia". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 2010-11-19. Retrieved 2010-06-10. "Phrygian Period in Anatolia". Ancient Anatolia. Archived from the original on 6 December 2006. Ramsay, William Mitchell (1911). "Phrygia" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 21 (11th ed.). pp. 541–544. "King Midas and Phrygia Cultural Center". Archived from the original on 20 July 2010. Coordinates: 39°N 31°E / 39°N 31°E / 39; 31 v t e Ancient kingdoms of Anatolia Bronze Age Ahhiyawa Arzawa Assuwa league Carchemish Colchis Hapalla Hatti Hayasa-Azzi Hittite Empire Isuwa Kaskia Kizzuwatna Lukka Luwia Mitanni Pala Wilusa/Troy Iron Age Aeolia Caria Cimmerians Diauehi Doris Ionia Lycia Lydia Neo-Hittites (Atuna, Carchemish, Gurgum, Hilakku, Kammanu, Kummuh, Quwê, Tabal) Phrygia Urartu Classical Age Antigonids Armenia Bithynia Cappadocia Cilicia Commagene Galatia Paphlagonia Pergamon Pontus Turkey Portal v t e Historical regions of Anatolia Aeolis Bithynia Cappadocia Caria Cilicia Doris Galatia Ionia Isauria Lycaonia Lycia Lydia Mysia Pamphylia Paphlagonia Phrygia Pisidia Pontus Troad v t e History of Anatolia v t e Late Roman and Byzantine provinces (4th–7th centuries AD) History As found in the Notitia Dignitatum. Provincial administration reformed and dioceses established by Diocletian, c. 293. Permanent praetorian prefectures established after the death of Constantine I. Empire permanently partitioned after 395. Exarchates of Ravenna and Africa established after 584. After massive territorial losses in the 7th century, the remaining provinces were superseded by the theme system in c. 640–660, although in Asia Minor and parts of Greece they survived under the themes until the early 9th century. Western Roman Empire (395–476) Praetorian Prefecture of Gaul Diocese of Gaul Alpes Poeninae et Graiae Belgica I Belgica II Germania I Germania II Lugdunensis I Lugdunensis II Lugdunensis III Lugdunensis IV Maxima Sequanorum Diocese of Vienne1 Alpes Maritimae Aquitanica I Aquitanica II Narbonensis I Narbonensis II Novempopulania Viennensis Diocese of Spain Baetica Balearica Carthaginensis Gallaecia Lusitania Mauretania Tingitana Tarraconensis Diocese of the Britains Britannia I Britannia II Flavia Caesariensis Maxima Caesariensis Valentia (?) Praetorian Prefecture of Italy Diocese of Suburbicarian Italy Apulia et Calabria Campania Corsica Lucania et Bruttii Picenum Suburbicarium Samnium Sardinia Sicilia Tuscia et Umbria Valeria Diocese of Annonarian Italy Alpes Cottiae Flaminia et Picenum Annonarium Liguria et Aemilia Raetia I Raetia II Venetia et Histria Diocese of Africa2 Africa proconsularis (Zeugitana) Byzacena Mauretania Caesariensis Mauretania Sitifensis Numidia (divided as Cirtensis and Militiana during the Tetrarchy) Tripolitania Eastern Roman/Byzantine Empire (395–c. 640) Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum Diocese of Pannonia3 Dalmatia Noricum mediterraneum Noricum ripense Pannonia I Pannonia II Savia Valeria ripensis Diocese of Dacia Dacia Mediterranea Dacia Ripensis Dardania Moesia I Praevalitana Diocese of Macedonia Achaea Creta Epirus Nova Epirus Vetus Macedonia Prima Macedonia II Salutaris Thessalia Praetorian Prefecture of the East Diocese of Thrace5 Europa Haemimontus Moesia II4 Rhodope Scythia4 Thracia Diocese of Asia5 Asia Caria4 Hellespontus Islands4 Lycaonia (370) Lycia Lydia Pamphylia Pisidia Phrygia Pacatiana Phrygia Salutaris Diocese of Pontus5 Armenia I5 Armenia II5 Armenia Maior5 Armenian Satrapies5 Armenia III (536) Armenia IV (536) Bithynia Cappadocia I5 Cappadocia II5 Galatia I5 Galatia II Salutaris5 Helenopontus5 Honorias5 Paphlagonia5 Pontus Polemoniacus5 Diocese of the East5 Arabia Cilicia I Cilicia II Cyprus4 Euphratensis Isauria Mesopotamia Osroene Palaestina I Palaestina II Palaestina III Salutaris Phoenice I Phoenice II Libanensis Syria I Syria II Salutaris Theodorias (528) Diocese of Egypt5 Aegyptus I Aegyptus II Arcadia Augustamnica I Augustamnica II Libya Superior Libya Inferior Thebais Superior Thebais Inferior Other territories Taurica Quaestura exercitus (536) Spania (552) 1 Later the Septem Provinciae 2 Re-established after reconquest by the Eastern Empire in 534 as the separate Prefecture of Africa 3 Later the Diocese of Illyricum 4 Placed under the Quaestura exercitus in 536 5 Affected (i.e. boundaries modified, abolished or renamed) by Justinian I's administrative reorganization in 534–536 v t e Journeys of Paul the Apostle First journey 1. Antioch 2. Seleucia 3. Cyprus 3a. Salamis 3b. Paphos 4. Perga 5. Antioch of Pisidia 6. Konya (Iconium) 7. Derbe 8. Lystra 9. Antalya 10. Antioch (returns to beginning of journey) Second journey 1. Cilicia 2. Derbe 3. Lystra 4. Phrygia 5. Galatia 6. Mysia (Alexandria Troas) 7. Samothrace 8. Neapolis 9. Philippi 9. Amphipolis 10. Apollonia 11. Thessalonica 12. Beroea 13. Athens 14. Corinth 15. Cenchreae 16. Ephesus 17. Syria 18. Caesarea 19. Jerusalem 20. Antioch Third journey 1. Galatia 2. Phrygia 3. Ephesus 4. Macedonia 5. Corinth 6. Cenchreae 7. Macedonia (again) 8. Troas 9. Assos 10. Mytilene 11. Chios 12. Samos 13. Miletus 14. Cos 15. Rhodes 16. Patara 17. Tyre 18. Ptolemais 19. Caesarea 20. Jerusalem Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phrygia&oldid=1002103921#History" Categories: Phrygia States and territories established in the 12th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 7th century BC Historical regions of Anatolia Pauline churches History of Ankara Province History of Afyonkarahisar Province History of Eskişehir Province Hidden categories: Pages using the EasyTimeline extension Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles lacking in-text citations from January 2014 All articles lacking in-text citations Articles lacking reliable references from January 2014 All articles lacking reliable references Articles with multiple maintenance issues Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Turkish-language text All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from July 2015 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2017 CS1 Turkish-language sources (tr) Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Coordinates on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Dolnoserbski Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Malagasy Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Simple English Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 January 2021, at 21:51 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-751	----	Sanakht - Wikipedia Sanakht From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sanakht Nebka ? Horus Sa ? Relief fragment of Sanakht in the pose of smiting an enemy. Originally from the Sinai, now EA 691 on display at the British Museum. Pharaoh Reign 18 years according to the Turin Canon, most likely less, starting ca. 2650 BC (3rd Dynasty) Predecessor uncertain, Sekhemkhet (most likely) or Khaba, Djoser, Khasekhemwy Successor uncertain, Khaba (most likely) or Sekhemkhet, Huni, Qahedjet, Djoser Royal titulary Horus name Hor-Sanakht Ḥr-S3.nḫt Horus the victorious protector Father Khasekhemwy ? Mother Nimaathap ? Burial mastaba K2 at Beit Khallaf? Sanakht (also read as Hor-Sanakht) is the Horus name of an ancient Egyptian king (pharaoh) of the Third Dynasty during the Old Kingdom. His chronological position is highly uncertain (though he is more likely to have reigned towards the end of the dynasty), and it is also unclear under which Hellenized name the ancient historian Manetho could have listed him. Many Egyptologists connect Sanakht with the Ramesside cartouche name Nebka. However, this remains disputed because no further royal title of that king has ever been found; either in contemporary source or later ones. There are two relief fragments depicting Sanakht originally from the Wadi Maghareh on the Sinai Peninsula. Contents 1 Identity 2 Reign 3 Tomb 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Identity[edit] Sanakht's identity and position in the Third Dynasty is not entirely clear and remains the subject of debate. While Sanakht's existence is attested by seal fragments from mastaba K2 at Beit Khallaf and a graffito, his position as the founder of the Third Dynasty, as recorded by Manetho and the Turin Canon, has been seriously undermined by recent archaeological discoveries at Abydos. These discoveries establish that it was likely Djoser who helped bury—and thus succeed—Khasekhemwy, rather than Sanakht. This is determined from seals bearing Djoser's name found at the entrance to the latter's tomb.[1] Relief of Sanakht from the Wadi Maghareh. Proponents of the theory that Sanakht was nonetheless the founder of the dynasty object that the presence of Djoser's seals in Khasekhemwy's tomb only shows that Djoser conducted cultural rituals in honor of this king, and does not necessarily imply that Djoser was Khasekhemwy's immediate successor.[2] Sanakht could then have married Queen Nimaethap, with Nimaethap being the daughter of Khasekhemwy rather than his wife. Together with Sanakht, they could be the parents of Djoser. Alternatively, some have considered Sanakht to be Djoser's elder brother. Presently, the dominant theory is that Sanakht's reign dates to the later Third Dynasty, after Djoser. Egyptologists Toby Wilkinson, Stephan Seidlmayer, Kenneth Kitchen and Rainer Stadelmann equate Sanakht with "Nebka", a name appearing in Ramesside king lists. In support of this theory is a clay seal fragment on which the lower part of a cartouche appears. In this cartouche Wilkinson, Seidlmayer and Stadelmann see traces of a Ka-sign, the end of the name "Nebka".[3][4] Likewise, Dietrich Wildung favors equating Nebka with Sanakht, although he questions the validity of the seal as evidence given that it is too badly damaged to read the inscription within the cartouche as "Nebka" with any certainty.[5] John D. Degreef, Nabil Swelim and Wolfgang Helck are against equating Nebka with Sanakht. They refer to the fact that the name "Nebka" is not attested on any monument nor in any document dating to before Djoser.[5] Instead, Nabil Swelim identifies Nebka with the Horus name Khaba.[6] He further identifies Sanakht with a king Mesochris mentioned by Manetho, regarding this as a Hellenized form of the throne name of Sanakht. He dated Sanakht's reign to between the seventh and eighth king of the Third Dynasty.[6] Jürgen von Beckerath, Wolfgang Helck, Dietrich Wildung and Peter Kaplony proposed that Sanakht's Horus name is that of the shadowy Horus Sa, seeing the name "Sa" as a short form of "Sanakht".[7] From this, Wolfgang Helck holds that Sanakht's Nisut-Biti name was Weneg. King Weneg, however, is widely held to have ruled during the Second Dynasty, and Helck's theory has been greeted with skepticism.[8] Sanakht's name was once read "Hen Nekht" by Egyptologists such as Ernest Wallis Budge. Today, this reading is not in use anymore; the up-to-date reading is "Sanakht" or (seldomly) "Nakht-Sa".[9][10] Reign[edit] Clay seal fragment bearing Sanakht's serekh from mastaba K2 at Beit Khallaf. The exact duration of Sanakht's time on the throne is unknown. Unlike Djoser, few relics survive from his reign, which casts serious doubts on the traditional figure of 18 years of reign for this king, as given by both Manetho and the Turin Canon. It must be stressed that the Turin Canon and Manetho were more than one and two thousand years removed from the time of Egypt's Third Dynasty, and would be expected to contain some inaccurate or unreliable data. The Turin Canon, for instance, was transcribed on papyri that dates to the reign of the New Kingdom king, Ramesses II, who ruled Egypt from 1279–1213 BC. Very little is known of Sanakht's activities during his reign. The presence of reliefs depicting him in the Sinai at Wadi Maghareh together with those of Djoser and Sekhemkhet suggest an important Egyptian presence there at the time of the Third Dynasty.[11] Expeditions were launched to that location for the procurement of mineral resources, in particular turquoise. Tomb[edit] Possible skull of Pharaoh Sanakht from mastaba K2 at Beit Khallaf. The location of Sanakht's tomb is not known with certainty. It was long thought that Sanakht's tomb was the large mastaba K2 at Beit Khallaf, as excavations there yielded relief fragments bearing his name. However, some Egyptologists now regard this mastaba as the burial of a high official, prince or queen rather than that of a pharaoh,[12] while others continue to support the first hypothesis.[13] In the mastaba were found the skeletal remains of a man over 1.87 m (6 ft 1 1⁄2 in) tall. According to Charles S. Myers, this stature was considerably taller than the 1.67 m (5 ft 6 in) average of prehistoric and later Egyptians. The specimen's skull was very large and capacious. Although his cranial index was unusually broad and almost brachycephalic, the proportions of his long bones were tropically adapted like those of most other ancient Egyptians; especially those from the predynastic period. His overall cranial features, however, were closer to those of dynastic period Egyptian skulls.[9] Consequently, the mastaba has been associated with an anecdote related by Manetho in which he tells of a late Second Dynasty king, called Sesochris, who he describes as being particularly tall. The Egyptologist Wolfgang Helck proposed another hypothesis; namely, that Sanakht's tomb is an unfinished structure west of the pyramid of Djoser.[8] While the case of Sanakht has often appeared in the medical literature as a potential case of pituitary disease, no definitive consensus has existed for many years on whether it was acromegaly or gigantism. In 2017 palaeopathologist Francesco M. Galassi and Egyptologist Michael E. Habicht from Zurich University's Institute of Evolutionary Medicine coordinated an international team of researchers to reassess this case. Their conclusion was that the alleged remains of Sanakht are clearly the oldest known case of gigantism in the world.[14][15] See also[edit] List of Pharaohs List of Egyptian pyramids List of megalithic sites References[edit] ^ Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt. Strategies, Society and Security. Routledge, London u. a. 1999, ISBN 0-415-18633-1, p. 83 & 95. ^ Illaria Incordino: The third dynasty: A historical hypothesis., in: Jean Claude Goyon, Christine Cardin: Proceedings of the Ninth International Congress of Egyptologists. p. 965, [1] ^ Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt. Strategies, Society and Security. Routledge, London 1999, ISBN 0-415-18633-1, p. 101 – 104. ^ Kenneth Anderson Kitchen: Ramesside Inscriptions, Translated and Annotated Notes and Comments, vol. 2. Blackwell, Oxford 1999, ISBN 063118435X, p. 534 – 538. ^ a b Dietrich Wildung: Die Rolle ägyptischer Könige im Bewusstsein ihrer Nachwelt. Band 1: Posthume Quellen über die Könige der ersten vier Dynastien (= Münchner ägyptologische Studien, vol. 17.). Hessling, Berlin 1969, p. 54 – 58. ^ a b Nabil Swelim: Some Problems on the History of the Third Dynasty., in: Archaeological and Historical Studies, The Archaeological Society of Alexandria, Alexandria 1983, pp. 95, 217–220 and 224. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der Ägyptischen Königsnamen (= Münchner ägyptologische Studien. vol. 49). von Zabern, Mainz 1999, ISBN 3-8053-2591-6, p. 49, 283 & 293. ^ a b Wolfgang Helck: Untersuchungen zur Thinitenzeit (= Ägyptologische Abhandlungen, vol. 45). Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1987, ISBN 3-447-02677-4, p. 20 & 21. ^ a b Myers, Charles S. (1901). "The Bones of Hen Nekht, an Egyptian King of the Third Dynasty". Man. 131: 152–153. ^ Dietrich Wildung: Die Rolle ägyptischer Könige im Bewusstsein ihrer Nachwelt. Band 1: Posthume Quellen über die Könige der ersten vier Dynastien (= Münchner ägyptologische Studien, vol. 17.). Hessling, Berlin 1969, p. 54-58. ^ Illaria Incordino: The third dynasty: A historical hypothesis., in: Jean Claude Goyon, Christine Cardin: Proceedings of the Ninth International Congress of Egyptologists. p. 966 ^ Nicolas Grimal: A History of Ancient Egypt. Blackwell-Publishing, Oxford 1992, ISBN 0-631-19396-0, p. 64. ^ Ilaria Incordino: Reign of Horus Sanakht: possible founder of the Third Dynasty. In: Francesco Raffaele, Massimiliano Nuzzolo and Ilaria Incordino: Recent Discoveries and Latest Researches in Egyptology. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2010, ISBN 978-3-447-06251-0, p. 145-155. ^ Francesco M. Galassi, Maciej Henneberg, Wouter de Herder, Frank Rühli, Michael E. Habicht, "Oldest case of gigantism? Assessment of the alleged remains of Sa-Nakht, king of ancient Egypt." Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology. 2017 Vol 5 (8) p. 580-581. DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(17)30171-7 ^ Newsweek: Ancient Egyptian Pharaoh Is World’s Oldest Case of Gigantism http://www.newsweek.com/ancient-egypt-giant-pharaoh-king-sanakht-647292 External links[edit] Egyptian kings: Sanakht v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sanakht&oldid=999594609" Categories: 27th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Third Dynasty of Egypt People with gigantism Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events 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en-wikipedia-org-7524	----	Khamudi - Wikipedia Khamudi From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Khamudi Cylinder seal with a cartouche possibly reading "Khamudi".[1] Pharaoh Reign 1534–1522 BC (Franke [2]), 1541–1540 BC (Ryholt [3]) (15th Dynasty) Predecessor Apepi Successor last Hyksos ruler, supplanted by Ahmose I Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Uncertain Nakhtyre Nḫtj-Rˁ Hotepibre (Ryholt [3]) Ḥtp-jb-Rˁ Nomen [Heka-chasut] Khamudi [Ḥq3-ḫ3swt]-ḫ3mwdi Khamudi (also known as Khamudy) was the last Hyksos ruler of the Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt. Khamudi came to power in 1534 BC[2] or 1541 BC,[3] ruling the northern portion of Egypt from his capital Avaris.[3] His ultimate defeat at the hands of Ahmose I, after a short reign, marks the end of the Second Intermediate Period.[4] Attestations[edit] Khamudi is listed on the Turin canon, column 10, line 28 (Gardiner entry 10.20) as the last Hyksos king. Beyond this, only two scarab seals are firmly attributed to him, both from Jericho.[4] Additionally, a cylinder seal of unknown provenance but possibly from Byblos[1] is inscribed with a cartouche which may read "Khamudi". This reading is contested by the egyptologist Kim Ryholt who proposed that the cartouche reads "Kandy" instead and refers to an hitherto unknown king. In any case, even if the cartouche bears Khamudi's name, it is believed to have been inscribed on the seal simply to fill up space rather than as an explicit reference to Khamudi.[5] The seal is currently housed in the Petrie Museum, catalog number UC 11616.[5] Reign[edit] Based on the scarcity of material dating to Khamudi's reign, Ryholt has proposed that his reign must have been short, amounting to no more than a year.[3] In this situation, Khamudi would have inherited little more than the Hyksos throne,[4] being possibly already besieged in Sharuhen, the last Hyksos stronghold in the Negev Desert. This is contested by other scholars, such as Manfred Bietak, who points to a year 11 of an unknown king on the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus. Bietak and many egyptologists believe that this year 11 belongs to Khamudi since the text of the papyrus refers to Ahmose I, founder of the Egyptian New Kingdom as "He of the South."[2] As Thomas Schneider writes: Another reign length can be inferred from the note on the verso of the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus whereby in the 11th regnal year of the ruling king, Heliopolis has been conquered, and "he of the South" has attacked and taken Sile. Since "he of the South" must denote the Theban ruler Ahmose, the regnal year 11 can only be assigned to the successor of the Hyksos king Apepi: Khamudi. The Hyksos capital Avaris will have fallen to Ahmose not much later.[2] Another date on the papyrus is explicitly dated to Year 33 of Khamudi's predecessor Apepi. It is generally believed that Ahmose I defeated the Hyksos king by his 18th or 19th regnal year. This is suggested by "a graffito in the quarry at Tura whereby 'oxen from Canaan' were used at the opening of the quarry in Ahmose's regnal year 22."[2] Since the cattle could only have been brought after Ahmose's 3 to 6 years long siege of the South Canaanite town of Sharuhen which followed after the fall of Avaris, this means the reign of Khamudi must have terminated by Year 18 or 19 of Ahmose's 25-year reign at the very latest.[2] References[edit] ^ a b Flinders Petrie: Scarabs and cylinders with names : illustrated by the Egyptian collection in University College, London (1917) available online, see pl. XIX, seal under the name "Khondy". ^ a b c d e f Schneider, Thomas (2006). "The Relative Chronology of the Middle Kingdom and the Hyksos Period (Dyns. 12-17)". In Hornung, Erik; Krauss, Rolf; Warburton, David (eds.). Ancient Egyptian Chronology. Handbook of Oriental Studies. Brill. p. 195. ISBN 90-04-11385-1. ^ a b c d e K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online ^ a b c Baker, Darrell D. (2008). The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I – Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC. Stacey International. p. 174. ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9. ^ a b Seal with the cartouche of Khamudi Petrie Museum Online Catalog. Regnal titles Preceded by Apepi Pharaoh of Egypt Fifteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Last king of this dynasty v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khamudi&oldid=992449710" Categories: 16th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent 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en-wikipedia-org-7531	----	Themistocles - Wikipedia Themistocles From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Athenian politician and general For other people named Themistocles, see Themistocles (disambiguation). Themistocles Herm of Themistocles (1875 illustration) Native name Θεμιστοκλῆς Born c. 524 BC[1][2] Frearrioi (modern Feriza close to Anavyssos) Died 459 BC (aged 64–65 years old)[1] Magnesia on the Maeander Allegiance Athens (to c. 471 BC) Achaemenid Empire (469–459 BC) Rank Athenian General (Strategos) Achaemenid Governor of Magnesia Battles/wars First Persian invasion of Greece Battle of Marathon (490 BC) Second Persian invasion of Greece Battle of Artemisium (480 BC) Battle of Salamis (480 BC) Themistocles (/θəˈmɪstəkliːz/; Greek: Θεμιστοκλῆς Greek pronunciation: [tʰemistoklɛ̂ːs] Themistoklẽs; "Glory of the Law";[3] c. 524–459 BC)[1][2] was an Athenian politician and general. He was one of a new breed of non-aristocratic politicians who rose to prominence in the early years of the Athenian democracy. As a politician, Themistocles was a populist, having the support of lower-class Athenians, and generally being at odds with the Athenian nobility. Elected archon in 493 BC, he convinced the polis to increase the naval power of Athens, a recurring theme in his political career. During the first Persian invasion of Greece he fought at the Battle of Marathon[4] (490 BC) and was possibly one of the ten Athenian strategoi (generals) in that battle.[citation needed] In the years after Marathon, and in the run-up to the second Persian invasion of 480–479 BC, Themistocles became the most prominent politician in Athens. He continued to advocate for a strong Athenian Navy, and in 483 BC he persuaded the Athenians to build a fleet of 200 triremes; these proved crucial in the forthcoming conflict with Persia. During the second invasion, he effectively commanded the Greek allied navy at the battles of Artemisium and Salamis in 480 BC. Due to his subterfuge, the Allies successfully lured the Persian fleet into the Straits of Salamis, and the decisive Greek victory there was the turning point of the war. The invasion was conclusively repulsed the following year after the Persian defeat at the land Battle of Plataea. After the conflict ended, Themistocles continued his pre-eminence among Athenian politicians. However, he aroused the hostility of Sparta by ordering the re-fortification of Athens, and his perceived arrogance began to alienate him from the Athenians. In 472 or 471 BC, he was ostracised, and went into exile in Argos. The Spartans now saw an opportunity to destroy Themistocles, and implicated him in the alleged treasonous plot of 478 BC of their own general Pausanias. Themistocles thus fled from Greece. Alexander I of Macedon (r. 498–454 BC) temporarily gave him sanctuary at Pydna before he traveled to Asia Minor, where he entered the service of the Persian king Artaxerxes I (reigned 465–424 BC). He was made governor of Magnesia, and lived there for the rest of his life. Themistocles died in 459 BC, probably of natural causes.[1][5] His reputation was posthumously rehabilitated, and he was re-established as a hero of the Athenian (and indeed Greek) cause. Themistocles can still reasonably be thought of as "the man most instrumental in achieving the salvation of Greece" from the Persian threat, as Plutarch describes him. His naval policies would have a lasting impact on Athens as well, since maritime power became the cornerstone of the Athenian Empire and golden age. Thucydides assessed Themistocles as "a man who exhibited the most indubitable signs of genius; indeed, in this particular he has a claim on our admiration quite extraordinary and unparalleled".[6] Contents 1 Family 2 Political and military career 2.1 Background 2.2 Early years of the democracy 2.3 Archonship 2.4 Rivalry with Aristides 2.5 Second Persian invasion of Greece 2.5.1 Battle of Artemisium 2.5.2 Battle of Salamis 2.5.3 Autumn/Winter 480/479 BC 2.5.4 Spring/Summer 479 BC 2.6 Rebuilding of Athens after the Persian invasion 2.7 Fall and exile 3 Later life in the Achaemenid Empire, death, and descendants 3.1 Greek exiles in the Achaemenid Empire 3.2 First portraiture of a ruler on coinage 3.3 Death 3.4 Succession and descendants 4 Assessments 4.1 Character 4.2 Historical reputation 4.3 Political and military legacy 5 In popular culture 6 References 7 Bibliography 8 External links Family[edit] Themistocles was born in the Attic deme of Phrearrhioi around 524 BC,[1][2] the son of Neocles, who was, in the words of Plutarch "no very conspicuous man".[7] His mother is more obscure; according to Plutarch, she was either a Thracian woman called Abrotonon, or Euterpe, a Carian from Halicarnassus.[7] Like many contemporaries, little is known of his early years. Some authors report that he was unruly as a child and was consequently disowned by his father.[8][9] Plutarch considers this to be false.[10] Plutarch indicates that, on account of his mother's background, Themistocles was considered something of an outsider; furthermore the family appear to have lived in an immigrant district of Athens, Cynosarges, outside the city walls.[7] However, in an early example of his cunning, Themistocles persuaded "well-born" children to exercise with him in Cynosarges, thus breaking down the distinction between "alien and legitimate".[7] Plutarch further reports that Themistocles was preoccupied, even as a child, with preparing for public life.[10] His teacher is said to have told him:[10] "My boy, you will be nothing insignificant, but definitely something great, either for good or evil." Themistocles left three sons by Archippe, daughter to Lysander of Alopece:[11] Archeptolis, Polyeuctus, and Cleophantus. Plato the philosopher mentions Cleophantus as a most excellent horseman, but otherwise insignificant person. And Themistocles had two sons older than these three, Neocles and Diocles. Neocles died when he was young, bitten by a horse, and Diocles was adopted by his grandfather, Lysander. Themistocles had many daughters: Mnesiptolema, the product of his second marriage, married her step-brother Archeptolis and became priestess of Cybele; Italia was married to Panthoides of Chios; and Sybaris to Nicomedes the Athenian. After Themistocles died, his nephew Phrasicles went to Magnesia and married another daughter, Nicomache (with her brothers' consent). Phrasicles then took charge of her sister Asia, the youngest of all ten children.[12] Political and military career[edit] Background[edit] Themistocles grew up in a period of upheaval in Athens. The tyrant Peisistratos had died in 527 BC, passing power to his sons, Hipparchus and Hippias.[13] Hipparchus was murdered in 514 BC, and in response to this, Hippias became paranoid and started to rely increasingly on foreign mercenaries to keep a hold on power.[14] The head of the powerful, but exiled (according to Herodotus only—the fragmentary Archon List for 525/4 shows a Cleisthenes, an Alcmaeonid, holding office in Athens during this period) Alcmaeonid family, Cleisthenes, began to scheme to overthrow Hippias and return to Athens.[15] In 510 BC, he persuaded the Spartan king Cleomenes I to launch a full-scale attack on Athens, which succeeded in overthrowing Hippias.[15] However, in the aftermath, the other noble ('eupatrid') families of Athens rejected Cleisthenes, electing Isagoras as archon, with the support of Cleomenes.[15] On a personal level, Cleisthenes wanted to return to Athens; however, he also probably wanted to prevent Athens becoming a Spartan client state. Outmaneuvering the other nobles, he proposed to the Athenian people a radical program in which political power would be invested in the people—a "democracy".[15] The Athenian people thus overthrew Isagoras, repelled a Spartan attack under Cleomenes, and invited Cleisthenes to return to Athens, to put his plan into action.[16] The establishment of the democracy was to radically change Athens: "And so it was that the Athenians found themselves suddenly a great power... they gave vivid proof of what equality and freedom of speech might achieve"[17] Early years of the democracy[edit] The new system of government in Athens opened up a wealth of opportunity for men like Themistocles, who previously would have had no access to power.[18] Moreover, the new institutions of the democracy required skills that had previously been unimportant in government. Themistocles was to prove himself a master of the new system; "he could infight, he could network, he could spin... and crucially, he knew how to make himself visible."[18] Themistocles moved to the Ceramicus, a down-market part of Athens. This move marked him out as a 'man of the people', and allowed him to interact more easily with ordinary citizens. He began building up a support base among these newly empowered citizens: "he wooed the poor; and they, not used to being courted, duly loved him back. Touring the taverns, the markets, the docks, canvassing where no politician had thought to canvas before, making sure never to forget a single voter's name, Themistocles had set his eyes on a radical new constituency"[18] However, he took care to ensure that he did not alienate the nobility of Athens.[18] He began to practice law, the first person in Athens to prepare for public life in this way.[18] His ability as attorney and arbitrator, used in the service of the common people, gained him further popularity.[19] Archonship[edit] Profile view of an ancient Greek bust of Themistocles Themistocles probably turned 30 in 494 BC, which qualified him to become an archon, the highest of the magistracies in Athens.[citation needed] On the back of his popularity, he evidently decided to run for this office and was elected Archon Eponymous, the highest government office in the following year (493 BC).[18] Themistocles's archonship saw the beginnings of a major theme in his career; the advancement of Athenian sea-power. Under his guidance, the Athenians began the building of a new port at Piraeus, to replace the existing facilities at Phalerum.[18] Although further away from Athens, Piraeus offered three natural harbours, and could be easily fortified.[20] Since Athens was to become an essentially maritime power during the 5th century BC, Themistocles's policies were to have huge significance for the future of Athens, and indeed Greece. In advancing naval power, Themistocles was probably advocating a course of action he thought essential for the long-term prospects of Athens.[18] However, as Plutarch implies, since naval power relied on the mass mobilisation of the common citizens (thetes) as rowers, such a policy put more power into the hands of average Athenians—and thus into Themistocles's own hands.[20] Rivalry with Aristides[edit] After Marathon, probably in 489, Miltiades, the hero of the battle, was seriously wounded in an abortive attempt to capture Paros. Taking advantage of his incapacitation, the powerful Alcmaeonid family arranged for him to be prosecuted.[21] The Athenian aristocracy, and indeed Greek aristocrats in general, were loath to see one person pre-eminent, and such maneuvers were commonplace.[21] Miltiades was given a massive fine for the crime of 'deceiving the Athenian people', but died weeks later as a result of his wound.[21] In the wake of this prosecution, the Athenian people chose to use a new institution of the democracy, which had been part of Cleisthenes's reforms, but remained so far unused.[21] This was 'ostracism'—each Athenian citizen was required to write on a shard of pottery (ostrakon) the name of a politician that they wished to see exiled for a period of ten years.[21] This may have been triggered by Miltiades's prosecution, and used by the Athenians to try to stop such power-games among the noble families.[21] Certainly, in the years (487 BC) following, the heads of the prominent families, including the Alcmaeonids, were exiled.[21] The career of a politician in Athens thus became fraught with more difficulty, since displeasing the population was likely to result in exile.[21] Themistocles, with his power-base firmly established among the poor, moved naturally to fill the vacuum left by Miltiades's death, and in that decade became the most influential politician in Athens.[21] However, the support of the nobility began to coalesce around the man who would become Themistocles's great rival—Aristides.[22] Aristides cast himself as Themistocles's opposite—virtuous, honest and incorruptible—and his followers called him "the just".[22] Plutarch suggests that the rivalry between the two had begun when they competed over the love of a boy: "... they were rivals for the affection of the beautiful Stesilaus of Ceos, and were passionate beyond all moderation."[23] A sluicing tank for silver ore, excavated at Laurium, Attica During the decade, Themistocles continued to advocate the expansion of Athenian naval power.[21] The Athenians were certainly aware throughout this period that the Persian interest in Greece had not ended; Darius's son and successor, Xerxes I, had continued the preparations for the invasion of Greece.[24] Themistocles seems to have realised that for the Greeks to survive the coming onslaught required a Greek navy that could hope to face up to the Persian navy, and he therefore attempted to persuade the Athenians to build such a fleet.[18][21] Aristides, as champion of the zeugites (the upper, 'hoplite-class') vigorously opposed such a policy.[22] In 483 BC, a massive new seam of silver was found in the Athenian mines at Laurium.[25] Themistocles proposed that the silver should be used to build a new fleet of 200 triremes, while Aristides suggested it should instead be distributed among the Athenian citizens.[26] Themistocles avoided mentioning Persia, deeming that it was too distant a threat for the Athenians to act on, and instead focused their attention on Aegina.[25] At the time, Athens was embroiled in a long-running war with the Aeginetans, and building a fleet would allow the Athenians to finally defeat them at sea.[25] As a result, Themistocles's motion was carried easily, although only 100 warships of the trireme type were to be built.[25] Aristides refused to countenance this; conversely Themistocles was not pleased that only 100 ships would be built.[26] Tension between the two camps built over the winter, so that the ostracism of 482 BC became a direct contest between Themistocles and Aristides.[26] In what has been characterized as the first referendum, Aristides was ostracised, and Themistocles's policies were endorsed.[26] Indeed, becoming aware of the Persian preparations for the coming invasion, the Athenians voted for the construction of more ships than Themistocles had initially asked for.[26] In the run up to the Persian invasion, Themistocles had thus become the foremost politician in Athens.[19] Second Persian invasion of Greece[edit] Main articles: Second Persian invasion of Greece, Battle of Artemisium, and Battle of Salamis A Roman-era bust of Themistocles in "Severe style",[27] based on a Greek original, in the Museo Archeologico Ostiense, Ostia, Rome, Italy. The lost original of this bust, dated to circa 470 BC, has been described as "the first true portrait of an individual European".[28] In 481 BC, a congress of Greek city-states was held, during which 30 or so[citation needed] states agreed to ally themselves against the forthcoming invasion.[29] The Spartans and Athenians were foremost in this alliance, being sworn enemies of the Persians.[30] The Spartans claimed the command of land forces, and since the Greek (hereafter referred to as "Allied") fleet would be dominated by Athens, Themistocles tried to claim command of the naval forces.[31] However, the other naval powers, including Corinth and Aegina refused to give command to the Athenians, and Themistocles pragmatically backed down.[31] Instead, as a compromise, the Spartans (an insignificant naval power), in the person of Eurybiades were to command the naval forces.[32] It is clear from Herodotus, however, that Themistocles would be the real leader of the fleet.[33] The 'congress' met again in the spring of 480 BC. A Thessalian delegation suggested that the allies could muster in the narrow Vale of Tempe, on the borders of Thessaly, and thereby block Xerxes's advance.[34] A force of 10,000 hoplites was dispatched under the command of the Spartan polemarch Euenetus and Themistocles to the Vale of Tempe, which they believed the Persian army would have to pass through. However, once there, Alexander I of Macedon warned them that the vale could be bypassed by several other passes, and that the army of Xerxes was overwhelmingly large, and the Greeks retreated.[35] Shortly afterwards, they received the news that Xerxes had crossed the Hellespont.[34] Decree of Themistocles, National Archaeological Museum of Athens, 13330 Themistocles now developed a second strategy. The route to southern Greece (Boeotia, Attica and the Peloponnesus) would require the army of Xerxes to travel through the very narrow pass of Thermopylae.[36] This could easily be blocked by the Greek hoplites, despite the overwhelming numbers of Persians; furthermore, to prevent the Persians bypassing Thermopylae by sea, the Athenian and allied navies could block the straits of Artemisium.[36] However, after the Tempe debacle, it was uncertain whether the Spartans would be willing to march out from the Peloponnesus again.[37] To persuade the Spartans to defend Attica, Themistocles had to show them that the Athenians were willing to do everything necessary for the success of the alliance. In short, the entire Athenian fleet must be dispatched to Artemisium. To do this, every able-bodied Athenian male would be required to man the ships. This in turn meant that the Athenians must prepare to abandon Athens.[37] Persuading the Athenians to take this course was undoubtedly one of the highlights of Themistocles's career.[38] As Holland has it: "What precise heights of oratory he attained, what stirring and memorable phrases he pronounced, we have no way of knowing...only by the effect it had on the assembly can we gauge what surely must have been its electric and vivifying quality—for Themistocles' audacious proposals, when put to the vote, were ratified. The Athenian people, facing the gravest moment of peril in their history, committed themselves once and for all to the alien element of the sea, and put their faith in a man whose ambitions many had long profoundly dreaded."[37] His proposals accepted, Themistocles issued orders for the women and children of Athens to be sent to the city of Troezen, safely inside the Peloponnesus.[39] He was then able to travel to a meeting of the Allies, at which he proposed his strategy; with the Athenian fleet fully committed to the defence of Greece, the other Allies accepted his proposals.[36] Battle of Artemisium[edit] Thus, in August 480 BC, when the Persian army was approaching Thessaly, the Allied fleet sailed to Artemisium, and the Allied army marched to Thermopylae.[40] Themistocles himself took command of the Athenian contingent of the fleet, and went to Artemisium. When the Persian fleet finally arrived at Artemisium after a significant delay, Eurybiades, who both Herodotus and Plutarch suggest was not the most inspiring commander, wished to sail away without fighting.[33][41] At this point Themistocles accepted a large bribe from the local people for the fleet to remain at Artemisium, and used some of it to bribe Eurybiades to remain, while pocketing the rest.[42] From this point on, Themistocles appears to have been more-or-less in charge of the Allied effort at Artemisium.[41] Over three days of battle, the Allies held their own against the much larger Persian fleet, but sustained significant losses.[43] However, the loss of the simultaneous Battle of Thermopylae to the Persians made their continued presence at Artemisium irrelevant, and the Allies thus evacuated.[44] According to Herodotus, Themistocles left messages at every place where the Persian fleet might stop for drinking water, asking the Ionians in the Persian fleet to defect, or at least fight badly.[45] Even if this did not work, Themistocles apparently intended that Xerxes would at least begin to suspect the Ionians, thereby sowing dissension in the Persian ranks.[45] Battle of Salamis[edit] In the aftermath of Thermopylae, Boeotia fell to the Persians, who then began to advance on Athens.[46] The Peloponnesian Allies prepared to now defend the Isthmus of Corinth, thus abandoning Athens to the Persians.[47] From Artemisium, the Allied fleet sailed to the island of Salamis, where the Athenian ships helped with the final evacuation of Athens. The Peloponnesian contingents wanted to sail to the coast of the Isthmus to concentrate forces with the army.[48] However, Themistocles tried to convince them to remain in the Straits of Salamis, invoking the lessons of Artemisium; "battle in close conditions works to our advantage".[48] After threatening to sail with the whole Athenian people into exile in Sicily, he eventually persuaded the other Allies, whose security after all relied on the Athenian navy, to accept his plan.[49] Therefore, even after Athens had fallen to the Persians, and the Persian navy had arrived off the coast of Salamis, the Allied navy remained in the Straits. Themistocles appears to have been aiming to fight a battle that would cripple the Persian navy, and thus guarantee the security of the Peloponnesus.[48] Diagram of the approximate events of the Battle of Salamis To bring about this battle, Themistocles used a cunning mix of subterfuge and misinformation, psychologically exploiting Xerxes's desire to finish the invasion.[50] Xerxes's actions indicate that he was keen to finish the conquest of Greece in 480 BC, and to do this, he needed a decisive victory over the Allied fleet.[51] Themistocles sent a servant, Sicinnus, to Xerxes, with a message proclaiming that Themistocles was "on king's side and prefers that your affairs prevail, not the Hellenes".[52] Themistocles claimed that the Allied commanders were infighting, that the Peloponnesians were planning to evacuate that very night, and that to gain victory all the Persians needed to do was to block the straits.[52] In performing this subterfuge, Themistocles seems to have been trying to lure the Persian fleet into the Straits.[50] The message also had a secondary purpose, namely that in the event of an Allied defeat, the Athenians would probably receive some degree of mercy from Xerxes (having indicated their readiness to submit).[50] At any rate, this was exactly the kind of news that Xerxes wanted to hear.[50] Xerxes evidently took the bait, and the Persian fleet was sent out to effect the block.[53] Perhaps overconfident and expecting no resistance, the Persian navy sailed into the Straits,[54] only to find that, far from disintegrating, the Allied navy was ready for battle.[55] Romantic interpretation of the Battle of Salamis by Wilhelm von Kaulbach. Artemisia of Caria is seen shooting arrows in the direction of the Greeks led by Themistocles.[56] According to Herodotus, after the Persian navy began its maneuvers, Aristides arrived at the Allied camp from Aegina.[57] Aristides had been recalled from exile along with the other ostracised Athenians on the order of Themistocles, so that Athens might be united against the Persians.[57] Aristides told Themistocles that the Persian fleet had encircled the Allies, which greatly pleased Themistocles, as he now knew that the Persians had walked into his trap.[58] The Allied commanders seem to have taken this news rather uncomplainingly, and Holland therefore suggests that they were party to Themistocles's ruse all along.[59] Either way, the Allies prepared for battle, and Themistocles delivered a speech to the marines before they embarked on the ships.[60] In the ensuing battle, the cramped conditions in the Straits hindered the much larger Persian navy, which became disarrayed, and the Allies took advantage to win a famous victory.[61] Salamis was the turning point in the second Persian invasion, and indeed the Greco-Persian Wars in general.[62] While the battle did not end the Persian invasion, it effectively ensured that all Greece would not be conquered, and allowed the Allies to go on the offensive in 479 BC. A number of historians believe that Salamis is one of the most significant battles in human history.[63][64][65] Since Themistocles' long-standing advocacy of Athenian naval power enabled the Allied fleet to fight, and his stratagem brought about the Battle of Salamis, it is probably not an exaggeration to say, as Plutarch does, that Themistocles, "...is thought to have been the man most instrumental in achieving the salvation of Hellas."[25][41] Autumn/Winter 480/479 BC[edit] The triumph of Themistocles after the Battle of Salamis. 19th century illustration. The Allied victory at Salamis ended the immediate threat to Greece, and Xerxes now returned to Asia with part of the army, leaving his general Mardonius to attempt to complete the conquest.[66] Mardonius wintered in Boeotia and Thessaly, and the Athenians were thus able to return to their city, which had been burnt and razed by the Persians, for the winter.[67] For the Athenians, and Themistocles personally, the winter would be a testing one. The Peloponnesians refused to countenance marching north of the Isthmus to fight the Persian army; the Athenians tried to shame them into doing so, with no success.[68] During the winter, the Allies held a meeting at Corinth to celebrate their success, and award prizes for achievement.[69] However, perhaps tired of the Athenians pointing out their role at Salamis, and of their demands for the Allies to march north, the Allies awarded the prize for civic achievement to Aegina.[68][70] Furthermore, although the admirals all voted for Themistocles in second place, they all voted for themselves in first place, so that no-one won the prize for individual achievement. In response, realising the importance of the Athenian fleet to their security, and probably seeking to massage Themistocles's ego, the Spartans brought Themistocles to Sparta.[68][70] There, he was awarded a special prize "for his wisdom and cleverness", and won high praise from all.[70][71] Furthermore, Plutarch reports that at the next Olympic Games: Themistocles honoured at Sparta. "[when] Themistocles entered the stadium, the audience neglected the contestants all day long to gaze on him, and pointed him out with admiring applause to visiting strangers, so that he too was delighted, and confessed to his friends that he was now reaping in full measure the harvest of his toils in behalf of Hellas."[70] After returning to Athens in the winter, Plutarch reports that Themistocles made a proposal to the city while the Greek fleet was wintering at Pagasae: "Themistocles once declared to the people [of Athens] that he had devised a certain measure which could not be revealed to them, though it would be helpful and salutary for the city, and they ordered that Aristides alone should hear what it was and pass judgment on it. So Themistocles told Aristides that his purpose was to burn the naval station of the confederate Hellenes, for that in this way the Athenians would be greatest, and lords of all. Then Aristides came before the people and said of the deed which Themistocles purposed to do, that none other could be more advantageous, and none more unjust. On hearing this, the Athenians ordained that Themistocles cease from his purpose."[72][73] Spring/Summer 479 BC[edit] However, as happened to many prominent individuals in the Athenian democracy, Themistocles's fellow citizens grew jealous of his success, and possibly tired of his boasting.[68][74] It is probable that in early 479 BC, Themistocles was stripped of his command; instead, Xanthippus was to command the Athenian fleet, and Aristides the land forces.[68][75] Though Themistocles was no doubt politically and militarily active for the rest of the campaign, no mention of his activities in 479 BC is made in the ancient sources.[76] In the summer of that year, after receiving an Athenian ultimatum, the Peloponnesians finally agreed to assemble an army and march to confront Mardonius, who had reoccupied Athens in June.[77] At the decisive Battle of Plataea, the Allies destroyed the Persian army, while apparently on the same day, the Allied navy destroyed the remnants of the Persian fleet at the Battle of Mycale.[78] These twin victories completed the Allied triumph, and ended the Persian threat to Greece.[78] Rebuilding of Athens after the Persian invasion[edit] Athenians rebuilding their city under the direction of Themistocles. Whatever the cause of Themistocles's unpopularity in 479 BC, it obviously did not last long. Both Diodorus and Plutarch suggest he was quickly restored to the favour of the Athenians.[20][79] Indeed, after 479 BC, he seems to have enjoyed a relatively long period of popularity.[80] The northern wall of the Acropolis of Athens, built by Themistocles with built-in fragments of destroyed temples. Column drums of the destroyed Older Parthenon, reused in building-up the North wall of the Acropolis, by Themistocles. In the aftermath of the invasion and the Destruction of Athens by the Achaemenids, the Athenians began rebuilding their city under the guidance of Themistocles in the autumn of 479 BC.[81][20] They wished to restore the fortifications of Athens, but the Spartans objected on the grounds that no place north of the Isthmus should be left that the Persians could use as a fortress.[79] Themistocles urged the citizens to build the fortifications as quickly as possible, then went to Sparta as an ambassador to answer the charges levelled by the Spartans. There, he assured them that no building work was on-going, and urged them to send emissaries to Athens to see for themselves.[82] By the time the ambassadors arrived, the Athenians had finished building, and then detained the Spartan ambassadors when they complained about the presence of the fortifications.[82] By delaying in this manner, Themistocles gave the Athenians enough time to fortify the city, and thus ward off any Spartan attack aimed at preventing the re-fortification of Athens.[82] Furthermore, the Spartans were obliged to repatriate Themistocles in order to free their own ambassadors.[20][82] However, this episode may be seen as the beginning of the Spartan mistrust of Themistocles, which would return to haunt him.[20] Themistocles also now returned to his naval policy,[20] and more ambitious undertakings that would increase the dominant position of his native state.[83] He further extended and fortified the port complex at Piraeus, and "fastened the city [Athens] to the Piraeus, and the land to the sea".[20] Themistocles probably aimed to make Athens the dominant naval power in the Aegean.[83] Indeed, Athens would create the Delian League in 478 BC, uniting the naval power of the Aegean Islands and Ionia under Athenian leadership.[84] Themistocles introduced tax breaks for merchants and artisans, to attract both people and trade to the city to make Athens a great mercantile centre.[85] He also instructed the Athenians to build 20 triremes per year, to ensure that their dominance in naval matters continued.[85] Plutarch reports that Themistocles also secretly proposed to destroy the beached ships of the other Allied navies to ensure complete naval dominance—but was overruled by Aristides and the council of Athens.[86] Fall and exile[edit] Ostracon with inscription: "Themist[h]ocles, son of Neocles" It seems clear that, towards the end of the decade, Themistocles had begun to accrue enemies, and had become arrogant; moreover his fellow citizens had become jealous of his prestige and power.[20][74] The Rhodian poet Timocreon was among his most eloquent enemies, composing slanderous drinking songs.[87] Meanwhile, the Spartans actively worked against him, trying to promote Cimon (son of Miltiades) as a rival to Themistocles. Furthermore, after the treason and disgrace of the Spartan general Pausanias, the Spartans tried to implicate Themistocles in the plot; he was, however, acquitted of these charges.[80] In Athens itself, he lost favour by building a sanctuary of Artemis, with the epithet Aristoboulẽ ("of good counsel") near his home, a blatant reference to his own role in delivering Greece from the Persian invasion.[74] Eventually, in either 472 or 471 BC, he was ostracised.[74][88] In itself, this did not mean that Themistocles had done anything wrong; ostracism, in the words of Plutarch, "was not a penalty, but a way of pacifying and alleviating that jealousy which delights to humble the eminent, breathing out its malice into this disfranchisement." Themistocles finds refuge with King Admetus. Themistocles first went to live in exile in Argos.[88][89] However, perceiving that they now had a prime opportunity to bring Themistocles down for good, the Spartans again levelled accusations of Themistocles's complicity in Pausanias's treason.[88] They demanded that he be tried by the 'Congress of Greeks', rather than in Athens, although it seems that in the end he was actually summoned to Athens to stand trial.[88][89] Perhaps realising he had little hope of surviving this trial, Themistocles fled, first to Kerkyra, and thence to Admetus, king of Molossia.[90][91] Themistocles's flight probably only served to convince his accusers of his guilt, and he was declared a traitor in Athens, his property to be confiscated.[92] Both Diodorus and Plutarch considered that the charges were false, and made solely for the purposes of destroying Themistocles.[88][89] The Spartans sent ambassadors to Admetus, threatening that the whole of Greece would go to war with the Molossians unless they surrendered Themistocles.[91] Admetus, however, allowed Themistocles to escape, giving him a large sum of gold to aid him on his way.[91] Themistocles then fled from Greece, apparently never to return, thus effectively bringing his political career to an end.[91][93] Later life in the Achaemenid Empire, death, and descendants[edit] Illustration by Walter Crane showing Themistocles standing silently before King Artaxerxes Lampsacus Myus Magnesia Location of Magnesia on the Meander, where Themistocles ruled as Governor under the Achaemenid Empire, as well as Lampsacus and Myus from which he also obtained his revenues. From Molossia, Themistocles apparently fled to Pydna, from where he took a ship for Asia Minor.[92][93] This ship was blown off course by a storm, and ended up at Naxos, which an Athenian fleet was in the process of besieging.[92][93] Desperate to avoid the legal authorities, Themistocles, who had been traveling under an assumed identity, revealed himself to the captain and said that if he did not reach safety he would tell the Athenians that he'd bribed the ship to take him.[92][93] According to Thucydides, who wrote within living memory of the events, the ship eventually landed safely at Ephesus, where Themistocles disembarked.[93] Plutarch has the ship docking at Cyme in Aeolia,[94] and Diodorus has Themistocles making his way to Asia in an undefined manner.[91] Diodorus and Plutarch next recount a similar tale, namely that Themistocles stayed briefly with an acquaintance (Lysitheides or Nicogenes) who was also acquainted with the Persian king, Artaxerxes I.[91][94] Since there was a bounty on Themistocles's head, this acquaintance devised a plan to safely convey Themistocles to the Persian king in the type of covered wagon that the King's concubines travelled in.[91][94] All three chroniclers agree that Themistocles's next move was to contact the Persian king; in Thucydides, this is by letter,[93] while Plutarch and Diodorus have a face-to-face meeting with the king.[91][94] The spirit is, however, the same in all three: Themistocles introduces himself to the king and seeks to enter his service:[93][95] "I, Themistocles, am come to you, who did your house more harm than any of the Hellenes, when I was compelled to defend myself against your father's invasion—harm, however, far surpassed by the good that I did him during his retreat, which brought no danger for me but much for him." (Thucydides) Coin of Themistocles as Governor of Magnesia. Obv: Head of Zeus. Rev: Letters ΘΕ, initials of Themistocles. Circa 465-459 BC Coin of Themistocles as Governor of Magnesia. Obv: Barley grain. ΘE to left. Rev: Possible portrait of Themistocles. Circa 465–459 BC.[96] Thucydides and Plutarch say that Themistocles asked for a year's grace to learn the Persian language and customs, after which he would serve the king, and Artaxerxes granted this.[93][97] Plutarch reports that, as might be imagined, Artaxerxes was elated that such a dangerous and illustrious foe had come to serve him.[98] At some point in his travels, Themistocles's wife and children were extricated from Athens by a friend, and joined him in exile.[90] His friends also managed to send him many of his belongings, although up to 100 talents worth of his goods were confiscated by the Athenians.[92] When, after a year, Themistocles returned to the king's court, he appears to have made an immediate impact, and "he attained...very high consideration there, such as no Hellene has ever possessed before or since".[99] Plutarch recounts that "honors he enjoyed were far beyond those paid to other foreigners; nay, he actually took part in the King's hunts and in his household diversions".[97] Themistocles advised the king on his dealings with the Greeks, although it seems that for a long period, the king was distracted by events elsewhere in the empire, and thus Themistocles "lived on for a long time without concern".[99][100] He was made governor of the district of Magnesia on the Maeander River in Asia Minor, and assigned the revenues of three cities: Magnesia (about 50 talents per year—"for bread"); Myus ("for opson"); and Lampsacus ("for wine").[97][99][101] According to Plutarch, Neanthes of Cyzicus and Phanias reported two more, the city of Palaescepsis ("for clothes") and the city of Percote ("for bedding and furniture for his house"), both near Lampsacus.[102] Greek exiles in the Achaemenid Empire[edit] Themistocles was one of the several Greeks aristocrats who took refuge in the Achaemenid Empire following reversals at home, other famous ones being Hippias, Demaratos, Gongylos or later Alcibiades.[103] In general, those were generously welcomed by the Achaemenid kings, and received land grants to support them, and ruled on various cities of Asia Minor.[103] Conversely, some Achaemenid satraps were welcomed as exiles in western courts, such as Artabazos II.[104][105] First portraiture of a ruler on coinage[edit] Didrachm of Themistocles in Magnesia. Obv: Apollo standing in clamys, legend around ΘΕΜΙΣΤΟΚ-ΛΕΟΣ ("Themistokles"). Rev: Eagle with letters Μ-Α ("Magnesia").[106] Hemiobol of Themistocles in Magnesia, where he is seen wearing a tight bonnet with Olive wreath (a similar headdress can be seen on the coinage of Kherei).[107] This possibly reflects the bonnets of Achaemenid Satraps, such as seen in the Herakleia head.[108][109] Initials Θ-Ε around portrait and on reverse.[107] c. 465–459 BC Coins are the only contemporary documents remaining from the time of Themistocles.[106] Although many of the first coins of Antiquity illustrated the images of various gods or symbols, the first portraiture of actual rulers only appears in the 5th century BC. Themistocles was probably the first ruler ever to issue coinage with his personal portrait, as he became Achaemenid Governor of Magnesia in 465–459 BC.[110] Themistocles may have been in a unique position in which he could transfer the notion of individual portraiture, already current in the Greek world, and at the same time wield the dynastic power of an Achaemenid dynast who could issue his own coins and illustrate them as he wished.[111] Still, there is some doubt that his coins may have represented Zeus rather than himself.[112] The statue which Themistocles erected to himself in Magnesia, on a coin of Antonius Pius. The name of Themistocles (ΘΕΜ/ΙϹΤΟΚΛΗ/Ϲ) appears around the forearm of the statue.[113] Themistocles is holding a patera over a lighted altar, with scabbard of sword in sheath at waist; at feet to left, forepart of humpbacked bull lying left.[114] Type of the coin of Antonius Pius minted in Magnesia, on which appears the statue of Themistocles (138–161 AD).[113][114] During his lifetime, Themistocles is known to have erected two statues to himself, one in Athens, and the other in Magnesia, which would lend credence to the possibility that he also illustrated himself on his coins.[113] The Themistocles statue in Magnesia was illustrated on the reverse of some of the Magnesian coins of Roman Emperor Antonius Pius in the 2nd century CE.[113] The rulers of Lycia followed towards the end of the 5th century as the most prolific and unambiguous producers of coins displaying the portrait of their rulers.[115][116] From the time of Alexander the Great, portraiture of the issuing ruler would then become a standard, generalized, feature of coinage.[116] Death[edit] Themistocles died at Magnesia in 459 BC, at the age of 65, according to Thucydides, from natural causes.[5][99] However, perhaps inevitably, there were also rumours surrounding his death, saying that unwilling to follow the Great King's order to make war on Athens, he committed suicide by taking poison, or drinking bull's blood.[5][99][100][117] Plutarch provides the most evocative version of this story: A dignitary of Asia Minor in Achaemenid style, c. 475 BC. Karaburun tomb near Elmalı, Lycia.[118] "But when Egypt revolted with Athenian aid...and Cimon's mastery of the sea forced the King to resist the efforts of the Hellenes and to hinder their hostile growth...messages came down to Themistocles saying that the King commanded him to make good his promises by applying himself to the Hellenic problem; then, neither embittered by anything like anger against his former fellow-citizens, nor lifted up by the great honor and power he was to have in the war, but possibly thinking his task not even approachable, both because Hellas had other great generals at the time, and especially because Cimon was so marvelously successful in his campaigns; yet most of all out of regard for the reputation of his own achievements and the trophies of those early days; having decided that his best course was to put a fitting end to his life, he made a sacrifice to the gods, then called his friends together, gave them a farewell clasp of his hand, and, as the current story goes, drank bull's blood, or as some say, took a quick poison, and so died in Magnesia, in the sixty-fifth year of his life...They say that the King, on learning the cause and the manner of his death, admired the man yet more, and continued to treat his friends and kindred with kindness."[100] It was rumored that after his death, Themistocles's bones were transported to Attica in accordance with his wishes, and buried in his native soil in secret, it being illegal to bury an Athenian traitor in Attica.[99] The Magnesians built a "splendid tomb" in their marketplace for Themistocles, which still stood during the time of Plutarch, and continued to dedicate part of their revenues to the family of Themistocles.[119] Nepos in the 1st century BC wrote about a statue of Themistocles visible in the forum of Magnesia.[120][121] The statue also appears on a coin type of Roman Emperor Antonius Pius minted in Magnesia in the 2nd century CE.[113][114] Succession and descendants[edit] Portrait of a ruler with olive wreath on the Magnesian coinage of Archeptolis, son of Themistocles, c. 459 BC. The portraits on the coinage of Archeptolis could also represent Themistocles.[122] Archeptolis, son of Themistocles, became a Governor of Magnesia after his father's death c. 459 BCE.[123][124][125][126] Archeptolis also minted his own silver coinage as he ruled Magnesia, and it is probable that part of his revenues continued to be handed over to the Achaemenids in exchange for the maintenance of their territorial grant.[124][126] Themistocles and his son formed what some authors have called "a Greek dynasty in the Persian Empire".[127] From a second wife, Themistocles also had a daughter named Mnesiptolema, whom he appointed as priestess of the Temple of Dindymene in Magnesia, with the title of "Mother of the Gods".[120] Mnesiptolema would eventually marry her half-brother Archeptolis, homopatric (but not homometric) marriages being permitted in Athens.[128] Themistocles also had several other daughters, named Nicomache, Asia, Italia, Sybaris, and probably Hellas, who married the Greek exile in Persia Gongylos and still had a fief in Persian Anatolia in 399/400 BC as his widow.[120] Themistocles also had three other sons, Diocles, Polyeucteus and Cleophantus, the latter possibly a ruler of Lampsacus.[120] One of the descendants of Cleophantus still issued a decree in Lampsacus around 200 BC mentioning a feast for his own father, also named Themistocles, who had greatly benefited the city.[129] Later, Pausanias wrote that the sons of Themistocles "appear to have returned to Athens", and that they dedicated a painting of Themistocles in the Parthenon and erected a bronze statue to Artemis Leucophryene, the goddess of Magnesia, on the Acropolis.[12][130][131] They may have returned from Asia Minor in old age, after 412 BC, when the Achaemenids took again firm control of the Greek cities of Asia, and they may have been expelled by the Achaemenid satrap Tissaphernes sometime between 412 and 399 BC.[12] In effect, from 414 BC, Darius II had started to resent increasing Athenian power in the Aegean and had Tissaphernes enter into an alliance with Sparta against Athens, which in 412 BC led to the Persian conquest of the greater part of Ionia.[132] Plutarch in the 1st century AD indicates that he met in Athens a lineal descendant of Themistocles (also called Themistocles) who was still being paid revenues from Asia Minor, 600 years after the events in question.[119] Assessments[edit] Character[edit] Bust of Themistocles It is possible to draw some conclusions about Themistocles's character. Perhaps his most evident trait was his massive ambition; "In his ambition he surpassed all men";[19] "he hankered after public office rather as a man in delirium might crave a cure".[18] He was proud and vain,[31] and anxious for recognition of his deeds.[133] His relationship with power was of a particularly personal nature; while he undoubtedly desired the best for Athens, many of his actions also seem to have been made in self-interest.[18] He also appears to have been corrupt (at least by modern standards), and was known for his fondness of bribes.[22] Yet, set against these negative traits, was an apparently natural brilliance and talent for leadership:[18] "Themistocles was a man who exhibited the most indubitable signs of genius; indeed, in this particular he has a claim on our admiration quite extraordinary and unparalleled. By his own native capacity, alike unformed and unsupplemented by study, he was at once the best judge in those sudden crises which admit of little or of no deliberation, and the best prophet of the future, even to its most distant possibilities. An able theoretical expositor of all that came within the sphere of his practice, he was not without the power of passing an adequate judgment in matters in which he had no experience. He could also excellently divine the good and evil which lay hid in the unseen future. In fine, whether we consider the extent of his natural powers, or the slightness of his application, this extraordinary man must be allowed to have surpassed all others in the faculty of intuitively meeting an emergency."[99] Both Herodotus and Plato record variations of an anecdote in which Themistocles responded with subtle sarcasm to an undistinguished man who complained that the great politician owed his fame merely to the fact that he came from Athens. As Herodotus tells it: "Timodemus of Aphidnae, who was one of Themistocles' enemies but not a man of note, was crazed with envy and spoke bitterly to Themistocles of his visit to Lacedaemon, saying that the honors he had from the Lacedaemonians were paid him for Athens' sake and not for his own. This he kept saying until Themistocles replied, 'This is the truth of the matter: if I had been a man of Belbina I would not have been honored in this way by the Spartans, nor would you, sir, for all you are a man of Athens.' Such was the end of that business."[134] As Plato tells it, the heckler hails from the small island of Seriphus; Themistocles retorts that it is true that he would not have been famous if he had come from that small island, but that the heckler would not have been famous either if he had been born in Athens.[135] Themistocles was undoubtedly intelligent, but also possessed natural cunning; "the workings of his mind [were] infinitely mobile and serpentine".[18] Themistocles was evidently sociable and appears to have enjoyed strong personal loyalty from his friends.[18][90] At any rate, it seems to have been Themistocles's particular mix of virtues and vices that made him such an effective politician.[18] Historical reputation[edit] Ruins of the Themistoclean Wall in the Kerameikos of Athens, Greece, named after Themistocles Themistocles died with his reputation in tatters, a traitor to the Athenian people; the "saviour of Greece" had turned into the enemy of liberty.[136] However, his reputation in Athens was rehabilitated by Pericles in the 450s BC, and by the time Herodotus wrote his history, Themistocles was once again seen as a hero.[137] Thucydides evidently held Themistocles in some esteem, and is uncharacteristically flattering in his praise for him (see above).[99] Diodorus also extensively praises Themistocles, going as far as to offer a rationale for the length at which he discusses him: "Now on the subject of the high merits of Themistocles, even if we have dwelt over-long on the subject in this digression, we believed it not seemly that we should leave his great ability unrecorded."[138] Indeed, Diodorus goes so far as to say that "But if any man, putting envy aside, will estimate closely not only the man's natural gifts but also his achievements, he will find that on both counts Themistocles holds first place among all of whom we have record. Therefore, one may well be amazed that the Athenians were willing to rid themselves of a man of such genius."[117] Since Diodorus's history includes such luminaries as Alexander the Great and Hannibal, this is high praise indeed. Plutarch offers a more nuanced view of Themistocles, with more of a critique of Themistocles's character. He does not detract from Themistocles's achievements, but also highlights his failings.[23] Political and military legacy[edit] Map of the Athenian Empire in 431 BC Undoubtedly the greatest achievement of Themistocles's career was his role in the defeat of Xerxes's invasion of Greece. Against overwhelming odds, Greece survived, and classical Greek culture, so influential in Western civilization, was able to develop unabated.[139] Moreover, Themistocles's doctrine of Athenian naval power, and the establishment of Athens as a major power in the Greek world were of enormous consequence during the 5th century BC. In 478 BC, the Hellenic alliance was reconstituted without the Peloponnesian states, into the Delian League, in which Athens was the dominant power.[140] This was essentially a maritime alliance of Athens and her colonies, the Aegean islands, and the Ionian cities. The Delian league took the war to Persia, eventually invading Persian territory and dominating the Aegean.[140] Under the guidance of Pericles, the Delian league gradually evolved into the Athenian Empire, the zenith of Athenian power and influence.[141] Themistocles seems to have deliberately set Athens up as a rival to Sparta in the aftermath of Xerxes's invasion, basing this strategy on Athenian naval power (contrasted with the power of the Spartan army).[20] Tension grew throughout the century between Athens and Sparta, as they competed to be the leading state in Greece.[142] Finally, in 431 BC, this tension erupted into the Peloponnesian War, the first of a series of conflicts that tore Greece apart for the next century; an unforeseen, if indirect, legacy of Themistocles's.[142] Diodorus provides a rhetorical summary that reflects on Themistocles's achievements: "What other man, while Sparta still had the superior strength and the Spartan Eurybiades held the supreme command of the fleet, could by his single-handed efforts have deprived Sparta of that glory? Of what other man have we learned from history that by a single act he caused himself to surpass all the commanders, his city all the other Greek states, and the Greeks the barbarians? In whose term as general have the resources been more inferior and the dangers they faced greater? Who, facing the united might of all Asia, has found himself at the side of his city when its inhabitants had been driven from their homes, and still won the victory?"[138] In popular culture[edit] Temistocle (1718), opera by Nicola Porpora Temistocle (1772), opera by Johann Christian Bach based on the life of Themistocles[143] Thémistocle (1785), opera by François-André Danican Philidor based on the life of Themistocles.[144] In the movie The 300 Spartans (1962), Themistocles is portrayed by the actor Ralph Richardson.[145] The film 300: Rise of an Empire (2013) largely centers around Themistocles's command of the Greek allied fleet against the second Persian invasion of Greece (portrayed by actor Sullivan Stapleton).[146] References[edit] ^ a b c d e Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (2014). The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization. OUP Oxford. p. 1506. ISBN 978-0-19-101676-9. ^ a b c Brice, Lee L. (2012). Greek Warfare: From the Battle of Marathon to the Conquests of Alexander the Great. ABC-CLIO. p. 176. ISBN 978-1-61069-070-6. ^ "Themistocles". Behind the Name. Retrieved 2014-12-12. ^ Plutarch Aristides 5.3 ^ a b c "Legend says that Themistocles poisoned himself rather than follow the Great King's order to make war on Athens. But he probably died of natural causes." in Strauss, Barry (2005). The Battle of Salamis: The Naval Encounter That Saved Greece -- and Western Civilization. Simon and Schuster. p. 249. ISBN 978-0-7432-7453-1. ^ "Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War". perseus.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2018-10-02. ^ a b c d Plutarch, Themistocles 1 ^ Cornelius Nepos, Themistocles ^ Libanius, Declamations 9–10 ^ a b c Plutarch, Themistocles 1 ^ Alopece was a deme of Athens. ^ a b c Harvey, David; Wilkins, John (2002). The Rivals of Aristophanes: Studies in Athenian Old Comedy. ISD LLC. p. 200. ISBN 9781910589595. ^ Holland, p. 122 ^ Holland, pp. 126–128 ^ a b c d Holland, pp. 128–131 ^ Holland, pp. 132–134 ^ Herodotus V, 78 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Holland, pp. 164–167 ^ a b c Plutarch, Themistocles, 5 ^ a b c d e f g h i j Plutarch, Themistocles, 19 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Holland, pp. 214–217 ^ a b c d Holland, pp. 217–219 ^ a b Plutarch, Themistocles, 3 ^ Holland, pp. 208–211 ^ a b c d e Plutarch, Themistocles 4 ^ a b c d e Holland, pp. 219–222 ^ Cahn, Herbert A.; Gerin, Dominique (1988). "Themistocles at Magnesia". The Numismatic Chronicle (1966-). 148: 19. JSTOR 42668124. ^ Tanner, Jeremy (2006). The Invention of Art History in Ancient Greece: Religion, Society and Artistic Rationalisation. Cambridge University Press. p. 97. ISBN 9780521846141. ^ Herodotus VII, 145 ^ Herodotus VII, 161 ^ a b c Holland, p. 226 ^ Holland, p. 258 ^ a b Herodotus VIII, 4 ^ a b Holland, pp. 248–249 ^ Herodotus VII,173 ^ a b c Holland, pp. 255–257 ^ a b c Holland, pp. 251–255 ^ Plutarch, Themistocles, 11 ^ Herodotus VIII, 40 ^ Holland, pp. 257–258 ^ a b c Plutarch, Themistocles, 7 ^ Holland, p. 276 ^ Herodotus VIII, 11–19 ^ Herodotus VIII, 21 ^ a b Herodotus VIII, 22 ^ Herodotus VIII, 50 ^ Herodotus VIII, 71 ^ a b c Holland, pp. 302–303 ^ Herodotus VIII, 62 ^ a b c d Holland, pp. 310–315 ^ Holland, pp. 307–309 ^ a b Herodotus VIII, 75 ^ Herodotus VIII, 76 ^ Lazenby, p. 255 ^ Holland, p. 321 ^ On the identification with Artemisia: "...Above the ships of the victorious Greeks, against which Artemisia, the Xerxes' ally, sends fleeing arrows...". Original German description of the painting: "Die neue Erfindung, welche Kaulbach für den neuen hohen Beschützer zu zeichnen gedachte, war wahrscheinlich „die Schlacht von Salamis". Ueber den Schiffen der siegreichen Griechen, gegen welche Artemisia, des Xerxes Bundesgenossin, fliehend Pfeile sendet, sieht man in Wolken die beiden Ajaxe" in Altpreussische Monatsschrift Nene Folge p. 300 ^ a b Herodotus VIII, 79 ^ Herodotus VIII, 80 ^ Holland, p. 316 ^ Herodotus VIII 83 ^ Lazenby, p. 190 ^ Lazenby, p. 197 ^ Hanson, pp. 12–60 ^ Strauss, pp. 1–294 ^ Holland, p. 399 ^ Herodotus VIII, 97 ^ Holland, pp. 327–329 ^ a b c d e Holland, pp. 332–335 ^ Herodotus VIII, 123 ^ a b c d Plutarch, Themistocles, 17 ^ Herodotus VIII, 124 ^ Plutarch. "The Life of Aristides". The Parallel Lives. Loeb Classical Library. Retrieved 2014-12-12. ^ Plutarch • Life of Themistocles ^ a b c d Plutarch, Themistocles, 22 ^ Diodorus XI, 27 ^ Lazenby, p. 209 ^ Herodotus IX, 6–9 ^ a b Holland, pp. 358–359 ^ a b Diodorus XI, 39 ^ a b Diodorus XI, 54 ^ Shepherd, William (2012). Plataea 479 BC: The most glorious victory ever seen. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 88. ISBN 9781849085557. ^ a b c d Diodorus XI, 40 ^ a b Diodorus XI, 41 ^ Holland, p. 360 ^ a b Diodorus XI, 43 ^ Plutarch, Themistocles, 20 ^ David Campbell, Greek Lyric Poetry, Bristol Classical Press (1982), p. 406 ^ a b c d e Diodorus XI, 55 ^ a b c Plutarch, Themistocles, 23 ^ a b c Plutarch, Themistocles, 24 ^ a b c d e f g h Diodorus XI, 56 ^ a b c d e Plutarch, Themistocles, 25 ^ a b c d e f g h Thucydides I, 137 ^ a b c d Plutarch, Themistocles 26 ^ Plutarch, Themistocles 27 ^ CNG ^ a b c Plutarch, Themistocles, 29 ^ Plutarch, Themistocles 28 ^ a b c d e f g h Thucydides I, 138 ^ a b c Plutarch Themistocles, 31 ^ Diodorus XI, 57 ^ Plutarch's Lives. Applegate and Company. 1866. ^ a b Miller, Margaret C. (2004). Athens and Persia in the Fifth Century BC: A Study in Cultural Receptivity. Cambridge University Press. p. 98. ISBN 9780521607582. ^ Howe, Timothy; Brice, Lee L. (2015). Brill's Companion to Insurgency and Terrorism in the Ancient Mediterranean. Brill. p. 170. ISBN 9789004284739. ^ Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly (2000). Women and Monarchy in Macedonia. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 101. ISBN 9780806132129. ^ a b Cahn, HerbertA.; Gerin, Dominique (1988). "Themistocles at Magnesia". The Numismatic Chronicle (1966–). 148: 13–20. JSTOR 42668124. ^ a b Cahn, Herbert A.; Gerin, Dominique (1988). "Themistocles at Magnesia". The Numismatic Chronicle (1966–). 148: 19. JSTOR 42668124. ^ Cahn, Herbert A.; Gerin, Dominique (1988). "Themistocles at Magnesia". The Numismatic Chronicle (1966–). 148: 20. JSTOR 42668124. ^ Stieber, Mary (2010). The Poetics of Appearance in the Attic Korai. University of Texas Press. p. 98. ISBN 9780292773493. ^ "A rare silver fraction recently identified as a coin of Themistocles from Magnesia even has a bearded portrait of the great man, making it by far the earliest datable portrait coin. Other early portraits can be seen on the coins of Lycian dynasts." Carradice, Ian; Price, Martin (1988). Coinage in the Greek World. Seaby. p. 84. ISBN 9780900652820. ^ Howgego, Christopher (2002). Ancient History from Coins. Routledge. p. 64. ISBN 9781134877843. ^ Rhodes, P. J. (2011). A History of the Classical Greek World: 478–323 BC. John Wiley & Sons. p. 58. ISBN 9781444358582. ^ a b c d e Cahn, Herbert A.; Gerin, Dominique (1988). "Themistocles at Magnesia". The Numismatic Chronicle (1966–). 148: 19. JSTOR 42668124. ^ a b c Classical Numismatic Group ^ "The earliest attempts at portraiture appear to have taken place in Lycia. The heads of various dynasts appear on coins of the fifth century" Carradice, Ian (1978). Ancient Greek Portrait Coins. British Museum Publications. p. 2. ISBN 9780714108490. ^ a b West, Shearer; Birmingham, Shearer (2004). Portraiture. OUP Oxford. p. 68. ISBN 9780192842589. ^ a b Diodorus XI, 58 ^ André-Salvini, Béatrice (2005). Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia. University of California Press. p. 46. ISBN 9780520247314. ^ a b Plutarch Themistocles, 32 ^ a b c d Harvey, David; Wilkins, John (2002). The Rivals of Aristophanes: Studies in Athenian Old Comedy. ISD LLC. pp. 199–201. ISBN 9781910589595. ^ Nepos (Them. 10.3) ^ CNG ^ Clough, Arthur Hugh (1909). Plutarch's Lives of Themistocles, Pericles, Aristides,Alcibiades, and Coriolanus, Demosthenes, and Cicero, Caesar and Antony: In the Translation Called Dryden's. P.F. Collier & Son. pp. 33–34. ^ a b Hyland, John O. (2018). Persian Interventions: The Achaemenid Empire, Athens, and Sparta, 450−386 BCE. JHU Press. p. 22. ISBN 9781421423708. ^ KG, Fritz Rudolf Künker GmbH & Co. Künker Auktion 158 - Münzen aus der Welt der Antike. Numismatischer Verlag Künker. p. 49. ^ a b "The history and coinage of Themistokles as lord of Ionian Magnesia ad Maeandrum and of his son and successor, Archepolis, is illustrated by among other things, coins of Magnesia." in Numismatic Literature. American Numismatic Society. 2005. p. 5. ^ "Eine griechishe Dynastie im Perserreich" in Nollé, Johannes (1998). Themistokles und Archepolis: Eine griechische Dynastie im Perserreich und ihre Münzprägung, JNG 48/49, 1998/1999, 29–70. (zusammen mit A. Wenninger). ^ Cox, Cheryl Anne (2014). Household Interests: Property, Marriage Strategies, and Family Dynamics in Ancient Athens. Princeton University Press. p. 218. ISBN 9781400864690. ^ Foster, Edith; Lateiner, Donald (2012). Thucydides and Herodotus. OUP Oxford. p. 227. ISBN 9780199593262. ^ Paus. 1.1.2, 26.4 ^ Habicht, Christian (1998). Pausanias Guide to Ancient Greece. University of California Press. p. 5. ISBN 9780520061705. ^ Smith, William (1867). Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology. vol. 3. Boston: Little, Brown. pp. 1154–1156. ^ Plutarch, Themistocles 18 ^ Herodotus, VIII, 125. ^ Plato, The Republic, I, 330a. ^ Holland, p. 364 ^ Lazenby, p. 169 ^ a b Diodorus XI, 58 ^ Holland, pp. xvi–xvii ^ a b Holland, pp. 362–365 ^ Butler, p. 195 ^ a b Holland, p. 371 ^ "Temistocle. Libretto. German". ^ Thémistocle, tragédie lyrique en trois actes, paroles de Mr Morel, représentée, pour la première fois devant leurs Majestés à Fontainebleau le 13 8bre 1785 et à Paris sur le théâtre de l'Académie Royale de Musique le mardi 23 Mai 1786... Mise en musique par A. D. Philidor. chez Le Duc. 1787. ^ http://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/93100/The-300-Spartans/ ^ "Film Review: '300: Rise of an Empire'". 2014-03-03. Bibliography[edit] Ancient sources Cornelius Nepos, Themistocles Diodorus Siculus, Biblioteca Historica. Herodotus, The Histories. Libanius, Declamationes. Plutarch, Themistocles. Plutarch, Moralia. Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War. Modern sources Butler, Howard (2005). The Story of Athens. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4179-7092-6. Hanson, Victor Davis (2001). Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise of Western Power. DoubleDay. ISBN 978-0-385-50052-4. Frost, Frank J. (1980). Plutarch's Themistocles, An Historical Commentary. Princeton University Press. Behmel, Albrecht (2000). Themistokles: Sieger von Salamis. Herr von Magnesia. Ibidem. ISBN 978-3-932602-72-6. Holland, Tom (2005). Persian Fire. Abacus. ISBN 978-0-349-11717-1. Simon Hornblower, Anthony Spawforth (1996). The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-866172-6.. Green, Peter (2007). Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age. Orion. ISBN 978-0-7538-2413-9. Lazenby, JF (1993). The Defence of Greece 490–479 BC. Aris & Phillips Ltd. ISBN 978-0-85668-591-0. Mitchell, John Malcolm (1911). "Themistocles" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 758–759. Strauss, Barry (2004). The Battle of Salamis: The Naval Encounter That Saved Greece—and Western Civilization. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-4450-3. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Themistocles. Quotations related to Themistocles at Wikiquote Gera, Deborah Levine (2007). "Themistocles' Persian Tapestry". The Classical Quarterly. 57 (2): 445–457. Livius.org, Themistocles by Jona Lendering Lexicon of Greek Personal Names, Θεμιστοκλῆς v t e Works of Plutarch Works Parallel Lives Moralia "De genio Socratis" "On the Malice of Herodotus" Pseudo-Plutarch Lives Alcibiades and Coriolanus1 Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar Aratus of Sicyon / Artaxerxes and Galba / Otho2 Aristides and Cato the Elder1 Crassus and Nicias1 Demetrius and Antony1 Demosthenes and Cicero1 Dion and Brutus1 Fabius and Pericles1 Lucullus and Cimon1 Lysander and Sulla1 Numa and Lycurgus1 Pelopidas and Marcellus1 Philopoemen and Flamininus1 Phocion and Cato the Younger Pompey and Agesilaus1 Poplicola and Solon1 Pyrrhus and Gaius Marius Romulus and Theseus1 Sertorius and Eumenes1 Agis / Cleomenes1 and Tiberius Gracchus / Gaius Gracchus Timoleon and Aemilius Paulus1 Themistocles and Camillus Translators and editors Jacques Amyot Arthur Hugh Clough John Dryden Philemon Holland Thomas North 1 Comparison extant 2 Four unpaired Lives v t e Ancient Athenian statesmen 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Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC v t e Ancient Greece Timeline History Geography Periods Cycladic civilization Minoan civilization Mycenaean civilization Greek Dark Ages Archaic period Classical Greece Hellenistic Greece Roman Greece Geography Aegean Sea Aeolis Crete 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en-wikipedia-org-7557	----	Senusret IV - Wikipedia Senusret IV From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Senusret IV Senusret IV Seneferibre Colossal statue CG 42026 of Senusret IV, discovered in 1901 by Georges Legrain in Karnak.[1] Pharaoh Reign late 17th to early 16th century BC (late 13th dynasty, 16th dynasty or early 17th dynasty) Predecessor uncertain, a king whose name is lost (von Beckerath) or Mentuhotep VI (new arrangement) Successor uncertain, Mentuhotep VI (von Beckerath) or Wepwawetemsaf (new arrangement) Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Seneferibre[2][3] S.nfr-jb-Rˁ He who delights the heart of Ra Nomen Senusret[2] S(j) n Wsrt The man of Wosret (litt. the strong one) Horus name Wehemankh [2] Wḥm-ˁnḫ Horus, repeating of life Nebty name Sankhtawy[2][3] S-ˁnḫ-t3wj He who nourishes the two lands Golden Horus Neferkhaw[2][3] Nfr-ḫˁw Beautiful of apparitions Senusret IV Seneferibre was an ancient Egyptian Theban king during the late Second Intermediate Period that is attested only through finds from Upper Egypt. The chronological position of Senusret IV is unclear and even the dynasty to which he belongs is debated. Chronological position[edit] According to Jürgen von Beckerath Senusret IV belonged to the late 13th Dynasty,[4][5] while Kim Ryholt classifies him as a king of the 16th Dynasty with an uncertain position in the dynasty.[6] Alternatively, Norbert Dautzenberg proposed that Senusret IV is part of the 17th Dynasty. Dautzenberg bases this hypothesis on his reading of entry 11.4 of the Turin canon as referring to Senusret IV. He also attributes graffiti on a gate of the Medamud temple mentioning a king "Senusret" to Senusret IV since the gate was decorated by Sobekemsaf I, who lived during the early 17th Dynasty.[7] Both arguments are rejected by Ryholt: first, Ryholt notes that the Turin canon entry 11.4 is not compatible with Senusret IV's prenomen and second, he observes that the gate of the temple of Medamud was built by Senusret III so the graffiti is likely to refer to this king rather than Senusret IV. In the new arrangement[8] the dynasty of Senusret IV is left partially undetermined, being simply categorized as late 13th to early 17th. Attestations[edit] Senusret IV is attested on the Karnak king list under his prenomen "Senefer[...]re". The most important contemporary attestation of the king is a 2m 75 cm tall colossal statue of him, sculpted in pink granite and discovered in Karnak in 1901 by Georges Legrain.[9] Other attestations include a block from El-Tod and the upper-right corner of a stela discovered in 1907 by Legrain in Karnak and which is inscribed with the date II Shemu 1 of the first regnal year of Senusret IV.[2][6] Finally, a lintel from Edfu and an axe-blade bearing the nomen Senusret have also been attributed to Senusret IV based on stylistic considerations.[6] In the case of the axe blade, however, some have attributed it to Senusret I.[10] References[edit] ^ Georges Legrain: Statues et statuettes de rois et de particuliers, in Catalogue général des antiquités égyptiennes du Musée du Caire, Le Caire, 1906. I, 171 pp., 79 pls, available copyright-free online, published in 1906, see p. 18 and p. 109 ^ a b c d e f Georges Legrain: Sur une stèle de Senousrit IV, in: "Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale; Mission Archéologique Française; Recueil de travaux relatifs à la philologie et à l'archéologie égyptiennes et assyriennes: pour servir de bulletin à la Mission Française du Caire", (1908), available online ^ a b c G. Legrain, Annales du Service des Antiquités de l’Egypte 2 (1901), 272 ^ J. von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964. ^ J. von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46. Mainz am Rhein, 1997. ^ a b c K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c. 1800-1550 B.C, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications 20., Copenhagen, 1997, ISBN 8772894210. ^ Norbert Dautzenberg: SeneferibRe Sesostris IV. – ein König der 17. Dynastie?, (Göttinger Miszellen 129), Göttingen 1992, p. 43–48 ^ On Digital Egypt for Universities ^ Statue Cairo CG 42026, description in G. Legrain, Annales du Service des Antiquités de l’Egypte 2 (1901), 272; and Legrain 1906, I, 15–16, pl.16. ^ Axe-blade: Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology 16324, visible online here. Flinders Petrie: Tools and Weapons, 9, pl. 5 v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 1058506811 VIAF: 310690454 WorldCat Identities: viaf-310690454 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Senusret_IV&oldid=954363703" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs 16th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt Pharaohs of the Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View 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en-wikipedia-org-7566	----	Bebnum - Wikipedia Bebnum From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Bebnum Babnum, Bebnem, Babnem Pharaoh Reign some time between 1690 BC and 1649 BC (Ryholt) (uncertain dynasty, most likely 14th Dynasty, otherwise 16th Dynasty) Predecessor Anati Djedkare (Ryholt and von Beckerath) Successor uncertain, unknown (Ryholt) or Nebmaare (von Beckerath) Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) [...]kare ...k3-Rˁ ... the Ka of Ra Nomen Bebnum Bbnm Bebnum (also Babnum) is a poorly known ruler of Lower Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, reigning in the early or mid 17th century BC. Chronological position[edit] According to Jürgen von Beckerath he was the 14th king of the 16th Dynasty and a vassal of the Hyksos kings of the 15th Dynasty.[1] This opinion was recently rejected by Kim Ryholt. In his 1997 study of the Second Intermediate Period, Ryholt argues that the kings of the 16th Dynasty ruled an independent Theban realm c. 1650–1580 BC.[2] Consequently, Ryholt sees Bebnum, who bears a Semitic name, as the 34th king of the 14th Dynasty which regroups kings of Canaanite descent. As such Bebnum would have ruled from Avaris over the eastern Nile Delta concurrently with the Memphis-based 13th Dynasty. This analysis has convinced some Egyptologists, such as Darrell Baker and Janine Bourriau,[3][4] but not others including Stephen Quirke.[5] Attestation[edit] Bebnum is only attested by an isolated fragment of the Turin canon, a king list redacted in the Ramesside period and which serves as the primary historical source for kings of the second intermediate period. The fact that the fragment on which Bebnum figures is not attached to the rest of the document made its chronological position difficult to ascertain.[3] However an analysis of the fibers of the papyrus led Ryholt to place the fragment on the 9th column, row 28 of the canon (Gardiner entry 9.30).[2] References[edit] ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz : P. von Zabern, 1999, ISBN 3-8053-2591-6, available online Archived 2015-12-22 at the Wayback Machine, p. 110–111 ^ a b K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here. ^ a b Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 70–71 ^ Janine Bourriau, Ian Shaw (editor): The Oxford history of ancient Egypt, chapter The Second Intermediate Period, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2003, ISBN 0-19-280458-8, [1] ^ Stephen Quirke, Marcel Maree (editor): The Second Intermediate Period Thirteenth - Seventeenth Dynasties, Current Research, Future Prospects, Leuven 2011, Paris — Walpole, MA. ISBN 978-9042922280, p. 56, n. 6 v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bebnum&oldid=970793940" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ancient Egypt people stubs Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links AC with 0 elements All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Français Italiano ქართული Magyar Slovenščina ไทย Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 2 August 2020, at 12:37 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7595	----	Psamtik III - Wikipedia Psamtik III From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Egyptian pharaoh Psamtik III Psammetichus III Head of a statue of Psamtik III Pharaoh Reign 526–525 BC (26th dynasty) Predecessor Amasis II Successor Cambyses II, Second Ruler of Persia Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Ankhkaenre Nomen Psamtik Children Amasis Died 525 BC Relief depicting Psamtik III from a chapel in Karnak Psamtik III (also spelled Psammetichus, Psammeticus, or Psammenitus, from Greek Ψαμμήτιχος or Ψαμμήνιτος) was the last Pharaoh of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt from 526 BC to 525 BC. Most of what is known about his reign and life was documented by the Greek historian Herodotus in the 5th century BC. Herodotus states that Psamtik had ruled Egypt for only six months before he was confronted by a Persian invasion of his country led by King Cambyses II of Persia.[1] Psamtik was subsequently defeated at the Battle of Pelusium, and fled to Memphis where he was captured. The deposed pharaoh was carried off to Susa in chains, and later committed suicide. Contents 1 Family 2 Defeat and imprisonment 3 Captivity and suicide 4 References 5 External links Family[edit] See also: Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Psamtik III was the son of the pharaoh Amasis II and one of his wives, Queen Tentkheta. He succeeded his father as pharaoh in 526 BC, when Amasis died after a long and prosperous reign of some 44 years. According to Herodotus, he had a son named Amasis and a wife and daughter, both unnamed in historical documents. Defeat and imprisonment[edit] Further information: Battle of Pelusium (525 BC) Psamtik ruled Egypt for no more than six months. A few days after his coronation, rain fell at Thebes, which was a rare event that frightened some Egyptians, who interpreted this as a bad omen. The young and inexperienced pharaoh was no match for the invading Persians. After the Persians under Cambyses had crossed the Sinai desert with the aid of the Arabians, a bitter battle was fought near Pelusium, a city on Egypt's eastern frontier, in the spring of 525 BC.[1] The Egyptians were defeated at Pelusium and Psamtik was betrayed by one of his allies, Phanes of Halicarnassus. Consequently, Psamtik and his army were compelled to withdraw to Memphis.[1] The Persians captured the city after a long siege, and captured Psamtik after its fall. Shortly thereafter, Cambyses ordered the public execution of two thousand of the principal citizens, including (it is said) a son of the fallen king. Captivity and suicide[edit] Psamtik's captivity and subsequent execution are described in The Histories by Herodotus, Book III, sections 14 and 15. Psamtik's daughter and the daughters of all the Egyptian noblemen were enslaved. Psamtik's son and two thousand other sons of noblemen were sentenced to death, in retaliation for the murder of the Persian ambassador and the two hundred crew of his boat. An "old man who had once been the king's friend" was reduced to beggary.[2] All these people were brought before Psamtik to test his reaction, and he only became upset after seeing the state of the beggar. Psamtik's compassion for the beggar caused him to be spared, but his son had already been executed. The deposed pharaoh was then raised up to live in the entourage of the Persian King.[3] After a while, however, Psamtik attempted to raise a rebellion among the Egyptians. When Cambyses learned of this, Psamtik is reported by Herodotus to have drunk bull's blood and immediately died.[4] References[edit] ^ a b c The New Encyclopædia Britannica: Micropædia, Vol.9 15th edition, 2003. p.756 ^ The Histories, by Herodotus, Book III.14, Penguin Classics ^ "Herodotus, The Histories, book 3, chapter 15, section 1". www.perseus.tufts.edu. ^ The Histories, by Herodotus, Book III.15, Penguin Classics External links[edit] Cartouche of Psammetichus Herodotus histories v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Psamtik_III&oldid=999810200" Categories: 6th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt 525 BC deaths 6th-century BC executions 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en-wikipedia-org-7604	----	Weneg (pharaoh) - Wikipedia Weneg (pharaoh) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Wneg" redirects here. For other uses, see WNEG (disambiguation). Weneg Weneg-Nebty, Uneg Alabaster fragment with the throne name Nisut-bitj-Nebty-Weneg.[1] Pharaoh Reign length of reign unknown (2nd Dynasty; around 2740 B.C.) Predecessor Nynetjer Successor unknown Royal titulary Nomen Throne name Nisut-Bitj-Nebty-Weneg Nsw.t-btj-nb.tj-wng King of Lower- and Upper Egypt, He of the two Ladies, Weneg Weneg (or Uneg), also known as Weneg-Nebty, is the throne name of an early Egyptian king, who ruled during the Second Dynasty. Although his chronological position is clear to Egyptologists, it is unclear for how long King Weneg ruled. It is also unclear as to which of the archaeologically identified Horus-kings corresponds to Weneg. Contents 1 Name sources and contradictions 2 Identification 2.1 Weneg corresponds to Hor-Nebre (or Raneb) 2.2 Weneg corresponds to Hor-Sekhemib-Perenmaat 2.3 Weneg as an independent ruler 3 Reign 4 References 5 External links Name sources and contradictions[edit] The name "Weneg" is generally accepted to be a nebti- or throne name, introduced by the crest of the Two Ladies (the goddesses Nekhbet and Wadjet) and the sedge-and-bee-crest. Weneg's name appears in black ink inscriptions on alabaster fragments and in inscriptions on schist-vessels. Seventeen vessels bearing his name have been preserved; eleven of them were found in the underground galleries beneath the step pyramid of king Djoser at Sakkara. Egyptologists such as Wolfgang Helck and Francesco Tiradritti point out that all the inscriptions are made in the place of existing inscriptions, which means that the names that were originally placed on the vessels were completely different. The symbol that was used to write Weneg's name is the object of significant dispute between Egyptologists to this day. The so-called "weneg flower" is rarely used in Egyptian writing. Mysteriously, the weneg flower is often guided by six vertical "strokes", three of them on each side of the flower bud. The meaning of these strokes is unknown. After Weneg's death, his heraldic flower was not used again until king Teti (6th dynasty), when it was used in his pyramid texts to name a “Weneg” as a sky and death deity which was addressed with "Son of Ra" and "follower of the deceased king". So it seems that the weneg flower was somehow connected with the Egyptian sun and death cult. But the true meaning of the flower as a king's name remains unknown.[2][3][4][5] Identification[edit] Since Weneg's name first became known to Egyptologists, scholars have been trying to match the nebti name of Weneg to contemporary Horus-kings. The following sections discuss some of the theories. Weneg corresponds to Hor-Nebre (or Raneb)[edit] BM EA 35556, the stone vessel used by Jochem Kahl to equate Weneg with Raneb.[6] Egyptologist Jochem Kahl argues that Weneg was the same person as king Raneb, the second ruler of the 2nd dynasty. He points to a vessel fragment made from an igneous material, which was found in the tomb of king Peribsen (a later ruler of the 2nd dynasty) at Abydos. He believed he had found on the pot sherd weak, but clear, traces of the weneg flower beneath the inscribed name of king Ninetjer. On the right side of Ninetjer's name the depiction of the Ka house of king Raneb is partially preserved. The complete arrangement led Kahl to the conclusion that the weneg flower and Raneb's name were connected to each other and king Ninetjer later replaced the inscription. Kahl also points out that king Ninetjer wrote his name mirrored, so that his name points in the opposite direction to Raneb's name.[6] Kahl's theory is the subject of continuing debate since the vessel inscription is badly damaged and thus leaves plenty of room for varying interpretations. Weneg corresponds to Hor-Sekhemib-Perenmaat[edit] Egyptologists such as Nicolas Grimal, Wolfgang Helck and Walter Bryan Emery identify Weneg with king Sekhemib-Perenmaat and with the Ramesside royal cartouche-name Wadjenes. Their theory is based on the assumption that Sekhemib and Seth-Peribsen were different rulers and that both were the immediate successors of king Ninetjer. But this theory is not commonly accepted, because clay seals of Sekhemib were found in the tomb of king Khasekhemwy, the last ruler of the 2nd dynasty. The clay seals set Sekhemib's reign close to Khasekhemwy's, whilst the Ramesside name "Wadjenes" is placed near the beginning of the 2nd dynasty.[7][8][9] Weneg as an independent ruler[edit] Egyptologists such as Peter Kaplony and Richard Weill argue that Weneg was a separate king from other kings of the period. They suggest that Weneg succeeded Ninetjer and his name is preserved in Ramesside kinglists under the name "Wadjenes". Their assumption is firstly based on the widely accepted theory that Ramesside scribes interchanged the weneg flower with the papyrus haulm, changing it into the name "Wadjenes". Secondly, Kaplony and Weill's theory is based on the inscription on the Cairo stone. They believe that the name "Wenegsekhemwy" is preserved over the third line of year events.[10] This theory is also not widely accepted, as the Cairo stone is badly damaged and the very weak traces of the hieroglyphs leave too much room for different interpretations. Reign[edit] Little is known about Weneg's reign. The vessel inscriptions mentioning his name only show reports about ceremonial events, such as the "raising up of the pillars of Horus". This feast is frequently reported on vessels from Ninetjer's reign, which brings Weneg's chronological position very close to that of Ninetjer. The length of Weneg's rulership is unknown. If he was the same person as king Wadjenes, he ruled (according to the Royal Canon of Turin) for 54 years. If Weneg was the same person as king "Tlas", mentioned by the historian Manetho, he ruled for 17 years. But modern Egyptologists have doubts about both statements and evaluate them as misinterpretations or exaggerations. If Weneg was actually a separate ruler, as Richard Weill and Peter Kaplony believe, he may have ruled for 12 years, depending on their reconstructions of the Cairo stone inscriptions. One theory suggests that the once unified kingdom of Egypt was divided after Ninetjer's death into two parts. Consequently, for a period after king Weneg's death, two kings ruled at the same time over Egypt suggesting that Weneg was an independent ruler. This assumption is based on the observation that both the Thinite and Memphite king lists of the Ramesside era mention the names "Wadjenes" and "Senedj" as the immediate successors of king Ninetjer. The Abydos king lists, for example, mention only six kings for the 2nd dynasty, whilst all the other kinglists mention nine kings. So Weneg may have been the last king who had ruled over the whole of Egypt, before sharing his throne (and control over Egypt) with another king. It remains unclear who the other king may have been.[4][10][11][12][13][14] Weneg's successor may have been Senedj but even that is uncertain in this shadowy period of the 2nd dynasty of Egypt. References[edit] ^ see: P. Lacau, J.P. Lauer: La Pyramide a Degeres IV. Inscriptions Gravees sur les Vases. Cairo 1959; obj.104 ^ B. Grdseloff: King Uneg. In: Annales du Service des Antiquités de l’Égypte, No. 44, 1944, page 279–306. ^ Winfried Barta in: Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde, No.108. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1981, ISSN 0044-216X, page 20–21. ^ a b Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards: The Cambridge ancient history, Vol. 1, Pt. 2: Early history of the Middle East, 3rd reprint. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2006, ISBN 978-0-521-07791-0, p. 31. ^ Jochem Kahl: Das System der ägyptischen Hieroglyphenschrift in der 0.–3. Dynastie. In: Göttinger Orientforschungen, volume IV. 1994, page 354-355. ^ a b Jochem Kahl: Ra is my Lord - Searching for the rise of the Sun God at the dawn of Egyptian history. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2007, ISBN 978-3-447-05540-6, pp. 12–14, 74. ^ Wolfgang Helck: Untersuchungen zur Thinitenzeit. Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1987, ISBN 978-3-447-02677-2, page 103–107. ^ Walter Bryan Emery: Ägypten. Geschichte und Kultur der Frühzeit. Fourier-Verlag, Wiesbaden 1964, ISBN 978-3-921695-39-5, page 105. ^ Gunter Dreyer in: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Kairo, No.59. Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Orient-Abteilung (Hrsg.). de Gruyter, Berlin 2003, S. 115. ^ a b Peter Kaplony: Steingefäße der Frühzeit und des Alten Reiches. In: Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskund, Volumes 133-135. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1981, ISSN 0044-216X. ^ Aidan Dodson: The Mysterious Second Dynasty. In: Kemet, volume 7, chapter 2 (1996), page 19-31 ^ Werner Kaiser: Zur Nennung von Sened und Peribsen in Saqqara B3. In: Göttinger Miszellen - Beiträge zur ägyptologischen Diskussion. No. 122. Ägyptologisches Seminar der Universität Göttingen, Göttingen 1991, ISSN 0344-385X, page 22–23. ^ Barbara Bell: Oldest Records of the Nile Floods. In: Geographical Journal, volume 136, 1970, page 569–573. ^ Hans Goedike in: Journal of Egypt Archaeology. volume 42, 1998, page 50. External links[edit] Francesco Raffaele: WNG (Weneg or Uneg) Preceded by Horus Sa Pharaoh of Egypt Succeeded by Wadjenes v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Second Dynasty of Ancient Egypt Attested pharaohs Hotepsekhemwy Nebra Weneg Nynetjer Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Khasekhemwy Obscure pharaoh names Horus Ba Ba Horus Sa Hudjefa I Neferkara I Neferkasokar Nubnefer Senedj Sneferka Wadjenes Queen consort Nimaathap Other royals Khenmetptah Satkhnum Sehener Shepset-ipet Wadjitefni (Mesen-ka) Pehen-Ptah Nisuheqet Nefer-Setekh Monument Gisr el-Mudir Capital Thinis Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Weneg_(pharaoh)&oldid=995690576" Categories: 28th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Second Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Azərbaycanca Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Žemaitėška Edit links This page was last edited on 22 December 2020, at 10:38 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7616	----	Eighth Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Eighth Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Egypt ca. 2181 BC–ca. 2160 BC Capital Memphis Common languages Egyptian language Religion ancient Egyptian religion Government Absolute monarchy Historical era Bronze Age • Established ca. 2181 BC • Disestablished ca. 2160 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The Eighth Dynasty of ancient Egypt (Dynasty VIII) is a poorly known and short-lived line of pharaohs reigning in rapid succession in the early 22nd century BC, likely with their seat of power in Memphis. The Eighth Dynasty held sway at a time referred to as the very end of the Old Kingdom or the beginning of the First Intermediate Period. The power of the pharaohs was waning while that of the provincial governors, known as nomarchs, was increasingly important, the Egyptian state having by then effectively turned into a feudal system. In spite of close relations between the Memphite kings and powerful nomarchs, notably in Coptos, the Eighth Dynasty was eventually overthrown by the nomarchs of Heracleopolis Magna, who founded the Ninth Dynasty. The Eighth Dynasty is sometimes combined with the preceding Seventh Dynasty, owing to the lack of archeological evidence for the latter which may be fictitious. Egyptologists estimate that the Eighth Dynasty ruled Egypt for approximately 20–45 years and various dates have been proposed: 2190–2165 BC,[1] 2181–2160 BC,[2][3] 2191–2145 BC,[4] 2150–2118 BC.[5] Contents 1 Sources 1.1 Historical 1.1.1 New Kingdom sources 1.1.2 Ptolemaic source 1.2 Contemporary evidence 2 End of the Old Kingdom and decline into chaos 3 Rulers 4 References Sources[edit] Kings of the 8th Dynasty on the Abydos king list, from Netjerkare Siptah to Neferkamin. Kings of the 8th Dynasty on the Abydos king list, from Nikare until Neferirkare. Historical[edit] New Kingdom sources[edit] Two historical sources dating to the New Kingdom list kings belonging to the Eighth Dynasty. The earliest of the two and main historical source on the Eighth Dynasty is the Abydos king list, written during the reign of Seti I. The kings listed on the entries 40 to 56 of the Abydos king list are placed between the end of the Sixth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom period and the beginning of the Eleventh Dynasty of the Middle Kingdom. Furthermore, the names of these kings are different from those known from the Ninth and Tenth Dynasties, none of which are on the Abydos list. As a consequence, entries 40 to 56 of the list are assigned to the Seventh and Eighth Dynasties. The other New Kingdom source on the Eighth Dynasty is the Turin canon, written during the reign of Ramses II. The Turin papyrus was copied from an earlier source which, as the Egyptologist Kim Ryholt has shown, was itself riddled with lacunae and must have been in a poor state. In addition, the Turin papyrus is itself heavily damaged and cannot be read without much difficulty. In total three names are present on papyrus fragments which might be allocated to Eighth Dynasty kings. These are Netjerkare Siptah, another hard to read name and finally, that of Qakare Ibi, the fifty-third king on the Abydos king list. There seems to be room for two[6] or three[7][8] more kings before the end of the dynasty as recorded on the list. This would indicate that the missing parts of the Turin canon probably contained the kings in the fifty-first to fifty-fifth registers of the Abydos King List. Because the Turin papyrus omits the first nine kings on the Abydos list, W.C. Hayes thinks it reasonable that the Egyptians may have divided Dynasties VII and VIII at this point.[6] Ptolemaic source[edit] The Egyptian priest Manetho wrote a history of Egypt during the 3rd century BC known as the Aegyptiaca. Manetho's work has not survived to this day and is only known to us via three later writers who quoted from it. Unfortunately, these three sources are exceedingly difficult to work with. For example, they often contradict each other, as is the case for the two ancient historians – Sextus Julius Africanus and Eusebius of Caesarea – who quote from the section of the Aegyptiaca regarding the Seventh and Eighth Dynasties. Africanus claims that the 7th Dynasty consisted of 70 kings that ruled during a period of seventy days in Memphis, and the 8th Dynasty consisted of 27 kings who reigned for 146 years. However, Eusebius records that during the 7th Dynasty five kings ruled over seventy five days, and the 8th Dynasty includes five kings who ruled for 100 years. Seventy kings in seventy days is usually considered the correct version of Manetho concerning the Seventh Dynasty, but likely not a factual account of history. Rather, this is interpreted to mean that the pharaohs of this period were extremely ephemeral, and the use of seventy may be a pun on the fact that this was Manetho's Seventh Dynasty.[9] Because Manetho does not provide actual historical data on this period and no archeological evidence for the Seventh Dynasty has emerged, many Egyptologists have argued that this dynasty is fictitious.[10] Concerning the Eighth Dynasty, it is now widely agreed that Manetho's estimate for its duration is a very substantial overestimation of the reality.[8] Contemporary evidence[edit] The main archaeological evidence for kings of the Eighth Dynasty are royal decrees discovered in Coptos, which name some of the last pharaohs of the dynasty. Further tentative evidence for the early kings of the dynasty comes from tombs in Saqqara, in particular the pyramid of Qakare Ibi in Saqqara. Beyond that, there are royal inscriptions found in the Wadi Hammamat and in Upper Egypt, as well as non-royal ones from Upper Egypt as well.[8][11][12] End of the Old Kingdom and decline into chaos[edit] Fragments of two Coptos Decrees dating to the reign of Neferkauhor, end of the Eighth Dynasty. The Eighth Dynasty has traditionally been classified as the first dynasty of the First Intermediate Period owing to the ephemeral nature of its kings' reigns as well as the sparsity of contemporary evidence, hinting at a decline of the state into chaos. Recent re-appraisal of the archaeological evidence has shown a strong continuity between the Sixth and Eighth Dynasties, so that Egyptologist Hratch Papazian has proposed that the Eighth Dynasty rather than the Sixth should be seen as the last of the Old Kingdom period.[8] Given that five Eighth Dynasty kings bore Pepi II's throne name Neferkare as part of their own names, they may have been descendants of 6th Dynasty, who were trying to hold on to some sort of power.[13] Some of the acts of the final four Dynasty VIII kings are recorded in their decrees to Shemay, a vizier during this period, although only Qakare Ibi can be connected to any monumental construction. His pyramid has been found at Saqqara near that of Pepi II and, like its predecessors, had the Pyramid Texts written on the walls.[13] However many kings there actually were, it is clear that during this time period a breakdown of the central authority of Egypt was underway. The rulers of these dynasties were based in Memphis and seem to have relied on the power of the nomarchs of Coptos, on whom they bestowed titles and honours. This must have been to no avail as the Eighth Dynasty was eventually overthrown by a rival group based in Herakleopolis Magna. Rulers[edit] Given the lack of evidence for the Seventh Dynasty, all kings mentioned on the Abydos king list in the entries after that of Merenre Nemtyemsaf II and before that of Montuhotep II[4] are usually attributed to the Eighth Dynasty. Following Jürgen von Beckerath, they are : Dynasty VIII as per von Beckerath[4] Name Comments Netjerkare Siptah Sometimes classified as the last king of the 6th Dynasty. Possibly identical with Nitocris. Menkare Possibly attested by a relief from the tomb of queen Neit. Neferkare II Neferkare Neby Planned or started a pyramid "Neferkare Neby is Enduring of Life", possibly at Saqqara. Djedkare Shemai Neferkare Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Possibly attested by a cylinder seal.[14] Neferkare Tereru Neferkahor Attested by a cylinder seal. Neferkare Pepiseneb Turin Canon gives at least one year.[15] Neferkamin Anu Qakare Ibi Turin Canon gives rule of two years, one month, one day.[16] Attested by his pyramid at Saqqara. Neferkaure Turin Canon gives rule of 4 years and 2 months,[16] attested by a decree concerning the temple of Min.[17] Khwiwihepu Neferkauhor Turin Canon gives rule of 2 years, 1 month and 1 day,[16] attested by eight decrees concerning the temple of Min,[18][19][20] and an inscription in the tomb of vizier Shemay.[21] Neferirkare Turin Canon gives a reign of 1 and a half years.[16] Maybe identical to either or both of Horus Demedjibtawy and Wadjkare. If so, he is attested by a decree concerning the temple of Min. The Egyptologist Hracht Papazian believes that such a reconstruction gives too much weight to Manetho's account, according to which the Seventh Dynasty is essentially fictitious and a metaphor of chaos. Instead Papazian proposes that the earliest of the above kings are immediate successors of Pepi II and should be attributed to the Sixth Dynasty, while those just after them belong to a short-lived Seventh Dynasty. Then the Eighth Dynasty would only start with the well-attested Qakare-Ibi: Dynasty VIII as per Papazian[8] Name Qakare Ibi Neferkaure Khwiwihepu Neferkauhor Name lost Neferirkare In addition, the identity and chronological position and extent of rule of the following rulers is highly uncertain: Wadjkare, Khuiqer, Khui and Iytjenu. References[edit] ^ Redford, Donald B., ed. (2001). "Egyptian King List". The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 2. Oxford University Press. pp. 626–628. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) ^ Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. p. 480. ISBN 0-19-815034-2. ^ Peter Clayton: Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames & Hudson Ltd, second printing edition 1994, ISBN 978-0500050743, available online, see p. 70 ^ a b c Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz : Philip von Zabern, 1999, ISBN 3-8053-2591-6, see pp.66–71, and p. 284 for the datation of the 8th Dynasty. ^ Thomas Schneider in Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss and David A. Warburton (editors): Ancient Egyptian Chronology, Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill 2012, ISBN 978-90-04-11385-5, available online copyright-free, see p. 491 ^ a b Smith, W. Stevenson. The Old Kingdom in Egypt and the Beginning of the First Intermediate Period, in The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. I, part 2, ed. Edwards, I.E.S, et al. p.197. Cambridge University Press, New York, 1971 ^ Ryholt, Kim (2000). "The Late Old Kingdom in the Turin King-list and the Identity of Nitocris". Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde. see p. 88, fig. 1 and p. 91. 127 (1): 87–119. ISSN 2196-713X.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ a b c d e Hratch Papazian (2015). "The State of Egypt in the Eighth Dynasty". In Peter Der Manuelian; Thomas Schneider (eds.). Towards a New History for the Egyptian Old Kingdom: Perspectives on the Pyramid Age. Harvard Egyptological Studies. BRILL. ^ Grimal, Nicolas. A History of Ancient Egypt. p.138. Librairie Arthéme Fayard, 1988. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath, Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen. Münchner ägyptologische Studien (in German). 49. Mainz: Philip von Zabern. ISBN 978-3-8053-2591-2. ^ Couyat, J.; Montet, Pierre. Les inscriptions hiéroglyphiques et hiératiques du Ouâdi Hammâmât. Mémoires publiés par les membres de l'Institut français d'archéologie orientale du Caire. 34. Cairo: Institut français d'archéologie orientale du Caire. pp. 168–169, 188, 206–209 (see inscriptions). OCLC 920523964. ^ Kamal, Ahmed Bey (1912). "Fouilles à Dara et à Qoçéîr el-Amarna". Annales du Service des Antiquités de l'Égypte. p. 132.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ a b Grimal, Nicolas. A History of Ancient Egypt. p.140. Librairie Arthéme Fayard, 1988. ^ Peter Kaplony: Die Rollsiegel des Alten Reichs, vol. 2: Katalog der Rollsiegel, (= Monumenta Aegyptiaca. Vol. 3), La Fondation Égyptologique Reine Élisabeth, Brüssel 1981, issue 144. ^ Kim Ryholt: "The Late Old Kingdom in the Turin King-list and the Identity of Nitocris", Zeitschrift für ägyptische, 127 (2000), p. 91 ^ a b c d Jürgen von Beckerath: "The Date of the End of the Old Kingdom of Egypt", Journal of Near Eastern Studies 21 (1962), p. 143 ^ The decree on the catalog of the MET ^ Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 271-272 ^ William C. Hayes: The Scepter of Egypt: A Background for the Study of the Egyptian Antiquities in The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Vol. 1, From the Earliest Times to the End of the Middle Kingdom , MetPublications, 1978, pp.136-138, available online ^ The fragments of the decrees on the catalog of the MET: fragment 1, 2 and 3. ^ Nigel C. Strudwick, Ronald J. Leprohon ed.: Texts from the Pyramid Age, see pp.345-347, available online Preceded by Sixth Dynasty (Seventh) Dynasty of Egypt c. 2181 – 2160 BC Succeeded by Ninth Dynasty Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eighth_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=971338227" Categories: Eighth Dynasty of Egypt States and territories established in the 3rd millennium BC States and territories disestablished in the 3rd millennium BC Dynasties of ancient Egypt 22nd century BC in Egypt 3rd-millennium BC establishments in Egypt 3rd-millennium BC disestablishments in Egypt 3rd millennium BC in Egypt Hidden categories: CS1 maint: ref=harv CS1 maint: location Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara Français Galego Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski தமிழ் Українська 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 5 August 2020, at 14:09 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7623	----	Mentuhotep III - Wikipedia Mentuhotep III From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Mentuhotep III Osiride statue of the 11th Dynasty pharaoh Mentuhotep III, on display at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Pharaoh Reign 2010 BC – 1998 BC (11th dynasty) Predecessor Mentuhotep II Successor Mentuhotep IV Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sankhkare s-ankh-ka-re Giving Life to the Soul of Ra[1] Nomen Mentuhotep Mntw-htp Montu is content[2] Horus name Sankhtawyef[3] Hr s-ankh-t3-wy-f He who invigorates his two lands Nebty name Sankhtawyef[3] s-ankh-t3-wy-f He who invigorates his two lands Mother Tem Died 1998 BC Sankhkare Mentuhotep III (also Montuhotep III)[4] of the Eleventh Dynasty was Pharaoh of Egypt during the Middle Kingdom. He was assigned a reign of 12 years in the Turin Canon. Contents 1 Reign 1.1 Name 1.2 Expedition to Punt 1.3 Monuments 2 Family 3 References 4 Further reading Reign[edit] Mentuhotep III succeeded his father Mentuhotep II [5] to the throne. It is believed that, following his father's long 51 years of reign, Mentuhotep III was relatively old when he acceded to the throne and reigned for 12 years. Despite its short duration, Mentuhotep's reign is known for his expedition to Punt and architectural innovations. Name[edit] Mentuhotep III's titulary is very similar to the third and final one of his father. Mentuhotep III is known to have had at least two praenomen: the well known Sankhkare and also snfr-k3-ra "He who embellishes the Soul of Re" Expedition to Punt[edit] Mentuhotep III, 11th dynasty Mentuhotep III sent an expedition to the Land of Punt during the 8th year of his reign, something that had not been done since the Old Kingdom. An inscription in the Wadi Hammamat describes the expedition as being 3000 men strong and under the command of the steward Henenu. As they left Coptos in direction of the Red Sea, they dug 12 wells for future expeditions and cleared the region of rebels. They returned from Punt with incense, gum and perfumes, and quarried the Wadi Hammamat for stones. Monuments[edit] Mentuhotep III on a relief carving from the temple of Monthu in Medamud Sankhkare Mentuhotep was responsible for several building projects in the 12 years of his reign. His own mortuary temple was begun in Deir el-Bahari, but never completed. The temple was located a short distance from his father's mortuary temple. A causeway would have led up to a temple platform. Inscriptions show that the king was buried in a chamber cut into the rock-face.[6] Sankhkare Mentuhotep also had a mud-brick temple erected at Thoth Hill in Western Thebes. The temple was built on the site of an older archaic temple. It was dedicated to the god Montu-Ra. This temple may have been destroyed by an earthquake towards the end of the 11th Dynasty.[6] Family[edit] See also: Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt family tree Mentuhotep III was the son and successor of Mentuhotep II. One of the wives of Mentuhotep II, Tem, was given the title Mother of the Dual King and based on that title she is almost certainly the mother of Mentuhotep III. Mentuhotep III's family is mostly a mystery. It is currently believed that he fathered his successor Mentuhotep IV with one of his harem wives, Imi. This is however still debated [7] Mentuhotep IV's mother is known to have been Queen Imi. If he was the son of Mentuhotep III, Imi must have been the wife of Mentuhotep III.[8] References[edit] ^ King List (chronological) Archived 2004-12-24 at the Wayback Machine ^ Clayton, Peter A. Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. p72. 2006. ISBN 0-500-28628-0 ^ a b Karl Richard Lepsius: Denkmaller, Abtheilung II Band IV Available online see p. 152 Archived 2015-10-27 at the Wayback Machine ^ Firth, Lesley (editor-in-chief); et al. (1985). "Mentohotep III". Who Were They? The Simon & Schuster Color Illustrated Question & Answer Book. Little Simon Book, Simon & Schuster, Inc., New York City. p. 12. ISBN 0671604767. ^ "Mentuhotep III". ib205.tripod.com. 9 December 2012. Archived from the original on 9 December 2012. Retrieved 28 October 2016. ^ a b Wilkinson, Richard H., The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt, Thames and Hudson, 2000,pp. 37, 172, 173, 181, ISBN 0-500-05100-3 ^ Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004. ISBN 0-500-05128-3 ^ Tyldesley, Joyce. Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2006, pp. 66-68. ISBN 0-500-05145-3 Further reading[edit] Grajetzki, W. (2006). The Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt: History, Archaeology and Society. London: Duckworth. pp. 23–25. ISBN 0-7156-3435-6. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mentuhotep III. Preceded by Mentuhotep II Pharaoh of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty Succeeded by Mentuhotep IV v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 122049071 VIAF: 18095413 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 18095413 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mentuhotep_III&oldid=994966154" Categories: 21st-century BC Pharaohs 20th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt 21st-century BC rulers 20th-century BC rulers 21st century BC in Egypt 20th century BC in Egypt 20th-century BC deaths Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF 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en-wikipedia-org-7644	----	Lygdamis I of Halicarnassus - Wikipedia Lygdamis I of Halicarnassus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Lygdamis of Halicarnassus) Jump to navigation Jump to search Coinage of Mylasa, Caria, at the time of Lygdamis, c. 520–490 BCE. Lygdamid dynasty (Dynasts of Caria) c. 520–484 BCE Lygdamis I c. 484–460 BCE Artemisia c. 460–454 BCE Pisindelis c. 454–450 BCE Lygdamis II v t e Lygdamis (Greek: Λύγδαμις), who ruled c. 520–484 BCE, was the first tyrant of Caria under the Achaemenid Empire. He was of Carian-Greek ethnicity.[1] He was the father of Artemisia I of Caria.[2] He is the founder of the eponymous Lygdamid dynasty (520–450 BCE) of Carian tyrants, who ruled from Halicarnassus.[3][4] References[edit] ^ Penrose, Walter Duvall (2016). Postcolonial Amazons: Female Masculinity and Courage in Ancient Greek and Sanskrit Literature. Oxford University Press. p. 163. ISBN 978-0-19-953337-4. ^ Egypt and Scythia. Рипол Классик. 1886. p. 5. ISBN 9785874812997. ^ Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (2012). The Oxford Classical Dictionary. OUP Oxford. p. 387. ISBN 9780199545568. ^ Newton, Charles Thomas; Pullan, Richard Popplewell (2011). A History of Discoveries at Halicarnassus, Cnidus and Branchidae. Cambridge University Press. p. 811. ISBN 9781108027274. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lygdamis_I_of_Halicarnassus&oldid=981549478" Categories: Ancient Halicarnassians Lygdamid dynasty Achaemenid satraps of Caria 6th-century BC Asian monarchs 5th-century BC rulers in Asia Officials of Darius the Great Hidden categories: Articles containing Greek-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Hrvatski مصرى Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 3 October 2020, at 00:38 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7620	----	Syria - Wikipedia Syria From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Syrian Arab Republic" redirects here. For the Syrian Arab Republic from 1961 to 1963, see Second Syrian Republic. This article is about the modern state of Syria. For other uses, see Syria (disambiguation). Country in the Middle East Coordinates: 35°N 38°E / 35°N 38°E / 35; 38 Syrian Arab Republic الجمهورية العربية السورية  (Arabic) Flag Coat of arms Motto: وحدة ، حرية ، اشتراكية Waḥdah, Ḥurrīyah, Ishtirākīyah ("Unity, Freedom, Socialism") Anthem: حماة الديار Ḥumāt ad-Diyār ("Guardians of the Homeland") Location of Syria (green) Show globe Show map of Syria Capital and largest city Damascus 33°30′N 36°18′E / 33.500°N 36.300°E / 33.500; 36.300 Official languages Arabic[1] Ethnic groups Syrian Arabs Arameans Kurds Turkomans Assyrians Circassians Armenians Greeks Religion 87% Islam 10% Christianity[2] 3% Druzism[3] Demonym(s) Syrian Government Unitary dominant-party semi-presidential Ba’athist republic[4] • President Bashar al-Assad • Prime Minister Hussein Arnous • Vice Presidents Farouk al-Sharaa Najah al-Attar • Speaker of the People's Council Hammouda Sabbagh Legislature People's Council Establishment • Arab Kingdom of Syria 8 March 1920 • State of Syria under French mandate 1 December 1924 • Syrian Republic 14 May 1930 • De jure Independence 24 October 1945 • De facto Independence 17 April 1946 • Left the United Arab Republic 28 September 1961 • Ba'ath party takes power 8 March 1963 • Current constitution 27 February 2012 Area • Total 185,180[5] km2 (71,500 sq mi) (87th) • Water (%) 1.1 Population • 2020 estimate 17,500,657 (66th) • 2010 census 21,018,834 • Density 118.3/km2 (306.4/sq mi) (70th) GDP (PPP) 2015 estimate • Total $50.28 billion[6] • Per capita $2,900[6] GDP (nominal) 2014 estimate • Total $24.6 billion[6] (167) • Per capita $831[6] Gini (2014) 55.8[7] high HDI (2019)  0.567[8] medium · 151st Currency Syrian pound (SYP) Time zone UTC+2 (EET) • Summer (DST) UTC+3 (EEST) Driving side right Calling code +963 ISO 3166 code SY Internet TLD .sy سوريا. Syria (Arabic: سوريا‎, romanized: Sūriyā), officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic: الجمهورية العربية السورية‎, romanized: al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah as-Sūrīyah), is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon to the southwest, the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest. A country of fertile plains, high mountains, and deserts, Syria is home to diverse ethnic and religious groups, including Syrian Arabs, Kurds, Turkemens, Assyrians, Armenians, Circassians,[9] Mandeans,[10] and Greeks. Religious groups include Sunnis, Christians, Alawites, Druze, Isma'ilis, Mandeans, Shiites, Salafis, and Yazidis. Arabs are the largest ethnic group, and Sunnis are the largest religious group. Syria is a unitary republic consisting of 14 governorates and is the only country that politically espouses Ba'athism. It is a member of one international organization other than the United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement; it was suspended from the Arab League in November 2011[11] and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation,[12] and self-suspended from the Union for the Mediterranean.[13] The name "Syria" historically referred to a wider region, broadly synonymous with the Levant, and known in Arabic as al-Sham. The modern state encompasses the sites of several ancient kingdoms and empires, including the Eblan civilization of the 3rd millennium BC. Aleppo and the capital city Damascus are among the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world.[14] In the Islamic era, Damascus was the seat of the Umayyad Caliphate and a provincial capital of the Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt. The modern Syrian state was established in the mid-20th century after centuries of Ottoman and a brief period of French mandate, and represented the largest Arab state to emerge from the formerly Ottoman-ruled Syrian provinces. It gained de jure independence as a parliamentary republic on 24 October 1945, when the Republic of Syria became a founding member of the United Nations, an act which legally ended the former French Mandate, although French troops did not leave the country until April 1946. The post-independence period was tumultuous, with many military coups and coup attempts shaking the country from 1949 to 1971. In 1958, Syria entered a brief union with Egypt called the United Arab Republic, which was terminated by the 1961 Syrian coup d'état. The republic was renamed as the Arab Republic of Syria in late 1961 after the December 1 constitutional referendum of that year, and was increasingly unstable until the 1963 Ba'athist coup d'état, since which the Ba'ath Party has maintained its power. Syria was under Emergency Law from 1963 to 2011, effectively suspending most constitutional protections for citizens. Bashar al-Assad has been president since 2000 and was preceded by his father Hafez al-Assad,[15] who was in office from 1971 to 2000. Throughout his rule, Syria and the ruling Ba'ath Party have been condemned and criticized for various human rights abuses, including frequent executions of citizens and political prisoners, and massive censorship.[16][17] Since March 2011, Syria has been embroiled in an armed conflict, with a number of countries in the region and beyond involved militarily or otherwise. As a result, a number of self-proclaimed political entities have emerged on Syrian territory, including the Syrian opposition, Rojava, Tahrir al-Sham and Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. Syria was ranked last on the Global Peace Index from 2016 to 2018,[18] making it the most violent country in the world due to the war. The conflict has killed more than 570,000 people,[19] caused 7.6 million internally displaced people (July 2015 UNHCR estimate) and over 5 million refugees (July 2017 registered by UNHCR),[20] making population assessment difficult in recent years. Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Ancient antiquity 2.2 Classical antiquity 2.3 Middle Ages 2.4 Ottoman Syria 2.5 French Mandate 2.6 Independent Syrian Republic 2.7 Ba'athist Syria 2.8 Syrian Civil War 2.9 Major economic crisis, 2020 3 Geography 3.1 Biodiversity 4 Politics and government 4.1 Military 4.2 Foreign relations 4.2.1 International disputes 4.3 Human rights 4.4 Administrative divisions 4.5 Agrarian reform 4.6 Internet and telecommunications 5 Economy 5.1 Petroleum industry 5.2 Transport 5.3 Water supply and sanitation 6 Demographics 6.1 Ethnic groups 6.2 Religion 6.3 Languages 6.4 Largest cities 7 Culture 7.1 Literature 7.2 Music 7.3 Media 7.4 Sports 7.5 Cuisine 8 Education 9 Health 10 See also 11 References 11.1 Notes 11.2 Citations 11.3 General references 12 Further reading 13 External links Etymology Main article: Name of Syria Several sources indicate that the name Syria is derived from the 8th century BC Luwian term "Sura/i", and the derivative ancient Greek name: Σύριοι, Sýrioi, or Σύροι, Sýroi, both of which originally derived from Aššūrāyu (Assyria) in northern Mesopotamia.[21][22] However, from the Seleucid Empire (323–150 BC), this term was also applied to The Levant, and from this point the Greeks applied the term without distinction between the Assyrians of Mesopotamia and Arameans of the Levant.[23][24] Mainstream modern academic opinion strongly favors the argument that the Greek word is related to the cognate Ἀσσυρία, Assyria, ultimately derived from the Akkadian Aššur.[25] The Greek name appears to correspond to Phoenician ʾšr "Assur", ʾšrym "Assyrians", recorded in the 8th century BC Çineköy inscription.[26] The area designated by the word has changed over time. Classically, Syria lies at the eastern end of the Mediterranean, between Arabia to the south and Asia Minor to the north, stretching inland to include parts of Iraq, and having an uncertain border to the northeast that Pliny the Elder describes as including, from west to east, Commagene, Sophene, and Adiabene.[27] By Pliny's time, however, this larger Syria had been divided into a number of provinces under the Roman Empire (but politically independent from each other): Judaea, later renamed Palaestina in AD 135 (the region corresponding to modern-day Israel, the Palestinian Territories, and Jordan) in the extreme southwest; Phoenice (established in AD 194) corresponding to modern Lebanon, Damascus and Homs regions; Coele-Syria (or "Hollow Syria") south of the Eleutheris river, and Iraq.[28] History Main article: History of Syria Ancient antiquity Female figurine, 5000 BC. Ancient Orient Museum. Since approximately 10,000 BC, Syria was one of the centers of Neolithic culture (known as Pre-Pottery Neolithic A) where agriculture and cattle breeding appeared for the first time in the world. The following Neolithic period (PPNB) is represented by rectangular houses of Mureybet culture. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gyps and burnt lime (Vaisselle blanche). Finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations. Cities of Hamoukar and Emar played an important role during the late Neolithic and Bronze Age. Archaeologists have demonstrated that civilization in Syria was one of the most ancient on earth, perhaps preceded by only those of Mesopotamia. The earliest recorded indigenous civilization in the region was the Kingdom of Ebla[29] near present-day Idlib, northern Syria. Ebla appears to have been founded around 3500 BC,[30][31][32][33][34] and gradually built its fortune through trade with the Mesopotamian states of Sumer, Assyria, and Akkad, as well as with the Hurrian and Hattian peoples to the northwest, in Asia Minor.[35] Gifts from Pharaohs, found during excavations, confirm Ebla's contact with Egypt. Ishqi-Mari, king of the Second Kingdom of Mari, circa 2300 BC. One of the earliest written texts from Syria is a trading agreement between Vizier Ibrium of Ebla and an ambiguous kingdom called Abarsal c. 2300 BC.[36][37] Scholars believe the language of Ebla to be among the oldest known written Semitic languages after Akkadian. Recent classifications of the Eblaite language have shown that it was an East Semitic language, closely related to the Akkadian language.[38] Ebla was weakened by a long war with Mari, and the whole of Syria became part of the Mesopotamian Akkadian Empire after Sargon of Akkad and his grandson Naram-Sin's conquests ended Eblan domination over Syria in the first half of the 23rd century BC.[39][40] By the 21st century BC, Hurrians settled the northern east parts of Syria while the rest of the region was dominated by the Amorites, Syria was called the Land of the Amurru (Amorites) by their Assyro-Babylonian neighbors. The Northwest Semitic language of the Amorites is the earliest attested of the Canaanite languages. Mari reemerged during this period, and saw renewed prosperity until conquered by Hammurabi of Babylon. Ugarit also arose during this time, circa 1800 BC, close to modern Latakia. Ugaritic was a Semitic language loosely related to the Canaanite languages, and developed the Ugaritic alphabet,[41] considered to be the world's earliest known alphabet. The Ugaritic kingdom survived until its destruction at the hands of the marauding Indo-European Sea Peoples in the 12th century BC in what was known as the Late Bronze Age Collapse which saw similar kingdoms and states witness the same destruction at the hand of the Sea Peoples. Yamhad (modern Aleppo) dominated northern Syria for two centuries,[42] although Eastern Syria was occupied in the 19th and 18th centuries BC by the Old Assyrian Empire ruled by the Amorite Dynasty of Shamshi-Adad I, and by the Babylonian Empire which was founded by Amorites. Yamhad was described in the tablets of Mari as the mightiest state in the near east and as having more vassals than Hammurabi of Babylon.[42] Yamhad imposed its authority over Alalakh,[43] Qatna,[44] the Hurrians states and the Euphrates Valley down to the borders with Babylon.[45] The army of Yamhad campaigned as far away as Dēr on the border of Elam (modern Iran).[46] Yamhad was conquered and destroyed, along with Ebla, by the Indo-European Hittites from Asia Minor circa 1600 BC.[47] From this time, Syria became a battle ground for various foreign empires, these being the Hittite Empire, Mitanni Empire, Egyptian Empire, Middle Assyrian Empire, and to a lesser degree Babylonia. The Egyptians initially occupied much of the south, while the Hittites, and the Mitanni, much of the north. However, Assyria eventually gained the upper hand, destroying the Mitanni Empire and annexing huge swathes of territory previously held by the Hittites and Babylon. Syrians bringing presents to Pharaoh Tuthmosis III, as depicted in the tomb of Rekhmire, circa 1450 BCE (actual painting and interpretional drawing). They are labeled "Chiefs of Retjenu".[48][49] Around the 14th century BC, various Semitic peoples appeared in the area, such as the semi-nomadic Suteans who came into an unsuccessful conflict with Babylonia to the east, and the West Semitic speaking Arameans who subsumed the earlier Amorites. They too were subjugated by Assyria and the Hittites for centuries. The Egyptians fought the Hittites for control over western Syria; the fighting reached its zenith in 1274 BC with the Battle of Kadesh.[50][51] The west remained part of the Hittite empire until its destruction c. 1200 BC,[52] while eastern Syria largely became part of the Middle Assyrian Empire,[53] who also annexed much of the west during the reign of Tiglath-Pileser I 1114–1076 BC. With the destruction of the Hittites and the decline of Assyria in the late 11th century BC, the Aramean tribes gained control of much of the interior, founding states such as Bit Bahiani, Aram-Damascus, Hamath, Aram-Rehob, Aram-Naharaim, and Luhuti. From this point, the region became known as Aramea or Aram. There was also a synthesis between the Semitic Arameans and the remnants of the Indo-European Hittites, with the founding of a number of Syro-Hittite states centered in north central Aram (Syria) and south central Asia Minor (modern Turkey), including Palistin, Carchemish and Sam'al. Amrit Phoenician Temple A Canaanite group known as the Phoenicians came to dominate the coasts of Syria, (and also Lebanon and northern Palestine) from the 13th century BC, founding city states such as Amrit, Simyra, Arwad, Paltos, Ramitha and Shuksi. From these coastal regions, they eventually spread their influence throughout the Mediterranean, including building colonies in Malta, Sicily, the Iberian peninsula (modern Spain and Portugal), and the coasts of North Africa and most significantly, founding the major city state of Carthage (in modern Tunisia) in the 9th century BC, which was much later to become the center of a major empire, rivaling the Roman Empire. Syria and the Western half of Near East then fell to the vast Neo Assyrian Empire (911 BC – 605 BC). The Assyrians introduced Imperial Aramaic as the lingua franca of their empire. This language was to remain dominant in Syria and the entire Near East until after the Arab Islamic conquest in the 7th and 8th centuries AD, and was to be a vehicle for the spread of Christianity. The Assyrians named their colonies of Syria and Lebanon Eber-Nari. Assyrian domination ended after the Assyrians greatly weakened themselves in a series of brutal internal civil wars, followed by an attacks from; the Medes, Babylonians, Chaldeans, Persians, Scythians and Cimmerians. During the fall of Assyria, the Scythians ravaged and plundered much of Syria. The last stand of the Assyrian army was at Carchemish in northern Syria in 605 BC. The Assyrian Empire was followed by the Neo-Babylonian Empire (605 BC – 539 BC). During this period, Syria became a battle ground between Babylonia and another former Assyrian colony, that of Egypt. The Babylonians, like their Assyrian relations, were victorious over Egypt. Classical antiquity Main articles: Eber-Nari, Coele-Syria, Syria (Roman province), and Syria-Palaestina Ancient city of Palmyra before the war The Achaemenid Empire, founded by Cyrus the Great, annexed Syria along with Babylonia to its empire in 539 BC. The Persians, retained Imperial Aramaic as one of the diplomatic languages of the Achaemenid Empire (539 BC – 330 BC), as well as the Assyrian name for the new satrapy of Aram/Syria Eber-Nari. Syria was conquered by the Greek Macedonian Empire, ruled by Alexander the Great circa 330 BC, and consequently became Coele-Syria province of the Greek Seleucid Empire (323 BC – 64 BC), with the Seleucid kings styling themselves 'King of Syria' and the city of Antioch being its capital starting from 240. Thus, it was the Greeks who introduced the name "Syria" to the region. Originally an Indo-European corruption of "Assyria" in northern Mesopotamia, the Greeks used this term to describe not only Assyria itself but also the lands to the west which had for centuries been under Assyrian dominion.[54] Thus in the Greco-Roman world both the Arameans of Syria and the Assyrians of Mesopotamia (modern day Iraq) to the east were referred to as "Syrians" or "Syriacs", despite these being distinct peoples in their own right, a confusion which would continue into the modern world. Eventually parts of southern Seleucid Syria were taken by Judean Hasmoneans upon the slow disintegration of the Hellenistic Empire. Syria briefly came under Armenian control from 83 BC, with the conquests of the Armenian king Tigranes the Great, who was welcomed as a savior from the Seleucids and Romans by the Syrian people. However, Pompey the Great, a general of the Roman Empire rode to Syria, captured Antioch, its capital, and turned Syria into a Roman province in 64 BC, thus ending the Armenian control over the region which had lasted two decades. Syria prospered under Roman rule, being strategically located on the silk road which gave it massive wealth and importance, making it the battleground for the rivaling Romans and Persians. Roman Theatre at Bosra in the province of Arabia, present-day Syria Temple of Jupiter, Damascus Palmyra, a rich and sometimes powerful native Aramaic-speaking kingdom arose in northern Syria in the 2nd century; the Palmyrene established a trade network that made the city one of the richest in the Roman empire. Eventually, in the late 3rd century AD, the Palmyrene king Odaenathus defeated the Persian emperor Shapur I and controlled the entirety of the Roman East while his successor and widow Zenobia established the Palmyrene Empire, which briefly conquered Egypt, Syria, Palestine, much of Asia Minor, Judah and Lebanon, before being finally brought under Roman control in 273 AD. The northern Mesopotamian Assyrian kingdom of Adiabene controlled areas of north east Syria between 10 AD and 117 AD, before it was conquered by Rome.[55] The Aramaic language has been found as far afield as Hadrians Wall in Ancient Britain,[56] with an inscription written by a Palmyrene emigrant at the site of Fort Arbeia.[57] Control of Syria eventually passed from the Romans to the Byzantines, with the split in the Roman Empire.[35] The largely Aramaic-speaking population of Syria during the heyday of the Byzantine Empire was probably not exceeded again until the 19th century. Prior to the Arab Islamic Conquest in the 7th century AD, the bulk of the population were Arameans, but Syria was also home to Greek and Roman ruling classes, Assyrians still dwelt in the north east, Phoenicians along the coasts, and Jewish and Armenian communities was also extant in major cities, with Nabateans and pre-Islamic Arabs such as the Lakhmids and Ghassanids dwelling in the deserts of southern Syria. Syriac Christianity had taken hold as the major religion, although others still followed Judaism, Mithraism, Manicheanism, Greco-Roman Religion, Canaanite Religion and Mesopotamian Religion. Syria's large and prosperous population made Syria one of the most important of the Roman and Byzantine provinces, particularly during the 2nd and 3rd centuries (AD).[58] The ancient city of Apamea, an important commercial center and one of Syria's most prosperous cities in classical antiquity Syrians held considerable amounts of power during the Severan dynasty. The matriarch of the family and Empress of Rome as wife of emperor Septimius Severus was Julia Domna, a Syrian from the city of Emesa (modern day Homs), whose family held hereditary rights to the priesthood of the god El-Gabal. Her great nephews, also Arabs from Syria, would also become Roman Emperors, the first being Elagabalus and the second, his cousin Alexander Severus. Another Roman emperor who was a Syrian was Philip the Arab (Marcus Julius Philippus), who was born in Roman Arabia. He was emperor from 244 to 249,[58] and ruled briefly during the Crisis of the Third Century. During his reign, he focused on his home town of Philippopolis (modern day Shahba) and began many construction projects to improve the city, most of which were halted after his death. Syria is significant in the history of Christianity; Saulus of Tarsus, better known as the Apostle Paul, was converted on the Road to Damascus and emerged as a significant figure in the Christian Church at Antioch in ancient Syria, from which he left on many of his missionary journeys. (Acts 9:1–43) Middle Ages Muhammad's first interaction with the people and tribes of Syria was during the Invasion of Dumatul Jandal in July 626[59] where he ordered his followers to invade Duma, because Muhammad received intelligence that some tribes there were involved in highway robbery and preparing to attack Medina itself.[60] William Montgomery Watt claims that this was the most significant expedition Muhammad ordered at the time, even though it received little notice in the primary sources. Dumat Al-Jandal was 800 kilometres (500 mi) from Medina, and Watt says that there was no immediate threat to Muhammad, other than the possibility that his communications to Syria and supplies to Medina being interrupted. Watt says "It is tempting to suppose that Muhammad was already envisaging something of the expansion which took place after his death", and that the rapid march of his troops must have "impressed all those who heard of it".[61] William Muir also believes that the expedition was important as Muhammad followed by 1000 men reached the confines of Syria, where distant tribes had now learnt his name, while the political horizon of Muhammad was extended.[59] Umayyad fresco from Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbî, built in the early 7th century By AD 640, Syria was conquered by the Arab Rashidun army led by Khalid ibn al-Walid. In the mid-7th century, the Umayyad dynasty, then rulers of the empire, placed the capital of the empire in Damascus. The country's power declined during later Umayyad rule; this was mainly due to totalitarianism, corruption and the resulting revolutions. The Umayyad dynasty was then overthrown in 750 by the Abbasid dynasty, which moved the capital of empire to Baghdad. Arabic – made official under Umayyad rule[62] – became the dominant language, replacing Greek and Aramaic of the Byzantine era. In 887, the Egypt-based Tulunids annexed Syria from the Abbasids, and were later replaced by once the Egypt-based Ikhshidids and still later by the Hamdanids originating in Aleppo founded by Sayf al-Dawla.[63] The 1299 Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar. The Mongols under Ghazan defeated the Mamluks. Sections of Syria were held by French, English, Italian and German overlords between 1098 and 1189 AD during the Crusades and were known collectively as the Crusader states among which the primary one in Syria was the Principality of Antioch. The coastal mountainous region was also occupied in part by the Nizari Ismailis, the so-called Assassins, who had intermittent confrontations and truces with the Crusader States. Later in history when "the Nizaris faced renewed Frankish hostilities, they received timely assistance from the Ayyubids."[64] After a century of Seljuk rule, Syria was largely conquered (1175–1185) by the Kurdish liberator Salah ad-Din, founder of the Ayyubid dynasty of Egypt. Aleppo fell to the Mongols of Hulegu in January 1260, and Damascus in March, but then Hulegu was forced to break off his attack to return to China to deal with a succession dispute. A few months later, the Mamluks arrived with an army from Egypt and defeated the Mongols in the Battle of Ain Jalut in Galilee. The Mamluk leader, Baibars, made Damascus a provincial capital. When he died, power was taken by Qalawun. In the meantime, an emir named Sunqur al-Ashqar had tried to declare himself ruler of Damascus, but he was defeated by Qalawun on 21 June 1280, and fled to northern Syria. Al-Ashqar, who had married a Mongol woman, appealed for help from the Mongols. The Mongols of the Ilkhanate took Aleppo in October 1280, but Qalawun persuaded Al-Ashqar to join him, and they fought against the Mongols on 29 October 1281, in the Second Battle of Homs, which was won by the Mamluks.[65] In 1400, the Muslim Turco-Mongol conqueror Tamurlane invaded Syria, in which he sacked Aleppo,[66] and captured Damascus after defeating the Mamluk army. The city's inhabitants were massacred, except for the artisans, who were deported to Samarkand.[67] Tamurlane also conducted specific massacres of the Aramean and Assyrian Christian populations, greatly reducing their numbers.[68] By the end of the 15th century, the discovery of a sea route from Europe to the Far East ended the need for an overland trade route through Syria. Syrian women, 1683 Ottoman Syria Main article: Ottoman Syria In 1516, the Ottoman Empire invaded the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt, conquering Syria, and incorporating it into its empire. The Ottoman system was not burdensome to Syrians because the Turks respected Arabic as the language of the Quran, and accepted the mantle of defenders of the faith. Damascus was made the major entrepot for Mecca, and as such it acquired a holy character to Muslims, because of the beneficial results of the countless pilgrims who passed through on the hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca.[69] 1803 Cedid Atlas, showing Ottoman Syria labelled as "Al Sham" in yellow Ottoman administration followed a system that led to peaceful coexistence. Each ethno-religious minority—Arab Shia Muslim, Arab Sunni Muslim, Aramean-Syriac Orthodox, Greek Orthodox, Maronite Christians, Assyrian Christians, Armenians, Kurds and Jews—constituted a millet.[70] The religious heads of each community administered all personal status laws and performed certain civil functions as well.[69] In 1831, Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt renounced his loyalty to the Empire and overran Ottoman Syria, capturing Damascus. His short-term rule over the domain attempted to change the demographics and social structure of the region: he brought thousands of Egyptian villagers to populate the plains of Southern Syria, rebuilt Jaffa and settled it with veteran Egyptian soldiers aiming to turn it into a regional capital, and he crushed peasant and Druze rebellions and deported non-loyal tribesmen. By 1840, however, he had to surrender the area back to the Ottomans. From 1864, Tanzimat reforms were applied on Ottoman Syria, carving out the provinces (vilayets) of Aleppo, Zor, Beirut and Damascus Vilayet; Mutasarrifate of Mount Lebanon was created, as well, and soon after the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem was given a separate status. Armenian deportees near Aleppo during the Armenian Genocide, 1915 During World War I, the Ottoman Empire entered the conflict on the side of Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. It ultimately suffered defeat and loss of control of the entire Near East to the British Empire and French Empire. During the conflict, genocide against indigenous Christian peoples was carried out by the Ottomans and their allies in the form of the Armenian Genocide and Assyrian Genocide, of which Deir ez-Zor, in Ottoman Syria, was the final destination of these death marches.[71] In the midst of World War I, two Allied diplomats (Frenchman François Georges-Picot and Briton Mark Sykes) secretly agreed on the post-war division of the Ottoman Empire into respective zones of influence in the Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916. Initially, the two territories were separated by a border that ran in an almost straight line from Jordan to Iran. However, the discovery of oil in the region of Mosul just before the end of the war led to yet another negotiation with France in 1918 to cede this region to the British zone of influence, which was to become Iraq. The fate of the intermediate province of Zor was left unclear; its occupation by Arab nationalists resulted in its attachment to Syria. This border was recognized internationally when Syria became a League of Nations mandate in 1920[72] and has not changed to date. French Mandate Main articles: French Mandate for Syria and Lebanon and Mandatory Syrian Republic The inauguration of President Hashim al-Atassi in 1936 In 1920, a short-lived independent Kingdom of Syria was established under Faisal I of the Hashemite family. However, his rule over Syria ended after only a few months, following the Battle of Maysalun. French troops occupied Syria later that year after the San Remo conference proposed that the League of Nations put Syria under a French mandate. General Gouraud had according to his secretary de Caix two options: "Either build a Syrian nation that does not exist... by smoothing the rifts which still divide it" or "cultivate and maintain all the phenomena, which require our arbitration that these divisions give". De Caix added "I must say only the second option interests me". This is what Gouraud did.[73][74] In 1925, Sultan al-Atrash led a revolt that broke out in the Druze Mountain and spread to engulf the whole of Syria and parts of Lebanon. Al-Atrash won several battles against the French, notably the Battle of al-Kafr on 21 July 1925, the Battle of al-Mazraa on 2–3 August 1925, and the battles of Salkhad, al-Musayfirah and Suwayda. France sent thousands of troops from Morocco and Senegal, leading the French to regain many cities, although resistance lasted until the spring of 1927. The French sentenced Sultan al-Atrash to death, but he had escaped with the rebels to Transjordan and was eventually pardoned. He returned to Syria in 1937 after the signing of the Syrian-French Treaty. Syrian rebels in Ghouta during the Great Syrian Revolt against French colonial rule in the 1920s Syria and France negotiated a treaty of independence in September 1936, and Hashim al-Atassi was the first president to be elected under the first incarnation of the modern republic of Syria. However, the treaty never came into force because the French Legislature refused to ratify it. With the fall of France in 1940 during World War II, Syria came under the control of Vichy France until the British and Free French occupied the country in the Syria-Lebanon campaign in July 1941. Continuing pressure from Syrian nationalists and the British forced the French to evacuate their troops in April 1946, leaving the country in the hands of a republican government that had been formed during the mandate.[75] Independent Syrian Republic Main articles: Syrian Republic (1946–63), United Arab Republic, and 1963 Syrian coup d'état Upheaval dominated Syrian politics from independence through the late 1960s. In May 1948, Syrian forces invaded Palestine, together with other Arab states, and immediately attacked Jewish settlements.[76] Their president Shukri al-Quwwatli instructed his troops in the front, "to destroy the Zionists".[77][78] The Invasion purpose was prevention of the establishment of the State of Israel.[79] Defeat in this war was one of several trigger factors for the March 1949 Syrian coup d'état by Col. Husni al-Za'im, described as the first military overthrow of the Arab World[79] since the start of the Second World War. This was soon followed by another overthrow, by Col. Sami al-Hinnawi, who was himself quickly deposed by Col. Adib Shishakli, all within the same year.[79] Shishakli eventually abolished multipartyism altogether, but was himself overthrown in a 1954 coup and the parliamentary system was restored.[79] However, by this time, power was increasingly concentrated in the military and security establishment.[79] The weakness of Parliamentary institutions and the mismanagement of the economy led to unrest and the influence of Nasserism and other ideologies. There was fertile ground for various Arab nationalist, Syrian nationalist, and socialist movements, which represented disaffected elements of society. Notably included were religious minorities, who demanded radical reform.[79] In November 1956, as a direct result of the Suez Crisis,[80] Syria signed a pact with the Soviet Union. This gave a foothold for Communist influence within the government in exchange for military equipment.[79] Turkey then became worried about this increase in the strength of Syrian military technology, as it seemed feasible that Syria might attempt to retake İskenderun. Only heated debates in the United Nations lessened the threat of war.[81] Aleppo in 1961 On 1 February 1958, Syrian President Shukri al-Quwatli and Egypt's Nasser announced the merging of Egypt and Syria, creating the United Arab Republic, and all Syrian political parties, as well as the communists therein, ceased overt activities.[75] Meanwhile, a group of Syrian Ba'athist officers, alarmed by the party's poor position and the increasing fragility of the union, decided to form a secret Military Committee; its initial members were Lieutenant-Colonel Muhammad Umran, Major Salah Jadid and Captain Hafez al-Assad. Syria seceded from the union with Egypt on 28 September 1961, after a coup. Ba'athist Syria The ensuing instability following the 1961 coup culminated in the 8 March 1963 Ba'athist coup. The takeover was engineered by members of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party, led by Michel Aflaq and Salah al-Din al-Bitar. The new Syrian cabinet was dominated by Ba'ath members.[75][79] Hafez al-Assad greets Richard Nixon on his arrival at Damascus airport in 1974 On 23 February 1966, the Military Committee carried out an intra-party overthrow, imprisoned President Amin Hafiz and designated a regionalist, civilian Ba'ath government on 1 March.[79] Although Nureddin al-Atassi became the formal head of state, Salah Jadid was Syria's effective ruler from 1966 until November 1970,[82] when he was deposed by Hafez al-Assad, who at the time was Minister of Defense.[83] The coup led to a split within the original pan-Arab Ba'ath Party: one Iraqi-led ba'ath movement (ruled Iraq from 1968 to 2003) and one Syrian-led ba'ath movement was established. In the first half of 1967, a low-key state of war existed between Syria and Israel. Conflict over Israeli cultivation of land in the Demilitarized Zone led to 7 April pre-war aerial clashes between Israel and Syria.[84] When the Six-Day War broke out between Egypt and Israel, Syria joined the war and attacked Israel as well. In the final days of the war, Israel turned its attention to Syria, capturing two-thirds of the Golan Heights in under 48 hours.[85] The defeat caused a split between Jadid and Assad over what steps to take next.[86] Quneitra village, largely destroyed before the Israeli withdrawal in June 1974. Disagreement developed between Jadid, who controlled the party apparatus, and Assad, who controlled the military. The 1970 retreat of Syrian forces sent to aid the PLO during the "Black September" hostilities with Jordan reflected this disagreement.[87] The power struggle culminated in the November 1970 Syrian Corrective Revolution, a bloodless military overthrow that installed Hafez al-Assad as the strongman of the government.[83] On 6 October 1973, Syria and Egypt initiated the Yom Kippur War against Israel. The Israel Defense Forces reversed the initial Syrian gains and pushed deeper into Syrian territory.[88] Military situation in the Lebanese Civil War, 1983: Green – controlled by Syria In the late 1970s, an Islamist uprising by the Muslim Brotherhood was aimed against the government. Islamists attacked civilians and off-duty military personnel, leading security forces to also kill civilians in retaliatory strikes. The uprising had reached its climax in the 1982 Hama massacre,[89] when some 10,000 – 40,000 people were killed by regular Syrian Army troops. In a major shift in relations with both other Arab states and the Western world, Syria participated in the US-led Gulf War against Saddam Hussein. Syria participated in the multilateral Madrid Conference of 1991, and during the 1990s engaged in negotiations with Israel. These negotiations failed, and there have been no further direct Syrian-Israeli talks since President Hafez al-Assad's meeting with then President Bill Clinton in Geneva in March 2000.[90] Military situation in the Syrian Civil War (frequently updated map).   Controlled by Syrian Arab Republic   Controlled by Rojava (SDF)   Controlled jointly by Syrian Arab Republic and Rojava   Controlled by Syrian Interim Government (SNA) and Turkish Armed Forces   Controlled by Revolutionary Commando Army and United States Armed Forces   Controlled by the Islamic State (ISIL)   Controlled by Syrian Salvation Government (HTS) (For a more detailed, interactive map, see Template:Syrian Civil War detailed map.) Hafez al-Assad died on 10 June 2000. His son, Bashar al-Assad, was elected president in an election in which he ran unopposed.[75] His election saw the birth of the Damascus Spring and hopes of reform, but by autumn 2001, the authorities had suppressed the movement, imprisoning some of its leading intellectuals.[91] Instead, reforms have been limited to some market reforms.[15][92][93] On 5 October 2003, Israel bombed a site near Damascus, claiming it was a terrorist training facility for members of Islamic Jihad.[94] In March 2004, Syrian Kurds and Arabs clashed in the northeastern city of al-Qamishli. Signs of rioting were seen in the cities of Qamishli and Hasakeh.[95] In 2005, Syria ended its military presence in Lebanon.[96][97] On 6 September 2007, foreign jet fighters, suspected as Israeli, reportedly carried out Operation Orchard against a suspected nuclear reactor under construction by North Korean technicians.[98] Syrian Civil War Main article: Syrian Civil War The ongoing Syrian Civil War was inspired by the Arab Spring revolutions. It began in 2011 as a chain of peaceful protests, followed by an alleged crackdown by the Syrian Army.[99] In July 2011, Army defectors declared the formation of the Free Syrian Army and began forming fighting units. The opposition is dominated by Sunni Muslims, whereas the leading government figures are generally associated with Alawites.[100] The war is also involving rebel groups (IS and al-Nusra) and various foreign countries' interferences which the latter can be described as a proxy war in Syria.[101] According to various sources, including the United Nations, up to 100,000 people had been killed by June 2013,[102][103][104] including 11,000 children.[105] To escape the violence, 4.9 million[106] Syrian refugees have fled to neighboring countries of Jordan,[107] Iraq,[108] Lebanon, and Turkey.[109][110] An estimated 450,000 Syrian Christians have fled their homes.[111][needs update] By October 2017, an estimated 400,000 people had been killed in the war according to the UN.[112] Major economic crisis, 2020 On 10 June, hundreds of protesters returned to the streets of Sweida for the fourth consecutive day, rallying against the collapse of the country's economy, as the Syrian pound plummeted to 3,000 to the dollar within the past week.[113] On 11 June, Prime Minister Imad Khamis was dismissed by President Bashar al-Assad, amid anti-government protests over deteriorating economic conditions.[114] The new lows for the Syrian currency, and the dramatic increase in sanctions, began to appear to raise new concerns about the survival of the Assad government.[115][116][117] Analysts noted that a resolution to the current banking crisis in Lebanon might be crucial to restoring stability in Syria.[118] Some analysts began to raise concerns that Assad might be on the verge of losing power; but that any such collapse in the regime might cause conditions to worsen, as the result might be mass chaos, rather than an improvement in political or economic conditions.[119][120][121] Russia continued to expand its influence and military role in the areas of Syria where the main military conflict was occurring.[122] Analysts noted that the upcoming implementation of new heavy sanctions under the US Caesar Act could devastate the Syrian economy, ruin any chances of recovery, destroy regional stability, and do nothing but destabilize the entire region.[123] The first new sanctions took effect on June 17. There will be additional sanctions implemented in August, in three different groups. There are increasing reports that food is becoming difficult to find, the country's economy is under severe pressure, and the whole regime could collapse due to the sanctions. [124] Geography Main article: Geography of Syria Syria lies between latitudes 32° and 38° N, and longitudes 35° and 43° E. The climate varies from the humid Mediterranean coast, through a semiarid steppe zone, to arid desert in the east. The country consists mostly of arid plateau, although the northwest part bordering the Mediterranean is fairly green. Al-Jazira in the northeast and Hawran in the south are important agricultural areas. The Euphrates, Syria's most important river, crosses the country in the east. Syria is one of the fifteen states that comprise the so-called "cradle of civilization".[125] Its land straddles the "northwest of the Arabian plate".[126] Petroleum in commercial quantities was first discovered in the northeast in 1956. The most important oil fields are those of Suwaydiyah, Qaratshui, Rumayian, and Tayyem, near Dayr az–Zawr. The fields are a natural extension of the Iraqi fields of Mosul and Kirkuk. Petroleum became Syria's leading natural resource and chief export after 1974. Natural gas was discovered at the field of Jbessa in 1940.[75] Panoramic view of Ayn al-Bayda, Latakia, a village in Northern Syria Biodiversity Syria contains four terrestrial ecoregions: Syrian xeric grasslands and shrublands, Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests, Southern Anatolian montane conifer and deciduous forests, and Mesopotamian shrub desert.[127] The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 3.64/10, ranking it 144th globally out of 172 countries.[128] Politics and government Main article: Politics of Syria See also: Syrian Civil War The Syrian Parliament in the mid-20th century Syria is formally a unitary republic. The current constitution of Syria, adopted in 2012, effectively transformed the country into a semi-presidential republic due to the constitutional right for the election of individuals who do not form part of the National Progressive Front.[129] The President is Head of State and the Prime Minister is Head of Government.[130] The legislature, the Peoples Council, is the body responsible for passing laws, approving government appropriations and debating policy.[131] In the event of a vote of no confidence by a simple majority, the Prime Minister is required to tender the resignation of their government to the President.[132] Two alternative governments formed during the Syrian Civil War, the Syrian Interim Government (formed in 2013) and the Syrian Salvation Government (formed in 2017), control portions of the north-west of the country and operate in opposition to the Syrian Arab Republic. The executive branch consists of the president, two vice presidents, the prime minister, and the Council of Ministers (cabinet). The constitution requires the president to be a Muslim[133] but does not make Islam the state religion. On 31 January 1973, Hafez al-Assad implemented a new constitution, which led to a national crisis. Unlike previous constitutions, this one did not require that the President of Syria be a Muslim, leading to fierce demonstrations in Hama, Homs and Aleppo organized by the Muslim Brotherhood and the ulama. They labelled Assad the "enemy of Allah" and called for a jihad against his rule.[134] The government survived a series of armed revolts by Islamists, mainly members of the Muslim Brotherhood, from 1976 until 1982. The constitution gives the president the right to appoint ministers, to declare war and state of emergency, to issue laws (which, except in the case of emergency, require ratification by the People's Council), to declare amnesty, to amend the constitution, and to appoint civil servants and military personnel.[135] According to the 2012 constitution, the president is elected by Syrian citizens in a direct election. Syria's legislative branch is the unicameral People's Council. Under the previous constitution, Syria did not hold multi-party elections for the legislature,[135] with two-thirds of the seats automatically allocated to the ruling coalition.[136] On 7 May 2012, Syria held its first elections in which parties outside the ruling coalition could take part. Seven new political parties took part in the elections, of which Popular Front for Change and Liberation was the largest opposition party. The armed anti-government rebels, however, chose not to field candidates and called on their supporters to boycott the elections. As of 2008 the President is the Regional Secretary of the Ba'ath party in Syria and leader of the National Progressive Front governing coalition. Outside of the coalition are 14 illegal Kurdish political parties.[137] Bashar al-Assad, the President of Syria since 17 July 2000 Syria's judicial branches include the Supreme Constitutional Court, the High Judicial Council, the Court of Cassation, and the State Security Courts. Islamic jurisprudence is a main source of legislation and Syria's judicial system has elements of Ottoman, French, and Islamic laws. Syria has three levels of courts: courts of first instance, courts of appeals, and the constitutional court, the highest tribunal. Religious courts handle questions of personal and family law.[135] The Supreme State Security Court (SSSC) was abolished by President Bashar al-Assad by legislative decree No. 53 on 21 April 2011.[138] The Personal Status Law 59 of 1953 (amended by Law 34 of 1975) is essentially a codified sharia.[139] Article 3(2) of the 1973 constitution declares Islamic jurisprudence a main source of legislation. The Code of Personal Status is applied to Muslims by sharia courts.[140] As a result of the ongoing civil war, various alternative governments were formed, including the Syrian Interim Government, the Democratic Union Party and localized regions governed by sharia law. Representatives of the Syrian Interim government were invited to take up Syria's seat at the Arab League on 28 March 2013 and[141] was recognised as the "sole representative of the Syrian people" by several nations including the United States, United Kingdom and France.[142][143][144] Parliamentary elections were held on 13 April 2016 in the government-controlled areas of Syria, for all 250 seats of Syria's unicameral legislature, the Majlis al-Sha'ab, or the People's Council of Syria.[145] Even before results had been announced, several nations, including Germany, the United States and the United Kingdom, have declared their refusal to accept the results, largely citing it "not representing the will of the Syrian people.[146] However, representatives of the Russian Federation have voiced their support of this election's results. Syria's system of government is considered to be non-democratic by the North American NGO Freedom House.[147] Military Main article: Syrian Armed Forces A Syrian Army soldier manning a checkpoint outside of Damascus shortly after the outbreak of the Syrian Civil War, 2012 The President of Syria is commander in chief of the Syrian armed forces, comprising some 400,000 troops upon mobilization. The military is a conscripted force; males serve in the military upon reaching the age of 18.[148] The obligatory military service period is being decreased over time, in 2005 from two and a half years to two years, in 2008 to 21 months and in 2011 to year and a half.[149] About 20,000 Syrian soldiers were deployed in Lebanon until 27 April 2005, when the last of Syria's troops left the country after three decades.[148] The breakup of the Soviet Union—long the principal source of training, material, and credit for the Syrian forces—may have slowed Syria's ability to acquire modern military equipment. It has an arsenal of surface-to-surface missiles. In the early 1990s, Scud-C missiles with a 500-kilometre (310-mile) range were procured from North Korea, and Scud-D, with a range of up to 700 kilometres (430 miles), is allegedly being developed by Syria with the help of North Korea and Iran, according to Zisser.[150] Syria received significant financial aid from Arab states of the Persian Gulf as a result of its participation in the Persian Gulf War, with a sizable portion of these funds earmarked for military spending. Foreign relations Main article: Foreign relations of Syria Diplomatic missions of Syria Ensuring national security, increasing influence among its Arab neighbors, and securing the return of the Golan Heights, have been the primary goals of Syria's foreign policy. At many points in its history, Syria has seen virulent tension with its geographically cultural neighbors, such as Turkey, Israel, Iraq, and Lebanon. Syria enjoyed an improvement in relations with several of the states in its region in the 21st century, prior to the Arab Spring and the Syrian Civil War. Since the ongoing civil war of 2011, and associated killings and human rights abuses, Syria has been increasingly isolated from the countries in the region, and the wider international community. Diplomatic relations have been severed with several countries including: Britain, Canada, France, Italy, Germany, Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, the United States, Belgium, Spain, and the Arab states of the Persian Gulf.[151] Map of world and Syria (red) with military involvement.   Countries that support the Syrian government   Countries that support the Syrian rebels From the Arab league, Syria continues to maintain diplomatic relations with Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Sudan and Yemen. Syria's violence against civilians has also seen it suspended from the Arab League and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation in 2012. Syria continues to foster good relations with its traditional allies, Iran and Russia, who are among the few countries which have supported the Syrian government in its conflict with the Syrian opposition. Syria is included in the European Union's European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbors closer. International disputes See also: Turkish occupation of northern Syria and Israeli-occupied territories In 1939, while Syria was still a French mandate the French ceded the Sanjak of Alexandretta to Turkey as part of a treaty of friendship in World War II. In order to facilitate this, a faulty election was done in which ethnic Turks who were originally from the Sanjak but lived in Adana and other areas near the border in Turkey came to vote in the elections, shifting the election in favor of secession. Through this, the Hatay Province of Turkey was formed. The move by the French was very controversial in Syria, and only five years later Syria became independent.[152] The western two-thirds of Syria's Golan Heights region are since 1967 occupied by Israel and were in 1981 effectively annexed by Israel,[153][154] whereas the eastern third is controlled by Syria, with the UNDOF maintaining a buffer zone in between, to implement the ceasefire of the Purple Line. Israel's 1981 Golan annexation law is not recognized in international law. The UN Security Council condemned it in Resolution 497 (1981) as "null and void and without international legal effect." Since then, General Assembly resolutions on "The Occupied Syrian Golan" reaffirm the illegality of Israeli occupation and annexation.[155] The Syrian government continues to demand the return of this territory.[citation needed] The only remaining land Syria has in the Golan is a strip of territory which contains the abandoned city of Quneitra, the governorate's de facto capital Madinat al-Baath and many small villages, mostly populated by Circassians such as Beer Ajam and Hader.[dubious – discuss] In March 2019, U.S. President Donald Trump announced that the United States will recognize Israel's annexation of the Golan Heights.[156] The Syrian Golan Heights occupied by Israel since the Six-Day War In early 1976, Syria entered Lebanon, beginning their twenty-nine-year military presence. Syria entered on the invitation of Suleiman Franjieh, the Maronite Christian president at the time to help aid the Lebanese Christian militias against the Palestinian militias.[157][158] Over the following 15 years of civil war, Syria fought for control over Lebanon. The Syrian military remained in Lebanon until April 26, 2005 in response to domestic and international pressure after the assassination of former Lebanese Prime Minister, Rafik Hariri.[159] Another disputed territory is the Shebaa farms, located in the intersection of the Lebanese-Syrian border and the Israeli occupied Golan Heights. The farms, which are 11 km long and about 3 kilometers wide were occupied by Israel in 1981, along with rest of the Golan Heights.[160] Yet following Syrian army advances the Israeli occupation ended and Syria became the de facto ruling power over the farms. Yet after Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon in 2000, Hezbollah claimed that the withdrawal was not complete because Shebaa was on Lebanese – not Syrian – territory.[161] After studying 81 different maps, the United Nations concluded that there is no evidence of the abandoned farmlands being Lebanese.[162] Nevertheless, Lebanon has continued to claim ownership of the territory. Human rights Main article: Human rights in Syria Wounded civilians arrive at a hospital in Aleppo, October 2012 The situation for human rights in Syria has long been a significant concern among independent organizations such as Human Rights Watch, who in 2010 referred to the country's record as "among the worst in the world."[163] The US State Department funded Freedom House[164] ranked Syria "Not Free" in its annual Freedom in the World survey.[165] The authorities are accused of arresting democracy and human rights activists, censoring websites, detaining bloggers, and imposing travel bans. Arbitrary detention, torture, and disappearances are widespread.[166] Although Syria's constitution guarantees gender equality, critics say that personal statutes laws and the penal code discriminate against women and girls. Moreover, it also grants leniency for so-called 'Honour killing'.[166] As of 9 November 2011 during the uprising against President Bashar al-Assad, the United Nations reported that of the over 3500 total deaths, over 250 deaths were children as young as two years old, and that boys as young as 11 years old have been gang-raped by security services officers.[167][168] People opposing President Assad's rule claim that more than 200, mostly civilians, were massacred and about 300 injured in Hama in shelling by the Government forces on 12 July 2012.[169] In August 2013, the government was suspected of using chemical weapons against its civilians. US Secretary of State John Kerry said it was "undeniable" that chemical weapons had been used in the country and that President Bashar al-Assad's forces had committed a "moral obscenity" against his own people. "Make no mistake," Kerry said. "President Obama believes there must be accountability for those who would use the world's most heinous weapon against the world's most vulnerable people. Nothing today is more serious, and nothing is receiving more serious scrutiny".[170] The Emergency Law, effectively suspending most constitutional protections, was in effect from 1963 until 21 April 2011.[138] It was justified by the government in the light of the continuing war with Israel over the Golan Heights. In August 2014, UN Human Rights chief Navi Pillay criticized the international community over its "paralysis" in dealing with the more than 3-year-old civil war gripping the country, which by 30 April 2014, had resulted in 191,369 deaths with war crimes, according to Pillay, being committed with total impunity on all sides in the conflict. Minority Alawites and Christians are being increasingly targeted by Islamists and other groups fighting in the Syrian civil war.[171][172] In April 2017, the U.S. Navy carried out a missile attack against a Syrian air base[173] which had allegedly been used to conduct a chemical weapons attack on Syrian civilians, according to the US government.[174] Administrative divisions Main articles: Governorates of Syria and Districts of Syria Syria is divided into 14 governorates, which are sub-divided into 61 districts, which are further divided into sub-districts. The Democratic Federation of Northern Syria, while de facto autonomous, is not recognized by the Syrian Arab Republic as such. No. Governorate Capital Governorates of Syria 1 Latakia Latakia 2 Idlib Idlib 3 Aleppo Aleppo 4 Raqqa Raqqa 5 Al-Hasakah Al-Hasakah 6 Tartus Tartus 7 Hama Hama 8 Deir ez-Zor Deir ez-Zor 9 Homs Homs 10 Damascus Damascus 11 Rif Dimashq – 12 Quneitra Quneitra 13 Daraa Daraa 14 Al-Suwayda Al-Suwayda Agrarian reform Agrarian reform measures were introduced into Syria which consisted of three interrelated programs: Legislation regulation the relationship between agriculture laborers and landowners: legislation governing the ownership and use of private and state domain land and directing the economic organization of peasants; and measures reorganizing agricultural production under state control.[175] Despite high levels of inequality in land ownership these reforms allowed for progress in redistribution of land from 1958 to 1961 than any other reforms in Syria's history, since independence. The first law passed (Law 134; passed 4 September 1958) in response to concern about peasant mobilization and expanding peasants' rights.[176] This was designed to strengthen the position of sharecroppers and agricultural laborers in relation to land owners.[176] This law led to the creation of the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs, which announced the implementation of new laws that would allow the regulation of working condition especially for women and adolescents, set hours of work, and introduce the principle of minimum wage for paid laborers and an equitable division of harvest for sharecroppers.[177] Furthermore, it obligated landlords to honor both written and oral contracts, established collective bargaining, contained provisions for workers' compensation, health, housing, and employment services.[176] Law 134 was not designed strictly to protect workers. It also acknowledged the rights of landlords to form their own syndicates.[176] Internet and telecommunications Telecommunications in Syria are overseen by the Ministry of Communications and Technology.[178] In addition, Syrian Telecom plays an integral role in the distribution of government internet access.[179] The Syrian Electronic Army serves as a pro-government military faction in cyberspace and has been long considered an enemy of the hacktivist group Anonymous.[180] Because of internet censorship laws, 13,000 internet activists were arrested between March 2011 and August 2012.[181] Economy Main article: Economy of Syria See also: Tourism in Syria Pre-civil war Syria Export Treemap Syria Export Treemap by Product (2014) from Harvard Atlas of Economic Complexity As of 2015[update], the Syrian economy relies upon inherently unreliable revenue sources such as dwindling customs and income taxes which are heavily bolstered by lines of credit from Iran.[182] Iran is believed to spend between $6 billion and US$20 billion a year on Syria during the Syrian Civil War.[183] The Syrian economy has contracted 60% and the Syrian pound has lost 80% of its value, with the economy becoming part state-owned and part war economy.[184] At the outset of the ongoing Syrian Civil War, Syria was classified by the World Bank as a "lower middle income country."[185] In 2010, Syria remained dependent on the oil and agriculture sectors.[186] The oil sector provided about 40% of export earnings.[186] Proven offshore expeditions have indicated that large sums of oil exist on the Mediterranean Sea floor between Syria and Cyprus.[187] The agriculture sector contributes to about 20% of GDP and 20% of employment. Oil reserves are expected to decrease in the coming years and Syria has already become a net oil importer.[186] Since the civil war began, the economy shrank by 35%, and the Syrian pound has fallen to one-sixth of its prewar value.[188] The government increasingly relies on credit from Iran, Russia and China.[188] Olive groves in Homs Governorate, western Syria Aleppo soap The economy is highly regulated by the government, which has increased subsidies and tightened trade controls to assuage protesters and protect foreign currency reserves.[189] Long-run economic constraints include foreign trade barriers, declining oil production, high unemployment, rising budget deficits, and increasing pressure on water supplies caused by heavy use in agriculture, rapid population growth, industrial expansion, and water pollution.[189] The UNDP announced in 2005 that 30% of the Syrian population lives in poverty and 11.4% live below the subsistence level.[75] Syria's share in global exports has eroded gradually since 2001.[190] The real per capita GDP growth was just 2.5% per year in the 2000–2008 period.[190] Unemployment is high at above 10%. Poverty rates have increased from 11% in 2004 to 12.3% in 2007.[190] In 2007, Syria's main exports include crude oil, refined products, raw cotton, clothing, fruits, and grains. The bulk of Syrian imports are raw materials essential for industry, vehicles, agricultural equipment, and heavy machinery. Earnings from oil exports as well as remittances from Syrian workers are the government's most important sources of foreign exchange.[75] Political instability poses a significant threat to future economic development.[191] Foreign investment is constrained by violence, government restrictions, economic sanctions, and international isolation. Syria's economy also remains hobbled by state bureaucracy, falling oil production, rising budget deficits, and inflation.[191] Prior to the civil war in 2011, the government hoped to attract new investment in the tourism, natural gas, and service sectors to diversify its economy and reduce its dependence on oil and agriculture. The government began to institute economic reforms aimed at liberalizing most markets, but those reforms were slow and ad hoc, and have been completely reversed since the outbreak of conflict in 2011.[192] Al-Hamidiyah Souq in Damascus in 2010 A cove in Latakia in 2014 As of 2012[update], because of the ongoing Syrian civil war, the value of Syria's overall exports has been slashed by two-thirds, from the figure of US$12 billion in 2010 to only US$4 billion in 2012.[193] Syria's GDP declined by over 3% in 2011,[194] and is expected to further decline by 20% in 2012.[195] As of 2012[update], Syria's oil and tourism industries in particular have been devastated, with US$5 billion lost to the ongoing conflict of the civil war.[193] Reconstruction needed because of the ongoing civil war will cost as much as US$10 billion.[193] Sanctions have sapped the government's finance. US and European Union bans on oil imports, which went into effect in 2012, are estimated to cost Syria about $400 million a month.[196] Revenues from tourism have dropped dramatically, with hotel occupancy rates falling from 90% before the war to less than 15% in May 2012.[197] Around 40% of all employees in the tourism sector have lost their jobs since the beginning of the war.[197] In May 2015, ISIS captured Syria's phosphate mines, one of the Syrian governments last chief sources of income.[198] The following month, ISIS blew up a gas pipeline to Damascus that was used to generate heating and electricity in Damascus and Homs; "the name of its game for now is denial of key resources to the regime" an analyst stated.[199] In addition, ISIS was closing in on Shaer gas field and three other facilities in the area—Hayan, Jihar and Ebla—with the loss of these western gas fields having the potential to cause Iran to further subsidize the Syrian government.[200] Petroleum industry Oil refinery in Homs Syria's petroleum industry has been subject to sharp decline. In September 2014, ISIS was producing more oil than the government at 80,000 bbl/d (13,000 m3/d) compared to the government's 17,000 bbl/d (2,700 m3/d) with the Syrian Oil Ministry stating that by the end of 2014, oil production had plunged further to 9,329 bbl/d (1,483.2 m3/d); ISIS has since captured a further oil field, leading to a projected oil production of 6,829 bbl/d (1,085.7 m3/d).[182] In the third year of the Syrian Civil War, the deputy economy minister Salman Hayan stated that Syria's two main oil refineries were operating at less than 10% capacity.[201] Historically, the country produced heavy-grade oil from fields located in the northeast since the late 1960s. In the early 1980s, light-grade, low-sulphur oil was discovered near Deir ez-Zor in eastern Syria. Syria's rate of oil production has decreased dramatically from a peak close to 600,000 barrels per day (95,000 m3/d) (bpd) in 1995 down to less than 182,500 bbl/d (29,020 m3/d) in 2012.[202] Since 2012 the production has decreased even more, reaching in 2014 32,000 barrels per day (5,100 m3/d) (bpd). Official figures quantity the production in 2015 at 27,000 barrels per day (4,300 m3/d), but those figures have to be taken with precaution because it is difficult to estimate the oil that is currently produced in the rebel held areas. Prior to the uprising, more than 90% of Syrian oil exports were to EU countries, with the remainder going to Turkey.[197] Oil and gas revenues constituted in 2012 around 20% of total GDP and 25% of total government revenue.[197] On 27 January 2020, the Baniyas oil refinery of Syria was attacked by militants by the means of explosives on underwater pipelines. It was the third attack against Syria's oil and gas industry in less than a year, and aimed at preventing oil imports into the country.[203] On 24 August 2020, a gas pipeline between the suburbs of Al-Dumayr and Adra in the Damascus area came under an attack. The electricity minister Mohammad Kharboutli explained that the explosion led to an overnight blackout across Syria.[204] Expressway M5 near Al-Rastan Transport Main article: Transport in Syria Syria has four international airports (Damascus, Aleppo, Lattakia and Kamishly), which serve as hubs for Syrian Air and are also served by a variety of foreign carriers.[citation needed] The majority of Syrian cargo is carried by Syrian Railways (the Syrian railway company), which links up with Turkish State Railways (the Turkish counterpart). For a relatively underdeveloped country, Syria's railway infrastructure is well maintained with many express services and modern trains.[205] The road network in Syria is 69,873 kilometres (43,417 miles) long, including 1,103 kilometres (685 miles) of expressways. The country also has 900 kilometres (560 miles) of navigable but not economically significant waterways.[206] Water supply and sanitation Main article: Water supply and sanitation in Syria Syria is a semiarid country with scarce water resources. The largest water consuming sector in Syria is agriculture. Domestic water use stands at only about 9% of total water use.[207] A big challenge for Syria is its high population growth with a rapidly increasing demand for urban and industrial water. In 2006 the population of Syria was 19.4 million with a growth rate of 2.7%.[208] Demographics Main article: Demographics of Syria Historical populations Year Pop. ±% p.a. 1960 4,565,000 —     1970 6,305,000 +3.28% 1981 9,046,000 +3.34% 1994 13,782,000 +3.29% 2004 17,921,000 +2.66% 2011 21,124,000 +2.38% 2015 18,734,987 −2.96% 2019 18,528,105 −0.28% 2019 estimate[209] Source: Central Bureau of Statistics of the Syrian Arab Republic, 2011[210] Most people live in the Euphrates River valley and along the coastal plain, a fertile strip between the coastal mountains and the desert. Overall population density in Syria is about 99 per square kilometre (258 per square mile). According to the World Refugee Survey 2008, published by the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, Syria hosted a population of refugees and asylum seekers numbering approximately 1,852,300. The vast majority of this population was from Iraq (1,300,000), but sizeable populations from Palestine (543,400) and Somalia (5,200) also lived in the country.[211] In what the UN has described as "the biggest humanitarian emergency of our era",[212] about 9.5 million Syrians, half the population, have been displaced since the outbreak of the Syrian Civil War in March 2011;[213] 4 million are outside the country as refugees.[214] Ethnic groups Main article: Syrians Damascus, traditional clothing Syrians are an overall indigenous Levantine people, closely related to their immediate neighbors, such as Lebanese, Palestinians, Jordanians and Jews.[215][216] Syria has a population of approximately 18,500,000 (2019 estimate). Syrian Arabs, together with some 600,000 Palestinian not including the 6 million refugees outside the country. Arabs make up roughly 74% of the population.[189] The indigenous Assyrians and Western Aramaic-speakers number around 400,000 people,[217] with the Western Aramaic-speakers living mainly in the villages of Ma'loula, Jubb'adin and Bakh'a, while the Assyrians mainly reside in the north and northeast (Homs, Aleppo, Qamishli, Hasakah). Many (particularly the Assyrian group) still retain several Neo-Aramaic dialects as spoken and written languages.[218] The second-largest ethnic group in Syria are the Kurds. They constitute about 9%[219] to 10%[220] of the population, or approximately 1.6 million people (including 40,000 Yazidis[220]). Most Kurds reside in the northeastern corner of Syria and most speak the Kurmanji variant of the Kurdish language.[219] The third largest ethnic group are the Turkish-speaking Syrian Turkmen/Turkoman. There are no reliable estimates of their total population, with estimates ranging from several hundred thousand to 3.5 million.[221][222][223] The fourth largest ethnic group are the Assyrians (3–4%),[220] followed by the Circassians (1.5%)[220] and the Armenians (1%),[220] most of which are the descendants of refugees who arrived in Syria during the Armenian Genocide. Syria holds the 7th largest Armenian population in the world. They are mainly gathered in Aleppo, Qamishli, Damascus and Kesab. The ethno-religious composition of Syria There are also smaller ethnic minority groups, such as the Albanians, Bosnians, Georgians, Greeks, Persians, Pashtuns and Russians.[220] However, most of these ethnic minorities have become Arabized to some degree, particularly those who practice the Muslim faith.[220] Syria was once home to a substantial population of Jews, with large communities in Damascus, Aleppo, and Qamishii. Due to a combination of persecution in Syria and opportunities elsewhere, the Jews began to emigrate in the second half of the 19th century to Great Britain, the United States, and Israel. The process was completed with the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948. Today only a few Jews remain in Syria. The largest concentration of the Syrian diaspora outside the Arab world is in Brazil, which has millions of people of Arab and other Near Eastern ancestries.[224] Brazil is the first country in the Americas to offer humanitarian visas to Syrian refugees.[225] The majority of Arab Argentines are from either Lebanese or Syrian background.[226] Religion Main articles: Religion in Syria and Islam in Syria Religion in Syria (est. 2019)[227]   Islam (87%)   Christianity (10%)   Druzism (3%) Great Mosque of Aleppo, Aleppo Coat of arms of the Syriac Orthodox Church Sunni Muslims make up between 69 and 74% of Syria's population[227] and Sunni Arabs account for 59–60% of the population. Most Kurds (8.5%)[228] and most Turkoman (3%)[228] are Sunni and account for the difference between Sunnis and Sunni Arabs, while 13% of Syrians are Shia Muslims (particularly Alawite, Twelvers, and Ismailis but there are also Arabs, Kurds and Turkoman), 10% Christian[227] (the majority are Antiochian Greek Orthodox, the rest are Syrian Orthodox, Greek Catholic and other Catholic Rites, Assyrian Church of the East, Armenian Orthodox, Protestants and other denominations), and 3% Druze.[227] Druze number around 500,000, and concentrate mainly in the southern area of Jabal al-Druze.[229] President Bashar al-Assad's family is Alawite and Alawites dominate the government of Syria and hold key military positions.[230] In May 2013, SOHR stated that out of 94,000 killed during the Syrian Civil War, at least 41,000 were Alawites.[231] Christians (1.2 million), a sizable number of whom are found among Syria's population of Palestinian refugees, are divided into several sects: Chalcedonian Antiochian Orthodox make up 45.7% of the Christian population; the Catholics (Melkite, Armenian Catholic, Syriac Catholic, Maronite, Chaldean Catholic and Latin) make up 16.2%; the Armenian Apostolic Church 10.9%, the Syriac Orthodox make up 22.4%; Assyrian Church of the East and several smaller Christian denominations account for the remainder. Many Christian monasteries also exist. Many Christian Syrians belong to a high socio-economic class.[232] Languages Main article: Languages of Syria Arabic is the official language of the country. Several modern Arabic dialects are used in everyday life, most notably Levantine in the west and Mesopotamian in the northeast. According to The Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics, in addition to Arabic, the following languages are spoken in the country, in order of the number of speakers: Kurdish,[233] Turkish,[233] Neo-Aramaic (four dialects),[233] Circassian,[233] Chechen,[233] Armenian,[233] and finally Greek.[233] However, none of these minority languages have official status.[233] Aramaic was the lingua franca of the region before the advent of Arabic, and is still spoken among Assyrians, and Classical Syriac is still used as the liturgical language of various Syriac Christian denominations. Most remarkably, Western Neo-Aramaic is still spoken in the village of Ma'loula as well as two neighboring villages, 56 km (35 mi) northeast of Damascus. English and French are widely spoken as second languages, but English is more often used. Largest cities   v t e Largest cities or towns in Syria 2004 official census Rank Name Province Pop. Aleppo Damascus 1 Aleppo Aleppo Governorate 2,132,100 Homs Latakia 2 Damascus Damascus 1,711,000 3 Homs Homs Governorate 652,609 4 Latakia Latakia Governorate 383,786 5 Hama Hama Governorate 312,994 6 Raqqa Raqqa Governorate 220,488 7 Deir ez-Zor Deir ez-Zor Governorate 211,857 8 Al-Hasakah Al-Hasakah Governorate 188,160 9 Qamishli Al-Hasakah Governorate 184,231 10 Sayyidah Zaynab Rif Dimashq Governorate 136,427 Culture Main article: Culture of Syria Dabke combines circle dance and line dancing and is widely performed at weddings and other joyous occasions. Syria is a traditional society with a long cultural history.[234] Importance is placed on family, religion, education, self-discipline and respect. Syrians' taste for the traditional arts is expressed in dances such as the al-Samah, the Dabkeh in all their variations, and the sword dance. Marriage ceremonies and the births of children are occasions for the lively demonstration of folk customs.[235] Literature Main article: literature of Syria Adunis The literature of Syria has contributed to Arabic literature and has a proud tradition of oral and written poetry. Syrian writers, many of whom migrated to Egypt, played a crucial role in the nahda or Arab literary and cultural revival of the 19th century. Prominent contemporary Syrian writers include, among others, Adonis, Muhammad Maghout, Haidar Haidar, Ghada al-Samman, Nizar Qabbani and Zakariyya Tamer. Ba'ath Party rule, since the 1966 coup, has brought about renewed censorship. In this context, the genre of the historical novel, spearheaded by Nabil Sulayman, Fawwaz Haddad, Khyri al-Dhahabi and Nihad Siris, is sometimes used as a means of expressing dissent, critiquing the present through a depiction of the past. Syrian folk narrative, as a subgenre of historical fiction, is imbued with magical realism, and is also used as a means of veiled criticism of the present. Salim Barakat, a Syrian émigré living in Sweden, is one of the leading figures of the genre. Contemporary Syrian literature also encompasses science fiction and futuristic utopiae (Nuhad Sharif, Talib Umran), which may also serve as media of dissent. Music Main article: Music of Syria The Syrian music scene, in particular that of Damascus, has long been among the Arab world's most important, especially in the field of classical Arab music. Syria has produced several pan-Arab stars, including Asmahan, Farid al-Atrash and singer Lena Chamamyan. The city of Aleppo is known for its muwashshah, a form of Andalous sung poetry popularized by Sabri Moudallal, as well as for popular stars like Sabah Fakhri. Media Television was introduced to Syria and Egypt in 1960, when both were part of the United Arab Republic. It broadcast in black and white until 1976. Syrian soap operas have considerable market penetration throughout the eastern Arab world.[236] Nearly all of Syria's media outlets are state-owned, and the Ba'ath Party controls nearly all newspapers.[237] The authorities operate several intelligence agencies,[238] among them Shu'bat al-Mukhabarat al-'Askariyya, employing many operatives.[239] During the Syrian Civil War many of Syria's artists, poets, writers and activists have been incarcerated, and some have been killed, including famed cartoonist Akram Raslam.[240] Sports Aleppo International Stadium The most popular sports in Syria are football, basketball, swimming, and tennis. Damascus was home to the fifth and seventh Pan Arab Games. Cuisine Main article: Syrian cuisine Fattoush, a Syrian bread salad Syrian cuisine is rich and varied in its ingredients, linked to the regions of Syria where a specific dish has originated. Syrian food mostly consists of Southern Mediterranean, Greek, and Southwest Asian dishes. Some Syrian dishes also evolved from Turkish and French cooking: dishes like shish kebab, stuffed zucchini/courgette, and yabraʾ (stuffed grape leaves, the word yabraʾ deriving from the Turkish word yaprak, meaning leaf). The main dishes that form Syrian cuisine are kibbeh, hummus, tabbouleh, fattoush, labneh, shawarma, mujaddara, shanklish, pastırma, sujuk and baklava. Baklava is made of filo pastry filled with chopped nuts and soaked in honey. Syrians often serve selections of appetizers, known as meze, before the main course. Za'atar, minced beef, and cheese manakish are popular hors d'œuvres. The Arabic flatbread khubz is always eaten together with meze. Drinks in Syria vary, depending on the time of day and the occasion. Arabic coffee is the most well-known hot drink, usually prepared in the morning at breakfast or in the evening. It is usually served for guests or after food. Arak, an alcoholic drink, is a well-known beverage, served mostly on special occasions. Other Syrian beverages include ayran, jallab, white coffee, and a locally manufactured beer called Al Shark.[241] Education Main article: Education in Syria Damascus University headquarters in Baramkeh Education is free and compulsory from ages 6 to 12. Schooling consists of 6 years of primary education followed by a 3-year general or vocational training period and a 3-year academic or vocational program. The second 3-year period of academic training is required for university admission. Total enrollment at post-secondary schools is over 150,000. The literacy rate of Syrians aged 15 and older is 90.7% for males and 82.2% for females.[242][243] UIS adult literacy rate of Syria Since 1967, all schools, colleges, and universities have been under close government supervision by the Ba'ath Party.[244] There are 6 state universities in Syria[245] and 15 private universities.[246] The top two state universities are Damascus University (210,000 students as of 2014)[247] and University of Aleppo.[248] The top private universities in Syria are: Syrian Private University, Arab International University, University of Kalamoon and International University for Science and Technology. There are also many higher institutes in Syria, like the Higher Institute of Business Administration, which offer undergraduate and graduate programs in business.[249] According to the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities, the top-ranking universities in the country are Damascus University (3540th worldwide), the University of Aleppo (7176th) and Tishreen University (7968th).[250] Health Main article: Health in Syria In 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 3.4% of the country's GDP. In 2008, there were 14.9 physicians and 18.5 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants.[251] The life expectancy at birth was 75.7 years in 2010, or 74.2 years for males and 77.3 years for females.[252] See also Asia portal Middle East portal Index of Syria-related articles International recognition of the Syrian National Council References Notes Citations ^ "Constitution of the Syrian Arab Republic - 2012" (PDF). International Labour Organization. International Labour Organization. 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Journal of Near Eastern Studies 65 (4): 284–287. doi:10.1086/511103. ^ Pliny (March 1998). "Book 5 Section 66". Natural History. 77AD. University of Chicago. ISBN 978-84-249-1901-6. ^ "Syria :: Roman provincial organization". Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Retrieved 25 October 2008. ^ Pettinato, Giovanni. The Archives of Ebla; Gelb, I. J. "Thoughts about Ibla: A Preliminary Evaluation" in Monographic Journals of the Near East, Syro-Mesopotamian Studies 1/1 (May 1977) pp. 3–30. ^ William J. Hamblin (2006). Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC: Holy Warriors at the Dawn of History. Routledge. p. 239. ISBN 978-1-134-52062-6. ^ Ian Shaw; Robert Jameson (2008). A Dictionary of Archaeology. John Wiley & Sons. p. 211. ISBN 978-0-470-75196-1. ^ Ross Burns (2009). Monuments of Syria: A Guide. I.B.Tauris. p. 155. ISBN 978-0-85771-489-3. ^ Paolo Matthiae; Nicoló Marchetti (31 May 2013). Ebla and its Landscape: Early State Formation in the Ancient Near East. Left Coast Press. p. 35. 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ISBN 978-0-520-07309-8. ^ a b Stephanie Dalley (2002). Mari and Karana: Two Old Babylonian Cities. p. 44. ISBN 978-1-931956-02-4. ^ Nadav Naʼaman (2005). Canaan in the Second Millennium B.C.E. Eisenbrauns. p. 285. ISBN 978-1-57506-113-9. ^ Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards (1973). The Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge University Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-521-08230-3. ^ William J. Hamblin (2006). Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC. Routledge. p. 259. ISBN 978-1-134-52062-6. ^ Jack M. Sasson (1969). The Military Establishments at Mari. p. 2+3. ^ Relations between God and Man in the Hurro-Hittite Song of Release, Mary R. Bachvarova, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Jan–Mar SAAD 2005 ^ "The foreigners of the fourth register, with long hairstyles and calf-length fringed robes, are labeled Chiefs of Retjenu, the ancient name tor the Syrian region. Like the Nubians, they come with animals, in this case horses, an elephant, and a bear; they also offer weapons and vessels most likely filled with precious substance." in Hawass, Zahi A.; Vannini, Sandro (2009). The lost tombs of Thebes: life in paradise. Thames & Hudson. p. 120. ISBN 9780500051597. ^ Zakrzewski, Sonia; Shortland, Andrew; Rowland, Joanne (2015). Science in the Study of Ancient Egypt. Routledge. p. 268. ISBN 978-1-317-39195-1. ^ John Lange (2006). The Philosophy of Historiography. Open Road Integrated Media, Incorporated. p. 475. ISBN 978-1-61756-132-0. ^ Immanuel Velikovsky (2010). Ramses II and His Time. p. 23. ISBN 978-1-906833-74-9. ^ Douglas Frayne (1981). Ugarit in Retrospect. p. 23,24,25. ISBN 978-0-931464-07-2. ^ Georges Roux, Ancient Iraq, 3rd ed., Penguin Books, London, 1991, p.381 ^ Rollinger, Robert (2006). "The terms "Assyria" and "Syria" again"". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 65 (4): 284–287. doi:10.1086/511103. 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Penguin Press. p. 230. hundreds of thousands of mukhabarat according to dissident Riad Seif ^ "Akram Raslan: How Caricatures Shake Tyranny". Syria Untold. 13 April 2015. Retrieved 23 September 2015. ^ "Damascus". Raidió Teilifís Éireann. 15 October 2009. Archived from the original on 4 December 2009. Retrieved 26 November 2009. ^ "U.S. Relations With Syria". State.gov. 24 October 2012. Retrieved 25 January 2013. ^ "Syria's Education System – Report – June 2001" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 23 April 2011. ^ "Syria – Education". Countrystudies.us. Retrieved 25 October 2008. ^ Ministry of Higher Education (23 November 2011). "Public universities". Ministry of Higher Education. Archived from the original on 5 August 2012. Retrieved 22 January 2013. ^ "Private universities". Ministry of Higher Education. 23 November 2011. Archived from the original on 13 November 2012. Retrieved 22 January 2013. ^ "Forward Magazine, Interview with President of Damascus University". February 2008. Archived from the original on 18 June 2008. ^ Forward Magazine, Interview with President of Aleppo University, May 2008. Archived 6 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine ^ "Getting education right". March 2008. Archived from the original on 3 October 2010. ^ "Syrian Arab Republic". Ranking Web of Universities. Retrieved 26 February 2013. ^ "Health". SESRIC. Archived from the original on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 5 March 2013. ^ "Demography". SESRIC. Retrieved 5 March 2013. General references Boczek, Boleslaw Adam (2006). International Law: A Dictionary. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0-8108-5078-8 Finkelstein, Norman (2003). Image and reality of the Israel-Palestine conflict. Verso. ISBN 978-1-85984-442-7. Glass, Charles (1990), Tribes with Flags: A Dangerous Passage Through the Chaos of the Middle East, Atlantic Monthly Press (New York) and Picador (London), ISBN 978-0-436-18130-6. Karoubi, Mohammad Taghi (2004). Just or Unjust War? Ashgate Publishing ISBN 0-7546-2375-0 Forward Magazine (Syria's English monthly since 2007). Orsam Suriye Türkleri Raporu-Orsam Syria Turks Further reading van Dam, Nikolaos (2011), The Struggle for Power in Syria: Politics and Society under Asad and the Ba'ath Party, I. B. Tauris. Dawisha, A. I. (1980). Syria and the Lebanese Crisis. ISBN 978-0-312-78203-0. Lawson, Fred H (2010), Demystifying Syria, Saqi. Maoz, M. (1986). Yaniv, A (ed.). Syria Under Assad. ISBN 978-0-312-78206-1. Paton, L. B. (1981). The Early History of Syria and Palestine. ISBN 978-1-113-53822-2. Sahner, Christian C. (2014). Among the Ruins: Syria Past and Present. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-939670-2. Schlicht, Alfred (1980), "The role of foreign powers in the history of Lebanon and Syria from 1799 to 1861", Journal of Asian History, 14. Seale, Patrick (1987). The Struggle for Syria. ISBN 978-0-300-03944-3. 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en-wikipedia-org-7646	----	Osorkon II - Wikipedia Osorkon II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Osorkon II Pendant bearing the cartouche of Osorkon II seated King Osorkon flanked by Horus and Isis Pharaoh Reign 872–837 BC (22nd Dynasty) Predecessor Takelot I Successor Shoshenq III Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Usermaatre Setepenamun wsr.M3ˁt-Rˁ-stp-n-Jmn Rich in Maat is Ra, the chosen one of Amun Nomen Userken Meriamun Wsrkn-mrj-Jmn Osorkon, beloved of Amun Horus name Kanakht Mery-Maat Sekhaisewer Nesutawy k3-nḫt-mrj-M3ˁt-sḫˁ(j)-sw-r-nsw-t3wj Strong bull, beloved of Maat, whom Ra causes to be king of the two lands Nebty name Zemapeseshtimizaiset Golden Horus Werpehti huimentiu Consort Karomama I Children Tjesbastperu, Nimlot C, Shoshenq D, Hornakht Died 837 BC Burial NRT-I Tanis Usermaatre Setepenamun Osorkon II was the fifth king[1] of the Twenty-second Dynasty of Ancient Egypt and the son of King Takelot I and Queen Kapes. He ruled Egypt from approximately 872 BC to 837 BC from Tanis, the capital of that dynasty. After succeeding his father, Osorkon II was faced with the competing rule of his cousin, King Harsiese A, who controlled both Thebes and the Western Oasis of Egypt. Potentially, Harsiese's kingship could have posed a serious challenge to the authority of Osorkon, however, when Harsiese died in 860 BC, Osorkon II acted to ensure that no king would replace Harsiese. He appointed his son, Nimlot C, as the high priest of Amun at Thebes, which would have been the source for a successor to Harsiese. This consolidated the king's authority over Upper Egypt and thereafter, Osorkon II ruled over a united Egypt. Osorkon II's reign was a time of prosperity for Egypt and large-scale monumental building ensued. Contents 1 Foreign policy and monumental program 2 Reign length 3 Marriages and children 4 Tomb 5 Successor 6 References 7 Further reading Foreign policy and monumental program[edit] Entrance to the Tomb of Osorkon II Despite his astuteness in dealings with matters at home, Osorkon II was forced to be aggressive on the international scene. The growing power of Assyria was accompanied with increased meddling in the affairs of Israel and Syria – territories well within Egypt's sphere of influence. Osorkon II devoted considerable resources into his building projects by adding to the temple of Bastet at Bubastis,[2] which featured a substantial new hall decorated with scenes depicting his Sed festival and images of his queen, Karomama. Monumental construction during his reign also was performed at Thebes, Memphis, Tanis, and Leontopolis. Osorkon II also built Temple J at Karnak during the final years of his reign and it was decorated by his high priest, Takelot F (the future king, Takelot II). Takelot F was the son of the deceased high priest Nimlot C and, thus, Osorkon II's grandson. Now, all of Osorkon II's sizeable stone statues are known to be re-used works of earlier periods that merely were re-inscribed for Osorkon II, including the famous "Cairo-Philadelphia statue of Osorkon II".[3] Osorkon II was the last great Twenty-second Dynasty king of Tanis, ruling Egypt from the Delta to Upper Egypt. His successor, Shoshenq III, lost the effective control of Middle and Upper Egypt that Osorkon II had assembled into a united Egypt. Many officials may be dated to the reign of Osorkon II. Ankhkherednefer was inspector of the palace, Paanmeny probably was his chief physician, Djeddjehutyiuefankh was the fourth prophet of Amun,[4] and Bakenkhons was another prophet of Amun during his reign.[5] Reign length[edit] Statue of Osorkon II from the Temple of Baalat Gebal in Byblos, displayed in the National Museum of Beirut. Approximately 837 BC, Osorkon II died and he was buried in Tomb NRT I at Tanis. Currently, he is believed to have reigned for more than 30 years, rather than just 25 years as had been interpreted earlier. The celebration of his first Sed Jubilee previously was thought to have occurred in his Year 22, but the Heb Sed date in his Great Temple of Bubastis is damaged and also may be read as Year 30, as Edward Wente notes.[6] The fact that this king's own grandson, Takelot F, served him as High Priest of Amun at Thebes–as the inscribed walls of Temple J prove – supports the hypothesis of a longer reign for Osorkon II. Recently, it has been demonstrated that Nile Level Text 14 (dated to Year 29 of an Usimare Setepenamun) belongs to Osorkon II on palaeographical grounds.[7] This finding suggests that Osorkon II likely did celebrate his first Heb Sed in his Year 30 as was traditionally the case with other Libyan era kings, such as Shoshenq III and Shoshenq V. In addition, a Year 22 Stela from his reign preserves no mention of any Heb Sed celebrations in that year, as would be expected (see Von Beckerath, 'infra'). While Osorkon II's precise reign length is unknown, some Egyptologists, such as Jürgen von Beckerath – in his 1997 book Chronology of the Egyptian Pharaohs[8] – and Aidan Dodson have suggested a range of between 38 and 39 years.[9] However, these much higher figures are not verified by the current monumental evidence. Gerard Broekman gives Osorkon II a slightly shorter reign of 34 years.[10] English Egyptologist Kenneth Kitchen, in a 2006 "Agypten und Levante" article, now accepts that if Nile Level Text 14 is correctly attributed to Year 29 of Osorkon II, then the reference to Osorkon's Sed Festival jubilee should be amended from Year 22 to Year 30.[11] Kitchen suggests that Osorkon II would have died shortly afterward, in his Year 31.[12] Reliefs from the Tomb of Osorkon II Marriages and children[edit] Osorkon II is known to have had at least four wives: Queen Karomama is the best known of Osorkon's wives. Karomama was the mother of at least two sons and three daughters:[13][14] Isetemkheb is known to be the mother of a daughter named, Tjesbastperu, who was married to the High Priest of Ptah Takelot B.[13] Djedmutesakh IV was the mother of the High Priest of Amun Nimlot C.[13] Nimlot C was a son of Osorkon II and the father of Takelot F, who would become Takelot II. Mutemhat was another of his wives. Other children of record included: Prince Shoshenq D was High Priest of Ptah Prince Hornakht was the High Priest of Amun in Tanis[15] Osorkon II appointed Hornakht as the chief priest of Amun at Tanis to strengthen his authority in Lower Egypt; however, this was clearly a political move since Hornakht died prematurely before the age of ten.[16] Princess Tashakheper may have served as God's Wife of Amun during the reign of Takelot III Princess Karomama C, who may be identical to Karomama Meritmut, a God's Wife of Amun Princess Taiirmer Other possible children attributed to Osorkon II include his successor Shoshenq III and the King's Daughter Tentsepeh (D), the wife of General Ptahudjankhef, who was a son of Nimlot C and hence, a grandson of Osorkon II.[13] Tomb[edit] Interior photograph of the tomb of Osorkon II The French excavator Pierre Montet discovered Osorkon II's plundered royal tomb at Tanis on February 27, 1939. It revealed that Osorkon II was buried in a massive granite sarcophagus with a lid carved from a Ramesside-era statue. Only some fragments of a hawk-headed coffin and canopic jars remained in the robbed tomb to identify him.[17] While the tomb had been looted in antiquity, what jewellery that remained "was of such high quality that existing conceptions of the wealth of the northern Twenty-first and Twenty-second dynasties had to be revised."[18] Successor[edit] David Aston has argued in a JEA 75 (1989) paper that Osorkon II was succeeded by Shoshenq III at Tanis rather than Takelot II Si-Ese as Kitchen presumed because none of Takelot II's monuments have been found in Lower Egypt where other genuine Tanite kings, such as Osorkon II, Shoshenq III, and even the short-lived Pami (at 6-7 years) are attested on donation stelas, temple walls, and annal documents.[19] Other Egyptologists, such as Gerard Broekman, Karl Jansen-Winkeln, Aidan Dodson, and Jürgen von Beckerath have endorsed this position as well. Von Beckerath also identifies Shoshenq III as the immediate successor of Osorkon II and places Takelot II as a separate king in Upper Egypt.[20] Gerard Broekman writes in a recent 2005 GM article that, "in light of the monumental and genealogical evidence", Aston's chronology for the position of the twenty-second dynasty kings "is highly preferable" to Kitchen's chronology.[21] The only documents that mention a king Takelot in Lower Egypt, such as a royal tomb at Tanis, a Year 9 donation stela from Bubastis, and a heart scarab featuring the nomen 'Takelot Meryamun' — now have been attributed exclusively to king Takelot I by Egyptologists today, including Kitchen.[22] The English Egyptologist Aidan Dodson, in his book The Canopic Equipment of the Kings of Egypt, observes that Shoshenq III built "a dividing wall, with a double scene showing Osorkon II" and him "each adoring an unnamed deity" in the antechamber of Osorkon II's tomb.[23] Dodson concludes that while one may argue Shoshenq III erected the wall to hide Osorkon II's sarcophagus, it made no sense for Shoshenq to create such an elaborate relief if Takelot II really had intervened between him and Osorkon II at Tanis for 25 years, unless Shoshenq III was Osorkon II's immediate successor. Shoshenq III must, hence, have wished to associate himself with his predecessor – Osorkon II.[24] Consequently, the case for establishing Takelot II as a Twenty-second Dynasty king and successor to Osorkon II disappears, as Dodson writes. Takelot II instead founded the twenty-third dynasty of Egypt and ruled a divided Egypt by administering Middle and Upper Egypt. References[edit] ^ Osorkon (II) Usermaatre, Digital Egypt for Universities. ^ Mohamed I. Bakr and Helmut Brandl, "Bubastis and the Temple of Bastet", in: M.I. Bakr, H. Brandl, and F. Kalloniatis (eds.), Egyptian Antiquities from Kufur Nigm and Bubastis. M.i.N. (Museums in the Nile Delta) 1, Cairo/Berlin 2010, pp. 27-36 ^ H. Sourouzian, "Seti I, not Osorkon II. A new join to the statue from Tanis, CG 1040 in the Cairo Museum", in: O. El-Aguizy – M. Sherif Ali (eds), Echoes of Eternity. Studies presented to Gaballa Aly Gaballa, Philippika 35, Wiesbaden 2010, pp. 97–105; Helmut Brandl, Bemerkungen zur Datierung von libyerzeitlichen Statuen aufgrund stilistischer Kriterien, in: G. P. F. Broekman, R. J. Demarée, O. E. Kaper (eds.), The Libyan Period in Egypt. Egyptologische Uitgaven 23, Leiden 2008, pp. 60-66, pl. I-II. (https://www.academia.edu/8241577/Bemerkungen_zur_Datierung_von_libyerzeitlichen_Statuen_aufgrund_stilistischer_Kriterien ^ Statue, Cairo CG 42206, 42207 ^ Cairo CG 42213 ^ Edward Wente, Review of Kenneth Kitchen's The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt c.1100-650 BC, JNES 35(1976), pp.275-278 ^ Gerard Broekman, "The Nile Level Records of the Twenty-Second and Twenty-Third Dynasties in Karnak," JEA 88(2002), pp.174-178 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath, Chronologie des Pharaonischen Ägypten, MAS:Philipp von Zabern, (1997), p.98 & p.191 ^ Aidan Dodson, A new King Shoshenq confirmed?, GM 137(1993), p.58 ^ Gerard Broekman, 'The Reign of Takeloth II, a Controversial Matter,' GM 205(2005), pp.31 & 33 ^ Kenneth Kitchen, Agypten und Levante 16 (2006), p.299 point No.7 ^ Kitchen, Agypten und Levante 16 (2006), p.301 section 16 ^ a b c d Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton: The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson, 2004, ISBN 0-500-05128-3 ^ Kitchen, The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100–650 BC). 3rd ed. Warminster: Aris & Phillips Limited. 1996 ^ .Nos ancêtres de l'Antiquité, 1991. Christian Settipani, p.153 and 166 ^ Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, Blackwell Books, 1992. p.325 ^ "San el-Hagar". Archived from the original on 2009-01-20. Retrieved 2006-02-18. ^ Bob Brier, Egyptian Mummies: Unravelling the Secrets of an Ancient Art, William Morrow & Company Inc., New York, 1994. p.144 ^ Aston, pp.139-153 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath, "Chronologie des Pharaonischen Ägypten," MÄS 46 (Philipp von Zabern), Mainz: 1997. p.94 ^ Gerard Broekman, 'The Reign of Takeloth II, a Controversial Matter,' GM 205(2005), pp.31 ^ K.A. Kitchen, in the introduction to his 3rd 1996 edition of "The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (c.1100-650 BC)," Aris & Phillips Ltd. pp.xxxii-xxxiii ^ Aidan Dodson, "The Canopic Equipment of the Kings of Egypt," (Kegan Paul Intl: 1994), p.95 ^ Dodson, The Canopic Equipment of the Kings of Egypt, p.95 Further reading[edit] Bernard V. Bothmer, The Philadelphia-Cairo Statue of Osorkon II, JEA 46 (1960), 3-11. M.G. Daressy, une Stèle de Mit Yaich, ASAE 22 (1922), 77. Helen K. Jaquet-Gordon, The Inscriptions on the Philadelphia-Cairo Statue of Osorkon II, JEA 46 (1960), 12-23. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 14080305X VIAF: 107787928 WorldCat Identities: viaf-107787928 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Osorkon_II&oldid=974329539" Categories: 837 BC deaths 9th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt 9th century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View 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en-wikipedia-org-7647	----	Naxos - Wikipedia Naxos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Naxos Island) Jump to navigation Jump to search Island in the Aegean Sea For other uses, see Naxos (disambiguation). Naxos Native name: Νάξος Port of Naxos (city) Naxos Geography Coordinates 37°05′15″N 25°24′14″E / 37.08750°N 25.40389°E / 37.08750; 25.40389Coordinates: 37°05′15″N 25°24′14″E / 37.08750°N 25.40389°E / 37.08750; 25.40389 Archipelago Cyclades Area 429.785 km2 (165.941 sq mi) Highest elevation 1,003 m (3291 ft) Highest point Mt. Zeus Administration Greece Region South Aegean Regional unit Naxos Capital city Naxos (city) Demographics Population 18,904 (2011) Pop. density 44/km2 (114/sq mi) Naxos (/ˈnæksɒs, -soʊs/; Greek: Νάξος, pronounced [ˈnaksos]) is a Greek island and the largest of the Cyclades. It was the centre of archaic Cycladic culture. The island is famous as a source of emery, a rock rich in corundum, which until modern time was one of the best abrasives available. The largest town and capital of the island is Chora or Naxos City, with 7,374 inhabitants (2011 census). The main villages are Filoti, Apiranthos, Vivlos, Agios Arsenios, Koronos and Glynado. Contents 1 Geography 1.1 Climate 2 Mythic Naxos 3 History 3.1 Middle Paleolithic era 3.2 Cycladic civilisation 3.3 Classical era and Greco-Persian Wars 3.4 Byzantine era 3.5 Duchy of Naxos 3.6 Ottoman control (1566–1821) 4 Historical population 5 Economy 5.1 Tourism 5.2 Agriculture 6 Sports 7 Notable people 8 Gallery 9 See also 10 Citations 11 General references 12 External links Geography[edit] Climate[edit] Climate is Mediterranean, with relatively mild winters and pleasant summers. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Csa". (Mediterranean Climate).[1] Inland areas of the island are much wetter and cooler in winter. Climate data for Naxos town (0m) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 22.2 (72.0) 22.3 (72.1) 25.4 (77.7) 30.5 (86.9) 33.6 (92.5) 36.2 (97.2) 37.4 (99.3) 34.0 (93.2) 33.0 (91.4) 30.8 (87.4) 28.8 (83.8) 24.0 (75.2) 37.4 (99.3) Average high °C (°F) 14.3 (57.7) 14.4 (57.9) 15.7 (60.3) 18.6 (65.5) 21.9 (71.4) 25.7 (78.3) 26.6 (79.9) 26.2 (79.2) 24.6 (76.3) 21.4 (70.5) 18.6 (65.5) 15.8 (60.4) 20.3 (68.5) Daily mean °C (°F) 12.0 (53.6) 12.1 (53.8) 13.3 (55.9) 16.1 (61.0) 19.4 (66.9) 23.2 (73.8) 24.7 (76.5) 24.4 (75.9) 22.6 (72.7) 19.3 (66.7) 16.2 (61.2) 13.7 (56.7) 18.1 (64.6) Average low °C (°F) 9.3 (48.7) 9.3 (48.7) 10.2 (50.4) 12.5 (54.5) 15.4 (59.7) 19.2 (66.6) 21.7 (71.1) 21.7 (71.1) 19.8 (67.6) 16.6 (61.9) 13.4 (56.1) 10.9 (51.6) 15.0 (59.0) Record low °C (°F) 0.4 (32.7) −1.0 (30.2) 2.0 (35.6) 5.1 (41.2) 7.1 (44.8) 12.0 (53.6) 14.8 (58.6) 13.6 (56.5) 11.2 (52.2) 7.2 (45.0) 4.5 (40.1) 2.0 (35.6) −1.0 (30.2) Average precipitation mm (inches) 71.3 (2.81) 58.6 (2.31) 49.8 (1.96) 18.4 (0.72) 9.8 (0.39) 2.8 (0.11) 0.6 (0.02) 2.8 (0.11) 5.7 (0.22) 39.3 (1.55) 47.4 (1.87) 69.4 (2.73) 375.9 (14.80) Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) 8.4 7.7 5.7 3.1 1.4 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.6 3.0 5.0 8.6 44.2 Average relative humidity (%) 72.0 71.2 72.0 69.5 70.7 67.8 68.7 70.2 71.1 73.2 73.8 73.3 71.1 Source: NOAA[2] Climate data for Apeiranthos village (600m) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high °C (°F) 9 (48) 10.2 (50.4) 13 (55) 15.4 (59.7) 21.9 (71.4) 25.1 (77.2) 27.9 (82.2) 28.7 (83.7) 24.9 (76.8) 22.5 (72.5) 16.1 (61.0) 12.3 (54.1) 18.9 (66.0) Average low °C (°F) 4.8 (40.6) 5.9 (42.6) 7.8 (46.0) 9.7 (49.5) 15 (59) 18.6 (65.5) 21.1 (70.0) 21.8 (71.2) 18.7 (65.7) 16.3 (61.3) 11.7 (53.1) 8.6 (47.5) 13.3 (56.0) Average precipitation mm (inches) 208.3 (8.20) 137.8 (5.43) 80.3 (3.16) 77.4 (3.05) 4.7 (0.19) 1.1 (0.04) 19.4 (0.76) 0.1 (0.00) 24.2 (0.95) 60.9 (2.40) 91.1 (3.59) 155.9 (6.14) 861.2 (33.91) Source: http://penteli.meteo.gr/stations/apiranthos/ (2019 - 2020 averages) Mythic Naxos[edit] Landscape of the island Apollo Temple's entrance (Portara) According to Greek mythology, the young Zeus was raised in a cave on Mt. Zas ("Zas" meaning "Zeus"). Homer mentions "Dia"; literally the sacred island "of the Goddess". Károly Kerényi explains: This name, Dia, which means 'heavenly' or 'divine', was applied to several small craggy islands in our [Aegean] sea, all of them lying close to larger islands, such as Crete or Naxos. The name "Dia" was even transferred to the island of Naxos itself, since it was more widely supposed than any other to have been the nuptial isle of Dionysus.[3] One legend has it that in the Heroic Age before the Trojan War, Theseus abandoned Ariadne on this island after she helped him kill the Minotaur and escape from the Labyrinth. Dionysus (god of wine, festivities, and the primal energy of life) who was the protector of the island, met Ariadne and fell in love with her. But eventually Ariadne, unable to bear her separation from Theseus, either killed herself (according to the Athenians), or ascended to heaven (as the older versions had it). The Naxos portion of the Ariadne myth is also told in the Richard Strauss opera Ariadne auf Naxos. The giant brothers Otus and Ephialtes figure in at least two Naxos myths: in one, Artemis bought the abandonment of a siege they laid against the gods, by offering to live on Naxos as Otus's lover; in another, the brothers had actually settled Naxos. History[edit] Neolithic finds from the Zas cave: jewelry, pottery, tools; archaeological museum of Naxos Middle Paleolithic era[edit] Stelida quarry, south-west of Chora,[4] contains Mousterian tools dating back to the Middle Paleolithic era, which indicates that Neanderthal activity on the island spanned almost 200,000 years ago.[5] Cycladic civilisation[edit] Zas Cave, inhabited during the Neolithic era, contained objects of stone from Melos and copper objects including a dagger and gold sheet. The presence of gold and other objects within the cave indicated to researchers the status of the inhabitant.[6] Emery was exported during that time, to other islands.[7] Classical era and Greco-Persian Wars[edit] Temple of Demeter During the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Naxos dominated commerce in the Cyclades. Naxos was the first Greek city-state to attempt to leave the Delian League circa 476 BC; Athens quickly squashed the notion and forcibly removed all military naval vessels from the island's control. Athens then demanded all future payments from Naxos in the form of gold rather than military aid. Herodotus describes Naxos circa 500 BC as the most prosperous Greek island.[8] In 502 BC, an unsuccessful attack on Naxos by Persian forces led several prominent men in the Greek cities of Ionia to rebel against the Persian Empire in the Ionian Revolt, and then to the Persian War between Greece and Persia. Byzantine era[edit] Main article: Aegean Sea (theme) Fotodotis monastery In Late Antiquity, the island was part of the province of the Islands.[9] Pope Martin I was detained on the island of Naxos for almost a year after he was arrested by Byzantine authorities in Rome due to his holding of a synod that condemned monotheletism. He was held on the island prior to being taken to Constantinople for trial. While detained on the island, he wrote to a certain Theodore living in Constantinople. [10] Under the Byzantine Empire, Naxos was part of the thema of the Aegean Sea, which was established in the mid-9th century. In Byzantine times, the island's capital was on the southern fortress of Apalyres.[11] During this time, it suffered from Saracen raids, particular during the existence of the Emirate of Crete (824–961), to which the island occasionally paid tribute. Traces of Muslim artistic influence are visible in frescoes from the 10th century.[11] Nevertheless, as in Antiquity, Naxos was celebrated for its agriculture and animal husbandry; the 12th-century geographer al-Idrisi records extensive cattle raising on the island.[11] In the late 12th century, it may have been the capital of a short-lived thema of the "Dodekanesos".[9] Duchy of Naxos[edit] Further information: Duchy of the Archipelago The Duchy of Naxos and other Frankish states, carved from the Byzantine Empire, as they were in 1265.[12] Sanudo tower, part of the Duchal Palace Belonia tower In the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade, with a Latin Empire under the influence of the Venetians established at Constantinople, the Venetian Marco Sanudo conquered the Naxos and most of the other Cyclades in 1205–1207.[9] Of all the islands, only on Naxos was there any opposition to Sanudo: a group of Genoese pirates had occupied the castle between the end of Byzantine rule and Sanudo's arrival. To steel his band's resolve, Sanudo burnt his galleys "and bade his companions to conquer or die". The pirates surrendered the castle after a five weeks' siege.[13] Naxos became the seat of Sanudo's realm, known as the "Duchy of Naxos" or "Duchy of the Archipelago".[9] Twenty-one dukes in two dynasties ruled the Archipelago, until 1566; Venetian rule continued in scattered islands of the Aegean until 1714. Under Venetian rule, the island was called by its Italian name, Nasso. The Sanudi introduced Western feudal law to the island, based on the Assizes of Romania. However, the native Greek population continued to use Byzantine law for civil matters a least until the late 16th century.[9] In the 13th century, following the capture of Antalya and Alanya on the southern Anatolian coast by the Seljuk Turks, refugees from these areas settled in Naxos.[11] In the 14th century, the island was once more exposed to raids, this time from the Anatolian Turkish beyliks, chiefly the Aydınids. In turn, the Sanudi assisted the Genoese in capturing Chios in 1304 and the Knights Hospitaller in their conquest of Rhodes in 1309, in order to stop these islands being used as Turkish pirate base. Nevertheless, raids against Naxos are recorded in 1324 and 1326, and in 1341, Umur of Aydın carried off 6,000 people from the island and imposed a payment of tribute. Two years later, however, the Smyrniote crusade captured his main port, Smyrna.[11] The relief was temporary, however, as Turkish raids recommenced later in the century. The island was so depopulated that Cristoforo Buondelmonti in c. 1420 claimed that there were not enough men to wed the Naxiot women.[11] The rising Ottoman Empire first attacked the island in 1416, but the Sultans recognized Venetian overlordship over the Duchy in successive treaties, in exchange for an annual tribute.[11] Ottoman control (1566–1821)[edit] The Ottoman administration remained essentially in the hands of the Venetians; the Porte's concern was satisfied by the returns of taxes. Very few Turks ever settled on Naxos, and Turkish influence on the island is slight. Under Ottoman rule the island was known as Turkish: Nakşa. Ottoman sovereignty lasted until 1821, when the islands revolted; Naxos finally became a member of the Greek state in 1832. Historical population[edit] Year Island population Change 1981 14,037 – 1991 14,838 +801/+5.71% 2001 18,188 +3,350/+22.58% 2011 18,904 +716/+3.93% Economy[edit] Marble quarry of Naxos Emery mine Tourism[edit] Naxos is a popular tourist destination, with several ruins. It has a number of beaches, such as those at Agia Anna, Agios Prokopios, Alikos, Kastraki, Mikri Vigla, Plaka, and Agios Georgios, most of them near Chora. As other cycladic islands, Naxos is considered a windy place perfect for windsurfing, as well as kitesurfing. There are seven sports clubs in the island that offer both of these sports and other water activities. Agriculture[edit] Naxos is the most fertile island of the Cyclades. It has a good supply of water in a region where water is usually inadequate. Mount Zeus (1,004 metres or 3,294 feet) is the highest peak in the Cyclades, and tends to trap the clouds, permitting greater rainfall. This has made agriculture an important economic sector with various vegetable and fruit crops as well as cattle breeding, making Naxos the most self-sufficient island in the Cyclades. Naxos is well known within Greece for its "Arseniko Naxou" cheese, potatoes and Kitron, a local lemon-citrus spirit. Sports[edit] Pannaxiakos A.O. (sports club) Notable people[edit] Ecumenical Patriarch Callinicus III of Constantinople (died 1726) Keti Chomata (1946–2010), singer Manolis Glezos (1922–2020), rebel, politician, writer Giannoulis Fakinos (born 1989), soccer player Iakovos Kambanelis (1922–2011), poet, playwright, lyricist and novelist Kostas Manolas (born 1991), soccer player Stelios Manolas (born 1961), soccer player Nikolaos Mykonios, fighter of the Greek War of Independence and officer of the Greek Army Iakovos Nafpliotis (1864–1942), cantor Nicodemus the Hagiorite (1749–1809), saint Giorgos Ninios (born 1959), actor Michalis Polytarchou, basketball player, Former Captain of AEK Athens BC Petros Protopapadakis (1854–1922), Prime Minister of Greece Gallery[edit] Sanctuary of Dionysus (Yria) Sphinx of Naxos, now at Delphi Archaeological Museum Crispi tower, housing the Byzantine museum Panagia Drosiani church, Moni village The monastery of Faneromeni Presentation of the Lord Catholic church of Naxos Koronos village Filoti village Tower in Filoti Apollonas village Keramoti village Tower in Apeiranthos See also[edit] Communities of the Cyclades Emery (rock), mined on Naxos Kitron Citations[edit] ^ Climate Summary ^ "Naxos Climate Normals 1961–1990". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2 March 2015. ^ Kerenyi, Karl (1951). The Gods of the Greeks. pp. 271–272. ^ "Introducing Stelida". stelida.org. Retrieved 17 October 2019. ^ Carter, Tristan; Contreras, Daniel A.; Holcomb, Justin; Mihailović, Danica D.; Karkanas, Panagiotis; Guérin, Guillaume; Taffin, Ninon; Athanasoulis, Dimitris; Lahaye, Christelle (16 October 2019). "Earliest occupation of the Central Aegean (Naxos), Greece: Implications for hominin and Homo sapiens' behavior and dispersals". Science Advances. 5 (10): eaax0997. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aax0997. PMC 6795523. PMID 31663021. ^ P Halstead – Neolithic Society in Greece Continuum International Publishing Group, 1999 Retrieved 4 July 2012 ISBN 1850758247 ^ M Patton – Islands In Time: Island Sociogeography and Mediterranean Prehistory Psychology Press, 23 July 1996 Retrieved 4 July 2012 ISBN 0415126592 ^ Herodotus, 5.28,5.31 ^ a b c d e Gregory, Timothy E. (1991). "Naxos". In Kazhdan, Alexander (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 1444–1445. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. ^ Andrew Ekonomou. Byzantine Rome and the Greek Popes. Lexington books, 2007 ^ a b c d e f g Savvides, A. (1993). "Naḳs̲h̲e". In Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W. P. & Pellat, Ch. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume VII: Mif–Naz. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 939–941. ISBN 978-90-04-09419-2. ^ William R. Shepherd, Historical Atlas, 1911 ^ Miller, William (1908). The Latins in the Levant: A History of Frankish Greece (1204–1566). London: John Murray. p. 43. OCLC 563022439. General references[edit] Agelarakis, A., "The Naxos Island Archaic Period Necropolis: Archaeological-Anthropology Research Report", Hellenic Antiquities Authority, Archival Report, 2005, Naxos. Ernst Curtius, Naxos. Ein Vortrag im wissenschaftlichen Verein zu Berlin 1846 gehalten, neu herausgegeben von Martin Biastoch, Göttingen, 2012. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Naxos. Official website (in German, Greek, and English) Moving Postcards Naxos Municipality of Naxos and Small Cyclades (in Greek) Photos from Naxos inclusive Tourist-Infos v t e Islands of the Cyclades Main Amorgos Anafi Andros Antiparos Delos Folegandros Ios Kea Kimolos Kythnos Milos Mykonos Naxos Paros Santorini Serifos Sifnos Sikinos Syros Therasia Tinos Lesser Cyclades Donousa Irakleia Keros Koufonisia Schoinoussa Other Makronisos Saliagos Polyaigos Uninhabited Ananes Ano Antikeri Antimilos Anydros Askania Christiania Despotiko Eschati Glaros Gyaros Kardiotissa Kato Antikeri Kitriani Nikouria Pachia (Anafi) Pachia (Nisyros) Rineia Serifopoula Vous v t e Aegean Sea General Countries  Greece  Turkey Other Aegean civilizations Aegean dispute Aegean Islands Aegean Islands Cyclades Ananes Amorgos Anafi Andros Antimilos Antiparos Delos Despotiko Donousa Folegandros Gyaros Ios Irakleia Kardiotissa Kea Keros Kimolos Koufonisia Kythnos Milos Mykonos Naxos Paros Polyaigos Rineia Santorini Schoinoussa Serifopoula Serifos Sifnos Sikinos Syros Therasia Tinos Vous Dodecanese Agathonisi Arkoi Armathia Alimia Astakida Astypalaia Çatalada Chamili Farmakonisi Gaidaros Gyali Halki Imia/Kardak Kalolimnos Kalymnos Kandelioussa Kara Ada Karpathos Kasos Kinaros Kos Küçük Tavşan Adası Leipsoi (Lipsi) Leros Levitha (Lebynthos) Nimos Nisyros Pacheia Patmos Platy Pserimos Rhodes Salih Ada Saria Symi Syrna Telendos Tilos Zaforas North Aegean Agios Efstratios Agios Minas Ammouliani Ayvalık Islands Büyük Ada Chios Chryse Cunda Foça Islands Fournoi Korseon Icaria Imbros Koukonesi Lemnos Lesbos Megalonisi (Nisiopi) Metalik Ada Oinousses Pasas Psara Samiopoula Samos Samothrace Tenedos Thasos Thymaina Uzunada Zourafa Saronic Aegina Agios Georgios Agistri Dokos Hydra Poros Psyttaleia Salamis Spetses Sporades Adelfoi Islets Agios Georgios Skopelou Alonnisos Argos Skiathou Dasia Erinia Gioura Grammeza Kyra Panagia Lekhoussa Peristera Piperi Psathoura Repi Sarakino Skandili Skantzoura Skiathos Skopelos Skyropoula Skyros Tsoungria Valaxa Cretan Afentis Christos Agia Varvara Agioi Apostoloi Agioi Pantes Agioi Theodoroi Agios Nikolaos Anavatis Arnaouti Aspros Volakas Avgo Crete Daskaleia Dia Diapori Dionysades Elasa Ftena Trachylia Glaronisi Gramvousa Grandes Kalydon (Spinalonga) Karavi Karga Katergo Kavallos Kefali Kolokythas Koursaroi Kyriamadi Lazaretta Leon Mavros Mavros Volakas Megatzedes Mochlos Nikolos Palaiosouda Peristeri Peristerovrachoi Petalida Petalouda Pontikaki Pontikonisi Praso (Prasonisi) Prosfora Pseira Sideros Souda Valenti Vryonisi Other Antikythera Euboea Kythira Makronisos Authority control BNF: cb15311663c (data) GND: 4075243-4 LCCN: sh85090454 NKC: ge475297 VIAF: 173528226 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 173528226 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Naxos&oldid=998630126" Categories: Naxos Euboean colonies Greek city-states Islands of Greece Islands of the South Aegean Landforms of Naxos (regional unit) Members of the Delian League Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from December 2016 EngvarB from December 2016 Coordinates on Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Commons link from Wikidata Articles with German-language sources (de) Articles with Greek-language sources (el) Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikivoyage Languages Alemannisch العربية Български Català Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Қазақша Latina Lietuvių Limburgs Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 January 2021, at 08:30 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7652	----	Artaserse - Wikipedia Artaserse From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Original libretto cover for Johann Adolph Hasse's 1730 setting of Artaserse Artaserse is the name of a number of Italian operas, all based on a text by Metastasio. Artaserse is the Italian form of the name of the king Artaxerxes I of Persia. There are over 90 known settings of Metastasio's text. The libretto was originally written for, and first set to music by Leonardo Vinci in 1730 for Rome (Artaserse).[1] It was subsequently set by Johann Adolph Hasse in 1730 (Artaserse) for Venice and in 1760 for Naples, by Christoph Willibald Gluck in 1741 for Milan, by Pietro Chiarini in 1741 for Verona, by Carl Heinrich Graun in 1743 for Stuttgart, by Domènec Terradellas in 1744 for Venice, by Baldassare Galuppi in 1749 for Vienna, by Johann Christian Bach in 1760 for Turin, by Josef Mysliveček in 1774 for Naples (Artaserse), by Marcos Portugal in 1806 for Lisbon and many other times. The text was often altered. Thomas Arne's 1762 Artaxerxes is set to an English libretto that is based on Metastasio's. Mozart's aria for soprano and orchestra "Conservati fedele" (K. 23, 1765) is set to the parting verses of Mandane (Artaserse's sister) at the end of the first scene. The opera was famously performed in 1734 as a pastiche of songs by various composers such as Johann Adolf Hasse, Attilio Ariosti, Nicola Porpora and Riccardo Broschi. It was in this that Broschi's brother, Farinelli, sang one of his best-known arias, "Son qual nave ch'agitata". References[edit] ^ Wells, Calvin (19 February 2010). "Vinci's L'Artaserse (Musikwerkstatt)". Opera Britannia. Archived from the original on 16 June 2013. Retrieved April 4, 2013. Weinstock, Herbert, The Opera: A History of its Creation and Performance: 1600–1941, Simon and Schuster, 1961, p. 64. External links[edit] →Artaserse libretto (PDF, RTF, TXT), Libretto Torre, Robert. "Operatic Twins and Musical Rivals: Two Settings of Artaserse (1730)", Discourses in Music: The Journal of the University of Toronto Music Graduate Association, Volume 6, Number 1 (Summer 2006)[dead link] v t e Libretti by Pietro Metastasio Gli orti esperidi (1721) Siface, re di Numidia (1723) Didone abbandonata (1724) L'impresario delle Isole Canarie (1724) Siroe re di Persia (1726) Catone in Utica (1728) Ezio (1728) Alessandro nell’Indie (1729) La passione di Gesù Cristo (1730) Artaserse (1730) Demetrio (1731) Demofonte (1731) Adriano in Siria (1732) L'Olimpiade (1733) Betulia liberata (1734) La clemenza di Tito (1734) Gioas re di Giuda (1735) Achille in Sciro (1736) Ciro riconosciuto (1736) Ipermestra (1744) Il re pastore (1751) Il trionfo di Clelia (1762) Authority control GND: 4497197-7 LCCN: n2009066932 VIAF: 1959147270409435700003 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 1959147270409435700003 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Artaserse&oldid=962603187" Categories: Libretti by Metastasio 1730 books Hidden categories: Articles containing Italian-language text All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from April 2013 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Deutsch Español Français Italiano Suomi Svenska 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 15 June 2020, at 01:04 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7667	----	Ramesses VII - Wikipedia Ramesses VII From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ramesses VII Ramses VII, Rameses VII Ramesses VII from tomb KV1, drawn by Karl Richard Lepsius Pharaoh Reign c. 1136–1129 BC (20th Dynasty) Predecessor Ramesses VI Successor Ramesses VIII Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Usermaatre Setepenre Meriamun Wsr-m3ˁ.t-Rˁ-stp-n-Rˁ-mr.j-Jmn Rich in Maat like Ra, the chosen one of Ra, beloved of Amun Nomen Ramesisu Itiamun Netjerheqaiunu Rˁ-msj-sw-jt.j-Jmn-nṯr-ḥq3-Jwnw Ra has fashioned him, his father is Amun, god of Heliopolis Horus name Kanakht Anemnesu K3-nḫt-ˁn-m-ns.w Strong bull, magnificent of royalty Nebty name Mekkemet Wafkhastiu Mk-Kmt-wˁf-ḫ3st.jw Protector of Egypt, he who vainquishes the foreigners Golden Horus Userrenput-mi-Amum Wsr-rnp.wt-mj-Jtm The golden falcon, rich in years like Atum Children Ramesses Father Ramesses VI Mother Nubkhesbed Died 1129 BC Burial KV1 Usermaatre Setepenre Meryamun Ramesses VII (also written Ramses and Rameses) was the sixth pharaoh of the 20th Dynasty of Ancient Egypt. He reigned from about 1136 to 1129 BC[1] and was the son of Ramesses VI. Other dates for his reign are 1138–1131 BC.[2] The Turin Accounting Papyrus 1907+1908 is dated to Year 7 III Shemu day 26 of his reign and has been reconstructed to show that 11 full years passed from Year 5 of Ramesses VI to Year 7 of his reign.[3] Contents 1 Reign length 2 Ramesses VII's tomb and funerary equipment 3 References 4 Further reading 5 External links Reign length[edit] Ramesses VII's seventh year is also attested in Ostraca O. Strasbourg h 84, which is dated to II Shemu day 16 of his 7th Regnal Year.[4] In 1980, C.J. Eyre demonstrated that a Year 8 papyrus belonged to the reign of Ramesses VII. This papyrus, P. Turin Cat. 1883 + 2095, dated to Year 8 IV Shemu day 25 (most likely Ramesses VII), details the record of the commissioning of some copper work and mentions two foremen at Deir El-Medina: Nekhemmut and Hor[mose].[5][6] The foreman Hormose was previously attested in office only during the reign of Ramesses IX while his father and predecessor in this post—a certain Ankherkhau—served in office from the second decade of the reign of Ramesses III through to Year 4 of Ramesses VII, where he is shown acting with Nekhemmut and the scribe Horisheri.[7] The new Year 8 papyrus proves that Hormose succeeded to his father's office as foreman by Year 8 of Ramesses VII. Dominique Valbelle regards C.J. Eyre's attribution of this document to Ramesses VII as uncertain since the chief workman Hormose was previously only securely attested in office in Years 6 and 7 of Ramesses IX instead.[8] However, this papyrus clearly bears the cartouche of Usermaatre Setepenre—the prenomen of Ramesses VII—at its beginning whereas the royal name of Ramesses IX was Neferkare—which rules out Ramesses IX as the king whose Year 8 is recorded in the P. Turin 1883 + 2095 document. The presence of Hormose's contemporary—the foreman Nekhemmut—also establishes that this papyrus dates to the mid-20th dynasty--most probably to the reign of Ramesses VII, since Nekhemmut is attested in office "from the second year of Ramesses IV until the seventeenth year of Ramesses IX."[9] Since Ramesses VII's accession is known to have occurred around the end of III Peret,[10] the king would have ruled Egypt for a minimum period of 7 years and 5 months when this document was drawn up provided that it belonged to his reign as seems probable from the royal name given in the papyrus. The respected German Egyptologist Jürgen von Beckerath also accepts C.J. Eyre's evidence that Year 8 IV Shemu day 25 was Ramesses VII's highest known date.[10] However, the accession date of his successor, Ramesses VIII, has been fixed by Amin Amer to an 8-month period between I Peret day 2 and I Akhet day 13,[11] or 5 months after the Year 8 IV Shemu day 25 date of Ramesses VII. Therefore, if Ramesses VII did not die between the short 2 week period between IV Shemu day 29 to I Akhet 13, this pharaoh would have been on the throne for at least another 4 more months until I Peret day 2 and ruled Egypt for 7 years and 9 months when he died (perhaps slightly longer if he died after I Peret day 2). Therefore, it is possible that Ramesses VII could have ruled Egypt for almost 8 years; at present, his certain reign length is 7 years and 5 months. Very little is known about his reign, though it was evidently a period of some turmoil as grain prices soared to the highest level.[12] Seated deities from the tomb of Ramesses VII Ramesses VII's tomb and funerary equipment[edit] Ramesses VII was buried in Tomb KV1 upon his death. His mummy has never been found, though four cups inscribed with the pharaoh's name were found in the "royal cache" in DB320 along with the remains of other pharaohs.[13] References[edit] ^ Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. p. 481. ISBN 0-19-815034-2. ^ Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss & David Warburton (editors), Handbook of Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies), Brill: 2006, p.493 ^ Raphael Ventura, "More Chronological Evidence from Turin Papyrus Cat.1907+1908," JNES 42, Vol.4 (1983), pp.271-277 ^ Jac Janssen, JEA 52 (1966), p.91 n.2 ^ C.J. Eyre, The reign-length of Ramesses Vii, JEA 66 (1980), pp.168-170 ^ Dominique Valbelle, Les Ouvriers de la tombe: Deir el-Médineh à l'époque Ramesside, 1985. note 8 ^ Eyre, pp.168-170 ^ Dominique Valbelle, Les Ouvriers de la tombe: Deir el-Médineh à l'époque Ramesside, 1985. note 8 ^ Eyre, pp.168-170 ^ a b J. von Beckerath, Chronologie des Pharaonischen Ägypten, Mainz am Rhein: Verlag Philipp von Zabern. (1997), p.201 ^ A. Amer, A Unique Theban Tomb Inscription under Ramesses VIII, GM 49, 1981, pp.9-12 ^ Shaw (2000), p. 308 ^ Reeves, Nicholas. Wilkinson, Richard H. The Complete Valley of the Kings. p. 167. Thames & Hudson. 1997. (Reprint) ISBN 0-500-05080-5 Further reading[edit] K. A. Kitchen, Ramses VII and the Twentieth Dynasty, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 58 (1972), 182-194 Benoît Lurson, A Monument of Ramses VII in the area of the Ramesseum?, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 98 (2012), 297-304 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ramses VII. Ramesses VII at Find a Grave v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 118598198 ISNI: 0000 0003 9700 6590 LCCN: n91022633 NTA: 127154221 VIAF: 315946573 WorldCat Identities: viaf-315946573 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ramesses_VII&oldid=975761013" Categories: Ramesses VII 12th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt 1120s BC deaths 12th century BC in Egypt 12th-century BC rulers Ramesses VI Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 30 August 2020, at 07:55 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7677	----	Sardis - Wikipedia Sardis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient city at the location of modern Sart, Turkey This article is about the ancient Lydian city. For the New York City restaurant, see Sardi's. For others, see Sardis (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Sardis" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Sardis Σάρδεις (in Greek) The Greek gymnasium of Sardis Shown within Turkey Alternative name Sardes Location Sart, Manisa Province, Turkey Region Lydia Coordinates 38°29′18″N 28°02′25″E / 38.48833°N 28.04028°E / 38.48833; 28.04028Coordinates: 38°29′18″N 28°02′25″E / 38.48833°N 28.04028°E / 38.48833; 28.04028 Type Settlement History Abandoned Around 1402 AD Cultures Greek, Lydian, Persian, Roman Site notes Excavation dates 1910–1914, 1922, 1958–present Archaeologists Howard Crosby Butler, G.M.A. Hanfmann, Crawford H. Greenewalt, jr., Nicholas Cahill Condition Ruined Ownership Public Public access Yes Website Archaeological Exploration of Sardis Sardis (/ˈsɑːrdɪs/) or Sardes (/ˈsɑːrdiːz/; Lydian: 𐤮𐤱𐤠𐤭𐤣 Sfard; Ancient Greek: Σάρδεις Sardeis; Old Persian: Sparda; Biblical Hebrew: ספרד‎ Sfarad) was an ancient city at the location of modern Sart (Sartmahmut before 19 October 2005), near Salihli, in Turkey's Manisa Province. Sardis was the capital of the ancient kingdom of Lydia,[1] one of the important cities of the Persian Empire, the seat of a Seleucid Satrap, the seat of a proconsul under the Roman Empire, and the metropolis of the province Lydia in later Roman and Byzantine times. As one of the seven churches of Asia, it was addressed by John, the author of the Book of Revelation in the New Testament,[2] in terms which seem to imply that its church members did not finish what they started, that they were about image and not substance.[3] Its importance was due first to its military strength, secondly to its situation on an important highway leading from the interior to the Aegean coast, and thirdly to its commanding the wide and fertile plain of the Hermus. Contents 1 Geography 2 History 2.1 Foundation stories 2.2 Target of conquest 2.3 Reliable gold coins 2.4 Desolation in 17 AD earthquake 2.5 Decline and fall in the second millennium, AD 3 Archaeological expeditions 3.1 Roman antiquities 3.2 Sardis synagogue 4 See also 5 References 6 Sources 7 Further reading 8 External links Geography[edit] Sardis was situated in the middle of Hermus valley, at the foot of Mount Tmolus, a steep and lofty spur which formed the citadel. It was about 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) south of the Hermus. Today, the site is located by the present day village of Sart, near Salihli in the Manisa province of Turkey, close to the Ankara - İzmir highway (approximately 72 kilometres (45 mi) from İzmir). The part of remains including the bath-gymnasium complex, synagogue and Byzantine shops is open to visitors year-round. History[edit] See also: Lydia (satrapy) The gymnasium complex of Sardis Inside the gymnasium of Sardis. Map of Sardis and other cities within the Lydian Empire Sardis in the middle of Lydia, c. 50 AD Temple of Artemis at Sardis Foundation stories[edit] The Greek historian and father of history, Herodotus, notes that the city was founded by the sons of Hercules, the Heraclides. According to Herodotus, the Heraclides ruled for five hundred and five years beginning with Agron, 1220 BC, and ending with Candaules, 716 BC. They were followed by the Mermnades, which began with Gyges, 716 BC, and ended with Croesus, 546 BC.[4] The earliest reference to Sardis is in The Persians of Aeschylus (472 BC); in the Iliad, the name “Hyde” seems to be given to the city of the Maeonian (i.e. Lydian) chiefs and in later times Hyde was said to be the older name of Sardis, or the name of its citadel. It is, however, more probable that Sardis was not the original capital of the Maeonians, but that it became so amid the changes which produced the powerful Lydian empire of the 8th century BC. Target of conquest[edit] The city was captured by the Cimmerians in the 7th century BC, by the Persians in the 6th, by the Athenians in the 5th, and by Antiochus III the Great at the end of the 3rd century BC. In the Persian era, Sardis was conquered by Cyrus the Great and formed the end station for the Persian Royal Road which began in Persepolis, capital of Persia. Sardis was the site of the most important Persian satrapy.[5] During the Ionian Revolt, the Athenians burnt down the city. Sardis remained under Persian domination until it surrendered to Alexander the Great in 334 BC. Reliable gold coins[edit] The early Lydian kingdom was very advanced in the industrial arts and Sardis was the chief seat of its manufactures. The most important of these trades was the manufacture and dyeing of delicate woolen stuffs and carpets. The stream Pactolus which flowed through the market-place "carried golden sands" in early antiquity, which was in reality gold dust out of Mount Tmolus. It was during the reign of King Croesus that the metallurgists of Sardis discovered the secret of separating gold from silver, thereby producing both metals of a purity never known before.[6] This was an economic revolution, for while gold nuggets panned or mined were used as currency, their purity was always suspect and a hindrance to trade. Such nuggets or coinage were naturally occurring alloys of gold and silver known as electrum and one could never know how much of it was gold and how much was silver. Sardis now could mint nearly pure silver and gold coins, the value of which could be – and was – trusted throughout the known world. This revolution made Sardis rich and Croesus' name synonymous with wealth itself. For this reason, Sardis is famed in history as the place where modern currency was invented. Desolation in 17 AD earthquake[edit] Remains of the Greek Byzantine shops and the Bath-Gymnasium Complex in Sardis The gymnasium complex of Sardis Remains of the Byzantine churches at Sardis Disaster came to the great city under the reign of the emperor Tiberius, when in 17 AD, Sardis was destroyed by an earthquake, but it was rebuilt with the help of ten million sesterces from the Emperor and exempted from paying taxes for five years.[7] It was one of the great cities of western Asia Minor until the later Byzantine period. Later, trade and the organization of commerce continued to be sources of great wealth. After Constantinople became the capital of the East, a new road system grew up connecting the provinces with the capital. Sardis then lay rather apart from the great lines of communication and lost some of its importance. It still, however, retained its titular supremacy and continued to be the seat of the metropolitan bishop of the province of Lydia, formed in 295 AD. It was enumerated as third, after Ephesus and Smyrna, in the list of cities of the Thracesion thema given by Constantine Porphyrogenitus in the 10th century. However, over the next four centuries it was in the shadow of the provinces of Magnesia-upon-Sipylum and Philadelphia, which retained their importance in the region. Decline and fall in the second millennium, AD[edit] After 1071, the Hermus valley began to suffer from the inroads of the Seljuk Turks but the Byzantine general John Doukas reconquered the city in 1097. The successes of the general Philokales in 1118 relieved the district from later Turkish pressure and the ability of the Comneni dynasty together with the gradual decay of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum meant that it remained under Byzantine dominion. When Constantinople was taken by the Venetians and Franks in 1204 Sardis came under the rule of the Byzantine Empire of Nicea. However once the Byzantines retook Constantinople in 1261, Sardis with the entire Asia Minor was neglected and the region eventually fell under the control of Ghazi (Ghazw) emirs. The Cayster valleys and a fort on the citadel of Sardis was handed over to them by treaty in 1306. The city continued its decline until its capture (and probable destruction) by the Turco-Mongol warlord Timur in 1402. Archaeological expeditions[edit] Details of the columns. Details of the Gymnasium complex. The Sardis Synagogue Synagogue of Sardis. Sardes wall tile with three dimensional effect. Further information: Byzantine churches at Sardis Current laws governing archaeological expeditions in Turkey ensure that all artifacts remain in Turkey. Some of the important finds from the site of Sardis are housed in the Archaeological Museum of Manisa, including Late Roman mosaics and sculpture, a helmet from the mid-6th century BCE, and pottery from various periods. Roman antiquities[edit] By the 19th century, Sardis was in ruins, showing construction chiefly of the Roman period. Early excavators included the British explorer George Dennis, who uncovered an enormous marble head of Faustina the Elder, wife of the Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius. Found in the precinct of the Temple of Artemis, it probably formed part of a pair of colossal statues devoted to the Imperial couple. The 1.76 metre high head is now kept at the British Museum.[8] The first large-scale archaeological expedition in Sardis was directed by a Princeton University team led by Howard Crosby Butler between years 1910–1914, unearthing a temple to Artemis, and more than a thousand Lydian tombs. The excavation campaign was halted by World War I, followed by the Turkish War of Independence, though it briefly resumed in 1922. Some surviving artifacts from the Butler excavation were added to the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. Sardis synagogue[edit] Main article: Sardis Synagogue The Hebrew place-name Sepharad may have meant Sardis. A new expedition known as the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis was founded in 1958 by G.M.A. Hanfmann, professor in the Department of Fine Arts at Harvard University, and by Henry Detweiler, dean of the Architecture School at Cornell University. Hanfmann excavated widely in the city and the region, excavating and restoring the major Roman bath-gymnasium complex, the synagogue, late Roman houses and shops, a Lydian industrial area for processing electrum into pure gold and silver, Lydian occupation areas, and tumulus tombs at Bin Tepe.[9] From 1976 until 2007, the excavation was directed by Crawford H. Greenewalt, Jr., professor in the Department of Classics at the University of California, Berkeley.[10] Since 2008, the excavation has been under the directorship of Nicholas Cahill, professor at the University of Wisconsin–Madison.[11] Since 1958, both Harvard and Cornell Universities have sponsored annual archeological expeditions to Sardis. These excavations unearthed perhaps the most impressive synagogue in the western diaspora yet discovered from antiquity, yielding over eighty Greek and seven Hebrew inscriptions as well as numerous mosaic floors. (For evidence in the east, see Dura Europos in Syria.) The discovery of the Sardis synagogue has reversed previous assumptions about Judaism in the later Roman empire. Along with the discovery of the godfearers / theosebeis inscription from Aphrodisias, it provides indisputable evidence for the continued presence of Jewish communities in Asia Minor and their integration into general Roman life at a time when many scholars previously assumed that Christianity had eclipsed Judaism.[citation needed] The synagogue was a section of a large bath-gymnasium complex, that was in use for about 450–500 years. In the late 4th or 5th century, part of the bath-gymnasium complex was changed into a synagogue. See also[edit] Cities of the ancient Near East List of synagogues in Turkey References[edit] ^ Rhodes, P.J. A History of the Classical Greek World 478-323 BC. 2nd edition. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010, p. 6. ^ Revelation 3:1–6 ^ revelation 3:2 ^ Cockayne, O. (1844). "On the Lydian Dynasty which preceded the Mermnadæ". Proceedings of the Philological Society. 1 (24): 274. ^ Raditsa 1983, p. 105. ^ Ramage, A.; Craddock, P. (2001). "King Croesus' Gold: Excavations at Sardis and the history of gold refining". Archaeological Exploration of Sardis.[full citation needed] ^ Tacitus, The Annals 2.47 ^ "Research collection online". British Museum. ^ Hanfmann, George M.A., Et al. 1983. Sardis from Prehistoric to Roman Times: Results of the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis 1958–1975, Harvard University Press. ^ Cahill, Nicholas D., ed. 2008. "Love for Lydia. A Sardis Anniversary Volume Presented to Crawford H. Greenewalt, jr.", Archaeological Exploration of Sardis. ^ "Archaeological Exploration of Sardis, Harvard Art Museums". Retrieved January 9, 2013. Sources[edit] Raditsa, Leo (1983). "Iranians in Asia Minor". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 3 (1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1139054942. Further reading[edit] Elderkin, G. W. "The Name of Sardis." Classical Philology 35, no. 1 (1940): 54-56. Accessed July 11, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/264594. Hanfmann, George M. A. "EXCAVATIONS AT SARDIS." Scientific American 204, no. 6 (1961): 124-38. Accessed July 11, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/24937494. HANFMANN, GEORGE M. A., and A. H. DETWEILER. "Sardis Through the Ages." Archaeology 19, no. 2 (1966): 90-97. Accessed July 11, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/41670460. George M. A. Hanfmann. "Archeological Explorations of Sardis." Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 27, no. 2 (1973): 13-26. Accessed July 11, 2020. doi:10.2307/3823622. Hanfmann, George M.A., Et al. 1983. Sardis from Prehistoric to Roman Times: Results of the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis 1958–1975, Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-78925-3 HANFMANN, G. M. A. "The Sacrilege Inscription: The Ethnic, Linguistic, Social and Religious Situation at Sardis at the End of the Persian Era." Bulletin of the Asia Institute, New Series, 1 (1987): 1-8. Accessed July 11, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/24048256. Greenewalt, Crawford H., Marcus L. Rautman, and Nicholas D. Cahill. "The Sardis Campaign of 1985." Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. Supplementary Studies, no. 25 (1988): 55-92. Accessed July 11, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/20066668. Ramage, Andrew. "EARLY IRON AGE SARDIS AND ITS NEIGHBOURS." In Anatolian Iron Ages 3: The Proceedings of the Third Anatolian Iron Ages Colloquium Held at Van, 6-12 August 1990, edited by Çilingiroğlu A. and French D.H., 163-72. London: British Institute at Ankara, 1994. Accessed July 11, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/10.18866/j.ctt1pc5gxc.26. Ramage, Nancy H. "PACTOLUS CLIFF: AN IRON AGE SITE AT SARDIS AND ITS POTTERY." In Anatolian Iron Ages 3: The Proceedings of the Third Anatolian Iron Ages Colloquium Held at Van, 6-12 August 1990, edited by Çilingiroğlu A. and French D.H., 173-84. London: British Institute at Ankara, 1994. Accessed July 11, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/10.18866/j.ctt1pc5gxc.27. Greenwalt, Crawford H. "Sardis in the Age of Xenophon". In: Pallas, 43/1995. Dans les pas des dix-mille, sous la direction de Pierre Briant. pp. 125-145. [DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/palla.1995.1367]; www.persee.fr/doc/palla_0031-0387_1995_num_43_1_1367 Gadbery, Laura M. "Archaeological Exploration of Sardis." Harvard University Art Museums Bulletin 4, no. 3 (1996): 49-53. Accessed July 11, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/4301536. Mitten, David Gordon. "Lydian Sardis and the Region of Colchis: Three Aspects". In: Sur les traces des Argonautes. Actes du 6e symposium de Vani (Colchide), 22-29 septembre 1990. Besançon : Université de Franche-Comté, 1996. pp. 129-140. (Annales littéraires de l'Université de Besançon, 613) [www.persee.fr/doc/ista_0000-0000_1996_act_613_1_1486] Cahill, Nicholas D., ed. 2008. "Love for Lydia. A Sardis Anniversary Volume Presented to Crawford H. Greenewalt, jr.", Archaeological Exploration of Sardis. ISBN 9780674031951. Payne, Annick, and Jorit Wintjes. "Sardis and the Archaeology of Lydia." In Lords of Asia Minor: An Introduction to the Lydians, 47-62. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2016. Accessed July 11, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvc5pfx2.7. Berlin, Andrea M., and Paul J. Kosmin, eds. Spear-Won Land: Sardis from the King's Peace to the Peace of Apamea. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 2019. Accessed July 11, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvj7wnr9. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sardis. The Archaeological Exploration of Sardis The Archaeological Exploration of Sardis, of the Harvard University Art Museums The Search for Sardis, history of the archaeological excavations in Sardis, in the Harvard Magazine Sardis, at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Sardis Turkey, a comprehensive photographic tour of the site The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites - Sardis Livius.org: Sardes - pictures v t e Seven churches of Asia Ephesus Smyrna Pergamon Thyatira Sardis Philadelphia (modern Alaşehir) Laodicea v t e Ancient settlements in Turkey Aegean Achaion Limen Acharaca Acmonia Adramyttium Agatheira Aegae Airai Aizanoi Alabanda Alinda Allianoi Almura Amnista Amorium Amos Amynanda Amyzon Anaua Anineta Annaea Antandrus Antioch on the Maeander Apamea in Phrygia Aphrodisias Apollonia in Mysia Apollonia Salbaces Apollonis Apollonos Hieron Appia Appolena Aragokome Araukome Arilla Aroma Aspaneus Astragon Astyra near Adramyttium Astyra near Pergamon Astyria Atarneus Atarneus sub Pitanem Attea Attuda Aulae Aurelia Neapolis Aureliopolis in Lydia Aurokra Bageis Bargasa Bargasa in northern Caria Bargylia Beudos Beycesultan Birgena Blaundus Bonitai Boukolion Boutheia Briula Bruzus Bybassus Cadi Callipolis Caloe Canae Carene Carmylessus Carura Caryanda Castabus Casystes Cedreae Celaenae Ceramus Chalcetor Choria Chrysaoris Chytrium Cidramus Cindye Cisthene Clannuda Claros Colophon Colossae Conium Coryphas Cybeleia Cyllandus Cyme Daldis Dareioukome Dideiphyta Didyma Digda Dioclea Dionysiopolis Dios Hieron in Ionia Dios Hieron in Lydia Dioskome Docimium Doroukome Eibos Eiokome Elaea Embatum Emoddi Ephesus Erines Erythrae Erythras Etsyena Eukarpia Euhippe Eumeneia Euromus Euthenae Euxine Gambrium Gerga Gergitha Gerriadai Glauke Gryneium Halicarnassus Halisarna Harpasa Helos Heraclea at Latmus Heraclea in Aeolis Heraclea in Lydia Heraclea Salbace Hermocapelia Hierapolis Hierapolis of the Phyrgian Pentapolis Hierocaesarea Homadena Hydai Hydas Hydissus Hygassos Hyllarima Hypaepa Hypokremnos Hyrcanis Iasos Iaza Idyma Ioniapolis Ioudda Ipsus Isinda in Ionia Iskome Kadyie Kaira Kalabantia Kasara Kasossos Kaualena Kaunos Kilaraza Kildara Klazomenai Kleimaka Kleros Politike Knidos Koddinou Petra Koraia Korakoe Koresa Kouara Kyllene Kymnissa Kys Labraunda Lagina Lalandos Lamyana Lankena Laodicea on the Lycus Larisa in Caria Larisa in Ionia Larisa in Lydia Larissa Phrikonis Larymna Lasnedda Latmus Lebedus Leimon Leucae Leucophrys Limantepe Lobolda Lunda Lydae Lyrna Lysimachia Madnasa Maeandropolis Magnesia ad Sipylum Magnesia on the Maeander Maiboza Maionia in Lydia Malene Marathesium Mastaura Meiros Meiros Megale Melampagos Meloukome Metropolis in Lydia Metropolis in southern Phrygia Miletus Mylasa Mobolla Mokolda Mossyna Mostene Motella Myloukome Myndus Myrina Myus Nais Nasos Naulochon Naulochus Naxia Neapolis Neonteichos Nisyra Notion Nymphaeum Nysa on the Maeander Odon Oenoanda Olaeis Olymos Oroanna Orthoisa Ortygia Otrus Palaemyndus Panasion 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en-wikipedia-org-7679	----	Abulites - Wikipedia Abulites From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Abulites retained the satrapy of Susania under Alexander the Great in 330 BC. The "Porus" coinage of Alexander, struck circa 325-323 BC in Susa or Babylon, often bears the marks "AB" and "Ξ" (here "Ξ" appears on the obverse and "AB" on the reverse -the hoops of the "B" appear on the left leg of the "A"), which may correspond to Abulites and Xenophilus.[1][2] Abulites went to help Alexander in the crossing of the Gedrosian desert, but he brought a huge load of coins rather than much-needed supplies, thus precipitating his demise.[3] Abulites (Greek: Ἀβουλίτης) was the Achaemenid satrap (governor) of Susiana during the reign of Darius III (336–330 BC), and retained the satrapy as a Hellenistic satrap under Alexander the Great until circa 324 BC, when he was executed for sedition. Contents 1 Surrender to Alexander 2 Gedrosian desert and coinage 3 References 4 Sources Surrender to Alexander[edit] He may have been of Elamite origin, although his son, Oxathres (Gatha Avestan: Huxšathra), bears an Iranian name, "one that seems distinctly Zoroastrian".[4] After the Battle of Gaugamela (331 BC), the Mesopotamian province of the Achaemenid Empire quickly fell to Alexander. Thereafter, Abulites had no choice but to surrender nearby Susa. After entering Susa, Alexander captured "a vast collection of treasure, including 50,000 talents of silver in ingots".[4] Treasure from Xerxes' campaign in mainland Greece was found and taken as well. Some statuary from Athens, such as the bronze statue of Harmodius and Haristogiton, "the Tyrant-slayers", was recovered by Alexander in Susa.[5] Susa was the co-capital of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, but the "hoarding of specie" does illustrate the "shortsightedness of Achaemenid fiscal policy" according to C. J. Brunner.[4] As Alexander was preparing to move into Persis, he left a garrison under the Macedonian Xenophilus (who replaced the Persian commandant Mazarus), and reconfirmed Abulites as satrap of Susania, "holding civil jurisdiction".[6][4] Abulites remained satrap until Alexander's return from his Indian campaign; in the meantime, Abulites may "have moved to assert his independence".[4] Though this remains unclear, Abulites and his son were "promptly arrested and executed".[4] "Immediately afterwards", Alexander organized the mass weddings at Susa, "thus again showing his commitment to the ideal of Greek and Persian partnership".[4] Gedrosian desert and coinage[edit] See also: Indian campaign of Alexander the Great Plutarch (Alex. 68.7) relates a story in which Abulites was requested by Alexander to bring supplies after the disastrous crossing of the Gedrosian desert, but Abulites instead brought huge amounts of coinage, about 3000 tales (86 tons).[3] In a rage, Alexander threw the coins at horses, asking what help this would be to a hungry army. Alexander shouted "What good have you done having brought this?". Thereafter Abulites was jailed by Alexander.[3] Some of these coins may have been the "Porus" coins of Alexander, struck in 325-323 BC in Babylon or Susa, which often bear the initials "AB" and "Ξ", possibly identified with the initials of Abulites and his associated Macedonian general Xenophilus.[3] References[edit] ^ Holt, Frank L. (2003). Alexander the Great and the Mystery of the Elephant Medallions. University of California Press. p. 105. ISBN 9780520238817. ^ CNG: KINGS of MACEDON. Alexander III ‘the Great’. 336-323 BC. AR ‘Medallion’ of 5 Shekels or Dekadrachm (33mm, 38.75 g, 5h). Local (Satrapal) mint in Babylon. Struck circa 325-323 BC. ^ a b c d Holt, Frank L. (2003). Alexander the Great and the Mystery of the Elephant Medallions. University of California Press. pp. 105–106. ISBN 9780520238817. ^ a b c d e f g Brunner 1983, p. 228. ^ D'Ooge, Martin Luther (1909). The acropolis of Athens. New York : Macmillan. p. 64. ^ Heckel 2009, p. 38. Sources[edit] Brunner, C.J. (1983). "ABOULITES". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 3. p. 228.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Heckel, Waldemar (2009). "Alexander's Conquest of Asia". In Heckel, Waldemar; Tritle, Lawrence A. (eds.). Alexander the Great: A New History. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1444360158.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC v t e Hellenistic satraps Satraps under Alexander the Great (334-323 BC) Ada (Queen of Caria) Asander, Menander (Lydia) Calas, Demarchus (Hellespontine Phrygia) Antigonus (Greater Phrygia) Balakros, Menes (Cilicia) Abistamenes (Cappadocia) Abdalonymus (Sidon) Mithrenes (Armenia) Mazaeus, Stamenes (Babylon) Mazakes (Mesopotamia) Abulites (Susiana) Oxydates, Atropates (Media) Phrasaortes, Oxines, Peucestas (Persis) Cleomenes of Naucratis (Egypt) Satibarzanes (Aria) Sibyrtius (Carmania) Autophradates (Tapuri, Mardi) Andragoras (Parthia) Amminapes, Phrataphernes, Pharismanes (Hyrcania and Parthia) Artabazos, Cleitus the Black, Amyntas (Bactria) Oxyartes (Paropamisia) Philip, Eudemus (India) Peithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara) Taxiles (Punjab) Porus (Indus) Satraps at the Partition of Babylon (323 BC) Antipater (Macedon and Greece) Philo (Illyria) Lysimachus (Thrace) Leonnatus (Hellespontine Phrygia) Antigonus (Phrygia) Asander (Caria) Nearchus (Lycia and Pamphylia) Menander (Lydia) Philotas (Cilicia) Eumenes (Cappadocia and Paphlagonia) Ptolemy (Egypt) Laomedon of Mytilene (Syria) Neoptolemus (Armenia) Peucestas (Persis) Arcesilaus (Mesopotamia) Peithon (Greater Media) Atropates (Lesser Media) Scynus (Susiana) Tlepolemus (Persia) Nicanor (Parthia) Phrataphernes (Armenia, Parthia) Antigenes (Susiana) Archon (Pelasgia) Philip (Hyrcania) Stasanor (Aria and Drangiana) Sibyrtius (Arachosia and Gedrosia) Amyntas (Bactria) Scythaeus (Sogdiana) Oxyartes (Paropamisia) Taxiles (Punjab) Peithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara) Porus (Indus) Satraps at the Partition of Triparadisus (321 BC) Antipater (Macedon and Greece) Lysimachus (Thrace) Arrhidaeus (Hellespontine Phrygia) Antigonus (Phrygia, Lycia and Pamphylia) Cassander (Caria) Cleitus the White (Lydia) Philoxenus (Cilicia) Nicanor (Cappadocia and Paphlagonia) Ptolemy (Egypt) Laomedon of Mytilene (Syria) Peucestas (Persis) Amphimachus (Mesopotamia) Peithon (Media) Tlepolemus (Carmania) Philip (Parthia) Antigenes (Susiana) Seleucus (Babylonia) Stasanor (Bactria and Sogdiana) Stasander (Aria and Drangiana) Sibyrtius (Arachosia and Gedrosia) Oxyartes (Paropamisia) Taxiles (Punjab) Peithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara) Porus (Indus) Later Satraps Peithon, son of Agenor (Babylon) Sibyrtius (Arachosia, Drangiana) Eudemus (Indus) Bagadates, Ardakhshir I, Wahbarz, Vadfradad I, Vadfradad II, Alexander c.220 BC (Persis) Andragoras (Parthia) Demodamas (Bactria, Sogdiana) Diodotus (Bactria) Alexander (Lydia) Molon c.220 BC, Timarchus, c.175 BC (Media) Apollodorus (Susiana) Ptolemaeus (Commagene) Noumenios, Hyspaosines c.150 BC (Characene) Hellenistic satraps were preceded by Achaemenid rulers, and followed or ruled by Hellenistic rulers Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abulites&oldid=944714712" Categories: 4th-century BC deaths Satraps of the Achaemenid Empire Satraps of the Alexandrian Empire People executed by Alexander the Great Deaths by javelin Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text CS1 maint: ref=harv Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Español فارسی Galego Hrvatski مصرى Nederlands Português Русский 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en-wikipedia-org-7689	----	Ionian Revolt - Wikipedia Ionian Revolt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search military rebellions by Greek cities in Asia Minor against Persian rule (499 BC–493 BC) Ionian Revolt Part of the Greco-Persian Wars Location and main events of the Ionian Revolt. Date 499–493 BC Location Asia Minor and Cyprus Result Decisive Persian victory Territorial changes Persia re-establishes control over Greek regions in Asia Minor and Cyprus. Belligerents Ionia, Aeolis, Doris, Caria, Athens, Eretria, Cyprus  Persian Empire Commanders and leaders Aristagoras † Charopinos Hermophantus Eualcides † Melanthius Dionysius of Phocaea Histiaeus † Hecataeus Onesilus † Megabates Artaphernes Daurises † Hyamees Otanes Datis v t e Greco-Persian Wars Ionian Revolt First Persian invasion Second Persian invasion Greek counterattack Wars of the Delian League v t e Ionian Revolt Naxos Sardis Ephesus Cyprus Marsyas Labraunda Pedasus Lade Miletus Chios Malene The Ionian Revolt, and associated revolts in Aeolis, Doris, Cyprus and Caria, were military rebellions by several Greek regions of Asia Minor against Persian rule, lasting from 499 BC to 493 BC. At the heart of the rebellion was the dissatisfaction of the Greek cities of Asia Minor with the tyrants appointed by Persia to rule them,[citation needed] along with the individual actions of two Milesian tyrants, Histiaeus and Aristagoras. The cities of Ionia had been conquered by Persia around 540 BC, and thereafter were ruled by native tyrants, nominated by the Persian satrap in Sardis. In 499 BC, the tyrant of Miletus, Aristagoras, launched a joint expedition with the Persian satrap Artaphernes to conquer Naxos, in an attempt to bolster his position. The mission was a debacle, and sensing his imminent removal as tyrant, Aristagoras chose to incite the whole of Ionia into rebellion against the Persian king Darius the Great. In 498 BC, supported by troops from Athens and Eretria, the Ionians marched on, captured, and burnt Sardis. However, on their return journey to Ionia, they were followed by Persian troops, and decisively beaten at the Battle of Ephesus. This campaign was the only offensive action by the Ionians, who subsequently went on the defensive. The Persians responded in 497 BC with a three pronged attack aimed at recapturing the outlying areas of the rebellion, but the spread of the revolt to Caria meant that the largest army, under Daurises, relocated there. While initially campaigning successfully in Caria, this army was annihilated in an ambush at the Battle of Pedasus. This resulted in a stalemate for the rest of 496 BC and 495 BC. By 494 BC the Persian army and navy had regrouped, and they made straight for the epicentre of the rebellion at Miletus. The Ionian fleet sought to defend Miletus by sea, but was decisively beaten at the Battle of Lade, after the defection of the Samians. Miletus was then besieged, captured, and its population was brought under Persian rule. This double defeat effectively ended the revolt, and the Carians surrendered to the Persians as a result. The Persians spent 493 BC reducing the cities along the west coast that still held out against them, before finally imposing a peace settlement on Ionia which was generally considered to be both just and fair. The Ionian Revolt constituted the first major conflict between Greece and the Persian Empire, and as such represents the first phase of the Greco-Persian Wars. Although Asia Minor had been brought back into the Persian fold, Darius vowed to punish Athens and Eretria for their support of the revolt. Moreover, seeing that the myriad city states of Greece posed a continued threat to the stability of his Empire, according to Herodotus, Darius decided to conquer the whole of Greece. In 492 BC, the first Persian invasion of Greece, the next phase of the Greco-Persian Wars, began as a direct consequence of the Ionian Revolt. Contents 1 Sources 2 Background 3 Naxos campaign (499 BC) 4 Start of the Ionian Revolt (499 BC) 5 Ionian offensive (498 BC) 5.1 Sardis 5.2 Battle of Ephesus 5.3 Spread of the revolt 6 Persian counter-offensive (497–495 BC) 6.1 Cyprus 6.2 Hellespont and Propontis 6.3 Caria (496 BC) 6.3.1 Battle of the Marsyas 6.3.2 Battle of Labraunda 6.3.3 Battle of Pedasus 6.4 Ionia 7 End of the revolt (494–493 BC) 7.1 Battle of Lade 7.2 Fall of Miletus 7.3 Histiaeus's campaign (493 BC) 7.3.1 Chios 7.3.2 Battle of Malene 7.4 Final operations (493 BC) 8 Aftermath 9 Significance 10 In Modern Literature 11 References 12 Bibliography 12.1 Ancient sources 12.2 Modern sources Sources[edit] Main article: Herodotus Coin of Chios just before the revolt, circa 525–510 BC.[1] Coin of Lesbos, Ionia. Circa 510–480 BC. Practically the only primary source for the Ionian Revolt is the Greek historian Herodotus.[2] Herodotus, who has been called the 'Father of History',[3] was born in 484 BC in Halicarnassus, Asia Minor (then under Persian overlordship). He wrote his 'Enquiries' (Greek—Historia; English—(The) Histories) around 440–430 BC, trying to trace the origins of the Greco-Persian Wars, which would still have been relatively recent history (the wars finally ending in 450 BC).[4] Herodotus's approach was entirely novel, and at least from the point of view of Western society, he does seem to have invented 'history' as we know it.[4] As Holland has it: "For the first time, a chronicler set himself to trace the origins of a conflict not to a past so remote so as to be utterly fabulous, nor to the whims and wishes of some god, nor to a people's claim to manifest destiny, but rather explanations he could verify personally."[4] Some subsequent ancient historians, despite following in his footsteps, criticised Herodotus, starting with Thucydides.[5][6] Nevertheless, Thucydides chose to begin his history where Herodotus left off (at the Siege of Sestos), and therefore presumably felt that Herodotus's history was accurate enough not to need re-writing or correcting.[6] Plutarch criticised Herodotus in his essay "On The Malignity of Herodotus", describing Herodotus as philobarbaros (φιλοβάρβαρος, "barbarian-lover") and for not being pro-Greek enough, which suggests that Herodotus might actually have done a reasonable job of being even-handed.[7] A negative view of Herodotus was passed on to Renaissance Europe, though he remained widely read.[8] However, since the 19th century his reputation has been dramatically rehabilitated by the age of democracy and some archaeological finds which have repeatedly confirmed his version of events.[9] The prevailing modern view is that Herodotus generally did a remarkable job in his Historia, but that some of his specific details (particularly troop numbers and dates) should be viewed with skepticism.[9] Nevertheless, there are still many historians who believe Herodotus' account has an anti-Persian bias and that much of his story was embellished for dramatic effect.[10] Background[edit] In the dark age that followed the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization, significant numbers of Greeks emigrated to Asia Minor and settled there. These settlers were from three tribal groups: the Aeolians, Dorians and Ionians.[11] The Ionians had settled along the coasts of Lydia and Caria, founding the twelve cities which made up Ionia.[11] These cities were Miletus, Myus and Priene in Caria; Ephesus, Colophon, Lebedos, Teos, Clazomenae, Phocaea and Erythrae in Lydia; and the islands of Samos and Chios.[12] Although the Ionian cities were independent from each other, they acknowledged their shared heritage, and had a common temple and meeting place, the Panionion. They thus formed a 'cultural league', to which they would admit no other cities, or even other tribal Ionians.[13][14] The cities of Ionia had remained independent until they were conquered by the famous Lydian king Croesus, in around 560 BC.[15] The Ionian cities then remained under Lydian rule until Lydia was in turn conquered by the nascent Achaemenid Empire of Cyrus the Great.[16] Darius, with a label in Greek (ΔΑΡΕΙΟΣ, top right), on the Darius Vase. While fighting the Lydians, Cyrus had sent messages to the Ionians asking them to revolt against Lydian rule, which the Ionians had refused to do.[16] After Cyrus completed the conquest of Lydia, the Ionian cities now offered to be his subjects under the same terms as they had been subjects of Croesus.[16] Cyrus refused, citing the Ionians' unwillingness to help him previously. The Ionians thus prepared to defend themselves, and Cyrus sent the Median general Harpagus to conquer Ionia.[17] He first attacked Phocaea; the Phocaeans decided to entirely abandon their city and sail into exile in Sicily, rather than become Persian subjects (although many subsequently returned).[18] Some Teians also chose to emigrate when Harpagus attacked Teos, but the rest of the Ionians remained, and were in turn conquered.[19] The Persians found the Ionians difficult to rule. Elsewhere in the empire, Cyrus was able to identify elite native groups to help him rule his new subjects – such as the priesthood of Judea.[20] No such group existed in Greek cities at this time; while there was usually an aristocracy, this was inevitably divided into feuding factions.[20] The Persians thus settled for sponsoring a tyrant in each Ionian city, even though this drew them into the Ionians' internal conflicts. Furthermore, a tyrant might develop an independent streak, and have to be replaced.[20] The tyrants themselves faced a difficult task; they had to deflect the worst of their fellow citizens' hatred, while staying in the favour of the Persians.[20] About 40 years after the Persian conquest of Ionia, and in the reign of the fourth Persian king, Darius the Great, the stand-in Milesian tyrant Aristagoras found himself in this familiar predicament.[21] Aristagoras's uncle Histiaeus had accompanied Darius on campaign in 513 BC, and when offered a reward, had asked for part of the conquered Thracian territory. Although this was granted, Histiaeus's ambition alarmed Darius's advisors, and Histiaeus was thus further 'rewarded' by being compelled to remain in Susa as Darius's "Royal Table-Companion".[21] Taking over from Histiaeus, Aristagoras was faced with bubbling discontent in Miletus. In 500 BC, Aristagoras was approached by some exiles from Naxos, who asked him to take control of the island.[22] Seeing an opportunity to strengthen his position in Miletus by conquering Naxos, Aristagoras approached the satrap of Lydia, Artaphernes, with a proposal. If Artaphernes provided an army, Aristagoras would conquer the island, thus extending the boundaries of the empire for Darius, and he would then give Artaphernes a share of the spoils to cover the cost of raising the army.[23] Artaphernes agreed in principle, and asked Darius for permission to launch the expedition. Darius assented to this, and a force of 200 triremes was assembled in order to attack Naxos the following year.[24] Naxos campaign (499 BC)[edit] Main article: Siege of Naxos (499 BC) In the spring of 499 BC, Artaphernes readied the Persian force, and placed his cousin Megabates in command.[24] He then sent ships on to Miletus, where the Ionian troops levied by Aristagoras embarked, and the force then set sail for Naxos.[25] The expedition quickly descended into a debacle. Aristagoras fell out with Megabates on the journey towards Naxos, and Herodotus says that Megabates then sent messengers to Naxos, warning the Naxians of the force's intention.[25] It is also possible, however, that this story was spread by Aristagoras after the event, by way of a justification for the subsequent failure of the campaign.[2] At any rate, the Naxians were able to prepare properly for a siege, and the Persians arrived to a well-defended expedition.[26] The Persians laid siege to the Naxians for four months, but eventually they and Aristagoras both ran out of money. The force sailed back to the mainland without a victory.[26] Start of the Ionian Revolt (499 BC)[edit] Location of Ionia within Asia Minor. With the failure of his attempt to conquer Naxos, Aristagoras found himself in dire straits; he was unable to repay Artaphernes, and had, moreover, alienated himself from the Persian royal family. He fully expected to be stripped of his position by Artaphernes. In a desperate attempt to save himself, Aristagoras chose to incite his own subjects, the Milesians, to revolt against their Persian masters, thereby beginning the Ionian Revolt.[27] In autumn 499 BC, Aristagoras held a meeting with the members of his faction in Miletus. He declared that in his opinion the Milesians should revolt, to which all but the historian Hecataeus agreed.[28] At the same time, a messenger sent by Histiaeus arrived in Miletus, imploring Aristagoras to rebel against Darius. Herodotus suggests that this was because Histiaeus was desperate to return to Ionia, and thought he would be sent to Ionia if there was a rebellion.[27] Aristagoras therefore openly declared his revolt against Darius, abdicated from his role as tyrant, and declared Miletus to be a democracy.[29] Herodotus has no doubt that this was only a pretence on Aristagoras's part of giving up power. Rather it was designed to make the Milesians enthusiastically join the rebellion.[30] The army that had been sent to Naxos was still assembled at Myus[28] and included contingents from other Greek cities of Asia Minor (i.e. Aeolia and Doris) as well as men from Mytilene, Mylasa, Termera and Cyme.[30] Aristagoras sent men to capture all the Greek tyrants present in the army and handed them over to their respective cities in order to gain the cooperation of those cities.[30] Bury and Meiggs stated that the handovers were done without bloodshed with the exception of Mytilene, whose tyrant was stoned to death; tyrants elsewhere were simply banished.[31][32] It has also been suggested (Herodotus does not explicitly say so) that Aristagoras incited the whole army to join his revolt,[2] and also took possession of the ships that the Persians had supplied.[29] If the latter is true, it may explain the length of time it took for the Persians to launch a naval assault on Ionia, since they would have needed to build a new fleet.[33] Although Herodotus presents the revolt as a consequence of Aristagoras and Histiaeus's personal motives, it is clear that Ionia must have been ripe for rebellion anyway. The primary grievance was the tyrants installed by the Persians.[2] While Greek states had in the past often been ruled by tyrants, this was a form of government on the decline. Moreover, past tyrants had tended (and needed) to be strong and able leaders, whereas the rulers appointed by the Persians were simply the representatives of the Persians. Backed by Persian military might, these tyrants did not need the support of the population, and could thus rule absolutely.[2] Aristagoras's actions have thus been likened to tossing a flame into a kindling box; they incited rebellion across Ionia, and tyrannies were everywhere abolished, and democracies established in their place.[29] Aristagoras had brought all of Hellenic Asia Minor into revolt, but evidently realised that the Greeks would need other allies in order to successfully fight the Persians.[32][34] In the winter of 499 BC, he first sailed to Sparta, the pre-eminent Greek state in matters of war. However, despite Aristagoras's entreaties, the Spartan king Cleomenes I turned down the offer to lead the Greeks against the Persians. Aristagoras therefore turned instead to Athens.[34] Athens had recently become a democracy, overthrowing its own tyrant Hippias. In their fight to establish the democracy, the Athenians had asked the Persians for aid (which was not in the end needed), in return for submitting to Persian overlordship.[35] Some years later, Hippias had attempted to regain power in Athens, assisted by the Spartans. This attempt failed and Hippias fled to Artaphernes, and tried to persuade him to subjugate Athens.[36] The Athenians dispatched ambassadors to Artaphernes to dissuade him from taking action, but Artaphernes merely instructed the Athenians to take Hippias back as tyrant.[34] Needless to say, the Athenians had balked at this, and resolved instead to be openly at war with Persia.[36] Since they were already an enemy of Persia, Athens was already in a position to support the Ionian cities in their revolt.[34] The fact that the Ionian democracies were inspired by the example of the Athenian democracy no doubt helped persuade the Athenians to support the Ionian Revolt, especially since the cities of Ionia were (supposedly) originally Athenian colonies.[34] Aristagoras was also successful in persuading the city of Eretria to send assistance to the Ionians for reasons that are not completely clear. Possibly commercial reasons were a factor; Eretria was a mercantile city, whose trade was threatened by Persian dominance of the Aegean.[34] Herodotus suggests that the Eretrians supported the revolt in order to repay the support the Milesians had given Eretria some time previously, possibly referring to the Lelantine War.[37] The Athenians sent twenty triremes to Miletus, reinforced by five from Eretria. Herodotus described the arrival of these ships as the beginning of troubles between Greeks and barbarians.[31] Ionian offensive (498 BC)[edit] Ionian Revolt: Sardis campaign (498 BC) Over the winter, Aristagoras continued to foment rebellion. In one incident, he told a group of Paeonians (originally from Thrace), who Darius had brought to live in Phrygia, to return to their homeland. Herodotus says that his only purpose in doing this was to vex the Persian high command.[38] Sardis[edit] Remains of the acropolis of Sardis.[39] The burning of Sardis by the Greeks during the Ionian Revolt in 498 BC. In the spring of 498 BC, an Athenian force of twenty triremes, accompanied by five from Eretria, set sail for Ionia.[33] They joined up with the main Ionian force near Ephesus.[40] Declining to personally lead the force, Aristagoras appointed his brother Charopinus and another Milesian, Hermophantus, as generals.[37] This force was then guided by the Ephesians through the mountains to Sardis, Artaphernes's satrapal capital.[33] The Greeks caught the Persians unaware, and were able to capture the lower city. However, Artaphernes still held the citadel with a significant force of men.[40] The lower city then caught on fire, Herodotus suggests accidentally, which quickly spread. The Persians in the citadel, being surrounded by a burning city, emerged into the market-place of Sardis, where they fought with the Greeks, forcing them back. The Greeks, demoralised, then retreated from the city, and began to make their way back to Ephesus.[41] Herodotus reports that when Darius heard of the burning of Sardis, he swore vengeance upon the Athenians (after asking who they indeed were), and tasked a servant with reminding him three times each day of his vow: "Master, remember the Athenians".[42] Battle of Ephesus[edit] Herodotus says that when the Persians in Asia Minor heard of the attack on Sardis, they gathered together, and marched to the relief of Artaphernes.[43] When they arrived at Sardis, they found the Greeks recently departed. So they followed their tracks back towards Ephesus.[43] They caught up with the Greeks outside Ephesus and the Greeks were forced to turn and prepare to fight.[43] Holland suggests that the Persians were primarily cavalry (hence their ability to catch up with the Greeks).[33] The typical Persian cavalry of the time were probably missile cavalry, whose tactics were to wear down a static enemy with volley after volley of arrows.[44] It is clear that the demoralised and tired Greeks were no match for the Persians, and were completely routed in the battle which ensued at Ephesus.[33][43] Many were killed, including the Eretrian general, Eualcides.[43] The Ionians who escaped the battle made for their own cities, while the remaining Athenians and Eretrians managed to return to their ships and sailed back to Greece.[33][43] Spread of the revolt[edit] The Athenians now ended their alliance with the Ionians, since the Persians had proved to be anything but the easy prey that Aristagoras had described.[45] However, the Ionians remained committed to their rebellion and the Persians did not seem to follow up their victory at Ephesus.[45] Presumably these ad hoc forces were not equipped to lay siege to any of the cities. Despite the defeat at Ephesus, the revolt actually spread further. The Ionians sent men to the Hellespont and Propontis and captured Byzantium and the other nearby cities.[45] They also persuaded the Carians to join the rebellion.[45] Furthermore, seeing the spread of the rebellion, the kingdoms of Cyprus also revolted against Persian rule without any outside persuasion.[46] Persian counter-offensive (497–495 BC)[edit] Achaemenid cavalry in Asia Minor. Altıkulaç Sarcophagus. Herodotus's narrative after the Battle of Ephesus is ambiguous in its exact chronology; historians generally place Sardis and Ephesus in 498 BC.[33][47] Herodotus next describes the spread of the revolt (thus also in 498 BC), and says that the Cypriots had one year of freedom, therefore placing the action in Cyprus to 497 BC.[48] He next says that "Daurises, Hymaees, and Otanes, all of them Persian generals and married to daughters of Darius, pursued those Ionians who had marched to Sardis, and drove them to their ships. After this victory they divided the cities among themselves and sacked them."[48] This passage implies these Persian generals counter-attacked immediately after the Battle of Ephesus. However, the cities that Herodotus describes Daurises as besieging were on the Hellespont,[49] which (by Herodotus's own reckoning) did not become involved in the revolt until after Ephesus. It is therefore easiest to reconcile the account by assuming that Daurises, Hymaees, and Otanes waited until the next campaigning season (i.e., 497 BC), before going on the counter-offensive. The Persian actions that Herodotus described at the Hellespont and in Caria seem to be in the same year, and most commentators place them in 497 BC.[47] Cyprus[edit] Map showing the ancient kingdoms of Cyprus In Cyprus, all the kingdoms had revolted except that of Amathus. The leader of the Cypriot revolt was Onesilus, brother of the king of Salamis, Gorgus. Gorgus did not want to revolt, so Onesilus locked his brother out of the city and made himself king. Gorgus went over to the Persians, and Onesilus persuaded the other Cypriots, apart from the Amathusians, to revolt. He then settled down to besiege Amathus.[46] The following year (497 BC), Onesilus (still besieging Amathus), heard that a Persian force under Artybius had been dispatched to Cyprus. Onesilus thus sent messengers to Ionia, asking them to send reinforcements, which they did, "in great force".[50] A Persian army eventually arrived in Cyprus, supported by a Phoenician fleet. The Ionians opted to fight at sea and defeated the Phoenicians.[51] In the simultaneous land battle outside Salamis, the Cypriots gained an initial advantage, killing Artybius. However, the defection of two contingents to the Persians crippled their cause, they were routed and Onesilus was killed. The revolt in Cyprus was thus crushed and the Ionians sailed home.[52] Hellespont and Propontis[edit] The Persian forces in Asia Minor seem to have been reorganised in 497 BC, with three of Darius's sons-in-law, Daurises, Hymaees, and Otanes, taking charge of three armies.[47] Herodotus suggests that these generals divided up the rebellious lands between themselves and then set out to attack their respective areas.[48] Daurises, who seems to have had the largest army, initially took his army to the Hellespont.[47] There, he systematically besieged and took the cities of Dardanus, Abydos, Percote, Lampsacus, and Paesus, each in a single day according to Herodotus.[49] However, when he heard that the Carians were revolting, he moved his army southwards to attempt to crush this new rebellion.[49] This places the timing of the Carian revolt to early 497 BC.[47] Hymaees went to the Propontis and took the city of Cius. After Daurises moved his forces towards Caria, Hymaees marched towards the Hellespont and captured many of the Aeolian cities as well as some of the cities in the Troad. However, he then fell ill and died, ending his campaign.[53] Meanwhile, Otanes, together with Artaphernes, campaigned in Ionia (see below).[54] Caria (496 BC)[edit] Battle of the Marsyas[edit] Ionian revolt: Carian campaign (496 BC). Hearing that the Carians had rebelled, Daurises led his army south into Caria. The Carians gathered at the "White Pillars", on the Marsyas River (the modern Çine), a tributary of the Meander.[55] Pixodorus, a relative of the king of Cilicia, suggested that the Carians should cross the river and fight with it at their backs, so as to prevent retreat and thus make them fight more bravely. This idea was rejected and the Carians made the Persians cross the river to fight them.[55] The ensuing battle was, according to Herodotus, a long affair, with the Carians fighting obstinately before eventually succumbing to the weight of Persian numbers. Herodotus suggests that 10,000 Carians and 2,000 Persians died in the battle.[56] Battle of Labraunda[edit] The survivors of Marsyas fell back to a sacred grove of Zeus at Labraunda and deliberated whether to surrender to the Persians or to flee Asia altogether.[56] However, while deliberating, they were joined by a Milesian army, and with these reinforcements resolved instead to carry on fighting. The Persians then attacked the army at Labraunda, and inflicted an even heavier defeat, with the Milesians suffering particularly bad casualties.[57] Battle of Pedasus[edit] After the double victory over the Carians, Daurises began the task of reducing the Carian strongholds. The Carians resolved to fight on, and decided to lay an ambush for Daurises on the road through Pedasus.[58] Herodotus implies that this occurred more or less directly after Labraunda, but it has also been suggested that Pedasus occurred the following year (496 BC), giving the Carians time to regroup.[47] The Persians arrived at Pedasus during the night, and the ambush was sprung to great effect. The Persian army was annihilated and Daurises and the other Persian commanders were slain.[58] The disaster at Pedasus seems to have created a stalemate in the land campaign, and there was apparently little further campaigning in 496 BC and 495 BC.[47] Greek hoplite and Persian warrior depicted fighting. 5th century BC Ionia[edit] The third Persian army, under the command of Otanes and Artaphernes, attacked Ionia and Aeolia.[59] They re-took Clazomenae and Cyme, probably in 497 BC, but then seem to have been less active in 496 BC and 495 BC, probably as a result of the calamity in Caria.[47] At the height of the Persian counter-offensive, Aristagoras, sensing his untenable position, decided to abandon his responsibilities as leader of Miletus and of the revolt. He left Miletus with all the members of his faction who would accompany him, and went to the part of Thrace that Darius had granted to Histiaeus after the campaign of 513 BC.[60] Herodotus, who evidently has a rather negative view of him, suggests that Aristagoras simply lost his nerve and fled. Some modern historians have suggested that he went to Thrace to exploit the greater natural resources of the region, and thus support the revolt.[2] Others have suggested that finding himself at the centre of an internal conflict in Miletus, he chose to go into exile rather than exacerbate the situation.[47] In Thrace, he took control of the city that Histiaeus had founded, Myrcinus (site of the later Amphipolis), and started campaigning against the local Thracian population.[60] However, during one campaign, probably in either 497 BC or 496 BC, he was killed by the Thracians.[61] Aristagoras was the one man who might have been able to provide the revolt with a sense of purpose, but after his death the revolt was left effectively leaderless.[33][47] Shortly after this, Histiaeus was released from his duties in Susa by Darius and sent to Ionia. He had persuaded Darius to let him travel to Ionia by promising to make the Ionians end their revolt. However, Herodotus leaves us in no doubt that his real aim was simply to escape his quasi-captivity in Persia.[62] When he arrived in Sardis, Artaphernes directly accused him of fomenting the rebellion with Aristagoras: "I will tell you, Histiaeus, the truth of this business: it was you who stitched this shoe, and Aristagoras who put it on."[63] Histiaeus fled that night to Chios and eventually made his way back to Miletus.[64] However, having just got rid of one tyrant, the Milesians were in no mood to receive Histiaeus back. He therefore went to Mytilene in Lesbos and persuaded the Lesbians to give him eight triremes. He set sail for Byzantium with all those who would follow him. There he established himself, seizing all ships that attempted to sail through the Bosporus, unless they agreed to serve him.[64] End of the revolt (494–493 BC)[edit] Battle of Lade[edit] Main article: Battle of Lade Ionian revolt, Battle of Lade and fall of Miletus (494 BC). By the sixth year of the revolt (494 BC), the Persian forces had regrouped. The available land forces were gathered into one army, and were accompanied by a fleet supplied by the re-subjugated Cypriots, along with Egyptians, Cilicians and Phoenicians. The Persians headed directly to Miletus, paying little attention to other strongholds, presumably intending to tackle the revolt at its epicentre.[65] The Median general Datis, an expert on Greek affairs, was certainly dispatched to Ionia by Darius at this time. It is therefore possible that he was in overall command of this Persian offensive.[2] Hearing of the approach of this force, the Ionians met at the Panionium, and decided not to attempt to fight on land, leaving the Milesians to defend their walls. Instead, they opted to gather every ship they could and make for the island of Lade, off the coast of Miletus, in order to "fight for Miletus at sea".[65] The Ionians were joined by the Aeolian islanders from Lesbos, and altogether they had 353 triremes.[66] According to Herodotus, the Persian commanders were concerned that they would not be able to defeat the Ionian fleet and, therefore, would not be able to take Miletus. So they sent the exiled Ionian tyrants to Lade, where each tried to persuade his fellow citizens to desert to the Persians.[67] This approach was initially unsuccessful,[68] but in the week-long delay before the battle, divisions arose in the Ionian camp.[69] These divisions led to the Samians secretly agreeing to the terms offered by the Persians, but remained with the other Ionians for the time being.[70] Soon after, the Persian fleet moved to attack the Ionians, who sailed out to meet them. However, as the two sides neared each other, the Samians sailed away back to Samos, as they had agreed with the Persians. The Lesbians, seeing their neighbours in the battle-line sail away, promptly fled as well, causing the rest of the Ionian line to dissolve.[71] The Chians, together with a small number of ships from other cities, stubbornly remained and fought the Persians, but most of the Ionians fled to their cities.[72] The Chians fought valiantly, at one point breaking the Persian line and capturing many ships, but sustaining many losses of their own; eventually the remaining Chian ships sailed away, thereby ending the battle.[73] Fall of Miletus[edit] The ruins of Miletus With the defeat of the Ionian fleet, the revolt was effectively over. Miletus was closely invested, the Persians "mining the walls and using every device against it, until they utterly captured it". According to Herodotus, most of the men were killed, and the women and children were enslaved.[74] Archaeological evidence partially substantiates this, showing widespread signs of destruction, and abandonment of much of the city in the aftermath of Lade.[47] However, some Milesians did remain in (or quickly returned to) Miletus, though the city would never recapture its former greatness.[2] Miletus was thus notionally "left empty of Milesians";[75] the Persians took the city and coastal land for themselves, and gave the rest of the Milesian territory to Carians from Pedasus.[76] The captive Milesians were brought before Darius in Susa, who settled them at "Ampé"[77] on the coast of the Persian Gulf, near the mouth of the Tigris. Many Samians were appalled by the actions of their generals at Lade, and resolved to emigrate before their old tyrant, Aeaces of Samos, returned to rule them. They accepted an invitation from the people of Zancle to settle on the coast of Sicily, and took with them the Milesians who had managed to escape from the Persians.[75] Samos itself was spared from destruction by the Persians because of the Samian defection at Lade.[78] Most of Caria now surrendered to the Persians, although some strongholds had to be captured through force.[78] Histiaeus's campaign (493 BC)[edit] Chios[edit] When Histiaeus heard of the fall of Miletus, he seems to have appointed himself as leader of the resistance against Persia.[47] Setting out from Byzantium with his force of Lesbians, he sailed to Chios. The Chians refused to receive him, so he attacked and destroyed the remnants of the Chian fleet. Crippled by the two defeats at sea, the Chians then acquiesced to Histiaeus's leadership.[79] Battle of Malene[edit] Histiaeus now gathered a large force of Ionians and Aeolians and went to besiege Thasos. However, he then received the news that the Persian fleet was setting out from Miletus to attack the rest of Ionia, so he quickly returned to Lesbos.[80] In order to feed his army, he led foraging expeditions to the mainland near Atarneus and Myus. A large Persian force under Harpagus was in the area and eventually intercepted one foraging expedition near Malene. The ensuing battle was hard fought, but was ended by a successful Persian cavalry charge, routing the Greek line.[81] Histiaeus himself surrendered to the Persians, thinking that he would be able to talk himself into a pardon from Darius. However, he was taken to Artaphernes instead, who, fully aware of Histiaeus's past treachery, impaled him and then sent his embalmed head to Darius.[82] Final operations (493 BC)[edit] The Persian fleet and army wintered at Miletus, before setting out in 493 BC to finally stamp out the last embers of the revolt. They attacked and captured the islands of Chios, Lesbos, and Tenedos. On each, they made a 'human-net' of troops and swept across the whole island to flush out any hiding rebels.[83] They then moved over to the mainland and captured each of the remaining cities of Ionia, similarly seeking out any remaining rebels.[83] Although the cities of Ionia were undoubtedly harrowed in the aftermath, none seems to have suffered quite the fate of Miletus. Herodotus says that the Persians chose the most handsome boys from each city and castrated them, and chose the most beautiful girls and sent them away to the king's harem, and then burnt the temples of the cities.[84] While this is possibly true, Herodotus also probably exaggerates the scale of devastation.[2] In a few years, the cities had more-or-less returned to normal and they were able to equip a large fleet for the second Persian invasion of Greece, just 13 years later.[2][85] The Persian army then re-conquered the settlements on the Asian side of the Propontis, while the Persian fleet sailed up the European coast of the Hellespont, taking each settlement in turn. With all of Asia Minor now firmly returned to Persian rule, the revolt was finally over.[86] Aftermath[edit] Main articles: Greco-Persian Wars and First Persian invasion of Greece Ionian soldier (Old Persian cuneiform 𐎹𐎢𐎴, Yaunā)[87] of the Achaemenid army, circa 480 BCE. Xerxes I tomb relief. Once the inevitable punishment of the rebels had occurred, the Persians were in the mood for conciliation. Since these regions were now Persian territory again, it made no sense to harm their economies further or to drive the people to further rebellions. Artaphernes thus set out to re-establish a workable relationship with his subjects.[88] He summoned representatives from each Ionian city to Sardis, and told them that henceforth, rather than continually quarrelling and fighting between themselves, disputes would be resolved by arbitration, seemingly by a panel of judges.[47] Furthermore, he re-surveyed the land of each city, and set their tribute level in proportion to its size.[89] Artaphernes had also witnessed just how much the Ionians disliked tyrannies, and began to reconsider his position on the local governance of Ionia.[88] The following year, Mardonius, another son-in-law of Darius, would travel to Ionia and abolish the tyrannies, replacing them with democracies.[90] The peace established by Artaphernes would long be remembered as just and fair.[88] Darius actively encouraged the Persian nobility of the area to participate in Greek religious practices, especially those dealing with Apollo.[91] Records from the period indicate that the Persian and Greek nobility began to intermarry, and the children of Persian nobles were given Greek names instead of Persian names. Darius' conciliatory policies were used as a type of propaganda campaign against the mainland Greeks, so that in 491 BC, when Darius sent heralds throughout Greece demanding submission (earth and water), initially most city-states accepted the offer, Athens and Sparta being the most prominent exceptions.[92] For the Persians, the only unfinished business that remained by the end of 493 BC was to exact punishment on Athens and Eretria for supporting the revolt.[88] The Ionian Revolt had severely threatened the stability of Darius's empire, and the states of mainland Greece would continue to threaten that stability unless dealt with. Darius thus began to contemplate the complete conquest of Greece, beginning with the destruction of Athens and Eretria.[88] Therefore, the first Persian invasion of Greece effectively began in the following year, 492 BC, when Mardonius was dispatched (via Ionia) to complete the pacification of the land approaches to Greece and push on to Athens and Eretria if possible.[90] Thrace was re-subjugated, having broken loose from Persian rule during the revolts and Macedon compelled to become a vassal of Persia. However, progress was halted by a naval disaster.[90] A second expedition was launched in 490 BC under Datis and Artaphernes, son of the satrap Artaphernes. This amphibious force sailed across the Aegean, subjugating the Cyclades, before arriving off Euboea. Eretria was besieged, captured and destroyed, and the force then moved onto Attica. Landing at the Bay of Marathon, they were met by an Athenian army and defeated in the famous Battle of Marathon, ending the first Persian attempt to subdue Greece.[93] Significance[edit] Coin of Chios after the revolt, circa 490–435 BCE.[1] Earlier types known. The Ionian Revolt was primarily of significance as the opening chapter in, and causative agent of, the Greco-Persian Wars, which included the two invasions of Greece and the famous battles of Marathon, Thermopylae and Salamis.[2] For the Ionian cities themselves, the revolt ended in failure, and substantial losses, both material and economic. However, Miletus aside, they recovered relatively quickly and prospered under Persian rule for the next forty years.[2] For the Persians, the revolt was significant in drawing them into an extended conflict with the states of Greece which would last for fifty years, over which time they would sustain considerable losses.[94] Militarily, it is difficult to draw too many conclusions from the Ionian Revolt, save for what the Greeks and Persians may (or may not) have learnt about each other. Certainly, the Athenians, and Greeks in general, seem to have been impressed by the power of Persian cavalry, with the Greek armies displaying considerable caution during the following campaigns when confronted by the Persian cavalry.[95][96] Conversely, the Persians seem not to have realised or noticed the potential of the Greek hoplites as heavy infantry. At the Battle of Marathon, in 490 BC, the Persians took little heed of a primarily hoplitic army, resulting in their defeat. Furthermore, despite the possibility of recruiting heavy infantry from their domains, the Persians began the second invasion of Greece without doing so, and again encountered major problems in the face of Greek armies.[97] It is possible that, given the ease of their victories over the Greeks at Ephesus, and similarly armed forces at the battles of the Marsyas River and Labraunda, the Persians simply disregarded the military value of the hoplite phalanx—to their cost.[98] In Modern Literature[edit] Gore Vidal describes the Ionian Revolt in his historical novel "Creation", presenting events from the Persian point of view. Vidal suggests that the Ionian Revolt might have had far-reaching results not perceived by the Greeks, i.e., that King Darius had contemplated an extensive campaign of conquest in India, coveting the wealth of its kingdoms, and that this Indian campaign was aborted due to the Persians needing their military resources on the western side of their empire. References[edit] ^ a b "a worn Chiot stater" described in Kagan p.230, Kabul hoard Coin no.12 in Daniel Schlumberger Trésors Monétaires d'Afghanistan (1953) ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Fine, pp269–277 ^ Cicero, On the Laws I, 5 ^ a b c Holland, pp. xvi–xvii. ^ Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, e.g. I, 22 ^ a b Finley, p. 15. ^ Holland, p. xxiv. ^ David Pipes. "Herodotus: Father of History, Father of Lies". Archived from the original on December 27, 2007. Retrieved 2008-01-18. ^ a b Holland, p. 377. ^ Fehling, pp. 1–277. ^ a b Herodotus I, 142–151 ^ Herodotus I, 142 ^ Herodotus I, 143 ^ Herodotus I, 148 ^ Herodotus I, 26 ^ a b c Herodotus I, 141 ^ Herodotus I, 163 ^ Herodotus I, 164 ^ Herodotus I, 169 ^ a b c d Holland, pp. 147–151. ^ a b Holland, pp. 153–154. ^ Herodotus V, 30 ^ Herodotus V, 31 ^ a b Herodotus V, 32 ^ a b Herodotus V, 33 ^ a b Herodotus V, 34 ^ a b Herodotus V, 35 ^ a b Herodotus V, 36 ^ a b c Holland, pp. 155–157. ^ a b c Herodotus V, 37 ^ a b Bury & Meiggs 1975, p. 155 ^ a b Herodotus V, 38 ^ a b c d e f g h Holland, pp. 160–162. ^ a b c d e f Holland, pp. 157–159. ^ Holland, p. 142. ^ a b Herodotus V, 96 ^ a b Herodotus V, 99 ^ Herodotus V, 98 ^ CROESUS – Encyclopaedia Iranica. ^ a b Herodotus V, 100 ^ Herodotus V, 101 ^ Herodotus V, 105 ^ a b c d e f Herodotus V, 102 ^ Lazenby, p. 232. ^ a b c d Herodotus V, 103 ^ a b Herodotus V, 104 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Boardman et al, pp. 481–490. ^ a b c Herodotus V, 116 ^ a b c Herodotus V, 117 ^ Herodotus V, 108 ^ Herodotus V, 109 ^ Herodotus V, 113 ^ Herodotus V, 122 ^ Herodotus V, 123 ^ a b Herodotus V, 118 ^ a b Herodotus V, 119 ^ Herodotus V, 120 ^ a b Herodotus V, 121 ^ Herodotus V, 123 ^ a b Herodotus V, 124–126 ^ Thucydides IV, 102 ^ Herodotus V, 106–107 ^ Herodotus VI, 1 ^ a b Herodotus VI, 5 ^ a b Herodotus VI, 6 ^ Herodotus VI, 8 ^ Herodotus VI, 9 ^ Herodotus VI, 10 ^ Herodotus VI, 12 ^ Herodotus VI, 13 ^ Herodotus VI, 14 ^ Herodotus VI, 15 ^ Herodotus VI, 16 ^ Herodotus VI, 19 ^ a b Herodotus VI, 22 ^ Herodotus VI, 20 ^ "Deportations". Encyclopedia Iranica. Iranica Online. 2012. Retrieved 3 June 2018. ^ a b Herodotus VI, 25 ^ Herodotus VI, 26 ^ Herodotus VI, 28 ^ Herodotus VI, 29 ^ Herodotus VI, 30 ^ a b Herodotus VI, 31 ^ Herodotus VI, 32 ^ Herodotus VI, 94 ^ Herodotus VI, 33 ^ Darius I, DNa inscription, Line 28 ^ a b c d e Holland, pp. 175–177. ^ Herodotus VI, 42 ^ a b c Herodotus VI, 43 ^ Herodotus VI, 42–45 ^ Herodotus VI, 49 ^ Herodotus VI, 94–116 ^ Holland, pp. 362–363. ^ Holland, pp. 191–193 ^ Lazenby, pp. 217–219. ^ Lazenby, pp. 23–29. ^ Lazenby, p. 258. Bibliography[edit] Ancient sources[edit] Herodotus, The Histories Thucydides, History of The Peloponnesian Wars Diodorus Siculus, Library Cicero, On the Laws Modern sources[edit] Boardman J; Bury JB; Cook SA; Adcock FA; Hammond NGL; Charlesworth MP; Lewis DM; Baynes NH; Ostwald M; Seltman CT (1988). The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 5. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-22804-2. Bury, J. B.; Meiggs, Russell (1975). A History of Greece (Fourth Edition). London: MacMillan Press. ISBN 0-333-15492-4. Fehling, D. (1989). Herodotus and His "Sources": Citation, Invention, and Narrative Art (Translated by J.G. Howie). Francis Cairns. Fine, JVA (1983). The Ancient Greeks: A Critical History. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-03314-0. Finley, Moses (1972). "Introduction". Thucydides – History of the Peloponnesian War (translated by Rex Warner). Penguin. ISBN 0-14-044039-9. Holland, Tom (2006). Persian Fire: The First World Empire and the Battle for the West. Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-51311-9. Lazenby, JF (1993). The Defence of Greece 490–479 BC. Aris & Phillips Ltd. ISBN 0-85668-591-7. v t e Achaemenid Empire History Kingdom Family tree Timeline History of democracy Art Achaemenid Persian Lion Rhyton Achaemenid coinage Danake Persian daric Architecture Achaemenid architecture Persepolis Pasargadae Tomb of Cyrus Naqsh-e Rostam Ka'ba-ye Zartosht Mausoleum at Halicarnassus Tombs at Xanthos Harpy Tomb Nereid Monument Tomb of Payava Culture Persepolis Administrative Archives Old Persian cuneiform Old Persian Behistun Inscription Xerxes I's inscription at Van Ganjnameh Warfare Persian Revolt Battle of Hyrba Battle of the Persian Border Lydian-Persian Wars Battle of Pteria Battle of Thymbra Siege of Sardis (547 BC) Battle of Opis First conquest of Egypt Battle of Cunaxa Conquest of the Indus Valley Scythian campaign of Darius I Greco-Persian Wars Ionian Revolt Battle of Thermopylae Battle of Artemisium Battle of Salamis Battle of Plataea Battle of Mycale Battle of Marathon Delian League Battle of Lade Siege of Eretria Siege of Naxos (499 BC) Wars of the Delian League Battle of the Eurymedon Peloponnesian War Battle of Cyzicus Corinthian War Battle of Cnidus Great Satraps' Revolt Second conquest of Egypt Wars of Alexander the Great Battle of Gaugamela Battle of the Granicus Battle of the Persian Gate Battle of Issus Siege of Gaza Siege of Halicarnassus Siege of Miletus Siege of Perinthus Siege of Tyre (332 BC) Related Achaemenid dynasty Pharnacid dynasty Peace of Antalcidas Peace of Callias Kingdom of Pontus Mithridatic dynasty Kingdom of Cappadocia Ariarathid dynasty 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire Districts of the Empire Royal Road Xanthian Obelisk v t e Ancient Iranian Wars Median Empire Medo-Babylonian conquest of the Assyrian Empire Fall of Nineveh Battle of Eclipse Persian Revolt Battle of Hyrba Battle of the Persian Border Siege of Pasargadae Hill Battle of Pasargadae Fall of Ecbatana Achaemenid Empire Conquest of Asia Minor Fall of Babylon First Conquest of Egypt Revolts against Darius I Scythian Campaign Conquest of Indus Valley Ionian Revolt Invasions of Greece 1st 2nd Peloponnesian War Revolt of Cyrus the Younger Corinthian War Cadusian Campaign Great Satraps' Revolt Abdashtart I' revolt Second Conquest of Egypt Fall of the Empire Parthian Empire Seleucid Wars Bactrian War Scythian Wars Armenian War Roman Wars Fall of the Empire Sasanian Empire Roman Wars Against Byzantine Empire Kushan War Against Arab tribes Hephthalite Wars Armenian revolt Aksumite Wars Annexation of Yemen Civil war of 589–591 Göktürk Wars 1st 2nd 3rd Battle of Dhi Qar Civil war of 628–632 Fall of the Empire Military history Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ionian_Revolt&oldid=995745233" Categories: Ionian Revolt 490s BC conflicts Rebellions in ancient Greece Rebellions against the Achaemenid Empire Wars involving ancient Greece Wars involving Athens Wars involving ancient Cyprus Ionia Battles involving Phoenicia Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2020 Good articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية تۆرکجه Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Lëtzebuergesch Magyar Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 December 2020, at 17:43 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7692	----	Xenophon - Wikipedia Xenophon From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Classical Greek philosopher, historian, and soldier For other uses, see Xenophon (disambiguation). Xenophon of Athens The Greek military leader and historian Xenophon of Athens. Born c. 430 BC[1] Athens Died 354 BC (aged approximately 77) likely Corinth [2] Nationality Athenian Occupation Mercenary, historian Notable work Hellenica Anabasis Education of Cyrus Memorabilia Symposium Oeconomicus* Hiero Apology Agesilaus Constitution of the Lacedaemonians Children Gryllus and Diodorus Parent(s) Gryllus Xenophon of Athens (/ˈzɛnəfən, -ˌfɒn/; Greek: Ξενοφῶν, Ancient Greek: [ksenopʰɔ̂ːn], Xenophōn; c. 430[1] – 354 BC) was an Athenian-born mercenary and historian.[3] Xenophon was elected a commander of the Ten Thousand Greek mercenaries at the age of 30. Xenophon's Anabasis recounts adventures of Xenophon and the Ten Thousand in service of Cyrus the Younger, Cyrus's failed campaign to claim the Persian throne from Artaxerxes II of Persia, and the return of Greek mercenaries after Cyrus's death in the Battle of Cunaxa. Xenophon established precedents for many logistical operations, and was among the first to use flanking maneuvers and feints. As the military historian Theodore Ayrault Dodge wrote, "the centuries since have devised nothing to surpass the genius of this warrior".[4] A student and a friend of Socrates, Xenophon recounted several Socratic dialogues - Symposium, Oeconomicus, Hiero, a tribute to Socrates - Memorabilia, and a chronicle of the philosopher's trial in 399 BC - Apology of Socrates to the Jury. Xenophon is best known for his historical works. The Hellenica continues directly from the final sentence of Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War covering the last seven years of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) and the subsequent forty two years (404 BC - 362 BC) ending with the Second Battle of Mantinea. Despite being born an Athenian citizen, Xenophon came to be associated with Sparta, the traditional opponent of Athens. Experience as a mercenary and a military leader, service under Spartan commanders in Ionia, Asia Minor, Persia and elsewhere, exile from Athens, and friendship with King Agesilaus II endeared Xenophon to the Spartans. Much of what is known today about the Spartan society comes from Xenophon's works - the royal biography of the Spartan king Agesilaus and the Constitution of the Lacedaemonians. Xenophon's works span several genres and are written in plain Attic Greek, which is why they have often been used in translation exercises for contemporary students of the Ancient Greek language. In the Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, Diogenes Laërtius observed that Xenophon was known as the "Attic Muse" because of the sweetness of his diction (2.6[clarification needed]). Contents 1 Life 1.1 Early years 1.2 Anabasis 1.2.1 Expedition with Cyrus the Younger 1.2.2 Return 1.3 Life after Anabasis 2 Xenophon's politics 2.1 Cyropaedia 2.1.1 Relations between Medes and Persians in the Cyropaedia 2.1.2 Persians as centaurs 2.1.3 Against empire/monarchy 2.1.4 Against democracy 2.2 Constitution of the Spartans 2.3 Old Oligarch 3 Socratic works and dialogues 3.1 Relationship with Socrates 3.2 Socrates: Xenophon vs. Plato 3.3 Historical reality 3.4 Modern reception 4 List of works 4.1 Historical and biographical works 4.2 Socratic works and dialogues 4.2.1 Defences of Socrates 4.2.2 Other Socratic dialogues 4.2.3 Tyrants 4.3 Short treatises 4.4 Spuria 5 References 5.1 Citations 5.2 Bibliography 6 External links Life[edit] Early years[edit] Xenophon was born around 430 BC, in the deme Erchia of Athens. Xenophon's father, Gryllus was a member of a wealthy equestrian family.[5] Detailed accounts of events in Hellenica suggest that Xenophon personally witnessed the Return of Alcibiades in 407 BC, the Trial of the Generals in 406 BC, and the overthrow of the Thirty Tyrants in 403 BC. Detailed account of Xenophon's life starts 401 BC. Personally invited by Proxenus of Beotia (Anabasis 3.1.9), one of the captains in Cyrus's mercenary army, Xenophon sailed to Ephesus to meet Cyrus the Younger and participate in Cyrus's military campaign against Tissaphernes, the Persian satrap of Ionia. Xenophon describes his life in 401 BC and 400 BC in the memoir Anabasis. Anabasis[edit] Main article: Anabasis (Xenophon) Route of Xenophon and the Ten Thousand (red line) in the Achaemenid Empire. The satrapy of Cyrus the Younger is delineated in green. The Anabasis is a narrative of how "Xenophon rouses the despairing Greeks into action and leads them on their long march home; and the narrative of his successes has won him noteworthy if uneven admiration for over two millennia."[6] Expedition with Cyrus the Younger[edit] Written years after the events it recounts, Xenophon's book Anabasis (Greek: ἀνάβασις, literally "going up")[7] is his record of the expedition of Cyrus and the Greek mercenaries’ journey home. Xenophon writes that he asked Socrates for advice on whether to go with Cyrus, and that Socrates referred him to the divinely inspired Pythia. Xenophon's query to the oracle, however, was not whether or not to accept Cyrus' invitation, but "to which of the gods he must pray and do sacrifice, so that he might best accomplish his intended journey and return in safety, with good fortune". The oracle answered his question and told him which gods to pray and sacrifice to. When Xenophon returned to Athens and told Socrates of the oracle's advice, Socrates chastised him for asking so disingenuous a question (Anabasis 3.1.5–7). Under the pretext of fighting Tissaphernes, the Persian satrap of Ionia, Cyrus assembled a massive army composed of native Persian soldiers, but also a large number of Greeks. Prior to waging war against Artaxerxes, Cyrus proposed that the enemy was the Pisidians, and so the Greeks were unaware that they were to battle against the larger army of King Artaxerxes II (Anabasis 1.1.8–11). At Tarsus the soldiers became aware of Cyrus's plans to depose the king, and as a result, refused to continue (Anabasis 1.3.1). However, Clearchus, a Spartan general, convinced the Greeks to continue with the expedition. The army of Cyrus met the army of Artaxerxes II in the Battle of Cunaxa. Despite effective fighting by the Greeks, Cyrus was killed in the battle (Anabasis 1.8.27–1.9.1). Shortly thereafter, Clearchus was treacherously invited by Tissaphernes to a feast, where, alongside four other generals and many captains, including Xenophon's friend Proxenus, he was captured and executed (Anabasis 2.5.31–32). Return[edit] Xenophon leading his Ten Thousand through Persia to the Black Sea. 19th century illustration. The mercenaries, known as the Ten Thousand, found themselves without leadership far from the sea, deep in hostile territory near the heart of Mesopotamia, with a hostile population and armies to deal with. They elected new leaders, including Xenophon himself. Dodge says of Xenophon's generalship, "Xenophon is the father of the system of retreat, the originator of all that appertains to the science of rear-guard fighting. He reduced its management to a perfect method. More originality in tactics has come from the Anabasis than from any dozen other books. Every system of war looks to this as to the fountain-head when it comes to rearward movements, as it looks to Alexander for a pattern of resistless and intelligent advance. Necessity to Xenophon was truly the mother of invention, but the centuries since have devised nothing to surpass the genius of this warrior. No general ever possessed a grander moral ascendant over his men. None ever worked for the safety of his soldiers with greater ardor or to better effect."[8] Xenophon and his men initially had to deal with volleys by a minor force of harassing Persian missile cavalry. Every day, these cavalry, finding no opposition from the Ten Thousand, moved cautiously closer and closer. One night, Xenophon formed a body of archers and light cavalry. When the Persian cavalry arrived the next day, now firing within several yards, Xenophon suddenly unleashed his new cavalry in a shock charge, smashing into the stunned and confused enemy, killing many and routing the rest.[9] Tissaphernes pursued Xenophon with a vast force, and when the Greeks reached the wide and deep Great Zab River, it seemed they were surrounded. However, Xenophon quickly devised a plan: all goats, cows, sheep and donkeys were slaughtered and their bodies stuffed with hay, laid across the river and sewn up and covered with dirt so as not to be slippery. This created a bridge across which Xenophon led his men before the Persians could get to them. That Xenophon was able to acquire the means of feeding his force in the heart of a vast empire with a hostile population was astonishing. Dodge notes, "On this retreat also was first shown the necessary, if cruel, means of arresting a pursuing enemy by the systematic devastation of the country traversed and the destruction of its villages to deprive him of food and shelter. And Xenophon is moreover the first who established in rear of the phalanx a reserve from which he could at will feed weak parts of his line. This was a superb first conception."[10] Xenophon's Anabasis.[11] The Ten Thousand eventually made their way into the land of the Carduchians, a wild tribe inhabiting the mountains of modern southeastern Turkey. The Carduchians were "a fierce, war-loving race, who had never been conquered. Once the Great King had sent into their country an army of 120,000 men, to subdue them, but of all that great host not one had ever seen his home again."[12] The Ten Thousand made their way in and were fired at by stones and arrows for several days before they reached a defile where the main Carduchian host sat. In the Battle of the Carduchian Defile, Xenophon had 8,000 men feint at this host and marched the other 2,000 to a pass revealed by a prisoner under the cover of a rainstorm, and "having made their way to the rear of the main pass, at daylight, under cover of the morning mist, they boldly pushed in upon the astonished Carducians. The blare of their many trumpets gave notice of their successful detour to Xenophon, as well as added to the confusion of the enemy. The main army at once joined in the attack from the valley side, and the Carducians were driven from their stronghold."[13] After heavy mountain fighting in which Xenophon showed the calm and patience needed for the situation, the Greeks made their way to the northern foothills of the mountains at the Centrites River, only to find a major Persian force blocking the route north. With the Carduchians surging toward the Greek rear, Xenophon again faced the threat of total destruction in battle. Xenophon's scouts quickly found another ford, but the Persians moved and blocked this as well. Xenophon sent a small force back toward the other ford, causing the anxious Persians to detach a major part of their force parallel. Xenophon stormed and completely overwhelmed the force at his ford, while the Greek detachment made a forced march to this bridgehead. This was among the first attacks in depth ever made, 23 years after Delium and 30 years before Epaminondas’ more famous use of it at Leuctra. Xenophon, Aphrodisias Museum. Winter by now arrived as the Greeks marched through Armenia "absolutely unprovided with clothing suitable for such weather",[14] inflicting more casualties than they suffered during a skillful ambush of a local satrap's force and the flanking of another force in this period. At a period when the Greeks were in desperate need of food, they decided upon attacking a wooden castle known to have had storage. The castle, however, was stationed on a hill surrounded by forest. Xenophon ordered small parties of his men to appear on the hill road, and when the defenders fired, one soldier would leap into the trees, and he "did this so often that at last there was quite a heap of stones lying in front of him, but he himself was untouched." Then, "the other men followed his example, and made it a sort of game, enjoying the sensation, pleasant alike to old and young, of courting danger for a moment, and then quickly escaping it. When the stones were almost exhausted, the soldiers raced one another over the exposed part of the road", storming the fortress, which, with most of the garrison now neutralized, barely put up a fight.[15] Soon after, Xenophon's men reached Trapezus on the coast of the Black Sea (Anabasis 4.8.22). Before their departure, the Greeks made an alliance with the locals and fought one last battle against the Colchians, vassals of the Persians, in mountainous country. Xenophon ordered his men to deploy the line extremely thin so as to overlap the enemy, keeping a strong reserve. The Colchians, seeing they were being outflanked, divided their army to check the Greek deployment, opening a gap in their line through which Xenophon rushed in his reserves, scoring a brilliant Greek victory.[16] They then made their way westward back to Greek territory via Chrysopolis (Anabasis 6.3.16). Once there, they helped Seuthes II make himself king of Thrace, before being recruited into the army of the Spartan general Thimbron (who Xenophon referes to as Thibron). The Spartans were at war with Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus II, Persian satraps in Anatolia. Filled with a plethora of originality and tactical genius, Xenophon's conduct of the retreat caused Dodge to name the Athenian knight the greatest general that preceded Alexander the Great.[17] Life after Anabasis[edit] Xenophon's Anabasis ends in 399 BC in the city of Pergamon with the arrival of the Spartan commander Thimbron. Thimbron's campaign is described in Hellenica.[18] The level of detail with which Xenophon describes Thimbron's campaign in Hellenica suggests first hand knowledge. After capturing Teuthrania and Halisarna, the Greeks led by Thimbron lay siege to Larissa. Failing to capture Larissa, the Greeks fall back to Caria. As a result of failed siege of Larissa, the ephors of Sparta recall Thimbron and send Dercylidas to lead the Greek army. After facing the court at Sparta, Thimbron is banished. Xenophon describes Dercylidas as a significantly more experienced commander than Thimbron. Lead by Dercylidas, Xenophon and the Greek army march to Aeolis march and capture nine cities in 8 days including Larissa, Hamaxitus, and Kolonai.[19] The Persians negotiated a temporary truce and the Greek army retired for a winter camp at Byzantium. In 398 BC, Xenophon was likely a part of the Greek force capturing the city of Lampsacus. Also in 398, the Spartan ephors officially cleared the Ten Thousand of any previous wrong doing (Ten Thousand were likely a part of the investigation of Thimbron's failure at Larissa) and fully integrate the Ten Thousand into Dercylidas' army. Hellenica mentions the response of the commander of the Ten Thousand (likely Xenophon) "But men of Lacedaemon, we are the same men now as we were last year; but the commander now is one man, and in the past was another. Therefore you are at once able to judge for yourselves the reason why were are not at fault now, although we were then."[19] The truce between the Greeks and the Persons was fragile and in 397 BC Dercylidas' force matched with Tissaphernes' and Pharnabazus' force near Ephesus, but did not engage in battle. The Persian army retreated to Tralles and the Greeks to Leucophrys. Dercylidas proposed the new terms of truce to Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus and the three parties submitted the truce proposal to the Sparta and the Persian king for ratification. Under Dercylidas' proposal, the Persians abandon claims to independent Greek cities in Ionia and the Spartans withdraw the army leaving Spartan governors in the Greek cities. In 396 BC, the newly appointed Spartan king, Agesilaus arrives to Ephesus and assumes the command of the army from Dercylidas. Xenophon and Agesilaus likely meet for the first time and Xenophon joins Agesilaus' campaign for Ionian Greece independence of 396-394. In 394 BC, Agesilaus' army returns to Greece taking the route of the Persian invasion eighty years earlier and fights in the Battle of Coronea. Athens banishes Xenophon for fighting on the Spartan side. Xenophon likely followed Agesilaus' march to Sparta in 394 BC and finished his military journey after seven years. Xenophon received an estate in Scillus where he spent the next twenty three years. In 371 BC, after the Battle of Leuctra, Elians confiscated Xenophon's estate and Xenophon moved to Corinth. Xenophon lived in Corinth until his death in 354 BC. Xenophon's politics[edit] Xenophon has long been associated with the opposition to the Athenian democracy of his time, of which he saw the shortcomings and the ultimate defeat to the Spartan oligarchic power.[20] Although Xenophon seems to prefer oligarchy, or at least the aristocracy, especially in light of his associations with Sparta, none of his works puts a major focus on attacking democracy. But there are definitely some mockeries or criticisms here and there, for instance in the Anabasis, when deliberations are intimidated by cries of "pelt" if a speaker says something others disagree with. Or in a dialog between the Spartan commander and Xenophon himself (Book IV, Chap.6, l.16) when the Spartan says "I too hear that you Athenians are clever at stealing public funds, and this even though the danger is quite extreme for the thief; and indeed the best do it the most, if indeed the best among you are those considered worthy of ruling." Some scholars[21] go so far as to say his views aligned with those of the democracy in his time. However, certain works of Xenophon, in particular the Cyropaedia, seem to show his oligarchic politics. This historical-fiction serves as a forum for Xenophon to subtly display his political inclinations. Cyropaedia[edit] Relations between Medes and Persians in the Cyropaedia[edit] Xenophon's Cyropaedia.[22] Xenophon wrote the Cyropaedia to outline his political and moral philosophy. He did this by endowing a fictional version of the boyhood of Cyrus the Great, founder of the first Persian Empire, with the qualities of what Xenophon considered the ideal ruler. Historians have asked whether Xenophon's portrait of Cyrus was accurate or if Xenophon imbued Cyrus with events from Xenophon's own life. The consensus is that Cyrus’s career is best outlined in the Histories of Herodotus. But Steven Hirsch writes, "Yet there are occasions when it can be confirmed from Oriental evidence that Xenophon is correct where Herodotus is wrong or lacks information. A case in point involves the ancestry of Cyrus."[23] Herodotus contradicts Xenophon at several other points, most notably in the matter of Cyrus’s relationship with the Median Kingdom. Herodotus says that Cyrus led a rebellion against his maternal grandfather, Astyages king of Media, and defeated him, thereafter (improbably) keeping Astyages in his court for the remainder of his life (Histories 1.130). The Medes were thus "reduced to subjection" (1.130) and became "slaves" (1.129) to the Persians 20 years before the capture of Babylon in 539 BC. The Cyropaedia relates instead that Astyages died and was succeeded by his son Cyaxares II, the maternal uncle of Cyrus (1.5.2). In the initial campaign against the Lydians, Babylonians and their allies, the Medians were led by Cyaxares and the Persians by Cyrus, who was crown prince of the Persians, since his father was still alive (4.5.17). Xenophon relates that at this time the Medes were the strongest of the kingdoms that opposed the Babylonians (1.5.2). There is an echo of this statement, verifying Xenophon and contradicting Herodotus, in the Harran Stele, a document from the court of Nabonidus.[24] In the entry for year 14 or 15 of his reign (542-540 BC), Nabonidus speaks of his enemies as the kings of Egypt, the Medes, and the Arabs. There is no mention of the Persians, although according to Herodotus and the current consensus the Medians had been made "slaves" of the Persians several years previously. It does not seem that Nabonidus would be completely misled about who his enemies were, or who was really in control over the Medes and Persians just one to three years before his kingdom fell to their armies. Other archaeological evidence supporting Xenophon’s picture of a confederation of Medes and Persians, rather than a subjugation of the Medes by the Persians, comes from the bas-reliefs in the stairway at Persepolis. These show no distinction in official rank or status between the Persian and Median nobility. Although Olmstead followed the consensus view that Cyrus subjugated the Medes, he nevertheless wrote, "Medes were honored equally with Persians; they were employed in high office and were chosen to lead Persian armies."[25] A more extensive list of considerations related to the credibility of the Cyropaedia’s picture of the relationship between the Medes and Persians is found on the Cyropaedia page. Bas-reliefs of Persian soldiers together with Median soldiers are prevalent in Persepolis. The ones with rounded caps are Median. Both Herodotus (1.123,214) and Xenophon (1.5.1,2,4, 8.5.20) present Cyrus as about 40 years old when his forces captured Babylon. In the Nabonidus Chronicle, there is mention of the death of the wife of the king (name not given) within a month after the capture of Babylon.[26] It has been conjectured that this was Cyrus’s first wife, which lends credibility to the Cyropaedia’s statement (8.5.19) that Cyaxares II gave his daughter in marriage to Cyrus soon (but not immediately) after the fall of the city, with the kingdom of Media as her dowry. When Cyaxares died about two years later the Median kingdom passed peaceably to Cyrus, so that this would be the true beginning of the Medo-Persian Empire under just one monarch. Persians as centaurs[edit] The Cyropaedia as a whole lavishes a great deal of praise on the first Persian emperor, Cyrus the Great, on account of his virtue and leadership quality, and it was through his greatness that the Persian Empire held together. Thus this book is normally read as a positive treatise about Cyrus. However, following the lead of Leo Strauss, David Johnson suggests that there is a subtle but strong layer to the book in which Xenophon conveys criticism of not only the Persians but the Spartans and Athenians as well.[27] In section 4.3 of the Cyropaedia Cyrus makes clear his desire to institute cavalry. He even goes so far to say that he desires that no Persian kalokagathos ("noble and good man" literally, or simply "noble") ever be seen on foot but always on a horse, so much so that the Persians may actually seem to be centaurs (4.3.22–23). Centaurs were often thought of as creatures of ill repute, which makes even Cyrus’ own advisors wary of the label. His minister Chrysantas admires the centaurs for their dual nature, but also warns that the dual nature does not allow centaurs to fully enjoy or act as either one of their aspects in full (4.3.19–20). In labelling Persians as centaurs through the mouth of Cyrus, Xenophon plays upon the popular post-Persian-war propagandistic paradigm of using mythological imagery to represent the Greco-Persian conflict. Examples of this include the wedding of the Lapiths, Gigantomachy, Trojan War, and Amazonomachy on the Parthenon frieze. Johnson reads even more deeply into the centaur label. He believes that the unstable dichotomy of man and horse found in a centaur is indicative of the unstable and unnatural alliance of Persian and Mede formulated by Cyrus.[27] The Persian hardiness and austerity is combined with the luxuriousness of the Medes, two qualities that cannot coexist. He cites the regression of the Persians directly after the death of Cyrus as a result of this instability, a union made possible only through the impeccable character of Cyrus.[27] In a further analysis of the centaur model, Cyrus is likened to a centaur such as Chiron, a noble example from an ignoble race. Thus this entire paradigm seems to be a jab at the Persians and an indication of Xenophon’s general distaste for the Persians. Against empire/monarchy[edit] Fragments of Xenophon's Hellenica, Papyrus PSI 1197, Laurentian Library, Florence. The strength of Cyrus in holding the empire together is praiseworthy according to Xenophon. However, the empire began to decline upon the death of Cyrus. By this example Xenophon sought to show that empires lacked stability and could only be maintained by a person of remarkable prowess, such as Cyrus.[27] Cyrus is idealized greatly in the narrative. Xenophon displays Cyrus as a lofty, temperate man. This is not to say that he was not a good ruler, but he is depicted as surreal and not subject to the foibles of other men. By showing that only someone who is almost beyond human could conduct such an enterprise as empire, Xenophon indirectly censures imperial design. Thus he also reflects on the state of his own reality in an even more indirect fashion, using the example of the Persians to decry the attempts at empire made by Athens and Sparta.[28] Although partially graced with hindsight, having written the Cyropaedia after the downfall of Athens in the Peloponnesian War, this work criticizes the Greek attempts at empire and "monarchy", dooming them to failure. Against democracy[edit] Another passage that Johnson cites as criticism of monarchy and empire concerns the devaluation of the homotīmoi. The manner in which this occurs seems also to be a subtle jab at democracy. Homotīmoi were highly and thoroughly educated and thus became the core of the soldiery as heavy infantry. As the name homotīmoi ("equal", or "same honours" i.e. "peers") suggests, their small band (1000 when Cyrus fought the Assyrians) shared equally in the spoils of war.[27] However, in the face of overwhelming numbers in a campaign against the Assyrians, Cyrus armed the commoners with similar arms instead of their normal light ranged armament (Cyropaedia 2.1.9). Argument ensued as to how the spoils would now be split, and Cyrus enforced a meritocracy. Many homotīmoi found this unfair because their military training was no better than the commoners, only their education, and hand-to-hand combat was less a matter of skill than strength and bravery. As Johnson asserts, this passage decries imperial meritocracy and corruption, for the homotīmoi now had to sychophantize to the emperor for positions and honours;[27] from this point they were referred to as entīmoi, no longer of the "same honours" but having to be "in" to get the honour. On the other hand, the passage seems to be critical of democracy, or at least sympathetic to aristocrats within democracy, for the homotīmoi (aristocracy/oligarchs) are devalued upon the empowerment of the commoners (demos). Although empire emerges in this case, this is also a sequence of events associated with democracy. Through his dual critique of empire and democracy, Xenophon subtly relates his support of oligarchy. Constitution of the Spartans[edit] Main article: Polity of the Lacedaemonians The Spartans wrote nothing about themselves, or if they did it is lost. Therefore, what we know about them comes exclusively from outsiders such as Xenophon. Xenophon’s affinity for the Spartans is clear in the Constitution of the Spartans, as well as his penchant for oligarchy. The opening line reads: It occurred to me one day that Sparta, though among the most thinly populated of states, was evidently the most powerful and most celebrated city in Greece; and I fell to wondering how this could have happened. But when I considered the institutions of the Spartans, I wondered no longer.[29] Xenophon goes on to describe in detail the main aspects of Laconia, handing to us the most comprehensive extant analysis of the institutions of Sparta. Old Oligarch[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) A short treatise on the Constitution of the Athenians exists that was once thought to be by Xenophon, but which was probably written when Xenophon was about five years old. The author, often called in English the "Old Oligarch" or Pseudo-Xenophon, detests the democracy of Athens and the poorer classes, but he argues that the Periclean institutions are well designed for their deplorable purposes. Although the real Xenophon seems to prefer oligarchy over democracy, none of his works so ardently decry democracy as does the Constitution of the Athenians. However, this treatise makes evident that anti-democratic sentiments were extant in Athens in the late 5th century BC and were only increased after its shortcomings were exploited and made apparent during the Peloponnesian War. Socratic works and dialogues[edit] Xenophon's Agesilaus. Xenophon’s works includes a selection of Socratic dialogues; these writings are completely preserved. Except for the dialogues of Plato, they are the only surviving representatives of the genre of Socratic dialogue. These works include Xenophon's Apology, Memorabilia, Symposium, and Oeconomicus. The Symposium outlines the character of Socrates as he and his companions discuss what attribute they take pride in. One of the main plots of the Symposium is about the type of loving relationship (noble or base) a rich aristocrat will be able to establish with a young boy (present at the banquet alongside his own father). In Oeconomicus, Socrates explains how to manage a household. Both the Apology and the Memorabilia defend Socrates’ character and teachings. The former is set during the trial of Socrates, essentially defending Socrates’ loss and death, while the latter explains his moral principles and that he was not a corrupter of the youth. Relationship with Socrates[edit] Xenophon was a student of Socrates, and their personal relationship is evident through a conversation between the two in Xenophon’s Anabasis. In his Lives of Eminent Philosophers, the Greek biographer Diogenes Laërtius (who writes many centuries later) reports how Xenophon met Socrates. "They say that Socrates met [Xenophon] in a narrow lane, and put his stick across it and prevented him from passing by, asking him where all kinds of necessary things were sold. And when he had answered him, he asked him again where men were made good and virtuous. And as he did not know, he said, ‘Follow me, then, and learn.’ And from this time forth, Xenophon became a follower of Socrates."[30] Diogenes Laërtius also relates an incident "when in the battle of Delium Xenophon had fallen from his horse" and Socrates reputedly "stepped in and saved his life."[31] Xenophon's admiration for his teacher is clear in writings such as Symposium, Apology, and Memorabilia. Xenophon was away on his Persian campaign during the trial and death of Socrates. Nevertheless, much of Xenophon's Socratic writing, especially Apology, concerns that very trial and the defence Socrates put forward. Socrates: Xenophon vs. Plato[edit] Both Plato and Xenophon wrote an Apology concerning the death of Socrates. The two writers seem more concerned about answering questions that arose after the trial than about the actual charges. In particular, Xenophon and Plato are concerned with the failures of Socrates to defend himself. The Socrates that Xenophon portrayed was different from Plato’s in multiple respects. Xenophon asserts that Socrates dealt with his prosecution in an exceedingly arrogant manner, or at least was perceived to have spoken arrogantly. Conversely, while not omitting it completely, Plato worked to temper that arrogance in his own Apology. Xenophon framed Socrates’ defense, which both men admit was not prepared at all, not as failure to effectively argue his side, but as striving for death even in the light of unconvincing charges. As Danzig interprets it, convincing the jury to condemn him even on unconvincing charges would be a rhetorical challenge worthy of the great persuader.[32] Xenophon uses this interpretation as justification for Socrates’ arrogant stance and conventional failure. By contrast, Plato does not go so far as to claim that Socrates actually desired death, but seems to argue that Socrates was attempting to demonstrate a higher moral standard and teach a lesson, although his defence failed by conventional standards. This places Socrates in a higher moral position than his prosecutors, a typical Platonic example of absolving "Socrates from blame in every conceivable way."[32] Historical reality[edit] Although Xenophon claims to have been present at the Symposium, this is impossible as he was only a young boy at the date which he proposes it occurred. And again, Xenophon was not present at the trial of Socrates, having been on campaign in Anatolia and Mesopotamia. Thus he puts into the latter’s mouth what he would have thought him to say. It seems that Xenophon wrote his Apology and Memorabilia as defences of his former teacher, and to further the philosophic project, not to present a literal transcript of Socrates' response to the historical charges incurred.[32] Modern reception[edit] Xenophon's standing as a political philosopher has been defended in recent times by Leo Strauss, who devoted a considerable part of his philosophic analysis to the works of Xenophon, returning to the high judgment of Xenophon as a thinker expressed by Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury, Michel de Montaigne, Montesquieu, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Johann Joachim Winckelmann, Niccolò Machiavelli, Francis Bacon, John Milton, Jonathan Swift, Benjamin Franklin, and John Adams. Xenophon’s lessons on leadership have been reconsidered for their modern-day value. Jennifer O’Flannery holds that "discussions of leadership and civic virtue should include the work of Xenophon ... on public education for public service."[33] The Cyropaedia, in outlining Cyrus as an ideal leader having mastered the qualities of "education, equality, consensus, justice and service to state," is the work that she suggests be used as a guide or example for those striving to be leaders (see mirrors for princes). The linking of moral code and education is an especially pertinent quality subscribed to Cyrus that O’Flannery believes is in line with modern perceptions of leadership.[33] List of works[edit] Xenophon dictating his history, illustration from 'Hutchinson's History of the Nations', 1915 King's Peace, promulgated by Artaxerxes II, 387 BC, as reported by Xenophon. Xenophon’s entire classical corpus is extant.[34] The following list of his works exhibits the extensive breadth of genres in which Xenophon wrote. Historical and biographical works[edit] Anabasis (also: The Persian Expedition or The March Up Country or The Expedition of Cyrus): Provides an early life biography of Xenophon. Anabasis was used as a field guide by Alexander the Great during the early phases of his expedition into the Achaemenid Empire. Cyropaedia (also: The Education of Cyrus): Sometimes seen as the archetype of the European "mirror of princes" genre. Hellenica: His Hellenica is a major primary source for events in Greece from 411 to 362 BC, and is the continuation of the History of the Peloponnesian War by Thucydides, going so far as to begin with the phrase "Following these events...". The Hellenica recounts the last seven years of the Peloponnesian war, as well as its aftermath, and is a detailed and direct account (however partial to Sparta) of the history of Greece until 362 BC. Agesilaus: The biography of Agesilaus II, king of Sparta and companion of Xenophon. Polity of the Lacedaemonians: Xenophon’s history and description of the Spartan government and institutions. Socratic works and dialogues[edit] Defences of Socrates[edit] Memorabilia: Collection of Socratic dialogues serving as a defense of Socrates outside of court. Apology: Xenophon's defence of Socrates in court. Other Socratic dialogues[edit] Oeconomicus: Socratic dialogue of a different sort, pertaining to household management. Symposium: Symposic literature in which Socrates and his companions discuss what they take pride in with respect to themselves. Tyrants[edit] Hiero: Dialogue about happiness between Hiero, the tyrant of Syracuse, and the lyric poet Simonides of Ceos. Short treatises[edit] These works were probably written by Xenophon when he was living in Scillus. His days were likely spent in relative leisure here, and he wrote these treatises about the sorts of activities he spent time on. On Horsemanship: Treatise on how to break, train, and care for horses. Hipparchikos: Outlines the duties of a cavalry officer. Hunting with Dogs: Treatise on the proper methods of hunting with dogs and the advantages of hunting. Ways and Means: Describes how Athens should deal with financial and economic crisis. Spuria[edit] Constitution of the Athenians: Describes and criticizes Athenian democracy; now thought not to be by Xenophon. References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ a b Strassler et al., xvii. ^ https://iep.utm.edu/xenophon/ ^ Mercenary#Classic era ^ Theodore Ayrault Dodge, Alexander: A History of the Origin and Growth of the Art of War from Earliest Times to the Battle of Ipsus, B.C. 301, Vol. 1, Houghton Mifflin, 1890, p. 105. ^ "Xenophon". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 21 September 2009. ^ Ambler, Wayne (2011). The Anabasis of Cyrus. Translator's preface: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-6236-8. ^ ἀνάβασις, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus ^ Dodge, pp. 105-106 ^ Witt, p. 123 ^ Dodge, p. 107 ^ Brownson, Carlson L. (Carleton Lewis) (1886). Xenophon;. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press. ^ Witt, p. 136 ^ Dodge, p. 109 ^ Witt, p. 166 ^ Witt, pp. 175-176 ^ Witt, pp. 181-184 ^ Dodge, Theodore Ayrault. Great Captains: A Course of Six Lectures on the Art of War. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston and New York: 1890. p. 7 ^ Hellenica III, 1 ^ a b Hellenica III, 2 ^ Gray, Xenophon, page 19 (preface): "Xenophon has been called undemocratic in more contexts than can be mentioned." ISBN 9780199216185 ^ Farrell, Christopher A. 2012. "Laconism and Democracy: Re-reading the Lakedaimoniōn Politeia and Re-thinking Xenophon" in Joanne Paul ed., Governing Diversities, pp. 10–35, Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ^ Ashley Cooper, Maurice (1803). Cyropædia; or, The institution of Cyrus, . London. Printed by J. Swan for Vernor and Hood [etc.] ^ Steven W. Hirsch, "1001 Iranian Nights: History and Fiction in Xenophon’s Cyropaedia", in The Greek Historians: Literature and History: Papers Presented to A. E. Raubitschek. Saratoga CA: ANMA Libr, 1985, p. 80. ^ Pritchard, James B., ed. (1969). Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament (3rd ed.). Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press. pp. 562–63. ^ Olmsted, A. T. (1948). History of the Persian Empire. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press. p. 37. ^ Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts, p. 306b. ^ a b c d e f Johnson, D. M. 2005. "Persians as Centaurs in Xenophon’s ‘Cyropaedia’", Transactions of the American Philological Association. Vol 135, No. 1, pp. 177–207. ^ Johnson, D. M. 2005. "Persians as Centaurs in Xenophon’s ‘Cyropaedia’", Transactions of the American Philological Association. Vol 135, No. 1, pp. 177–207 ^ "Xenophon, Constitution of the Lacedaimonians, chapter 1, section 1". www.perseus.tufts.edu. ^ Laertius, Diogenes. "thegreatthinkers.org". Great Thinkers. Retrieved 6 October 2014. ^ Laertius, Diogenes. "Socrates". Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers. ^ a b c Danzig, Gabriel. 2003. "Apologizing for Socrates: Plato and Xenophon on Socrates’ Behavior in Court." Transactions of the American Philological Association. Vol. 133, No. 2, pp. 281–321. ^ a b O’Flannery, Jennifer. 2003. "Xenophon’s (The Education of Cyrus) and Ideal Leadership Lessons for Modern Public Administration." Public Administration Quarterly. Vol. 27, No. 1/2, pp. 41–64. ^ See for example the Landmark edition of Xenophon's Hellenika. In the preface Strassler writes (xxi), "Fifteen works were transmitted through antiquity under Xenophon's name, and fortunately all fifteen have come down to us". Bibliography[edit] Bradley, Patrick J. "Irony and the Narrator in Xenophon's Anabasis", in Xenophon. Ed. Vivienne J. Gray. Oxford University Press, 2010 ( ISBN 978-0-19-921618-5; ISBN 0-19-921618-5). Anderson, J.K. Xenophon. London: Duckworth, 2001 (paperback, ISBN 1-85399-619-X). Buzzetti, Eric. Xenophon the Socratic Prince: The Argument of the Anabasis of Cyrus. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014 (hardcover, ISBN 978-1-137-33330-8). Xénophon et Socrate: actes du colloque d'Aix-en-Provence (6–9 novembre 2003). Ed. par Narcy, Michel and Alonso Tordesillas. Paris: J. Vrin, 2008. 322 p. Bibliothèque d'histoire de la philosophie. Nouvelle série, ISBN 978-2-7116-1987-0. Dodge, Theodore Ayrault. “ALEXANDER. A History of the Origin and Growth of the Art of War, from the Earliest Times to the Battle of Ipsus, b. c. 301”. Boston and New York, Houghton Mifflin Company: 1890. pp. 105–112 Dillery, John. Xenophon and the History of His Times. London; New York: Routledge, 1995 (hardcover, ISBN 0-415-09139-X). Evans, R.L.S. "Xenophon" in The Dictionary of Literary Biography: Greek Writers. Ed.Ward Briggs. Vol. 176, 1997. Gray, V.J. The Years 375 to 371 BC: A Case Study in the Reliability of Diodorus Siculus and Xenophon, The Classical Quarterly, Vol. 30, No. 2. (1980), pp. 306–326. Gray, V. J., Xenophon on Government. Cambridge Greek and Latin Classics. Cambridge University Press (2007). Higgins, William Edward. Xenophon the Athenian: The Problem of the Individual and the Society of the "Polis". Albany: State University of New York Press, 1977 (hardcover, ISBN 0-87395-369-X). Hirsch, Steven W. The Friendship of the Barbarians: Xenophon and the Persian Empire. Hanover; London: University Press of New England, 1985 (hardcover, ISBN 0-87451-322-7). Hutchinson, Godfrey. Xenophon and the Art of Command. London: Greenhill Books, 2000 (hardcover, ISBN 1-85367-417-6). The Long March: Xenophon and the Ten Thousand, edited by Robin Lane Fox. New Heaven, Connecticut; London: Yale University Press, 2004 (hardcover, ISBN 0-300-10403-0). Kierkegaard, Søren A. The Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992 ( ISBN 978-069-102072-3) Moles, J.L. "Xenophon and Callicratidas", The Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 114. (1994), pp. 70–84. Nadon, Christopher. Xenophon's Prince: Republic and Empire in the "Cyropaedia". Berkeley; Los Angeles; London: University of California Press, 2001 (hardcover, ISBN 0-520-22404-3). Nussbaum, G.B. The Ten Thousand: A Study in Social Organization and Action in Xenophon's "Anabasis". (Social and Economic Commentaries on Classical Texts; 4). Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1967. Phillips, A.A & Willcock M.M. Xenophon & Arrian On Hunting With Hounds, contains Cynegeticus original texts, translations & commentary. Warminster: Aris & Phillips Ltd., 1999 (paperback ISBN 0-85668-706-5). Pomeroy, Sarah, Xenophon, Oeconomicus: A social and historical commentary, with a new English translation. Clarendon Press, 1994. Rahn, Peter J. "Xenophon's Developing Historiography", Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol. 102. (1971), pp. 497–508. Rood, Tim. The Sea! The Sea!: The Shout of the Ten Thousand in the Modern Imagination. London: Duckworth Publishing, 2004 (paperback, ISBN 0-7156-3308-2); Woodstock, New York; New York: The Overlook Press, (hardcover, ISBN 1-58567-664-0); 2006 (paperback, ISBN 1-58567-824-4). Strassler, Robert B., John Marincola, & David Thomas. The Landmark Xenophon's Hellenika. New York: Pantheon Books, 2009 (hardcover, ISBN 978-0-375-42255-3). Strauss, Leo. Xenophon's Socrates. Ithaca, New York; London: Cornell University Press, 1972 (hardcover, ISBN 0-8014-0712-5); South Bend, Indiana: St. Augustines Press, 2004 (paperback, ISBN 1-58731-966-7). Stronk, J.P. The Ten Thousand in Thrace: An Archaeological and Historical Commentary on Xenophon's Anabasis, Books VI, iii–vi – VIII (Amsterdam Classical Monographs; 2). Amsterdam: J.C. Gieben, 1995 (hardcover, ISBN 90-5063-396-X). Usher, S. "Xenophon, Critias and Theramenes", The Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 88. (1968), pp. 128–135. Witt, Prof. C. “The Retreat of the Ten Thousand”. Longmans, Green and Co.: 1912. Waterfield, Robin. Xenophon's Retreat: Greece, Persia and the End of the Golden Age. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0-674-02356-0); London: Faber and Faber, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 978-0-571-22383-1). Xenophon, Cyropaedia, translated by Walter Miller. Harvard University Press, 1914, ISBN 978-0-674-99057-9, ISBN 0-674-99057-9 (Books 1–5) and ISBN 978-0-674-99058-6, ISBN 0-674-99058-7 (Books 5–8). External links[edit] Wikisource has original works written by or about: Xenophon Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Ξενοφῶν Wikiquote has quotations related to: Xenophon Wikimedia Commons has media related to Xenophon. Library resources about Xenophon Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Xenophon Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries "Xenophon". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Graham Oliver's Xenophon Homepage Xenophon's Education of Cyrus (Cyropaedia) Web directory Famous Quotes by Xenophon Sanders (1903) Ph D Thesis on The Cynegeticus Xenophon at Somni Online works Works by Xenophon at Perseus Digital Library   Laërtius, Diogenes (1925). "Socrates, with predecessors and followers: Xenophon" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 1:2. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library. Links to English translations of Xenophon's works Leo Strauss' Seminar Transcripts on Xenophon (1962, 1966); and an audio recording of the entire course on Xenophon's Oeconomicus (1969) are available for reading, listening or download. Works by Xenophon at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Xenophon at Internet Archive Works by Xenophon at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) v t e Works by Xenophon Historical and biographical works Anabasis Cyropaedia Hellenica Agesilaus Constitution of the Lacedaemonians Socratic works and dialogues Memorabilia Oeconomicus Symposium Apology Hiero Short treatises On Horsemanship Hipparchicus Cynegeticus Ways and Means Falsely attributed to Xenophon Constitution of the Athenians ('Old Oligarch') v t e Ancient Greece Timeline History Geography Periods Cycladic civilization Minoan civilization Mycenaean civilization Greek Dark Ages Archaic period Classical Greece Hellenistic Greece Roman Greece Geography Aegean Sea Aeolis Crete Cyrenaica Cyprus Doris Epirus Hellespont Ionia Ionian Sea Macedonia Magna Graecia Peloponnesus Pontus Taurica Ancient Greek colonies City states Politics Military City states Argos Athens Byzantion Chalcis Corinth Ephesus Miletus Pergamon Eretria Kerkyra Larissa 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Related articles Jurisprudence Philosophy and economics Philosophy of education Philosophy of history Philosophy of love Philosophy of sex Philosophy of social science Political ethics Social epistemology Category Authority control BIBSYS: 90135826 BNE: XX1152182 BNF: cb11929460d (data) CANTIC: a10494297 CiNii: DA00039414 GND: 118635808 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\019634 ISNI: 0000 0001 2321 2506 LCCN: n80036673 LNB: 000062813 NDL: 00461553 NKC: jn19981002427 NLA: 35622979 NLG: 25842 NLK: KAC199630710 NLP: A11793314 NSK: 000117525 NTA: 069337195 PLWABN: 9810582430605606 SELIBR: 233385 SNAC: w6bh7sqp SUDOC: 027308367 Trove: 1018501 ULAN: 500328332 VcBA: 495/43954 VIAF: 89597697 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80036673 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xenophon&oldid=1001091816" Categories: 430s BC births 354 BC deaths 4th-century BC Greek people 4th-century BC historians 4th-century BC writers Ancient Athenian generals Ancient Athenian historians Ancient Athenians Ancient Greek generals Ancient Greek historians Ancient Greek economists Ancient Greek mercenaries Ancient Greek military writers Ancient Greek political philosophers Attic Greek writers Classical-era Greek historians Classical horsemanship Greco-Persian Wars Military personnel of the Achaemenid Empire Ostracized Athenians Political philosophers Pupils of Socrates Social commentators Social critics Social philosophers Writers on horsemanship Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles with hCards Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles needing clarification from November 2019 Articles needing additional references from December 2018 All articles needing additional references Commons category link from Wikidata Articles with Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy links Wikipedia articles incorporating the template Lives of the Eminent Philosophers Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLP identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers AC with 26 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages Alemannisch العربية Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Ligure Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Македонски Malagasy مصرى Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча پنجابی پښتو Polski Ποντιακά Português Română Русский Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 文言 Winaray 吴语 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 18 January 2021, at 05:54 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-769	----	Merkare - Wikipedia Merkare From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Merkare Pharaoh Reign unknown duration, some time between 1663 BC and 1649 BC [1] (13th dynasty) Predecessor Merkheperre Successor name lost Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Merkare Mr-k3-Rˁ Beloved Ka of Ra Merkare was an Egyptian pharaoh of the late 13th Dynasty of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period reigning for a short while, some time between 1663 BC and 1649 BC.[1] Reign[edit] As a pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty, Merkare would have reigned either over Upper Egypt from Thebes or over Middle and Upper Egypt from Memphis. At the time, the Eastern Nile Delta was under the domination of the 14th Dynasty. According to the egyptologist Kim Ryholt, no less than 17 kings of the 13th Dynasty reigned in the short time period from 1663 BC until 1649 BC.[1] Scholars, such as Manfred Bietak and Ryholt proposed that this instability is a consequence of a prolonged famine and perhaps a plague which struck at least the Delta region and lasted until the end of the 13th and 14th Dynasty states c. 1650 BC.[1][2] The weakened state of both kingdoms may explain, in part, why they fell rapidly to the emerging Hyksos power c. 1650 BC.[1] Attestation[edit] Merkare's only attestation is the Turin canon, a king list compiled in the early Ramesside period.[3] According to the egyptologist Kim Ryholt, the canon gives his prenomen on the 8th column, 18th line[1] (Gardiner entry 7.23 [4]). The Turin papyrus is damaged on the section covering the late 13th dynasty and Merkare's reign length is lost in a lacuna. The exact chronological position of Merkare is not known for certain as the damaged state of the Turin canon only allows for conjectural reconstructions of the late 13th Dynasty. According to Ryholt he was the forty-eighth ruler of the dynasty, while Baker and von Beckerath see him as the forty-seventh.[1][3][5] References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g K.S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here. ^ Manfred Bietak, Egypt and Canaan During the Middle Bronze Age, BASOR 281 (1991), pp. 21-72 see in particular p. 38 ^ a b Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 215 ^ Alan H. Gardiner: The Royal Canon of Turin, Oxford 1959, Vol. III, 6.14, Warminster 1987, ISBN 0-900416-48-3. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, (Münchner ägyptologische Studien), 1984, ISBN 978-3422008328 Preceded by Merkheperre Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by lost v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Merkare&oldid=972491365" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Español Euskara Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Slovenščina ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 12 August 2020, at 10:26 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7705	----	Ariarathes I of Cappadocia - Wikipedia Ariarathes I of Cappadocia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other people named Ariarathes, see Ariarathes (disambiguation). 4th-century BC king of Cappadocia Ariarathes Coin of Ariarathes I, minted in Gaziura, dated 333–322 BC Born 405/4 BC Died 322 BC Allegiance Achaemenid Empire (until 331 BC) Kingdom of Cappadocia (until 322 BC) Rank Satrap of Northern Cappadocia (under the Achaemenids) King of Cappadocia Battles/wars Battle of Gaugamela Ariarathes I (Old Iranian: Aryaraθa, Aramaic: Ariorath or Ariourat; Ancient Greek: Ἀριαράθης, romanized: Ariaráthēs; 405/4 BC – 322 BC) was the last Achaemenid Persian governor (satrap) of the province (satrapy) of Northern Cappadocia, serving from the 340s BC to 331 BC. He led defensive efforts against the Macedonian invasion, commanded by Alexander the Great, and later fought at the Battle of Gaugamela under Darius III, the last King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire. After the fall of the Achaemenid Empire, Ariarathes continued his resistance against the Macedonians, ruling concomitantly as an Achaemenid remnant and a precursor to the Kingdom of Cappadocia. He is regarded as the founder of the Iranian Ariarathid dynasty. Ariarathes was eventually captured and executed in 322 BC by the Macedonian Perdiccas. His territory was seized, whereafter it was contested between several of Alexander's successors and former generals. However, Ariarathes's dynastic successors regained control over Cappadocia in 301 BC and ruled over the kingdom until 96 BC when they were deposed by the Roman Republic. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Biography 3 Coinage 4 Successors 5 Notes 6 References 7 Sources Etymology[edit] "Ariarathes" is the Hellenized form of an Old Iranian name, perhaps *Arya-wratha ("having Aryan joy").[1] The name is attested in Aramaic as Ariorath or Ariourat, and in later Latin sources as Ariaratus.[2] Biography[edit] Map depicting the Achaemenid Empire in c. 500 BC, by William Robert Shepherd (1923) Anachronistic painting of the Battle of Gaugamela by Jan Brueghel the Elder (1602) Although details of Ariarathes I's life are scant,[3] it is known that he was born in 405/4 BC to Ariamnes and had a brother named Orophernes (Holophernes).[4] He founded the eponymous Ariarathid dynasty, an Iranian family that claimed descent from Cyrus the Great, the first King of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, and Anaphas, one of the seven Persian conspirators who killed the Pseudo-Smerdis.[5] During the reign of Artaxerxes II (r. 404–358 BC), King of Kings of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, Ariarathes and his family served as minor officials in the satrapy of Cappadocia, which was governed by Datames at the time.[6] Sometime after the assassination of Datames in c. 362 BC, possibly after the ascension of Artaxerxes III (r. 358–338 BC), Cappadocia was divided into a northern and southern satrapy.[7][a] This change was implemented in response to the excessive power that Datames had amassed during his governorship as well as to improve the efficacy of the administration.[9] By the 340s BC, Ariarathes had become satrap in Northern Cappadocia, having succeeded his father Ariamnes, overseeing territory that would later become the Kingdom of Pontus.[10] The stability of Ariarathes's territory enabled him to send provincial troops with Artaxerxes III on the Achaemenid campaign to pacify Egypt.[11] During the reign of King Darius III (r. 336–330 BC), Macedonian forces led by Alexander the Great (r. 336–323 BC) invaded Persian territory.[12] Cappadocia and the neighbouring satrapy of Phrygia became rallying points for the Achaemenid resistance.[13] Defensive efforts were hampered by losses such as the death of Mithrobuzanes, governor of the southern Cappadocian satrapy, who was killed at the Battle of Granicus in 334 BC.[14] However, the Macedonian-appointed replacement, Abistamenes, failed to establish his authority over this newly conquered territory and he later vanished into obscurity.[15] Cappadocia continued to be an important focal point of Achaemenid resistance and was also used as a staging area for a campaign to retake western Anatolia.[16] Fortunately for Ariarathes, his territory was largely unaffected by the invasion and he was able to establish himself as a key figure leading the resistance,[17] and subsequently commanded troops at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC.[18] After the Persian defeat at Gaugamela, the end of the Achaemenid Empire and its replacement by Alexander's Macedonian Empire, Ariarathes continued to resist the Macedonians from his base at Gaziura (Gazioura) as an independent monarch until his death.[19] In 323 BC, following the death of Alexander, Cappadocia was granted to Eumenes,[20] but he was unable to dislodge Ariarathes and consolidate his hold, as Cappadocia had not been properly subjugated by Alexander. This situation was exacerbated by Eumenes' failure to obtain support from the other Macedonian satraps.[21] He then turned to Perdiccas, regent of the incumbent Macedonian ruler Philip III Arrhidaeus (r. 323–317 BC), who, needing to bring more loyal governors to his side, agreed to assist Eumenes in capturing Ariarathes's domain.[22] In the summer of 322 BC, Perdiccas, the royal court, and the battle-hardened royal Macedonian army entered Cappadocia.[23] Ariarathes, who was reputed to be quite wealthy, apparently managed to muster a force composed of locals and mercenaries to face Perdiccas,[24] but was defeated and captured. He and most of his family members were crucified that same year.[25] Coinage[edit] Coin of Ariarathes I, minted in Sinope, dated 333–322 BC Ariarathes I minted campaign coinage at Sinope and Gaziura inscribed with legends in Aramaic, the imperial language of the Achaemenids.[26] On the reverse of one of Ariarathes's Gaziura coins, a griffin is depicted attacking a kneeling stag with Ariarathes's name is inscribed as 'rywrt.[27] The obverse of the same coin depicts a Zeus-like impression of the God Baal with wreath and sceptre in his left hand.[28] In his right hand, on which an eagle is perched, the seated figure holds ears of corn and a vine-branch with grapes.[29] The obverse features the inscription b'lgzyr ("Ba'al Gazir", i.e. "Lord of Gaziura").[30] Stylistically, this particular issue of coinage by Ariarathes resembles the coins issued by Achaemenid satrap Mazaeus at Tarsos in Cilicia.[31] The Iranologist Mary Boyce and the historian Frantz Grenet note that the Zeus-like depiction of a seated Baal could actually be portraying the Zoroastrian Ahura Mazda or Mithra.[32] Coins of Ariarathes minted at Sinope stylistically resemble Greek issues from the same city, but feature Ariarathes's name in Aramaic.[33] On the obverse of the Sinope issues, the head of the local nymph Sinope is depicted wearing a sphendone within a border of dots.[34] On the reverse, an eagle with wings aloft a dolphin is depicted, under which is inscribed Ariarathes's name.[35] Successors[edit] A few years after the death of Ariarathes I, Antigonus I Monophthalmus, a former general of Alexander, executed Eumenes and seized control of Cappadocia.[36] Control of the region then passed to Lysimachus (r. 306–281 BC), King of Thrace, Asia Minor and Macedon, but was captured thereafter by Seleucus I Nicator (r. 305–281), Basileus of the Seleucid Empire,[37] both of whom were Diadochi ("successors") of Alexander. Southern Cappadocia, deemed more strategically important to the Seleucids than its northern counterpart, spent a brief period under Seleucid control.[38] Then, in about 301 BC, around the time of the Battle of Ipsus, Ariarathes I's nephew Ariarathes II managed to restore Ariarathid control over Southern Cappadocia with Armenian military assistance.[39] Ariarathes II subsequently ruled Southern Cappadocia under Seleucid suzerainty.[40] After the deaths of Lysimachus and Seleucus, Northern Cappadocia, once held by Ariarathes I, was incorporated into the Kingdom of Pontus, founded by Mithridates I.[41] Around the same time (c. 280 BC), in Southern Cappadocia, Ariarathes II was succeeded by his son Ariaramnes.[42] In c. 255 BC, Ariaramnes, or his son and successor Ariarathes III of Cappadocia, declared independence from the Seleucids.[43] Ariarathes I's successors ruled the Kingdom of Cappadocia until 96 BC when they were replaced by the Ariobarzanids due to Roman intervention.[44] Notes[edit] ^ These northern and southern parts were also respectively known as Pontic Cappadocia and Greater, or Tauric Cappadocia.[8] References[edit] ^ Brunner 1986, p. 406. ^ Sherwin-White 1984, p. 51; Erciyas 2006, p. 32; Brunner 1986, p. 406. ^ McGing 2012, p. 151. ^ Weiskopf 1990, pp. 780–786; Schottky 2006. ^ McGing 2012, p. 151; Weiskopf 1990, pp. 780–786; Shahbazi 1986, pp. 410–411; Boyce & Grenet 1991, pp. 266–267, 281; Mørkholm 1991, p. 96. ^ Weiskopf 1990, pp. 780–786; Weiskopf 1987, pp. 757–764. ^ Weiskopf 1990, pp. 780–786; Schmitt 1994, pp. 115–117. ^ Weiskopf 1990, pp. 780–786; Boyce & Grenet 1991, p. 266. ^ Weiskopf 1990, pp. 780–786. ^ Weiskopf 1990, pp. 780–786; Dusinberre 2013, p. 37 ^ Weiskopf 1990, pp. 780–786. ^ Weiskopf 1990, pp. 780–786. ^ Weiskopf 1987, pp. 757–764. ^ Weiskopf 1990, pp. 780–786. ^ Weiskopf 1990, pp. 780–786. ^ Weiskopf 1990, pp. 780–786. ^ Weiskopf 1990, pp. 780–786; Roisman 2012, p. 87 ^ Weiskopf 1990, pp. 780–786. ^ Yavuz 2010, p. 49; Weiskopf 1987, pp. 757–764. ^ Boyce & Grenet 1991, p. 266. ^ Roisman 2012, p. 87. ^ Roisman 2012, p. 87. ^ Roisman 2012, pp. 87–88. ^ Roisman 2012, p. 88. ^ Boyce & Grenet 1991, p. 266; Yavuz 2010, p. 49. ^ Weiskopf 1990, pp. 780–786; Raditsa 1983, p. 111; Boyce & Grenet 1991, p. 266; Mørkholm 1991, p. 96. ^ Boyce & Grenet 1991, p. 266; Mørkholm 1991, p. 96. ^ Boyce & Grenet 1991, p. 266; Mørkholm 1991, p. 96. ^ Boyce & Grenet 1991, p. 266. ^ Boyce & Grenet 1991, p. 266. ^ Boyce & Grenet 1991, p. 266; Mørkholm 1991, p. 96. ^ Boyce & Grenet 1991, pp. 266, 578. ^ Boyce & Grenet 1991, p. 266. ^ Sherwin-White 1984, p. 51; Erciyas 2006, p. 32. ^ Sherwin-White 1984, p. 51; Mørkholm 1991, p. 96. ^ Yavuz 2010, p. 49; Boyce & Grenet 1991, p. 266. ^ Boyce & Grenet 1991, p. 266. ^ Boyce & Grenet 1991, p. 266. ^ Hazel 2001, p. 29; Yardley 2011, p. 137. ^ Hazel 2001, p. 29. ^ Boyce & Grenet 1991, p. 266. ^ Yavuz 2010, p. 49; Boyce & Grenet 1991, p. 266. ^ McGing 2012, p. 151; Yavuz 2010, p. 49. ^ Weiskopf 1990, pp. 780–786; Yavuz 2010, p. 50. Sources[edit] Boyce, Mary; Grenet, Frantz (1991). Beck, Roger (ed.). A History of Zoroastrianism, Zoroastrianism under Macedonian and Roman Rule. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-9004293915. Brunner, C. J. (1986). "Ariaratus". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 4. p. 406. Dusinberre, Elspeth R. M. (2013). Empire, Authority, and Autonomy in Achaemenid Anatolia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1107577152. Erciyas, Deniz Burcu (2006). Wealth, Aristocracy And Royal Propaganda Under the Hellenistic Kingdom of the Mithradatids in the Central Black Sea Region of Turkey. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-9004146099. Hazel, John (2001). Who's Who in the Greek World (1 ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0415260329. McGing, Brian (2012). "Ariarathes". In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.). The Oxford Classical Dictionary (4 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199545568. Mørkholm, Otto (1991). Westermark, Ulla; Grierson, Philip (eds.). Early Hellenistic Coinage from the Accession of Alexander to the Peace of Apamaea (336-188 B.C.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0521395045. Raditsa, Leo (1983). "Iranians in Asia Minor". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 3 (1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1139054942. Roisman, Joseph (2012). Alexander's Veterans and the Early Wars of the Successors. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0292742888. Schmitt, Rüdiger (1994). "Datames". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VII, Fasc. 2. pp. 115–117. Schottky, Martin (2006). "Ariarathes". In Salazar, Christine F.; Landfester, Manfred; Gentry, Francis G. (eds.). Brill's New Pauly. Brill Online. Shahbazi, A. Sh. (1986). "Ariyāramna". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 4. pp. 410–411. Sherwin-White, Susan M. (1984). "Asia Minor". In Ling, Roger (ed.). The Cambridge Ancient History: Plates to Volumes VII, part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521243544. Weiskopf, Michael (1987). "Asia Minor". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 7. pp. 757–764. Weiskopf, Michael (1990). "Cappadocia". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IV, Fasc. 7–8. pp. 780–786. Yardley, J. C. (2011). Wheatley, Pat; Heckel, Waldemar (eds.). Justin: Epitome of The Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus: Volume II: Books 13-15: The Successors to Alexander the Great. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199277599. Yavuz, Mehmet Fatih (2010). "Cappadocia". In Gagarin, Michael (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195170726. Political offices Preceded by Ariamnes I Satrap of Cappadocia 340s – 331 BC Succeeded by Himself as King of Cappadocia Regnal titles Preceded by Himself as Satrap of Cappadocia King of Cappadocia 331 – 322 BC VacantTitle next held by Ariarathes II v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC v t e Kings of Cappadocia (331 BC–17 AD) Ariarathes I (331–322 BC) Ariarathes II (301–280 BC) Ariaramnes (280–230 BC) Ariarathes III (255–220 BC) Ariarathes IV (220–163 BC) Ariarathes V (163–130 BC) Ariarathes VI (130–116 BC) Ariarathes VII (116–101 BC) Ariarathes VIII (101–96 BC) Ariarathes IX (101–96 BC) Ariobarzanes I (96–ca.63 BC) Ariobarzanes II (c.63–51 BC) Ariobarzanes III (51–42 BC) Ariarathes X (42–36 BC) Archelaus (36 BC–17 AD) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ariarathes_I_of_Cappadocia&oldid=1002467727" Categories: Achaemenid satraps of Cappadocia Kings of Cappadocia 322 BC deaths 4th-century BC rulers Alexander the Great People executed by crucifixion Executed monarchs Darius III 4th-century BC Iranian people People who died under the regency of Perdiccas Military leaders of the Achaemenid Empire Hidden categories: Good articles Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Беларуская Català Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français Galego Hrvatski Italiano Magyar مصرى Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 16:28 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-770	----	Baroque - Wikipedia Baroque From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Artistic style in Europe and colonies, c. 1600–1750 For other uses, see Baroque (disambiguation). The Baroque Top: Venus and Adonis by Peter Paul Rubens (1635–40); Centre: The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa by Bernini (1651); Bottom: The Wieskirche in Bavaria (1754) Years active 17th–18th centuries The Baroque (UK: /bəˈrɒk/, US: /bəˈroʊk/; French: [baʁɔk]) is a style of architecture, music, dance, painting, sculpture and other arts that flourished in Europe from the early 17th century until the 1740s. In the territories of the Spanish and Portuguese empires including the Iberian Peninsula it continued, together with new styles, until the first decade of the 1800s. It followed Renaissance art and Mannerism and preceded the Rococo (in the past often referred to as "late Baroque") and Neoclassical styles. It was encouraged by the Catholic Church as a means to counter the simplicity and austerity of Protestant architecture, art and music, though Lutheran Baroque art developed in parts of Europe as well.[1] The Baroque style used contrast, movement, exuberant detail, deep colour, grandeur and surprise to achieve a sense of awe. The style began at the start of the 17th century in Rome, then spread rapidly to France, northern Italy, Spain and Portugal, then to Austria, southern Germany and Russia. By the 1730s, it had evolved into an even more flamboyant style, called rocaille or Rococo, which appeared in France and Central Europe until the mid to late 18th century. In the decorative arts, the style employs plentiful and intricate ornamentation. The departure from Renaissance classicism has its own ways in each country. But a general feature is that everywhere the starting point is the ornamental elements introduced by the Renaissance. The classical repertoire is crowded, dense, overlapping, loaded, in order to provoke shock effects. New motifs introduced by Baroque are: the cartouche, trophies and weapons, baskets of fruit or flowers, and others, made in marquetry, stucco, or carved.[2] Contents 1 Origin of the word 2 Architecture: origins and characteristics 2.1 Italian Baroque 2.2 Spanish Baroque 2.3 Central Europe and Rococo (1740s–1770s) 2.4 French Baroque or Classicism 2.5 Portuguese Baroque 2.6 Russian Baroque 2.7 Baroque in the Spanish and Portuguese Colonial Americas 2.8 Baroque in the Spanish and Portuguese Colonial Asia 3 Painting 3.1 Spanish Americas 4 Sculpture 5 Furniture 6 Music and ballet 6.1 Composers and examples 7 Theatre 7.1 Spanish colonial Americas 8 Gardens 9 Differences between Rococo and Baroque 10 End of the style, condemnation and academic rediscovery 11 Baroque Revival art 12 See also 13 Notes 14 Sources 15 Further reading 16 External links Origin of the word[edit] Pendant in the form of a siren, made of a baroque pearl (the torso) with enameled gold mounts set with rubies, probably circa 1860, in the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City) The English word baroque comes directly from the French (as the modern standard English-language spelling might suggest). Some scholars state that the French word originated from the Portuguese term barroco ("a flawed pearl"), pointing to[clarification needed] the Latin verruca,[3] ("wart"), or to a word with the suffix -ǒccu (common in pre-Roman Iberia).[4][5][6] Other sources suggest a Medieval Latin term used in logic, baroco, as the most likely source.[7] In the 16th century, the Medieval Latin word baroco moved beyond scholastic logic and came into use to characterise anything that seemed absurdly complex. The French philosopher Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592) associated the term baroco with "Bizarre and uselessly complicated."[8] Other early sources associate baroco with magic, complexity, confusion, and excess.[7] The word baroque was also associated with irregular pearls before the 18th century. The French baroque and Portuguese barroco were terms often associated with jewelry. An example from 1531 uses the term to describe pearls in an inventory of Charles V of France's[clarification needed] treasures.[9] Later, the word appears in a 1694 edition of Le Dictionnaire de l'Académie Française, which describes baroque as "only used for pearls that are imperfectly round."[10] A 1728 Portuguese dictionary similarly describes barroco as relating to a "coarse and uneven pearl".[11] An alternative derivation of the word baroque points to the name of the Italian painter Federico Barocci (1528–1612).[12] In the 18th century the term began to be used to describe music, and not in a flattering way. In an anonymous satirical review of the première of Jean-Philippe Rameau's Hippolyte et Aricie in October 1733, which was printed in the Mercure de France in May 1734, the critic wrote that the novelty in this opera was "du barocque", complaining that the music lacked coherent melody, was unsparing with dissonances, constantly changed key and meter, and speedily ran through every compositional device.[13] In 1762 Le Dictionnaire de l'Académie Française recorded that the term could figuratively describe something "irregular, bizarre or unequal".[14] Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who was a musician and composer as well as a philosopher, wrote in 1768 in the Encyclopédie: "Baroque music is that in which the harmony is confused, and loaded with modulations and dissonances. The singing is harsh and unnatural, the intonation difficult, and the movement limited. It appears that term comes from the word 'baroco' used by logicians."[8][15] In 1788 Quatremère de Quincy defined the term in the Encyclopédie Méthodique as "an architectural style that is highly adorned and tormented".[16] The French terms style baroque and musique baroque appeared in Le Dictionnaire de l'Académie Française in 1835.[17] By the mid-19th century, art critics and historians had adopted the term "baroque" as a way to ridicule post-Renaissance art. This was the sense of the word as used in 1855 by the leading art historian Jacob Burckhardt, who wrote that baroque artists "despised and abused detail" because they lacked "respect for tradition".[18] In 1888 the art historian Heinrich Wölfflin published the first serious academic work on the style, Renaissance und Barock, which described the differences between the painting, sculpture, and architecture of the Renaissance and the Baroque.[19] Architecture: origins and characteristics[edit] Main article: Baroque architecture Quadratura or trompe-l'œil ceiling of the Church of the Gesù from Rome, by Giovanni Battista Gaulli, from 1673 to 1678[20] The Baroque style of architecture was a result of doctrines adopted by the Catholic Church at the Council of Trent in 1545–63, in response to the Protestant Reformation. The first phase of the Counter-Reformation had imposed a severe, academic style on religious architecture, which had appealed to intellectuals but not the mass of churchgoers. The Council of Trent decided instead to appeal to a more popular audience, and declared that the arts should communicate religious themes with direct and emotional involvement.[21][22] Similarly, Lutheran Baroque art developed as a confessional marker of identity, in response to the Great Iconoclasm of Calvinists.[23] Baroque churches were designed with a large central space, where the worshippers could be close to the altar, with a dome or cupola high overhead, allowing light to illuminate the church below. The dome was one of the central symbolic features of Baroque architecture illustrating the union between the heavens and the earth, The inside of the cupola was lavishly decorated with paintings of angels and saints, and with stucco statuettes of angels, giving the impression to those below of looking up at heaven.[24] Another feature of Baroque churches are the quadratura; trompe-l'œil paintings on the ceiling in stucco frames, either real or painted, crowded with paintings of saints and angels and connected by architectural details with the balustrades and consoles. Quadratura paintings of Atlantes below the cornices appear to be supporting the ceiling of the church. Unlike the painted ceilings of Michelangelo in the Sistine Chapel, which combined different scenes, each with its own perspective, to be looked at one at a time, the Baroque ceiling paintings were carefully created so the viewer on the floor of the church would see the entire ceiling in correct perspective, as if the figures were real. The interiors of Baroque churches became more and more ornate in the High Baroque, and focused around the altar, usually placed under the dome. The most celebrated baroque decorative works of the High Baroque are the Chair of Saint Peter (1647–53) and the Baldachino of St. Peter (1623–34), both by Gian Lorenzo Bernini, in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. The Baldequin of St. Peter is an example of the balance of opposites in Baroque art; the gigantic proportions of the piece, with the apparent lightness of the canopy; and the contrast between the solid twisted columns, bronze, gold and marble of the piece with the flowing draperies of the angels on the canopy.[25] The Dresden Frauenkirche serves as a prominent example of Lutheran Baroque art, which was completed in 1743 after being commissioned by the Lutheran city council of Dresden and was "compared by eighteenth-century observers to St Peter's in Rome".[1] The twisted column in the interior of churches is one of the signature features of the Baroque. It gives both a sense of motion and also a dramatic new way of reflecting light. The cartouche was another characteristic feature of Baroque decoration. These were large plaques carved of marble or stone, usually oval and with a rounded surface, which carried images or text in gilded letters, and were placed as interior decoration or above the doorways of buildings, delivering messages to those below. They showed a wide variety of invention, and were found in all types of buildings, from cathedrals and palaces to small chapels.[26] Baroque architects sometimes used forced perspective to create illusions. For the Palazzo Spada in Rome, Borromini used columns of diminishing size, a narrowing floor and a miniature statue in the garden beyond to create the illusion that a passageway was thirty meters long, when it was actually only seven meters long. A statue at the end of the passage appears to be life-size, though it is only sixty centimeters high. Borromini designed the illusion with the assistance of a mathematician. Italian Baroque[edit] Main article: Italian Baroque architecture Saint Ignatius from Rome (1626–1650) The first building in Rome to have a Baroque facade was the Church of the Gesù in 1584; it was plain by later Baroque standards, but marked a break with the traditional Renaissance facades that preceded it. The interior of this church remained very austere until the high Baroque, when it was lavishly ornamented. In Rome in 1605, Paul V became the first of series of popes who commissioned basilicas and church buildings designed to inspire emotion and awe through a proliferation of forms, and a richness of colours and dramatic effects.[27] Among the most influential monuments of the Early Baroque were the facade of St. Peter's Basilica (1606–1619), and the new nave and loggia which connected the facade to Michelangelo's dome in the earlier church. The new design created a dramatic contrast between the soaring dome and the disproportionately wide facade, and the contrast on the facade itself between the Doric columns and the great mass of the portico.[28] In the mid to late 17th century the style reached its peak, later termed the High Baroque. Many monumental works were commissioned by Popes Urban VIII and Alexander VII. The sculptor and architect Gian Lorenzo Bernini designed a new quadruple colonnade around St. Peter's Square (1656 to 1667). The three galleries of columns in a giant ellipse balance the oversize dome and give the Church and square a unity and the feeling of a giant theatre.[29] Santa Maria della Salute in Venice (1631–1687) Another major innovator of the Italian High Baroque was Francesco Borromini, whose major work was the Church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane or Saint Charles of the Four Fountains (1634–46). The sense of movement is given not by the decoration, but by the walls themselves, which undulate and by concave and convex elements, including an oval tower and balcony inserted into a concave traverse. The interior was equally revolutionary; the main space of the church was oval, beneath an oval dome.[29] Painted ceilings, crowded with angels and saints and trompe-l'œil architectural effects, were an important feature of the Italian High Baroque. Major works included The Entry of Saint Ignatius into Paradise by Andrea Pozzo (1685–1695) in the Church of Saint Ignatius in Rome, and The triumph of the name of Jesus by Giovanni Battista Gaulli in the Church of the Gesù in Rome (1669–1683), which featured figures spilling out of the picture frame and dramatic oblique lighting and light-dark contrasts.[30] The style spread quickly from Rome to other regions of Italy: It appeared in Venice in the church of Santa Maria della Salute (1631–1687) by Baldassare Longhena, a highly original octagonal form crowned with an enormous cupola. It appeared also in Turin, notably in the Chapel of the Holy Shroud (1668–1694) by Guarino Guarini. The style also began to be used in palaces; Guarini designed the Palazzo Carignano in Turin, while Longhena designed the Ca' Rezzonico on the Grand Canal, (1657), finished by Giorgio Massari with decorated with paintings by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo.[31] A series of massive earthquakes in Sicily required the rebuilding of most of them and several were built in the exuberant late Baroque or Rococo style. Façade of the Church of the Gesù from Rome (1584) Ceiling of the Church of the Gesù (1674–1679) The Ca Rezzonico from Venice (1649–1656) Cartouches decorating courtyard of the Palazzo Spada from Rome, by Francesco Borromini (1632) Gallery with forced perspective, by Francesco Borromini, which creates the illusion that the corridor is much longer than it really is, in the Palazzo Spada (1632) The Chair of Saint Peter by Gian Lorenzo Bernini, in the St. Peter's Basilica from Rome (1657–1666) Spanish Baroque[edit] Main article: Spanish Baroque architecture The towers of the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela by Fernando de Casas Novoa (1680 (centre tower) and 1738–1750) The Catholic Church in Spain, and particularly the Jesuits, were the driving force of Spanish Baroque architecture. The first major work in this style was the San Isidro Chapel in Madrid, begun in 1643 by Pedro de la Torre. It contrasted an extreme richness of ornament on the exterior with simplicity in the interior, divided into multiple spaces and using effects of light to create a sense of mystery.[32] The Cathedral in Santiago de Compostela was modernized with a series of Baroque additions beginning at the end of the 17th century, starting with a highly ornate bell tower (1680), then flanked by two even taller and more ornate towers, called the Obradorio, added between 1738 and 1750 by Fernando de Casas Novoa. Another landmark of the Spanish Baroque is the chapel tower of the Palace of San Telmo in Seville by Leonardo de Figueroa.[33] The Palace of San Telmo from Seville (1682) Granada had only been liberated from the Moors in the 15th century, and had its own distinct variety of Baroque. The painter, sculptor and architect Alonso Cano designed the Baroque interior of Granada Cathedral between 1652 and his death in 1657. It features dramatic contrasts of the massive white columns and gold decor. The most ornamental and lavishly decorated architecture of the Spanish Baroque is called Churrigueresque style, named after the brothers Churriguera, who worked primarily in Salamanca and Madrid. Their works include the buildings on the city's main square, the Plaza Mayor of Salamanca (1729).[33] This highly ornamental Baroque style was very influential in many churches and cathedrals built by the Spanish in the Americas. Other notable Spanish baroque architects of the late Baroque include Pedro de Ribera, a pupil of Churriguera, who designed the Royal Hospice of San Fernando in Madrid, and Narciso Tomé, who designed the celebrated El Transparente altarpiece at Toledo Cathedral (1729–32) which gives the illusion, in certain light, of floating upwards.[33] The architects of the Spanish Baroque had an effect far beyond Spain; their work was highly influential in the churches built in the Spanish colonies in Latin America and the Philippines. The Church built by the Jesuits for a college in Tepotzotlán, with its ornate Baroque facade and tower, is a good example.[34] The Granada Cathedral (1652–1657) Altarpiece of Convento de San Esteban, from Salamanca (1690) The Plaza Mayor from Salamanca (1729) Hospice of San Fernando from Madrid (1750) Central Europe and Rococo (1740s–1770s)[edit] Main article: Rococo Quadratura; a painted dome by Andrea Pozzo for the Jesuit Church, Vienna, giving the illusion of looking upwards at heavenly figures around a nonexistent dome (1703) From 1680 to 1750, many highly ornate cathedrals, abbeys, and pilgrimage churches were built in Central Europe, in Bavaria, Austria, Bohemia and southwestern Poland. Some were in Rococo style, a distinct, more flamboyant and asymmetric style which emerged from the Baroque, then replaced it in Central Europe in the first half of the 18th century, until it was replaced in turn by classicism.[35] The princes of the multitude of states in that region also chose Baroque or Rococo for their palaces and residences, and often used Italian-trained architects to construct them.[36] Notable architects included Johann Fischer von Erlach, Lukas von Hildebrandt and Dominikus Zimmermann in Bavaria, Balthasar Neumann in Bruhl, and Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann in Dresden. In Prussia, Frederic II of Prussia was inspired the Grand Trianon of the Palace of Versailles, and used it as the model for his summer residence, Sanssouci, in Potsdam, designed for him by Georg Wenzeslaus von Knobelsdorff (1745–1747). Another work of Baroque palace architecture is the Zwinger in Dresden, the former orangerie of the palace of the Dukes of Saxony in the 18th century. St. Nicholas Church (Malá Strana) from Prague (1704–1755) One of the best examples of a rococo church is the Basilika Vierzehnheiligen, or Basilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers, a pilgrimage church located near the town of Bad Staffelstein near Bamberg, in Bavaria, southern Germany. The Basilica was designed by Balthasar Neumann and was constructed between 1743 and 1772, its plan a series of interlocking circles around a central oval with the altar placed in the exact centre of the church. The interior of this church illustrates the summit of Rococo decoration.[37] Another notable example of the style is the Pilgrimage Church of Wies (German: Wieskirche). It was designed by the brothers J. B. and Dominikus Zimmermann. It is located in the foothills of the Alps, in the municipality of Steingaden in the Weilheim-Schongau district, Bavaria, Germany. Construction took place between 1745 and 1754, and the interior was decorated with frescoes and with stuccowork in the tradition of the Wessobrunner School. It is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Another notable example is the St. Nicholas Church (Malá Strana) in Prague (1704–55), built by Christoph Dientzenhofer and his son Kilian Ignaz Dientzenhofer. Decoration covers all of walls of interior of the church. The altar is placed in the nave beneath the central dome, and surrounded by chapels, Light comes down from the dome above and from the surrounding chapels. The altar is entirely surrounded by arches, columns, curved balustrades and pilasters of coloured stone, which are richly decorated with statuary, creating a deliberate confusion between the real architecture and the decoration. The architecture is transformed into a theatre of light, colour and movement.[25] In Poland, the Italian-inspired Polish Baroque lasted from the early 17th to the mid-18th century and emphasised richness of detail and colour. The first Baroque building in present-day Poland and probably one of the most recognizable is the Church of St. Peter and Paul in Kraków, designed by Giovanni Battista Trevano. Sigismund's Column in Warsaw, erected in 1644, was the world's first secular Baroque monument built in the form of a column.[38] The palatial residence style was exemplified by the Wilanów Palace, constructed between 1677 and 1696.[39] The most renowned Baroque architect active in Poland was Dutchman Tylman van Gameren and his notable works include Warsaw's St. Kazimierz Church and Krasiński Palace, St. Anne's in Kraków and Branicki Palace in Bialystok.[40] However, the most celebrated work of Polish Baroque is the Fara Church in Poznań, with details by Pompeo Ferrari. The Fara Church from Poznań (Poland) (1651–1701) Remnant of Zwinger Palace in Dresden (1710–1728) Ceiling of Ottobeuren Abbey, in Bavaria (1711–1725) Library of the Clementinum, the Jesuit university from Prague (1722) Karlskirche (Vienna), by Fischer von Erlach (consecrated 1737) The Vierzehnheigen Basilica from Bavaria, by Balthasar Neumann (1743–1772) Sanssouci, in Potsdam, by Georg Wenzeslaus von Knobelsdorff (1745–1747) The East façade of the Würzburg Residence from Würzburg (Germany) French Baroque or Classicism[edit] Main article: French Baroque architecture The façade of Palais Rohan from Strasbourg (France) which faces the river France largely resisted the ornate Baroque style of Italy, Spain, Vienna and the rest of Europe. The French Baroque style (often termed Grand Classicism or simply Classicism in France) is closely associated with the works built for Louis XIV and Louis XV; it features more geometric order and measure than Baroque, and less elaborate decoration on the facades and in the interiors. Louis XIV invited the master of Baroque, Bernini, to submit a design for the new wing of the Louvre, but rejected it in favor of a more classical design by Claude Perrault and Louis Le Vau.[41] Palace of Versailles (begun by Louis Le Vau in 1661) The principal architects of the style included François Mansart (Chateau de Balleroy, 1626–1636), Pierre Le Muet (Church of Val-de-Grace, 1645–1665), Louis Le Vau (Vaux-le-Vicomte, 1657–1661) and especially Jules Hardouin Mansart and Robert de Cotte, whose work included the Galerie des Glaces and the Grand Trianon at Versailles (1687–1688). Mansart was also responsible for the Baroque classicism of the Place Vendôme (1686–1699).[42] The major royal project of the period was the expansion of Palace of Versailles, begun in 1661 by Le Vau with decoration by the painter Charles Le Brun. The gardens were designed by André Le Nôtre specifically to complement and amplify the architecture. The Galerie des Glaces (Hall of Mirrors), the centerpiece of the château, with paintings by Le Brun, was constructed between 1678 and 1686. Mansart completed the Grand Trianon in 1687. The chapel, designed by de Cotte, was finished in 1710. Following the death of Louis XIV, Louis XV added the more intimate Petit Trianon and the highly ornate theatre. The fountains in the gardens were designed to be seen from the interior, and to add to the dramatic effect. The palace was admired and copied by other monarchs of Europe, particularly Peter the Great of Russia, who visited Versailles early in the reign of Louis XV, and built his own version at Peterhof Palace near Saint Petersburg, between 1705 and 1725.[43] The Church of Saint-Paul-Saint-Louis, the first Paris church with a façade in the new Baroque style (1616–20) The Château de Vaux-le-Vicomte from Maincy (1657–1661) East facade of the Louvre, by Claude Perrault and Louis Le Vau (1668–1680) Hall of Mirrors in the Versailles Palace (1678–1686) The Dôme des Invalides, part of the Les Invalides (Paris) Place des Victoires (1684–1697), by Jules Hardouin-Mansart Portuguese Baroque[edit] Neptune's glory, Palace of Queluz, 1747 Baroque architecture in Portugal lasted about two centuries (the late seventeenth century and eighteenth century). The reigns of John V and Joseph I had increased imports of gold and diamonds, in a period called Royal Absolutism, which allowed the Portuguese Baroque to flourish. Baroque architecture in Portugal enjoys a special situation and different timeline from the rest of Europe. It is conditioned by several political, artistic and economic factors, that originate several phases, and different kinds of outside influences, resulting in a unique blend,[44] often misunderstood by those looking for Italian art, find instead specific forms and character which give it a uniquely Portuguese variety. Another key factor is the existence of the Jesuitical architecture, also called "plain style" (Estilo Chão or Estilo Plano)[45] which like the name evokes, is plainer and appears somewhat austere. Interior of Monastery of São Martinho de Tibães, Braga, 1757 The buildings are single-room basilicas, deep main chapel, lateral chapels (with small doors for communication), without interior and exterior decoration, very simple portal and windows. It is a very practical building, allowing it to be built throughout the empire with minor adjustments, and prepared to be decorated later or when economic resources are available. In fact, the first Portuguese Baroque does not lack in building because "plain style" is easy to be transformed, by means of decoration (painting, tiling, etc.), turning empty areas into pompous, elaborate baroque scenarios. The same could be applied to the exterior. Subsequently, it is easy to adapt the building to the taste of the time and place and add on new features and details. Practical and economical. With more inhabitants and better economic resources, the north, particularly the areas of Porto and Braga,[46][47][48] witnessed an architectural renewal, visible in the large list of churches, convents and palaces built by the aristocracy. Porto is the city of Baroque in Portugal. Its historical centre is part of UNESCO World Heritage List.[49] Many of the Baroque works in the historical area of the city and beyond, belong to Nicolau Nasoni an Italian architect living in Portugal, drawing original buildings with scenographic emplacement such as the church and tower of Clérigos,[50] the logia of the Porto Cathedral, the church of Misericórdia, the Palace of São João Novo,[51] the Palace of Freixo,[52] the Episcopal Palace (Portuguese: Paço Episcopal do Porto)[53] along with many others. Russian Baroque[edit] Main articles: Naryshkin Baroque, Petrine Baroque, Elizabethan Baroque, and Siberian Baroque The western façade of the Catherine Palace (1752–1756) by Bartolomeo Rastrelli The debut of Russian Baroque, or Petrine Baroque, followed a long visit of Peter the Great to western Europe in 1697–98, where he visited the Chateaux of Fontainebleu and the Versailles as well as other architectural monuments. He decided, on his return to Russia, to construct similar monuments in St. Petersburg, which became the new capital of Russia in 1712. Early major monuments in the Petrine Baroque include the Peter and Paul Cathedral and Menshikov Palace. During the reign of Empress Anna and Elizaveta Petrovna, Russian architecture was dominated by the luxurious Baroque style of Italian-born Bartolomeo Rastrelli, which developed into Elizabethan Baroque. Rastrelli's signature buildings include the Winter Palace, the Catherine Palace and the Smolny Cathedral. Other distinctive monuments of the Elizabethan Baroque are the bell tower of the Troitse-Sergiyeva Lavra and the Red Gate.[54] In Moscow, Naryshkin Baroque became widespread, especially in the architecture of Eastern Orthodox churches in the late 17th century. It was a combination of western European Baroque with traditional Russian folk styles. Baroque in the Spanish and Portuguese Colonial Americas[edit] Main articles: Mexican art § Mexican Baroque, Baroque in Brazil, Andean Baroque, Churrigueresque, and Spanish missions in the Americas Façade of the Jesuit Church from Arequipa (Peru), 1698–1699. The façade elevation was supervised by Spanish architect Diego de Adrián but, like nearly all Andean Hybrid Baroque monuments, the ornamentation was carved by Native American sculptors and masons who operated with surprising freedom in their choice of imagery[55] Due to the colonization of the Americas by European countries, the Baroque naturally moved to the New World, finding especially favorable ground in the regions dominated by Spain and Portugal, both countries being centralized and irreducibly Catholic monarchies, by extension subject to Rome and adherents of the Baroque Counter-reformist most typical. European artists migrated to America and made school, and along with the widespread penetration of Catholic missionaries, many of whom were skilled artists, created a multiform Baroque often influenced by popular taste. The Criollo and Indidenous craftsmen did much to give this Baroque unique features. The main centres of American Baroque cultivation, that are still standing, are (in this order) Mexico, Brazil, Peru, Ecuador, Cuba, Colombia, Bolivia, Guatemala and Puerto Rico. Of particular note is the so-called "Missionary Baroque", developed in the framework of the Spanish reductions in areas extending from Mexico and southwestern portions of current-day United States to as far south as Argentina and Chile, indigenous settlements organized by Spanish Catholic missionaries in order to convert them to the Christian faith and acculturate them in the Western life, forming a hybrid Baroque influenced by Native culture, where flourished Criollos and many Indian artisans and musicians, even literate, some of great ability and talent of their own. Missionaries' accounts often repeat that Western art, especially music, had a hypnotic impact on foresters, and the images of saints were viewed as having great powers. Many Indians were converted, and a new form of devotion was created, of passionate intensity, laden with mysticism, superstition, and theatricality, which delighted in festive masses, sacred concerts, and mysteries.[56][57] The Colonial Baroque architecture in the Spanish America is characterized by a profuse decoration (portal of La Profesa Church, Mexico City; facades covered with Puebla-style azulejos, as in the Church of San Francisco Acatepec in San Andrés Cholula and Convent Church of San Francisco of Puebla), which will be exacerbated in the so-called Churrigueresque style (Facade of the Tabernacle of the Mexico City Cathedral, by Lorenzo Rodríguez; Church of San Francisco Javier, Tepotzotlán; Church of Santa Prisca of Taxco). In Peru, the constructions mostly developed in the cities of Lima, Cusco, Arequipa and Trujillo since 1650 show original characteristics that are advanced even to the European Baroque, as in the use of cushioned walls and solomonic columns (Church of la Compañía de Jesús, Cusco; Basilica and Convent of San Francisco, Lima).[58] Other countries include: the Metropolitan Cathedral of Sucre in Bolivia; Cathedral Basilica of Esquipulas in Guatemala; Tegucigalpa Cathedral in Honduras; León Cathedral in Nicaragua; the Church of la Compañía de Jesús in Quito, Ecuador; the Church of San Ignacio in Bogotá, Colombia; the Caracas Cathedral in Venezuela; the Cabildo of Buenos Aires in Argentina; the Church of Santo Domingo in Santiago, Chile; and Havana Cathedral in Cuba. It is also worth remembering the quality of the churches of the Spanish Jesuit Missions in Bolivia, Spanish Jesuit missions in Paraguay, the Spanish missions in Mexico and the Spanish Franciscan missions in California.[59] In Brazil, as in the metropolis, Portugal, the architecture has a certain Italian influence, usually of a Borrominesque type, as can be seen in the Co-Cathedral of Recife (1784) and Church of Nossa Senhora da Glória do Outeiro in Rio de Janeiro (1739). In the region of Minas Gerais, highlighted the work of Aleijadinho, author of a group of churches that stand out for their curved planimetry, facades with concave-convex dynamic effects and a plastic treatment of all architectural elements (Church of São Francisco de Assis in Ouro Preto, 1765–1788). The Church of San Francisco Acatepec from Mexico The Chihuahua Cathedral from Mexico (1725–1792[60]) The León Cathedral from Nicaragua (1747–1814), an UNESCO World Heritage Site The Minor Basilica of San Francisco de Asís from Havana (Cuba) (1548–1738[61]) The Church of Rosário dos Pretos from Ouro Preto (Brazil) (1762–1799[62]) The Church of San Agustín from Quito (Ecuador) (1606–1617[63]) The Palacio de Torre Tagle from Lima (Peru) (1715–1735[64]), Balconies of Lima The Santo Domingo Church from Santiago (Chile) (1747–1808[65]) Baroque in the Spanish and Portuguese Colonial Asia[edit] See also: Earthquake Baroque In the Portuguese colonies of India (Goa, Daman and Diu) an architectural style of Baroque forms mixed with Hindu elements flourished, such as the Goa Cathedral and the Basilica of Bom Jesus of Goa, which houses the tomb of St. Francis Xavier. The set of churches and convents of Goa was declared a World Heritage Site in 1986. In the Philippines, that was part of the Spanish Empire for a long time, a large number of Baroque constructions are preserved, including the Baroque Churches of the Philippines that four of these, and the Baroque and Neoclassical city of Vigan, are both UNESCO World Heritage Sites. It was also very remarkable the Walled City of Manila (Intramuros). Other city with notable preserved Spanish-era Baroque is Tayabas. Painting[edit] Main article: Baroque painting The Entombment of Christ; by Caravaggio; circa 1602–1604; oil on canvas; 3 × 2 m; Pinacoteca Vaticana (Vatican City) Baroque painters worked deliberately to set themselves apart from the painters of the Renaissance and the Mannerism period after it. In their palette, they used intense and warm colours, and particularly made use of the primary colours red, blue and yellow, frequently putting all three in close proximity.[66] They avoided the even lighting of Renaissance painting and used strong contrasts of light and darkness on certain parts of the picture to direct attention to the central actions or figures. In their composition, they avoided the tranquil scenes of Renaissance paintings, and chose the moments of the greatest movement and drama. Unlike the tranquil faces of Renaissance paintings, the faces in Baroque paintings clearly expressed their emotions. They often used asymmetry, with action occurring away from the centre of the picture, and created axes that were neither vertical nor horizontal, but slanting to the left or right, giving a sense of instability and movement. They enhanced this impression of movement by having the costumes of the personages blown by the wind, or moved by their own gestures. The overall impressions were movement, emotion and drama.[67] Another essential element of baroque painting was allegory; every painting told a story and had a message, often encrypted in symbols and allegorical characters, which an educated viewer was expected to know and read.[68] Las Meninas; by Diego Velázquez; 1656–1657; oil on canvas; 318 cm × 276 cm; Museo del Prado (Madrid, Spain) Early evidence of Italian Baroque ideas in painting occurred in Bologna, where Annibale Carracci, Agostino Carracci and Ludovico Carracci sought to return the visual arts to the ordered Classicism of the Renaissance. Their art, however, also incorporated ideas central the Counter-Reformation; these included intense emotion and religious imagery that appealed more to the heart than to the intellect.[69] Another influential painter of the Baroque era was Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio. His realistic approach to the human figure, painted directly from life and dramatically spotlit against a dark background, shocked his contemporaries and opened a new chapter in the history of painting. Other major painters associated closely with the Baroque style include Artemisia Gentileschi, Guido Reni, Domenichino, Andrea Pozzo, and Paolo de Matteis in Italy; Francisco de Zurbarán and Diego Velázquez in Spain; Adam Elsheimer in Germany; and Nicolas Poussin and Georges de La Tour in France (though Poussin spent most of his working life in Italy). Poussin and La Tour adopted a "classical" Baroque style with less focus on emotion and greater attention to the line of the figures in the painting than to colour. The Toilet of Venus; by François Boucher; 1751; oil on canvas; 108 × 85 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City) Peter Paul Rubens was the most important painter of the Flemish Baroque style. Rubens' highly charged compositions reference erudite aspects of classical and Christian history. His unique and immensely popular Baroque style emphasised movement, colour, and sensuality, which followed the immediate, dramatic artistic style promoted in the Counter-Reformation. Rubens specialized in making altarpieces, portraits, landscapes, and history paintings of mythological and allegorical subjects. One important domain of Baroque painting was Quadratura, or paintings in trompe-l'œil, which literally "fooled the eye". These were usually painted on the stucco of ceilings or upper walls and balustrades, and gave the impression to those on the ground looking up were that they were seeing the heavens populated with crowds of angels, saints and other heavenly figures, set against painted skies and imaginary architecture.[35] In Italy, artists often collaborated with architects on interior decoration; Pietro da Cortona was one of the painters of the 17th century who employed this illusionist way of painting. Among his most important commissions were the frescoes he painted for the Palace of the Barberini family (1633–39), to glorify the reign of Pope Urban VIII. Pietro da Cortona's compositions were the largest decorative frescoes executed in Rome since the work of Michelangelo at the Sistine Chapel.[70] François Boucher was an important figure in the more delicate French Rococo style, which appeared during the late Baroque period. He designed tapestries, carpets and theatre decoration as well as painting. His work was extremely popular with Madame Pompadour, the Mistress of King Louis XV. His paintings featured mythological romantic, and mildly erotic themes.[71] Triumph of Bacchus and Adriane (part of The Loves of the Gods); by Annibale Carracci; circa 1597–1600; fresco; length (gallery): 20.2 m; Palazzo Farnese (Rome)[72] The Calling of St Matthew; by Caravaggio; 1599–1600; oil on canvas; 3.2 x 3.4 m; Church of St. Louis of the French (Rome) The Four Continents; by Peter Paul Rubens; circa 1615; oil on canvas; 209 x 284 cm; Kunsthistorisches Museum (Vienna, Austria) The Rape of the Sabine Women; by Nicolas Poussin; 1634–1635; oil on canvas; 154.6 x 209.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City) Charles I at the Hunt; by Anthony van Dyck; circa 1635; oil on canvas; 2.66 x 2.07 m; Louvre[73] The Night Watch; by Rembrandt; 1642; oil on canvas; 363 × 437 cm; Rijksmuseum (Amsterdam, the Netherlands) The Art of Painting; by Johannes Vermeer; 1666–1668; oil on canvas; 1.3 x 1.1 m; Kunsthistorisches Museum The Portrait of Louis XIV; by Hyacinthe Rigaud; 1701; oil on canvas; 277 × 194 cm; Louvre Spanish Americas[edit] Example of Bolivian painting (from the Cusco School): an Arquebusier Angel; by Master of Calamarca; 17th century In the Spanish Americas, the first influences were from Sevillan Tenebrism, mainly from Zurbarán —some of whose works are still preserved in Mexico and Peru— as can be seen in the work of the Mexicans José Juárez and Sebastián López de Arteaga, and the Bolivian Melchor Pérez de Holguín. The Cusco School of painting arose after the arrival of the Italian painter Bernardo Bitti in 1583, who introduced Mannerism in the Americas. It highlighted the work of Luis de Riaño, disciple of the Italian Angelino Medoro, author of the murals of the Church of San Pedro of Andahuaylillas. It also highlighted the Indian (Quechua) painters Diego Quispe Tito and Basilio Santa Cruz Pumacallao, as well as Marcos Zapata, author of the fifty large canvases that cover the high arches of the Cathedral of Cusco. In Ecuador, the Quito School was formed, mainly represented by the mestizo Miguel de Santiago and the criollo Nicolás Javier de Goríbar. In the 18th century sculptural altarpieces began to be replaced by paintings, developing notably the Baroque painting in the Americas. Similarly, the demand for civil works, mainly portraits of the aristocratic classes and the ecclesiastical hierarchy, grew. The main influence was the Murillesque, and in some cases – as in the criollo Cristóbal de Villalpando – that of Valdés Leal. The painting of this era has a more sentimental tone, with sweet and softer shapes. It highlight Gregorio Vásquez de Arce in Colombia, and Juan Rodríguez Juárez and Miguel Cabrera in Mexico. Sculpture[edit] Main article: Baroque sculpture The Bust of Louis XIV; by Gian Lorenzo Bernini; 1665; marble; 105 × 99 × 46 cm; Palace of Versailles The dominant figure in baroque sculpture was Gian Lorenzo Bernini. Under the patronage of Pope Urban VIII, he made a remarkable series of monumental statues of saints and figures whose faces and gestures vividly expressed their emotions, as well as portrait busts of exceptional realism, and highly decorative works for the Vatican, including the imposing Chair of St. Peter beneath the dome in St. Peter's Basilica. In addition, he designed fountains with monumental groups of sculpture to decorate the major squares of Rome.[74] Baroque sculpture was inspired by ancient Roman statuary, particularly by the famous statue of Laocoön from the first century AD, which was on display in the gallery of the Vatican. When he visited Paris in 1665, Bernini addressed the students at the Academy of painting and sculpture. He advised the students to work from classical models, rather than from nature. He told the students, "When I had trouble with my first statue, I consulted the Antinous like an oracle."[75] Notable late French baroque sculptors included Étienne Maurice Falconet and Jean Baptiste Pigalle. Pigalle was commissioned by Frederick the Great to make statues for Frederick's own version of Versailles at Sanssouci in Potsdam, Germany. Falconet also received an important foreign commission, creating the famous statue of Peter the Great on horseback found in St. Petersburg. In Spain, the sculptor Francisco Salzillo worked exclusively on religious themes, using polychromed wood. Some of the finest baroque sculptural craftsmanship was found in the gilded stucco altars of churches of the Spanish colonies of the New World, made by local craftsmen; examples include the Rosary Chapel of the Church of Santo Domingo in Oaxaca (Mexico), 1724–1731. Apollo and Daphne; by Gian Lorenzo Bernini; 1622–1625; marble; height: 2.43 m; Galleria Borghese Caryatides on the Pavillon de l'Horloge (Louvre Palace), by Jacques Sarazin, 1639–1640 Saint Veronica; by Francesco Mochi; 1629–1639; Carrara marble; height: 5 m; St. Peter's Basilica (Vatican City) Bust of Andries de Graeff; by Artus Quellinus the Elder; 1661; marble; height: 76 cm, width: 76 cm, thickness: 36 cm; Rijksmuseum (Amsterdam, the Netherlands) The Fountain of Saturn; by François Girardon; 1672–1677; gilded lead; Palace of Versailles (France) The King's Fame Riding Pegasus; by Antoine Coysevox; 1701–1702; Carrara marble; height: 3.15 m, width: 2.91 m, depth: 1.28 m; Louvre The Death of Adonis; by Giuseppe Mazzuoli; 1710s; marble; height: 193 cm; Hermitage Museum (Saint Petersburg, Russia) Mercury putting on his running shoes; by Jean-Baptiste Pigalle; 1753; lead; 187 × 108 × 106 cm; Louvre Furniture[edit] Main article: Louis XIV furniture A beautiful gilded Baroque table, with a stone top (most probably marble), from the Cinquantenaire Museum (Bruxelles, Belgium) The main motifs used are: horns of plenty, festoons, baby angels, lion heads holding a metal ring in their mouths, female faces surrounded by garlands, oval cartouches, acanthus leaves, classical columns, caryatids, pediments and other elements of Classical architecture sculpted on some parts of pieces of furniture,[76] baskets with fruits or flowers, shells, armour and trophies, heads of Apollo or Bacchus, and C-shaped volutes.[77] During the first period of the reign of Louis XIV, furniture followed the previous style of Louis XIII, and was massive, and profusely decorated with sculpture and gilding. After 1680, thanks in large part to the furniture designer André Charles Boulle, a more original and delicate style appeared, sometimes known as Boulle work. It was based on the inlay of ebony and other rare woods, a technique first used in Florence in the 15th century, which was refined and developed by Boulle and others working for Louis XIV. Furniture was inlaid with plaques of ebony, copper, and exotic woods of different colors.[78] New and often enduring types of furniture appeared; the commode, with two to four drawers, replaced the old coffre, or chest. The canapé, or sofa, appeared, in the form of a combination of two or three armchairs. New kinds of armchairs appeared, including the fauteuil en confessionale or "Confessional armchair", which had padded cushions ions on either side of the back of the chair. The console table also made its first appearance; it was designed to be placed against a wall. Another new type of furniture was the table à gibier, a marble-topped table for holding dishes. Early varieties of the desk appeared; the Mazarin desk had a central section set back, placed between two columns of drawers, with four feet on each column.[79] Cupboard with scenes from the life of Christ; 1620–1640; veneer, oak and walnut wood, pearwood and ebony, steel and brass; National Museum in Warsaw (Poland) Cupboard with hunting scenes; 1620–1640; veneer, oak and walnut wood, birch, rosewood, and many other types of wood, and steel; 174 × 148 × 63 cm; National Museum in Warsaw Dutch wardrobe; 1625–1650; oak with ebony and rosewood veneers; overall: 244.5 x 224.3 x 85.2 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art (Cleveland, Ohio, US) Small desk with folding top (bureau brisé); circa 1685; oak, pine, walnut veneered with ebony, rosewood, and marquetry of tortoiseshell and engraved brass, gilt bronze and steel; 77 x 106 x 59.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City) French pier table; 1685–1690; carved, gessoed, and gilded wood, with a marble top; 83.6 × 128.6 × 71.6 cm; Art Institute of Chicago (US)[80] Console table depicting Chronos, or the father time; 1695; painted and gilded wood, with marble at its top; overall: 95.3 x 107.3 x 62.9 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art Commode; by André Charles Boulle; circa 1710–1720; ebony, gilt-bronze mounts and other materials; 87.6 × 128.3 × 62.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art German slant-front desk; by Heinrich Ludwig Rohde or Ferdinand Plitzner; circa 1715–1725; marquetry with maple, amaranth, mahogany, and walnut on spruce and oak; 90 × 84 × 44.5 cm; from Mainz (Germany); Art Institute of Chicago[81] Music and ballet[edit] Main articles: Baroque music and Baroque dance Antonio Vivaldi, (1678–1741) The term Baroque is also used to designate the style of music composed during a period that overlaps with that of Baroque art. The first uses of the term 'baroque' for music were criticisms. In an anonymous, satirical review of the première in October 1733 of Rameau's Hippolyte et Aricie, printed in the Mercure de France in May 1734, the critic implied that the novelty of this opera was "du barocque," complaining that the music lacked coherent melody, was filled with unremitting dissonances, constantly changed key and meter, and speedily ran through every compositional device.[82] Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who was a musician and noted composer as well as philosopher, made a very similar observation in 1768 in the famous Encyclopédie of Denis Diderot: "Baroque music is that in which the harmony is confused, and loaded with modulations and dissonances. The singing is harsh and unnatural, the intonation difficult, and the movement limited. It appears that term comes from the word 'baroco' used by logicians."[15] Common use of the term for the music of the period began only in 1919, by Curt Sachs,[83] and it was not until 1940 that it was first used in English in an article published by Manfred Bukofzer.[82] Louis XIV in costume as Apollo for the Ballet Royal de la Nuit (1653) The baroque was a period of musical experimentation and innovation. New forms were invented, including the concerto and sinfonia. Opera was born in Italy at the end of the 16th century (with Jacopo Peri's mostly lost Dafne, produced in Florence in 1598) and soon spread through the rest of Europe: Louis XIV created the first Royal Academy of Music, In 1669, the poet Pierre Perrin opened an academy of opera in Paris, the first opera theatre in France open to the public, and premiered Pomone, the first grand opera in French, with music by Robert Cambert, with five acts, elaborate stage machinery, and a ballet.[84] Heinrich Schütz in Germany, Jean-Baptiste Lully in France, and Henry Purcell in England all helped to establish their national traditions in the 17th century. The classical ballet also originated in the Baroque era. The style of court dance was brought to France by Marie de Medici, and in the beginning the members of the court themselves were the dancers. Louis XIV himself performed in public in several ballets. In March 1662, the Académie Royale de Danse, was founded by the King. It was the first professional dance school and company, and set the standards and vocabulary for ballet throughout Europe during the period.[84] Several new instruments, including the piano, were introduced during this period. The invention of the piano is credited to Bartolomeo Cristofori (1655–1731) of Padua, Italy, who was employed by Ferdinando de' Medici, Grand Prince of Tuscany, as the Keeper of the Instruments.[85][86] Cristofori named the instrument un cimbalo di cipresso di piano e forte ("a keyboard of cypress with soft and loud"), abbreviated over time as pianoforte, fortepiano, and later, simply, piano.[87] Composers and examples[edit] Giovanni Gabrieli (c. 1554/1557–1612) Sonata pian' e forte (1597), In Ecclesiis (from Symphoniae sacrae book 2, 1615) Giovanni Girolamo Kapsperger (c. 1580–1651) Libro primo di villanelle, 20 (1610) Claudio Monteverdi (1567–1643), L'Orfeo, favola in musica (1610) Heinrich Schütz (1585–1672), Musikalische Exequien (1629, 1647, 1650) Francesco Cavalli (1602–1676), L'Egisto (1643), Ercole amante (1662), Scipione affricano (1664) Jean-Baptiste Lully (1632–1687), Armide (1686) Marc-Antoine Charpentier (1643–1704), Te Deum (1688–1698) Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber (1644–1704), Mystery Sonatas (1681) John Blow (1649–1708), Venus and Adonis (1680–1687) Johann Pachelbel (1653–1706), Canon in D (1680) Arcangelo Corelli (1653–1713), 12 concerti grossi, Op. 6 (1714) Marin Marais (1656–1728), Sonnerie de Ste-Geneviève du Mont-de-Paris (1723) Henry Purcell (1659–1695), Dido and Aeneas (1688) Alessandro Scarlatti (1660–1725), L'honestà negli amori (1680), Il Pompeo (1683), Mitridate Eupatore (1707) François Couperin (1668–1733), Les barricades mystérieuses (1717) Tomaso Albinoni (1671–1751), Didone abbandonata (1724) Antonio Vivaldi (1678–1741), The Four Seasons (1725) Jan Dismas Zelenka (1679–1745), Il Serpente di Bronzo (1730), Missa Sanctissimae Trinitatis (1736) Georg Philipp Telemann (1681–1767), Der Tag des Gerichts (1762) Johann David Heinichen (1683–1729) Jean-Philippe Rameau (1683–1764), Dardanus (1739) George Frideric Handel (1685–1759), Water Music (1717), Messiah (1741) Domenico Scarlatti (1685–1757), Sonatas for harpsichord Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750), Toccata and Fugue in D minor (1703–1707), Brandenburg Concertos (1721), St Matthew Passion (1727) Nicola Porpora (1686–1768), Semiramide riconosciuta (1729) Giovanni Battista Pergolesi (1710–1736), Stabat Mater (1736) Theatre[edit] Set design for Andromedé by Pierre Corneille, (1650) Design for a theater set created by Giacomo Torelli for the ballet Les Noces de Thétis, from Décorations et machines aprestées aux nopces de Tétis, Ballet Royal The Baroque period was a golden age for theatre in France and Spain; playwrights included Corneille, Racine and Moliere in France; and Lope de Vega and Pedro Calderón de la Barca Spain. During the Baroque period, the art and style of the theatre evolved rapidly, alongside the development of opera and of ballet. The design of newer and larger theatres, the invention the use of more elaborate machinery, the wider use of the proscenium arch, which framed the stage and hid the machinery from the audience, encouraged more scenic effects and spectacle.[88] The Baroque had a Catholic and conservative character in Spain, following an Italian literary model during the Renaissance.[89] The Hispanic Baroque theatre aimed for a public content with an ideal reality that manifested fundamental three sentiments: Catholic religion, monarchist and national pride and honour originating from the chivalric, knightly world.[90] Two periods are known in the Baroque Spanish theatre, with the division occurring in 1630. The first period is represented chiefly by Lope de Vega, but also by Tirso de Molina, Gaspar Aguilar, Guillén de Castro, Antonio Mira de Amescua, Luis Vélez de Guevara, Juan Ruiz de Alarcón, Diego Jiménez de Enciso, Luis Belmonte Bermúdez, Felipe Godínez, Luis Quiñones de Benavente or Juan Pérez de Montalbán. The second period is represented by Pedro Calderón de la Barca and fellow dramatists Antonio Hurtado de Mendoza, Álvaro Cubillo de Aragón, Jerónimo de Cáncer, Francisco de Rojas Zorrilla, Juan de Matos Fragoso, Antonio Coello y Ochoa, Agustín Moreto, and Francisco Bances Candamo.[91] These classifications are loose because each author had his own way and could occasionally adhere himself to the formula established by Lope. It may even be that Lope's "manner" was more liberal and structured than Calderón's.[92] Lope de Vega introduced through his Arte nuevo de hacer comedias en este tiempo (1609) the new comedy. He established a new dramatic formula that broke the three Aristotle unities of the Italian school of poetry (action, time and place) and a fourth unity of Aristotle which is about style, mixing of tragic and comic elements showing different types of verses and stanzas upon what is represented.[93] Although Lope has a great knowledge of the plastic arts, he did not use it during the major part of his career nor in theatre or scenography. The Lope's comedy granted a second role to the visual aspects of the theatrical representation.[94] Tirso de Molina, Lope de Vega, and Calderón were the most important play writers in Golden Era Spain. Their works, known for their subtle intelligence and profound comprehension of a person's humanity, could be considered a bridge between Lope's primitive comedy and the more elaborate comedy of Calderón. Tirso de Molina is best known for two works, The Convicted Suspicions and The Trickster of Seville, one of the first versions of the Don Juan myth.[95] Upon his arrival to Madrid, Cosimo Lotti brought to the Spanish court the most advanced theatrical techniques of Europe. His techniques and mechanic knowledge were applied in palace exhibitions called "Fiestas" and in lavish exhibitions of rivers or artificial fountains called "Naumaquias". He was in charge of styling the Gardens of Buen Retiro, of Zarzuela and of Aranjuez and the construction of the theatrical building of Coliseo del Buen Retiro.[96] Lope's formulas begin with a verse that it unbefitting of the palace theatre foundation and the birth of new concepts that begun the careers of some play writers like Calderón de la Barca. Marking the principal innovations of the New Lopesian Comedy, Calderón's style marked many differences, with a great deal of constructive care and attention to his internal structure. Calderón's work is in formal perfection and a very lyric and symbolic language. Liberty, vitality and openness of Lope gave a step to Calderón's intellectual reflection and formal precision. In his comedy it reflected his ideological and doctrine intentions in above the passion and the action, the work of Autos sacramentales achieved high ranks.[97] The genre of Comedia is political, multi-artistic and in a sense hybrid. The poetic text interweaved with Medias and resources originating from architecture, music and painting freeing the deception that is in the Lopesian comedy was made up from the lack of scenery and engaging the dialogue of action.[98] The best known German playwright was Andreas Gryphius, who used the Jesuit model of the Dutch Joost van den Vondel and Pierre Corneille. There was also Johannes Velten who combined the traditions of the English comedians and the commedia dell'arte with the classic theatre of Corneille and Molière. His touring company was perhaps the most significant and important of the 17th century. Spanish colonial Americas[edit] Following the evolution marked from Spain, at the end of the 16th century, the companies of comedians, essentially transhumant, began to professionalize. With professionalization came regulation and censorship: as in Europe, the theatre oscillated between tolerance and even government protection and rejection (with exceptions) or persecution by the Church. The theatre was useful to the authorities as an instrument to disseminate the desired behavior and models, respect for the social order and the monarchy, school of religious dogma.[99] The corrales were administered for the benefit of hospitals that shared the benefits of the representations. The itinerant companies (or "of the league"), who carried the theatre in improvised open-air stages by the regions that did not have fixed locals, required a viceregal license to work, whose price or pinción was destined to alms and works pious.[99] For companies that worked stably in the capitals and major cities, one of their main sources of income was participation in the festivities of the Corpus Christi, which provided them with not only economic benefits, but also recognition and social prestige. The representations in the viceregal palace and the mansions of the aristocracy, where they represented both the comedies of their repertoire and special productions with great lighting effects, scenery and stage, were also an important source of well-paid and prestigious work.[99] Born in the Viceroyalty of New Spain[100] but later settled in Spain, Juan Ruiz de Alarcón is the most prominent figure in the Baroque theatre of New Spain. Despite his accommodation to Lope de Vega's new comedy, his "marked secularism", his discretion and restraint, and a keen capacity for "psychological penetration" as distinctive features of Alarcón against his Spanish contemporaries have been noted. Noteworthy among his works La verdad sospechosa, a comedy of characters that reflected his constant moralizing purpose.[99] The dramatic production of Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz places her as the second figure of the Spanish-American Baroque theatre. It is worth mentioning among her works the auto sacramental El divino Narciso and the comedy Los empeños de una casa. Gardens[edit] Main article: Baroque garden Parterre of the Orangerie from the Palace of Versailles (1684) The Baroque garden, also known as the jardin à la française or French formal garden, first appeared in Rome in the 16th century, and then most famously in France in the 17th century in the gardens of Vaux le Vicomte and the Palace of Versailles. Baroque gardens were built by Kings and princes in Germany, the Netherlands, Austria, Spain, Poland, Italy and Russia until the mid-18th century, when they began to be remade into by the more natural English landscape garden. The purpose of the baroque garden was to illustrate the power of man over nature, and the glory of its builder, Baroque gardens were laid out in geometric patterns, like the rooms of a house. They were usually best seen from the outside and looking down, either from a chateau or terrace. The elements of a baroque garden included parterres of flower beds or low hedges trimmed into ornate Baroque designs, and straight lanes and alleys of gravel which divided and crisscrossed the garden. Terraces, ramps, staircases and cascades were placed where there were differences of elevation, and provided viewing points. Circular or rectangular ponds or basins of water were the settings for fountains and statues. Bosquets or carefully trimmed groves or lines of identical trees, gave the appearance of walls of greenery and were backdrops for statues. On the edges, the gardens usually had pavilions, orangeries and other structures where visitors could take shelter from the sun or rain.[101] Baroque gardens required enormous numbers of gardeners, continual trimming, and abundant water. In the later part of the Baroque period, the formal elements began to be replaced with more natural features, including winding paths, groves of varied trees left to grow untrimmed; rustic architecture and picturesque structures, such as Roman temples or Chinese pagodas, as well as "secret gardens" on the edges of the main garden, filled with greenery, where visitors could read or have quiet conversations. By the mid-18th century most of the Baroque gardens were partially or entirely transformed into variations of the English landscape garden.[101] Besides Versailles and Vaux-le-Vicomte, Celebrated baroque gardens still retaining much of their original appearance include the Royal Palace of Caserta near Naples; Nymphenburg Palace and Augustusburg and Falkenlust Palaces, Brühl in Germany; Het Loo Palace in the Netherlands; the Belvedere Palace in Vienna; the Royal Palace of La Granja de San Ildefonso in Spain; and Peterhof Palace in St. Petersburg, Russia.[101] Garden of Vaux-le-Vicomte (France) seen from the Chateau (1656–1661) View of the garden facade of Palace of Versailles in 1680s Plan of the Tuileries Garden (France), designed by André Le Nôtre (about 1671) Restored parterres of the Belvedere Palace (Vienna, Austria) today Differences between Rococo and Baroque[edit] The following are characteristics that Rococo has and Baroque has not:[clarification needed] The partial abandonment of symmetry, everything being composed of graceful lines and curves, similar to the Art Nouveau ones The huge quantity of asymmetrical curves and C-shaped volutes The very wide use of flowers in ornamentation, an example being festoons made of flowers Chinese and Japanese motifs Warm pastel colours[102] (whitish-yellow, cream-coloured, pearl greys, very light blues)[103] End of the style, condemnation and academic rediscovery[edit] Madame de Pompadour, the mistress of Louis XV, contributed to the decline of the baroque and rococo style. In 1750 she sent her nephew, Abel-François Poisson de Vandières, on a two-year mission to study artistic and archeological developments in Italy. He was accompanied by several artists, including the engraver Nicolas Cochin and the architect Soufflot. They returned to Paris with a passion for classical art. Vandiéres became the Marquis of Marigny, and was named Royal Director of buildings in 1754. He turned official French architecture toward the neoclassical. Cochin became an important art critic; he denounced the petit style of Boucher, and called for a grand style with a new emphasis on antiquity and nobility in the academies of painting of architecture.[104] The pioneer German art historian and archeologist Johann Joachim Winckelmann also condemned the baroque style, and praised the superior values of classical art and architecture. By the 19th century, Baroque was a target for ridicule and criticism. The neoclassical critic Francesco Milizia wrote: "Borrominini in architecture, Bernini in sculpture, Pietro da Cortona in painting...are a plague on good taste, which infected a large number of artists."[105] In the 19th century, criticism went even further; the British critic John Ruskin declared that baroque sculpture was not only bad, but also morally corrupt.[105] The Swiss-born art historian Heinrich Wölfflin (1864–1945) started the rehabilitation of the word Baroque in his Renaissance und Barock (1888); Wölfflin identified the Baroque as "movement imported into mass", an art antithetic to Renaissance art. He did not make the distinctions between Mannerism and Baroque that modern writers do, and he ignored the later phase, the academic Baroque that lasted into the 18th century. Baroque art and architecture became fashionable between the two World Wars, and has largely remained in critical favor. The term "Baroque" may still be used, usually pejoratively, describing works of art, craft, or design that are thought to have excessive ornamentation or complexity of line. Baroque Revival art[edit] Main articles: Baroque Revival architecture and Napoleon III style Example of very beautiful Baroque Revival details of city-houses from Bucharest (Romania), from left to right and from up to down: a window with a female mascaron between two festoons; a cartouche above a window; cartouche-window with a male mascaron; balcony; stuccos in a house; window with a cartouche at its top with a monogram in it The end of the 19th century was a golden age for revival styles, including Baroque Revival or Neo-Baroque. In addition to its practical (protective) function, the face also has aesthetic and architectural purposes. It mirrors the predominant styles of a certain era. Ornaments are the most common "ornaments" of buildings.[106] The ornaments used in 17th-18th century architecture are reused at Baroque Revival buildings, including: horns of plenty, festoons, baby angels, female or male mascarons, oval cartouches, acanthus leaves, classical columns, caryatids, pediments and other elements of Greco-Roman architecture. Most Baroque revival buildings have mansard roofs, usually blue or sometimes black, with oval or dormer windows. Some of the houses is this style have cartouche-shaped oculus windows, usually with a mascaron at their top or bottom. In France and Romania, many of the entrances have awnings (French: Marquise; Romanian: marchiză), made of glass and metal, usually in a seashell-shape. In these two counties, especially in Romania, Neo-Baroque was sometimes combined with Art Nouveau. Beaux-Arts buildings from the late 1890s and early 1900s are very good examples of Baroque Revival architecture. The most famous Neo-Baroque building in Paris are: the Pavillon de Flore (part of the Palais du Louvre), the Palais Garnier, the Petit Palais, and the Grand Palais. Important architects of this style include Charles Garnier (1825–1898), Ferdinand Fellner (1847–1917), Hermann Helmer (1849–1919), and Ion D. Berindey (1871–1928). In decorative arts, Baroque Revival is usually known as the Napoleon III style or Second Empire style. Objects in this style was very appreciated in late 1890s and early 1900s Romania, many of them being brought from France or Austria. One of the main influence was the Louis XVI style, or French neoclassicism, which was preferred by the Empress Eugénie. Her rooms at the Tuileries Palace and other Places were decorated in this style. Other influences include French Renaissance and the Henry II style, which were popular influences on chests and cabinets, buffets and credences, which were massive and built like small cathedrals, decorated with columns, pediments, cartouches, mascarons, and carved angels and chimeras. They were usually constructed of walnut or oak, or sometimes of poirier stained to resemble ebony.[107] Tête-à-tête, an example of Second Empire furniture; 1850–1860; rosewood, ash, pine and walnut; 113 x 132.1 x 109.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City) Young Ladies Beside the Seine; by Gustave Courbet; 1856; oil on canvas; 174 x 206 cm; Petit Palais (Paris) The Birth of Venus; by Alexandre Cabanel; 1863; oil on canvas; 130 x 225 cm; Musée d'Orsay (Paris) The Palais Garnier from Paris, by Charles Garnier Window with a pair of putti above it, in Wuppertal (Germany) Entrance of the House of scientists (Lviv, Ukraine) Staircase in the House of scientists from Lviv The Cantacuzino Palace on Victory Avenue from Bucharest (Romania), by Ion D. Berindey (1898–1900)[108] See also[edit] Arts portal Christianity portal Catholicism portal List of Baroque architecture Baroque in Brazil Czech Baroque architecture Dutch Baroque architecture Earthquake Baroque English Baroque French Baroque architecture Italian Baroque Sicilian Baroque New Spanish Baroque Mexican art#Mexican Baroque Neoclassicism (music) Andean Baroque Baroque in Poland Baroque architecture in Portugal Naryshkin Baroque Siberian Baroque Spanish Baroque literature Ukrainian Baroque Notes[edit] ^ a b Heal, Bridget (1 December 2011). "'Better Papist than Calvinist': Art and Identity in Later Lutheran Germany". German History. German History Society. 29 (4): 584–609. doi:10.1093/gerhis/ghr066. ^ Graur, Neaga (1970). Stiluri în arta decorativă (in Romanian). Cerces. p. 153, 154 & 156. ^ "Origem da palavra BARROCO – Etimologia". Dicionário Etimológico. ^ "BAROQUE : Etymologie de BAROQUE". www.cnrtl.fr. empr. au port. barroco « rocher granitique » et « perle irrégulière », attesté dep. le xiiie s. sous la forme barroca (Inquisitiones, p. 99, Portugaliae Monumenta Historica, 1856 sqq. dans Mach.), d'orig. obsc., prob. préromane en raison du suff. -ǒccu très répandu sur le territoire ibérique ^ "Baroque" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 3 (11th ed.). 1911. ^ Wiktionary. "Baroque – Etymology". Retrieved 17 June 2019. ^ a b Robert Hudson Vincent, "Baroco: The Logic of English Baroque Poetics". Modern Language Quarterly, Volume 80, Issue 3 (September 2019) ^ a b "BAROQUE : Etymologie de BAROQUE". www.cnrtl.fr. Retrieved 4 January 2019. ^ Michael Meere, French Renaissance and Baroque Drama: Text, Performance, Theory, Rowman & Littlefield, 2015, ISBN 1611495490 ^ "se dit seulement des perles qui sont d'une rondeur fort imparfaite". Le Dictionnaire de l'Académie Française (1694) ^ Bluteau, Raphael (1728). Vocabulario Portuguez & Latino. 2. p. 58. ^ "Baroque". Online Etymological Dictionary. Retrieved 31 December 2018.: "But Klein suggests the name may be from Italian painter Federico Barocci (1528–1612), whose work influenced the style." ^ Claude V. Palisca, "Baroque". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell (London: Macmillan Publishers, 2001). ^ "se dit aussi au figuré, pour irrégulier, bizarre, inégale." Le Dictionnaire de l'Académie Française (1762) ^ a b Encyclopedie; Lettre sur la Musique Française under the direction of Denis Diderot ^ Quatremère de Quincy, Encyclopédie Méthodique, Architecture, volume 1, cited by B. Migliorini, Manierismo, baròcco, rococò, Rome, 1962, p. 46 ^ "dictionnaires d'autrefois public access collection". artflsrv03.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2 January 2019. ^ Burckhardt, Jacob (1855). Der Cicerone : eine Anleitung zum Genuss der Kunstwerke Italiens. Schweighauser. p. 356. OCLC 315796790. ^ Hopkins, Owen, Les Styles en Architecture (2014), p. 70. ^ Denizeau, Gérard (2018). Zapping Prin Istoria Artelor (in Romanian). rao. p. 117. ISBN 978-606-006-149-6. ^ Hughes, J. Quentin (1953). The Influence of Italian Mannerism Upon Maltese Architecture Archived 14 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Melitensiawath. Retrieved 8 July 2016. pp. 104–110. ^ Helen Gardner, Fred S. Kleiner, and Christin J. Mamiya, Gardner's Art Through the Ages (Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth, 2005), p. 516. ^ Heal, Bridget (20 February 2018). "The Reformation and Lutheran Baroque". Oxford University Press. Retrieved 1 May 2018. However, the writings of theologians can go only so far towards explaining the evolution of confessional consciousness and the shaping of religious identity. Lutheran attachment to religious images was a result not only of Luther's own cautious endorsement of their use, but also of the particular religious and political context in which his Reformation unfolded. After the reformer's death in 1546, the image question was fiercely contested once again. But as Calvinism, with its iconoclastic tendencies, spread, Germany's Lutherans responded by reaffirming their commitment to the proper use of religious images. In 1615, Berlin's Lutheran citizens even rioted when their Calvinist rulers removed images from the city's Cathedral. ^ Ducher, pg. 102 ^ a b Ducher (1988) p. 106-107 ^ Ducher (1988), pg. 102 ^ Cabanne (1988) page 12 ^ Ducher (1988) ^ a b Ducher (1988) p. 104. ^ Cabanne (1988) page 15 ^ Cabanne (1988), pages 18–19. ^ Cabanne (1988) page 48-49 ^ a b c Cabanne (1988) pgs. 48–51 ^ Cabanne (1988) pg. 63 ^ a b Ducher (2014), p. 92. ^ Cabanne (1988), pp. 89–94. ^ Ducher (1988) pp. 104–105. ^ "Kolumna Zygmunta III Wazy w Warszawie". Culture.pl. Retrieved 24 June 2019. ^ "WILANÓW PALACE". www.anothertravelguide.com. Retrieved 24 June 2019. ^ "Tylman z Gameren – architekt Warszawy: Polak z wyboru, Holender z pochodzenia -". CODART. Retrieved 24 June 2019. ^ Cabanne (1988) pages 25–32. ^ Cabanne (1988), pgs. 25–28. ^ Cabanne (1988), pgs. 28–33. ^ "Age of the Baroque in Portugal". www.nga.gov. ^ http://www.resumos.net/files/caracterizacaodaarquiteturacha.doc ^ Bury, J. B. (1956). "Late Baroque and Rococo in North Portugal". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. 15 (3): 7–15. doi:10.2307/987760. JSTOR 987760. ^ "Um Roteiro pelo Barroco bracarense". Taste Braga. 30 August 2017. ^ "Notícias – Direção Regional de Cultura do Norte". culturanorte.gov.pt. Archived from the original on 3 February 2020. Retrieved 3 February 2020. ^ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Historic Centre of Oporto, Luiz I Bridge and Monastery of Serra do Pilar". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. ^ "Architecture and the Baroque". www.torredosclerigos.pt. ^ "Church of S. João Novo". www.upt.pt. ^ "DGPC | Pesquisa Geral". www.patrimoniocultural.gov.pt. ^ "DGPC | Pesquisa Geral". www.patrimoniocultural.gov.pt. ^ William Craft Brumfield (1993). "Chapter Eight: The Foundations of the Baroque in Saint Petersburg". A History of Russian Architecture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-40333-7. ^ Bailey, Gauvin Alexander (2012). Baroque & Rococo. Phaidon. p. 366 & 367. ISBN 978-0-7148-5742-8. ^ Thomas da Costa Kaufmann (1999). "12 / East and West: Jesuit Art and Artists in Central Europe, and Central European Art in the Americas". In John W. O'Malley; Gauvin Alexander Bailey; Steven J. Harris; T. Frank Kennedy (eds.). The Jesuits: Cultures, Sciences, and the Arts, 1540–1773, Volume 1. University of Toronto Press. pp. 274–304. ISBN 9780802042873. ^ Gauvin Alexander Bailey (1999). Art on the Jesuit Missions in Asia and Latin America, 1542–1773. University of Toronto Press. pp. 4–10. ISBN 9780802085078. ^ José Maria Azcarate Ristori; Alfonso Emilio Perez Sanchez; Juan Antonio Ramirez Dominguez (1983). "Historia Del Arte". ^ Larousse (1990). DICCIONARIO ENCICLOPEDICO LAROUSSE. 12 TOMOS. Barcelona: Editorial Planeta. ^ "CATEDRAL, TESTIGO DE LA HISTORIA. LA CONSTRUCCIÓN DE LA NUEVA PARROQUIA, HOY CATEDRAL". catedraldechihuahua.blogspot.com. ^ "Historia y arquitectura". lahabana.com. ^ Cláudia Damasceno Fonseca. "Igreja de Nossa Senhora do Rosário dos Pretos". Património de influência portuguesa. Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation. ^ Jorge Salvador Lara (2009). Historia de Quito, Luz de América. Bicentenario del 10 de agosto de 1809. Quito: Fonsal. pp. 124, 125. ISBN 9789978366189. ^ Asociación de Funcionarios del Servicio Diplomático del Perú. "UNA VISITA AL PALACIO DE TORRE TAGLE, CASA DE LA DIPLOMACIA PERUANA" (in Spanish). ^ "Iglesia de Santo Domingo". Ministry of Tourism of Chile website (in Spanish). ^ Prater and Bauer, La Peinture du baroque (1997), pg. 11 ^ Prater and Bauer, La Peinture du baroque (1997), pgs. 3–15 ^ Prater and Bauer, La Peinture du baroque (1997), pg. 12 ^ "Elements of the Baroque Style." In Arts and Humanities Through the Eras, edited by Edward I. Bleiberg, James Allan Evans, Kristen Mossler Figg, Philip M. Soergel, and John Block Friedman, 466–470. Vol. 5, The Age of the Baroque and Enlightenment 1600–1800. Detroit, MI: Gale, 2005. ^ Ducher (1988) pages 108–109 ^ Cabanne (1988) pp. 102–104 ^ Fortenberry, Diane (2017). THE ART MUSEUM. Phaidon. p. 246. ISBN 978-0-7148-7502-6. ^ Fortenberry, Diane (2017). THE ART MUSEUM. Phaidon. p. 259. ISBN 978-0-7148-7502-6. ^ Boucher (1998), p. 146. ^ Boucher (1998), p. 16. ^ Graur, Neaga (1970). Stiluri în arta decorativă (in Romanian). Cerces. p. 168. ^ Graur, Neaga (1970). Stiluri în arta decorativă (in Romanian). Cerces. p. 176 & 177. ^ Renault and Lazé, Les Styles de l'architecture et du mobilier (2006), pg. 59 ^ Renault and Lazé, Les Styles de l'architecture et du mobilier (2006), pg. 59 ^ "Pier Table". The Art Institute of Chicago. ^ "Slant-Front Desk". The Art Institute of Chicago. ^ a b Palisca 2001. sfn error: no target: CITEREFPalisca2001 (help) ^ Sachs, Curt (1919). Barockmusik [Baroque Music]. Jahrbuch der Musikbibliothek Peters (in German). 26. Leipzig: Edition Peters. pp. 7–15. ^ a b Bély (2005), pp. 152–54. ^ Erlich, Cyril (1990). The Piano: A History. Oxford University Press, USA; Revised edition. ISBN 0-19-816171-9. ^ Powers, Wendy (October 2003). "The Piano: The Pianofortes of Bartolomeo Cristofori (1655–1731)". Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 27 January 2014. ^ Isacoff (2012), p. 23. ^ "Baroque theatres and staging". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 14 November 2019. ^ González Mas (1980), pp. 1–2. ^ González Mas (1980), p. 8. ^ González Mas (1980), p. 13. ^ González Mas (1980), p. 91. ^ Lope de Vega, 2010, Comedias: El Remedio en la Desdicha. El Mejor Alcalde El Rey, pp. 446–447 ^ Amadei-Pulice (1990), p. 6. ^ Wilson, Edward M.; Moir, Duncan (1992). Historia de la literatura española: Siglo De Oro: Teatro (1492–1700). Editorial Ariel, pp. 155–158 ^ Amadei-Pulice (1990), pp. 26–27. ^ Molina Jiménez, María Belén (2008). El teatro musical de Calderón de la Barca: Análisis textual. EDITUM, p. 56 ^ Amadei-Pulice (1990), pp. 6–9. ^ a b c d Maya Ramos Smith; Concepción Reverte Bernal; Mercedes de los Reyes Peña (1996). América y el teatro español del Siglo de Oro. II Congreso Iberoamericano del Teatro – Tercera ponencia: Actores y compañías de América durante la época virreinal. Cádiz: Publications Service of the University of Cádiz. pp. 79–80, 85–86, 133–134, 141. ISBN 84-7786-536-1. ^ According to the playwright's own statements, he was born in Mexico City in 1580 or 1581. However, a baptismal certificate dated December 30, 1572 has been found in Taxco, belonging to a boy named Juan, son of Pedro Ruiz de Alarcón and Leonor de Mendoza, the poet's parents. Despite Alarcón's statements, most critics consider Taxco his birthplace. See Lola Josa, Juan Ruiz de Alarcón y su nuevo arte de entender la comedia, Madrid, International Association of Hispanists, 2008, pp. 7–14. ^ a b c Kluckert, Ehrenfried (2015). "Les Jardins Baroques". L'Art Baroque – Architecture- Sculpture- Peinture. Cologne: H.F. Ulmann. pp. 152–160. ISBN 978-3-8480-0856-8. (French translation from German) ^ Graur, Neaga (1970). Stiluri în arta decorativă (in Romanian). Bucharest: Cerces. p. 160 & 163. ^ Graur, Neaga (1970). Stiluri în arta decorativă (in Romanian). Bucharest: Cerces. p. 192. ^ Cabanne (1988), p. 106. ^ a b Boucher (1998), p. 9. ^ Popescu, Alexandru (2018). Casele și Palatele Bucureștilor (in Romanian). Cetatea de Scaun publisher. p. 250. ISBN 978-606-537-382-2. ^ Ducher 1988, pp. 194–195. ^ Popescu, Alexandru (2018). Casele și Palatele Bucureștilor (in Romanian). Cetatea de Scaun publisher. p. 113. ISBN 978-606-537-382-2. Sources[edit] Amadei-Pulice, María Alicia (1990). Calderón y el barroco: exaltación y engaño de los sentidos. Purdue University monographs in Romance languages (in Italian). 31. Amsterdam; Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 978-9-02-721747-9. Bély, Lucien (2005). Louis XIV – Le Plus Grand Roi du Monde (in French). Editions Jean-Paul Gisserot. ISBN 978-2-87-747772-7. Boucher, Bruce (1998). Italian Baroque Sculpture. World of Art. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-50-020307-5. Cabanne, Pierre (1988). L'Art Classique et le Baroque (in French). Paris: Larousse. ISBN 978-2-03-583324-2. Causa, Raffaello, L'Art au XVIII siècle du rococo à Goya (1963), (in French) Hachcette, Paris ISBN 2-86535-036-3 Ducher, Robert (1988). Caractéristique des Styles. Paris: Flammarion. ISBN 2-08-011539-1. Ducher, Robert (2014). La Caractéristique des Styles. Gardner, Helen, Fred S. Kleiner, and Christin J. Mamiya. 2005. Gardner's Art Through the Ages, 12th edition. Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth. ISBN 978-0-15-505090-7 (hardcover) González Mas, Ezequiel (1980). Historia de la literatura española: (Siglo XVII). Barroco, Volumen 3. La Editorial, UPR. Isacoff, Stuart (2012). A Natural History of the Piano: The Instrument, the Music, the Musicians – From Mozart to Modern Jazz and Everything in Between. Knopf Doubleday Publishing. Prater, Andreas, and Bauer, Hermann, La Peinture du baroque (1997), (in French), Taschen, Paris ISBN 3-8228-8365-4 Tazartes, Maurizia, Fontaines de Rome, (2004), (in French) Citadelles, Paris ISBN 2-85088-200-3 Further reading[edit] Andersen, Liselotte. 1969. Baroque and Rococo Art, New York: H. N. Abrams. ISBN 978-0-8109-8027-3 Bailey, Gauvin Alexander. 2012. Baroque & Rococo, London: Phaidon Press. ISBN 978-0-7148-5742-8 Bazin, Germain, 1964. Baroque and Rococo. Praeger World of Art Series. New York: Praeger. (Originally published in French, as Classique, baroque et rococo. Paris: Larousse. English edition reprinted as Baroque and Rococo Art, New York: Praeger, 1974) Buci-Glucksmann, Christine. 1994. Baroque Reason: The Aesthetics of Modernity. Sage. Downes, Kerry, "Baroque"[permanent dead link], Grove Art Online, Oxford Art Online, Oxford University Press, Web. 23 Oct. 2017.[verification needed] (subscription required) Hills, Helen (ed.). 2011. Rethinking the Baroque. Farnham, Surrey; Burlington, VT: Ashgate. ISBN 978-0-7546-6685-1. Hortolà, Policarp, 2013, The Aesthetics of Haemotaphonomy: Stylistic Parallels between a Science and Literature and the Visual Arts. Sant Vicent del Raspeig: ECU. ISBN 978-84-9948-991-9. Kitson, Michael. 1966. The Age of Baroque. Landmarks of the World's Art. London: Hamlyn; New York: McGraw-Hill. Lambert, Gregg, 2004. Return of the Baroque in Modern Culture. Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-6648-8. Martin, John Rupert. 1977. Baroque. Icon Editions. New York: Harper and Rowe. ISBN 0-06-435332-X (cloth); ISBN 0-06-430077-3 (pbk.) Palisca, Claude V. (1991) [1961]. Baroque Music. Prentice Hall History of Music (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-058496-7. OCLC 318382784. Riegl, Alois (2010). Hopkins, Andrew (ed.). The Origins of Baroque Art in Rome (Texts and Documents). Getty Research Institute. ISBN 978-1-6060-6041-4. Wölfflin, Heinrich (1964) [Originally published in German, 1888]. Renaissance and Baroque. Translated by Simon, Kathrin. ISBN 0-0021-7349-2. Vuillemin, Jean-Claude, 2013. Episteme baroque: le mot et la chose. Hermann. ISBN 978-2-7056-8448-8. Wakefield, Steve. 2004. Carpentier's Baroque Fiction: Returning Medusa's Gaze. Colección Támesis. Serie A, Monografías 208. Rochester, NY: Tamesis. ISBN 1-85566-107-1. Massimo Colella, Il Barocco sabaudo tra mecenatismo e retorica. Maria Giovanna Battista di Savoia Nemours e l’Accademia Reale Letteraria di Torino, Fondazione 1563 per l’Arte e la Cultura della Compagnia di San Paolo, Torino (“Alti Studi sull’Età e la Cultura del Barocco”, IV-1), 2019, pp. 180. Massimo Colella, Separatezza e conversazione. Sondaggi intertestuali attorno a Ciro di Pers, in «Xenia. Trimestrale di Letteratura e Cultura» (Genova), IV, 1, 2019, pp. 11–37. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Baroque art. The baroque and rococo culture Webmuseum Paris barocke in Val di Noto – Sizilien Baroque in the "History of Art" The Baroque style and Luis XIV influence Melvyn Bragg's BBC Radio 4 program In Our Time: The Baroque "Baroque Style Guide". British Galleries. Victoria and Albert Museum. Archived from the original on 19 August 2007. 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en-wikipedia-org-7715	----	New Kingdom of Egypt - Wikipedia New Kingdom of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "New Kingdom" redirects here. For other uses, see New Kingdom (disambiguation). Period 1550 to 1077 BC in ancient Egypt New Kingdom c. 1550 BC – c. 1077 BC New Kingdom at its maximum territorial extent in the 15th century BC Capital Thebes (1550 – c. 1352 BC, 17th dynasty and 18th dynasty before Akhenaten) Akhetaten (c. 1352 – c. 1336 BC, Akhenaten of 18th dynasty) Thebes (c. 1336 – 1279 BC, 18th dynasty and 19th dynasty before Ramesses II) Pi-Ramesses (c. 1279 – c. 1213 BC, Ramesses II of 19th dynasty) Memphis (c. 1213 – c. 1069 BC, 19th dynasty starting with Merneptah and 20th dynasty) Common languages Ancient Egyptian, Nubian, Canaanite Religion Ancient Egyptian religion Atenism (during the Amarna Period) Government Divine absolute monarchy Pharaoh   • c. 1550 BC – c. 1525 BC Ahmose I (first) • c. 1107 BC – c. 1077 BC Ramesses XI (last) History   • Established c. 1550 BC  • Disestablished  c. 1077 BC Population • 13th century BCE 3[1] to 5[2] million Preceded by Succeeded by Second Intermediate Period of Egypt Kingdom of Kerma Third Intermediate Period of Egypt Kingdom of Kush Philistia Part of a series on the History of Egypt Prehistoric Egypt pre–3150 BC Ancient Egypt Early Dynastic Period 3150–2686 BC Old Kingdom 2686–2181 BC 1st Intermediate Period 2181–2055 BC Middle Kingdom 2055–1650 BC 2nd Intermediate Period 1650–1550 BC New Kingdom 1550–1069 BC 3rd Intermediate Period 1069–664 BC Late Period 664–332 BC Greco-Roman Egypt Argead and Ptolemaic dynasties 332–30 BC Roman and Byzantine Egypt 30 BC–641 AD Sasanian Egypt 619–629 Medieval Egypt Rashidun Egypt 641–661 Umayyad Egypt 661–750 Abbasid Egypt 750–935 Tulunid dynasty 868–905 Ikhshidid dynasty 935–969 Fatimid dynasty 969–1171 Ayyubid dynasty 1171–1250 Mamluk dynasties 1250–1517 Early modern Egypt Ottoman Egypt 1517–1867 French occupation 1798–1801 Muhammad Ali dynasty 1805–1853 Khedivate of Egypt 1867–1914 Late Modern Egypt British occupation 1882–1922 Sultanate of Egypt 1914–1922 Kingdom of Egypt 1922–1953 Republic 1953–present  Egypt portal v t e The New Kingdom , also referred to as the Egyptian empire, is the period in ancient Egyptian history between the sixteenth century BC and the eleventh century BC, covering the Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth dynasties of Egypt. Radiocarbon dating places the exact beginning of the New Kingdom between 1570 BC and 1544 BC.[3] The New Kingdom followed the Second Intermediate Period and was succeeded by the Third Intermediate Period. It was Egypt's most prosperous time and marked the peak of its power.[4] The concept of a "New Kingdom" as one of three "golden ages" was coined in 1845 by German Egyptologist Baron von Bunsen, and its definition would evolve significantly throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.[5] The later part of this period, under the Nineteenth and Twentieth dynasties (1292–1069 BC), is also known as the Ramesside period. It is named after the eleven pharaohs who took the name Ramesses, after Ramesses I, the founder of the Nineteenth Dynasty.[4] Possibly as a result of the foreign rule of the Hyksos during the Second Intermediate Period, the New Kingdom saw Egypt attempt to create a buffer between the Levant and Egypt proper, and during this time Egypt attained its greatest territorial extent. Similarly, in response to very successful seventeenth-century BC attacks during the Second Intermediate Period by the powerful Kushites,[6] the rulers of the New Kingdom felt compelled to expand far south into Nubia and to hold wide territories in the Near East. In the north, Egyptian armies fought Hittite armies for control of modern-day Syria. Contents 1 History 1.1 Rise of the New Kingdom 1.2 Height of the New Kingdom 1.3 Final years of power 1.3.1 Decline into the Third Intermediate Period 2 Gallery 3 See also 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links History[edit] Rise of the New Kingdom[edit] Main article: Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt The Eighteenth Dynasty included some of Egypt's most famous kings, including Ahmose I, Hatshepsut, Thutmose III, Amenhotep III, Akhenaten, and Tutankhamun. Hatshepsut concentrated on expanding Egypt's external trade, including sending a commercial expedition to the land of Punt, and made the kingdom prosperous. Ahmose I is viewed to be the founder of the eighteenth dynasty. He continued the campaigns of his father Seqenenre Tao and of Kamose against the Hyksos until he reunified the country once more. Ahmose would then continue to campaign in the Levant, the home of the Hyksos, to prevent any future invasions on Egypt.[7] Ahmose was followed by Amenhotep I, who reigned campaigned in Nubia and was followed by Thutmose I. Thutmose I campaigned in the Levant and reached as far as the Euphrates. Thus becoming the first pharaoh to cross the river.[8] During this campaign, the Syrian princes declared allegiance to Thutmose. However, after he returned, they discontinued tribute and began fortifying against future incursions.[9] Hatshepsut was one of the most powerful pharaohs of this dynasty. She was the daughter of Thutmose I and the royal wife of Thutmose II. Upon the death of her husband she ruled jointly with his son by a minor wife, Thutmose III, who had ascended to the throne as a child of about two years of age, but she eventually she ruled in her own right as king. Hatshepsut built extensively in the Karnak temple in Luxor and throughout all of Egypt [10] and she re-established the trade networks that had been disrupted during the Hyksos occupation of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, thereby building the wealth of the Eighteenth Dynasty. She oversaw the preparations and funding for a mission to the Land of Punt. After her death, having gained valuable experience heading up the military for Hatshepsut, Thutmose III assumed rule. Thutmose III ("the Napoleon of Egypt") expanded Egypt's army and wielded it with great success to consolidate the empire created by his predecessors. This resulted in a peak in Egypt's power and wealth during the reign of Amenhotep III. The term pharaoh, originally the name of the king's palace, became a form of address for the person who was king during the reign of Thutmose III (c. 1479–1425 BC).[11] Widely considered a military genius by historians, Thutmose III conducted at least 16 campaigns in 20 years.[12] He was an active expansionist ruler, sometimes called Egypt's greatest conqueror or "the Napoleon of Egypt".[13] He is recorded to have captured 350 cities during his rule and conquered much of the Near East from the Euphrates to Nubia during seventeen known military campaigns. He was the first pharaoh after Thutmose I to cross the Euphrates, doing so during his campaign against Mitanni. He continued north through the territory belonging to the still unconquered cities of Aleppo and Carchemish and quickly crossed the Euphrates in his boats, taking the Mitannian king entirely by surprise.[14] The wealthiest of all the kings of this dynasty is Amenhotep III, who built the Luxor Temple, the Precinct of Monthu at Karnak and his massive Morturary Temple. Amenhotep III also built the Malkata palace, the largest built in Egypt. One of the best-known eighteenth dynasty pharaohs is Amenhotep IV, who changed his name to Akhenaten in honour of the Aten, a representation of the Egyptian god, Ra. His worship of the Aten as his personal deity is often interpreted as history's first instance of monotheism. Akhenaten's wife, Nefertiti, contributed a great deal to his new direction in the Egyptian religion. Nefertiti was bold enough to perform rituals to Aten. Akhenaten's religious fervour is cited as the reason why he and his wife were subsequently written out of Egyptian history.[15] Under his reign, in the fourteenth century BC, Egyptian art flourished in a distinctive new style. (See Amarna Period) By the end of the Eighteenth Dynasty, Egypt's status had changed radically. Aided by Akhenaten's apparent lack of interest in international affairs, the Hittites had gradually extended their influence into Phoenicia and Canaan to become a major power in international politics—a power that both Seti I and his son Ramesses II would confront during the nineteenth Dynasty. The last two members of the Eighteenth Dynasty—Ay and Horemheb—became rulers from the ranks of officials in the royal court, although Ay might also have been the maternal uncle of Akhenaten and a fellow descendant of Yuya and Tjuyu. Ay may have married the widowed Great Royal Wife and young half-sister of Tutankhamun, Ankhesenamun, in order to obtain power; she did not live long afterward. Ay then married Tey, who originally, had been wet-nurse to Nefertiti. Ay's reign was short. His successor was Horemheb, a general during the reign of Tutankhamun, whom the pharaoh may have intended as his successor in the event that he had no surviving children, which came to pass.[16] Horemheb may have taken the throne away from Ay in a coup d'état. Although Ay's son or stepson Nakhtmin was named as his father or stepfather's Crown Prince, Nakhtmin seems to have died during the reign of Ay, leaving the opportunity for Horemheb to claim the throne next. Horemheb also died without surviving children, having appointed his vizier, Pa-ra-mes-su, as his heir. This vizier ascended the throne in 1292 BC as Ramesses I, and was the first pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty. Height of the New Kingdom[edit] Main article: Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt The Nineteenth Dynasty was founded by the Vizier Ramesses I, whom the last ruler of the eighteenth dynasty, Pharaoh Horemheb, had chosen as his successor. His brief reign marked a transition period between the reign of Horemheb and the powerful pharaohs of this dynasty, in particular, his son Seti I and grandson Ramesses II, who would bring Egypt to new heights of imperial power. Seti I fought a series of wars in western Asia, Libya, and Nubia in the first decade of his reign. The main source for knowledge of Seti’s military activities are his battle scenes on the north exterior wall of the Karnak Hypostyle Hall, along with several royal stelas with inscriptions mentioning battles in Canaan and Nubia. The greatest achievement of Seti I's foreign policy was the capture of the Syrian town of Kadesh and neighboring territory of Amurru from the Hittite Empire. Egypt had not held Kadesh since the time of Akhenaten. Tutankhamun and Horemheb had failed to recapture the city from the Hittites. Seti I was successful in defeating a Hittite army that tried to defend the town. However, The Hittites managed to take it again after Seti's departure. Egyptian and Hittite Empires, around the time of the Battle of Kadesh Ramesses II ("the Great") sought to recover territories in the Levant that had been held by the 18th Dynasty. His campaigns of reconquest culminated in the Battle of Kadesh, where he led Egyptian armies against those of the Hittite king Muwatalli II. Ramesses was caught in history's first recorded military ambush, although he was able to rally his troops and turn the tide of battle against the Hittites thanks to the arrival of the Ne'arin (possibly mercenaries in the employ of Egypt). The outcome of the battle was undecided, with both sides claiming victory at their home front, and ultimately resulting in a peace treaty between the two nations. Egypt was able to obtain wealth and stability under the rule of Ramesses, for more than half a century.[17] His immediate successors continued the military campaigns, although an increasingly troubled court—which at one point put a usurper (Amenmesse) on the throne—made it increasingly difficult for a pharaoh to effectively retain control of the territories. Ramesses II built extensively throughout Egypt and Nubia, and his cartouches are prominently displayed, even in buildings that he did not construct.[18] There are accounts of his honor hewn on stone, statues, and the remains of palaces and temples—most notably the Ramesseum in western Thebes and the rock temples of Abu Simbel. He covered the land from the Delta to Nubia with buildings in a way no king before him had.[19] He also founded a new capital city in the Delta during his reign, called Pi-Ramesses. It previously had served as a summer palace during the reign of Seti I.[20] Ramesses II constructed many large monuments, including the archaeological complex of Abu Simbel, and the Mortuary temple known as the Ramesseum. He built on a monumental scale to ensure that his legacy would survive the ravages of time. Ramesses used art as a means of propaganda for his victories over foreigners, which are depicted on numerous temple reliefs. Ramesses II erected more colossal statues of himself than any other pharaoh, and also usurped many existing statues by inscribing his own cartouche on them. Ramesses II was also famed for the huge number of children he sired by his various wives and concubines; the tomb he built for his sons (many of whom he outlived) in the Valley of the Kings has proven to be the largest funerary complex in Egypt. The immediate successors of Ramesses II continued the military campaigns although an increasingly troubled court complicated matters. He was succeeded by his son Merneptah and then by Merenptah's son Seti II. Seti II's right to the throne seems to have been disputed by his half-brother Amenmesse, who may have temporarily ruled from Thebes. Upon his death, Seti II's son Siptah, who may have been afflicted with poliomyelitis during his life, was appointed to the throne by Bay, a chancellor and a West Asian commoner who served as vizier behind the scenes. Siptah died early and throne was assumed by Twosret, who was the royal wife of his father and, possibly, his uncle Amenmesse's sister. A period of anarchy at the end of Twosret's short reign saw a native reaction to foreign control leading to the execution of Bay and the enthronement of Setnakhte, establishing the Twentieth Dynasty. Final years of power[edit] Main article: Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt The last "great" pharaoh from the New Kingdom is widely considered to be Ramesses III, a Twentieth Dynasty pharaoh who reigned several decades after Ramesses II.[21] In the eighth year of his reign, the Sea Peoples invaded Egypt by land and sea. Ramesses III defeated them in two great land and sea battles (the Battle of Djahy and the Battle of the Delta). He incorporated them as subject peoples and is thought to have settled them in Southern Canaan, although there is evidence that they forced their way into Canaan. Their presence in Canaan may have contributed to the formation of new states, such as Philistia, in this region after the collapse of the Egyptian Empire. He later was compelled to fight invading Libyan tribesmen in two major campaigns in Egypt's Western Delta in his sixth year and eleventh year respectively.[22] The heavy cost of this warfare slowly drained Egypt's treasury and contributed to the gradual decline of the Egyptian Empire in Asia. The severity of the difficulties is indicated by the fact that the first known labour strike in recorded history occurred during the twenty-ninth year of Ramesses III's reign. At that time, the food rations for Egypt's favoured and elite royal tomb-builders and artisans in the village of Deir el Medina could not be provisioned.[23] Air pollution limited the amount of sunlight penetrating the atmosphere, affecting agricultural production and arresting global tree growth for almost two full decades, until 1140 BC.[24] One proposed cause is the Hekla 3 eruption of the Hekla volcano in Iceland, but the dating of this remains disputed. Decline into the Third Intermediate Period[edit] Rameses III's death was followed by years of bickering among his heirs. Three of his sons ascended the throne successively as Ramesses IV, Rameses VI, and Rameses VIII. Egypt was increasingly beset by droughts, below-normal flooding of the Nile, famine, civil unrest, and corruption of officials. The power of the last pharaoh of the dynasty, Ramesses XI, grew so weak that in the south the High Priests of Amun at Thebes became the de facto rulers of Upper Egypt, and Smendes controlled Lower Egypt in the north, even before Rameses XI's death. Smendes eventually founded the twenty-first dynasty at Tanis. Gallery[edit] Hatshepsut as a Sphinx - daughter of Thutmose I, co-regent for her two-year-old stepson Thutmose III, she soon ruled as pharaoh; Egypt prospered greatly under her rule Queen Hatshepsut's Temple at Deir el-Bahari, was called Djeser-Djeseru, meaning the Holy of Holies Thutmosis III, a military man and member of the Thutmosid royal line is commonly called the Napoleon of Egypt because his conquests of the Levant brought Egypt's territories and influence to its greatest extent Tiye, born a commoner, became queen through her marriage to Amenhotep III and during the New Kingdom, when women gained influence in court, Tiye soon helped run affairs of state for both her husband and son during their reigns Akhenaten, born Amenhotep IV, was the son of Queen Tiye and he turned away from the dominant cult of Amun, relocated the capitol, and promoted that of the Aten as a supreme deity Nefertiti - the wife of Akhenaten, she held position as co-regent with Akhenaten and may have ruled later as pharaoh in her own right (as she is one of few candidates for the identity of Pharaoh Neferneferuaten) Tutankhamun's mask - King Tutankhamun, son of Akhenaten, returned to the former capitol and restored the cult of Amun to its former influence; although he died young and was not considered significant in his own time, the 1922 discovery of his KV62 intact tomb by Howard Carter, made him relevant as a symbol of ancient Egypt to the modern world Abu Simbel Temple of Ramesses II Queen Ahmose-Nefertari See also[edit] History of ancient Egypt The Stonemason Ostracon References[edit] ^ Alan K. Bowman (22 October 2020). "Ancient Egypt". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 3 January 2021. ^ Steven Snape (16 March 2019). "Estimating Population in Ancient Egypt". Retrieved 5 January 2021. ^ Christopher Bronk Ramsey et al., Radiocarbon-Based Chronology for Dynastic Egypt, Science 18 June 2010: Vol. 328, no. 5985, pp. 1554–1557. ^ a b Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. p. 481. ISBN 978-0-19-815034-3. ^ Schneider, Thomas (27 August 2008). "Periodizing Egyptian History: Manetho, Convention, and Beyond". In Klaus-Peter Adam (ed.). Historiographie in der Antike. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 181–197. ISBN 978-3-11-020672-2. ^ Alberge, Dalya. "Tomb reveals Ancient Egypt's humiliating secret". The Times. London. Retrieved June 14, 2017. ^ Weinstein, James M. The Egyptian Empire in Palestine, A Reassessment, p. 7. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, n° 241. Winter 1981. ^ Shaw and Nicholson (1995) p.289 ^ Steindorff p.36 ^ JJ Shirley: The Power of the Elite: The Officials of Hatshepsut's Regency and Coregency, in: J. Galán, B.M. Bryan, P.F. Dorman (eds.): Creativity and Innovation in the Reign of Hatshepsut, Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 69, Chicago 2014, ISBN 978-1-61491-024-4, p. 206. ^ Redmount, Carol A. "Bitter Lives: Israel in and out of Egypt." p. 89–90. The Oxford History of the Biblical World. Michael D. Coogan, ed. Oxford University Press. 1998. ^ Lichtheim, Miriam (2019). Ancient Egyptian Literature. Univ of California Press. p. 340. ISBN 9780520305847. Retrieved 22 October 2019. ^ J.H. Breasted, Ancient Times: A History of the Early World; An Introduction to the Study of Ancient History and the Career of Early Man. Outlines of European History 1. Boston: Ginn and Company, 1914, p.85 ^ Redford War 225 ^ Tyldesley, Joyce (2005-04-28). Nefertiti: Egypt's Sun Queen. Penguin UK. ISBN 9780141949796. ^ Gardiner, Alan (1953). "The Coronation of King Haremhab". Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 39: 13–31. ^ Thomas, Susanna (2003). Rameses II: Pharaoh of the New Kingdom. The Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8239-3597-0. ramses ii. ^ Amelia Ann Blandford Edwards. "Chapter XV: Rameses the Great". Archived from the original on 13 May 2008. Retrieved 23 April 2008. ^ Wolfhart Westendorf, Das alte Ägypten, 1969 ^ Kitchen (1982), p. 119. ^ Eric H. Cline and David O'Connor, eds. Ramesses III: The Life and Times of Egypt's Last Hero (University of Michigan Press; 2012) ^ Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, Blackwell Books, 1992. p.271 ^ William F. Edgerton, "The Strikes in Ramses III's Twenty-Ninth Year", JNES 10, no. 3 (July 1951), pp. 137–145. ^ Frank J. Yurco, "End of the Late Bronze Age and Other Crisis Periods: A Volcanic Cause," in Gold of Praise: Studies on Ancient Egypt in Honor of Edward F. Wente, ed: Emily Teeter & John Larson, (SAOC 58) 1999, pp. 456-458. Further reading[edit] Bierbrier, M. L. The Late New Kingdom In Egypt, C. 1300-664 B.C.: A Genealogical and Chronological Investigation. Warminster, England: Aris & Phillips, 1975. Freed, Rita A., Yvonne Markowitz, and Sue H. d’Auria, eds. Pharaohs of the Sun: Akhenaten, Nefertiti, Tutankhamun. London: Thames & Hudson, 1999. Freed, Rita E. Egypt's Golden Age: The Art of Living In the New Kingdom, 1558-1085 B.C. Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1981. Kemp, Barry J. The City of Akhenaten and Nefertiti: Amarna and Its People. London: Thames & Hudson, 2012. Morkot, Robert. A Short History of New Kingdom Egypt. London: Tauris, 2015. Radner, Karen. State Correspondence In the Ancient World: From New Kingdom Egypt to the Roman Empire. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014. Redford, Donald B. Egypt and Canaan In the New Kingdom. Beʾer Sheva: Ben Gurion University of the Negev Press, 1990. Sadek, Ashraf I. Popular Religion In Egypt During the New Kingdom. Hildesheim: Gerstenberg, 1987. Spalinger, Anthony John. War In Ancient Egypt: The New Kingdom. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub., 2005. Thomas, Angela P. Akhenaten’s Egypt. Shire Egyptology 10. Princes Risborough, UK: Shire, 1988. Tyldesley, Joyce A. Egypt's Golden Empire: The Age of the New Kingdom. London: Headline Book Pub., 2001. Wood, Jonathan. R. and Hsu Yi-Ting, An Archaeometallurgical Explanation for the Disappearance of Egyptian and Near Eastern Cobalt-Blue Glass at the end of the Late Bronze Age, Internet Archaeology 52, 2019. Internet Archaeology External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Egyptian New Kingdom. Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Egyptian Empire. Library resources about New Kingdom of Egypt Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Middle East on the Matrix: Egypt, The New Kingdom—Photographs of many of the historic sites dating from the New Kingdom New Kingdom of Egypt - Aldokkan Preceded by Second Intermediate Period Time Periods of Egypt 1550–1069 BC Succeeded by Third Intermediate Period v t e Ancient Egypt topics Index Major topics Glossary of artifacts Agriculture Architecture (Egyptian Revival architecture) Art Portraiture Astronomy Chronology Cities (list) Clothing Cuisine Dance Dynasties Funerary practices Geography Great Royal Wives (list) Hieroglyphs History Language Literature Mathematics Medicine Military Music Mythology People Pharaohs (list) Philosophy Religion Sites Technology Trade Writing Egyptology Egyptologists Museums  Ancient Egypt portal Book Category WikiProject Commons Outline v t e Empires Ancient (Colonies) Akkadian Neo-Sumerian Assyrian Old Assyrian Middle Assyrian Neo-Assyrian Babylonian Old Babylonian Kassite Neo-Babylonian Egyptian Old Kingdom Middle Kingdom New Kingdom Phoenician Carthaginian Chinese Shang Qin Han Three Kingdoms Jin North and South Hellenistic Macedonian Seleucid Hittite Indian Nanda Maurya Satavahana Shunga Gupta Harsha Iranian Median Achaemenid Parthian Sasanian Kushan Mongol Xianbei Roman Western Eastern Teotihuacan Post-classical Aksum Arab Rashidun Umayyad Abbasid Fatimid Aragonese Angevin Ayyubid Aztec Benin Bornu Bruneian Bulgarian First Second Byzantine Nicaea Thessalonica Trebizond Calakmul Chinese Sui Tang Liao Song Jīn Yuan Uyghur Ethiopian Zagwe Solomonic Genoese Georgian Holy-Roman Carolingian Huetar Hunnic Hephthalite Inca Indian Chola Gurjara-Pratihara Pala Eastern Ganga dynasty Delhi Vijayanagara Iranian Samanid Saffarid Kanem Khmer Latin Majapahit Malaccan Mali Egyptian Mamluk Mongol Yuan Golden Horde Chagatai Khanate Ilkhanate Moroccan Idrisid Almoravid Almohad Marinid North Sea Oyo Serbian Singhasari Somali Ajuran Ifatite Adalite Mogadishan Songhai Srivijaya Tibetan Tikal Timurid Tiwanku Toltec Turco-Persian Ghaznavid Great Seljuk Khwarezmian Venetian Vietnamese Dai Viet Wagadou Wari Modern Afghan Ashanti Austrian Austro-Hungarian Brazilian Central African Chinese Ming Qing China Manchukuo Ethiopian Haitian First Second French First Second German First/Old Reich Second Reich Third Reich Indian Mughal Mysorean Sikh Maratha British Raj Iranian Safavid Afsharid Qajar Pahlavi Japanese Johor Korean Mexican First Second Moroccan Saadi Alaouite Russian Somali Gobroon Majeerteen Hobyo Swedish Tongan Ottoman Vietnamese Dainam Vietnam Colonial American Belgian British English Scottish Danish Dutch French German Italian Japanese Omani Polish–Lithuanian Couronian Portuguese Sovereign Military Order of Malta Spanish Swedish Lists Empires largest in India Ancient great powers Medieval great powers Modern great powers European colonialism African empires Miscellaneous The empire on which the sun never sets "Empire" as a description of foreign policy American empire Soviet Empire Authority control GND: 7509668-7 LCCN: sh2002010492 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=New_Kingdom_of_Egypt&oldid=1002460091" Categories: New Kingdom of Egypt States and territories established in the 16th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 11th century BC Former kingdoms 2nd millennium BC in Egypt 2nd-millennium BC establishments in Egypt 2nd-millennium BC disestablishments in Egypt Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Banjar Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 15:50 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7724	----	Hotepsekhemwy - Wikipedia Hotepsekhemwy From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Hotepsekhemwy Bedjatau, Bedjau, Boethos, Bochus Stone vase bearing Hotepsekhemwy's serekh, National Archaeological Museum (France). Pharaoh Reign 25–29 years (2nd Dynasty; starting c. 2890 BC.) Predecessor uncertain; Qa'a or Sneferka Successor Raneb Royal titulary Nomen Nisut-bitj-Nebty-Hotep Nsw.t-btj-nbt.j-htp King of Upper- and Lower Egypt, he of the Two Ladies, the satisfied Horus name Hor-Hotepsekhemwy Hr.-htp-sxm.wj Horus, reconciliation of the two powers Nebty name Sehotep-Nebty S.htp-nbt.j He who pacifies the Two Ladies Abydos King List Bedjau Bḏ3.w The smelter[1] Saqqara King List Netjerbau Nṯr-b3.w Divine of Bas Turin Canon ...Bau-hetepju ...b3.w-htp.w ...Bas are satisfied[2] Giza Writing Board (6th dynasty) Bedjatau Bḏ3-t3.w The smelter[1][3] Children Perneb ? Burial Saqqara Hotepsekhemwy is the Horus name of an early Egyptian king who was the founder of the Second Dynasty of Egypt. The exact length of his reign is not known; the Turin canon suggests an improbable 95 years[4] while the ancient Egyptian historian Manetho reports that the reign of "Boëthôs" lasted for 38 years.[5] Egyptologists consider both statements to be misinterpretations or exaggerations. They credit Hotepsekhemwy with either a 25- or a 29-year rule.[6] Contents 1 Name sources 2 Family 3 Identity 4 Reign 5 Tomb 6 References 7 External links Name sources[edit] Cartouche name of Hotepsekhemwy in the Abydos King List (cartouche no. 9). Hotepsekhemwy's name has been identified by archaeologists at Sakkara, Giza, Badari and Abydos from clay seal impressions, stone vessels and bone cylinders. Several stone vessel inscriptions mention Hotepsekhemwy along with the name of his successor Raneb.[1][7][8][9] The Horus name of Hotepsekhemwy is the subject of particular interest to Egyptologists and historians, as it may hint at the turbulent politics of the time. The Egyptian word "Hotep" means "peaceful" and "to be pleased" though it can also mean "conciliation" or "to be reconciled", too. So Hotepsekhemwy's full name may be read as "the two powers are reconciled" or "pleasing in powers", which suggests a significant political meaning. In this sense, "the two powers" could be a reference to Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt as well as to the major deities Horus and Seth.[1][10][11] From the reign of Hotepsekhemwy onward it became a tradition to write the Horus name and the Nebty name in the same way. It is thought that some kind of philosophic background affected that choice, since the Horus name reveals a clearly defined, symbolic meaning in its translation. Horus- and nebty names being the same might also indicate, that the Horus name was adopted after ascending the throne.[1] Family[edit] The name of Hotepsekhemwy's wife is unknown. A “son of the king” and “priest of Sopdu” named Perneb might have been his son, but since the clay seals providing his name and titles were found in a gallery tomb which is attributed to two kings equally (Hotepsekhemwy and his successor, Raneb), it is uncertain whose son Perneb really was.[12][13] Identity[edit] Bone cylinder inscribed with the serekh of Hotepsekhemwy. Hotepsekhemwy is commonly identified with the Ramesside cartouche names Bedjau from the Abydos king list, Bedjatau from Giza, Netjer-Bau from the Sakkara king list and the name Bau-hetepju from the royal canon of Turin. Egyptologist Wolfgang Helck points to the similar name Bedjatau, which appears in a short king list found on a writing board from the mastaba tomb G1001 of the high official Mesdjeru. "Bedjatau" means "the foundryman" and is thought to be a misreading of the name "Hotepsekhemwy", since the hieroglyphic signs used to write "Hotep" in its full form are very similar to the signs of a pottery kiln and a chick in hieratic writings. The signs of two Sekhem sceptres were misread as a leg and a drill. A similar phenomenon might have occurred in the case of King Khasekhemwy, where the two sceptres in the Horus name were misread as two leg-symbols or two drill-signs. The Abydos king list imitates this Old Kingdom name form of “Bedjatau”. The names "Netjerbau" and "Bau-hetepju" are problematic, since Egyptologists can't find any name source from Hotepsekhemwy's time that could have been used to form them.[1][14][15] Reign[edit] Little is known about Hotepsekhemwy's reign. Contemporary sources show that he may have gained the throne after a period of political strife, including ephemeral rulers such as Horus "Bird" and Sneferka (the latter is also thought to be an alternate name used by king Qaa for a short time). As evidence of this, Egyptologists Wolfgang Helck, Dietrich Wildung and George Reisner point to the tomb of king Qaa, which was plundered at the end of 1st Dynasty and was restored during the reign of Hotepsekhemwy. The plundering of the cemetery and the unusually conciliatory meaning of the name Hotepsekhemwy may be clues of a dynastic struggle. Additionally, Helck assumes that the kings Sneferka and Horus “Bird” were omitted from later king lists because their struggles for the Egyptian throne were factors in the collapse of the first dynasty.[1][10][16] Seal impressions provide evidence of a new royal residence called "Horus the shining star" that was constructed by Hotepsekhemwy. He also built a temple near Buto for the little-known deity Netjer-Achty and founded the "Chapel of the White Crown". The white crown is a symbol of Upper Egypt. This is thought to be another clue to the origin of Hotepsekhemwy's dynasty, indicating a likely source of political power.[1][17] Egyptologists such as Nabil Swelim point out that there is no inscription from Hotepsekhemwy's reign mentioning a Sed festival, indicating the ruler cannot have ruled longer than 30 years (the Sed festival was celebrated as the anniversary marking a reign of 30 years).[18] Entrance to the gallery tomb beneath the Unas passway. The ancient Egyptian historian Manetho called Hotepsekhemwy Boëthôs (apparently altered from the name Bedjau) and reported that during this ruler's reign "a chasm opened near Bubastis and many perished". Although Manetho wrote in the 3rd century BC – over two millennia after the king's actual reign – some Egyptologists think it possible that this anecdote may have been based on fact, since the region near Bubastis is known to be seismically active.[5] Tomb[edit] The location of Hotepsekhemwy's tomb is unknown. Egyptologists such as Flinders Petrie, Alessandro Barsanti and Toby Wilkinson believe it could be the giant underground Gallery Tomb B beneath the funeral passage of the Unas-necropolis at Saqqara. Many seal impressions of king Hotepsekhemwy have been found in these galleries. Egyptologists such as Wolfgang Helck and Peter Munro are not convinced and think that Gallery Tomb B is instead the burial site of king Raneb, as several seal impressions of this ruler were also found there.[9][19][20][21][22] References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h Wolfgang Helck: Untersuchungen zur Thinitenzeit (Ägyptologische Abhandlungen), Vol. 45, Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1987, ISBN 3-447-02677-4 ^ Alan H. Gardiner: The royal canon of Turin. Reissued. Griffith Institute, Oxford 1997, ISBN 0-900416-48-3, vol. 1 ^ Edward Brovarski: Two old writing boards from Giza. In: Annales du Service des Antiquités de l'Egypte. vol. 71, 1987, ISSN 1687-1510, p. 27–52, issue 1, Online (PDF; 11 MB). ^ Alan H. Gardiner: The royal canon of Turin. Griffith Institute of Oxford, Oxford (UK) 1997, ISBN 0-900416-48-3; page 15 & Table I. ^ a b William Gillian Waddell: Manetho (The Loeb Classical Library, Volume 350). Harvard University Press, Cambridge (Mass.) 2004 (Reprint), ISBN 0-674-99385-3, page 37–41. ^ Dietrich Wildung: Die Rolle ägyptischer Könige im Bewusstsein ihrer Nachwelt. Teil 1: Posthume Quellen über die Könige der ersten vier Dynastien; Münchener Ägyptologische Studien, Volume 17. Deutscher Kunstverlag, München/Berlin, 1969. page 31-33. ^ Guy Brunton: Qau and Badari I, with chapters by Alan Gardiner and Flinders Petrie, British School of Archaeology in Egypt 44, London 1927: Bernard Quaritch, Tafel XIX, 25 ^ Gaston Maspero: Notes sur les objets recueillis sous la pyramide d'Ounas in: Annales du Service des Antiquités de l'Egypt (ASAE) Vol. III. Kairo 1902, pages 185–190. ^ a b Eva-Maria Engel: Die Siegelabrollungen von Hetepsechmui und Raneb aus Saqqara. In: Ernst Czerny, Irmgard Hein, Hermann Hunger, Dagmar Melman, Angela Schwab: Timelines: Studies in Honour of Manfred Bietak. Peeters, Leuven 2006, ISBN 90-429-1730-X, page 28–29. ^ a b Peter Kaplony: „Er ist ein Liebling der Frauen“ – Ein „neuer“ König und eine neue Theorie zu den Kronprinzen sowie zu den Staatsgöttinnen (Kronengöttinnen) der 1./2. Dynastie. In: Manfred Bietak: Ägypten und Levante. Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien 2006 ISBN 978-3-7001-6668-9; page 126–127. ^ Peter A. Clayton: Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt, Thames and Hudson, London 2006, ISBN 0-500-28628-0, page 26. ^ Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Early dynastic Egypt: Strategy, Society and Security. Routledge, London u. a. 1999, ISBN 0-415-18633-1, page 296. ^ Peter Kaplony: Inschriften der Ägyptischen Frühzeit. Band 3, (= Ägyptologische Abhandlungen Bd. 8). Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1963, ISBN 3-447-00052-X, page 96 as Obj. 367. ^ Edward Brovarski: Two Old Kingdom writing boards from Giza. In: Annales du Service des Antiquités de l´Egypte, Vol.71, 1987, Table 1 ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, page 134. ^ Dietrich Wildung: Die Rolle ägyptischer Könige im Bewußtsein ihrer Nachwelt. page 36–41. ^ Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, London 1999, ISBN 0-415-18633-1, page 285 & 286. ^ Nabil M. A. Swelim: Some Problems on the History of the Third Dynasty. Archaeological Society, Alexandria 1983, (Archaeological and Historical Studies 7). page 67-77. ^ Alessandre Barsanti in: Annales du service des antiquités de lÉgypte - Súppleménts; Volume II. Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale, Kairo 1902. page 249–257. ^ Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, London 1999, ISBN 0-415-18633-1, page 83 & 84. ^ Wolfgang Helck: Wirtschaftsgeschichte des alten Ägypten im 3. und 2. Jahrtausend vor Chr. Brill, Leiden 1975, ISBN 90-04-04269-5, page 21–32. ^ Peter Munro: Der Unas-Friedhof Nordwest I. Von Zabern, Mainz 1993, page 95. External links[edit] Francesco Raffaele: Hotepsekhemwy - Hotep v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Second Dynasty of Ancient Egypt Attested pharaohs Hotepsekhemwy Nebra Weneg Nynetjer Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Khasekhemwy Obscure pharaoh names Horus Ba Ba Horus Sa Hudjefa I Neferkara I Neferkasokar Nubnefer Senedj Sneferka Wadjenes Queen consort Nimaathap Other royals Khenmetptah Satkhnum Sehener Shepset-ipet Wadjitefni (Mesen-ka) Pehen-Ptah Nisuheqet Nefer-Setekh Monument Gisr el-Mudir Capital Thinis Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hotepsekhemwy&oldid=995689422" Categories: 29th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Second Dynasty of Egypt 29th century BC in Egypt 29th-century BC rulers 3rd-millennium BC births 3rd-millennium BC deaths Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Occitan Polski Português Ripoarisch Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 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en-wikipedia-org-7731	----	Amestris - Wikipedia Amestris From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Amastris (disambiguation). Queen of Persia Amestris Queen of Persia Died c. 424 BC[1] Spouse Xerxes I of Persia Issue Darius Hystaspes Artaxerxes I of Persia Amytis Rhodogyne House Persia Father Otanes Religion Zoroastrianism[2] Amestris (Greek: Άμηστρις, Amēstris, perhaps the same as Άμαστρις, Amāstris, from Old Persian Amāstrī-, "strong woman"; died c. 424 BC)[3] was a Persian queen, the wife of Xerxes I of Persia, mother of Achaemenid King of Kings Artaxerxes I of Persia.[4] She was poorly regarded by ancient Greek historians.[5][6][7] Contents 1 Life 2 Popular depictions 3 Notes 4 Sources Life[edit] Amestris was the daughter of Otanes, one of the seven noblemen reputed to have killed the magus who was impersonating King Bardiya in 522 BC. After this, Darius I the Great of Persia assumed the throne. According to Herodotus, Otanes was honoured with royal marriages. Darius I married Otanes' daughter Phaedymia while Otanes married a sister of Darius, who gave birth to Amestris. When Darius died in 486 BC, Amestris was married to the crown prince, Xerxes. Herodotus describes Amestris as a cruel despot: I am informed that Amestris, the wife of Xerxes, when she had grown old, made return for her own life to the god who is said to be beneath the earth by burying twice seven children of Persians who were men of renown. — Herodotus, Histories 7.114 The origin of this story is unclear, since known records and accounts indicate that human sacrifices were not permitted within the Persian religion. Also since most accounts of the time are from Greek sources, and due to the involvement of Greece as an opponent of Persia, it is possible that not all accounts are accurate. Circa 478 BC, her son Crown Prince Darius was married to his cousin Artaynte at Sardis. She was the daughter of Xerxes' brother Masistes. At the behest of Xerxes, Artaynte committed adultery with him (Xerxes). When Amestris found out, she did not seek revenge against Artaynte, but against her mother, Masistes' wife, as Amestris thought that it was her connivance. On Xerxes' birthday, Amestris sent for his guards and mutilated Masistes' wife by cutting off her breasts and threw them to dogs, and her nose and ears and lips also, and cutting out her tongue as well. On seeing this, Masistes fled to Bactria to start a revolt, but was intercepted by Xerxes' army who killed him and his sons.[8] Popular depictions[edit] Amestris is a character in the opera Serse by George Frideric Handel (italianized as "Amastre"). In the opera, Amestris is about to marry Xerxes (Serse), yet he falls in love with another woman and wants to marry her instead. Amestris disguises herself as a man in order to be near him. At the end of the opera, Xerxes is sorry for the things he did and asks Amestris once more to be his wife.[9] Notes[edit] ^ Herodotus, John Kenrick The Egypt of Herodotus being the second and part of the third books of his history, p.XVII (1841) ^ Amestris made human sacrifice. See Boyce, Mary (1989). A History of Zoroastrianism: The early period, p. 141. ^ electricpulp.com. ""Amestris" in Encyclopedia Iranica". Retrieved 9 September 2014. ^ Smith, William (1867). "Amestris (I)". In William Smith (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 1. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. p. 137. ^ Herodotus, Histories vii. 61, 114, ix. 108—113 ^ Ctesias, Persica c. 20. 30. ed. Lion ^ Plutarch, Alcibiades p. 123, c. ^ Godley, Alfred Denis (1921–24). "Histories book 9". Herodotus, with an English translation. OCLC 1610641. ^ Deutsche Oper am Rhein: Xerxes (issued in 2015), a book containing information on the opera itself as well as on a contemporary production Sources[edit] Amestris by Jona Lendering Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amestris&oldid=1002343968" Categories: 5th-century BC women 6th-century BC births 5th-century BC deaths Queens of the Achaemenid Empire Babylonian captivity 5th-century BC Iranian people Hidden categories: CS1: abbreviated year range Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages تۆرکجه Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული مصرى 日本語 Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 00:10 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-774	----	Vatican Library - Wikipedia Vatican Library From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from VcBA (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Vatican Apostolic Library Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana Pope Sixtus IV Appoints Bartolomeo Platina Prefect of the Vatican Library, fresco by Melozzo da Forlì, 1477, now in the Vatican Museums Country   Vatican City Type Research library Established 1475 (546 years ago) (1475) Coordinates 41°54′17″N 12°27′16″E / 41.90472°N 12.45444°E / 41.90472; 12.45444Coordinates: 41°54′17″N 12°27′16″E / 41.90472°N 12.45444°E / 41.90472; 12.45444 Collection Size 75,000 codices 1.1 million printed books Other information Director José Tolentino de Mendonça Website www.vaticanlibrary.va Map Location on a map of Vatican City This article is part of a series on Vatican City History Duchy of Rome 533–751 Donation of Pepin 750s Papal States 754–1870 Annates Congregation for Borders Fundamental Statute for the Secular Government of the States of the Church Capture of Rome 1870 "Prisoner in the Vatican" 1870–1929 Roman Question Law of Guarantees Lateran Treaty 1929 Vatican City 1929–present Governor of Vatican City 2010 Vatican sex scandal History of the Catholic Church since 1962 History of the Papacy Roman Historical Institutes Savoyard Era Vatileaks scandal Vatican Historical Museum Vatican City during World War II Law Acta Apostolicae Sedis Fundamental Law of Vatican City State Capital punishment in Vatican City Crime in Vatican City Lateran Treaty Legal status of the Holy See (Alperin v. 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Vatican, 1941 documentary Buildings/geography Apostolic Nunciature Apostolic Palace Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore Borgia Apartments Bramante Staircase Domus Sanctae Marthae Fountains of St. Peter's Square Gardens of Vatican City Geography of Vatican City Gregorian Tower Mater Ecclesiae (monastery) Monument to the Royal Stuarts Palace of the Holy Office Palazzi Pontifici Papal Apartments Saint Peter's Basilica Saint Peter's Square Saint Peter's tomb Lateran Basilica Lateran Palace Leonine City Niccoline Chapel Old St. Peter's Basilica Papal tombs Papal tombs in Old St. Peter's Basilica Paul VI Audience Hall Tomb of the Julii Torre San Giovanni Scala Regia Via della Conciliazione Vatican Climate Forest Vatican Heliport Vatican Hill Vatican Necropolis Papal Concert to Commemorate the Shoah Postage stamps and postal history of Vatican City Public holidays in Vatican City Vatican Secret Archives St. Peter's Baldachin Sala Regia San Pellegrino in Vaticano Sant'Anna dei Palafrenieri Santa Maria della Pietà in Camposanto dei Teutonici Vatican Advanced Technology Telescope Vatican Observatory Vatican Pharmacy Bibliotheca Palatina Cappella Giulia Cappella Paolina Cardinal Secretary of State Casina Pio IV Circus of Nero Redemptoris Mater Chapel Saints Martin and Sebastian of the Swiss Santo Stefano degli Abissini Santo Stefano degli Ungheresi Teutonic Cemetery Cortile del Belvedere Passetto di Borgo Porta San Pellegrino Vatican Museums Vatican Museums Gallery of Maps Gallery of Sistine Chapel ceiling Collection of Modern Religious Art Raphael Rooms Redemptoris Mater Chapel Restoration of the Sistine Chapel frescoes Sistine Chapel Sistine Chapel ceiling The Last Judgment by Michelangelo Outline Index  Vatican City portal  Catholicism portal v t e The Vatican Apostolic Library (Latin: Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana, Italian: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana), more commonly known as the Vatican Library or informally as the Vat,[1] is the library of the Holy See, located in Vatican City. Formally established in 1475, although it is much older—it is one of the oldest libraries in the world and contains one of the most significant collections of historical texts. It has 75,000 codices from throughout history,[2] as well as 1.1 million printed books, which include some 8,500 incunabula. The Vatican Library is a research library for history, law, philosophy, science and theology. The Vatican Library is open to anyone who can document their qualifications and research needs. Photocopies for private study of pages from books published between 1801 and 1990 can be requested in person or by mail. Pope Nicholas V (1447–1455) envisioned a new Rome with extensive public works to lure pilgrims and scholars to the city to begin its transformation. Nicolas wanted to create a "public library" for Rome that was meant to be seen as an institution for humanist scholarship. His death prevented him from carrying out his plan, but his successor Pope Sixtus IV (1471–1484) established what is now known as the Vatican Library. In March 2014, the Vatican Library began an initial four-year project of digitising its collection of manuscripts, to be made available online. The Vatican Apostolic Archive was separated from the library at the beginning of the 17th century; it contains another 150,000 items. Contents 1 Historical periods 1.1 Pre-Lateran 1.2 Lateran 1.3 Avignon 1.4 Pre-Vatican 1.5 Vatican 2 Location and building 2.1 Architecture and art 3 Library organization 3.1 Catalogue 3.2 Reading and lending 4 Collections 4.1 Manuscripts 4.1.1 Manuscripts relating to Christianity 4.1.2 Classic Greek and Latin texts 4.1.3 Alternative 4.2 Digitization projects 4.3 Gallery of holdings 5 Related libraries 5.1 Vatican Secret Archives 5.2 Vatican Film Library 6 Staff 6.1 List of librarians 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 9.1 Works cited 10 Further reading 11 External links Historical periods[edit] Scholars have traditionally divided the history of the library into five periods, Pre-Lateran, Lateran, Avignon, Pre-Vatican and Vatican.[3] Pre-Lateran[edit] The Pre-Lateran period, comprising the initial days of the library, dated from the earliest days of the Church. Only a handful of volumes survive from this period, though some are very significant. Lateran[edit] The Lateran era began when the library moved to the Lateran Palace and lasted until the end of the 13th century and the reign of Pope Boniface VIII, who died in 1303, by which time he possessed one of the most notable collections of illuminated manuscripts in Europe. However, in that year, the Lateran Palace was burnt and the collection plundered by Philip IV of France.[4] Avignon[edit] The Avignon period was during the Avignon Papacy, when seven successive popes resided in Avignon, France. This period saw a great growth in book collection and record keeping by the popes in Avignon, between the death of Boniface and the 1370s when the Papacy returned to Rome. Pre-Vatican[edit] The Pre-Vatican period ranged from about 1370 to 1447. The library was scattered during this time, with parts in Rome, Avignon and elsewhere. Pope Eugenius IV possessed 340 books by the time of his death.[5] Vatican[edit] In 1451, bibliophile Pope Nicholas V sought to establish a public library at the Vatican, in part to re-establish Rome as a destination for scholarship.[6][7] Nicholas combined some 350 Greek, Latin and Hebrew codices inherited from his predecessors with his own collection and extensive acquisitions, among them manuscripts from the imperial Library of Constantinople. Pope Nicholas also expanded his collection by employing Italian and Byzantine scholars to translate the Greek classics into Latin for his library.[7] The knowledgeable Pope already encouraged the inclusion of pagan classics.[1] Nicolas was important in saving many of the Greek works and writings during this time period that he had collected while traveling and acquired from others. In 1455, the collection had grown to 1200 books, of which 400 were in Greek.[8] Nicholas died in 1455. In 1475 his successor Pope Sixtus IV founded the Palatine Library.[7] During his papacy, acquisitions were made in "theology, philosophy and artistic literature".[4] The number of manuscripts is variously counted as 3,500 in 1475[4] or 2,527 in 1481, when librarian Bartolomeo Platina produced a signed listing.[9] At the time it was the largest collection of books in the Western world.[8] Pope Julius II commissioned the expansion of the building.[7] Around 1587, Pope Sixtus V commissioned the architect Domenico Fontana to construct a new building for the library, which is still used today. After this it became known as the Vatican Library.[7] During the Counter-Reformation, access to the library's collections was limited following the introduction of the Index of banned books. Scholars' access to the library was restricted, particularly Protestant scholars. Restrictions were lifted during the course of the 17th century, and Pope Leo XIII formally reopened the library to scholars in 1883.[6][7] In 1756, Abbot Piaggio conserver of ancient manuscripts in the Vatican Library used a machine he also invented,[10] to unroll the first Herculaneum papyri, which took him months.[11] In 1809, Napoleon Bonaparte arrested Pope Pius VII and removed the contents of the library to Paris. The contents were returned in 1817, three years after the defeat of Napoleon.[7] In 1992 the library had almost 2 million catalogued items.[6] In 1995 art history teacher Anthony Melnikas from Ohio State University stole three leaves from a medieval manuscript once owned by Francesco Petrarch.[12][13] One of the stolen leaves contains an exquisite miniature of a farmer threshing grain. A fourth leaf from an unknown source was also discovered in his possession by U.S. Customs agents. Melnikas was trying to sell the pages to an art dealer, who then alerted the librarian director.[13] Location and building[edit] Ancient Roman sculpture, maybe of Saint Hippolytus of Rome, found in 1551 at Via Tiburtina, Rome, and now at the Vatican Library The Library is located inside the Vatican Palace, and the entrance is through the Belvedere Courtyard.[14] When Pope Sixtus V (1585-1590) commissioned the expansion and the new building of the Vatican Library, he had a three-story wing built right across Bramante's Cortile del Belvedere, thus bisecting it and changing Bramante's work significantly.[1] At the bottom of a grand staircase a large statue of Hippolytus decorates the La Galea entrance hall.[15] In the first semi-basement there is a papyrus room and a storage area for manuscripts.[15] The first floor houses the restoration laboratory, and the photographic archives are on the second floor.[15] The Library has 42 kilometres (26 mi) of shelving.[16] The Library closed for renovations on 17 July 2007[17] and reopened 20 September 2010.[18] The three year, 9 million euro renovation involved the complete shut down of the library to install climate controlled rooms.[19] Architecture and art[edit] In the Sala di Consultazione or main reference room of the Vatican Library looms a statue of St Thomas Aquinas (c. 1910), sculpted by Cesare Aureli. A second version of this statue (c. 1930) stands under the entrance portico of the Pontifical University of St Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum.[a][21] The Sistine Hall of the Vatican Library. Golden Rose stored in the Vatican Library. Ceiling fresco of the sistine hall, photograph by Jean-Pol Grandmont Library organization[edit] Catalogue[edit] The collection was originally organized through notebooks used to index the manuscripts. As the collection grew to more than a few thousand, shelf lists were used.[7] The first modern catalogue system was put in place under Father Franz Ehrle between 1927 and 1939, using the Library of Congress card catalogue system. Ehrle also set up the first program to take photographs of important works or rare works.[7] The library catalogue was further updated by Rev. Leonard E. Boyle when it was computerized in the early 1990s.[7] Reading and lending[edit] Bookcase in the Vatican Library Historically, during the Renaissance era, most books were not shelved but stored in wooden benches, which had tables attached to them. Each bench was dedicated to a specific topic. The books were chained to these benches, and if a reader took out a book, the chain remained attached to it. Until the early 17th century, academics were also allowed to borrow books. For important books, the pope himself would issue a reminder slip.[7] Privileges to use the library could be withdrawn for breaking the house rules, for instance by climbing over the tables. Most famously Pico della Mirandola lost the right to use the library when he published a book on theology that the Papal curia did not approve of.[22] In the 1760s, a bill issued by Clement XIII heavily restricted access to the library's holdings.[1] The Vatican Library can be accessed by 200 scholars at a time,[23] and it sees 4,000 to 5,000 scholars a year, mostly academics doing post-graduate research.[19] Collections[edit] A miniature from the Syriac Gospel Lectionary (Vat. Syr. 559), created ca. 1220 near Mosul and exhibiting a strong Islamic influence. While the Vatican Library has always included Bibles, canon law texts and theological works, it specialized in secular books from the beginning. Its collection of Greek and Latin classics was at the center of the revival of classical culture during the Renaissance age.[8] The oldest documents in the library date back to the first century.[16] The library was founded primarily as a manuscript library, a fact reflected in the comparatively high ratio of manuscripts to printed works in its collection. Such printed books as have made their way into the collection are intended solely to facilitate the study of the much larger collection of manuscripts.[24] The collection also includes 330,000 Greek, Roman, and papal coins and medals.[6] Every year about 6,000 new books are acquired.[6] The library was enriched by several bequests and acquisitions over the centuries. In 1623, the hereditary Palatine Library of Heidelberg containing about 3,500 manuscripts was given to the Vatican by Maximilian I, Duke of Bavaria (who had just acquired it as booty in the Thirty Years' War) in thanks for the adroit political maneuvers of Pope Gregory XV that had sustained him in his contests with Protestant candidates for the electoral seat. A token 39 of the Heidelberg manuscripts were sent to Paris in 1797 and were returned to Heidelberg at the Peace of Paris in 1815, and a gift from Pope Pius VII of 852 others was made in 1816 to the University of Heidelberg, including the Codex Manesse. Aside from that, the Palatine Library remains in the Vatican Library to this day. In 1657, the manuscripts of the Dukes of Urbino were acquired. In 1661, the Greek scholar Leo Allatius was made librarian. Queen Christina of Sweden's important library (mostly amassed by her generals as booty from Habsburg Prague and German cities during the Thirty Years War) was bought by Pope Alexander VIII on her death in 1689. It represented, for all practical purposes, the entire royal library of Sweden at the time. If it had remained where it was in Stockholm, it would all have been lost in the destruction of the royal palace by fire in 1697. Among the most famous holdings of the library is the Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209, the oldest known nearly complete manuscript of the Bible. The Secret History of Procopius was discovered in the library and published in 1623. Pope Clement XI sent scholars into the Orient to bring back manuscripts, and is generally accepted as the founder of the Oriental section.[7] A School of library science is associated with the Vatican Library. In 1959, a Film Library was established.[25] This is not to be confused with the Vatican Film Library, which was established in 1953 at Saint Louis University in St. Louis, Missouri. The Library has a large collection of texts related to Hinduism, with the oldest editions dating to 1819.[26] During the library's restoration between 2007 and 2010, all of the 70,000 volumes in the library were tagged with electronic chips to prevent theft.[19] Manuscripts[edit] The Abyss of Hell, coloured drawing on parchment by Sandro Botticelli (1480s) Wandalbert von Prüm, July, Martyrologium (c860) Main page: Category:Manuscripts of the Vatican Library Notable manuscripts in the Library include: Illuminated manuscripts: Manuscripts relating to Christianity[edit] Barberini Gospels Gelasian Sacramentary, one of the oldest books on Christian liturgy Joshua Roll Lorsch Gospels, an illuminated gospel book written and illustrated from 778 to 820, which is spread up between various museums. The carved ivory rear cover and the Gospels of Luke and John are kept in the Vatican Library. Menologion of Basil II[27] Vatican Croatian Prayer Book Vergilius Vaticanus Classic Greek and Latin texts[edit] Vergilius Romanus, Virgil's Aeneid Codex Vaticanus Ottobonianus Latinus 1829, an important 14th-century manuscript of Catullus' poems Codex Vaticanus Latinus 3868, a 9th-century facsimile of Terence's comedies[28] Parts of Euclid's Elements, most notable Book I, Proposition 47, one of the oldest Greek texts on the Pythagorean Theorem[1] Alternative[edit] Codex Borgia, an extensive mesoamerican manuscript that depicts mythology and foundational rituals in the hieroglyphic texts and iconography made of animal skins. Codex Vat. Arabo 368, the sole manuscript of the Hadith Bayad wa Riyad, an Arabic love story[29] Codex Vaticanus 3738, the Codex Ríos,[30] an accordion folded Italian translation of a Spanish colonial-era manuscript, with copies of the Aztec paintings from the original Codex Telleriano-Remensis, believed to be written by the Dominican friar Ríos in 1566. De arte venandi cum avibus, a Latin treatise on falconry in the format of a two-column parchment codex of 111 folios written in the 1240s. Texts: Codex Vaticanus Latinus 3256, four leaves of the Vergilius Augusteus[31] Codex Vaticano Rossi 215, fragments of the Rossi Codex[32] Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209, one of the oldest extant Bibles in Greek language Libri Carolini Vaticanus Graecus 1001, the original manuscript of the Secret History[33] One fragment of Heliand and three fragments of the Old Saxon Genesis comprise the Palatinus Latinus 1447.[34] Digitization projects[edit] In 2012, plans were announced to digitize, in collaboration with the Bodleian Library, a million pages of material from the Vatican Library. On 20 March 2014, the Holy See announced that NTT Data Corporation and the Library concluded an agreement to digitize approximately 3,000 of the Library's manuscripts within four years.[35] NTT is donating the equipment and technicians, estimated to be worth 18 million Euros.[36] It noted that there is the possibility of subsequently digitizing another 79,000 of the Library's holdings. These will be high-definition images available on the Library's Internet site. Storage for the holdings will be on a three petabyte server provided by EMC.[37] It is expected that the initial phase will take 4 years.[38] DigiVatLib is the name of the Vatican Library's digital library service. It provides free access to the Vatican Library's digitized collections of manuscripts and incunabula.[39] The scanning of documents is impacted by the material used to produce the texts. Books using gold and silver in the illuminations require special scanning equipment.[23] Digital copies are being served using the CIFS protocol, from network-attached storage hardware by Dell EMC.[16] Gallery of holdings[edit] Gospel of Matthew in Persian, the first Persian manuscript to enter the Vatican Library Manuscript page with the five-voice "Kyrie" of the Missa Virgo Parens Christi by Jacques Barbireau Mappamondo Borgiano, also known as "Tavola di Velletri", consisting of two copper tablets (1430) Month of May from in the Chronography of 354 by the 4th century kalligrapher Filocalus Anton Raphael Mengs, The Triumph of History over Time (Allegory of the Museum Clementinum), ceiling fresco in the Camera dei Papiri, Vatican Library Illumination from the legend of Sain Emerich of Hungary's, c. 1335 Battle between David and Goliath, Book of Psalms, c. 1059 The ivory panels from the back cover of Codex Aureus of Lorsch Related libraries[edit] Vatican Secret Archives[edit] Main article: Vatican Secret Archives The Vatican Secret Archives, located in Vatican City, is the central archive for all of the acts promulgated by the Holy See, as well as the state papers, correspondence, papal account books,[40] and many other documents which the church has accumulated over the centuries. In the 17th century, under the orders of Pope Paul V, the Secret Archives were separated from the Vatican Library, where scholars had some very limited access to them, and remained absolutely closed to outsiders until 1881, when Pope Leo XIII opened them to researchers, more than a thousand of whom now examine its documents each year.[41] Vatican Film Library[edit] Main article: Vatican Film Library The Vatican Film Library in St. Louis, Missouri is the only collection, outside the Vatican itself, of microfilms of more than 37,000 works from the Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, the Vatican Library in Europe. It is located in the Pius XII Library on the campus of Saint Louis University.[42] The Library was created by Lowrie J. Daly (1914–2000), with funding from the Knights of Columbus.[43] The goal was to make Vatican and other documents more available to researchers in North America.[44] Microfilming of Vatican manuscripts began in 1951, and according to the Library's website, was the largest microfilming project that had been undertaken up to that date.[45] The Library opened in 1953, and moved to the St. Louis University campus, in the Pius XII Memorial Library, in 1959. The first librarian was Charles J. Ermatinger, who served until 2000. As of 2007[update], the Library has microfilmed versions of over 37,000 manuscripts, with material in Greek, Latin, Arabic, Hebrew and Ethiopic, as well as several more common Western European languages. There are reproductions of many works from the Biblioteca Palatina and Biblioteca Cicognara at the Vatican, as well as Papal letter registers from the Archivio Segreto Vaticano (Vatican Secret Archives) from the 9th to 16th centuries, in the series Registra Vaticana and Registra Supplicationium.[2] Staff[edit] The director of the library was made a cardinal and given the title Cardinal Librarian.[7] Individual library staff were called "Custodians".[7] After the reopening of the library in 1883, Pope Leo XIII changed the title to Prefect.[7][46][47] The library currently has 80 staff who work in five departments: manuscripts and archival collections, printed books/drawings, acquisitions/cataloguing, coin collections/museums and restoration/photography.[6] List of librarians[edit] (P) Indicates time spent as Pro-Librarian. This is the role of acting librarian, often a librarian who is not a Cardinal.[48] Name Lifetime Title Duration as Librarian[49][50] Marcello Cervini 1501–1555 Bibliothecarius I 24 May 1550–9 April 1555 Roberto de' Nobili 1541–1559 Bibliothecarius II 1555–18 January 1559 Alfonso Carafa 1540–1565 Bibliothecarius III 1559–29 August 1565 Marcantonio da Mula 1506–1572 Bibliothecarius IV 1565–17 March 1572[51] Guglielmo Sirleto 1514–1585 Bibliothecarius V 18 March 1572–16 October 1585 Antonio Carafa 1538–1591 Bibliothecarius VI 16 October 1585–13 January 1591 Marco Antonio Colonna 1523 ca.–1597 Bibliothecarius VII 1591–13 March 1597 Cesare Baronio 1538–1607 Bibliothecarius VIII May 1597–30 June 1607[52] Ludovico de Torres 1552–1609 Bibliothecarius IX 4 July 1607–8 July 1609 Scipione Borghese Caffarelli 1576–1633 Bibliothecarius X 11 June 1609–17 February 1618[53] Scipione Cobelluzzi 1564–1626 Bibliothecarius XI 17 February 1618–29 June 1626 Francesco Barberini 1597–1679 Bibliothecarius XII 1 July 1626–13 December 1633 Antonio Barberini 1569–1646 Bibliothecarius XIII 13 December 1633–11 September 1646 Orazio Giustiniani 1580–1649 Bibliothecarius XIV 25 September 1646–25 July 1649 Luigi Capponi 1583–1659 Bibliothecarius XV 4 August 1649–6 April 1659 Flavio Chigi 1631–1693 Bibliothecarius XVI 21 June 1659–19 September 1681[54] Lorenzo Brancati 1612–1693 Bibliothecarius XVII 19 September 1681–30 November 1693 Girolamo Casanate 1620–1700 Bibliothecarius XVIII 2 December 1693–3 March 1700 Enrico Noris 1631–1704 Bibliothecarius XIX 26 March 1700–23 February 1704 Benedetto Pamphili 1653–1730 Bibliothecarius XX 26 February 1704–22 March 1730 Angelo Maria Querini 1680–1755 Bibliothecarius XXI 4 September 1730–6 January 1755 Domenico Passionei 1682–1761 Bibliothecarius XXII 10 July 1741–12 January 1755(P) 12 January 1755–5 July 1761 Alessandro Albani 1692–1779 Bibliothecarius XXIII 12 August 1761–11 December 1779 Francesco Saverio de Zelada 1717–1801 Bibliothecarius XXIV 15 December 1779–29 December 1801 Luigi Valenti Gonzaga 1725–1808 Bibliothecarius XXV 12 January 1802–29 December 1808 Giulio Maria della Somaglia 1744–1830 Bibliothecarius XXVI 26 January 1827–2 April 1830 Giuseppe Albani 1750–1834 Bibliothecarius XXVII 23 April 1830–3 December 1834 Luigi Lambruschini 1776–1854 Bibliothecarius XXVIII 11 December 1834–27 June 1853 Angelo Mai 1782–1854 Bibliothecarius XXIX 27 June 1853–9 September 1854 Antonio Tosti 1776–1866 Bibliothecarius XXX 13 January 1860–20 March 1866 Jean Baptiste François Pitra 1812–1889 Bibliothecarius XXXI 19 January 1869–9 February 1889[55] Placido Maria Schiaffino [it] 1829–1889 Bibliothecarius XXXII 20 February 1889–23 September 1889 Alfonso Capecelatro 1824–1912 Bibliothecarius XXXIII 29 August 1890–14 November 1912[56] Mariano Rampolla del Tindaro 1843–1913 Bibliothecarius XXXIV 26 November 1912–16 December 1913 Francesco di Paola Cassetta 1841–1919 Bibliothecarius XXXV 3 January 1914–23 March 1919 Aidan [Francis Neil] Gasquet 1845–1929 Bibliothecarius XXXVI 9 May 1919–5 April 1929 Franz Ehrle 1845–1934 Bibliothecarius XXXVII 17 April 1929–31 March 1934 Giovanni Mercati 1866–1957 Bibliothecarius XXXVIII 18 June 1936–23 August 1957 Eugène Tisserant 1884–1972 Bibliothecarius XXXIX 14 September 1957–27 March 1971 Antonio Samoré 1905–1983 Bibliothecarius XL 25 January 1974–3 February 1983 Alfons Maria Stickler 1910–2007 Bibliothecarius XLI 7 September 1983–27 May 1985(P) 27 May 1985–1 July 1988 Antonio María Javierre Ortas 1921–2007 Bibliothecarius XLII 1 July 1988–24 January 1992 Luigi Poggi 1917-2010[57] Bibliothecarius XLIII 9 April 1992–29 November 1994(P) 29 November 1994–25 November 1997 Jorge María Mejía 1923-2014 Bibliothecarius XLIV 7 March 1998–24 November 2003 Jean-Louis Tauran 1943-2018 Bibliothecarius XLV 24 November 2003–25 June 2007 Raffaele Farina 1933- Bibliothecarius XLVI 25 June 2007–9 June 2012 Jean-Louis Bruguès 1943- Bibliothecarius XLVII 26 June 2012–1 September 2018 José Tolentino Mendonça 1965- Bibliothecarius XLVIII 1 September 2018- See also[edit] Vatican City portal Catholicism portal Archive of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith Index of Vatican City-related articles The Vatican Splendors Notes[edit] ^ This sculpture is described in the following words: "S. Tommaso seduto, nella sinistra tiene il libro della Summa theologica, mentre stende la destra in atto di proteggere la scienza cristiana. Quindi non siede sulla cattedra di dottore, ma sul trono di sovrano protettore; stende il braccio a rassicurare, non a dimostrare. Ha in testa il dottorale berretto, e conservando il suo tipo tradizionale, rivela nel volto e nell'atteggiamento l'uomo profondamente dotto. L'autore non ha avuto da ispirarsi in altr'opera che esistesse sul soggetto, quindi ha dovuto, può dirsi, creare questo tipo, ed è riuscito originale e felice nella sua creazione."[20] References[edit] ^ a b c d e Mendelsohn, Daniel (3 January 2011). "God's Librarians". The New Yorker. 86 (42). p. 24. ISSN 0028-792X. Retrieved 3 August 2014. ^ a b Vatican Film Library informational pamphlet[full citation needed] ^ Strayer, Joseph, ed. (1989). Dictionary of the Middle Ages. Scribner. ISBN 0684190737. ^ a b c Wiegand, Wayne A.; Davis, Donald G., eds. (1994). Encyclopedia of Library History. New York: Garland. p. 653. ISBN 0824057872. ^ Mycue, David (1981). "Founder of the Vatican Library: Nicholas V or Sixtus IV?". The Journal of Library History. University of Texas Press. 16 (1): 121–133. JSTOR 25541179. Retrieved 7 October 2020. ^ a b c d e f Bloom, Ocker. "The Vatican Library and its History". Ibiblio. Retrieved 1 August 2014. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Meert, Deborah. "A History of the Vatican Library". capping.slis.ualberta.ca. University of Alberta. Retrieved 31 July 2014. ^ a b c "The Library of Congress: Rome Reborn: The Vatican Library & Renaissance Culture - The Vatican Library - The City Reborn: How the City Came Back to Life". Retrieved 2 August 2014. ^ Clark, John Willis (1899). On the Vatican Library of Sixtus IV. ^ Giacomo Castrucci (1856). "Tesoro letterario di Ercolano, ossia, La reale officina dei papiri ercolanesi". ^ "Herculaneum Papyri in the National Library in Naples". The Phraser. 2015. ^ HONAN, WILLIAM H. (30 May 1995). "Teacher Tied to Stolen Manuscript Pages Faced Prior Ethics Questions, Colleagues Say". The New York Times. Retrieved 1 August 2014. ^ a b MONTALBANO, WILLIAM D. (25 May 1995). "U.S. Scholar Suspected in Theft of Manuscript Pages". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 1 August 2014. ^ "Vatican Apostolic Library". Vaticanstate.va. Retrieved 28 July 2014. ^ a b c The Pope’s Visit to the Vatican Library 19 December 2010 In: L'Osservatore Romano. Retrieved 2 August 2014 ^ a b c Del Nibletto, Paolo. "The Vatican Library CIO's sacred mission: To digitize everything". itworldcanada.com. IT World Canada. Retrieved 28 July 2014. ^ Willey, David (17 July 2007). "Vatican Library closure irks scholars". BBC News. Retrieved 17 July 2007. ^ "Vatican Library Homepage". Retrieved 13 September 2010. ^ a b c Winfield, Nicole (15 November 2010). "Vatican library reopens after 3-year restoration". NBC News. Retrieved 28 July 2014. ^ Hendrix, John (2003). History and culture in Italy. University Press of America. ISBN 9780761826286. Retrieved 9 September 2012. ^ Vaticana, Biblioteca Apostolica (1893). Nel giubileo episcopale di Leone XIII. omaggio della Biblioteca vaticana XIX febbraio anno MDCCCXCIII. Retrieved 9 September 2012. ^ "The Library of Congress: Rome Reborn: The Vatican Library & Renaissance Culture - The Vatican Library - A Library Takes Shape: Books, Benches, and Borrowers". Retrieved 2 August 2014. ^ a b Taylor, Lesley Ciarula (2 May 2013). "Digitizing history: 82,000-manuscript collection Vatican Library goes online". Toronto Star. Retrieved 28 July 2014. ^ "The Vatican Palace, as a Scientific Institute". Catholic Encyclopedia. New Advent. Retrieved 2 August 2014. ^ "Statute of the Vatican Film Library". vatican.va. Retrieved 28 July 2014. ^ "Vatican Library carries extensive collection of ancient Hindu scriptures". eurasia review. 29 June 2014. Archived from the original on 28 July 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2014. ^ John W. Wohlfarth (1 September 2001). Elysium. AuthorHouse. p. 128. ISBN 978-0-7596-5406-8. ^ C. R. Dodwell (2000). Anglo-Saxon Gestures and the Roman Stage. Cambridge University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-521-66188-1. ^ D’Ottone, Arianna (2010). "Il manoscritto Vaticano arabo 368: Hadith Bayad wa Riyad. Il codice, il testo, le immagini". Rivista di Storia della Miniatura (in Italian). Centro Di. 14: 55. Retrieved 25 July 2014. ^ "FAMSI - Akademische Druck - u. Verlagsanstalt - Graz - Codex Vaticanus 3738". Akademische Druck - u. Verlagsanstalt - Graz CODICES. FAMSI. Retrieved 29 July 2014. ^ Vergilius Augusteus : vollst. Faks.-Ausg. im Originalformat : Codex Vaticanus Latinus 3256 d. Biblioteca apostolica vaticana u. Codex Latinus fol. 416 d. Staatsbibliothek Preussischer Kulturbesitz. Catalog - UW-Madison Libraries. University of Wisconsin Madison Libraries. 1976. Retrieved 29 July 2014. ^ Christopher Kleinhenz (8 January 2004). Medieval Italy: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 136. ISBN 978-1-135-94880-1. ^ Charney, Noah (16 November 2011). "Vatican Mysteries: What's So Secret about Procopius' "Secret History?"". Blouinartinfo. Louise Blouin Media. Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2014. ^ John M. Jeep (2001). Medieval Germany: An Encyclopedia. Psychology Press. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-8240-7644-3. ^ McKenna, Josephine (20 March 2014). "Vatican library plans to digitise 82,000 of its most valuable manuscripts". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 24 March 2014. Retrieved 23 March 2014. ^ Denti, Antonio (20 March 2014). "Vatican library will digitize its archives and put them online". Reuters. Retrieved 28 July 2014. ^ Greiner, Lynn (23 July 2014). "Storage giant EMC looks to ease concerns about Flash technology". Financial Post.com. Retrieved 28 July 2014. ^ Denti, Antonio (20 March 2014). "Vatican library will digitize its archives and put them online". Reuters. Retrieved 1 August 2014. ^ "DigiVatLib". digi.vatlib.it. Retrieved 17 January 2017. ^ von Pastor, Ludwig Freiherr (1906). The History of the Popes: From the Close of the Middle Ages. Drawn from the Secret Archives of the Vatican and Other Original Sources, Volume 3. Trübner & Company Ltd. p. 31. Retrieved 28 July 2014. papal account books. ^ "Table of Admittances to the Vatican Secret Archives in the Last Years". Archived from the original on 6 May 2011. ^ "Knights of Columbus Vatican Film Library - Home Page". slu.edu. Retrieved 13 November 2007. ^ "LOWRIE J. DALY, S.J., MEMORIAL LECTURE ON MANUSCRIPT STUDIES". Libraries at Saint Louis University. Saint Louis University. Archived from the original on 30 July 2014. Retrieved 29 July 2014. ^ C. Krohn, Ernst (June 1957). "Notes Second Series, Vol. 14, No. 3". Notes. Music Library Association. 14 (3): 317–324. doi:10.2307/891821. JSTOR 891821. ^ "Kentucky New Era - Aug 14, 1954". Kentucky New Era. 14 August 1954. Retrieved 30 July 2014. ^ "Government | Sito ufficiale dell'Archivio Segreto Vaticano – Città del Vaticano". Archiviosegretovaticano.va. Archived from the original on 8 January 2014. Retrieved 7 October 2013. ^ "BAV - Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana". Vaticanlibrary.va. Retrieved 7 October 2013. ^ Guruge, Anura. "Replacement For Cardinal Farina As The Archivist; Cardinal Antonelli's Replacement, Vincenzo Paglia, Immediately A Cardinalabili". Popes and Papacy. Retrieved 2 August 2014. ^ "Vatican Library History". Vaticanlibrary.va. Retrieved 7 October 2013. ^ "Vatican Apostolic Library - Institute Connected with the Holy See". GCatholic.org. Retrieved 7 October 2013. ^ "Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church - Consistory of February 26, 1561 (II)". 5 August 2006. Retrieved 10 July 2013. ^ "Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church - Consistory of September June 5, 1596 (II)". 15 April 2007. Retrieved 7 October 2013. ^ "Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church - Consistory of July 18, 1605 (I)". Archived from the original on 23 May 2017. Retrieved 7 October 2013. ^ "Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church - Consistory of April 9, 1657 (I)". Retrieved 7 October 2013. ^ "Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church - Consistory of March 16, 1863 (XIII)". Retrieved 7 October 2013. ^ "Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church - Consistory of July 27, 1885 (VIII)". Retrieved 7 October 2013. ^ "Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church - Luigi Poggi". Retrieved 7 October 2013. Works cited[edit] Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church - Miranda, Salvador. "The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church". Florida International University Libraries. Further reading[edit] Rome Reborn: The Vatican Library & Renaissance Culture, an online exhibition from the Library of Congress. Vatican to digitize Apostolic Library of 1.6 million volumes for general perusal, PCWorld.com, 29 October 2002. A joint effort between the Vatican and Hewlett-Packard. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana. Official website Vatican Library old home page, with online catalog search History of the Vatican Library, from the Library's site Treasures of the Vatican Library Exposed via The European Library Toward On-line, worldwide access to Vatican Library materials (1996). A collaborative effort (pioneered by Fr. Leonard Boyle OP Prefect of the Vatican Library) between the Vatican Library and IBM, the primary goal of which is to "provide access via the Internet to some of the Library's most valuable manuscripts, printed books, and other sources to a scholarly community around the world." Knights of Columbus Vatican Film Library. Saint Louis University library that focuses on the collection of the Vatican Library. The Secret History of Art by Noah Charney on the Vatican Library and Procopius. An article by art historian Noah Charney about the Vatican Library and its famous manuscript, Historia Arcana by Procopius. The Vatican: spirit and art of Christian Rome, a book from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on the library (p. 280-290) v t e National libraries of Europe Sovereign states Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Kazakhstan Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands North Macedonia Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom Northern Ireland Scotland Wales Vatican City States with limited recognition Abkhazia Artsakh Kosovo Northern Cyprus South Ossetia Transnistria Dependencies and other entities Åland Faroe Islands Gibraltar Guernsey Isle of Man Jersey Svalbard Other entities European Union v t e Roman Curia of the Holy See 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en-wikipedia-org-7763	----	Oroetus - Wikipedia Oroetus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Persian Satrap of Lydia (fl. 530-520 BC) Oroetus attending the crucifixion of Polycrates (17th century painting, by Salvator Rosa). Oroetus, or Oroetes (Old Iranian: Arvita, Ancient Greek: Ὀροίτης), was a Persian Satrap of Lydia from ca. 530-520 BC, during the reigns of Cyrus the Great, Cambyses and Darius the Great, succeeding Harpagus, and being followed by Bagaeus. He is described by Herodotus in the third book of his Histories, where he achieved notoriety for the death of Polycrates, tyrant of Samos: What I will now relate happened about the time of Cambyses' sickness. The viceroy of Sardis appointed by Cyrus was Oroetes, a Persian. This man purposed to do a great wrong; for though he had received no hurt by word or deed from Polycrates of Samos, nor had even seen him, he formed the desire of seizing and killing him. The reason alleged by most was this: — As Oroetes and another Persian, Mitrobates by name, governor of the province of Dascyleium, sat by the king's door, they fell from talk to wrangling and comparing of their several achievements: and Mitrobates taunted Oroetes, saying, "You are not to be accounted a man; the island of Samos lies close to your province, yet you have not added it to the king's dominion — an island so easy to conquer that some native of it rose against his rulers with fifteen men at arms, and is now lord of it. Some say that Oroetes, angered by this taunt, was less desirous of punishing the utterer of it than of by all means destroying the reason of the reproach, namely Polycrates. — Herodotus III, 120.[1] Oroetus became the first satrap recorded as demonstrating insubordination with respect to the central power of Persia. When Cambyses (530-522 BC), who succeeded his father Cyrus, died, the Persian Empire was in chaos prior to Darius the Great (522-486) finally securing control. Oroetus defied Darius' orders to assist him, whereupon Bagaeus (520-517 BC) was sent by Darius to arrange his murder. After Cambyses had died and the Magians won the kingship, Oroetes stayed in Sardis, where he in no way helped the Persians to regain the power taken from them by the Medes, but contrariwise; for in this confusion he slew two notable Persians, Mitrobates, the governor from Dascyleium, who had taunted him concerning Polycrates, and Mitrobates' son Cranaspes; and besides many other violent deeds, when a messenger from Darius came with a message which displeased him, he set an ambush by the way and killed that messenger on his journey homewards, and made away with the man's body and horse. So when Darius became king he was minded to punish Oroetes for all his wrongdoing, and chiefly for the killing of Mitrobates and his son. — Herodotus III, 126-127.[2] Oroetus in Art[edit] The crucifixion of Polycrates the tyrant after his capture by the Persian Oroetus (17th century). Oroetus (detail). The crucifixion of Polycrates by Oroetus. Sources[edit] Jona Lendering. Oroetus From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire, Pierre Briant, Eisenbrauns: 2002, ISBN 978-1-57506-031-6 ^ Herodotus III, 120. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. ^ Herodotus III, 126-127. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. v t e Achaemenid Satraps of Lydia (546–334 BC) Tabalus (546–545 BC) Mazares (545–544 BC) Harpagus (540-530 BC) Oroetus (530–520 BC) Bagaeus (520 BC) Otanes (517 BC) Artaphernes (513–492 BC) Artaphernes II (492–480 BC) Pissuthnes (440–415 BC) Tissaphernes (415–408 BC) Cyrus the Younger (408–401 BC) Tissaphernes (400–395 BC) Tithraustes (392–380 BC) Tiribazus (375 BC) Struthas (370 BC) Autophradates (365 BC) Spithridates (365–334 BC) v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oroetus&oldid=1002460389" Categories: 6th-century BC Iranian people Achaemenid satraps of Lydia Officials of Cyrus the Great Officials of Darius the Great Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Español Hrvatski 日本語 Polski Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 15:52 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7773	----	Merenre Nemtyemsaf II - Wikipedia Merenre Nemtyemsaf II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Menthesouphis (Africanus after Manetho), Antyemsaf The cartouche of Merenre Nemtyemsaf II on the Abydos king list. Pharaoh Reign 1 year and 1 month, 2194 BC,[1] 2184 BC,[2][3][4] 2180 BC,[5] 2152 BC,[6] (6th Dynasty) Predecessor Pepi II Neferkare Successor Neitiqerty Siptah Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Merenre Nemtyemsaf Mr-n-Rˁ-Nmti-m-s3.f Beloved of Ra, Nemty is his protection Nomen Nemtyemsaf Nmti-m-s3.f Nemty is his protection Father Pepi II Neferkare Mother Neith A[7] Merenre Nemtyemsaf II was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh, the sixth and penultimate ruler of the 6th Dynasty.[8] He reigned for 1 year and 1 month in the first half of the 22nd century BC, at the very end of the Old Kingdom period. Nemtyemsaf II likely ascended the throne as an old man, succeeding his long-lived father Pepi II Neferkare at a time when the power of the pharaoh was crumbling. Contents 1 Attestations 2 Reign 3 Herodotus story 4 Notes Attestations[edit] Merenre Nemtyemsaf II is attested on the 4th line, column 6 of the Turin canon, a king list redacted in the early Ramesside Period. Although his name is lost in the canon, the duration of its reign is still readable as 1 year and 1 month, following the reign of Pepi II Neferkare.[9] Nemtyemsaf II is also attested on the 39th entry of the Abydos King List,[9] which dates to the reign of Seti I and constitutes one of the best preserved historical records for the end of the Old Kingdom and beginning of the First Intermediate Period. The Abydos king list is the only document where Nemtyemsaf II bears the throne name Merenre. A later historical source also records the existence of Nemtyemsaf II: indeed he is mentioned in Manetho's Aegyptiaca, a history of Egypt written in the 3rd century BC. Manetho gives Nemtyemsaf II's name as Menthesouphis and credits him with one year of reign.[1] There is only one contemporary artefact known for sure to belong to Nemtyemsaf II. It is a damaged false door inscribed with Sa-nesu semsu Nemtyemsaf meaning "The elder king's son Nemtyemsaf" and discovered near the site of the pyramid of Neith, Pepi II's half-sister and queen and most likely Nemtyemsaf II's mother.[7][9] As indicated by the epithet of "elder king's son", this inscription was made before Nemtyemsaf's accession to the throne, when he was the heir apparent and also shows that he bore this name before becoming a pharaoh.[10] A second artefact may possibly belong to Nemtyemsaf II: a decree to protect the funerary cults of queens Ankhesenpepi I and Neith discovered in the mortuary temple of queen Neith.[11][12] If this decree was indeed issued by Nemtyemsaf II, his Horus name would be S[...]tawy meaning "He who causes the two lands to...". Reign[edit] Nemtyemsaf II succeeded his father Pepi II after his extremely long reign, believed to have been between 64 and 94 years long. Nothing is known for certain of Nemtyemsaf's activities but he likely had to face the collapse of the royal power and the rise of the provincial nomarchs. Less than 3 years after his death, the Old Kingdom period ended and the chaos of the First Intermediate Period started. Nemtyemsaf II may possibly have started a pyramid for himself and, if so, it would likely have been in Saqqara,[9] close to that of his father.[13] Herodotus story[edit] In his Histories, the Greek historian Herodotus records a legend according to which an Egyptian queen Nitocris took revenge on the murder of her brother and husband by a rioting mob, allegedly Nemtyemsaf II, by drowning all his murderers during a banquet where she had gathered them. It is now recognized that the name "Nitocris" is a result of conflation and distortion from the name of a real male pharaoh, Neitiqerty Siptah, who succeeded Nemtyemsaf II.[14] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Merenre Nemtyemsaf II. Notes[edit] ^ a b Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägypten (Chronology of the Egyptian Pharaohs), Mainz am Rhein: Verlag Philipp von Zabern (1997), p. 152. ^ Michael Rice: Who is who in Ancient Egypt, Routledge London & New York 1999, ISBN 0-203-44328-4, see p. 111 ^ Jaromir Malek: The Old Kingdom in Ian Shaw (editor): The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press, new edition (2003), ISBN 978-0192804587 ^ Peter A. Clayton: Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson (2006), ISBN 0-500-28628-0, see p. 64. ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen, Düsseldorf 2002. ^ Erik Hornung (editor), Rolf Krauss (editor), David A. Warburton (editor): Ancient Egyptian Chronology, Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill 2012, ISBN 978-90-04-11385-5, available online copyright-free, see p. 491. ^ a b Aidan Dodson and Dyan Hilton: The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson (2004), ISBN 0-500-05128-3, see p. 73 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz : Philip von Zabern, 1999, ISBN 3-8053-2591-6, see pp.64–65, king No 6. ^ a b c d Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 211–212 ^ Gustave Jéquier: Les pyramides des reines Neit et Apouit, Imprimerie de l'Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale, Cairo (1933), new edition: Service des antiquites de l'Egypte (1984), ISBN 978-9770104934. ^ Kurt Sethe (editor): Urkunden des ägyptischen Altertums, Vol. 1: Urkunden des alten Reiches, Hinrichs, Leipzig 1933, num. 307 available online. ^ Hans Goedicke: Königliche Dokumente aus dem Alten Reich, Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz (1967), p. 158–162. ^ Miroslav Verner: Die Pyramiden, Reinbek 1997, p. 415. ^ Kim Ryholt: "The Late Old Kingdom in the Turin King-list and the Identity of Nitocris, Zeitschrift für ägyptische, 127, 2000. See p. 91 Preceded by Pepi II Neferkare Pharaoh of Egypt Sixth Dynasty Succeeded by Neitiqerty Siptah v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Merenre_Nemtyemsaf_II&oldid=972463969" Categories: 22nd-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Sixth Dynasty of Egypt 22nd-century BC rulers 22nd century BC in Egypt 22nd-century BC deaths Pepi II Neferkare Ancient murdered monarchs Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Occitan Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 12 August 2020, at 06:28 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7779	----	King of Tyre - Wikipedia King of Tyre From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Kings of Tyre) Jump to navigation Jump to search The King of Tyre was the ruler of Tyre, the ancient Phoenician city in what is now Lebanon. The traditional list of 12 kings, with reigns dated to 990–785 BC, is derived from the lost history of Menander of Ephesus as quoted by Josephus in Against Apion I. 116–127.[1] Josephus asserts that Menander had drawn his list from the chronicles of Tyre itself.[2] Menander-Josephus also contains a list of 9 kings and judges, with reigns dated to 591–532 BC in Against Apion I. 154–160.[3] Contents 1 Ancient Tyrian rulers based on Hellenic mythology 2 Late Bronze Age rulers 3 Kings of the Sidonians (with Tyre as capital), 990–785 BC 4 Assyrian ascendancy: 8th and 7th centuries BC 5 Post-Assyrian period 5.1 Under control of Babylon 573–539 BC 5.2 Shoftim of Tyre 6 Under Persian control 539–411 BC 7 Under control of Cypriot Salamis 411–374 BC 8 Under Persian control 374–332 BC 9 Under the Greeks and Romans 10 Middle Ages and later 11 See also 12 References Ancient Tyrian rulers based on Hellenic mythology[edit] Agenor c. 1500 BC Son of Poseidon or of Belus Phoenix Son of Agenor. He is the alleged eponym of the Phoenicians. Eri-Aku (Herakles)[citation needed] c. 1400 BC Eri Aku may be the model for such figures as the Greek Heracles, the Biblical Arioch king of Ellaser, and the Homeric Erichthonius King of Troy and Pontus. Late Bronze Age rulers[edit] Abi-Milku c. 1350–1335 BC Mayor/Ruler of Tyre during the period of the Amarna letters correspondence (1350–1335 BC) Aribas fl. c. 1230 Baal-Termeg (or Baalat-Remeg) fl. c. 1220 Baal c. 1193 Pummay c.1163–1125[4] Kings of the Sidonians (with Tyre as capital), 990–785 BC[edit] The dates for the reconstruction of Menander's Tyrian king list from Abibaal through Pygmalion are established in three places by three independent sources: a Biblical synchronism (Hiram's assistance to Solomon in building the Temple, from 967 BC onwards), an Assyrian record (tribute of Baal-Eser II/Balazeros II to Shalmaneser III in 841 BC), and a Roman historian (Pompeius Trogus, who placed the founding of Carthage or Dido's flight from her brother Pygmalion in the latter's seventh year of reign, in 825 BC, 72 years before the founding of Rome).[5] Abibaal 993–981 BC His beginning date is conjectural. Hiram I 980–947 BC Contemporary of David and Solomon Baal-Eser I (Balazeros I, Ba‘l-mazzer I) 946–930 BC Abdastartus (‘Abd-‘Astart) 929–921 BC Astartus (‘Ashtart) 920–901 BC Killed predecessor. First of 4 brothers to reign. Deleastartus (Dalay-‘Ashtart) 900–889 BC Astarymus (‘Ashtar-rom) 888–880 BC Phelles (Pilles) 879 BC Last of the 4 brothers Ithobaal I (Ethbaal I) 878–847 BC Killed predecessor. Father of Biblical Jezebel. Baal-Eser II (Balazeros II, Ba‘l-mazzer II) 846–841 BC Paid tribute to Shalmaneser III in 841 BC Mattan I 840–832 BC Father of Pygmalion and Dido Pygmalion (Pummay) 831–785 BC Dido fled from Pygmalion and founded Carthage during his reign. Assyrian ascendancy: 8th and 7th centuries BC[edit] The Neo-Assyrian Empire established its control over the area and ruled through vassals who are named in Assyrian records. Ithobaal II (Tuba‘il) 750–739 BC Name found only on Iran Stele of Tiglath-Pileser III.[6] Gave tribute to Tiglath-Pileser III. Hiram II 739–730 BC Also paid tribute to Tiglath-Pileser III[7] Mattan II 730–729 BC Elulaios (Luli) 729–694 BC Abd Melqart 694–680 BC Baal I 680–660 BC Post-Assyrian period[edit] Menander's Tyrian king list also described the period from Ithobaal III through Hiram III. Tyre regained independence with Assyria's demise, although Egypt controlled Tyre during some of the time afterwards. Eventually, Tyre fell under the control of the Neo-Babylonian Empire. missing –592 BC Ithobaal III (Ethbaal III) 591–573 BC This is the king mentioned in Ezekiel 28:2 at the time of the fall of Jerusalem.[8] Carthage became independent of Tyre in 574 BC. Under control of Babylon 573–539 BC[edit] Baal II 573–564 BC Yakinbaal 564 BC Shoftim of Tyre[edit] In the 560s the monarchy was overthrown and an oligarchic government established, headed by "judges" or shoftim (cf. Carthage). The monarchy was restored with the ascension of Hiram III to the throne. Chelbes 564–563 BC Abbar 563–562 BC Mattan III and Ger Ashthari 562–556 BC Baal-Eser III 556–555 BC Hiram III 551–532 BC Under Persian control 539–411 BC[edit] Mattan IV fl. c. 490–480 Boulomenus fl. c. 450 Abdemon c.420–411 BC.[4] He ruled Salamis, in Cyprus. Under control of Cypriot Salamis 411–374 BC[edit] Evagoras of Salamis, Cyprus. He united Cyprus under his rule and achieved independence from the Persian Empire. Under Persian control 374–332 BC[edit] Eugoras fl. 340's Azemilcus c.340–332 BC. He was king during the siege by Alexander the Great. Abd-olunim 332– ? Under the Greeks and Romans[edit] After Alexander the Great conquered Tyre in 332 BC, the city alternated between Seleucid (Syrian Greek) and Ptolemaic (Egyptian Greek) rule. Phoenicia came under the rule of the Roman Republic in the 1st century BC. Marion (c. 42 BC) was the Roman tyrant of Tyre. Middle Ages and later[edit] Tyre was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century. The Crusaders conquered Tyre, which acted as the capital of the Kingdom of Jerusalem until this kingdom's fall in 1291. Tyre then became part of adjoining empires again (Ottoman Empire, Mamelukes), and finally of France and of independent Lebanon in the 20th century. See also[edit] King of Byblos King of Sidon Hiram I, for a discussion of the date of Carthage's foundation Belus of Tyre, a legendary king of Tyre in Vergil's Aeneid Pygmalion of Tyre, for inscriptional evidence regarding Pygmalion and Baal-Eser II Dido of Carthage References[edit] ^ Against Apion Book I. 116–127 ^ Jewish Encyclopedia: "Phenicia". ^ Against Apion Book I. 154–160 ^ a b "Lebanon". Archived from the original on 2008-05-09. Retrieved 2013-05-01. ^ William H. Barnes, Studies in the Chronology of the Divided Monarchy of Israel (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1991), p. 31. ^ Hayim Tadmor, The Inscriptions of Tiglath-Pileser III, King of Assyria (Jerusalem: Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1994) 266. ^ Tadmor, Inscriptions of Tiglath-Pileser III, 69. ^ NIV Archaeological Study Bible, An Illustrated walk through Biblical History and Culture. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2005 p.1350. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=King_of_Tyre&oldid=997571235" Categories: Lists of monarchs Kings of Tyre Heads of state of Lebanon Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2012 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Brezhoneg Català Deutsch Español Français 한국어 Italiano Magyar Nederlands Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 1 January 2021, at 04:59 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-777	----	Colchis - Wikipedia Colchis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Colchians) Jump to navigation Jump to search Historical region of Antiquity Coordinates: 42°N 42°E / 42°N 42°E / 42; 42 Colchis ეგრისი Egrisi 17th century BC – 164 BC Colchis and Iberia Capital Aea Common languages Kartvelian languages Religion Georgian mythology Historical era Iron Age • Established 17th century BC  • Conquest of Diauehi 750 BC • Disestablished  164 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Colchian culture Lazica Today part of  Georgia  Russia  Turkey History of Georgia Prehistoric Georgia Shulaveri-Shomu culture Kura–Araxes culture Legend of Kartlos Trialeti culture Colchian culture Diauehi Ancient history Colchis Kingdom of Iberia Pharnavazid dynasty Georgia in the Roman era Campaign of Pompey Iberian–Armenian War Lazica & Sasanian Iberia Chosroid dynasty Christianization of Iberia Middle Ages Iberian & Lazic Wars Principality of Iberia Arab rule in Georgia & Emirate of Tbilisi Bagrationi dynasty Kingdom of the Iberians Kingdom of Abkhazia First Kingdom of Kakheti & Hereti Theme of Iberia Duchy of Kldekari Kingdom of Georgia Georgian Golden Age Armenia within the Kingdom of Georgia Byzantine & Seljuk Wars Mongol / Timur & Turkmen invasions Early modern history Kingdom of Kartli Kingdom of Kakheti Kingdom of Imereti Principalities of Guria / Svaneti / Samtskhe / Mingrelia / Abkhazia Safavid Georgia Childir Eyalet Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti Modern history Georgia within the Russian Empire Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic Democratic Republic of Georgia Red Army invasion of Georgia & Soviet Georgia Georgia since 1991 & Russo-Georgian War History by topic Etymology Monarchs States Tbilisi Military history Wars & Battles Chronology History of Georgia v t e In pre-Hellenistic Greco-Roman geography, Colchis[a] (Ancient Greek: Κολχίς) was an exonym for the Georgian polity[b] of Egrisi[c] (Georgian: ეგრისი) located on the coast of the Black Sea, centered in present-day western Georgia. It has been described in modern scholarship as "the earliest Georgian formation", which, along with the Kingdom of Iberia, would later contribute significantly to the development of the Kingdom of Georgia and the Georgian nation.[1][2] Colchis is known in Greek mythology as the destination of the Argonauts, as well as the home to Medea and the Golden Fleece.[3] It was also described as a land rich with gold, iron, timber and honey that would export its resources mostly to ancient Hellenic city-states.[4] Colchis was populated by Colchians, an early Kartvelian-speaking tribe ancestral to the contemporary western Georgians, namely Svans and Zans.[5][6] Its geography is mostly assigned to what is now the western part of Georgia and encompasses the present-day Georgian provinces of Samegrelo, Imereti, Guria, Adjara, Abkhazia, Svaneti, Racha; modern Russia's Sochi and Tuapse districts; and present-day Turkey’s Artvin, Rize, and Trabzon provinces.[7] Contents 1 Geography and toponyms 2 Physical-geographic characteristics 3 History 3.1 Prehistory and earliest references 3.2 Persian rule 3.3 Under Pontus 3.4 Under Roman rule 4 Rulers 5 In mythology 6 See also 7 Explanatory notes 8 Citations 9 General sources 10 External links Geography and toponyms[edit] Satellite image of Colchis: Black Sea, Colchis Lowland, Caucasus Mountains. Colchís, Kolkhís[8][9][10][11] or Qulḫa[12][13][14] which existed from the c. 13th to the 1st centuries BC, is regarded as an early ethnically Georgian polity; the name of the Colchians was used as the collective term for early Kartvelian tribes which populated the eastern coast of the Black Sea in Greco-Roman ethnography.[15] The name Colchis is thought to have derived from the Urartian Qulḫa.[16] In the late eighth century BC, Sarduri II the King of Urartu, inscribed his victory over Qulḫa on a stele; however, the exact location of Qulḫa is disputed. Some scholars argue the name Qulḫa (Colchís) originally referred to a land to the west of Georgia.[17][18] According to the scholar of Caucasian studies Cyril Toumanoff: Colchis appears as the first Caucasian State to have achieved the coalescence of the newcomer. Colchis can be justly regarded as not a proto-Georgian, but a Georgian (West Georgian) kingdom. . . .It would seem natural to seek the beginnings of Georgian social history in Colchis, the earliest Georgian formation.[1] A second South Caucasian tribal union emerged in the thirteenth century BC on the Black Sea coast.[clarification needed][19][20] According to most classic authors, a district which was bounded[clarification needed] on the south-west by Pontus, on the west by the Black Sea as far as the river Corax (probably the present day Bzyb River, Abkhazia, Georgia), on the north by the chain of the Greater Caucasus, which lay between it and Asiatic Sarmatia, on the east by the Kingdom of Iberia and Montes Moschici (now the Lesser Caucasus), and on the south by Armenia. The westward extent of the country is considered differently by different authors: Strabo makes Colchis begin at Trabzon, while Ptolemy, on the other hand, extends Pontus to the Rioni River.[citation needed] The Greek name Kolchís (Κολχίς) is first used to describe a geographic area in the writings of Aeschylus and Pindar. Earlier writers speak of the "Kolchian" (Κολχίδα) people and their mythical king Aeëtes (Αἰήτης), as well as his eponymous city Aea or Aia (Αἶα),[21][22][23] but don't make explicit references to a Kolchis nation or region. The main river was known as the Phasis (now Rioni) and was, according to some writers the southern boundary of Colchis, but more probably flowed through the middle of that country from the Caucasus west into the Euxine, and the Anticites or Atticitus (now Kuban). Arrian mentions many others by name, but they would seem to have been little more than mountain torrents: the most important of them were Charieis, Chobus or Cobus, Singames, Tarsuras, Hippus, Astelephus, Chrysorrhoas, several of which are also noticed by Ptolemy and Pliny. The chief towns were Dioscurias or Dioscuris (under the Romans called Sebastopolis, now Sukhumi) on the seaboard of the Euxine, Sarapana (now Shorapani), Phasis (now Poti), Pityus (now Pitsunda), Apsaros (now Gonio), Surium (now Vani), Archaeopolis (now Nokalakevi), Macheiresis, and Cyta or Cutatisium or Aia (now Kutaisi), the traditional birthplace of Medea. Scylax mentions also Mala or Male, which he, in contradiction to other writers, makes the birthplace of Medea.[citation needed] Physical-geographic characteristics[edit] Colchis and its eastern neighbor Iberia. Map of Colchis and Iberia by Christoph Cellarius printed in Leipzig in 1706 In physical geography, Colchis is usually defined as the area east of the Black Sea coast, restricted from the north by the southwestern slopes of the Greater Caucasus, from the south by the northern slopes of the Lesser Caucasus in Georgia and Eastern Black Sea (Karadeniz) Mountains in Turkey, and from the east by Likhi Range, connecting the Greater and the Lesser Caucasus. The central part of the region is Colchis Plain, stretching between Sukhumi and Kobuleti; most of that lies on the elevation below 20 m above sea level. Marginal parts of the region are mountains of the Great and the Lesser Caucasus and Likhi Range.[citation needed] Its territory mostly corresponds to what is now the western part of Georgia and encompasses the present-day Georgian provinces of Samegrelo, Imereti, Guria, Adjara, Abkhazia, Svaneti, Racha; the modern Turkey’s Rize, Trabzon and Artvin provinces (Lazistan, Tao-Klarjeti); and the modern Russia’s Sochi and Tuapse districts.[7] The climate is mild humid; near Batumi, annual rainfall level reaches 4,000 mm, which is the absolute maximum for the continental western Eurasia. The dominating natural landscapes of Colchis are temperate rainforests, yet degraded in the plain part of the region; wetlands (along the coastal parts of Colchis Plain); subalpine and alpine meadows.[citation needed] Colchis has a high proportion of Neogene and Palaeogene relict plants and animals, with the closest relatives in distant parts of the world: five species of Rhododendrons and other evergreen shrubs, wingnuts, Caucasian salamander, Caucasian parsley frog, eight endemic species of lizards from the genus Darevskia, the Caucasus adder (Vipera kaznakovi), Robert's snow vole, and endemic cave shrimp.[24] History[edit] Prehistory and earliest references[edit] The eastern Black Sea region in antiquity was home to the well-developed Bronze Age culture known as the Colchian culture, related to the neighbouring Koban culture, that emerged toward the Middle Bronze Age. In at least some parts of Colchis, the process of urbanization seems to have been well advanced by the end of the second millennium BC. The Colchian Late Bronze Age (fifteenth to eighth century BC) saw the development of significant skill in the smelting and casting of metals. Sophisticated farming implements were made, and fertile, well-watered lowlands and a mild climate promoted the growth of progressive agricultural techniques.[citation needed] Colchis was inhabited by a number of tribes whose settlements lay along the shore of the Black Sea. Chief among those were the Machelones, Heniochi, Zydretae, Lazi, Chalybes, Tibareni/Tubal, Mossynoeci, Macrones, Moschi, Marres, Apsilae, Abasci,[25] Sanigae, Coraxi, Coli, Melanchlaeni, Geloni and Soani (Suani). The ancients assigned various origins to the tribes that inhabited Colchis. Herodotus regarded the Colchians as "dark-skinned and woolly-haired", an Ancient Egyptian race.[26] Herodotus states that the Colchians, with the Ancient Egyptians and the Ethiopians, were the first to practice circumcision, a custom which he claims that the Colchians inherited from remnants of the army of Pharaoh Sesostris (Senusret III). Herodotus writes: For it is plain to see that the Colchians are Egyptians; and what I say, I myself noted before I heard it from others. When it occurred to me, I inquired of both peoples; and the Colchians remembered the Egyptians better than the Egyptians remembered the Colchians; the Egyptians said that they considered the Colchians part of Sesostris' army. I myself guessed it, partly because they are dark-skinned and woolly-haired; though that indeed counts for nothing, since other peoples are, too; but my better proof was that the Colchians and Egyptians and Ethiopians are the only nations that have from the first practised circumcision. These claims have been widely rejected by modern historians. It is in doubt if Herodotus had ever been to Colchis or Egypt.[27][28] According to Pliny the Elder: The Colchians were governed by their own kings in the earliest ages, that Sesostris king of Egypt was overcome in Scythia,[29] and put to fight, by the king of Colchis, which if true, that the Colchians not only had kings in those times, but were a very powerful people.[30][31] Many modern theories suggest that the ancestors of the Laz-Mingrelians constituted the dominant ethnic and cultural presence in the region in antiquity, and hence played a significant role in the ethnogenesis of the modern Georgians.[32][33] According to Pausanias: Pausanias, a 1st century BCE Greek geographer, citing the poet Eumelos, assigned Aeëtes, the mythological first king of Colchis, a Greek origin.[34] Persian rule[edit] In the thirteenth century BC, the Kingdom of Colchis was formed as a result of the increasing consolidation of the tribes inhabiting the region. This power, celebrated in Greek mythology as the destination of the Argonauts, the home of Medea and the special domain of sorcery, was known to Urartians as Qulha (aka Kolkha, or Kilkhi). Being in permanent wars with the neighbouring nations, the Colchians managed to absorb part of Diauehi in the 750s BC, but lost several provinces (including the "royal city" of Ildemusa) to the Sarduri II of Urartu following the wars of 750–748 and 744–742 BC. Overrun by the Cimmerians and Scythians in the 730s–720s BC, and invaded by Assyria, the kingdom disintegrated and eventually came under the Achaemenid Persian Empire toward the mid-sixth century BC. The tribes living in the southern Colchis (Macrones, Moschi, and Marres) were incorporated into the nineteenth Satrapy of Persia, while the northern tribes submitted "voluntarily" and had to send to the Persian court 100 girls and 100 boys every five years. In 400 BC, shortly after the Ten Thousand reached Trapezus, a battle was fought between them and the Colchis in which the latter were decisively defeated. The influence exerted on Colchis by the vast Achaemenid Empire with its thriving commerce and wide economic and commercial ties with other regions accelerated the socio-economic development of the Colchian land. Subsequently, the Colchis people appear to have overthrown the Persian Authority, and to have formed an independent state. According to Ronald Suny: This western Georgian state was federated to Kartli-Iberia, and its kings ruled through skeptukhi (royal governors) who received a staff from the king.[35] Gold ornaments made by Colchians of the sixth century BC Six century BC Colchian coins Colchian scent bottle fourth century BC Second century BC Greek bronze torso from Colchis, Georgian National Museum Colchian pendants, riders and horses on wheeled platforms, Georgian National Museum Under Pontus[edit] Mithridates VI quelled an uprising in the region in 83 BC and gave Colchis to his son Mithridates, who, soon being suspected in having plotted against his father, was executed. During the Third Mithridatic War, Mithridates VI made another of his sons, Machares, king of Bosporus and Colchis, who held his power, but only for a short period. On the defeat of Mithridates VI of Pontus in 65 BC, Colchis was occupied by Pompey,[36] who captured one of the local chiefs (sceptuchus) Olthaces, and installed Aristarchus as a dynast (63–47 BC). On the fall of Pompey, Pharnaces II, son of Mithridates, took advantage of Julius Caesar being occupied in Egypt, and reduced Colchis, Armenia, and some part of Cappadocia, defeating Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus, whom Caesar subsequently sent against him. His triumph was, however, short-lived. Under Polemon I, the son and heir of Zenon, Colchis was part of the Pontus and the Bosporan Kingdom. After the death of Polemon (8 BC), his second wife Pythodorida of Pontus retained possession of Colchis as well as of Pontus, although the kingdom of Bosporus was wrested from her power. Her son and successor, Polemon II of Pontus, was induced by Emperor Nero to abdicate the throne, and both Pontus and Colchis were incorporated in the Province of Galatia (63) and later, in Cappadocia (81). Phasis, Dioscurias and other Greek settlements of the coast did not fully recover after the wars of 60-40 BC and Trebizond became the economical and political centre of the region.[37] Under Roman rule[edit] Main articles: Georgia in the Roman era, Caucasian campaign of Pompey, and Lazica Despite the fact that all major fortresses along the sea coast were occupied by the Romans, their rule was relatively loose. In 69, the people of Pontus and Colchis under Anicetus staged a major uprising against the Roman Empire, which ended unsuccessfully. The lowlands and coastal area were frequently raided by fierce mountain tribes, with the Svaneti and Heniochi being the most powerful of them. Paying a nominal homage to Rome, they created their own kingdoms and enjoyed significant independence. Christianity began to spread in the early first century. Traditional accounts relate the event with Andrew the Apostle, Simon the Zealot, and Saint Matthias. The Hellenistic civilization, local paganism and Mithraic Mysteries would, however, remain widespread until the fourth century. By the 130s, the kingdoms of Machelones, Heniochi, Egrisi, Apsilae, Kingdom of Abkhazia, and Sanigs had occupied the district from south to north. Goths, dwelling in the Crimea and looking for new homes, raided Colchis in 253, but were repulsed with the help of the Roman garrison of Pitsunda. By the first century BC, the Lazica (or the Laz) kingdom was established in the wake of the disintegration of the Kingdom of Colchis. Lazica became known as Elgrisi in 66 BC when Elgrisi became a vassal of the Roman Empire after the Caucasian campaign of Pompey.[38] Rulers[edit] Little is known of the rulers of Colchis; Ruler Reign Notes 1. Akes (Basileus Aku) end of the 4th c. BC his name is found on a coin issued by him. 2. Kuji 325–280 BC 3. Saulaces 2nd c. BC 4. Mithridates fl. 80 BC under the authority of Pontus. 5. Machares fl. 65 BC under the authority of Pontus. 6. Aristarchus 63–47 BC appointed by Pompey In mythology[edit] Jason and the Argonauts arriving at Colchis. The Argonautica tells the myth of their voyage to retrieve the Golden Fleece. This painting is located in the Palace of Versailles. In Classical Greek mythology, Colchis was the home of Aeëtes, Medea, the Golden Fleece, fire-breathing bulls Khalkotauroi[39][40] and the destination of the Argonauts.[41][42] Colchis also is thought to be a possible homeland of the Amazons.[43][44][45][46][47][48] Amazons also were said to be of Scythian origin from Colchis.[49] According to the Greek mythology, Colchis was a fabulously wealthy land situated on the mysterious periphery of the heroic world. Here in the sacred grove of the war god Ares, King Aeëtes hung the Golden Fleece until it was seized by Jason and the Argonauts. Colchis was also the land where the mythological Prometheus was punished by being chained to a mountain while an eagle ate at his liver for revealing to humanity the secret of fire. Apollonius of Rhodes named Aea as the main city (Argonautica, passim). The main mythical characters from Colchis are: Absyrtus, son of Aeëtes Aeëtes, King of Colchis, son of the sun-god Helios and the Oceanid Perseis, (a daughter of Oceanus), brother of Circe and Pasiphae, and father of Medea, Chalciope, and Absyrtus Chalciope, daughter of King Aeëtes Circe, sister of King Aeëtes Idyia, Queen of Colchis, mother of Medea, Chalciope, and Absyrtus Medea, daughter of King Aeëtes Pasiphaë, sister of Aeëtes See also[edit] Pontus Roman Georgia Explanatory notes[edit] ^ or Kolchis; /ˈkɒlkɪs/; Greek: Κολχίς, Kolkhís, Ancient Greek pronunciation: [kolkʰís] ^ Colchis was not an established and structurally institutionalized monarchy. ^ Also known as Egri, Egr, Eguri and Egros in The Georgian Chronicles and Conversion of Kartli chronicles. Old Armenian chronicles referred to it as Yeger. Citations[edit] ^ a b Cyril Toumanoff, Studies in Christian Caucasian History, pp. 69, 84 ^ David Braund, Georgia in Antiquity: A History of Colchis and Transcaucasian Iberia, 550 BC–AD 562, Oxford University Press, USA (September 8, 1994) ^ W. E. D. Allen, A history of the Georgian people (1932), p. 123 ^ Nigel Wilson, Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece, p. 149 ^ Antiquity 1994. p. 359. The Great Soviet Encyclopedia:Значение слова "Колхи" в Большой Советской Энциклопедии ^ The Cambridge Ancient History, John Anthony Crook, Elizabeth Rawson, p. 255 ^ a b Andrew Andersen, History of Ancient Caucasus, p. 91 ^ Castles of God: Fortified Religious Buildings of the World, Peter Harrison p196 ^ Greek Tragedy, Nancy Sorkin Rabinowitz p151 ^ Dark of the Moon, Tracy Barrett p190 ^ Ancient Epic, Katherine Callen King The Argonautica before Appolonius ^ The Pre-history of the Armenian People, Igor Mikhailovich Diakonov, p75 ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume 1, p1040 ^ Archaeology at the north-east Anatolian frontier, Claudia Sagona, p35 ^ Georgia in Antiquity: A History of Colchis and Transcaucasian Iberia, 550 BC-AD 562, David Braund Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994. Pp. 359 ^ O, Lordkipanidze. (1991). Archeology in Georgia, Weinheim, 110. ^ M. Salvini, Geschichte und Kultur der Urartäer (Darmstadt, 1995) 70f. ^ Bremmer, J. N. (2007). "The Myth of the Golden Fleece". Journal Ancient Near Eastern Religions, 6, 9–38. ^ D. Braund, Georgia in Antiquity: A History of Colchis and Transcaucasian Iberia 550 BC–562 AD, Oxford University Press, 1996. ^ James Stuart Olson, An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of the Russian and Soviet Empires, p. 242 ^ "Herodotus, The Histories, book 1, chapter 2, section 2". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2020-04-07. They sailed in a long ship to Aea, a city of the Colchians, and to the river Phasis... ^ Apollonius of Rhodes (2006). Apollonius Rhodius : the Argonautica. Harvard University Press. pp. II.417. ISBN 0-674-99001-3. OCLC 249603642. Kolchian Aia lies at the furthest limits of sea and earth, ^ "Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, Α α, , αἶα , αἶα". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2020-04-07. ^ Denk, Thomas; Frotzler, Norbert; Davitashvili, Nino (2001-02-01). "Vegetational patterns and distribution of relict taxa in humid temperate forests and wetlands of Georgia (Transcaucasia)". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 72 (2): 287–332. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2001.tb01318.x. ISSN 0024-4066. ^ According to some scholars, ancient tribes such as the Absilae (mentioned by Pliny, 1st century CE) and Abasgoi (mentioned by Arrian, 2nd century CE) correspond to the modern Abkhazians (Chirikba, V., "On the etymology of the ethnonym 'apswa' "Abkhaz", in The Annual of the Society for the Study of Caucasia, 3, 13-18, Chicago, 1991; Hewitt, B. G., "The valid and non-valid application of philology to history", in Revue des Etudes Georgiennes et Caucasiennes, 6-7, 1990-1991, 247-263; Grand Dictionnaire Encyclopédique Larousse, tome 1, 1985, p. 20). However, this claim is controversial and no academic consensus has yet been reached. Other scholars suggest that these ethnonyms instead reflect a common regional origin, rather than emphasizing a distinct and separate ethnic and cultural identity in antiquity. For example, Tariel Putkaradze, a Georgian scholar, suggests, "In the 3rd-2nd millennia BC the Kartvelian, Abhaz-Abaza, Circassian-Adyghe and Vaynakh tribes must have been part of a great Ibero-Caucasian ethnos. Therefore, it is natural that several tribes or ethnoses descending from them have the names derived from a single stem. The Colchian Aphaz, Apsil, Apšil and north Caucasian Apsua, Abazaha, Abaza, existing in the 1st millennium, were the names denoting different tribes of a common origin. Some of these tribes (Apsils, Apshils) disappeared, others mingled with kindred tribes, and still others have survived to the present day." (Putkaradze, T. The Kartvelians, 2005, translated by Irene Kutsia) ^ http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+2.104&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 ^ Fehling (1994), p. 13 harvp error: no target: CITEREFFehling1994 (help) ^ Marincola (2001), p. 34 harvp error: no target: CITEREFMarincola2001 (help) ^ The Shrines and Sepulchres of the Old and New World: Records of Pilgrimages in Many Lands, and Researches Connected with the History of Places Remarkable for Memorials of the Dea, Or Monuments of a Sacred Character; Including Notices of the Funeral Customs of the Principal Nations, Ancient and Modern, Volume 1, Richard Robert Madden, Newby, 1851, p293 ^ An Universal history, from the earliest account of time, Volume 10, George Sale, George Psalmanazar, Archibald Bower, George Shelvocke, John Campbell, John Swinton, p136 B.II. ^ Plin, I, xxxiii, c. 3. ^ Miniature Empires: A Historical Dictionary of the Newly Independent States, James Minahan, p. 116 ^ Cyril Toumanoff, Studies in Christian Caucasian History, p 80 ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D2) ^ The Making of the Georgian Nation, 2nd Ed., Ronald Grigor Suny, p 13 ^ Pompey, Nic Fields p29 ^ Rayfield, Donald (2013). Edge of Empires: A History of Georgia. ReaktionBooks. p. 28. ISBN 9781780230702. ^ West, Barbara A (2009). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. New York: Facts on File. pp. 461. ISBN 978-0-8160-7109-8. ^ The Origin of Pagan Idolatry, George Stanley Faber p409 ^ The Facts on File Companion to Classical Drama, John E. Thorburn Colchian Bulls p145 ^ The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia: The Near East from the Early Bronze Age to the Fall of the Persian Empire, Trevor Bryce p171 ^ World Mythology: An Anthology of Great Myths and Epics, Donna Rosenberg p218 ^ Celebrate the Divine Feminine: Reclaim Your Power with Ancient Goddess Wisdom: Joy Reichard p169 ^ John Canzanella: Innocence and Anarchy p58 ^ Margaret Meserve: Empires of Islam in Renaissance Historical Thought p250 ^ Diane P. Thompson: The Trojan War: Literature and Legends from the Bronze Age to the Present p193 ^ Andrew Brown: A New Companion to Greek Tragedy p66 ^ Mark Amaru Pinkham: The Return of the Serpents of Wisdom The Amazons, The Female Serpents ^ William G. Thalmann: Apollonius of Rhodes and the Spaces of Hellenism Apollonius of Rhodes, p.130 General sources[edit] Braund, David. 1994. Georgia in Antiquity: A History of Colchis and Transcaucasian Iberia 550 BC–AD 562. Clarendon Press, Oxford. ISBN 0-19-814473-3 Thordarson, Fridrik (1993). "COLCHIS". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VI, Fasc. 1. pp. 41–42. Gocha R. Tsetskhladze. Pichvnari and Its Environs, 6th c BC–4th c AD. Annales Littéraires de l'Université de Franche-Comté, 659, Editeurs: M. Clavel-Lévêque, E. Geny, P. Lévêque. Paris: Presses Universitaires Franc-Comtoises, 1999. ISBN 2-913322-42-5 Otar Lordkipanidze. Phasis: The River and City of Colchis. Geographica Historica 15, Franz Steiner 2000. ISBN 3-515-07271-3 Melamid, Alexander (January 1993). "Colchis Today". The Geographical Review. 83 (1): 79–83. doi:10.2307/215382. JSTOR 215382. Akaki Urushadze. The Country of the Enchantress Media, Tbilisi, 1984 (in Russian and English) External links[edit] Look up Colchis in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Colchis. "Colchis" in the Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854) (ed. 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en-wikipedia-org-7781	----	Harpagus - Wikipedia Harpagus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the genus of birds of prey, see Harpagus (bird). General Harpagus, behind Cyrus the Great (18th century tapestry). Harpagus, also known as Harpagos or Hypargus (Ancient Greek Ἅρπαγος; Akkadian: Arbaku), was a Median general from the 6th century BC, credited by Herodotus as having put Cyrus the Great on the throne through his defection during the battle of Pasargadae. Contents 1 Biography 2 Myth 3 Harpagus in historical texts 4 Military career 5 Later life 6 Notes 7 External links Biography[edit] Painting of king Astyages sending Harpagus to kill young Cyrus Harpagus bring infant Cyrus to the shepherd. Sebastiano Ricci (1659–1734) King Astyages places Harpagos in command of his army, by Jan Moy (1535-1550). According to Herodotus' Histories, Harpagus was a member of the Median royal house in service to King Astyages, the last king of Media. When word reached Astyages that Cyrus was gathering his forces, he ordered Harpagus, as his primary general, to lead the army against Cyrus. After a three-day battle on the plain of Pasargadae, Harpagus took his revenge for the death of his son when he turned on the battlefield in favor of Cyrus, resulting in Astyages' defeat and the formation of the Persian Empire. Myth[edit] Herodotus accounts for the turn of Harpagus' support to a version of the cannibal feast of Thyestes.[1] He reports that Astyages, after having a dream that his daughter, Mandane, would give birth to a king who would overthrow him, ordered Harpagus to expose the child at birth. Harpagus, reluctant to spill his own royal blood, gave the child (Cyrus) to a shepherd named Mitradates,[2] who raised him as his own son. Ten years later, when Cyrus was discovered alive, Astyages cruelly punished Harpagus by killing Harpagus' only son and feeding him to Harpagus during a banquet. It is said that Harpagus did not react during the banquet, other than to gather the pieces of his son and remove them for burial. Astyages then asked his Magi (priests) for their advice about the fate of Cyrus. They told him that the boy, who had been discovered while playing king of the mountain with his friends, had fulfilled the prophecy of becoming a king, albeit in play, and was no longer a danger. On their advice, Astyages sent Cyrus to his parents, Cambyses I and Mandane, in Anšan (southwestern Iran near Shiraz). Harpagus bided his time, sending gifts to Cyrus to keep contact with him, as he worked to turn the nobles of Media against Astyages. When they were ready, he sent a message to Cyrus, hidden in the belly of a hare, informing him that the Medians would mutiny on the field, should he take arms against his grandfather. Harpagus in historical texts[edit] Herodotus, The Histories: "Astyages, as soon as Cyrus was born, sent for Harpagus, a man of his own house and the most faithful of the Medes...." "When Cyrus beheld the Lydians arranging themselves in order of battle on this plain, fearful of the strength of their cavalry, he adopted a device which Harpagus, one of the Medes, suggested to him. He collected together all the camels that had come in the train of his army to carry the provisions and the baggage, and taking off their loads, he mounted riders upon them accoutred as horsemen. These he commanded to advance in front of his other troops against the Lydian horse..." "Astyages, meanwhile, took the son of Harpagus, and slew him, after which he cut him in pieces, and roasted some portions before the fire, and boiled others..." "When Cyrus grew to manhood, and became known as the bravest and most popular of all his compeers, Harpagus, who was bent on revenging himself upon Astyages, began to pay him court by gifts and messages..." "Upon Mazares' death, Harpagus was sent down to the coast to succeed to his command. He also was of the race of the Medes, being the man whom the Median king, Astyages, feasted at the unholy banquet, and who lent his aid to place Cyrus upon the throne..." "After conquering the Ionians, Harpagus proceeded to attack the Carians, the Caunians, and the Lycians. The Ionians and Aeolians were forced to serve in his army..." The Chronicle of Nabonidus: "King Astyages called up his troops and marched against Cyrus, king of Anšan (southwest Iran), in order to meet him in battle. The army of Astyages revolted against him and in fetters they delivered him to Cyrus. Cyrus marched against the country Ecbatana; the royal residence he seized; silver, gold, other valuables of the country Ecbatana he took as booty and brought to Anšan."[3] Military career[edit] After the defeat of Astyages (550 BC) Harpagus started - according to Herodotus - a military career under the new ruler Cyrus II: Harpagus suggested using camels as the front line against the Lydians in Cyrus II's war against Croesus, thereby scattering the Lydian cavalry (the horses panicked at the smell of the dromedaries). Following a revolt by the Lydians and the death of Cyrus's infantry commander, General Mazares, Cyrus II turned over the conquest of Asia Minor to Harpagus, who went on to serve as Cyrus's most successful general. The Median general followed his victory at Lydia by conquering Ionia, Phoenicia, Caria, Lycia and many other regions of Asia Minor (except Miletus, which had earned the favor of Cyrus through their great sage Thales's advice to stay neutral in the Lydian war). Harpagus was also known for innovations in engineering techniques; specifically, the use of earthwork ramps and mounds during sieges (a method later employed by Alexander the Great during his siege of Tyre) and the use of mountain climbers to scale opponents' walls: When he came to Ionia, he took the cities by building mounds; he would drive the men within their walls and then build mounds against the walls and so take the cities. — Herodotus 1.162[4] Despite Harpagus' reputation for mercy, the residents of Xanthos in Lycia committed suicide rather than surrender to him, saying that they had never been conquered. Later life[edit] After the completion of his conquests, Harpagus was appointed Satrap of Asia Minor. His descendants are claimed as the royal family of Lycia in what is now southwest Turkey. Notes[edit] ^ The detailed parallels are presented by Walter Burkert, Homo Necans (1983:103-09. ^ Mitradeates: the Hellenistic form of an Iranian theophoric name meaning "given by Mithra". ^ On-line text in translation ^ LacusCurtius • Herodotus — Book I: Chapters 141‑177. External links[edit] Livius on Harpagus The Chronicle of Nabonidus The Histories of Herodotus v t e Achaemenid Satraps of Lydia (546–334 BC) Tabalus (546–545 BC) Mazares (545–544 BC) Harpagus (540-530 BC) Oroetus (530–520 BC) Bagaeus (520 BC) Otanes (517 BC) Artaphernes (513–492 BC) Artaphernes II (492–480 BC) Pissuthnes (440–415 BC) Tissaphernes (415–408 BC) Cyrus the Younger (408–401 BC) Tissaphernes (400–395 BC) Tithraustes (392–380 BC) Tiribazus (375 BC) Struthas (370 BC) Autophradates (365 BC) Spithridates (365–334 BC) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harpagus&oldid=973844579" Categories: Military leaders of the Achaemenid Empire 6th-century BC Iranian people Achaemenid satraps of Lydia Medes Officials of Cyrus the Great Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Azərbaycanca Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Kurdî Latina 日本語 Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 August 2020, at 15:12 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7783	----	Sobekhotep III - Wikipedia Sobekhotep III From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sobekhotep III Sobekhotep III worshipping Satet. The central hole was made when the relief was used as a grinding stone, long after the original carving. Now on display at the Brooklyn Museum. Pharaoh Reign 3 to 4 years, c. 1740 BC or 1700 BC (13th Dynasty) Predecessor Seth Meribre Successor Neferhotep I Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sekhemre Sewadjtawy Sḫm-Rˁ sw3ḏ-t3wj A powerful one, who allows the Two Lands to thrive Nomen Sobekhotep Sbk ḥtp Sobek is satisfied Horus name Khuitaui ḫwj-t3wj He who protects the Two Lands Nebty name Khaiemsekhemef ḫˁj-m-sḫm=f He appears in its power Golden Horus Hetep-her-maat ḥtp-ḥr-m3ˁt Maat is Satisfied Consort Senebhenas, Neni Children Iuhetibu Fendy ♀, Dedetanqet ♀ Father Mentuhotep (god's father) Mother Iuhetibu (king's mother) Sobekhotep III (throne name: Sekhemre-sewadjtawy) was an Egyptian king of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt who reigned three to four years, c. 1740 BC or 1700 BC. Contents 1 Family 1.1 Parents and siblings 1.2 Wife and children 2 Reign 3 See also 4 References 5 Bibliography 6 External links Family[edit] Parents and siblings[edit] Scarab of Sobekhotep III giving the name of his father, god's father Mentuhotep.[1] The family of the king is known from several sources. A monument from Sehel Island shows Sobekhotep with his father Mentuhotep, his mother was king's mother Iuhetibu (Yauheyebu), his brothers Seneb and Khakau, and a half-sister called Reniseneb. Reniseneb was a daughter of Iuhetibu and her second husband Dedusobek.[2] Wife and children[edit] Sobekhotep III had two wives, Senebhenas and Neni. A stela from Koptos (Qift),[3] now in the Louvre (C 8), mentions the daughters of Nenni: Iuhetibu (Fendy) and Dedetanqet. Iuhetibu Fendy wrote her name in a cartouche.[2] This is the second time in Egyptian history that a king's daughter received this honor. Senebhenas is shown with Sobekhotep on an altar in Sehel Island and a stela in Wadi el-Hol.[3] The stela depicts Sobekhotep III before the god Monthu. He receives an ankh and a was-scepter from the god. Sobekhotep is followed by his father Montuhotep, his mother Iuhetibu, and his wife Senebhenas.[2] Reign[edit] Sobekhotep III is known from many objects[4][5] despite the fact that the Turin King List gives him a reign of only four years[6] and two to four months in length. He added inscriptions to the temple of Menthu at Madamud[7] and built a chapel at El Kab.[8] On Sehel[9] an altar with his name was found. A number of scarab seals have been found that were from an officier of the ruler's table Sobekhotep begotten of the officier of the ruler's table Mentuhotep.[10] It is possible that these seals belonged to Sobekhotep III before he became king. Sobekhotep III was the first of a group of Thirteenth Dynasty kings about whom there exists historical records. This group of Thirteenth Dynasty kings are all known from many objects. These kings produced many seals and there are many private monuments that can be dated to these reigns. This would seem to indicate that Egypt was relatively stable during this period. See also[edit] List of pharaohs References[edit] ^ Flinders Petrie: A history of Egypt from the earliest times to the 16th dynasty (1897), available copyright free here ^ a b c M. F. Laming Macadam, A Royal Family of the Thirteenth Dynasty, The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, Vol. 37 (Dec., 1951), pp. 20-28 ^ a b Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004. ISBN 0-500-05128-3 ^ A scarab of Sobekhotep III, at the Metropolitan Museum of Art ^ Another scarab of Sobekhotep III, at the Metropolitan Museum of Art ^ Following Ryholt: ''The Political Situation, p. 71. However, the four is partly destroyed; year 3 is also possible ^ F. Bisson de la Roque, J. J. Clère, Fouilles de Médamoud (1927), Cairo 1928, p. 44; Porter & Moss V (1937), p. 146-49 ^ Ryholt, The Political Situation, p. 344 ^ M.F.L. Macadams: Gleanings from the Bankes MSSIn: Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 32 (1946), 60, pl. VIII; H.A. Wild: A Bas-Relief of SekhemRe-Sewadjtowe Sebkhotpe In: Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 37 (1951), p. 12-16 ^ G.T. Martin, Egyptian Administrative and Private Name Seals Oxford 1971, n. 575-588 Bibliography[edit] K.S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800-1550 BC, (Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997), 343-44, File 13/26. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sebekhotep Sekhemre Sewadjtawy. Sobekhotep III Preceded by Seth Meribre Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Neferhotep I v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sobekhotep_III&oldid=977848158" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá Edit links This page was last edited on 11 September 2020, at 09:46 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7803	----	Thutmose I - Wikipedia Thutmose I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the name Thutmose (Thutmosis), see Thutmose. Thutmose I A stone head, most likely depicting Thutmose I, at the British Museum Pharaoh Reign 1506–1493 BC (disputed) (18th Dynasty) Predecessor Amenhotep I Successor Thutmose II Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Aa·kheperkare ˁ3-ḫpr-k3-Rˁ Great is the manifestation of the Ka of Ra[1] Nomen Djehutymes Ḏḥwtj-msj(w) Born of Thoth Djehutymes Khamyre Ḏḥwty-ms(jw)-ḫˁ-mj-rˁ Born of Thoth, appearing like Ra Horus name Kanakht Meryma'at K3-nḫt-mrj-m3ˁt Strong bull, beloved of Maat Nebty name Kha·em·neseret Aa·pehty Ḫˁ-m-nsrt-ˁ3-pḥtj He who appears with the uraeus, great of strength Golden Horus Nefer·renput S'ankh·ib·u Nfr-rnpwt-s-ˁnḫ-jb.w He whose years are perfect/beautiful, he who causes hearts to live Consort Ahmose, Mutnofret Children Thutmose II, Hatshepsut, Amenmose, Wadjmose, Nefrubity Father Unknown (believed to be Amenhotep I) Mother Senseneb Died 1493 BC Burial KV38, later KV20 Monuments Pylons IV and V, two obelisks, and a hypostyle hall at Karnak Thutmose I (sometimes read as Thutmosis or Tuthmosis I, Thothmes in older history works in Latinized Greek; Ancient Egyptian: /ḏḥwty.ms/ Djehutymes, meaning "Thoth is born") was the third pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty of Egypt. He received the throne after the death of the previous king, Amenhotep I. During his reign, he campaigned deep into the Levant and Nubia, pushing the borders of Egypt farther than ever before. He also built many temples in Egypt, and a tomb for himself in the Valley of the Kings; he is the first king confirmed to have done this (though Amenhotep I may have preceded him). Thutmose I's reign is generally dated to 1506–1493 BC, but a minority of scholars—who think that astrological observations used to calculate the timeline of ancient Egyptian records, and thus the reign of Thutmose I, were taken from the city of Memphis rather than from Thebes—would date his reign to 1526–1513 BC.[2][3] He was succeeded by his son Thutmose II, who in turn was succeeded by Thutmose II's sister, Hatshepsut. Contents 1 Family 2 Dates and length of reign 3 Military achievements 4 Building projects 5 Death and burial 6 See also 7 Notes and references 8 Bibliography 9 External links Family[edit] See also: Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree It has been speculated that Thutmose's father was Amenhotep I. His mother, Senseneb, was of non-royal parentage and may have been a lesser wife or concubine.[4] Queen Ahmose, who held the title of Great Royal Wife of Thutmose, was probably the daughter of Ahmose I and the sister of Amenhotep I;[5] however, she was never called "king's daughter," so there is some doubt about this, and some historians believe that she was Thutmose's own sister.[6] Assuming she was related to Amenhotep, it could be thought that she was married to Thutmose in order to guarantee succession. However, this is known not to be the case for two reasons. Firstly, Amenhotep's alabaster bark built at Karnak associates Amenhotep's name with Thutmose's name well before Amenhotep's death.[7] Secondly, Thutmose's first-born son with Ahmose, Amenmose, was apparently born long before Thutmose's coronation. He can be seen on a stela from Thutmose's fourth regnal year hunting near Memphis, and he became the "great army-commander of his father" sometime before his death, which was no later than Thutmose's own death in his 12th regnal year.[8] Thutmose had another son, Wadjmose, and two daughters, Hatshepsut and Nefrubity, by Ahmose. Wadjmose died before his father, and Nefrubity died as an infant.[9] Thutmose had one son by another wife, Mutnofret. This son succeeded him as Thutmose II, whom Thutmose I married to his daughter, Hatshepsut.[9] It was later recorded by Hatshepsut that Thutmose willed the kingship to both Thutmose II and Hatshepsut. However, this is considered to be propaganda by Hatshepsut's supporters to legitimise her claim to the throne when she later assumed power.[10] Dates and length of reign[edit] A heliacal rising of Sothis was recorded in the reign of Thutmose's predecessor, Amenhotep I, which has been dated to 1517 BC, assuming the observation was made at Thebes.[11] The year of Amenhotep's death and Thutmose's subsequent coronation can be accordingly derived, and is dated to 1506 BC by most modern scholars. However, if the observation were made at either Heliopolis or Memphis, as a minority of scholars promote, Thutmose would have been crowned in 1526 BC.[12] Manetho records that Thutmose I's reign lasted 12 Years and 9 Months (or 13 Years) as a certain Mephres in his Epitome.[13] This data is supported by two dated inscriptions from Years 8 and 9 of his reign bearing his cartouche found inscribed on a stone block in Karnak.[14] Accordingly, Thutmose is usually given a reign from 1506 BC to 1493 BC in the low chronology, but a minority of scholars would date him from 1526 BC to 1513 BC[11] Military achievements[edit] The maximum territorial extent of Egypt (15th century BC) Upon Thutmose's coronation, Nubia rebelled against Egyptian rule. According to the tomb autobiography of Ahmose, son of Ebana, Thutmose traveled up the Nile and fought in the battle, personally killing the Nubian king.[15] Upon victory, he had the Nubian king's body hung from the prow of his ship, before he returned to Thebes.[15] After that campaign, he led a second expedition against Nubia in his third year in the course of which he ordered the canal at the first cataract—which had been built under Sesostris III of the 12th Dynasty—to be dredged in order to facilitate easier travel upstream from Egypt to Nubia. This helped integrate Nubia into the Egyptian empire.[9] This expedition is mentioned in two separate inscriptions by the king's son Thure:[16] Year 3, first month of the third season, day 22, under the majesty of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Aakheperre who is given life. His Majesty commanded to dig this canal after he found it stopped up with stones [so that] no [ship sailed upon it]; Year 3, first month of the third season, day 22. His Majesty sailed this canal in victory and in the power of his return from overthrowing the wretched Kush.[17] In the second year of Thutmose's reign, the king cut a stele at Tombos, which records that he built a fortress at Tombos, near the third cataract, thus permanently extending the Egyptian military presence, which had previously stopped at Buhen, at the second cataract.[18] This indicates that he had already fought a campaign in Syria; hence, his Syrian campaign may be placed at the beginning of his second regnal year.[19] This second campaign was the farthest north any Egyptian ruler had ever campaigned. Although it has not been found in modern times, he apparently set up a stele when he crossed the Euphrates River.[20] During this campaign, the Syrian princes declared allegiance to Thutmose. However, after he returned, they discontinued tribute and began fortifying against future incursions.[9] Thutmose celebrated his victories with an elephant hunt in the area of Niy, near Apamea in Syria,[8] and returned to Egypt with strange tales of the Euphrates, "that inverted water which flows upstream when it ought to be flowing downstream."[9] The Euphrates was the first major river which the Egyptians had ever encountered which flowed from the north, which was downstream on the Nile, to the south, which was upstream on the Nile. Thus the river became known in Egypt as simply, "inverted water."[9] Thutmose had to face one more military threat, another rebellion by Nubia in his fourth year.[19] His influence accordingly expanded even farther south, as an inscription dated to his reign has been found as far south as Kurgus, which was south of the fourth cataract.[20] He inscribed a large tableau on the Hagar el-Merwa, a quartz outcrop c. 40m long and 50m wide located 1200m from the Nile, on top of several local inscriptions.[21] This is the furthest south the Egyptian presence is attested.[21] During his reign, he initiated a number of projects which effectively ended Nubian independence for the next 500 years. He enlarged a temple to Sesostris III and Khnum, opposite the Nile from Semna.[22] There are also records of specific religious rites which the viceroy of El-Kab was to have performed in the temples in Nubia in proxy for the king.[23] He also appointed a man called Turi to the position of viceroy of Kush, also known as the "King's Son of Cush."[24] With a civilian representative of the king permanently established in Nubia itself, Nubia did not dare to revolt as often as it had and was easily controlled by future Egyptian kings.[19] Building projects[edit] Court of the 4th pylon: obelisk of Thutmose I at Karnak Thutmose I organized great building projects during his reign, including many temples and tombs, but his greatest projects were at the Temple of Karnak under the supervision of the architect Ineni.[25] Previous to Thutmose, Karnak probably consisted only of a long road to a central platform, with a number of shrines for the solar bark along the side of the road.[26] Thutmose was the first king to drastically enlarge the temple. Thutmose had the fifth pylon built along the temple's main road, along with a wall to run around the inner sanctuary and two flagpoles to flank the gateway.[26] Outside of this, he built a fourth pylon and another enclosure wall.[26] Between pylons four and five, he had a hypostyle hall constructed, with columns made of cedar wood. This type of structure was common in ancient Egyptian temples, and supposedly represents a papyrus marsh, an Egyptian symbol of creation.[27] Along the edge of this room he built colossal statues, each one alternating wearing the crown of Upper Egypt and the crown of Lower Egypt.[26] Finally, outside of the fourth pylon, he erected four more flagpoles[26] and two obelisks, although one of them, which now has fallen, was not inscribed until Thutmose III inscribed it about 50 years later.[25] The cedar columns in Thutmose I's hypostyle hall were replaced with stone columns by Thutmose III, however at least the northernmost two were replaced by Thutmose I himself.[25] Hatshepsut also erected two of her own obelisks inside of Thutmose I's hypostyle hall.[26] Stela of Thutmose I in the Cairo Museum In addition to Karnak, Thutmose I also built statues of the Ennead at Abydos, buildings at Armant, Ombos, el-Hiba, Memphis, and Edfu, as well as minor expansions to buildings in Nubia, at Semna, Buhen, Aniba, and Quban.[citation needed] Thutmose I was the first king who definitely was buried in the Valley of the Kings.[20] Ineni was commissioned to dig this tomb, and presumably to build his mortuary temple.[8] His mortuary temple has not been found, quite possibly because it was incorporated into or demolished by the construction of Hatshepsut's mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri.[28] His tomb, however, has been identified as KV38. In it was found a yellow quartzite sarcophagus bearing the name of Thutmose I.[5] His body, however, may have been moved by Thutmose III into the tomb of Hatshepsut, KV20, which also contains a sarcophagus with the name of Thutmose I on it.[20] Death and burial[edit] Thutmose I was originally buried and then reburied in KV20 in a double burial with his daughter Hatshepsut rather than KV38, which could only have been built for Thutmose I during the reign of his grandson Thutmose III based on "a recent re-examination of the architecture and contents of KV38."[29] The location of KV20, if not its original owner, had long been known since the Napoleonic expedition of 1799 and, in 1844, the Prussian scholar Karl Richard Lepsius had partially explored its upper passage.[30] However, all its passageways "had become blocked by a solidified mass of rubble, small stones and rubbish which had been carried into the tomb by floodwaters" and it was not until the 1903–1904 excavation season that Howard Carter, after two previous seasons of strenuous work, was able to clear its corridors and enter its double burial chamber.[30] Here, among the debris of broken pottery and shattered stone vessels from the burial chamber and lower passages were the remnants of two vases made for Queen Ahmose Nefertari, which formed part of the original funerary equipment of Thutmose I; one of the vases contained a secondary inscription which states that Thutmose II "[made it] as his monument to his father."[31] Other vessels which bore the names and titles of Thutmose I had also been inscribed by his son and successor, Thutmose II, as well as fragments of stone vessels made for Hatshepsut before she herself became king as well as other vessels which bore her royal name of 'Maatkare', which would have been made only after she took the throne in her own right.[32] Hatshepsut donated this quartzite sarcophagus which was made in her reign for the reburial of her father, Thutmose I, in KV20 (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston) Carter, however, also discovered 2 separate coffins in the burial chamber. The beautifully carved sarcophagus of Hatshepsut "was discovered open with no sign of a body, and with the lid lying discarded on the floor;" it is now housed in the Cairo Museum along with a matching yellow quartzite canopic chest.[32] A second sarcophagus, was found lying on its side with its almost undamaged lid propped against the wall nearby; it was eventually presented to Theodore M. Davis, the excavation's financial sponsor as a gesture of appreciation for his generous financial support.[32] Davis would, in turn, present it to the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston. The second quartzite sarcophagus had originally been engraved with the name of "the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Maatkare Hatshepsut."[32] However, when the sarcophagus was complete, Hatshepsut decided to commission an entirely new sarcophagus for herself while she donated the existing finished sarcophagus to her father, Thutmose I.[32] The stonemasons then attempted to erase the original carvings by restoring the surface of the quartzite so that it could be re-carved with the name and titles of Tuthmose I instead. This quartzite sarcophagus measures 7 feet long by 3 feet wide with walls 5  inches thick and bears a dedication text which records Hatshepsut's generosity towards her father: ...long live the Female Horus...The king of Upper and Lower Egypt, Maatkare, the son of Re, Hatshepsut-Khnemet-Amun! May she live forever! She made it as her monument to her father whom she loved, the Good God, Lord of the Two Lands, Aakheperkare, the son of Re, Thutmosis the justified.[33] Thutmose I was, however, not destined to lie alongside his daughter after Hatshepsut's death. Thutmose III, Hatshepsut's successor, decided to reinter his grandfather in an even more magnificent tomb, KV38, which featured another yellow sarcophagus dedicated to Thutmose I and inscribed with texts which proclaimed this pharaoh's love for his deceased grandfather.[34] Unfortunately, however, Thutmose I's remains would be disturbed late during the 20th dynasty when KV38 was plundered; the sarcophagus' lid was broken and all this king's valuable precious jewelry and grave goods were stolen.[34] Thutmose I, MET Museum, NYC Thutmose I's mummy was ultimately discovered in the Deir el-Bahri Cache above the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut, revealed in 1881. He had been interred along with those of other 18th and 19th dynasty leaders Ahmose I, Amenhotep I, Thutmose II, Thutmose III, Ramesses I, Seti I, Ramesses II, and Ramesses IX, as well as the 21st dynasty pharaohs Pinedjem I, Pinedjem II, and Siamun. The original coffin of Thutmose I was taken over and re-used by a later pharaoh of the 21st dynasty. The mummy of Thutmose I was thought to be lost, but Egyptologist Gaston Maspero, largely on the strength of familial resemblance to the mummies of Thutmose II and Thutmose III, believed he had found his mummy in the otherwise unlabelled mummy #5283.[35] This identification has been supported by subsequent examinations, revealing that the embalming techniques used came from the appropriate period of time, almost certainly after that of Ahmose I and made during the course of the Eighteenth dynasty.[36] Gaston Maspero described the mummy in the following manner: The king was already advanced in age at the time of his death, being over fifty years old, to judge by the incisor teeth, which are worn and corroded by the impurities of which the Egyptian bread was full. The body, though small and emaciated, shows evidence of unusual muscular strength; the head is bald, the features are refined, and the mouth still bears an expression characteristic of shrewdness and cunning.[35] What has been thought to be his mummy can be viewed in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. However, in 2007, Dr. Zahi Hawass announced that the mummy which was previously thought to be Thutmose I is that of a thirty-year-old man who had died as a result of an arrow wound to the chest. Because of the young age of the mummy and the cause of death, it was determined that the mummy was probably not that of King Thutmose I himself.[37] See also[edit] History of Ancient Egypt Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt Family Tree Notes and references[edit] ^ Clayton, Peter. Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames and Hudson Ltd, paperback 2006, p.100 ^ Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, Librairie Arthéme Fayard, 1988, p. 202. ^ Ancient Egyptian Chronology, chapter 10: "Egyptian Sirius/Sothic Dates and the Question of the Sirius–Based Lunar Calendar", Rolf Kraus, 2006, pp. 439–57. ^ [1] accessed 2 May 2010 ^ a b Gardiner 1964 p. 176 ^ Bleiberg (2000) p.400 ^ Grimal (1988) p.203 ^ a b c Gardiner (1964) p.179 ^ a b c d e f Steindorff (1942) p.36 ^ Erman (1894) p.43 ^ a b Grimal (1988) p.202 ^ Helk (1983) pp.47-9 ^ "Manetho's Kings". Archived from the original on 2003-01-28. Retrieved 2017-06-20. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath (1997), p.120 ^ a b Steindorff and Seele (1942) p.34 ^ Lorna Oakes, Pyramids, Temples and Tombs of Ancient Egypt, Hermes House, 2003. p.207 ^ Oakes, op. cit., p.207 ^ Breasted (1906) p.28 ^ a b c Steindorff and Seele (1942) p.35 ^ a b c d Shaw and Nicholson (1995) p.289 ^ a b Davies, Vivian (2017). "Nubia in the New Kingdom: the Egyptians at Kurgus". Nubia in the New Kingdom. Lived experience, pharaonic control and indigenous traditions. British Museum Publications on Egypt and Sudan. 3: 65–106. ^ Erman (1894) p.503 ^ Breasted (1906) p.25 ^ Breasted (1906) p.27 ^ a b c Breasted (1906) p.41 ^ a b c d e f Grimal (1988) p.300 ^ Shaw (2003) p.168 ^ Gardiner (1964) p.170 ^ Joyce Tyldesley, Hatchepsut: The Female Pharaoh, Penguin Books, hardback, 1996. pp.121-25 ^ a b Tyldesley, p.122 ^ Tyldesley, pp.123-24 ^ a b c d e Tyldesley, p.124 ^ Tyldesley, p.125 ^ a b Tyldesley, p.126 ^ a b Maspero, Gaston. History Of Egypt, Chaldaea, Syria, Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 4 (of 12), Project Gutenberg Ebook, Release Date: December 16, 2005. EBook #17324. https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/7/3/2/17324/17324-h/v4c.htm#image-0047 ^ Smith (2000) p.25-28 ^ Anderson, Lisa (14 July 2007). "Mummy awakens new era in Egypt". Chicago Tribune. Bibliography[edit] Jürgen von Beckerath (1997). Chronologie des Pharaonischen Ägypten. Verlag Philipp von Zabern. Bleiberg, Edward (2001). "Thutmose I," The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Ed. Donald Redford. Vol. 3. Oxford University Press. Breasted, James Henry (1906). Ancient Records of Egypt, Vol. II. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Erman, Adolf (1894). Life in Ancient Egypt. Macmilian and Company, London. Gardiner, Alan (1964). Egypt of the Pharaohs. Oxford University Press. Grimal, Nicolas (1988). A History of Ancient Egypt. Librairie Arthéme Fayard. Helk, Wolfgang (1983). Schwachstellen der Chronologie-Diskussion. Göttinger Miszellen, Göttingen. Maspero, Gaston. History Of Egypt, Chaldaea, Syria, Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 4 (of 12), Project Gutenberg EBook, Release Date: December 16, 2005. EBook #17324. Shaw, Ian & Nicholson, Paul (1995). The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt. The British Museum Press. Shaw, Ian (2003). Exploring Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. Smith, G Elliot (2000). The Royal Mummies (reprint). Duckworth. External links[edit] Hatshepsut: from Queen to Pharaoh, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Thutmose I (see index) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Thutmosis I. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 118802216 ISNI: 0000 0000 8909 0452 LCCN: n84166990 VIAF: 35862203 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n84166990 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thutmose_I&oldid=1001580015" Categories: Thutmose I 16th-century BC births 1493 BC deaths 16th-century BC Pharaohs 15th-century BC Pharaohs Ancient Egyptian mummies Pharaohs of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Egyptian Museum Hidden categories: All articles with 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en-wikipedia-org-781	----	Sehetepibre - Wikipedia Sehetepibre From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sehetepibre Sewesekhtawy Sehotepibre Seusekhtowy, Seweskhtowy Lapis lazuli cylinder seal with Sehetepibre's cartouche Pharaoh Reign 2 years, 1783 BC – 1781 BC (13th Dynasty) Predecessor Semenkare Nebnuni (Ryholt & Baker), Amenemhat V (von Beckerath & Franke) Successor Sewadjkare (Ryholt & Baker), Iufni (von Beckerath & Franke) Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sehetepibre S.ḥtp-ib-Rˁ He who satisfies the heart of Ra Turin canon: Sehetepibre S.ḥtp-ib-Rˁ He who satisfies the heart of Ra Horus name Sewesekhtawy Swsḫ-t3.w(j) He who enlarges the two lands Sehetepibre Sewesekhtawy (also Sehetepibre I or Sehetepibre II depending on the scholar) was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty during the early Second Intermediate Period, possibly the fifth[1] or tenth[2] king of the Dynasty. Chronological position[edit] The position of Sehetepibre Sewesekhtawy within the 13th Dynasty is not entirely clear. In the Turin canon, a king list redacted in the early Ramesside period, two kings are listed with the name "Sehetepibre", both in Column 7[3] (which mainly lists kings of the 13th Dynasty). The first "Sehetepibre" appears as the fourth king of the Dynasty, and the other as its eighth. Therefore, the exact chronological position of Sehetepibre Sewesekhtawy cannot be ascertained using only the Turin canon. According to the Egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, Sehetepibre Sewesekhtawy was in fact the tenth king of the Dynasty, reigning for two years from 1783 BC until 1781 BC.[2][4] They believe that the first "Sehetepibre" is an error resulting from the corruption of the name of Hotepibre Qemau Siharnedjheritef. They further propose that the author of the list did not include two kings, Nerikare and Ameny Qemau, thereby artificially making Sehetepibre Sewesekhtawy the eighth king when he was the tenth.[2] On the other hand, Detlef Franke and Jürgen von Beckerath see Sehetepibre Sewesekhtawy as the first "Sehetepibre" listed in the Turin canon and thus as fifth king of the Dynasty. Franke and von Beckerath both identify the second "Sehetepibre" with Hotepibre Qemau Siharnedjheritef.[5][6][7] Attestations[edit] For a long time, Sehetepibre was known only from the Turin canon and from a single lapis lazuli cylinder seal. The seal, of unknown provenance, was bought by a private collector in Cairo and finally sold in 1926 to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, where it is now on display.[8] The seal bears Sehetepibre's prenomen and is dedicated to "Hathor, Lady of [Byblos]".[2] The seal is further inscribed with the name in cuneiform of a governor of Byblos named Yakin-Ilu.[4] The archaeologist William F. Albright has tentatively identified Yakin-Ilu with a governor Yakin, attested on a stele discovered in Byblos and depicting his son, Yantinu, seated on a throne next to Neferhotep I's cartouches.[2][9] If Albright's hypothesis is correct, then Sehetepibre would be one generation removed from Neferhotep I. The principal contemporary attestation of Sehetepibre is a stela published in 1980 and discovered earlier at Gebel Zeit, by the Red Sea, where galena mines were located. The stela bears the name of a king Sehetepibre together with the Horus name Sewesekhtawy. This stela, contemporary with his reign, further confirms the existence of this king.[4][10] In addition, two scarab-seals found in debris from the north pyramid cemetery at el-Lisht bear the name Sehetepibre, written without a cartouche or royal title.[11] A virtually identical scarab was also found at Tell el-ʿAjjul in a Middle Bronze Age context (paralleling the Second Intermediate Period in Egypt).[12] Whether these refer to the same individual is not certain. References[edit] ^ Thomas Schneider: Ancient Egyptian Chronology - Edited by Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss, And David a. Warburton, available online, see p. 176 ^ a b c d e K.S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here. ^ Position within the papyrus: Column 7, line 8 and 7.12 - The column starts with rulers of the Twelfth Dynasty ^ a b c Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 359-360 ^ Detlef Franke: Zur Chronologie des Mittleren Reiches (12.-18. Dynastie) Teil 1 : Die 12. Dynastie, in Orientalia 57 (1988) ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46. Mainz am Rhein, 1997 ^ Seal of Sehetepibre at the MMA, picture and context. ^ W. M. F. Albright: An Indirect Synchronism between Egypt and Mesopotamia, cir. 1730 BC, BASOR 99 (1945) ^ P. Mey, G. Castel, J.-P. Goyon: Installations rupestres du moyen et du nouvel empire au Gebel Zeit (près de Râs Dib), In: Mitteilungen des deutschen Archäologischen Institutes Kairo 36 (1980), 303-305, fig. 1 [1], pl. 80 [a] ^ MMA 09.180.1203, 09.180.1204; see Ben-Tor, Daphna (2007). Scarabs, Chronology, and Interconnections: Egypt and Palestine in the Second Intermediate Period. Friburg: Academic Press. p. 111, Pl. 49:5-61. ^ Petrie, William Flinders; Mackay, Ernest J. H .; Murray, Margaret A. (1952). City of Shepherd Kings and Ancient Gaza V. London: British School of Egyptian Archaeology, University College. Pl. V:124.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Preceded by Semenkare Nebnuni Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Sewadjkare v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sehetepibre&oldid=989187164" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: CS1 maint: ref=harv AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload 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en-wikipedia-org-7838	----	Fourth Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Fourth Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Dynasty of ancient Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt ca. 2613 BC–ca. 2494 BC Sneferu's bent pyramid at Dahshur, an early experiment in true pyramid building Capital Memphis Common languages Egyptian language Religion ancient Egyptian religion Government Absolute monarchy Historical era Bronze Age • Established ca. 2613 BC • Disestablished ca. 2494 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Third Dynasty of Egypt Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The Fourth Dynasty of ancient Egypt (notated Dynasty IV) is characterized as a "golden age" of the Old Kingdom of Egypt. Dynasty IV lasted from c. 2613 to 2494 BC.[1] It was a time of peace and prosperity as well as one during which trade with other countries is documented. The Fourth Dynasty heralded the height of the pyramid-building age. The relative peace of the Third Dynasty allowed the Dynasty IV rulers the leisure to explore more artistic and cultural pursuits. King Sneferu's building experiments led to the evolution from the mastaba styled step pyramids to the smooth sided “true” pyramids, such as those on the Giza Plateau. No other period in Egypt's history equaled Dynasty IV's architectural accomplishments.[2] Each of the rulers of this dynasty (except for Shepseskaf, the last) commissioned at least one pyramid to serve as a tomb or cenotaph[citation needed]. The Fourth Dynasty was the second of four dynasties that made up the "Old Kingdom". King Sneferu, the first king of the Fourth Dynasty, held territory from ancient Libya in the west to the Sinai Peninsula in the east, to Nubia in the south. It was a successful period and this era is known for its advancement and concentrated government, as seen in the organized building of pyramids and other monuments. Knowledge of the Old Kingdom comes mainly from these structures and objects discovered in the desert cemeteries of Giza. Initial Fourth Dynasty Royalty Names of Kings Horus (throne) name Dates Pyramid Names of Wives Sneferu Nebma'at 2613–2589 BC Red Pyramid Bent Pyramid Pyramid at Meidum Hetepheres I Khufu "Cheops" Medjedu 2589–2566 BC Great Pyramid of Giza Meritites I Henutsen Djedefre Kheper 2566–2558 BC ? Pyramid of Djedefre Hetepheres II Khentetka Khafre Userib 2558–2532 BC Pyramid of Khafre Meresankh III Khamerernebty I Hekenuhedjet Persenet Menkaure Kakhet 2532–2503 BC ? Pyramid of Menkaure Khamerernebty II Shepseskaf ?? 2518–2510 BC ? Pharaoh's Bench at Saqqara Bunefer Fourth Dynasty timeline Contents 1 Sneferu 2 Other kings during the Age of the Pyramids 2.1 King Khufu 2.2 King Djedefre 2.3 King Khafre 2.4 King Menkaure 2.5 King Shepseskaf 3 Later kings 3.1 Baka 3.2 Khentkaus I 4 Age of the Pyramids 4.1 Religious changes 4.2 Changing customs drove architectural changes 5 See also 6 References Sneferu[edit] The Red Pyramid of Sneferu, Dahshur. It is Egypt's first successful attempt at constructing a "true" smooth-sided pyramid. King Sneferu, lauded as "Bringer of Beauty", "Master of All Justice", "Ruler of Lower and Upper Nile", was the first pharaoh of the fourth dynasty. He descended from a family in Middle Egypt that lived near Hermopolis, and most likely ascended to the throne by marrying a royal heiress. There is still debate as to who his father was, with the credit often being given to Huni, but this cannot be confirmed due to the break in dynasties. His mother, Meresankh I was either a lesser wife or concubine of Huni which, if it was the latter, would technically not qualify him as having royal blood. Egypt in the Third Millennium BC was, by all accounts, a land of peace and plenty. Elites commonly ate fattened ducks and geese and wore fine white linens—when they wore clothes at all. Sneferu had a very high opinion of himself, proving so when he floated in a boat down the Nile covered only with fishnets. Until his reign, Egyptian kings were thought to be worldly incarnations of Horus, obtaining total deification exclusively in death. Sneferu was the first king to proclaim that he was the embodiment of Ra, another sun deity. Khufu would pursue his father's path, taking the name Son of the Sun God. On the whole, Egypt was ruled by two centers of power - legal authority and traditional authority. Legal authority constituted governing by the king, not over the people directly, but via viziers and nomarchs. Traditional authority was derived from the concept that the deities gave a king the divine right to rule as he pleased. At its heart, the Fourth Dynasty Egyptian government became organized so that only the king could direct traditional authority. The Bent Pyramid was Sneferu's first attempt at building a perfect structure, but it slopes and eventually bends to a lower angle, giving the structure a squished look. His Red Pyramid is widely considered the first true pyramid and earned its name from the reddish tint in the limestone used. The Red Pyramid was considered the first pyramid, approximately 150 years after the structures built by King Djoser.[3] The Red Pyramid was the first to be given a solid foundation so that it was stable enough for a taller building. He is also said to be responsible for a series of pyramids built in Seila. He commissioned a total of three pyramids, but there are records that point to a fourth. Although he did not construct any of the pyramids at Giza, he is known as the king who moved the most stone and brick. A lot of Sneferu's political expeditions were to other countries to secure two things: a substantial labor force and access to a large store of materials. He traveled to Nubia and Libya for these things. His incursions in these areas allowed Sneferu to secure a large labor force, so large, in fact, that it caused huge devastation to the raided countries. He also needed cattle and other food sources to provide to the people building his pyramids. By the end of his military efforts, he managed to capture 11,000 prisoners and 13,100 head of cattle. Other kings during the Age of the Pyramids[edit] King Khufu[edit] King Khufu built The Great Pyramid of Giza Khufu, known to the Greek as Cheops, and Sneferu's successor—though it is unclear whether he was the biological son of Sneferu—was a widely known king. He is still known very well in present-day media, being featured in movies, novels, and television shows. His fame stems from his pyramid on the northeastern plateau at Giza, where he was buried. His mortuary temple was built on the northern end of the pyramid, which is no longer accessible due to ravages by grave robbers. Only three-dimensional reliefs have been recovered and have lasted into modern day, including many limestone busts and clay figurines. Khufu's activities in and out of Egypt are not well documented (except his architecture work) and was highly romanticized by the Ancient Greeks. These Greeks felt that Khufu was a wicked man who offended the deities and forced his subjects into slavery.[4] But, why was this? Khufu, as the son of Sneferu, was believed to be illegitimate and therefore unworthy of the throne. Even if he was Sneferu's true son, he did very little to expand the country of Egypt and failed to follow his father's footsteps. There are only a few records that stated he was involved in any political activities. The best guess historians can make is that there is evidence of construction of a harbor on the coast of the Red Sea that was excavated by John Gardner Wilkinson and James Burton in 1823. Giza pyramid complex pyramids. From left to right: the Pyramid of Menkaure, Pyramid of Khafre, the Great Sphinx of Giza and Khufu's Great Pyramid of Giza King Djedefre[edit] Painted limestone Sphinx of Hetepheres II, possibly the first depiction of a sphinx, she was one of the longest lived members of the fourth dynasty royal family, a daughter of Khufu, she was the wife of Djedefre, and lived into the reign of Shepseskaf Djedefre is credited by historians with a reign of eight years. Not much is known of Djedefre, including his inconclusive lineage. It is possible that he is Khufu's son or that he was Khufu's brother. It is widely suggested that he is the son of a lesser queen who murdered the rightful heir to the throne and Djedefre's half brother, the crown prince Kawab. Djedefre chose to build his pyramid several kilometers north of Giza, creating speculation that there was a family feud that caused Djedefre to want to be far away from Khufu's tomb. A more favorable conclusion was that Djedef chose to be buried closer to Iunu, the center of the cult of Ra. His pyramid also features a statue of his wife, Hetepheres II, in the form of a sphinx. She was a daughter of Khufu and had been the wife of Kawab. It is sometimes suggested that this was the first true sphinx, although there is debate about the sphinx at Giza that was credited to Khafre. She became the longest living royal member of the dynasty, living into the reign of Shepseskaf. King Khafre[edit] Khafre, son of Khufu, succeeded his supposed brother, Djedefre, after his short reign. He chose to build his pyramid close to his father, matching it in style and being almost as large. At the front of the pyramid causeway lies the Great Sphinx that is said to bear his features. There is still debate on whether his Sphinx was erected before Djedefre's.[5] Khafre's sphinx was well-known and closer to his subjects, making it harder to determine which was built first due to biased record keeping. Menkaure and Khamerernebty II, his sister-wife King Menkaure[edit] Like many kings in this dynasty, his reign is uncertain, being projected for more than 63 years but it can certainly be an exaggeration. Menkaure succeeded his father, King Khafre. His pyramid is the third and smallest of those at Giza pyramid complex and is known as Netjer-er-Menkaure, which translates into "Menakure is Divine". There was a sarcophagus found within the pyramid, that is approximately eight feet in length and three feet in height, made of basalt. Like many of the previous pyramids, Menkaure's was not inscribed, the interior having no record keeping of any kind. King Shepseskaf[edit] Shepseskaf is generally accepted as the last king of the Fourth Dynasty, succeeding Menkaure. There is no conclusive evidence of who his mother is, though it is believed that he was the son of a minor queen. Who his wife was also is unknown. Shepseskaf broke the chain of pyramid building by the previous five kings. Instead of a triangular pyramid, he chose to construct a rectangular block, commonly known as the Mastabat al-Fir’aun ("Pharaoh's Bench").[6] In like fashion, however, little script was found inside his tomb and he was buried in very simple terms. Later kings[edit] Baka[edit] The identification of this king is not resolved.[7] Several ancient lists of kings have survived. They do not agree, however, and none of them may be considered complete. The Turin King List has a lacuna between Khafre and Menkaure, where the author had listed a king who reigned between these two pharaohs. The name of the king and length of the reign are completely lost in the lacuna.[8] The Saqqara Tablet also notes a king between Khafre and Menkaure, but here too, the name is lost.[9] Some authorities have equated this king with Bikheris, on Manetho's list, who could correspond to the Egyptian name Baka or Bakare. Khentkaus I[edit] Perhaps the most intriguing evidence of the fourth dynasty is the status of Khentkaus I, also known as Khentykawes. She was a daughter of Menkaure and her tomb was built along the Menkaure causeway. She may have ruled as king. Her tomb is a large mastaba tomb, with another off-center mastaba placed above it. The second mastaba could not be centered over her primary mastaba because of the free, unsupported, space in the rooms below. On a granite doorway leading into her tomb, Khentkaus I is given titles that may be read either as mother of two kings of upper and lower Egypt, as mother of the king of upper and lower Egypt and king of upper and lower Egypt, or, as one scholar reads it, king of upper and lower Egypt and mother of two kings of upper and lower Egypt. Furthermore, her depiction on this doorway also gives her the full trappings of kingship, including the false beard of the king. This depiction and the title given have led some Egyptologists to suggest that she reigned as king near the end of the fourth dynasty. Her tomb was finished in a characteristic niche style of architecture, however, the niches were later filled in with a smooth casing of limestone. Age of the Pyramids[edit] A replication of an Old Kingdom mummy, as reconstructed by Emory University The Age of the Pyramids refers to the fact that the Fourth Dynasty was the time when most of the well-known pyramids were built, which include those at Giza. King Sneferu was the first king to express an interest in funerary rites and tombs, which led him to the planning of the largest pyramid at Egypt. His first pyramids were called the Bent Pyramid and Red Pyramid. The "Age of the Pyramids" was not just about the building of large and easily recognizable structures, but also a change in funerary practices and rituals. This includes the burying of elites in large structures and the use of extensive mummification. Religious changes[edit] The Fourth Dynasty is where we truly see a shift in religious practices where worship of the Sun was commonplace. The Cult of Ra grew in size, going back to the fact that Djedef's tomb was built closer to the center of worship in what the Ancient Greeks called Heliopolis.[10] It was a delta city near contemporary Cairo that had been occupied since the predynastic times, whose ancient Egyptian name was I͗wnw or Iunu and meant the pillars. During the era when centralization of the nation's material, organic, and human resources began to develop, a relationship of the king to the deities became unchallenged and kings began carving their names into statues and monuments that previously had been reserved for deities. This speaks to a type of god complex on part of the kings. Khafre's famous statue, where a falcon was incorporated into his headgear, equated the king to the god Horus. This fact, however, caused controversy. It was pitting Khafre's allegiance to Horus against the growing Cult of Ra, not far away in Helipolis.[11] Kings no longer associated pyramids with the afterlife. The afterlife was once believed to be a divine kingdom that was represented as a type of idealistic heaven where only kings and pure hearts could go. Instead, the Fourth Dynasty represented a change in this idea, formulated the notion that the afterlife was a familiar place, taking the semblance of Earth.[12] Religious rituals were notoriously conservative, from what historians know, and there is much to be desired from current known records. Changing customs drove architectural changes[edit] Relief of Nofer and his Wife, detail. From Giza, tomb G2110, Dynasty 4, 2575-2465 BC. The Old Kingdom saw a rise in the preservation of the deceased, making the preparation of bodies much more complex. The position of embalmer was created, and their jobs were solely to prepare a corpse in private. There were three ways to mummify a body: 1) Stucco: the body would be wrapped in fine linen and then covered in stucco plaster, the features of the body (including the face) were remodeled in the plaster;[13] 2) Linen: the body would be wrapped in linen, which was sometimes treated with natron (a mixture of multiple sodium carbonates[14]) and the linens would be treated with resin so that the features of the body could be modeled; and 3) Defleshing: removing all flesh and wrapping the bones in linens.[15] Generally, organs were removed which were then put into jars that would accompany the body in the tomb, and the inside of the body flushed out. Tombs in the Fourth Dynasty changed drastically. "Unimpressive" graves did not satisfy the elites, meaning they would settle for smaller structures if the interior was decorated. Hieroglyphic writings were important to elites because, one, it was a lavish display of wealth and, two, it guided their souls to the afterlife. The Fourth Dynasty, however, did not have these writings. Instead, the tomb was deeper and super-structures were larger. After the Giza pyramid complex, later generations of tombs were more reasonably sized. After the Middle Kingdom, royals abandoned pyramids; they preferred graves that were carved into living rock of the Upper Egyptian mountains. See also[edit] Egyptian Fourth Dynasty Family Tree References[edit] ^ Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. p. 480. ISBN 978-0-19-815034-3. ^ Egypt: Land and Lives of the Pharaohs Revealed, (2005), pp. 80–90, Global Book Publishing: Australia ^ Levy, Janey (30 December 2005). The Great Pyramid of Giza: Measuring Length, Area, Volume, and Angles. Rosen Classroom. p. 4. ISBN 978-1-4042-6059-7. ^ Tyldesley, Joyce. "Who was Khufu?". Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ Spencer, A. J. (1990). "The Egyptian Pyramids. A Comprehensive Illustrated Reference. By J.P. Lepre. 233 × 156mm. Pp. xviii + 341, many ills. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland and Company, Inc.1990. ISBN 0-89950-461-2. £37·50". The Antiquaries Journal. 70 (2): 479. doi:10.1017/S0003581500070906. Retrieved 21 April 2018. ^ Spencer, A. J. (1990). "The Egyptian Pyramids. A Comprehensive Illustrated Reference. By J.P. Lepre. 233 × 156mm. Pp. xviii + 341, many ills. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland and Company, Inc.1990. ISBN 0-89950-461-2. £37·50". The Antiquaries Journal. 70 (2): 479. doi:10.1017/S0003581500070906. Retrieved 21 April 2018. ^ Peter Jánosi: Giza in der 4. Dynastie. Die Baugeschichte und Belegung einer Nekropole des Alten Reiches. vol. I: Die Mastabas der Kernfriedhöfe und die Felsgräber, Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien 2005, ISBN 3-7001-3244-1, page 64–65. ^ Wolfgang Helck: Untersuchungen zu Manetho und den ägyptischen Königslisten, (= Untersuchungen zur Geschichte und Altertumskunde Ägyptens, Bd. 18), Leipzig/ Berlin 1956, page 52 ^ Aidan Dodson, Dyan Hilton: The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, The American University in Cairo Press, London 2004, ISBN 977-424-878-3, page 61 ^ Bolshakov, Andrey O (1991). "The Old Kingdom Representations of Funeral Procession". Göttinger Miszellen. 121: 31–54. Retrieved 14 April 2018. ^ Baines, John; Lesko, Leonard H.; Silverman, David P. (1991). Religion in Ancient Egypt: Gods, Myths, and Personal Practice. Cornell University Press. p. 97. ISBN 978-0-8014-9786-5. ^ Roth, Ann Macy (1993). "Social Change in the Fourth Dynasty: The Spatial Organization of Pyramids, Tombs, and Cemeteries". Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt. 30: 33–55. doi:10.2307/40000226. JSTOR 40000226. ^ "Fragments of stucco from a mummy". Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. 12 March 2018. ^ Gill, N.S. (20 August 2018). "Natron, Ancient Egyptian Chemical Salt and Preservative". ThoughtCo. ^ "BBC - History - Ancient History in depth: Mummies Around the World". Preceded by Third Dynasty Dynasty of Egypt c. 2613 – 2498 BC Succeeded by Fifth Dynasty v t e Rulers of the Ancient Near East Territories/ dates [1][2][3][4] Egypt Canaan Ebla Mari Akshak/ Akkad Kish Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period 4000–3200 BCE Naqada culture (4000–3100 BCE) Proto-Cannaanites Sumerian period (4000–2340 BCE) Susa I Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE) Naqada I Naqada II Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests") Legendary ante-deluvian rulers: In Eridu: Alulim, Alalngar, then in Bad-tibira: En-men-lu-ana, En-men-gal-ana, Dumuzid, the Shepherd, then in Larag: En-sipad-zid-ana, then in Zimbir: En-men-dur-ana, then in Shuruppag: Ubara-Tutu "then the flood swept over"[5] Susa II (Uruk influence or control) 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ DenAnedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100-2700 BCE) Great Flood 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) First kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman En-me-barage-si ("made the land of Elam submit")[6] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba Uruk II dynasty Enshakushanna Mug-si Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions (3 kings)[7] Shushuntarana Napilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Urur Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun) Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion of Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[7] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian Empire (Semitic) Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Second Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) (Vassals of UR III) Shakkanakku dynasty (Semitic) Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Neo-Sumerian Period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians) Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (Vassals of Ur III)[8] Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal 2100 BCE Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin Ibbi-Sin 2050 BCE 2000 BCE Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV circa 2000 BCE Amorite invasions Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) 2025-1763 BCE Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ Third Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 1894–1595 BCE Second Intermediate Period Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham (Biblical) Yamhad First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Phoenicia Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Middle Assyrian Empire Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt 626–539 BCE Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116-117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ "The Sumerian king list: translation". etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2008-05-08. ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ a b Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=999247184" Categories: Fourth Dynasty of Egypt States and territories established in the 3rd millennium BC States and territories disestablished in the 3rd millennium BC Dynasties of ancient Egypt 3rd millennium BC in Egypt 3rd-millennium BC establishments in Egypt 3rd-millennium BC disestablishments in Egypt Hidden categories: Pages using the EasyTimeline extension CS1 errors: missing periodical Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2017 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية বাংলা Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Magyar Македонски مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 9 January 2021, at 05:59 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7841	----	Merneptah - Wikipedia Merneptah From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Fourth pharaoh of the 19th Dynasty of Egypt Merneptah Merenptah Statue of Merenptah on display at the Egyptian Museum Pharaoh Reign 1213–1203 BC (ten years) (nineteenth dynasty) Predecessor Ramesses II Successor Seti II/Amenmesse Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Baenre Merynetjeru The Soul of Ra, Beloved of the Gods Nomen Merneptah Hotephermaat Beloved of Ptah, Joyous is Truth Horus name Kanakht Haiemmaat Nebty name Iribauertaentjemhu Golden Horus Nebsenedjaashefit[1] Consort Isetnofret II, Takhat? Children Seti II, Merenptah, Khaemwaset, Isetnofret Father Ramesses II Mother Isetnofret Died 2 May 1203 BC Burial KV8 Merneptah or Merenptah (reigned July or August 1213 BC – May 2, 1203 BC) was the fourth pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Ancient Egypt. He ruled Egypt for almost ten years, from late July or early August 1213 BC until his death on May 2, 1203 BC, according to contemporary historical records.[2] He was the thirteenth son of Ramesses II,[3] only coming to power because all his older brothers had died, including his full brother Khaemwaset or Khaemwase. By the time he ascended to the throne, he was probably around seventy years old. His throne name was Ba-en-re Mery-netjeru, which means "The Soul of Ra, Beloved of the Gods". Merneptah was probably the fourth child of Isetnofret I, the second great royal wife of Ramesses II. Merneptah was married to Queen Isetnofret II, his great royal wife. She likely was his full sister and she bore the same name as their mother. One of their sons, Prince Sety-Merenptah, would succeed him as Seti II. They also were the parents of Prince Merenptah and a daughter, Twosret, who would become the great royal wife and queen of Seti II and, ultimately, pharaoh in her own right. It is presumed that Merneptah also was married to a secondary queen, Takhat. It is possible that they were the parents of the usurper, Amenmesse. Contents 1 Prior to accession 2 Chronology 3 Campaigns 4 Succession 5 Mummy 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading Prior to accession[edit] A sculpture of Merneptah (from the city known variously as Waset, Luxor, or Thebes) Merneptah was probably the thirteenth son of Ramesses II.[4][5][6] This is a result of his father's advanced age and that he outlived many of his heirs (in his 90s, Ramesses II was one of the oldest pharaohs in Egyptian history, if not the oldest). By year 40 of Ramesses II, Merneptah had been promoted to Overseer of the Army, and in year 55 of Ramesses II, Merneptah was officially proclaimed heir and crown prince as Ramesses celebrated his eightieth birthday. After becoming heir, Merneptah took on new responsibilities in administration, mainly becoming prince regent for his elderly, and perhaps senile, father for the last twelve years of the king's life.[7] Chronology[edit] See also: Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree According to one reading of contemporary historical records, Merneptah ruled Egypt for almost ten years, from late July or early August 1213 BC until his death on 2 May 1203 BC.[8] Alternatively, astronomical calculations of a potentially reported annular eclipse (Joshua 10:10-14) that precedes Merneptah's Canaanite campaign against the Israelites, which would place the beginning of his reign in 1209 or 1210 BC.[9] Campaigns[edit] Limestone block showing a pair of unfinished cartouches of Merenptah (Merneptah) I, 19th dynasty of Egypt, Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London Merneptah had to carry out several military campaigns during his reign. In the fifth year of his rule, he fought against the Libyans, who— with the assistance of the Sea Peoples— were threatening Egypt from the west. Merneptah led a victorious six-hour battle against a combined Libyan and Sea People force at the city of Perire, probably located on the western edge of the Nile delta. His account of this campaign against the Sea Peoples and Libu is described in prose on a wall beside the sixth pylon at Karnak, which states: [Beginning of the victory that his majesty achieved in the land of Libya] -I, Ekwesh, Teresh, Lukka, Sherden, Shekelesh, Northerners coming from all lands. Later in the inscription, Merneptah receives news of the attack: ...the third season, saying: 'The wretched, fallen chief of Libya, Meryre, son of Ded, has fallen upon the country of Tehenu with his bowmen--Sherden, Shekelesh, Ekwesh, Lukka, Teresh, Taking the best of every warrior and every man of war of his country. He has brought his wife and his children--leaders of the camp, and he has reached the western boundary in the fields of Perire.'[10] Merneptah makes an offering to Ptah on a column An inscription on the Athribis Stele, now in the garden of Cairo Museum, declares "His majesty was enraged at their report, like a lion", assembled his court, and gave a rousing speech. Later he dreamed he saw Ptah handing him a sword and saying "Take thou (it) and banish thou the fearful heart from thee." When the bowmen went forth, says the inscription, "Amun was with them as a shield." After six hours the surviving Nine Bows threw down their weapons, abandoned their baggage and dependents, and ran for their lives. Merneptah states that he defeated the invasion, killing 6,000 soldiers and taking 9,000 prisoners. To be sure of the numbers, among other things, he took the penises of all uncircumcised enemy dead and the hands of all the circumcised, from which history learns that the Ekwesh were circumcised, a fact causing some to doubt that they were Greek. There is also an account of the same events in the form of a poem from the Merneptah Stele, widely known as the Israel Stele, which makes reference to the supposed utter destruction of Israel in a campaign prior to his fifth year, in Canaan: "Israel has been wiped out...its seed is no more." This is the first recognised ancient Egyptian record of the existence of Israel--"not as a country or city, but as a tribe" or people.[11] Succession[edit] Stone sarcophagus of Merneptah in KV8 Merneptah was already an elderly man in his late 60s, if not early 70s, when he assumed the throne.[12] Merneptah moved the administrative center of Egypt from Piramesse (Pi-Ramesses), his father's capital, back to Memphis, where he constructed a royal palace next to the temple of Ptah. This palace was excavated in 1915 by the University of Pennsylvania Museum, led by Clarence Stanley Fisher. Merneptah's successor, Seti II, was a son of Queen Isetnofret. However, Seti II's accession to the throne was not unchallenged: a rival king named Amenmesse, who was either another son of Merneptah by Takhat or, much less likely, of Ramesses II, seized control of Upper Egypt and Kush during the middle of the reign of Seti II. Only after he overcame Amenmesse, was Seti was able to reassert his authority over Thebes in his fifth year. It is possible that before seizing Upper Egypt, Amenmesse had been known as Messuy and had been viceroy of Kush. Mummy[edit] Mummy of Merneptah Merneptah suffered from arthritis and atherosclerosis and died as an old man after a reign that lasted for nearly a decade. Merneptah was originally buried within tomb KV8 in the Valley of the Kings, but his mummy was not found there. In 1898 it was located along with eighteen other mummies in the mummy cache found in the tomb of Amenhotep II (KV35) by Victor Loret. Merneptah's mummy was taken to Cairo and eventually unwrapped by Dr. G. Elliott Smith on July 8, 1907. Dr. Smith notes that: The body is that of an old man and is 1 meter 714 millimeters in height. Merneptah was almost completely bald, only a narrow fringe of white hair (now cut so close as to be seen only with difficulty) remaining on the temples and occiput. A few short (about 2 mill) black hairs were found on the upper lip and scattered, closely clipped hairs on the cheeks and chin. The general aspect of the face recalls that of Ramesses II, but the form of the cranium and the measurements of the face much more nearly agree with those of his [grand]father, Seti the Great.[13] See also[edit] List of children of Ramesses II References[edit] ^ "King Merenptah", Digital Egypt, University College London (2001). Accessed 2007-09-29. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath, Chronologie des Pharaonischen Ägypten, Mainz, (1997), pp.190 ^ Gae Callender, The Eye Of Horus: A History of Ancient Egypt, Longman Cheshire (1993), p.263 ^ Merrill, J. Marc (2012-05-02). 1: Building Bridges of Time, Places and People: Volume I: Tombs, Temples & Cities of Egypt, Israel, Greece & Italy. AuthorHouse. p. 213. ISBN 978-1468573695. ^ Bart, Anneke. "Merneptah". slu.edu. Saint Louis University. Retrieved 2017-12-21. Merneptah was the 13th son of Ramses II. ^ "Penn Museum - Egypt (Sphinx) Gallery". Penn Museum. Penn Museum. Retrieved 2017-12-21. Merenptah was the 13th son and eventual successor of the famous Ramses II. ^ "Merneptah". Academic Dictionaries and Encyclopedias. Retrieved 2017-12-21. Already a man in his sixties, Merneptah had helped to manage state affairs for his father in the city of Pi-Ramesse and in the Delta and he now took on new responsibilities, ruling as prince regent for the elderly king throughout the last twelve years of his reign. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath, Chronologie des Pharaonischen Ägypten, Mainz, (1997), pp.190 ^ Colin Humphrys, Graeme Eaddington (1 October 2017). "Solar eclipse of 1207 BC helps to date pharaohs". Astronomy & Geophysics. 58 (5): 5.39–5.42. doi:10.1093/astrogeo/atx178.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link) ^ Robert Drews, The End of the Bronze Age, Princeton University Press, 1993. p.49 ^ Jacobus Van Dijk, "The Amarna Period and the Later New Kingdom" in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, ed. Ian Shaw, Oxford University Press (2000), p.302 ^ Joyce Tyldesley (2001). Ramesses: Egypt's Greatest Pharaoh. Penguin Books. p. 185. ^ Grafton Elliot Smith, The Royal Mummies, Cairo (1912), pp. 65-70 Further reading[edit] Eva March Tappan, ed., The World's Story: A History of the World in Story, Song, and Art, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1914), Vol. III: Egypt, Africa, and Arabia, trans. W. K. Flinders Petrie, pp. 47–55, scanned by J. S. Arkenberg, Department of History, California State Fullerton; Professor Arkenberg has modernized the text and it is available via Internet Ancient History Sourcebook Wikimedia Commons has media related to Merneptah. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 118892274 ISNI: 0000 0000 9586 3132 LCCN: n94033132 SUDOC: 092891101 VIAF: 57412931 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n94033132 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Merneptah&oldid=1002067005" Categories: 13th-century BC births 1203 BC deaths 13th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ancient Egyptian mummies Ramesses II Children of Ramesses II Hidden categories: CS1 maint: uses authors parameter Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی 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en-wikipedia-org-7852	----	Frank Miller (comics) - Wikipedia Frank Miller (comics) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search American writer, artist, film director; known for comics books and graphic novels Frank Miller Miller at SXSW 2018 Born (1957-01-27) January 27, 1957 (age 63) Olney, Maryland, U.S. Nationality American Area(s) Writer, penciller, inker, film director Notable works The Dark Knight Returns Batman: Year One Daredevil Elektra Wolverine Ronin 300 Sin City Cursed Awards Awards frankmillerink.com Frank Miller (born January 27, 1957)[1][2] is an American comic book writer, penciller and inker, novelist, screenwriter, film director, and producer best known for his comic book stories and graphic novels such as Daredevil: Born Again, The Dark Knight Returns, Sin City, and 300. He also directed the film version of The Spirit, shared directing duties with Robert Rodriguez on Sin City and Sin City: A Dame to Kill For, and produced the film 300. His film Sin City earned a Palme d'Or nomination, and he has received every major comic book industry award. In 2015, Miller was inducted into the Will Eisner Award Hall of Fame. He created the comic book characters Elektra for Marvel Comics' Daredevil series. Miller is noted for combining film noir and manga influences in his comic art creations. "I realized when I started Sin City that I found American and English comics be too wordy, too constipated, and Japanese comics to be too empty. So I was attempting to do a hybrid".[3] Contents 1 Early life 2 Career 2.1 Daredevil and the early 1980s 2.2 Batman: The Dark Knight Returns and the late 1980s 2.3 The 1990s: Sin City and 300 2.4 Batman: The Dark Knight Strikes Again and 2000–present 3 Legal issues 4 Public image 5 Personal life 6 Style and influence 6.1 Praise and criticism 7 Awards 8 Bibliography 8.1 DC Comics 8.2 Marvel Comics 8.3 Dark Horse Comics 8.4 Other publishers 8.5 Cover work 9 Films 9.1 Cameo appearances 10 References 11 External links Early life[edit] Miller was born in Olney, Maryland, on January 27, 1957,[4] and raised in Montpelier, Vermont,[4] the fifth of seven children of a nurse mother and a carpenter/electrician father.[5] His family was Irish Catholic.[6] Career[edit] Miller grew up a comics fan; a letter he wrote to Marvel Comics was published in The Cat #3 (April 1973).[7] His first published work was at Western Publishing's Gold Key Comics imprint, received at the recommendation of comics artist Neal Adams, to whom a fledgling Miller, after moving to New York City, had shown samples and received much critique and occasional informal lessons.[8] Though no published credits appear, he is tentatively credited with the three-page story "Royal Feast" in the licensed TV series comic book The Twilight Zone #84 (June 1978), by an unknown writer,[9] and is credited with the five-page "Endless Cloud", also by an unknown writer, in the following issue (July 1978).[10] By the time of the latter, Miller had his first confirmed credit in writer Wyatt Gwyon's six-page "Deliver Me From D-Day", inked by Danny Bulanadi, in Weird War Tales #64 (June 1978).[11] Former Marvel editor-in-chief Jim Shooter recalled Miller going to DC Comics after having broken in with "...a small job from Western Publishing, I think. Thus emboldened, he went to DC, and after getting savaged by Joe Orlando, got in to see art director Vinnie Colletta, who recognized talent and arranged for him to get a one-page war-comic job".[12] The Grand Comics Database does not list this job; there may have been a one-page DC story, or Shooter may have misremembered the page count or have been referring to the two-page story, by writer Roger McKenzie, "Slowly, painfully, you dig your way from the cold, choking debris..." in Weird War Tales #68 (Oct. 1978).[13] Other fledgling work at DC included the six-page "The Greatest Story Never Told", by writer Paul Kupperberg, in that same issue, and the five-page "The Edge of History", written by Elliot S. Maggin, in Unknown Soldier #219 (Sept. 1978). His first work for Marvel Comics was penciling the 17-page story "The Master Assassin of Mars, Part 3" in John Carter, Warlord of Mars #18 (Nov. 1978).[14] At Marvel, Miller settled in as a regular fill-in and cover artist, working on a variety of titles. One of these jobs was drawing Peter Parker, The Spectacular Spider-Man #27–28 (Feb.–March 1979), which guest-starred Daredevil.[15] At the time, sales of the Daredevil title were poor but Miller saw potential in "a blind protagonist in a purely visual medium," he recalled in 2000.[16] Miller went to writer and staffer Jo Duffy (a mentor-figure whom he called his "guardian angel" at Marvel)[16] and she passed on his interest to editor-in-chief Jim Shooter to get Miller work on Daredevil's regular title. Shooter agreed and made Miller the new penciller on the title. As Miller recalled in 2008: When I first showed up in New York, I showed up with a bunch of comics, a bunch of samples, of guys in trench coats and old cars and such. And [comics editors] said, 'Where are the guys in tights?' And I had to learn how to do it. But as soon as a title came along, when [Daredevil signature artist] Gene Colan left Daredevil, I realized it was my secret in to do crime comics with a superhero in them. And so I lobbied for the title and got it.[5] Daredevil and the early 1980s[edit] Miller at the 1982 Comic-Con Daredevil #158 (May 1979), Miller's debut on that title, was the finale of an ongoing story written by Roger McKenzie and inked by Klaus Janson. After this issue, Miller became one of Marvel's rising stars.[17] However, sales on Daredevil did not improve, Marvel's management continued to discuss cancellation, and Miller himself almost quit the series, as he disliked McKenzie's scripts.[12] Miller's fortunes changed with the arrival of Denny O'Neil as editor. Realizing Miller's unhappiness with the series and, impressed by a backup story Miller had written, O'Neil moved McKenzie to another project so that Miller could try writing the series himself.[12][18] Miller and O'Neil maintained a friendly working relationship throughout his run on the series.[19] With issue #168 (Jan. 1981), Miller took over full duties as writer and penciller. Sales rose so swiftly that Marvel once again began publishing Daredevil monthly rather than bimonthly just three issues after Miller became its writer. Issue #168 saw the first full appearance of the ninja mercenary Elektra—who became a popular character and star in a 2005 motion picture—although her first cover appearance was four months earlier on Miller's cover of The Comics Journal #58.[20] Miller later wrote and drew a solo Elektra story in Bizarre Adventures #28 (Oct. 1981). He added a martial arts aspect to Daredevil's fighting skills,[19] and introduced previously unseen characters who had played a major part in the character's youth: Stick, leader of the ninja clan the Chaste, who had been Murdock's sensei after he was blinded[21] and a rival clan called the Hand.[22] Daredevil #168 (Jan. 1981), Elektra's debut. Cover art by Miller and Klaus Janson Unable to handle both writing and penciling Daredevil on the new monthly schedule, Miller began increasingly relying on Janson for the artwork, sending him looser and looser pencils beginning with #173.[23] By issue #185, Miller had virtually relinquished his role as Daredevil's artist, and he was providing only rough layouts for Janson to both pencil and ink, allowing Miller to focus on the writing.[23] Miller's work on Daredevil was characterized by darker themes and stories. This peaked when in #181 (April 1982) he had the assassin Bullseye kill Elektra,[24] and Daredevil subsequently attempt to kill him. Miller finished his Daredevil run with issue #191 (Feb. 1983), which he cited in a winter 1983 interview as the issue he is most proud of;[19] by this time he had transformed a second-tier character into one of Marvel's most popular. Additionally, Miller drew a short Batman Christmas story, "Wanted: Santa Claus – Dead or Alive", written by Dennis O'Neil for DC Special Series #21 (Spring 1980).[25] This was his first professional experience with a character with which, like Daredevil, he became closely associated. At Marvel, O'Neil and Miller collaborated on two issues of The Amazing Spider-Man Annual. The 1980 Annual featured a team-up with Doctor Strange[26] while the 1981 Annual showcased a meeting with the Punisher.[27] As penciler and co-plotter, Miller, together with writer Chris Claremont, produced the miniseries Wolverine #1–4 (Sept.-Dec. 1982),[28] inked by Josef Rubinstein and spinning off from the popular X-Men title. Miller used this miniseries to expand on Wolverine's character.[29] The series was a critical success and further cemented Miller's place as an industry star. His first creator-owned title was DC Comics' six-issue miniseries Ronin (1983–1984). In 1985, DC Comics named Miller as one of the honorees in the company's 50th-anniversary publication Fifty Who Made DC Great.[30] Miller was involved in a few unpublished projects in the early 1980s. A house advertisement for Doctor Strange appeared in Marvel Comics cover-dated February 1981. It stated "Watch for the new adventures of Earth's Sorcerer Supreme – - as mystically conjured by Roger Stern and Frank Miller!". Miller's only contribution to the series was the cover for Doctor Strange #46 (April 1981). Other commitments prevented him from working on the series.[31] Miller and Steve Gerber made a proposal to revamp DC's three biggest characters: Superman, Batman, and Wonder Woman, under a line called "Metropolis" and comics titled "Man of Steel" or "The Man of Steel", "Dark Knight" and "Amazon".[32] However, this proposal was not accepted. Batman: The Dark Knight Returns and the late 1980s[edit] In 1986, DC Comics released the writer–penciler Miller's Batman: The Dark Knight Returns, a four-issue miniseries printed in what the publisher called "prestige format"—squarebound, rather than stapled; on heavy-stock paper rather than newsprint, and with cardstock rather than glossy-paper covers. It was inked by Klaus Janson and colored by Lynn Varley.[33] The story tells how Batman retired after the death of the second Robin (Jason Todd) and, at age 55, returns to fight crime in a dark and violent future. Miller created a tough, gritty Batman, referring to him as "The Dark Knight" based upon his being called the "Darknight Detective" in some 1970s portrayals,[34] although the nickname "Dark Knight" for Batman dates back to 1940.[35][36] Released the same year as Alan Moore's and Dave Gibbons' DC miniseries Watchmen, it showcased a new form of more adult-oriented storytelling to both comics fans and a crossover mainstream audience. The Dark Knight Returns influenced the comic-book industry by heralding a new wave of darker characters.[37] By this time, Miller had returned as the writer of Daredevil. Following his self-contained story "Badlands", penciled by John Buscema, in #219 (June 1985), he co-wrote #226 (Jan. 1986) with departing writer Dennis O'Neil. Then, with artist David Mazzucchelli, he crafted a seven-issue story arc that, like The Dark Knight Returns, similarly redefined and reinvigorated its main character. The storyline, "Daredevil: Born Again", in #227–233 (Feb.-Aug. 1986)[38] chronicled the hero's Catholic background and the destruction and rebirth of his real-life identity, Manhattan attorney Matt Murdock, at the hands of Daredevil's nemesis, the crime lord Wilson Fisk, also known as the Kingpin. After completing the "Born Again" arc, Frank Miller intended to produce a two-part story with artist Walt Simonson but it was never completed and remains unpublished.[39] Miller and artist Bill Sienkiewicz produced the graphic novel Daredevil: Love and War in 1986. Featuring the character of the Kingpin, it indirectly bridges Miller's first run on Daredevil and Born Again by explaining the change in the Kingpin's attitude toward Daredevil. Miller and Sienkiewicz also produced the eight-issue miniseries Elektra: Assassin for Epic Comics.[40] Set outside regular Marvel continuity, it featured a wild tale of cyborgs and ninjas, while expanding further on Elektra's background. Both of these projects were critically well received. Elektra: Assassin was praised for its bold storytelling, but neither it nor Daredevil: Love and War had the influence or reached as many readers as Dark Knight Returns or Born Again.[citation needed] Miller's final major story in this period was in Batman issues 404–407 in 1987, another collaboration with Mazzucchelli. Titled Batman: Year One, this was Miller's version of the origin of Batman in which he retconned many details and adapted the story to fit his Dark Knight continuity. Proving to be hugely popular,[41] this was as influential as Miller's previous work. A trade paperback released in 1988 remains in print, and is one of DC's best selling books. The story was adapted as an original animated film video in 2011. Miller had also drawn the covers for the first twelve issues of First Comics English language reprints of Kazuo Koike and Goseki Kojima's Lone Wolf and Cub. This helped bring Japanese manga to a wider Western audience. During this time, Miller (along with Marv Wolfman, Alan Moore and Howard Chaykin) had been in dispute with DC Comics over a proposed ratings system for comics. Disagreeing with what he saw as censorship, Miller refused to do any further work for DC,[42] and he took his future projects to the independent publisher Dark Horse Comics. From then on Miller was a major supporter of creator rights and became a major voice against censorship in comics. The 1990s: Sin City and 300[edit] After announcing he intended to release his work only via the independent publisher Dark Horse Comics, Miller completed one final project for Epic Comics, the mature-audience imprint of Marvel Comics. Elektra Lives Again was a fully painted graphic novel written and drawn by Miller and colored by longtime partner Lynn Varley.[43] Telling the story of the resurrection of Elektra from the dead and Daredevil's quest to find her, as well as showing Miller's will to experiment with new story-telling techniques.[44] 1990 saw Miller and artist Geof Darrow start work on Hard Boiled, a three-issue miniseries. The title, a mix of violence and satire, was praised[45] for Darrow's highly detailed art and Miller's writing. At the same time Miller and artist Dave Gibbons produced Give Me Liberty, a four-issue miniseries for Dark Horse. Give Me Liberty was followed by sequel miniseries and specials expanding on the story of protagonist Martha Washington, an African-American woman in modern and near-future southern North America, all of which were written by Miller and drawn by Gibbons.[citation needed] Miller also wrote the scripts for the science fiction films RoboCop 2 and RoboCop 3, about a police cyborg. Neither was critically well received.[46][47] In 2007, Miller stated that "There was a lot of interference in the writing process. It wasn't ideal. After working on the two Robocop movies, I really thought that was it for me in the business of film."[48] Miller came into contact with the fictional cyborg once more, writing the comic-book miniseries RoboCop Versus The Terminator, with art by Walter Simonson. In 2003, Miller's screenplay for RoboCop 2 was adapted by Steven Grant for Avatar Press's Pulsaar imprint. Illustrated by Juan Jose Ryp, the series is called Frank Miller's RoboCop and contains plot elements that were divided between RoboCop 2 and RoboCop 3. In 1991, Miller started work on his first Sin City story. Serialized in Dark Horse Presents #51–62, it proved to be another success, and the story was released in a trade paperback. This first Sin City "yarn" was rereleased in 1995 under the name The Hard Goodbye. Sin City proved to be Miller's main project for much of the remainder of the decade, as Miller told more Sin City stories within this noir world of his creation, in the process helping to revitalize the crime comics genre.[49] Sin City proved artistically auspicious for Miller and again brought his work to a wider audience without comics. Miller lived in Los Angeles, California in the 1990s,[50] which influenced Sin City.[citation needed] Daredevil: The Man Without Fear was a five issue miniseries published by Marvel Comics in 1993. In this story, Miller and artist John Romita Jr. told Daredevil's origins differently from in the previous comics, and they provided additional detail to his beginnings.[51] Miller also returned to superheroes by writing issue #11 of Todd McFarlane's Spawn, as well as the Spawn/Batman crossover for Image Comics.[52] In 1995, Miller and Darrow collaborated again on Big Guy and Rusty the Boy Robot, published as a two-part miniseries by Dark Horse Comics. In 1999 it became an animated series on Fox Kids. During this period, Miller became one of the founding members of the comic imprint Legend, under which many of his Sin City works were released, via Dark Horse.[citation needed] Written and illustrated by Frank Miller with painted colors by Varley, 300 was a 1998 comic-book miniseries, released as a hardcover collection in 1999, retelling the Battle of Thermopylae and the events leading up to it from the perspective of Leonidas of Sparta. 300 was particularly inspired by the 1962 film The 300 Spartans, a movie that Miller watched as a young boy.[53] In 2007, 300 was adapted by director Zack Snyder into a successful film. Miller during a The Dark Knight III: The Master Race panel held at Fan Expo 2016 in Toronto, Canada Batman: The Dark Knight Strikes Again and 2000–present[edit] He was one of the artists on the Superman and Batman: World's Funnest one-shot written by Evan Dorkin published in 2000.[54] Miller moved back to Hell's Kitchen by 2001 and was creating Batman: The Dark Knight Strikes Again as the 9/11 terrorist attacks occurred about four miles from that neighborhood.[55] His differences with DC Comics put aside, he saw the sequel initially released as a three-issue miniseries,[56] and though it sold well,[57] it received a mixed to negative reception.[58][59] Miller also returned to writing Batman in 2005, taking on the writing duties of All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder, a series set inside of what Miller describes as the "Dark Knight Universe,"[60] and drawn by Jim Lee.[61] Miller's previous attitude towards movie adaptations was to change after Robert Rodriguez made a short film based on a story from Miller's Sin City entitled "The Customer is Always Right". Miller was pleased with the result, leading to him and Rodriguez directing a full-length film, Sin City using Miller's original comics panels as storyboards. The film was released in the U.S. on April 1, 2005. The film's success brought renewed attention to Miller's Sin City projects. Similarly, a 2006 film adaptation of 300, directed solely by Zack Snyder, brought new attention and controversy to Miller's original comic book work. A sequel to the film, Sin City: A Dame to Kill For, based on Miller's second Sin City series and co-directed by Miller and Robert Rodriguez, was released in theaters on August 22, 2014.[62] On July 10, 2015, at the San Diego Comic-Con, Miller was inducted into the Eisner Awards Hall of Fame.[63] From 2015 to 2017, DC released a nine-issue, bimonthly sequel to The Dark Knight Returns and The Dark Knight Strikes Again, titled The Dark Knight III: The Master Race. Miller co-wrote it with Brian Azzarello,[64] and Andy Kubert and Klaus Janson are the artists.[65] Issue one was the top-selling comic of November 2015, moving an estimated 440,234 copies.[66] In 2016, Miller and Azzarello also co-wrote the graphic novel, The Dark Knight Returns: The Last Crusade with art by John Romita Jr. and Peter Steigerwald.[67] From April to August 2018, Dark Horse Comics published monthly Miller's five-issue limited series prequel/sequel to 300, entitled Xerxes: The Fall of the House of Darius and the Rise of Alexander. The series marks Miller's first full writer-artist comics creation since Holy Terror.[68] In 2017 Miller announced he was writing a Superman: Year One project with artwork by John Romita Jr.[69][70] The three-issue series was released by DC Black Label from June to October 2019.[71] Simon & Schuster Children's Publishing published his and author Tom Wheeler's young-adult novel Cursed, about the King Arthur legend from the point of view of the Lady of the Lake in October 2019.[72] Netflix In 2018 ordered a 10-episode series based on the book that was released in July 2020.[73] In December 2019, DC released Dark Knight Returns: The Golden Child, the fourth series set in The Dark Knight Returns universe. It is written by Miller with artwork by Rafael Grampa.[74] Legal issues[edit] In October 2012, Joanna Gallardo-Mills, who began working for Miller as an executive coordinator in November 2008, filed suit against Miller in Manhattan for discrimination and "mental anguish", stating that Miller's former girlfriend, Kimberly Cox, created a hostile work environment for Gallardo-Mills in Miller and Cox's Hell's Kitchen living and work space.[75] In July 2020, producer Stephen L'Heureux, who worked on Sin City: A Dame to Kill For, filed a $25 million defamation and economic interference lawsuit against Miller and fellow producer Silenn Thomas. L'Heureux alleged the pair had repeatedly made, "false, misleading and defamatory statements" about L'Heureux's ownership of the developmental rights of Sin City and Hard Boiled to Skydance Media CEO David Ellison and other Skydance executives and prevented the creation of a film adaptation of Hard Boiled and a TV series based on Sin City. Miller's attorney Allen Grodsky denied the allegation stating, "The claims asserted in Mr. L'Heureux's lawsuit are baseless, and we will be aggressively defending this lawsuit".[76] Public image[edit] In July 2011 at the San Diego Comic-Con International while promoting his upcoming graphic novel Holy Terror in which the protagonist hero fights Al-Qaeda terrorists, Miller made a remark about Islamic terrorism and Islam saying, "I was raised Catholic and I could tell you a lot about the Spanish Inquisition but the mysteries of the Catholic Church elude me. And I could tell you a lot about Al-Qaeda, but the mysteries of Islam elude me too."[77] In November 2011, Miller posted remarks pertaining to the Occupy Wall Street movement on his blog, calling it "nothing but a pack of louts, thieves, and rapists, fed by Woodstock-era nostalgia and putrid false righteousness." He said of the movement, "Wake up, pond scum. America is at war against a ruthless enemy. Maybe, between bouts of self-pity and all the other tasty tidbits of narcissism you've been served up in your sheltered, comfy little worlds, you've heard terms like al-Qaeda and Islamicism."[78][79] Miller's statement generated controversy.[80] In a 2018 interview, Miller backed away from his comments saying that he "wasn't thinking clearly" when he made them and alluded to a very dark time in his life during which they were made.[81] Personal life[edit] Miller was married to colorist Lynn Varley from 1986[50] to 2005;[82] she colored many of his most acclaimed works (from Ronin in 1984 through 300 in 1998) and the backgrounds to the 2007 movie 300. Miller has since been romantically linked to New York-based Shakespearean scholar Kimberly Halliburton Cox,[83][84] who had a cameo in The Spirit (2008). In response to claims that his comics are conservative, Miller said, "I'm not a conservative. I'm a libertarian."[85] In November 2011, Miller wrote a blog post criticizing the Occupy movement, which he called "nothing short of a clumsy, poorly-expressed attempt at anarchy, to the extent that the 'movement' – HAH! Some 'movement', except if the word 'bowel' is attached - is anything more than an ugly fashion statement by a bunch of iPhone, iPad wielding spoiled brats who should stop getting in the way of working people and find jobs for themselves."[86] Style and influence[edit] Marv walking through the rain in The Hard Goodbye cover by Frank Miller, illustrating Miller's film noir-influenced visual style Although still conforming to traditional comic book styles, Miller infused his first issue of Daredevil with his own film noir style.[42] Miller sketched the roofs of New York in an attempt to give his Daredevil art an authentic feel not commonly seen in superhero comics at the time. One journalist noted, Daredevil's New York, under Frank's run, became darker and more dangerous than the Spider-Man New York he'd seemingly lived in before. New York City itself, particularly Daredevil's Hell's Kitchen neighborhood, became as much a character as the shadowy crimefighter; the stories often took place on the rooftop level, with water towers, pipes and chimneys jutting out to create a skyline reminiscent of German Expressionism's dramatic edges and shadows.[87] Ronin shows some of the strongest influences of manga and bande dessinée on Miller's style, both in the artwork and narrative style.[88] Sin City was drawn in black and white to emphasize its film noir origins. Miller has said he opposes naturalism in comic art: "People are attempting to bring a superficial reality to superheroes which is rather stupid. They work best as the flamboyant fantasies they are. I mean, these are characters that are broad and big. I don't need to see sweat patches under Superman's arms. I want to see him fly."[89] Praise and criticism[edit] Daredevil: Born Again and The Dark Knight Returns were both critical successes and influential on subsequent generations of creators to the point of being considered classics of the medium. Batman: Year One was also met with praise for its gritty style, while comics including Ronin, 300 and Sin City were also successful, cementing Miller's place as a legend of comic books. However, later material such as Batman: The Dark Knight Strikes Again received mixed reviews. In particular, All Star Batman and Robin the Boy Wonder was widely considered a sign of Miller's creative decline.[90][91][92] Miller's graphic novel Holy Terror was accused of being anti-Islamic.[93] Fellow comic book writer Alan Moore has described Miller's work from Sin City-onward as homophobic and misogynistic, despite praising his early Batman and Daredevil material. Moore previously penned a flattering introduction to an early collected edition of The Dark Knight Returns,[94] and the two have remained friends.[95] Miller later said that he regretted Holy Terror, saying, "I don't want to wipe out chapters of my own biography. But I'm not capable of that book again."[81] In terms of Miller's film career, his 2008 adaptation of The Spirit received negative reviews, earning a Rotten Tomatoes approval rating of 14% based on 111 reviews, with an average rating of 3.58/10,[96] Metacritic gave it an aggregate score of 30 out of 100, based on 24 critics, indicating "generally negative reviews".[97] and a metascore of 30/100 at Metacritic.com.[98] Meanwhile, his film adaptation of Sin City was well received by audiences and critics.[99] Awards[edit] Inkpot Awards Received an Inkpot Award – 1981[100] Kirby Awards Best Single Issue – 1986 Daredevil #227 "Apocalypse" (Marvel) 1987 Batman: The Dark Knight Returns #1 "The Dark Knight Returns" (DC) Best Writer/Artist (single or team) – 1986 Frank Miller and David Mazzucchelli, for Daredevil: Born Again (Marvel) Best Graphic Album, 1987 Batman: The Dark Knight Returns (DC) Best Art Team – 1987 Frank Miller, Klaus Janson and Lynn Varley, for Batman: The Dark Knight Returns (DC) Eisner Awards Best Writer/Artist — 1991 for Elektra Lives Again (Marvel) 1993 for Sin City (Dark Horse) 1999 for 300 (Dark Horse) Best Graphic Album: New – 1991 Elektra Lives Again (Marvel) Best Finite Series/Limited Series — 1991 Give Me Liberty (Dark Horse) 1995 Sin City: A Dame to Kill For (Dark Horse/Legend) 1996 Sin City: The Big Fat Kill (Dark Horse/Legend) 1999 300 (Dark Horse) Best Graphic Album: Reprint — 1993 Sin City (Dark Horse) 1998 Sin City: That Yellow Bastard (Dark Horse) Best Artist/Penciller/Inker or Penciller/Inker Team – 1993 for Sin City (Dark Horse) Best Short Story – 1995 "The Babe Wore Red", in Sin City: The Babe Wore Red and Other Stories (Dark Horse/Legend) Eisner Awards Hall Of Fame, 2015 Harvey Awards Best Continuing or Limited Series – 1996 Sin City (Dark Horse) 1999 300 (Dark Horse) Best Graphic Album of Original Work – 1998 Sin City: Family Values (Dark Horse) Best Domestic Reprint Project – 1997 Batman: The Dark Knight Returns, 10th Anniversary Edition (DC) Eagle Awards Favourite Comicbook Penciler — 1983 Favourite Comicbook Writer: U.S. — 1986 Roll of Honour — 1987 Favourite Comicbook Penciler — 1987 Favourite Comic Album: U.S. — 1987 Batman: The Dark Knight Returns (DC) Favourite Cover: U.S. — 1987 Batman: The Dark Knight Returns #1 (DC) Favourite Comic Album: US — 1988 Daredevil: Love and War (DC) Favourite Black & White Comicbook — 2000 Hell and Back (A Sin City Love Story) (Dark Horse) Favourite Comics Writer/Artist — 2002 Favourite Comics-Related Book — 2006 Eisner/Miller (Dark Horse) Favourite Comics Writer/Artist — 2012 UK Comic Art Award Best Original Graphic Novel/One-Shot — 1991 Elektra Lives Again (Epic Comics) Best Writer/Artist — 1992 Best Writer/Artist — 1993 Best Graphic Novel Collection — 1993 Sin City Best Writer/Artist — 1994 Cannes Film Festival Palme d'Or – 2005 (nominated) Sin City (Dimension Films) Scream Awards The Comic-Con Icon Award – 2006 Bibliography[edit] DC Comics[edit] Weird War Tales (a): "Deliver Me from D-Day" (with Wyatt Gwyon, in #64, 1978) "The Greatest Story Never Told" (with Paul Kupperberg, in #68, 1978) "The Day After Doomsday" (with Roger McKenzie, in #68, 1978) Unknown Soldier #219: "The Edge of History" (a, with Elliot S. Maggin, 1978) Batman: Batman: The Greatest Stories Ever Told Volume 1 (tpb, 192 pages, 2005, ISBN 1-4012-0444-9) includes: DC Special Series #21: "Wanted: Santa Claus—Dead or Alive!" (a, with Dennis O'Neil, 1979) Absolute Dark Knight (hc, 512 pages, 2006, ISBN 1-4012-1079-1) collects: Batman: The Dark Knight Returns #1–4 (w/a, 1986) Batman: The Dark Knight Strikes Again #1–3 (w/a, 2001) The Dark Knight III: The Master Race #1–9 (w, with Brian Azzarello and Andy Kubert, 2015–2017) The Dark Knight Returns: The Last Crusade (w, with Brian Azzarello and John Romita Jr., 2016) Dark Knight Returns: The Golden Child (w, with Rafael Grampá and Jordie Bellaire, 2019) Batman: Year One (hc, 144 pages, 2005, ISBN 1-4012-0690-5; tpb, 2007, ISBN 1-4012-0752-9) collects: Batman #404–407 (w, with David Mazzucchelli, 1987) All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder #1–10 (w, with Jim Lee, 2005–2008) Issues #1–9 collected as Volume 1 (hc, 240 pages, 2008, ISBN 1-4012-1681-1; tpb, 2009, ISBN 1-4012-2008-8) Ronin #1–6 (w/a, 1983) collected as Ronin (tpb, 302 pages, 1987, ISBN 0-446-38674-X; hc, 328 pages, 2008, ISBN 1-4012-1908-X) Superman #400: "The Living Legends of Superman" (a, with Elliot S. Maggin, among other artists, 1984) Fanboy #5 (a, with Mark Evanier, among other artists, 1999) collected in Fanboy (tpb, 144 pages, 2001, ISBN 1-56389-724-5) Superman and Batman: World's Funnest: "Last Imp Standing!" (a, with Evan Dorkin, among other artists, one-shot, 2000) Orion #3: "Tales of the New Gods: Nativity" (a, with Walt Simonson, 2000) collected in O: The Gates of Apokolips (tpb, 144 pages, 2001, ISBN 1-56389-778-4) Superman: Year One #1-3 (w, with John Romita Jr., 2019) Marvel Comics[edit] John Carter, Warlord of Mars #18: "Meanwhile, Back in Helium!" (a, with Chris Claremont, 1978) collected in Edgar Rice Burroughs' John Carter, Warlord of Mars (tpb, 632 pages, Dark Horse, 2011, ISBN 1-59582-692-0) and John Carter, Warlord of Mars Omnibus (hc, 624 pages, 2012, ISBN 0-7851-5990-8) The Complete Frank Miller Spider-Man (hc, 208 pages, 2002, ISBN 0-7851-0899-8) collects: The Spectacular Spider-Man #27–28 (a, with Bill Mantlo, 1979) The Amazing Spider-Man Annual #14–15 (a, with Dennis O'Neil, 1980–1981) Marvel Team-Up: "Introducing: Karma!" (w/a, with Chris Claremont, in #100, 1980) "Power Play!" (w, with Herb Trimpe, in Annual #4, 1981) Marvel Two-in-One #51: "Full House—Dragons High!" (a, with Peter B. Gillis, 1979) collected in Essential Marvel Two-in-One Volume 2 (tpb, 568 pages, 2007, ISBN 0-7851-2698-8) Daredevil: Daredevil by Frank Miller & Klaus Janson Omnibus (hc, 840 pages, 2007, ISBN 0-7851-2343-1) collects: "A Grave Mistake" (a, with Roger McKenzie, in #158, 1979) "Marked for Death" (a, with Roger McKenzie, in #159–161, 1979–1980) "Blind Alley" (a, with Roger McKenzie, in #163, 1980) "Exposé" (a, with Roger McKenzie, in #164, 1980) "Arms of the Octopus" (w/a, with Roger McKenzie, in #165, 1980) "Till Death Do Us Part!" (w/a, with Roger McKenzie, in #166, 1980) "...The Mauler!" (a, with David Michelinie, in #167, 1980) "Elektra" (w/a, in #168, 1981) "Devils" (w/a, in #169, 1980) "Gangwars" (w/a, in #170–172, 1981) "The Assassination of Matt Murdock" (w/a, in #173–175, 1981) "Hunters" (w/a, in #176–177, 1981) "Paper Chase" (w/a, in #178–180, 1982) "Last Hand" (w/a, in #181–182, 1982) "Child's Play" (w/a, with Roger McKenzie, in #183–184, 1982) "Guts & Stilts" (w, with Klaus Janson, in #185–186, 1982) "Widow's Bite" (w, with Klaus Janson, in #187–190, 1982–1983) "Roulette" (w/a, in #191, 1983) What If? #28: "What If Daredevil became an agent of SHIELD" (w/a, in What If? #28, 1981) Daredevil Omnibus Companion (hc, 608 pages, 2008, ISBN 0-7851-2676-7) includes: "Badlands" (w, with John Buscema, in #219, 1985) "Warriors" (w, with Dennis O'Neil and David Mazzucchelli, in #226, 1986) "Born Again" (w, with David Mazzucchelli, in #227–233, 1986) Daredevil: Love and War (w, with Bill Sienkiewicz, graphic novel, tpb, 64 pages, 1986, ISBN 0-87135-172-2) Daredevil: The Man Without Fear #1–5 (w, with John Romita Jr., 1993) What If? #34: "What If Daredevil Were Deaf Instead of Blind?" (w/a, 1 page in What If? #34, 1982) Elektra by Frank Miller & Bill Sienkiewicz (hc, 400 pages, 2008, ISBN 0-7851-2777-1) collects: "Untitled" (w/a, in Bizarre Adventures #28, 1981) What If? #35: "What If Bullseye Had Not Killed Elektra?" (w/a, in What If? #35, 1982) Elektra: Assassin #1–8 (w, with Bill Sienkiewicz, 1986–1987) Elektra Lives Again (w/a, graphic novel, hc, 80 pages, 1991, ISBN 0-7851-0890-4) Marvel Spotlight vol. 2 #8: "Planet Where Time Stood Still!" (a, with Mike W. Barr and Dick Riley, 1980) Marvel Preview #23: "Final Warning" (a, with Lynn Graeme, 1980) Power Man and Iron Fist #76: "Death Scream of the Warhawk!" (a, with Chris Claremont and Mike W. Barr, 1981) Bizarre Adventures #31: "The Philistine" (a, with Dennis O'Neil, 1982) Fantastic Four Roast (a, with Fred Hembeck, among other artists, one-shot, 1982) Wolverine #1–4 (a, with Chris Claremont, 1982) collected as Wolverine (hc, 144 pages, 2007, ISBN 0-7851-2572-8; tpb, 2009, ISBN 0-7851-3724-6) Incredible Hulk Annual #11: "Unus Unchained" (a, with Mary Jo Duffy, 1981) Marvel Fanfare #18: "Home Fires!" (a, with Roger Stern, 1984) Sensational She-Hulk #50: "He's Dead?!" (a, with John Byrne, among other artists, 1993) Dark Horse Comics[edit] The Life and Times of Martha Washington in the Twenty-First Century (hc, 600 pages, 2009, ISBN 1-59307-654-1) collects: Give Me Liberty #1–4 (w, with Dave Gibbons, 1990–1991) also collected as Give Me Liberty (tpb, 216 pages, 1992, ISBN 0-440-50446-5) Martha Washington Goes to War #1–5 (w, with Dave Gibbons, 1994) also collected as MWGTW (tpb, 144 pages, 1996, ISBN 1-56971-090-2) Happy Birthday, Martha Washington (w, with Dave Gibbons, one-shot, 1995) Martha Washington Stranded in Space (w, with Dave Gibbons, one-shot, 1995) Martha Washington Saves the World #1–3 (w, with Dave Gibbons, 1997–1998) also collected as MWSTW (tpb, 112 pages, 1999, ISBN 1-56971-384-7) Martha Washington Dies: "2095" (w, with Dave Gibbons, one-shot, 2007) Hard Boiled #1–3 (w, with Geof Darrow, 1990–1992) collected as Hard Boiled (tpb, 128 pages, 1993, ISBN 1-878574-58-2) Sin City (w/a): Sin City (tpb, 208 pages, 1993, ISBN 1-878574-59-0) collects: "Episode 1" (in Dark Horse Presents 5th Anniversary Special, 1991) "Episodes 2–13" (in Dark Horse Presents #51–62, 1991–1992) A Dame to Kill for (tpb, 208 pages, 1994, ISBN 1-878574-59-0) collects: A Dame to Kill for #1–6 (1993–1994) The Big Fat Kill (tpb, 184 pages, 1996, ISBN 1-56971-171-2) collects: The Big Fat Kill #1–5 (1994–1995) That Yellow Bastard (tpb, 240 pages, 1997, ISBN 1-56971-225-5) collects: That Yellow Bastard #1–6 (1996) Family Values (graphic novel, tpb, 128 pages, 1997, ISBN 1-56971-313-8) Booze, Broads, & Bullets (tpb, 160 pages, 1998, ISBN 1-56971-366-9) collects: "Just Another Saturday Night" (in Sin City #1/2, 1997) "Fat Man and Little Boy" (in San Diego Comic Con Comics #4, 1995) "The Customer is Always Right" (in San Diego Comic Con Comics #2, 1992) Silent Night (one-shot, 1995) "And Behind Door Number Three?" (in The Babe Wore Red and Other Stories one-shot, 1994) "Blue Eyes" (in Lost, Lonely, & Lethal one-shot, 1996) "Rats" (in Lost, Lonely, & Lethal one-shot, 1996) "Daddy's Little Girl" (in A Decade of Dark Horse #1, 1996) Sex & Violence (one-shot, 1997) "The Babe Wore Red" (in The Babe Wore Red and Other Stories one-shot, 1994) Hell and Back (tpb, 312 pages, 2001, ISBN 1-56971-481-9) collects: Hell and Back, a Sin City Love Story #1–9 (1999–2000) RoboCop vs. The Terminator #1–4 (w, with Walt Simonson, 1992) Madman Comics #6–7 (w, with Mike Allred, 1995) collected in Madman Volume 2 (tpb, 456 pages, 2007, ISBN 1-58240-811-4) The Big Guy and Rusty the Boy Robot #1–2 (w, with Geof Darrow, 1995) collected as TBG and RtBR (tpb, 80 pages, 1996, ISBN 1-56971-201-8) Dark Horse Presents (w/a): "Lance Blastoff!" (in #100-1, 1995) "Lance Blastoff, America's Favourite Hero!" (in #114, 1996) 300 #1–5 (w/a, 1998) collected as 300 (hc, 88 pages, 2000, ISBN 1-56971-402-9; tpb, 2002) Dark Horse Maverick 2000: "Mercy!" (w/a, anthology one-shot, 2000) 9-11: Artists Respond, Volume One: "Untitled" (w/a, graphic novel, tpb, 196 pages, 2002, ISBN 1-56389-881-0) Dark Horse Maverick: Happy Endings: "The End" (w/a, anthology graphic novel, tpb, 96 pages, 2002, ISBN 1-56971-820-2) Autobiografix: "Man with Pen in Head" (w/a, anthology graphic novel, tpb, 104 pages, 2003, ISBN 1-59307-038-1) Usagi Yojimbo #100 (w/a, among others, 2009) collected in UY: Bridge of Tears (hc, 248 pages, 2009, ISBN 1-59582-297-6; tpb, 2009, ISBN 1-59582-298-4) Xerxes: The Fall of the House of Darius and the Rise of Alexander #1-5 (w/a, 2018) Other publishers[edit] Ms. Tree #1–4: "Frank Miller's Famous Detective Pin-Up" (w/a, Eclipse, 1983) Strip AIDS U.S.A.: "Robohomophobe!" (w/a, anthology graphic novel, tpb, 140 pages, Last Gasp, 1988, ISBN 0-86719-373-5) AARGH! #1: "The Future of Law Enforcement" (w/a, Mad Love, 1988) Spawn (w, Image): "Home Story" (with Todd McFarlane, in #11, 1993) collected in Spawn: Dark Discoveries (tpb, 120 pages, 1997, ISBN 1-887279-18-0) Spawn/Batman (with Todd McFarlane, one-shot, 1994) Bad Boy (w, with Simon Bisley, Oni Press, one-shot, 1997) Holy Terror (w/a, graphic novel, hc, 120 pages, Legendary Comics, 2011, ISBN 1-937278-00-X) Cover work[edit] Marvel Premiere #49, 53–54, 58 (Marvel, 1979–1981) Marvel Spotlight #2, 5, 7 (Marvel, 1979–1980) Uncanny X-Men Annual #3 (Marvel, 1979) Marvel Super Special #14 (Marvel, 1979) ROM Spaceknight #1, 3, 17–18 (Marvel, 1979–1981) The Avengers #193 (Marvel, 1980) Captain America #241, 245, 255, Annual #5 (Marvel, 1980–1981) The Amazing Spider-Man #203, 218–219 (Marvel, 1980–1981) Marvel Team-Up #95, 99, 102, 106, Annual #3 (Marvel, 1980–1981) Star Trek #5, 10 (Marvel, 1980–1981) The Spectacular Spider-Man #46, 48, 50–52, 54–57, 60 (Marvel, 1980–1981) Spider-Woman #31–32 (Marvel, 1980) Power Man and Iron Fist #66, 68, 70–74 (Marvel, 1980–1981) Machine Man #19 (Marvel, 1981) Doctor Strange #46 (Marvel, 1981) Star Wars #47 (Marvel, 1981) The Incredible Hulk #258, 261, 264, 268 (Marvel, 1981–1982) Micronauts #31 (Marvel, 1981) Moon Knight #9, 12, 15, 27 (Marvel, 1981) What If? #27 (Marvel, 1981) Ghost Rider #59 (Marvel, 1981) Amazing Heroes #4, 25, 69 (Fantagraphics Books, 1981–1985) Marvel Fanfare #1 (Marvel, 1982) World's Finest Comics #285 (DC Comics, 1982) Wonder Woman #298 (DC Comics, 1982) Spider-Man and Daredevil Special Edition (Marvel, 1984) The New Adventures of Superboy #51 (cover, 1984) Batman and the Outsiders Annual #1 (cover, 1984) Destroyer Duck #7 (Eclipse, 1984) Superman: The Secret Years #1–4 (DC Comics, 1985) 'Mazing Man #12 (DC Comics, 1986) Anything Goes! #2 (Fantagraphics Books, 1986) Lone Wolf and Cub #1–12 (First Comics, 1987–1988) Death Rattle #18 (Kitchen Sink, 1988) Eternal Warrior #1 (Valiant, 1992) Archer & Armstrong #1 (Valiant, 1992) Magnus, Robot Fighter #15 (Valiant, 1992) X-O Manowar #7 (Valiant, 1992) Shadowman #4 (Valiant, 1992) Rai #6 (Valiant, 1992) Harbinger #8 (Valiant, 1992) Solar, Man of the Atom #12 (Valiant, 1992) Comics' Greatest World: Arcadia #1 (Dark Horse, 1993) John Byrne's Next Men #17 (Dark Horse, 1993) Marvel Age #127 (Marvel, 1993) Comics' Greatest World: Vortex #4 (Dark Horse, 1993) Zorro #1 (Topps, 1993) X: One Shot to the Head #4 (Dark Horse, 1994) Medal of Honor #4 (Dark Horse, 1995) Mickey Spillane's Mike Danger #1 (Tekno Comix, 1995) Prophet #2 (Extreme Studios, 1995) X #18–22 (Dark Horse, 1995–1996) G.I. Joe #1 (Dark Horse, 1995) Batman Black and White #2 (DC Comics, 1996) Dark Horse Presents #115 (Dark Horse, 1996) Heavy Metal #183 (HM Communications, 1999) Bone #38 (Cartoon Books, 2000) Spawn #100 (Image, 2000) Green Lantern/Superman: Legend of the Green Flame #1 (DC Comics, 2000) Dark Horse Maverick 2001 (Dark Horse, 2001) The Escapists #1 (Dark Horse, 2006) Jurassic Park #1 (IDW Publishing, 2010) Dark Horse Presents #1 (Dark Horse, 2011) The Creep #0 (Dark Horse, 2012) Detective Comics vol. 2, #27 (variant) (DC Comics, 2014) Moonshine #1 (image, 2016) Shaolin Cowboy: Who'll Stop the Reign #1 (Dark Horse, 2017) Films[edit] RoboCop 2—Miller's original script was heavily edited through rewrites as it was deemed unfilmable. The original script was adapted in 2003 by Steven Grant into the comics series, Frank Miller's RoboCop. RoboCop 3—Miller co-wrote this with the film's director Fred Dekker. The original script was adapted in 2013–2014 by Steven Grant into the comics series, RoboCop: Last Stand. Sin City—Miller made his directorial debut in this 2005 adaptation of his Sin City yarns, co-directing with Robert Rodriguez. 300—Miller was a producer for the film, which adapted the original comics series, shot-for-shot, into a feature film in 2006. The Spirit—Although Miller co-directed Sin City, this 2008 film was his first solo directing project. He also wrote the screenplay. Batman: Year One—This was co-written and was due to be directed by Darren Aronofsky until Warner Bros. cancelled the project opting for Christopher Nolan's Batman Begins. It was finally adapted into an animated film, produced by Bruce Timm, resulting in a direct-to-home-media released in October, 2011. Batman: The Dark Knight Returns—A two-part direct-to-DVD animated film based on The Dark Knight Returns was released in 2012 and 2013 respectively. Sin City: A Dame to Kill For—In 2005, after Sin City was released, Robert Rodriguez announced plans for a follow-up film that would feature many of the same characters.[101] He planned for the film to be based on A Dame to Kill For.[102] Miller said the film would be a prequel and a sequel with interlinking stories both before and after the first film. Miller, who was writing the screenplay in 2006, had anticipated for production to begin later in the year. The film, co-directed by Miller and Rodriguez, was released in August 2014.[103] The film version of Daredevil (2003) predominantly used the tone established and stories written by Miller, who had no direct creative input on the film (except for a cameo appearance). In Elektra (2005), Miller received credit for "comic book characters". The Wolverine (2013) was inspired by the 1982 Wolverine miniseries that Miller penciled with writer Chris Claremont. Cameo appearances[edit] Frank Miller has appeared in six films in small, cameo roles, dying in each. In RoboCop 2 (1990), he plays "Frank, the chemist" and dies in an explosion in an illegal drug lab.[104] In Jugular Wine: A Vampire Odyssey (1994), he is killed by vampires in front of Marvel Comics' Stan Lee.[105] In Daredevil (2003),[106] he appears as a corpse with a pen in his head, thrown by Bullseye, who steals his motorcycle. The credits list Frank Miller as "Man with Pen in Head". In Sin City (2005), he plays the priest killed by Marv in the confessional.[107] In The Spirit (2008), which was written and directed by Miller, he appears as "Liebowitz", the officer whose head is ripped off by the Octopus and thrown at the Spirit. The name alludes to Jack Liebowitz, a co-founder of what became DC Comics.[108] In Sin City: A Dame to Kill For (2014), which Miller wrote and co-directed, he appears as "Sam", a man just shot by another character, played by Miller's co-director Robert Rodriguez, also in a cameo.[109] References[edit] ^ "Comics Industry Birthdays". Comics Buyer's Guide. Iola, Wisconsin (1650): 107. February 2009. ^ Miller, John Jackson (June 10, 2005). "Comics Industry Birthdays". Comics Buyer's Guide. Iola, Wisconsin. Archived from the original on February 18, 2011. ^ Dunning, John (n.d.). "Frank Miller: Comic Yo Kill For". Dazed. Archived from the original on May 10, 2016. Retrieved January 24, 2016. ^ a b Webster, Andy (July 20, 2008). "Artist-Director Seeks the Spirit of The Spirit". The New York Times. Archived from the original on December 11, 2008. ^ a b Lovece, Frank (December 22, 2008). "Spirit guide: Frank Miller adapts Will Eisner's cult comic". Film Journal International. Archived from the original on April 5, 2013. Retrieved December 25, 2008. ^ Applebaum, Stephen (December 22, 2008). "Frank Miller interview: It's no sin". The Scotsman. Edinburgh, Scotland. Archived from the original on October 15, 2012. Retrieved May 26, 2010. ^ The Cat #3 at the Grand Comics Database. ^ Miller, Frank (July 21, 2010). "Neal Adams". FrankMillerInk.com (official site). Archived from the original on August 3, 2010. Retrieved March 14, 2014. ^ "Royal Feast", The Twilight Zone #84 (June 1978) at the Grand Comics Database. ^ "Endless Cloud", The Twilight Zone #85 (July 1978) at the Grand Comics Database. ^ "Deliver Me From D-Day", Weird War Tales #64 (June 1978) at the Grand Comics Database ^ a b c Mithra, Kuljit (July 1998). "Interview with Jim Shooter". ManWithoutFear.com. Archived from the original on November 18, 2010. Retrieved October 3, 2010. ^ Weird War Tales #68 (Oct. 1978) at the Grand Comics Database ^ Frank Miller at the Grand Comics Database. NOTE: A different artist named Frank Miller was active in the 1940s. He died December 3, 1949. ^ Saffel, Steve (2007). "A Not-So-Spectacular Experiment". Spider-Man the Icon: The Life and Times of a Pop Culture Phenomenon. London, United Kingdom: Titan Books. p. 73. ISBN 978-1-84576-324-4. Frank Miller was the guest penciler for The Spectacular Spider-Man #27, February 1979, written by Bill Mantlo. [The issue's] splash page was the first time Miller's [rendition of] Daredevil appeared in a Marvel story. ^ a b "Daredevil by Frank Miller & Klaus Janson, Vol. 1". Goodreads. n.d. Archived from the original on April 12, 2016. ^ Sanderson, Peter; Gilbert, Laura, ed. (2008). "1970s". Marvel Chronicle A Year by Year History. London, United Kingdom: Dorling Kindersley. p. 189. ISBN 978-0-7566-4123-8. In this issue the great longtime Daredevil artist Gene Colan was succeeded by a new penciller who became a star himself: Frank Miller.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) ^ Mithra, Kuljit (February 1998). "Interview with Dennis O'Neil". ManWithoutFear.com. Archived from the original on March 21, 2013. Retrieved May 10, 2013. ^ a b c Kraft, David Anthony; Salicup, Jim (April 1983). "Frank Miller's Ronin". Comics Interview (2). Fictioneer Books. pp. 7–21. ^ DeFalco, Tom "1980s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 201: "Matt Murdock's college sweetheart first appeared in this issue [#168] by writer/artist Frank Miller." ^ DeFalco "1980s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 202: "Possibly modeled after Nantembo, a Zen master who reputedly disciplined his students by striking them with his nantin staff, Stick first appeared in this issue [#176] by Frank Miller." ^ DeFalco "1980s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 202: The Hand was a league of ninja assassins who employed dark magic...Introduced in Daredevil #174 by writer/artist Frank Miller, this group of deadly warriors had been hired by the Kingpin of Crime to exterminate Matt Murdock." ^ a b Cordier, Philippe (April 2007). "Seeing Red: Dissecting Daredevil's Defining Years". Back Issue!. Raleigh, North Carolina: TwoMorrows Publishing (21): 33–60. ^ DeFalco "1980s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 207: "Frank Miller did the unthinkable when he killed off the popular Elektra in Daredevil #181." ^ Manning, Matthew K.; Dougall, Alastair, ed. (2014). "1980s". Batman: A Visual History. London, United Kingdom: Dorling Kindersley. p. 136. ISBN 978-1-4654-2456-3. One of the most important creators ever to work on Batman, writer/artist Frank Miller drew his first Batman story in this issue. While it featured five self-contained tales, the story 'Wanted: Santa Claus – Dead or Alive', written by Denny O'Neil and penciled by Miller was the standout.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) ^ Manning, Matthew K.; Gilbert, Laura, ed. (2012). "1980s". Spider-Man Chronicle Celebrating 50 Years of Web-Slinging. London, United Kingdom: Dorling Kindersley. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-7566-9236-0. Writer Denny O'Neil and artist Frank Miller...used their considerable talents in this rare collaboration that teamed two other legends – Dr. Strange and Spider-Man.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) ^ Manning "1980s" in Gilbert (2012), p. 120: "Writer Denny O'Neil teamed with artist Frank Miller to concoct a Spider-Man annual that played to both their strengths. Miller and O'Neil seemed to flourish in the gritty world of street crime so tackling a Spider/Punisher fight was a natural choice." ^ DeFalco "1980s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 208: "The most popular member of the X-Men was finally featured in his first solo title, a four-issue limited series by writer Chris Claremont and writer/artist Frank Miller." ^ Goldstein, Hilary (May 19, 2006). "Wolverine TPB Review He's the best at what he does and so is Frank Miller". IGN. Archived from the original on April 11, 2013. Retrieved November 25, 2011. ^ Marx, Barry, Cavalieri, Joey and Hill, Thomas (w), Petruccio, Steven (a), Marx, Barry (ed). "Frank Miller Experiment in Creative Autonomy" Fifty Who Made DC Great: 50 (1985), DC Comics ^ Cronin, Brian (April 12, 2007). "Comic Book Urban Legends Revealed #98". Comic Book Resources. Archived from the original on July 31, 2013. Retrieved December 18, 2010. ^ Cronin, Brian (April 1, 2010). "Comic Book Legends Revealed #254". Comic Book Resources. Archived from the original on November 7, 2011. Retrieved November 6, 2011. ^ Jameson, A. D. (February 8, 2010). "Reading Frank Miller's Batman: The Dark Knight Returns, part 2". Big Other. Retrieved September 27, 2018. ^ Fleisher, Michael (1976). The Encyclopedia of Comic Book Heroes Volume 1 Batman. New York, New York: Collier Books. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-02-080090-3. ^ Nobleman, Marc Tyler (2012). Bill the Boy Wonder: The Secret Co-Creator of Batman. Charlesbridge Publishing. p. Back Matter. ISBN 978-1-58089-289-6. ^ The term appears on page seven of the story "The Joker" from Batman No. 1 (1940), which is reprinted in the book Batman Chronicles, Volume One (2005). In the lower right panel, Batman is shown swimming in the water after having been knocked off a bridge by the Joker, and the caption reads "THE SHOCK OF COLD WATER QUICKLY REVIVES THE DARK KNIGHT!" ^ Manning, Matthew K.; Dolan, Hannah, ed. (2010). "1980s". DC Comics Year By Year A Visual Chronicle. London, UK: Dorling Kindersley. p. 219. ISBN 978-0-7566-6742-9. It is arguably the best Batman story of all time. Written and drawn by Frank Miller by Frank Miller (with inspired inking by Klaus Janson and beautiful watercolors by Lynn Varley), Batman: The Dark Knight revolutionized the entire [archetype] of the super hero.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) ^ DeFalco "1980s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 226: "'Born Again' was a seven-issue story arc that appeared in Daredevil from issue #227 to #233 (Feb.–Aug. 1986) by writer Frank Miller and artist David Mazzucchelli." ^ Mithra, Kuljit (1997). "Interview With Walt Simonson". ManWithoutFear.com. Archived from the original on March 21, 2013. Retrieved March 17, 2013. The gist of it is that by the time Marvel was interested in having us work on the story, Frank was off doing Dark Knight and I was off doing X-Factor. So it never happened. Too bad—it was a cool story too. ^ DeFalco "1980s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 228: "Produced by Frank Miller and illustrated by Bill Sienkiewicz, Elektra: Assassin was an eight-issue limited series. Because its mature content was inappropriate for children, it was published by Marvel's Epic Comics imprint." ^ Manning "1980s" in Dolan, p. 227 "Melding Miller's noir sensibilities, realistic characterization, and gritty action with Mazzucchelli's brilliant iconic imagery, "Year One" thrilled readers and critics alike...as well as being one of the influences for the 2005 film Batman Begins. ^ a b Flinn, Tom. "Writer's Spotlight: Frank Miller: Comics' Noir Auteur," ICv2: Guide to Graphic Novels #40 (Q1 2007). ^ Manning, Matthew K. "1990s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 253: "Frank Miller made his triumphant return to Elektra, the character he breathed life into and then subsequently snuffed out, with the graphic novel Elektra Lives Again." ^ Irving, Christopher (December 1, 2010). "Frank Miller Part 1: Dames, Dark Knights, Devils, and Heroes". NYCGraphicNovelists.com. Archived from the original on July 1, 2012. Retrieved November 25, 2011. Miller works Matt's narrating captions between the present, the past, and his dream imagery of Elektra, a fragmentation given a voiceover straight out of an old crime book, but with a heavy dose of sensitivity that never veers into the maudlin. ^ Burgas, Greg (September 17, 2008). "Comics You Should Own – Hard Boiled". Comic Book Resources. Archived from the original on October 18, 2012. Retrieved November 25, 2011. [W]e can see that Miller and Darrow were creating a marvelous satire, one that pulls no punches and lets none of us off the hook, which is what the best satire does. Hard Boiled is a wild and extremely fun ride, but it's also an insightful examination of a sickness in our society that we don't like to confront. ^ Maslin, Janet (June 22, 1990). "Robocop 2 (1990) Review/Film; New Challenge and Enemy For a Cybernetic Organism". The New York Times. Retrieved November 25, 2011. ^ Ebert, Roger (November 5, 1993). "RoboCop 3". Chicago Sun-Times. Retrieved November 25, 2011. ^ "Miller: 'Robocop Movies Almost Put Me Off Hollywood'". Contactmusic.com. June 20, 2007. Retrieved November 25, 2011. ^ Lindenmuth, Brian (December 14, 2010). "The Fall (and Rise) of the Crime Comic". Mulholland Books. Retrieved November 13, 2011. As much as 100 Bullets is a cornerstone of the modern crime comic, it did not spring fully formed into the world. The modern crime comic era started a few years earlier with two releases: the high-profile Sin City by Frank Miller and the independent Stray Bullets by David Lapham. ^ a b Howe, Sean (August 20, 2014). "CULTURE: After His Public Downfall, *Sin City'*s Frank Miller Is Back (And Not Sorry)". Wired. ^ Manning "1990s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 264: "Comic legends Frank Miller and John Romita, Jr. united to tell a new version of Daredevil's origin in this carefully crafted five-issue miniseries." ^ Manning "1990s" in Dolan, p. 267: "This prestige one-shot marked Frank Miller's return to Batman and was labeled as a companion piece to his classic 1986 work Batman: The Dark Knight Returns. The issue was drawn by Todd McFarlane, one of the most popular artists in comic book history." ^ Green, Karen (December 3, 2010). "Into the Valley of Death?". ComiXology. Archived from the original on October 20, 2011. Retrieved November 25, 2011. It's like something out of Hollywood, right? Hollywood thought so, too. They made a movie in 1962 called The 300 Spartans, which 5-year-old Frank Miller saw in the theater, and it had a powerful influence on him. ^ Yarbrough, Beau (March 18, 1999). "Evan Dorkin Debuts World's Funnest". Comic Book Resources. Archived from the original on September 5, 2015. Retrieved August 21, 2017. ^ David Brothers. Sons of DKR: Frank Miller x TCJ, 4thletter, April 6, 2009 ^ Manning "2000s" in Dougall, p. 258: "With this three-issue prestige format story, writer/artist Miller once again set the scene for a large scale Batman adventure." ^ "Top 300 Comics–December 2001". ICv2. November 28, 2001. Archived from the original on September 13, 2016. Retrieved October 1, 2016. "Top 300 Comics–January 2002". ICv2. January 2, 2002. Archived from the original on September 13, 2016. Retrieved October 1, 2016. "Top 300 Comics–February 2002". ICv2. February 4, 2002. Archived from the original on September 13, 2016. Retrieved October 1, 2016. ^ Lalumière, Claude (September 21, 2002). "The Dark Knight Strikes Again". Archived from the original on June 16, 2016. Retrieved August 30, 2012. ^ Sabin, Roger (December 15, 2002). "Take a picture..." Archived from the original on March 29, 2016. Retrieved August 30, 2012. ^ "A Quick Miller Minute on All-Star Batman and Robin"[permanent dead link], Cliff Biggers Newsarama, February 9, 2005 ^ Manning "2000s" in Dougall, p. 282: "Together with penciller Jim Lee, Miller delivered a series that took place in a reality that began with Miller and David Mazzucchelli's 'Batman: Year One'." ^ Adler, Shawn (May 26, 2007). "Depp, Banderas To Call 'Sin City' Home?". MTV News. ^ McMillan, Graeme (July 11, 2015). "Comic-Con: Will Eisner Comic Industry Award Winners Announced". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on July 28, 2015. ^ "Superstar Writer/Artist Frank Miller Return to Batman!". DC Comics. April 24, 2015. Archived from the original on July 26, 2015. ^ Wheeler, Andrew (July 9, 2015). "Andy Kubert and Klaus Janson Join The Master Race (The Comic)". ComicsAlliance. Archived from the original on August 14, 2015. ^ Schedeen, Jesse (December 14, 2015). "The Dark Knight III #1 Dominates November's Comic Book Sales". IGN. ^ "THE DARK KNIGHT RETURNS: THE LAST CRUSADE #1". DC. Retrieved August 24, 2020. ^ Xerxes #1 ^ Arrant, Chris (July 22, 2017). "Superman: Year One By Frank Miller & John Romita Jr". Newsarama. Archived from the original on July 23, 2017. ^ Johnston, Rich (July 20, 2018). "Sneak Peek Inside DC Black Label's Batman: Damned and Superman: Year One". Bleeding Cool. Archived from the original on August 20, 2018. Retrieved August 21, 2018. ^ "SUPERMAN: YEAR ONE". Comic Book Roundup. Retrieved July 5, 2020. ^ Canfield, David (March 22, 2018). "Frank Miller to spin King Arthur legend into YA book Cursed". EW. ^ Andreeva, Nellie (March 28, 2018). "Netflix Orders TV Series 'Cursed' From Frank Miller & Tom Wheeler Based On Book Reimagining King Arthur Legend". Deadline. ^ "DARK KNIGHT RETURNS: THE GOLDEN CHILD #1". DC. November 27, 2019. Retrieved June 28, 2020. ^ Schram, Jamie (October 10, 2012). "Ex-staffer sues Dark Knight comic creator, girlfriend for hostile work environment", Daily News; accessed January 17, 2018. ^ Patten, Dominic (July 29, 2020). "'Cursed' Co-Creator Frank Miller Hit With $25M Defamation Suit By 'Sin City' Sequel Producer; Claims "Baseless", Comic Legend's Lawyer Says". Deadline. Retrieved August 10, 2020. ^ Daniels, Hunter (July 23, 2011). "Comic-Con 2011: Frank Miller on Holy Terror: 'I Hope This Book Really Pisses People Off'". Collider. Complex Media. Retrieved April 8, 2013. ^ "Anarchy I". Frank Miller Ink. November 7, 2011. Archived from the original on November 20, 2011. '"Occupy" is nothing but a pack of louts, thieves, and rapists, an unruly mob, fed by Woodstock-era nostalgia and putrid false righteousness.' ^ Mann, Ted. "Frank Miller Doesn't Think Much of Occupy Wall Street". ^ "The Honest Alan Moore Interview". 2011. Retrieved April 26, 2013. [The Occupy movement] is a completely justified howl of moral outrage and it seems to be handled in a very intelligent, non-violent way, which is probably another reason why Frank Miller would be less than pleased with it. I'm sure if it had been a bunch of young, sociopathic vigilantes with Batman make-up on their faces, he'd be more in favour of it. ^ a b Thielman, Sam (April 27, 2018). "Frank Miller: 'I wasn't thinking clearly when I said those things'". The Guardian. Archived from the original on July 11, 2018. ^ Davis, Johnny (April 27, 2012). "Icon: Frank Miller". GQ. Archived from the original on May 2, 2012. ^ Johnston, Rich (April 12, 2010). "Shakespearean Scholar (And Frank Miller's Girlfriend) Blasts KILL SHAKESPEARE". Bleeding Cool. ^ " Johnston, Rich (May 21, 2011). "Frank Miller Taken By The Rapture?". Bleeding Cool. ^ Reisman, Abraham (November 17, 2015). "Frank Miller Talks About Superman's Penis and His Plans for a Children's Book". Vulture. Retrieved December 25, 2019. ^ McVeigh, Karen (November 14, 2011). "Screenwriter Frank Miller calls Occupy protesters 'thieves and rapists'". The Guardian. Retrieved December 5, 2020. ^ Irving in NYCGraphicNovelists.com ^ Manning "1980s" in Dolan, p. 202: The comic was an unusual blend of the influences on Miller by French cartoonist Moebius and Japanese Manga comic books. ^ Hillhouse, Jason (writer) (2005). Legends of the Dark Knight: The History of Batman. New Wave Entertainment. Archived from the original (DVD) on October 31, 2014. Retrieved October 9, 2013. ^ Gatevackes, William (February 10, 2006). "All-Star Batman & Robin #1–3". PopMatters.com. Archived from the original on March 14, 2009. Retrieved December 20, 2012. ^ Biggers, Cliff. Comic Shop News #1064, November 7, 2007 ^ Robinson, Iann (December 17, 2007). "Review". Crave Online. Archived from the original on January 14, 2009. Retrieved 20 December 2012. ^ Hernandez, Michael (October 25, 2011). "Holy Terror comic is 'Islamophobic', say critics". The National. Archived from the original on January 14, 2013. Retrieved November 25, 2011. Miller's mixing of Muslims and Arabs – the book never differentiates – with terrorists highlights Holy Terror's unflattering portrayal of Muslims. ^ Flood, Alison (December 6, 2011). "Alan Moore attacks Frank Miller in comic book war of words". The Guardian. London. Retrieved December 20, 2012. ^ "Frank Miller parla di Alan Moore e di Batman V Superman". YouTube. September 15, 2014. ^ "The Spirit (2008)". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved January 31, 2011. ^ "The Spirit reviews". Metacritic. Retrieved January 31, 2011. ^ "The Spirit". Metacritic.com. Retrieved December 20, 2012. ^ "Sin City Reviews". Metacritic. Retrieved September 19, 2013. ^ "Inkpot Award Winners". Hahn Library Comic Book Awards Almanac. Archived from the original on July 9, 2012. Retrieved October 1, 2016. ^ Briggs, Caroline (May 19, 2005). "Sin City writer defends violence". BBC. ^ "Sin City Sequel in the Works". IGN. May 23, 2005. Retrieved March 4, 2011. ^ Vineyard, Jennifer (March 29, 2006). "Sin City Characters – Even Dead Ones – Returning For Sequel". MTV. Retrieved March 4, 2011. ^ Frank Miller's Robocop, robocoparchive.com ^ Lindenmuth, Kevin J. (1998). Making Movies On Your Own: Practical Talk From Independent Filmmakers. McFarland & Company. p. 114. ISBN 0-7864-0517-1. Retrieved November 25, 2011. Frank Miller Stan Lee cameo Jugular Wine. ^ "Frank Miller". Avatar Press. Retrieved November 26, 2011. Miller's filmography also includes...a handful of film cameos including an appearance in the 2003 film Daredevil. ^ "Frank Miller's Sin City" TV Guide.com. Retrieved August 21, 2011. ^ "The Annotated Spirit: A Guide to the Movie's In-joke References". Filmjournal.com. December 22, 2008. Retrieved November 8, 2010. ^ Hawks, Asa (August 23, 2014). "Robert Rodriguez on Sin City 3, his mini movie with Frank Miller in Sin City 2 and why Clive Owen was not in A Dame To Kill For". starcasm.net. Chicory Media LLC. Retrieved December 13, 2014. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Frank Miller. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Frank Miller (comics) Biography portal Comics portal Official website Frank Miller at the Comic Book DB (archived from the original) Frank Miller at the TCM Movie Database The Complete Works of Frank Miller Frank Miller on IMDb Frank Miller at the Unofficial Handbook of Marvel Comics Creators Frank Miller at Curlie Frank Miller at Library of Congress Authorities, with 65 catalog records Preceded by Gene Colan Daredevil artist 1979–1983 Succeeded by Klaus Janson Preceded by Roger McKenzie Daredevil writer 1981–1983 Succeeded by Dennis O'Neil Preceded by Dennis O'Neil Daredevil writer 1986 Succeeded by Ann Nocenti Preceded by Max Allan Collins Batman writer 1987 Succeeded by Max Allan Collins v t e Frank Miller Batman comics The Dark Knight Returns Batman: Year One Spawn/Batman The Dark Knight Strikes Again All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder The Dark Knight III: The Master Race Other comics Written Bad Boy The Big Guy and Rusty the Boy Robot Daredevil "Born Again" Elektra: Assassin Give Me Liberty Martha Washington Hard Boiled RoboCop RoboCop Versus The Terminator Written and drawn 300 Daredevil Elektra Lives Again Rōnin Sin City The Hard Goodbye A Dame to Kill For The Big Fat Kill That Yellow Bastard Family Values Hell and Back Holy Terror Xerxes Drawn The Twilight Zone Daredevil Wolverine Heroes for Hope Characters DC Comics Arnold John Flass Carmine Falcone Carrie Kelley Gillian B. Loeb Holly Robinson James Gordon Jr. Officer Merkel Sarah Essen Marvel Comics Chaste Elektra John Garrett Karma Kirigi Maggie Murdock Mauler Nuke Shingen Yashida Stick Sin City Ava Lord Dwight McCarthy Goldie and Wendy John Hartigan Kevin Marv Miho Nancy Callahan Roark family The Girls of Old Town Wallace Wallenquist Organization Film adaptations RoboCop 2 (1990) RoboCop 3 (1993) Sin City (2005) 300 (2006) The Spirit (2008) Batman: Year One (2011) Batman: The Dark Knight Returns Part One (2012) Batman: The Dark Knight Returns Part Two (2013) 300: Rise of an Empire (2014) Sin City: A Dame to Kill For (2014) Television and video games RoboCop Versus The Terminator (1993) The Big Guy and Rusty the Boy Robot (1999–2001) 300: March to Glory (2007) v t e Eisner Award for Best Penciller/Inker or Penciller/Inker Team Frank Miller / P. Craig Russell (1993) P. Craig Russell (1994) Dave Gibbons (1995) Geof Darrow (1996) Charles Vess (1997) P. Craig Russell (1998) Tim Sale (1999) Kevin Nowlan (2000) P. Craig Russell (2001) Eduardo Risso (2002) Kevin O'Neill (2003) John Cassaday (2004) John Cassaday / Frank Quitely (2005) John Cassaday (2006) Mark Buckingham / Steve Leialoha (2007) Pia Guerra / José Marzan Jr. (2008) Guy Davis (2009) J. H. Williams III (2010) Skottie Young (2011) Ramón K. Pérez (2012) David Aja / Chris Samnee (2013) Sean Murphy (2014) Fiona Staples (2015) Cliff Chiang (2016) Fiona Staples (2017) Mitch Gerads (2018) Mitch Gerads (2019) Rosemary Valero-O'Connell (2020) v t e Inkpot Award (1980s) 1980 Terry Austin Murray Bishoff Pat Boyette John Byrne Canadian Film Board Ernie Chan Chris Claremont Shary Flenniken Mike Friedrich Rick Geary Don Glut S. Gross Al Hartley B. Kliban Jerry Muller Joe Orlando Fred Patten Don Phelps Richard Pini Wendy Pini David Raskin Scott Shaw! Jim Shooter John Stanley B. K. Taylor Osamu Tezuka Adam West Wally Wood 1981 Jerry Bails L. B. 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Crumb Howard Cruse Kevin Eastman Lee Falk Ron Goulart Walt Kelly Peter Laird Syd Mead Andre Norton Jerry Robinson Diana Schutz Janet Tait Ron Turner Gahan Wilson Complete list 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s Authority control BIBSYS: 90272970 BNE: XX846877 BNF: cb12018052t (data) CANTIC: a12100006 GND: 130465313 ISNI: 0000 0001 2148 9691 LCCN: n85347650 NDL: 00515031 NKC: xx0013415 NLA: 54852963 NLK: KAC200606272 NLP: A28722310 NTA: 073053112 PLWABN: 9810694257505606 SELIBR: 311284 SNAC: w6h43xwt SUDOC: 028320433 ULAN: 500128961 VIAF: 119775784 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n85347650 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frank_Miller_(comics)&oldid=1002224618" Categories: Frank Miller (comics) 1957 births American comics artists American comics writers American graphic novelists American libertarians American male novelists American people of Irish descent Artists from Maryland Artists from Vermont Bob Clampett Humanitarian Award winners Eisner Award winners for Best Penciller/Inker or Penciller/Inker Team Eisner Award winners for Best Writer/Artist Film directors from Maryland Inkpot Award winners Living people Marvel Comics people DC Comics people Novelists from Maryland Novelists from Vermont People from Montpelier, Vermont People from Olney, Maryland Will Eisner Award Hall of Fame inductees Writers who illustrated their own writing Film directors from Vermont American Noir writers Hidden categories: CS1 maint: extra text: authors list All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from March 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use American English from October 2019 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from April 2012 Comics infobox image less alt text Comics creator pop Comics creator BLP pop Track variant DoB Track variant DoD All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2018 Commons category link is on Wikidata Turner Classic Movies person ID same as Wikidata Articles with Curlie links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLP identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latviešu Magyar Malagasy مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська اردو 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 January 2021, at 12:07 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7853	----	Cyrus I - Wikipedia Cyrus I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the bishop, see Cyrus I of Edessa. Great King Cyrus I Great King King of Anshan[1] King of Persia[citation needed] Cyrus I on horseback from a seal King of Persia Reign 600–580 BC Predecessor Teispes Successor Cambyses I Born ? Died 580 BC Anshan (Persia) Burial 580 BC Gur-e-Dokhtar Spouse Parsumaš Issue Cambyses I Arukku House Achamenids Dynasty Achaemenid Father Teispes Religion Zoroastrianism Cyrus I (Old Persian: Kuruš) or Cyrus I of Anshan or Cyrus I of Persia, was King of Anshan in Persia from c. 600 to 580 BC or, according to others, from c. 652 to 600 BC. Cyrus I of Anshan is the grandfather of Cyrus the Great, also known as Cyrus II. His name in Modern Persian is کوروش, Kurosh, while in Greek he was called Κῦρος, Kȳros. Seal of Cyrus I from Anshan Cyrus was an early member of the Achaemenid dynasty. He was apparently a grandson of its founder Achaemenes and son of Teispes, king of Anshan. Teispes' sons reportedly divided the kingdom between them after his death. Cyrus reigned as king of Anshan while his brother Ariaramnes was king of Parsa. The chronological placement of this event is uncertain. This is due to his suggested, but still debated identification, with the monarch known as "Kuras of Parsumas". Kuras is first mentioned c. 652 BC. In that year Shamash-shum-ukin, king of Babylon (668–648 BC), revolted against his older brother and overlord Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria (668–627 BC). Cyrus is mentioned being in a military alliance with the former. The war between the two brothers ended in 648 BC with the defeat and reported suicide of Shamash-shum-ukin. Cyrus is mentioned again in 639 BC. At that year Ashurbanipal managed to defeat Elam and became overlord to several of its former allies. Kuras was apparently among them. His elder son "Arukku" was reportedly sent to Assyria to pay tribute to its King. Kuras then seems to vanish from the historical record. His suggested identification with Cyrus would help connect the Achaemenid dynasty to the major events of the 7th century BC. Ashurbanipal died in 627 BC. Cyrus presumably continued paying tribute to his sons and successors Ashur-etil-ilani (627–623 BC) and Sin-shar-ishkun (623–612 BC). They were both opposed by an alliance led by Cyaxares of Media (633–584 BC) and Nabopolassar of Babylon (626–605 BC). In 612 BC the two managed to capture the Assyrian capital Nineveh. This was effectively the end of the Neo-Assyrian Empire though remnants of the Assyrian Army under Ashur-uballit II (612–609 BC) continued to resist from Harran. Media and Babylon soon shared the lands previously controlled by the Assyrians. Anshan apparently fell under the control of the former. Cyrus is considered to have ended his days under the overlordship of either Cyaxares or his son Astyages (584–550 BC). Cyrus was succeeded by his son Cambyses I. His grandson would come to be known as Cyrus the Great, founder of the Persian Empire. It has been noted that this account of his life and reign would place his early activities more than a century before those of his grandson. This would place his fathering of Cambyses very late in life and his death at an advanced age. It has been argued that Kuras and Cyrus were separate figures of uncertain relation to each other. The latter would have then reigned in the early 6th century BC and his reign would seem rather uneventful. Due to the current lack of sufficient records for this historical period it remains uncertain which theory is closer to the facts. Possible tomb of Cyrus I, known by locals as the Gur-e-Dokhtar. It has been suggested by Louis Vandenberg that the Gur-e-Dokhtar is the tomb of Cyrus I.[citation needed] This is because all Achaemenid kings after Darius the Great were buried in rock-cut tombs, and because a similar building has been attributed to Cyrus the Great, it seemed logical to assume that a tomb like this must have been erected prior to the reign of Cyrus. However, other experts have claimed that it is the burial place of Mandane, mother of Cyrus the Great, while other scholars claim that the Gur-e-Dokhtar was the mausoleum of Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus the Great and the wife and queen of Darius the Great. Later, when the iron clamps were studied, it became clear that this building was erected in the 5th century BC, so it may have been for prince Cyrus the Younger.[citation needed] References[edit] ^ Cyrus Cylinder[circular reference] A. Shapur Shahbazi: Cyrus I. In: Encyclopædia Iranica, vol. 6, p. 516 (contains only a part of the above-mentioned information). Cyrus I Achaemenid dynasty Born: ? Died: 580 BC Preceded by Teispes King of Anshan 640–580 BC Succeeded by Cambyses I v t e Median and Achaemenid kings Family tree Median (728–550 BC) Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Achaemenid (550–330 BC) Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Nothus Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Italics indicate kings not directly attested and so possibly legendary. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Authority control GND: 124751415 VIAF: 18165306 WorldCat Identities: viaf-18165306 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cyrus_I&oldid=1002214163" Categories: 7th-century BC births 580 BC deaths 7th-century BC Kings of Anshan (Persia) 6th-century BC Kings of Anshan (Persia) Achaemenid dynasty Hidden categories: All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from December 2020 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2017 Articles with unsourced statements from May 2016 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego Hrvatski Italiano עברית ქართული Magyar Malagasy مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska தமிழ் Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 January 2021, at 10:48 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7866	----	Sewadjkare III - Wikipedia Sewadjkare III From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sewadjkare III Sewadjkare II Pharaoh Reign about 1 year, starting after c. 1699 BC [1] (14th dynasty) Predecessor Merdjefare Successor Nebdjefare Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sewadjkare S.w3ḏ-k3-Rˁ He whom the Ka of Ra causes to flourish Sewadjkare III (also known as Sewadjkare II[2]) was an Egyptian pharaoh of the Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c. 1700 BC.[1] As a king of the 14th Dynasty, Sewadjkare III would have reigned from Avaris over the eastern Nile Delta and possibly over the western Delta as well.[1] Contents 1 Evidence 2 Chronological position 3 Identity 4 References Evidence[edit] No contemporary attestation of Sewadjkare III survives to this day and this pharaoh is only known to us thanks to the Turin canon. This king list was redacted during the early Ramesside period from older documents and serves as the primary source for kings of the second intermediate period. Sewadjkare III's prenomen appears on the 9th column, 6th line of the papyrus.[1][2] Chronological position[edit] Sewadjkare III's relative position in the 14th Dynasty is somewhat secured by the Turin canon. According to this king list, Sewadjkare reigned for about one year and was preceded by Merdjefare and succeeded by Nebdjefare.[1][2] At the opposite, Sewadjkare III's absolute chronological position is debated. According to Egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, Sewadjkare III was the eleventh king of the 14th Dynasty, reigning c. 1699 BC for around one year.[1] Ryholt's reconstruction of the early 14th dynasty is controversial however and other specialists, such as Manfred Bietak and Jürgen von Beckerath, believe that the dynasty started shortly before Nehesy c. 1710 BC rather than c. 1805 BC as proposed by Ryholt. In this case, Sewadjkare III would only be the sixth king of the dynasty.[3][4] Identity[edit] Sewadjkare III should not be confused with two other pharaohs bearing the same prenomen and who also reigned during the Second Intermediate Period. The earliest of the two is Sewadjkare I of the early 13th Dynasty, c. 1781 BC. Just like Sewadjkare III, Sewadjkare I is known only thanks to the Turin canon.[1] The other pharaoh bearing the same prenomen is Sewadjkare Hori II (also known as Hori II) who reigned at the very end of the 13th Dynasty, from c. 1669 until 1664 BC.[1] References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here. ^ a b c Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 418 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46, Mainz am Rhein, 1997 Preceded by Merdjefare Pharaoh of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Nebdjefare v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sewadjkare_III&oldid=977191276" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Français Italiano ქართული Magyar Nederlands Slovenščina ไทย Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 7 September 2020, at 12:36 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-792	----	Khuiqer - Wikipedia Khuiqer From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Khuiqer Chuiqer Lintel with the cartouche of Khuiqer, from Abydos. Pharaoh Reign uncertain datation (n.d.) Predecessor n.d. Successor n.d. Royal titulary Nomen Khuiqer[1] ḫwj-qr Horus name Merut Mrwt Khuiqer was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh known only for a limestone lintel bearing part of his royal titulary, found in Abydos by Flinders Petrie at the beginning of the 20th century, and now located at the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology (E 17316 A-B).[2] His datation is extremely uncertain since he was tentatively placed in both the First and the Second Intermediate Period. Dynastic collocation[edit] After the finding of the lintel, Petrie believed the royal name to be Uaqerre but was doubtful about his datation, and simply placed him between the Seventh and the Fourteenth Dynasties. Shortly after, Gaston Maspero attributed the mysterious king to the Sixth to the Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt range. Max Pieper more correctly read the name Khuiqer, claiming that this king should have reigned between the Thirteenth and the 18th Dynasties. Ludwig Borchardt came to the same conclusion, while in 1907 Henri Gauthier, following instead Maspero, placed him again in the First Intermediate Period.[1][2] When, more recently, the German Egyptologist Detlef Franke proposed the existence of the Abydos Dynasty[3] (a dynasty of local pharaohs who might have shortly ruled upon the Abydene territory during the Second Intermediate Period), he placed Khuiqer inside of it. Jürgen von Beckerath attributed him to the Second Intermediate Period too, following the claim that the block came from a building of Senusret I, although he admitted that Khuiqer's Horus name, Merut, seemed peculiar for this period.[2] This Horus name was also the main topic for Kim Ryholt's attribution: he argued that Merut is too simple when compared to the Horus names of the Second Intermediate Period, which usually are composed or two or even three different words. Ryholt then suggested an earlier placement for Khuiqer, at an imprecise time during the First Intermediate Period.[4] References[edit] ^ a b Henri Gauthier, Le Livre des rois d'Égypte, recueil de titres et protocoles royaux, 1, Des origines à la XIIe dynastie, (= MIFAO 17) Cairo, 1907, p. 192. ^ a b c Jürgen von Beckerath, Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten (=Ägyptologische Forschungen, 23). Augustin, Glückstadt / New York, 1964, p. 70. ^ Detlef Franke, Zur Chronologie des Mittleren Reiches. Teil II: Die sogenannte Zweite Zwischenzeit Altägyptens, In Orientalia, 57 (1988), p. 259. ^ Kim Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800-1550 B.C. (=The Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20, ISSN 0902-5499). The Carsten Niebuhr Institute of Near Eastern studies, Copenhagen 1997, ISBN 87-7289-421-0, p. 163 n. 595. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khuiqer&oldid=954560722" Categories: 22nd-century BC Pharaohs 21st-century BC Pharaohs Non-dynastic pharaohs First Intermediate Period of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages ქართული Magyar Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 3 May 2020, at 02:44 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7935	----	Spithridates - Wikipedia Spithridates From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Coin of Spithridates, Achaemenid Satrap of Sparda (Lydia and Ionia), circa 334 BC Spithridates (Old Persian: Spiθradāta, Greek: Σπιθριδάτης; fl. 365–334 BC) was a Persian satrap of Lydia and Ionia under the high king Darius III Codomannus. He was one of the Persian commanders at the Battle of the Granicus, in 334 BC. In this engagement, while he was aiming a blow from behind at Alexander the Great, his arm was cut off by Cleitus the Black and he subsequently died.[1] Spithridates attacking Alexander from behind at the Battle of Granicus. Charles le Brun (detail). Spithridates was Achaemenid satrap of Lydia and Ionia. Diodorus calls him Spithrodates, and appears to confound him with Mithridates, the son-in-law of Darius, whom Alexander slew in the battle with his own hand; while what Arrian records of Spithridates, Diodorus accounts it for his brother Rhoesaces.[2][3] Spithridates was replaced by the Hellenistic satrap Asander in his territories. References[edit] ^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri, 1.12.8, 15.8, 16.3 ^ Diodorus, Bibliotheca historica, XVII. 19, 20 ^ Plutarch, Parallel Lives, "Alexander", 16 ; Moralia, "On the Fortune or the Virtue of Alexander", I. 2 Sources[edit] Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, "Spithridates (2)", Boston, (1867)  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Spithridates". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. This Achaemenid biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spithridates&oldid=1001261257" Categories: Alexander the Great 334 BC deaths Achaemenid satraps of Lydia Military leaders of the Achaemenid Empire 4th-century BC Iranian people Darius III Achaemenid satraps of Ionia Military personnel of the Achaemenid Empire killed in action Achaemenid people stubs Hidden categories: Articles containing Greek-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM Year of birth unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Español فارسی Français Hrvatski Italiano مصرى Polski Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 18 January 2021, at 22:54 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7938	----	Hakor - Wikipedia Hakor From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Hakor Achoris, Hakoris, Hagar Upper half of statue of Hakor. In Cairo Museum Pharaoh Reign 392/1–379/8 BCE[1][2] (29th Dynasty) Predecessor Nepherites I (392/1 BCE); Psammuthes (390/89 BCE) Successor Psammuthes (391/0 BCE); Nepherites II (379/8 BCE) Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Khnemmaatre ẖnm-m3ˁ.t-Rˁ Who embraces the maat of Ra Khnemmaatre Setepenkhnemu ẖnm-m3ˁ.t-Rˁ-stp-n-ẖnmw Who embraces the maat of Ra, the chosen one of Khnum Nomen Hakor hkr Hagar hgr The Arab / the Bedouin Horus name Aaib Merytawy ꜥꜣ-ỉb-mry-tꜣwy Great of intellect who loves the Two Lands Nebty name Qenu qnw The Brave Golden Horus Sehetep Netjeru sḥtp nṯrw Satisfying the gods Children Nepherites II Father Nepherites I? Hakor or Hagar,[3] also known by the hellenized forms Achoris or Hakoris, was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 29th Dynasty. His reign marks the apex of this feeble and short-lived dynasty, having ruled for 13 years – more than half of its entire duration.[4] Contents 1 Reign 1.1 Struggle for the accession 1.2 Activities in Egypt 1.3 Foreign relations 1.4 Death and succession 2 References 3 Bibliography 4 External links Reign[edit] Struggle for the accession[edit] Hakor's accession and relationships with his predecessor Nepherites I were long debated. After Nepherites' death a dynastic struggle did seem to have occurred,[5] and the throne was claimed by two or maybe three pretenders: Hakor, Psammuthes, and possibly a phantom figure called Muthis who was only mentioned in Eusebius' epitome of Manetho's Aegyptiaca. As a result, Hakor was alternately considered Nepherites' legitimate successor or an unrelated usurper. In 1986, John D. Ray suggested that Hakor was Nepherites' heir, who ruled undisturbed until his Year 2 when he was deposed by Psammuthes. After another year, Hakor managed to retake his legitimate throne by overthrowing the usurper, and continued to date his reign since his first coronation date, simply pretending that this gap never occurred. The third pretender, Muthis, could be inserted within this struggle, but his role – assuming that he really did exist – is unknown.[6] Ray's hypothesis is accepted by other Egyptologists such as Alan B. Lloyd[7] and Toby Wilkinson.[3] Shortly after his death, Hakor was called an usurper by the founder of the subsequent dynasty, Nectanebo I. However, it has been suggested that Hakor and Nectanebo might have been relatives in some way, possibly both related to Nepherites I but rivals to each other.[5] Activities in Egypt[edit] Hakor's chapel in Karnak Once re-established, Hakor made considerable exertions to affirm his legitimacy,[4] putting emphasis on his – real or fictional – descent from Nepherites.[5][8] His building activity was remarkable and he also extensively restored many monuments of his royal predecessors.[8] In Karnak, Hakor finished the chapel for the sacred barque of Amun-Ra near the first pylon which was started by Psammuthes or possibly by Nepherites I;[9] he also possibly began a temple complex in northern Saqqara which was later further developed under Nectanebo II.[10] His building activity is well attested in various places in Upper Egypt (Luxor, Medinet Habu, El-Kab, El-Tod, Medamud, Elephantine), in the Temple of Hibis of Kharga Oasis, as well as other locations in Middle Egypt.[11] Foreign relations[edit] Hakor apparently reprised Nepherites' foreign policy. In Aristophanes' comedy Plutus, which was performed in 388 BCE, an alliance between the Athenians and the Egyptians is mentioned, though it was more likely intended to refer to the Athenian support for the rebellion of Evagoras I of Cyprus – himself allied with Hakor – against the Achaemenids. Theopompus also reported an alliance between Hakor and the Pisidians. The peace of Antalcidas between the Persians and Greeks (387 BCE) was a turning point: after that, Egypt and Cyprus remained the only opponents of Artaxerxes II as reported by Theopompus and Orosius. The following years are quite obscure, but it seems that the Persians first attacked Egypt in 385 BCE and, after three years of war, the Egyptians managed to defeat the invaders.[12][13][14] In 381 BCE, Hakor sent aid, money and 50 triremes (apparently without crew, though) to Evagoras in order to contribute to his resistance against the Great King who, after the unsuccessful campaign in Egypt, was now focusing on Cyprus. However, when, in 380 BCE, Evagoras travelled to Egypt to beg for further aid, Hakor saw no need to continue supporting him and sent him back to Cyprus with merely some more money.[15][16] Evagoras surrendered to Artaxerxes soon after, but Hakor promptly joined a short-lived alliance with Sparta and with Glos, son of the Egyptian admiral, Tamos, who was a supporter of the pretender Cyrus the Younger against Artaxerxes II. Hakor managed to get the Athenian general Chabrias into his service, but the Persian general Pharnabazus II lobbied Athens seeking for them to repatriate him.[15] Death and succession[edit] Hakor died in 379/8 BCE,[2] leaving his throne to his son Nepherites II. However, the latter was able to keep it for just four months before being overthrown and replaced by an army general from Sebennytos, Nectanebo I.[3] References[edit] ^ Lloyd 1994, p. 358. ^ a b Depuydt 2006, p. 280. ^ a b c Wilkinson 2010, p. 456. ^ a b Lloyd 1994, p. 340. ^ a b c Grimal 1992, p. 373. ^ Ray 1986, pp. 149-158. ^ Lloyd 1994, p. 357. ^ a b Clayton 1994, p. 203. ^ Lloyd 1994, p. 353. ^ Lloyd 1994, p. 354. ^ Grimal 1992, p. 374. ^ Lloyd 1994, p. 347. ^ Grimal 1992, pp. 374-375. ^ Fine 1993, p. 358. sfn error: no target: CITEREFFine1993 (help) ^ a b Lloyd 1994, p. 348. ^ Grimal 1992, p. 375. Bibliography[edit] Clayton, Peter (1994). Chronicle of the Pharaohs. London: Thames & Hudson Ltd. Depuydt, Leo (2006). "Saite and Persian Egypt, 664 BC - 332 BC". In Hornung, Erik; Krauss, Rolf; Warburton, David A. (eds.). Ancient Egyptian Chronology. Brill, Leiden/Boston. pp. 265–283. ISBN 978 90 04 11385 5. Fine, John V. A. (1983). The Ancient Greeks: A critical history. Harvard University Press. Grimal, Nicolas (1992). A History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Blackwell Books. p. 512. ISBN 9780631174721. Lloyd, Alan B. (1994). "Egypt, 404–322 B.C.". In Lewis, D.M.; Boardman, John; Hornblower, Simon; et al. (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History (2nd ed.), vol. VI – The Fourth Century B.C. Cambridge University Press. pp. 337–360. ISBN 0 521 23348 8. Ray, John D. (1986). "Psammuthis and Hakoris". The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 72: 149–158. Wilkinson, Toby (2010). The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt. London: Bloomsbury. p. 672. ISBN 978 1 4088 10026. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hakor. "166 Antonius Diogenes, The incredible wonders beyond Thule". Photius: Bibliotheca. tertullian.org. Hakor 29th Dynasty Born: ? Died: 379/8 BCE Preceded by Nepherites I Pharaoh of Egypt 392/1–391/0 BCE Succeeded by Psammuthes Preceded by Psammuthes Pharaoh of Egypt 390/89–379/8 BCE Succeeded by Nepherites II v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 11949471X VIAF: 47573032 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 47573032 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hakor&oldid=992134568" Categories: 4th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt 370s BC deaths Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français Hrvatski Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский සිංහල Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 3 December 2020, at 18:01 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7939	----	Merenhor - Wikipedia Merenhor From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Merenhor The cartouche of Merenhor on the Abydos King List. Pharaoh Reign Unknown (Eighth Dynasty?) Predecessor Neferkare Khendu? Successor Neferkamin? Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Merenhor Mr n Ḥr Beloved by Horus Merenhor may have been an Eighth Dynasty king of ancient Egypt during the First Intermediate Period. His name is only attested on the Abydos King List (n. 46).[1][2] References[edit] ^ Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 268-269 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen (Münchner ägyptologische Studien), 1984 VIIth Dynasty 2175 - 2165, Accessed November 9, 2006. Abydos King List, Accessed November 9, 2006. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Merenhor&oldid=954560871" Categories: 22nd-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Ancient Egypt people stubs Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano ქართული Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands Português Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 3 May 2020, at 02:46 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7916	----	Cleopatra - Wikipedia Cleopatra From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search last active pharaoh of Ptolemaic Egypt For other uses, see Cleopatra (disambiguation). Cleopatra The Berlin Cleopatra, a Roman sculpture of Cleopatra wearing a royal diadem, mid-1st century BC (around the time of her visits to Rome in 46–44 BC), discovered in an Italian villa along the Via Appia and now located in the Altes Museum in Germany.[1][2][3][note 1] Queen of the Ptolemaic Kingdom Reign 51–30 BC (21 years)[4] Predecessor Ptolemy XII Auletes Successor Ptolemy XV Caesarion[note 2] Co-rulers Ptolemy XII Auletes Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Born Early 69 BC Alexandria, Ptolemaic Kingdom Died 10 August 30 BC (aged 39)[note 3] Alexandria, Roman Egypt Burial Unlocated tomb (probably in Egypt) Spouse Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Ptolemy XIV Mark Antony Issue Caesarion Alexander Helios Cleopatra Selene II Ptolemy Philadelphus Full name Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator Dynasty Ptolemaic Father Ptolemy XII Auletes Mother Presumably Cleopatra VI Tryphaena (also known as Cleopatra V Tryphaena)[note 4] Cleopatra VII in hieroglyphs Cleopatra Qlwpdrt ​ Horus name (1): Wer(et)-neb(et)-neferu-achet-seh Wr(.t)-nb(.t)-nfrw-3ḫ(t)-sḥ The great Lady of perfection, excellent in counsel ​ Horus name (2): Weret-tut-en-it-es Wr.t-twt-n-jt=s The great one, sacred image of her father Cleopatra netjeret mer(et) ites Qlwpdrt nṯrt mr(t) jts The goddess Cleopatra who is beloved of her father Part of a series on Ancient Rome and the fall of the Republic People Mark Antony Augustus Brutus Cato Cicero Cleopatra Clodius Pulcher Crassus Lepidus Pompey Sextus Pompey Events First Triumvirate Caesar's Civil War Assassination of Caesar Second Triumvirate Liberators' Civil War Sicilian Revolt Final War of the Roman Republic Places Caesareum Comitium Curia Julia Curia Hostilia Rostra Theatre of Pompey v t e Part of a series on Cleopatra VII Early life (69–51 BC) Reign (51–30 BC) Death (30 BC) v t e Cleopatra VII Philopator (Koinē Greek: Κλεοπάτρα Φιλοπάτωρ;[5] 69 BC – 10 August 30 BC) was the last active ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt.[note 5] As a member of the Ptolemaic dynasty, she was a descendant of its founder Ptolemy I Soter, a Macedonian Greek general and companion of Alexander the Great.[note 6] After the death of Cleopatra, Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire, marking the end of the second to last Hellenistic state and the age that had lasted since the reign of Alexander (336–323 BC).[note 7] Her native language was Koine Greek, and she was the only Ptolemaic ruler to learn the Egyptian language.[note 8] In 58 BC, Cleopatra presumably accompanied her father, Ptolemy XII Auletes, during his exile to Rome after a revolt in Egypt (a Roman client state) allowing his daughter Berenice IV to claim the throne. Berenice was killed in 55 BC when Ptolemy returned to Egypt with Roman military assistance. When he died in 51 BC, the joint reign of Cleopatra and her brother Ptolemy XIII began, but a falling-out between them led to open civil war. After losing the 48 BC Battle of Pharsalus in Greece against his rival Julius Caesar (a Roman dictator and consul) in Caesar's Civil War, the Roman statesman Pompey fled to Egypt. Pompey had been a political ally of Ptolemy XII, but Ptolemy XIII, at the urging of his court eunuchs, had Pompey ambushed and killed before Caesar arrived and occupied Alexandria. Caesar then attempted to reconcile the rival Ptolemaic siblings, but Ptolemy's chief adviser Potheinos viewed Caesar's terms as favoring Cleopatra, so his forces besieged her and Caesar at the palace. Shortly after the siege was lifted by reinforcements, Ptolemy XIII died in the 47 BC Battle of the Nile; Cleopatra's half-sister Arsinoe IV was eventually exiled to Ephesus for her role in carrying out the siege. Caesar declared Cleopatra and her brother Ptolemy XIV joint rulers, but maintained a private affair with Cleopatra that produced a son, Caesarion. Cleopatra traveled to Rome as a client queen in 46 and 44 BC, where she stayed at Caesar's villa. After the assassinations of Caesar and (on her orders) Ptolemy XIV in 44 BC, she named Caesarion co-ruler. In the Liberators' civil war of 43–42 BC, Cleopatra sided with the Roman Second Triumvirate formed by Caesar's grandnephew and heir Octavian, Mark Antony, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. After their meeting at Tarsos in 41 BC, the queen had an affair with Antony. He carried out the execution of Arsinoe at her request, and became increasingly reliant on Cleopatra for both funding and military aid during his invasions of the Parthian Empire and the Kingdom of Armenia. The Donations of Alexandria declared their children Alexander Helios, Cleopatra Selene II, and Ptolemy Philadelphus rulers over various erstwhile territories under Antony's triumviral authority. This event, their marriage, and Antony's divorce of Octavian's sister Octavia Minor led to the Final War of the Roman Republic. Octavian engaged in a war of propaganda, forced Antony's allies in the Roman Senate to flee Rome in 32 BC, and declared war on Cleopatra. After defeating Antony and Cleopatra's naval fleet at the 31 BC Battle of Actium, Octavian's forces invaded Egypt in 30 BC and defeated Antony, leading to Antony's suicide. When Cleopatra learned that Octavian planned to bring her to his Roman triumphal procession, she killed herself by poisoning, contrary to the popular belief that she was bitten by an asp. Cleopatra's legacy survives in ancient and modern works of art. Roman historiography and Latin poetry produced a generally critical view of the queen that pervaded later Medieval and Renaissance literature. In the visual arts, her ancient depictions include Roman busts, paintings, and sculptures, cameo carvings and glass, Ptolemaic and Roman coinage, and reliefs. In Renaissance and Baroque art, she was the subject of many works including operas, paintings, poetry, sculptures, and theatrical dramas. She has become a pop culture icon of Egyptomania since the Victorian era, and in modern times, Cleopatra has appeared in the applied and fine arts, burlesque satire, Hollywood films, and brand images for commercial products. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Biography 2.1 Background 2.2 Early childhood 2.3 Reign and exile of Ptolemy XII 2.4 Accession to the throne 2.5 Assassination of Pompey 2.6 Relationship with Julius Caesar 2.7 Cleopatra in the Liberators' civil war 2.8 Relationship with Mark Antony 2.9 Donations of Alexandria 2.10 Battle of Actium 2.11 Downfall and death 3 Cleopatra's kingdom and role as a monarch 4 Legacy 4.1 Children and successors 4.2 Roman literature and historiography 4.3 Cultural depictions 4.3.1 Depictions in ancient art 4.3.1.1 Statues 4.3.1.2 Coinage portraits 4.3.1.3 Greco-Roman busts and heads 4.3.1.4 Paintings 4.3.1.5 Portland Vase 4.3.1.6 Native Egyptian art 4.3.2 Medieval and Early Modern reception 4.3.3 Modern depictions and brand imaging 4.4 Written works 5 Ancestry 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 8.1 Sources 8.1.1 Online 8.1.2 Print 9 Further reading 10 External links Etymology The Latinized form Cleopatra comes from the Ancient Greek Kleopátra (Κλεοπάτρα), meaning "glory of her father",[6] from κλέος (kléos, "glory") and πᾰτήρ (patḗr, "father").[7] The masculine form would have been written either as Kleópatros (Κλεόπᾰτρος) or Pátroklos (Πᾰ́τροκλος).[7] Cleopatra was the name of Alexander the Great's sister, as well as Cleopatra Alcyone, wife of Meleager in Greek mythology.[8] Through the marriage of Ptolemy V Epiphanes and Cleopatra I Syra (a Seleucid princess), the name entered the Ptolemaic dynasty.[9][10] Cleopatra's adopted title Theā́ Philopátōra (Θεᾱ́ Φιλοπάτωρα) means "goddess who loves her father."[11][12][note 9] Biography Background Main article: Early life of Cleopatra Hellenistic Kingdoms that emerged after the death of Alexander the Great Hellenistic portrait of Ptolemy XII Auletes, the father of Cleopatra, located in the Louvre, Paris[13] Ptolemaic pharaohs were crowned by the Egyptian high priest of Ptah at Memphis, but resided in the multicultural and largely Greek city of Alexandria, established by Alexander the Great of Macedon.[14][15][16][note 10] They spoke Greek and governed Egypt as Hellenistic Greek monarchs, refusing to learn the native Egyptian language.[17][18][19][note 8] In contrast, Cleopatra could speak multiple languages by adulthood and was the first Ptolemaic ruler to learn the Egyptian language.[20][21][19][note 11] Plutarch implies that she also spoke Ethiopian, the language of the "Troglodytes", Hebrew (or Aramaic), Arabic, the Syrian language (perhaps Syriac), Median, and Parthian, and she could apparently also speak Latin, although her Roman contemporaries would have preferred to speak with her in her native Koine Greek.[21][19][22][note 12] Aside from Greek, Egyptian, and Latin, these languages reflected Cleopatra's desire to restore North African and West Asian territories that once belonged to the Ptolemaic Kingdom.[23] Roman interventionism in Egypt predated the reign of Cleopatra.[24][25][26] When Ptolemy IX Lathyros died in late 81 BC, he was succeeded by his daughter Berenice III.[27][28] However, with opposition building at the royal court against the idea of a sole reigning female monarch, Berenice III accepted joint rule and marriage with her cousin and stepson Ptolemy XI Alexander II, an arrangement made by the Roman dictator Sulla.[27][28] Ptolemy XI had his wife killed shortly after their marriage in 80 BC, but was lynched soon thereafter in the resulting riot over the assassination.[27][29][30] Ptolemy XI, and perhaps his uncle Ptolemy IX or father Ptolemy X Alexander I, willed the Ptolemaic Kingdom to Rome as collateral for loans, so that the Romans had legal grounds to take over Egypt, their client state, after the assassination of Ptolemy XI.[27][31][32] The Romans chose instead to divide the Ptolemaic realm among the illegitimate sons of Ptolemy IX, bestowing Cyprus to Ptolemy of Cyprus and Egypt to Ptolemy XII Auletes.[27][29] Early childhood Main article: Early life of Cleopatra Cleopatra VII was born in early 69 BC to the ruling Ptolemaic pharaoh Ptolemy XII and an unknown mother,[33][34][note 13] presumably Ptolemy XII's wife Cleopatra VI Tryphaena (also known as Cleopatra V Tryphaena),[35][36][37][note 14][note 4] the mother of Cleopatra's older sister, Berenice IV Epiphaneia.[38][39][40][note 15] Cleopatra Tryphaena disappears from official records a few months after the birth of Cleopatra in 69 BC.[41][42] The three younger children of Ptolemy XII, Cleopatra's sister Arsinoe IV and brothers Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator and Ptolemy XIV,[38][39][40] were born in the absence of his wife.[43][44] Cleopatra's childhood tutor was Philostratos, from whom she learned the Greek arts of oration and philosophy.[45] During her youth Cleopatra presumably studied at the Musaeum, including the Library of Alexandria.[46][47] Reign and exile of Ptolemy XII Main article: Early life of Cleopatra Further information: First Triumvirate In 65 BC the Roman censor Marcus Licinius Crassus argued before the Roman Senate that Rome should annex Ptolemaic Egypt, but his proposed bill and the similar bill of tribune Servilius Rullus in 63 BC were rejected.[48][49] Ptolemy XII responded to the threat of possible annexation by offering remuneration and lavish gifts to powerful Roman statesmen, such as Pompey during his campaign against Mithridates VI of Pontus, and eventually Julius Caesar after he became Roman consul in 59 BC.[50][51][52][note 16] However, Ptolemy XII's profligate behavior bankrupted him and he was forced to acquire loans from the Roman banker Gaius Rabirius Postumus.[53][54][55] Most likely a posthumously painted portrait of Cleopatra with red hair and her distinct facial features, wearing a royal diadem and pearl-studded hairpins, from Roman Herculaneum, Italy, 1st century AD[56][57][note 17] In 58 BC the Romans annexed Cyprus and on accusations of piracy drove Ptolemy of Cyprus, Ptolemy XII's brother, to commit suicide instead of enduring exile to Paphos.[58][59][55][note 18] Ptolemy XII remained publicly silent on the death of his brother, a decision which, along with ceding traditional Ptolemaic territory to the Romans, damaged his credibility among subjects already enraged by his economic policies.[58][60][61] Ptolemy XII was then exiled from Egypt by force, traveling first to Rhodes, then Athens, and finally the villa of triumvir Pompey in the Alban Hills, near Praeneste, Italy.[58][59][62][note 19] Ptolemy XII spent nearly a year there on the outskirts of Rome, ostensibly accompanied by his daughter Cleopatra, then about 11.[58][62][note 20] Berenice IV sent an embassy to Rome to advocate for her rule and oppose the reinstatement of her father Ptolemy XII, but Ptolemy had assassins kill the leaders of the embassy, an incident that was covered up by his powerful Roman supporters.[63][54][64][note 21] When the Roman Senate denied Ptolemy XII the offer of an armed escort and provisions for a return to Egypt, he decided to leave Rome in late 57 BC and reside at the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus.[65][66][67] The Roman financiers of Ptolemy XII remained determined to restore him to power.[68] Pompey persuaded Aulus Gabinius, the Roman governor of Syria, to invade Egypt and restore Ptolemy XII, offering him 10,000 talents for the proposed mission.[68][69][70] Although it put him at odds with Roman law, Gabinius invaded Egypt in the spring of 55 BC by way of Hasmonean Judea, where Hyrcanus II had Antipater the Idumaean, father of Herod the Great, furnish the Roman-led army with supplies.[68][71] As a young cavalry officer, Mark Antony was under Gabinius's command. He distinguished himself by preventing Ptolemy XII from massacring the inhabitants of Pelousion, and for rescuing the body of Archelaos, the husband of Berenice IV, after he was killed in battle, ensuring him a proper royal burial.[72][73] Cleopatra, then 14 years of age, would have traveled with the Roman expedition into Egypt; years later, Antony would profess that he had fallen in love with her at this time.[72][74] The Roman Republic (green) and Ptolemaic Egypt (yellow) in 40 BC Gabinius was put on trial in Rome for abusing his authority, for which he was acquitted, but his second trial for accepting bribes led to his exile, from which he was recalled seven years later in 48 BC by Caesar.[75][76] Crassus replaced him as governor of Syria and extended his provincial command to Egypt, but he was killed by the Parthians at the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC.[75][77] Ptolemy XII had Berenice IV and her wealthy supporters executed, seizing their properties.[78][79][80] He allowed Gabinius's largely Germanic and Gallic Roman garrison, the Gabiniani, to harass people in the streets of Alexandria and installed his longtime Roman financier Rabirius as his chief financial officer.[78][81][82][note 22] Within a year Rabirius was placed under protective custody and sent back to Rome after his life was endangered for draining Egypt of its resources.[83][84][80][note 23] Despite these problems, Ptolemy XII created a will designating Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII as his joint heirs, oversaw major construction projects such as the Temple of Edfu and a temple at Dendera, and stabilized the economy.[85][84][86][note 24] On 31 May 52 BC Cleopatra was made a regent of Ptolemy XII as indicated by an inscription in the Temple of Hathor at Dendera.[87][88][89][note 25] Rabirius was unable to collect the entirety of Ptolemy XII's debt by the time of the latter's death, and so it was passed on to his successors Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII.[83][76] Accession to the throne Main articles: Early life of Cleopatra and Reign of Cleopatra Left: Cleopatra dressed as a pharaoh and presenting offerings to the goddess Isis, on a limestone stele dedicated by a Greek man named Onnophris, dated 51 BC, and located in the Louvre, Paris Right: The cartouches of Cleopatra and Caesarion on a limestone stele of the High Priest of Ptah in Egypt, dated to the Ptolemaic period, and located in the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London Ptolemy XII died sometime before 22 March 51 BC, when Cleopatra, in her first act as queen, began her voyage to Hermonthis, near Thebes, to install a new sacred Buchis bull, worshiped as an intermediary for the god Montu in the Ancient Egyptian religion.[5][90][91][note 26] Cleopatra faced several pressing issues and emergencies shortly after taking the throne. These included famine caused by drought and a low level of the annual flooding of the Nile, and lawless behavior instigated by the Gabiniani, the now unemployed and assimilated Roman soldiers left by Gabinius to garrison Egypt.[92][93] Inheriting her father's debts, Cleopatra also owed the Roman Republic 17.5 million drachmas.[94] In 50 BC Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, proconsul of Syria, sent his two eldest sons to Egypt, most likely to negotiate with the Gabiniani and recruit them as soldiers in the desperate defense of Syria against the Parthians.[95] However, the Gabiniani tortured and murdered these two, perhaps with secret encouragement by rogue senior administrators in Cleopatra's court.[95][96] Cleopatra sent the Gabiniani culprits to Bibulus as prisoners awaiting his judgment, but he sent them back to Cleopatra and chastised her for interfering in their adjudication, which was the prerogative of the Roman Senate.[97][96] Bibulus, siding with Pompey in Caesar's Civil War, failed to prevent Caesar from landing a naval fleet in Greece, which ultimately allowed Caesar to reach Egypt in pursuit of Pompey.[97] By 29 August 51 BC, official documents started listing Cleopatra as the sole ruler, evidence that she had rejected her brother Ptolemy XIII as a co-ruler.[94][96][98] She had probably married him,[77] but there is no record of this.[5] The Ptolemaic practice of sibling marriage was introduced by Ptolemy II and his sister Arsinoe II.[99][100][101] A long-held royal Egyptian practice, it was loathed by contemporary Greeks.[99][100][101][note 27] By the reign of Cleopatra, however, it was considered a normal arrangement for Ptolemaic rulers.[99][100][101] Despite Cleopatra's rejection of him, Ptolemy XIII still retained powerful allies, notably the eunuch Potheinos, his childhood tutor, regent, and administrator of his properties.[102][93][103] Others involved in the cabal against Cleopatra included Achillas, a prominent military commander, and Theodotus of Chios, another tutor of Ptolemy XIII.[102][104] Cleopatra seems to have attempted a short-lived alliance with her brother Ptolemy XIV, but by the autumn of 50 BC Ptolemy XIII had the upper hand in their conflict and began signing documents with his name before that of his sister, followed by the establishment of his first regnal date in 49 BC.[5][105][106][note 28] Assassination of Pompey Main article: Reign of Cleopatra A Roman portrait of Pompey made during the reign of Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD), a copy of an original from 70–60 BC, and located in the Venice National Archaeological Museum, Italy In the summer of 49 BC, Cleopatra and her forces were still fighting against Ptolemy XIII within Alexandria when Pompey's son Gnaeus Pompeius arrived, seeking military aid on behalf of his father.[105] After returning to Italy from the wars in Gaul and crossing the Rubicon in January of 49 BC, Caesar had forced Pompey and his supporters to flee to Greece.[107][108] In perhaps their last joint decree, both Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII agreed to Gnaeus Pompeius's request and sent his father 60 ships and 500 troops, including the Gabiniani, a move that helped erase some of the debt owed to Rome.[107][109] Losing the fight against her brother, Cleopatra was then forced to flee Alexandria and withdraw to the region of Thebes.[110][111][112] By the spring of 48 BC Cleopatra had traveled to Roman Syria with her younger sister, Arsinoe IV, to gather an invasion force that would head to Egypt.[113][106][114] She returned with an army, but her advance to Alexandria was blocked by her brother's forces, including some Gabiniani mobilized to fight against her, so she camped outside Pelousion in the eastern Nile Delta.[115][106][116] In Greece, Caesar and Pompey's forces engaged each other at the decisive Battle of Pharsalus on 9 August 48 BC, leading to the destruction of most of Pompey's army and his forced flight to Tyre, Lebanon.[115][117][118][note 29] Given his close relationship with the Ptolemies, Pompey ultimately decided that Egypt would be his place of refuge, where he could replenish his forces.[119][118][116][note 30] Ptolemy XIII's advisers, however, feared the idea of Pompey using Egypt as his base in a protracted Roman civil war.[119][120][121] In a scheme devised by Theodotus, Pompey arrived by ship near Pelousion after being invited by a written message, only to be ambushed and stabbed to death on 28 September 48 BC.[119][117][122][note 31] Ptolemy XIII believed he had demonstrated his power and simultaneously defused the situation by having Pompey's head, severed and embalmed, sent to Caesar, who arrived in Alexandria by early October and took up residence at the royal palace.[123][124][125][note 31] Caesar expressed grief and outrage over the killing of Pompey and called on both Ptolemy XIII and Cleopatra to disband their forces and reconcile with each other.[123][126][125][note 32] Relationship with Julius Caesar Main article: Reign of Cleopatra Further information: Military campaigns of Julius Caesar, Siege of Alexandria (47 BC), Battle of the Nile (47 BC), and Caesareum of Alexandria Ptolemy XIII arrived at Alexandria at the head of his army, in clear defiance of Caesar's demand that he disband and leave his army before his arrival.[127][128] Cleopatra initially sent emissaries to Caesar, but upon allegedly hearing that Caesar was inclined to having affairs with royal women, she came to Alexandria to see him personally.[127][129][128] Historian Cassius Dio records that she did so without informing her brother, dressed in an attractive manner, and charmed Caesar with her wit.[127][130][131] Plutarch provides an entirely different and perhaps mythical account that alleges she was bound inside a bed sack to be smuggled into the palace to meet Caesar.[127][132][133][note 33] The Tusculum portrait, a contemporary Roman sculpture of Julius Caesar located in the Archaeological Museum of Turin, Italy When Ptolemy XIII realized that his sister was in the palace consorting directly with Caesar, he attempted to rouse the populace of Alexandria into a riot, but he was arrested by Caesar, who used his oratorical skills to calm the frenzied crowd.[134][135][136] Caesar then brought Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII before the assembly of Alexandria, where Caesar revealed the written will of Ptolemy XII—previously possessed by Pompey—naming Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII as his joint heirs.[137][135][129][note 34] Caesar then attempted to arrange for the other two siblings, Arsinoe IV and Ptolemy XIV, to rule together over Cyprus, thus removing potential rival claimants to the Egyptian throne while also appeasing the Ptolemaic subjects still bitter over the loss of Cyprus to the Romans in 58 BC.[138][135][139][note 34] Judging that this agreement favored Cleopatra over Ptolemy XIII and that the latter's army of 20,000, including the Gabiniani, could most likely defeat Caesar's army of 4,000 unsupported troops, Potheinos decided to have Achillas lead their forces to Alexandria to attack both Caesar and Cleopatra.[138][135][140][note 35] After Caesar managed to execute Potheinos, Arsinoe IV joined forces with Achillas and was declared queen, but soon afterward had her tutor Ganymedes kill Achillas and take his position as commander of her army.[141][142][143][note 36] Ganymedes then tricked Caesar into requesting the presence of the erstwhile captive Ptolemy XIII as a negotiator, only to have him join the army of Arsinoe IV.[141][144][145] The resulting siege of the palace, with Caesar and Cleopatra trapped together inside, lasted into the following year of 47 BC.[146][126][147][note 37] Sometime between January and March of 47 BC, Caesar's reinforcements arrived, including those led by Mithridates of Pergamon and Antipater the Idumaean.[141][126][148][note 38] Ptolemy XIII and Arsinoe IV withdrew their forces to the Nile, where Caesar attacked them. Ptolemy XIII tried to flee by boat, but it capsized, and he drowned.[149][126][150][note 39] Ganymedes may have been killed in the battle. Theodotus was found years later in Asia, by Marcus Junius Brutus, and executed. Arsinoe IV was forcefully paraded in Caesar's triumph in Rome before being exiled to the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus.[151][152][153] Cleopatra was conspicuously absent from these events and resided in the palace, most likely because she had been pregnant with Caesar's child since September 48 BC.[154][155][156] Caesar's term as consul had expired at the end of 48 BC.[151] However, Antony, an officer of his, helped to secure Caesar's appointment as dictator lasting for a year, until October 47 BC, providing Caesar with the legal authority to settle the dynastic dispute in Egypt.[151] Wary of repeating the mistake of Cleopatra's sister Berenice IV in having a female monarch as sole ruler, Caesar appointed Cleopatra's 12-year-old brother, Ptolemy XIV, as joint ruler with the 22-year-old Cleopatra in a nominal sibling marriage, but Cleopatra continued living privately with Caesar.[157][126][148][note 40] The exact date at which Cyprus was returned to her control is not known, although she had a governor there by 42 BC.[158][148] Cleopatra and Caesar (1866), a painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme Caesar is alleged to have joined Cleopatra for a cruise of the Nile and sightseeing of Egyptian monuments,[126][159][160] although this may be a romantic tale reflecting later well-to-do Roman proclivities and not a real historical event.[161] The historian Suetonius provided considerable details about the voyage, including use of Thalamegos, the pleasure barge constructed by Ptolemy IV, which during his reign measured 90 metres (300 ft) in length and 24 metres (80 ft) in height and was complete with dining rooms, state rooms, holy shrines, and promenades along its two decks, resembling a floating villa.[161][162] Caesar could have had an interest in the Nile cruise owing to his fascination with geography; he was well-read in the works of Eratosthenes and Pytheas, and perhaps wanted to discover the source of the river, but turned back before reaching Ethiopia.[163][164] Caesar departed from Egypt around April 47 BC, allegedly to confront Pharnaces II of Pontus, the son of Mithridates VI of Pontus, who was stirring up trouble for Rome in Anatolia.[165] It is possible that Caesar, married to the prominent Roman woman Calpurnia, also wanted to avoid being seen together with Cleopatra when she bore him their son.[165][159] He left three legions in Egypt, later increased to four, under the command of the freedman Rufio, to secure Cleopatra's tenuous position, but also perhaps to keep her activities in check.[165][166][167] Caesarion, Cleopatra's alleged child with Caesar, was born 23 June 47 BC and was originally named "Pharaoh Caesar", as preserved on a stele at the Serapeum in Memphis.[168][126][169][note 41] Perhaps owing to his still childless marriage with Calpurnia, Caesar remained publicly silent about Caesarion (but perhaps accepted his parentage in private).[170][note 42] Cleopatra, on the other hand, made repeated official declarations about Caesarion's parentage, naming Caesar as the father.[170][171][172] Egyptian portrait of a Ptolemaic queen, possibly Cleopatra, c. 51–30 BC, located in the Brooklyn Museum[173] Cleopatra and her nominal joint ruler Ptolemy XIV visited Rome sometime in late 46 BC, presumably without Caesarion, and were given lodging in Caesar's villa within the Horti Caesaris.[174][169][175][note 43] As with their father Ptolemy XII, Caesar awarded both Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIV the legal status of "friend and ally of the Roman people" (Latin: socius et amicus populi Romani), in effect client rulers loyal to Rome.[176][177][178] Cleopatra's visitors at Caesar's villa across the Tiber included the senator Cicero, who found her arrogant.[179][180] Sosigenes of Alexandria, one of the members of Cleopatra's court, aided Caesar in the calculations for the new Julian calendar, put into effect 1 January 45 BC.[181][182][183] The Temple of Venus Genetrix, established in the Forum of Caesar on 25 September 46 BC, contained a golden statue of Cleopatra (which stood there at least until the 3rd century AD), associating the mother of Caesar's child directly with the goddess Venus, mother of the Romans.[184][182][185] The statue also subtly linked the Egyptian goddess Isis with the Roman religion.[179] Cleopatra's presence in Rome most likely had an effect on the events at the Lupercalia festival a month before Caesar's assassination.[186][187] Antony attempted to place a royal diadem on Caesar's head, but the latter refused in what was most likely a staged performance, perhaps to gauge the Roman public's mood about accepting Hellenistic-style kingship.[186][187] Cicero, who was present at the festival, mockingly asked where the diadem came from, an obvious reference to the Ptolemaic queen whom he abhorred.[186][187] Caesar was assassinated on the Ides of March (15 March 44 BC), but Cleopatra stayed in Rome until about mid-April, in the vain hope of having Caesarion recognized as Caesar's heir.[188][189][190] However, Caesar's will named his grandnephew Octavian as the primary heir, and Octavian arrived in Italy around the same time Cleopatra decided to depart for Egypt.[188][189][191] A few months later, Cleopatra had Ptolemy XIV killed by poisoning, elevating her son Caesarion as her co-ruler.[192][193][172][note 44] Cleopatra in the Liberators' civil war Main article: Reign of Cleopatra Further information: Liberators' civil war Cleopatra's Gate in Tarsos (now Tarsus, Mersin, Turkey), the site where she met Mark Antony in 41 BC[194] Octavian, Antony, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate in 43 BC, in which they were each elected for five-year terms to restore order in the Republic and bring Caesar's assassins to justice.[195][196] Cleopatra received messages from both Gaius Cassius Longinus, one of Caesar's assassins, and Publius Cornelius Dolabella, proconsul of Syria and Caesarian loyalist, requesting military aid.[195] She decided to write Cassius an excuse that her kingdom faced too many internal problems, while sending the four legions left by Caesar in Egypt to Dolabella.[195][197] However, these troops were captured by Cassius in Palestine.[195][197] While Serapion, Cleopatra's governor of Cyprus, defected to Cassius and provided him with ships, Cleopatra took her own fleet to Greece to personally assist Octavian and Antony, but her ships were heavily damaged in a Mediterranean storm and she arrived too late to aid in the fighting.[195][198] By the autumn of 42 BC, Antony had defeated the forces of Caesar's assassins at the Battle of Philippi in Greece, leading to the suicide of Cassius and Brutus.[195][199] By the end of 42 BC, Octavian had gained control over much of the western half of the Roman Republic and Antony the eastern half, with Lepidus largely marginalized.[200] In the summer of 41 BC, Antony established his headquarters at Tarsos in Anatolia and summoned Cleopatra there in several letters, which she rebuffed until Antony's envoy Quintus Dellius convinced her to come.[201][202] The meeting would allow Cleopatra to clear up the misconception that she had supported Cassius during the civil war and address territorial exchanges in the Levant, but Antony also undoubtedly desired to form a personal, romantic relationship with the queen.[203][202] Cleopatra sailed up the Kydnos River to Tarsos in Thalamegos, hosting Antony and his officers for two nights of lavish banquets on board the ship.[204][205][note 45] Cleopatra managed to clear her name as a supposed supporter of Cassius, arguing she had really attempted to help Dolabella in Syria, and convinced Antony to have her exiled sister, Arsinoe IV, executed at Ephesus.[206][207] Cleopatra's former rebellious governor of Cyprus was also handed over to her for execution.[206][208] Relationship with Mark Antony Main article: Reign of Cleopatra A Roman marble bust of the consul and triumvir Mark Antony, late 1st century AD, Vatican Museums Cleopatra invited Antony to come to Egypt before departing from Tarsos, which led Antony to visit Alexandria by November 41 BC.[206][209] Antony was well received by the populace of Alexandria, both for his heroic actions in restoring Ptolemy XII to power and coming to Egypt without an occupation force like Caesar had done.[210][211] In Egypt, Antony continued to enjoy the lavish royal lifestyle he had witnessed aboard Cleopatra's ship docked at Tarsos.[212][208] He also had his subordinates, such as Publius Ventidius Bassus, drive the Parthians out of Anatolia and Syria.[211][213][214][note 46] Cleopatra carefully chose Antony as her partner for producing further heirs, as he was deemed to be the most powerful Roman figure following Caesar's demise.[215] With his powers as a triumvir, Antony also had the broad authority to restore former Ptolemaic lands, which were currently in Roman hands, to Cleopatra.[216][217] While it is clear that both Cilicia and Cyprus were under Cleopatra's control by 19 November 38 BC, the transfer probably occurred earlier in the winter of 41–40 BC, during her time spent with Antony.[216] By the spring of 40 BC, Antony left Egypt due to troubles in Syria, where his governor Lucius Decidius Saxa was killed and his army taken by Quintus Labienus, a former officer under Cassius who now served the Parthian Empire.[218] Cleopatra provided Antony with 200 ships for his campaign and as payment for her newly acquired territories.[218] She would not see Antony again until 37 BC, but she maintained correspondence, and evidence suggests she kept a spy in his camp.[218] By the end of 40 BC, Cleopatra had given birth to twins, a boy named Alexander Helios and a girl named Cleopatra Selene II, both of whom Antony acknowledged as his children.[219][220] Helios (the Sun) and Selene (the Moon) were symbolic of a new era of societal rejuvenation,[221] as well as an indication that Cleopatra hoped Antony would repeat the exploits of Alexander the Great by conquering the Parthians.[211] The Meeting of Antony and Cleopatra (1885), by Lawrence Alma-Tadema Mark Antony's Parthian campaign in the east was disrupted by the events of the Perusine War (41–40 BC), initiated by his ambitious wife Fulvia against Octavian in the hopes of making her husband the undisputed leader of Rome.[221][222] It has been suggested that Fulvia wanted to cleave Antony away from Cleopatra, but the conflict emerged in Italy even before Cleopatra's meeting with Antony at Tarsos.[223] Fulvia and Antony's brother Lucius Antonius were eventually besieged by Octavian at Perusia (modern Perugia, Italy) and then exiled from Italy, after which Fulvia died at Sicyon in Greece while attempting to reach Antony.[224] Her sudden death led to a reconciliation of Octavian and Antony at Brundisium in Italy in September 40 BC.[224][211] Although the agreement struck at Brundisium solidified Antony's control of the Roman Republic's territories east of the Ionian Sea, it also stipulated that he concede Italia, Hispania, and Gaul, and marry Octavian's sister Octavia the Younger, a potential rival for Cleopatra.[225][226] In December 40 BC Cleopatra received Herod in Alexandria as an unexpected guest and refugee who fled a turbulent situation in Judea.[227] Herod had been installed as a tetrarch there by Antony, but he was soon at odds with Antigonus II Mattathias of the long-established Hasmonean dynasty.[227] The latter had imprisoned Herod's brother and fellow tetrarch Phasael, who was executed while Herod was fleeing toward Cleopatra's court.[227] Cleopatra attempted to provide him with a military assignment, but Herod declined and traveled to Rome, where the triumvirs Octavian and Antony named him king of Judea.[228][229] This act put Herod on a collision course with Cleopatra, who would desire to reclaim the former Ptolemaic territories that comprised his new Herodian kingdom.[228] An ancient Roman sculpture possibly depicting either Cleopatra of Ptolemaic Egypt,[230][231][note 47] or her daughter, Cleopatra Selene II, Queen of Mauretania,[232] located in the Archaeological Museum of Cherchell, Algeria Relations between Antony and Cleopatra perhaps soured when he not only married Octavia, but also sired her two children, Antonia the Elder in 39 BC and Antonia Minor in 36 BC, and moved his headquarters to Athens.[233] However, Cleopatra's position in Egypt was secure.[211] Her rival Herod was occupied with civil war in Judea that required heavy Roman military assistance, but received none from Cleopatra.[233] Since the authority of Antony and Octavian as triumvirs had expired on 1 January 37 BC, Octavia arranged for a meeting at Tarentum, where the triumvirate was officially extended to 33 BC.[234] With two legions granted by Octavian and a thousand soldiers lent by Octavia, Antony traveled to Antioch, where he made preparations for war against the Parthians.[235] Antony summoned Cleopatra to Antioch to discuss pressing issues, such as Herod's kingdom and financial support for his Parthian campaign.[235][236] Cleopatra brought her now three-year-old twins to Antioch, where Antony saw them for the first time and where they probably first received their surnames Helios and Selene as part of Antony and Cleopatra's ambitious plans for the future.[237][238] In order to stabilize the east, Antony not only enlarged Cleopatra's domain,[236] he also established new ruling dynasties and client rulers who would be loyal to him, yet would ultimately outlast him.[239][217][note 48] In this arrangement Cleopatra gained significant former Ptolemaic territories in the Levant, including nearly all of Phoenicia (Lebanon) minus Tyre and Sidon, which remained in Roman hands.[240][217][236] She also received Ptolemais Akko (modern Acre, Israel), a city that was established by Ptolemy II.[240] Given her ancestral relations with the Seleucids, she was granted the region of Coele-Syria along the upper Orontes River.[241][236] She was even given the region surrounding Jericho in Palestine, but she leased this territory back to Herod.[242][229] At the expense of the Nabataean king Malichus I (a cousin of Herod), Cleopatra was also given a portion of the Nabataean Kingdom around the Gulf of Aqaba on the Red Sea, including Ailana (modern Aqaba, Jordan).[243][229] To the west Cleopatra was handed Cyrene along the Libyan coast, as well as Itanos and Olous in Roman Crete.[244][236] Although still administered by Roman officials, these territories nevertheless enriched her kingdom and led her to declare the inauguration of a new era by double-dating her coinage in 36 BC.[245][246] Roman aureus bearing the portraits of Mark Antony (left) and Octavian (right), issued in 41 BC to celebrate the establishment of the Second Triumvirate by Octavian, Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus in 43 BC Antony's enlargement of the Ptolemaic realm by relinquishing directly controlled Roman territory was exploited by his rival Octavian, who tapped into the public sentiment in Rome against the empowerment of a foreign queen at the expense of their Republic.[247] Octavian, fostering the narrative that Antony was neglecting his virtuous Roman wife Octavia, granted both her and Livia, his own wife, extraordinary privileges of sacrosanctity.[247] Some 50 years before, Cornelia Africana, daughter of Scipio Africanus, had been the first living Roman woman to have a statue dedicated to her.[245] She was now followed by Octavia and Livia, whose statues were most likely erected in the Forum of Caesar to rival that of Cleopatra's, erected by Caesar.[245] In 36 BC, Cleopatra accompanied Antony to the Euphrates in his journey toward invading the Parthian Empire.[248] She then returned to Egypt, perhaps due to her advanced state of pregnancy.[249] By the summer of 36 BC, she had given birth to Ptolemy Philadelphus, her second son with Antony.[249][236] Antony's Parthian campaign in 36 BC turned into a complete debacle for a number of reasons, in particular the betrayal of Artavasdes II of Armenia, who defected to the Parthian side.[250][217][251] After losing some 30,000 men, more than Crassus at Carrhae (an indignity he had hoped to avenge), Antony finally arrived at Leukokome near Berytus (modern Beirut, Lebanon) in December, engaged in heavy drinking before Cleopatra arrived to provide funds and clothing for his battered troops.[250][252] Antony desired to avoid the risks involved in returning to Rome, and so he traveled with Cleopatra back to Alexandria to see his newborn son.[250] Donations of Alexandria Main articles: Donations of Alexandria and Reign of Cleopatra A denarius minted by Antony in 34 BC with his portrait on the obverse, which bears the inscription reading "ANTONIVS ARMENIA DEVICTA", alluding to his Armenian campaign. The reverse features Cleopatra, with the inscription "CLEOPATR[AE] REGINAE REGVM FILIORVM REGVM". The mention of her children on the reverse refers to the Donations of Alexandria.[253][254] As Antony prepared for another Parthian expedition in 35 BC, this time aimed at their ally Armenia, Octavia traveled to Athens with 2,000 troops in alleged support of Antony, but most likely in a scheme devised by Octavian to embarrass him for his military losses.[255][256][note 49] Antony received these troops but told Octavia not to stray east of Athens as he and Cleopatra traveled together to Antioch, only to suddenly and inexplicably abandon the military campaign and head back to Alexandria.[255][256] When Octavia returned to Rome Octavian portrayed his sister as a victim wronged by Antony, although she refused to leave Antony's household.[257][217] Octavian's confidence grew as he eliminated his rivals in the west, including Sextus Pompeius and even Lepidus, the third member of the triumvirate, who was placed under house arrest after revolting against Octavian in Sicily.[257][217][252] Dellius was sent as Antony's envoy to Artavasdes II in 34 BC to negotiate a potential marriage alliance that would wed the Armenian king's daughter to Alexander Helios, the son of Antony and Cleopatra.[258][259] When this was declined, Antony marched his army into Armenia, defeated their forces and captured the king and Armenian royal family.[258][260] Antony then held a military parade in Alexandria as an imitation of a Roman triumph, dressed as Dionysus and riding into the city on a chariot to present the royal prisoners to Cleopatra, who was seated on a golden throne above a silver dais.[258][261] News of this event was heavily criticized in Rome as a perversion of time-honored Roman rites and rituals to be enjoyed instead by an Egyptian queen.[258] A papyrus document dated February 33 BC granting tax exemptions to a person in Egypt and containing the signature of Cleopatra written by an official, but with "γινέσθωι" (ginésthōi; lit. "make it happen"[262][263] or "so be it"[264]) added in Greek, likely by the queen's own hand[262][263][264] In an event held at the gymnasium soon after the triumph, Cleopatra dressed as Isis and declared that she was the Queen of Kings with her son Caesarion, King of Kings, while Alexander Helios was declared king of Armenia, Media, and Parthia, and two-year-old Ptolemy Philadelphos was declared king of Syria and Cilicia.[265][266][267] Cleopatra Selene II was bestowed with Crete and Cyrene.[268][269] Antony and Cleopatra may have been wed during this ceremony.[268][267][note 50] Antony sent a report to Rome requesting ratification of these territorial claims, now known as the Donations of Alexandria. Octavian wanted to publicize it for propaganda purposes, but the two consuls, both supporters of Antony, had it censored from public view.[270][269] In late 34 BC, Antony and Octavian engaged in a heated war of propaganda that would last for years.[271][269][172][note 51] Antony claimed that his rival had illegally deposed Lepidus from their triumvirate and barred him from raising troops in Italy, while Octavian accused Antony of unlawfully detaining the king of Armenia, marrying Cleopatra despite still being married to his sister Octavia, and wrongfully claiming Caesarion as the heir of Caesar instead of Octavian.[271][269] The litany of accusations and gossip associated with this propaganda war have shaped the popular perceptions about Cleopatra from Augustan-period literature through to various media in modern times.[272][273] Cleopatra was said to have brainwashed Mark Antony with witchcraft and sorcery and was as dangerous as Homer's Helen of Troy in destroying civilization.[274] Pliny the Elder claims in his Natural History that Cleopatra once dissolved a pearl worth tens of millions of sesterces in vinegar just to win a dinner-party bet.[275][276] The accusation that Antony had stolen books from the Library of Pergamum to restock the Library of Alexandria later turned out to be an admitted fabrication by Gaius Calvisius Sabinus.[277] A papyrus document dated to February 33 BC, later used to wrap a mummy, contains the signature of Cleopatra, probably written by an official authorized to sign for her.[262][263] It concerns certain tax exemptions in Egypt granted to either Quintus Caecillius or Publius Canidius Crassus,[note 52] a former Roman consul and Antony's confidant who would command his land forces at Actium.[278][263] A subscript in a different handwriting at the bottom of the papyrus reads "make it happen"[278][263] or "so be it"[264] (Ancient Greek: γινέσθωι, romanized: ginésthōi);[note 53] this is likely the autograph of the queen, as it was Ptolemaic practice to countersign documents to avoid forgery.[278][263] Battle of Actium Main articles: Battle of Actium and Reign of Cleopatra A reconstructed statue of Augustus as a younger Octavian, dated c. 30 BC In a speech to the Roman Senate on the first day of his consulship on 1 January 33 BC, Octavian accused Antony of attempting to subvert Roman freedoms and territorial integrity as a slave to his Oriental queen.[279] Before Antony and Octavian's joint imperium expired on 31 December 33 BC, Antony declared Caesarion as the true heir of Caesar in an attempt to undermine Octavian.[279] In 32 BC the Antonian loyalists Gaius Sosius and Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus became consuls. The former gave a fiery speech condemning Octavian, now a private citizen without public office, and introduced pieces of legislation against him.[278][280] During the next senatorial session, Octavian entered the Senate house with armed guards and levied his own accusations against the consuls.[278][281] Intimidated by this act, the consuls and over 200 senators still in support of Antony fled Rome the next day to join the side of Antony.[278][281][282] Antony and Cleopatra traveled together to Ephesus in 32 BC, where she provided him with 200 of the 800 naval ships he was able to acquire.[278] Ahenobarbus, wary of having Octavian's propaganda confirmed to the public, attempted to persuade Antony to have Cleopatra excluded from the campaign against Octavian.[283][284] Publius Canidius Crassus made the counterargument that Cleopatra was funding the war effort and was a competent monarch.[283][284] Cleopatra refused Antony's requests that she return to Egypt, judging that by blocking Octavian in Greece she could more easily defend Egypt.[283][284] Cleopatra's insistence that she be involved in the battle for Greece led to the defections of prominent Romans, such as Ahenobarbus and Lucius Munatius Plancus.[283][281] During the spring of 32 BC Antony and Cleopatra traveled to Athens, where she persuaded Antony to send Octavia an official declaration of divorce.[283][281][267] This encouraged Plancus to advise Octavian that he should seize Antony's will, invested with the Vestal Virgins.[283][281][269] Although a violation of sacred and legal rights, Octavian forcefully acquired the document from the Temple of Vesta, and it became a useful tool in the propaganda war against Antony and Cleopatra.[283][269] Octavian highlighted parts of the will, such as Caesarion being named heir to Caesar, that the Donations of Alexandria were legal, that Antony should be buried alongside Cleopatra in Egypt instead of Rome, and that Alexandria would be made the new capital of the Roman Republic.[285][281][269] In a show of loyalty to Rome, Octavian decided to begin construction of his own mausoleum at the Campus Martius.[281] Octavian's legal standing was also improved by being elected consul in 31 BC.[281] With Antony's will made public, Octavian had his casus belli, and Rome declared war on Cleopatra,[285][286][287] not Antony.[note 54] The legal argument for war was based less on Cleopatra's territorial acquisitions, with former Roman territories ruled by her children with Antony, and more on the fact that she was providing military support to a private citizen now that Antony's triumviral authority had expired.[288] Left: A silver tetradrachm of Cleopatra minted at Seleucia Pieria, Syria Right: A silver tetradrachm of Cleopatra minted at Ascalon, Israel Antony and Cleopatra had a larger fleet than Octavian, but the crews of Antony and Cleopatra's navy were not all well-trained, some of them perhaps from merchant vessels, whereas Octavian had a fully professional force.[289][284] Antony wanted to cross the Adriatic Sea and blockade Octavian at either Tarentum or Brundisium,[290] but Cleopatra, concerned primarily with defending Egypt, overrode the decision to attack Italy directly.[291][284] Antony and Cleopatra set up their winter headquarters at Patrai in Greece, and by the spring of 31 BC they had moved to Actium, on the southern side of the Ambracian Gulf.[291][290] Cleopatra and Antony had the support of various allied kings, but Cleopatra had already been in conflict with Herod, and an earthquake in Judea provided him with an excuse to be absent from the campaign.[292] They also lost the support of Malichus I, which would prove to have strategic consequences.[293] Antony and Cleopatra lost several skirmishes against Octavian around Actium during the summer of 31 BC, while defections to Octavian's camp continued, including Antony's long-time companion Dellius[293] and the allied kings Amyntas of Galatia and Deiotaros of Paphlagonia.[293] While some in Antony's camp suggested abandoning the naval conflict to retreat inland, Cleopatra urged for a naval confrontation, to keep Octavian's fleet away from Egypt.[294] On 2 September 31 BC the naval forces of Octavian, led by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, met those of Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium.[294][290][286] Cleopatra, aboard her flagship, the Antonias, commanded 60 ships at the mouth of the Ambracian Gulf, at the rear of the fleet, in what was likely a move by Antony's officers to marginalize her during the battle.[294] Antony had ordered that their ships should have sails on board for a better chance to pursue or flee from the enemy, which Cleopatra, ever concerned about defending Egypt, used to swiftly move through the area of major combat in a strategic withdrawal to the Peloponnese.[295][296][297] Burstein writes that partisan Roman writers would later accuse Cleopatra of cowardly deserting Antony, but their original intention of keeping their sails on board may have been to break the blockade and salvage as much of their fleet as possible.[297] Antony followed Cleopatra and boarded her ship, identified by its distinctive purple sails, as the two escaped the battle and headed for Tainaron.[295] Antony reportedly avoided Cleopatra during this three-day voyage, until her ladies in waiting at Tainaron urged him to speak with her.[298] The Battle of Actium raged on without Cleopatra and Antony until the morning of 3 September, and was followed by massive defections of officers, troops, and allied kings to Octavian's side.[298][296][299] Downfall and death Main article: Death of Cleopatra Further information: Epaphroditus (freedman of Augustus) and Tomb of Antony and Cleopatra A Roman painting from the House of Giuseppe II in Pompeii, early 1st century AD, most likely depicting Cleopatra, wearing her royal diadem and consuming poison in an act of suicide, while her son Caesarion, also wearing a royal diadem, stands behind her[300][301] While Octavian occupied Athens, Antony and Cleopatra landed at Paraitonion in Egypt.[298][302] The couple then went their separate ways, Antony to Cyrene to raise more troops and Cleopatra to the harbor at Alexandria in a misleading attempt to portray the activities in Greece as a victory.[298] It is uncertain whether or not, at this time, she actually executed Artavasdes II and sent his head to his rival, Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene, in an attempt to strike an alliance with him.[303][304] Lucius Pinarius, Mark Antony's appointed governor of Cyrene, received word that Octavian had won the Battle of Actium before Antony's messengers could arrive at his court.[303] Pinarius had these messengers executed and then defected to Octavian's side, surrendering to him the four legions under his command that Antony desired to obtain.[303] Antony nearly committed suicide after hearing news of this but was stopped by his staff officers.[303] In Alexandria he built a reclusive cottage on the island of Pharos that he nicknamed the Timoneion, after the philosopher Timon of Athens, who was famous for his cynicism and misanthropy.[303] Herod, who had personally advised Antony after the Battle of Actium that he should betray Cleopatra, traveled to Rhodes to meet Octavian and resign his kingship out of loyalty to Antony.[305] Octavian was impressed by his speech and sense of loyalty, so he allowed him to maintain his position in Judea, further isolating Antony and Cleopatra.[305] Cleopatra perhaps started to view Antony as a liability by the late summer of 31 BC, when she prepared to leave Egypt to her son Caesarion.[306] Cleopatra planned to relinquish her throne to him, take her fleet from the Mediterranean into the Red Sea, and then set sail to a foreign port, perhaps in India, where she could spend time recuperating.[306][304] However, these plans were ultimately abandoned when Malichus I, as advised by Octavian's governor of Syria, Quintus Didius, managed to burn Cleopatra's fleet in revenge for his losses in a war with Herod that Cleopatra had largely initiated.[306][304] Cleopatra had no other option but to stay in Egypt and negotiate with Octavian.[306] Although most likely later pro-Octavian propaganda, it was reported that at this time Cleopatra started testing the strengths of various poisons on prisoners and even her own servants.[307] The Death of Cleopatra (1658), by Guido Cagnacci Cleopatra had Caesarion enter into the ranks of the ephebi, which, along with reliefs on a stele from Koptos dated 21 September 31 BC, demonstrated that Cleopatra was now grooming her son to become the sole ruler of Egypt.[308] In a show of solidarity, Antony also had Marcus Antonius Antyllus, his son with Fulvia, enter the ephebi at the same time.[306] Separate messages and envoys from Antony and Cleopatra were then sent to Octavian, still stationed at Rhodes, although Octavian seems to have replied only to Cleopatra.[307] Cleopatra requested that her children should inherit Egypt and that Antony should be allowed to live in exile in Egypt, offered Octavian money in the future, and immediately sent him lavish gifts.[307][304] Octavian sent his diplomat Thyrsos to Cleopatra after she threatened to burn herself and vast amounts of her treasure within a tomb already under construction.[309] Thyrsos advised her to kill Antony so that her life would be spared, but when Antony suspected foul intent, he had this diplomat flogged and sent back to Octavian without a deal.[310] After lengthy negotiations that ultimately produced no results, Octavian set out to invade Egypt in the spring of 30 BC,[311] stopping at Ptolemais in Phoenicia, where his new ally Herod provided his army with fresh supplies.[312] Octavian moved south and swiftly took Pelousion, while Cornelius Gallus, marching eastward from Cyrene, defeated Antony's forces near Paraitonion.[313][314] Octavian advanced quickly to Alexandria, but Antony returned and won a small victory over Octavian's tired troops outside the city's hippodrome.[313][314] However, on 1 August 30 BC, Antony's naval fleet surrendered to Octavian, followed by Antony's cavalry.[313][296][315] Cleopatra hid herself in her tomb with her close attendants and sent a message to Antony that she had committed suicide.[313][316][317] In despair, Antony responded to this by stabbing himself in the stomach and taking his own life at age 53.[313][296][304] According to Plutarch, he was still dying when brought to Cleopatra at her tomb, telling her he had died honorably and that she could trust Octavian's companion Gaius Proculeius over anyone else in his entourage.[313][318][319] It was Proculeius, however, who infiltrated her tomb using a ladder and detained the queen, denying her the ability to burn herself with her treasures.[320][321] Cleopatra was then allowed to embalm and bury Antony within her tomb before she was escorted to the palace.[320][304] The Death of Cleopatra (1796–1797), by Jean-Baptiste Regnault Octavian entered Alexandria, occupied the palace, and seized Cleopatra's three youngest children.[320][322] When she met with Octavian, Cleopatra told him bluntly, "I will not be led in a triumph" (Ancient Greek: οὑ θριαμβεύσομαι, romanized: ou thriambéusomai), according to Livy, a rare recording of her exact words.[323][324] Octavian promised that he would keep her alive but offered no explanation about his future plans for her kingdom.[325] When a spy informed her that Octavian planned to move her and her children to Rome in three days, she prepared for suicide as she had no intentions of being paraded in a Roman triumph like her sister Arsinoe IV.[325][296][304] It is unclear if Cleopatra's suicide on 10 August 30 BC, at age 39, took place within the palace or her tomb.[326][327][note 3] It is said she was accompanied by her servants Eiras and Charmion, who also took their own lives.[325][328] Octavian was said to have been angered by this outcome but had Cleopatra buried in royal fashion next to Antony in her tomb.[325][329][330] Cleopatra's physician Olympos did not explain her cause of death, although the popular belief is that she allowed an asp or Egyptian cobra to bite and poison her.[331][332][304] Plutarch relates this tale, but then suggests an implement (κνῆστις, knêstis, lit. 'spine, cheese-grater') was used to introduce the toxin by scratching, while Dio says that she injected the poison with a needle (βελόνη, belónē), and Strabo argued for an ointment of some kind.[333][332][334][note 55] No venomous snake was found with her body, but she did have tiny puncture wounds on her arm that could have been caused by a needle.[331][334][330] Cleopatra decided in her last moments to send Caesarion away to Upper Egypt, perhaps with plans to flee to Kushite Nubia, Ethiopia, or India.[335][336][314] Caesarion, now Ptolemy XV, would reign for a mere 18 days until executed on the orders of Octavian on 29 August 30 BC, after returning to Alexandria under the false pretense that Octavian would allow him to be king.[337][338][339][note 2] Octavian was convinced by the advice of the philosopher Arius Didymus that there was room for only one Caesar in the world.[340][note 56] With the fall of the Ptolemaic Kingdom, the Roman province of Egypt was established,[341][296][342][note 57] marking the end of the Hellenistic period.[343][344][note 7] In January of 27 BC Octavian was renamed Augustus ("the revered") and amassed constitutional powers that established him as the first Roman emperor, inaugurating the Principate era of the Roman Empire.[345] Cleopatra's kingdom and role as a monarch Main article: Reign of Cleopatra § Egypt under the monarchy of Cleopatra Further information: Ptolemaic coinage and Ancient Greek coinage Cleopatra on a coin of 40 drachms from 51–30 BC, minted at Alexandria; on the obverse is a portrait of Cleopatra wearing a diadem, and on the reverse an inscription reading "ΒΑΣΙΛΙΣΣΗΣ ΚΛΕΟΠΑΤΡΑΣ" with an eagle standing on a thunderbolt. Following the tradition of Macedonian rulers, Cleopatra ruled Egypt and other territories such as Cyprus as an absolute monarch, serving as the sole lawgiver of her kingdom.[346] She was the chief religious authority in her realm, presiding over religious ceremonies dedicated to the deities of both the Egyptian and Greek polytheistic faiths.[347] She oversaw the construction of various temples to Egyptian and Greek gods,[348] a synagogue for the Jews in Egypt, and even built the Caesareum of Alexandria, dedicated to the cult worship of her patron and lover Julius Caesar.[349][350] Cleopatra was directly involved in the administrative affairs of her domain,[351] tackling crises such as famine by ordering royal granaries to distribute food to the starving populace during a drought at the beginning of her reign.[352] Although the command economy that she managed was more of an ideal than a reality,[353] the government attempted to impose price controls, tariffs, and state monopolies for certain goods, fixed exchange rates for foreign currencies, and rigid laws forcing peasant farmers to stay in their villages during planting and harvesting seasons.[354][355][356] Apparent financial troubles led Cleopatra to debase her coinage, which included silver and bronze currencies but no gold coins like those of some of her distant Ptolemaic predecessors.[357] Legacy Children and successors Left: A Roman head of either Cleopatra or her daughter Cleopatra Selene II, Queen of Mauretania, from the late 1st century BC, located in the Archaeological Museum of Cherchell, Algeria[232][358][359][note 47] Right: A likely depiction of Cleopatra Selene II, wearing an elephant skin cap, raised relief image on a gilded silver dish from the Boscoreale Treasure, dated to the early 1st century AD[360][361][note 58] After her suicide, Cleopatra's three surviving children, Cleopatra Selene II, Alexander Helios, and Ptolemy Philadelphos, were sent to Rome with Octavian's sister Octavia the Younger, a former wife of their father, as their guardian.[362][363] Cleopatra Selene II and Alexander Helios were present in the Roman triumph of Octavian in 29 BC.[362][238] The fates of Alexander Helios and Ptolemy Philadelphus are unknown after this point.[362][238] Octavia arranged the betrothal of Cleopatra Selene II to Juba II, son of Juba I, whose North African kingdom of Numidia had been turned into a Roman province in 46 BC by Julius Caesar due to Juba I's support of Pompey.[364][363][322] The emperor Augustus installed Juba II and Cleopatra Selene II, after their wedding in 25 BC, as the new rulers of Mauretania, where they transformed the old Carthaginian city of Iol into their new capital, renamed Caesarea Mauretaniae (modern Cherchell, Algeria).[364][238] Cleopatra Selene II imported many important scholars, artists, and advisers from her mother's royal court in Alexandria to serve her in Caesarea, now permeated in Hellenistic Greek culture.[365] She also named her son Ptolemy of Mauretania, in honor of their Ptolemaic dynastic heritage.[366][367] Cleopatra Selene II died around 5 BC, and when Juba II died in 23/24 AD he was succeeded by his son Ptolemy.[366][368] However, Ptolemy was eventually executed by the Roman emperor Caligula in 40 AD, perhaps under the pretense that Ptolemy had unlawfully minted his own royal coinage and utilized regalia reserved for the Roman emperor.[369][370] Ptolemy of Mauretania was the last known monarch of the Ptolemaic dynasty, although Queen Zenobia, of the short-lived Palmyrene Empire during the Crisis of the Third Century, would claim descent from Cleopatra.[371][372] A cult dedicated to Cleopatra still existed as late as 373 AD when Petesenufe, an Egyptian scribe of the book of Isis, explained that he "overlaid the figure of Cleopatra with gold."[373] Roman literature and historiography Further information: Roman historiography, Greek historiography, Latin literature, and Latin poetry Cleopatra Testing Poisons on Condemned Prisoners (1887), by Alexandre Cabanel[374] Although almost 50 ancient works of Roman historiography mention Cleopatra, these often include only terse accounts of the Battle of Actium, her suicide, and Augustan propaganda about her personal deficiencies.[375] Despite not being a biography of Cleopatra, the Life of Antonius written by Plutarch in the 1st century AD provides the most thorough surviving account of Cleopatra's life.[376][377][378] Plutarch lived a century after Cleopatra but relied on primary sources, such as Philotas of Amphissa, who had access to the Ptolemaic royal palace, Cleopatra's personal physician named Olympos, and Quintus Dellius, a close confidant of Mark Antony and Cleopatra.[379] Plutarch's work included both the Augustan view of Cleopatra—which became canonical for his period—as well as sources outside of this tradition, such as eyewitness reports.[376][378] The Jewish Roman historian Josephus, writing in the 1st century AD, provides valuable information on the life of Cleopatra via her diplomatic relationship with Herod the Great.[380][381] However, this work relies largely on Herod's memoirs and the biased account of Nicolaus of Damascus, the tutor of Cleopatra's children in Alexandria before he moved to Judea to serve as an adviser and chronicler at Herod's court.[380][381] The Roman History published by the official and historian Cassius Dio in the early 3rd century AD, while failing to fully comprehend the complexities of the late Hellenistic world, nevertheless provides a continuous history of the era of Cleopatra's reign.[380] A restructured marble Roman statue of Cleopatra wearing a diadem and 'melon' hairstyle similar to coinage portraits, found along the Via Cassia near the Tomba di Nerone [it], Rome, and now located in the Museo Pio-Clementino[1][382][383] Cleopatra is barely mentioned in De Bello Alexandrino, the memoirs of an unknown staff officer who served under Caesar.[384][385][386][note 59] The writings of Cicero, who knew her personally, provide an unflattering portrait of Cleopatra.[384] The Augustan-period authors Virgil, Horace, Propertius, and Ovid perpetuated the negative views of Cleopatra approved by the ruling Roman regime,[384][387] although Virgil established the idea of Cleopatra as a figure of romance and epic melodrama.[388][note 60] Horace also viewed Cleopatra's suicide as a positive choice,[389][387] an idea that found acceptance by the Late Middle Ages with Geoffrey Chaucer.[390][391] The historians Strabo, Velleius, Valerius Maximus, Pliny the Elder, and Appian, while not offering accounts as full as Plutarch, Josephus, or Dio, provided some details of her life that had not survived in other historical records.[384][note 61] Inscriptions on contemporary Ptolemaic coinage and some Egyptian papyrus documents demonstrate Cleopatra's point of view, but this material is very limited in comparison to Roman literary works.[384][392][note 62] The fragmentary Libyka commissioned by Cleopatra's son-in-law Juba II provides a glimpse at a possible body of historiographic material that supported Cleopatra's perspective.[384] Cleopatra's gender has perhaps led to her depiction as a minor if not insignificant figure in ancient, medieval, and even modern historiography about ancient Egypt and the Greco-Roman world.[393] For instance, the historian Ronald Syme asserted that she was of little importance to Caesar and that the propaganda of Octavian magnified her importance to an excessive degree.[393] Although the common view of Cleopatra was one of a prolific seductress, she had only two known sexual partners, Caesar and Antony, the two most prominent Romans of the time period, who were most likely to ensure the survival of her dynasty.[394][395] Plutarch described Cleopatra as having had a stronger personality and charming wit than physical beauty.[396][16][397][note 63] Cultural depictions Further information: List of cultural depictions of Cleopatra Depictions in ancient art Further information: Hellenistic art, Art of ancient Egypt, and Death of Cleopatra § Depictions in art and literature Statues Further information: Roman portraiture, Roman sculpture, Esquiline Venus, and Sleeping Ariadne Left: An Egyptian statue of either Arsinoe II or Cleopatra as an Egyptian goddess in black basalt from the second half of the 1st century BC,[398] located in the Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg Right: The Esquiline Venus, a Roman or Hellenistic-Egyptian statue of Venus (Aphrodite) that may be a depiction of Cleopatra,[399] located in the Capitoline Museums, Rome Cleopatra was depicted in various ancient works of art, in the Egyptian as well as Hellenistic-Greek and Roman styles.[2] Surviving works include statues, busts, reliefs, and minted coins,[2][374] as well as ancient carved cameos,[400] such as one depicting Cleopatra and Antony in Hellenistic style, now in the Altes Museum, Berlin.[1] Contemporary images of Cleopatra were produced both in and outside of Ptolemaic Egypt. For instance, a large gilded bronze statue of Cleopatra once existed inside the Temple of Venus Genetrix in Rome, the first time that a living person had their statue placed next to that of a deity in a Roman temple.[3][184][401] It was erected there by Caesar and remained in the temple at least until the 3rd century AD, its preservation perhaps owing to Caesar's patronage, although Augustus did not remove or destroy artworks in Alexandria depicting Cleopatra.[402][403] In regards to surviving Roman statuary, a life-sized Roman-style statue of Cleopatra was found near the Tomba di Nerone [it], Rome, along the Via Cassia and is now housed in the Museo Pio-Clementino, part of the Vatican Museums.[1][382][383] Plutarch, in his Life of Antonius, claimed that the public statues of Antony were torn down by Augustus, but those of Cleopatra were preserved following her death thanks to her friend Archibius paying the emperor 2,000 talents to dissuade him from destroying hers.[404][373][329] Since the 1950s scholars have debated whether or not the Esquiline Venus—discovered in 1874 on the Esquiline Hill in Rome and housed in the Palazzo dei Conservatori of the Capitoline Museums—is a depiction of Cleopatra, based on the statue's hairstyle and facial features, apparent royal diadem worn over the head, and the uraeus Egyptian cobra wrapped around the base.[399][405][406] Detractors of this theory argue that the face in this statue is thinner than the face on the Berlin portrait and assert that it was unlikely she would be depicted as the naked goddess Venus (or the Greek Aphrodite).[399][405][406] However, she was depicted in an Egyptian statue as the goddess Isis,[407] while some of her coinage depicts her as Venus-Aphrodite.[408][409] She also dressed as Aphrodite when meeting Antony at Tarsos.[205] The Esquiline Venus is generally thought to be a mid-1st-century AD Roman copy of a 1st-century BC Greek original from the school of Pasiteles.[405] Coinage portraits Further information: Ptolemaic coinage, Roman currency, and Ancient Greek coinage Cleopatra and Mark Antony on the obverse and reverse, respectively, of a silver tetradrachm struck at the Antioch mint in 36 BC, with Greek legends: BACIΛΙCCA KΛΕΟΠΑΤΡΑ ΘΕΑ ΝΕΩΤΕΡΑ, ANTΩNIOC AYTOKPATΩP TPITON TPIΩN ANΔPΩN. Surviving coinage of Cleopatra's reign include specimens from every regnal year, from 51 to 30 BC.[410] Cleopatra, the only Ptolemaic queen to issue coins on her own behalf, almost certainly inspired her partner Caesar to become the first living Roman to present his portrait on his own coins.[408][note 64] Cleopatra was also the first foreign queen to have her image appear on Roman currency.[411] Coins dated to the period of her marriage to Antony, which also bear his image, portray the queen as having a very similar aquiline nose and prominent chin as that of her husband.[3][412] These similar facial features followed an artistic convention that represented the mutually-observed harmony of a royal couple.[3][2] Her strong, almost masculine facial features in these particular coins are strikingly different from the smoother, softer, and perhaps idealized sculpted images of her in either the Egyptian or Hellenistic styles.[2][413][414] Her masculine facial features on minted currency are similar to that of her father, Ptolemy XII Auletes,[415][114] and perhaps also to those of her Ptolemaic ancestor Arsinoe II (316–260 BC)[2][416] and even depictions of earlier queens such as Hatshepsut and Nefertiti.[414] It is likely, due to political expediency, that Antony's visage was made to conform not only to hers but also to those of her Macedonian Greek ancestors who founded the Ptolemaic dynasty, to familiarize himself to her subjects as a legitimate member of the royal house.[2] The inscriptions on the coins are written in Greek, but also in the nominative case of Roman coins rather than the genitive case of Greek coins, in addition to having the letters placed in a circular fashion along the edges of the coin instead of across it horizontally or vertically as was customary for Greek ones.[2] These facets of their coinage represent the synthesis of Roman and Hellenistic culture, and perhaps also a statement to their subjects, however ambiguous to modern scholars, about the superiority of either Antony or Cleopatra over the other.[2] Diana Kleiner argues that Cleopatra, in one of her coins minted with the dual image of her husband Antony, made herself more masculine-looking than other portraits and more like an acceptable Roman client queen than a Hellenistic ruler.[413] Cleopatra had actually achieved this masculine look in coinage predating her affair with Antony, such as the coins struck at the Ashkelon mint during her brief period of exile to Syria and the Levant, which Joann Fletcher explains as her attempt to appear like her father and as a legitimate successor to a male Ptolemaic ruler.[114][417] Various coins, such as a silver tetradrachm minted sometime after Cleopatra's marriage with Antony in 37 BC, depict her wearing a royal diadem and a 'melon' hairstyle.[3][417] The combination of this hairstyle with a diadem is also featured in two surviving sculpted marble heads.[418][374][419][note 65] This hairstyle, with hair braided back into a bun, is the same as that worn by her Ptolemaic ancestors Arsinoe II and Berenice II in their own coinage.[3][420] After her visit to Rome in 46–44 BC it became fashionable for Roman women to adopt it as one of their hairstyles, but it was abandoned for a more modest, austere look during the conservative rule of Augustus.[3][418][419] Greco-Roman busts and heads An ancient Roman portrait head, c. 50–30 BC, now located in the British Museum, London, that depicts a woman from Ptolemaic Egypt, either Queen Cleopatra or a member of her entourage during her 46–44 BC visit to Rome with her lover Julius Caesar[418] Of the surviving Greco-Roman-style busts and heads of Cleopatra,[note 66] the sculpture known as the "Berlin Cleopatra", located in the Antikensammlung Berlin collection at the Altes Museum, possesses her full nose, whereas the head known as the "Vatican Cleopatra", located in the Vatican Museums, is damaged with a missing nose.[421][422][423][note 67] Both the Berlin Cleopatra and Vatican Cleopatra have royal diadems, similar facial features, and perhaps once resembled the face of her bronze statue housed in the Temple of Venus Genetrix.[422][424][423][note 68] Both heads are dated to the mid-1st century BC and were found in Roman villas along the Via Appia in Italy, the Vatican Cleopatra having been unearthed in the Villa of the Quintilii.[3][421][423][note 69] Francisco Pina Polo writes that Cleopatra's coinage present her image with certainty and asserts that the sculpted portrait of the Berlin head is confirmed as having a similar profile with her hair pulled back into a bun, a diadem, and a hooked nose.[425] A third sculpted portrait of Cleopatra accepted by scholars as being authentic survives at the Archaeological Museum of Cherchell, Algeria.[403][358][359] This portrait features the royal diadem and similar facial features as the Berlin and Vatican heads, but has a more unique hairstyle and may actually depict Cleopatra Selene II, daughter of Cleopatra.[359][426][232][note 47] A possible Parian-marble sculpture of Cleopatra wearing a vulture headdress in Egyptian style is located at the Capitoline Museums.[427] Discovered near a sanctuary of Isis in Rome and dated to the 1st century BC, it is either Roman or Hellenistic-Egyptian in origin.[428] Other possible sculpted depictions of Cleopatra include one in the British Museum, London, made of limestone, which perhaps only depicts a woman in her entourage during her trip to Rome.[1][418] The woman in this portrait has facial features similar to others (including the pronounced aquiline nose), but lacks a royal diadem and sports a different hairstyle.[1][418] However, the British Museum head, once belonging to a full statue, could potentially represent Cleopatra at a different stage in her life and may also betray an effort by Cleopatra to discard the use of royal insignia (i.e. the diadem) to make herself more appealing to the citizens of Republican Rome.[418] Duane W. Roller speculates that the British Museum head, along with those in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo, the Capitoline Museums, and in the private collection of Maurice Nahmen, while having similar facial features and hairstyles as the Berlin portrait but lacking a royal diadem, most likely represent members of the royal court or even Roman women imitating Cleopatra's popular hairstyle.[429] Cleopatra, mid-1st century BC, with a "melon" hairstyle and Hellenistic royal diadem worn over her head, now in the Vatican Museums[1][3][421] Profile view of the Vatican Cleopatra Cleopatra, mid-1st century BC, showing Cleopatra with a "melon" hairstyle and Hellenistic royal diadem worn over the head, now in the Altes Museum[1][3][421] Profile view of the Berlin Cleopatra Paintings A Roman Second Style painting in the House of Marcus Fabius Rufus at Pompeii, Italy, depicting Cleopatra as Venus Genetrix and her son Caesarion as a cupid, mid-1st century BC[405][430] In the House of Marcus Fabius Rufus at Pompeii, Italy, a mid-1st century BC Second Style wall painting of the goddess Venus holding a cupid near massive temple doors is most likely a depiction of Cleopatra as Venus Genetrix with her son Caesarion.[405][430] The commission of the painting most likely coincides with the erection of the Temple of Venus Genetrix in the Forum of Caesar in September 46 BC, where Caesar had a gilded statue erected depicting Cleopatra.[405][430] This statue likely formed the basis of her depictions in both sculpted art as well as this painting at Pompeii.[405][431] The woman in the painting wears a royal diadem over her head and is strikingly similar in appearance to the Vatican Cleopatra, which bears possible marks on the marble of its left cheek where a cupid's arm may have been torn off.[405][432][423][note 70] The room with the painting was walled off by its owner, perhaps in reaction to the execution of Caesarion in 30 BC by order of Octavian, when public depictions of Cleopatra's son would have been unfavorable with the new Roman regime.[405][433] Behind her golden diadem, crowned with a red jewel, is a translucent veil with crinkles that suggest the "melon" hairstyle favored by the queen.[432][note 71] Her ivory-white skin, round face, long aquiline nose, and large round eyes were features common in both Roman and Ptolemaic depictions of deities.[432] Roller affirms that "there seems little doubt that this is a depiction of Cleopatra and Caesarion before the doors of the Temple of Venus in the Forum Julium and, as such, it becomes the only extant contemporary painting of the queen."[405] A steel engraving published by John Sartain in 1885 (left) depicting the now lost painted death portrait of Cleopatra, an encaustic painting discovered in 1818 in the ancient Roman ruins of the Egyptian temple of Serapis at Hadrian's Villa in Tivoli, Lazio;[434] she is seen here wearing the knotted garment of Isis (corresponding with Plutarch's description of her wearing the robes of Isis),[435] as well as the radiant crown of the Ptolemaic rulers such as Ptolemy V (pictured to the right in a golden octodrachm minted in 204–203 BC).[436] Another painting from Pompeii, dated to the early 1st century AD and located in the House of Giuseppe II, contains a possible depiction of Cleopatra with her son Caesarion, both wearing royal diadems while she reclines and consumes poison in an act of suicide.[300][301][note 72] The painting was originally thought to depict the Carthaginian noblewoman Sophonisba, who toward the end of the Second Punic War (218–201 BC) drank poison and committed suicide at the behest of her lover Masinissa, King of Numidia.[300] Arguments in favor of it depicting Cleopatra include the strong connection of her house with that of the Numidian royal family, Masinissa and Ptolemy VIII Physcon having been associates, and Cleopatra's own daughter marrying the Numidian prince Juba II.[300] Sophonisba was also a more obscure figure when the painting was made, while Cleopatra's suicide was far more famous.[300] An asp is absent from the painting, but many Romans held the view that she received poison in another manner than a venomous snakebite.[437] A set of double doors on the rear wall of the painting, positioned very high above the people in it, suggests the described layout of Cleopatra's tomb in Alexandria.[300] A male servant holds the mouth of an artificial Egyptian crocodile (possibly an elaborate tray handle), while another man standing by is dressed as a Roman.[300] In 1818 a now lost encaustic painting was discovered in the Temple of Serapis at Hadrian's Villa, near Tivoli, Lazio, Italy, that depicted Cleopatra committing suicide with an asp biting her bare chest.[434] A chemical analysis performed in 1822 confirmed that the medium for the painting was composed of one-third wax and two-thirds resin.[434] The thickness of the painting over Cleopatra's bare flesh and her drapery were reportedly similar to the paintings of the Fayum mummy portraits.[438] A steel engraving published by John Sartain in 1885 depicting the painting as described in the archaeological report shows Cleopatra wearing authentic clothing and jewelry of Egypt in the late Hellenistic period,[439] as well as the radiant crown of the Ptolemaic rulers, as seen in their portraits on various coins minted during their respective reigns.[436] After Cleopatra's suicide, Octavian commissioned a painting to be made depicting her being bitten by a snake, parading this image in her stead during his triumphal procession in Rome.[438][335][311] The portrait painting of Cleopatra's death was perhaps among the great number of artworks and treasures taken from Rome by Emperor Hadrian to decorate his private villa, where it was found in an Egyptian temple.[434][note 73] Ancient Roman fresco in the Pompeian Third Style possibly depicting Cleopatra, from the House of the Orchard at Pompeii, Italy, mid-1st century AD[56] A Roman panel painting from Herculaneum, Italy, dated to the 1st century AD possibly depicts Cleopatra.[56][57] In it she wears a royal diadem, red or reddish-brown hair pulled back into a bun,[note 74] pearl-studded hairpins,[440] and earrings with ball-shaped pendants, the white skin of her face and neck set against a stark black background.[56] Her hair and facial features are similar to those in the sculpted Berlin and Vatican portraits as well as her coinage.[56] A highly similar painted bust of a woman with a blue headband in the House of the Orchard at Pompeii features Egyptian-style imagery, such as a Greek-style sphinx, and may have been created by the same artist.[56] Portland Vase Further information: Portland Vase A possible depiction of Mark Antony being lured by Cleopatra, straddling a serpent, while Anton, Antony's alleged ancestor, looks on and Eros flies above[441][442] The Portland Vase, a Roman cameo glass vase dated to the Augustan period and now in the British Museum, includes a possible depiction of Cleopatra with Antony.[441][443] In this interpretation, Cleopatra can be seen grasping Antony and drawing him toward her while a serpent (i.e. the asp) rises between her legs, Eros floats above, and Anton, the alleged ancestor of the Antonian family, looks on in despair as his descendant Antony is led to his doom.[441][442] The other side of the vase perhaps contains a scene of Octavia, abandoned by her husband Antony but watched over by her brother, the emperor Augustus.[441][442] The vase would thus have been created no earlier than 35 BC, when Antony sent his wife Octavia back to Italy and stayed with Cleopatra in Alexandria.[441] Native Egyptian art Further information: Portraiture in ancient Egypt and Reign of Cleopatra § Egypt under the monarchy of Cleopatra Cleopatra and her son Caesarion at the Temple of Dendera The Bust of Cleopatra in the Royal Ontario Museum represents a bust of Cleopatra in the Egyptian style.[444] Dated to the mid-1st century BC, it is perhaps the earliest depiction of Cleopatra as both a goddess and ruling pharaoh of Egypt.[444] The sculpture also has pronounced eyes that share similarities with Roman copies of Ptolemaic sculpted works of art.[445] The Dendera Temple complex, near Dendera, Egypt, contains Egyptian-style carved relief images along the exterior walls of the Temple of Hathor depicting Cleopatra and her young son Caesarion as a grown adult and ruling pharaoh making offerings to the gods.[446][447] Augustus had his name inscribed there following the death of Cleopatra.[446][448] A large Ptolemaic black basalt statue measuring 104 centimetres (41 in) in height, now in the Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg, is thought to represent Arsinoe II, wife of Ptolemy II, but recent analysis has indicated that it could depict her descendant Cleopatra due to the three uraei adorning her headdress, an increase from the two used by Arsinoe II to symbolize her rule over Lower and Upper Egypt.[404][400][398] The woman in the basalt statue also holds a divided, double cornucopia (dikeras), which can be seen on coins of both Arsinoe II and Cleopatra.[404][398] In his Kleopatra und die Caesaren (2006), Bernard Andreae [de] contends that this basalt statue, like other idealized Egyptian portraits of the queen, does not contain realistic facial features and hence adds little to the knowledge of her appearance.[449][note 75] Adrian Goldsworthy writes that, despite these representations in the traditional Egyptian style, Cleopatra would have dressed as a native only "perhaps for certain rites" and instead would usually dress as a Greek monarch, which would include the Greek headband seen in her Greco-Roman busts.[450] Medieval and Early Modern reception Further information: Medieval art, Medieval literature, Renaissance art, Renaissance literature, and Early Modern literature The Banquet of Cleopatra (1744), by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, now in the National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne[451] In modern times Cleopatra has become an icon of popular culture,[374] a reputation shaped by theatrical representations dating back to the Renaissance as well as paintings and films.[452] This material largely surpasses the scope and size of existent historiographic literature about her from classical antiquity and has made a greater impact on the general public's view of Cleopatra than the latter.[453] The 14th-century English poet Geoffrey Chaucer, in The Legend of Good Women, contextualized Cleopatra for the Christian world of the Middle Ages.[454] His depiction of Cleopatra and Antony, her shining knight engaged in courtly love, has been interpreted in modern times as being either playful or misogynistic satire.[454] However, Chaucer highlighted Cleopatra's relationships with only two men as hardly the life of a seductress and wrote his works partly in reaction to the negative depiction of Cleopatra in De Mulieribus Claris and De Casibus Virorum Illustrium, Latin works by the 14th-century Italian poet Giovanni Boccaccio.[455][391] The Renaissance humanist Bernardino Cacciante [it], in his 1504 Libretto apologetico delle donne, was the first Italian to defend the reputation of Cleopatra and criticize the perceived moralizing and misogyny in Boccaccio's works.[456] Works of Islamic historiography written in Arabic covered the reign of Cleopatra, such as the 10th-century Meadows of Gold by Al-Masudi,[457] although his work erroneously claimed that Octavian died soon after Cleopatra's suicide.[458] Cleopatra appeared in miniatures for illuminated manuscripts, such as a depiction of her and Antony lying in a Gothic-style tomb by the Boucicaut Master in 1409.[390] In the visual arts, the sculpted depiction of Cleopatra as a free-standing nude figure committing suicide began with the 16th-century sculptors Bartolommeo Bandinelli and Alessandro Vittoria.[459] Early prints depicting Cleopatra include designs by the Renaissance artists Raphael and Michelangelo, as well as 15th-century woodcuts in illustrated editions of Boccaccio's works.[460] In the performing arts, the death of Elizabeth I of England in 1603, and the German publication in 1606 of alleged letters of Cleopatra, inspired Samuel Daniel to alter and republish his 1594 play Cleopatra in 1607.[461] He was followed by William Shakespeare, whose Antony and Cleopatra, largely based on Plutarch, was first performed in 1608 and provided a somewhat salacious view of Cleopatra in stark contrast to England's own Virgin Queen.[462] Cleopatra was also featured in operas, such as George Frideric Handel's 1724 Giulio Cesare in Egitto, which portrayed the love affair of Caesar and Cleopatra.[463] Modern depictions and brand imaging Further information: List of cultural depictions of Cleopatra, History of modern literature, and Egyptomania The Triumph of Cleopatra (1821), by William Etty, now in the Lady Lever Art Gallery, Port Sunlight, England In Victorian Britain, Cleopatra was highly associated with many aspects of ancient Egyptian culture and her image was used to market various household products, including oil lamps, lithographs, postcards and cigarettes.[464] Fictional novels such as H. Rider Haggard's Cleopatra (1889) and Théophile Gautier's One of Cleopatra's Nights (1838) depicted the queen as a sensual and mystic Easterner, while the Egyptologist Georg Ebers's Cleopatra (1894) was more grounded in historical accuracy.[464][465] The French dramatist Victorien Sardou and Irish playwright George Bernard Shaw produced plays about Cleopatra, while burlesque shows such as F. C. Burnand's Antony and Cleopatra offered satirical depictions of the queen connecting her and the environment she lived in with the modern age.[466] Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra was considered canonical by the Victorian era.[467] Its popularity led to the perception that the 1885 painting by Lawrence Alma-Tadema depicted the meeting of Antony and Cleopatra on her pleasure barge in Tarsus, although Alma-Tadema revealed in a private letter that it depicts a subsequent meeting of theirs in Alexandria.[468] In his unfinished 1825 short story The Egyptian Nights, Alexander Pushkin popularized the claims of the 4th-century Roman historian Aurelius Victor, previously largely ignored, that Cleopatra had prostituted herself to men who paid for sex with their lives.[469][470] Cleopatra also became appreciated outside the Western world and Middle East, as the Qing-dynasty Chinese scholar Yan Fu wrote an extensive biography of her.[471] Georges Méliès's Robbing Cleopatra's Tomb (French: Cléopâtre), an 1899 French silent horror film, was the first film to depict the character of Cleopatra.[472] Hollywood films of the 20th century were influenced by earlier Victorian media, which helped to shape the character of Cleopatra played by Theda Bara in Cleopatra (1917), Claudette Colbert in Cleopatra (1934), and Elizabeth Taylor in Cleopatra (1963).[473] In addition to her portrayal as a "vampire" queen, Bara's Cleopatra also incorporated tropes familiar from 19th-century Orientalist painting, such as despotic behavior, mixed with dangerous and overt female sexuality.[474] Colbert's character of Cleopatra served as a glamour model for selling Egyptian-themed products in department stores in the 1930s, targeting female moviegoers.[475] In preparation for the film starring Taylor as Cleopatra, women's magazines of the early 1960s advertised how to use makeup, clothes, jewelry, and hairstyles to achieve the "Egyptian" look similar to the queens Cleopatra and Nefertiti.[476] By the end of the 20th century there were forty-three separate films, two hundred plays and novels, forty-five operas, and five ballets associated with Cleopatra.[477] Written works Further information: Ancient Greek literature and Ancient Egyptian literature Whereas myths about Cleopatra persist in popular media, important aspects of her career go largely unnoticed, such as her command of naval forces, administrative acts, and publications on ancient Greek medicine.[375] Only fragments exist of the medical and cosmetic writings attributed to Cleopatra, such as those preserved by Galen, including remedies for hair disease, baldness, and dandruff, along with a list of weights and measures for pharmacological purposes.[478][19][479] Aëtius of Amida attributed a recipe for perfumed soap to Cleopatra, while Paul of Aegina preserved alleged instructions of hers for dyeing and curling hair.[478] The attribution of certain texts to Cleopatra, however, is doubted by Ingrid D. Rowland, who highlights that the "Berenice called Cleopatra" cited by the 3rd- or 4th-century female Roman physician Metrodora was likely conflated by medieval scholars as referring to Cleopatra.[480] Ancestry See also: Cleopatra race controversy Left: A Hellenistic bust of Ptolemy I Soter, now in the Louvre, Paris Right: A bust of Seleucus I Nicator, a Roman copy of a Greek original, from the Villa of the Papyri, Herculaneum, and now in the National Archaeological Museum, Naples Cleopatra belonged to the Macedonian Greek dynasty of the Ptolemies,[8][481][482][note 76] their European origins tracing back to northern Greece.[483] Through her father, Ptolemy XII Auletes, she was a descendant of two prominent companions of Alexander the Great of Macedon: the general Ptolemy I Soter, founder of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, and Seleucus I Nicator, the Macedonian Greek founder of the Seleucid Empire of West Asia.[8][484][485][note 77] While Cleopatra's paternal line can be traced, the identity of her mother is unknown.[486][487][488][note 78] She was presumably the daughter of Cleopatra VI Tryphaena (also known as Cleopatra V Tryphaena),[note 4] the sister-wife of Ptolemy XII who had previously given birth to their daughter Berenice IV.[13][487][489][note 79] Cleopatra I Syra was the only member of the Ptolemaic dynasty known for certain to have introduced some non-Greek ancestry.[490][491] Her mother Laodice III was a daughter born to King Mithridates II of Pontus, a Persian of the Mithridatic dynasty, and his wife Laodice who had a mixed Greek-Persian heritage.[492] Laodice III's father Antiochus III the Great was a descendant of Queen Apama, the Sogdian Iranian wife of Seleucus I Nicator.[490][491][493][note 80] It is generally believed that the Ptolemies did not intermarry with native Egyptians.[40][494][note 81] Michael Grant asserts that there is only one known Egyptian mistress of a Ptolemy and no known Egyptian wife of a Ptolemy, further arguing that Cleopatra probably did not have any Egyptian ancestry and "would have described herself as Greek."[490][note 82] Stacy Schiff writes that Cleopatra was a Macedonian Greek with some Persian ancestry, arguing that it was rare for the Ptolemies to have an Egyptian mistress.[495][note 83] Duane W. Roller speculates that Cleopatra could have been the daughter of a theoretical half-Macedonian-Greek, half-Egyptian woman from Memphis in northern Egypt belonging to a family of priests dedicated to Ptah (a hypothesis not generally accepted in scholarship),[note 84] but contends that whatever Cleopatra's ancestry, she valued her Greek Ptolemaic heritage the most.[496][note 85] Ernle Bradford writes that Cleopatra challenged Rome not as an Egyptian woman "but as a civilized Greek."[497] Claims that Cleopatra was an illegitimate child never appeared in Roman propaganda against her.[35][498][note 86] Strabo was the only ancient historian who claimed that Ptolemy XII's children born after Berenice IV, including Cleopatra, were illegitimate.[35][498][499] Cleopatra V (or VI) was expelled from the court of Ptolemy XII in late 69 BC, a few months after the birth of Cleopatra, while Ptolemy XII's three younger children were all born during the absence of his wife.[41] The high degree of inbreeding among the Ptolemies is also illustrated by Cleopatra's immediate ancestry, of which a reconstruction is shown below.[note 87] The family tree given below also lists Cleopatra V, Ptolemy XII's wife, as a daughter of Ptolemy X Alexander I and Berenice III, which would make her a cousin of her husband, Ptolemy XII, but she could have been a daughter of Ptolemy IX Lathyros, which would have made her a sister-wife of Ptolemy XII instead.[500][35] The confused accounts in ancient primary sources have also led scholars to number Ptolemy XII's wife as either Cleopatra V or Cleopatra VI; the latter may have actually been a daughter of Ptolemy XII, and some use her as an indication that Cleopatra V had died in 69 BC rather than reappearing as a co-ruler with Berenice IV in 58 BC (during Ptolemy XII's exile in Rome).[55][501] Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Cleopatra Selene of Syria Ptolemy IX Lathyros Cleopatra IV Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III Cleopatra V Tryphaena Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VII See also Biography portal History portal Ancient Egypt portal Ancient Rome portal Ancient Greece portal List of female hereditary rulers Notes ^ For further validation about the Berlin Cleopatra, see Pina Polo (2013, pp. 184–186), Roller (2010, pp. 54, 174–175), Jones (2006, p. 33), and Hölbl (2001, p. 234). ^ a b Roller (2010, p. 149) and Skeat (1953, pp. 99–100) explain the nominal short-lived reign of Caesarion as lasting 18 days in 30 August BC. However, Duane W. Roller, relaying Theodore Cressy Skeat, affirms that Caesarion's reign "was essentially a fiction created by Egyptian chronographers to close the gap between [Cleopatra's] death and official Roman control of Egypt (under the new pharaoh, Octavian)", citing, for instance, the Stromata by Clement of Alexandria (Roller 2010, pp. 149, 214, footnote 103). Plutarch, translated by Jones (2006, p. 187), wrote in vague terms that "Octavian had Caesarion killed later, after Cleopatra's death." ^ a b 12 August 30 BC in the later Julian calendar. Skeat (1953, pp. 98–100). ^ a b c Grant (1972, pp. 3–4, 17), Fletcher (2008, pp. 69, 74, 76), Jones (2006, p. xiii), Preston (2009, p. 22), Schiff (2011, p. 28) and Burstein (2004, p. 11) label the wife of Ptolemy XII Auletes as Cleopatra V Tryphaena, while Dodson & Hilton (2004, pp. 268–269, 273) and Roller (2010, p. 18) call her Cleopatra VI Tryphaena, due to the confusion in primary sources conflating these two figures, who may have been one and the same. As explained by Whitehorne (1994, p. 182), Cleopatra VI may have actually been a daughter of Ptolemy XII who appeared in 58 BC to rule jointly with her alleged sister Berenice IV (while Ptolemy XII was exiled and living in Rome), whereas Ptolemy XII's wife Cleopatra V perhaps died as early as the winter of 69–68 BC, when she disappears from historical records. Roller (2010, pp. 18–19) assumes that Ptolemy XII's wife, who he numbers as Cleopatra VI, was merely absent from the court for a decade after being expelled for an unknown reason, eventually ruling jointly with her daughter Berenice IV. Fletcher (2008, p. 76) explains that the Alexandrians deposed Ptolemy XII and installed "his eldest daughter, Berenike IV, and as co-ruler recalled Cleopatra V Tryphaena from 10 years' exile from the court. Although later historians assumed she must have been another of Auletes' daughters and numbered her 'Cleopatra VI', it seems she was simply the fifth one returning to replace her brother and former husband Auletes." ^ She was also a diplomat, naval commander, linguist, and medical author; see Roller (2010, p. 1) and Bradford (2000, p. 13). ^ Southern (2009, p. 43) writes about Ptolemy I Soter: "The Ptolemaic dynasty, of which Cleopatra was the last representative, was founded at the end of the fourth century BC. The Ptolemies were not of Egyptian extraction, but stemmed from Ptolemy Soter, a Macedonian Greek in the entourage of Alexander the Great." For additional sources that describe the Ptolemaic dynasty as "Macedonian Greek", please see Roller (2010, pp. 15–16), Jones (2006, pp. xiii, 3, 279), Kleiner (2005, pp. 9, 19, 106, 183), Jeffreys (1999, p. 488) and Johnson (1999, p. 69). Alternatively, Grant (1972, p. 3) describes them as a "Macedonian, Greek-speaking" dynasty. Other sources such as Burstein (2004, p. 64) and Pfrommer & Towne-Markus (2001, p. 9) describe the Ptolemies as "Greco-Macedonian" or just Macedonians who possessed a Greek culture, as in Pfrommer & Towne-Markus (2001, pp. 9–11, 20). ^ a b Grant (1972, pp. 5–6) notes that the Hellenistic period, beginning with the reign of Alexander the Great, came to an end with the death of Cleopatra in 30 BC. Michael Grant stresses that the Hellenistic Greeks were viewed by contemporary Romans as having declined and diminished in greatness since the age of Classical Greece, an attitude that has continued even into the works of modern historiography. Regarding Hellenistic Egypt, Grant argues, "Cleopatra VII, looking back upon all that her ancestors had done during that time, was not likely to make the same mistake. But she and her contemporaries of the first century BC had another, peculiar, problem of their own. Could the 'Hellenistic Age' (which we ourselves often regard as coming to an end in about her time) still be said to exist at all, could any Greek age, now that the Romans were the dominant power? This was a question never far from Cleopatra's mind. But it is quite certain that she considered the Greek epoch to be by no means finished, and intended to do everything in her power to ensure its perpetuation." ^ a b The refusal of Ptolemaic rulers to speak the native language, Late Egyptian, is why Ancient Greek (i.e. Koine Greek) was used along with Late Egyptian on official court documents such as the Rosetta Stone ("Radio 4 Programmes – A History of the World in 100 Objects, Empire Builders (300 BC – 1 AD), Rosetta Stone". BBC. Archived from the original on 23 May 2010. Retrieved 7 June 2010.). As explained by Burstein (2004, pp. 43–54), Ptolemaic Alexandria was considered a polis (city-state) separate from the country of Egypt, with citizenship reserved for Greeks and Ancient Macedonians, but various other ethnic groups resided there, especially the Jews, as well as native Egyptians, Syrians, and Nubians. For further validation, see Grant (1972, p. 3). For the multiple languages spoken by Cleopatra, see Roller (2010, pp. 46–48) and Burstein (2004, pp. 11–12). For further validation about Ancient Greek being the official language of the Ptolemaic dynasty, see Jones (2006, p. 3). ^ Tyldesley (2017) offers an alternative rendering of the title Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator as "Cleopatra the Father-Loving Goddess". ^ For a thorough explanation about the foundation of Alexandria by Alexander the Great and its largely Hellenistic Greek nature during the Ptolemaic period, along with a survey of the various ethnic groups residing there, see Burstein (2004, pp. 43–61). For further validation about the founding of Alexandria by Alexander the Great, see Jones (2006, p. 6). For further validation of Ptolemaic rulers being crowned at Memphis, see Jeffreys (1999, p. 488). ^ For further information, see Grant (1972, pp. 20, 256, footnote 42). ^ For the list of languages spoken by Cleopatra as mentioned by the ancient historian Plutarch, see Jones (2006, pp. 33–34), who also mentions that the rulers of Ptolemaic Egypt gradually abandoned the Ancient Macedonian language. For further information and validation see Schiff (2011, p. 36). ^ Grant (1972, p. 3) states that Cleopatra could have been born in either late 70 BC or early 69 BC. ^ For further information and validation see Schiff (2011, p. 28) and Kleiner (2005, p. 22). For alternate speculation, see Burstein (2004, p. 11) and Roller (2010, pp. 15, 18, 166). ^ Due to discrepancies in academic works, in which some consider Cleopatra VI to be either a daughter of Ptolemy XII or his wife, identical to that of Cleopatra V, Jones (2006, p. 28) states that Ptolemy XII had six children, while Roller (2010, p. 16) mentions only five. ^ For further information and validation, see Grant (1972, pp. 12–13). In 1972, Michael Grant calculated that 6,000 talents, the price of Ptolemy XII's fee for receiving the title "friend and ally of the Roman people" from the triumvirs Pompey and Julius Caesar, would be worth roughly £7 million or US$17 million, roughly the entire annual tax revenue for Ptolemaic Egypt. ^ Fletcher (2008, p. 87) describes the painting from Herculaneum further: "Cleopatra's hair was maintained by her highly skilled hairdresser Eiras. Although rather artificial looking wigs set in the traditional tripartite style of long straight hair would have been required for her appearances before her Egyptian subjects, a more practical option for general day-to-day wear was the no-nonsense 'melon hairdo' in which her natural hair was drawn back in sections resembling the lines on a melon and then pinned up in a bun at the back of the head. A trademark style of Arsinoe II and Berenice II, the style had fallen from fashion for almost two centuries until revived by Cleopatra; yet as both traditionalist and innovator, she wore her version without her predecessor's fine head veil. And whereas they had both been blonde like Alexander, Cleopatra may well have been a redhead, judging from the portrait of a flame-haired woman wearing the royal diadem surrounded by Egyptian motifs which has been identified as Cleopatra." ^ For political background information on the Roman annexation of Cyprus, a move pushed for in the Roman Senate by Publius Clodius Pulcher, see Grant (1972, pp. 13–14). ^ For further information, see Grant (1972, pp. 15–16). ^ Fletcher (2008, pp. 76–77) expresses little doubt about this: "deposed in late summer 58 BC and fearing for his life, Auletes had fled both his palace and his kingdom, although he was not completely alone. For one Greek source reveals he had been accompanied 'by one of his daughters', and since his eldest Berenice IV, was monarch, and the youngest, Arisone, little more than a toddler, it is generally assumed that this must have been his middle daughter and favourite child, eleven-year-old Cleopatra." ^ For further information, see Grant (1972, p. 16). ^ For further information on Roman financier Rabirius, as well as the Gabiniani left in Egypt by Gabinius, see Grant (1972, pp. 18–19). ^ For further information, see Grant (1972, p. 18). ^ For further information, see Grant (1972, pp. 19–20, 27–29). ^ For further information, see Grant (1972, pp. 28–30). ^ For further information, see Fletcher (2008, pp. 88–92) and Jones (2006, pp. 31, 34–35). Fletcher (2008, pp. 85–86) states that the partial solar eclipse of 7 March 51 BC marked the death of Ptolemy XII and accession of Cleopatra to the throne, although she apparently suppressed the news of his death, alerting the Roman Senate to this fact months later in a message they received on 30 June 51 BC. However, Grant (1972, p. 30) claims that the Senate was informed of his death on 1 August 51 BC. Michael Grant indicates that Ptolemy XII could have been alive as late as May, while an ancient Egyptian source affirms he was still ruling with Cleopatra by 15 July 51 BC, although by this point Cleopatra most likely "hushed up her father's death" so that she could consolidate her control of Egypt. ^ Pfrommer & Towne-Markus (2001, p. 34) writes the following about the sibling marriage of Ptolemy II and Arsinoe II: "Ptolemy Keraunos, who wanted to become king of Macedon ... killed Arsinoë's small children in front of her. Now queen without a kingdom, Arsinoë fled to Egypt, where she was welcomed by her full brother Ptolemy II. Not content, however, to spend the rest of her life as a guest at the Ptolemaic court, she had Ptolemy II's wife exiled to Upper Egypt and married him herself around 275 B.C. Though such an incestuous marriage was considered scandalous by the Greeks, it was allowed by Egyptian custom. For that reason, the marriage split public opinion into two factions. The loyal side celebrated the couple as a return of the divine marriage of Zeus and Hera, whereas the other side did not refrain from profuse and obscene criticism. One of the most sarcastic commentators, a poet with a very sharp pen, had to flee Alexandria. The unfortunate poet was caught off the shore of Crete by the Ptolemaic navy, put in an iron basket, and drowned. This and similar actions seemingly slowed down vicious criticism." ^ For further information, see Fletcher (2008, pp. 92–93). ^ For further information, see Fletcher (2008, pp. 96–97) and Jones (2006, p. 39). ^ For further information, see Jones (2006, pp. 39–41). ^ a b For further information, see Fletcher (2008, p. 98) and Jones (2006, pp. 39–43, 53–55). ^ For further information, see Fletcher (2008, pp. 98–100) and Jones (2006, pp. 53–55). ^ For further information, see Burstein (2004, p. 18) and Fletcher (2008, pp. 101–103). ^ a b For further information, see Fletcher (2008, p. 113). ^ For further information, see Fletcher (2008, p. 118). ^ For further information, see Burstein (2004, p. 76). ^ For further information, see Burstein (2004, pp. xxi, 19) and Fletcher (2008, pp. 118–120). ^ For further information, see Fletcher (2008, pp. 119–120). As part of the siege of Alexandria, Burstein (2004, p. 19) states that Caesar's reinforcements came in January, but Roller (2010, p. 63) says that his reinforcements came in March. ^ For further information and validation, see Anderson (2003, p. 39) and Fletcher (2008, p. 120). ^ For further information and validation, see Fletcher (2008, p. 121) and Jones (2006, p. xiv). Roller (2010, pp. 64–65) states that at this point (47 BC) Ptolemy XIV was 12 years old, while Burstein (2004, p. 19) claims that he was still only 10 years of age. ^ For further information and validation, see Anderson (2003, p. 39) and Fletcher (2008, pp. 154, 161–162). ^ Roller (2010, p. 70) writes the following about Caesar and his parentage of Caesarion: "The matter of parentage became so tangled in the propaganda war between Antonius and Octavian in the late 30s B.C.—it was essential for one side to prove and the other to reject Caesar's role—that it is impossible today to determine Caesar's actual response. The extant information is almost contradictory: it was said that Caesar denied parentage in his will but acknowledged it privately and allowed the use of the name Caesarion. Caesar's associate C. Oppius even wrote a pamphlet proving that Caesarion was not Caesar's child, and C. Helvius Cinna—the poet who was killed by rioters after Antonius' funeral oration—was prepared in 44 B.C. to introduce legislation to allow Caesar to marry as many wives as he wished for the purpose of having children. Although much of this talk was generated after Caesar's death, it seems that he wished to be as quiet as possible about the child but had to contend with Cleopatra's repeated assertions." ^ For further information and validation, see Jones (2006, pp. xiv, 78). ^ For further information, see Fletcher (2008, pp. 214–215). ^ As explained by Burstein (2004, p. 23), Cleopatra, having read Antony's personality, boldly presented herself to him as the Egyptian goddess Isis (in the appearance of the Greek goddess Aphrodite) meeting her divine husband Osiris (in the form of the Greek god Dionysus), knowing that the priests of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus had associated Antony with Dionysus shortly before this encounter. According to Brown (2011), a cult surrounding Isis had been spreading across the region for hundreds of years, and Cleopatra, like many of her predecessors, sought to identify herself with Isis and be venerated. In addition, some surviving coins of Cleopatra also depict her as Venus–Aphrodite, as explained by Fletcher (2008, p. 205). ^ For further information about Publius Ventidius Bassus and his victory over Parthian forces at the Battle of Mount Gindarus, see Kennedy (1996, pp. 80–81). ^ a b c Ferroukhi (2001a, p. 219) provides a detailed discussion about this bust and its ambiguities, noting that it could represent Cleopatra, but that it is more likely her daughter Cleopatra Selene II. Kleiner (2005, pp. 155–156) argues in favor of its depicting Cleopatra rather than her daughter, while Varner (2004, p. 20) mentions only Cleopatra as a possible likeness. Roller (2003, p. 139) observes that it could be either Cleopatra or Cleopatra Selene II, while arguing the same ambiguity applies to the other sculpted head from Cherchel featuring a veil. In regards to the latter head, Ferroukhi (2001b, p. 242) indicates it as a possible portrait of Cleopatra, not Cleoptra Selene II, from the early 1st century AD while also arguing that its masculine features, earrings, and apparent toga (the veil being a component of it) could likely mean it was intended to depict a Numidian nobleman. Fletcher (2008, image plates between pp. 246–247) disagrees about the veiled head, arguing that it was commissioned by Cleopatra Selene II at Iol (Caesarea Mauretaniae) and was meant to depict her mother, Cleopatra. ^ According to Roller (2010, pp. 91–92), these client state rulers installed by Antony included Herod, Amyntas of Galatia, Polemon I of Pontus, and Archelaus of Cappadocia. ^ Bringmann (2007, p. 301) claims that Octavia Minor provided Antony with 1,200 troops, not 2,000 as stated in Roller (2010, pp. 97–98) and Burstein (2004, pp. 27–28). ^ Roller (2010, p. 100) says that it is unclear if Antony and Cleopatra were ever truly married. Burstein (2004, pp. xxii, 29) says that the marriage publicly sealed Antony's alliance with Cleopatra and in defiance of Octavian he would divorce Octavia in 32 BC. Coins of Antony and Cleopatra depict them in the typical manner of a Hellenistic royal couple, as explained by Roller (2010, p. 100). ^ Jones (2006, p. xiv) writes that "Octavian waged a propaganda war against Antony and Cleopatra, stressing Cleopatra's status as a woman and a foreigner who wished to share in Roman power." ^ Stanley M. Burstein, in Burstein (2004, p. 33) provides the name Quintus Cascellius as the recipient of the tax exemption, not the Publius Canidius Crassus provided by Duane W. Roller in Roller (2010, p. 134). ^ Reece (2017, p. 203) notes that "[t]he fragmentary texts of ancient Greek papyri do not often make their way into the modern public arena, but this one has, and with fascinating results, while remaining almost entirely unacknowledged is the remarkable fact that Cleopatra's one-word subscription contains a blatant spelling error: γινέσθωι, with a superfluous iota adscript." This spelling error "has not been noted by the popular media", however, being "simply transliterated [...] including, without comment, the superfluous iota adscript" (p. 208). Even in academic sources, the misspelling was largely unacknowledged or quietly corrected (pp. 206–208, 210). Although described as "'normal' orthography" (in contrast with "'correct' orthography") by Peter van Minnen (p. 208), the spelling error is "much rarer and more puzzling" than the sort one would expect from the Greek papyri from Egypt (p. 210)—so rare, in fact, that it occurs only twice in the 70,000 Greek papyri between the 3rd century BC and 8th century AD in the Papyrological Navigator's database. This is especially so when considering it was added to a word "with no etymological or morphological reason for having an iota adscript" (p. 210) and was written by "the well-educated, native Greek-speaking, queen of Egypt" Cleopatra VII (p. 208). ^ As explained by Jones (2006, p. 147), "politically, Octavian had to walk a fine line as he prepared to engage in open hostilities with Antony. He was careful to minimize associations with civil war, as the Roman people had already suffered through many years of civil conflict and Octavian could risk losing support if he declared war on a fellow citizen." ^ For the translated accounts of both Plutarch and Dio, Jones (2006, pp. 194–195) writes that the implement used to puncture Cleopatra's skin was a hairpin. ^ Jones (2006, p. 187), translating Plutarch, quotes Arius Didymus as saying to Octavian that "it is not good to have too many Caesars", which was apparently enough to convince Octavian to have Caesarion killed. ^ Contrary to regular Roman provinces, Egypt was established by Octavian as territory under his personal control, barring the Roman Senate from intervening in any of its affairs and appointing his own equestrian governors of Egypt, the first of whom was Gallus. For further information, see Southern (2014, p. 185) and Roller (2010, p. 151). ^ Walker (2001, p. 312) writes the following about the raised relief on the gilded silver dish: "Conspicuously mounted on the cornucopia is a gilded crescent moon set on a pine cone. Around it are piled pomegranates and bunches of grapes. Engraved on the horn are images of Helios (the sun), in the form of a youth dressed in a short cloak, with the hairstyle of Alexander the Great, the head surrounded by rays ... The symbols on the cornucopia can indeed be read as references to the Ptolemaic royal house and specifically to Cleopatra Selene, represented in the crescent moon, and to her twin brother, Alexander Helios, whose eventual fate after the conquest of Egypt is unknown. The viper seems to be linked with the pantheress and the intervening symbols of fecundity rather than the suicide of Cleopatra VII. The elephant scalp could refer to Cleopatra Selene's status as ruler, with Juba II, of Mauretania. The visual correspondence with the veiled head from Cherchel encourages this identification, and many of the symbols used on the dish also appear on the coinage of Juba II." ^ Jones (2006, p. 60) offers speculation that the author of De Bello Alexandrino, written in Latin prose sometime between 46–43 BC, was a certain Aulus Hirtius, a military officer serving under Caesar. ^ Burstein (2004, p. 30) writes that Virgil, in his Aeneid, described the Battle of Actium against Cleopatra "as a clash of civilizations in which Octavian and the Roman gods preserved Italy from conquest by Cleopatra and the barbaric animal-headed gods of Egypt." ^ For further information and extracts of Strabo's account of Cleopatra in his Geographica see Jones (2006, pp. 28–30). ^ As explained by Chauveau (2000, pp. 2–3), this source material from Egypt dated to the reign of Cleopatra includes about 50 papyri documents in Ancient Greek, mostly from the city of Heracleopolis, and only a few papyri from Faiyum, written in the Demotic Egyptian language. Overall this is a much smaller body of surviving native texts than those of any other period of Ptolemaic Egypt. ^ For the description of Cleopatra by Plutarch, who claimed that her beauty was not "completely incomparable" but that she had a "captivating" and "stimulating" personality, see Jones (2006, pp. 32–33). ^ Fletcher (2008, p. 205) writes the following: "Cleopatra was the only female Ptolemy to issue coins on her own behalf, some showing her as Venus-Aphrodite. Caesar now followed her example and, taking the same bold step, became the first living Roman to appear on coins, his rather haggard profile accompanied by the title 'Parens Patriae', 'Father of the Fatherland'." ^ For further information, see Raia & Sebesta (2017). ^ There is academic disagreement on whether the following portraits are considered "heads" or "busts". For instance, Raia & Sebesta (2017) exclusively uses the former, while Grout (2017b) prefers the latter. ^ For further information and validation, see Curtius (1933, pp. 182–192), Walker (2008, p. 348), Raia & Sebesta (2017) and Grout (2017b). ^ For further information and validation, see Grout (2017b) and Roller (2010, pp. 174–175). ^ For further information, see Curtius (1933, pp. 182–192), Walker (2008, p. 348) and Raia & Sebesta (2017). ^ The observation that the left cheek of the Vatican Cleopatra once had a cupid's hand that was broken off was first suggested by Ludwig Curtius in 1933. Kleiner concurs with this assessment. See Kleiner (2005, p. 153), as well as Walker (2008, p. 40) and Curtius (1933, pp. 182–192). While Kleiner (2005, p. 153) has suggested the lump on top of this marble head perhaps contained a broken-off uraeus, Curtius (1933, p. 187) offered the explanation that it once held a sculpted representation of a jewel. ^ Curtius (1933, p. 187) wrote that the damaged lump along the hairline and diadem of the Vatican Cleopatra likely contained a sculpted representation of a jewel, which Walker (2008, p. 40) directly compares to the painted red jewel in the diadem worn by Venus, most likely Cleopatra, in the fresco from Pompeii. ^ For further information about the painting in the House of Giuseppe II (Joseph II) at Pompeii and the possible identification of Cleopatra as one of the figures, see Pucci (2011, pp. 206–207, footnote 27). ^ In Pratt & Fizel (1949, pp. 14–15), Frances Pratt and Becca Fizel rejected the idea proposed by some scholars in the 19th and early 20th centuries that the painting was perhaps done by an artist of the Italian Renaissance. Pratt and Fizel highlighted the Classical style of the painting as preserved in textual descriptions and the steel engraving. They argued that it was unlikely for a Renaissance period painter to have created works with encaustic materials, conducted thorough research into Hellenistic period Egyptian clothing and jewelry as depicted in the painting, and then precariously placed it in the ruins of the Egyptian temple at Hadrian's Villa. ^ Walker & Higgs (2001, pp. 314–315) describe her hair as reddish brown, while Fletcher (2008, p. 87) describes her as a flame-haired redhead and, in Fletcher (2008, image plates and captions between pp. 246–247), likewise describes her as a red-haired woman. ^ Preston (2009, p. 305) comes to a similar conclusion about native Egyptian depictions of Cleopatra: "Apart from certain temple carvings, which are anyway in a highly stylised pharaonic style and give little clue to Cleopatra's real appearance, the only certain representations of Cleopatra are those on coins. The marble head in the Vatican is one of three sculptures generally, though not universally, accepted by scholars to be depictions of Cleopatra." ^ For further information on Cleopatra's Macedonian Greek lineage, see Pucci (2011, p. 201), Grant (1972, pp. 3–5), Burstein (2004, pp. 3, 34, 36, 43, 63–64) and Royster (2003, pp. 47–49). ^ For further information and validation of the foundation of Hellenistic Egypt by Alexander the Great and Cleopatra's ancestry stretching back to Ptolemy I Soter, see Grant (1972, pp. 7–8) and Jones (2006, p. 3). ^ For further information, see Grant (1972, pp. 3–4) and Burstein (2004, p. 11). ^ For further information, see Fletcher (2008, pp. 69, 74, 76). Contrary to other sources cited here, Dodson & Hilton (2004, pp. 268–269, 273) refer to Cleopatra V Tryphaena as a possible cousin or sister of Ptolemy XII Auletes. ^ For the Sogdian ancestry of Apama, wife of Seleucus I Nicator, see Holt (1989, pp. 64–65, footnote 63). ^ As explained by Burstein (2004, pp. 47–50), the main ethnic groups of Ptolemaic Egypt were Egyptians, Greeks, and Jews, each of whom were legally segregated, living in different residential quarters and forbidden to intermarry with one another in the multicultural cities of Alexandria, Naucratis, and Ptolemais Hermiou. However, as explained by Fletcher (2008, pp. 82, 88–93), the native Egyptian priesthood was strongly linked to their Ptolemaic royal patrons, to the point where Cleopatra is speculated to have had an Egyptian half-cousin, Pasherienptah III, the High Priest of Ptah at Memphis, Egypt. ^ Grant (1972, p. 5) argues that Cleopatra's grandmother, i.e. the mother of Ptolemy XII, might have been a Syrian (though conceding that "it is possible she was also partly Greek"), but almost certainly not an Egyptian because there is only one known Egyptian mistress of a Ptolemaic ruler throughout their entire dynasty. ^ Schiff (2011, p. 42) further argues that, considering Cleopatra's ancestry, she was not dark-skinned, though notes Cleopatra was likely not among the Ptolemies with fair features, and instead would have been honey-skinned, citing as evidence that her relatives were described as such and it "would have presumably applied to her as well." Goldsworthy (2010, pp. 127, 128) agrees to this, contending that Cleopatra, having Macedonian blood with a little Syrian, was probably not dark-skinned (as Roman propaganda never mentions it), writing "fairer skin is marginally more likely considering her ancestry," though also notes she could have had a "darker more Mediterranean complexion" because of her mixed ancestry. Grant (1972, p. 5) agrees to Goldsworthy's latter speculation of her skin color, that though almost certainly not Egyptian, Cleopatra had a darker complexion due to being Greek mixed with Persian and possible Syrian ancestry. Preston (2009, p. 77) agrees with Grant that, considering this ancestry, Cleopatra was "almost certainly dark-haired and olive-skinned." Bradford (2000, p. 14) contends that it is "reasonable to infer" Cleopatra had dark hair and "pale olive skin." ^ For further information on the identity of Cleopatra's mother, see Burstein (2004, p. 11), Fletcher (2008, p. 73), Goldsworthy (2010, pp. 127, 128), Grant (1972, p. 4), and Roller (2010, pp. 165–166). Joann Fletcher finds this hypothesis to be dubious and lacking evidence. Stanley M. Burstein claims that strong circumstantial evidence suggests Cleopatra's mother could have been a member of the priestly family of Ptah, but that historians generally assume her mother was Cleopatra V Tryphaena, wife of Ptolemy XII. Adrian Goldsworthy dismisses the idea of Cleopatra's mother being a member of an Egyptian priestly family as "pure conjecture," adding that either Cleopatra V or a concubine "probably of Greek origin" would be Cleopatra VII's mother. Michael Grant contends that Cleopatra V was most likely Cleopatra VII's mother. Duane W. Roller notes that while Cleopatra could have been the daughter of the priestly family of Ptah, the other main candidate would be Cleopatra VI, maintaining the uncertainty stems from Cleopatra V/VI's "loss of favor" that "obscured the issue." Roller (2010, pp. 165-166) also posits that Cleopatra being the only known ruler of the Ptolemaic Dynasty to speak Egyptian, along with her daughter Cleopatra Selene II as Queen of Mauretania publicly honoring the native Egyptian elite, both lend credence to the priestly class mistress hypothesis for maternity. ^ Schiff (2011, pp. 2) concurs with this, concluding that Cleopatra "upheld the family tradition." As noted by Dudley (1960, pp. 57), Cleopatra and her family were "the successor[s] to the native Pharaohs, exploiting through a highly organized bureaucracy the great natural resources of the Nile Valley." ^ Grant (1972, p. 4) argues that if Cleopatra had been illegitimate, her "numerous Roman enemies would have revealed this to the world." ^ The family tree and short discussions of the individuals can be found in Dodson & Hilton (2004, pp. 268–281). Aidan Dodson and Dyan Hilton refer to Cleopatra V as Cleopatra VI and Cleopatra Selene of Syria is called Cleopatra V Selene. Dotted lines in the chart below indicate possible but disputed parentage. References ^ a b c d e f g h Raia & Sebesta (2017). ^ a b c d e f g h i Sabino & Gross-Diaz (2016). ^ a b c d e f g h i j Grout (2017b). ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xx–xxiii, 155. ^ a b c d Hölbl (2001), p. 231. ^ Royster (2003), p. 48. ^ a b Muellner. ^ a b c Roller (2010), pp. 15–16. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 15–16, 39. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 55–57. ^ Burstein (2004), p. 15. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 84, 215. ^ a b Roller (2010), p. 18. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 32–33. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 1, 3, 11, 129. ^ a b Burstein (2004), p. 11. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 29–33. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 1, 5, 13–14, 88, 105–106. ^ a b c d Burstein (2004), pp. 11–12. ^ Schiff (2011), p. 35. ^ a b Roller (2010), pp. 46–48. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 5, 82, 88, 105–106. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 46–48, 100. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 38–42. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xviii, 10. ^ Grant (1972), pp. 9–12. ^ a b c d e Roller (2010), p. 17. ^ a b Grant (1972), pp. 10–11. ^ a b Burstein (2004), p. xix. ^ Grant (1972), p. 11. ^ Burstein (2004), 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Chauveau, Michel (2000) [1997], Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra: History and Society Under the Ptolemies, translated by David Lorton, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, ISBN 978-0-8014-8576-3. Crawford, Michael (1974), The Roman Republican Coinage, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-07492-6. Curtius, Ludwig (1933), "Ikonographische Beitrage zum Portrar der romischen Republik und der Julisch-Claudischen Familie", RM (in German), 48: 182–243, OCLC 633408511. DeMaria Smith, Margaret Mary (2011), "HRH Cleopatra: the Last of the Ptolemies and the Egyptian Paintings of Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema", in Miles, Margaret M. (ed.), Cleopatra : a sphinx revisited, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 150–171, ISBN 978-0-520-24367-5. Dodson, Aidan; Hilton, Dyan (2004), The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, London: Thames & Hudson, ISBN 978-0-500-05128-3. Dudley, Donald (1960), The Civilization of Rome, New York: New American Library, ISBN 978-1-258-45054-0. Elia, Olga (1956) [1955], "La tradizione della morte di Cleopatra nella pittura pompeiana", Rendiconti dell'Accademia di Archeologia, Lettere e Belle Arti (in Italian), 30: 3–7, OCLC 848857115. Ferroukhi, Mafoud (2001a), "197 Marble portrait, perhaps of Cleopatra VII's daughter, Cleopatra Selene, Queen of Mauretania", in Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (eds.), Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press (British Museum Press), p. 219, ISBN 978-0-691-08835-8. Ferroukhi, Mafoud (2001b), "262 Veiled head from a marble portrait statue", in Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (eds.), Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press (British Museum Press), p. 242, ISBN 978-0-691-08835-8. Fletcher, Joann (2008), Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend, New York: Harper, ISBN 978-0-06-058558-7. Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith (2010), Antony and Cleopatra, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-16534-0. Grant, Michael (1972), Cleopatra, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson; Richard Clay (the Chaucer Press), ISBN 978-0-297-99502-9. Gurval, Robert A. (2011), "Dying Like a Queen: the Story of Cleopatra and the Asp(s) in Antiquity", in Miles, Margaret M. (ed.), Cleopatra : a sphinx revisited, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 54–77, ISBN 978-0-520-24367-5. Higgs, Peter (2001), "Searching for Cleopatra's image: classical portraits in stone", in Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (eds.), Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press (British Museum Press), pp. 200–209, ISBN 978-0-691-08835-8. Holt, Frank L. (1989), Alexander the Great and Bactria: the Formation of a Greek Frontier in Central Asia, Leiden: E.J. Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-08612-8. Hölbl, Günther (2001) [1994], A History of the Ptolemaic Empire, translated by Tina Saavedra, London: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-20145-2. Hsia, Chih-tsing (2004), C.T. Hsia on Chinese Literature, New York: Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0-231-12990-9. Jeffreys, David (1999), "Memphis", in Bard, Kathryn A. (ed.), Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt, London: Routledge, pp. 488–490, ISBN 978-0-415-18589-9. Johnson, Janet H. (1999), "Late and Ptolemaic periods, overview", in Bard, Kathryn A. (ed.), Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt, London: Routledge, pp. 66–72, ISBN 978-0-415-18589-9. Jones, Prudence J. (2006), Cleopatra: a sourcebook, Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, ISBN 978-0-8061-3741-4. Kennedy, David L. (1996), "Parthia and Rome: eastern perspectives", in Kennedy, David L.; Braund, David (eds.), The Roman Army in the East, Ann Arbor: Cushing Malloy Inc., Journal of Roman Archaeology: Supplementary Series Number Eighteen, pp. 67–90, ISBN 978-1-887829-18-2 Kleiner, Diana E. E. (2005), Cleopatra and Rome, Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-01905-8. Lippold, Georg (1936), Die Skulpturen des Vaticanischen Museums (in German), 3, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co., OCLC 803204281. Meadows, Andrew; Ashton, Sally-Ann (2001), "186 Bronze coin of Cleopatra VII", in Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (eds.), Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press (British Museum Press), p. 178, ISBN 978-0-691-08835-8. Newman, Robert (1990), "A Dialogue of Power in the Coinage of Antony and Octavian (44–30 B.C.)", American Journal of Numismatics, 2: 37–63, JSTOR 43580166. Pfrommer, Michael; Towne-Markus, Elana (2001), Greek Gold from Hellenistic Egypt, Getty Museum Studies on Art, Los Angeles: Getty Publications (J. Paul Getty Trust), ISBN 978-0-89236-633-0. Pina Polo, Francisco (2013), "The Great Seducer: Cleopatra, Queen and Sex Symbol", in Knippschild, Silke; García Morcillo, Marta (eds.), Seduction and Power: Antiquity in the Visual and Performing Arts, London: Bloomsbury Academic, pp. 183–197, ISBN 978-1-4411-9065-9. Pratt, Frances; Fizel, Becca (1949), Encaustic Materials and Methods, New York: Lear Publishers, OCLC 560769. Preston, Diana (2009), Cleopatra and Antony: Power, Love, and Politics in the Ancient World, New York: Walker and Company, ISBN 978-0-8027-1738-2. Pucci, Giuseppe (2011), "Every Man's Cleopatra", in Miles, Margaret M. (ed.), Cleopatra : a sphinx revisited, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 195–207, ISBN 978-0-520-24367-5. Roller, Duane W. (2003), The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene: Royal Scholarship on Rome's African Frontier, New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-30596-9. Roller, Duane W. (2010), Cleopatra: a biography, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-536553-5. Rowland, Ingrid D. (2011), "The Amazing Afterlife of Cleopatra's Love Potions", in Miles, Margaret M. (ed.), Cleopatra : a sphinx revisited, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 132–149, ISBN 978-0-520-24367-5. Royster, Francesca T. (2003), Becoming Cleopatra: The Shifting Image of an Icon, New York: Palgrave MacMillan, ISBN 978-1-4039-6109-9 Sartain, John (1885), On the Antique Painting in Encaustic of Cleopatra: Discovered in 1818, Philadelphia: George Gebbie & Co., OCLC 3806143. Schiff, Stacy (2011), Cleopatra: A Life, UK: Random House, ISBN 978-0-7535-3956-9. Skeat, T. C. (1953), "The Last Days of Cleopatra: A Chronological Problem", The Journal of Roman Studies, 43 (1–2): 98–100, doi:10.2307/297786, JSTOR 297786. Southern, Patricia (2014) [1998], Augustus (2nd ed.), London: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-62838-9. Southern, Patricia (2009) [2007], Antony and Cleopatra: The Doomed Love Affair That United Ancient Rome and Egypt, Stroud, Gloucestershire: Amberley Publishing, ISBN 978-1-84868-324-2. Varner, Eric R. (2004), Mutilation and Transformation: Damnatio Memoriae and Roman Imperial Portraiture, Leiden: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-13577-2. Walker, Susan (2004), The Portland Vase, British Museum Objects in Focus, British Museum Press, ISBN 978-0-7141-5022-2. Walker, Susan (2008), "Cleopatra in Pompeii?", Papers of the British School at Rome, 76: 35–46, 345–348, doi:10.1017/S0068246200000404, JSTOR 40311128. Walker, Susan (2001), "324 Gilded silver dish, decorated with a bust perhaps representing Cleopatra Selene", in Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (eds.), Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press (British Museum Press), pp. 312–313, ISBN 978-0-691-08835-8. Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (2001), "325 Painting with a portrait of a woman in profile", in Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (eds.), Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press (British Museum Press), pp. 314–315, ISBN 978-0-691-08835-8. Whitehorne, John (1994), Cleopatras, London: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-05806-3 Woodstra, Chris; Brennan, Gerald; Schrott, Allen (2005), All Music Guide to Classical Music: The Definitive Guide to Classical Music, Ann Arbor, MI: All Media Guide (Backbeat Books), ISBN 978-0-87930-865-0. Wyke, Maria; Montserrat, Dominic (2011), "Glamour Girls: Cleomania in Mass Culture", in Miles, Margaret M. (ed.), Cleopatra : a sphinx revisited, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 172–194, ISBN 978-0-520-24367-5. Further reading Chauveau, Michel (2004). Cleopatra: Beyond the Myth. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-8953-2. Flamarion, Edith (1997). Cleopatra: The Life and Death of a Pharaoh. "Abrams Discoveries" series. Translated by Bonfante-Warren, Alexandra. New York: Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 978-0-8109-2805-3. Foss, Michael (1999). The Search for Cleopatra. Arcade Publishing. ISBN 978-1-55970-503-5. Fraser, P.M. (1985). Ptolemaic Alexandria. 1–3 (reprint ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814278-2. Lindsay, Jack (1972). Cleopatra. New York: Coward-McCann. OCLC 671705946. Nardo, Don (1994). Cleopatra. Lucent Books. ISBN 978-1-56006-023-9. Pomeroy, Sarah B. (1984). Women in Hellenistic Egypt: from Alexander to Cleopatra. New York: Schocken Books. ISBN 978-0-8052-3911-9. Samson, Julia (1990). Nefertiti & Cleopatra. Stacey International. ISBN 978-0-948695-18-6. Southern, Pat (2000). Cleopatra. Tempus. ISBN 978-0-7524-1494-2. Syme, Ronald (1962) [1939]. The Roman Revolution. Oxford University Press. OCLC 404094. Tyldesley, Joyce (2008). Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-01892-5. Volkmann, Hans (1958). Cleopatra: a Study in Politics and Propaganda. T.J. Cadoux, trans. New York: Sagamore Press. OCLC 899077769. Weigall, Arthur E. P. Brome (1914). The Life and Times of Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt. Edinburgh: Blackwood. OCLC 316294139. External links Cleopatraat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Ancient Roman depictions of Cleopatra VII of Egypt, at YouTube Cleopatra on In Our Time at the BBC Cleopatra (1852), a Victorian children's book by Jacob Abbott, Project Gutenberg edition "Mysterious Death of Cleopatra" at the Discovery Channel Cleopatra VII at BBC History Cleopatra VII at Ancient History Encyclopedia Eubanks, W. Ralph. (1 November 2010). "How History and Hollywood Got 'Cleopatra' Wrong". National Public Radio (NPR) (a book review of Cleopatra: A Life, by Stacy Schiff). Jarus, Owen (13 March 2014). "Cleopatra: Facts & Biography". Live Science. Watkins, Thayer. "The Timeline of the Life of Cleopatra." San Jose State University. Draycott, Jane (22 May 2018). "Cleopatra's Daughter: While Antony and Cleopatra have been immortalised in history and in popular culture, their offspring have been all but forgotten. Their daughter, Cleopatra Selene, became an important ruler in her own right". History Today. Cleopatra Ptolemaic dynasty Born: 69 BC Died: 30 BC Regnal titles Preceded by Ptolemy XII Queen of Egypt 51–30 BC with Ptolemy XII, Ptolemy XIII, Ptolemy XIV and Ptolemy XV Office abolished Egypt annexed by Roman Republic v t e Hellenistic rulers Argeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Kings of Cyrene Magas Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Kings of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Kings of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Kings of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Kings of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus Kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon (regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces Asander with Dynamis Mithridates II Asander with Dynamis Scribonius’ attempted rule with Dynamis Dynamis with Polemon Polemon with Pythodorida Aspurgus Mithridates III with Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Queens of Ancient Egypt Early Dynastic Period to First Intermediate Period  (3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Neithhotep Benerib Khenthap Herneith Nakhtneith Penebui Merneith Seshemetka Semat Serethor Betrest II Nimaathap Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Hetephernebti Djeseretnebti Djefatnebti Meresankh I IV Hetepheres I Meritites I Henutsen Khentetka Meresankh II Hetepheres II Meresankh III Khamerernebty I Persenet Hekenuhedjet Khamerernebty II Rekhetre Bunefer V Khentkaus I Neferhetepes Meretnebty Khentkaus II Khentkaus III Reptynub Khuit I Meresankh IV Setibhor Nebet Khenut VI Iput I Khuit II Ankhesenpepi I Ankhesenpepi II Nubwenet Meritites IV Inenek-Inti Nedjeftet Neith Iput II Udjebten Ankhesenpepi III Ankhesenpepi IV Nitocris Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Neferu I Neferukayet Iah Tem Neferu II Ashayet Henhenet Sadeh Kawit Kemsit XII Neferitatjenen Neferu III Keminub Khenemetneferhedjet I Nofret II Itaweret Khenmet Sithathoriunet Khenemetneferhedjet II Neferthenut Meretseger Aat Khenemetneferhedjet III Sobekneferu 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Nofret Nubhetepti Senebhenas Neni Tjan Ineni Nubkhaes Aya XIV Tati XVI Mentuhotep XVII Nubemhat Sobekemsaf Haankhes Tetisheri Ahhotep I Ahmose Inhapy Sitdjehuti Ahhotep II New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose-Nefertari Ahmose-Sitkamose Ahmose-Henuttamehu Ahmose-Meritamun Ahmose Mutnofret Hatshepsut Iset Satiah Merytre-Hatshepsut Nebtu Menhet, Menwi and Merti Nebsemi Tiaa Nefertari Iaret Mutemwiya Tiye Gilukhipa Sitamun Iset Tadukhipa / Kiya Nefertiti Meritaten Neferneferuaten Ankhesenamun Tey Mutnedjmet Nebetnehat XIX Sitre Tuya Tanedjemet Nefertari Isetnofret Henutmire Maathorneferure Meritamen Bintanath Nebettawy Merytre Isetnofret II Takhat Twosret Tiaa XX Tiy-Merenese Iset Ta-Hemdjert Tyti Tiye Duatentopet Henutwati Tawerettenru Nubkhesbed Baketwernel Tentamun 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Tentamun Mutnedjmet Karimala XXII Karomama Patareshnes Maatkare Tashedkhonsu Nesitaudjatakhet Nesitanebetashru Kapes Karomama I Tadibast III XXIII Karomama II XXV Pebatjma Tabiry Abar Khensa Peksater Arty Qalhata Tabekenamun Takahatenamun Naparaye Atakhebasken Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Mehytenweskhet Khedebneithirbinet I Takhuit Tentkheta Nakhtubasterau Ladice XXVII Atossa Artystone Parmys Amestris Damaspia Parysatis XXXI Stateira I Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Roxana Stateira II Parysatis II Eurydice II of Macedon Ptolemaic Eurydice Berenice I Arsinoe I Arsinoe II Berenice II Arsinoe III Cleopatra I Cleopatra II Cleopatra III Cleopatra IV Cleopatra Selene Berenice III Cleopatra V Cleopatra VI Berenice IV Cleopatra VII Arsinoe IV Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic v t e Julius Caesar Major life events Early life and career First Triumvirate Lucca Conference Gallic Wars Caesar's Civil War Crossing the Rubicon Constitutional reforms Dictator perpetuo Assassination Military campaigns Gallic Wars Arar Bibracte Vosges Axona Sabis Atuatuci Octodurus Invasions of Britain Ambiorix's revolt Avaricum Gergovia Alesia Uxellodunum Civil War Corfinium Brundisium Ilerda Dyrrhachium Gomphi Pharsalus Nile Alexandria Zela Ruspina Thapsus Munda Planned invasion of the Parthian Empire Works Laudatio Iuliae amitae Anticato Commentarii de Bello Civili Commentarii de Bello Gallico De analogia Poems by Julius Caesar Portraits Green Caesar Tusculum portrait Arles bust Buildings Forum of Caesar Curia Julia Basilica Julia Temple of Venus Genetrix Caesar's Rhine bridges Quotes Alea iacta est Veni, vidi, vici Ut est rerum omnium magister usus last words Family Wives Cossutia (disputed) Cornelia Pompeia Calpurnia Children Julia Caesarion Augustus (adopted) Other Gaius Julius Caesar (father) Aurelia (mother) Julia Major (sister) Julia Minor (sister) Legacy Cultural depictions of Julius Caesar Temple of Caesar Caesar's Comet Caesarism Julio-Claudian dynasty Related Julia gens Mark Antony Cleopatra Servilia Marcus Junius Brutus Category v t e William Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra Characters Mark Antony Octavius Caesar Lepidus Cleopatra Sextus Pompey Domitius Enobarbus Ventidius Canidius Scarus Octavia Maecenas Agrippa Taurus Dolabella Gallus Menas Charmian Sources Parallel Lives Stage adaptations The False One (c.1620) All for Love (1677) Opera Antony and Cleopatra (1966) On screen 1908 1913 1959 (TV) The Spread of the Eagle (1963; TV) 1972 1974 (TV) 1981 (TV) Zulfiqar (2016; film) Related Cultural depictions of Cleopatra Cultural depictions of Augustus Salad days Asp Thomas North Cleopatra (1912) Cleopatra (1917) Roman Tragedies (2007) Category Authority control BIBSYS: 90224949 BNC: 000068584 BNE: XX889851 BNF: cb11938532d (data) CANTIC: a10832221 GND: 11856322X ISNI: 0000 0001 0927 8576 LCCN: n80067160 LNB: 000138426 NDL: 00620501 NKC: jn20000700908 NLA: 49682372 NLI: 000032491 NLK: KAC201624465 NTA: 069889511 SELIBR: 182837 SNAC: w6nt5bj6 SUDOC: 027316564 TePapa: 49549 Trove: 1458864 VIAF: 67762941 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80067160 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cleopatra&oldid=1002525915" Categories: Cleopatra 69 BC births 30 BC deaths 1st-century BC Pharaohs 1st-century BC Egyptian people 1st-century BC women rulers Deaths due to snake bites Egyptian queens regnant Female pharaohs Female Shakespearean characters Hellenistic-era people Mistresses of Julius Caesar Pharaohs of the Ptolemaic dynasty Ancient people who committed suicide 1st-century BC women writers Hellenistic Cyprus Wives of Mark Antony Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing 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en-wikipedia-org-7944	----	Double Falcon - Wikipedia Double Falcon From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Double Falcon Dju?, Nebwy? Serekh of Double Falcon. Redrawing of an inscription on a vessel found in el-Beda. Pharaoh Reign 32nd century BC (Naqada III) Predecessor Scorpion I? Successor Iry-Hor? Royal titulary Horus name ḏw? nb.wy? Double Falcon (also possibly Dju and Nebwy) was a ruler of Lower Egypt from Naqada III. He may have reigned during the 32nd century BC. The length of his reign is unknown. Contents 1 Attestation 2 Name 3 See also 4 References Attestation[edit] In 1910, Egyptologist M. J. Clédat discovered the first evidence of Double Falcon's existence. Clédat was excavating the site of el-Mehemdiah in the northeastern Nile Delta when a peasant brought him a jar and some incised fragments that he had uncovered during the planting of a palm-grove in nearby el-Beda. Investigating the site, Clédat soon discovered four serekhs of Double Falcon.[1][2] The next attestation of Double Falcon was discovered in 1912 during excavations by Hermann Junker on the site of Tura, where a tomb yielded a complete jar bearing a serekh topped by two falcons.[3] More recently, serekhs of Double Falcon have been found in the Sinai Peninsula,[4] in Tell Ibrahim Awad in the eastern Delta,[5] in Adaima and Abydos in Upper Egypt,[6] and in the Palmahim quarry in southern Israel.[3][5] The concentration of Double Falcon's serekhs in Lower Egypt and the north-western Sinai indicates that his rule may have been limited to these regions. Nonetheless, the wider geographic presence of his serekhs, notably in Upper Egypt and the Southern Levant, suggests that the long-distance authority of the Naqada III kings had already commenced towards the end of the period, be it through trading or warfare.[3] If the inscriptions on the recto side of the Libyan Palette are indeed royal names, Double Falcon may be listed alongside either Scorpion I or Scorpion II in the second row of inscribed symbols. Name[edit] The serekh of Double Falcon is unique in its layout and composition. Firstly, it is the only serekh topped by two Horus falcons, facing each other. Secondly, the serekh does not have a name compartment, being filled by the vertical lines which usually represent the niched facade of a palace. The serekh also lacks the horizontal line that delimits the palace facade from the name of the ruler above. Finally, each falcon stands on its own peak. So-called "anonymous serekhs" have been found somewhat frequently all over Upper and Lower Egypt, some even finding provenance in Rafah, located in southern Palestine.[7] Many were discovered in the tombs of Abydos, namely in the tombs U-s and U-t.[8] In addition to the original Double Falcon serekh, M. J. Clédat also found a number of other similarly styled serekhs from artifacts at el-Beda, one of which he postulated represented a name of a queen, "Ka-Neith".[9] As for Double Falcon, a pharaoh, Clédat and fellow Egyptologists Günter Dreyer and Edwin van den Brink suspect that a deeper symbolism explains these peculiarities. The two falcons could represent Lower Egypt and the Sinai, as it seems that Double Falcon reigned over both regions.[2] Dreyer believes that the falcons stand on a representation of the "mountain sign" N26 of Gardiner's sign list: and reads the name as Dju (ḏw), so that the name of the king is represented by a pair of falcons on mountains above a plain serekh.[4] In contrast, A. Jiménez-Serrano reads the name as Nebwy (nb.wy), "the two lords", and sees a similarity with a much earlier palette on display in the Barbier-Mueller Museum of Geneva.[10][11] See also[edit] List of pharaohs References[edit] ^ M. J. Clédat, Les vases de el-Beda, ASAE 13 (1914), pp. 115-121 ^ a b Kaiser-Dreyer, in: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo. (MDAIK) 38 (1982), Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Orient-Abteilung, p. 9. ^ a b c Raffaele, Francesco (2003). "Dynasty 0" (PDF). Aegyptiaca Helvetica. 17: 99–141. ^ a b Günter Dreyer, Ein Gefäss mit Ritzmarke des Narmer, in: MDAIK 55, (1999), pp. 1–6 ^ a b E. C. M. van den Brink, Pottery-incised Serekh-Signs of Dynasties 0–1, Part II: Fragments and Additional Complete Vessels, in: Archéo-Nil 11, 2001 ^ Eva-Maria Engel: Ein weiterer Beleg für den Doppelfalken auf einem Serech, Bulletin of the Egyptian Museum, 2 (2005), pp. 65-69. ^ Cfr. ref. in Kaiser-Dreyer, M.D.A.I.K. 38, 1982, 268 fig. 16.1, 16.2; van den Brink, op. cit., 1996 n. 3 and 4. ^ U-s, Dreyer et al., MDAIK 46, 59 fig. 3a,b; U-t: Dreyer et al., MDAIK 49, fig. 9; Dreyer, M.D.A.I.K. 55, 1999, 1ff. ^ Cledat, op. cit. 1914 fig. 5; Kaiser-Dreyer, M.D.A.I.K. 38, 1982 marke 12. ^ Image of the palette ^ Jiménez-Serrano, 2000, pp. 123-124 apud Edwin van den Brink: The Pottery-Incised Serekh-Signs of Dynasties 0-1. Part II: Fragments and Additional Complete Vessels, in: Archéo Nil 11, 2002, p. 33. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Double_Falcon&oldid=994093171" Categories: 32nd-century BC Pharaohs Predynastic pharaohs 1910 archaeological discoveries Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Galego Bahasa Indonesia ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands Occitan Polski Português Русский Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Suomi Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 December 2020, at 02:09 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7945	----	Elamite language - Wikipedia Elamite language From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Elamite Tablet of Elamite script Native to Elamite Empire Region Middle East Era c. 2800–300 BC Language family Language isolate Early forms language of Proto-Elamite? language of Linear Elamite? Writing system Elamite cuneiform Language codes ISO 639-2 elx ISO 639-3 elx Linguist List elx Glottolog elam1244 Asia portal Elamite, also known as Hatamtite, is an extinct language that was spoken by the ancient Elamites. It was used in present-day southwestern Iran from 2600 BC to 330 BC.[1] Elamite works disappear from the archeological record after Alexander the Great entered Iran. Elamite is generally thought to have no demonstrable relatives and is usually considered a language isolate. The lack of established relatives makes its interpretation difficult.[2] A sizeable number of Elamite lexemes are known from the trilingual Behistun inscription and numerous other bilingual or trilingual inscriptions of the Achaemenid Empire, in which Elamite was written using Elamite cuneiform (circa 400 BCE), which is fully deciphered. An important dictionary of the Elamite language, the Elamisches Wörterbuch was published in 1987 by W. Hinz and H. Koch.[3][4] The Linear Elamite script however, one of the scripts used to write the Elamite language circa 2000 BC, has remained elusive until recently.[5] Contents 1 Writing system 2 Linguistic typology 3 History 4 Phonology 5 Morphology 5.1 Nouns 5.2 Verbs 6 Syntax 6.1 Language samples 7 Relations to other language families 8 References 9 Bibliography 10 External links Writing system[edit] Elamite cuneiform, adapted from Akkadian cuneiform, was used from c. 2500 to 331 BC. Elamite cuneiform was largely a syllabary of some 130 glyphs at any one time and retained only a few logograms from Akkadian but, over time, the number of logograms increased. Linear Elamite inscription of king Puzur-Inshushinak , in the "Table du Lion", Louvre Museum Sb 17. The complete corpus of Elamite cuneiform consists of about 20,000 tablets and fragments. The majority belong to the Achaemenid era, and contain primarily economic records. Two earlier scripts of the area remain undeciphered but plausibly have encoded Elamite: Proto-Elamite is the oldest known writing system from Iran. It was used during a brief period of time (c. 3100 – 2900 BC); clay tablets with Proto-Elamite writing have been found at different sites across Iran. It is thought to have developed from early cuneiform (proto-cuneiform) and consists of more than 1,000 signs. It is thought to be largely logographic. Linear Elamite is attested in a few monumental inscriptions. It is often claimed that Linear Elamite is a syllabic writing system derived from Proto-Elamite, but it cannot be proven. Linear Elamite was used for a very brief period of time during the last quarter of the third millennium BC. Linguistic typology[edit] Elamite is an agglutinative language,[6] and its grammar was characterized by a well-developed and pervasive nominal class system. Animate nouns have separate markers for first, second and third person, a rather unusual feature. It can be said to display a kind of Suffixaufnahme in that the nominal class markers of the head are also attached to any modifiers, including adjectives, noun adjuncts, possessor nouns and even entire clauses. History[edit] Inscription of Shutruk-Nahhunte in Elamite cuneiform, circa 1150 BC, on the Victory Stele of Naram-Sin. The history of Elamite is periodised as follows: Old Elamite (c. 2600–1500 BC) Middle Elamite (c. 1500–1000 BC) Neo-Elamite (1000–550 BC) Achaemenid Elamite (550–330 BC) Middle Elamite is considered the “classical” period of Elamite, but the best attested variety is Achaemenid Elamite,[7] which was widely used by the Achaemenid Persian state for official inscriptions as well as administrative records and displays significant Old Persian influence. Documents from the Old Elamite and early Neo-Elamite stages are rather scarce. Neo-Elamite can be regarded as a transition between Middle and Achaemenid Elamite, with respect to language structure. The Elamite language may have remained in widespread use after the Achaemenid period. Several rulers of Elymais bore the Elamite name Kamnaskires in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC. The Acts of the Apostles (c. 80–90 AD) mentions the language as if it was still current. There are no later direct references, but Elamite may be the local language in which, according to the Talmud, the Book of Esther was recited annually to the Jews of Susa in the Sasanian period (224–642 AD). Between the 9th and 13th centuries AD, various Arabic authors refer to a language called Khuzi spoken in Khuzistan, which was not any other language known to those writers. It is possible that it was "a late variant of Elamite".[8] Phonology[edit] Because of the limitations of the language's scripts, its phonology is not well understood. Its consonants included at least stops /p/, /t/ and /k/, sibilants /s/, /ʃ/ and /z/ (with an uncertain pronunciation), nasals /m/ and /n/, liquids /l/ and /r/ and fricative /h/, which was lost in late Neo-Elamite. Some peculiarities of the spelling have been interpreted as suggesting that there was a contrast between two series of stops (/p/, /t/, /k/ as opposed to /b/, /d/, /g/), but in general, such a distinction was not consistently indicated by written Elamite. Elamite had at least the vowels /a/, /i/, and /u/ and may also have had /e/, which was not generally expressed unambiguously. Roots were generally CV, (C)VC, (C)VCV or, more rarely, CVCCV (the first C was usually a nasal). Morphology[edit] Elamite is agglutinative but with fewer morphemes per word than, for example, Sumerian or Hurrian and Urartian and it is mostly suffixing. Nouns[edit] The Elamite nominal system is thoroughly pervaded by a noun class distinction, which combines a gender distinction between animate and inanimate with a personal class distinction, corresponding to the three persons of verbal inflection (first, second, third, plural). The suffixes are as follows: Animate: 1st person singular: -k 2nd person singular: -t 3rd person singular: -r or Ø 3rd person plural: -p Inanimate: -∅, -me, -n, -t[clarification needed] Inscription in Elamite, in the Xerxes I inscription at Van, 5th century BCE The animate third-person suffix -r can serve as a nominalizing suffix and indicate nomen agentis or just members of a class. The inanimate third-person singular suffix -me forms abstracts: sunki-k “a king (first person)” i.e. “I, a king”, sunki-r “a king (third person)”, nap-Ø or nap-ir “a god (third person)”, sunki-p “kings”, nap-ip “gods”, sunki-me “kingdom, kingship”, hal-Ø “town, land”, siya-n “temple”, hala-t “mud brick”. Modifiers follow their (nominal) heads. In noun phrases and pronoun phrases, the suffixes referring to the head are appended to the modifier, regardless of whether the modifier is another noun (such as a possessor) or an adjective. Sometimes the suffix is preserved on the head as well: u šak X-k(i) = “I, the son of X” X šak Y-r(i) = “X, the son of Y” u sunki-k Hatamti-k = “I, the king of Elam” sunki Hatamti-p (or, sometimes, sunki-p Hatamti-p) = “the kings of Elam” temti riša-r = “great lord” (lit. “lord great”) riša-r nap-ip-ir = “greatest of the gods” (lit. "great of the gods") nap-ir u-ri = my god (lit. “god of me”) hiya-n nap-ir u-ri-me = the throne hall of my god takki-me puhu nika-me-me = “the life of our children” sunki-p uri-p u-p(e) = ”kings, my predecessors” (lit. “kings, predecessors of me”) This system, in which the noun class suffixes function as derivational morphemes as well as agreement markers and indirectly as subordinating morphemes, is best seen in Middle Elamite. It was, to a great extent, broken down in Achaemenid Elamite, where possession and, sometimes, attributive relationships are uniformly expressed with the “genitive case” suffix -na appended to the modifier: e.g. šak X-na “son of X”. The suffix -na, which probably originated from the inanimate agreement suffix -n followed by the nominalizing particle -a (see below), appeared already in Neo-Elamite. The personal pronouns distinguish nominative and accusative case forms. They are as follows: Case 1st sg. 2nd sg. 3rd sg. 1st pl. 2nd pl. 3rd pl. Inanimate Nominative u ni/nu i/hi nika/nuku num/numi ap/appi i/in Accusative un nun ir/in nukun numun appin i/in In general, no special possessive pronouns are needed in view of the construction with the noun class suffixes. Nevertheless, a set of separate third-person animate possessives -e (sing.) / appi-e (plur.) is occasionally used already in Middle Elamite: puhu-e “her children”, hiš-api-e “their name”. The relative pronouns are akka “who” and appa “what, which”. Verbs[edit] Seal of Darius the Great hunting in a chariot, reading "I am Darius, the Great King" in Old Persian (𐎠𐎭𐎶𐏐𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁𐎴 𐏋, "adam Dārayavaʰuš xšāyaθiya"), as well as in Elamite and Babylonian. The word 'great' only appears in Babylonian. British Museum.[9][10] The verb base can be simple (ta- “put”) or “reduplicated” (beti > bepti “rebel”). The pure verb base can function as a verbal noun, or “infinitive”. The verb distinguishes three forms functioning as finite verbs, known as “conjugations”. Conjugation I is the only one with special endings characteristic of finite verbs as such, as shown below. Its use is mostly associated with active voice, transitivity (or verbs of motion), neutral aspect and past tense meaning. Conjugations II and III can be regarded as periphrastic constructions with participles; they are formed by the addition of the nominal personal class suffixes to a passive perfective participle in -k and to an active imperfective participle in -n, respectively. Accordingly, conjugation II expresses a perfective aspect, hence usually past tense, and an intransitive or passive voice, whereas conjugation III expresses an imperfective non-past action. The Middle Elamite conjugation I is formed with the following suffixes: 1st singular: -h 2nd singular: -t 3rd singular: -š 1st plural: -hu 2nd plural: -h-t 3rd plural: -h-š Examples: kulla-h ”I prayed”, hap-t ”you heard”, hutta-š “he did”, kulla-hu “we prayed”, hutta-h-t “you (plur.) did”, hutta-h-š “they did”. In Achaemenid Elamite, the loss of the /h/ reduces the transparency of the Conjugation I endings and leads to the merger of the singular and plural except in the first person; in addition, the first-person plural changes from -hu to -ut. The participles can be exemplified as follows: perfective participle hutta-k “done”, kulla-k “something prayed”, i.e. “a prayer”; imperfective participle hutta-n “doing” or “who will do”, also serving as a non-past infinitive. The corresponding conjugation is, for the perfective, first person singular hutta-k-k, second person singular hutta-k-t, third person singular hutta-k-r, third person plural hutta-k-p; and for the imperfective, 1st person singular hutta-n-k, 2nd person singular hutta-n-t, 3rd person singular hutta-n-r, 3rd person plural hutta-n-p. In Achaemenid Elamite, the Conjugation 2 endings are somewhat changed: 1st person singular hutta-k-ut, 2nd person singular hutta-k-t, 3rd person singular hutta-k (hardly ever attested in predicative use), 3rd person plural hutta-p. There is also a periphrastic construction with an auxiliary verb ma- following either Conjugation II and III stems (i.e. the perfective and imperfective participles), or nomina agentis in -r, or a verb base directly. In Achaemenid Elamite, only the third option exists. There is no consensus on the exact meaning of the periphrastic forms with ma-, but durative, intensive or volitional interpretations have been suggested.[11] The optative is expressed by the addition of the suffix -ni to Conjugations I and II. The imperative is identical to the second person of Conjugation I in Middle Elamite. In Achaemenid Elamite, it is the third person that coincides with the imperative. The prohibitative is formed by the particle ani/ani preceding Conjugation III. Verbal forms can be converted into the heads of subordinate clauses through the addition of the suffix -a, much as in Sumerian: siyan in-me kuši-hš(i)-me-a “the temple which they did not build”. -ti/-ta can be suffixed to verbs, chiefly of conjugation I, expressing possibly a meaning of anteriority (perfect and pluperfect tense). The negative particle is in-; it takes nominal class suffixes that agree with the subject of attention (which may or may not coincide with the grammatical subject): first-person singular in-ki, third-person singular animate in-ri, third-person singular inanimate in-ni/in-me. In Achaemenid Elamite, the inanimate form in-ni has been generalized to all persons, and concord has been lost. Syntax[edit] Nominal heads are normally followed by their modifiers, but there are occasional inversions. Word order is subject–object–verb (SOV), with indirect objects preceding direct objects, but it becomes more flexible in Achaemenid Elamite. There are often resumptive pronouns before the verb – often long sequences, especially in Middle Elamite (ap u in duni-h "to-them I it gave"). The language uses postpositions such as -ma "in" and -na "of", but spatial and temporal relationships are generally expressed in Middle Elamite by means of "directional words" originating as nouns or verbs. They can precede or follow the governed nouns and tend to exhibit noun class agreement with whatever noun is described by the prepositional phrase: i-r pat-r u-r ta-t-ni "may you place him under me", lit. "him inferior of-me place-you-may". In Achaemenid Elamite, postpositions become more common and partly displace that type of construction. A common conjunction is ak "and, or". Achaemenid Elamite also uses a number of subordinating conjunctions such as anka "if, when" and sap "as, when". Subordinate clauses usually precede the verb of the main clause. In Middle Elamite, the most common way to construct a relative clause is to attach a nominal class suffix to the clause-final verb, optionally followed by the relativizing suffix -a: thus, lika-me i-r hani-š-r(i) "whose reign he loves", or optionally lika-me i-r hani-š-r-a. The alternative construction by means of the relative pronouns akka "who" and appa "which" is uncommon in Middle Elamite, but gradually becomes dominant at the expense of the nominal class suffix construction in Achaemenid Elamite. Language samples[edit] Middle Elamite (Šutruk-Nahhunte I, 1200–1160 BC; EKI 18, IRS 33): Transliteration: (1) ú DIŠšu-ut-ru-uk-d.nah-hu-un-te ša-ak DIŠhal-lu-du-uš-din-šu-ši- (2) -na-ak-gi-ik su-un-ki-ik an-za-an šu-šu-un-ka4 e-ri-en- (3) -tu4-um ti-pu-uh a-ak hi-ya-an din-šu-ši-na-ak na-pír (4) ú-ri-me a-ha-an ha-li-ih-ma hu-ut-tak ha-li-ku-me (5) din-šu-ši-na-ak na-pír ú-ri in li-na te-la-ak-ni Transcription: U Šutruk-Nahhunte, šak Halluduš-Inšušinak-ik, sunki-k Anzan Šušun-ka. Erientum tipu-h ak hiya-n Inšušinak nap-ir u-ri-me ahan hali-h-ma. hutta-k hali-k u-me Inšušinak nap-ir u-ri in lina tela-k-ni. Translation: I, Šutruk-Nahhunte, son of Halluduš-Inšušinak, king of Anshan and Susa. I moulded bricks and made the throne hall of my god Inšušinak with them. May my work come as an offering to my god Inšušinak. Achaemenid Elamite (Xerxes I, 486–465 BC; XPa): Transliteration: (01) [sect 01] dna-ap ir-šá-ir-ra du-ra-mas-da ak-ka4 AŠmu-ru-un (02) hi pè-iš-tá ak-ka4 dki-ik hu-ip-pè pè-iš-tá ak-ka4 DIŠ (03) LÚ.MEŠ-ir-ra ir pè-iš-tá ak-ka4 ši-ia-ti-iš pè-iš-tá DIŠ (04) LÚ.MEŠ-ra-na ak-ka4 DIŠik-še-ir-iš-šá DIŠEŠŠANA ir hu-ut-taš- (05) tá ki-ir ir-še-ki-ip-in-na DIŠEŠŠANA ki-ir ir-še-ki-ip- (06) in-na pír-ra-ma-ut-tá-ra-na-um Transcription: Nap irša-rra Uramasda, akka muru-n hi pe-š-ta, akka kik hupe pe-š-ta, akka ruh(?)-irra ir pe-š-ta, akka šiatiš pe-š-ta ruh(?)-ra-na, akka Ikšerša sunki(?) ir hutta-š-ta kir iršeki-pi-na sunki(?), kir iršeki-pi-na piramataram. Translation: A great god is Ahura Mazda, who created this earth, who created that sky, who created man, who created happiness of man, who made Xerxes king, one king of many, one lord of many. Relations to other language families[edit] Elamite is regarded by the vast majority of linguists as a language isolate,[12][13][14] as it has no demonstrable relationship to the neighbouring Semitic languages, Indo-European languages, or to Sumerian, despite having adopted the Sumerian-Akkadian cuneiform script. An Elamo-Dravidian family connecting Elamite with the Dravidian languages of India was suggested in 1967 by Igor M. Diakonoff[15] and later, in 1974, defended by David McAlpin.[16] In 2012, Southworth proposed that Elamite forms the “Zagrosian family” along with Brahui and, further down the cladogram, the remaining Dravidian languages; this family would have originated in Southwest Asia (southern Iran) and was widely distributed in South Asia and parts of eastern West Asia before the Indo-Aryan migration.[17] Václav Blažek proposed a relation with the Semitic languages.[18] In 2002 George Starostin published a lexicostatistic analysis finding Elamite to be approximately equidistant from Nostratic and Semitic.[19] None of these ideas have been accepted by mainstream historical linguists.[12] References[edit] ^ Stolper, Matthew W. 2008. Elamite. In The Ancient Languages of Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Aksum. p. 47-50. ^ Elamite (2005). Keith Brown (ed.). Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (2 ed.). Elsevier. ISBN 0-08-044299-4. ^ Hinz, W.; Koch, H. (1987). Elamisches Worterbuch.1 (in German). ^ Hinz, W.; Koch, H. (1987). Elamisches Worterbuch.2 (in German). ^ Desset, Francois (2018). "Chapter Twenty: Linear Elamite writing" in "The Elamite world". Routledge World Series. pp. 405–406. ^ Stolper, Matthew W. 2008. Elamite. In The Ancient Languages of Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Aksum. p. 60. ^ Brown, Keith and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise encyclopedia of languages of the world. P.316 ^ Jan Tavernier, "The Elamite Language", in Javier Álvarez-Mon, Gian Pietro Basello and Yasmina Wicks (eds.), The Elamite World (Routledge, 2018), pp. 421–422. ^ The Darius Seal. ^ Darius' seal: photo - Livius. ^ Stolper, Matthew W. 2008. Elamite. In The Ancient Languages of Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Aksum. P. 67 ^ a b Roger Blench, Matthew Spriggs (eds.)(2003), "Archaeology and Language I: Theoretical and Methodological Orientations", Routledge, p.125 ^ Roger D. Woodard (ed.)(2008), "The Ancient Languages of Mesopotamia, Egypt and Aksum", Cambridge University Press, p.3 ^ Amalia E. Gnanadesikan (2011), "The Writing Revolution: Cuneiform to the Internet", John Wiley & Sons ^ Дьяконов, Игорь Михайлович, "Языки древней Передней Азии", Москва: Наука, 1967. ^ David McAlpin, "Toward Proto-Elamo-Dravidian", Language vol. 50 no. 1 (1974); David McAlpin: "Elamite and Dravidian, Further Evidence of Relationships", Current Anthropology vol. 16 no. 1 (1975); David McAlpin: "Linguistic prehistory: the Dravidian situation", in Madhav M. Deshpande and Peter Edwin Hook: Aryan and Non-Aryan in India, Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor (1979); David McAlpin, "Proto-Elamo-Dravidian: The Evidence and its Implications", Transactions of the American Philosophical Society vol. 71 pt. 3, (1981) ^ Southworth, Franklin (2011). "Rice in Dravidian and its linguistic implications". Rice. 4: 142–148. doi:10.1007/s12284-011-9076-9. ^ Blench 2006, p. 96 ^ Starostin 2002 Bibliography[edit] Stolper, Matthew W. 2008. Elamite. In Woodard, Roger D. (ed.) The Ancient Languages of Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Aksum. P.60–95. Khačikjan, Margaret: The Elamite Language, Documenta Asiana IV, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche Istituto per gli Studi Micenei ed Egeo-Anatolici, 1998 ISBN 88-87345-01-5 Paper H. (1955). The phonology and morphology of Royal Achaemenid Elamite. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Potts, Daniel T.: The archaeology of Elam: formation and transformation of an ancient Iranian state, Cambridge U., 1999 ISBN 0-521-56496-4 and ISBN 0-521-56358-5 Starostin, George: On the genetic affiliation of the Elamite language in Mother Tongue ( ISSN 1087-0326), vol. VII, 2002, pp. 147–17 Blench, Roger (2006). Archaeology, Language, and the African Past. Rowman Altamira. ISBN 978-0-7591-0466-2. Retrieved 30 June 2013. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Elamite language. For a list of words relating to Elamite language, see the Elamite language category of words in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wiktionary has a word list at Appendix:Elamite word list Hinz, Walther; Koch, Heidemarie (1987). Elamisches Wörterbuch. Berlin: Reimer. ISBN 978-3-496-00923-8. Part 1: A–H, Part 2: I–Z. Ancient Scripts: Elamite Elamisch by Ernst Kausen (in German). An overview of Elamite. Elamite grammar, glossary, and a very comprehensive text corpus, by Enrique Quintana (in some respects, the author's views deviate from those generally accepted in the field) (in Spanish) Эламский язык, a detailed description by Igor Diakonov (in Russian) Persepolis Fortification Archive (requires Java) Achaemenid Royal Inscriptions project (the project is discontinued, but the texts, the translations and the glossaries remain accessible on the Internet Archive through the options "Corpus Catalogue" and "Browse Lexicon") On the genetic affiliation of the Elamite language by George Starostin (the Nostratic theory; also with glossary) Elamite and Dravidian: Further Evidence of Relationship by David McAlpin v t e Primary language families Africa Afroasiatic Austronesian Khoe–Kwadi Kx'a Niger–Congo Nilo-Saharan? Tuu Mande? Songhay? Ijaw? Ubangian? Kadu? Isolates Bangime Hadza Jalaa Sandawe Laal? Shabo? Europe and Asia Afroasiatic Ainu Austroasiatic Austronesian Chukotko-Kamchatkan Dravidian Eskimo–Aleut Great Andamanese Hmong–Mien Hurro-Urartian Indo-European Japonic Kartvelian Koreanic Kra–Dai Mongolic Nivkh Northeast Caucasian Northwest Caucasian Ongan Sino-Tibetan Tungusic Turkic Tyrsenian Uralic Yeniseian Yukaghir Digaro? Hrusish? Kho-Bwa? Miju? Siangic? Isolates Basque Burushaski Elamite Hattic Kusunda Nihali Sumerian New Guinea and the Pacific Arai–Samaia Austronesian Binanderean–Goilalan Border Bulaka River Central Solomons Chimbu–Wahgi Doso–Turumsa East Geelvink Bay East New Britain East Strickland Eleman Engan Fas Kaure–Kosare Kiwaian Kutubuan Kwomtari Lakes Plain Lower Mamberamo Lower Sepik Madang Mairasi North Bougainville Pauwasi Ramu Senagi Sentani Sepik Skou South Bougainville Teberan Tor–Kwerba–Nimboran Torricelli Trans-Fly Trans–New Guinea Turama–Kikorian Upper Yuat West Papuan Yam Yawa Yuat Northwest Papuan? Papuan Gulf? Isolates Abinomn Abun Anêm? Ata? Kol Kuot Maybrat Mpur Pawaia Porome Sulka? Taiap? Tambora Wiru Australia Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan? Bunuban Darwin Region? Eastern Daly Eastern Tasmanian Garawan Iwaidjan Jarrakan Marrku–Wurrugu? Mirndi Northern Tasmanian Northeastern Tasmanian Nyulnyulan Pama–Nyungan Southern Daly? Tangkic Wagaydyic Western Daly Western Tasmanian Worrorran Yangmanic (incl. Wagiman)? Isolates Giimbiyu Malak-Malak (Northern Daly?) Tiwi North America Algic Alsea Caddoan Chimakuan Chinookan Chumashan Comecrudan Coosan Eskimo–Aleut Iroquoian Kalapuyan Keresan Maiduan Muskogean Na-Dene Palaihnihan Plateau Penutian Pomoan Salishan Shastan Siouan Tanoan Tsimshianic Utian Uto-Aztecan Wakashan Wintuan Yukian Yuman–Cochimí Isolates Chimariko Esselen Haida Karuk Kutenai Seri Siuslaw Takelma Timucua Waikuri Washo Yana Yokuts Yuchi Zuni Mesoamerica Chibchan Jicaquean Lencan Mayan Misumalpan Mixe–Zoque Oto-Manguean Tequistlatecan Totonacan Uto-Aztecan Xincan Isolates Cuitlatec Huave Tarascan/Purépecha South America Andoque–Urequena Arauan Araucanian Arawakan Arutani–Sape Aymaran Barbacoan Boran Cahuapanan Cariban Catacaoan Chapacuran Charruan Chibchan Choco Chonan Guaicuruan Guajiboan Harákmbut–Katukinan Jirajaran Jivaroan Katembri–Taruma Mascoian Matacoan Nadahup Nambikwaran Otomákoan Pano-Tacanan Peba–Yaguan Quechuan Piaroa–Saliban Ticuna–Yuri Timotean Tiniguan Tucanoan Tupian Uru–Chipaya Witotoan Yanomaman Zamucoan Zaparoan Bora–Witoto languages? Chimuan? Esmeralda–Yaruro? Hibito–Cholón? Lule–Vilela? Macro-Jê? Tequiraca–Canichana? Isolates (extant in 2000) Aikanã? Alacalufan Camsá Candoshi Chimane Chiquitano Cofán? Fulniô Guató Hodï/Joti Irantxe? Itonama Jukude (Maku-Auari) Kunza Leco Movima Mura-Pirahã Nukak? Puinave Huaorani/Waorani Trumai Urarina Warao Yamana Yuracaré Sign languages Arab BANZSL Chinese Francosign Germanosign Indo-Pakistani Japanese Original Thai Swedish Tanzanian? Isolates See list of sign languages See also Language isolates Unclassified languages Creoles Pidgins Mixed languages Artificial languages Families in italics have no living members. Families with more than 30 languages are in bold. v t e Language families of Eurasia Europe Indo-European Uralic Basque Iberian Tartessian Paleo-Corsican Paleo-Sardinian Camunic Elymian Ligurian North Picene Sicani Tyrsenian Eteocretan Eteocypriot Minoan West Asia Indo-European Afroasiatic Hurro-Urartian Hattic Kassite Kaskian Philistine Sumerian Proto-Euphratean ? Elamite Caucasian Kartvelian Northeast Caucasian Northwest Caucasian South Asia Indo-European Dravidian Nihali Burushaski Kusunda Harappan ? East Asia Austroasiatic Sino-Tibetan Hmong–Mien Kra–Dai Austronesian Japonic Indian Ocean rim Great Andamanese Ongan Kenaboi North Asia Altaic ? Turkic Mongolic Tungusic Koreanic Japonic "Paleosiberian" Koreanic Ainu Nivkh Chukotko-Kamchatkan Yukaghir Yeniseian Other North Asia Uralic Ruanruan ? Eskimo–Aleut Proposed groupings Alarodian Altaic Borean Nostratic Dené–Caucasian Eurasiatic Dené–Yeniseian Dravido-Korean Elamo-Dravidian Ibero-Caucasian Indo-Hittite Indo-Pacific Indo-Semitic Indo-Uralic Karasuk Pontic Turanian Ural-Altaic Uralo-Siberian Uralic–Yukaghir Eskimo–Uralic Arunachal Greater Siangic Siangic Digaro Miju Hrusish Kho-Bwa Southeast Asia Andamanese Austric Austro-Tai Austronesian–Ongan East Asian Sino-Austronesian Substrata Atlantic Pre-Celtic Pre-Germanic Pre-Goidelic Pre-Greek Vasconic Pre-Vedic Pre-Finno-Ugric v t e Ancient Mesopotamia Geography Modern Euphrates Upper Mesopotamia Mesopotamian Marshes Persian Gulf Syrian Desert Taurus Mountains Tigris Zagros Mountains Ancient Akkad Assyria Babylonia Chaldea Elam Hittites Media Mitanni Sumer Urartu Cities History Pre- / Protohistory Acheulean Mousterian Trialetian Zarzian Natufian Nemrikian Khiamian Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) Hassuna/Samarra Halaf Ubaid Uruk Jemdet Nasr Kish civilization History Early Dynastic Akkadian Gutians Simurrum Ur III Isin-Larsa Old Babylonian Kassite Middle Babylonian Neo-Assyrian Neo-Babylonian Achaemenid Seleucid Parthian Roman Sasanian Muslim conquest Timeline of the Assyrian Empire Hakkari Languages Akkadian Amorite Aramaic Eblaite Elamite Gutian Hittite Hurrian Luwian Middle Persian Old Persian Parthian Proto-Armenian Sumerian Urartian Culture / Society Architecture Art Cuneiform Akkadian literature Sumerian literature Music Religion Indus-Mesopotamia relations Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Royal titles Archaeology Looting Destruction by ISIL Tell Authority control GND: 4140715-5 NDL: 00577414 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elamite_language&oldid=999951942" Categories: Languages with Linglist code Elamite language Bronze Age writing systems Subject–object–verb languages Language isolates of Asia Pre-Indo-Europeans Languages attested from the 3rd millennium BC Languages extinct in the 3rd millennium BC Hidden categories: CS1 German-language sources (de) Languages with ISO 639-2 code Language articles with unreferenced extinction date Wikipedia articles needing clarification from March 2013 Commons category link is on Wikidata Articles with German-language sources (de) Articles with Spanish-language sources (es) Articles with Russian-language sources (ru) Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Banjar Български Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kinyarwanda Latina Lietuvių Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Shqip سنڌي Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 12 January 2021, at 19:52 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7958	----	Aahotepre - Wikipedia Aahotepre From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 'Ammu Aahotepre Scarab seal of Aahotepre, Petrie Museum. Pharaoh Predecessor Qareh Khawoserre[1] Successor Sheshi Maaibre[1] Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Aahotepre[2] ˁ3-ḥtp-Rˁ Ra is greatly pleased 'Ammu Aahotepre or Ahotepre was a minor[3] Hyksos[3] pharaoh of Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt.[1] Contents 1 Identification 2 See also 3 References 4 Bibliography Identification[edit] Ryholt (1997) identified 'Ammu Aahotepre in his reconstruction of the Turin canon.[1] Von Beckerath (1964) had previously assigned the praenomen Aahotepre to a pharaoh of Sixteenth dynasty of Egypt.[4] See also[edit] List of pharaohs References[edit] ^ a b c d Ryholt 1997: 50 ^ Aahotepre on Eglyphica.de ^ a b Hayes 1973: 64 ^ Ryholt 1997: 324 n. 1116 Bibliography[edit] von Beckerath, Jürgen (1964), "2. Zwischenzeit", Archiv für Orientforschung Hayes, William C. (1973). "Egypt: From the death of Ammenemes III to Seqenenre II". The Cambridge Ancient History. 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.. Ryholt, K. S. B. (1997), The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800 - 1550 BC, Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, ISBN 87-7289-421-0 v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aahotepre&oldid=990748394" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ancient Egypt people stubs Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ Català Deutsch Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى 日本語 Slovenščina ไทย Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 26 November 2020, at 08:09 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7977	----	Wash (pharaoh) - Wikipedia Wash (pharaoh) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search King Narmer defeating Wash, Narmer Palette.[1] wˁš in hieroglyphs Wash was possibly an ancient Egyptian predynastic ruler. His existence is disputed. Background[edit] He is known from the verso of the Narmer Palette found in Hierakonpolis, where he is depicted as a kneeling captive, "un-Egyptian in appearance",[2] about to be smitten by Narmer.[3] The hieroglyphs carved near the captive – a harpoon and a lake – have been considered by scholars to be either a location name for the Harpoon nome (located in the Northwestern Nile Delta next to the Libyan borders) or the personal name of the captive, phonetically read as Washi or Wash.[4][3] Assuming that Wash was a historical figure, it has been speculated that he may have been the last ruler of a Lower Egyptian dynasty based at Buto, who was ultimately defeated by the Upper Egyptian leader, Narmer. However, it is possible that the Narmer Palette depicts an allegory rather than a historical event, with Wash merely being part of that construct.[5] Archaeologist Edwin van den Brink argued that Hedju Hor – another predynastic Lower Egyptian ruler – could be identified with Wash, on the basis of the similarities between the former's serekh and the carving above Wash on the Narmer Palette.[6] References[edit] ^ Egypt,” Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.), v. 9, 1911, plate II (between pp. 64 and 65),#23. ^ O'Connor, David (2011). "The Narmer Palette: A New Interpretation". In Teeter, Emily (ed.). Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. ISBN 978-1885923-82-0., p.148 ^ a b Heagy, Thomas C. (2014). "Who was Menes?". Archeo-Nil. 24: 59–92., p.66 ^ Helck, Wolfgang (1987). Untersuchungen zur Thinitenzeit. Ägyptologische Abhandlungen 45. Wiesbaden., p.98 ^ Wilkinson, Toby (1999). Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge. ISBN 0-203-20421-2., pp.40–41 ^ van den Brink, Edwin (1996). "The Incised Serekh-signs of Dynasties 0–1, Part I: Complete Vessels". In Spencer, Alan J. (ed.). Aspects of Early Egypt. London: British Museum Press. pp. 140–158. ISBN 0714109991., p.147 v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wash_(pharaoh)&oldid=995603103" Categories: Ancient Egypt people stubs 32nd century BC in Egypt 31st century BC in Egypt Predynastic Egypt People whose existence is disputed Hidden categories: All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Deutsch Português Edit links This page was last edited on 21 December 2020, at 23:13 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7987	----	Iry-Hor - Wikipedia Iry-Hor From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Iry-Hor Ro, Irj-Hor, Iri(-Hor) Signs r-Ḥr inscribed on a large vessel from the tomb of Iry-Hor, Ashmolean Museum. Pharaoh Reign Early to Late 32nd century BC[1] (Dynasty 0) Predecessor Scorpion I? Double Falcon? Successor Uncertain, possibly Ka Royal titulary Horus name Iry-Hor r-Ḥr Companion of Horus Burial Chambers B1, B2, Umm el-Qa'ab Iry-Hor or Ro (as read by the Egyptologist Flinders Petrie)[2] was a predynastic pharaoh of Upper Egypt during the 32nd century BC.[1] Iry-Hor's existence was debated, with the Egyptologist Toby Wilkinson contesting the reading and signification of his name. However, continuing excavations at Abydos in the 1980s and 1990s[3][4][5] and the discovery in 2012 of an inscription of Iry-Hor in the Sinai confirmed his existence.[1] Iry-Hor is the earliest ruler of Egypt known by name and is sometimes cited as the earliest-living historical person known by name.[6] Contents 1 Name 2 Identity 2.1 Controversy 2.2 Resolution 3 Reign and attestations 4 Tomb 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Name[edit] Iry-Hor's name is written with the Horus falcon hieroglyph (Gardiner sign G5) above a mouth hieroglyph (Gardiner D21). While the modern reading of the name is "Iry-Hor", Flinders Petrie, who discovered and excavated Iry-Hor's tomb at the end of the 19th century, read it "Ro", which was the usual reading of the mouth hieroglyph at the time.[7][8] Given the archaic nature of the name, the translation proved difficult and, in the absence of a better alternative, Ludwig D. Morenz proposed that the literal translation be retained, giving "Horus mouth".[9] In the 1990s, Werner Kaiser and Günter Dreyer translate Iry-Hor's name as "Companion of Horus".[3] Toby Wilkinson, who contested that Iry-Hor was a king, translated the signs as "Property of the king".[10] Following the excavations at Abydos and the discovery of an inscription of Iry-Hor in the Sinai in 2012, Wilkinson's hypothesis is now rejected by most Egyptologists and Iry-Hor is widely accepted as a predynastic king of Egypt.[1][11][12] The Egyptologists Jürgen von Beckerath and Peter Kaplony also initially rejected the identification of Iry-Hor as a king and proposed instead that the known inscriptions refer to a private person whose name is to be read Wer-Ra, wr-r3 (lit. "great mouth"), i.e. reading the bird above the mouth-sign as the swallow hieroglyph G36 rather than the Horus falcon. They translated the name as "Spokesman" or "Chief".[13] However, continuing excavations of Iry-Hor's tomb at Abydos by Günter Dreyer established that the tomb was of similar dimensions and layout as those of Ka and Narmer and must, therefore, have belonged to a king. This was consequently accepted by von Beckerath and Iry-Hor is now the first entry in the latest edition of von Beckerath's Handbook of Egyptian Pharaohs.[14] Identity[edit] Clay seal with the signs r-Ḥr. Controversy[edit] Until 2012, the name of Iry-Hor had not been found in or next to a serekh, so the identification of Iry-Hor as a king was controversial. Egyptologists Flinders Petrie,[2] Laurel Bestock[8] and Jochem Kahl[15] nonetheless believed that he was indeed a real ruler. They pointed to the distinctive spelling of Iry-Hor's name: the Horus falcon holds the mouth hieroglyph in its claws. On several clay seals, this group of characters is found accompanied by a second, free-standing mouth hieroglyph. This notation is reminiscent of numerous anonymous serekhs held by a Horus falcon with individual hieroglyphs placed close to it rather than within the serekh, as would be expected. Finally, the serekh could have been a convention that started with Ka, whose name has been found both with and without a serekh.[8] Therefore, they concluded that the argument that Iry-Hor was not a king because his name was never found in a serekh was insufficient. Supporters of the identification of Iry-Hor as a king, such as Egyptologist Darell Baker, also pointed to the size and location of his tomb. It is a double tomb, as big as those of Ka and Narmer, located within a sequential order linking the older predynastic "U" cemetery with the First Dynasty tombs.[16] Furthermore, Iry-Hor's name is inscribed on a large jar exhibiting the royal Horus falcon and is similar to those found in the tombs of other kings of this period. In contrast, some Egyptologists doubted Iry-Hor even existed, precisely because his name never appeared in a serekh, the Horus falcon being simply placed above the mouth sign. Ludwig D. Morenz and Kurt Heinrich Sethe doubted the reading of Iry-Hor's name and thus that he was a king. Morenz, for example, suspected that the mouth sign may simply have been a phonetic complement to the Horus falcon.[9] Sethe understood the group of characters forming Iry-Hor's name as an indication of origin (of the content of a jar and other goods to which clay seals were usually attached). Toby Wilkinson dismissed the tomb attributed to Iry-Hor as a storage pit and the name as a treasury mark. Indeed, r-Ḥr may simply mean property of the king.[10][17] Supporting his hypothesis, Wilkinson also noted that Iry-Hor was poorly attested and, until 2012, the only inscription of Iry-Hor outside of Abydos was located in Lower Egypt at Zawyet el'Aryan, while Ka and Narmer have many inscriptions located as far north as Canaan. Resolution[edit] Günter Dreyer's excavations of the necropolis of Abydos revealed that Iry-Hor was in fact well attested there with over 27 objects bearing his name and that his tomb was of royal proportions.[18] Furthermore, in 2012 an inscription mentioning Iry-Hor was discovered in the Sinai, the inscription comprising furthermore an archaic empty serekh on the right of Iry-Hor's name.[1] The inscription mentions the city of Memphis, pushing back its foundation to before Narmer and establishing that Iry-Hor was already reigning over it. Following this discovery, most Egyptologists, including G. Dreyer and the discoverers of the inscription, Pierre Tallet and Damien Laisney, now believe that Iry-Hor was indeed a king.[1] Reign and attestations[edit] Name of Iry-Hor as found in Abydos.[3] Iry-Hor was most likely Ka's immediate predecessor[19] and thus would have reigned during the early 32nd century BC. He probably ruled from Hierakonpolis over Abydos and the wider Thinite region and controlled Egypt at least as far north as Memphis, since the Sinai rock inscription relates a visit of Iry-Hor to this city.[1][20] The Egyptologists Tallet and Laisney further propose that Iry-Hor also controlled parts of the Nile Delta.[1] He was buried in the royal cemetery of Umm el-Qa'ab near Ka, Narmer and the First Dynasty kings. Iry-Hor's name appears on clay vessels from his tomb in Abydos and a clay seal with the hieroglyphs for r-Ḥr was found in Narmer's tomb and may refer to Iry-Hor. In total no less than 22 pottery jars incised with Iry-Hor's name have been in Abydos as well as at least 5 ink-inscribed fragments and a cylinder seal.[18] A similar seal was also found far to the north in the tomb Z 401 of Zawyet el'Aryan in Lower Egypt.[3][16] An incision on a spindle whorl found in Hierakonpolis during James E. Quibell and Petrie excavations there in 1900 may refer to him.[21] Finally, the discovery of a rock inscription of Iry-Hor in the Sinai constitutes his northernmost attestation. The inscription shows the name of Iry-Hor on a boat, next to the word Inebu-hedj meaning "white walls", the ancient name of Memphis.[1] Tomb[edit] Iry-Hor's tomb at the Umm el-Qa'ab comprises two separate chambers B1 and B2, shown in inset. Iry-Hor's tomb is located close to Ka's (B7, B8, B9) and Narmer's tombs (B17, B18). Iry-Hor's tomb is the oldest tomb of the Abydos necropolis B in the Umm el-Qa'ab.[22] It comprises two separate underground chambers B1 (6 m × 3.5 m) and B2 (4.3 m × 2.45 m) excavated by Petrie in 1899 and later by Werner Kaiser.[2][23] A further chamber, now known as "B0", was uncovered during re-excavations of Iry-Hor's tomb in the 1990s.[16] These chambers have a size similar to those found in the tombs of Ka and Narmer. No superstructure, if there ever was one, survives to this day. Chamber B1 yielded jar fragments incised with his name.[22] Chamber B2 produced another incised jar fragment, a seal impression, several ink inscriptions and vessel fragments bearing the names of Ka and Narmer. Parts of a bed were also found onsite.[3] See also[edit] Naqada III, also called Dynasty 0 Kushim References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h i P. Tallet, D. Laisnay: Iry-Hor et Narmer au Sud-Sinaï (Ouadi 'Ameyra), un complément à la chronologie des expéditios minière égyptiene, in: BIFAO 112 (2012), 381-395, available online ^ a b c Flinders Petrie (1900). The Royal tombs of the earliest dynasties. pp. 29 & 30. ^ a b c d e Werner Kaiser, Günter Dreyer: Umm el-Qaab. Nachuntersuchungen im frühzeitlichen Königsfriedhof: 2. Vorbericht, in: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Kairo (MDAIK), 38th edition. Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Orient-Abteilung (Hrsg.). de Gruyter, Berlin 1982, pp. 211–246. ^ Werner Kaiser, Günter Dreyer (1993). "Umm el-Qaab. Nachuntersuchungen im frühzeitlichen Königsfriedhof 5./6. Vorbericht". Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Kairo (MDAIK) (49): 56.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link) ^ Werner Kaiser, Günter Dreyer (1996). "Umm el-Qaab. Nachuntersuchungen im frühzeitlichen Königsfriedhof 7./8. Vorbericht". Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Kairo (MDAIK) (52): 48–57 and taf. 9.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link) ^ Odenwald, Sten. "Who Was the First Named Human?". Huffpost. Retrieved 29 June 2019. ^ W. M. F. Petrie: Abydos I, pp. 4–6. ^ a b c Laurel Bestock: The Development of Royal Funerary Cult at Abydos, pp. 16, 17, 21 & 28 ^ a b Ludwig D. Morenz: Bildbuchstaben und symbolische Zeichen, p. 88 ^ a b Wilkinson, Toby (1993). "The identification of Tomb B1 at Abydos: refuting the existence of a king 'Ro/Iry-Hor'". Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. London: Egypt Exploration Society. 79: 91–93. ISSN 0307-5133. ^ Edwin C. M. van den Brink: The incised serekh signs of Dynasties 0–1. Part I: complete vessels, in: J. Spencer editions, Aspects of Early Egypt (1996), pp. 140–158, pl.s 24-32, London, British Museum Press, ISBN 978-0714109992. ^ E. C. M van den Brink: The incised serekh signs of Dynasties 0–1. Part II: Fragments and Additional Complete Vessels. ^ Peter Kaplony: Inschriften der Ägyptischen Frühzeit, vol. 1, p. 468 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Volume 49, Mainz: P. von Zabern, 1999, ISBN 3-8053-2591-6, Archived 2015-12-22 at the Wayback Machine pp. 9, 36–37 ^ Jochem Kahl: Das System der ägyptischen Hieroglyphenschrift in der 0.-3. Dynastie, pp.96–101. ^ a b c Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 156 ^ Toby Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt, pp. 19, 55 & 234. ^ a b Edwin C. M. van den Brink: Two Pottery Jars Incised with the Name of Iry-Hor from Tomb B1 at Umm El-Ga'ab, Abydos, available online, in : Zeichen aus dem Sand, Streiflichter aus Ägyptens Geschichte zu Ehren von Günter Dreyer, Eva-Maria Engel, Vera Müller and Ulrich Hartung editors, Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden, 2008, ISBN 978-3-447-05816-2 ^ Winfried Barta: Zur Namensform und zeitlichen Einordnung des Königs Ro, in: GM 53, 1982, pp. 11–13. ^ Owen Jarus, Live Science, Early Egyptian Queen Revealed in 5,000-Year-Old Hieroglyphs, [1] [2] ^ James E. Quibell, Flinders Petrie: Hierakonpolis. Part I. Plates of discoveries in 1898 by J. E. Quibell, with notes by W. M. F. P[etrie], London 1900, available online ^ a b Raffaele, Francesco. "Dynasty 0" (PDF). Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ Kaiser, Werner (1964). "Einige Bemerkungen zur ägyptischen Frühzeit". Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde. 91 (2): 86–124. doi:10.1524/zaes.1964.91.2.86. S2CID 201840428. External links[edit] On the predynastic dynasty 0 King Iry-Hor Iry-Hor Tomb of Iry-Hor Preceded by Scorpion I? Double Falcon? King of Thinis Protodynastic Succeeded by Ka ? v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Iry-Hor&oldid=998570958" Categories: 32nd-century BC Pharaohs 2012 archaeological discoveries Predynastic pharaohs 32nd-century BC births Hidden categories: CS1 maint: uses authors parameter Webarchive template wayback links CS1 errors: missing periodical AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to 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en-wikipedia-org-798	----	Amenmesse - Wikipedia Amenmesse From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other people named Amenmose, see Amenmose (disambiguation). Amenmesse Head from a statue of Amenmesse, Metropolitan Museum of Art Pharaoh Reign 1201–1198 BC (19th Dynasty) Predecessor Merneptah Successor Seti II Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Menmire Setepenre Mn-mj-Rˁ-stp.n-Rˁ Eternal like Ra, the chosen one of Ra[1] Nomen Amenmesse Heqawaset Jmn-msj-sw-ḥq3-W3st Fashioned by Amun, ruler of Waset Horus name Kanakht Merymaat Shementawy K3-nḫt-mr.j-M3ˁ-šmn-t3wj Strong bull, beloved of Maat, he who strengthen the two lands Nebty name Werbiaytemipetsut[2] Wr-bj3wt-m-Jpt-swt He who is great of miracles in Ipetsut Golden Horus Aa...-[Ipet-sut ?] ˁ3... Great of ... [Ipetsut ?] Consort Tiya or Tiy[citation needed] Father Merneptah or Ramesses II Mother Takhat Died 1198 BC Burial KV10[3] Amenmesse (also Amenmesses or Amenmose) was the fifth pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty in Ancient Egypt, possibly the son of Merneptah and Queen Takhat. Others consider him to be one of the innumerable sons of Ramesses II. Very little is known about this pharaoh, who ruled Egypt for only three to four years. Various Egyptologists date his reign between 1202 BC–1199 BC[4] or 1203 BC–1200 BC[5] with others giving an accession date of 1200 BC.[6] Amenmesse means "born of or fashioned by Amun" in Egyptian. Additionally, his nomen can be found with the epithet Heqa-waset, which means "Ruler of Thebes".[7] His royal name was Menmire Setepenre. Contents 1 Usurper 2 Family 3 Aftermath 4 References 5 Bibliography 6 External links Usurper[edit] It is likely that he was not Merneptah's intended heir. Scholars Kenneth Kitchen and Jürgen von Beckerath have theorized that Amenmesse usurped the throne from Seti-Merneptah, who was Merneptah's son and crown prince and who should have been next in the line of royal succession. It is unclear how this would have happened. Kitchen has written that Amenmesse may have taken advantage of a momentary weakness of Seti-Merneptah or seized power while the crown prince was away in Asia. Seti-Merneptah was most likely the same man as king Seti II, whose reign was traditionally thought to have followed upon Amenmesse's reign. The cartouches of Seti II's tomb in Upper Egypt were deliberately erased and then repainted, suggesting that Seti's rule in Upper Egypt was temporarily interrupted by agents of his half-brother. Confusion generally clouds Amenmesse's reign and its correct position within the succession sequence of the rulers of the Egyptian 19th Dynasty. However, an increasing number of Egyptologists today such as Rolf Krauss and Aidan Dodson maintain that Seti II was in fact the immediate successor of Merneptah "without any intervening rule by Amenmesse."[8] Under this scenario, Amenmesse did not succeed Merneptah on the throne of Egypt and was rather a rival king who usurped power sometime during Years 2 to 4 of Seti II's reign in Upper Egypt and Nubia where his authority is monumentally attested.[9] Amenmesse was documented in power at Thebes during his third and fourth year (and perhaps earlier in Nubia) where Seti II's Year 3 and Year 4 are noticeably unaccounted for.[10] The treatment of Amenmesse as a rival king also best explains the pattern of destruction to Seti II's tomb which was initially ransacked and later restored again by Seti II's officials. This implies that the respective reigns of Amenmesse and Seti II were parallel to one another; Seti II must have initially controlled Thebes in his first and second years during which time his tomb was excavated and partly decorated. Then Seti was ousted from power in Upper Egypt by Amenmesse whose agents desecrated Seti II's tomb. Seti would finally defeat his rival Amenmesse and return to Thebes in triumph whereupon he ordered the restoration of his damaged tomb. Rolf Krauss, followed by Aidan Dodson, suggests that Amenmesse was once a Kushite Viceroy called Messuy.[11] In particular, two representations of Messuy on the temple of Amida allegedly show that a royal uraeus had been added to his brows in a way consistent with other pharaohs such as Horemheb, Merenptah and some of the sons of Rameses III. An inscription at the temple of Amada also calls him "the king's son himself" but this may be merely a figure of speech to emphasize Messuy's high stature as Viceroy under Merneptah. However, Frank Yurco notes that various depictions of Messuy in several Nubian temples were never deliberately defaced by Seti II's agents compared to the damnatio memoriae meted out to all depictions of another Viceroy of Kush, Khaemtir, who had served as Amenmesse's Vizier.[12] This strongly implies that Seti II held no grudge against Messuy, which would be improbable if Messuy was indeed Amenmesse.[13] Yurco also observes that the only objects from Messuy's tomb which identified a Pharaoh all named only Merneptah, Seti II's father, which leads to the conclusion that Messuy died and was buried in his tomb at Aniba, Nubia, during Merneptah's reign, and could not be Amenmesse.[14] There has also been a suggestion that the narrative of the "Tale of Two Brothers", first attested during the reign of Seti II, may contain a veiled reference to the struggle between Amenmesse and Seti II. The records of a court case early in the reign of Seti II also throw some light on the matter. Papyrus Salt 124 records that Neferhotep, one of the two chief workmen of the Deir el-Medina necropolis, had been killed during the reign of Amenmesse (the king's name is written as Msy in the document).[15] Neferhotep was replaced by Paneb his adopted son, against whom many crimes were alleged by Neferhotep's brother Amennakhte in a strongly-worded indictment preserved on a papyrus in the British Museum. If Amennakhte's allegations can be trusted, Paneb had stolen stone for the embellishment of his own tomb from that of Seti II in the course of its completion, besides purloining or damaging other property belonging to that monarch. Also he had allegedly tried to kill Neferhotep in spite of having been educated by him, and after the chief workman had been killed by "the enemy" had bribed the vizier Pra'emhab in order to usurp his place. Whatever the truth of these accusations, it is clear that Thebes was going through very troubled times. There are references elsewhere to a "war" that had occurred during these years, but it is obscure to what this word alludes—perhaps to no more than internal disturbances and discontent. Neferhotep had complained of the attacks upon himself to the vizier Amenmose, presumably a predecessor of Pra'emhab, whereupon Amenmose had Paneb punished. Paneb, however, then successfully brought a complaint before 'Mose'/'Msy' whereupon the latter decided to dismiss Amenmose from office. Evidently this 'Mose'/'Msy' was a person of the highest importance who most probably should be identified with king Amenmesse himself.[16] Family[edit] See also: Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Jar inscribed with the prenomen and nomen of Amenmesse. Faience, cylindrical. 19th Dynasty. From Cemetery C at el-Riqqeh, Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London His mother is known to be Queen Takhat, but who she is exactly is a matter of interpretation complicated by inscriptions being revised by Seti II and Amenmesse. Among her titles are "King's Daughter", which would make her a daughter of Merenptah or Ramesses II or possibly a granddaughter of Ramesses. The name Takhat appears in a list of princesses dated to Year 53 of Ramesses II (Louvre 666).[17] If this is the same Takhat, she would be about the same age as Seti II.[18] A monument from Karnak, carved while Amenmesse was in control of the area, includes the relief of a woman titled "King's Daughter" and "King's Mother". The monument was reinscribed from 'Mother' to 'Wife'. Another statue of Seti II (Cairo CG1198) bears Seti's name surcharged over someone else's while the names of Takhat were left alone. This suggests that Takhat was married to Seti as well as mother to Amenmesse.[19] Others such as Frank Yurco believe Takhat was wife to Merenptah making the rivals Seti II and Amenmesse half-brothers.[20] Some assumes that Twosret, wife of Seti II, was his sister, And Takhat wife of Merneptah making him half-brother to Seti II. Amenmesse's wife was thought to be a woman named Baktwerel since she was buried in same tomb of Amenmesse, KV10. Three mummies were initially present in this tomb, two women and one man, it is uncertain if any of these remains belong to Amenmesse, Takhat or the later Baketwerel. The two females Baketwerel and Takhat could have been buried later.[21] Some people believe that Seti II broke into this tomb however and had Amenmesse's remains desecrated since his mummy was never found. Six quartzite statues originally placed along the axis of the hypostyle hall in the Amun Temple at Karnak are thought to be his, although these were defaced and overwritten with the name of Seti II.[22] One of these statues, with the inscription, "the Great Royal Wife Takhat", lends credence to the argument that a Takhat was Amenmesse's wife. Amenmesse was also responsible for restoring a shrine dating from Thutmose III that stands before a temple at El-Tod. There is confusion about the events surrounding his death. His mummy was not amongst those found in the cache at Deir el Bahri, and from the destruction of his tomb in the Valley of the Kings, it is assumed that Seti II took revenge upon his usurping half-brother. Aftermath[edit] Amenmesse was buried in a rock-cut tomb in the Valley of the Kings which is now identified as Tomb KV10. However, almost all of its texts and scenes were either erased or usurped by Seti II's agents. No mention of Amenmesse was spared.[23][24] A number of officials associated with Amenmesse were also attacked or replaced, chief among them being the Theban High Priest of Amun, Roma called Roy, and Khaemtir, a former viceroy of Kush, who may have supported Amenmesse's usurpation.[25] Amenmesse's tomb was looted in antiquity. However the remains of three mummies were found in this tomb, two women and one man, it is uncertain if any of these remains belong to Amenmesse, Takhat or the later Baketwerel without further testing or whether they were later intrusions. It seems more likely, however, that Seti II had Amenmesse's remains desecrated since his mummy was never found "in either of the two great caches of royal mummies found in 1881 and 1901".[26] Surviving inscriptions mentioning Takhat's name along with the wall inscriptions suggest she was buried in Amenmesse's tomb. Artifacts from the tombs of Seti I and Rameses VI were also found in the KV10 tomb adding to the uncertainty. After his death, Seti II also conducted a damnatio memoriae campaign against the memory of Amenmesse's Vizier, Khaemtir. Egyptologist Frank Yurco notes that Seti II's agents erased all of Khaemtir's depictions and inscriptions—even those that were inscribed when Khaemtir served as a Viceroy in Nubia.[27] It is possible that Siptah, the Pharaoh who succeeded Seti II, was the son of Amenmesse and not of Seti II. A statue of Siptah in Munich shows the Pharaoh seated in the lap of another, clearly his father. The statue of the father, however, has been destroyed. Dodson writes: The only ruler of the period who could have promoted such destruction was Amenmesse, and likewise he is the only king whose offspring required such explicit promotion. The destruction of this figure is likely to have closely followed the fall of Bay or the death of Siptah himself, when any short-lived rehabilitation of Amenmesse will have ended.[28] M. Georg[29] and Rolf Krauss[30][31] find that there are a number of parallels between the story of Amenmesse and the biblical story of Moses in Egypt. References[edit] ^ Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames & Hudson Ltd, 1994. p.158 ^ Amenmesse ^ [1] KV-10 The Tomb of Amenmesse ^ Edward Wente and Charles Van Siclen III, "A Chronology of the New Kingdom," 218 ^ Michael Rice, Who's Who in Ancient Egypt, Routledge, 1999 ^ Vandersleyen, ĽÈgypte et la Vallée du Nil, vol 2: 575 ^ K. A. Kitchen, "The Titularies of the Ramesside Kings as Expression of Their Ideal Kingship," ASAE 71 (1987): 134-35. ^ Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss & David Warburton (editors), Handbook of Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies), Brill: 2006, p.212 ^ Krauss 1976, 1977, 1997; Dodson 1997 ^ Hornung, Krauss & Warburton, op. cit., p.213 ^ Krauss 1976, 1977; The Viceroy of Kush Archived 2007-02-23 at the Wayback Machine ^ Frank J. Yurco, Was Amenmesse the Viceroy of Kush, Messuwy?, JARCE 34 (1997), pp.53-54 & 56 ^ Yurco, JARCE 34, p.56 ^ Yurco, JARCE 34, pp.55-56 ^ J.J. Janssen, Village Varia. Ten Studies on the History and Administration of Deir El-Medina, Egyptologische Uitgaven 11, Leiden 1997. pp.99-109 ^ Rolf Krauss, Untersuchungen zu König Amenmesse: Nachträge, SAK 24 (1997), pp.161-184 ^ Dodson A.; Poisoned Legacy: The Decline and Fall of the Nineteenth Egyptian Dynasty. American University In Cairo Press (2010), p 42 n 42 ^ Dodson, A.; (2010) p 42 ^ Dodson, A.; (2010) p 40-42 ^ Dodson A.; (2010); n 38, n 40 ^ Yurco, JARCE 34 (1997), p.54 ^ Cardon 1979; Yurco 1979 ^ Dodson, Aidan. "The Tomb of King Amenmesse: Some Observations." DE 2 (1985): 7-11. ^ Dodson, Aidan. "Death after Death in the Valley of the Kings." In Death and Taxes in the Ancient Near East, ed. Sara E. Orel, 53-59. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 1992. ^ Dodson, Aidan (2004), ibid, p.176 ^ Yurco, JARCE 34 (1997), p.54 ^ Yurco, JARCE 34 (1997), pp.49-56. ^ Dodson, Aidan,(2004), The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt (American University of Cairo Press), p.181 ^ Georg, M (2000), "Mose - Name und Namenstraeger. Versuch einer historischen Annaeherung" in Mose. Aegypten und das Alte Testament, edited by E. Otto (Verlag Katholisches Bibelwerk, Stittgart) ^ Krauss, R. (2000), "Moise le pharaon" (Editions du Roche) ^ Rolf Krauss, "Das Rätsel Moses-Auf den Spuren einer Erfindung biblischen." Ullstein Verlag, München 2001) Bibliography[edit] Cardon, Patrick D. “Amenmesse: An Egyptian Royal Head of the Nineteenth Dynasty in the Metropolitan Museum.” MMJ 14 (1979): 5-14. Dodson, Aidan. “The Takhats and Some Other Royal Ladies of the Ramesside Period.” JEA 73 (1987): 224-29. ________. and Dyan Hilton, “The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt“, Thames & Hudson, 2004. ________. “Death after Death in the Valley of the Kings.” In Death and Taxes in the Ancient Near East, ed. Sara E. Orel, 53-59. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 1992. ________. “Amenmesse in Kent, Liverpool, and Thebes.” JEA 81 (1995): 115-28. ________. "Messuy, Amada and Amenmesse." JARCE 34 (1997): 41-48. Habachi, Labib. “King Amenmesse and Viziers Amenmose and Kha’emtore: Their Monuments and Place in History.” MDAIK 34 (1978): 39-67. Kitchen, Kenneth A. “The Titularies of the Ramesside Kings as Expression of Their Ideal Kingship.” ASAE 71 (1987): 131-41. Krauss, Rolf. “Untersuchungen zu König Amenmesse (1.Teil).” SAK 4 (1976): 161-99. ________. “Untersuchungen zu König Amenmesse (2. Teil).” SAK 5 (1977): 131-74. ________. “Untersuchungen zu König Amenmesse: Nachträge.” SAK 24 (1997): 161-84. Vandersleyen, Claude. ĽÉgypte et la Vallée du Nil. Vol. 2, De la fin de ľAncien Empire á la fin du Nouvel Empire. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1995 Wente, Edward and Charles Van Siclen III. "A Chronology of the New Kingdom." In Studies in Honor of George R. Hughes: January 12, 1977, 217-61. Chicago: The Oriental Institute, 1976. Yurco, Frank Joseph. “Was Amenmesse the Viceroy of Kush, Messuwy?,” JARCE 34 (1997): 49-56. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Amenmesse. KV-10 at The Theban Mapping Project Amenmesse the Real Moses v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amenmesse&oldid=991900929" Categories: 13th-century BC births 1199 BC deaths 13th-century BC Pharaohs 12th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2020 Commons link from Wikidata AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 2 December 2020, at 11:58 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8008	----	'Apepi - Wikipedia 'Apepi From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about an Egyptian ruler of Lower Egypt. For the better known Hyksos pharaoh, see Apepi. 'Apepi Apepi I, Ip[...] Scarab of "king's son Apepi", who may be 'Apepi Pharaoh Reign unknown duration (uncertain, possibly late 14th dynasty (Ryholt) or late 16th Dynasty (von Beckerath)) Predecessor 'A[...] (Ryholt & von Beckerath) Successor unknown (Ryholt), Hibe (von Beckerath) Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) 'Ap[epi] Ip... 'Apepi was a ruler of some part of Lower Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c. 1650 BC. According to the egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, 'Apepi was the fifty-first ruler of the 14th Dynasty.[1][2] As such he would have ruled from Avaris over the eastern Nile Delta and possibly over the Western Delta as well. Alternatively, Jürgen von Beckerath sees 'Apepi as a member of the late 16th Dynasty and a vassal of the Hyksos rulers of the 15th Dynasty.[3] Attestation[edit] 'Apepi's only secure attestation is the Turin canon, a king list redacted in the Ramesside period. 'Apepi is listed on a fragment of the document corresponding to column 10, row 15 (column 9 row 16 as per Alan H. Gardiner's reconstruction of the Turin canon).[2] The chronological position of 'Apepi cannot be ascertained beyond doubt due to the fragile and fragmentary state of the canon.[2] Furthermore, the document preserves only the beginning of 'Apepi's prenomen as "'Ap[...]". which, Ryholt argues, may be restored to "'Apepi".[1] King's son Apophis[edit] Ryholt's reconstruction of the name of 'Apepi is significant because five scarab seals inscribed with "King's son Apophis" are known.[4][5] On two of these seals the inscription is furthermore enclosed in a cartouche and followed by di-ˁnḫ meaning "given life". These two attributes are normally reserved to kings or designated heirs to the throne and 'Apepi could be the Apophis referred to on the seals.[2] Tentatively confirming this attribution, Ryholt notes that both scarabs can be dated on stylistic grounds to the 14th Dynasty, between the reigns of Sheshi and Yaqub-Har.[1] References[edit] ^ a b c K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here. ^ a b c d Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 57 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz : P. von Zabern, 1999, ISBN 3-8053-2591-6 ^ Cecil Mallaby Firth: The archaeological survey of Nubia: report for 1908-1909, 27, 59, pl. 42 [44] ^ Frederick George Hilton Price: A catalogue of the Egyptian antiquities in the possession of F.G. Hilton Price, London 1897, available online see No 171 p. 25 v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%27Apepi&oldid=993420102" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Italiano ქართული Magyar ไทย Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 10 December 2020, at 14:54 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-800	----	Immortals (Achaemenid Empire) - Wikipedia Immortals (Achaemenid Empire) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Elite force of soldiers who fought for the Achaemenid Empire Depiction of the "Susian guards" from the Palace of Darius I in Susa. Their garments match the description of the Immortals by ancient authors.[1] The Immortals (Ancient Greek: Ἀθάνατοι, romanized: Athánatoi) also known as the Persian Immortals was the name given by Herodotus to an elite heavily-armed infantry unit of 10,000 soldiers in the army of the Achaemenid Empire. This force performed the dual roles of both Imperial Guard and standing army. The force consisted mainly of Persians, but also included Medes and Elamites. Essential questions regarding the unit remain unanswered, because authoritative sources are missing.[2] Contents 1 Herodotus 2 History 3 Equipment 4 Legacy 4.1 Sassanid Empire 4.2 Byzantine Empire 4.3 French Empire 4.4 Imperial State of Iran 5 In popular culture 6 See also 7 References 8 Sources 9 External links Herodotus[edit] Modern reconstruction of the Immortals in their ceremonial dress at the 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire. Herodotus describes the 'Immortals' as being heavy infantry, led by Hydarnes; it provided the professional corps of the Persian armies and was kept constantly at a strength of exactly 10,000 men. He stated that the unit's name stemmed from the custom that every killed, seriously wounded, or sick member was immediately replaced with a new one, maintaining the corps as a cohesive entity with a constant strength.[3] The Persian denomination of the unit is uncertain.[4] This elite corps is only called the 'Immortals' in sources based on Herodotus. There is evidence of the existence of a permanent corps from Persian sources, which provided a backbone for the tribal levies who made up the bulk of the Achaemenid armies.[citation needed] These do not however record the name of "Immortals". It is suggested that Herodotus' informant has confused the word anûšiya- ("companion") with anauša- ("immortal"),[3] but this theory has been criticized by Rudiger Schmidt.[2] History[edit] See also: Battle of Thymbra The Immortals played an important role in Cambyses II's conquest of Egypt in 525 BC and Darius I's invasion of ancient India's smaller western frontier kingdoms (western Punjab and Sindh, now in Pakistan) and Scythia in 520 BC and 513 BC. Immortals participated in the Battle of Thermopylae 480 BC and were amongst the Persian occupation troops in Greece in 479 BC under Mardonius.[3] During the final decades of the Achaemenid empire, the role expected of the hazarapatish (commanding officer) of the Immortals was extended to include that of chief minister to the king.[5] The provision of a bodyguard, in direct attendance on the monarch, had already been allocated to a select thousand strong detachment of the corps.[5] Equipment[edit] Median (left) and Persian (right) warriors in their ceremonial dress, carvings at Persepolis. Some scholars speculate that they represent the Immortals. Xenophon (Cyropaedia 6.4.1; 7.1.2) describes the guard of Cyrus the Great as having bronze breastplates and helmets, while their horses wore bronze chamfrons and peitrels together with shoulder pieces which also protected the rider’s thighs. Herodotus, instead, describes their armament as follows: wicker shields covered in leather, short spears, quivers, swords or large daggers, slings, bow and arrow. Underneath their robes they wore scale armour coats. The spear counterbalances of the common soldiery were of silver; to differentiate commanding ranks, the officers' spear butt-spikes were golden.[3] The regiment was followed by a caravan of covered carriages, camels, and mules that transported their supplies, along with concubines and attendants to serve them; this supply train carried special food that was reserved only for their consumption.[6][7] The headdress worn by the Immortals is believed to have been the Persian tiara. Its actual form is uncertain, but some sources describe it as a cloth or felt cap which could be pulled over the face to keep out wind and dust in the arid Persian plains.[3] Surviving Achaemenid colored glazed bricks and carved reliefs represent the Immortals as wearing elaborate robes, hoop earrings and gold jewelry, though these garments and accessories were most likely worn only for ceremonial occasions.[8] Legacy[edit] Sassanid Empire[edit] Main article: Immortals (Sasanian Empire) The first reoccurrence of the word "Immortals" is in Roman historians' description of an elite cavalry unit of the army of the Sasanian Empire. Primary sources suggest that they were numbered 10,000 men, with the difference that they were heavy cavalry. However, recent scholarship has doubted that the Roman description of the force, including their name, their size, and that they were modeled on the Achaemenid Immortals, although there may have been one or more of such distinct elite cavalry units in the Sasanian period. Their task was mainly to secure any breakthroughs and to enter battles at crucial stages.[9] Byzantine Empire[edit] Main article: Immortals (Byzantine Empire) The designation "Immortal" to describe a military unit was used twice during the Byzantine Empire, first as elite heavy cavalry under John I Tzimiskes (r. 969–976) and then later by Nikephoritzes, the chief minister of Emperor Michael VII (r. 1071–1081), as the core of a new central field army, following the disastrous defeat of Manzikert by the Seljuk Turks in 1071. French Empire[edit] Main article: Imperial Guard (Napoleon I) Many centuries later, during the Napoleonic Wars, French soldiers referred to Napoleon's Imperial Guard as "the Immortals".[10] Imperial State of Iran[edit] Main article: Imperial Guard (Iran) The Iranian Army under the last Shahanshah included an all volunteer Javidan Guard, also known as the "Immortals" after the ancient Persian royal guard. The "Immortals" were based in the Lavizan Barracks in Tehran. By 1978 this elite force comprised a brigade of 4,000–5,000 men, including a battalion of Chieftain tanks. Following the Iranian Revolution of 1979 the "Immortals" were disbanded.[11] The signature shield of the Achaemenid Immortals has been adopted in the insignia of the 65th Airborne Special Forces Brigade and 55th Airborne Brigade of the modern Iranian Army. In popular culture[edit] Herodotus' account of two warrior elites - the Spartan hoplites and the Immortals - facing each other in battle has inspired a set of rather colorful depictions of the battle, especially in regard of the Immortals: In the 1962 film The 300 Spartans the Immortals carry a spear and wicker shields like the actual Immortals. However, they are mostly dressed in black and other dark colors, as opposed to historical depictions.[11] Frank Miller's 1998 comic book 300, and the 2006 feature film adapted from it, present a heavily fictionalized version of the Immortals at the Battle of Thermopylae. These Immortals wear Mengu-style metal masks, appear to be inhuman or disfigured, and carry a pair of swords closely resembling Japanese wakizashis.[11] The History Channel documentary Last Stand of the 300 also features the Immortals as part of the reconstruction of the Thermopylae battle. In this version, the tiara the Immortals habitually wear is depicted here as a full-face black cloth mask transparent enough to see through.[11] See also[edit] War portal Asia portal References[edit] ^ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/persepolis ^ a b Encyclopaedia Iranica. ^ a b c d e Lendering 1997. ^ Charles, Michael (1 January 2011). "The Sassanian immortals". Iranica Antiqua: 289–313. doi:10.2143/IA.46.0.2084423. ^ a b Hicks 1975, p. 61. ^ John Manuel Cook (1983). The Persian Empire. Schocken Books. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-8052-3846-4. ^ Kaveh Farrokh (24 April 2007). Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War. Bloomsbury USA. pp. 76–. ISBN 978-1-84603-108-3. ^ Volume IX, Encyclopædia Britannica, Fifteenth Edition 1983 ^ Charles, Michael (1 January 2011). "The Sassanian immortals". Iranica Antiqua: 289–313. doi:10.2143/IA.46.0.2084423. ^ Georges Blond, La Grande Armée, trans. Marshall May (New York: Arms and Armor, 1997), 48, 103, 470 ^ a b c d Rastani, Nabil (27 October 2010). "The Guards of the Shahanshah, How to fight, carry weapons, ride horses and learn archery". Sources[edit] Hicks, Jim (1975). The Persians. Time-Life Books.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Lendering, John (1997). ""Immortals"". Livius.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)[better source needed] Schmitt, Rüdiger (2004). "Immortals". Encyclopaedia Iranica. External links[edit] Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immortals_(Achaemenid_Empire)&oldid=989613181" Categories: Military units and formations of the Achaemenid Empire Obsolete occupations Royal guards Battle of Thermopylae Combat occupations Infantry units and formations Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2020 CS1 maint: ref=harv All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from March 2017 AC with 0 elements Use dmy dates from July 2020 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Cebuano Čeština Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Jawa Kurdî Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi ไทย Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 20 November 2020, at 00:44 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8014	----	File:Darius In Parse.JPG - Wikipedia File:Darius In Parse.JPG From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this preview: 341 × 598 pixels. Other resolutions: 137 × 240 pixels | 273 × 480 pixels | 342 × 600 pixels | 437 × 768 pixels | 583 × 1,024 pixels | 1,787 × 3,136 pixels. Original file ‎(1,787 × 3,136 pixels, file size: 4.24 MB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary DescriptionDarius In Parse.JPG English: Relief of Darius in Persepolis فارسی: داریوش در نگارهٔ بارعام تخت جمشید Date 19 March 2008 Source Own work Author درفش کاویانی This is a featured picture on Wikimedia Commons (Featured pictures) and is considered one of the finest images. 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en-wikipedia-org-8018	----	Amenhotep I - Wikipedia Amenhotep I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Amenhotep I Amenophis I One of the few surviving three-dimensional representations of Amenhotep I contemporary to his reign, now in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Pharaoh Reign 1525–1504 BC (disputed), 20 years and 7 months in Manetho[1] (18th Dynasty) Predecessor Ahmose I Successor Thutmose I Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Djeserkare Ḏsr-k3-Rˁ Holy is the Ka of Ra[2] Nomen Amenhotep Jmn ḥtp Amun is satisfied Horus name Kanaftau K3-wˁf-t3w Bull who subdues the lands Nebty name Aaneru ˁ3-nrw He who inspires great fear Golden Horus Wahrenput wȝḥ-rnpwt Enduring of years Consort Ahmose-Meritamun, Sitkamose? Children Amenemhat (died young), possibly Ahmose Father Ahmose I Mother Ahmose-Nefertari Died 1506 or 1504 BC Burial Mummy found in Deir el-Bahri cache, but was likely originally buried in Dra' Abu el-Naga' or KV39 Amenhotep I (/ˌæmɛnˈhoʊtɛp/[3]) (Ancient Egyptian: jmn-ḥtp(w) /jaˌmanuwˈħatpaw/ "Amun is satisfied"; Amarna cuneiform a-ma-an-ha-at-pe or -at-pa), Amenôthes I,[4] or Amenophis I, (/əˈmɛnoʊfɪs/,[5]) from Ancient Greek Ἀμένωφις ,[6] additionally King Zeserkere (transliteration: Ḏsr-k3-R`),[7] was the second Pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty of Egypt. His reign is generally dated from 1526 to 1506 BC. He was a son of Ahmose I and Ahmose-Nefertari, but had at least two elder brothers, Ahmose-ankh and Ahmose Sapair, and was not expected to inherit the throne. However, sometime in the eight years between Ahmose I's 17th regnal year and his death, his heir apparent died and Amenhotep became crown prince.[6] He then acceded to the throne and ruled for about 21 years.[1] Although his reign is poorly documented, it is possible to piece together a basic history from available evidence. He inherited the kingdom formed by his father's military conquests and maintained dominance over Nubia and the Nile Delta but probably did not attempt to maintain Egyptian power in the Levant. He continued the rebuilding of temples in Upper Egypt and revolutionized mortuary complex design by separating his tomb from his mortuary temple, setting a trend in royal funerary monuments which would persist throughout the New Kingdom. After his death, he was deified as a patron god of Deir el-Medina.[8] Contents 1 Family 2 Dates and length of reign 3 Foreign policy 4 Cultural and intellectual developments 5 Building projects 5.1 Mortuary complex 6 Burial, succession, and legacy 6.1 Burial 6.2 Succession 6.3 Legacy: Funerary cult 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 9.1 Print sources 10 External links Family[edit] See also: Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Amenhotep I was the son of Ahmose I and Ahmose-Nefertari. His elder brothers, the crown prince Ahmose Sapair and Ahmose-ankh, died before him, thus clearing the way for his ascension to the throne.[9] Amenhotep probably came to power while he was still young himself, and his mother, Ahmose-Nefertari, appears to have been regent for him for at least a short time.[10] The evidence for this regency is that both he and his mother are credited with founding a settlement for workers in the Theban Necropolis at Deir el-Medina.[10] Amenhotep took his older sister, Ahmose-Meritamon, as his Great Royal Wife.[11] Another wife's name, Sitkamose, is attested on a nineteenth dynasty stele.[12] Beyond this, the relationships between Amenhotep I and other possible family members are unclear. Ahhotep II is usually called his wife and sister,[11] despite an alternative theory that she was his grandmother.[12] He is thought to have had one son by Ahhotep II, Amenemhat, who died while still very young.[11] This remains the consensus, although there are arguments against that relationship as well.[12] With no living heirs, Amenhotep was succeeded by Thutmose I, who he married to his "sister", Aahmes.[11] Since Aahmes is never given the title "King's Daughter" in any inscription, some scholars doubt whether she was a sibling of Amenhotep I.[12] Dates and length of reign[edit] Osiride statue of Amenhotep I, currently housed in the British Museum. In Amenhotep I's ninth regnal year, a heliacal rise of Sothis was observed on the ninth day of the third month of summer.[13] Modern astronomers have calculated that, if the observation was made from Memphis or Heliopolis, such an observation could only have been made on that day in 1537 BC. If the observation was made in Thebes, however, it could only have taken place in 1517 BC.[14] The latter choice is usually accepted as correct since Thebes was the capital during the early 18th dynasty: hence, Amenhotep I is usually given an accession date in 1526 BC,[13] although the possibility of 1546 BC is not entirely dismissed. Manetho's Epitome states that Amenhotep I ruled Egypt for twenty years and seven months or twenty-one years, depending on the source.[15] While Amenhotep I's highest attested regnal year is only his Year 10, Manetho's statement is confirmed by a passage in the tomb autobiography of a magician named Amenemhet. This explicitly states that he served under Amenhotep I for 21 years.[16] Thus, in the high chronology, Amenhotep I is given a reign from around 1546 to 1526 BC and, in the low chronology, from around 1526 to 1506 BC or 1525 to 1504 BC,[17] though individual scholars may ascribe dates to his reign that vary from these by a few years. Foreign policy[edit] Relief of Amenhotep I from Karnak. Amenhotep I's Horus and Two Ladies names, "Bull who conquers the lands" and "He who inspires great terror," are generally interpreted to mean that Amenhotep I intended to dominate the surrounding nations.[13] Two tomb texts indicate that he led campaigns into Nubia. According to the tomb texts of Ahmose, son of Ebana, Amenhotep later sought to expand Egypt's border southward into Nubia and he led an invasion force which defeated the Nubian army.[18] The tomb biography of Ahmose Pen-Nekhebet says he also fought in a campaign in Kush,[19] however it is quite possible that it refers to the same campaign as Ahmose, son of Ebana.[13] Amenhotep built a temple at Saï, showing that he had established Egyptian settlements almost as far as the Third Cataract.[10] A single reference in the tomb of Ahmose Pen-Nekhebet indicates another campaign in Iamu in the land of Kehek.[20] Unfortunately, the location of Kehek is unknown. It was long believed that Kehek was a reference to the Libyan tribe, Qeheq, and thus it was postulated that invaders from Libya took advantage of the death of Ahmose to move into the western Nile Delta.[21] Unfortunately for this theory, the Qeheq people only appeared in later times, and Kehek's identity remains unknown. Nubia is a possibility, since Amenhotep did campaign there, and the western desert and the oases have also been suggested, since these seem to have fallen under Egyptian control once again.[20] Egypt had lost the western desert and the oases during the second intermediate period, and during the revolt against the Hyksos, Kamose thought it necessary to garrison them.[22] It is uncertain when they were fully retaken, but on one stele, the title "Prince-Governor of the oases" was used,[23] which means that Amenhotep's reign forms the terminus ante quem for the return of Egyptian rule.[22] There are no recorded campaigns in Syro-Palestine during Amenhotep I's reign. However, according to the Tombos Stela of his successor, Thutmose I, when Thutmose led a campaign into Asia all the way to the Euphrates, he found no one who fought against him.[24] If Thutmose did not lead a campaign which has not been recorded into Asia before this recorded one, it would mean that the preceding pharaoh would have had to pacify Syria instead,[25] which would indicate a possible Asiatic campaign of Amenhotep I. Two references to the Levant potentially written during his reign might be contemporary witnesses to such a campaign. One of the candidates for Amenhotep's tomb contains a reference to Qedmi, which is somewhere in Canaan or the Transjordan, and Amenemhet's tomb contains a hostile reference to Mitanni.[26] However, neither of these references necessarily refer to campaigning, nor do they even necessarily date to Amenhotep's reign. The location of Amenhotep's tomb is not certain, and Amenemhet lived to serve under multiple kings who are known to have attacked Mitanni.[26] Records from Amenhotep's reign are simply altogether too scant and too vague to reach a conclusion about any Syrian campaign. Cultural and intellectual developments[edit] Stele showing Amenhotep I with his mother, Ahmose-Nefertari Large numbers of statues of Amenhotep have been found, but they are mostly from the Ramesside period and relate to his continuing funerary cult,[12] made for his posthumous funerary cult.[23] This makes study of the art of his reign difficult.[23] Based upon his few authentic statues, it appears that Amenhotep continued the practice of copying Middle Kingdom styles.[27] Art in the early 18th dynasty was particularly similar to that of the early Middle Kingdom,[28] and the statues produced by Amenhotep I clearly copied those of Mentuhotep II and Senusret I.[29] The two types are so similar that modern Egyptologists have had trouble telling the two apart.[27] It was probably Amenhotep I who founded the artisans village at Deir el-Medina, whose inhabitants were responsible for much of the art which filled the tombs in the Theban Necropolis for the following generations of New Kingdom rulers and nobles.[12] The earliest name found there is that of Thutmose I, however Amenhotep was clearly an important figure to the city's workmen since he and his mother were both its patron deities.[30] Amenhotep's reign saw literary developments. The Book of What is in the Underworld ('the Egyptian Book of the Dead'), an important funerary text used in the New Kingdom, is believed to have reached its final form during Amenhotep's reign, since it first appears in the decoration of the tomb of his successor Thutmose I.[31] The Ebers papyrus, which is the main source for information on ancient Egyptian medicine, also seems to date to this time (the mention of the Heliacal rise of Sothis by which the early New Kingdom chronology is usually calculated was found on the back of this document).[31] It appears that during Amenhotep I's reign the first water clock was invented.[32] Amenhotep's court astronomer Amenemheb took credit for creating this device in his tomb biography, although the oldest surviving mechanism dates to the reign of Amenhotep III.[33] This invention was of great benefit for timekeeping, because the Egyptian hour was not a fixed amount of time, but was measured as 1/12 of the night.[33] When the nights were shorter in the summer, these waterclocks could be adjusted to measure the shorter hours accurately.[33] Building projects[edit] Amenhotep I's reconstructed alabaster chapel at Karnak Amenhotep began or continued a number of building projects at temple sites in Upper Egypt but most of the structures he built were later dismantled or obliterated by his successors. From written sources it is known that he commissioned the architect Ineni to expand the Temple of Karnak.[34] Ineni's tomb biography indicates that he created a 20-cubit gate of limestone on the south side of Karnak.[35] He constructed a sacred barque chapel of Amun out of alabaster and a copy of the White Chapel of Senusret III. Sculpted material from these structures has been recovered from the fill of Amenhotep III's third pylon allowing some of these structures to be rebuilt at Karnak.[23] Amenhotep also built structures at Karnak for his Sed festival, a festival by which a pharaoh's strength and vigour was renewed after reigning 30 years, but it seems likely that he died before he could use them.[citation needed] A temple was constructed in Nubia at Saï,[10] and he built temple structures in Upper Egypt at Elephantine, Kom Ombo, Abydos, and the Temple of Nekhbet. As far as is known Amenhotep did not build anything of significance in Lower Egypt, like his father.[31] Mortuary complex[edit] Amenhotep I was the first king of Egypt to separate his mortuary temple from his tomb, probably in an attempt to keep his tomb safe from robbers. This temple was sited at the north end of Deir el-Bahri.[36] Deir el-Bahri appears to have had some sort of funerary significance for Amenhotep, since Theban Tomb 358, the tomb of his queen Ahmose-Meritamon, was also found nearby.[37] Amenhotep's mortuary temple was largely demolished to make way for the lower terrace of the mortuary temple constructed approximately 50 years later by Queen Hatshepsut,[38] and only a few bricks inscribed with Amenhotep's name remain.[36] The royal statues inside of the temple were moved to the nearby funerary temple of Mentuhotep II.[37] The original location of Amenhotep's tomb has not been securely identified. A report on the security of royal tombs in the Theban Necropolis commissioned during the troubled reign of Ramesses IX noted that it was then intact, but its location was not specified.[10] Two sites for Amenhotep I's tomb have been proposed, one high up in the Valley of the Kings, KV39 and the other at Dra' Abu el-Naga', Tomb ANB.[13] Excavations at KV 39 suggest it was used or reused to store the Deir el-Bahri Cache, which included the king's well-preserved mummy, before its final reburial.[citation needed] However, Tomb ANB is considered the more likely possibility,[10][31] because it contains objects bearing his name and the names of some family members.[39] Burial, succession, and legacy[edit] The mummy of Amenhotep I Burial[edit] Sometime during the 20th or 21st Dynasty, Amenhotep's original tomb was either robbed or deemed insecure and emptied and his body was moved for safety, probably more than once. It was found in the Deir el-Bahri Cache, hidden with the mummies of numerous New Kingdom kings and nobles in or after the late 22nd dynasty above the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut[10] and is now in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. His mummy had apparently not been looted by the 21st dynasty, and the priests who moved the mummy took care to keep the cartonnage intact. Because of that exquisite face mask, Amenhotep's is the only royal mummy which has not been unwrapped and examined by modern Egyptologists.[10] Succession[edit] Amenhotep I is thought to have had only one child, a son who died in infancy, although some sources indicate he had no children.[40] Amenhotep I was succeeded by Thutmose I, apparently a senior military figure. It is unclear if there was any blood relationship between the two, although it has been suggested that Thutmose I was a son of Amenhotep's elder brother Ahmose Sipairi.[41] Amenhotep may have appointed Thutmose I as coregent before his own death as Thutmose I's name appears next to Amenhotep's on a divine barque found by archeologists in the fill of the third pylon at Karnak.[23] However, most scholars consider that this is only evidence of Thutmose associating himself with his royal predecessor.[12] One text has also been interpreted to mean that Amenhotep appointed his infant son as coregent, who then predeceased him.[42] However, the scholarly consensus is that there is too little evidence for either coregency. Legacy: Funerary cult[edit] An image of Amenhotep I from his funerary cult Amenhotep was deified upon his death and made the patron deity of the village which he opened at Deir el-Medina.[12] His mother, who lived at least one year longer than he did, was also deified upon her death and became part of his litany.[9] As previously mentioned, the vast majority of Amenhotep's statuary comes in the form of a funerary idol from this cult during later periods. When being worshiped, he had three deific manifestations: "Amenhotep of the Town," "Amenhotep Beloved of Amun," and "Amenhotep of the Forecourt," and was known as a god who produced oracles.[12] Some of the questions asked of him have been preserved on ostraca from Deir el-Medina, and appear to have been phrased in such a way that the idol of the king could nod (or be caused to nod) the answer.[43] He also had a number of feasts dedicated to him which were held throughout the year.[12] During the first month, a festival was celebrated in honor of the appearance of Amenhotep to the necropolis workmen, which probably means his idol was taken to Deir el-Medina.[44] Another feast was held on the thirtieth of the fourth month, and then two more were held in the seventh month.[44] The first was the "spreading of the funeral couch for king Amenhotep," which probably commemorated the day of his death.[44] The second, celebrated for four days at the very end of the month, was the "great festival of king Amenhotep lord of the town." Later in Egyptian history, the seventh month, "Phamenoth", was named after this festival.[44] Another festival was held on the 27th of the ninth month, and the last known festival was held for several days between at least the eleventh and thirteenth days of the eleventh month, which in all probability commemorated the date of Amenhotep's accession to the throne.[44] Further light is shed upon Amenhotep's funerary cult by multiple documents which appear to detail the rituals dedicated to Amenhotep.[45] Three papyri from the time of Ramesses II record the liturgy used by the priests, and reliefs at Karnak and Medinet Habu illustrate select rites and spells.[45] The bulk of the rituals concern preparing for and conducting the daily offerings of libations for the idol, including a recitation of a ḥtp-dỉ-nsw formula, and purifying and sealing the shrine at the end of the day.[46] The remainder of the rites concern how to conduct various feasts throughout the year.[47] In these cases, Amenhotep's idol or a priest representing him is actually officiating the worship of Amun instead of being worshipped himself, which was not a typical cultic practice in ancient Egypt.[48] See also[edit] List of pharaohs Notes[edit] ^ a b Manetho - translated by W.G. Waddell, Loeb Classical Library, 1940, p.109 ^ Clayton, p.100. ^ "Amenhotep III or Amenhotpe III". Collins Dictionary. n.d. Retrieved 24 September 2014. ^ Maspero, Gaston (2017). Egypt: Ancient Sites and Modern Scenes. Jazzybee Verlag. p. 8. ISBN 978-3-8496-5019-3. ^ "Amenophis III". Collins Dictionary. n.d. Retrieved 24 September 2014. ^ a b Dodson & Hilton (2004) p.126 ^ Ahmose, son of Ebana, James Henry Breasted (2001), - Biography of Ahmose, son of Ebana (Ancient Records of Egypt: The eighteenth dynasty), University of Illinois Press, ISBN 0252069749. Retrieved 2017-02-14 ^ "Amenhotep I". British Museum. Retrieved 2007-05-20.[permanent dead link] ^ a b Grimal, p. 201. ^ a b c d e f g h Shaw and Nicholson, p. 28. ^ a b c d Grimal, p. 190. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Bleiberg, p.71. ^ a b c d e Grimal, p.202. ^ Helk, Otto, Drenkhahn, p.969. ^ Fingerson, Manetho's King List. ^ Redford, p.114. ^ von Beckerath, p.189. ^ Breasted, p. 17-18. ^ Breasted, p. 18. ^ a b James, p. 310. ^ Steindorff, Seele, p.33. ^ a b James, p. 311. ^ a b c d e Grimal, p.203. ^ Breasted, p. 30. ^ Breasted, p. 28. ^ a b James, p. 309. ^ a b Freed, p.133. ^ Aldred, p.146. ^ Ashton, Spanel, p.58. ^ Bryan, p.224. ^ a b c d Grimal, p. 206. ^ Helk, pp. 111-112. ^ a b c West, p.63. ^ Breasted, p. 19. ^ Breasted, p. 20. ^ a b Bryan, p.226. ^ a b Dodson, p.42. ^ Dodson, p.43. ^ Shaw, p. 136. ^ Dodson p 127 ^ Dodson p 129 ^ Wente, p. 271 ^ Kruchten, p.610. ^ a b c d e Redford, p.115. ^ a b Nelson, Certain Reliefs. p.204. ^ Nelson, Certain Reliefs. p.230. ^ Nelson, Certain Reliefs. p.232. ^ Nelson, Certain Reliefs (Concluded). p.344. References[edit] Print sources[edit] Aldred, Cyril. Egyptian Art. Thames and Hudson Ltd., London. 1980. Ashton, Sally; and Spanel, Donald. "Portraiture," The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Ed. Donald Redford. Vol. 3, pp. 55–59. Oxford University Press, 2001. v. Beckerath, Jürgen. Chronologie des Pharaonischen Ägypten. Verlag Philipp von Zabern, 1997. Bleiberg, Edward. "Amenhotep I," The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Ed. Donald Redford. Vol. 1, p. 71. Oxford University Press, 2001. Borchardt, Ludwig. Altägyptische Zeitmessung (Die Geschichte der Zeitmessung und der Uhren) I. Berlin and Leipzig, 1920. Breasted, James Henry. Ancient Records of Egypt, Vol. II University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1906. ISBN 90-04-12989-8. University of Illinois Press, 2001 (p.17) Bryan, Betsy M. "The 18th Dynasty Before the Amarna Period." The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Ed. Ian Shaw. pp. 218–271. Oxford University Press, 2000. Clayton, Peter. Chronicle of the Pharaohs. Thames and Hudson Ltd, 2006. Dodson, Aidan. Amenhotep I and Deir el-Bahri. Journal of the Ancient Chronology Forum, vol.3, 1989/90 Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson, London, 2004 reviewed by A.J.Veldmeijer - Netherlands Scientific Journals in Palaeontology & Egyptology > palarch.nl Freed, Rita E. "Art," The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Ed. Donald Redford. Vol. 1, pp. 127–136. Oxford University Press, 2001. Grimal, Nicolas. A History of Ancient Egypt. Librairie Arthéme Fayard, 1988. ISBN 90-04-12989-8. Helck, Wolfgang. Historisch-biographische Texte der 2. Zwischenzeit und neue Texte der 18. Dynastie. Wiesbaden, 1975. Helck, Wolfgang; Otto, Eberhard; Drenkhahn, Rosmarie. Lexikon der Ägyptologie I. Wiesbaden. James, T.G.H. Egypt: From the Expulsion of the Hyksos to Amenophis I. in The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 2, part 1, ed. Edwards, I.E.S, et al. Cambridge University Press, 1965. Kruchten, Jean Marie. "Oracles," The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Ed. Donald Redford. Vol. 2, pp. 609–612. Oxford University Press, 2001. Lilyquist, Christine. Egyptian Art, Notable Acquisitions, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1980. Nelson, Harold H. Certain Reliefs at Karnak and Medinet Habu and the Ritual of Amenophis I. Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 8, No. 3 (Jul., 1949) Nelson, Harold H. Certain Reliefs at Karnak and Medinet Habu and the Ritual of Amenophis I-(Concluded). Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 8, No. 4 (Oct., 1949) Redford, Donald The Chronology of the Eighteenth Dynasty, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 25 (1966). Shaw, Ian. Exploring Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press, 2003. Shaw, Ian; and Nicholson, Paul. The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt. The British Museum Press, 1995. Steindorff, George; and Seele, Keith. When Egypt Ruled the East. University of Chicago, 1942. Wente, Edward F. Thutmose III's Accession and the Beginning of the New Kingdom. Journal of Near Eastern Studies, University of Chicago Press, 1975. West, Stephanie. Cultural Interchange over a Water-Clock. The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 23, No. 1, May, 1973. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Amenhotep I. Amenhotep I - The British Museum Accessed June 10, 2010 Andrews, Mark. "KV 39, The Tomb of Amenhotep I?". InterCity Oz, Inc. Archived from the original on 8 June 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-01. Fingerson, R. Manetho's King List Hatshepsut: from Queen to Pharaoh, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Amenhotep I (see index) Routledge, B. (10 September 2007) - Statue of Amenhotep I circa 1510 BC Thebes, National Education Network, Accessed February 14, 2017 Peacock, L. - Amenhotep I temple at Deir el-Medina Accessed January 6, 2021 v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 118648780 LCCN: n79028837 NTA: 070973792 SUDOC: 149597843 VIAF: 289792189 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79028837 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amenhotep_I&oldid=999594078" Categories: Amenhotep I 1500s BC deaths 16th-century BC Pharaohs Ancient Egyptian mummies Pharaohs of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ancient child rulers Egyptian Museum Children of Ahmose I Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from 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en-wikipedia-org-8019	----	Neferkare Neby - Wikipedia Neferkare Neby From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Neferkare Neby Neferkare III The cartouche of Neferkare Neby on the Abydos King List. Pharaoh Reign Unknown (Eighth Dynasty?) Predecessor Neferkare II? Successor Djedkare Shemai? Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Neferkare Nfr-k3-rˁ Perfect is the Ka of Ra Nomen Neferkare Neby Nfr-k3-rˁ nbjj Perfect is the Ka of Ra, the protector Father Pepi II Neferkare or Merenre Nemtyemsaf I? Mother Ankhesenpepi II? Burial Pyramid "Neferkare Neby is Enduring of Life", presumably at Saqqara Neferkare Neby (also Neferkare III) was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the Eighth Dynasty during the early First Intermediate Period (2181–2055 BC).[1] According to Egyptologists Jürgen von Beckerath and Darrell Baker, he was the fourth king of the Seventh dynasty, as he appears as the fourth king in the Abydos King List within the list of kings assigned to this dynasty.[2][1] Neferkare Neby's name is clearly readable on the Abydos King List (number 43), and unlike most kings of this period, is attested by a further two contemporary sources. Indeed, Neferkare Neby's name appears on the false door at Ankhesenpepi II's tomb, and is also inscribed on her sarcophagus. These attestations show that Neferkare Neby's mother was apparently Queen Ankhesenpepi II, which would presumably make his father Merenre Nemtyemsaf I.[1] The stele of Ankhesenpepi II records that Neferkare Neby begun the construction of a pyramid, possibly at Saqqara and named him as Ḏd-ˁnḫ Nfr-k3-rˁ nbjj, that is Djedankh Neferkare Neby and which means “Neferkare Neby is Enduring of Life”.[2] The location of the pyramid is unknown and it most probably never significantly entered the building stage.[1] Like many kings of the Eighth Dynasty, Neferkare Neby is absent from the Turin canon as a large lacuna affects the location where his name would have been listed.[3] See also[edit] List of pharaohs Wikimedia Commons has media related to Neferkare Neby. References[edit] ^ a b c d Darrell D. Baker, The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I – Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300-1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 267-268. ^ a b Jürgen von Beckerath, Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen (Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 20), 1984. ^ Kim Ryholt, “The Late Old Kingdom in the Turin King-list and the Identity of Nitocris”, Zeitschrift for ägyptische Sprache 127, 2000, p. 99. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neferkare_Neby&oldid=999879950" Categories: 22nd-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Eighth Dynasty of Egypt 22nd-century BC rulers 22nd century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Português Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 12 January 2021, at 12:02 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8024	----	Amenemhet VI - Wikipedia Amenemhet VI From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search See Amenemhat, for other individuals with this name. Amenemhat VI Ameny Antef Amenemhat Drawing of the offering table CG 23040, bearing Amenemhat VI's cartouches[1] Pharaoh Reign 1788–1785 BC,[2] c. 1740 BC[3] (Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt) Predecessor Iufni Successor Semenkare Nebnuni (Ryholt, Franke) Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Seankhibre (Sˁ-ˁnḫ-jb-Rˁ) He who causes the heart of Ra to live Nomen (Ameni Antef) Amenemhat (Jmnj Jn-(j)t=f-Jmn-m-ḥ3t) Ameny is his father, Amun is in front Horus name Seherutawy (S.hrw-t3.w(j)) He who satisfies the two lands Nebty name Sekhemkhau (Sḫm-ḫˁw) He whose apparitions are powerful Golden Horus Heqamaat (ḥq3-m3ˁt) He who rules with Maat Children uncertain, conjectural: Renseneb Father uncertain, possibly Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Seankhibre Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI was an Egyptian pharaoh of the early Thirteenth Dynasty ruling in the first half of the 18th century BC[2] during a time referred to as the late Middle Kingdom or early Second Intermediate Period, depending on the scholar. Amenemhat VI certainly enjoyed a short reign, estimated at 3 years or shorter. He is attested by a few contemporary artefacts and is listed on two different king lists. He may belong to a larger family of pharaohs including Amenemhat V, Ameny Qemau, Hotepibre Qemau Siharnedjheritef and Iufni. Contents 1 Attestations 2 Chronology 3 Extent of rule 4 Family 5 See also 6 References Attestations[edit] Historical Amenemhat VI is listed on the Turin canon, a king list redacted in the early Ramesside period and which serves as the primary historical source regarding the Second Intermediate Period. In the latest reading of the canon by the Danish Egyptologist Kim Ryholt, Amenemhat VI appears in the 7th column, 10th row under his prenomen Seankhibre.[2][4] This corresponds to the 6th column, 10th row in Alan Gardiner's and Jürgen von Beckerath's reading of the Turin king list.[5][6] Amenemhat VI is also mentioned on the Karnak king list, entry 37.[7] Archeological Amenemhat VI is attested by a few contemporary artefacts. These include 2 cylinder seals from el-Mahamid el-Qibli in Upper Egypt,[8] one of which is dedicated to "Sobek Lord of Sumenu".[2][9][10] An offering table bearing Amenemhat VI's cartouche has been discovered in Karnak and is now in the Egyptian Museum, CG 23040.[1][11] A stele from Abydos mentions an official, Seankhibre-Seneb-Senebefeni, whose name is likely a basilophorous one, dedicated to Seankhibre Amenemhat.[12] An architrave from a private tomb of the necropolis of Heliopolis bears the name Seankhibre within a cartouche[4][13] However, recent research indicates that the latter monument may belong to a different king with a similar name, Seankhibtawy Seankhibra. Chronology[edit] Relative chronological position The relative chronological position of Amenemhat VI is secured thanks to the Turin canon. His predecessor was a poorly known pharaoh named Iufni and his successor was an equally obscure king, Semenkare Nebnuni.[2][14] Absolute position and dating The absolute chronological position of Amenemhat VI is less certain owing to uncertainties affecting the earlier kings of the dynasty. According to Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, he was the 8th king of the dynasty, whereas Thomas Schneider, Detlef Franke and von Beckerath see him as the 7th ruler.[6][14] The duration of Amenemhat's reign is lost due to the poor state of preservation of the Turin papyrus and only the number of days is readable as [...] and 23 days. Ryholt nonetheless assigns him a short reign of 3 years spanning 1788–1785 BC.[2] Extent of rule[edit] It is unclear whether or not Amenemhat VI reigned over the whole of Egypt. He likely had control over Lower Nubia, which had been conquered by the 12th Dynasty and would not be abandoned before at least another 60 years. His control over Lower Egypt is debated. Ryholt believes that the Canaanite 14th Dynasty was already in existence at the time, forming an independent realm controlling at least the Eastern Nile Delta.[2] While this analysis is accepted by some scholars—among them, Gae Callender, Janine Bourriau and Darrell Baker,[4][15][16] it is rejected by others including Manfred Bietak, Daphna Ben-Tor and James and Susan Allen who contend that the 14th Dynasty could not have existed before the later king of the 13th Dynasty Sobekhotep IV.[17][18][19] Family[edit] The Egyptologist Kim Ryholt proposes that Amenemhat VI was a member of a larger royal family including pharaohs Sekhemkare Amenemhat V, Ameny Qemau, Hotepibre Qemau Siharnedjheritef and Iufni. He bases this conclusion on the double names borne by these pharaohs, which he believes are filiative nomina, i.e. names referring to one's parents. Hence the Ameny in Ameny Qemau would indicate that he was the son of Amenemhat V, then succeeded by his own son Hotepibre Qemau Siharnedjheritef as shown by the Qemau in his name. Similarly "Ameny Antef Amenemhat (VI)" would be a triple name meaning "Amenemhat, son of Antef, son of Ameny" possibly because his father was a certain "King's son Antef" attested on scarab seals dated on stylistic ground to the 13th Dynasty and who would himself be a son of Amenemhat V. Amenemhat VI's predecessor Iufni would also be part of this family although his precise relation to the other members cannot be settled due to the lack of material dating to his very short reign.[2] Less than 10 years after Amenemhat VI's reign, a king named Renseneb Amenemhat took the throne. Following the same logic, he would be a son of a king Amenemhat who could possibly be Amenemhat VI or one of the intervening kings.[2] Ryholt's analysis is contested by some Egyptologists as it relies on the unproven assumption that double names are necessarily filiative nomina. See also[edit] List of pharaohs References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Amenemhat Seankhibre. ^ a b Ahmed Bey Kamal: Tables d'offrandes, vol. I, Le Caire, 1909, available online see item 23040 p. 31–37 ^ a b c d e f g h i K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here. ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen, Albatros 2002, ISBN 978-3491960534 ^ a b c Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 33–34 ^ Alan Gardiner: The Royal Canon of Turin, Griffith Institute, new edition 1997, ISBN 978-0900416484 ^ a b Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz : Philip von Zabern, 1999, ISBN 3-8053-2591-6, see pp.90–91, king No 7. ^ This corresponds to entry 34 in Ryholt and Baker's numbering of the king list. ^ One of the two cylinder seals is housed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, see online catalog ^ William C. Hayes: The Scepter of Egypt: A Background for the Study of the Egyptian Antiquities in The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Vol. 1, From the Earliest Times to the End of the Middle Kingdom, MET Publications 1978, available online, see p. 342 fig. 226 ^ Jean Yoyotte: Le Soukhos de la Maréotide et d'autres cultes régionaux du Dieu-Crocodile d'après les cylindres du Moyen Empire, Bulletin de l'Institut Français d'Archeologie Orientale (BIFAO) 56, 1957, p. 81–95 available online Archived 2014-10-06 at the Wayback Machine see p. 88 2.cc ^ Auguste Mariette-Bey: Karnak. Étude topographique et archéologique avec un appendice comprenant les principaux textes hiéroglyphiques découverts ou recueillis pendant les fouilles exécutées a Karnak, Leipzig, 1875, available online see p. 45–46 pl. 9–10. ^ Marie-Pierre Foissy-Aufrère (editor): Égypte & Provence. Civilisation, survivances et «cabinetz de curiositez», 1985, 76–78, 80 fig. 41 ^ Detlef Franke: Zur Chronologie des Mittleren Reiches (12.-18. Dynastie) Teil 1 : Die 12. Dynastie, in Orientalia 57 (1988) see p. 267–268 no. 57 ^ a b Thomas Schneider in Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss, and David A. Warburton (editors): Ancient Egyptian Chronology, Handbook of Oriental Studies, available online, see p. 176 for the chronology. ^ Gae Callender: The Middle Kingdom Renaissance (c. 2055–1650 BC) in Ian Shaw (editor): The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press (2004), ISBN 978-0192804587 ^ Janine Bourriau: The Second Intermediate Period (c.1650-1550 BC) in: Ian Shaw (editor): The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, 2000, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-815034-2 ^ Daphna Ben-Tor & James and Susan Allen: Seals and Kings, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research (BASOR) 315, 1999, pp.47-73. ^ Manfred Bietak: Egypt and Canaan During the Middle Bronze Age, BASOR, 281 (1991), pp. 21-72, esp. p. 38, available online ^ Daphna Ben-Tor: Scarabs, Chronology, and Interconnections: Egypt and Palestine in the Second Intermediate Period, Volume 27 of Orbis biblicus et orientalis / Series archaeologica: Series archaeologica, Academic Press Fribourg 2007, ISBN 978-3-7278-1593-5, excerpts available online Preceded by Iufni Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Semenkare Nebnuni v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amenemhet_VI&oldid=993691922" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Català Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Português Русский Slovenščina Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá Edit links This page was last edited on 11 December 2020, at 23:53 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8059	----	Tissaphernes - Wikipedia Tissaphernes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Tissaphernes Portrait of Tissaphernes (445 BC–395 BC), from his coinage. Most of his coins are inscribed ΤΙΣΣΑ ("TISSA") in Greek under his portrait, permitting identification. Native name Čiθrafarnah Born 445 BC Died 395 BC Colossae Allegiance Achaemenid Empire Rank Satrap Battles/wars Battle of Cunaxa Tissaphernes was Satrap of Lydia, including Ionia, under the Achaemenid Empire. Tissaphernes (Ancient Greek: Τισσαφέρνης; Old Persian Čiçafarnah, Aramaic Ššprn, Lycian Kizzaprñna, Zisaprñna[1]) (445 BC – 395 BC) was a Persian soldier and statesman, Satrap of Lydia. His life is mostly known from the magistral works of Thucydides and Xenophon. According to Ctesias, he was the son of Hidarnes III and therefore the great grandson of Hydarnes, one of the six conspirators who had supported the rise of Darius the Great. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Family and early life 3 Civil war 4 Later life and death 5 Legacy 6 References 7 Sources 8 External links Etymology[edit] Čiçafarnah (čiça + farnah) "with shining splendor"[1]: čiça is from the Proto-Indo-European adjective (s)koitrós 'bright';[2] farnah is equivalent to Avestan xvarənah 'fortune', 'glory', which appears as 'luminous'. čiθra means nature, specifically the animate nature. Čiça- is the Old Persian form of the Old Iranian term Čiθra-, which is reflected in the Median form of the name, *Čiθrafarnah- (Ancient Greek: Τετραφέρνης)[3]. Family and early life[edit] Tissaphernes was born in 445 BC. He belonged to an important Persian family: he was the grandson of Hydarnes, an eminent Persian general, who was the commander of the Immortals during the time of king Xerxes' invasion of Greece. In 414 BC, Tissaphernes was assigned by Darius II to suppress the rebellion of Pissuthnes, the Persian satrap of Asia Minor, and to take over his office. Tissaphernes bribed Pissuthnes' Greek mercenaries to desert him and promised that his life would be spared if he surrendered, a promise which Darius did not keep. When Darius II ordered Tissaphernes to proceed to suppress the continued rebellion of Pissuthnes' son Amorges, and also ordered him to collect the outstanding tribute from the Greek cities of Asia Minor, many of which were under Athenian protection, Tissaphernes entered into an alliance with Sparta against Athens, which in 412 BC led to the Persian conquest of the greater part of Ionia.[4] But Tissaphernes was unwilling to take action and tried to achieve his aim by astute and often perfidious negotiations. Alcibiades persuaded him that Persia's best policy was to keep the balance between Athens and Sparta, and rivalry with his neighbour Pharnabazus of Hellespontic Phrygia still further lessened his willingness to act against the Greeks. When, therefore, in 408 BC the king decided to actively support Sparta, Tissaphernes was removed as a general and his responsibilities were limited to the satrapy of Caria, with Lydia and the conduct of the war being entrusted to Cyrus the Younger. Civil war[edit] On the death of Darius II in 404 BC, Artaxerxes II was crowned king of Persia. Tissaphernes, who found out about Cyrus the Younger's plan to assassinate his brother, informed the king about the conspiracy, who then had Cyrus imprisoned. But by the intercession of his mother Parysatis, Cyrus was pardoned and sent back to his satrapy. According to Plutarch, "his resentment for [his arrest] made him more eagerly desirous of the kingdom than before."[5] With the desire for revenge, Cyrus gathered a large army and pretended to prepare an expedition against the Pisidians, a tribe based in the Taurus mountains. Coin of Tissaphernes, with ΤΙΣΣΑ ("TISSA") clearly visible below neck. Astyra, Mysia. Circa 400-395 BC In the spring of 401 BC, Cyrus united all his forces into an army, which now included Xenophon's "Ten Thousand", and advanced from Sardis without announcing the object of his expedition. By dexterous management and promises of large rewards, he overcame the misgivings of the Greek troops over the length and danger of the war. A Spartan fleet of 35 triremes sent to Cilicia opened the passes of the Amanus into Syria and a Spartan detachment of 700 men under Cheirisophus was conveyed to Cyrus. However, Tissaphernes managed to warn Artaxerxes II and quickly gathered together an army. Cyrus advanced into Babylonia before he met with any opposition. In October 401 BC, the Battle of Cunaxa ensued. Cyrus had 10,400 Greek hoplites (heavy-armed citizen-soldiers), 2,500 peltasts (light infantry) and an Asiatic army of approximately 10,000 under the command of Ariaeus. Cyrus saw that the outcome depended on the fate of the king. He therefore wanted Clearchus of Sparta, the commander of the Greeks, to take the centre against Artaxerxes. Clearchus, out of arrogance, disobeyed. As a result, the left wing of the Persians under Tissaphernes was free to engage the rest of Cyrus' forces. Cyrus in the centre threw himself upon Artaxerxes, but was slain. Tissaphernes claimed to have killed the rebel himself. The Greek soldiers of Cyrus, once they heard about the news of his death, realised that they were in the middle of a massive empire with no provisions, no-one to finance them, and no reliable allies amongst the Persian nobles. They offered to make their Persian ally, Ariaeus, king, but he refused on the grounds that he was not of royal blood and so would not find enough support among the Persians to succeed. They then offered their services to Tissaphernes, but he refused. However, the Greeks refused to surrender to him. Tissaphernes was left with a problem: he faced a large army of heavy troops that he could not defeat by frontal assault. He supplied them with food and, after a long wait, led them northwards for home, meanwhile detaching the Persian general Ariaeus and his light troops from the Greeks. The senior Greek officers foolishly accepted an invitation from Tissaphernes to attend a feast. There they were made prisoners, taken before the king, and decapitated. As a reward for his loyalty, Artaxerxes gave Tissaphernes one of his own daughters in marriage and restored him as governor of Lydia and as the commander in chief of the Persian army in Asia Minor.[1] Later life and death[edit] Coinage of Phokaia, Ionia, circa 478-387 BC. Possible portrait of Satrap Tissaphernes, with satrapal headress, but since these coins have no markings, attribution remains uncertain. After returning to Asia Minor, Tissaphernes attacked the Greek cities to punish them for their allegiance to Cyrus. This led to a war with Sparta beginning in 399 BC. In 396 BC, the Spartan king and commander Agesilaus II led a campaign to free the Greek cities of Asia Minor. Tissaphernes at this point proposed an armistice and solemnly ratified a truce, which he instantly broke when Persian reinforcements arrived. Agesilaus thanked Tissaphernes for having put the gods on the side of the Greeks by committing perjury, and let it be known that he now planned to lead his troops against Caria. When Tissaphernes gathered his troops to meet this supposed Carian invasion, Agesilaus instead successfully attacked the Persian province of Hellespontine Phrygia. In 395 BC, Agesilaus let it be known that his next target would be the rich land around the Lydian city of Sardis. Tissaphernes, believing that if Agesilaus really intended to attack Sardis he would not have said so, assumed that this time Agesilaus would finally attack Caria, so Tissaphernes concentrated his troops in that area, but Agesilaus successfully attacked Sardis just as he said he would.[4] At last the fall of Tissaphernes came about when the Persian king yielded to the representations of Pharnabazus II, strongly supported by the chiliarch (vizier) Tithraustes and by the queen-mother Parysatis, who hated Tissaphernes as the principal cause of the death of her favourite son Cyrus. Tithraustes was sent to assassinate Tissaphernes, who was lured to Ariaeus' residence in Colossae and slain in 395 BC.[6] Legacy[edit] Encyclopædia Iranica comments that: Tissaphernes has been described, on the one hand, as impetuous and forthright, on the other, as a liar and treacherous deceiver (to Xenophon, he seemed “the supreme example of faithlessness and oath-breaking in the Anabasis”). Nevertheless, as one scholar has noted, “it is only fair to him to say . . . that in an epoch when disloyalty was becoming the normal he remained the most loyal subject of the two Kings whom he served”. That Tissaphernes appeared to the Greeks as one of their most dangerous enemies and no doubt the model of an unscrupulous diplomat is not surprising; this bias has so deeply marked Greek traditions that it now seems nearly impossible to form a balanced judgment about him, especially as no Persian sources are available and the pertinent sections of the Lycian Xanthos stele are not yet understood.[1] Following the death of Tissaphernes, Caria re-established a line of semi-independent local dynasts, still under the umbrella of the Achaemenid Empire, the dynasty of the Hecatomnids.[7] References[edit] ^ a b c d ČIΘRAFARNAH, Rüdiger Schmitt), Encyclopaedia Iranica ^ J. P. Mallory and D. Q. Adams, The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World (USA: Oxford University Press, 2006: ISBN 0-19-929668-5), p. 329. ^ Tavernier, Jan (2007), Iranica in the Achaemenid Period (ca. 550–330 B.C.): Linguistic Study of Old Iranian Proper Names and Loanwords, Attested in Non-Iranian Texts, Peeters, p. 154-155, 158, ISBN 978-90-429-1833-7. ^ a b Smith, William (1867). Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology. vol. 3. Boston: Little, Brown. pp. 1154–1156. ^ Plutarch. Ed. by A.H. Clough. "Artaxerxes," Plutarch's Lives. 1996. Project Gutenberg ^  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Meyer, Eduard (1911). "Tissaphernes". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ^ "About 492 BCE, after the execution of Tissaphernes, the Persians made Caria an independent satrapy and entrusted it to Hecatomnus, the local dynast of Mylasa, whose ancestors appear in the pages of Herodotus." in Gagarin, Michael (2010). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome. Oxford University Press. p. 53. ISBN 9780195170726. Sources[edit] Schmitt, Rüdiger (1991). "ČIΘRAFARNAH". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition. Retrieved 20 December 2013. External links[edit] Livius.org: Tissaphernes v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tissaphernes&oldid=1002037642" Categories: Achaemenid satraps of Lydia Military leaders of the Achaemenid Empire 5th-century BC Iranian people 4th-century BC Iranian people Achaemenid satraps of Caria Achaemenid satraps of Ionia 445 BC births 395 BC deaths Assassinated military personnel Hidden categories: CS1: long volume value Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 January 2021, at 14:58 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8068	----	Wahkare Khety - Wikipedia Wahkare Khety From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Wahkare" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Wahkare Bakenranef. Wahkarê Khety Achthoês,[1] Khety III Outer coffin of the steward Nefri, on which the cartouches of Wahkare Khety were found (Cairo CG 28088) Pharaoh Reign c. 50 years (9th or 10th Dynasty) Predecessor possibly Qakare Ibi or Wadjkare (if 9th Dynasty); Neferkare VIII (if 10th Dynasty) Successor uncertain (if 9th Dynasty); Merikare (if 10th Dynasty) Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Wahkare Khety W3ḥ-k3-Rˁ-htj(j) The ka of Ra is purified, the divine ruler Nomen Khety ẖtj(j) Divine ruler Turin Canon Khety ẖtj(j) Divine ruler Children Merikare? Wahkare Khety was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 9th or 10th Dynasty during the First Intermediate Period. Contents 1 Identity 1.1 9th Dynasty hypothesis 1.2 10th Dynasty hypothesis 2 Attestations 3 References 4 Further reading Identity[edit] The identity of Wahkare Khety is controversial. While some scholars believe that he was the founder of the 9th Dynasty,[2] many others place him in the subsequent 10th Dynasty.[3][4][5][6] 9th Dynasty hypothesis[edit] If Wahkare Khety was the founder of the 9th Dynasty, he may be identified with the hellenized king Achthoês, the founder of this dynasty according to Manetho. Manetho reports: The first of these [kings], Achthoês, behaving more cruel than his predecessors, wrought woes for the people of all of Egypt, but afterwards he was smitten with madness and killed by a crocodile.[1][7] If this hypothesis is correct, Wahkare Khety may have been a Herakleopolitan prince who profited from the weakness of the Memphite rulers of the Eighth Dynasty to seize the throne of Middle and Lower Egypt around 2150 BC. This hypothesis is supported by contemporary inscriptions referring to the northern, Herakleopolitan kingdom as the House of Khety,[8] although that only proves that the founder of the 9th Dynasty was a Khety, but not necessarily Wahkare Khety. 10th Dynasty hypothesis[edit] Many scholars believe instead that Wahkare Khety was a king of the 10th Dynasty, identifying him with the Khety, who was the alleged author of the famous Teaching for King Merykare, thus placing him between Neferkare VIII and Merikare. In this reconstruction, Wahkare is the last Herakleopolitan king bearing the name Khety, and the cruel Achthoês founder of the 9th Dynasty is identified with Meryibre Khety, and the House of Khety must refer to him instead. From the Instructions, it is known that Wahkare Khety, in alliance with the nomarchs of Lower Egypt, managed to repel the nomad "Asiatics" who for generations roamed in the Nile Delta. Those nomarchs, although recognizing Wahkare's authority, ruled de facto more or less independently. The expulsion of the "Asiatics" allowed the establishment of new settlements and defense structures on the northeastern borders, as well as the reprise of trades with the Levantine coast.[9] Wahkare, however, warned Merikare not to neglect guarding these borders, as the "Asiatics" still were considered a danger.[10] In the south, Wahkare and the faithful nomarch of Asyut Tefibi retook the city of Thinis, previously captured by the Thebans led by Intef II; however, the troops of Herakleopolis sacked the sacred necropolis of Thinis, a serious crime which was sadly reported by Wahkare himself. This crime caused the immediate reaction of the Thebans, who later finally captured the Thinite nomos. After those events Wahkare Khety decided to abandon this bellicose policy and begin a phase of peaceful coexistence with the southern kingdom, which endured until part of the reign of his successor Merikare, who succeeded the long reign – five decades – of Wahkare.[11] Attestations[edit] There is no contemporary evidence bearing his name. His cartouches appears on a 12th Dynasty wooden coffin inscribed with Coffin Texts and originally made for a steward named Nefri, was found in Deir el-Bersha and now is in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo (CG 28088).[12][13] On it, Wahkare Khety's name was found once in place of Nefri's, but it is unknown if the texts were originally inscribed for the king, or if they were simply copied later from an earlier source.[14] His name is maybe also attested in the Royal canon of Turin.[14] References[edit] ^ a b William Gillian Waddell: Manetho (= The Loeb classical library. Bd. 350). Harvard University Press, Cambridge (Mass.) 2004 (Reprint), ISBN 0-674-99385-3, p. 61. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath, Handbuch der Ägyptischen Königsnamen, 2nd edition, Mainz, 1999, p. 74. ^ William C. Hayes, in The Cambridge Ancient History, vol 1, part 2, 1971 (2008), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-077915, p. 996. ^ Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford, Blackwell Books, 1992, p. 144–47. ^ Michael Rice, Who is who in Ancient Egypt, 1999 (2004), Routledge, London, ISBN 0-203-44328-4, p. 7. ^ Margaret Bunson, Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Infobase Publishing, 2009, ISBN 1438109970, p. 202. ^ Margaret Bunson, op. cit., p. 355. ^ Stephan Seidlmayer, Ian Shaw, The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, ISBN 978-0-19-280458-7, p. 128. ^ William C. Hayes, op. cit., p. 466. ^ William C. Hayes, op. cit., p. 237. ^ William C. Hayes, op. cit., pp. 466–67. ^ Pierre Lacau, Sarcophages antérieurs au Nouvel Empire, tome II, Cairo, 1903, pp. 10–20. ^ Alan Gardiner, Egypt of the Pharaohs, an introduction. Oxford University Press 1961, p. 112 ^ a b Thomas Schneider, Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, p. 172. Further reading[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Khety Wahkare. Allen, James P. (1976). "The Funerary Texts of King Wahkare Akhtoy on a Middle Kingdom Coffin". In Johnson, J. H.; Wente, E. F. (eds.). Studies in Honor of George R. Hughes, January 12, 1977. Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization (SAOC). 39. Chicago: The Oriental Institute. ISBN 0-918986-01-X. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wahkare_Khety&oldid=995644796" Categories: 22nd-century BC Pharaohs 21st-century BC Pharaohs 22nd-century BC writers 21st-century BC writers Pharaohs of the Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Pharaohs of the Tenth Dynasty of Egypt 21st-century BC rulers 21st century BC in Egypt Ancient Egyptian writers Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ Català Deutsch Español Euskara 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia ქართული Magyar Nederlands Русский Slovenščina Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 December 2020, at 03:38 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8070	----	Pami - Wikipedia Pami From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about Egyptian Pharaoh. For the public health insurance agency in Argentina, see PAMI. Pami Year 2 Apis stela from Pami's reign found in Saqqara. Louvre Pharaoh Reign 785 – 778 BC (22nd Dynasty) Predecessor Shoshenq IV Successor Shoshenq V Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Usermaatre Setepenre (var. Setepenamun) Wsr-Mȝˁt-Rˁ stp.n-Rˁ Powerful is the Maat of Ra, chosen of Ra (Amun) Nomen Pami meryamun Pȝ-my mrj-Jmn[1] The cat, beloved of Amun Usermaatre Setepenre Pami was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 22nd Dynasty who ruled for 7 years. "Pami" in Egyptian, means "the Cat" or "He who belongs to the Cat [Bastet]."[2] Contents 1 Identity 2 Reign length 3 References 4 External links Identity[edit] Pami's precise relationship with his immediate predecessor—Hedjkheperre Setepenre Shoshenq IV—is unknown but he is attested as the father of Shoshenq V in a Year 11 Serapeum stela dating to the latter's reign. Pami was once assumed to be Pimay, the third son of Shoshenq III who served as the "Great Chief of Ma" under his father. However, the different orthographies of their names (Pami vs. Pimay) prove that they were 2 different individuals. In addition, the name Pami translates as 'The Cat' in Egyptian whereas the name Pimay means 'The Lion.' Pami's name was mistakenly transcribed as Pimay by past historians based upon the common belief that he was Shoshenq III's son. This is now recognised to be an erroneous translation of this king's nomen/name which should rather be written as Pami. While a previous Dynasty 22 king held the title 'Great Chief of the Ma' before ascending the throne–namely Shoshenq I–Shoshenq III's son, Pimay, was a different man from king Pami because their names are different. Moreover, if Pimay did indeed outlive his father, he should have then succeeded his father as king rather than the obscure Shoshenq IV who is not attested as a son of Shoshenq III. Consequently, it seems certain that Shoshenq III outlived all of his sons through his nearly 4 decade long reign. While a minority of scholars hold to the traditional view that Pami was Pimay, a son of Shoshenq III by his wife Queen Djed-Bast-Es-Ankh, no archaeological evidence proves that Pami was ever a son of Shoshenq III. The different spelling and meanings of the word Pami and Pimay and the fact that Shoshenq III was actually succeeded by Shoshenq IV—rather than Pimay as was once thought—suggest rather that Pami was a son of his obscure predecessor--Shoshenq IV instead. Reign length[edit] Restored view of Pami's burial chamber in tomb NRT II, Tanis Two Apis bulls were buried in Pami's own reign—one each during his Second and Sixth Year respectively.[citation needed] The Year 2 II Peret day 1 Serapeum stela from Pami's reign states that 26 Years passed between Year 28 of Shoshenq III–the burial of the previous Apis Bull—and Year 2 of Pami. Pami's Highest Year Date was originally thought to be his 6th Year based on his Year 6 Serapeum stela.[citation needed] However, in 1998, Pierre Tallet, Susanne Bickel and Marc Gabolde from the University of Montpellier published[3] the surviving contents of a reused stone block from an enclosure wall at Heliopolis. According to the article, the block is 2 cubits (104 cm) large and likely formed the right inside side of a doorway. The block is essentially an Annal document which postdates Pami's reign and was originally part of a larger monument which catalogued the deeds of various Twenty-second Dynasty pharaohs. However, only the section concerning Pami's reign has survived. It chronicles this king's Yearly donations both to the gods of the Great Temple of Heliopolis and to other local deities and temples in this city. While the ending of the block is damaged, a 7th Regnal Year can be clearly seen for Pami and a brief 8th Year in the lost or erased section is possible. In any event, his Highest Year Date is now his 7th Year and Pami would have reigned for almost seven full years based upon this document. References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pami. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath, Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen (= Münchner ägyptologische Studien, vol 46), Mainz am Rhein: Verlag Philipp von Zabern, 1999. ISBN 3-8053-2310-7, pp.190-91. ^ Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames & Hudson Ltd, (1994), p.185 ^ Tallet, P., Bickel, S. & Gabolde, M. (1998), "Des annales héliopolitanes de la Troisième pèriode intermédiaire", BIFAO 98: 31-56 External links[edit] dynasties v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pami&oldid=974467397" Categories: 778 BC deaths 8th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt 8th century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2014 Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá Edit links This page was last edited on 23 August 2020, at 06:55 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-802	----	Greeks - Wikipedia Greeks From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ethnic group native to Greece For a specific analysis of the population of Greece, see Demographics of Greece For other uses, see Greeks (disambiguation). "Grecian" redirects here. For other uses, see Grecian (disambiguation). Greeks Έλληνες Hellenes Total population c. 14–17 million[1][2] Regions with significant populations  Greece  9,903,268[3][4] (2011 census)  Cyprus  721,000[5][6][7] (2011 estimate)  United States 1,279,000–3,000,000b (2016 estimate)[8][9]  Germany 443,000g (2016 estimate)[10]  Australia 422,234 (2011 census)[11]  United Kingdom 345,000–400,000 (2011 estimate)[12]  Canada 271,405c (2016 census)[13]  Albania 215,000-300,000[14]  New Zealand est. 2,478 to 10,000, possibly up to 50,000 [15]  South Africa 138,000 (2011 estimate)[16]  Italy 110,000–200,000d (2013 estimate)[17][18][19]  Egypt 110,000[20][21]  Chile 100,000[22]  Ukraine 91,000 (2011 estimate)[23]  Russia 85,640 (2010 census)[24]  Brazil 50,000e[25]  France 35,000 (2013 estimate)[26]  Belgium 35,000 (2011 estimate)[27]  Argentina 30,000–50,000 (2013 estimate)[28]  Bulgaria 1,356 (2011 census)[29] up to 28,500 (estimate)[30]  Netherlands 25,709[31]  Uruguay 25,000–28,000 (2011 census)[32]  Sweden 24,736 (2012 census)[33]  Georgia 15,000 (2011 estimate)[34]  Czech Republic 12,000[35]  Kazakhstan 10,000–12,000 (2011 estimate)[36]   Switzerland 11,000 (2015 estimate)[37]  Romania 10,000 (2013 estimate)[38]  Uzbekistan 9,500 (2000 estimate)[39]  Austria 5,261[40]  Hungary 4,454 (2016 census)[41]  Turkey 4,000–49,143f[42][43] Languages Greek Religion Primarily Greek Orthodox Church a Citizens of Greece and the Republic of Cyprus. The Greek government does not collect information about ethnic self-determination at the national censuses. b Includes those of ancestral descent. c Those whose stated ethnic origins included "Greek" among others. The number of those whose stated ethnic origin is solely "Greek" is 145,250. An additional 3,395 Cypriots of undeclared ethnicity live in Canada. dApprox. 60,000 Griko people and 30,000 post WW2 migrants. e "Including descendants". f Including Greek Muslims. g Includes people with "cultural roots". The Greeks or Hellenes (/ˈhɛliːnz/; Greek: Έλληνες, Éllines [ˈelines]) are an ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus, Albania, Italy, Turkey, Egypt and, to a lesser extent, other countries surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. They also form a significant diaspora, with Greek communities established around the world.[44] Greek colonies and communities have been historically established on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea, but the Greek people have always been centered on the Aegean and Ionian seas, where the Greek language has been spoken since the Bronze Age.[45][46] Until the early 20th century, Greeks were distributed between the Greek peninsula, the western coast of Asia Minor, the Black Sea coast, Cappadocia in central Anatolia, Egypt, the Balkans, Cyprus, and Constantinople.[46] Many of these regions coincided to a large extent with the borders of the Byzantine Empire of the late 11th century and the Eastern Mediterranean areas of ancient Greek colonization.[47] The cultural centers of the Greeks have included Athens, Thessalonica, Alexandria, Smyrna, and Constantinople at various periods. In recent times, most ethnic Greeks live within the borders of the modern Greek state and Cyprus. The Greek genocide and population exchange between Greece and Turkey nearly ended the three millennia-old Greek presence in Asia Minor. Other longstanding Greek populations can be found from southern Italy to the Caucasus and southern Russia and Ukraine and in the Greek diaspora communities in a number of other countries. Today, most Greeks are officially registered as members of the Greek Orthodox Church.[48] Throughout history, Greeks have greatly influenced and contributed to culture, visual arts, exploration, theatre, literature, philosophy, politics, architecture, music, mathematics,[49] medicine, science, technology, commerce, cuisine and sports. Contents 1 History 1.1 Origins 1.2 Mycenaean 1.3 Classical 1.4 Hellenistic 1.5 Roman Empire 1.6 Middle Ages 1.7 Ottoman Empire 1.8 Modern 2 Identity 2.1 Names 2.2 Continuity 2.3 Demographics 2.4 Diaspora 2.4.1 Ancient 2.4.2 Modern 3 Culture 3.1 Language 3.2 Religion 3.3 Arts 3.4 Science 3.5 Symbols 3.6 Politics 3.7 Surnames and personal names 3.8 Sea: exploring and commerce 4 Genetics 5 Physical appearance 6 Timeline 7 See also 8 Notes 9 Citations 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links History Further information: History of Greece A reconstruction of the 3rd millennium BC "Proto-Greek area", by Vladimir I. Georgiev.[50] Mycenaean funeral mask known as "Mask of Agamemnon", 16th c. BC The Greeks speak the Greek language, which forms its own unique branch within the Indo-European family of languages, the Hellenic.[46] They are part of a group of classical ethnicities, described by Anthony D. Smith as an "archetypal diaspora people".[51][52] Origins Further information: Proto-Greek language, List of Ancient Greek tribes, and Ancient Greek religion The Proto-Greeks probably arrived at the area now called Greece, in the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, at the end of the 3rd millennium BC.[53][54][a] The sequence of migrations into the Greek mainland during the 2nd millennium BC has to be reconstructed on the basis of the ancient Greek dialects, as they presented themselves centuries later and are therefore subject to some uncertainties. There were at least two migrations, the first being the Ionians and Achaeans, which resulted in Mycenaean Greece by the 16th century BC,[58][59] and the second, the Dorian invasion, around the 11th century BC, displacing the Arcadocypriot dialects, which descended from the Mycenaean period. Both migrations occur at incisive periods, the Mycenaean at the transition to the Late Bronze Age and the Doric at the Bronze Age collapse. An alternative hypothesis has been put forth by linguist Vladimir Georgiev, who places Proto-Greek speakers in northwestern Greece by the Early Helladic period (3rd millennium BC), i.e. towards the end of the European Neolithic.[60] Linguists Russell Gray and Quentin Atkinson in a 2003 paper using computational methods on Swadesh lists have arrived at a somewhat earlier estimate, around 5000 BC for Greco-Armenian split and the emergence of Greek as a separate linguistic lineage around 4000 BC.[61] Mycenaean Main article: Mycenaean Greece In c. 1600 BC, the Mycenaean Greeks borrowed from the Minoan civilization its syllabic writing system (Linear A) and developed their own syllabic script known as Linear B,[62] providing the first and oldest written evidence of Greek.[62][63] The Mycenaeans quickly penetrated the Aegean Sea and, by the 15th century BC, had reached Rhodes, Crete, Cyprus and the shores of Asia Minor.[46][64] Around 1200 BC, the Dorians, another Greek-speaking people, followed from Epirus.[65] Traditionally, historians have believed that the Dorian invasion caused the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization, but it is likely the main attack was made by seafaring raiders (Sea Peoples) who sailed into the eastern Mediterranean around 1180 BC.[66] The Dorian invasion was followed by a poorly attested period of migrations, appropriately called the Greek Dark Ages, but by 800 BC the landscape of Archaic and Classical Greece was discernible.[67] The Greeks of classical antiquity idealized their Mycenaean ancestors and the Mycenaean period as a glorious era of heroes, closeness of the gods and material wealth.[68] The Homeric Epics (i.e. Iliad and Odyssey) were especially and generally accepted as part of the Greek past and it was not until the time of Euhemerism that scholars began to question Homer's historicity.[67] As part of the Mycenaean heritage that survived, the names of the gods and goddesses of Mycenaean Greece (e.g. Zeus, Poseidon and Hades) became major figures of the Olympian Pantheon of later antiquity.[69] Classical Main article: Classical Greece The three great philosophers of the classical era: Socrates, Plato and Aristotle The ethnogenesis of the Greek nation is linked to the development of Pan-Hellenism in the 8th century BC.[70] According to some scholars, the foundational event was the Olympic Games in 776 BC, when the idea of a common Hellenism among the Greek tribes was first translated into a shared cultural experience and Hellenism was primarily a matter of common culture.[44] The works of Homer (i.e. Iliad and Odyssey) and Hesiod (i.e. Theogony) were written in the 8th century BC, becoming the basis of the national religion, ethos, history and mythology.[71] The Oracle of Apollo at Delphi was established in this period.[72] The classical period of Greek civilization covers a time spanning from the early 5th century BC to the death of Alexander the Great, in 323 BC (some authors prefer to split this period into "Classical", from the end of the Greco-Persian Wars to the end of the Peloponnesian War, and "Fourth Century", up to the death of Alexander). It is so named because it set the standards by which Greek civilization would be judged in later eras.[73] The Classical period is also described as the "Golden Age" of Greek civilization, and its art, philosophy, architecture and literature would be instrumental in the formation and development of Western culture. While the Greeks of the classical era understood themselves to belong to a common Hellenic genos,[74] their first loyalty was to their city and they saw nothing incongruous about warring, often brutally, with other Greek city-states.[75] The Peloponnesian War, the large scale civil war between the two most powerful Greek city-states Athens and Sparta and their allies, left both greatly weakened.[76] Alexander the Great, whose conquests led to the Hellenistic Age. Most of the feuding Greek city-states were, in some scholars' opinions, united by force under the banner of Philip's and Alexander the Great's Pan-Hellenic ideals, though others might generally opt, rather, for an explanation of "Macedonian conquest for the sake of conquest" or at least conquest for the sake of riches, glory and power and view the "ideal" as useful propaganda directed towards the city-states.[77] In any case, Alexander's toppling of the Achaemenid Empire, after his victories at the battles of the Granicus, Issus and Gaugamela, and his advance as far as modern-day Pakistan and Tajikistan,[78] provided an important outlet for Greek culture, via the creation of colonies and trade routes along the way.[79] While the Alexandrian empire did not survive its creator's death intact, the cultural implications of the spread of Hellenism across much of the Middle East and Asia were to prove long lived as Greek became the lingua franca, a position it retained even in Roman times.[80] Many Greeks settled in Hellenistic cities like Alexandria, Antioch and Seleucia.[81] Two thousand years later, there are still communities in Pakistan and Afghanistan, like the Kalash, who claim to be descended from Greek settlers.[82] Hellenistic Main articles: Hellenistic period and Hellenistic Greece The Hellenistic realms c. 300 BC as divided by the Diadochi; the Μacedonian Kingdom of Cassander (green), the Ptolemaic Kingdom (dark blue), the Seleucid Empire (yellow), the areas controlled by Lysimachus (orange) and Epirus (red) Bust of Cleopatra VII (Altes Museum, Berlin), the last ruler of a Hellenistic Kingdom (apart the Indo-Greek Kingdom) The Hellenistic civilization was the next period of Greek civilization, the beginnings of which are usually placed at Alexander's death.[83] This Hellenistic age, so called because it saw the partial Hellenization of many non-Greek cultures, extending all the way into India and Bactria, both of which maintained Greek cultures and governments for centuries.[84] The end is often placed around conquest of Egypt by Rome in 30 BC,[83] although the Indo-Greek kingdoms lasted for a few more decades. This age saw the Greeks move towards larger cities and a reduction in the importance of the city-state. These larger cities were parts of the still larger Kingdoms of the Diadochi.[85][86] Greeks, however, remained aware of their past, chiefly through the study of the works of Homer and the classical authors.[87] An important factor in maintaining Greek identity was contact with barbarian (non-Greek) peoples, which was deepened in the new cosmopolitan environment of the multi-ethnic Hellenistic kingdoms.[87] This led to a strong desire among Greeks to organize the transmission of the Hellenic paideia to the next generation.[87] Greek science, technology and mathematics are generally considered to have reached their peak during the Hellenistic period.[88] In the Indo-Greek and Greco-Bactrian kingdoms, Greco-Buddhism was spreading and Greek missionaries would play an important role in propagating it to China.[89] Further east, the Greeks of Alexandria Eschate became known to the Chinese people as the Dayuan.[90] Roman Empire Further information: Roman Greece and Greco-Roman world Between 168 BC and 30 BC, the entire Greek world was conquered by Rome, and almost all of the world's Greek speakers lived as citizens or subjects of the Roman Empire. Despite their military superiority, the Romans admired and became heavily influenced by the achievements of Greek culture, hence Horace's famous statement: Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit ("Greece, although captured, took its wild conqueror captive").[91] In the centuries following the Roman conquest of the Greek world, the Greek and Roman cultures merged into a single Greco-Roman culture. In the religious sphere, this was a period of profound change. The spiritual revolution that took place, saw a waning of the old Greek religion, whose decline beginning in the 3rd century BC continued with the introduction of new religious movements from the East.[44] The cults of deities like Isis and Mithra were introduced into the Greek world.[86][92] Greek-speaking communities of the Hellenized East were instrumental in the spread of early Christianity in the 2nd and 3rd centuries,[93] and Christianity's early leaders and writers (notably Saint Paul) were generally Greek-speaking,[94] though none were from Greece proper. However, Greece itself had a tendency to cling to paganism and was not one of the influential centers of early Christianity: in fact, some ancient Greek religious practices remained in vogue until the end of the 4th century,[95] with some areas such as the southeastern Peloponnese remaining pagan until well into the mid-Byzantine 10th century AD.[96] The region of Tsakonia remained pagan until the ninth century and as such its inhabitants were referred to as Hellenes, in the sense of being pagan, by their Christianized Greek brethren in mainstream Byzantine society.[97] While ethnic distinctions still existed in the Roman Empire, they became secondary to religious considerations and the renewed empire used Christianity as a tool to support its cohesion and promoted a robust Roman national identity.[98] From the early centuries of the Common Era, the Greeks self-identified as Romans (Greek: Ῥωμαῖοι Rhōmaîoi).[99] By that time, the name Hellenes denoted pagans but was revived as an ethnonym in the 11th century.[100] Middle Ages See also: Byzantine empire, Byzantine Greece, Byzantine Greeks, Fourth Crusade, and Frankokratia Scenes of marriage and family life in Constantinople Emperor Basil II (11th century) is credited with reviving the Byzantine Empire. Gemistus Pletho, one of the most renowned philosophers of the late Byzantine era, a chief pioneer of the revival of Greek scholarship in Western Europe There are three schools of thought regarding this Byzantine Roman identity in contemporary Byzantine scholarship: The first considers "Romanity" the mode of self-identification of the subjects of a multi-ethnic empire at least up to the 12th century, where the average subject identified as Roman; a perennialist approach, which views Romanity as the medieval expression of a continuously existing Greek nation; while a third view considers the eastern Roman identity as a pre-modern national identity.[101] The Byzantine Greeks' essential values were drawn from both Christianity and the Homeric tradition of ancient Greece.[102][103] During most of the Middle Ages, the Byzantine Greeks self-identified as Rhōmaîoi (Ῥωμαῖοι, "Romans", meaning citizens of the Roman Empire), a term which in the Greek language had become synonymous with Christian Greeks.[104][105] The Latinizing term Graikoí (Γραικοί, "Greeks") was also used,[106] though its use was less common, and nonexistent in official Byzantine political correspondence, prior to the Fourth Crusade of 1204.[107] The Eastern Roman Empire (today conventionally named the Byzantine Empire, a name not used during its own time[108]) became increasingly influenced by Greek culture after the 7th century when Emperor Heraclius (r.  610–641 AD) decided to make Greek the empire's official language.[109][110] Although the Catholic Church recognized the Eastern Empire's claim to the Roman legacy for several centuries, after Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne, king of the Franks, as the "Roman Emperor" on 25 December 800, an act which eventually led to the formation of the Holy Roman Empire, the Latin West started to favour the Franks and began to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire largely as the Empire of the Greeks (Imperium Graecorum).[111][112] While this Latin term for the ancient Hellenes could be used neutrally, its use by Westerners from the 9th century onwards in order to challenge Byzantine claims to ancient Roman heritage rendered it a derogatory exonym for the Byzantines who barely used it, mostly in contexts relating to the West, such as texts relating to the Council of Florence, to present the Western viewpoint.[113][114] A distinct Greek identity re-emerged in the 11th century in educated circles and became more forceful after the fall of Constantinople to the Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade in 1204.[115] In the Empire of Nicaea, a small circle of the elite used the term "Hellene" as a term of self-identification.[116] After the Byzantines recaptured Constantinople, however, in 1261, Rhomaioi became again dominant as a term for self-description and there are few traces of Hellene (Έλληνας), such as in the writings of George Gemistos Plethon,[117] who abandoned Christianity and in whose writings culminated the secular tendency in the interest in the classical past.[115] However, it was the combination of Orthodox Christianity with a specifically Greek identity that shaped the Greeks' notion of themselves in the empire's twilight years.[115] In the twilight years of the Byzantine Empire, prominent Byzantine personalities proposed referring to the Byzantine Emperor as the "Emperor of the Hellenes".[118][119] These largely rhetorical expressions of Hellenic identity were confined within intellectual circles, but were continued by Byzantine intellectuals who participated in the Italian Renaissance.[120] The interest in the Classical Greek heritage was complemented by a renewed emphasis on Greek Orthodox identity, which was reinforced in the late Medieval and Ottoman Greeks' links with their fellow Orthodox Christians in the Russian Empire. These were further strengthened following the fall of the Empire of Trebizond in 1461, after which and until the second Russo-Turkish War of 1828–29 hundreds of thousands of Pontic Greeks fled or migrated from the Pontic Alps and Armenian Highlands to southern Russia and the Russian South Caucasus (see also Greeks in Russia, Greeks in Armenia, Greeks in Georgia, and Caucasian Greeks).[121] These Byzantine Greeks were largely responsible for the preservation of the literature of the classical era.[103][122][123] Byzantine grammarians were those principally responsible for carrying, in person and in writing, ancient Greek grammatical and literary studies to the West during the 15th century, giving the Italian Renaissance a major boost.[124][125] The Aristotelian philosophical tradition was nearly unbroken in the Greek world for almost two thousand years, until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453.[126] To the Slavic world, the Byzantine Greeks contributed by the dissemination of literacy and Christianity. The most notable example of the later was the work of the two Byzantine Greek brothers, the monks Saints Cyril and Methodius from the port city of Thessalonica, capital of the theme of Thessalonica, who are credited today with formalizing the first Slavic alphabet.[127] Ottoman Empire Main articles: Ottoman Greeks and Phanariotes The Byzantine scholar and cardinal Basilios Bessarion (1395/1403–1472) played a key role in transmitting classical knowledge to the Western Europe, contributing to the Renaissance Following the Fall of Constantinople on 29 May 1453, many Greeks sought better employment and education opportunities by leaving for the West, particularly Italy, Central Europe, Germany and Russia.[124] Greeks are greatly credited for the European cultural revolution, later called, the Renaissance. In Greek-inhabited territory itself, Greeks came to play a leading role in the Ottoman Empire, due in part to the fact that the central hub of the empire, politically, culturally, and socially, was based on Western Thrace and Greek Macedonia, both in Northern Greece, and of course was centred on the mainly Greek-populated, former Byzantine capital, Constantinople. As a direct consequence of this situation, Greek-speakers came to play a hugely important role in the Ottoman trading and diplomatic establishment, as well as in the church. Added to this, in the first half of the Ottoman period men of Greek origin made up a significant proportion of the Ottoman army, navy, and state bureaucracy, having been levied as adolescents (along with especially Albanians and Serbs) into Ottoman service through the devshirme. Many Ottomans of Greek (or Albanian or Serb) origin were therefore to be found within the Ottoman forces which governed the provinces, from Ottoman Egypt, to Ottomans occupied Yemen and Algeria, frequently as provincial governors. For those that remained under the Ottoman Empire's millet system, religion was the defining characteristic of national groups (milletler), so the exonym "Greeks" (Rumlar from the name Rhomaioi) was applied by the Ottomans to all members of the Orthodox Church, regardless of their language or ethnic origin.[128] The Greek speakers were the only ethnic group to actually call themselves Romioi,[129] (as opposed to being so named by others) and, at least those educated, considered their ethnicity (genos) to be Hellenic.[130] There were, however, many Greeks who escaped the second-class status of Christians inherent in the Ottoman millet system, according to which Muslims were explicitly awarded senior status and preferential treatment. These Greeks either emigrated, particularly to their fellow Orthodox Christian protector, the Russian Empire, or simply converted to Islam, often only very superficially and whilst remaining crypto-Christian. The most notable examples of large-scale conversion to Turkish Islam among those today defined as Greek Muslims—excluding those who had to convert as a matter of course on being recruited through the devshirme—were to be found in Crete (Cretan Turks), Greek Macedonia (for example among the Vallahades of western Macedonia), and among Pontic Greeks in the Pontic Alps and Armenian Highlands. Several Ottoman sultans and princes were also of part Greek origin, with mothers who were either Greek concubines or princesses from Byzantine noble families, one famous example being sultan Selim the Grim (r.  1517–1520), whose mother Gülbahar Hatun was a Pontic Greek. Adamantios Korais, leading figure of the Modern Greek Enlightenment The roots of Greek success in the Ottoman Empire can be traced to the Greek tradition of education and commerce exemplified in the Phanariotes.[131] It was the wealth of the extensive merchant class that provided the material basis for the intellectual revival that was the prominent feature of Greek life in the half century and more leading to the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence in 1821.[132] Not coincidentally, on the eve of 1821, the three most important centres of Greek learning were situated in Chios, Smyrna and Aivali, all three major centres of Greek commerce.[132] Greek success was also favoured by Greek domination in the leadership of the Eastern Orthodox church. Modern See also: Modern Greek Enlightenment and Greek War of Independence The movement of the Greek enlightenment, the Greek expression of the Age of Enlightenment, contributed not only in the promotion of education, culture and printing among the Greeks, but also in the case of independence from the Ottomans, and the restoration of the term "Hellene". Adamantios Korais, probably the most important intellectual of the movement, advocated the use of the term "Hellene" (Έλληνας) or "Graikos" (Γραικός) in the place of Romiós, that was seen negatively by him. The relationship between ethnic Greek identity and Greek Orthodox religion continued after the creation of the modern Greek nation-state in 1830. According to the second article of the first Greek constitution of 1822, a Greek was defined as any native Christian resident of the Kingdom of Greece, a clause removed by 1840.[133] A century later, when the Treaty of Lausanne was signed between Greece and Turkey in 1923, the two countries agreed to use religion as the determinant for ethnic identity for the purposes of population exchange, although most of the Greeks displaced (over a million of the total 1.5 million) had already been driven out by the time the agreement was signed.[b][134] The Greek genocide, in particular the harsh removal of Pontian Greeks from the southern shore area of the Black Sea, contemporaneous with and following the failed Greek Asia Minor Campaign, was part of this process of Turkification of the Ottoman Empire and the placement of its economy and trade, then largely in Greek hands under ethnic Turkish control.[135] Identity The cover of Hermes o Logios, a Greek literary publication of the late 18th and early 19th century in Vienna with major contribution to the Modern Greek Enlightenment. The terms used to define Greekness have varied throughout history but were never limited or completely identified with membership to a Greek state.[136] Herodotus gave a famous account of what defined Greek (Hellenic) ethnic identity in his day, enumerating shared descent (ὅμαιμον – homaimon, "of the same blood"),[137] shared language (ὁμόγλωσσον – homoglōsson, "speaking the same language")[138] shared sanctuaries and sacrifices (Greek: θεῶν ἱδρύματά τε κοινὰ καὶ θυσίαι – theōn hidrumata te koina kai thusiai)[139] shared customs (Greek: ἤθεα ὁμότροπα – ēthea homotropa, "customs of like fashion").[140][141][142] By Western standards, the term Greeks has traditionally referred to any native speakers of the Greek language, whether Mycenaean, Byzantine or modern Greek.[128][143] Byzantine Greeks self-identified as Romaioi ("Romans"), Graikoi ("Greeks") and Christianoi ("Christians") since they were the political heirs of imperial Rome, the descendants of their classical Greek forebears and followers of the Apostles;[144] during the mid-to-late Byzantine period (11th–13th century), a growing number of Byzantine Greek intellectuals deemed themselves Hellenes although for most Greek-speakers, "Hellene" still meant pagan.[100][145] On the eve of the Fall of Constantinople the Last Emperor urged his soldiers to remember that they were the descendants of Greeks and Romans.[146] Before the establishment of the modern Greek nation-state, the link between ancient and modern Greeks was emphasized by the scholars of Greek Enlightenment especially by Rigas Feraios. In his "Political Constitution", he addresses to the nation as "the people descendant of the Greeks".[147] The modern Greek state was created in 1829, when the Greeks liberated a part of their historic homelands, Peloponnese, from the Ottoman Empire.[148] The large Greek diaspora and merchant class were instrumental in transmitting the ideas of western romantic nationalism and philhellenism,[132] which together with the conception of Hellenism, formulated during the last centuries of the Byzantine Empire, formed the basis of the Diafotismos and the current conception of Hellenism.[115][128][149] The Greeks today are a nation in the meaning of an ethnos, defined by possessing Greek culture and having a Greek mother tongue, not by citizenship, race, and religion or by being subjects of any particular state.[150] In ancient and medieval times and to a lesser extent today the Greek term was genos, which also indicates a common ancestry.[151][152] Names Main articles: Achaeans (Homer) and Names of the Greeks Map showing the major regions of mainland ancient Greece, and adjacent "barbarian" lands. Greeks and Greek-speakers have used different names to refer to themselves collectively. The term Achaeans (Ἀχαιοί) is one of the collective names for the Greeks in Homer's Iliad and Odyssey (the Homeric "long-haired Achaeans" would have been a part of the Mycenaean civilization that dominated Greece from c. 1600 BC until 1100 BC). The other common names are Danaans (Δαναοί) and Argives (Ἀργεῖοι) while Panhellenes (Πανέλληνες) and Hellenes (Ἕλληνες) both appear only once in the Iliad;[153] all of these terms were used, synonymously, to denote a common Greek identity.[154][155] In the historical period, Herodotus identified the Achaeans of the northern Peloponnese as descendants of the earlier, Homeric Achaeans.[156] Homer refers to the "Hellenes" (/ˈhɛliːnz/) as a relatively small tribe settled in Thessalic Phthia, with its warriors under the command of Achilleus.[157] The Parian Chronicle says that Phthia was the homeland of the Hellenes and that this name was given to those previously called Greeks (Γραικοί).[158] In Greek mythology, Hellen, the patriarch of the Hellenes who ruled around Phthia, was the son of Pyrrha and Deucalion, the only survivors after the Great Deluge.[159] The Greek philosopher Aristotle names ancient Hellas as an area in Epirus between Dodona and the Achelous river, the location of the Great Deluge of Deucalion, a land occupied by the Selloi and the "Greeks" who later came to be known as "Hellenes".[160] In the Homeric tradition, the Selloi were the priests of Dodonian Zeus.[161] In the Hesiodic Catalogue of Women, Graecus is presented as the son of Zeus and Pandora II, sister of Hellen the patriarch of the Hellenes.[162] According to the Parian Chronicle, when Deucalion became king of Phthia, the Graikoi (Γραικοί) were named Hellenes.[158] Aristotle notes in his Meteorologica that the Hellenes were related to the Graikoi.[160] Continuity Alexander the Great in Byzantine Emperor's clothes, by a manuscript depicting scenes from his life (between 1204 and 1453) The most obvious link between modern and ancient Greeks is their language, which has a documented tradition from at least the 14th century BC to the present day, albeit with a break during the Greek Dark Ages (11th- 8th cent. BC, though the Cypriot syllabary was in use during this period).[163] Scholars compare its continuity of tradition to Chinese alone.[163][164] Since its inception, Hellenism was primarily a matter of common culture and the national continuity of the Greek world is a lot more certain than its demographic.[44][165] Yet, Hellenism also embodied an ancestral dimension through aspects of Athenian literature that developed and influenced ideas of descent based on autochthony.[166] During the later years of the Eastern Roman Empire, areas such as Ionia and Constantinople experienced a Hellenic revival in language, philosophy, and literature and on classical models of thought and scholarship.[165] This revival provided a powerful impetus to the sense of cultural affinity with ancient Greece and its classical heritage.[165] Throughout their history, the Greeks have retained their language and alphabet, certain values and cultural traditions, customs, a sense of religious and cultural difference and exclusion (the word barbarian was used by 12th-century historian Anna Komnene to describe non-Greek speakers),[167] a sense of Greek identity and common sense of ethnicity despite the undeniable socio-political changes of the past two millennia.[165] In recent anthropological studies, both ancient and modern Greek osteological samples were analyzed demonstrating a bio-genetic affinity and continuity shared between both groups.[168][169] There is also a direct genetic link between ancient Greeks and modern Greeks.[170][171] Demographics Main articles: Demographics of Greece and Demographics of Cyprus Today, Greeks are the majority ethnic group in the Hellenic Republic,[172] where they constitute 93% of the country's population,[173] and the Republic of Cyprus where they make up 78% of the island's population (excluding Turkish settlers in the occupied part of the country).[174] Greek populations have not traditionally exhibited high rates of growth; a large percentage of Greek population growth since Greece's foundation in 1832 was attributed to annexation of new territories, as well as the influx of 1.5 million Greek refugees after the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey.[175] About 80% of the population of Greece is urban, with 28% concentrated in the city of Athens.[176] Greeks from Cyprus have a similar history of emigration, usually to the English-speaking world because of the island's colonization by the British Empire. Waves of emigration followed the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974, while the population decreased between mid-1974 and 1977 as a result of emigration, war losses, and a temporary decline in fertility.[177] After the ethnic cleansing of a third of the Greek population of the island in 1974,[178][179] there was also an increase in the number of Greek Cypriots leaving, especially for the Middle East, which contributed to a decrease in population that tapered off in the 1990s.[177] Today more than two-thirds of the Greek population in Cyprus is urban.[177] There is a sizeable Greek minority of approximately 200,000 people in Albania.[14] The Greek minority of Turkey, which numbered upwards of 200,000 people after the 1923 exchange, has now dwindled to a few thousand, after the 1955 Constantinople Pogrom and other state sponsored violence and discrimination.[180] This effectively ended, though not entirely, the three-thousand-year-old presence of Hellenism in Asia Minor.[181][182] There are smaller Greek minorities in the rest of the Balkan countries, the Levant and the Black Sea states, remnants of the Old Greek Diaspora (pre-19th century).[183] Diaspora Main article: Greek diaspora Greek diaspora (20th century). The total number of Greeks living outside Greece and Cyprus today is a contentious issue. Where Census figures are available, they show around 3 million Greeks outside Greece and Cyprus. Estimates provided by the SAE - World Council of Hellenes Abroad put the figure at around 7 million worldwide.[184] According to George Prevelakis of Sorbonne University, the number is closer to just below 5 million.[183] Integration, intermarriage, and loss of the Greek language influence the self-identification of the Omogeneia. Important centres of the New Greek Diaspora today are London, New York, Melbourne and Toronto.[183] In 2010, the Hellenic Parliament introduced a law that enables Diaspora Greeks in Greece to vote in the elections of the Greek state.[185] This law was later repealed in early 2014.[186] Ancient See also: Colonies in antiquity Greek colonization in antiquity. In ancient times, the trading and colonizing activities of the Greek tribes and city states spread the Greek culture, religion and language around the Mediterranean and Black Sea basins, especially in Sicily and southern Italy (also known as Magna Grecia), Spain, the south of France and the Black sea coasts.[187] Under Alexander the Great's empire and successor states, Greek and Hellenizing ruling classes were established in the Middle East, India and in Egypt.[187] The Hellenistic period is characterized by a new wave of Greek colonization that established Greek cities and kingdoms in Asia and Africa.[188] Under the Roman Empire, easier movement of people spread Greeks across the Empire and in the eastern territories, Greek became the lingua franca rather than Latin.[109] The modern-day Griko community of southern Italy, numbering about 60,000,[18][19] may represent a living remnant of the ancient Greek populations of Italy. Modern Distribution of ethnic groups in 1918, National Geographic Poet Constantine P. Cavafy, a native of Alexandria, Egypt During and after the Greek War of Independence, Greeks of the diaspora were important in establishing the fledgling state, raising funds and awareness abroad.[189] Greek merchant families already had contacts in other countries and during the disturbances many set up home around the Mediterranean (notably Marseilles in France, Livorno in Italy, Alexandria in Egypt), Russia (Odessa and Saint Petersburg), and Britain (London and Liverpool) from where they traded, typically in textiles and grain.[190] Businesses frequently comprised the extended family, and with them they brought schools teaching Greek and the Greek Orthodox Church.[190] As markets changed and they became more established, some families grew their operations to become shippers, financed through the local Greek community, notably with the aid of the Ralli or Vagliano Brothers.[191] With economic success, the Diaspora expanded further across the Levant, North Africa, India and the USA.[191][192] In the 20th century, many Greeks left their traditional homelands for economic reasons resulting in large migrations from Greece and Cyprus to the United States, Great Britain, Australia, Canada, Germany, and South Africa, especially after the Second World War (1939–1945), the Greek Civil War (1946–1949), and the Turkish Invasion of Cyprus in 1974.[193] While official figures remain scarce, polls and anecdotal evidence point to renewed Greek emigration as a result of the Greek financial crisis.[194] According to data published by the Federal Statistical Office of Germany in 2011, 23,800 Greeks emigrated to Germany, a significant increase over the previous year. By comparison, about 9,000 Greeks emigrated to Germany in 2009 and 12,000 in 2010.[195][196] Culture Main article: Culture of Greece Greek culture has evolved over thousands of years, with its beginning in the Mycenaean civilization, continuing through the classical era, the Hellenistic period, the Roman and Byzantine periods and was profoundly affected by Christianity, which it in turn influenced and shaped.[197] Ottoman Greeks had to endure through several centuries of adversity that culminated in genocide in the 20th century.[198][199] The Diafotismos is credited with revitalizing Greek culture and giving birth to the synthesis of ancient and medieval elements that characterize it today.[115][128] Language Main articles: Greek language and Greek language question Early Greek alphabet, c. 8th century BC Play media A Greek speaker Most Greeks speak the Greek language, an independent branch of the Indo-European languages, with its closest relations possibly being Armenian (see Graeco-Armenian) or the Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan).[163] It has the longest documented history of any living language and Greek literature has a continuous history of over 2,500 years.[200] The oldest inscriptions in Greek are in the Linear B script, dated as far back as 1450 BC.[201] Following the Greek Dark Ages, from which written records are absent, the Greek alphabet appears in the 9th–8th century BC. The Greek alphabet derived from the Phoenician alphabet, and in turn became the parent alphabet of the Latin, Cyrillic, and several other alphabets. The earliest Greek literary works are the Homeric epics, variously dated from the 8th to the 6th century BC. Notable scientific and mathematical works include Euclid's Elements, Ptolemy's Almagest, and others. The New Testament was originally written in Koine Greek. Greek demonstrates several linguistic features that are shared with other Balkan languages, such as Albanian, Bulgarian and Eastern Romance languages (see Balkan sprachbund), and has absorbed many foreign words, primarily of Western European and Turkish origin.[202] Because of the movements of Philhellenism and the Diafotismos in the 19th century, which emphasized the modern Greeks' ancient heritage, these foreign influences were excluded from official use via the creation of Katharevousa, a somewhat artificial form of Greek purged of all foreign influence and words, as the official language of the Greek state. In 1976, however, the Hellenic Parliament voted to make the spoken Dimotiki the official language, making Katharevousa obsolete.[203] Modern Greek has, in addition to Standard Modern Greek or Dimotiki, a wide variety of dialects of varying levels of mutual intelligibility, including Cypriot, Pontic, Cappadocian, Griko and Tsakonian (the only surviving representative of ancient Doric Greek).[204] Yevanic is the language of the Romaniotes, and survives in small communities in Greece, New York and Israel. In addition to Greek, many Greek citizens in Greece and the diaspora are bilingual in other languages such as English, Arvanitika/Albanian, Aromanian, Megleno-Romanian, Macedonian Slavic, Russian and Turkish.[163][205] Religion Main articles: Religion in ancient Greece and Greek Orthodox Church Christ Pantocrator mosaic in Hagia Sophia, Istanbul Most Greeks are Christians, belonging to the Greek Orthodox Church.[206] During the first centuries after Jesus Christ, the New Testament was originally written in Koine Greek, which remains the liturgical language of the Greek Orthodox Church, and most of the early Christians and Church Fathers were Greek-speaking.[197] There are small groups of ethnic Greeks adhering to other Christian denominations like Greek Catholics, Greek Evangelicals, Pentecostals, and groups adhering to other religions including Romaniot and Sephardic Jews and Greek Muslims. About 2,000 Greeks are members of Hellenic Polytheistic Reconstructionism congregations.[207][208][209] Greek-speaking Muslims live mainly outside Greece in the contemporary era. There are both Christian and Muslim Greek-speaking communities in Lebanon and Syria, while in the Pontus region of Turkey there is a large community of indeterminate size who were spared from the population exchange because of their religious affiliation.[210] Arts Further information: Greek art, Music of Greece, Ancient Greek architecture, Ancient Greek theatre, Modern Greek theatre, Cinema of Greece, Modern Greek architecture, and Modern Greek literature See also: Greco-Buddhist art Renowned Greek soprano Maria Callas Greek art has a long and varied history. Greeks have contributed to the visual, literary and performing arts.[211] In the West, classical Greek art was influential in shaping the Roman and later the modern Western artistic heritage. Following the Renaissance in Europe, the humanist aesthetic and the high technical standards of Greek art inspired generations of European artists.[211] Well into the 19th century, the classical tradition derived from Greece played an important role in the art of the Western world.[212] In the East, Alexander the Great's conquests initiated several centuries of exchange between Greek, Central Asian and Indian cultures, resulting in Indo-Greek and Greco-Buddhist art, whose influence reached as far as Japan.[213] Byzantine Greek art, which grew from the Hellenistic classical art and adapted the pagan motifs in the service of Christianity, provided a stimulus to the art of many nations.[214] Its influences can be traced from Venice in the West to Kazakhstan in the East.[214][215] In turn, Greek art was influenced by eastern civilizations (i.e. Egypt, Persia, etc.) during various periods of its history.[216] Notable modern Greek artists include the major Renaissance painter Dominikos Theotokopoulos (El Greco), Nikolaos Gyzis, Nikiphoros Lytras, Konstantinos Volanakis, Theodoros Vryzakis, Georgios Jakobides, Thalia Flora-Karavia, Yannis Tsarouchis, Nikos Engonopoulos, Périclès Pantazis, Theophilos, Kostas Andreou, Jannis Kounellis, sculptors such as Leonidas Drosis, Georgios Bonanos, Yannoulis Chalepas, Athanasios Apartis, Konstantinos Dimitriadis and Joannis Avramidis, conductor Dimitri Mitropoulos, soprano Maria Callas, composers such as Mikis Theodorakis, Nikos Skalkottas, Nikolaos Mantzaros, Spyridon Samaras, Manolis Kalomiris, Iannis Xenakis, Manos Hatzidakis, Manos Loïzos, Yanni and Vangelis, the masters of rebetiko Markos Vamvakaris and Vassilis Tsitsanis, and singers such as Giorgos Dalaras, Haris Alexiou, Sotiria Bellou, Nana Mouskouri, Vicky Leandros and Demis Roussos. Poets such as Andreas Kalvos, Athanasios Christopoulos, Kostis Palamas, the writer of Hymn to Liberty Dionysios Solomos, Angelos Sikelianos, Kostas Karyotakis, Maria Polydouri, Yannis Ritsos, Kostas Varnalis, Nikos Kavvadias, Andreas Embirikos and Kiki Dimoula. Constantine P. Cavafy and Nobel laureates Giorgos Seferis and Odysseas Elytis are among the most important poets of the 20th century. Novel is also represented by Alexandros Papadiamantis, Emmanuel Rhoides, Ion Dragoumis, Nikos Kazantzakis, Penelope Delta, Stratis Myrivilis, Vassilis Vassilikos and Petros Markaris, while notable playwrights include the Cretan Renaissance poets Georgios Chortatzis and Vincenzos Cornaros, such as Gregorios Xenopoulos and Iakovos Kambanellis. Notable cinema or theatre actors include Marika Kotopouli, Melina Mercouri, Ellie Lambeti, Academy Award winner Katina Paxinou, Alexis Minotis, Dimitris Horn, Thanasis Veggos, Manos Katrakis and Irene Papas. Alekos Sakellarios, Karolos Koun, Vasilis Georgiadis, Kostas Gavras, Michael Cacoyannis, Giannis Dalianidis, Nikos Koundouros and Theo Angelopoulos are among the most important directors. Among the most significant modern-era architects are Stamatios Kleanthis, Lysandros Kaftanzoglou, Anastasios Metaxas, Panagis Kalkos, Anastasios Orlandos, the naturalized Greek Ernst Ziller, Dimitris Pikionis and urban planners Stamatis Voulgaris and George Candilis. Science See also: Ancient Greek philosophy, Greek mathematics, Ancient Greek medicine, Byzantine science, Greek scholars in the Renaissance, and List of Greek inventions and discoveries Aristarchus of Samos was the first known individual to propose a heliocentric system, in the 3rd century BC The Greeks of the Classical and Hellenistic eras made seminal contributions to science and philosophy, laying the foundations of several western scientific traditions, such as astronomy, geography, historiography, mathematics, medicine, philosophy and political science. The scholarly tradition of the Greek academies was maintained during Roman times with several academic institutions in Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria and other centers of Greek learning, while Byzantine science was essentially a continuation of classical science.[217] Greeks have a long tradition of valuing and investing in paideia (education).[87] Paideia was one of the highest societal values in the Greek and Hellenistic world while the first European institution described as a university was founded in 5th century Constantinople and operated in various incarnations until the city's fall to the Ottomans in 1453.[218] The University of Constantinople was Christian Europe's first secular institution of higher learning since no theological subjects were taught,[219] and considering the original meaning of the world university as a corporation of students, the world's first university as well.[218] As of 2007, Greece had the eighth highest percentage of tertiary enrollment in the world (with the percentages for female students being higher than for male) while Greeks of the Diaspora are equally active in the field of education.[176] Hundreds of thousands of Greek students attend western universities every year while the faculty lists of leading Western universities contain a striking number of Greek names.[220] Notable Greek scientists of modern times include Indologist Dimitrios Galanos, Dr Georgios Papanicolaou (inventor of the Pap test), mathematician Constantin Carathéodory, archaeologists Manolis Andronikos, Valerios Stais, Spyridon Marinatos and Ioannis Svoronos, computer scientists Michael Dertouzos, John Argyris, Nicholas Negroponte, Joseph Sifakis (2007 Turing Award, the "Nobel Prize" of Computer Science), Christos Papadimitriou (2002 Knuth Prize, 2012 Gödel Prize) and Mihalis Yannakakis (2005 Knuth Prize), physicists Achilles Papapetrou, Dimitri Nanopoulos and John Iliopoulos (2007 Dirac Prize for his contributions on the physics of the charm quark, a major contribution to the birth of the Standard Model, the modern theory of Elementary Particles), astronomer Eugenios Antoniadis, biologist Fotis Kafatos, botanist Theodoros Orphanides, economist Xenophon Zolotas, linguist Yiannis Psycharis, historians Constantine Paparrigopoulos and Helene Glykatzi Ahrweiler and political scientists Nicos Poulantzas and Cornelius Castoriadis. Significant engineers and automobile designers include Nikolas Tombazis, Alec Issigonis and Andreas Zapatinas. Symbols See also: Flag of Greece The flag of the Greek Orthodox Church is based on the coat of arms of the Palaiologoi, the last dynasty of the Byzantine Empire. Traditional Greek flag up to the early stages of the Greek War of Independence. The most widely used symbol is the flag of Greece, which features nine equal horizontal stripes of blue alternating with white representing the nine syllables of the Greek national motto Eleftheria i Thanatos (Freedom or Death), which was the motto of the Greek War of Independence.[221] The blue square in the upper hoist-side corner bears a white cross, which represents Greek Orthodoxy. The Greek flag is widely used by the Greek Cypriots, although Cyprus has officially adopted a neutral flag to ease ethnic tensions with the Turkish Cypriot minority (see flag of Cyprus).[222] The pre-1978 (and first) flag of Greece, which features a Greek cross (crux immissa quadrata) on a blue background, is widely used as an alternative to the official flag, and they are often flown together. The national emblem of Greece features a blue escutcheon with a white cross surrounded by two laurel branches. A common design involves the current flag of Greece and the pre-1978 flag of Greece with crossed flagpoles and the national emblem placed in front.[223] Another highly recognizable and popular Greek symbol is the double-headed eagle, the imperial emblem of the last dynasty of the Eastern Roman Empire and a common symbol in Asia Minor and, later, Eastern Europe.[224] It is not part of the modern Greek flag or coat-of-arms, although it is officially the insignia of the Greek Army and the flag of the Church of Greece. It had been incorporated in the Greek coat of arms between 1925 and 1926.[225] Politics See also: Politics in Greece Classical Athens is considered the birthplace of Democracy. The term appeared in the 5th century BC to denote the political systems then existing in Greek city-states, notably Athens, to mean "rule of the people", in contrast to aristocracy (ἀριστοκρατία, aristokratía), meaning "rule by an excellent elite", and to oligarchy. While theoretically these definitions are in opposition, in practice the distinction has been blurred historically.[226] Led by Cleisthenes, Athenians established what is generally held as the first democracy in 508–507 BC,[227] which took gradually the form of a direct democracy. The democratic form of government declined during the Hellenistic and Roman eras, only to be revived as an interest in Western Europe during the early modern period. The European enlightenment and the democratic, liberal and nationalistic ideas of the French Revolution was a crucial factor to the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence and the establishment of the modern Greek state.[228][229] Notable modern Greek politicians include Ioannis Kapodistrias, founder of the First Hellenic Republic, reformist Charilaos Trikoupis, Eleftherios Venizelos, who marked the shape of modern Greece, social democrats Georgios Papandreou and Alexandros Papanastasiou, Konstantinos Karamanlis, founder of the Third Hellenic Republic, and socialist Andreas Papandreou. Surnames and personal names See also: Greek name and Ancient Greek personal names Greek surnames began to appear in the 9th and 10th century, at first among ruling families, eventually supplanting the ancient tradition of using the father's name as disambiguator.[230][231] Nevertheless, Greek surnames are most commonly patronymics,[230] such those ending in the suffix -opoulos or -ides, while others derive from trade professions, physical characteristics, or a location such as a town, village, or monastery.[231] Commonly, Greek male surnames end in -s, which is the common ending for Greek masculine proper nouns in the nominative case. Occasionally (especially in Cyprus), some surnames end in -ou, indicating the genitive case of a patronymic name.[232] Many surnames end in suffixes that are associated with a particular region, such as -akis (Crete), -eas or -akos (Mani Peninsula), -atos (island of Cephalonia), -ellis (island of Lesbos) and so forth.[231] In addition to a Greek origin, some surnames have Turkish or Latin/Italian origin, especially among Greeks from Asia Minor and the Ionian Islands, respectively.[233] Female surnames end in a vowel and are usually the genitive form of the corresponding males surname, although this usage is not followed in the diaspora, where the male version of the surname is generally used. With respect to personal names, the two main influences are Christianity and classical Hellenism; ancient Greek nomenclatures were never forgotten but have become more widely bestowed from the 18th century onwards.[231] As in antiquity, children are customarily named after their grandparents, with the first born male child named after the paternal grandfather, the second male child after the maternal grandfather, and similarly for female children.[234] Personal names are often familiarized by a diminutive suffix, such as -akis for male names and -itsa or -oula for female names.[231] Greeks generally do not use middle names, instead using the genitive of the father's first name as a middle name. This usage has been passed on to the Russians and other East Slavs (otchestvo). Sea: exploring and commerce Main article: Greek shipping Aristotle Onassis, the best known Greek shipping magnate worldwide. The traditional Greek homelands have been the Greek peninsula and the Aegean Sea, Southern Italy (Magna Graecia), the Black Sea, the Ionian coasts of Asia Minor and the islands of Cyprus and Sicily. In Plato's Phaidon, Socrates remarks, "we (Greeks) live around a sea like frogs around a pond" when describing to his friends the Greek cities of the Aegean.[235][236] This image is attested by the map of the Old Greek Diaspora, which corresponded to the Greek world until the creation of the Greek state in 1832. The sea and trade were natural outlets for Greeks since the Greek peninsula is mostly rocky and does not offer good prospects for agriculture.[44] Notable Greek seafarers include people such as Pytheas of Massalia who sailed to Great Britain, Euthymenes who sailed to Africa, Scylax of Caryanda who sailed to India, the navarch of Alexander the Great Nearchus, Megasthenes, explorer of India, later the 6th century merchant and monk Cosmas Indicopleustes (Cosmas who sailed to India), and the explorer of the Northwestern Passage Ioannis Fokas also known as Juan de Fuca.[237] In later times, the Byzantine Greeks plied the sea-lanes of the Mediterranean and controlled trade until an embargo imposed by the Byzantine emperor on trade with the Caliphate opened the door for the later Italian pre-eminence in trade.[238] Panayotis Potagos was another explorer of modern times who was the first to reach Mbomu and Uele River from the north. The Greek shipping tradition recovered during the late Ottoman rule (especially after the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca and during the Napoleonic Wars), when a substantial merchant middle class developed, which played an important part in the Greek War of Independence.[115] Today, Greek shipping continues to prosper to the extent that Greece has one of the largest merchant fleets in the world, while many more ships under Greek ownership fly flags of convenience.[176] The most notable shipping magnate of the 20th century was Aristotle Onassis, others being Yiannis Latsis, Stavros G. Livanos, and Stavros Niarchos.[239][240] Genetics See also: Genetic history of Europe Admixture analysis of autosomal SNPs of the Balkan region in a global context on the resolution level of 7 assumed ancestral populations: African (brown), South/West European (light blue), Asian (yellow), Middle Eastern (green), North/East European (dark blue) and Caucasian/Anatolian component (beige). Factor Correspondence Analysis Comparing Different Individuals from European Ancestry Groups. Genetic studies using multiple autosomal gene markers, Y chromosomal DNA haplogroup analysis and mitochondrial gene markers (mtDNA) show that Greeks share similar backgrounds as the rest of the Europeans and especially Southern Europeans (Italians and southern Balkan populations such as Albanians, Slavic Macedonians and Romanians). According to the studies using multiple autosomal gene markers, Greeks are some of the earliest contributors of genetic material to the rest of the Europeans as they are one of the oldest populations in Europe.[241] A study in 2008 showed that Greeks are genetically closest to Italians and Romanians[242] and another 2008 study showed that they are close to Italians, Albanians, Romanians and southern Balkan Slavs.[243] A 2003 study showed that Greeks cluster with other South European (mainly Italians) and North-European populations and are close to the Basques,[244] and FST distances showed that they group with other European and Mediterranean populations,[241][245] especially with Italians (−0.0001) and Tuscans (0.0005).[246] Y DNA studies show that Greeks cluster with other Europeans[c] and that they carry some of the oldest Y haplogroups in Europe, in particular the J2 haplogroup (and other J subhaplogroups) and E haplogroups, which are genetic markers denoting early farmers.[247][251][252][253] The Y-chromosome lineage E-V13 appears to have originated in Greece or the southern Balkans and is high in Greeks as well as in Albanians, southern Italians and southern Slavs. E-V13 is also found in Corsicans and Provencals, where an admixture analysis estimated that 17% of the Y-chromosomes of Provence may be attributed to Greek colonization, and is also found at low frequencies on the Anatolian mainland. These results suggest that E-V13 may trace the demographic and socio-cultural impact of Greek colonization in Mediterranean Europe, a contribution that appears to be considerably larger than that of a Neolithic pioneer colonization.[254][255][256] A study in 2008 showed that Greek regional samples from the mainland cluster with those from the Balkans, principally Albanians while Cretan Greeks cluster with the central Mediterranean and Eastern Mediterranean samples.[248] Greek signature DNA influence can be seen in Southern Italy and Sicily, where the genetic contribution of Greek chromosomes to the Sicilian gene pool is estimated to be about 37%, and the Southern Balkans, primarily Albania.[251][252] Di Gaetano et al. also note that the genetic links analysed in their findings "shows that Sicily and southeastern Europe, especially Greece and Albania, share a common background." [257] Studies using mitochondrial DNA gene markers (mtDNA) showed that Greeks group with other Mediterranean European populations[258][259][260] and principal component analysis (PCA) confirmed the low genetic distance between Greeks and Italians[261] and also revealed a cline of genes with highest frequencies in the Balkans and Southern Italy, spreading to lowest levels in Britain and the Basque country, which Cavalli-Sforza associates it with "the Greek expansion, which reached its peak in historical times around 1000 and 500 BC but which certainly began earlier".[262] A 2017 study on the genetic origins of the Minoans and Mycenaeans showed that modern Greeks resemble the Mycenaeans, but with some additional dilution of the early neolithic ancestry. The results of the study support the idea of genetic continuity between these civilizations and modern Greeks but not isolation in the history of populations of the Aegean, before and after the time of its earliest civilizations.[263][264][265] In an interview, the study's author, Harvard University geneticist Iosif Lazaridis, precised "that all three Bronze Age groups (Minoans, Mycenaeans, and Bronze Age southwestern Anatolians) trace most of their ancestry from the earlier Neolithic populations that were very similar in Greece and western Anatolia. But, they also had some ancestry from the 'east', related to populations of the Caucasus and Iran" as well as "some ancestry from the "north", related to hunter-gatherers of eastern Europe and Siberia and also to the Bronze Age people of the steppe. We could also compare the Mycenaeans—again, the first speakers of the Greek language—to modern people from Greece who are very similar to them, but with lower early Neolithic ancestry", and argues that "some had theorized that the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations were influenced both culturally and genetically by the old civilizations of the Levant and Egypt, but there is no quantifiable genetic influence".[266] Physical appearance A study from 2013 for prediction of hair and eye colour from DNA of the Greek people showed that the self-reported phenotype frequencies according to hair and eye colour categories was as follows: 119 individuals – hair colour, 11 blond, 45 dark blond/light brown, 49 dark brown, 3 brown red/auburn and 11 had black hair; eye colour, 13 with blue, 15 with intermediate (green, heterochromia) and 91 had brown eye colour.[267] Another study from 2012 included 150 dental school students from the University of Athens, and the results of the study showed that light hair colour (blonde/light ash brown) was predominant in 10.7% of the students. 36% had medium hair colour (light brown/medium darkest brown), 32% had darkest brown and 21% black (15.3 off black, 6% midnight black). In conclusion, the hair colour of young Greeks are mostly brown, ranging from light to dark brown with significant minorities having black and blonde hair. The same study also showed that the eye colour of the students was 14.6% blue/green, 28% medium (light brown) and 57.4% dark brown.[268] Timeline The history of the Greek people is closely associated with the history of Greece, Cyprus, Constantinople, Asia Minor and the Black Sea. During the Ottoman rule of Greece, a number of Greek enclaves around the Mediterranean were cut off from the core, notably in Southern Italy, the Caucasus, Syria and Egypt. By the early 20th century, over half of the overall Greek-speaking population was settled in Asia Minor (now Turkey), while later that century a huge wave of migration to the United States, Australia, Canada and elsewhere created the modern Greek diaspora. Time Events c. 3rd millennium BC Proto-Greek tribes from around the Southern Balkans/Aegean are generally thought to have arrived in the Greek mainland. 16th century BC Decline of the Minoan civilization, possibly because of the eruption of Thera. Emergence of the Achaeans and formation of the Mycenaean civilization, the first Greek-speaking civilization. 13th century BC First colonies established in Asia Minor. 11th century BC The Mycenaean civilization ends in the presumed Dorian invasion. The Greek Dark Ages begin. Dorians move into peninsular Greece. Achaeans flee to Aegean Islands, Asia Minor and Cyprus. 9th century BC Major colonization of Asia Minor and Cyprus by the Greek tribes. 8th century BC First major colonies established in Sicily and Southern Italy. The first Pan-Hellenic festival, the Olympic games, is held in 776 BC. The emergence of Pan-Hellenism marks the ethnogenesis of the Greek nation. 6th century BC Colonies established across the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea. 5th century BC Defeat of the Persians and emergence of the Delian League in Ionia, the Black Sea and Aegean perimeter culminates in Athenian Empire and the Classical Age of Greece; ends with Athens defeat by Sparta at the close of the Peloponnesian War 4th century BC Rise of Theban power and defeat of the Spartans; Rise of Macedon; Campaign of Alexander the Great; Greek colonies established in newly founded cities of Ptolemaic Egypt and Asia. 2nd century BC Conquest of Greece by the Roman Empire. Migrations of Greeks to Rome. 4th century AD Eastern Roman Empire. Migrations of Greeks throughout the Empire, mainly towards Constantinople. 7th century Slavic conquest of several parts of Greece, Greek migrations to Southern Italy, Roman emperors capture main Slavic bodies and transfer them to Cappadocia. The Bosphorus is re-populated by Macedonian and Cypriot Greeks. 8th century Roman dissolution of surviving Slavic settlements in Greece and full recovery of the Greek peninsula. 9th century Retro-migrations of Greeks from all parts of the Empire (mainly from Southern Italy and Sicily) into parts of Greece that were depopulated by the Slavic Invasions (mainly western Peloponnesus and Thessaly). 13th century Roman Empire dissolves, Constantinople taken by the Fourth Crusade; becoming the capital of the Latin Empire. Liberated after a long struggle by the Empire of Nicaea, but fragments remain separated. Migrations between Asia Minor, Constantinople and mainland Greece take place. 15th century – 19th century Conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Empire. Greek diaspora into Europe begins. Ottoman settlements in Greece. Phanariot Greeks occupy high posts in Eastern European millets. Time Events 1830s Creation of the Modern Greek State. Immigration to the New World begins. Large-scale migrations from Constantinople and Asia Minor to Greece take place. 1913 European Ottoman lands partitioned; unorganized migrations of Greeks, Bulgarians and Turks towards their respective states. 1914–1923 Greek genocide; hundreds of thousands of Ottoman Greeks are estimated to have died during this period.[269] 1919 Treaty of Neuilly; Greece and Bulgaria exchange populations, with some exceptions. 1922 The Destruction of Smyrna (modern-day Izmir) more than 40 thousand Greeks killed; end of significant Greek presence in Asia Minor. 1923 Treaty of Lausanne; Greece and Turkey agree to exchange populations with limited exceptions of the Greeks in Constantinople, Imbros, Tenedos and the Muslim minority of Western Thrace. 1.5 million of Asia Minor and Pontic Greeks settle in Greece, and some 450 thousands of Muslims settle in Turkey. 1940s Hundred of thousands Greeks died from starvation during the Axis Occupation of Greece 1947 Communist regime in Romania begins evictions of the Greek community, approx. 75,000 migrate. 1948 Greek Civil War. Tens of thousands of Greek communists and their families flee into Eastern Bloc nations. Thousands settle in Tashkent. 1950s Massive emigration of Greeks to West Germany, the United States, Australia, Canada, and other countries. 1955 Istanbul Pogrom against Greeks. Exodus of Greeks from the city accelerates; less than 2,000 remain today. 1958 Large Greek community in Alexandria flees Nasser's regime in Egypt. 1960s Republic of Cyprus created as an independent state under Greek, Turkish and British protection. Economic emigration continues. 1974 Turkish invasion of Cyprus. Almost all Greeks living in Northern Cyprus flee to the south and the United Kingdom. 1980s Many civil war refugees were allowed to re-emigrate to Greece. Retro-migration of Greeks from Germany begins. 1990s Collapse of Soviet Union. Approximately 340,000 ethnic Greeks migrate from Georgia, Armenia, southern Russia, and Albania to Greece. early 2000s Some statistics show the beginning of a trend of reverse migration of Greeks from the United States and Australia. 2010s Over 200,000 people,[270] particularly young skilled individuals,[271] emigrate to other EU states due to high unemployment (see also Greek government-debt crisis).[272] See also Ancient Greece portal Greece portal Antiochian Greeks Arvanites Cappadocian Greeks Caucasian Greeks Greek Cypriots Greek Diaspora Griko people Karamanlides Macedonians (Greeks) Maniots Greek Muslims Northern Epirotes Pelasgians Pontic Greeks Romaniotes Sarakatsani Tsakones Lists List of ancient Greeks List of Greeks List of Greek Americans Notes ^ There is a range of interpretations: Carl Blegen dates the arrival of the Greeks around 1900 BC, John Caskey believes that there were two waves of immigrants and Robert Drews places the event as late as 1600 BC.[55][56] Numerous other theories have also been supported,[57] but there is a general consensus that the Greek tribes arrived around 2100 BC. ^ While Greek authorities signed the agreement legalizing the population exchange this was done on the insistence of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and after a million Greeks had already been expelled from Asia Minor (Gilbar 1997, p. 8). ^ See:[247][248][249][250][251] Citations ^ Maratou-Alipranti 2013, p. 196: "The Greek diaspora remains large, consisting of up to 4 million people globally." ^ Clogg 2013, p. 228: "Greeks of the diaspora, settled in some 141 countries, were held to number 7 million although it is not clear how this figure was arrived at or what criteria were used to define Greek ethnicity, while the population of the homeland, according to the 1991 census, amounted to some 10.25 million." ^ "2011 Population and Housing Census". Hellenic Statistical Authority. 12 September 2014. Archived from the original on 16 July 2016. Retrieved 18 May 2016. The Resident Population of Greece is 10.816.286, of which 5.303.223 male (49,0%) and 5.513.063 female (51,0%) ... The total number of permanent residents of Greece with foreign citizenship during the Census was 912.000. [See Graph 6: Resident Population by Citizenship] ^ "Statistical Data on Immigrants in Greece: An Analytic Study of Available Data and Recommendations for Conformity with European Union Standards" (PDF). Archive of European Integration (AEI). University of Pittsburgh. 15 November 2004. Retrieved 18 May 2016. [p. 5] The Census recorded 762.191 persons normally resident in Greece and without Greek citizenship, constituting around 7% of total population. Of these, 48.560 are EU or EFTA nationals; there are also 17.426 Cypriots with privileged status. ^ Statistical Service (2003–2016). "Preliminary Results of the Census of Population, 2011". Republic of Cyprus, Ministry of Finance, Statistical Service. ^ Cole 2011, Yiannis Papadakis, "Cypriots, Greek", pp. 92–95 ^ "Where are the Greek communities of the world?". themanews.com. Protothemanews.com. 2013. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 14 August 2015. ^ "Total ancestry categories tallied for people with one or more ancestry categories reported 2011–2013 American Community Survey 3-Year Estimates". American FactFinder. U.S. Department of Commerce: United States Census Bureau. 2013. Archived from the original on 14 February 2020. Retrieved 23 May 2016. ^ "U.S. Relations with Greece". United States Department of State. 10 March 2016. Retrieved 18 May 2016. Today, an estimated three million Americans resident in the United States claim Greek descent. This large, well-organized community cultivates close political and cultural ties with Greece. ^ "Statistical Yearbook Germany Extract Chapter 2: Population, Families and Living Arrangements in Germany". Statistisches Bundesamt. 14 March 2013. p. 21. ^ "2071.0 – Reflecting a Nation: Stories from the 2011 Census, 2012–2013". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 21 June 2012. Retrieved 13 February 2014. ^ "United Kingdom: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 9 July 2013. There are between 40 and 45 thousand Greeks residing permanently in the UK, and the Greek Orthodox Church has a strong presence in the Archdiocese of Thyateira and Great Britain ... There is a significant Greek presence of Greek students in tertiary education in the UK. A large Cypriot community – numbering 250–300 thousand – rallies round the National Federation of Cypriots in Great Britain and the Association of Greek Orthodox Communities of Great Britain. ^ "Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity Highlight Tables". statcan.gc.ca. ^ a b Jeffries 2002, p. 69: "It is difficult to know how many ethnic Greeks there are in Albania. The Greek government, it is typically claimed, says there are around 300,000 ethnic Greeks in Albania, but most Western estimates are around the 200,000 mark ..." ^ "Greeks Around the Globe". AusGreekNet. Archived from the original on 19 June 2006. ^ "South Africa: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 4 February 2011. Archived from the original on 19 June 2006. ^ "Italy: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 9 July 2013. The Greek Italian community numbers some 30,000 and is concentrated mainly in central Italy. The age-old presence in Italy of Italians of Greek descent – dating back to Byzantine and Classical times – is attested to by the Griko dialect, which is still spoken in the Magna Graecia region. This historically Greek-speaking villages are Condofuri, Galliciano, Roccaforte del Greco, Roghudi, Bova and Bova Marina, which are in the Calabria region (the capital of which is Reggio). The Grecanic region, including Reggio, has a population of some 200,000, while speakers of the Griko dialect number fewer that 1,000 persons. ^ a b "Grecia Salentina" (in Italian). Unione dei Comuni della Grecìa Salentina. 2016. La popolazione complessiva dell'Unione è di 54278 residenti così distribuiti (Dati Istat al 31° dicembre 2005. Comune Popolazione Calimera 7351 Carpignano Salentino 3868 Castrignano dei Greci 4164 Corigliano d'Otranto 5762 Cutrofiano 9250 Martano 9588 Martignano 1784 Melpignano 2234 Soleto 5551 Sternatia 2583 Zollino 2143 Totale 54278). ^ a b Bellinello 1998, p. 53: "Le attuali colonie Greche calabresi; La Grecìa calabrese si inscrive nel massiccio aspromontano e si concentra nell'ampia e frastagliata valle dell'Amendolea e nelle balze più a oriente, dove sorgono le fiumare dette di S. Pasquale, di Palizzi e Sidèroni e che costituiscono la Bovesia vera e propria. Compresa nei territori di cinque comuni (Bova Superiore, Bova Marina, Roccaforte del Greco, Roghudi, Condofuri), la Grecia si estende per circa 233 km (145 mi)q. La popolazione anagrafica complessiva è di circa 14.000 unità." ^ "English version of Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs reports a few thousand and Greek version 3.800". MFA.gr. ^ Rippin, Andrew (2008). World Islam: Critical Concepts in Islamic Studies. Routledge. p. 77. ISBN 978-0415456531. ^ Parvex R. (2014). Le Chili et les mouvements migratoires, Hommes & migrations, Nº 1305, 2014. doi: 10.4000/hommesmigrations.2720. ^ "Ukraine: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 4 February 2011. There is a significant Greek presence in southern and eastern Ukraine, which can be traced back to ancient Greek and Byzantine settlers. Ukrainian citizens of Greek descent amount to 91,000 people, although their number is estimated to be much higher by the Federation of Greek communities of Mariupol. ^ "Итоги Всероссийской переписи населения 2010 года в отношении демографических и социально-экономических характеристик отдельных национальностей". ^ "The Greek Community". Archived from the original on 13 June 2007. ^ "France: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 9 July 2013. Some 15,000 Greeks reside in the wider region of Paris, Lille and Lyon. In the region of Southern France, the Greek community numbers some 20,000. ^ "Belgium: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 28 January 2011. Some 35,000 Greeks reside in Belgium. Official Belgian data numbers Greeks in the country at 17,000, but does not take into account Greeks who have taken Belgian citizenship or work for international organizations and enterprises. ^ "Argentina: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 9 July 2013. It is estimated that some 20,000 to 30,000 persons of Greek origin currently reside in Argentina, and there are Greek communities in the wider region of Buenos Aires. ^ "Население по местоживеене, възраст и етническа група". censusresults.nsi.bg. Retrieved 15 October 2020. ^ "Bulgaria: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 28 January 2011. There are some 28,500 persons of Greek origin and citizenship residing in Bulgaria. This number includes approximately 15,000 Sarakatsani, 2,500 former political refugees, 8,000 "old Greeks", 2,000 university students and 1,000 professionals and their families. ^ "CBS Statline". ^ "Immigration to Uruguay" (PDF) (in Spanish). INE. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2013. Retrieved 6 March 2013. ^ "Sweden: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 4 February 2011. The Greek community in Sweden consists of approximately 24,000 Greeks who are permanent inhabitants, included in Swedish society and active in various sectors: science, arts, literature, culture, media, education, business, and politics. ^ "Georgia: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 31 January 2011. The Greek community of Georgia is currently estimated at 15,000 people, mostly elderly people living in the Tsalkas area. ^ "Migranti z Řecka v Česku" [Migrants from Greece in the Czech Republic] (PDF). Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs (in Czech). 9 March 2011. Retrieved 25 April 2019. ^ "Kazakhstan: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 3 February 2011. There are between 10,000 and 12,000 ethnic Greeks living in Kazakhstan, organized in several communities. ^ "Switzerland: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 10 December 2015. The Greek community in Switzerland is estimated to number some 11,000 persons (of a total of 1.5 million foreigners residing in the country. ^ "Romania: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 6 December 2013. The Greek Romanian community numbers some 10,000, and there are many Greeks working in established Greek enterprises in Romania. ^ "Greeks in Uzbekistan". Central Asia-Caucasus Analyst. The Central Asia-Caucasus Institute. 21 June 2000. Currently there are about 9,500 Greeks living in Uzbekistan, with 6,500 living in Tashkent. ^ Bevölkerung nach Staatsangehörigkeit und Geburtsland ^ Vukovich, Gabriella (2018). Mikrocenzus 2016 – 12. Nemzetiségi adatok [2016 microcensus – 12. Ethnic data] (PDF). Hungarian Central Statistical Office (in Hungarian). Budapest. ISBN 978-963-235-542-9. Retrieved 9 January 2019. ^ "World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Turkey: Rum Orthodox Christians". Minority Rights Group (MRG). 2005. Archived from the original on 29 March 2014. Retrieved 1 March 2014. ^ "Pontic". Ethnologue: Languages of the World. SIL International. 2016. Retrieved 13 May 2016. ^ a b c d e Roberts 2007, pp. 171–172, 222. ^ Latacz 2004, pp. 159, 165–166. ^ a b c d Sutton 1996. ^ Beaton 1996, pp. 1–25. ^ CIA World Factbook on Greece: Greek Orthodox 98%, Greek Muslim 1.3%, other 0.7%. ^ Thomas Heath (1981). A History of Greek Mathematics. Courier Dover Publications. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-486-24073-2. Retrieved 19 August 2013. ^ Georgiev 1981, p. 156: "The Proto-Greek region included Epirus, approximately up to Αυλών in the north including Paravaia, Tymphaia, Athamania, Dolopia, Amphilochia, and Acarnania), west and north Thessaly (Hestiaiotis, Perrhaibia, Tripolis, and Pieria), i.e. more or less the territory of contemporary northwestern Greece)." ^ Guibernau & Hutchinson 2004, p. 23: "Indeed, Smith emphasizes that the myth of divine election sustains the continuity of cultural identity, and, in that regard, has enabled certain pre-modern communities such as the Jews, Armenians, and Greeks to survive and persist over centuries and millennia (Smith 1993: 15–20)." ^ Smith 1999, p. 21: "It emphasizes the role of myths, memories and symbols of ethnic chosenness, trauma, and the 'golden age' of saints, sages, and heroes in the rise of modern nationalism among the Jews, Armenians, and Greeks—the archetypal diaspora peoples." ^ Bryce 2006, p. 91 ^ Cadogan 1986, p. 125 ^ Bryce 2006, p. 92 ^ Drews 1994, p. 21 ^ Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 243 ^ "The Greeks". Encyclopædia Britannica. US: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 2008. Online Edition. ^ Chadwick 1976, p. 2 ^ Vladimir I. Georgiev, for example, placed Proto-Greek in northwestern Greece during the Late Neolithic period. (Georgiev 1981, p. 192: "Late Neolithic Period: in northwestern Greece the Proto-Greek language had already been formed: this is the original home of the Greeks.") ^ Gray & Atkinson 2003, pp. 437–438; Atkinson & Gray 2006, p. 102. ^ a b "Linear A and Linear B". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 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Online Edition. ^ a b c d Harris 1991, pp. 137–138. ^ Lucore 2009, p. 51: "The Hellenistic period is commonly portrayed as the great age of Greek scientific discovery, above all in mathematics and astronomy." ^ Foltz 2010, pp. 43–46. ^ Burton 1993, pp. 244–245. ^ Zoch 2000, p. 136. ^ "Hellenistic religion". Encyclopædia Britannica. United States: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 13 May 2015. Online Edition. ^ Ferguson 2003, pp. 617–618. ^ Dunstan 2011, p. 500. ^ Milburn 1988, p. 158. ^ Makrides 2009, p. 206. ^ Nicholas, Nick. (2019). "A critical lexicostatistical examination of Ancient and Modern Greek and Tsakonian". Journal of Applied Linguistics and Lexicography. 1 (1): 19. doi:10.33910/2687-0215-2019-1-1-18-68. ^ Kaldellis 2007, pp. 35–40. ^ Howatson 1989, p. 264: "From the fourth century AD onwards the Greeks of the eastern Roman empire called themselves Rhomaioi ('Romans') ..." ^ a b Cameron 2009, p. 7. ^ Stouraitis 2014, pp. 176, 177. ^ Finkelberg 2012, p. 20. ^ a b Burstein 1988, pp. 47–49. ^ Harrison 2002, p. 268: "Roman, Greek (if not used in its sense of 'pagan') and Christian became synonymous terms, counterposed to 'foreigner', 'barbarian', 'infidel'. The citizens of the Empire, now predominantly of Greek ethnicity and language, were often called simply ό χριστώνυμος λαός ['the people who bear Christ's name']." ^ Earl 1968, p. 148. ^ Paul the Silentiary. Descriptio S. Sophiae et Ambonis, 425, Line 12 ("χῶρος ὅδε Γραικοῖσι"); Theodore the Studite. 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"The HIrisPlex System for Simultaneous Prediction of Hair and Eye Colour from DNA". Forensic Science International: Genetics. 7 (1): 98–115. doi:10.1016/j.fsigen.2012.07.005. PMID 22917817. Wickham, Chris (2005). Framing the Early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean 400-800. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926449-0. Withey, Lynne (1989) [1987]. Voyages of Discovery: Captain Cook and the Exploration of the Pacific. Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-06564-2. Winford, Donald (2003). An Introduction to Contact Linguistics. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-631-21251-5. Winstedt, Eric Otto (1909). The Christian Topography of Cosmas Indicopleustes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wood, Michael (2001) [1997]. In the Footsteps of Alexander The Great: A Journey from Greece to Asia. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-23192-4. Yotopoulos-Marangopoulos, Alice (2001). "Non-governmental Organizations and Human Rights in Today's World". In Sicilianos, Linos-Alexandre (ed.). The Marangopoulos Foundation for Human Rights: Twenty Years of Activity. Athens and Komotini: Ant. N. Sakkoulas Publishers. pp. 21–38. ISBN 978-90-411-1672-7. Zoch, Paul (2000). Ancient Rome: An Introductory History. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-3287-7. Zuwiyya, David (2011). A Companion to Alexander Literature in the Middle Ages. Leiden and Boston: BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-18345-2. Further reading Asatryan, G.S.; Arakelova, Viktoriia (2002). The Ethnic Minorities of Armenia. Yerevan: Caucasian Centre for Iranian Studies. ISBN 978-99930-69-21-8. Clackson, James (1995). The Linguistic Relationship Between Armenian and Greek. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-19197-1. Kenyon, Sherrilyn (2005). The Writer's Digest Character Naming Sourcebook. Cincinnati, OH: Writer's Digest Books. ISBN 978-1-58297-295-4. Malatras, Christos (2011). "The Making of an Ethnic Group: The Romaioi in 12th–13th Century". In K. A. Dimadis (ed.). Ταυτότητες στον ελληνικό κόσμο (από το 1204 έως σήμερα. Δ΄ Ευρωπαϊκό Συνέδριο Νεοελληνικών Σπουδών, Γρανάδα, 9–12 Σεπτεμβρίου 2010. Πρακτικά. 3. Athens: European Association of Modern Greek Studies. pp. 419–430. Mango, Cyril A. (2002). The Oxford History of Byzantium. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814098-6. Renfrew, Colin (2003). "Time Depth, Convergence Theory, and Innovation in Proto-Indo-European: 'Old Europe' as a PIE Linguistic Area". In Bammesberger, Alfred; Vennemann, Theo (eds.). Languages in Prehistoric Europe. Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag Winter GmBH. pp. 17–48. ISBN 978-3-8253-1449-1. Mycenaean Greeks Dickinson, Oliver (1977). The Origins of Mycenaean Civilization. Götenberg: Paul Aströms Förlag. Dickinson, Oliver (December 1999). "Invasion, Migration and the Shaft Graves". Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies. 43 (1): 97–107. doi:10.1111/j.2041-5370.1999.tb00480.x. Dickinson, Oliver (2006). The Aegean from Bronze Age to Iron Age: Continuity and Change between the Twelfth and Eighth Centuries BC. New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-96836-9. Forsén, Jeannette (1992). The Twilight of the Early Helladics. Partille, Sweden: Paul Aströms Förlag. ISBN 978-91-7081-031-2. Mylonas, George Emmanuel (1966). Mycenae and the Mycenaean Age. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Tandy, David W. (2001). Prehistory and History: Ethnicity, Class and Political Economy. Montréal, Québec, Canada: Black Rose Books. ISBN 978-1-55164-188-1. Classical Greeks Burkert, Walter (1987) [1985]. Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical. Oxford and Malden: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1-118-72499-6. Cartledge, Paul (2011). Ancient Greece: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-960134-9. Cartledge, Paul (2002). The Greeks: A Portrait of Self and Others. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280388-7. Freeman, Charles (2014). Egypt, Greece and Rome: Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-965192-4. Finkelberg, Margalit (2006). Greeks and Pre-Greeks: Aegean Prehistory and Greek Heroic Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-44836-9. Hall, Jonathan M. (2002). Hellenicity: Between Ethnicity and Culture. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-31329-0. Hall, Jonathan M. (2000). Ethnic Identity in Greek Antiquity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-78999-8. MacKendrick, Paul Lachlan (1981). The Greek Stones Speak: The Story of Archaeology in Greek Lands. New York and London: W.W. Norton and Company. ISBN 978-0-393-30111-3. Malkin, Irad (1998). The Returns of Odysseus: Colonization and Ethnicity. Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-21185-8. Walbank, Frank W. (1985). Selected Papers: Studies in Greek and Roman History and Historiography. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-30752-9. Hellenistic Greeks Chamoux, François (2002). Hellenistic Civilization. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-631-22241-5. Bilde, P.; Engberg-Pedersen, T.; Hannestad, L.; Zahle, J., eds. (1997). Conventional Values of the Hellenistic Greeks (Studies in Hellenistic Civilization 8). Aarhus: Aarhus University Press. ISBN 978-87-7288-555-1. Byzantine Greeks Ahrweiler, Hélène; Laiou, Angeliki E. (1998). Studies on the Internal Diaspora of the Byzantine Empire. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. ISBN 978-0-88402-247-3. Ahrweiler, Hélène (1975). L'idéologie politique de l'Empire byzantin. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. Harris, Jonathan (2007). Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium (Hambledon Continuum). London: Hambledon & London. ISBN 978-1-84725-179-4. Kazhdan, Alexander Petrovich, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6. Runciman, Steven (1966). Byzantine Civilisation. London: Edward Arnold. ISBN 978-1-56619-574-4. Toynbee, Arnold J. (1973). Constantine Porphyrogenitus and His World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-215253-4. Ottoman Greeks Davis, Jack E.; Zarinebaf, Fariba; Bennet, John (2005). A Historical and Economic Geography of Ottoman Greece: The Southwestern Morea in the 18th Century. Princeton, NJ: American School of Classical Studies at Athens. ISBN 978-0-87661-534-8. Davis, Jack E.; Davies, Siriol (2007). Between Venice and Istanbul: Colonial Landscapes in Early Modern Greece. Princeton, NJ: American School of Classical Studies at Athens. ISBN 978-0-87661-540-9. Gondicas, Dimitri; Issawi, Charles Philip (1999). Ottoman Greeks in the Age of Nationalism: Politics, Economy, and Society in the Nineteenth Century. Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press. ISBN 978-0-87850-096-3. Lampe, John R.; Jackson, Marvin R. (1982). Balkan Economic History, 1550–1950: From Imperial Borderlands to Developing Nations. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-30368-4. Modern Greeks Frary, Lucien J. (2015). Russia and the Making of Modern Greek Identity, 1821-1844. Oxford University Press. p. 296. ISBN 978-0-19-873377-5. Herzfeld, Michael (1982). Ours Once More: Folklore, Ideology, and the Making of Modern Greece. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-76018-9. Holden, David (1972). Greece without Columns: The Making of the Modern Greeks. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-397-00779-0. Karakasidou, Anastasia N. (1997). Fields of Wheat, Hills of Blood: Passages to Nationhood in Greek Macedonia, 1870–1990. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-42494-1. Mackridge, Peter; Yannakakis, Eleni (1997). Ourselves and Others: The Development of a Greek Macedonian Cultural Identity since 1912. Oxford, United Kingdom: Berg Publishers. ISBN 978-1-85973-138-3. Mazower, Mark, ed. (2000). After The War Was Over: Reconstructing the Family, Nation and State in Greece, 1943–1960. Priceton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-05842-9. Toynbee, Arnold Joseph (1981). The Greeks and Their Heritages. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Trudgill, Peter (2002). Sociolinguistic Variation and Change. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-1515-5. Zacharia, Katerina (2008). Hellenisms: Culture, Identity, and Ethnicity from Antiquity to Modernity. Surrey, United Kingdom: Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-6525-0. 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en-wikipedia-org-8088	----	Ramesses VI - Wikipedia Ramesses VI From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Fifth ruler of the Twentieth dynasty of Egypt Ramesses VI Ramses VI, Rameses VI, Ramesses VI Amunherkhepeshef C Fragment of Ramesses VI's stone sarcophagus from his tomb now on display at the British Museum. The sarcophagus was originally painted, its stone quarried in the Wadi Hammamat. Pharaoh Reign Eight full years and two months in the mid-to-late 12th century BC (20th Dynasty) Predecessor Ramesses V Successor Ramesses VII Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Nebmaatre Meryamun Nb-m3ˁ.t-Rˁ-mr.j-Jmn Lord of the Maat like Ra, beloved of Amun[1][2] Nomen Ramesisu Amunherkhepeshef Netjerheqaiunu Rˁ-mss Jmn ḥr ḫpš=f nṯr-ḥqȝ-Jwnw Ra fashioned him, Amun is his strength, divine ruler of Heliopolis[1][2] Horus name Kanekhet Aanekhtu Sankhtawy K3-nḫt-ˁ3-nḫt.w-sˁnḫ-t3w.j Strong bull, whose victories are great, he who gives life to the two lands[3] Nebty name Weserkhepesh Hedhefenu Wsr-ḫpš-hd-ḥfn.w He whose blow is powerful, he whose attacks are countless[2] Alternative translation: Powerful of arms, [in] attacking the myriads[3] Golden Horus Weserrenput mi Tatenen Wsr-rnp.wt-mj-T3-ṯnn Rich in years like Tatenen[2] Consort Nubkhesbed Children Iset ♀, Ramesses VII ♂, Amenherkhepshef ♂, Panebenkemyt ♂ uncertain: Ramesses IX ♂ Father Ramesses III Mother Iset Ta-Hemdjert Burial KV9 Ramesses VI Nebmaatre-Meryamun (sometimes written Ramses or Rameses, also known under his princely name of Amenherkhepshef C[note 1]) was the fifth ruler of the Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt. He reigned for about eight years in the mid-to-late 12th century BC and was a son of Ramesses III and queen Iset Ta-Hemdjert. As a prince, he was known as Ramesses Amunherkhepeshef and held the titles of royal scribe and cavalry general. He was succeeded by his son, Ramesses VII Itamun, whom he had fathered with queen Nubkhesbed. After the death of the ruling pharaoh, Ramesses V, who was the son of Ramesses VI's older brother, Ramesses IV, Ramesses VI ascended the throne. In the first two years after his coronation, Ramesses VI stopped frequent raids by Libyan or Egyptian marauders in Upper Egypt and buried his predecessor in what is now an unknown tomb of the Theban necropolis. Ramesses VI usurped KV9, a tomb in the Valley of the Kings planned by and for Ramesses V, and had it enlarged and redecorated for himself. The craftsmen's huts near the entrance of KV9 covered up the entrance to Tutankhamun's tomb, saving it from a wave of tomb robberies that occurred within 20 years of Ramesses VI's death. Ramesses VI may have planned and made six more tombs in the Valley of the Queens, none which are known today. Egypt lost control of its last strongholds in Canaan around the time of Ramesses VI's reign. Though Egyptian occupation in Nubia continued, the loss of the Asiatic territories strained Egypt's weakening economy and increased prices. With construction projects increasingly hard to fund, Ramesses VI usurped the monuments of his forefathers by engraving his cartouches over theirs. Yet he boasted of having "[covered] all the land with great monuments in my name [...] built in honour of my fathers the gods". He was fond of cult statues of himself; more are known to portray him than any Twentieth-Dynasty king after Ramesses III. The Egyptologist Amin Amer characterises Ramesses VI as "a king who wished to pose as a great pharaoh in an age of unrest and decline". The pharaoh's power waned in Upper Egypt during Ramesses VI's rule. Though his daughter Iset was named God's Wife of Amun, the high-priest of Amun, Ramessesnakht, turned Thebes into Egypt's religious capital and a second center of power on par with Pi-Ramesses in Lower Egypt, where the pharaoh resided. In spite of these developments, there is no evidence that Ramessesnakht's dynasty worked against royal interests, which suggests that the Ramesside kings may have approved of these evolutions. Ramesses VI died in his forties, in his eighth or ninth year of rule. His mummy lay untouched in his tomb for fewer than 20 years before pillagers damaged it. The body was moved to KV35 during the reign of Pinedjem I, and was discovered in 1898 by victor Loret. Contents 1 Family 1.1 Parents and early life 1.2 Consort and children 2 Reign 2.1 Reign length 2.2 Activities and situation in Egypt 2.2.1 Early reign: strife in the Theban region 2.2.2 Later reign 2.2.3 Economic decline 2.3 Dilution of power 2.3.1 High officials 2.3.2 The dynasty of Ramessesnakht 2.4 Situation in Egypt's empire abroad 2.4.1 Final decline in Canaan 2.4.2 Continuing presence in Nubia 3 Funerary monuments 3.1 Tomb 3.2 Mortuary temple 4 Notes and references 4.1 Notes 4.2 References 4.3 Sources 5 External links Family[edit] Prince Amunherkhepeshef is shown on the "Procession of the Princes" relief in Medinet Habu. Parents and early life[edit] Ramesses VI was a son of Ramesses III,[4] the latter being considered the last great pharaoh of the New Kingdom period.[5] This filiation is established beyond doubt by a large relief found in the portico[4] of the Medinet Habu temple of Ramesses III known as the "Procession of the Princes".[6][7] The relief shows ten princes including Ramesses VI,[8] worshipping their father.[9] Ramesses III's sculptors seem to have left the relief incomplete; only the figures of the king and princes appear and no names are written in the spaces next to them.[note 2][9] The relief seems to have originally been executed when Ramesses VI was still a young prince, as he is shown wearing the sidelock of youth used to denote childhood. When Ramesses VI became king, he added his princely names "Ramesses Amunherkhepeshef"[note 3] inside royal cartouches as well as the titles he held before ascending the throne as "king's son of his body, his beloved, crown prince, royal scribe [and] cavalry general".[10] He altered his youthful figure on the "Procession of the Princes" with an uraeus underscoring his royal status and further completed the relief with the names of all his brothers and sons, with the exception of Ramesses IV, who had already written his royal name on the relief.[7][11] Speculation in Egyptology during the 1960s and 1970s concerning the chronology and genealogy of the Twentieth Dynasty as well as uncertainties affecting the identity of the king shown on the "Procession of princes" relief led some scholars to propose that Ramesses VI was a grandson of Ramesses III and the son either of an unknown prince[12] or of the infamous Pentawer involved in the murder of Ramesses III.[13] Such hypotheses have now been conclusively rejected and the relief is understood to mean exactly what it shows: that Ramesses VI was the son of Ramesses III.[note 4][16] Ramesses VI's mother was probably Iset Ta-Hemdjert, Ramesses III's Great Royal Wife, as suggested by the presence of Ramesses VI's cartouches on a door-jamb of her tomb in the Valley of the Queens.[17] Consort and children[edit] Koptos stela of Ramesses VI's daughter Iset (to the right) Ramesses VI's Great Royal Wife was queen Nubkhesbed.[18] The Egyptologists Aidan Dodson and Dyan Hilton believe that she bore Ramesses VI a total of four children: the princes Amenherkhepshef, Panebenkemyt[note 5] and Ramesses Itamun—the future pharaoh Ramesses VII who succeeded his father for a short while on the throne—and princess Iset who was appointed to the priestly role of "Divine Adoratrice of Amun".[19] A stela recounting this appointment was discovered in Koptos and demonstrates that Nubkhesbed was indeed Iset's mother.[20] Prince Amenherkhepshef died before his father and was buried in tomb KV13 in the Valley of the Kings, originally built for Chancellor Bay, an important official of the late Nineteenth Dynasty. The tomb decoration was updated in consequence, some reliefs notably mentioning Nubkhesbed.[18] Amenherkhepshef's sarcophagus was usurped from queen Twosret.[18] The filiation of Ramesses VII is established by an inscription on a doorjamb from Deir el-Medinaeh which reads "the good god, lord of the two lands, Usimaare-meryamun-setepenre, Son of Re, lord of epiphanies, Ramesses [VII], (It)-Amun, god, ruler of Heliopolis—he has made as his monument for his father, (may) live the good god, lord of the two lands, Nebmaare-meryamun, Son of Re, [Ramesses VI]".[21] The Egyptologists James Harris, Edward F. Wente and Kenneth Kitchen have also proposed, based on circumstantial evidence, that Ramesses IX was a son of Ramesses VI and thus a brother to Ramesses VII.[22] They note that Ramesses IX honoured Ramesses VII on two offering stands,[23] suggesting that they were close kin. Ramesses IX named one of his sons Nebmaatre, which is Ramesses VI's prenomen, possibly as a means to honour his father.[note 6][24] This hypothesis is contested by other scholars including Dodson and Hilton, who believe that Ramesses IX was instead a son of prince Montuherkhopshef and thus a nephew to Ramesses VI. They base their conclusion on other circumstantial evidence: first is a depiction of Montuherkhopshef in KV19 on which Ramesses IX's prenomen had been added.[26] Second is the fact that Ramesses IX's mother was named Takhat and Montuherkhopshef's spouse might have been a lady of the same name, hence possibly the same person.[27] Reign[edit] Reign length[edit] The scholarly consensus is now that Ramesses VI reigned in the mid 12th century BC over a period of eight full years and lived for two months into his brief last regnal year. More precisely, the Egyptologist Steve Vinson proposed that he reigned between 1156 BC and 1149 BC,[28] while the Encyclopædia Britannica reports 1145–1137 BC,[29] Jürgen von Beckerath gives 1142–1134 BC,[30] Erik Hornung 1145–1139 BC,[31] Nicolas Grimal 1144–1136 BC making him a contemporary of Nebuchadrezzar I of Isin,[32][33] Ian Shaw, Jacobus van Dijk and Michael Rice 1143–1136 BC,[34][35][36] and 1132–1125 BC in a 2017 study.[37] In 1977, the Egyptologists Wente and Charles van Siclen were the first to propose, upon reviewing the chronology of the New Kingdom period, that Ramesses VI lived into his eighth year of reign.[38] This hypothesis was vindicated the next year by the Egyptologist Jac Janssen, who published an analysis of an ostracon[note 7] which mentions the loan of an ox in the seventh and eighth years of an unnamed king who can only have been Ramesses VI.[note 8][39] Two years later, Lanny Bell reported further evidence that Ramesses VI not only reigned into his eighth regnal year but most likely completed it and lived into his ninth.[40] Ramesses VI's eighth year on the throne may also be mentioned in Theban graffito 1860a, which names the then serving High Priest of Amun, Ramessesnakht. This graffito has also been ascribed to Ramesses X,[41] but this interpretation has been contested and its ascription to Ramesses VI has been proposed as an alternative.[40] The subject remains debated.[42] An important piece of evidence first recognised by Jansen in 1978 but fully exploited only five years later by the Egyptologist Raphael Ventura is found on the Turin Papyrus 1907+1908, which covers the time period from Ramesses VI's fifth year until Ramesses VII's seventh year on the throne.[43] The reconstruction of the document proposed by Ventura shows that the simplest solution available to explain the chronology of the period covered by the papyrus is that Ramesses VI enjoyed a reign of eight full years, died in his ninth, and was succeeded by Ramesses VII rather than Ramesses VIII, as had been debated until then.[44][45] Activities and situation in Egypt[edit] Early reign: strife in the Theban region[edit] A statue from Karnak, now in the Egyptian Museum, shows Ramesses VI holding a bound Libyan captive. Immediately after his accession to the throne,[note 9] Ramesses VI and his court may have visited Thebes on the occasion of the Beautiful Festival of the Valley or the Opet Festival, concomitant with the preparations for Ramesses V's burial.[49] Ramesses VI visited the city on at least another occasion during his reign, when he installed his daughter as Divine Adoratrice of Amun.[49] The situation in the south of Egypt at the time of Ramesses VI's accession was not entirely stable, as attested by records showing that the workmen of Deir el-Bahari could not work on the king's tomb owing to the presence of "the enemy" in the vicinity, a situation which occurred over a period of at least fifteen days during Ramesses VI's first year on the throne.[3] This "enemy" was rumoured to have pillaged and burned the locality of Per-Nebyt[note 10] and the chief of the Medjay of Thebes—essentially the police—ordered the workmen to remain idle and watch the king's tomb.[50] It is unclear who these enemies were, the term could designate parties of Libyan Meshwesh,[35] Libu and Egyptian bandits, or as the Egyptologist Jaroslav Černý conjectured, a full blown civil war between followers of Ramesses V and Ramesses VI,[note 11][50] a hypothesis supported by Rice[36] but which has been strongly rejected by Kitchen[51] and, to a lesser extend, by Grimal and van Dijk.[4][35] A short military campaign might have ensued and from Ramesses VI's second year on the throne onwards these troubles seem to have stopped. This campaign could be connected with an unusual[3] statue of Ramesses VI showing him holding a bound Libyan captive,[52] as well as with a depiction of Ramesses VI triumphing over foreign soldiers on the second pylon of the Karnak temple.[3] This triumph scene was the last one to be made in Egypt until the later reigns of Siamun (986–967 BC) and Shoshenq I (943–922 BC).[3] Other indications in favour of strife and military activities early in Ramesses VI's reign are the names he adopted upon ascending the throne, his Horus name meaning "Strong bull, great of victories, keeping alive the two lands" as well as his Nebty name "Powerful of arms, attacking the myriads".[3] Later reign[edit] Following these events, on his second year of rule, Ramesses VI finally buried Ramesses V in a yet unidentified tomb in the Valley of the Kings,[53] having usurped the tomb originally prepared for his predecessor.[3] On the occasion of this visit to Thebes, Ramesses VI installed his daughter Iset as God's Wife of Amun and Divine Adoratice of Amun, in the presence of his mother, the acting vizier Nehy and other court officials.[3] That same year, he ordered the reduction of the gang of workmen working on the king's tomb from 120 members to its former number of 60, which had been changed under Ramesses IV.[note 12][50][54] Following this, the community of workers at Deir el-Medina went into gradual decline, the settlement being finally abandoned in the subsequent Twenty-first Dynasty.[55] In spite of the reduction, the Turin papyrus indicates that Ramesses VI ordered the construction of six tombs in the Valley of the Queens,[56] a number which might include the hasty[57] completion of the tomb of Iset Ta-Hemdjert, Ramesses' mother.[58] It is unknown whether these tombs were finished and in any case, they are now unidentifiable.[note 13][59][56] This portrait of Ramesses VI was copied during the Franco-Tuscan Expedition [60] from a painting in the ruler's tomb. At some point in his reign, a cult statue of Ramesses VI was installed in a shrine of Ramesses II in the temple of Hathor of Deir el-Medina.[61] The statue was called "Lord of the Two Lands, Nebmaatre Meryamun, Son of Re, Lord of Crowns, Ramesses Amunherkhepeshef Divine Ruler of Iunu, Beloved like Amun".[62] A complete description of it is given on the verso of the Turin Papyrus Map, celebrated for being the oldest surviving topographical map. The papyrus indicates that the statue was made of two essences of painted wood and clay, showing pharaoh wearing a golden loincloth, a crown of lapis-lazuli and precious stones, a uraeus of gold and sandals of electrum.[62] The statue is said to receive three services of incense and libations everyday.[62] The text of the papyrus is a letter directly addressed to Ramesses VI asking that a certain man be put in charge of the offerings.[63] The letter seems to have been received favourably by the king, as the author's grandson is known to have held the title of "High Priest of Nebmaatre [Ramesses VI], Beloved of Amun".[64] Ramesses VI was apparently fond of such cult statues[61] and no less than ten statues and a sphinx have been discovered in Tanis, Bubastis and Karnak, more than any other Ramesside king of the Twentieth Dynasty following the reign of Ramesses III.[65] The tomb of Penne, an Egyptian high-official in Nubia reports that Penne made a donation of lands to generate revenue towards the upkeep of yet another cult statue of Ramesses VI.[66] Ramesses VI was so satisfied with this deed that he commanded his Viceroy of Kush "Give the two silver vessels of ointment of gums, to the deputy [Penne]".[67][68] While few of Ramesses VI's activities are known in details, he is well attested by numerous reliefs, inscriptions, statues and minor finds from Karnak, Koptos and Heliopolis.[note 14][28][70] Economic decline[edit] Over the period spanning the reigns of Ramesses VI, VII and VIII, prices of basic commodities, in particular grain, rose sharply.[54][71] With Egypt's economy getting weaker, Ramesses VI turned to usurping the statues and monuments of his forebears, frequently plastering and then carving his cartouches over theirs,[72] in particular those of Ramesses IV which figured prominently along the processional routes in Karnak and Luxor.[65][73] In other examples, he usurped a statue of Ramesses IV,[note 15][74] columns of texts inscribed by Ramesses IV on an obelisk of Thutmose I in Karnak, and the tomb of Ramesses V. Kitchen warns not to over-interpret these usurpations as signs of antagonism on behalf of Ramesses VI with respect to his older brother and nephew.[75] The usurpations were not thorough but were rather targeted to the most prominent places, where Ramesses VI's cartouches would be most visible.[75] Besides, Ramesses VI did leave cartouches of Ramesses IV intact in many places, including in places where both his name and that of his brother feature close to one another such as in the Medinet Habu temple of Ramesses III, so that the hypothesis of a damnatio memoriae—whereby all references to someone are systematically eliminated so as to remove this person from memory and history—can be eliminated.[75] A possible evidence for genuine architectural works on Ramesses VI's behalf is found in Memphis, where an inscription on a granite gateway cornice of the temple of Ptah claims that he erected a great pylon of fine stone. Ramesses VI then boasts of "covering all the land with great monuments in my name [...] built in honour of my fathers the gods".[76] Overall, the Egyptologist Amin Amer characterises Ramesses VI as "a king who wished to pose as a great pharaoh in an age of unrest and decline".[77] Dilution of power[edit] High officials[edit] Some high officials of Ramesses VI are known, such as his finance minister and overseer of the treasury Montuemtawy[note 16] who was in office since the end of Ramesses III's reign; the vizier Neferronpe in office since Ramesses IV's time on the throne; his son the vizier Nehy; Amenmose the mayor of Thebes and the king's butler Qedren.[78] To the south, the troop commander of Kush was Nebmarenakhte[79] and the administrator of Wawat—the land between the first and second cataracts of the Nile—mayor of Anîba and controller of the Temple of Horus at Derr[80] was Penne.[79] The dynasty of Ramessesnakht[edit] Ramessesnakht, high priest of Amun during Ramesses VI's reign, shown at the Egyptian Museum In Thebes, the high-priesthood came under the control of Ramessesnakht and his family at the time of Ramesses IV, possibly owing to Ramessesnakht's father Merybaste's high control over the country's financial institutions.[81] Ramessesnakht was officially Ramesses VI's Vizier of the South and his power grew at the expense of that of the pharaoh in spite of the fact that Iset was connected to the Amun priesthood as well "in her role as God's Wife of Amun or Divine Adoratice".[4] If fact, Ramessesnakht most likely oversaw the construction of the funerary building of Iset in the tomb complex K93.12,[82] and while, as the Egyptologist Daniel Polz puts it, "he and his relatives were the most powerful individuals in Egypt at the end of the Twentieth Dynasty", his activities were not directed against royal interests.[82] Ramessesnakht often attended the distribution of supplies to workmen and controlled much of the activity connected with the construction of the king's tomb, possibly because the treasury of the high-priest of Amun was now at least partially funding these works. Ramessesnakht's son Usermarenakhte was made into the Steward of Amun and became administrator of large swaths of land in Middle Egypt. He also inherited the role of Merybaste as controller of the country's taxes, ensuring that Ramessesnakht's family was in full control of both the royal treasury and the treasury of Amun.[83] Further high offices such as those of the second and third priests and of "god's father of Amun" were given to people who entered Ramesesnakht's family by marriage.[35] Ramessesnakht was powerful enough to build for himself one of the largest funerary establishments of the entire Theban necropolis at the end of the New Kingdom, when royal building projects including Ramesses VI's usurped mortuary temple had been abandoned.[84] Ramessesnakht's monument, in Dra' Abu el-Naga', reused an earlier building dating back to the Seventeenth or Eighteenth Dynasty and was refurbished to show the political and economic standing of its owner.[82] Overall, Egyptologists now estimate that Ramessesnakht and his dynasty essentially established a second centre of power in Upper Egypt, seemingly on the behalf of the Twentieth Dynasty kings who ruled from Memphis and Pi-Ramesses in Lower Egypt.[82] This effectively made Thebes into the religious capital of Egypt as well as an administrative one on a par with its northern counterpart,[82] laying the foundations for the rise of the Twenty-first Dynasty under Herihor and Pinedjem I, 50 to 70 years later.[85] Situation in Egypt's empire abroad[edit] Final decline in Canaan[edit] This broken bust of Ramesses VI is shown at the Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon. Egypt's political and economic decline continued unabated during Ramesses VI's reign. He is the last king of the New Kingdom period whose name is attested on inscribed wall fragments as well as two pillars of the temple of Hathor[86] of the Serabit el-Khadim in Sinai,[87][4] where he sent expeditions to mine copper ore.[28] Egypt may nonetheless still have wielded some sort of influence or at least still had some connections with the remnants of its empire in the Levant,[28] as suggested by the base of a fragmented bronze statue of Ramesses VI discovered in Megiddo in Canaan,[88][89][90] and a scarab of his from Alalakh on the coast in southern Anatolia.[note 17][78] Egyptian presence in Canaan was terminated during or soon after Ramesses VI's rule,[91][92] with the last garrisons leaving southern and western Palestine around the time,[93] and the frontier between Egypt and abroad returning to a fortified line joining the Mediterranean to the Red Sea.[78] A 2017 archaeological study reached the same conclusion, namely that Ramesses VI's reign is the terminus post quem for the presence of the Egyptian military in Jaffa, which was twice destroyed around this time period.[94] Opponents of the Egyptian authority were of local extraction, probably originating in Canaanite cities of the Levantine coastal plain,[95] an opposition to Egyptian hegemony ultimately resulting from the arrival of the Sea People in the region during the reign of Ramesses III.[96][97] The loss of all Asiatic territories further strained the redistributive economy of Egypt's New Kingdom society, depriving the subsequent kings of much of their legitimacy.[97] Continuing presence in Nubia[edit] The Egyptian control of Nubia seems to have been much firmer at the time, owing either to the advanced Egyptianisation of the local population[98] or to the economic importance of this region.[93] Ramesses VI's cartouches have been uncovered on Sehel Island near Aswan[99] and in Ramesses II's temple in Wadi es-Sebua.[79] Ramesses VI is mentioned in the tomb of Penne in Anîba,[98] not far from the Third Cataract of the Nile.[28] Penne also recounts punitive military raids further south, from which he claims to have brought back loot to pharaoh.[68] Funerary monuments[edit] Tomb[edit] Main article: KV9 Ramesses VI's mummy was damaged by grave robbers. Ramesses VI was buried in the Valley of the Kings, in a tomb now known as KV9.[28] The tomb was first built for Ramesses V, who may have been buried in it for the short period of time necessary for another, likely undecorated tomb, to be cut for him somewhere else in the Valley of Kings[3][51] and which remains to be discovered.[100] In any case, Ramesses VI commanded that KV9 be entirely refurbished for himself with no space left for Ramesses V's permanent burial, who was finally led to rest in Ramesses VI's second year on the throne, possibly because stability had returned to Thebes at the time.[3][28] The usurpation of Ramesses V's tomb may be a sign that Ramesses VI did not hold his predecessor in high regard, which would explain why he had Ramesses V's name obliterated and replaced by his own on more than one occasion.[101] Alternatively it may reflect the king's pragmatic concern for economical measures.[65] Ushabti of Ramesses VI in the British Museum The renewed works on KV9 are responsible for the preservation of that of Tutankhamun, the entrance of which was buried beneath huts built for the craftsmen working on Ramesses VI's tomb.[102] These works seem to have been completed during Ramesses VI's sixth year of reign, at which point Ramessesnakht received 600 debens of blunted copper tools in the great forecourt of Amun in Karnak, probably indicating the end of the construction works on the tomb.[65] Furthermore, if the Theban ostracon 1860a does refer to Ramesses VI and not Ramesses X, then it indicates that the tomb was finally ready for the king in his eighth year on the throne, at which point he might have been ill and nearing death.[77] Once finished, the tomb was 104 m (341 ft)-long[103] and included one of only three complete renditions of the Book of Gates known from royal funerary context,[note 18][104] as well as a complete version of the Book of Caverns.[104] Within 20 years[105] of Ramesses VI's burial, the tomb was most probably desecrated and ransacked by grave robbers, who hacked away at the hands and feet of Ramesses' mummy to gain access to his jewelry. These events, occurring during the reign of Ramesses XI,[106] are described in the Papyrus Mayer B although the identification of the tomb mentioned in this source is not entirely certain.[28] Ramesses VI's mummy was subsequently moved to the tomb KV35 of Amenhotep II during the reign of Pinedjem of the early Twenty-First Dynasty,[107] where it was discovered in 1898 by Victor Loret.[108] A medical examination of the mummy revealed that Ramesses VI died aged around forty,[69] and showed severe damage to his body, the head and torso being broken into several pieces by an axe used by the tomb robbers.[45] In 1898, Georges Émile Jules Daressy cleared KV9, which had remained opened since antiquity, uncovering fragments of a large granite box as well as numerous pieces of Ramesses VI's mummiform stone sarcophagus, the face of which is now in the British Museum.[103] The sarcophagus was restored in 2004 following two years of work on over 250 fragments recovered in the tomb, where it is now on display. Zahi Hawass, then head of Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities, unsuccessfully requested the return of the sarcophagus' face from the British Museum to Egypt.[109] In 2020, the Egyptian Tourism Authority released a full 3D model of the tomb with detailed photographies, available online.[110] Mortuary temple[edit] Ramesses VI seems to have usurped the large mortuary temple in El-Assasif from Ramesses V, who had himself likely taken it from his father Ramesses IV.[78][111] The temple was planned to be nearly half the size of that of Medinet Habu and was only in its foundation stages at the death of Ramesses IV.[89] It is unclear whether it was ever completed, but the temple is mentioned as a land-owning institution in the Wilbour Papyrus dating to Ramesses V's reign.[69] Archaeological excavations show much of its surviving decoration was made under Ramesses VI.[note 19][112] Notes and references[edit] Notes[edit] ^ The "C" in this name is not part of Ramesses VI's original Egyptian name, rather it is a denomination added in modern Egyptology to distinguish him from other people of the same name : Amenherkhepshef A, a son of Ramesses II, Amenherkhepshef B, a son of Ramesses III, and Amenherkhepshef D a son of Ramesses VI. ^ That the relief was left unfinished with no text during Ramesses III's reign is indicated by the fact that the text refers to various princes as pharaoh and coincides with modification of the princes' figures to add royal attributes. In addition, all of the princesses are still lacking their names, which were never added.[9] ^ Ramesses VI was the second prince to bear the name Amunherkhepeshef. Consequently, he is sometimes referred to as Amunherkhepeshef II in modern Egyptology.[4] ^ The publication which led to the modern consensus on Ramesses VI's filiation is due to the Egyptologist Kenneth Kitchen, who offered a point by point rebuttal of the arguments hitherto advanced by Kurt Sethe and others to posit that Ramesses VI was a grandson of Ramesses III rather than his son. First, Kitchen rejects the initial interpretation of the titles borne by princes on the relief, in particular Sethe's reading of the title of "king's first born son" is provably wrong as several princes bore the title, which should be understood as "king's eldest surviving son". It follows that Sethe's rejection of princes Praherwonmefs as sons of Ramesses III is invalid and that the relief can present sons of this king.[14] Second Sethe rejected the filiation of Ramesses VI on the basis that it would be unlikely if not impossible that several sons of Ramesses III bore the same name, Amunherkhepeshef and therefore that the two mentions of this name on the relief refer to the same Ramesses VI, which would be suspect for a list of princes. Kitchen points out well-known examples, including princes Meryre I and II on a relief presenting sons of Ramesses II, showing that instead it was common for several sons of kings to bear the same name and thus that the two Amunherkhepeshef are distinct persons.[14] Third, Sethe thought it improbable that three sons of a ruler could have ascended the throne. Kitchen points out the short reigns of the rulers of the 20th Dynasty after Ramesses III, so that the proposed sons ruled within 20 years of their father's death, far from impossible.[15] Fourth, Kitchen points out the wrong argument that the cartouche next to Ramesses IV's figure simply reads Ramesses, which this ruler would have deemed insufficient to distinguish himself and thus that the figure is not Ramesses IV but someone else. As noted by Kitchen, the titles given to this figure are sufficient to identify Ramesses IV beyond doubt.[15] Fifth, Sethe and others believe that Ramesses VI implemented a damnatio memoriae against Ramesses IV and V, which they explain through complicated dynastic struggles. But this damnatio memoriae is, in the terms of Kitchen "wholly imaginary" and indeed archaeological evidence has since established that Ramesses VI only erased the cartouches of his predecessor to gain visibility for his, and not in any systematic manner.[15] Lastly, Sethe and Peet pointed out that in her tomb, Ramesses VI's mother is not given the title of king's wife and thus deduce that Ramesses VI was the son of a non-royal father. But Kitchen points out that this absence is no evidence, for example, Ramesses II's mother herself is never given the title of king's wife in her tomb, yet it is well established that she was Sethi I's queen.[16] ^ The filiation of Panebenkemyt is established by a depiction of him on a statue of his father, now in the Luxor Museum.[18] ^ If the hypothesis regarding Ramesses IX's filiation is correct, then Kitchen adds that queen Tyti might have been a daughter of Ramesses VI, the wife of Ramesses IX and mother of Ramesses X.[24] New evidence emerging from the publication of tomb-robbers accounts in 2010 established that Tyti was in fact the wife and sister of Ramesses III and possibly the mother of Ramesses IV.[25] ^ Known today as Ostracon IFAO 1425.[39] ^ That the king in question is Ramesses VI is established by the dates recorded on the ostracon. It is mentioned that the first loan occurred on Year 7, I Peret 18 (that is on the 18th day of the first month of the season of Peret in the king's 7th year of reign) while the second took place on Year 8, II Peret 11. Furthermore the short duration of the loans which amounted to 15 days strongly suggest that these dates occurred in immediate succession and thus that they belong to the same reign. This indicates that the king referred to had ascended the throne between the 18th day of the first month of Peret and the 11th day of the second month of the same season. But the only king of the 19th and 20th Dynasties who ascended the throne in such a time-frame is Ramesses VI.[38][39] ^ While the exact date of Ramesses VI's coronation is unknown, ancient sources indicate that he must have started his reign in winter, between the 28th day of the first month of the Season of the Emergence and the 11th day the second month of the same season.[46][47] Janssen has more specifically argued for an accession of the eighth day of the second month of this season.[48] ^ The location of Per-Nebyt is not known for certain. It may have been in north-Thebes.[3] ^ Černý's argument is that the term employed in the source to refer to the enemy is not the term that would be employed for foreign marauders such as Libyans. As a consequence, he sees the trouble-makers as Egyptians. Since furthermore the chief of the Medjay of Thebes seems not to have been involved in fighting the enemy, Černý believes that the troubles came from the North. Černý further conjectures that the civil war was a struggle between followers of Ramesses V and Ramesses VI, whom he sees as antagonists.[50] Against this hypothesis is the observation that several high-officials continued their careers without disturbances from the time of Ramesses III until that of Ramesses VI and beyond, suggesting that the state was in fact politically stable.[3] ^ This is indicated by a text on the verso of Ostracon Berlin P. 12654, which reads "So says the vizier: leave these sixty men here in the gang, whomsoever you choose, and send the rest away. Order that they should become conscript labour who carry [supplies] for you."[50] ^ Tombs dating to the Twentieth Dynasty but which cannot be securely attributed to any specific reign are QV 24, 41, 45, 50, 54, 84, 85, 86. This list may include those built by Ramesses VI.[58] ^ Small artefacts bearing Ramesses VI's cartouches are also known, including bronze and gold signet rings now in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Arts.[69] ^ The statue was found in the Karnak cache and is now in the Egyptian Museum, under the catalogue number 42153.[74] ^ Also called Mentemtowy in the modern literature.[78] ^ The finds of the statue and scarab in Megiddo and Alalakh do not necessarily denote any strong Egyptian presence there as these kinds of artefacts were widely traded throughout the Mediterranean at the time.[78] ^ The other renditions are found in the tomb of Seti I and in the Osireion.[104] ^ That is most of the decorations of the temple that have survived to this day have been made under Ramesses VI as shown by the presence of his cartouches on these decorations.[112] References[edit] ^ a b Clayton 1994, p. 167. ^ a b c d Leprohon 2013, p. 199. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Amer 1985, p. 67. ^ a b c d e f Grimal 1992, p. 288. ^ Grandet 2014, p. 1. ^ Seele 1960, p. 184. ^ a b Kitchen 1982, p. 120. ^ Seele 1960, pp. 186–187, Plate I & 2. ^ a b c Murnane 1971, p. 121. ^ Murnane 1971, p. 125. ^ Murnane 1971, p. 122. ^ Murnane 1971, p. 131. ^ Seele 1960, p. 204. ^ a b Kitchen 1982, p. 121. ^ a b c Kitchen 1982, p. 122. ^ a b Kitchen 1982, p. 123. ^ Demas & Neville 2016b, p. 307. ^ a b c d Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 193. ^ Bács 1995, pp. 7–11. ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 190. ^ Kitchen 1972, p. 182. ^ Harris & Wente 1980, p. 153. ^ von Beckerath 1971, p. 7. ^ a b Kitchen 1982, p. 125. ^ Collier, Dodson & Hamernik 2010, pp. 242–247. ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 191. ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 194. ^ a b c d e f g h Vinson 2001, pp. 120–121. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica 2018. ^ von Beckerath 1999, p. 190. ^ Hornung 2012, p. 475. ^ Grimal 1992, pp. 204–205 & 393. ^ Demas & Neville 2016a, p. 119. ^ Shaw 2000, p. 485. ^ a b c d van Dijk 2000, p. 300. ^ a b Rice 1999, p. 167. ^ Burke et al. 2017, p. 87. ^ a b Wente & Van Siclen 1977, pp. 243–245. ^ a b c Janssen 1978, pp. 45–46. ^ a b Bell 1980, p. 16. ^ Bierbrier 1972, pp. 195–199. ^ Peden 2001a, p. 201. ^ Ventura 1983, p. 271. ^ Ventura 1983, p. 276. ^ a b Clayton 1994, p. 168. ^ Hornung 2012, p. 215. ^ von Beckerath 1984, p. 7. ^ Janssen 1997, pp. 131–138. ^ a b Amer 1985, p. 66. ^ a b c d e Černý 1975, p. 613. ^ a b Kitchen 1972, p. 193. ^ Legrain 1909, pp. 17–19 & 75, pl. XV. ^ Peden 2001b, pp. 83–88. ^ a b Yurco 1999, p. 294. ^ Grimal 1992, p. 278. ^ a b Leblanc 1999, p. 1021. ^ Demas & Neville 2016b, p. 312. ^ a b Demas & Neville 2016b, p. 143. ^ Peden 2001a, p. 223. ^ Brescinani et al. 1993, p. 85. ^ a b Amer 1985, p. 68. ^ a b c Hovestreydt 1997, p. 108. ^ Hovestreydt 1997, p. 114. ^ Hovestreydt 1997, p. 121. ^ a b c d Amer 1985, p. 69. ^ Lobban 2004, p. 34. ^ Bianchi 2004, p. 143. ^ a b Brugsch 1859, p. 203. ^ a b c Hayes 1978, p. 375. ^ Saleh 1981, pp. 43–57. ^ Janssen 1975, pp. 551–552. ^ Brand 2010, see figs. 6 & 7 p. 3, fig. 8 p. 4, text p. 6. ^ Peden 1989, pp. 41–46. ^ a b Kitchen 1972, p. 190. ^ a b c Kitchen 1972, p. 192. ^ Brugsch 1859, p. 202. ^ a b Amer 1985, p. 70. ^ a b c d e f Černý 1975, p. 614. ^ a b c Peden 2001a, p. 132. ^ Rice 1999, p. 149. ^ Černý 1975, p. 627. ^ a b c d e Polz 1998, p. 292. ^ Černý 1975, p. 628. ^ Polz 1998, p. 291. ^ Polz 1998, p. 293. ^ Mumford 1999, p. 885. ^ Kitchen 1983, p. 279. ^ Kitchen 1983, p. 278. ^ a b Hayes 1978, p. 371. ^ Breasted 1948. ^ Ussishkin 1995. ^ Mazar 1990, pp. 296–297. ^ a b Peden 2001a, p. 130. ^ Burke et al. 2017, pp. 85 & 128–129. ^ Burke et al. 2017, p. 85. ^ Cohen 2016, p. 7. ^ a b Grandet 2014, p. 10. ^ a b Černý 1975, p. 632. ^ de Morgan 1893, p. 93 numb 132. ^ Černý 1975, p. 612. ^ Černý 1975, p. 611. ^ Dodson 1999, p. 1048. ^ a b Weeks 1999, p. 1016. ^ a b c Brock 1999, p. 384. ^ Peden 2001a, p. 205. ^ Grimal 1992, p. 290. ^ Grimal 1992, p. 291. ^ Loret 1899. ^ Nasrawi 2004. ^ Egyptian Tourism Authority 2020. ^ Murnane 1999, p. 997. ^ a b Hayes 1978, p. 372. 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External links[edit] Ramesses VI Nebmaatre-meryamun on Digital Egypt Virtual tour of his tomb Virtual exploration of his tomb Preceded by Ramesses V Pharaoh of Egypt Twentieth Dynasty Succeeded by Ramesses VII v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control BNF: cb11944862d (data) GND: 11859818X ISNI: 0000 0004 4887 2641 LCCN: n83226630 NLI: 000457663 VIAF: 53074487 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n83226630 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ramesses_VI&oldid=994399234" Categories: Ramesses VI 12th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Ancient Egyptian mummies 12th century BC in Egypt 12th-century BC rulers Ramesses III Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short 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Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Occitan Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 15 December 2020, at 14:50 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-808	----	Siamun - Wikipedia Siamun From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Siamun (disambiguation). Siamun Psinaches (Manetho)? Siamun on a relief, from Memphis Pharaoh Reign 986–967 BC (21st Dynasty) Predecessor Osorkon the Elder Successor Psusennes II Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Netjerkheperre Setepenamun Nṯrj-ḫpr-Rˁ-stp-n-Jmn Divine is the manifestation of Ra, the chosen one of Amun Second prenomen: Netjekheperre Meriamun Nṯrj-ḫpr-Rˁ-mrj-Jmn Divine is the manifestation of Ra, beloved of Amun Nomen Siamun S3 Jmn Son of Amun Second nomen: Nesutsiamun Nswt s3 Jmn King, son of Amun Horus name Kanakht Merimaat K3-nḫt-mrj-M3ˁt Strong bull, beloved of Maat Second Horus name: Kanekhet Merimaat Sa[meri]enamun Periemkhawef K3-nḫt-mrj-M3ˁt-s3-[mrj]-n-Jmn prj-m-ḥˁw=f Strong bull, beloved of Maat, [beloved] son of Amun, who has emerged from his body Consort Karimala? Died 967 BC Burial Unknown Neterkheperre or Netjerkheperre-Setepenamun Siamun was the sixth pharaoh of Egypt during the Twenty-first Dynasty. He built extensively in Lower Egypt for a king of the Third Intermediate Period and is regarded as one of the most powerful rulers of the Twenty-first Dynasty after Psusennes I. Siamun's prenomen, Netjerkheperre-Setepenamun, means "Divine is The Manifestation of Ra, Chosen of Amun"[1] while his name means 'son of Amun.'[2] Contents 1 Family 2 Manetho 3 Reign length 4 Monuments 5 Burial 6 Siamun and Solomon 7 References Family[edit] Very little is known of the family relationships of Siamun. In 1999, Chris Bennett made a case for a Queen Karimala known from an inscription in the temple of Semna being the daughter of Osorkon the Elder.[3] She is called both 'King's Daughter" and "King's Wife". Her name suggests she may have been Libyan, which would fit in with her being the daughter of Osorkon the Elder (Manetho's Osochor). Given the date of the inscription (a year 14), she might have been the queen of either king Siamun or king Psusennes II. Bennett prefers a marriage to Siamun, because in that case she could have taken over the position of Viceroy of Kush Neskhons as a religious figurehead in Nubia after the death of the latter in year 5 of king Siamun. What is more, a marriage to her might explain how Siamun, an Egyptian, judging by his nomen, came to succeed a clearly Libyan Osochor.[3] Manetho[edit] Siamun is often identified with the last king of Manetho's 21st Dynasty, "Psinaches". This king is credited with a reign of only nine years, which subsequently had to be amended to [1]9 years on the basis of an inscription from the Karnak Priestly Annals mentioning a Year 17 of king Siamun. However, there is no real basis for interpreting the name "Psinaches" as a corruption of the name Netjerkheperre-setepenamun Siamun. Recently, it has been suggested that Manetho's "Psinaches" might rather be a reference to king Tutkheperre Shoshenq as the direct successor of Manetho's Osorkon the Elder.[4] Reign length[edit] Ankhefenmut adores the royal name of pharaoh Siamun in this doorway lintel. The highest attested year for Siamun is a Year 17 the first month of Shemu day [lost], mentioned in fragment 3B, lines 3-5 from the Karnak Priestly Annals.[5] It records the induction of Hori, son of Nespaneferhor into the Priesthood at Karnak.[6] This date was a lunar Tepi Shemu feast day. Based on the calculation of this lunar Tepi Shemu feast, Year 17 of Siamun has been shown by the German Egyptologist Rolf Krauss to be equivalent to 970 BC.[7] Hence, Siamun would have taken the throne about 16 years earlier in 986 BC.[8] A stela dated to Siamun's Year 16 records a land-sale between some minor priests of Ptah at Memphis.[9] The Year 17 inscription is an important palaeographical development because it is the first time in Egyptian recorded history that the word pharaoh was employed as a title and linked directly to a king's royal name: as in Pharaoh Siamun here. Henceforth, references to Pharaoh Psusennes II (Siamun's successor), Pharaoh Shoshenq I, Pharaoh Osorkon I, and so forth become commonplace. Prior to Siamun's reign and all throughout the Middle and New Kingdom, the word pharaoh referred only to the office of the king. Monuments[edit] Bronze Sphinx of Siamun, Louvre Museum. According to the French Egyptologist Nicolas Grimal, Siamun doubled the size of the Temple of Amun at Tanis and initiated various works at the Temple of Horus at Mesen.[10] He also built at Heliopolis and at Piramesse where a surviving stone block bears his name.[10] Siamun constructed and dedicated a new temple to Amun at Memphis with 6 stone columns and doorways which bears his royal name. Finally, he bestowed numerous favours onto the Memphite Priests of Ptah. In Upper Egypt, he generally appears eponymously on a few Theban monuments although Siamun's High Priest of Amun at Thebes, Pinedjem II, organised the removal and re-burial of the New Kingdom royal mummies from the Valley of the Kings in several hidden mummy caches at Deir El-Bahari Tomb DB320 for protection from looting. These activities are dated from Year 1 to Year 10 of Siamun's reign.[11] One fragmentary but well known surviving triumphal relief scene from the Temple of Amun at Tanis depicts an Egyptian pharaoh smiting his enemies with a mace. The king's name is explicitly given as [(Neterkheperre Setepenamun) Siamun, beloved of Am(un)] in the relief and there can be no doubt that this person was Siamun as the eminent British Egyptologist Kenneth Kitchen stresses in his book, On the Reliability of the Old Testament.[12] Siamun appears here "in typical pose brandishing a mace to strike down prisoners(?) now lost at the right except for two arms and hands, one of which grasps a remarkable double-bladed ax by its socket."[13] The writer observes that this double bladed axe or 'halberd' has a flared crescent shaped blade which is close in form to the Aegean influenced double axe but is quite distinct from the Palestinian/Canaanite double headed axe which has a different shape that resembles an X.[14] Thus, Kitchen concludes Siamun's foes were the Philistines who were descendants of the Aegean-based Sea Peoples and that Siamun was commemorating his recent victory over them at Gezer by depicting himself in a formal battle scene relief at the Temple in Tanis. More recently Paul S. Ash has put forward a detailed argument that Siamun's relief portrays a fictitious battle. He points out that in Egyptian reliefs Philistines are never shown holding an axe, and that there is no archaeological evidence for Philistines using axes. He also argues that there is nothing in the relief to connect it with Philistia or the Levant.[15] Burial[edit] Although Siamun's original royal tomb has never been located, it has been proposed that he is one of "two completely decayed mummies in the antechamber of NRT-III (Psusennes I's tomb)" on the basis of ushabtis found on them which bore this king's name. Siamun's original tomb may have been inundated by the Nile which compelled a reburial of this king in Psusennes I's tomb.[16] Siamun and Solomon[edit] It has been suggested that Siamun was the unnamed pharaoh of the Bible who gave in marriage his daughter to king Solomon in order to seal an alliance between the two (1Kings 3:1), and later conquered Gezer and gave it to Solomon as well (1Kings 9:16). This identification is nowadays still supported by Kitchen,[17] but has been challenged by other scholars such as Paul S. Ash and Mark W. Chavalas, with the latter stating that "it is impossible to conclude which Egyptian monarch ruled concurrently with David and Solomon".[18] Edward Lipiński suggested that "The attempt at relating the destruction of Gezer to the hypothetical relationship between Siamun and Solomon cannot be justified factually, since Siamun's death precedes Solomon's accession." Lipiński also argued that the then-unfortified Gezer was destroyed late in the 10th century, and that its taker was most likely pharaoh Shoshenq I of the 22nd Dynasty.[19] References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Siamun. ^ Peter Clayton, Chronology of the Pharaohs, Thames & Hudson Ltd, 1994. p.174 ^ [1] 21st Dynasty ^ a b Chris Bennett, Queen Karimala, Daughter of Osochor? GM 173 (1999), pp.7-8 ^ Norbert Dautzenberg, On the identity of King Psinaches, GM 240 (2014), 115-118 ^ K.A. Kitchen, The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt [TIPE] (1100–650 BC) 3rd ed., Warminster: Aris & Phillips Ltd, p.423 ^ Kitchen, TIPE, p.278 ^ Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss & David Warburton (editors), Handbook of Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies), Brill: 2006, p.474 ^ Hornung, Krauss & Warburton, op. cit., p.493 ^ Kitchen, TIPE, p.279 ^ a b Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, Blackwell Books: 1992, pp.318 ^ Kitchen, TIPE, pp.422-423 ^ K.A. Kitchen, On the Reliability of the Old Testament [OROT], William B. Erdmans Publishing, 2003. p.109 ^ Kitchen, OROT, pp.109 & p.526 ^ Kitchen, OROT, pp.109-110 ^ Ash, Paul S (November 1999). David, Solomon and Egypt: A Reassessment (JSOT Supplement). Sheffield Academic Press. pp. 38–46. ISBN 978-1-84127-021-0. ^ Bill Manley (ed.), "The missing tombs of Tanis" in The Seventy Great Mysteries of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson Ltd. p.97 ^ Kitchen, OROT, p. 108. ^ Chavalas, Mark W. (Spring 2001). "Review of David, Solomon and Egypt: A Reassessment by Paul S. Ash". Journal of Biblical Literature. 120 (1): 152. doi:10.2307/3268603. JSTOR 3268603. ^ Lipinski, Edward (2006). On the Skirts of Canaan in the Iron Age(Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta). Leuven, Belgium: Peeters. pp. 96–97. ISBN 978-90-429-1798-9. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siamun&oldid=994638935" Categories: 10th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt 967 BC deaths 10th century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link from Wikidata AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá Edit links This page was last edited on 16 December 2020, at 19:26 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8115	----	Amenhotep III - Wikipedia Amenhotep III From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ninth Pharaoh of the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt Amenhotep III Nibmu(`w)areya,[1] Mimureya, Amenophis III Amenhotep III wearing the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt, the nemes with cobra and the ceremonial beard Pharaoh Reign 1391–1353 or 1388–1351 BC (18th Dynasty) Predecessor Thutmose IV Successor Akhenaten Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Nebmaatre The Lord of Truth is Re[2] Nomen Amenhotep Hekawaset Amun is Satisfied, Ruler of Thebes[3] Horus name Kanakht khaemmaat The strong bull, appearing in truth Nebty name Semenhepusegerehtawy One establishing laws, pacifying the two lands Golden Horus Aakhepesh-husetiu Great of valour, smiting the Asiatics Consort Tiye Gilukhepa Tadukhepa Sitamun Iset Nebetnehat? Children Akhenaten Thutmose Sitamun Iset Henuttaneb Nebetah Smenkhkare? "The Younger Lady" Beketaten (?) Father Thutmose IV Mother Mutemwiya Died 1353 BC or 1351 BC Burial WV22 Monuments Malkata, Mortuary Temple of Amenhotep III, Colossi of Memnon Amenhotep III (Ancient Egyptian: imn-ḥtp(.w) "Amun is Satisfied";[4] Hellenized as Amenophis III), also known as Amenhotep the Magnificent, was the ninth pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty. According to different authors, he ruled Egypt from June 1386 to 1349 BC, or from June 1388 BC to December 1351 BC/1350 BC,[5] after his father Thutmose IV died. Amenhotep III was Thutmose's son by a minor wife, Mutemwiya.[6] His reign was a period of unprecedented prosperity and splendour, when Egypt reached the peak of its artistic and international power. When he died in the 38th or 39th year of his reign, his son initially ruled as Amenhotep IV, but then changed his own royal name to Akhenaten. Contents 1 Family 2 Life 2.1 Proposed co-regency by Akhenaten 2.2 Final years 2.3 Death 3 The Court 4 Monuments 5 Sed Festival Stela of Amenhotep III 5.1 Stela 5.2 Amenhotep III's Sed Festival 6 Ancestry 7 Gallery 8 See also 9 Footnotes 10 Bibliography Family[edit] See also: Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Queen Tiye, Great Royal Wife of Amenhotep III Vase in the Louvre with the names Amenhotep III and Tiye written in the cartouches (Amenhotep III on the left, and Tiye on the right). The son of the future Thutmose IV (the son of Amenhotep II) and a minor wife Mutemwiya, Amenhotep III was born around 1401 BC.[7] He was a member of the Thutmosid family that had ruled Egypt for almost 150 years since the reign of Thutmose I. Amenhotep III was the father of two sons with his Great Royal Wife Tiye. Their first son, Crown Prince Thutmose, predeceased his father and their second son, Amenhotep IV, later known as Akhenaten, ultimately succeeded Amenhotep III to the throne. Amenhotep III also may have been the father of a third child—called Smenkhkare, who later would succeed Akhenaten and briefly ruled Egypt as pharaoh. Amenhotep III and Tiye may also have had four daughters: Sitamun, Henuttaneb, Isis or Iset, and Nebetah.[8] They appear frequently on statues and reliefs during the reign of their father and also are represented by smaller objects—with the exception of Nebetah.[9] Nebetah is attested only once in the known historical records on a colossal limestone group of statues from Medinet Habu.[10] This huge sculpture, that is seven meters high, shows Amenhotep III and Tiye seated side by side, "with three of their daughters standing in front of the throne—Henuttaneb, the largest and best preserved, in the centre; Nebetah on the right; and another, whose name is destroyed, on the left."[8] Amenhotep III elevated two of his four daughters—Sitamun and Isis—to the office of "great royal wife" during the last decade of his reign. Evidence that Sitamun already was promoted to this office by Year 30 of his reign, is known from jar-label inscriptions uncovered from the royal palace at Malkata.[8] Egypt's theological paradigm encouraged a male pharaoh to accept royal women from several different generations as wives to strengthen the chances of his offspring succeeding him.[11] The goddess Hathor herself was related to Ra as first the mother and later wife and daughter of the god when he rose to prominence in the pantheon of the Ancient Egyptian religion.[8] Amenhotep III is known to have married several foreign women: Gilukhepa, the daughter of Shuttarna II of Mitanni, in the tenth year of his reign.[12] Tadukhepa, the daughter of his ally Tushratta of Mitanni, Around Year 36 of his reign.[13][14] A daughter of Kurigalzu, king of Babylon.[14] A daughter of Kadashman-Enlil, king of Babylon.[14] A daughter of Tarhundaradu, ruler of Arzawa.[14] A daughter of the ruler of Ammia (in modern Syria).[14] Life[edit] Hieroglyphs on the backpillar of Amenhotep III's statue. There are 2 places where Akhenaten's agents erased the name Amun, later restored on a deeper surface. The British Museum, London Amenhotep III has the distinction of having the most surviving statues of any Egyptian pharaoh, with over 250 of his statues having been discovered and identified. Since these statues span his entire life, they provide a series of portraits covering the entire length of his reign. Another striking characteristic of Amenhotep III's reign is the series of over 200 large commemorative stone scarabs that have been discovered over a large geographic area ranging from Syria (Ras Shamra) through to Soleb in Nubia. [15] Their lengthy inscribed texts extol the accomplishments of the pharaoh. For instance, 123 of these commemorative scarabs record the large number of lions (either 102 or 110 depending on the reading) that Amenhotep III killed "with his own arrows" from his first regnal year up to his tenth year. [16] Similarly, five other scarabs state that the foreign princess who would become a wife to him, Gilukhepa, arrived in Egypt with a retinue of 317 women. She was the first of many such princesses who would enter the pharaoh's household. [16] Queen Tiye, whose husband, Amenhotep III, may have been depicted to her right in this broken statue Another eleven scarabs record the excavation of an artificial lake he had built for his Great Royal Wife, Queen Tiye, in his eleventh regnal year, Regnal Year 11 under the Majesty of... Amenhotep (III), ruler of Thebes, given life, and the Great Royal Wife Tiye; may she live; her father's name was Yuya, her mother's name Tuya. His Majesty commanded the making of a lake for the great royal wife Tiye—may she live—in her town of Djakaru. (near Akhmin). Its length is 3,700 (cubits) and its width is 700 (cubits). (His Majesty) celebrated the Festival of Opening the Lake in the third month of Inundation, day sixteen. His Majesty was rowed in the royal barge Aten-tjehen in it [the lake].[17] One of the many commemorative scarabs of Amenhotep III. This scarab belongs to a class called the "marriage scarabs," which affirm the divine power of the king and the legitimacy of his wife, Tiye. Walters Art Museum, Baltimore. Amenhotep appears to have been crowned while still a child, perhaps between the ages of 6 and 12. It is likely that a regent acted for him if he was made pharaoh at that early age. He married Tiye two years later and she lived twelve years after his death. His lengthy reign was a period of unprecedented prosperity and artistic splendour, when Egypt reached the peak of her artistic and international power. Proof of this is shown by the diplomatic correspondence from the rulers of Assyria, Mitanni, Babylon, and Hatti which is preserved in the archive of Amarna Letters; these letters document frequent requests by these rulers for gold and numerous other gifts from the pharaoh. The letters cover the period from Year 30 of Amenhotep III until at least the end of Akhenaten's reign. In one famous correspondence—Amarna letter EA 4—Amenhotep III is quoted by the Babylonian king Kadashman-Enlil I in firmly rejecting the latter's entreaty to marry one of this pharaoh's daughters: From time immemorial, no daughter of the king of Egy[pt] is given to anyone.[18] Amenhotep III's refusal to allow one of his daughters to be married to the Babylonian monarch may indeed be connected with Egyptian traditional royal practices that could provide a claim upon the throne through marriage to a royal princess, or, it could be viewed as a shrewd attempt on his part to enhance Egypt's prestige over those of her neighbours in the international world.[citation needed] The pharaoh's reign was relatively peaceful and uneventful. The only recorded military activity by the king is commemorated by three rock-carved stelae from his fifth year found near Aswan and Saï (island) in Nubia. The official account of Amenhotep III's military victory emphasizes his martial prowess with the typical hyperbole used by all pharaohs. Colossal granite head of Amenhotep III, British Museum Regnal Year 5, third month of Inundation, day 2. Appearance under the Majesty of Horus: Strong bull, appearing in truth; Two Ladies: Who establishes laws and pacifies the Two Lands;...King of Upper and Lower Egypt: Nebmaatra, heir of Ra; Son of Ra: [Amenhotep, ruler of Thebes], beloved of [Amon]-Ra, King of the Gods, and Khnum, lord of the cataract, given life. One came to tell His Majesty, "The fallen one of vile Kush has plotted rebellion in his heart." His Majesty led on to victory; he completed it in his first campaign of victory. His Majesty reached them like the wing stroke of a falcon, like Menthu (war god of Thebes) in his transformation...Ikheny, the boaster in the midst of the army, did not know the lion that was before him. Nebmaatra was the fierce-eyed lion whose claws seized vile Kush, who trampled down all its chiefs in their valleys, they being cast down in their blood, one on top of the other.[19] Amenhotep III celebrated three Jubilee Sed festivals, in his Year 30, Year 34, and Year 37 respectively at his Malkata summer palace in Western Thebes. [20] The palace, called Per-Hay or "House of Rejoicing" in ancient times, comprised a temple of Amun and a festival hall built especially for this occasion. [20] One of the king's most popular epithets was Aten-tjehen which means "the Dazzling Sun Disk"; it appears in his titulary at Luxor temple and, more frequently, was used as the name for one of his palaces as well as the Year 11 royal barge, and denotes a company of men in Amenhotep's army. [21] There is a myth on the divine birth of Amenhotep III which is depicted in the Luxor Temple. In this myth, Amenhotep III is sired by Amun, who has gone to Mutemwiya in form of Thutmosis IV. [22][23] Proposed co-regency by Akhenaten[edit] Amenhotep III and Sobek, from Dahamsha, now in the Luxor Museum There is currently no conclusive evidence of a co-regency between Amenhotep III and his son, Akhenaten. A letter from the Amarna palace archives dated to Year 2—rather than Year 12—of Akhenaten's reign from the Mitannian king, Tushratta, (Amarna letter EA 27) preserves a complaint about the fact that Akhenaten did not honor his father's promise to forward Tushratta statues made of solid gold as part of a marriage dowry for sending his daughter, Tadukhepa, into the pharaoh's household.[24] This correspondence implies that if any co-regency occurred between Amenhotep III and Akhenaten, it lasted no more than a year.[25] Lawrence Berman observes in a 1998 biography of Amenhotep III that, It is significant that the proponents of the coregency theory have tended to be art historians [e.g., Raymond Johnson], whereas historians [such as Donald Redford and William Murnane] have largely remained unconvinced. Recognizing that the problem admits no easy solution, the present writer has gradually come to believe that it is unnecessary to propose a coregency to explain the production of art in the reign of Amenhotep III. Rather the perceived problems appear to derive from the interpretation of mortuary objects.[26] In February 2014, the Egyptian Ministry for Antiquities announced what it called "definitive evidence" that Akhenaten shared power with his father for at least 8 years, based on findings from the tomb of Vizier Amenhotep-Huy.[27][28] The tomb is being studied by a multi-national team led by the Instituto de Estudios del Antiguo Egipto de Madrid and Dr Martin Valentin. The evidence consists of the cartouches of Amenhotep III and Akhenaten being carved side by side, but this may only suggest that Amenhotep III had chosen his only surviving son Akhenaten to succeed him since there are no objects or inscriptions known to name and give the same regnal dates for both kings. The Egyptologist Peter Dorman also rejects any co-regency between these two kings, based on the archaeological evidence from the tomb of Kheruef.[29] Final years[edit] Birds – Wall painting fragment from the Malkata palace, in the Metropolitan Museum of Art Reliefs from the wall of the temple of Soleb in Nubia and scenes from the Theban tomb of Kheruef, Steward of the King's Great Wife, Tiye, depict Amenhotep as a visibly weak and sick figure.[30] Scientists believe that in his final years he suffered from arthritis and became obese. It has generally been assumed by some scholars that Amenhotep requested and received, from his father-in-law Tushratta of Mitanni, a statue of Ishtar of Nineveh—a healing goddess—in order to cure him of his various ailments, which included painful abscesses in his teeth.[31] A forensic examination of his mummy shows that he was probably in constant pain during his final years due to his worn and cavity-pitted teeth. However, more recent analysis of Amarna letter EA 23 by William L. Moran, which recounts the dispatch of the statue of the goddess to Thebes, does not support this popular theory. The arrival of the statue is known to have coincided with Amenhotep III's marriage with Tadukhepa, Tushratta's daughter, in the pharaoh's 36th year; letter EA 23's arrival in Egypt is dated to "regnal year 36, the fourth month of winter, day 1" of his reign.[32] Furthermore, Tushratta never mentions in EA 23 that the statue's dispatch was meant to heal Amenhotep of his maladies. Instead, Tushratta merely writes, Say to Nimmureya [i.e., Amenhotep III], the king of Egypt, my brother, my son-in-law, whom I love and who loves me: Thus Tušratta, the king of Mitanni, who loves you, your father-in-law. For me all goes well. For you may all go well. For your household for Tadu-Heba [i.e., Tadukhepa], my daughter, your wife, who you love, may all go well. For your wives, for your sons, for your magnates, for your chariots, for your horses, for your troops, for your country, and for whatever else belongs to you, may all go very, very well. Thus Šauška of Nineveh, mistress of all lands: "I wish to go to Egypt, a country that I love, and then return." Now I herewith send her, and she is on her way. Now, in the time, too, of my father,...[she] went to this country, and just as earlier she dwelt there and they honored her, may my brother now honor her 10 times more than before. May my brother honor her, [then] at [his] pleasure let her go so that she may come back. May Šauška (i.e., Ishtar), the mistress of heaven, protect us, my brother and me, a 100,000 years, and may our mistress grant both of us great joy. And let us act as friends. Is Šauška for me alone my god[dess], and for my brother not his god[dess]?[33] Faience decoration with Amenhotep III's prenomen from his Theban palace, Metropolitan Museum of Art The likeliest explanation is that the statue was sent to Egypt "to shed her blessings on the wedding of Amenhotep III and Tadukhepa, as she had been sent previously for Amenhotep III and Gilukhepa."[34] As Moran writes: One explanation of the goddess' visit is that she was to heal the aged and ailing Egyptian king, but this explanation rests purely on analogy and finds no support in this letter... More likely, it seems, is a connection with the solemnities associated with the marriage of Tušratta's daughter; sf. the previous visit mentioned in lines 18f., perhaps on the occasion of the marriage of Kelu-Heba [i.e., Gilukhepa]...and note, too, Šauška's role along with Aman, of making Tadu-Heba answer to the king's desires.[35] The contents of Amarna letter EA21 from Tushratta to his "brother" Amenhotep III strongly affirms this interpretation. In this correspondence, Tushratta explicitly states, I have given...my daughter [Tadukhepa] to be the wife of my brother, whom I love. May Šimige and Šauška go before her. May they m[ake he]r the image of my brother's desire. May my brother rejoice on t[hat] day. May Šimige and Šauška grant my brother a gre[at] blessing, exquisi[te] joy. May they bless him and may you, my brother, li[ve] forever.[36] Death[edit] Obverse: The Stela of Amenhothep III. back: raised by Merenptah (1213–1203 a.c.) Egyptian Museum Amenhotep III's highest attested regnal date is Year 38, which appears on wine jar-label dockets from Malkata.[37] He may have lived briefly into an unrecorded Year 39, dying before the wine harvest of that year.[38] Amenhotep III was buried in the Western Valley of the Valley of the Kings, in Tomb WV22. Sometime during the Third Intermediate Period his mummy was moved from this tomb and was placed in a side-chamber of KV35 along with several other pharaohs of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasties where it lay until discovered by Victor Loret in 1898. An examination of his mummy by the Australian anatomist Grafton Elliot Smith concluded that the pharaoh was between 40 and 50 years old at death.[39] His chief wife, Tiye, is known to have outlived him by at least twelve years, as she is mentioned in several Amarna letters dated from her son's reign as well as depicted at a dinner table with Akhenaten and his royal family in scenes from the tomb of Huya, which were made during Year 9 and Year 12 of her son's reign.[40][41] Foreign leaders communicated their grief at the pharaoh's death, with Tushratta saying: When I heard that my brother Nimmureya had gone to his fate, on that day I sat down and wept. On that day I took no food, I took no water.[42] Amenhotep III, Musée du Louvre When Amenhotep III died, he left behind a country that was at the very height of its power and influence, commanding immense respect in the international world; however, he also bequeathed an Egypt that was wedded to its traditional political and religious certainties under the Amun priesthood.[43] The resulting upheavals from his son Akhenaten's reforming zeal would shake these old certainties to their very foundations and bring forth the central question of whether a pharaoh was more powerful than the existing domestic order as represented by the Amun priests and their numerous temple estates. Akhenaten even moved the capital away from the city of Thebes in an effort to break the influence of that powerful temple and assert his own preferred choice of deities, the Aten. Akhenaten moved the Egyptian capital to the site known today as Amarna (though originally known as Akhetaten, 'Horizon of Aten'), and eventually suppressed the worship of Amun.[44] The Court[edit] Bronze vessel used as a capacity measure. Inscribed with the cartouches of the birth-name and throne name of Amenhotep III. 18th Dynasty. From Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London There were many important individuals in the court of Amenhotep III. Viziers were Ramose, Amenhotep, Aperel and Ptahmose. They are known from a remarkable series of monuments, including the well known tomb of Ramose at Thebes. Treasurers were another Ptahmose and Merire. High stewards were Amenemhat Surer and Amenhotep (Huy). Viceroy of Kush was Merimose. He was a leading figure in the military campaigns of the king in Nubia. Perhaps the most famous official of the king was Amenhotep, son of Hapu. He never had high titles but was later worshipped as god and main architect of some of the king's temples.[45] Priests of Amun under the king included the brother-in-law of the king Anen and Simut. Monuments[edit] The northern Colossus of Memnon Amenhotep III built extensively at the temple of Karnak including the Luxor temple which consisted of two pylons, a colonnade behind the new temple entrance, and a new temple to the goddess Ma'at. Amenhotep III dismantled the Fourth Pylon of the Temple of Amun at Karnak to construct a new pylon—the Third Pylon—and created a new entrance to this structure where he erected two rows of columns with open papyrus capitals down the centre of this newly formed forecourt.[citation needed] The forecourt between the Third and Fourth Pylons, sometimes called an obelisk court, was also decorated with scenes of the sacred barque of the deities Amun, Mut, and Khonsu being carried in funerary boats.[46] The king also started work on the Tenth Pylon at the Temple of Amun there. Amenhotep III's first recorded act as king—in his Years 1 and 2—was to open new limestone quarries at Tura, just south of Cairo and at Dayr al-Barsha in Middle Egypt in order to herald his great building projects.[47] He oversaw the construction of another temple to Ma'at at Luxor and virtually covered Nubia with numerous monuments. ...including a small temple with a colonnade (dedicated to Thutmose III) at Elephantine, a rock temple dedicated to Amun "Lord of the Ways" at Wadi es-Sebuam, and the temple of Horus of Miam at Aniba...[as well as founding] additional temples at Kawa and Sesebi.[48] Luxor Temple of Amenhotep III His enormous mortuary temple on the west bank of the Nile was, in its day, the largest religious complex in Thebes, but unfortunately, the king chose to build it too close to the floodplain and less than two hundred years later, it stood in ruins. Much of the masonry was purloined by Merneptah and later pharaohs for their own construction projects.[49] The Colossi of Memnon—two massive stone statues, 18 m (59 ft) high, of Amenhotep that stood at the gateway of his mortuary temple—were the only elements of the complex that remained standing. Amenhotep III also built the Third Pylon at Karnak and erected 600 statues of the goddess Sekhmet in the Temple of Mut, south of Karnak.[50]Some of the most magnificent statues of New Kingdom Egypt date to his reign "such as the two outstanding couchant rose granite lions originally set before the temple at Soleb in Nubia" as well as a large series of royal sculptures.[51] Several beautiful black granite seated statues of Amenhotep wearing the nemes headress have come from excavations behind the Colossi of Memnon as well as from Tanis in the Delta.[51] In 2014, two giant statues of Amenhotep III that were toppled by an earthquake in 1200 BC were reconstructed from more than 200 fragments and re-erected at the northern gate of the king's funerary temple.[52] One of the most stunning finds of royal statues dating to his reign was made as recently as 1989 in the courtyard of Amenhotep III's colonnade of the Temple of Luxor where a cache of statues was found, including a 6 feet (1.8 m)-high pink quartzite statue of the king wearing the Double Crown found in near-perfect condition.[51] It was mounted on a sled, and may have been a cult statue.[51] The only damage it had sustained was that the name of the god Amun had been hacked out wherever it appeared in the pharaoh's cartouche, clearly done as part of the systematic effort to eliminate any mention of this god during the reign of his successor, Akhenaten.[51] Sed Festival Stela of Amenhotep III[edit] The Sed Festival dates from the dawn of Egyptian kingship with early Egyptian kings of the Old Kingdom.[53] When a king served 30 years of his reign, he performed a series of tests to demonstrate his fitness for continuing as pharaoh. On completion, the king's rejuvenated vitality enabled him to serve three more years before holding another Sed Festival. To commemorate an event, a stela, which is a stone of various size and composition, is inscribed with highlights of the event. Proclamations informed the people living in Egypt of an upcoming Sed Festival together with stelae. Stela[edit] A Sed Festival Stela of Amenhotep III (Hellenized as Amenophis III) was taken from Egypt to Europe by an art dealer. It is now believed to be in the United States but not on public display.[54] In Europe, Dr. Eric Cassirer at one time owned the stela. The dimensions of the white alabaster stela are 10 x 9 cm (3.94 x 3.54 in), but only the upper half of the stela survived.[55] It was shaped in the form of a temple pylon with a gradual narrowing near the top. Front view: The god Heh, who represents the number one million, holds notched palm leaves signifying years.[55] Above his head, Heh appears to support the cartouche of Amenhotep III symbolically for a million years. Side view: A series of festival (ḥb) emblems together with a Sed (sd) emblem identifying the stela as one made for Amenhotep III's Sed Festival royal jubilee.[55] Top view: The top shows malicious damage to the stela where the cartouche was chipped away. Back view: Like the top view, the cartouche has been eradicated. Cassirer suggests Akhenaten, Amenhotep III's son and successor, was responsible for defacing the king's name on the stela.[56] Akhenaten detested his royal family name so much, he changed his own name from Amenhotep IV to Akhenaten; he vandalized any reference to the god Amun since he had chosen to worship another god, the Aten.[56] Other gods displayed on the stela, Re and Ma’at, showed no sign of vandalism.[56] The stela is believed to have been displayed prominently in Akhenaten's new capital city of Akhetaten (current day Amarna).[56] With the royal name and Amun references removed, it likely had a prominent place in a temple or palace of Akhenaten.[56] Akhenaten could then display the stela without reminders of his old family name or the false god Amun, yet celebrate his father's achievement. Amenhotep III, the Magnificent, 18th dynasty Amenhotep III's Sed Festival[edit] Amenhotep III, Brooklyn Museum Amenhotep wanted his Sed Festivals to be far more spectacular than those of the past.[57] He served as king for 38 years, celebrating three Sed Festivals during his reign. Rameses II set the record for Sed Festivals with 14 during his 67-year reign. Amenhotep III appointed Amenhotep, son of Hapu, as the official to plan the ceremony. Amenhotep-Hapu was one of the few courtiers still alive to have served at the last Sed Festival (for Amenhotep II).[57] Amenhotep-Hapu enlisted scribes to gather information from records and inscriptions of prior Sed Festivals, often from much earlier dynasties. Most of the descriptions were found in ancient funerary temples.[57] In addition to the rituals, they collected descriptions of costumes worn at previous festivals. Temples were built and statues erected up and down the Nile. Craftsmen and jewelers created ornaments commentating the event including jewelry, ornaments, and stelae.[57] Malqata, "House of Rejoicing", the temple complex built by Amenhotep III, served as the focal point for the Sed Festivals.[58] Malqata featured an artificial lake that Amenhotep built for his wife, Queen Tiye, that would be used in the Sed Festival. The scribe Nebmerutef coordinated every step of the event.[59] He directed Amenhotep III to use his mace to knock on the temple doors. Beside him, Amenhotep-Hapu mirrored his effort like a royal shadow.[59] The king was followed by Queen Tiye and the royal daughters. When moving to another venue, the banner of the jackal god Wepwawet, "Opener of Ways" preceded the King. The king changed his costume at each major activity of the celebration.[59] One of the major highlights of the Festival was the king's dual coronation. He was enthroned separately for Upper and Lower Egypt. For Upper Egypt, Amenhotep wore the white crown but changed to the red crown for the Lower Egypt coronation.[60] Based on indications left by Queen Tiye's steward Khenruef, the festival may have lasted two to eight months.[61] Khenruef accompanied the king as he traveled the empire, probably reenacting the ceremony for different audiences.[61] At the time of the festival Amenhotep III had three official wives: the "Great wife", Queen Tiye; their daughter, Sitamen, who was promoted to be a queen at the time of the Sed Festival; and Gilukhepa, a daughter of the king of Mitanni, a traditional Egyptian rival.[61] No mention is made of the royal harem. Although shunned by common Egyptians, incest was not uncommon among royalty.[62] In fact, most Egyptian creation stories depend on it. By the time of the Sed Festival, Queen Tiye would be past her child-bearing years.[62] However, a sculpture restored by Amenhotep for his grandfather, Amenhotep II, shows Sitamen with a young prince beside her.[62] As a reward for a lifetime of serving the Egyptian kings, Amenhotep-Hapu received his own funerary temple.[63] The location was behind that of his king, Amenhotep III. Some of Amenhotep III's workshops were razed to make room for Amenhotep-Hapu's temple.[63] Some of the known information about Amenhotep's Sed Festival comes from an unlikely source: the trash heap at Malqata Palace. Many jars bearing the names of donors to Amenhotep III to celebrate his festival were found. The donors were not just the rich but also small servants. The jars bear the donor's name, title, and date. The jars were stored without respect to their origin.[64] After the Sed Festival, Amenhotep III transcended from being a near-god to one divine.[65] Few Egyptian kings lived long enough for their own celebration. Those who survived used the celebration as the affirmation of transition to divinity. Ancestry[edit] Ancestors of Amenhotep III 16. Thutmose II 8. Thutmose III 17. Iset 4. Amenhotep II 9. Merytre Hatshepsut 19. Hui 2. Thutmose IV 5. Tiaa 1. Amenhotep III 3. Mutemwiya Gallery[edit] Granodiorite seated statue of Amenhotep III at the British Museum, from its left side. Granodiorite statue of Amenhotep III at the British Museum, Left of Statue above. Granodiorie Amenhotep (Right Statue) Northeast side, British Museum Granodiorie Amenhotep (Left Statue) Close up, British Museum Bulls Tail (Left Statue), British Museum Belt (Left Statue), British Museum Feet (Left Statue), British Museum Left Inscriptions (Left Statue), British Museum Right Inscriptions (Left Statue), British Museum Red Granite Statue, North East side, British Museum Red Granite Statue, Left side, British Museum Limestone Amenhotep, British Museum Amenhotep III wearing the red crown of Lower Egypt, c. 1400 BCE. From Thebes, Egypt. British Museum. EA6 Amenhotep III wearing the red crown of Lower Egypt, c. 1400 BCE. From Thebes, Egypt. British Museum. EA7 See also[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Amenhotep III. Colossal red granite statue of Amenhotep III Colossal quartzite statue of Amenhotep III History of ancient Egypt Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt Family Tree List of pharaohs Quay with Sphinxes The lion hunts of Amenhotep III during the first ten years of his reign Footnotes[edit] ^ Moran 1992, p. 7. ^ Clayton 1994, p. 112. ^ [1] Amenhotep III ^ Ranke, Hermann (1935). Die Ägyptischen Personennamen, Bd. 1: Verzeichnis der Namen (PDF). Glückstadt: J.J. Augustin. p. 30. Retrieved 25 July 2020. ^ Beckerath 1997, p. 190. ^ O'Connor & Cline 1998, p. 3. ^ Fletcher 2000, p. 10. ^ a b c d O'Connor & Cline 1998, p. 7. ^ Kozloff & Bryan 1992, nos. 24, 57, 103 & 104. ^ Kozloff & Bryan 1992, fig. II, 5. ^ Troy 1986, pp. 103, 107, 111. ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 155. ^ Fletcher 2000, p. 156. ^ a b c d e Grajetzki 2005. ^ O'Connor & Cline 1998, pp. 11–12. ^ a b O'Connor & Cline 1998, p. 13. ^ Kozloff & Bryan 1992, no. 2. ^ Moran 1992, p. 8. ^ Urk. IV 1665–66 ^ a b O'Connor & Cline 1998, p. 16. ^ O'Connor & Cline 1998, pp. 3, 14. ^ O'Connor & Cline 2001. ^ Tyldesley 2006. ^ Moran 1992, pp. 87–89. ^ Reeves 2000, pp. 75–78. ^ Berman 1998, p. 23. ^ Pharaoh power-sharing unearthed in Egypt Daily News Egypt. February 6, 2014 ^ Proof found of Amenhotep III-Akhenaten co-regency thehistoryblog.com ^ Dorman 2009. ^ Grimal 1992, p. 225. ^ Hayes 1973, p. 346. ^ Aldred 1991, p. 13. ^ Moran 1992, pp. 61–62. ^ O'Connor & Cline 1998, p. 22. ^ Moran 1992, p. 62 n. 2. ^ Moran 1992, p. 50. ^ Kozloff & Bryan 1992, p. 39, fig. II.4. ^ Clayton 1994, p. 119. ^ Smith 1912, p. 50. ^ "North Tombs at Amarna". Archived from the original on 7 May 2009. Retrieved 2009-05-18. ^ O'Connor & Cline 1998, p. 23. ^ Fletcher 2000, p. 161. ^ Grimal 1992, pp. 223, 225. ^ Fletcher 2000, p. 162. ^ Lichtheim 1980, p. 104. ^ The Obelisk Court of Amenhotep III ^ Urk. IV, 1677–1678 ^ Grimal 1992, p. 223. ^ Grimal 1992, p. 224. ^ Grimal 1992, pp. 224, 295. ^ a b c d e Clayton 1994, p. 118. ^ "Amenhotep III Statues Once More Stand Before Pharaoh's Temple". Latin American Herald Tribute. December 15, 2014. ^ Berman 1998, p. 15. ^ Cassirer 1952, p. 128. ^ a b c Cassirer 1952, p. 129. ^ a b c d e Cassirer 1952, p. 130. ^ a b c d Kozloff 2012, p. 182. ^ Berman 1998, p. 17. ^ a b c Kozloff 2012, p. 189. ^ Kozloff 2012, p. 190. ^ a b c Kozloff 2012, p. 192. ^ a b c Kozloff 2012, p. 194. ^ a b Kozloff 2012, p. 197. ^ Kozloff 2012, p. 183. ^ Kozloff 2012, p. 195. Bibliography[edit] Aldred, Cyril (1991). Akhenaten: King of Egypt. Thames & Hudson. Allen, James P. "The Amarna Succession" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on July 1, 2013. Retrieved 2014-02-01. Beckerath, Jürgen von (1997). Chronologie des Pharaonischen Ägypten. Mainz: Philipp von Zabern. Berman, Lawrence M. (1998). "Overview of Amenhotep III and His Reign". In O'Connor, David; Cline, Eric (eds.). Amenhotep III: Perspectives on His Reign. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Cassirer, Manfred (1952). "A hb-sd Stela of Amenophis III". The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 38. Clayton, Peter (1994). Chronicle of the Pharaohs. Thames & Hudson Ltd. Dodson, Aidan; Hilton, Dyan (2004). The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. Dorman, Peter (2009). "The Long Coregency Revisited: Architectural and Iconographic Conundra in the Tomb of Kheruef" (PDF). Causing His Name to Live: Studies in Egyptian Epigraphy and History in Memory of William J. Murnane. Brill. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-07-22. Fletcher, Joann (2000). Chronicle of a Pharaoh – The Intimate Life of Amenhotep III. Oxford University Press. Grajetzki, Wolfram (2005). Ancient Egyptian Queens: A Hieroglyphic Dictionary. London: Golden House Publications. ISBN 978-0-9547218-9-3. Grimal, Nicolas (1992). A History of Ancient Egypt. Blackwell Books. Hayes, William (1973). "Internal affairs from Thutmosis I to the death of Amenophis III". The Middle East and the Aegean Region, c. 1800–1380 BC. Pt 1, Vol 2. Kozloff, Arielle; Bryan, Betsy (1992). Royal and Divine Statuary in Egypt's Dazzling Sun: Amenhotep III and his World. Cleveland. Kozloff, Arielle P. (2012). Amenhotep III: Egypt's Radiant Pharaoh. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lichtheim, Miriam (1980). Ancient Egyptian Literature: A Book of Readings: The Late Period. University of California Press. Moran, William L. (1992). The Amarna Letters. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. O'Connor, David; Cline, Eric (1998). Amenhotep III: Perspectives on His Reign. University of Michigan Press. O'Connor, David; Cline, Eric H. (2001). Amenhotep III: Perspectives on His Reign. University of Michigan Press. Reeves, Nicholas (2000). Akhenaten: Egypt's False Prophet. Thames & Hudson. Smith, Grafton Elliot (1912). The Royal Mummies. Cairo. Troy, Lana (1986). "Patterns of Queenship in Ancient Egyptian Myth and History". Uppsala Studies in Ancient Mediterranean and Near Eastern Civilizations. 14. Tyldesley, Joyce (2006). Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt. Thames & Hudson. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Tutankhamun Family Akhenaten (father) "The Younger Lady" (mother) Ankhesenamun (wife) 317a and 317b mummies (daughters) Amenhotep III (grandfather) Tiye (grandmother) Discovery Howard Carter George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon KV62 (Tutankhamun's tomb) Mask Mummy Anubis Shrine Head of Nefertem Lotus chalice Trumpets Meteoric iron dagger Other Curse of the pharaohs Exhibitions Popular culture Steve Martin song Of Time, Tombs and Treasures (1977 documentary) The Curse of King Tut's Tomb (1980 film) Mysteries of Egypt (1998 film) Tutenstein (2003 series) The Curse of King Tut's Tomb (2006 film) Tut (2015 miniseries) Tutankhamun (2016 miniseries) Authority control GND: 118502484 NKC: av2009541083 VIAF: 316145858076623021867 WorldCat Identities: viaf-316145858076623021867 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amenhotep_III&oldid=1001541504" Categories: Amenhotep III 1350s BC deaths 14th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Egyptian architects Ancient child rulers Ancient Egyptian mummies Amarna Period Children of Thutmose IV Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Egyptian-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2009 Articles with unsourced statements from March 2019 Commons category link is on Wikidata CS1: long volume value Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account 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en-wikipedia-org-811	----	Nubkheperre Intef - Wikipedia Nubkheperre Intef From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Nubkheperre Intef Nebkheperre Intef's wooden Rishi coffin in the British Museum Pharaoh Reign c.1571 to mid-1560s BC[1] (17th dynasty) Predecessor Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Successor Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Nebukhepere Nbw-ḫpr-R՚ The golden apparition of Ra Nomen Intef Jnj it=f His father brought him Horus name Neferkheperu nfr-ḫprw Horus, he whose apparitions are perfect Nebty name Heruhernesetef Hrw-ḥr-nst=f He who creates peace on his throne Golden Horus [...]neteru [..]-nTrw ...-gods Consort Sobekemsaf Father Sobekemsaf II Burial Pyramid at Dra' Abu el-Naga' Nubkheperre Intef (or Antef, Inyotef) was an Egyptian king of the Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt at Thebes during the Second Intermediate Period, when Egypt was divided by rival dynasties including the Hyksos in Lower Egypt. He is known to be the brother of Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef—and this king's immediate successor—since he donated Louvre Coffin E3019 for this king's burial which bears an inscription that it was donated for king Sekhemre Wepmaat Intef "as that which his brother, king Antef (Nubkheperre Intef here) gives", notes Kim Ryholt.[2] As the German scholar Thomas Schneider writes in the 2006 book Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies): From the legend on the coffin Louvre E 3019 (Sekhemre-Wepmaat's coffin), it follows that Inyotef Nebukheperre'...arranged the burial of his brother Inyotef Sekhemre'-upimaat...and must have therefore have followed him on the throne. In his Untersuchungen, Beckerath had viewed Inyotef Sekhemre'-upimaat (VI) and Inyotef Sekhemre-herhermaat (VII) as brothers, whereas he had separated Inyotef Nebukheperre' (VI; coffin BM 6652) from them as a king he considered not necessarily related to them, placing him at the beginning of the dynasty. Ryholt equally bases his arguments upon a consistent paleographic peculiarity (the Pleneschreibung of "j") in the case of the coffin of Inyotef Sekhemre-herhermaat.[3] where only Nubkheperre Intef's nomen contained a reed-leaf of all the three Intef kings."[4] Contents 1 Intef's father 2 Building program 3 Nubkheperre Intef's timeline and tomb robbery 4 Tomb rediscovery 5 References 6 Bibliography 7 External links Intef's father[edit] Nubkheperre Intef and, by implication, his brother Sekhemre Wepmaat Intef, were probably the sons of Sekhemre Shedtawy Sobekemsaf (Sobekemsaf II today) on the basis of inscriptions found on a doorjamb discovered in the remains of a 17th Dynasty temple at Gebel-Antef on the Luxor-Farshut road.[5] The British Egyptologist Aidan Dodson also endorses Ryholt's interpretation of the doorjamb's text and writes: Ryholt does...introduce the new "Desert Roads" evidence from the Darnells' survey to show that Nubkheperrre Inyotef (dubbed by Ryholt "Inyotef N") was a son of [Sekhemre-shedtawi] Sobekemsaf, thus providing a key genealogical link within the [17th] dynasty.[6] The German Egyptologist Daniel Polz, who discovered this king's tomb in 2001, also studied the same doorjamb and reached a similar conclusion in a 2007 German language book.[7] An association between Nubkheperre Intef and a king Sobekemsaf is also indicated by the discovery of a doorframe fragment by John and Deborah Darnell in the early 1990s which preserved part of an inscription naming a king Intef ahead of a king Sobekemsaf; the hieroglyphic spelling of the king Intef here was that used only by Nubkheperre.[8] Unfortunately, not enough of the inscription was uncovered to reveal the nature of the relationship with any certainty here—or which king Sobekemsaf was intended.[9] Nubkheperre Intef is sometimes referred to as Intef VII,[10] in other sources as Intef VI,[11] and even as Intef V.[12] Nubkheperre Intef ruled from Thebes, and was buried in a tomb in the necropolis of Dra' Abu el-Naga'. The grave was originally covered with a small pyramid (approximately 11 m at the base, rising to a height of approx. 13 m.) Auguste Mariette found two broken obelisks with complete Fivefold Titulary, which was then subsequently lost when being transported to the Cairo Museum. King Intef's wife was Sobekemsaf, who perhaps came from a local family based at Edfu. On an Abydos stela mentioning a building of the king are the words king's son, head of the bowmen Nakht. Building program[edit] The stela depicting Nubkheperre and Nakht, from Abydos.[13] Nubkheperre Intef is one of the best attested kings of the 17th dynasty who restored numerous damaged temples in Upper Egypt as well as constructing a new temple at Gebel Antef. The best preserved building from his reign is the remains of a small chapel at Koptos. Four walls that have been reconstructed show the king in front of Min and show him crowned by Horus and by another god. The reliefs are executed in raised and sunken relief.[14] At Koptos, the Coptos Decree was found on a stela which referred to the actions of Nubkheperre Intef against Teti, son of Minhotep.[15] At Abydos, several stone fragments were found, including columns which attest to some kind of restoration work.[16] On a stela found at Abydos, a mention is made of a House of Intef. This most likely refers to a building belonging to Nubkheperre Intef.[13] Therefore, while Nubkheperre Intef's highest—and only known—year date is his Year 3 on the Koptos stela,[17] this must be considered an underestimate since he must have ruled much longer to accomplish his ambitious building program and also complete his royal tomb.[18] Indeed, Nubkheperre Intef is alone "mentioned on over twenty contemporary monuments" from his reign[19] which demonstrates his position as one of the most powerful rulers of the Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt. Nubkheperre Intef's timeline and tomb robbery[edit] Both Kim Ryholt and the German Egyptologist Daniel Polz concur that this pharaoh did not rule at or near the start of the 17th dynasty but rather late into the 17th dynasty just prior to the final three known kings of this dynasty (Senakhtenre, Seqenenre and Kamose.)[20] Ryholt, however, in his 1997 reconstruction of the sequence of 17th dynasty rulers felt that a king Sobekemsaf intervened between the last Intef king and Senakhtenre.[21] whereas in more contemporary literature, Detlef Franke rejects this view (below) and argues that there is no space for a king Sobekemsaf to intervene in the space after Nubkheperre Intef. "Contrary to Ryholt, I see no place for a king Sobekemsaf who ruled after Nubkheperra Antef. Nubkheperra Antef (c.1560 BC) is the best attested (from Abydos to Edfu, e.g. BM 631, EA 1645, coffin 6652) and [the] most important of the three Antefs."[22] Polz, in his 2007 book, places Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef as a short-lived king between the reigns of Nubkheperre Intef and Senakhtenre Ahmose—the first ruler of the Ahmoside family of kings.[23] Nubkheperre Intef's tomb was originally penetrated by tomb robbers in 1827 but some of its treasures made it into the hands of Western collectors; his unique rishi style coffin was purchased by the British Museum from the Henry Salt collection where its catalogue number is EA 6652.[24] His tomb was later found by early Egyptologists around 1881 but knowledge of its location was lost again until it was rediscovered in 2001 by German scholars. The coffin of Nubkheperre Intef was reportedly found in his tomb complete with a diadem or crown, some bows and arrows, and the heart-scarab of a king Sobekemsaf.[25] Tomb rediscovery[edit] A royal crown believed to have originated from Nubkheperre Intef's Dra' Abu el-Naga' tomb now located in the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden of the Netherlands. Nubkheperre Intef's tomb was rediscovered by Daniel Polz, the deputy director of the German Archaeological Institute in 2001. References[edit] ^ Kim Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, CNI Publications, Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, p.204 ^ PM I 2 (1964) 603, & Kim S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800-1550 BC, (Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, p.270 ^ Thomas Schneider, "The Relative Chronology of the Middle Kingdom and the Hyksos Period (Dyns. 12-17)" in Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss & David Warburton (editors), Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies), Brill, 2006. p.187 ^ Ryholt, pp.267 & 270 ^ Ryholt, p.270 ^ Aidan Dodson, University of Bristol November 1998 book review of K.S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800-1550 BC (Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, with an Appendix by Adam Bulow-Jacobsen vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, in Bibliotheca Orientalis LVII No 1/2, January–April 2000, p.51 ^ Daniel Polz, Der Beginn des Neuen Reiches. Zur Vorgeschichte einer Zeitenwende. Sonderschriften des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo, 31. Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2007. pp.34-38 ^ J.C. & D. Darnell in The Oriental Annual Report 1992-1993 (Chicago, 1994) p.48 ^ Darnell, p.48 ^ Alexander J. Peden (2001). The Graffiti of Pharaonic Egypt: Scope and Roles of Informal Writings (c. 3100-332 B.C.). BRILL. p. 52. ISBN 90-04-12112-9. ^ Lehner, Mark (2008). The Complete Pyramids: Solving the Ancient Mysteries. ISBN 978-0-500-28547-3. ^ Chris Bennett, A Genealogical Chronology of the Seventeenth Dynasty, Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, Vol. 39 (2002), pp. 123-155 JSTOR (Bennett mentions that Beckerath also refers to Nubkheperre as Intef V) ^ a b W.M.F. Petrie: Abydos I. EEF Memoir 22. London 1902, pp. 28, 41-2, pl. LVII ^ Reconstruction of the walls on Digital Egypt ^ W. M. Petrie Flinders: Koptos, London 1896, Pl.8 ^ W.M.F. Petrie: Abydos I. EEF Memoir 22. London 1902, pp. 28, 41-2, pl. LV (3-5, 8), LVI; W.M.F. Petrie. with a chapter by F.Ll. Grifftith M.A., F.S.A.: Abydos II. EEF Memoir 24. London 1903, pp. 35, pl. XXXII, 3-4 ^ "The Coptos decree of Nebkheperure-Intef". Archived from the original on 2012-11-10. Retrieved 2012-05-07. ^ Ryholt, p.204 ^ Janine Bourriau, "The Second Intermediate Period (c.1650-1550 BC)" in Ian Shaw (ed.) The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press, 2000. p.204 ^ Thomas Schneider, "The Relative Chronology of the Middle Kingdom..." p.187 ^ Ryholt, pp.170-171 & 272 ^ Detlef Franke, The Late Middle Kingdom (Thirteenth to Seventeenth Dynasties): The Chronological Framework, Journal of Egyptian History, Vol.1 No.2 (2008) Koninklijke Brill, p.279 ^ Polz, Der Beginn des Neuen Reichs, p.50 ^ Coffin of King Nubkheperra Intef ^ I.E.S. Edwards in P. Posener-Kriéger (ed.), Mélanges Gamal Eddin Mokhtar I, (Cairo, 1985) p.239 Bibliography[edit] Kim S. B. Ryholt; Adam Bülow-Jacobsen (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C. Museum Tusculanum. ISBN 978-87-7289-421-8. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nubkheperre Intef. Article on Excavation (in German) Digital Egypt link Preceded by Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Pharaoh of Egypt Seventeenth Dynasty Succeeded by Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 128425776 ISNI: 0000 0004 4886 238X LCCN: no2003103098 SUDOC: 081574002 VIAF: 18275774 WorldCat Identities: lccn-no2003103098 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nubkheperre_Intef&oldid=984519690" Categories: 16th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC 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en-wikipedia-org-8150	----	Thutmose II - Wikipedia Thutmose II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the name Thutmose (Thutmosis), see Thutmose. Thutmose II Thutmosis II, Chebron, Chebros Relief of Thutmose II in Karnak Temple complex. Pharaoh Reign disputed, 1493–1479 BC, 1513–1499 BC (18th Dynasty) Predecessor Thutmose I Successor Hatshepsut Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Aa·kheper·en·re ˁ3-ḫpr-n-Rˁ Great is the manifestation of Ra Nomen Djehutymes Ḏḥwtj-msj(w) Born of Thoth Djehutymes Neferkhau Ḏḥwtj-msj(w)-nfr-ḫˁw Born of Thoth, he whose apparitions are perfect Djehutymes Nedjty·re Ḏḥwtj-msj(w)-nḏtj-Rˁ Born of Thoth, protector of Ra Horus name Ka·nakht·user·pehti K3-nḫt-wsr- pḥtj Strong bull, rich of strength Nebty name Netjery·nesyt Nṯrj-nsjt He whose royalty is divine Golden Horus Sekhem·kheperu Sḫm-ḫprw He whose manifestations are powerful Consort Hatshepsut, Iset Children Thutmose III, Neferure Father Thutmose I Mother Mutnofret Born C.1510 BC Died 1479 BC Burial KV42 (now considered unlikely) Royal Cache of mummies at Deir el-Bahari (Theban Necropolis) Thutmose II (sometimes read as Thutmosis or Tuthmosis II, Thothmes in older history works in Latinized Greek; Ancient Egyptian: /ḏḥwty.ms/ Djehutymes, meaning "Thoth is born") was the fourth Pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt. His reign is generally dated from 1493 to 1479 BC. His body was found in the Deir el-Bahri Cache above the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut and can be viewed today in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Contents 1 Family 2 Dates and length of reign 2.1 Argument for a short reign 2.2 Argument for a long reign 3 Campaigns 4 Mummy 5 As the Pharaoh of the Exodus 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Family[edit] See also: Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Thutmose II was the son of Thutmose I and a minor wife, Mutnofret. He was, therefore, a lesser son of Thutmose I and chose to marry his fully royal half-sister, Hatshepsut, in order to secure his kingship. While he successfully put down rebellions in Nubia and the Levant and defeated a group of nomadic Bedouins, these campaigns were specifically carried out by the king's Generals, and not by Thutmose II himself. This is often interpreted as evidence that Thutmose II was still a minor at his accession. Thutmose II fathered Neferure with Hatshepsut, as well as a male heir, the famous Thutmose III, by a lesser wife named Iset before his death. Some archaeologists believe that Hatshepsut was the real power behind the throne during Thutmose II's rule because of the similar domestic and foreign policies that were later pursued under her reign and because of her claim that she was her father's intended her hair. She is depicted in several raised relief scenes from a Karnak gateway dating to Thutmose II's reign both together with her husband and alone.[1] She later had herself crowned Pharaoh several years into the rule of her husband's young successor Thutmose III; this is confirmed by the fact that "the queen's agents actually replaced the big boy king's name in a few places with her own cartouches" on the gateway.[2] Manetho's Epitome refers to Thutmose II as "Chebron" (a reference to his prenomen, Aakheperenre) and gives him a reign of 13 years, but this figure is highly disputed among scholars. Some Egyptologists prefer to shorten his reign by a full decade to only three years because his highest Year Date is only a Year 1 II Akhet day 8 stele.[3] Dates and length of reign[edit] Red granite fragment bearing the cartouche of Thutmose II. Probably from a throne of a seated statue. From Thutmose III Temple at Koptos, Egypt. 18th Dynasty Manetho's Epitome has been a debated topic among Egyptologists with little consensus given the small number of surviving documents for his reign, but a 13-year reign is preferred by older scholars while newer scholars prefer a shorter 3-4 year reign for this king due to the minimal amount of scarabs and monuments attested under Thutmose II. It is still possible to estimate when Thutmose II's reign would have begun by means of a heliacal rise of Sothis in Amenhotep I's reign, which would give him a reign from 1493 to 1479 BC,[4] although uncertainty about how to interpret the rise also permits a date from 1513 to 1499 BC,[5] and uncertainty about how long Thutmose I ruled could also potentially place his reign several years earlier still. Nonetheless, scholars generally assign him a reign from 1493 or 1492 to 1479.[4][6] Argument for a short reign[edit] Aakheperenre, the praenomen of Thutmose II, temple of Hatshepsut, Luxor. Ineni, who was already aged by the start of Thutmose II's reign, lived through this ruler's entire reign into that of Hatshepsut.[7] In addition, Thutmose II is poorly attested in the monumental record and in the contemporary tomb autobiographies of New Kingdom officials. A clear count of monuments from his rule, which is the principal tool for estimating a king's reign when dated documents are not available, is nearly impossible because Hatshepsut usurped most of his monuments, and Thutmose III in turn reinscribed Thutmose II's name indiscriminately over other monuments.[8] However, apart from several surviving blocks of buildings erected by the king at Semna, Kumma, and Elephantine, Thutmose II's only major monument consists of a limestone gateway at Karnak that once lay at the front of the Fourth Pylon's forecourt. Even this monument was not completed in Thutmose II's reign but in the reign of his son Thutmose III, which hints at "the nearly ephemeral nature of Thutmose II's reign".[9] The gateway was later dismantled and its building blocks incorporated into the foundation of the Third Pylon by Amenhotep III.[2] In 1987, Luc Gabolde published an important study that statistically compared the number of surviving scarabs found under Thutmose I, Thutmose II and Hatshepsut.[10] While monuments can be usurped, scarabs are so small and comparatively insignificant that altering their names would be impractical and without profit; hence, they provide a far better insight into this period. Hatshepsut's reign is believed to have lasted for 21 years and 9 months. Gabolde highlighted, in his analysis, the consistently small number of surviving scarabs known for Thutmose II compared to Thutmose I and Hatshepsut respectively; for instance, Flinders Petrie's older study of scarab seals noted 86 seals for Thutmose I, 19 seals for Thutmose II and 149 seals for Hatshepsut while more recent studies by Jaeger estimate a total of 241 seals for Thutmose I, 463 seals for Hatshepsut and only 65 seals for Thutmose II.[11] Hence, unless there was an abnormally low number of scarabs produced under Thutmose II, this would indicate that the king's reign was rather short-lived. On this basis, Gabolde estimated Thutmose I and II's reigns to be approximately 11 and 3 full years, respectively. Consequently, the reign length of Thutmose II has been a much debated subject among Egyptologists with little consensus given the small number of surviving documents for his reign. Argument for a long reign[edit] Thutmose II in front of an offering table. From the mortuary temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahari, Egypt. Neues Museum, Berlin Thutmose's reign is still traditionally given as 13 or 14 years. Although Ineni's autobiography can be interpreted to say that Thutmose reigned only a short time, it also calls Thutmose II a "hawk in the nest", indicating that he was perhaps a child when he assumed the throne.[7] Since he lived long enough to father two children—Neferure and Thutmose III—this suggests that he may have had a longer reign of 13 years in order to reach adulthood and start a family. The German Egyptologist, J. Von Beckerath, uses this line of argument to support the case of a 13-year reign for Thutmose II.[12][page needed] Alan Gardiner noted that at one point a monument had been identified by Georges Daressy in 1900,[13] dated to Thutmose's 18th year, although its precise location has not been identified.[14] This inscription is now usually attributed to Hatshepsut, who certainly did have an 18th year. Von Beckerath observes that a Year 18 date appears in a fragmentary inscription of an Egyptian official and notes that the date likely refers to Hatshepsut's prenomen Maatkare, which had been altered from Aakheperenre Thutmose II, with the reference to the deceased Thutmose II being removed.[15] There is also the curious fact that Hatshepsut celebrated her Sed Jubilee in her Year 16, which von Beckerath believes occurred 30 years after the death of Thutmose I, her father, who was the main source of her claim to power. This would create a gap of 13 to 14 years where Thutmose II's reign would fit in between Hatshepsut and Thutmose I's rule.[15] Von Beckerath additionally stresses that Egyptologists have no conclusive criteria to statistically evaluate the reign length of Thutmose II based on the number of preserved objects from his reign.[16] Catherine Roerig has proposed that tomb KV20, generally believed to have been commissioned by Hatshepsut, was the original tomb of Thutmose II in the Valley of the Kings.[17] If correct, this would be a major project on the part of Thutmose II, which required a construction period of several years and implies a long reign for this king. Secondly, new archaeological work by French Egyptologists at Karnak has produced evidence of a pylon and an opulent festival court of Thutmose II in front of the 4th pylon according to Luc Gabolde.[18] Meanwhile, French Egyptologists at Karnak have also uncovered blocks from a chapel and a barque sanctuary constructed by Thutmose II there.[19] Finally, Zygmunt Wysocki has proposed that the funerary temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahari was originally begun as Thutmose II's own mortuary temple. Thutmose III here later replaced depictions of Hatshepsut with those by Thutmose II in those parts of the temple that are proposed to have been executed by the latter king before Hatshepsut took over the temple following Thutmose II's death.[20] Thutmose II also contributed to the decoration of the temple of Khnum at Semna.[21] A reconsideration of this new archaeological evidence would remove several arguments usually advanced in support of a short reign: namely the absence of a tomb that can be assigned to Thutmose II, the absence of a funerary temple and the lack of any major works undertaken by this pharaoh.[22] Thutmose II's Karnak building projects would also imply that his reign was closer to 13 years rather than just 3 years. Archaeologists from Warsaw University’s Institute of Archaeology led by Andrzej Niwiński have discovered a treasure chest and a wooden box dated 3,500 years back in the Egyptian site of Deir el-Bahari in March 2020.[23][24] The stone chest consisted of several items and all of them covered with linen canvas. Three bundles of flax were found during the excavation. A goose skeleton was found inside one of them, sacrificed for religious purposes. The second one included goose eggs. It is believed that what the third bundle contained was an ibis egg which had a symbolic meaning for the ancient Egyptians. In addition, a little wooden trinket box was discovered inside the bundle, believed to contain the name Pharaoh Thutmose II.[23] According to the Andrzej Niwiński, "The chest itself is about 40 cm long, with a slight smaller height. It was perfectly camouflaged, looked like an ordinary stone block. Only after a closer look did it turn out to be a chest."[24] Campaigns[edit] Upon Thutmose's coronation, Kush rebelled, as it had the habit of doing upon the transition of Egyptian kingship. The Nubian state had been completely subjugated by Thutmose I,[25] but some rebels from Khenthennofer rose up, and the Egyptian forces retreated into a fortress built by Thutmose I.[26] On account of his relative youth at the time, Thutmose II dispatched an army into Nubia rather than leading it himself, but he seems to have easily crushed this revolt with the aid of his father's military generals.[27] An account of the campaign is given by the historian Josephus who refers to it as the Ethiopic War. Thutmose also seems to have fought against the Shasu Bedouin in the Sinai, in a campaign mentioned by Ahmose Pen-Nekhbet.[14] Although this campaign has been called a minor raid, there is a fragment recorded by Kurt Sethe that records a campaign in Upper Retenu, or Syria, which appears to have reached as far as a place called Niy where Thutmose I hunted elephants after returning from crossing the Euphrates.[28] This quite possibly indicates that the raid against the Shasu was only fought en route to Syria.[28] Mummy[edit] The mummified head of Thutmose II Thutmose II's mummy was discovered in the Deir el-Bahri cache, revealed in 1881. He was interred along with other 18th and 19th dynasty leaders including Ahmose I, Amenhotep I, Thutmose I, Thutmose III, Ramesses I, Seti I, Ramesses II, and Ramesses IX. The mummy was unwrapped by Gaston Maspero on July 1, 1886. There is a strong familial resemblance to the mummy of Thutmose I, his likely father, as the mummy's face and shape of the head are very similar. The body of Thutmose II suffered greatly at the hands of ancient tomb robbers, with his left arm broken off at the shoulder-joint, the forearm separated at the elbow joint, and his right arm chopped off below the elbow. His anterior abdominal wall and much of his chest had been hacked at, possibly by an axe. In addition, his right leg had been severed from his body.[29] All of these injuries were sustained post-mortem, though the body also showed signs that Thutmose II did not have an easy life, as the following quote by Gaston Maspero attests: He had scarcely reached the age of thirty when he fell a victim to a disease of which the process of embalming could not remove the traces. The skin is scabrous in patches, and covered with scars, while the upper part of the skull is bald; the body is thin and somewhat shrunken, and appears to have lacked vigour and muscular power.[30] As the Pharaoh of the Exodus[edit] Thutmose II is one of the more popular candidates for the Pharaoh of the Exodus. Alfred Edersheim proposes in his Old Testament Bible History that Thutmose II is best qualified to be the pharaoh of Exodus based on the fact that he had a brief, prosperous reign and then a sudden collapse with no son (except for Thutmose III) to succeed him. His widow Hatshepsut then became first Regent (for Thutmose III) then Pharaoh in her own right. Edersheim states that Thutmose II is the only Pharaoh's mummy to display cysts, possible evidence of plagues that spread through the Egyptian and Hittite Empires at that time.[31] See also[edit] History of Ancient Egypt Family tree of the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt References[edit] ^ Betsy Bryan (2000). "The 18th Dynasty before the Amarna Period". The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. p. 236. ^ a b Betsy Bryan, p. 236 ^ J. Von Beckerath (1997). Chronologie des Pharaonischen Ägypten, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46. Mainz: Philip von Zabern. p. 201. ^ a b Grimal, Nicolas (1988). A History of Ancient Egypt. Librairie Arthéme Fayard. p. 204. ^ Helk, Wolfgang. Schwachstellen der Chronologie-Diskussion. pp. 47–49. Göttinger Miszellen, Göttingen, 1983 ^ Shaw, Ian; Nicholson, Paul (1995). The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt. The British Museum Press. p. 289. ^ a b Breasted, James Henry (1906). Ancient Records of Egypt, Vol. II. University of Chicago Press. p. 47. ^ Grimal, Nicolas. A History of Ancient Egypt. Librairie Arthéme Fayard, 1988. p. 216. ^ Betsy Bryan, pp. 235–236 ^ Gabolde, Luc (1987). "La Chronologie du règne de Thoutmosis II, ses conséquences sur la datation des momies royales et leurs répercutions sur l'histoire du développement de la Vallée des Rois". Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur. 14: 61–87. ^ Gabolde, Luc (1987). "La Chronologie du règne de Thoutmosis II, ses conséquences sur la datation des momies royales et leurs répercutions sur l'histoire du développement de la Vallée des Rois". Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur. 14: 67–68. ^ J. Von Beckerath, Chronologie des Pharaonischen Ägypten, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46 (Philip von Zabern, Mainz: 1997) ^ G. Daressy, Annales du Service des Antiquités de l'Égypte 1, 1900, 90(20) ^ a b Gardiner, Alan. Egypt of the Pharaohs. p. 180 Oxford University Press, 1964 ^ a b J. Von Beckerath, Chronologie des Pharaonischen Ägypten, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46 (Philip von Zabern, Mainz: 1997), p. 121 ^ J. von Beckerath, "Nochmals zur Regierung Tuthmosis' II", Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur 17 (1990), pp. 65–74 ^ C. Roerig, "The Building Activities of Thutmose III in the Valley of the Kings", in E.C. Cline, D. O'Connor (eds.), Thutmose III: A New Biography, Ann Arbor 2006, pp. 238–259 ^ Luc Gabolde, "La 'cour de fetes' de Thoutmosis II à Karnak", Cahiers de Karnak 9 (1993), pp. 1–100; Luc Gabolde, "Monuments décorés en bas relief aux noms de Thoutmosis II et Hatshepsout à Karnak", Mémoires publiés par les membres de l'Institut Français d'Archéology Orientale (MIFAO) 123 le Cairo 2005. ^ Luc Gabolde, "Monuments décorés en bas relief aux noms de Thoutmosis II et Hatshepsout à Karnak, Mémoires publiés par les membres de l'Institut Français d'Archéology Orientale (MIFAO) 123 le Cairo 2005. ^ Zygmunt Wysocki, "The Temple of Queen Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahari: Its Original Form", Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo 42 (1986), pp. 213–228 ^ W. V. Davies, "Tombos and the Viceroy Inebny/Amenemnekhu", British Museum Studies in Ancient Egypt and the Sudan 10 (2008), 45f ^ Thomas Schneider, "Contributions to the Chronology of the New Kingdom and the Third Intermediate Period", Egypt and the Levant 20, 2010. p. 393 ^ a b Whelan, Ed. "Treasure Chest Found in Egypt Reveals Clues to Thutmose II's Lost Tomb". www.ancient-origins.net. Retrieved 2020-03-13. ^ a b "Stone chest found in ancient temple and containing skeleton of a sacrificial goose could lead to hidden royal tomb". www.thefirstnews.com. Retrieved 2020-03-13. ^ Steindorff, George; and Seele, Keith. When Egypt Ruled the East. p. 35. University of Chicago, 1942 ^ Breasted, James Henry. Ancient Records of Egypt, Vol. II p. 49. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1906 ^ Breasted, James Henry. Ancient Records of Egypt, Vol. II p. 50. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1906 ^ a b Breasted, James Henry. Ancient Records of Egypt, Vol. II p. 51. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1906 ^ Smith, G Elliot. The Royal Mummies, pp. 28–29. Duckworth, 2000 (reprint). ^ Maspero, Gaston. History Of Egypt, Chaldaea, Syria, Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 4 (of 12) Project Gutenberg EBook, Release Date: December 16, 2005. EBook #17324. ^ Edersheim, A., Old Testament Bible History, originally published 1876-1887, ISBN 156563165X, p. 134 External links[edit] Media related to Thutmosis II at Wikimedia Commons v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 13064885X VIAF: 40489179 WorldCat Identities: viaf-40489179 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thutmose_II&oldid=1000146284" Categories: Thutmose II 1479 BC deaths 15th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ancient Egyptian mummies Ancient child rulers Egyptian Museum Hatshepsut Children of Thutmose I Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from October 2016 Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia 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en-wikipedia-org-8169	----	Cleopatra V - Wikipedia Cleopatra V From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Cleopatra V of Egypt Cleopatra V Tryphaena Queen from the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt Reign with Ptolemy XII and Berenice IV Predecessor Ptolemy XII (brother or cousin and husband) Successor Berenice IV (daughter) Royal titulary Consort Ptolemy XII (brother or cousin) Children Known: Berenice IV Probably: Cleopatra VII Possibly: Cleopatra Tryphaena Arsinoe IV Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Father Uncertain: Ptolemy IX or Ptolemy X Mother Uncertain: Possibly an unknown mistress of Ptolemy IX, Cleopatra IV or Berenice III Died c. 69–68 BC or c. 57 BC Cleopatra V (Greek: Κλεοπάτρα Τρύφαινα; died c. 69–68 BC or c. 57 BC) was a Ptolemaic Queen of Egypt. She is the only surely attested wife of Ptolemy XII. Her only known child is Berenice IV, but she was also probably the mother of Cleopatra VII. Contents 1 Descent and marriage 2 Death and identity 3 Notes 4 References 5 External links Descent and marriage[edit] Because of the poor body of source material Cleopatra V is a very obscure member of the Ptolemaic dynasty. Only a few ascertained facts about her are known. Many aspects of her life are the subject of controversial theories.[1] In all known ancient sources she is given the byname Tryphaena. She may have borne this name before accession to the throne when she assumed the traditional royal name Cleopatra.[2] In some modern specialist literature Cleopatra Tryphaena, wife of Ptolemy XII, is referred to as Cleopatra VI.[3] The historian of classical antiquity Werner Huß refers to her as Cleopatra VII Tryphaena.[4] The parentage of Cleopatra V is not recorded. She may have been a legitimate or illegitimate daughter of Ptolemy IX[5][6] or the legitimate daughter of Ptolemy X.[7] It is mentioned that in 88 BC, Ptolemy X Alexander fled Egypt with his wife Berenice III and his daughter. Cleopatra Tryphaena might be this unnamed daughter.[8] Cleopatra V is first mentioned in 79 BC in two papyri. One of these papyri dates from January 17, 79 BC.[9] In that year she married Ptolemy XII, king of Egypt. They received divine worship as theoí Philopátores kai Philádelphoi (father-, brother- and sister-loving gods).[10] Cleopatra’s Egyptian titles, found primarily at Edfu and Philae, include Daughter of Re, Female Ruler, and Mistress of Two Lands.[11] Death and identity[edit] It is unclear how long Cleopatra V lived, and with which mentions of Cleopatra Tryphaena in the historical record she should be identified, as the numbering used to distinguish the Ptolemies is a modern invention. Cleopatra Tryphaena V vanished around the time Cleopatra VII was born (69 BC): her name begins to disappear from monuments and papyri, and there is a papyrus of Ptolemy XII from 69 BC that does not mention her but would be expected to do so had she still been alive.[12] There is some indication that Cleopatra may have died in 69 BC — she may have died in childbirth or was possibly murdered. Should she really have died that early, then the Cleopatra Tryphaena who is mentioned — after the expulsion of Ptolemy XII — as co-ruler of Egypt (together with Berenice IV) in 58 and 57 BC, and died around 57 BC, must be her daughter, numbered by some historians as Cleopatra VI Tryphaena. This is also supported by Porphyry.[13][14] On the other hand, there is a dedication on the Temple of Edfu from December 5, 57 BC that inscribes Cleopatra Tryphaena's name alongside Ptolemy XII's (who however was not present in Egypt at that time), which would have meant the king's wife rather than daughter and would be unlikely had Ptolemy XII's wife really died already twelve years earlier. Thus some, though not all, modern historians[15] consider Cleopatra V to be identical with the purported Cleopatra VI Tryphaena, and have her living to c. 57 BC. This would comport with the account by Strabo,[16] who reports Ptolemy XII to have had only three daughters; these can reliably be identified as Berenice IV, Cleopatra VII, and Arsinoe IV as the king's daughters, so that there would not be left any room for a Cleopatra VI.[14] Werner Huss assumes, that quarrels erupted between Cleopatra V and Ptolemy XII in 69 BC and that as a result of these disputes Cleopatra V fell in disgrace and was compelled to resign.[17] Cleopatra V was probably the mother of Cleopatra VII.[5][18][19][20][21][22] Michael Grant comes to the conclusion that "on the whole" it seems most likely Cleopatra V was the mother of Cleopatra VII, noting that had Cleopatra VII been illegitimate, her "numerous Roman enemies would have revealed this to the world." He continues we should rule out the hypothesis Cleopatra VII was conceived by Ptolemy XII's second wife-to-be while Cleopatra V was on the scene, and that if this unknown second wife would have been Cleopatra VII's mother and later made "queen legitimized", Cleopatra VII would still have been considered a bastard and "her Roman foes would not have missed the hint."[5] Duane W. Roller speculates that Cleopatra could have been the daughter of a theoretical half-Macedonian-Greek, half-Egyptian woman belonging to a family of priests dedicated to Ptah and was "only technically illegitimate" (however, he contends that whatever Cleopatra's ancestry, she valued her Greek Ptolemaic heritage the most), but notes if this unknown woman was not Cleopatra's mother, then Cleopatra V would be her mother. [23] Part of his argument is based on Strabo's mention of Ptolemy XII's having only three daughters, Berenice being the only legitimate one.[23] But as Grant notes that, of all the attacks on Cleopatra VII, her being illegitimate is not among them, and that it is only mentioned in a casual statement by Strabo.[5] Most scholars agree that Berenice IV was a daughter of Cleopatra V. A different wife of Ptolemy XII may have been the mother of the younger siblings of Cleopatra VII, that is Arsinoe IV, Ptolemy XIII and Ptolemy XIV.[24] However, Christopher Bennett thinks that Cleopatra V was the mother of all known children of Ptolemy XII.[25] Notes[edit] ^ Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones: Cleopatra VI Tryphaina. In: Roger S. Bagnall et al.: The Encyclopedia of Ancient History. Wiley-Blackwell, Malden (MA) 2013, ISBN 9781405179355, vol. 3, p. 1568. ^ Christopher Bennett: Cleopatra V., note 1. ^ Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004. ISBN 0-500-05128-3 ^ Werner Huß, Ägypten in hellenistischer Zeit (Egypt in Hellenistic times). C. H. Beck, Munich 2001, ISBN 3-406-47154-4, p. 674 and passim. ^ a b c d Grant (1972), p. 4. ^ Werner Huß, Ägypten in hellenistischer Zeit, p. 674-675 with note 16 (who considers it probable, that Cleopatra V was the full sister of Ptolemy XII). ^ "Ptolemaic Dynasty – Cleopatra V Tryphaena". www.tyndalehouse.com. ^ Christopher Bennett: Cleopatra V., note 5. ^ Friedrich Preisigke, Wilhelm Spiegelberg: Prinz Joachim-Ostraka. Nr. 1 (= Sammelbuch griechischer Urkunden aus Ägypten (SB). Bd. 3, Nr. 6027). ^ Whitehorne, pp. 177–178; W. Huß, p. 674-675 ^ Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones: Cleopatra VI Tryphaina. In: Roger S. Bagnall et al.: The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, vol. 3, p. 1569. ^ She is lastly mentioned in a monument dated on August 8, 69 BC (Wilhelm Dittenberger In: Orientis Graeci inscriptiones selectae. (OGIS) I 185), but her name is already missing in a record dated on November 1, 69 BC (Christopher Bennett: Cleopatra V., note 11). ^ Felix Jacoby, Fragmente der griechischen Historiker, no. 260 F 2, 14 ^ a b Whitehorne, p. 182 ^ e. g. W. Huß, Ägypten in hellenistischer Zeit (Egypt in Hellenistic times). C. H. Beck, Munich 2001, p. 679 ^ Geographica 17.1.11, p. 796 ^ Werner Huß, Ägypten in hellenistischer Zeit, p. 679. ^ Preston (2009), p. 22. ^ Jones (2006), p. xiii. ^ Schiff (2011), p. 28. ^ Tyldesley (2008), p. 40, 235-236. ^ Kleiner (2005), p. 22. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFKleiner2005 (help) ^ a b Roller (2010), pp. 15, 18, 166. ^ This assumes e. g. Christoph Schäfer: Kleopatra. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 2006, ISBN 3-534-15418-5, p. 18 ^ Christopher Bennett: Cleopatra V., note 17 and 18. References[edit] Grant, Michael (1972), Cleopatra, Edison, NJ: Barnes and Noble Books, pp. 4, 5, ISBN 978-0880297257. Jones, Prudence J. (2006), Cleopatra: a sourcebook, Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, ISBN 9780806137414. Kleiner, Diana E. E. (2005), Cleopatra and Rome, Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, ISBN 9780674019058. Preston, Diana (2009), Cleopatra and Antony, New York: Walker & Company, ISBN 978-0802710598. Roller, Duane W. (2010), Cleopatra: a biography, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780195365535. Schiff, Stacy (2011), Cleopatra: A Life, UK: Random House, ISBN 978-0316001946. Tyldesley, Joyce (2008), Cleopatra, Last Queen of Egypt, Profile Books Ltd Whitehorne, John (1994). Cleopatras. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-05806-6.. External links[edit] Genealogy of Ptolemaic Dynasty Cleopatra V Ptolemaic dynasty Born: ca. 95 BC Died: ca. 69/68-57 BC Regnal titles Preceded by Ptolemy XII Pharaoh of Egypt 79 BC–68 BC with Ptolemy XII Succeeded by Ptolemy XII v t e Hellenistic rulers Argeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Kings of Cyrene Magas Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Kings of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Kings of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Kings of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Kings of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus Kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon (regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces Asander with Dynamis Mithridates II Asander with Dynamis Scribonius’ attempted rule with Dynamis Dynamis with Polemon Polemon with Pythodorida Aspurgus Mithridates III with Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Queens of Ancient Egypt Early Dynastic Period to First Intermediate Period  (3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Neithhotep Benerib Khenthap Herneith Nakhtneith Penebui Merneith Seshemetka Semat Serethor Betrest II Nimaathap Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Hetephernebti Djeseretnebti Djefatnebti Meresankh I IV Hetepheres I Meritites I Henutsen Khentetka Meresankh II Hetepheres II Meresankh III Khamerernebty I Persenet Hekenuhedjet Khamerernebty II Rekhetre Bunefer V Khentkaus I Neferhetepes Meretnebty Khentkaus II Khentkaus III Reptynub Khuit I Meresankh IV Setibhor Nebet Khenut VI Iput I Khuit II Ankhesenpepi I Ankhesenpepi II Nubwenet Meritites IV Inenek-Inti Nedjeftet Neith Iput II Udjebten Ankhesenpepi III Ankhesenpepi IV Nitocris Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Neferu I Neferukayet Iah Tem Neferu II Ashayet Henhenet Sadeh Kawit Kemsit XII Neferitatjenen Neferu III Keminub Khenemetneferhedjet I Nofret II Itaweret Khenmet Sithathoriunet Khenemetneferhedjet II Neferthenut Meretseger Aat Khenemetneferhedjet III Sobekneferu 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Nofret Nubhetepti Senebhenas Neni Tjan Ineni Nubkhaes Aya XIV Tati XVI Mentuhotep XVII Nubemhat Sobekemsaf Haankhes Tetisheri Ahhotep I Ahmose Inhapy Sitdjehuti Ahhotep II New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose-Nefertari Ahmose-Sitkamose Ahmose-Henuttamehu Ahmose-Meritamun Ahmose Mutnofret Hatshepsut Iset Satiah Merytre-Hatshepsut Nebtu Menhet, Menwi and Merti Nebsemi Tiaa Nefertari Iaret Mutemwiya Tiye Gilukhipa Sitamun Iset Tadukhipa / Kiya Nefertiti Meritaten Neferneferuaten Ankhesenamun Tey Mutnedjmet Nebetnehat XIX Sitre Tuya Tanedjemet Nefertari Isetnofret Henutmire Maathorneferure Meritamen Bintanath Nebettawy Merytre Isetnofret II Takhat Twosret Tiaa XX Tiy-Merenese Iset Ta-Hemdjert Tyti Tiye Duatentopet Henutwati Tawerettenru Nubkhesbed Baketwernel Tentamun 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Tentamun Mutnedjmet Karimala XXII Karomama Patareshnes Maatkare Tashedkhonsu Nesitaudjatakhet Nesitanebetashru Kapes Karomama I Tadibast III XXIII Karomama II XXV Pebatjma Tabiry Abar Khensa Peksater Arty Qalhata Tabekenamun Takahatenamun Naparaye Atakhebasken Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Mehytenweskhet Khedebneithirbinet I Takhuit Tentkheta Nakhtubasterau Ladice XXVII Atossa Artystone Parmys Amestris Damaspia Parysatis XXXI Stateira I Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Roxana Stateira II Parysatis II Eurydice II of Macedon Ptolemaic Eurydice Berenice I Arsinoe I Arsinoe II Berenice II Arsinoe III Cleopatra I Cleopatra II Cleopatra III Cleopatra IV Cleopatra Selene Berenice III Cleopatra V Cleopatra VI Berenice IV Cleopatra VII Arsinoe IV Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cleopatra_V&oldid=988041009" Categories: 1st-century BC Egyptian people 1st-century BC Pharaohs 1st-century BC rulers in Africa 1st-century BC women rulers 60s BC deaths 90s BC births Ancient Egyptian queens regnant Female pharaohs Pharaohs of the Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemaic princesses Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles containing Greek-language text AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Asturianu Български Català Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska עברית ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska ไทย Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 November 2020, at 18:19 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8189	----	Demaratus - Wikipedia Demaratus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Pergamon Location of Pergamon and nearby Teuthrania and Halisarna, where Demaratus ruled as an Achaemenid Satrap. Demaratus, or Demaratos (Greek: Δημάρατος), was a king of Sparta from around 515 BC until 491 BC, 15th of the Eurypontid line, successor to his father Ariston. As king, he is known chiefly for his opposition to the co-ruling Spartan king, Cleomenes I. He later fled to Achaemenid Persia where he was given asylum and land, and fought on the Persian side during the Second Persian invasion of Greece. Contents 1 Biography 2 See also 3 References 4 External links Biography[edit] When Cleomenes attempted to make Isagoras tyrant in Athens, Demaratus tried unsuccessfully to frustrate his plans. In 491 BC, Aegina was one of the states which gave the symbols of submission (earth and water) to Persia. Athens at once appealed to Sparta to punish this act of medism, and Cleomenes I crossed over to the island to arrest those responsible. His first attempt was unsuccessful, due to interference from Demaratus, who did his utmost to bring Cleomenes into disfavour at home. In retaliation, Cleomenes urged Leotychidas, a relative and personal enemy of Demaratus, to claim the throne on the grounds that the latter was not really the son of Ariston, but of Agetus, his mother's first husband. Cleomenes bribed the Delphic oracle to pronounce in favour of Leotychidas, who became king in 491 BC. After the deposition of Demaratus, Cleomenes visited the island of Aegina for a second time, accompanied by his new colleague Leotychides, seized ten of the leading citizens and deposited them at Athens as hostages. Coin of Prokles, brother and co-ruler of Eurysthenes, as Dynast of Teuthrania and Halisarna, and descendants of Demaratus, circa 400–399 BC. Teuthrania, Mysia. Laureate head of Apollo left / Head of Prokles right, wearing Persian headdress. On his abdication, Demaratus was forced to flee. He went to the court of the Persian king Xerxes I, who gave him the cities of Teuthrania and Halisarna around Pergamum, where his descendants Eurysthenes and Procles still ruled at the beginning of the 4th century BC. He accompanied Xerxes I on his invasion of Greece in 480 BC and is alleged to have warned Xerxes not to underestimate the Spartans before the Battle of Thermopylae: The same goes for the Spartans. One-against-one, they are as good as anyone in the world. But when they fight in a body, they are the best of all. For though they are free men, they are not entirely free. They accept Law as their master. And they respect this master more than your subjects respect you. Whatever he commands, they do. And his command never changes: It forbids them to flee in battle, whatever the number of their foes. He requires them to stand firm – to conquer or die. O king, if I seem to speak foolishly, I am content from this time forward to remain silent. I only spoke now because you commanded me to. I do hope that everything turns out according to your wishes. — Herodotus vii (trans. G. Rawlinson) Xerxes I also asked Demaratus about his knowledge of the Greeks and if they will put up a fight against the Persian army. In response Demaratus speaks favourably about the Greeks even after being deposed and exiled from Sparta:[1] So Demaratus said, 'my lord, you have asked me to tell the whole truth—the kind of truth that you will not be able to prove false at a later date. There has never been a time when poverty was not a factor in the rearing of the Greeks, but their courage has been acquired as a result of intelligence and the force of law. Greece has relied on this courage to keep poverty and despotism at bay. I admire all the Greeks who live in those Dorian lands, but I shall restrict what I have to say to the Lacedaemonians alone. First, then, there's no way in which they will ever listen to any proposals of yours which will bring slavery on Greece; second, they will certainly resist you, even if all the other Greeks come over to your side. As for the size of their army, there's no point in your asking how, in terms, of numbers, they can do this. If there are in fact only a thousand men to march out against you (though it may be fewer or it may be more), then a thousand men will fight you.' — Herodotus vii (trans. Robin Waterfield) Greek exiles in the Achaemenid Empire Demaratus was one of several Greeks aristocrats who took refuge in the Achaemenid Empire following reversals at home, other famous ones being Themistocles and Gongylos.[2] In general, they were generously rewarded by the Achaemenid kings, and received land grants to support them, and ruled over various cities in Asia Minor.[2] See also[edit] Kings of Sparta References[edit] ^ Herodotus (1998). The Histories. New York: Oxford University Press. ^ a b Miller, Margaret C. (2004). Athens and Persia in the Fifth Century BC: A Study in Cultural Receptivity. Cambridge University Press. p. 98. ISBN 9780521607582. Xenophon Anabasis, ii. j. 3, vii. 8. 17; Hellenica, iii. I. 6 Athenaeus i. 29 f Herodotus v. 75, vi. 50–70, vii ; Pausanias iii. 4, 3–5, 7, 7–8; Diodorus xi. 6; Polyaenus ii. 20; Seneca the Younger, De benefici-is, Vi. 31, 4–12 External links[edit] Demaratus on the Spartan Way of Living DEMARATUS – Encyclopaedia Iranica Preceded by Ariston Eurypontid King of Sparta C. 515 BC – c. 491 BC Succeeded by Leotychidas v t e Kings of Sparta Lelegids Lelex Myles Eurotas Lacedaemonids Lacedaemon Amyclas Argalus Cynortas Perieres Oebalus Tyndareus Hippocoon Atreids Menelaus Orestes Tisamenus Dion Early Heraclids Aristodemus Theras (regent) Heraclids Agiad dynasty Eurysthenes Agis I Echestratus Labotas Doryssus Agesilaus I Archelaus Teleclus Alcmenes Polydorus Eurycrates Anaxander Eurycratides Leon Anaxandridas II Cleomenes I Leonidas I Cleombrotus (regent) Pausanias (regent) Pleistarchus Pleistoanax Pausanias Agesipolis I Cleombrotus I Agesipolis II Cleomenes II Areus I Acrotatus II Areus II Leonidas II Cleombrotus II Cleomenes III Agesipolis III Heraclids Eurypontid dynasty Procles Soos Eurypon Prytanis Polydectes Eunomus Charilaus Nicander Theopompus Anaxandridas I Zeuxidamus Anaxidamus Archidamus I Agasicles Ariston Demaratus Leotychidas Archidamus II Agis II Agesilaus II Archidamus III Agis III Eudamidas I Archidamus IV Eudamidas II Agis IV Eudamidas III Archidamus V Eucleidas (Agiad usurper) Lycurgus Pelops Later rulers Machanidas Nabis Laconicus v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC v t e Ancient Olympic Games General Archaeological Museum of Olympia Ancient Greek Olympic festivals Hellanodikai Stadium at Olympia Sports Foot races Diaulos Dolichos Hoplitodromos Stadion Horse races Apene Chariot of polos Decapolon Kalpe Keles Perfect chariot Polos Synoris Synoris of polos Tethrippon Tethrippon of polos Combat Boxing Pankration Wrestling Special Herald and Trumpet contest Pentathlon Winners Acanthus of Sparta Agasias of Arcadia Agesarchus of Tritaea Alcibiades of Athens Alexander I of Macedon Anaxilas of Messenia Aratus of Sicyon Archelaus I of Macedon Arrhichion of Phigalia Arsinoe II Astylos of Croton Berenice I of Egypt Bilistiche Chaeron of Pellene Chilon of Patras Chionis of Sparta Cimon Coalemos Coroebus of Elis Cylon of Athens Cynisca of Sparta Damarchus Demaratus of Sparta Desmon of Corinth Diagoras of Rhodes Diocles of Corinth Ergoteles of Himera Euryleonis Herodorus of Megara Hiero I of Syracuse Hypenus of Elis Hysmon of Elis Iccus of Taranto Leonidas of Rhodes Leophron Milo of Croton Nero Caesar Augustus Oebotas of Dyme Onomastus of Smyrna Orsippus of Megara Peisistratos of Athens Phanas of Pellene Philinus of Cos Philip II of Macedon Philippus of Croton Phrynon of Athens Polydamas of Skotoussa Pythagoras of Laconia Pythagoras of Samos Sostratus of Pellene Theagenes of Thasos Theron of Acragas Tiberius Caesar Augustus Timasitheus of Delphi Troilus of Elis Varazdat of Armenia Xenophon of Aegium Xenophon of Corinth Lists of winners Ancient Olympic victors Stadion race Archaic period Classical period Hellenistic period Roman period Category Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demaratus&oldid=995035353" Categories: 6th-century BC births 5th-century BC deaths 6th-century BC rulers 5th-century BC rulers 6th-century BC Spartans 5th-century BC Spartans Eurypontid kings of Sparta Battle of Thermopylae Ancient Greek emigrants to the Achaemenid Empire People of the Greco-Persian Wars Military personnel of the Achaemenid Empire Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from September 2020 Articles containing Greek-language text Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Magyar مصرى Монгол Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Simple English Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Winaray Edit links This page was last edited on 18 December 2020, at 21:37 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8193	----	Ctesias - Wikipedia Ctesias From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the beetle genus, see Ctesias (beetle). Ctesias (/ˈtiːʒəs/; Ancient Greek: Κτησίας, Ktēsíās, 5th century BC), also known as Ctesias the Cnidian or Ctesias of Cnidus, was a Greek physician and historian from the town of Cnidus in Caria, when Caria was part of the Achaemenid Empire. Contents 1 Historical events 2 Persica 3 Indica 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links Historical events[edit] Ctesias was on the Achaemenid side, attending to Artaxerxes II, at the Battle of Cunaxa (401 BC), Jean Adrien Guignet Ctesias, who lived in the fifth century BC, was physician to the Achaemenid king Artaxerxes II, whom he accompanied in 401 BC on his expedition against his brother Cyrus the Younger. Ctesias was part of the entourage of King Artaxerxes at the Battle of Cunaxa (401 BC) against Cyrus the Younger and his Greek mercenaries called the Ten Thousand, and brought medical assistance to the king by treating his flesh wound.[1] He reportedly was involved in negotiations with the Greeks after the battle, and also helped their Spartan general Clearchus before his execution at the royal court at Babylon.[2] Ctesias was the author of treatises on rivers, and on the Persian revenues, of an account of India entitled Indica (Ἰνδικά), and of a history of Assyria and Persia in 23 books, called Persica (Περσικά), written in opposition to Herodotus in the Ionic dialect, and professedly founded on the Persian Royal Archives. Persica[edit] The first six books covered the history of Assyria and Babylon to the foundation of the Persian empire; the remaining 17 went down to 398 BC. Of the two histories, abridgments by Photius and fragments are preserved in Athenaeus, Plutarch, Nicolaus of Damascus, and especially Diodorus Siculus, whose second book is mainly from Ctesias. As to the worth of the Persica, much controversy occurred, both in ancient and modern times. Although many ancient authorities valued it highly, and used it to discredit Herodotus, a modern author writes, "(Ctesias's) unreliability makes Herodotus seem a model of accuracy."[3] Ctesias's account of the Assyrian kings does not reconcile with the cuneiform evidence.[citation needed] The satirist Lucian thought so little of Ctesias' historical reliability that in his satirical True Story he places Ctesias on the island where the evil were punished. Lucian wrote, "The people who suffered the greatest torment were those who had told lies when they were alive and written mendacious histories; among them were Ctesias of Cnidus, Herodotus, and many others."[4] According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, Ctesias mentioned that Darius I's grave at Persepolis was in a cliff face that could be reached with an apparatus of ropes.[5] Indica[edit] Main article: Indica (Ctesias) Some absurd claims form part of Indica, such as the stories of a race of people with only one leg, or with feet so big they could be used as an umbrella A record of the view that the Persians held of India, under the title Indica, it includes descriptions of god-like people, philosophers, artisans, and unquantifiable gold, among other riches and wonders.[6] It is of value as it records the beliefs of the Persians about India. The book only remains in fragments and in reports made about the book by later authors. References[edit] ^ "The first certain event related to Ctesias is his medical assistance to the king during the battle of Cunaxa and his treatment of his flesh wound (Plut. Art. 11.3) in 401 BCE" in Dąbrowa, Edward (2014). The Greek World in the 4th and 3rd Centuries BC: Electrum vol. 19. Wydawnictwo UJ. p. 13. ISBN 9788323388197. ^ Dąbrowa, Edward (2014). The Greek World in the 4th and 3rd Centuries BC: Electrum vol. 19. Wydawnictwo UJ. pp. 13–14. ISBN 9788323388197. ^ Burn A.R. Persia and the Greeks. Duckworth. London. 1984. As quoted by Peter Frederick Barker, FROM THE SCAMANDER TO SYRACUSE. STUDIES IN ANCIENT LOGISTICS, page 9, chapter 1. http://uir.unisa.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10500/1740/00dissertation.pdf?sequence=2 ^ Lucian, A True Story, 2.31 ^ "Persepolis". Encyclopedia Britannica. ^ Lavers, Chris (2009). The Natural History of Unicorns. New York, NY: Morrow. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-06-087414-8.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Ctesias". Encyclopædia Britannica. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 594. Further reading[edit] Ed., trad. et commentaire par Dominique Lenfant, Ctésias de Cnide. La Perse. L'Inde. Autres fragments, Collection Budé, Belles Lettres, Paris, 2004 ( ISBN 2251005188). Schmitt, Rüdiger (1993). "CTESIAS". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VI, Fasc. 4. pp. 441–446. Jan P. Stronk: Ctesias' Persian History. Part I: Introduction, Text, and Translation, Wellem Verlag, Düsseldorf, 2010 ( ISBN 9783941820012). Andrew G. Nichols, Ctesias: On India. Translation and Commentary, Duckworth, 2011, ISBN 1-85399-742-0 Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones and James Robson, Ctesias' History of Persia: Tales of the Orient, Oxford, 2010 ( ISBN 9780415364119). External links[edit] Ctesias of Cnidus Overview of all fragments of the Persica and Indica by Jona Lendering Photius' Excerpt of Ctesias' Persica translated by J. H. Freese (1920) Photius' Excerpt of Ctesias' Indica translated by J.H. Freese (1920) Greek text (Müller 1858) Texts of Ctesias Authority control BIBSYS: 90586294 BNE: XX4771244 BNF: cb120075297 (data) CiNii: DA06806924 GND: 119379295 ISNI: 0000 0001 2144 2009 LCCN: n82006134 LNB: 000049100 NDL: 001317697 NKC: ola2005262658 NTA: 069899657 PLWABN: 9810552555905606 SELIBR: 182574 SUDOC: 028189876 VcBA: 495/40558 VIAF: 192092583 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n82006134 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ctesias&oldid=999484090" Categories: Classical-era Greek historians 4th-century BC historians Ancient Greek physicians Ancient Cnidians Ancient Greeks from the Achaemenid Empire 5th-century BC births 4th-century BC deaths Historians from ancient Anatolia Physicians of the Achaemenid Empire Historians of Iran Greek Indologists Historians of the Achaemenid Empire Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2017 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikisource Languages العربية Беларуская Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Lietuvių മലയാളം Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 January 2021, at 12:07 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8194	----	Rock relief - Wikipedia Rock relief From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Reclining Buddha at Gal Vihara, Sri Lanka. The remains of the image house that originally enclosed it can be seen. Naram-Sin of Akkad, reigned from c. 2254 BC, Qaradagh Mountain, Sulaymaniyah, Iraq Two of the reliefs at the Abu Simbel temples, before relocation A rock relief or rock-cut relief is a relief sculpture carved on solid or "living rock" such as a cliff, rather than a detached piece of stone. They are a category of rock art, and sometimes found as part of, or in conjunction with, rock-cut architecture.[1] However, they tend to be omitted in most works on rock art, which concentrate on engravings and paintings by prehistoric peoples. A few such works exploit the natural contours of the rock and use them to define an image, but they do not amount to man-made reliefs. Rock reliefs have been made in many cultures throughout human history, and were especially important in the art of the ancient Near East.[2] Rock reliefs are generally fairly large, as they need to be in order to have an impact in the open air. Most of those discussed here have figures that are over life-size, and in many the figures are multiples of life-size. Stylistically they normally relate to other types of sculpture from the culture and period concerned, and except for Hittite and Persian examples they are generally discussed as part of that wider subject.[3] Reliefs on near-vertical surfaces are most common, but reliefs on essentially horizontal surfaces are also found. The term typically excludes relief carvings inside caves, whether natural or themselves man-made, which are especially found in Indian rock-cut architecture. Natural rock formations made into statues or other sculpture in the round, most famously at the Great Sphinx of Giza, are also usually excluded. Reliefs on large boulders left in their natural location, like the Hittite İmamkullu relief, are likely to be included, but smaller boulders may be called stelae or carved orthostats. Many or most ancient reliefs were probably originally painted, over a layer of plaster; in some traces of this remain. The first requirement for a rock relief is a suitable face of stone; a near-vertical cliff minimizes the work required, otherwise a sloping rock face is often cut back to give a vertical area to carve. Most of the ancient Near East was well supplied with hills and mountains offering many cliff faces. An exception was the land of Sumer, where all stone had to be imported over considerable distances, and so the art of Mesopotamia only features rock relief around the edges of the region. The Hittites and ancient Persians were the most prolific makers of rock reliefs in the Near East.[4] The form is adopted by some cultures and ignored by others. In the many commemorative stelae of Nahr el-Kalb, 12 kilometres north of Beirut, successive imperial rulers have carved memorials and inscriptions. The Ancient Egyptian, Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian rulers include relief imagery in their monuments, while the Roman and Islamic rulers do not, nor more modern ones (who erect slabs of stone carved elsewhere and fitted to the rock).[5] Contents 1 Egypt 2 Hittites and Assyrians 3 Persia 4 India 5 Buddhism 6 Greek and Roman world 7 Medieval Europe 8 Americas 9 Modern 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References Egypt[edit] Although prehistoric engraved petroglyphs are common in Egypt, in general the form is not a very common one in Ancient Egyptian art, and only possible in some parts of the country, generally those away from the main centres of population, as Abu Simbel was. There are a group of figures surrounding an image of Mentuhotep II, who died in 2010 BC and was the first pharaoh of the Middle Kingdom.[6] Before they were cut away and moved, the colossal figures outside the Abu Simbel temples were very high reliefs. Other sculpture outside temples cut into the rock qualifies as rock reliefs. The reliefs at Nahr el-Kalb commemorate Rameses II,[7] and are at the furthest reach of his empire (indeed beyond the area he reliably controlled) in modern Lebanon. Hittites and Assyrians[edit] The Hittites were important producers of rock reliefs, which form a relatively large part of the few artistic remains they have left.[8] The Karabel relief of a king was seen by Herodotus, who mistakenly thought it showed the Egyptian Pharaoh Sesostris.[9] This, like many Hittite reliefs, is near a road, but actually rather hard to see from the road. There are more than a dozen sites, most over 1000 metres in elevation, overlooking plains, and typically near water. These perhaps were placed with an eye to the Hittite's relation to the landscape rather than merely as rulers' propaganda, signs of "landscape control", or border markers, as has often been thought.[10] They are often at sites with a sacred significance both before and after the Hittite period, and apparently places where the divine world was considered as sometimes breaking through to the human one.[11] Hittite deities at Yazılıkaya At Yazılıkaya, just outside the capital of Hattusa, a series of reliefs of Hittite gods in procession decorate open-air "chambers" made by adding barriers among the natural rock formations. The site was apparently a sanctuary, and possibly a burial site, for the commemoration of the ruling dynasty's ancestors. It was perhaps a private space for the dynasty and a small group of the elite, unlike the more public wayside reliefs. The usual form of these is to show royal males carrying weapons, usually holding a spear, carrying a bow over their shoulder, with a sword at their belt. They have attributes associated with divinity, and so are shown as "god-warriors".[12] The Assyrians probably took the form from the Hittites; the sites chosen for their 49 recorded reliefs often also make little sense if "signalling" to the general population was the intent, being high and remote, but often near water. The Neo-Assyrians recorded in other places, including metal reliefs on the Balawat Gates showing them being made, the carving of rock reliefs, and it has been suggested that the main intended audience was the gods, the reliefs and the inscriptions that often accompany them being almost of the nature of a "business report" submitted by the ruler.[13] A canal system built by the Neo-Assyrian king Sennacherib (reigned 704–681 BC) to supply water to Nineveh was marked by a number of reliefs showing the king with gods.[14] Other reliefs at the Tigris tunnel, a cave in modern Turkey believed to be the source of the river Tigris, are "almost inaccessible and invisible for humans".[15] Probably built by Sennacherib's son Esarhaddon, Shikaft-e Gulgul is a late example in modern Iran, apparently related to a military campaign.[16] Persia[edit] The triumph of Shapur I over the Roman Emperor Valerian, and Philip the Arab, Naqsh-e Rustam. Taq Bostan; the "knight" is probably Khosrow Parviz mounted on Shabdiz The large carved rock relief, typically placed high beside a road, and near a source of water, is a common medium in Persian art, mostly used to glorify the king and proclaim Persian control over territory.[17] It begins with Lullubi and Elamite rock reliefs, such as those at Kul-e Farah and Eshkaft-e Salman in southwest Iran, and continues under the Assyrians. The Behistun relief and inscription, made around 500 BC for Darius the Great, is on a far grander scale, reflecting and proclaiming the power of the Achaemenid empire.[18] Persian rulers commonly boasted of their power and achievements, until the Muslim conquest removed imagery from such monuments; much later there was a small revival under the Qajar dynasty.[19] Behistun is unusual in having a large and important inscription, which like the Egyptian Rosetta Stone repeats its text in three different languages, here all using cuneiform script: Old Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian (a later form of Akkadian).[20] This was important in the modern understanding of these languages. Other Persian reliefs generally lack inscriptions, and the kings involved often can only be tentatively identified. The problem is helped in the case of the Sassanids by their custom of showing a different style of crown for each king, which can be identified from their coins.[21] Naqsh-e Rustam is the necropolis of the Achaemenid dynasty (500–330 BC), with four large tombs cut high into the cliff face. These have mainly architectural decoration, but the facades include large panels over the doorways, each very similar in content, with figures of the king being invested by a god, above a zone with rows of smaller figures bearing tribute, with soldiers and officials. The three classes of figures are sharply differentiated in size. The entrance to each tomb is at the centre of each cross, which opens onto a small chamber, where the king lay in a sarcophagus.[22] The horizontal beam of each of the tomb's facades is believed to be a replica of the entrance of the palace at Persepolis. Only one has inscriptions and the matching of the other kings to tombs is somewhat speculative; the relief figures are not intended as individualized portraits. The third from the left, identified by an inscription, is the tomb of Darius I the Great (c. 522–486 BC). The other three are believed to be those of Xerxes I (c. 486–465 BC), Artaxerxes I (c. 465–424 BC), and Darius II (c. 423–404 BC) respectively. A fifth unfinished one might be that of Artaxerxes III, who reigned at the longest two years, but is more likely that of Darius III (c. 336–330 BC), last of the Achaemenid dynasts. The tombs were looted following the conquest of the Achaemenid Empire by Alexander the Great. [23] Well below the Achaemenid tombs, near ground level, are rock reliefs with large figures of Sassanian kings, some meeting gods, others in combat. The most famous shows the Sassanian king Shapur I on horseback, with the Roman Emperor Valerian bowing to him in submission, and Philip the Arab (an earlier emperor who paid Shapur tribute) holding Shapur's horse, while the dead Emperor Gordian III, killed in battle, lies beneath it (other identifications have been suggested). This commemorates the Battle of Edessa in 260 AD, when Valerian became the only Roman Emperor who was captured as a prisoner of war, a lasting humiliation for the Romans. The placing of these reliefs clearly suggests the Sassanid intention to link themselves with the glories of the earlier Achaemenid Empire.[24] There are three further Achaemenid royal tombs with similar reliefs at Persepolis, one unfinished.[25] The seven Sassanian reliefs, whose approximate dates range from 225 to 310 AD, show subjects including investiture scenes and battles. The earliest relief at the site is Elamite, from about 1000 BC. About a kilometre away is Naqsh-e Rajab, with a further four Sassanid rock reliefs, three celebrating kings and one a high priest. Another important Sassanid site is Taq Bostan with several reliefs including two royal investitures and a famous figure of a cataphract or Persian heavy cavalryman, about twice life size, probably representing the king Khosrow Parviz mounted on his favourite horse Shabdiz; the pair continued to be celebrated in later Persian literature.[26] Firuzabad, Fars and Bishapur have groups of Sassanian reliefs, the former including the oldest, a large battle scene, now badly worn.[27] At Barm-e Delak a king offers a flower to his queen. Sassanian reliefs are concentrated in the first 80 years of the dynasty, though one important set are 6th-century, and at relatively few sites, mostly in the Sassanid heartland. The later ones in particular suggest that they draw on a now-lost tradition of similar reliefs in palaces in stucco. The rock reliefs were probably coated in plaster and painted.[28] The rock reliefs of the preceding Persian Seleucids and Parthians are generally smaller and more crude, and not all direct royal commissions as the Sassanid ones clearly were.[29] At Behistun an earlier relief including a lion was adapted into a reclining Herakles in a fully Hellenistic style; he reclines on a lion skin. This was only uncovered below rubble relatively recently; an inscription dates it to 148 BC.[30] Other reliefs in Iran include the Assyrian king in shallow relief at Shikaft-e Gulgul; not all sites with Persian reliefs are in modern Iran.[31] Qajar reliefs include a large and lively panel showing hunting at the royal hunting-ground of Tangeh Savashi, and a panel, still largely with its colouring intact, at Taq Bostan showing the shah seated with attendants. The standard catalogue of pre-Islamic Persian reliefs lists the known examples (as at 1984) as follows: Lullubi #1–4; Elam #5–19; Assyrian #20–21; Achaemenid #22–30; Late/Post-Achaemenid and Seleucid #31–35; Parthian #36–49; Sasanian #50–84; others #85–88.[32] Panorama of Naqsh-e Rustam. Achaemenid tombs above, Sassanian reliefs below. The tombs, from left to right, probably belong to: Darius II, Artaxerxes I, Darius I, Xerxes I India[edit] Unakoti group of reliefs of Shiva, Tripura, India, 11th century Although carving into solid rock is more a feature of Indian sculpture than of any other culture, most Indian sculptures fall outside the strict definition of rock reliefs because they are either fully detached statues, or are reliefs within rock-cut or natural caves, or temples entirely cut from the living rock. In the former group are many colossal Jain figures of tirthankara, and in the later Hindu and Buddhist works at the Elephanta Caves, Ajanta Caves, Ellora, the Aurangabad Caves, and most of the Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram.[33] Especially at Ajanta, there are many rock reliefs in the open, around the entrances to the caves, either part of the original designs or votive sculptures added later by individual patrons.[34] However, there are a number of significant rock reliefs in India, with the Descent of the Ganges at Mahabalipuram the best known and perhaps the most impressive. This is a large 7th-century Hindu scene with many figures that uses the form of the rock to shape the image.[35] The Anantashayi Vishnu is an early 9th-century horizontal relief of the reclining Hindu god Vishnu in Orissa, measuring 15.4 metres (51 ft) in length, cut into a flat bed of rock.[36][37] while the largest standing image is the Gommateshwara statue in Southern India.[38] At Unakoti, Tripura there is an 11th-century group of reliefs related to Shiva, and at Hampi scenes from the Ramayana. Several sites, such as Kalugumalai and the Samanar Hills in Tamil Nadu, have Jain reliefs, mostly of meditating tirthankaras. Inside a cave temple at Elephanta, Trimurti Shiva flanked by the dvarapalas, 5-6th century Descent of the Ganges at Mahabalipuram, 7th century The sleeping Anantashayi Vishnu, 9th century Jain relief of Neminatha at Tirumalai, Tamil Nadu, c. 12th century Buddhism[edit] The Tang dynasty Leshan Giant Buddha Buddhism, originating in India, took the traditions of cave and rock-cut architecture to other parts of Asia, including the creation of rock reliefs.[39] In these the emphasis shifted to religious subject matter; in earlier reliefs deities had normally appeared only to show their approval of the ruler. The colossal Buddha figures are nearly all in very high relief, only still attached to the rock face at the rear. Several have or had "image houses", or buildings enclosing them, which meant that they could normally only be seen very close up, and the impressive view from further back was lost to pilgrims. In Sri Lanka colossal Buddha figures include the Avukana Buddha statue, 5th century and almost free-standing, with only a narrow strip at the back still connecting it to the cliff, and the four 12-century Buddha figures at Gal Vihara; the brick foundations for image houses can be seen here. The seven 10th-century figures at Buduruvagala are in much lower relief. There are very lively elephants carved around a temple pool at Isurumuniya.[40] Of the colossal lion gateway to the hill-palace at Sigiriya, only the paws remain, the head having fallen off at some point. The three famous ancient Buddhist sculptural sites in China are the Mogao Caves,[41] Longmen Grottoes (672–673 for the main group) and Yungang Grottoes (460–535), all of which have colossal Buddha statues in very high relief, cut back into huge niches in the cliff,[42] though the largest figure at Mogao is still enclosed by a wooden image house superstructure in front of it; this is also thought to be a portrait of the reigning empress Wu Zetian. One of the Longmen figures is effectively in a man-made cave, but can be seen from outside through a large window opened in the outer face (see gallery). Smaller rock-cut sculptures and paintings decorate the cave temples at these sites. The Tang dynasty Leshan Giant Buddha, the largest of all, was built with a superstructure covering it, which was destroyed by the Mongols. Such large figures were a novelty in Chinese art, and adapted conventions from further west.[43] The Dazu Rock Carvings include scenes with unusually large numbers of figures, such as a famous and large scene of the Buddhist Judgement of Souls. These are set back into the cliff and the shelter has enabled them to retain their bright colours.[44] Other Chinese Buddhist cave sites with external rock reliefs include Lingyin Temple with many small reliefs, and the Maijishan Grottoes with a main colossal group;[45] unusually for figures of such a size, they are in bas-relief. The Bamiyan Buddha figures were two standing Buddha figures of the 6th century in Afghanistan which were destroyed by the Taliban in 2001; they probably were one of the immediate influences on the Chinese sites further east on the Silk Road.[46] In Japan the Nihon-ji temple includes a colossal seated Buddha completed in 1783, 31 metres tall. Japanese "Great Buddha" statues are called "daibutsu", but most are in bronze. Sites elsewhere include Kbal Spean near Angkor in Cambodia, which has both Hindu and Buddhist reliefs. These are placed in rocky shallows of the river, with water flowing over them. Large numbers of short lingams and deities were intended to purify the water that flowed over them on its way to the city.[47] Avukana Buddha statue, Sri Lanka, 5th century The larger of the Buddhas of Bamiyan in 1963, before it was destroyed Part of the Longmen Grottos No 5 at the Yungang Grottoes Detail of the colossal group at the Maijishan Grottoes Kbal Spean, Vishnu and lingams Details of part of the Dazu rock carvings The Nihon-ji daibutsu, 1783 Greek and Roman world[edit] Madara Rider in Bulgaria, cut around 700 The Hellenistic Athena relief of Sömek in modern Turkey, with a warrior nearby, are two of the relatively few examples from the ancient Greek and Roman worlds.[48] Nearby at Adamkayalar there are a series of standing figures in classical niches, probably funerary memorials of the 2nd century AD; similar figures are found at Kanlidivane. All these sites are from former Hittite and Neo-Hittite territories. The cliff at Behistun, as well as Darius's famous relief, has a Seleucid reclining Hercules of 148 BC with a Greek inscription.[49] Also from the fringes of the Roman world, the famous rock-cut tombs of Petra, Jordan include figurative elements, mostly now battered by iconoclasm, for example the best-known tomb, known as The Treasury.[50] Medieval Europe[edit] Standing alone in early medieval Europe is the Madara Rider in Bulgaria, cut around 700 above the palace of a ruler of the Bulgars. It shows a rider, about double life-size, spearing a lion, with a dog running behind him.[51] Though the medium of rock relief is without parallels anywhere near, this motif, known as the Thracian horseman, had long been common on stelae in the region, and such motifs appear in metalwork,[52] such as the ewer with a mounted warrior and his prisoner in the enigmatic Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós, and are common in Sasanian silver bowls, which may well have been traded as far as the Balkans. The (probably) 12th-century Externsteine relief in southern Germany measures 4.8 m high by 3.7 m wide. It shows the Descent from the Cross of Jesus, a standard scene from Christian art, with a total of ten figures.[53]:4 The circumstances of its making remain unclear, and despite the extensive tradition of medieval reliefs on buildings, making them on natural rock formations at a large size remained very rare. Americas[edit] The Inca Sayhuite Stone Pre-Columbian rock reliefs, mostly using a low relief, include those at Chalcatzingo in Mexico, probably from around 900–700 BC. These reflect Olmec style, though the city was controlled by local rulers. They are on vertical cliff faces, and comparable in style and subject matter to stelae and architectural reliefs in the same tradition.[54] The Inca tradition is very distinctive; they carved rock with mainly horizontal representations of landscapes as one form of huaca; the most famous are the Sayhuite Stone and the Quinku rock. These show a landscape, but also many animals; it is not clear if the landscapes represent a real place or are imaginary. These permanent works formed part of a wider Inca tradition of visualizing and modelling landscapes, often accompanied by rituals.[55] Modern[edit] Modern rock reliefs tend to be colossal, at several times life-size, and are usually memorials of some sort. In America, Mount Rushmore is mostly in a very high relief, and the Stone Mountain relief commemorating three Confederate generals in bas-relief. The rock sculpture of Decebalus in Romania is a huge face on an outcrop above the Danube, begun in 1994.[56] The Lion Monument or Lion of Lucerne, in Lucerne, Switzerland, is one of the most artistically successful, designed by Bertel Thorvaldsen and carved in 1820–21 by Lukas Ahorn, as a memorial for the Swiss Guards who were massacred in 1792 during the French Revolution.[57] The Hittite İvriz relief; King Warpalawas (right) before the god Tarhunzas Sassanian investiture relief of Shapur I at Naqsh-e Rajabat 12th-century Externsteine relief, Germany, with the Descent from the Cross of Jesus The Lion Monument of Lucerne The Rock sculpture of Decebalus of the Iron Gates, Romania. See also[edit] List of colossal sculpture in situ Notes[edit] ^ Harmanşah (2014), 5–6 ^ Harmanşah (2014), 5–6; Canepa, 53 ^ for example by Rawson and Sickman & Soper ^ Canepa, 53 ^ Harmanşah (2014a), 95–96; Kreppner, 372–373; St. Chad Boscawen, Sir William, full map "The Monuments and Inscriptions on the Rocks at Nahr", Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archæology, vol 7, 1882, Longmans, Green, Reader and Dyer, pages 331–352 ^ Callender, in: Ian Shaw (ed), 139, Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, 2000, OUP, ISBN 0191590592, 9780191590597 ^ Harmanşah (2014a), 95 ^ Bonatz ^ Harmanşah (2014a), 88–89; Livius.org on "The relief of Sesostris" in Herodotos' Histories 2.102–103, 106 ^ Harmanşah (2014a), 90–94; Ullmann, Lee Z., in Harmanşah (2014), Chapter 8; though see also Bonatz ^ Harmanşah (2014a), 92 ^ Bonatz ^ Kreppner, throughout; 368 for 49 reliefs ^ Kreppner, 371; Malko, Helen, "Neo-Assyrian Rock Reliefs: Ideology and Landscapes of an Empire", Metropolitan Museum, accessed 28 November 2015 ^ Kreppner, 374–375 ^ Kreppner, 369–370; Van der Spek, R.J., "The Assyrian Royal Rock Inscription from Shikaft-i Gulgul", Iranica Antiqua, vol XII, 1977 ^ Canepa, 53 and throughout. Canepa, 63–64, 76–78 on siting ^ Luschey; Canepa, 55–57 ^ Herrmann and Curtis ^ Luschey ^ Herrmann and Curtis ^ Cotterell, 162; Canepa, 57–59, 65–68 ^ Cotterell, 162; Canepa, 57–59, 65–68 ^ Herrmann and Curtis; Canepa, 62, 65–68 ^ Vanden Berghe #27–29 ^ Herrmann and Curtis; Canepa, 74–76 ^ Herrmann and Curtis ^ Herrmann and Curtis ^ Canepa, 59–61, 68–73 ^ Downey; Canepa, 59–60 ^ Herrmann and Curtis ^ Vanden Berghe, Louis, Reliefs rupestres de l' Iran ancien, 1983, Brussels, per online summary of his list here ^ Harle, chapters 9 and 10 ^ Spink, 5–6 ^ Harle, 278-83 ^ "Anantasayana Visnu, Saranga, Dist. – Dhenkanal" (pdf). Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts for Archaeological Survey of India. Retrieved 4 December 2012. ^ Sah, Ayodhya Prasad (1972). Life in mediaeval Orissa, cir. A.D. 600-1200. Chaukhambha Orientalia. p. 101. Retrieved 4 December 2012. ^ Senapati, Nilaman; Sahu, N. K. (1972). Orissa District Gazetteers: Sambalpur. Gyan Books. pp. 47, 133, 440. Retrieved 4 December 2012. ^ Sickman & Soper, 85–90 ^ Harle, 450–456 ^ Rawson, 319. The rock at Dunhuang is a weak "gravel conglomerate", and the sculptures are finished in clay, with smaller ones being entirely clay. ^ Rawson, 320–322 ^ Rawson, 151–154; Sickman & Soper, 87–95, 144–147 ^ Rawson, 322; UNESCO, World Heritage List "Dazu Rock Carvings", accessed 27 November 2015 ^ Rawson, 319 ^ Sickman & Soper, 87; this conventional view may not be correct, see Rawson, 318 ^ Jessup, 122–123 ^ Serra Durugönül: Die Felsreliefs im Rauhen Kilikien. (BAR International Series, 511). BAR, Oxford 1989, ISBN 978-0-86054-652-8, S. 50–51, 128–137. ^ Downey ^ Rawson, Jessica, Chinese Ornament: The Lotus and the Dragon, 1984, pp. 43–44, British Museum Publications, ISBN 0714114316 ^ UNESCO, World Heritage Sites List, "Madara Rider" ^ Lovata, Troy R, Olton, Elizabeth (eds), Understanding Graffiti: Multidisciplinary Studies from Prehistory to the Present, 83–85, 2015, Left Coast Press, ISBN 1611328683, 9781611328684 ^ Treude, Elke; Zelle, Michael (2012). Externsteine (German). Lippischer Heimatbund. ISBN 978-3-941726-18-5. ^ "Monument 1: Relief of "El Rey" (The King)", and Chalcatzingo index page; "Art 447H. Mesoamerican. Olmec", Cal State ^ Gartner, William Gustav, "Mapmaking in the Central Andes" PDF, pp. 285–289 ^ Foundation website ^ Lion Monument, Lucerne, All About Switzerland travelguide. Accessed 13 November 2015 References[edit] Bonatz, Dominik, "Religious Representation of Political Power in the Hittite Empire", in Representations of Political Power: Case Histories from Times of Change and Dissolving Order in the Ancient Near East, eds, Marlies Heinz, Marian H. Feldman, 2007, Eisenbrauns, ISBN 157506135X, 9781575061351, google books Canepa, Matthew P., "Topographies of Power, Theorizing the Visual, Spatial and Ritual Contexts of Rock Reliefs in Ancient Iran", in Harmanşah (2014), google books Cotterell, Arthur (ed), The Penguin Encyclopedia of Classical Civilizations, 1993, Penguin, ISBN 0670826995 Downey, S.B., "Art in Iran, iv., Parthian Art", Encyclopaedia Iranica, 1986, Online text Harle, J.C., The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, 2nd edn. 1994, Yale University Press Pelican History of Art, ISBN 0300062176 Harmanşah, Ömür (2014a), "Rock Reliefs are Never Finished", in Place, Memory, and Healing: An Archaeology of Anatolian Rock Monuments, 2014, Routledge, ISBN 1317575725, 9781317575726, google books Harmanşah, Ömür (ed) (2014), Of Rocks and Water: An Archaeology of Place, 2014, Oxbow Books, ISBN 1782976744, 9781782976745 Herrmann, G, and Curtis, V.S., "Sasanian Rock Reliefs", Encyclopaedia Iranica, 2002, Online text Jessup, Helen Ibbetson, Art and Architecture of Cambodia, 2004, Thames & Hudson (World of Art), ISBN 050020375X Kreppner, Florian Janoscha, "Public Space in Nature: The Case of Neo-Assyrian Rock-Reliefs", Altorientalische Forschungen, 29/2 (2002): 367–383, online at Academia.edu Ledering, Joan, "Sasanian Rock Reliefs", http://www.livius.org Luschey, Heinz, "Bisotun ii. Archeology", Encyclopaedia Iranica, 2013, Online text Rawson, Jessica (ed). The British Museum Book of Chinese Art, 2007 (2nd edn), British Museum Press, ISBN 9780714124469 Sickman, Laurence, in: Sickman L. & Soper A., The Art and Architecture of China, Pelican History of Art, 3rd ed 1971, Penguin (now Yale History of Art), LOC 70-125675 Spink, Walter M., Ajanta: History and Development Volume 5: Cave by Cave, 2006, Brill, Leiden, ISBN 90-04-15644-5, online Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rock_relief&oldid=999290647" Categories: Rock reliefs Types of sculpture Rock cut architecture Hidden categories: Use British English from December 2015 AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Español فارسی हिन्दी Italiano Svenska Türkçe 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 9 January 2021, at 12:35 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8197	----	Neferhotep III - Wikipedia Neferhotep III From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sekhemre Sankhtawy Neferhotep III Neferhotep III (right) on the stela JE 59635 Pharaoh Reign 1 year, 1629-1628 BC (16th Dynasty) Predecessor Sobekhotep VIII Successor Seankhenre Mentuhotepi Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sekhemre Seanhktawy Sḫm-Rˁ-sˁnḫ-t3.w(j) The might of Ra, who nourishes the two lands Nomen Neferhotep Nfr-ḥtp Perfect and content Horus name Wadjkhaw W3ḏ-ḫˁ.w Flourishing of appearances Nebty name Aapheti ˁ3-pḥtj Great of strength Golden Horus Men... bik nbw mn... The golden falcon, stable of... Sekhemre Sankhtawy Neferhotep III Iykhernofret was the third or fourth ruler of the Theban 16th Dynasty, reigning after Sobekhotep VIII according to Egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker.[1][2] He is assigned a reign of 1 year in the Turin Canon and is known primarily by a single stela from Thebes.[1] In an older study, Jürgen von Beckerath dated Neferhotep III to the end of the 13th Dynasty.[3] Contents 1 Extent of rule 2 Reign 3 References Extent of rule[edit] In the heavily damaged stela (Cairo JE 59635 [CG 20799]),[4][5] Neferhotep III repeatedly calls Thebes "my city" and praises himself as "the guide of victorious Thebes".[6] This emphasis on Thebes is understood by Ryholt as showing that Neferhotep III reigned exclusively over the Theban region. Additionally, Baker points out the total lack of contemporary attestations for kings of the 16th Dynasty (except Bebiankh and Nebiryraw I) outside of a 200 km long stretch of the Nile valley comprising Thebes, from Hu in the north to Edfu in the south.[2] That Neferhotep III ruled over little more than the Theban region is further strengthened by a stela of Neferhotep's successor Seankhenre Mentuhotepi where Mentuhotepi states "I am the king within Thebes, this is my city". Reign[edit] In his Theban stela, Neferhotep III emphasizes his role as provider of food for his people stating that "he who nourishes his city, saving it from famine".[7] This, together with his royal name Sekhemre Sanhktawy, The might of Ra, who nourishes the Two Lands is a strong sign that Upper Egypt suffered from famines during the late 16th Dynasty. Another king of the period, Senusret IV, adopted a similar royal name. Neferhotep III got certainly embroiled in a defensive war against the Hyksos 15th Dynasty, which would ultimately overrun the 16th Dynasty state. Neferhotep praises himself on his stela as " He who raises his city, having been sunk through strife with foreigners".[1] The stela is thought to contain the earliest known mention of the Khepresh crown. Neferhotep is said to be "Adorned with the Khepresh, the living image of Re, lord of terror".[8] For reasons which remain difficult to understand, on the stela Neferhotep III is also referred to by the epithet Iykhernofret written inside a cartouche:[4][9] After his short reign, he was succeeded by a similarly short lived king Seankhenre Mentuhotepi. References[edit] ^ a b c Kim Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c.1800-1550 B.C, Museum Tusculanum Press, (1997), p.202 ^ a b Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, pp. 256-257 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt 1964, S. 67-68, 259 (XIII J.) ^ a b Pascal Vernus (1982): "La stèle du roi Sekhemsankhtaouyrê Neferhotep Iykhernofret et la domination Hyksôs (stèle Caire JE 59635)", ASAE 68, pp.129-135. ^ W. V. Davies, The Origin of the Blue Crown, The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, Vol. 68, (1982), pp. 69-76 ^ Ryholt, p.160 ^ Ryholt, p.306 ^ Ebba Kerrn Lillesø, Two Wooden Uræi, The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, Vol. 61, (1975), pp. 137-146 ^ Ryholt, p.155 Preceded by Sobekhotep VIII Pharaoh of Egypt Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt Succeeded by Seankhenre Mentuhotepi v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neferhotep_III&oldid=977661343" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages አማርኛ العربية Català Deutsch Español فارسی Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى 日本語 Polski Русский Slovenščina Tagalog ไทย Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 10 September 2020, at 05:46 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8209	----	Middle Kingdom of Egypt - Wikipedia Middle Kingdom of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Middle Kingdom. Reunified ancient Egypt c. 2000-1700 BC Middle Kingdom of Egypt around 2055 BC – around 1650 BC Capital Thebes, Itjtawy Common languages Ancient Egyptian Religion Ancient Egyptian religion Government Divine, absolute monarchy Pharaoh   • around 2061 – around 2010 BC Mentuhotep II (first) • around 1650 BC Last king depends on the scholar: Merneferre Ay or the last king of the 13th Dynasty History   • Established around 2055 BC  • Disestablished  around 1650 BC Preceded by Succeeded by First Intermediate Period of Egypt Second Intermediate Period of Egypt Today part of Egypt Part of a series on the History of Egypt Prehistoric Egypt pre–3150 BC Ancient Egypt Early Dynastic Period 3150–2686 BC Old Kingdom 2686–2181 BC 1st Intermediate Period 2181–2055 BC Middle Kingdom 2055–1650 BC 2nd Intermediate Period 1650–1550 BC New Kingdom 1550–1069 BC 3rd Intermediate Period 1069–664 BC Late Period 664–332 BC Greco-Roman Egypt Argead and Ptolemaic dynasties 332–30 BC Roman and Byzantine Egypt 30 BC–641 AD Sasanian Egypt 619–629 Medieval Egypt Rashidun Egypt 641–661 Umayyad Egypt 661–750 Abbasid Egypt 750–935 Tulunid dynasty 868–905 Ikhshidid dynasty 935–969 Fatimid dynasty 969–1171 Ayyubid dynasty 1171–1250 Mamluk dynasties 1250–1517 Early modern Egypt Ottoman Egypt 1517–1867 French occupation 1798–1801 Muhammad Ali dynasty 1805–1853 Khedivate of Egypt 1867–1914 Late Modern Egypt British occupation 1882–1922 Sultanate of Egypt 1914–1922 Kingdom of Egypt 1922–1953 Republic 1953–present  Egypt portal v t e Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The Middle Kingdom of Egypt (also known as The Period of Reunification) is the period in the history of ancient Egypt following a period of political division known as the First Intermediate Period. The Middle Kingdom lasted from approximately 2050 to 1710 BC, stretching from the reunification of Egypt under the reign of Mentuhotep II in the Eleventh Dynasty to the end of the Twelfth Dynasty. The kings of the Eleventh Dynasty ruled from Thebes and the kings of the Twelfth Dynasty ruled from el-Lisht. The concept of the Middle Kingdom as one of three "golden ages" was coined in 1845 by German Egyptologist Baron von Bunsen, and its definition evolved significantly throughout the 19th and 20th centuries.[1] Some scholars also include the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt wholly into this period, in which case the Middle Kingdom would end around 1650 BC, while others only include it until Merneferre Ay around 1700 BC, last king of this dynasty to be attested in both Upper and Lower Egypt. During the Middle Kingdom period, Osiris became the most important deity in popular religion.[2] The Middle Kingdom was followed by the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt, another period of division that involved foreign invasions of the country by the Hyksos of West Asia. Contents 1 Political history 1.1 Reunification under the Eleventh Dynasty 1.2 Twelfth Dynasty 1.2.1 Early Twelfth Dynasty 1.2.2 Height of the Middle Kingdom 1.3 Decline into the Second Intermediate Period 2 Administration 2.1 Provincial government 3 Agriculture and climate 4 Art 4.1 Statuary 5 Literature 6 References 7 Bibliography 8 Further reading Political history[edit] Reunification under the Eleventh Dynasty[edit] Further information: Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt A painted relief depicting pharaoh Mentuhotep II, from his mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahari An Osiride statue of the first pharaoh of the Middle Kingdom, Mentuhotep II After the collapse of the Old Kingdom, Egypt entered a period of weak pharaonic power and decentralization called the First Intermediate Period.[3] Towards the end of this period, two rival dynasties, known in Egyptology as the Tenth and Eleventh, fought for control of the entire country. The Theban Eleventh Dynasty only ruled southern Egypt from the First Cataract to the Tenth Nome of Upper Egypt. To the north, Lower Egypt was ruled by the rival Tenth Dynasty from Herakleopolis.[4] The struggle was to be concluded by Mentuhotep II, who ascended the Theban throne in 2055 BC.[5] During Mentuhotep II's fourteenth regnal year, he took advantage of a revolt in the Thinite Nome to launch an attack on Herakleopolis, which met little resistance.[4] After toppling the last rulers of the Tenth Dynasty, Mentuhotep began consolidating his power over all of Egypt, a process which he finished by his 39th regnal year.[3] For this reason, Mentuhotep II is regarded as the founder of the Middle Kingdom.[6] Mentuhotep II commanded petty campaigns south as far as the Second Cataract in Nubia, which had gained its independence during the First Intermediate Period. He also restored Egyptian hegemony over the Sinai region, which had been lost to Egypt since the end of the Old Kingdom.[7] To consolidate his authority, he restored the cult of the ruler, depicting himself as a god in his own lifetime, wearing the headdresses of Amun and Min.[8] He died after a reign of 51 years and passed the throne to his son, Mentuhotep III.[7] Mentuhotep III reigned for only twelve years, during which he continued consolidating Theban rule over the whole of Egypt, building a series of forts in the eastern Delta region to secure Egypt against threats from Asia.[7] He also sent the first expedition to Punt during the Middle Kingdom, using ships constructed at the end of Wadi Hammamat, on the Red Sea.[9] Mentuhotep III was succeeded by Mentuhotep IV, whose name, significantly, is omitted from all ancient Egyptian king lists.[10] The Turin Papyrus claims that after Mentuhotep III came "seven kingless years".[11] Despite this absence, his reign is attested from a few inscriptions in Wadi Hammamat that record expeditions to the Red Sea coast and to quarry stone for the royal monuments.[10] The leader of this expedition was his vizier Amenemhat, who is widely assumed to be the future pharaoh Amenemhet I, the first king of the Twelfth Dynasty.[12][13] Mentuhotep IV's absence from the king lists has prompted the theory that Amenemhet I usurped his throne.[13] While there are no contemporary accounts of this struggle, certain circumstantial evidence may point to the existence of a civil war at the end of the 11th Dynasty.[10] Inscriptions left by one Nehry, the Haty-a of Hermopolis, suggest that he was attacked at a place called Shedyet-sha by the forces of the reigning king, but his forces prevailed. Khnumhotep I, an official under Amenemhet I, claims to have participated in a flotilla of twenty ships sent to pacify Upper Egypt. Donald Redford has suggested these events should be interpreted as evidence of open war between two dynastic claimants.[14] What is certain is that, however he came to power, Amenemhet I was not of royal birth.[13] Twelfth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Early Twelfth Dynasty[edit] The head of a statue of Senusret I. From the Twelfth Dynasty onwards, pharaohs often kept well-trained standing armies, which included Nubian contingents. These formed the basis of larger forces that were raised for defense against invasion, or expeditions up the Nile or across the Sinai. However, the Middle Kingdom was basically defensive in its military strategy, with fortifications built at the First Cataract of the Nile, in the Delta and across the Sinai Isthmus.[15] Early in his reign, Amenemhet I was compelled to campaign in the Delta region, which had not received as much attention as Upper Egypt during the 11th Dynasty.[16] Also, he strengthened defenses between Egypt and Asia, building the Walls of the Ruler in the East Delta region.[17] Perhaps in response to this perpetual unrest, Amenemhat I built a new capital for Egypt in the north, known as Amenemhet It Tawy, or Amenemhet, Seizer of the Two Lands.[18] The location of this capital is unknown, but is presumably near the city's necropolis, the present-day el-Lisht.[17] Like Mentuhotep II, Amenemhet bolstered his claim to authority with propaganda.[19] In particular, the Prophecy of Neferty dates to about this time, which purports to be an oracle of an Old Kingdom priest, who predicts a king, Amenemhet I, arising from the far south of Egypt to restore the kingdom after centuries of chaos.[17] Propaganda notwithstanding, Amenemhet never held the absolute power commanded in theory by the Old Kingdom pharaohs. During the First Intermediate Period, the governors of the nomes of Egypt, nomarchs, gained considerable power. Their posts had become hereditary, and some nomarchs entered into marriage alliances with the nomarchs of neighboring nomes.[20] To strengthen his position, Amenemhet required registration of land, modified nome borders, and appointed nomarchs directly when offices became vacant, but acquiesced to the nomarch system, probably to placate the nomarchs who supported his rule.[21] This gave the Middle Kingdom a more feudal organization than Egypt had before or would have afterward.[22] In his twentieth regnal year, Amenemhat established his son Senusret I as his coregent,[22] beginning a practice which would be used repeatedly throughout the rest of the Middle Kingdom and again during the New Kingdom. In Amenemhet's thirtieth regnal year, he was presumably murdered in a palace conspiracy. Senusret, campaigning against Libyan invaders, rushed home to Itjtawy to prevent a takeover of the government.[23] During his reign, Senusret continued the practice of directly appointing nomarchs,[24] and undercut the autonomy of local priesthoods by building at cult centers throughout Egypt.[25] Under his rule, Egyptian armies pushed south into Nubia as far as the Second Cataract, building a border fort at Buhen and incorporating all of Lower Nubia as an Egyptian colony.[26] To the west, he consolidated his power over the Oases, and extended commercial contacts into Syria-Palestine as far as Ugarit.[27] In his 43rd regnal year, Senusret appointed Amenemhet II as junior coregent, before dying in his 46th.[28] A group of West Asiatic peoples (possibly Canaanites and precursors of the future Hyksos) depicted entering Egypt circa 1900 BC. From the tomb of a 12th dynasty official Khnumhotep II under pharaohs Amenemhat II and Senusret II, at Beni Hasan.[29][30][31][32] The reign of Amenemhat II has been often characterized as largely peaceful,[27] but records of his genut, or daybooks, have cast doubt on that assessment.[33] Among these records, preserved on temple walls at Tod and Memphis, are descriptions of peace treaties with certain Syrio-Palestinian cities, and military conflict with others.[33] To the south, Amenemhet sent a campaign through lower Nubia to inspect Wawat.[27] It does not appear that Amenemhet continued his predecessors' policy of appointing nomarchs, but let it become hereditary again.[24] Another expedition to Punt dates to his reign.[33] In his 33rd regnal year, he appointed his son Senusret II coregent.[34] Evidence for the military activity of any kind during the reign of Senusret II is non-existent. Senusret instead appears to have focused on domestic issues, particularly the irrigation of the Faiyum. This multi-generational project aimed to convert the Faiyum oasis into a productive swath of farmland.[35] Senusret eventually placed his pyramid at the site of el-Lahun, near the junction of the Nile and the Fayuum's major irrigation canal, the Bahr Yussef.[36] He reigned only fifteen years,[37] which explains the incomplete nature of many of his constructions.[35] His son Senusret III succeeded him. Height of the Middle Kingdom[edit] Statue head of Senusret III Senusret III was a warrior-king, often taking to the field himself. In his sixth year, he re-dredged an Old Kingdom canal around the First Cataract to facilitate travel to Upper Nubia. He used this to launch a series of brutal campaigns in Nubia in his sixth, eighth, tenth, and sixteenth years. After his victories, Senusret built a series of massive forts throughout the country to establish the formal boundary between Egyptian conquests and unconquered Nubia at Semna.[38] The personnel of these forts were charged to send frequent reports to the capital on the movements and activities of the local Medjay natives, some of which survive, revealing how tightly the Egyptians intended to control the southern border.[39] Medjay were not allowed north of the border by ship, nor could they enter by land with their flocks, but they were permitted to travel to local forts to trade.[40] After this, Senusret sent one more campaign in his 19th year, but turned back due to abnormally low Nile levels, which endangered his ships.[38] One of Senusret's soldiers also records a campaign into Palestine, perhaps against Shechem, the only reference to a military campaign against a location in Palestine from the entirety of Middle Kingdom literature.[41] A rare etched carnelian bead excavated in Egypt, and thought to have been imported from the Indus Valley Civilization through Mesopotamia, in an example of Egypt-Mesopotamia relations. Abydos tomb 197, Late Middle Kingdom. Now in Petrie Museum ref. UC30334, London.[42][43] Domestically, Senusret has been given credit for an administrative reform which put more power in the hands of appointees of the central government, instead of regional authorities.[38] Egypt was divided into three water, or administrative divisions: North, South, and Head of the South (perhaps Lower Egypt, most of Upper Egypt, and the nomes of the original Theban kingdom during the war with Herakleopolis, respectively). Each region was administrated by a Reporter, Second Reporter, some kind of council (the Djadjat), and staff of minor officials and scribes.[44] The power of the nomarchs seems to drop off permanently during his reign, which has been taken to indicate that the central government had finally suppressed them, though there is no record that Senusret ever took direct action against them.[38] Senusret III left a lasting legacy as a warrior pharaoh. His name was Hellenized by later Greek historians as Sesostris, a name which was then given to a conflation of Senusret and several New Kingdom warrior pharaohs.[45] In Nubia, Senusret was worshiped as a patron God by Egyptian settlers.[46] The duration of his reign remains something of an open question. His son Amenemhet III began reigning after Senusret's 19th regnal year, which has been widely considered Senusret's highest attested date.[47] However, a reference to a year 39 on a fragment found in the construction debris of Senusret's mortuary temple has suggested the possibility of a long coregency with his son.[48] The reign of Amenemhat III was the height of the Middle Kingdom's economic prosperity. His reign is remarkable for the degree to which Egypt exploited its resources. Mining camps in the Sinai, which had previously been used only by intermittent expeditions, were operated on a semi-permanent basis, as evidenced by the construction of houses, walls, and even local cemeteries.[49] There are 25 separate references to mining expeditions in the Sinai, and four to expeditions in Wadi Hammamat, one of which had over two thousand workers.[50] Amenemhet reinforced his father's defenses in Nubia[51] and continued the Faiyum land reclamation project.[52] After a reign of 45 years, Amenemhet III was succeeded by Amenemhet IV,[49] whose nine-year reign is poorly attested.[53] Clearly by this time, dynastic power had begun to weaken, for which several explanations have been proposed. Contemporary records of the Nile flood levels indicate that the end of the reign of Amenemhet III was dry, and crop failures may have helped to destabilize the dynasty.[52] Further, Amenemhet III had an inordinately long reign, which tends to create succession problems.[54] The latter argument perhaps explains why Amenemhet IV was succeeded by Sobekneferu, the first historically attested female king of Egypt.[54] Sobekneferu ruled no more than four years,[55] and as she apparently had no heirs, when she died the Twelfth Dynasty came to a sudden end as did the Golden Age of the Middle Kingdom. Decline into the Second Intermediate Period[edit] A kneeling statue of Sobekhotep V, one of the pharaohs from the declining years of the Middle Kingdom. After the death of Sobeknefru, the throne may have passed to Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep,[56][57] though in older studies Wegaf, who had previously been the Great Overseer of Troops,[58] was thought to have reigned next.[59] Beginning with this reign, Egypt was ruled by a series of ephemeral kings for about ten to fifteen years.[60] Ancient Egyptian sources regard these as the first kings of the Thirteenth Dynasty, though the term dynasty is misleading, as most kings of the Thirteenth Dynasty were not related.[61] The names of these short-lived kings are attested on a few monuments and graffiti, and their succession order is only known from the Turin Canon, although even this is not fully trusted.[60] After the initial dynastic chaos, a series of longer reigning, better-attested kings ruled for about fifty to eighty years.[60] The strongest king of this period, Neferhotep I, ruled for eleven years and maintained effective control of Upper Egypt, Nubia, and the Delta,[62] with the possible exceptions of Xois and Avaris.[63] Neferhotep I was even recognized as the suzerain of the ruler of Byblos, indicating that the Thirteenth Dynasty was able to retain much of the power of the Twelfth Dynasty, at least up to his reign.[63] At some point during the 13th Dynasty, Xois and Avaris began governing themselves,[63] the rulers of Xois being the Fourteenth Dynasty, and the Asiatic rulers of Avaris being the Hyksos of the Fifteenth Dynasty. According to Manetho, this latter revolt occurred during the reign of Neferhotep's successor, Sobekhotep IV, though there is no archaeological evidence.[64] Sobekhotep IV was succeeded by the short reign of Sobekhotep V, who was followed by Wahibre Ibiau, then Merneferre Ai. Wahibre Ibiau ruled ten years, and Merneferre Ai ruled for twenty-three years, the longest of any Thirteenth Dynasty king, but neither of these two kings left as many attestations as either Neferhotep of Sobekhotep IV. Despite this, they both seem to have held at least parts of Lower Egypt. After Merneferre Ai, however, no king left his name on any object found outside the south.[65] This begins the final portion of the Thirteenth Dynasty when southern kings continue to reign over Upper Egypt. But when the unity of Egypt fully disintegrated, the Middle Kingdom gave way to the Second Intermediate Period.[66] Administration[edit] When the Eleventh Dynasty reunified Egypt it had to create a centralized administration such as had not existed in Egypt since the downfall of the Old Kingdom government. To do this, it appointed people to positions which had fallen out of use in the decentralized First Intermediate Period. Highest among these was the vizier.[67] The vizier was the chief minister for the king, handling all the day-to-day business of government in the king's place.[67] This was a monumental task, therefore it would often be split into two positions, a vizier of the north, and a vizier of the south. It is uncertain how often this occurred during the Middle Kingdom, but Senusret I clearly had two simultaneously functioning viziers.[67] Other positions were inherited from the provincial form of government at Thebes used by the Eleventh Dynasty before the reunification of Egypt.[68] The Overseer of Sealed Goods became the country's treasurer, and the Overseer of the Estate became the King's chief steward.[68] These three positions and the Scribe of the Royal Document, probably the king's personal scribe, appear to be the most important posts of the central government, judging by the monument count of those in these positions.[68] Beside this, many Old Kingdom posts which had lost their original meaning and become mere honorifics were brought back into the central government.[67] Only high-ranking officials could claim the title Member of the Elite, which had been applied liberally during the First Intermediate Period.[68] This basic form of administration continued throughout the Middle Kingdom, though there is some evidence for a major reform of the central government under Senusret III. Records from his reign indicate that Upper and Lower Egypt were divided into separate waret and governed by separate administrators.[24] Administrative documents and private stele indicate a proliferation of new bureaucratic titles around this time, which have been taken as evidence of a larger central government.[69] Governance of the royal residence was moved into a separate division of government.[24] The military was placed under the control of a chief general.[24] However, it is possible that these titles and positions were much older, and simply were not recorded on funerary stele due to religious conventions.[69] Provincial government[edit] Clay model of a Middle Kingdom house. Musée du Louvre. Decentralization during the First Intermediate Period left the individual Egyptian provinces, or Nomes, under the control of powerful families who held the hereditary title of Great Chief of the Nome, or Nomarch.[70] This position developed during the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties, when the various powers of Old Kingdom provincial officials began to be exercised by a single individual.[70] At roughly this time, the provincial aristocracy began building elaborate tombs for themselves, which have been taken as evidence of the wealth and power which these rulers had acquired as nomarchs.[70] By the end of the First Intermediate Period, some nomarchs ruled their nomes as minor potentates, such as the nomarch Nehry of Hermopolis, who dated inscriptions by his own regnal year.[67] When the Eleventh Dynasty came to power, it was necessary to subdue the power of the nomarchs if Egypt was to be reunified under a central government. The first major steps towards that end took place under Amenemhet I. Amenemhet made the city, not the nome, the center of administration, and only the haty-a, or mayor, of the larger cities would be permitted to carry the title of nomarch.[24] The title of nomarch continued to be used until the reign of Senusret III,[24] as did the elaborate tombs indicative of their power, after which they suddenly disappeared.[71] This has been interpreted several ways. Traditionally, it has been believed that Senusret III took some action to suppress the nomarch families during his reign.[72] Recently, other interpretations have been proposed. Detlef Franke has argued that Senusret II adopted a policy of educating the sons of nomarchs in the capital and appointing them to government posts. In this way, many provincial families may have been bled dry of scions.[24] Also, while the title of Great Overlord of the Nome disappeared, other distinctive titles of the nomarchs remained. During the First Intermediate Period, individuals holding the title of Great Overlord also often held the title of Overseer of Priests.[73] In the late Middle Kingdom, there existed families holding the titles of mayor and overseer of priests as hereditary possessions.[71] Therefore, it has been argued that the great nomarch families were never subdued, but were simply absorbed into the pharaonic administration of the country.[71] While it is true that the large tombs indicative of nomarchs disappear at the end of the Twelfth Dynasty, grand royal tombs also disappear soon thereafter due to general instability surrounding the decline of the Middle Kingdom.[71] Agriculture and climate[edit] It was I who brought forth grain, the grain god loved me, the Nile adored me from his every source; One did not hunger during my years, did not thirst; they sat content with all my deeds, remembering me fondly; and I set each thing firmly in its place.[74] extract from the Instructions of Amenemhat Throughout the history of ancient Egypt, the annual inundation of the Nile River was relied upon to fertilize the land surrounding it. This was essential for agriculture and food production. There is evidence that the collapse of the previous Old Kingdom may have been due in part to low flood levels, resulting in famine.[75] This trend appears to have been reversed during the early years of the Middle Kingdom, with relatively high water levels recorded for much of this era, with an average inundation of 19 meters above its non-flood levels.[76] The years of repeated high inundation levels correspond to the most prosperous period of the Middle Kingdom, which occurred during the reign of Amenemhat III.[77] This seems to be confirmed in some of the literature of the period, such as in the Instructions of Amenemhat, where the king tells his son how agriculture prospered under his reign.[74] Art[edit] Seated Statue of Amenemhat III, around 19th century BC. The State Hermitage Museum After the reunification of Egypt in the Middle Kingdom, the kings of the Eleventh and Twelfth Dynasties were able to turn their focus back to art. In the Eleventh Dynasty, the kings had their monuments made in a style influenced by the Memphite models of the Fifth and early Sixth Dynasty. During this time, the pre-unification Theban relief style all but disappeared. These changes had an ideological purpose, as the Eleventh Dynasty kings were establishing a centralized state after the First Intermediate Period, and returning to the political ideals of the Old Kingdom.[78] In the early Twelfth Dynasty, the artwork had a uniformity of style due to the influence of the royal workshops. It was at this point that the quality of artistic production for the elite members of society reached a high point that was never surpassed, although it was equaled in other periods.[79] Egypt prospered in the late Twelfth Dynasty, and this was reflected in the quality of the materials used for royal and private monuments. The kings of the Twelfth Dynasty were buried in pyramid complexes based on those of the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties.[80] In the Old Kingdom, these were made of stone bricks, but the Middle Kingdom kings chose to have theirs made of mud bricks and finished with a casing of Tura limestone.[81] Private tombs, such as those found in Thebes, usually consisted of a long passage cut into rock, with a small chamber at the end. These tended to have little or no decoration.[82] Stone box sarcophagi with both flat and vaulted lids were manufactured in the Middle Kingdom, as a continuation of the Old Kingdom tradition. The motifs on these were more varied and of higher artistic quality than that of any sarcophagi produced before and after the Middle Kingdom.[83] Additionally, funerary stelae developed in regard to images and iconography. They continued to show the deceased seated in front of a table of offerings, and began to include the deceased's wife and other family members.[84] Towards the end of the Middle Kingdom, there was a change to the art pieces placed in non-royal tombs. The amount of wooden tomb models decreased drastically, and they were replaced by small faience models of food. Magic wands and rods, models of protective animals, and fertility figures began to be buried with the dead.[85] Additionally, the number of statues and funerary stelae increased, but their quality decreased. In the late Twelfth Dynasty, coffins with interior decorations became rare, and the decorations on the outside became more elaborate. The rishi-coffin made its first appearance during this time. Made of wood or cartonnage, the coffin was in the shape of a body wrapped in linen, wearing a beaded collar and a funerary mask.[86] There were also changes to the art form of stelae in the Middle Kingdom. During this time, round-topped stelae developed out of the rectangular form of previous periods. Many examples of both of these types come from this period;[87] excavation at Abydos yielded over 2000 private stelae, ranging from excellent works to crude objects, although very few belonged to the elite.[88] Additionally, classic royal commemorative stelae were first found in this period. These took the form of a round-topped stelae, and they were used to mark boundaries. For example, Senusret III used them to mark the boundary between Egypt and Nubia.[87] Because of the prosperity of this period, the lower elite were able to commission statues and stelae for themselves, although these were of poorer artistic quality.[89] Those who commissioned non-royal stelae had the ultimate goal of eternal existence. This goal was communicated with the specific placement of information on the stone slabs similar to royal stelae (the owner's image, offering formula, inscriptions of names, lineage and titles).[90] Statuary[edit] Head and Torso of a Noblewoman, around 1844–1837 BC. 59.1. Brooklyn Museum In the first half of the Twelfth Dynasty, proportions of the human figure returned to the traditional Memphite style of the Fifth and early Sixth Dynasties.[91] Male figures had broad shoulders, a low small of the back, and thick muscular limbs. Females had slender figures, a higher small of the back and no musculature.[91] In this period, sketches for the production of statues and reliefs were laid out on a squared grid, a new guide system. Since this system contained a greater number of lines, it allowed more body parts to be marked. Standing figures were composed of eighteen squares from the feet to the hairline. Seated figures were made of fourteen squares between their feet and hairline, accounting for the horizontal thigh and knee.[92] The black granite seated statue of king Amenemhat III to the right is a perfect example of male proportions and the squared grid system at this period.[93] Most royal statues, such as this one, would serve as representations of the king's power.[94] The quality of Egyptian statuary reached its peak in the Middle Kingdom.[95] Royal statues combined both elegance and strength in a manner that was seldom seen after this period.[96] A popular form of statuary during this time was that of the sphinx. During this period, sphinxes appeared in pairs, and were recumbent, with human faces, and a lion's mane and ears. An example would be the diorite sphinx of Senusret III.[95] One of the innovations in sculpture that occurred during the Middle Kingdom was the block statue, which would continue to be popular through to the Ptolemaic Kingdom almost 2,000 years later.[97] Block statues consist of a man squatting with his knees drawn up to his chest and his arms folded on top his knees. Often, these men are wearing a "wide cloak" that reduces the body of the figure to a simple block-like shape.[98] The surface of the garment or "wide cloak" allowed space for inscriptions.[79] Most of the detail is reserved for the head of the individual being depicted. In some instances the modeling of the limbs has been retained by the sculptor.[99] There are two basic types of block statues: ones with the feet completely covered by the cloak and ones with the feet uncovered.[100] This statue to the right represents a woman from the top echelon of society and demonstrates characteristics of Middle Kingdom art. The heavy tripartite wig frames the broad face and passes behind the ears, thus giving the impression of forcing them forward. They are large in keeping with the ancient Egyptian ideal of beauty; the same ideal required small breasts, and also in this respect the sculpture is no exception. Whereas the natural curve of the eyebrows dips towards the root of the nose, the artificial eyebrows in low relief are absolutely straight above the inner corners of the eyes, a feature which places the bust early in the Twelfth Dynasty. Around 1900 BC these artificial eyebrows began to follow the natural curve and dip toward the nose.[101] In the later Twelfth Dynasty, proportions of the human figure changed. These changes survived through the Thirteenth to Seventeenth Dynasties. Male figures had smaller heads in proportion the rest of the body, narrow shoulders and waists, a high small of the back, and no muscled limbs. Female figures had these proportions more to an extreme with narrower shoulders and waists, slender limbs and a higher small of the back in order to keep a distinction between male and female measurements.[102] Literature[edit] Main article: Ancient Egyptian literature Richard B. Parkinson and Ludwig D. Morenz write that ancient Egyptian literature—narrowly defined as belles-lettres ("beautiful writing")—were not recorded in written form until the early Twelfth Dynasty.[103] Old Kingdom texts served mainly to maintain the divine cults, preserve souls in the afterlife, and document accounts for practical uses in daily life. It was not until the Middle Kingdom that texts were written for the purpose of entertainment and intellectual curiosity.[104] Parkinson and Morenz also speculate that written works of the Middle Kingdom were transcriptions of the oral literature of the Old Kingdom.[105] It is known that some oral poetry was preserved in later writing; for example, litter-bearers' songs were preserved as written verses in tomb inscriptions of the Old Kingdom.[104] It is also thought that the growth of the middle class and a growth in the number of scribes needed for the expanded bureaucracy under Senusret II helped spur the development of Middle Kingdom literature.[55] Later ancient Egyptians considered the literature from this time as "classic".[55] Stories such as the Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor and the Story of Sinuhe were composed during this period, and were popular enough to be widely copied afterwards.[55] Many philosophical works were also created at this time, including the Dispute between a man and his Ba where an unhappy man converses with his soul, The Satire of the Trades in which the role of the scribe is praised above all other jobs, and the magic tales supposedly told to the Old Kingdom pharaoh Khufu in the Westcar Papyrus.[55] Pharaohs of the Twelfth through Eighteenth Dynasty are credited with preserving some of the most interesting of Egyptian papyri: 1950 BC: Akhmim Wooden Tablet 1950 BC: Heqanakht papyri 1800 BC: Berlin papyrus 6619 1800 BC: Moscow Mathematical Papyrus 1650 BC: Rhind Mathematical Papyrus 1600 BC: Edwin Smith papyrus 1550 BC: Ebers papyrus References[edit] ^ Schneider, Thomas (27 August 2008). 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(1977) p. 5. ^ Mieroop, Marc Van De (2010). A History of Ancient Egypt. John Wiley & Sons. p. 131. ISBN 978-1-4051-6070-4. ^ Bard, Kathryn A. (2015). An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. John Wiley & Sons. p. 188. ISBN 978-1-118-89611-2. ^ Kamrin, Janice (2009). "The Aamu of Shu in the Tomb of Khnumhotep II at Beni Hassan" (PDF). Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections. Vol. 1:3. ^ Curry, Andrew (2018). "The Rulers of Foreign Lands - Archaeology Magazine". www.archaeology.org. ^ a b c Shaw. (2000) p. 163 ^ Murnane. (1977) p. 7. ^ a b Shaw. (2000) p. 164 ^ Gardiner. (1964) p. 138. ^ Grimal. (1988) p. 166 ^ a b c d Shaw. (2000) p. 166 ^ Gardiner. (1964) p. 136. ^ Gardiner. (1964) p. 135. ^ Redford. (1992) p. 76 ^ Grajetzki, Wolfram (2014). TOMB 197 AT ABYDOS, FURTHER EVIDENCE FOR LONG DISTANCE TRADE IN THE MIDDLE KINGDOM. pp. 159–170. JSTOR 43553796. ^ Stevenson, Alice (2015). Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology: Characters and Collections. UCL Press. p. 54. ISBN 9781910634042. ^ Hayes. (1953) p. 32 ^ Shaw and Nicholson. (1995) p. 260 ^ Aldred. (1987) p.129 ^ Wegner. (1996) p. 250 ^ Wegner. (1996) p. 260 ^ a b Grimal. (1988) p. 170 ^ Grajetzki. (2006) p. 60 ^ Shaw. (2000) p. 168 ^ a b Shaw. (2000) p. 169 ^ Shaw. (2000) p. 170 ^ a b Grimal. (1988) p. 171 ^ a b c d e Shaw. (2000) p. 171 ^ K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997 ^ Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I – Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008 ^ Grajetzki. (2006) p. 66 ^ Grimal. (1988) p. 183 ^ a b c Grajetzki. (2006) p. 64 ^ Grajetzki. (2006) p. 65 ^ Grajetzki. (2006) p. 71 ^ a b c Shaw. (2000) p. 172 ^ Grajetzki. (2006) p. 72 ^ Grajetzki. (2006) p. 74 ^ Grajetzki. (2006) p. 75 ^ a b c d e Shaw. (2000) p. 174 ^ a b c d Grajetzki. (2006) p. 21 ^ a b Richards. (2005) p. 7 ^ a b c Trigger, Kemp, O'Connor, and Lloyd. (1983) p. 108 ^ a b c d Trigger, Kemp, O'Connor, and Lloyd. (1983) p. 112 ^ Grimal. (1988) p. 167 ^ Trigger, Kemp, O'Connor, and Lloyd. (1983) p. 109 ^ a b Foster. (2001) p. 88 ^ Bell. (1975) p. 227 ^ Bell. (1975) p. 230 ^ Bell. (1975) p. 263 ^ Robins, Gay (2008). The Art of Ancient Egypt (Rev. ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. p. 90. ISBN 9780674030657. OCLC 191732570. ^ a b Robins (2008), p. 109. ^ Robins (2008), p. 96. ^ "Pyramid | Grove Art". doi:10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t070190. Retrieved 2018-12-03. ^ "Thebes (i) | Grove Art". doi:10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t084413. Retrieved 2018-12-03. ^ "Sarcophagus | Grove Art". doi:10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t075996. Retrieved 2018-12-03. ^ Robins (2008), p. 102. ^ Robins (2008), p. 114. ^ Robins (2008), p. 115. ^ a b "Stele | Grove Art". doi:10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t081249. Retrieved 2018-12-03. ^ "Abydos | Grove Art". doi:10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t000298. Retrieved 2018-12-03. ^ Robins (2008), p. 110. ^ Oppenheim, Adela; Arnold, Dorothea; Arnold, Dieter; Yamamoto, Kei (2015). Ancient Egypt transformed: the Middle Kingdom. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 36. ISBN 9781588395641. OCLC 909251373. ^ a b Robins (2008), pp. 106, 107. ^ Robins (2008), pp. 107, 108. ^ "Statue of Amenemhat III". hermitagemuseum. Retrieved 6 December 2018. ^ Robins (2008), pp. 112, 113. ^ a b "Sphinx | Grove Art". doi:10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t080560. Retrieved 2018-12-03. ^ "Taharqa | Grove Art". doi:10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t083009. Retrieved 2018-12-03. ^ Teeter. (1994) p. 27 ^ Bothmer, 94. ^ Shaw, "Block Statue". ^ Late Period, 4–5. ^ Bothmer, Bernard (1974). Brief Guide to the Department of Egyptian and Classical Art. Brooklyn, NY: Brooklyn Museum. p. 36. ^ Robins (2008), p. 118. ^ Parkinson 2002, pp. 45–46, 49–50, 55–56; Morenz 2003, p. 102; see also Simpson 1972, pp. 3–6 and Erman 2005, pp. xxiv–xxv. ^ a b Morenz 2003, p. 102. ^ Parkinson 2002, pp. 45–46, 49–50, 55–56; Morenz 2003, p. 102. Bibliography[edit] Aldred, Cyril (1987). The Egyptians. Thames and Hudson. Arnold, Dorothea (1991). "Amenemhet I and the Early Twelfth Dynasty at Thebes". Metropolitan Museum Journal. 26. doi:10.2307/1512902. Bell, Barbara (1975). "Climate and the History of Egypt: The Middle Kingdom". American Journal of Archaeology. Archaeological Institute of America. 79 (3): 223–269. JSTOR 503481. Erman, Adolf (2005). Ancient Egyptian Literature: A Collection of Poems, Narratives and Manuals of Instructions from the Third and Second Millennia BC. Translated by Aylward M. Blackman. New York: Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-7103-0964-3. Foster, John L. (2001). Ancient Egyptian Literature: An Anthology. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-72527-2. Gardiner, Alan (1964). Egypt of the Pharaohs. Oxford University Press. Grajetzki, Wolfram (2006). The Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt. Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd. ISBN 0-7156-3435-6. Grimal, Nicolas (1988). A History of Ancient Egypt. Librairie Arthéme Fayard. Habachi, Labib (1963). "King Nebhepetre Menthuhotep: his monuments, place in history, deification and unusual representations in form of gods". Annales du Service des Antiquités de l'Égypte. 19: 16–52. Hayes, William (1953). "Notes on the Government of Egypt in the Late Middle Kingdom". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 12: 31–39. doi:10.1086/371108. Morenz, Ludwid D. (2003), "Literature as a Construction of the Past in the Middle Kingdom", in Tait, John W. (ed.), 'Never Had the Like Occurred': Egypt's View of Its Past, translated by Martin Worthington, London: University College London, Institute of Archaeology, an imprint of Cavendish Publishing Limited, pp. 101–118, ISBN 1-84472-007-1 Murnane, William J. (1977). Ancient Egyptian Coregencies. Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization. 40. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. ISBN 0-918986-03-6. Parkinson, R. B. (2002). Poetry and Culture in Middle Kingdom Egypt: A Dark Side to Perfection. London: Continuum. ISBN 0-8264-5637-5. Redford, Donald (1992). Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00086-7. Richards, Janet (2005). Society and Death in Ancient Egypt. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-84033-3. Shaw, Ian; Nicholson, Paul (1995). The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt. Thames and Hudson. Shaw, Ian (2000). The Oxford history of ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280458-8. Simpson, William Kelly (1972). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, and Poetry. translations by R.O. Faulkner, Edward F. Wente, Jr., and William Kelly Simpson. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-01482-1. Teeter, Emily (1994). "Egyptian Art". Art Institute of Chicago Museum Studies. The Art Institute of Chicago. 20 (1): 14–31. doi:10.2307/4112949. JSTOR 4112949. Trigger, B.; Kemp, Barry; O'Connor, David; Lloyd, Alan (1983). Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge University Press. Wegner, Josef (1996). "The Nature and Chronology of the Senwosret III–Amenemhat III Regnal Succession: Some Considerations Based on New Evidence from the Mortuary Temple of Senwosret III at Abydos". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 55: 249–279. doi:10.1086/373863. Further reading[edit] Allen, James P. Middle Egyptian Literature: Eight Literary Works of the Middle Kingdom. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2015. Bourriau, Janine. Pharaohs and Mortals: Egyptian Art in the Middle Kingdom. Cambridge, UK: Fitzwilliam Museum, 1988. Grajetzki, Wolfgang. The Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt: History, Archaeology and Society. Bristol, UK: Golden House, 2006. Kemp, Barry J. Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization. 2d ed. London: Routledge, 2006. Oppenheim, Adela, Dieter Arnold, and Kei Yamamoto. Ancient Egypt Transformed: The Middle Kingdom. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2015. Parkinson, Richard B. Voices From Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Middle Kingdom Writings. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991. --. Poetry and Culture in Middle Kingdom Egypt: A Dark Side to Perfection. London: Continuum, 2002. Szpakowska, Kasia. Daily Life in Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Blackwell, 2008. Wendrich, Willeke, ed. Egyptian Archaeology. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010. Preceded by First Intermediate Period Time Periods of Egypt 2055–1650 BC Succeeded by Second Intermediate Period Authority control GND: 7509667-5 LCCN: sh2010012743 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt&oldid=993614104" Categories: Middle Kingdom of Egypt States and territories established in the 3rd millennium BC States and territories disestablished in the 17th century BC 3rd millennium BC in Egypt 2nd millennium BC in Egypt Former kingdoms 3rd-millennium BC establishments in Egypt 2nd-millennium BC disestablishments in Egypt 21st century BC in Egypt 20th century BC in Egypt 19th century BC in Egypt 17th century BC in Egypt 21st-century BC establishments Hidden categories: CS1: long volume value Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano Latina Lietuvių Magyar Malagasy مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 11 December 2020, at 15:08 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8210	----	Wegaf - Wikipedia Wegaf From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wegaf Ugaf Drawing of the Rubensohn plaquette from Elephantine realized in 1907 by Georges Legrain. The plaquette mentions Khutawyre Wegaf and a king Senwosret.[1] Pharaoh Reign 1794–1757 BC[2] (Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt) Predecessor Sedjefakare (Ryholt) Successor Khendjer (Ryholt) Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Khutawyre Ḫwj-t3wj-Rˁ Re protects the two lands Nomen Wegaf Wgj=f Horus name Sekhem-Netjeru Sḫm-nṯrw The power of the gods Nebty name Khabaw Ḫˁj-b3w The two Ladies whose Bas are manifest Golden Horus Meri-(tawj) Mrj-(tw3j) Beloved of the two lands Khutawyre Wegaf (or Ugaf) was a pharaoh of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt, who is known from several sources, including a stele and statues. There is a general known from a scarab with the same name, who is perhaps identical with this king. Attestations[edit] A king with the name Khutawyre appears in the Turin King List as the first ruler of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt. However, some researchers—especially Kim Ryholt—argue that the writer of the king list confused the name Khutawyre with that of Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep and consequently placed Wegaf as the first pharaoh of the Thirteenth Dynasty when he should have been placed in the middle of it. In particular, Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep is regarded by Ryholt and other Egyptologists, including Darrell Baker, as the first pharaoh of the Thirteenth Dynasty and a son of Amenemhat IV.[3] At Abydos, a stele dated to a regnal Year 4 and dedicated to preserving the procession road in the area of Wepwawet (Egyptian Museum JE 35256) was usurped by Neferhotep I, but Anthony Leahy suggested that it was originally issued by Wegaf,[4] an opinion shared by Darell Baker[5] but not by Ryholt, who rather suggested that the original issuer of the stela was more likely another pharaoh of the Thirteenth Dynasty, Seth Meribre. References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Wegaf Khutawyre. ^ Georges Legrain: Notes d’inspection. XLIX-LVI, ASAE 8, 1907, p. 248-275 ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen ^ Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008 ^ Leahy, Anthony (1989). "A Protective Measure at Abydos in the Thirteenth Dynasty". Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 75: 41–60. ^ Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 406 Bibliography[edit] K.S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800-1550 BC (Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997). Preceded by Sedjefakare Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Khendjer v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wegaf&oldid=992195687" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Română Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 December 2020, at 00:41 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8214	----	Segerseni - Wikipedia Segerseni From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Segerseni Sekherseni Drawing of an inscription depicting Segerseni's titulary. Pharaoh Reign early 20th century BCE (king of Nubia, concurrent with 11th–12th Dynasty) Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Menkhkare Mnḫ-k3-Rˁ Fresh is the ka of Ra[1][2] Nomen Segerseni Sgrsnj Horus name Bik-nebu-ankh Bjk-nbw-ˁnḫ Living golden falcon Segerseni was an ancient Egyptian or Nubian chieftain of Nubia, likely reigning concurrently with the end of the 11th and beginning of the 12th Dynasty during the early Middle Kingdom. Contents 1 Attestation 2 Biography 3 References 4 Further reading Attestation[edit] Segerseni is attested by one[3] or two[4][5] rock inscriptions discovered in Umbarakab (Khor-Dehmit) in Lower Nubia. Segerseni's throne name as given on the inscriptions remains in doubt as it was roughly carved and became badly weathered over time. It could be Menkhkare or Wadjkare. The former is now regarded as more probable.[3] One of Segerseni's inscriptions possibly records a war in the unidentified region of Persenbet.[5] Segerseni is not attested on any of the Egyptian king lists.[3] Biography[edit] Even though Segerseni adopted the titles of an Egyptian pharaoh, there is no evidence of him outside of Nubia.[3] He was thus most likely a pretender to the Egyptian or Nubian throne headquartered in Lower Nubia, during a politically troubled period: either at the beginning of the First Intermediate Period,[3] during the Second Intermediate Period,[5] or in the time span including the reign of Mentuhotep IV of the 11th Dynasty and the early reign of Amenemhat I of the 12th Dynasty.[1][3][6] The latter possibility is seen as more probable by Egyptologists.[3] In particular, these two rulers seem to have had problems in being universally recognized as legitimate pharaohs. It is known that Amenemhat I dispatched Khnumhotep I, the faithful Great Chief of the Oryx nome (the 16th nome of Upper Egypt) at Elephantine to Nubia in order to wipe out the last resistance against him there,[7] but it is not known with certainty who was the leader of this resistance. It remains conjectural to posit that it was Segerseni. Furthermore, two other rulers based in Nubia, Iyibkhentre and Qakare Ini are known, likely from the same time period. They were both likely pretenders to the Egyptian throne, and the relationships between them and Segerseni are unknown. If Segerseni was indeed Amenemhat I's foe, he could have been fighting on Mentuhotep IV's side or for his own Nubian realm. Indeed, Nubia had gained its independence during the First Intermediate Period, as indicated by the military campaigns of Mentuhotep II in the region, only 40 years prior to Segerseni's conjectured lifetime.[8] References[edit] ^ a b Jürgen von Beckerath, Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Deutscher Kunstverlag, München/ Berlin 1984, ISBN 3-422-00832-2, pp. 64, 196. ^ Arthur Weigall, A Report on the Antiquities of Lower Nubia. Cairo 1907, pl. 19. ^ a b c d e f g Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 357 ^ T. Save-Soderbergh: Agypten und Nubien, Lund: Hakan Ohlsson 1941, 43 f ^ a b c Török, László (2008). Between Two Worlds: The Frontier Region Between Ancient Nubia and Egypt 3700 BC - 500 AD. Brill. pp. 101, 102. ISBN 978-90-04-17197-8. ^ Wolfram Grajetzki, The Middle Kingdom of ancient Egypt: history, archaeology and society. London, Duckworth Egyptology, 2006, pp. 27-28. ^ Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford, Blackwell Books, 1992, p. 158–60. ^ Gae Callender, in: Ian Shaw (edit.), Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, p. 140. Further reading[edit] Henri Gauthier, "Nouvelles remarques sur la XIe dynastie", BIFAO 9 (1911), pp. 99–136. Thomas Schneider, Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, p. 259. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Segerseni&oldid=992646633" Categories: 20th-century BC Pharaohs People of the Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt People of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Non-dynastic pharaohs 20th-century BC rulers History of Nubia Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Deutsch Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Русский Slovenščina ไทย Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 6 December 2020, at 11:06 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-822	----	Template:Median and Achaemenid kings - Wikipedia Template:Median and Achaemenid kings From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search v t e Median and Achaemenid kings Family tree Median (728–550 BC) Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Achaemenid (550–330 BC) Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Nothus Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Italics indicate kings not directly attested and so possibly legendary. Template documentation Initial visibility: currently defaults to collapsed To set this template's initial visibility, the |state= parameter may be used: |state=collapsed: {{Median and Achaemenid kings|state=collapsed}} to show the template collapsed, i.e., hidden apart from its title bar |state=expanded: {{Median and Achaemenid kings|state=expanded}} to show the template expanded, i.e., fully visible |state=autocollapse: {{Median and Achaemenid kings|state=autocollapse}} shows the template collapsed to the title bar if there is a {{navbar}}, a {{sidebar}}, or some other table on the page with the collapsible attribute shows the template in its expanded state if there are no other collapsible items on the page If the |state= parameter in the template on this page is not set, the template's initial visibility is taken from the |default= parameter in the Collapsible option template. For the template on this page, that currently evaluates to collapsed. Editors can experiment in this template's sandbox (create | mirror) and testcases (create) pages. Subpages of this template. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Median_and_Achaemenid_kings&oldid=982819749" Categories: Ancient Persia templates Medes templates Ruler navigational boxes Median kings Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenid Empire templates Hidden categories: WikiProject Ancient Near East articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Template Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 日本語 Português Русский Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 October 2020, at 15:15 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-823	----	Astyages - Wikipedia Astyages From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search King Astyages King King Astyages in chains submitting to Cyrus the Great (18th century tapestry). Shahanshah of Media Reign 564–550 BC (according to Herodotus) Predecessor Cyaxares the Great Successor Cyrus the Great Shahanshah of Cappadocia Reign 564-550 BC Predecessor Cyaxares Born Ecbatana Consort Aryenis of Lydia Spouse Tigranuhi (daughter of Orontes I Sakavakyats) Issue Mandane House Deiocids Dynasty Median Dynasty Father Cyaxares Religion Ancient Iranian religion Astyages (spelled by Herodotus as Ἀστυάγης Astyages; by Ctesias as Astyigas; by Diodorus as Aspadas; Babylonian: Ištumegu) was the last king of the Median Empire, r. 585–550 BC, the son of Cyaxares; he was dethroned in 550 BCE by Cyrus the Great. His name derives from the Old Iranian Rishti Vaiga, which means "swinging the spear, lance-hurler".[1] In the inscriptions of Nabonidus, the name is written Ishtuvegu.[2] Contents 1 Reign 2 In Herodotus 3 In the Book of Daniel 4 Defeat 5 References 6 External links Reign[edit] The Median Empire during both Cyaxares the Great, and Astyages Astyages succeeded his father in 585 BCE, following the Battle of Halys, which ended a five-year war between the Lydians and the Medes. He inherited a large empire, ruled in alliance with his two brothers-in-law, Croesus of Lydia and Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon, whose wife, Amytis, Astyages' sister, was the queen for whom Nebuchadnezzar was said to have built the Hanging Gardens of Babylon.[3] However, due to recent evidence, the garden was likely built by the Assyrian King Sennacherib. Married to Aryenis, the sister of King Croesus of Lydia, to seal the treaty between the two empires, Astyages ascended to the Median throne upon his father's death later that year.[4] The ancient sources report almost nothing about Astyages’ reign, and a final judgment on his character is not possible, since Herodotus’ negative account (Astyages is represented as a cruel and despotic ruler) and Ctesias’ favorable one, are both biased.[1] According to Cyropaedia of Xenophon, after thirty-two years of relative stability, Astyages lost the support of his nobles during the war against Cyrus, whom Xenophon understands as being Astyages' grandson. This resulted in the founding of the Persian empire by Cyrus.[5] In Herodotus[edit] King Astyages commands Harpagos to take the infant Cyrus and slay him, tapestry by Jan Moy (1535-1550). Astyages's dream (France, 15th century) The account given by the ancient Greek historian Herodotus relates that Astyages had a dream in which his daughter, Mandane, gave birth to a son who would destroy his empire. Fearful of the dream's prophecy, Astyages married her off to Cambyses I of Anšan, who had a reputation for being a "quiet and thoughtful prince" and whom Astyages believed to be no threat. When a second dream warned Astyages of the dangers of Mandane's offspring, Astyages sent his general Harpagus to kill the child Cyrus. Herodotus correctly names Cyrus' parents, though he fails to mention that Cambyses was a king.[6][7] Modern scholarship generally rejects his claim that Cyrus was the grandson of Astyages.[8] Harpagus, unwilling to spill royal blood, gave the infant to a shepherd, Mitridates, whose wife had just given birth to a stillborn child. Cyrus was raised as Mitridates' own son, and Harpagus presented the stillborn child to Astyages as the dead Cyrus. When Cyrus was found alive at age ten, Astyages spared the boy on the advice of his Magi, returning him to his parents in Anshan. Harpagus, however, did not escape punishment, as Astyages is said to have fed him his own son at a banquet. Cyrus succeeded his father in 559, and in 553, on the advice of Harpagus, who was eager for revenge for being given the "abominable supper," Cyrus rebelled against Astyages. After three years of fighting, Astyages' troops mutinied during the battle of Pasargadae, and Cyrus conquered the Median's empire. Astyages was spared by Cyrus, and despite being taunted by Harpagus, Herodotus says he was treated well and remained in Cyrus' court until his death. Rather than giving the popular mythology that Cyrus was suckled by a dog (the dog was sacred to Persians. cf. also the legend of Sargon, or the similar legend of Romulus and Remus, suckled by a she-wolf (Latin: Lupa)) Herodotus explains that the herdsman Mitridates lived with another of Astyages' slaves, a woman named 'Spaco,' which he explains is Median for "dog,"[9][10] which gives both the legend and Herodotus' rationalized version.[11] In the Book of Daniel[edit] Chapter 14 of the deutero-canonical version of the biblical Book of Daniel, otherwise known as Bel and the Dragon, opens with the accession of Cyrus after the death of Astyages.[12] Defeat[edit] The Defeat of Astyages (standing left in chains) to Cyrus the Great (center), 18th century tapestry. The contemporary Chronicle of Nabonidus refers to the mutiny on the battlefield as the cause for Astyages' overthrow, but does not mention Harpagus by name. However, since Harpagus was Astyages' general at the battle of Pasargadae and his family were granted high positions in Cyrus' empire after the war, and since Harpagus went on to become Cyrus' most successful general, it is possible he had something to do with the mutiny against Astyages.[13] Cyrus then went on to capture Astyages' capital of Ecbatana. Ancient sources agree that after Astyages was taken by Cyrus he was treated with clemency, though the accounts differ. Herodotus says that Cyrus kept Astyages at his court during the remainder of his life, while according to Ctesias, he was made a governor of a region of Parthia and was later murdered by a political opponent, Oebares. The circumstances of Astyages' death are not known. After Astyages' overthrow, Croesus marched on Cyrus to avenge Astyages. Cyrus, with Harpagus at his side, defeated Croesus and conquered Lydia in or after 547 BC.[14] References[edit] ^ a b "ASTYAGES – Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org. ^ Meyer 1911. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2013-08-08. Retrieved 2013-08-02.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link), The Hanging Gardens of Babylon ^ "Cyaxares (Livius.org)". ^ Xenophon, 431 BCE-350? BCE (February 1, 2000). Cyropaedia: The Education of Cyrus – via Project Gutenberg. ^ cf. How, W. W., & Wells, J. (1991) ^ A commentary on Herodotus with introduction and appendixes. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. i.107 ^ cf. How and Wells i.107 ^ Herodotus i.110 ^ Justin (i.4) ^ cf. How and Well, i.110 ^ Daniel 14:1: New American Bible, Revised Edition, based on Theodotion's version ^ "Cyrus takes Babylon (530 BCE) (Livius.org)". ^ "Astyages - Livius". www.livius.org. External links[edit] Asia portal Media related to Astyages at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of astyages at Wiktionary Livius Site's Astyages' page Meyer, Eduard (1911). "Astyages" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 821. Preceded by Cyaxares King of Medes Succeeded by Cyrus the Great of Persia v t e Median topics Language Median language, Iranian language Cities Ecbatana (Hamadan) Rhagae (Shahre Rey, Tehran) Laodicea (Nahavand) Battles involving Lydia Eclipse of Thales Battles involving Persia Persian Revolt Battle of Hyrba Battle of the Persian Border Siege of Pasargadae Hill Battle of Pasargadae Fall of Ecbatana Kings/Satraps Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Cyaxares II Darius the Mede Other Medians Amytis of Media Artembares Datis Gubaru Mazares Harpagus Aryenis Mandane v t e Median and Achaemenid kings Family tree Median (728–550 BC) Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Achaemenid (550–330 BC) Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Nothus Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Italics indicate kings not directly attested and so possibly legendary. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Astyages&oldid=999541835" Categories: Median kings 6th-century BC rulers 6th-century BC Iranian people Hidden categories: CS1 maint: archived copy as title Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Latin-language text Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Kurdî Latina Magyar مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 January 2021, at 18:36 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-824	----	Shepseskaf - Wikipedia Shepseskaf From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Shepseskaf Sebercheres, Severkeris Shepseskaf's cartouche on the Abydos king list. Pharaoh Reign 6 to 8 years[1] starting ca. 2510 BC (4th Dynasty) Predecessor Menkaure Successor Userkaf (most likely) or Djedefptah Royal titulary Nomen Shepseskaf špṣṣ-k3.f His Ka is noble[1] Horus name Hor-Shepsekhet ῌr-špṣ-ḫt Horus, noble of body Nebty name Shepse-Nebty Nbt.j-špṣ The noble one of the two Ladies Abydos King List Shepseskaf špṣṣ-k3.f His Ka is noble Turin King List No name readable, 4 years of reign [2] Consort Khentkaus I ? Bunefer ? Children Djedefptah ? Bunefer ? Father Menkaure Mother Khamerernebty II ? Rekhetre ? Burial Mastabet el-Fara'un Monuments Completion of the temple complex of Menkaure's pyramid Shepseskaf was the sixth and last pharaoh of the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt during the Old Kingdom. He reigned six to eight years starting circa 2510 BC. The only activities firmly datable to his reign are the completion of the temple complex of the Pyramid of Menkaure and the construction of its own mastaba tomb at South Saqqara, the Mastabat al-Fir’aun, "stone bench of the pharaoh".[3] Contents 1 Family 2 Reign 2.1 Attestation 2.2 Reign length 3 Burial 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Family[edit] See also: Fourth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Shepseskaf's family is uncertain. Egyptologist George Andrew Reisner proposed that Shepseskaf was Menkaure's son based on a decree mentioning that Shepseskaf completed Menkaure's mortuary temple. This, however, cannot be considered a solid proof of filiation since the decree does not describe the relationship between these two kings. Furthermore, the completion of the tomb of a deceased pharaoh by his successor does not necessarily depend on a direct father/son relation between the two.[4] The mother, wives and children of Shepseskaf are unknown. If Menkaure was indeed his father, his mother could have been one of Menkaure's royal wives Khamerernebty II or Rekhetre. It's possible that Shepseskaf's wife was Khentkaus I, but this is far from certain. Queen Bunefer has been suggested as a possible wife of Shepseskaf based on the titles as a priestess of Shepseskhaf. She may, however, have been a daughter who served as a priestess in the cult for her father. Finally, Khamaat, the wife of a nobleman named Ptahshepses and daughter of a king, may be a daughter of Shepseskaf or Userkaf.[5] Reign[edit] He was likely the last pharaoh of the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt if he was not succeeded by a certain unknown ruler named Thamphthis as recorded in some Egyptian literature and, indirectly, by the Turin King List. No ruler named Thamphthis is recorded in contemporary documents such as royal monuments or private tombs in the Old Kingdom cemeteries of Giza and Saqqara, which date to this period.[6] The long-lived palace courtier Netry-nesut-pu explicitly lists this sequence of Old Kingdom kings he served under in his tomb: Radjedef → Khafre → Menkaure → Shepseskaf, and the first three 5th dynasty kings namely Userkaf, Sahure and Neferirkare.[7] Finally, "No names of estates of the period [which are] compounded with royal names make mention of any other kings than these, nor do the names of...royal grandchildren, who often bore the name of a royal ancestor as a component of their own [name]."[8] Attestation[edit] Shepseskaf's reign is attested through the funerary inscriptions made by the officials who served him. These are mostly found in Gizah and Saqqara. The fact that many of these inscriptions only mention Shepseskaf without further details hints at the short duration of his reign. The court officials who mentioned Shepseskaf are: Sekhemkare, a son of Khafre, priest of the royal funerary cults. His mastaba, located in Giza (G8154) yielded a list of the kings under whom he served, from Khafre down to Sahure through Shepseskaf.[9] This list also gives Userkaf as the immediate successor to Shepseskaf. Bunefer, royal princess and priestess of Shepseskaf funerary cult, buried in Gizah (G8408). She is believed to be either one of Shepseskaf's wife, daughter or one of his sisters and to have participated in his burial ceremonies.[10][11] Nisutpunetjer, who was a priest of the royal funerary cults. His mastaba in Giza (G8740) yielded a list of pharaohs under whom he served, from Djedefra down to Sahure and mentions Shepseskaf followed by Userkaf.[12] Ptahshepses I, great priest of Ptah. An inscription on his false door stele details his biography. He relates that he was educated at court with Shepseskaf who later promoted him to the office of first priest of Ptah and gave him his daughter Khamaat for wedding.[13] Kaunisut, a palace official, cites Shepseskaf in his mastaba at Gizah (G8960).[14] Other than these scanty references to Shepseskaf's reign, the only stele known today that is firmly datable to that period was uncovered in Menkaure's pyramid complex. It mentions a royal decree by Shepseskaf where he makes donations in favor of his father's mortuary cult.[15] Reign length[edit] The Turin Canon ascribes Shepseskaf a rule of four years and his anonymous 4th Dynasty successor—presumably a reference to Djedefptah—a reign of two years. In contrast, Manetho's King List explicitly gives Shepseskaf a reign of seven years, which may be a combination of the 4 + 2 (= 6) full year figures noted in the Turin King List for the last two kings of the Fourth Dynasty plus a significant monthly fraction. Manetho's King List does, however, also note the existence of the unknown and possibly fictitious ruler Djedefptah, called Thampthis in his records, who is ascribed a reign of nine years. The Palermo stone describes the first year of Shepseskaf's reign. Shepseskaf is confirmed as the immediate successor of Menkaure and was apparently crowned on the 11th day of the 4th month. Analyses of the space available between the beginning of his reign and that of his successor indicate that Shepseskaf did not reign more than seven years.[16] Finally, the Palermo stone indicates that the emplacement and name of Shepseskaf's tomb were chosen during his first year on the throne. The name of the tomb is written with the determinative of a pyramid.[17] Burial[edit] Main article: Mastabat Fara'un Mastabat al-Fir’aun, Saqqara Shepseskaf's tomb is a great mastaba at Saqqara, which was originally called Shepseskaf is purified and is now known as Mastabat al-Fir’aun. This mastaba was first recognized as such by Richard Lepsius in the mid 19th century and was first excavated in 1858 by Auguste Mariette. However, it was not before the years 1924–1925 that the mastaba was thoroughly explored by Gustave Jéquier. The mastaba was initially thought to be the tomb of the 5th Dynasty king Unas, but Jéquier discovered evidence that it belonged to Shepseskaf. In particular, he uncovered a Middle Kingdom stele indicating that Shepseskaf mortuary cult was still active on-site during this time period. In building himself a mastaba, Shepseskaf broke with the Fourth Dynasty tradition of constructing large pyramids. Indeed, his predecessors built two pyramids at Giza and one in Abu-Rawash; while Sneferu, the founder of the Fourth Dynasty, alone constructed three pyramids in his reign, most notably the Bent Pyramid and the Red Pyramid. It is not clear why Shepseskaf did not start a pyramid for himself and several theories have been put forth to explain this choice: Shepseskaf may have designed a smaller tomb for himself because he was faced with the arduous task of completing his father's pyramid at Giza while simultaneously building his own tomb, at a time where Egypt was less prosperous than during the early 4th Dynasty. Shepseskaf may have chosen to build a mastaba at Saqqara, rather than a pyramid at Giza, to undermine the growing influence of the priesthood of Re.[18] This hypothesis could also explain the absence of any reference to Re in his name as well as that of his probable immediate successor Userkaf. Shepseskaf chose to build a mastaba following the archaic tradition of the First, Second and early Third dynasties.[19] Shepseskaf initially planned to build himself a pyramid, as hinted by the Palermo stone, but died shortly after work had started. Consequently, his successor or his queen may have finished the tomb as a mastaba rather than pyramid. See also[edit] List of Egyptian pyramids List of megalithic sites References[edit] ^ a b Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, page 248. ^ Alan H. Gardiner: The royal canon of Turin, Griffith Institute, Oxford (UK) 1997, ISBN 0-900416-48-3, page 16; table II. ^ Peter Clayton: Chronicle of the Pharaohs. Thames and Hudson, London 1994. p. 56 ^ Peter Jánosi: Giza in der 4. Dynastie. Die Baugeschichte und Belegung einer Nekropole des Alten Reiches. Band I: Die Mastabas der Kernfriedhöfe und die Felsgräber, Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien 2005, S. 66, ISBN 3-7001-3244-1 ^ Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004. ISBN 0-500-05128-3 ^ P.F. O'Mara, Manetho and the Turin Canon: A Comparison of Regnal Years, GM 158 (1997), p.51 ^ P.F. O'Mara, Manetho and the Turin Canon: A Comparison of Regnal Years, GM 158 (1997), p. 51. O'Mara's source on Netry-nesut-pu is Kurt Sethe's Urkunden or Urk I, p.166 ^ O'Mara, p.51; O'Mara's sources are LD, II, Urkunden I and Auguste's Mariette's 1889 book 'Mastabas de l'ancien empire' ^ Cf. K. R. Lepsius, § 89 p.109 et K.H. Sethe, § 106, p.166 ^ Cf. S. Hassan, p.176-199 ^ She bears the title of njswt sA.t n Xt f, royal daughter of his body, which was found in her tomb in Gizah. ^ Cf. K.H. Sethe, § 107, p.166 & H. Gauthier, p.180 ^ Cf. J.H. Breasted § 254-262 ; pp.115-118 ^ Cf. S. Hassan, pp.75-85 ^ Cf. K.H. Sethe, § 101, p.160 ^ Cf. G. Daressy ^ Cf. J.H. Breasted § 150-152 ; p.67 ^ Ian Shaw The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt ^ Mark Lehner The Complete Pyramids: Solving the Ancient Mysteries Lepsius, Karl Richard. Denkmäler aus Ægypten und Æthiopen - volume I. Leipzig. KRL. Sethe, Kurt Heinrich (1903). Urkunden des Alten Reich. Leipzig: J.C. Hinrichs'sche Burchhandlung. KHS. Breasted, James Henry (1906). Ancient records of Egypt historical documents from earliest times to the persian conquest, collected edited and translated with commentary. The First to the Seventeenth Dynasties. The University of Chicago press. JHB. Daressy, Georges (1916). La Pierre de Palerme et la chronologie de l'Ancien Empire. Cairo: BIFAO. GD. Gauthier, Henri (1925). Annales du service des antiquités de l'Égypte. Cairo. HG. Hassan, Selim (1936). Excavations at Gîza II, 1930-1931. Cairo. SHA. Hassan, Selim (1941). Excavations at Gîza III, 1931-1932. Cairo. SH. Grimal, Nicolas. Histoire de l'Égypte ancienne. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Shepseskaf. Shepseskaf Urkunden des Alten Reichs by Kurt Heinrich Sethe v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shepseskaf&oldid=998790356" Categories: 26th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt 3rd-millennium BC births 26th-century BC deaths Menkaure Hidden categories: CS1: long volume value Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano עברית ქართული Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 7 January 2021, at 01:40 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8254	----	Ada of Caria - Wikipedia Ada of Caria From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Satrap of Caria Ada Portrait of a young woman from the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, sometimes identified as Ada. British Museum. Reign 344–340 BC; 334-326 BC Satrap of Caria Predecessor Idrieus Successor Pixodarus Queen of Caria Predecessor Orontobates Successor Alexander III (the Great) of Macedon Consort Idrieus House Hecatomnids Father Hecatomnus Hecatomnid dynasty (Dynasts of Caria) c. 395–377 BCE Hecatomnus c. 377–353 BCE Mausolus c. 353–351 BCE Artemisia II c. 351–344 BCE Idrieus c. 344–340 BCE Ada c. 340–335 BCE Pixodarus c. 334–326 BCE Ada v t e Ada of Caria (Ancient Greek: Ἄδα) (fl. 377 – 326 BC)[1] was a member of the House of Hecatomnus (the Hecatomnids) and ruler of Caria during the mid-4th century BC, first as Persian Satrap and later as Queen under the auspices of Alexander III (the Great) of Macedon.[2] Contents 1 History 2 Ada sarcophagus 3 Notes 4 References History[edit] Ada was the daughter of Hecatomnus, satrap of Caria, and sister of Mausolus, Artemisia, Idrieus, and Pixodarus. She was married to her brother Idrieus, who succeeded Artemisia in 351 BC and died in 344 BC. On the death of her husband Ada became satrap of Caria, but was expelled by her brother Pixodarus in 340 BC, who upon his death in 335 BC was succeeded by his own son-in-law, the Persian Orontobates. Ada fled to the fortress of Alinda, where she maintained her rule in exile.[3] When Alexander the Great entered Caria in 334 BC, Ada adopted Alexander as her son and surrendered Alinda to him. Alexander accepted her offer and, in return, gave Ada formal command of the Siege of Halicarnassus.[4] After the fall of Halicarnassus, Alexander returned Alinda to Ada and made her queen of all of Caria.[5] Ada's popularity with the populace in turn ensured the Carians' loyalty to Alexander.[2] "Ada meanwhile held only Alinda, the strongest fortress in Caria; and when Alexander entered Caria she went to meet him, surrendering Alinda and adopting Alexander as her son. Alexander gave Alinda to her charge, and did not reject the title of son, and when he had taken Halicarnassus and became master of the rest of Caria, he gave her command of the whole country." — Arrian, Anabasis, 1.23.8[2] She was under the protection of Asander, Hellenistic satrap of Lydia. Agora of Alinda, Ada's Stronghold. The siege and capture of Halicarnassus under Alexander the Great Ada sarcophagus[edit] According to Turkish archaeologists, the tomb of Ada has been discovered, although this claim remains unresolved. Her remains are on display in the archaeological museum of Bodrum.[6] Purported skeleton of Ada, Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology Reconstitution of Ada, Bodrum Museum. She was 1.62m tall, and about 40 years old when she died. Wreath of Ada, Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology Room dedicated to the Carian Princess in the Bodrum Museum. Jewelry worn by the princess in the sarcophagus. Jewelry worn by the princess in the sarcophagus. Reconstitution of the head of the deceased, aged about 40. Notes[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ada of Caria. ^ 377 BC is the date of her father's death: Gardner, Percy (1918). A History of Ancient Coinage, 700-300 B.C. Clarendon Press: Oxford University. p. 303. ^ a b c Fabre-Serris, Jacqueline; Keith, Alison (2015). Women and War in Antiquity. JHU Press. p. 236. ISBN 9781421417622. ^ McNicoll, Milner; McNicoll, Anthony; Milner, N. P. (1997). Hellenistic Fortifications from the Aegean to the Euphrates. Clarendon Press. p. 26. ISBN 9780198132288. ^ "Geography". Perseus.org. Retrieved 1 May 2015. ^ Wikisource:The Anabasis of Alexander/Book I/Chapter XXIII#64 ^ "Carian Princess Hall". Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology. Retrieved 1 May 2015. References[edit] E.D. Carney, "Women and Dunasteia in Caria", American Journal of Philology 126 (2005), pp. 65–91. W. Heckel, Who’s Who in the Age of Alexander the Great, Oxford (Blackwell), 2006, p. 3 Attilio Mastrocinque, La Caria e la Ionia meridionale in epoca ellenistica, 323-188 a. C. (Rome, 1979) Stephen Ruzicka, Politics of a Persian dynasty : the Hecatomnids in the fourth century B.C. (1992) Simon Hornblower, Mausolus (1982) Bean, George E. (1971). Turkey beyond the Maeander. London: Praeger. ISBN 0-87471-038-3. Livius, Ada by Jona Lendering Ada from Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology (1867) Photos of Halicarnassus Includes a picture of the skeleton of Ada. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC v t e Hellenistic satraps Satraps under Alexander the Great (334-323 BC) Ada (Queen of Caria) Asander, Menander (Lydia) Calas, Demarchus (Hellespontine Phrygia) Antigonus (Greater Phrygia) Balakros, Menes (Cilicia) Abistamenes (Cappadocia) Abdalonymus (Sidon) Mithrenes (Armenia) Mazaeus, Stamenes (Babylon) Mazakes (Mesopotamia) Abulites (Susiana) Oxydates, Atropates (Media) Phrasaortes, Oxines, Peucestas (Persis) Cleomenes of Naucratis (Egypt) Satibarzanes (Aria) Sibyrtius (Carmania) Autophradates (Tapuri, Mardi) Andragoras (Parthia) Amminapes, Phrataphernes, Pharismanes (Hyrcania and Parthia) Artabazos, Cleitus the Black, Amyntas (Bactria) Oxyartes (Paropamisia) Philip, Eudemus (India) Peithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara) Taxiles (Punjab) Porus (Indus) Satraps at the Partition of Babylon (323 BC) Antipater (Macedon and Greece) Philo (Illyria) Lysimachus (Thrace) Leonnatus (Hellespontine Phrygia) Antigonus (Phrygia) Asander (Caria) Nearchus (Lycia and Pamphylia) Menander (Lydia) Philotas (Cilicia) Eumenes (Cappadocia and Paphlagonia) Ptolemy (Egypt) Laomedon of Mytilene (Syria) Neoptolemus (Armenia) Peucestas (Persis) Arcesilaus (Mesopotamia) Peithon (Greater Media) Atropates (Lesser Media) Scynus (Susiana) Tlepolemus (Persia) Nicanor (Parthia) Phrataphernes (Armenia, Parthia) Antigenes (Susiana) Archon (Pelasgia) Philip (Hyrcania) Stasanor (Aria and Drangiana) Sibyrtius (Arachosia and Gedrosia) Amyntas (Bactria) Scythaeus (Sogdiana) Oxyartes (Paropamisia) Taxiles (Punjab) Peithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara) Porus (Indus) Satraps at the Partition of Triparadisus (321 BC) Antipater (Macedon and Greece) Lysimachus (Thrace) Arrhidaeus (Hellespontine Phrygia) Antigonus (Phrygia, Lycia and Pamphylia) Cassander (Caria) Cleitus the White (Lydia) Philoxenus (Cilicia) Nicanor (Cappadocia and Paphlagonia) Ptolemy (Egypt) Laomedon of Mytilene (Syria) Peucestas (Persis) Amphimachus (Mesopotamia) Peithon (Media) Tlepolemus (Carmania) Philip (Parthia) Antigenes (Susiana) Seleucus (Babylonia) Stasanor (Bactria and Sogdiana) Stasander (Aria and Drangiana) Sibyrtius (Arachosia and Gedrosia) Oxyartes (Paropamisia) Taxiles (Punjab) Peithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara) Porus (Indus) Later Satraps Peithon, son of Agenor (Babylon) Sibyrtius (Arachosia, Drangiana) Eudemus (Indus) Bagadates, Ardakhshir I, Wahbarz, Vadfradad I, Vadfradad II, Alexander c.220 BC (Persis) Andragoras (Parthia) Demodamas (Bactria, Sogdiana) Diodotus (Bactria) Alexander (Lydia) Molon c.220 BC, Timarchus, c.175 BC (Media) Apollodorus (Susiana) Ptolemaeus (Commagene) Noumenios, Hyspaosines c.150 BC (Characene) Hellenistic satraps were preceded by Achaemenid rulers, and followed or ruled by Hellenistic rulers Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ada_of_Caria&oldid=1000488734" Categories: Carian people People from Muğla Achaemenid satraps of Caria Satraps of the Alexandrian Empire 4th-century BC women rulers Hecatomnid dynasty Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Asturianu تۆرکجه Brezhoneg Català Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano مصرى Nederlands Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 15 January 2021, at 08:48 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8261	----	Amenemnisu - Wikipedia Amenemnisu From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Amenemnisu Drawing of the bowcaps containing both Amenemnisu and Psusennes' names Pharaoh Reign 1051–1047 BC (21st Dynasty) Predecessor Smendes Successor Psusennes I Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Neferkare Heqawaset Nfr-Kȝ-Rˁ Ḥqȝ Wȝs.t Perfect is the Ka of Ra, ruler of Thebes Nomen Amenemnisu Jmn-m-nswt Amun is king Died 1047 BC Neferkare Amenemnisu was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 21st Dynasty. Reign[edit] Amenemnisu's existence was only confirmed in 1940 when the Tanite tomb of his successor Psusennes I was discovered by Pierre Montet: a gold bow cap inscribed with both Amenemnisu's royal name, Neferkare, and that of his successor Psusennes I was found within the tomb.[1] Previously, his existence had been doubted as no objects naming him had been discovered. However, the memory of his short rule as the second pharaoh of the 21st Dynasty was preserved in Manetho's Epitome as a king Nephercheres who is assigned a short reign of four years.[2] While his reign is generally obscure, the then High Priest of Amun at Thebes, Menkheperre, is known to have pardoned several leaders of a rebellion against the High Priest's authority during Amenemnisu's reign.[1] These rebels had previously been exiled to the Western Oasis of Egypt in Year 25 of Smendes. These events are reported on the so-called Banishment Stela (Louvre C. 256), likely made during the brief reign of Amenemnisu.[3] See also[edit] List of pharaohs References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Amenemnisu. ^ a b K.A. Kitchen, The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (c. 1100-650 BC), Warminster, 3rd ed. 1996. § 218. ^ Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames & Hudson Ltd., 1994. p. 178 ^ K.A. Kitchen, 1996, §§ 213; 218 v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amenemnisu&oldid=970298610" Categories: 11th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt 1047 BC deaths 11th century BC in Egypt 11th-century BC rulers Hidden categories: Commons category link from Wikidata AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 30 July 2020, at 13:45 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8262	----	Lycia - Wikipedia Lycia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search ancient geopolitical region of Anatolia For other uses, see Lycia (disambiguation). Lycia Lukka 𐊗𐊕𐊐𐊎𐊆𐊖 (Trm̃mis) Λυκία (Lykia) Ancient Region of Anatolia Lycian rock cut tombs of Dalyan Location Teke Peninsula, Western Taurus Range, Southern Anatolia State existed 15–14th centuries BC (as Lukka) 1250–546 BC Successive languages Luwian, Lycian, Greek Successive capitals Xanthos, Patara Achaemenid satrapy Cilicia & Lydia Roman protectorate Lycian League Roman province Lycia, then Lycia with other states Byzantine eparchy Lykia Location of Lycia. Anatolia/Asia Minor in the Greco-Roman period. The classical regions, including Lycia, and their main settlements Map of Lycia showing significant ancient cities and some major mountains and rivers. Red dots are mountain peaks, white dots are ancient cities. Lycia (Lycian: 𐊗𐊕𐊐𐊎𐊆𐊖 Trm̃mis; Greek: Λυκία, Likia; Turkish: Likya) was a geopolitical region in Anatolia in what are now the provinces of Antalya and Muğla on the southern coast of Turkey, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, and Burdur Province inland. Known to history since the records of ancient Egypt and the Hittite Empire in the Late Bronze Age, it was populated by speakers of the Luwian language group. Written records began to be inscribed in stone in the Lycian language (a later form of Luwian) after Lycia's involuntary incorporation into the Achaemenid Empire in the Iron Age. At that time (546 BC) the Luwian speakers were decimated, and Lycia received an influx of Persian speakers. Ancient sources seem to indicate that an older name of the region was Alope (Ancient Greek: Ἀλόπη, Alópē).[1] Lycia fought for the Persians in the Persian Wars, but on the defeat of the Achaemenid Empire by the Greeks, it became intermittently a free agent. After a brief membership in the Athenian Empire, it seceded and became independent (its treaty with Athens had omitted the usual non-secession clause), was under the Persians again, revolted again, was conquered by Mausolus of Caria, returned to the Persians, and finally fell under Macedonian hegemony upon the defeat of the Persians by Alexander the Great. Due to the influx of Greek speakers and the sparsity of the remaining Lycian speakers, Lycia was rapidly Hellenized under the Macedonians, and the Lycian language disappeared from inscriptions and coinage. On defeating Antiochus III the Great in 188 BC, the Roman Republic gave Lycia to Rhodes for 20 years, taking it back in 168 BC. In these latter stages of the Roman Republic, Lycia came to enjoy freedom as a Roman protectorate. The Romans validated home rule officially under the Lycian League in 168 BC. This native government was an early federation with republican principles; these later came to the attention of the framers of the United States Constitution, influencing their thoughts.[2] Despite home rule, Lycia was not a sovereign state and had not been since its defeat by the Carians. In 43 AD the Roman emperor Claudius dissolved the league, and Lycia was incorporated into the Roman Empire with provincial status. It became an eparchy of the Eastern, or Byzantine Empire, continuing to speak Greek even after being joined by communities of Turkish language speakers in the early 2nd millennium. After the fall of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century, Lycia was under the Ottoman Empire, and was inherited by the Turkish Republic on the Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. The Greek and Turkish population was exchanged when the Greece–Turkey border was negotiated in 1923. Contents 1 Geography 1.1 Physical geography 1.2 Demography 2 Features and sights of interest 3 Ancient language 4 History 4.1 Proto-history 4.2 Age of legend 4.3 Dynastic period 4.3.1 Acquisition by Cyrus the Great (circa 540 BC) 4.3.2 The Harpagid theory 4.3.3 The Lycian monarchy 4.4 Classical period 4.4.1 Ally of Athens in the Delian League (c. 470–430 BC) 4.4.2 Renewed Achaemenid control (c. 430–333 BC) 4.5 Hellenistic period (333–168 BC) 4.6 Lycian League 4.6.1 Formation 4.6.2 Composition 4.7 Roman period 4.8 Byzantine era 4.9 Turkish era 5 See also 6 References 7 Sources 7.1 Primary sources 7.2 Secondary sources 7.3 Further reading 8 External links Geography[edit] Partial reconstruction of the Nereid Monument at Xanthos in Lycia, c. 390–380 BC. The borders of Lycia varied over time, but at its centre was the Teke peninsula of southwestern Turkey, which juts southward into the Mediterranean Sea, bounded on the west by the Gulf of Fethiye, and on the east by the Gulf of Antalya. Lycia comprised what is now the westernmost portion of Antalya Province, the easternmost portion of Muğla Province, and the southernmost portion of Burdur Province. In ancient times the surrounding districts were, from west to east, Caria, Pisidia, and Pamphylia, all equally as ancient, and each speaking its own Anatolian language. The name of the Teke Peninsula comes from the former name of Antalya Province, which was Teke Province, named from the Turkish tribe that settled in the region. Physical geography[edit] Four ridges extend from northeast to southwest, roughly, forming the western extremity of the Taurus Mountains. Furthest west of the four are Boncuk Dağlari, or 'the Boncuk Mountains', extending from about Altinyayla, Burdur, southwest to about Oren north of Fethiye. This is a fairly low range peaking at about 2,340 m (7,680 ft). To the west of it the steep gorges of Dalaman Çayi ('the Dalaman River'), the ancient Indus, formed the traditional border between Caria and Lycia. The stream, 229 km (142 mi) long, enters the Mediterranean to the west of modern-day Dalaman. Upstream it is dammed in four places, after an origin in the vicinity of Sarikavak in Denizli Province. Inscribed Xanthian Obelisk (c. 400 BC), a funerary pillar for a sarcophagus that probably belonged to Dynast Kheriga.[3] The next ridge to the east is Akdağlari, 'the White Mountains', about 150 km (93 mi) long, with a high point at Uyluktepe, "Uyluk Peak," of 3,024 m (9,921 ft). This massif may have been ancient Mount Cragus. Along its western side flows Eşen Çayi, "the Esen River," anciently the Xanthos, Lycian Arñna, originating in the Boncuk Mountains, flowing south, and transecting the several-mile-long beach at Patara. The Xanthos Valley was the country called Tŗmmis in dynastic Lycia, from which the people were the Termilae or Tremilae, or Kragos in the coin inscriptions of Greek Lycia: Kr or Ksan Kr. The name of western Lycia was given by Charles Fellows to it and points of Lycia west of it. The next ridge to the east, Beydağlari, 'the Bey Mountains', peaks at Kizlarsevrisi, 3,086 m (10,125 ft), the highest point of the Teke Peninsula. It is most likely the ancient Masicytus range. Between Beydağlari and Akdağlari is an upland plateau, Elmali, where ancient Milyas was located. The elevation of the town of Elmali, which means 'Apple Town,' from the density of fruit-bearing groves in the region, is 1,100 m (3,600 ft), which is the highest part of the valley below it. Fellows considered the valley to be central Lycia. The Akçay, or 'White River', the ancient Aedesa, brought water from the slopes to the plain, where it pooled in two lakes below the town, Karagöl and Avlangöl. Currently the two lakes are dry, the waters being captured on an ongoing basis by irrigation systems for the trees. The Aedesa once drained the plain through a chasm to the east, but now flows entirely through pipelines covering the same route, but emptying into the water supplies of Arycanda and Arif. An effort has been made to restore some of the cedar forests cleared in antiquity.[4] The easternmost ridge extends along the east coast of the Teke Peninsula, and is called, generally, Tahtali Dağlari, "The Tahtali Mountains." The high point within them is Tahtali Dağ, elevation 2,366 m (7,762 ft), dubbed "Mount Olympus" in antiquity by the Greeks, remembering Mount Olympus in Greece.[5] These mountains create a rugged coastline called by Fellows eastern Lycia. Much of it has been reserved as Olimpos Beydağlari Parki. Within the park on the slopes of Mount Olympus is a U-shaped outcrop, Yanartaş, above Cirali, from which methane gas, naturally perpetually escaping from below through the rocks, feeds eternal flames. This is the location of ancient Mount Chimaera. Through the cul-de-sac between Baydağlari and Tahtalidağlari, the Alakir Çay ('Alakir River'), the ancient Limyra, flows to the south trickling from the broad valley under superhighway D400 near downtown Kumluca across a barrier beach into the Mediterranean. This configuration is entirely modern. Upstream the river is impounded behind Alakir Dam to form an urban-size reservoir. Below the reservoir a braided stream alternates with a single, small channel flowing through irrigated land. The wide bed gives an indication of the former size of the river. Upstream from the reservoir the stream lies in an unaltered gorge, flowing from the slopes of Baydağlari. The ancient route to Antalya goes up the valley and over the cul-de-sac, as the coast itself is impassible except by boat. The valley was the seat of ancient Solymus, home of the Solymi. Demography[edit] The ancient sources mention about 70 settlements of Lycia. These are situated either along the coastal strip in the protecting coves or on the slopes and hills of the mountain ranges. They are often difficult to access, which in ancient times was a defensive feature. The rugged coastline favored well-defended ports from which, in troubled times, Lycian pirate fleets sallied forth. The principal cities of ancient Lycia were Xanthos, Patara, Myra, Pinara, Tlos and Olympos (each entitled to three votes in the Lycian League) and Phaselis. Cities such as Telmessos and Krya were sometimes listed by Classical authors as Carian and sometimes as Lycian. Further information: List of Lycian place names Features and sights of interest[edit] Rock-cut Temple-like tombs Lycian rock cut tombs of Dalyan. Rock-cut tomb at Telmessus. See also: Tombs at Xanthos Although the 2nd-century BC dialogue Erōtes found the cities of Lycia "interesting more for their history than for their monuments, since they have retained none of their former splendor," many relics of the Lycians remain visible today. These relics include the distinctive rock-cut tombs in the sides of cliffs. The British Museum in London grabbed one of the best collections of Lycian artifacts. Letoon, an important center in Hellenic times of worship for the goddess Leto and her twin children, Apollo and Artemis, and nearby Xanthos, ancient capital of Lycia, constitute a UNESCO World Heritage site.[6] Turkey's first waymarked long-distance footpath, the Lycian Way, follows part of the coast of the region. The establishment of the path was a private initiative by a British/Turkish woman called Kate Clow. It is intended to support sustainable tourism in smaller mountain villages which are in the process of depopulation. Since it is mainly walked in March – June and Sept–Nov, it also has lengthened the tourism season. The Turkish Culture and Tourism Ministry promotes the Lycian coast as part of the Turkish Riviera or the Turquoise Coast, but the most important part of this is further west near Bodrum. This coast features rocky or sandy beaches at the bases of cliffs and settlements in protected coves that cater to the yachting industry. Telmessos rock tomb. The sign on site says the tombs date from about 400 BC Rock-cut tombs in Myra Ogival rock-cut tomb at Pinara, 4th century BC. Ancient Lycian tomb in Kaş. The Tomb of Amyntas in Fethiye. Ancient Greek theater at Oinoanda. Lycian tomb in Kaş. Ancient language[edit] Main articles: Luwian language and Lycian language The Lycian Payava as depicted on his tomb. The Lydian inscription runs: “Payava, son of Ad[…], secretary of A[…]rah, by race a Lycian…”. 375–360 BC.[7] The inscription on the front of the tomb of Payava. The eponymous inhabitants of Lycia, the Lycians, spoke Lycian, a member of the Luwian branch of the Anatolian languages, a subfamily of the Indo-European family. Lycian has been attested only between about 500 BC and no later than 300 BC, in a unique alphabet devised for the purpose from the Greek alphabet of Rhodes. However, the Luwian languages originated in Anatolia during the 2nd millennium BC. The country was known by the name of Lukka then, and was under Hittite rule. The gap must be a gap in the use of writing. At about 535 BC, before the first appearance of attested Lycian, the Achaemenid Empire overran Lycia. Despite its resistance, because of which the population of Xanthos was decimated, Lycia became part of the Persian Empire. The first coins with Lycian letters on them appeared not long before 500 BC.[8] Lycia prospered under a monarchy set up by the Persians. Subsequently, the Lycians were verbose in stone, carving memorial, historical and governmental inscriptions. Not all of these can yet be entirely understood, due to remaining ignorance of the language. The term "dynastic period" is used. If the government was any sort of federal democracy, there is no evidence of it, as the term "dynastic" suggests. Warrior in Lycian tomb relief at Myra, 4th century BC.[9] Drawing of the complete tomb relief, Myra. Lycia already had been hosting a small enclave of the Dorian Greeks as Doris for some centuries. Rhodes also was Dorian. After the defeat of the Persians by the Greeks, Lycia became open to further Greek settlement. Inscriptions in Lycian diminished, while those in Greek multiplied. Complete assimilation to Greek occurred in the 4th century, after Lycia had come under Alexander the Great and his fellow Macedonians.[10] There is no agreement yet on which Lycian inscription is the very last. No date is later than 300 at the very latest. Subsequently, the Lycians were defeated by the Roman Republic, which for most of its final tenure allowed home rule to the Lycians, including their own language, then Greek. Lycia continued under the single empire, and fell naturally into the eastern empire when the division occurred. It was still speaking the Greek of the times when the eastern empire became the Byzantine Empire. In the 2nd millennium Anatolia was infiltrated by Turkish speaking settlers, but they never were very numerous in Lycia. After the fall of the Byzantines in the 15th century, Lycia was under the Ottoman Empire. Turkish and Greek settlements existed side-by-side, each speaking their own language. All Greek-speaking enclaves in Anatolia were exchanged for Turkish speakers in Greece during the final settlement of the border with Greece at the beginning of the Turkish Republic in 1923. The Turks had won wars with Greece and Armenia in the preceding few years, settling the issue of whether the coast of Anatolia was going to be Greek or Turkish. The intent of the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) was to define borders that would not leave substantial populations of one country in another. Some population transfers were enforced. Former Greek villages still stand as ghost towns in Lycia. History[edit] Proto-history[edit] Lycia had a proto-history little suspected by the historians of the 19th century before the decipherment of Hittite and ancient Egyptian, and the discovery of government records pertaining to Lycia and the Lycians. The records for the most part do not offer positive reports of them. In reports of official transactions with Lycians in the late Bronze Age, the Hittite and Egyptian empires described them as rebels, pirates, and raiders. The Lycians have left no written records of themselves at all from this period, which suggests that they probably were illiterate. Ancient Egyptian records describe the Lycians as allies of the Hittites. Lycia may have been a member state of the Assuwa league of c. 1250 BC, appearing as Lukka or Luqqa. After the collapse of the Hittite Empire, Lycia emerged as an independent "Neo-Hittite" kingdom. The latter term was assigned to remnant states that continued after the fall of the Hittite Empire. It is entirely conventional; these states were not Hittite in any way. For the most part they spoke languages of the Luwian family. Age of legend[edit] Main article: Milyas Lycia coin, c. 520–470 BC. According to Herodotus, the earliest known name for the area was Milyas, and its original inhabitants, who spoke the Milyan language, were the Milyae (Μιλύαι),[11] or Milyans, also known by the exonyms Sólymoi (Σόλυμοι), Solymi, and Solymians. In Greek mythology, Solymus or Solymos was the ancestral hero and eponym of the Solymi. He was a son of either Zeus or Ares; his mother's name is variously given as Chaldene, Caldene ("daughter of Pisidus"), Calchedonia, or Chalcea "the nymph".[12][13][14][15] Meanwhile, Europa had (at least) two sons, Sarpedon and Minos, who vied for the kingship of their native land, Crete. Minos drove Sarpedon and his people, the Termilae, into exile and they settled in Milyas. Subsequently, Lycus of Athens (son of Pandion II), who was driven into exile by his brother, King Aegeus, settled in Milyas among the Termilae. The name Lycia was adopted subsequently in honor of Lycus. Herodotus ends his tale with the observation that the Lycians were matrilineal.[16] Lycia appears elsewhere in Greek myth, such as in the story of Bellerophon, who eventually succeeded to the throne of the Lycian king Iobates (or Amphianax). Lycia was frequently mentioned by Homer as an ally of Troy. In Homer's Iliad, the Lycian contingent was said to have been led by two esteemed warriors: Sarpedon (son of Zeus and Laodamia) and Glaucus (son of Hippolochus). Dynastic period[edit] Acquisition by Cyrus the Great (circa 540 BC)[edit] Charioteers on a tomb at Kizilbel near Elmali, Lycia, c. 525 BC Detail of the frescoe: Lycian warrior painted in Archaic Greek style. Herodotus writes more credibly of contemporaneous events, especially where they concerned his native land. Asia Minor had been partly conquered by Iranian peoples, first the Scythians, later the Medes. The latter were defeated by the Persians, who incorporated them and their lands into the new Persian Empire. Cyrus the Great, founder of the Achaemenid dynasty, resolved to complete the conquest of Anatolia as a prelude to operations further west, to be carried out by his successors. He assigned the task to Harpagus, a Median general, who proceeded to subdue the various states of Anatolia, one by one, some by convincing them to submit, others through military action. Arriving at the southern coast of Anatolia in 546 BC, the army of Harpagus encountered no problem with the Carians and their immediate Greek neighbors and alien populations, who submitted peacefully. In the Xanthos Valley an army of Xanthian Greeks sallied out to meet them, fighting determinedly, although vastly outnumbered. Driven into the citadel, they collected all their property, dependents and slaves into a central building, and burned them up. Then, after taking an oath not to surrender, they died to a man fighting the Persians, foreshadowing and perhaps setting an example for Spartan conduct at the Battle of Thermopylae a few generations later. Probable depiction of the Lycian ruler Kybernis (520–480 BC), Harpy Tomb. Archaic Greek style. Archaeological evidence indicates there was a major fire on the acropolis of Xanthos in the mid-6th century BC but, as Antony Keen points out, there is no way to connect that fire with the event presented by Herodotus. It might have been another fire.[17] The Caunians, says Herodotus, followed a similar example immediately after.[18] If there was an attempt by any of the states of Lycia to join forces, as happened in Greece 50 years later, there is no record of it, suggesting that no central government existed. Each country awaited its own fate alone. Herodotus also says or implies that 80 Xanthian families were away at the time, perhaps with the herd animals in alpine summer pastures (pure speculation), but helped repopulate the place. However, he reports, the Xanthians of his time were mainly descended from non-Xanthians. Looking for any nuance that might shed light on the repopulation of Xanthos, Keen interprets Herodotus' "those Lycians who now say that they are Xanthians" to mean that Xanthos was repopulated by other Lycians (and not by Iranians or other foreigners).[19] Herodotus said nothing of the remainder of Lycia; presumably, that is true because they submitted without further incident. Lycia was well populated and flourished as a Persian satrapy; moreover, they spoke mainly Lycian. The Harpagid theory[edit] The Harpagid Theory was initiated by Charles Fellows, discoverer of the Xanthian Obelisk, and person responsible for the transportation of the Xanthian Marbles from Lycia to the British Museum. Fellows could not read the Lycian inscription, except for one line identifying a person of illegible name, to whom the monument was erected, termed the son of Arppakhu in Lycian, equivalent to Greek Harpagos. Concluding that this person was the conqueror of Lycia in 546, Fellows conjectured that Harpagos had been made permanent satrap of Lycia for his services; moreover, the position was hereditary, creating a Harpagid Dynasty. This theory prevailed nearly without question for several generations. The "Harpy Tomb" of Kybernis, a solid sandstone pillar with the sarcophagus of Kybernis on top (c. 480 BC). To the inscriptions of the Xanthian Obelisk were added those of the Letoon trilingual, which gave a sequel, as it were, to the names on the obelisk. Studies of coin legends, initiated by Fellows, went on. Currently, most (but not all) of the Harpagid Theory has been rejected. The Achaemenids utilized no permanent satrapies; the political circumstances changed too often. The conqueror of new lands was seldom made their satrap; he went on to other conquests. It was not the Persian custom to grant hereditary satrapies; satrap was only a step in the cursus honorum. And finally, a destitute mountain country would have been a poor reward for Cyrus' best general.[19] The main evidence against the Harpagid Theory (as Keen calls it) is the reconstruction of the name of the Xanthian Obelisk's deceased as Lycian Kheriga, Greek Gergis (Nereid Monument), a king reigning approximately 440–410 BC, over a century later than the conqueror of Lycia. The next logical possibility is that Kheriga's father, Arppakhu, was a descendant of the conqueror. In opposition, Keen reconstructs the dynastic sequence from coin inscriptions as follows.[20] Kheriga had two grandfathers, Kuprlli and Kheriga. The younger Kheriga was the successor of Kuprlli. The latter's son, therefore, Kheziga, who was Kheriga's uncle, must have predeceased Kuprlli. Arppakhu is listed as regnant on two other inscriptions, but he did not succeed Kuprlli. He must therefore have married a daughter of Kuprlli, and have also predeceased the long-lived Kuprlli. The latter then was too old to reign de facto. On the contemporaneous deaths of both him and his son-in-law, Kheriga, named after his paternal grandfather, acquired the throne. Kuprlli was the first king recorded for certain (there was an earlier possible) in the coin legends. He reigned approximately 480–440. Harpagos was not related by blood. The conqueror, therefore, was not the founder of the line, which was not Harpagid. An Iranian family, however, producing some other Harpagids, did live in Lycia and was of sufficient rank to marry the king's daughter. As to whether the Iranian family were related to any satrap, probably not. Herodotus said that Satrapy 1 (the satrapies were numbered) consisted of Ionia, Magnesia, Aeolia, Caria, Lycia, Milya, and Pamphylia, who together paid a tax of 400 silver talents. This satrapy was later broken up and recombined.[21] Keen hypothesizes that since Caria had responsibility for the King's Highway through Lycia, Lycia and Caria were a satrapy.[22] The Lycian monarchy[edit] Lycian dignitary in Achaemenid style, at the Karaburun tomb near Elmalı, Lycia, c. 475 BC.[23] The Achaemenid Persian policy toward Lycia was hands-off.Keen 1998, p. 84 There was not even a satrap stationed in the country. The reason for this tolerance after such a determined initial resistance is that the Iranians were utilizing another method of control: the placement of aristocratic Persian families in a region to exercise putative home rule. There is some evidence that the Lycian population was not as docile as the Persian hand-off policy would suggest. A section of the Persepolis Administrative Archives called the Persepolis Fortification Tablets, regarding the redistribution of goods and services in the Persepolis palace economy, mentions some redistributed prisoners of war, among whom were the Turmirla or Turmirliya, Lycian Trm̃mili, "Lycians." They lived during the reign of Darius I (522–486), the tablets dating from 509.[24] Ogival tombs The tomb of Payava, a Lykian aristocrat, about 375–360 BC, from Xanthos, British Museum. Ogival (pointed barrel-vaulted) rock-cut tomb at Pinara, Lycia, highly reminiscent of Indian Chaitya arches.[25][26][27][28] For closer attention to their conquered, the Persian government preferred to establish a client state, setting up a monarchy under their control. The term "dynast" has come into use among English-speaking scholars, but that is not a native term. The Lycian inscriptions indicate the monarch was titled xñtawati, more phonetically khñtawati. The holders of this title can be traced in coin legends, having been given the right to coin. Lycia had a single monarch, who ruled the entire country from a palace at Xanthos. The monarchy was hereditary, hence the term "dynast." It was utilized by Persia as a means of transmitting Persian policy. It must have been they who put down local resistance and transported the prisoners to Persepolis, or ordered them transported. Some members of the dynasty were Iranian, but mainly it was native Lycian. If the survivors of 546 were in fact herdsmen (speculation), then all the Xanthian nobility had perished, and the Persians must have designated some other Lycian noble, whom they could trust.[29] The first dynast is believed to be the person mentioned in the last line of the Greek epigram inscribed on the Xanthian Obelisk, which says "this monument has brought glory to the family (genos) of ka[]ika," which has a letter missing. It is probably not *karikas, for Kherika, as the latter is translated in the Letoon trilingual as Gergis. A more likely possibility is *kasikas for Kheziga, the same as Kheriga's uncle, the successor to Kuprlli, who predeceased him.[30] Herodotus mentioned that the leader of the Lycian fleet under Xerxes in the Second Persian War of 480 BC was Kuberniskos Sika, previously interpreted as "Cyberniscus, the son of Sicas," two non-Lycian names.[31] A slight regrouping of the letters obtains kubernis kosika, "Cybernis, son of Cosicas," where Cosicas is for Kheziga.[29] Cybernis went to the bottom of the Straits of Salamis with the entire Lycian fleet in the Battle of Salamis, but he may be commemorated by the Harpy Tomb. According to this theory, Cybernis was the KUB of the first coin legends, dated to the window, 520–500.[32] The date would have been more towards 500.[33] There is a gap, however, between him and Kuprlli, who should have had a father named the same as his son, Kheziga. The name Kubernis does not appear again. Keen suggests that Darius I created the kingship on reorganizing the satrapies in 525, and that on the intestate death of Kubernis in battle, the Persians chose another relative named Kheziga, who was the father of Kuprlli. The Lycian dynasty may therefore be summarized as follows: Greek Name Lycian Name Coinage Status Date BC Pre-dynastic period (550–530 BC) Initial Achaemenid control since circa 550 BC. Kosikas Kheziga I First of the line. 525–520 Kubernis KUB Second in succession, son of the former. 520–480 Kosikas Kheziga II Third in succession, unknown relative. 480 – ? ? Kuprilli (ΚΟ𐊓, pronounced kop) Fourth in succession, son of Kheziga II. (First identifiable monarch through coin legends). ? – 440 Kosikas Kheziga III Regent, grandson of Kuprilli ? – ? Harpagus (Iranian name) Arppakhu Regent, son-in-law of Kuprilli ? – 440 Teththiweibi 450–430/20 Gergis Kheriga Fifth in succession, son of the former. 440–410 ? Kherei Sixth in succession, brother of the former. 410–390 Arbinas (Iranian name) Erbbina Seventh in succession, son of the former. The last known of the line. 390–380 Artembares (Iranian name, *Rtambura, self-identified as "the Mede.") Arttum̃para Ruler of western Lycia from Telmessos. 380 – ? Mithrapata Mithrapata Ruler of part of Lycia. 390–370 Pericles (Greek name) Perikle Ruler of eastern Lycia from Limyra, victor over Arttum̃para, rebel in the Revolt of the Satraps, last Lycian king. ? – 360 Classical period[edit] Ally of Athens in the Delian League (c. 470–430 BC)[edit] Kuprilli (480–440 BC) ruled at the time of the Athenian alliance. Head of Karneios or Zeus-Ammon and Triskeles. KO-Π-P(ΛΛ) around. Following the Achaemenid defeat in the Greco-Persian War (479 BC), the Lycians may have temporarily joined the Greek side during the counter-attacks of the Spartan Pausanias in the Eastern Mediterranean circa 478 BC.[34] However, the Lycian were still on the Persian side during the expeditions of Kimon circa 470 BC, who finally persuaded the Lycian to join the Athenian alliance, the Delian League: Diodorus relates that Kimon "persuaded those of Lycia and took them into his allegiance".[34] As the power of Athens weakened and Athens and Sparta fought the Peloponnesian wars (431–404 BC), the majority of Lycian cities defaulted from the Delian League, with the exception of Telmessos and Phaselis. In 429 BC, Athens sent an expedition against Lycia to try to force it to rejoin the League. This failed when Lycia's leader Gergis/Kheriga of Xanthos defeated Athenian General Melesander.[35][36] Renewed Achaemenid control (c. 430–333 BC)[edit] Stand-alone Temple-like tombs Illustration of the original Nereid Monument, tomb of King Arbinas. Reconstruction of the Nereid Monument, British Museum. This was a new "Greek Temple" type of tomb for Lycia, adopted circa 380 BC.[37] The Lycians once again fell under Persian domination, and by 412 BC, Lycia is documented as fighting on the winning side of Persia. The Persian satraps were re-installed, but (as the coinage of the time attests) they allowed local dynasts the freedom to rule.[38] The last known dynast of Lycia was Perikles. He ruled 380–360 BC over eastern Lycia from Limyra, at a time when Western Lycia was directly under Persian domination.[39] Pericles took an active part in the Revolt of the Satraps against Achaemenid power, but lost his territory when defeated.[39][40][41] After Perikles, Persian rule was reestablished firmly in Lycia in 366 or 362 BC. Control was taken by Mausolus, the satrap of nearby Caria, who moved the satrap's residence to Halicarnassus.[39] Lycia was also ruled directly by the Carian dynast Pixodarus, son of Hecatomnus, as shown in the Xanthos trilingual inscription. Lycia was also ruled by men such as Mithrapata (late 4th century BC), whose name was Persian. Persia held Lycia until it was conquered by Alexander III (the Great) of Macedon during 334–333 BC.[42] During the Alexander the Great period, Nearchus was appointed viceroy of Lycia and of the land adjacent to it as far as mount Taurus.[43] Dynastic portraiture on coinage See also: Coins Although many of the first coins in Antiquity illustrated the images of various gods, the first portraiture of actual rulers appears with the coinage of Lycia in the late 5th century BC.[44][45] No ruler had dared to illustrate his own portrait on coinage until that time.[45] The Achaemenids had been the first to illustrate the person of their king or a hero in a stereotypical undifferentiated manner, showing a bust or the full body, but never an actual portrait, on their Sigloi and Daric coinage from circa 500 BC.[45][46][47] From the time of Alexander the Great, portraiture of the issuing ruler would then become a standard, generalized, feature of coinage.[45] Coin of the dynast of Lycia, Kherei, with Athena on the obverse, and himself wearing the Persian cap on the reverse. 410–390 BC. Dynast Arbinas, in Persian dress, receiving emissaries. Scene from the upper podium frieze of the Nereid Monument, c. 380 BC. Portrait of Lycian ruler Mithrapata (ruled 390–370 BC). Coin of Perikles, last king of Lycia. Circa 380–360 BC. "Lycian sarcophagus of Sidon", Sidon, end of 5th century BC. Hellenistic period (333–168 BC)[edit] Ptolemaion in Lymira Ptolemaion in Limyra, c. 270 BC. Ptolemaion sculpture of a lady. After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, his generals fought amongst themselves over the succession. Lycia fell into the hands of the general Antigonus by 304 BC. In 301 BC Antigonus was killed by an alliance of the other successors of Alexander, and Lycia became a part of the kingdom of Lysimachus, who ruled until he was killed in battle in 281 BC.[48] Control then passed to the Ptolemaic Kingdom, centre on Egypt. Ptolemy II Philadelphos (ruled 285–246 BC), who supported the Limyrans of Lycia when they were threatened by the Galatians (a Celtic tribe that had invaded Asia Minor). The citizens of Limyra in return dedicated a monument to Ptolemy, called the Ptolemaion circa 270 BC.[49] By 240 BC Lycia was firmly part of the Ptolemaic Kingdom, centred on Egypt,[50] and remained in their control through 200 BC.[51] It had apparently come under Seleucid control by 190 BC, when the Seleucids' defeat in the Battle of Magnesia resulted in Lycia being awarded to Rhodes in the Peace of Apamea in 188 BC. It was then granted autonomy as a protectorate of Rome in 168 BC and remained so until becoming a Roman province in 43 AD under Claudius.[52] Lycian League[edit] LYCIAN LEAGUE τὸ Λυκιακοῦ σύστημα City Votes Xanthos 3 Patara 3 Myra 3 Pinara 3 Tlos 3 Olympos 3 Sympolity of Aperlae, Simena, Isinda, Apollonia 1 Amelas ? Antiphellus ? Arycanda ? Balbura ? Bubon ? Cyaneae ? Dias ? Gagae ? Idebessos ? Limyra ? Oenoanda ? Phaselis ? Phellus ? Podalia ? Rhodiapolis ? Sidyma ? Telmessus ? Trebenna ? Formation[edit] The Lycian League (Lykiakon systema in Strabo's Greek transliterated, a "standing together") is first known from two inscriptions of the early 2nd century BC in which it honors two citizens.[53] Bryce hypothesizes that it was formed as an agent to convince Rome to rescind the annexation of Lycia to Rhodes. It is not known for certain whether it was formed before or after Lycia was removed from Rhodian control. According to Livy, the consul Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus put Lycia under Rhodian control in 190 BC. He wrote that a Lycian embassy complained about the cruel tyranny of the Rhodians and that when they were under king Antiochus III the Great they had been in liberty in comparison. It was slavery, rather that just political oppression: "they, their wives and children were the victims of violence; their oppressors vented their rage on their persons and their backs, their good name was besmirched and dishonoured, their condition rendered detestable in order that their tyrants might openly assert a legal right over them and reduce them to the status of slaves bought with money.. the senate gave them a letter to and to the Rhodians that ...it was not the pleasure of the senate that either the Lycians or any other men born free should be handed over as slaves to the Rhodians or any one else. The Lycians possessed the same rights under the suzerainty and protection of Rhodes that friendly states possessed under the suzerainty of Rome."[54] Polybius wrote that the Romans sent envoys to Rhodes to say that "the Lycians had not been handed over to Rhodes as a gift, but to be treated like friends and allies."[55] The Rhodians claimed that king Eumenes of Pergamon had stirred up the Lycians against them.[56] In 169 BC, during the Third Macedonian War, the relationship between Rome and Rhodes became strained and the Roman senate issued a decree which gave the Carians and the Lycians their freedom.[57] Polybius recorded a decree “freeing” the Carians and Lycians in 168–7 BC.[58] Strabo wrote that there were twenty-three cities which came together for a general assembly and had a share in its votes "after choosing whatever city they approve of". The last statement is unclear. The largest cities had three votes, the medium-sized ones two, and the rest one. He noted that the League did not have freedom over matters of war and peace: "Formerly they deliberated about war and peace, and alliances, but this is not now permitted, as these things are under the control of the Romans. It is only done by their consent, or when it may be for their own advantage." However, they had the freedom to choose a Lyciarch as the head of the league and to designate general courts. He also noted "since they lived under such a good government, they remained ever free under the Romans, thus retaining their ancestral usages [i.e ancestral laws and customs]."[59] Composition[edit] Strabo wrote that according to a source the six largest were Xanthos, Patara, Pinara, Olympos, Myra, and Tlos. Tlos was near the pass that leads over into Cibyra.[59] The names of the other cities has been identified by a study of the coins and mention in other texts.[60] The coins recognize two districts, termed, for want of a better term, "monetary districts:" Masicytus and Cragus, both named after mountain ranges, in the shadow of which, presumably, the communities lived and conducted business.[61] Where coinage before the Lycian League had often been stamped LY for Lycia, it was now stamped KP (kr) or MA. In 81 BC Lucius Licinius Murena, the Roman commander who fought the Second Mithridatic War (83–81 BC) in Anatolia deposed Moagetes, a tyrant of the tetrapolis (four towns) in the Cibyratis (northern Lycia). It had been formed by the city of Cibyra Megale, (Greater Cibyra, as opposed to Cibyra Mikra, Little Cibyra, of the coast, not too far from modern Side). It was in the Cibyratis region, in today's Turkish Lake Region. According to Strabo, Cibyra had two votes, while the other three cities had one and the tetrarchy was ruled by a benign tyrant. When Murena ended the tyranny he included the cities of Balbura and Bubon within the territory of the Lycians.[62][63] In 181 BC, at the end of the Roman-Seleucid War, the consul Gnaeus Manlius Vulso decided to fight the Galatian War (189 BC) against the Galatians. He was supported by Attalus II, the king of Pergamon. The two leaders marched inland and reached Phambylia levying soldiers from local rulers. They then got to the territory of Cibrya, ruled by another tyrant called Moagetes. When Roman envoys went to the city he begged them not to ravage his lands as he was a friend of Rome and promised a paltry sum of money, fifteen talents. Moagetes sent his envoys to Manlius' camp. Polybius had Manlius say that he was the worst enemy of Rome and that he deserved punishment rather than friendship. Moagetes and his friends went to meet Manlius dressed in humble clothing, bewailing the weakness of his town and begging to accept the fifteen talents. Manlius was 'amazed at his impudence' and said that if he did not pay 500 talents, he would lay his lands to waste and sack the city. Moagetes successfully persuaded him to reduce the sum to 100 talents and promised an amount of grain, and Manlius moved on. Polybius described Moagetes as "cruel and treacherous man and worthy of more than a passing notice."[64] Silver Drachm of Trajan from Lycia, 98–99 AD, minted during Roman rule. Roman period[edit] When Rome got involved in the eastern Mediterranean the Lycians allied with Rome. An inscription found in Tyberissos provides the first record of such an alliance treaty (foedus). The dating is uncertain. It precedes the treaty of 46 BC (see below) and could go back to the second or first century BC. The context in which this treaty was made in unknown. It could have been concluded during the expansionist moves by Antiochus III the Great, the Seleucid king, in Anatolia prior to the Roman-Seleucid War (192–188 BC), or during or after this war. Alternatively, it could have been concluded in the context of the Mithridatic Wars in Anatolia in the first century BC. The preamble stated: "There will be peace and loyal alliance between the People of the Romans and the cities of Lycia and the assembly of the Lycians by land and sea for all time.” There were four clauses which stipulated that: 1) the Lycian League was not to allow enemies of Rome to cross all territory over which they had authority so that they could bring war on Rome or her subjects and was not to give them aid; 2) Rome was not to allow enemies of the Lycians to pass through territory they controlled or had authority over so that they might bring war on the Lycian League or the people subject to them and was not to give them aid; 3) if anyone started a war against the Lycian people first, Rome was to come to her aid as soon as possible and if anyone started a war against Rome, the Lycian league was to aid Rome as soon as possible provided that this was allowed to Rome and the Lycian League in accordance with the agreements and oath; 4) Additions and subtractions to the agreements were possible if each side agreed though a joint decision.[65] The Roman theater in Pinara. Roman baths in Olympos. The Roman Bridge near Limyra in Lycia, one of the oldest segmental arch bridges in the world. An inscription found on a statue-base found in Thespiae attests that in 46 BC Julius Caesar signed a treaty with the Lycian league. It had nine articles. The first article stipulated "Friendship, alliance and peace both by land and sea in perpetuity "Let the Lycians observe the power and preeminence of the Romans as is proper in all circumstances." The other articles stipulated: 2) Neutrality of each party to the other's enemy; 3) mutual help in case of an attack on either party; 4) anyone charged with import or export of contraband goods was to be charged by the highest official of the two parties; 5) Romans accused of a capital crime in Lycia were to be judged in Rome by her own laws and Licyans accused of these crimes were to be judged in Lycia by her own laws; 6) Romans in a dispute with Lycians were to be judged in Lycia according to her own laws, if Lycians were brought to court by Romans the case was to be heard by whatever official the disputants chose for the case to be dealt with justly; 7) No person was to be taken as a surety, Roman and Lycian war prisoners were to be returned to their own countries, captured horses, slaves or ships were to be restored; 8) named cities, ports and territories which were restored to the Lycians were to belong to them; 9) both parties agreed to abide by the terms of this oath and the treaty. Details could be amended if both parties agreed.[66] In 43 AD the emperor Claudius annexed Lycia. Cassius Dio wrote that Claudius ‘reduced the Lycians to servitude because they had revolted and slain some Romans and he incorporated them in the prefecture of Pamphylia." He also provided some details of the investigation of this affair conducted in the senate.[67] Suetonius wrote that Claudius "deprived the Lycians of their independence because of deadly intestine feuds."[68] In an inscription found at Perge which has been dated to late 45/early 46 BC the Lycians, who described themselves as 'faithful allies’, praised Claudius for freeing them from disturbances, lawlessness and brigandage and for the restoration of the ancestral laws. It makes a reference to the transfer of power from the multitude to the councillors, selected from among the best. Therefore, it seems that there might have been a revolutionary popular uprising which could have overturned the established order. The annexation of Lycia seems to fit the common reason for annexing Roman client states or allies in this period: the loss on stability due to internal strife or, in some cases, the weakening or end of a ruling dynasty. The restoration of ancestral law was probably linked to the Roman practice of respecting and guaranteeing the ancestral laws, customs and privileges of city-states or leagues of city-states it made alliance agreements with in the eastern Mediterranean. Lycia was annexed, but the Lycian League was retained as so were self-governance regarding most local matters according to local traditional laws and the League's authority over local courts. The treaty concluded by Caesar in 46 BC had already established a framework for the distinction of judicial areas under the competence of the Lycian League and those under the Roman praetor peregrino (chief justice for foreigners) and could be used to define the assignment of legal areas between the Roman provincial governor and the League. The Romans re-established stability in Lycia and retained friendly relations with the Lycians and Lycian rights to their traditional laws, customs and privileges.[69] In 74 AD the emperor Vespasian joined the Roman provinces of Lycia and Pamphylia into the province of Lycia et Pamphylia.[70][71] Cassius Dio's statement that Claudius incorporated Lycia into Phampylia (which he had as governed by a prefect, rather than a propraetor, see above) is refuted by the existence of legati Augusti pro praetore Lyciae (imperial provincial governors of Lycia with propraetorial rank). The adoptive son and heir of Augustus, Gaius Caesar, died in Lycia in 4 AD after being wounded during a campaign in Artagira, Armenia.[72] Byzantine era[edit] Main article: Cibyrrhaeot Theme During the Byzantine period Lycia and Pamphylia came under the command of the Karabisianoi (the mainstay of the Byzantine navy from the mid-7th century until the early 8th century). After the Karabisianoi were disbanded (between c. 719/720 and c. 727) they became the Theme of the Cibyrrhaeots. Turkish era[edit] Abandoned Greek city of Kayaköy Lycia, from Travels in Lycia, Milyas, and the Cibyratis, in company with the late Rev. E. T. Daniell (1842) Lycia was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire and eventually became part of Turkey. After World War One, Lycia was assigned to the kingdom of Italy according to the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres and occupied for a few years, but in 1923 was assigned to Turkey.[73] A substantial Christian community of Greeks lived in Lycia until the 1920s, when they were forced to migrate to Greece after the population exchange between Greece and Turkey following the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922).[74] The abandoned Greek villages in the region are a striking reminder of this exodus. Abandoned Greek houses can still be seen in the region, and Kaya is a Greek ghost town.[74] A small population of Turkish farmers moved into the region when the Lycian Greeks migrated.[74] The region is now one of the key centres of domestic and foreign tourism in Turkey. See also[edit] Ancient regions of Anatolia Lycian script Saint Gerasimus of the Jordan, 5th-century Christian saint born in Lycia Saint Nicholas, Christian saint said to have been born in Patara, Lycia References[edit] ^ Johannes Toepffer: Alope 5.(in German) In: Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (RE). Volume I,2, Stuttgart 1894, col. 1595 f. ^ Bernstein, Richard (19 September 2005). "A Congress, Buried in Turkey's Sand". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 5 September 2012. ^ Keen 1998, p. 130. ^ Harrison, Martin; Young, Wendy (2001). Mountain and plain: from the Lycian coast to the Phrygian plateau in the late Roman and early Byzantine period. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. pp. 48–50. ^ "Tahtali Dagi (2366 m.)". Antalya Website. antalyaonline.net. 1996–2011. Archived from the original on 25 August 2012. Retrieved 21 March 2012. ^ "Xanthos-Letoon". World Heritage – The List. UNESCO. Retrieved 13 October 2010. ^ The Payava Tomb. ^ Keen 1998, p. 11. ^ Fant, Clyde E.; Reddish, Mitchell G. (2003). A Guide to Biblical Sites in Greece and Turkey. Oxford University Press. p. 485. ISBN 9780199881451. ^ Keen 1998, p. 49. ^ Herod. vii. 77 ; Strab. xiv. p. 667; Plin. v. 25, 42. ^ Stephanus of Byzantium, s. v. Pisidia ^ Etymologicum Magnum, 721. 43, under Solymoi ^ Antimachus in scholia on Homer, Odyssey, 5. 283 ^ Clement of Rome in Rufinus of Aquileia, Recognitiones, 10. 21 ^ Herodotus, The Histories, 1.173. ^ Keen 1998, p. 73. ^ Histories, Book I, Section 176. ^ a b Keen 1998, p. 76. ^ Keen 1998, pp. 78, 116–117. ^ Herodotus, The Histories, 3.90 ^ Keen 1998, p. 84. ^ André-Salvini, Béatrice (2005). Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia. University of California Press. p. 46. ISBN 9780520247314. ^ Keen 1998, p. 86. ^ Ching, Francis D.K; Jarzombek, Mark M.; Prakash, Vikramaditya (2017). A Global History of Architecture. John Wiley & Sons. p. 707. ISBN 9781118981603. ^ Coomaraswamy, Ananda K. (1972). History of Indian and Indonesian art. p. 12. ^ Bombay, Asiatic Society of (1974). Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bombay. Asiatic Society of Bombay. p. 61. ^ Joveau-Dubreuil, Gabriel (1976). Vedic antiquites. Akshara. p. 4. The Lydian tombs at Pinara and Xanthos, on the south-coast of Asia Minor, were excavated like the early Indian rock-hewn chaitya-hall. ^ a b Keen 1998, p. 87. ^ Keen 1998, p. 81. ^ Herodotus, The Histories, 7.98. ^ Keen 1998, p. 89. ^ Hill 1897, p. xxvi. – Coin Series I of the British Museum, bearing the KUB, is dated by Hill to the window 520–480, somewhat less precisely than the 520–500. ^ a b Keen 1998, p. 97– ^ The History of the Peloponnesian War: Translated from the Greek of Thucydides. To which are Annexed, Three Preliminary Discourses. I. On the Life of Thucydides. II. On His Qualifications as a Historian. III. A Survey of the History. Edward Earle T.H. Palmer, printer. 1818. p. 173. ^ Tuplin, Christopher (2007). Persian Responses: Political and Cultural Interaction with(in) the Achaemenid Empire. ISD LLC. p. 150. ISBN 9781910589465. ^ Mortensen, Eva; Poulsen, Birte (2017). Cityscapes and Monuments of Western Asia Minor: Memories and Identities. Oxbow Books. p. 273. ISBN 9781785708398. ^ "Lycian Dynasts". www.AsiaMinorCoins.com. ^ a b c Houwink ten Cate, Philo Hendrik Jan (1961). The Luwian Population Groups of Lycia and Cilicia Aspera During the Hellenistic Period. Brill Archive. pp. 12–13. ^ Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. p. 673. ISBN 9781575061207. ^ Bryce, Trevor (2009). The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia: The Near East from the Early Bronze Age to the fall of the Persian Empire. Routledge. p. 419. ISBN 9781134159079. ^ Haywood, John; et al. (2002). Historical Atlas of the Classical World: 500 BC – AD 600. New York: Barnes & Noble Books. Plate 2.09. ^ Arrian, Anabasis of Alexander, 3.6 ^ Carradice, Ian (1978). Ancient Greek Portrait Coins. British Museum Publications. p. 2. ISBN 9780714108490. The earliest attempts at portraiture appear to have taken place in Lycia. The heads of various dynasts appear on coins of the fifth century. ^ a b c d West, Shearer; Birmingham, Shearer (2004). Portraiture. OUP Oxford. p. 68. ISBN 9780192842589. ^ Root, Margaret Cool (1989). The Persian archer at Persepolis : aspects of chronology, style and symbolism. pp. 43–50. ^ "Half-figure of the King: unravelling the mysteries of the earliest Sigloi of Darius I" (PDF). The Celator. 26 (2): 20. February 2012. ^ Haywood 2002, p. [page needed]. ^ Waelkens, Marc; Loots, Lieven (2000). Sagalassos Five. Leuven University Press. p. 497. ISBN 9789058670793. ^ Barraclough, Geoffrey, ed. (2003). Collins Atlas of World History. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Borders Press. p. 77. ^ Black, Jeremy, ed. (2000). World History Atlas. London: Dorling Kindersley. p. 179. ^ Barraclough 2003, p. [page needed]. ^ Bryce & Zahle 1986, p. 102. ^ Livy, The History of Rome, 41.6.8–12 ^ Polybius, The Histories, 25.3 ^ Livy, The History of Rome, 42.14.8 ^ Livy, The History of Rome, 44.15.1 ^ Polybius, The Histories, 30.5.12 ^ a b Strabo, Geographia, 14.3.3 ^ "Lycian League cities and coins". www.AsiaMinorCoins.com. ^ Hill 1897, p. xxii. ^ Strabo Geographia, 13.4.17 ^ Hill 1897, p. xxiii. ^ Polybius, The histories, 21.34 ^ Derow, Peter; Christopher John Smith; Liv Mariah Yarrow (2012). Imperialism, cultural politics, and polybius. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 136. ^ "Roman-Lycian Friendship and Reciprocal Military Alliance 46 AD". Lycian Turkey - Discover the Beauty of Ancient Lycia. – Note that the given date is mistaken. It should be 46 BC instead of 46 AD ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 60.17.3–4 ^ Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars; The Life of Claudius, 23.3 ^ Kantor, Georgy (2006). Ancestral laws under the Roman rule: The case of Lycia (PhD). Balliol College, University of Oxford. ^ Şahin, S. and M. Adak, Stadiasmus Patarensis. Itinera Romana Provinciae Lyciae. İstanbul 2007; F. Onur, Two Procuratorian Inscriptions from Perge, Gephyra 5 (2008), 53–66. ^ Syme R., Pamphylia from Augustus to Vespasian, ibid., XXX, 1937, pp. 227–231 ^ Mommsen, Theodore, A History of Rome Under the Emperors, p. 107 ^ Treaty of Sevres ^ a b c Darke, Diana (1986). Guide to Aegean and Mediterranean Turkey. M. Haag. p. 160. ISBN 9780902743342. The Lycians were essentially Greeks so they were moved to Greece, leaving a small population of Turkish farmers to move in behind them. The Greek ghost town of Kaya in the hills behind Fethiye is the most dramatic reminder of this exodus, but derelict Greek houses can also be seen at Kalkan, Kas and Demre. Sources[edit] Primary sources[edit] “Poem on the Battle of Kadesh” 305–313, Ramesses II “Great Karnak Inscription” 572–592, Merneptah Breasted, J. H. 1906. Ancient Records of Egypt. Vol. III. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. “Plague Prayers of Mursilis” A1–11, b, Mursilis Pritchard, J. B. 1969. Ancient Near Eastern Texts. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Secondary sources[edit] Bryce, T.; Zahle, J. (1986). The Lycians. 1. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. – Covers the Lycians and where they lived, their history, language, culture, cults, and their language. Hill, George Francis (1897). "Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Lycia, Pamphylia, and Pisidia". A Catalogue of the Greek Coins in the British Museum. London: Trustees of the British Museum. – A presentation of the history of Lycia during the time of its minting coins, and the coins. Keen, Antony G. (1998) [1992]. Dynastic Lycia: A Political History of the Lycians & Their Relations with Foreign Powers, c. 545 – 362 BC. Mnemosyne: bibliotheca classica Batavia. Supplementum. Leiden; Boston; Köln: Brill. ISBN 9004109560. Further reading[edit] Barnett, R. D. (1975). "The Sea Peoples". In J. B. Bury; S. A. Cook; F. E. Adcock (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History. II, part 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Pressbarne. pp. 362–366. – Refers to many different sea peoples and their contact with Egypt and Anatolia. Also tells about the Philistines during the reign of Ramesses III. Bryce, T. (1993). "Lukka Revisited". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 51 (2): 121–130. doi:10.1086/373535. S2CID 222441745. – Discusses Lukka's relations to other regions (like Miletus) and where they inhabited. Drews, R. (1995). The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe ca. 1200 B.C. Princeton: Princeton University Press. – A description of the Egyptian evidence on the Sea Peoples. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lycia. Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Lycia. Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Lycia. Satyurek, Patty; Satyurek, Kemal. "Lycian Turkey". lycianturkey.com. Archived from the original on 4 February 2012. Retrieved 14 February 2012. Walker, Christopher; Anderson, Thorne (Photographer) (September–October 2007). "Splendid Ruins for an 'Excellent Republic'". Saudi Aramco World. Foss, Pedar W. "Lycia". Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces (ERP). Archived from the original on 26 February 2012. "Virtual Tours / Myra, Mahmutlar, Lara (Turkey)". EDS Systems. Fullscreen panoramas of the rock-cut tombs of the ancient Lycian necropolis at Myra "Virtual Tour—Demre. Myra (Lycia)". Alexander Peskov Photography. 2011. Clow, Kate. "Lycian Way guidebook". Retrieved 3 May 2017. Map of the Roman state according to the Compilation notitia dignitatum Coordinates: 36°44′N 29°54′E / 36.733°N 29.900°E / 36.733; 29.900 v t e Historical regions of Anatolia Aeolis Bithynia Cappadocia Caria Cilicia Doris Galatia Ionia Isauria Lycaonia Lycia Lydia Mysia Pamphylia Paphlagonia Phrygia Pisidia Pontus Troad v t e History of Anatolia v t e Provinces of the early Roman Empire (117 AD) Achaea Aegyptus Africa proconsularis Alpes Cottiae Alpes Maritimae Alpes Graiae et Poeninae Arabia Petraea Armenia Asia Assyria Bithynia and Pontus Britannia Cappadocia Cilicia Corsica and Sardinia Crete and Cyrenaica Cyprus Dacia Dalmatia Epirus Galatia Gallia Aquitania Gallia Belgica Gallia Lugdunensis Gallia Narbonensis Germania Inferior Germania Superior Hispania Baetica Hispania Lusitania Hispania Tarraconensis Italia † Iudaea Lycia et Pamphylia Macedonia Mauretania Caesariensis Mauretania Tingitana Mesopotamia Moesia Inferior Moesia Superior Noricum Pannonia Inferior Pannonia Superior Raetia Sicilia Syria Thracia † Italy was never constituted as a province, instead retaining a special juridical status until Diocletian's reforms. v t e Late Roman and Byzantine provinces (4th–7th centuries AD) History As found in the Notitia Dignitatum. Provincial administration reformed and dioceses established by Diocletian, c. 293. Permanent praetorian prefectures established after the death of Constantine I. Empire permanently partitioned after 395. Exarchates of Ravenna and Africa established after 584. After massive territorial losses in the 7th century, the remaining provinces were superseded by the theme system in c. 640–660, although in Asia Minor and parts of Greece they survived under the themes until the early 9th century. Western Roman Empire (395–476) Praetorian Prefecture of Gaul Diocese of Gaul Alpes Poeninae et Graiae Belgica I Belgica II Germania I Germania II Lugdunensis I Lugdunensis II Lugdunensis III Lugdunensis IV Maxima Sequanorum Diocese of Vienne1 Alpes Maritimae Aquitanica I Aquitanica II Narbonensis I Narbonensis II Novempopulania Viennensis Diocese of Spain Baetica Balearica Carthaginensis Gallaecia Lusitania Mauretania Tingitana Tarraconensis Diocese of the Britains Britannia I Britannia II Flavia Caesariensis Maxima Caesariensis Valentia (?) Praetorian Prefecture of Italy Diocese of Suburbicarian Italy Apulia et Calabria Campania Corsica Lucania et Bruttii Picenum Suburbicarium Samnium Sardinia Sicilia Tuscia et Umbria Valeria Diocese of Annonarian Italy Alpes Cottiae Flaminia et Picenum Annonarium Liguria et Aemilia Raetia I Raetia II Venetia et Histria Diocese of Africa2 Africa proconsularis (Zeugitana) Byzacena Mauretania Caesariensis Mauretania Sitifensis Numidia (divided as Cirtensis and Militiana during the Tetrarchy) Tripolitania Eastern Roman/Byzantine Empire (395–c. 640) Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum Diocese of Pannonia3 Dalmatia Noricum mediterraneum Noricum ripense Pannonia I Pannonia II Savia Valeria ripensis Diocese of Dacia Dacia Mediterranea Dacia Ripensis Dardania Moesia I Praevalitana Diocese of Macedonia Achaea Creta Epirus Nova Epirus Vetus Macedonia Prima Macedonia II Salutaris Thessalia Praetorian Prefecture of the East Diocese of Thrace5 Europa Haemimontus Moesia II4 Rhodope Scythia4 Thracia Diocese of Asia5 Asia Caria4 Hellespontus Islands4 Lycaonia (370) Lycia Lydia Pamphylia Pisidia Phrygia Pacatiana Phrygia Salutaris Diocese of Pontus5 Armenia I5 Armenia II5 Armenia Maior5 Armenian Satrapies5 Armenia III (536) Armenia IV (536) Bithynia Cappadocia I5 Cappadocia II5 Galatia I5 Galatia II Salutaris5 Helenopontus5 Honorias5 Paphlagonia5 Pontus Polemoniacus5 Diocese of the East5 Arabia Cilicia I Cilicia II Cyprus4 Euphratensis Isauria Mesopotamia Osroene Palaestina I Palaestina II Palaestina III Salutaris Phoenice I Phoenice II Libanensis Syria I Syria II Salutaris Theodorias (528) Diocese of Egypt5 Aegyptus I Aegyptus II Arcadia Augustamnica I Augustamnica II Libya Superior Libya Inferior Thebais Superior Thebais Inferior Other territories Taurica Quaestura exercitus (536) Spania (552) 1 Later the Septem Provinciae 2 Re-established after reconquest by the Eastern Empire in 534 as the separate Prefecture of Africa 3 Later the Diocese of Illyricum 4 Placed under the Quaestura exercitus in 536 5 Affected (i.e. boundaries modified, abolished or renamed) by Justinian I's administrative reorganization in 534–536 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lycia&oldid=1000786646" Categories: Lycia Ancient Greek geography Late Roman provinces Buildings and structures in Antalya Province Historical regions of Anatolia Muğla Province Rock-cut tombs Praetorian prefecture of the East Geography of Antalya Province Tourist attractions in Antalya Province States and territories established in the 15th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 14th century BC States and territories established in the 13th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 6th century BC Lycia et Pamphylia Hidden categories: Articles with German-language sources (de) Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from January 2021 Pages using the EasyTimeline extension Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from April 2019 Articles containing Lycian-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Greek-language text Articles containing Turkish-language text Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images CS1: long volume value Commons category link from Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikivoyage Languages Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Jawa Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 16 January 2021, at 18:32 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8280	----	Hydarnes II - Wikipedia Hydarnes II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Persian military commander Hydarnes II Born 5th century BC Died unknown Allegiance Achaemenid Empire Rank Satrap, commander during the Second Persian invasion of Greece Battles/wars Battle of Thermopylae Hydarnes II (Greek: Ὑδάρνης, from Old Persian Vidaṛna) was a Persian commander of the Achaemenid Empire in the 5th century BC. He was the son of Hydarnes I, satrap of the Persian empire and one of the seven conspirators against Gaumata. During the reign of Xerxes I, Hydarnes was one of the commanders for the Second Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BC. He was appointed as the leader of the 10,000-man contingent of "Immortals", while his brother Sisamnes commanded the levy of the Aryans.[1] On the first day of the Battle of Thermopylae, Hydarnes led the Immortals against the phalanx of Spartans under Leonidas I, but an attempt to break through failed.[2] On the second day, a local resident named Ephialtes betrayed the Greeks by telling the Persians about a hidden goat path around Thermopylae. This enabled Hydarnes and his Immortals to pass behind the Spartans, Thespians and Thebans and, as a result, defeat them.[3] After the Persians were defeated at the Battle of Salamis, Xerxes I decided to return to Asia leaving a large army under Mardonius which wintered in Thessaly. Hydarnes wanted to stay at the side of the king and go back with him to Asia. So Xerxes tasked Hydarnes with the responsibility of getting the Persian army back over the Hellespont to Asia.[4] [5] After this, nothing further is reported about Hydarnes. An epitaph was found on Armavir walls related to Hidarnes II choosing his wife. She must have perfect looks, slim body, white skin, beautiful neck, delicate nose, straight teeth. Hidarnes II had all these features and was trying to preserve the nobility of the dynasty.[6] References[edit] John R. Grant: Leonidas' Last Stand. in: Phoenix. Vol. 15 (1961), S. 14–27. Nicholas G. L. Hammond: Sparta at Thermopylae. in: Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. Bd. 45 (1996), S. 1–20. Notes[edit] ^ Herodotus:Histories VII, 66 and 83 ^ Herodotus: Histories. VII, 211 ^ Herodotus: Histories. VII, 215 and 218. ^ Herodotus: Histories. VIII, 113. ^ Herodotus: Histories. VIII, 118 ^ Khachatryan, Hayk (2006). 141 Kings of the Armenians. Erevan: Amaras. ISBN 978-99930-1-192-7 en:Hydarnes II v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC This Ancient Near East biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e    This Iranian history-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydarnes_II&oldid=1002460951" Categories: 5th-century BC Iranian people Achaemenid satraps of Media Persian people of the Greco-Persian Wars Battle of Thermopylae Ancient Near East people stubs Iranian history stubs Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages تۆرکجه Català Deutsch Español فارسی Français Հայերեն Hrvatski Italiano ქართული 日本語 Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 15:55 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8284	----	Hat Hor - Wikipedia Hat Hor From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Hat-Hor) Jump to navigation Jump to search There do not appear to be enough references currently present in this article to demonstrate notability. However, an editor has performed a search and claims that there are sufficient sources to indicate that this is a notable topic. You can help to improve the article by adding citations to reliable sources. Ideas for references may also be found on the Talk page. (May 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This article is missing information about various aspects- please use content (especially references) from [1], [2] to expand the article.. Please expand the article to include this information. Further details may exist on the talk page. (May 2020) Not to be confused with Hathor. Hat Hor Hat-Hor Serekh of Hat Hor Pharaoh Reign 33rd century B.C. (Predynastic Period) Predecessor Ny-Hor Successor Iry-Hor? Royal titulary Hat Hor, also called Hat-Hor (actually Hor-hat), is a possible pharaoh or king of Dynasty 0 (Predynastic Period), who ruled circa 3250 BC.[1] He is known only from two inscriptions: one inscription found in the eastern Nile Delta and a piece of pottery from Tura.[2] his name on a vase found in tomb 1702 of the necropolis of Tarkhan.[3] This inscription has an image of a city that looks like Memphis but lacking a hawk identifier. However, the reading and interpretation of his name is not clear.[4] a second inscription from Tura.[5] See also[edit] List of pharaohs References[edit] ^ THE DYNASTY 0. ^ "Ancient Egypt - Dynasty 0". www.narmer.pl. Retrieved 2019-10-06. ^ W. M. Flinders Petrie: Tarkhan II (= Publications of the Egyptian Research Account and the British School of Archaeology in Egypt. 19th year 1913, Vol. 25, ZDB-ID 991516-3). School of Archaeology in Egypt u. a., London 1914, Taf. XXV, pl. XX, 1; XXX (74b) ^ Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt. 1999, S. 54. ^ Natale Barca, Prima delle piramidi, Ananke, ISBN 978-88-7325-359-4 page 295. This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hat_Hor&oldid=993416074" Categories: 33rd-century BC Pharaohs 33rd-century BC rulers People whose existence is disputed Predynastic Egypt Predynastic pharaohs Ancient Egypt people stubs Hidden categories: Articles to be expanded from May 2020 Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Español Euskara Français Italiano Lëtzebuergesch Magyar مصرى Occitan Polski Português Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 10 December 2020, at 14:27 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8292	----	Perserschutt - Wikipedia Perserschutt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Perserschutt photographed in 1866, just after excavation. The famous Kritios Boy appears on the right. The Perserschutt, a German term meaning "Persian debris" or "Persian rubble", refers to the bulk of architectural and votive sculptures that were damaged by the invading Persian army of Xerxes I on the Acropolis of Athens in 480 BC, in the Destruction of Athens during the Second Persian invasion of Greece. Contents 1 History 2 Remains from the Perserschutt 3 References 4 See also History[edit] Acropolis excavation pit where some remains of Archaic statues were found, northwest of the Erechtheum. The Athenians had fled the city, returning only upon the departure of the Persians. The city had been sacked and burned and most of the temples had been looted, vandalized, or razed. The desecrated items were buried ceremoniously by the Athenians. Later, the citizens of Athens cleared the top of their acropolis, rebuilt their temples, and created new works of sculpture to be dedicated for the new temples. The remains were preserved by the respectful action and sculptures from the burial were first excavated in 1863–66 by the French archaeologist Charles Ernest Beulé. The remainder was discovered in 1885–1890 by archaeologist Panagiotis Kavvadias and architects Wilhelm Dörpfeld and Georg Kawerau. They include such celebrated sculptures as the Kritios Boy, the Calf Bearer, and the Angelitos Athena (photograph, right). Details of the excavations were published in 1906 (see references: Kavvadias, P., Kawerau, G.). Remains from the Perserschutt[edit] The Kritios Boy was recovered, decapitated, in the Perserschutt. The Antenor Kore, recovered from the Perserschutt. Part of the damaged Hekatompedon pediment. The damaged Moscophoros. The Peplos Kore. The Rampin Rider. Remains of the Euthydikos Kore. The Euthydikos Kore (detail) Perserschutt archaic sculpture of woman Chariot and hoplites, built into the Themistoclean Wall. References[edit] Panagiotis Kavvadias, Georg Kawerau: Die Ausgrabung der Akropolis vom Jahre 1885 bis zum Jahre 1890, Athens, 1906 Jens Andreas Bundgaard: The Excavation of the Athenian Acropolis 1882—1990. The Original Drawings edited from the papers of Georg Kawerau, Copenhagen, 1974 Astrid Lindenlauf: Der Perserschutt auf der Athener Akropolis (Wolfram Hoepfner: Kult und Kultbauten auf der Akropolis, International Symposium, 7-9 July 1995, Berlin) Berlin, 1997, pp. 45–115 Martin Steskal: Der Zerstörungsbefund 480/79 der Athener Akropolis. Eine Fallstudie zum etablierten Chronologiegerüst, Antiquitates – Archäologische Forschungsergebnisse, Bd. 30. Verlag Dr. Kovač, Hamburg, 2004, ISBN 978-3-8300-1385-3 See also[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Perserschutt. Archaic Acropolis Antenor Kore Korai of the Acropolis of Athens Moscophoros v t e Acropolis of Athens Existent structures Parthenon Erechtheion Propylaea Temple of Athena Nike Odeon of Herodes Atticus Pedestal of Agrippa Stoa of Eumenes Sanctuary of Asclepius Theatre of Dionysus Eleuthereus Aglaureion Choragic Monument of Thrasyllos Cave Sanctuaries of the Akropolis Peripatos Infrastructure Former structures Pelasgic wall Hekatompedon temple Older Parthenon Old Temple of Athena Perserschutt Statue of Athena Promachos Statue of Athena Parthenos Sanctuary of Artemis Brauronia Chalkotheke Pandroseion Arrephorion Altar of Athena Eleusinion Nike of Callimachus Sanctuary of Pandion Sanctuary of Zeus Polieus Odeon of Pericles Frankish Tower Choragic Monument of Nikias Klepsydra People Creation Themistocles Pericles Phidias Ictinus Callicrates Mnesikles Destruction Xerxes I Mardonius Francesco Morosini Lord Elgin Giovanni Battista Lusieri Reverend Philip Hunt Museums Acropolis Museum Old Acropolis Museum Museum of the Center for the Acropolis Studies Elgin Marbles at the British Museum Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Perserschutt&oldid=961967184" Categories: 5th-century BC Greek sculptures 1860s archaeological discoveries 1880s archaeological discoveries 1890s archaeological discoveries Acropolis of Athens Archaeological discoveries in Greece Greco-Persian Wars Archaic Greek art Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Հայերեն Italiano Polski Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 11 June 2020, at 10:41 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8295	----	Download as PDF - Wikipedia Download as PDF Xerxes I Jump to navigation Jump to search Download as PDF Xerxes_I.pdf Download Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:DownloadAsPdf" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Special page Variants Views More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools Upload file Special pages Printable version Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8307	----	Book sources - Wikipedia Book sources Jump to navigation Jump to search This page allows users to search for multiple sources for a book given the 10- or 13-digit ISBN number. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN number do not matter. Search for book sourcesISBN: Search Wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources For assistance, see Help:ISBN. This page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its International Standard Book Number (ISBN). If you arrived at this page by clicking an ISBN link in a Wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. To search for a different book, type that book's individual ISBN into this ISBN search box. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. 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en-wikipedia-org-8318	----	Mentuhotep IV - Wikipedia Mentuhotep IV From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Mentuhotep IV Mentuhotep IV (right) gives offerings to Min. From Wadi Hammamat Pharaoh Reign 1998–1991 BC (11th dynasty) Predecessor Mentuhotep III Successor Amenemhat I Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Nebtawyre Nb-t3.w(j)-Rˁ Lord of the Two Lands is Ra[1] Nomen Mentuhotep Mn-ṯw-ḥtp Montu is Content[2] Horus name Nebtawy Nb-t3.w(j) Lord of the Two Lands[3] Nebty name Nebtawy Nb-t3.w(j) Lord of the Two Lands Golden Horus Neteru Nebu NTrw-nbw Gold of the gods Died 1991 BC Nebtawyre Mentuhotep IV was the last king of the 11th Dynasty. He seems to fit into a 7-year period in the Turin Canon for which there is no recorded king. Contents 1 Rock inscriptions 2 End of reign 3 See also 4 References 5 Further reading Rock inscriptions[edit] He is known from a few inscriptions in Wadi Hammamat that record expeditions to the Red Sea coast and to quarry stone for the royal monuments. It seems that he was a son of his predecessor. Also, he is attested by the inscriptions at Wadi el-Hudi.[4] Another relevant inscription is found in Ain Sukhna.[5] These locations were the usual staging harbours for the expeditions to the Sinai. Despite Mentuhotep's obscurity (he is absent from the official Abydos king list), the inscriptions show the organization and makeup of a large expedition during his reign. The leader of an expedition to Wadi Hammamat, during the second year of Mentuhotep IV’s reign, was his vizier, Amenemhat, who is assumed to be the future king Amenemhat I, the first king of the 12th Dynasty, and Mentuhotep's immediate successor. A fragment of a slate bowl found at Lisht North was regarded for a long time to be inscribed on the outside with the official titulary of Mentuhotep IV, and on the inside with that of King Amenemhat I, his successor. Since the two inscriptions are incised in a different style of writing, according to Dorothea Arnold, this indicates that Amenemhat had his name added to an older vessel that already bore the name of Mentuhotep IV.[6] However, Peter Janosi showed that Mentuhotep IV is not mentioned on the bowl, the titulary preserved there fits better to Mentuhotep II.[7] End of reign[edit] It is assumed by some Egyptologists that Amenemhat either usurped the throne or assumed power after Mentuhotep IV died childless. There is currently no archaeological or textual evidence to prove that Mentuhotep was deposed by his vizier or that he chose Amenemhat to be his designated successor. Neither his mummy nor his burial place have been found. See also[edit] Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt family tree References[edit] ^ King List (chronological) ^ Clayton, Peter A. Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. p72. 2006. ISBN 0-500-28628-0 ^ Mentuhotep IV's titulary on Eglyphica.de ^ Fakhry, Ahmed (1952). The Inscriptions of the Amethyst Quarries at Wadi el Hudi. ^ El-Raziq, Mahmoud Abd (2002). Les Inscriptions d'Ayn Southna. ISBN 9782724703221. |page=4a and 4b }} ^ Dorothea Arnold, Amenemhat I and the Early Twelfth Dynasty at Thebes. Metropolitan Museum Journal, v. 26 (1991) ^ Jánosi, Peter (2010). "Montuhotep-Nebtawyre and Amenemhat I: Observations on the Early Twelfth Dynasty in Egypt". Metropolitan Museum Journal. 45: 7–20. doi:10.1086/met.45.41558050. Further reading[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mentuhotep IV. Grajetzki, Wolfram (2006-02-24). The Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt: History, Archaeology and Society. pp. 25–26. ISBN 9780715634356. Preceded by Mentuhotep III Pharaoh of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty 1998 BC – 1991 BC Succeeded by Amenemhat I v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mentuhotep_IV&oldid=972304815" Categories: Pharaohs of the Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt 20th-century BC Pharaohs 20th-century BC rulers 20th century BC in Egypt 20th-century BC deaths Ancient Egypt people stubs Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 11 August 2020, at 10:16 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8329	----	Lois Tilton - Wikipedia Lois Tilton From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Lois Tilton is a science fiction, fantasy, alternate history, and horror writer. She won the Sidewise Award for Alternate History in the short form category for her story "Pericles the Tyrant" in 2006. In 2005, her story, "The Gladiator's War" was a nominee for the Nebula Award for Best Novelette. She has also written several novels concerning vampires and media-related novels, one each in the Babylon 5 and Deep Space Nine universes. She was a short fiction reviewer for the website Locus Online from March 2010 till January 2016. Previously, she reviewed short fiction for The Internet Review of Science Fiction. Contents 1 Novels 1.1 Star Trek novels 1.2 Babylon 5 novels 2 Short stories 3 External links Novels[edit] Vampire Winter (1990) Darkness on the Ice (1993) Written in Venom (2000) Darkspawn (2000) Star Trek novels[edit] Betrayal (1994) Babylon 5 novels[edit] Babylon 5: Accusations (1995) Short stories[edit] The Craft of War (1998) (collected in Harry Turtledove's anthology Alternate Generals) External links[edit] Lois Tilton at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database Lois Tilton's reviews at Locus Online 2014 short fiction in review, by Lois Tilton Authority control ISNI: 0000 0000 4111 0303 LCCN: no93020221 PLWABN: 9810568501605606 VIAF: 43871060 WorldCat Identities: lccn-no93020221 This article about an American science fiction writer is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lois_Tilton&oldid=932738980" Categories: 1946 births Living people Sidewise Award winners American horror writers American fantasy writers American science fiction writers Women science fiction and fantasy writers 20th-century American novelists 21st-century American novelists 20th-century American women writers 21st-century American women writers American women short story writers Women horror writers American women novelists Women historical novelists 20th-century American short story writers 21st-century American short story writers American science fiction writer stubs Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 27 December 2019, at 23:05 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8335	----	Justin (historian) - Wikipedia Justin (historian) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Justin (Latin: Marcus Junianus Justinus Frontinus;[n 1] c. second century) was a Latin writer who lived under the Roman Empire. Epitome historiarum Trogi Pompeii Contents 1 Life 2 Works 3 Legacy 4 Notes 5 References 6 Bibliography 7 External links Life[edit] Almost nothing is known of Justin's personal history, his name appearing only in the title of his work. He must have lived after Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus, whose work he excerpted, and his references to the Romans and Parthians' having divided the world between themselves would have been anachronistic after the rise of the Sassanians in the third century. His Latin appears to be consistent with the style of the second century. Ronald Syme, however, argues for a date around AD 390, immediately before the compilation of the Augustan History, and dismisses anachronisms and the archaic style as unimportant, as he asserts readers would have understood Justin's phrasing to represent Trogus' time, and not his own.[1] Works[edit] Justin was the author of an epitome of Trogus' expansive Liber Historiarum Philippicarum, or Philippic Histories, a history of the kings of Macedonia, compiled in the time of Augustus. Due to its numerous digressions, this work was retitled by one of its editors, Historia Philippicae et Totius Mundi Origines et Terrae Situs, or Philippic History and Origins of the Entire World and All of its Lands. Justin's preface explains that he aimed to collect the most important and interesting passages of that work, which has since been lost. Some of Trogus' original arguments (prologi) are preserved in various other authors, such as Pliny the Elder. Trogus' main theme was the rise and history of the Macedonian Empire, and like him, Justin permitted himself considerable freedom of digression, producing an idiosyncratic anthology rather than a strict epitome. Legacy[edit] Justin's history was much used in the Middle Ages, when its author was sometimes mistakenly conflated with Justin Martyr.[2] Notes[edit] ^ Justin's name is given only in manuscripts of his own history, the majority of which simply identify him as Justinus. One manuscript identifies him as Justinus Frontinus, the other as Marcus Junianus Justinus. The accuracy of these names is uncertain. References[edit] ^ Syme (1988). ^ EB (1911). sfnp error: no target: CITEREFEB1911 (help) Bibliography[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Justin". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Borgna, Alice (2018), "Ripensare la storia universale. Giustino e l'Epitome delle Storie Filippiche di Pompeo Trogo", Spudasmata. Syme, Ronald (1988), "The Date of Justin and the Discovery of Trogus", Historia, No. 37, pp. 358–371. External links[edit] An early edition (Milan, 1476) of the Epitome from the Bavarian State Library Justin's Epitome at The Latin Library, Corpus Scriptorum Latinorum, & Itinera Electronica (in Latin) Watson's 1853 translation at CSL, the Tertullian Project, & Attalus (in English) Arnaud-Lindet's 2003 translation at CSL (in French) Correa's 2003 partial translation at CSL (in Spanish) Prologi of Pompeius Trogus's work at the Tertullian Project Authority control BIBSYS: 95002665 BNE: XX875329 BNF: cb120317576 (data) CANTIC: a11326712 CiNii: DA06678369 GND: 11871435X ISNI: 0000 0001 2124 4766 LCCN: n82043687 NDL: 00671642 NKC: ola2002158752 NLA: 35945453 NLI: 000072670 NLP: A11055029 NSK: 000384088 NTA: 069116431 PLWABN: 9810638145205606 RERO: 02-A000096264 SELIBR: 192057 SUDOC: 028492528 Trove: 1157676 VcBA: 495/24211 VIAF: 24616821 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n82043687 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Justin_(historian)&oldid=993090404" Categories: 2nd-century Romans 2nd-century historians Latin historians Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles containing Latin-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica CS1: long volume value Articles with Latin-language sources (la) Articles with French-language sources (fr) Articles with Spanish-language sources (es) Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLP identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of death unknown Year of birth unknown Place of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages Asturianu Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 8 December 2020, at 18:58 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8338	----	First Intermediate Period of Egypt - Wikipedia First Intermediate Period of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search First Intermediate Period of Egypt c. 2181 BC – c. 2055 BC Capital Memphis (c. 2181 BC–c. 2160 BC), Seventh Dynasty–Eighth Dynasty Heracleopolis Magna (c. 2160 BC–c. 2050 BC), Ninth Dynasty–Tenth Dynasty Thebes (c. 2134 BC–c. 2061 BC), Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Common languages Ancient Egyptian Religion Ancient Egyptian religion Government Monarchy Pharaoh   • c. 2181 BC Menkare (first) • c. 2069 BC – c. 2061 BC Intef III (last) History   • Established c. 2181 BC  • Disestablished  c. 2055 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Old Kingdom of Egypt Middle Kingdom of Egypt Today part of  Egypt Part of a series on the History of Egypt Prehistoric Egypt pre–3150 BC Ancient Egypt Early Dynastic Period 3150–2686 BC Old Kingdom 2686–2181 BC 1st Intermediate Period 2181–2055 BC Middle Kingdom 2055–1650 BC 2nd Intermediate Period 1650–1550 BC New Kingdom 1550–1069 BC 3rd Intermediate Period 1069–664 BC Late Period 664–332 BC Greco-Roman Egypt Argead and Ptolemaic dynasties 332–30 BC Roman and Byzantine Egypt 30 BC–641 AD Sasanian Egypt 619–629 Medieval Egypt Rashidun Egypt 641–661 Umayyad Egypt 661–750 Abbasid Egypt 750–935 Tulunid dynasty 868–905 Ikhshidid dynasty 935–969 Fatimid dynasty 969–1171 Ayyubid dynasty 1171–1250 Mamluk dynasties 1250–1517 Early modern Egypt Ottoman Egypt 1517–1867 French occupation 1798–1801 Muhammad Ali dynasty 1805–1853 Khedivate of Egypt 1867–1914 Late Modern Egypt British occupation 1882–1922 Sultanate of Egypt 1914–1922 Kingdom of Egypt 1922–1953 Republic 1953–present  Egypt portal v t e Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The First Intermediate Period, described as a 'dark period' in ancient Egyptian history,[1] spanned approximately one hundred and twenty-five years, from c. 2181–2055 BC, after the end of the Old Kingdom.[2] It comprises the Seventh (although it is mostly considered spurious by Egyptologists), Eighth, Ninth, Tenth, and part of the Eleventh Dynasties. The concept of a "First Intermediate Period" was coined in 1926 by Egyptologists Georg Steindorff and Henri Frankfort.[3] Very little monumental evidence survives from this period, especially from the beginning of the era. The First Intermediate Period was a dynamic time where rule of Egypt was roughly equally divided between two competing power bases. One of those bases was at Heracleopolis in Lower Egypt, a city just south of the Faiyum region. The other was at Thebes in Upper Egypt.[4] It is believed that during this time temples were pillaged and violated, artwork was vandalized, and the statues of kings were broken or destroyed as a result of the postulated political chaos.[5] These two kingdoms would eventually come into conflict, leading to the conquest of the north by the Theban kings and the reunification of Egypt under a single ruler, Mentuhotep II, during the second part of the Eleventh Dynasty. This event marked the beginning of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt. Contents 1 History 1.1 Events leading to the First Intermediate Period 1.2 The Seventh and Eighth Dynasties at Memphis 1.3 Rise of the Heracleopolitan kings 1.4 Ankhtifi 1.5 Rise of the Theban kings 2 The Ipuwer Papyrus 3 The art and architecture of the First Intermediate Period 4 References 5 External links History[edit] Events leading to the First Intermediate Period[edit] The fall of the Old Kingdom is often described as a period of chaos and disorder by some literature in the First Intermediate Period, but mostly by the literature of successive eras of ancient Egyptian history. The causes that brought about the downfall of the Old Kingdom are numerous, but some are merely hypothetical. One reason that is often quoted is the extremely long reign of Pepi II, the last major pharaoh of the 6th Dynasty. He ruled from his childhood until he was very elderly, possibly in his 90s, but the length of his reign is uncertain. He outlived many of his anticipated heirs, thereby creating problems with succession.[6] Thus, the regime of the Old Kingdom disintegrated amidst this disorganization.[7][8] Another major problem was the rise in power of the provincial nomarchs. Towards the end of the Old Kingdom the positions of the nomarchs had become hereditary, so families often held onto the position of power in their respective provinces. As these nomarchs grew increasingly powerful and influential, they became more independent from the king.[9] They erected tombs in their own domains and often raised armies. The rise of these numerous nomarchs inevitably created conflicts between neighboring provinces, often resulting in intense rivalries and warfare between them. A third reason for the dissolution of centralized kingship that is mentioned was the low levels of the Nile inundation which may have been caused by a drier climate, resulting in lower crop yields bringing about famine across ancient Egypt;[10] see 4.2 kiloyear event. There is however no consensus on this subject. According to Manning, there is no relationship with low Nile floods. "State collapse was complicated, but unrelated to Nile flooding history."[11] The Seventh and Eighth Dynasties at Memphis[edit] Main articles: Seventh Dynasty of Egypt and Eighth Dynasty of Egypt The Seventh and Eighth Dynasties are often overlooked because very little is known about the rulers of these two periods. Manetho, a historian and priest from the Ptolemaic era, describes 70 kings who ruled for 70 days.[12] This is almost certainly an exaggeration meant to describe the disorganization of the kingship during this time period. The Seventh Dynasty may have been an oligarchy comprising powerful officials of the Sixth Dynasty based in Memphis who attempted to retain control of the country.[13] The Eighth dynasty rulers, claiming to be the descendants of the Sixth Dynasty kings, also ruled from Memphis.[14] Little is known about these two dynasties since very little textual or architectural evidence survives to describe the period. However, a few artifacts have been found, including scarabs that have been attributed to king Neferkare II of the Seventh Dynasty, as well as a green jasper cylinder of Syrian influence which has been credited to the Eighth Dynasty.[15] Also, a small pyramid believed to have been constructed by King Ibi of the Eighth Dynasty has been identified at Saqqara.[16] Several kings, such as Iytjenu, are only attested once and their position remains unknown. Rise of the Heracleopolitan kings[edit] Main articles: Ninth Dynasty of Egypt and Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Sometime after the obscure reign of the Seventh and Eighth Dynasty kings a group of rulers arose in Heracleopolis in Lower Egypt.[12] These kings comprise the Ninth and Tenth Dynasties, each with nineteen listed rulers. The Heracleopolitan kings are conjectured to have overwhelmed the weak Memphite rulers to create the Ninth Dynasty, but there is virtually no archaeology elucidating the transition, which seems to have involved a drastic reduction in population in the Nile Valley. The founder of the Ninth Dynasty, Akhthoes or Akhtoy, is often described as an evil and violent ruler, most notably in Manetho's writing. Possibly the same as Wahkare Khety I, Akhthoes was described as a king who caused much harm to the inhabitants of Egypt, was seized with madness, and was eventually killed by a crocodile.[17] This may have been a fanciful tale, but Wahkare is listed as a king in the Turin Canon. Kheti I was succeeded by Kheti II, also known as Meryibre. Little is certain of his reign, but a few artifacts bearing his name survive. It may have been his successor, Kheti III, who would bring some degree of order to the Delta, though the power and influence of these Ninth Dynasty kings was seemingly insignificant compared to the Old Kingdom pharaohs.[18] A distinguished line of nomarchs arose in Siut (or Asyut), a powerful and wealthy province in the south of the Heracleopolitan kingdom. These warrior princes maintained a close relationship with the kings of the Heracleopolitan royal household, as evidenced by the inscriptions in their tombs. These inscriptions provide a glimpse at the political situation that was present during their reigns. They describe the Siut nomarchs digging canals, reducing taxation, reaping rich harvests, raising cattle herds, and maintaining an army and fleet.[17] The Siut province acted as a buffer state between the northern and southern rulers, and the Siut princes would bear the brunt of the attacks from the Theban kings. Ankhtifi[edit] Main article: Ankhtifi The South was dominated by warlords, the best-known of whom is Ankhtifi, whose tomb was discovered in 1928 at Mo’alla, 30 km south of Luxor. He was a nomarch or provincial governor of the nome based at Hierakonpolis, but he then expanded to the south and conquered a second nome centred on Edfu. He then tried to expand to the north to conquer the nome centred on Thebes, but was unsuccessful, as they refused to come out and fight. His tomb is highly decorated and contains an extremely informative autobiography in which he paints a picture of Egypt riven by hunger and famine from which he, the great Ankhtifi, had rescued them. ‘I gave bread to the hungry and did not allow anyone to die’. This economic disaster is much debated by modern commentators: it seems that every ruler made similar claims. But it seems clear that for all practical purposes, Ankhtifi was the ruler and there was no higher power to whom he owed allegiance. The unity of Egypt had broken down. Rise of the Theban kings[edit] It has been suggested that an invasion of Upper Egypt occurred contemporaneously with the founding of the Heracleopolitan kingdom, which would establish the Theban line of kings, constituting the Eleventh and Twelfth Dynasties.[19] This line of kings is believed to have been descendants of Intef, who was the nomarch of Thebes, often called the "keeper of the Door of the South".[20] He is credited for organizing Upper Egypt into an independent ruling body in the south, although he himself did not appear to have tried to claim the title of king. However, his successors in the Eleventh and Twelfth Dynasties would later do so for him.[21] One of them, Intef II, begins the assault on the north, particularly at Abydos. By around 2060 BC, Intef II had defeated the governor of Nekhen, allowing further expansion south, toward Elephantine. His successor, Intef III, completed the conquest of Abydos, moving into Middle Egypt against the Heracleopolitan kings.[22] The first three kings of the Eleventh Dynasty (all named Intef) were, therefore, also the last three kings of the First Intermediate Period and would be succeeded by a line of kings who were all called Mentuhotep. Mentuhotep II, also known as Nebhepetra, would eventually defeat the Heracleopolitan kings around 2033 BC and unify the country to continue the Eleventh Dynasty, bringing Egypt into the Middle Kingdom.[22] The Ipuwer Papyrus[edit] Main article: Ipuwer Papyrus The Ipuwer Papyrus The emergence of what is considered literature by modern standards seems to have occurred during the First Intermediate Period, with a flowering of new literary genres in the Middle Kingdom.[23] A particularly important piece is the Ipuwer Papyrus, often called the Lamentations or Admonitions of Ipuwer, which although not dated to this period by modern scholarship may refer to the First Intermediate Period and record a decline in international relations and a general impoverishment in Egypt.[24] The art and architecture of the First Intermediate Period[edit] The First Intermediate Period in Egypt was generally divided into two main geographical and political regions, one centered at Memphis and the other at Thebes. The Memphite kings, although weak in power, held on to the Memphite artistic traditions that had been in place throughout the Old Kingdom. This was a symbolic way for the weakened Memphite state to hold on to the vestiges of glory in which the Old Kingdom had reveled.[25] On the other hand, the Theban kings, physically isolated from Memphis (the capital of Egypt in the Old Kingdom) and the Memphite center of art, were forced to develop their own "Pre-Unification Theban Style" of art to fulfill their kingly duty of creating order out of chaos through art.[26] There is not much known about the style of art from the North (centered in Heracleopolis) because not much is known about the Heracleopolitan kings: little information is provided detailing their rule on monuments from the North. However, much is known about the Pre-Unification Theban Style, as the Theban kings of the Pre-Unification Eleventh Dynasty used art to reinforce the legitimacy of their rule, and many royal workshops were created, forming a distinctive Upper Egyptian style of art different from the Old Kingdom canon.[26] Reliefs from the Pre-Unification Theban style of art consist primarily of either high raised relief or deep sunk relief with incised details. Figures depicted have narrow shoulders and a high small of the back, with rounded limbs and a lack of musculature in males; males also sometimes are shown with rolls of fat (a characteristic that originated in the Old Kingdom to portray mature males) and have angular breasts and, while the female breast is more angular or pointed or is shown through a long gentle curve with no nipple (in other periods, the female breast is depicted as curved). Facial features characteristic of this style include a large eye, which is outlined with a band of relief meant to represent eye paint. The band meets the outer eye corner and this line usually runs back to the ear. The eyebrow above the eye is mostly flat; it does not mimic the shape of the eyelid. A deep incision is used in the creation of the broad nose, and the ear is both large and oblique.[26] Stela of the Gatekeeper Maati MET Museum An example of Pre-Unification Theban reliefs is the Stela of the Gatekeeper Maati, a limestone stela from the reign of Mentuhotep II, ca. 2051-2030 BCE. In this stela, Maati is seated at an offering table with a jar of sacred oils in his left hand, and the text surrounding him references other figures from his life, such as the treasurer Bebi and the ancestor of the ruling Intef family, demonstrating the close bonds that tie together rulers and followers in Theban society during the First Intermediate Period.[27] Strong facial features and the round modeling of limbs is also seen in statues, as seen in the Limestone Statue of the Steward Mery, from the 11th Dynasty of the First Intermediate Period, also under the reign of Mentuhotep II.[28] Males with pronounced, angular breasts portrayed with rolls of fat, as well as females with angular or pointed breasts are seen in the collection of Limestone Reliefs of High Official Tjetji. The Limestone Relief of High Official Tjetji contains 14 horizontal lines of text at the top of the relief, with an account of Tjetji's life. Five vertical columns on the right of the relief dictate an elaborate offering formula particular to the First Intermediate Period. Tjetji faces right with two smaller males on the left that are most likely official staff. Tjetji himself is depicted as a mature official with a pronounced breast, rolls of fat on his torso, and a calf-length kilt. The officials shown on the left are more youthful and wear shorter kilts, symbolizing that they are less mature and active.[26] The depiction of the female figure specific to the First Intermediate Period is also seen in the Limestone Relief of High Official Tjetji; in the image provided, the angular breast can be seen.[26] The building projects of the Heracleopolitan kings in the North were very limited. Only one pyramid believed to belong to King Merikare (2065–2045 BC) is mentioned to be somewhere at Saqqara. Also, private tombs that were built during the time pale in comparison to the Old Kingdom monuments, in quality and size. There are still relief scenes of servants making provisions for the deceased as well as the traditional offering scenes which mirror those of the Old Kingdom Memphite tombs. However, they are of a lower quality and are much simpler than their Old Kingdom parallels.[29] Wooden rectangular coffins were still being used, but their decorations became more elaborate during the rule of the Heracleopolitan kings. New Coffin Texts were painted on the interiors, providing spells and maps for the deceased to use in the afterlife. Artworks that survived from the Theban Period show that the artisans took on new interpretations of traditional scenes. They employed the use of bright colors in their paintings and changed and distorted the proportions of the human figure. This distinctive style was especially evident in the rectangular slab stelae found in the tombs at Naga el-Deir.[30] In terms of royal architecture, the Theban kings of the early eleventh dynasty constructed rock cut tombs called saff tombs at El-Tarif on the west bank of the Nile. This new style of mortuary architecture consisted of a large courtyard with a rock-cut colonnade at the far wall. Rooms were carved into the walls facing the central courtyard where the deceased were buried, allowing for multiple people to be buried in one tomb.[31] The undecorated burial chambers may have been due to the lack of skilled artists in the Theban kingdom. Limestone Statue of the Steward Mery Limestone Stela of Tjetji Limestone Stela Featuring Woman References[edit] ^ Redford, Donald B. 2001. The Oxford encyclopedia of ancient Egypt. Vol. 1. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press. p. 526. ^ Kathryn A. Bard, An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt (Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2008), 41. ^ Schneider, Thomas (27 August 2008). "Periodizing Egyptian History: Manetho, Convention, and Beyond". In Klaus-Peter Adam (ed.). Historiographie in der Antike. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 181–197. ISBN 978-3-11-020672-2. ^ Gardiner, Alan (1961) Egypt of the Pharaohs (Oxford University Press), 107-109. ^ Breasted, James Henry. (1923) A History of the Ancient Egyptians Charles Scribner's Sons, 133. ^ Kinnaer, Jacques. "The First Intermediate Period" (PDF). The Ancient Egypt Site. Retrieved 4 April 2012. ^ Gardiner, Alan (1961) Egypt of the Pharaohs (Oxford University Press), 110. ^ Rothe, et al., (2008) Pharaonic Inscriptions From the Southern Eastern Desert of Egypt, Eisenbrauns ^ Breasted, James Henry. (1923) A History of the Ancient Egyptians Charles Scribner's Sons, 117-118. ^ Malek, Jaromir (1999) Egyptian Art (London: Phaidon Press Limited), 155. ^ Water, irrigation and their connection to State Power in Egypt (2012), p. 20; J.G. Manning, Yale University ^ a b Sir Alan Gardiner, Egypt of the Pharaohs (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961), 107. ^ Hayes, William C. The Scepter of Egypt: A Background for the Study of the Egyptian Antiquities in The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Vol. 1, From the Earliest Times to the End of the Middle Kingdom, p. 136, available online ^ Breasted, James Henry. (1923) A History of the Ancient Egyptians Charles Scribner's Sons, 133-134. ^ Baikie, James (1929) A History of Egypt: From the Earliest Times to the End of the XVIIIth Dynasty (New York: The Macmillan Company), 218. ^ Bard, Kathryn A. (2008) An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt (Malden: Blackwell Publishing), 163. ^ a b James Henry Breasted, Ph.D., A History of the Ancient Egyptians (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1923), 134. ^ Baikie, James (1929) A History of Egypt: From the Earliest Times to the End of the XVIIIth Dynasty (New York: The Macmillan Company), 224. ^ Baikie, James (1929) A History of Egypt: From the Earliest Times to the End of the XVIIIth Dynasty (New York: The Macmillan Company), 221. ^ Baikie, James (1929) A History of Egypt: From the Earliest Times to the End of the XVIIIth Dynasty (New York: The Macmillan Company), 135. ^ Baikie, James (1929) A History of Egypt: From the Earliest Times to the End of the XVIIIth Dynasty (New York: The Macmillan Company), 245. ^ a b James Henry Breasted, Ph.D., A History of the Ancient Egyptians (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1923), 136. ^ Kathryn A. Bard, An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt (Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2008), 174–175. ^ Gregory Mumford, Tell Ras Budran (Site 345): Defining Egypt's Eastern Frontier and Mining Operations in South Sinai during the Late Old Kingdom (Early EB IV/MB I), Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, No. 342 (May, 2006), pp. 13–67, The American Schools of Oriental Research. Article Stable URL: JSTOR 25066952 ^ Jaromir Malek, Egyptian Art (London: Phaidon Press Limited, 1999), 159. ^ a b c d e Robins, Gay (2008). The Art of Ancient Egypt. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 80–89. ISBN 9780674030657. ^ "Stela of the Gatekeeper Maati". The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved December 3, 2018. ^ "British Museum". The British Museum. 2018. Retrieved December 6, 2018. ^ Jaromir Malek, Egyptian Art (London: Phaidon Press Limited, 1999), 156. ^ Jaromir Malek, Egyptian Art (London: Phaidon Press Limited, 1999), 161. ^ Jaromir Malek, Egyptian Art (London: Phaidon Press Limited, 1999), 162. 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en-wikipedia-org-833	----	Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt family tree) Jump to navigation Jump to search Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt 1189 BC–1077 BC Portrait of Ramesses IX from his tomb KV6. Capital Pi-Ramesses Common languages Egyptian language Religion Ancient Egyptian Religion Government Absolute monarchy Historical era Iron Age • Established 1189 BC • Disestablished 1077 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt (notated Dynasty XX, alternatively 20th Dynasty or Dynasty 20) is the third and last dynasty of the Ancient Egyptian New Kingdom period, lasting from 1189 BC to 1077 BC. The 19th and 20th Dynasties furthermore together constitute an era known as the Ramesside period. Contents 1 History 1.1 Background 1.2 20th Dynasty 1.2.1 Setnakhte 1.2.2 Ramesses III 1.2.3 Ramesses IV 1.2.4 Ramesses V 1.2.5 Ramesses VI 1.2.6 Ramesses VII 1.2.7 Ramesses VIII 1.2.8 Ramesses IX 1.2.9 Ramesses X 1.2.10 Ramesses XI 1.3 Decline 2 Pharaohs of the 20th Dynasty 3 Timeline of the 20th Dynasty 4 Pharaonic Family tree 5 Gallery of images 6 See also 7 References History[edit] Background[edit] Upon the death of the last pharaoh of the 19th Dynasty, Queen Twosret, Egypt descended into a period of civil war, as attested by the Elephantine stela built by Setnakhte. The circumstances of Twosret's demise are uncertain, as she may have died peacefully during her reign or been overthrown by Setnakhte, who was likely already middle aged at the time.[1] 20th Dynasty[edit] A consistent theme of this dynasty was the loss of pharaonic power to the High Priests of Amun. Horemheb, a pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty, had restored the traditional Ancient Egyptian religion and the priesthood of Amun after their abandonment by Akhenaten. With the High Priests now acting as intermediaries between the gods and the people, rather than the pharaoh, the position of pharaoh no longer commanded the same kind of power as it had in the past.[2] Setnakhte[edit] Main article: Setnakhte Setnakhte stabilized the situation in Egypt, and may have driven off an attempted invasion by the Sea Peoples. He ruled for about 4 years before being succeeded by his son Ramesses III. Ramesses III[edit] Main article: Ramesses III In Year 5 of his reign, Ramesses defeated a Libyan invasion of Egypt by the Libu, Meshwesh and Seped people through Marmarica, who had previously unsuccessfully invaded during the reign of Merneptah.[3] Ramesses III is most famous for decisively defeating a confederacy of the Sea Peoples, including the Denyen, Tjekker, Peleset, Shardana and Weshesh in the Battle of the Delta and the Battle of Djahy during Year 8 of his reign. Within the Papyrus Harris I, which attests these events in detail, Ramesses is said to have settled the defeated Sea Peoples in "strongholds", most likely located in Canaan, as his subjects.[2][4] In Year 11 of Ramesses' reign, another coalition of Libyan invaders was defeated in Egypt. Between regnal Year 12 and Year 29, a systematic program of reorganization of the varied cults of the Ancient Egyptian religion was undertaken, by creating and funding new cults and restoring temples. In Year 29 of Ramesses' reign, the first recorded labor strike in human history took place, after food rations for the favored and elite royal tomb builders and artisans in the village of Set Maat (now known as Deir el-Medina), could not be provisioned.[5] The reign of Ramesses III is also known for a harem conspiracy in which Queen Tiye, one of his lesser wives, was implicated in an assassination attempt against the king, with the goal of putting her son Pentawer on the throne. The coup was unsuccessful, as while the king apparently died from the attempt on his life, his legitimate heir and son Ramesses IV succeeded him to the throne, arresting and putting approximately 30 conspirators to death.[6][7] Ramesses IV[edit] Main article: Ramesses IV At the start of his reign Ramesses IV started an enormous building program on the scale of Ramesses the Great's own projects. He doubled the number of work gangs at Set Maat to a total of 120 men and dispatched numerous expeditions to the stone quarries of Wadi Hammamat and the turquoise mines of the Sinai. One of the largest expeditions included 8,368 men, of which some 2,000 were soldiers.[8] Ramesses expanded his father's Temple of Khonsu at Karnak and possibly began his own mortuary temple at a site near the Temple of Hatshepsut. Another smaller temple is associated with Ramesses north of Medinet Habu. Ramesses IV saw issues with the provision of food rations to his workmen, similar to the situation under his father. Ramessesnakht, the High Priest of Amun at the time, began to accompany state officials as they went to pay the workmen their rations, suggesting that, at least in part, it was the Temple of Amun and not the Egyptian state that was responsible for their wages.[citation needed] He also produced the Papyrus Harris I, the longest known papyrus from Ancient Egypt, measuring in at 41 meters long with 1,500 lines of text to celebrate the achievements of his father. Ramesses V[edit] Main article: Ramesses V Ramesses V reigned for no more than 4 years, dying of smallpox in 1143 BC. The only monument attested to him is a stela near Gebel el-Silsila.[citation needed] The Turin Papyrus Cat. 2044 attests that during his reign the workmen of Set Maat were forced to periodically stop working on Ramesses' KV9 tomb out of "fear of the enemy", suggesting increasing instability in Egypt and an inability to defend the country from what are presumed to be Libyan raiding parties.[9] The Wilbour Papyrus is thought to date from Ramesses V's reign. The document reveals that most of the land in Egypt by that point was controlled by the Temple of Amun, and that the Temple had complete control over Egypt's finances.[10] Ramesses VI[edit] Main article: Ramesses VI Ramesses VI is best known for his tomb which, when built, inadvertently buried the tomb of pharaoh Tutankhamun underneath, keeping it safe from grave robbing until its discovery by Howard Carter in 1922. Ramesses VII[edit] Main article: Ramesses VII Ramesses VII's only monument is his tomb, KV1.[citation needed] Ramesses VIII[edit] Main article: Ramesses VIII Almost nothing is known about Ramesses VIII's reign, which lasted for a single year. He is only attested at Medinet Habu and through a few plaques. The only monument from his reign is his modest tomb, which was used for Mentuherkhepeshef, son of Ramesses IX, rather than Ramesses VIII himself.[citation needed] Ramesses IX[edit] Main article: Ramesses IX During Year 16 and Year 17 of Ramesses IX's reign famous tomb robbery trials took place, as attested by the Abbott Papyrus. A careful examination by a vizierial commission was undertaken of ten royal tombs, four tombs of the Chantresses of the Estate of the Divine Adoratrix, and finally the tombs of the citizens of Thebes. Many of these were found to have been broken into, like the tomb of Pharaoh Sobekemsaf II, whose mummy had been stolen.[11] Ramesses IX's cartouche has been found at Gezer in Canaan, suggesting that Egypt at this time still had some degree of influence in the region.[12] Most of the building projects during Ramesses IX's reign were at Heliopolis.[13] Ramesses X[edit] Main article: Ramesses X Ramesses X's reign is poorly documented. The Necropolis Journal of Set Maat records the general idleness of the workmen at this time, due, at least in part, to the danger of Libyan raiders.[14] Ramesses XI[edit] Main article: Ramesses XI Ramesses XI was the last pharaoh of the 20th Dynasty. During his reign the position grew so weak that in the south the High Priests of Amun at Thebes became the de facto rulers of Upper Egypt, while Smendes controlled Lower Egypt even before Ramesses XI's death. Smendes would eventually found the Twenty-First dynasty at Tanis.[15] Decline[edit] As happened under the earlier Nineteenth Dynasty, this dynasty struggled under the effects of the bickering between the heirs of Ramesses III. For instance, three different sons of Ramesses III are known to have assumed power as Ramesses IV, Ramesses VI and Ramesses VIII respectively. However, at this time Egypt was also increasingly beset by a series of droughts, below-normal flooding levels of the Nile, famine, civil unrest and official corruption – all of which would limit the managerial abilities of any king. Pharaohs of the 20th Dynasty[edit] Main article: List of pharaohs The pharaohs of the 20th Dynasty ruled for approximately 120 years: from c. 1187 to 1064 BC. The dates and names in the table are mostly taken from "Chronological Table for the Dynastic Period" in Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss & David Warburton (editors), Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies), Brill, 2006. Many of the pharaohs were buried in the Valley of the Kings in Thebes (designated KV). More information can be found on the Theban Mapping Project website.[16] Pharaoh Image Throne Name / Prenomen Reign Burial Consort(s) Comments Setnakhte Userkhaure-setepenre 1189 – 1186 BC KV14 Tiy-merenese May have usurped the throne from his predecessor, Twosret. Ramesses III Usermaatre-Meryamun 1186 – 1155 BC KV11 Iset Ta-Hemdjert Tyti Tiye Ramesses IV Usermaatre Setepenamun, later Heqamaatre Setepenamun 1155 – 1149 BC KV2 Duatentopet Ramesses V / Amenhirkhepeshef I Usermaatre Sekheperenre 1149 – 1145 BC KV9 Henutwati Tawerettenru Ramesses VI / Amenhirkhepeshef II Nebmaatre Meryamun 1145 – 1137 BC KV9 Nubkhesbed Ramesses VII / Itamun Usermaatre Setepenre Meryamun 1136 – 1129 BC KV1 Ramesses VIII / Sethhirkhepeshef Usermaatre-Akhenamun 1130 – 1129 BC Ramesses IX / Khaemwaset I Neferkare Setepenre 1129 – 1111 BC KV6 Baketwernel Ramesses X / Amenhirkhepeshef III Khepermaatre Setepenre 1111 – 1107 BC KV18 Tyti Ramesses XI / Khaemwaset II Menmaatre Setpenptah 1107 – 1077 BC KV4 Tentamun Timeline of the 20th Dynasty[edit] Pharaonic Family tree[edit] The Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt was the last of the New Kingdom of Egypt. The familial relationships are unclear, especially towards the end of the dynasty. Setnakhte Tiy-merenese Isis-ta-Habadjilat Ramesses III Tiye Pentawere Nubkhesbed Ramesses VI Ramesses IV Duatentopet Amenhirkhopshef Khaemwaset E Ramesses VIII Parahiremenef Mentuhirkopshef B Takhat B Ramesses VII Ramesses V Baketwernel Ramesses IX Tyti Ramesses X Unknown Ramesses XI Gallery of images[edit] Ramesses III was the son of Sethnakht. During his reign, he fought off the invasions of the Sea Peoples in Egypt and tolerated their settlement in Canaan. A conspiracy was hatched to kill him, but it failed. He was later murdered. His mummy, long an inspiration for the scary Hollywood films, showed his throat was slit. Ramesses IV was the fifth son of Ramesses III. He assumed the throne after his four older brothers had died. Ramesses V was the son of Ramesses IV and Queen Duatentopet. During his reign Libyan raiders attacked the country and attempted to conquer Thebes, forcing the workers of Deir el-Medina to halt work in the Valley of the Kings. He died of smallpox. Ramesses VI was an uncle of Ramesses V. He usurped his predecessor's throne and later his tomb, KV9. Ramesses VII was the son of Ramesses VI. During his reign, prices of grain soared to the highest levels. His mummy has never been found but cups bearing his name were found in the royal cache at Deir el-Bahri. He was buried in KV1. Above is a scene from KV1, open since antiquity. Ramesses VIII, born Sethherkhepeshef, was a brother of Ramesses VI and a surviving son of Ramesses III. He may have ruled for a year or two. His tomb has never been identified. Ramesses IX was the grandson of Ramesses III, nephew of Ramesses IV and VI, and a son of Mentuherkhepeshef, who never became a pharaoh. Ramesses X, born Amunherkhepeshef, took the throne after Ramesses IX. He is a poorly documented king, with few monuments to his name. His tomb, KV18, was left unfinished. Ramesses XI was the last pharaoh of the Twentieth Dynasty. He began KV4 but later abandoned the tomb. As Egypt weakened, Ramesses XI was forced to share power in a triumvirate with Herihor, the high priest of Amun, and Smendes, governor of Lower Egypt. Ramesses XI was buried in Lower Egypt by Smendes, who later took the throne himself. See also[edit] Pharaoh is a historical novel by Bolesław Prus, set in Egypt at the end of the Twentieth Dynasty, which adds two fictional rulers: Ramesses XII and Ramesses XIII. It has been adapted into a film of the same title. References[edit] ^ Hartwig Altenmüller, "The Tomb of Tausert and Setnakht," in Valley of the Kings, ed. Kent R. Weeks (New York: Friedman/Fairfax Publishers, 2001), pp.222-31 ^ a b "New Kingdom of Egypt". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2017-05-06. ^ Grandet, Pierre (2014-10-30). "Early–mid 20th dynasty". UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology. 1 (1): 4. ^ Lorenz, Megaera. "The Papyrus Harris". fontes.lstc.edu. Retrieved 2017-05-06. ^ William F. Edgerton, The Strikes in Ramses III's Twenty-Ninth Year, JNES 10, No. 3 (July 1951), pp. 137-145 ^ Dodson and Hilton, pg 184 ^ Grandet, Pierre (2014-10-30). "Early–mid 20th dynasty". UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology. 1 (1): 5–8. ^ Jacobus Van Dijk, 'The Amarna Period and the later New Kingdom' in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, ed. Ian Shaw, Oxford University Press paperback, (2002), pp.306-307 ^ A.J. Peden, The Reign of Ramesses IV, (Aris & Phillips Ltd: 1994), p.21 Peden's source on these recorded disturbances is KRI, VI, 340-343 ^ Alan H. Gardiner, R. O. Faulkner: The Wilbour Papyrus. 4 Bände, Oxford University Press, Oxford 1941-52. ^ Une enquête judiciaire à Thèbes au temps de la XXe dynastie : ...Maspero, G. (Gaston), 1846-1916. ^ Finkelstein, Israel. "Is the Philistine Paradigm Still Viable?": 517. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, Blackwell Books, 1992. p.289 ^ E.F. Wente & C.C. Van Siclen, "A Chronology of the New Kingdom" in Studies in Honor of George R. Hughes, (SAOC 39) 1976, p.261 ^ Dodson and Hilton, pg 185-186 ^ Sites in the Valley of the Kings v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Preceded by Nineteenth Dynasty Dynasty of Egypt 1189−1077 BC Succeeded by Twenty-first Dynasty Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Twentieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=1001188877#Pharaonic_Family_tree" Categories: Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt States and territories established in the 12th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 11th century BC Dynasties of ancient Egypt New Kingdom of Egypt 12th century BC in Egypt 11th century BC in Egypt 12th-century BC establishments in Egypt 2nd-millennium BC disestablishments in Egypt 2nd millennium BC in Egypt Late Bronze Age collapse Hidden 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Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: {{pp-move-indef}}{{short description|Fourth King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire}} {{Infobox royalty | name = Xerxes I<br>{{lang|peo|𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠}} | title = [[King of Kings]]<br>[[Great King]]<br>[[List of kings of Persia|King of Persia]]<br>[[King of Babylon]]<br>[[Pharaoh of Egypt]]<br>[[King of the Lands|King of Countries]] | image = National Museum of Iran Darafsh (785).JPG | image_size = | caption = [[Rock relief]] of a Achaemenid king, most likely Xerxes, located in the [[National Museum of Iran]]<ref>According to plate 2 in {{harvnb|Stoneman|2015}}; though it may also be [[Darius I]].</ref> | succession = [[King of kings]] of the [[Achaemenid Empire]] | reign = October 486 – August 465 BC | predecessor = [[Darius the Great]] | successor = [[Artaxerxes I of Persia|Artaxerxes I]] | spouse = [[Amestris]] | dynasty = [[Achaemenid dynasty|Achaemenid]] | issue = {{plainlist| * [[Darius (son of Xerxes I)|Darius]] * [[Hystaspes (son of Xerxes I)|Hystaspes]] * [[Artaxerxes I of Persia|Artaxerxes I]] * [[Arsames (satrap of Egypt)|Arsames]] * [[Amytis]] }} | father = [[Darius the Great]] | mother = [[Atossa]] | birth_date = {{circa|518 BC}} | birth_place = | death_date = August 465 BC (aged approximately 53) | death_place = | place of burial = [[Naqsh-e Rostam]] | religion = [[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian]] religion <br />{{small|(possibly [[Zoroastrianism]])}} }} {{Hiero|Xerxes (Xašayaruša/Ḫašayaruša)<ref>Jürgen von Beckerath (1999), ''Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen'', Mainz am Rhein: von Zabern. {{ISBN|3-8053-2310-7}}, pp. 220–221</ref>|<hiero>< xA-SA-i*i-A-rw-SA-A ></hiero>|align=right|era=egypt}} '''Xerxes I''' ({{lang-peo|𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠|Xšaya-ṛšā}}; {{circa|518}} – August 465 BC), commonly known as '''Xerxes the Great''', was the fourth [[King of Kings]] of the [[Achaemenid Empire]], ruling from 486 to 465 BC. He was the son and successor of [[Darius the Great]] ({{reign|522|486 BC}}) and his mother was [[Atossa]], a daughter of [[Cyrus the Great]] ({{reign|550|530 BC}}), the first Achaemenid king. Like his father, he ruled the empire at its territorial apex. He ruled from 486&nbsp;BC until his assassination in 465&nbsp;BC at the hands of [[Artabanus of Persia|Artabanus]], the commander of the royal bodyguard. Xerxes I is notable in Western history for his failed [[Second Persian invasion of Greece|invasion of Greece]] in 480&nbsp;BC. His forces temporarily overran mainland [[Greece]] north of the [[Isthmus of Corinth]]<ref name = L248>{{cite book|title=The Defence of Greece, 490–479 B.C.|author=Lazenby, J.F.|date=1993|publisher=Aris & Phillips|isbn=978-0856685910|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mVRwQgAACAAJ|access-date=2016-09-07}}</ref><ref name="Warfare in the Ancient World">Brian Todd Carey, Joshua Allfree, John Cairns. [https://books.google.com/books?id=3OSfBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT32&dq=persia+overran+modern+day+greece&hl=en&sa=X&ei=N9Z0VffXHoqR7AbFhoOYDQ&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=persia%20overran%20modern%20day%20greece&f=false ''Warfare in the Ancient World''] Pen and Sword, 19 Jan. 2006 {{ISBN|1848846304}}</ref> until losses at [[Battle of Salamis|Salamis]] and [[Battle of Plataea|Plataea]] a year later reversed these gains and ended the second invasion decisively. However, Xerxes successfully crushed revolts in Egypt and Babylon. [[Roman Ghirshman]] says that, "After this he ceased to use the title of 'king of Babylon', calling himself simply 'king of the Persians and the Medes'."<ref>Roman Ghirshman, ''Iran'' (1954), Penguin Books, p. 191.</ref> Xerxes also oversaw the completion of various construction projects at [[Susa]] and [[Persepolis]]. Xerxes is identified with the fictional king [[Ahasuerus]] in the biblical [[Book of Esther]].{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=9}} That book is broadly considered to be fictional.<ref name="Encyclopædia Iranica 1984">{{cite web | first=W. S. | last=McCullough | title=AHASUREUS – Encyclopaedia Iranica | website=Encyclopædia Iranica | date= 28 July 2011 | orig-year=15 December 1984 | url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ahasureus | access-date=3 April 2020 | quote=There may be some factual nucleus behind the Esther narrative, but the book in its present form displays such inaccuracies and inconsistencies that it must be described as a piece of historical fiction.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Barton |editor-first1=John |editor-last2=Muddiman |editor-first2=John |first=Carol|last=Meyers|title=The Oxford Bible Commentary |date=2007 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780199277186 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DWUTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA325 |language=en | page=325 | quote=Like the Joseph story in Genesis and the book of Daniel, it is a fictional piece of prose writing involving the interaction between foreigners and Hebrews/Jews.}}</ref><ref name="JewishEncyclopedia.com">{{cite web | author-first1=Emil G.|author-last1=Hirsch|author-first2=John|author-last2=Dyneley Prince|author-first3=Solomon|author-last3=Schechter|editor-first1=Isidor|editor-last1=Singer|editor-first2=Cyrus|editor-last2=Adler|title=ESTHER | website=JewishEncyclopedia.com | year=1906 | url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5872-esther | access-date=25 April 2020 | quote=The vast majority of modern expositors have reached the conclusion that the book is a piece of pure fiction, although some writers qualify their criticism by an attempt to treat it as a historical romance.}}</ref> == Etymology == ''Xérxēs'' ({{lang|grc|Ξέρξης}}) is the [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]] (''Xerxes'', ''Xerses'') transliteration of the [[Old Iranian]] ''Xšaya-ṛšā'' ("ruling over heroes"), which can be seen by the first part ''xšaya'', meaning "ruling", and the second ''ṛšā'', meaning "hero, man".<ref name="NAME">{{harvnb|Marciak|2017|p=80}}; {{harvnb|Schmitt|2000}}</ref> The name of Xerxes was known in [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] as ''Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá'' and in [[Aramaic]] as ''ḥšyʾrš''.{{sfn|Schmitt|2000}} Xerxes would become a popular name amongst the rulers of the Achaemenid Empire.<ref name="NAME" /> == Historiography == Much of Xerxes' bad reputation is due to propaganda by the [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonian]] king [[Alexander the Great]] ({{reign|336|323|era=BC}}), who had him vilified.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=2}} The modern historian Richard Stoneman regards the portrayal of Xerxes as more nuanced and tragic in the work of the contemporary [[Greeks|Greek]] historian [[Herodotus]].{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=2}} However, many modern historians agree that Herodotus recorded spurious information.{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=57}}{{sfn|Radner|2013|p=454}} Pierre Briant has accused him of presenting a stereotyped and biased portrayal of the Persians.{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=158, 516}} Many Achaemenid-era clay tablets and other reports written in [[Elamite language|Elamite]], [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]], [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] and [[Aramaic]] are frequently contradictory to the reports of classical authors, i.e. [[Ctesias]], [[Plutarch]] and [[Justin (historian)|Justin]].{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|pp=viii–ix}} == Early life == === Parentage and birth === Xerxes' father was [[Darius the Great]] ({{reign|522|486 BC}}), the incumbent monarch of the Achaemenid Empire, albeit himself not a member of the family of [[Cyrus the Great]], the founder of the empire.{{sfn|Llewellyn-Jones|2017|p=70}}{{sfn|Waters|1996|pp=11, 18}} Xerxes' mother was [[Atossa]], a daughter of Cyrus.{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=132}} Darius and Atossa had married in 522 BC,{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=520}} with Xerxes being born around 518 BC.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=1}} === Upbringing and education === [[File:Caylus_vase_1762.jpg|thumb|upright|<center>The "[[Caylus vase]]", a quadrilingual alabaster jar with cuneiform and hieroglyphic inscriptions in the name of "Xerxes, the Great King". [[Cabinet des Médailles]], [[Paris]]<ref name="RMN">{{cite web |title=vase (inv.65.4695) - inv.65.4695 , BnF |url=http://medaillesetantiques.bnf.fr/ws/catalogue/app/collection/record/ark:/12148/c33gbts1b |website=medaillesetantiques.bnf.fr |language=fr}}</ref></center>]] According to the Greek dialogue [[First Alcibiades]], which describes typical upbringing and education of Persian princes; they were raised by [[eunuchs]]. When reaching the age of 7, they learn how to ride and hunt; at age 14, they are looked after by four teachers of aristocratic stock, who teach them how to be "wise, just, prudent and brave."{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=27}} Persian princes were also taught on the basics of the [[Zoroastrian]] religion, to be truthful, have self-restraint, and to be courageous.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=27}} The dialogue further adds that "Fear, for a Persian, is the equivalent of slavery."{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=27}} At the age of 16 or 17, they begin their "national service" for 10 years, which included practicing archery and javelin, competing for prizes, and hunting.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=28}} Afterwards they serve in the military for around 25 years, and are then elevated to the status of elders and advisers of the king.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=28}} This account of education among the Persian elite is supported by [[Xenophon]]'s description of the 5th-century BC Achaemenid prince [[Cyrus the Younger]], with whom he was well-acquainted.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=28}} Stoneman suggests that this was the type of upbringing and education that Xerxes experienced.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=29}} It is unknown if Xerxes ever learned to read or write, with the Persians favouring oral history over written literature.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=29}} Stoneman suggests that Xerxes' upbringing and education was possibly not much different from that of the later Iranian kings, such as [[Abbas the Great]], king of the [[Safavid Empire]] in the 17th-century AD.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=29}} Starting from 498 BC, Xerxes resided in the royal palace of [[Babylon]].{{sfn|Dandamayev|1989|p=183}} ===Accession to the throne=== While Darius was preparing for another war against Greece, a revolt spurred in Egypt in 486&nbsp;BC due to heavy taxes and the deportation of craftsmen to build the royal palaces at Susa and Persepolis. Under Persian law, the king was required to choose a successor before setting out on dangerous expeditions. When Darius decided to leave (487–486&nbsp;BC), he (Darius) prepared his tomb at [[Naqsh-e Rustam]] (five kilometers from his royal palace at Persepolis) and appointed Xerxes, his eldest son by [[Atossa]], as his successor. However, Darius could not lead the campaign due to his failing health and died in October 486&nbsp;BC at the age of 64.{{sfn|Dandamayev|1989|pp=178–179}} [[Artobazan]] claimed the crown as the eldest of all the children; while Xerxes, on the other hand, argued that he was sprung from Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus, and that it was Cyrus who had won the Persians their freedom. Xerxes was also helped by a Spartan king in exile who was present in Persia at the time, Eurypontid king [[Demaratus]], who also argued that the eldest son does not universally mean they have claim to the crown, as Spartan law states that the first son born while the father is king is the heir to the kingship.<ref>[[Herodotus]] 7.1–5</ref> Some modern scholars also view the unusual decision of Darius to give the throne to Xerxes to be a result of his consideration of the unique positions that Cyrus the Great and his daughter Atossa enjoyed.<ref>[[#refshabani-xerxes|R. Shabani]] Chapter I, p. 15</ref> [[Artobazan]] was born to "Darius the subject", while Xerxes was the eldest son [[born in the purple]] after Darius's rise to the throne, and Artobazan's mother was a commoner while Xerxes's mother was the daughter of the founder of the empire.<ref>[[#ref|Olmstead: The history of Persian empire]]</ref> Xerxes was crowned and succeeded his father in October–December 486&nbsp;BC<ref name=chi-v2>[[#refchi-v2google|''The Cambridge History of Iran'' vol. 2]]. p. 509.</ref> when he was about 36 years old.{{sfn|Dandamayev|1989|p=180}} The transition of power to Xerxes was smooth due again in part to the great authority of Atossa<ref name=atossa-EI>Schmitt, R., "[[#refatossa-EI|Atossa]]" in ''Encyclopaedia Iranica''.</ref> and his accession of royal power was not challenged by any person at court or in the Achaemenian family, or any subject nation.<ref>[[#refcah-vv|''The Cambridge Ancient History'' vol. V]] p. 72.</ref> == Consolidation of power == [[Image:Histoire universelle depuis le commencement du monde jusqu'à présent (1742) (14598039057).jpg|thumb|Engraving of [[Babylon]] by H. Fletcher, 1690]] At Xerxes' accession, trouble was brewing in some of his domains. A revolt occurred in [[Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt|Egypt]], which seems to have been dangerous enough for Xerxes to personally lead the army to restore order (which also gave him the opportunity to begin his reign with a military campaign).{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=525}} Xerxes suppressed the revolt in January 484 BC, and appointed his full-brother [[Achaemenes (satrap)|Achaemenes]] as [[satrap]] of the country, replacing the previous satrap [[Pherendates]], who was reportedly killed during the revolt.{{sfn|Dandamayev|1983|p=414}}{{sfn|Dandamayev|1989|p=183}} The suppression of the Egyptian revolt expended the army, which had been mobilized by Darius over the previous three years.{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=525}} Xerxes thus had to raise another army for his expedition into Greece, which took four years.{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=525}} There was also unrest in Babylon, which revolted at least twice against Xerxes. The first revolt broke out in June or July of 484 BC and was led by a rebel of the name [[Bel-shimanni]]. Bel-shimmani's revolt was short-lived, Babylonian documents written during his reign only account for a period of two weeks.{{sfn|Dandamayev|1993|p=41}} Two years later, Babylon produced another rebel leader, [[Shamash-eriba]]. Beginning in the summer of 482 BC, Shamash-eriba seized Babylon itself and other nearby cities, such as [[Borsippa]] and [[Dilbat]], and was only defeated in March 481 BC after a lengthy siege of Babylon.{{sfn|Dandamayev|1993|p=41}} The precise cause of the unrest in Babylon is uncertain.{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=525}} It may have been due to tax increase.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=111}} Prior to these revolts, Babylon had occupied a special position within the Achaemenid Empire, the Achaemenid kings had been titled as "[[King of Babylon]]" and "[[King of the Lands]]", perceiving [[Babylonia]] as a somewhat separate entity within their empire, united with their own kingdom in a [[personal union]]. Xerxes dropped "King of Babylon" from his titulature and divided the previously large Babylonian satrapy (accounting for most of the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]]'s territory) into smaller sub-units.{{sfn|Dandamayev|1989|pp=185–186}} Using texts written by classical authors, it is often assumed that Xerxes enacted a brutal vengeance on Babylon following the two revolts. According to ancient writers, Xerxes destroyed Babylon's fortifications and damaged the temples in the city.{{sfn|Dandamayev|1993|p=41}} The [[Esagila]] was allegedly exposed to great damage and Xerxes allegedly carried the [[statue of Marduk]] away from the city,{{sfn|Sancisi-Weerdenburg|2002|p=579}} possibly bringing it to Iran and melting it down (classical authors held that the statue was entirely made of gold, which would have made melting it down possible).{{sfn|Dandamayev|1993|p=41}} Modern historian [[Amélie Kuhrt]] considers it unlikely that Xerxes destroyed the temples, but believes that the story of him doing so may derive from an anti-Persian sentiment among the Babylonians.{{sfn|Deloucas|2016|p=39}} It is doubtful if the statue was removed from Babylon at all{{sfn|Dandamayev|1993|p=41}} and some have even suggested that Xerxes did remove a statue from the city, but that this was the golden statue of a man rather than the statue of the god [[Marduk]].{{sfn|Waerzeggers|Seire|2018|p=3}}{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=544}} Though mentions of it are lacking considerably compared to earlier periods, contemporary documents suggest that the Babylonian [[Akitu|New Year's Festival]] continued in some form during the Achaemenid period.{{sfn|Deloucas|2016|p=40}} Because the change in rulership from the Babylonians themselves to the Persians and due to the replacement of the city's elite families by Xerxes following its revolt, it is possible that the festival's traditional rituals and events had changed considerably.{{sfn|Deloucas|2016|p=41}} ==Campaigns== ===Invasion of the Greek mainland=== {{Main|Second Persian invasion of Greece}} [[File:Xerxes all ethnicities.jpg|thumb|upright=2|The soldiers of Xerxes I, of all ethnicities,<ref>[http://www.iranicaonline.org/uploads/files/Clothing/v5f7a014_f1_300.jpg Soldiers with names], after Walser</ref> on the tomb of Xerxes I, at [[Naqsh-e Rostam]]<ref>The Achaemenid Empire in South Asia and Recent Excavations in Akra in Northwest Pakistan Peter Magee, Cameron Petrie, Robert Knox, Farid Khan, Ken Thomas [https://repository.brynmawr.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1082&context=arch_pubs p. 713]</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Naqš-e-Rostam – Encyclopaedia Iranica |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/naqs-e-rostam |language=en}}</ref>]] Darius died while in the process of preparing a second army to invade the Greek mainland, leaving to his son the task of punishing the [[Athens|Athenians]], [[Naxos Island|Naxians]], and [[Eretria]]ns for their interference in the [[Ionian Revolt]], the burning of [[Sardis]], and their victory over the Persians at [[Battle of Marathon|Marathon]]. From 483&nbsp;BC, Xerxes prepared his expedition: The [[Xerxes Canal]] was dug through the [[isthmus]] of the peninsula of [[Mount Athos]], provisions were stored in the stations on the road through [[Thrace]], and two [[pontoon bridge]]s later known as [[Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges]] were built across the [[Hellespont]]. Soldiers of many nationalities served in the armies of Xerxes from all over his multi-ethnic massive Eurasian-sized empire and beyond, including the [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], [[Phoenicia]]ns, [[Babylonians]], [[Egyptians]], [[Jews]],<ref>Farrokh, Kaveh (2007). ''Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War''. Oxford, UK: Osprey. {{ISBN|1846031087}}, p. 77</ref> [[Macedon]]ians, European [[Thrace|Thracians]], [[Paionia|Paeonians]], Achaean [[Greeks]], [[Ionia]]ns, [[Aegean Islands|Aegean islanders]], [[Aeolis|Aeolians]], Greeks from [[Pontus (region)|Pontus]], [[Colchians]], [[Indian people|Indians]] and many more. According to the Greek historian [[Herodotus]], Xerxes's first attempt to bridge the Hellespont ended in failure when a storm destroyed the [[flax]] and [[papyrus]] cables of the bridges. In retaliation, Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped three hundred times, and had [[fetters]] thrown into the water. Xerxes's second attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful.<ref>Bailkey, Nels, ed. ''Readings in Ancient History'', p. 175. D.C. Heath and Co., 1992.</ref> The [[Carthage|Carthaginian]] [[Sicilian Wars#The First Sicilian War (480 BC)|invasion of Sicily]] deprived Greece of the support of the powerful monarchs of [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]] and [[Agrigentum]]; ancient sources assume Xerxes was responsible, modern scholarship is skeptical.<ref>G. Mafodda, ''La monarchia di Gelone tra pragmatismo, ideologia e propaganda'', (Messina, 1996) pp. 119–136</ref> Many smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially [[Thessaly]], [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]] and [[Argos, Peloponnese|Argos]]. Xerxes was victorious during the initial battles. Xerxes set out in the spring of 480&nbsp;BC from [[Sardis]] with a fleet and army which [[Herodotus]] estimated was roughly one million strong along with 10,000 elite warriors named the [[Immortals (Achaemenid Empire)|Immortals]]. More recent estimates place the Persian force at around 60,000 combatants.<ref>Barkworth, 1993. "The Organization of Xerxes' Army." ''Iranica Antiqua'' Vol. 27, pp. 149–167</ref> ===Battle of Thermopylae and destruction of Athens=== [[File:Achaemenid king killing a Greek hoplite.jpg|thumb|Achaemenid king killing a Greek [[hoplite]]. Impression from a [[cylinder seal]], sculpted c. 500 BC–475 BC, at the time of Xerxes I [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]]] At the [[Battle of Thermopylae]], a small force of Greek warriors led by King [[Leonidas I|Leonidas]] of [[Sparta]] resisted the much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated. According to Herodotus, the Persians broke the Spartan [[phalanx]] after a Greek man called [[Ephialtes of Trachis|Ephialtes]] betrayed his country by telling the Persians of another pass around the mountains. At [[Battle of Artemisium|Artemisium]], large storms had destroyed ships from the Greek side and so the battle stopped prematurely as the Greeks received news of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated. [[File:Foundations of the Old Athena Temple (foreground).jpg|thumb|Foundations of the [[Old Temple of Athena]], destroyed by the armies of Xerxes I during the [[Destruction of Athens]] in 480 BC]] After Thermopylae, [[Athens]] was captured. Most of the Athenians had abandoned the city and fled to the island of [[Salamis Island|Salamis]] before Xerxes arrived. A small group attempted to defend the [[Athenian Acropolis]], but they were defeated. Xerxes ordered the [[Destruction of Athens]] and burnt the city, leaving an archaeologically attested destruction layer, known as the [[Perserschutt]].<ref>Martin Steskal, ''Der Zerstörungsbefund 480/79 der Athener Akropolis. Eine Fallstudie zum etablierten Chronologiegerüst'', Verlag Dr. Kovač, Hamburg, 2004</ref> The Persians thus gained control of all of mainland Greece to the north of the [[Isthmus of Corinth]].<ref name="Warfare in the Ancient World"/> ===Battles of Salamis and Plataea=== Xerxes was induced, by the message of [[Themistocles]] (against the advice of [[Artemisia I of Caria|Artemisia]] of [[Halicarnassus]]), to attack the Greek fleet under unfavourable conditions, rather than sending a part of his ships to the [[Peloponnesus]] and awaiting the dissolution of the Greek armies. The [[Battle of Salamis]] (September, 480&nbsp;BC) was won by the Greek fleet, after which Xerxes set up a winter camp in [[Thessaly]]. According to Herodotus, fearing that the Greeks might attack the bridges across the [[Hellespont]] and trap his army in Europe, Xerxes decided to retreat back to Asia, taking the greater part of the army with him.<ref name=VIII97>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231406;layout=;loc=8.96.1 VIII, 97]</ref> Another cause of the retreat might have been that the continued unrest in [[Babylon]], a key province of the [[Achaemenid Empire|empire]], required the king's personal attention.<ref name="livius">{{cite web|url=https://www.livius.org/saa-san/samas-eriba/samas-eriba.html|publisher=livius.org|title=Bêl-šimânni and Šamaš-eriba – Livius|access-date=2016-09-07}}</ref> He left behind a contingent in Greece to finish the campaign under [[Mardonius (general)|Mardonius]], who according to Herodotus had suggested the retreat in the first place. This force was defeated the following year at [[Battle of Plataea|Plataea]] by the combined forces of the Greek city states, ending the Persian offensive on Greece for good. ==Construction projects== [[File:Tomb of Xerxes.JPG|thumb|right|The rock-cut tomb at [[Naqsh-e Rustam]] north of [[Persepolis]], copying that of [[Darius the Great|Darius]], is usually assumed to be that of Xerxes]] After the military blunders in Greece, Xerxes returned to Persia and oversaw the completion of the many construction projects left unfinished by his father at [[Susa]] and [[Persepolis]]. He oversaw the building of the [[Gate of All Nations]] and the Hall of a Hundred Columns at Persepolis, which are the largest and most imposing structures of the palace. He oversaw the completion of the [[Apadana]], the [[Tachara]] (Palace of Darius) and the Treasury, all started by Darius, as well as having his own palace built which was twice the size of his father's. His taste in architecture was similar to that of Darius, though on an even more gigantic scale.<ref>Ghirshman, ''Iran'', p. 172</ref> He had colorful enameled brick laid on the exterior face of the [[Apadana]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fergusson|first1=James|title=A History of Architecture in All Countries, from the Earliest Times to the Present Day: 1. Ancient architecture. 2. Christian architecture. xxxi, 634 p. front., illus|pages=211}}</ref> He also maintained the [[Royal Road]] built by his father and completed the Susa Gate and built a [[Palace of Darius in Susa|palace in Susa]].<ref>Herodotus VII.11</ref> ==Death== [[File:Clay tablet. The cuneiform text mentions the murder of Xerxes I (r. 485-465 BCE) by his son and a lunar eclipse (609-447 BCE). From Babylon, Iraq. British Museum.jpg|thumb|left|This cuneiform text mentions the murder of Xerxes I by his son. From Babylon, Iraq. British Museum]] In August 465&nbsp;BC, [[Artabanus of Persia|Artabanus]], the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court, assassinated Xerxes with the help of a [[eunuch]], Aspamitres. Although Artabanus bore the same name as the famed uncle of Xerxes, a [[Hyrcanian]], his rise to prominence was due to his popularity in religious quarters of the court and harem intrigues. He put his seven sons in key positions and had a plan to dethrone the [[Achaemenid dynasty|Achaemenids]].<ref>[[#refkhshayayrsha|Iran-e-Bastan/Pirnia book 1 p. 873]]</ref> Greek historians give contradicting accounts of events. According to [[Ctesias]] (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Crown Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest son, of the murder and persuaded another of Xerxes's sons, [[Artaxerxes I of Persia|Artaxerxes]], to avenge the patricide by killing Darius. But according to [[Aristotle]] (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and then killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes discovered the murder, he killed Artabanus and his sons.<ref>[[#refartabanus-ei|Dandamayev]]</ref> Participating in these intrigues was the general [[Megabyzus]], whose decision to switch sides probably saved the Achaemenids from losing their control of the Persian throne.<ref>[[#refartaxerxes|''History of Persian Empire'', Olmstead pp. 289/90]]</ref> ==Government== ===Religion=== While there is no general consensus in scholarship whether Xerxes and his predecessors had been influenced by [[Zoroastrianism]],{{sfn|Malandra|2005}} it is well established that Xerxes was a firm believer in [[Ahura Mazda]], whom he saw as the supreme deity.{{sfn|Malandra|2005}} However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped by adherents of the [[Indo-Iranians|(Indo-)Iranian]] religious tradition.{{sfn|Malandra|2005}}{{sfn|Boyce|1984|pp=684–687}} On his treatment of other religions, Xerxes followed the same policy as his predecessors; he appealed to local religious scholars, made sacrifices to local deities, and destroyed temples in cities and countries that caused disorder.{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=549}} ==Wives and children== [[File:Designation of Xerxes I.jpg|thumb|Xerxes being designated by Darius I. Tripylon, [[Persepolis]]. The ethnicities of the Empire are shown supporting the throne. [[Ahuramazda]] crowns the scene.]] '''By queen [[Amestris]]''': * [[Amytis]], wife of [[Megabyzus]]. * [[Darius (son of Xerxes I)|Darius]], the first born, murdered by [[Artaxerxes I]] or [[Artabanus of Persia|Artabanus]]. * [[Hystaspes (son of Xerxes I)|Hystaspes]], murdered by [[Artaxerxes I]]. * [[Artaxerxes I]] * [[Achaemenes (son of Xerxes I)|Achaemenes]], murdered by Egyptians.{{cn|reason=The Achaemenes murdered by Egyptians was most likely his brother instead, died in 459 BCE|date=September 2020}} * [[Rhodogune (daughter of Xerxes I)|Rhodogune]] '''By unknown wives or mistresses''': * [[Artarius]], satrap of [[Babylon]]. * [[Tithraustes (son of Xerxes I)|Tithraustes]] * [[Arsames (satrap of Egypt)|Arsames]] or Arsamenes or Arxanes or Sarsamas, satrap of Egypt.{{cn|date=September 2020}} * [[Parysatis (daughter of Xerxes I)|Parysatis]]<ref>Ctesias</ref> * Ratashah<ref>M. Brosius, ''Women in ancient Persia''.</ref> ==Cultural depictions== [[File:Trilingual inscription of Xerxes, Van, 1973.JPG|thumb|[[Xerses I's inscription at Van|Trilingual inscription of Xerxes at Van]] (present-day Turkey)]] Xerxes is the central character of the [[Aeschylus]] play "[[The Persians]]". Xerxes is the protagonist of the opera ''[[Serse]]'' by the German-English [[Baroque]] composer [[George Frideric Handel]]. It was first performed in the [[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]] London on 15 April 1738. The famous [[aria]] "[[Ombra mai fù]]" opens the opera. The murder of Xerxes by Artabanus (''Artabano''), execution of crown prince Darius (''Dario''), revolt by Megabyzus (''Megabise''), and subsequent succession of [[Artaxerxes I of Persia|Artaxerxes I]] is romanticised by the Italian poet [[Metastasio]] in his opera libretto ''[[Artaserse]]'', which was first set to music by [[Leonardo Vinci]], and subsequently by other composers such as [[Johann Adolf Hasse]] and [[Johann Christian Bach]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Johann-Adolph-Hasse|title=Johann Adolph Hasse {{!}} German composer|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2020-04-27}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oxfordwesternmusic.com/view/Volume2/actrade-9780195384826-div1-04005.xml|title=Metastasio's Musicians : Music In The Seventeenth And Eighteenth Centuries|website=www.oxfordwesternmusic.com|access-date=2020-04-27}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://christermalmberg.se/documents/musik/klassiskt/bach_johann_christian/bach_johann_christian_verk_uvertyrer_cpo.php|title=Christer Malmbergs värld - Musik - Klassisk musik - Johann Christian Bach|website=christermalmberg.se|access-date=2020-04-27}}</ref> The historical novel ''Xerxes of de Hoogmoed'' (1919) by Dutch writer [[Louis Couperus]] describes the Persian wars from the perspective of Xerxes. Though the account is fictionalised, Couperus nevertheless based himself on an extensive study of Herodotus. The English translation ''Arrogance: The Conquests of Xerxes'' by Frederick H. Martens appeared in 1930.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bibliotheek.nl/catalogus/titel.110734645.html/xerxes--of-de-hoogmoed/|title=Xerxes, of De hoogmoed|website=www.bibliotheek.nl|access-date=2020-04-27}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Classe|first1=O.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=myLDA0_brhcC&q=Arrogance%3A+The+Conquests+of+Xerxes+by+Frederick+H.+Martens&pg=PA315|title=Encyclopedia of Literary Translation Into English: A-L|last2=AC02468681|first2=Anonymus|date=2000|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-884964-36-7|language=en}}</ref> [[File:Esther haram.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Queen [[Esther]], a [[Jewish]] queen of Xerxes ([[Edwin Long]], 19th century)]] Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, particularly the [[Battle of Thermopylae]], has led to Xerxes' portrayal in works of [[popular culture]]. He was played by [[David Farrar (actor)|David Farrar]] in the fictional film ''[[The 300 Spartans]]'' ([[1962 in film|1962]]), where he is portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept commander. He also features prominently in the graphic novels ''[[300 (comics)|300]]'' and ''[[Xerxes: The Fall of the House of Darius and the Rise of Alexander]]'' by [[Frank Miller (comics)|Frank Miller]], as well as the film adaptation ''[[300 (film)|300]]'' ([[2007 in film|2007]]) and its sequel ''[[300: Rise of an Empire]]'' ([[2014 in film|2014]]), as portrayed by [[Brazil]]ian actor [[Rodrigo Santoro]], in which he is represented as a giant man with androgynous qualities, who claims to be a god-king. This portrayal attracted controversy, especially in [[Iran]].<ref>Boucher, Geoff [http://herocomplex.latimes.com/2010/06/01/xerxes-300-frank-miller-300-zack-snyder-300/ "Frank Miller returns to the '300' battlefield with 'Xerxes': 'I make no apologies whatsoever'"], ''The Los Angeles Times'', 1 June 2010, accessed 2010-05-14.</ref> [[Ken Davitian]] plays Xerxes in ''[[Meet the Spartans]]'', a parody of the first ''300'' movie replete with sophomoric humour and deliberate [[anachronisms]]. Other works dealing with the Persian Empire or the Biblical story of [[Esther]] have also featured or alluded to Xerxes, such as the video game ''[[Assassin's Creed II]]'' and the film ''[[One Night with the King]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]]), in which [[Ahasuerus]] (Xerxes) was portrayed by British actor [[Luke Goss]]. He is the leader of the Persian Empire in the video game ''[[Civilization II]]'' and ''[[Civilization III|III]]'' (along with [[Scheherazade]]), although ''[[Civilization IV]]'' replaces him with [[Cyrus the Great]] and [[Darius I]].{{citation needed|date=June 2013}} In the ''[[Age of Empires (video game)|Age of Empires]]'', Xerxes featured as a short swordsman. [[File:Xerxes by Ernest Normand.jpg|thumb|upright|Xerxes ([[Ahasuerus]]) by [[Ernest Normand]], 1888 (detail)]] [[Gore Vidal]], in his historical fiction novel ''[[Creation (novel)|Creation]]'' (1981), describes at length the rise of the Achemenids, especially Darius I, and presents the life and death circumstances of Xerxes. Vidal's version of the Persian Wars, which diverges from the orthodoxy of the Greek histories, is told through the invented character of Cyrus Spitama, a half-Greek, half-Persian, and grandson of the prophet [[Zoroaster]]. Thanks to his family connection, Cyrus is brought up in the Persian court after the murder of Zoroaster, becoming the boyhood friend of Xerxes, and later a diplomat who is sent to India, and later to Greece, and who is thereby able to gain privileged access to many leading historical figures of the period.<ref>Gore Vidal, ''Creation: A Novel'' (Random House, 1981)</ref> Xerxes ([[Ahasuerus]]) is portrayed by [[Richard Egan (actor)|Richard Egan]] in the 1960 film ''[[Esther and the King]]'' and by [[Joel Smallbone]] in the 2013 film, ''[[The Book of Esther (film)|The Book of Esther]]''. In at least one of these films, the events of the Book of Esther are depicted as taking place upon Xerxes' return from Greece.{{citation needed|date=January 2019}} Xerxes plays an important background role (never making an appearance) in two short works of [[alternate history]] taking place generations after his complete victory over Greece. These are: "Counting Potsherds" by [[Harry Turtledove]] in his anthology ''[[Departures (collection)|Departures]]'' and "The Craft of War" by [[Lois Tilton]] in ''Alternate Generals'' volume 1 (edited by Turtledove).{{citation needed|date=January 2019}} ==See also== * [[List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources]] ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Bibliography== ===Ancient sources=== * {{ws | [[s:History of Herodotus/Book 6|The Sixth Book, Entitled Erato]] in ''History of Herodotus''}} * {{ws | [[s:History of Herodotus/Book 7|The Seventh Book, Entitled Polymnia]] in ''History of Herodotus''}} ===Modern sources=== {{refbegin|40em}} * {{cite journal|last=Barkworth|first=Peter R.|title=The Organization of Xerxes' Army|year=1993|journal=Iranica Antiqua|volume=27|pages=149–167|doi=10.2143/ia.27.0.2002126|ref=refbarkworth}} * {{cite book|title=The Cambridge Ancient History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1988|isbn=0-521-22804-2|volume=V|ref=refcah-vv|first1=John|last1=Boardman}} * {{cite encyclopaedia |last=Boyce |first=Mary |title=Achaemenid Religion |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-religion |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |volume=vol. 1 |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |ref=refachaemenidr-EI}} * {{cite book | title = Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices | year = 1979 | publisher = Psychology Press | last = Boyce | first = Mary | author-link = Mary Boyce | pages = 1–252 | isbn = 9780415239028 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=a6gbxVfjtUEC&q=false }} * {{cite encyclopedia | title = Ahura Mazdā | last = Boyce | first = Mary | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ahura-mazda | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 7 | pages = 684–687 | year = 1984 }} * Bridges, Emma (2014). Imagining Xerxes: Ancient Perspectives on a Persian King. Bloomsbury. {{ISBN|978-1472511379}} * {{cite book | title = From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire | year = 2002 | publisher = Eisenbrauns | last = Briant | first = Pierre | author-link = Pierre Briant | pages = 1–1196 | isbn = 9781575061207 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lxQ9W6F1oSYC&q=false }} * {{cite encyclopedia | article = Women i. 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Boyle |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=0-521-20091-1 |year=1985 |ref=refchi-v2}} * {{cite book |first=Lloyd|last=Llewellyn-Jones|editor1-last=Daryaee |editor1-first=Touraj |title=King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE - 651 CE) |date=2017 |publisher=UCI Jordan Center for Persian Studies |chapter=The Achaemenid Empire|pages=1–236|isbn=9780692864401|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=unTjswEACAAJ}} * {{cite encyclopedia | title = Zoroastrianism i. Historical review up to the Arab conquest | last = Malandra | first = William W. | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/zoroastrianism-i-historical-review | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Iranica | year = 2005 }}* {{cite book |last1=Macaulay |first1=G.C. |title=The Histories |publisher=Spark Educational Publishing |year=2004 |isbn=1-59308-102-2 |ref=refherodotus-macaulay}} * {{cite book|last=Marciak|first=Michał|title=Sophene, Gordyene, and Adiabene: Three Regna Minora of Northern Mesopotamia Between East and West|date=2017|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004350724|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hwEtDwAAQBAJ}} * {{cite encyclopaedia |last=McCullough |first=W.S |title=Ahasuerus |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ahasureus |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |volume=vol. 1 |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |ref=refMcCullough-EI}} * {{cite journal |last=Schmeja |first=H. |title=Dareios, Xerxes, Artaxerxes. Drei persische Königsnamen in griechischer Deutung (Zu Herodot 6,98,3) |year=1975 |journal=Die Sprache |volume=21 |pages=184–188 |ref=refschmeja}} * {{cite book |last1=Radner|first1=Karen|editor-last=Potts|editor-first=Daniel T.|title=The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran |date=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199733309 |chapter=Assyria and the Medes}} * {{Cite book|chapter-url=https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004217584/BP000026.xml|title=Brill's Companion to Herodotus|last=Sancisi-Weerdenburg|first=Heleen|publisher=BRILL|year=2002|isbn=9789004217584|pages=579–590|chapter=The Personality of Xerxes, King of Kings|ref=CITEREFSancisi-Weerdenburg2002|doi=10.1163/9789004217584_026}} * {{cite encyclopaedia |last=Schmitt |first=Rüdiger |title=Achaemenid dynasty |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-dynasty |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |volume=vol. 3 |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |ref=refachaemenids-EI}} * {{cite encyclopaedia |last=Schmitt |first=Rüdiger |title=Atossa |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/atossa-achaemenid-queen |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |volume=vol. 3 |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |ref=refatossa-EI}} * {{cite encyclopedia | title = Xerxes i. The Name | last = Schmitt| first = Rüdiger | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/xerxes-1-name | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Iranica | year = 2000 }} * {{cite book |last=Shabani |first=Reza |title=Khshayarsha (Xerxes) |series=[http://www.iranculturestudies.com/persian/whatsiran.html What do I know about Iran? No. 75] |publisher=Cultural Research Bureau |isbn=978-964-379-109-4 |year=2007 |language=fa |page=120 |ref=refshabani-xerxes}} * {{cite encyclopaedia |last=Shahbazi |first=A. Sh. |title=Darius I the Great |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/darius-iii |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |volume=vol. 7 |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |ref=refdariusithegreat-EI}} * {{cite book | title = Xerxes: A Persian Life | year = 2015 | publisher = [[Yale University Press]] | last = Stoneman | first = Richard | pages = 1–288 | isbn = 9781575061207 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=WqtJCgAAQBAJ }} * {{cite book |title=History of the Persian Empire |first1=A.T. |last1=Olmstead|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=978-0226497648 |year=1979 |orig-year=1948 |ref=#refartaxerxes}} * {{Cite book|url=http://www.peeters-leuven.be/pdf/9789042938090.pdf|title=Xerxes and Babylonia: The Cuneiform Evidence|last1=Waerzeggers|first1=Caroline|last2=Seire|first2=Maarja|publisher=Peeters Publishers|year=2018|isbn=978-90-429-3670-6|ref=CITEREFWaerzeggersSeire2018}} * {{cite journal |last1=Waters|first1=Matt|title=Darius and the Achaemenid Line |date=1996|pages=11–18| location = London|url=https://www.academia.edu/1040688|url-access=registration}} {{refend}} ==External links== {{Commons category|Xerxes I}} * {{Cite EB1911|short=x|wstitle=Xerxes}} {{s-start}} {{s-hou|[[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid dynasty]]||519 BC||465 BC}} {{s-bef|rows=2|before=[[Darius I]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[List of kings of Persia|King of Kings of Persia]]|years=486 BC – 465 BC}} {{s-aft|rows=2|after=[[Artaxerxes I of Persia|Artaxerxes I]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Pharaoh|Pharaoh of Egypt]]|years=486 BC – 465 BC}} {{s-end}} {{Median and Achaemenid kings}} {{Pharaohs}} {{Achaemenid rulers}} {{Persepolis}} {{Authority control}} {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Xerxes 01}} [[Category:Xerxes I| ]] [[Category:510s BC births]] [[Category:465 BC deaths]] [[Category:Year of birth uncertain]] [[Category:5th-century BC Kings of the Achaemenid Empire]] [[Category:5th-century BC Pharaohs]] [[Category:5th-century BC Babylonian kings]] [[Category:Kings of the 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en-wikipedia-org-8349	----	Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt 398 BC–380 BC Sphinx of Hakor Capital Mendes Common languages Egyptian language Religion Ancient Egyptian Religion Government Absolute monarchy Historical era Classical antiquity • Deposition of Amyrtaeus 398 BC • Deposition of Nefaarud II 380 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt The Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt (notated Dynasty XXIX, alternatively 29th Dynasty or Dynasty 29) is usually classified as the fourth Dynasty of the Ancient Egyptian Late Period. It was founded after the overthrow of Amyrtaeus, the only Pharaoh of the 28th Dynasty, by Nefaarud I in 398 BC, and disestablished upon the overthrow of Nefaarud II in 380 BC. Contents 1 History 2 Pharaohs of the 29th Dynasty 3 Timeline of the 29th Dynasty 4 References History[edit] Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e Nefaarud I founded the 29th Dynasty (according to an account preserved in a papyrus in the Brooklyn Museum) by defeating Amyrtaeus in open battle, and later putting him to death at Memphis. Nefaarud then made Mendes his capital. On Nefaarud's death, two rival factions fought for the throne: one behind his son Muthis, and the other supporting a usurper Psammuthes; although Psammuthes was successful, he only managed to reign for a year. Psammuthes was overthrown by Hakor, who claimed to be the grandson of Nefaarud I. He successfully resisted Persian attempts to reconquer Egypt, drawing support from Athens (until the Peace of Antalcidas in 387 BC), and from the rebel king of Cyprus, Evagoras. Although his son Nefaarud II became king on his death, the younger Nefaarud was unable to keep hold of his inheritance. Pharaohs of the 29th Dynasty[edit] Main article: List of pharaohs Name of Pharaoh Image Reign Comments Nefaarud I 398–393 BC Defeated Amyrtaeus in open battle and had him executed Psammuthes 393 BC Reigned for only a year. Overthrown by Hakor. Hakor (Achoris) 393–380BC Overthrew his predecessor Psammuthes. Father of Nefaarud II. Nefaarud II 380 BC Was deposed and likely killed by Nectanebo I after ruling for only 4 months. Timeline of the 29th Dynasty[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to 29th dynasty of Egypt. References[edit] Clarysse, Willy (1974), "Nephorites, Founder of the 29th Dynasty and His Name", Chronique d'Égypte: Bulletin Périodique de la Fondation égyptologique Reine Élisabeth, 69: 215–217. Lloyd, Alan Brian (2000), "The Late Period (664–332 BC)", in Shaw, Ian (ed.), The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 369–394, ISBN 0-8109-1020-9. Myśliwiec, Karol (2000), The Twilight of Ancient Egypt: First Millennium B.C.E, Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, ISBN 0-8014-8630-0. Translated by David Lorton. Ray, John D. (1986), "Psammuthis and Hakoris", Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, Egypt Exploration Society, 72: 149–158, doi:10.2307/3821486, JSTOR 3821486. Traunecker, Claude (1979), "Essai sur l'histoire de la XXIXe dynastie" (PDF), Bulletin de l'Institut français d'archéologie orientale, 79: 395–436, archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-04-23. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Twenty-ninth_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=995648538" Categories: Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt States and territories established in the 4th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 4th century BC Dynasties of ancient Egypt 398 BC 390s BC establishments 4th-century BC establishments in Egypt 380 BC 4th-century BC disestablishments in Egypt Hidden categories: Pages using the EasyTimeline extension Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français 한국어 Íslenska Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português සිංහල Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska தமிழ் Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 December 2020, at 04:04 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8369	----	Abdemon - Wikipedia Abdemon From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Phoenician king of Cyprus Abdemon (Ancient Greek: Αὐδήμων, gen.: Αὐδήμονος), was one of the kings of Cyprus at the end of the 5th century BC. He was of Phoenician origin and was born either in Tyre[1] or Kition on Cyprus.[2] Around 415 BC, Abdemon deposed the Phoenician ruler of Salamis on Cyprus.[3] Evagoras, who allegedly came from a Greek dynasty (Teucrids), had to leave the city and went into exile in Soloi. However, Evagoras returned in 411 BC with his followers and was able to depose Abdemon.[4] Some coins of Abdemon have been found. Notes[edit] ^ Diodorus Siculus 14. 98. 1 ^ Theopompus, Fragmente der griechischen Historiker (FGrH), no. 115, F 103 ^ Isocrates, or. 9. 26 ^ Isocrates or. 9. 26-32; Diodorus Siculus 14. 98. 1 References[edit] Abdemon. In: Neuer Pauly (English: Brill's New Pauly), vol. 1, 1996, col. 11-12. Unknown King of Salamis ca. 415–411 BC Succeeded by Evagoras I v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abdemon&oldid=981126286" Categories: Kings of Salamis, Cyprus Phoenician kings 5th-century BC rulers Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Azərbaycanca Deutsch Ελληνικά Italiano Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 30 September 2020, at 12:50 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-836	----	Nynetjer - Wikipedia Nynetjer From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Nynetjer Ninetjer, Banetjer, Binothris, Biophis Small statue of Nynetjer wearing ceremonial clothes of the sed festival. Currently held at the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden at Leiden (Netherlands). Pharaoh Reign 43-45 years (2nd Dynasty; around 2740 BC) Predecessor Nebra Successor uncertain; Wadjenes or Weneg Royal titulary Nomen Abydos King List Banetjer B3-nṯr Saqqara King List Banetjeru B3-nṯr.w Turin Canon ...Netjer-ren ...nṯr-rn Gold name (Palermo stone) Ren-nebu Rn-nb.w Horus name Nynetjer Nj-nṯr Godlike one of Horus Nebty name Nynetjer-Nebty Nj-nṯr-nbt.j Godlike one of the Two Ladies Burial Saqqara Nynetjer (also known as Ninetjer and Banetjer) is the Horus name of the third pharaoh of the Second Dynasty of Egypt. The length of his reign is unknown. The Turin Canon suggests an improbable reign of 96 years[1] and Egyptian historian Manetho suggested that Nynetjer's reign lasted 47 years.[2] Egyptologists question both statements as misinterpretations or exaggerations. They generally credit Nynetjer with a reign of either 43 years or 45 years. Their estimation is based on the reconstructions of the well known Palermo Stone inscription reporting the years 7–21, the Cairo Stone inscription reporting the years 36–44.[3][4] According to different authors, Nynetjer ruled Egypt from c. 2850 BC to 2760 BC[5] or later from c. 2760 BC to 2715 BC.[6] Contents 1 Name sources 2 Identity 3 Reign 4 End of reign 5 Tomb 6 References 7 External links Name sources[edit] Cartouche of Nynetjer in the Abydos King List (no. 11). Nynetjer is one of the best archaeologically attested kings of 2nd dynasty. His name appears in inscriptions on stone vessels and clay sealings in large numbers from his tomb at Sakkara. A large number of artifacts bearing his name were also found in the tomb of king Peribsen at Abydos and in the galleries beneath the step pyramid of king Djoser. However, the datings of some inscriptions, especially those made of black ink, caused some problems. Writing experts and archaeologists such as Ilona Regulski point out that the ink inscriptions are of a somewhat later date than the stone and seal inscriptions. She dates the ink markings to the reigns of kings such as Khasekhemwy and Djoser and assumes that the artifacts originated from Abydos. In fact, alabaster vessels and earthen jars with black ink inscriptions with very similar font design showing Nynetjer's name were found in Peribsen's tomb.[7][8] Nynetjer's name also appears on a rock inscription near Abu Handal in Lower Nubia. This might represent a clue that Nynetjer sent a military expedition into this region, though the inscription only provides limited information.[9] Identity[edit] Nynetjer is commonly identified with the Ramesside cartouche names Banetjer from the Abydos King List, Banetjeru from the Sakkara table and Netjer-ren from the Royal Canon of Turin. The Palermo Stone inscription presents an unusual goldname of Nynetjer: Ren-nebu, meaning "golden offspring" or "golden calf". This name appears already on artefacts surviving from Nynetjer's lifetime and Egyptologists such as Wolfgang Helck and Toby Wilkinson think that it could be some kind of forerunner of the golden-Horus-name that was established in the royal titulature at the beginning of 3rd dynasty under king Djoser.[10] Reign[edit] Year events 7–21 from the reign of Nynetjer (Palermo Stone, recto. To read from right to left) Most of the information known about Nynetjer's reign are found on the main fragments of the Annal Stone of the 5th dynasty. The Palermo Stone lists[11] the following events: 7th year: Escort of Horus (3rd cattle count)...(rest is missing) 8th year: Appearance of the king; "stretching the cords" (a ceremony for a foundation[11]) for "Hor-Ren". Flood level: 1.57 metres. 9th year: Escort of Horus (4th cattle count). Flood level: 1.09 metres 10th year: Appearance of the king of Lower- and Upper Egypt; "Race of the Apis bull" (pḥrr Ḥp). Flood level: 1.09 metres. 11th year: Escort of Horus (5th cattle count). Flood level: 1.98 metres. 12th year: Appearance of the king of Lower Egypt; second celebration of the Sokar feast. Flood level: 1.92 metres. 13th year: Escort of Horus (6th cattle count). Flood level: 0.52 metres. 14th year: First celebration of "Hor-seba-pet" (Horus the star in heaven); Destruction/Foundation of the cities of "Schem-Re" (The sun has come[11]) and "Ha" (The northern city[11])(The reading of this text passage is the subject of much discussion, since the hieroglyphic sign of a hoe as used here can mean either 'Destruction' or 'Foundation'.[11]) Flood level: 2.15 metres. 15th year: Escort of Horus (7th cattle count). Flood level: 2.15 metres. 16th year: Appearance of the king of Lower Egypt; second "Race of the Apis bull" (pḥrr Ḥp). Flood level: 1.92 metres. 17th year: Escort of Horus (8th cattle count). Flood level: 2.40 metres. 18th year: Appearance of the king of Lower Egypt; third celebration of the Sokar feast. Flood level: 2.21 metres. 19th year: Escort of Horus (9th cattle count). Flood level: 2.25 metres. 20th year: Appearance of the king of Lower Egypt; offering for the king's mother; celebrating of the "Feast of eternity" (a burial ceremony[11]) Flood level 1.92 metres. 21st year: Escort of Horus (10th cattle count)...(rest is missing). The Cairo Stone gives the years 36–44. The surface of the stone slab is damaged. Therefore, most of the events are illegible, except for the "birth" (creation) of an Anubis fetish and parts of a "Appearance of the king of Lower- and Upper Egypt".[11] The ancient Egyptian historian Manetho, over 2000 years later, called Nynetjer Binôthrís and said that during this ruler's reign "women received the right to gain royal dignity", meaning that women were allowed to reign like a king. Egyptologists such as Walter Bryan Emery assume that this reference was an obituary to the queens Meritneith and Neithhotep from the early 1st dynasty, both of whom are believed to have held the Egyptian throne for several years because their sons were too young to rule.[12] During the reign of Nynetjer the yearly event 'Escort of Horus' was replenished by an event called 'cattle count' which was of highest economic importance to the Egyptian realm, because it was the official implementation of the yearly tax collections. This new state sourcing was held for all times from now on. The event 'Escort of Horus' was abandoned at the beginning of 3rd dynasty.[13] End of reign[edit] Fragment of a vase of Nynetjer discovered in the tomb of Seth-Peribsen which may have been part of the equipment of a boat of the king, depicted below his name.[14] Egyptologists such as Wolfgang Helck, Nicolas Grimal, Hermann Alexander Schlögl and Francesco Tiradritti believe that Nynetjer left a realm that was suffering from an overly complex state administration and that Nynetjer decided to split Egypt to leave it to his two sons (or, at least, to two successors) who would rule two separate kingdoms, in the hope that the two rulers could better administer the states.[15][16] Diorite vase of Nynetjer bearing the king's name and mentioning a ″palace of the White Crown". Discovered in the gallery B beneath the Pyramid of Djoser. In contrast, Egyptologists such as Barbara Bell believe that an economic catastrophe such as a famine or a long lasting drought affected Egypt around this time. Therefore, to address the problem of feeding the Egyptian population, Nynetjer split the realm into two and his successors ruled two independent states until the famine came to an end. Bell points to the inscriptions of the Palermo stone, where, in her opinion, the records of the annual Nile floods show constantly low levels during this period.[17] Bell's theory is now refuted by Egyptologists such as Stephan Seidlmayer, who corrected Bell's calculations. Seidlmayer has shown that the annual Nile floods were at their usual levels at Nynetjer's time up to the period of the Old Kingdom. Bell had overlooked that the heights of the Nile floods in the Palermo Stone inscriptions only takes into account the measurements of the nilometers around Memphis, but not elsewhere along the river. Any long-lasting drought is therefore less likely to be an explanation.[18] It is also unclear if Nynetjer's successor already shared his throne with another ruler, or if the Egyptian state was split at the time of his death. All known king lists such as the Sakkara list, the Turin Canon and the Abydos table list a king Wadjenes as Nynetjer's immediate successor and as the predecessor of a king called Senedj. After Senedj, the kinglists differ from each other regarding successors. While the Sakkara list and the Turin canon mention the kings Neferka(ra) I, Neferkasokar and Hudjefa I as immediate successors, the Abydos list skips them and lists a king Djadjay (identical with king Khasekhemwy). If Egypt was already divided when Senedj gained the throne, kings like Sekhemib and Peribsen would have ruled Upper Egypt, whilst Senedj and his successors, Neferka(ra) and Hudjefa I, would have ruled Lower Egypt. The division of Egypt was brought to an end by king Khasekhemwy.[19] Tomb[edit] Fragment of a diorite vase mentioning Nynetjer and the goddess of the Delta, Bastet. The unusually large mastaba tomb of the high official Ruaben (or Ni-Ruab), mastaba S2302, was once thought to be Nynetjer's tomb, until the true burial site of the king was found. The earlier misinterpretations were caused by the large amount of clay seals with Nynetjer's serekh name that were found in Ruaben's mastaba. Therefore, Mastaba S2302 belongs to Ruaben and Ruaben held his office during the reign of Nynetjer. Nynetjer's gallery tomb lies beneath the cortege passage of the Unas-necropolis at Sakkara and measures 94x106 metres. The entrance ramp leads 25 metres deep into three galleries heading East-West, extending into a maze-like system of doorways, vestibules and corridors. The Deutsches Archäologisches Institut (DAI) accomplished five excavations and found out, that Nynetjer's tomb shows great architectural similarities to the Gallery Tomb B, which is thought to be either Raneb's or Hotepsekhemwy's burial site. This led the DAI to the conclusion that Nynetjer was inspired by his predecessor's tombs. 56 flint knives, 44 razors, 44 further blades and wine and beer jars were found. The southern gallery surprisingly was nearly undisturbed and contained many royal objects surviving from Nynetjer's lifetime, such as more than 50 sealed wine jars, carrying nets, storage boxes made of wood and decorated alabaster bottles. Some of the wine jars originated from the tombs of the late 1st Dynasty. In another gallery the mummy masks and a woman's coffin of the Ramesside era were found. Nynetjer's tomb was therefore partially re-used in later times. The main burial chamber was located at the southern-west end of the tomb, but the whole burial site is highly unstable and is in danger of collapsing.[20][21][22] References[edit] ^ Alan H. Gardiner: The Royal Canon of Turin. Griffith Institute of Oxford, Oxford (UK) 1997, ISBN 0-900416-48-3; page 15 & Table I. ^ William Gillian Waddell: Manetho (The Loeb Classical Library, Volume 350). Harvard University Press, Cambridge (Mass.) 2004 (Reprint), ISBN 0-674-99385-3, page 37–41. ^ Walter Bryan Emery: Ägypten - Geschichte und Kultur der Frühzeit. Fourier-Verlag Wiesbaden 1964, ISBN 3-921695-39-2, page 105. ^ Toby Wilkinson: Royal Annals of Ancient Egypt. The Palermo Stone and its Associated Fragments. Kegan&Paul International, London/New York 2000, ISBN 0-7103-0667-9, page 119–126 & 204. ^ Bierbrier, Morris (1999). Historical Dictionary of Ancient Egypt. The Scarecrow Press, Inc. p. 328. ISBN 0-8108-3614-9. ^ Hornung, Erik; Lorton, David (1999). History of Ancient Egypt: An Introduction. Cornell University Press. p. 224. ISBN 0-8014-8475-8. ^ Flinders Petrie: Royal Tombs of the Earliest Dynasties. Egypt Exploration Fund, London 1901. Chapter II.; obj. 8; page 12–13 ^ Ilona Regulski: Second Dynasty Ink Inscriptions from Saqqara, in: Stan Hendrickx & Barbara Adams: Egypt at its Origins; Peeters Publishers, Lieuven 2004; ISBN 90-429-1469-6, Seite 949 - 970. ^ Z. Zaba: The Rock Inscriptions of Lower Nubia. Czechoslovak Institute of Egyptology, Praha 1974; page 30-31. ^ Wolfgang Helck: Untersuchungen zur Thinitenzeit - Ägyptologische Abhandlungen, Volume 45. Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1987, ISBN 3-447-02677-4, page 116 & 117. ^ a b c d e f g after Siegfried Schott: Altägyptische Festdaten, Verlag der Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur, Mainz/Wiesbaden 1950, page 59–67. See also: Francesco Raffaele: Ninetjer (nswt-bity Nynetjer) ^ Walter Bryan Emery: Ägypten - Geschichte und Kultur der Frühzeit. Fourier-Verlag Wiesbaden 1964, ISBN 3-921695-39-2, page 104 & 175. ^ Petra Andrassy: Untersuchungen zum ägyptischen Staat des Alten Reiches und seinen Institutionen (= Internet=Beiträge zur Ägyptologie und Sudanarchäologie XI). Berlin/ London 2008, ISBN 978-1-906137-08-3, S. 16 online. ^ W.M. Flinders Petrie: The royal tombs of the first dynasty, 1901, Part II, p.26-27, Pl VIII.13. ^ Nicolas Grimal: A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley-Blackwell, Weinheim 1994, ISBN 978-0-631-19396-8, page 55. ^ Francesco Tiradritti & Anna Maria Donadoni Roveri: Kemet: Alle Sorgenti Del Tempo. Electa, Milano 1998, ISBN 88-435-6042-5, page 80–85. ^ Barbara Bell: Oldest Records of the Nile Floods, In: Geographical Journal, No. 136. 1970, page 569–573; M. Goedike: Journal of Egypt Archaeology, No. 42. 1998, page 50. ^ Stephan Seidlmayer: Historische und moderne Nilstände: Historische und moderne Nilstände: Untersuchungen zu den Pegelablesungen des Nils von der Frühzeit bis in die Gegenwart. Achet, Berlin 2001, ISBN 3-9803730-8-8, page 87–89. ^ Hermann Alexander Schlögl: Das Alte Ägypten: Geschichte und Kultur von der Frühzeit bis zu Kleopatra. Beck, Hamburg 2006, ISBN 3-406-54988-8, page 77-78 & 415. ^ Walter Bryan Emery: Ägypten - Geschichte und Kultur der Frühzeit. Fourier-Verlag, Wiesbaden 1964, ISBN 3-921695-39-2, page 104-105. ^ Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt: Strategies, Society and Security. Routledge, London/New York 2001, ISBN 0-415-26011-6, page 85–87. ^ J. Van Wetering: The royal cemetery of Early Dynasty Period at Saqqara and the Second Dynasty Royal Tombs; in: Stan Hendrickx: Egypt at its Origins. Peeters Publishers, Leuven 2004; ISBN 90-429-1469-6, page 1065–1066. External links[edit] Francesco Raffaele: Ninetjer (nswt-bity Nynetjer) v t e Second Dynasty of Ancient Egypt Attested pharaohs Hotepsekhemwy Nebra Weneg Nynetjer Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Khasekhemwy Obscure pharaoh names Horus Ba Ba Horus Sa Hudjefa I Neferkara I Neferkasokar Nubnefer Senedj Sneferka Wadjenes Queen consort Nimaathap Other royals Khenmetptah Satkhnum Sehener Shepset-ipet Wadjitefni (Mesen-ka) Pehen-Ptah Nisuheqet Nefer-Setekh Monument Gisr el-Mudir Capital Thinis v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 1072323788 VIAF: 315982427 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 315982427 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nynetjer&oldid=995690645" Categories: 29th-century BC Pharaohs 28th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Second Dynasty of Egypt 28th century BC in Egypt 28th-century BC rulers 3rd-millennium BC births 3rd-millennium BC deaths Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Azərbaycanca Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski 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en-wikipedia-org-8394	----	First Alcibiades - Wikipedia First Alcibiades From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Part of a series on Platonism Plato from Raphael's The School of Athens (1509–1511) Early life Epistemology Idealism / Realism Demiurge Theory of forms Theory of soul Transcendentals Form of the Good Third man argument Euthyphro dilemma Five regimes Philosopher king Plato's unwritten doctrines Political philosophy The dialogues of Plato Early: Apology Charmides Crito Euthyphro Hippias Minor Ion Laches Lysis Transitional and middle: Cratylus Euthydemus Gorgias Menexenus Meno Phaedo Protagoras Symposium Later middle: Parmenides Phaedrus Republic Theaetetus Late: Critias Laws Philebus Sophist Statesman Timaeus Of doubtful authenticity: Axiochus Clitophon Demodocus Epinomis Eryxias First Alcibiades Halcyon Hipparchus Hippias Major Minos On Justice On Virtue Rival Lovers Second Alcibiades Sisyphus Theages Other works of doubtful authenticity: Definitions Epigrams Epistles Allegories and metaphors Atlantis Ring of Gyges The Cave The Divided Line The Sun Ship of State Myth of Er The Chariot Related articles Commentaries The Academy in Athens Socratic problem Academic skepticism Middle Platonism Neoplatonism and Christianity Allegorical interpretations of Plato Related categories ► Plato  Philosophy portal v t e The First Alcibiades or Alcibiades I (Greek: Ἀλκιβιάδης αʹ) is a dialogue featuring Alcibiades in conversation with Socrates. It is ascribed to Plato, although scholars are divided on the question of its authenticity. Contents 1 Content 2 Authenticity 3 Dating 4 References 5 Bibliography 6 External links Content[edit] In the preface Alcibiades is described as an ambitious young man who is eager to enter public life. He is extremely proud of his good looks, noble birth, many friends, possessions and his connection to Pericles, the leader of the Athenian state. Alcibiades has many admirers but they have all run away, afraid of his coldness. Socrates was the first of his admirers but he has not spoken to him for many years. Now the older man tries to help the youth with his questions before Alcibiades presents himself in front of the Athenian assembly. For the rest of the dialogue Socrates explains the many reasons why Alcibiades needs him. By the end of Alcibiades I, the youth is much persuaded by Socrates' reasoning, and accepts him as his mentor. The first topic they enter is the essence of politics – war and peace. Socrates claims that people should fight on just grounds, but he doubts that Alcibiades has any knowledge about justice. Prodded by Socrates’ questioning, Alcibiades admits that he has never learned the nature of justice from a master nor has discovered it by himself. Alcibiades suggests that politics is not about justice but expediency and the two principles could be opposed. Socrates persuades him that he is mistaken, and there is no expediency without justice. The humiliated youth concedes that he knows nothing about politics. Later Alcibiades says that he is not concerned about his ignorance because all the other Athenian politicians are ignorant. Socrates reminds him that his true rivals are the kings of Sparta and Persia. He delivers a long lecture about the careful education, glorious might and unparalleled richness of these foreign rulers. Alcibiades gets cold feet which was exactly the purpose of Socrates’ speech. After this interlude the dialogue proceeds with further questioning about the rules of society. Socrates points to the many contradictions in Alcibiades’ thoughts. Later they agree that man has to follow the advice of the famous Delphic phrase: gnōthi seautón meaning know thyself. They discuss that the "ruling principle" of man is not the body but the soul. Somebody's true lover loves his soul, while the lover of the body flies as soon as the youth fades. With this Socrates proves that he is the only true lover of Alcibiades. "From this day forward, I must and will follow you as you have followed me; I will be the disciple, and you shall be my master", proclaims the youth. Together they will work on to improve Alcibiades' character because only the virtuous has the right to govern. Tyrannical power should not be the aim of individuals but people accept to be commanded by a superior. In the last sentence Socrates expresses his hope that Alcibiades will persist, but he has fears because the power of the state "may be too much" for both of them. Authenticity[edit] In antiquity Alcibiades I was regarded as the best text to introduce one to Platonic philosophy, which may be why it has continued to be included in the Platonic corpus since then. The authenticity of the dialogue was never doubted in antiquity. It was not until 1836 that the German scholar Friedrich Schleiermacher argued against the ascription to Plato.[1] Subsequently its popularity declined. However, stylometric research supports Plato's authorship,[2] and some scholars have recently defended its authenticity.[3] Dating[edit] Traditionally, the First Alcibiades has been considered an early dialogue. Gerard Ledger's stylometric analysis supported this tradition, dating the work to the 390s.[4] Julia Annas, in supporting the authenticity of Rival Lovers, saw both dialogues as laying the foundation for ideas Plato would later develop in Charmides. A later dating has also been defended. Nicholas Denyer suggests that it was written in the 350s BC, when Plato, back in Athens, could reflect on the similarities between Dionysius II of Syracuse (as we know him from the Seventh Letter) and Alcibiades—two young men interested in philosophy but compromised by their ambition and faulty early education.[5] This hypothesis requires skepticism about what is usually regarded as the only fairly certain result of Platonic stylometry, Plato's marked tendency to avoid hiatus in the six dialogues widely believed to have been composed in the period to which Denyer assigns First Alcibiades (Timaeus, Critias, Sophist, Statesman, Philebus, and Laws).[6] A compromise solution to the difficult issues of dating attending the linguistic features of First Alcibiades has also been sought in the hypothesis that the first two-thirds of the dialogue was written by some other member of the Platonic Academy, whose efforts were completed by Plato himself in his late-middle period.[7] R.S. Bluck, although unimpressed by previous arguments against the dialogue's authenticity, tentatively suggests a date after the end of Plato's life, approximately 343/2 BC, based especially on "a striking parallelism between the Alcibiades and early works of Aristotle, as well as certain other compositions that probably belong to the same period as the latter."[8] References[edit] ^ Denyer (2001): 15. ^ Young (1998): 35-36. ^ Denyer (2001): 14-26. ^ Young (1998) ^ Denyer (2001): 11-14. Cf. 20-24 ^ Denyer (2001): 23 n. 19 ^ Pamela M. Clark, "The Greater Alcibiades," Classical Quarterly N.S. 5 (1955), pp. 231-240 ^ R.S. Bluck, "The Origin of the Greater Alcibiades," Classical Quarterly N.S. 3 (1953), pp. 46-52 Bibliography[edit] Denyer, Nicholas, "introduction", in Plato, Alcibiades, Nicholas Denyer (ed.) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001): 1-26. Foucault, Michel, The Hermeneutics of the Subject: Lectures at the Collège de France, 1981–1982 (New York: Picador, 2005). Young, Charles M., "Plato and Computer Dating", in Nicholas D. Smith (ed.), Plato: Critical Assessments volume 1: General Issues of Interpretation (London: Routledge, 1998): 29-49. External links[edit] Wikisource has original text related to this article: Alcibiades I Greek text: Greek Wikisource, HODOI (with French translation and concordance) First Alcibiades, trans. Benjamin Jowett (Project Gutenberg) Alcibiade de Platon, French adaptation directed by Frédéric Laville (2014). v t e Socrates General Trial of Socrates Concepts Social gadfly Socratic dialogue Socratic intellectualism Socratic irony Socratic method Socratic paradox Socratic questioning Legacy Socratic problem Socratici viri Phrases "I know that I know nothing" "The unexamined life is not worth living" Related Euthyphro dilemma Form of the Good Peritrope Religious skepticism Family Sophroniscus (father) Phaenarete (mother) Xanthippe (wife) Lamprocles (son) Menexenus (son) Myrto (wife) Works about Socrates Art Double Herm of Socrates and Seneca (3rd century sculpture) The Death of Socrates (1787 painting) Socrates (1950 sculpture) Stage The Clouds (423 BC play) Der geduldige Socrates (1721 opera) Socrates (1759 play) Socrate (1919 oratorio) Socrates on Trial (2007 play) Literature De genio Socratis (1st century essay) On the Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates (1841 thesis) The Plot to Save Socrates (2006 novel) Other Barefoot in Athens (1966 film) Socrates (1971 film) Dialogues Plato Apology Axiochus Charmides Clitophon Cratylus Critias Crito Demodocus Epinomis Eryxias Euthydemus Euthyphro First Alcibiades Gorgias Hipparchus Hippias Major Hippias Minor Ion Laches Laws Lysis Menexenus Meno Minos On Justice On Virtue Parmenides Phaedo Phaedrus Philebus Protagoras Republic Rival Lovers Second Alcibiades Sisyphus Sophist Statesman Symposium Theaetetus Theages Timaeus Xenophon Apology Memorabilia Oeconomicus Symposium Other Halcyon Socratic Letters Category v t e Plato General Early life Concepts Platonism Platonic epistemology Platonic idealism Platonic realism Innatism Platonic love Cardinal virtues Demiurge Theory of Forms Transcendentals Form of the Good Third man argument Euthyphro dilemma Five regimes Theory of soul Philosopher king Platonic solid True name Agathos kai sophos Khôra Metaxy Peritrope Philotimon Poiesis Psychagogy Sophrosyne Theia mania Topos hyperuranios Legacy Unwritten doctrines Cultural influence of Plato's Republic Neoplatonism and Gnosticism Platonism in the Renaissance Works Uncontested Apology Charmides Cratylus Critias Crito Euthydemus Euthyphro Gorgias Hippias Minor Ion Laches Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 228 Laws Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 23 Lysis Menexenus Meno Parmenides Phaedo Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 229 Phaedrus Philebus Protagoras Republic Sophist Statesman Symposium Theaetetus Timaeus Of doubtful authenticity Axiochus Clitophon Definitions Demodocus Epigrams Epinomis Epistles Letter I II IV V VI VII IX X XI XII Eryxias First Alcibiades Halcyon Hipparchus Hippias Major Minos On Justice On Virtue Rival Lovers Second Alcibiades Sisyphus Theages Allegories and metaphors Atlantis Ring of Gyges The Cave The Divided Line The Sun Ship of State Myth of Er The Chariot Allegorical interpretations of Plato Family Ariston of Athens (father) Pyrilampes (stepfather) Perictione (mother) Adeimantus of Collytus (brother) Glaucon (brother) Antiphon (brother) Potone (sister) Speusippus (nephew) Related Commentaries The Academy in Athens Socratic problem Middle Platonism Neoplatonism and Christianity Poitier Meets Plato List of speakers in Plato's dialogues "Plato's Dream" Authority control BNF: cb12011564h (data) GND: 4476091-7 LCCN: nr2002012592 SELIBR: 327308 SUDOC: 070417571 VIAF: 120149841989802841026 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 120149841989802841026 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=First_Alcibiades&oldid=975485335" Categories: Dialogues of Plato Socratic dialogues Hidden categories: Articles containing Greek-language text Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages Brezhoneg Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français 한국어 Íslenska Italiano Nederlands 日本語 Português Русский Slovenčina Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 28 August 2020, at 19:51 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8410	----	Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef - Wikipedia Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Rishi coffin of Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef, on display at the Louvre Pharaoh Reign late 17th Dynasty (17th Dynasty) Predecessor Nubkheperre Intef Successor Senakhtenre Ahmose Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Sḫm-Rˁ-hrw-ḥr-M3ˁ.t Mighty like Re is the one who satisfies Maat Nomen Initef Jnj-it.f[1] Intef (litt.: his father brought him) Consort Haankhes Father unknown Burial Tomb at Dra' Abu el-Naga' Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef (or Antef, Inyotef) was an ancient Egyptian king of the Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt, who ruled during the Second Intermediate Period, when Egypt was divided between the Theban-based 17th Dynasty in Upper Egypt and the Hyksos 15th Dynasty who controlled Lower and part of Middle Egypt. Cartouche of Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef or Intef VIII, detail of a limestone block from Koptos Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef is referred to as Intef VII in some literature,[1][2][3] while others refer to him as Intef VIII.[4] Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef ruled from Thebes, and was buried in a tomb in the 17th Dynasty royal necropolis at Dra' Abu el-Naga'. Brief reign[edit] His only clear attestation is his coffin – Louvre E 3020 – now in France.[5] His sarcophagus contained the corrected nomen of this king as well as his prenomen, Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat, "which was added in ink on the chest of the coffin."[6] Little more is known concerning the reign of this king except that he was a short-lived successor of Nubkheperre Intef. The Danish Egyptologist Kim Ryholt has argued that Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef was possibly a co-regent of Nubkheperre Intef based on a block from Koptos, which preserves ... the nomen and prenomen of Antef N[ubkheperre] together with the unfortunately almost lost prenomen of another king. The prenomina of both kings are given the epithet di-ˁnḫ[7] and since this was normally used only for the ruling king, it may be inferred that these kings co-reigned."[8] Ryholt observes that the length of the damaged cartouche would fit well with the long prenomen of Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat. Ryholt suggested that Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef died prematurely and was buried in a royal coffin that initially belonged to Nubkheperre Intef; hence, Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef did not enjoy an independent reign of his own. The British Egyptologist Aidan Dodson, however, criticises Ryholt's proposal that Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef died during the reign of his predecessor and was buried in Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef's original royal coffin. Dodson observes that the form of the name Intef written here (which was originally similar to that used to designate Nubkheperre Intef before it was amended for Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef) and the added king's prenomen of Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat on this king's coffin was composed in an entirely different hand from the remaining texts on the coffin.[9] Dodson also stresses that On the matter of the coffins of the Inyotef kings, Ryholt fails to address the key point that the container used for Sekhemre-heruhirmaet (his "Inyotef H") is certainly a "stock" [i.e., non-royal] coffin, made lacking the deceased's name, to be inserted later—just as was that later used for the burial of Kamose. On this basis, there seems no possibility of the former having been the original coffin of Inyotef N, pressed into service for his prematurely defunct co-regent. The reviewer's previous explanation of the changed spelling of the nomen thus remains the most likely, and may also provide an explanation for the inclusion of the prenomen: in view of the confusion in the mind of the scribe, he made sure that the king was correctly identified in the Hereafter by adding his prenomen as well![10] Dodson's previous explanation derives from his GM 120 (1991) article where the author argues that Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef was most probably a short-lived Theban king who died within months of his accession to power since the temple "scribes were probably still used to writing Inyotef in the manner of Nubkheperre [Intef] [sc. with the reed-leaf: in-it=f], leading to the corrected mistake on the coffin [of Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef]".[11] This would also explain the modesty of Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef's coffin, which lacked a royal uraeus and is stylistically similar to the clearly non-royal coffin of Kamose. Intef, hence, would not have had the time to create a proper royal coffin in his abbreviated reign. The prominent German Egyptologist Daniel Polz who rediscovered the tomb of the powerful 17th Dynasty king Nubkheperre Intef at Dra' Abu el-Naga' in 2001 also places Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef as a short-lived successor of this influential pharaoh in a 2007 book just prior to the accession of Senakhtenre Ahmose.[12] References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef. ^ a b Jürgen von Beckerath, Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen (= Münchner ägyptologische Studien, vol 46), Mainz am Rhein: Verlag Philipp von Zabern, 1999. ISBN 3-8053-2310-7, pp. 128–29 ^ Chris Bennett, "A Genealogical Chronology of the Seventeenth Dynasty", Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, Vol. 39 (2002), pp. 123–155 JSTOR ^ Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004. ^ Kim S. B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800–1550 BC, CNI Publications, Vol: 20, Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, pp. 177, 204, 266, 289, 395 ^ Kim Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, Museum Tusculanum Press, (1997), p. 267 ^ Ryholt, p. 267 ^ Given life ^ Ryholt, p. 268 ^ Aidan Dodson, Book Review of Ryholt, K. S. B., The Political Situation in Egypt..., Bibliotheca Orientalis LVII No. 1/2, January–April 2000, p. 51 ^ Dodson, Bi Or, LVII No. 1/2, pp. 51–52 ^ Aidan Dodson, "On the Internal Chronology of the Seventeenth Dynasty", Göttinger Miszellen 120 (1991), p. 36 ^ Daniel Polz, Der Beginn des Neuen Reiches. Zur Vorgeschichte einer Zeitenwende. Sonderschriften des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo, 31. Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2007. p. 50 Preceded by Nubkheperre Intef Pharaoh of Egypt Seventeenth Dynasty Succeeded by Senakhtenre Ahmose v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat_Intef&oldid=988805594" Categories: 16th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Català Deutsch Español Euskara Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى 日本語 Polski Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 15 November 2020, at 10:18 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8412	----	Cambridge University Press - Wikipedia Cambridge University Press From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Publishing business of the University of Cambridge For the football club, see Cambridge University Press F.C. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Cambridge University Press" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Cambridge University Press Parent company University of Cambridge Status Active Founded 1534; 487 years ago (1534) Founder King Henry VIII of England Country of origin United Kingdom Headquarters location Cambridge, England Distribution self-distributed Ingram Content Group (US fulfillment) DHL Supply Chain (UK fulfillment)[1] Key people Stephen Toope, Peter Phillips Nonfiction topics Humanities; Social Sciences; Science; Medicine; Engineering and Technology; English Language Teaching and Learning; Education; Bibles Revenue £336 million (2020) No. of employees 3,039; 58 per cent are outside the UK Official website www.cambridge.org Logo on the front cover of "The Victorian Age by William Ralph Inge" used by Cambridge University Press. Cambridge University Press (CUP) is the publishing business of the University of Cambridge. Granted letters patent by King Henry VIII in 1534, it is the oldest university press in the world.[2][3][4][5] It is also the Queen's Printer.[6] Cambridge University Press is a department of the University of Cambridge and is both an academic and educational publisher. With a global sales presence, publishing hubs, and offices in more than 40 countries, it publishes over 50,000 titles by authors from over 100 countries. Its publishing includes more than 380 academic journals, monographs, reference works, school and university textbooks, and English language teaching and learning publications. It also publishes Bibles, runs a bookshop in Cambridge, sells through Amazon, and has conference venues business in Cambridge at the Pitt Building and the Sir Geoffrey Cass Sports and Social Centre. Being part of the University of Cambridge gives CUP a non-profit status. CUP transfers a minimum of 30% of any annual surplus back to the University of Cambridge.[7] Contents 1 History 2 Relationship with the University of Cambridge 3 Organisational structure 3.1 Academic Publishing 3.2 English Language Teaching 3.3 Education 3.4 Shared Services 4 Partnerships and acquisitions 5 Digital developments 6 Controversies 6.1 Alms for Jihad 6.2 Cambridge University Press v. Patton 6.3 China Quarterly 7 Community work 8 Environment 9 Open access 10 Publications 11 References 11.1 Citations 11.2 Sources 12 External links History[edit] Cambridge University Press head office in Cambridge Cambridge University Press building in Cambridge Cambridge University Press is the oldest university press in the world. It originated from letters patent granted to the University of Cambridge by Henry VIII in 1534. Cambridge is one of the two privileged presses (the other being Oxford University Press). Authors published by Cambridge have included John Milton, William Harvey, Isaac Newton, Bertrand Russell, and Stephen Hawking.[8] University printing began in Cambridge when the first practicing University Printer, Thomas Thomas, set up a printing house in 1584.[4] In July 1697 the Duke of Somerset made a loan of £200 to the university "towards the printing house and press" and James Halman, Registrary of the University, lent £100 for the same purpose.[9] The press began using steam-powered machine presses by the 1850s. It was in this period that the Press turned down what later became the Oxford English Dictionary – a proposal for which was brought to Cambridge by James Murray before he turned to Oxford.[8] In 1975 the Press launched its English language teaching publishing business.[10] In 1981 the Press built a new purpose-built building named The Edinburgh Building with its adjoining warehouse to accommodate the Press's expansion. This site was sold to Cambridge Assessment in 2015 for the construction of The Triangle Building. In 1986 the Press acquired the long-established Bible and prayer book publisher Eyre & Spottiswoode, which gave the Press the ancient and unique title of 'The Queen's Printer'.[11] In 1992 the Press opened a bookshop at 1 Trinity Street. It the oldest known bookshop site in Britain.[12] In 2008 the shop expanded into 27 Market Hill where its specialist Education and English Language Teaching shop opened the following year. The Press bookshop showcases Press books as well as selling a wide selection of gifts, including mugs, diaries, bags, postcards, maps, and other Cambridge souvenirs.[13] In 2012 the Press sold its printing operation to MPG Books Group[14] and CUP now uses third parties around the world to provide its print publications. Relationship with the University of Cambridge[edit] The Pitt Building in Cambridge, which used to be the headquarters of Cambridge University Press, is now a conference venue CUP is a non-teaching department of the University of Cambridge. The Press has, since 1698, been governed by the Press 'Syndics' (originally known as the 'Curators'),[15] 18 senior members of the University of Cambridge who, along with other non-executive directors, bring a range of subject and business expertise.[16] The Chair of the Syndicate is currently Professor Stephen Toope (Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cambridge). The Syndicate has delegated its powers to a Press & Assessment Board; and to an Academic Publishing Committee and an English Language Teaching & Education Publishing Committee.[17] The Press & Assessment Board is responsible for setting overarching strategic direction.[17] The Publishing Committees provide quality assurance and formal approval of the publishing strategy.[17] The operational responsibility of the Press is delegated by the Syndics to the Secretary of the Syndicate and Chief Executive. Organisational structure[edit] Cambridge University Press comprises three publishing groups and a shared services group. These are: Academic Publishing[edit] This group publishes research books and journals in science, technology, medicine, humanities, and the social sciences.[18] It also publishes advanced learning materials and reference content as well as 380 journals, of which 43 are ‘Gold’ Open Access. Open Access articles now account for 15 per cent of articles. The group also publishes Bibles, and the Press is one of only two publishers entitled to publish the Book of Common Prayer and the King James Version of the Bible in England.[19] English Language Teaching[edit] ELT publishes English language teaching courses and resources for learners of all ages around the world.[18] It offers a suite of integrated learning and assessment tools underpinned by the Cambridge Curriculum, a systematic approach to learning and evaluating proficiency in English. It works closely with Cambridge Assessment through the joint initiative Cambridge Exams Publishing. Education[edit] The Education group delivers educational products, services and software for primary, secondary and international schools. It collaborates with Cambridge Assessment and the University of Cambridge Faculty of Education to help countries such as Kazakhstan and Oman to improve their education systems. It also works with Cambridge Assessment to reach more schools and develop new products and services that improve teaching and learning. Shared Services[edit] Shared services functions include Customer Services, Finance, Technology, Operations, HR and Legal. Partnerships and acquisitions[edit] In 2011, Cambridge University Press formed a partnership with Cambridge Assessment to publish official Cambridge preparation materials for Cambridge English and IELTS examinations. In 2015, Cambridge University Press formed a strategic content and technology partnership with Edmodo, the world's most extensive e-learning platform for primary and secondary teachers and pupils, to bring premier educational content and technology to schools in the United Kingdom.[20] In 2017, the University of Cambridge announced that Cambridge University Press and Cambridge Assessment would work more closely in future under governance by the Press & Assessment Board. In 2019, Cambridge University Press and Cambridge Assessment English acquired the Centre for Evaluation and Monitoring from Durham. CEM provides assessments to measure learner progress and potential, as well as 11 Plus exams for many UK independent and grammar schools.[21] In 2020, CUP partnered with EDUCATE Ventures, the University College London edtech accelerator, to better understand the challenges and successes of home education during the lockdown.[22] In 2020, CUP partnered with online library Perlego to offer students access to digital textbooks.[23] In October 2020, CUP announced it would create a 'new unified organization' by merging with Cambridge Assessment, to launch 1 August 2021.[24] Digital developments[edit] Cambridge University Press sign at the Cambridge HQ In 2011, Cambridge University Press (CUP) adopted SAP. In January 2013, the finance and procurement model of SAP was implemented. The sales and distribution model of SAP is now being implemented. Cambridge University Press works closely with IT services firm Tech Mahindra on SAP, and with Cognizant and Wipro on other systems.[25][26] In 2016, Cambridge Books Online and Cambridge Journals Online were replaced by Cambridge Core which provided significantly enhanced interfaces and upgraded navigation capabilities, as well as article-level and chapter-level content selection.[27] A year after Cambridge Core went live, the Press launched Cambridge Core Share, functionality to allow users to generate and share links with free access to selected journal articles, an early sign of the Press's commitment to open research.[28] Controversies[edit] Alms for Jihad[edit] Main article: Alms for Jihad In 2007, controversy arose over the Press's decision to destroy all remaining copies of its 2006 book Alms for Jihad: Charity and Terrorism in the Islamic World, by Burr and Collins, as part of the settlement of a lawsuit brought by Saudi billionaire Khalid bin Mahfouz.[29] Within hours, Alms for Jihad became one of the 100 most sought after titles on Amazon.com and eBay in the United States. The Press sent a letter to libraries asking them to remove copies from circulation. The Press subsequently sent out copies of an "errata" sheet for the book. The American Library Association issued a recommendation to libraries still holding Alms for Jihad: "Given the intense interest in the book, and the desire of readers to learn about the controversy first hand, we recommend that U.S. libraries keep the book available for their users." The publisher's decision did not have the support of the book's authors and was criticized by some who claimed it was incompatible with freedom of speech and with freedom of the press and that it indicated that English libel laws were excessively strict.[30][31] In a New York Times Book Review (7 October 2007), United States Congressman Frank R. Wolf described Cambridge's settlement as "basically a book burning".[32] The Press pointed out that, at that time, it had already sold most of its copies of the book. The Press defended its actions, saying it had acted responsibly and that it is a global publisher with a duty to observe the laws of many different countries.[33] Cambridge University Press v. Patton[edit] Main article: Cambridge University Press v. Patton In this case, originally filed in 2008, final judgment pending, CUP et al. accused Georgia State University of infringement of copyright.[34] China Quarterly[edit] On 18 August 2017, following an "instruction" from a Chinese import agency, Cambridge University Press used the functionality that had been built into Cambridge Core to temporarily delete politically sensitive articles from the China Quarterly on its Chinese website. The articles focused on topics China regards as taboo, including the 1989 Tiananmen massacre, Chairman Mao Zedong’s Cultural Revolution, Hong Kong's fight for democracy and ethnic tensions in Xinjiang and Tibet.[35][36][37][38] On 21 August 2017, in the face of growing international protests, CUP announced it would immediately repost the articles to uphold the principle of academic freedom on which the University's work is founded.[39][40] Community work[edit] Cambridge University Press's stand at the Frankfurt Book Fair 2018 The Press undertakes substantial community engagement with the local community and around the world where there are Press employees. In 2016, some of the Press's community works included its continued support to Westchester Community College in New York, the installation of hygienic facilities in an Indonesian rural school, raising funds to rehabilitate earthquake-stricken schools in Nepal and guiding students from Coleridge Community College, Cambridge in a CV workshop. On World Book Day 2016, the Press held a digital Shakespeare publishing workshop for students and their teachers. Similarly, their Indian office conducted a workshop for teachers and students in 17 schools in Delhi to learn the whole process of book publishing. The Press donated more than 75,000 books in 2016.[41] Annually, the Press selects their UK Charity of the Year, which has included local charities Centre 33 (2016 and 2017), Rowan Humberstone (2018) and Castle School (2019). An apprenticeship program for people interested in careers in publishing was established in 2016.[42] Environment[edit] The Press monitors its emissions annually, has converted to energy-saving equipment, minimizes plastic use and ensures that their paper is sourced ethically.[43] In 2019, the World Wildlife Fund awarded its highest score to the Press of Three Trees, based on the Press's timber purchasing policy, performance statement and its responsible sourcing of timber.[44] The Press works hard to minimise the number of books that are sent for pulping each year. Open access[edit] Cambridge University Press has stated its support for a sustainable transition to open access.[45] It offers a range of open access publishing options under the heading of Cambridge Open, allowing authors to comply with the Gold Open Access and Green Open Access requirements of major research funders. It publishes Gold Open Access journals and books and works with publishing partners such as learned societies to develop Open Access for different communities. It supports Green Open Access (also called Green archiving) across its journals and monographs, allowing authors to deposit content in institutional and subject-specific repositories. It also supports sharing on commercial sharing sites through its Cambridge Core Share service. In recent years it has entered into several Read & Publish Open Access agreements with university libraries and consortia in several countries, including a landmark agreement with the University of California.[46][47] In its 2019 Annual Report, Cambridge University Press stated that it saw such agreements "as an important stepping stone in the transition to Open Access."[48] In 2019, the Press joined with the University of Cambridge's research and teaching departments to give a unified response to Plan S, which calls for all publications resulting from publicly-funded research to be published in compliant open access journals or platforms from 2020. The response emphasized Cambridge's commitment to an open access goal which works effectively for all academic disciplines, is financially sustainable for institutions and high-quality peer review, and which leads to an orderly transition.[49] The Press is a member of the Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association and the International Association of STM Publishers. Publications[edit] For a more comprehensive list, see List of Cambridge University Press book series and List of Cambridge University Press journals. In 2019, the Press released a new concept in scholarly publishing through Cambridge Elements where authors whose works are either too short to be printed as a book or too long to qualify as a journal article can have them published within 12 weeks.[50] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ "Cambridge announces tenth successive year of growth". Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 6 February 2018. ^ "Oldest printing and publishing house". Guinnessworldrecords.com. 22 January 2002. Retrieved 28 March 2012. ^ Black, Michael (1984). Cambridge University Press, 1583–1984. pp. 328–9. ISBN 978-0-521-66497-4. ^ a b "A Brief History of the Press". Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 3 August 2018. ^ "About Oxford University Press". OUP Academic. Retrieved 3 August 2018. ^ "The Queen's Printer's Patent". Cambridge UNiversity Press. Retrieved 20 March 2016. ^ "University of Cambridge Financial Statements" (PDF). ^ a b Black, Michael (2000). Cambridge University Press, 1584–1984. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-66497-4. ^ The Cambridge University Press 1696—1712 (CUP, 1966), p. 78 ^ "Timeline". Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 26 July 2019. ^ Black, Michael; Black, Michael H. (28 March 2000). A Short History of Cambridge University Press. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77572-4. ^ "History of the Bookshop". Cambridge University Press Bookshop. 2009. Retrieved 16 January 2018. ^ "Our Bookshop". Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 30 June 2020. ^ "Cambridge University Press ends printing after 400 years | The Bookseller". www.thebookseller.com. Retrieved 30 June 2020. ^ McKitterick, David (1998). A History of Cambridge University Press, Volume 2: Scholarship and Commerce, 1698–1872. Cambridge University Press. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-521-30802-1. ^ "Statutes J – The University Press" (PDF). University of Cambridge. 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 June 2011. Retrieved 4 May 2011. ^ a b c "The Press Syndicate". Cambridge University Press. ^ a b Black, Michael (2000). A Short History of Cambridge University Press. Cambridge University Press. pp. 65–66. ISBN 978-0-521-77572-4. ^ "The Queen's Printers Patent". Cambridge University Press Website. Archived from the original on 25 January 2012. Retrieved 15 October 2012. ^ "Edmodo and Cambridge University Press Form Strategic Content and Technology Partnership". Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 30 June 2020. ^ "Cambridge Assessment Annual Report 2018-19" (PDF). ^ "EDUCATE Ventures and Cambridge University Press enter partnership to deliver major study on home learning during pandemic". Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 30 June 2020. ^ "Cambridge University Press partners with Perlego on online textbooks | The Bookseller". www.thebookseller.com. Retrieved 16 August 2020. ^ "Cambridge University Press merges with Cambridge Assessment | Camrbidge University Press". www.cambridge.org. ^ "CIO interview: Mark Maddocks, Cambridge University Press". ComputerWeekly.com. Retrieved 30 June 2020. ^ "Tech Mahindra deploys SAP sol for Cambridge University Press". Business Standard India. Press Trust of India. 29 January 2014. Retrieved 30 June 2020. ^ Launching Cambridge Core, retrieved 25 July 2019 ^ Sharing Platform Includes Content Usage Records, retrieved 25 July 2019 ^ Steyn, Mark (6 August 2007). "One Way Multiculturalism". The New York Sun. Ronald Weintraub. Retrieved 4 May 2011. ^ Richardson, Anna (3 August 2007). "Bonus Books criticises CUP". Thebookseller.com. Retrieved 4 May 2011. ^ Jaschick, Scott (16 August 2007). "A University Press stands up – and wins". Insidehighered.com. Retrieved 4 May 2011. ^ Danadio, Rachel (7 October 2007). "Libel Without Borders". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 May 2011. ^ Taylor, Kevin (9 August 2007). "Why CUP acted responsibly". The Bookseller. Retrieved 4 May 2011. ^ Hafner, Katie (16 April 2008). "Publishers Sue Georgia State on Digital Reading Matter". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 13 May 2020. ^ "《中國季刊》:對中國刪300多篇文章深表關注". 18 August 2017 – via www.bbc.com. ^ "Cambridge University Press statement regarding content in The China Quarterly". Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 20 August 2017. ^ Millward, James A. (19 August 2017). "Open Letter to Cambridge University Press about its censorship of the China Quarterly". Medium. Retrieved 20 August 2017. ^ Phillips, Tom (20 August 2017). "Cambridge University Press censorship 'exposes Xi Jinping's authoritarian shift'". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 20 August 2017. ^ Kennedy, Maev; Phillips, Tom (21 August 2017). "Cambridge University Press backs down over China censorship". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 22 August 2017. ^ "Cambridge University Press reverses China censorship move". BBC News. 21 August 2017. Retrieved 22 August 2017. ^ Annual Report for the year ended 30 April 2016 (PDF), retrieved 25 July 2019 ^ Annual Report for the year ended 30 April 2017 (PDF), retrieved 25 July 2019 ^ Annual Report for the year ended 30 April 2018, retrieved 25 July 2019 ^ WWF Timber Scorecard 2019, retrieved 25 July 2019 ^ Open Research, retrieved 26 July 2019 ^ UC and Cambridge University Press Agree to Open Access Publishing Deal, retrieved 26 July 2019 ^ Kell, Gretchen (11 April 2019), "Post-Elsevier breakup, new publishing agreement 'a win for everyone'", University of California, retrieved 26 July 2019 ^ Annual Report 2019, Cambridge University Press, retrieved 26 July 2019 ^ Cambridge Submission to cOAlition S Consultation on Plan S (PDF), retrieved 26 July 2019 ^ Annual Report for the year ended 30 April 2016 (PDF), retrieved 25 July 2019 Sources[edit] Anonymous; The Student's Guide to the University of Cambridge. Third Edition, Revised and Partly Re-written; Deighton Bell, 1874 (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; ISBN 978-1-108-00491-6) Anonymous; War Record of the Cambridge University Press 1914–1919; Cambridge University Press, 1920; (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; ISBN 978-1-108-00294-3) A History of Cambridge University Press, Volume 1: Printing and the Book Trade in Cambridge, 1534–1698; McKitterick, David; 1992; ISBN 978-0-521-30801-4 A History of Cambridge University Press, Volume 2: Scholarship and Commerce, 1698–1872; McKitterick, David; 1998; ISBN 978-0-521-30802-1 A History of Cambridge University Press, Volume 3: New Worlds for Learning, 1873–1972; McKitterick, David; 1998; ISBN 978-0-521-30803-8 A Short History of Cambridge University Press; Black, Michael; 2000; ISBN 978-0-521-77572-4 Cambridge University Press 1584–1984; Black, Michael, Foreword by Gordon Johnson; 2000; ISBN 978-0-521-66497-4, Hardback ISBN 978-0-521-26473-0 External links[edit] Wikisource has original works published by or about: Cambridge University Press Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cambridge University Press. 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en-wikipedia-org-8416	----	George Frideric Handel - Wikipedia George Frideric Handel From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 18th-century German, later British, Baroque composer "Handel" redirects here. For other uses, see Handel (disambiguation). George Frideric Handel Portrait of Handel, by Balthasar Denner (c. 1726–1728) Born Georg Friederich Händel 5 March [O.S. 23 February] 1685 Halle, Duchy of Magdeburg, Brandenburg-Prussia Died 14 April 1759(1759-04-14) (aged 74) London, England Burial place Westminster Abbey Signature George Frideric (or Frederick) Handel (/ˈhændəl/;[a] baptised Georg Friederich Händel[b] [ˈɡeːɔʁk ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈhɛndl̩] (listen); 23 February 1685 – 14 April 1759)[2][c] was a German-born Baroque composer becoming well known for his operas, oratorios, anthems, concerti grossi and organ concertos. Handel received his training in Halle and worked as a composer in Hamburg and Italy before settling in London in 1712, where he spent the bulk of his career and became a naturalised British subject in 1727.[4] He was strongly influenced both by the middle-German polyphonic choral tradition and by composers of the Italian Baroque. Handel started three commercial opera companies to supply the English nobility with Italian opera. In 1737 he had a physical breakdown, changed direction creatively, and addressed the middle class and made a transition to English choral works.[5] After his success with Messiah (1742) he never composed an Italian opera again. His orchestral Water Music, and Music for the Royal Fireworks remain steadfastly popular.[6] Almost blind, he died in 1759, a respected and rich man. Handel composed more than forty opera serias over a period of more than thirty years. Since the late 1960s, interest in Handel's music has grown. The musicologist Winton Dean wrote that "Handel was not only a great composer; he was a dramatic genius of the first order."[7] His music exerted a strong influence on Classical-era composers, including Mozart and Beethoven. Contents 1 Early years 1.1 Family 1.2 Early education 1.3 Musical education 1.4 After the death of Handel's father 1.5 University 1.6 Halle compositions 2 From Halle to Italy 3 Move to London 3.1 Cannons (1717–19) 3.2 Royal Academy of Music (1719–34) 3.3 Opera at Covent Garden (1734–41) 3.4 Oratorio 4 Later years 5 Works 5.1 Catalogues 6 Legacy 6.1 Reception 6.2 Borrowings 6.3 Homages 6.4 Veneration 6.5 Fictional depictions 7 See also 8 Notes, references and sources 8.1 Notes 8.2 References 8.3 Sources 9 Further reading 10 External links 10.1 Scores and recordings Early years[edit] Family[edit] Handel's baptismal registration (Marienbibliothek in Halle) Handel was born (in the same year as Johann Sebastian Bach and Domenico Scarlatti) in Halle, Duchy of Magdeburg (then part of Brandenburg-Prussia), to Georg Händel, aged sixty-three, and Dorothea Taust.[8] His father was an eminent barber-surgeon who served the court of Saxe-Weissenfels and the Margraviate of Brandenburg.[9][d] Halle was a relatively prosperous city, home of a salt-mining industry and centre of trade (and member of the Hanseatic League).[11] The Margrave of Brandenburg became the administrator of the archiepiscopal territories of Mainz, including Magdeburg when they converted, and by the early 17th century held his court in Halle, which attracted renowned musicians.[e] Even the smaller churches all had "able organists and fair choirs",[f] and humanities and the letters thrived (Shakespeare was performed in the theatres early in the 17th century).[13] The Thirty Years War brought extensive destruction to Halle, and by the 1680s it was impoverished.[10] However, since the middle of the war the city had been under the administration of the Duke of Saxony, and soon after the end of the war he would bring musicians trained in Dresden to his court in Weissenfels.[14] Handel House, birthplace of Handel The arts and music, however, flourished only among the higher strata (not only in Halle but throughout Germany),[15] of which Handel's family was not a member. Georg Händel (senior) was born at the beginning of the war, and was apprenticed to a barber in Halle at the age of 14, after his father died.[g] When he was 20, he married the widow of the official barber-surgeon of a suburb of Halle, inheriting his practice. With this, Georg determinedly began the process of becoming self-made; by dint of his "conservative, steady, thrifty, unadventurous" lifestyle,[16] he guided the five children he had with Anna who reached adulthood into the medical profession (except his youngest daughter, who married a government official).[17] Anna died in 1682. Within a year Georg married again, this time to the daughter of a Lutheran minister, Pastor Georg Taust of the Church of St. Bartholomew in Giebichenstein,[18] who himself came from a long line of Lutheran pastors.[16] Handel was the second child of this marriage; the first son was stillborn.[19] Two younger sisters were born after the birth of George Frideric: Dorthea Sophia, born 6 October 1687, and Johanna Christiana, born 10 January 1690.[20] Early education[edit] Halle, copper engraving, 1686 Early in his life Handel is reported to have attended the Gymnasium in Halle,[21] where the headmaster, Johann Praetorius [de], was reputed to be an ardent musician.[22] Whether Handel remained there, and if he did for how long, is unknown, but many biographers suggest that he was withdrawn from school by his father, based on the characterization of him by Handel's first biographer, John Mainwaring. Mainwaring is the source for almost all information (little as it is) of Handel's childhood, and much of that information came from J.C. Smith, Jr., Handel's confidant and copyist.[23] Whether it came from Smith or elsewhere, Mainwaring frequently relates misinformation.[h] It is from Mainwaring that the portrait comes of Handel's father as implacably opposed to any musical education. Mainwaring writes that Georg Händel was "alarmed" at Handel's very early propensity for music,[i] "took every measure to oppose it", including forbidding any musical instrument in the house and preventing Handel from going to any house where they might be found.[25] This did nothing to dampen young Handel's inclination; in fact, it did the reverse. Mainwaring tells the story of Handel's secret attic spinet: Handel "found means to get a little clavichord privately convey'd to a room at the top of the house. To this room he constantly stole when the family was asleep".[26] Although both John Hawkins and Charles Burney credited this tale, Schoelcher found it nearly "incredible" and a feat of "poetic imagination"[27] and Lang considers it one of the unproven "romantic stories" that surrounded Handel's childhood.[28] But Handel had to have had some experience with the keyboard to have made the impression in Weissenfels that resulted in his receiving formal musical training.[29] Musical education[edit] Sometime between the ages of seven and nine, Handel accompanied his father to Weissenfels where he came under the notice of one whom Handel thereafter always regarded throughout life as his benefactor,[30] Duke Johann Adolf I.[j] Somehow Handel made his way to the court organ in the palace chapel of the Holy Trinity, where he surprised everyone with his playing.[33] Overhearing this performance and noting the youth of the performer caused the Duke, whose suggestions were not to be disregarded, to recommend to Georg Händel that Handel be given musical instruction.[34] Handel's father engaged the organist at the Halle parish church, the young Friedrich Wilhelm Zachow, to instruct Handel. Zachow would be the only teacher that Handel ever had.[28] Because of his church employment, Zachow was an organist "of the old school", reveling in fugues, canons and counterpoint.[30] But he was also familiar with developments in music across Europe and his own compositions "embraced the new concerted, dramatic style".[k] When Zachow discovered the talent of Handel, he introduced him "to a vast collection of German and Italian music, which he possessed, sacred and profane, vocal and instrumental compositions of different schools, different styles, and of every master".[30] Many traits considered "Handelian" can be traced back to Zachow's music.[36] At the same time Handel continued practice on the harpsichord, learned violin and organ, but according to Burney his special affection was for the hautbois (oboe).[37] Schoelcher speculates that his youthful devotion to the instrument explains the large number of pieces he composed for oboe.[38] Marktkirche in Halle where Zachow and Handel performed as organists With respect to instruction in composition, in addition to having Handel apply himself to traditional fugue and cantus firmus work, Zachow, recognising Handel's precocious talents, systematically introduced Handel to the variety of styles and masterworks contained in his extensive library. He did this by requiring Handel to copy selected scores. "I used to write like the devil in those days", Handel recalled much later.[39] Much of this copying was entered into a notebook that Handel maintained for the rest of his life. Although it has since disappeared, the notebook has been sufficiently described to understand what pieces Zachow wished Handel to study. Among the chief composers represented in this exercise book were Johann Krieger, an "old master" in the fugue and prominent organ composer, Johann Caspar Kerll, a representative of the "southern style" after his teacher Frescobaldi and imitated later by Handel,[l] Johann Jakob Froberger, an "internationalist" also closely studied by Buxtehude and Bach, and Georg Muffat, whose amalgam of French and Italian styles and his synthesis of musical forms influenced Handel.[41] Mainwaring writes that during this time Zachow had begun to have Handel assume some of his church duties. Zachow, Mainwaring asserts, was "often" absent, "from his love of company, and a cheerful glass", and Handel therefore performed on organ frequently.[42] What is more, according to Mainwaring, Handel began composing, at the age of nine, church services for voice and instruments "and from that time actually did compose a service every week for three years successively."[43] Mainwaring ends this chapter of Handel's life by concluding that three or four years had been enough to allow Handel to surpass Zachow, and Handel had become "impatient for another situation"; "Berlin was the place agreed upon."[44] Carelessness with dates or sequences (and possibly imaginative interpretation by Mainwaring) makes this period confused.[m] After the death of Handel's father[edit] Handel's father died on 11 February 1697.[45] It was German custom for friends and family to compose funeral odes for a substantial burgher like Georg,[46] and young Handel discharged his duty with a poem dated 18 February and signed with his name and (in deference to his father's wishes) "dedicated to the liberal arts."[47] At the time Handel was studying either at Halle's Lutheran Gymnasium or the Latin School.[46] Mainwaring has Handel traveling to Berlin the next year, 1698.[44] The problem with Mainwaring as an authority for this date, however, is that he tells of how Handel's father communicated with the "king"[n] during Handel's stay, declining the Court's offer to send Handel to Italy on a stipend[49] and that his father died "after his return from Berlin."[50] But since Georg Händel died in 1697, either the date of the trip or Mainwaring's statements about Handel's father must be in error. Early biographers solved the problem by making the year of the trip 1696, then noting that at the age of 11 Handel would need a guardian, so they have Handel's father or a friend of the family accompany him, all the while puzzling over why the elder Handel, who wanted Handel to become a lawyer, would spend the sum to lead his son further into the temptation of music as a career.[51] Schoelcher for example has Handel traveling to Berlin at 11, meeting both Bononcini and Attilio Ariosti in Berlin and then returning at the direction of his father.[52] But Ariosti was not in Berlin before the death of Handel's father,[53] and Handel could not have met Bononcini in Berlin before 1702.[54] Modern biographers either accept the year as 1698, since most reliable older authorities agree with it,[o] and discount what Mainwaring says about what took place during the trip or assume that Mainwaring conflated two or more visits to Berlin, as he did with Handel's later trips to Venice.[55] University[edit] Perhaps to fulfill a promise to his father or simply because he saw himself as "dedicated to the liberal arts," on 10 February 1702 Handel matriculated at the University of Halle.[56] That university had only recently been founded. In 1694 the Elector of Brandenburg Frederick III (later Prussian King Frederick I) created the school, largely to provide a lecture forum for the jurist Christian Thomasius who had been expelled from Leipzig for his liberal views.[13] Händel did not enroll in the faculty of law, although he almost certainly attended lectures.[57] Thomasius was an intellectual and academic crusader who was the first German academic to lecture in German and also denounced witch trials. Lang believes that Thomasius instilled in Händel a "respect for the dignity and freedom of man's mind and the solemn majesty of the law," principles that would have drawn him to and kept him in England for half a century.[58] Handel also there encountered theologian and professor of Oriental languages August Hermann Francke, who was particularly solicitous of children, particularly orphans. The orphanage he founded became a model for Germany, and undoubtedly influenced Handel's own charitable impulse, when he assigned the rights of Messiah to London's Foundling Hospital.[59] Domkirche in Halle Shortly after commencing his university education, Handel (though Lutheran[p]) on 13 March 1702 accepted the position of organist at the Calvinist Cathedral in Halle, the Domkirche, replacing J.C. Leporin, for whom he had acted as assistant.[61] The position, which was a one-year probationary appointment showed the foundation he had received from Zachow, for a church organist and cantor was a highly prestigious office. From it he received 5 thalers a year and lodgings in the run-down castle of Moritzburg. [62] Around this same time Handel made the acquaintance of Telemann. Four years Handel's senior, Telemann was studying law and assisting cantor Johann Kuhnau (Bach's predecessor at the Thomaskirche there). Telemann recalled forty years later in an autobiography for Mattheson's Grundlage: "The writing of the excellent Johann Kuhnau served as a model for me in fugue and counterpoint; but in fashioning melodic movements and examining them Handel and I were constantly occupied, frequently visiting each other as well as writing letters."[63] Halle compositions[edit] Although Mainwaring records that Handel wrote weekly when assistant to Zachow and as probationary organist at Domkirche part of his duty was to provide suitable music,[q] no sacred compositions from his Halle period can now be identified.[65] Mattheson, however, summarised his opinion of Handel's church cantatas written in Halle: "Handel in those days set very, very long arias and sheerly unending cantatas which, while not possessing the proper knack or correct taste, were perfect so far as harmony is concerned."[66] Early chamber works do exist, but it is difficult to date any of them to Handel's time in Halle. Many historians until recently followed Chrysander and designated the six trio sonatas for two oboes and basso continuo as his first known composition, supposedly written in 1696 (when Handel was 11).[67] Lang doubts the dating based on a handwritten date of a copy (1700) and stylistic considerations. Lang writes that the works "show thorough acquaintance with the distilled sonata style of the Corelli school" and are notable for "the formal security and the cleanness of the texture."[68] Hogwood considers all of the oboe trio sonatas spurious and even suggests that some parts cannot be performed on oboe.[69] That authentic manuscript sources do not exist and that Handel never recycled any material from these works make their authenticity doubtful.[70] Other early chamber works were printed in Amsterdam in 1724 as opus 1, but it is impossible to tell which are early works in their original form, rather than later re-workings by Handel, a frequent practice of his.[68] From Halle to Italy[edit] The Hamburg Opera am Gänsemarkt in 1726 Handel's probationary appointment to Domkirche expired in March 1703. By July[r] Handel was in Hamburg. Since he left no explanation for the move[s] biographers have offered their own speculation. Burrows believes that the answer can be found by untangling Mainwaring's confused chronology of the trip to Berlin. Burrows dates this trip to 1702 or 1703 (after his father's death) and concluded that since Handel (through a "friend and relation" at the Berlin court) turned down Frederick's offer to subsidise his musical education in Italy (with the implicit understanding that he would become a court musician on his return), Handel was no longer able to expect preferment (whether as musician, lawyer or otherwise) within Brandenburg-Prussia. And since he was attracted to secular, dramatic music (by meeting the Italians Bononcini and Attilio Ariosti and through the influence of Telemann), Hamburg, a free city with an established opera company, was the logical choice.[74] The question remains, however, why Handel rejected the King's offer, given that Italy was the centre of opera. Lang suggests that, influenced by the teachings of Thomasius, Handel's character was such that he was unable to make himself subservient to anyone, even a king. Lang sees Handel as someone who could not accept class distinctions that required him to regard himself as a social inferior. "What Handel craved was personal freedom to raise himself out of his provincial milieu to a life of culture."[75] Burrows notes that like his father, Handel was able to accept royal (and aristocratic) favours without considering himself a court servant.[76] And so given the embarrassed financial condition of his mother,[50] Handel set off for Hamburg to obtain experience while supporting himself. In 1703 he accepted a position as violinist and harpsichordist in the orchestra of the Hamburg Oper am Gänsemarkt.[77] There he met the composers Johann Mattheson, Christoph Graupner and Reinhard Keiser. His first two operas, Almira and Nero, were produced in 1705.[78] He produced two other operas, Daphne and Florindo, in 1708. It is unclear whether Handel directed these performances. Entrance of Teatro del Cocomero in Florence According to Mainwaring, in 1706 Handel travelled to Italy at the invitation of Ferdinando de' Medici. Other sources say Handel was invited by Gian Gastone de' Medici, whom Handel had met in 1703–1704 in Hamburg.[79] De' Medici[which?], who had a keen interest in opera, was trying to make Florence Italy's musical capital by attracting the leading talents of his day. In Italy Handel met librettist Antonio Salvi, with whom he later collaborated. Handel left for Rome and, since opera was (temporarily) banned in the Papal States, composed sacred music for the Roman clergy. His famous Dixit Dominus (1707) is from this era. He also composed cantatas in pastoral style for musical gatherings in the palaces of duchess Aurora Sanseverino (whom Mainwaring called "Donna Laura")[80] one of the most influential patrons from the Kingdom of Naples, and cardinals Pietro Ottoboni, Benedetto Pamphili and Carlo Colonna. Two oratorios, La resurrezione and Il trionfo del tempo, were produced in a private setting for Ruspoli and Ottoboni in 1709 and 1710, respectively. Rodrigo, his first all-Italian opera, was produced in the Cocomero theatre in Florence in 1707.[81] Agrippina was first produced in 1709 at Teatro San Giovanni Grisostomo in Venice, owned by the Grimanis. The opera, with a libretto by Cardinal Vincenzo Grimani, ran for 27 nights successively.[82] The audience, thunderstruck with the grandeur and sublimity of his style,[83] applauded for Il caro Sassone ("the dear Saxon" – referring to Handel's German origins). Move to London[edit] Handel (centre) and King George I on the River Thames, 17 July 1717, by Edouard Hamman (1819–88) In 1710, Handel became Kapellmeister to German prince George, the Elector of Hanover, who in 1714 would become King George I of Great Britain and Ireland.[84] He visited Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici and her husband in Düsseldorf on his way to London in 1710. With his opera Rinaldo, based on La Gerusalemme Liberata by the Italian poet Torquato Tasso, Handel enjoyed great success, although it was composed quickly, with many borrowings from his older Italian works.[85] This work contains one of Handel's favourite arias, Cara sposa, amante cara, and the famous Lascia ch'io pianga. In 1712, Handel decided to settle permanently in England. In the summer of 1713 he lived at Mr Mathew Andrews' estate in Barn Elms, Surrey.[86][87] He received a yearly income of £200 from Queen Anne after composing for her the Utrecht Te Deum and Jubilate, first performed in 1713.[88][89] One of his most important patrons was The 3rd Earl of Burlington and 4th Earl of Cork, a young and extremely wealthy member of an Anglo-Irish aristocratic family.[90] While living in the mansion of Lord Burlington, Handel wrote Amadigi di Gaula, a "magic" opera, about a damsel in distress, based on the tragedy by Antoine Houdar de la Motte. The conception of an opera as a coherent structure was slow to capture Handel's imagination[91] and he composed no operas for five years. In July 1717 Handel's Water Music was performed more than three times on the River Thames for the King and his guests. It is said the compositions spurred reconciliation between Handel and the King, supposedly annoyed by the composer's abandonment of his Hanover post.[92] Cannons (1717–19)[edit] Main article: Handel at Cannons "The Chandos portrait of Georg Friedrich Händel" by James Thornhill, c. 1720 In 1717 Handel became house composer at Cannons in Middlesex, where he laid the cornerstone for his future choral compositions in the Chandos Anthems.[93] Romain Rolland wrote that these anthems (or Psalms) stood in relation to Handel's oratorios, much the same way that the Italian cantatas stood to his operas: "splendid sketches of the more monumental works."[94] Another work, which he wrote for The 1st Duke of Chandos, the owner of Cannons, was Acis and Galatea: during Handel's lifetime it was his most performed work. Winton Dean wrote, "the music catches breath and disturbs the memory".[95] In 1719 the Duke of Chandos became one of the composer's important patrons and main subscribers to his new opera company, the Royal Academy of Music, but his patronage declined after Chandos lost money in the South Sea bubble, which burst in 1720 in one of history's greatest financial cataclysms. Handel himself invested in South Sea stock in 1716, when prices were low[96] and sold before 1720.[97] Royal Academy of Music (1719–34)[edit] Main article: Royal Academy of Music (company) Handel House at 25 Brook Street, Mayfair, London In May 1719, The 1st Duke of Newcastle, the Lord Chamberlain, ordered Handel to look for new singers.[98] Handel travelled to Dresden to attend the newly built opera. He saw Teofane by Antonio Lotti, and engaged members of the cast for the Royal Academy of Music, founded by a group of aristocrats to assure themselves a constant supply of baroque opera or opera seria. Handel may have invited John Smith, his fellow student in Halle, and his son Johann Christoph Schmidt, to become his secretary and amanuensis.[99] By 1723 he had moved into a Georgian house at 25 Brook Street, which he rented for the rest of his life.[100] This house, where he rehearsed, copied music and sold tickets, is now the Handel House Museum.[t] During twelve months between 1724 and 1725, Handel wrote three outstanding and successful operas, Giulio Cesare, Tamerlano and Rodelinda. Handel's operas are filled with da capo arias, such as Svegliatevi nel core. After composing Silete venti, he concentrated on opera and stopped writing cantatas. Scipio, from which the regimental slow march of the British Grenadier Guards is derived,[101] was performed as a stopgap, waiting for the arrival of Faustina Bordoni. A musical portrait of Frederick, Prince of Wales, and his sisters by Philip Mercier, dated 1733, using Kew Palace as its plein-air backdrop The Queen's Theatre in the Haymarket in London by William Capon In 1727 Handel was commissioned to write four anthems for the Coronation ceremony of King George II. One of these, Zadok the Priest, has been played at every British coronation ceremony since.[102] In 1728 John Gay's The Beggar's Opera, which made fun of the type of Italian opera Handel had popularised in London, premiered at Lincoln's Inn Fields Theatre and ran for 62 consecutive performances, the longest run in theatre history up to that time.[103] After nine years the Royal Academy of Music ceased to function but Handel soon started a new company. The Queen's Theatre at the Haymarket (now Her Majesty's Theatre), established in 1705 by architect and playwright John Vanbrugh, quickly became an opera house.[104] Between 1711 and 1739, more than 25 of Handel's operas premièred there.[105] In 1729 Handel became joint manager of the theatre with John James Heidegger. Handel travelled to Italy to engage new singers and also composed seven more operas, among them the comic masterpiece Partenope and the "magic" opera Orlando.[106] After two commercially successful English oratorios Esther and Deborah, he was able to invest again in the South Sea Company. Handel reworked his Acis and Galatea which then became his most successful work ever. Handel failed to compete with the Opera of the Nobility, who engaged musicians such as Johann Adolph Hasse, Nicolo Porpora and the famous castrato Farinelli. The strong support by Frederick, Prince of Wales caused conflicts in the royal family. In March 1734 Handel composed a wedding anthem This is the day which the Lord hath made, and a serenata Parnasso in Festa for Anne, Princess Royal.[107] Despite the problems the Opera of the Nobility was causing him at the time, Handel's neighbour in Brook Street, Mary Delany, reported on a party she invited Handel to at her house on 12 April 1734 where he was in good spirits: I had Lady Rich and her daughter, Lady Cath. Hanmer and her husband, Mr. and Mrs. Percival, Sir John Stanley and my brother, Mrs. Donellan, Strada [star soprano of Handel's operas] and Mr. Coot. Lord Shaftesbury begged of Mr. Percival to bring him, and being a profess'd friend of Mr. Handel (who was here also) was admitted; I never was so well entertained at an opera! Mr. Handel was in the best humour in the world, and played lessons and accompanied Strada and all the ladies that sang from seven o'clock till eleven. I gave them tea and coffee, and about half an hour after nine had a salver brought in of chocolate, mulled white wine and biscuits. Everybody was easy and seemed pleased.[108] Opera at Covent Garden (1734–41)[edit] Interior of the Covent Garden Theatre in London In 1733 the Earl of Essex received a letter with the following sentence: "Handel became so arbitrary a prince, that the Town murmurs." The board of chief investors expected Handel to retire when his contract ended, but Handel immediately looked for another theatre. In cooperation with John Rich he started his third company at Covent Garden Theatre. Rich was renowned for his spectacular productions. He suggested Handel use his small chorus and introduce the dancing of Marie Sallé, for whom Handel composed Terpsicore. In 1735 he introduced organ concertos between the acts. For the first time Handel allowed Gioacchino Conti, who had no time to learn his part, to substitute arias.[109] Financially, Ariodante was a failure, although he introduced ballet suites at the end of each act.[110] Alcina, his last opera with a magic content, and Alexander's Feast or the Power of Music based on John Dryden's Alexander's Feast starred Anna Maria Strada del Pò and John Beard. In April 1737, at age 52, Handel apparently suffered a stroke which disabled the use of four fingers on his right hand, preventing him from performing.[111] In summer the disorder seemed at times to affect his understanding. Nobody expected that Handel would ever be able to perform again. But whether the affliction was rheumatism, a stroke or a nervous breakdown, he recovered remarkably quickly .[112] To aid his recovery, Handel had travelled to Aachen, a spa in Germany. During six weeks he took long hot baths, and ended up playing the organ for a surprised audience.[113] He wrote Faramondo in December 1737 and Serse in January 1738. Deidamia, his last opera, a co-production with the Earl of Holderness,[114] was performed three times in 1741. Handel gave up the opera business, while he enjoyed more success with his English oratorios.[115] In 1738 he composed music for a musical clock with a pipe organ built by Charles Clay; it was bought by Gerrit Braamcamp and was in 2016 acquired by the Museum Speelklok in Utrecht.[116][117] Oratorio[edit] Further information: List of compositions by George Frideric Handel § Oratorios A painting of Handel by Philip Mercier Il trionfo del tempo e del disinganno, an allegory, Handel's first oratorio[118] was composed in Italy in 1707, followed by La resurrezione in 1708 which uses material from the Bible. The circumstances of Esther and its first performance, possibly in 1718, are obscure.[119] Another 12 years had passed when an act of piracy caused him to take up Esther once again.[120] Three earlier performances aroused such interest that they naturally prompted the idea of introducing it to a larger public. Next came Deborah, strongly coloured by the coronation anthems[121] and Athaliah, his first English Oratorio.[122] In these three oratorios Handel laid the foundation for the traditional use of the chorus which marks his later oratorios.[123] Handel became sure of himself, broader in his presentation, and more diverse in his composition.[124] It is evident how much he learned from Arcangelo Corelli about writing for instruments, and from Alessandro Scarlatti about writing for the solo voice; but there is no single composer who taught him how to write for chorus.[125] Handel tended more and more to replace Italian soloists by English ones. The most significant reason for this change was the dwindling financial returns from his operas.[126] Thus a tradition was created for oratorios which was to govern their future performance. The performances were given without costumes and action; the singers appeared in their own clothes.[127] Caricature of Handel by Joseph Goupy (1754) In 1736 Handel produced Alexander's Feast. John Beard appeared for the first time as one of Handel's principal singers and became Handel's permanent tenor soloist for the rest of Handel's life.[128] The piece was a great success and it encouraged Handel to make the transition from writing Italian operas to English choral works. In Saul, Handel was collaborating with Charles Jennens and experimenting with three trombones, a carillon and extra-large military kettledrums (from the Tower of London), to be sure "...it will be most excessive noisy".[129] Saul and Israel in Egypt both from 1739 head the list of great, mature oratorios, in which the da capo aria became the exception and not the rule.[130] Israel in Egypt consists of little else but choruses, borrowing from the Funeral Anthem for Queen Caroline. In his next works Handel changed his course. In these works he laid greater stress on the effects of orchestra and soloists; the chorus retired into the background.[131] L'Allegro, il Penseroso ed il Moderato has a rather diverting character; the work is light and fresh. During the summer of 1741, The 3rd Duke of Devonshire invited Handel to Dublin, capital of the Kingdom of Ireland, to give concerts for the benefit of local hospitals.[132] His Messiah was first performed at the New Music Hall in Fishamble Street on 13 April 1742, with 26 boys and five men from the combined choirs of St Patrick's and Christ Church cathedrals participating.[133] Handel secured a balance between soloists and chorus which he never surpassed. Hallelujah Chorus, from Messiah (1741) Arrival of the Queen of Sheba, from Solomon (1748) Problems playing these files? See media help. In 1747 Handel wrote his oratorio Alexander Balus. This work was produced at Covent Garden Theatre in London, on 23 March 1748, and to the aria Hark! hark! He strikes the golden lyre, Handel wrote the accompaniment for mandolin, harp, violin, viola, and violoncello.[134] Another of his English oratorios, Solomon, was first performed on 17 March 1749 at the Covent Garden Theatre.[135] Solomon contains a short and lively instrumental passage for two oboes and strings in act 3, known as "The Arrival of the Queen of Sheba". The use of English soloists reached its height at the first performance of Samson. The work is highly theatrical. The role of the chorus became increasingly important in his later oratorios. Jephtha was first performed on 26 February 1752; even though it was his last oratorio, it was no less a masterpiece than his earlier works.[136] Later years[edit] Uncompleted admission ticket for the May 1750 performance of Messiah, including the arms of the venue, the Foundling Hospital In 1749 Handel composed Music for the Royal Fireworks; 12,000 people attended the first performance.[137] In 1750 he arranged a performance of Messiah to benefit the Foundling Hospital. The performance was considered a great success and was followed by annual concerts that continued throughout his life. In recognition of his patronage, Handel was made a governor of the Hospital the day after his initial concert. He bequeathed a copy of Messiah to the institution upon his death.[138] His involvement with the Foundling Hospital is today commemorated with a permanent exhibition in London's Foundling Museum, which also holds the Gerald Coke Handel Collection. In addition to the Foundling Hospital, Handel also gave to a charity that assisted impoverished musicians and their families. In August 1750, on a journey back from Germany to London, Handel was seriously injured in a carriage accident between The Hague and Haarlem in the Netherlands.[139] In 1751 one eye started to fail. The cause was a cataract which was operated on by the great charlatan Chevalier Taylor. This did not improve his eyesight, but possibly made it worse.[115] He was completely blind by 1752. He died in 1759 at home in Brook Street, at age 74. The last performance he attended was of Messiah. Handel was buried in Westminster Abbey.[140] More than three thousand mourners attended his funeral, which was given full state honours. Handel never married, and kept his personal life private. His initial will bequeathed the bulk of his estate to his niece Johanna, however four codicils distributed much of his estate to other relations, servants, friends and charities.[141] Handel owned an art collection that was auctioned posthumously in 1760.[142] The auction catalogue listed approximately seventy paintings and ten prints (other paintings were bequeathed).[142] Works[edit] Main articles: List of compositions by George Frideric Handel and List of operas by George Frideric Handel Senesino, the famous castrato from Siena Handel's compositions include 42 operas, 25 oratorios, more than 120 cantatas, trios and duets, numerous arias, chamber music, a large number of ecumenical pieces, odes and serenatas, 18 concerti grossi and 12 organ concertos. His most famous work, the oratorio Messiah with its "Hallelujah" chorus, is among the most popular works in choral music and has become the centrepiece of the Christmas season. The Lobkowicz Palace in Prague holds Mozart's copy of Messiah, complete with handwritten annotations. Among the works with opus numbers published and popularised in his lifetime are the Organ concertos Op. 4 and Op. 7, together with the Opus 3 and Opus 6 Concerti grossi; the latter incorporate an earlier organ concerto The Cuckoo and the Nightingale in which birdsong is imitated in the upper registers of the organ. Also notable are his 16 keyboard suites, especially The Harmonious Blacksmith. Handel introduced previously uncommon musical instruments in his works: the viola d'amore and violetta marina (Orlando), the lute (Ode for St. Cecilia's Day), three trombones (Saul), clarinets or small high cornetts (Tamerlano), theorbo, French horn (Water Music), lyrichord, double bassoon, viola da gamba, carillon (bell chimes), positive organ, and harp (Giulio Cesare, Alexander's Feast).[143] Catalogues[edit] The first published catalogue of Handel's works appeared as an appendix to Mainwaring's Memoirs.[144] Between 1787 and 1797 Samuel Arnold compiled a 180-volume collection of Handel's works—however, it was far from complete.[145] Also incomplete was the collection produced between 1843 and 1858 by the English Handel Society (founded by Sir George Macfarren).[146] Handel in 1733, by Balthasar Denner (1685–1749) The 105-volume Händel-Gesellschaft ("Handel Society") edition was published between 1858 and 1902 – mainly due to the efforts of Friedrich Chrysander. For modern performance, the realisation of the basso continuo reflects 19th century practice. Vocal scores drawn from the edition were published by Novello in London, but some scores, such as the vocal score to Samson, are incomplete. The continuing Hallische Händel-Ausgabe edition was first inaugurated in 1955 in the Halle region in Saxony-Anhalt, Eastern Germany. It did not start as a critical edition, but after heavy criticism of the first volumes, which were performing editions without a critical apparatus (for example, the opera Serse was published with the title character recast as a tenor, reflecting pre-war German practice), it repositioned itself as a critical edition. Influenced in part by cold-war realities, editorial work was inconsistent: misprints are found in abundance and editors failed to consult important sources. In 1985 a committee was formed to establish better standards for the edition. The unification of Germany in 1990 removed communication problems, and the volumes issued have since shown a significant improvement in standards.[115] Between 1978 and 1986 the German academic Bernd Baselt catalogued Handel's works in his Händel-Werke-Verzeichnis publication. The catalogue has achieved wide acceptance and is used as the modern numbering system, with each of Handel's works designated an "HWV" number, for example Messiah is catalogued as "HWV 56". Legacy[edit] A Masquerade at the King's Theatre, Haymarket (c. 1724) Handel's works were collected and preserved by two men: Sir Samuel Hellier, a country squire whose musical acquisitions form the nucleus of the Shaw-Hellier Collection,[147] and the abolitionist Granville Sharp.[148] The catalogue accompanying the National Portrait Gallery exhibition marking the tercentenary of the composer's birth calls them two men of the late eighteenth century "who have left us solid evidence of the means by which they indulged their enthusiasm".[149] With his English oratorios, such as Messiah and Solomon, the coronation anthems, and other works including Water Music and Music for the Royal Fireworks, Handel became a national icon in Britain, and featured in the BBC series, The Birth of British Music: Handel – The Conquering Hero.[150] A carved marble statue of Handel at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, created in 1738 by Louis-François Roubiliac After his death, Handel's Italian operas fell into obscurity, except for selections such as the aria from Serse, "Ombra mai fu". The oratorios continued to be performed but not long after Handel's death they were thought to need some modernisation, and Mozart orchestrated German versions of Messiah and other works. Throughout the 19th century and first half of the 20th century, particularly in the Anglophone countries, his reputation rested primarily on his English oratorios, which were customarily performed by choruses of amateur singers on solemn occasions. The centenary of his death, in 1859, was celebrated by a performance of Messiah at The Crystal Palace, involving 2,765 singers and 460 instrumentalists, who played for an audience of about 10,000 people.[151] Zadok the Priest (1727) Composed for the coronation of King George II in 1727, Zadok the Priest has been performed at every subsequent British coronation Problems playing this file? See media help. Recent decades have revived his secular cantatas and what one might call 'secular oratorios' or 'concert operas'. Of the former, Ode for St. Cecilia's Day (1739) (set to texts by John Dryden) and Ode for the Birthday of Queen Anne (1713) are noteworthy. For his secular oratorios, Handel turned to classical mythology for subjects, producing such works as Acis and Galatea (1719), Hercules (1745) and Semele (1744). These works have a close kinship with the sacred oratorios, particularly in the vocal writing for the English-language texts. They also share the lyrical and dramatic qualities of Handel's Italian operas. As such, they are sometimes fully staged as operas. With the rediscovery of his theatrical works, Handel, in addition to his renown as instrumentalist, orchestral writer, and melodist, is now perceived as being one of opera's great musical dramatists. The original form of his name, Georg Friedrich Händel, is generally used in Germany and elsewhere, but he is known as "Haendel" in France. A different composer, Jacob Handl or Händl (1550–1591) is usually known by the Latin form Jacobus Gallus that appears in his publications. Reception[edit] Handel has generally been accorded high esteem by fellow composers, both in his own time and since.[152] Johann Sebastian Bach attempted, unsuccessfully, to meet Handel while he was visiting Halle.[153] (Handel was born in the same year as Bach and Domenico Scarlatti.) Mozart is reputed to have said of him, "Handel understands affect better than any of us. When he chooses, he strikes like a thunder bolt."[154] To Beethoven he was "the master of us all... the greatest composer that ever lived. I would uncover my head and kneel before his tomb."[154] Beethoven emphasised above all the simplicity and popular appeal of Handel's music when he said, "Go to him to learn how to achieve great effects, by such simple means." Borrowings[edit] Since 1831, when William Crotch raised the issue in his Substance of Several Lectures on Music, scholars have extensively studied Handel's "borrowing" of music from other composers. Summarising the field in 2005, Richard Taruskin wrote that Handel "seems to have been the champion of all parodists, adapting both his own works and those of other composers in unparalleled numbers and with unparalleled exactitude."[155] Among the composers whose music has been shown to have been re-used by Handel are Alessandro Stradella, Gottlieb Muffat, Alessandro Scarlatti, Domenico Scarlatti[156] Giacomo Carissimi, Georg Philipp Telemann, Carl Heinrich Graun, Leonardo Vinci, Jacobus Gallus, Francesco Antonio Urio, Reinhard Keiser, Francesco Gasparini, Giovanni Bononcini, William Boyce, Henry Lawes, Michael Wise, Agostino Steffani, Franz Johann Habermann, and numerous others.[157] In an essay published in 1985, John H. Roberts demonstrated that Handel's borrowings were unusually frequent even for his own era, enough to have been criticised by contemporaries (notably Johann Mattheson); Roberts suggested several reasons for Handel's practice, including Handel's attempts to make certain works sound more up-to-date and more radically, his "basic lack of facility in inventing original ideas" – though Roberts took care to argue that this does not "diminish Handel's stature", which should be "judged not by his methods, still less by his motives in employing them, but solely by the effects he achieves."[158] Homages[edit] The chorus, orchestra and organ in Westminster Abbey, London during the Handel Commemoration in 1784 After Handel's death, many composers wrote works based on or inspired by his music. The first movement from Louis Spohr's Symphony No. 6, Op. 116, "The Age of Bach and Handel", resembles two melodies from Handel's Messiah. In 1797 Ludwig van Beethoven published the 12 Variations in G major on "See the conqu’ring hero comes" from Judas Maccabaeus by Handel, for cello and piano. In 1822 Beethoven composed the overture The Consecration of the House, which also bears the influence of Handel. Guitar virtuoso Mauro Giuliani composed his Variations on a Theme by Handel, Op. 107 for guitar, based on Handel's Suite No. 5 in E major, HWV 430, for harpsichord. Handel's monument in Westminster Abbey with the plaque recording his commemoration in 1784 In 1861, using a theme from the second of Handel's harpsichord suites, Johannes Brahms wrote the Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Handel, Op. 24, one of his most successful works (praised by Richard Wagner). Several works by the French composer Félix-Alexandre Guilmant use Handel's themes, for example his March on a Theme by Handel uses a theme from Messiah. French composer and flautist Philippe Gaubert wrote his Petite marche for flute and piano based on the fourth movement of Handel's Trio Sonata, Op. 5, No. 2, HWV 397. Argentine composer Luis Gianneo composed his Variations on a Theme by Handel for piano. In 1911, Australian-born composer and pianist Percy Grainger based one of his most famous works on the final movement of Handel's Suite No. 5 in E major (just like Giuliani). He first wrote some variations on the theme, which he titled Variations on Handel's 'The Harmonious Blacksmith' . Then he used the first sixteen bars of his set of variations to create Handel in the Strand, one of his most beloved pieces, of which he made several versions (for example, the piano solo version from 1930). Arnold Schoenberg's Concerto for String Quartet and Orchestra in B-flat major (1933) was composed after Handel's Concerto Grosso, Op. 6/7.[159] Veneration[edit] Handel is honoured with a feast day on 28 July in the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church, with Johann Sebastian Bach and Henry Purcell. In the Lutheran Calendar of Saints Handel and Bach share that date with Heinrich Schütz, and Handel and Bach are commemorated in the calendar of saints prepared by the Order of Saint Luke for the use of the United Methodist Church.[160] The Book of Common Worship of the Presbyterian Church (USA) (Westminster John Knox Press, 2018) commemorates him on 20 April. Fictional depictions[edit] Main page: Category:George Frideric Handel in fiction In 1942, Handel was the subject of the British biopic The Great Mr. Handel directed by Norman Walker and starring Wilfrid Lawson. It was made at Denham Studios by the Rank Organisation, and shot in Technicolor. He is also the central character in the television films God Rot Tunbridge Wells! (1985) and Handel's Last Chance (1996) and the stage play All the Angels (2015). Handel was portrayed by Jeroen Krabbé as the antagonist in the film Farinelli (1994). See also[edit] Handel Reference Database Letters and writings of George Frideric Handel List of compositions by George Frideric Handel List of operas by George Frideric Handel Publications by Friedrich Chrysander Valentine Snow Will of George Frideric Handel Drexel 5856 Notes, references and sources[edit] Notes[edit] ^ "Handel" entry in Collins English Dictionary gives the common variant "George Frederick" (used in his will and on his funeral monument) alongside the pronunciation of his last name. The spelling "Frideric" is used on his 1727 application for British citizenship. ^ According to baptismal records in Halle's parish church, the Lutheran Marktkirche Unser Lieben Frauen. The records of that church also show that the family name was spelled on various occasions at least four other ways: Hendel, Händeler, Hendeler and Hendtler, but most commonly Händel. In Italy he spelled it Hendel, as it is pronounced in German. From the time he arrived in England, however, he consistently signed his name as George Frideric Handel.[1] ^ Handel's tomb in Westminster has the Old Style birth date of February XXIIII, MDCLXXXIV, giving the day of his baptism and using its Annunciation style of counting the new year from 25 March.[3] ^ Georg Händel (senior) was the son of a coppersmith, Valentin Händel (1582–1636), who had emigrated from Eisleben in 1608 with his first wife Anna Belching, the daughter of a master coppersmith. They were Protestants and chose reliably Protestant Saxony over Silesia, a Habsburg possession, as religious tensions mounted in the years before the Thirty Years War.[10] ^ Among the court musicians of Halle were Samuel Scheidt (who also was organist at the Moritzkirche), William Brade and Michael Praetorius.[12] ^ Halle also was noted for the quality of its organ-builders. In 1712, Bach was intrigued by the organ at Marktkirche, and applied for the position that Zachow, Handel's teacher, vacated. He decided on Weimar, however.[13] ^ This barber, Andreas Berger, happened to be the son-in-law of English émigré William Brade, court musician to Augustus in Weissenfels.[10] ^ Both Landon and Hogwood point out and to the extent possible correct the more obvious misstatements of facts and dates and inconsistencies of Mainwaring. See Landon 1984, pp. 9–19; Hogwood 1984, pp. 11–17. ^ Schoelcher suggests that Handel's "doctor" father observed Handel making musical sounds even before he could talk and this in the eyes of the son of a coppersmith "discovered instincts of so low an order …"[24] ^ The year and purpose of the visit and why the meeting occurred is variously given. Schoelcher and Bone have it that Handel was seven and they were visiting a son by Georg's first marriage, who was in service to the Duke.[31] Friedrich Chrysander states that they were visiting the younger Handel's nephew, Carl (ten years his senior) who was the Duke's valet.[32] Lang writes that Handel was nine and Handel's father, holding a court position, must have frequently travelled to Weissenfels, where the Duke had established a residence after Prussia had annexed the city of Halle. Young Handel was taken along because he could be cared for by relatives of his late wife.[28] ^ His cantatas, often highly dramatic, are distinguished by very imaginative choral writing, colorful orchestration, and skilful handling of the concerted element."[35] ^ Handel not only applied Kerll's techniques and phrases in later compositions, he imported an entire movement composed by Kerll into Israel in Egypt.[40] ^ Both Landon and Hogwood point out and to the extent possible correct the more obvious misstatements of facts and dates and inconsistencies of Mainwaring. See Landon 1984, pp. 9–19; Hogwood 1984, pp. 11–17. ^ There was no "king" in Berlin until 18 January 1701 when Frederick III, the Elector of Brandenburg, became Frederick I, the first King in Prussia.[48] ^ Among the careful authorities who accepted the trip taking place in 1698 were Handel's friend Johann Mattheson[51] and Burney.[38] ^ Records of the Marktkirche show that he took communion there in April of the years 1701–03.[60] ^ Handel was required by the terms of his appointment, among other things, "to play the organ fittingly at Divine Service, and for this purpose to pre-intone the prescribed Psalms and Spiritual Songs, and to have due care to whatever might be needful to the support of beautiful harmony …"[64] ^ The first mention of Handel from the time he took his last communion at the Marktkirche on 23 April[64] is in Mattheson's annotated translation of Mainwaring (published in 1761) where he writes that he met Handel in the Organ loft of the Church of St. Mary Magdalena in Hamburg.[71] In his earlier Grunlage (published in 1740), he fixes the date as 9 July.[72] ^ Mainwaring gives the cryptic explanation that since he had to earn a living from his profession, he had to find a place less distant than Berlin. Given that Hamburg's opera house was second only to Berlin's in repute, "it was resolved to send him thither on his own bottom, and chiefly with a view to improvement."[73] The passage suggests that Handel had already determined on secular dramatic music as a career, but who it was "to send him thither" is not explained. ^ In 2000, the upper stories of 25 Brook Street were leased to the Handel House Trust, and after extensive restoration, the Handel House Museum opened to the public with an events programme of baroque music. References[edit] ^ Hogwood 1984, p. 1. ^ Hicks 1998, p. 614. ^ George Frederic Handel, Westminster Abbey ^ "British Citizen by Act of Parliament: George Frideric Handel". Parliament.uk. 14 April 2009. Archived from the original on 4 May 2012. Retrieved 13 April 2012. ^ [1] ^ Buelow 2004, p. 476. ^ Dean 1969, p. 19. ^ Deutsch 1955, p. 1 ^ Adams & Hofestädt 2005, pp. 144–46. ^ a b c Adams & Hofestädt 2005, p. 144. ^ Adams & Hofestädt 2005, p. 144; Burrows 1994, p. 1. ^ Burrows 1994, p. 1. ^ a b c Lang 1966, p. 20. ^ Burrows 1994, pp. 1–2. ^ Lang 1966, pp. 25–26. ^ a b Lang 1966, p. 10. ^ Adams & Hofestädt 2005, pp. 144–45. ^ Landon 1984, p. 9. ^ Deutsch 1955, p. 6. ^ Deutsch 1955, p. 2; Landon 1984, p. 9. ^ Dreyhaupt 1755, p. 625. ^ Maitland & Squire 1890, p. 277. ^ Landon 1984, p. 10; Schoelcher 1857, p. 7 n.1. ^ Schoelcher 1857, p. 3. ^ Mainwaring 1760, pp. 4–5. ^ Mainwaring 1760, p. 5. ^ Schoelcher 1857, p. 4. ^ a b c Lang 1966, p. 11. ^ Dent 2004, pp. 3–4. ^ a b c Schoelcher 1857, p. 5. ^ Schoelcher 1857, p. 4; Bone 1914, p. 141. ^ Chrysander 1858: Buch 1: 2. Kindheit. ^ Schoelcher 1857, pp. 4–5; Bone 1914, p. 141; Lang 1966, p. 11. ^ Lang 1966, p. 11; Bone 1914, p. 141; Schoelcher 1857, p. 5. ^ Lang 1966, pp. 11–12. ^ Lang 1966, p. 12; Landon 1984, p. 15. See also Seiffert, Max (1905). "Preface to Volumes 21, 21 (Zachow)". Denkmäler deutscher Tonkunst. Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härte. ^ Schoelcher 1857, pp. 5–6. See also Bone 1914, pp. 141–42. ^ a b Schoelcher 1857, p. 6. ^ Lang 1966, p. 12. ^ Lang 1966, p. 14. ^ Lang 1966, pp. 13–16. ^ Mainwaring 1760, p. 15. ^ Mainwaring 1760, p. 16. ^ a b Mainwaring 1760, p. 18. ^ Schoelcher 1857, p. 6; Deutsch 1955, pp. 5–6 (inscription on Georg Händel's tombstone). ^ a b Lang 1966, p. 19. ^ Deutsch 1955, pp. 6–8 (containing the poem and English translation). ^ Landon 1984, p. 30 n.5. ^ Mainwaring 1760, pp. 24–25. ^ a b Mainwaring 1760, p. 29. ^ a b Lang 1966, p. 166. ^ Schoelcher 1857, pp. 6–7. ^ Landon 1984, p. 31 n.8. ^ Landon 1984, p. 31 n.7. ^ Landon 1984, pp. 31 n.7 & 53. ^ Dean 1982, p. 2; Deutsch 1955, p. 8. ^ Lang 1966, p. 20; Dent 2004, p. 2 ^ Lang 1966, pp. 20–21. ^ Lang 1966, p. 21. ^ Burrows 1994, p. 10; Deutsch 1955, pp. 8, 9, 10. ^ Dent 2004, p. 2. ^ Burrows 1994, p. 20. ^ Burrows 1994, pp. 10–11 translating Mattheson 1740, p. 359. ^ a b Deutsch 1955, p. 9. ^ Lang 1966, p. 22 n.2. ^ Lang 1966, p. 22 translating Mattheson 1740, p. 93. ^ Deutsch 1955, p. 4 n.1. ^ a b Lang 1966, p. 23. ^ Hogwood 1984, p. 21. ^ Best 1985, pp. 486–89. ^ Deutsch 1955, p. 10. ^ Mattheson 1740, pp. 29, 191. ^ Mainwaring 1760, pp. 27–28. ^ Burrows 1994, pp. 11–13. ^ Lang 1966, p. 26. ^ Burrows 1994, p. 12. ^ Burrows 1994, p. 18 ^ Burrows 1994, p. 19 ^ Harris 2001, p. 37. ^ Annette Landgraf, David Vickers, The Cambridge Handel Encyclopedia, Cambridge University Press, 2009, p. 2 ^ Burrows 1994, pp. 29–30 ^ Mainwaring 1760, p. 52. ^ Dean & Knapp 1987, p. 129 ^ Burrows 1994, p. 38 ^ Dean & Knapp 1987, pp. 173, 180 ^ Wikisource Archived 6 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine ^ George Frideric Handel: Volume 1, 1609–1725: Collected Documents edited by Donald Burrows, Helen Coffey, John Greenacombe, Anthony Hicks Archived 22 February 2018 at the Wayback Machine ^ National Portrait Gallery, p. 88 ^ There is a tantalising suggestion by Handel's biographer, Jonathan Keates, that he may have come to London in 1710 and settled in 1712 as a spy for the eventual Hanoverian successor to Queen Anne. news.bbc.co.uk Archived 5 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine ^ National Portrait Gallery, p. 92 ^ Dean & Knapp 1987, p. 286 ^ Burrows 1994, p. 77. ^ Bukofzer 1947, pp. 333–35. ^ Rolland 1916, p. 71. ^ Dean & Knapp 1987, p. 209 ^ Deutsch 1955, pp. 70–71 ^ "Handel's Finances" Archived 19 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine, on bbc.co.uk ^ Deutsch 1955, p. 89 ^ Dean 2006, p. 226 According to Dean they could not have reached London before 1716. In 1743, Smith wrote in a letter that he had been in Handel's service for 24 years. ^ Burrows 1994, p. 387 ^ Deutsch 1955, p. 194 ^ Imogen Levy (2 June 1953). "Guide to the Coronation Service". Westminster Abbey. Archived from the original on 5 December 2010. Retrieved 28 May 2012. ^ ""Longest running Plays in London and New York", Stage Beauty". ^ theatrical monopoly in Banham, Martin The Cambridge guide to theatre pp. 1105 (Cambridge University Press, 1995) ISBN 0-521-43437-8 ^ Handel's Compositions Archived 30 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine GFHandel.org, Retrieved 21 December 2007 ^ Dent 2004, p. [page needed]. ^ Dent 2004, p. 33 ^ "Synopsis of Arianna in Creta". Handelhouse.org. Handel House Museum. Archived from the original on 26 July 2014. Retrieved 23 July 2014. ^ Dean 2006, pp. 274–84 ^ Dean 2006, p. 288 ^ Burrows 1994, p. 395. ^ Dean 2006, p. 283 ^ For new insights on this episode, see Ilias Chrissochoidis: "Handel Recovering: Fresh Light on his Affairs in 1737", Eighteenth-Century Music 5/2 (2008): 237–44. ^ A New Chronology of Venetian Opera and Related Genres, 1660–1760 by Eleanor Selfridge-Field, p. 492 ^ a b c Hicks 2013. ^ "Koninklijke speelklok van wereldklasse aangekocht", Museum Speelklok, 14 November 2016 (in Dutch); "Georg Friedrich Händel and the Braamcamp clock" by Erma Hermens, 22 November 2018 ^ Ditto, Charles (July–September 1997). "Handel's Musical Clock Music". Fontes Artis Musicae [Wikidata]. 44 (3): 266–280. JSTOR 23508494. ^ Marx 1998, p. 243. ^ National Portrait Gallery, p. 157 ^ Larsen 1972, p. 15 Handels Messiah. A distinguished authority on Handel discusses the origins, composition, and sources of one of the great choral works of western civilization. ^ Larsen 1972, p. 26 ^ Marx 1998, p. 48. ^ Larsen 1972, p. 66 ^ Larsen 1972, p. 49 ^ Larsen 1972, p. 40 ^ Larsen 1972, p. 33 ^ Burrows 1994, p. 217. ^ Larsen 1972, p. 37 ^ National Portrait Gallery, p. 165 ^ Larsen 1972, pp. 16, 39–41 ^ Larsen 1972, p. 78 ^ Dent 2004, pp. 40–41 ^ Young 1966, p. 48 ^ Bone 1914, pp. 142–44. ^ "G. F. Handel's Compositions". The Handel Institute. Archived from the original on 24 September 2013. Retrieved 28 September 2013. ^ Burrows 1994, pp. 354–55 ^ Burrows 1994, pp. 297–98 ^ Young 1966, p. 56 ^ Dent 2004, p. 63 ^ Young 1966, p. 60 ^ The Letters and Writings of George Frideric Handel by Erich H. Müller, 1935 ^ a b McGeary, Thomas (November 2009). "Handel as art collector: art, connoisseurship and taste in Hanoverian Britain". Early Music. Oxford University Press. 37 (4): 533–576. doi:10.1093/em/cap107. Retrieved 19 April 2020. ^ Textbook in CD Sacred Arias with Harp & Harp Duets by Rachel Ann Morgan & Edward Witsenburg. ^ Mainwaring 1760, pp. 145–55. ^ Dean 1982, p. 116. ^ The Halle Handel Edition. "A short history of editing Handel". Archived from the original on 3 March 2012. Retrieved 3 December 2011. ^ Best, Terence, ed. Handel collections and their history, a collection of conference papers given by the international panel of distinguished Handel scholars. Clarendon Press, 1993 ^ Prince Hoare, ed. (1820). Memoirs of Granville Sharp. Colburn. p. XII. ...he had a voluminous collection of Handel's scores... ^ Jacob Simon (1985). Handel, a celebration of his life and times, 1685–1759. p. 239. National Portrait Gallery (Great Britain) ^ "The Birth of British Music: Handel – The Conquering Hero". BBC. 24 September 2017. Archived from the original on 14 May 2017. ^ Blyth, Alan (2007). Choral Music on Record. Cambridge University Press. p. 82. ^ "BBC Press Release". Bbc.co.uk. 13 January 2009. Archived from the original on 27 November 2013. Retrieved 13 April 2012. ^ Dent 2004, p. 23 ^ a b Young, Percy Marshall (1 April 1975) [1947]. Handel (Master Musician series). J. M. Dent & Sons. p. 254. ISBN 0-460-03161-9. ^ Richard Taruskin, The Oxford History of Western Music, Oxford University Press, 2005, vol. 2, chapter 26, p. 329, ISBN 0-19-522271-7 ^ Alexander Silbiger, "Scarlatti Borrowings in Handel's Grand Concertos", The Musical Times, v. 125, 1984, pp. 93–94 ^ A comprehensive bibliography through 2005 can be found in Mary Anne Parker, G. F. Handel: A Guide to Research, Routledge, 2005, ISBN 1-136-78359-8, pp. 114–135 ^ John H. Roberts, "Why Did Handel Borrow?", in Handel: Tercentary Collection, edited by Stanley Sadie and Anthony Hicks, Royal Musical Association, 1985, pp. 83–92, ISBN 0-8357-1833-6 ^ Auner Joseph H. (1996), "Schoenberg's Handel Concerto and the Ruins of Tradition", Journal of the American Musicological Society, 49: 264–313 ^ For All the Saints: A Calendar of Commemorations for United Methodists, ed. by Clifton F. Guthrie (Order of Saint Luke Publications, 1995, ISBN 1-878009-25-7) p. 161. Sources[edit] Adams, Aileen K.; Hofestädt, B. (August 2005). "Georg Händel (1622–97): The Barber-Surgeon Father of George Frideric Handel (1685–1759)". Journal of Medical Biography. 13 (3): 142–49. doi:10.1258/j.jmb.2005.04-49. PMID 16059526. Best, Terence (November 1985). "Handel's Chamber Music: Sources, Chronology and Authenticity". Early Music. 13 (4): 476–499. doi:10.1093/em/13.4.476. JSTOR 3127226. Bone, Philip J. (1914). The Guitar and Mandolin: Biographies of Celebrated Players and Composers for these Instruments. London: Schott & Co. Buelow, George J. (2004). A History of Baroque Music. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-34365-8. Bukofzer, Manfred F. (1947). 'Music in the Baroque Era – From Monteverdi To Bach. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-09745-5. Burrows, Donald (1994). Handel. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-816470-X. Chrysander, Friedrich (1858). G.F. Händel. 1. Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel. Consisting of three volumes (separately hosted online by zeno.org): Buch 1: Jugendzeit und Lehrjahre in Deutschland (1685–1706); Buch 2: Die große Wanderung (1707–1720). Dean, Winton (1969). Handel and the Opera Seria. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-01438-1. Dean, Winton (1982). The New Grove Handel. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-30086-2. Dean, Winton; Knapp, John Merrill (1987). Handel's Operas, 1704–1726. 1. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-816441-6. Dean, Winton (2006). Handel's Operas, 1726–1741. The Boydell Press. Dent, Edward Joseph (2004). Handel. R A Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 1-4191-2275-4. Deutsch, Otto Erich (1955). Handel: A Documentary Biography. London: Adam and Charles Black. Dreyhaupt, Johann Christoph von (1755). Pagus neletici et nudzici oder ausführliche diplomatisch-historische Beschreibun des … Saal-Creises. 2. Halle: Verlag des Waysenhauses. Harris, Ellen T. (2001). Handel as Orpheus. Voice and Desire in the Chamber Cantatas. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-00617-8. Hicks, Anthony (2013), "Handel, George Frideric", Grove Music Online, Oxford University Press Hicks, Anthony (1998). "Handel, George Frederick". In Sadie, Stanley (ed.). The New Grove Dictionary of Opera. 2. London: Macmillan Publishers. pp. 614–26. ISBN 1-56159-228-5. Hogwood, Christopher (1984). Handel. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-01355-1. Landon, H.C. Robbins (1984). Handel and his World. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-78498-6. Lang, Paul Henry (1966). George Frideric Handel. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. LCCN 66011793/MN/r842. Larsen, J.P. (1972). Handel's Messiah. London: Adams and Charles Black Limited. Leopold, Silke. Händel, Die Opern Bärenreiter 2009, ISBN 978-3-7618-1991-3 Mainwaring, John (1760). Memoirs of the Life of the Late George Frederic Handel. London: Printed for R. and J. Dodsley. Maitland, J.A. Fuller; Squire, W. Barclay (1890). "Handel, George Friederick". In Stephen, Leslie; Lee, Sidney (eds.). Dictionary of National Biography. XXIV Haile–Harriott. New York: Macmillan and Co. pp. 277–91. Marx, Hans Joachim (1998). Händels Oratorien, Oden und Serenaten: Ein Kompendium. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. ISBN 3-525-27815-2. Mattheson, Johann (1740). Grundlage einer Ehren-pforte, woran der tüchtigsten Capellmeister, Componisten, Musikgelehrten, Tonkünstler &c. Leben, Wercke, Verdienste &c. erscheinen sollen. Hamburg: For the author. Meynell, Hugo. The Art of Handel's Operas, The Edwin Mellen Press (1986) ISBN 0-88946-425-1 National Portrait Gallery. Handel. A Celebration of his Life and Times 1685–1759. Rolland, Romain (1916) [1910]. Handel. Translated by Hull, A. Eaglefield. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Schoelcher, Victor (1857). The Life of Handel. Translated by Lowe, James. London: Robert Cocks & Co. Young, Percy Marshall (1966). Handel. New York: David White Company. Further reading[edit] Burrows, Donald (1997). The Cambridge Companion to Handel. Cambridge Companions to Music. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-45613-4. Chrysander, Friedrich (1860). G. F. Händel. 2. Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel. Buch 3: Zwanzig Jahre bei der italienischen Oper in London. Chrysander, Friedrich (1867). G. F. Händel. 3. Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel. Buch 4: Übergang zum Oratorium. Frosch, William A. (14 September 1989). "The Case of George Frideric Handel". The New England Journal of Medicine. 321 (11): 765–69. doi:10.1056/NEJM198909143211120. PMID 2671732. Frosch, William A. (1990). "Moods, Madness, and Music. II. Was Handel Insane?". The Musical Quarterly. 74 (1): 31–56. doi:10.1093/mq/74.1.31. JSTOR 741903. Hicks, Anthony (1976–1977). "Handel's Early Musical Development". Proceedings of the Royal Musical Association. 103: 80–89. doi:10.1093/jrma/103.1.80. JSTOR 765887. Hogg, Katharine (July–September 2008). "Handel and the Fundling Hospital: The Gerald Coke Handel Collection at the Foundling Museum". Fontes Artis Musicae. 55 (3): 435–47. JSTOR 23512496. Hume, Robert D. (October 1986). "Handel and Opera Management in London in the 1730s". Music & Letters. 67 (4): 347–62. doi:10.1093/ml/67.4.347. JSTOR 735134. Hunter, David (November 2001). "Handel among the Jacobites". Music & Letters. 82 (4): 543–56. doi:10.1093/ml/82.4.543. JSTOR 3526275. Joncus, Berta (2006). "Handel at Drury Lane: Ballad Opera and the Production of Kitty Clive". Journal of the Royal Musical Association. 131 (2): 179–226. doi:10.1093/jrma/fkl013. JSTOR 30161399. S2CID 154560136. Keates, Jonathan (1985). Handel: The Man and His Music. New York: St Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-35846-6. Keynes, Milo (September 1982). "Handel and His Illnesses". The Musical Times. 123 (1675): 613–14. doi:10.2307/963285. JSTOR 963285. King, Richard G. (August 1991). "Handel's Travels in the Netherlands in 1750". Music & Letters. 72 (3): 372–86. doi:10.1093/ml/72.3.372. JSTOR 736214. MacArdle, Donald (January 1960). "Beethoven and Handel". Music & Letters. 41 (1): 33–37. doi:10.1093/ml/41.1.33. JSTOR 729686. McGeary, Thomas (2011). "Handel and Homosexuality: Burlington House and Cannons Revisited". Journal of the Royal Musical Association. 136 (1): 33–71. doi:10.1080/02690403.2011.562718. JSTOR 41300166. S2CID 161457448. McGeary, Thomas (2013). The Politics of Opera in Handel's Britain. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-00988-2. Shedlock, J. S. (1 July 1901). "Handel's Borrowings". The Musical Times and Singing Class Circular. 42 (701): 450–52. doi:10.2307/3367660. JSTOR 3367660. Shedlock, J. S. (1 August 1901). "Handel's Borrowings (continued)". The Musical Times and Singing Class Circular. 42 (702): 526–28. doi:10.2307/3366187. JSTOR 3366187. Shedlock, J. S. (1 September 1901). "Handel's Borrowings (concluded)". The Musical Times and Singing Class Circular. 42 (703): 596–60. doi:10.2307/3366025. JSTOR 3366025. Streatfeild, R. A. (1910). Handel (Second ed.). London: Methuen & Co. Winemiller, John T. (Autumn 1997). "Recontextualizing Handel's Borrowing". The Journal of Musicology. 15 (4): 444–70. doi:10.2307/764003. JSTOR 764003. White, Harry (1987). "Handel in Dublin: A Note". Eighteenth-Century Ireland / Iris an Dá Chultúr. 2: 182–86. JSTOR 30070846. External links[edit] George Frideric Handelat Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource George Frideric Handel at the Encyclopædia Britannica "Discovering Handel". BBC Radio 3. Howell, Ian. "How to Handle Spelling Händel". The Countertenor Voice (February 2011). Howell, Ian. "Guiding Handel's Legacy: An Interview with Handel House Museum Director Sarah Bardwell". The Countertenor Voice (May 2011). Works by George Frideric Handel at Project Gutenberg Works by or about George Frideric Handel at Internet Archive Works by George Frideric Handel at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Edward Dent's Handel biography at Project Gutenberg The second volume of Winton Dean for "Handel's Operas" covering the years 1726–1741 Friedrich Chrysander's Handel biography (in German) Biographical details web site Handel Houses: Händel-Haus in Halle, Saxony-Anhalt, Handel's birthplace The Handel House Museum Handel's home in London Handel Reference Database Digitized images of Old English Songs, containing works by Handel, housed at the University of Kentucky Libraries Special Collections Scores and recordings[edit] Free scores by George Frideric Handel at the International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP): includes Complete Works Edition (Ausgabe der Deutschen Händelgesellschaft) Free scores by George Frideric Handel in the Choral Public Domain Library (ChoralWiki) The Mutopia Project provides free downloading of sheet music and MIDI files for some of Handel's works. George Frideric Handel cylinder recordings, from the UCSB Cylinder Audio Archive at the University of California, Santa Barbara Library. Handel's Sheet Music by free-scores.com Kunst der Fuge: George Frideric Handel – MIDI files v t e George Frideric Handel List of operas List of compositions Operas Handel's lost Hamburg operas Almira Florindo Rodrigo Agrippina Rinaldo Il pastor fido Teseo Silla Amadigi di Gaula Acis and Galatea Radamisto Muzio Scevola Floridante Ottone Flavio Giulio Cesare Tamerlano Rodelinda Scipione Alessandro Admeto Riccardo Primo Siroe Tolomeo Lotario Partenope Poro Ezio Sosarme Orlando Arianna in Creta Parnasso in festa Oreste Ariodante Alcina Atalanta Arminio Giustino Berenice Faramondo Alessandro Severo Serse Giove in Argo Imeneo Deidamia Opera excerpts "Lascia ch'io pianga" "Ombra mai fu" "Svegliatevi nel core" "Va tacito e nascosto" Incidental music The Alchemist Comus Alceste Oratorios Il trionfo del Tempo e del Disinganno / Il trionfo del Tempo e della Verità / The Triumph of Time and Truth La resurrezione Brockes Passion Esther Deborah Athalia Saul Israel in Egypt L'Allegro, il Penseroso ed il Moderato Messiah Structure Part I Part II Part III Der Messias (Mozart arr.) Scratch Messiah Samson Semele Joseph and his Brethren Hercules Belshazzar Occasional Oratorio Judas Maccabaeus Joshua Alexander Balus Susanna Solomon Theodora The Choice of Hercules Jephtha Odes and masques Aci, Galatea e Polifemo Ode for the Birthday of Queen Anne Alexander's Feast Ode For St. Cecilia's Day Cantatas Agrippina condotta a morire or Dunque sarà pur vero Allor ch'io dissi addio Aure soavi e lieti Clori, Tirsi e Fileno Dalla guerra amorosa Del bell'idolo mio Apollo e Dafne O lucenti, o sereni occhi Ero e Leandro Tra le fiamme (Il consiglio) Un'alma innamorata Latin church music Dixit Dominus Gloria Nisi Dominus Salve Regina Anthems As Pants the Hart Zadok the Priest The Ways of Zion Do Mourn / Funeral Anthem for Queen Caroline Sing Unto God/Anthem for the Wedding of Frederick, Prince of Wales Chandos Anthems Wedding anthem for Princess Anne Foundling Hospital Anthem Canticles Utrecht Te Deum and Jubilate Dettingen Te Deum Queen Caroline Te Deum Chandos Jubilate Oboe Oboe Concerto No. 3 Oboe Concerto No. 1 Oboe Concerto No. 2 Orchestral suites Water Music Music for the Royal Fireworks Flute, solo and XV solo sonatas 358 "Fitzwilliam" 359a 359b 360 361 362 363a 363b 364a 364b 365 366 367a 367b 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 378 379 Opus Organ concertos, Op. 4 Organ concertos, Op. 7 Concerti Grossi, Op. 3 Concerti grossi, Op. 6 Other Nabal Gideon Keyboard suite in D minor (HWV 437) Catalogs and collections Handel Reference Database Händel-Werke-Verzeichnis Händel-Gesellschaft Hallische Händel-Ausgabe Festivals Göttingen Halle London Related articles British citizenship Letters and writings Will Handel at Cannons Handel House Handel & Hendrix in London Georg Händel Category Commons Audio v t e Baroque music List of Baroque composers Transitional and early (c. 1600) Allegri G. Caccini Coelho Franck Frescobaldi Gabrieli V. Galilei C. Gibbons O. Gibbons d'India Kapsberger Landi Lawes Michna Merula Monteverdi Peri M. Praetorius Scheidt Schein Schütz Sweelinck Middle (c. 1650) d'Anglebert H. I. F. Biber Blow Buxtehude Cabanilles Carissimi Cavalli Cesti Charpentier Diletsky J. Dowland Froberger Kerll Legrenzi J.-B. Lully M. Marais J. Pachelbel J. Playford H. Purcell Reincken Rossi Sanz A. Scarlatti Stradella Torrejón y Velasco Vejvanovský Late (c. 1700) Albinoni J. S. Bach Bassani Bodin de Boismortier G. B. Bononcini Caldara Clarke F. Couperin Corelli Delalande Fasch Fischer Fux Geminiani Gorczycki Graupner Handel Heinichen Jacquet de La Guerre Leclair l'aîné Locatelli Lotti A. Marcello Muffat Pepusch Pergolesi Porpora Quantz Rameau D. Scarlatti Seixas Tartini Telemann Torelli Vivaldi Weiss Zelenka de Zumaya Galant (c. 1740) Arne C. P. E. Bach J. C. Bach W. F. Bach F. Benda Boccherini Boyce F. Brixi Galuppi Hasse Padre Martini Mysliveček Quantz Sammartini Zach Musical Instruments bassoon cello clavichord cornett double bass drum flute fortepiano (invented c. 1700) guitar harp harpsichord lautenwerck lute oboe organ recorder sackbut (precursor to the trombone) theorbo (fretted stringed instrument) trumpet viol viola violin violone Ensembles Baroque orchestra Basso continuo Musical forms aria ballet cantata canon canzona canzonetta capriccio chaconne chorale concertato concerto concerto grosso dance courante gavotte gigue minuet passacaglia sarabande fantasia folia fugue grand motet madrigal mass opera prelude recitative ricercar sonata da chiesa suite Other topics Baroque pop Chamber pop British Baroque music counterpoint early music revival festivals ensembles historically informed performance Figured bass Folk baroque monody notes inégales polychoral style Style brisé Background Early music Common practice period Baroque Rococo  ← Renaissance music Classical music →  Category Portal WikiProject Classical music portal Opera portal Biography portal Music portal Authority control BIBSYS: 90051292 BNC: 000064328 BNE: XX1108806 BNF: cb139873218 (data) CANTIC: a11328216 CiNii: DA03739376 GND: 118544489 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\041049 ISNI: 0000 0001 2275 9702 LCCN: n79129204 LNB: 000034911 MBA: 27870d47-bb98-42d1-bf2b-c7e972e6befc NDL: 00442362 NKC: jn19990003280 NLA: 35167864 NLG: 71409 NLI: 000552089 NLK: KAC199611188 NLP: A12316520 NSK: 000037446 NTA: 068387032 PLWABN: 9810705909305606 RERO: 02-A000077881 RKD: 483683 SELIBR: 206359 SNAC: w6668khj SUDOC: 027271706 Trove: 849486 ULAN: 500449411 VcBA: 495/8474 VIAF: 5126950 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79129204 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Frideric_Handel&oldid=1001873758" Categories: George Frideric Handel 1685 births 1759 deaths 18th-century classical composers 18th-century British composers 18th-century German composers 18th-century keyboardists 18th-century male musicians Classical composers of church music Composers for harp Composers for harpsichord Composers for pipe organ English Baroque composers English classical composers English male classical composers English opera composers English classical organists British male organists German Baroque composers German classical composers German male classical composers German classical organists German opera composers Male opera composers Oratorio composers Organ improvisers Members of the Royal Society of Musicians Burials at Westminster Abbey People from Halle (Saale) People from the Duchy of Magdeburg German emigrants to England German emigrants to the Kingdom of Great Britain Naturalised subjects of the Kingdom of Great Britain German duellists Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from August 2019 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from January 2021 Use British English from July 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en-wikipedia-org-8418	----	Merhotepre Ini - Wikipedia Merhotepre Ini From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Merhotepre Ini Ana, Ani, Inai, In(j) Jar lid of Merhotepre Ini, at the LACMA Pharaoh Reign 2 Years 3 or 4 Months and 9 days, 1677 BC – 1675 BC (13th dynasty) Predecessor Merneferre Ay Successor Sankhenre Sewadjtu Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Merhotepre Mr-ḥtp-Rˁ Beloved satisfaction of Ra Nomen Ini Jnj[1] Father possibly Merneferre Ay[2] Mother possibly queen Ini Merhotepre Ini (also known as Ini I) was the successor of Merneferre Ay, possibly his son, and the thirty-third king of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt.[3] He is assigned a brief reign of 2 Years, 3 or 4 Months and 9 days in the Turin Canon and lived during the early 17th century BC.[2] Contents 1 Attestations 2 Chronological position 3 Family 4 References Attestations[edit] Merhotepre Ini is attested by a scarab seal of unknown provenance (now at the Petrie Museum) and an inscribed jar-lid (now at the LACMA, M.80.203.225).[3] The prenomen "Merhotepre" is also found on a scarab seal probably from Medinet el-Fayum, on the Karnak king list and on a stele from Abydos (Cairo CG 20044), although these occurrences may instead refer to Merhotepre Sobekhotep. Finally, Merhotepre Ini is attested in the Turin canon as the successor of Merneferre Ay. Chronological position[edit] The exact chronological position of Merhotepre Ini in the 13th Dynasty is not known for certain owing to uncertainties affecting earlier kings of the dynasty. He is ranked as the thirty-third king of the dynasty by Darrell Baker, as the thirty-fourth king by Kim Ryholt and in position 28a in studies by Jürgen von Beckerath, a result which Baker qualifies as "nebulous".[2][3][4] Family[edit] Drawing by F. Petrie of a scarab seal of Merhotepre Ini, now in the Petrie Museum. In spite of the very brief reign Merhotepre enjoyed, he is attested in the historical records by the Juridical Stela. This document, which is dated to Year 1 of the later Theban king Nebiryraw I, contains a genealogical charter which states that Ayameru—the son by Vizier Aya and the King's daughter Reditenes—was appointed Governor of El-Kab in Year 1 of Merhotepre Ini.[5] The reason for this appointment was due to the unexpected death of the childless Governor of El-Kab Aya-junior who was Vizier Aya's eldest son and Ayameru's elder brother. The charter identifies a certain Kebsi as the son of Governor, and later, Vizier Ayameru.[6] The Cairo Juridical Stela records the sale of the office of the governorship of El-Kab to a certain Sobeknakht. This Sobeknakht I was the father of the illustrious governor Sobeknakht II who built one of the most richly decorated tombs at El-Kab during the Second Intermediate Period. Based on the stele, Kim Ryholt proposes that Merhotepre Ini was the son of his predecessor Merneferre Ay with his senior queen Ini and with Reditenes as a sister of Merhotepre Ini. The vizierate was an hereditary position at the time and a change of family in charge of the position would have been an important political move. In particular, Reditenes being possibly a sister of Merhotepre Ini, his appointing Aya (thus his brother-in-law) to the vizierate would bring the position into his own family. References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ini Merhotepre. ^ Flinders Petrie: A history of Egypt from the earliest times to the 16th dynasty, p. 220, 1897, available online ^ a b c Kim Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c.1800-1550 B.C." Museum Tuscalanum Press, 1997. p.192 (ISBN 87-7289-421-0) ^ a b c Darell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300 - 1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 212 and p. 138 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der agyptische Konigsnamen, Muncher. Agyptologische Studien 49, Mainz. ^ Chris Bennett, A Genealogical Chronology of the Seventeenth Dynasty, JARCE 39 (2002), pp.124-125 ^ Bennett, p.124 Preceded by Merneferre Ay Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Sankhenre Sewadjtu v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Merhotepre_Ini&oldid=972466907" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Català Deutsch Español فارسی Français ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 12 August 2020, at 06:58 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8421	----	Bebiankh - Wikipedia Bebiankh From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Seuserenre Bebiankh Bronze dagger bearing the inscription "The son of Ra, Bebiankh, given life". British Museum EA 66062. Pharaoh Reign 1603–1591 BC or 1600–1588 BC (16th Dynasty) Predecessor Semenre Successor Sekhemre Shedwast or Pepi III (Helck) Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Seuserenre S-wsr-n-Rˁ He whom Ra causes to be strong Karnak king list: Seuserenre S-wsr-n-Rˁ He whom Ra causes to be strong Nomen Bebiankh Bbj-ˁnḫ Bebi lives Died 1591 or 1588 BC Seuserenre Bebiankh was a native ancient Egyptian king of the 16th Theban Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period and, according to Kim Ryholt, the successor of king Semenre. He is assigned a reign of 12 years in the Turin Canon (11.8).[1] Bebiankh was succeeded either by a poorly known king named Sekhemre Shedwast or by the equally shadowy ruler Seneferankhre Pepi III.[2] Attestations[edit] Bebiankh is principally known by a stela[3] found at Gebel Zeit that attests to mining activity conducted in this area by the Red Sea during his reign and preserves his royal names Seuserenre and Bebiankh.[4] The modest stela records this king's activities in the Gebel Zeit galena mines.[5] He is also known to have built an extension to the Temple of Medamud.[6] Bebiankh's nomen was also found on a bronze dagger found in Naqada and now in the British Museum, under the catalog number BM EA 66062.[1] References[edit] ^ a b Kim Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c.1800-1550 B.C, Museum Tusculanum Press, (1997), p. 202 ^ Wolfgang Helck, Eberhard Otto, Wolfhart Westendorf, Stele - Zypresse: Volume 6 of Lexikon der Ägyptologie, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1986, Page 1383 ^ Georges Castel & Georges Soukiassian: Dépôt de stèles dans le sanctuaire du Nouvel Empire au Gebel Zeit, BIFAO 85 (1985), ISSN 0255-0962, pp. 291-92, pl. 64 ^ Ryholt, pp. 159-60 ^ Janine Bourriau, "The Second Intermediate Period (c.1650-1550 BC)" in Ian Shaw (ed.) The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press, 2000. p.205 ^ "XVIIth Dynasty". Archived from the original on 2014-02-01. Retrieved 2007-08-15. Preceded by Semenre Pharaoh of Egypt Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt Succeeded by Sekhemre Shedwast v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bebiankh&oldid=994665365" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs 16th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages አማርኛ العربية Asturianu Català Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Polski Slovenščina Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 16 December 2020, at 22:08 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8445	----	Renseneb - Wikipedia Renseneb From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Renseneb Ranisonb Pharaoh Reign 4 months, 1777 BC[1] (13th Dynasty) Predecessor Khaankhre Sobekhotep Successor Hor Awybre Royal titulary Turin canon: Renseneb Rn(j)-[s]nb(w) My name is healthy Father uncertain, possibly Seankhibre Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Renseneb Amenemhat (also known as Ranisonb) was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. According to egyptologist Kim Ryholt, Renseneb was the 14th king of the dynasty, while Detlef Franke sees him as the 13th ruler and Jürgen von Beckerath as the 16th.[1][2][3][4] Renseneb is poorly attested and his throne name remains unknown. Attestations[edit] Renseneb is known primarily thanks to the Turin King List where he appears in Column 7, line 16 (Gardiner col. 6 line 6). He is credited a reign of four months.[1] Renseneb is otherwise known from a single contemporary object, a bead of glazed steatite, last seen by Percy Newberry in an antique dealer shop in Cairo in 1929.[5] The bead reads "Ranisonb Amenemhat, who gives life".[5] The Danish Egyptologist Kim Ryholt interprets this double name as meaning "Ranisonb [Son of] Amenemhat" thereby showing that he was a son of a king Amenemhat.[1] The closest predecessor of Renseneb whose nomen is known to have been Amenemhat was Seankhibre Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI, who ruled about 10 years earlier. However, the nomina of three intervening kings, Sehetepibre, Sewadjkare and Nedjemibre, are unknown and could have been Amenemhat. One of them could thus be Renseneb's father,[5] or (older) brothers in succession. Other researchers such as Stephen Quirke do not follow him in this interpretation.[6] Renseneb's successor, Hor, could have been of non-royal birth since he never reported his parentage. Consequently, Ryholt proposed that Hor usurped the throne.[1] In any case the ephemeral reigns of the rulers of the early 13th Dynasty point to the general political instability of the time. References[edit] ^ a b c d e K.S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800-1550 BC, (Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997), 339, File 13/14. ^ Detlef Franke: Zur Chronologie des Mittleren Reiches. Teil II: Die sogenannte Zweite Zwischenzeit Altägyptens, in Orientalia 57 (1988) ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46, Mainz am Rhein, 1997 ^ a b c Kim Ryholt: A Bead of King Ranisonb and a Note on King Qemaw, Gottinger Miszellen - Beitrage zur Agyptologischen Diskussion 156 (1997), p. 95–100. ^ Stephen Quirke: In the Name of the King: on Late Middle Kingdom Cylinders, in Czerny (editor): Timelines, Studies in Honour of Manfred Bietak, Leuven (2006), ISBN 90-429-1730-X, p. 263–274. Preceded by Khaankhre Sobekhotep Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Hor v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Renseneb&oldid=976100006" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages አማርኛ Azərbaycanca Català Deutsch Español Euskara Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Slovenščina ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 1 September 2020, at 06:05 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8450	----	Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt 732 BC–720 BC Stela of Tefnakht Capital Sais Common languages Egyptian language Religion Ancient Egyptian Religion Government Absolute monarchy Pharaoh   • 732-725 BC Tefnakht • 725-720 BC Bakenranef Historical era Classical antiquity • Conquests of Tefnakht 732 BC • Deposition of Bakenranef 720 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt (notated Dynasty XXIV, alternatively 24th Dynasty or Dynasty 24), is usually classified as the fourth Dynasty of the Ancient Egyptian Third Intermediate Period. Contents 1 History 1.1 Tefnakht I 1.2 Bakenranef 2 Pharaohs of the 24th Dynasty 3 Timeline of the 24th Dynasty 4 Family tree 5 References History[edit] The Twenty-Fourth Dynasty was a short-lived group of pharaohs who had their capital at Sais in the western Nile Delta. Tefnakht I[edit] Tefnakht I formed an alliance of the Delta kinglets, with whose support he attempted to conquer Upper Egypt; his campaign attracted the attention of the Nubian king, Piye, who recorded his conquest and subjection of Tefnakhte of Sais and his peers in a well-known inscription. Tefnakht is always called the "Great Chief of the West" in Piye's Victory stela and in two stelas dating to the regnal years 36 and 38 of Shoshenq V. It is uncertain if he ever adopted an official royal title. However, Olivier Perdu[1] has now argued that a certain Shepsesre Tefnakhte of Sais was not, in fact, Piye's famous nemesis. Perdu published a recently discovered donation stela which came from a private collection; the document is dated to Year 2 of Necho I of Sais and is similar in style, epigraphy and text with the donation stela of Shepsesre. However, Perdu's arguments are not accepted by most Egyptologists at present, who believe that the Year 8 Shepsesre Tefnakht Athens stela was most likely Tefnakht I. The later king Tefnakht II, if he existed, would have been a close predecessor of Necho I. Both Tefnakht II and Necho I ruled as local Saite kings during the Nubian era under Taharqa. Bakenranef[edit] Tefnakht I's successor, Bakenranef, definitely assumed the throne of Sais and took the royal name Wahkare. His authority was recognised in much of the Delta including Memphis where several Year 5 and Year 6 Serapeum stelas from his reign have been found. This Dynasty came to a sudden end when Shebitqo, the second king of the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty, attacked Sais, captured Bakenrenef and burned him alive. Pharaohs of the 24th Dynasty[edit] Name of Pharaoh Image Reign Throne Name Comments Tefnakht I 732-725 BC Shepsesre Bakenranef 725-720 BC Wahkare Timeline of the 24th Dynasty[edit] Family tree[edit] Basa[2] Gemnefsutkapu[2] Tefnakht Bakenranef unnamed son[3] unnamed son[3] References[edit] ^ Olivier Perdu, "La Chefferie de Sébennytos de Piankhy à Psammétique Ier", Revue d'Égyptology 55 (2004), pp. 95-111. ^ a b P.R. Del Francia, "Di una statuetta dedicata ad Amon-Ra dal grande capo dei Ma Tefnakht nel Museo Egizio di Firenze", S. Russo (ed.) Atti del V Convegno Nazionale di Egittologia e Papirologia, Firenze, 10-12 dicembre 1999, Firenze, 2000, pp. 63-112; 76-82 ^ Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson, 2004, p. 233 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Twenty-fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=965294910" Categories: Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt States and territories established in the 8th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 8th century BC Dynasties of ancient Egypt 8th century BC in Egypt 8th-century BC establishments in Egypt 8th-century BC disestablishments in Egypt 1st millennium BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Pages using the EasyTimeline extension Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska தமிழ் Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 30 June 2020, at 14:19 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8454	----	Takelot II - Wikipedia Takelot II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Takelot II Takelot II (left) and Amun-Ra at Karnak Pharaoh Predecessor Osorkon II Successor Pedubast I Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Hedjkheperre Setepenre ḥḏ-ḫpr-Rˁ stp.n-Rˁ Radiant is the manifestation of Ra, the chosen one of Ra Nomen Takelot-siese-meramun Tklt-sȝ-ȝst-mrj-Jmn Takelot, son of Isis, beloved of Amun[1] Horus name Kanakht Khaiemwaset[2] Consort Karomama Merytmut II Hedjkheperre Setepenre Takelot II Si-Ese was a pharaoh of the Twenty-third Dynasty of Ancient Egypt in Middle and Upper Egypt. He has been identified as the High Priest of Amun Takelot F, son of the High Priest of Amun Nimlot C at Thebes and, thus, the son of Nimlot C and grandson of king Osorkon II according to the latest academic research.[3] Based on two lunar dates belonging to Takelot II, this Upper Egyptian pharaoh is today believed to have ascended to the throne of a divided Egypt in either 845 BC or 834 BC.[4] Most Egyptologists today, including Aidan Dodson,[5] Gerard Broekman,[6] Jürgen von Beckerath,[7] M.A. Leahy and Karl Jansen-Winkeln, also accept David Aston's hypothesis[8] that Shoshenq III was Osorkon II's actual successor at Tanis, rather than Takelot II. As Aidan Dodson and Dyan Hilton write in their comprehensive book on the royal families of Ancient Egypt: Takelot II is likely to have been identical with the High Priest Takelot F, who is stated in [the] Karnak inscriptions to have been a son of Nimlot C, and whose likely period of office falls neatly just before Takelot II's appearance.[9] Takelot II rather ruled a separate kingdom that embraced Middle and Upper Egypt, distinct from the Tanite Twenty-second Dynasty which only controlled Lower Egypt. Takelot F, the son and successor of the High Priest of Amun Nimlot C, served for a period of time under Osorkon II as a High Priest of Amun before he proclaimed himself as king Takelot II in the final three regnal years of Osorkon II. This situation is attested by the relief scenes on the walls of Temple J at Karnak which was dedicated by Takelot F – in his position as High Priest – to Osorkon II, who is depicted as the celebrant and king.[10] All the documents which mention Takelot II Si-Ese and his son, Osorkon B, originate from either Middle or Upper Egypt (none from Lower Egypt) and a royal tomb at Tanis which named a king Hedjkheperre Setepenre Takelot along with a Year 9 stela from Bubastis are now recognised as belonging exclusively to Takelot I. While both Takelot I and II used the same prenomen, Takelot II added the epithet Si-Ese ("Son of Isis") to his royal titulary both to affiliate himself with Thebes and to distinguish his name from Takelot I. Contents 1 The Crown Prince Osorkon 2 Theban Uprising and Conflict 3 Marriages and children 4 References 5 Further reading The Crown Prince Osorkon[edit] Titulary of Takelot II on a doorway in the temple of Ptah at Karnak.[2] Takelot II controlled Middle and Upper Egypt during the final 3 Years of Osorkon II and the first 2 decades of Shoshenq III. The majority of Egyptologists today concede that king Osorkon III was the illustrious "Crown Prince and High Priest Osorkon B," son of Takelot II. A misunderstanding arose over his identity because in the Crown Prince's famous Chronicle, which was carved on the Bubastite Portal at Karnak, Osorkon dates his actions by both the regnal years of Takelot II (years 11 through 24) – with a short year 25 left unmentioned – and then by those of the Tanite king, Shoshenq III (from regnal years 22 through 29).[11] While Kenneth Kitchen has interpreted this to mean that Shoshenq III succeeded Takelot II at Tanis, in fact Takelot II and Shoshenq III were likely close contemporaries because immediately after the death of his father in year 25 of Takelot II, Osorkon B started dating his activities to year 22, and not year 1, of Shoshenq III onwards. Consequently, there was never a two decade long break in Osorkon B's struggle to regain control of Thebes (from Year 1 to Year 22 of Sheshonq III) as Kitchen's chronology implies because year 25 of Takelot II is equivalent to year 22 of Sheshonq III.[12] Osorkon B did not immediately ascend to his father's throne presumably because he was involved in a prolonged civil war with his rival Pedubast I and, later, Shoshenq VI, for control of Thebes. Instead, he merely dated his activities to the serving Dynasty 22 Pharaoh at Tanis: Shoshenq III. The Crown Prince Osorkon B was not outmaneuvered to the throne of Tanis by Shoshenq III because both men ruled over separate kingdoms with the 22nd Dynasty controlling Lower Egypt, and Takelot II/Osorkon B ruling over most of Upper Egypt from Herakleopolis Magna to Thebes, where they are monumentally attested. In 1983, a donation stela was discovered by Japanese excavators (Heian Museum 1983) at Tehna which reveals that Osorkon III was once a High Priest of Amun himself.[13] This person can only be the well-known High Priest Osorkon B since no other Theban High Priests named Osorkon are known until the reign of Takelot III half a century later when the latter's son Osorkon F served in this office.[14] Theban Uprising and Conflict[edit] In Year 11 of Takelot II, an insurrection began under Pedubast I whose followers challenged this king's authority at Thebes. Takelot reacted by dispatching his son, Osorkon B, to sail southwards to Thebes and quell the uprising. Osorkon B succeeded in retaining control of the city and then proclaimed himself as the new High Priest of Amun. Some of the rebels' bodies were deliberately burned by Osorkon to permanently deny their souls any hope of an afterlife. However, just four years later, in year 15 of Takelot II, a second major revolt broke out and this time Osorkon B's forces were expelled from Thebes by Pedubast I. This caused a prolonged period of turmoil and instability in Upper Egypt as a prolonged struggle broke out between the competing factions of Takelot II/Osorkon B and Pedubast I/Shoshenq VI for control of Thebes. This conflict would last for 27 long years – from Year 15 to Year 25 of Takelot II and then from Year 22 to Year 39 of Shoshenq III when Osorkon B finally defeated his enemies and conquered this great city. Osorkon B proclaimed himself as king Osorkon III sometime after his victory. On other matters, the Chronicle of Prince Osorkon B, which is carved on the Bubastis Portal at Karnak, records Osorkon's activities between regnal years 11 and 24 of his father and then from regnal years 22 through 29 of Shoshenq III. However, Takelot II's brief 25th year is attested by a donation stela made by his son in his position as High Priest at Thebes shortly before Takelot died; it granted 35 aurourae of land to Takelot II's daughter, Karomama E.[15] Papyrus Berlin 3048 has also now been conclusively dated to Takelot II's (and not Takelot III's) reign due to the attestation of a certain Harsiese—designated the fourth prophet of Amun—in this document who is known to have served in office during king Takelot II's reign.[16] This papyrus contains several year dates including a year 13, year 14, year 16, year 23 and even a year 26—although a Year 26 date for Takelot II is unknown for this ruler and could pertain to another pharaoh instead.[16] As of 2008[update], no tomb or final resting place has been found for this king. Marriages and children[edit] Takelot II married his sister and Great Royal Wife Karomama Merymut II; they were the parents of: Osorkon B, the High Priest of Amun at Thebes who later became king Osorkon III. Bakenptah, general of Heracleopolis. Mentioned in a text dating to year 39 of Osorkon III and said to be a brother of the king.[17] Takelot II also married a lady whose name was only partially preserved as Tashep[...]. They had a son: Nimlot, mentioned on a wooden stela (Turin 1468/Vatican 329) as the son of King Takelot and Tashep[...]. Thought to be a son of Takelot II.[17] Takelot also had a wife named Tabektenasket (I), they had a daughter: Isetweret (II). Married the Theban Vizier Nakhtefmut (C). Known from the coffins of her son Ankhpakhered and daughter Tabektenasket (II) (Berlin 20132 and 20136).[17][18] Other children: Djed-Ptah-ef-ankh, a younger son of Takelot II. Shebensopdet (II). Married the Fourth Prophet of Amun Djed-Khons-ef-ankh. She is known from a statue now in the Cairo Museum (CG 42211) [17][18] Karomama (E). Chantress of Amun.[17] Possible further children: Tentsepeh (D), married Ptah-udj-ankhef. Kitchen assumed she was a daughter of Takelot II. Bierbrier assumed she was a daughter of Osorkon II instead.[17][18] Ir-Bast-udja-tjau, married Pakhuru, the brother of Vizier Padiamonet. She was a daughter of either Takelot II or Takelot III.[18] Di-Ese-nesyt, married Nespaqashuty B, the nephew of Vizier Padiamonet. She was a daughter of either Takelot II or Takelot III.[18] References[edit] ^ Jürgen von Beckerath, Handbuch der Ägyptischen Königsnamen (MÄS 49), Philip Von Zabern, 1999, pp. 194-95. ^ a b Henri Gauthier, Le Livre des rois d'Égypte, recueil de titres et protocoles royaux, 3, De la XIXe à la XXIVe dynastie, MIFAO 19, Cairo 1914, p. 354. ^ Karl Jansen-Winkeln, "Historische Probleme Der 3. Zwischenzeit," JEA 81(1995) p.129, 138 ^ Rolf Krauss, in Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss, and David Warburton (editors), Handbook of Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies), Brill: 2006, pp. 408–411 ^ Aidan Dodson, "A new King Shoshenq confirmed?" GM 137(1993), p.58 ^ Gerard Broekman, "The Reign of Takeloth II: a Controversial Matter," GM 205(2005), pp.21-33 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath, "Chronologie des Pharaonischen Ägypten," MÄS 46 (Philipp von Zabern, Mainz: 1997. p.94 ^ David Aston (1989), "Takeloth II: A King of the Twenty Third Dynasty?," JEA 75, pp.139-153 ^ Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson, (2004), p. 224 ^ Aston (1989), p. 147 ^ Aston (1989), p. 143 ^ Aston, (1989), pp. 143 and 148–149 ^ *大城 道則 [Ōhshiro Michinori] (1999). "The Identity of Osorkon III: The Revival of an Old Theory (Prince Osorkon = Osorkon III)". 古代オリエント博物館紀要 [Bulletin of the Ancient Orient Museum]. 20: 33–49. [article language is English] ^ Kitchen, Kenneth (1996). The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100–650 BC), 3rd edition (Warminster: Aris & Phillips), pp. 565 & 581 ^ Broekman, (2005), p.30 ^ a b Frédéric Payraudeau, Takeloth III: Considerations on Old and New Documents in 'The Libyan Period in Egypt.' Historical and Cultural Studies into the 21st-24th Dynasties: Proceedings of a Conference at Leiden University 25–27 October 2007, G. Broekman, RJ Demaree & O.E. Kaper (eds), Peeters Leuven 2009, p.294 ^ a b c d e f D. A. Aston, Takeloth II: A King of the 'Theban Twenty-Third Dynasty'?, The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. Vol. 75, 1989 ^ a b c d e Kitchen, Kenneth A. The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt, 1100-650 B.C. (Book & Supplement) Aris & Phillips. 1986 ISBN 978-0-85668-298-8 Further reading[edit] David A. Aston, 1989. ‘Takeloth II – a King of the “Twenty-third Dynasty”?’, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 75, 139-153 Winfried Barta, 1980. ‘Die Mondfinsternis im 15. Regierungsjahr Takelots II. und die Chronologie der 22. bis 25. Dynastie’, Revue d'Égyptologie 32, 3-17 Gerard P.F. Broekman, 2008. 'The Chronicle of Prince Osorkon and its Historical Context', Journal of Egyptian History 1.2, 209-234 Ricardo A. Caminos, 1958. 'The Chronicle of Prince Osorkon'. (Analectica Orientalia [AO] 37.) Rome: Biblical Institute Press N. Dautzenberg, 1995. 'Bemerkungen zu Schoschenq II., Takeloth II. und Pedubastis II', Göttinger Miszellen 144, 21-29 Karl Jansen-Winkeln, 2006. ‘The Chronology of the Third Intermediate Period: Dyns. 22-24’. In: E. Hornung, R. Krauss and D. A. Warburton (eds), Ancient Egyptian Chronology, 234-264. (Handbook of Oriental Studies [HdO] I vol. 83.) Leiden: Brill Rolf Krauss, 2007. ‘Die Bubastiden-Finsternis im Licht von 150 Jahren Forschungsgeschichte’, Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts. Abteilung Kairo (MDAIK) 63, 211-223 Bengt Julius Peterson, 1967. 'Djedptahefanch, Sohn des Takeloth II', Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde (ZÄS) 94, 128-129 Robert K. Ritner, 'An Oblique Reference to the Expelled High Priest Osorkon?', in: E. Teeter, J.A. Larson, Gold of Praise: Studies on Ancient Egypt in Honor of Edward F. Wente, (SAOC 58), Chicago 1999, 351-360 Ad Thijs, 2010. ‘The Lunar Eclipse of Takelot II and the Chronology of the Libyan Period’, Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde (ZÄS) 137, 171-190 Ad Thijs, 2015. 'From the Lunar Eclipse of Takeloth II back to Shoshenq I and Shishak' In: P. James, P.G van der Veen (eds), Solomon and Shishak: Current perspectives from archaeology, epigraphy, history and chronology; proceedings of the third BICANE colloquium held at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge 26–27 March 2011 (British Archaeological Reports 2732), Archaeopress: Oxford, 42-60 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Takelot II. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Takelot_II&oldid=991996278" Categories: 9th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Theban High Priests of Amun 9th century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2008 All articles containing potentially dated statements Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Bosanski Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá Edit links This page was last edited on 2 December 2020, at 22:53 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8473	----	Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt 837 BC–728 BC Flask of Rudamun Capital Thebes, Herakleopolis Common languages Egyptian language Religion Ancient Egyptian Religion Government Absolute monarchy Historical era Classical antiquity • Established 837 BC • Disestablished 728 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt (notated Dynasty XXIII, alternatively 23rd Dynasty or Dynasty 23) is usually classified as the third dynasty of the ancient Egyptian Third Intermediate Period. This dynasty consisted of a number of Meshwesh ancient Libyan (Berber) kings, who ruled either as pharaohs or independent kings of parts of Upper Egypt from 880 BC to 720 BC, and pharaohs from 837 BC to 728 BC. Contents 1 History 2 Pharaohs and Kings of the 23rd Dynasty 3 Further reading 4 References History[edit] There is much debate surrounding this dynasty, which may have been situated at Herakleopolis Magna, Hermopolis Magna, and Thebes. Monuments from their reign show that they controlled Upper Egypt in parallel with the Twenty-second dynasty, shortly before the death of Osorkon II. While the Twenty-third Dynasty is considered a Tanite dynasty, as in originating from the city Tanis, it never reigned from there. The Twenty-second Dynasty, coming from Bubastis, took over Tanis and Memphis and managed to retain these cities almost until the end of their Dynasty. As a result, the Twenty-third Dynasty, being more or less an offshoot of the Twenty-second Dynasty, originated from Tanis. Instead, as mentioned above, most historians argue that they used Leontopolis as their capital.[1] This is confirmed by Piankhy's stela, which locates Iuput II in Leontopolis.[2] However, some historians argue that Iuput II should not be considered a Twenty-third Dynasty king at all, as it has not been undoubtedly proven that the Twenty-third Dynasty ruled from Leontopolis, merely that Iuput II ruled from somewhere in the Delta.[3] And if Iuput II is the only connection between the Twenty-third Dynasty and Leontopolis, this viewpoint would eliminate Piankhy's stela as proof for Leontopolis being the capital of the Twenty-third Dynasty. Another reason why there is much debate is because next to the conflicts between Lower and Upper Egypt that existed, there were now also conflicts in the Delta itself. Part of these conflicts were succession struggles, but another part of it were High Priests of Amun at Thebes, who for a period during the Twenty-first Dynasty effectively ruled Upper Egypt, despite not being regarded as a separate dynasty (however, some did become pharaoh as part of a dynasty, like Psusennes I). Although their power declined after the Twenty-first Dynasty, the High Priests of Amun remained powerful and influential people, and marriages into the royal family were not unusual.[4] As a result, multiple reigns within the Twenty-third Dynasty as well as between the Twenty-second and Twenty-third Dynasties overlap. This is because some members of the Twenty-third Dynasty reigned as independent kings (like Harsiese A), and as a separate dynasty after Osorkon II’s (of the Twenty-second Dynasty) death. Some historians argue that the Twenty-third Dynasty started with Takelot II, and consider Pedubastis I as a separate independent (and short lived) part of that Dynasty. Others consider Takelot II's line as a separate independent part of the Twenty-second Dynasty, and consider Pedubastis I's short lived line as the Twenty-third Dynasty.[1] When Osorkon II died, crown prince Shoshenq had already died, so his younger brother, Takelot II, took the throne at Tanis. High priest of Amun at that moment in time was Nimlot, Takelot II's half-brother. Nimlot was appointed by Osorkon II, and Nimlot married his own daughter, Karomama Merytmut II, to Takelot II. As a result, Nimlot would be grandfather of any children, and thus heirs to the throne, Takelot II would get. When Nimlot died in the eleventh year of Takelot II,[5] a fight for his succession broke out. Takelot II chose prince Osorkon, but Harsiese, grandson of the chief priest, did not agree. Thebes revolted at his hand, but prince Osorkon managed to crush the revolt. This relative peace lasted four years, as in Takelot II's fifteenth year a civil war broke out. This conflict lasted for almost ten years, and after another two years of relative peace, the Thebans once again revolted. Takelot II died before this new conflict was resolved, and with prince Osorkon far from Tanis, his younger brother Shoshenq III seized power. While this helped in resolving the conflict with Thebes, because they accepted Shoshenq III as king, a new conflict started. Instead of a conflict between royal families, this was from within the royal family. Prince Pedubastis proclaimed himself king, and reigned from Leontopolis, simultaneously with Shoshenq III.[5] While prince Osorkon did get usurped by his brother Shoshenq III, Shoshenq did reappoint him as chief priest of Amun. Because Harsiese, the one from the Theban revolt mentioned before, disappeared in the twenty-ninth year of Shoshenq III's reign, prince Osorkon effectively controlled Upper Egypt for about a decade as chief priest of Amun. Meanwhile, Shoshenq III was and remained more powerful than the kings in Leontopolis. By this time, Pedubastis and his son Iuput, who he had appointed as co-regent, had already died, seemingly in the same year (804 BC). Shoshenq IV had succeeded Pedubastis,[1] but not for long as prince Osorkon succeeded him six years later as Osorkon III,[6] reigning simultaneously with Shoshenq III for the last years of his reign. At Herakleopolis a Twenty-second Dynasty king was still in power in the name of Shoshenq V around 766 BC. However, Osorkon III installed his eldest son Takelot there, also allowing him to be chief priest of Amun at the same time. As a result, the Twenty-second Dynasty's role in the Theban area was greatly reduced. When Osorkon III died, Takelot had already co-reigned with his father,[1] and was thus now sole ruler.[5] Takelot III had given up his role as chief priest when he became pharaoh, and his sister, Shepenwepet I, seems to have taken over that role, as well as being appointed as Divine Adoratrice of Amun. As a result, she effectively ruled over the Theban region together with her brother. Takelot III also gave up his rule of Herakleopolis, to Peftjauawhybastet, who was married to a daughter of Rudamon, Takelot's brother. Rudamon succeeded Takelot III, but shortly after was already succeeded by Iuput II (also known as Ini/Iny). Under his reign the region became more divided again, as Peftjauawybastet and Nimlot, governor of Hermopolis, adopted royal titles. Rudamon and Iuput II only reigned over Thebes in the final phase of the Twenty-third Dynasty, as Piankhy, king of Napata, put an end to the so-called ‘Libyan anarchy’.[5] Pharaohs and Kings of the 23rd Dynasty[edit] For a more comprehensive list, see List of pharaohs. Pharaoh / King Image Throne Name / Prenomen Reign Consort(s) Comments Harsiese A Hedjkheperre Setpenamun 880 – 860 BC Isetweret I Independent King of Thebes; Ruled during Takelot I's and Osorkon II's reigns Takelot II Hedjkheperre Setpenre 840 – 815 BC Karomama D Tashep Tabeketenasket A Contemporary with the Twenty-Second Dynasty king Shoshenq III, who controlled Lower Egypt. Pedubast I Usermaatre Setpenamun 829 – 804 BC Involved in a prolonged civil war with king Takelot II/Crown Prince Osorkon B. Iuput I 829 – 804 BC co-regent Shoshenq VI Usermaatre Meryamun 804 – 798 BC Succeeded Pedubast I at Thebes and ruled Upper Egypt for 6 years. Osorkon III Usermaatre Setpenamun 798 – 769 BC Tentsai A Karoatjet Involved in a civil war against Pedubast I and Shoshenq VI. Takelot III Usermaatre Setepenamun 774 – 759 BC Kakat Irtiubast Osorkon III's eldest son, junior coregent and successor. Rudamun Usermaatre Setepenamun 759 – 755 BC Tadi[...] The younger brother and successor of Takelot III. A poorly attested king. Shoshenq VII Hedjkheperre Setepenre 755 – 732 BC A poorly attested king. Ini Menkheperre 720 – 715 BC Only controlled Thebes during his reign. Possibly a usurper against the 25th dynasty. Further reading[edit] J.P. Elias, "A Northern Member of the 'Theban' Twenty-Third Dynasty", Discussions in Egyptology 31 (1995), 57-67. J. Goldberg, "The 23rd Dynasty Problem Revisited: Where, When and Who?", Discussions in Egyptology 29 (1994), 55-85. H. Jacquet Gordon, "Deux graffiti d'époque libyenne sur le toit du Temple de Khonsu à Karnak" in Hommages à la memoire de Serge Sauneron, 1927-1976 (Cairo: 1979), pp. 169–74. K.A. Kitchen, The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (c.1100–650 BC), 3rd ed., Warminster: 1996. Naunton, Christopher. “Libyans and Nubians.” A Companion to Ancient Egypt, by Alan B. Lloyd, vol. 1, Wiley-Blackwell, 2010, pp. 120–139. References[edit] ^ a b c d Kitchen, K. A. (Kenneth Anderson) (2009). The third intermediate period in Egypt, 1100-650 B.C. Aris & Phillips. ISBN 9780856687686. OCLC 297803817. ^ Breasted, James Henry, 1865-1935. (2001). Ancient records of Egypt. University of Illinois Press. pp. 406–444. ISBN 0252069900. OCLC 49621223.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Spencer, P. A.; Spencer, A. J. (1986). "Notes on Late Libyan Egypt". The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 72 (1): 198–201. doi:10.1177/030751338607200124. ISSN 0307-5133. ^ Broekman, Gerard P. F. (2010). "The Leading Theban Priests of Amun and their Families under Libyan Rule*". The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 96 (1): 125–148. doi:10.1177/030751331009600107. ISSN 0307-5133. ^ a b c d Grimal, Nicolas (1992). A History of Ancient Egypt. Oxfordd: Blackwell. pp. 311–333. ISBN 978-0631193968. ^ Lloyd, Alan B., editor. (2010). A companion to ancient Egypt. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 120–139. ISBN 9781444320060. OCLC 712990151.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Twenty-third_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=992294266" Categories: Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt States and territories established in the 9th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 8th century BC 1st millennium BC in Egypt 9th century BC 8th-century BC disestablishments in Egypt 8th century BC in Egypt 9th-century BC establishments in Egypt 9th century BC in Egypt Berbers in Egypt Dynasties of ancient Egypt Hidden categories: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska தமிழ் Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 December 2020, at 15:09 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8475	----	Khufu - Wikipedia Khufu From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 5 January 2021. Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the Egyptian pharaoh. For the encryption algorithm, see Khufu and Khafre. "Cheops" redirects here. For other uses, see Cheops (disambiguation). Fourth Dynasty ancient Egyptian pharaoh Khufu Cheops, Suphis, Chnoubos,[1] Sofe[2] The Statue of Khufu in the Cairo Museum Pharaoh Reign 2589–2566 BC[3][4] (63 years according to Manetho); (26 or 46 years according to modern historians)[5] (4th Dynasty) Predecessor Sneferu Successor Djedefre Royal titulary Nomen Khufu (Khuifwi) Ḫw(j).f w(j) I am protected/He protects me[6] Alternative form: Khnum Khufu ẖnmw ḫwj=f w(j) Khnum protects me Horus name Medjedu Mḏd.w[7] He who crushes (the enemies) for Horus Alternative form: Nebty name Nebty-r-medjed Mḏd-r-Nnb.tj[7] He who crushes (the enemies) of the two Ladies Golden Horus Bikwy-nub Bjk.wj-nb.w[7] The twice golden falcon Abydos King List Khufu Ḫ(w)j.f w(j) He protects me Saqqara Tablet Khufu Ḫ(w)j.f w(j) He protects me Turin King List Name lost in a lacuna Relief with the titulary of Khufu from the Wadi Maghareh.[8] Consort Meritites I, Henutsen,[3] Children Kawab, Djedefhor, Hetepheres II, Meritites II, Meresankh II, Baufra, Djedefra, Minkhaf I, Khafre, Khufukhaf I, Babaef I, Horbaef, Nefertiabet, possibly Khamerernebty I, possibly Nefermaat II[9] Father Pharaoh Sneferu Mother Queen Hetepheres I Born Unknown Died 2566 BC Monuments Great Pyramid of Giza, Khufu ship Khufu (/ˈkuːfuː/, full name Khnum Khufu /ˈknuːm ˈkuːfuː/, known to the ancient Greeks as Cheops; Old Egyptian: ḫw.f-wj; /χawˈjafwij/) was an ancient Egyptian monarch who was the second pharaoh of the Fourth Dynasty, in the first half of the Old Kingdom period (26th century BC). Khufu succeeded his father Sneferu as king. He is generally accepted as having commissioned the Great Pyramid of Giza, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, but many other aspects of his reign are poorly documented.[5][10] The only completely preserved portrait of the king is a three-inch high ivory figurine found in a temple ruin of a later period at Abydos in 1903. All other reliefs and statues were found in fragments, and many buildings of Khufu are lost. Everything known about Khufu comes from inscriptions in his necropolis at Giza and later documents. For example, Khufu is the main character noted in the Westcar Papyrus from the 13th dynasty.[5][10] Most documents that mention king Khufu were written by ancient Egyptian and Greek historians around 300 BC. Khufu's obituary is presented there in a conflicting way: while the king enjoyed a long-lasting cultural heritage preservation during the period of the Old Kingdom and the New Kingdom, the ancient historians Manetho, Diodorus and Herodotus hand down a very negative depiction of Khufu's character. Thanks to these documents, an obscure and critical picture of Khufu's personality persists.[5][10] Contents 1 Khufu's name 2 Family 2.1 Khufu's origin 2.2 Family tree 3 Reign 3.1 Length of reign 3.2 Political activities 3.2.1 Wadi Maghareh 3.2.2 Wadi al-Jarf 4 Monuments and statues 4.1 Statues 4.2 Reliefs 4.3 Pyramid complex 5 Khufu in later Egyptian traditions 5.1 Old Kingdom 5.2 Middle Kingdom 5.3 New Kingdom 5.4 Late Period 6 Khufu in ancient Greek traditions 6.1 Manetho 6.2 Herodotus 6.3 Diodorus of Sicily 7 Khufu in Arabic traditions 8 Modern egyptological evaluations 9 Khufu in popular culture 10 See also 11 References 12 External links Khufu's name[edit] Khufu's name was dedicated to the god Khnum, which might point to an increase of Khnum's popularity and religious importance. In fact, several royal and religious titles introduced at this time may point out that Egyptian pharaohs sought to accentuate their divine origin and status by dedicating their official cartouche names to certain deities. Khufu may have viewed himself as a divine creator, a role that was already given to Khnum, the god of creation and growth. As a consequence, the king connected Khnum's name with his own. Khufu's full name (Khnum-khufu) means "Khnum protect me".[11][12] While modern Egyptological pronunciation renders his name as Khufu, at the time of his reign his name was probably pronounced as Khayafwi(y).[13] The pharaoh officially used two versions of his birth name: Khnum-khuf and Khufu. The first (complete) version clearly exhibits Khufu's religious loyalty to Khnum, the second (shorter) version does not. It is unknown as to why the king would use a shortened name version since it hides the name of Khnum and the king's name connection to this god. It might be possible though, that the short name wasn't meant to be connected to any god at all.[5][10] Khufu is well known under his Hellenized name Khêops or Cheops (/ˈkiːɒps/, KEE-ops; Greek: Χέοψ, by Diodorus and Herodotus) and less well known under another Hellenized name, Súphis (/ˈsuːfɪs/ SOO-fis; Greek: Σοῦφις, by Manetho).[5][10] A rare version of the name of Khufu, used by Josephus, is Sofe (/ˈsɒfi/ SOF-ee; Greek: Σόφε).[2] Arab historians, who wrote mystic stories about Khufu and the Giza pyramids, called him Saurid (Arabic: سوريد‎) or Salhuk (سلهوق).[14] Family[edit] See also: Fourth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Khufu's origin[edit] Portrait of Sneferu, Khufu's father or stepfather The royal family of Khufu was quite large. It is uncertain if Khufu was actually the biological son of Sneferu. Mainstream Egyptologists believe Sneferu was Khufu's father, but only because it was handed down by later historians that the eldest son or a selected descendant would inherit the throne.[9] In 1925 the tomb of queen Hetepheres I, G 7000x, was found east of Khufu's pyramid. It contained many precious grave goods, and several inscriptions give her the title Mut-nesut (meaning "mother of a king"), together with the name of king Sneferu. Therefore, it seemed clear at first that Hetepheres was the wife of Sneferu, and that they were Khufu's parents. More recently, however, some have doubted this theory, because Hetepheres is not known to have borne the title Hemet-nesut (meaning "king's wife"), a title indispensable to confirm a queen's royal status.[9][15] Instead of the spouse's title, Hetepheres bore only the title Sat-netjer-khetef (verbatim: "daughter of his divine body"; symbolically: "king's bodily daughter"), a title mentioned for the first time.[15] As a result, researchers now think Khufu may not have been Sneferu's biological son, but that Sneferu legitimised Khufu's rank and familial position by marriage. By apotheosizing his mother as the daughter of a living god, Khufu's new rank was secured. This theory may be supported by the circumstance that Khufu's mother was buried close to her son and not in the necropolis of her husband, as it was to be expected.[9][15][16] Family tree[edit] The following list presents family members, which can be assigned to Khufu with certainty. Parents:[9][15][16] Sneferu: Most possibly his father, maybe just stepfather. Famous pharaoh and builder of three pyramids. Hetepheres I: Most possibly his mother. Wife of king Sneferu and well known for her precious grave goods found at Giza. Portrait of Prince Rahotep Slab stela of princess Nefertiabet Spouses:[9][15][16] Meritites I: First wife of Khufu. Henutsen: Second wife of Khufu. She is mentioned on the famous Inventory Stela. Brothers and Sisters:[9][15][16] Hetepheres: Wife of Ankhhaf. Ankhhaf: The eldest brother. His nephew would later become pharaoh Khafra. Nefermaat: Half-brother; buried at Meidum and owner of the famous "mastaba of the geese". Rahotep: Elder brother or half-brother. Owner of a life-size double statue portraying him and his wife Nofret, displayed in the Egyptian Museum of Cairo. Sons of Khufu:[9][15][16] Kawab: Most possibly the eldest son and crown prince, he died before Khufu's own end of reign and thus did not follow Khufu on the throne. Djedefra: Also known as Radjedef and Ratoises. Became the first throne successor. Khafre: Most possibly second throne successor. Djedefhor: Also known as Hordjedef, mentioned in Papyrus Westcar. Baufra: Possibly a son of Khufu, but neither archaeologically nor contemporarily attested. Only known from two much later documents. Babaef I: Also known as Khnum-baef I. Khufukhaf I: Also known as Kaefkhufu I. Minkhaf I. Horbaef. Daughters:[9][15][16][17] Nefertiabet: Known for her beautiful slab stelae. Hetepheres II: Wife of prince Kawab, later married to pharaoh Djedefra. Meresankh II. Meritites II: Married to Akhethotep. Khamerernebty I: Wife of king Khafra and mother of Menkaura. Grandchildren:[9][15][16] Duaenhor: Son of Kawab and possibly eldest grandchild. Kaemsekhem: Second son of Kawab. Mindjedef: Also known as Djedefmin. Djaty: Son of Horbaef. Iunmin I: Son of Khafre. Nephews and nieces:[9][15][16] Hemiunu: Director of the building of Khufu's great pyramid. Nefertkau III: Daughter of Meresankh II. Reign[edit] Granite fragment with Khufu's horus name Medjedu on it. Length of reign[edit] It is still unclear how long Khufu ruled over Egypt, because historically later documents contradict each other and contemporary sources are scarce. The Royal Canon of Turin from the 19th Dynasty however, gives 23 years of rulership for Khufu.[5][18] The ancient historian Herodotus gives 50 years and the ancient historian Manetho even credits him 63 years of reign. These figures are now considered an exaggeration or a misinterpretation of antiquated sources.[5] Sources contemporary to Khufu's time give three key pieces of information: One of them was found at the Dakhla Oasis in the Libyan Desert. Khufu's serekh name is carved in a rock inscription reporting the "Mefat-travelling in the year after the 13th cattle count under Hor-Medjedu".[19] The second source can be found in the relieving chambers inside Khufu's pyramid above the burial chamber. One of these inscriptions according to Flinders Petrie mentions a workmen's crew named "friends of Khufu" alongside the note "in the year of the 17th cattle count", but it is questioned if the number of years points to a biennial cattle count, or if the number must be taken verbatim.[5][18] Though Zahi Hawass has reported locating the inscription of the date given by Petrie, there is also some debate whether Petrie may have mistakenly relied on other sources as the inscription has otherwise yet to be found. [20][21] Newer evidence from Wadi al-Jarf however, gives a third clue about the true length of reign: Several papyrus fragments contain handwritten reports from a royal harbour at modern-day Wadi al-Jarf. The inscriptions describe the arrival of royal boats with precious ore and turquoise in the "year after the 13th cattle count under Hor-Medjedw".[22][23] Therefore, Khufu's highest known and certain preserved date is the "Year after the 13th cattle count".[5][18] In an attempt to solve the riddle around Khufu's true length of rulership, modern Egyptologists point to Sneferu's reign, when the cattle count was held every second year of a king's rulership. The cattle count as an economic event served the tax collection in the whole of Egypt. Newer evaluation of contemporary documents and the Palermo stone inscription strengthen the theory that the cattle count under Khufu was still performed biennially, not annually, as thought earlier.[5][18] Egyptologists such as Thomas Schneider, Michael Haase, and Rainer Stadelmann wonder if the compiler of the Turin Canon actually took into account that the cattle count was performed biennially during the first half of the Old Kingdom period, whilst tax collection during the 19th Dynasty was held every year. In sum, all these documents would prove that Khufu ruled for at least 26 or 27 years, and possibly for over 34 years, if the inscription in the relieving chambers points to a biennial cattle count. Indeed, if the compiler of the Turin Canon did not take into account a biennial cattle count, it could even mean that Khufu ruled for 46 years.[5][22] Political activities[edit] There are only a few hints about Khufu's political activities within and outside Egypt. Within Egypt, Khufu is documented in several building inscriptions and statues. Khufu's name appears in inscriptions at Elkab and Elephantine and in local quarries at Hatnub and Wadi Hammamat. At Saqqara two terracotta figures of the goddess Bastet were found, on which, at their bases, the horus name of Khufu is incised. They were deposited at Saqqara during the Middle Kingdom, but their creation can be dated back to Khufu's reign.[24] Wadi Maghareh[edit] Drawing of the relief of Khufu from Wadi Maghareh.[8] At Wadi Maghareh in the Sinai a rock inscription depicts Khufu with the double crown. Khufu sent several expeditions in an attempt to find turquoise and copper mines. Like other kings, such as Sekhemkhet, Sneferu and Sahure, who are also depicted in impressive reliefs there, he was looking for those two precious materials.[25] Khufu also entertained contacts with Byblos. He sent several expeditions to Byblos in an attempt to trade copper tools and weapons for precious Lebanon cedar wood. This kind of wood was essential for building large and stable funerary boats and indeed the boats discovered at the Great Pyramid were made of it.[26] Wadi al-Jarf[edit] New evidence regarding political activities under Khufu's reign has recently been found at the site of the ancient port of Wadi al-Jarf on the Red Sea coast in the east of Egypt. The first traces of such a harbour were already excavated in 1823 by John Gardner Wilkinson and James Burton, but the site was quickly abandoned and then forgotten over time. In 1954, French scholars François Bissey and René Chabot-Morisseau re-excavated the harbour, but their works were brought to an end by the Suez Crisis in 1956. In June 2011, an archaeological team led by French Egyptologists Pierre Tallet and Gregory Marouard, organized by the French Institute of Oriental Archeology (IFAO), restarted work at the site. Among other material, a collection of hundreds of papyrus fragments were found in 2013 dating back 4500 years.[22][23] The papyrus is currently exhibited at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. The Egyptian archaeologist Zahi Hawass called this ancient papyrus “the greatest discovery in Egypt in the 21st century.”[27][28][29][30][31] Ten of these papyri are very well preserved. The majority of these documents date to the 27th year of Khufu's reign and describe how the central administration sent food and supplies to the sailors and wharf workers. The dating of these important documents is secured by phrases typical for the Old Kingdom period, as well as the fact that the letters are addressed to the king himself, using his Horus name. This was typical when an addressed king was still alive; when the ruler was already dead he was addressed by his cartouche name or birth name. One document is of special interest: the diary of Merer, an official involved in the building of the Great Pyramid. Using the diary, researchers were able to reconstruct three months of his life, providing new insight into the everyday lives of people of the Fourth Dynasty. These papyri are the earliest examples of imprinted papyri ever found in Egypt. Another inscription, found on the limestone walls of the harbor, mentions the head of the royal scribes controlling the exchange of goods: Idu.[22][23] Khufu's cartouche name is also inscribed on some of the heavy limestone blocks at the site. The harbor was of strategic and economic importance to Khufu because ships brought precious materials, such as turquoise, copper and ore from the southern tip of the Sinai peninsula. The papyri fragments show several storage lists naming the delivered goods. The papyri also mention a certain harbour at the opposite coast of Wadi al-Jarf, on the western shore of the Sinai Peninsula, where the ancient fortress Tell Ras Budran was excavated in 1960 by Gregory Mumford. The papyri and the fortress together reveal an explicit sailing route across the Red Sea for the very first time in history. It is the oldest archaeologically detected sailing route of Ancient Egypt. According to Tallet, the harbor could also have been one of the legendary high sea harbours of Ancient Egypt, from where expeditions to the infamous gold land Punt had started.[22][23] Monuments and statues[edit] Ivory idol of Khufu in detail Statues[edit] Head of Khufu. Old Kingdom, 4th Dynasty, c. 2400 BC. State Museum of Egyptian Art, Munich The only three-dimensional depiction of Khufu that has survived time nearly completely is a small and well restored ivory figurine known as Khufu Statuette. It shows the king with the Red Crown of Lower Egypt.[32] The king is seated on a throne with a short backrest, at the left side of his knees the Horus-name Medjedu is preserved, and, at the right side, a fragment of the lower part of the cartouche name Khnum-Khuf is visible. Khufu holds a flail in his left hand and his right hand rests together with his lower arm on his right upper leg. The artifact was found in 1903 by Flinders Petrie at Kom el-Sultan near Abydos. The figurine was found headless; according to Petrie, it was caused by an accident while digging. When Petrie recognized the importance of the find, he stopped all other work and offered a reward to any workman who could find the head. Three weeks later the head was found after intense sifting in a deeper level of the room rubble.[33] Today the little statue is restored and on display in the Egyptian Museum of Cairo in room 32 under its inventory number JE 36143.[34] Most Egyptologists believe the statuette is contemporary, but some scholars, such as Zahi Hawass, think that it was an artistic reproduction of the 26th dynasty. He argues that no building that clearly dates to the Fourth Dynasty was ever excavated at Kom el-Sultan or Abydos. Furthermore, he points out that the face of Khufu is unusually squat and chubby and shows no emotional expression. Hawass compared the facial stylistics with statues of contemporary kings, such as Sneferu, Khaefra and Menkaura. The faces of these three kings are of even beauty, slender and with a kindly expression – the clear result of idealistic motivations; they are not based on reality. The appearance of Khufu on the ivory statue instead looks like the artist did not care very much about professionalism or diligence. He believes Khufu himself would never have allowed the display of such a comparatively sloppy work. And finally, Hawass also argues that the sort of throne the figurine sits on does not match the artistic styles of any Old Kingdom artifact. Old Kingdom thrones had a backrest that reached up to the neck of the king. But the ultimate proof that convinces Hawass about the statue being a reproduction of much later time is the Nehenekh flail in Khufu's left hand. Depictions of a king with such a flail as a ceremonial insignia appear no earlier than the Middle Kingdom. Zahi Hawass therefore concludes that the figurine was possibly made as an amulet or lucky charm to sell to pious citizens.[32][34] Head of Khufu in ivory displayed in Altes Museum It is often said that the small figurine is the only preserved statue of Khufu. This is not quite correct. Excavations at Saqqara in 2001 and 2003 revealed a pair of terracotta statues depicting a lion goddess (possibly Bastet or Sekhmet). On her feet two figures of childlike kings are preserved. While the right figurine can be identified as king Khufu by his Horus name, the left one depicts king Pepy I of 6th dynasty, called by his birth name. The figurines of Pepy were added to the statue groups in later times, because they were placed separately and at a distance from the deity. This is inconsistent with a typical statue group of the Old Kingdom — normally all statue groups were built as an artistic unit. The two statue groups are similar to each other in size and scale but differ in that one lion goddess holds a scepter. The excavators point out that the statues were restored during the Middle Kingdom, after they were broken apart. However, it seems that the reason for the restoration lay more in an interest in the goddess, than in a royal cult around the king figures: their names were covered with gypsum.[35] The Palermo Stone reports on its fragment C-2 the creation of two oversize standing statues for the king; one is said to have been made of copper, the other of pure gold.[5][32] Furthermore, several alabaster and travertine fragments of seated statues, which were found by George Reisner during his excavations at Giza, were once inscribed with Khufu's full royal titulary. Today, the complete or partially preserved cartouches with the name Khufu or Khnum-Khuf remain. One of the fragments, that of a small seated statue, shows the legs and feet of a sitting king from the knuckles downward. To the right of them the name ...fu in a cartouche is visible, and it can easily be reconstructed as the cartouche name Khufu.[32][36] Two further objects are on display at the Roemer- und Pelizaeus-Museum Hildesheim. These are also made of alabaster. One of them shows the head of a cat goddess (most probably Bastet or Sekhmet). The position of her right arm suggests that the bust once belonged to a statue group similar to the well known triad of Mycerinus.[37] Several statue heads might have belonged to Khufu. One of them is the so-called "Brooklyn head" of the Brooklyn Museum in New York City. It is 54,3 cm large and made of pink granite. Because of its chubby cheeks the head is assigned to Khufu as well as to king Huni.[38] A similar object is on display at the State Collection of Egyptian Art in Munich. The head is made of limestone and is comparatively small at only 5,7 cm.[39] Relief fragment depicting Khufu with the Red Crown Reliefs[edit] Khufu is depicted in several relief fragments found scattered in his necropolis and elsewhere. All reliefs were made of finely polished limestone. Some of them originate from the ruined pyramid temple and the destroyed causeway, where they once covered the walls completely. Others were found re-used in the pyramid necropolis of king Amenemhet I at Lisht and at Tanis and Bubastis.[5][32] One of the relief fragments shows the cartouche of Khufu with the phrase: "Building of the sanctuaries of the gods". Another one shows a row of fat oxen decorated with flowers – they were obviously prepared as sacrifices during an offering procession. The guiding inscription calls them "the surroundings of Tefef serve Khufu", "beautiful bulls of Khufu" and "bawling for Khufu".[40] A third one shows the earliest known depiction of royal warfare: the scene is called "archers prepare", since it shows archers drawing their bows. And a fourth example shows the king with the double crown impaling a hippopotamus.[41][42] At the Wadi Maghareh in Sinai a rock inscription contains Khufu's names and titles and reports: "Hor-Medjedu, Khnum-Khuf, Bikuj-Nebu, the great god and smiter of the troglodytes, all protection and life are with him". The work-off of the relief is similar to that of king Snefru. In one scene king Khufu wears the double-crown; nearby, the depiction of the god Thoth is visible. In another scene, close by, Khufu wears the Atef-crown while smiting an enemy. In this scene the god Wepwawet is present.[25][43] None of the numerous relief fragments shows king Khufu offering to a god. This is remarkable, since reliefs of Sneferu and those of all kings from Menkaura onward show the king offering to a deity. It is possible that the lack of this special depiction influenced later ancient Greek historians in their assumptions that Khufu could have actually closed all temples and prohibited any sacrifice.[32][44] Pyramid complex[edit] Map of Khufu's necropolis The Great Pyramid. Seal impression of Khufu with the name of his pyramid Akhet-Khufu. The great sphinx Main article: Great Pyramid of Giza The pyramid complex of Khufu was erected in the northeastern section of the plateau of Giza. It is possible that the lack of building space, the lack of local limestone quarries and the loosened ground at Dahshur forced Khufu to move north, away from the pyramid of his predecessor Sneferu. Khufu chose the high end of a natural plateau so that his future pyramid would be widely visible. Khufu decided to call his pyramid Akhet-Khufu (meaning "horizon of Khufu").[45][46][47][48] The Great Pyramid has a base measurement of ca. 750 x 750ft (≙ 230.4 x 230.4 m) and today a height of 455.2 ft (138.7 m). Once it had been 481 ft (147 m) high, but the pyramidion and the limestone casing are completely lost due to stone robbery. The lack of the casing allows a full view of the inner core of the pyramid. It was erected in small steps by more or less roughly hewn blocks of dark limestone. The casing was made of nearly white limestone. The outer surface of the casing stones were finely polished so the pyramid shimmered in bright, natural lime-white when new. The pyramidion might have been covered in electrum, but there is no archaeological proof of that. The inner corridors and chambers have walls and ceilings made of polished granite, one of the hardest stones known in Khufu's time. The mortar used was a mixture of gypsum, sand, pulverized limestone and water.[45][46][47] The original entrance to the pyramid is on the northern side. Inside the pyramid are three chambers: at the top is the burial chamber of the king (the king's chamber), in the middle is the statue chamber (erroneously called the queen's chamber), and under the foundation is an unfinished subterranean chamber (underworld chamber). Whilst the burial chamber is identified by its large sarcophagus made of granite, the use of the "queen's chamber" is still disputed – it might have been the serdab of the Ka statue of Khufu. The subterranean chamber remains mysterious as it was left unfinished. A tight corridor heading south at the western end of the chamber and an unfinished shaft at the eastern middle might indicate that the subterranean chamber was the oldest of the three chambers and that the original building plan contained a simple chamber complex with several rooms and corridors. But for unknown reasons the works were stopped and two further chambers were built inside the pyramid. Remarkable is the so-called Grand Gallery leading to the king's chamber: It has a corbelled arch ceiling and measures 28.7 ft in height and 151.3 ft in length. The gallery has an important static function; it diverts the weight of the stone mass above the king's chamber into the surrounding pyramid core.[45][46][47] Khufu's pyramid was surrounded by an enclosure wall, with each segment 33 ft (10 m) in distance from the pyramid. On the eastern side, directly in front of the pyramid, Khufu's mortuary temple was built. Its foundation was made of black basalt, a great part of which is still preserved. Pillars and portals were made of red granite and the ceiling stones were of white limestone. Today nothing remains but the foundation. From the mortuary temple a causeway 0.43 miles long once connected to the valley temple. The valley temple was possibly made of the same stones as the mortuary temple, but since even the foundation is not preserved, the original form and size of the valley temple remain unknown.[45][46][47][48] On the eastern side of the pyramid lies the East Cemetery of the Khufu necropolis, containing the mastabas of princes and princesses. Three small satellite pyramids, belonging to the queens Hetepheres (G1-a), Meritites I (G1-b) and possibly Henutsen (G1-c) were erected at the southeast corner of Khufu's pyramid. Close behind the queens' pyramids G1-b and G1-c, the cult pyramid of Khufu was found in 2005. On the southern side of the Great Pyramid lie some further mastabas and the pits of the funerary boats of Khufu. On the western side lies the West Cemetery, where the highest officials and priests were interred.[45][46][47][48] A possible part of Khufu's funerary complex is the famous Great Sphinx of Giza. It's a 241 ft × 66.6 ft (73.5 m × 20.3 m) large limestone statue in the shape of a recumbent lion with the head of a human, decorated with a royal Nemes headdress. The Sphinx was directly hewn out of the plateau of Giza and originally painted with red, ocher, green and black. To this day it is passionately disputed as to who exactly gave the order to build it: the most probable candidates are Khufu, his elder son Djedefra and his younger son Khaefra. One of the difficulties of a correct attribution lies in the lack of any perfectly preserved portrait of Khufu. The faces of Djedefre and Khaefra are both similar to that of the Sphinx, but they do not match perfectly. Another riddle is the original cultic and symbolic function of the Sphinx. Much later it was called Heru-im-Akhet (Hârmachís; "Horus at the horizon") by the Egyptians and Abu el-Hὀl ("father of terror") by the Arabians. It might be that the Sphinx, as an allegoric and mystified representation of the king, simply guarded the sacred cemetery of Giza.[45][46][47][48] Khufu in later Egyptian traditions[edit] Cartouche name Chefu in the Abydos King List Old Kingdom[edit] Khufu possessed an extensive mortuary cult during the Old Kingdom. At the end of 6th dynasty at least 67 mortuary priests and 6 independent high officials serving at the necropolis are archaeologically attested. Ten of them were already serving during the late 4th dynasty (seven of them were royal family members), 28 were serving during the 5th dynasty and 29 during the 6th dynasty. This is remarkable: Khufu's famous (step-)father Sneferu enjoyed "only" 18 mortuary priesthoods during the same period of time, even Djedefra enjoyed only 8 and Khaefra enjoyed 28. Such mortuary cults were very important for the state's economy, because for the oblations special domains had to be established. A huge number of domains' names are attested for the time of Khufu's reign. However, by the end of the 6th dynasty the number of domains abated quickly. With the beginning of the 7th dynasty no domain's name was handed down any more.[5][10][49] Middle Kingdom[edit] At Wadi Hammamat a rock inscription dates back to the 12th dynasty. It lists five cartouche names: Khufu, Djedefra, Khafra, Baufra and Djedefhor. Because all royal names are written inside cartouches, it was often believed that Baufra and Djedefhor once had ruled for short time, but contemporary sources entitle them as mere princes. Khufu's attendance roll call in this list might indicate that he and his followers were worshipped as patron saints. This theory is promoted by findings such as alabaster vessels with Khufu's name found at Koptos, the pilgrimage destination of Wadi Hammamat travellers.[9][15][16] A literary masterpiece from the 13th dynasty talking about Khufu is the famous Papyrus Westcar, where king Khufu witnesses a magical wonder and receives a prophecy from a magician named Dedi. Within the story, Khufu is characterised in a difficult-to-assess way. On one hand, he is depicted as ruthless when deciding to have a condemned prisoner decapitated to test the alleged magical powers of Dedi. On the other hand, Khufu is depicted as inquisitive, reasonable and generous: He accepts Dedi's outrage and his subsequent alternative offer for the prisoner, questions the circumstances and contents of Dedi's prophecy and rewards the magician generously after all. The contradictory depiction of Khufu is the object of great dispute between Egyptologists and historians to this day. Especially earlier Egyptologists and historians such as Adolf Erman, Kurt Heinrich Sethe and Wolfgang Helck evaluated Khufu's character as heartless and sacrilegious. They leaned on the ancient Greek traditions of Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, who described an exaggerated negative character image of Khufu, ignoring the paradoxical (because positive) traditions the Egyptians themselves had always taught.[49][50][51][52][53] Close-up of the dream stele But other Egyptologists, such as Dietrich Wildung, see Khufu's order as an act of mercy: the prisoner would have received his life back if Dedi had actually performed his magical trick. Wildung thinks that Dedi's refusal was an allusion to the respect Egyptians showed to human life. The ancient Egyptians were of the opinion that human life should not be misused for dark magic or similar evil things. Verena Lepper and Miriam Lichtheim suspect that a difficult-to-assess depiction of Khufu was exactly what the author had planned. He wanted to create a mysterious character.[49][50][51][52][53] New Kingdom[edit] During the New Kingdom the necropolis of Khufu and the local mortuary cults were reorganized and Giza became an important economic and cultic destination again. During the Eighteenth Dynasty king Amenhotep II erected a memorial temple and a royal fame stele close to the Great Sphinx. His son and throne follower Thutmose IV freed the Sphinx from sand and placed a memorial stele – known as the "Dream Stele" – between its front paws. The two steles' inscriptions are similar in their narrative contents, but neither of them gives specific information about the true builder of the Great Sphinx.[5][10][49] Golden seal ring with the cartouche name of Khufu (Twenty-sixth Dynasty). At the end of the Eighteenth Dynasty a temple for the goddess Isis was built at the satellite pyramid G1-c (that of queen Henutsen) at Khufu's necropolis. During the Twenty-first Dynasty the temple got extended, and, during the Twenty-sixth Dynasty, the extensions continued. From this period of time several "priests of Isis" (Hem-netjer-Iset), who were also "priests of Khufu" (Hem-netjer-Khufu), worked there. From the same dynasty a golden seal ring with the name of a priest Neferibrê was found at Giza.[5][10][49] Late Period[edit] During the Late Period huge numbers of scarabs with the name of Khufu were sold to the citizens, possibly as some kind of lucky charms. More than 30 scarabs are preserved. At Isis' temple a family tree of the Isis priests is on display, which lists the names of priests from 670 to 488 BC. From the same period comes the famous Inventory Stela, which names Khufu and his wife Henutsen. However, modern Egyptologists question whether Khufu was still personally adored as a royal ancestor at this time; they think it more likely that Khufu was already seen as a mere symbolic foundation figure for the history of the Isis temple.[5][10][49][54] Khufu in ancient Greek traditions[edit] Bust of Herodotus Manetho[edit] The later Egyptian historian Manetho called Khufu "Sûphis" and credited him with a rulership of 63 years. He also mentions that Khufu built the Great Pyramid, then he claims that his contemporary Herodotus says that the pyramid was built by a king "Khéops". Obviously, Manetho thought "Khéops" and "Sûphis" to be two different kings. Manetho also says that Khufu received a contempt against the gods and that he had written a sacred book about that and that he (Manetho) received that book during his travel through Egypt. The story about the alleged "Sacred Book" is questioned by modern Egyptologists, for it would be highly unusual that a pharaoh wrote books and that such a precious document could be sold away so easily.[55][56][57] Herodotus[edit] The Greek historian Herodotus instead depicts Khufu as a heretic and cruel tyrant. In his literary work Historiae, Book II, chapter 124–126, he writes: "As long as Rhámpsinîtos was king, as they told me, there was nothing but orderly rule in Egypt, and the land prospered greatly. But after him Khéops became king over them and brought them to every kind of suffering: He closed all the temples; after this he kept the priests from sacrificing there and then he forced all the Egyptians to work for him. So some were ordered to draw stones from the stone quarries in the Arabian mountains to the Nile, and others he forced to receive the stones after they had been carried over the river in boats, and to draw them to those called the Libyan mountains. And they worked by 100,000 men at a time, for each three months continually. Of this oppression there passed ten years while the causeway was made by which they drew the stones, which causeway they built, and it is a work not much less, as it appears to me, than the pyramid. For the length of it is 5 furlongs and the breadth 10 fathoms and the height, where it is highest, 8 fathoms, and it is made of polished stone and with figures carved upon it. For this, they said, 10 years were spent, and for the underground chambers on the hill upon which the pyramids stand, which he caused to be made as sepulchral chambers for himself in an island, having conducted thither a channel from the Nile. For the making of the pyramid itself there passed a period of 20 years; and the pyramid is square, each side measuring 800 feet, and the height of it is the same. It is built of stone smoothed and fitted together in the most perfect manner, not one of the stones being less than 30 feet in length. This pyramid was made after the manner of steps, which some call 'rows' and others 'bases': When they had first made it thus, they raised the remaining stones with devices made of short pieces of timber, lifting them first from the ground to the first stage of the steps, and when the stone got up to this it was placed upon another machine standing on the first stage, and so from this it was drawn to the second upon another machine; for as many as were the courses of the steps, so many machines there were also, or perhaps they transferred one and the same machine, made so as easily to be carried, to each stage successively, in order that they might take up the stones; for let it be told in both ways, according as it is reported. However, that may be, the highest parts of it were finished first, and afterwards they proceeded to finish that which came next to them, and lastly they finished the parts of it near the ground and the lowest ranges. On the pyramid it is declared in Egyptian writing how much was spent on radishes and onions and leeks for the workmen, and if I remember correctly what the interpreter said while reading this inscription for me, a sum of 1600 silver talents was spent. Kheops moreover came to such a pitch of evilness, that being in want of money he sent his own daughter to a brothel and ordered her to obtain from those who came a certain amount of money (how much it was they did not tell me). But she not only obtained the sum that was appointed by her father, but she also formed a design for herself privately to leave behind her a memorial: She requested each man who came in to her to give her one stone for her building project. And of these stones, they told me, the pyramid was built which stands in front of the great pyramid in the middle of the three, each side being 150 feet in length."[49][56][57] The same goes for the story about king Khafre. He is depicted as the direct follower of Khufu and as likewise evil and that he ruled for 56 years. In chapter 127–128 Herodotus writes: "After Khéops was dead his brother Khéphrên succeeded to the royal throne. This king followed the same manner as the other ... and ruled for 56 years. Here they reckon altogether 106 years, during which they say that there was nothing but evil for the Egyptians, and the temples were kept closed and not opened during all that time".[49][56][57] Herodotus closes the story of the evil kings in chapter 128 with the words: "These kings the Egyptians -because of their hate against them- are not very willing to say their names. What's more, they even call the pyramids after the name of Philítîs the shepherd, who at that time pastured flocks in those regions."[49][56][57] Diodorus of Sicily[edit] The ancient historian Diodorus claims that Khufu was so much abhorred by his own people in later times that the mortuary priests secretly brought the royal sarcophagus, together with the corpse of Khufu, to another, hidden grave. With this narration he strengthens and confirms the view of the Greek scholars, that Khufu's pyramid (and the other two, as well) must have been the result of slavery. However, at the same time, Diodorus distances himself from Herodotus and argues that Herodotus "only tells fairy tales and entertaining fiction". Diodorus claims that the Egyptians of his lifetime were unable to tell him with certainty who actually built the pyramids. He also states that he didn't really trust the interpreters and that the true builder might have been someone different: the Khufu pyramid was -according to him- built by a king named Harmais, the Khafre pyramid was thought to be built by king Amasis II and the Menkaura pyramid was allegedly the work of king Inaros I.[18] Diodorus states that the Khufu pyramid was beautifully covered in white, but the top was said to be capped. The pyramid therefore already had no pyramidion anymore. He also thinks that the pyramid was built with ramps, which were removed during the finishing of the limestone shell. Diodorus estimates that the total number of workers was 300,000 and that the building works lasted for 20 years.[18] Khufu in Arabic traditions[edit] In 642 A.D. the Arabs conquered Egypt. Upon arriving at the Giza pyramids, they searched for explanations as to who could have built these monuments. By this time, no inhabitant of Egypt was able to tell and no one could translate the Egyptian hieroglyphs anymore. As a consequence, the Arab historians wrote down their own theories and stories.[58] The best known story about Khufu and his pyramid can be found in the book Hitat (completely: al-Mawāʿiẓ wa-’l-iʿtibār fī ḏikr al-ḫiṭaṭ wa-’l-ʾāṯār), written in 1430 by Muhammad al-Maqrizi (1364-1442). This book contains several collected theories and myths about Khufu, especially about the Great Pyramid. Though King Khufu himself is seldom mentioned, many Arab writers were convinced that the Great Pyramid (and the others, too) were built by the god Hermes (named Idris by the Arabs).[58] Al-Maqrizi notes that Khufu was named Saurid, Salhuk and/or Sarjak by the biblical Amalekites. Then he writes that Khufu built the pyramids after repeated nightmares in which the earth turned upside-down, the stars fell down and people were screaming in terror. Another nightmare showed the stars falling down from heaven and kidnapping humans, then putting them beneath two large mountains. King Khufu then received a warning from his prophets about a devastating deluge that would come and destroy Egypt. To protect his treasures and books of wisdom, Khufu built the three pyramids of Giza.[58] Modern egyptological evaluations[edit] Over time, Egyptologists examined possible motives and reasons as to how Khufu's reputation changed over time. Closer examinations of and comparisons between contemporary documents, later documents and Greek and Coptic readings reveal that Khufu's reputation changed slowly, and that the positive views about the king still prevailed during the Greek and Ptolemaic era.[59] Alan B. Lloyd, for example, points to documents and inscriptions from the 6th dynasty listing an important town called Menat-Khufu, meaning "nurse of Khufu". This town was still held in high esteem during the Middle Kingdom period. Lloyd is convinced that such a heart-warming name wouldn't have been chosen to honour a king with a bad (or, at least, questionable) reputation. Furthermore, he points to the overwhelming number of places where mortuary cults for Khufu were practiced, even outside Giza. These mortuary cults were still practiced even in Saitic and Persian periods.[59] The famous Lamentation Texts from the First Intermediate Period reveal some interesting views about the monumental tombs from the past; they were at that time seen as proof of vanity. However, they give no hint of a negative reputation of the kings themselves, and thus they do not judge Khufu in a negative way.[59] Modern Egyptologists evaluate Herodotus's and Diodorus's stories as some sort of defamation, based on both authors' contemporary philosophy. They call for caution against the credibility of the ancient traditions. They argue that the classical authors lived around 2000 years after Khufu, and their sources that were available in their lifetimes surely were antiquated.[49][56] Additionally some Egyptologists point out that the philosophies of the ancient Egyptians had changed since the Old Kingdom. Oversized tombs such as the Giza pyramids must have appalled the Greeks and even the later priests of the New Kingdom, because they remembered the heretic pharaoh Akhenaten and his megalomaniac building projects.[56][57] This negative picture was presumably projected onto Khufu and his pyramid. The view was possibly promoted by the fact that during Khufu's lifetime, permission for the creation of oversized statues made of precious stone and their displaying in public was limited to the king.[10][49] In their era, the Greek authors, mortuary priests, and temple priests could only explain the impressive monuments and statues of Khufu as the result of a megalomaniac. These negative evaluations were applied to Khufu.[56][57] Furthermore, several Egyptologists point out that Roman historians such as Pliny the Elder and Frontinus (both around 70 A.D.) equally do not hesitate to ridicule the pyramids of Giza: Frontinus calls them "idle pyramids, containing the indispensable structures likewise to some of our abandoned aqueducts at Rome" and Pliny describes them as "the idle and foolish ostentation of royal wealth". Egyptologists clearly see politically and socially motivated intentions in these criticisms and it seems paradoxical that the use of these monuments was forgotten, but the names of their builders remained immortalized.[60] Another hint to Khufu's bad reputation within the Greek and Roman folk might be hidden in the Coptic reading of Khufu's name. The Egyptian hieroglyphs forming the name "Khufu" are read in Coptic as "Shêfet", which actually would mean "bad luck" or "sinful" in their language. The Coptic reading derives from a later pronunciation of Khufu as "Shufu", which in turn led to the Greek reading "Suphis". Possibly the bad meaning of the Coptic reading of "Khufu" was unconsciously copied by the Greek and Roman authors.[59] On the other hand, some Egyptologists think that the ancient historians received their material for their stories not only from priests, but from the citizens living close to the time of the building of the necropolis.[61] Among the "simple folk", also, negative or critical views about the pyramids might have been handed down, and the mortuary cult of the priests was surely part of tradition. Additionally a long-standing literary tradition does not prove popularity. Even if Khufu's name survived within the literary traditions for so long, different cultural circles surely fostered different views about Khufu's character and historical deeds.[56][61] The narrations of Diodorus, for example, are credited with more trust than those of Herodotus, because Diodorus obviously collected the tales with much more scepsis. The fact that Diodorus credits the Giza pyramid to Greek kings, might be reasoned in legends of his lifetimes and that the pyramids were demonstrably reused in late periods by Greek and Roman kings and noblemen.[18] Modern Egyptologists and historians also call for caution about the credibility of the Arabian stories. They point out that medieval Arabs were guided by the strict Islamic belief that only one god exists, and therefore no other gods were allowed to be mentioned. As a consequence, they transferred Egyptian kings and gods into biblical prophets and kings. The Egyptian god Thoth, named Hermes by the Greeks, for example, was named after the prophet Henoch. King Khufu, as already mentioned, was named "Saurid", "Salhuk" and/or "Sarjak", and often replaced in other stories by a prophet named Šaddād bīn 'Âd. Furthermore, scholars point to several contradictions which can be found in Al-Maqrizi's book. For example, in the first chapter of the Hitat, the Copts are said to have denied any intrusion of the Amalekites in Egypt and the pyramids were erected as the tomb of Šaddād bīn 'Âd. But some chapters later, Al-Maqrizi claims that the Copts call Saurid the builder of the pyramids.[58] Khufu in popular culture[edit] Because of his fame, Khufu is the subject of several modern references, similar to kings and queens such as Akhenaten, Nefertiti and Tutankhamen. His historical figure appears in movies, novels and documentaries. In 1827, Jane C. Loudon wrote the novel The Mummy! A Tale of the 22nd Century. The story describes the citizens of the 22nd century, which became highly advanced technologically, but totally immoral. Only the mummy of Khufu can save them.[62] In 1939, Nagib Mahfuz wrote the novel Khufu's Wisdom, which is based on the stories of Papyrus Westcar.[63] In 1997, French author Guy Brachet published the novel series Le roman des pyramides, including five volumes, of which the first two (Le temple soleil and Rêve de pierre) use Khufu and his tomb as a theme.[64] In 2004, spiritualist Page Bryant published the novel The Second Coming of the Star Gods, which deals with Khufu's alleged celestial origin.[65] The novel The Legend of The Vampire Khufu, published by Raymond Mayotte in 2010, deals with king Khufu awakening in his pyramid as a vampire.[66] Films which deal with Khufu, or have the Great Pyramid as a subject, include Howard Hawks' Land of the Pharaohs from 1955, a fictional account of the building of the Great Pyramid of Khufu,[67] and Roland Emmerich's Stargate from 1994, in which an extraterrestrial device is found near the pyramids. Khufu and his pyramid are the objects of pseudoscientific theories purporting that Khufu's pyramid was built with the help of extraterrestrials and that Khufu simply seized and re-used the monument,[68] ignoring archaeological evidence or even falsifying it.[69] A near-Earth asteroid bears Khufu's name: 3362 Khufu.[70][71] Khufu and his pyramid are referenced in several computer games such as Tomb Raider – The Last Revelation, in which the player must enter Khufu's pyramid and face the god Seth as the final boss.[72] Another example is Duck Tales 2 for the Game Boy; the player here must guide Uncle Scrooge through a trap-loaded Khufu's pyramid.[73] In the classic action role playing game Titan Quest, the Giza Plateau is a large desert region in Egypt, where the Tomb of Khufu and The Great Sphinx can be found. He was also mentioned in Assassin's Creed Origins, as to where the player should find his tomb.[74] See also[edit] Ancient Egypt portal Monarchy portal Biography portal Egyptian pyramid construction techniques Fourth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Khufu ship References[edit] ^ Alan B. Lloyd: Herodotus, book II., p. 62. ^ a b Flavius Josephus, Folker Siegert: Über Die Ursprünglichkeit des Judentums (Contra Apionem) (=Über die Ursprünglichkeit des Judentums, Volume 1, Flavius Josephus. From: Schriften Des Institutum Judaicum Delitzschianum, Westfalen Institutum Iudaicum Delitzschianum Münster). Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2008, ISBN 3-525-54206-2, page 85. ^ a b Clayton, Peter A. Chronicle of the Pharaohs. p42. Thames and Hudson, London, 2006. ISBN 978-0-500-28628-9 ^ Malek, Jaromir, "The Old Kingdom" in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, ed. Ian Shaw, Oxford University Press 2000, ISBN 978-0-19-280458-7 p.88 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, page 100–104. ^ Rainer Hannig: Die Sprache der Pharaonen. Großes Handwörterbuch Ägyptisch-Deutsch. (= Kulturgeschichte der antiken Welt. Vol. 64) 4th Edition, von Zabern, Mainz 2006, ISBN 3-8053-1771-9, page 113. ^ a b c von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Deutscher Kunstverlag (1984), ISBN 3422008322 ^ a b Karl Richard Lepsius: Denkmaler Abtheilung II Band III Available online see p. 2, p. 39 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton: The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson, 2004, ISBN 0-500-05128-3 pp.52–53 ^ a b c d e f g h i j Aidan Dodson: Monarchs of the Nile. American Univ in Cairo Press, 2000, ISBN 977-424-600-4, page 29–34. ^ "BBC - History - Khufu". Retrieved 2018-03-10. ^ Rosalie F. Baker, Charles F. Baker: Ancient Egyptians: People of the Pyramids (= Oxford Profiles Series). Oxford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0195122216, page 33. ^ Gundacker, Roman (2015) “The Chronology of the Third and Fourth Dynasties according to Manetho’s Aegyptiaca” in Towards a New History for the Egyptian Old Kingdom, page 114–115, provides the final vowel but disagrees with Loprieno in some details of the word’s subsequent development: where Loprieno considers the semivowels preceding the tonic /a/ to have ultimately reduced to glottal stops, Gundacker posits that /j/ assimilated to the preceding /w/, which was preserved. ^ Gerald Massey: The natural genesis, or, second part of A book of the beginnings: containing an attempt to recover and reconstitute the lost origins of the myths and mysteries, types and symbols, religion and language, with Egypt for the mouthpiece and Africa as the birthplace, vol. 1. Black Classic Press, 1998, ISBN 1574780107, p.224-228. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Silke Roth: Die Königsmütter des Alten Ägypten von der Frühzeit bis zum Ende der 12. Dynastie (= Ägypten und Altes Testament 46). Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2001, ISBN 3-447-04368-7, page 354 – 358 & 388. ^ a b c d e f g h i Porter, Bertha and Moss, Rosalind: Topographical Bibliography of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphic Texts, Statues, Reliefs and Paintings, Volume III: Memphis, Part I Abu Rawash to Abusir. 2nd edition ^ Grajetzki: Ancient Egyptian Queens: A Hieroglyphic Dictionary. Golden House Publications, London, 2005, ISBN 978-0-9547218-9-3 ^ a b c d e f g Michael Haase: Eine Stätte für die Ewigkeit: der Pyramidenkomplex des Cheops aus baulicher, architektonischer und kulturgeschichtlicher Sicht. von Zabern, Mainz 2004, ISBN 3805331053, p. 12-13. ^ R. Kuper and F. Forster: Khufu's 'mefat' expeditions into the Libyan Desert. In: Egyptian Archaeology, vol. 23, Autumn 2003, page 25–28 Photo of the Dachla-inscription ^ http://guardians.net/hawass/articles/secretchambers.htm ^ http://www.gizapyramids.org/static/pdf%20library/verner_archiv_or_69.pdf: page 374. ^ a b c d e Pierre Tallet, Gregory Marouard: Wadi al-Jarf - An early pharaonic harbour on the Red Sea coast. In: Egyptian Archaeology, vol. 40, Cairo 2012, p. 40-43. ^ a b c d Rossella Lorenzi (12 April 2013). "Most Ancient Port, Hieroglyphic Papyri Found". Discovery News. Retrieved 21 April 2013. ^ Sakuji Yoshimura: Sakuji Yoshimura's Excavating in Egypt for 40 Years: Waseda University Expedition 1966–2006 – Project in celebration of the 125th Anniversary of Waseda University. Waseda University, Tokyo 2006, page 134–137, 223. ^ a b James Henry Breasted: Ancient Records of Egypt: The first through the seventeenth dynasties. University of Illinois Press, New York 2001, ISBN 0-252-06990-0, page 83–84. ^ Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt: Strategies, Society and Security. Routledge, London 2001, ISBN 0-415-26011-6, page 160–161. ^ "4,500-year-old harbor structures and papyrus texts unearthed in Egypt". NBC News. Retrieved 2019-07-30. ^ "Story of the Pyramid builders revealed in 4500-yr-old papyri". CatchNews.com. Retrieved 2019-07-30. ^ "A 4,500 Year Old Papyrus Holds the Answer to How the Great Pyramid Was Built". interestingengineering.com. 2017-09-25. Retrieved 2019-07-30. ^ "Revealed: 4,500-year-old Papyrus that details the construction of the Great Pyramid – Mysterious Earth". Retrieved 2019-07-30. ^ "Revealed: 4,500-year-old Papyrus that details the construction of the Great Pyramid". Ancient Code. 2016-08-05. Retrieved 2019-07-30. ^ a b c d e f Zahi Hawass: The Khufu Statuette: Is it an Old Kingdom Sculpture? In: Paule Posener-Kriéger (Hrsg.): Mélanges Gamal Eddin Mokhtar (= Bibliothèque d'étude, vol. 97, chapter 1) Institut français d'archéologie orientale du Caire, Kairo 1985, ISBN 2-7247-0020-1, page 379–394. ^ W.M. Flinders Petrie: Abydos II., Egypt Exploration Fund, London 1903, page 3 & table XIII, obj. XIV. ^ a b Abeer El-Shahawy, Farid S. Atiya: The Egyptian Museum in Cairo: A Walk Through the Alleys of Ancient Egypt. American Univ in Cairo Press, New York/Cairo 2005, ISBN 977-17-2183-6, page 49ff. ^ Sakuji Yoshimura, Nozomu Kawai, Hiroyuki Kashiwagi: A Sacred Hillside at Northwest Saqqara. A Preliminary Report on the Excavations 2001–2003. In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Abteilung Kairo (MDAIK). Volume 61, 2005, page 392–394; see online version with photographs. ^ Dagmar Stockfisch: Untersuchungen zum Totenkult des ägyptischen Königs im Alten Reich. Die Dekoration der königlichen Totenkultanlagen (= Antiquitates, vol. 25.). Kovač, Hamburg 1994, ISBN 3-8300-0857-0. ^ Matthias Seidel: Die königlichen Statuengruppen, volume 1: Die Denkmäler vom Alten Reich bis zum Ende der 18. Dynastie (= Hildesheimer ägyptologische Beiträge, vol. 42.). Gerstenberg, Hildesheim 1996, ISBN 3-8067-8136-2, page 9–14. ^ Richard A. Fazzini, Robert S. Bianchi, James F. Romano, Donald B. Spanel: Ancient Egyptian Art in the Brooklyn Museum. Brooklyn Museum, Brooklyn (NY) 1989, ISBN 0-87273-118-9. ^ Sylvia Schoske, Dietrich Wildung (Hrsg.): Staatliche Sammlung Ägyptischer Kunst München. (= Zaberns Bildbände zur Archäologie. vol. 31 = Antike Welt. vol. 26, 1995). von Zabern, Mainz 1995, ISBN 3-8053-1837-5, page 43. ^ Metropolitan Museum of Art, Royal Ontario Museum: Egyptian Art in the Age of the Pyramids. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (US) 1999, ISBN 0870999079, p.223. ^ John Romer: The Great Pyramid: Ancient Egypt Revisited. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2007, ISBN 0-521-87166-2, page 414–416. ^ William James Hamblin: Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC: Holy Warriors at the Dawn of History. Routledge, London/New York 2006, ISBN 0-415-25589-9, page 332. ^ Kathryn A. Bard, Steven Blake Shubert: Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. Routledge, London 1999, ISBN 0-415-18589-0, page 1071. ^ Jean Leclant: Sesto Congresso internazionale di egittologia: atti, vol. 2. International Association of Egyptologists, 1993, page 186–188. ^ a b c d e f Michael Haase: Eine Stätte für die Ewigkeit. Der Pyramidenkomplex des Cheops aus baulicher, architektonischer und kulturhistorischer Sicht. von Zabern, Mainz 2004, ISBN 3-8053-3105-3. ^ a b c d e f Rainer Stadelmann: Die ägyptischen Pyramiden: Vom Ziegelbau zum Weltwunder. 2. überarteitete und erweiterte Auflage., von Zabern, Mainz 1991, ISBN 3-8053-1142-7. ^ a b c d e f Zahi Hawass: The Programs of the Royal Funerary Complexes of the Fourth Dynasty. In: David O'Connor, David P. Silverman: Ancient Egyptian Kingship. BRILL, Leiden 1994, ISBN 90-04-10041-5. ^ a b c d Peter Jánosi: Die Pyramiden: Mythos und Archäologie. Beck, Frankfurt 2004, ISBN 3-406-50831-6, page 70–72. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Dietrich Wildung: Die Rolle ägyptischer Könige im Bewußtsein ihrer Nachwelt, Band 1: Posthume Quellen über die Könige der ersten vier Dynastien (= Münchener Ägyptologische Studien, Bd. 17). Hessling, Berlin 1969, S. 105–205. ^ a b Adolf Erman: Die Märchen des Papyrus Westcar I. Einleitung und Commentar. In: Mitteilungen aus den Orientalischen Sammlungen. Heft V, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Berlin 1890. ^ a b Verena M. Lepper: Untersuchungen zu pWestcar. Eine philologische und literaturwissenschaftliche (Neu-)Analyse. In: Ägyptologische Abhandlungen, Band 70. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2008, ISBN 3-447-05651-7. ^ a b Miriam Lichtheim: Ancient Egyptian literature: a book of readings. The Old and Middle Kingdoms, Band 1. University of California Press 2000 (2. Auflage), ISBN 0-520-02899-6 ^ a b Friedrich Lange: Die Geschichten des Herodot, Band 1. S. 188–190. ^ Gunnar Sperveslage: Cheops als Heilsbringer in der Spätzeit. In: Sokar, vol. 19, 2009, page 15–21. ^ Dietrich Wildung: Die Rolle ägyptischer Könige im Bewußtsein ihrer Nachwelt. Band 1: Posthume Quellen über die Könige der ersten vier Dynastien (= Münchener Ägyptologische Studien. Bd. 17). Hessling, Berlin 1969, page 152–192. ^ a b c d e f g h Siegfried Morenz: Traditionen um Cheops. In: Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde, vol. 97, Berlin 1971, ISSN 0044-216X, page 111–118. ^ a b c d e f Wolfgang Helck: Geschichte des Alten Ägypten (= Handbuch der Orientalistik, vol. 1.; Chapter 1: Der Nahe und der Mittlere Osten, vol 1.). BRILL, Leiden 1968, ISBN 90-04-06497-4, page 23–25 & 54–62. ^ a b c d Stefan Eggers: Das Pyramidenkapitel in Al-Makrizi`s "Hitat". BoD, 2003, ISBN 3833011289, p. 13-20. ^ a b c d Alan B. Lloyd: Herodotus, Book II: Commentary 1-98 (volume 43 of: Études préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l'Empire romain). BRILL, Leiden 1993, ISBN 9004077375, page 62 - 63. ^ William Gillian Waddell: Manetho (= The Loeb classical Library. Bd. 350). Harvard University Press u. a., Cambridge MA u. a. 1997, ISBN 0-674-99385-3, page 46 & 47. ^ a b Erhart Graefe: Die gute Reputation des Königs "Snofru". In: Studies in Egyptology Presented to Miriam Lichtheim, vol. 1. page 257–263. ^ Jane C. Loudon: The Mummy! A Tale of the 22nd Century. Henry Colburn, London 1827. ^ Najīb Maḥfūẓ (Author), Raymond T. Stock (Translator): Khufu's Wisdom, 2003. ^ Guy Rachet: Le roman des pyramides. Éd. du Rocher, Paris 1997. ^ https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/455942.The_Second_Coming_of_the_Star_Gods Retrieved 11 May 2020. ^ Raymond Mayotte: The Legend of The Vampire Khufu. CreateSpace, Massachusetts 2010, ISBN 1-4515-1934-6. ^ Philip C. DiMare: Movies in American History. p. 891 ^ cf. Erich von Däniken: Erinnerungen an die Zukunft (memories to the future). page 118. ^ Ingo Kugenbuch: Warum sich der Löffel biegt und die Madonna weint. page 139–142. ^ 3362 Khufu in the internet-database of Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) (English). ^ Lutz D. Schmadel: Dictionary of minor planet names. Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 2003 (5th edition), ISBN 3-540-00238-3, page 280. ^ Information about Khufu's pyramid in Tomb Raider IV (English). ^ Information about Khufu's pyramid in Duck Tales 2 (English). ^ "Tomb of Khufu". IGN. 11 November 2017. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Khufu. Travertine fragment of a small seated statue of Khufu, on display in the Boston museum of fine arts Zahi Hawass: Khufu – Builder of the Great Pyramid Information about Khufu and his pyramid An early pharaonic harbour on the Red Sea coast The Harbor of Khufu on the Red Sea Coast at Wadi al-Jarf La découverte des papyrus de Chéops sur le port antique du ouadi el-Jarf Preceded by Sneferu Pharaoh of Egypt Succeeded by Djedefre v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 118746227 ISNI: 0000 0004 4888 1660 LCCN: n80020531 NKC: ola2002100660 VIAF: 79976596 WorldCat Identities: viaf-79976596 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khufu&oldid=998446305" Categories: Khufu 26th-century BC Pharaohs 26th-century 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en-wikipedia-org-8486	----	Horemheb - Wikipedia Horemheb From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Egyptian Pharaoh Horemheb Horemhab, Haremhab Detail of a statue of Horemheb, at the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna Pharaoh Reign 1306 BC (most likely) or 1319 BC until 1292 BC (18th Dynasty) Predecessor Ay Successor Ramesses I Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Djeserkheperure Setepenre Ḏsr-ḫprw-Rˁ-stp-n-Rˁ Holy are the manifestations of Ra, the chosen one of Ra Nomen Horemheb Meryamun Ḥr-m-ḥb-mrj-Jmn Horus is in jubilation, beloved of Amun Horus name Kanakht Sepedkheru K3-nḫt-Spd-ḫrw Strong bull, whose plans are effective Nebty name Werbiawet-em-Ipetsut Wr-bj3wt-m-Jptswt He who is great of miracles in Ipetsut Golden Horus Heruhermaat Sekhepertawy Ḥrw-ḥr-m3ˁ.t-sḫpr-t3wj He who is satisfied with the Maat, he who makes the two lands come to existence Consort Amenia, Mutnedjmet Died 1292 BC Burial KV 57 Monuments Memphite Tomb Horemheb, also spelled Horemhab or Haremhab (Ancient Egyptian: ḥr-m-ḥb, meaning "Horus is in Jubilation")[1] was the last pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty of Egypt. He ruled for 14 years somewhere between 1319 BC and 1292 BC.[2] He had no relation to the preceding royal family other than by marriage to Mutnedjmet, who is thought (though disputed) to have been the daughter of his predecessor Ay; he is believed to have been of common birth. Before he became pharaoh, Horemheb was the commander in chief of the army under the reigns of Tutankhamun and Ay. After his accession to the throne, he reformed the Egyptian state and it was under his reign that official action against the preceding Amarna rulers began. Due to this, he is considered the ruler who restabilized his country after the troublesome and divisive Amarna Period. Horemheb demolished monuments of Akhenaten, reusing the rubble in his own building projects, and usurped monuments of Tutankhamun and Ay. Horemheb presumably had no surviving sons, as he appointed his vizier Paramesse as his successor, who would assume the throne as Ramesses I.[3] Contents 1 Early career 2 Internal reform 3 Disputed reign length 4 Succession 5 Tomb and excavation 6 Cultural depictions 6.1 Film 6.2 Television 6.3 Music 6.4 Literature 7 Footnotes 8 References 9 Bibliography 10 External links Early career[edit] Horemheb is believed to have originally come from Hnes,[a] on the west bank of the Nile, near the entrance to the Fayum, since his coronation text formally credits the god Horus of Hnes for establishing him on the throne.[4] A statue of Horemheb as a scribe His parentage is unknown but he is believed to have been a commoner. According to the French Egyptologist Nicolas Grimal, Horemheb does not appear to be the same person as Paatenemheb (Aten Is Present In Jubilation) who was the commander-in-chief of Akhenaten's army.[5] Grimal notes that Horemheb's political career first began under Tutankhamun where he "is depicted at this king's side in his own tomb chapel at Memphis."[6](p242) In the earliest known stage of his life, Horemheb served as "the royal spokesman for [Egypt's] foreign affairs" and personally led a diplomatic mission to visit the Nubian governors.[6](p242) This resulted in a reciprocal visit by "the Prince of Miam (Aniba)" to Tutankhamun's court, "an event [that is] depicted in the tomb of the Viceroy Huy."[6](p242) Horemheb quickly rose to prominence under Tutankhamun, becoming commander-in-chief of the army and advisor to the pharaoh. Horemheb's specific titles are spelled out in his Saqqara tomb, which was built while he was still only an official: "Hereditary Prince, Fan-bearer on the Right Side of the King, and Chief Commander of the Army"; the "attendant of the King in his footsteps in the foreign countries of the south and the north"; the "King's Messenger in front of his army to the foreign countries to the south and the north"; and the "Sole Companion, he who is by the feet of his lord on the battlefield on that day of killing Asiatics."[7] Relief from Horemheb's tomb. Receiving 'gold of honour' collars. When Tutankhamun died while a teenager, Horemheb had already been officially designated as the rpat or iry-pat (basically the "hereditary or crown prince") and idnw ("deputy of the king" in the entire land) by the child pharaoh; these titles are found inscribed in Horemheb's then private Memphite tomb at Saqqara which dates to the reign of Tutankhamun since the child king's ... cartouches, although later usurped by Horemheb as king, have been found on a block which adjoins the famous gold of honour scene, a large portion of which is in Leiden. The royal couple depicted in this scene and in the adjacent scene 76, which shows Horemheb acting as an intermediary between the king and a group of subject foreign rulers, are therefore to be identified as Tut'ankhamun and 'Ankhesenamun. This makes it very unlikely from the start that any titles of honours claimed by Horemheb in the inscriptions in the tomb are fictitious.[8](pp17–18 / PDF pp. 9–10) The title iry-pat (Hereditary Prince) was used very frequently in Horemheb's Saqqara tomb but not combined with any other words. When used alone, the Egyptologist Alan Gardiner has shown that the iry-pat title contains features of ancient descent and lawful inheritance which is identical to the designation for a "Crown Prince."[9] This means that Horemheb was the openly recognised heir to Tutankhamun's throne, and not Ay, Tutankhamun's immediate successor. As the Dutch Egyptologist Jacobus van Dijk observes: There is no indication that Horemheb always intended to succeed Tut'ankhamun; obviously not even he could possibly have predicted that the king would die without issue. It must always have been understood that his appointment as crown prince would end as soon as the king produced an heir, and that he would succeed Tut'ankhamun only in the eventuality of an early and / or childless death of the sovereign. There can be no doubt that nobody outranked the Hereditary Prince of Upper and Lower Egypt and Deputy of the King in the Entire Land except the king himself, and that Horemheb was entitled to the throne once the king had unexpectedly died without issue. This means that it is Ay's, not Horemheb's accession which calls for an explanation. Why was Ay able to ascend the throne upon the death of Tut'ankhamun, despite the fact that Horemheb had at that time already been the official heir to the throne for almost ten years?[8](pp48–49 / PDF pp. 40–41) Submission of West Asiatic foreigners on the tomb of Horemheb circa 1300 BCE The aged Vizier Ay sidelined Horemheb's claim to the throne and instead succeeded Tutankhamun, probably because Horemheb was in Asia with the army at the time of Tutankhamun's death. No objects belonging to Horemheb were found in Tutankhamun's tomb, but items among the tomb goods donated by other high-ranking officials, such as Maya and Nakhtmin, were identified by Egyptologists. Further, Tutankhamun's queen, Ankhesenamun, refused to marry Horemheb, a commoner, and so make him king of Egypt.[8](pp50–51, 56–60 / PDF pp. 42–43, 48–52) Having pushed Horemheb's claims aside, Ay proceeded to nominate the aforementioned Nakhtmin, who was possibly Ay's son or adopted son, to succeed him rather than Horemheb.[10][8](pp59–62 / PDF pp. 51–54) After Ay's reign, which lasted for a little over four years, Horemheb managed to seize power, presumably thanks to his position as commander of the army, and to assume what he must have perceived to be his just reward for having ably served Egypt under Tutankhamun and Ay. Horemheb quickly removed Nakhtmin's rival claim to the throne and arranged to have Ay's WV 23 tomb desecrated by smashing the latter's sarcophagus, systematically chiselling Ay's name and figure out of the tomb walls and probably destroying Ay's mummy.[11] However, he spared Tutankhamun's tomb from vandalism presumably because it was Tutankhamun who had promoted his rise to power and chosen him to be his heir. Horemheb also usurped and enlarged Ay's mortuary temple at Medinet Habu for his own use and erased Ay's titulary on the back of a 17 foot colossal statue by carving his own titulary in its place. Internal reform[edit] Horemheb with Amun at the Museo Egizio of Turin, Italy. Upon his accession, Horemheb initiated a comprehensive series of internal transformations to the power structures of Akhenaten's reign, due to the preceding transfer of state power from Amun's priests to Akhenaten's government officials. Horemheb "appointed judges and regional tribunes ... reintroduced local religious authorities" and divided legal power "between Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt" between "the Viziers of Thebes and Memphis respectively."[6](p243) These deeds are recorded in a stela which the king erected at the foot of his Tenth Pylon at Karnak. Occasionally called The Great Edict of Horemheb,[12] it is a copy of the actual text of the king's decree to re-establish order to the Two Lands and curb abuses of state authority. The stela's creation and prominent location emphasizes the great importance which Horemheb placed upon domestic reform. Horemheb also reformed the Army and reorganized the Deir el-Medina workforce in his 7th year while Horemheb's official Maya renewed the tomb of Thutmose IV, which had been disturbed by tomb robbers in his 8th year. While the king restored the priesthood of Amun, he prevented the Amun priests from forming a stranglehold on power, by deliberately reappointing priests who mostly came from the Egyptian army since he could rely on their personal loyalty.[13] Horemheb was a prolific builder who erected numerous temples and buildings throughout Egypt during his reign. He constructed the Second, Ninth, and Tenth Pylons of the Great Hypostyle Hall, in the Temple at Karnak, using recycled talatat blocks from Akhenaten's own monuments here, as building material for the first two Pylons.[6](p243, 303) Because of his unexpected rise to the throne, Horemheb had two tombs constructed for himself: the first – when he was a mere nobleman – at Saqqara near Memphis, and the other in the Valley of the Kings, in Thebes, in tomb KV 57 as king. His chief wife was Queen Mutnedjmet, who may have been Nefertiti's younger sister. They had no surviving children, although examinations of Mutnedjmet's mummy show that she gave birth several times, and she was buried with an infant, suggesting that she and her last child died in childbirth. Horemheb is not known to have any children by his first wife, Amenia, who died before Horemheb assumed power.[14] Disputed reign length[edit] The sarcophagus of Horemheb and wall reliefs in his KV57 tomb. Scholars long disputed whether Horemheb reigned for 14 or 27 years. Manetho's Epitome assigns a reign length of 4 years and 1 month to Horemheb. Scholars previously assigned this reign-length to Ay; however, evidence from excavations in Horemheb's tomb (KV57) indicates that this figure should be raised by a decade to [1]4 years and 1 month and attributed to Horemheb. These excavations, conducted under G.T. Martin in 2006 and 2007, uncovered a large hoard of 168 inscribed wine sherds and dockets, below densely compacted debris in a great shaft (called Well Room E) in KV 57. Of the 46 wine sherds with year dates, 14 have nothing but the year date formula, 5 dockets have year 10+X, 3 dockets have year 11+X, 2 dockets preserve year 12+X and 1 docket has a year 13+X inscription. 22 dockets "mention year 13 and 8 have year 14 [of Horemheb]" but none mention a higher date for Horemheb.[15] The full texts of the docket readings are identical and read as: Year 13. Wine of the estate of Horemheb-meren-Amun, L.P.H., in the domain of Amun. Western River. Chief vintner Ty.[15] Meanwhile, the year 14 dockets, in contrast, are all individual and mention specific wines such as "very good quality wine" or, in one case "sweet wine" and the location of the vineyard is identified.[15] A general example is this text on a year 14 wine docket: Year 14, Good quality wine of the estate of Horemheb-meren-Amun, L.P.H., in the domain of Amun, from the wineyard of Atfih, Chief vintner Haty.[15] Other year 14 dockets mention Memphis (?), the Western River while their vintners are named as Nakhtamun, [Mer-]seger-men, Ramose, and others.[15](p196) The "quality and consistency of the KV 57 dockets strongly suggest that Horemheb was buried in his year 14, or at least before the wine harvest of his year 15 at the very latest."[15](p196) This evidence is consistent "with the Horemheb dockets from Deir el-Medina which mention years 2, 3, 4, 6, 13, and 14, but again no higher dates ..." while a docket ascribed to Horemheb from Sedment has year 12."[19] The lack of dated inscriptions for Horemheb after his year 14 also explains the unfinished state of Horemheb's royal KV 57 tomb – "a fact not taken into account by any of those [scholars] defending a long reign [of 26 or 27 years]. The tomb is comparable to that of Seti I in size and decoration technique, and Seti I's tomb is far more extensively decorated than that of Horemheb, and yet Seti managed to virtually complete his tomb within a decade, whereas Horemheb did not even succeed in fully decorating the three rooms he planned to have done, leaving even the burial hall unfinished. Even if we assume that Horemheb did not begin the work on his royal tomb until his year 7 or 8, ... it remains a mystery how the work could not have been completed had he lived on for another 20 or more years."[15](p198) Therefore, most scholars now accept a reign of 14 years and 1 month. A wall relief of Horemheb making an offering to Amun on the 10th pylon at Karnak. The argument for a 27 year reign derived from two texts. The first is an anonymous hieratic graffito written on the shoulder of a now fragmented statue from his mortuary temple in Karnak which mentions the appearance of the king himself, or a royal cult statue representing the king, for a religious feast. The ink graffito reads Year 27, first Month of Shemu day 9, the day on which Horemheb, who loves Amun and hates his enemies, entered [the temple for the event]. It was disputed whether this was a contemporary text or a reference to a festival commemorating Horemheb's accession written in the reign of a later king.[20] The second text is the Inscription of Mes, from the reign of Ramesses II, which records that a court case decision was rendered in favour of a rival branch of Mes' family in year 59 of Horemheb.[21] It was argued that the year 59 Horemheb date included the reigns of all the rulers between Amenhotep III and Horemheb. Subtracting the nearly 17 year reign of Akhenaten, the 2 year reign of Neferneferuaten, the 9 year reign of Tutankhamun and the reign of Ay suggested a reign of 26–27 years for Horemheb. However, the length of Ay's reign is not actually known and Wolfgang Helck argues that there was no standard Egyptian practice of including the years of all the rulers between Amenhotep III and Horemheb.[10](IV:2162)[15](p198–199) Succession[edit] See also: Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree KV 57: the Tomb of Horemheb The forecourt of Horemheb's Memphite tomb at Saqqara. Under Horemheb, Egypt's power and confidence were once again restored after the internal chaos of the Amarna period; this situation set the stage for the rise of the 19th Dynasty under such ambitious Pharaohs as Seti I and Ramesses II. Geoffrey Martin in his excavation work at Saqqara states that the burial of Horemheb's second wife Mutnedjmet, as well as that of an unborn or newborn baby, was located at the bottom of a shaft to the rooms of Horemheb's Saqqara tomb. He notes that "a fragment of an alabaster vase inscribed with a funerary text for the chantress of Amun and King's Wife, Mutnodjmet, as well as pieces of a statuette of her [was found here] ... The funerary vase in particular, since it bears her name and titles would hardly have been used for the burial of some other person."[22] Eugene Strouhal studied a skull and other bones and concluded that they belonged to the queen. According to his analysis, the queen lost her teeth at an early age. She died at around age forty, possibly in childbirth, as the remains of a fetus were found with her body.[23] Since Horemheb had no surviving son, he appointed his Vizier, Paramesse, to succeed him upon his death, both to reward Paramesse's loyalty and because the latter had both a son and grandson to secure Egypt's royal succession. Paramesse employed the name Ramesses I upon assuming power and founded the 19th Dynasty of the New Kingdom. While the decoration of Horemheb's KV 57 tomb was still unfinished upon his death, this situation is not unprecedented: Amenhotep II's tomb was also not fully completed when he was buried, even though this ruler enjoyed a reign of 26 years. Tomb and excavation[edit] Horemheb's tomb was excavated in the early 20th century by Theodore M. Davis. Davis discovered it in a poor state due to robbers and earth movements over the centuries. The lid of the sarcophagus had been taken off and smashed by robbers.[24] Cultural depictions[edit] Film[edit] Horemheb was portrayed by Victor Mature in The Egyptian (1954), the film adaptation of Mika Waltari's bestselling novel. Television[edit] Horemheb was portrayed by British actor Nonso Anozie in the 2015 mini-TV series Tut which aired on Spike in the US, and on Channel 5 in the UK. Music[edit] Horemhab is a character in the opera Akhnaten by Philip Glass; he is sung by a baritone. Literature[edit] Horemheb is a major character in Nick Drake's trilogy of mystery novels, The Book of the Dead, Tutankhamun and The Book of Chaos.[citation needed] Horemheb is a major character in P. C. Doherty's trilogy of historical novels, An Evil Spirit Out of the West, The Season of the Hyaena and The Year of the Cobra. Horemheb is a major character in Pauline Gedge's historical novel The Twelfth Transforming. Horemheb is a major character in Katie Hamstead's trilogy, Kiya: Hope of the Pharaoh, Kiya: Mother of the King and Kiya: Rise of a New Dynasty. Horemheb is a key character in Kyah Merritt's historical trilogy A Legacy of Light (trilogy). Horemheb is a minor character in the novels Nefertiti and The Heretic Queen by Michelle Moran. Horemheb appears as a major character in Lynda Suzanne Robinson's Lord Meren series of Egyptian mysteries. Horemheb is a minor character in Chie Shinohara's Japanese graphic novel, Red River, centered around ancient Anatolia and ancient Egypt. Horemheb is a major character in Mika Waltari's 1945 historical fiction international bestseller The Egyptian[25] Horemheb is a major character, originally named Kaires, in two novels by Allen Drury.[26][27] Footnotes[edit] ^ Hnes is the city's ancient Egyptian name; it was later called Herakleopolis Magna by classical authors; its modern name is Ihnasya el-Medina. References[edit] ^ Ranke, Hermann (1935). Die Ägyptischen Personennamen, Bd. 1: Verzeichnis der Namen (PDF). Glückstadt: J.J. Augustin. p. 248. Retrieved 24 July 2020. ^ Hornung, Erik; Krauss, Rolf; Warburton, David, eds. (2006). "Chronology table". Ancient Egyptian Chronology. Handbook of Oriental Studies. Brill. p. 493. ^ "Ramesses". carlos.emory.edu. Archived from the original on 28 June 2017. Retrieved 1 August 2015. ^ Gardiner, Alan (1953). "The coronation of king Haremhab". Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 39: 14, 16, 21. ^ "The Full Collection". virtual-egyptian-museum.org. Virtual Egyptian Museum. ^ a b c d e Grimal, Nicolas (1992). A History of Ancient Egypt. Blackwell. ^ Wilson, John A. (1955). "Texts from the tomb of general Hor-em-heb". Ancient Near Eastern Texts (ANET) relating to the Old Testament (2nd ed.). Princeton University Press. pp. 250–251. ^ a b c d van Dijk, Jacobus (1993). "Chapter One: Horemheb, Prince Regent of Tutankh'amun" (PDF). The New Kingdom Necropolis of Memphis (dissertation). Historical and Iconographical Studies. Groningen, NL: University of Groningen. ^ Gardiner, Alan (1953). "The coronation of King Haremhab". Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 39: 13–31. ^ a b Helck, Wolfgang (1984). Urkunden der 18 Dynastie: Texte der Hefte 20–21. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag. pp. 1908–1910. ^ Ay's tomb WV 23 in the western annex of the Valley of the Kings; see Porter & Moss (1960). Topographical Bibliography of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyph Texts, Reliefs and Parts. 1. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. Part 2 pp. 550–551. ^ "The Great Edict of Horemheb". reshafim.org.il. Archived from the original on 17 August 2018. Retrieved 9 February 2008. ^ Clayton, Peter (1994). Chronicle of the Pharaohs. Thames & Hudson Ltd. p. 137. ^ Tyldesley, Joyce (2006). Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt. Thames & Hudson. p. 140. ^ a b c d e f g h i van Dijk, Jacobus (2008). "New evidence on the length of the reign of Horemheb". Journal of the American Research Centre in Egypt (JARCE). 44: 195. ^ Nagel, G. (1938). La ceramique du Nouvel Empire a Deir Medineh. 15. Cairo. p. 6. ^ Koenig, Y. (1979–1980). Catalogues des etiquettes de jarres hieratiques de Deir el Medineh. Cairo. ^ Martin, G.T. (1988). "Three Objects of New Kingdom Date from the Memphite Area and Sidmant: 3. An inscribed amphora from Sidmant". In Baines, J.; et al. (eds.). Pyramid Studies and Other Essays presented to I.E.S. Edwards. London. ^ van Dijk (2008)[15](p197–198) cites Nagel (1938), for year 2;[16] Koenig (1979–1980)[17] for year 3 (no. 6299), year 4 (no. 6295), year 6 (no. 6403), year 13 (no. 6294), and year 14 (no. 6345); Martin (1988)[18](pl. 21, pp. 118–120) ^ Krauss, Rolf (1994). "Nur ein kurioser Irrtum oder ein Beleg für die Jahr 26 und 27 von Haremhab?". Discussions in Egyptology. 30: 73–85. ^ "Inscription of Mes". reshafim.org.il. Archived from the original on 21 November 2016. Retrieved 10 April 2009. ^ Martin, G. (1991). The Hidden Tombs of Memphis. Thames & Hudson. pp. 97–98. ^ Hawass, Zahi A.; Saleem, Sahar (2016). Scanning the Pharaohs: CT Imaging of the New Kingdom Royal Mummies. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-977-416-673-0 – via Google Books. ^ Haremhab, Pharaoh and Conqueror: New Investigations in His Royal Tomb in the Valley of the Kings (video). The Met. ^ Waltari, Mika (November 1945). Sinuhe Egyptiläinen [Sinuhe, The Egyptian] (in Finnish). Helsinki: WSOY. (note that many later translations, including the 1949 English edition, were heavily abridged and Bowdlerized) ^ Drury, Allen (July 1976). A God Against the Gods. Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-00199-1. reprinted by WordFire Press in 2015 ^ Drury, Allen (February 1977). Return to Thebes. Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-04199-3. reprinted by WordFire Press in 2015 Bibliography[edit] Cyril Aldred, Two monuments of the reign of Ḥoremḥab, in: Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 54 (1968), 100–106. Jürgen von Beckerath, Nochmals die Regierungsdauer des Ḥaremḥab, in: SAK 6 (1978), 43–49. Jürgen von Beckerath, Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägypten, MÄS 46, Philip Von Zabern, Mainz: 1997. Alan Gardiner, The Inscription of Mes: A Contribution to Egyptian Juridical Procedure, Untersuchungen IV, Pt. 3 (Leipzig: 1905). Nicholas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, Blackwell Books: 1992. K.A. Kitchen, The Basis of Egyptian Chronology in relation to the Bronze Age," Volume 1: pp. 37–55 in "High, Middle or Low?: Acts of an International Colloquium on absolute chronology held at the University of Gothenburg 20–22 August 1987." (ed: Paul Aström). External links[edit] Media related to Horemheb at Wikimedia Commons "Horemheb". Archaeowiki.org. Symposium on Horemhab (video). Metropolitan Museum of Art – via YouTube. Haremhab, Pharaoh and Conqueror: New Investigations in His Royal Tomb in the Valley of the Kings (lecture) (video) – via YouTube. A Symposium on Haremhab: General and King of Egypt (video) – via YouTube. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control BNF: cb144345905 (data) GND: 118720384 ISNI: 0000 0000 9124 9469 LCCN: n82156872 NTA: 070973695 SELIBR: 189744 SUDOC: 05987628X VIAF: 37711160 WorldCat Identities: viaf-37711160 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horemheb&oldid=998466159" Categories: Horemheb 14th-century BC births 1292 BC deaths 14th-century BC Pharaohs 13th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Amarna Period Tutankhamun Ay Fan-bearer on the Right Side of the King Hidden categories: CS1 Finnish-language sources (fi) Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Egyptian-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2015 Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this 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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8489	----	Adusius - Wikipedia Adusius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Adusius Native name Αδούσιος Allegiance Cyrus the Great Other work Satrap of Caria 6th and 5th-century Persian satrap Adusius (Gr. Αδούσιος) was, according to the account of Xenophon in his Cyropaedeia, sent by Cyrus the Great with an army into Caria, to put an end to the feuds which existed in the country. He afterwards assisted Hystaspes in subduing Phrygia, and was made satrap of Caria, as the inhabitants had requested.[1][2] References[edit] ^ Xenophon, Cyropaedeia vii. 4. § 1, &c., viii. 6. § 7 ^ Smith, William (1867), "Adusius", in Smith, William (ed.), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 1, Boston, p. 22  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Adusius". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC This Achaemenid biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adusius&oldid=978030836" Categories: Achaemenid satraps of Caria 6th-century BC rulers 5th-century BC Iranian people Achaemenid people stubs Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM AC with 0 elements All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Hrvatski Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 12 September 2020, at 13:33 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-848	----	Psamtik II - Wikipedia Psamtik II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Egyptian pharaoh Psamtik II Psammetichus II Psammetichus II making an offering Pharaoh Reign 595–589 BC (26th dynasty) Predecessor Necho II Successor Apries Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Neferibre Nomen Psammetichus Horus name   Consort Takhuit Children Apries, Ankhnesneferibre Father Necho II Mother Khedebneithirbinet I Died 589 BC Psamtik II (also spelled Psammetichus or Psammeticus) was a king of the Saite-based Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt (595 BC – 589 BC). His prenomen, Nefer-Ib-Re, means "Beautiful [is the] Heart [of] Re."[1] He was the son of Necho II.[2] Contents 1 Campaigns and battles 2 Monuments 3 Successor 4 References Campaigns and battles[edit] Psamtik II led a foray into Nubia in 592 BC, marching as far south as the Third or even the Fourth Cataract of the Nile, according to a contemporary stela from Thebes (Karnak), which dates to Year 3 of this king's name and refers to a heavy defeat that was inflicted upon the kingdom of Kush.[3] A well-known graffito inscribed in Greek on the left leg of the colossal seated statue of Ramesses II, on the south side of the entrance to the temple of Abu Simbel, records that: When King Psammetichus (i.e., Psamtik II) came to Elephantine, this was written by those who sailed with Psammetichus the son of Theocles, and they came beyond Kerkis as far as the river permits. Those who spoke foreign tongues (Greek and Carians who also scratched their names on the monument) were led by Potasimto, the Egyptians by Amasis.[4] Kerkis was located near the Fifth Cataract of the Nile "which stood well within the Cushite Kingdom."[5] Statue of Psamtik II. Louvre Museum This was the first confrontation between Egypt and Nubia since the reign of Tantamani. A Kushite king named Anlamani had revived the power of the kingdom of Napata. Psamtik II's campaign was likely initiated to destroy any future aspirations the Kushites may have had to reconquer Egypt. The Egyptian army advanced to Pnubs (Kerma) and the capital city of Napata in a series of fierce battles, where they looted its temples and destroyed the royal Kushite statues.[6] The Kushite capital was sacked under the reign of the native Kushite king Aspelta who was the younger brother of Anlamani and the son of Senkamanisken. The Year 3 Karnak stela is dated to II Shemu day 10 of Psamtik II's reign and states that: The army that your Majesty sent to Nubia has reached the land of Pnubs....Nubians from all parts [of Kush] had arisen against him, their hearts full of anger when he attacked those who had rebelled against him there; because he was furious at those who had arisen against him. His Majesty took part in the combat as soon as he reached the battle. The rebels capitulated before a single arrow was unleashed against them....Those who tried to flee did not succeed and were brought back as prisoners: four thousand two hundred men.[7] Psamtik II's victory stela from Kalabsha which records his campaign against Kush As a result of Psamtik's devastating campaign, Kush's power was crushed, and its kings from Aspelta onwards lost any opportunity of ever regaining control of Egypt. Instead, the Nubian rulers decided to shift their capital further south from Napata to the relative safety of Meroë. Curiously, however, Psamtik II does not appear to have capitalized on his victory. His troops retreated back to the First Cataract, and Elephantine continued to be the southern border of Egypt. An outcome of this campaign was the deliberate destruction of monuments belonging to the 25th Dynasty Kushite kings in Egypt "by hacking out their names and the emblems of royalty from their statues and reliefs."[5] Later, in 591 BC, during the fourth year of his reign, Psamtik II launched an expedition into Palestine "to foment a general Levantine revolt against the Babylonians" that involved, among others, Zedekiah of the Kingdom of Judah.[8] Monuments[edit] Psamtik II was both a dynamic warrior pharaoh as well as a prolific builder in his brief 6-year reign. A significant Saite temple was likely built by Psamtik II and his son Apries at the village of El-Mahalla El-Kubra which lies equidistant from Sebennytos and Behbeit El-Hagar in the Lower Nile Delta.[9] Officials from the Napoleonic expedition to Egypt observed "an extraordinary number of pharaonic building elements of granite and turquoise reused in modern buildings" at this site; this discovery was subsequently confirmed by Nestor L'Hôte in 1828 who counted more than 120 granite columns built into this village's mosque alone.[10] A 1.8 metre long fragment of red granite with the name of Psamtik II and a door lintel of Apries was also seen at El-Mahalla El-Kubra.[9] Under Psamtik II's reign, a pair of obelisks more than 21.79 metres high were erected in the temple of Heliopolis; the first Emperor of Rome, Augustus, later had one of the obelisks, today known as the Obelisk of Montecitorio, which had probably been thrown down by the Persian invaders in 525 BC, brought to Rome in 10 BC.[9] Psamtik II also constructed a kiosk on Philae island. This kiosk today "represents the oldest known monument known on the island" and consisted "of a double row of four columns, which were connected by screen walls."[9] The Temple of Hibis was founded by Psamtik II at Kharga Oasis. Another view of the reconstructed Temple of Hibis at Kharga Oasis in December 2008. Obelisk of Psamtik II, now called "Obelisk of Montecitorio", used as a Roman sundial, the famous Horologium Augusti, in Rome. In the background is the Italian Chamber of Deputies building[11] Psamtik II was also responsible for founding the Temple-house at Hibis in El-Kharga Oasis for the triad of Amun, Mut, and Khonsu with significant installations for the cult of Osiris.[12] This 19.5 x 26 metre temple was originally situated on the bank of an ancient lake which has now disappeared and its temple decorations were only completed under the Persian kings Darius I and possibly Darius II.[9] The Hibis temple consisted of a hypostyle hall with two-by-two papyrus capital columns, a hall of offerings, three sanctuaries in the rear section of the temple and a chapel at the side of the sanctuaries for the cult of Psamtik II.[12] The front of the temple house of Hibis featured: "a pronaos with four papyrus bundle columns and screen walls. During the construction of the pronaos, the side walls were extended for the addition of a court[yard]. This extension, was, however, only carried out in the 30th Dynasty [by Nectanebo I and Nectanebo II.] The eight papyrus columns of the pronaos still show the New Kingdom type of open, bell-shaped capitals."[13] A massive sandstone gateway through an outer enclosure wall still stands almost 5 metres tall and was constructed during the Ptolemaic or Roman periods.[14] Many inscriptions and decrees were carved on the gateway on a wide variety of topics such as taxation, inheritance, the court system and the rights of women, with the earliest text dating to 49 AD.[14] The Temple of Psamtik II at Hibis was completely preserved until 1832 when its roof and portions of the temple were removed for the construction of an aluminium factory.[13] Only excavation work by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1910-1911 and restorations performed by the Egyptian Antiquities Service arrested its decline.[13] Today, the Hibis temple remains—together with the Oracle or Ammoneion of Siwa—as "the best preserved and best-documented temple of the early Egyptian Late Period and is therefore a primary monument to the history of [Egyptian temple] building."[13] Successor[edit] See also: Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt family tree When Psamtik II died in 589 BC, he was succeeded by Apries who was his son by Queen Takhut, a Princess of Athribis. Psamtik and Queen Takhut were also the parents of Menekhubaste, a Priestess of Atum at Heliopolis, and Ankhnesneferibre, a God's Wife of Amun who served in this powerful office in Upper Egypt to the end of the Saite period in 525 BC, when Egypt was conquered by the Persians.[15] The date of Psamtik II's death is mentioned in the Adoption stela of Ankhnesneferibre: Year 7, I Akhet day 23.[16] References[edit] ^ Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames and Hudson, 1994. p.195 ^ Roberto Gozzoli: Psammetichus II, Reign, Documents and Officials, London 2017, ISBN 978-1906137410, p. 18 (the father-son relation is known from Herodotus and confirmed by an inscription on a statue) ^ The New Encyclopædia Britannica: Micropædia, Vol.9, 15th edition, 2003. p.756 ^ "king Psammetichus II (Psamtik II)". Touregypt.net. Retrieved 2011-11-20. ^ a b Britannica, p.756 ^ Charles Bonnet & Dominique Valbelle, The Nubian Pharaohs, The American University in Cairo Press, 2005. p.166-167 ^ Bonnet & Valbelle, pp.166-167 ^ Alan B. Lloyd, 'The Late Period' in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (ed. Ian Shaw), Oxford Univ. Press 2002 paperback, p.381 ^ a b c d e Dieter Arnold, Temples of the Last Pharaohs, Oxford University Press, 1999. p.76 ^ Nestor L'Hôte, Sur le Nil avec Champollion: Lettres, journaux et dessins inédits de Nestor L'Hôte: premier voyage en Egypte, 1828-1830 ^ Nasrallah, Laura Salah (2019). Archaeology and the Letters of Paul. Oxford University Press. p. 205. ISBN 978-0-19-969967-4. ^ a b Arnold, p.77 ^ a b c d Arnold, Temples, p.79 ^ a b "Hibis". Egyptsites.co.uk. Retrieved 2011-11-20. ^ Christian Settipani, Nos ancêtres de l'Antiquité, 1991. pp.153 & 161 ^ Bonnet & Valbelle, p.170 v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Psamtik_II&oldid=999550167" Categories: 589 BC deaths 6th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt 6th century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska தமிழ் Türkçe Українська Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 January 2021, at 19:22 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8496	----	Dedumose II - Wikipedia Dedumose II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Dedumose II Dudimose, Tutimaios Stele CG 20533 of Djedneferre Dedumose II from Gebelein.[1] Pharaoh Reign some time between 1588 BC and 1582 BC (Ryholt) (16th Dynasty (Ryholt, Baker) or 13th Dynasty (von Beckerath, Schneider, Franke)) Predecessor Dedumose I? Successor Djedankhre Montemsaf? Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Djedneferre Ḏd-nfr-Rˁ Enduring and perfect is Ra Nomen Dedumose Dd-msw [A god] has fashioned/given him Turin canon: Uncertain, column 7 line 13 Father Dedumose I? Djedneferre Dedumose II was a native ancient Egyptian pharaoh during the Second Intermediate Period. According to egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, he was a ruler of the Theban 16th Dynasty.[2][3] Alternatively, Jürgen von Beckerath, Thomas Schneider and Detlef Franke see him as a king of the 13th Dynasty.[4][5][6][7] Contents 1 Dating issues 2 Attestations 3 As Josephus' Timaios 4 Fringe theories 5 References Dating issues[edit] Williams and others place Dedumose as the last king of Egypt's 13th Dynasty. Precise dates for Dedumose are unknown, but according to the commonly accepted Egyptian chronology his reign probably ended around 1690 BC.[8] Attestations[edit] A scarab bearing the name "Djedneferre", considered by Flinders Petrie as a reference to Dedumose II[9] Djedneferre Dedumose II is known from a stela originally from Gebelein which is now in the Cairo Museum (CG 20533).[10] On the stela Dedumose claims to have been raised for kingship, which may indicate he is a son of Dedumose I, although the statement may also merely be a form of propaganda. The martial tone of the stela probably reflects the constant state of war of the final years of the 16th Dynasty, when the Hyksos invaded its territory:[11] The good god, beloved of Thebes; The one chosen by Horus, who increases his [army], who has appeared like the lightning of the sun, who is acclaimed to the kingship of both lands; The one who belongs to shouting. Ludwig Morenz believes that the above excerpt of the stele, in particular "who is acclaimed to the kingship", may confirm the controversial idea of Eduard Meyer that certain pharaohs were elected to office.[11] As Josephus' Timaios[edit] Dedumose is usually linked to Timaios[12][13] mentioned by the historian Josephus – who was quoting Manetho – as a king during whose reign an army of Asiatic foreigners subdued the country without a fight.[14] The introductory phrase in Josephus' quotation of Manetho του Τιμαιος ονομα appears somewhat ungrammatical and following A. von Gutschmid, the Greek words του Τιμαιος ([genitive definite article] Timaios [nominative]) is often combined into the proposed name Τουτιμαιος (Tutimaios) based on the tenuous argument of von Gutschmid that this sounded like Tutmes i.e. Thutmose. This has influenced the transliteration of the name Dedumose as Dudimose in order to reinforce the resemblance but this transliteration is not justified by the hieroglyphic spelling of the name. Nevertheless Dedumose did rule either as a Pharaoh of the 13th dynasty which preceded the Hyksos or as part of the 16th dynasty contemporaneous with the early Hyksos and the actual form Timaios in the manuscript of Josephus still plausibly represents his name. Whiston's translation of Josephus understands the phrase to mean “[There was a king] of ours (του), whose name was Timaus (Τιμαιος ονομα)." A. Bülow-Jacobsen has suggested however that the phrase in Josephus may have been derived via a series of (unattested) scribal errors from του πραγματος ("of the matter") and that ονομα ("this is a name", typically left out of translations) is a later gloss whence the original text of Josephus did not contain the name of a Pharaoh at all.[2][15][16] Nevertheless the following sentence of Josephus' quotation states "In his [reign]" implying that a Pharaoh has indeed been mentioned. The account in Josephus has also long been linked to a tale about Egypt preserved in an Indian text in which the Pharaoh's name appears as Tamovatsa.[17] Fringe theories[edit] There have been revisionistic attempts by the historian Immanuel Velikovsky and Egyptologist David Rohl to identify Dedumose II as the Pharaoh of the Exodus, much earlier than the mainstream candidates.[18] Rohl, in particular, attempted to change views on Egyptian history by shortening the Third Intermediate Period of Egypt by almost 300 years. As a by-result the synchronisms with the biblical narrative have changed, making Dedumose the pharaoh of the Exodus.[19] Rohl's theory, however, has failed to find support among most scholars in his field.[20] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dedumose Djedneferre. References[edit] ^ Hans Ostenfeldt Lange (1863-1943); Maslahat al-Athar; Heinrich Schäfer, (1868-1957) : Catalogue General des Antiquites du Caire: Grab- und Denksteine des Mittleren Reichs im Museum von Kairo, Tafel XXXVIII, (1902), see CG 20533 p. 97 of the online reader ^ a b Ryholt, K. S. B. (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800 - 1550 BC. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. ISBN 87-7289-421-0. ^ Darrell D. Baker (2008). The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46, Mainz am Rhein, 1997 ^ Thomas Schneider (2006). "Middle Kingdom and the Second Intermediate Period." In Ancient Egyptian Chronology, edited by Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss, And David a. Warburton, see p. 187 ^ Detlef Franke (1994). Das Heiligtum des Heqaib auf Elephantine. Geschichte eines Provinzheiligtums im Mittleren Reich, Studien zur Archäologie und Geschichte Altägyptens. vol. 9. Heidelberger Orientverlag, Heidelberg, ISBN 3-927552-17-8 (Heidelberg, Universität, Habilitationsschrift, 1991), see p. 77-78 ^ Chris Bennett (2002) "A Genealogical Chronology of the Seventeenth Dynasty", Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, Vol. 39 pp. 123-155 ^ Flinders Petrie: A History of Egypt - vol 1 - From the Earliest Times to the XVIth Dynasty (1897), p. 245, f. 148 ^ W. V. Davies (1982). "The Origin of the Blue Crown", The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, Vol. 68, pp. 69-76 ^ a b Ludwig Morenz and Lutz Popko: A companion to Ancient Egypt, vol 1, Alan B. Lloyd editor, Wiley-Blackwell, p. 106 ^ Grimal, Nicolas (1992). A History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Blackwell Books. ISBN 9780631174721., p. 185 ^ Hayes, William C. (1973). "Egypt: from the death of Ammenemes III to Seqenenre II". In Edwards, I.E.S. (ed.). The Cambridge Ancient History (3rd ed.), vol. II, part 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 42–76. ISBN 0 521 082307., p. 52 ^ Josephus, Flavius (2007). Against Apion – Translation and commentary by John M.G. Barclay. Leiden-Boston: Brill. ISBN 978 90 04 11791 4., I:75-77 ^ Wolfgang Helck, Eberhard Otto, Wolfhart Westendorf (1986), "Stele - Zypresse": Volume 6 of Lexikon der Ägyptologie, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ^ Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss & David Warburton (editors) (2006), Handbook of Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies), Brill: p. 196, n.134 ^ Francis Wilford, On Egypt and the Nile from the ancient books of the Hindus, Asiatic Researches vol. III p. 437 ^ Pharaohs and Kings by David M. Rohl (New York, 1995). ISBN 0-609-80130-9 ^ Rohl, David (1995). "Chapter 13". A Test of Time. Arrow. pp. 341–8. ISBN 0-09-941656-5. ^ Chris Bennett (1996). "Temporal Fugues Archived 2018-07-16 at the Wayback Machine", Journal of Ancient and Medieval Studies XIII. Preceded by Dedumose I? Pharaoh of Egypt Sixteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Djedankhre Montemsaf? v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dedumose_II&oldid=992599957" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs 16th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Català Deutsch Español Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Русский Slovenščina ไทย Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 6 December 2020, at 03:40 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8500	----	Wazner - Wikipedia Wazner From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wazner Wazenez, Wadjenedj, Wenegbu? Closeup of the Palermo Stone. Wazner is the no. 7 Pharaoh Reign Unknown (Predynastic Period) Predecessor Neheb? Successor Mekh? Royal titulary Wazner in hieroglyphs Wenegbu (?) Wng bw Wazner (also Wazenez, Wadjenedj and possibly Wenegbu) is mentioned in the Palermo Stone as a Predynastic Egyptian king who ruled in Lower Egypt. As there is no other evidence of such a ruler, he may be a mythical king preserved through oral tradition,[1] or may even be completely fictitious.[2][3] References[edit] ^ Helck, Untersuchungen zu Manetho und den ägyptischen Königslisten 1956, Berlin: Akademie-Verlag. Untersuchungen zur Geschichte und Altertumskunde Ägyptens 18 ^ O'Mara, Was there an Old Kingdom historiography? Is it datable? 1996, Orientalia 65: 197-208 ^ Wilkinson, Toby A. H. (2000). Royal Annals of Ancient Egypt. p.85 New York: Columbia University Press). ISBN 0-7103-0667-9. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wazner&oldid=993411080" Categories: People whose existence is disputed Pharaohs only mentioned in the Palermo Stone Ancient Egypt people stubs Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Deutsch Español فارسی Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Bahasa Melayu Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 December 2020, at 13:52 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8501	----	Dilbat - Wikipedia Dilbat From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Coordinates: 32°17′44″N 44°27′58″E / 32.29556°N 44.46611°E / 32.29556; 44.46611 Place in Iraq Dilbat Dilbat Location in Iraq Coordinates: 32°17′44″N 44°27′58″E / 32.29556°N 44.46611°E / 32.29556; 44.46611 Country  Iraq Dilbat (modern Tell ed-Duleim or Tell al-Deylam, Iraq) was an ancient Sumerian minor tell (hill city) located southeast from Babylon on the eastern bank of the Western Euphrates in modern-day Al-Qādisiyyah, Iraq. The ziggurat E-ibe-Anu, dedicated to the goddess Urash, was located in the center of the city and was mentioned in the Epic of Gilgamesh.[1] Contents 1 History 2 Archaeology 3 See also 4 Notes 5 Further reading 6 External links History[edit] Dilbat was founded during the Sumerian Early Dynastic II period, around 2700 BC. It is known to have been occupied, at least, during the Akkadian, Old Babylonian, Kassite, Sasanian and Early Islamic periods. It was an early agricultural center cultivating einkorn wheat and producing reed products.[2] It lay on the Arahtum canal. Archaeology[edit] The site of Tell al-Deylam consists of two mounds, a small western mound with 1st millennium BC and Early Islamic remains and a larger east mound, roughly 500 meters in circumference, with remains from the 1st to 3rd millennium BC. Dilbat was excavated briefly by Hormuzd Rassam, who recovered some cuneiform tablets at the site, mainly from the Neo-Babylonian period.[3] The site was worked in 1989 by J. A. Armstrong of the Oriental Institute of Chicago.[4][5] Though Dilbat itself has only been lightly excavated by archaeologists, numerous tablets from there have made their way to the antiquities market over the years as the result of unauthorized digging. See also[edit] Cities of the Ancient Near East Tell (archaeology) Notes[edit] ^ [1] Stephen Langdon, The Epic of Gilgamish. A Fragment of the Gilgamish Legend in Old-Babylonian Cuneiform, 1919 ^ A. Goddeeris, Economy and Society in Northern Babylonia, Peeters , 2002, ISBN 90-429-1123-9 ^ Hormuzd Rassam and Robert William Rogers, Asshur and the land of Nimrod, Curts & Jennings, 1897 ^ J. A. Armstrong, Dilbat revisited: the Tell al-Deylam project, Mar Sipri, vol. 3, no. 1, pp, 1-4, 1990 ^ James A. Armstrong, West of Edin: Tell al-Deylam and the Babylonian City of Dilbat, The Biblical Archaeologist, vol. 55, no. 4, pp. 219-226, 1992 Further reading[edit] [2] Christine Lilyquist, The Dilbat Hoard, Metropolitan Museum Journal, vol. 29, pp. 5–36, 1994 S. G. Koshurnikov and N. Yoffee, Old Babylonian Tablets from Dilbat in the Ashmolean Museum, Iraq, vol. 48, pp. 117–130, 1986 Matthew W. Stolper, Late Achaemenid Texts from Dilbat, Iraq, vol. 54, pp. 119–139, 1992 Joseph Etienne Gautier, Archives d'une famille de Dilbat au temps de la premiere dynastie de Babylone, Le Caire, 1908 SG Koshurnikov,A Family Archive from Old Babylonian Dilbat, Vestnik Drevnii Istorii, vol. 168, pp. 123ff, 1984 External links[edit] Sumer Map with Dilbat labeled as T. ed Duleim This Iraq geographical location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dilbat&oldid=975489206" Categories: Al-Qādisiyyah Governorate Sumerian cities Archaeological sites in Iraq Former populated places in Iraq Iraq geography stubs Hidden categories: Coordinates on Wikidata Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Башҡортса Català Deutsch فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano עברית Polski Русский Slovenščina Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki Edit links This page was last edited on 28 August 2020, at 20:13 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8526	----	Category:Persepolis - Wikipedia Help Category:Persepolis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search v t e Persepolis Palace Tachara Gate of All Nations Other sections Tomb of Artaxerxes III builders Darius the Great Xerxes I Artaxerxes I of Persia Researchers Heidemarie Koch Erich Schmidt (archaeologist) Alireza Shapour Shahbazi Related Tangeh Bolaghi 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire Sivand Dam Persepolis Administrative Archives Waterskin Achaemenid architecture Category:Persepolis The main article for this category is Persepolis. History portal Asia portal Wikimedia Commons has media related to Persepolis. Pages in category "Persepolis" The following 11 pages are in this category, out of 11 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more).   Persepolis 0–9 2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire A Achaemenid architecture Apadana C Charles Chipiez G Gate of All Nations P Template:Persepolis Persepolis Administrative Archives Persian column S Statue of Penelope T Tachara Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Persepolis&oldid=925619023" Categories: World Heritage Sites in Iran Buildings and structures in Fars Province Tourist attractions in Fars Province Achaemenid cities Former capitals of Iran Razed cities Achaemenid architecture Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia categories named after capitals Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه বাংলা Deutsch فارسی Français Italiano Latina Монгол اردو Edit links This page was last edited on 11 November 2019, at 07:15 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8549	----	Anachronism - Wikipedia Anachronism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Anachronisms) Jump to navigation Jump to search Chronological inconsistency For the card strategy game, see Anachronism (game). An anachronism (from the Greek ἀνά ana, 'against' and χρόνος khronos, 'time') is a chronological inconsistency in some arrangement, especially a juxtaposition of persons, events, objects, language terms and customs from different time periods. The most common type of anachronism is an object misplaced in time, but it may be a verbal expression, a technology, a philosophical idea, a musical style, a material, a plant or animal, a custom, or anything else associated with a particular period that is placed outside its proper temporal domain. An anachronism may be either intentional or unintentional. Intentional anachronisms may be introduced into a literary or artistic work to help a contemporary audience engage more readily with a historical period. Anachronism can also be used (intentionally) for purposes of rhetoric, propaganda, comedy, or shock. Unintentional anachronisms may occur when a writer, artist, or performer is unaware of differences in technology, terminology and language, customs and attitudes, or even fashions between different historical periods and eras. Contents 1 Types 1.1 Parachronism 1.2 Prochronism 1.3 Behavioral and cultural anachronism 2 Politically motivated anachronism 3 Art and literature 3.1 Comical anachronism 3.2 Future anachronism 3.3 Language anachronism 4 Subconscious anachronism 5 Time travel 6 In academia 7 Detection of forgery 8 See also 9 References 10 Bibliography 11 External links Types[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Nuremberg Chronicle (1493) shows ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle in scholar's clothing of the book's time, 1,800 years too modern for Aristotle Parachronism[edit] A parachronism (from the Greek παρά, "on the side", and χρόνος, "time") is anything that appears in a time period in which it is not normally found (though not sufficiently out of place as to be impossible). This may be an object, idiomatic expression, technology, philosophical idea, musical style, material, custom, or anything else so closely bound to a particular time period as to seem strange when encountered in a later era. They may be objects or ideas that were once common but are now considered rare or inappropriate. They can take the form of obsolete technology or outdated fashion or idioms. Examples of parachronisms could include a suburban housewife in the United States around 1960 using a washboard for laundry (well after washing machines had become the norm); a teenager from the 1980s being an avid fan of ragtime music of the late 19th and early 20th centuries; or a businessman in 2006 wearing late 19th century clothing. Often, a parachronism is identified when a work based on a particular era's state of knowledge is read within the context of a later era—with a different state of knowledge. Many scientific works that rely on theories that have later been discredited have become anachronistic with the removal of those underpinnings, and works of speculative fiction often find their speculations outstripped by real-world technological developments or scientific discoveries. Ancient Greek Orpheus with a violin (invented in the 16th century) rather than a lyre. A 17th-century painting by Cesare Gennari. Prochronism[edit] A prochronism (from the Greek πρό, "before", and χρόνος, "time") is an impossible anachronism which occurs when an object or idea has not yet been invented when the situation takes place, and therefore could not have possibly existed at the time. A prochronism may be an object not yet developed, a verbal expression that had not yet been coined, a philosophy not yet formulated, a breed of animal not yet evolved (or perhaps engineered), or use of a technology that had not yet been created. The well-known stories of the One Thousand and One Nights contain a manifest anachronism: in the frame story, the tales are narrated to King Shahryār, presented as a member of the Persian Sassanid Dynasty, by his wife Scheherazade - yet many of the stories she tells relate to the historical Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid, his Grand Vizier, Jafar al-Barmaki, and his contemporary the famous poet Abu Nuwas, all of whom lived some 200 years after the fall of the Sassanids. Behavioral and cultural anachronism[edit] The intentional use of older, often obsolete cultural artifacts may be regarded as anachronistic. For example, it could be considered anachronistic for a modern-day person to wear a top hat, write with a quill, or carry on a conversation in Latin. Such choices may reflect an eccentricity or an aesthetic preference. Politically motivated anachronism[edit] Works of art and literature promoting a political, nationalist or revolutionary cause may use anachronism to depict an institution or custom as being more ancient than it actually is, or otherwise intentionally blur the distinctions between past and present. For example, the 19th-century Romanian painter Constantin Lecca depicts the peace agreement between Ioan Bogdan Voievod and Radu Voievod—two leaders in Romania's 16th-century history—with the flags of Moldavia (blue-red) and of Wallachia (yellow-blue) seen in the background. These flags date only from the 1830s: anachronism promotes legitimacy for the unification of Moldavia and Wallachia into the Kingdom of Romania at the time the painting was made. The Russian artist Vasily Vereshchagin, in his painting Suppression of the Indian Revolt by the English (c.1884), depicts the aftermath of the Indian Rebellion of 1857, when mutineers were executed by being blown from guns. In order to make a contemporary political point, Vereshchagin dresses the British soldiers responsible in late 19th-century uniforms. Moldavians and Muntenians become Brothers: 19th-century flags in a 16th-century scene Suppression of the Indian Revolt by the English: events of the 1850s with soldiers in uniforms of the 1880s Art and literature[edit] Lucas van Leyden's 1520 painting Lot and His Daughters shows Biblical Sodom as a typical Dutch city of the painter's time. Anachronism is used especially in works of imagination that rest on a historical basis. Anachronisms may be introduced in many ways: for example, in the disregard of the different modes of life and thought that characterize different periods, or in ignorance of the progress of the arts and sciences and other facts of history. They vary from glaring inconsistencies to scarcely perceptible misrepresentation. Anachronisms may be unintentional, arising from ignorance; or they may be a deliberate aesthetic choice.[1] Sir Walter Scott justified the use of anachronism in historical literature: "It is necessary, for exciting interest of any kind, that the subject assumed should be, as it were, translated into the manners as well as the language of the age we live in."[2] However, as fashions move on, such attempts to use anachronisms to engage an audience may have quite the reverse effect, as the details in question are increasingly recognized as belonging neither to the historical era being represented, nor to the present, but to the intervening period in which the artwork was created. "Nothing becomes obsolete like a period vision of an older period", writes Anthony Grafton; "Hearing a mother in a historical movie of the 1940s call out 'Ludwig! Ludwig van Beethoven! Come in and practice your piano now!' we are jerked from our suspension of disbelief by what was intended as a means of reinforcing it, and plunged directly into the American bourgeois world of the filmmaker."[3] It is only since the beginning of the 19th century that deviations from historical reality have jarred on a general audience. C. S. Lewis wrote: All medieval narratives about the past are ... lacking in a sense of period.... It was known that Adam went naked till he fell. After that, [medieval people] pictured the whole past in terms of their own age. So indeed did the Elizabethans. So did Milton; he never doubted that "capon and white broth" would have been as familiar to Christ and the disciples as to himself. It is doubtful whether the sense of period is much older than the Waverley novels. It is hardly present in Gibbon. Walpole's Otranto, which would not now deceive schoolchildren, could hope, not quite vainly, to deceive the public of 1765. Where even the most obvious and superficial distinctions between one century (or millennium) and another were ignored, the profounder differences of temper and mental climate were naturally not dreamed of.... [In Chaucer's Troilus and Criseyde], [t]he manners, the fighting, the religious services, the very traffic-regulations of his Trojans, are fourteenth-century.[4] Anachronisms abound in the works of Raphael[5] and Shakespeare,[6] as well as in those of less celebrated painters and playwrights of earlier times. Carol Meyers says that anachronisms in ancient texts can be used to better understand the stories by asking what the anachronism represents.[7] Repeated anachronisms and historical errors can become an accepted part of popular culture, such as the belief that Roman legionaries wore leather armor.[8] Dinosaurs co-existing with hominids, as in The Flintstones, is a relatively common anachronistic depiction in comics and animated cartoons. Comical anachronism[edit] Comedy fiction set in the past may use anachronism for humorous effect. Comedic anachronism can be used to make serious points about both historical and modern society, such as drawing parallels to political or social conventions.[9] The Flintstones, Histeria!, Time Squad, Mr. Peabody and Sherman (the movie and TV series), The Peabody's Improbable History segments from The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle and Friends, Dinosaur Train, Dave the Barbarian, VeggieTales, History of the World, Part I, Disney's Aladdin, Disney's Hercules, Disney's The Emperor's New Groove, Disney's Mickey, Donald, Goofy: The Three Musketeers, The Roman Holidays, The Shrek film series, Early Man and Murdoch Mysteries. are some of the movies and TV shows set in the past to include many anachronisms. Future anachronism[edit] See also: Retrofuturism A 1931 Amazing Stories cover has future space technology advanced enough for a large-scale colonization of Mars alongside propeller airplanes. Even with careful research, science fiction writers risk anachronism as their works age because they cannot predict all political, social, and technological change.[10] For example, many books, television shows, radio productions and films nominally set in the mid-21st century or later refer to the Soviet Union, to Saint Petersburg in Russia as Leningrad, to the continuing struggle between the Eastern and Western Blocs and to divided Germany and divided Berlin. Star Trek has suffered from future anachronisms; instead of "retconning" these errors, the 2009 film retained them for consistency with older franchises.[11] Buildings or natural features, such as the World Trade Center in New York City, can become out of place once they disappear.[12] Language anachronism[edit] Language anachronisms in novels and films are quite common, both intentional and unintentional.[13] Intentional anachronisms inform the audience more readily about a film set in the past. In this regard, language and pronunciation change so fast that most modern people (even many scholars) would find it difficult, or even impossible, to understand a film with dialogue in 15th-century English; thus, we willingly accept characters speaking an updated language, and modern slang and figures of speech are often used in these films.[14] Subconscious anachronism[edit] A Russian commemorative coin of Soviet and American troops meeting at Torgau in 1945 shows the 50-star US flag, first used in 1960, instead of the 48-star flag used during WWII. Unintentional anachronisms may occur even in what are intended as wholly objective and accurate records or representations of historic artifacts and artworks, because the recorder's perspective is conditioned by the assumptions and practices of his or her own times (a form of cultural bias). One example is the attribution of historically inaccurate beards to various medieval tomb effigies and figures in stained glass in records made by English antiquaries of the late 16th and early 17th centuries. Working in an age in which beards were in fashion and widespread, the antiquaries seem to have subconsciously projected the fashion back into an era in which it was rare.[15] Time travel[edit] The extensive science fiction subgenre depicting time travel in effect consists of deliberate, consciously created anachronisms, letting people of one time meet and interact with those of another time. Covers of time-travel books often depict deliberate anachronisms of this kind. For example, the cover of Harry Turtledove's The Guns of the South (1992) features a portrait of Confederate General Robert E. Lee holding an AK-47 rifle. In academia[edit] In historical writing, the most common type of anachronism is the adoption of the political, social or cultural concerns and assumptions of one era to interpret or evaluate the events and actions of another. The anachronistic application of present-day perspectives to comment on the historical past is sometimes described as presentism. Empiricist historians, working in the traditions established by Leopold von Ranke in the 19th century, regard this as a great error, and a trap to be avoided.[16] Arthur Marwick has argued that "a grasp of the fact that past societies are very different from our own, and ... very difficult to get to know" is an essential and fundamental skill of the professional historian; and that "anachronism is still one of the most obvious faults when the unqualified (those expert in other disciplines, perhaps) attempt to do history".[17] Anachronism in academic writing is considered at best embarrassing, as in early-20th-century scholarship's use of Translatio imperii, first formulated in the 12th century, to interpret 10th-century literature. The use of anachronism in a rhetorical or hyperbolic sense is more complex. To refer to the Holy Roman Empire as the First Reich, for example, is technically inaccurate but may be a useful comparative exercise; the application of theory to works which predate Marxist, Feminist or Freudian subjectivities is considered an essential part of theoretical practice. In most cases, however, the practitioner will acknowledge or justify the use or context.[citation needed] Detection of forgery[edit] The ability to identify anachronisms may be employed as a critical and forensic tool to demonstrate the fraudulence of a document or artifact purporting to be from an earlier time. Anthony Grafton discusses, for example, the work of the 3rd-century philosopher Porphyry, of Isaac Casaubon (1559–1614), and of Richard Reitzenstein (1861–1931), all of whom succeeded in exposing literary forgeries and plagiarisms, such as those included in the "Hermetic Corpus", through – among other techniques – the recognition of anachronisms.[18] The detection of anachronisms is an important element within the scholarly discipline of diplomatics, the critical analysis of the forms and language of documents, developed by the Maurist scholar Jean Mabillon (1632–1707) and his successors René-Prosper Tassin (1697–1777) and Charles-François Toustain (1700–1754). The philosopher and reformer Jeremy Bentham wrote at the beginning of the 19th century: The falsehood of a writing will often be detected, by its making direct mention of, or allusions more or less indirect to, some fact posterior to the date which it bears. ... The mention of posterior facts; – first indication of forgery. In a living language there are always variations in words, in the meaning of words, in the construction of phrases, in the manner of spelling, which may detect the age of a writing, and lead to legitimate suspicions of forgery. ... The use of words not used till after the date of the writing; – second indication of forgery.[19] Examples are: The exposure by Lorenzo Valla in 1440 of the so-called Donation of Constantine, a decree purportedly issued by the Emperor Constantine the Great in either 315 or 317 AD, as a later forgery, depended to a considerable degree on the identification of anachronisms, such as references to the city of Constantinople (a name not in fact bestowed until 330 AD). A large number of apparent anachronisms in the Book of Mormon have served to convince critics that the book was written in the 19th century, and not, as its adherents claim, in pre-Columbian America. The use of 19th- and 20th-century anti-semitic terminology demonstrates that the purported "Franklin Prophecy" (attributed to Benjamin Franklin, who died in 1790) is a forgery.[20] The "William Lynch speech", an address, supposedly delivered in 1712, on the control of slaves in Virginia, is now considered to be a 20th-century forgery, partly on account of its use of anachronistic terms such as "program" and "refueling".[21] See also[edit] Anatopism Invented traditions List of stories set in a future now past Presentism Retrofuturism Skeuomorph Society for Creative Anachronism Steampunk Whig history 1812 Overture#Anachronism of nationalist motifs Evolutionary anachronism References[edit] ^ Potthast, Jane (2013-09-18). "For Infidelity: Reconsidering Aesthetic Anachronism". PopMatters. Retrieved 2014-06-11. ^ Scott, Walter (1820). Ivanhoe; a Romance. 1. Edinburgh. p. xvii. ^ Grafton 1990, p. 67. ^ Lewis, C. S. (1964). The Discarded Image: an introduction to medieval and Renaissance literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 182–84. ^ von Wolzogen, Alfred Freiherr (1866). Raphael Santi: His Life and His Works. Smith, Elder & Co. p. 232. ^ Martindale, Michelle (2005). Shakespeare and the Uses of Antiquity: An Introductory Essay. Routledge. pp. 121–125. ISBN 9781134848508. ^ Montagne, Renee (2014-02-14). "Archaeology Find: Camels In 'Bible' Are Literary Anachronisms". NPR. Retrieved 2014-06-15. ^ Cole, Tom (2011-03-31). "Time meddlers: anachronisms in print and on film". Radio Times. Retrieved 2014-07-31. ^ van Riper, A. Bowdoin (2013-09-26). "Hollywood, History, and the Art of the Big Anachronism". PopMatters. Retrieved 2014-06-11. ^ Athans, Philip; Salvatore, R. A. (2010). The Guide to Writing Fantasy and Science Fiction. Adams Media. pp. 167–170. ISBN 9781440507298. ^ Glaskowsky, Peter (2009-05-08). "Living the Star Trek life". CNET. Retrieved 2014-06-11. ^ Hornaday, Ann (2002-12-06). "'Empire': Gangster Tale Sleeps With the Fishes". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2014-06-11. ^ Nunberg, Geoff (2013-02-26). "Historical Vocab: When We Get It Wrong, Does It Matter?". NPR. Retrieved 2014-06-11. ^ Safire, William (2000-03-26). "The Way We Live Now: 3-26-00: On Language; Anachronism". The New York Times. Retrieved 2014-07-31. ^ Harris, Oliver D. (2013). "Beards: true and false". Church Monuments. 28: 124–32. ^ Davies, Stephen (2003). Empiricism and History. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 29. ^ Marwick, Arthur (2001). The New Nature of History: knowledge, evidence, language. Basingstoke: Palgrave. p. 63. ISBN 0-333-96447-0. ^ Grafton 1990, pp. 75–98. ^ Bentham, Jeremy (1825). Dumont, Étienne (ed.). A Treatise on Judicial Evidence. London: Baldwin, Cradock and Joy. p. 140. ^ "Anti-Semitic Myth: The Franklin "Prophecy"". Adl.org. Retrieved 2013-02-01. ^ Cobb, W. Jelani (2004). "Is Willie Lynch's Letter Real?". Archived from the original on 2016-02-19. Retrieved 27 July 2016. Bibliography[edit] Grafton, Anthony (1990). Forgers and Critics: creativity and duplicity in Western scholarship. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691055440. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Anachronism The dictionary definition of anachronism at Wiktionary  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Anachronism". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 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en-wikipedia-org-8553	----	Kamose - Wikipedia Kamose From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Kamose Sarcophagus of Kamose, Cairo Egyptian Museum Pharaoh Reign c. 1555–1550 BC[1] (17th Dynasty) Predecessor Seqenenre Tao Successor Ahmose I Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Wadjkheperre W3ḏ-ḫpr-Rˁ Flourishing is the Manifestation of Re[2] Nomen Kamose[2] Kȝ ms(=w) He who is born of the bull Horus name Khahernesetef Ḫˁj-ḥr-nst=f He who appears on his throne Sedjefatawy Sḏf3-t3wj He who nourishes the two lands[3] Neferkhabtawi Nfr-ẖ3b-t3wj The perfect horus who tames the two lands [4] Nebty name Wehem-menu Wḥm-mnw He who renews the fortifications Golden Horus Bik Nebu Seheru-Tawi bjk nbw shrw-t3wj The Golden Falcon who satisfies the two lands Consort Ahhotep II (?) Children Ahmose-Sitkamose (?) Father Seqenenre Tao? Mother Ahhotep I? Died 1550 BC Kamose was the last king of the Theban Seventeenth Dynasty. He was possibly the son of Seqenenre Tao and Ahhotep I and the full brother of Ahmose I, founder of the Eighteenth Dynasty. His reign fell at the very end of the Second Intermediate Period. Kamose is usually ascribed a reign of three years (his highest attested regnal year), although some scholars now favor giving him a longer reign of approximately five years.[5] His reign is important for the decisive military initiatives he took against the Hyksos, who had come to rule much of Ancient Egypt.[6] His father had begun the initiatives and lost his life in battle with the Hyksos. It is thought that his mother, as regent, continued the campaigns after the death of Kamose, and that his full brother made the final conquest of them and united all of Egypt. Contents 1 Campaigns 1.1 Casus Belli 1.2 Northern Campaign 1.3 First Nubian Campaign 2 Length of reign 3 Mummy 4 Stelae 4.1 Identification 4.2 Other discoveries 5 References 6 Bibliography Campaigns[edit] Casus Belli[edit] Drawing of a scarab of Kamose by Flinders Petrie.[7] Kamose was the final king in a succession of native Egyptian kings at Thebes. Originally, the Theban Seventeenth dynasty rulers were at peace with the Hyksos kingdom to their north prior to the reign of Seqenenre Tao.[8] They controlled Upper Egypt up to Elephantine and ruled Middle Egypt as far north as Cusae.[9] Kamose sought to extend his rule northward over all of Lower Egypt. This apparently was met with much opposition by his courtiers. It appears that at some point, these princes in Thebes had achieved a practical modus vivendi with the later Hyksos rulers, which included transit rights through Hyksos-controlled Middle and Lower Egypt and pasturage rights in the fertile Delta.[10] Kamose's records on the Carnarvon Tablet (in the text also parallelled in the Thebes stelae of Kamose) relate the misgivings of this king's council to the prospect of a war against the Hyksos: See, all are loyal as far as Cusae. We are tranquil in our part of Egypt. Elephantine [at the First Cataract] is strong, and the middle part (of the land) is with us as far as Cusae. Men till for us the finest of their lands. Our cattle pasture in the Papyrus marshes. Corn is sent for our swine. Our cattle are not taken away... He holds the land of the Asiatics; we hold Egypt..."[11] However, Kamose's presentation here may be propaganda designed to embellish his reputation since his predecessor, Seqenenre Tao, had already been engaged in conflict with the Hyksos (for unknown reasons), only to fall in battle. Kamose sought to regain by force what he thought was his by right, namely the kingship of Lower and Upper Egypt.[10] The king thus responds to his council: I should like to know what serves this strength of mine, when a chieftain in Avaris, and another in Kush, and I sit united with an Asiatic and a Nubian, each in possession of his slice of Egypt, and I cannot pass by him as far as Memphis... No man can settle down, when despoiled by the taxes of the Asiatics. I will grapple with him, that I may rip open his belly! My wish is to save Egypt and to smite the Asiatic!"[11] There is no evidence to support Pierre Montet's assertion that Kamose's move against the Hyksos was sponsored by the priesthood of Amun as an attack against the Seth-worshippers in the north (i.e., a religious motive for the war of liberation). The Carnarvon Tablet does state that Kamose went north to attack the Hyksos by the command of Amun, but this is simple hyperbole, common to virtually all royal inscriptions of Egyptian history, and should not be understood as the specific command from this deity. Kamose states his reasons for an attack on the Hyksos was nationalistic pride. He was also likely merely continuing the aggressive military policies of his immediate predecessor and likely father, Seqenenre. Northern Campaign[edit] In Kamose's third year, he embarked on his military campaign against the Hyksos by sailing north out of Thebes on the Nile. He first reached Nefrusy, which was just north of Cusae and was manned by an Egyptian garrison loyal to the Hyksos.[12] A detachment of Medjay troops attacked the garrison and overran it.[12] The Carnarvon Tablet recounted this much of the campaign, but breaks off there. Nonetheless, Kamose's military strategy probably can be inferred. As Kamose moved north, he could easily take small villages and wipe out small Hyksos garrisons, but if a city resisted, he could cut it off from the rest of the Hyksos kingdom simply by taking over the city directly to the north. This kind of tactic probably allowed him to travel very quickly up the Nile.[13] The second stele of Kamose (found in Thebes) continues Kamose's narrative with an attack on Avaris. Because it does not mention Memphis or other major cities to the north, it has long been suspected that Kamose never did attack Avaris, but instead recorded what he intended to do.[12] Kim Ryholt recently has argued that Kamose probably never advanced farther than the Anpu or Cynopolis Nome in Middle Egypt (around the Faiyum and the city of Saka) and did not enter either the Nile Delta, nor Lower Egypt proper.[14] Kamose's second stela which records his victory against the Hyksos (Luxor Museum). According to the second stele, after moving north of Nefrusy, Kamose's soldiers captured a courier bearing a message from the Hyksos king Awoserre Apopi at Avaris to his ally, the ruler of Kush, requesting the latter's urgent support against Kamose. Kamose promptly ordered a detachment of his troops to occupy and destroy the Bahariya Oasis in the western desert, which controlled the north–south desert route. Kamose, called "the Strong" in this text, ordered this action to protect his rearguard. Kamose then sailed southward, back up the Nile to Thebes, for a joyous victory celebration after his military success against the Hyksos in pushing the boundaries of his kingdom northward from Cusae past Hermopolis through to Sako, which now formed the new frontier between the seventeenth dynasty of Thebes and the fifteenth dynasty Hyksos state.[15] Ryholt notes that Kamose never claims in his second stela to attack anything in Avaris itself, only "anything belonging to Avaris (nkt hwt-w'rt, direct genitive) i.e., the spoil [of war] which his army has carried off" as lines 7-8 and 15 of Kamose's stela—the only references to Avaris here—demonstrate: Line 7-8: I placed the brave guard-flotilla to patrol as far as the desert-edge with the remainder (of the fleet) behind it, as if a kite were preying upon the territory of Avaris. Line 15: I have not overlooked anything belonging to Avaris, because it (the area which Kamose was plundering) is empty.[16] The Second Stela of Kamose is well known for recounting that a Hyksos messenger was captured with a letter from Apophis—appealing for aid from the king of Kush against Kamose—while travelling through the western desert roads to Nubia. The final evidence that this king's military activities affected only the Cynopolite nome, and not the city of Avaris itself, is the fact that when Kamose returned the letter to Apophis, he dispatched it to Atfih which is about a hundred miles south of Avaris. Atfih, hence, formed either the new border or a no-man's land between the now shrunken Hyksos kingdom and Kamose's expanding seventeenth dynasty state. Furthermore, Kamose states in his second stele that his intention in returning the letter was for the Hyksos messenger to inform Apophis of the Theban king's victories "in the area of Cynopolis which used to be in his possession."[17] This information confirms that Kamose confined his activities to this Egyptian nome and never approached the city of Avaris itself in his Year 3. First Nubian Campaign[edit] Kamose is known to have campaigned against the Kushites prior to his third year since the Hyksos king directly appeals to his Kushite counterpart to attack his Theban rival and avenge the damage which Kamose had inflicted upon both their states. It is unlikely that Kamose had the resources to simultaneously defeat the Kushites to the south and then inflict a serious setback on the Hyksos to the north in just one year over a front-line that extended over several hundred kilometres.[18] Length of reign[edit] Illustration of a votive barque attributed to Kamose. His Year 3 is the only attested date for Kamose and was once thought to signal the end of his reign. However, it now appears certain that Kamose reigned for one or two more years beyond this date because he initiated a second campaign against the Nubians. Evidence that Kamose had started a first campaign against the Kushites is affirmed by the contents of Apophis' captured letter where the Hyksos king's plea for aid from the king of Kush is recounted in Kamose's Year 3 Second stela: Do you see what Egypt has done to me? The ruler who is in it, Kamose-the-Brave, given life, is attacking me on my soil although I have not attacked him in the manner of all he has done against you. He is choosing these two lands to bring affliction upon them, my land and yours, and he has ravaged them."[19] Two separate rock-inscriptions found at Arminna and Toshka, deep in Nubia, give the prenomen and nomen of Kamose and Ahmose side by side and were inscribed at the same time—likely by the same draughtsman—according to the epigraphic data.[6] In both inscriptions "the names of Ahmose follow directly below those of Kamose and each king is given the epithet di-ˁnḫ, Given Life, which was normally used only of ruling kings. This indicates that both Kamose and Ahmose were ruling when the inscriptions were cut and consequently that they were coregents.[6] Since Kamose's name was recorded first, he would have been the senior coregent. However, no mention or reference to Ahmose as king appears in Kamose's Year 3 stela which indirectly records Kamose's first campaign against the Nubians; this can only mean that Kamose appointed the young Ahmose as his junior coregent sometime after his third year prior to launching a second military campaign against the Nubians.[20] As a result, Kamose's second Nubian campaign must have occurred in his Year 4 or 5. The target of Kamose's second Nubian campaign may have been the fortress at Buhen which the Nubians had recaptured from Kamose's forces since a stela bearing his cartouche was deliberately erased and there is fire damage in the fort itself.[21] A slightly longer reign of five years for Kamose has now been estimated by Ryholt and this ruler's timeline has been dated from 1554 BC to 1549 BC to take into account a one year period of coregency between Ahmose and Kamose.[22] Donald Redford notes that Kamose was buried very modestly, in an ungilded stock coffin which lacked even a royal uraeus.[23] This may imply that the king died before he had enough time to complete his burial equipment presumably because he was engaged in warfare with his Kushite and Hyksos neighbours. Mummy[edit] The mummy of Kamose is mentioned in the Abbott Papyrus, which records an investigation into tomb robberies during the reign of Ramesses IX, about 400 years after Ahmose's interment. While his tomb was mentioned as being "in a good state",[24] it is clear that his mummy was moved at some point afterward, as it was discovered in 1857 at Dra' Abu el-Naga', seemingly deliberately hidden in a pile of debris. The painted and stuccoed coffin was uncovered by early Egyptologists Auguste Mariette and Heinrich Brugsch, who noted that the mummy was in very poor shape. Buried with the mummy was a gold and silver dagger, amulets, a scarab, a bronze mirror, and a pectoral in the shape of a cartouche bearing the name of his successor and brother, Ahmose.[25] The coffin remains in Egypt, while the dagger is in Brussels and the pectoral and mirror are in the Louvre, Paris. The name of the pharaoh inscribed on the coffin was only recognized fifty years after the original discovery, by which time the mummy, which had been left with the pile of debris on which it was found, was almost certainly long lost.[25] Stelae[edit] Kamose erected two stelae in Thebes that seem to tell a consecutive narrative of his defeat of the Hyksos. The first stele is missing its last part. The Carnarvon Tablet also preserves some of the text of the stelae.[26] Identification[edit] As early as 1916, Sir Alan Gardiner assumed that the First Carnarvon Tablet must be a copy of some commemorative stela of pharaoh Kamose. This was later confirmed when French Egyptologists Lacau and Chévrier were working in Karnak, and made an important discovery of two stela fragments. The smallest of them was found in 1932. And in 1935, the larger fragment appeared. Thus, it emerged that the Carnarvon Tablet text was copied from Kamose's stelas.[27] These newer texts were published in 1939.[27][28] Other discoveries[edit] More recently, some other inscriptions of Kamose were found. "Only two stelae of Kamose were known until recently [2016], one of them was also copied to a Dynasty 18 writing table [Carnarvon Tablet] (Redford 1997: nos. 68-69). In 2004 a fragmented inscription with the Two Ladies name of Kamose was found in Karnak and labeled the third stela of Kamose (Van Siclen 2010), and in 2008 a further inscription of Kamose was found in Armant (Thiers 2009)."[29] References[edit] ^ Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. p. 481. ISBN 0-19-815034-2. ^ a b Peter Clayton: Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames and Hudson Ltd, paperback 2006. p.94 ^ Friedrich Wilhelm von Bissing: Ein thebanischer Grabfund aus dem Anfang des Neuen Reiches. Tafel 4 (8) ^ Claude Vandersleyen: L'Egypte et la vallée du Nil. Tome 2: De la fin de l'Ancien Empire à la fin du Nouvel Empire.Paris 1995, S. 195 ^ Kim SB Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, p.273. ISBN 87-7289-421-0 ^ a b c Ryholt, p.273 ^ Flinders Petrie: Scarabs and cylinders with names (1917), available copyright-free here, pl. XXIII ^ Grimal, Nicolas. A History of Ancient Egypt. p.189. Librairie Arthéme Fayard, 1988. ^ James, T.G.H. Egypt: From the Expulsion of the Hyksos to Amenophis I. in The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 2, part 1, ed. Edwards, I.E.S, et al. p. 290. Cambridge University Press, 1965. ^ a b "Cambridge 2:1 290" ^ a b Gardiner, Sir Alan. Egypt of the Pharaohs, 1961, reprint Oxford University Press, 1979, p.166 ^ a b c James, T.G.H. Egypt: From the Expulsion of the Hyksos to Amenophis I. in The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 2, part 1, ed. Edwards, I.E.S, et al. p.291. Cambridge University Press, 1965. ^ Spalinger, Anthony J. War in Ancient Egypt. , Blackwell Publishing, 2005, p.3. ^ Ryholt, pp.172-175 ^ Ryholt, pp.173-175 ^ Ryholt, pp.173-174 ^ Ryholt, p.172 ^ Ryholt, pp.182-83 ^ Ryholt, p.181 ^ Ryholt, p.274 ^ Ryholt, pp.181-182 ^ Ryholt, p.204 ^ Redford, Donald B. History and Chronology of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt: Seven Studies. Toronto, 1967 ^ "The Abbott Papyrus". reshafim.org.il. Retrieved 2007-01-04. ^ a b Brier, Bob. Egyptian Mummies. p.259-260. William Morrow and Company, Inc. 1994. ISBN 0-688-10272-7 ^ James B. Pritchard (ed.), Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. Third Edition (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969), p. 232. ^ a b James B. Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. Third Edition (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969), p. 232. ^ P. Lacau, ASAE, xxxix (1939) ^ Ilin-Tomich, Alexander, 2016, Second Intermediate Period. In Wolfram Grajetzki and Willeke Wendrich (eds.), UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, Los Angeles Bibliography[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kamose. Gardiner, Sir Alan. Egypt of the Pharaohs. Oxford: University Press, 1964, 1961. Montet, Pierre. Eternal Egypt, translated from the French by Doreen Weightman. London, 1964 Pritchard, James B. (Editor). Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament (3rd edition). Princeton, 1969. Redford, Donald B. History and Chronology of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt: Seven Studies. Toronto, 1967. Ryholt, Kim SB, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period (Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, Copenhagen, (Museum Tusculanum Press:1997) ISBN 87-7289-421-0 Simpson, William Kelly (Editor). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry (3rd edition). New Haven, 2003, pp. 345-50 (translation of the Kamose texts). Preceded by Seqenenre Tao Pharaoh of Egypt Seventeenth Dynasty Succeeded by Ahmose I v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 118720627 ISNI: 0000 0003 7314 1296 LCCN: n95066234 NKC: jn20030320005 VIAF: 8182402 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n95066234 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kamose&oldid=1002428320" Categories: 1549 BC deaths 16th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt Egyptian rebels Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 11:52 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-856	----	Seheqenre Sankhptahi - Wikipedia Seheqenre Sankhptahi From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Seheqenre Sankhptahi Seankhptah, Se'anchptah [1] Detail of the stele of Nebsumenu depicting pharaoh Seheqenre Sankhptahi offering ms.t oil to the god Ptah, National Archaeological Museum of Spain. Pharaoh Reign unknown duration (13th dynasty) Predecessor Se...kare [1][2] Successor ...re [1][2] Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Seheqenre S.ḥḳ-n-Rˁ He whom Ra causes to rule Nomen Sankhptahi S-ˁnḫ-ptḥ-i He whom Ptah causes to live Turin canon [Sehe]qenre [S.ḥ]ḳ-n-Rˁ He whom Ra causes to rule Father uncertain, possibly Se...kare [2] Seheqenre Sankhptahi was a pharaoh of the late 13th Dynasty, possibly the fifty-fourth[1] or fifty-fifth[2] king of this dynasty. He most likely reigned for a short period over the Memphite region during the mid-17th century BC, some time between 1663 BC and 1649 BC.[2] Contents 1 Attestions 2 Family 3 Further reading 4 References Attestions[edit] Pharaoh Seheqenre Sankhptahi is named and represented on the stele of royal sealer and overseer of sealers Nebsumenu dating to Year One of his reign. The origin of the stele is not known for certain—the stele was acquired in 1999 by the National Archaeological Museum of Spain from a private collector. However, Kim Ryholt notes that it depicts Sankhptahi offering oil to the god Ptah "He who is south of his wall" (rsy-snb=f) and to Anubis "Lord of bandagers" (nb wtyw), both of which are epithets from the Memphite region.[2] Ryholt concludes that Seheqenre Sankhptahi probably reigned over Memphis and thus belongs to the 13th dynasty, which had control over the region at the time. Furthermore, Ryholt suggests that Sankhptahi may himself have been born in Memphis, as indicated by his theophorous name based on Ptah, the god of the city.[2] Stele of Nebsumenu representing Seheqenre Sankhptahi making offerings to Ptah and Anubis. According to the latest reading of the Turin canon by Ryholt, Seheqenre Sankhptahi is attested there, on column 8 line 25, which contains the damaged prenomen [?]ḳ-n-Rˁ. Ryholt remarks that Seheqenre is the only king of the period whose name matches these signs and reads [S.ḥ]ḳ-n-Rˁ, Seheqenre on the Turin canon.[1][2] Ryholt finally points to a blue-green steatite cylinder seal of unknown provenance and bearing the golden horus name Sekhaenptah, S.ḫˁ-n-ptḥ, He whom Ptah causes to appear, as maybe belonging to Seheqenre Sankhptahi. Percy Newberry simply dates the seal to "about the end of the Middle Kingdom" without further identification of its owner. The seal is probably lost: originally in the Timmins collection housed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, it is now reportedly missing from the museum.[1] Family[edit] A stele of unknown provenance, although probably Memphite in origin,[1] and dated on stylistic grounds to the Second Intermediate Period presents a list of members of a royal family and gives the king's son name as [?]-ptḥ-i. If this prince is the future pharaoh Seheqenre Sankhptahi as Ryholt proposes, then pharaoh Se[...]kare is his father and Minemsaes and Sit[...] are his sisters.[2] The stele is housed in the Egyptian Museum (CG20600). Further reading[edit] Meeks, Dimitri, "Une stèle de donation de la Deuxième Période intermédiaire" ENIM 2, 2009, pp. 129–154. References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300 - 1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 349 ^ a b c d e f g h i K.S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800-1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997 v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seheqenre_Sankhptahi&oldid=976817445" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Español Français Italiano ქართული Magyar Slovenščina ไทย Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 5 September 2020, at 06:33 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8586	----	Cylinder seal - Wikipedia Cylinder seal From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Cylinder-seal of the Uruk period and its impression, c.3100 BC. Louvre Museum. Cylinder seal of First Dynasty of Ur Queen Puabi, found in her tomb, dated circa 2600 BC, with modern impression. Inscription 𒅤𒀀𒉿 𒊩𒌆Pu-A-Bi-Nin "Queen Puabi".[1][2][3] Old Babylonian cylinder seal, c.1800 BC, hematite. Linescan camera image (reversed to resemble an impression). A cylinder seal is a small round cylinder, typically about one inch (2 to 3 cm) in length, engraved with written characters or figurative scenes or both, used in ancient times to roll an impression onto a two-dimensional surface, generally wet clay. According to some sources, cylinder seals were invented around 3500 BC in the Near East, at the contemporary sites of Uruk in southern Mesopotamia and slightly later at Susa in south-western Iran during the Proto-Elamite period, and they follow the development of stamp seals in the Halaf culture or slightly earlier.[4] They are linked to the invention of the latter's cuneiform writing on clay tablets.[5][6][7] Other sources, however, date the earliest cylinder seals to a much earlier time, to the Late Neolithic period (7600-6000 BC), hundreds of years before the invention of writing.[8][9] (They were used as an administrative tool, a form of signature, as well as jewelry and as magical amulets;[10] later versions would employ notations with Mesopotamian cuneiform. In later periods, they were used to notarize or attest to multiple impressions of clay documents. Graves and other sites housing precious items such as gold, silver, beads, and gemstones often included one or two cylinder seals, as honorific grave goods. Contents 1 Description 2 Uses 3 Theme-driven, memorial, and commemorative nature 4 Cylinder seals 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Description[edit] The cylinder seals themselves are typically made from hardstones, and some are a form of engraved gem. They may instead use glass or ceramics, like Egyptian faience. Many varieties of material such as hematite, obsidian, steatite, amethyst, lapis lazuli and carnelian were used to make cylinder seals. As the alluvial country of Mesopotamia lacks good stone for carving, the large stones of early cylinders were imported probably from Iran.[11] Most seals have a hole running through the centre of the body, and they are thought to have typically been worn on a necklace so that they were always available when needed. Size comparison of seals, with their impression strips (modern/current impressions) While most Mesopotamian cylinder seals form an image through the use of depressions in the cylinder surface (see lead photo above), some cylinder seals print images using raised areas on the cylinder (see San Andrés image, below, which is not related to Mesopotamian cylinder seals). The former are used primarily on wet clays; the latter, sometimes referred to as roller stamps, are used to print images on cloth and other similar two dimensional surfaces. Cylinder seals are a form of impression seal, a category which includes the stamp seal and finger ring seal. They survive in fairly large numbers and are often important as art, especially in the Babylonian and earlier Assyrian periods. Impressions into a soft material can be taken without risk of damage to the seal, and they are often displayed in museums together with a modern impression on a small strip. Uses[edit] Cylinder seal impressions were made on a variety of surfaces: amulets bales of commodities bricks clay tablets cloth components of fabricated objects doors envelopes storage jars Theme-driven, memorial, and commemorative nature[edit] This cylinder seal from Cyprus shows two nude female figures. Each holds a flower, a symbol of fertility.[12] The Walters Art Museum. This Neo-Assyrian cylinder seal shows a ritual with winged protective deities. Walters Art Museum. The images depicted on cylinder seals were mostly theme-driven, often sociological or religious. Instead of addressing the authority of the seal, a better study may be of the thematic nature of the seals, since they presented the ideas of the society in pictographic and text form. In a famous cylinder depicting Darius I of Persia: he is aiming his drawn bow at an upright enraged lion impaled by two arrows, while his chariot horse is trampling a deceased lion. The scene is framed between two slim palm trees, a block of cuneiform text, and above the scene, the Faravahar symbol of Ahura Mazda, the god representation of Zoroastrianism. Cylinder seals[edit] Assyria. Seals showing method of mounting; Brooklyn Museum Brooklyn Museum Archives, Goodyear Archival Collection The reference below, Garbini, covers many of the following categories of cylinder seal. Dominique Collon's book First Impressions, which is dedicated to the topic, has over 1000 illustrations. A categorization of cylinder seals: Akkadian cylinder seals. Akkadian seal, ca. 2300 BC, stone seal w/ modern impression. See National Geographic Ref. The glyptic (the Scenes) shows "God in barge", people, and offerings. Assyrian cylinder seals. Cypriote Cylinder Seals. Egyptian cylinder seals. Predynastic Egyptian Naqada era tombs and graves (imported). Egyptian Faience; see Pepi I ext link. Hittite cylinder seals. Clay envelope usage, etc.; see Kultepe. Kassite (the Kassites), cylinder seals. Mittanian cylinder seals. Old Babylonian cylinder seals. Persian cylinder seals; see Darius I, Robinson ref. Proto-Elamite cylinder seals. Sumerian cylinder seals. Seals of the "Moon-God"; see Sin. see Ref. (Robinson), Seal of Ur-Nammu, 2112-2095 BC. Close-up picture of Seal, and adjacent 'modern impression', high resolution, 2X-3X natural size. "Shamash pictographic seals"; see Mari, Syria. Neo-Sumerian cylinder seals. see Ref (Garbini), "Seated God, and Worshippers", Cylinder seal, and a modern Impressin, p. 40, (British Museum, London). Syrian cylinder seals. See also[edit] A roll-out of the San Andres ceramic cylinder seal containing what has been proposed as evidence of the earliest writing system in Mesoamerica. This cylinder seal is dated to approximately 650 BC and is unrelated to the Mesopotamian cylinder seals. Asia portal Ancient Near Eastern seals and sealing practices Seal (device) Impression seal Stamp seal LMLK seal Mudbrick stamp Scaraboid seal References[edit] ^ British Museum notice WA 121544 ^ Crawford, Harriet (2013). The Sumerian World. Routledge. p. 622. ISBN 9781136219115. ^ Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and; Hansen, Donald P.; Pittman, Holly (1998). Treasures from the Royal Tombs of Ur. UPenn Museum of Archaeology. p. 78. ISBN 9780924171550. ^ Brown, Brian A.; Feldman, Marian H. (2013). Critical Approaches to Ancient Near Eastern Art. Walter de Gruyter. p. 304. ISBN 9781614510352. ^ Mesopotamian cylinder seals, British Museum ^ Why Cylinder Seals? Engraved Cylindrical Seal Stones of the Ancient Near East, Fourth to First Millennium B.C., by Edith Porada © 1993 College Art Association., The Art Bulletin, Vol. 75, No. 4 (Dec., 1993), pp. 563-582, JSTOR ^ Ancient cylinder seal found in Iran, 2 March 2009, Press TV ^ https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/ancient-near-east1/sumerian/a/cylinder-seals ^ https://www.ancient.eu/article/846/cylinder-seals-in-ancient-mesopotamia---their-hist/ ^ "Ancient Cylinder Seals". Johns Hopkins Archaeological Museum. Johns Hopkins University. Retrieved 12 June 2019. ^ Why Cylinder Seals? Engraved Cylindrical Seal Stones of the Ancient Near East, Fourth to First Millennium B.C., by Edith Porada © 1993 College Art Association., The Art Bulletin, Vol. 75, No. 4 (Dec., 1993), pp. 563-582, JSTOR ^ "Cylinder Seal with a Nude Goddess". The Walters Art Museum. Further reading[edit] Bahn, Paul. Lost Treasures, Great Discoveries in World Archaeology, Ed. by Paul G. Bahn, (Barnes and Noble Books, New York), c 1999. Examples of, or discussions of Stamp seals, cylinder seals and a metal stamp seal. Collon, Dominique. First Impressions, Cylinder Seals in the Ancient Near East, (British Museum Press, London), 1987, 2005. Very comprehensive and up to date account, with many illustrations. The author has compiled several of the volumes cataloging the collection of cylinder seals in the British Museum. Collon, Dominique. Near Eastern Seals, (British Museum, London), 1990. Shorter account which also includes stamp seals . Part of the BM's Interpreting the Past series Frankfort, H. Cylinder Seals, 1939, London. A classic, though obviously doesn't reflect later research. Garbini, Giovanni. Landmarks of the World's Art, The Ancient World, by Giovanni Garbini, (McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, Toronto), General Eds, Bernard S. Myers, New York, Trewin Copplestone, London, c 1966. "Discussion, or pictures of about 25 cylinder seals"; also lists the "Scaraboid seal", an impression seal (needs to be a mirror/reverse to be an impression seal). Metropolitan Museum of Art. Cuneiform Texts in the Metropolitan Museum of Art: Tablets, Cones, and Bricks of the Third and Second Millennia B.C., vol. 1 (New York, 1988). The final section (Bricks) of the book concerns cylinder Seals, with a foreword describing the purpose of the section as to instigate Research into cylinder Seals. The 'cylinder sealing' on the bricks, was done multiple times per brick. Some are of high quality, and some are not. (Also contains the only 2 el Amarna letters, in the US, with Analysis.) Metropolitan Museum of Art. Ancient Near Eastern Art, (Reprint), Metr. Mus. of Art Photograph Studio, Designed, Alvin Grossman, Photography, Lynton Gardiner, (Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin (Spring 1984)), c 1984. 56pgs. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Beyond Babylon, Art, Trade and Diplomacy in the Second Millennium BC, ed. Joan Aruz. 2008. Many cylinder seals of the period illustrated in color with impressions and descriptions. National Geogr. Soc. Wonders of the Ancient World; National Geographic Atlas of Archeology, Norman Hammond, Consultant, Nat'l Geogr. Soc., (Multiple Staff authors), (Nat'l Geogr., R.H.Donnelley & Sons, Willard, OH), 1994, 1999, Reg. or Deluxe Ed. Origins of Writing, section, pp 68–75. Akkadian Cylinder seal, with its modern seal impression. p. 71. Robinson, Andrew. The Story of Writing, Andrew Robinson, (Thames and Hudson), c 1995, paperback ed., c 1999. (Page 70, Chapter 4: Cuneiform) Ur-Nammu cylinder seal (and impression), with 2095 BC hieroglyphs, 2X-3X; Darius I, impression only, of chariot hunting scene, 2X, ca 500 BC. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cylinder seals. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cylinder seal impressions. a collection of seals and scarabs from international collectors and galleries, accompanied by an archeologist Seals on the Persepolis Fortification Tablets - by Mark B. Garrison and Margaret C. Root, at the Oriental Institute webpage Cylinder seal of Pepi I Meryre. Serpentinite, click on pictures; (possibly not meant to be an 'Impression seal'). Kassite, Seal Impression, Department of the History of Art, University of Pennsylvania Seal impressions-(High Res), (1 Seal), God/Symbols explanations. 3D development simulation of the Cylinder Seal of Ibni Sharrum by D. Pitzalis on YouTube. Authority control GND: 4178421-2 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cylinder_seal&oldid=996301249" Categories: Seals (insignia) Hardstone carving Archaeological artefact types Archaeology of the Near East Ancient Near East art and architecture Cylinder and impression seals in archaeology Sculpture of the Ancient Near East Hittite Empire Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from September 2020 Commons category link is on Wikidata Commons category link is locally defined Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Suomi Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 December 2020, at 19:15 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8594	----	Category:Ahasuerus - Wikipedia Help Category:Ahasuerus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The main article for this category is Ahasuerus. Pages in category "Ahasuerus" The following 8 pages are in this category, out of 8 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more).   Ahasuerus A Ahasuerus and Haman at the Feast of Esther Artaxerxes II E Esther before Ahasuerus Esther before Ahasuerus (Artemisia Gentileschi) V Vashti W Wandering Jew X Xerxes I Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Ahasuerus&oldid=997769622" Categories: Babylonian captivity Monarchs of the Hebrew Bible Book of Daniel Book of Esther Mythological kings History of Purim Hidden categories: Wikipedia categories named after Iranian people Wikipedia categories named after royalty Wikipedia categories named after Hebrew Bible people Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages فارسی Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 2 January 2021, at 03:59 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8595	----	Khabash - Wikipedia Khabash From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Khabash Khababash, Khabbash Part of the Stela of Nastasen mentioning (row 13) the Egyptian invader Kambasuten (most likely Khabash)[1] Pharaoh Reign c.338 – c.335 BCE (31st Dynasty[2]) Predecessor Artaxerxes III Successor Artaxerxes IV or Darius III Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Senen-setepu-ni-ptah Snn-stpw-nj-Ptḥ Image [of Tatenen], chosen of Ptah[3] Nomen Khabbash Ḫbbš Khabash, also Khababash or Khabbash, resided at Sais in the fifth nome of Lower Egypt in the fourth century BCE. During the second Persian occupation of Egypt (343–332 BCE) he led a revolt against the Persian rule in concert with his eldest son, from ca. 338 to 335 BCE, a few years before the conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great.[4] It is said that Nectanebo II, the exiled last native ruler of Egypt, may have helped in these events, but he was possibly sidelined for good as a result of the failure of the revolt.[citation needed] Little is known about Khabash. He is referred to as "Lord of both lands",[5] i.e. King of Upper and Lower Egypt, and as "Son of Ra", another pharaonic title, and given the throne name of Senen-setep-en-Ptah in a decree by Ptolemy Lagides,[6] who became King Ptolemy I Soter in 305 BCE. Sometime in the 330s BCE, an Egyptian ruler called Kambasuten – who is widely recognized as Khabash – led an invasion into the kingdom of Kush which was defeated by king Nastasen as recorded in a stela now in the Berlin museum. An Apis bull sarcophagus bearing his name was found at Saqqara[7] and dated to his regnal Year 2.[8] References[edit] ^ Gauthier, Henri (1916). Le Livre des rois d'Égypte IV. MIFAO. 20. Cairo. p. 139. OCLC 473879272 (here misinterpreted as Cambyses II). ^ Placed in this dynasty only for chronological reasons, as he was not related to the Achaemenids. ^ Henri Gauthier, op. cit., p. 196. ^ Vasunia, Phiroze (2001). The Gift of the Nile: Hellenizing Egypt from Aeschylus to Alexander. University of California Press. p. 266. ISBN 0-520-22820-0. ^ Records of the Past Being English Translations of the Assyrian and Egyptian Monuments. Adamant Media. 2001. p. 73. ^ "The decree of Ptolemy Lagides". Archived from the original on 2018-10-04. Retrieved 2007-06-18. ^ Baedeker, Karl (2000) [1898]. Egypt. Adamant Media. p. 130. ISBN 1-4021-9705-5. ^ Birch, Samuel (1883). Egypt from the earliest times to B.C. 300. Ancient history from the monuments. Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. p. 189. OCLC 82441982. External links[edit] Small bibliography of books mentioning Khababash Homestead Nastasen Stela v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khabash&oldid=992468986" Categories: 4th-century BC Pharaohs 4th-century BC rulers Non-dynastic pharaohs Egyptian rebels Ancient Egypt people stubs Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2016 AC with 0 elements All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Deutsch Español فارسی Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Polski Русский Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 5 December 2020, at 12:34 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8599	----	Name and Title Authority File of Catalonia - Wikipedia Name and Title Authority File of Catalonia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from CANTIC (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search The Name and Title Authority File of Catalonia (CANTIC) is an authority union catalogue within the Union Catalogue of Universities of Catalonia (CCUC), that it is led by the Biblioteca de Catalunya. Its goals are to standardize the access points in bibliographic catalogues, to improve communication among catalogues and mainly, to make easier the information research and retrieval. CANTIC gives a special treatment to name and title authorities related with Catalan culture. These authorities receive a complete authority work and provide, eventually, access to the Enciclopèdia Catalana. Contents 1 Definition and aims 2 History and evolution 3 Participants 4 Maintenance and updating 5 References 6 External links Definition and aims[edit] CANTIC has the aim[1] to be the catalogue of authority records created cooperatively by Catalan libraries. These records have to be generated from the authority control of name, name-title and title access points of Catalan bibliographic records. This guarantees the standardization and uniqueness of access points of catalogues, which makes it easier the exchange and a more efficient communication of bibliographic records and, in the end, enables users to carry out assisted, precise and exhaustive searches. CANTIC is a national service that allows to standardize and give consistency to the catalogues of the Catalan library system; it is the tool that facilitates the creation of the future Unique Catalogue of Catalonia (CUC), devised in the frame of the Agreement of the Catalan Government of 20 July 2004, for the improvement and modernization of Catalan Library System.[2] History and evolution[edit] At a meeting held on 16 September 2002, the Advisory Commission of Cataloguing, the advisory body of the Biblioteca de Catalunya in terms of cataloguing, talked about the need of creating a list of authorities in Catalonia. It was decided to establish a subcommittee to study the technical feasibility of the project and to prepare the requirements and functionality of the list of name and title authorities, taking into account the real needs of the Catalan Library System. The Subcommittee met for the first time on 27 March 2003 and finished the job in October 2003. In the report prepared by them[3] are presented: The definition and aims of the list. It provides an overview of the state of art in and out Catalonia, and ascertains that the current situation of the authority control of the Catalan Library System does not satisfy the existent needs neither avoids the duplication of tasks, efforts and costs. Following the model of other international experiences, it is stated that a unique authority list in Catalonia, prepared cooperatively, is a feasible project that favours the exchange of bibliographic records and the information research and retrieval. They give the bases for the creation of the Catalan Name and Title Authority List, and comment in brief the cooperative model of a subject authority list, since its operation and organization differ substantially of the name and title list. They specify the requirements and functionalities of the software of Catalan Name and Title Authority List. The Name and Title Authority File of Catalonia was created following the Catalan Library System Act, Llei 4/1993 “La Biblioteca de Catalunya supervisa, valida i unifica en un sol llistat el catàleg d’autoritats"[4] Participants[edit] The participants are the Biblioteca de Catalunya, the Casa Àsia, the Centre de Lectura (Reus), the Consorci de Bibliothèques de les Universitats de Catalunya, the Il•lustre Col•legi d'Advocats de Barcelona, the Museu d'Art Contemporani de Barcelona, the Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya, the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, the Universitat de Barcelona, the Universitat de Girona, the Universitat de Lleida, the Universitat de Vic, the Universitat Jaume I, the Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, the Universitat Pompeu Fabra and the Universitat Rovira i Virgili. Maintenance and updating[edit] The authority records of CANTIC are created following the international cataloguing principles[5] and the specifications of the Biblioteca de Catalunya, which were approved by the CCUC.[6] Records are encoded with MARC 21.[7] There is also a CANTIC guide with the procedure for elaborating the authority records by the entities involved.[8] The Bibliographic Standardization Service is responsible for providing training and support to all participants while ensuring the quality of authority records. The constant introduction of new authority records turns CANTIC into a living organism in a permanent process of transformation and change. Updating the content of the database is done monthly and is available on the website of the Biblioteca de Catalunya. References[edit] ^ FERRAN, Imma. «El Catàleg d'autoritats de noms i títols de Catalunya (CÀNTIC) ». BiD : textos universitaris de biblioteconomia i documentació, Núm. 22 (juny 2009) [Consulta: 1 gener 2013]. ^ Acord per a la millora i modernització del Sistema Bibliotecari de Catalunya en el període 2004-2007, aprovat pel Govern de la Generalitat de Catalunya el 20 de juliol de 2004.<"Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-12. Retrieved 2012-04-12.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)>. [Consulta: 21 gener 2013]. ^ Informe per a la creació de la Llista d’Autoritats de Catalunya de noms i títols: requeriments i funcionalitats, octubre 2003 ^ 4_1993, de 18 de març, del sistema bibliotecari de Catalunya.pdf Llei 4/1193, de 18 de març, del sistema bibliotecari de Catalunya[permanent dead link] ^ Regles angloamericanes de catalogació. 2a ed. rev. de 2002, actualització de 2005. Barcelona : Biblioteca de Catalunya, cop. 2008 ^ Concrecions a les AACR2 Part II (Encapçalaments, títols uniformes, referències), Ed. 2008. Barcelona : Biblioteca de Catalunya, 2008- ^ Format Marc 21 per a dades d’autoritat Ed. anglesa, Ed. concisa catalana ^ Manual CANTIC, actualització 2010 External links[edit] Biblioteca de Catalunya. Serveis professionals. Servei de Normalització Bibliogràfica. "Cantic" Cataleg d'Autoritats de Noms y Titols de Catalunya: Cerca basica. v t e Authority control files AAG • ACM DL • ADB • AGSA • autores.uy • AWR • BALaT • BIBSYS • Bildindex • BNC • BNE • BNF • Botanist • BPN • CANTIC • CiNii • CWGC • DAAO • DBLP • DSI • FNZA • GND • HDS • IAAF • ICCU • ICIA • ISNI • Joconde • KulturNav • LCCN • LIR • LNB • Léonore • MBA • MGP • NARA • NBL • NDL • NGV • NKC • NLA • NLG • NLI • NLK • NLP • NLR • NSK • NTA • ORCID • PIC • PLWABN • ResearcherID • RERO • RKD • RKDimages ID • RSL • SELIBR • SIKART • SNAC • SUDOC • S2AuthorId • TA98 • TDVİA • TE • TePapa • TH • TLS • Trove • UKPARL • ULAN • US Congress • VcBA • VIAF • WorldCat Identities Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Name_and_Title_Authority_File_of_Catalonia&oldid=997861083" Categories: Libraries in Spain Catalonia Library cataloging and classification Hidden categories: CS1 maint: archived copy as title All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from February 2018 Articles with permanently dead external links Spain articles missing geocoordinate data All articles needing coordinates AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans Català Español Français Galego עברית مصرى Nederlands Português Edit links This page was last edited on 2 January 2021, at 16:17 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8600	----	Menkare - Wikipedia Menkare From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be confused with Menkaure. Menkare The cartouche of Menkare on the Abydos King List. Pharaoh Reign Probably short, c. 2181 BC (Eighth Dynasty) Predecessor Netjerkare Siptah Successor Neferkare II Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Menkare Mn k3 Rˁ Stable is the Ka of Ra Menkare was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh, the first or second[1] ruler of the Eighth Dynasty. Menkare probably reigned a short time at the transition between the Old Kingdom period and the First Intermediate Period, in the early 22nd century BC.[2] The rapid succession of brief reigns at the time suggests times of hardship, possibly related to a widespread aridification of the Middle East, known as the 4.2 kiloyear event. As a pharaoh of the Eighth Dynasty, according to Manetho, Menkare's seat of power would have been Memphis. Contents 1 Attestations 2 Refuted identification with Nitocris 3 References Attestations[edit] Historical source Menkare's only secure historical source is the Abydos king list, a list of kings redacted during the reign of Seti I for religious purposes and which today serves as the primary historical source for kings of the early First Intermediate Period. The praenomen Menkare appears on the 41st entry of the list. Another king list redacted during the early Ramesside period, the Turin canon, may have listed Menkare as well. Unfortunately, a large lacuna affects the papyrus of the canon where Menkare's name would have been listed.[3] Contemporaneous source The tomb of queen Neit in South Saqqara houses a relief showing the queen in front of a damaged royal cartouche.[4] The Egyptologist Percy Newberry proposed that the cartouche reads Menkare, which would thus be the sole contemporaneous attestation for this king having survived to this day.[5] This opinion is shared by Gae Callender, who reexamined Jéquier's plates of the inscription.[6] A source from a later period Cylinder seal referring either to Menkare or to Menkaure of the 4th Dynasty.[7] Another possible, though not contemporaneous, attestation of Menkare is a cylinder seal made of glazed steatite, now in the British Museum under the catalog number 30557, and inscribed with the text "The Good God, Lord of the Two Lands, Menkare".[7][8] The seal dates to the 26th Dynasty, some 1700 years after Menkare's lifetime. The attribution of the seal to Menkare is unlikely: given that Menkare is a rather obscure king, some scholars have suggested instead that the seal bears a mistake and actually refers to the better known pharaoh Menkaure, builder of the third pyramid of Giza.[2] Refuted identification with Nitocris[edit] In an old hypothesis, the Egyptologist Flinders Petrie suggested that Menkare should be equated with queen Nitocris, a legendary figure appearing in Herodotus' Histories and Manetho's Aegyptiaca and who is believed to have lived close to Menkare's lifetime. Petrie based his hypothesis on the fact that Nitocris is credited with the construction of the third pyramid of Giza by Manetho. Since this pyramid was in fact built by Menkaure, Petrie surmised that Manetho fell victim to a tradition which had confused Menkare and Menkaure.[9] Similarly, the seal would seem to be another manifestation of this confusion. Petrie's hypothesis has been thoroughly disproven by modern analyses of the Turin canon however, and Nitocris is now known to originate from the names of the real ruler Netjerkare Siptah.[3] The attribution of the seal remains uncertain.[2] References[edit] ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz : Philip von Zabern, 1999, ISBN 3-8053-2591-6, see pp.66–67, king No 2. ^ a b c Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 197 ^ a b Kim Ryholt: The Late Old Kingdom in the Turin King-list and the Identity of Nitocris, Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 127:87–100, (2000). ^ Gustave Jéquier, Maṣlaḥat al-Āthār (1993): Les pyramides des reines Neit et Apouit (in French), Cairo: Institut français d’archéologie orientale, OCLC 195690029, see plate 5. ^ Percy Newberry (1943): Queen Nitocris of the Sixth Dynasty, in: The Journal of Egyptian Archeology, vol. 29, pp=51–54 ^ Gae Callender: Queen Neit-ikrety/Nitokris, in: Miroslav Barta, Filip Coppens, Jaromic Krecji (editors): Abusir and Saqqara in the year 2010/1, Prague: Czech Institute of Egyptology, Faculty of Arts, Charles University, 2011, ISBN 978-8-07-308384-7, see pp. 249–250 ^ a b Harry Reginald Hall: Catalogue of Egyptian Scarabs, etc., in the British Museum, vol I: Royal Scarabs, British Museum 1913, available online see p. 272 seal num 2650. ^ Peter Kaplony: Die Rollsiegel des Alten Reiches, Vol II, Fondation Egyptologique Reine Elisabeth, Brussels 1981, see p. 427–428 and pl. 113 num 1 and p. 114 num. 1 & 2. ^ Flinders Petrie: A History of Egypt, Volume 1, 1902, available online, see p. 86, 104–105. Preceded by Netjerkare Siptah Pharaoh of Egypt Eighth Dynasty Succeeded by Neferkare II v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Menkare&oldid=972300337" Categories: 22nd-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Eighth Dynasty of Egypt 22nd-century BC rulers 22nd century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Português Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 11 August 2020, at 09:40 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8606	----	Fish (pharaoh) - Wikipedia Fish (pharaoh) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Fish was thought to be a ruler of the Lower Egypt or a part of Lower Egypt during the late prehistoric period.[1][2] He most likely never existed and is a modern invention due to misunderstanding of early hieroglyphic signs.[3] Fish is known only from the Fish hieroglyph and was possibly a king of the prehistoric Dynasty 0[4] of Predynastic Egypt.[5] Fish is thought to have ruled late in the 33rd century BC.[6] He is known only from artefacts that bear his mark, a hieroglyphic fish symbol. The dates and geographic extent of his rule are not known nor is his actual name. References[edit] ^ Jürgen Schraten, Zur Aktualität von Jan Assmann: Einleitung in sein Werk (Springer-Verlag, 11.11.2010) page 59. ^ Studien Zur Altagyptischen Kultuer 2008. page 158 zur Altägyptischen Kultur, Band 37. ^ Barry Kemp (a1), Andrew Boyce and James Harrell, The Colossi from the Early Shrine at Coptos in Egypt, in: Cambridge Archaeological Journal Volume 10, Issue 2April 2000, 233. ^ THE DYNASTY 0 Pahroeohs. ^ Felde, Rolf: Gottheiten, Pharaonen und Beamte im alten Ägypten, Norderstedt 2017, page 125. ^ Michael Hoveler Muller, Zu den fruhzeitlichen Konigen "Fingerchnecke und und Fisch aus dem Grab U-j in Umm el Qaab. page 159. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fish_(pharaoh)&oldid=973271248" Categories: 4th-millennium BC births 4th-millennium BC Pharaohs 4th-millennium BC rulers People whose existence is disputed Predynastic Egypt Predynastic pharaohs 32nd-century BC Pharaohs Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Português Edit links This page was last edited on 16 August 2020, at 09:00 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8607	----	Flax - Wikipedia Flax From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Flax (disambiguation). Species of plant used as a food and fibre crop Flax Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae Clade: Tracheophytes Clade: Angiosperms Clade: Eudicots Clade: Rosids Order: Malpighiales Family: Linaceae Genus: Linum Species: L. usitatissimum Binomial name Linum usitatissimum L. Synonyms[1] Linum crepitans (Boenn.) Dumort. Linum humile Mill. Linum indehiscens (Neilr.) Vavilov & Elladi Flax, also known as common flax or linseed, is a flowering plant, Linum usitatissimum, in the family Linaceae. It is cultivated as a food and fiber crop in cooler regions of the world. Textiles made from flax are known in Western countries as linen, and are traditionally used for bed sheets, underclothes, and table linen. Its oil is known as linseed oil. In addition to referring to the plant itself, the word "flax" may refer to the unspun fibers of the flax plant. The plant species is known only as a cultivated plant,[2] and appears to have been domesticated just once from the wild species Linum bienne, called pale flax.[3] The plants called "flax" in New Zealand are, by contrast, members of the genus Phormium. Contents 1 Description 2 History 3 Uses 3.1 Flaxseeds 3.1.1 Culinary 3.1.2 Fodder 3.2 Flax fibers 4 Nutrition 4.1 Health effects 4.2 Linseed oil 4.3 Toxicity 5 Cultivation 5.1 Diseases 6 Production 7 Harvesting 7.1 Maturation 7.2 Harvesting for fiber 7.2.1 Mechanical 7.2.2 Manual 8 Processing 9 Preparation for spinning 9.1 Retting flax 9.2 Dressing the flax 10 Genetically modified flax contamination 11 Symbolic images 12 See also 13 References Description[edit] Capsules Flowers Several other species in the genus Linum are similar in appearance to L. usitatissimum, cultivated flax, including some that have similar blue flowers, and others with white, yellow, or red flowers.[4] Some of these are perennial plants, unlike L. usitatissimum, which is an annual plant. Cultivated flax plants grow to 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in) tall, with slender stems. The leaves are glaucous green, slender lanceolate, 20–40 mm long, and 3 mm broad. The flowers are pure pale blue, 15–25 mm in diameter, with five petals. The fruit is a round, dry capsule 5–9 mm in diameter, containing several glossy brown seeds shaped like an apple pip, 4–7 mm long. History[edit] The earliest evidence of humans using wild flax as a textile comes from the present-day Republic of Georgia, where spun, dyed, and knotted wild flax fibers found in Dzudzuana Cave date to the Upper Paleolithic, 30 thousand years ago.[5][6][7] Humans first domesticated flax in the Fertile Crescent region.[8] Evidence exists of a domesticated oilseed flax with increased seed-size from Tell Ramad in Syria[8] and flax fabric fragments from Çatalhöyük in Turkey[9] by circa 9,000 years ago. Use of the crop steadily spread, reaching as far as Switzerland and Germany by 5,000 years ago.[10] In China and India, domesticated flax was cultivated at least 5,000 years ago.[11] Flax was cultivated extensively in ancient Egypt, where the temple walls had paintings of flowering flax, and mummies were embalmed using linen.[12] Egyptian priests wore only linen, as flax was considered a symbol of purity.[13] Phoenicians traded Egyptian linen throughout the Mediterranean and the Romans used it for their sails.[14] As the Roman Empire declined, so did flax production. But with laws designed to publicize the hygiene of linen textiles and the health of linseed oil, Charlemagne revived the crop in the eighth century CE.[15] Eventually, Flanders became the major center of the European linen industry in the Middle Ages.[15] In North America, colonists introduced flax, and it flourished there,[16] but by the early 20th century, cheap cotton and rising farm wages had caused production of flax to become concentrated in northern Russia, which came to provide 90% of the world's output. Since then, flax has lost its importance as a commercial crop, due to the easy availability of more durable fibres.[17] Uses[edit] Brown flaxseeds Golden flaxseeds Golden flaxseed meal Flax is grown for its seeds, which can be ground into a meal or turned into linseed oil, a product used as a nutritional supplement and as an ingredient in many wood-finishing products. Flax is also grown as an ornamental plant in gardens. Moreover, flax fibers are used to make linen. The specific epithet, usitatissimum, means "most useful".[18] Flax fibers taken from the stem of the plant are two to three times as strong as cotton fibers. Additionally, flax fibers are naturally smooth and straight. Europe and North America both depended on flax for plant-based cloth until the 19th century, when cotton overtook flax as the most common plant for making rag-based paper. Flax is grown on the Canadian prairies for linseed oil, which is used as a drying oil in paints and varnishes and in products such as linoleum and printing inks. Linseed meal, the by-product of producing linseed oil from flax seeds, is used as livestock fodder.[19] Flaxseeds[edit] Flaxseeds occur in two basic varieties/colors: brown or yellow (golden linseeds).[20] Most types of these basic varieties have similar nutritional characteristics and equal numbers of short-chain omega-3 fatty acids. An exception is a type of yellow flax called solin (trade name "Linola"),[21] which has a completely different oil profile and is very low in omega-3s (alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), specifically).[22] Flaxseeds produce a vegetable oil known as flaxseed oil or linseed oil, which is one of the oldest commercial oils. It is an edible oil obtained by expeller pressing and sometimes followed by solvent extraction. Solvent-processed flaxseed oil has been used for many centuries as a drying oil in painting and varnishing.[23] Although brown flaxseed varieties may be consumed as readily as the yellow ones, and have been for thousands of years, its better-known uses are in paints, for fiber, and for cattle feed. Culinary[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Flax" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) A 100-gram portion of ground flaxseed supplies about 534 calories (2,230 kJ), 41 g of fat, 28 g of fiber, and 20 g of protein.[24] Whole flaxseeds are chemically stable, but ground flaxseed meal, because of oxidation, may go rancid when left exposed to air at room temperature in as little as one week.[25] Refrigeration and storage in sealed containers will keep ground flaxseed meal for a longer period before it turns rancid. Under conditions similar to those found in commercial bakeries, trained sensory panelists could not detect differences between bread made with freshly ground flaxseed and bread made with flaxseed that had been milled four months earlier and stored at room temperature.[26] If packed immediately without exposure to air and light, milled flaxseed is stable against excessive oxidation when stored for nine months at room temperature,[27] and under warehouse conditions, for 20 months at ambient temperatures. Three phenolic glucosides — secoisolariciresinol diglucoside, p-coumaric acid glucoside, and ferulic acid glucoside — are present in commercial breads containing flaxseed.[28] Fodder[edit] After crushing the seeds to extract linseed oil, the resultant linseed meal is a protein-rich feed for ruminants, rabbits, and fish.[19] It is also often used as feed for swine and poultry, and has also been used in horse concentrate and dog food.[29] The high omega-3 fatty acid (ALA) content of linseed meal "softens" milk, eggs or meat, which means it causes a higher unsaturated fat content and thus lowers its storage time.[19] The high omega-3 content also has a further disadvantage, because this fatty acid oxidises and goes rancid quickly, which shortens the storage time. Linola was developed in Australia and introduced in the 1990s with less omega-3, specifically to serve as fodder.[21][22] Another disadvantage of the meal and seed is that it contains a vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) antagonist, and may require this vitamin be supplemented, especially in chickens, and furthermore linseeds contain 2-7% of mucilage (fibre), which may be beneficial in humans[19] and cattle,[29] but cannot be digested by non-ruminants and can be detrimental to young animals, unless possibly treated with enzymes.[19] Linseed meal is added to cattle feed as a protein supplement. It can only be added at low percentages due to the high fat content, which is unhealthy for ruminants.[29] Compared to oilseed meal from crucifers it measures as having lower nutrient values,[19] however, good results are obtained in cattle, perhaps due to the mucilage, which may aid in slowing digestion and thus allowing more time to absorb nutrients.[19][29] One study found that feeding flax seeds may increase omega-3 content in beef, while another found no differences. It might also act as a substitute to tallow in increasing marbling.[29][30] In the US, flax-based feed for ruminants is often somewhat more expensive than other feeds on a nutrient basis.[31] Sheep feeding on low quality forage are able to eat a large amount of linseed meal, up to 40% in one test, with positive consequences. It has been fed as supplement to water buffaloes in India, and provided a better diet than forage alone, but not as good as when substituted with soy meal. It is considered an inferior protein supplement for swine because of its fibre, the vitamin antagonist, the high omega-3 content and its low lysine content, and can only be used in small amounts in the feed. Although it may increase the omega-3 content in eggs and meat, it is also an inferior and potentially toxic feed for poultry, although it can be used in small amounts. The meal is an adequate and traditional source of protein for rabbits at 8-10%. Its use in fish feeds is limited.[19] Raw, immature linseeds contain an amount of cyanogenic compounds and can be dangerous for monogastric animals such as horses or rabbits. Boiling removes the danger. This is not an issue in meal cake due to the processing temperature during oil extraction.[19][31] Flax straw left over from the harvesting of oilseed is not very nutritious; it is tough and indigestible, and is not recommended to use as ruminant fodder, although it may be used as bedding or baled as windbreaks.[31] Flax fibers[edit] An 18th century heckling shop once used to prepare flax fibers. North Ayrshire, Scotland Flax fiber is extracted from the bast beneath the surface of the stem of the flax plant. Flax fiber is soft, lustrous, and flexible; bundles of fiber have the appearance of blonde hair, hence the description "flaxen" hair. It is stronger than cotton fiber, but less elastic. A flax field in bloom in North Dakota The use of flax fibers dates back tens of thousands of years; linen, a refined textile made from flax fibers, was worn widely by Sumerian priests more than 4,000 years ago.[32] Industrial-scale flax fiber processing existed in antiquity. A Bronze Age factory dedicated to flax processing was discovered in Euonymeia, Greece.[33] The best grades are used for fabrics such as damasks, lace, and sheeting. Coarser grades are used for the manufacturing of twine and rope, and historically, for canvas and webbing equipment. Flax fiber is a raw material used in the high-quality paper industry for the use of printed banknotes, laboratory paper (blotting and filter), rolling paper for cigarettes, and tea bags.[34] Flax mills for spinning flaxen yarn were invented by John Kendrew and Thomas Porthouse of Darlington, England, in 1787.[35] New methods of processing flax have led to renewed interest in the use of flax as an industrial fiber. Nutrition[edit] Flaxseed Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) Energy 2,234 kJ (534 kcal) Carbohydrates 28.88 g Sugars 1.55 g Dietary fiber 27.3 g Fat 42.16 g Saturated 3.663 g Monounsaturated 7.527 g Polyunsaturatedomega‑3 omega‑6 28.730 g22.8 g 5.9 g Protein 18.29 g Vitamins Quantity %DV† Thiamine (B1) 143% 1.644 mg Riboflavin (B2) 13% 0.161 mg Niacin (B3) 21% 3.08 mg Pantothenic acid (B5) 20% 0.985 mg Vitamin B6 36% 0.473 mg Folate (B9) 22% 87 μg Vitamin C 1% 0.6 mg Minerals Quantity %DV† Calcium 26% 255 mg Iron 44% 5.73 mg Magnesium 110% 392 mg Phosphorus 92% 642 mg Potassium 17% 813 mg Zinc 46% 4.34 mg Link to USDA Database entry Units μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams IU = International units †Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA FoodData Central In a 100-gram serving, flaxseed contains high levels (> 19% of the Daily Value, DV) of protein, dietary fiber, several B vitamins, and dietary minerals.[36][37] Ten grams of flaxseed contains one gram of water-soluble fiber (which lowers blood cholesterol) and three grams of insoluble fiber (which helps prevent constipation).[38][39] Flaxseeds are especially rich in thiamine, magnesium, potassium, and phosphorus (DVs above 90%). Flax contains hundreds of times more lignans than other plant foods.[38] As a percentage of total fat, flaxseeds contain 54% omega-3 fatty acids (mostly ALA), 18% omega-9 fatty acids (oleic acid), and 6% omega-6 fatty acids (linoleic acid); the seeds contain 9% saturated fat, including 5% as palmitic acid.[36][37] Flaxseed oil contains 53% 18:3 omega-3 fatty acids (mostly ALA) and 13% 18:2 omega-6 fatty acids. Health effects[edit] One study of research published between 1990 and 2008 showed that consuming flaxseed or its derivatives may reduce total and LDL-cholesterol in the blood, with greater benefits in women and those with high cholesterol.[40] A meta-analysis has shown that consumption of more than 30 g of flaxseed daily for more than 12 weeks reduced body weight, body mass index (BMI), and waist circumference for persons with a BMI greater than 27.[41] Another meta-analysis has shown that consumption of flaxseed for more than 12 weeks produced small reductions in systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure.[42] Flaxseed supplementation showed a small reduction in c-reactive protein (a marker of inflammation) only in persons with a BMI greater than 30.[43] Linseed oil[edit] Main article: Linseed oil Toxicity[edit] Flaxseed and its oil have repeatedly been demonstrated to be nontoxic and are generally recognized as safe for human consumption.[44] Like many common foods, flax contains small amounts of cyanogenic glycoside,[45] which is nontoxic when consumed in typical amounts, but may be toxic when consumed in large quantities as with staple foods such as cassava.[46] Typical concentrations (for example, 0.48% in a sample of defatted dehusked flaxseed meal) can be removed by special processing.[47] Cultivation[edit] The soils most suitable for flax, besides the alluvial kind, are deep loams containing a large proportion of organic matter.[48] Flax is often found growing just above the waterline in cranberry bogs. Heavy clays are unsuitable, as are soils of a gravelly or dry sandy nature. Farming flax requires few fertilizers or pesticides. Within eight weeks of sowing, the plant can reach 10–15 cm (3.9–5.9 in) in height, reaching 70–80 cm (28–31 in) within 50 days. Diseases[edit] Main article: List of flax diseases Production[edit] In 2018, world production of flax (linseed) was 3.2 million tonnes, led by Kazakhstan with 29% of the total.[49] Other major producers were Canada, Russia, and China (table). Flax (linseed) production – 2018 Country Production (tonnes)  Kazakhstan 933,533  Canada 688,784  Russia 557,888  China 365,511 World 3,182,754 Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[49] Harvesting[edit] Maturation[edit] Flax is harvested for fiber production after about 100 days, or a month after the plants flower and two weeks after the seed capsules form. The bases of the plants begin to turn yellow. If the plants are still green, the seed will not be useful, and the fiber will be underdeveloped. The fiber degrades once the plants turn brown. Flax grown for seed is allowed to mature until the seed capsules are yellow and just starting to split; it is then harvested in various ways. A combine harvester may either cut only the heads of the plants, or the whole plant. These are then dried to extract the seed. The amount of weeds in the straw affects its marketability, and this, coupled with market prices, determines whether the farmer chooses to harvest the flax straw. If the flax straw is not harvested, typically, it is burned, since the stalks are quite tough and decompose slowly (i.e., not in a single season). Formed into windrows from the harvesting process, the straw often clogs up tillage and planting equipment. Flax straw that is not of sufficient quality for fiber uses can be baled to build shelters for farm animals, or sold as biofuel, or removed from the field in the spring.[50] Two ways are used to harvest flax fiber, one involving mechanized equipment (combines), and a second method, more manual and targeting maximum fiber length. Harvesting for fiber[edit] Mechanical[edit] Flax for fiber production is usually harvested by a specialized flax harvester. Usually built on the same machine base as a combine, but instead of the cutting head it has a flax puller. The flax plant turned over and is gripped by rubber belts roughly 20–25 cm (8-10") above ground, to avoid getting grasses and weeds in the flax. The rubber belts then pull the whole plant out of the ground with the roots so the whole length of the plant fiber can be used. The plants then pass over the machine and is placed on the field crosswise to the harvesters direction of travel. The plants are left in the field for field retting. The mature plant can also be cut with mowing equipment, similar to hay harvesting, and raked into windrows. When dried sufficiently, a combine then harvests the seeds similar to wheat or oat harvesting. Manual[edit] The plant is pulled up with the roots (not cut), so as to increase the fiber length. After this, the flax is allowed to dry, the seeds are removed, and it is then retted. Dependent upon climatic conditions, characteristics of the sown flax and fields, the flax remains on the ground between two weeks and two months for retting. As a result of alternating rain and the sun, an enzymatic action degrades the pectins which bind fibers to the straw. The farmers turn over the straw during retting to evenly rett the stalks. When the straw is retted and sufficiently dry, it is rolled up. It is then stored by farmers before extracting the fibers. De vlasoogst (1904) ("The flax harvest") painting by Emile Claus, Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium, Brussels, Belgium Processing[edit] A hackle or heckle, a tool for threshing flax and preparing the fiber Flax tissues, Tacuinum sanitatis, 14th century Threshing is the process of removing the seeds from the rest of the plant. Separating the usable flax fibers from other components requires pulling the stems through a hackle and/or beating the plants to break them. Flax processing is divided into two parts: the first part is generally done by the farmer, to bring the flax fiber into a fit state for general or common purposes. This can be performed by three machines: one for threshing out the seed, one for breaking and separating the straw (stem) from the fiber, and one for further separating the broken straw and matter from the fiber. The second part of the process brings the flax into a state for the very finest purposes, such as lace, cambric, damask, and very fine linen. This second part is performed by a refining machine. Preparation for spinning[edit] Stem cross-section, showing locations of underlying tissues: Ep = epidermis; C = cortex; BF = bast fibers; P = phloem; X = xylem; Pi = pith Play media Threshing, retting, and dressing flax at the Roscheider Hof Open Air Museum (Germany) Before the flax fibers can be spun into linen, they must be separated from the rest of the stalk. The first step in this process is retting, which is the process of rotting away the inner stalk, leaving the outer parts intact. At this point, straw, or coarse outer stem (cortex and epidermis), is still remaining. To remove this, the flax is "broken", the straw is broken up into small, short bits, while the actual fiber is left unharmed. Scutching scrapes the outer straw from the fiber. The stems are then pulled through "hackles", which act like combs to remove the straw and some shorter fibers out of the long fiber. Retting flax[edit] Several methods are used for retting flax. It can be retted in a pond, stream, field, or tank. When the retting is complete, the bundles of flax feel soft and slimy, and quite a few fibers are standing out from the stalks. When wrapped around a finger, the inner woody part springs away from the fibers. Pond retting is the fastest. It consists of placing the flax in a pool of water which will not evaporate. It generally takes place in a shallow pool which will warm up dramatically in the sun; the process may take from a few days to a few weeks. Pond-retted flax is traditionally considered of lower quality, possibly because the product can become dirty, and is easily over-retted, damaging the fiber. This form of retting also produces quite an odor. Stream retting is similar to pool retting, but the flax is submerged in bundles in a stream or river. This generally takes two or three weeks longer than pond retting, but the end product is less likely to be dirty, does not smell as bad, and because the water is cooler, is less likely to be over-retted. Both pond and stream retting were traditionally used less because they pollute the waters used for the process. In field retting, the flax is laid out in a large field, and dew is allowed to collect on it. This process normally takes a month or more, but is generally considered to provide the highest quality flax fibers, and it produces the least pollution.[51] Retting can also be done in a plastic trash can or any type of water-tight container of wood, concrete, earthenware, or plastic. Metal containers will not work, as an acid is produced when retting, and it would corrode the metal. If the water temperature is kept at 80 °F (27 °C), the retting process under these conditions takes 4 or 5 days. If the water is any colder, it takes longer. Scum collects at the top, and an odor is given off the same as in pond retting. 'Enzymatic' retting of flax has been researched as a technique to engineer fibers with specific properties.[52][53] Dressing the flax[edit] Breaking flax Scutching flax Heckling flax Flax fiber in different forms, before and after processing Dressing the flax is the process of removing the straw from the fibers. Dressing consists of three steps: breaking, scutching, and heckling. The breaking breaks up the straw. Some of the straw is scraped from the fibers in the scutching process, and finally, the fiber is pulled through heckles to remove the last bits of straw. Breaking breaks up the straw into short segments. Scutching removes some of the straw from the fiber. Heckling is pulling the fiber through various sizes of heckling combs or heckles. A heckle is a bed of "nails"—sharp, long-tapered, tempered, polished steel pins driven into wooden blocks at regular spacing. Genetically modified flax contamination[edit] Small flax plants In September 2009, Canadian flax exports reportedly had been contaminated by a deregistered genetically modified cultivar called 'Triffid' that had food and feed safety approval in Canada and the U.S.,[54][55] however, Canadian growers and the Flax Council of Canada raised concerns about the marketability of this cultivar in Europe where a zero tolerance policy exists regarding unapproved genetically modified organisms.[56] Subsequently, deregistered in 2010 and never grown commercially in Canada or the U.S.,[57] 'Triffid' stores were destroyed, but future exports and further tests at the University of Saskatchewan proved that 'Triffid' persisted among flax crops, possibly affecting future crops.[57] Canadian flaxseed cultivars were reconstituted with 'Triffid'-free seed used to plant the 2014 crop.[54] Laboratories are certified to test for the presence of 'Triffid' at a level of one seed in 10,000.[55] Symbolic images[edit] Flax is the emblem of Northern Ireland and displayed by the Northern Ireland Assembly. In a coronet, it appeared on the reverse of the British one-pound coin to represent Northern Ireland on coins minted in 1986, 1991, and 2014. Flax also represents Northern Ireland on the badge of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom and on various logos associated with it. Common flax is the national flower of Belarus. In early versions of the Sleeping Beauty tale, such as "Sun, Moon, and Talia" by Giambattista Basile, the princess pricks her finger, not on a spindle, but on a sliver of flax, which later is sucked out by her children conceived as she sleeps. See also[edit] Flax in New Zealand International Year of Natural Fibres – United Nations observance of 2009 Irish linen Belgian Linen – Trademark Linen clothes Nutrition – Provision to cells and organisms to support life Salvia hispanica – Species of flowering plant in the mint and sage family Lamiaceae Thomas Ferguson & Co Ltd Shatnez Hemp seed References[edit] ^ "The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species". 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Look up flax or flaxen in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. v t e Fibers Natural Plant Abacá Bagasse Bamboo Coir Cotton Fique Flax Linen Hemp Jute Kapok Kenaf Lotus silk Piña Pine Raffia Ramie Rattan Sisal Wood Animal Alpaca Angora Byssus Camel hair Cashmere Catgut Chiengora Guanaco Hair Llama Mohair Pashmina Qiviut Rabbit Silk Tendon Spider silk Wool Vicuña Yak Mineral Asbestos Synthetic Regenerated Art silk Milk fiber Semi-synthetic Acetate Diacetate Lyocell Modal Rayon Triacetate Mineral Glass Carbon Basalt Metallic Polymer Acrylic Aramid Twaron Kevlar Technora Nomex Microfiber Modacrylic Nylon Olefin Polyester Polyethylene UHMWPE Spandex Vectran Vinylon Vinyon Zylon Category Commons Taxon identifiers Wikidata: Q45108 Wikispecies: Linum usitatissimum AoFP: 1389 APA: 2562 APDB: 11102 APNI: 54945 BioLib: 3544 Calflora: 4912 Ecocrop: 7336 EoL: 581568 EPPO: LIUUT EUNIS: 175866 FloraBase: 4364 FNA: 200012411 FoC: 200012411 FoIO: LINUSI GBIF: 2873861 GRIN: 22361 iNaturalist: 51306 IPNI: 544772-1 IRMNG: 10195101 ISC: 115317 ITIS: 29226 MichiganFlora: 1636 NBN: NBNSYS0000003143 NCBI: 4006 NSWFlora: Linum~usitatissimum NZOR: efd6de2d-bb72-46ac-911a-4e91ca10d0f5 NZPCN: 3423 Plant List: kew-2353429 PLANTS: LIUS POWO: urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:544772-1 Tropicos: 18700031 VASCAN: 6560 VicFlora: 4eeaecb5-1d6a-43ef-8742-f07718ac8f35 WisFlora: 4086 WoI: 1276 WFO: wfo-0000366385 Authority control GND: 4154515-1 NARA: 10638652 NDL: 00560155 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flax&oldid=998662131" Categories: Flax Linum Fiber plants Crops originating from Asia Flora of Western Asia Crops Biodegradable materials Demulcents Painting materials Plants described in 1753 Hidden categories: CS1 maint: archived copy as title Webarchive template wayback links CS1 maint: uses authors parameter Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles with 'species' microformats Articles needing additional references from May 2020 All articles needing additional references Commons category link is on Wikidata Taxonbars with 35–39 taxon IDs Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with NARA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Articles containing video clips Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikispecies Languages Afrikaans አማርኛ العربية Avañe'ẽ Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Български Bosanski Català Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deitsch Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego ગુજરાતી 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית ಕನ್ನಡ Kaszëbsczi Коми Kurdî Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Limburgs Livvinkarjala Magyar Македонски മലയാളം मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Монгол Nāhuatl Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русский Scots Seeltersk Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Soomaaliga Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taqbaylit తెలుగు ᏣᎳᎩ Türkçe Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt West-Vlams Winaray 吴语 粵語 Žemaitėška 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 January 2021, at 12:47 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8613	----	2014 in film - Wikipedia 2014 in film From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Overview of the events of 2014 in film Overview of the events of 2014 in film List of years in film (table) … 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 … In home video 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 In television 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Art Archaeology Architecture Literature Music Philosophy Science +... Years in film 1870s 1880s 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890s 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900s 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910s 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920s 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930s 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940s 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950s 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960s 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970s 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980s 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990s 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000s 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010s 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020s 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 v t e The following is an overview of the events of 2014 in film, including the highest-grossing films, award ceremonies, festivals, and a list of films released and notable deaths. Contents 1 Evaluation of the year 2 Highest-grossing films 3 Events 3.1 Award ceremonies 3.2 Festivals 4 Awards 5 2014 films 6 Film debuts 7 Notable deaths 8 References Evaluation of the year[edit] In his article highlighting the best films of 2014, Richard Brody of The New Yorker stated, "The great surge in American filmmaking in the past ten years is due to independent financing at all levels. The American independent cinema is right now the flower of the world, but independence isn't in itself a merit badge. Artistically, the films in question range from the majestic to the meretricious. Independent financing has set truly imaginative directors into free flight. This is a moment of extraordinary cinematic invention—of filmmakers, working at a wide range of budget levels, coming up with original and personal ideas about movies and how to make them. On the other hand, this independent surge has also created a new class of culturally respectable directors and films, an ostensible art cinema that flows into the mainstream. True independent filmmaking has always been a tough proposition in the marketplace, let alone at the multiplex. Its commercial obstacles are an increasing problem even for established professionals, who now take their place alongside street-level independents. Filmmakers rightly worry that it's becoming more difficult than ever to make a salable movie, to make a living making movies. If films are becoming like books, where the artistically ambitious ones are only rarely big hits, then directors working outside Hollywood will become more and more like novelists, who often need to supplement their income with teaching or other outside jobs. As independent films become increasingly marginalized in the marketplace, this loss of status risks marginalizing critics as well—which is why the re-professionalization of the movie business has become a matter of critical advocacy."[1] Highest-grossing films[edit] See also: Lists of box office number-one films § 2014 The top 10 films released in 2014 by worldwide gross are as follows:[2] Highest-grossing films of 2014 Rank Title Distributor Worldwide gross 1 Transformers: Age of Extinction Paramount $1,104,054,072 2 The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies Warner Bros. / MGM $956,019,788 3 Guardians of the Galaxy Disney $772,776,700 4 Maleficent $758,410,378 5 The Hunger Games: Mockingjay – Part 1 Lionsgate $755,356,711 6 X-Men: Days of Future Past Fox $746,045,700 7 Captain America: The Winter Soldier Disney $714,241,503 8 Dawn of the Planet of the Apes Fox $710,644,566 9 The Amazing Spider-Man 2 Sony Pictures / Columbia $708,982,323 10 Interstellar Paramount / Warner Bros. $677,463,813 Transformers: Age of Extinction grossed more than $1.1 billion, becoming the 10th highest-grossing film of all time. Events[edit] Award ceremonies[edit] Date Event Host Location Source January 10 3rd AACTA International Awards Australian Academy of Cinema and Television Arts West Hollywood, California [3] January 12 71st Golden Globe Awards Hollywood Foreign Press Association Beverly Hills, California [4] January 16 19th Critics' Choice Awards Broadcast Film Critics Association Santa Monica, California [5] January 18 20th Screen Actors Guild Awards Screen Actors Guild‐American Federation of Television and Radio Artists Los Angeles, California [6] January 19 Producers Guild of America Awards 2013 Producers Guild of America Beverly Hills, California [7] January 20 49th Guldbagge Awards Swedish Film Institute Stockholm, Sweden [8] January 25 66th Directors Guild of America Awards Directors Guild of America Los Angeles, California [9] February 1 4th Magritte Awards Académie André Delvaux Brussels, Belgium [10] Writers Guild of America Awards 2013 Writers Guild of America Los Angeles, California [11] February 15 64th Golden Bear Awards Berlin International Film Festival Berlin, Germany [12] February 16 67th British Academy Film Awards British Academy of Film and Television Arts London, England [13] February 23 18th Satellite Awards International Press Academy Century City, California [14] February 26 39th César Awards Academy of Cinema Arts and Techniques Paris, France [15] March 1 29th Independent Spirit Awards Independent Spirit Awards Santa Monica, California [16] 34th Golden Raspberry Awards The Golden Raspberry Award Foundation Los Angeles, California [17] March 2 86th Academy Awards Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences Los Angeles, California [18] March 24 8th Gopo Awards Association for Romanian Film Promotion Bucharest, Romania [19] March 30 19th Empire Awards Empire London, England [20] April 5 11th Irish Film & Television Awards Irish Film and Television Academy Dublin, Leinster, Republic of Ireland [21] April 13 2014 MTV Movie Awards MTV Los Angeles, California [22] April 19 44th Kerala State Film Awards Kerala State Chalachitra Academy Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India [23] April 26 15th IIFA Awards International Indian Film Academy Awards Tampa Bay, Florida [24] May 3 61st National Film Awards Directorate of Film Festivals India [25] June 26 40th Saturn Awards Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Films Burbank, California [26] July 13 2014 FAMAS Awards Filipino Academy of Movie Arts and Sciences Awards Parañaque, Philippines [27] December 13 27th European Film Awards European Film Academy Riga, Latvia [28] Festivals[edit] Date Event Host Location Source January 16–26 2014 Sundance Film Festival Sundance Institute Park City, Utah [29] February 6–16 64th Berlin International Film Festival Berlin International Film Festival Berlin, Germany [30] May 14–25 2014 Cannes Film Festival Cannes Film Festival Cannes, France [31] August 15–23 2014 Sarajevo Film Festival Sarajevo Film Festival Sarajevo, Bosnia [32] August 27 – September 6 71st Venice International Film Festival Venice Biennale Venice, Italy [33] September 4–14 2014 Toronto International Film Festival Toronto International Film Festival Toronto, Ontario [34] November 14–30 18th Tallinn Black Nights Film Festival Tallinn Black Nights Film Festival Tallinn, Estonia [35] December 25 – January 8, 2015 2014 Metro Manila Film Festival Metro Manila Film Festival Metro Manila, Philippines Awards[edit] Category/Organization 72nd Golden Globe Awards January 11, 2015 20th Critics' Choice Awards January 15, 2015 Producers, Directors, Screen Actors, and Writers Guild Awards 68th BAFTA Awards February 8, 2015 87th Academy Awards February 22, 2015 Drama Musical or Comedy Best Film Boyhood The Grand Budapest Hotel Boyhood Birdman Boyhood Birdman Best Director Richard Linklater Boyhood Alejandro G. Iñárritu Birdman Richard Linklater Boyhood Alejandro G. Iñárritu Birdman Best Actor Eddie Redmayne The Theory of Everything Michael Keaton Birdman Eddie Redmayne The Theory of Everything Best Actress Julianne Moore Still Alice Amy Adams Big Eyes Julianne Moore Still Alice Best Supporting Actor J. K. Simmons Whiplash Best Supporting Actress Patricia Arquette Boyhood Best Screenplay, Adapted Alejandro G. Iñárritu Nicolás Giacobone, Alexander Dinelaris Jr., and Armando Bo Birdman Gillian Flynn Gone Girl Graham Moore The Imitation Game Anthony McCarten The Theory of Everything Graham Moore The Imitation Game Best Screenplay, Original Alejandro G. Iñárritu and Armando Bo Birdman Wes Anderson The Grand Budapest Hotel Alejandro G. Iñárritu, Nicolás Giacobone, Alexander Dinelaris Jr., and Armando Bo Birdman Best Animated Film How to Train Your Dragon 2 The Lego Movie Big Hero 6 Best Original Score The Theory of Everything Jóhann Jóhannsson Birdman Antonio Sánchez N/A The Grand Budapest Hotel Alexandre Desplat Best Original Song "Glory" Selma N/A N/A "Glory" Selma Best Foreign Language Film Leviathan Force Majeure N/A Ida Best Documentary N/A N/A Life Itself Citizenfour 2014 films[edit] The list of films released in 2014, arranged by country, are as follows: American films Argentine films Australian films Bengali films Bollywood films Brazilian films British films French films Hong Kong films Italian films Japanese films Mexican films Pakistani films Russian films South Korean films Spanish films Tamil films Telugu films Film debuts[edit] Amiah Miller - Clementine Notable deaths[edit] Month Date Name Age Nationality Profession Notable films January 1 Billy McColl 62 Scottish-English Actor Death Defying Acts Soft Top Hard Shoulder 1 Juanita Moore 99 American Actress Imitation of Life The Singing Nun 2 Bernard Glasser 89 American Director, Producer Return of the Fly The Day of the Triffids 3 Alicia Rhett 98 American Actress Gone With the Wind 3 Saul Zaentz 92 American Producer One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest Amadeus The English Patient The Lord of the Rings 5 Tom Quinn 79 American Actor Super 8 Major League II 5 Carmen Zapata 86 American Actress Sister Act Point of No Return 6 Larry D. Mann 91 Canadian-American Actor The Singing Nun The Sting 11 Jophery Brown 68 American Actor, Stuntman Spider-Man Jurassic Park 11 Arnoldo Foà 97 Italian Actor The Shoes of the Fisherman The Trial 11 Jerome Willis 85 English Actor Perfume: The Story of a Murderer Khartoum 12 Alexandra Bastedo 67 English Actress Batman Begins Casino Royale 12 John Horsley 93 English Actor Ben-Hur Where the Bullets Fly 12 Frank Marth 91 American Actor Breakfast at Tiffany's Telefon 14 Dick Shepherd 86 American Producer Breakfast at Tiffany's The Towering Inferno 15 Roger Lloyd-Pack 69 English Actor Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy 15 Stanford Tischler 92 American Editor, Producer The Bigamist The Proud and the Damned 16 Harvey Bernhard 89 American Screenwriter, Producer The Omen The Goonies 16 Ruth Duccini 95 American Actress The Wizard of Oz Under the Rainbow 16 Russell Johnson 89 American Actor MacArthur This Island Earth 16 Dave Madden 82 Canadian-American Actor Charlotte's Web Eat My Dust! 16 Hal Sutherland 84 American Animator, Director Sleeping Beauty Journey Back to Oz 18 Sarah Marshall 80 English-American Actress Dangerous Minds Dave 19 Gordon Hessler 88 German-English Director, Producer The Oblong Box The Girl in a Swing 19 Michael Sporn 67 American Animator Raggedy Ann & Andy: A Musical Adventure Everybody Rides the Carousel 19 Ben Starr 92 American Screenwriter Our Man Flint Texas Across the River 20 James Jacks 66 American Producer The Mummy Dazed and Confused Tombstone Mallrats Michael 22 Luis Ávalos 67 Cuban-American Actor Jungle 2 Jungle The Ringer Hollywood Homicide 22 Martin S. Bergmann 100 American Actor Crimes and Misdemeanors Schindler's List 22 Pierre Jalbert 89 Canadian-American Actor, Editor The Concorde ... Airport '79 Good-bye, Cruel World 22 Carlo Mazzacurati 57 Italian Director, Screenwriter Italian Night The Right Distance 23 Riz Ortolani 87 Italian Composer, Conductor The Yellow Rolls-Royce Day of Anger 24 Lisa Daniely 84 English Actress Lilli Marlene The Man in the Road 26 Margery Mason 100 English Actress The Princess Bride Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire Pink Floyd – The Wall Love Actually 101 Dalmatians 27 Ann Carter 77 American Actress The Two Mrs. Carrolls The Curse of the Cat People 28 John Cacavas 83 American Composer Airport 1975 The Satanic Rites of Dracula 29 Aïché Nana 77 Lebanese-Italian Actress A Touch of the Sun King David 30 Campbell Lane 78 Canadian Actor Scary Movie 4 Look Who's Talking Now 30 William Motzing 76 American Composer, Conductor Cappuccino A Case of Honor 30 Arthur Rankin Jr. 89 American Director, Producer King Kong Escapes The King and I 31 Miklós Jancsó 92 Hungarian Director, Screenwriter Hungarian Rhapsody Private Vices, Public Pleasures 31 Christopher Jones 72 American Actor Ryan's daughter Wild in the Streets February 1 Maximilian Schell 83 Austrian-Swiss Actor Judgment at Nuremberg Deep Impact 2 Philip Seymour Hoffman 46 American Actor, Director Capote Doubt Magnolia Synecdoche, New York Twister 2 Craig Lahiff 66 Australian Director, Producer Black and White Heaven's Burning 3 Richard Bull 89 American Actor Executive Action Sugar 3 Louan Gideon 58 American Actress Suburban Commando Airborne 9 Gabriel Axel 95 Danish Director, Screenwriter Babette's Feast Crazy Paradise 9 Eric Bercovici 80 American Screenwriter, Producer Take a Hard Ride Hell in the Pacific 10 Ronnie Masterson 87 Irish Actress Angela's Ashes Byzantium 10 Shirley Temple 85 American Actress, Singer Heidi The Little Princess 12 Sid Caesar 91 American Actor Grease It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World 13 Ken Jones 83 English Actor Porridge Jude 13 Ralph Waite 85 American Actor The Bodyguard Homeward Bound II: Lost in San Francisco 14 Remo Capitani 86 Italian Actor The Grand Duel Ace High 14 James Condon 90 Australian Actor The Stowaway Backstage 14 Robert M. Fresco 83 American Screenwriter The Monolith Monsters The Alligator People 14 Bob L. Harris 91 American Actor Appaloosa Pollock 14 John Henson 48 American Actor, Puppeteer Muppet Treasure Island Muppets from Space The Muppet Christmas Carol 15 Mary Grace Canfield 89 American Actress Pollyanna Come Blow Your Horn 15 Christopher Malcolm 67 Scottish Actor The Empire Strikes Back Superman III 16 Jimmy T. Murakami 80 American Animator, Director When the Wind Blows Battle Beyond the Stars 18 Malcolm Tierney 75 English Actor Star Wars Braveheart 20 Roger Hill 65 American Actor The Warriors The Education of Sonny Carson 24 Harold Ramis 69 American Actor, Director, Producer, Screenwriter Ghostbusters National Lampoon's Vacation Groundhog Day Analyze This Caddyshack 25 Jim Lange 81 American Actor Hustle Shoot the Moon 28 Tex Hill 70 American Actor, Stuntman Bandolero! The Alamo March 1 Alain Resnais 91 French Director, Screenwriter Providence Pictura: An Adventure in Art 2 Gail Gilmore 76 Canadian-American Actress, Dancer Girl Happy Harum Scarum 2 Stanley Rubin 96 American Producer, Screenwriter Revenge Destry 3 Curtis McClarin 44 American Actor The Happening Private Parts 5 Geoff Edwards 83 American Actor The Comic WUSA 5 Scott Kalvert 49 American Director The Basketball Diaries Deuces Wild 6 Sheila MacRae 93 English-American Actress Caged Backfire 7 Hal Douglas 89 American Actor The Holiday Waterworld 8 James Ellis 82 Irish-English Actor Where the Bullets Fly Conspiracy of Silence 8 Wendy Hughes 61 Australian Actress, Producer Paradise Road My Brilliant Career 10 Patricia Laffan 94 English Actress Quo Vadis Devil Girl from Mars 12 Richard Coogan 99 American Actor The Revolt of Mamie Stover Vice Raid 12 Med Flory 87 American Actor The Nutty Professor The Trouble with Girls 13 Abby Singer 96 American Production Manager Out of Sight Thunderbolt and Lightfoot 17 Oswald Morris 98 English Cinematographer Fiddler on the Roof The Wiz 18 Joe Lala 66 American Actor Monsters, Inc. Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band 21 James Rebhorn 65 American Actor Scent of a Woman Independence Day Far from Heaven Meet the Parents 22 Patrice Wymore 87 American Actress, Singer Ocean's 11 Tea for Two 25 Eddie Lawrence 95 American Actor The Night They Raided Minsky's The Wild Party 26 George Bookasta 96 American Actor Rosita That Night in Rio 27 Derek Martinus 82 English Actor, Director Carry On Sergeant 28 Lorenzo Semple Jr. 91 American Screenwriter Batman King Kong 29 Marc Platt 100 American Actor, Singer, Dancer Oklahoma! Down to Earth 30 Kate O'Mara 74 English Actress The Vampire Lovers The Horror of Frankenstein 31 David Hannay 75 Australian Producer The Man from Hong Kong Stone April 2 Richard Brick 68 American Producer, Production Manager Sweet and Lowdown Celebrity 2 Everett De Roche 67 American-Australian Screenwriter, Actor Patrick Long Weekend 3 Paul Salamunovich 86 American Conductor The Godfather XXX 5 John Pinette 50 American Actor The Punisher Junior 6 Mary Anderson 96 American Actress Gone with the Wind Lifeboat 6 Mickey Rooney 93 American Actor, Singer, Producer The Black Stallion Andy Hardy Night at the Museum The Fox and the Hound The Care Bears Movie 7 Perlita Neilson 80 English Actress The Story of Gilbert and Sullivan Trouble in Store 9 Gil Askey 89 American-Australian Composer Lady Sings the Blues Mahogany 10 Phyllis Frelich 70 American Actress Children on Their Birthdays Sweet Nothing in My Ear 11 Edna Doré 92 English Actress Les Misérables Another Year 11 Darrell Zwerling 85 American Actor Chinatown Grease Joe Versus the Volcano Capricorn One 14 Ingeborg von Kusserow 95 German-English Actress Captain Horatio Hornblower R.N. Across the Bridge 17 Anthony Marriott 83 English Screenwriter No Sex Please, We're British The Deadly Bees 21 Craig Hill 88 American-Spanish Actor Cheaper by the Dozen All About Eve 26 Antonio Pica 81 Spanish Actor Travels with My Aunt A Fistful of Dollars 29 Bob Hoskins 71 English Actor, Director Who Framed Roger Rabbit Mona Lisa Hook Enemy at the Gates Snow White and the Huntsman 30 Judi Meredith 77 American Actress Jack the Giant Killer Dark Intruder May 1 Assi Dayan 68 Israeli Actor A Walk with Love and Death Promise at Dawn 1 Howard Smith 77 American Actor, Director, Producer Dawn of the Dead Marjoe 1 Eli Woods 91 English Actor A Private Function Little Dorrit 2 Pauline Wagner 103 American Actress King of Jazz College Lovers 2 Efrem Zimbalist, Jr. 95 American Actor, Voice Actor Batman: Mask of the Phantasm Airport 1975 3 Leslie Carlson 81 American-Canadian Actor A Christmas Story Deranged 5 Jackie Lynn Taylor 87 American Actress Our Gang Babes in Toyland 6 Virginia Belmont 92 American Actress Dangers of the Canadian Mounted Johnny Angel 6 Antony Hopkins 93 English Composer, Conductor The Huggetts Billy Budd 6 William Olvis 56 American Composer Steal Big Steal Little Red Rock West 7 Tony Genaro 72 American Actor Tremors The Mask of Zorro 8 Beverly Long 81 American Actress Rebel Without a Cause Super Capers 8 Nancy Malone 79 American Actress The Man Who Loved Cat Dancing Capricorn One 11 Barbara Knudson 86 American Actress Meet Danny Wilson The Cry Baby Killer 12 Cornell Borchers 89 Lithuanian-German Actress The Big Lift Never Say Goodbye 12 H. R. Giger 74 Swiss Visual Effects Alien Prometheus 12 Ralph Peduto 72 American Actor Mrs. Doubtfire Patch Adams 13 Malik Bendjelloul 36 Swedish Documentarian Searching for Sugar Man 18 Jerry Vale 83 American Singer Goodfellas Casino 18 Gordon Willis 82 American Cinematographer The Godfather Annie Hall 19 Peter Curtin 70 Australian Actor Darkness Falls Anacondas: The Hunt for the Blood Orchid 20 Barbara Murray 84 English Actress Passport to Pimlico Operation Bullshine 21 Poni Adams 95 American Actress House of Dracula Batman and Robin 22 Matthew Cowles 69 American Actor Slap Shot The Juror 23 Mona Freeman 87 American Actress Black Beauty Jumping Jacks 23 Michael Gottlieb 69 American Director, Screenwriter Mannequin Mr. Nanny 25 Lee Chamberlin 76 American Actress Uptown Saturday Night Let's Do It Again 25 Herb Jeffries 100 American Actor, Singer The Bronze Buckaroo Harlem on the Prairie 25 Bunny Yeager 85 American Actress Harry & Son Lady in Cement 26 Anna Berger 91 American Actress Crimes and Misdemeanors You Don't Mess with the Zohan 28 Maya Angelou 86 American Actress Madea's Family Reunion Poetic Justice 29 Karlheinz Böhm 86 German-Austrian Actor The Wonderful World of the Brothers Grimm Peeping Tom 30 Joan Lorring 88 Hong Kong-American Actress The Corn Is Green Three Strangers 31 Martha Hyer 89 American Actress Some Came Running Sabrina June 1 Ann B. Davis 88 American Actress The Brady Bunch Movie Naked Gun 33⅓: The Final Insult 1 Joseph Olita 70 Kenyan Actor Mississippi Masala Sheena 4 Neal Arden 104 English Actor "Pimpernel" Smith The Third Secret 4 Cliff Severn 88 English-American Actor A Christmas Carol How Green Was My Valley 7 Jacques Herlin 86 French Actor National Lampoon's European Vacation The Messenger: The Story of Joan of Arc 8 Veronica Lazăr 75 Romanian-Italian Actress The Sheltering Sky La Luna 9 Rik Mayall 56 English Actor An American Werewolf in London Valiant 11 Ruby Dee 91 American Actress American Gangster Do the Right Thing A Raisin in the Sun Just Cause Baby Geniuses 11 Gilles Ségal 82 Romanian-French Actor Topkapi The Madwoman of Chaillot 12 Carla Laemmle 104 American Actress The Phantom of the Opera Dracula 12 Jimmy Scott 88 American Actor, Singer Be Kind Rewind Chelsea Walls 14 Isabelle Collin Dufresne 78 French-American Actress Midnight Cowboy An Unmarried Woman 14 Sam Kelly 70 English Actor Nanny McPhee and the Big Bang Carry On Dick 14 Francis Matthews 86 English Actor Dracula: Prince of Darkness The Revenge of Frankenstein 14 Terry Richards 81 English Actor, Stuntman Indiana Jones James Bond 15 Jacques Bergerac 87 French Actor Gigi Les Girls 15 Casey Kasem 82 American Actor Ghostbusters Looney Tunes: Back in Action 17 Patsy Byrne 80 English Actress Les Misérables Kevin & Perry Go Large 17 Barry Moss 74 American Casting Director Friday the 13th Big Daddy 17 Jeffry Wickham 80 English Actor The Remains of the Day Before Winter Comes 18 James Nelson 81 American Sound Editor The Exorcist Beach Party 22 Steve Rossi 82 American Actor The Last of the Secret Agents? The Mexican 24 Eli Wallach 98 American Actor, Producer The Good, the Bad and the Ugly The Godfather Part III Wall Street: Money Never Sleeps The Holiday The Two Jakes 26 Wolf Koenig 86 German-Canadian Director, Producer Lonely Boy City of Gold 26 Mary Rodgers 83 American Screenwriter Freaky Friday The Devil and Max Devlin 27 Bobby Womack 70 American Actor, Composer Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band Across 110th Street 28 Meshach Taylor 67 American Actor Mannequin Damien: Omen II 29 Dermot Healy 66 Irish Actor The Butcher Boy The Guard 30 Bob Hastings 89 American Actor McHale's Navy The Poseidon Adventure 30 Paul Mazursky 84 American Actor, Director, Screenwriter An Unmarried Woman Bob & Carol & Ted & Alice July 4 Paul Apted 47 English-American Sound Editor Alice in Wonderland The Chronicles of Narnia: The Voyage of the Dawn Treader The Book Thief The Wolverine The Fault in Our Stars 5 Noel Black 77 American Director, Producer Private School Mischief 5 Rosemary Murphy 89 German-American Actress, Singer To Kill a Mockingbird Ben Synecdoche, New York Julia Mighty Aphrodite 6 Dave Bickers 76 English Stuntman Octopussy Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade 6 Dave Legeno 50 English Actor Harry Potter Batman Begins Snatch Elizabeth: The Golden Age 7 Dick Jones 87 American Actor, Singer Pinocchio Nancy Drew... Reporter 9 Ken Thorne 90 English-American Composer Superman II A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum 10 Zohra Sehgal 102 Indian Actress, Dancer Bend It Like Beckham The Mistress of Spices 11 Ray Lonnen 74 English Actor Zeppelin Ginger & Rosa 14 Tom Rolf 82 Swedish-American Film Editor Taxi Driver The Right Stuff Heat Equilibrium The Pelican Brief 16 Hans Funck 61 German Film Editor The Invasion Diana 17 Elaine Stritch 89 American Actress September ParaNorman 17 John Walton 62 Australian Actor Spotswood The Lighthorsemen 18 Dietmar Schönherr 88 Austrian-Spanish Actor The Longest Day Coast of Skeletons 19 John Fasano 52 American Screenwriter, Producer Another 48 Hrs. Darkness Falls 19 James Garner 86 American Actor The Notebook Murphy's Romance Maverick Space Cowboys Victor/Victoria Atlantis: The Lost Empire The Land Before Time X: The Great Longneck Migration 19 Skye McCole Bartusiak 21 American Actress The Patriot The Cider House Rules Boogeyman Riding in Cars with Boys Don't Say a Word 19 Peter Marquardt 50 American Actor Spy Kids 3-D: Game Over Desperado 23 Dora Bryan 91 English Actress Carry On Sergeant A Taste of Honey 24 Walt Martin 69 American Sound Mixer American Sniper Flags of Our Fathers Jersey Boys Million Dollar Baby Blood Work 28 James Shigeta 85 American Actor, Singer Die Hard Flower Drum Song Mulan Walk Like a Dragon The Crimson Kimono 30 Dennis Lipscomb 72 American Actor WarGames Under Siege 30 Dick Smith 92 American Make-up Artist Amadeus The Godfather 31 Kenny Ireland 68 Scottish Actor Local Hero The Dogs of War August 4 Walter Massey 85 Canadian Actor The Greatest Game Ever Played Mrs. Parker and the Vicious Circle 5 Marilyn Burns 65 American Actress The Texas Chainsaw Massacre Eaten Alive 8 Menahem Golan 85 Israeli Director, Producer, Screenwriter The Delta Force Superman IV: The Quest for Peace 8 Charles Keating 72 English-American Actor The Bodyguard Deuce Bigalow: European Gigolo 8 Danny Murphy 58 American Actor There's Something About Mary Me, Myself & Irene 8 J. J. Murphy 85 Irish Actor Angela's Ashes Dracula Untold 8 Peter Sculthorpe 85 Australian Composer Manganinnie Age of Consent 9 J. E. Freeman 68 American Actor Wild at Heart Miller's Crossing Alien Resurrection 9 Ed Nelson 85 American Actor Devil's Partner Soldier in the Rain 11 Joe Viskocil 61 American Visual Effects Star Wars Independence Day Terminator 2: Judgment Day Apollo 13 Source Code 11 Robin Williams 63 American Actor, Producer, Comedian Good Will Hunting Mrs. Doubtfire Aladdin Dead Poets Society Awakenings Night at the Museum Happy Feet 12 Lauren Bacall 89 American Actress The Mirror Has Two Faces To Have and Have Not Misery Key Largo The Shootist 12 Arlene Martel 78 American Actress, Singer A Walk to Remember Dracula's Dog 14 Stephen Lee 58 American Actor La Bamba Burlesque 18 Don Pardo 96 American Actor Honeymoon in Vegas Radio Days 18 Tom Pevsner 87 German-English Producer, Production Manager James Bond Dracula 19 Brian G. Hutton 79 American Actor, Director King Creole Last Train from Gun Hill 24 Richard Attenborough 90 English Actor, Director, Producer Jurassic Park Gandhi The Great Escape Miracle on 34th Street Chaplin 25 John Brandon 85 American Actor Scarface The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle 25 William Greaves 87 American Actor, Director, Producer Symbiopsychotaxiplasm Lost Boundaries 28 Bill Kerr 92 South African-Australian Actor Doctor series Peter Pan 30 Andrew V. McLaglen 94 English-American Director, Producer Fools' Parade McLintock! September 1 Gottfried John 72 German Actor GoldenEye Proof of Life 4 Joan Rivers 81 American Actress, Director, Voice Actress Spaceballs Rabbit Test 5 Karel Černý 92 Czech Art Director and Production Designer Amadeus The Wolves of Willoughby Chase 6 Stefan Gierasch 88 American Actor Carrie High Plains Drifter 7 Don Keefer 98 American Actor Liar Liar Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid 7 Yoshiko Ōtaka 94 Chinese-Japanese Actress, Singer Japanese War Bride House of Bamboo 8 Jane Baker 80 English Screenwriter Captain Nemo and the Underwater City Night of the Big Heat 9 Howell Evans 86 Welsh Actor The Ipcress File Mr. Nice 9 Denny Miller 80 American Actor Tarzan, the Ape Man The Party 10 Richard Kiel 74 American Actor Moonraker The Longest Yard Cannonball Run II Happy Gilmore 11 Joachim Fuchsberger 87 German Actor Mystery Submarine The Face of Fu Manchu 11 Donald Sinden 90 English Actor Balto The Cruel Sea 12 John Bardon 75 English Actor Clockwise Fierce Creatures 12 Theodore J. Flicker 84 American Director, Screenwriter The President's Analyst Spinout 14 Assheton Gorton 84 English-Welsh Production Designer 101 Dalmatians The French Lieutenant's Woman 14 Angus Lennie 84 Scottish-English Actor The Great Escape Oh! What a Lovely War 16 Buster Jones 71 American Actor The Transformers: The Movie The Marshal of Windy Hollow 19 Peggy Drake 91 Austrian-American Actress The Tuttles of Tahiti King of the Mounties 19 Audrey Long 92 American Actress Tall in the Saddle Duke of Chicago 20 Polly Bergen 84 American Actress, Singer Cape Fear The Caretakers 20 Eric "The Actor" Lynch 39 American Actor Fringe In Plain Sight 20 George Sluizer 82 French-Dutch Director, Producer, Screenwriter The Vanishing Dark Blood 22 Skip E. Lowe 85 American Actor Black Shampoo The World's Greatest Lover 26 Jim Boeke 76 American Actor Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country Forrest Gump 26 Sam Hall 93 American Screenwriter House of Dark Shadows Night of Dark Shadows 26 Michael McCarty 68 American Actor Casper The Legend of Bagger Vance 27 Sarah Danielle Madison 40 American Actress Jurassic Park III Training Day 30 Ralph Cosham 78 English-American Actor The Pelican Brief Starman October 2 Carlos Lopez 25 American Actor, Stuntman The Hunger Games: Catching Fire Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles 4 Michael Goldberg 55 American Screenwriter Snow Dogs Little Giants 4 John J. Lloyd 92 American Art Director and Production Designer The Naked Gun The Blues Brothers 5 Anna Maria Gherardi 74 Italian Actress 1900 The Grand Duel 5 Geoffrey Holder 84 Trinidadian-American Actor, Singer Charlie and the Chocolate Factory Annie 5 Ike Jones 84 American Actor, Producer About Mrs. Leslie The Joe Louis Story 5 Misty Upham 32 American Actress Frozen River August: Osage County 6 Marian Seldes 86 American Actress Home Alone 3 August Rush 7 Federico Boido 75 Italian Actor Super Fly T.N.T. The Canterbury Tales 9 Jan Hooks 57 American Actress Batman Returns Coneheads 9 Kim Koscki 50 American Actor, Stuntman Austin Powers Buffy the Vampire Slayer 9 Victor Winding 85 English-Welsh Actor Frightmare The Medusa Touch 10 Pavel Landovský 78 Czech Actor Ragtime The Unbearable Lightness of Being 11 Gary McLarty 73 American Actor, Stuntman Police Academy Beverly Hills Cop 11 Bob Orrison 86 American Actor, Stuntman Die Hard 2 Stargate 13 Elizabeth Norment 61 American Actress Romy and Michele's High School Reunion The Woman in Red 14 Elizabeth Peña 55 American Actress The Incredibles Rush Hour 15 Marie Dubois 77 French Actress Monte Carlo or Bust! Hot Line 16 Sumi Haru 75 American Actress M*A*S*H Krakatoa, East of Java 19 Lynda Bellingham 66 Canadian-English Actress Sweeney! Confessions of a Driving Instructor 19 Edward Donno 79 American Actor, Stuntman Star Trek Beverly Hills Cop 19 Gerard Parkes 90 Irish-Canadian Actor The Boondock Saints It Takes Two 20 Ox Baker 80 American Actor Escape from New York The Big Brawl 20 L. M. Kit Carson 73 American Actor, Producer, Screenwriter The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2 Paris, Texas 24 Ted Beniades 91 American Actor Scarface The Odd Couple 24 Marcia Strassman 66 American Actress, Singer Honey, I Shrunk the Kids Another Stakeout 26 Françoise Bertin 89 French Actress The Truth About Charlie I Want to Go Home 26 Michael Hawkins 85 English Actor The Hound of the Baskervilles Torture Garden 30 Renée Asherson 99 English Actress The Others Caesar and Cleopatra 31 Ian Fraser 81 English-American Composer, Conductor Scrooge The Secret of NIMH November 1 Donald Saddler 94 American Choreographer The Happy Hooker By the Light of the Silvery Moon 4 Richard Schaal 86 American Actor The Russians Are Coming, the Russians Are Coming Slaughterhouse-Five 6 Carole Matthews 94 American Actress Swamp Women Showdown at Boot Hill 7 Zoltán Gera 91 Hungarian Actor Escape to Victory Sunshine 10 Steve Dodd 86 Australian Actor The Matrix Gallipoli 10 Ernest Kinoy 89 American Screenwriter Leadbelly Come Back, Charleston Blue 10 Ken Takakura 83 Japanese Actor The Yakuza Black Rain 11 Carol Ann Susi 62 American Actress Death Becomes Her Cats & Dogs 12 Buddy Catlett 81 American Actor Sex and the Single Girl When the Boys Meet the Girls 12 Warren Clarke 67 English Actor A Clockwork Orange Top Secret! 12 Richard Pasco 88 English Actor Yesterday's Enemy Rasputin the Mad Monk 16 Charles Champlin 88 American Critic, Actor The Secret of NIMH The Player 19 Mike Nichols 83 German-American Director, Producer, Screenwriter The Graduate Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? 22 Derek Deadman 74 English Actor Time Bandits Brazil 25 Joanna Dunham 78 English Actress The Greatest Story Ever Told The House That Dripped Blood 27 Frank Yablans 79 American Screenwriter, Producer Mommie Dearest North Dallas Forty December 2 Gerry Fisher 88 English Cinematographer The Exorcist III Aces High 2 Jeff Truman 57 Australian Actor Superman Returns The Quiet American 5 Yashaw Adem ?? Turkish Actor The Spy Who Loved Me The Keep 5 Manuel De Sica 65 Italian Composer A Place for Lovers Sunday Lovers 7 Eddie Rouse 60 American Actor American Gangster Pineapple Express 9 Mary Ann Mobley 75 American Actress Girl Happy Harum Scarum 11 Tom Adams 76 English Actor The Great Escape Licensed to Kill 11 Robert Taylor 70 American Animator, Director, Producer DuckTales the Movie: Treasure of the Lost Lamp Heidi's song 15 Booth Colman 91 American Actor Julius Caesar Intolerable Cruelty 18 Virna Lisi 78 Italian Actress How to Murder Your Wife Not with My Wife, You Don't! 18 Mandy Rice-Davies 70 Welsh-English Actress Absolute Beginners Hide and Seek 19 Arthur Gardner 104 American Actor, Producer McQ Brannigan 20 Gino Pellegrini 73 Italian-American Set Designer Mary Poppins West Side Story 21 Billie Whitelaw 82 English Actress The Omen The Dark Crystal 22 Christine Cavanaugh 51 American Actress Rugrats Babe 22 Richard Graydon 92 English Actor, Stuntman James Bond Batman 22 Joseph Sargent 89 American Director, Producer MacArthur Jaws: The Revenge 23 Mike Elliott 68 English Actor Billy Elliot Goal! 23 Jeremy Lloyd 84 English Actor, Screenwriter Are You Being Served? Help! 24 Buddy DeFranco 91 American Actor Thrill of a Romance The Wild Party 25 Dave Comer 59 New Zealand Location Scout The Lord of the Rings The Hobbit 25 David Ryall 79 English Actor Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1 Around the World in 80 Days 25 Bernard Kay 86 English Actor Doctor Zhivago Carry On Sergeant 26 Rhodes Reason 84 American Actor King Kong Escapes The Delta Factor 27 Bridget Turner 75 English Actress Under Milk Wood The Walking Stick 28 Frankie Randall 76 American Actor, Singer The Day of the Wolves Wild on the Beach 30 Yolande Donlan 94 American-English Actress Jigsaw 80,000 Suspects 30 Patrick Gowers 78 English Composer Hamlet The Boy Who Turned Yellow 30 Luise Rainer 104 German-English Actress The Great Ziegfeld The Good Earth 31 Edward Herrmann 71 American Actor The Lost Boys Annie References[edit] Film portal ^ Brody, Richard (11 December 2014). "The Best Movies of 2014". The New Yorker. Condé Nast. Retrieved 30 March 2020. ^ "2014 Worldwide Box Office". Box Office Mojo. IMDb. Retrieved March 7, 2020. ^ 3rd AACTA International Awards. January 16, 2014. Archived December 26, 2013, at the Wayback Machine ^ "Golden Globes 2014: full list of winners". Guardian UK. 13 January 2014. Retrieved January 16, 2014. ^ "American Hustle, 12 Years A Slave Lead BFCA's Critics Choice Movie Awards Nominations". Deadline Hollywood. December 17, 2013. Retrieved January 16, 2014. ^ "'12 Years a Slave' Leads SAG Awards with 4 Nominations". Variety.com. December 11, 2013. Retrieved January 16, 2014. ^ "Nominations for Theatrical Motion Picture, Animated Theatrical Motion Picture and Long-Form TV". Producers Guild of America. January 2, 2014. Retrieved January 17, 2014. ^ "Sissela Kyle leder Guldbaggegalan". Aftonbladet.se (in Swedish). December 23, 2013. Retrieved January 2, 2014. ^ "DGA Awards Film Nominees Have No Shockers: Cuaron, Greengrass, McQueen, Russell, Scorsese". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved January 17, 2014. ^ Engelen, Aurore (February 3, 2014). "Ernest and Célestine triumphs at the Magritte Awards". Cineuropa. Retrieved February 3, 2014. ^ "Writers Guild Awards". Writers Guild of America. Writers Guild of America. Archived from the original on February 19, 2014. Retrieved January 17, 2014. ^ "Prizes of the International Jury". berlinale.de. Retrieved 16 February 2014. ^ "The BAFTA Film Awards in 2014. Where & When?". British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA). December 21, 2011. Retrieved January 16, 2014. ^ 2013 Nominations. Accessed January 21, 2014. ^ "France's Cesar Awards: 'Me, Myself and Mum' Wins Best Film". Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 6 May 2014. ^ "Spirit Awards Nominees Are Announced! Excitement Ensues". Film Independent. November 27, 2013. Archived from the original on December 3, 2014. Retrieved January 16, 2014. ^ "The 34th Annual RAZZIE® Award Nominees for 2013 Worst Picture". The Golden Raspberry Award Foundation and John Wilson. Retrieved January 16, 2014. ^ "The Academy Selects 2014 and 2015 Show Dates" (Press release). Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. Retrieved January 16, 2014. ^ "Local cinema celebrated at Gopo Awards 2014". Business-Review.eu. March 24, 2014. Retrieved May 25, 2014. ^ O'Hara, Helen (March 31, 2014). "Jameson Empire Awards 2014: As It Happened! The red carpet arrivals to the final winner..." Empireonline.com. Bauer Consumer Media. Archived from the original on October 6, 2014. Retrieved April 1, 2014. ^ "IFTA ANNOUNCES WINNERS OF THE 11TH ANNUAL IRISH FILM & TELEVISION AWARDS". IFTA.ie. 5 April 2014. Retrieved 7 April 2014. ^ "2014 MTV Movie Awards: Here Are The Real Winners And Losers". MTV.com. 14 April 2014. Retrieved 14 April 2014. ^ kerala state film awards 2014. "kerala state film awards 2014 |Winners List,Kerala Film awards,List of Winners, best film in 2014, best actor in 2014, film awards in 2014 kerala, kerala state film award winners » Kerala Events". Keralaevents.in. Archived from the original on 2014-06-22. Retrieved 2014-06-18. ^ "IIFA winners list 2014". Archived from the original on 2014-06-25. Retrieved June 27, 2014. ^ "Nat Film Awards ceremony to be held on May 3 every year: Soni". Business Standard. 2012-05-03. Retrieved 2014-06-18. ^ ""Gravity" and "The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug" soar with 8 nominations, "The Hunger Games: Catching Fire," scored 7, "Iron Man 3," "Pacific Rim," "Star Trek Into Darkness" and "Thor: The Dark World" lead with 5 nominations apiece for the 40th Annual Saturn Awards, while "Breaking Bad," "Falling Skies," and "Game of Thrones" lead on TV in an Epic Year for Science Fiction, Fantasy and Horror". Retrieved 5 October 2014. ^ "KC Concepcion and ER Ejercito win top acting honors in 62nd FAMAS Awards". GMA News Online. Retrieved 30 September 2014. ^ "European Film Awards – European Film Awards 2014 go to Riga". Europeanfilmawards.eu. Retrieved 2014-06-18. ^ "2014 Sundance Film Festival". Sundance Institute. Retrieved January 16, 2014. ^ "64th Berlin International Film Festival". berlinale.de. Retrieved January 16, 2014. ^ "Cannes Film Festival". Cannes. Retrieved January 16, 2014. ^ "Sarajevo Film Festival". Cannes. Retrieved August 8, 2014. ^ "71st Venice International Film Festivalaccessdate=January 16, 2014". ^ "TIFF.net". Archived from the original on July 23, 2015. Retrieved April 8, 2014. ^ "Competitions and programs". BNFF. Archived from the original on 27 September 2016. Retrieved 25 September 2016. v t e 2014 films Afghan African Albanian American Andorran Argentine Armenian Australian Austrian Azerbaijani Bahraini Bangladeshi Belarusian Belgian Bosnian Brazilian British Bulgarian Canadian Chinese Hong Kong Croatian Cypriot Czech Danish Faroese Greenlandic Dutch Emirati Estonian Finnish French Georgian German Greek Hungarian Icelandic Indian Assamese Bengali Bollywood Kannada Malayalam Marathi Ollywood Punjabi Tamil Telugu Tulu Iranian Iraqi Irish Israeli Italian Japanese Jordanian Kazakh Kuwaiti Kyrgyz Latvian Lebanese Liechtensteiner Luxembourgish Macedonian Malaysian Maltese Mexican Moldovan Monégasque Montenegrin Nigerian Norwegian Omani Pakistani Palestinian Philippine Polish Portuguese Qatari Romanian Russian Sammarinese Saudi Arabian Serbian Kosovan Singaporean Slovene South Korean Spanish Swedish Swiss Syrian Tajik Turkish Turkmen Ukrainian Uzbek Vietnamese Yemeni Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2014_in_film&oldid=1000510601" Categories: 2014 in film Film by year Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links CS1 Swedish-language sources (sv) Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Čeština Deutsch Español فارسی Français Gaeilge 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia עברית Кыргызча Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 15 January 2021, at 11:32 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8616	----	Eqtesad-e Golestan (newspaper) - Wikipedia Eqtesad-e Golestan (newspaper) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is an orphan, as no other articles link to it. Please introduce links to this page from related articles; try the Find link tool for suggestions. (March 2013) This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Eqtesad-e Golestan" newspaper – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Eqtesad-e Golestan (اقتصاد گلستان lit. "Golestan Economics") is an independent socio-economic Persian language weekly paper published in Gorgan, Golestan, Iran. The first issue appeared on the newsstands throughout Golestan province and especially in the capital, Gorgan city, on 18 February 2005. This is the fourteenth regular newspaper or magazine to be published in the province since 1996. Moosa Jorjani, a Sunni Muslim of the Iranian Turkomen ethnic minority origin, is its license holder and official director, and Abdonnasser Mohaimeni, an Iranian Shii Muslim of Persian origin is its editor-in-chief and executive manager. At 22,500 copies for each issue, the newspaper has the largest circulation recorded in the history of local newspapers in North Iran. Eqtesad-e Golestan is usually published in eight (and sometimes twelve) pages, with the first and last pages being in full color. The size of each page is 35 cm by 50 cm. At present, the newspaper is in no way a specialised one, but rather a general socio-cultural and economic weekly covering news, articles, commentaries and advertisements related to local, national and international matters. This article related to newspapers in Iran is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eqtesad-e_Golestan_(newspaper)&oldid=986111067" Categories: 2005 establishments in Iran Newspapers published in Iran Weekly newspapers Newspapers established in 2005 Persian-language newspapers Mass media in Gorgan Mass media in Iran stubs Newspapers published in Asia stubs Hidden categories: Orphaned articles from March 2013 All orphaned articles Articles lacking sources from February 2012 All articles lacking sources All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 29 October 2020, at 21:16 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8619	----	Takelot I - Wikipedia Takelot I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Takelot I The Sarcophagus of Takelot I Pharaoh Reign 885–872 BC (Dynasty XXII) Predecessor Shoshenq II or Tutkheperre Shoshenq Successor Osorkon II Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Hedjkheperre Setepenre ḥḏ-ḫpr-rˁ stp.n-rˁ "Radiant manifestation of Ra, the chosen one of Ra" Nomen Takelot Meriamum tklt mr.j jmn "Takelot, beloved of Amun" Consort Kapes Children Osorkon II Father Osorkon I Mother Tashedkhonsu Died 872 BC Hedjkheperre Setepenre Takelot I was an ancient Libyan ruler who was pharaoh during the Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt. Contents 1 Reign 2 Tomb 3 Authority 4 References 5 Further reading Reign[edit] Takelot I was the son of Osorkon I and Queen Tashedkhons who ruled Egypt for thirteen years according to Manetho. Takelot married Queen Kapes who bore him Osorkon II. Initially, Takelot was believed to be an ephemeral Dynasty 22 Pharaoh since no monuments at Tanis or Lower Egypt could be conclusively linked to his reign, or mentioned his existence, except for the famous Stela of Pasenhor, which dates to Year 37 of Shoshenq V. However, since the late 1980s, Egyptologists have assigned several documents mentioning a king Takelot in Lower Egypt to him rather than Takelot II. Takelot I's reign was relatively short when compared to the three decades-long reigns of his father Osorkon I and son, Osorkon II. Takelot I, rather than Takelot II, was the king Hedjkheperre Setepenre Takelot who is attested by a Year 9 stela from Bubastis as well as the owner of a partly robbed Royal Tomb at Tanis which belonged to this ruler as the German Egyptologist Karl Jansen-Winkeln reported in a 1987 Varia Aegyptiaca 3 (1987), pp. 253–258 paper.[1] Evidently, both king Takelots used the same royal prenomen: Hedjkheperre Setepenre. The main difference between Takelot I and II is that Takelot I never employed the Theban-inspired epithet 'Si-Ese' "Son of Isis" in his titulary, unlike Takelot II.[2] As Kenneth Kitchen writes in the third (1996) edition of his book on The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt: It was Takeloth I who first used the prenomen Hedjkheperre Setepenre (in imitation of his grandfather Shoshenq I), being followed in this [practise] by Takeloth II. The only clear distinction... between Takeloth I and II (as both use the epithet Meriamun) is that Takeloth II uses also the epithet Si-Ese, "Son of Isis", in his second cartouche. A second marker suggested by Jansen-Winkeln (with some reserve) is that Takeloth I has his name spelt with the vertical t-sign (Gardiner U33, ti becoming t), while [both] Takeloth II and III use the small loaf t-sign (X 1), and the rope-tether sign (V 13). This criterion...seems sound. This would suggest attributing to Takeloth I (not II) a donation-stela of Year 9 (from Bubastis), another in Berlin (also from Bubastis) and a fragment in the former Grant collection. This also bears on the high priests of Ptah at Memphis and the Serapeum. There, a block is known bearing the name of a high priest Merenptah and a pair of cartouches hitherto attributed to Takeloth II which, in fact, correspond precisely to those now attributable to Takeloth I (no Si-Ese; tall t). Therefore it seems proper to move this priest back in time to the reign of Takeloth I.[2] Tomb[edit] The evidence that the royal Tanite tomb belonged to Takelot I was suggested long ago by the presence of grave goods found within the burial which mentioned his known parents: "namely a Gold Bracelet (Cairo JE 72199) and an alabaster Jar (Cairo JE 86962) of Osorkon I, and an Ushabti figure of Queen Tashedkhons."[3] In addition, a heart scarab found in the king's burial gave his name simply as "Takelot Meryamun" without the Si-Ese epithet used by Takelot II. Recent confirmation of this circumstantial evidence was published by the German scholar Jansen-Winkeln in 1987.[4] His examination of several inscriptions written on the tomb's walls proved beyond doubt that the person buried here could only be Takelot I, Osorkon II's father. Jansen-Winkeln's conclusions have been accepted by Egyptologists today including Professor Kenneth Kitchen. Osorkon II arranged for this aforementioned inscription to be carved on a scene in his tomb where Osorkon is depicted adoring Osiris and Udjo (as a uraeus). [Made?] by the King of the South & North Egypt, Lord of Both Lands, Usimare Setepenamun, Son of Re, Lord of Crowns, Osorkon II Meryamun, [to furbish] the Osiris (i.e., deceased) King Takelot Meryamun in his Mansion which is [an abode] of the Sun-disc: I have caused him to rest in this Mansion in the vicinity of 'Hidden-of Name' (Amun), according to the doing by a son of benefactions for his father, [to] furbish the one who has made his fortune in conformity with that Horus Son-of-Isis, commanded for his father, Wennufer. How pleasant (it is) in my heart, for the Lord of the Gods! Above the inscription was carved the cartouche of Osorkon II and the following text: "A Son, furbishing the one who created (i.e., begot) him."[5] This text establishes that Osorkon II honoured his father by reburying him in the Tanite royal tomb complex. Takelot I's final resting place forms the third chamber of Osorkon II's tomb which means that Osorkon II interred his father within the walls of his own tomb. Takelot I was buried in a usurped Middle Kingdom sarcophagus that was inscribed with his own cartouche.[6] Authority[edit] Takelot I's authority was not fully recognised in Upper Egypt, and Harsiese A, or another local Theban king, challenged his power there. Several Nile Level Texts at Thebes mention two sons of Osorkon I—namely, the High Priests of Amun Iuwelot and Smendes III in Years 5, 8 and 14 of an anonymous king who can only be Takelot I, since Takelot I was their brother.[7] Uniquely, however, the Quay Texts specifically omit any reference to the identity of the king himself. This might suggest that there was a dispute in the royal succession following Osorkon I's death in Upper Egypt, which seriously impaired Takelot I's control there. Harsiese A, as the son of the High Priest Shoshenq C and grandson of Osorkon I, or a hypothetical king named Maatkheperre Shoshenq must have appeared as a rival. The Theban priests henceforth chose to avoid any involvement in this dispute by deliberately leaving the name of the king in the Quay Texts 'Blank' rather than choosing sides, as G. Broekman notes in his study of the Karnak Quay Texts.[8] This situation was ultimately later resolved by Osorkon II who is clearly attested as Pharaoh at Thebes by his 12th Regnal Year, according to Nile Level Texts No.8 and No.9. References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Takelot I. ^ K.A. Kitchen, in the introduction to his third 1996 edition of "The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (c.1100-650 BC)," Aris & Phillips Ltd. pp.xxiii ^ a b Kitchen, p.xxiii ^ D.A. Aston, Takeloth II: A King of the 'Theban Twenty-Third Dynasty?,' pp.143-144 ^ Karl Jansen-Winkeln, "Thronname und Begräbnis Takeloth I," Varia Aegyptica 3, (December 1987), pp.253-258 ^ English translation of Jansen-Winkeln's VA 3 (1987) study of Takelot's tomb by K.A. Kitchen, in the introduction to his 3rd 1996 edition of "The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (c.1100-650 BC)," Aris & Phillips Ltd. pp.xxii-xxiii ^ Tanis Archived 2007-04-12 at the Wayback Machine ^ Kitchen, pp.121-122 ^ Gerard Broekman, "The Nile Level Records of the Twenty-Second and Twenty-Third Dynasties in Karnak," JEA 88(2002), pp.170 & 173 Further reading[edit] Gerard Broekman, "The Nile Level Records of the Twenty-Second and Twenty-Third Dynasties in Karnak," JEA 88(2002), pp. 163–178. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Takelot_I&oldid=962246012" Categories: 9th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt 872 BC deaths 9th century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Mirandés Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá Edit links This page was last edited on 12 June 2020, at 23:03 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8638	----	Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt 732 BC–720 BC Stela of Tefnakht Capital Sais Common languages Egyptian language Religion Ancient Egyptian Religion Government Absolute monarchy Pharaoh   • 732-725 BC Tefnakht • 725-720 BC Bakenranef Historical era Classical antiquity • Conquests of Tefnakht 732 BC • Deposition of Bakenranef 720 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt (notated Dynasty XXIV, alternatively 24th Dynasty or Dynasty 24), is usually classified as the fourth Dynasty of the Ancient Egyptian Third Intermediate Period. Contents 1 History 1.1 Tefnakht I 1.2 Bakenranef 2 Pharaohs of the 24th Dynasty 3 Timeline of the 24th Dynasty 4 Family tree 5 References History[edit] The Twenty-Fourth Dynasty was a short-lived group of pharaohs who had their capital at Sais in the western Nile Delta. Tefnakht I[edit] Tefnakht I formed an alliance of the Delta kinglets, with whose support he attempted to conquer Upper Egypt; his campaign attracted the attention of the Nubian king, Piye, who recorded his conquest and subjection of Tefnakhte of Sais and his peers in a well-known inscription. Tefnakht is always called the "Great Chief of the West" in Piye's Victory stela and in two stelas dating to the regnal years 36 and 38 of Shoshenq V. It is uncertain if he ever adopted an official royal title. However, Olivier Perdu[1] has now argued that a certain Shepsesre Tefnakhte of Sais was not, in fact, Piye's famous nemesis. Perdu published a recently discovered donation stela which came from a private collection; the document is dated to Year 2 of Necho I of Sais and is similar in style, epigraphy and text with the donation stela of Shepsesre. However, Perdu's arguments are not accepted by most Egyptologists at present, who believe that the Year 8 Shepsesre Tefnakht Athens stela was most likely Tefnakht I. The later king Tefnakht II, if he existed, would have been a close predecessor of Necho I. Both Tefnakht II and Necho I ruled as local Saite kings during the Nubian era under Taharqa. Bakenranef[edit] Tefnakht I's successor, Bakenranef, definitely assumed the throne of Sais and took the royal name Wahkare. His authority was recognised in much of the Delta including Memphis where several Year 5 and Year 6 Serapeum stelas from his reign have been found. This Dynasty came to a sudden end when Shebitqo, the second king of the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty, attacked Sais, captured Bakenrenef and burned him alive. Pharaohs of the 24th Dynasty[edit] Name of Pharaoh Image Reign Throne Name Comments Tefnakht I 732-725 BC Shepsesre Bakenranef 725-720 BC Wahkare Timeline of the 24th Dynasty[edit] Family tree[edit] Basa[2] Gemnefsutkapu[2] Tefnakht Bakenranef unnamed son[3] unnamed son[3] References[edit] ^ Olivier Perdu, "La Chefferie de Sébennytos de Piankhy à Psammétique Ier", Revue d'Égyptology 55 (2004), pp. 95-111. ^ a b P.R. Del Francia, "Di una statuetta dedicata ad Amon-Ra dal grande capo dei Ma Tefnakht nel Museo Egizio di Firenze", S. Russo (ed.) Atti del V Convegno Nazionale di Egittologia e Papirologia, Firenze, 10-12 dicembre 1999, Firenze, 2000, pp. 63-112; 76-82 ^ Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson, 2004, p. 233 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Twenty-fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=965294910" Categories: Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt States and territories established in the 8th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 8th century BC Dynasties of ancient Egypt 8th century BC in Egypt 8th-century BC establishments in Egypt 8th-century BC disestablishments in Egypt 1st millennium BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Pages using the EasyTimeline extension Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska தமிழ் Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 30 June 2020, at 14:19 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-865	----	Rudamun - Wikipedia Rudamun From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Rudamun A small glass vase with the cartouches of Rudamun Pharaoh Reign 2–3 years (23rd Dynasty) Predecessor Takelot III Successor Ini at Thebes only Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Usermaatre Setepenamun Wsr-Mȝˁt-Rˁ-stp-n-Jmn Powerful is the Maat of Ra, the chosen one of Amun[1] Nomen Meriamun Rudamun Mr.j-Jmn rwd-Jmn Beloved of Amun, Amun is strong Children Irbastudjanefu Died 739 BC Rudamun was the final pharaoh of the Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt. His titulary simply reads as Usermaatre Setepenamun, Rudamun Meryamun, and excludes the Si-Ese or Netjer-Heqawaset epithets employed by his father and brother. Biography[edit] He was the younger son of Osorkon III, and the brother of Takelot III. He is a poorly attested pharaoh of this dynasty according to Kenneth Kitchen's seminal book on The Third Intermediate Period of Egypt. Kitchen credits him with a brief reign of about two to three years due to the few contemporary documents known for him. These include a small amount of decorative work done on the Temple of Osiris Heqadjet, several stone blocks from Medinet Habu, and a vase. In recent years, two fragments of a faience statuette bearing Rudamun's name from Hermopolis have been discovered.[2] This recent discovery suggests that Radamun managed to preserve the unity of his father's large kingdom in Upper Egypt ranging from at least Herakleopolis Magna to Thebes during his brief reign. Some Egyptologists such as David Aston have argued that Rudamun was the anonymous Year 19 king attested at Wadi Gasus. However, new evidence on the Wadi Gasus graffito published by Claus Jurman in 2006 has now redated the graffito to the 25th dynastic Nubian period entirely (rather than to the Libyan era) and demonstrates that they pertain to Amenirdis I and Shepenupet II based on paleographic and other evidence at Karnak rather than the Libyan Shepenupet I and the Nubian Amenirdis I.[3] Jurman notes that no monumental evidence from the Temple of Osiris Heqadjet or Karnak depict Shepenupet I associated with Piye's daughter, Amenirdis I.[4] Another alternative that the Year 19 Wadi Gasus ruler was a certain Shoshenq VII, a new unknown ruler, was proposed by G. Broekman in a paper based on Nile Level Text No. 3 which is dated to Year 5 of a Theban king who ruled after Osorkon III.[5] However, there are serious doubts among scholars as to whether Nile Level Text No. 3 contained the nomen Shoshenq rather than Takelot. Georges Legrain, who had the first opportunity to survey the Karnak Quay Texts, did not, in his 1898 publication of the Quay Texts, read any royal nomen in this inscription since the stone had already been badly eroded. The stone would have been in even worse condition when Von Beckerath inspected the document in 1953 and assumed the surviving traces on the Text No. 3 referred to a king Shoshenq, rather than a Takelot.[6] Soon after Rudamun's death, his kingdom quickly fragmented into several minor city states under the control of various local kings such as Peftjaubast of Herakleopolis Magna, Nimlot at Hermopolis, and Ini at Thebes. Peftjaubast married Irbastudjanefu, Rudamun's daughter, and was, therefore, Rudamun's son-in-law.[5] Nothing is known about Rudamun's final burial place. The surviving contemporary information from his reign suggests that it was quite brief. References[edit] ^ Clayton, Peter A. Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. p.188. 2006. ISBN 0-500-28628-0 ^ Perdu, Olivier; "Le Roi Roudamon en personne!" ("King Rudamun in Person!"), RdE 53 (2002), pp.151-178. ^ Claus Jurman, Die Namen des Rudjamun in der Kapelle des Osiris-Hekadjet. Bemerkungen der 3. Zwischenzeit un dem Wadi Gasus-Graffito, GM 210 (2006), pp.69-91 ^ Jurman, GM 210, pp.68-91 ^ a b Broekman, Gerard, "The Chronological Position of King Shoshenq Mentioned in Nile Level Record No. 3 on the Quay Wall of the Great Temple of Amun at Karnak", SAK 33 (2005) ^ http://disc.server.com/discussion.cgi?disc=177754;article=4534;title=The%20Ancient%20Near%20Eastern%20Chronology%20Forum The Ancient Near Eastern Chronology Forum, accessed September 3, 2007 Further reading[edit] Kitchen, K.A.; The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100–650 BC) 2nd edition( 1986), Warminster: Aris & Phillips Limited, p. 360. Payraudeau, Frédéric; 'Le règne de Takélot III et les débuts de la domination Koushite,' ("The reign of Takelot III and the beginning of Kushite control") GM 198(2004), pp. 79–90.[1] Perdu, Olivier; "Le Roi Roudamon en personne!" (King Rudamun in Person), RdE 53(2002), pp. 151–178 Olaf Kaper and Robert Demarée, "A Donation Stela in the Name of Takeloth III from Amheida, Dakhleh Oasis," JEOL (Jaarbericht Ex Oriente Lux) 39 [2005], pp. 19–37 [2] v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rudamun&oldid=986073495" Categories: 8th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt 739 BC deaths 8th century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى 日本語 Polski Português Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Tagalog Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá Edit links This page was last edited on 29 October 2020, at 16:57 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8666	----	Xerxes II - Wikipedia Xerxes II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Xerxes II of Persia) Jump to navigation Jump to search Son of Artaxerxes I, brief ruler of the Achaemenid Empire King of Kings Xerxes II 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠 King of Kings Great King King of Persia Pharaoh of Egypt King of Countries Achaemenid coin minted at Sardis, possibly under Xerxes II King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Reign 424 BC (45 days) Predecessor Artaxerxes I Successor Sogdianus Died Persepolis, Persia House Achaemenid Father Artaxerxes I Mother Damaspia Religion Zoroastrianism Xerxes II (/ˈzɜːrksiːz/; Old Persian: 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠, romanized: Xšayaṛša (pronunciation (help·info)), "ruling over heroes"; Ancient Greek: Ξέρξης, romanized: Xérxēs, [ksérksɛːs]; d. 424 BC), was a Persian king who was very briefly a ruler of the Achaemenid Empire, as the son and successor of Artaxerxes I. After a reign of forty-five days—where he only had control over the Persian heartlands—he was assassinated in 424 BC by his half-brother Sogdianus, who in turn was murdered by Darius II six months later. He is an obscure historical figure known primarily from the writings of Ctesias. He was reportedly the only legitimate son of Artaxerxes I and Damaspia, and is known to have served as crown prince. The last inscription mentioning Artaxerxes I being alive can be dated to 424 BC. Xerxes apparently succeeded to the throne but two of his illegitimate brothers claimed the throne for themselves. The first was Sogdianus, Artaxerxes I's son by his concubine Alogyne of Babylon. The second was Darius II, Artaxerxes I's son by his concubine Cosmartidene of Babylon, who was married to their common half-sister Parysatis, daughter of Artaxerxes I and his concubine Andia of Babylon.[1] Xerxes II was apparently only recognized as king in Persia and Sogdianus in Elam. Ochus' first inscription as Darius II can be dated to January 10, 423 BC. He was already satrap of Hyrcania and was soon recognized by Media, Babylonia and Egypt. Xerxes II only ruled forty-five days. He was reportedly murdered by Pharnacyas and Menostanes on Sogdianus' orders, while drunk. Sogdianus apparently gained the support of his regions. Sogdianus was killed a few months later. Darius II became the sole ruler of the Persian Empire and reigned until 404 BC.[1] References[edit] ^ a b S. Zawadzki, "The Circumstances of Darius II's Accession" in Jaarbericht Ex Oriente Lux 34 (1995-1996) 45-49 External links[edit] A more detailed profile of Xerxes II Xerxes II Achaemenid dynasty Born: ?? Died: 424 BC Preceded by Artaxerxes I Great King (Shah) of Persia 424 BC Succeeded by Sogdianus Pharaoh of Egypt 424 BC v t e Median and Achaemenid kings Family tree Median (728–550 BC) Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Achaemenid (550–330 BC) Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Nothus Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Italics indicate kings not directly attested and so possibly legendary. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_II&oldid=994358817" Categories: 5th-century BC Kings of the Achaemenid Empire 5th-century BC Pharaohs 5th-century BC Babylonian kings Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Pharaohs of the Achaemenid dynasty of Egypt Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt 424 BC deaths 5th-century BC murdered monarchs Murdered Persian monarchs 5th-century BC Iranian people 5th-century BC rulers Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text Articles with hAudio microformats Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano עברית Magyar Malagasy مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 15 December 2020, at 09:06 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8669	----	Neferkamin Anu - Wikipedia Neferkamin Anu From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Neferkamin Anu Sneferka Anu, Seneferka Any, Nefer, Nufe The cartouche of Neferkamin Anu on the Abydos King List reading Sneferka Anu. Pharaoh Reign c. 2170 BC (Eighth Dynasty) Predecessor Neferkare Pepiseneb Successor Qakare Ibi Royal titulary Nomen Neferkamin Anu Nfr-k3-Mn ˁnw Turin canon: Nefer Nfr The beautiful [1] Abydos King List: Sneferka Anu[2] Snfr-k3 ˁnw Neferkamin Anu was a pharaoh of ancient Egypt during the First Intermediate Period. According to the Abydos King List and the latest reconstruction of the Turin canon by Kim Ryholt, he was the 13th king of the Eighth Dynasty.[3] This opinion is shared by the Egyptologists Jürgen von Beckerath, Thomas Schneider and Darrell Baker.[4][5][6] As a pharaoh of the Eighth Dynasty, Neferkamin Anu would have reigned over the Memphite region. Attestations[edit] Neferkamin Anu is mentioned on the entry 52 of the Abydos King list, which was compiled in the early Ramesside period. The list names his predecessor as Neferkare Pepiseneb and his successor as Qakare Ibi. The Turin canon identifies Nerferkamin Anu with a Nefer mentioned on column 4, line 10 of the document, which is in agreement with the Abydos king list.[6][3] Any detail about Neferkamin Anu's reign is lost in a lacuna of the Turin canon. Name[edit] The name of Neferkamin Anu is transliterated as Neferkamin Anu even though it is reported as Sneferka Anu on the Abydos King list. The reason for this transliteration is that the hieroglyph sign O34, reading s, could replace the sign R22 for the god Min and reading Mn.[6] References[edit] ^ Alan H. Gardiner: The royal canon of Turin, Griffith Institute, New edition, ISBN 978-0900416484 ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2011-11-22. Retrieved 2012-04-30.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) Neferkamin II ^ a b Kim Ryholt: "The Late Old Kingdom in the Turin King-list and the Identity of Nitocris", Zeitschrift für ägyptische, 127, 2000 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen. Deutscher Kunstverlag, München/ Berlin 1984, ISBN 3-422-00832-2, p. 59, 187. ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, p. 174. ^ a b c Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 263-264 Preceded by Neferkare Pepiseneb Pharaoh of Egypt Eighth Dynasty Succeeded by Qakare Ibi v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neferkamin_Anu&oldid=1000371523" Categories: 22nd-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Eighth Dynasty of Egypt 22nd-century BC rulers 22nd century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: CS1 maint: archived copy as title AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands Português Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 14 January 2021, at 20:51 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8677	----	Petubastis III - Wikipedia Petubastis III From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Native Egyptian leader (r.c. 522 – 520 BC) who led revolt against Persian rule Seheruibre Padibastet Pedubast III, Pedubastis III, Petubastis III Wooden doorjamb, originally covered with gold leaf and inlaid glass, representing Seheruibre Petubastis III making an offering,[1] Louvre Museum. Pharaoh Reign 522 BC - 520 BC (27th Dynasty[2]) Predecessor Cambyses II[3] Successor Darius I[3] Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Seheruibre shrw ib r՚ Maker of peace in the heart of Ra Nomen Padibastet P3-dj-B3stt Given by Bastet[4] Horus name Sementawy smn tꜢwy He who controls the Two Lands[5] Nebty name sḥḏ r-prw He who illuminates the temples[5] Seheruibre Padibastet (Ancient Egyptian: shrw-jb-rꜥ pꜣ-dj-bstt) better known by his Hellenised name Petubastis III (or IV, depending on the scholars) was a native ancient Egyptian ruler, c. 522 – 520 BC, who revolted against Persian rule.[3] Contents 1 Biography 2 Attestations 3 See also 4 References 5 Further reading Biography[edit] Petubastis was a local prince, dynast and probably a member of the old royal Saite line who attempted to take control of Egypt and seize power.[6] Although he assumed the royal titles and titulary of a pharaoh, he has been a largely unknown character and a shadowy figure in Egyptian history.[6] Recent excavations at Amheida in the Dakhla Oasis have suggested that Petubastis may have had his royal residence there, a location reasonably far from the Nile valley which was under Persian control. Some blocks from the destroyed temple of Thoth at Amheida bear inscriptions attributable to him, as well as his almost complete royal titulary.[5] From Amheida, Petubastis may have ambushed and defeated the so-called "Lost Army of Cambyses", which was described some decades later by Herodotus as a military expedition sent by Cambyses II to the Oracle of Zeus-Ammon in the Siwa Oasis, only to be completely obliterated by a sand storm. Shortly after this, Petubastis would have reached Memphis in order to be formally crowned as pharaoh, and adopted a royal titulary resembling those of the previous Saite Dynasty.[5] Petubastis probably took advantage of the disruption caused by the usurpation of Bardiya after the death of Cambyses to rebel.[7] According to the Ancient Greek military author Polyaenus, who wrote about the revolt, it was oppressive taxation imposed by the then Persian satrap Aryandes that led to the revolt. The Behistun Inscription, which offers greatest insight into the events during this period, mentions a rebellion in Egypt which occurred at the same time as other rebellions in the eastern parts of the Persian Empire. Darius I, the author of the Behistun Inscription, does not go into any detail about how he dealt with the rebellion in Egypt. Polyaenus reports that Darius moved to Egypt to suppress the revolt, and entered into Memphis during the mourning for the death of an Apis bull. Cunningly, the Great King promised a hundred talents of gold for the one that would provide a new Apis, impressing the natives to the point that they moved en masse to his side.[8] This story suggests that the rebellion wasn't yet quelled before Darius came to Egypt in 518 BC.[5] Petubastis was ultimately defeated by Darius, who later ensured the control of the Western oases by embarking on an active campaign of works there (the most famous being the Temple of Hibis at Kharga Oasis). At the same time, he most likely destroyed as much evidence as he could regarding Petubastis and his rebellion, including the temple at Amheida and the true fate of the lost army of Cambyses.[5] Attestations[edit] Prior to the rediscovery of several blocks referring to him in the Dakhla Oasis,[5] the existence of this shadowy rebel ruler was confirmed by inscriptions found on two seals and one scarab that bear his name written in a royal form inside a cartouche.[3] His figure appears on a door jamb once covered in gold leaf, now at the Louvre Museum, and on a wooden panel now in Bologna (KS 289).[1] There also exists a document that has been dated to 522 BC, which was the first year of his reign.[6] See also[edit] Psammetichus IV – another Egyptian rebel ruler during the First Persian Period. References[edit] ^ a b Jean Yoyotte: Pétoubastis III, Revue d'Egyptologie 24 (1972): pp. 216-223, plate 19 ^ Placed in this dynasty only for chronological reasons, as he was not related to the Achaemenids. ^ a b c d "Ancient Egypt: History and Chronology, 27th dynasty". ^ Hermann Ranke: Die ägyptischen Personennamen. Verlag von J. J. Augustin in Glückstadt, 1935, p.123 ^ a b c d e f g Kaper, Olaf E. (2015). "Petubastis IV in the Dakhla Oasis: New Evidence about an Early Rebellion against Persian Rule and Its Suppression in Political Memory". In Silverman, Jason M.; Waerzeggers, Caroline (eds.). Political memory in and after the Persian empire (SLB monograph, no. 13). Society of Biblical Literature. pp. 125–149. ISBN 978-0-88414-089-4. ^ a b c Eiddon Stephen Edwards, The Cambridge Ancient History, Cambridge University Press, 2005, p 262 ^ Clayton,P, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames & Hudson, 2006 ^ Polyaenus, Stratagems VII, 11 §7. Further reading[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pedubast Seheruibre. Uzume Z. Wijnsma (2018), "The Worst Revolt of the Bisitun Crisis: A Chronological Reconstruction of the Egyptian Revolt under Petubastis IV". Journal of Near Eastern Studies 77 (2), pp. 157–173. Preceded by Cambyses II Pharaoh of Egypt Twenty-seventh Dynasty Succeeded by Darius I v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Petubastis_III&oldid=974849244" Categories: 6th-century BC Pharaohs Non-dynastic pharaohs Egyptian rebels Ancient Egyptian princes 6th-century BC rulers Rebellions against the Achaemenid Empire Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Deutsch Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar Русский Slovenščina Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 25 August 2020, at 11:13 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8681	----	Eurysthenes (Pergamon) - Wikipedia Eurysthenes (Pergamon) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Coin of Prokles, brother and co-ruler of Eurysthenes, as Dynast of Teuthrania and Halisarna, circa 400-399 BC. Obv: Head of Apollo. Rev: Portrait of Prokles wearing the Persian cap. Letters ΤΕΥ ("TEU", for Teuthrania). Teuthrania, Mysia. Laureate head of Apollo left / Head of Prokles right, wearing Persian headdress. Pergamon Location of Pergamon. Eurysthenes (Greek: Εὐρυσθένης, circa 400 BC) was a descendant of the Spartan king Demaratus. After his deposition in 491 BC, Demaratus had fled to Persia, where king Darius I made him ruler of the cities of Pergamon, Teuthrania and Halisarna. About a hundred years later Eurysthenes and his brother Procles reigned over the same cities; their joint rule is at least attested for the year 399 BC.[1] Notes[edit] ^ Xenophon, Hellenika 3.1.6 References[edit] Benedikt Niese: Eurysthenes 4). In: Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft. Vol. VI, 1 (1907), col. 1353-1354. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eurysthenes_(Pergamon)&oldid=902729555" Categories: 5th-century BC births 4th-century BC deaths 4th-century BC Greek people 4th-century BC rulers Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Ancient Greeks from the Achaemenid Empire Eurypontid dynasty Hidden categories: Articles containing Greek-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Edit links This page was last edited on 20 June 2019, at 20:51 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8686	----	Sewahenre Senebmiu - Wikipedia Sewahenre Senebmiu From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sewahenre Senebmiu Sonbmiu, Sonbmijew, Senebmaui Drawing by Wallis Budge of a fragment of a limestone stele of Senebmiu, from Gebelein.[1] Pharaoh Reign after 1660 BC, possibly for 1 year (13th Dynasty) Predecessor uncertain, Se[...]kare (von Beckerath)[2] Successor unknown Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sewahenre Sw3ḥ-n-Rˁ Nomen Senebmiu Snb-miw Turin canon: Uncertain attribution Se[...]enre Karnak king list: Sewahenre Sw3ḥ-n-Rˁ Sewahenre Senebmiu (also Sonbmiu) is a poorly attested Egyptian pharaoh of the late 13th Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. According to Egyptologist Jürgen von Beckerath, he was the forty-first king of the 13th Dynasty.[2][3][4] Alternatively, Darrell Baker proposes that he may have been its fifty-seventh ruler.[5] Kim Ryholt only specifies that Senebmiu's short reign dates to between 1660 BC and 1649 BC.[6] Attestations[edit] Inscription of Senebmiu from Deir el-Barhi.[7] Senebmiu is a poorly attested pharaoh. Unfortunately, the Turin canon is severely damaged after the record of Sobekhotep VII and the identity and chronological order of the last 19 kings of the 13th Dynasty is impossible to ascertain from the document.[6] Senebmiu's prenomen Sewahenre may nonetheless have been partially preserved on column 8, line 16 of the papyrus, which reads Se[...]enre. Darrell Baker and Kim Ryholt note that this attribution is far from certain as it could also correspond to another obscure king of this period with the name Sekhaenre.[5] Otherwise, Senebmiu is attested on entry 49 of the Karnak king list, redacted during the reign of Thutmose III.[5] Contemporary attestations of Senebmiu are few and all originate from Upper Egypt. Darrell Baker and Daphna Ben Tor suggest that this may signal that the 13th Dynasty had lost control of Lower and possibly Middle Egypt at the time.[5][8] A fragment of a limestone stele discovered by G.W. Fraser in 1893 in Gebelein and now in the British Museum (BM EA24895) bears the mention "The son of Ra, of his body, Senebmiu". The stele once depicted the king wearing the double crown and probably making an offering, but most of the relief is lost. Another attestation of Senebmiu was uncovered in the mortuary temple of Mentuhotep II at Deir el-Bahri, where the side of a small naos is inscribed with the king's titulary.[5][6][7] Finally, a staff bearing the king's prenomen and inscribed for the "Royal sealer, overseer of marshland dwellers Senebni" was found in a now-lost tomb in Qurna on the west bank of the Nile opposite Karnak.[5] See also[edit] List of pharaohs References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Senebmiu Sewahenre. ^ Wallis Budge: Hieroglyphic Texts, V (1914) see p. 7 and pl. 18, available copyright-free online. ^ a b Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der Ägyptischen Königsnamen, MÄS 49, Philip Von Zabern. (1999) ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46. Mainz am Rhein, 1997 ^ a b c d e f Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I – Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 381-382 ^ a b c K.S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800 – 1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here. ^ a b Édouard Naville: The XIth dynasty temple at Deir el-Bahari, Part II, (1907) available copyright-free online ^ Daphna Ben Tor: Sequences and chronology of Second Intermediate Period royal-name scarabs, based on excavated series from Egypt and the Levant, in: The Second Intermediate Period (Thirteenth-Seventeenth Dynasties), Current Research, Future Prospects edited by Marcel Maree, Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta, 192, 2010, p. 91 v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sewahenre_Senebmiu&oldid=977322871" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Català Deutsch Español Euskara Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Slovenščina ไทย Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 8 September 2020, at 05:39 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-868	----	Sekhemre Shedwast - Wikipedia Sekhemre Shedwast From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sekhemre Shedwast Partial cartouches of Sekhemre Shedtawy Sobekemsaf II, sometimes identified with Sekhemre Shedwast Pharaoh Predecessor Bebiankh Successor Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef (disputed) Royal titulary Turin King List Sekhemre-Shed-Waset Sḫm Rˁ-šd-W3st the Might of Re which rescues Thebes' Consort Nubkhaes II (disputed) Children Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef (disputed) Sekhemre Shedwast (also Sekhemreshedwaset) was a native ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 16th Theban Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period.[1] His throne name Sekhemre Shedwast, translates literally as "the Might of Re which rescues Thebes", while his personal name is unknown.[2] Sekhemre Shedwast is unattested outside the Turin King List, where he appears as the successor of king Bebiankh.[1] It has been suggested, but not universally accepted, that Sekhemre Shedwast may be identical to Sekhemre Shedtawy Sobekemsaf II, since their throne names slightly differ. If so, he may have been married to queen Nubkhaes II and they may have had a son named Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef.[3] References[edit] ^ a b Kim Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c.1800-1550 B.C, Museum Tusculanum Press, (1997), p. 202 ^ Ryholt, p. 156 ^ Chris Bennett, A Genealogical Chronology of the Seventeenth Dynasty, Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, Vol. 39 (2002), pp. 123-155 JSTOR v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sekhemre_Shedwast&oldid=969420907" Categories: 16th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ancient Egypt people stubs Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages አማርኛ العربية Català Español فارسی Français ქართული Magyar Tagalog ไทย Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 25 July 2020, at 09:26 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8704	----	Neferkare II - Wikipedia Neferkare II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Neferkare II The cartouche of Neferkare II on the Abydos King List. Pharaoh Reign unknown duration (Eighth Dynasty) Predecessor Menkare Successor Neferkare Neby Royal titulary Nomen Neferkare Nfr-k3 rˁ Perfect is the Ka of Ra Neferkare II was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the Eighth Dynasty during the early First Intermediate Period (2181–2055 BC). According to the Egyptologists Kim Ryholt, Jürgen von Beckerath and Darell Baker he was the third king of the Eighth Dynasty.[1][2][3] As a pharaoh of the Eighth Dynasty, Neferkare II's capital would have been Memphis. Attestation[edit] Neferkare II is only attested through his name, which given on the 42nd entry of the Abydos King List. The Abydos king list was redacted some 900 years after the First intermediate period during the reign of Seti I. Another king list of the Ramesside era, the Turin canon has a large lacuna affecting many kings of the Eighth Dynasty and the duration of Neferkare II's reign, which would have been reported on the document, is lost.[2] Identity[edit] Jürgen von Beckerath tentatively identified Neferkare II with the prenomen Wadjkare ("Flourishing is the Ka of Ra"), which is attested on a graffito from the Wadi Hammamat contemporary with First Intermediate Period.[3] This identification is seemingly rejected by Baker who makes no mention of any attestion for Neferkare II beyond the Abydos king list, while Thomas Schneider relates Wadjkare to either Neferkare II or Neferirkare II.[2][4] References[edit] ^ Kim Ryholt: "The Late Old Kingdom in the Turin King-list and the Identity of Nitocris", Zeitschrift für ägyptische, 127, 2000, p. 99 ^ a b c Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 265 ^ a b Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz : P. von Zabern, 1999, ISBN 3-8053-2591-6, available online Archived 2015-12-22 at the Wayback Machine see p. 66 ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen, Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3. Preceded by Menkare? Pharaoh of Egypt Eighth Dynasty? Succeeded by Neferkare Neby? v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neferkare_II&oldid=973447767" Categories: 22nd-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Eighth Dynasty of Egypt 22nd-century BC rulers 22nd century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Português Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 17 August 2020, at 08:08 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8710	----	Cyrus the Younger - Wikipedia Cyrus the Younger From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Cyrus the Younger Anonymous portrait of a Satrap of Asia Minor, around the time of Cyrus the Younger. From a coin of Ionia, Phokaia, circa 478-387 BC Died 401 BC Allegiance Achaemenid Empire Rank Satrap Battles/wars Battle of Cunaxa Cyrus the Younger (Old Persian: 𐎤𐎢𐎽𐎢𐏁 Kūruš), son of Darius II of Persia and Parysatis, was a Persian prince and general, Satrap of Lydia and Ionia from 408 to 401 BC. His birth date is unknown, but he died in 401 BC during a failed battle to oust his elder brother, Artaxerxes II, from the Persian throne. The history of Cyrus and of the retreat of his Greek mercenaries is told by Xenophon in his Anabasis. Another account, probably from Sophaenetus of Stymphalus, was used by Ephorus. Further information is contained in the excerpts from Artaxerxes II's physician, Ctesias, by Photius; Plutarch’s Lives of Artaxerxes II and Lysander; and Thucydides' History of Peloponnesian War.[1] These are the only early sources of information on Cyrus the Younger. Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Satrap of Asia Minor (408-401 BC) and support for Sparta 1.2 Expedition against Artaxerxes II (401 BC) 2 Excerpts from Xenophon's account of Cyrus' life 3 Plutarch's account of Cyrus' death 4 Modern appearances 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Biography[edit] Cyrus the Younger fought his elder brother Artaxerxes II. According to Xenophon, Cyrus the Younger was born after the accession of his father in 424 BC.[citation needed] He had an elder brother, Arsicas (whose name changed to Artaxerxes II when he ascended the throne), and two younger brothers named Ostanes and Oxathres. About Cyrus' childhood, Plutarch wrote, "Cyrus, from his earliest youth, showed something of a headstrong and vehement character; Artaxerxes, on the other side, was gentler in everything, and of a nature more yielding and soft in its action."[2] Xenophon spoke more highly of Cyrus' excellence as a child: In this courtly training Cyrus earned a double reputation; first he was held to be a paragon of modesty among his fellows, rendering an obedience to his elders which exceeded that of many of his own inferiors; and next he bore away the palm for skill in horsemanship and for love of the animal itself. Nor less in matters of war, in the use of the bow and the javelin, was he held by men in general to be at once the aptest of learners and the most eager practiser. As soon as his age permitted, the same pre-eminence showed itself in his fondness for the chase, not without a certain appetite for perilous adventure in facing the wild beasts themselves. Once a bear made a furious rush at him, and without wincing he grappled with her, and was pulled from his horse, receiving wounds the scars of which were visible through life; but in the end he slew the creature, nor did he forget him who first came to his aid, but made him enviable in the eyes of many.[3] Satrap of Asia Minor (408-401 BC) and support for Sparta[edit] Meeting between Cyrus the Younger and Spartan general Lysander in Sardis. The encounter was related by Xenophon.[4] Francesco Antonio Grue (1618-1673). In 408 BC, after the victories of Alcibiades leading to an Athenian resurgence, Darius II decided to continue the war against Athens and give strong support to the Spartans. He sent Cyrus the Younger into Asia Minor as satrap of Lydia and Phrygia Major with Cappadocia, and commander of the Persian troops, "which gather into the field of Castolos", i.e. of the army of the district of Asia Minor.[5] There, Cyrus met the Spartan general Lysander. In him, Cyrus found a man who was willing to help him become king, just as Lysander himself hoped to become absolute ruler of Greece by the aid of the Persian prince. Thus, Cyrus put all his means at the disposal of Lysander in the Peloponnesian War. When Cyrus was recalled to Susa by his father Darius, he gave Lysander the revenues from all of his cities of Asia Minor.[6] Around that time, Darius fell ill and called his son to his deathbed;[7] Cyrus handed money over to Lysander and went to Susa.[8] Plutarch wrote that Cyrus's mother, Parysatis, favored him and wanted him on the throne, "And therefore, his father Darius now lying ill, he, being sent for from the sea to the court, set out thence with full hopes that by her means he was to be declared the successor to the kingdom. For Parysatis had the specious plea in his behalf, which Xerxes on the advice of Demaratus had of old made use of, that she had borne him Arsicas when he was a subject, but Cyrus when a king. Notwithstanding, she prevailed not with Darius, but the eldest son Arsicas was proclaimed king, his name being changed into Artaxerxes; and Cyrus remained satrap of Lydia, and commander in the maritime provinces."[2] Soon after Darius died, around the time of Artaxerxes II's accession in 404 BC,[9] Tissaphernes (Ciθrafarna) denounced Cyrus' plan to assassinate his brother, and Cyrus was captured, but by the intercession of Parysatis, Cyrus was pardoned and sent back to his satrapy. According to Plutarch, "his resentment for [his arrest] made him more eagerly desirous of the kingdom than before."[2] In 405 BC, Lysander won the battle of Aegospotami, and Sparta became more influential in the Greek world. Expedition against Artaxerxes II (401 BC)[edit] Battle of Cunaxa, where Cyrus the Younger died. The Greek mercenaries of Cyrus (the "Ten Thousand"), are shown being encircled. Cyrus managed to gather a large army by beginning a quarrel with Tissaphernes, satrap of Caria, about the Ionian towns; he also pretended to prepare an expedition against the Pisidians, a mountainous tribe in the Taurus, which was never obedient to the Empire.[10] In the spring of 401 BC, Cyrus united all his forces into an army now including Xenophon's "Ten Thousand", and advanced from Sardis without announcing the object of his expedition. By dexterous management and large promises, he overcame the misgivings of the Greek troops over the length and danger of the war; a Spartan fleet of thirty-five triremes under the command of Pythagoras the Spartan sent to Cilicia opened the passes of the Amanus into Syria and conveyed to him a Spartan detachment of 700 men under Spartan General Cheirisophus. Cyrus the Younger had obtained the support of the Spartans after having asked them "to show themselves as good friend to him, as he had been to them during their war against Athens", in reference to the support he had given the Spartan in the Peloponnesian War against Athens a few years earlier.[11] The king had only been warned at the last moment by Tissaphernes and gathered an army in haste; Cyrus advanced into Babylonia before he met with an enemy. In October 401 BC, the battle of Cunaxa ensued. Cyrus had 10,400 Greek hoplites (citizen-soldiers), 2,500 peltasts (light infantry), and an Asiatic army of approximately 10,000 under the command of Ariaeus.[citation needed] Cyrus saw that the outcome depended on the fate of the king; he therefore wanted Clearchus, the commander of the Greeks, to take the centre against Artaxerxes. Clearchus, afraid of the army's encirclement, disobeyed and remained on the flank. As a result, the left wing of the Persians under Tissaphernes was free to engage the rest of Cyrus' forces; Cyrus in the centre threw himself upon Artaxerxes but was slain. Tissaphernes claimed to have killed the rebel himself, and Parysatis later took vengeance upon the slayer of her favorite son.[citation needed] The Persian troops, instead of attacking the Greeks via a direct assault, decoyed them into the interior, beyond the Tigris, and then attacked through trickery. After their commanders had been taken prisoners, the Greeks managed to force their way to the Black Sea.[citation needed] Excerpts from Xenophon's account of Cyrus' life[edit] Route of Cyrus the Younger and the Ten Thousand mercenaries to Cunaxa, and return route of the Ten Thousand led by Xenophon, back to Byzantium, in red. The satrapy of Cyrus the Younger is delineated in green. Xenophon wrote that all who knew Cyrus well considered him the most worthy of being king of all those born since Cyrus the Great and describes him with great praise: After he had been sent down by his father to be satrap of Lydia and Great Phrygia and Cappadocia, and had been appointed general of the forces, whose business it is to muster in the plain of the Castolus, nothing was more noticeable in his conduct than the importance which he attached to the faithful fulfillment of every treaty or compact or undertaking entered into with others. He would tell no lies to any one. Thus doubtless it was that he won the confidence alike of individuals and of the communities entrusted to his care; or in case of hostility, a treaty made with Cyrus was a guarantee sufficient to the combatant that he would suffer nothing contrary to its terms. Therefore, in the war with Tissaphernes, all the states of their own accord chose Cyrus in lieu of Tissaphernes, except only the men of Miletus, and these were only alienated through fear of him, because he refused to abandon their exiled citizens; and his deeds and words bore emphatic witness to his principle: even if they were weakened in number or in fortune, he would never abandon those who had once become his friends. He made no secret of his endeavour to outdo his friends and his foes alike in reciprocity of conduct. The prayer has been attributed to him, "God grant I may live along enough to recompense my friends and requite my foes with a strong arm."[3] According to Xenophon, his efforts to reward uprightness earned Cyrus the loyalty and love of many followers: Cyrus the Younger in the Achaemenid lineage. Many were the gifts bestowed on him, for many and diverse reasons; no one man, perhaps, ever received more; no one, certainly, was ever more ready to bestow them upon others, with an eye ever to the taste of each, so as to gratify what he saw to be the individual requirement. Many of these presents were sent to him to serve as personal adornments of the body or for battle; and as touching these he would say, "How am I to deck myself out in all these? To my mind a man's chief ornament is the adornment of nobly-adorned friends." Indeed, that he should triumph over his friends in the great matters of welldoing is not surprising, seeing that he was much more powerful than they, but that he should go beyond them in minute attentions, and in an eager desire to give pleasure, seems to me, I must confess, more admirable. Frequently when he had tasted some specially excellent wine, he would send the half remaining flagon to some friend with a message to say: "Cyrus says, this is the best wine he has tasted for a long time, that is his excuse for sending it to you. He hopes you will drink it up to-day with a choice party of friends." Or, perhaps, he would send the remainder of a dish of geese, half loaves of bread, and so forth, the bearer being instructed to say: "This is Cyrus's favourite dish, he hopes you will taste it yourself." Or, perhaps, there was a great dearth of provender, when, through the number of his servants and his own careful forethought, he was enabled to get supplies for himself; at such times he would send to his friends in different parts, bidding them feed their horses on his hay, since it would not do for the horses that carried his friends to go starving. Then, on any long march or expedition, where the crowd of lookers-on would be large, he would call his friends to him and entertain them with serious talk, as much as to say, "These I delight to honour." [3] Plutarch's account of Cyrus' death[edit] According to the chapter on Artaxerxes II in Plutarch's Life, a young Persian soldier named Mithridates unknowingly struck Cyrus the Younger during the Battle of Cunaxa (Greek: Κούναξα), making him fall from his horse, dazed. Some eunuchs found Cyrus and tried to bring him to safety, but a Caunian among the king's camp followers struck a vein behind his knee with a dart, making him fall and strike his head on a stone, whereupon he died. Unwisely, Mithridates boasted of killing Cyrus in the court, and Parysatis had him executed by scaphism. She likewise got vengeance on Masabates, the king's eunuch, who had cut off Cyrus' hand and head, by winning him from her son Artaxerxes in a game of dice and having him flayed alive.[2] Modern appearances[edit] Conn Iggulden - The Falcon of Sparta - a historical novel about Prince Cyrus's quest and the survival of the Greek mercenaries who walked out of Persia while pursued. Michael Curtis Ford - The Ten Thousand - a historical novel about the 10,000 Greek mercenaries who made up the core of Cyrus's army. Michael G. Thomas - Black Legion: Gates of Cilicia - a science fiction retelling of the tale of Anabasis. The Black Legion series closely follows the original historical narrative with most of the characters retained. Robin Waterfield - Xenophon's Retreat: Greece, Persia, and the End of the Golden Age (London: Faber and Faber Ltd., 2006) is a summary of Xenophon's Anabasis or The Expedition of Cyrus. See also[edit] Xenophon Anabasis Aspasia References[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Cyrus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 706–708. ^ Strassler, R.B. (1996). The Landmark Thucydides: A Comprehensive Guide to the Peloponnesian War. Free Press New York. pp. 128, 549. ISBN 0-684-82790-5. ^ a b c d Plutarch. Ed. by A.H. Clough. "Artaxerxes," Plutarch's Lives. 1996. Project Gutenberg ^ a b c Xenophon. Tr. H. G. Dakyns. Anabasis I.IX. Project Gutenberg. ^ Rollin, Charles (1851). The Ancient History of the Egyptians, Carthaginians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Medes and Persians, Grecians, and Macedonians. W. Tegg and Company. p. 110. ^ The Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature and General Information. University Press. 1910. p. 708. ^ "He then assigned to Lysander all the tribute which came in from his cities and belonged to him personally, and gave him also the balance he had on hand; and, after reminding Lysander how good a friend he was both to the Lacedaemonian state and to him personally, he set out on the journey to his father." in Xenophon, Hellenica 2.1.14 ^ Xenophon. Tr. H. G. Dakyns. Anabasis I.I. Project Gutenberg. ^ Plutarch. Ed. by A.H. Clough. "Lysander," Plutarch's Lives. 1996. Project Gutenberg ^ Revolt and Resistance in the Ancient Classical World and the Near East : In the Crucible of Empire. Collins, John J. (John Joseph), 1946-, Manning, Joseph Gilbert. Leiden. ISBN 978-90-04-33017-7. OCLC 951955827.CS1 maint: others (link) ^ Brownson, Carlson L. (Carleton Lewis) (1886). Xenophon;. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press. ^ Brownson, Carlson L. (Carleton Lewis) (1886). Xenophon;. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press. pp. I-2-22. External links[edit] Livius.org: Cyrus the Younger v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Authority control BNE: XX4908368 GND: 118872834 ISNI: 0000 0000 9853 1635 LCCN: n80051714 NKC: jn20021017001 PLWABN: 9810549296205606 SELIBR: 262864 SUDOC: 071044744 VIAF: 33294704 WorldCat Identities: viaf-5263147665827260670005 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cyrus_the_Younger&oldid=993447741" Categories: 5th-century BC births 401 BC deaths Achaemenid dynasty 5th-century BC rulers Anabasis (Xenophon) 5th-century BC Iranian people Achaemenid satraps of Lydia Achaemenid satraps of Ionia Rebellions against the Achaemenid Empire Rebellious princes Accidental deaths from falls Iranian rebels Hidden categories: CS1 maint: others Articles containing Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2012 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Беларуская Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 December 2020, at 17:40 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8732	----	Ahasuerus - Wikipedia Ahasuerus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Ahasverus" redirects here. For the beetle, see Ahasverus (genus). Esther before Ahasuerus (1547-48), Tintoretto, Royal Collection. Ahasuerus (/əˌhæzjuˈɪərəs/ ə-HAZ-ew-EER-əs; Hebrew: אֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹשׁ‎, Modern: ʼAḥašvērōš, Tiberian: ʼAẖašwērōš, commonly Achashverosh;[a] Koine Greek: Ασουηρος, romanized: Asouēros, in the Septuagint; Latin: Assuerus in the Vulgate) is a name applied in the Hebrew Bible to three rulers and to a Babylonian official (or Median king) in the Book of Tobit. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Biblical references 2.1 Book of Esther 2.1.1 Historical identification 2.2 Book of Ezra 2.3 Book of Daniel 2.4 Book of Tobit 3 In legends 4 Notes 5 References 6 Sources 7 External links Etymology[edit] The original name was Old Persian Xšaya.rša (< xšaya 'king' + aršan 'male' > 'king of all male; Hero among Kings'). This became Babylonian Aḥšiyaršu (𒄴𒅆𒐊𒅈𒋗, aḫ-ši-ia-ar-šu), then becoming Akšiwaršu (𒀝𒅆𒄿𒈠𒅈𒍪, ak-ši-i-wa6-ar-šu), borrowed into Hebrew as אחשורוש ʼĂḥašwêrôš, and thence into Latin as Ahasuerus, the form traditionally used in English Bibles.[1][2] The Persian name was independently rendered in Ancient Greek as Ξέρξης Xérxēs. Many newer English translations and paraphrases of the Bible[3] have used the name Xerxes. Biblical references[edit] The Banquet of Ahasuerus, Aert de Gelder Book of Esther[edit] Ahasuerus is given as the name of a king, the husband of Esther, in the Book of Esther. He is said to have ruled "from India even unto Ethiopia, over an hundred and seven and twenty provinces" - that is, over the Achaemenid Empire.[4] There is no reference to known historical events in the story; the narrative of Esther was invented to provide an aetiology for Purim, and the name Ahasuerus is usually understood to refer to a fictionalized Xerxes I, who ruled the Achaemenid Empire between 486 and 465 BCE.[5][6] Persian kings did not marry outside a restricted number of Persian noble families and it is impossible that there was a Jewish queen Esther; in any case the historical Xerxes's queen was Amestris.[7] In the Septuagint, the Book of Esther refers to this king as 'Artaxerxes' (Ancient Greek: Αρταξέρξης).[8] Historical identification[edit] The wrath of Ahasuerus (anonymous), Rijksmuseum Numerous scholars have proposed theories as to who Ahasuerus represents. Most scholars generally identify him with Xerxes I, as did 19th-century Bible commentaries.[9] Three factors, among others, contribute to this identification: It is agreed the Hebrew 'Ahasuerus' descended from the Persian names for Xerxes I. Additionally, the form of the king's name written in Esther 10:1, ’aḥašērōš (Hebrew: אֲחַשֵׁרֹשׁ‎) bears much more resemblance to the original old Persian Xšayārša than the standard Hebrew form which does not omit the word's vavs.[citation needed] Historian Herodotus records Xerxes I having penchants for women and wine, as well as mentioning the king ruled from India to Ethiopia in a magnificent palace in Shusan (Susa), all of which the Book of Esther corroborates. Herodotus also mentions that Xerxes I sought comfort in his harem following his defeat at Salamis in the tenth month of his seventh year as king,[citation needed] which is strikingly similar to the date of Ahasuerus choosing beautiful women from his harem in the tenth month of his seventh year as king (Esther 2:16). Annals from the reign of Xerxes I mention an otherwise unattested official by the name of "Marduka", which some have proposed refers to Mordecai, as both are mentioned serving in the king's court.[citation needed] The Septuagint, the Vulgate, the Midrash of Esther Rabbah, I, 3 and the Josippon identify the king as Artaxerxes I, and the historian Josephus relates that this was the name by which he was known to the Greeks.[10] The Ethiopic text calls him Arťeksis, usually the Ethiopic equivalent of Artaxerxes. Book of Ezra[edit] Ahasuerus and Haman at Esther's Feast, by Rembrandt Ahasuerus is also given as the name of a King of Persia in the Book of Ezra.[11] Modern commentators associate him with Xerxes I who reigned from 486 BC until 465 BC. Other identifications have been made for Cambyses II[12] or with Bardiya (Greek Smerdis) who reigned (perhaps as an imposter) for seven months between Cambyses II and Darius I.[13] Book of Daniel[edit] Esther before Ahasuerus, Artemisia Gentileschi, c. 1630 Ahasuerus is given as the name of the father of Darius the Mede in the Book of Daniel.[14] Josephus names Astyages as the father of Darius the Mede, and the description of the latter as uncle and father-in-law of Cyrus by mediaeval Jewish commentators matches that of Cyaxares II, who is said to be the son of Astyages by Xenophon. Thus this Ahasuerus is commonly identified with Astyages. He is alternatively identified, together with the Ahasuerus of the Book of Tobit, as Cyaxares I, said to be the father of Astyages. Views differ on how to reconcile the sources in this case. One view is that the description of Ahasuerus as the "father" of Darius the Mede should be understood in the broader sense of "forebear" or "ancestor." Another view notes that on the Behistun Inscription, "Cyaxares" is a family name, and thus considers the description as literal, viewing Astyages as an intermediate ruler wrongly placed in the family line in the Greek sources. Most scholars view Darius the Mede as a literary fiction, or possibly a conflation of Darius the Great with prophecies about the Medes.[15][16] Book of Tobit[edit] In some versions of the deuterocanonical Book of Tobit, Ahasuerus is given as the name of an associate of Nebuchadnezzar, who together with him, destroyed Nineveh just before Tobit's death.[17] A traditional Catholic view is that he is identical to the Ahasuerus of Daniel 9:1[18] In the Codex Sinaiticus Greek (LXX) edition, the two names in this verse appear instead as one name, Ahikar (also the name of another character in the story of Tobit). Other Septuagint texts have the name Achiachar. Western scholars have proposed that Achiachar is a variant form of the name "Cyaxares I of Media", who historically did destroy Nineveh, in 612 BC. In legends[edit] In some versions of the legend of the Wandering Jew, his true name is held to be Ahasuerus.[19] This is the name by which Immanuel Kant refers to the Wandering Jew in The Only Possible Argument in Support of a Demonstration of the Existence of God.[20] Notes[edit] ^ Cf. Old Persian: 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠𐎴, romanized: Xšaya-ṛšā; Persian: اخشورش‎, romanized: Axšoreš; New Persian: خشایار‎, romanized: Xašāyār; Ancient Greek: Ξέρξης, romanized: Xérxēs. References[edit] ^ KJV, NASB, Amplified Bible, ESV, 21st Century King James Version, ASV, Young's Literal Translation, Darby Translation, Holman Christian Standard Bible, etc. ^ Nichol, F.D., Seventh-day Adventist Bible Commentary, Volume 3, Review and Herald Publishing Association, (Washington, D.C., 1954 edition), p.459, "Historical Setting" ^ NIV, The Message, NLT, CEV, NCV, NIRV, TNIV, etc. ^ Esther 1 ^ Browning, W. R. F., ed. (2009), "Ahasuerus", A Dictionary of the Bible (2nd ed.), Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780199543984.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-954398-4, retrieved 2020-04-17, The story is fictitious and written to provide an account of the origin of the feast of Purim; the book contains no references to the known historical events of the reign of Xerxes. ^ Tucker, Gene M. (2004) [1993], Metzger, Bruce M.; Coogan, Michael D. (eds.), "Esther, The Book of", The Oxford Companion to the Bible, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780195046458.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-504645-8, retrieved 2020-04-17, Although the details of its setting are entirely plausible and the story may even have some basis in actual events, in terms of literary genre the book is not history. ^ Littman, Robert J. (1975). "The Religious Policy of Xerxes and the "Book of Esther"". The Jewish Quarterly Review. 65 (3): 146. doi:10.2307/1454354. JSTOR 1454354. Xerxes could not have wed a Jewess because this was contrary to the practices of Persian monarchs who married only into one of the seven leading Persian families. History records that Xerxes was married to Amestris, not Vashti or Esther. There is no historical record of a personage known as Esther, or a queen called Vashti or a vizier Haman, or a high placed courtier Mordecai. Mordecai was said to have been among the exiles deported from Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, but that deportation occurred 112 years before Xerxes became king. ^ "Esther 1 And it came to pass in the days of Artaxerxes. This Artaxerxes held a hundred twenty-seven regions from India". studybible.info. Retrieved 2020-04-18. ^ "The Religious Policy of Xerxes and the 'Book of Esther'", Littman, Robert J., The Jewish Quarterly Review, 65.3, January 1975, p.145–148. ^ Ahasuerus at the JewishEncyclopedia.com ^ Ezra 4:5–7 ^ Gill's Exposition of the Whole Bible, as quoted by Bible.cc/ezra/4-7.htm ^ Clarke's Commentary on the Bible, as quoted by Bible.cc/ezra/4-7.htm ^ Daniel 9:1 ^ Hill 2009, p. 114. ^ House, Paul R. (20 November 2018). Daniel: An Introduction and Commentary. InterVarsity Press. p. 117. ISBN 978-0-8308-9100-9. ^ Book of Tobit, 14:15. ^ Maas, Anthony (1907). Assuerus. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved April 15, 2009 from New Advent ^ Andrei Oişteanu, "The legend of the wandering Jew in Europe and Romania". Archived from the original on 2008-02-03. Retrieved 2008-03-12. Studia Hebraica. ^ Kant, I. Der einzig mögliche Beweisgrund zu einer Demonstration des Daseins Gottes. 1763. AA 2:76 Sources[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Assuerus". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Hill, Andrew E. (2009). "Daniel-Malachi". In Longman, Tremper; Garland, David E. (eds.). The Expositor's Bible Commentary. 8. Zondervan. ISBN 9780310590545. Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Ahasuerus. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ahasuerus. McCullough, W. S. (1984). "Ahasureus". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 6. pp. 634–635. v t e Purim  (פּוּרִים) Overview Gragger Purim spiel Purim Torah Foods Hamantash Fazuelos Impade Kreplach Mishloach manot Background Book of Esther Esther (in rabbinic literature) Haman (in rabbinic literature) Mordecai Ahasuerus Bigthan and Teresh Vashti Zeresh Religious Fast of Esther Shushan Purim Purim HaMeshulash Purim Katan Second Purim Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ahasuerus&oldid=998748435" Categories: Ahasuerus Babylonian captivity Monarchs of the Hebrew Bible Book of Daniel Book of Esther Darius the Mede Hidden categories: Articles containing Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text Articles containing Persian-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Latin-language text Articles containing Akkadian-language text Articles containing Hebrew-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2018 Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Articles incorporating text from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Commons category link from Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Català Cymraeg Deutsch Eesti Español Euskara فارسی Français 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia עברית Malagasy Nederlands Português Română Русский Suomi Svenska Українська اردو ייִדיש 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 January 2021, at 21:29 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-873	----	Hyrcania - Wikipedia Hyrcania From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Hyrcanian) Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Hyrcania (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Hercynia. Historical region in the south-east of the Caspian sea Hyrcania Gurgān Province of the Median, Achaemenid, Seleucid, Arsacid, and Sasanian Empire 548 BC–651 AD Achaemenid Empire, with Province of Hyrcania Capital Zadracarta (548 BC–225 AD) Gurgān (225–651 AD) Historical era Antiquity • Established 548 BC • Fall of the Sasanian Empire 651 AD Today part of  Iran  Turkmenistan Hyrcania (/hərˈkeɪniə/) (Greek: Ὑρκανία Hyrkania,[1] Old Persian: 𐎺𐎼𐎣𐎠𐎴 Varkâna,[2] Middle Persian: 𐭢𐭥𐭫𐭢𐭠𐭭 Gurgān, Akkadian: Urqananu)[2] is a historical region composed of the land south-east of the Caspian Sea in modern-day Iran and Turkmenistan, bound in the south by the Alborz mountain range and the Kopet Dag in the east.[3] The region served as a satrapy (province) of the Median Empire, a sub-province of the Achaemenid Empire, and a province within its successors, the Seleucid, Arsacid and Sasanian empires. Hyrcania bordered Parthia to the east (later known as Abarshahr), Dihistan to the north, Media to the south and Mardia to the west. Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Pre-Hellenistic Period 2.2 Hellenistic Period 2.3 Post-Hellenistic Period 3 Religion 4 Literary references 5 List of governors 6 See also 7 References 8 Sources Etymology[edit] Hyrcania (Ὑρκανία) is the Greek name for the region, a borrowing from the Old Persian Verkâna as recorded in Darius the Great's Behistun Inscription (522 BC), as well as in other Old Persian cuneiform inscriptions. Verkā means "wolf" in Old Iranian, cf. Avestan vəhrkō, Gilaki and Mazandarani Verk, Modern Persian gorg, and Sanskrit Vŗka (वृक). Consequently, Hyrcania means "Wolf-land". The name was extended to the Caspian Sea and underlie the name of the city Sari (Zadracarta), the then-largest city and the capital of ancient Hyrcania. Another archaic name, Dahistān (not to be confused with dehestan – a modern Iranian word for "district" or "county") is sometimes used interchangeably with Hyrcania. Dahistān refers, strictly speaking to the "place of the Dahae": an extinct people who lived immediately north of Hyrcania, as early as the 5th century BC.[4] Apart from the geographical proximity of the Dahae, their ethnonym may have etymological similarities to "Hyrcanians"; for example, religious historian David Gordon White, reiterating a point made by previous scholars, suggests that Dahae resembles the Proto-Indo-European *dhau "strangle", which was apparently also a euphemism for "wolf".[5] History[edit] Pre-Hellenistic Period[edit] Hyrcania formed part of the Median Empire by 600 BC, and according to Nicolaus Damascenus, was administered as a satrapy by the time of the last Median king, Astyages, who appointed a certain Artasyras as satrap (governor).[6] Upon the fall of the Median Empire, the region willingly submitted to the Achaemenid Empire and was occupied by Cyrus the Great in 549-548 BC,[7] and for a time Artasyras continued as satrap under Cyrus,[8] prior to his replacement by Astyages himself.[6] According to Ctesias, Astyages' grandson Megabernes also served as satrap of Hyrcania.[6] Hyrcanians gave their name to the Hyrcanian plain in the middle Hermus valley in Lydia where they were settled, most likely during the reign of Cyrus the Great, as part of a policy to establish military colonies in Asia Minor.[9] Under the Achaemenid Empire, Hyrcania served as a sub-province of the satrapy of Parthia, which was also known as the satrapy of Parthia and Hyrcania.[6] At times, Cadusia may have been administered as part of Hyrcania.[10] Fortifications to protect Hyrcania against nomadic incursions were constructed during the Achaemenid period.[11] Following Darius the Great's victory over the Magian usurper, Gaumata, in September 522 BC, revolts spread throughout the empire.[12] In December 522 BC, a revolt in support of the Median leader Phraortes erupted in Hyrcania,[2] and in March 521 BC, the Hyrcanian rebels unsuccessfully attacked Hystaspes, satrap of Parthia.[13] In May, Phraortes was defeated and Hyrcania returned to Achaemenid rule.[13] Darius later settled Hyrcanians in the settlement of Dareionkome (Greek: Δαρειονκώμη) in the Hyrcanian Plain in Lydia.[9] Other Hyrcanian settlements in the Hermus valley include Ormoita and Tyanolla.[14] According to Herodotus, Hyrcanian soldiers participated in the Second Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BC under the command of Megapanus.[15] After the war, a garrison composed of Hyrcanian soldiers was posted in the valleys of the rivers Hermus and Caicus.[2] Under Xerxes I, Hyrcania was likely detached from the satrapy of Parthia and administered separately.[16] Some sources imply Hyrcania was later administered as a sub-province of Media.[16] According to Ctesias, Artaxerxes I appointed his illegitimate son Ochus as satrap of Hyrcania in c. 425 BC,[17] who later assumed the throne as Darius II and appointed Idernes as satrap.[15] Idernes' son Terituchmes succeeded him as satrap of Hyrcania following his death and was married to Amestris, daughter of Darius II, but Terituchmes was murdered by Udiastes, a henchman of Terituchmes, for conspiring to murder Amestris and revolt against Darius so he could wed his half-sister Roxana.[15] By the time of Alexander the Great's invasion of the Achaemenid Empire in 334 BC, Hyrcania was reattached to the satrapy of Parthia and administered as a sub-province.[16] Hyrcanian soldiers are mentioned in the Battle of Gaugamela against Alexander in 331 BC. After the death of Darius III in 330 BC, many Persian noblemen fled to Hyrcania.[2] Alexander reached Hyrcania in 330 BC, where he accepted the surrender of Phrataphernes, satrap of Hyrcania and Parthia, and chiliarch Nabarzanes.[15] Alexander seized Zadracarta, the capital of Hyrcania, hereafter known as Syrinx, later that year and received the surrender of other satraps and nobles.[18] Whilst in Hyrcania, Alexander appointed his general Amminapes as satrap of Hyrcania and Parthia,[19] but was succeeded as satrap of Hyrcania by Autophradates, satrap of Mardia and Tapuria, not long after.[20] In 328 BC, Autophradates rebelled against Alexander and Phrataphernes, who had been reinstated as satrap of Parthia, was sent to quell the revolt.[21] Autophradates was defeated and executed by Alexander at Pasargadae in 324 BC and Phrataphernes was granted the satrapies of Hyrcania, Tapuria, and Mardia.[21] Hellenistic Period[edit] Following the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, his empire was divided amongst the Diadochi in the Partition of Babylon, which confirmed Phrataphernes' control of Hyrcania and Parthia.[21] The Partition of Triparadisus in 321 BC granted Parthia and Hyrcania to Philip,[21] however, Philip was killed by Peithon, satrap of Media, in 318 BC and Peithon appointed his brother Eudemus as satrap.[15] Eudemus was driven from Parthia and Hyrcania in 317 BC by Peithon, satrap of the Indus, who was subsequently defeated in 315 BC by Antigonus, allowing Antigonus to take control of the Asian territories of the empire.[22] Antigonus appointed Nicanor satrap of Hyrcania and Parthia, also known as the upper satrapies, in 315 BC and continued in this office until his death during the Babylonian War in battle against Seleucus in 310 BC which allowed Seleucus to conquer the eastern territories of the empire and form the Seleucid Empire.[23] Seleucus' son, Antiochus I, appointed Andragoras as satrap of Parthia and Hyrcania at an unknown date prior to 266 BC, but rebelled against his successor Antiochus II in c. 245 BC.[24] Andragoras may have founded the city of Dehestān during his tenure as satrap.[15] Andragoras was killed in 238 BC during the Parni conquest of Parthia, led by Arsaces, who went on to conquer Hyrcania in 235 BC, thereafter forming part of the Arsacid Empire.[25] Seleucus II attempted to reassert Seleucid control of Hyrcania and Parthia in 231 BC, but was unsuccessful as he was forced to return to Asia Minor to quell unrest.[26] Following the Battle of Mount Labus in 209 BC, Antiochus III invaded Hyrcania and seized the cities of Tambrax and Syrinx,[15] forcing Arsaces II, who was permitted to continue his rule over Hyrcania and Parthia, to become a vassal of the Seleucid Empire.[27] During the siege of Syrinx, when the wall was breached, the garrison slaughtered the Greek inhabitants and attempted to flee.[28] Arsaces II may have reasserted his independence in 189 BC, following Antiochus' defeat at the hands of the Romans at the Battle of Magnesia in 190 BC.[29] During the reign of Antiochus IV, in the late 2nd century BC, Hyrcania still formed part of the Seleucid Empire.[30] After Mithridates' conquest of Media in 148 BC, Hyrcanians launched an unsuccessful revolt, which was crushed by Mithridates shortly afterwards.[31] Hyrcania served as a royal retreat and Mithridates retired there in 141 BC.[15] In 139 BC, Demetrius II launched an invasion of the Arsacid Empire only to be defeated and captured, following which he was provided a princely residence in Hyrcania and married to Rhodogune, daughter of Mithridates.[31] In 129 BC, the Saka tribes invaded and pillaged Hyrcania, alongside other eastern provinces, and defeated and killed two successive Arsacid kings.[32] Soon after his ascension to the throne in 124 BC, Mithridates II, recovered Hyrcania and re-established Arsacid control.[33] Post-Hellenistic Period[edit] Artabanus, king of Hyrcania, belonging to a collateral branch of the Arsacid dynasty, led a revolt against the Roman-backed Vonones I in 10 AD and successfully usurped the throne, becoming Artabanus III.[34] Roman interference in the Arsacid Empire resulted in the ascension of Tiridates III in 36 AD, exiling Artabanus III to Hyrcania for a short time.[15] During his exile in Hyrcania, Artabanus III adopted Gotarzes, son of Ardawan,[35] satrap of Hyrcania.[36] Artabanus III retrieved the throne and was succeeded by his son Vardanes I in 38 AD, however, Gotarzes unsuccessfully attempted to usurp the throne and was forced into exile amongst the Dahae.[31] Gotarzes invaded Hyrcania in 46 AD with the support of the Hyrcanians and Dahae to press his claim to the throne, however, upon Gotarzes' discovery of a plot amongst the nobles to remove both Gotarzes and Vardanes I and place another upon the throne, the two brothers made peace.[31] Gotarzes agreed to not press his claim to the throne and was appointed satrap of Hyrcania, only to revolt with the support of a number of nobles and attempt to press his claim once more.[31] Gotarzes was defeated in Hyrcania and forced into exile amongst the Dahae until the death of Vardanes I in 47 AD, thus becoming Gotarzes II.[37] Under the Arsacid Empire, the Great Wall of Gorgan, a series of forts and outposts with the plains of Hyrcania, was constructed to aid in the defence of Hyrcania against raids undertaken by the neighbouring Dahae tribes.[38] At the beginning of the Roman–Parthian War of 58–63, a rebellion erupted in Hyrcania and rebels sent envoys to Emperor Nero requesting aid.[39] The rebellion raged until 60 AD when Vologases I hastily concluded a peace treaty with the rebels to allow him to deal with the threat posed by the Romans.[40] However, the peace treaty did not last and the Hyrcanians launched another revolt that continued until at least 75 AD.[31] In 75 AD, the Hyrcanian rebels allied with nomadic Alan tribes and granted them safe passage through Hyrcania into Media, allowing the Alans to pillage Media and Armenia.[31] In the time of the reign of the Emperor Antoninus Pius (138–161), Hyrcania had made itself independent and was not considered part of the Arsacid Empire.[41] Hyrcania is mentioned as Li-chien (or Li-kan, 黎幹) in the 2nd century AD Book of Han.[42] Hyrcania was annexed to the Sasanian Empire in 225 AD by Ardashir I,[15] after which the provincial centre was moved to Gurgān, which lent its name to the province during this period.[43] The House of Aspahbadh, one of the Seven Great Houses, held lands principally within the region.[44] Whilst staying in Hyrcania in 420 AD, Yazdegerd I was assassinated by the nobility who alleged that he had been killed by a white horse that emerged from and disappeared into a stream.[45] The myth propagated by the nobility led people to believe the white horse was an angel sent by Ahura Mazda to end Yazdegerd's tyranny.[46] Gurgān is known to have held a mint as early as the reign of Yazdegerd II.[43] An unsuccessful revolt led by Vahan Amatuni, assistant governor of Armenia, led to his, and other members of the Amatuni noble family, exile in Hyrcania in 451 AD.[47] Priests and other nobles who had led the revolt against Yazdegerd II were also deported to Hyrcania where they stayed until they were moved to the city of New-Shapur in Abarshahr in 453 AD.[48] During the reign of Peroz I, the Hepthalites invaded Hyrcania and quartered at Gurgan in 465/469 AD. Peroz and his son Kavadh rallied against the Hepthalites and were defeated and captured in battle near Gurgan.[49] At the time of the usurper Bahrām Chōbin's movement eastward into Abarshahr in 591 AD, Hyrcania was governed by the House of Karen, one of the Seven Great Houses.[50] Following the defeat of the usurper Bahrām Chōbin in 591 AD, Khosrow II appointed Vistahm marzban (governor) of Hyrcania as a reward for his support during the rebellion, however, Khosrow's mistrust for Vistahm led him to attempt to execute him by luring him to the royal court. Vistahm was informed of Khosrow's intentions and rose in revolt, conquering much of the eastern provinces of the Sasanian Empire prior to his death and defeat in battle against Smbat Bagratuni in 596 AD.[51] Smbat was rewarded and appointed marzban of Hyrcania, which he served as until 602 AD,[52] during which time the region is known to have prospered.[53] Religion[edit] Hyrcania, and the rest of Iran in Antiquity, was dominated by Zoroastrianism which was practised by the majority of the population.[54] Christianity and Judaism was also practised in the region, and, Barshabba, the apocryphal 4th century AD bishop of Merv, is attributed to the foundation of Christian monasteries in Hyrcania.[55] A diocese of Gurgan of the Church of the East is known to have existed from 424 AD.[56] According to Paulus Orosius, following the suppression of a revolt in Phoenicia and the conquest of Egypt in 343 BC, Artaxerxes III deported Phoenician and Egyptian Jews to Hyrcania as punishment for opposing him.[57][58] Some Hyrcanian Jews returned to Palestine, however, they maintained a presence within the region as late as the 4th century AD.[58] Literary references[edit] In Latin literature, Hyrcania is often mentioned in relationship to tigers, which were apparently particularly abundant there during the Classical Age (though extinct in the area since the early 1970s).[59][60] Virgil, in the Aeneid, had the abandoned Dido accuse Aeneas: Nec tibi diva parens generis nec Dardanus auctor, perfide, sed duris genuit te cautibus horrens Caucasus Hyrcanaeque admorunt ubera tigres. (IV.365-7) "You had neither a goddess for a parent, nor was Dardanus the author of your race, faithless one, but the horrible Caucasus produced you from hard crags, and Hyrcanian tigers nursed you." Following its geographical listing by Isidore of Seville in the early 7th century Etymologiae (a standard Mediaeval textbook), the name of Hyrcania became known and taught as far off as Ireland, where it was included in poems such as Cú-cen-máthair by Luccreth moccu Chiara (665 AD), the Auraicept na n-Éces, and Lebor Gabála Érenn (11th century). Hyrcania is mentioned in the short story "Rinconete y Cortadillo" by Miguel de Cervantes, and constitutes one of his exemplary stories which were published in 1613. Cervantes uses this reference to portray the illiteracy of Juliana la Cariharta, a member of Monipodio's guild. She is intending to make reference to Ocaña, a provincial town in Toledo, Spain; but she has misheard it and does not realise the difference. Shakespeare, relying on his Latin sources, makes repeated references in his plays to the "Hyrcan tiger" (Macbeth, III.iv.1281) or "th' Hyrcanian beast" (Hamlet, II.ii.447) as an emblem of bloodthirsty cruelty. In Henry VI, Part 3, the Duke of York compares Queen Margaret unfavorably to "Tygers of Hyrcania" (I.iv.622) for her inhumanity.[61] Even in Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice, the Prince of Morocco also made references to Hyrcania. He said (an excerpt), "The Hyrcanian deserts and the vasty wilds/Of wild Arabia are as thoroughfares now." Sir Walter Scott in an epigraph to the thirty-fifth chapter of Ivanhoe refers to "the tiger of the Hyrcanian deserts" as a "lesser [...] risk than [...] the slumbering fire of wild fanaticism" (the epigraph is cited as being written by an anonymous author).[62] The comic book heroine Red Sonja is described as coming from Hyrkania, an imaginary locale bordering an inland sea based loosely on Hyrcania and set in Robert E. Howard's fictional Hyborian Age. Howard's Conan the Barbarian also has various adventures set in this locale, including as a pirate on the inland sea. List of governors[edit] Although the below list is incomplete, they are the known governors of Hyrcania. Artasyras Astyages Megabernes Ochus (c. 425-423 BC) Idernes (423 BC-?) Terituchmes Phrataphernes (?-330 BC) Amminapes (330 BC) Autophradates (330-324 BC) Phrataphernes (324-321 BC) Philip (321-318 BC) Eudemus (318-317 BC) Nicanor (315-310 BC) Andragoras (?-238 BC) Artabanus (?-10 AD) Ardawan Gotarzes (46-47 AD) Vistahm (591-596 AD) Smbat Bagratuni (596-602 AD) See also[edit] Gorgan Gonbad-e Kavus Golestan Province Mazandaran Gilan Name of Georgia (country) Amol Sari References[edit] ^ Woodhouse (1910), p. 1013 ^ a b c d e Lendering (1996) ^ Sherwin-White & Kuhrt (1993), p. 81 ^ François de Blois & Willem Vogelsang, 2011, "Dahae", Encyclopedia Iranica (23 May 2015). ^ David Gordon White, 1991, Myths of the Dog-Man, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, pp. 27, 239. ^ a b c d Jacobs (2006) ^ Dandamayev (1993), pp. 516-521 ^ Dandamayev (1986), p. 652 ^ a b Ramsay (1890), p. 124 ^ Schmitt (1990), p. 612 ^ Lendering (2005) ^ Rawlinson (1867) ^ a b Lendering (2000) ^ Ramsay (1890), p. 125 ^ a b c d e f g h i j Bivar (2002), pp. 151-153 ^ a b c Frye (1983), p. 112 ^ Brunner (2004) ^ Walbank (2015) ^ Lendering (2004) ^ Dandamayev (1987), p. 29 ^ a b c d Badian (2015) ^ Lendering (1999) ^ Lendering (2002) ^ Frye (1985), p. 26 ^ Frye (1983), p. 208 ^ Schippmann (1986), pp. 525-536 ^ Debevoise (1938), p. 18 ^ Boyce & Grenet (1991), p. 30 ^ Frye (1963), p. 173 ^ Strootman (2015) ^ a b c d e f g Rawlinson (1873) ^ Yarshater (1983), p. 54 ^ Yarshater (1983), p. 55 ^ Frye (1983), p. 237 ^ Nasrollahzadeh (2011), pp. 157-175 ^ Verstandig (2008), pp. 251-252 ^ Boyce et al. (2001), pp. 31-39 ^ Jakubiak (2008) ^ Frye (1983), p. 283 ^ Tacitus, Annals XV.2 ^ Frye (1983), p. 243 ^ Pulleyblank (1991); Anthony François Paulus Hulsewé (ed.), China in Central Asia: The Early Stage: 125 BC - AD 23, an annotated translation of Chapters 61 and 96 of the History of the Former Han Dynasty, with an introduction by M.A.N.Loewe. Volume 14 of Sinica Leidensia, Leiden, Brill Archive, 1979, p.118. ^ a b Kiani (2002), pp. 148-151 ^ Pourshariati (2008), p. 49 ^ Pourshariati (2008), pp. 66-67 ^ Shahbazi (2003) ^ Toumanoff (1989), pp. 928-929 ^ Perry et al. (1994), pp. 297-312 ^ Schippmann (1999), pp. 631-632 ^ Pourshariati (2008), p. 112 ^ Shahbazi (1989), pp. 180-182 ^ Toumanoff (1988), pp. 419-422 ^ Garsoian (2005) ^ Choksy (2015) ^ Sims-Williams (1988), p. 823 ^ Chabot, 285 ^ Bruce (1990), p. 117 ^ a b Sarshar (2014), p. 15 ^ Humphreys, P., Kahrom, E. (1999). Lion and Gazelle: The Mammals and Birds of Iran. Images Publishing, Avon. ^ Firouz, E. (2005). The complete fauna of Iran. I. B. Tauris. pp. 5–67. ISBN 978-1-85043-946-2. ^ Shakespeare 1.4.622 ^ 1771-1832., Scott, Walter (1997). Ivanhoe : a romance (Modern Library ed.). New York: Modern Library. pp. 388. ISBN 0679602631. OCLC 35919304.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) Sources[edit] Badian, Ernst (2015). "PHRATAPHERNES". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Bivar, A. D. H. (2002). "GORGĀN v. Pre-Islamic history". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Boyce, Mary; Grenet, Frantz; Beck, Roger (1991). A History of Zoroastrianism: Zoroastrianism under Macedonian and Roman rule. 3. Boyce, Mary; Bivar, A. D. H.; Shahbazi, A. Shapur (2001). "GŌDARZ". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Bruce, Frederick Fyvie (1990). The Acts of the Apostles: The Greek Text with Introduction and Commentary. Brunner, C. J. (2004). "IRAN v. PEOPLES OF IRAN (2) Pre-Islamic". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Chabot, Jean-Baptiste (1902). Synodicon orientale ou recueil de synodes nestoriens (PDF). Paris: Imprimerie Nationale. Choksy, Jamsheed K. (2015). "ZOROASTRIANISM ii. Historical Review: from the Arab Conquest to Modern Times". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Dandamayev, M. A. (1986). "ARTASYRAS". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Dandamayev, M. A. (1987). "AUTOPHRADATES". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Dandamayev, M. A. (1993). "CYRUS iii. Cyrus II The Great". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Debevoise, Neilson Carel (1938). A Political History of Parthia. ISBN 9781258469610. Frye, Richard N. (1963). The Heritage of Persia: The pre-Islamic History of One of the World's Great Civilizations. Frye, Richard N. (1983). The History of Ancient Iran. Frye, Richard N. (1985). "ANDRAGORAS". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Garsoian, N. (2005). "SMBAT BAGRATUNI". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Jacobs, Bruno (2006). "ACHAEMENID SATRAPIES". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Jakubiak, Krzysztof (2008). "ARSACIDS viii. Military Architecture Of Parthia". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Kiani, Muhammad Yusof (2002). "GORGĀN iv. Archeology". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Lendering, Jona (1996). "Hyrcania". Livius. Lendering, Jona (1999). "Peithon (1)". Livius. Lendering, Jona (2000). "Phraortes". Livius. Lendering, Jona (2002). "Nicanor". Livius. Lendering, Jona (2004). "Amminapes". Livius. Lendering, Jona (2005). "Wall of Alexander". Livius. Nasrollahzadeh, Cyrus (2011). "Inscriptional Literature: A Review of Parthian Inscription of Sare Pol-e Zohab". Journal of Language Researches. 2. Perry, John R.; Shahbazi, A. Shapur; Kettenhofen, Erich (1994). "DEPORTATIONS". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Pourshariati, Parvaneh (2008). Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran. ISBN 9781845116453. Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (1991). "CH'IEN HAN SHU". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Ramsay, W. M. (1890). The Historical Geography of Asia Minor. ISBN 9781108014533. Rawlinson, George (1867). The Seven Great Monarchies Of The Ancient Eastern World, Vol 5: Persia. Rawlinson, George (1873). The Seven Great Monarchies Of The Ancient Eastern World, Vol 6: Parthia. Sarshar, Houman (2014). The Jews of Iran: The History, Religion and Culture of a Community in the Islamic World. ISBN 9781780768885. Schippmann, K. (1986). "ARSACIDS ii. The Arsacid dynasty". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Schippmann, K. (1999). "FĪRŪZ". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Schmitt, Rüdiger (1990). "CADUSII". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Shahbazi, A. Shapur (1989). "BESṬĀM O BENDŌY". BESṬĀM O BENDŌY – Encyclopaedia Iranica. Encyclopaedia Iranica. Archived from the original on 2013-09-22. Retrieved 2017-01-01. Shahbazi, A. Shapur (2003). "YAZDEGERD I". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Shakespeare, William (2013). Bevington, David (ed.). Henry VI, Part 3. Archived from the original on 2016-12-31. Retrieved 2016-12-30. Sherwin-White, Susan M.; Kuhrt, Amélie (1993). From Samarkhand to Sardis: A New Approach to the Seleucid Empire. ISBN 9780520081833. Sims-Williams, N. (1988). "BARŠABBĀ". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Strootman, Rolf (2015). "SELEUCID EMPIRE". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Tacitus (1876). Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb, ed. Annals. Toumanoff, C. (1988). "BAGRATIDS". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Toumanoff, C. (1989). "AMATUNI". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Verstandig, A. (2001). Histoire de L'Empire Parthe (-250-227). Walbank, Frank W. (2015). "Alexander the Great". Encyclopædia Britannica. Woodhouse, S. C. (1910). English-Greek Dictionary: A Vocabulary of the Attic Language. Yarshater, E. (1983). "Introduction". The Cambridge History of Iran: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian periods (1). ISBN 9780521200929. v t e Provinces of the Achaemenid Empire (Behistun / Persepolis / Naqsh-e Rustam / Susa / Daiva inscriptions) Akaufaka (Quhistan?) Amyrgoi Arabia Arachosia Aria Armenia Assyria Babylonia Bactria Cappadocia Caria Carmania Caucasian Albania Chorasmia Cilicia Colchis Dahae Drangiana 1st Egypt / 2nd Egypt Eber-Nari (Levant) Elam Kush (Nubia) Gandāra (Gandhara) Gedrosia Hyrcania Ionia Hindush Libya Lydia Maka Margiana Media Lesser Media Massagetae Parthia Persia Phoenicia Phrygia Hellespontine Phrygia Greater Phrygia Saka Samaritan Province Sattagydia Skudra (Thrace) Sogdia Yehud See also Tax Districts of the Achaemenid Empire (according to Herodotus) v t e Provinces of the Sasanian Empire Abarshahr Adurbadagan Albania Arbayistan Armenia Asoristan Balasagan Dihistan Egypt* Eran-Khwarrah-Yazdegerd* Garamig ud Nodardashiragan Garmekan Gurgan Harev Hind Iberia Kadagistan* Khuzistan Kirman Kushanshahr Khwarazm Lazica* Machelonia Makuran Marw Mazun Media Meshan Nodardashiragan Paradan Padishkhwargar Pars Sakastan Sogdia Spahan Suristan Turan Yemen * indicates short living provinces Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hyrcania&oldid=995591471" Categories: States and territories established in the 6th century BC Hyrcania Iranian countries and territories Achaemenid satrapies Provinces of the Sasanian Empire Hidden categories: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Former country articles requiring maintenance Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Greek-language text Articles containing Sanskrit-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina Lietuvių Nederlands Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 21 December 2020, at 22:03 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8759	----	File:Esther haram.jpg - Wikipedia File:Esther haram.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this preview: 400 × 600 pixels. Other resolutions: 160 × 240 pixels | 320 × 480 pixels | 800 × 1,200 pixels. Original file ‎(800 × 1,200 pixels, file size: 554 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Edwin Long: Queen Esther    Artist Edwin Long  (1829–1891)   Alternative names Edwin Longsden Long Description British painter Date of birth/death 12 July 1829  15 May 1891  Location of birth/death Bath London-Hampstead Work location London  Authority control : Q3042629 VIAF: 30381624 ISNI: 0000 0000 6681 4681 ULAN: 500007608 LCCN: n98047563 Oxford Dict.: 16965 WorldCat creator QS:P170,Q3042629   Title Queen Esther title QS:P1476,en:"Queen Esther " label QS:Len,"Queen Esther " label QS:Lru,"Квин Эстер" label QS:Lfr,"Esther" label QS:Lml,"എസ്ഥേർ രാജ്ഞി (ചിത്രകല)" Object type painting  Genre mythological painting  Description English: Painting by en:Edwin Long, 1878. Location of painting: National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne. Depicted people Esther  Date 19 June 2007 (original upload date) Medium oil on canvas  Dimensions Height: 213.5 cm (84 in) ; Width: 170.3 cm (67 in)  dimensions QS:P2048,+213.5U174728;P2049,+170.3U174728 Collection National Gallery of Victoria    Native name National Gallery of Victoria Location NGV International: 180 St. Kilda Road Melbourne, Victoria 3006 Australia The Ian Potter Centre: NGV Australia: Federation Square Melbourne, Victoria 3000 Australia Coordinates 37° 49′ 21.34″ S, 144° 58′ 07.08″ E   Established 1862  Web page www.ngv.vic.gov.au Authority control : Q1464509 VIAF: 149601682 ISNI: 0000 0001 2182 4904 ULAN: 500217629 LCCN: n80050339 NLA: 35982090 WorldCat institution QS:P195,Q1464509 Accession number p.307.1-1 (National Gallery of Victoria)  Source/Photographer Transferred from en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this file) PD-ART. Licensing Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse This work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 100 years or fewer. You must also include a United States public domain tag to indicate why this work is in the public domain in the United States. This file has been identified as being free of known restrictions under copyright law, including all related and neighboring rights. https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/PDMCreative Commons Public Domain Mark 1.0falsefalse Original upload log The original description page was here. All following user names refer to en.wikipedia. 2007-06-19 16:50 Zereshk 395×495×8 (166035 bytes) Painting by [[Edwin Long]], 1878. Location of painting: National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne. __NOTOC Captions EnglishEsther, the Jewish queen of Persia, by Edwin Long Items portrayed in this file depicts 622 Esther digital representation of Queen Esther File history Click on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 12:43, 5 October 2011 800 × 1,200 (554 KB) Underlying lk higher resolution 14:27, 20 February 2008 395 × 495 (162 KB) Cansado {{Information |Description={{en|Painting by en:Edwin Long, 1878. Location of painting: National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne.}} |Source=Transferred from [http://en.wikipedia.org en.wikipedia] |Date=2007-06-19 (original upload date) |Author=Original File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Bemidbar (parsha) Edwin Long Esther Esther 2 Queen Esther (painting) Tevet Xerxes I User:Afran5 Wikipedia:WikiProject University of Virginia/Women Writers October 2018/Listeria Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on ar.wikipedia.org أعلام المسيحيين المرأة في المسيحية مسيحيو الثقافة أستير مستخدم:عبد المسيح/مسيحية Usage on azb.wikipedia.org ایستر (کیمسه) Usage on be.wikipedia.org Эсфір (дачка Амінавада) Usage on bg.wikipedia.org Естир Usage on ca.wikipedia.org Tevet Usuari:Paucabot/Bot biografies/Imatges substituïdes 4 Usage on cs.wikipedia.org Tevet Usage on da.wikipedia.org Bruger:Palnatoke/Autolister/Bibelske figurer Ester (bibelsk person) Usage on de.wikipedia.org Buch Ester Usage on en.wikisource.org Author:Esther Usage on es.wikipedia.org Tevet Ester (Biblia) Usage on et.wikipedia.org Ester Usage on eu.wikipedia.org Ester (Biblia) Tevet Usage on fa.wikipedia.org استر (شخصیت) درگاه:هخامنشیان/زنان هخامنشی درگاه:هخامنشیان/زنان هخامنشی/۳ طوت Usage on fr.wikipedia.org Esther (Bible) Tevet Usage on fy.wikipedia.org Ester (bibelsk persoan) Usage on he.wikipedia.org אדווין לונג Usage on hu.wikipedia.org Eszter (Biblia) Usage on hy.wikipedia.org Եսթեր (թագուհի) Usage on id.wikipedia.org Tebet Usage on it.wikibooks.org Eli Eli Lama Sabachthani/Ester al posto di Gesù Usage on it.wikiquote.org Ester (personaggio biblico) Usage on ka.wikipedia.org ესთერი Usage on lfn.wikipedia.org Libro de Ester Usage on lv.wikipedia.org Esteres grāmata Usage on mg.wikipedia.org Estera (ao amin'ny Baiboly) Usage on mk.wikipedia.org Тевет Usage on ml.wikipedia.org എസ്ഥേർ രാജ്ഞി (ചിത്രകല) ഉപയോക്താവ്:Meenakshi nandhini/ചിത്രശാല Usage on mt.wikipedia.org Ester Usage on nl.wikipedia.org Overleg:Tevet Usage on nn.wikipedia.org Estér Usage on no.wikipedia.org Bruker:Kimsaka/Testside Usage on pl.wikipedia.org Estera (postać biblijna) Usage on pnb.wikipedia.org آستر Usage on pt.wikipedia.org Ester Edwin Long Usage on ru.wikipedia.org Есфирь Лонг, Эдвин View more global usage of this file. Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. If the file has been modified from its original state, some details may not fully reflect the modified file. Camera manufacturer Canon Camera model Canon EOS 400D DIGITAL Exposure time 1/60 sec (0.016666666666667) F-number f/3.2 ISO speed rating 800 Date and time of data generation 17:07, 7 September 2008 Lens focal length 50 mm Orientation Normal Horizontal resolution 72 dpi Vertical resolution 72 dpi Software used Digital Photo Professional File change date and time 17:07, 7 September 2008 Y and C positioning Centered Exposure Program Aperture priority Exif version 2.21 Date and time of digitizing 17:07, 7 September 2008 Shutter speed 5.9068908691406 APEX aperture 3.3561401367188 Exposure bias 0 Flash Flash did not fire, compulsory flash suppression Color space sRGB Focal plane X resolution 4,433.2953249715 Focal plane Y resolution 4,453.6082474227 Focal plane resolution unit inches Custom image processing Normal process Exposure mode Auto exposure White balance Auto white balance Scene capture type Standard Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Esther_haram.jpg" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces File Talk Variants Views Read View on Commons More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Upload file Special pages Printable version Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8774	----	Nepherites II - Wikipedia Nepherites II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Nepherites II Nefaarud II Pharaoh Reign Summer 380 BC (29th Dynasty) Predecessor Hakor Successor Nectanebo I Royal titulary Father Hakor Died 380 BC Nepherites II or Nefaarud II was the last pharaoh of the feeble and short-lived Twenty-ninth Dynasty (399/8–380 BC), the penultimate native dynasty of Egypt.[1][2][3] Short reign[edit] An "ineffectual" ruler,[4] Nepherites II became pharaoh of Egypt in 380 BC after the death of his father Hakor (393–380 BC) and was deposed and likely killed by the rebel prince Nakhtnebef of Sebennytos – the future Nectanebo I, an Egyptian military officer, after ruling Egypt for only 4 months, from June to September 380 BC.[2] Androsphinx of Pharaoh Hakor, Nepherites II's father. Louvre, Paris. King Hakor had already to face, towards the end of his reign, frequent riots likely inspired by Nectanebo.[3] Pharaoh Nectanebo I, who founded the Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt after overthrowing Nepherites II, reigned until his death in 360 BC and represented the third Delta family to assume the rule of the country in just two decades:[4] a signal that Egypt's last phase of independence under native rulers, begun with Amyrtaeus' coup in 404 BC against Persia, was particularly unstable. A quick reference to Nepherites II's fall can be found in a large limestone stela[5] Nectanebo I commissioned in Hermopolis:[4] [...] the disaster of the king who came before [...] — Nectanebo I, Hermopolis stela The Greek historian Theopompus (c. 380–315 BC) links Nepherites II's end with the war led by King Evagoras I of Salamis on Cyprus against Persia.[3] In a desperate attempt to strengthen his own position, Nepherites II proclaimed himself Wehem Mesut, "Repetitor Of Births" (i.e. Founder of a new era), like a few other pharaohs of the Egyptian history such as Amenemhat I and Seti I.[3][additional citation(s) needed] His nomen or birth name, meaning "The Great Ones prosper", does not appear on any monument, and it is only attested in Manetho's Aegyptiaca and in the 3rd century BC Demotic Chronicle.[3] References[edit] ^ "Ancient Egypt - Egypt from 1075 bce to the Macedonian invasion". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2018-05-06. ^ a b Nepherites II ^ a b c d e Cimmino 2003, p. 390. ^ a b c Wilkinson 2011, p. 456. ^ Myśliwiec, Karol (2000). The Twilight of Ancient Egypt: First Millennium B.C.E. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0801486300. Bibliography[edit] Cimmino, Franco (2003). Dizionario delle Dinastie Faraoniche. Milan: Bompiani. ISBN 978-8845255311. Clayton, Peter A. (1999). Chronicles of the Pharaohs. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0500050743. Wilkinson, Toby (2011). The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt. London: Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1408810026. Preceded by Hakor Pharaoh of Egypt Twenty-Ninth Dynasty Succeeded by Nectanebo I v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nepherites_II&oldid=981575424" Categories: 4th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt 380 BC deaths Ancient murdered monarchs Hidden categories: All articles needing additional references Articles needing additional references from June 2018 AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands Polski Português Русский සිංහල Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 3 October 2020, at 05:03 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8804	----	Miltiades - Wikipedia Miltiades From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Miltiades (disambiguation). Miltiades Roman copy of Greek bust of Miltiades (original dating to 5th−4th century BC) Native name Μιλτιάδης Born 550 BC Athens Died 489 BC (aged 60-61 years old) Athens Allegiance Athens Rank General (Strategos) Battles/wars European Scythian campaign of Darius I First Persian invasion of Greece Battle of Marathon Other Battle of Paros Memorials Statue of Nemesis by Pheidias Miltiades (/mɪlˈtaɪəˌdiːz/; Greek: Μιλτιάδης; c. 550 – 489 BC), also known as Miltiades the Younger, was a Greek Athenian citizen known mostly for his role in the Battle of Marathon, as well as for his downfall afterwards. He was the son of Cimon Coalemos, a renowned Olympic chariot-racer, and the father of Cimon, the noted Athenian statesman. Contents 1 Family 2 Tyrant of the Thracian Chersonese 2.1 Persian vassal 3 Return to Athens 3.1 Battle of Marathon 3.2 Expedition at Paros 3.3 Statue 3.4 Stoa Poikile 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Sources 8 External links Family[edit] Miltiades was a well-born Athenian, and considered himself a member of the Aeacidae,[1] as well as a member of the prominent Philaid clan. He came of age during the tyranny of the Peisistratids. His family was prominent, due in good part to their success with Olympic chariot-racing.[1][2] Plutarch claimed that Cimon, Miltiades' father, was known as "Coalemos", meaning "simpleton", because he had a reputation for being rough around the edges,[3] but whose three successive chariot-racing victories at the Olympics made him popular, so popular in fact that, Herodotus claims, the sons of Peisistratos murdered him out of jealousy.[4] Miltiades was named after his father's maternal half-brother, Miltiades the Elder, who was also a victor at Olympic chariot-racing. Miltiades's son Cimon was a major Athenian figure of the 470s and 460s BC. His daughter Elpinice is remembered for her confrontations with Pericles, as recorded by Plutarch. Tyrant of the Thracian Chersonese[edit] Map of Thracian Chersonesus. Around 555 BC, Miltiades the Elder left Athens to establish a colony on the Thracian Chersonese (now the Gallipoli Peninsula), setting himself up as a semi-autonomous tyrant under the protection of Athens.[5] Meanwhile, contrary to what one would expect from a man whose father was rumoured to have been murdered by the city leaders, Miltiades the Younger rose through the ranks of Athens to become eponymous archon under the rule of the Peisistratid tyrant Hippias in 524/23 BC.[6] Miltiades the Elder was childless, so when he died around 520 BC,[7] his nephew, Miltiades the Younger's brother, Stesagoras, inherited the tyranny of the Chersonese. Four years later (516 BC), Stesagoras met his death by an axe to the head,[8] so the tyrant Hippias sent Miltiades the Younger to claim his brother's lands.[9] Stesagoras' reign had been tumultuous, full of war and revolt. Wishing to achieve stronger control over his lands than his brother had, Miltiades feigned mourning for his brother's death. When the men of rank from the Chersonese came to console him, he imprisoned them. He then ensured his power by employing 500 troops. He also made an alliance with King Olorus of Thrace by marrying his daughter, Hegesipyle.[10] Persian vassal[edit] Coinage of Miltiades in Thracian Chersonesos. Lion, head left, raising left forepaw, tail curled above. Head of Athena, wearing crested Attic helmet and earring, within incuse square. Circa 495-494 BC. In around 513 BC, Darius I, the king of Persia, led a large army into the area, forcing the Thracian Chersonese into submission and making Miltiades a vassal of Persian rule. Miltiades joined Darius' northern expedition against the Scythians, and was left with other Greek officers to guard a bridge across the Danube, which Darius had used to cross into Scythia. Miltiades later claimed that he had tried to convince the other officers to destroy the bridge and leave Darius and his forces to die, but the others were afraid, and Darius was able to recross,[11] though some historians are skeptical of this claim.[12][13] When the king heard of the planned sabotage, Miltiades' rule became a perilous affair and he had to flee around 511/510 BC. Miltiades joined the Ionian Revolt of 499 BC against Persian rule, returning to the Chersonese around 496 BC. He established friendly relations with Athens by capturing the islands of Lemnos and Imbros and ceding them to Athens, which had ancient claims to these lands.[14][15] Return to Athens[edit] Miltiades, Roman copy of 5th century original. The Ionian Revolt collapsed in 494 BC, and in 492 BC Miltiades and his family fled to Athens in five ships to escape a retaliatory Persian invasion.[n 1] The Athens to which Miltiades returned was no longer a tyranny, but had overthrown the Peisistratids and become a democracy 15 years earlier. Thus, Miltiades initially faced a hostile reception for his tyrannical rule in the Thracian Chersonese. His trial was further complicated by the politics of his aristocratic rivals (he came from the Philaid clan, traditional rivals of the powerful Alcmaeonidae) and the general Athenian mistrust of a man accustomed to unfettered authority. However, Miltiades successfully presented himself as a defender of Greek freedoms against Persian despotism. He also promoted the fact that he had been a first-hand witness to Persian tactics, which was useful knowledge considering the Persians were bent on destroying the city. Thus, Miltiades escaped punishment and was allowed to rejoin his old countrymen.[17] It was by Miltiades' advice that the Persian heralds who came to Athens to demand earth and water as tokens of submission were put to death.[18] Battle of Marathon[edit] Main article: Battle of Marathon The Battle of Marathon Miltiades is often credited with devising the tactics that defeated the Persians at the Battle of Marathon.[19] Miltiades was elected to serve as one of the ten generals (strategoi) for 490 BC. In addition to the ten generals, there was one 'war-ruler' (polemarch), Callimachus, who had to decide—with the ten generals evenly split, five to five—whether to attack the Persians who had landed at Marathon under the command of Datis, or wait to fight them closer to Athens.[20] Miltiades, the one with the most experience in fighting the Persians, was firm in insisting that the Persians be fought immediately, as a siege of Athens would lead to its destruction. He convinced Callimachus to use his decisive vote in favor of a swift attack.[21][n 2] He is quoted as saying "I believe that, provided the Gods will give fair play and no favour, we are able to get the best of it in the engagement."[21] Miltiades also convinced the other generals of the necessity of not using the customary tactics of using hoplites arrayed in an evenly distributed phalanx armed with shields and spears, tactics otherwise not deviated from for 100 years, until the time of Epaminondas.[n 3] Miltiades feared the cavalry of the Persians attacking the flanks, and asked for more hoplites to be stationed there than in the centre.[24] He ordered the two tribes in the centre, the Leontis tribe led by Themistocles and the Antiochis tribe led by Aristides, to be arrayed to a depth of four ranks while the rest of the tribes, on their flanks, were arrayed in eight ranks.[25][26] Miltiades also had his men march to the end of the Persian archer range, called the "beaten zone", then break out in a run straight at the Persian army.[24] Miltiades fighting the Persians at the Battle of Marathon, in the Stoa Poikile (reconstitution) These tactics were successful in defeating the Persians, who then tried to sail around the Cape Sounion and attack Attica from the west.[27] Miltiades got his men to quickly march to the western side of Attica overnight and block the two exits from the plain of Marathon, to prevent the Persians moving inland. Datis fled at the sight of the soldiers who had just defeated him the previous evening.[27] One theory for the Greek success in the battle is the lack of Persian cavalry. The theory is that the Persian cavalry left Marathon for an unspecified reason, and that the Greeks moved to take advantage of this by attacking. This theory is based on the absence of any mention of cavalry in Herodotus' account of the battle, and an entry in the Suda dictionary. The entry χωρίς ἰππεῖς ("without cavalry") is explained thus: The cavalry left. When Datis surrendered and was ready for retreat, the Ionians climbed the trees and gave the Athenians the signal that the cavalry had left. And when Miltiades realized that, he attacked and thus won. From there comes the above-mentioned quote, which is used when someone breaks ranks before battle.[28] Expedition at Paros[edit] "Helmet of Miltiades". The helmet was given as an offering to the temple of Zeus at Olympia by Miltiades. Inscription on the helmet: ΜΙΛΤΙΑΔΕΣ ΑΝΕ[Θ]ΕΚΕΝ [Τ]ΟΙ ΔΙ ("Miltiades dedicates this helmet to Zeus").[29] Archaeological Museum of Olympia. The following year (489 BC), Miltiades led an Athenian expedition of seventy ships against the Greek-inhabited islands that were deemed to have supported the Persians. The expedition was not a success. His true motivations were to attack Paros, feeling he had been slighted by them in the past.[30] The fleet attacked the island, which had been conquered by the Persians, but failed to take it. Miltiades suffered a grievous leg wound during the campaign and became incapacitated. His failure prompted an outcry on his return to Athens, enabling his political rivals to exploit his fall from grace. Charged with treason, he was sentenced to death, but the sentence was converted to a fine of fifty talents. He was sent to prison where he died, probably of gangrene from his wound. The debt was paid by his son Cimon.[31] Statue[edit] Pheidias later erected in Miltiades' honour, in the temple of the goddess at Rhamnus, a statue of Nemesis, the deity whose job it was to bring sudden ill fortune to those who had experienced an excess of good. The statue was said to have been made from marble provided by Datis for a memorial to the Persians' expected victory.[31] Stoa Poikile[edit] Aeschines writes that although Miltiades wanted his name to be written in the Stoa Poikile, the Athenians refused. Instead of writing his name they had him painted in the front rank, urging the soldiers.[32] See also[edit] Archaeological Museum of Olympia Mētiokhos kai Parthenopē Notes[edit] ^ One ship, carrying his son Metiochos, was captured by the Persian fleet and Metiochos was made a lifelong prisoner, but was nonetheless treated honourably as a de facto member of the Persian nobility.[16] ^ In Herodotus's account, Miltiades is keen to attack the Persians (despite knowing that the Spartans are coming to aid the Athenians), but strangely, chooses to wait until his actual day of command to attack.[22] ^ At the Battle of Leuctra.[23] References[edit] ^ a b Creasy (1880) pg. 9 ^ Herodotus. (2009). The landmark Herodotus : the histories. Strassler, Robert B., 1937-, Purvis, Andrea L. (First Anchor books ed.). New York: Anchor Books. p. 6.35. ISBN 9781400031146. OCLC 264043716. ^ Plutarch "Lives" William and Joseph Neal edition, (1836), p.338 ^ Herodotus. (2009). The landmark Herodotus : the histories. Strassler, Robert B., 1937-, Purvis, Andrea L. (First Anchor books ed.). New York: Anchor Books. p. 6.103. ISBN 9781400031146. OCLC 264043716. ^ Debra Hamel (2012) "Reading Herodotus: A Guided Tour Through the Wild Boars, Dancing Suitors, and Crazy Tyrants of 'The History'" JHU Press, p.182 ^ C.W.J.Elliot and Malcolm F. McGregor (1960) "Kleisthenes: Eponymous Archon 525/4 BC" Phoenix, Vol 14, No. 1 ^ Hamel (2012) ibid ^ Herodotus, lib vi. c. 38 ^ Sara Forsdyke (2009) "Exile, Ostracism, and Democracy: The Politics of Expulsion in Ancient Greece" Princeton University Press p.123 ^ Herodotus, lib vi. c. 39 ^ Rice, Earle (15 September 2011). The Battle of Marathon. Mitchell Lane Publishers, Inc. ISBN 9781612281599 – via Google Books. ^ Burn, A. R. (1982). The Pelican History of Greece. London: Penguin. p. 160. ^ Hammond, N. G. L. (1970). Oxford Classical Dictionary (Second ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 688. ISBN 0-19-869117-3. ^ J.A.S. Evans (1963) "Notes on Miltiades' Capture of Lemnos" Classical Philology, Vol. 58, No. 3, pp.168-170 ^ Creasy (1880) pg. 10 ^ Herodotus, lib vi. c. 41 ^ Herodotus, lib vi, c.104 ^ Pausanias 3.12.7 ^ Creasy (1880) pg. 11–20 ^ Creasy (1880) pg. 11 ^ a b Herodotus vi.109. ^ Herodotus VI, 110 ^ Creasy (1880) pg. 380 ^ a b Creasy (1880) pg. 23 ^ Plutarch, Aristides, V ^ Herodotus VI, 111 ^ a b Creasy (1880) pg. 26 ^ Suda, entry Without cavalry ^ Chrysopoulos, Philip (2 June 2020). "The Awe-Inspiring Helmet of Legendary Ancient Greek Warrior Miltiades". Greek Reporter. Retrieved 1 September 2020. ^ Creasy (1880) pg. 27 ^ a b Creasy (1880) pg. 28 ^ Aeschines, Against Ctesiphon, § 186 Sources[edit] Creasy, Edward Shepherd (1880). The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World: from Marathon to Waterloo. New York: Crowell. ISBN 1-60620-952-3. Hammond, N.G.L.; Scullard, H.H., eds. (1970). Oxford Classical Dictionary (Second ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-869117-3. Herodotus (1998). Histories. Oxford World's Classics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-282425-2. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Miltiades. Library resources about Miltiades Resources in your library Resources in other libraries 3D model of Testa Virile Elmata, identified as a portrait of Miltiades, via photogrammetric survey of a plaster cast of the Capitoline Museum's marble Photo essay of Miltiades helmet Livius, Miltiades by Jona Lendering. v t e Ancient Athenian statesmen Aeschines Agyrrhius Alcibiades Andocides Archinus Aristides Aristogeiton Aristophon Autocles Callistratus Charmides Chremonides Cimon Cleisthenes Cleophon Cleon Critias Demades Demetrius of Phalerum Demochares Democles Demosthenes Draco Echedemos Ephialtes Eratosthenes Eubulus Hagnon Hyperbolus Hypereides Laches Lycurgus Lysicles Miltiades Moerocles Nicias Peisistratos Pericles Philinus Phocion Solon Themistocles Theramenes Thrasybulus Thucydides Timoleon Timotheus Xanthippus v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Authority control GND: 118733990 NLP: A27632039 NTA: 075085208 PLWABN: 9810587377105606 VcBA: 495/156660 VIAF: 5726105 WorldCat Identities: viaf-5726105 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Miltiades&oldid=992328801" Categories: 550s BC births 489 BC deaths 6th-century BC Athenians 5th-century BC Athenians Ancient Athenian generals Ancient Thracian Greeks Achaemenid Thrace Athenians of the Greco-Persian Wars Ionian Revolt Battle of Marathon Ancient Greek tyrants Philaidae Military personnel of the Achaemenid Empire 550 births Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLP identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia 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en-wikipedia-org-8827	----	Horus Sa - Wikipedia Horus Sa From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Horus Sa Weneg ? Senedj ? Sanakht ? Vessel fragment bearing the inscription Ḥwt-k3 Ḥrw-z3. Pharaoh Reign 2nd or 3rd Dynasty Royal titulary Burial uncertain, gallery tomb at Saqqara ?, Gisr el-mudir ? Horus Sa (also Horus Za, Sa and Za) was a possible early Egyptian pharaoh who may have reigned during the Second or Third Dynasty of Egypt. His existence is disputed, as is the meaning of the artifacts that have been interpreted as confirming his existence. Contents 1 Attestations 2 Identity 3 Tomb 4 Further reading 5 References Attestations[edit] Horus Sa is known from vessel fragments with black ink inscriptions showing his name. These vessels were found in the east galleries beneath Djoser's pyramid at Saqqara. The inscriptions are short and written in cursive handwritings. In all cases the name "Horus Sa" does not appear within a serekh and its identification as the Horus-name of a king is disputed.[1][2] The name "Horus Sa" always appears within the inscription Ḥwt-k3 Ḥrw-z3 ("House of the Ka of Horus Sa"), regularly found together with the names of Inykhnum and Ma'a-aper-Min, two high-ranking officials who served in the Ka-house. During the Early Dynastic Period of Egypt, the House of the Ka was a forerunner of the mortuary temple, a place where a cult to the Ka of a deceased ruler was performed. A further inscription, Ḥwt-k3 Ḥrw-z3, was found in the 1980s at Saqqara in the area of the tomb of Maya and very close to that of Meryra-Meryneith.[3] Maya and Meryra-Meryneith were both late 18th dynasty court officials who reused 2nd dynasty tombs for themselves, some 1,500 years after the death of their original owners.[3][4] Identity[edit] Jürgen von Beckerath, Dietrich Wildung and Peter Kaplony proposed that "Sa" is a short form of the Horus-name Sanakht.[5] Wolfgang Helck rejects this argument on the grounds that the ink inscriptions from the east-galleries of Djoser's pyramid complex date predominantly from the reign of Nynetjer or shortly thereafter, while Sanakht reigned during the mid-3rd dynasty. Furthermore, inscriptions mentioning the "House of the Ka of Hotepsekhemwy" are stylistically similar to that of Horus Sa which would place Sa in the 2nd dynasty since Hotepsekhemwy was the first ruler of that dynasty. Thus, Helck proposed that Horus Sa is the Horus-name of another shadowy ruler of the 2nd dynasty, Weneg, whose Horus-name is otherwise unknown.[6] The Egyptologist Jochem Kahl recently challenged this hypothesis, identifying Weneg with Raneb.[7] Alternatively, Kaplony reconstructed the Horus-name of Weneg from the Cairo fragment of the Palermo stone as Wenegsekhemwy.[8] In both cases, Horus Sa cannot be the Horus-name of Weneg and the two would not designate the same king. Consequently, Kaplony equated Horus Sa with njswt-bity Wr-Za-Khnwm, "The king of Upper and Lower Egypt, Wersakhnum" and credited him a reign of 2 months and 23 days during the interregnum between Khasekhemwy and Djoser.[9] However, Kaplony's hypothesis has been undermined by the discovery of clay seals of Djoser in Khasekhemwy's tomb, indicating that the former immediately succeeded and buried the latter.[10] Horus Sa could instead be the Horus-name of Senedj or another 2nd dynasty king, ruling in Memphis during the troubled period following the reign of Nynetjer.[11] However, Egyptologists such as Jean-Philippe Lauer, Pierre Lacau and Ilona Regulski call for caution of the correct reading of the inscriptions. Especially the bird-sign at the top of the Ka-house might also depict a swallow, which would make the inscription to be read as Wer-sa-hut-Ka ("great protection of the Ka-house"). Regulski prefers the reading as a Horus-bird, though she doesn't explicitly see it as the name of a king. She dates the inscriptions to the end of Khasekhemwy's reign.[1] Tomb[edit] The burial place of Horus Sa is unknown. Nabil Swelim associated Horus Sa with the unfinished enclosure of Gisr el-Mudir in west Saqqara.[12] This hypothesis has not gained wide acceptance and the Gisr el-Mudir has been attributed to various second dynasty kings, in particular Khasekhemwy.[13] Alternatively, the Egyptologist Joris van Wetering proposed that the gallery tomb used by the high priest of Aten, Meryra-Meryneith, in north Saqqara was originally that of Horus Sa, since an inscription Ḥwt-k3 Ḥrw-z3 was found in the close vicinity of the tomb.[3][4] Further reading[edit] Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen, Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3 Pierre Lacau & Jean-Philippe Lauer: La Pyramide à Degrés V. – Inscriptions Gravées sur les Vases: Fouilles à Saqqarah, Service des antiquités de l'Égypte, Kairo 1936 Wolfgang Helck: Untersuchungen zur Thinitenzeit. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1987, ISBN 3-447-02677-4 Nabil Swelim: Some Problems on the History of the Third Dynasty, Archaeology Society, Alexandria 1983 Ilona Regulski: Second dynasty ink inscriptions from Saqqara paralleled in the Abydos material from the Royal Museums of Art and History in Brussels. In: Stan Hendrickx, R.F. Friedman, Barbara Adams & K. M. Cialowicz: Egypt at its origins. Studies in memory of Barbara Adams. Proceedings of the international Conference „Origin of the State, Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt“, Kraków, 28th August – 1st September 2002 (= Orientalia Lovaniensia analecta. Vol. 138). Peeters Publishers, Leuven (NL) 2004, ISBN 90-429-1469-6. References[edit] ^ a b Ilona Regulski: Second dynasty ink inscriptions from Saqqara paralleled in the Abydos material from the Royal Museums of Art and History in Brussels. p. 953 - 959. ^ Wolfgang Helck, Die Datierung der Gefäßaufschriften aus der Djoserpyramide, in: Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 106, 1979, ISSN 0044-216X, pp. 120–132. ^ a b c Joris van Wetering: The Royal Cemetery of the Early Dynastic Period at Saqqara and the Second Dynasty Royal Tombs, in Proceedings of the Krakow Conference, 2002. ^ a b René van Walsem, Sporen van een revolutie in Saqqara. Het nieuw ontdekte graf van Meryneith alias Meryre en zijn plaats in de Amarnaperiode, Phoenix : bulletin uitgegeven door het Vooraziatisch-Egyptisch Genootschap Ex Oriente Lux, 47 (1-2), pp. 69-89.; see also M. J. Raven and R. Walsem: Preliminary report on the Leiden Excavations at Saqqara, 2001, 2003, 2004, 2007, Complete list Archived 17 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen, p. 243. ^ Wolfgang Helck: Untersuchungen zur Thinitenzeit, p. 103 and 108. ^ Jochem Kahl, Ra is my Lord - Searching for the rise of the Sun God at the dawn of Egyptian history, Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2007, ISBN 3-447-05540-5, pp. 12–14 & 74. ^ Peter Kaplony: Steingefässe mit Inschriften der Frühzeit und das Alten Reiches. Monographies Reine Elisabeth, Bruxelles 1968 ^ Peter Kaplony: Die Inschriften der Ägyptischen Frühzeit. O. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1963, pp. 380, 468 & 611. ^ Toby Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, London 1999, p. 83 & 95 ^ Thomas Von der Way: Zur Datierung des "Labyrinth-Gebäudes" auf dem Tell el-Fara'in (Buto), in: Göttinger Miszellen 157, 1997, 107-111 ^ Nabil Swelim: Some Problems on the History of the Third Dynasty, p. 33 and 181−182. ^ Ian Mathieson, Elizabeth Bettles, Joanne Clarke, Corinne Duhig, Salima Ikram, Louise Maguire, Sarah Quie, Ana Tavares: The National Museums of Scotland Saqqara Survey Project 1993–1995. In: Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 83, 1997, S. 17–53, hier S.36, 38ff., 53. Preceded by Nubnefer Pharaoh of Egypt Succeeded by Weneg (pharaoh) v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control VIAF: 157152742927627731862 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 157152742927627731862 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horus_Sa&oldid=971697193" Categories: 27th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Second Dynasty of Egypt Pharaohs of the Third Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Use dmy dates from November 2013 Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Français ქართული Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands Português Русский Slovenščina Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 7 August 2020, at 17:40 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8841	----	Persepolis Administrative Archives - Wikipedia Persepolis Administrative Archives From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Clay administrative archives found in Persepolis dating to the Achaemenid Persian Empire Persepolis tablet. The Persepolis Fortification Archive and Persepolis Treasury Archive are two groups of clay administrative archives — sets of records physically stored together [1] – found in Persepolis dating to the Achaemenid Persian Empire. The discovery was made during legal excavations conducted by the archaeologists from the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago in the 1930s. Hence they are named for their in situ findspot: Persepolis. The archaeological excavations at Persepolis for the Oriental Institute were initially directed by Ernst Herzfeld from 1931 to 1934 and carried on from 1934 until 1939 by Erich Schmidt.[2] While the political end of the Achaemenid Empire is symbolized by the burning of Persepolis by Alexander the Great (dated 330/329 BCE), the fall of Persepolis paradoxically contributed to the preservation of the Achaemenid administrative archives that might have been lost due to passage of time and natural and man-made causes.[3] According to archaeological evidence, the partial burning of Persepolis did not affect the Persepolis Fortification Archive tablets, but may have caused the eventual collapse of the upper part of the northern Fortification wall that preserved the tablets until their recovery by the Oriental Institute's archaeologists.[2] Thousands of clay tablets, fragments and seal impressions in the Persepolis archives are a part of a single administrative system representing continuity of activity and flow of data over more than fifty consecutive years (509 to 457 BCE).[4] These records can throw light on the geography, economy, and administration, as well as the religion and social conditions of the Persepolis region, the heartland of the Persian' Great Kings from Darius I the Great to Artaxerxes I.[3] Persepolis administrative archives are the single most important extant primary source for understanding the internal workings of the Persian Achaemenid Empire. But while these archives have the potential for offering the study of the Achaemenid history based on the sole surviving and substantial records from the heartland of the empire, they are still not fully utilized as such by a majority of historians.[5] The reason for the slow adoption of study of Persepolis administrative archives can also be attributed to the administrative nature of the archives, lacking the drama and excitement of narrative history.[4] Contents 1 Persepolis Fortification Archive 1.1 Discovery 1.2 Location 1.3 Components 1.4 Numbers 1.5 Scope 1.6 Elamite records 1.6.1 Sample 1.6.1.1 Pronunciation of transliteration 1.7 Aramaic records 1.8 Uninscribed records 1.9 Seals 1.10 Records in other languages 1.11 Significance 1.12 Landmark lawsuit 1.13 PFA Project 2 Persepolis Treasury Archive 2.1 Location 2.2 Components 2.3 Numbers 2.4 Scope 2.4.1 Sample 2.5 Significance 3 Other Achaemenid records from Persepolis 4 Online resources 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Further reading 8.1 English 8.2 Persian 9 External links Persepolis Fortification Archive[edit] Persepolis Fortification Archive (PFA), also known as Persepolis Fortification Tablets (PFT, PF), is a fragment of Achaemenid administrative records of receipt, taxation, transfer, storage of food crops (cereals, fruit), livestock (sheep and goats, cattle, poultry), food products (flour, breads and other cereal products, beer, wine, processed fruit, oil, meat), and byproducts (animal hides) in the region around Persepolis (larger part of modern Fars), and their redistribution to gods, royal family, courtiers, priests, religious officiants, administrators, travelers, workers, artisans, and livestock.[2] But before Persepolis archives could have offered any clues to the better understanding of the Achaemenid history, the clay tablets, mostly written in a late dialect of Elamite, an extremely difficult language still imperfectly understood, had to be deciphered.[6] So, in 1935, Iranian authorities loaned the Persepolis Fortification Archive to the Oriental Institute for research and publication. The archive arrived in Chicago in 1936 and has been under studies since 1937.[2] It was not until 1969 when Richard Hallock published his magisterial edition of 2087 Elamite tablets Persepolis Fortification Tablets leading to the renaissance of Achaemenid studies in the 1970s. The long term project spanning over seven (7) decades is far from completion.[7] 153 tablets, approximately 30,000 fragments and an unknown number of uninscribed tablets were returned to Iran in the 1950s.[2] So far about 450 tablets and tens of thousands of fragments have already been returned to Iran in total.[8] The narrow content of the Persepolis Fortification Archive, recording only the Achaemenid administration’s transactions dealing with foodstuff, must be taken into consideration in regards to the amount of information that can be deduced from them.[5] Discovery[edit] Excavations directed by Ernst Herzfeld at Persepolis between 1933 and 1934 for the Oriental Institute, discovered tens of thousands of unbaked clay tablets, badly broken fragments and bullae in March 1933. Before attempting to build a pathway for easy removal of debris from the ruins of palaces on the Persepolis terrace, Herzfeld decided to excavate the location first to ensure that building a passage would not harm anything. He found two rooms filled up with clay tablets that were arranged in order, as in a library. The uncleaned tablets and fragments were covered up with wax and after drying, they were wrapped up in cotton and packed in 2,353 sequentially numbered boxes[2] for shipping.[9][10] At the time, Herzfeld estimated that the find included about 30,000 or more inscribed and sealed clay tablets and fragments.[11] However, Herzfeld himself did not leave precise notes and never published a proper archaeological report.[2] Location[edit] Persepolis Fortification Archive was found at the northeastern corner of the terrace of Persepolis, in two rooms in the fortification wall.[12] The tablets had been stored in a small space near the staircase in the tower in the fortification wall. The upper floor of the fortification wall may have collapsed at the time of the Macedonian invasion, both partially destroying the order of the tablets while protecting them until 1933.[2] The entrance to the rooms were bricked up in antiquity.[13] Components[edit] There are three main kinds of clay tablets and fragments in the Persepolis Fortification Archive:[14] Elamite: the remains of about 10,000 or more original records in the Elamite language, in cuneiform script. Aramaic: the remains of about 1,000 or more original records in the Aramaic language and script. Uninscribed: the remains of about 5,000 or more original records with only impressions of seals and no texts. However, the functional relationships among these components are not still clear.[14][15] Numbers[edit] As of 2010, about 20,000-25,000 tablets and fragments representing about 15,000-18,000 original records remain at the Oriental Institute.[16] Size of the original archive for the same period of time could have been as many as 100,000 Elamite tablets. The edited samples to-date may represent no more than five percent of the original Achaemenid archive.[2] Size of the original archive for the entire reign of Darius I the Great, from 522 to 486 BCE, just for the distribution of foodstuff, could have been as many as 200,000 records.[2] Scope[edit] Persepolis Fortification Archive covers sixteen (16) years, from 509 to 493 BCE, from regnal year 13th to regnal year 28th of Darius I the Great. The chronological distribution of the archive is uneven with largest concentration from regnal years 22nd and 23rd.[17] Elamite records[edit] Current understanding of the Persepolis Fortification Archive is based on a sample of the Elamite records that includes 2,120 published texts by Richard Hallock (2087 tablets in 1969 and 33 tablets in 1978),[18] as well as analysis of 1,148 seals accompanying published Elamite records.[19] About 20 new tablets have also been published after Hallock by various scholars.[17] Majority of the Elamite records are memoranda of single transactions. The earliest known dated Elamite text was written in month 1, regnal year 13th of Darius I the Great (April, 509 BCE) and the latest in month 12, regnal year 28 (March/April 493 BCE).[17] The Elamite records mention about 150 places in the region controlled by Achaemenid administration at Persepolis — most of modern Fars, and perhaps parts of modern Khuzestan, including villages, estates, parks and paradises, storehouses, fortresses, treasuries, towns, rivers, and mountains.[20] Sample[edit] A sample transliteration and translation of an Elamite record from Persepolis Fortification Archive by Richard Hallock:[21] PF 53 2 w.pi-ut kur-min m.Šu-te-na-na Ba-ir-ša-an ku-ut-ka hu-ut-ki+MIN-nam Ba-ka-ba-da Na-ba-ba du-iš-da be-ul 21-na 2 (BAR of) figs, supplied by Šutena, was taken (to) Persepolis, for the (royal) stores. Bakabada (and) Nababa received (it). 21st year. Pronunciation of transliteration[edit] š sh as in shall Aramaic records[edit] About 680 Fortification tablets and fragments with monolingual Aramaic texts (also called Imperial Aramaic) have been identified.[22][23] Almost all Aramaic records are formed around knotted strings. All Aramaic texts have seal impressions and are incised with styluses or written in ink with pens or brushes, and are similar to Elamite memoranda. They are records of transporting or storing foodstuff, disbursal of seed, disbursal of provisions for travelers, and disbursal of rations for workers.[22][24] Uninscribed records[edit] About 5,000 or more tablets and fragment have only impressions of seals and no texts. Almost all such records are formed around knotted strings. It is noted that none of the uninscribed tablets and fragments bear the seals of high-ranking officials of the Achaemenid administration.[25] Buttons, coins such as Athenian tetradrachms and Achaemenid darics, or other common objects are also used instead of seals in a few cases.[26] Seals[edit] More than 2,200 distinct cylinder seals and stamp seals have been identified, among them scenes of heroic combat, hunting, worship, animals in combat, as well as abstract designs. The number may well increase with study of more records, making Persepolis administrative archives one of the largest collection of imagery in the ancient world, displaying a wide range of styles and skills in the designers and engravers.[27][28] More than 100 of the seals have inscriptions identifying the owner of the seal or his superior. Many of the seals on the Elamite tablets can be associated with Persepolis administrative officials named in the archives, such as Parnâkka (Old Persian *Farnaka).[29][30] Records in other languages[edit] Persepolis was inhabited by a multitude of people speaking different languages. There are unique archival records in other languages that attest to the usage of many languages by the administration at Persepolis,[31] such as:[32] One tablet written in Greek recording only the amount of wine and an Aramaic month-name.[33] One tablet written in Old Persian recording disbursement of some dry commodity among five villages.[33] One tablet written in Babylonian dialect of Akkadian is a legal document recording the purchase of a slave at Persepolis in the reign of Darius I the Great, among parties and witnesses with Babylonian names. The legal record conforms to Babylonian conventions.[34] One tablet written in Phrygian has not been interpreted.[35] One tablet written in unknown cuneiform.[2] Significance[edit] Until the discovery of the Persepolis administrative archives, the main sources for information about the Achaemenids were the Greek sources such as Herodotus and ancient historians of Alexander the Great and biblical references in Hebrew Bible, providing a partial and biased view of the ancient Persians.[7][36] Persepolis Fortification Archive is a sophisticated and comprehensive administrative and archival system, representing a highly complex and extensive institutional economy resulting from careful, long term and large scale planning. The archive offers unique opportunity for research on important subjects like organization and status of workers, regional demography, religious practices, royal road, relation between the state institution and private parties, and record management.[2] Research is yielding a better understanding of the territory under purview of the Achaemenid administrators of Persepolis and the system that underlay the structuring of the territory.[20] Among Persepolis workers, there are as many women as men recorded in the Persepolis Fortification Archive. Some women receive more rations than any of the men in a work group, probably due to their ranks or special skills. New mothers are also mentioned, where they receive single rations with mothers of boys receiving twice as much as mothers of girls.[37] Iranian words and names in the Elamite and Aramaic records are the largest source of Old Iranian languages preserved due to their usage in the Persepolis archives, including evidence of lexicon, phonology and dialect variation that are not found elsewhere.[38] Fragmentary finds with Elamite texts from other sites in the Achaemenid Empire point to similar common practices and administrative activities.[39] Archival records found in Bactria, one of the satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire, use administrative vocabulary, practice and book-keeping found in the Persepolis administrative archives.[40] Discovery of a record written in Old Persian for a routine administrative task challenges the previously held notion that Old Persian language was only used for imperial monumental inscriptions.[4] Persepolis administration treats all the gods equally. Among various gods named in Persepolis administrative archives receiving food offerings are: Elamite Humban, Inshushinak and Šimat, Mazdean Ahuramazda, Semitic Adad and other gods otherwise unknown.[41] No reference to Mithra has been found in the Persepolis administrative archives.[2] Landmark lawsuit[edit] This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (July 2018) Persepolis Fortification Archive is caught in the middle of a landmark lawsuit in the U.S. Federal Court system.[42] In 1997 five American tourists were killed and many more were wounded when terrorists set off suitcase bombs in a shopping mall in Jerusalem. The Palestinian organization Hamas claimed responsibility for the bombings.[7] In 2001 the survivors of the attack and their family members brought lawsuits against Hamas and Iran, claiming Iran had provided financial and logistical support to Hamas. The court agreed and awarded $71.5 million in compensatory damages and $300 million in punitive damages from Iran to the plaintiffs. In order to collect on the judgment, the plaintiffs sued a number of U.S. museums in 2004, in an attempt to appropriate various Iranian artifacts and collections and sell them to satisfy the claim for damages. Oriental Institute and the Persepolis Fortification Archive were among this group.[42] The case, Rubin v. Islamic Republic of Iran, was argued December 4th, 2017 and decided 8-0 in favor of Iran on February 21st, 2018. Since the Persian artifacts were not being used commercially by Iran, they could not be taken under subsections (a) and (g) of 28 U.S.C. § 1610. The majority view of the academic community as well as international institutions such as UNESCO is the protection of the cultural heritage, exchange and scholarly research must transcend politics.[7][43][44] PFA Project[edit] The threat of losing the Persepolis Fortification Archive to scholarly research as a result of the litigation since 2004, prompted the Oriental Institute to accelerate and enlarge the PFA Project in 2006, headed by Dr. Matthew Stolper, Professor of Assyriology. Scholars from various universities, students and volunteers are urgently digitizing the Persepolis Fortification Archive and making it available through online resources for further research worldwide.[45] The PFA Project editors are:[46] Annalisa Azzoni, Aramaic texts, Vanderbilt University, Nashville Elspeth Dusinberre, seal impressions on Aramaic texts, University of Colorado, Boulder Mark Garrison, seal impressions on all components, Trinity University, San Antonio Wouter Henkelman, Elamite texts, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam and École pratique des hautes études, Paris Charles Jones, Elamite texts, Institute for the Study of the Ancient World, New York Matthew Stolper, Elamite texts, Oriental Institute, Chicago Persepolis Treasury Archive[edit] Excavations directed by Erich Schmidt at Persepolis between 1934 and 1939 for the Oriental Institute, discovered a second group of clay tablets and fragments that became known as the Persepolis Treasury Archive (PTA), also known as Persepolis Treasury Tablets (PTT). They were packed in small metal cigarette boxes, filled with sawdust for shipping to Tehran.[47] Persepolis Treasury Archive deals mostly with payments of silver from the Persepolis treasury made in lieu of partial or full in-kind rations of sheep, wine, or grain to workers and artisans employed at or near Persepolis. Some records are administrative letters ordering payments to groups of workers and confirmation that such payments were made.[48] Location[edit] Persepolis Treasury Archive was found on the southeastern part of Persepolis terrace in the block of buildings identified as the "Royal Treasury" where small pieces of gold leaves were found, hence the name Persepolis Treasury Archive.[47] Components[edit] There are two main kinds of clay tablets and fragments in the Persepolis Treasury Archive:[49] Elamite: records in Elamite language and cuneiform script. Uninscribed: objects of various shapes with impressions of stamp seals, cylinder seals and seal rings. Many of them have marks of strings that secured bags or boxes and/or attached the sealings to containers. One tablet written in the Babylonian dialect of Akkadian, is the Treasury records of taxes paid in silver by three (3) individuals at an unknown location in regnal years 19th and 20th of Darius I the Great.[50][51] Numbers[edit] A total find of 746 clay tablets and fragments were reported by the excavators - 198 tablets and large fragments and 548 smaller fragments. 46 clay tablets were given to the Oriental Institute by the Iranian authorities and the rest were sent to the Iran Bastan Museum (modern National Museum of Iran) in Tehran. A part of the collection has been in the Tablet Hall of the National Museum of Iran since 1998.[47] 199 sealings without inscriptions were also found during the excavation.[49] Scope[edit] Persepolis Treasury Archive covers thirty five (35) years, from 492 to 457 BCE, from regnal year 30th of Darius I the Great, to regnal year 7th of Artaxerxes I, with largest concentration from regnal years 19th and 20th of Xerxes.[52] Sample[edit] A sample transliteration and translation of an Elamite record from Persepolis Treasury Archive by George Cameron:[53] No. 1957:5 ma-u-ú-iš kán-za-bar-ra tu-ru-iš ir-da-tak-ma na-an KI.MIN 2 kur-šá-am KÚ.BABBAR şa-ik pír-nu-ba-ik gal-na SÌ.SÌ-du gal ruh mu-ši-in sìk-ki-ip i-ia-an-uk-ku-ma ma-u-ú-iš da-ma gal Edge [ITU ha-ši-ia-ti]-iš- Reverse n [a be-ul] 19-um-me-man-na 4 ruh un-ra [Lines 12-15 completely destroyed li]-ka du-me ba-ka-gi-i-a(sic!)-ik-mar (To) Vahush the treasurer speak, Artataxma says: 2 karsha silver, the remaining half of the wage, give as wages to men, accountants at the court, sub-ordinate to Vahush. (It is) the wage for the month Açiyadiya(?) of the 19th year. 4 men, each... Lines 12-15 destroyed. [This sealed order] has been given. The receipt (came) from Bagagiya. Significance[edit] Persepolis archives are a rich resource for the study of all the official languages used in the Persian Achaemenid Empire, both individually and collectively in connection with each other.[38] Persepolis Treasury Archive furthermore contributes to the study of economic history by providing a record of the introduction of coined silver money to the regional economy of the Persepolis and its eventual adoption. Persepolis Fortification Archive, a generation before the Persepolis Treasury Archive, only attests to the payment in-kind at Persepolis (wine, beer, grain, flour, sheep, and the like).[54] Other Achaemenid records from Persepolis[edit] Excavations directed by Akbar Tajvidi at Persepolis between 1968 and 1973, recovered more clay tablets. Excavating the upper towers of the fortification wall on top of Kuh-e Rahmat (Mountain of Mercy), excavators found sealed uninscribed Achaemenid Bullae.[55] From a group of 52 uninscribed sealings, some impressions were similar to the sealings found in the Persepolis Treasury Archive.[56] Future excavations in the areas currently unexcavated, such as the southeastern part of the Persepolis terrace and mountain fortifications, might yield other archives.[47] Online resources[edit] OCHRE – The Online Cultural and Historical Research Environment – at the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago is the main online database for the Persepolis Fortification Archive (PFA) Project, where all the components of the Persepolis Administrative Archives – Elamite, Aramaic, glyptic, and miscellany – can be seen, linked and searched.[57] InscriptiFact - The West Semitic Research Project – at the University of Southern California (USC) is a site that produces two kinds of high resolution online images of the Persepolis Fortification Archive tablets in collaboration with the Oriental Institute, allowing online handling of the images.[57] CDLI - The Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative – at the University of California, Los Angeles, (UCLA), is a site that provides fast, low resolution online images of the Persepolis Fortification Archive Elamite tablets.[57] Achemenet and MAVI – at Collège de France is a site for Achaemenid studies, providing full editions and translations of Persepolis Fortification Archive components. These editions are linked to MAVI interface to view high resolution online images on the Virtual Achaemenid Museum.[57] ARTA – Achaemenid Research on Texts and Archaeology – at Collège de France is the site for Achaemenid studies online journal, providing periodic bulletins on the discoveries made in the course of studying Persepolis Administrative Archives.[57] See also[edit] Achaemenid Empire Aramaic Chicago's Persian heritage crisis Darius I the Great Elamite cuneiform Elamite language Old Persian cuneiform Old Persian language Persepolis Xerxes I of Persia Notes[edit] ^ Kuhrt "The Persepolis Archives:concluding observations," Persika 12, 2008:567. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Henkelman 2008:Ch 2. ^ a b Wiesehöfer 10-11. ^ a b c Stolper "What are the Persepolis Fortification Tablets?" The Oriental Institute News & Notes, 2007. ^ a b Kuhrt "The Persepolis Archives:concluding observations," Persika 12, 2008:563-568. ^ Cameron 1948:Preface. ^ a b c d Stein 2007. ^ Jones & Stolper "How Many Persepolis Fortification Tablets Are There?" Persika 12, 2008:37-44. ^ Hallock 1969:1. ^ Razmjou "Find spots and find circumstances of documents excavated at Persepolis," Persika 12, 2008:51. ^ Anonymous 1934:232. ^ Schmidt 1953:3. ^ Herzfeld 1941:226. ^ a b Henkelman 2008:157-162. ^ Garrison "The uninscribed tablets from the Fortification archive: a preliminary analysis," Persika 12, 2008:149-238. ^ Jones & Stolper “How Many Persepolis Fortification Tablets Are There?” Persika 12, 2008:37-44.https://nyu.academia.edu/CharlesJones/Papers/84747/How-many-Persepolis-Fortification-tablets-are-there-- ^ a b c Henkelman 2008: Ch 2. ^ Hallock 1969, 1978. ^ Garrison and Root 1998, 2001. ^ a b Henkelman "From Gabae to Taoce: the geography of the central administrative province," Persica 12, 2008:303-314. ^ Hallock 1969:96. ^ a b Azzoni "The Bowman MS and the Aramaic tablets," Persika 12, 2008:253-274. ^ Dusinberre "Seal impressions on the Persepolis Fortification Aramaic tablets: preliminary observations," Persika 12, 2008:239-252. ^ Henkelman 2008, Ch 2. ^ Garrison 2008:180-84. ^ Root 1989. ^ Garrison 2000. ^ Root "The legible image: how did seals and sealing matter in Persepolis?" Persika 12, 2008: 87-148. ^ Garrison 2002:71. ^ Henkelman 2008:95-103. ^ Tavernier "Multilingualism in the Fortification and Treasury archives," Persika 12, 2008:59-64. ^ Stolper & Tavernier 2007:1-5. ^ a b Stolper & Tavernier 2007:3f., 24f. ^ Stolper 1984:300-303. ^ Brixhe 2004:118-126. ^ Lewis 1990. ^ Hallock 1969:5-6. ^ a b Tavernier 2007. ^ Kuhrt 2007. ^ Shaked 2004. ^ Hallock 1969:5. ^ a b Wawrzyniak 2007. ^ Esfandiari, Golnaz (2006-07-12). "Iran: Tehran, U.S. Academics Challenge Seizure Of Persian Tablets". RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty. Retrieved 2007-02-28. ^ Heath & Schwartz 2009. ^ Parisi 2008. ^ http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/projects/pfa/ Persepolis Fortification Archive Project. ^ a b c d Razmjou "Find spots and find circumstances of documents excavated at Persepolis," Persika 12, 2008:55. ^ Cameron 1948, 1958. ^ a b Schmidt 1957:4-5. ^ Cameron 1948. ^ Briant 2002:441. ^ Cameron 1948, 1958, 1965. ^ Cameron 1958:176. ^ Cameron 1948:1. ^ Razmjou "Find spots and find circumstances of documents excavated at Persepolis," Persika 12, 2008:57. ^ Tajvidi 1976:195. ^ a b c d e Briant et al. (eds.) Persika 12, 2008:22-24. References[edit] Anonymous: "Recent Discoveries at Persepolis," Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, pp. 226–232, 1934. Briant, Pierre: From Cyrus to Alexander, a History of the Persian Empire, Winona Lake, 2002. Briant, Pierre, Henkelman, Wouter F.M., and Stolper, Matthew W. (eds.): L’archive des Fortifications de Persépolis: État des questions et perspectives de recherches, Persika 12, Paris: De Boccard, 2008. Brixhe, C.: "Corpus des Inscriptions paleo-phrygiennes, Suppl. II," Kadmos 43:1-130, 2004. Cameron, George G.: Persepolis Treasury Tablets, Oriental Institute Publications 65, Chicago, 1948. Cameron, George G.: "Persepolis Treasury Tablets Old and New," Journal of Near Eastern Studies 17:161-176, 1958. Cameron, George G.: "New Tablets from the Persepolis Treasury," Journal of Near Eastern Studies 24:167-192, 1965. Garrison, Mark B.: "The 'Late Neo-Elamite' Glyptic Style: A Perspective from Fars," Bulletin of the Asian Institute 16: 65–102, 2002. Garrison, Mark B.: "Achaemenid iconography as evidenced by glyptic art, subject matter, social function, audience and diffusion," in Christoph Uehlinger (ed.): Images as Media, Sources for the Cultural History of the Near East and the Eastern Mediterranean (1st Millennium BCE), Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis 175, Fribourg and Göttingen, 115-163, 2000. Garrison, Mark B. and Cool Root, Margaret: Seals on the Persepolis Fortification Tablets, I: Images of Heroic Encounter, Oriental Institute Publications 117, http://www.achemenet.com/actualites/Hallock.pdf, Chicago, 2001. Garrison, Mark B. and Cool Root, Margaret: Persepolis Seal Studies. An Introduction with Provisional Concordance of Seal Numbers and Associated Documents on Fortification Tablets 1-2087, Achaemenid History 9, corrected edition. Leiden, 1998. Hallock, Richard T.: "New Light from Persepolis," Journal of Near Eastern Studies 9:237-252, 1950. Hallock, Richard T.: "A New Look at the Persepolis Treasury Tablets," Journal of Near Eastern Studies 19:90-100, 1960. Hallock, Richard T.: Persepolis Fortification Tablets, Oriental Institute Publications 92, https://web.archive.org/web/20070621133316/http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/OIP92.pdf, Chicago, 1969. Hallock, Richard T.: "Selected Fortification Texts," Cahiers de la Délégation Archéologique Française en Iran http://www.achemenet.com/actualites/Hallock.pdf, 8:109-136, 1978. Heath, Sebastian, and Schwartz, Glenn M.: "Legal Threats to Cultural Exchange of Archaeological Materials," American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 113 No. 3 (July 2009), http://www.ajaonline.org/note/294. Henkelman, Wouter F.M.:The Other Gods Who Are: Studies in Elamite-Iranian Acculturation based on the Persepolis Fortification Texts Achaemenid History 14. Leiden, 2008. Herzfeld, Ernst: Iran in the Ancient East, London, 1941. Lewis, D.M.: "Persepolis Fortification Texts", in H. Sancisi-Weerdenburg & A. Kuhrt Achaemenid History IV: Centre and Periphery, Proceedings of the Groningen 1986 Achaemenid History Workshop, pp. 2–6, Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 1990. Parisi, Daniel: "Of Ancient Empires and Modern Litigation", Tableau https://web.archive.org/web/20080704192203/http://humanities.uchicago.edu/tableau/issues/Fall_Win_08.pdf Winter 2008. Schmidt, Erich F.: The Treasury of Persepolis and Other Discoveries in the Homeland of the Achaemenians, Oriental Institute Communications 21, Chicago, 1939. Schmidt, Erich F.: Persepolis, II: Contents of the Treasury and Other Discoveries, Oriental Institute Publications 69, Chicago, 1957. Shaked, Shaul: Le satrape de Bactriane et son gouverneur. Documents araméens du IVe s. avant notre ère provenant de Bactriane, Persika 4, Paris, 2004. Sider, Alison: "The Trial of the Centuries", The Chicago Maroon, https://web.archive.org/web/20110716141445/http://www.chicagomaroon.com/2009/3/5/trial-of-the-centuries-the-legal-battle-over-ancient-artifacts-and-global-terror, March 5, 2009. Stein, Gil J.: "A Heritage Threatened: The Persepolis Tablets Lawsuit and the Oriental Institute" The Oriental Institute News & Notes, Winter 2007. Stolper, Matthew W.: " The Neo-Babylonian Text from the Persepolis Fortification," Journal of Near Eastern Studies 43: 299-310, 1984. Stolper, Matthew W. and Tavernier, Jan: "From the Persepolis Fortification Archive Project, 1: An Old Persian Administrative Tablet from the Persepolis Fortification," ARTA 2007.001 http://www.achemenet.com/document/2007.001-Stolper-Tavernier.pdf, 2007. Stolper, Matthew W.: "What are the Persepolis Fortification Tablets?" The Oriental Institute News & Notes, Winter 2007. Tajvidi, Akbar: Dānistānihā-ye nuvīn dar barāh-e hunār va bāstānšināsi-ye asr-e Hakhāmaniši bar bunyād-e kāvushā-ye panj sālah-e Takht-e Jamshīd, Tehran, 1976. Tavernier, Jan: Iranica in the Achaemenid Period (c. 550-330 BC), Lexicon of Old Iranian Proper Names and Loanwords, Attested in Non-Iranian Texts, Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 158, Paris, 2007. Wawrzyniak, James A.: "Rubin v. The Islamic Republic of Iran - A Struggle for Control of Persian Antiquities in America", Harvard Law School http://works.bepress.com/james_wawrzyniak/1 2007. Wiesehöfer, Josef: Ancient Persia: from 550 BC to 650 AD London, 1996, 2001. Further reading[edit] English[edit] Arfaee, Abdolmajid: Persepolis Fortification Tablets, Fortification and Treasury texts, Ancient Iranian Studies v. 5., The Center for The Great Islamic Encyclopedia, Tehran, Iran, 2008. Briant, Pierre: From Cyrus to Alexander, a History of the Persian Empire, Winona Lake, 2002. Briant, Pierre, Wouter Henkelman, and Matthew Stolper (eds.): L’archive des Fortifications de Persépolis: État des questions et perspectives de recherches, Persika 12, Paris, 2008. Brosius, Maria: Women in Ancient Persia 559-331 B.C., Oxford, 1996. Brosius, Maria (ed.): Ancient Archives and Archival Traditions. Concepts of Record-Keeping in the Ancient World, Oxford, 2003. Curtis, John and Tallis, Nigel (eds.): Forgotten Empire: the World of Ancient Persia, London, 2005. Henkelman, Wouter F.M.: The Other Gods Who Are: Studies in Elamite-Iranian Acculturation based on the Persepolis Fortification Texts, Achaemenid History 14, Leiden, 2008. Kuhrt, Amélie: "Bureaucracy, Production, Settlement" in Kuhrt, Amélie: The Persian Empire, a Corpus of Sources from the Achaemenid Period, 2 Vols., London, 2007. Persian[edit] Rahimifar, Mahnaz: "Mo‘arafī-ye barxi az barčasbhā-ye geli-ye Taxt-e Jamšīd", Bāstān Šenāsī, 1:72-76, 2005. Tadjvidi, Akbar: Dānistānihā-ye nuvīn dar barāh-e hunār va bāstānšināsi-ye asr-e Hakhāmaniši bar bunyād-e kāvushā-ye panj sālah-e Takht-e Jamshīd, Tehran, 1976. External links[edit] Persepolis Fortification Archive Project Persepolis Fortification Archive Project Blog What are the Persepolis Fortification Tablets? Persepolis Fortification Archive Project: Preserving the Legacy of the Achaemenid Persians Overview of Legal Issues and Latest Legislative Developments Persepolis Fortification Tablets Jona Lendering, livius.org Cuneiforme elamita Enrique Quintana, University of Murcia, click on CARTAS , then click on Persépolis, for transliteration and Spanish translation of some Elamite tablets v t e Achaemenid Empire History Kingdom Family tree Timeline History of democracy Art Achaemenid Persian Lion Rhyton Achaemenid coinage Danake Persian daric Architecture Achaemenid architecture Persepolis Pasargadae Tomb of Cyrus Naqsh-e Rostam Ka'ba-ye Zartosht Mausoleum at Halicarnassus Tombs at Xanthos Harpy Tomb Nereid Monument Tomb of Payava Culture Persepolis Administrative Archives Old Persian cuneiform Old Persian Behistun Inscription Xerxes I's inscription at Van Ganjnameh Warfare Persian Revolt Battle of Hyrba Battle of the Persian Border Lydian-Persian Wars Battle of Pteria Battle of Thymbra Siege of Sardis (547 BC) Battle of Opis First conquest of Egypt Battle of Cunaxa Conquest of the Indus Valley Scythian campaign of Darius I Greco-Persian Wars Ionian Revolt Battle of Thermopylae Battle of Artemisium Battle of Salamis Battle of Plataea Battle of Mycale Battle of Marathon Delian League Battle of Lade Siege of Eretria Siege of Naxos (499 BC) Wars of the Delian League Battle of the Eurymedon Peloponnesian War Battle of Cyzicus Corinthian War Battle of Cnidus Great Satraps' Revolt Second conquest of Egypt Wars of Alexander the Great Battle of Gaugamela Battle of the Granicus Battle of the Persian Gate Battle of Issus Siege of Gaza Siege of Halicarnassus Siege of Miletus Siege of Perinthus Siege of Tyre (332 BC) Related Achaemenid dynasty Pharnacid dynasty Peace of Antalcidas Peace of Callias Kingdom of Pontus Mithridatic dynasty Kingdom of Cappadocia Ariarathid dynasty 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire Districts of the Empire Royal Road Xanthian Obelisk v t e Persepolis Palace Tachara Gate of All Nations Other sections Tomb of Artaxerxes III builders Darius the Great Xerxes I Artaxerxes I of Persia Researchers Heidemarie Koch Erich Schmidt (archaeologist) Alireza Shapour Shahbazi Related Tangeh Bolaghi 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire Sivand Dam Persepolis Administrative Archives Waterskin Achaemenid architecture Category:Persepolis Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Persepolis_Administrative_Archives&oldid=982979243" Categories: Persepolis Clay tablets Archives in Iran Government of the Achaemenid Empire 1930s in Iran Archaeology of the Achaemenid Empire Archaeological discoveries in Iran 1930s archaeological discoveries Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Wikipedia articles in need of updating from July 2018 All Wikipedia articles in need of updating Fars Province articles missing geocoordinate data All articles needing coordinates AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Español Euskara فارسی Italiano Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 11 October 2020, at 14:46 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8847	----	Horus Bird (pharaoh) - Wikipedia Horus Bird (pharaoh) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Horus Bird (Pharaoh)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Horus Bird in hieroglyphs Reign: unknown Predecessor: Sneferka Successor: Raneb ​ Hor-? Serekh-name Horus name of "Horus-Bird" inscribed on fragment P.D.IV n.108 found in Djoser's pyramid complex at Saqqara. Horus Bird, also known as Horus-Ba, is the serekh-name of a pharaoh who may have had a very short reign between the First and Second Dynasty of Egypt. Contents 1 Name sources 2 Identity 3 References 4 External links Name sources[edit] There are very few reliable name sources for Horus-Bird. The first known attestation of this king may be a serekh with an undetailed bird found by Flinders Petrie in the tomb of Qa'a at Abydos. Another more legible inscription showing a serekh with a bird was later found on a vessel fragment PD IV n.108 in Djoser's pyramid complex at Saqqara. An inscription on a schist vase (P.D. IV n.97) from Djoser's pyramid complex could also refer to Horus-Bird.[1] Since the hieroglyphic sign is written in such an erratic way, the correct reading remains uncertain. Whilst Egyptologists such as Wolfgang Helck and Peter Kaplony see a depiction of a goose, they read the name as Sa (which would make it a “Son of Horus”) or as Geb(eb) (which would make it an "Heir of Horus").[1] Egyptologist Nabil Swelim instead sees a depiction of a saddle-billed stork and reads Ba (making it a “Soul of Horus”).[2] Identity[edit] Very little is known about King Horus-Bird. The few archaeological evidences point to the existence of one or more ephemeral rulers following Qa'a's death and before Hotepsekhemwy of which Horus-Bird may have been one. Egyptologists such as Jaroslav Černý and Kaplony think that Horus-Bird could be identical to the likewise sparsely attested King Horus-Ba. Indeed, this ruler wrote his name with the leg sign or the leg and ram signs, which read "Ba". Černý and Kaplony think that the bird in the serekh of Horus-Bird is the goose sign with the same transcription, "Ba".[3] In this case Horus-Ba and Horus "Bird" could be the same historical figure. Černý and Kaplony's theory is not commonly accepted; the presence of the Horus-Bird serekh in the tomb of Qa'a pointing rather to an interregnum with Horus-Bird between the first and second dynasties. Egyptologists such as Wolfgang Helck and Peter Kaplony believe that Horus Bird and Sneferka fought each other to gain the throne of Egypt. The struggles peaked in the plundering of the royal cemetery of Abydos, which was therefore abandoned. The struggle for the throne was possibly brought to an end by the founder of the 2nd dynasty, king Hotepsekhemwy. A piece of evidence supporting this theory is the Horus name of Hotepsekhemwy which means "The two powers are reconciled", and could relate to a re-unification of the Egyptian realm after a period of discord.[4][5][6] Horus-Bird's burial site is unknown. References[edit] ^ a b Wolfgang Helck: Geschichte des Alten Ägypten. Brill, Leiden 1981, ISBN 9789004064973, page 34-35. ^ Nabil Swelim: Some Problems on the History of the Third Dynasty. In: Archaeological and Historical Studies, vol. 7. The Archaeological Society of Alexandria, Alexandria 1983 ^ Peter Kaplony: Horus Ba?. In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Institut Kairo. Volume 20. von Zabern, Mainz 1965, page 3 & 4. ^ Peter Kaplony: „Er ist ein Liebling der Frauen“ – Ein „neuer“ König und eine neue Theorie zu den Kronprinzen sowie zu den Staatsgöttinnen (Kronengöttinnen) der 1./2. Dynastie. In: Manfred Bietak: Ägypten und Levante. Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien 2006 ISBN 978-3-7001-6668-9; page 126–127. ^ Dietrich Wildung: Die Rolle ägyptischer Könige im Bewußtsein ihrer Nachwelt. page 36–41. ^ Wolfgang Helck: Untersuchungen zur Thinitenzeit. (Ägyptologische Abhandlungen, Vol. 45). Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1987, ISBN 3-447-02677-4; page 117 External links[edit] Francesco Raffaele: Horus SNEFERKA - Horus Bird - Horus SEKHET (?) - Horus BA Preceded by Sneferka Pharaoh of Egypt Succeeded by Hotepsekhemwy v t e Second Dynasty of Ancient Egypt Attested pharaohs Hotepsekhemwy Nebra Weneg Nynetjer Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Khasekhemwy Obscure pharaoh names Horus Ba Ba Horus Sa Hudjefa I Neferkara I Neferkasokar Nubnefer Senedj Sneferka Wadjenes Queen consort Nimaathap Other royals Khenmetptah Satkhnum Sehener Shepset-ipet Wadjitefni (Mesen-ka) Pehen-Ptah Nisuheqet Nefer-Setekh Monument Gisr el-Mudir Capital Thinis v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horus_Bird_(pharaoh)&oldid=997568699" Categories: 30th-century BC Pharaohs 29th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the First Dynasty of Egypt Pharaohs of the Second Dynasty of Egypt 29th century BC in Egypt 29th-century BC rulers 3rd-millennium BC births 3rd-millennium BC deaths Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Català Deutsch Français Galego Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Македонски مصرى Nederlands Português Русский සිංහල 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en-wikipedia-org-8850	----	Civilization IV - Wikipedia Civilization IV From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Civilization IV Developer(s) Firaxis Games Publisher(s) 2K Games (Win) Aspyr (Mac) Director(s) Sid Meier Producer(s) Barry Caudill[1] Designer(s) Soren Johnson Programmer(s) Soren Johnson Artist(s) Steve Ogden Composer(s) Jeffery L. Briggs Christopher Tin Series Civilization Engine Gamebryo[2] Platform(s) Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X Release Microsoft Windows NA: October 25, 2005 PAL: November 4, 2005 Mac OS X June 30, 2006 Genre(s) Turn-based strategy, 4X Mode(s) Single-player, multiplayer Civilization IV (also known as Sid Meier's Civilization IV) is a 4x turn-based strategy computer game and the fourth installment of the Civilization series, and designed by Soren Johnson under the direction of Sid Meier and his video game development studio Firaxis Games. It was preceded by Civilization III and followed by Civilization V, and it was released in North America, Europe, and Australia, between October 25 and November 4, 2005. Civilization IV uses the 4X empire-building model for turn-based strategy gameplay, in which the player's main objective is to construct a civilization from limited initial resources. Most standard full-length games start the player with a settler unit and/or a city unit in the year 4000 BC. As with other games in the series, there are by default five objectives the player can pursue in order to finish the game: conquering all other civilizations, controlling a supermajority of the game world's land and population, building and sending the first sleeper ship to the Alpha Centauri star system, increasing the "Culture ratings" of at least three different cities to "legendary" levels, or winning a "World Leader" popularity contest by the United Nations. If the time limit for the game is reached and none of the previous goals has been fulfilled by any players including game AI players, the civilization with the highest total game score is declared winner. A large departure from earlier Civilization games is a new graphics engine created from scratch, based on the Gamebryo engine by Numerical Design Limited (NDL). The game has received critical acclaim and was hailed as an exemplary product of one of the leading video game producers in the turn-based strategy genre, and has been listed as one of the best video games of all time. Civilization IV sold over 3 million copies by 2008 and won multiple awards, including several Game of the Year awards. Its title song, "Baba Yetu", was the first piece of video game music to win a Grammy Award. Two major expansions were released, Civilization IV: Warlords and Civilization IV: Beyond the Sword, as well as the standalone game Civilization IV: Colonization, which were all combined in 2009 into one release edition titled Sid Meier's Civilization IV: The Complete Edition. Contents 1 Gameplay 1.1 Units and combat 1.2 Resources and buildings 1.3 Technology, government and religion 1.4 Customization 2 Production 2.1 Production and development 2.2 Mods 2.3 Civilization Anonymous 2.4 Release 3 Reception 3.1 Sales 3.2 Critical reviews 3.3 Awards 4 References 4.1 Citations 4.2 Sources 5 External links Gameplay[edit] Civilization IV follows some of the 4X model of turn-based strategy games, a genre in which players control an empire and "explore, expand, exploit, and exterminate", by having the player attempt to lead a modest group of peoples from a base with initially scarce resources into a successful empire or civilization.[3][4] The condition for winning the game is accomplished through one of the five ways: militarily defeating all other civilizations in the game world, controlling over two-thirds of the game world's land and population, building the first spaceship in the Space Age and sending it to Alpha Centauri, having the most dominant Culture ratings over other civilizations, or becoming "World Leader" through the United Nations votes.[5] Additionally, there are multiple game scores for each civilization throughout the game based on the actions of each civilization and a number of different factors, allowing for a win condition based on the total of these points if the game timer runs out. The game can be played in multiple modes: as a single player facing against one or more computer-controlled opponents, in hot seat mode, or through online multiplayer games.[6] As with other turn-based strategy video games, the player can customize the look and feel of their game world as well as the difficulty of any game AI players before the game starts. Each map space has a terrain type, such as plains, tundra, or desert, that affects the available resources players can extract from their environments and the movements of certain units through that terrain. The player is then given a total of 18 different civilizations to choose from, each with their own pros and cons, plus a leader avatar, an initial set of civilization technology, and any units unique to that civilization. When the game starts, however, it chooses random locations to place across a predefined square grid map. Like other strategy games, Civilization IV has a fog of war feature, in which unexplored territory remains darkened and territories without any units stationed on its designated square is shaded with darker colors.[7] Units and combat[edit] Example of some of the units and 3D graphics unique to Civilization IV. Most units that the player can generate and use are military units, with certain attributes such as combat strength and movement rate particular to each military type. Each unit can gain experience through combat, which later translates into promotions that the player can use to assign military units new bonuses.[5] Initially, most combat takes place on land, but further advancements in the game's technology tree can allow the player to build ships and planes with which to fight battles on sea and in the air. Any number of units can be stacked onto a single space and move as a group if so assigned, but the overall combat phase is resolved by one-on-one unit battles. Combat is initiated when moving military units are moved onto the square occupied by an opposing force's military units and cities, and combat is then resolved with calculating statistics of each unit combined with some random chance. Defeated units are removed from the game (apart from workers and settlers, which are captured by the attacking force), and any attacking units that are able to defeat the last defending military unit on a space will move to occupy that space. If the space is occupied by a city the player may choose to occupy and capture the city as their own or raze it. Other than combat, military units can also be assigned to fortify a specific space, perform sentry duties, destroy enemy city improvements, or explore the game world. Non-military units include settlers who are used to found cities, workers who are used to improve space and gather resources, spies who can perform counterintelligence and espionage, and religious missionaries who can be sent to convert different civilizations and cities. Also, with the Beyond the Sword expansion, new units are added such as executives, who can spread corporations to new cities. Throughout the game, players may also generate a special unit called a "Great Person". These are named after historical figures and can be used for one-time advantage boosts in various ways; examples include Great Engineers who increase overall production levels and Great Scientists who improve technology. Assigning inhabitants of cities to work as 'specialists' (scientists, engineers, artists, spies, merchants or priests), building certain wonders or discovering certain technologies can improve the rate at which Great People are generated. Great Generals are generated when a player's forces achieve a certain number of victories, and can be used either to give a small amount of extra experience to all units trained in a city, or a very high level of experience to one unit. However, like other units, Great People of all kinds can be attacked and killed before the players can use them.[6] Resources and buildings[edit] Once a city is founded, it will automatically begin extracting resources from surrounding spaces; the amount of spaces it can extract from is determined by the city's population size. The game automatically allocates the spaces a city uses and how its resources are maintained as the city grows, but the player is free to manage the city directly. This feature can be utilized to turn a part of the population into one of several specialized occupations; at the cost of having one less space from the city, these specialists increase gathering and production of the resources of their targeted specializations. Each city can only produce one military unit or one building at a time; any additional units or buildings are placed into a queue. The rate of construction is determined by the amount of material collected from the surrounding spaces; players can also choose to speed production by sacrificing gold or population if they adopt the required governmental policy; called civics. The player can instead specialize the city towards gathering a particular resource instead of constructing additional units or buildings. Also, in order to produce some units or buildings, certain resources must be collected within the empire and connected to the empires trade network by roads or harbours (for example, horses are needed for mounted units, and iron for swords, while stone or marble increase production of certain Wonders.). Buildings perform any number of different functions depending on building type; for example, early buildings such as granaries improve food storage to boost the city's growth and barracks produce better military units, while later buildings such as factories increase general production levels. There are also a number of unique buildings throughout the game. Most notable are World Wonders, which can be accessed through research nodes in the technology tree and construction through the worker unit. World Wonders provide advantages that are unique to each civilization, as they are limited to only one or two players. Through buildings and specialists, each city also generates the "Culture" resource that contributes towards both the area upon which the city can influence for extracting resources and the overall civilization's cultural value. When two cities of different civilizations are adjacent to each other, the culture values of each city influences the space they can control; it is even possible that a city close to another civilization's city will join that civilization if their culture is strong enough. The high levels of culture gathering and attainment are also one of the default conditions that can be used to win the game.[5] Technology, government and religion[edit] A screenshot of Civics option menu in Civilization IV'.[1] Once the first city has been founded, the player can select their first technology node from the game's technology tree to research, once the required number of research points have been accumulated, the technology is obtained. As with other types of technology trees, more advanced technology nodes require the research of other previous technology nodes. The player can also select a future technology and immediately place into the game queue any technology nodes between the current technology level and the specified technology node. Technology can also determine another win condition; several endgame technology nodes are required to develop a colony ship to reach Alpha Centauri.[5] Within the technology tree are technology nodes relating to government civics and state religions, each with their own pros and cons. The player has the option of selecting which set of government civics or state religions that the player wants their civilization to follow, but not all civics and religions can be encompassed. Once the player has formally met another civilization, they can perform diplomacy at any time. For example, if the two civilizations are on friendly terms, the player can ask to trade units and/or technology for gold and vice versa, or request opening of national borders in order to freely explore in the other civilization's territories. The player can also use the diplomacy menu to request help in a war against a third civilization, or formally declare war on any civilization in which they engage diplomacy. Religion plays a much more important role in Civilization IV than in the previous installments of the franchise. Impacting many of the game's key mechanics like government civics and diplomatic relations, the game's new religious system, according to Firaxis Games producer Barry Caudill, was added to increase gameplay depth over the entire game.[8] The game features seven religions (Buddhism, Christianity, Confucianism, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, and Taoism) that are founded by the first civilization to research a certain technology which varies per religion. Religions can then be spread actively through the production of missionary units or passively through means such as trade routes. Religions may be spread to domestic and foreign cities and there is no limit to the number of religions that can be present in any single city. The player may only choose one state religion at a time and all seven offer identical advantages (e.g. cities with the state religion receive bonuses in happiness, and potentially in production, science, gold and even military unit experience points). Customization[edit] Civilization IV is much more open to modification than its predecessors were. Game data and rules are stored in XML files, and a Software Development Kit was released in April 2006 to allow customization of game AI. The map editor supports Python.[6][9] The World Builder allows a player to either design a map from scratch or edit a preloaded template map as a starting point for a new game. The player can modify the map by placing and modifying any number of rivers, landmasses, mountains, resources, units, and cities, as well as their attributes such as Culture generation. The World Builder for Civilization IV is in-game, in contrast to previous Civilization games where the Map Editor was an external application.[10] More game attributes are stored in XML files, which can be edited with an external text editor or application. On September 20, 2005, Firaxis Games senior producer Barry Caudill stated that "[e]diting these files will allow players to tweak simple game rules and change or add content. For instance, they can add new unit or building types, change the cost of wonders, or add new civilizations. Players can also change the sounds played at certain times or edit the play list for your soundtrack."[10] The Civilization IV software development kit was released on April 13, 2006, to coincide with the release of the v1.61 patch. The kit allows players to view, modify, or even completely re-write the game's DLL source code, enabling the modification of the game's AI and other integral parts of the game that were previously not accessible.[11] Production[edit] Production and development[edit] The game engine for Civilization IV was built entirely from scratch,[12] with some help from NDL's Gamebryo engine.[2] This decision resulted in a full 3D immersion of the game, which was the first in the series,[13] and which allowed easier readability[5] and smoother, more in-depth zooming capabilities.[4] Some of the quotes relating to the technology tree and narration for the game were provided by Leonard Nimoy.[5][7] The soundtrack for the game features compositions of Medieval, Renaissance, and Baroque origin,[1] and design for the title music was influenced by The Lion King.[1][7] Composer Christopher Tin wrote the opening theme song "Baba Yetu" (Swahili "Our Father"), a rendition of the Lord's Prayer, which was performed by Stanford University's Talisman A Cappella. The song, when rereleased, became the first piece of video game music to be nominated for and to win a Grammy Award.[14] Mods[edit] Sid Meier's Civilization IV also released some bonus content, mainly to show modding capabilities: Earth – This is the world map of the game, based on the Robinson projection of the Earth in order to optimize its size. 124x68 tiles large, it features just 9 ancient civilizations.[15] An 18 civilizations version of this mod was later released which won the first prize at a GameFlood modding contest.[16] Earth Ice Age – This map is set in the world during the last ice age (20,000 years before present), with 11 randomly picked civilizations.[17] Greek World – To reenact the classical Mediterranean, a special map was made, based on Hecataeus' map of the world as it was known by the Greeks. Extra detail was also borrowed from other ancient sources such as Homer, Ptolemy, and Herodotus.[18] Rhye's and Fall of Civilization – This mod changes much of the core settings of the game as an attempt at maintaining a sense of historical realism into the game. In order to do this, it introduces other features such as plagues and congresses.[19] Caveman2Cosmos – extensive mod for Civ 4 BTS, stretches over 50,000 years and introduces a large amount of new content in the TechTree and Units. It is described as spiritual successor to the Civilization 4 mod "Rise of Mankind" and its addon "A New Dawn".[20] Civilization Anonymous[edit] The game had a viral marketing campaign, revolving around a fictitious self-help organization known as Civilization Anonymous (shortened to CivAnon), the intention being to satirise how addictive the game was. With the slogan "No More Turns", the premise was the following: "Rumors have begun to circulate that the newest edition of the "One More Turn" franchise is on its way. STAY AWAY from this game at all costs. You will likely be powerless to its extreme addictive properties once exposed".[21] Various characters were created, and their scenarios were included in various trailers showing the "inside [of] a Civanon meeting for [Civilization] addicts,"[22] the first of which being played during E3 2005 once an hour at the 2K Games booth.[23] These "video testimonials of supposedly recovering Civilization addicts"[24] also featured cameos by Sid Meier. In addition to this, an "official" website was created by 2K Games with extra content. The Civilization Anonymous campaign was brought back for the following game Civilization V. Break described the campaign as "hilarious",[22] while Kotaku described it as a "great promotional campaign" that "comes across as terrifyingly realistic".[25] Destructoid shared this view, saying the support group campaign is "a clever marketing tool", but wishing it existed as "we all know there really are people who suffer from one-more-turn-itis".[26] VantureBeat said the campaign was "incredibly clever and funny", adding "what made it so powerful was not the near-flawless execution and fine detail; it was the fact that it could have been real". 'Ctrl-Alt-Play: Essays on Control in Video Gaming' noted the spoof highlighted the series' "hyper-addictive turn-based gameplay".[24] As part of the Civilization V version of the campaign, 2K Games asked Civilization addicts to submit stories via video in order to win $2,500 and a "framed, limited edition Civilization Anonymous poster signed by Firaxis Games".[26] The 2010 version was "updated for modern concerns, like the franchise's broader audience and iPhone editions of the game acting as a gateway drug."[27] Release[edit] Civilization IV was published for the Windows and Mac OS X platforms. Aspyr released the Mac OS X version in June 2006, and a Mac digital version was released January 2010 on gameagent.com.[28] Users who quickly purchased the game after initial release reported having problems playing the game on particular sets of video drivers, which were later resolved by a Firaxis patch, according to GameSpy.[9] By the end of March in 2008, the game sold over three million units.[29] Firaxis Games has also published two expansion packs for Civilization IV, entitled Civilization IV: Warlords and Civilization IV: Beyond the Sword. A remake of the original 1994 Sid Meier's Colonization, rebuilt with Civilization IV's game engine and titled Civilization IV: Colonization, was released for Mac and PC as a standalone game and later bundled with the two expansions as Civilization IV: The Complete Edition.[30] Reception[edit] Sales[edit] Civilization IV was a commercial success, and sold more than 1 million units by mid-March 2006. By that time, it had held a top-10 position on every weekly computer game sales chart released by The NPD Group since the game's launch.[31] NPD declared Civilization IV the 11th-best-selling computer game of 2005,[32] and it rose to ninth place on the firm's annual computer game sales chart for the following year.[33] It returned to NPD's year-end top 20 in 2008 with a 13th-place finish.[34] The game also received a "Silver" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA),[35] indicating sales of at least 100,000 copies in the United Kingdom.[36] According to Take-Two Interactive, sales of Civilization IV surpassed 3 million units by March 2008.[37] Critical reviews[edit] Reception Aggregate scores Aggregator Score GameRankings 93%[13] Metacritic 94%[38] Review scores Publication Score 1Up.com A[39] CVG 9.2[42] Eurogamer 9/10[40] GameRevolution A-[41] GameSpot 9.4/10[7] GameSpy [9] IGN 9.4/10[5] Civilization IV received universal critical acclaim with an aggregate score of 94 on Metacritic[38] and an aggregate score of 93.36% on GameRankings. Critics such as GameSpot's Andrew Park praised not only the improvements in the turn-based strategy genre that carried over from other installments in the series, but also noted the game's more advanced 3D computer graphics, difficult AI opponents, and multiplayer feature.[7] The Times praised the improvements of the 3D engine used to generally build the game,[43] and GameGuru appreciated its ability to zoom onto individual squares.[4] IGN commented that the game AI was much more intelligent than it was in Civilization III,[5] which designer Soren Johnson stated was thanks to their "secret pre-beta group" testing the game before release.[1] Game Revolution remarked that "the multiplayer... actually works this time"[41] and GameSpot added that both "single-player and multiplayer options have been improved in Civ IV."[7] Though it had received mostly positive feedback, videogame critics pointed out functions in the game which could have been improved to enhance their enjoyment of the game. Steve Butts from IGN suggested that in-game announcements about enemy achievements should be displayed more prominently, and that the multiplayer feature could have included "an option to save my username and password."[5] Likewise, GameSpy's Dave Kosak pointed out other flaws of the multiplayer interface, stating that it "is a little rough in places. The built-in server browser, for instance, will keep jumping around the list as you try to find a game."[9] GameSpot also noted the lack of a "religion-based victory condition", which downplayed the influence that the revamped religion system was supposed to have on the game.[7] In August 2016, Civilization IV placed 11th on Time's The 50 Best Video Games of All Time list.[44] Awards[edit] Civilization IV won multiple awards at various events and gaming websites.[45] IGN chose it as the PC Game of the Year of 2005 over competing titles such as F.E.A.R. and Guild Wars,[46] as the Best Strategy Game (both for PC[47] and overall[48]) and as the Best Online Game of 2005 for PC.[49] In 2006, IGN ranked it first place on The Editor's Top 10 list[50] and second place on the Top 25 PC Games of All Time list.[51] GameSpot awarded the game Best Strategy Game[52] and Best PC Game,[53] and it was nominated as an entry for Game of the Year.[54] GameSpy named the game Game of the Year,[55] PC Game of the Year,[56] and Best PC Turn-Based Strategy Game of the Year.[57] At the ninth annual Interactive Achievement Awards, Civilization IV won Strategy Game of the Year and was nominated as an entry for Overall Game of the Year and Computer Game of the Year.[58] At the 53rd Annual Grammy Awards of 2010, the song "Baba Yetu", which was written to be the title theme for Civilization IV, won in the Best Instrumental Arrangement Accompanying Vocalist category, because it had been allowed eligibility in the competition through Christopher Tin's inclusion of the song in his subsequent release of his 2009 album Calling All Dawns.[59] This decision made "Baba Yetu" a landmark in video game history as the first Grammy Award nomination and win for any video game theme. The editors of Computer Games Magazine named Civilization IV the best computer game of 2005, and presented it with their awards for "Best Strategy Game", "Best AI" and "Best Interface". They wrote, "It's a towering achievement, even for a series as revered as this one. Even for long-time fans of the series, playing Civilization IV is like discovering it for the very first time."[60] Civilization IV also won PC Gamer US's "Best Turn-Based Strategy Game 2005" award. The magazine's Dan Stapleton called it "a huge facelift to a winning formula." It was nominated as PC Gamer US's "Best Multiplayer Game 2005" and overall game of the year, but lost in these categories to Battlefield 2.[61] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ a b c d e PC Zone staff (6 July 2006). "Interview: Looking Back... Civilization IV". Interviews: PC. Computer and Video Games U.S. pp. 1–3. 142558. Archived from the original (PHP) on 26 July 2010. Retrieved 28 February 2007. We pull up a pew with developer Firaxis and talk deep, dark diplomacy. ^ a b Coleman, Stephen (14 March 2005). "Sid Meier's Civilization IV Powered By Gamebryo". IGN. Archived from the original on 11 February 2007. ^ For sources that go into detail about each of the four Xs, see: J. "PyroFalkon" Habib (17 August 2006). "Civilization IV: Warlords Guide". IGN. Archived from the original on March 12, 2012. Retrieved 26 July 2008; "Sins of a Solar Empire: Gameplay" (ASPX). Ironclad Games. Archived from the original on 2 October 2011. Retrieved 23 June 2008; "4X Games: Group Description". MobyGames. Archived from the original on 18 June 2008. Retrieved 23 June 2008. ^ a b c Mehta, Prakash (12 December 2013). "5 Best Civilization Games". GameGuru. Retrieved 23 December 2013. ^ a b c d e f g h i Butts, Steve (21 October 2005). "Civilization IV Review". IGN. p. 4. Archived from the original on 8 January 2014. Retrieved 23 December 2013. ^ a b c "Civilization IV Official Press Sheet". IGN. 31 May 2005. 620531p1. Archived from the original on 3 March 2009. ^ a b c d e f g Park, Andrew (26 October 2005). "Sid Meier's Civilization IV Review for PC". GameSpot. Archived from the original on 28 October 2011. Retrieved 24 October 2009. If you have even a passing interest in strategy games, world history, or getting less sleep at night, you owe it to yourself to give Civilization IV a try. ^ Park, Andrew (22 July 2005). "Religion demystified in Civilization IV". gamespot.com. Archived from the original on 27 July 2016. Retrieved 9 May 2018. ^ a b c d Kosak, Dave 'Fargo' (27 October 2005). "GameSpy: Civilization IV". GameSpy. pp. 1–3. 662218. Archived from the original on 6 December 2013. Retrieved 24 October 2009. ^ a b Caudill, Barry (20 September 2005). "Modding Sid Meier's Civilization IV". 2K Games. Take-Two Interactive. Archived from the original on 2 December 2010. Retrieved 24 October 2009. ^ "Civilization IV Downloads". 2K Games. Take-Two Interactive. Archived from the original on 13 May 2008. Retrieved 27 October 2008. ^ Thorsen, Tor (1 December 2006). "Q&A: Sid Meier chronicles Civilization". GameSpot. 6162633. Archived from the original on 20 January 2012. Retrieved 28 February 2007. Firaxis cofounder and legendary game designer reminisces about the evolution of the storied PC series--and whether it will come to portables and next-gen consoles. ^ a b "Sid Meier's Civilization IV". GameRankings. 25 October 2005. 919352. Archived from the original on 26 December 2013. Retrieved 23 December 2013. ^ Brownlee, John (14 February 2011). "Civilization IV theme song wins a Grammy". Geek.com. 1313873. Archived from the original on 6 December 2013. ^ Rhye. "Sid Meier's Civilization Mods by Rhye – Civilization IV official Earth map, based on Robinson projection" (PHP). Rhye's Mods for Civilization. Archived from the original on 26 November 2009. Retrieved 24 October 2009. ^ "$25,000 Mod & Map Contest". GameFlood. Archived from the original (CFM) on 22 April 2007. “No question this is the clear #1. Details are flawless.“ –Graeme Bayless of Kush Games ^ Rhye. "Sid Meier's Civilization Mods by Rhye – Civilization IV official Ice Age Earth map" (PHP). Rhye's Mods for Civilization. Archived from the original on 29 November 2009. Retrieved 24 October 2009. ^ Rhye. "Sid Meier's Civilization Mods by Rhye – Civilization IV official Greek World scenario" (PHP). Rhye's Mods for Civilization. Archived from the original on 26 November 2009. Retrieved 24 October 2009. ^ Rhye. "Sid Meier's Civilization Mods by Rhye – Rhye's and Fall of Civilization" (PHP). Rhye's Mods for Civilization. Archived from the original on 1 December 2013. Retrieved 23 December 2013. ^ "Caveman2Cosmos". Archived from the original on 2014-09-04. ^ "Civilization Anonymous". Archived from the original on 2014-06-29. ^ a b "Civilization 5 - Civanon Trailer". Break. Archived from the original on 2014-04-21. ^ "Civilization Anonymous". YouTube. Archived from the original on 2014-07-10. ^ a b Wysocki, Matthew (February 2013). Ctrl-Alt-Play. ISBN 9780786470136. ^ Luke Plunkett. "Civilization Addiction Is As Real As This Trailer Suggests". Kotaku. Gawker Media. Archived from the original on 2014-04-21. ^ a b "Join CivAnon, potentially win big money, big prizes". Archived from the original on 2015-01-02. ^ "GameSetWatch Relapse: Civilization Anonymous Returns". Archived from the original on 2014-04-21. ^ Digital River, Inc. "Product Information: Sid Meier's Civilization® IV (Mac Download)". Aspyr Media, Inc. Aspyr's GameAgent. Archived from the original on 25 December 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2012. ^ "Take-Two Interactive Software, Inc. Recommendation of the Board of Directors to Reject Electronic Arts Inc.'s Tender Offer March 2008" (PDF). Take-Two Interactive. 26 March 2008. p. 16. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 September 2008. ^ Pandey, Rohan (14 May 2009). "Sid Meier's Civilization IV: The Complete Edition available across North America". Strategy. GameGuru. Retrieved 24 December 2010. ^ Thorsen, Tor (March 16, 2006). "Warlords overrun Civilization IV". GameSpot. Archived from the original on December 25, 2006. Retrieved July 4, 2019. ^ Essential Facts about the Computer and Video Game Industry; 2006 Sales, Demographic and Usage Data (PDF) (Report). Entertainment Software Association. May 10, 2006. p. 5. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 21, 2006. ^ Essential Facts about the Computer and Video Game Industry; 2007 Sales, Demographic and Usage Data (PDF) (Report). Entertainment Software Association. June 2007. p. 6. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 26, 2008. ^ Essential Facts about the Computer and Video Game Industry; 2009 Sales, Demographic and Usage Data (PDF) (Report). Entertainment Software Association. 2009. p. 8. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 11, 2009. Retrieved July 4, 2019. ^ "ELSPA Sales Awards: Silver". Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association. Archived from the original on February 21, 2009. ^ Caoili, Eric (November 26, 2008). "ELSPA: Wii Fit, Mario Kart Reach Diamond Status In UK". Gamasutra. Archived from the original on September 18, 2017. ^ Recommendation of the Board of Directors to Reject Electronic Arts Inc.'s Tender Offer (PDF) (Report). Take-Two Interactive. March 25, 2008. p. 16. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 8, 2008. ^ a b "Sid Meier's Civilization IV for PC Reviews". Metacritic. Archived from the original on 13 January 2011. Retrieved 23 July 2010. ^ Lee, Garnett (26 October 2005). Bhatt, Shivam (ed.). "Civilization IV Review for PC from 1UP.com". 1UP. Archived from the original on 24 December 2013. Retrieved 24 December 2013. Not even Alexander had it this great. ^ Gillen, Kieron (26 October 2005). "Civilization 4 Review" (PHP). Eurogamer. Archived from the original on 18 December 2008. Retrieved 24 October 2009. ^ a b Ferris, Duke (23 December 2005). "Civilization IV Review". Game Revolution. Archived from the original on 24 December 2013. Retrieved 24 October 2009. ^ PC Zone staff (24 November 2005). "Review: Civilization IV" (PHP). Computer and Video Games U.S. pp. 1–2. 129756. Archived from the original on 27 December 2013. Retrieved 27 December 2013. ^ Wapshott, Tim (29 October 2005). "Sid Meier's Civilization IV". Times Online. The Times. 583471. Archived from the original (ECE) on February 25, 2007. ^ "The 50 Best Video Games of All Time". Time. Time Inc. August 23, 2016. Archived from the original on August 26, 2016. Retrieved September 19, 2016. ^ "Civilization IV – Awards". 2K Games. Archived from the original on 5 September 2008. Retrieved 23 July 2010. ^ "IGN.com presents The Best of 2005 - PC Game of the Year". IGN. Archived from the original on 9 July 2012. Retrieved 23 July 2010. ^ "IGN.com presents The Best of 2005 – PC Best Strategy Game". IGN. 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GameSpot. p. 1. Archived from the original (PHP) on 8 March 2013. Retrieved 23 July 2010. ^ Kosak, David 'Fargo'. "GameSpy's Game of the Year 2005 - Overall". GameSpy. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 23 July 2010. ^ "GameSpy's Game of the Year 2005 – PC". GameSpy. Archived from the original on 30 July 2010. Retrieved 23 July 2010. ^ "GameSpy's Game of the Year 2005 – PC Turn-Based Strategy Game of the Year". GameSpy. Archived from the original on 21 January 2008. Retrieved 23 July 2010. ^ "AIAS Annual Awards". Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences. 2006. Archived from the original (ASP) on 30 August 2010. Retrieved 23 July 2010. ^ Brownlee, John. "Civilization IV theme song wins a Grammy". Geek.com. Archived from the original on 2011-02-17. ^ Staff (March 2006). "The Best (and Worst) of 2005; The 15th Annual Computer Games Awards". Computer Games Magazine (184): 42–47. ^ Stapleton, Dan (March 2006). "The Twelfth Annual PC Gamer Awards". PC Gamer US. 13 (3): 33–36, 38, 40–42, 44. Sources[edit] Civilization IV Official Strategy Guide. BradyGames. 25 October 2005. ISBN 0-7440-0580-9. Sid Meier's Civilization IV manual (in German). 2K Games/Firaxis Games. 2005. p. 69. External links[edit] Official website Official website (Macintosh version) Sid Meier's Civilization IV at MobyGames Civilization IV at Curlie v t e Civilization List of media Video games Civilization II Conflicts in Civilization Test of Time III Play the World Conquests IV Warlords Beyond the Sword Colonization Revolution V Gods & Kings Brave New World World Revolution 2 Beyond Earth Rising Tide VI Rise and Fall Gathering Storm Tabletop games Civilization (2002) The Card Game Civilization (2010) Civilization: A New Dawn Predecessor games Civilization Advanced Civilization Incunabula Avalon Hill's Advanced Civilization Related games Sid Meier's Colonization Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri Call to Power II CivCity: Rome Sid Meier's Starships Free games and mods Freeciv C-evo FreeCol Rhye's and Fall of Civilization Miscellaneous Music "Baba Yetu" Nuclear Gandhi Category v t e Firaxis Games (list of games) Civilization games Civilization III Civilization IV Colonization Civilization V Civilization VI Spin-offs CivCity: Rome Civilization Revolution Civilization World Civilization Revolution 2 Civilization: Beyond Earth Civil War games Sid Meier's Gettysburg! 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en-wikipedia-org-8857	----	Wahibre Ibiau - Wikipedia Wahibre Ibiau From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wahibre Ibiau Wahibre Ibiaw Stela of the official Sahathor, with the cartouche of Ibiau. British Museum (EA 1348) Pharaoh Reign 10 years, 8 months and 29 days (Turin King List) (13th Dynasty) Predecessor Sobekhotep VI Successor Merneferre Ay Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Wahibre W3ḥ-jb-Rˁ The steadfast heart of Ra Nomen Ibiau Jb-jaw He whose heart is pure Turin King List: Wahibre Ibiau W3ḥ-jb-Rˁ jb-jaw The steadfast heart of Ra, he whose heart is pure Wahibre Ibiau (throne name: Wahibre; birth name: Ibiau, also Ibiaw) was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty, who reigned c. 1670 BC for 10 years 8 months and 29 days according to the Turin King List. Contents 1 Attestations 2 See also 3 References 4 Bibliography Attestations[edit] Despite a relatively long reign for the period, Wahibre Ibiau is known from only a few objects, mostly scarab seals bearing his name.[1] He is also named on the stela of an official named Sahathor, probably from Thebes.[2] Finally, a fragment of faience from El-Lahun mentions this king.[3] A notable member of Ibiau's royal court was the namesake vizier Ibiau. It has been suggested that this vizier could have been the same person as the pharaoh Ibiau earlier in his life,[4] but in more recent times it was pointed out that such an identification is conjectural and unproven.[5] See also[edit] List of pharaohs References[edit] ^ Photos from the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology on Digital Egypt ^ British Museum inventory number EA 1348. ^ Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, inventory number UCL 16056. ^ William C. Hayes, in The Cambridge Ancient History, 1973, vol. II, part I, p. 51ff. ^ Wolfram Grajetzki, Court Officials of the Egyptian Middle Kingdom, London 2009, p. 40. Bibliography[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ibiau Wahibre. K. S. B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period (Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, c. 1800–1550 BC, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997), 353–54, File 13/32. Preceded by Sobekhotep VI Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Merneferre Ay v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wahibre_Ibiau&oldid=981933311" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Català Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 5 October 2020, at 07:29 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8867	----	Sekhemkhet - Wikipedia Sekhemkhet From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sekhemkhet Djosertety, Djoserty, Tyreis Relief of Sekhemkhet from Wadi Maghareh Pharaoh Reign 6 or 7 years, ca. 2650 BC (3rd Dynasty) Predecessor Djoser Successor Sanakht (most likely) or Khaba Royal titulary Horus name Hor-Sekhemkhet Ḥr-sẖm.ẖt Powerful body of Horus Nebty name Nebty-Hetepren Nb.tj-htp.rn The two ladies are pleased with his name Abydos King List Teti ttj Of true greatness Saqqara Tablet Djosertety Ḏsr-ttj The blessed one, of true greatness Turin King List Djoserty Ḏsr-tj The blessed one comes [1] Consort Djeseretnebti ? Father Khasekhemwy ? Mother Nimaathap ? Burial Buried Pyramid Sekhemkhet (also read as Sechemchet) was an ancient Egyptian king (pharaoh) of the 3rd Dynasty during the Old Kingdom. His reign is thought to have been from about 2648 BC until 2640 BC. He is also known under his later traditioned birth name Djoser-tety and under his Hellenized name Tyreis (by Manetho; derived from Teti in the Abydos King List). Sekhemkhet was probably the brother or eldest son of king Djoser. Little is known about this king, since he ruled for only a few years. However, he erected a step pyramid at Saqqara and left behind a well known rock inscription at Wadi Maghareh (Sinai Peninsula). Contents 1 Reign 2 Family 3 Tomb 3.1 The pyramid 3.2 Subterranean structure 3.3 Necropolis complex 4 See also 5 References 6 Bibliography 7 External links Reign[edit] Cartouche name Teti from the Abydos king list. The duration of Sekhemkhet's reign is believed to have been six to seven years. The royal Turin Canon attributes six years of reign to Sekhemkhet,[2] a figure also proposed by Myriam Wissa based on the unfinished state of Sekhemkhet's pyramid.[3] Using his reconstruction of the Palermo Stone (5th Dynasty), Toby Wilkinson assigns seven years to this king. This figure is based on the number of year registers preserved in Cairo Fragment I, register V.[4] Wilkinson states that "this figure is fairly certain, since the [king's] titulary begins immediately after the dividing line marking the change of reign.".[5] Similarly, the historian Manetho lists Sekhemkhet under the name of Tyreis and indicates that he reigned for seven years. Nabil Swelim, by contrast, proposed a reign of nineteen years, because he believed that Sekhemkhet might be the Tosertasis mentioned by Manetho.[6] However, such a long reign is at odds with the unfinished state of the buried pyramid and this view is generally rejected by Egyptologists. Clay seal from the island of Elephantine showing Sekhemkhet horus and nebty names. Little is known about activities conducted during Sekhemkhet's reign. The only preserved documents showing Sekhemkhet are two rock inscriptions at Wadi Maghareh in the Sinai peninsula. The first one shows Sekhemkhet twice: once wearing the Hedjet crown, another wearing the Deshret crown. The second inscription depicts a scene known as "smiting the enemy": Sekhemkhet has grabbed a foe by its hair and raises his arm in an attempt to club the enemy to death with a ceremonial sceptre. The presence of these reliefs at Wadi Maghareh suggests that local mines of copper and turquoise were exploited during Sekhemkhet's reign.[7][8] These mines were apparently active throughout the early 3rd Dynasty since reliefs of Djoser and Sanakht were also discovered in the Wadi Maghareh. Several clay seals presenting an unusual Nebty name together with Sekhemkhet's Horus name were found at the eastern excavation site on the island of Elephantine. The Egyptologist Jean Pierre Pätznik reads the Nebty name as Ren nebty meaning The two ladies are pleased with his name. It is not entirely clear whether this is indeed Sekhemkhet's nebty name or that of a yet unknown queen.[8] Family[edit] Sekhemkhet's wife may have been Djeseretnebti, but this name appears without any queen's title, and Egyptologists dispute the true meaning and reading of this name.[9] The name has alternatively been read as Djeser-Ti and identified with the cartouche-name Djeser-Teti presented in the Saqqara King List as the direct successor of Djoser.[10] Sekhemkhet surely had sons and daughters, but up to this date no personal name was found. Some consider Sekhemkhet to be the brother of Djoser, making him another son of Khasekhemwy, who was the final king of the Second Dynasty. If this is true, his mother would be Nimaathap.[11][12] Tomb[edit] Main article: Buried Pyramid Schematical depiction of Sekhemkhet's step pyramid Sekhemkhet's pyramid is sometimes referred to as the "Buried Pyramid" and was first excavated in 1952 by Egyptian archaeologist Zakaria Goneim. A sealed sarcophagus was discovered beneath the pyramid, but when opened was found to be empty. The pyramid[edit] Sekhemkhet's pyramid was planned as a step pyramid from the first. Its base was a square measuring 378 ft x 378 ft (220 x 220 cubits). If the pyramid had been completed, it would have had six or seven steps and a final height of 240.5 ft (140 cubits). These proportions would have given the pyramid an angle of elevation of 51˚50', identical to the pyramid at Meidum and the Great Pyramid of Giza. Like Djoser's pyramid, Sekhemkhet's was built of limestone blocks. The monument was not finished, possibly because of the pharaoh's sudden death. Only the first step of the pyramid was completed, leaving a monument in the shape of a large square mastaba. Subterranean structure[edit] The entrance to Sekhemkhet's burial lies on the northern side of the pyramid. An open passage leads down for 200 ft. Halfway down the track a vertical shaft meets the passage from above. It opens on the surface and its entrance would lie at the second step of the pyramid, if the monument had been completed. At the meeting spot of the passage and shaft another passageway leads down to a subterranean, U-shaped gallery containing at least 120 magazines. The whole gallery complex has the appearance of a giant comb. Shortly before the burial chamber is reached the main passage splits into two further magazine galleries, surrounding the burial chamber like a "U" (similar to the big northern gallery), but they were never finished. The burial chamber has a base measurement of 29 ft x 17 ft and a height of 15 ft. It was also left unfinished, but surprisingly a nearly completely arranged burial was found. The sarcophagus in the midst of the chamber is made of polished alabaster and shows an unusual feature: its opening lies on the front side and is sealed by a sliding door, which was still plastered with mortar when the sarcophagus was found. The sarcophagus was empty, however and it remains unclear whether the site was ransacked after burial or whether King Sekhemkhet was buried elsewhere. A shell shaped container made of gold was found by an Egyptian Antiquities Service excavation team in 1950.[13] The object has a length of 1.4 in and is currently on display in Room 4 of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.[14] An ivory plaque bearing the form of Sekhemkhet's Saqqara King List name of "Djoserti" found in the remains of his step pyramid tomb. Necropolis complex[edit] Because the necropolis of Sekhemkhet was never finished, it is hard to say which planned cultic building had already existed. The pyramid courtyard was surrounded by a niched enclosure wall facing north-west. It was 1.850 ft long, 607 ft wide and 33 ft high. The only archaeologically preserved cultic building is the Southern Tomb, its base measurement is estimated to be 105 ft x 52 ft. The subterranean structure included a tight corridor, beginning on the western side of the tomb and ending in a double chamber. In this chamber in 1963 Jean-Philippe Lauer excavated the burial of a two-year-old toddler. The identity of this child remains a mystery. The only fact known for certain about it is that it cannot be king Sekhemkhet himself, since the king was always depicted as a young man. No further cultic buildings were detected, but Egyptologists and archaeologists are convinced that once upon a time a mortuary temple and a serdab existed but were destroyed due to the looting of stone from his cult buildings in antiquity. See also[edit] List of Egyptian pyramids List of megalithic sites References[edit] ^ Alan H. Gardiner: The Royal Canon of Turin, Griffith Institute, Oxford 1997, ISBN 0-900416-48-3. ^ Alan H. Gardiner: The Royal Canon of Turin, Griffith Institute, Oxford 1997, ISBN 0-900416-48-3, Vol. 2. ^ Myriam Wissa: À propos du sarcophage de Sékhemkhet, in: Catherine Berger: Études sur l'Ancien empire et la nécropole de Saqqâra dédiées à Jean-Philippe Lauer, Orientalia Monspeliensia. Vol. 9, 2, Université Paul Valéry – Montpellier III, Montpellier 1997, ISBN 2-8426-9046-X, p. 445–448. ^ Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Royal Annals of Ancient Egypt: The Palermo Stone and Its Associated Fragments. Kegan Paul International, London 2000, page 115. ^ Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Royal Annals of Ancient Egypt: The Palermo Stone and Its Associated Fragments. Kegan Paul International, London 2000, page 79-80. ^ Nabil Swelim: Some Problems on the History of the Third Dynasty, Archaeological and historical Studies, Vol. 7, ZDB-ID 800015-3, Archaeological Society of Alexandria, Alexandria 1983, p. 221 ^ Morsi Saad El-Din u. a.: Sinai. The site & the history. Essays. Photographs by Ayman Taher. New York University Press, New York NY 1998, ISBN 0-8147-2203-2, page 30. ^ a b Jean-Pierre Pätznick: Die Abfolge der Horusnamen der 3. Dynastie. In: Jean-Pierre Pätznick: Die Siegelabrollungen und Rollsiegel der Stadt Elephantine im 3. Jahrtausend v.Chr. Spurensicherung eines archäologischen Artefaktes (= BAR. International Series. Vol. 1339). Archaeopress, Oxford 2005, ISBN 1-84171-685-5, page 76–79. ^ Wolfgang Helck: Untersuchungen zur Thinitenzeit. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1987, ISBN 3-447-02677-4, pp 108, 117. ^ Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, London/New York 1999, ISBN 0-415-18633-1, page 98. ^ Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, London 2001, ISBN 0415260116, p. 80 - 82, 94 - 97. ^ Silke Roth: Die Königsmütter des Alten Ägypten von der Frühzeit bis zum Ende der 12. Dynastie (= Ägypten und Altes Testament, vol. 46). Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2001, ISBN 3-447-04368-7, p. 59-61 & 65–67. ^ Alessandro Bongioanni & Maria Croce (ed.), The Treasures of Ancient Egypt: From the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, Universe Publishing, a division of Ruzzoli Publications Inc., 2003. p.344 ^ Bongioanni & Croce, p.344 Bibliography[edit] Hawass, Zahi. "Excavating the Old Kingdom". in Egyptian Art in the Age of the Pyramids, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1999. Leclant, Jean. "A Brief History of the Old Kingdom". in Egyptian Art in the Age of the Pyramids, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1999. Wilkinson, Toby. Royal Annals of Ancient Egypt: The Palermo Stone and Its Associated Fragments, Kegan Paul International, 2000. External links[edit] Media related to Sekhemkhet at Wikimedia Commons v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control NKC: xx0116218 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sekhemkhet&oldid=996698790" Categories: 27th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Third Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Català Čeština Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Occitan Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 28 December 2020, at 04:08 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-886	----	The Book of Esther (film) - Wikipedia The Book of Esther (film) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "The Book of Esther" film – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (November 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This article's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise. (June 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Book of Esther Based on Book of Esther Written by Timothy Ratajczak Directed by David A. R. White Starring Jen Lilley Joel Smallbone Thaao Penghlis Robert Miano Music by Will Musser Country of origin United States Original language English Production Producers Elizabeth Hatcher-Travis Michael Scott David A.R. White Russell Wolfe Anna Zielinski Cinematography Darren Rydstrom Editor Sean Paul Murphy Running time 90 minutes Distributor Pure Flix Entertainment Release Original release June 11, 2013 (2013-06-11) The Book of Esther is a 2013 American biblical-drama film directed by David A. R. White and starring Jen Lilley as Esther.[1] The film portrays a Jewish girl, Esther, who is chosen as the new queen consort to King Xerxes I of Persia and her efforts to stop evil Lord Haman's plot to exterminate the Jews. The film is loosely based on the biblical tale of the Book of Esther. It was released on June 11, 2013, in the United States as a direct-to-TV special.[citation needed] Contents 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Reception 4 References 5 External links Plot[edit] In Shushan, the capital of the Persian Empire, in the year 482 B.C. a Jew named Mordecai tells his young niece, Hadassah, about a strange dream he had. He tells her that she can no longer reveal to anyone that she is a Jew, and he tells her that her new name will be Esther. He also says that their being related must also be kept a secret, because his dream foretold of terrible things to come. Approximately 20 years later, we see Esther as an adult in the Persian capital. There is an air of great excitement, as King Xerxes is passing through the marketplace, en route to the feast he is hosting in his palace. Esther goes to speak with Mordecai, who is also getting ready for the feast. She tells him that she's envious of Xerxes, not because he's rich and powerful, but because he's married. Mordecai assures her that her time will come, when God decides it the appropriate time. While at the feast, Haman, one of the kings advisers displays anger that Mordecai is there, saying that it would give him great pleasure to see all the Jews eradicated. During the feast, the attendees notice that Queen Vashti is not present. Xerxes' commander, Sardar, reports this to him, and he has Vashti summoned. However, she refuses to come, saying that she is too busy to come and dance for him, and tells Sardar that his army can dance for the king. She says that even if the king himself would summon her, she would not come. Xerxes does not allow this impertinence to stand, and has Vashti banished from the palace, and nullifies his marriage with her. Judith, a friend of Esther, relates the news to her. Esther replies that if she were summoned to dance, she wouldn't come either. Haman, seeing an opportunity to become closer with the king, devises a plot in which his eunuch, Gasparif will speak up at the kings meeting, and suggest his daughter, Zara, to be the next queen. In a conversation with Mordecai, Esther expresses that she would have acted the same way that Vashti did, reminding him that even if the king commanded them to break the sabbath, they would disobey him. At the meeting, Gasparif suggests Haman's daughter to be the future queen. Mordecai then speaks up, and says that he has a worthy candidate as well. The king then decrees that there will be a contest to see who will be the next queen. Haman, in a private meeting with Gasparif declares outrage over the kings decision, and tells him that he will pay dearly for causing this situation. Later that night, Mordecai tells Esther that she has been suggested as a possible future bride for Xerxes. Esther is initially hesitant, but Mordecai warns her that if Haman's daughter were to become queen, it would be a travesty for the Jewish people. Haman returns to his home, and speaks furiously to his wife, Zaresh, saying that Mordecai will ruin his plans. His wife assures him that despite their daughters horrid appearance, she will make her presentable to the king. Esther beseeches God, saying that she has a great challenge ahead of her, and begs Him to give her answers. The voice of God is heard, and He tells her that there will be a time for her to keep quiet, and also a time for her to speak out. At the same time, Haman sees his daughter, and expresses disgust at seeing her. Zaresh assures him that she will cover her face with a veil, to obscure it. The next day at the palace, the candidates are presented to the king. Xerxes has Esther and Zara sent to his private chamber, to await his decision. Xerxes tells Sardar that he will go to eavesdrop on their conversations, in order to figure out their true intentions. Esther inquires as to why Zara has her face covered, and she tells her that it is to hide her ugliness. Esther asks that she remove the veil, and tells Zara that she is beautiful, and that her parents have been lying to her. Zara admits that her father only wants her to be queen in order to control the king, and that she will be banished if she doesn't become queen. Esther assure her that she will have a place in the palace, as her lady-in-waiting. The next morning, the king announces his decision that Esther shall be the new queen, making his decision based on what he heard the previous night. Haman returns to his house in a fury, and tells Zaresh that he will wage a war against Mordecai and his people. Esther is summoned by Xerxes, and has her sit by his feet, explaining that since she's not of noble birth, she has to sit below him. Esther tells him that as the king, he is the one who makes the laws, and Xerxes comes to sit beside her to talk. Sardar is seen plotting with Xerxes' bodyguard, Teres, saying that they will assassinate Xerxes that night, saying that he is too incompetent to serve. Mordecai overhears their plot, and rushes to tell the king, who has just been pulled into a meeting with Haman. Haman complains to Xerxes that since his daughter wasn't made queen his honor has been diminished, and asks to be made prime minister. Xerxes acquiesces, but tells him that it is merely another title. Mordecai arrives immediately afterwards, and tells the king about the plot to end his life. Haman demands that Mordecai bow to him, as befitting his new title, but Mordecai refuses. Haman returns home enraged, and tells his wife that he will find a way to show the Jews as treasonous, and have them and Mordecai eradicated. Zaresh suggests that they have a gallows built, in order to hang Mordecai on it. Haman again calls Xerxes to another meeting, and says that there is a threat to his kingdom from within. He says that the Jews are plotting treason, and quotes Hebrew scriptures, which state that God is the true king of the Jews. Haman tells him that he has selected the 13th day of the 12th month to slaughter all the Jews, and Xerxes decrees that it shall be so. Judith goes to visit Esther, who asks why Mordecai isn't there. She tells here that Mordecai is at home, mourning because of the decree. Judith tells her that she must appear before the king, and beg him to reverse the decree. She initially is hesitant, but Judith says that Mordecai has said that there is a time to keep silent, and a time to speak, but if she is silent now, she and all the Jews will surely be killed. Esther tell Judith to ask all the Jews to fast on her behalf, for since the king did not summon her, she might be put to death upon her unannounced arrival. Esther appears before the king, and finds favor in his eyes. She requests that the king and Haman come to a feast that she will be preparing the next day. Haman returns to his home, giddy that all of his plans are going well, and that he is the only other person who is invited to Esther's feast. While at the feast, Xerxes says he will grant Esther any request, even up to half his kingdom. Esther beseeches the king, telling him that there is a great enemy in his palace, because Haman has ordered the slaughter of her and her people. Esther reminds him that Mordecai once saved the king's life, and Xerxes declares that there will be a trial held to verify whether Mordecai is innocent or not. At the trial, Xerxes again asks Haman to show his proof, and he does so willingly. Mordecai replies that God also appoints kings, and that to disobey the king would be to disobey God. Haman asks Mordecai whom he would obey in a situation where the word of God conflicted with the word of the king. Mordecai replies that long before Xerxes was even born, the Jews had worshiped the God of Israel. The people at the meeting are outraged, and call Mordecai a traitor. Esther then speaks up on behalf of Mordecai, reminding Xerxes that he once provided Mordecai with a royal horse and clothes for saving his life. She asks the same question to Xerxes that Haman asked to Mordecai, who declares that he would have the man follow his own conscience, for even a king can make a mistake. The king absolves the Jews of all counts of treason, saying that none of them will be harmed. Xerxes then declares that Haman shall be hanged on a gallows, and Haman's eunuch tells the king that Haman has already constructed a gallows. Xerxes states that that day shall be a day of happiness and great joy for the Jews for all of history, and that the events shall be recorded in writing. Mordecai is appointed as the new prime minister, and a feast is thrown for the Jews to celebrate their newfound freedom. Cast[edit] Jen Lilley as Queen Esther: Born from a family which did not come from nobility, with her grace and charm she was chosen to become the Queen of Persia, and she ends up playing an important role in the salvation of the Jews. Joel Smallbone as King Xerxes: The king of the Persian Empire the year 482 B.C. A kind King, someone who is motivated by justice. He ends up marrying Esther, and is constantly battling to find true loyalty in his kingship. Thaao Penghlis as Haman: One of King Xerxes' closest and trusted advisors, he is the main antagonist of the film. After having witnessed the expulsion of the queen, he felt very strongly that his daughter should be anointed as the new queen of Persia, and his motive for wanting his daughter to become the queen was to earn more power in the kingdom. After having failed to get his daughter as to become the new Queen, he conspires and manipulates the King to decree an annihilation of the Jews of Persia. Robert Miano as Mordecai: A Jew who becomes one of the King's closest advisors. After having witnessed the expulsion of the Queen in the banquet, he suggest that his niece, Esther, be considered as the new Queen. He is a wise, and intelligent man who plays a big role in the salvation of the Jews. Russell Wolfe as Sardar: The Kings commander, and right hand man. He is later seen conspiring to murder Xerxes. Mark Irvingsen as Gasparif: Haman's eunuch who helps Haman come up with his malicious plan to wipe out the Jews. He also plays a key role in the inauguration of the new Queen as he is the one to speak up and suggest Haman's daughter as the a "good fit" for queen. Kerry Stein as Azada Kass Connors as Teres. Xerxes' bodyguard, who conspires with Sardar to murder Xerxes. Hadeel Sittu as Zara: Haman's daughter, she was highly suggested by Haman and Gasparif to be chosen as the new queen. Having been maltreated by her father and being threatened to be expelled from her house if she did not become the new queen, she ends up becoming close with Esther, and moves into the palace as one of Esther's closest servants. Eliza Roberts as Judith: One of Esther's closest friends, who reveals to her that she has been chosen to stand in front of the Queen to be scouted for marriage. Linda Bisesti as Zaresh: Haman's wife, who just like her husband, had the same desire towards wanting to take control of the kingdom. She agrees to send her daughter Zara as a candidate for Queen, and supports Haman in his malicious plans to take over the kingdom and annihilate the Jews. Tiny Ron as Nasir Marco Khan as Guard #2 Cory Oliver as Daria fr:Jennifer Lyons as Vashti: She was King Xerxes wife and Queen of Persia. During one the King banquet's she gets summoned to come and show herself in front of the people, and after refusing to show her face, gets banished from the kingdom. Carl Turner as Noble #1 John Clement as Noble #2 David Pires as Noble #3 Lauren Wolfe as Hadassah Reception[edit] The film provoked some positive feedback and it was viewed as a good informational film about what took place in the Bible. However, the movie differed dramatically from the Bible and that made it hard for viewers to keep watching. In their review of the movie, AskBible.org said that "the movie veered so far from the Bible, that it's impossible for us to recommend it to any audience."[2] It does however, state in the beginning that a few events have been altered for dramatic purposes.[3] AskBible.org also wrote that "The acting was poor, the movie is underwhelming and the limited budget available to the producers is clearly evident. What is obvious to the viewer is the inconsistent performance of the main cast. The lead actress does do a good job playing Esther but the King on the other hand was a failure. He is not a good actor, and hardly has the screen presence required for such an important character in the story."[2] FaithFlix.com wrote that "The movie does feel a bit like a soap opera, which makes perfect sense considering many of the actors have a soap background."[4] References[edit] ^ Sami K. Martin (June 2013). "Jen Lilley on 'The Book of Esther': 'God Has a Plan for Each One of Us'". The Christian Post. Retrieved November 2016 ^ a b http://www.askbible.org/movies/the-book-of-esther-2013-movie-review/ ^ http://www.dove.org/review/10002-the-book-of-esther/ ^ https://faithflixfilms.com/2013/07/13/the-book-of-esther-movie-review/ External links[edit] The Book of Esther on IMDb The Book of Esther at Rotten Tomatoes Movie at Pure Flix website The book of Esther on Ask the Bible Book of Esther on Dove.org Book of Esther on Faith Flix Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Book_of_Esther_(film)&oldid=1001880711" Categories: 2013 television films 2013 films Cultural depictions of Esther Cultural depictions of Xerxes I Films based on the Hebrew Bible Films set in ancient Persia Films set in the 5th century BC Pure Flix Entertainment films Films produced by Russell Wolfe Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from November 2016 All articles needing additional references Wikipedia articles with plot summary needing attention from June 2020 All Wikipedia articles with plot summary needing attention Articles with multiple maintenance issues Template film date with 1 release date Pages using infobox television with editor parameter All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2018 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages فارسی Bahasa Indonesia Edit links This page was last edited on 21 January 2021, at 20:40 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8896	----	Category:Battle of Salamis - Wikipedia Help Category:Battle of Salamis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikimedia Commons has media related to Battle of Salamis. Subcategories This category has only the following subcategory. X ► Xerxes I‎ (1 C, 14 P) Pages in category "Battle of Salamis" The following 20 pages are in this category, out of 20 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more).   Battle of Salamis A Achaemenes (satrap) Adeimantus of Corinth Mount Aigaleo Ameinias of Athens Ariabignes Aristides Artemisia I of Caria C Choerilus of Samos D Damasithymus E Eurybiades P Paean The Persians Phayllos of Croton Psyttaleia S Sicinnus T Themistocles Troezen W Wooden Walls X Xerxes I Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Battle_of_Salamis&oldid=713365506" Categories: Naval battles of the Greco-Persian Wars Battles in ancient Attica Ancient Salamis Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia categories named after battles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه فارسی 한국어 Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 3 April 2016, at 16:25 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8898	----	Djedkheperew - Wikipedia Djedkheperew From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Djedkheperew Djedkheperu The Bed of Osiris, from the tomb of Djer, and inscribed with the name of Djedkheperew. Pharaoh Reign 2 years, 1772–1770 BC (Ryholt), a few months (Baker), 7 months c. 1760 BC (Verner), c. 1732 BC (Schneider) (13th Dynasty) Predecessor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Successor Sedjefakare or Sebkay Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) ...kare ...k3-Rˁ ... Ka of Ra Horus name Djedkheperew Ḏd-ḫprw Enduring of manifestations Nebty name Djedmesu Ḏd-msw Enduring of births Golden Horus Biknebu Aa[...] Bik-nbw-ˁ3... The golden falcon, great ... Father possibly Hor[1] Mother possibly Nubhotepti I[1] Djedkheperew (also known as Djedkheperu) was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty reigning for an estimated two-year period, from c. 1772 BC until 1770 BC.[1][2] According to Egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, Djedkheperew was the 17th king of this dynasty.[1][2] Djedkheperew is this pharaoh's Horus name; the prenomen and nomen of Djedkheperew, which would normally be employed by modern conventions to name a pharaoh, are unknown. Contents 1 Attestations 2 Family and reign 3 See also 4 References Attestations[edit] Contemporary attestations The reign of Djedkheperew is supported by eleven seal impressions from Egyptian fortresses at the second cataract in Nubia. Ten of these seal impressions were found at Uronarti in close association with seal impressions of Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw and Maaibre Sheshi.[3] The last one was discovered in Mirgissa.[2] Besides the seal impressions, Djedkheperew is authenticated by the Bed of Osiris, a massive sculpture of black basalt showing Osiris lying on a bier. The Bed of Osiris was found in the tomb of the 1st Dynasty pharaoh Djer, which the ancient Egyptians had come to identify with the tomb of Osiris.[2] The sculpture is now in the Egyptian Museum. The sculpture was tentatively attributed to another 13th Dynasty pharaoh, Khendjer, by Leahy, but recent examinations of the inscriptions proved that it originally bore the name of Djedkheperew. The nomen of Djedkheperew was erased at some point in antiquity, but carelessly enough that some of it is still readable.[1] On the Turin canon Djedkheperew is not mentioned on the Turin canon, a king list compiled in the early Ramesside period, which serves as a reference document for the history of the Second Intermediate Period. Ryholt argues that this is because Djedkheperew's reign (as well as that of his predecessor, Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw and immediate successor(s) Sebkay, all absent from the canon) was already lost in a lacuna of the document from which the canon was copied.[1] That this must be true is indicated by artifacts showing that Khabaw succeeded Hor on the throne and Sebkay as a predecessor(s) of Amenemhat VII, when the canon lists Amenemhat VII directly as Hor's successor (column 7, lines 17 and 18).[1] Family and reign[edit] According to Ryholt, Djedkheperew was a brother of his predecessor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw and a son of pharaoh Hor Awibre. Ryholt based his conclusion on the seals from Uronarti and the Bed of Osiris. The seals show that Khabaw and Djedkheperew reigned closely in time, while what remains of the name of Djedkheperew on the Bed of Osiris shows that his nomen started with hrw. This suggests that Djedkheperew's nomen indicated his filiation to Hor. Since Khabaw is known to have succeeded Hor, Ryholt deduced that Djedkheperew was Khabaw's brother and successor.[1] See also[edit] List of pharaohs References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h K.S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online. ^ a b c d Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 86-87 ^ Kim Ryholt: The Date of Kings Sheshi and Yaqubhar and the Rise of the Fourteenth Dynasty, in The Second Intermediate Period (Thirteenth-Seventeenth Dynasties), Current Research, Future Prospects, Marcel Maree ed., Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 192, Leuven, Peeters, 2010, pp. 109–126 Preceded by Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Sebkay v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Djedkheperew&oldid=989387625" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages አማርኛ العربية Català Español Français ქართული Magyar Slovenščina ไทย Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 18 November 2020, at 18:05 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8927	----	Trove - Wikipedia Trove From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Trove (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the Australian online service. For other uses of the word "trove", see Trove (disambiguation). Australian online library database aggregator Trove Logo (prior to August 2020) Homepage (December 2014) Type of site Australian library database aggregator Available in English Owner National Library of Australia URL www.trove.nla.gov.au Commercial no Registration Optional Launched 2009; 12 years ago (2009) Current status Online Trove is an Australian online library database aggregator and service which includes full text documents, digital images, bibliographic and holdings data of items which are not available digitally, and a free faceted-search engine as a discovery tool. The database includes archives, images, newspapers, official documents, archived websites, manuscripts and other types of data. Hosted by the National Library of Australia in partnership with content providers, including members of the National and State Libraries Australia, it is one of the most well-respected and accessed GLAM services in Australia, with over 70,000 daily users. Based on antecedents dating back to 1996, the first version of Trove was released for public use in late 2009. It includes content from libraries, museums, archives, repositories and other organisations with a focus on Australia. It allows searching of catalogue entries of books in Australian libraries (some fully available online), academic and other journals, full-text searching of digitised archived newspapers, government gazettes and archived websites. It provides access to digitised images, maps, aggregated information about people and organisations, archived diaries and letters, and all born-digital content which has been deposited via National edeposit (NED). Searchable content also includes music, sound and videos, and transcripts of radio programs. With the exception of the digitised newspapers, none of the contents is hosted by Trove itself, which indexes the content of its partners' collection metadata, formats and manages it, and displays the aggregated information in a relevance-ranked search result. In the wake of government funding cuts since 2015, the National Library and other organisations have been struggling to keep up with ensuring that content on Trove is kept flowing through and up to date. Contents 1 History 1.1 Implementation 1.2 2010s 2 Content and services 2.1 Description 2.2 Content and delivery 2.2.1 Books 2.2.2 Newspapers 2.2.3 Websites 2.2.4 Other zones 3 Reception and usage 3.1 Awards 4 Budget cuts 5 Continuing development 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links History[edit] Trove's origins can be seen in the development of earlier services such as the Australian Bibliographic Network (ABN),[1] a shared cataloguing service launched in 1981. The "Single Business Discovery Project" was launched in August 2008.[2] The intention was to create a single point of entry for the public to the various online discovery services developed by the library between 1997 and 2008, including:[2][3][4] PANDORA archive (1996); the Register of Australian Archives and Manuscripts (RAAM, launched 1997); PictureAustralia (2000);[5][6] Libraries Australia (the service that developed out of the ABN in 2006); Australia Dancing, a joint venture with Ausdance (2003); Music Australia (2005); ARROW Discovery Service (first Australian Research Repositories Online, then Australian Research Online, launched 2005); People Australia (late 2006); and Australian Newspapers Beta service (July 2008). The service developed by the project was called Single Business Discovery Service, and also briefly known by the staff as Girt. The name Trove was suggested by a staff member, with the associations of a treasure trove and the French verb trouver (to find or discover).[4] The key features of the service were designed to create a faceted search system specifically for Australian content. Tight integration with the provider databases has allowed "Find and Get" functions (e.g. viewing digitally, borrowing, buying, copying). Important extra features include the provision of a "check copyright" tool and persistent identifiers (which enables stable URLs).[7] The first version of Trove was released to the public in late 2009.[7] Implementation[edit] The National Library of Australia combined eight different online discovery tools that had been developed over a period of twelve years into a new single discovery interface that was released as a prototype in May 2009 for public comment before launching in November 2009 as Trove.[8] It is continually updated to expand its reach.[9][10] With the notable exception of the newspaper "zone", none of the material that appears in Trove search results is hosted by Trove itself. Instead, it indexes the content of its content partners' collection metadata and displays the aggregated information in a relevance-ranked search result.[11] The service is built using a variety of open source software.[12][13] Trove provides a free, public Application Programming Interface (API).[14] This allows developers to search across the records for books, images, maps, video, archives, music, sound, journal articles, newspaper articles and lists and to retrieve the associated metadata using XML and JSON encoding.[15][16] The full text of digitised newspaper articles is also available.[17] Several citation styles are automatically produced by the software, giving a stable URL to the edition, page or article-level for any newspaper. Wikipedia was closely integrated from the beginning of the project, making Trove the first GLAM website in the world to integrate the Wikipedia API into its product.[18] 2010s[edit] Trove has continued to evolve and take on new services and collections. In 2016, in collaboration with the State Library of New South Wales, Trove launched the Government Gazettes zone, and continues to collect the official gazettes of all level of government (Commonwealth and State and Territory) where possible.[19] In March 2019 PANDORA became part of larger the Australian Web Archive, which comprises the PANDORA archive, the Australian Government Web Archive (AGWA) and the National Library's ".au" domain collections, using a single interface in Trove which is publicly available.[20][21][22][23] Content and services[edit] Description[edit] Trove has grown beyond its original aims, and has become "a community, a set of services, an aggregation of metadata, and a growing repository of full text digital resources" and "a platform on which new knowledge is being built". It is now a collaboration between the National Library, Australia's State and Territory libraries and hundreds of other cultural and research institutions around Australia.[24] It is an Australian online library database aggregator; a free faceted-search engine hosted by the National Library of Australia,[25] in partnership with content providers, including members of the National and State Libraries Australia (NSLA).[7] Content and delivery[edit] Trove "brings together content from libraries, museums, archives, repositories and other research and collecting organisations big and small" in order to help users find and use resources relating to Australia and therefore the content is Australian-focused.[24] Much of the material may be difficult to retrieve with other search tools, for example in cases where it is part of the deep web, including records held in collection databases,[7] or in projects such as the PANDORA web archive, Australian Research Online, Australian National Bibliographic Database and others mentioned above.[3] Since 2019, Trove has included access to all electronic documents deposited by Australian publishers under the legal deposit provisions of the Copyright Act 1968, as amended in 2017 to included such publications.[26] These resources are identifiable by a display in the top right-hand corner in both the ebook and pdf viewers, saying "National edeposit collection". Many of these are readable and some are downloadable, depending on the access conditions.[27] The site's content is split into "zones" designating different forms of content which can be searched all together, or separately.[28] Books[edit] The book zone allows searching of the collective catalogues of institutions findable in Libraries Australia using the Australian National Bibliographic Database (ANBD). It provides access to books, audio books, e-books, theses, conference proceedings and pamphlets listed in ANBD, which is a union catalogue of items held in Australian libraries and a national bibliographic database of resources including Australian online publications.[29] Bibliographic records from the ANBD are also uploaded into the WorldCat global union catalogue.[30] The results can be filtered by format if searching for braille, audio books, theses or conference proceedings and also by decade and language of publication.[31] A filter for Australian content is also provided.[8][32] Newspapers[edit] Front page of The Leader (Orange, New South Wales) 31 July 1915, the 10 millionth newspaper page to be made available through Trove.[33] Front cover of The Dawn Issue 1, 15 May 1888. The first feminist magazine in Australia. Trove allows text-searching of digitised historic newspapers, with the Newspapers zone replacing the previous "Australian Newspapers" website.[citation needed] It provides text-searchable access to over 700 historic Australian newspapers from each State and Territory.[34] By 2014, over 13.5 million digitised newspaper pages had been made available through Trove as part of the Australian Newspaper Plan (ANPlan),[35] a "collaborative program to collect and preserve every newspaper published in Australia, guaranteeing public access" to these important historical records.[36] The extent of digitised newspaper archives is wide reaching and includes now defunct publications, such as the Australian Home Companion and Band of Hope Journal and The Barrier Miner in New South Wales and The Argus in Victoria.[note 1][37] It includes the earliest published Australian newspaper, the Sydney Gazette (which dates to 1803), and some community language newspapers.[35] Also included is The Australian Women's Weekly.[38][note 2] The Canberra Times is the only major newspaper available beyond 1957. It allowed publication of its in-copyright archive up to 1995 as part of the "centenary of Canberra" in 2013,[40] and the digitisation costs were raised with a crowdfunding campaign.[41] Also crowdfunded, the Australian feminist magazine The Dawn was included on International Women's Day 2012.[42][43] As of 10 May 2020[update], 23,498,368 newspaper pages and 2,026,782 government gazette pages were available to view. Australian Newspapers Digitisation Project On 25 July 2008 the "Australian Newspapers Beta" service was released to the public as a standalone website and a year later became a fully integrated part of the newly launched Trove. The service contains millions of articles from 1803 onwards, with more content being added regularly.[44] The website was the public face of the Australian Newspapers Digitisation Project, a coordination of major libraries in Australia to convert historic newspapers to text-searchable digital files. The Australian Newspapers website allowed users to search the database of digitised newspapers from 1803 to 1954 which are now in the public domain. The newspapers (frequently microfiche or other photographic facsimiles) were scanned and the text from the articles has been captured by optical character recognition (OCR) to facilitate easy searching, but it contains many OCR errors, often due to poor quality facsimiles.[45][46] Public text correctors Since August 2008 the system has incorporated crowdsourced text-correction as a major feature, allowing the public to change the searchable text. Many users have contributed tens of thousands of corrected lines, and some have contributed millions.[47] This collaborative participation allows users to give back to the service and over time improves the database's searchability.[48][49] The text-correcting community and other Trove users have been referred to as "Trovites".[50] Websites[edit] The Australian Web Archive, created in March 2019,[51] includes websites archived from 1996 until the present. This is the primary search portal of the PANDORA web-archiving service, and also includes the Australian Government Web Archive (AGWA) as well as websites from the ".au" domain, which are collected annually through large crawl harvests.[52] Other zones[edit] (In order of presentation along the top tab.) Pictures, photos, objects: Including digitised photographs, drawings, posters, postcards etc. Considerable numbers of images on Flickr with the appropriate licensing are donated as well.[53] Replacing the previous "Pictures Australia" website. Journals, articles and datasets searching of academic and other periodicals, and various datasets. Government Gazettes: allows searching of official publications written for the purpose of notifying the public of government business. Music, sound and videos: allows searching of digitised historic sheet music and audio recordings. Replacing the previous "Music Australia" website. Also includes searchable transcripts from many Radio National programs.[54] Maps Diaries, letters, archives People and organisations: allows searching of biographical information and other resources about associated people and organisations, from resources including the Australian Dictionary of Biography. Lists Users are able to create an account and log in to Trove. Once this is done, a type of "zone" called Lists allows logged-in users to make their own public compilations of items found in Trove searches. There is also a facility to join the Trove community and make contributions to the resources such as tags, comments and corrections. Reception and usage[edit] In a keynote address to the 14th National Australian Library and Information Association (ALIA) Conference in Melbourne in 2014, Roly Keating, Chief Executive of the British Library described Trove as "exemplary" – a "both-end choice" of deep rich interconnected archive.[55] Digital humanities researcher and Trove manager Tim Sherratt noted that in relation to the Trove API "delivery of cultural heritage resources in a machine-readable form, whether through a custom API or as Linked Open Data, provides more than just improved access or possibilities for aggregation. It opens those resources to transformation. It empowers us to move beyond ‘discovery’ as a mode of interaction to analyse, extract, visualise and play".[56] The site has been described as "a model for collaborative digitization projects and serves to inform cultural heritage institutions building both large and small digital collections".[57] The reach of the newspaper archives makes the service attractive to genealogists[58][59][60] and knitters.[9] It is one of the most well-respected[61] and accessed GLAM (galleries, archives, archives and museums) services in Australia, with over 70,000 daily users.[62][9] Dr Liz Stainforth of the University of Leeds calls it "that rare beast: a digital heritage platform with popular appeal"; "of the most successful of its kind among aggregators such as Europeana, the Digital Public Library of America and...DigitalNZ". What distinguishes it from the other three is that it also delivers content, and engages with the general public, which has created a form of virtual community amongst its text correctors. Users can log in and thus create their own lists, and also correct the text of newspapers scanned using Optical character recognition (OCR), with an honour board for the top correctors. International researchers also use Trove: a 2018 showed the site among the top 15 for external citations in the English-language version of Wikipedia. The width and breadth of its audience adds to its uniqueness.[63] Awards[edit] Trove received the 2011 Excellence in eGovernment Award and the 2011 Service Delivery Category Award.[64][65] Budget cuts[edit] In the wake of the Australian Government's 2015 Mid-Year Economic and Fiscal Outlook Statement, Trove funding was cut with the result that the National Library of Australia would cease "aggregating content in Trove from museums and universities unless ... fully funded to do so".[66] In addition, it was argued that the cuts would further "result in many smaller institutions across Australia being unable to afford to add their digital collections to this national knowledge infrastructure".[67] Those smaller institutions would include local historical societies, clubs, schools, and commercial and public organisations, as well as private collections. In March 2016 ten major Australian galleries, libraries, archives and museums (commonly referred to as the GLAM sector) signed a statement of support for Trove, in which they warned that the budgetary cuts would "hamper the development of our world leading portal and will be a major obstacle to exposing the collections of smaller and regional institutions" and that "without additional funding, Trove will not fulfil its promise as the discovery site for all Australian cultural content".[68] Similar statements were issued by the Australian Academy of the Humanities[69] and the National Trust (NSW).[70] Tim Sherratt, a former manager of Trove, warned in early 2016 that fewer collections would be added and that less digitised content would be available – "not quite a content freeze, but certainly a slowdown".[71] Following extensive campaigning, including a public campaign on Twitter, Trove received a commitment of A$16.4 million in December 2016, spread over four years.[63][72] By early 2020, with the surge in demand for all types of digital services, the National Library was having to cope with increasingly dwindling staff resources to develop services on Trove and National edeposit, and undertook a restructure of its staffing and operations.[73] Continuing development[edit] In July–August 2020 a redesigned user interface was unrolled, with a more open display of search results and a new logo reminiscent of a rifle sight. See also[edit] Australia portal Journalism portal Internet portal Digital Public Library of America Europeana List of newspapers in Australia List of newspapers in New South Wales National Digital Library Program (NDLP), US digital library created by scanning the resources of the Library of Congress National Digital Information Infrastructure and Preservation Program (NDIIPP) - US digitisation project Warwick Cathro Notes[edit] ^ Published in Melbourne between 1846 and 1947 ^ Digitised between 1933 and 1982 – where the National Library acknowledges the use of newspapers and microfilm owned by the State Library of New South Wales and Australian Consolidated Press for the digitisation of the title.[39] References[edit] ^ National Library of Australia; Australian Bibliographic Network (1981), Draft proposal for the development of an Australian Bibliographic Network, National Library of Australia, ISBN 978-0-642-99217-8 ^ a b Cathro, Warwick. "Single Business Discovery Project". National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 9 December 2014. Retrieved 5 December 2014. ^ a b Ayres, Marie-Louise (2013). "Singing for their supper: Trove, Australian newspapers, and the crowd" (PDF). IFLA World Library and Information Congress. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 November 2015. Retrieved 3 December 2014. ^ a b Bryce, Catriona (5 November 2014). "Trove - A Brief History: Trove is now 5 years old. Here's how we came to be". National Library of Australia. Retrieved 10 May 2020. ^ Goldrick, Chrissie (1 October 2006), "PictureAustralia.", Australian Geographic, Athena Information Solutions Pvt. Ltd (84): 19, ISSN 0816-1658, retrieved 10 May 2020 ^ "Asia and the Commons: NLA PictureAustralia Click & Flick" (PDF). Retrieved 10 May 2020. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ a b c d Holley, Rose (29 July 2010). "Trove: Innovation in Access to Information in Australia". Ariadne. Archived from the original on 13 November 2014. Retrieved 3 December 2014. ^ a b Weight, Mary-Louise (2010). "Trove – One Search, a Wealth of Information". Incite. 31 (1/2): 10–11. ^ a b c Thorpe, Clarissa (8 November 2014). "National Library of Australia's Trove website celebrates five years of uncovering the past". ABC News. Archived from the original on 23 November 2015. Retrieved 5 September 2015. ^ Ayres, Marie-Louise (4 September 2012). "Digging deep in Trove: Success, challenge and uncertainty". National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 5 December 2014. Retrieved 3 December 2014. ^ Warwick Cathro; Susan Collier (8 June 2010), Developing Trove: the policy and technical challenges, National Library of Australia, retrieved 17 December 2014 ^ Clarke, Trevor (28 April 2010). "Australian National Library uses open source for treasure Trove". ComputerWorld. Archived from the original on 9 December 2014. Retrieved 7 December 2014. ^ "Trove: mapping Australia's culture where Google fears to tread". APC. 29 April 2010. Archived from the original on 9 December 2014. Retrieved 7 December 2014. ^ "Trove API lets developers delve deeper". National State Libraries Australasia. 19 April 2012. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved 16 December 2014. ^ perkinsy (11 March 2014). "An Introduction to the Trove API". Archived from the original on 8 December 2014. Retrieved 16 December 2014. ^ "Building with Trove". Trove Help. National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved 16 December 2014. ^ "Building with Trove". National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved 3 December 2014. ^ Holley, Rose (6 August 2009). "Perspectives on National Library of Australia Developments Part 1 Rose Holley – Presentation slides from GLAM-Wiki conference, Canberra". Slideshare. Archived from the original on 19 December 2014. Retrieved 2 December 2014. ^ "About digitised newspapers and gazettes". Trove help centre. Retrieved 10 May 2020. ^ "Preserving and Accessing Networked DOcumentary Resources of Australia". Pandora Archive. May 1999. Retrieved 30 April 2020. ^ "Australian web archive". Trove. Retrieved 30 April 2020. ^ "Archived websites". National Library of Australia. 23 March 2020. Retrieved 30 April 2020. ^ Koerbin, Paul (11 February 2015). "The Australian Government Web Archive". National Library of Australia. Retrieved 30 April 2020. ^ a b "About Trove". Trove. National Library of Australia. Retrieved 8 May 2020. ^ Baich, Tina (May 2013). "The global research landscape: resources for locating international publications". College & Research Libraries News. 74 (5): 243–248. doi:10.5860/crln.74.5.8945. Archived from the original on 24 June 2014. Retrieved 16 December 2014. ^ "What is legal deposit?". National Library of Australia. 17 February 2016. Retrieved 6 May 2020. ^ "Legal Deposit and Trove". Trove: Help centre. Retrieved 6 May 2020. ^ "Using Trove – Finding things". Trove. National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 24 December 2014. Retrieved 16 December 2014. ^ Rajapatirana, Bemal; Missingham, Roxanne (February 2005). "The Australian National Bibliographic Database and the Functional Requirements for the Bibliographic Database (FRBR)". The Australian Library Journal. 54 (1): 31–42. doi:10.1080/00049670.2005.10721711. S2CID 61124103. ^ "OCLC Agreement". Libraries Australia. National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 10 December 2014. Retrieved 6 December 2014. ^ Rathi, Dinesh; Shiri, Ali; Lucky, Shannon (2013). "Evolving and Emerging Trends in Digital Libraries User Interfaces". In Proceedings of the Annual Conference of CAIS/Actes du Congrès Annuel de l'ACSI. doi:10.29173/cais660. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved 16 December 2014. ^ "Refining your results". Trove help. National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved 16 December 2014. ^ Wyatt, Liam (21 June 2013). "10 Million newspaper pages in Trove". Trove Blog. National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 9 December 2014. Retrieved 5 December 2014. ^ "About Digitised Newspapers and more". Trove. National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 29 February 2016. Retrieved 22 May 2017. ^ a b "Australian Newspaper Digitisation Program". National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 2 July 2015. Retrieved 3 December 2014. ^ Australian Newspaper Plan Archived 7 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine. ^ "Newspaper Titles". Trove. National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 29 February 2016. Retrieved 3 December 2014. ^ Rohan, Pearce (22 November 2010). "National Library puts iconic Aussie magazine on Web". PCWorld. Archived from the original on 9 December 2014. Retrieved 7 December 2014. ^ Acknowledgements – Trove: The Australian Women's Weekly (1933–1982) Archived 25 November 2014 at the Wayback Machine ^ Boland-Rudder, Hamish (26 December 2013). "Yesterday's Canberra news gets an update for digital age at National Library". The Canberra Times. Archived from the original on 20 February 2014. Retrieved 5 December 2014. ^ Warden, Ian (18 June 2013). "Four more decades of print now in digital". The Canberra Times. Archived from the original on 12 January 2015. Retrieved 7 December 2014. ^ "The Dawn rises again". National Library of Australia. 8 March 2012. Archived from the original on 19 May 2014. Retrieved 19 May 2014. ^ Ross, Monique (8 March 2012). "New dawn for historic suffragette journal". ABC News. Archived from the original on 5 January 2015. Retrieved 7 December 2014. ^ "NLA.gov.au". NLA.gov.au. 17 February 2012. Archived from the original on 25 August 2012. Retrieved 30 May 2012. ^ Foreshew, Jennifer (20 September 2011). "Devil in the detail for landmark National Library of Australia project". The Australian. Retrieved 16 December 2014. ^ Riley, Carole (6 August 2008). "Australian Newspapers Digitisation Project". Heritage Genealogy. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved 16 December 2014. ^ Drake, Jess (15 May 2014). "Trove's Volunteers". Trove Blog. National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 10 December 2014. Retrieved 7 December 2014. ^ Walters, Conrad (7 February 2011). "Volunteers with an eagle-eye on the news". Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 25 September 2015. Retrieved 7 December 2014. ^ Ridge, Mia (2014). Crowdsourcing our cultural heritage. Farnham, Surrey, England: Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4724-1022-1. ^ Tester, Alona. "Trove Celebrates with TROVEmber". Genealogy and History News. Archived from the original on 10 December 2014. Retrieved 5 December 2014. ^ Bruns, Axel (14 March 2019). "The Australian Web Archive is a momentous achievement – but things will get harder from here". The Conversation. Retrieved 6 May 2020. ^ "Archived websites (1996 – now)". Trove. Retrieved 6 May 2020. ^ "Picture query page". Archived from the original on 3 December 2014. Retrieved 6 December 2014. ^ Sherratt, Tim (17 April 2014). "Harvesting Radio National". Trove Blog. National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 10 December 2014. Retrieved 6 December 2014. ^ "Keynote speakers at 2014 National ALIA conference". Archived from the original on 27 February 2015. Retrieved 2 December 2014. ^ Sherratt, Tim. "'A map and some pins': open data and unlimited horizons". Invisible Australians: living under the White Australia Policy. Archived from the original on 23 February 2014. Retrieved 3 December 2014. ^ Thiel, SG; Roberts, JR; Drost, CA. (June 2013). "Trove". College & Research Libraries News. 74 (6): 323–324. ISSN 0099-0086.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Kidman, Angus (5 July 2010). "Trove Lets You Locate Books In Any Australian Library". Archived from the original on 5 December 2014. Retrieved 3 December 2014. ^ "Trove: Discover Genealogy Treasure in the National Library of Australia". Gould Genealogy and History. Archived from the original on 5 December 2014. Retrieved 3 December 2014. ^ Hicks, Shauna; Unlock the Past (Project) (2012), Trove: discover genealogy treasure in the National Library of Australia, Unlock the Past, ISBN 978-0-9808746-0-0 ^ "An Innovation Study: Challenges and Opportunities for Australia's Galleries, Libraries, Archives and Museums". Australian museums must innovate or risk becoming 'digital dinosaurs'. CSIRO. 16 September 2014. Archived from the original on 24 October 2014. Retrieved 18 December 2014. ^ Sweeney, Shahida (26 September 2014). "National Library of Australia invests in digital future". CIO Magazine. Archived from the original on 11 December 2014. Retrieved 3 December 2014. ^ a b Stainforth, Liz (26 October 2018). "Treasuring Trove: Why Australia's digital heritage platform is so special". Pursuit. University of Melbourne. Retrieved 10 May 2020. ^ Gedda, Rodney (2 June 2011). "CeBIT 2011: Trove search engine wins eGovernment award: Content from more than 1000 libraries". TechWorld. Archived from the original on 4 December 2017. Retrieved 5 December 2017. ^ "Trove takes top honours in Government awards". National Library of Australia. 6 June 2011. Retrieved 10 May 2020. ^ Henry Belot, "Budget cuts will have a 'grave impact' on the National Library, staff told", The Sydney Morning Herald, 22 February 2016. Retrieved 12 April 2020. ^ "Peak bodies advocate for Trove". Australian Library and Information Association. 7 March 2016. Retrieved 10 May 2020. ^ GLAM PEAK BODIES STATEMENT OF SUPPORT FOR TROVE, Australian Library and Information Association, alia.org.au. Retrieved 12 April 2020. ^ Critical research infrastructure at risk, Australian Academy of the Humanities, humanities.org.au. Retrieved 12 April 2020. ^ De-funding of Trove, nationaltrust.org.au. Retrieved 12 April 2020. ^ Sherratt, Tim (24 February 2016). "#FundTrove". Discontents. Retrieved 9 May 2020. ^ Villiers, Annelie de (23 February 2016). "#FundTROVE". Identity & Archives. Retrieved 10 May 2020. ^ Rollins, Adrian (28 February 2020). "Job cuts a 'live possibility' in National Library of Australia restructure". The Canberra Times. Retrieved 9 May 2020. Further reading[edit] Boston, Tony. "Exposing the deep web to increase access to library collections". National Library of Australia. Retrieved 16 December 2014. In Treloar, Andrew; Ellis, Allan; Southern Cross University (2005). AusWeb05 : the eleventh Australasian World Wide Web Conference : AusWeb05 : making a difference with the web : proceedings of AusWeb05. Southern Cross University. ISBN 978-0-9751644-3-3. Archived from the original on 15 February 2017. External links[edit] Official website v t e Authority control files AAG • ACM DL • ADB • AGSA • autores.uy • AWR • BALaT • BIBSYS • Bildindex • BNC • BNE • BNF • Botanist • BPN • CANTIC • CiNii • CWGC • DAAO • DBLP • DSI • FNZA • GND • HDS • IAAF • ICCU • ICIA • ISNI • Joconde • KulturNav • LCCN • LIR • LNB • Léonore • MBA • MGP • NARA • NBL • NDL • NGV • NKC • NLA • NLG • NLI • NLK • NLP • NLR • NSK • NTA • ORCID • PIC • PLWABN • ResearcherID • RERO • RKD • RKDimages ID • RSL • SELIBR • SIKART • SNAC • SUDOC • S2AuthorId • TA98 • TDVİA • TE • TePapa • TH • TLS • Trove • UKPARL • ULAN • US Congress • VcBA • VIAF • WorldCat Identities Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trove&oldid=995083936" Categories: 2009 establishments in Australia Aggregation-based digital libraries Australian digital libraries Bibliographic databases and indexes National Library of Australia Online databases Online archives of Australia Internet properties established in 2009 Hidden categories: CS1 errors: missing periodical Webarchive template wayback links CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use Australian English from December 2014 All Wikipedia articles written in Australian English Use dmy dates from December 2014 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2020 Articles containing potentially dated statements from May 2020 All articles containing potentially dated statements AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans Ilokano עברית مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 19 December 2020, at 03:35 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8936	----	Senakhtenre Ahmose - Wikipedia Senakhtenre Ahmose From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Senakhtenre Ahmose Lintel bearing Senakhtenre's cartouches, from Karnak Pharaoh Reign c.1 year?[1] (17th Dynasty) Predecessor Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Successor Seqenenre Tao Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Senakhtenre Snḫt.n-Rˁ Perpetuated like Ra Nomen Ahmose Jˁḥ-ms Iah bore him Horus name Merymaat[2] Mry-M3ˁt Beloved of Maat Karnak king list: Senakhtenre Snḫt.n-Rˁ Perpetuated like Ra[3] Consort Tetisheri Children Seqenenre Tao, Ahhotep I, Ahmose Inhapi, Sitdjehuty; Kamose Father Possibly Nubkheperre Intef Died 1558 BC (Possibly) Senakhtenre Ahmose was the seventh king of the Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period.[4] Senakhtenre reigned for a short period over the Theban region in Upper Egypt at a time where the Hyksos 15th Dynasty ruled Lower Egypt. Senakhtenre died c.1560 or 1558 BC at the latest. Contents 1 Family 2 Attestations 3 Senakhtenre's nomen 3.1 Pre-2012 hypotheses 3.2 Senakhtenre's nomen discovered 4 References 5 Bibliography Family[edit] See also: Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree He may or may not have been the son of Nubkheperre Intef, the most prominent of the Intef kings. The Danish Egyptologist Kim Ryholt observes that "since Senaktenre was remembered as one of the Lords of the West alongside Seqenenre and Kamose, he is generally believed to have been a member of the family of Ahmose and as such identified with the otherwise unidentified spouse" of Queen Tetisheri, Ahmose's grandmother.[5] He was succeeded by his son, Seqenenre Tao. King Senakhtenre would also be the husband of Tetisheri who is called the "great king's wife" and "the mother of my mother" in a stela at Abydos by pharaoh Ahmose I.[6] Senakhtenre was, therefore, the grandfather of Ahmose I. Attestations[edit] Unlike his two successors, Tao and Kamose, Senakhtenre is a relatively obscure king and, until 2012, was not attested "by [any] contemporary sources (by his prenomen) but exclusively by sources dating from the New Kingdom: the Karnak king list [of Tuthmose III] and [in] two Theban tombs."[7] Donald Redford's book mentions these 2 Theban tombs.[8] The archaeological evidence prior to 2012 suggests that his reign was brief and lasted several months or 1 year at the most. However, in 2012, two important contemporary monuments of this king were uncovered at Karnak: a doorway found carved with his royal name as well as a fragmentary limestone lintel.[9] The doorway or gate is carved with other hieroglyphic inscriptions which state that Senaktenre had this monument, which is carved from limestone blocks, transported from Tura (modern Helwan, south of Cairo), which was under Hyksos rule during his reign.[10] Senakhtenre's nomen[edit] Pre-2012 hypotheses[edit] From a reference in the Abbott Papyrus (Column III, 1.10) it was for a long time believed that Senakhtenre's nomen was Tao ("The Elder"). Indeed, the papyrus mentions two kings with the name Tao. The second king Tao was identified with Senakhtenre because the first mention of a Tao refers to Seqenenre Tao for which the complete name is written. Consequently, the hypothesis that Senakhtenre's nomen was Tao was dominant in egyptology until 2012 and was shared for example by Darrell Baker,[4] although it also remained controversial. For example, the Egyptologist Claude Vandersleyen rejected this view as early as 1983.[11] Furthermore, in his 1997 study of the second intermediate period, the egyptologist Kim Ryholt proposed that Senakhtenre's nomen may have been Siamun rather than Tao:[12] This nomen is inscribed on one of two stamp-seals found together in a tomb at Dra Abu el-Naga, the other being inscribed with the prenomen Seqenenre [whose nomen was Tao]. It has been suggested that Siamun here was used as an epithet. In that case, it would stand in the place of a nomen since it follows immediately upon the title 'Son of Re.' However, apart from the fact that Kamose sometimes replaced his with the epithet 'the mighty ruler'...for political reasons during the war with Apophis, the title 'Son of Re' is always followed by a proper nomen during the Second Intermediate Period. Since Siamun was a popular name during this period and the New Kingdom, it seems more likely that we are dealing with a name than an epithet. The fact that the two seals were found together and are virtually identical in workmanship suggests that they were produced at about the same time and given to the official from whose tomb they come. Siamun must therefore be more or less contemporary with Seqenenre, and since it is not possible to identify Siamun with his successor (this being Kamose), it may be suggested that Siamun was the nomen of his predecessor Senakhtenre. Senakhtenre's nomen discovered[edit] The situation completely changed in March 2012 when French egyptologist Sébastien Biston-Moulin of the CFEETK (Centre Franco-Égyptien d'Étude des Temples de Karnak) published hieroglyphic inscriptions discovered on a large 17th dynasty limestone doorjamb built for a granary of a temple of Amun at Karnak. The doorjamb bears Senakhtenre's full royal name and reveals his nomen to have been Ahmose. This is the same name as that of his grandson, Nebpehtyre Ahmose I, who founded the 18th Dynasty by defeating the Hyksos and ousting them from Egypt.[2] Inscriptions on the door indicate that it was built following the orders of Senakhtenre himself. The door was subsequently re-used and discovered in the foundations of a later building adjoining the temple of Ptah at Karnak. Senakhtenre's royal titulary as revealed by the door is "Hr mry-mAa.t nswt bjty snxt-n-ra sA ra jaH-ms", which translates as "The Horus Merymaat, the king of Upper and Lower Egypt Senakhtenre, the Son of Re Ahmes."[2] The inscription on the reused door proceeds to state that Senakhtenre "made a monument for his father Amun-Re (i.e., the door itself)...from the beautiful white stone of Anu."[2] Anu is the modern Tura, located near Cairo, which could mean that Senakhtenre imported the limestone from the then Hyksos controlled area of Tura in Lower Egypt.[2] However, Biston-Moulin cautions that "beautiful white stone of Anu" was sometimes used as a generic term for stones which were actually taken from local quarries.[13] Meanwhile, a fragmentary lintel uncovered by the same team of French scholars bore this inscription which mentioned Senakhtenre's nomen: Behdety, the great god [Long live the god] made [by] Senakht-en-Re given life like Re forever! [Cheers] the son of Re Ahmes given life like Re forever![2] These two separate inscriptions on the granary door and fragmentary lintel found in January–February 2012 at Karnak demonstrate that king Senakhtenre's nomen or birth name was 'Ahmose' ('Ahmes' in Ancient Egyptian) and not 'Tao' as previously thought. Biston-Moulin writes in the summary of his article:[2] Publication of two elements of a granary door bearing the name of king Senakhtenre Ahmose recently discovered near the temple of Ptah at Karnak. The inscriptions allow this king of the seventeenth dynasty, previously only known through the coronation name in later king-lists, to be identified more precisely. They also finally resolve uncertainties about his birth name: Ahmose. The designations of Senakhtenre Tao I or Senakhtenre Siamun for this king must be abandoned. Suggestions for identifying the king’s tomb in the Ramesside report of investigations in the Theban necropolis recorded in Papyrus Abbott must also be rejected. Only one king bears the birth name Tao: Seqenenre. That Ahmose is the son of Re name of Senakhtenre leads to the conclusion that this king must be a member of the Ahmoside royal family of the late seventeenth and early eighteenth dynasties, of which he is to date the oldest known representative. Finally, documents that bear only the son of Re name “Ahmose” can now be attributed to either Senakhtenre Ahmose or Nebpehtyre Ahmose. References[edit] ^ Senakhtenre is now attested by two contemporary objects. In January to February 2012, a 17th dynasty granary doorway and a fragmentary lintel made of limestone found buried at Karnak was discovered by French Egyptologists. They proved to bear hieroglyphic inscriptions which recorded this king's royal titulary. All other references to him are posthumous and date to the New Kingdom period. ^ a b c d e f g Sébastien Biston-Moulin: Le roi Sénakht-en-Rê Ahmès de la XVIIe dynastie, ENiM 5, 2012, p. 61-71, available online. ^ Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs. Thames and Hudson Ltd., 2006. p.94 ^ a b Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 380 ^ Kim Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997. pp.278-79 ^ stela CG 34002 now in the Egyptian Museum ^ Ryholt, p.278 ^ Redford: 43, 48 [12] ^ A Pharaoh Of The Seventeenth Dynasty Identified At Karnak Archived 2012-03-11 at the Wayback Machine CFEETK ^ Gate found in Karnak Temple adds new name to ancient kings' list Al-Ahram, March 4, 2012 ^ Claude Vandersleyen: Un Seul Roi Taa sous la 17e Dynastie. In: Göttinger Miszellen Bd. 63, Göttingen 1983, ISSN 0344-385X, S. 67-70. ^ Ryholt, pp.279-80 ^ Sébastien Biston-Moulin: Le roi Sénakht-en-Rê Ahmès de la XVIIe dynastie, ENiM 5, 2012, p. 61-71, available online, at 63 n.10. Bibliography[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Senakhtenre. Clayton, Peter (2006). Chronicle of the Pharaohs. Thames and Hudson Ltd. ISBN 0500050740. Redford, Donald (1986). "Pharaonic King-Lists, Annals, and Day-Books: A Contribution to the Study of the Egyptian Sense of History". SSEA Publication (IV ed.). Mississauga, Ontario: Benben Publications. Ryholt, Kim (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press: Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications. ISBN 87-7289-421-0. Preceded by Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Pharaoh of Egypt Seventeenth Dynasty Succeeded by Seqenenre Tao v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Senakhtenre_Ahmose&oldid=976982956" Categories: 16th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt 16th-century BC deaths Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn 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en-wikipedia-org-8941	----	Setnakhte - Wikipedia Setnakhte From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Setnakhte Setnakht Drawing of a relief of pharaoh Sethnakht. Pharaoh Reign 1189–1186 BC (Twentieth Dynasty) Predecessor Twosret Successor Ramesses III Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Userkhaure-setepenre Powerful are the forms of Re, Chosen of Re Nomen Setnakht Meryamunra Seth Is Victorious; Beloved Of Amon-Re[1] Horus name Kanakht Werpehti Nebty name Tutkhaumitatjenen Golden Horus Sekhemkhepeshder(kher)uef Consort Tiy-Merenese Died 1186 BC Burial KV14 Userkhaure-setepenre Setnakhte (also called Setnakht or Sethnakht) was the first pharaoh (1189 BC–1186 BC) of the Twentieth Dynasty of the New Kingdom of Egypt and the father of Ramesses III. Contents 1 Accession 2 Reign length 3 Monuments 4 Papyrus Harris 5 References 6 Bibliography Accession[edit] Setnakhte was not the son, brother or a direct descendant of either Twosret or Merneptah Siptah—the immediately preceding two pharaohs—nor that of Siptah's predecessor Seti II,[citation needed] whom Setnakht formally considered the last legitimate ruler.[citation needed] It is possible that he was a usurper who seized the throne during a time of crisis and political unrest, or he could have been a member of a minor line of the Ramesside royal family who emerged as pharaoh. Senakhte married Tiy-Merenese, perhaps a daughter of Merneptah. A connection between Setnakhte's successors and the preceding Nineteenth Dynasty is suggested by the fact that one of Ramesses II's children also bore this name and that similar names are shared by Setnakhte's descendants such as Ramesses, Amun-her-khepshef, Seth-her-khepshef and Monthu-her-khepshef.[2] Reign length[edit] Setnakhte was originally believed to have enjoyed a reign of only two years based upon his Year 2 Elephantine stela but his third regnal year is now attested in Inscription No. 271 on Mount Sinai.[3] If his theoretical accession date is assumed to be II Shemu 10, based on the date of his Elephantine stela, Setnakhte would have ruled Egypt for at least two years and 11 months before he died, or nearly three full years. This date is only three months removed from Twosret's highest known date of Year 8, III Peret 5, and is based upon a calculation of Ramesses III's known accession date of I Shemu 26.[4] Peter Clayton also assigned Setnakhte a reign of three years in his 1994 book on the Egyptian pharaohs.[5] Year 4 quartz stela of Bakenkhunsu In a mid-January 2007 issue of the Egyptian weekly Al-Ahram, however, Egyptian antiquity officials announced that a recently discovered and well-preserved quartz stela belonging to the High Priest of Amun Bakenkhunsu was explicitly dated to Year 4 of Setnakhte's reign. The Al-Ahram article notes that this data: contradicts...the official record, which says Setnakhte ruled Egypt for only three years. According to the new information provided by the stela, Setnakhte's reign certainly lasted for four years, and may have continued for [a little] longer.[6] Zahi Hawass, the former Secretary General of Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities, declared the discovery to be one of the most important finds of 2006 because "it adjusts the history of the 20th Dynasty and reveals more about the life of Bakenkhunsu."[6] As Setnakhte's reign was short, he may have come to the throne fairly late in life. However, the Al-Ahram figure does not change the fact that Setnakhte likely truly ruled Egypt for only three, rather than four, full years since there are no Year 1 dates attested for him, and his famous Year 2 Elephantine stela states that Setnakhte finally secured his kingship after defeating all his opponents and challengers to the throne in his second year. The date of the Elephantine stela in Year 2 II Shemu day 10 of Setnakhte's reign[7]—the date of which is mentioned only halfway in the stela rather than at its start—is immediately followed by this proclamation: "There were no opponents against His Majesty, l.p.h., in all the lands."[8] This reference to the defeat of Setnakhte's enemies implies that this specific date marked the termination of a conflict—presumably Setnakhte's struggle for the throne—which extended partly into his second year and means that Setnakhte's first year would have overlapped with Twosret's final year, if Twosret was his opponent. Therefore, he likely did not even rule Egypt in his theoretical first year and could only properly administer the country from sometime during his second year. In any event, there was an interregnum lasting at least a year in which no ruler controlled all of Egypt and Setnakhte's effective reign length should be reduced by a year from 4 to 3 years. Setnakhte's Elephantine stela touches on this chaotic period and refers explicitly to the expulsion of certain Asiatics, who fled Egypt, abandoning the gold which they had looted from Egyptian temples. It is uncertain the degree to which this inscription referred to contemporary events or rather repeated anti-Asiatic sentiment from the reign of Pharaoh Ahmose I. Setnakhte identified with the God Atum or Temu, and built a temple to this God at Per-Atum (Biblical Pithom).[citation needed] The "mummy in the boat" from KV35, before its destruction After his death, Setnakhte was buried in KV14 which was originally designed to be Twosret's royal tomb. His mummy has never been identified with certainty, although the so–called "mummy in the boat" found in KV35 was sometimes identified with him, an attribution rejected by Aidan Dodson who rather believes the body belonged to a royal family member of Amenhotep II of the 18th Dynasty. In any case the mummy was destroyed in a looting in 1901, thus preventing any analysis on it.[9] Monuments[edit] Reliefs of Horus and Geb from tomb KV14 While Setnakhte's reign was still comparatively brief, it was just long enough for him to stabilize the political situation in Egypt and establish his son, Rameses III, as his successor to the throne of Egypt. The Bakenkhunsu stela reveals that it was Setnakhte who began the construction of a Temple of Amun-Re in Karnak which was eventually completed by his son, Ramesses III. Setnakhte also started work on a tomb, KV11, in the Valley of the Kings, but stopped it when the tombcarvers accidentally broke into the tomb of the Nineteenth Dynasty Pharaoh Amenmesse. Setnakhte then appropriated the tomb of Queen Twosret (KV14), his predecessor, for his own use. Setnakhte's origins are unknown, and he may have been a commoner, the other hypothesis is that he was related to the previous dynasty, the Nineteenth, through his mother and may thus have been a grandson of Ramesses II. Setnakhte's son and successor, Ramesses III, is regarded as the last great king of the New Kingdom. Papyrus Harris[edit] The beginning of the Great Harris Papyrus or Papyrus Harris I, which documents the reign of Ramesses III, provides some details about Setnakhte's rise to power. An excerpt of James Henry Breasted's 1906 translation of this document is provided below: The land of Egypt was overthrown from without, and every man was thrown out of his right; they had no "chief mouth" for many years formerly until other times. The land of Egypt was in the hands of chiefs and of rulers of towns; one slew his neighbour, great and small. Other times having come after it, with empty years, Irsu ('a self-made man'), a certain Syrian (Kharu) was with them as chief (wr). He set plundering their (i.e., the people's) possessions. They made gods like men, and no offerings were presented in the temples. But when the gods inclined themselves to peace, to set the land in its rights according to its accustomed manner, they established their son, who came forth from their limbs, to be ruler, LPH, of every land, upon their great throne, Userkhaure-setepenre-meryamun, LPH, the son of Re, Setnakht-merire-meryamun, LPH. He was Khepri-Set, when he is enraged; he set in order the entire land which had been rebellious; he slew the rebels who were in the land of Egypt; he cleansed the great throne of Egypt; he was ruler of the Two Lands, on the throne of Atum. He gave ready faces to those who had been turned away. Every man knew his brother who had been walled in. He established the temples in possession of divine offerings, to offer to the gods according to their customary stipulations.[10] Until 2000, Chancellor Bay was considered the only plausible candidate for this Irsu. However, an IFAO Ostracon no. 1864 found at Deir el-Medina dated to Year 5 records that 'Pharaoh (Siptah) LPH has killed the great enemy, Bay'.[11] Because Chancellor Bay died at least 3 years before this 'Irsu', he can no longer be considered a plausible candidate for this historical figure. References[edit] ^ Setnakht ^ Nos ancêtres de l'Antiquité 1991. Christian Settipani, p.153, 173 & 175 ^ Von Beckerath, Chronologie des Pharaonischen Ägypten, 1997, p. 201-202 ^ E.F. Wente & C.C. Van Siclen, "A Chronology of the New Kingdom" in Studies in Honor of George R. Hughes, (SAOC 39) 1976, pp.236-237 ^ Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames & Hudson Ltd, 1994, p.160 ^ a b El-Aref, Nevine (11–17 January 2007). "Dynasty revealed". Al-Ahram Weekly (827). Archived from the original on 3 April 2011. Retrieved 2011-04-03. ^ Dino Bidoli, "Stadt und Temple von Elephantine. Dritter Grabungsbericht." MDAIK 28 (1972): 192 ff., pl. 49. ^ KRI V: 671, §251 (13) ^ Schneider, Thomas (2010). "Contributions to the Chronology of the New Kingdom and the Third Intermediate Period". Ägypten & Levante. 20., pp. 386–387 ^ James H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, Vol No.4,(1906), pp.198-199 ^ Pierre Grandet, "L'execution du chancelier Bay O. IFAO 1864," BIFAO 100 (2000), pp.339-356 Bibliography[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sethnakht. James H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, Vol No.4,(1906) Erik Hornung, Untersuchungen zur Chronologie und Geschichte des Neuen Reiches (1964) J. Von Beckerath, Chronologie des Pharaonischen Ägypten, Philip Von Zabern, (Mainz: 1997), pp. 94–98 and pp. 201–202 v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Setnakhte&oldid=999638836" Categories: 12th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt 1186 BC deaths 12th century BC in Egypt 12th-century BC rulers Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2018 Articles with unsourced statements from May 2013 Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read 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en-wikipedia-org-8946	----	Berenice III - Wikipedia Berenice III From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ptolemaic Queen of Egypt Berenice III Ptolemaic Queen of Egypt Reign with Ptolemy X Alexander I (first reign) with Ptolemy IX Soter (second reign) with Ptolemy XI Alexander II Born 115/114 BC[1] Died April 80 BC (aged 34–35)[1] Alexandria, Egypt Spouse Ptolemy X Ptolemy XI Alexander II Issue Cleopatra V of Egypt Dynasty Ptolemaic Father Ptolemy IX Soter Mother Cleopatra Selene Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Kliapadrat Bereniket Cleopatra Berenice Nomen jry-pꜤtt wr(t)-ḥsw(t) bjrnjkt Irypatet Wer(et)hesu(t) Birniket The hereditary princess who is great of praise, Berenice Berenice III (Greek: Βερενίκη; 120–80 BC) was also known as Cleopatra, [2] lived between 91 and 88 BC. Scholars studying Berenice III refer to her sometimes as Cleopatra Berenice in modern scholarship. She was co-regent of Ptolemaic Egypt from 101–88 BC and again in 81 BC, before reigning as sole monarch of Egypt from 81 to 80 BC. She had previously been queen consort of Egypt, or possibly queen regnant with her uncle/husband Ptolemy X Alexander I, from 101 to 88 BC.[1] Contents 1 Background and early life 2 Co-regency with Ptolemy X (101-88 BC) 3 Reign (81-80 BC) 4 Legacy 5 References Background and early life[edit] The Ptolemy and Berenice of the era were both Greek and Egyptian. Their heritage became a very prominent symbol in their reign taking from both of their parent cultures and intertwining it into their rule.[3] Berenice's father was Ptolemy IX Soter, who became king of Egypt in 116 BC, with his mother Cleopatra III as his co-regent and the dominant force in government. He was initially married to his sister Cleopatra IV, but his mother forced him to divorce her and marry another sister, Cleopatra Selene, probably in early 115 BC. It is not certain which of these wives was Berenice's mother. Cleopatra IV has been favored by some modern scholarship.[4] However, the historian Christopher Bennett notes that Berenice III's legitimacy was never questioned by ancient historians (unlike her brothers, Ptolemy XII and Ptolemy of Cyprus), and that Ptolemy IX's marriage to Cleopatra IV seems to have been considered illegitimate – making it more probable that Berenice III was the result of the legitimate marriage to Cleopatra Selene. In this case, she was probably born in late 115 or early 114 BC.[5][1] Ptolemy IX and Cleopatra III eventually came into conflict with one another. In 107 BC, Cleopatra whipped up the Alexandrian mob against Ptolemy IX, causing him to flee to Cyprus, abandoning Berenice and her brothers in Alexandria in the process. Cleopatra then installed Ptolemy IX's younger brother Ptolemy X Alexander on the throne, as a more pliant co-regent.[6][7] Ptolemy X married Berenice's probable mother Cleopatra Selene and thus became step-father to the seven-year-old Berenice. They probably had a son together, the future Ptolemy XI, but around 103 BC Cleopatra III forced them to divorce so that Cleopatra Selene could be married to the Seleucid king Antiochus VIII.[8] Co-regency with Ptolemy X (101-88 BC)[edit] In 101 BC, Ptolemy X had Cleopatra III murdered. Shortly after that, he married the thirteen-year-old Berenice and elevated her to the role of co-regent. The pair were joined together in the dynastic cult as the Theoi Philadelphoi (Sibling-loving Gods).[1][9] In 91 BC, a rebellion broke out in Upper Egypt. This rebellion was the latest in a series of native Egyptian uprisings in the region, following those of Hugronaphor (205-185 BC) and Harsiesi (131-130 BC). It is unknown what the name of the rebellion's leader was or whether he claimed the title of Pharaoh, as earlier rebel leaders had. The rebels gained control of Thebes and were supported by the Theban priests. Their forces are also attested in Latopolis and Pathyris. The rebellion also meant that the Ptolemies lost contact with the Triacontaschoenus region (Lower Nubia). Meroe took control of the region and retained it until the Roman period.[10] Around May 88 BC, the Alexandrians and the army turned against Ptolemy X and expelled him.[11] The Alexandrians then invited Ptolemy IX to return to Alexandria and retake the throne, which he did. Berenice accompanied her husband into exile. The pair gathered a naval force to recapture the kingdom, but were defeated in battle. Ptolemy X recruited a second force at Myra, invaded Cyprus, and was killed.[12][13][14] Berenice returned to Egypt at some point after Ptolemy X's death and before 81 BC, but the exact date is not known.[1] Reign (81-80 BC)[edit] Basalt bust of Ptolemy X Alexander. On 5 August 81 BC, Ptolemy IX promoted his daughter Berenice III, who had previously been the wife and co-regent of Ptolemy X, to the status of co-regent. Some sources claim that Ptolemy IX had made Berenice III his co-regent at the start of his second reign in 88 BC, but all documentary evidence shows that he reigned alone until this point. Ptolemy died shortly thereafter, probably in December of the same year, leaving Berenice alone on the throne. At this point she was reincorporated into the dynastic cult as the Thea Philopator (Father-loving God), a clear reference to her inheritance of power from her father.[15] After a few months of sole rule, Berenice summoned her younger half-brother and former step-son, Ptolemy XI, from Rome to serve as co-regent. According to Appian, this co-regency was established at the behest of the Roman dictator Sulla, who hoped that Ptolemy XI would serve as a pliant client king.[16] Ptolemy XI was crowned king on 3 April 80 BC and murdered Berenice a few days later.[17] Bernice III death angered the Alexandrians, and in response to her murderer the people riot on 22 April 80 BC. He was cornered in the gymnasium and killed.[18][1] The throne then passed to Ptolemy XII Auletes, who was an illegitimate son of Ptolemy IX and the half-brother of Berenice.[15] Legacy[edit] Berenice is the subject of Berenice, an opera by Handel. References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g Bennett, Chris. "Berenice III". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 16 November 2019. ^ "Cleopatra Berenice III - Livius". www.livius.org. Retrieved 2020-12-01. ^ Bennett, Chris (2002). "The Chronology of Berenice III". JStore. Retrieved October 22, 2020. ^ Llewellyn-Jones, Lloyd (2013) [2012]. "Cleopatra V Berenike III". In Bagnall, Roger S.; Brodersen, Kai; Champion, Craige B.; Erskine, Andrew; Huebner, Sabine R. (eds.). The Encyclopedia of Ancient History (13 Vols.). III: Be-Co. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-405-17935-5. ^ Bennett 1997, p. 54. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBennett1997 (help) ^ Justin (historian), Epitome of Pompeius Trogus 39.4.1; Pausanias 1.9.2 ^ Hölbl 2001, pp. 206–207 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHölbl2001 (help) ^ Bennett, Chris. "Cleopatra Selene". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 12 November 2019. ^ Hölbl 2001, pp. 207–210 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHölbl2001 (help) ^ Pausanias 1.9.3 ^ Porphyry FGrH 260 F2.9; Strabo Geography 17.1.8 ^ Porphyry FGrH 260 F2.8-9; Justin Epitome of Pompeius Trogus 39.5; Pausanias ^ Bennett, Chris. "Ptolemy X". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 16 November 2019. ^ Hölbl 2001, p. 211 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHölbl2001 (help) ^ a b Hölbl 2001, pp. 213–214 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHölbl2001 (help) ^ Appian Bellum Civile 1.102 ^ Bevan, Edwyn Robert. A history of Egypt under the Ptolemaic dynasty. Oxfordshire, England. ISBN 978-1-315-77371-1. OCLC 893686286. ^ Porphyry FGrH 260 F2.10-11; Cicero, De Rege Alexandro F9; Appian Bellum Civile 1.102. Berenice III Ptolemaic dynasty Born: ca. 115 – 114 BC Died: 80 BC Regnal titles Preceded by Ptolemy X and Cleopatra III Queen of Egypt 101 BC–88 BC with Ptolemy X Succeeded by Ptolemy IX Preceded by Ptolemy IX Queen of Egypt 81 BC–80 BC with Ptolemy XI Succeeded by Ptolemy XI v t e Hellenistic rulers Argeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Kings of Cyrene Magas Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Kings of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Kings of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Kings of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Kings of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus Kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon (regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces Asander with Dynamis Mithridates II Asander with Dynamis Scribonius’ attempted rule with Dynamis Dynamis with Polemon Polemon with Pythodorida Aspurgus Mithridates III with Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Queens of Ancient Egypt Early Dynastic Period to First Intermediate Period  (3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Neithhotep Benerib Khenthap Herneith Nakhtneith Penebui Merneith Seshemetka Semat Serethor Betrest II Nimaathap Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Hetephernebti Djeseretnebti Djefatnebti Meresankh I IV Hetepheres I Meritites I Henutsen Khentetka Meresankh II Hetepheres II Meresankh III Khamerernebty I Persenet Hekenuhedjet Khamerernebty II Rekhetre Bunefer V Khentkaus I Neferhetepes Meretnebty Khentkaus II Khentkaus III Reptynub Khuit I Meresankh IV Setibhor Nebet Khenut VI Iput I Khuit II Ankhesenpepi I Ankhesenpepi II Nubwenet Meritites IV Inenek-Inti Nedjeftet Neith Iput II Udjebten Ankhesenpepi III Ankhesenpepi IV Nitocris Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Neferu I Neferukayet Iah Tem Neferu II Ashayet Henhenet Sadeh Kawit Kemsit XII Neferitatjenen Neferu III Keminub Khenemetneferhedjet I Nofret II Itaweret Khenmet Sithathoriunet Khenemetneferhedjet II Neferthenut Meretseger Aat Khenemetneferhedjet III Sobekneferu 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Nofret Nubhetepti Senebhenas Neni Tjan Ineni Nubkhaes Aya XIV Tati XVI Mentuhotep XVII Nubemhat Sobekemsaf Haankhes Tetisheri Ahhotep I Ahmose Inhapy Sitdjehuti Ahhotep II New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose-Nefertari Ahmose-Sitkamose Ahmose-Henuttamehu Ahmose-Meritamun Ahmose Mutnofret Hatshepsut Iset Satiah Merytre-Hatshepsut Nebtu Menhet, Menwi and Merti Nebsemi Tiaa Nefertari Iaret Mutemwiya Tiye Gilukhipa Sitamun Iset Tadukhipa / Kiya Nefertiti Meritaten Neferneferuaten Ankhesenamun Tey Mutnedjmet Nebetnehat XIX Sitre Tuya Tanedjemet Nefertari Isetnofret Henutmire Maathorneferure Meritamen Bintanath Nebettawy Merytre Isetnofret II Takhat Twosret Tiaa XX Tiy-Merenese Iset Ta-Hemdjert Tyti Tiye Duatentopet Henutwati Tawerettenru Nubkhesbed Baketwernel Tentamun 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Tentamun Mutnedjmet Karimala XXII Karomama Patareshnes Maatkare Tashedkhonsu Nesitaudjatakhet Nesitanebetashru Kapes Karomama I Tadibast III XXIII Karomama II XXV Pebatjma Tabiry Abar Khensa Peksater Arty Qalhata Tabekenamun Takahatenamun Naparaye Atakhebasken Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Mehytenweskhet Khedebneithirbinet I Takhuit Tentkheta Nakhtubasterau Ladice XXVII Atossa Artystone Parmys Amestris Damaspia Parysatis XXXI Stateira I Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Roxana Stateira II Parysatis II Eurydice II of Macedon Ptolemaic Eurydice Berenice I Arsinoe I Arsinoe II Berenice II Arsinoe III Cleopatra I Cleopatra II Cleopatra III Cleopatra IV Cleopatra Selene Berenice III Cleopatra V Cleopatra VI Berenice IV Cleopatra VII Arsinoe IV Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berenice_III&oldid=1001278572" Categories: 2nd-century BC births 80 BC deaths 2nd-century BC Pharaohs 2nd-century BC rulers in Africa 2nd-century BC women rulers 1st-century BC Egyptian people 1st-century BC Pharaohs 1st-century BC rulers in Africa 1st-century BC women rulers Ancient Egyptian queens regnant Female pharaohs Pharaohs of the Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemaic princesses Queens consort of the Ptolemaic dynasty Hidden categories: CS1: long volume value Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Asturianu Български Català Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский සිංහල Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 January 2021, at 00:36 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8948	----	Atizyes - Wikipedia Atizyes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Atizyes was a Persian satrap of Greater Phrygia under the Achaemenids in 334 BC, when Alexander the Great began his campaign.[1] He is not mentioned in the council of Zelea where the satrap coalition was formed against the invasion, so it is not sure whether he took part in the battle of the Granicus.[2] After the battle, he appears to be in the capital of Greater Phrygia, Celaenae where he had a garrison force of 1,000 Carians and 100 Greek mercenaries.[3][4] He himself went to Syria to join the army of Darius III and fell in the battle of Issus at 333 BC.[5][6][7] After Phrygia fell to Alexander, he appointed his general Antigonus Monophthalmus as its satrap.[8] References[edit] ^ Arrian Anabasis 1.25.3 ^ Diodorus 17.21.3 ^ Arrian Anabasis 1.29.1 ^ Curtius Rufus 3.1.6-8 ^ Arrian Anabasis 2.11.8 ^ Curtius Rufus 3.11.10 ^ Diodorus 17.34.5 ^ Arrian Anabasis 1.29.3 Sources[edit] Heckel, Waldemar (2006). Who’s Who in the Age of Alexander the Great: Prosopography of Alexander’s Empire. Blackwell Publishing. External links[edit] Original text of The Anabasis of Alexander English version of The Anabasis of Alexander v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atizyes&oldid=971266489" Categories: Satraps of the Achaemenid Empire 333 BC deaths Alexander the Great 4th-century BC Iranian people Phrygia Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 5 August 2020, at 02:18 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
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Special:BookSources in other language Wikipedias ISBN Prefix Ranges Wikipedia 0 1 English (this page) 2 979-10 French 3 German 4 (Japan) Japanese 5 (Russia, former USSR) Russian 7 (China, PR) 957/986 (Taiwan, ROC) 962/988 (Hong Kong, SAR) 981 (Singapore) 99937 (Macau, SAR) Chinese 80 (Czech Republic) Czech 83 (Poland) Polish 84 (Spain) 950 (Argentina) 956 (Chile) 958 (Colombia) 959 (Cuba) 968/970 (Mexico) 980 (Venezuela) 9942/9978 (Ecuador) Spanish 85 (Brasil) 972 (Portugal) Portuguese 86 (Serbia, Montenegro) Serbian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 953 (Croatia) Croatian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 961 (Slovenia) Slovenian 87 Danish 88 Italian 89 Korean 90 Dutch 91 Swedish 92 International organizations (multilingual) 93 (India) Hindi 93 (India) 955 (Sri Lanka) Tamil 951/952 (Finland) Finnish 953 Bulgarian 955 (Sri Lanka) Sinhalese 960 Greek 963 Hungarian 964/600 (Iran) Persian 965 (Israel) Hebrew 966 (Ukraine) Ukrainian 967 (Malaysia) Malay 969 (Pakistan) Pashto 971 (Philippines) Tagalog 973 (Romania) Romanian 974 (Thailand) Thai 975/9944/605 (Turkey) Turkish 976 (Caribbean Community) See English, Spanish... 977 (Egypt) 978 (Nigeria) 9960/603 (Saudi Arabia) 9931/9947/9961(Algeria) Arabic 979 (Indonesia) Indonesian 982 (South Pacific) See English, French, ... 984 (Bangladesh) Bangla Welsh Bibliographical information These links produce citations in various referencing styles. 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Contents: Top 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z * # 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 • A Aa Ae Aj Ao At • B Ba Be Bj Bo Bt • C Ca Ce Cj Co Ct • D Da De Dj Do Dt • E Ea Ee Ej Eo Et • F Fa Fe Fj Fo Ft • G Ga Ge Gj Go Gt • H Ha He Hj Ho Ht • I Ia Ie Ij Io It • J Ja Je Jj Jo Jt • K Ka Ke Kj Ko Kt • L La Le Lj Lo Lt • M Ma Me Mj Mo Mt • N Na Ne Nj No Nt • O Oa Oe Oj Oo Ot • P Pa Pe Pj Po Pt • Q Qa Qe Qj Qo Qt • R Ra Re Rj Ro Rt • S Sa Se Sj So St • T Ta Te Tj To Tt • U Ua Ue Uj Uo Ut • V Va Ve Vj Vo Vt • W Wa We Wj Wo Wt • X Xa Xe Xj Xo Xt • Y Ya Ye Yj Yo Yt • Z Za Ze Zj Zo Zt Subcategories This category has the following 8 subcategories, out of 8 total. B ► Biography articles of living people‎ (1 C, 1,040,187 P) ► Bulletin board systems‎ (8 C, 64 P) C ► Candidates for speedy deletion‎ (1 C, 55 P) D ► Date of birth unknown‎ (1,612 P) L ► Living people‎ (2 C, 986,818 P) R ► Redirects from moves‎ (1 C, 1,693,405 P, 12,739 F) S ► Suspected Wikipedia sockpuppets of Philp the Moose‎ (63 P) ► Suspected Wikipedia sockpuppets of The Fresh Beat Band‎ (36 P) Pages in category "Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 5,047 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). (previous page) (next page)" "Heroes" (David Bowie song) "Weird Al" Yankovic ( (Is This the Way to) Amarillo * *NSYNC 0–9 0 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ⋯ 2 + 2 = 5 3e 4 Minutes 4chan 4X 7 World Trade Center 9/11 conspiracy theories 13th Airborne Division (United States) 20th Century Fox 20th Century Fox Animation 20th Century Studios 21st Massachusetts Infantry Regiment 21st Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry 41 (number) 50 Cent 81st Academy Awards 82nd Academy Awards 83rd Academy Awards 100,000 200 (Stargate SG-1) 200 West Street 243 Ida 300 (film) 420 420 (cannabis culture) 501(c) organization 867-5309/Jenny 1080° Snowboarding 1804 1848–49 massacres in Transylvania 1880 Republican National Convention 1906 San Francisco earthquake 1910 Cuba hurricane 1926 World Series 1928 Okeechobee hurricane 1933 Atlantic hurricane season 1941 Atlantic hurricane season 1941 Florida hurricane 1946 California's 12th congressional district election 1948 Arab–Israeli War 1956 FA Cup Final 1956 Winter Olympics 1960 South Vietnamese coup attempt 1960: The Making of the President 1962 South Vietnamese Independence Palace bombing 1964 Brinks Hotel bombing 1968 Thule Air Base B-52 crash 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens 1981 Irish hunger strike 1982 British Army Gazelle friendly fire incident 1982 Hama massacre 1983 Atlantic hurricane season 1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack 1987 (What the Fuck Is Going On?) 1987 Mecca incident 1988 Atlantic hurricane season 1993 Aurora, Colorado shooting 1993 Aurora, Colorado, shooting 1994 Atlantic hurricane season 1994 Black Hawk shootdown incident 1994 Fairchild Air Force Base B-52 crash 1994 San Marino Grand Prix 1995 Japanese Grand Prix 1995 Pacific Grand Prix 1995 Pacific hurricane season 1997 Qayen earthquake 1998 Pacific hurricane season 1999 Delhi hit-and-run case 1999 Sydney hailstorm 2000 2000 Sri Lanka cyclone 2000 Sugar Bowl 2000 Summer Olympics 2001 2001 anthrax attacks 2002 2002 Atlantic hurricane season 2002 Bou'in-Zahra earthquake 2003 Atlantic hurricane season 2003 Insight Bowl 2003 invasion of Iraq 2003 Pacific hurricane season 2003 Rugby World Cup 2004 2004 Summer Olympics 2004 World Series 2005 2005 Sugar Bowl 2005 Texas Longhorns football team 2005 United States Grand Prix 2006 2006 Atlantic hurricane season 2006 Chick-fil-A Bowl 2006 FIFA World Cup 2006 Gator Bowl 2006 in music 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict 2006 Westchester County tornado 2007 2007 ACC Championship Game 2007 Atlantic hurricane season 2007 in music 2007 Rugby World Cup 2007 Samjhauta Express bombings 2007 UEFA Champions League Final 2007 United States Air Force nuclear weapons incident 2007 USC Trojans football team 2007–2008 Nazko earthquakes 2008 2008 ACC Championship Game 2008 Brazilian Grand Prix 2008 Canadian federal election 2008 French Open 2008 Humanitarian Bowl 2008 Japanese Grand Prix 2008 Monaco Grand Prix 2008 Mumbai attacks 2008 Orange Bowl 2008 Stanley Cup Finals 2008 Summer Olympics 2008 United States presidential election 2009 2009 flu pandemic in the United States 2009 flu pandemic timeline 2009 Fort Hood shooting 2009 Giro d'Italia 2009 Orange Bowl 2009 Richmond High School gang rape 2009 swine flu outbreak by country 2009 swine flu outbreak in Canada 2009 swine flu outbreak in Mexico 2009 swine flu outbreak in Spain 2009 swine flu outbreak in the United Kingdom 2009 swine flu outbreak in the United States 2009 swine flu outbreak timeline 2009 swine flu pandemic 2009 swine flu pandemic by country 2009 swine flu pandemic in Canada 2009 swine flu pandemic in Mexico 2009 swine flu pandemic in Spain 2009 swine flu pandemic in the United Kingdom 2009 swine flu pandemic in the United States 2009 swine flu pandemic timeline Template:2009-2010 flu pandemic table 2009–10 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup 2010 2010 Austin suicide attack 2010 Chile blackout 2010 Chile earthquake 2010 Copiapó mining accident 2010 FIFA World Cup 2010 Haiti earthquake 2010 Pentagon shooting 2010–11 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup 2011 2011 Great Eastern Japan Earthquake Disaster 2011 military intervention in Libya 2011 Norway attacks 2011 Stanley Cup Finals 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami 2011 Tucson shooting 2011 Yemeni revolution 2012 2012 Buenos Aires rail disaster 2012 Burgas bus bombing 2012 Stanley Cup Finals 2012 Summer Olympics 2012 United Nations Climate Change Conference 2012 Winter Youth Olympics 2012–13 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup 2012–13 Premier League 2013 2013 Hyderabad blasts 2013 Stanley Cup Finals 2014 2014 Crimean status referendum 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict 2014 Scottish independence referendum 2014 Stanley Cup Finals 2015 2015 Canadian federal election 2015 Stanley Cup Finals 2015 Thalys train attack 2015 Tianjin explosions 2016 2016 Stanley Cup Finals 2016 Taiwan general election 2017 Formula One Season 2017 London Bridge attack 2017 Stanley Cup Finals 2018 George Tooke Shield 2018 Stanley Cup Finals 2019 Bolivian political crisis 2019 Stanley Cup Finals (previous page) (next page) Media in category 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"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Wikipedia_indefinitely_move-protected_pages&oldid=1001415991" Categories: Wikipedia vandalism Hidden categories: Hidden categories Template Large category TOC via CatAutoTOC on category with 5,001–10,000 pages CatAutoTOC generates Large category TOC Wikipedia move-protected pages Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Ilokano Simple English سنڌي اردو Edit links This page was last edited on 19 January 2021, at 15:58 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-896	----	Book sources - Wikipedia Book sources Jump to navigation Jump to search This page allows users to search for multiple sources for a book given the 10- or 13-digit ISBN number. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN number do not matter. Search for book sourcesISBN: Search Wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources For assistance, see Help:ISBN. This page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its International Standard Book Number (ISBN). If you arrived at this page by clicking an ISBN link in a Wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. To search for a different book, type that book's individual ISBN into this ISBN search box. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. Also, the number starts after the colon for "ISBN-10:" and "ISBN-13:" numbers.  An ISBN identifies a specific edition of a book. Any given title may therefore have a number of different ISBNs. See xISBN below for finding other editions. An ISBN registration, even one corresponding to a book page on a major book distributor database, is not definite proof that such a book actually exists. A title may have been cancelled or postponed after the ISBN was assigned. Check to see if the book exists or not. The master copy of this page is located at Wikipedia:Book sources. Contents 1 Online text 2 Online databases 3 Subscription eBook databases 4 Libraries 4.1 Worldwide 4.2 Africa 4.2.1 Nigeria 4.2.2 South Africa 4.2.3 Zimbabwe 4.3 Central America and the Caribbean 4.3.1 Barbados 4.3.2 Guatemala 4.3.3 Jamaica 4.3.4 Mexico 4.3.5 Trinidad and Tobago 4.4 Canada 4.4.1 Public libraries 4.4.2 Universities and colleges 4.5 United States 4.5.1 Public libraries by state 4.5.2 Universities and colleges 4.6 South America 4.6.1 Argentina 4.6.2 Brazil 4.6.3 Colombia 4.6.4 Ecuador 4.7 Asia 4.7.1 Bangladesh 4.7.2 China, People's Republic 4.7.3 Hong Kong, S.A.R. of China 4.7.4 India 4.7.5 Indonesia 4.7.6 Iran 4.7.7 Israel 4.7.8 Japan 4.7.9 Korea 4.7.10 Malaysia 4.7.11 Philippines 4.7.11.1 Universities and colleges 4.7.11.2 Other libraries 4.7.12 Singapore 4.7.13 Taiwan, Republic of China 4.7.14 Thailand 4.8 Australasia and Oceania 4.8.1 Australia 4.8.1.1 Public libraries 4.8.1.2 Academic libraries 4.8.2 New Zealand 4.8.2.1 Public libraries 4.8.2.2 Academic libraries 4.9 Europe 4.9.1 Austria 4.9.2 Belgium 4.9.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.9.4 Croatia 4.9.5 Czech Republic 4.9.6 Denmark 4.9.7 Estonia 4.9.8 Finland 4.9.9 France 4.9.10 Germany 4.9.11 Greece 4.9.12 Hungary 4.9.13 Iceland 4.9.14 Ireland 4.9.15 Italy 4.9.16 Luxembourg 4.9.17 Montenegro 4.9.18 Netherlands 4.9.19 Norway 4.9.20 Poland 4.9.21 Portugal 4.9.22 Russia 4.9.23 Serbia 4.9.24 Slovenia 4.9.25 Spain 4.9.26 Sweden 4.9.27 Switzerland 4.9.28 Turkey 4.9.29 United Kingdom 4.9.29.1 Public libraries 4.9.29.2 Universities 5 Bookselling and swapping 5.1 Price comparison sites 5.2 Search many booksellers 5.3 Individual booksellers 5.4 Book-swapping websites 6 Non-English book sources 7 Bibliographical information 8 Find other editions 9 Find on Wikipedia 10 See also Online text Find this book on Google Books Find this book at the Open Library Find this book on Amazon.com (or .au, .br, .ca, .cn, .de, .es, .fr, .in, .it, .jp, .mx, .nl, .uk). Google Books and Amazon.com may be particularly helpful if you want to verify citations in Wikipedia articles, because they often enable you to search an online version of the book for specific words or phrases, or you can browse through the book (although for copyright reasons the entire book is usually not available). Online databases Find this book at Karlsruhe Virtual Catalog, a metasearch engine addressing many of the databases linked here and also some major commercial booksellers. Find this book at WorldCat free online catalog of the world's libraries Find this book at OttoBib.com citation metasearch Find this book at Copyright Clearance Center online rights database Find this book at Goodreads personal library catalog Find this book at LibraryThing personal library catalog Find this book at aNobii personal library catalog Find this book at iDreamBooks book review aggregator Find this book at the Grand Comics Database Find this book at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database Subscription eBook databases Find this book at Alexander Street Press by ProQuest Find this book at eBookCentral by ProQuest Find this book at EBSCO Industries eBooks Find this book at Gale by Cengage Find this book at HathiTrust Find this book at Overdrive by Rakuten Find this book at Project MUSE Find this book at ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Open Find this book at Safari Books Online by O'Reilly Media Find this book at ScienceDirect Libraries Select your region from the map above 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en-wikipedia-org-8989	----	Ay - Wikipedia Ay From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see AY (disambiguation). Pharaoh Ay Ay II, Aya[citation needed] Pharaoh Ay performing the Opening of the Mouth ceremony on his predecessor Tutankhamen. Ay is wearing the Leopard skin worn by Egyptian High Priests and a Khepresh, a blue crown worn by Pharaohs. Pharaoh Reign 1323–1319 BC or 1327–1323 BC (18th Dynasty) Predecessor Tutankhamun (Grandnephew & grandson-in-law?) Successor Horemheb (Possible Son-in-law) Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Kheperkheperure–Irimaat Everlasting are the Manifestations of Re, who does what is right Nomen Itinetjer Ay God's father, Ay Horus name Kanakht Tekhenkhau The strong bull, the one of glittering crowns Nebty name Sekhempehti dersetet Who is mighty of strength, who subdues the Asiatics Golden Horus Heqamaat sekhepertawy The ruler of truth, who creates the two lands Consort Tey and Ankhesenamun (Granddaughter & grandniece-in-law?) Children Nakhtmin?, Nefertiti?, Mutnedjmet? Died 1319 or 1323 BC Burial WV23 Monuments Amarna Tomb Ay II, commonly known just as Ay, was the penultimate pharaoh of ancient Egypt's 18th Dynasty. He held the throne of Egypt for a brief four-year period (1323–1319 BC[1],1327–1323 BC, or 1310–1306 BC, depending on which chronology is followed), although he was a close advisor to two and perhaps three of the pharaohs who ruled before him and is thought to have been the power behind the throne during Tutankhamun's reign. Ay's prenomen or royal name—Kheperkheperure—means "Everlasting are the Manifestations of Ra" while his nomen Ay it-netjer reads as "Ay, Father of the God".[2] Records and monuments that can be clearly attributed to Ay are rare, not only due to his short length of reign, but also because his successor, Horemheb, instigated a campaign of damnatio memoriae against him and other pharaohs associated with the unpopular Amarna Period. Contents 1 Origins and family 2 Amarna Period 3 Tutankhamun 4 Rule as pharaoh 5 Royal succession 6 Aftermath 7 In fiction 8 References 9 Further reading Origins and family[edit] See also: Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Ay is believed to have been from Akhmim. During his short reign, he built a rock cut chapel in Akhmim and dedicated it to the local deity Min. He may have been the son of the courtier Yuya and his wife Tjuyu, making him a brother of Tiye and Anen.[3] This connection is based on the fact that both Yuya and Ay came from Akhmim and held the titles 'God's Father' and 'Master of Horses'. A strong physical resemblance has been noted between the mummy of Yuya and surviving statuary depictions of Ay.[3] The mummy of Ay has not been located, although fragmentary skeletal remains recovered from his tomb may represent it,[4] so a more thorough comparison with Yuya cannot be made. Therefore, the theory that he was the son of Yuya rests entirely on circumstantial evidence. Ay's Great Royal Wife was Tey, who was known to be the wet nurse to Nefertiti. It is often theorised that Ay was the father of Nefertiti as a way to explain his title 'God's Father' as it has been argued that the term designates a man whose daughter married the king. However, nowhere are Ay and Tey referred to as the parents of Nefertiti.[5] Nakhtmin, Ay's chosen successor, was likely his son or grandson. His mother's name was Iuy, a priestess of Min and Isis in Akhmim.[6] She may have been Ay's first wife. Amarna Period[edit] A stone block shows Ay receiving the "Gold of Honor" award in his Amarna tomb from Akhenaten. All that is known for certain was that by the time he was permitted to build a tomb for himself (Southern Tomb 25) at Amarna during the reign of Akhenaten, he had achieved the title of "Overseer of All the Horses of His Majesty", the highest rank in the elite charioteering division of the army, which was just below the rank of General.[7] Prior to this promotion he appears to have been first a Troop Commander and then a "regular" Overseer of Horses, titles which were found on a box thought to have been part of the original furnishings for his tomb.[8] Other titles listed in this tomb include Fan-bearer on the Right Side of the King, Acting Scribe of the King, beloved by him, and God's Father. The 'Fan-bearer on the Right Side of the King' was a very important position, and is viewed as showing that the bearer had the 'ear' of the ruler. The final God's Father title is the one most associated with Ay, and was later incorporated into his royal name when he became pharaoh.[8] This title could mean that he was the father-in-law of the pharaoh, suggesting that he was the son of Yuya and Tjuyu, thus being a brother or half-brother of Tiye, brother-in-law to Amenhotep III and the maternal uncle of Akhenaten. Instead, the title may indicate that Ay was the tutor of Tutankhamun.[5] If Ay was the son of Yuya, who was a senior military officer during the reign of Amenhotep III, then he likely followed in his father's footsteps, finally inheriting his father's military functions upon his death. Alternatively, it could also mean that he may have had a daughter that married the pharaoh Akhenaten, possibly being the father of Akhenaten's chief wife Nefertiti. Ultimately there is no evidence to definitively prove either hypothesis.[9] The two theories are not mutually exclusive, but either relationship would explain the exalted status to which Ay rose during Akhenaten's Amarna interlude, when the royal family turned their backs on Egypt's traditional gods and experimented, for a dozen years or so, with an early form of monotheism; an experiment that, whether out of conviction or convenience, Ay appears to have followed under the reign of Akhenaten. The Great Hymn to the Aten is also found in his Amarna tomb which was built during his service under Akhenaten. His wife Tey was born a commoner but was given the title Nurse of the Pharaoh's Great Wife.[9] If she were the mother of Nefertiti she would be expected to have the royal title Mother of the Pharaoh's Great Wife instead; had Ay been the father of Nefertiti, then Tey would have been her stepmother.[9] In several Amarna tomb chapels there is a woman whose name begins with "Mut" who had the title Sister of the Pharaoh's Great Wife. This could also be a daughter of Ay's by his wife Tey, and it is known that his successor Horemheb married a woman with the name Mutnodjimet.[10] Tutankhamun[edit] Main article: Tutankhamun Ay performing the opening of the mouth ceremony for Tutankhamun, scene from Tutankhamun's tomb. Ay's reign was preceded by that of Tutankhamun, who ascended to the throne at the age of eight or nine, at a time of great tension between the new monotheism and the old polytheism. He was assisted in his kingly duties by his predecessor's two closest advisors: Grand Vizier Ay and General of the Armies Horemheb. Tutankhamun's nine-year reign, largely under Ay's direction, saw the return of the old gods – and, with that, the restoration of the power of the Amun priesthood, who had lost their influence over Egypt under Akhenaten. Egyptologist Bob Brier suggested that Ay murdered Tutankhamun in order to usurp the throne, a claim which was based on X-ray examinations of the body done in 1968. He also alleged that Ankhesenamun and the Hittite prince she was about to marry were also murdered at his orders.[11] This murder theory was not accepted by all scholars, and further analysis of the x-rays, along with CT scans taken in 2005, found no evidence to suggest that Tutankhamun died from a blow to the head as Brier had theorized.[12][13] In 2010, a team led by Zahi Hawass reported that the young king had died from a combination of a broken leg, malaria and Köhler disease[14] but another team from the Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine in Hamburg believes his death was caused by sickle cell disease.[15] Ay buried his young predecessor, as depicted on the wall of Tutankhamun's burial chamber. The explicit depiction of a succeeding king conducting the "Opening of the Mouth" ceremony of another is unique; the depictions are usually more generic.[16] Ay was buried in the tomb intended for Tutankhamun in the West Valley of the Kings (WV23), and Tutankhamun was interred in Ay's intended tomb in the East Valley of the Kings (KV62). Rule as pharaoh[edit] Faience plate with the complete royal titulary of Ay, Egyptian Museum. Tutankhamun's death around the age of 18 or 19, together with the fact he had no living children, left a power vacuum that his Grand Vizier Ay was quick to fill: Ay is depicted conducting the funerary rites for the deceased monarch and assuming the role of heir. The grounds on which Ay based his successful claim to power are not entirely clear. The Commander of the Army, Horemheb, had actually been designated as the "idnw" or "Deputy of the Lord of the Two Lands" under Tutankhamun and was presumed to be the boy king's heir apparent and successor.[17] It appears that Horemheb was outmaneuvered to the throne by Ay, who legitimized his claim to the throne by burying Tutankhamun, as well as possibly marrying Ankhesenamun, Tutankhamun's widow. Fragment of a cartouche of Ay in the Petrie Museum Since he was already advanced in age upon his accession, Ay ruled Egypt in his own right for only four years. During this period, he consolidated the return to the old religious ways that he had initiated as senior advisor and constructed a mortuary temple at Medinet Habu for his own use. A stela of Nakhtmin (Berlin 2074), a military officer under Tutankhamun and Ay—who was Ay's chosen successor—is dated to Year 4, IV Akhet day 1 of Ay's reign.[18] Manetho's Epitome assigns a reign length of four years and one month to Horemheb, and this was usually assigned to Ay based on this Year 4 dated stela; however, it is now believed that figure should be raised by a decade to fourteen years and one month and attributed to Horemheb instead, as Manetho intended. Hence, Ay's precise reign length is unknown and he could have ruled for as long as seven to nine years, since most of his monuments and his funerary temple at Medinet Habu were either destroyed or usurped by his successor, Horemheb.[citation needed] Royal succession[edit] Portrait of King Ay, on display at Musée d'Art et d'Histoire of Geneva. Detail of a statue of the royal couple of king Ay and Queen Tey, the fragment depicting Tey being a reproduction of a piece now located at the Hermitage in Saint-Petersburg (inv 18477). Prior to his death, Ay designated Nakhtmin to succeed him as pharaoh. However, Ay's succession plan went awry, as Horemheb became the last king of Egypt's 18th Dynasty instead of Nakhtmin. The fact that Nakhtmin was Ay's intended heir is strongly implied by an inscription carved on a dyad funerary statue of Nakhtmin and his spouse which was presumably made during Ay's reign. Nakhtmin is clearly given the titles "Crown Prince" (jrj-pꜥt) and "King's Son" (zꜣ-nswt).[19] The only conclusion which can be drawn here is that Nakhtmin was either a son or an adopted son of Ay's, and that Ay was grooming Nakhtmin for the royal succession instead of Horemheb. Egyptologists Aidan Dodson and Dyan Hilton observe that the aforementioned statue: ... is broken after the signs for "King's Son of", and there has been considerable debate as to whether it continued to say "Kush", making Nakhtmin a Viceroy of Nubia, or "of his body", making him an actual royal son. Since there is no other evidence for Nakhtmin as a Viceroy—with another man [Paser I][1] attested in office at this period as well—the latter suggestion seems the most likely. As Nakhtmin donated items to the burial of Tutankhamun without such a title, it follows that he only became a King's Son subsequently, presumably under Ay. This theory is supported by the evidence of intentional damage to Nakhtmin's statue, since Ay was amongst the Amarna pharaohs whose memories were execrated under later rulers.[20] Aftermath[edit] The burial chamber of Ay's tomb in the Valley of the Kings It appears that one of Horemheb's undertakings as Pharaoh was to eliminate all references to the monotheistic experiment, a process that included expunging the name of his immediate predecessors, especially Ay, from the historical record. Horemheb desecrated Ay's burial and had most of Ay's royal cartouches in his WV23 tomb erased while his sarcophagus was smashed into numerous fragments.[21] However, the intact sarcophagus lid was discovered in 1972 by Otto Schaden. The lid had been buried under debris in this king's tomb and still preserved Ay's cartouche.[22] Horemheb also usurped Ay's mortuary temple at Medinet Habu for his own use. Uvo Hölscher (1878–1963) who excavated the temple in the early 1930s provides these interesting details concerning the state of Ay-Horemheb's mortuary temple: Wherever a cartouche has been preserved, the name of Eye [i.e., Ay] has been erased and replaced by that of his successor Harmhab. In all but a single instance had it been overlooked and no change made. Thus the temple, which Eye had begun and finished, at least in the rear rooms with their fine paintings, was usurped by his successor and was thenceforth known as the temple of Harmhab. Seals on stoppers of wine jars from the temple magazines read: "Wine from the temple of Harmhab".[23] In fiction[edit] Ay appears as a villain in the 17th book in Lucien de Gieter's Papyrus comic book series (Tutankhamun, The Assassinated Pharaoh).[citation needed] Ay appears as a major character in Paul C. Doherty's trilogy of Ancient Egyptian novels, An Evil Spirit Out of the West, The Season of the Hyaena and The Year of the Cobra.[citation needed] Kerry Greenwood's novel, Out of the Black Land, features him as a greedy villain whose sole goal was accruing wealth.[citation needed] He is a character in Wolfgang Hohlbein's Die Prophezeihung (The Prophecy).[citation needed] He is also a major character in Michelle Moran's bestselling novel Nefertiti.[citation needed] Ay is the villain of Lucile Morrison's young adult novel The Lost Queen of Egypt (1937).[citation needed] He is also a character in Mika Waltari's historical novel The Egyptian, again depicted as immoral and villainous.[citation needed] Ay serves as a central character in Tut, portrayed by Ben Kingsley. Ay is a minor character in the time travel to the 18th dynasty in Mr. Peabody & Sherman Ay is a central character in Gwendolyn MacEwen's novel King of Egypt, King of Dreams, where he is portrayed as one of Akhenaten's closest confidants, spiritual antagonists, and supporters.[24] The novel also presents Ay as Tiye's brother and one time lover, and it is suggested that he, rather than Amenhotep III, may be Akhenaten's father. Much of the novel is told from Ay's perspective as he reluctantly attempts to navigate the changes of the Amarna period, and the second to last chapter is his memoir/confession near the end of his pharaonic reign, in which Ay admits to killing the ailing and blind Akhenaten at the dying pharaoh's request. References[edit] ^ Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss & David Warburton (editors), Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies), Brill: 2006, p. 493 ^ Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames & Hudson Ltd, 1994. p136 ^ a b Aldred, Cyril (December 1957). "The End of the El-'Amarna Period". The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 43: 33. doi:10.2307/3855276. JSTOR 3855276. ^ Schaden, Otto J. (1984). "Clearance of the Tomb of King Ay (WV-23)". Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt. 21: 58. doi:10.2307/40000956. JSTOR 40000956. ^ a b van Dijk, J. (1996). "Horemheb and the Struggle for the Throne of Tutankhamun" (PDF). Bulletin of the Australian Centre for Egyptology: 31–32. Retrieved 15 September 2019. ^ van Dijk, J. (1996). "Horemheb and the Struggle for the Throne of Tutankhamun" (PDF). Bulletin of the Australian Centre for Egyptology: 33. Retrieved 15 September 2019. ^ Hindley, Marshall. Featured Pharaoh: The God's Father Ay, Ancient Egypt, April/May 2006. p. 27–28. ^ a b Dodson, Aidan. Amarna Sunset: Nefertiti, Tutankhamun, Ay, Horemheb, and the Egyptian Counter-Reformation. p. 95 The American University in Cairo Press. 2009, ISBN 978-977-416-304-3 ^ a b c Dodson, Aidan. Amarna Sunset: Nefertiti, Tutankhamun, Ay, Horemheb, and the Egyptian Counter-Reformation. p96 The American University in Cairo Press. 2009, ISBN 978-977-416-304-3 ^ Dodson, Aidan.Amarna Sunset: Nefertiti, Tutankhamun, Ay, Horemheb, and the Egyptian Counter-Reformation. p. 98 The American University in Cairo Press. 2009, ISBN 978-977-416-304-3 ^ Brier, Bob (1998). The murder of Tutankhamen : a true story (Hardcover ed.). Putnam. ISBN 0399143831. ^ Boyer, RS; Rodin, EA; Grey, TC; Connolly, RC (2003). "The skull and cervical spine radiographs of Tutankhamen: a critical appraisal" (PDF). American Journal of Neuroradiology. 24 (6): 1142–7. PMID 12812942. Retrieved 15 September 2019. ^ Hawass, Zahi; Saleem, Sahar N. (2016). Scanning the Pharaohs : CT Imaging of the New Kingdom Royal Mummies. The American University in Cairo. pp. 101–102. ISBN 978-977-416-673-0. ^ Hawass, Zahi (17 February 2010). "Ancestry and Pathology in King Tutankhamun's Family" (PDF). JAMA. 303 (7): 638–47. doi:10.1001/jama.2010.121. PMID 20159872. Retrieved 27 August 2019. ^ Timmann, Christian (23 June 2010). "King Tutankhamun's Family and Demise". JAMA. 303 (24): 2473, author reply 2473-5. doi:10.1001/jama.2010.822. PMID 20571010. ^ Dodson, Aidan (2018). Amarna sunset : Nefertiti, Tutankhamun, Ay, Horemheb, and the Egyptian counter-reformation (Revised ed.). New York: The American University in Cairo Press. p. 94. ISBN 978-977-416-859-8. ^ Peter J. Brand, The Monuments of Seti I: Epigraphic, Historical and Art Historical Analysis, Brill, NV Leiden, (2000), p. 311 ^ Urk IV: 2110 ^ Wolfgang Helck, Urkunden der 18. Dynastie: Texte der Hefte 20-21 (Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1984), pp. 1908–1910 ^ Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson, (2004), p. 151 ^ Bertha Porter, Topographical Bibliography of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyph Texts, Vol 1, Part 2, Oxford Clarendon Press, (1960), Tomb 23, pp. 550–551 ^ Otto Schaden, Clearance of the Tomb of King Ay (WV 23), JARCE 21(1984) pp.39–64 ^ Uvo Hölscher, Excavations at Ancient Thebes 1930/31, pp. 50–51 ^ MacEwen, Gwendolyn (1971). King of Egypt, King of Dreams. Toronto: Macmillan. Further reading[edit] Jürgen von Beckerath, Chronologie des Pharaonischen Ägypten, MÄS 46 (Philip von Zabern, Mainz: 1997), pp. 201 v t e Amarna Period Pharaohs Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten Tutankhamun Ay Royal family Tiye Nefertiti Kiya "The Younger Lady" Tey Children Meritaten Meketaten Ankhesenamun Neferneferuaten Tasherit Neferneferure Setepenre Meritaten Tasherit Ankhesenpaaten Tasherit Nobles Officials Mutbenret Aperel Bek Huya Meryre II Nakhtpaaten Panehesy Parennefer Penthu Thutmose Locations Akhetaten Karnak KV55 KV62 Amarna Tombs Other Amarna letters Amarna succession Aten Atenism Dakhamunzu Amarna Art Style v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 123879620 VIAF: 23060326 WorldCat Identities: viaf-23060326 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ay&oldid=998266352" Categories: Ay 1320s BC deaths 14th-century BC Pharaohs People from Sohag Governorate Pharaohs of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Historical negationism in ancient Egypt Viziers of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Amarna Period Fan-bearer on the Right Side of the King Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2018 Articles with unsourced statements from July 2015 Articles with unsourced statements from February 2017 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Lietuvių Magyar مصرى မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский සිංහල Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча/tatarça ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 January 2021, at 15:56 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9005	----	Sehebre - Wikipedia Sehebre From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sehebre Sehabre Pharaoh Reign 3-4 years, c. 1704-1699 BC[1] (14th dynasty) Predecessor Nebefawre Successor Merdjefare Royal titulary Nomen Sehebre Sḥ3b-Rˁ He whom Ra causes to be festive Father uncertain, Sheshi (Ryholt) Mother uncertain, Tati (Ryholt) Sehebre was a ruler of the Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt ruling for three to four years c. 1700 BC during the Second Intermediate Period.[1] According to Egyptologists Kim Ryholt, Jürgen von Beckerath and Darrell Baker, he was the fifth king of the dynasty.[1][2][3] As such he would have ruled from Avaris over the eastern Nile Delta and possibly over the Western Delta as well. Contents 1 Attestation 2 Identity 3 See also 4 References Attestation[edit] Sehebre is known solely from the Turin canon, a king list redacted during the early Ramesside period, over 400 years after Sehebre's reign. According to the latest reading of the canon by Ryholt, Sehebre's name is given on the 9th column, row 4 of the document (corresponding to entry 8.4 of Gardiner and von Beckerath reading of the canon). Sehebre is credited a reign of 3 to 4 years, an unknown number of months and 1 day by the canon.[1] Identity[edit] No contemporary attestation of Sehebre is known to this day. However, Ryholt points out that this stands at odds with Sehebre's reign length of three to four years, the longest reign of the 14th Dynasty and only equalled by his successor Merdjefare. At the opposite, kings with shorter reigns, such as Nehesy who reigned around 1 year, are well attested by contemporary artefacts. Thus, Ryholt suggests that Sehebre is to be identified with either Wazad or Sheneh, both of which are well attested rulers of the 14th Dynasty, but who do not appear in the Turin canon.[1] See also[edit] List of pharaohs References[edit] ^ a b c d e K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz : P. von Zabern, 1999, ISBN 3-8053-2591-6, available online see p. 108-109 ^ Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 358-359 Preceded by Nebefawre Pharaoh of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Merdjefare v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sehebre&oldid=976679699" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Français Italiano ქართული Magyar Nederlands Slovenščina ไทย Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 4 September 2020, at 10:27 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9011	----	Battle of Marathon - Wikipedia Battle of Marathon From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 490 BC battle in the Greco-Persian Wars For the poem, see The Battle of Marathon: A Poem. Battle of Marathon Part of the First Persian invasion of Greece Battle of Marathon Date August/September (Metageitnion), 490 BC Location Marathon, Greece 38°07′05″N 23°58′42″E / 38.11806°N 23.97833°E / 38.11806; 23.97833Coordinates: 38°07′05″N 23°58′42″E / 38.11806°N 23.97833°E / 38.11806; 23.97833 Result Greek victory Persian forces conquer the Cycladic islands and establish control over the Aegean sea[1] Persian forces driven out of mainland Greece for 10 years[2] Belligerents Athens Plataea  Persian Empire Commanders and leaders Miltiades Callimachus † Aristides the Just Xanthippus Themistocles Stesilaos † Arimnestos[3] Cynaegirus † Datis Artaphernes Hippias Strength 9,000–10,000 Athenians, 1,000 Plataeans 25,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry (modern estimates)[2] (the latter was not engaged) 100,000+ armed oarsmen and sailors (arranged as reserve troops they saw little action, mostly defending the ships) 600 triremes 50+ horse-carriers 200+ supply ships Casualties and losses 192 Athenians 11 Plataeans (Herodotus) 6,400 dead 7 ships destroyed (Herodotus) 4,000–5,000 dead (modern estimates)[4] Location of the Battle of Marathon v t e First Persian invasion of Greece Lindos Naxos Karystos Eretria Marathon The Battle of Marathon[5] (Ancient Greek: Μάχη τοῦ Μαραθῶνος, romanized: Machē tou Marathōnos) took place in 490 BC during the first Persian invasion of Greece. It was fought between the citizens of Athens, aided by Plataea, and a Persian force commanded by Datis and Artaphernes. The battle was the culmination of the first attempt by Persia, under King Darius I, to subjugate Greece. The Greek army decisively defeated the more numerous Persians, marking a turning point in the Greco-Persian Wars. The first Persian invasion was a response to Athenian involvement in the Ionian Revolt, when Athens and Eretria sent a force to support the cities of Ionia in their attempt to overthrow Persian rule. The Athenians and Eretrians had succeeded in capturing and burning Sardis, but they were then forced to retreat with heavy losses. In response to this raid, Darius swore to burn down Athens and Eretria. According to Herodotus, Darius had his bow brought to him and then shot an arrow "upwards towards heaven", saying as he did so: "Zeus, that it may be granted me to take vengeance upon the Athenians!" Herodotus further writes that Darius charged one of his servants to say "Master, remember the Athenians" three times before dinner each day.[6] At the time of the battle, Sparta and Athens were the two largest city-states in Greece. Once the Ionian revolt was finally crushed by the Persian victory at the Battle of Lade in 494 BC, Darius began plans to subjugate Greece. In 490 BC, he sent a naval task force under Datis and Artaphernes across the Aegean, to subjugate the Cyclades, and then to make punitive attacks on Athens and Eretria. Reaching Euboea in mid-summer after a successful campaign in the Aegean, the Persians proceeded to besiege and capture Eretria. The Persian force then sailed for Attica, landing in the bay near the town of Marathon. The Athenians, joined by a small force from Plataea, marched to Marathon, and succeeded in blocking the two exits from the plain of Marathon. The Athenians also sent a message to the Spartans asking for support. When the messenger arrived in Sparta, the Spartans were involved in a religious festival and gave this as a reason for not coming to help the Athenians. The Athenians and their allies chose a location for the battle, with marshes and mountainous terrain, that prevented the Persian cavalry from joining the Persian infantry. Miltiades, the Athenian general, ordered a general attack against the Persian forces, composed primarily of missile troops. He reinforced his flanks, luring the Persians' best fighters into his centre. The inward wheeling flanks enveloped the Persians, routing them. The Persian army broke in panic towards their ships, and large numbers were slaughtered. The defeat at Marathon marked the end of the first Persian invasion of Greece, and the Persian force retreated to Asia. Darius then began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece; however, in 486 BC, his Egyptian subjects revolted, indefinitely postponing any Greek expedition. After Darius died, his son Xerxes I restarted the preparations for a second invasion of Greece, which finally began in 480 BC. The Battle of Marathon was a watershed in the Greco-Persian wars, showing the Greeks that the Persians could be beaten; the eventual Greek triumph in these wars can be seen to have begun at Marathon. The battle also showed the Greeks that they were able to win battles without the Spartans, as Sparta was seen as the major military force in Greece. This victory was largely due to the Athenians, and Marathon raised Greek esteem of them. The following two hundred years saw the rise of the Classical Greek civilization, which has been enduringly influential in Western society and so the Battle of Marathon is often seen as a pivotal moment in Mediterranean and European history. Contents 1 Background 2 Prelude 2.1 Date of the battle 3 Opposing forces 3.1 Athenians 3.2 Persians 4 Strategic and tactical considerations 5 Battle 6 Conclusions 7 Aftermath 8 Significance 9 Sources 10 Legacy 10.1 Legends associated with the battle 10.2 Marathon run 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 13.1 Ancient sources 13.2 Modern studies 13.3 Historiography 14 External links Background[edit] Main articles: Greco-Persian Wars, Ionian Revolt, and First Persian invasion of Greece The plain of Marathon today, with pine forest and wetlands. A map showing the Greek world at the time of the battle The first Persian invasion of Greece had its immediate roots in the Ionian Revolt, the earliest phase of the Greco-Persian Wars. However, it was also the result of the longer-term interaction between the Greeks and Persians. In 500 BC the Persian Empire was still relatively young and highly expansionistic, but prone to revolts amongst its subject peoples.[7][8][9] Moreover, the Persian King Darius was a usurper, and had spent considerable time extinguishing revolts against his rule.[7] Even before the Ionian Revolt, Darius had begun to expand the empire into Europe, subjugating Thrace, and forcing Macedon to become a vassal of Persia.[10] Attempts at further expansion into the politically fractious world of ancient Greece may have been inevitable.[8] However, the Ionian Revolt had directly threatened the integrity of the Persian empire, and the states of mainland Greece remained a potential menace to its future stability.[11] Darius thus resolved to subjugate and pacify Greece and the Aegean, and to punish those involved in the Ionian Revolt.[11][12] The Ionian Revolt had begun with an unsuccessful expedition against Naxos, a joint venture between the Persian satrap Artaphernes and the Milesian tyrant Aristagoras.[13] In the aftermath, Artaphernes decided to remove Aristagoras from power, but before he could do so, Aristagoras abdicated, and declared Miletus a democracy.[13] The other Ionian cities followed suit, ejecting their Persian-appointed tyrants, and declaring themselves democracies.[13][14] Aristagoras then appealed to the states of mainland Greece for support, but only Athens and Eretria offered to send troops.[15] The involvement of Athens in the Ionian Revolt arose from a complex set of circumstances, beginning with the establishment of the Athenian Democracy in the late 6th century BC.[15] In 510 BC, with the aid of Cleomenes I, King of Sparta, the Athenian people had expelled Hippias, the tyrant ruler of Athens.[16] With Hippias's father Peisistratus, the family had ruled for 36 out of the previous 50 years and fully intended to continue Hippias's rule.[16] Hippias fled to Sardis to the court of the Persian satrap, Artaphernes and promised control of Athens to the Persians if they were to help restore him.[17] In the meantime, Cleomenes helped install a pro-Spartan tyranny under Isagoras in Athens, in opposition to Cleisthenes, the leader of the traditionally powerful Alcmaeonidae family, who considered themselves the natural heirs to the rule of Athens.[18] Cleisthenes, however, found himself being politically defeated by a coalition led by Isagoras and decided to change the rules of the game by appealing to the demos (the people), in effect making them a new faction in the political arena. This tactic succeeded, but the Spartan King, Cleomenes I, returned at the request of Isagoras and so Cleisthenes, the Alcmaeonids and other prominent Athenian families were exiled from Athens. When Isagoras attempted to create a narrow oligarchic government, the Athenian people, in a spontaneous and unprecedented move, expelled Cleomenes and Isagoras.[19] Cleisthenes was thus restored to Athens (507 BC), and at breakneck speed began to reform the state with the aim of securing his position. The result was not actually a democracy or a real civic state, but he enabled the development of a fully democratic government, which would emerge in the next generation as the demos realized its power.[20] The new-found freedom and self-governance of the Athenians meant that they were thereafter exceptionally hostile to the return of the tyranny of Hippias, or any form of outside subjugation, by Sparta, Persia, or anyone else.[19] Darius I of Persia, as imagined by a Greek painter on the Darius Vase, 4th century BC Cleomenes was not pleased with events, and marched on Athens with the Spartan army.[21] Cleomenes's attempts to restore Isagoras to Athens ended in a debacle, but fearing the worst, the Athenians had by this point already sent an embassy to Artaphernes in Sardis, to request aid from the Persian empire.[22] Artaphernes requested that the Athenians give him an 'earth and water', a traditional token of submission, to which the Athenian ambassadors acquiesced.[22] They were, however, severely censured for this when they returned to Athens.[22] At some later point Cleomenes instigated a plot to restore Hippias to the rule of Athens. This failed and Hippias again fled to Sardis and tried to persuade the Persians to subjugate Athens.[23] The Athenians dispatched ambassadors to Artaphernes to dissuade him from taking action, but Artaphernes merely instructed the Athenians to take Hippias back as tyrant.[15] The Athenians indignantly declined, and instead resolved to open war with Persia.[23] Having thus become the enemy of Persia, Athens was already in a position to support the Ionian cities when they began their revolt.[15] The fact that the Ionian democracies were inspired by the example the Athenians had set no doubt further persuaded the Athenians to support the Ionian Revolt, especially since the cities of Ionia were originally Athenian colonies.[15] The Athenians and Eretrians sent a task force of 25 triremes to Asia Minor to aid the revolt.[24] Whilst there, the Greek army surprised and outmaneuvered Artaphernes, marching to Sardis and burning the lower city.[25] This was, however, as much as the Greeks achieved, and they were then repelled and pursued back to the coast by Persian horsemen, losing many men in the process. Despite the fact that their actions were ultimately fruitless, the Eretrians and in particular the Athenians had earned Darius's lasting enmity, and he vowed to punish both cities.[26] The Persian naval victory at the Battle of Lade (494 BC) all but ended the Ionian Revolt, and by 493 BC, the last hold-outs were vanquished by the Persian fleet.[27] The revolt was used as an opportunity by Darius to extend the empire's border to the islands of the eastern Aegean[28] and the Propontis, which had not been part of the Persian dominions before.[29] The pacification of Ionia allowed the Persians to begin planning their next moves; to extinguish the threat to the empire from Greece and to punish Athens and Eretria.[30] In 492 BC, after the Ionian Revolt had finally been crushed, Darius dispatched an expedition to Greece under the command of his son-in-law, Mardonius. Mardonius re-subjugated Thrace and made Macedonia a fully subordinate part of the Persians; they had been vassals of the Persians since the late 6th century BC, but retained their general autonomy.[31] Not long after however, his fleet became wrecked by a violent storm, which brought a premature end to the campaign.[32] However, in 490 BC, following the successes of the previous campaign, Darius decided to send a maritime expedition led by Artaphernes, (son of the satrap to whom Hippias had fled) and Datis, a Median admiral. Mardonius had been injured in the prior campaign and had fallen out of favor. The expedition was intended to bring the Cyclades into the Persian empire, to punish Naxos (which had resisted a Persian assault in 499 BC) and then to head to Greece to force Eretria and Athens to submit to Darius or be destroyed.[33] After island-hopping across the Aegean, including successfully attacking Naxos, the Persian task force arrived off Euboea in mid summer. The Persians then proceeded to besiege, capture, and burn Eretria. They then headed south down the coast of Attica, en route to complete the final objective of the campaign—punish Athens. Prelude[edit] Initial disposition of forces at Marathon Marshlands at Marathon. The Persians sailed down the coast of Attica, and landed at the bay of Marathon, about 17 miles (27 km) north-east of Athens, on the advice of the exiled Athenian tyrant Hippias (who had accompanied the expedition).[34] Under the guidance of Miltiades, the Athenian general with the greatest experience of fighting the Persians, the Athenian army marched quickly to block the two exits from the plain of Marathon, and prevent the Persians moving inland.[35][36] At the same time, Athens's greatest runner, Pheidippides (or Philippides in some accounts) had been sent to Sparta to request that the Spartan army march to the aid of Athens.[37] Pheidippides arrived during the festival of Carneia, a sacrosanct period of peace, and was informed that the Spartan army could not march to war until the full moon rose; Athens could not expect reinforcement for at least ten days.[35] The Athenians would have to hold out at Marathon for the time being, although they were reinforced by the full muster of 1,000 hoplites from the small city of Plataea, a gesture which did much to steady the nerves of the Athenians[35] and won unending Athenian gratitude to Plataea. For approximately five days the armies therefore confronted each other across the plain of Marathon in stalemate.[35] The flanks of the Athenian camp were protected either by a grove of trees, or an abbatis of stakes (depending on the exact reading).[38][39] Since every day brought the arrival of the Spartans closer, the delay worked in favor of the Athenians.[35] There were ten Athenian strategoi (generals) at Marathon, elected by each of the ten tribes that the Athenians were divided into; Miltiades was one of these.[40] In addition, in overall charge, was the War-Archon (polemarch), Callimachus, who had been elected by the whole citizen body.[41] Herodotus suggests that command rotated between the strategoi, each taking in turn a day to command the army.[42] He further suggests that each strategos, on his day in command, instead deferred to Miltiades.[42] In Herodotus's account, Miltiades is keen to attack the Persians (despite knowing that the Spartans are coming to aid the Athenians), but strangely, chooses to wait until his actual day of command to attack.[42] This passage is undoubtedly problematic; the Athenians had little to gain by attacking before the Spartans arrived,[43] and there is no real evidence of this rotating generalship.[44] There does, however, seem to have been a delay between the Athenian arrival at Marathon and the battle; Herodotus, who evidently believed that Miltiades was eager to attack, may have made a mistake while seeking to explain this delay.[44] As is discussed below, the reason for the delay was probably simply that neither the Athenians nor the Persians were willing to risk battle initially.[43][45] This then raises the question of why the battle occurred when it did. Herodotus explicitly tells us that the Greeks attacked the Persians (and the other sources confirm this), but it is not clear why they did this before the arrival of the Spartans.[43] There are two main theories to explain this.[43] The first theory is that the Persian cavalry left Marathon for an unspecified reason, and that the Greeks moved to take advantage of this by attacking. This theory is based on the absence of any mention of cavalry in Herodotus' account of the battle, and an entry in the Suda dictionary.[43] The entry χωρίς ἱππέων ("without cavalry") is explained thus: The cavalry left. When Datis surrendered and was ready for retreat, the Ionians climbed the trees and gave the Athenians the signal that the cavalry had left. And when Miltiades realized that, he attacked and thus won. From there comes the above-mentioned quote, which is used when someone breaks ranks before battle.[46] There are many variations of this theory, but perhaps the most prevalent is that the cavalry were completing the time-consuming process of re-embarking on the ships, and were to be sent by sea to attack (undefended) Athens in the rear, whilst the rest of the Persians pinned down the Athenian army at Marathon.[35] This theory therefore utilises Herodotus' suggestion that after Marathon, the Persian army began to re-embark, intending to sail around Cape Sounion to attack Athens directly.[47] Thus, this re-embarcation would have occurred before the battle (and indeed have triggered the battle).[45] The second theory is simply that the battle occurred because the Persians finally moved to attack the Athenians.[43] Although this theory has the Persians moving to the strategic offensive, this can be reconciled with the traditional account of the Athenians attacking the Persians by assuming that, seeing the Persians advancing, the Athenians took the tactical offensive, and attacked them.[43] Obviously, it cannot be firmly established which theory (if either) is correct. However, both theories imply that there was some kind of Persian activity which occurred on or about the fifth day which ultimately triggered the battle.[43] It is also possible that both theories are correct: when the Persians sent the cavalry by ship to attack Athens, they simultaneously sent their infantry to attack at Marathon, triggering the Greek counterattack. Date of the battle[edit] Herodotus mentions for several events a date in the lunisolar calendar, of which each Greek city-state used a variant. Astronomical computation allows us to derive an absolute date in the proleptic Julian calendar which is much used by historians as the chronological frame. Philipp August Böckh in 1855 concluded that the battle took place on September 12, 490 BC in the Julian calendar, and this is the conventionally accepted date.[48] However, this depends on when exactly the Spartans held their festival and it is possible that the Spartan calendar was one month ahead of that of Athens. In that case the battle took place on August 12, 490 BC.[48] Opposing forces[edit] Athenians[edit] Athenians on the beach of Marathon. Modern reenactment of the battle (2011) Herodotus does not give a figure for the size of the Athenian army. However, Cornelius Nepos, Pausanias and Plutarch all give the figure of 9,000 Athenians and 1,000 Plataeans;[49][50][51] while Justin suggests that there were 10,000 Athenians and 1,000 Plataeans.[52] These numbers are highly comparable to the number of troops Herodotus says that the Athenians and Plataeans sent to the Battle of Plataea 11 years later.[53] Pausanias noticed on the monument to the battle the names of former slaves who were freed in exchange for military services.[54] Modern historians generally accept these numbers as reasonable.[35][55] The areas ruled by Athens (Attica) had a population of 315,000 at this time including slaves, which implies the full Athenian army at the times of both Marathon and Plataea numbered about 3% of the population.[56] Persians[edit] For a full discussion of the size of the Persian invasion force, see First Persian invasion of Greece § Size of the Persian force. The ethnicities of the soldiers of the army of Darius I are illustrated on the tomb of Darius I at Naqsh-e Rostam, with a mention of each ethnicity in individual labels.[57][58][59][60][61] Identical depictions were made on the tombs of other Achaemenid emperors, the best preserved frieze being that of Xerxes I. According to Herodotus, the fleet sent by Darius consisted of 600 triremes.[62] Herodotus does not estimate the size of the Persian army, only saying that they were a "large infantry that was well packed".[63] Among ancient sources, the poet Simonides, another near-contemporary, says the campaign force numbered 200,000; while a later writer, the Roman Cornelius Nepos estimates 200,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry, of which only 100,000 fought in the battle, while the rest were loaded into the fleet that was rounding Cape Sounion;[64] Plutarch and Pausanias both independently give 300,000, as does the Suda dictionary.[51][65][66] Plato and Lysias give 500,000;[67][68] and Justinus 600,000.[69] Modern historians have proposed wide-ranging numbers for the infantry, from 20,000–100,000 with a consensus of perhaps 25,000;[70][71][72][73] estimates for the cavalry are in the range of 1,000.[74] The fleet included various contingents from different parts of the Achaemenid Empire, particularly Ionians and Aeolians, although they are not mentioned as participating directly to the battle and may have remained on the ships:[75] Datis sailed with his army against Eretria first, taking with him Ionians and Aeolians. — Herodotus 6.98.[76] Regarding the ethnicities involved in the battle, Herodotus specifically mentions the presence of the Persians and the Sakae at the center of the Achaemenid line: They fought a long time at Marathon. In the center of the line the foreigners prevailed, where the Persians and Sacae were arrayed. The foreigners prevailed there and broke through in pursuit inland, but on each wing the Athenians and Plataeans prevailed. In victory they let the routed foreigners flee, and brought the wings together to fight those who had broken through the center. The Athenians prevailed, then followed the fleeing Persians and struck them down. When they reached the sea they demanded fire and laid hold of the Persian ships. — Herodotus VI.113.[77] Strategic and tactical considerations[edit] Persian infantry (probably Immortals), shown in a frieze in Darius's palace, Susa in Persia (which is today Iran) From a strategic point of view, the Athenians had some disadvantages at Marathon. In order to face the Persians in battle, the Athenians had to summon all available hoplites;[35] even then they were still probably outnumbered at least 2 to 1.[39] Furthermore, raising such a large army had denuded Athens of defenders, and thus any secondary attack in the Athenian rear would cut the army off from the city; and any direct attack on the city could not be defended against.[45] Still further, defeat at Marathon would mean the complete defeat of Athens, since no other Athenian army existed. The Athenian strategy was therefore to keep the Persian army pinned down at Marathon, blocking both exits from the plain, and thus preventing themselves from being outmaneuvered.[35] However, these disadvantages were balanced by some advantages. The Athenians initially had no need to seek battle, since they had managed to confine the Persians to the plain of Marathon. Furthermore, time worked in their favour, as every day brought the arrival of the Spartans closer.[35][43] Having everything to lose by attacking, and much to gain by waiting, the Athenians remained on the defensive in the run up to the battle.[43] Tactically, hoplites were vulnerable to attacks by cavalry, and since the Persians had substantial numbers of cavalry, this made any offensive maneuver by the Athenians even more of a risk, and thus reinforced the defensive strategy of the Athenians.[45] The Persian strategy, on the other hand, was probably principally determined by tactical considerations. The Persian infantry was evidently lightly armoured, and no match for hoplites in a head-on confrontation (as would be demonstrated at the later battles of Thermopylae and Plataea.[78]) Since the Athenians seem to have taken up a strong defensive position at Marathon, the Persian hesitance was probably a reluctance to attack the Athenians head-on.[45] The camp of the Athenians was located on a spur of mount Agrieliki next to the plain of Marathon; remains of its fortifications are still visible.[79] Whatever event eventually triggered the battle, it obviously altered the strategic or tactical balance sufficiently to induce the Athenians to attack the Persians. If the first theory is correct (see above), then the absence of cavalry removed the main Athenian tactical disadvantage, and the threat of being outflanked made it imperative to attack.[45] Conversely, if the second theory is correct, then the Athenians were merely reacting to the Persians attacking them.[43] Since the Persian force obviously contained a high proportion of missile troops, a static defensive position would have made little sense for the Athenians;[80] the strength of the hoplite was in the melee, and the sooner that could be brought about, the better, from the Athenian point of view.[78] If the second theory is correct, this raises the further question of why the Persians, having hesitated for several days, then attacked. There may have been several strategic reasons for this; perhaps they were aware (or suspected) that the Athenians were expecting reinforcements.[43] Alternatively, they may have felt the need to force some kind of victory—they could hardly remain at Marathon indefinitely.[43] Battle[edit] Greek troops rushing forward at the Battle of Marathon, Georges Rochegrosse, 1859. "They crashed into the Persian army with tremendous force", illustration by Walter Crane in Mary Macgregor, The Story of Greece Told to Boys and Girls, London: T.C. & E.C. Jack. The distance between the two armies at the point of battle had narrowed to "a distance not less than 8 stadia" or about 1,500 meters.[81] Miltiades ordered the two tribes forming the center of the Greek formation, the Leontis tribe led by Themistocles and the Antiochis tribe led by Aristides, to be arranged in the depth of four ranks while the rest of the tribes at their flanks were in ranks of eight.[82][83] Some modern commentators have suggested this was a deliberate ploy to encourage a double envelopment of the Persian centre. However, this suggests a level of training that the Greeks are thought not to have possessed.[84] There is little evidence for any such tactical thinking in Greek battles until Leuctra in 371 BC.[85] It is therefore possible that this arrangement was made, perhaps at the last moment, so that the Athenian line was as long as the Persian line, and would not therefore be outflanked.[45][86] Map showing the armies' main movements during the battle When the Athenian line was ready, according to one source, the simple signal to advance was given by Miltiades: "At them".[45] Herodotus implies the Athenians ran the whole distance to the Persian lines, a feat under the weight of hoplite armory generally thought to be physically impossible.[87][88] More likely, they marched until they reached the limit of the archers' effectiveness, the "beaten zone" (roughly 200 meters), and then broke into a run towards their enemy.[88] Another possibility is that they ran up to the 200 meter-mark in broken ranks, and then reformed for the march into battle from there. Herodotus suggests that this was the first time a Greek army ran into battle in this way; this was probably because it was the first time that a Greek army had faced an enemy composed primarily of missile troops.[88] All this was evidently much to the surprise of the Persians; "... in their minds they charged the Athenians with madness which must be fatal, seeing that they were few and yet were pressing forwards at a run, having neither cavalry nor archers".[89] Indeed, based on their previous experience of the Greeks, the Persians might be excused for this; Herodotus tells us that the Athenians at Marathon were "first to endure looking at Median dress and men wearing it, for up until then just hearing the name of the Medes caused the Hellenes to panic".[81] Passing through the hail of arrows launched by the Persian army, protected for the most part by their armour, the Greek line finally made contact with the enemy army. The Athenian wings quickly routed the inferior Persian levies on the flanks, before turning inwards to surround the Persian centre, which had been more successful against the thin Greek centre.[90] The battle ended when the Persian centre then broke in panic towards their ships, pursued by the Greeks.[90] Some, unaware of the local terrain, ran towards the swamps where unknown numbers drowned.[54][91] The Athenians pursued the Persians back to their ships, and managed to capture seven ships, though the majority were able to launch successfully.[47][92] Herodotus recounts the story that Cynaegirus, brother of the playwright Aeschylus, who was also among the fighters, charged into the sea, grabbed one Persian trireme, and started pulling it towards shore. A member of the crew saw him, cut off his hand, and Cynaegirus died.[92] Cynaegirus grabbing a Persian ship at the Battle of Marathon (19th century illustration). Herodotus records that 6,400 Persian bodies were counted on the battlefield, and it is unknown how many more perished in the swamps.[93] He also reported that the Athenians lost 192 men and the Plataeans 11.[93] Among the dead were the war archon Callimachus and the general Stesilaos.[92] Conclusions[edit] Relief of the battle of Marathon (Temple of Augustus, Pula). There are several explanations of the Greek success. Most scholars believe that the Greeks had better equipment and used superior tactics. According to Herodotus, the Greeks were better equipped. They did not use bronze upper body armour at this time, but that of leather or linen. The phalanx formation proved successful, because the hoplites had a long tradition in hand-to-hand combat, whereas the Persian soldiers were accustomed to a very different kind of conflict. At Marathon, the Athenians thinned their centre in order to make their army equal in length to the Persian army,[94] not as a result of a tactical planning.[95] It seems that the Persian centre tried to return, realizing that their wings had broken, and was caught in the flanks by the victorious Greek wings. Lazenby (1993) believes that the ultimate reason for the Greek success was the courage the Greeks displayed: Marathon was won because ordinary, amateur soldiers found the courage to break into a trot when the arrows began to fall, instead of grinding to a halt, and when surprisingly the enemy wings fled, not to take the easy way out and follow them, but to stop and somehow come to the aid of the hard pressured centre.[96] According to Vic Hurley, the Persian defeat is explained by the "complete failure ... to field a representative army", calling the battle the "most convincing" example of the fact that infantry-bowmen cannot defend any position while stationed in close-quarters and unsupported[97] (i.e. by fortifications, or failing to support them by cavalry and chariots, as was the common Persian tactic). Contemporary depiction of the Battle of Marathon in the Stoa Poikile (reconstitution) Aftermath[edit] Main articles: Greco-Persian Wars and Second Persian invasion of Greece In the immediate aftermath of the battle, Herodotus says that the Persian fleet sailed around Cape Sounion to attack Athens directly.[47] As has been discussed above, some modern historians place this attempt just before the battle. Either way, the Athenians evidently realised that their city was still under threat, and marched as quickly as possible back to Athens.[98] The two tribes which had been in the centre of the Athenian line stayed to guard the battlefield under the command of Aristides.[99] The Athenians arrived in time to prevent the Persians from securing a landing, and seeing that the opportunity was lost, the Persians turned about and returned to Asia.[98] Connected with this episode, Herodotus recounts a rumour that this manoeuver by the Persians had been planned in conjunction with the Alcmaeonids, the prominent Athenian aristocratic family, and that a "shield-signal" had been given after the battle.[47] Although many interpretations of this have been offered, it is impossible to tell whether this was true, and if so, what exactly the signal meant.[100] On the next day, the Spartan army arrived at Marathon, having covered the 220 kilometers (140 mi) in only three days. The Spartans toured the battlefield at Marathon, and agreed that the Athenians had won a great victory.[101] Mound (soros) in which the Athenian dead were buried after the Battle of Marathon. Tomb of the Plataeans at Marathon. The Athenian and Plataean dead of Marathon were buried on the battlefield in two tumuli. On the tomb of the Athenians this epigram composed by Simonides was written: Ἑλλήνων προμαχοῦντες Ἀθηναῖοι Μαραθῶνι χρυσοφόρων Μήδων ἐστόρεσαν δύναμιν Fighting at the forefront of the Greeks, the Athenians at Marathon laid low the army of the gilded Medes. Meanwhile, Darius began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece; however, in 486 BC, his Egyptian subjects revolted, indefinitely postponing any Greek expedition.[9] Darius then died whilst preparing to march on Egypt, and the throne of Persia passed to his son Xerxes I.[102] Xerxes crushed the Egyptian revolt, and very quickly restarted the preparations for the invasion of Greece.[103] The epic second Persian invasion of Greece finally began in 480 BC, and the Persians met with initial success at the battles of Thermopylae and Artemisium.[104] However, defeat at the Battle of Salamis would be the turning point in the campaign,[105] and the next year the expedition was ended by the decisive Greek victory at the Battle of Plataea.[106] Significance[edit] Greek Corinthian-style helmet and the skull reportedly found inside it from the Battle of Marathon, now residing in the Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto. The defeat at Marathon barely touched the vast resources of the Persian empire, yet for the Greeks it was an enormously significant victory. It was the first time the Greeks had beaten the Persians, proving that the Persians were not invincible, and that resistance, rather than subjugation, was possible.[107] The battle was a defining moment for the young Athenian democracy, showing what might be achieved through unity and self-belief; indeed, the battle effectively marks the start of a "golden age" for Athens.[108] This was also applicable to Greece as a whole; "their victory endowed the Greeks with a faith in their destiny that was to endure for three centuries, during which Western culture was born".[109][110] John Stuart Mill's famous opinion was that "the Battle of Marathon, even as an event in British history, is more important than the Battle of Hastings".[111] According to Isaac Asimov,"if the Athenians had lost in Marathon, . . . Greece might have never gone to develop the peak of its civilization, a peak whose fruits we moderns have inherited."[112] It seems that the Athenian playwright Aeschylus considered his participation at Marathon to be his greatest achievement in life (rather than his plays) since on his gravestone there was the following epigram: Αἰσχύλον Εὐφορίωνος Ἀθηναῖον τόδε κεύθει μνῆμα καταφθίμενον πυροφόροιο Γέλας· ἀλκὴν δ’ εὐδόκιμον Μαραθώνιον ἄλσος ἂν εἴποι καὶ βαθυχαιτήεις Μῆδος ἐπιστάμενος This tomb the dust of Aeschylus doth hide, Euphorion's son and fruitful Gela's pride. How tried his valor, Marathon may tell, And long-haired Medes, who knew it all too well.[113] Militarily, a major lesson for the Greeks was the potential of the hoplite phalanx. This style had developed during internecine warfare amongst the Greeks; since each city-state fought in the same way, the advantages and disadvantages of the hoplite phalanx had not been obvious.[114] Marathon was the first time a phalanx faced more lightly armed troops, and revealed how effective the hoplites could be in battle.[114] The phalanx formation was still vulnerable to cavalry (the cause of much caution by the Greek forces at the Battle of Plataea), but used in the right circumstances, it was now shown to be a potentially devastating weapon.[115] Sources[edit] Main article: Herodotus Plan of the Battle of Marathon, 1832 The main source for the Greco-Persian Wars is the Greek historian Herodotus. Herodotus, who has been called the "Father of History",[116] was born in 484 BC in Halicarnassus, Asia Minor (then under Persian overlordship). He wrote his Enquiries (Greek – Historiai; English – (The) Histories) around 440–430 BC, trying to trace the origins of the Greco-Persian Wars, which would still have been relatively recent history (the wars finally ended in 450 BC).[109] Herodotus's approach was entirely novel, and at least in Western society, he does seem to have invented "history" as we know it.[109] As Holland has it: "For the first time, a chronicler set himself to trace the origins of a conflict not to a past so remote so as to be utterly fabulous, nor to the whims and wishes of some god, nor to a people's claim to manifest destiny, but rather explanations he could verify personally."[109] Some subsequent ancient historians, despite following in his footsteps, criticised Herodotus, starting with Thucydides.[117][118] Nevertheless, Thucydides chose to begin his history where Herodotus left off (at the Siege of Sestos), and may therefore have felt that Herodotus's history was accurate enough not to need re-writing or correcting.[118] Plutarch criticised Herodotus in his essay On the malice of Herodotus, describing Herodotus as "Philobarbaros" (barbarian-lover), for not being pro-Greek enough, which suggests that Herodotus might actually have done a reasonable job of being even-handed.[119] A negative view of Herodotus was passed on to Renaissance Europe, though he remained well read.[120] However, since the 19th century his reputation has been dramatically rehabilitated by archaeological finds which have repeatedly confirmed his version of events.[121] The prevailing modern view is that Herodotus generally did a remarkable job in his Historiai, but that some of his specific details (particularly troop numbers and dates) should be viewed with skepticism.[121] Nevertheless, there are still some historians who believe Herodotus made up much of his story.[122] The Sicilian historian Diodorus Siculus, writing in the 1st century BC in his Bibliotheca Historica, also provides an account of the Greco-Persian wars, partially derived from the earlier Greek historian Ephorus. This account is fairly consistent with Herodotus's.[123] The Greco-Persian wars are also described in less detail by a number of other ancient historians including Plutarch, Ctesias of Cnidus, and are alluded by other authors, such as the playwright Aeschylus. Archaeological evidence, such as the Serpent Column, also supports some of Herodotus's specific claims.[124] Legacy[edit] Legends associated with the battle[edit] Statue of Pan, Capitoline Museum, Rome The most famous legend associated with Marathon is that of the runner Pheidippides (or Philippides) bringing news to Athens of the battle, which is described below. Pheidippides' run to Sparta to bring aid has other legends associated with it. Herodotus mentions that Pheidippides was visited by the god Pan on his way to Sparta (or perhaps on his return journey).[35] Pan asked why the Athenians did not honor him and the awed Pheidippides promised that they would do so from then on. The god apparently felt that the promise would be kept, so he appeared in battle and at the crucial moment he instilled the Persians with his own brand of fear, the mindless, frenzied fear that bore his name: "panic". After the battle, a sacred precinct was established for Pan in a grotto on the north slope of the Acropolis, and a sacrifice was annually offered.[125] Reconstitution of the Nike of Callimachus, erected in honor of the Battle of Marathon. Destroyed during the Achaemenid destruction of Athens. Acropolis Museum. Similarly, after the victory the festival of the Agroteras Thysia ("sacrifice to the Agrotéra") was held at Agrae near Athens, in honor of Artemis Agrotera ("Artemis the Huntress"). This was in fulfillment of a vow made by the city before the battle, to offer in sacrifice a number of goats equal to that of the Persians slain in the conflict. The number was so great, it was decided to offer 500 goats yearly until the number was filled. Xenophon notes that at his time, 90 years after the battle, goats were still offered yearly.[126][127][128][129] Plutarch mentions that the Athenians saw the phantom of King Theseus, the mythical hero of Athens, leading the army in full battle gear in the charge against the Persians,[130] and indeed he was depicted in the mural of the Stoa Poikile fighting for the Athenians, along with the twelve Olympian gods and other heroes.[131] Pausanias also tells us that: They say too that there chanced to be present in the battle a man of rustic appearance and dress. Having slaughtered many of the foreigners with a plough he was seen no more after the engagement. When the Athenians made enquiries at the oracle, the god merely ordered them to honor Echetlaeus ("he of the Plough-tail") as a hero.[54] Another tale from the conflict is of the dog of Marathon. Aelian relates that one hoplite brought his dog to the Athenian encampment. The dog followed his master to battle and attacked the Persians at his master's side. He also informs us that this dog is depicted in the mural of the Stoa Poikile.[132] Marathon run[edit] Main article: Marathon Luc-Olivier Merson's painting depicting the runner announcing the victory at the Battle of Marathon to the people of Athens. According to Herodotus, an Athenian runner named Pheidippides was sent to run from Athens to Sparta to ask for assistance before the battle. He ran a distance of over 225 kilometers (140 miles), arriving in Sparta the day after he left.[133] Then, following the battle, the Athenian army marched the 40 kilometers (25 miles) or so back to Athens at a very high pace (considering the quantity of armour, and the fatigue after the battle), in order to head off the Persian force sailing around Cape Sounion. They arrived back in the late afternoon, in time to see the Persian ships turn away from Athens, thus completing the Athenian victory.[134] Burton Holmes's photograph entitled "1896: Three athletes in training for the marathon at the Olympic Games in Athens". Later, in popular imagination, these two events were conflated, leading to a legendary but inaccurate version of events. This myth has Pheidippides running from Marathon to Athens after the battle, to announce the Greek victory with the word "nenikēkamen!" (Attic: νενικήκαμεν; we've won!), whereupon he promptly died of exhaustion. Most accounts incorrectly attribute this story to Herodotus;[citation needed] actually, the story first appears in Plutarch's On the Glory of Athens in the 1st century AD, who quotes from Heracleides of Pontus's lost work, giving the runner's name as either Thersipus of Erchius or Eucles.[135] Lucian of Samosata (2nd century AD) gives the same story but names the runner Philippides (not Pheidippides).[136] In some medieval codices of Herodotus, the name of the runner between Athens and Sparta before the battle is given as Philippides, and this name is also preferred in a few modern editions.[137] When the idea of a modern Olympics became a reality at the end of the 19th century, the initiators and organizers were looking for a great popularizing event, recalling the ancient glory of Greece.[138] The idea of organizing a "marathon race" came from Michel Bréal, who wanted the event to feature in the first modern Olympic Games in 1896 in Athens. This idea was heavily supported by Pierre de Coubertin, the founder of the modern Olympics, as well as the Greeks.[138] This would echo the legendary version of events, with the competitors running from Marathon to Athens. So popular was this event that it quickly caught on, becoming a fixture at the Olympic games, with major cities staging their own annual events.[138] The distance eventually became fixed at 26 miles 385 yards, or 42.195 km, though for the first years it was variable, being around 25 miles (40 km)—the approximate distance from Marathon to Athens.[138] See also[edit] Ancient Greek warfare Timeline of ancient Greece Notes[edit] ^ Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. p. 158. ISBN 9781575061207. ^ a b 100 Battles, Decisive Battles that Shaped the World, Dougherty, Martin, J., Parragon, p. 12 ^ "Pausanias, Description of Greece, Boeotia, chapter 4, section 2". www.perseus.tufts.edu. ^ Krentz, Peter, The Battle of Marathon (Yale Library of Military History), Yale Univ Press, (2010) p. 98 ^ "Battle of Marathon". history.com. Retrieved 19 March 2020. ^ Herodotus Book 5: Terpsichore, 105 "...he inquired into who the Athenians were; and when he had been informed, he asked for his bow, and having received it and placed an arrow upon the string, he discharged it upwards towards heaven, and as he shot into the air he said: "Zeus, that it may be granted me to take vengeance upon the Athenians!" Having so said he charged one of his attendants, that when dinner was set before the king he should say always three times: "Master, remember the Athenians." ^ a b Holland, pp. 47–55 ^ a b Holland, pp. 58–62 ^ a b Holland, p. 203 ^ Roisman & Worthington 2011, p. 343. ^ a b Holland, 171–78 ^ Herodotus V, 105 ^ a b c Holland, pp. 154–57 ^ Herodotus V, 97 ^ a b c d e Holland, pp. 157–61 ^ a b Herodotus V, 65 ^ Herodotus V, 96 ^ Holland, pp. 131–32 ^ a b Holland, pp. 133–36 ^ For a full account and analysis see R.M. Berthold, Dare To Struggle. The History and Society of Greece (2009) pp. 81–94 ^ Holland, pp. 136–38 ^ a b c Holland, p. 142 ^ a b Herodotus V, 96 ^ Herodotus V, 99 ^ Holland, p. 160 ^ Holland, p. 168 ^ Holland, p. 176 ^ Herodotus VI, 31 ^ Herodotus VI, 33 ^ Holland, pp. 177–78 ^ Roisman & Worthington 2011, pp. 135–38, 342–45. ^ Herodotus VI, 44 ^ Herodotus VI, 94 ^ Herodotus VI, 102 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Holland, pp. 187–90 ^ Cornelius Nepos, Miltiades, IV ^ Herodotus VI, 105 ^ Cornelius Nepos, Miltiades, VI ^ a b Lazenby, p. 56 ^ Herodotus VI, 103 ^ Herodotus VI, 109 ^ a b c Herodotus VI, 110 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Lazenby, pp. 59–62 ^ a b Lazenby, pp. 57–59 ^ a b c d e f g h Holland, pp. 191–95 ^ Suda, entry Without cavalry ^ a b c d Herodotus VI, 115 ^ a b D.W. Olson et al., pp. 34–41 ^ Cornelius Nepos, Miltiades, V ^ Pausanias X, 20 ^ a b Plutarch, Moralia, 305 B ^ Justin II, 9 ^ Herodotus IX, 28 ^ a b c Pausanias I, 32 ^ Lazenby, p. 54 ^ A.W. Gomme. "The Population of Athens in the Fifth and Fourth. Centuries B. C.." 1933 ^ The Achaemenid Empire in South Asia and Recent Excavations in Akra in Northwest Pakistan Peter Magee, Cameron Petrie, Robert Knox, Farid Khan, Ken Thomas p.713-714 ^ NAQŠ-E ROSTAM – Encyclopaedia Iranica. ^ List of ethnicities with corresponding drawing ^ Lecoq, Pierre. Les inscriptions de la perse achemenide (1997) (in French). pp. 221–222. ^ DNe inscription ^ Herodotus VI, 95 ^ Herodotus VI, 94 ^ Cornelius Nepos, Miltiades, IV ^ Pausanias IV, 22 ^ Suda, entry Hippias ^ Plato, Menexenus, 240 A ^ Lysias, Funeral Oration, 21 ^ Justinus II, 9 ^ Davis, pp. 9–13 ^ Holland, p. 390 ^ Lloyd, p. 164 ^ Green, p. 90 ^ Lazenby, p. 46 ^ Sekunda, Nick (2002). Marathon, 490 BC: The First Persian Invasion of Greece. Praeger. p. 31 and 54. ISBN 9780275988364. ^ Herodotus, The Histories, Book 6, chapter 98. ^ Perseus Under Philologic: Hdt.6.113. ^ a b Lazenby, p. 256 ^ Lagos&Karyanos, pp. 109-124 ^ Lazenby, p. 67 ^ a b Herodotus VI, 112 ^ Plutarch, Aristides, V ^ Herodotus VI, 111 ^ Lazenby, p. 250 ^ Lazenby, p. 258 ^ Lazenby, p. 64 ^ Dennis L. Fink, The Battle of Marathon in Scholarship: Research, Theories and Controversies Since 1850, McFarland, 2014 pp. 154–60. ^ a b c Lazenby, pp. 66–69 ^ Herodotus VI, 110 ^ a b Herodotus VI, 113 ^ Lazenby, p. 71 ^ a b c Herodotus VI, 114 ^ a b Herodotus VI, 117 ^ Herod. Histories 6.111,3 ^ Lazenby 258 ^ Lazenby p. 258 ^ Vic Hurley, Arrows Against Steel: The History of the Bow and how it Forever Changed Warfare, Cerberus Books, 2011, ISBN 9780983475613, p. 66 ^ a b Herodotus VI, 116 ^ Holland, p. 218 ^ Lazenby, pp. 72–73 ^ Herodotus VI, 120 ^ Holland, pp. 206–207 ^ Holland, pp. 208–211 ^ Lazenby, p. 151 ^ Lazenby, p. 197 ^ Holland, pp. 350–55 ^ Holland, p. 201 ^ Holland, p. 138 ^ a b c d Holland, pp. xvi–xvii. ^ Fuller, pp. 11–32 ^ Powell et al., 2001 ^ Asimov, Isaac (1985). The greeks: a great adventure. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ^ Anthologiae Graecae Appendix, vol. 3, Epigramma sepulcrale p. 17 ^ a b Holland, pp. 194–97 ^ Holland, pp. 344–52 ^ Cicero, On the Laws I, 5 ^ Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, e.g., I, 22 ^ a b Finley, p. 15. ^ Holland, p. xxiv. ^ David Pipes. "Herodotus: Father of History, Father of Lies". Archived from the original on January 27, 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-18. ^ a b Holland, p. 377. ^ Fehling, pp. 1–277. ^ Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica ^ Note to Herodotus IX, 81 ^ Herodotus VI, 105 ^ Plutarch, On the Malice of Herodotus, 26 ^ Xenophon, Anabasis III, 2 ^ Aelian, Varia Historia II, 25 ^ Aristophanes, The Knights, 660 ^ Plutarch, Theseus, 35 ^ Pausanias I, 15 ^ Aelian, On the Nature of Animals VII, 38 ^ Herodotus VI, 105–06 ^ Holland, p. 198 ^ Plutarch, Moralia, 347C ^ Lucian, III ^ Lazenby, p. 52 ^ a b c d AIMS. "Marathon History". Retrieved 2008-10-15. References[edit] Ancient sources[edit] Herodotus, The Histories Thucydides, History of The Peloponnesian Wars Diodorus Siculus, Library Lysias, Funeral Oration Plato, Menexenus Xenophon Anabasis Aristotle, The Athenian Constitution Aristophanes, The Knights Cornelius Nepos Lives of the Eminent Commanders (Miltiades) Plutarch Parallel Lives (Aristides, Themistocles, Theseus), On the Malice of Herodotus Lucian, Mistakes in Greeting Pausanias, Description of Greece Claudius Aelianus Various history & On the Nature of Animals Marcus Junianus Justinus Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus Photius, Bibliotheca or Myriobiblon: Epitome of Persica by Ctesias Suda Dictionary Modern studies[edit] Hans W. Giessen, Mythos Marathon. Von Herodot über Bréal bis zur Gegenwart. Verlag Empirische Pädagogik, Landau (= Landauer Schriften zur Kommunikations- und Kulturwissenschaft. Band 17) 2010. ISBN 978-3-941320-46-8. Green, Peter (1996). The Greco-Persian Wars. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-20313-5. Holland, Tom (2006). Persian Fire: The First World Empire and the Battle for the West. Abacus. ISBN 0-385-51311-9. Lacey, Jim. The First Clash: The Miraculous Greek Victory at Marathon and Its Impact on Western Civilization (2011), popular Lagos, Constantinos. Karyanos Fotis, Who Really Won the Battle of Marathon? A Bold Re-Appraisal of One of History's Most Famous Battles, Pen and Sword, Barnsley, 2020, ( ISBN 978-1526758064) Lazenby, J.F. The Defence of Greece 490–479 BC. Aris & Phillips Ltd., 1993 ( ISBN 0-85668-591-7) Lloyd, Alan. Marathon: The Crucial Battle That Created Western Democracy. Souvenir Press, 2004. ( ISBN 0-285-63688-X) Davis, Paul. 100 Decisive Battles. Oxford University Press, 1999. ISBN 1-57607-075-1 Powell J., Blakeley D.W., Powell, T. Biographical Dictionary of Literary Influences: The Nineteenth Century, 1800–1914. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001. ISBN 978-0-313-30422-4 Fuller, J.F.C. A Military History of the Western World. Funk & Wagnalls, 1954. Fehling, D. Herodotus and His "Sources": Citation, Invention, and Narrative Art. Translated by J.G. Howie. Leeds: Francis Cairns, 1989. Finley, Moses (1972). "Introduction". Thucydides: History of the Peloponnesian War. Translated by Rex Warner. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-044039-9. D.W. Olson et al., "The Moon and the Marathon", Sky & Telescope Sep. 2004 Krentz, Peter. The Battle of Marathon. Yale University Press, 2010 Lanning, Michael L. (April 2005). "28". The Battle 100: The Stories Behind History's Most Influential Battles. Sourcebooks. pp. 95–97. ISBN 978-1402202636. Davis, Paul K. (June 2001). "Marathon". 100 Decisive Battles: From Ancient Times to the Present. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195143669. Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (2011). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-1-44-435163-7. Historiography[edit] Fink, Dennis L. The Battle of Marathon in Scholarship: Research, Theories and Controversies since 1850 (McFarland, 2014). 240 pp. online review External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Battle of Marathon. The Academic Publishing Wiki has a journal article about this subject: The struggle for Greece: Marathon and Artemision The Importance of the Battle of Marathon on The History Notes website Black-and-white photo-essay of Marathon Creasy, Edward Shepherd (June 1851). "I. The Battle of Marathon". The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World: From Marathon to Waterloo. Hood, E. The Greek Victory at Marathon, Clio History Journal, 1995. Battle of Marathon by e-marathon.gr (in Greek) The Battle of Marathon September 490 BC (in Greek) The Battle of Marathon September 490 BC, by Major General Dimitris Gedeon, HEAR Lieutenant Colonel Siegfried, Edward J. (March 2010). Analytical Study of Battle Strategies Used At Marathon (490 BCE) (Strategy Research Project). U.S. Army. Digital representation of the Battle of Marathon 490 BC Marathon, the beginning of history A documentary from ET1, 2011 (in Greek) Doenges, N.A. "The Campaign and Battle of Marathon." 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en-wikipedia-org-9024	----	Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Egyptian dynasty from -1295 to -1186 Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt 1292 BC–1189 BC Egypt and the Hittite Empire around the time of the Battle of Kadesh (1274 BC) Capital Thebes, later Memphis and Pi-Ramesses Common languages Egyptian language Religion Ancient Egyptian Religion Government Absolute monarchy Pharaoh   Historical era Bronze Age • Established 1292 BC • Disestablished 1189 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt The Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt (notated Dynasty XIX, alternatively 19th Dynasty or Dynasty 19) is classified as the second Dynasty of the Ancient Egyptian New Kingdom period, lasting from 1292 BC to 1189 BC. The 19th Dynasty and the 20th Dynasty furthermore together constitute an era known as the Ramesside period. This Dynasty was founded by Vizier Ramesses I, whom Pharaoh Horemheb chose as his successor to the throne. Contents 1 History 1.1 Background 1.2 19th Dynasty 1.2.1 Seti and Ramesses II 1.2.2 Merneptah 2 Pharaohs of the 19th Dynasty 3 Timeline of the 19th Dynasty 4 Gallery of images 5 See also 6 References History[edit] Background[edit] The warrior kings of the early 18th Dynasty had encountered only little resistance from neighbouring kingdoms, allowing them to expand their realm of influence easily, but the international situation had changed radically towards the end of the dynasty. The Hittites had gradually extended their influence into Syria and Canaan to become a major power in international politics, a power that both Seti I and his son Ramesses II would confront in the future. 19th Dynasty[edit] Seti and Ramesses II[edit] Seti I in Syria Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e New Kingdom Egypt reached the zenith of its power under Seti I and Ramesses II ("The Great"), who campaigned vigorously against the Libyans and the Hittites. The city of Kadesh was first captured by Seti I, who decided to concede it to Muwatalli of Hatti in an informal peace treaty between Egypt and Hatti. Ramesses II later attempted unsuccessfully to alter this situation in his fifth regnal year by launching an attack on Kadesh in his Second Syrian campaign in 1274 BC; he was caught in history's first recorded military ambush, but thanks to the arrival of the Ne'arin (a force allied with Egypt), Ramesses was able to rally his troops and turn the tide of battle against the Hittites. Ramesses II later profited from the Hittites' internal difficulties, during his eighth and ninth regnal years, when he campaigned against their Syrian possessions, capturing Kadesh and portions of Southern Syria, and advancing as far north as Tunip, where no Egyptian soldier had been seen for 120 years. He ultimately accepted that a campaign against the Hittites was an unsupportable drain on Egypt's treasury and military.[1] In his 21st regnal year, Ramesses signed the earliest recorded peace treaty with Urhi-Teshub's successor, Hattusili III, and with that act Egypt-Hittite relations improved significantly. Ramesses II even married two Hittite princesses, the first after his second Sed Festival. Merneptah[edit] This dynasty declined as infighting for the throne between the heirs of Merneptah increased. Amenmesse apparently usurped the throne from Merneptah's son and successor, Seti II, but he ruled Egypt for only four years. After his death, Seti regained power and destroyed most of Amenmesse's monuments. Seti was served at court by Chancellor Bay, who was originally just a 'royal scribe' but quickly became one of the most powerful men in Egypt, gaining the unprecedented privilege of constructing his own tomb in the Valley of the Kings (KV17). Both Bay and Seti's chief wife, Twosret, had a sinister reputation in Ancient Egyptian folklore.[2] After Siptah's death, Twosret ruled Egypt for two more years, but she proved unable to maintain her hold on power amid the conspiracies and powerplays being hatched at the royal court. She was likely ousted in a revolt led by Setnakhte, founder of the 20th Dynasty. Pharaohs of the 19th Dynasty[edit] Main article: Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree The pharaohs of the 19th Dynasty ruled for approximately 110 years: from c. 1292 to 1187 BC. Many of the pharaohs were buried in the Valley of the Kings in Thebes (designated KV). More information can be found on the Theban Mapping Project website.[3] Pharaoh Image Throne Name / Prenomen Reign Burial Consort(s) Ramesses I Menpehtyre 1292–1290 BC KV16 Sitre Seti I Menmaatre 1290–1279 BC[4] KV17 (Mut-)Tuya Ramesses II Usermaatre Setepenre 1279–1213 BC KV7 Nefertari Isetnofret Maathorneferure Meritamen Bintanath Nebettawy Henutmire Merneptah Baenre Merynetjeru 1213–1203 BC KV8 Isetnofret II Takhat? Seti II Userkheperure Setepenre 1203–1197 BC KV15 Takhat? Twosret Tiaa Amenmesse Menmire Setepenre 1201–1198 BC KV10 Unknown Siptah Sekhaienre Meryamun, later Akhenre Setepenre 1197–1191 BC KV47 Unknown Twosret Sitre Meryamun 1191–1189 BC KV14 None Timeline of the 19th Dynasty[edit] Gallery of images[edit] Seti I Ramesses II Twosret Shabti of Siptah Chancellor Bay Seti II Bust of Amenmesse wearing blue crown See also[edit] List of children of Ramesses II References[edit] ^ N. Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992), pp. 256f. ^ Grimal, p. 270 ^ "Sites in the Valley of the Kings". Thebanmappingproject.com. Retrieved 2012-09-22. ^ J. von Beckerath (1997) (in German). Chronologie des Äegyptischen Pharaonischen. Phillip von Zabern. p. 190 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nineteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=993155318" Categories: Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt States and territories established in the 13th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 12th century BC Dynasties of ancient Egypt New Kingdom of Egypt 13th century BC in Egypt 12th century BC in Egypt 13th-century BC establishments in Egypt 12th-century BC disestablishments in Egypt 2nd millennium BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Pages using the EasyTimeline extension Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ქართული Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский සිංහල Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 9 December 2020, at 02:10 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9030	----	Louis Couperus - Wikipedia Louis Couperus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Dutch novelist and poet Louis Couperus Louis Couperus in 1917 Born Louis Marie-Anne Couperus (1863-06-10)10 June 1863 The Hague, Netherlands Died 16 July 1923(1923-07-16) (aged 60) De Steeg, Netherlands Occupation Novelist Years active 1878–1923 Louis Marie-Anne Couperus (10 June 1863 – 16 July 1923) was a Dutch novelist and poet. His oeuvre contains a wide variety of genres: lyric poetry, psychological and historical novels, novellas, short stories, fairy tales, feuilletons and sketches. Couperus is considered to be one of the foremost figures in Dutch literature. In 1923, he was awarded the Tollensprijs (Tollens Prize). Couperus and his wife travelled extensively in Europe and Asia, and he later wrote several related travelogues which were published weekly. Contents 1 Youth 2 Start of Couperus' career as a writer 3 Eline Vere, the beginning of success 4 More successes as a writer 5 Consolidation phase 6 After the Hidden Force 7 Endless travelling 8 Trading places 9 Public performances 10 Last years 11 Death and tributes 12 Bibliography 12.1 Books published during Couperus' life 12.1.1 Poetry 12.1.2 Novels 12.1.3 Novellas, fairy tales, and short stories 12.1.4 Short stories and sketches 12.1.5 Miscellaneous 12.2 Verzamelde werken (Collected Works) 12.3 Volledige werken Louis Couperus (Complete Works) 12.4 Published letters 13 Notes and references 13.1 Notes 13.2 References 14 External links Youth[edit] Couperus as a child Louis Marie-Anne Couperus was born on 10 June 1863 at Mauritskade 11 in The Hague, Netherlands, into a long-established, Indo family of the colonial landed gentry of the Dutch East Indies.[1] He was the eleventh and youngest child of John Ricus Couperus (1816–1902), a prominent colonial administrator, lawyer and landheer or lord of the private domain (particuliere land) of Tjikopo in Java,[2] and Catharina Geertruida Reynst (1829–1893). Through his father, he was a great-grandson of Abraham Couperus (1752-1813), Governor of Malacca, and Willem Jacob Cranssen (1762-1821), Governor of Ambon with a female-line, Eurasian lineage to goes back even earlier to the mid-eighteenth century.[1] Four of the ten siblings had died before Louis was born. Couperus was baptized on 19 July 1863 in the Eglise wallonne in The Hague.[3]:p.31–59 When Louis reached the age of five, his youngest sister, Trudy, was twelve years old and his youngest brother, Frans, eleven.[3]:p.55 In The Hague he followed lessons at the boarding school of Mr. Wyers, where he first met his later friend Henri van Booven.[3]:p.61 On 6 November 1872 the Couperus family left home, travelled by train to Den Helder and embarked on the steamboat Prins Hendrik, which would bring them back to the Dutch East Indies.[3]:p.65 They arrived on 31 December 1872 in Batavia, where they spent the night at the then famous Hotel des Indes.[3]:p.68 The family settled in a house in Batavia, located on the Koningsplein and the mother of Couperus and his brother Frans (who was suffering from peritonitis) returned to the Netherlands in December 1873; his mother returned to the Dutch East Indies in April 1874.[3]:p.68–69 So Couperus spent part of his youth (1873–1878) in the Dutch East Indies,[4] going to school in Batavia. Here he met his cousin, Elisabeth Couperus-Baud, for the first time. In his novel De zwaluwen neergestreken (The swallows flew down), he wrote about his youth: "We are cousins and have played together. We danced together at children's balls. We still have our baby pictures. She was dressed in a marquise dress and I was dressed as a page. My garment was made of black velvet and I was very proud of my first travesti."[5] In the Dutch East Indies, Couperus also met his future brother-in-law for the first time, Gerard de la Valette (a writer and official at the Dutch Indian Government who would marry his sister Trudy), who wrote in 1913 about his relationship with Couperus: We met first at Batavia, when he was a boy of ten years and I was a young man. We saw each other at rather large intervals. Yet I saw him often enough, as a boy and a young man, that we developed a good and familiar relationship.[3]:p.71 After he finished primary school, Couperus attended the Gymnasium Willem III in Batavia.[3]:p.78 In the summer of 1878 Couperus and his family returned to the Netherlands, where they went to live in a house at the Nassaukade (plein) 4.[3]:p.83 In The Hague Couperus was sent to the H.B.S. school; during this period of his life, he spent a lot of time at the Vlielander-Hein family (his sister was married to Benjamin Marius Vlielander Hein); later their son, François Emile Vlielander Hein (1882–1919), was his favourite nephew, who helped him with his literary work.[3]:p.84 At the HBS Couperus met his later friend Frans Netscher; during this period of his life, he read the novels written by Émile Zola and Ouida (the latter he would meet in Florence, years later).[3]:p.86–87 When Couperus' school results did not improve, his father send him to a school where he was trained to be a teacher in the Dutch language. In 1883 he attended the opera written by Charles Gounod Le tribut de Zamora; he later used elements of this opera in his novel Eline Vere.[3]:p.94 Start of Couperus' career as a writer[edit] In 1885 plans were made to compose an operetta for children. Virginie la Chapelle wrote the music, and Couperus provided the lyrics for De schoone slaapster in het bosch ("Sleeping beauty in the forest"). The opera was staged by a hundred children at the Koninklijke Schouwburg (Royal Theatre) in The Hague.[3]:p.94 In January 1885 Couperus had already written one of his early poems, called Kleopatra.[3]:p.95 Other writings from this period include the sonnet Een portret ("A Portrait") and Uw glimlach of uw bloemen ("Your smile or your flowers").[3]:p.96 In 1882, Couperus started reading Petrarch and had the intention to write a novel about him, which was never realized, although he did publish the novella In het huis bij den dom ("In the house near the church"), loosely inspired by Plutarch.[3]:p.98 When Couperus just had finished his novella Een middag bij Vespaziano ("An Afternoon at Vespaziano"), he visited Johannes Bosboom and his wife Anna Louisa Geertruida Bosboom-Toussaint, whose works Couperus greatly admired. Couperus let Mrs. Bosboom-Toussaint read his novella, which she found very good.[3]:p.99 In 1883 Couperus started writing Laura; this novella was published in parts in De Gids (a Dutch literary magazine) in 1883 and 1884. In 1885 Couperus' debut in book form, Een lent van vaerzen ("A ribbon of poems") was published (by publisher J.L. Beijers with a book cover designed by painter Ludwig Willem Reymert Wenckebach).[3]:p.100 In these days a person Couperus greatly admired for his sense of beauty and intelligence was writer Carel Vosmaer, whom he frequently met while walking in the center of The Hague.[3]:p.101 In 1883 Couperus saw Sarah Bernhardt performing in The Hague, but was more impressed by her dresses than her performance itself.[3]:p.106 The next year, John Ricus Couperus, father of Louis Couperus, sold his family estate "Tjicoppo", located in the Dutch East Indies and gave order to build a house at the Surinamestraat 20, The Hague. Here Couperus continued writing poetry and his study of Dutch literature.[3]:p.108 In June 1885 he was appointed member of the very prestigious Maatschappij der Nederlandse Letterkunde (Society of Dutch Literature), two years after he published Orchideeën. Een bundel poëzie en proza ("Orchids. A Bundle of Poetry and Prose"), which had received mixed reviews. Journalist Willem Gerard van Nouhuys wrote that Orchideeën lacked quality, Jacob Nicolaas van Hall was positive, and Willem Kloos called it "literary crap".[3]:p.110 Couperus passed his exam on 6 December 1886 and received his certificate, which allowed him to teach at secondary schools. However, he did not aspire to a teaching career and decided to continue writing literature instead.[3]:p.114 At the end of 1887 he started to write what was to become his most-famous novel, Eline Vere.[3]:p.114 Eline Vere, the beginning of success[edit] Louis Couperus after a drawing made by Bas Veth in 1892 Shortly before Couperus wrote Eline Vere, he had read War and Peace and Anna Karenina, written by Leo Tolstoy. The structure of Couperus' book Eline Vere was similar to that of Anna Karenina (division into short chapters).[3]:p.114 He had also just read Ghosts, a play written by Henrik Ibsen; reference to the leading character of Ghosts is made when Eline Vere is delirious with fever and cries: "Oh god, the ghosts, approaching grinning" – also the suicide by the main characters in Eline Vere and in Ghosts by taking an overdose of morphine is the same.[3]:p.122 Between 17 June until 4 December 1888, the novel Eline Vere was published in the Dutch newspaper Het Vaderland; a reviewer in the Algemeen Handelsblad wrote: "The writer has talent".[6] Meanwhile, Couperus wrote a novella called Een ster ("A Star"), which was published in "Nederland" and made a journey to Sweden.[3]:p.124 In this period of his life, Couperus was an active member of the drama club of writer Marcel Emants ("Utile et Laetum" meaning 'useful and happy'), and here he met a new friend, Johan Hendrik Ram, a captain of the grenadiers, who would later commit suicide (December 1913).[3]:p.126 In April 1890 the Nieuwe Gids (New Guide) published a review of Eline Vere, written by Lodewijk van Deyssel, in which he wrote "the novel of Mr. Couperus is a good and a literary work". Couperus also met a new friend, writer Maurits Wagenvoort, who invited Couperus and painter George Hendrik Breitner to his home.[3]:p.126–127 A second edition of Eline Vere was published within a year. Couperus finished his next novel, Noodlot ("Fate") in May 1890; this novel was then published in De Gids. It is possible that the leading character of Noodlot, Frank, was inspired by the character of Couperus' friend, Johan Hendrik Ram, a strong and healthy military person.[3]:p.132 Couperus now started reading Paul Bourget's novel Un coeur de femme, which inspired him during the writing of his novella Extaze ("Ecstasy").[3]:p.135 In July 1890 he completed Eene illuzie ("An Illusion") and on 12 August 1890 received the prestigious D.A. Thiemeprijs (D.A. Thieme prize, named after the noted publisher).[3]:p.137[7] In October that same year, he travelled to Paris, where he received a letter from his publisher-to-be, L.J. Veen, asking permission to publish Noodlot, which offer Couperus rejected because this book was supposed to be published by Elsevier.[3]:p.141 When his uncle Guillaume Louis Baud died, Couperus went back to The Hague to attend the funeral. Here Couperus decided to marry his cousin Elisabeth Couperus-Baud. The marriage took place on 9 September 1891 in The Hague. More successes as a writer[edit] On 21 September 1891, Couperus and his wife settled in a small villa at the Roeltjesweg (now Couperusweg) in Hilversum;[8] after Couperus finished his new book Extaze in October 1891 he wrote Uitzichten ("Views") and started with his new romantic and spiritual novella Epiloog ("Epilogue").[3]:p.152 Extaze was published in 1892 in The Gids, and Couperus asked publisher L.J. Veen to publish it as a novel, but refused the offer Veen made him.[3]:p.153 In 1891 an English translation of Noodlot, Footsteps of Fate (translation made by Clara Bell) and in 1892 an English translation of Eline Vere were released. Meanwhile, L.J. Veen made Couperus a better offer, which he accepted, and Couperus received from Oscar Wilde his novel The Picture of Dorian Gray; Wilde had read the translation of Couperus' Footsteps of Fate.[9] and wrote to Couperus to compliment him with his book.[3]:p.155 Elisabeth Couperus-Baud translated Wilde's novel into Dutch: Het portret van Dorian Gray. Dutch critics wrote divergent reviews about Extaze: writer and journalist Henri Borel said that, the book was something like a young boy messing with an egg, while Lodewijk van Deyssel found it great. Frederik van Eeden wrote that he had a specific aversion against the book.[3]:p.157 Couperus and his wife moved to The Hague, where Couperus wrote Majesteit ("Majesty"), after he had read an article in The Illustrated London News about Nicholas II of Russia.[3]:p.159 Gerrit Jäger, a play writer, wrote a theatre performance of Noodlot; it was performed in 1892 by the Rotterdam theatre company, and the then-famous Dutch actor Willem Royaards [nl], who was an acquaintance of Couperus, played one of the leading characters.[3]:p.160 On 1 February 1893 Couperus and his wife left for Florence, but they had to return because of the death of Couperus' mother. He wrote about how she rested on her deathbed in his novel Metamorfoze ("Metamorphosis").[3]:p.161 During this time Elisabeth Couperus-Baud was translating George Moore's novel Vain Fortune, while Majesteit was published in The Gids.[3]:p.164 In 1894 Couperus joined the editorial board of De Gids; other members were Geertrudus Cornelis Willem Byvanck (a writer), Jacob Nicolaas van Hall (writer and politician), Anton Gerard van Hamel (professor in the French language), Ambrosius Hubrecht and Pieter Cort van der Linden. In September 1893 Couperus and his wife left for Italy for the second time. In Florence they stayed in a pension close to the Santa Maria Novella; here Couperus wrote in November 1893 a sketch, Annonciatie, a literary description of the painting of the same name by Simone Martini and Lippo Memmi in the Uffizi gallery.[3]:p.165 In December Couperus and his wife visited Rome, where Couperus wrote San Pietro (his impression of St. Peter's Basilica), Pincio, Michelangelo's cupola, Via Appia and Brief uit Rome ("Letter from Rome"). In these works, Couperus gave references to the works he had read about Rome: Ariadne by Ouida, Rienzi by Bulwer, Transformation by Hawthorne, Voyage en Italie by Taine and Cosmopolotis by Bourget.[3]:p.166 In February 1894 Couperus travelled to Naples and Athens, and then returned to Florence, where he visited Ouida. Couperus and his wife returned to the Netherlands, where Elisabeth Couperus-Baud made a translation of George Moore's Vain Fortune; they went to live in the house at the Jacob van der Doesstraat 123. During this time Gerrit Jäger committed suicide by drowning. Couperus now started working on what was to become Wereldvrede ("World Peace") and wrote a translation of Flaubert's La Tentation de Saint Antoine.[3]:p.170–172 Consolidation phase[edit] Louis Couperus in 1897, portrait by H. J. Haverman. In 1894 an English translation was made by Alexander Teixeira de Mattos of Majesteit; reviewers were not satisfied, and in the Netherlands Couperus new novel Wereldvrede was seen by critics as a flat novel, intended for women. Apart from that Lodewijk van Deyssel wrote a review in which he asked Couperus to get lost ("De heer Couperus kan van mij ophoepelen"), and Couperus himself ended his editorship at De Gids (April 1895).[3]:p.175–177 In October 1895 Couperus and his wife travelled to Italy again, where they visited Venice; they stayed at a hotel near the Piazza San Marco, and Couperus studied the works of Tintoretto, Titian and Veronese. The next city they visited was Rome, where Couperus would receive a number of bad reviews of his book Wereldvrede.[3]:p.179 In Rome he met Dutch sculptor Pier Pander and Dutch painter Pieter de Josselin de Jong. In March 1896 Couperus and his wife returned to the Netherlands.[3]:p.184–185 In 1896 Hoge troeven ("High Trumps") was published with a book cover designed by Hendrik Petrus Berlage, and in April 1896 Couperus started writing Metamorfoze ("Metamorphosis"). In September Couperus visited Johan Hendrik Ram in Zeist, where Ram stayed with his father. Couperus spoke with Ram about Metamorfoze. That same year Couperus spend some time in Paris.[3]:p.191 In 1897 Couperus finished writing Metamorfoze, which was to be published in De Gids. Meanwhile, Elisabeth Couperus-Baud translated Olive Schreiner's Trooper Peter Halket of Mashonaland.[3]:p.196 That same year Couperus and his wife left for Dresden but also spend some time in Heidelberg. In August 1897 Couperus started with his new book Psyche and was appointed officer in the Order of Orange-Nassau.[3]:p.199 In January 1898, De Gids started publishing chapters of Psyche. In February 1898 Couperus travelled to Berlin, where he visited Else Otten, the German translator of his books and who would also translate Psyche into German.[3]:p.206 With Elisabeth Couperus-Baud he left the Netherlands in May 1898 for a short trip to London, where they met friends and visited Ascot Racecourse; Alexander Teixeira de Mattos introduced Couperus and his wife during a high tea to English journalists and literary people. Couperus also met Edmund Gosse, who had written a foreword to Footsteps of Fate in 1891, and English painter Lawrence Alma-Tadema, who was a brother-in-law of Gosse.[3]:p.210–211 Via Oxford, Couperus and his wife returned to the Netherlands, where he finished Fidessa in December 1898. Couperus and his wife then left for the Netherlands Dutch Indies and arrived at the end of March 1899 in Tanjung Priok. In June they visited Couperus sister Trudy and her husband Gerard Valette, who was working as a resident at Tegal. Here Couperus started to write his new novel, Langs lijnen der geleidelijkheid (Inevitable). When Gerard Valette and his wife had to move to Pasuruan because of Valette's work, Couperus and his wife spend some time in Gabroe (Blitar), where Couperus observed a spirit; this experience he would later use in his novel The Hidden Force.[3]:p.224 After the Hidden Force[edit] Many of the details about the life and works of a resident in the Dutch East Indies Couperus derived from his brother-in-law De la Valette. He characterized The Hidden Force as: The Hidden Force gives back especially the enmity of the mysterious Javanese soul and atmosphere, fighting against the Dutch conqueror.[3]:p.226 Meanwhile, Couperus received a letter from his friend Johan Hendrik Ram, in which Ram wrote that he and lieutenant Lodewijk Thomson were about to travel to South Africa to follow the course of the Boer Wars as military diplomats. In March 1900 Couperus and his wife travelled back to the Netherlands, where in De Gids the text of Inevitable was published.[3]:p.228 In October 1900 Couperus and his wife moved to Nice, where Couperus read Henryk Sienkiewicz' With Fire and Sword, The Deluge and Quo Vadis, while his own The Hidden Force was published in the Netherlands.[3]:p.251 Meanwhile, Couperus started to work on his new novels Babel and De boeken der kleine zielen ("The Book of Small Souls"). In 1902 he was asked to become a member of the editorial board of a new magazine called "Groot Nederland", together with W.G. van Nouhuys and Cyriel Buysse.[3]:p.276 In October 1902 Couperus' father died at the age of 86. His house at Surinamestraat 20, The Hague was eventually sold to Conrad Theodor van Deventer. Couperus and his wife kept living in Nice, but Couperus went in January 1903 to Rome, where he met Pier Pander again and also received a letter from his publisher L.J. Veen, in which he complained that Couperus' books did not sell.[3]:p.292 In May 1903 Couperus published Dionyzos-studiën ("Studies of Dionysus") in Groot Nederland, in which Couperus paid tribute to classical antiquity (a doctrine without original sin) and especially to the god Dionysus.[3]:p.296 Couperus left that year (1903) again for Italy (Venice) and went to Nice in September. During the winter of 1903–1904, he read Jean Lombard's work about Roman emperor Elagabalus; in 1903 Georges Duviquet published his Héliogabale, which was just what Couperus needed for his idea to write a novel about a crazy emperor (De berg van licht, "The Mountain of Light"). Meanwhile, to pay his bills, he wrote Van oude menschen, de dingen, die voorbij gaan ("Of old people, the things that pass").[3]:p.302 In 1905 he published De berg van licht, which was rather controversial as it dealt with the subject of homosexuality. In 1906 Couperus and his wife left for Bagni di Lucca (Italy), where they stayed at Hotel Continental and were introduced to Eleonora Duse. In May 1907 Aan den weg der vreugde, a novella Couperus wrote while staying at Bagni di Lucca, was published in Groot Nederland; he received another letter from L.J. Veen, saying that Couperus' books did not sell well, and so Couperus wrote a farewell letter to Veen in which he told Veen this was the end of their business relationship.[3]:p.341 During the summer of 1907 Couperus wrote in Siena the story Uit de jeugd van San Francesco van Assisi'("From the youth of St. Francis of Assisi") to be published in Groot Nederland. From this period on Couperus claimed that the days of novels were counted and that short stories (called short novels by Couperus) were the novels of the future. Couperus would write a series of short stories, which he published the then coming years in magazines such as "De Locomotief", "De Telegraaf" and the "Kroniek".[3]:p.347 Endless travelling[edit] During the winter of 1908 Couperus resided in Florence, where he translated John Argyropoulos' Aristodemus; he published his translation in Groot Nederland. In August 1908 Couperus and his wife started a pension lodge in Nice and placed an advert in the New York Herald to attract future guests. As of 27 November 1909 Couperus started publishing weekly serials in the Dutch newspaper Het Vaderland; he also published Korte arabesken ("Short Arabesques", 1911, with publisher Maatschappij voor goede en goedkoope lectuur) and a cheap edition of De zwaluwen neêr gestreken... ("The Swallows Flew Down", with publisher Van Holkema & Warendof). In December 1910 Couperus wrote in his sketch Melancholieën ("Melancholia") about the death of his father, mother, sister and brother: "They are the ghosts of Death ... These are the shades of my grey father, my adored mother, they are the ghosts of my sister, brother and friend. And between their shadows are the pale ghosts of the Commemorations ... Because the room is full of ghosts and ghosts. My silent, staring eyes are full of tears and I feel old and tired and afraid."[3]:p.369 In the second part of 1910, Couperus started to write a novel again, despite the fact he earlier had said he never would write one again. This novel was to be called Antiek toerisme, een roman uit Oud-Egypte ("Tourism in Antiquity, a Novel from Ancient Egypt") and was published in Groot Nederland. The book would be rewarded with the "Nieuwe Gids prize for prose" in 1914. At the end of 1910, Couperus and his wife gave up their pension in Nice and travelled to Rome. In Rome Couperus collected and rearranged some of his serials, which he intended to publish in a book, Schimmen van schoonheid ("Shadows of Beauty").[3]:p.379 Since Couperus and publisher L.J. Veen were unable to agree on the payment of Couperus, Couperus then published Schimmen van schoonheid and Antiek Toerisme with publisher Van Holkema en Warendorf. In Rome Couperus visited Museo Barracco di Scultura Antica, San Saba, the Villa Madama and the Colosseum (among other things). He also paid a visit to the Borgia Apartment and wrote a number of sketches about Lucrezia and Pinturicchio, who had painted her.[3]:p.385 In 1911 he wrote in Groot Nederland a sketch about Siena and Ostia Antica. He read Gaston Boissier's Promenades archéologiques and made long walks through the ancient ruins of Rome. He also visited the exhibition in the Belle Arti in Florence, where also Dutch painters exhibited their work. Here he met Willem Steelink and Arnold Marc Gorter, who gave him a warm welcome.[3]:p.388 Couperus wrote about the travelling he and his wife constantly did: your living or not living, what hast thou found, O thou poor seekers, O thou poor vagabonds, rich in suitcases? [3]:p.393 Couperus spend the winter of 1911–1912 in Florence; meanwhile the Greco-Turkish War broke out and influenced life in Florence as well. Couperus wrote a sketch called De jonge held ("The Young Hero") about the son of friends in Italy who returned wounded from the front.[3]:p.405 In December Couperus and his wife left for Sicily but spent some time in Orvieto, where they stayed in the same hotel that Bertel Thorvaldsen had once visited. Hereafter they travelled to Naples, where Couperus admired the Farnese Hercules, which inspired him to start writing his next novel, Herakles.[3]:p.411 Trading places[edit] The first chapters of Herakles appeared during the first half of 1912 in Groot Nederland. Couperus then stayed in Sicily, where he visited Syracuse and Messina; he and his wife then returned to Florence. During this period he visited Pisa and then travelled to Venice, where he attended the inauguration of the then-restored St Mark's Campanile (tower), and wrote about it in his sketch Feest van San Marco ("The party of San Marco").[3]:p.416 Meanwhile, publisher L.J. Veen gave a positive answer to Couperus' question if he would be willing to publish the bundled sketches.[3]:p.420 As a result, in 1912 and 1913 Uit blanke steden onder blauwe lucht ("From white cities under blue sky") appeared in two parts. Couperus travelled from Venice to Igis and to Munich, where he visited a performance of Calderóns El mayor encanto, amor in the Künstler-Theater and a performance of Mozart's Don Giovanni at the Residenz-Theater. When Couperus celebrated his 50th birthday, Het Vaderland paid tribute to him by letting his friends and admirers publish praising words. Those friends and admirers included but were not limited to Frans Bastiaanse, Emmanuel de Bom, Henri van Booven, Ina Boudier-Bakker, Marie Joseph Brusse (the father of Kees Brusse), Herman Heijermans and Willem Kloos.[3]:p.442 A committee was formed to collect the funds required for Couperus to make a journey to Egypt. Members of that committee were for example Pieter Cornelis Boutens, Alexander Teixeira de Mattos and K.J.L. Alberdingk Thijm.[3]:p.444 Couperus however could not make this journey to Egypt because of World War I. On 29 September 1913, Johan Hendrik Ram killed himself, shooting a bullet into his head. Couperus returned to Florence later that year and attended the futuristic meeting of 12 December, which was also attended by Giovanni Papini and Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, at whom potatoes were thrown. Couperus admired them for their courage to speak despite the fact the public made so much noise they could hardly be heard.[3]:p.457 He also went to see the Mona Lisa, which had been found after it was stolen, at the Uffizi. Couperus said about new things such as futurism: The only thing that always will triumph in the end, above everything, is beauty.[3]:p.458 In these years he started reading Giovanni Papini's Un uomo finito; he compared the new literary movement to which Papini belonged, with those of the Tachtigers in the Netherlands. He wrote an article about Papini's book, which he called magnificent, an almost perfect book, and he compared Papini with Lodewijk van Deyssel. Papini and Couperus met in Florence and Couperus found Papini rather shy.[3]:p.460 Meanwhile, Elisabeth Couperus-Baud translated Pío Baroja's La ciudad de la niebla. During this time Couperus' Wreede portretten (Cruel portraits) were published in Het Vaderland. De Wrede portretten were a series of profiles of pension guests whom Couperus had met during his travels in Rome and elsewhere. He also had a meeting with Dutch actress Theo Mann-Bouwmeester, who suggested to change Langs lijnen van geleidelijkheid into a play; although this plan did not come into reality for Couperus it opened possibilities for his books in future.[3]:p.467 Public performances[edit] When World War I began, Couperus was in Munich. On 27 August 1914 the son of Rupprecht, Crown Prince of Bavaria, Luitpold, died of polio and Couperus went to see his body in the Theatrine Church. During this time he admired the German: I admire them because they are tragic and fight a tragic struggle, like a tragic hero fights.[3]:p.471 In September he returned to Florence and in February 1915 to the Netherlands, where he visited the premiere of Frederik van Eeden's De heks van Haarlem (The witch of Haarlem) and met Van Eeden. He made a translation of Edmond Rostands Cantecler, although the play was never performed on stage. During this time Couperus started making performances as an elocutionist. His first performance at the art room Kleykamp for an audience of students from Delft was a huge success. The decor consisted of a Buddha and a painting made by Antonio da Correggio that Abraham Bredius had lent for this occasion. Couperus read De zonen der zon (Sons of the sun) aloud.[3]:p.482 While Couperus made his performances, L.J. Veen published the first parts of Van en over alles en iedereen (By and about everything and everyone) and publisher Holkema & Warendorf De ongelukkige (The unfortunate) (1915). Couperus himself wrote that year De dood van den Dappere (The death of the brave one), which dealt with the end of El Zagal and started to write De Comedianten (The comedians), inspired by the Menaechmi; this book was published with Nijgh & Van Ditmar in 1917.[3]:p.513 Couperus read Ludwig Friedländers Darstellungen aus der Sittengeschichte Roms in der Zeit von August bis zum Ausgang der Antonine to increase his knowledge of Ancient Rome which he needed for De Comedianten. In these years Couperus met S.F. van Oss, who was the founder of De Haagsche Post, who asked if Couperus would be willing to write for his magazine. Couperus later published his travelogues (made during his travels to Africa, Dutch East Indies and Japan) as a result in De Haagsche Post, as well as many epigrams.[3]:p.523 For his friend Herman Roelvink he translated the play written by George Bernard Shaw, Caesar and Cleopatra (1916). As from December 1916 he restarted writing his weekly sketch in Het Vaderland, for example Romeinsche portretten (Roman portraits), during which he was inspired by Martial and Juvenal. He also continued giving performances for the public in the evening. In 1917 he wrote the novel Het zwevende schaakbord (The floating chessboard), about the adventures of Gawain; this novel was first published as a serial in the Haagsche Post. He read as research for this book Jacob van Maerlant's Merlijns boec and Lodewijk van Velthem's Boec van Coninc Artur ("Book of King Arthur").[3]:p.545 In July 1918 publisher L.J. Veen sent Couperus a translation of Vitruvius' De architectura and Couperus wrote about it in Het Vaderland. Meanwhile, het Hofstadtoneel (Residence Theater) was about to perform the stage version (made by Elisabeth Couperus-Baud) of Eline Vere; this play received bad product reviews. During this period of his life Couperus read the works written by Quintus Curtius Rufus, Arrian and Plutarch to find inspiration for his next work Iskander.[3]:p.568 The year 1919 was not a happy one for Couperus: his favourite nephew Frans Vlielander Hein died together with his wife when his ship was hit by a mine and L.J. Veen, his publisher and his brother-in-law Benjamin Marinus Vlielander Hein died that year as well. Last years[edit] In 1920 Iskander (a novel about Alexander the Great) was published in Groot Nederland; critics were not positive because of the many gay scenes. In October 1920 Couperus travelled for the Haagsche Post to Egypt; his travelogues were published weekly. In Africa he visited Algiers, travelled to Constantine, Biskra, Touggourt and Timgad and then continued his journey to Tunis and the ruins of Carthage, where he met a pupil of Marie-Louis-Antoine-Gaston Boissier. After this Couperus went back to Algiers, because he wanted to see the boxing skills of Georges Carpentier. Afterwards he wrote: I thought that in my life I have written too many books and boxed too little.[3]:p.595 On 3 May 1921 Couperus and his wife returned to Marseille and travelled to Paris, in time to be present at the festivities held for the canonization of Joan of Arc. On 1 June, Couperus and his wife left for England, where they would meet Alexander Teixeira de Mattos and during which visit Couperus wrote With Louis Couperus in London-Season; these stories were published in the Haagsche Post. In England Couperus met Stephen McKenna and Edmund Gosse. McKenna had written the forewords for Majesty and Old People and the Things that Pass. He also met Frank Arthur Swinnerton during a lunch and went to a Russian ballet in the Prince's Theater, where the orchestra was conducted by Ernest Ansermet. He also met with his English publisher, Thornton Butterworth, visited a small concert, where Myra Hess played and also had meetings with George Moore and George Bernard Shaw.[3]:p.605 Couperus also let his picture taken by E.O. Hoppé after which he had a meeting with the Dutch consul in London, René de Marees van Swinderen and a diner at the house of H. H. Asquith. The next day Couperus went to the Titmarsh club, where he met William Leonard Courtney, and heard Lady Astor, whom he had previously met in Constantine, speak in the House of Commons. Soon after this Couperus and his wife returned to the Netherlands. In the Netherlands Couperus prepared himself for his journey to the Dutch East Indies, China and Japan. He and his wife left for the Dutch East Indies on 1 October 1921 and left the boat at Belawan, because they would stay with their friend Louis Constant Westenenk at Medan. In Batavia he dined with Governor-General Dirk Fock and also held public performances, where he would read out his books. After a visit to the Borobudur Couperus and his wife visited Surabaya and Bali. On 16 February they left for Hong Kong and Shanghai.[3]:p.635 In Japan they visited Kobe and Kyoto; in this last place Couperus became seriously ill, was diagnosed with Typhoid fever and was sent to the International Hospital in Kobe. After seven weeks he was fit enough to travel to Yokohama. He and his wife stayed for two weeks at the Fujiya Hotel, where Couperus read Kenjirō Tokutomi's novel Nami-Ko. He and his wife then travelled to Tokyo, where they stayed with the Dutch consul and visited Nikkō. They returned to the Netherlands on 10 October 1922.[3]:p.644 Death and tributes[edit] Statue of Couperus by Kees Verkade in The Hague Back in the Netherlands, it turned out that Couperus' kidneys and liver were affected. Despite his illness Couperus wrote a series of sketches for Het Vaderland and Groot Nederland. He also was able to visit the opera again and went to see Aida. In 1923 the couple moved to De Steeg, where Couperus received the rather prestigious Tollens prize.[10] Meanwhile, a committee was formed to celebrate Couperus' 60th birthday and gather funds as a birthday gift. Couperus' health deteriorated rapidly and apart from lung and liver problems Couperus suffered from an infection in his nose. During Couperus birthday party a sum of 12,000 guilders was handed over to him and speeches were held by Lodewijk van Deyssel and minister Johannes Theodoor de Visser; Couperus was also appointed knight in the Order of the Netherlands Lion.[11] During the following reception minister Herman Adriaan van Karnebeek and Albert Vogel, among many others, paid Couperus their respect.[12] On 11 July 1923, Couperus was brought to hospital (in Velp), because the infection in his nose had not healed, but came back home a day later. He now suffered from erysipelas as well as sepsis in the nose. He fell into a coma on 14 July, remained in that state for two days with high fever and died on 16 July 1923.[13] He was cremated at Westerveld, where Gustaaf Paul Hecking Coolenbrander (a nephew), among others, spoke to remember Couperus. Bibliography[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Louis Couperus" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (June 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Cover of Eline Vere designed by Ludwig Willem Reymert Wenckebach Cover of Extaze designed by Hendrik Petrus Berlage Cover of Psyche designed by Jan Toorop Cover of De boeken der kleine zielen. Zielenschemering designed by Theo Neuhuys [nl] Books published during Couperus' life[edit] Poetry[edit] Een lent van vaerzen (1884) ("A ribbon of poems") Orchideeën. Een bundel poëzie en proza (1886) ("Orchids, a collection of prose and poetry") Williswinde (1895) ("Williswinde") Novels[edit] Translations by Alexander Teixeira de Mattos unless noted otherwise. Eline Vere (1889); Translated into English by J. T. Grein as Eline Vere (1892); revised translation published in 2009 by Holland Park Press and new translation published in 2010 by Archipelago Books, NY. Noodlot (1890); Translated into English by Clara Bell as Footsteps of Fate (1891). Extaze. Een boek van geluk (1892); Translated into English as Ecstasy: A Study of Happiness (1897). Majesteit (1893); Translated into English as Majesty: A Novel (1895) Wereldvrede (1895) ("World peace") Metamorfoze (1897) ("Metamorphosis") Langs lijnen der geleidelijkheid (1900); Translated into English as Inevitable, The Inevitable (1920) or The Law Inevitable (1921). De stille kracht (1900); Translated into English as The Hidden Force: A Story of Modern Java (1921). De boeken der kleine zielen. De kleine zielen (1901); Translated into English as The books of small souls. Small Souls (1914). De boeken der kleine zielen. Het late leven (1902); Translated into English as The books of small souls. The Later Life (1915). De boeken der kleine zielen. Zielenschemering (1902); Translated into English as The books of small souls. The Twilight of the Souls (1917). De boeken der kleine zielen. Het heilige weten (1903); Translated into English as The books of small souls. Dr. Adriaan (1918). Dionyzos (1904) De berg van licht (1905/6) ("The mountain of light") Van oude menschen, de dingen, die voorbij gaan... (1906); Translated into English as Old People and the Things that Pass (1918) Antiek toerisme. Roman uit Oud-Egypte (1911); Translated into English as The Tour: A Story of Ancient Egypt (1920) Herakles (1913) De ongelukkige (1915) ("The unhappy one") De komedianten (1917); Translated into English by Jacobine Menzies-Wilson as The Comedians: A Story of Ancient Rome (1926). De verliefde ezel (1918) ("The donkey in love") Xerxes of de hoogmoed (1919); Translated into English by Frederick H. Martens as Arrogance: The Conquests of Xerxes (1930). Iskander. De roman van Alexander den Groote (1920) Novellas, fairy tales, and short stories[edit] Eene illuzie (1892) ("An illusion") Hooge troeven (1896) ("High trumps") Psyche (1898); Translated into English by B. S. Berrington as Psyche (1908). Fidessa (1899) Babel (1901) God en goden (1903) Aan den weg der vreugde (1908) ("On the road of happiness") De ode (1919) Lucrezia[nb 1] (1920) Het zwevende schaakbord (1922) ("The floating chessboard") Short stories and sketches[edit] Louis Couperus wrote hundreds of short stories, sketches, travel impressions, and letters, which were first published as feuilletons. Those feuilletons were later bundled and published as books. Reis-impressies (1894) ("Travel impressions") Over lichtende drempels (1902) ("Over Shining Doorsteps") Van en over mijzelf en anderen. Eerste bundel (1910) ("About me and others. Volume I") Antieke verhalen van goden en keizers, van dichters en hetaeren (1911) ("Antique Stories, about gods and emperors, of poets and hetaeras") Korte arabesken (1911) ("Short Arabesques") De zwaluwen neêr gestreken... (1911) ("The Swallows Landed") Schimmen van schoonheid (1912) ("Shadows of beauty") Uit blanke steden onder blauwe lucht. Eerste bundel (1912) ("From white cities under a blue sky. Volume I") Uit blanke steden onder blauwe lucht. Tweede bundel (1913) ("From white cities under a blue sky. Volume II") Van en over mijzelf en anderen. Tweede bundel (1914) ("About me and others. Volume II") Van en over alles en iedereen (1915) ("About everything and everyone"):[nb 2] Rome ("Rome") Genève, Florence ("Geneva, Florence") Sicilië, Venetië, München ("Sicily, Venice, Munich") Van en over mijzelf en anderen ("About me and others")[nb 3] Spaansch toerisme ("Spanish tourism") Van en over mijzelf en anderen. Derde bundel (1916) ("About me and others. Volume III") Van en over mijzelf en anderen. Vierde bundel (1917) ("About me and others. Volume IV") Jan en Florence (1917) ("Jan and Florence")[nb 4] Wreede portretten (1917) ("Cruel portraits")[nb 5] Legende, mythe en fantazie (1918) ("Legend, myth and fantasy") Der dingen ziel (1918) ("The Soul of Things")[nb 6] Brieven van den nutteloozen toeschouwer (1918) ("Letters of the useless spectator")[nb 7] Elyata (1919)[nb 8] De betoveraar (1919) ("The enchanter")[nb 9] Met Louis Couperus in Afrika (1921) ("With Louis Couperus in Africa") Oostwaarts (1923); Translated into English by Jacobine Menzies-Wilson as Eastward (1924).[nb 10] Proza. Eerste bundel (1923) ("Prose. Volume I")[nb 10] Het snoer der ontferming (1924) ("The String of Compassion")[nb 10] Proza. Tweede bundel (1924) ("Prose. Volume II")[nb 10] Nippon (1925); Translated into English by John De La Valette as Nippon (1926).[nb 10] Proza. Derde bundel (1925) ("Prose. Volume III")[nb 10] Miscellaneous[edit] De verzoeking van den H. Antonius[nb 11] (1896) Verzamelde werken (Collected Works)[edit] Jeugdwerk; Eline Vere; Novellen (1953) Noodlot; Extase; Majesteit; Wereldvrede; Hoge troeven (1953) Metamorfose; Psyche; Fidessa; Langs lijnen van geleidelijkheid (1953) De stille kracht; Babel; Novellen; De zonen der zon; Jahve; Dionysos (1953) De boeken der kleine zielen (1952) Van oude mensen de dingen die voorbijgaan; De berg van licht (1952) Aan de weg der vreugde; Antiek toerisme; Verhalen en arabesken (1954) Herakles; Verhalen en dagboekbladen; Uit blanke steden onder blauwe lucht (1956) Lucrezia; De ongelukkige; Legenden en portretten (1956) De komedianten; De verliefde ezel; Het zwevende schaakbord (1955) Xerxes; Iskander (1954) Verhalen (1957) Volledige werken Louis Couperus (Complete Works)[edit] Een lent van vaerzen (1988) Orchideeën. Een bundel poëzie en proza (1989) Eline Vere. Een Haagsche roman (1987) Noodlot (1990) Extaze. Een boek van geluk (1990) Eene illuzie (1988) Majesteit (1991) Reis-impressies (1988) Wereldvrede (1991) Williswinde (1990) Hooge troeven (1991) De verzoeking van den H. Antonius (1992) Metamorfoze (1988) Psyche (1992) Fidessa (1992) Langs lijnen van geleidelijkheid (1989) De stille kracht (1989) Babel (1993) De boeken der kleine zielen. I en II (1991) De boeken der kleine zielen. III en IV (1991) Over lichtende drempels (1993) God en goden (1989) Dionyzos (1988) De berg van licht (1993) Van oude menschen, de dingen, die voorbij gaan... (1988) Aan den weg der vreugde (1989) Van en over mijzelf en anderen (1989) Antieke verhalen. Van goden en keizers, van dichters en hetaeren (1993) Korte arabesken (1990) Antiek toerisme. Roman uit Oud-Egypte (1987) De zwaluwen neêr gestreken... (1993) Schimmen van schoonheid (1991) Uit blanke steden onder blauwe lucht (1994) Herakles (1994) Van en over alles en iedereen (1990) De ongelukkige (1994) De komedianten (1992) Legende, mythe en fantazie (1994) De verliefde ezel (1994) De ode (1990) Xerxes, of De hoogmoed (1993) Iskander. De roman van Alexander den Groote (1995) Met Louis Couperus in Afrika (1995) Het zwevende schaakbord (1994) Oostwaarts (1992) Proza. Eerste bundel (1995) Het snoer der ontferming. Japansche legenden (1995) Nippon (1992) Ongebundeld werk (1996) Ongepubliceerd werk (1996) Published letters[edit] Couperus, Louis; Bastet, Frédéric (1977). Brieven van Louis Couperus aan zijn uitgever (in Dutch). 's-Gravenhage. In two volumes: 1. Waarde heer Veen : (1890–1902) and 2. Amice : (1902–1919) Couperus, Louis; Veen, L. J.; Vliet, H. T. M. van (1987). Louis Couperus en L. J. Veen : bloemlezing uit hun correspondentie (in Dutch). Utrecht: Veen. ISBN 9020426869. Couperus, Louis; Baud, Elisabeth Wilhelmina Johanna; Wintermans, Casper (2003). Dear sir : brieven van het echtpaar Couperus aan Oscar Wilde (in Dutch and English). Woubrugge: Avalon Pers. ISBN 9080731420. Notes and references[edit] Notes[edit] ^ Published earlier as part of Schimmen van schoonheid (1912) ^ A series of five books, all published simultaneously in June 1915 ^ Reprint of Van en over mijzelf en anderen II. ^ Reprint of Van en over mijzelf en anderen III, first half. ^ Reprint of Van en over mijzelf en anderen III, second half. ^ Reprint of Van en over mijzelf en anderen IV, first half. ^ Reprint of Van en over mijzelf en anderen IV, second half. ^ Reprint of Legende, mythe en fantazie, first half. ^ Reprint of Legende, mythe en fantazie, second half. ^ a b c d e f Published posthumously. ^ A translations of fragments of Flaubert's La Tentation de Saint Antoine. References[edit] ^ a b Bosma, Ulbe; Raben, Remco (2008). Being "Dutch" in the Indies: A History of Creolisation and Empire, 1500-1920. NUS Press. ISBN 978-9971-69-373-2. Retrieved 18 November 2020. ^ Faes, J. (1902). Over de erfpachtsrechten uitgeoefend door Chineezen en de occupatie-rechten der inlandsche bevolking, op de gronden der particuliere landerijen, ten westen der Tjimanoek (in Dutch). Buitenzorgsche drukkerij. Retrieved 19 November 2020. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br bs bt bu bv bw bx by bz ca cb cc cd ce cf cg ch ci (in Dutch) Bastet, Frédéric (1987). Louis Couperus : Een biografie (in Dutch). Amsterdam: Querido. ISBN 9021451360. Retrieved 24 April 2013. ^ (in Dutch) J.A. Dautzenberg, Nederlandse Literatuur, 1989. ^ (in Dutch) 'Een vreemde ervaring die Couperus verwerkte in de Stille Kracht', in De Telegraaf, 22 August 1987 – Retrieved on 24 March 2013 ^ (in Dutch) 'Kunst en letteren', in Algemeen Handelsblad, 14 March 1889. Retrieved on 24 March 2013. ^ (in Dutch) 'Stadsnieuws', De Tijd, 15 August 1890. Retrieved on 24 March 2013. ^ (in Dutch) Couperusweg in Hilversum – Retrieved on 24 March 2013 ^ Which received a bad review, as the paper wrote: A more morbid, an uglier, or a sillier story we have not read for a long time. 'Kunst en Letteren', in Algemeen Handelsblad. 30 June 1891. Retrieved 8 February 2013. ^ (in Dutch) 'De Tollensprijs voor Couperus', in Het Vaderland. 18 April 1923. Retrieved 24 March 2013. ^ (in Dutch) 'Couperus gedecoreerd', in Bataviasch Nieuwsblad. 11 June 1923. Retrieved 24 March 2013. ^ Lodewijk van Deyssel was one, but according to the thesis of Karel Reijders he did not speak to but about Couperus. (in Dutch) 'Couperus bij Van Deyssel een gigantische confrontatie', in Limburgs Dagblad. 6 July 1968. Retrieved 24 March 2013. ^ (in Dutch) 'Louis Couperus', in Limburgsch Dagblad. 17 July 1923. Retrieved 24 March 2013. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Louis Couperus. Wikisource has original works written by or about: Louis Couperus Works by Louis Couperus at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Louis Couperus at Internet Archive Works by Louis Couperus at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Works by Louis Couperus at Open Library Works by Louis Couperus (in Dutch) at the Digital Library for Dutch Literature Louis Couperus Society (in Dutch) v t e Works by Louis Couperus Eline Vere (1889) Footsteps of Fate (1891) Ecstasy: A Study of Happiness (1892) De binocle (1897) The Hidden Force (1900) Inevitable (1900) Authority control BIBSYS: 90100103 BNF: cb118979163 (data) BPN: 53908951 GND: 119007436 ISNI: 0000 0001 1047 1568 LCCN: n80070696 NKC: jn20000601213 NLA: 36566475 NTA: 068435061 PLWABN: 9810682637605606 RKD: 108384 SELIBR: 182317 SNAC: w64b4w2p SUDOC: 026802139 Trove: 1296363 VIAF: 27062908 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80070696 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Louis_Couperus&oldid=1001452057" Categories: Louis Couperus 1863 births 1923 deaths 19th-century Dutch novelists 19th-century Dutch male writers 20th-century Dutch novelists 20th-century Dutch male writers Deaths from sepsis Dutch male novelists Dutch male poets Indo people Knights of the Order of the Netherlands Lion Officers of the Order of Orange-Nassau Writers from The Hague Elocutionists Hidden categories: CS1 Dutch-language sources (nl) Articles with Dutch-language sources (nl) Articles containing Dutch-language text Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use Oxford spelling from May 2014 Use dmy dates from September 2013 Articles with hCards Articles needing additional references from June 2018 All articles needing additional references Commons category link is on Wikidata Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Open Library ID different from Wikidata Articles with Open Library links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BPN identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with RKDartists identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages Afrikaans Čeština Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara Français Frysk Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Limburgs مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Plattdüütsch Polski Română Русский Slovenčina Suomi Svenska 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 January 2021, at 19:06 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9034	----	Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search dynasty and satrap in 5th and 6th centuries BC Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt 𐎸𐎭𐎼𐎠𐎹 Mudrāya  (Old Persian) Province of the Achaemenid Empire 525 BC–404 BC Standard of Cyrus the Great Western part of the Achaemenid Empire, with the territories of Egypt.[1][2][3][4] Government Pharaoh   • 525-522 BC Cambyses II (first) • 423-404 BC Darius II (last) Historical era Achaemenid era • Battle of Pelusium 525 BC • Rebellion of Amyrtaeus 404 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt The Svenigorodsky cylinder seal depicting a Persian king thrusting his lance at an Egyptian pharaoh, while holding four captives on a rope.[5][6][7] Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (notated Dynasty XXVII, alternatively 27th Dynasty or Dynasty 27), also known as the First Egyptian Satrapy (Old Persian: Mudrāya[8]), was effectively a province (satrapy) of the Achaemenid Persian Empire between 525 BC and 404 BC. It was founded by Cambyses II, the King of Persia, after the Battle of Pelusium (525 BC) and his conquest of Egypt, and his subsequent crowning as Pharaoh of Egypt. It was disestablished upon the rebellion and crowning of Amyrtaeus as Pharaoh. A second period of Achaemenid rule in Egypt occurred under the Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt (343–332 BC). Contents 1 History 2 Pharaohs of the 27th Dynasty 3 Timeline of the 27th Dynasty (Achaemenid Pharaohs only) 4 Satraps of the 27th Dynasty 5 Historical sources 6 References 7 External links 8 See also History[edit] The last pharaoh of the 26th Dynasty, Psamtik III, was defeated by Cambyses II at the battle of Pelusium in the eastern Nile delta in May of 525 BC. Cambyses was crowned Pharaoh of Egypt in the summer of that year at the latest, beginning the first period of Persian rule over Egypt (known as the 27th Dynasty). Egypt was then joined with Cyprus and Phoenicia to form the sixth satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire, with Aryandes as the local satrap (provincial governor). As Pharaoh of Egypt, Cambyses' reign saw the fiscal resources of traditional Egyptian temples diminished considerably. One decree, written on papyrus in demotic script ordered a limitation on resources to all Egyptian temples, excluding Memphis, Heliopolis and Wenkhem (near Abusir). Cambyses left Egypt sometime in early 522 BC, dying en route to Persia, and was nominally succeeded briefly by his younger brother Bardiya, although contemporary historians suggest Bardiya was actually Gaumata, an impostor, and that the real Bardiya had been murdered some years before by Cambyses, ostensibly out of jealousy. Darius I, suspecting this impersonation, led a coup against "Bardiya" in September of that year, overthrowing him and being crowned as King and Pharaoh the next morning. As the new Persian King, Darius spent much of his time quelling rebellions throughout his empire. Sometime in late 522 BC or early 521 BC a local Egyptian prince led a rebellion and declared himself Pharaoh Petubastis III. The main cause of this rebellion is uncertain, but the Ancient Greek military historian Polyaenus states that it was oppressive taxation imposed by the satrap Aryandes. Polyaenus further writes that Darius himself marched to Egypt, arriving during a period of mourning for the death of the sacred Herald of Ptah bull. Darius made a proclamation that he would award a sum of one hundred talents to the man who could produce the next Herald, impressing the Egyptians with his piety such that they flocked en masse to his side, ending the rebellion.[9] Egyptian statue of Darius I, discovered in the Palace in Susa.[10] Modern impression of an Achaemenid cylinder seal from Iran, with king holding two lion griffins at bay and Egyptian hieroglyphs reading "Thoth is a protection over me". Circa 6th–5th century BC.[11][12] Darius took a greater interest in Egyptian internal affairs than Cambyses. He reportedly codified the laws of Egypt, and notably completed the excavation of a canal system at Suez, allowing passage from the Bitter Lakes to the Red Sea, much preferable to the arduous desert land route. This feat allowed Darius to import skilled Egyptian laborers and artisans to construct his palaces in Persia. The result of this was a minor brain drain in Egypt, due to the loss of these skilled individuals, creating a demonstrable lowering of quality in Egyptian architecture and art from this period. Nevertheless, Darius was more devoted to supporting Egyptian temples than Cambyses, earning himself a reputation for religious tolerance in the region. In 497 BC, during a visit by Darius to Egypt, Aryandes was executed for treason, most likely for attempting to issue his own coinage, a visible attempt to distance Egypt from the rest of the Persian Empire.[13][14] Darius died in 486 BC, and was succeeded by Xerxes I. Egyptian soldier of the Achaemenid army, circa 470 BCE. Xerxes I tomb relief. Upon the accession of Xerxes, Egypt again rebelled, this time possibly under Psamtik IV, although different sources dispute that detail. Xerxes quickly quelled the rebellion, installing his brother Achaemenes as satrap. Xerxes ended the privileged status of Egypt held under Darius, and increased supply requirements from the country, probably to fund his invasion of Greece. Furthermore, Xerxes promoted the Zoroastrian god Ahura Mazda at the expense of traditional Egyptian deities, and permanently stopped the funding of Egyptian monuments. Xerxes was murdered in 465 BC by Artabanus, beginning a dynastic struggle that ended with Artaxerxes I being crowned the next King and Pharaoh. In 460 BC another major Egyptian rebellion took place, led by a Libyan chief named Inaros II, substantially assisted by the Athenians of Greece.[15] Inaros defeated an army led by Achaemenes, killing the satrap in the process, and took Memphis, eventually exerting control over large parts of Egypt. Inaros and his Athenian allies were finally defeated by a Persian army led by general Megabyzus in 454 BC and consequently sent into retreat. Megabyzus promised Inaros no harm would come of him or his followers if he surrendered and submitted to Persian authority, terms Inaros agreed to. Nevertheless, Artaxerxes eventually had Inaros executed, although exactly how and when is a matter of dispute.[16] Artaxerxes died in 424 BC. Artaxerxes successor, Xerxes II only ruled for forty-five days, being murdered by his brother Sogdianus. Sogdianus was consequently murdered by his brother Ochus, who became Darius II.[17] Darius II ruled from 423 BC to 404 BC, and nearing the end of his reign a rebellion led by Amyrtaeus took place, potentially beginning as early as 411 BC. In 405 BC Amyrtaeus, with the help of Cretan mercenaries expelled the Persians from Memphis, declaring himself Pharaoh the next year and ending the 27th Dynasty. Darius II's successor, Artaxerxes II made attempts to begin an expedition to retake Egypt, but due to political difficulty with his brother Cyrus the Younger, abandoned the effort. Artaxerxes II was still recognized as the rightful Pharaoh in some parts of Egypt as late as 401 BC, although his sluggish response to the situation allowed Egypt to solidify its independence. During the period of independent rule three indigenous dynasties reigned: the 28th, 29th, and 30th Dynasty. Artaxerxes III (358 BC) reconquered the Nile valley for a brief second period (343 BC), which is called the 31st Dynasty of Egypt. The Achaemenid rule over Egypt had been often viewed as either weak or oppressive. H. P. Colburn (2019) analyses suggest Achaemenid legacy there was significant and the Egyptians had a wide variety of experiences in this period.[18][19] Pharaohs of the 27th Dynasty[edit] Egyptian alabaster vase of Darius I with quadrilingual hieroglyphic and cuneiform inscriptions. The hieroglyph reads: "King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Lord of the Two Lands, Darius, living forever, year 36".[20][21] Main article: List of pharaohs The pharaohs of the 27th Dynasty ruled for approximately one hundred and twenty one years, from 525 BC to 404 BC. Rulers with violet background were native Egyptian pharaohs who rebelled against the Achaemenid rule. Name of Pharaoh Image Reign Throne Name Comments Cambyses II 525-522 BC Mesutire Defeated Psamtik III at the Battle of Pelusium in 525 BC Bardiya/ Gaumata 522 BC Possible impostor Petubastis III 522/521-520 BC Seheruibre Rebelled against the Achaemenid Pharaohs Darius I the Great 522-486 BC Stutre Psamtik IV 480s BC Proposed rebel against the Achaemenid Pharaohs Xerxes I the Great 486-465 BC Artabanus 465–464 BC Assassinated Xerxes I, later killed by Artaxerxes I Artaxerxes I 465-424 BC Xerxes II 425-424 BC Claimant to throne Sogdianus 424-423 BC Claimant to throne Darius II 423-404 BC Last Pharaoh of the 27th Dynasty Timeline of the 27th Dynasty (Achaemenid Pharaohs only)[edit] Satraps of the 27th Dynasty[edit] Name of satrap Rule Reigning monarch Comments Aryandes 525–522 BC; 518–c.496 BC Cambyses II, Darius I Deposed following a revolt in 522 BC, later restored in 518 BC then deposed again by Darius I Pherendates c.496–c.486 BC Darius I Possibly killed during a revolt Achaemenes c.486–459 BC Xerxes I, Artaxerxes I A brother of Xerxes I, later killed by the rebel Inaros II Arsames c.454–c.406 BC Artaxerxes I, Xerxes II, Artaxerxes II Longest ruling satrap of Egypt Historical sources[edit] Herodotus (Histories) Fragments of Ctesias (Persica) Thucydides (History of the Peloponnesian War) Diodorus Siculus (Bibliotheca historica) Fragments of Manetho (Aegyptiaca) Flavius Josephus (Antiquities of the Jews) References[edit] ^ O'Brien, Patrick Karl (2002). Atlas of World History. Oxford University Press. pp. 42–43. ISBN 9780195219210. ^ Philip's Atlas of World History. 1999. ^ Davidson, Peter (2018). Atlas of Empires: The World's Great Powers from Ancient Times to Today. i5 Publishing LLC. ISBN 9781620082881. ^ Barraclough, Geoffrey (1989). The Times Atlas of World History. Times Books. p. 79. ISBN 0723003041. ^ "a Persian hero slaughtering an Egyptian pharaoh while leading four other Egyptian captives" Hartley, Charles W.; Yazicioğlu, G. Bike; Smith, Adam T. (2012). The Archaeology of Power and Politics in Eurasia: Regimes and Revolutions. Cambridge University Press. p. ix, photograph 4.6. ISBN 9781139789387. ^ "Victor, apparently wearing the tall Persian headdress rather than a crown, leads four bareheaded Egyptian captives by a rope tied to his belt. Victor spears a figure wearing Egyptian type crown." in Root, Margaret Cool (1979). The king and kingship in Achaemenid art: essays on the creation of an iconography of empire. Diffusion, E.J. Brill. p. 182. ISBN 9789004039025. ^ "Another seal, also from Egypt, shows a Persian king, his left hand grasping an Egyptian with an Egyptian hairdo (pschent), whom he thrusts through with his lance while holding four prisoners with a rope around their necks." Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. p. 215. ISBN 9781575061207. ^ electricpulp.com. "ACHAEMENID SATRAPIES – Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2017-09-30. ^ Smith, Andrew. "Polyaenus: Stratagems - Book 7". www.attalus.org. Retrieved 2017-02-25. ^ Razmjou, Shahrokh (1954). Ars orientalis; the arts of Islam and the East. Freer Gallery of Art. pp. 81–101. ^ "Museum item, accession number: 36.106.2". www.metmuseum.org. Metropolitan Museum of Art. ^ Giovino, Mariana (2006). "Egyptian Hieroglyphs on Achaemenid Period Cylinder Seals". Iran. Iran, vol. 44. 44: 105–114. doi:10.1080/05786967.2006.11834682. JSTOR 4300705. S2CID 193426061. ^ electricpulp.com. "DARIUS iii. Darius I the Great – Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2017-02-25. ^ Klotz, David (19 September 2015). "UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology - Persian Period". Retrieved 25 February 2017. ^ Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War. ^ Photius. "Photius' excerpt of Ctesias' Persica (2)". www.livius.org. Retrieved 2017-02-25. ^ S. Zawadzki, "The Circumstances of Darius II's Accession" in Jaarbericht Ex Oriente Lux 34 (1995-1996) 45-49 ^ Colburn, Henry P. (2020). Archaeology of Empire in Achaemenid Egypt. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 9781474452366. JSTOR 10.3366/j.ctvss3wvv. ^ Colburn, Henry Preater (2014). The Archaeology of Achaemenid Rule in Egypt (PhD thesis). hdl:2027.42/107318. ^ Goodnick Westenholz, Joan (2002). "A Stone Jar with Inscriptions of Darius I in Four Languages" (PDF). ARTA: 2. ^ Qahéri, Sépideh. "Alabastres royaux d'époque achéménide". L’Antiquité à la BnF (in French). External links[edit] Bresciani, Edda (1998). "EGYPT i. Persians in Egypt in the Achaemenid period". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol VIII, Fasc. 3. pp. 247–249. Colburn, Henry P. (2017). "KHARGA OASIS". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Persian Period from the UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology See also[edit] Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt (343 BC–332 BC) — also known as the 2nd Egyptian Satrapy. v t e Provinces of the Achaemenid Empire (Behistun / Persepolis / Naqsh-e Rustam / Susa / Daiva inscriptions) Akaufaka (Quhistan?) Amyrgoi Arabia Arachosia Aria Armenia Assyria Babylonia Bactria Cappadocia Caria Carmania Caucasian Albania Chorasmia Cilicia Colchis Dahae Drangiana 1st Egypt / 2nd Egypt Eber-Nari (Levant) Elam Kush (Nubia) Gandāra (Gandhara) Gedrosia Hyrcania Ionia Hindush Libya Lydia Maka Margiana Media Lesser Media Massagetae Parthia Persia Phoenicia Phrygia Hellespontine Phrygia Greater Phrygia Saka Samaritan Province Sattagydia Skudra (Thrace) Sogdia Yehud See also Tax Districts of the Achaemenid Empire (according to Herodotus) v t e Ancient Egypt topics Index Major topics Glossary of artifacts Agriculture Architecture (Egyptian Revival architecture) Art Portraiture Astronomy Chronology Cities (list) Clothing Cuisine Dance Dynasties Funerary practices Geography Great Royal Wives (list) Hieroglyphs History Language Literature Mathematics Medicine Military Music Mythology People Pharaohs (list) Philosophy Religion Sites Technology Trade Writing Egyptology Egyptologists Museums  Ancient Egypt 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registration plates Women Culture Art Botanical gardens Castles Cinema Coat of arms Cuisine Beer Wine Films Flag list regions Football Football clubs Football stadiums Egyptians Media Magazines Newspapers Radio TV Museums Music National anthem Olympics Public holidays World Heritage Sites Category Portal WikiProject Commons v t e Rulers of the Ancient Near East Territories/ dates [1][2][3][4] Egypt Canaan Ebla Mari Akshak/ Akkad Kish Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period 4000–3200 BCE Naqada culture (4000–3100 BCE) Proto-Cannaanites Sumerian period (4000–2340 BCE) Susa I Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE) Naqada I Naqada II Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests") Legendary ante-deluvian rulers: In Eridu: Alulim, Alalngar, then in Bad-tibira: En-men-lu-ana, En-men-gal-ana, Dumuzid, the Shepherd, then in Larag: En-sipad-zid-ana, then in Zimbir: En-men-dur-ana, then in Shuruppag: Ubara-Tutu "then the flood swept over"[5] Susa II (Uruk influence or control) 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ DenAnedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100-2700 BCE) Great Flood 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) First kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman En-me-barage-si ("made the land of Elam submit")[6] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba Uruk II dynasty Enshakushanna Mug-si Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions (3 kings)[7] Shushuntarana Napilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Urur Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun) Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion of Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[7] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian Empire (Semitic) Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Second Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) (Vassals of UR III) Shakkanakku dynasty (Semitic) Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Neo-Sumerian Period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians) Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (Vassals of Ur III)[8] Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal 2100 BCE Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin Ibbi-Sin 2050 BCE 2000 BCE Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV circa 2000 BCE Amorite invasions Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) 2025-1763 BCE Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ Third Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 1894–1595 BCE Second Intermediate Period Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham (Biblical) Yamhad First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Phoenicia Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Middle Assyrian Empire Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt 626–539 BCE Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116-117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ "The Sumerian king list: translation". etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2008-05-08. ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ a b Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4. 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en-wikipedia-org-9045	----	Apepi - Wikipedia Apepi From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Apepi (pharaoh)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Apepi Ipepi, Apophis Scarab bearing the final prenomen of the Hyksos pharaoh Apepi Pharaoh Reign 35–40 years, ca. 1575 BC – 1540 BC[1] (15th Dynasty) Predecessor Khyan Successor Khamudi Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Nebkhepeshre Nb-ḫpš-Rˁ Ra is the lord of strength Second prenomen: Aqenenre ˁ3-qnj-n-Rˁ Great is the force of Ra Third prenomen: Auserre ˁ3-wsr-Rˁ Great is the power of Ra Nomen Ipepi Horus name Seheteptawy S.ḥtp t3-wj He who pacifies the two lands Consort Tani (possibly)[2] Children Apepi, Herit For the Fourteenth Dynasty ruler, see 'Apepi. Apepi (also Ipepi; Egyptian language ipp(i)) or Apophis (Greek: Ἄποφις; regnal names Neb-khepesh-Re, A-qenen-Re and A-user-Re) was a ruler of Lower Egypt during the Fifteenth Dynasty and the end of the Second Intermediate Period that was dominated by this foreign dynasty of rulers called the Hyksos. According to the Turin Canon of Kings, he ruled over the northern portion of Egypt for forty years.[3] He ruled during the early half of the 16th century BC and outlived his southern rival, Kamose, but not Ahmose I.[4] Although his reign only entailed northern Egypt, Apepi was dominant over most of Egypt during the early portion of his reign, and traded peacefully with the native Theban Seventeenth dynasty to the south.[4] While he might have exerted suzerainty over Upper Egypt during the beginning of his reign, the seventeenth dynasty eventually assumed control over this region, and the Hyksos were driven out of Egypt no more than fifteen years after his death.[5] Kamose, the last king of the Theban 17th Dynasty, refers to Apepi as a "Chieftain of Retjenu" in a stela that implies a Canaanite background for this Hyksos king.[6] Contents 1 Praenomina 2 Reign 3 Family 4 See also 5 References Praenomina[edit] Neb-khepesh-Re (nb ḫpš rˁ), A-qenen-Re (ˁ3 ḳn n rˁ) and A-user-Re (ˁ3 wsr rˁ) are three praenomina or throne names used by this same ruler during various parts of his reign.[7] While some Egyptologists once believed that there were two separate kings who bore the name Apepi, namely Auserre Apepi and Aqenenre Apepi, it is now recognized that Khamudi succeeded Apepi I at Avaris and that there was only one king named Apepi or Apophis.[8][9] Nebkhepeshre or "Re is the Lord of Strength" was Apepi's first prenomen; towards the middle of his reign, this Hyksos ruler adopted a new prenomen, Aqenenre, which translates as "The strength of Re is great."[10] In the final decade or so of his reign, Apepi chose Auserre as his last prenomen. While the prenomen was altered, there is no difference in the translation of both Aqenenre and Auserre. His Horus name Shetep-tawy is attested only twice (once together with A-qenen-Re). It appears on an offering table[11] and on blocks found at Bubastis.[12] Reign[edit] Electrum dagger handle of a soldier of Hyksos Pharaoh Apepi, illustrating the soldier hunting with a short bow and sword. Inscriptions: "The perfect god, the lord of the two lands, Nebkhepeshre Apepi" and "Follower of his lord Nehemen", found at a burial at Saqqara.[13] Now at the Luxor Museum.[14][15] Rather than building his own monuments, Apepi generally usurped the monuments of previous pharaohs by inscribing his own name over two sphinxes of Amenemhat II and two statues of Imyremeshaw.[16] Apepi is thought to have usurped the throne of northern Egypt after the death of his predecessor, Khyan, since the latter had designated his son, Yanassi, to be his successor on the throne as a foreign ruler.[17] He was succeeded by Khamudi, the last Hyksos ruler. Ahmose I, who drove out the Hyksos kings from Egypt, established the 18th Dynasty.[16] In the Ramesside era, Apepi is recorded as worshiping Seth in a monolatric way: "[He] chose for his Lord the god Seth. He didn't worship any other deity in the whole land except Seth." Jan Assmann argues that because the Ancient Egyptians could never conceive of a "lonely" god lacking personality, Seth the desert god, who was worshiped exclusively, represented a manifestation of evil.[18] There is some discussion in Egyptology concerning whether Apepi also ruled Upper Egypt. There are indeed several objects with the king's name most likely coming from Thebes and Upper Egypt. These include a dagger with the name of the king bought on the art market in Luxor. There is an axe of unknown provenance where the king is called beloved of Sobek, lord of Sumenu. Sumenu is nowadays identified with Mahamid Qibli, about 24 kilometers south of Thebes and there is a fragment of a stone vessel found in a Theban tomb. For all these objects it is arguable that they were traded to Upper Egypt.[19] More problematic is a block with the king's name found at Gebelein. The block had been taken as evidence for building activity of the king in Upper Egypt and, hence, seen as proof that the Hyksos also ruled in Upper Egypt. However, the block is not very big and many scholars argue today, that it might have reached Gebelein after the looting of the Hyksos capital and is no proof of a Hyksos reign in Upper Egypt.[20] Family[edit] A Sphinx of Amenemhat III reinscribed in the name of Apepi, one of the so-called "Hyksos Sphinxes" Offering table with the praenomen Aaqenenre (Cairo CG23073) Two sisters are known: Tani and Ziwat. Tani is mentioned on a door of a shrine in Avaris and on the stand of an offering table (Berlin 22487). She was the sister of the king. Ziwat is mentioned on a bowl found in Spain.[21] A 'Prince Apepi', named on a seal (now in Berlin) is likely to have been his son. Apepi also had a daughter, named Herit: a vase belonging to her was found in a tomb at Thebes, sometimes regarded as the one of king Amenhotep I,[22] which might indicate that at some point his daughter was married to a Theban king.[4] The vase, however, could have been an item which was looted from Avaris after the eventual victory over the Hyksos by Ahmose I. See also[edit] List of pharaohs References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Apophis. ^ Thomas Schneider: Ancient Egyptian Chronology – Edited by Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss, and David A. Warburton, available online, see p. 492 ^ Tyldesley, Joyce (2006). Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt. United Kingdom: Thames & Hudson. p. 79. ISBN 0-500-05145-3. ^ Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt. Librairie Arthéme Fayard, 1988, p.189. ^ a b c Grimal, p.189 ^ Grimal, p.194 ^ Ryholt, K. S. B.; Bülow-Jacobsen, Adam (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C. Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 131. ISBN 978-87-7289-421-8. ^ Apophis: Titulary Archived June 2, 2008, at the Wayback Machine ^ Kim Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c.1800-1550 B.C." by Museum Tuscalanum Press. 1997. p.125 ^ Kings of the Second Intermediate Period University College London; scroll down to the 15th dynasty ^ Apophis:Titulary Archived June 2, 2008, at the Wayback Machine ^ Cairo Catalogue Generale 23073; Kamal, Tables d'offrandes I, 61 ^ London BM 339 ^ O'Connor 2009, pp. 116-117. sfn error: no target: CITEREFO'Connor2009 (help) ^ Wilkinson, Toby (2013). Lives of the Ancient Egyptians. Thames and Hudson Limited. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-500-77162-4. ^ Daressy, George (1900). Annales du Service des antiquités de l'Egypte. Le Caire : Impr. de l'Institut français d'archéologie orientale. pp. 115 ff. ^ a b Grimal, p.193 ^ Ryholt, p.256 ^ "Of God and Gods", Jan Assmann, p47-48, University of Wisconsin Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-299-22550-6 ^ D. Polz: Die Hyksos-Blöcke aus Gebelên; zur Präsenz der Hyksos in Oberägypten, in: E. Czerny, I. Hein, H. Hunger, D. Melman, A. Schwab (editors): Timelines, Studies in Honour of Manfred Bietak, Leuven, Paris, dudley, MA ISBN 978-90-429-1730-9, p. 244-245 ^ D. Polz: Die Hyksos-Blöcke aus Gebelên; zur Präsenz der Hyksos in Oberägypten, in: E. Czerny, I. Hein, H. Hunger, D. Melman, A. Schwab (editors): Timelines, Studies in Honour of Manfred Bietak, Leuven, Paris, dudley, MA ISBN 978-90-429-1730-9, p. 245 ^ Ryholt, p.256-267 ^ H. Carter: Report on the tomb of Zeser-ka-ra Amenhetep I, discovered by the Earl of Carnavon in 1914, in: Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 3 (1916), pl. XXI.1 Preceded by Khyan Pharaoh of Egypt Fifteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Khamudi v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apepi&oldid=993753495" Categories: 16th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles containing Ancient Egyptian-language text Articles containing Greek-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia 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en-wikipedia-org-9058	----	Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid Egypt) Satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire 343 BC–332 BC Standard of Cyrus the Great Western part of the Achaemenid Empire, with the territories of Egypt.[1][2][3][4] Government Pharaoh   • 343–338 BC Artaxerxes III (first) • 336–332 BC Darius III (last) Historical era Achaemenid era • Conquests of Artaxerxes III 343 BC • Conquests of Alexander the Great 332 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Thirtieth dynasty of Egypt Macedonian Empire Ptolemaic Kingdom The Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt (notated Dynasty XXXI, alternatively 31st Dynasty or Dynasty 31), also known as the Second Egyptian Satrapy, was effectively a satrapy of the Achaemenid Persian Empire between 343 BC to 332 BC. It was founded by Artaxerxes III, the King of Persia, after his reconquest of Egypt and subsequent crowning as Pharaoh of Egypt, and was disestablished upon the conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great. The period of the 31st Dynasty was the second occasion in which Persian pharaohs ruled Egypt, hence the term "Second Egyptian Satrapy". Before the 31st Dynasty was founded, Egypt had enjoyed a brief period of independence, during which three indigenous dynasties reigned (the 28th, 29th, and 30th dynasties). The period before this is referred to as the "First Egyptian Satrapy" or the 27th Dynasty (525–404 BC). Contents 1 History 1.1 First Egyptian Campaign 1.2 Second Egyptian Campaign 1.3 Satrapal rule in Egypt 2 Culture 3 Coinage 3.1 Achaemenid Egyptian coinage 3.2 Cilician coinage with Achaemenid rulers as Pharaohs 4 Pharaohs of the 31st Dynasty 5 Timeline of the 31st Dynasty (Achaemenid Pharaohs only) 6 Satraps of the 31st Dynasty 7 Sources 8 See also 9 References 10 External links History[edit] First Egyptian Campaign[edit] In around 351 BC, Artaxerxes embarked on a campaign to recover Egypt, which had revolted under his father, Artaxerxes II. At the same time a rebellion had broken out in Asia Minor, which, being supported by Thebes, threatened to become serious.[5] Levying a vast army, Artaxerxes marched into Egypt, and engaged Nectanebo II. After a year of fighting the Egyptian Pharaoh, Nectanebo inflicted a crushing defeat on the Persians with the support of mercenaries led by the Greek generals Diophantus and Lamius.[6] Artaxerxes was compelled to retreat and postpone his plans to reconquer Egypt. Second Egyptian Campaign[edit] Artaxerxes III as Pharaoh, satrapal coinage of Cilicia.[7] The Svenigorodsky cylinder seal depicting a Persian king thrusting his lance at an Egyptian pharaoh, while holding four other Egyptian captives on a rope.[8][9][10] In 343 BC, Artaxerxes, in addition to his 330,000 Persians, had now a force of 14,000 Greeks furnished by the Greek cities of Asia Minor: 4,000 under Mentor, consisting of the troops which he had brought to the aid of Tennes from Egypt; 3,000 sent by Argos; and 1000 from Thebes. He divided these troops into three bodies, and placed at the head of each a Persian and a Greek. The Greek commanders were Lacrates of Thebes, Mentor of Rhodes and Nicostratus of Argos while the Persians were led by Rhossaces, Aristazanes, and Bagoas, the chief of the eunuchs. Nectanebo II resisted with an army of 100,000 of whom 20,000 were Greek mercenaries. Nectanebo II occupied the Nile and its various branches with his large navy. The character of the country, intersected by numerous canals, and full of strongly fortified towns, was in his favour and Nectanebo II might have been expected to offer a prolonged, if not even a successful, resistance. But he lacked good generals, and over-confident in his own powers of command, he found himself out-manoeuvered by the Greek mercenary generals. His forces were eventually defeated by the combined Persian armies at the Battle of Pelusium (343 BC).[11] Probable portrait of young Artaxerxes IV as Pharaoh, wearing the Pharaonic crown.[7] After his defeat, Nectanebo hastily fled to Memphis, leaving the fortified towns to be defended by their garrisons. These garrisons consisted of partly Greek and partly Egyptian troops, between whom jealousies and suspicions were easily sown by the Persian leaders. As a result, the Persians were able to rapidly defeat numerous towns across Lower Egypt and were advancing upon Memphis when Nectanebo decided to quit the country and flee southwards to Ethiopia.[11] The Persian army then completely routed the Egyptians and occupied the Lower Delta of the Nile. Following Nectanebo's flight to Ethiopia, all of Egypt submitted to Artaxerxes. The Jews in Egypt were sent either to Babylon or to the south coast of the Caspian Sea, the same location where the Jews of Phoenicia had earlier been sent. After this victory over the Egyptians, Artaxerxes had the city walls destroyed, started a reign of terror, and set about looting all the temples. Persia gained a significant amount of wealth from this looting. Artaxerxes also imposed high taxes and attempted to weaken Egypt enough that it could never revolt against Persia again. During the 10 years that Persia controlled Egypt, believers in the native religion were persecuted and sacred books were stolen.[12] Before he returned to Persia, he appointed Pherendares as satrap of Egypt. With the wealth gained from his reconquest of Egypt, Artaxerxes was able to amply reward his mercenaries. He then returned to his capital, having successfully completed his invasion and occupation of Egypt. Satrapal rule in Egypt[edit] Portrait of Sabaces, Achaemenid satrap of Egypt, from his coinage. Circa 340-333 BC. Achaemenid Egypt. It is not known who served as satrap after Artaxerxes III, but Pherendates II was an early satrap of Egypt. Under Darius III (336–330 BC) there was Sabaces, who fought and died at Issus and was succeeded by Mazaces. Egyptians also fought at Issus, for example, the nobleman Somtutefnekhet of Heracleopolis, who described on the "Naples stele" how he escaped during the battle against the Greeks and how Arsaphes, the god of his city, protected him and allowed him to return home. In 332 BC, Mazaces handed over the country to Alexander the Great without a fight. The Achaemenid empire had ended, and for a while Egypt was a satrapy in Alexander's empire. Later the Ptolemies and the Romans successively ruled the Nile valley. Culture[edit] Egyptian man in a Persian costume, c. 343–332 BC, accession number 71.139, Brooklyn Museum.[13] Occasionally Egyptians wore foreign costumes and jewelry. The taste for non-Egyptian fashion arose during periods of extensive trade or diplomatic contact with distant courts, or when Egypt was controlled by a foreign power. The Persians, who twice invaded the Nile Valley from their Iranian homeland, dominated Egypt during Dynasty 27 (525–404 BC) and Dynasty 31 (342–332 BC). This statue to the left dates to the later period of Persian rule in Egypt.[13] According to the Brooklyn Museum, "the long skirt shown wrapped around this statue's body and tucked in at the upper edge of the garment is typically Persian. The necklace, called a torque, is decorated with images of ibexes, symbols in ancient Persia of agility and sexual prowess. The depiction of this official in Persian dress may have been a demonstration of loyalty to the new rulers."[13] Coinage[edit] Achaemenid Egyptian coinage[edit] Coin of Satrap Sabakes, in imitation of Athenian coinage. Circa 340-333 BC. Achaemenid Egypt. Coin of Satrap Sabakes. Achaemenid Egypt. Circa 335-333 BC Cilician coinage with Achaemenid rulers as Pharaohs[edit] Another similar coin. Mazaios, Satrap of Cilicia, 361/0-334 BC.[7] Another similar coin. Mazaios, Satrap of Cilicia, 361/0-334 BC.[7] Coin of Cilicia 343-332 BC, thought to represent Artaxerxes III on the obverse, and a young Artaxerxes IV on the reverse, both wearing the Pharaonic crown.[14][7] Pharaohs of the 31st Dynasty[edit] Name of Pharaoh Image Reign Throne Name Comments Artaxerxes III 343–338 BC Placed Egypt under Persian rule for a second time Artaxerxes IV 338–336 BC Only reigned in Lower Egypt Khababash 338–335 BC Senen-setepu-ni-ptah Led a revolt against Persian rule in Upper Egypt, declared himself Pharaoh Darius III 336–332 BC Upper Egypt returned to Persian control in 335 BC Timeline of the 31st Dynasty (Achaemenid Pharaohs only)[edit] Satraps of the 31st Dynasty[edit] Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e Name of satrap Rule Reigning monarch Comments Pherendates II c.343–before 333 BC Artaxerxes III Sabaces † 333 BC Darius III Killed in the battle of Issus Mazaces c.333–332 BC Darius III Sources[edit] Fragments of Ctesias (Persica) Diodorus Siculus (Bibliotheca historica) Fragments of Manetho (Aegyptiaca) Flavius Josephus (Antiquities of the Jews) See also[edit] Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (525 BC−404 BC), also known as the First Egyptian Satrapy. Sassanid conquest of Egypt References[edit] ^ O'Brien, Patrick Karl (2002). Atlas of World History. Oxford University Press. pp. 42–43. ISBN 9780195219210. ^ Philip's Atlas of World History. 1999. ^ Davidson, Peter (2018). Atlas of Empires: The World's Great Powers from Ancient Times to Today. i5 Publishing LLC. ISBN 9781620082881. ^ Barraclough, Geoffrey (1989). The Times Atlas of World History. Times Books. p. 79. ISBN 0723003041. ^ Artaxerxes III PersianEmpire.info History of the Persian Empire ^ Miller, James M. (1986). A History of Ancient Israel and Judah. John Haralson Hayes (photographer). Westminster John Knox Press. pp. 465. ISBN 0-664-21262-X. ^ a b c d e Kovacs, Frank L. (2002). "Two Persian Pharaonic Portraits". Jahrbuch für Numismatik und Geldgeschichte. R. Pflaum. pp. 55–60. ^ "a Persian hero slaughtering an Egyptian pharaoh while leading four other Egyptian captives" Hartley, Charles W.; Yazicioğlu, G. Bike; Smith, Adam T. (2012). The Archaeology of Power and Politics in Eurasia: Regimes and Revolutions. Cambridge University Press. p. ix, photograph 4.6. ISBN 9781139789387. ^ "Victor, apparently wearing the tall Persian headdress rather than a crown, leads four bareheaded Egyptian captives by a rope tied to his belt. Victor spears a figure wearing Egyptian type crown." in Root, Margaret Cool (1979). The king and kingship in Achaemenid art: essays on the creation of an iconography of empire. Diffusion, E.J. Brill. p. 182. ISBN 9789004039025. ^ "Another seal, also from Egypt, shows a Persian king, his left hand grasping an Egyptian with an Egyptian hairdo (pschent), whom he thrusts through with his lance while holding four prisoners with a rope around their necks." Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. p. 215. ISBN 9781575061207. ^ a b "Artaxerxes III Ochus ( 358 BC to 338 BC )". Retrieved March 2, 2008. ^ "Persian Period II". Archived from the original on February 17, 2008. Retrieved March 6, 2008. ^ a b c "The long skirt shown wrapped around this statue’s body and tucked in at the upper edge of the garment is typically Persian. The necklace, called a torque, is decorated with images of ibexes, symbols in ancient Persia of agility and sexual prowess. The depiction of this official in Persian dress may have been a demonstration of loyalty to the new rulers." "Egyptian Man in a Persian Costume". www.brooklynmuseum.org. Brooklyn Museum. ^ CNG: CILICIA, Myriandros. Mazaios. Satrap of Cilicia, 361/0-334 BC. AR Obol (10mm, 0.64 g). External links[edit] Bresciani, Edda (1998). "EGYPT i. Persians in Egypt in the Achaemenid period". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol VIII, Fasc. 3. pp. 247–249. Colburn, Henry P. (2017). "KHARGA OASIS". Encyclopaedia Iranica. v t e Provinces of the Achaemenid Empire (Behistun / Persepolis / Naqsh-e Rustam / Susa / Daiva inscriptions) Akaufaka (Quhistan?) Amyrgoi Arabia Arachosia Aria Armenia Assyria Babylonia Bactria Cappadocia Caria Carmania Caucasian Albania Chorasmia Cilicia Colchis Dahae Drangiana 1st Egypt / 2nd Egypt Eber-Nari (Levant) Elam Kush (Nubia) Gandāra (Gandhara) Gedrosia Hyrcania Ionia Hindush Libya Lydia Maka Margiana Media Lesser Media Massagetae Parthia Persia Phoenicia Phrygia Hellespontine Phrygia Greater Phrygia Saka Samaritan Province Sattagydia Skudra (Thrace) Sogdia Yehud See also Tax Districts of the Achaemenid Empire (according to Herodotus) v t e Ancient Egypt topics Index Major topics Glossary of artifacts Agriculture Architecture (Egyptian Revival architecture) Art Portraiture Astronomy Chronology Cities (list) Clothing Cuisine Dance Dynasties Funerary practices Geography Great Royal Wives (list) Hieroglyphs History Language Literature Mathematics Medicine Military Music Mythology People Pharaohs (list) Philosophy Religion Sites Technology Trade Writing Egyptology Egyptologists Museums  Ancient Egypt portal Book Category WikiProject Commons Outline v t e Rulers of the Ancient Near East Territories/ dates [1][2][3][4] Egypt Canaan Ebla Mari Akshak/ Akkad Kish Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period 4000–3200 BCE Naqada culture (4000–3100 BCE) Proto-Cannaanites Sumerian period (4000–2340 BCE) Susa I Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE) Naqada I Naqada II Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests") Legendary ante-deluvian rulers: In Eridu: Alulim, Alalngar, then in Bad-tibira: En-men-lu-ana, En-men-gal-ana, Dumuzid, the Shepherd, then in Larag: En-sipad-zid-ana, then in Zimbir: En-men-dur-ana, then in Shuruppag: Ubara-Tutu "then the flood swept over"[5] Susa II (Uruk influence or control) 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ DenAnedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100-2700 BCE) Great Flood 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) First kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman En-me-barage-si ("made the land of Elam submit")[6] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba Uruk II dynasty Enshakushanna Mug-si Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions (3 kings)[7] Shushuntarana Napilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Urur Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun) Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion of Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[7] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian Empire (Semitic) Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Second Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) (Vassals of UR III) Shakkanakku dynasty (Semitic) Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Neo-Sumerian Period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians) Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (Vassals of Ur III)[8] Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal 2100 BCE Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin Ibbi-Sin 2050 BCE 2000 BCE Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV circa 2000 BCE Amorite invasions Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) 2025-1763 BCE Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ Third Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 1894–1595 BCE Second Intermediate Period Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham (Biblical) Yamhad First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Phoenicia Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Middle Assyrian Empire Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt 626–539 BCE Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116-117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ "The Sumerian king list: translation". etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2008-05-08. ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ a b Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thirty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=995625478" Categories: States and territories established in the 4th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 4th century BC Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt Achaemenid Egypt Dynasties of ancient Egypt Achaemenid satrapies 4th century BC in Egypt 340s BC 330s BC 340s BC establishments 4th-century BC establishments in Egypt 4th-century BC disestablishments in Egypt Hidden categories: Pages using the EasyTimeline extension Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano ქართული مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Português Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 December 2020, at 01:27 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9097	----	Peloponnese - Wikipedia Peloponnese From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Peloponnesus) Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the peninsula and the traditional geographic region. For the modern administrative region, see Peloponnese (region). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Peloponnese" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Traditional region of Greece Peloponnese Πελοπόννησος Traditional region of Greece Peloponnese (blue) within Greece Country  Greece Capital and largest city Patras Area  • Total 21,549.6 km2 (8,320.3 sq mi) Population (2011)  • Total 1,155,019  • Density 54/km2 (140/sq mi) Demonym(s) Peloponnesian ISO 3166 code GR-E The Peloponnese (/ˌpɛləpəˈniːz, -iːs/) or Peloponnesus (/ˌpɛləpəˈniːsəs/; Greek: Πελοπόννησος, romanized: Peloponnesos, IPA: [peloˈponisos]) is a peninsula and geographic region in southern Greece. It is connected to the central part of the country by the Isthmus of Corinth land bridge which separates the Gulf of Corinth from the Saronic Gulf. During the late Middle Ages and the Ottoman era, the peninsula was known as the Morea (Byzantine Greek: Μωρέας), a name still in colloquial use in its demotic form (Greek: Μωριάς). The peninsula is divided among three administrative regions: most belongs to the Peloponnese region, with smaller parts belonging to the West Greece and Attica regions. Contents 1 Geography 2 History 2.1 Mythology and early history 2.2 Classical antiquity 2.3 Middle Ages 2.3.1 Byzantine rule and Slavic settlement 2.3.2 Frankish rule and Byzantine reconquest 2.4 Ottoman conquest, Venetian interlude and Ottoman reconquest 2.5 Modern Greece 3 Regional units 4 Cities 5 Archaeological sites 6 Cuisine 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Geography[edit] The Corinth Canal. Landscape in Arcadia. The Peloponnese is a peninsula that covers an area of some 21,549.6 square kilometres (8,320.3 sq mi) and constitutes the southernmost part of mainland Greece. It is connected to the mainland by the Isthmus of Corinth, where the Corinth Canal was constructed in 1893. However, it is also connected to the mainland by several bridges across the canal, including two submersible bridges at the north and the south end. Near the northern tip of the peninsula, there is another bridge, the Rio–Antirrio bridge (completed 2004). Indeed, the Peloponnese is rarely, if ever, referred to as an island. The peninsula has a mountainous interior and deeply indented coasts. The Peloponnese possesses four south-pointing peninsulas, the Messenian, the Mani, the Cape Malea (also known as Epidaurus Limera), and the Argolid in the far northeast of the Peloponnese. Mount Taygetus in the south is the highest mountain in the Peloponnese, at 2,407 metres (7,897 ft). Οther important mountains include Cyllene in the northeast (2,376 metres (7,795 ft)), Aroania in the north (2,355 metres (7,726 ft)), Erymanthos (2,224 metres (7,297 ft)) and Panachaikon in the northwest (1,926 metres (6,319 ft)), Mainalon in the center (1,981 metres (6,499 ft)), and Parnon in the southeast (1,935 metres (6,348 ft)). The entire peninsula is earthquake prone and has been the site of many earthquakes in the past. The longest river is the Alfeios in the west (110 km), followed by the Evrotas in the south (82 km), and also the Pineios, also in the west (70 km). Extensive lowlands are found only in the west, except for the Evrotas valley in the south and the Argolid in the northeast. The Peloponnese is home to numerous spectacular beaches, which are a major tourist draw. Two groups of islands lie off the Peloponnesian coast: the Argo-Saronic Islands to the east, and the Ionian to the west. The island of Kythira, off the Epidaurus Limeira peninsula to the south of the Peloponnese, is considered to be part of the Ionian Islands. The island of Elafonisos used to be part of the peninsula but was separated following the major quake of 365 AD. Since antiquity, and continuing to the present day, the Peloponnese has been divided into seven major regions: Achaea (north), Corinthia (northeast), Argolis (east), Arcadia (center), Laconia (southeast), Messenia (southwest), and Elis (west). Each of these regions is headed by a city. The largest city is Patras (pop. 170,000) in Achaia, followed by Kalamata (pop. 55,000) in Messenia. History[edit] A map of the regions of the Peloponnese of classical antiquity. The Lion Gate in Mycenae. The Temple of Hera, Olympia. View of the Acrocorinth. Mythology and early history[edit] The peninsula has been inhabited since prehistoric times. Its modern name derives from ancient Greek mythology, specifically the legend of the hero Pelops, who was said to have conquered the entire region. The name Peloponnesos means "Island of Pelops". The Mycenaean civilization, mainland Greece's (and Europe's) first major civilization, dominated the Peloponnese in the Bronze Age from its stronghold at Mycenae in the north-east of the peninsula. The Mycenaean civilization collapsed suddenly at the end of the 2nd millennium BC. Archeological research has found that many of its cities and palaces show signs of destruction. The subsequent period, known as the Greek Dark Ages, is marked by an absence of written records. Classical antiquity[edit] In 776 BC, the first Olympic Games were held at Olympia, in the western Peloponnese and this date is sometimes used to denote the beginning of the classical period of Greek antiquity. During classical antiquity, the Peloponnese was at the heart of the affairs of ancient Greece, possessed some of its most powerful city-states, and was the location of some of its bloodiest battles. The major cities of Sparta, Corinth, Argos and Megalopolis were all located on the Peloponnese, and it was the homeland of the Peloponnesian League. Soldiers from the peninsula fought in the Persian Wars, and it was also the scene of the Peloponnesian War of 431–404 BC. The entire Peloponnese with the notable exception of Sparta joined Alexander's expedition against the Persian Empire. Along with the rest of Greece, the Peloponnese fell to the expanding Roman Republic in 146 BC, when the Romans razed the city of Corinth and massacred its inhabitants. The Romans created the province of Achaea comprising the Peloponnese and central Greece. During the Roman period, the peninsula remained prosperous but became a provincial backwater, relatively cut off from the affairs of the wider Roman world. Middle Ages[edit] Byzantine rule and Slavic settlement[edit] Main articles: Byzantine Greece and Morea After the partition of the Empire in 395, the Peloponnese became a part of the East Roman or Byzantine Empire. The devastation of Alaric's raid in 396–397 led to the construction of the Hexamilion wall across the Isthmus of Corinth.[1] Through most of late antiquity, the peninsula retained its urbanized character: in the 6th century, Hierocles counted 26 cities in his Synecdemus. By the latter part of that century, however, building activity seems to have stopped virtually everywhere except Constantinople, Thessalonica, Corinth, and Athens. This has traditionally been attributed to calamities such as plague, earthquakes and Slavic invasions.[2] However, more recent analysis suggests that urban decline was closely linked with the collapse of long-distance and regional commercial networks that underpinned and supported late antique urbanism in Greece,[3] as well as with the generalized withdrawal of imperial troops and administration from the Balkans.[4] The scale of the Slavic incursions and settlement in the 7th and 8th centuries remains a matter of dispute, although it is nowadays considered much smaller than previously thought.[5] The Slavs did occupy most of the peninsula, as evidenced by the abundance of Slavic toponyms, but these toponyms accumulated over centuries rather than as a result of an initial "flood" of Slavic invasions, and many appeared to have been mediated by speakers of Greek, or in mixed Slavic-Greek compounds.[2][6][7] Fewer Slavic toponyms appear on the eastern coast, which remained in Byzantine hands and was included in the thema of Hellas, established by Justinian II c. 690.[8] While traditional historiography has dated the arrival of Slavs to southern Greece to the late 6th century, according to Florin Curta there is no evidence for a Slavic presence in the Peloponnese until after c. 700 AD,[9] when Slavs may have been allowed to settle in specific areas that had been depopulated.[10] Relations between the Slavs and Greeks were probably peaceful apart from intermittent uprisings.[11] There was also a continuity of the Peloponnesian Greek population. This is especially true in Mani and Tsakonia, where Slavic incursions were minimal, or non-existent. Being agriculturalists, the Slavs probably traded with the Greeks, who remained in the towns, while Greek villages continued to exist in the interior, governing themselves, possibly paying tribute to the Slavs.[12] The first attempt by the Byzantine imperial government to re-assert its control over the independent Slavic tribes of the Peloponnese occurred in 783, with the logothete Staurakios' overland campaign from Constantinople into Greece and the Peloponnese, which according to Theophanes the Confessor made many prisoners and forced the Slavs to pay tribute.[13] A map of Byzantine Greece ca. 900 AD, with the themes and major settlements. From the mid-9th century, following a Slavic revolt and attack on Patras, a determined Hellenization process was carried out. According to the Chronicle of Monemvasia, in 805 the Byzantine governor of Corinth went to war with the Slavs, exterminated them, and allowed the original inhabitants to claim their lands. They regained control of the city of Patras and the region was re-settled with Greeks.[14] Many Slavs were transported to Asia Minor, and many Asian, Sicilian and Calabrian Greeks were resettled in the Peloponnese. By the turn of the 9th century, the entire Peloponnese was formed into the new thema of Peloponnesos, with its capital at Corinth.[12] The imposition of Byzantine rule over the Slavic enclaves may have largely been a process of Christianization and accommodating Slavic chieftains into the Imperial fold, as literary, epigraphic and sigillographic evidence testify to Slavic archontes participating in Imperial affairs.[15] By the end of the 9th century, the Peloponnese was culturally and administratively Greek again,[16] except for a few small Slavic tribes in the mountains such as the Melingoi and Ezeritai. Although they were to remain relatively autonomous until Ottoman times, such tribes were the exception rather than the rule.[17] Even the Melingoi and Ezeritai, however, could speak Greek and appear to have been Christian.[18] The success of the Hellenization campaign also shows that the Slavs had settled among many Greeks, in contrast to areas further north in what is now Bulgaria and the former Yugoslavia, as those areas could not be Hellenized when they were recovered by the Byzantines in the early 11th century.[19] A 2017-human genetics study showed that the Peloponnesians have little admixture with populations of the Slavic homeland and are much closer to Sicilians and southern Italians.[20] Apart from the troubled relations with the Slavs, the coastal regions of the Peloponnese suffered greatly from repeated Arab raids following the Arab capture of Crete in the 820s and the establishment of a corsair emirate there.[21][22] After the island was recovered by Byzantium in 961 however, the region entered a period of renewed prosperity, where agriculture, commerce, and urban industry flourished.[21] Frankish rule and Byzantine reconquest[edit] Main articles: Frankokratia, Principality of Achaea, and Despotate of Morea The Frankish castle of Clairmont (Chlemoutsi). The court of the Byzantine despots in Mystras, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. In 1205, following the destruction of the Byzantine Empire by the forces of the Fourth Crusade, the Crusaders under William of Champlitte and Geoffrey of Villehardouin marched south through mainland Greece and conquered the Peloponnese against sporadic local Greek resistance. The Franks then founded the Principality of Achaea, nominally a vassal of the Latin Empire, while the Venetians occupied several strategically important ports around the coast such as Navarino and Coron, which they retained into the 15th century.[23] The Franks popularized the name Morea for the peninsula, which first appears as the name of a small bishopric in Elis during the 10th century. Its etymology is disputed, but it is most commonly held to be derived from the mulberry tree (morea), whose leaves are similar in shape to the peninsula.[24] Frankish supremacy in the peninsula, however, received a critical blow after the Battle of Pelagonia, when William II of Villehardouin was forced to cede the newly constructed fortress and palace at Mystras near ancient Sparta to a resurgent Byzantium. This Greek province (and later a semi-autonomous Despotate) staged a gradual reconquest, eventually conquering the Frankish principality by 1430.[25] The same period was also marked by the migration and settlement of the Arvanites to Central Greece and the Peloponnese.[26] The Ottoman Turks began raiding the Peloponnese from c. 1358, but their raids intensified only after 1387 when the energetic Evrenos Bey took control. Exploiting the quarrels between Byzantines and Franks, he plundered across the peninsula and forced both the Byzantine despots and the remaining Frankish rulers to acknowledge Ottoman suzerainty and pay tribute. This situation lasted until the Ottoman defeat at the Battle of Ankara in 1402, after which Ottoman power was for a time checked.[27] Ottoman incursions into the Morea resumed under Turahan Bey after 1423. Despite the reconstruction of the Hexamilion wall at the Isthmus of Corinth, the Ottomans under Murad II breached it in 1446, forcing the Despots of the Morea to re-acknowledge Ottoman suzerainty, and again under Turahan in 1452 and 1456. Following the occupation of the Duchy of Athens in 1456, the Ottomans occupied a third of the Peloponnese in 1458, and Sultan Mehmed II extinguished the remnants of the Despotate in 1460. The last Byzantine stronghold, Salmeniko Castle, under its commander Graitzas Palaiologos, held out until July 1461.[27] Only the Venetian fortresses of Modon, Coron, Navarino, Monemvasia, Argos and Nauplion escaped Ottoman control.[27] Ottoman conquest, Venetian interlude and Ottoman reconquest[edit] See also: Ottoman Greece, Morea Eyalet, Morean War, and Kingdom of the Morea The Venetian fortresses were conquered in a series of Ottoman-Venetian Wars: the first war, lasting from 1463 to 1479, saw much fighting in the Peloponnese, resulting in the loss of Argos, while Modon and Coron fell in 1500 during the second war. Coron and Patras were captured in a crusading expedition in 1532, led by the Genoese admiral Andrea Doria, but this provoked another war in which the last Venetian possessions on the Greek mainland were lost.[28] The Venetian Lion of Saint Mark and halberds from the time of the Kingdom of the Morea in the National Historical Museum, Athens. "Commander Panagiotis Kephalas plants the flag of liberty upon the walls of Tripolizza", Siege of Tripolitsa, by Peter von Hess. Following the Ottoman conquest, the peninsula was made into a province (sanjak), with 109 ziamets and 342 timars. During the first period of Ottoman rule (1460–1687), the capital was first in Corinth (Turk. Gördes), later in Leontari (Londari), Mystras (Misistire) and finally in Nauplion (Tr. Anaboli). Sometime in the mid-17th century, the Morea became the centre of a separate eyalet, with Patras (Ballibadra) as its capital.[29][30] Until the death of Suleiman the Magnificent in 1570, the Christian population (counted at some 42,000 families c. 1550[28]) managed to retain some privileges and Islamization was slow, mostly among the Albanians or the estate owners who were integrated into the Ottoman feudal system. Although they quickly came to control most of the fertile lands, Muslims remained a distinct minority. Christian communities retained a large measure of self-government, but the entire Ottoman period was marked by a flight of the Christian population from the plains to the mountains. This occasioned the rise of the klephts, armed brigands and rebels, in the mountains, as well as the corresponding institution of the government-funded armatoloi to check the klephts' activities.[29] With the outbreak of the "Great Turkish War" in 1683, the Venetians under Francesco Morosini occupied the entire peninsula by 1687, and received recognition by the Ottomans in the Treaty of Karlowitz (1699).[31] The Venetians established their province as the "Kingdom of the Morea" (It. Regno di Morea), but their rule proved unpopular, and when the Ottomans invaded the peninsula in 1715, most local Greeks welcomed them. The Ottoman reconquest was easy and swift, and was recognized by Venice in the Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718.[32] The Peloponnese now became the core of the Morea Eyalet, headed by the Mora valesi, who until 1780 was a pasha of the first rank (with three horsetails) and held the title of vizier. After 1780 and until the Greek War of Independence, the province was headed by a muhassil. The pasha of the Morea was aided by several subordinate officials, including a Christian translator (dragoman), who was the senior Christian official of the province.[32] As during the first Ottoman period, the Morea was divided into 22 districts or beyliks.[32] The capital was first at Nauplion, but after 1786 at Tripolitza (Tr. Trabliçe).[29] The Moreot Christians rose against the Ottomans with Russian aid during the so-called "Orlov Revolt" of 1770, but it was swiftly and brutally suppressed. As a result, the total population decreased during this time, while the Muslim element in it increased. Nevertheless, through the privileges granted with the Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji, especially the right for the Christians to trade under the Russian flag, led to a considerable economic flowering of the local Greeks, which, coupled with the increased cultural contacts with Western Europe (Modern Greek Enlightenment) and the inspiring ideals of the French Revolution, laid the groundwork for the Greek War of Independence.[32] Modern Greece[edit] See also: Greek War of Independence The Battle of Navarino, on October 1827, marked the effective end of Ottoman rule in Greece. Panoramic view of Nafplion, first capital of modern Greece The Rio–Antirrio bridge, completed in 2004, links the western Peloponnese with mainland Greece. The rock of Monemvasia The Peloponnesians played a major role in the Greek War of Independence – the war began in the Peloponnese, when rebels took control of Kalamata on March 23, 1821. The Greek insurgents made rapid progress and the entire peninsula was under Greek control within a few months, except for a few coastal forts and the main Turkish garrison at Tripolitsa.[33] The fighting was fierce and marked by atrocities on both sides; eventually the entire Muslim population was either massacred or fled to the forts. The capture of Tripolitsa in September 1821 marked a turning point. Rivalries among the insurgents eventually erupted into civil war in 1824, which enabled the Ottoman Egyptian vassal Ibrahim Pasha to land in the peninsula in 1825.[33] The Peloponnese peninsula was the scene of fierce fighting and extensive devastation following the arrival of Ibrahim's Egyptian troops. Partly as a result of the atrocities committed by Ibrahim, the UK, France, and the Russian Empire decided to intervene in favor of the Greeks. The decisive naval Battle of Navarino was fought in 1827 off Pylos on the west coast of the Peloponnese, where a combined British, French and Russian fleet decisively defeated the Turko-Egyptian fleet.[33] Subsequently, a French expeditionary corps cleared the last Turko-Egyptian forces from the peninsula in 1828. The city of Nafplion, on the east coast of the peninsula, became the first capital of the independent Greek state. During the 19th and early 20th century, the region became relatively poor and economically isolated. A significant part of its population emigrated to the larger cities of Greece, especially Athens, and other countries such as the United States and Australia. It was badly affected by the Second World War and Greek Civil War, experiencing some of the worst atrocities committed in Greece during those conflicts. Living standards improved dramatically throughout Greece after the country accedes to the European Union in 1981. In late August 2007, large parts of Peloponnese suffered from wildfires, which caused severe damage in villages and forests and the death of 77 people. The impact of the fires to the environment and economy of the region are still unknown. It is thought to be the largest environmental disaster in modern Greek history. Regional units[edit] The Peloponnese within Greece The Peloponnese from ISS, 2014 Arcadia – 100,611 inhabitants Argolis – 108, 636 inhabitants Corinthia – 144,527 inhabitants (except municipalities of Agioi Theodoroi and most of Loutraki-Perachora, which lie east of the Corinth Canal) Laconia – 100,871 inhabitants Messenia – 180,264 inhabitants Achaea – 331,316 inhabitants Elis – 198,763 inhabitants Islands (only the municipality Troizinia and part of Poros) Cities[edit] View of Patras from the Patras Castle The principal modern cities of the Peloponnese are (2011 census): Patras – 170,896 inhabitants Kalamata – 62,409 inhabitants Corinth – 38,132 inhabitants Tripoli – 30,912 inhabitants Aigio – 26,523 inhabitants Pyrgos – 25,180 inhabitants Argos – 24,700 inhabitants Sparta – 19,854 inhabitants Nafplio – 18,910 inhabitants Archaeological sites[edit] The ancient theatre of Epidaurus View of the ancient Asclepeion in Messene The Peloponnese possesses many important archaeological sites dating from the Bronze Age through to the Middle Ages. Among the most notable are: Bassae (ancient town and the temple of Epikourios Apollo and Greece's first UNESCO World Heritage Site) Corinth (ancient city) Epidaurus (ancient religious and healing centre and UNESCO World Heritage Site) Koroni (medieval seaside fortress and city walls) Kalamata Acropolis (medieval acropolis and fortress located within the modern city) Messene (ancient city) Methoni (medieval seaside fortress and city walls) Mistra (medieval Byzantine fortress-town near Sparta and UNESCO World Heritage Site) Monemvasia (medieval fortress-town) Mycenae (fortress-town of the eponymous civilization and UNESCO World Heritage Site) Olympia (site of the Ancient Olympic Games and UNESCO World Heritage Site) Sparta Pylos (the Palace of Nestor and a well-preserved medieval/early modern fortress) Pavlopetri (the oldest underwater city in the world, located in Vatika Bay, dating from the early Bronze Age 3,500 BCE) Tegea (ancient religious centre) Tiryns (ancient fortified settlement and UNESCO World Heritage Site) Diros caves (4000 – 3000 BC) Cuisine[edit] Specialities of the region: Goges/Goglies (type of pasta) Giosa, lamb or goat meat Hilopites Kalamata (olive) Kolokythopita (pumpkin pie) Piperopita Syglino (pork meat) (Mani Peninsula) Regali, lamb soup (Mani) Diples (dessert) Galatopita (dessert) Tentura drink Gournopoula (or Bouziopoula), pork Several notable Peloponnese wines have Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) status. The Mantineia region makes a white wine made from Moschofilero, the Nemea wine region makes renowned red wines from the Agiorgitiko grape, and fortified red wine is made in the region around the city of Patras from Mavrodafni grapes. See also[edit] Geography of Greece List of Greek place names References[edit] ^ Kazhdan (1991), p. 927 ^ a b Kazhdan (1991), p. 1620 ^ Curta (2011), p. 65 ^ Curta (2011), p. 63 ^ Gregory, TE (2010), A History of Byzantium, Wiley-Blackwell, p. 169, It is now generally agreed that the people who lived in the Balkans after the Slavic "invasions" were probably, for the most part, the same as those who had lived there earlier, although the creation of new political groups and arrival of small immigrants caused people to look at themselves as distinct from their neighbors, including the Byzantines. ^ Curta (2011), pp. 283–285 ^ Obolensky (1971), pp. 54–55, 75 ^ Kazhdan (1991), pp. 911, 1620–1621 ^ Curta (2011), pp. 279–281 ^ Curta (2011), p. 254 ^ Fine (1983), p. 63 ^ a b Fine (1983), p. 61 ^ Curta (2011), p. 126 ^ Fine (1983), pp. 80, 82 ^ Curta (2011), p. 134 ^ Fine (1983), p. 79 ^ Fine (1983), p. 83 ^ Curta (2011), p. 285 ^ Fine (1983), p. 64 ^ Stamatoyannopoulos, George et al., Genetics of the Peloponnesian populations and the theory of extinction of the medieval Peloponnesian Greeks, European Journal of Human Genetics, 25.5 (2017), pp. 637–645 ^ a b Kazhdan (1991), p. 1621 ^ Bées & Savvides (1993), p. 236 ^ Kazhdan (1991), pp. 11, 1621, 2158 ^ Kazhdan (1991), p. 1409 ^ Kazhdan (1991), pp. 11, 1621 ^ Obolensky (1971), p. 8 ^ a b c Bées & Savvides (1993), p. 237 ^ a b Bées & Savvides (1993), p. 239 ^ a b c Bées & Savvides (1993), p. 238 ^ Birken (1976), pp. 57, 61–64 ^ Bées & Savvides (1993), pp. 239–240 ^ a b c d Bées & Savvides (1993), p. 240 ^ a b c Richard Clogg (20 June 2002). A Concise History of Greece. Cambridge University Press. pp. 35–42. ISBN 978-0-521-00479-4. Further reading[edit] Bées, N. A. & Savvides, A. (1993). "Mora". In Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W. P. & Pellat, Ch. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume VII: Mif–Naz. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 236–241. ISBN 978-90-04-09419-2. Birken, Andreas (1976). Die Provinzen des Osmanischen Reiches. Beihefte zum Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients (in German). 13. Reichert. ISBN 9783920153568. Fine, John V. A. Jr. (1991) [1983]. The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08149-7. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Obolensky, Dimitri (1971). The Byzantine Commonwealth: Eastern Europe, 500–1453. Praeger Publishers. Florin Curta (2011). The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, C. 500 to 1050: The Early Middle Ages. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 9780748638093. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Peloponnese. Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Peloponnese. Britannica.com Official Regional Government Website Greek Fire Survivors Mourn Amid Devastation in Peloponnese. Stewart, Daniel (2013). "Storing up Problems: Labour, Storage, and the Rural Peloponnese". 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en-wikipedia-org-909	----	Pissuthnes - Wikipedia Pissuthnes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Pissuthnes Anonymous portrait of a Satrap of Asia Minor, around the time of Pissuthnes. From a coin of Ionia, Phokaia, circa 478-387 BC. Allegiance Achaemenid Empire Rank Satrap of Lydia and Ionia Pissuthnes was satrap of Lydia, including Ionia. Pissuthnes, also known as Pissouthnes, (Old Persian Pišyauθna, Greek Πισσούθνης) was an Achaemenid satrap of Lydia, which included Ionia, circa 440–415 BC. His capital was Sardis.[1][2] He was the son of Hystaspes, probably himself the son of Darius I, which shows his Persian origin and his membership of the Achaemenid dynasty.[3] He held the satrapy for over twenty years, and became extremely rich as a consequence.[4] He helped the Samians in the Samian Revolt against Athens, and supported various oligarchical movements against Athens along the coast of Asia Minor.[5] Pissuthnes was probably a grandson of Darius I. He revolted against the Persian king Darius II Nothus between 420-415 BC.[6] He recruited Greek mercenaries under the generalship of Lycon for his campaigns.[7] Tissaphernes, who was sent by the King to suppress the revolt of Pissuthnes, managed to bribe Lycon, and then brought Pissuthnes to Susa where he was executed.[8] Tissaphernes became his successor as Satrap of Lydia.[9] Pissuthnes had a natural son named Amorges, who continued the rebellion against the Persian king.[10] References[edit] ^ Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. p. 581. ISBN 9781575061207. ^ Delphi Complete Works of Thucydides (Illustrated). Delphi Classics. 2013. p. 1402. ISBN 9781909496767. ^ Rawlinson, George (2018). The Persian Empire. Endymion Press. p. 197. ISBN 9781531295752. ^ Rawlinson, George (1885). The Seven Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World: Or, The History, Geography and Antiquities of Chaldæa, Assyria, Babylon, Media, Persia, Parthia, and Sassanian Or New Persian Empire. J. W. Lovell Company. p. 507. ^ The Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge University Press. 1970. p. 143. ISBN 9780521233477. ^ Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. p. 675. ISBN 9781575061207. ^ Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. p. 578. ISBN 9781575061207. ^ Rawlinson, George (2018). The Persian Empire. Endymion Press. p. 197. ISBN 9781531295752. ^ The Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge University Press. 1970. p. 464. ISBN 9780521233477. ^ Delphi Complete Works of Thucydides (Illustrated). Delphi Classics. 2013. p. 2127. ISBN 9781909496767. External links[edit] Pissuthnes, Livius v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pissuthnes&oldid=1002030915" Categories: Achaemenid satraps of Lydia Military leaders of the Achaemenid Empire 5th-century BC Iranian people Achaemenid satraps of Caria Achaemenid satraps of Ionia Achaemenid dynasty Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Español Hrvatski مصرى Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 22 January 2021, at 14:13 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-910	----	Egyptian hieroglyphs - Wikipedia Egyptian hieroglyphs From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Formal writing system used by ancient Egyptians "Hieroglyphics" redirects here. For other uses, see Hieroglyph (disambiguation). Egyptian hieroglyphs Hieroglyphs from KV17, the tomb of Seti I, 13th century BC Type Logography usable as an abjad Languages Egyptian language Time period c. 3200 BC[1][2][3] – AD 400[4] Parent systems (Proto-writing) Egyptian hieroglyphs Child systems Hieratic, Proto-Sinaitic Direction Left-to-right ISO 15924 Egyp, 050 Unicode alias Egyptian Hieroglyphs Unicode range U+13000–U+1342F Hieroglyphs U+13430–U+1343F Controls This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. Egyptian hieroglyphs (/ˈhaɪrəɡlɪfs/)[5][6] were the formal writing system used in Ancient Egypt. Hieroglyphs combined logographic, syllabic and alphabetic elements, with a total of some 1,000 distinct characters.[7][8] Cursive hieroglyphs were used for religious literature on papyrus and wood. The later hieratic and demotic Egyptian scripts were derived from hieroglyphic writing, as was the Proto-Sinaitic script that later evolved into the Phoenician alphabet.[9] Through the Phoenician alphabet's major child systems, the Greek and Aramaic scripts, the Egyptian hieroglyphic script is ancestral to the majority of scripts in modern use, most prominently the Latin and Cyrillic scripts (through Greek) and the Arabic script and Brahmic family of scripts (through Aramaic). The use of hieroglyphic writing arose from proto-literate symbol systems in the Early Bronze Age, around the 32nd century BC (Naqada III),[2] with the first decipherable sentence written in the Egyptian language dating to the Second Dynasty (28th century BC). Egyptian hieroglyphs developed into a mature writing system used for monumental inscription in the classical language of the Middle Kingdom period; during this period, the system made use of about 900 distinct signs. The use of this writing system continued through the New Kingdom and Late Period, and on into the Persian and Ptolemaic periods. Late survivals of hieroglyphic use are found well into the Roman period, extending into the 4th century AD.[4] With the final closing of pagan temples in the 5th century, knowledge of hieroglyphic writing was lost. Although attempts were made, the script remained undeciphered throughout the Middle Ages and the early modern period. The decipherment of hieroglyphic writing was finally accomplished in the 1820s by Jean-François Champollion, with the help of the Rosetta Stone.[10] Contents 1 Etymology 2 History and evolution 2.1 Origin 2.2 Mature writing system 2.3 Late Period 2.4 Late survival 3 Decipherment 4 Writing system 4.1 Phonetic reading 4.1.1 Uniliteral signs 4.1.2 Phonetic complements 4.2 Semantic reading 4.2.1 Logograms 4.2.2 Determinatives 4.3 Additional signs 4.3.1 Cartouche 4.3.2 Filling stroke 4.4 Signs joined together 4.4.1 Doubling 4.5 Grammatical signs 5 Spelling 6 Simple examples 7 Encoding and font support 8 See also 9 Notes and references 10 Further reading 11 External links Etymology The word hieroglyph comes from the Greek adjective ἱερογλυφικός (hieroglyphikos),[11] a compound of ἱερός (hierós 'sacred')[12] and γλύφω (glýphō '(Ι) carve, engrave'; see glyph).[13] The glyphs themselves, since the Ptolemaic period, were called τὰ ἱερογλυφικὰ [γράμματα] (tà hieroglyphikà [grámmata]) "the sacred engraved letters", the Greek counterpart to the Egyptian expression of mdw.w-nṯr "god's words".[14] Greek ἱερόγλυφος meant "a carver of hieroglyphs".[15] In English, hieroglyph as a noun is recorded from 1590, originally short for nominalised hieroglyphic (1580s, with a plural hieroglyphics), from adjectival use (hieroglyphic character).[16][17] History and evolution Origin See also: History of writing Paintings with symbols on Naqada II pottery (3500–3200 BC) Hieroglyphs may have emerged from the preliterate artistic traditions of Egypt. For example, symbols on Gerzean pottery from c. 4000 BC have been argued to resemble hieroglyphic writing.[18] Designs on some of the labels or token from Abydos, carbon-dated to circa 3400–3200 BC and among the earliest form of writing in Egypt.[19][20] They are similar to contemporary tags from Uruk, Mesopotamia.[21] Proto-hieroglyphic symbol systems developed in the second half of the 4th millennium BC, such as the clay labels of a Predynastic ruler called "Scorpion I" (Naqada IIIA period, c. 33rd century BC) recovered at Abydos (modern Umm el-Qa'ab) in 1998 or the Narmer Palette (c. 31st century BC).[2] The first full sentence written in mature hieroglyphs so far discovered was found on a seal impression in the tomb of Seth-Peribsen at Umm el-Qa'ab, which dates from the Second Dynasty (28th or 27th century BC). Around 800 hieroglyphs are known to date back to the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom Eras. By the Greco-Roman period, there were more than 5,000.[7] Geoffrey Sampson stated that Egyptian hieroglyphs "came into existence a little after Sumerian script, and, probably, [were] invented under the influence of the latter",[22] and that it is "probable that the general idea of expressing words of a language in writing was brought to Egypt from Sumerian Mesopotamia".[23][24] There are many instances of early Egypt-Mesopotamia relations, but given the lack of direct evidence for the transfer of writing, "no definitive determination has been made as to the origin of hieroglyphics in ancient Egypt".[25] Others have held that "the evidence for such direct influence remains flimsy” and that “a very credible argument can also be made for the independent development of writing in Egypt..."[26] Since the 1990s, the above-mentioned discoveries of glyphs at Abydos, dated to between 3400 and 3200 BCE, have shed doubt on the classical notion that the Mesopotamian symbol system predates the Egyptian one. However, Egyptian writing appeared suddenly at that time, while Mesopotamia had a long evolutionary history of sign usage in tokens dating back to circa 8000 BCE.[20] Hieroglyphs became the inspiration for the original alphabet that was ancestral to nearly all others, including the Latin alphabet.[citation needed] Labels with early inscriptions from the tomb of Menes (3200–3000 BC) Ivory plaque of Menes (3200-3000 BC) Ivory plaque of Menes (drawing) The oldest known full sentence written in mature hieroglyphs. Seal impression of Seth-Peribsen (Second Dynasty, c. 28-27th century BC) Mature writing system Further information: Middle Egyptian language Hieroglyphs consist of three kinds of glyphs: phonetic glyphs, including single-consonant characters that function like an alphabet; logographs, representing morphemes; and determinatives, which narrow down the meaning of logographic or phonetic words. Hieroglyphs on stela in Louvre, circa 1321 BC Late Period Further information: Late Egyptian language As writing developed and became more widespread among the Egyptian people, simplified glyph forms developed, resulting in the hieratic (priestly) and demotic (popular) scripts. These variants were also more suited than hieroglyphs for use on papyrus. Hieroglyphic writing was not, however, eclipsed, but existed alongside the other forms, especially in monumental and other formal writing. The Rosetta Stone contains three parallel scripts – hieroglyphic, demotic, and Greek. Late survival Hieroglyphs continued to be used under Persian rule (intermittent in the 6th and 5th centuries BC), and after Alexander the Great's conquest of Egypt, during the ensuing Ptolemaic and Roman periods. It appears that the misleading quality of comments from Greek and Roman writers about hieroglyphs came about, at least in part, as a response to the changed political situation. Some believed that hieroglyphs may have functioned as a way to distinguish 'true Egyptians' from some of the foreign conquerors. Another reason may be the refusal to tackle a foreign culture on its own terms, which characterized Greco-Roman approaches to Egyptian culture generally.[citation needed] Having learned that hieroglyphs were sacred writing, Greco-Roman authors imagined the complex but rational system as an allegorical, even magical, system transmitting secret, mystical knowledge.[4] By the 4th century AD, few Egyptians were capable of reading hieroglyphs, and the "myth of allegorical hieroglyphs" was ascendant.[4] Monumental use of hieroglyphs ceased after the closing of all non-Christian temples in 391 by the Roman Emperor Theodosius I; the last known inscription is from Philae, known as the Graffito of Esmet-Akhom, from 394.[4][27] The Hieroglyphica of Horapollo (c. 5th century) appears to retain some genuine knowledge about the writing system. It offers an explanation of close to 200 signs. Some are identified correctly, such as the "goose" hieroglyph (zꜣ) representing the word for "son".[4] A half-dozen Demotic glyphs are still in use, added to the Greek alphabet when writing Coptic. Decipherment Main article: Decipherment of ancient Egyptian scripts Ibn Wahshiyya's translation of the Ancient Egyptian hieroglyph alphabet Knowledge of the hieroglyphs had been lost completely by the medieval period. Early attempts at decipherment are due to Dhul-Nun al-Misri and Ibn Wahshiyya (9th and 10th century, respectively).[28] All medieval and early modern attempts were hampered by the fundamental assumption that hieroglyphs recorded ideas and not the sounds of the language. As no bilingual texts were available, any such symbolic 'translation' could be proposed without the possibility of verification.[29] It was not until Athanasius Kircher in the mid 17th century that scholars began to think the hieroglyphs might also represent sounds. Kircher was familiar with Coptic, and thought that it might be the key to deciphering the hieroglyphs, but was held back by a belief in the mystical nature of the symbols.[4] The Rosetta Stone in the British Museum The breakthrough in decipherment came only with the discovery of the Rosetta Stone by Napoleon's troops in 1799 (during Napoleon's Egyptian invasion). As the stone presented a hieroglyphic and a demotic version of the same text in parallel with a Greek translation, plenty of material for falsifiable studies in translation was suddenly available. In the early 19th century, scholars such as Silvestre de Sacy, Johan David Åkerblad, and Thomas Young studied the inscriptions on the stone, and were able to make some headway. Finally, Jean-François Champollion made the complete decipherment by the 1820s. In his Lettre à M. Dacier (1822), he wrote: It is a complex system, writing figurative, symbolic, and phonetic all at once, in the same text, the same phrase, I would almost say in the same word.[30] Illustration from Tabula Aegyptiaca hieroglyphicis exornata published in Acta Eruditorum, 1714 Writing system This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. Visually, hieroglyphs are all more or less figurative: they represent real or abstract elements, sometimes stylized and simplified, but all generally perfectly recognizable in form. However, the same sign can, according to context, be interpreted in diverse ways: as a phonogram (phonetic reading), as a logogram, or as an ideogram (semagram; "determinative") (semantic reading). The determinative was not read as a phonetic constituent, but facilitated understanding by differentiating the word from its homophones. Phonetic reading Hieroglyphs typical of the Graeco-Roman period Most non-determinative hieroglyphic signs are phonograms, whose meaning is determined by pronunciation, independent of visual characteristics. This follows the rebus principle where, for example, the picture of an eye could stand not only for the English word eye, but also for its phonetic equivalent, the first person pronoun I. Phonograms formed with one consonant are called uniliteral signs; with two consonants, biliteral signs; with three, triliteral signs. Twenty-four uniliteral signs make up the so-called hieroglyphic alphabet. Egyptian hieroglyphic writing does not normally indicate vowels, unlike cuneiform, and for that reason has been labelled by some an abjad alphabet, i.e., an alphabet without vowels. Thus, hieroglyphic writing representing a pintail duck is read in Egyptian as sꜣ, derived from the main consonants of the Egyptian word for this duck: 's', 'ꜣ' and 't'. (Note that ꜣ or , two half-rings opening to the left, sometimes replaced by the digit '3', is the Egyptian alef.) It is also possible to use the hieroglyph of the pintail duck without a link to its meaning in order to represent the two phonemes s and ꜣ, independently of any vowels that could accompany these consonants, and in this way write the word: sꜣ, "son"; or when complemented by other signs detailed below[clarification needed] sꜣ, "keep, watch"; and sꜣṯ.w, "hard ground". For example:  – the characters sꜣ;  – the same character used only in order to signify, according to the context, "pintail duck" or, with the appropriate determinative, "son", two words having the same or similar consonants; the meaning of the little vertical stroke will be explained further on:  – the character sꜣ as used in the word sꜣw, "keep, watch"[clarification needed] As in the Arabic script, not all vowels were written in Egyptian hieroglyphs; it is debatable whether vowels were written at all. Possibly, as with Arabic, the semivowels /w/ and /j/ (as in English W and Y) could double as the vowels /u/ and /i/. In modern transcriptions, an e is added between consonants to aid in their pronunciation. For example, nfr "good" is typically written nefer. This does not reflect Egyptian vowels, which are obscure, but is merely a modern convention. Likewise, the ꜣ and ʾ are commonly transliterated as a, as in Ra. Hieroglyphs are inscribed in rows of pictures arranged in horizontal lines or vertical columns.[31] Both hieroglyph lines as well as signs contained in the lines are read with upper content having precedence over content below.[31] The lines or columns, and the individual inscriptions within them, read from left to right in rare instances only and for particular reasons at that; ordinarily however, they read from right to left–the Egyptians' preferred direction of writing (although, for convenience, modern texts are often normalized into left-to-right order).[31] The direction toward which asymmetrical hieroglyphs face indicate their proper reading order. For example, when human and animal hieroglyphs face or look toward the left, they almost always must be read from left to right, and vice versa. As in many ancient writing systems, words are not separated by blanks or punctuation marks. However, certain hieroglyphs appear particularly common only at the end of words, making it possible to readily distinguish words. Uniliteral signs Hieroglyphs at Amada, at temple founded by Tuthmosis III Main article: Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian § Uniliteral signs The Egyptian hieroglyphic script contained 24 uniliterals (symbols that stood for single consonants, much like letters in English). It would have been possible to write all Egyptian words in the manner of these signs, but the Egyptians never did so and never simplified their complex writing into a true alphabet.[32] Each uniliteral glyph once had a unique reading, but several of these fell together as Old Egyptian developed into Middle Egyptian. For example, the folded-cloth glyph seems to have been originally an /s/ and the door-bolt glyph a /θ/ sound, but these both came to be pronounced /s/, as the /θ/ sound was lost.[clarification needed] A few uniliterals first appear in Middle Egyptian texts. Besides the uniliteral glyphs, there are also the biliteral and triliteral signs, to represent a specific sequence of two or three consonants, consonants and vowels, and a few as vowel combinations only, in the language. Phonetic complements Egyptian writing is often redundant: in fact, it happens very frequently that a word is followed by several characters writing the same sounds, in order to guide the reader. For example, the word nfr, "beautiful, good, perfect", was written with a unique triliteral that was read as nfr: However, it is considerably more common to add to that triliteral, the uniliterals for f and r. The word can thus be written as nfr+f+r, but one still reads it merely as nfr. The two alphabetic characters are adding clarity to the spelling of the preceding triliteral hieroglyph. Redundant characters accompanying biliteral or triliteral signs are called phonetic complements (or complementaries). They can be placed in front of the sign (rarely), after the sign (as a general rule), or even framing it (appearing both before and after). Ancient Egyptian scribes consistently avoided leaving large areas of blank space in their writing, and might add additional phonetic complements or sometimes even invert the order of signs if this would result in a more aesthetically pleasing appearance (good scribes attended to the artistic, and even religious, aspects of the hieroglyphs, and would not simply view them as a communication tool). Various examples of the use of phonetic complements can be seen below: – md +d +w (the complementary d is placed after the sign) → it reads mdw, meaning "tongue". – ḫ +p +ḫpr +r +j (the four complementaries frame the triliteral sign of the scarab beetle) → it reads ḫpr.j, meaning the name "Khepri", with the final glyph being the determinative for 'ruler or god'. Notably, phonetic complements were also used to allow the reader to differentiate between signs that are homophones, or which do not always have a unique reading. For example, the symbol of "the seat" (or chair): – This can be read st, ws and ḥtm, according to the word in which it is found. The presence of phonetic complements—and of the suitable determinative—allows the reader to know which of the three readings to choose: 1st Reading: st – – st, written st+t; the last character is the determinative of "the house" or that which is found there, meaning "seat, throne, place"; – st (written st+t; the "egg" determinative is used for female personal names in some periods), meaning "Isis"; 2nd Reading: ws – – wsjr (written ws+jr, with, as a phonetic complement, "the eye", which is read jr, following the determinative of "god"), meaning "Osiris"; 3rd Reading: ḥtm – – ḥtm.t (written ḥ+ḥtm+m+t, with the determinative of "Anubis" or "the jackal"), meaning a kind of wild animal; – ḥtm (written ḥ +ḥtm +t, with the determinative of the flying bird), meaning "to disappear". Finally, it sometimes happens that the pronunciation of words might be changed because of their connection to Ancient Egyptian: in this case, it is not rare for writing to adopt a compromise in notation, the two readings being indicated jointly. For example, the adjective bnj, "sweet", became bnr. In Middle Egyptian, one can write: – bnrj (written b+n+r+i, with determinative) which is fully read as bnr, the j not being pronounced but retained in order to keep a written connection with the ancient word (in the same fashion as the English language words through, knife, or victuals, which are no longer pronounced the way they are written.) Semantic reading Comparative evolution from pictograms to abstract shapes, in cuneiform, Egyptian and Chinese characters Besides a phonetic interpretation, characters can also be read for their meaning: in this instance, logograms are being spoken (or ideograms) and semagrams (the latter are also called determinatives).[clarification needed][33] Logograms A hieroglyph used as a logogram defines the object of which it is an image. Logograms are therefore the most frequently used common nouns; they are always accompanied by a mute vertical stroke indicating their status as a logogram (the usage of a vertical stroke is further explained below); in theory, all hieroglyphs would have the ability to be used as logograms. Logograms can be accompanied by phonetic complements. Here are some examples: – rꜥ, meaning "sun"; – pr, meaning "house"; – swt (sw+t), meaning "reed"; – ḏw, meaning "mountain". In some cases, the semantic connection is indirect (metonymic or metaphoric): – nṯr, meaning "god"; the character in fact represents a temple flag (standard); – bꜣ, meaning "Bâ" (soul); the character is the traditional representation of a "bâ" (a bird with a human head); – dšr, meaning "flamingo"; the corresponding phonogram means "red" and the bird is associated by metonymy with this color. Determinatives Determinatives or semagrams (semantic symbols specifying meaning) are placed at the end of a word. These mute characters serve to clarify what the word is about, as homophonic glyphs are common. If a similar procedure existed in English, words with the same spelling would be followed by an indicator that would not be read, but which would fine-tune the meaning: "retort [chemistry]" and "retort [rhetoric]" would thus be distinguished. A number of determinatives exist: divinities, humans, parts of the human body, animals, plants, etc. Certain determinatives possess a literal and a figurative meaning. For example, a roll of papyrus,   is used to define "books" but also abstract ideas. The determinative of the plural is a shortcut to signal three occurrences of the word, that is to say, its plural (since the Egyptian language had a dual, sometimes indicated by two strokes). This special character is explained below. Extract from the Tale of the Two Brothers.[34] Here, are several examples of the use of determinatives borrowed from the book, Je lis les hiéroglyphes ("I am reading hieroglyphs") by Jean Capart, which illustrate their importance: – nfrw (w and the three strokes are the marks of the plural): [literally] "the beautiful young people", that is to say, the young military recruits. The word has a young-person determinative symbol: – which is the determinative indicating babies and children; – nfr.t (.t is here the suffix that forms the feminine): meaning "the nubile young woman", with as the determinative indicating a woman; – nfrw (the tripling of the character serving to express the plural, flexional ending w) : meaning "foundations (of a house)", with the house as a determinative, ; – nfr : meaning "clothing" with   as the determinative for lengths of cloth; – nfr : meaning "wine" or "beer"; with a jug   as the determinative. All these words have a meliorative connotation: "good, beautiful, perfect". The Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian by Raymond A. Faulkner, gives some twenty words that are read nfr or which are formed from this word. Additional signs Cartouche Egyptian hieroglyphs with cartouches for the name Ramesses II, from the Luxor Temple, New Kingdom Rarely, the names of gods are placed within a cartouche; the two last names of the sitting king are always placed within a cartouche: jmn-rꜥ, "Amon-Ra"; qljwꜣpdrꜣ.t, "Cleopatra"; Filling stroke A filling stroke is a character indicating the end of a quadrat that would otherwise be incomplete. Signs joined together Some signs are the contraction of several others. These signs have, however, a function and existence of their own: for example, a forearm where the hand holds a scepter is used as a determinative for words meaning "to direct, to drive" and their derivatives. Doubling The doubling of a sign indicates its dual; the tripling of a sign indicates its plural. Grammatical signs The vertical stroke indicates that the sign is a logogram. Two strokes indicate the dual number, and the three strokes the plural. The direct notation of flexional endings, for example: Spelling Standard orthography—"correct" spelling—in Egyptian is much looser than in modern languages. In fact, one or several variants exist for almost every word. One finds: Redundancies; Omission of graphemes, which are ignored whether or not they are intentional; Substitutions of one grapheme for another, such that it is impossible to distinguish a "mistake" from an "alternate spelling"; Errors of omission in the drawing of signs, which are much more problematic when the writing is cursive (hieratic) writing, but especially demotic, where the schematization of the signs is extreme. However, many of these apparent spelling errors constitute an issue of chronology. Spelling and standards varied over time, so the writing of a word during the Old Kingdom might be considerably different during the New Kingdom. Furthermore, the Egyptians were perfectly content to include older orthography ("historical spelling") alongside newer practices, as though it were acceptable in English to use archaic spellings in modern texts. Most often, ancient "spelling errors" are simply misinterpretations of context. Today, hieroglyphicists use numerous cataloguing systems (notably the Manuel de Codage and Gardiner's Sign List) to clarify the presence of determinatives, ideograms, and other ambiguous signs in transliteration. Simple examples nomen or birth name Ptolemy in hieroglyphs The glyphs in this cartouche are transliterated as: p t "ua" l m y (ii) s Ptolmys though ii is considered a single letter and transliterated y. Another way in which hieroglyphs work is illustrated by the two Egyptian words pronounced pr (usually vocalised as per). One word is 'house', and its hieroglyphic representation is straightforward: Name of Alexander the Great in hieroglyphs, c. 332 BC, Egypt. Louvre Museum Here, the 'house' hieroglyph works as a logogram: it represents the word with a single sign. The vertical stroke below the hieroglyph is a common way of indicating that a glyph is working as a logogram. Another word pr is the verb 'to go out, leave'. When this word is written, the 'house' hieroglyph is used as a phonetic symbol: Here, the 'house' glyph stands for the consonants pr. The 'mouth' glyph below it is a phonetic complement: it is read as r, reinforcing the phonetic reading of pr. The third hieroglyph is a determinative: it is an ideogram for verbs of motion that gives the reader an idea of the meaning of the word. Encoding and font support Egyptian hieroglyphs were added to the Unicode Standard in October 2009 with the release of version 5.2 which introduced the Egyptian Hieroglyphs block (U+13000–U+1342F) with 1,071 defined characters. As of July 2013[update], four fonts, Aegyptus, NewGardiner, Noto Sans Egyptian Hieroglyphs and JSeshFont support this range. Another font, Segoe UI Historic, comes bundled with Windows 10 and also contains glyphs for the Egyptian Hieroglyphs block. Segoe UI Historic excludes three glyphs depicting phallus ( Gardiner's D52, D52A D53, Unicode code points U+130B8–U+130BA).[35] See also Ancient Egypt portal List of Egyptian hieroglyphs Gardiner's sign list Egyptian numerals Egyptian language Middle Bronze Age alphabets Manuel de Codage Notes and references ^ "...The Mesopotamians invented writing around 3200 bc without any precedent to guide them, as did the Egyptians, independently as far as we know, at approximately the same time" The Oxford History of Historical Writing. Vol. 1. To AD 600, page 5 ^ a b c Richard Mattessich (2002). "The oldest writings, and inventory tags of Egypt". Accounting Historians Journal. 29 (1): 195–208. doi:10.2308/0148-4184.29.1.195. JSTOR 40698264. ^ Allen, James P. (2010). Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs. Cambridge University Press. p. 2. ISBN 9781139486354. ^ a b c d e f g Allen, James P. (2010). Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs. Cambridge University Press. p. 8. ISBN 9781139486354. ^ Jones, Daniel (2003) [1917], Peter Roach; James Hartmann; Jane Setter (eds.), English Pronouncing Dictionary, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-3-12-539683-8 ^ "hieroglyph". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. ^ a b There were about 1,000 graphemes in the Old Kingdom period, reduced to around 750 to 850 in the classical language of the Middle Kingdom, but inflated to the order of some 5,000 signs in the Ptolemaic period. Antonio Loprieno, Ancient Egyptian: A Linguistic Introduction (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1995), p. 12. ^ The standard inventory of characters used in Egyptology is Gardiner's sign list (1928–1953). A.H. Gardiner (1928), Catalogue of the Egyptian hieroglyphic printing type, from matrices owned and controlled by Dr. Alan Gardiner, "Additions to the new hieroglyphic fount (1928)", in The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 15 (1929), p. 95; "Additions to the new hieroglyphic fount (1931)", in The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 17 (1931), pp. 245-247; A.H. Gardiner, "Supplement to the catalogue of the Egyptian hieroglyphic printing type, showing acquisitions to December 1953" (1953). Unicode Egyptian Hieroglyphs as of version 5.2 (2009) assigned 1,070 Unicode characters. ^ Michael C. Howard (2012). Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies. P. 23. ^ Houston, Stephen; Baines, John; Cooper, Jerrold (July 2003). "Last Writing: Script Obsolescence in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Mesoamerica". Comparative Studies in Society and History. 45 (3). doi:10.1017/s0010417503000227. ISSN 0010-4175. ^ ἱερογλυφικός. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project. ^ ἱερός in Liddell and Scott. ^ γλύφω in Liddell and Scott. ^ Antonio Loprieno, Ancient Egyptian: A Linguistic Introduction (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1995), p. 11. ^ ἱερόγλυφος in Liddell and Scott. ^ "Hieroglyphic | Definition of Hieroglyphic by Merriam-Webster". Retrieved 2016-08-27. ^ Harper, Douglas. "hieroglyphic". Online Etymology Dictionary. ^ Joly, Marcel (2003). "Sayles, George(, Sr.)". Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.j397600. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ Scarre, Chris; Fagan, Brian M. (2016). Ancient Civilizations. Routledge. p. 106. ISBN 9781317296089. ^ a b "The seal impressions, from various tombs, date even further back, to 3400 B.C. These dates challenge the commonly held belief that early logographs, pictographic symbols representing a specific place, object, or quantity, first evolved into more complex phonetic symbols in Mesopotamia." Mitchell, Larkin. "Earliest Egyptian Glyphs". Archaeology. Archaeological Institute of America. Retrieved 29 February 2012. ^ Conference, William Foxwell Albright Centennial (1996). The Study of the Ancient Near East in the Twenty-first Century: The William Foxwell Albright Centennial Conference. Eisenbrauns. p. –24–25. ISBN 9780931464966. ^ Geoffrey Sampson (1 January 1990). Writing Systems: A Linguistic Introduction. Stanford University Press. pp. 78–. ISBN 978-0-8047-1756-4. Retrieved 31 October 2011. ^ Geoffrey W. Bromiley (June 1995). The international standard Bible encyclopedia. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 1150–. ISBN 978-0-8028-3784-4. Retrieved 31 October 2011. ^ Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards, et al., The Cambridge Ancient History (3d ed. 1970) pp. 43–44. ^ Robert E. Krebs; Carolyn A. Krebs (December 2003). Groundbreaking scientific experiments, inventions, and discoveries of the ancient world. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 91–. ISBN 978-0-313-31342-4. Retrieved 31 October 2011. ^ Simson Najovits, Egypt, Trunk of the Tree: A Modern Survey of an Ancient Land, Algora Publishing, 2004, pp. 55–56. ^ The latest presently known hieroglyphic inscription date: Birthday of Osiris, year 110 [of Diocletian], dated to August 24, 394 ^ Ahmed ibn 'Ali ibn al Mukhtar ibn 'Abd al Karim (called Ibn Wahshiyah) (1806). Ancient alphabets & hieroglyphic characters explained: with an account of the Egyptian priests, their classes, initiation time, & sacrifices by the aztecs and their birds, in the Arabic language. W. Bulmer & co. Retrieved 31 October 2011. ^ Tabula Aegyptiaca hieroglyphicis exornata. Acta Eruditorum. Leipzig. 1714. p. 127. ^ Jean-François Champollion, Letter to M. Dacier, September 27, 1822 ^ a b c Sir Alan H. Gardiner, Egyptian Grammar, Third Edition Revised, Griffith Institute (2005), p. 25. ^ Gardiner, Sir Alan H. (1973). Egyptian Grammar. Griffith Institute. ISBN 978-0-900416-35-4. ^ Antonio Loprieno, Ancient Egyptian, A Linguistic Introduction, Cambridge University Press (1995), p. 13 ^ Budge, Wallis (1889). Egyptian Language. pp. 38–42. ^ "Segoe UI Historic Phallus Microsoft Censorship - Fonts in the Spludlow Framework". www.spludlow.co.uk. Retrieved 2019-05-13. Further reading Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy (2000). The Keys of Egypt: The Obsession to Decipher Egyptian Hieroglyphs. HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 978-0-06-019439-0. Allen, James P. (1999). Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77483-3. Collier, Mark & Bill Manley (1998). How to Read Egyptian Hieroglyphs: a step-by-step guide to teach yourself. British Museum Press. ISBN 978-0-7141-1910-6. Selden, Daniel L. (2013). Hieroglyphic Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Literature of the Middle Kingdom. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-27546-1. Faulkner, Raymond O. (1962). Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian. Griffith Institute. ISBN 978-0-900416-32-3. Gardiner, Sir Alan H. (1957). Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs, 3rd ed. revised. The Griffith Institute. Hill, Marsha (2007). Gifts for the gods: images from Egyptian temples. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 9781588392312. Kamrin, Janice (2004). Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphs: A Practical Guide. Harry N. Abrams, Inc. ISBN 978-0-8109-4961-4. McDonald, Angela. Write Your Own Egyptian Hieroglyphs. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007 (paperback, ISBN 0-520-25235-7). External links Look up hieroglyph in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Egyptian hieroglyphs. Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphics – Aldokkan Glyphs and Grammars – Resources for those interested in learning hieroglyphs, compiled by Aayko Eyma Hieroglyphics! – Annotated directory of popular and scholarly resources Egyptian Language and Writing Full-text of The stela of Menthu-weser Wikimedia's hieroglyph writing codes Unicode Fonts for Ancient Scripts – Ancient scripts free software fonts v t e Ancient Egypt topics Index Major topics Glossary of artifacts Agriculture Architecture (Egyptian Revival architecture) Art Portraiture Astronomy Chronology Cities (list) Clothing Cuisine Dance Dynasties Funerary practices Geography Great Royal Wives (list) Hieroglyphs History Language Literature Mathematics Medicine Military Music Mythology People Pharaohs (list) Philosophy Religion Sites Technology Trade Writing Egyptology Egyptologists Museums  Ancient Egypt portal Book Category WikiProject Commons Outline v t e Types of writing systems Overview History of writing Grapheme Lists Writing systems undeciphered inventors constructed Languages by writing system / by first written accounts Types Abjads Numerals Aramaic Hatran Arabic Egyptian hieroglyphs Hebrew Ashuri Cursive Rashi Solitreo Tifinagh Manichaean Nabataean Old North Arabian Pahlavi Pegon Phoenician Paleo-Hebrew Pitman shorthand Proto-Sinaitic Psalter Pahlavi Punic Samaritan South Arabian Zabur Musnad Sogdian Syriac ʾEsṭrangēlā Serṭā Maḏnḥāyā Teeline Shorthand Ugaritic Abugidas Brahmic Northern Assamese Bengali Bhaiksuki Bhujimol Brāhmī Devanāgarī Dogri Gujarati Gupta Gurmukhī Kaithi Kalinga Khojki Khudabadi Laṇḍā Lepcha Limbu Mahajani Meitei Modi Multani Nagari Nandinagari Odia Karani ʼPhags-pa Pracalit (Newar) Ranjana Sharada Siddhaṃ Soyombo Sylheti Nagari Takri Tibetan Uchen Umê Tirhuta Tocharian Zanabazar Square Marchen Marchung Pungs-chen Pungs-chung Drusha Southern Ahom Balinese Batak Baybayin Bhattiprolu Buhid Burmese Chakma Cham Grantha Goykanadi Hanunuo (Hanunó'o) Javanese Kadamba Kannada Karen Kawi Khmer Kulitan Lanna Lao Leke Lontara (Bilang-bilang) Makasar Malayalam Old Maldivian Dhives Akuru Eveyla Akuru Mon (Old Mon) New Tai Lue Pallava Pyu Rejang Rencong Saurashtra Shan Sinhala Sundanese (Old Sundanese) Tagbanwa Tai Le Tai Tham Tai Viet Tamil Tamil-Brahmi Telugu Thai Tigalari Vatteluttu Kolezhuthu Malayanma Others Boyd's syllabic shorthand Canadian syllabics Blackfoot Déné syllabics Fox I Geʽez Gunjala Gondi Japanese Braille Jenticha Kharosthi Mandombe Masaram Gondi Meroitic Miao Mwangwego Pahawh Hmong Sorang Sompeng Thaana Thomas Natural Shorthand Warang Citi Alphabets Linear Abkhaz Adlam Armenian Avestan Avoiuli Bassa Vah Borama Carian Caucasian Albanian Coelbren Coorgi–Cox alphabet Coptic Cyrillic Deseret Duployan shorthand Chinook writing Early Cyrillic Eclectic shorthand Elbasan Etruscan Evenki Fox II Fraser Gabelsberger shorthand Garay Georgian Asomtavruli Nuskhuri Mkhedruli Glagolitic Gothic Gregg shorthand Greek Greco-Iberian alphabet Hangul Hanifi IPA Jenticha Kaddare Kayah Li Klingon Latin Beneventan Blackletter Carolingian minuscule Fraktur Gaelic Insular Kurrent Merovingian Sigla Sütterlin Tironian notes Visigothic Luo Lycian Lydian Manchu Mandaic Medefaidrin Molodtsov Mongolian Mru Neo-Tifinagh N'Ko Ogham Oirat Ol Chiki Old Hungarian Old Italic Old Permic Orkhon Old Uyghur Osage Osmanya Pau Cin Hau Runic Anglo-Saxon Cipher Dalecarlian Elder Futhark Younger Futhark Gothic Marcomannic Medieval Staveless Sidetic Shavian Somali Sorang Sompeng Tifinagh Tolong Siki Vagindra Vietnamese Visible Speech Vithkuqi Wancho Warang Citi Zaghawa Non-linear Braille Maritime flags Telegraph code New York Point Flag semaphore Moon type Ideograms and pictograms Adinkra Aztec Blissymbol Dongba Ersu Shaba Emoji IConji Isotype Kaidā Míkmaq Mixtec New Epoch Notation Painting Nsibidi Ojibwe Hieroglyphs Siglas poveiras Testerian Yerkish Zapotec Logograms Chinese family of scripts Chinese Characters Simplified Traditional Oracle bone script Bronze Script Seal Script large small bird-worm Hanja Idu Kanji Chữ Nôm Zhuang Chinese-influenced Jurchen Khitan large script Sui Tangut Cuneiform Akkadian Assyrian Elamite Hittite Luwian Sumerian Other logo-syllabic Anatolian Bagam Cretan Isthmian Maya Proto-Elamite Yi (Classical) Logo-consonantal Demotic Hieratic Hieroglyphs Numerals Hindu-Arabic Abjad Attic (Greek) Muisca Roman Semi-syllabaries Full Celtiberian Northeastern Iberian Southeastern Iberian Khom Redundant Espanca Pahawh Hmong Khitan small script Southwest Paleohispanic Zhuyin fuhao Somacheirograms ASLwrite SignWriting si5s Stokoe Notation Syllabaries Afaka Bamum Bété Byblos Canadian Aboriginal Cherokee Cypriot Cypro-Minoan Ditema tsa Dinoko Eskayan Geba Great Lakes Algonquian Iban Japanese Hiragana Katakana Man'yōgana Hentaigana Sogana Jindai moji Kikakui Kpelle Linear B Linear Elamite Lisu Loma Nüshu Nwagu Aneke script Old Persian Cuneiform Sumerian Vai Woleai Yi (Modern) Yugtun v t e Braille ⠃⠗⠁⠊⠇⠇⠑ Braille cell 1829 braille 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en-wikipedia-org-9122	----	Sobekhotep IV - Wikipedia Sobekhotep IV From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sobekhotep IV Statue of Sobekhotep IV (Louvre) Pharaoh Reign About 10 years (13th Dynasty) Predecessor Neferhotep I and his coregent Sihathor Successor Merhotepre Sobekhotep Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Khaneferre Ḫˁ-nfr-Rˁ The perfect apparition of Ra Nomen Sobekhotep Sbk-ḥtp Sobek is satisfied Horus name Sankhibtawy ˁnḫ-jb-tȝ.wj Horus, may the heart of the two lands live Nebty name Wadjkhaw Wȝḏ-ḫˁw He whose apparitions are flourishing Golden Horus Weserbaw Wsr-bȝw He whose Bas are powerful Turin King List: Khaneferre Sobekhotep Ḫˁ-nfr-Rˁ sbk-ḥtp The perfect apparition of Ra, Sobek is satisfied Consort Tjan Children Sobekhotep-Miw ♂, Sobekhotep-Dja-Dja ♂, Haankhef-Iykherneferet ♂, Amenhotep ♂, Nebetiunet ♀[1] Father Haankhef Mother Kemi Burial Possibly tomb S10 at Abydos Khaneferre Sobekhotep IV was one of the more powerful Egyptian kings of the 13th Dynasty (c. 1803 BC to c. 1649 BC), who reigned at least eight years. His brothers, Neferhotep I and Sihathor, were his predecessors on the throne, the latter having only ruled as coregent for a few months. Sobekhotep states on a stela found in the Amun temple at Karnak that he was born in Thebes. The king is believed to have reigned for around 10 years. He is known by a relatively high number of monuments, including stelae, statues, many seals and other minor objects. There are attestations for building works at Abydos and Karnak. Contents 1 Family 2 Royal court 3 Royal activities 4 Sobekhotep IV's rule over a divided Egypt 5 References 6 Bibliography 7 External links Family[edit] Sobekhotep was the son of the 'god's father' Haankhef and of the 'king's mother' Kemi. His grandfather was the soldier of the town's regiment Nehy. His grandmother was called Senebtysy. Sobekhotep might have had several wives, only one of which is known for certain, the "king's wife" Tjan. Several children are known. These are Amenhotep and Nebetiunet, both with Tjan as mother. There are three further king's sons: Sobekhotep Miu, Sobekhotep Djadja and Haankhef Iykhernofret. Their mother is not recorded in extant sources.[2] Royal court[edit] The royal court is also well known from sources contemporaneous with Neferhotep I, providing evidence that Sobekhotep IV continued the politics of his brother in the administration. The Vizier was Neferkare Iymeru. The treasurer was Senebi and the high steward a certain Nebankh. Royal activities[edit] A stela of the king found at Karnak reports donations to the Amun-Ra temple.[3] A pair of door jambs with the name of the king was found at Karnak, attesting some building work. There is also a restoration inscription on a statue of king Mentuhotep II, also coming from Karnak. From Abydos are known several inscribed blocks attesting some building activities at the local temple[4] The vizier Neferkare Iymeru reports on one of his statues found at Karnak (Paris, Louvre A 125) that he built a canal and a house of millions of years for the king. The statue of the vizier was found at Karnak and might indicate that these buildings were erected there.[5] For year 6 is attested an expedition to the amethyst mines at Wadi el-Hudi in southernmost Egypt. The expedition is attested via four stelae set up at Wadi el-Hudi.[6] From the Wadi Hammamat comes a stela dated to the ninth regnal year of the king. He was perhaps buried at Abydos, where a huge tomb (compare: S10) naming a pharaoh Sobekhotep was found by Josef W. Wegner of the University of Pennsylvania just next to the funerary complex of Senusret III of the 12th Dynasty. Although initially attributed to pharaoh Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep I, the style of the burial suggests a date of the tomb under Sobekhotep IV.[7] Sobekhotep IV's rule over a divided Egypt[edit] Cartouche of Sobekhotep IV. While Sobekhotep IV was one of the most powerful 13th dynasty rulers and his control over Memphis, Middle Egypt and Thebes is well attested by historical records, it is believed that he did not rule over a united Egypt. According to the egyptologist Kim Ryholt, the 14th Dynasty was already in control of the eastern Nile Delta at the time.[8] Alternatively, N. Moeller and G. Marouard argue that the eastern Delta was ruled by the 15th Dynasty Hyksos king Khyan at the time of Sobekhotep IV. Their argument, presented in a recently published article,[9] relies on the discovery of an important early 12th dynasty (Middle Kingdom) administrative building in Tell Edfu, Upper Egypt, which was continuously in use from the early Second Intermediate Period until it fell out of use during the 17th dynasty, when its remains were sealed up by a large silo court. Fieldwork by Egyptologists in 2010 and 2011 into the remains of the former 12th Dynasty building, which was still in use at the time of the 13th dynasty, led to the discovery of a large adjoining hall which proved to contain 41 sealings showing the cartouche of the Hyksos ruler Khyan together with nine sealings naming the 13th dynasty king Sobekhotep IV.[10] As Moeller, Marouard and Ayers write: "These finds come from a secure and sealed archaeological context and open up new questions about the cultural and chronological evolution of the late Middle Kingdom and early Second Intermediate Period."[11] They conclude, first, that Khyan was actually one of the earlier Hyksos kings and may not have been succeeded by Apophis—who was the second last king of the Hyksos kingdom—and, second, that the 15th (Hyksos) Dynasty was already in existence by the mid-13th Dynasty period since Khyan controlled a part of northern Egypt at the same time as Sobekhotep IV ruled the rest of Egypt as a pharaoh of the 13th dynasty. This analysis and the conclusions drawn from it are questioned by Robert Porter, however, who argues that Khyan ruled much later than Sobekhotep IV. Porter notes that the seals of a pharaoh were used even long after his death, but also wonders whether Sobekhotep IV reigned much later and whether the early Thirteenth Dynasty was much longer than previously thought.[12] In Ryholt's chronology of the Second Intermediate Period, Khyan and Sobekhotep IV are separated by c. 100 years.[8] A similar figure is obtained by Nicolas Grimal.[13] Alexander Ilin-Tomich had a further close look at the pottery associated with the finds of seal impressions and draws parallels to Elephantine where one of the pottery forms of the find appears in a rather late Second Intermediate Period context. Ilin-Tomich concludes that there is no reason to believe that Khyan and Sobekhotep IV reigned at the same time. The level in which the seal impressions were found is later than Sobekhotep IV.[14] Regardless of which theory is true, either the 14th dynasty or the 15th dynasty already controlled the Delta by the time of Sobekhotep IV.[15] References[edit] ^ Julien Siesse: An unpublished Scarab of Queen Tjan (Thirteenth Dynasty) from the Louvre Museum (AF 6755), in: Gianluca Miniaci, Wolfram Grajetzki (eds.): The World of Middle Kingdom Egypt (2000-1550 BC), Vol. ii, London 2016, ISBN 9781906137489, p. 247 ^ K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800-1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, 231 ^ Wolfgang Helck: Eine Stele Sebekhoteps IV. aus Karnak, in MDAIK 24 (1969), 194-200 ^ Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800-1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, 349 ^ Elisabeth Delange: Catalogue des statues égyptinnes du Moyen Empire, 2060-1560 avant j.-c., Paris 1987 ISBN 2-7118-2-161-7, 66-68 ^ Ashraf I. Sadek: The Amethyst Mining Inscriptions of Wadi el-Hudi, Part I: Text, Warminster 1980, ISBN 0-85668-162-8, 46-52, nos. 22-25; Ashraf I. Sadek: The Amethyst Mining Inscriptions of Wadi el-Hudi, Part II: Additional Texts, Plates, Warminster 1980, ISBN 0-85668-264-0, 5-7, no. 155 ^ J. Wegner: A Royal Necropolis at Abydos, in: Near Eastern Archaeology, 78 (2), 2015, p. 70; J. Wegner, K. Cahail: Royal Funerary Equipment of a King Sobekhotep at South Abydos: Evidence for the Tombs of Sobekhotep IV and Neferhotep I?, in JARCE 15 (2015), 123-146 ^ a b K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800-1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997. ^ Nadine Moeller, Gregory Marouard & N. Ayers, Discussion of Late Middle Kingdom and Early Second Intermediate Period History and Chronology in Relation to the Khayan Sealings from Tell Edfu, in: Egypt and the Levant 21 (2011), pp.87-121 online PDF ^ Moeller, Marouard & Ayers, Egypt and the Levant 21, (2011), pp.87-108 ^ Moeller, Marouard & Ayers, Egypt and the Levant 21, (2011), p.87 ^ Robert M. Porter: The Second Intermediate Period according to Edfu, Goettinger Mizsellen 239 (2013), p. 75-80 ^ N. Grimal: Histoire de l'Égypte ancienne, 1988 ^ Alexander Ilin-Tomich: The Theban Kingdom of Dynasty 16: Its Rise, Administration and Politics, in: Journal of Egyptian History 7 (2014), 149-150 ^ Thomas Schneider, Ausländer in Ägypten während des Mittleren Reiches und der Hyksoszeit I, 1998, pp.158-59 Bibliography[edit] K.S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800-1550 BC, (Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997). External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sebekhotep Khaneferre. Sobekhotep IV Preceded by Neferhotep I Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Sobekhotep V v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sobekhotep_IV&oldid=968759304" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Català Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 21 July 2020, at 09:58 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9128	----	Philiscus of Abydos - Wikipedia Philiscus of Abydos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Abydos Location of Abydos in northwestern Asia Minor (modern Turkey). Philiscus or Philiskos (Greek: Φιλίσκος) was a 4th-century Greek tyrant of the city of Abydos,[1] on the Asian side of the Hellespont, and a hyparch ("vice-regent") and military commander of the Achaemenid satrap Ariobarzanes.[2] He was sent by Ariobarzanes in 368 BCE as an Achaemenid emissary to Delphi, where the Greek cities at war between themselves had assembled for peace negotiations.[3][4] Philiscus had probably been sent at the request of either Athens or Sparta, to help solve the conflicts between the Greek city-states.[3][4] Contents 1 Mediation in the Theban conflict (368 BCE) 1.1 Military actions against the Achaemenid king 2 Military commander 3 Sources 4 References Mediation in the Theban conflict (368 BCE)[edit] Main articles: Theban–Spartan War and Theban hegemony Philiscus of Abydos provided important Achaemenid funds to Sparta and Athens. Daric of Artaxerxes II Since the Peace of Antalcidas in 386 BCE, conflict in the Greek peninsula had been continuous, and Thebes had become the new dominant power following the victory of Epaminondas over Sparta in the Battle of Leuctra (371 BCE), starting the period of Theban hegemony.[5] Thebes was being feared by both Sparta and Athens, and these two cities tried to use Achaemenid influence as a mediator to resolve the conflicts in Greece, as had been the case with the Peace of Antalcidas.[4] The objective of Philiscus of Abydos was such to help broker a Common Peace between the Greek belligerents reunited at Delphi.[4] The negotiation collapsed when Thebes refused to return Messenia to the Spartans.[4] Before returning to Abydos, Philiscus used Achaemenid funds to finance an army for the Spartans, suggesting that he was acting in support of the Spartans from the beginning.[4] With the Achaemenid financing of a new army, Sparta was able to continue the war.[6] Among the mercenaries whom he had recruited, Philiscus gave 2,000 to the Spartans.[2] He also probably provided funds to the Athenians and promised them, on behalf of the King, to help them recover the Thracian Chersonese militarily.[2] Both Philiscus and Ariobarzanes were made citizens of Athens, a remarkable honour suggesting important services rendered to the city-state.[2] During 367 BCE, the Spartans, Athenians, and other Greek city states sent envoys to Susa in attempts to obtain the support of Achaemenid king Artaxerxes II in the Greek conflict.[4] The Achaemenid king proposed a new peace treaty, this time highly tilted in favour of Thebes, which required Messenia to remain independent and the Athenian fleet to be dismantled. This peace proposal was rejected by most Greek parties except Thebes.[7][6] Military actions against the Achaemenid king[edit] In the meantime Ariobarzanes revolted against Artaxerxes II in 367/366 BCE.[6] Sparta and Athens, dissatisfied with the Persian king's support of Thebes, decided to provide careful military support to his opponents. Athens and Sparta provided support for the revolted satraps, in particular Ariobarzanes: Sparta sent a force to Ariobarzanes under an ageing Agesilaus II, while Athens sent a force under Timotheus, which was however diverted when it became obvious that Ariobarzanes had entered frontal conflict with the Achaemenid king.[6][3] An Athenian mercenary force under Chabrias was also sent to the Egyptian Pharaoh Tachos, who was also fighting against the Achaemenid king.[6] Military commander[edit] Coinage of Abydos around the time of the tyrant Philiscus. Legend ABVΔ-[H]NON, eagle standing left / Facing gorgoneion with protruding tongue, within incuse square. Circa 480-450 BC Philiscus later played an important role as a general (hyparch) leading an army of mercenaries in Asia Minor. He led the armies of Ariobarzanes initially, and probably later on his own account after breaking ties with both Ariobarzanes and Athens and siding with the Achaemenid king, into conquering various Greek cities in the Hellespontine area.[8][9] At one point, he is said to have held the whole Hellespontine area, and to have been "the greatest of hyparchs".[8] In particular he captured the city of Perinthus.[8] He was assassinated by Thersagoras and Execestus of Lampsacus, who were attempting to liberate their city.[8] A previous tyrant of Abydos, who ruled under Darius I, is known under the name of Daphnis of Abydos.[10] In c. 360 BC, Philiscus was succeeded by the tyrant Iphiades of Abydos.[11] Sources[edit] Hansen, Mogens Herman; Nielsen, Thomas Heine (2004). An Inventory of Archaic and Classical Poleis. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198140993. References[edit] ^ Holm, Adolf (1907). The History of Greece from Its Commencement to the Close of the Independence of the Greek Nation: The fourth century B.C. up to th death of Alexander. Macmillan. p. 111. ^ a b c d Heskel, Julia (1997). The North Aegean Wars, 371-360 B.C. Franz Steiner Verlag. p. 113. ISBN 9783515069175. ^ a b c Heskel, Julia (1997). The North Aegean Wars, 371-360 B.C. Franz Steiner Verlag. p. 96. ISBN 9783515069175. ^ a b c d e f g Fine, John Van Antwerp (1983). The Ancient Greeks: A Critical History. Harvard University Press. p. 584. ISBN 9780674033146. ^ Heskel, Julia (1997). The North Aegean Wars, 371-360 B.C. Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 9783515069175. ^ a b c d e Souza, Philip de; France, John (2008). War and Peace in Ancient and Medieval History. Cambridge University Press. p. 41. ISBN 9781139469487. ^ Fine, John Van Antwerp (1983). The Ancient Greeks: A Critical History. Harvard University Press. p. 585. ISBN 9780674033146. ^ a b c d Heskel, Julia (1997). The North Aegean Wars, 371-360 B.C. Franz Steiner Verlag. p. 114. ISBN 9783515069175. ^ Heskel, Julia (1997). The North Aegean Wars, 371-360 B.C. Franz Steiner Verlag. p. 115. ISBN 9783515069175. ^ Tuplin, Christopher (2007). Persian Responses: Political and Cultural Interaction with(in) the Achaemenid Empire. ISD LLC. p. 126. ISBN 9781910589465. ^ Hansen & Nielsen (2004), p. 1003 v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Philiscus_of_Abydos&oldid=994303534" Categories: Achaemenid Greeks Military leaders of the Achaemenid Empire 4th-century BC Greek people Assassinated Greek people Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Hidden categories: Articles containing Greek-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Nederlands Edit links This page was last edited on 15 December 2020, at 01:10 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9137	----	Intef II - Wikipedia Intef II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Intef II Inyotef II, Antef II, Si-Rêˁ In-ˁo Funerary stele of Intef II, on display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Pharaoh Reign 2112–2063 BC (11th Dynasty) Predecessor Intef I Successor Intef III Royal titulary Nomen Sa Re Intef Jnj (j)t.=f The Son of Ra Intef (litt. His father brought him)[1] Horus name Wahankh W3ḥ-ˁnḫ Strong in life[1] Consort Possibly Neferukayet Children Intef III Iah Father Mentuhotep I Mother Neferu I Died 2063 BC[2] Burial El-Tarif, near Thebes Wahankh Intef II (also Inyotef II and Antef II) was the third ruler of the Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt during the First Intermediate Period. He reigned for almost fifty years from 2112 BC to 2063 BC.[2] His capital was located at Thebes. In his time, Egypt was split between several local dynasties. He was buried in a saff tomb at El-Tarif. Contents 1 Family 2 Reign 2.1 Titulary 2.2 Officials 3 Monuments 3.1 Tomb 4 References 5 Further reading Family[edit] See also: Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt family tree Intef's parents were Mentuhotep I and Neferu I. His predecessor Intef I may have been his brother. Intef was succeeded by his son Intef III. Reign[edit] After the death of the nomarch Ankhtifi, Intef was able to unite all the southern nomes down to the First Cataract. After this he clashed with his main rivals, the kings of Herakleopolis Magna for the possession of Abydos. The city changed hands several times, but Intef II was eventually victorious, extending his rule north to the thirteenth nome. After these wars, more friendly relations were established and the rest of Intef's reign was peaceful. The discovery of a statue of Intef II, wrapped in a sed festival robe, in the sanctuary of Heqaib at Elephantine suggests that this king's authority extended to the region of the First Cataract and, perhaps, over part of Lower Nubia by his 30th year.[3] This impression would appear to be confirmed by an expedition led by Djemi from Gebelein to the land of Wawat (i.e.: Nubia) during his reign.[3] Consequently, when Intef II died, he left behind a strong government in Thebes which controlled the whole of Upper Egypt and maintained a border just south of Asyut.[3] The earliest attested dating of the god Amun at Karnak occurs during his reign. The surviving sections of the Turin Canon for the Middle Kingdom assign this king a reign of 49 years.[4][5] Titulary[edit] Intef II apparently never held the full royal fivefold titulary of the Old Kingdom pharaohs. He did, however, claim the dual kingship nswt bity and the title s3-Re son of Ra, which emphasizes the divine nature of kingship.[2] Finally, upon accession to the Theban throne, Intef II added the Horus name Wahankh, enduring of life, to his birth name. Officials[edit] We know the name and activities of some of the officials who served under Intef II : Tjetjy was the chief treasurer and king’s chamberlain of Intef II and Intef III.[6] His finely carved tomb stele, now at the British Museum,[7] shows that Intef II claimed the dual throne of Egypt but also recognizes the limited extent of his rule: "The horus Wahankh, king of Upper and Lower Egypt, son of Re, Intef, born of Nefru, he who lives eternally like Re, [...] this land was under his rule southwards as far as Yebu and reaching as far north as Abydos".[8] Tjetjy then describes his career in the typical self-laudatory manner of the Egyptian elite. Most importantly, the text demonstrates the undisputed power of the king in the Theban kingdom of the 11th Dynasty "I was a trustworthy favorite of my lord, an official great of heart and quiet of temper in the palace of his lord [...]. I am one who loved good and hated evil, one who was loved in the palace of his lord, one who performed every duty in obedience to the will of his lord. Indeed, as for every task which he commanded me to undertake [...], I performed it rightly and justly. Never did I disobey the orders he gave me; never did I substitute one thing for another [...]. Moreover, as for every responsibility of the royal palace which the majesty of my lord committed to me, and for which he caused me to perform some task, I did it for him in accordance with everything which his Ka desired."[8] Djary was a military officer who fought the Herakleopolitan forces in the Abydene nome during Intef II's armies' northward push.[6] His stele recounts the struggle for the control over Middle Egypt: "Intef fought the house of Khety to the north of Thinis".[9] Hetepy was an official from Elkab who administered the three southernmost nomes of Intef II's realm. This means that there were no monarchs in Theban-controlled territories. Just as in the case of Tjetjy, the constant reference to the king in Hetepy's stele demonstrates the centralized organization of the government of the Theban kingdom and the power of the king, to whom everything was due: "I was one beloved of my Lord and praised by the lord of this land and his majesty truly made this servant happy. His majesty said: 'There is no one who [. . .] of (my) good command, but Hetepy!', and this servant did it exceedingly well, and his majesty praised this servant on account of it".[6] Finally, Hetepy's stele mentions a famine that occurred during Intef II's reign. Idudju-iker was foremost one of the chiefs of Lower Nubia. He was in charge of Lower Nubia and helped the king conquering Abydos.[10] Monuments[edit] The dogs of Intef II on his funerary stele, Egyptian Museum, Cairo. On his funerary stele Intef emphasizes his monument building activities. It is significant that the earliest surviving fragment of royal construction at Karnak is an octagonal column bearing Intef II's name. Intef II is also the first ruler to build chapels for Satet and Khnum on the island of Elephantine.[11] In fact, Intef II started a tradition of royal building activities in the provincial temples of Upper Egypt which was to last throughout the Middle Kingdom. Tomb[edit] Intef's tomb in El-Tarif at Thebes is a saff tomb. Saff stands for "row" in Arabic and refers to the double row of columns and entry ways fronting a large 250 by 70 metres (820 ft × 230 ft) trapezoidal courtyard at the eastern end of which was a mortuary chapel.[12] This chapel may have been intended to serve the same purpose as a valley temple.[13] Intef II's tomb was investigated by a royal commission during the reign of Ramses IX, toward the end of the 20th Dynasty, as many royal tombs were being plundered at the time.[14] As reported on the Abbott Papyrus, The commission noted that: "The pyramid-tomb of king Si-Rêˁ In-ˁo (i.e. Intef II) which is north of the House of Amenḥotpe of the Forecourt and whose pyramid is crushed down upon it [. . .]. Examined this day; it was found intact."[15] No remains of this pyramid have been found yet.[13] Following the tradition of his nomarch ancestors, Intef II erected a biographical stele in the entrance of his tomb which relates the events of his reign and credits him with 50 years of reign.[2][16] A stela mentioning the king's dogs was also said to be set up before the tomb. Another stela mentioning a dog named Beha was discovered, but it was found near the offering chapel.[12] References[edit] ^ a b Clayton, Peter A. Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. p72. 2006. ISBN 0-500-28628-0 ^ a b c d Ian Shaw, The Oxford history of ancient Egypt p.125 ^ a b c Nicholas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt (Oxford: Blackwell Books, 1992), p. 145 ^ Column 5 row 14 ^ The Ancient Egypt Web Site, Antef II Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine, (accessed September 7, 2007) ^ a b c Ian Shaw The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt p.126 ^ Stele of Tjetjy ^ a b William Kelly Simpson, The literature of Ancient Egypt ^ The stele of Djary Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine ^ Josef Wegnerː The Stela of Idudju-ikerː Formost-one of the Chiefs of Wawat, inː Revue d'égyptologie, 68 (2017-2108), 153-209, plates VII-XII ^ Ian Shaw The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, p.127 ^ a b Lehner, Mark. The Complete Pyramids. Thames & Hudson. 2008 (reprint). ISBN 978-0-500-28547-3, pp 165 ^ a b Dodson, Aidan. The Tomb in Ancient Egypt. Thames and Hudson. 2008. ISBN 9780500051399, pp 186-187 ^ Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, pp. 145-146 ^ Alan Gardiner, Egypt of the Pharaohs: an introduction, Oxford University Press, 1961, pp. 118–119 ^ Stele of Intef II Further reading[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Intef II. Wolfram Grajetzki, The Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt: History, Archaeology and Society, Duckworth, London 2006 ISBN 0-7156-3435-6, 12-15 Preceded by Intef I Pharaoh of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty Succeeded by Intef III v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intef_II&oldid=978847510" Categories: 22nd-century BC Pharaohs 21st-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Commons category link from Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 17 September 2020, at 08:17 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9144	----	Aristagoras - Wikipedia Aristagoras From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Late 6th century and early 5th century BC tyrant of the Ionian city of Miletus For other classical persons of the same name, see Aristagoras (given name). Coinage of Miletus at the time of Aristagoras. 5th century BC Tyrants of Miletus Late 8th or 7th c.BCE Amphitres 7th century BCE Thrasybulus 6th century BCE Thoas 6th century BCE Damasanor c. 518-514 BCE Histiaeus c. 513-499 BCE Aristagoras 3rd century BCE Timarchus v t e Aristagoras (Greek: Ἀρισταγόρας ὁ Μιλήσιος), d. 497/496 BC, was the leader of the Ionian city of Miletus in the late 6th century BC and early 5th century BC and a key player during the early years of the Ionian Revolt against the Persian Achaemenid Empire. He was the son-in-law of Histiaeus, and inherited the tyranny of Miletus from him. Contents 1 Background 2 Failure of the Naxos expedition 3 Ionian Revolt 4 Spartan refusal to provide assistance 5 Defeat of the Athenians 6 Manville's theory of a power struggle between Aristagoras and Histiaeus 7 Myres’ Theory of a balance of power between thalassocracies 7.1 The list of thalassocracies 7.2 Myres’ historical reconstruction of the list 8 Aftermath 9 Herodotus as a source 9.1 The cynical view 9.2 The affirmative view 10 Notes 11 References 12 External links Background[edit] Map of the ancient Greek western coast of Anatolia. Ionia is in green. Miletus and Naxos are shown. By the time extant history hears of him, Aristagoras is already serving as deputy governor of Miletus, a polis on the western coast of Anatolia around 500 BC. He was the son of Molpagoras, previous tyrant of an independent Miletus, and brother-in-law[1] (and nephew[2]) of Histiaeus, whom the Persians had set up as tyrant, but never quite trusted. After general Megabazus presented his complaints about Histiaeus to Darius I of Persia, the latter summoned Histiaeus to his court and detained him at Susa, the main reason being that he wanted a trustworthy advisor.[1] On the recommendation of Histiaeus, the Achaemenids then appointed Aristagoras as the new ruler of Miletus.[1] Aristagoras ruled Miletus while Histiaeus remained in Susa. The assignment was put forward as temporary. Privately, everyone knew that he was being kept under observation away from his troops.[3] Timeline of Aristagoras 511 BC Histiaeus cedes his position as tyrant of Miletus to his son-in-law, Aristagoras. 502 BC Naxos revolts against Persia, and asks Aristagoras for support. The invasion ends in disaster. 499 BC Histiaeus encourages Aristagoras to rebel. 499 BC Aristagoras starts a rebellion of the city of Miletus against Achaemenid rule. 498 BC Aristagoras looks for Greek allies. Cleomenes I of Sparta refuses to help. Athens offers help. 497 BC With the help of Athens, the rebels capture and burn Sardis, the capital of the Achaemenid satrapy of Lydia. Miltiades, tyrant of the Chersonese, flees to Athens. 494 BC The Ionian revolt is put down by the Achaemenids, Miletus is sacked. Aristagoras flees to Thrace, but is killed by the Thracians. Aristagoras was the main orchestrator of the Ionian Revolt on secret instruction by Histiaeus, when the latter learned of Persian plans to interfere directly in Miletus. Aristagoras took advantage of Greek dissatisfaction with Persian rule to incite an alliance of the Greek poleis of Ionia. Soliciting assistance from the states of mainland Greece he failed to obtain the help of a major state, Sparta. He did obtain the half-hearted assistance of Athens. Their attack on the satrapy of Lydia having been defeated, they withdrew, abandoning Aristagoras to his fate. In the last months of the failing revolt, the Persians were reconquering rebel country city by city. Choosing not to remain and make a stand alone, Aristagoras led a colony to Thrace, where he had negotiated a franchise to settle from the Thracians. No sooner did he arrive than he and all his men were massacred in a surprise attack by the Thracians, for reasons unspecified by Herodotus, whether loyal to the Great King, or influenced by the Scythians, who hated the Ionians for their rescue of the Great King, or just because they changed their minds about the number of Hellenes they would allow in their country. The revolt gained momentum briefly but then began to fail again. When all was nearly lost, the Great King allowed Histiaeus to convince him that he could settle the conflict and now should be sent back to Miletus. Aristagoras was gone. According to Herodotus, they never met again. Histiaeus never succeeded in reaching Miletus. Reporting first to Sardis, undoubtedly still recovering from fire, whether with or without the Great King's complicity (Herodotus does not say), he was interrogated concerning his true loyalties. Histiaeus swore complete ignorance of the events of the revolt and unquestionable loyalty to the Persians. He admitted nothing, but the satrap, Artaphernes, was not in the least deceived. He said, "I will tell thee how the case stands, Histaeus: this shoe is of thy stitching; Aristagoras has but put it on."[4] Seeing that the jig was up, Histiaeus escaped that night and took ship at the coast, probably at Ephesus. He had no trouble raising troops and finding ships, but he found that he was not trusted by the revolutionaries. Miletus would not have him back. He became a soldier of fortune in the Aegean until he was hunted down and executed by Artaphernes. The Ionian revolt was finally settled in 494/493 BC. The Persians went on to plot the conquest of Greece under the pretext of a punitive campaign against Athens. Failure of the Naxos expedition[edit] Main article: Siege of Naxos (499 BC) Ruins of Miletus Certain exiled citizens of Naxos came to Miletus to seek refuge. They asked Aristagoras to supply them with troops, so that they could regain control of their homeland. Aristagoras considered that if he was able to supply troops to the Naxians, then he could become ruler of Naxos. So he agreed to assist the Naxians.[3] He explained that he did not have enough troops of his own, but that Artaphernes, Darius’ brother and the Persian satrap of Lydia, who commanded a large army and navy on the coast of Asia, could help supply troops. The Naxians agreed to Aristagoras seeking Artaphernes' support and supplied him with money. Aristagoras travelled to Sardis and suggested that Artaphernes attack Naxos and restore the exiles. The Persians would then gain control of the island. He explained to Artaphernes that Naxos “was a fine and fertile island, close to the Ionian coast, and rich both in treasures and slaves.”[5] It was also the gateway to the Cyclades, which the Persians did not yet rule. Aristagoras promised that he would both fund the expedition and give Artaphernes a bonus sum. He also tempted Artaphernes by adding that capturing the island would place other poleis of the Cyclades under his control. They would serve as bases for an invasion of Euboea.[5] After securing the permission of Susa, Artaphernes agreed and promised 200 ships. The following spring, Aristagoras and the Naxian exiles sailed with the fleet. Unfortunately for the success of the invasion, Aristagoras quarrelled with the Persian admiral Megabates. He interfered in the discipline of the latter over the ship captains to save a friend from harsh punishment for an infraction (failure to set a watch on his ship). Aristagoras saved his friend but lost the friendship and loyalty of the Persian admiral, who expected to be in overall command. The schism was irreparable, being the very first incident of the subsequent Ionian revolt. Megabates sabotaged the entire operation by secretly informing the Naxians that they were about to be attacked, taking away the element of surprise. Naxos then had enough time to prepare for a siege. Four months later, the siege still held, the Persians were out of supplies and had only limited funds remaining. The expedition was then considered a failure and the Persians sailed home.[6] Ionian Revolt[edit] Main article: Ionian Revolt The burning of Sardis, capital of the Asia Minor Satrapy of Lydia, during the Ionian Revolt in 498 BC. Due to his failure to make good on his Naxian promises, Aristagoras’ political position was at risk. He began to plan a revolt with the Milesians and the other Ionians. Meanwhile, Histiaeus, still detained at Susa, had tattooed a message upon the shaved head of a slave. Once his hair had grown back, he sent him to Aristagoras. The message told Aristagoras to revolt. Histiaeus, desperate to resume his authority at Miletus, hoped Darius would send him to deal with a Milesian revolt. Both leaders being of the same mind, Aristagoras conferred with a council of his supporters, who agreed to a rebellion in Miletus in 499 BC. Aristagoras was supported by most of the citizens in council, except the historian Hecataeus.[7] Hecataeus voted against the revolt because he believed that the Ionians would be out-matched. Defeat would be inevitable. Once the vote was taken, however, there is no evidence that he recused himself from the revolt. In fact, he had suggestions to make. Once the war began, the Ionians did not allow any fence-sitting among themselves, although they could not stop the larger allies from withdrawing. In general knowledge, warring nations do not allow citizens of any social status to comment from the sidelines without participating in the war effort. As soon as the vote for war was certain, Aristagoras took steps to secure Persian military assets. The Naxos fleet was recovering from its ordeal at Myus. Now in a position of command – Herodotus is not specific – Aristagoras sent a party under Iatragoras to arrest the admirals still with the fleet, some several men. Ironically, these were mainly Greek. They were later released and sent home. Now that the rebellion was in the open, Aristagoras “set himself to damage Darius in every way he could think of.”[8] The scope of the revolt spread rapidly to all Ionia. Aristagoras foresaw that one city would soon be crushed. He therefore set about to create an alliance of all the Ionian cities, but the members also came from regions beyond Ionia. He made a number of constitutional changes, not all of which are clear. First he relinquished his own tyranny. Approaching the other states, he convinced them to end theirs.[8] Finally he ordered all of the states to create a board of generals[9] to report, apparently, to him. When his government was in place he sailed to Lacedaemon and other states of Greece in search of allies. There has been some question as to the exact meaning of Herodotus' governmental terms, and as to the form of government of the Ionian alliance. The most fundamental question is where Aristagoras got his authority over the Ionians in the first place. They were all under the satrapy of Lydia, not under Miletus. The satrap was Persian. The tyrant of Miletus was appointed by the satrap, but he also appointed all the other tyrants. For reasons not specified in Herodotus, Miletus had the upper hand.[10] One can only assume a leadership role of some kind of Aristagoras over the other tyrants, whether personal or according to some unspecified convention. In order to gain the participation of the people in the revolt, we are told, Aristagoras "let go" the tyranny and established isonomia, which the translators translate variously with imprecise terms, such as "equality of government." According to Liddell and Scott, a standard dictionary of ancient Greek, Thucydides uses it to mean the "equality of rights" in a democracy. Apparently Aristagoras established democracy, but then he went on to "put a stop to tyranny" in all the other Ionian cities, and moreover to insist that they select boards of generals reporting to him, which are not democratic powers. No voting is mentioned. Apparently a new sovereign state had been formed with Aristagoras as its chief. He had not stepped down, but up. The state had the power to levy taxes and troops. Aristagoras was commander of the joint armed forces. Miletus was to be the new capital. In fact the new sovereign Ionia issued its own coinage between 499 and its destruction by the Persians in 494. Spartan refusal to provide assistance[edit] Ruins of Sparta Aristagoras appealed to the Spartan king, Cleomenes I, to help them throw off the Persian yoke. He praised the quality of the Spartan warriors, and argued that a pre-emptive invasion of Persia would be easy. To illustrate his view, he had brought along a "bronze tablet on which a map of all the earth was engraved, and all the sea, and all the rivers."[11] No more information is given about the map, but the circumstantial evidence suggests it was most likely the world map of Hecataeus of Miletus, an important player in Milesian political life of the times. Aristagoras claimed that the Persians would be easy to defeat, as they fought in “trousers and turbans,” clearly not a sign of good warriors.[12] He also tempted him with Persian riches. Cleomenes asked Aristagoras to wait two days for an answer. When they next met, Cleomenes asked how long it would take to reach Susa, and upon learning that it was a three months’ journey, he firmly refused Spartan assistance as his troops would be gone for too long. At the time, Sparta was concerned over possible attacks from the Argives.[13] The Greek historian Herodotus claimed that Aristagoras attempted to change Cleomenes’ mind with bribes, until the king's young daughter Gorgo warned that Aristagoras would corrupt him.[14] Aristagoras left without the requested assistance. Defeat of the Athenians[edit] Aristagoras next went to Athens, where he made a convincing speech, promising “everything that came into his head, until at last he succeeded.”[15] Won over, the Athenians agreed to send ships to Ionia and Aristagoras went before them. The Athenians subsequently arrived in Miletus with twenty triremes and five others that belonged to the Eretrians. Herodotus described the arrival of these ships as the beginning of troubles between Greeks and barbarians.[16] Once all his allies had arrived, Aristagoras put his brother Charopinus and another Milesian, Hermophantus, in charge of the expedition, and the whole contingent set out for the provincial capital, Sardis, while Aristagoras remained to govern at Miletus. Ruins of Ephesus The acropolis at Sardis, now forested and eroded, with a few pinnacles of ruins. The first leg of the journey was to proceed along the coast to Ephesus. Using it as base, they went overland to Sardis, on which they descended by surprise. The satrap Artaphernes and his forces retreated to the acropolis immediately. A fire, started by accident in the town, accidentally burned down the temple of the Lydian goddess Cybebe (Cybele). Attributing the fire to Ionian maliciousness, the Persians later used it as an excuse for burning Greek temples. The fire forced the defenders of the acropolis to abandon it in favor of the marketplace. Its defence coincided fortuitously with the arrival of Persian reinforcements. Interpreting the tumult as a counter-attack, the Ionians retreated to Tmolus, a nearby elevation, from which they escaped by night.[17] The reinforcements followed the Ionians, caught up with them near Ephesus and soundly defeated them.[18] The Persians had obtained Lydia, including all the Greek cities, by defeating the last Anatolian-speaking kingdom of the same name. They made such a show of mercy as to win the hearts and minds of the Anatolians, as well as of some of the Greeks. In that sense, the "Ionian Revolt" was de facto an Anatolian civil war. A call for assistance went rapidly around the satrapy. Joint Persian-Anatolian forces hastened overnight to the assistance of the satrap. They arrived with such short notice and major fanfare as to frighten away the Ionian-Athenian forces. The Cambridge Ancient History article attributes this swift arrival to the Persian cavalry, which also had no trouble tracking and catching the Ionians before the gates of Ephesus. The losses of the East Greeks were so great that they slunk away, so to speak, leaving Aristagoras and the rebels to fend for themselves. An air of doom pervaded the revolt, but they fought with such spirit that the rebellion spilled over into the islands After this battle, the Athenians refused to continue to fight in the Ionian Revolt and returned to Athens. Because of their participation in this battle, however, the Persian king, Darius, swore vengeance on Athens and commanded a servant to repeat to him three times every day at dinner, “Master, remember the Athenians.”[19] The story is somewhat and probably hypocritically naive (but not necessarily on that account false), as the Persians intended expansion into the Balkans all along. They still held parts of Thrace from their previous abortive expedition into Scythia, only stopped when they learned the true size of the country (most of Russia) and the danger of their position in it. The Ionians fought on, gaining control of Byzantium and the surrounding towns as well as the greater part of Caria and Caunus. They were not, however, alone. In this last phase of the conflict, almost all of Cyprus also rebelled against the Persians. Onesilus, the younger brother of Gorgus, the ruler of Salamis, tried to convince his brother to rebel against Persia and join in the Ionian Revolt. When his brother refused to support the revolt, Onesilus waited until he left Salamis and then shut the city gates on him. Gorgus fled to the Persians while Onesilus took over and convinced the Cyprians to revolt. They then proceeded to lay siege to the city of Amathus.[20] Manville's theory of a power struggle between Aristagoras and Histiaeus[edit] Herodotus’ account is the best source we have on the events that amounted to a collision between Persia, which was expanding westward, and classical Greece at its peak. Nevertheless, its depictions are often scanty and uncertain, or incomplete. One of the major uncertainties of the Ionian revolt in Herodotus is why it occurred in the first place. In retrospect the case seems obvious: Persia disputed the Hellenes for control of cities and territories. The Hellenes had either to fight for their freedom or submit. The desirability of these material objects was certainly economic, although considerations of defence and ideology may well have played a part. These are the motives generally accepted today, after long retrospect. Herodotus apparently knew of no such motives, or if he did, he did not care to analyse history at that level. J D Manville characterizes his approach as the attribution of “personal motivation” to players such as Aristagoras and Histiaeus. In his view, Herodotus “may seem to overemphasize personal motivation as a cause,” but he really does not. We have either to fault Herodotus for his lack of analytical perspicacity or try to find credible reasons in the historical context for actions to which Herodotus gives incomplete explanations. Manville suggests that the unexplained places mark events in a secret scenario about which Herodotus could not have known, but he records what he does know faithfully. It is up to the historian to reconstruct the secret history by re-interpretation and speculation, a technique often used by historical novelists. Manville puts it forward as history. The main players are portrayed by Herodotus as naturally hypocritical. They always have an ulterior motive which they go to great lengths to conceal behind persuasive lies. Thus neither Aristagoras nor Histiaeus are fighting for freedom, nor do they cooperate or collaborate. Each has a personal motive related to greed, ambition, or fear. Manville fills in the uncertainties with hypothetical motives. Thus he arrives, perhaps less credibly for his invention, at a behind-the-scenes struggle for dominance between Aristagoras and Histiaeus. They can best be described as rivals or even enemies.[21] Some of the high points of the argument are as follows. While Histiaeus was away serving Darius, Aristagoras acted in his stead as deputy of Miletus where, it is argued, he worked on securing his own power. The word for deputy is epitropos, which he was when the Naxian deputation arrived. By the time the fleet departs for Naxos, Aristagoras has promoted himself to “tyrant of Miletus.” There is no explicit statement that he asked Histiaeus’ permission or was promoted by Histaeus. Instead, Aristagoras turned to Artaphernes, who was said to be jealous of Histiaeus. It is true that Artaphernes would not move without consulting the Great King, and that the latter's advisor on Greek affairs was Histiaeus. However, Manville sees a coup by Aristagoras, presuming not only that the Great King's advisor did not advise, but was kept in the dark about his own supersession. When the expedition failed, Histiaeus sent his tattooed slave to Aristagoras, not as encouragement to revolt, but as an ultimatum. Manville provides an underlying value system to fill in the gap left by Herodotus: revolt was so unthinkable that Histiaeus could bring the fantasies of his opponent back to reality by suggesting that he do it, a sort of “go ahead, commit suicide.” Histiaeus was, in Manville's speculation, ordering Aristagoras to give up his rule or suffer the consequences. Apparently, he was not being kept in the dark by the king after all. Manville leaves us to guess why the king did not just crush the revolt by returning the supposedly loyal Histiaeus to power. However, at this time Histiaeus was still required to remain in Susa and, despite his threat, he was unable to do anything if Aristagoras did revolt. Realizing that this would be his last chance to gain power Aristagoras started the revolt despite Histiaeus’ threat. This is a surprise to Manville's readers, as we thought he already had power via a coup. Manville does note the contradiction mentioned above, that Aristagoras gave up tyranny, yet was able to force democracy on the other cities and command their obedience to him. We are to see in this paradox a strategy to depose Histiaeus, whom we thought was already deposed. The tale goes on to an attempt by Histiaeus to form an alliance with Artaphernes to depose the usurper and regain his power at Miletus. Artaphernes, though he was involved in open war with Aristagoras, refuses.[22] The tale told by Manville thus contains events related by Herodotus supplemented by non-events coming from Manville's imagination. Myres’ Theory of a balance of power between thalassocracies[edit] John Myres, classical archaeologist and scholar, whose career began in the reign of Queen Victoria and did not end until 1954, close friend and companion of Arthur Evans, and intelligence officer par excellence of the British Empire, developed a theory of the Ionian Revolt that explains it in terms of the stock political views of the empire, balance of power and power vacuum. Those views, still generally familiar, assert that peace is to be found in a region controlled by competing geopolitical powers, none of which are strong enough to defeat the others. If a power drops from the roster for any reason, a “vacuum” then exists, which causes violent competition until the balance is readjusted. In a key article of 1906, while Evans was excavating Knossos, the Ottoman Empire had lost Crete due to British intervention, and questions of the “sick man of Europe” were being considered by all the powers. Referring to the failing Ottoman Empire and the power vacuum that would be left when it fell, the young Myres published an article studying the balance of what he termed “sea-power” in the eastern Mediterranean in classical times. The word "sea-power" was intended to define his “thalassocracy.” Myres was using sea-power in a specifically British sense for the times. The Americans had their own idea of sea power, expressed in Alfred Thayer Mahan’s great strategic work, ‘’The Influence of Sea Power upon History’’. which advocated maintaining a powerful navy and using it for strategic purposes, such as “command of the sea,” a kind of domination. The United States Naval Academy used this meaning for its motto, ‘’ex scientia tridens’’, “sea-power through knowledge.” It named one of its buildings, Mahan Hall. Far different is Myres’ “sea-power” and the meaning of thalassocracy, which means “rule of the seas.“ In contrast to “tridens,” rule of the seas is not a paternalistic but democratic arrangement. Where there are rulers, there are the ruled. A kind of exclusivity is meant, such as in Rule, Britannia!. Specifically, in a thalassocracy, the fleets of the ruler may go where they will and do as they please, but the ruled may go nowhere and engage in no operation without express permission of the ruler. You need a license, so to speak, to be on ruled waters, and if you do not have it, your ships are attacked and destroyed. “Shoot on sight” is the policy. And so Carthaginian ships sank any ships in their waters, etc. The list of thalassocracies[edit] Thalassocracy was a new word in the theories of the late 19th century, from which some conclude it was a scholarly innovation of the times. It was rather a resurrection of a word known from a very specific classical document, which Myres calls “the List of Thalassocracies.” It occurs in the Chronicon of Eusebius, the early 4th century Bishop of Caesarea Maritima, the ruins now in Israel.[23] In Eusebius, the list is a separate chronology. Jerome, 4th-century theologian and historian, creator of the Vulgate, interspersed the same items, translated into Latin, in his Chronicon of world events.[24] The items contain the words “obtinuerunt mare,” strictly speaking, “obtained the sea,” and not “hold sea power,” although the latter meaning may be implied as a result. Just as Jerome utilized the chronology of Eusebius, so Eusebius utilized the chronology of Castor of Rhodes, a 1st-century BC historian. His work has been entirely lost except for fragments, including his list of thalassocracies. A thousand years later, the Byzantine monk, George Syncellus, also used items from the list in his massive Extract of Chronography. Over the centuries the realization grew that all these references to sea-power in the Aegean came from a single document, a resource now reflected in the fragments of those who relied on it. C Bunsen, whose translator was one of the first to use thalassocracy, attributed its discovery to the German scholar, Christian Gottlob Heyne[25] In a short work composed in 1769, published in 1771,[26] Eusebius’ Chronicon being known at that time only through fragments in the two authors mentioned, Heyne reconstructed the list in their Greek and Latin (with uncanny accuracy), the whole title of the article being Super Castoris epochis populorum thalattokratesanton H.E. (hoc est) qui imperium maris tenuisse dicuntur, “About Castor's epochs of thalattocratizing peoples; that is, those who are said to have held the imperium over the sea.” To thalattokratize is “to rule the sea,” not just to hold sea power like any other good fellow with a strong navy. The thalattokratizer holds the imperium over the watery domain just as if it were a country, which explains how such a people can “obtain” and “have” the sea. The list presented therefore is one of successive exclusive domains. No two peoples can hold the same domain or share rule over it, although they can operate under the authority of the thalassocrat, a privilege reserved for paying allies. According to Bunsen, the discovery and translation of the Armenian version of Eusebius’ Chronicon changed the nature of the search for thalassocracy. It provided the original document, but there was a disclaimer attached, that it was in fact “an extract from the epitome of Diodorus,” meaning Diodorus Siculus, a 1st-century BC historian. The disclaimer cannot be verified, as that part of Diodorus’ work is missing, which, however, opens the argument to another question: if Eusebius could copy a standard source from Diodorus, why cannot Diodorus have copied it from someone else? It is at this point that Myres picks up the argument. Noting that thalassokratesai, “be a thalassocrat,” meaning “rule the waves,” was used in a number of authors: elsewhere by Diodorus, by Polybius, 2nd century BC historian, of Carthage, of Chios by Strabo, 1st century BC geographer and some others, he supposes that the source document might have been available to them all (but not necessarily, the cautious Myres points out).[27] The document can be dated by its content: a list of 17 thalassocracies extending from the Lydian after the fall of Troy to the Aeginetan, which ended with the cession of power to Athens in 480 BC. The Battle of Salamis included 200 new Athenian triremes plus all the ships of its new ally, Aegina. Despite various revolts Aegina went on to become part of the Delian League, an imperial treaty of the new Athenian thalassocracy. Thucydides writes of it after 432 BC, but Herodotus, who visited Athens “as late as 444 B.C.” does not know a thing about it. This tentative date for the Eusebian list does not exclude the possibility of an earlier similar document used by Herodotus.[28] Myres’ historical reconstruction of the list[edit] The order of thalassocracies in the various versions of the list is nearly fixed, but the dates need considerable adjustment, which Myres sets about to reconcile through all historical sources available to him. He discovers some gaps. The solidest part of the list brackets the Ionian Revolt. The Milesian thalassocracy is dated 604-585 BC. It was ended by Alyattes of Lydia, founder of the Lydian Empire, who also fought against the Medes. The latter struggle was ended by the Eclipse of Thales at the Battle of the Halys River in 585 BC, when the combatants, interpreting the phenomenon as a sign, made peace. The Lydians were now free to turn on Miletus, which they did for the next 11 years, reducing it. When the Persians conquered Lydia in 547/546 they acquired the Ionian cities. After 585 BC there is a gap in the list. Lesbos and one or more unknown thalassocrats held the sea in unknown order.[29] In 577 BC began the thalassocracy of Phocaea. Breaking out of its Anatolian cage, it founded Marseilles and cities in Spain and Italy, wresting a domain away from Carthage and all other opponents.[30] Their thalassocracy ended when, in the revolt of the Lydian Pactyas, who had been instructed to collect taxes by the Persians, but used them to raise an army of revolt, the Ionian cities were attacked by the Persians. The Phocaeans abandoned Phocaea about 534 BC and after much adventuring settled in the west. The thalassocracy of Samos spans the career of the tyrant, Polycrates, there.[31] The dates of the tyrant are somewhat uncertain and variable, but at some time prior to 534 BC, he and his brothers staged a coup during a festival at Samos. Samos happened to have a large navy of pentekonters. Becoming a ship collector, he attacked and subdued all the neighbouring islands, adding their ships to his fleet. Finally he added a new model, the trireme. His reign came to an end about 517 BC when, taking up the Great King's invitation to a friendly banquet for a discussion of prospects, he was suddenly assassinated. There were no prospects. However, if he had chosen not to attend, he was doomed anyway. Some of his trireme captains, learning of a devious plot by him to have them assassinated by Egyptian dignitaries while on official business, sailed to Sparta to beg help, which they received. The adventurous young king, Cleomenes I, was spared the trouble of killing Polycrates, but led an expedition to Samos anyway, taking the thalassocracy for two years, 517-515. Adventure and piracy not being activities approved by the Spartan people, they tagged him as insane and insisted he come home.[32] The sea was now available to Naxos, 515-505. Aftermath[edit] The Hellenes had obtained a foothold on the coast of Anatolia by siding with rebel coastal Anatolian states against the Hittite Empire.[33] Their position was made more solid by the fall of Troy against a coalition of mainland Greek kings. The coastal cities managed to retain their positions against the subsequent Phrygian invasion of Anatolia by joining with the rump Anatolian states, while the Hittites withdrew into neo-Hittite states in Syria. The coastal cities, now entirely Hellenic, continued to receive immigrants from mainland Greece. The massive transfer of Persian-speaking population from the steppes of Central Asia to the range they now occupy presented the Anatolian Hellenes with an impossible strategic problem. They could not hope to oppose their small armies against the resources of the vast Persian empire unless they could once again receive major support from the mainland Greek states, especially the maritime power of Athens. Those states, however, were reluctant to take on the might of ancient Persia. Consequently, the Hellenic states in Anatolia submitted reluctantly to Persian rule, and were placed in the new satrapy of Lydia, with capital at Sardis. The satrap of Lydia allowed self-rule as long as taxes were paid and the supremacy of ancient Persia was granted. Many of the Anatolian cities proved loyal subjects. However, underlying resentment against Persian rule was universal. Persia was not interested in the status quo. Their desire to expand to the west brought them into conflict with Ionia over the question of self-rule, one of the principles of the agreement of the city-states to submit. Their interference in Miletus was the spark that set off the Ionian revolt. Aristagoras, the first rebel ruler, appeared then as the champion of Greek freedom. The Ionians had high hopes of independence. Due to the disparity in resources and the reluctance of the mainland states to involve themselves, the tide soon turned in favour of the Persians. After only one year, the Cyprians were once again forced into submission by Persia. The cities around the Hellespont fell one after another to Daurises, the son-in-law of king Darius. The Carians fought the Persians at the Maeander River and were defeated with severe casualties. Aristagoras, seeing the rebellion falling to pieces around him, and little help forthcoming from the Greeks, began looking for a shelter to which he could execute a strategic retreat. He and his men resolved on Myrcinus in Thrace, which had been an Ionian stronghold in the abortive Persian invasion of Scythia. He put Pythagoras, “a man of distinction,” in charge of Miletus and set sail for Thrace, where he attempted to establish a colony on the Strymon river, at the same site as the later Athenian colony of Amphipolis. The Thracians, not now disposed to tolerate any further presence of Greeks in their country, opposed this incursion. He gained control of the territory but later, while besieging a neighbouring town, Aristagoras was killed in battle.[34] Expecting a swift Persian victory, Aristagoras had hoped to establish a redoubt of Ionians, who would come to the assistance of Miletus at a later time.[35] By an accidental sequence of historical events his reputation drew the ire of his main historian, Herodotus of Halicarnassus, an Ionian partisan, to such a degree that it suffers yet. Although a champion of freedom, Aristagoras is the only man in all his histories that Herodotus openly calls a coward, blaming his supposed flight for the defeat of the revolt. The revolt apparently intensified and spread into the islands. Aristagoras had no way of knowing that he would have been in the van of it, or that the Thracians would not allow a redoubt. The revolt was over by 494/493 BC. Going directly for Miletus in 494, the Persians defeated the Ionians with their own weapon, the ship, in the Battle of Lade, an island off Miletus. The city was then subject to a siege and the war lost at its fall. Although there was some mild devastation of rebel cities (except for Miletus, which was razed and the population decimated and transported), the Persians were interested in ruling rather than revenge. They began to plan forthwith for the largest invasion of Greece yet undertaken, executed starting 490 BC in a series of conflicts called the Greco-Persian Wars, which are yet famous. Unfortunately for the Persians, they were forced to adopt contingents of Ionian Greeks into their armies and navies. Herodotus as a source[edit] Main article: Herodotus Most of the information on Aristagoras and his actions comes from the writings of the ancient Greek historian Herodotus. On the one hand he is virtually the only literary source for the events he presents as history. While in many ways he reflects some of the best of ancient historiography, on the other hand, his work is sprinkled with motivational and logical lacunae, creating textual paradoxes everywhere, causing some scholars to be critical of his value as a historical source, especially regarding the Ionian Revolt. For purposes of this presentation, textual criticism may be polarized into two camps: the cynical, discrediting Herodotus as an unreliable source, and the affirmative, which credits him with being reliable as far as he goes. The cynical view[edit] Manville's cynical view concerning an imaginary power struggle between Aristagoras and Histiaeus isolated from the usual contexts of war and society has already been mentioned above. Manville has no confidence in Herodotus' ability to relate connected history and therefore supplies connections for him out of his own speculations. He was preceded in this method by the earlier work of Mabel Lang. A 1968 article by Lang focuses on the paradoxes of the Ionian revolt. For example, Histiaeus originally won the Great King's favor by protecting his escape from Scythia over a key bridge of the Danube.[36] Despite this vital rescue to save the king and all his forces, he shortly after plots a rebellion! Lang suggests that one might conclude to an ulterior motive at the bridge, "to ingratiate himself with Darius so that he could be on the inside of the king's policy."[37] Apparently, to be on the inside of his policy he has to save his life and the lives of all his army by letting him escape from the large Scythian army not far behind. He prefers to keep him alive for nothing more serious than keeping an eye on him. Nonchalantly Lang writes: "Presumably revolt was already in the air,...." It could not have been far in the air if Histiaeus passed up a chance for total victory at the outset, a prized goal of many a lightning campaign in world history afterwards. The basic problem is Lang's cynicism: "we should not hope to discover the truth about the result merely by accepting the narrative ...."[38] Accordingly, she rehearses a catalogue of paradoxes similar to Manville's weaving her own fantasy of unattested events to contain it. Her explanation of why such a tale is necessary is similarly speculative: "the failure of the revolt not only gave prominence to every aspect and event which would explain, justify or anticipate the disastrous results but also cast into the shade any intentions which deserved a better fate and any temporary successes during the course of the war." Not having any other account with which to compare these events, she cannot possibly know that. The affirmative view[edit] The cynical view described above reflects a difference in expectation between Herodotus and his target audiences, which by the accidents of time are multiple and various. He did not write for us moderns. Reading that he was the first historian whose work survived in anything more than scattered fragments, we expect him to have the proper concern of modern historians for continuity and causality, which other ancient historians, such as Thucydides, have. Herodotus is not one of those. With regard to causation, the Cambridge Ancient History article asserts: “...Herodotus does not seem to have innovated: he merely accepted the causation appropriate to his subject and period.”[39] It would be convenient to attribute this unconcern to a sort of intermediate phase between mythology and history, as many do. Such a view is neglectful of the ravages of time. Herodotus was not the first historian in any way, only the first whose work survived. He wrote of the Ionian Revolt a full generation after it happened; moreover, he was not a participant. He relied on the work of several previous historians at Miletus, of which fragments and mention have survived, chief of which was Hecataeus of Miletus.[40] Herodotus apparently designed his work according to a specific plan and style. Whether the previous historians used it is not known, due to the paucity of evidence, but it seems unlikely. He appears to use Hecataeus as a framework for his historical events. The fragments of Hecataeus suggest that he wrote only an annal-like sequence long on names and events but short on connecting narrative. To this framework Herodotus adds the logoi, or independent anecdotes of persons and events derived from independent oral traditions, which Herodotus obtained by interview with record-keepers and state historians. The disconnectedness comes from their being independent. It is pointless, therefore, to try to invent connections.[41] The ancient historians have therefore invented a special category for Herodotus, that he was a logographer, or teller of logoi, based on his own characterization of his sources as logopoioi, “story makers.” Usually the logographers include Hecataeus and the other historians of his generation, who lived through the revolt. There is little evidence of their logography. Whether Herodotus stands alone or is part of a Milesian tradition is a matter of speculation. Validation of Herodotus therefore rests on validation of his logoi. There is no general validation, but the much-desired archaeological and inscriptional evidence appears to validate a few events as far as they go: some names, circumstances of war, and similar peripheral facts. He cannot be validated as a modern historian, but he does have an overall design, which is “Biblical” or “Bible-like” in scope. He is trying to do an epic in prose similar to the Homerica in verse. His topic is not the Trojan War, but the Graeco-Persian Wars. (The Homerica have been called the pagan Greek “Bible.") Says Oswyn Murray in the Cambridge Ancient History,[42] It is certainly hard to find fault with his general view that the only adequate explanation for the Persian Wars must be a complete account of relations between the two peoples since the conquest of the Ionian cities in 545 B.C. In short, Herodotus is personal because the Homerica are personal. Both genres intend to portray the illustrious or non-illustrious deeds and doings of persons in the contexts of mighty wars. Thus Aristagoras personally can be called a “coward.” The lying that they do is metis, “cunning,”[43] an admired Greek virtue practised by the greatest hero of them all, the crafty Odysseus. The literary tradition of it went on. Virgil could include the half-line Timeo Graecos dona ferentes, “I fear Greeks bearing Gifts,” in the Aeneid. The expectation of modernity in Herodotus is misplaced. Validation must be sought for individual logoi. The whole work or any part of it cannot logically be condemned on the basis of one or a group of paradoxes. All scepticism must have a reason for doubting. The inconsistencies of Herodotus are not a valid reason, which is generally true. But few stories are ever free of inconsistency, and if they are, they are suspect on that account (“too good to be true”). Denials of Herodotus' validity, from mild to severe, although widespread, were never universal. As an example of ancient information generally agreed to be invalid, many works attributed to various authors have been placed in the "pseudo-" category after as much as centuries of review. There was never any such universal and long-standing denial of Herodotus. On the contrary, the main events, such as the Battles of Marathon and Thermopylae, have been accepted as basically credible by many scholars of many ages. It is therefore misplaced to speak of the "rehabilitation" of Herodotus in medical or neo-ideologic terms. Accordingly, the most sanguine view treats his work as though no problems exist regarding it. Referring to the Cambridge Ancient History article on the Ionian Revolt by Murray, Georges addresses "the question of Herodotus' veracity and reliability."[44] Repeating Murray's criticism that "the traditions concerning the revolt itself are ... fragmented into individual episodes of folly, treachery, or heroism" and therefore are not "trustworthy materials for the history of the revolt," he asserts to the contrary that "Herodotus' account furnishes the material for a coherent and credible account of the actions and events it presents ...." Having said this, Georges must now show that, rather than being paradoxical, Herodotus is coherent and credible. Like Lang, having no other account to offer, he must make his demonstrations from the text of Herodotus, which he spends the rest of the article doing, disputing most of Murray's interpretations. The contradictions are not to be viewed as contradictions. He does not address the question of why, if they are not so, it is necessary to spend an article in disputation over them. The result is a new set of speculations fully as imaginary as Murray's, not being based on any alternative texts. There is hope, however, as fragments of Greek texts and inscriptions continue to be discovered. Meanwhile, it seems common knowledge that the public of any age is not going to relinquish credibility in Herodotus' great depiction of the Persian Wars. Notes[edit] ^ a b c Dandamaev 1989, p. 152. ^ Anepsios, often "cousin", but in Herodotus, according to Liddell and Scott, "nephew." ^ a b Herodotus & Sélincourt 1954, p. 320, Book V Chapter 30 ^ Histories, Book VI, Chapter 1. ^ a b Herodotus & Sélincourt 1954, p. 321, Book V Chapter 31 ^ Herodotus & Sélincourt 1954, pp. 322–323, Book V Chapters 33-35 ^ Book V, Chapter 36. The text is one of those telescoping of events that confuse translators and provide fuel for the fires of the critics. Aristagoras calls a consultative meeting (ebouleuonto) with his partisans, or supporters (stasiotai). The very next sentence describes a binding vote to revolt (exepheronto keleuontes apistasthai) and not to adopt the proposals of Hecataeus, a logopoios, not a partisan. A plenipotentiary emissary is sent to seize the fleet and arrest its Persian-employed commanders. As tyrants do not rely on voting to decide policy or send emissaries, the consultative body of partisans cannot be same as the voting body. Apparently after the consultation Aristagoras has given up tyranny and has convened an assembly of the people, which hears proposals and votes on them. ^ a b Herodotus & Sélincourt 1954, p. 324, Book V Chapters 36-38 ^ Strategoi, which can only be high-ranking military officers, and not some sort of magistrate as some translators say. As Herodotus does not clarify the duties of a strategos, considering that Aristagoras was interpreted as establishing democracies, most commentators presume that for Herodotus only, a strategos is an archon, or magistrate. The language precludes determining whether single strategoi or many strategoi were being set up in each city. The word "command," keleusas, refers to an instruction given by a figure in authority to a subordinate, so to interpret Aristagoras as democratically suggesting each Ionian city vote in its magistrates appears somewhat far-fetched as far as the language is concerned. ^ There are some credible theories. The use of koinon, Latin res publica, to refer to the Ionians under Aristagoras suggests that the former Ionian League, also termed a koinon, had been restored again with Aristagoras as chief officer:Boardman et al. 1988, p. 481, Part II, Chapter 8, Oswyn Murray, The Ionian Revolt. In a second theory, pointing out that Histiaeus was arrested by the Chians as a Persian agent, and asserting "Histiaeus at Susa was not a pampered political prisoner," Georges attributes the influence of Miletus to Darius himself, in support of Histiaeus: Georges 2000, pp. 13–14. ^ Book V, Chapter 49. ^ Herodotus & Sélincourt 1954, p. 328, Book V Chapter 49 ^ Boardman et al. 1988, p. 482, Part II, Chapter 8, Oswyn Murray, The Ionian Revolt ^ Herodotus & Sélincourt 1954, pp. 329–330, Book V Chapters 50-51 ^ Herodotus & Sélincourt 1954, p. 351, Book V Chapter 97 ^ Bury & Meiggs 1975, p. 155 ^ Herodotus & Sélincourt 1954, pp. 352–353, Book V Chapters 99-101 ^ The scenario is partly covered in Histories, Book V, Chapters 102-103, with additional details to be found in Boardman et al. 1988, p. 483, Part II, Chapter 8, Oswyn Murray, The Ionian Revolt ^ Herodotus & Sélincourt 1954, p. 354, Book V Chapter 105 ^ Herodotus & Sélincourt 1954, p. 353, Book V Chapter 104 ^ Manville 1977, pp. 80–81 ^ Manville 1977, pp. 82–90 ^ A translation can be found in "Eusebius: Chronicle". attalus.org. Retrieved 28 May 2017. ^ The relevant section of the Chronicon in Latin may be found at "Hieronymi Chronicon pp.16-187". tertullian.org. Retrieved 29 May 2017.. ^ Bunsen, Christian C.J. Baron (1860). Egypt's Place in Universal History: an Historical Investigation in Five Books. 4. Translated by Cottrell, Charles H. London: Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts. p. 539. Heyne, in his classical treatise of 1771 and 1772, submitted for the first time the Whole series to connected criticism, according to the authorities then existing, especially Syncellus and Hieronymus. ^ Heyne, Christian Gottlob (1771). "Commentario I: Super Castori Epochis etc". Novi commentarii Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis. ^ Myres 1906, pp. 84–86 ^ Myres 1906, pp. 87–88 ^ Myres 1906, pp. 103–107 ^ Myres 1906, pp. 102–103 ^ Myres 1906, pp. 101–102 ^ Myres 1906, pp. 99–101 ^ Questions of settlement of the coast of Anatolia by Hellenes is a major topic of Bronze Age studies. A summary can be found in Rose, C. Brian (2008). "Separating Fact from Fiction in the Aiolian Migration" (PDF). Hesperia. 77: 399–430.. Miletus began its career in history as the city of Millawanda in the Anatolian-speaking state of Mira in the rebel district of Arzawa, which received assistance from Ahhiyawa or Achaea, which was Greece (pp 407-408). By 1264 BC Millawanda was a protectorate of Ahhiyawa, by which time Greek immigration had begun. By the late 8th century BC Assyrian texts were calling the region Yaw(a)naya, or Ionia. Presumably it had become Miletus, from Milawata, and was Hellenic. ^ Herodotus & Sélincourt 1954, pp. 357–360, Book V Chapter 126 ^ The unobectivity of Herodotus' emotional reaction to Aristagoras' departure from Miletus is pointed out in Fink, Dennis L (2014). The Battle of Marathon in scholarship: research, theories and controversies since 1850. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc. p. 102. ^ Book IV, Chapters 140-141. The bridge had been partly broken down. Arriving at the bank, the king had a caller call for Histiaeus, who arrived in a fleet of boats to ferry him across and rebuild the bridge. ^ Lang 1968, p. 25 ^ Lang 1968, p. 24 ^ Boardman et al. 1988, p. 463, Part II, Chapter 8, Oswyn Murray, The Ionian Revolt ^ The CAH article summarizes several historians whose fragments are similar to passages in Herodotus, to be found at Boardman et al. 1988, pp. 467–468 ^ Boardman et al. 1988, pp. 461–462 ^ Boardman et al. 1988, p. 464 ^ Boardman et al. 1988, p. 486 ^ Georges 2000, p. 1 References[edit] Boardman, John; Hammond, NGL; Lewis, DM; Ostwald, M, eds. (1988). The Cambridge Ancient History. Volume IV: Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean c. 525 to 479 B.C. (2nd ed.). Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Bury, J. B.; Meiggs, Russell (1975). A History of Greece (Fourth Edition). London: MacMillan Press. ISBN 0-333-15492-4.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Dandamaev, M. A. (1989). A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire. BRILL. ISBN 978-9004091726.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Georges, Pericles B. (2000). "Persian Ionia Under Darius: The Revolt Reconsidered". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 49 (1): 1–39.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Herodotus; Sélincourt, Aubrey de, Translator (1954). The Histories. London: Penguin Books.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Lang, Mabel (1968). "Herodotus and the Ionian Revolt". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 17 (1): 24–36. JSTOR 4435012.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Manville, P.B. (1977). "Aristagoras and Histiaios: The Leadership Struggle in the Ionian Revolt". The Classical Quarterly. 27: 80–91. JSTOR 638371.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Myres, JL (1906). "On the 'List of Thalassocracies' in Eusebius". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. XXVI: 84–130.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) External links[edit] "Herodotus, The Histories; A. D. Godley, Ed., Book V". Perseus Digital Library. Retrieved 1 May 2017. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Authority control GND: 102381348 ISNI: 0000 0000 0454 0689 VIAF: 7774645 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 7774645 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristagoras&oldid=999699682" Categories: Ionian Revolt Ancient Milesians Archaic tyrants 6th-century BC Greek people 5th-century BC Greek people 6th-century BC births 5th-century BC deaths Greek people of the Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Greeks from the Achaemenid Empire Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text CS1 maint: ref=harv CS1: long volume value Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikisource Languages Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Galego Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Lëtzebuergesch Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 11 January 2021, at 14:13 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-914	----	Scheherazade - Wikipedia Scheherazade From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Character from Arabian Nights For other uses, see Scheherazade (disambiguation). Scheherazade شهرزاد One Thousand and One Nights character Scheherazade, painted in the 19th century by Sophie Anderson Portrayed by Mili Avital, Catherine Zeta-Jones, Claude Jade, Anna Karina, María Montez, Cyrine Abdelnour, Sulaf Fawakherji, Annette Haven In-universe information Gender Female Occupation Queen consort Family The chief vizier (father) Dunyazad (sister) Spouse Shahryar Children 3 sons Other names Shahrazad, Shahrzad Scheherazade (/ʃəˌhɛrəˈzɑːd, -də/[1]) is a major female character and the storyteller in the frame narrative of the Middle Eastern collection of tales known as the One Thousand and One Nights. Contents 1 Name 2 Narration 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Name[edit] According to modern scholarship, the name "Scheherazade" derives from an Arabic form of the Middle Persian name Čehrāzād, which is composed of the words čehr (lineage) and āzād (noble, exalted).[2][3][4] The earliest forms of Scheherazade's name in Arabic sources include Shirazad (شيرازاد, Šīrāzād) in Masudi, and Shahrazad in Ibn al-Nadim.[5][6] The name appears as Šahrazād in the Encyclopedia of Islam[4] and as Šahrāzād in Encyclopædia Iranica.[3] Among standard 19th-century printed editions, the name appears as شهرزاد (Šahrazād) in Macnaghten's Calcutta edition (1839-1842)[7] and in the 1862 Bulaq edition,[8] and as شاهرزاد (Šāhrazād) in the Breslau edition (1825-1843).[9] Muhsin Mahdi's critical edition has شهرازاد (Šahrāzād).[10] The spelling "Scheherazade" first appeared in English-language texts in 1801, borrowed from German usage.[1] Scheherazade and the sultan by the Iranian painter Sani ol molk (1849-1856) Narration[edit] The story goes that the monarch Shahryar, on discovering that his first wife was unfaithful to him, resolved to marry a new virgin every day and have her beheaded the next morning before she could dishonour him. Eventually the vizier could find no more virgins of noble blood and offers his own daughter, Scheherazade, as the king's next bride. In Sir Richard Burton's translation of The Nights, Scheherazade was described in this way: Scheherazade had perused the books, annals, and legends of preceding Kings, and the stories, examples, and instances of bygone men and things; indeed it was said that she had collected a thousand books of histories relating to antique races and departed rulers. She had perused the works of the poets and knew them by heart; she had studied philosophy and the sciences, arts, and accomplishments; and she was pleasant and polite, wise and witty, well read and well bred. Against her father's wishes, Scheherazade volunteered to marry the king. Once in the king's chambers, Scheherazade asked if she might bid one last farewell to her beloved sister, Dunyazad, who had secretly been prepared to ask Scheherazade to tell a story during the long night. The king lay awake and listened with awe as Scheherazade told her first story. The night passed by and Scheherazade stopped in the middle. The king asked her to finish, but Scheherazade said there was no time, as dawn was breaking. So, the king spared her life for one day to finish the story the next night. The following night, Scheherazade finished the story and then began a second, more exciting tale, which she again stopped halfway through at dawn. Again, the king spared her life for one more day so she could finish the second story. And so the king kept Scheherazade alive day by day, as he eagerly anticipated the finishing of the previous night's story. At the end of 1,001 nights, and 1,000 stories, Scheherazade told the king that she had no more tales to tell him. During these 1,001 nights, the king had fallen in love with Scheherazade. He spared her life and made her his queen. See also[edit] Scheherazade in popular culture References[edit] ^ a b "Scheherazade". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved Apr 27, 2019. ^ Marzolph, Ulrich (2017). "Arabian Nights". In Kate Fleet; Gudrun Krämer; Denis Matringe; John Nawas; Everett Rowson (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (3rd ed.). Brill. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_0021. the narrator's name is of Persian origin, the Arabicised form Shahrazād being the equivalent of the Persian Chehr-āzād, meaning “of noble descent and/or appearance. ^ a b Ch. Pellat (2011). "ALF LAYLA WA LAYLA". Encyclopædia Iranica. ^ a b Hamori, A. (2012). "S̲h̲ahrazād". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Brill. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_6771. ^ Robert Irwin (2004). The Arabian Nights: A Companion. Tauris Parke Paperbacks (Kindle edition). p. 944 (Kindle loc). ^ حمدان محمد علي حسين إسماعيل (2009). إشكالية الترجمة في الآدب المقارن. Al Manhal. p. 170. ISBN 9796500054087. ^ William Hay Macnaghten, ed. (1839). The Alif laila. 1. Calcutta, W. Thacker and co. p. 14. ^ Kitāb alf laylah wa-laylah. 1. Bulaq. 1862. p. 20. ^ Maximilian Habicht; Heinrich Leberecht Fleischer, eds. (1825). Tausend und eine Nacht = alf laylah wa-laylah : arabisch, nach einer Handschrift aus Tunis. 1. Breslau. p. 31. ^ Muhsin Mahdi, ed. (1984). Alf Layla wa-Layla. Brill. p. 66. ISBN 978-9004074316. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Scheherazade Wikimedia Commons has media related to Scheherazade. The Arabian Nights Entertainments—Project Gutenberg v t e One Thousand and One Nights Translations Les mille et une nuits (1704–1717) The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night (1885–1888) Le livre des mille nuits et une nuit (1926–1932) Stories Aladdin Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves The Ebony Horse The Fisherman and the Jinni Sinbad the Sailor The Three Apples Characters Fictional Aladdin Ali Baba Badroulbadour Old Man of the Sea Scheherazade Sinbad the Sailor Legendary Hatim al-Tai Khidr Ma'n ibn Za'ida al-Shaybani Sayf ibn Dhi Yazan Shaddad ibn 'Ad Solomon Historical Abu Nuwas Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf Al-Ma'mun Baibars Harun al-Rashid Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi Ishaq al-Mawsili Ja'far ibn Yahya Khosrow II Shirin Zubaidah bint Ja'far Films Achmed The Thief of Bagdad (1924) The Adventures of Prince Achmed (1926) The Thief of Bagdad (1940) Arabian Nights (1942) La Rosa di Bagdad (1949) The Thief of Bagdad (1952) The Thief of Baghdad (1961) Arabian Nights (1974) The Thief of Baghdad (1978) The Thief and the Cobbler (1993) Arabian Nights (2015) (Also numerous Aladdin, Sinbad, and Ali Baba films) Television Scooby-Doo! in Arabian Nights (1994) Aladdin (animated TV series) (1994) Arabian Nights (2000) 1001 Nights (2011) Music Operas Le calife de Bagdad (1800) Abu Hassan (1811) Ali Baba (Cherubini) (1833) Der Barbier von Bagdad (1858) La statue (1861) Ali-Baba (Lecocq) (1887) Mârouf, savetier du Caire (1914) Other Scheherazade Op. 35 (1888) Aladdin (1918–1919) Literature "The Thousand-and-Second Tale of Scheherazade" (1845) New Arabian Nights (1882) Slaves of Sleep (1939) The Eighth Voyage of Sindbad (1964) Dunyazadiad (1972) Arabian Nights and Days (1979) The Last Voyage of Somebody the Sailor (1991) Two Years Eight Months and Twenty-Eight Nights (2015) Lists Characters Stories (Burton translation) Works influenced by ... Related Ghoul Ifrit Jinn Magic carpet Open sesame Roc (rukh) Shahrokh Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scheherazade&oldid=993166773" Categories: Female characters in literature Fictional queens Fictional storytellers One Thousand and One Nights characters Persian mythology Medieval legends Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Arabic-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages العربية Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Ladino Лакку Latina Magyar მარგალური مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 9 December 2020, at 03:37 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9165	----	Statue of Marduk - Wikipedia Statue of Marduk From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The Statue of Marduk depicted as being mounted on Marduk's dragon Mušḫuššu and standing victorious in the primordial water of Tiamat. From a cylinder seal of the 9th century BC Babylonian king Marduk-zakir-shumi I.[1] The Statue of Marduk, also known as the Statue of Bêl (Bêl, meaning "lord", being a common designation for Marduk),[2] was the physical representation of the god Marduk, the patron deity of the ancient city of Babylon, traditionally housed in the city's main temple, the Esagila. There were seven statues of Marduk in Babylon, but 'the' Statue of Marduk generally refers to the god's main statue, placed prominently in the Esagila and used in the city's rituals. This statue was nicknamed the Asullḫi and was made of a type of wood called mēsu and covered with gold and silver. Similar to statues of deities in other cities in Mesopotamia, the Babylonians conflated this statue with their actual god, believing that Marduk himself resided in their city through the statue. As such, the statue held enormous religious significance. It was used during the Babylonian New Year's festival and the kings of Babylon incorporated it into their coronation rituals, receiving the crown "from the hands" of Marduk. Because of the enormous significance of the statue, it was sometimes used as a means of psychological warfare by Babylon's enemies. Enemy powers such as the Hittites, the Assyrians and the Elamites stole the statue during sacks of the city, which caused religious and political turmoil, as Babylon's traditional rituals could then not be completed. Coincidentally, all the foreign kings known to have stolen the statue ended up later being killed by their own family members, something the Babylonians hailed as divine punishment. Returns of the statue, either through the enemies giving it back or through a Babylonian king campaigning and successfully retrieving it, were occasions for great celebrations. The ultimate fate of the statue is uncertain. A common assumption is that it was destroyed by the Achaemenid Persian king Xerxes I after a Babylonian uprising against his rule in 484 BC, but historical sources used for this assumption could be referring to a completely different statue. The statue's crown was restored by Alexander the Great in 325 BC, meaning it was still in the Esagila at that time. There are a handful of references to later rulers giving gifts "to Marduk" in the Esagila, some from as late as during the time of Parthian rule in Mesopotamia in the 2nd century BC. Contents 1 Background 2 Appearance and other statues 3 Role and importance 4 History 4.1 Journeys of Marduk 4.2 Xerxes and Babylon 4.3 Later mentions 5 See also 6 References 6.1 Cited bibliography 6.2 Cited web sources Background[edit] Main article: Marduk The Statue of Marduk on a kudurru stele of the Babylonian king Meli-Shipak (12th century BC) Marduk was the patron deity of the city of Babylon, having held this position since the reign of Hammurabi (18th century BC) in Babylon's first dynasty. Although Babylonian worship of Marduk never meant the denial of the existence of the other gods in the Mesopotamian pantheon, it has sometimes been compared to monotheism.[3] The history of worship of Marduk is intimately tied to the history of Babylon itself and as Babylon's power increased, so did the position of Marduk relative to that of other Mesopotamian gods. By the end of the second millennium BC, Marduk was sometimes just referred to as Bêl, meaning "lord".[4] In Mesopotamian mythology, Marduk was a creator god. Going by the Enûma Eliš, the Babylonian creation myth, Marduk was the son of Enki, the Mesopotamian god of wisdom, and rose to prominence during a great battle between the gods. The myth tells how the universe originated as a chaotic realm of water in which there originally were two primordial deities, Tiamat (salt water, female) and Abzu (sweet water, male). These two gods gave birth to other deities. These deities (including gods such as Enki) had little to do in these early stages of existence and as such occupied themselves with various activities.[3] Eventually, their children began to annoy the elder gods and Abzu decided to rid himself of them by killing them. Alarmed by this, Tiamat revealed Abzu's plan to Enki, who killed his father before the plot could be enacted. Although Tiamat had revealed the plot to Enki to warn him, the death of Abzu horrified her and she too attempted to kill her children, raising an army together with her new consort Kingu. Every battle in the war was a victory for Tiamat, until Marduk convinced the other gods to proclaim him as their leader and king. The gods agreed, and Marduk was victorious, capturing and executing Kingu and firing a great arrow at Tiamat, killing her and splitting her in two.[3] With these chaotic primordial forces defeated, Marduk created the world and ordered the heavens. Marduk is also described as the creator of human beings, which were meant to help the gods in defeating and holding off the forces of chaos and thus maintain order on Earth.[3] Appearance and other statues[edit] Reconstruction of the peribolos at Babylon, including the temple of Esagila, where Marduk's statue was kept. From The Excavations at Babylon (1914) The Statue of Marduk was the physical representation of Marduk housed in Babylon's main temple, the Esagila.[3] Although there were actually seven separate statues of Marduk in Babylon: four in the Esagila and the surrounding temple complex; one in the Etemenanki (the ziggurat dedicated to Marduk); and two in temples dedicated to other deities. 'The' statue of Marduk usually refers to Marduk's primary statue, placed prominently in the Esagila and used in the city's rituals.[5] This principal statue of Marduk was nicknamed the Asullḫi and made of a type of wood called mēsu.[6] The carved wooden statue would also have been covered in precious metals, such as gold and silver.[7] In addition to this, the statue would have been provided with ritual clothing, at least partly made of gold.[8] This statue would have occupied the cult room of Marduk in the Esagila, called the E-umuša. Among the various statues of Marduk, the one called the Asullḫi is the only one explicitly mentioned in connection with the city's major rituals (though the statue is rarely named, often being referred to just as "Marduk" or "Bêl").[6] The name Asullḫi had centuries prior been associated with a separate deity of incantations later conflated with Marduk.[9] Another statue of Marduk, called the Asarre, was made from a stone the Babylonians called marḫušu, possibly chlorite or steatite.[10][11] The Asarre was located in a chapel dedicated to the god Ninurta off the north side of the Esagila's central courtyard.[10] Though this chapel would have been dedicated to Ninurta, the Marduk statue would have occupied the central point of attention and thus have been the main figure.[6] This might be explained through the god Ninurta becoming seen as simply an aspect of Marduk—an ancient visitor to the temple may not have been surprised to find Marduk in the stead of Ninurta.[12] Other statues included one made of a type of wood called taskarinnu and placed in a chamber dedicated to the Enki (Marduk's father) in the E-kar-zaginna temple, part of the Esagila temple complex but not of the temple itself; an alabaster statue in the "temple of E-namtila"; a statue of hematite in the "chapel of Ninurta in the temple E-ḫursag-tilla"; and a statue of unknown material in "E-gišḫur-ankia, the temple of Bēlet-Ninua".[6] Role and importance[edit] Closeup of a colossal stone statue of the god Nabu (the son of Marduk) recovered from the city Kalhu, an example of a surviving ancient Mesopotamian statue of a deity. Exhibited at the Iraq Museum. The citizens of the city of Babylon conflated the Asullḫi with the actual god Marduk—the god was understood as living in the temple, among the people of his city, and not in the heavens. As such, Marduk was not seen as some distant entity, but a friend and protector who lived nearby. This was no different from other Mesopotamian cities, who similarly conflated their gods with the representations used for them in their temples. During the religiously important 13-day long New Year's festival held annually in the spring at Babylon, the statue was removed from the temple and paraded through the city before being placed in a smaller building outside the city walls, where the statue received fresh air and could enjoy a different view from the one it had from inside the temple.[3] The statue was traditionally incorporated into the coronation rituals for the Babylonian kings, who received their crowns "out of the hands" of Marduk during the New Year's festival, symbolizing them being bestowed with kingship by the patron deity of the city.[13] Both his rule and role as Marduk's vassal on Earth were reaffirmed annually at this time of year, when the king entered the Esagila alone on the fifth day of the festivities and met with the chief priest. The chief priest removed the regalia from the king, slapped him across the face and made him kneel before Marduk's statue. The king would then tell the statue that he had not oppressed his people and that he had maintained order throughout the year, whereafter the chief priest would reply (on behalf of Marduk) that the king could continue to enjoy divine support for his rule and the regalia were returned.[14] The standard full Negative Confession of the king was the following: [I have not] sinned, lord of the lands, I have not neglected your divinity, [I have not] ruined Babylon, I have not ordered its dissolution, [I have not] made the Esagila tremble, I have not forgotten its rites, [I have not] struck the cheek of any privileged subject, I have [not] brought about their humiliation, [I have been taking ca]re of Babylon, I have not destroyed its outer walls![15] Because of its significance to the city, Babylon's enemies often used the statue as a means of psychological warfare. When foreign powers conquered or plundered Babylon, the statue was often stolen from the city (a common way of weakening the power of defeated cities in ancient Mesopotamia). Such events caused great distress for the Babylonians, as the removal of the statue signified the actual departure of the real deity, their friend and protector. Without it, the New Year's festival could not be celebrated and  religious activities were difficult to perform.[3] The Babylonians believed that the statue's departures from the city were somewhat self-imposed, with the statue itself deciding to make the journey and foreign theft of it simply being a means to achieve that.[16] The statue's absence meant confusion and hardship for the Babylonians, who believed that foreign lands benefited from having the statue as it brought prosperity wherever it went.[17] The practice of taking the cult statues from enemies was viewed as capturing the enemy's source of divine power and suppressing that power.[16] Statues of deities were sometimes destroyed by enemy powers, as was once the case for the statue of the sun god Shamash in that deity's patron city, Sippar. It was destroyed by the Suteans during the reign of Babylonian king Simbar-shipak (c. 1026–1009 BC).[18] As these statues held enormous religious significance, the statue of Shamash could not be replaced until almost two centuries later, under King Nabu-apla-iddina (c. 887–855 BC) when a replica of the original was "divinely revealed" and the king ordered the new statue to be ritually dedicated. In the meantime, Sippar had prayed to its god using a sun-disc as a substitute for the statue.[19] Though they were conflated into one, gods in Mesopotamia were believed to be able to "abandon" their statues. In an 8th-century BC religious text, the poor state of Marduk's statue inspired the god Erra to suggest that Marduk depart from the statue and that Erra could rule in his stead until the Babylonians had finished restoring it.[16] Gods could exist in heaven and on Earth simultaneously, and their presence on Earth could be in multiple places at the same time: for instance, Shamash and the goddess Ishtar (a goddess of sex, war, justice and political power associated with the planet Venus)[20] were manifested in cult images in many different cities and were also still seen as being present in their respective heavenly bodies.[21] Though statues and other cult images could be harmed, this did not mean that actual damage was being done to the gods themselves.[22] History[edit] Journeys of Marduk[edit] Journeys of Marduk c.1595 BC The Hittite king Mursili I sacks Babylon, the statue is carried to Hattusa. c.1344 BC The Hittite king Šuppiluliuma I possibly returns the statue as a gesture of goodwill. 1225 BC Babylon is sacked by Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I, the statue is carried to Assur. ? The statue returns to Babylon and is later moved to Sippar. c.1150 BC Sippar is sacked by Elamite king Shutruk-Nakhunte, the statue is carried to Elam. 1125–1104 BC Nebuchadnezzar I rules as King of Babylon, he defeats the Elamites and returns the statue to the city. 689 BC Assyrian king Sennacherib sacks Babylon, the statue is carried to Issete in Assyria. 668 BC The statue is returned to the city with Shamash-shum-ukin's coronation as King of Babylon. 484 BC Babylon revolts against Achaemenid king Xerxes I and is harshly reprimanded. Some scholars believe the statue was destroyed or removed at this time. 325 BC Alexander the Great is mentioned as restoring the statue's crown. 127 BC Hyspaosines is mentioned as giving gifts "to Marduk" in the Esagila in Babylon The statue was first stolen from the city when King Mursili I of the Hittites sacked Babylon c.1595 BC.[3] Mursili's war against Babylon ended the city's first dynasty and left its empire in ruins.[23] Although Babylon rebuilt its kingdom under the Kassite dynasty, the statue spent centuries in the kingdom of the Hittites, possibly being returned c.1344 BC by King Šuppiluliuma I as a gesture of goodwill.[3] The statue then remained in Babylon until the Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I captured Babylon in 1225 BC, when he plundered the city and carried the statue away to the Assyrian capital, Assur. What exactly happened thereafter is unclear, but it was  returned and then later, for unknown reasons, moved to the nearby city Sippar. Sippar was sacked c.1150 BC by the Elamites under their king, Shutruk-Nakhunte, who stole the statue, carrying it to his homeland Elam. The statue was successfully seized and returned to Babylon after the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar I (r. c.1125–1104 BC) campaigned against the Elamites.[3][24] Nebuchadnezzar's successful return of the statue to the city was a monumentous event and several literary works were created to commemorate it, possibly including an early version of the Enûma Eliš.[25] The Neo-Assyrian King Tiglath-Pileser III conquered Babylon in October 729 BC, after which the Neo-Assyrian monarchs proclaimed themselves as kings of Babylon in addition to already being kings of Assyria.[26] As vengeance after a series of revolts, the Neo-Assyrian king Sennacherib plundered and destroyed Babylon in 689 BC. Sennacherib had been seen as heretical by the Babylonians, as he hadn't gone through with the traditional coronation ritual (with the statue) when he had proclaimed himself as Babylon's king.[3] Following the destruction of the city, Sennacherib stole the statue and it was kept at the town of Issete in the northeastern parts of Assyria.[2] When Sennacherib was murdered by his sons Arda-Mulissu and Sharezer in 681 BC, the Babylonians saw it as Marduk's divine retribution.[3] Sennacherib's successor as Assyrian king, Esarhaddon, rebuilt Babylon in the 670s BC, restoring the Esagila. Under Esarhaddon's guidance, a pedestal in gold (intended to support the returned statue) was created in the Esagila.[2] The statue was finally returned to the city during the coronation of Esarhaddon's successor as Babylonian king, Shamash-shum-ukin, in the spring of 668 BC.[27] It is possible that Sennacherib actually destroyed the original statue and the statue returned to Babylon in 668 BC was a replica; some of Sennacherib's inscriptions allude to smashing the statues of the gods in Babylon while others explicitly state that the Marduk statue was carried to Assyria.[28] Assyrian control of Babylon was ended with the successful revolt of Nabopolassar in 626 BC, which established the Neo-Babylonian Empire.[29] Nabopolassar's son and heir, Nebuchadnezzar II (r. 605–562 BC) widened the streets of Babylon so that the parade of the statue through the city at the New Year's festival would be made easier. The Neo-Babylonian Empire was ended with the conquest of Babylon by Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid Empire in 539 BC. Cyrus showed respect for the city and the statue and his own inscriptions surrounding his conquest of the city explicitly state that Marduk was on his side in the war.[3] Though the statue was often used as a means of physological warfare by removing it from the city, powerful foreign rulers who did so had a tendency to die at the hands of their own family members. Mursili I, Shutruk-Nakhunte, Tukulti-Ninurta I, Sennacherib and the later Xerxes I were all killed by members of their own families.[30] Such deaths, as can be seen in the Babylonian reaction to Sennacherib's murder in particular, were hailed by the Babylonians as divine punishment.[31] Xerxes and Babylon[edit] See also: Babylonian revolts (484 BC) In 484 BC, during the reign of the Achaemenid king Xerxes I, Babylon produced two contemporary revolts against Achaemenid rule, the revolts being led by rebel leaders Bel-shimanni and Shamash-eriba.[32] Prior to these revolts, Babylon had occupied a special position within the Achaemenid Empire, the Achaemenid kings had been titled as king of Babylon and king of the Lands, perceiving Babylonia as a somewhat separate entity within their empire, united with their own kingdom in a personal union. Xerxes gradually dropped the previous royal title and divided the previously large Babylonian satrapy (accounting for most of the Neo-Babylonian Empire's territory) into smaller sub-units.[13] Using texts written by classical authors, it is often assumed that Xerxes enacted a brutal vengeance on Babylon following the two revolts. According to ancient writers, Xerxes destroyed Babylon's fortifications and damaged the temples in the city.[33] The Esagila was allegedly exposed to great damage and Xerxes allegedly carried the statue of Marduk away from the city,[34] possibly bringing it to Iran and melting it down (classical authors held that the statue was entirely made of gold, which would have made melting it down possible).[33] Historian Amélie Kuhrt considers it unlikely that Xerxes destroyed the temples, but believes that the story of him doing so may derive from an anti-Persian sentiment among the Babylonians.[35] The story of Xerxes melting the statue comes chiefly from the ancient Greek writer Herodotus, who isn't otherwise considered entirely reliable and has been noted as being very anti-Persian. Joshua J. Mark, writing in the Ancient History Encyclopedia, believes that the account of Herodotus, a Persian king destroying the statue of the deity of a city he just razed, could be anti-Persian propaganda.[3] Furthermore, it is doubtful if the statue was removed from Babylon at all.[33] In From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire (2002), Pierre Briant considered it possible that Xerxes did remove a statue from the city, but that this was the golden statue of a man rather than the statue of the god Marduk.[36][37] Though mentions of the statue are lacking compared to earlier periods, contemporary documents suggest that the Babylonian New Year's Festival continued in some form during the Persian period.[38] Because the change in rulership from the Babylonians themselves to the Persians and due to the replacement of the city's elite families by Xerxes following its revolt, it is possible that the festival's traditional rituals and events had changed considerably.[39] Although contemporary evidence for Xerxes's retribution against Babylon is missing,[40] later authors mention the damage he inflicted upon the city's temples. For instance, both the Roman historian Arrian and the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus describe how Alexander the Great restored some temples in the city which had been destroyed or damaged by Xerxes.[33] Later mentions[edit] Arrian and Diodorus Siculus do not mention the Statue of Marduk, sometimes interpreted as indicating that the statue was no longer in the Esagila by Alexander's time.[3] However, the statue was demonstrably still present in the Esagila, since its crown is mentioned as having been restored by Alexander in 325 BC.[41][42] The crown is described as being horned, horned crowns being an ancient Mesopotamian way to indicate divinity,[41] conflicting with how the statue's crown is portrayed in ancient Babylonian depictions.[1] Due to his efforts to respect local religious customs in Mesopotamia, American historian Oliver D. Hoover speculated in 2011 that Seleucus I Nicator (r. 305–281 BC), the first king of the Seleucid Empire, might have undergone a traditional Babylonian coronation ceremony during a New Year's Festival in Babylon, involving the statue.[43] Several later rulers are referenced as giving gifts "to Marduk" in the Esagila. Seleucus I's son and successor, Antiochus I Soter, sacrificed to Marduk several times during his time as crown prince.[41] A late reference comes from the period of Parthian rule in Mesopotamia, with the Characenean ruler Hyspaosines attested as giving gifts "to Marduk" in 127 BC.[44] There are no known sources that mention the New Year's Festival as a contemporary event from the time of the Seleucids and onwards[45] and one of the last times the tradition is known to have been celebrated is 188 BC. During the festival of 188 BC, Antiochus III, great-grandson of Antiochus I, prominently partook and was given various valuables, including a golden crown and the royal robe of Nebuchadnezzar II, by Babylon's high priest at the Esagila.[46] The statue was a known historical object as late as the time of Parthian rule beyond Hyspaosines's time, from which a ritual text describes its role in the New Year's festival, including how the Enûma Eliš was recited in front of it and how the ancient kings of Babylon were supposed to be ritually slapped during the festival.[9] See also[edit] Lost history References[edit] ^ a b Schaudig 2008, p. 559. ^ a b c Cole & Machinist 1998, p. 11–13. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Mark 2016. ^ Leick 2009, p. 348. ^ Dalley 1997, p. 163. ^ a b c d George 1997, pp. 65–66. ^ Schaudig 2008, p. 561. ^ Oppenheim 1949, p. 172. ^ a b Brisch 2016. ^ a b George 1997, p. 65. ^ Steinkeller 2012, p. 263. ^ George 1997, p. 67. ^ a b Dandamaev 1989, pp. 185–186. ^ Laing & Frost 2017. ^ Deloucas 2016, p. 51. ^ a b c Herring 2013, p. 30. ^ Clifford 2003, p. 11. ^ Walker & Dick 1999, p. 58. ^ Walker & Dick 1999, p. 60. ^ Black & Green 1992, pp. 108–109. ^ Herring 2013, p. 31. ^ Schaudig 2008, p. 562. ^ Bryce 2005, p. 99. ^ Leick 2009, p. 349. ^ Leick 2009, p. 351. ^ Luckenbill 1926, p. 282. ^ Johns 1913, p. 124. ^ Walker & Dick 1999, p. 63. ^ Lipschits 2005, p. 16. ^ Brinkman 1973, p. 95. ^ Parpola 1980. ^ Waerzeggers 2018, p. 12. ^ a b c d Dandamaev 1993, p. 41. ^ Sancisi-Weerdenburg 2002, p. 579. ^ Deloucas 2016, p. 39. ^ Waerzeggers 2018, p. 3. ^ Briant 2002, p. 544. ^ Deloucas 2016, p. 40. ^ Deloucas 2016, p. 41. ^ Waerzeggers 2004, p. 150. ^ a b c Hoover 2011, p. 204. ^ Kosmin 2014, p. 184. ^ Hoover 2011, p. 205. ^ Spek 2001, pp. 452–453. ^ Deloucas 2016, p. 59. ^ Kosmin 2014, p. 192. Cited bibliography[edit] Black, Jeremy; Green, Anthony (1992), Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary, The British Museum Press, ISBN 978-0-7141-1705-8 Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1575060316. Brinkman, J. A. (1973). "Sennacherib's Babylonian Problem: An Interpretation". Journal of Cuneiform Studies. 25 (2): 89–95. doi:10.2307/1359421. JSTOR 1359421. Bryce, Trevor (2005). The Kingdom of the Hittites. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-928132-9. Clifford, Richard J. (2003). "The Roots of Apocalypticism in Near Eastern Myth". In McGinn, Bernard; Collins, John J.; Stein, Stephen (eds.). The Continuum History of Apocalypticism. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-0826415202. Cole, Steven W.; Machinist, Peter (1998). Letters From Priests to the Kings Esarhaddon and Assurbanipal (PDF). Helsinki University Press. ISBN 978-1575063294. Dalley, Stephanie (1997). "Statues of Marduk and the date of Enūma eliš". Altorientalische Forschungen. 24 (1): 163–171. doi:10.1524/aofo.1997.24.1.163. S2CID 162042269. Dandamaev, Muhammad A. (1989). A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire. BRILL. ISBN 978-9004091726. Dandamaev, Muhammad A. (1993). "Xerxes and the Esagila Temple in Babylon". Bulletin of the Asia Institute. 7: 41–45. JSTOR 24048423. Deloucas, Andrew Alberto Nicolas (2016). "Balancing Power and Space: a Spatial Analysis of the Akītu Festival in Babylon after 626 BCE" (PDF). Research Master's Thesis for Classical and Ancient Civilizations (Assyriology). Universiteit Leiden. George, A. R. (1997). "Marduk and the cult of the gods of Nippur at Babylon". Orientalia (NOVA Series). 66 (1): 65–70. JSTOR 43076310. Herring, Stephen L. (2013). Divine Substitution: Humanity as the Manifestation of Deity in the Hebrew Bible and the Ancient Near East. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. ISBN 978-3525536124. Hoover, Oliver D. (2011). "Never Mind the Bullocks: Taurine Imagery as a Multicultural Expression of Royal and Divine Power Under Seleukos I Nikator". In Iossif, Panagiotis P.; Chankowski, Andrzej S.; Lorber, Catharine C. (eds.). More Than Men, Less Than Gods: Studies on Royal Cult and Imperial Worship. Peeters. ISBN 978-9042924703. Johns, C. H. W. (1913). Ancient Babylonia. Cambridge University Press. p. 124. Shamash-shum-ukin. Kosmin, Paul (2014). "Seeing Double in Seleucid Babylonia: Rereading the Borsippa Cylinder of Antiochus I". In Moreno, Alfonso; Thomas, Rosalind (eds.). Patterns of the Past: Epitēdeumata in the Greek Tradition. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199668885. S2CID 201634512. Laing, Jennifer; Frost, Warwick (2017). Royal Events: Rituals, Innovations, Meanings. Routledge. ISBN 978-1315652085. Lipschits, Oded (2005). The Fall and Rise of Jerusalem: Judah under Babylonian Rule. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1575060958. Leick, Gwendolyn (2009). The Babylonian World. Routledge. ISBN 978-0415497831. Luckenbill, Daniel David (1926). Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia Volume 1: Historical Records of Assyria From the Earliest Times to Sargon. University of Chicago Press. Oppenheim, A. Leo (1949). "The Golden Garments of the Gods". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 8 (3): 172–193. doi:10.1086/370928. JSTOR 542839. Sancisi-Weerdenburg, Heleen (2002). "The Personality of Xerxes, King of Kings". Brill's Companion to Herodotus. BRILL. pp. 579–590. doi:10.1163/9789004217584_026. ISBN 9789004217584. Schaudig, Hanspeter (2008). ""Bēl Bows, Nabû Stoops!" the Prophecy of Isaiah XLVI 1-2 as a Reflection of Babylonian "Processional Omens"". Vetus Testamentum. 58 (4/5): 557–572. doi:10.1163/156853308X325281. JSTOR 20504432. van der Spek, R. J. (2001). "The Theatre of Babylon in Cuneiform". Veenhof Anniversary Volume: Studies Presented to Klaas R. Veenhof on the Occasion of His Sixty-fifth Birthday: 445–456. Steinkeller, Piotr (2012). "New Light on Marhaši and its Contacts with Makkan and Babylonia". Aux Marges de l'Archéologie: 261–274. Waerzeggers, Caroline (2004). "The Babylonian Revolts Against Xerxes and the 'End of Archives'". Archiv für Orientforschung. 50: 150–173. JSTOR 41668621. Waerzeggers, Caroline (2018). "Introduction: Debating Xerxes' Rule in Babylonia". In Waerzeggers, Caroline; Seire, Maarja (eds.). Xerxes and Babylonia: The Cuneiform Evidence (PDF). Peeters Publishers. ISBN 978-90-429-3670-6. Walker, Christopher; Dick, Michael Brennan (1999). "The Induction of the Cult Image in Ancient Mesopotamia: The Mesopotamian mīs pî Ritual". In Dick, Michael Brennan (ed.). Born in Heaven, Made on Earth: The Making of the Cult Image in the Ancient Near East. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1575063423. Cited web sources[edit] Brisch, Nicole (2016). "Marduk (god)". Ancient Mesopotamian Gods and Goddesses. Retrieved 14 February 2020. Mark, Joshua J. (2016). "The Marduk Prophecy". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 9 December 2019. Parpola, Simo (1980). "The Murderer of Sennacherib". Gateways to Babylon. Retrieved 14 December 2019. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Statue_of_Marduk&oldid=991031374" Categories: Babylonia Babylonian art and architecture Lost sculptures Mesopotamian religion Mythological objects Sculptures of gods Hidden categories: Good articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Italiano Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 27 November 2020, at 22:14 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. 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en-wikipedia-org-9189	----	Osorkon the Elder - Wikipedia Osorkon the Elder From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Osorkon the Elder Osochor Block-relief attributed to Osorkon the Elder Pharaoh Reign 992 – 986 BC (21st Dynasty) Predecessor Amenemope Successor Siamun Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Aakheperre Setepenre ˁȝ-ḫpr-rˁ-stp-n-rˁ Great is the manifestation of Ra, the chosen one of Ra Aakheperre Setepenamun ˁȝ-ḫpr-rˁ-stp-n-Jmn Great is the manifestation of Ra, the chosen one of Amun Nomen Osorkon Meryamun Wsr.kn mrj Jmn Osorkon, beloved of Amun Children possibly Karimala Father Shoshenq A Mother Mehtenweshkhet A Aakheperre Setepenre Osorkon the Elder was the fifth king of the 21st Dynasty of Ancient Egypt and was the first Pharaoh of Meshwesh (Ancient Libyan) origin. He is also sometimes known as Osochor, following Manetho's Aegyptiaca. Biography[edit] Osorkon the Elder was the son of Shoshenq A, the Great Chief of the Ma by the latter's wife Mehtenweshkhet A who is given the prestigious title of 'King's Mother' in a document. Osorkon was the brother of Nimlot A, the Great Chief of the Ma, and Tentshepeh A the daughter of the Great Chief of the Ma and, thus, an uncle of Shoshenq I, founder of the 22nd Dynasty. His existence was doubted by most scholars until Eric Young established in 1963 that the induction of a temple priest named Nespaneferhor in Year 2 I Shemu day 20 under a certain king named Aakheperre Setepenre—in fragment 3B, line 1-3 of the Karnak Priest Annals —occurred one generation prior to the induction of Hori, Nespaneferhor's son, in Year 17 of Siamun, which is also recorded in the same annals.[1] Young argued that this king Aakheperre Setepenre was the unknown Osochor. This hypothesis was not fully accepted by all Egyptologists at that time, however. Then, in a 1976–77 paper, Jean Yoyotte noted that a Libyan king named Osorkon was the son of Shoshenq A by the Lady Mehtenweshkhet A, with Mehtenweshkhet being explicitly titled the "King's Mother" in a certain genealogical document.[2] Since none of the other kings named Osorkon had a mother named Mehtenweshkhet, it was conclusively established that Aakheperre Setepenre was indeed Manetho's Osochor, whose mother was Mehtenweshkhet. The Lady Mehtenweshkhet A was also the mother of Nimlot A, Great Chief of the Meshwesh and, thus, Shoshenq I's grandmother. In 1999, Chris Bennett made a case for a Queen Karimala known from an inscription in the temple of Semna being his daughter.[3] She is called both 'King's Daughter" and "King's Wife". Her name suggests she may have been Libyan. Given the date of the inscription (a year 14), she might have been the queen of either king Siamun or king Psusennes II. Bennett prefers a marriage to Siamun, because in that case she could have taken over the position of the Viceroy of Kush, Neskhons, as a religious figurehead in Nubia after the death of the latter in year 5 of king Siamun. Seal with royal cartouches, attributed to Osorkon the Elder A faience seal and a block naming a king Osorkon with the names Aakheperre Setepenamun, Osorkon Meryamun, both in the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden in Leiden, were for a long time attributed to Osorkon IV;[4] however, this attribution has been challenged by Frederic Payraudeau in 2000, who pointed out that those objects more likely referred to Osorkon the Elder.[5] This would lead to the attribution to his throne name Aakheperre both the epithets Setepenre and Setepenamun. Osorkon's time-line[edit] Based on a calculation of the aforementioned Year 2 lunar date of this king – which Rolf Krauss in an astronomical calculation has shown to correspond to 990 BC – Osorkon the Elder must have become king two years before the induction of Nespaneferhor in 992 BC.[6] Osorkon the Elder's reign is significant because it foreshadows the coming Libyan 22nd Dynasty. He is credited with a reign of six years in Manetho's Aegyptiaca and was succeeded in power by Siamun, who was either Osorkon's son or an unrelated native Egyptian. References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Osorkon the Elder. ^ Eric Young, "Some Notes on the Chronology and Genealogy of the Twenty-first Dynasty", Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 2 (1963), pp. 99–112 ^ Jean Yoyotte, "Osorkon fils de Mehytouskhé: Un pharaon oublié?", Bulletin de la Société française d'égyptologie, 77–78 (1976-1977), pp .39–54 ^ Chris Bennett, "Queen Karimala, Daughter of Osochor?" Göttinger Miszellen 173 (1999), pp. 7-8 ^ Schneider, Hans D. (1985). "A royal epigone of the 22nd Dynasty. Two documents of Osorkon IV in Leiden". Mélanges Gamal Eddin Mokhtar, vol. II. Institut français d'archéologie orientale du Caire. pp. 261–267. ^ Frederic Payraudeau, "L'identite du premier et du dernier Osorkon", Göttinger Miszellen 178 (2000), pp. 75–80. ^ Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss and David A. Warburton (eds.), Ancient Egyptian Chronology, Brill, Leiden/Boston, 2006, ISBN 978 90 04 11385 5, p. .474 v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Osorkon_the_Elder&oldid=999950109" Categories: 10th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt 10th century BC in Egypt Berber rulers Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá Edit links This page was last edited on 12 January 2021, at 19:41 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9207	----	Pedubast I - Wikipedia Pedubast I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Pedubast I Pedubast I's bronze torso at the Gulbenkian Museum, Lisbon, Portugal. Pharaoh Reign 835/824 BC–810/799 BC (23rd Dynasty) Predecessor Takelot II Successor Shoshenq VI Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Wsermaatre Setepenamun Wsr-M3ˁt-Rˁ-stp-n-Jmn Powerful is the justice of Ra, the chosen one of Amun Nomen Meriamun Padibastet mry-Jmn p3-dj-Bstt Beloved of Amun, the gift of Bastet Children Iuput I Pedubastis I or Pedubast I was an Upper Egyptian Pharaoh of ancient Egypt during the 9th century BC. Based on lunar dates which are known to belong to the reign of his rival Takelot II in Upper Egypt and the fact that Pedubast I first appeared as a local king at Thebes around Year 11 of Takelot II's rule, Pedubast I is today believed to have had his accession date in either 835 BC or 824 BC.[1] This local Pharaoh is recorded as being of Libyan ancestry and ruled Egypt for 25 years according to the redaction of Manetho done by Eusebius. He first became king at Thebes in Year 8 of Shoshenq III and his highest dated Year is his 23rd Year according to Nile Level Text No. 29. This year is equivalent to Year 31 of Shoshenq III of the Tanis based 22nd Dynasty of Egypt; however, since Shoshenq II only controlled Lower Egypt in Memphis and the Delta region, Pedubast and Shoshenq III were not political rivals and may even have established a relationship. Indeed, Shoshenq III's son, the general and army leader Pashedbast B "built a vestibule door to Pylon X at Karnak, and in one and the same commemorative text thereon named his father as [king] Sheshonq (III)" but dated his actions here to Pedubast I.[2] This may show some tacit support for the Pedubast faction by the Tanite based 22nd dynasty king Shoshenq III.[3] Pedubast I was the main opponent to Takelot II and later, Osorkon B, of the 23rd Dynasty of Libyan kings of Upper Egypt at Thebes. His accession to power plunged Thebes into a protracted civil war which lasted for nearly three decades between these two competing factions. Each faction had a rival line of High Priests of Amun with Pedubast's being Harsiese B who is attested in office as early as Year 6 of Shoshenq III and then Takelot E who appears in office from Year 23 of Pedubast I. Osorkon B was Pedubast I and Harsiese's chief rival. This conflict is obliquely mentioned in the famous Chronicle of Prince Osorkon at Karnak. Recent excavations by the University of Columbia in 2005 reveal that Pedubast I's authority was recognised both at Thebes and in the western desert oases of Egypt—at the Great Temple of Dakhla where his cartouche has been found. He was succeeded in power by Shoshenq VI. Contents 1 Pedubast's bronze torso 2 References 3 Further reading 4 External links Pedubast's bronze torso[edit] The richly inlaid torso from a bronze statue that originally depicted Pedubast I is today on permanent display in the Calouste Gulbenkian Museum in Lisbon, Portugal and is considered to be one of the great masterpieces of Egyptian Third Intermediate Period Art.[4] This object was purchased by Calouste Gulbenkian from December 13–16, 1921 from Frederik Muller & Cie through the well-known art dealer Joseph Duveen.[5] The Pedubast statue is extremely rare since it is one of the very few large-sized bronze statues of Egyptian kings in existence and the only large surviving bronze one known for the Third Intermediate Period.[6] The restored cartouches on the belt buckle and feather apron read respectively as: "Usermaatre-Chosen-of-Amun, Pedubaste Son-of-Bastet-Beloved of Amun" and "King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Lord of the Two Lands, Usermaatre-Chosen-of-Amun, Son of Re, Lord of Diadems, Pedubastet-Son-of-Bastet-Beloved-of-Amun."[7] This object's provenance is not known but it is first recorded as being in the collection of Count Grigory Stroganoff (1829–1910), a member of the famous Russian family of connoisseurs and collectors, in 1880.[8] References[edit] ^ David Aston, Takeloth II, A King of the Herakleopolitan Theban Twenty-Third Dynasty Revisited: The Chronology of Dynasties 22 and 23 in 'The Libyan Period in Egypt: Historical and Cultural Studies into the 21st-24th Dynasties: Proceedings of a Conference at Leiden University 25–27 October 2007,' G. Broekman, RJ Demaree & O.E. Kaper (eds), Peeters Leuven 2009, pp.25-26 ^ Kenneth Kitchen, The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100-650 BC), Aris & Phillips, 1996. (3rd ed.) p.339 ^ David Aston, Takeloth II-A King of the "Theban Twenty-Third Dynasty?", Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 75 (1989), p.150 ^ Marsha Hill & Deborah Schorsch, The Gulbenkian Torso of King Pedubaste: Investigations into Egyptian Large Bronze Statuary, Metropolitan Museum Journal 40, (2005), p.163 ^ Hill & Schorsch, p.186 ^ Hill & Schorsch, p.183 ^ Hill & Schorsch, p.167 ^ Hill & Schorsch, pp.163 & 166 Further reading[edit] Dan'el Kahn, A Problem of Pedubasts?, Antigua Oriente 4 (2006), 23-42 Brian Muhs, Partisan royal epithets in the late Third Intermediate Period and the dynastic affiliations of Pedubast I and Iuput II, JEA 84 (1998), 220-223 External links[edit] The Gulbenkian Torso of King Pedubaste Metropolitan Museum of Art University of Columbia 2005 Excavation report at Dakhla v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pedubast_I&oldid=974664900" Categories: 9th-century BC births 800s BC deaths 9th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt 9th century BC in Egypt Egyptian rebels Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá Edit links This page was last edited on 24 August 2020, at 08:33 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9209	----	Kybernis - Wikipedia Kybernis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Depiction of the Lycian ruler Kybernis (520-480 BCE) on his tomb (the "Harpy Tomb", British Museum). The "Harpy Tomb", a solid sandstone pillar with the sarcophagus of Kybernis on top (local reconstitution, the original sculpted plates being in the British Museum). Kybernis or Kubernis (ruled 520-480 BCE), also abbreviated KUB on his coins in Lycian, called Cyberniscus son of Sicas by Herodotus, was a dynast of Lycia, at the beginning of the time it was under the domination of the Achaemenid Empire.[1] He is best known through his tomb, the Harpy Tomb, the decorative remains of which are now in the British Museum.[1] Kybernis is known from Herodotus (Hdt. 7.92, 98) to have served under Xerxes I during the Persian invasion of Greece circa 480 BCE. He came with 50 ships. His men were equipped with cuirasses, felt caps with feathers, and capes made of goat-skin.[2] The Lycians furnished fifty ships; they wore cuirasses and greaves, carrying bows of cornel-wood and unfeathered arrows and javelins; goat-skins hung from their shoulders, and they wore on their heads caps set about with feathers; daggers they had too, and scimitars. The Lycians were of Cretan descent, and were once called Termilae; they took the name they bear from Lycus, an Athenian, son of Pandion. — Herodotus (7.92).[3] Of those that were on shipboard, the most famous, after the admirals, were these: Tetramnestus of Sidon, son of Anysus, Matten of Tyre, son of Siromus, Merbalus of Aradus, son of Agbalus, Syennesis of Cilicia, son of Oromedon, Cyberniscus of Lycia, son of Sicas, Gorgus son of Chersis, and Timonax son of Timagoras, Cyprians both; and of the Carians, Histiaeus son of Tymnes, Pigres son of Hysseldomus, and Damasithymus son of Candaules. — Herodotus (7.98).[4] It is assumed that Kybernis disappeared at the Battle of Salamis (480 BCE), together with a large part of the Achaemenid fleet.[5][6] References[edit] ^ a b Mortensen, Eva; Poulsen, Birte (2017). Cityscapes and Monuments of Western Asia Minor: Memories and Identities. Oxbow Books. p. 269. ISBN 9781785708398. ^ "A Lycian commander, Kybernis(kos), served under Xerxes in 480 b.c. with fifty ships. His men wore cuirasses and greaves, felt caps with feathers, and goat-skin capes. They were archers and hoplites, carrying javelins, daggers, and curved swords (Hdt. 7.92, 98)." The Cambridge Ancient History: pt. 1. The prehistory of the Balkans; and the Middle East and the Aegean world, tenth to eighth centuries B.C. Cambridge University Press. 1991. p. 659. ^ LacusCurtius • Herodotus — Book VII: Chapters 57‑137. ^ LacusCurtius • Herodotus — Book VII: Chapters 57‑137. ^ Keen, Antony G. (1998). Dynastic Lycia: A Political of History of the Lycians and Their Relations with Foreign Powers : C. 545-362 B.C. BRILL. p. 96. ISBN 9004109560. ^ Stafford-Deitsch, Jeremy (2010). Kingdoms of Ruin: The Art and Architectural Splendours of Ancient Turkey. I.B. Tauris. p. 107. ISBN 9781845117993. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kybernis&oldid=958230729" Categories: 6th-century BC people 5th-century BC people Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Military leaders of the Achaemenid Empire People of the Greco-Persian Wars Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Edit links This page was last edited on 22 May 2020, at 16:23 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9220	----	Cleopatra II - Wikipedia Cleopatra II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Cleopatra II Queen of Egypt Reign c. 175–164 BC 164–145 BC 145–c. 139 BC 139–132 BC 132–127 BC 124–116 BC (Ptolemaic) Royal titulary Nomen Klaupadrat Netjeret Meretmut Cleopatra, the goddess, beloved of Mut Consort Ptolemy VI of Egypt, Ptolemy VIII of Egypt Children Ptolemy Eupator Cleopatra Thea Berenice (possibly) Cleopatra III of Egypt Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy Memphites Father Ptolemy V Epiphanes Mother Cleopatra I of Egypt Born c. 185 BC Died 116/115 BC Cleopatra II (Greek: Κλεοπάτρα; c. 185 BC – 116/115 BC) was a queen of Ptolemaic Egypt who ruled from 175 to 116 BC with two successive brother-husbands and her daughter—often in rivalry with her brother Ptolemy VIII. She co-ruled during her first reign, until 164 BC, with Ptolemy VI Philometor, her first husband and the older of her brothers, and Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II, her younger brother. During her second reign she co-ruled again with Ptolemy VI from 163 BC until his death in 145 BC. She then ruled with her younger brother, Ptolemy VIII, whom she married, and her daughter Cleopatra III. She was sole ruler of Egypt from 131 BC to 127 BC. Her final reign from 124 BC to 116 BC was also spent in coregency with Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III. Contents 1 Life 1.1 Early life (before 175 BC) 1.2 First co-regency (175–131 BC) 1.3 Sole regency (131–127 BC) 1.4 Third reign (124–116 BC) 2 Issue 3 Ancestry 4 References Life[edit] Early life (before 175 BC)[edit] These busts of a Ptolemaic Egyptian queen likely depict Cleopatra II or her daughter Cleopatra III. (Left image from Walters Art Museum, Baltimore; Right image from the Louvre Museum, Paris) Cleopatra II was the daughter of Ptolemy V and likely Cleopatra I. If she was the daughter of Cleopatra I, she was a full sister of Ptolemy VI Philometor and Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II Tryphon; otherwise she was their half-sister. She would eventually marry both of her brothers.[1][2] First co-regency (175–131 BC)[edit] Following the death of her presumed mother, Cleopatra I, in 176 BC, Cleopatra II was married to her brother Ptolemy VI Philometor in c. 175 BC. Cleopatra II, Ptolemy VI and their brother, Ptolemy VIII, were co-rulers of Egypt from c. 170 BC to 164 BC.[1] In c. 169 BC, Antiochus IV of Syria invaded Egypt. Ptolemy VI Philometor joined Antiochus IV outside Alexandria. Ptolemy VI was crowned in Memphis and ruled with Cleopatra II. In 164 BC Cleopatra II and her husband were temporarily deposed by Ptolemy VIII, but were restored to power in 163 BC.[3] Ptolemy VI died in 145 BC. Cleopatra II agreed to marry her younger brother, Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II. Ptolemy VIII murdered Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator, the son of Ptolemy VI and Cleopatra II,[4] and took the throne himself.[1][5] Between 142 BC and 139 BC Ptolemy VIII married Cleopatra's younger daughter, his niece Cleopatra III.[5][6] Sole regency (131–127 BC)[edit] Cleopatra II led a rebellion against Ptolemy VIII in 131 BC, and drove him and Cleopatra III out of Egypt.[1] At this time Ptolemy VIII is said to have had Ptolemy Memphites, his son by his older sister, Cleopatra II, dismembered and his head, hands and feet sent to Cleopatra II in Alexandria as a birthday present.[7] Cleopatra II ruled Egypt as sole ruler until 127 BC. She was forced to flee to Syria, where she joined her daughter Cleopatra Thea and her son-in-law Demetrius II Nicator. Third reign (124–116 BC)[edit] Wall relief of Cleopatra III, Cleopatra II and Ptolemy VIII before Horus A public reconciliation of Cleopatra II and Ptolemy VIII was declared in 124 BC. After this she ruled jointly with her brother and daughter until June 116 BC when Ptolemy died.[5] Ptolemy VIII left the kingdom to be ruled by Cleopatra III and one of their sons. At the wishes of the Alexandrians, Cleopatra III chose Ptolemy Lathyros, her elder son, as her co-ruler.[1] Cleopatra II disappeared from historical records sometime around October 116 BC.[5] She is believed to have died in about 116 or 115 BC.[1][5] Issue[edit] With Ptolemy VI she had at least four children,[2][5][8] and possibly an additional daughter Berenice:[1] Ptolemy Eupator, born in 166 BC. Became co-regent with his father for a short time, but died at a young age in c. 152 BC. Cleopatra Thea, born in c. 164 BC. She married Alexander Balas, Demetrius II Nicator and Antiochus VII Sidetes. Murdered by her son in c. 120 BC. Perhaps Berenice, born between 163 and 160 BC. Died young in c. 150 BC. Cleopatra III, born between 160 and 155 BC. Married to her uncle Ptolemy VIII. Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator, born c. 152 BC. Murdered in 145 BC by Ptolemy VIII. Ptolemy VIII and his older sister, Cleopatra II, are thought to have had at least one son,[1][2] Ptolemy Memphites, born between 144 and 142 BC. Ptolemy Memphites may be identical to Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator, but this identification is not universally accepted. Ancestry[edit] Ancestors of Cleopatra II 16. (=20)Ptolemy II Philadelphus (half-brother of 18,22) 8. (=10)Ptolemy III Euergetes 17. (=21)Arsinoe I 4. Ptolemy IV Philopator 18. (=22)Magas of Cyrene (half-brother of 16,20) 9. (=11)Berenice II of Egypt 19. (=23)Apama II (sister of 24,30) 2. Ptolemy V Epiphanes 20. (=16)Ptolemy II Philadelphus (half-brother of 18,22) 10. (=8)Ptolemy III Euergetes 21. (=17)Arsinoe I 5. Arsinoe III of Egypt 22. (=18)Magas of Cyrene (half-brother of 16,20) 11. (=9)Berenice II of Egypt 23. (=19)Apama II (sister of 24,30) 1. Cleopatra II 24. (=30)Antiochus II Theos (brother of 19,23) 12. Seleucus II Callinicus 25. (=31)Laodice I (daughter of 26) 6. Antiochus III the Great 26. Achaeus (son of Seleucus I Nicator) 13. Laodice II 3. Cleopatra I Syra 28. Ariobarzanes of Pontus 14. Mithridates II of Pontus 7. Laodice III 30. (=24)Antiochus II Theos (brother of 19,23) 15. Laodice (wife of Mithridates II of Pontus) 31. (=25)Laodice I (daughter of 26) References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h Cleopatra II Archived 23 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine by Chris Bennett ^ a b c Aidan Dodson, Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, 2004 ^ Ptolemy VI by Chris Bennett ^ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator by Encyclopaedia Britannica ^ a b c d e f Cleopatra II by Livius ^ Ptolemy VIII by Chris Bennett ^ Ptolemy Memphites by Chris Bennett ^ Ptolemy VI by Livius Cleopatra II Ptolemaic dynasty Born: ca. 185 BC Died: 116 BC Regnal titles Preceded by Ptolemy VI Queen of Egypt 175 BC-164 BC with Ptolemy VI and Ptolemy VIII Succeeded by Ptolemy VIII Preceded by Ptolemy VIII Queen of Egypt 163 BC-127 BC with Ptolemy VI, Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III Succeeded by Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III Preceded by Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III Queen of Egypt 124 BC-116 BC with Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III Succeeded by Ptolemy IX and Cleopatra III v t e Hellenistic rulers Argeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Kings of Cyrene Magas Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Kings of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Kings of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Kings of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Kings of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus Kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon (regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces Asander with Dynamis Mithridates II Asander with Dynamis Scribonius’ attempted rule with Dynamis Dynamis with Polemon Polemon with Pythodorida Aspurgus Mithridates III with Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Queens of Ancient Egypt Early Dynastic Period to First Intermediate Period  (3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Neithhotep Benerib Khenthap Herneith Nakhtneith Penebui Merneith Seshemetka Semat Serethor Betrest II Nimaathap Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Hetephernebti Djeseretnebti Djefatnebti Meresankh I IV Hetepheres I Meritites I Henutsen Khentetka Meresankh II Hetepheres II Meresankh III Khamerernebty I Persenet Hekenuhedjet Khamerernebty II Rekhetre Bunefer V Khentkaus I Neferhetepes Meretnebty Khentkaus II Khentkaus III Reptynub Khuit I Meresankh IV Setibhor Nebet Khenut VI Iput I Khuit II Ankhesenpepi I Ankhesenpepi II Nubwenet Meritites IV Inenek-Inti Nedjeftet Neith Iput II Udjebten Ankhesenpepi III Ankhesenpepi IV Nitocris Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Neferu I Neferukayet Iah Tem Neferu II Ashayet Henhenet Sadeh Kawit Kemsit XII Neferitatjenen Neferu III Keminub Khenemetneferhedjet I Nofret II Itaweret Khenmet Sithathoriunet Khenemetneferhedjet II Neferthenut Meretseger Aat Khenemetneferhedjet III Sobekneferu 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Nofret Nubhetepti Senebhenas Neni Tjan Ineni Nubkhaes Aya XIV Tati XVI Mentuhotep XVII Nubemhat Sobekemsaf Haankhes Tetisheri Ahhotep I Ahmose Inhapy Sitdjehuti Ahhotep II New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose-Nefertari Ahmose-Sitkamose Ahmose-Henuttamehu Ahmose-Meritamun Ahmose Mutnofret Hatshepsut Iset Satiah Merytre-Hatshepsut Nebtu Menhet, Menwi and Merti Nebsemi Tiaa Nefertari Iaret Mutemwiya Tiye Gilukhipa Sitamun Iset Tadukhipa / Kiya Nefertiti Meritaten Neferneferuaten Ankhesenamun Tey Mutnedjmet Nebetnehat XIX Sitre Tuya Tanedjemet Nefertari Isetnofret Henutmire Maathorneferure Meritamen Bintanath Nebettawy Merytre Isetnofret II Takhat Twosret Tiaa XX Tiy-Merenese Iset Ta-Hemdjert Tyti Tiye Duatentopet Henutwati Tawerettenru Nubkhesbed Baketwernel Tentamun 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Tentamun Mutnedjmet Karimala XXII Karomama Patareshnes Maatkare Tashedkhonsu Nesitaudjatakhet Nesitanebetashru Kapes Karomama I Tadibast III XXIII Karomama II XXV Pebatjma Tabiry Abar Khensa Peksater Arty Qalhata Tabekenamun Takahatenamun Naparaye Atakhebasken Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaoh uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Mehytenweskhet Khedebneithirbinet I Takhuit Tentkheta Nakhtubasterau Ladice XXVII Atossa Artystone Parmys Amestris Damaspia Parysatis XXXI Stateira I Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Roxana Stateira II Parysatis II Eurydice II of Macedon Ptolemaic Eurydice Berenice I Arsinoe I Arsinoe II Berenice II Arsinoe III Cleopatra I Cleopatra II Cleopatra III Cleopatra IV Cleopatra Selene Berenice III Cleopatra V Cleopatra VI Berenice IV Cleopatra VII Arsinoe IV Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic Authority control GND: 119208245 VIAF: 47566332 WorldCat Identities: viaf-47566332 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cleopatra_II&oldid=1001365204" Categories: 180s BC births 116 BC deaths 2nd-century BC Pharaohs 2nd-century BC rulers 2nd-century BC Egyptian people Pharaohs of the Ptolemaic dynasty Egyptian rebels Women in Hellenistic warfare 2nd-century BC women rulers Ancient Egyptian queens regnant Remarried royal consorts Female pharaohs 2nd-century BC Egyptian women Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Use dmy dates from January 2021 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Asturianu Беларуская Български Català Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Scots සිංහල Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 January 2021, at 10:49 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9229	----	Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt family tree - Wikipedia Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt family tree From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The family tree of the 25th Dynasty is too complex to show in its entirety and it is not always clear whether a pharaoh is a son or brother of his predecessor. The following is a simplified – yet updated to 2017 – version following the new dynastic arrangement which sees Shebitku as Shabaka's predecessor rather than successor as traditionally stated.[1] denotes a Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt and King of Kush. denotes a King of Kush. Pebatjma Kashta ? Alara Amenirdis I Peksater Piye Abar Shebitku Arty Shepenupet II Tabakenamun Taharqa Masabat Shabaka Qalhata Atlanersa Amenirdis II Haremakhet Piankharty Isetemkheb H Tantamani Kings of Kush Horkhebit References[edit] ^ G.P.F. Broekman, Genealogical considerations regarding the kings of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty in Egypt, GM 251 (2017), p. 20 v t e Royal or noble family trees Monarchies by region Africa Egypt House of Muhammad Ali Ethiopia Solomonic dynasty Madagascar Morocco Tunisia Americas Aztec Brazil Mexico Asia Brunei Cambodia China Ancient Warring States Early Middle Late India Mughal Mughal-Mongol Iran Pre-Islamic: Achaemenid Arsacid Sasanian post-Islamic dynasties Modern: Safavid Afsharid Zand Qajar Pahlavi Japan Shōgun: Kamakura Ashikaga Tokugawa Jerusalem Korea Silla Goryeo Joseon Kuwait Malaysia Johor Kedah Kelantan Negeri Sembilan Pahang Perak Perlis Selangor Terengganu Mongol Borjigin Yuan Ilkhanate Timurid Myanmar Ottoman simplified Seljuk Anatolian Seljuk Sri Lanka Thailand Vietnam Europe Aragon Belgium Bohemia Bosnia Castile Croatia Denmark France simplified House of Bonaparte Greece Hungary Leon Luxembourg Monaco Naples Navarre Netherlands Norway Orange-Nassau Poland Portugal Holy Roman Empire/Germany House of Habsburg (incl. Holy Roman Empire after 1440) Romania Russia Serbia Medieval: Vlastimirović Vojislavljević Vukanović Nemanjić Lazarević Branković Modern: Karađorđević Obrenović Sicily Spain Sweden United Kingdom England simplified) (Wessex Mercia Northumbria Scotland Wales after 1603 Visigoths Oceania Hawaii Kamehameha Lunalilo Kalākaua Huahine Mangareva Samoa Malietoa Tui Manua Tupua Tamasese Tahiti Tonga Dukes, princes and counts Artois Brittany Aquitaine Brabant Lorraine Burgundy Bourbon Condé Conti Flanders Fujiwara Hainault Holland Jagiello La Fayette Lithuania Norfolk Swabia Monarchies of the ancient world Egypt 1st 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st, 22nd & 23rd 25th 26th Near East Yamhad Israel/Judah Georgia Iberia Bagrationi of Tao-Klarjeti and Georgia Kartli Kakheti Imereti Greece and Hellenistic World House of Atreus Erechtheids of Athens Alcmaeonids of Athens Heraclidae Kings of Sparta Argead dynasty Ptolemies Attalid Seleucids Rome Roman Emperors Caecilii Metelli Cornelii Scipiones Julio-Claudian dynasty Severan dynasty Flavian dynasty Constantinian dynasty Valentinianic dynasty Eastern Roman/Byzantine Emperors See also Family tree Ahnentafel Genealogical numbering systems Quarters of nobility Seize quartiers Royal descent v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree&oldid=998141349" Categories: Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt Ancient Egyptian family trees Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to 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en-wikipedia-org-9232	----	Darius III - Wikipedia Darius III From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Last king of the Achaemenid Empire Darius III 𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁 King of Kings Great King King of Persia Pharaoh of Egypt King of Countries Depiction of Darius III during the Battle of Issus in the Alexander Mosaic (c. 100 BC), ancient Roman floor mosaic from the House of the Faun in Pompeii, Italy King of kings of the Achaemenid Empire Reign 336–330 BC Predecessor Artaxerxes IV Arses Successor Alexander the Great (Macedonian Empire) Artaxerxes V Bessus (unofficially) Pharaoh of Egypt Reign 336–332 BC Predecessor Artaxerxes IV Successor Alexander the Great Born c. 380 BC Died July 330 BC (aged c. 50) Parthia Burial Persepolis Spouse Stateira I Issue Stateira II Ochus Drypetis House Achaemenid Father Arsames Mother Sisygambis Religion Zoroastrianism Darius III (Old Persian: 𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁, romanized: Dārayava(h)uš; New Persian: داریوش‎; c. 380 – 330 BC) was the last Achaemenid King of Kings of Persia, reigning from 336 BC to his death in 330 BC. Contrary to his predecessor Artaxerxes IV Arses, Darius was a distant member of the Achaemenid dynasty. During his early career, he was reportedly an obscure figure among his peers and first rose to prominence during the Cadusian expedition of Artaxerxes III in the 350s BC. As a reward for his bravery, he was given the Satrapy of Armenia. Around 340 BC, he was made in charge of the royal "postal service," a high-ranking position. In 338 BC, Artaxerxes III met an abrupt end after being poisoned by the court eunuch and chiliarch (hazahrapatish) Bagoas, who installed his youngest son Arses on the throne. He only reigned for a few years, until Bagoas had him poisoned as well. Darius was subsequently installed on the throne and soon forced Bagoas to drink his poison after discovering that the eunuch had planned to poison him as well. In 334 BC, Alexander the Great began his invasion of the Persian Empire and subsequently defeated the Persians in several battles before looting and destroying their capital, Persepolis, by fire in 330 BC. With the Persian Empire now effectively under Alexander's control, Alexander then decided to pursue Darius. Before Alexander reached him, however, Darius was killed by his relative Bessus, who was also the satrap of Bactria. Darius is partially remembered in Iranian traditions as Dara II, the last king of the mythological Kayanian dynasty, which reflected memories of the Achaemenids. Contents 1 Name 2 Historiography 3 Background 4 Early life 5 Conflict with the Greeks 5.1 Philip's campaign 5.2 Alexander's campaign 6 Flight, imprisonment, and death 7 Notes 8 References 9 Bibliography 9.1 Ancient works 9.2 Modern works Name[edit] Before his accession, Darius bore the name of Artashata (Old Persian: *Artašiyāta, "Happy in Arta").[1][2] The 2nd-century Roman historian Justin is the only historian to refer Darius as Codomannus, a name he supposedly bore before he rose to prominence. It may have been his nickname, or possibly a third name. Its etymology is uncertain.[1][3] Badian has suggested that the name was of Western Semitic origin, most likely from the Aramaic qdmwn ("from the East, Easterner").[4] Having two names was not unusual; there are several recorded instances of Babylonian figures having two names, often a Babylonian and Aramaic name. One Persian magnate is also attested with a Babylonian and Iranian name. However, this practice seems to have fallen out of favour during Darius' lifetime. Badian suggests that his birth name was the Aramaic Codomannus, which he later dropped in favour of Artashata when he rose in ranks.[5] He first adopted the regnal name of Darius (Old Persian: Daraya-vahauš, "he who holds firm the good(ness)") when he ascended the Achaemenid throne in 336 BC.[1][6] Historiography[edit] The last century of the Achaemenid era is notable for lacking in sources, especially during the reign of Darius III. He is not attested in any Persian sources and is almost completely only known from the reports of Greek historians, who portray his career as a contradiction to that of the successful Alexander the Great.[1] Background[edit] Darius was born in c. 380. He was a distant member of the royal Achaemenid dynasty. He was the son of a certain Arsames, and grandson of Ostanes, whose father Darius II ruled the Achaemenid Empire from 424 BC to 405 BC.[1] His mother was Sisygambis, a woman of obscure origins. She was probably of Achaemenid descent, although it is unknown to which branch she belonged to. She may have been the daughter of Ostanes, and thus the sister of Arsames.[7] Darius had a brother and sister; Oxyathres and Stateira I respectively.[8][1] Early life[edit] Coin minted in by Cilicia by its satrap Mazaeus, portraying Artaxerxes III as pharaoh on the obverse, while a lion is depicted on the reverse Artashata is first attested during the Cadusian expedition of Artaxerxes III (r. 358–338 BC) in the 350s BC. During a battle, Artashata distinguished himself by slaying a warrior in single combat. His exploit was noticed by Artaxerxes III, who sent him gifts and gave him the Satrapy of Armenia.[1][9] It was probably after this promotion that Artashata married for the first time, to an unknown noblewoman, who bore him two daughters, and possibly a son named Ariobarzanes.[10] His first marriage has suggested being the terminus ad quem for when he dropped his Aramaic name, Codomannus.[11] Greek writers report that Artashata later became the "courier" and "slave" of the king, which some modern historians believe was written to belittle Artashata. However, the terms are in reality a Greek translation of the Old Persian bandaka, which did not mean slave, but "henchman, (loyal) servant, vassal."[12][1][13] On the Behistun inscription, Darius the Great (r. 522–486 BC) uses the term to refer to his high-ranking officers.[14] It has been deduced that Artashata was probably in charge of the royal "postal service," a high-ranking position. He may have held the same Persepolis sector headed by the prominent Persian officer Pharnaces (d. 497 BC).[14][1] It is uncertain when this happened, it has been suggested this promotion took place around 340 BC, when Artashata married for a second time, with his sister Stateira I. In 339 BC, they had a son named Ochus.[1] This demonstrates that Artaxerxes III, who was highly alert on any possible relative to challenge the throne, did not consider Artashata to pose the slightest threat to him or his son Arses.[14] In late August/late September 338 BC, the court eunuch and chiliarch (hazahrapatish) Bagoas orchestrated the poisoning and subsequent death of Artaxerxes III through the latters physician.[a][16][17] The majority of Artaxerxes III's sons, except for Arses and Bisthanes, were also murdered by Bagoas.[18] Artaxerxes III's early death proved to be a problematic issue for Persia.[18] Several modern historians argue that his sudden death paved the way for the fall of the Achaemenid Empire.[19] Bagoas, acting as kingmaker, put the young Arses (Artaxerxes IV) on the throne.[18][20][21] Arses was determined on trying to free himself from Bagoas' authority and influence; he made an unsuccessful effort to have the latter poisoned, only to be poisoned himself along with the rest of his family by Bagoas, who put Artashata on the throne in 336 BC.[20] Darius III's reputation for bravery, his probable royal descent, and the support he enjoyed from Artaxerxes III all helped him gain acceptance amongst the aristocracy.[11][1] Macedonian propaganda, made to legitimize the conquests of Alexander the Great a few years later, accused Darius III of playing a key role in the murder of Arses, who was portrayed as the last king of the Achaemenid royal house.[22] Conflict with the Greeks[edit] Philip's campaign[edit] Bagoas soon attempted to poison Darius III as well, but his plans were discovered. Darius III summoned Bagoas and asked him to drink a toast for him, giving him his cup which was filled by poison. Bagoas was forced to drink the cup, resulting in his death.[23][24] This happened around the time of Alexander's accession to the Macedonian throne in the autumn of 336 BC.[11] At the start of Darius III's reign, Egypt and Babylon may have briefly been plunged into rebellion. Regardless, they were seemingly not of heavy significance, as reports about the events quickly disappear.[1] In 336 BC Philip II of Macedon was authorized by the League of Corinth as its Hegemon to initiate a sacred war of vengeance against the Persians for desecrating and burning the Athenian temples during the Second Persian War, over a century before. He sent an advance force into Asia Minor under the command of his generals Parmenion and Attalus to liberate the Greeks living under Persian control. After they took the Greek cities of Asia from Troy to the Maiandros river, Philip was assassinated and his campaign was suspended while his heir consolidated his control of Macedonia and the rest of Greece. Alexander's campaign[edit] Darius III portrayed (in the middle) in battle against Alexander in a Greek depiction; Possible illustration of either Battle of Issus or Battle of Gaugamela Darius's flight at the Battle of Gaugamela (18th-century ivory relief) In the spring of 334 BC, Philip's heir, Alexander, who had himself been confirmed as Hegemon by the League of Corinth, invaded Asia Minor at the head of an army of Macedonian and other Greek soldiers. This invasion, which marked the beginning of the Wars of Alexander the Great, was followed almost immediately by the victory of Alexander over the Persians at Battle of the Granicus. Darius never showed up for the battle, because there was no reason for him to suppose that Alexander intended to conquer the whole of Asia, and Darius may well have supposed that the satraps of the ‘lower’ satrapies could deal with the crisis,[25] so he instead decided to remain at home in Persepolis and let his satraps handle it. In the previous invasion of Asia Minor by the Spartan king Agesilaus II, the Persians had pinned him in Asia Minor while fomenting rebellion in Greece. Darius attempted to employ the same strategy, with the Spartans rebelling against the Macedonians, but the Spartans were defeated at Megalopolis. Darius did not take the field against Alexander's army until a year and a half after Granicus, at the Battle of Issus in 333 BC. His forces outnumbered Alexander's soldiers by at least a 2 to 1 ratio, but Darius was still outflanked, defeated, and forced to flee. It is told by Arrian that at the Battle of Issus the moment the Persian left went to pieces under Alexander's attack and Darius, in his war-chariot, saw that it was cut off, he incontinently fled – indeed, he led the race for safety.[26] On the way, he left behind his chariot, his bow, and his royal mantle, all of which were later picked up by Alexander. Greek sources such as Diodorus Siculus' Library of History and Justin's Epitoma Historiarum Philippicarum recount that Darius fled out of fear at the Battle of Issus and again two years later at the Battle of Gaugamela despite commanding a larger force in a defensive position each time.[27] At the Battle of Issus, Darius III even caught Alexander by surprise and failed to defeat Alexander's forces.[28] Darius fled so far so fast that Alexander was able to capture Darius’ headquarters and take Darius’ family as prisoners in the process. Darius petitioned to Alexander through letters several times to get his family back, but Alexander refused to do so unless Darius would acknowledge him as the new emperor of Persia. Circumstances were more in Darius’ favor at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC. He had a good number of troops who had been organized on the battlefield properly, he had the support of the armies of several of his satraps, and the ground on the battlefield was almost perfectly even, so as not to impede movement of his scythed chariots. Despite all these beneficial factors, he still fled the battle before any victor had been decided and deserted his experienced commanders as well as one of the largest armies ever assembled.[29] Another source accounts that when Darius perceived the fierce attack of Alexander, as at Issus he turned his chariot around, and was the first to flee,[30] once again abandoning all of his soldiers and his property to be taken by Alexander. Many Persian soldiers lost their lives that day, so many in fact that after the battle the casualties of the enemy ensured that Darius would never again raise an imperial army.[31] Darius then fled to Ecbatana and attempted to raise a third army, while Alexander took possession of Babylon, Susa, and the Persian capital at Persepolis. Darius reportedly offered all of his empire west of the Euphrates River to Alexander in exchange for peace several times, each time denied by Alexander against the advice of his senior commanders.[32] Alexander could have declared victory after the capture of Persepolis, but he instead decided to pursue Darius. The Battle of Gaugamela, in which Alexander the Great defeated Darius III of Persia in 331 BC, took place approximately 100 kilometres (62 mi) west of Erbil, Iraq. After the battle, Darius managed to flee to the city. However, somewhat inaccurately, the confrontation is sometimes known as the "Battle of Arbela." Flight, imprisonment, and death[edit] Murder of Darius and Alexander at the side of the dying king depicted in a 15th-century manuscript Darius did attempt to restore his once-great army after his defeat at the hands of Alexander, but he failed to raise a force comparable to that which had fought at Gaugamela, partly because the defeat had undermined his authority, and also because Alexander's liberal policy, for instance in Babylonia and Persis, offered an acceptable alternative to Persian policies.[31] When at Ecbatana, Darius learned of Alexander's approaching army, he decided to retreat to Bactria where he could better use his cavalry and mercenary forces on the more even ground of the plains of Asia. He led his army through the Caspian Gates, the main road through the mountains that would work to slow the following army.[33] Persian forces became increasingly demoralized with the constant threat of a surprise attack from Alexander, leading to many desertions and eventually a coup led by Bessus, a satrap, and Nabarzanes, who managed all audiences with the King and was in charge of the palace guard.[34] The two men suggested to Darius that the army regroups under Bessus and that power would be transferred back to the King once Alexander was defeated. Darius did not accept this plan and his conspirators became more anxious to remove him for his successive failures against Alexander and his forces. Patron, a Greek mercenary, encouraged Darius to accept a bodyguard of Greek mercenaries rather than his usual Persian guard to protect him from Bessus and Nabarzanes, but the King could not accept for political reasons and grew accustomed to his fate.[35] Bessus and Nabarzanes eventually bound Darius and threw him in an ox-cart while they ordered the Persian forces to continue. According to Curtius' History of Alexander, at this point Alexander and a small, mobile force arrived and threw the Persians into a panic, leading Bessus and two other conspirators, Satibarzanes and Barsaentes, to wound the king with their javelins and leave him to die.[36] The Family of Darius before Alexander, by Paolo Veronese, 1570. A Macedonian soldier found Darius either dead or dying in the wagon shortly thereafter—a disappointment to Alexander, who wanted to capture Darius alive. Alexander saw Darius’ dead body in the wagon and took the signet ring off the dead king's finger. Afterwards, he sent Darius's body back to Persepolis, gave him a magnificent funeral and ordered that he be buried, like all his royal predecessors, in the royal tombs.[37] Darius's tomb has not yet been discovered.[38] Alexander eventually married Darius' daughter Stateira at Susa in 324 BC. With the old king defeated and given a proper burial, Alexander's rulership of Persia became official. This led to Darius being regarded by some historians as cowardly and inefficient,[39] as under his rulership, the entirety of the Persian Empire fell to a foreign invader. After killing Darius, Bessus took the regal name Artaxerxes V and began calling himself the King of Asia.[31] He was subsequently captured by Alexander, tortured, and executed. Another of Darius' generals ingratiated himself to Alexander by giving the conqueror Darius' favored companion, Bagoas.[40] Notes[edit] ^ According to a Babylonian tablet, Artaxerxes III "went to his fate", which is often understood to indicate death from natural causes. However, the same wording is also used to refer to the death of Xerxes I (r. 486 – 465 BC), who was in reality assassinated by his son.[15] References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l EIr. 1994, pp. 51–54. ^ Briant 2015, p. 48. ^ Briant 2015, p. 49. ^ Badian 2000, p. 247. ^ Badian 2000, p. 249. ^ Schmitt 1994, p. 40. ^ Badian 2015. ^ Briant 2015, p. 417. ^ Badian 2000, pp. 245, 251. ^ Badian 2000, p. 251. ^ a b c Badian 2000, p. 252. ^ Badian 2000, pp. 249–250. ^ Eilers & Herrenschmidt 1988, pp. 682–685. ^ a b c Badian 2000, p. 250. ^ Waters 2014, p. 198. ^ Waters 2014, p. 197. ^ Dandamaev 1989, p. 312. ^ a b c Schmitt 1986, pp. 658–659. ^ Briant 2015, p. 88. ^ a b LeCoq 1986, p. 548. ^ Briant 2002, p. 690. ^ Briant 2002, p. 770. ^ Diodorus Siculus, Book XVII, Chapter 5. ^ Heckel 2020, pp. 11–12. ^ George Cawkwell, The Greek Wars: The Failure of Persia, p. 209 ^ Arrian, The Campaigns of Alexander. ^ John Prevas, Envy of the Gods: Alexander's Ill-fated Journey across Asia (Da Capo Press, 2004), 47. ^ Prevas 47. ^ Prevas 48 ^ Ulrich Wilcken, Alexander the Great. ^ a b c N.G.L. Hammond, The Genius of Alexander the Great. ^ Prevas 52 ^ Prevas 55 ^ Prevas 60 ^ Prevas 64–65 ^ Prevas 69 ^ Prevas 71 ^ Siegfried Lauffer, Alexander der Große. third edition, Dtv, Munich 1993, ISBN 3-423-04298-2, p. 114 ^ W.W. Tarn, Alexander the Great. ^ This was a different Bagoas than the unfaithful minister mentioned above. Crompton, Louis. Homosexuality & Civilization (Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2003), p. 76. Bibliography[edit] Ancient works[edit] Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica. Modern works[edit] Badian, Ernst (2000). "Darius III". Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. 100: 241–267. JSTOR 3185218. (registration required) Badian, Ernst (2015). "Sisigambis". Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition. New York. Briant, Pierre (1985). "Alexander the Great". Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, Vol. I, Fasc. 8. New York. pp. 827–830. Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. pp. 1–1196. ISBN 9781575061207. Briant, Pierre (2015), Darius in the Shadow of Alexander, Harvard University Press, ISBN 9780674745209 Dandamaev, Muhammad A. (1989). A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire. Brill. ISBN 978-9004091726. Eilers, W.; Herrenschmidt, C. (1988). "Banda". Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, Vol. III, Fasc. 7. New York. pp. 682–685. EIr. (1994). "Darius v. Darius III". Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, Vol. VI, Fasc. 1. New York. pp. 51–54. Frye, R. N. (1988). "Bābak (1)". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. III, Fasc. 3. pp. 298–299. Hanaway, William L. (1994). "Dārāb-nāma". Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, Vol. VII, Fasc. 1. New York. pp. 8–9. Heckel, Waldemar (2020). In the Path of Conquest: Resistance to Alexander the Great. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–336. ISBN 9780190076696. LeCoq, P. (1986). "Arses". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 5. p. 548. Llewellyn-Jones, Lloyd (2017). "The Achaemenid Empire". In Daryaee, Touraj (ed.). King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE - 651 CE). UCI Jordan Center for Persian Studies. pp. 1–236. ISBN 9780692864401. Olbrycht, Marek Jan (2016). "Dynastic Connections in the Arsacid Empire and the Origins of the House of Sāsān". In Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh; Pendleton, Elizabeth J.; Alram, Michael; Daryaee, Touraj (eds.). The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires: Adaptation and Expansion. Oxbow Books. ISBN 9781785702082. Roberts, John. "Darius III". Oxford Reference. Oxford University Press. Schmitt, R. (1986). "Artaxerxes III". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 6. pp. 658–659. Schmitt, Rudiger (1994). "Darius i. The Name". Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, Vol. VII, Fasc. 1. New York. p. 40. Tafazzoli, Ahmad (1994). "Dārā(b) (1)". Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, Vol. VII, Fasc. 1. New York. pp. 1–2. Waters, Matt (2014). Ancient Persia: A Concise History of the Achaemenid Empire, 550–330 BCE. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–272. ISBN 9781107652729. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Darius III. Darius III Achaemenid dynasty Born: ca. 380 BC Died: 330 BC Preceded by Arses King of Persia Pharaoh of Egypt 336–330 BC Succeeded by Bessus v t e Median and Achaemenid kings Family tree Median (728–550 BC) Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Achaemenid (550–330 BC) Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Nothus Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Italics indicate kings not directly attested and so possibly legendary. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Shahnameh of Ferdowsi Characters Pishdadian Keyumars Hushang Tahmuras Jamshid Fereydun Iraj Manuchehr Nowzar Zaav Garshasp Kayanian Kay Kawād Kay Kāvus Kay Khosrow Kay Lohrasp Goshtasb Kay Bahman Humay Chehrzad Kay Darab Dara Male characters Jamasp Siamak Shahrasp Abtin Kayanoush Kāve Arash Salm Tur Qobád Qaren Tous Gostaham Gershasp Nariman Sām Zāl Rostam Sohrab Esfandiyār Pashotan Faramarz Fariborz Siyâvash Farud Zangay-i Shavaran Kashvad Goudarz Giv Bizhan Rohham Bahram Hojir Gorgin Zavara Shaghad Rostam Farrokhzād Female characters Faranak Arnavāz Shahrnāz Sindukht Rudaba Sudabeh Tahmina Banu Goshasp Gordafarid Farangis Manizheh Katāyoun Tazian Mardas Zahhak Mehrab Kaboli Turanian Zadashm Pashang Aghrirat Garsivaz Afrasiab 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Structures Dez-i Gonbadan Dez-i Roein Dezh-i sepid Dezh-i Bahman Dezh-i Alanan Gang-Dez Manuscripts Baysonghor Shahnameh Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp Florence Shahnameh Shahnameh of Rashida Windsor Shahnameh Great Mongol Shahnameh (or Demotte) Shahnameh of Ghavam al-Din Davari Shahnameh See also Daqiqi Abu-Mansuri Shahnameh Derafsh Kaviani Babr-e Bayan Zal and Rudabeh Rostam and Sohrab Rostam and Esfandiyar Rostam's Seven Labours Davazdah Rokh Khosrow and Shirin Bijan and Manijeh Persian mythology Category Book Authority control BNF: cb13166885v (data) GND: 119263491 ISNI: 0000 0003 6724 9110 LCCN: n84079608 NLA: 60597593 NLI: 000037017 NLP: A16352440 NTA: 157605345 PLWABN: 9810538161605606 SUDOC: 07357936X Trove: 1708619 ULAN: 500353980 VIAF: 231805730 WorldCat Identities: viaf-3276940 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Darius_III&oldid=1002212686" Categories: Darius III 4th-century BC Kings of the Achaemenid Empire 4th-century BC Pharaohs 4th-century BC Babylonian kings Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenid satraps of Armenia People in the deuterocanonical books Pharaohs of the Achaemenid dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 380s BC births 330 BC deaths 4th-century BC murdered monarchs Alexander the Great Deaths by javelin Murdered Persian monarchs 4th-century BC rulers 4th-century BC Iranian people Shahnameh characters Dethroned monarchs Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text Articles containing Persian-language text Pages with login required references or sources Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLP identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth uncertain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego گیلکی 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 January 2021, at 10:36 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9235	----	Orontobates - Wikipedia Orontobates From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Persian sphinx from Halicarnassus, capital of Caria, 355 BC. Found in Bodrum Castle, but possibly from the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. Orontobates (Old Persian: Arvantapāta, Greek Ὀρoντoβάτης; lived 4th century BC) was a Persian, who married the daughter of Pixodarus, the usurping satrap of Caria, and was sent by the king of Persia to succeed him. On the approach of Alexander the Great of Macedon (334 BC) Orontobates and Memnon of Rhodes entrenched themselves in Halicarnassus. But at last, despairing of defending it, they set fire to the town, and under cover of the conflagration crossed over to Cos, whither they had previously removed their treasures. In addition to the island of Cos, Orontobates, retained control of the citadel at Salmacis, and the towns Myndus, Caunus, Thera and Callipolis together with Triopium. Next year, while at Soli, Cilicia, Alexander learnt that Orontobates had been defeated in a great battle by Ptolemy and Asander. It is natural to infer that the places which Orontobates held did not long hold out after his defeat.[1] An officer of the name of Orontobates was present in the army of Darius III at the battle of Gaugamela (331 BC), being one of the commanders of the troops drawn from the shores of the Persian Gulf.[2] Whether he was the same or a different person from the preceding, we have no means of knowing. We are not told that the latter was killed as well as defeated. It is likely that Alexander the Great knew Orontobates intimately as there was a princess between the two. In his youth Alexander wanted to marry Ada II, the daughter of Pixodarus but this was negated by his father. Incidentally Orontobates married a daughter of Pixodarus, who was probably the same as Ada II. Thus, the relation between the two may have been far more complex than what Justin or even Plutarch knew. References[edit] Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, "Orontobates (1)", Boston, (1867)  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Orontobates". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. ^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri, i. 18, ii. 5; Curtius Rufus, Historiae Alexandri Magni, iii. 7 ^ Arrian, iii. 8 v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Orontobates&oldid=1002468397" Categories: Alexander the Great 4th-century BC Iranian people Achaemenid satraps of Caria Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Hrvatski مصرى Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 16:32 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9249	----	Siptah - Wikipedia Siptah From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Siptah Pharaoh Reign 1197 – 1191 BC (19th Dynasty) Predecessor Seti II Successor Twosret Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sekhaienre Meryamun[1][2] Sḫˁj-n-Rˁ-mrj-Jmn He whom Ra causes to appear, beloved of Amun After the 2nd year Akhenre Setepenre 3ḫ-n-Rˁ-stp-n-Rˁ Akh spirit of Ra, the chosen one of Ra Nomen Ramesses-Siptah[1][2] Rˁ-mssw-s3-Ptḥ Ra fashioned him, son of Ptah After the 2nd year Merenptah-Siptah Mrj-n-Ptḥ-s3-Ptḥ Beloved of Ptah, son of Ptah Horus name Kanakht Meryhapi Sankhtanebemkafraneb[1][2] K3-nḫt-mrj-Ḥˁpj-s-ˁnḫ-t3-nb-m-k3=f-Rˁ-nb Strong bull, beloved of Hapi, who causes the whole land to live by means of his Ka every day Nebty name Saaiunu[1][2] Sˁ3-Jwnw Made great in Heliopolis Golden Horus [...]mi Itefre[1][2] ...mj-jt=f-Rˁ [...] like his father Re Father Uncertain: currently debated to be either Seti II or Amenmesse Mother Sutailja Died 1191 BC Burial KV47, in the Valley of the Kings Akhenre Setepenre Siptah or Merenptah Siptah was the penultimate ruler of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt. His father's identity is currently unknown. Both Seti II and Amenmesse have been suggested although the fact that Siptah later changed his royal name or nomen to Merneptah Siptah after his Year 2 suggests rather that his father was Merneptah. If correct, this would make Siptah and Seti II half-brothers since both of them were sons of Merneptah. He was not the crown prince, but succeeded to the throne as a child after the death of Seti II. His accession date occurred on I Peret day 2 around the month of December.[3] Contents 1 Origins 2 Reign 3 See also 4 References Origins[edit] See also: Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Historically, it was believed that Tiaa, a wife of Seti II, was the mother of Siptah.[4] This view persisted until it was eventually realized that a relief in the Louvre Museum (E 26901) "pairs Siptah's name together with the name of his mother" a certain Sutailja or Shoteraja.[5] Sutailja was a Canaanite rather than a native Egyptian name, which means that she was almost certainly a king's concubine from Canaan.[6] However, Dodson/Hilton assert that this is not correct and that the lady was, instead, the mother of Ramesses-Siptah and a wife of Ramesses II.[7] The identity of his father is currently unknown; some Egyptologists speculate it may have been Amenmesse rather than Seti II since both Siptah and Amenmesse spent their youth in Chemmis[8] and both are specifically excluded from Ramesses III's Medinet Habu procession of statues of ancestral kings unlike Merneptah or Seti. This suggests that Amenmesse and Siptah were inter-related in such a way that they were "regarded as illegitimate rulers and that therefore they were probably father and son."[9] However, another interpretation here is that Siptah was regarded as illegitimate by the later 20th dynasty kings since Siptah required the assistance of Chancellor Bay to secure the kingship since he was just another minor son of Merneptah rather than a direct son of Seti II. A headless statue of Siptah now in Munich shows him seated on the lap of another Pharaoh, presumably his father. The British Egyptologist Aidan Dodson states The only ruler of the period who could have promoted such destruction was Amenmesse, and likewise he was the only king whose offspring would have required such explicit promotion. The demolition of this figure is likely to have closely followed the fall of Bay or the death of Siptah himself, when any shortlived rehabilitation of Amenmesse would have ended.[10] If Siptah was a son of Seti II, it is unlikely that he would have been considered as an illegitimate king by later 20th Dynasty New Kingdom pharaohs. Due to his youth and perhaps his problematic parentage, he was placed under the guidance of his stepmother—the queen regent Twosret.[11] Siptah ruled Egypt for almost six years as a young man. Siptah was only a child of ten or eleven years when he assumed power since a medical examination of his mummy reveals the king was about sixteen years old at death. He was tall at 1.6 metres and had curly reddish brown hair and likely suffered from poliomyelitis, with a severely deformed and crippled left foot.[12][13] Reign[edit] A scarab with king Siptah's name Chancellor Bay publicly boasts that he was instrumental in installing Siptah on the throne in several inscriptions including an Aswan stela set up by Seti, the Viceroy of Kush[14] and at Gebel el-Silsila.[15][16] A key graffito located at the entrance to the Speos of Horemheb at Gebel el-Silsila depicts Bay standing in a pose of adoration directly behind Siptah, who is making an offering to Amun; a following inscription in the graffito reads: the spirit of the Great Superintendent of the Seal of the entire land, who established the King [Siptah] in the place of his father; beloved of his lord, Bay.[17] Bay, however, later fell out of favor at court presumably for overreaching himself and last appears in public in a dated Year 4 inscription from Siptah's reign. He was executed in the fifth year of Siptah's reign, on orders of the king himself. News of his execution was passed to the Workmen of Deir el-Medina in Ostraca IFAO 1254. This ostraca was translated and published in 2000 by Pierre Grandet in a French Egyptological journal.[18] Callendar notes that the reason for the king's message to the workmen was to notify them to cease all work on decorating Bay's tomb since Bay had now been deemed a traitor to the state.[19] Foundation sandstone block showing 2 cartouches of king Siptah (Saptah, Merenptah-Siptah). 19th Dynasty. From the mortuary temple of Merenptah-Siptah at Thebes, Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London Siptah himself is last attested sometime in his 6th regnal Year on a graffito located at the South Temple of Buhen.[20] He likely died in the middle of II Akhet—perhaps around II Akhet 12 of his 6th Year. This assumes a traditional 70-day mummification period if Siptah was buried on IV Akhet 22. Evidence for his burial on the latter date is recorded in ostracon O. Cairo CG 25792.[21] This ostraca from Deir el-Medina mentions that the Vizier Hori visited the workmen of Deir el-Medina first on II Akhet 24 and second on IV Akhet 19.[22] The final line on the ostracon reads as: "IV Akhet 22: Burial took place".[23] Since this event can only refer to a king's burial, the question here is the identity of this king. Hori was appointed vizier around Regnal Year 6 II Shemu 6 and I Peret [X] of Seti II's reign and held this office through the reigns of Siptah, Twosret and Setnakht and into that of Ramesses III.[24] The ostracon could not refer to Setnakht's death because this king died on I Shemu 25 since his son, Ramesses III succeeded him the next day. Twosret was ousted from power by Setnakht; therefore, the burial does not refer to her either. Seti II must have died in late IV Akhet or early I Peret—after the 70-day mummification period—since a graffito located above KV14, Twosret's tomb, records his burial on III Peret 11.[25] Therefore, the IV Akhet 22 burial date likely records the burial of Siptah himself. Siptah's death would have occurred sometime around II Akhet 12. Siptah himself would have ruled Egypt for approximately 5 years and 10 months since his predecessor, Seti II, died around the end of IV Akhet and the beginning of I Peret, even if he did not legally assume the throne until the start of II Akhet with the aid of the powerful court official Bay. After his death, Twosret simply assumed his Regnal Years and ruled Egypt as a queen for a year or two at the most. Siptah was buried in the Valley of the Kings, in tomb KV47,[26] but his mummy was not found there. In 1898, it was discovered along with 18 others in a mummy cache within the (KV35) tomb of Amenhotep II. The study of his tomb shows that it was conceived and planned in the same style as those of Twosret and Bay, clearly part of the same architectural design. See also[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Siptah. KV47 References[edit] ^ a b c d e Dodson, A.; Poisoned Legacy: The Decline and Fall of the Nineteenth Egyptian Dynasty, American University Press, Cairo, (2010) A3 ^ a b c d e Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames & Hudson Ltd, 1994. p.158 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath, Chronologie des Pharaonischen Ägypten, MAS:Philipp von Zabern, (1997), p.201 ^ Cyril Aldred, The parentage of King Siptah, JEA 49 (1963), pp.41-48 ^ Gae Callender, The Cripple, the Queen & the Man from the North, KMT Volume 17, No.1 (Spring 2006), p.52; Callender's source comes from page 140 of Thomas Schneider's ZAS 130 (2003) paper titled Siptah und Beja ^ Gae Callender, The Cripple, the Queen & the Man from the North, KMT Vol 17 (Spring 2006), p.52 ^ The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, London (2004) ^ Cyril Aldred, The Parentage of King Siptah, JEA 49 (1963), pp.41-60 ^ J.E. Harris & E.F. Wente, An X-Ray Atlas of the Royal Mummies (Chicago, 1980), p.147 ^ Dodson, Aidan, (2004), The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, (Egyptian University of Cairo Press) p.181 ^ Callender, p.52 ^ Callendar, p.52 ^ G.E. Smith, The Royal Mummies (Cairo 1912), pp.70-73 ^ LD III, 202c ^ LD III, 202a ^ Callender, op. cit., p.63 ^ PM V, 211 (38); KRI IV: 371, §35 IX.1 (7); RITA IV, 269, §35 IX.1 (7); LD III: 202a ^ Pierre Grandet, "L'execution du chancelier Bay O. IFAO 1864," BIFAO 100(2000) pp.339-345 ^ Callender, p.54 ^ PM VII: 134 (13E). ^ KRI IV: 414-415, §55, II (A.27); RITA IV: 322, §55, II (A. 27); Černý, Ostraca hiératiques, 1: 89-90, 112*; ^ KRI IV: 414-415, §55, II (A.27); RITA IV: 322, §55, II (A. 27); Černý, Ostraca hiératiques, 1: 89-90, 112*; idem, Ostraca hiératiques, 2: pl. 108. ^ KRI IV: 414-415, §55, II (A.27); RITA IV: 322, §55, II (A. 27) ^ This information is recorded on O. Cairo CG 25538 and is the last recorded date for the previous vizier, Paraemheb, before his removal from office. Cf. KRI IV: 315, §54, (A.11); RITA IV: 226, §54, (A. 11); Černý, Ostraca hiératiques, 1: 16, 34; Hori is first mentioned as Vizier on ODM 697. See KRI IV: 321, §54, (A.16); RITA IV: 229, §54, (A. 16) ^ Hartwig Altenmüller, "Bemerkungen zu den neu gefundenen Daten im Grab der Königin Twosre (KV 14) im Tal der Könige von Theben," 147-148, Abb. 19. Cf. "Der Begräbnistag Sethos II," SAK 11 (1984): pp.37-38 & "Das Graffito 551 aus der thebanischen Nekropole," SAK 21 (1994): pp.19-28 ^ "KV 47 (Siptah) - Theban Mapping Project". www.thebanmappingproject.com. Retrieved 2018-02-26. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 123380677 ISNI: 0000 0000 8388 4139 LCCN: nb2002006359 SUDOC: 084308923 VIAF: 63514563 WorldCat Identities: lccn-nb2002006359 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siptah&oldid=977721385" Categories: 12th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ancient child rulers Ancient Egyptian mummies 1191 BC deaths Royalty and nobility with disabilities 12th century BC in Egypt 12th-century BC rulers Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 September 2020, at 15:31 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-924	----	Kherei - Wikipedia Kherei From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Kherei Portrait of Kherei, from his coinage. He wears the satrapal headdress, decorated with a laurel wreath.[1] Allegiance Achaemenid Empire Years of service fl. 410 – 390 BC Rank Dynast of Lycia Location of Lycia. Anatolia/Asia Minor in the Greco-Roman period. The classical regions, including Lycia, and their main settlements Kherei (circa 433-410 BC,[2] or circa 410-390 BC) was dynast of Lycia, ruler of the area of Xanthos, at a time when this part of Anatolia was subject to the Persian, or Achaemenid, Empire.[2] Present-day knowledge of Lycia in the period of classical antiquity comes mostly from archaeology, in which this region is unusually rich.[3] He may have been the dynast to whom was dedicated the Xanthian Obelisk, where he is mentioned in multiple places, although this could more probably be his predecessor Kheriga (Xeriga, Gergis in Greek).[4] Kherei may have been Kheriga's brother, and succeeded him. Coinage[edit] Kherei was among last the Lycian rulers to issue coinage. After 360 BC, the region of Lycia was taken over by the Carian dynast Mausolus.[5] The portrait on the coins of Kherei show the dynast wearing the Achaemenid satrapal headdress.[6] Coinage of Kherei. Circa 410-390 BC. Obv: Helmeted head of Athena. Rev: Head of Kherei, wearing Persian tiara decorated with laurel branch. Coinage of Kherei. Circa 410-390 BC Notes[edit] ^ CNG: DYNASTS of LYCIA. Kherei. Circa 410-390 BC. AR Stater (17.5mm, 8.53 g, 9h). ^ a b Anderson, John Kinloch (1970). Military Theory and Practice in the Age of Xenophon. University of California Press. p. 33. ISBN 9780520015647. ^ D. T. Potts, A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East (2012), p. 912: "...c. 380–370 BC, two western Lycian dynasts named Arttumpara and Mithrapata claimed power simultaneously." ^ Keen, Antony G. (1998). Dynastic Lycia: A Political of History of the Lycians and Their Relations with Foreign Powers : C. 545-362 B.C. BRILL. p. 130. ISBN 9004109560. ^ CNG: DYNASTS of LYCIA. Mithrapata. Circa 390-370 BC. AR Stater (23mm, 9.73 g, 5h). ^ CNG: DYNASTS of LYCIA. Mithrapata. Circa 390-370 BC. AR Stater (23mm, 9.73 g, 5h). v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kherei&oldid=896494474" Categories: Lycians 5th-century BC rulers 4th-century BC rulers Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 10 May 2019, at 21:16 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-926	----	Integrated Authority File - Wikipedia Integrated Authority File From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from GND (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search International authority file for personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies Parts of this article (those related to Types of GND high-level entities) need to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (February 2018) Integrated Authority File GND: Screenshot of the German National Library (Browser: Opera 11.62). Acronym GND Organisation DNB Introduced 5 April 2012 (2012-04-05) Example 7749153-1 Website www.dnb.de/EN/Professionell/Standardisierung/GND/gnd_node.html The Integrated Authority File (German: Gemeinsame Normdatei; also known as the Universal Authority File) or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives and museums. The GND is managed by the German National Library (German: Deutsche Nationalbibliothek; DNB) in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero (CC0) licence.[1] The GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format.[2] The Integrated Authority File became operational in April 2012 and integrates the content of the following authority files, which have since been discontinued: Name Authority File (German: Personennamendatei; PND) Corporate Bodies Authority File (German: Gemeinsame Körperschaftsdatei; GKD) Subject Headings Authority File (German: Schlagwortnormdatei; SWD) Uniform Title File of the Deutsches Musikarchiv (German: Einheitssachtitel-Datei des Deutschen Musikarchivs; DMA-EST) At the time of its introduction on 5 April 2012, the GND held 9,493,860 files, including 2,650,000 personalised names. Contents 1 Types of GND high-level entities 2 See also 3 References 4 External links Types of GND high-level entities[edit] There are seven main types of GND entities:[3] Typ German (official) English (translation) p Person (individualisiert) person (individualised) n Name (nicht individualisiert) name (not individualised) k Körperschaft corporate body v Veranstaltung event w Werk work s Sachbegriff topical term g Geografikum geographical place name See also[edit] LIBRIS Virtual International Authority File References[edit] ^ www.dnb.de/EN/Professionell/Standardisierung/GND/gnd_node.html Integrated Authority File (GND) ^ GND Ontology – Namespace Document Archived 2013-01-03 at the Wayback Machine, version 2012-06-30. ^ Entitätencodierung: Vergaberichtlinien (short lists – old and new versions) External links[edit] Wikidata has the property: GND ID (P227) (see uses) Information pages about the GND from the German National Library Search via OGND (Bibliotheksservice-Zentrum Baden-Württemberg) Bereitstellung des ersten GND-Grundbestandes DNB, 19 April 2012 From Authority Control to Linked Authority Data Presentation given by Reinhold Heuvelmann (German National Library) to the ALA MARC Formats Interest Group, June 2012 v t e Authority control files AAG • ACM DL • ADB • AGSA • autores.uy • AWR • BALaT • BIBSYS • Bildindex • BNC • BNE • BNF • Botanist • BPN • CANTIC • CiNii • CWGC • DAAO • DBLP • DSI • FNZA • GND • HDS • IAAF • ICCU • ICIA • ISNI • Joconde • KulturNav • LCCN • LIR • LNB • Léonore • MBA • MGP • NARA • NBL • NDL • NGV • NKC • NLA • NLG • NLI • NLK • NLP • NLR • NSK • NTA • ORCID • PIC • PLWABN • ResearcherID • RERO • RKD • RKDimages ID • RSL • SELIBR • SIKART • SNAC • SUDOC • S2AuthorId • TA98 • TDVİA • TE • TePapa • TH • TLS • Trove • UKPARL • ULAN • US Congress • VcBA • VIAF • WorldCat Identities Authority control GND: 7749153-1 VIAF: 188136221 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 188136221 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Integrated_Authority_File&oldid=993458488#GND" Categories: Computer-related introductions in 2012 Library cataloging and classification Unique identifiers Creative Commons-licensed databases Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Wikipedia articles in need of updating from February 2018 All Wikipedia articles in need of updating Articles containing German-language text Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ भोजपुरी Български Boarisch Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Magyar Македонски Malagasy मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Scots සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 December 2020, at 18:41 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9284	----	Category:Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is for articles with VcBA identifiers. Please do not add subcategories. For more information, see Wikipedia:Authority control. Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. They are not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. This category is hidden on its member pages—unless the corresponding user preference (appearance → show hidden categories) is set. These categories are used to track, build and organize lists of pages needing "attention en masse" (for example, pages using deprecated syntax), or that may need to be edited at someone's earliest convenience. These categories also serve to aggregate members of several lists or sub-categories into a larger, more efficient list (discriminated by classifications). Contents: Top 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z * # 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 • A Aa Ae Aj Ao At • B Ba Be Bj Bo Bt • C Ca Ce Cj Co Ct • D Da De Dj Do Dt • E Ea Ee Ej Eo Et • F Fa Fe Fj Fo Ft • G Ga Ge Gj Go Gt • H Ha He Hj Ho Ht • I Ia Ie Ij Io It • J Ja Je Jj Jo Jt • K Ka Ke Kj Ko Kt • L La Le Lj Lo Lt • M Ma Me Mj Mo Mt • N Na Ne Nj No Nt • O Oa Oe Oj Oo Ot • P Pa Pe Pj Po Pt • Q Qa Qe Qj Qo Qt • R Ra Re Rj Ro Rt • S Sa Se Sj So St • T Ta Te Tj To Tt • U Ua Ue Uj Uo Ut • V Va Ve Vj Vo Vt • W Wa We Wj Wo Wt • X Xa Xe Xj Xo Xt • Y Ya Ye Yj Yo Yt • Z Za Ze Zj Zo Zt Pages in this category should only be added by Module:Authority control. Pages in category "Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 39,141 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). (previous page) (next page)A Abraham Jacob van der Aa Pieter van der Aa Asger Aaboe Hans von Aachen Roman Catholic Diocese of Aachen Aachener Domchor Sven Aggesen Piet Aalberse Sr. Alvar Aalto Pentti Aalto Hans Aanrud Antti Aarne Aaron Aaron ben Jacob ha-Kohen Aaron ben Moses ben Asher Kristian Birch-Reichenwald Aars Francis van Aarssens Ramon d'Abadal i de Vinyals Vasily Abaev Magdalena Abakanowicz Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea, 10th Count of Aranda José Fernando de Abascal y Sousa Salvador Abascal Adamo Abate Annibale degli Abati Olivieri Antonio Abati Firmin Abauzit Gustav Abb Giuseppe Cesare Abba Mostafa El-Abbadi Antoine Thomson d'Abbadie Arnaud-Michel d'Abbadie Jakob Abbadie Nicola Abbagnano Abbas II of Egypt Antonio Maria Abbatini Guido Ubaldo Abbatini Jean Baptiste Abbeloos Louise Abbéma Leon Abbett Abbey library of Saint Gall Abbey of Santo Domingo de Silos John Roland Abbey Filippo Abbiati Francesco Maria Abbiati Franco Abbiati Abbo Cernuus Abbo of Fleury Charles Greeley Abbot Ezra Abbot Robert Abbot (bishop) Eleanor Hallowell Abbott John Stevens Cabot Abbott John White Abbott Lyman Abbott Nabia Abbott Thomas Kingsmill Abbott Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab Abd al-Fattah Fumani Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi Abd al-Jabbar ibn Ahmad Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan Mustafa 'Abd al-Raziq Abdallah ibn al-Mu'tazz Jean Mohamed Ben Abdeljlil Mohamed Ben Ahmed Abdelghani Emir Abdelkader Muhammad Abduh Abdul Hamid I Abdulmejid I Arthur William à Beckett Gilbert Abbott à Beckett Abel Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat Carl Abel Félix-Marie Abel Friedrich Gottfried Abel Heinrich Friedrich Otto Abel Sigurd Abel Wilhelm Abel Giovanni Francesco Abela Peter Abelard Johann Philipp Abelin André Abellon Louis Abelly Jacob Abendana Walter Abendroth Haly Abenragel Adolf Aber Abercius of Hieropolis John Hamilton, 1st Marquess of Abercorn John Abercrombie (physician) Lascelles Abercrombie David Abercromby Ralph Abercromby (meteorologist) Aberdeen Art Gallery George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen 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en-wikipedia-org-928	----	Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt ca. 1725 BC–ca. 1650 BC In orange, the territory possibly under control of the 14th dynasty according to Ryholt.[1] Capital Avaris Common languages Egyptian language Religion ancient Egyptian religion Government Absolute monarchy Historical era Bronze Age • Established ca. 1725 BC • Disestablished ca. 1650 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt was a series of rulers reigning during the Second Intermediate Period over the Nile Delta region of Egypt. It lasted between 75 (c. 1725–1650 BC) and 155 years (c. 1805–1650 BC), depending on the scholar. The capital of the dynasty was probably Avaris.[1] The 14th Dynasty existed concurrently with the 13th Dynasty based in Memphis. The rulers of the 14th Dynasty are commonly identified by Egyptologists as being of Canaanite (Semitic) descent, owing to the distinct origins of the names of some of their kings and princes, like Ipqu (West Semitic for "grace"), Yakbim ("ia-ak-bi-im", an Amorite name), Qareh (West Semitic for "the bald one"), or Yaqub-Har.[1] Names in relation with Nubia are also recorded in two cases, king Nehesy ("The Nubian") and queen Tati. Contents 1 Chronology 2 Seat of power 3 Extent of rule and foreign relations 4 Rulers 5 References 6 Bibliography Chronology[edit] The 14th Dynasty is sometimes combined with the 11th, 12th and 13th Dynasties in the period Middle Kingdom of Egypt, though the 14th Dynasty overlaps at least partially with either (or both of) the 13th Dynasty and the 15th Dynasty. More commonly, the 14th Dynasty is grouped with the 13th, 15th, 16th and 17th in the Second Intermediate Period. Such are the gaps in the knowledge of the 14th Dynasty, that its absolute chronological position is debated and varies by as much as 75 years among authorities. Egyptologist Kim Ryholt proposes that the 14th Dynasty emerged during the late 12th Dynasty, c. 1805 BC, during or shortly after Sobekneferu's rule. He contends that the local Canaanite population residing in the eastern Delta declared its independence and staved off possible attempts from the 13th Dynasty Memphite kings to recover the Delta. According to Ryholt, the 14th Dynasty thus lasted from 1805 BC until its demise under the Hyksos 15th Dynasty, c. 1650 BC, i.e. lasting 155 years. This hypothesis is not shared by some Egyptologists such as Manfred Bietak, Daphna Ben Tor and James and Susan Allen, who argue that the 14th Dynasty cannot have emerged before the mid 13th Dynasty, c. 1720 BC, after the reign of Sobekhotep IV.[2][3] In particular, they argue that the evidence from the strata levels in which 14th Dynasty seals were discovered conclusively establishes that the 14th Dynasty was only contemporary with the 13th Dynasty in the last half century of the latter's existence, i.e. after c. 1700 BC. Additionally, Manfred Bietak has dated the inscriptions and monuments of Nehesy, possibly the second ruler of the dynasty, to around 1700 BC as well.[4] Following the very short reign of Nehesy, most scholars–among them, Manfred Bietak and Kim Ryholt–agree that the Delta region was struck by a prolonged famine and perhaps a plague lasting until the end of the 14th Dynasty.[1][5] The same famine may have affected the 13th Dynasty, which also exhibits instability and numerous ephemeral kings in its last 50 years of existence, from c. 1700 BC until 1650 BC. The weakened state of both kingdoms may explain, in part, why they fell rapidly to the emerging Hyksos power c. 1650 BC.[1] Seat of power[edit] The Manethonian tradition credits the Fourteenth Dynasty with as many as 76 kings ruling from Xois rather than Avaris. However, Egyptologist Kim Ryholt notes that the Turin Canon mentions only c. 56 kings and does not have enough space to have recorded over 70 kings. Ryholt also points to excavations at Avaris which revealed the existence of a large royal palace dating to the second intermediate period. One of its courtyards housed a statue of a king or high-ranking official, over twice life-sized, and wearing non-Egyptian attributes. For these reasons, Ryholt and most Egyptologists share the view that Avaris rather than Xois was the seat of power of the 14th Dynasty.[1] Extent of rule and foreign relations[edit] The precise borders of the 14th Dynasty state are not known due to the general scarcity of monuments left by this dynasty. In his study of the second intermediate period however, the Egyptologist Kim Ryholt concludes that the territory directly controlled by the 14th Dynasty roughly consisted of the Nile delta, with its border located around Athribis in the western Delta and Bubastis in the east.[1] Seals attributable to the 14th Dynasty have been found in Middle and Upper-Egypt, then 13th Dynasty territory, and as far south as Dongola, beyond the third cataract. To the north, seals have been found in the southern Levant, principally along the Mediterranean coast and as far north as Tell Kabri, in modern-day Israel.[1] This indicates the existence of an important trade with the 13th Dynasty, Canaanite city-states, and Nubia.[1] Ryholt further proposes that king Sheshi, whom he sees as a 14th dynasty ruler, married a Nubian princess, queen Tati, to strengthen relations with the Kushite kingdom.[1] Rulers[edit] The order of rulers for this dynasty is established by the Turin Royal Canon and is widely accepted, except for the first five rulers, which are given below after Ryholt.[1] The names of these rulers is not given on the Turin Canon, except possibly for one, and Ryholt proposes that they were mentioned as wsf in the list, which denotes a lacuna in the original document from which the list was copied in the Ramesside period.[1] Rather, Ryholt identifies the first five kings thanks to a seriation of their seals. His conclusions are debated however in Ben Tor's study of the strata levels in which seals attributed to the first five kings have been found. Ben Tor concludes that Sheshi's, 'Ammu's and Yakbim's reigns date to the second half of the Hyksos 15th dynasty and are not contemporary with the 13th dynasty. Thus according to Ben Tor, these kings were most likely minor vassal rulers of the Hyksos kings reigning in the Nile Delta.[2] Dynasty XIV pharaohs of Egypt (contested) Name of King Image Dates Comments Yakbim Sekhaenre 1805 BC – 1780 BC or after 1650 BC Chronological position is contested, maybe a vassal of the 15th dynasty Ya'ammu Nubwoserre 1780 BC – 1770 BC Chronological position is contested Qareh Khawoserre 1770 BC – 1760 BC Chronological position is contested 'Ammu Ahotepre 1760 – 1745 BC or after 1650 BC Chronological position is contested, maybe a vassal of the 15th dynasty Sheshi Maaibre 1745 BC – 1705 BC or after 1650 BC Attested by over 300 scarab-seals, possibly married to queen Tati who was a Kushite. Chronological position is contested, maybe a vassal of the 15th dynasty The following rulers are not controversial, being established by the Turin canon as well as, for a few of them, by contemporary sources: Dynasty XIV pharaohs of Egypt Name of King Image Dates Comments Nehesy Aasehre 1705 BC Best attested king of the dynasty, he left his name on two monuments at Avaris. His name means "The Nubian".[6] Khakherewre 1705 BC - Nebefawre 1704 BC Turin canon: reigned 1 year, 5 months, 15 days Sehebre Turin canon: reigned 3 years [lost] months, 1 day Merdjefare ending 1699 BC Attested by a single stela from Saft el-Hinna, in the Delta[7] Sewadjkare III Turin canon: reigned 1 year Nebdjefare ending 1694 BC - Webenre - Unknown Lost in the Turin kinglist [...]djefare - [...]webenre ending 1690 BC - Awibre II - Heribre - Nebsenre Attested by a jar bearing his prenomen. At least 5 months of reign. Unknown wsf in the Turin kinglist, indicating a lacuna in the document from which the list was copied [...]re Sekheperenre With Nehesy, Nebsenre and Merdjefare, only undisputed king known from contemporary sources Djedkherewre - Sankhibre II - Nefertum[...]re - Sekhem[...]re - Kakemure - Neferibre - I[...]re - Khakare - Akare - Hapu[...] Semenenre - Anati Djedkare - Babnum [...]kare - Unknown Eight lines lost in the Turin kinglist Senefer...re - Men[...]re - Djed[...]re - Unknown Three lines lost in the Turin kinglist Ink [...] - 'A[...] - Apophis I (?) - Unknown Five lines lost in the Turin kinglist Finally, several rulers attested by contemporary artefacts and otherwise unknown from the Turin Canon may be dated to the 14th[1] or 15th Dynasty.[8] Their identities and chronological position remain unclear: Possible dynasty XIV pharaohs of Egypt (unclear) Name of King Image Attestations Nuya 1 scarab-seal Sheneh 3 scarab-seals Shenshek 1 scarab-seal Wazad 5 scarab-seals Khamure 2 scarab-seals Yakareb 2 scarab-seals Merwoserre Yaqub-Har 27 scarab-seals References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Kim Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, Museum Tusculanum Press, (1997) ^ a b Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research (BASOR) 315, 1999, pp.47-73. ^ Janine Bourriau, "The Second Intermediate Period (c.1650-1550 BC)" in Ian Shaw (ed.) The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press, 2000. pp.192 & 194 ^ Bourriau, "The Second Intermediate Period," pp.178-179, 181 ^ Manfred Bietak, "Egypt and Canaan During the Middle Bronze Age," BASOR, 281 (1991), pp. 21-72, esp. p. 38, available online ^ Darrell D. Baker, The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 277 ^ Kenneth Kitchen: Ramesside Inscriptions, Blackwell Publishing 1993, ISBN 0631184279, p.546 ^ Daphna Ben-Tor: Scarabs, Chronology, and Interconnections: Egypt and Palestine in the Second Intermediate Period, Volume 27 of Orbis biblicus et orientalis / Series archaeologica: Series archaeologica, Academic Press Fribourg 2007, ISBN 978-3-7278-1593-5, excerpts available online Bibliography[edit] K.S.B. Ryholt (1998). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C1800-1550 BC. Museum Tusculanum Press. ISBN 8772894210. K.A. Kitchen (1993). Ramesside Inscriptions. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0631184279. Preceded by Thirteenth Dynasty Dynasty of Egypt 1725−1650 BC Succeeded by Fifteenth Dynasty Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fourteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=1001958867" Categories: Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt States and territories established in the 19th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 17th century BC Hyksos Dynasties of ancient Egypt 17th century BC in Egypt 16th century BC in Egypt 2nd-millennium BC establishments in Egypt 2nd-millennium BC disestablishments in Egypt 2nd millennium BC in Egypt Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ქართული Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska தமிழ் Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 January 2021, at 04:12 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9295	----	Apadana - Wikipedia Apadana From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the Pali texts, see Apadāna. Further information: Achaemenid architecture Ruins of the Apadana Palace Reconstruction of the Apadana's roof by Chipiez Reconstruction of the Apadana by Chipiez Apadana of Susa, reconstruction drawing Apadana (Old Persian: 𐎠𐎱𐎭𐎠𐎴) is a large hypostyle hall in Persepolis, Iran. It belongs to the oldest building phase of the city of Persepolis, in the first half of the 6th century BC, as part of the original design by Darius the Great. Its construction was completed by Xerxes I. Modern scholarship "demonstrates the metaphorical nature of the Apadana reliefs as idealised social orders".[1] Contents 1 Etymology 2 Description 3 Measurements 4 Legacy 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links Etymology[edit] As a word, apadāna (Old Persian𐎠𐎱𐎭𐎠𐎴, masc.) is used to designate a hypostyle hall, i.e., a palace or audience hall of stone construction with columns. The word is rendered in Elamite as ha-ha-da-na and in Babylonian ap-pa-da-an is etymologically ambiguous. It has been compared to the Sanskrit "apadana" (आपादन) which means 'to arrive at', and also to the Sanskrit apa-dhā (अपधा) which means "a hide-out or concealment", and the Greek αποθήκη - apo-thēkē meaning "storehouse". The word survived into later periods in Iran, as the Parthian 'pdn(y) or 'pdnk(y) "palace", and outside Iran it still survives in several languages as loan-words (including the Arabic fadan فَدَن for "palace" and the Armenian aparan-kʿ for "palace".)[2] More precisely, however, this word is the direct ancestor of the medieval and modern architectural term, ayvan/aywan. The Old Persian term 𐎠𐎱𐎭𐎠𐎴, a-pad-an, standing for "unprotected", refers to the fact that the veranda-shaped structure is open to the outside elements on one of its four sides, and thus 'unprotected' / exposed to the natural elements. This is exactly what the Apadana palace has: open (columned) verandas on three sides—a unique feature among all palace buildings at Persepolis. The Parthian and Sasanian architects largely did away with the columns holding up the ceiling of the veranda, replacing them with a barrel vaulting, such as the famous Ayvan of Kisra at Ctesiphon. The later evolution of term into aywan in the post-Islamic architecture that evolved from the old "apadana", refers to both columned (such as the palace of Chehel Sotoun, Isfahan) or barrel vaulted (all the four-aywaned mosques). Like the old Apadana, the new aywans are also verandas: open to the natural elements on one side. As a modern architectural and archaeological term, the word "apadana" is also used to refer to Urartian hypostyle halls, such as those excavated at Altintepe and Erebuni. These halls predate those from Persia, and it has been proposed that Urartu could be the stylistic origin of the later Persian hypostyle audience halls.[3] Description[edit] Apadana Palace (East Side) Persepolis The Apadana was the largest building on the Terrace at Persepolis and was excavated by the German archaeologist Ernst Herzfeld and his assistant Friedrich Krefter, and Erich Schmidt, between 1931 and 1939. Important material relevant to the excavations are today housed in the archives of the Freer Gallery of Art in Washington, DC. It was most likely the main hall of the kings. The columns reached 20m high and had complex capitals in the shape of bulls or lions. Here, the great king received the tribute from all the nations in the Achaemenid Empire, and gave presents in return. Access to the hall is given by two monumental stairways, on the north and on the east. These are decorated by reliefs, showing delegates of the 23 subject nations of the Persian Empire paying tribute to Darius I, who is represented seated centrally. The various delegates are shown in great detail, giving insight into the costume and equipment of the various peoples of Persia in the 5th century BC. There are inscriptions in Old Persian and Elamite. Measurements[edit] The Apadana at Persepolis has a surface of 1000 square metres; its roof was supported by 72 columns, each 24 metres tall. The entire hall was destroyed in 331 BC by the army of Alexander the Great. Stones from the columns were used as building material for nearby settlements. By the start of the 20th century, only 13 of these giant columns were still standing. The re-erecting of a complete, but fallen column in the 1970s, is now the 14th standing column of the Apadana. The Apadana in Susa was—like the city itself—largely abandoned, and pillaged for building material. Legacy[edit] The apadana hall influenced the Umayyad architecture. Early mosques built in Persia and Iraq imitate this structure.[4] Notes[edit] ^ M. Root (1986) p. 1. ^ R. Schmitt, Apadana i. Term, in Encyclopaedia Iranica ^ Henri Stierlin, "Greece, from Mycenae to the Parthenon (Taschen's World Architecture)", 1997. p116. ^ Arce, Ignacio (1 January 2008). "Umayyad Building Techniques And The Merging Of Roman-Byzantine And Partho-Sassanian Traditions: Continuity And Change". Technology in Transition A.D. 300-650: 491–537. Retrieved 4 April 2019. References[edit] Cool Root, Margaret (1985). "The Parthenon Frieze and the Apadana Reliefs at Persepolis: Reassessing a Programmatic Relationship". American Journal of Archaeology. 89 (1): 103–122. doi:10.2307/504773. JSTOR 504773. Schmitt, R; Stronach, D. "Apadana". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Routledge. 2. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Apadana of Persepolis. External links[edit] Oriental Institute Photographic Archives The Achaemenians continued Persepolis3D, a virtual reconstruction of Apadana Coordinates: 29°56′06″N 52°53′24″E / 29.935°N 52.890°E / 29.935; 52.890 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apadana&oldid=973983396" Categories: Buildings and structures completed in the 5th century BC Achaemenid architecture Architecture of Iran Persepolis Hidden categories: Articles containing Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text Commons category link is locally defined Coordinates not on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Беларуская Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 20 August 2020, at 11:45 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9297	----	300 (comics) - Wikipedia 300 (comics) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "The 300" redirects here. For the mythical/historical contingent of Spartans, see 300 Spartans. For other uses, see 300 (disambiguation). 300 Book cover Publication information Publisher Dark Horse Comics Schedule Monthly Format Limited series Publication date May – September 1998 No. of issues 5 Creative team Written by Frank Miller Artist(s) Frank Miller Colorist(s) Lynn Varley Collected editions Hardcover ISBN 1-56971-402-9 300 is a historically inspired 1998 comic book limited series written and illustrated by Frank Miller with painted colors by Lynn Varley. The comic is a fictional retelling of the Battle of Thermopylae and the events leading up to it from the perspective of Leonidas of Sparta. 300 was particularly inspired by the 1962 film The 300 Spartans, a film Miller watched as a young boy.[1][2] The work was adapted in 2006 to a film of the same name.[2] In 2018, Dark Horse published Xerxes: The Fall of the House of Darius and the Rise of Alexander, also written and drawn by Miller, acting as a prequel and sequel to the events of 300, depicting Xerxes I's rise to the throne, and the subsequent destruction of the Persian Empire under his descendant Darius III, by Alexander the Great. Contents 1 Publication and awards 2 Synopsis 3 Criticisms 4 References in other works 5 Film adaptation 6 Video game adaptation 7 Further reading 8 Collected editions 9 References 10 External links Publication and awards[edit] Each page of the novel is illustrated as a double-page spread. When the series was gathered into hardcover form, the individual pages were twice as wide as a normal comic. Miller's art style for this project was similar to his Sin City work, although the addition of consistent color is an obvious difference. 300 was initially published as a monthly five-issue comic book limited series by Dark Horse Comics, the first issue published in May 1998. The issues were titled Honor, Duty, Glory, Combat and Victory. The series won three Eisner Awards in 1999: "Best Limited Series", "Best Writer/Artist" for Frank Miller and "Best Colorist" for Lynn Varley. The work was collected as a hardcover volume in 1999. The popularity of the film has boosted sales of the trade paperback edition. The 10th printing had an announced print run of 40,000 copies, with an 11th printing to follow. This is in addition to the 88,000 copies already sold since the initial volume was released in 1999.[3] Synopsis[edit] In 480 BC, King Leonidas of Sparta gathers 300 of his best men to fight the upcoming Persian invasion. In what is likely a suicide mission, they and their allies plan to stop King Xerxes' invasion of Greece at the narrow cliffs of the "Hot Gates" (Thermopylae). The terrain prevents the Greeks from being overwhelmed by Xerxes' superior numbers (a military tactic usually called "defeat in detail"). Before the battle starts, Ephialtes, a deformed Spartan, begs Leonidas to let him fight but is rejected due to his hunchbacked form, which prevents him from lifting his shield high enough to be of use for the phalanx. Ephialtes becomes so desperate by Leonidas' refusal that he throws himself off a cliff. The Spartans and their allies successfully hold off the Persians for two days and nights. During a break in the fighting, Xerxes meets with Leonidas and offers wealth and power in exchange for his surrender. Leonidas declines, and battle continues. Meanwhile, Ephialtes awakes from his suicide attempt and decides to betray the Greeks by telling the Persians about the existence of a small pass that allows Xerxes to attack them from behind. Learning of the Persian maneuvers the Greeks realize their position is indefensible, but the Spartans and a few others refuse to retreat. Before engaging the Persians for the last time, Leonidas orders one Spartan (Dilios) to return home so that he might survive to tell their story. On the third day Xerxes has the Spartans surrounded, their remaining allies (Thespians) already dead. He gives Leonidas one final chance to surrender and kneel to him. After some hesitation, Leonidas finally complies and throws down his arms and kneels. This, however, is a trick by Leonidas, and signals Stelios, a loyal Spartan soldier, to jump from his back and kill a general. The Spartans fight. Leonidas throws his spear at Xerxes, intending to make the "God-King" bleed, and succeeds. The Spartans are killed to the last man by a storm of arrows. The story then shifts about a year later and ends as now-Captain Dilios relates the heroic sacrifice of Leonidas and his Spartan comrades to his troops before the historic Battle of Plataea. Criticisms[edit] Writer Alan Moore has criticized 300 as being historically inaccurate, with particular reference to the characters' attitudes towards homosexuality: There was just one particular line in it where one of the Spartan soldiers—I'll remind you, this is Spartans that we're talking about—one of them was talking disparagingly about the Athenians, and said, ‘Those boy-lovers.' You know, I mean, read a book, Frank. The Spartans were famous for something other than holding the bridge at Thermopylae, they were quite famous for actually enforcing man-boy love amongst the ranks as a way of military bonding. That specific example probably says more about Frank's grasp of history than it does about his grasp of homosexuality, so I'm not impugning his moral situation there. I'm not saying it was homophobic; just wasn't very well researched.[4] Miller, in the letters page of the series, replied to accusations of homophobia from a reader regarding the phrase "Those boy-lovers": If I allowed my characters to express only my own attitudes and beliefs, my work would be pretty darn boring. If I wrote to please grievance groups, my work would be propaganda. For the record: being a warrior class, the Spartans almost certainly did practice homosexuality. There's also evidence they tended to lie about it. It's not a big leap to postulate that they ridiculed their hedonistic Athenian rivals for something they themselves did. "Hypocrisy" is, after all, a word we got from the Greeks. What's next? A letter claiming that, since the Spartans owned slaves and beat their young, I do the same? The times we live in.[5] Writer David Brin has also criticized 300 as being historically inaccurate, with particular reference to the bravery and efficacy of the non-Spartan Greeks: That Athenian triumph deserves a movie! And believe me, it weighed heavily on the real life Leonidas, ten years later. 300 author Frank Miller portrays the Spartans' preening arrogance in the best possible light, as a kind of endearing tribal machismo. Miller never hints at the underlying reason for Leonidas's rant, a deep current of smoldering shame over how Sparta sat out Marathon, leaving it to Athenian amateurs, like the playwright Aeschylus, to save all of Greece. The "shopkeepers" whom Leonidas outrageously and ungratefully despises in the film.[6] During the Battle of Marathon, ten years previous to Thermopylae, the Spartans had been obligated to honor the Carnea, a religious festival during which military engagements were forbidden.[7] Once the religious prohibition was lifted, the Spartan troops covered the 220 kilometers (140 mi) to Athens in a quick three days and arrived only one day after the battle had taken place. The Spartans toured the battlefield at Marathon, and agreed that the Athenians had won a great victory.[8] Xerxes' invasion happened to coincide yet again with the celebration of the Carnea. This time, however, the Spartans chose not to hold back their entire army in deference to the festival, but instead sent an advance force of 300 men under Leonidas, who were to be reinforced by a full contingent of Spartan warriors after the festival concluded. It is impossible to know for certain whether this change in policy regarding the Carnea was based in shame about missing Marathon (as Brin suggests) or merely marked a reinterpretation of the military threat posed by the invading Persians. All Herodotus tells us is that the Spartan officials did not think that the engagement at Thermopylae would be decided so quickly and intended the main part of their force to arrive before the fighting broke out.[9] References in other works[edit] There are references to the Battle at Thermopylae in several of Frank Miller's other comic books. In Sin City: The Big Fat Kill, Dwight McCarthy considers Leonidas' choice of "where to fight" and manages to loosely recreate the Spartan defense tactics by cornering the enemy gang in a tight alley; they then annihilate them with heavy gunfire and explosives. Also in Hell and Back when Wallace is drugged he sees his friend as Leonidas with a machine gun. In The Dark Knight Returns and The Dark Knight Strikes Again, Miller's "omega" Batman stories, there are references to a character named "Hot Gates" (the literal translation of Thermopylae), an adult film star who first makes a version of Snow White, and then declares herself Dictator of Ohio. In the Emmy Award-winning episode "Jack and the Spartans" of the cartoon Samurai Jack, Jack meets a group of Spartan warriors fighting Aku's minions. This episode was partially inspired by Miller's comics.[10] Film adaptation[edit] Main article: 300 (film) In 2007, Zack Snyder directed a film adaptation of 300 with Frank Miller serving as executive producer to adapt his work for film. It used greenscreen technology to capture the comic book feel; the film is in fact notable for remaining extremely faithful to its source material as a result. It was released in both conventional cinemas and IMAX in 2007. In 2014, a sequel, 300: Rise of an Empire, was made, which is based on Frank Miller's mini-series Xerxes. Video game adaptation[edit] Main article: 300: March to Glory A video game based on the movie and the graphic novel was released in 2007. Further reading[edit] In the afterword for 300, Frank Miller recommends the following books: The Histories, by Herodotus The Hot Gates, by William Golding Thermopylae: The Battle for the West, by Ernle Bradford The Western Way of War by Victor Davis Hanson Collected editions[edit] ISBN 1-56971-402-9 Hardcover, 88 pages, Dark Horse Comics References[edit] ^ Frank Miller, 300 #3 (July 1998),"Slings & Arrows" letters page, Dark Horse Comics ^ a b Ito, Robert (November 26, 2006). "The Gore of Greece, Torn From a Comic". The New York Times. ^ "Sales skyrocket for Miller's 300 graphic novel". Newsarama.com. Archived from the original on 2008-11-22. Retrieved 2008-03-07. ^ Furey, Emmett (2007-07-19). "Homosexuality in Comics: Part IV". Comic Book Resources. Archived from the original on 22 August 2007. Retrieved 2007-07-20. ^ Frank Miller, 300 #4 (August 1998), "Combat" letters page, Dark Horse Comics ^ Brin, David (2011-11-13). "Move over, Frank Miller: or why the Occupy Wall Street Kids are Better than the #$%! Spartans". Retrieved 2011-11-14. ^ Holland, pp. 187–190 ^ Herodotus VI, 120 ^ Herodotus VII, 206 ^ "Samurai Jack: XXV: Jack And The Spartans – TV.com". Archived from the original on 2007-09-30. Retrieved 2007-10-24. External links[edit] Ancient Greece portal United States portal Comics portal Dark Horse Product Page Sparta Pages: 300 Review Frank Miller`s Sin city & 300 & Spirit – Database articles, images and other files about Frank Miller and his comics. 300 at FactBehindFiction.com v t e Frank Miller Batman comics The Dark Knight Returns Batman: Year One Spawn/Batman The Dark Knight Strikes Again All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder The Dark Knight III: The Master Race Other comics Written Bad Boy The Big Guy and Rusty the Boy Robot Daredevil "Born Again" Elektra: Assassin Give Me Liberty Martha Washington Hard Boiled RoboCop RoboCop Versus The Terminator Written and drawn 300 Daredevil Elektra Lives Again Rōnin Sin City The Hard Goodbye A Dame to Kill For The Big Fat Kill That Yellow Bastard Family Values Hell and Back Holy Terror Xerxes Drawn The Twilight Zone Daredevil Wolverine Heroes for Hope Characters DC Comics Arnold John Flass Carmine Falcone Carrie Kelley Gillian B. Loeb Holly Robinson James Gordon Jr. Officer Merkel Sarah Essen Marvel Comics Chaste Elektra John Garrett Karma Kirigi Maggie Murdock Mauler Nuke Shingen Yashida Stick Sin City Ava Lord Dwight McCarthy Goldie and Wendy John Hartigan Kevin Marv Miho Nancy Callahan Roark family The Girls of Old Town Wallace Wallenquist Organization Film adaptations RoboCop 2 (1990) RoboCop 3 (1993) Sin City (2005) 300 (2006) The Spirit (2008) Batman: Year One (2011) Batman: The Dark Knight Returns Part One (2012) Batman: The Dark Knight Returns Part Two (2013) 300: Rise of an Empire (2014) Sin City: A Dame to Kill For (2014) Television and video games RoboCop Versus The Terminator (1993) The Big Guy and Rusty the Boy Robot (1999–2001) 300: March to Glory (2007) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=300_(comics)&oldid=999094973" Categories: Dark Horse Comics limited series 1998 comics debuts 1998 comics endings Comics set in ancient Greece Comics set in ancient Persia Comics set in the 5th century BC Battle of Thermopylae Fantasy comics War comics Anti-Iranian sentiments Comics by Frank Miller (comics) Dark Horse Comics adapted into films Dark Horse Comics adapted into video games Eisner Award winners for Best Limited Series Harvey Award winners for Best Continuing or Limited Series Comics based on real people Cultural depictions of Leonidas I Cultural depictions of Xerxes I Hidden categories: Title pop Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Magyar 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Shqip Simple English Svenska 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 8 January 2021, at 13:22 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9322	----	Naqada III - Wikipedia Naqada III From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Last phase of the Naqada culture of ancient Egyptian prehistory Naqada III Naqada Naqada III (Northeast Africa) Show map of Northeast Africa Naqada Naqada III (Egypt) Show map of Egypt Geographical range Egypt Period Early Bronze I Dates circa 3,300 BC – circa 2,900 BC[1] Major sites Naqada Preceded by Naqada II Followed by Early Dynastic Period (Egypt) The Narmer Palette, thought to mark the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt; note the images of the goddess Bat at the top, as well as the serpopards that form the central intertwined image. Naqada III is the last phase of the Naqada culture of ancient Egyptian prehistory, dating from approximately 3200 to 3000 BC.[2] It is the period during which the process of state formation, which began in Naqada II, became highly visible, with named kings heading powerful polities. Naqada III is often referred to as Dynasty 0 or the Protodynastic Period[2] to reflect the presence of kings at the head of influential states, although, in fact, the kings involved would not have been a part of a dynasty. In this period, those kings' names were inscribed in the form of serekhs on a variety of surfaces including pottery and tombs. Contents 1 History 1.1 Decorative cosmetic palettes 2 Other artefacts 3 References 4 Further reading 5 External links History[edit] The Protodynastic Period in ancient Egypt was characterised by an ongoing process of political unification, culminating in the formation of a single state to begin the Early Dynastic Period. Furthermore, it is during this time that the Egyptian language was first recorded in hieroglyphs. There is also strong archaeological evidence of Egyptian settlements in southern Canaan during the Protodynastic Period, which are regarded as colonies or trading entrepôts. State formation began during this era and perhaps even earlier. Various small city-states arose along the Nile. Centuries of conquest then reduced Upper Egypt to three major states: Thinis, Naqada, and Nekhen. Sandwiched between Thinis and Nekhen, Naqada was the first to fall. Thinis then conquered Lower Egypt. Nekhen's relationship with Thinis is uncertain, but these two states may have merged peacefully, with the Thinite royal family ruling all of Egypt. The Thinite kings were buried at Abydos in the Umm el-Qa'ab cemetery. Most Egyptologists consider Narmer to be both the last king of this period and the first king of the First Dynasty. He was possibly preceded over some parts of Upper Egypt by Crocodile, Iry-Hor, Ka, and perhaps by the king Scorpion, whose name may refer to, or be derived from, the goddess Serket, a special early protector of other deities and the rulers.[3] Naqada III extended all over Egypt and was characterized by some notable firsts: The first hieroglyphs The first graphical narratives on palettes The first regular use of serekhs The first truly royal cemeteries Possibly the first example of irrigation And at best, a notable second: The invention of sail navigation[4] (independently from its prior invention in the Persian Gulf 2,000 years earlier)[5] According to the Egypt's Ministry of Antiquities, in February, 2020, Egyptian archaeologists have uncovered 83 tombs dating back to 3,000 B.C known as Naqada III period. Various small pottery pots in different shapes and some sea shells, makeup tools, eyeliner pots, and jewels were also revealed in the burial.[6][7] Decorative cosmetic palettes[edit] Main article: Cosmetic palette Many notable decorative palettes are dated to Naqada III, such as the Hunters Palette. Hunters Palette, circa 3100 BCE "Four Dogs Palette" (3300-3100 BCE) Fragment of a ceremonial palette illustrating a man and a type of staff, ca. 3200–3100 BCE Duck-shaped palette Bull Palette, 3100 BC The Battlefield Palette, possibly showing the subjection of the people of the Buto-Maadi culture, by the Egyptian rulers of Naqada III, circa 3100 BC.[8] Fragment of a palette, 3200-2800 BCE. Other artefacts[edit] Baboon Divinity bearing name of Pharaoh Narmer on base The Scorpion Macehead, Ashmolean Museum. Protodynastic sceptre fragment with royal couple. Staatliche Sammlung für Ägyptische Kunst, Munich Hair Comb Decorated with Rows of Wild Animals 3200-3100 BCE, Naqada III Naqada III vessel Typical Naqada III cylindrical jar References[edit] ^ Hendrickx, Stan. "The relative chronology of the Naqada culture: Problems and possibilities [in:] Spencer, A.J. (ed.), Aspects of Early Egypt. London: British Museum Press, 1996: 36-69": 64. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ a b Shaw 2000, p. 479. ^ Shaw 2000, p. 71. ^ Meza, A.I. (2007) “Neolithic Boats: Ancient Egypt and the Maltese Islands. A Minoan Connection” J-C. Goyon,C. Cardin (Eds.) Actes Du Neuvième Congrès International Des Égyptologues, p. 1287. ^ Robinson, D. (2012). "Review of: Anderson, A., et al. (2010), The Global Origins and Development of Seafaring". International Journal of Nautical Archaeology. 41 (1): 206–208. doi:10.1111/j.1095-9270.2011.00333_2.x. ^ February 2020, Laura Geggel-Associate Editor 21. "Dozens of ancient Egyptian graves found with rare clay coffins". livescience.com. Retrieved 2020-06-28. ^ "الكشف عن 83 مقبرة أثرية بمنطقة آثار كوم الخلجان بمحافظة الدقهلية". اليوم السابع. 2020-02-12. Retrieved 2020-06-28. ^ Brovarski, Edward. "REFLECTIONS ON THE BATTLEFIELD AND LIBYAN BOOTY PALETTES": 89. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Further reading[edit] Anđelković, Branislav (2002). "Southern Canaan as an Egyptian Protodynastic Colony". Cahiers Caribéens d'Égyptologie. 3/4 (Dix ans de hiéroglyphes au campus): 75–92. Bard, Katherine A. (2000). "The Emergence of the Egyptian State". In Shaw, Ian (ed.). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 61–88. ISBN 0-19-815034-2. Midant-Reynes, Béatrix (2000). The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Pharaohs. Oxford and Malden: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-20169-6. Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-815034-2.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Wilkinson, Toby Alexander Howard (2001). Early Dynastic Egypt (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-18633-1.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Wright, Mary (1985). "Contacts Between Egypt and Syro-Palestine During the Protodynastic Period". Biblical Archaeologist. 48 (4): 240–53. doi:10.2307/3209960. JSTOR 3209960. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Naqada III. Naqada III: Dynasty 0 "Unification Theories", Naqadan in Egypt, UK: UCL. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Rulers of the Ancient Near East Territories/ dates [1][2][3][4] Egypt Canaan Ebla Mari Akshak/ Akkad Kish Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period 4000–3200 BCE Naqada culture (4000–3100 BCE) Proto-Cannaanites Sumerian period (4000–2340 BCE) Susa I Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE) Naqada I Naqada II Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests") Legendary ante-deluvian rulers: In Eridu: Alulim, Alalngar, then in Bad-tibira: En-men-lu-ana, En-men-gal-ana, Dumuzid, the Shepherd, then in Larag: En-sipad-zid-ana, then in Zimbir: En-men-dur-ana, then in Shuruppag: Ubara-Tutu "then the flood swept over"[5] Susa II (Uruk influence or control) 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ DenAnedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100-2700 BCE) Great Flood 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) First kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman En-me-barage-si ("made the land of Elam submit")[6] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba Uruk II dynasty Enshakushanna Mug-si Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions (3 kings)[7] Shushuntarana Napilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Urur Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun) Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion of Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[7] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian Empire (Semitic) Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Second Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) (Vassals of UR III) Shakkanakku dynasty (Semitic) Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Neo-Sumerian Period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians) Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (Vassals of Ur III)[8] Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal 2100 BCE Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin Ibbi-Sin 2050 BCE 2000 BCE Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV circa 2000 BCE Amorite invasions Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) 2025-1763 BCE Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ Third Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 1894–1595 BCE Second Intermediate Period Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham (Biblical) Yamhad First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Phoenicia Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Middle Assyrian Empire Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt 626–539 BCE Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116-117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ "The Sumerian king list: translation". etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2008-05-08. ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ a b Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Naqada_III&oldid=997882545" Categories: Predynastic Egypt Archaeological cultures in Egypt 4th-millennium BC establishments 4th-millennium BC disestablishments Hidden categories: CS1 errors: missing periodical Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata CS1 maint: ref=harv Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Asturianu Български Català Español Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Nederlands Polski Русский සිංහල Српски / srpski Tagalog தமிழ் Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 2 January 2021, at 18:21 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9329	----	Pharnabazus II - Wikipedia Pharnabazus II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Pharnabazus II Pharnabazus II, ruled as Satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia circa 422–387 BC. Allegiance Achaemenid Empire Years of service 413-374 BC Rank Satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia Battles/wars Peloponnesian War Children Artabazos II Pharnabazus was Satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia. Coinage of Pharnabazos, circa 398-396/5 BC, Kyzikos, Mysia. Obv: Legend ΦΑΡ-Ν-[A]-BA ("FAR-N-[A]-BA", for Pharnabazos), head of Pharnabazos, wearing the satrapal cap tied below his chin, with diadem. Rev: Ship’s prow left, with a griffin and prophylactic eye; two dolphins downward; below, a tuna.[1] Pharnabazus II (Old Iranian: Farnabāzu, Ancient Greek: Φαρνάβαζος) (ruled 413-374 BC)[2] was a Persian soldier and statesman, and Satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia. He was the son of Pharnaces II of Phrygia and grandson of Pharnabazus I, and great-grandson of Artabazus I. He and his male ancestors, forming the Pharnacid dynasty, had governed the satrapy of Hellespontine Phrygia from its headquarters at Dascylium since 478 BC. He married Apama, daughter of Artaxerxes II of Persia, and their son Artabazus was likewise a satrap of Phrygia. His grand-daughter Barsine married Alexander the Great.[3] According to research by Theodor Nöldeke, he was descended from Otanes, one of the associates of Darius in the murder of Smerdis. Contents 1 Satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia 1.1 War with Sparta against Athens (c.413-404 BC) 1.1.1 Conflict with the Ten Thousand (399 BC) 1.2 War with Athens against Sparta (395–387 BC) 1.2.1 Conflict with Spartan King Agesilaos in Asia Minor 1.2.2 Participation to the Corinthian War on the side of Athens (395-393 BC) 1.2.2.1 Naval raids in Ionia 1.2.2.2 Naval raids on the Peloponnesian coast 1.2.2.3 Rebuilding of the walls of Athens 1.3 Final settlement with Sparta (386 BCE) 2 Campaign against Egypt (373 BC) 2.1 Expedition 2.2 Coinage 3 Pharnabazus in Greek literature 4 References 5 Sources Satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia[edit] War with Sparta against Athens (c.413-404 BC)[edit] Athens was the dominant power in the Aegean in the 5th century BC, following the repulse of the Achaemenids in the Second Persian invasion of Greece (480-479 BC). Athens, powered by the alliance formed under the Delian League, has even been called the Athenian Empire at that time, and formed the largest threat to the Achaemenid possessions in Asia Minor. Pharnabazus II is first recorded as satrap of this province in 413 BC, when he received orders from Darius II of Persia to send in the outstanding tribute of the Greek cities on the Ionian coast, tribute he had a hard time to obtain due to Athenian interference. Thucydides described this situation, faced by both satraps Pharnabazes and Tissaphernes:[4] The king (Darius II) had lately called upon him for the tribute from his government, for which he was in arrears, being unable to raise it from the Hellenic towns by reason of the Athenians; and he therefore calculated that by weakening the Athenians he should get the tribute better paid, and should also draw the Lacedaemonians into alliance with the king. — Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War 8.5.5&6[4] The assassination of the exiled Athenian general Alcibiades may have been organized by Pharnabazes, at the request of Sparta. He, like Tissaphernes of Caria, entered into negotiations with Sparta and began a war with Athens. The conduct of the war was much hindered by the rivalry between the two satraps, of whom Pharnabazus was by far the more energetic and upright. Pharnabazus initially fought with the Spartans against the Athenians during the Peloponnesian war (431–404 BC), even, in one instance, coming to the rescue of the retreating Spartan forces, and riding his horse into the sea to fend off the Athenians while encouraging his regiment.[5] In 404 BC, Pharnabazus may also have been responsible for the assassination of the Athenian general Alcibiades, who had taken refuge in the Achaemenid Empire. The assassination was probably at the instigation of the Spartans, and specifically Lysander.[6][7] As Alcibiades was about to set out for the Persian court, his residence was surrounded and set on fire. Seeing no chance of escape he rushed out on his assassins, dagger in hand, and was killed by a shower of arrows.[8] Conflict with the Ten Thousand (399 BC)[edit] An Athenian mercenary peltast (left) supporting an Achaemenid knight of Hellespontine Phrygia (center) attacking a Greek psilos (right), Altıkulaç Sarcophagus, early 4th century BCE.[9][10] After their victory in the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), the Spartans became the dominant power in the Aegean, creating a new threat for the Achaemenid Empire. The Spartans then antagonized the Achaemenid king Artaxerxes II by militarily supporting the rival bid of his brother Cyrus the Younger, their ally during the Peloponnesian war, leading to the campaign of the Ten Thousand deep into Achaemenid territory in 401-399 BC. Cyrus the Younger failed, but the relationship between Sparta and the Achaemenid Empire remained adversarial. Pharnabazus was involved in helping the Bithynians against the plundering raids of the Greek Ten Thousand who were returning from their failed campaign in the center of the Achaemenid Empire. He was also trying to stop them from entering Hellespontine Phrygia. His cavalry is said to have killed about 500 Greek mercenaries on that occasion, and mounted several raids on the Greek mercenaries.[11] Pharnabazus then arranged with Spartan Admiral Anaxibius for the rest of the Greek mercenaries to be shipped out of the Asian continent to Byzantium.[12] War with Athens against Sparta (395–387 BC)[edit] Conflict with Spartan King Agesilaos in Asia Minor[edit] Meeting between Spartan King Agesilaus (left) and Pharnabazus (right) in 395 BC, after which Agesilaus left Hellespontine Phrygia proper.[13][14] Hellespontine Phrygia was attacked and ravaged by the Spartan king Agesilaos in 396-395 BCE, who particularly laid waste to the area around Daskyleion, the capital of Hellenistic Phrygia.[10] Pharnabazus had several military encounters against the invading Spartans on this occasion. Pharnabazus finally met in person with Agesilaos, and Agesilaos agreed to remove himself from Hellespontine Phrygia proper and retreated to the plain of Thebe in the Troad.[10][14] In 394, while encamped on the plain of Thebe, Agesilaus was still planning a campaign in the interior of Asia Minor, or even an attack on Artaxerxes II himself, when he was recalled to Greece to fight in the Corinthian War between Sparta and the combined forces of Athens, Thebes, Corinth, Argos and several minor states. The outbreak of the conflict in Greece had been encouraged by Persian payments to Sparta's Greek rivals, and had for effect to remove the Spartan threat in Asia Minor. Pharnabazus sent Timocrates of Rhodes as an envoy to Greece, and tens of thousands of Darics, the main currency in Achaemenid coinage, were used to bribe the Greek states to start a war against Sparta.[15] According to Plutarch, Agesilaus said upon leaving Asia Minor "I have been driven out by 10,000 Persian archers", a reference to "Archers" (Toxotai) the Greek nickname for the Darics from their obverse design, because that much money had been paid to politicians in Athens and Thebes in order to start a war against Sparta.[16][15][17] Participation to the Corinthian War on the side of Athens (395-393 BC)[edit] Pharnabazes went on to aid the Athenians against the Spartans in the Corinthian War (394–387 BC). During this period, Pharnabazus is notable for his command of the Achaemenid fleet at the Battle of Cnidus (394 BC) in which the Persians, allied with the former Athenian admiral and then commissioned into Persian service, Conon, annihilated the Spartan fleet, ending Sparta's brief status as the dominant Greek naval power.[18][19] Naval raids in Ionia[edit] Pharnabazus followed up his victory at Cnidus by capturing several Spartan-allied cities in Ionia, instigating pro-Athenian and pro-Democracy movements.[19] Abydus and Sestus were the only cities to refuse to expel the Lacedaemonians despite threats from Pharnabazus to make war on them. He attempted to force these into submission by ravaging the surrounding territory, but this proved fruitless, leading him to leave Conon in charge of winning over the cities in the Hellespont.[19] Naval raids on the Peloponnesian coast[edit] Battle of Cnidus Melos Pherae Cythera Corinth Athens Abydos Sestos IONIA ACHAEMENID EMPIRE GREECE Achaemenid naval campaign against Sparta in the Corinthian War (394-393 BC)[19] From 393 BC, Pharnabazus II and Conon sailed with his fleet to the Aegean island of Melos and established a base there.[19] This was the first time in 90 years, since the Greco-Persian Wars, that the Achaemenid fleet was going so far west.[19] The military occupation by these pro-Athenian forces led to several democratic revolutions and new alliances with Athens in the islands.[19] The fleet proceeded further west to take revenge on the Spartans by invading Lacedaemonian territory, where the Achaemenids laid waste to Pherae and raided along the Messenian coast.[19] Their aim was probably to instigate a revolt of the Messanian helots against Sparta.[19] Eventually they left due to scarce resources and few harbors for the Achaemenid fleet in the area, as well as the looming possibility of Lacedaemonian relief forces being dispatched.[19] They then raided the coast of Laconia and seized the island of Cythera, where they left a garrison and an Athenian governor to cripple Sparta's offensive military capabilities.[19] Cythera in effect became Achaemenid territory.[19] Seizing Cythera also had the effect of cutting the strategic route between Peloponnesia and Egypt and thus avoiding Spartan-Egyptian collusion, and directly threatening Taenarum, the harbour of Sparta.[19] This strategy to threaten Sparta had already been recommended, in vain, by the exiled Spartan Demaratus to Xerxes I in 480 BC.[19] Pharnabazus II, leaving part of his fleet in Cythera, then went to Corinth, where he gave Sparta's rivals funds to further threaten the Lacedaemonians. He also funded the rebuilding of a Corinthian fleet to resist the Spartans.[19] Xenophon gave a detailed contemporary account of the naval campaign of Pharnabazus in his Hellenica: Pharnabazus, and Conon with him, sailed through the islands to Melos, and making that their base, went on to Lacedaemon. And first Pharnabazus put in at Pherae and laid waste this region; then he made descents at one point and another of the coast and did whatever harm he could. But being fearful because the country was destitute of harbours, because the Lacedaemonians might send relief forces, and because provisions were scarce in the land, he quickly turned about, and sailing away, came to anchor at Phoenicus in the island of Cythera. And when those who held possession of the city of the Cytherians abandoned their walls through fear of being captured by storm, he allowed them to depart to Laconia under a truce, and having repaired the wall of the Cytherians, left in Cythera a garrison of his own and Nicophemus, an Athenian, as governor. After doing these things and sailing to the Isthmus of Corinth and there exhorting the allies to carry on the war zealously and show themselves men faithful to the King, he left them all the money that he had and sailed off homeward. (...) The Corinthians, on the other hand, manned ships with the money which Pharnabazus left, appointed Agathinus as admiral, and established their mastery of the sea in the gulf around Achaea and Lechaeum. — Xenophon Hellenica 4.8.7 to 4.8.10[20] Rebuilding of the walls of Athens[edit] Pharnabazus funded the rebuilding the walls of Athens, and provided his seamen as manpower, in 393 BC.[21] After being convinced by Conon that allowing him to rebuild the Long Walls around Piraeus, the main port of Athens, would be a major blow to the Lacedaemonians, Pharnabazus eagerly gave Conon a fleet of 80 triremes and additional funds to accomplish this task.[19] Pharnabazus dispatched Conon with substantial funds and a large part of the fleet to Attica, where he joined in the rebuilding of the long walls from Athens to Piraeus, a project that had been initiated by Thrasybulus in 394 BC.[19] According to Xenophon in Hellenica: Conon said that if he (Pharnabazus) would allow him to have the fleet, he would maintain it by contributions from the islands and would meanwhile put in at Athens and aid the Athenians in rebuilding their long walls and the wall around Piraeus, adding that he knew nothing could be a heavier blow to the Lacedaemonians than this. (...) Pharnabazus, upon hearing this, eagerly dispatched him to Athens and gave him additional money for the rebuilding of the walls. Upon his arrival Conon erected a large part of the wall, giving his own crews for the work, paying the wages of carpenters and masons, and meeting whatever other expense was necessary. There were some parts of the wall, however, which the Athenians themselves, as well as volunteers from Boeotia and from other states, aided in building. — Xenophon Hellenica 4.8.7 4.8.8[22] With the assistance of the rowers of the fleet, and the workers paid for by the Persian money, the construction was soon completed.[23] Athens quickly took advantage of its possession of walls and a fleet to seize the islands of Scyros, Imbros, and Lemnos, on which it established cleruchies (citizen colonies).[24] As a reward for his success, Pharnabazus was allowed to marry the king's daughter, Apame.[25] He was recalled to the Achaemenid Empire in 393 BC, and replaced by satrap Tiribazus.[19] Final settlement with Sparta (386 BCE)[edit] Main article: Treaty of Antalcidas In 386 BC, Artaxerxes II betrayed his Athenian allies and came to an arrangement with Sparta, to the expense of the Greek cities of Asia Minor, which Sparta agreed to concede to the Achaemenids in exchange for Spartan domination in Greece. In the Treaty of Antalcidas he forced his erstwhile allies to come to terms. This treaty restored control of the Greek cities of Ionia and Aeolis on the Anatolian coast to the Persians, while giving Sparta dominance on the Greek mainland. Campaign against Egypt (373 BC)[edit] Achaemenid campaign of Pharnabazus II against Egypt in 373 BC. In 377 BC, Pharnabazus was then reassigned by Artaxerxes II to help command a military expedition into rebellious Egypt, having proven his ability against the Spartans.[26] After 4 years of preparations in the Levant, Pharnabazes gathered an expeditionary force had 200,000 Persian troops, 300 triremes, 200 galleys, and 12,000 Greeks under Iphicrates.[27] The Achaemenid Empire had also been applying pressure on Athens to recall the Greek general Chabrias, who was in the service of the Egyptians, but in vain.[28] The Egyptian ruler Nectanebo I was thus supported by Athenian General Chabrias and his mercenaries.[29] Expedition[edit] The force landed in Egypt with the Athenian general Iphicrates near Mendes in 373 BC.[30] The expedition force was too slow, giving time to the Egyptians to strengthen defenses. Pharnabazus and Iphicrates appeared before Pelusium, but retired without attacking it, Nectanebo I, king of Egypt, having added to its former defences by laying the neighboring lands under water, and blocking up the navigable channels of the Nile by embankments. (Diodorus Siculus xv. 42; Cornelius Nepos, Iphicrates c. 5.) Fortifications on the Pelusiac branch of the Nile ordered by Nectanebo forced the enemy fleet to seek another way to sail up the Nile. Eventually the fleet managed to find its way up the less-defended Mendesian branch.[28] At this point, the mutual distrust that had arisen between Iphicrates and Pharnabazus prevented the enemy from reaching Memphis. Then the annual Nile flood and the Egyptian defenders' resolve to defend their territory turned what had initially appeared as certain defeat for Nectanebo I and his troops into a complete victory.[31] After several weeks the Persians, and their Greek mercenaries under Iphicrates, had to reembark. The expedition against Egypt had failed.[30] It was the end of the career of Pharnabazus, who was now over 70 years old.[32] Pharnabazus was replaced by Datames to lead a second expedition to Egypt, but he failed and then started the "Satraps' Revolt" against the Great King.[32] Coinage of Pharnabazus II, Tarsos, Cilicia.[33][34] From 368 BCE many western satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire started to rebel against Artaxerxes II, in the Great Satraps' Revolt, so Nectanebo provided financial support to the rebelling satraps and re-established ties with both Sparta and Athens.[35] Coinage[edit] A large number of coins have been found from that period, presumably in order to pay for the troops, particularly for the Greek troops under Iphicrates. The large coinage was minted in Tarsos, Cilicia.[33] The coins use images of the god of war Ates wearing an Attic helmet, or a seated Baal.[33] Pharnabazus in Greek literature[edit] Claire Bloom as Barsine, grand-daughter of Pharnabazus, and Richard Burton as Alexander the Great, in Alexander the Great (1956 film). Pharnabazus was one of the best known Satraps among the Greeks, and had many exchanges with them. He is one of the main characters in the Hellenica of Xenophon, also appears in his Anabasis, and is also very present in the History of the Peloponnesian War of Thucydides. The family of Pharnabazus was closely related to the Greek world. His son Artabazos II married a Greek noblewoman from Rhodes, and lived in exile with his family at the Macedonian court of Philip II for more than ten years. His grand-daughter Barsine was half Rhodian Greek, and married Alexander the Great.[36] Family tree after Pharnabazus II. References[edit] Pharnacid dynasty (Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia) c.550–497 BC (Pharnaces) c.480–455 BC Artabazus I c.455–430 BC Pharnabazus I c.430–420 BC Pharnaces II c.413–374 BC Pharnabazus II c.407–362 BC Ariobarzanes c.389–329 BC Artabazus II c.370–320 BC Pharnabazus III v t e Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pharnabazos II. ^ "CNG". Archived from the original on 2018-12-04. Retrieved 2018-12-04. ^ Mitchiner, Michael (1978). The ancient & classical world, 600 B.C.-A.D. 650. Hawkins Publications ; distributed by B. A. Seaby. p. 48. ISBN 9780904173161. ^ Plutarch: Life of Eumenes - translation. ^ a b Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War, Book 8, chapter 5, section 5&6. ^ Xenophon Hellenica, 1.1.6 ^ Isocrates, Concerning the Team of Horses, 16.40 Though many of his details cannot be independently corroborated, Plutarch's version is this: Lysander sent an envoy to Pharnabazus who then dispatched his brother to Phrygia where Alcibiades was living with his mistress, Timandra. ^ H.T. Peck, Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities and W. Smith, New Classical Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, 39. ^ Plutarch, Alcibiades, 39. ^ Campbell, Brian; Tritle, Lawrence A. (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Warfare in the Classical World. Oxford University Press. p. 150. ISBN 9780199719556. ^ a b c Rose, Charles Brian (2014). The Archaeology of Greek and Roman Troy. Cambridge University Press. p. 137–140. ISBN 9780521762076. ^ Brownson, Carlson L. (Carleton Lewis) (1883). Xenophon;. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press. p. 479. ^ Brownson, Carlson L. (Carleton Lewis) (1886). Xenophon;. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press. p. 513. ^ History of the Greeks, p.186 ^ a b Cassell's illustrated universal history. Cassell, Petter, Galpin & Co. 1882. p. 435. ^ a b Snodgrass, Mary Ellen (2015). Coins and Currency: An Historical Encyclopedia. McFarland. p. 125. ISBN 9781476611204. ^ "Persian coins were stamped with the figure of an archer, and Agesilaus said, as he was breaking camp, that the King was driving him out of Asia with ten thousand "archers"; for so much money had been sent to Athens and Thebes and distributed among the popular leaders there, and as a consequence those people made war upon the Spartans" Plutarch 15-1-6 in Delphi Complete Works of Plutarch (Illustrated). Delphi Classics. 2013. pp. 1031, Plutarch 15–1–6. ISBN 9781909496620. ^ Schwartzwald, Jack L. (2014). The Ancient Near East, Greece and Rome: A Brief History. McFarland. p. 73. ISBN 9781476613079. ^ Xenophon Hellenica, 4.3 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Ruzicka, Stephen (2012). Trouble in the West: Egypt and the Persian Empire, 525-332 BC. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 57–60. ISBN 9780199766628. ^ Xenophon. Perseus Under Philologic: Xen. 4.8.7. ^ Smith, William (1877). A History of Greece from the Earliest Times to the Roman Conquest. William Ware & Company. p. 419. ^ Xenophon. Perseus Under Philologic: Xen. 4.8.7. ^ Xenophon, Hellenica 4.8.7–10 ^ Fine, The Ancient Greeks, 551 ^ Xenophon Hellenica, 4.8 ^ Ruzicka, Stephen (2012). Trouble in the West: Egypt and the Persian Empire, 525-332 BC. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 55–62. ISBN 978-0-19-976662-8. ^ Gershevitch, I.; Fisher, William Bayne; Boyle, John Andrew; Yarshater, Ehsan; Frye, Richard Nelson (1985). The Cambridge History of Iran. Cambridge University Press. p. 372. ISBN 9780521200912. ^ a b Grimal (1992), pp. 375–376 ^ Ruzicka, Stephen (2012). Trouble in the West: Egypt and the Persian Empire, 525-332 BC. Oxford University Press. p. 99–105. ISBN 9780199908776. ^ a b Gershevitch, I.; Fisher, William Bayne; Boyle, John Andrew; Yarshater, Ehsan; Frye, Richard Nelson (1985). The Cambridge History of Iran. Cambridge University Press. p. 373. ISBN 9780521200912. ^ Lloyd (1994), p. 348 ^ a b Gershevitch, I.; Fisher, William Bayne; Boyle, John Andrew; Yarshater, Ehsan; Frye, Richard Nelson (1985). The Cambridge History of Iran. Cambridge University Press. p. 374. ISBN 9780521200912. ^ a b c Moysey, Robert (1986). "THE SILVER STATER ISSUES OF PHARNABAZOS AND DATAMES FROM THE MINT OF TARSUS IN CILICIA on JSTOR". Museum Notes (American Numismatic Society). Museum Notes (American Numismatic Society) Vol. 31: American Numismatics Society. 31: 7–61 (60 pages). JSTOR 43573706.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ CNG: CILICIA, Tarsos. Pharnabazos. Persian military commander, circa 380-374/3 BC. AR Stater (23mm, 10.62 g, 2h). Struck circa 378/7-374/3 BC. ^ Grimal (1992), p. 377 ^ Plutarch: Life of Eumenes - translation. Sources[edit] Grimal, Nicolas (1992). A History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Blackwell Books. ISBN 978-0-631-19396-8.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) Lloyd, Alan B. (1994). "Egypt, 404–332 B.C.". The Fourth Century B.C. The Cambridge Ancient History. VI. ISBN 0-521-23348-8.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Pharnabazus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pharnabazus_II&oldid=1002464767" Categories: Achaemenid satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia 5th-century BC rulers Pharnacid dynasty 5th-century BC Iranian people People of the Peloponnesian War Military leaders of the Achaemenid Empire People of the Corinthian War Achaemenid Egypt 4th century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: CS1 maint: location Commons category link is on Wikidata CS1 maint: ref=harv Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 16:14 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-932	----	Belesys - Wikipedia Belesys From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Belesys was a satrap of Syria for the Achaemenid Empire in the 4th century BCE. Belesys was involved in suppressing the rebellion of Sidon in 351 BCE. After the defeat of Artaxerxes III in his Egyptian campaign, Phoenicia declared independence from Persian rule. Artaxerxes initiated a counter-offensive against Sidon by commanding the satrap of Syria Belesys and Mazaeus, the satrap of Cilicia, to invade the city and to keep the Phoenicians in check.[1] Both satraps suffered crushing defeats at the hands of Tennes, the Sidonese king, who was aided by 40,000 Greek mercenaries sent to him by Nectanebo II and commanded by Mentor of Rhodes. As a result, the Persian forces were driven out of Phoenicia.[2] An earlier Belesys is also known, whose palace was destroyed by Cyrus the Younger in 401 BCE, and had first been a Governor of Babylon and then a satrap of Syria.[3] References[edit] ^ Heckel, Waldemar (2008). Who's Who in the Age of Alexander the Great: Prosopography of Alexander's Empire. John Wiley & Sons. p. 172. ISBN 9781405154697. ^ "Artaxerxes III Ochus ( 358 BC to 338 BC )". Retrieved March 2, 2008. ^ Heckel, Waldemar; Tritle, Lawrence A. (2011). Alexander the Great: A New History. John Wiley & Sons. p. 161. ISBN 9781444360158. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Belesys&oldid=887541618" Categories: 4th-century BC rulers in Asia Satraps of the Achaemenid Empire Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Hrvatski مصرى Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 13 March 2019, at 08:15 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9340	----	Artemisia I of Caria - Wikipedia Artemisia I of Caria From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the female satrap and builder of the Mausoleum, see Artemisia II of Caria. Queen of Halicarnassus, Kos, Nisyros and Kalymnos Artemisia Queen of Halicarnassus, Kos, Nisyros and Kalymnos Artemisia, Queen of Halicarnassus, and commander of the Carian contingent, shooting arrows at the Greeks at the Battle of Salamis. Wilhelm von Kaulbach[1] Reign 484-460 BC Coronation 484 BC Predecessor Her husband (name unknown) Successor Pisindelis Born 5th century BC Halicarnassus Died 5th century BC Issue Pisindelis Greek Ἀρτεμισία Father Lygdamis I Mother Unknown Religion Greek polytheism Lygdamid dynasty (Dynasts of Caria) c. 520–484 BCE Lygdamis I c. 484–460 BCE Artemisia c. 460–454 BCE Pisindelis c. 454–450 BCE Lygdamis II v t e Artemisia I of Caria (Ancient Greek: Ἀρτεμισία; fl. 480 BC) was a queen of the ancient Greek city-state of Halicarnassus and of the nearby islands of Kos, Nisyros and Kalymnos,[2] within the Achaemenid satrapy of Caria, in about 480 BC.[2] She was of Carian-Greek ethnicity by her father Lygdamis I, and half-Cretan by her mother.[3] She fought as an ally of Xerxes I, King of Persia against the independent Greek city states during the second Persian invasion of Greece.[4] She personally commanded her contribution of five ships at the naval battle of Artemisium[5] and in the naval Battle of Salamis in 480 BC. She is mostly known through the writings of Herodotus, himself a native of Halicarnassus, who praises her courage and the respect in which Xerxes held her.[6][7] Another Artemisia also is well-known, Artemisia II of Caria, satrap of Caria and builder of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus in the 4th century BC. Contents 1 Family and name 2 Battle of Salamis 2.1 Preparations 2.2 Battle 2.3 Aftermath 3 After the Battle of Salamis 4 Opinions about Artemisia 5 Death and cultural depictions in the ancient world 6 Modern cultural references 7 See also 8 References 9 Sources 9.1 Primary sources 9.2 Modern sources 10 External links Family and name[edit] Artemisia's father was the satrap of Halicarnassus, Lygdamis I (Λύγδαμις Α') [8][9][10] and her mother was from the island of Crete.[11][12] She took the throne after the death of her husband, as she had a son, named Pisindelis (Πισίνδηλις), who was still a youth.[13][14] Artemisia's grandson, Lygdamis II (Λύγδαμις Β'), was the satrap of Halicarnassus when Herodotus was exiled from there and the poet Panyasis (Πανύασις) was sentenced to death, after the unsuccessful uprising against him. The name Artemisia derives from Artemis (n, f.; Roman equivalent: Diana), itself of unknown origin and etymology[15][16] although various ones have been proposed;[17][18] for example according to Jablonski,[18] the name is also Phrygian and could be "compared with the royal appellation Artemas of Xenophon; according to Charles Anthon the primitive root of the name is probably of Persian origin from arta*, art*, arte*,.. all meaning great, excellent, holy,.. thus Artemis "becomes identical with the great mother of Nature, even as she was worshipped at Ephesus";[18] Anton Goebel "suggests the root στρατ or ῥατ, "to shake," and makes Artemis mean the thrower of the dart or the shooter";[17] Plato, in Cratylus, had derived the name of the Goddess from the Greek word ἀρτεμής, artemḗs, i.e. "safe", "unharmed", "uninjured", "pure", "the stainless maiden";[17][18][19] Babiniotis while accepting that the etymology is unknown, states that the name is already attested in Mycenean Greek and is possibly of Pre-Greek origin.[16] Battle of Salamis[edit] Main article: Battle of Salamis Xerxes was induced by the message of Themistocles to attack the Greek fleet under unfavourable conditions, rather than sending a part of his ships to the Peloponnesus and awaiting the dissolution of the Greek armies. Artemisia was the only one of Xerxes' naval commanders to advise against the action, then went on to earn her king's praise for her leadership in action during his fleet's defeat by the Greeks at the Battle of Salamis (September, 480 BC). Preparations[edit] Coinage of Caria at the time of Artemisia (c.480-460 BC). Coinage of Kaunos, Caria at the end of Artemisia's rule, and beginning of the rule of her son Pisindelis. Obv: Winged female figure running right, head left, holding kerykeion in her right hand, and a victory wreath in left. Rev: Baetyl in incuse square. Circa 470-450 BC. Before the battle of Salamis, Xerxes gathered all his naval commanders and sent Mardonios to ask whether or not he should fight a naval battle.[20] All the commanders advised him to fight a naval battle except Artemisia.[21] As Herodotus tells it, she told Mardonios: Tell the King to spare his ships and not do a naval battle because our enemies are much stronger than us in the sea, as men are to women. And why does he need to risk a naval battle? Athens for which he did undertake this expedition is his and the rest of Greece too. No man can stand against him and they who once resisted, were destroyed.[22] If Xerxes chose not to rush into a naval encounter, but instead kept his ships close to the shore and either stayed there or moved them towards the Peloponnese, victory would be his. The Greeks can't hold out against him for very long. They will leave for their cities, because they don't have food in store on this island, as I have learned, and when our army will march against the Peloponnese they who have come from there will become worried and they will not stay here to fight to defend Athens.[23] But if he hurries to engage I am afraid that the navy will be defeated and the land-forces will be weakened as well. In addition, he should also consider that he has certain untrustworthy allies, like the Egyptians, the Cyprians, the Kilikians and the Pamphylians, who are completely useless.[24] Xerxes was pleased with her advice and while he already held her in great esteem he now praised her further. Despite this, he gave orders to follow the advice of the rest of his commanders. Xerxes thought that at the naval battle of Artemisium his men acted like cowards because he was not there to watch them. But this time he would watch the battle himself to ensure they would act bravely.[25] Plutarch, in On the Malice of Herodotus, believe that Herodotus wrote that because he just wanted verses in order to make Artemisia look like a Sibyl, who was prophesying of things to come.[26] Battle[edit] Battle of Salamis (Die Seeschlacht bei Salamis). Artemisia appears highlighted center-left of the painting, above the victorious Greek fleet, below the throne of Xerxes, and shooting arrows at the Greeks. Wilhelm von Kaulbach.[1] Another version of the painting also exists without Artemisia. Artemisia participated in the Battle of Salamis in September, 480 BC as a Persian ally. She led the forces of Halicarnassos, Cos, Nisyros and Calyndos (Κάλυνδος) (Calyndos was on the southwest coast of Asia Minor across Rhodes), and supplied five ships. The ships she brought had the second best reputation in the whole fleet, next to the ones from Sidon.[27] Her involvement in the campaign was described by Herodotus: Artemisia, who moves me to marvel greatly that a woman should have gone with the armament against Hellas; for her husband being dead, she herself had his sovereignty and a young son withal, and followed the host under no stress of necessity, but of mere high-hearted valour. Artemisia was her name; she was daughter to Lygdamis, on her father's side of Halicarnassian lineage, and a Cretan on her mother's. She was the leader of the men of Halicarnassus and Cos and Nisyrus and Calydnos, furnishing five ships. Her ships were reputed the best in the whole fleet after the ships of Sidon; and of all his allies she gave the king the best counsels. The cities, whereof I said she was the leader, are all of Dorian stock, as I can show, the Halicarnassians being of Troezen, and the rest of Epidaurus. — Herodotus VII.99.[28] As Herodotus says, during the battle, and while the Persian fleet was facing defeat, an Athenian ship pursued Artemisia's ship and she was not able to escape, because in front of her were friendly ships. She decided to charge against a friendly ship manned by people of Calyndos and on which the king of the Calyndians Damasithymos (Δαμασίθυμος) was located. The Calyndian ship sank.[29] Herodotus is uncertain but offers the possibility that Artemisia had previously had a disagreement with Damasithymos at the Hellespont.[30] Winged female figure in kneeling-running stance, holding kerykeion and victory wreath, on the coinage of Caria around the time of Artemisia. According to Polyaenus, when Artemisia saw that she was near to falling into the hands of the Greeks, she ordered the Persian colours to be taken down, and the master of the ship to bear down upon and attack a Persian vessel of the Calyndian allies, which was commanded by Damasithymus, that was passing by her.[31][32] When the captain of the Athenian ship, Ameinias,[33] saw her charge against a Persian ship, he turned his ship away and went after others, supposing that the ship of Artemisia was either a Greek ship or was deserting from the Persians and fighting for the Greeks.[34][35] Herodotus believed that Ameinias didn't know that Artemisia was on the ship, because otherwise he would not have ceased his pursuit until either he had captured her or had been captured himself, because "orders had been given to the Athenian captains, and moreover a prize was offered of ten thousand drachmas for the man who should take her alive; since they thought it intolerable that a woman should make an expedition against Athens."[36] Polyaenus in his work Stratagems (Greek: Στρατηγήματα) says that Artemisia had in her ship two different standards. When she chased a Greek ship, she hoisted the Persian colours. But when she was chased by a Greek ship, she hoisted the Greek colours, so that the enemy might mistake her for a Greek and give up the pursuit.[37] While Xerxes was overseeing the battle from his throne, which was at the foot of Mount Aigaleo, he observed the incident and he and the others who were present thought that Artemisia had attacked and sunk a Greek ship. One of the men who was next to Xerxes said to him: "Master, see Artemisia, how well she is fighting, and how she sank even now a ship of the enemy" and Xerxes then responded: "My men have become women; and my women, men." None of the crew of the Calyndian ship survived to be able to accuse her otherwise.[38] According to Polyaenus, when Xerxes saw her sink the ship, he said: "O Zeus, surely you have formed women out of man's materials, and men out of woman's."[39] Photius writes that a man called Draco (Greek: ∆ράκων), who was the son of Eupompus (Greek: Εύπομπος) of Samos, was in the service of Xerxes for a thousand talents. He had a very good sight and could easily see at twenty stades. He described to Xerxes what he saw from the battle and how brave the Artemisia was.[40] Aftermath[edit] Plutarch, in his work Parallel Lives (Greek: Βίοι Παράλληλοι) at the part which mention Themistocles, says that it was Artemisia who recognised the body of Ariamenes (Ἀριαμένης) (Herodotus says that his name was Ariabignes), brother of Xerxes and admiral of the Persian navy, floating amongst the shipwrecks, and brought the body back to Xerxes.[41] After the Battle of Salamis[edit] Jar of Xerxes I The precious Jar of Xerxes I, found in the ruins of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, may have been offered by Xerxes to Artemisia I, who had acted with merit as his only female Admiral during the Second Persian invasion of Greece, and particularly at the Battle of Salamis.[42][43][44] After the battle, according to Polyaenus, Xerxes acknowledged her to have excelled above all the officers in the fleet and sent her a complete suit of Greek armour; he also presented the captain of her ship with a distaff and spindle.[45][46] According to Herodotus, after the defeat, Xerxes presented Artemisia with two possible courses of action and asked her which she recommended. Either he would lead troops to the Peloponnese himself, or he would withdraw from Greece and leave his general Mardonius in charge. Artemisia suggested to him that he should retreat back to Asia Minor and she advocated the plan suggested by Mardonius, who requested 300,000 Persian soldiers with which he would defeat the Greeks in Xerxes' absence.[47] According to Herodotus she replied: "I think that you should retire and leave Mardonius behind with those whom he desires to have. If he succeeds, the honour will be yours because your slaves performed it. If on the other hand, he fails, it would be no great matter as you would be safe and no danger threatens anything that concerns your house. And while you will be safe the Greeks will have to pass through many difficulties for their own existence. In addition, if Mardonius were to suffer a disaster who would care? He is just your slave and the Greeks will have but a poor triumph. As for yourself, you will be going home with the object for your campaign accomplished, for you have burnt Athens."[48] Xerxes followed her advice, leaving Mardonius to conduct the war in Greece. He sent her to Ephesus to take care of his illegitimate sons.[49] On the other hand, Plutarch mocks Herodotus' writing, since he thinks that Xerxes would have brought women with him from Susa, in case his son needed female attendants.[26] Opinions about Artemisia[edit] Herodotus had a favourable opinion of Artemisia, despite her support of Persia and praises her decisiveness and intelligence and emphasises her influence on Xerxes. Polyaenus says that Xerxes praised her gallantry. He also in the eighth book of his work Stratagems, mentions that when Artemisia (he may have referred to Artemisia I, but most probably he referred to Artemisia II) wanted to conquer Latmus, she placed soldiers in ambush near the city and she, with women, eunuchs and musicians, celebrated a sacrifice at the grove of the Mother of the Gods, which was about seven stades distant from the city. When the inhabitants of Latmus came out to see the magnificent procession, the soldiers entered the city and took possession of it.[50] Justin in the History of the World mentioned that she "was fighting with the greatest gallantry among the foremost leaders; so that you might have seen womanish fear in a man, and manly boldness in a woman."[51] On the other hand, Thessalus, a son of Hippocrates, described her in a speech as a cowardly pirate. In his speech, Thessalus said that the King of Persia demanded earth and water from the Coans in 493 BC but they refused, so he gave the island to Artemisia to be wasted. Artemisia led a fleet of ships to the island of Cos to slaughter the Coans, but the gods intervened. After Artemisia's ships were destroyed by lightning and she hallucinated visions of great heroes, she fled Cos.[52] However, she later conquered the island.[53] Death and cultural depictions in the ancient world[edit] A legend, quoted by Photius,[54] some 13 centuries later, claims that Artemisia fell in love with a man from Abydos (Ancient Greek: Ἄβῡδος), named Dardanus (Greek: Δάρδανος), and when he ignored her, she blinded him while he was sleeping, but her love for him increased. An oracle told her to jump from the top of the rock of Leucas, but she was killed after she jumped from the rock and buried near the spot. Those who leapt from this rock were said to be cured from the passion of love. According to a legend, Sappho killed herself jumping from these cliffs too, because she was in love with Phaon. Aristophanes mentioned Artemisia in his works Lysistrata[55] and Thesmophoriazusae.[56] Pausanias, in the third book of his work Description of Greece (Greek: Ἑλλάδος Περιήγησις), entitled Laconia (Greek: Λακωνικά) mentioned that in the marketplace of Sparta the most striking monument was the portico which they called Persian (Greek: στοὰ Περσικὴν), because it was made from spoils taken in the Persian wars. Over time, the Spartans altered it until it became very large and splendid. On the pillars were white-marble figures of Persians, including Mardonius. There was also a figure of Artemisia.[57][58][59] Also, the encyclopedia called the Suda mentioned Artemisia.[60] Artemisia was succeeded by her son Pisindelis, who became the new tyrant of Caria.[61] He would himself later be succeeded by his son Lygdamis.[61] Modern cultural references[edit] Eva Green played Artemisia in the 2014 film, 300: Rise of an Empire. Several modern ships were named after Artemisia. An Iranian destroyer (Persian: ناوشکن) purchased during the Pahlavi dynasty was named Artemis in her honour.[62] This destroyer was the largest ship in the Iranian Navy. The previous name of the Greek ferryboat, Panagia Skiadeni, was Artemisia (ex-Star A, Orient Star and Ferry Tachibana).[63] In the municipality of Nea Alikarnassos in Crete there is a cultural association founded in 1979 named "Artemisia", after Queen Artemisia.[64] In the 1962 film, The 300 Spartans, Artemisia is portrayed by Anne Wakefield. Artemisia appears in Gore Vidal's 1981 (and 2002 release) historical novel Creation. In Vidal's depiction, she had a long relationship with the Persian general Mardonius, who at some periods lived in Halicarnassus and acted unofficially as her consort - but that she refused to marry him, determined to preserve her independence. In the 2014 film, 300: Rise of an Empire, Artemisia is featured as the main antagonist and is portrayed by Eva Green.[65][66] See also[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Artemisia I of Caria. Battle of Artemisium Battle of Salamis Themistocles Ameinias of Athens References[edit] ^ a b On the identification with Artemisia: "...Above the ships of the victorious Greeks, against which Artemisia, the Xerxes' ally, sends fleeing arrows...". Original German description of the painting: "Die neue Erfindung, welche Kaulbach für den neuen hohen Beschützer zu zeichnen gedachte, war wahrscheinlich „die Schlacht von Salamis“. Ueber den Schiffen der siegreichen Griechen, gegen welche Artemisia, des Xerxes Bundesgenossin, fliehend Pfeile sendet, sieht man in Wolken die beiden Ajaxe" in Altpreussische Monatsschrift Nene Folge p. 300 ^ a b Enc. Britannica, "Artemisia I" ^ Penrose, Walter Duvall (2016). Postcolonial Amazons: Female Masculinity and Courage in Ancient Greek and Sanskrit Literature. Oxford University Press. p. 163. ISBN 978-0-19-953337-4. ^ Polyaenus: Stratagems- BOOK 8, 53.5 "Artemisia, queen of Caria, fought as an ally of Xerxes against the Greeks." ^ Herodotus Book 8: Urania, 68 "...which have been fought near Euboea and have displayed deeds not inferior to those of others, speak to him thus:..." ^ http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/artemisia/a/20112-Herodotus-Passages-On-Artemisia-Of-Halicarnassus.htm ^ passages: 7.99, 8.68–69, 8.87–88, 8.93.2, 8.101–103 ^ "Swords-and-sandals epics? This classics lover is all for them". Telegraph. 3 March 2014. ^ Polyaenus: Stratagems- BOOK 8, 53.2 "Artemisia, the daughter of Lygdamis,..." ^ Artemisia in Herodotus Archived 2010-06-09 at the Wayback Machine "Her name was Artemisia; she was the daughter of Lygdamis, and was of Halicarnassian stock on her father's side..." ^ Artemisia in Herodotus Archived 2010-06-09 at the Wayback Machine "Her name was Artemisia; she was the daughter of Lygdamis, and was of Halicarnassian stock on her father's side and Cretan on her mother's." ^ Herodotus (1920) [c. 440 BC]. "Book 7, Chapter 99, Section 2". The Histories. A. D. Godley (translator). Cambridge: Harvard University Press. "Book 7, Chapter 99, Section 2". Ἱστορίαι (in Greek). At the Perseus Project. ^ Artemisia in Herodotus Archived 2010-06-09 at the Wayback Machine "She took power on the death of her husband, as she had a son who was still a youth." ^ "Herodotus". Suda. At the Suda On Line Project. ^ "Artemis". Online Etymology Dictionary. ^ a b Babiniotis, Georgios (2005). "Άρτεμις". Λεξικό της Νέας Ελληνικής Γλώσσας. Athens: Κέντρο Λεξικολογίας. p. 286. ^ a b c Lang, Andrew (1887). Myth, Ritual, and Religion. London: Longmans, Green and Co. pp. 209–210. ^ a b c d Anthon, Charles (1855). "Artemis". A Classical dictionary. New York: Harper & Brothers. p. 210. ^ ἀρτεμής. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project. ^ Herodotus Book 8: Urania, 67 "...when he had come and was set in a conspicuous place, then those who were despots of their own nations or commanders of divisions being sent for came before him from their ships, and took their seats as the king had assigned rank to each one, first the king of Sidon, then he of Tyre, and after them the rest: and when they were seated in due order, Xerxes sent Mardonios and inquired, making trial of each one, whether he should fight a battle by sea." ^ Herodotus Book 8: Urania, 68 "So when Mardonios went round asking them, beginning with the king of Sidon, the others gave their opinions all to the same effect, advising him to fight a battle by sea, but Artemisia spoke these words:" ^ "Herodotus Book 8: Urania, 68 (a)". Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 2014-03-07. ^ "Herodotus Book 8: Urania, 68 (b)". Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 2014-03-07. ^ "Herodotus Book 8: Urania, 68 (c)". Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 2014-03-07. ^ "Herodotus Book 8: Urania, 69". Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 2014-03-07. ^ a b Plutarch, Of Herodotus's Malice, Moralia, 38 ^ Artemisia in Herodotus Archived 2010-06-09 at the Wayback Machine "She led the forces of Halicarnassos, Cos, Nisyros and Calyndos, and supplied five ships. The ships she brought had the best reputation in the whole fleet, next to the ones from Sidon..." ^ LacusCurtius • Herodotus VII.99. ^ Herodotus Book 8: Urania ,87"When the affairs of the king had come to great confusion, at this crisis a ship of Artemisia was being pursued by an Athenian ship; and as she was not able to escape, for in front of her were other ships of her own side, while her ship, as it chanced, was furthest advanced towards the enemy, she resolved what she would do, and it proved also much to her advantage to have done so. While she was being pursued by the Athenian ship she charged with full career against a ship of her own side manned by Calyndians and in which the king of the Calyndians Damasithymos was embarked." ^ Herodotus Book 8.87.3 "I cannot say if she had some quarrel with him while they were still at the Hellespont, or whether she did this intentionally or if the ship of the Calyndians fell in her path by chance. " ^ Polyaenus: Stratagems- BOOK 8, 53 "Artemisia, in the naval battle at Salamis, found that the Persians were defeated, and she herself was near to falling into the hands of the Greeks. She ordered the Persian colours to be taken down, and the master of the ship to bear down upon, and attack a Persian vessel, that was passing by her. The Greeks, seeing this, supposed her to be one of their allies; they drew off and left her alone, directing their forces against other parts of the Persian fleet. Artemisia in the meantime sheered off, and escaped safely to Caria." ^ Polyaenus: Stratagems- BOOK 8, 53.2 "...sank a ship of the Calyndian allies, which was commanded by Damasithymus." ^ Herodotus Book 8: Urania, 93 "...Ameinias of Pallene, the man who had pursued after Artemisia." ^ "Herodotus Book 8: Urania, 87". Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 2014-03-07. ^ Polyaenus: Stratagems- BOOK 8, 53"The Greeks, seeing this, supposed her to be one of their allies; they drew off and left her alone, directing their forces against other parts of the Persian fleet." ^ Herodotus Book 8: Urania, 93 "Now if he had known that Artemisia was sailing in this ship, he would not have ceased until either he had taken her or had been taken himself; for orders had been given to the Athenian captains, and moreover a prize was offered of ten thousand drachmas for the man who should take her alive; since they thought it intolerable that a woman should make an expedition against Athens." ^ Polyaenus: Stratagems- BOOK 8, 53.3 "Artemisia always chose a long ship, and carried on board with her Greek, as well as barbarian, colours. When she chased a Greek ship, she hoisted the barbarian colours; but when she was chased by a Greek ship, she hoisted the Greek colours; so that the enemy might mistake her for a Greek, and give up the pursuit" ^ "Herodotus Book 8: Urania,88". Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 2014-03-07. ^ Polyaenus: Stratagems- BOOK 8, 53.5"And even in the heat of the action, observing the manner in which she distinguished herself, he exclaimed: "O Zeus, surely you have formed women out of man's materials, and men out of woman's."" ^ Bibliotheca, p.159 ^ Themistocles By Plutarch"...his body, as it floated amongst other shipwrecks, was known to Artemisia, and carried to Xerxes." ^ Mayor, Adrienne (2014). The Amazons: Lives and Legends of Warrior Women across the Ancient World. Princeton University Press. p. 315. ISBN 9781400865130. ^ A Jar with the Name of King Xerxes - Livius. ^ Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge University Press. 1924. p. 283. ISBN 9780521228046. ^ Polyaenus: Stratagems- BOOK 8, 53.2" In acknowledgement of her gallantry, the king sent her a complete suit of Greek armour; and he presented the captain of the ship with a distaff and spindle." ^ Polyaenus: Stratagems- BOOK 8, 53.5" At the famous battle of Salamis, the king acknowledged her to have excelled herself above all the officers in the fleet." ^ "Herodotus Book 8: Urania, 101". Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 2014-03-07. ^ "Herodotus Book 8: Urania, 102". Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 2014-03-07. ^ "Herodotus Book 8: Urania, 103". Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 2014-03-07. ^ Polyaenus: Stratagems- BOOK 8, 53.4 "Artemisia planted soldiers in ambush near Latmus; and herself, with a numerous train of women, eunuchs and musicians, celebrated a sacrifice at the grove of the Mother of the Gods, which was about seven stades distant from the city. When the inhabitants of Latmus came out to see the magnificent procession, the soldiers entered the city and took possession of it. Thus did Artemisia, by flutes and cymbals, possess herself of what she had in vain endeavoured to obtain by force of arms." ^ Justin, History of the World, §2.12 ^ Artemisia I Ionian Greek queen (r.c. 480 b.c.e.) by Caitlin L. Moriarity Archived 2010-04-14 at the Wayback Machine "Thessalus, a son of Hippocrates, describes her in a speech as a cowardly pirate. In his speech, Artemisia leads a fleet of ships to the Isle of Cos to hunt down and slaughter the Coans, but the gods intervene. After Artemisia's ships are destroyed by lightning and she hallucinates visions of great heroes, Artemisia flees Cos with her purpose unfulfilled." ^ Müller, Karl Otfried (1839). The History and Antiquities of the Doric Race. 2. p. 460. "The oration of the supposed Thessalus, in Epist. Hippocrat. p. 1294. ed. Foës. states, that "the king of Persia demanded earth and water (493 B.C.), which the Coans refused (contrary to Herod. VI. 49.); that upon this he gave the island of Cos to Artemisia to be wasted. Artemisia was shipwrecked, but afterwards conquered the island. During the first war (490 B.C.), Cadmus and Hippolochus governed the city; which the former quitted when Artemisia took the island."" ^ Photius, Myrobiblion, Codex 190, referring to a work called New History (now lost) by Ptolemaeus Chennus: "And many others, men and women, suffering from the evil of love, were delivered from their passion in jumping from the top of the rock, such as Artemesa, daughter of Lygdamis, who made war with Persia; enamoured of Dardarnus of Abydos and scorned, she scratched out his eyes while he slept but as her love increased under the influence of divine anger, she came to Leucade at the instruction of an oracle, threw herself from the top of the rock, killed herself and was buried." ^ Lysistrata 675 ^ Thesmophoriazusae 1200 ^ Pausanias: Description of Greece, Laconia-11.3 "The most striking feature in the marketplace is the portico which they call Persian because it was made from spoils taken in the Persian wars. In course of time they have altered it until it is as large and as splendid as it is now. On the pillars are white-marble figures of Persians, including Mardonius, son of Gobryas. There is also a figure of Artemisia, daughter of Lygdamis and queen of Halicarnassus." ^ Alcock, E.Susan; F. Cherry, John; Elsner, Jas (December 2003). Pausanias: Travel and Memory in Roman Greece. Oxford University Press. p. 258. ISBN 978-0195171327. ^ Pausanias: Description of Greece, Laconia-11.3 ^ Suda, p.338 ^ a b Fornara, Charles W.; Badian, E.; Sherk, Robert K. (1983). Archaic Times to the End of the Peloponnesian War. Cambridge University Press. p. 70. ISBN 9780521299466. ^ Noury, Manouchehr Saadat (October 7, 2008). "FIRST IRANIAN FEMALE ADMIRAL: ARTEMIS". Archived from the original on May 5, 2009. Retrieved June 6, 2009. ^ "Ferries and cruise ships". Raflucgr.ra.funpic.de. 2000-10-09. Archived from the original on 2008-03-29. Retrieved 2014-03-07. ^ "New Halicarnassus municipality". Frontoffice-147.dev.edu.uoc.gr. Retrieved 2014-03-07. ^ "300: RISE OF AN EMPIRE (2014)". ^ "How Eva Green Absolutely Stole '300: Rise Of An Empire'". 3 June 2014. Sources[edit] Primary sources[edit] Herodotus, The Histories, trans. Aubrey de Sélincourt, Penguin Books, 1954. Vitruvius, De architectura ii,8.10-11, 14-15 Pliny the Elder, Naturalis historia xxxvi.4.30-31 Orosius, Historiae adversus paganos ii.10.1-3 Valerius Maximus, Factorum et dictorum memorabilium iv.6, ext. I Justinus, Epitome Historiarum philippicarum Pompei Trogi ii.12.23-24 Πoλύαινoς (Polyaenus) (1809). Στρατηγήματα, Βιβλίον 8 [Stratagems, Book 8] (in Greek). pp. 290–291. Modern sources[edit] Nancy Demand, A History of Ancient Greece. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 1996. ISBN 0-07-016207-7 Salisbury, Joyce (May 2001). Encyclopedia of Women in the Ancient World. ABC-CLIO. pp. 20–21. ISBN 978-1576070925. Αρχαία Αλικαρνασσός Νέα Αλικαρνασσός Ταξίδι στο χρόνο και στην ιστορία... [Ancient Halicarnassus New Halicarnassus Journey through time and history...] (PDF) (in Greek). Prefecture of Heraklion Municipality of New Halicarnassus. 2006. pp. 24–25. ISBN 960-88514-3-2. External links[edit] Encyclopædia Iranica: ARTEMISIA Artemisia in Herodotus Artemisia I-Encyclopaedia of the Hellenic World Artemisia I-Encyclopædia Britannica Herodotus: Artemisia at Salamis, 480 BC - Fordham University v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Artemisia_I_of_Caria&oldid=1001326021" Categories: Ancient Halicarnassians Ancient queens regnant Women in ancient Greek warfare Lygdamid dynasty 5th-century BC women rulers Battle of Salamis Battle of Artemisium Admirals of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenid satraps of Caria Greek people of the Greco-Persian Wars Women of the Achaemenid Empire 5th-century BC rulers in Asia Female admirals Ancient Greeks who committed suicide Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links CS1 Greek-language sources (el) Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Commons category link is on Wikidata CS1 uses Greek-language script (el) Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Italiano עברית Latina Magyar Nederlands Polski Português Русский Sardu Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 January 2021, at 05:51 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9342	----	Amenemhat III - Wikipedia Amenemhat III From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search See Amenemhat, for other individuals with this name. Amenemhat III Lamares, Lampares, Ameres, Ammenemes according to Manetho Statue of Amenemhat III, Luxor Museum Pharaoh Reign 1860–1814 BC (12th Dynasty) Predecessor Senusret III Successor Amenemhat IV Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Nimaatre Nj-mˁ3t-Rˁ[1] He who belongs to the Maat of Ra Nomen Amenemhat Jmn-m-ḥ3.t[1] Amun is in front Horus name Aabaw ˁ3-b3w[1] Great of Bas Nebty name Itjijautawy[1] Jṯj-j3wt-t3.wj He who inherited the two lands Golden Horus Wahankh W3ḥ-ˁnḫ[1] Enduring of life Consort Aat, Khenemetneferhedjet III Children Neferuptah, Sobekneferu, Hathorhotep, Sithathor, Amenemhat IV (?) Father Senusret III Died 1814 BC Burial Pyramid at Hawara Monuments Pyramids at Dahshur and Hawara Amenemhat III, also spelled Amenemhet III, was a pharaoh of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt. He ruled from c. 1860 BC to c. 1814 BC, the highest known date being found in a papyrus dated to Regnal Year 46, I Akhet 22 of his rule.[2] His reign is regarded as the golden age of the Middle Kingdom.[3] He may have had a long coregency (of 20 years) with his father, Senusret III.[4] Pectoral of Amenemhat III, tomb of Mereret Pyramidion or Capstone of Amenemhat III's pyramid Sphinx statue of Amenemhat III Sphinx, one of the so-called "Hyksos Sphinxes" Toward the end of his reign he instituted a coregency with his successor Amenemhet IV, as recorded in a now damaged rock inscription at Konosso in Nubia, which equates Year 1 of Amenemhet IV to either Year 46, 47, or 48 of his reign.[5] His daughter, Sobekneferu, later succeeded Amenemhat IV, as the last ruler of the twelfth dynasty. Amenemhat III's throne name, Nimaatre, means "Belonging to the Justice of Re." Contents 1 Pyramids 2 Military enterprises and expeditions 3 The Great Canal (Mer-Wer) 4 Sculpture 5 Other names 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links Pyramids[edit] He built his first pyramid at Dahshur (the so-called "Black Pyramid"), but there were construction problems and it was abandoned.[6] Around Year 15 of his reign the king decided to build a new pyramid at Hawara, near the Faiyum.[7] The pyramid at Dahshur was used as burial ground for several royal women. The mortuary temple attached to the Hawara pyramid may have been known to Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus as the "Labyrinth".[8] Strabo praised it as a wonder of the world. The king's pyramid at Hawara contained some of the most complex security features of any found in Egypt. Nevertheless, the king's burial was robbed in antiquity. His daughter or sister, Neferuptah, was buried in a separate pyramid (discovered in 1956) 2 km southwest of the king's.[9][10] The pyramidion of Amenemhet III's pyramid tomb was found toppled from the peak of its structure and preserved relatively intact; it is today in the Cairo Egyptian Museum.[11] Military enterprises and expeditions[edit] There is very little evidence for military expeditions in the reign of the king. There is one record for a small mission in year nine of the king. The evidence for that was found in a rock inscription in Nubia, near the fortress of Kumma. The short text reports that a military mission was guided by the mouth of Nekhen Zamonth who reports that he went north with a small troop and that nobody died when going back south.[12] Many expeditions to mining areas are recorded under the king. There are two expeditions known to the Wadi el-Hudi at the southern border of Egypt, where Amethyst was collected. One of the enterprises dates to year 11, of the king.[13] Two further to year 20 and to year 28.[14] There were further mining expeditions to the Wadi Hammamat. These are dated to year 2, 3, 19, 20 and 33 of the king's reign.[15] The inscriptions of year 19 and 20 might be related to the building start of the pyramid complex at Hawara. They report the breaking of stone for statues. At the Red Sea coast, at Mersa was discovered a stela mentioning an expedition to Punt under Amenemhat III.[16] The highest official involved in the expedition was the high steward Senebef. Other people in charge were a certain Amenhotep and the chamberlain Nebesu.[17] The Great Canal (Mer-Wer)[edit] During his long rule Amenemhat continued the work probably started by his father to link the Fayum Depression with the Nile. The area had been a mere swamp previously. A canal 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) long and 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) wide was dug, known as Mer-Wer (the Great Canal); it is now known as Bahr Yussef. The banks for the central deep side were at a slope of 1:10, to allow use of non-cohesive soil and rock fill. A dam called Ha-Uar ran east–west, and the canal was inclined towards the Fayum depression at the slope of 0.01 degrees. The resultant Lake Moeris could store 13 billion cubic meters[18] of flood water each year. This immense work of civil engineering was eventually finished by his son Amenemhat IV and brought prosperity to Fayum. The area became a breadbasket for the country and continued to be used until 230 BC when the Lahun branch of the Nile silted up. The vizier Kheti held this office around year 29 of king Amenemhat III's reign. The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus is thought to have been originally composed during Amenemhat's time.[19] The monuments of Amenemhat III are fairly numerous and of excellent quality. They include a small but well decorated temple at Medinet Madi in the Faiyum, which he and his father dedicated to the harvest goddess Renenutet. Sculpture[edit] Amenemhat III is, together with Senusret III, the best-attested Middle Kingdom king by number of statues. About 80 statues or fragments of statues can be assigned to him. The sculpture of Amenemhat III continued the tradition of Senusret III. Many of his works no longer represent a young idealized king, but instead an expressive physiognomy, showing signs of age. There is an amazingly wide range of stones used for the sculpture of the king, not attested for any king before. Furthermore, the king introduced several new types of sculptures, many of these types inspired by older prototypes, dating back to the early Dynastic Period. There are two facial types that can be assigned to Amenemhat III. realistic style: The face of the king shows its bone structure, furrows are clearly marked in the face. The face features are evidently inspired by those of the sculpture of Senusret III idealized style: The king is shown as young man, with a triangular face.[20] Head of Amenemhat (Ammenemes) III. Mottled diorite, half life-size. 12th Dynasty. From Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London Realistic style portrait of Amenemhat III "Idealized style" portrait of Amenemhat III Amenemhat III in panther skin, 12th dynasty Statue from the Egyptian Collection of the Hermitage Museum Statuette head of Amenemhat III, now in the Louvre Amenemhat III as Nile god, Cairo Museum Other names[edit] Ammenemes Lamares, Ameres (According to Manetho) Moeris (According to Herodotus) Ny-maat-ra (Throne name)[21] Ammenemes III (In Greek)[21] See also[edit] List of pharaohs References[edit] ^ a b c d e Amenemhat (III) Nimaatre (1807/06-1798/97 BC) accessed 4 January 2014 ^ Francis Llewellyn Griffith, The Petrie Papyri, London 1898, T. XIV (Pap. Kahun VI, 19) ^ Callender, Gae (2003). "The Middle Kingdom Renaissance". In Shaw, Ian (ed.). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. p. 156. ^ Kim S. B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C., Museum Tusculanum Press 1997, pp.211f. ^ Kim S. B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C., Museum Tusculanum Press 1997, p. 212. ^ Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids: The Mystery, Culture, and Science of Egypt's Great Monuments, Grove Press, 2002, p. 427. ^ Lehner, Mark (2001). The Complete Pyramids: Solving the Ancient Mysteries. London: Thames & Hudson. pp. 182. ISBN 0-500-05084-8. ^ Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids: The Mystery, Culture, and Science of Egypt's Great Monuments, Grove Press, 2002, p. 428. ^ Nagib Farag, Zaky Iskander, The Discovery of Neferwptaḥ, 1971, p. 103. ^ Callender, Gae (2003). "The Middle Kingdom Renaissance". In Shaw, Ian (ed.). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. p. 158. ^ Callender, Gae (2003). "The Middle Kingdom Renaissance". In Shaw, Ian (ed.). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. p. 157. ^ F. Hintze, W. F. Reineke: Felsinschriften aus dem sudanesichen Nubien I, Berlin 1989, ISBN 3-05-000370-7, 145-147, n. 488 ^ Karl-Joachim Seyfried: Beiträge zu den Expeditionen des Mittleren Reiches in die Ost-Wüste, Hildesheim 1981, ISBN 3806780560, 105-16 ^ Ashraf I. Sadek: The Amethyst Mining Inscriptions of Wadi el-Hudi, Part I; Text, Warminster 1980 ISBN 0-85668-162-8, 41-43 ^ Karl-Joachim Seyfried: Beiträge zu den Expeditionen des Mittleren Reiches in die Ost-Wüste, Hildesheim 1981, ISBN 3806780560, 254-256 ^ El-sayed Mahfouz (2010). Amenemhat IV au ouadi Gaouasis Archived 2016-09-18 at the Wayback Machine. BIFAO. 2010:110 pp. 165–173. ^ Kathryn A Bard, Rodolfo Fattovich, Andrea Manzo: The ancient harbor at Mersa/WadiGawasis and how to get there: New evidence of Pharaonic seafaring expeditions in the Red Sea, in Frank Förster and Heiko Riemer (editors): Desert Road Archaeology in Ancient Egypt and Beyond, Cologne 2013, ISBN 9783927688414, p. 539 ^ Chanson, Hubert (1999). Hydraulics of Open Channel Flow. Edward Arnold/Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 9780750659789. ^ Marshall Clagett, Ancient Egyptian Science: A Source Book, 1989, p.113 ^ Simon Connor: The statue of the steward Nemtyhotep (Berlin ÄM 15700) and some considerations about Royal and Private Portrait under Amenemhat III, In: G. Miniaci, W. Grajetzki (editors): The World of Middle Kingdom Egypt (2000–1550 BC) Contributrions on Archaeology, Art, Religion, and Written Sources. Band 1, Golden House Publications, London 2015, ISBN 978-1-906137-43-4, 58-64. ^ a b Dunn, Jimmy (June 22, 2011). "Amenemhet III, the 6th Ruler of Egypt's 12th Dynasty". Tour Egypt. Retrieved October 12, 2020. Further reading[edit] W. Grajetzki, The Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt: History, Archaeology and Society, Duckworth, London 2006 ISBN 0-7156-3435-6, 58-61 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Amenemhat III. Amenemhat (III) Nimaatre The Pyramid of Amenemhet III from Talking Pyramids v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 118823175 ISNI: 0000 0004 0364 571X LCCN: n87897980 VIAF: 298607092 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n87897980 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amenemhat_III&oldid=993414252" Categories: 19th-century BC deaths 19th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Senusret III Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans አማርኛ العربية Беларуская Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 December 2020, at 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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9345	----	Cambyses I - Wikipedia Cambyses I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Cambyses I" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Great King Cambyses Great King King of Anshan[1] King of Persia Tomb of Cambyses I, Pasargadae King of Persia Reign 580–559 BC Predecessor Cyrus I Successor Cyrus II Born 600 BC Died 559 BC (aged 41) Pasargadae Burial 559 Pasargadae Consort Mandane of Media Issue Cyrus the Great Dynasty Achaemenid Father Cyrus I Religion Zoroastrianism Cambyses I or Cambyses the Elder (via Latin from Greek Καμβύσης, from Old Persian Kabūǰiya,[2] Aramaic Knbwzy; c. 600 BC – 559 BC) was king of Anshan from c. 580 to 559 BC and the father of Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II), younger son of Cyrus I,[3] and brother of Arukku.[4] He should not be confused with his better-known grandson Cambyses II. Contents 1 Early life 2 Personal life 3 Etymology 4 References Early life[edit] Cambyses was an early member of the Achaemenid dynasty. He was apparently a great-grandson of its founder Achaemenes, grandson of Teispes and son of Cyrus I. His paternal uncle was Ariaramnes and his first cousin was Arsames. Personal life[edit] According to Herodotus, Cambyses was "a man of good family and quiet habits". He reigned under the overlordship of Astyages, King of Media. He was reportedly married to Princess Mandane of Media, a daughter to Astyages and Princess Aryenis of Lydia. His wife was reportedly a granddaughter to both Cyaxares of Media and Alyattes of Lydia.[5] The result of their marriage was the birth of his successor Cyrus the Great. According to Nicolas of Damascus his original name was Atradates, and he was wounded and later died in the Battle of the Persian Border which he, with his son, fought against Astyages. It occurred in about 551 BC, and he is reported to have received an honorable burial. Also according to Herodotus, Astyages chose Cambyses as a son-in-law because he considered him to pose no threat to the Median throne, having dreamt his daughter would give birth to one who would rule Asia. This was not quite the case with Cyrus the Great who would go on to depose his grandfather, and to begin the Persian Empire. Etymology[edit] Though numerous scholars link Cambyses to the Sanskrit tribal name Kamboja there are also few scholars who suggest the Elamite origin of the name.[6][7] Jean Przyluski had sought to find an Austric (Kol or Munda) affinity for Kamboja.[8] Friedrich von Spiegel,[9] Sten Konow,[10] Ernst Herzfeld,[11] James Hope Moulton,[12] Wojciech Skalmowski[13][14] and some other scholars[15] think that Cambyses (Kambujiya) is adjectival form of the Sanskrit tribal name Kamboja.[16][17][9][18][11] Spiegel also regards Kamboja/Kambujiya (Cambyses) and Kuru/Kyros (Cyrus) as the names of two pre-historic/legendary heroes of the Indo-Iranians (i.e. prior to their split into Indo-Aryans and Iranians) which were later revived naturally in the royal family of the Achaemenes and further opines that the myths about Cyrus were largely due to the confusion between the historical and the legendary heroes of the prehistoric period[19] James Hope Moulton regards Spiegel's suggestions as the best of other etymological explanations of these two names.[12] As against this, Arnold J. Toynbee discusses the issue of two Persian names Kambujiya (Cambyses) as well as Kurush (Cyrus) at length and regards them both as derived from the two Eurasian nomads, the Kambojas and the Kurus mentioned in the Sanskrit texts and who, according to him, had entered India and Iran in the Volkerwanderung of 8th and 7th century BC.[20][21] Toynbee concludes that the conquest of the world by elder branch of the House of Achaemenes had been achieved by the valor of the Kuru and Kamboja Nomad reinforcements, hence as a commemoration, the elder branch of the House had named all their great princes from Cyrus I onwards, alternately, as Cyrus (Kurosh/Kuru) and Cambyses (Kambujiya/Kamboja).[22][23][24] References[edit] ^ Cyrus Cylinder ^ Bachenheimer., Avi (2018). Old Persian: Dictionary, Glossary and Concordance. Wiley. p. 184. ^ Allesandro Bausani (1971). "Chapter 1: The Aryans on the Iranian Plateau: The Achaemenian Empire". The Persians. St. Martin's Press. pp. 14–15. ^ Muhammad A. Dandamayev. "CAMBYSES". In Encyclopædia Iranica. 15 December 1990. Retrieved 1 January 2012. ^ Pierre., Briant (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander : a history of the Persian Empire. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns. p. 24. ISBN 9781575065748. OCLC 785943651. ^ Tarvernier, J. (2007). Iranica in the Achaemenid Period (CA. 550-330 BC): Lexicon of Old Iranian Proper Names and Loanwords, Attested in Non-Iranian Texts. Peeters. pp. 18–19. ISBN 978-9042918337. ^ Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh; Sarah Stewart (2005). Birth of the Persian Empire, Vol. 1. I.B. Tauris. p. 21. ISBN 978-1845110628. ^ Quoted in: Iranianism; Iranianism; Iranian culture and its impact on the world from Achaemenian times, 1972, p 7, Suniti Kumar Chatterji ^ a b (Eranische Alterihumskunde, voL ii. p. 294) ^ Kharoshṭhī inscriptions: with the exception of those of Aśoka, 1991, p 36, Sten Konow ^ a b The Persian Empire, 1968, p 344-45, Ernst Herzfeld, Gerold Walser. ^ a b See: Early Zoroastrianism, 2005, p 45, James Hope Moulton; See also: The Thinker: a review of world-wide Christian thought: Volume 2. p 490 ^ Studies in Iranian linguistics and philology, 2004, p 268, Wojciech Skalmowski. ^ Pakistan archaeology: Issue 26, 1991, p 121, Wojciech Skalmowski, Pakistan. Dept. of Archaeology & Museums. ^ See: Ṛtam: Volumes 7-10, – 1976, p 45, Akhila Bharatiya Sanskrit Parishad, Lucknow; India antiqua: a volume of Oriental studies presented by his friends and pupils to Jean Philippe Vogel, C.I.E., on the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of his doctorate, 1947, p 184, Instituut Kern (Rijksuniversiteit te Leiden); Journal: Issue 44, 1973, p 119, K.R. Cama Oriental Institute ^ The Persian Empire: Studies in geography and ethnography of the ancient Near East, 1968, p 344 sqq, Ernst Herzfeld, Gerold Walser ^ Historia (Ammienus Marcellinus), 1977, p 90, Art 199/200, Edourard Galletier, Jacques Fountaine. ^ Orientalia Lovaniensia periodica: Issues 24-25, 1993, p 74, W. Skalmowski, Institut orientaliste de Louvain ^ Die Altpersischen Keilinscheiften: Im Grundtexte Mit Uebersetzukg, Grammatik Und Glossar, 1881, pp 85/ 86, Friedrich von Spiegel; Cf: Kuhn’s Beiträge zur vergleichenden Sprachforschung auf dem Gebiete der Arischen, Celtischen, Und Slawischen Sprachen, Volume-1, 1858, p 36/37, Friedrich von Spiegel, (Ed) August Schleicher ^ According to Toynbee: "...the occurrence of the two names (i.e Kuru and Kamboja) in Transcaucasia as well as in and near India—and in Transcaucasia at close quarters—indicates that we have here two more names of Eurasian Nomad peoples who took part, and this in one another's company, in the Volkerwanderung of eighth and seventh centuries B.C; and, if, like so many of their fellows, these Kurus and Kambojas split into two wings whose paths diverged so widely, it does not seem unwarrantable to guess that a central detachment of this pair of migrating peoples may have found its way to Luristan and there have been taken into partnership by Kurus I's father Cispis." (See: A study of history: Volume 7, 1961, p 553 seq, Arnold Joseph Toynbee, Edward DeLos Myers, Royal Institute of International Affairs). ^ See also: Political and social movements in ancient Panjab (from the Vedic age up to the Maurya period), 1964, pp 105/06, 126, Buddha Prakash; Cf: Modern Researches in Sanskrit: Dr. Veermani Pd. Upadhyaya Felicitation Volume. Patna: Indira Prakashan, 1987, Misra, Satiya Deva (ed.). ^ Observes A. J. Toynbee: If the Lydian Monarchy had broken the force of the Cimmerian horde in Anatolia and had imposed its own rule as far eastwards as the River Halys, the Lydians had owed their success to the valour of their mercenary Spardiya Nomad cavalry; and as for the conquest of the World by the elder branch of the House of Achaemenes, as the alternating name of Kurus and Kambujiya born by their princes from Cyrus-I onwards testify, their fortune had been made for them by the valour of the Kuru and Kamboja Nomad reinforcements (See: Estudio de la historia: Volume 7, Part 2, 9161, pp 577/78, Arnold Joseph Toynbee OR A study of history: Volume 7, 1961, pp 553 seq, 580 seq, Arnold Joseph Toynbee, Edward DeLos Myers, Royal Institute of International Affairs). ^ Political and social movements in ancient Panjab (from the Vedic age up to the Maurya period), 1964, p 126, Buddha Prakash ^ Punjab history conference. Punjabi University, Patiala, 1996, Gursharan Singh (ed.) ISBN 81-7380-220-3 ISBN 81-7380-221-1. Cambyses I Achaemenid dynasty Born: c. 600 BC Died: 559 BC Preceded by Cyrus I King of Anshan 580 BC – 559 BC Succeeded by Cyrus the Great v t e Cyrus the Great Teispids, Achaemenid Empire Family Cambyses I Mandane of Media Cassandane Amitis Children Cambyses II Bardiya Atossa Artystone Battles Persian Revolt Hyrba Persian Border Pasargadae Pteria Thymbra Sardis Opis Related "Cyrus" (name) Pasargadae Cyrus Cylinder Cyropaedia Tomb Cyrus in the Bible Cyrus's edict Cyrus in the Quran Dhul-Qarnayn Kay Bahman Cyrus the Great Day Cyrus the Great (screenplay) Ciro riconosciuto Category v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC v t e Median and Achaemenid kings Family tree Median (728–550 BC) Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages Achaemenid (550–330 BC) Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Nothus Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Italics indicate kings not directly attested and so possibly legendary. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cambyses_I&oldid=1002215870" Categories: 600s BC births 559 BC deaths 6th-century BC Kings of Anshan (Persia) Achaemenid dynasty Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from January 2012 All articles needing additional references Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية تۆرکجه Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Magyar Malagasy مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 January 2021, at 11:03 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-934	----	Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Main Page From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Welcome to Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia that anyone can edit. 6,235,410 articles in English The arts Biography Geography History Mathematics Science Society Technology All portals From today's featured article Haile Selassie Rastafari is a religion that developed among impoverished and socially disenfranchised Afro-Jamaican communities in Jamaica during the 1930s. It is both a new religious movement and a social movement. There is no central authority and much diversity among practitioners. Rasta beliefs are based on a specific interpretation of the Bible; a belief in a single God, Jah, who partially resides within each individual, is integral. 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en-wikipedia-org-9372	----	Megabazus - Wikipedia Megabazus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Megabazus Megabazus was son of Megabates.[1] Native name Bakabadus Allegiance Achaemenid Empire Battles/wars European Scythian campaign of Darius I Darius' Thracian campaign Unknown others Children Megabates[2] Oebares II Bubares Pherendates[3] Relations Megabates (father) Macedonians were part of the Achaemenid army after the submission obtained by Megabazus. The "Ionians with shield-hats" (Old Persian cuneiform: 𐎹𐎢𐎴𐎠𐏐𐎫𐎣𐎲𐎼𐎠, Yaunā takabarā)[4] depicted on the tomb of Xerxes I at Naqsh-e Rustam, were probably Macedonian soldiers in the service of the Achaemenid army, wearing the petasos or kausia, c.480 BC.[5] Megabazus became satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia. Megabazus (Old Persian: Bagavazdā or Bagabāzu, Ancient Greek: Μεγαβάζος), son of Megabates, was a highly regarded Persian general under Darius, of whom he was a first-degree cousin. Most information about him comes from The Histories by Herodotus. Contents 1 Scythian campaign (513 BC) 2 Subjugation of Macedonia 3 Rivality with Histiaeus 4 Sons 5 References 6 See also Scythian campaign (513 BC)[edit] Megabazus led the army of the Great King Darius I in 513 BC on the European Scythian campaign of Darius I. After this had to be discontinued without result, Megabazos was left as commander-in-chief of an 80,000-man army in Europe, with the mission to subjugate the Greek cities on the Hellespont. The Persian troops subjugated gold-rich Thrace after capturing Perinthos, the coastal Greek cities, and defeated the powerful Paeonians, whom he deported to Phrygia.[6][7] Subjugation of Macedonia[edit] Main article: Achaemenid Macedonia Finally, Megabazus sent envoys to Amyntas I, king of Macedon, demanding acceptation of Persian domination, which the Macedonian accepted.[8][9] Megabazus received the present of "Earth and Water" from Amyntas, which symbolized submission to the Achaemenid Emperor.[10] Amyntas then acted as hyparch to Darius I.[11] Disagreements came when the members of the Persian delegation insulting the Macedonians by meddling with their wives. Prince Alexander I reacted this by murdering several Persian diplomats and their followers. The conflict was later settled by the marriage of Megabazos' son, Bubares, with the Macedonian princess Gygaia, daughters of Amyntas, possibly as a way of reinforcing the alliance.[10] Bubares was one of the sons of Megabazus.[12] After his return to Asia Minor, Megabazus received the governorship of the province (satrapy) of Hellespontine Phrygia in its capital Daskyleion. Rivality with Histiaeus[edit] Megabazus was suspicious of Histiaeus, Tyrant of Miletus, and advised Darius to bring him to Susa to keep a closer eye on him. His suspicions turned out to be true as Histiaeus provoked a revolt in the town he was formally in charge of and later sided with the Greeks against Persia. The successor to Megabazus's command was Otanes (son of Sisamnes).[13] According to Herodotus (Herodotus 6.33) Oebares was a son of Megabazus, and became satrap of Daskyleion (Hellespontine Phrygia) in 493 BC.[14][12] Megabates was another son of Megabazus. He was a commander of the Achaemenid fleet that sailed against Naxos in 500/499 BC. He also was Satrap of Daskyleion in the early 470s.[12][15] Sons[edit] Oebares: becomes Satrap of Daskyleion circa 493 BC Bubares: Engineer of the Athos Canal of Xerxes I Megabates: Fleet Commander and Satrap of Daskyleion Pherendates: died around 485 BC as satrap of Egypt. References[edit] ^ DASCYLIUM – Encyclopaedia Iranica Table 3. ^ https://www.livius.org/articles/person/megabazus/ ^ http://asiaminor.ehw.gr/Forms/fLemmaBody.aspx?lemmaId=7970#noteendNote_10 ^ Darius I, DNa inscription, Line 29 ^ Adams 2010, pp. 343–344 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFAdams2010 (help) ^ Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (7 July 2011). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. ISBN 9781444351637. Retrieved 17 December 2014. ^ "Persian influence on Greece (2)". Retrieved 17 December 2014. ^ Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (7 July 2011). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. ISBN 9781444351637. Retrieved 17 December 2014. ^ "Persian influence on Greece (2)". Retrieved 17 December 2014. ^ a b Waters, Matt (2014). Ancient Persia: A Concise History of the Achaemenid Empire, 550–330 BCE. Cambridge University Press. p. 83. ISBN 9781107009608. ^ King, Carol J. (2017). Ancient Macedonia. Routledge. p. 27. ISBN 9781351710329. ^ a b c DASCYLIUM – Encyclopaedia Iranica. ^ Perseus Under Philologic: Hdt. 5.25.1. ^ LacusCurtius • Herodotus — Book VI, 33. ^ Thucydides, 1.129; Herodotus, 5.32-35, 6.32 See also[edit] Megabyzus Megabates v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Authority control GND: 1028380232 VIAF: 284623216 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 284623216 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Megabazus&oldid=1002310075" Categories: Military leaders of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenid Thrace Achaemenid Macedon Skudra 5th-century BC Iranian people Generals of Darius the Great Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Bahasa Indonesia Latina مصرى Polski Edit links This page was last edited on 23 January 2021, at 20:43 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9379	----	File:Achaemenid king killing a Greek hoplite.jpg - Wikipedia File:Achaemenid king killing a Greek hoplite.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 554 pixels. Other resolutions: 320 × 222 pixels | 640 × 443 pixels | 1,024 × 709 pixels | 1,400 × 970 pixels. Original file ‎(1,400 × 970 pixels, file size: 1.06 MB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary DescriptionAchaemenid king killing a Greek hoplite.jpg English: Achaemenid king killing a Greek hoplite. A possible depiction of Xerxes killing Leonidas [1]. Full image with original cylinder on this page. Date 11 January 2019 Source Livius.org Provided under CC0 1.0 Universal license (notice under the photograph in the description page of the photograph). Author Marco Prins Licensing   This file is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication. The person who associated a work with this deed has dedicated the work to the public domain by waiving all of their rights to the work worldwide under copyright law, including all related and neighboring rights, to the extent allowed by law. You can copy, modify, distribute and perform the work, even for commercial purposes, all without asking permission. http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/deed.enCC0Creative Commons Zero, Public Domain Dedicationfalsefalse Captions EnglishAchaemenid king killing a Greek hoplite DutchAchaemenid king killing a Greek hoplite. Circa 500 BC–475 BC, at the time of Xerxes I. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Items portrayed in this file depicts copyright status copyrighted, dedicated to the public domain by copyright holder copyright license CC0 inception 11 January 2019 File history Click on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 21:04, 17 January 2019 1,400 × 970 (1.06 MB) पाटलिपुत्र better 09:59, 11 January 2019 1,400 × 970 (1.17 MB) पाटलिपुत्र better colors 09:56, 11 January 2019 1,400 × 970 (984 KB) पाटलिपुत्र better 05:43, 11 January 2019 1,400 × 970 (967 KB) पाटलिपुत्र better 05:04, 11 January 2019 1,400 × 970 (1.37 MB) पाटलिपुत्र User created page with UploadWizard File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Achaemenid Empire Achaemenid coinage Battle of Thermopylae First Persian invasion of Greece Hoplite Leonidas I Second Persian invasion of Greece Xerxes I Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on az.wikipedia.org Yunan-İran müharibəsi (e.ə. 480-e.ə. 479) Usage on ca.wikipedia.org Batalla de les Termòpiles (480 aC) Usage on fa.wikipedia.org پیاده‌نظام سنگین‌اسلحه Usage on fr.wikipedia.org Bataille des Thermopyles Usage on hy.wikipedia.org Պարսկական երկրորդ ներխուժում Հունաստան Usage on mk.wikipedia.org Ахеменидско Царство Usage on ta.wikipedia.org முதலாம் செர்கஸ் Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. If the file has been modified from its original state, some details may not fully reflect the modified file. Width 1,400 px Height 970 px Horizontal resolution 72 dpi Vertical resolution 72 dpi Software used PaintShop Pro 20,00 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Achaemenid_king_killing_a_Greek_hoplite.jpg" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces File Talk Variants Views Read View on Commons More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Upload file Special pages Printable version Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-937	----	Pontoon bridge - Wikipedia Pontoon bridge From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For related uses of "pontoon", see float (nautical). For all other uses, see pontoon. Type of bridge Pontoon bridge U.S. Army troops cross the Rhine on a heavy pontoon bridge, March 1945[1] Carries Pedestrian, automobile, truck Span range Short to long Material Various: steel, concrete, boats, barrels, plastic floats, appropriate decking material Movable Generally not, but may have movable sections for watercraft passage Design effort low Falsework required No A pontoon bridge (or ponton bridge), also known as a floating bridge, uses floats or shallow-draft boats to support a continuous deck for pedestrian and vehicle travel. The buoyancy of the supports limits the maximum load they can carry. Most pontoon bridges are temporary, used in wartime and civil emergencies. There are permanent pontoon bridges in civilian use, carrying highway traffic and allowing ships or boats to pass on the river or lake being crossed. Permanent floating bridges are useful for sheltered water-crossings where it is not considered economically feasible to suspend a bridge from anchored piers. Such bridges can require a section that is elevated, or can be raised or removed, to allow waterborne traffic to pass. Pontoon bridges have been in use since ancient times and have been used to great advantage in many battles throughout history, among them the Battle of Garigliano, the Battle of Oudenarde, the crossing of the Rhine during World War II, and during the Iran–Iraq War Operation Dawn 8. Contents 1 Definition 1.1 Etymology 2 Design 3 Historic uses 3.1 Ancient China 3.2 Greco-Roman era 3.3 Middle Ages 3.4 Early modern period 3.5 Early 20th century 4 World War II 4.1 United States 4.2 Britain 4.3 Gallery 5 Modern military uses 5.1 Amphibious Float Bridges 5.2 Ribbon Float Bridges 5.3 Yugoslav wars 5.4 Iran-Iraq war 5.5 Invasion of Iraq 6 Permanent pontoon bridges in civilian use 7 Failures and disasters 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 External links Definition[edit] A pontoon bridge is a collection of specialized, shallow draft boats or floats, connected together to cross a river or canal, with a track or deck attached on top. The water buoyancy supports the boats, limiting the maximum load to the total and point buoyancy of the pontoons or boats.[2] The supporting boats or floats can be open or closed, temporary or permanent in installation, and made of rubber, metal, wood, or concrete. The decking may be temporary or permanent, and constructed out of wood, modular metal, or asphalt or concrete over a metal frame. Etymology[edit] The spelling "ponton" in English dates from at least 1870.[3] The use continued in references found in U.S. patents during the 1890s.[4][5][6] It continued to be spelled in that fashion through World War II,[7] when temporary floating bridges were used extensively throughout the European theatre. U.S. combat engineers commonly pronounced the word "ponton" rather than "pontoon" and U.S. military manuals spelled it using a single 'o'.[8] The U.S. military differentiated between the bridge itself ("ponton") and the floats used to provide buoyancy ("pontoon").[9] The original word was derived from Old French ponton, from Latin ponto ("ferryboat"), from pons ("bridge").[10] Design[edit] Span between Russellville and Dardanelle, Arkansas, at the time the longest pontoon bridge in the world.[citation needed] (Photo c. 1913–1926) The Bergsøysund Bridge uses concrete pontoons When designing a pontoon bridge, the civil engineer must take into consideration the Archimedes' principle: Each pontoon can support a load equal to the mass of the water that it displaces. This load includes the mass of the bridge and the pontoon itself. If the maximum load of a bridge section is exceeded, one or more pontoons become submerged. Flexible connections have to allow for one section of the bridge to be weighted down more heavily than the other parts. The roadway across the pontoons should be relatively light, so as not to limit the carrying capacity of the pontoons.[11] The connection of the bridge to shore requires the design of approaches[12] that are not too steep, protect the bank from erosion and provide for movements of the bridge during (tidal) changes of the water level. Floating bridges were historically constructed using wood. Pontoons were formed by simply lashing several barrels together, by rafts of timbers, or by using boats. Each bridge section consisted of one or more pontoons, which were maneuvered into position and then anchored underwater or on land. The pontoons were linked together using wooden stringers called balks. The balks were covered by a series of cross planks called chesses to form the road surface,[13] and the chesses were secured with side guard rails. A floating bridge can be built in a series of sections, starting from an anchored point on the shore. Modern pontoon bridges usually use pre-fabricated floating structures.[14] Most pontoon bridges are designed for temporary use, but bridges across water bodies with a constant water level can remain in place much longer. Hobart Bridge, a long pontoon bridge built 1943 in Hobart, was only replaced after 21 years.[15] The fourth Galata Bridge that spans the Golden Horn in Istanbul, Turkey was built in 1912 and operated for 80 years. Provisional and lightweight pontoon bridge are easily damaged. The bridge can be dislodged or inundated when the load limit of the bridge is exceeded. The bridge can be induced to sway or oscillate in a hazardous manner from the swell, from a storm, a flood or a fast moving load. Ice or floating objects (flotsam) can accumulate on the pontoons, increasing the drag from river current and potentially damaging the bridge. See below for floating pontoon failures and disasters. Historic uses[edit] Mughal emperor Akbar the Great riding the ferocious elephant Hawa'i, pursuing another elephant across a collapsing bridge of boats (left), in Basawan and Chetar Munti's "Akbar's Adventure with the Elephant Hawa’i", dated 1561 Ancient China[edit] In ancient China, the Zhou Dynasty Chinese text of the Shi Jing (Book of Odes) records that King Wen of Zhou was the first to create a pontoon bridge in the 11th century BC. However, the historian Joseph Needham has pointed out that in all likely scenarios, the temporary pontoon bridge was invented during the 9th or 8th century BC in China, as this part was perhaps a later addition to the book (considering how the book had been edited up until the Han Dynasty, 202 BC – 220 AD). Although earlier temporary pontoon bridges had been made in China, the first secure and permanent ones (and linked with iron chains) in China came first during the Qin Dynasty (221–207 BC). The later Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD) Chinese statesman Cao Cheng once wrote of early pontoon bridges in China (spelling of Chinese in Wade-Giles format): The Chhun Chhiu Hou Chuan says that in the 58th year of the Zhou King Nan (257 BC), there was invented in the Qin State the floating bridge (fou chhiao) with which to cross rivers. But the Ta Ming ode in the Shih Ching (Book of Odes) says (of King Wen) that he 'joined boats and made of them a bridge' over the River Wei. Sun Yen comments that this shows that the boats were arranged in a row, like the beams (of a house) with boards laid (transversely) across them, which is just the same as the pontoon bridge of today. Tu Yu also thought this. ... Cheng Khang Chheng says that the Zhou people invented it and used it whenever they had occasion to do so, but the Qin people, to whom they handed it down, were the first to fasten it securely together (for permanent use).[16] During the Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 AD), the Chinese created a very large pontoon bridge that spanned the width of the Yellow River. There was also the rebellion of Gongsun Shu in 33 AD, where a large pontoon bridge with fortified posts was constructed across the Yangtze River, eventually broken through with ramming ships by official Han troops under Commander Cen Peng. During the late Eastern Han into the Three Kingdoms period, during the Battle of Chibi in 208 AD, the Prime Minister Cao Cao once linked the majority of his fleet together with iron chains, which proved to be a fatal mistake once he was thwarted with a fire attack by Sun Quan's fleet. The armies of Emperor Taizu of Song had a large pontoon bridge built across the Yangtze River in 974 in order to secure supply lines during the Song Dynasty's conquest of the Southern Tang.[17] On October 22, 1420, Ghiyasu'd-Din Naqqah, the official diarist of the embassy sent by the Timurid ruler of Persia, Mirza Shahrukh (r. 1404–1447), to the Ming Dynasty of China during the reign of the Yongle Emperor (r. 1402–1424), recorded his sight and travel over a large floating pontoon bridge at Lanzhou (constructed earlier in 1372) as he crossed the Yellow River on this day. He wrote that it was: ... composed of twenty three boats, of great excellence and strength attached together by a long chain of iron as thick as a man's thigh, and this was moored on each side to an iron post as thick as a man's waist extending a distance of ten cubits on the land and planted firmly in the ground, the boats being fastened to this chain by means of big hooks. There were placed big wooden planks over the boats so firmly and evenly that all the animals were made to pass over it without difficulty.[18] Greco-Roman era[edit] Roman depictions of pontoon bridges, 2nd century AD Roman legionaries marching across a pontoon bridge, a relief scene from the column of Emperor Trajan (r. 98-117 AD) in Rome, Italy (monochrome, from the photographs by Conrad Cichorius) Roman Legionaries crossing the Danube River by pontoon bridge, as depicted in relief on the column of Emperor Marcus Aurelius (r. 161-180 AD) in Rome, Italy The Greek writer Herodotus in his Histories, records several pontoon bridges. The Persian Emperor Darius used a 2-kilometre (1.2 mi) pontoon bridge to cross the Bosphorus and Emperor Caligula built a 2-mile (3.2 km) bridge at Baiae in 37 AD. For Emperor Darius I The Great of Persia (522–485 BC), the Greek Mandrocles of Samos once engineered a pontoon bridge that stretched across the Bosporus, linking Asia to Europe, so that Darius could pursue the fleeing Scythians as well as move his army into position in the Balkans to overwhelm Macedon. Other spectacular pontoon bridges were Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges across the Hellespont by Xerxes I in 480 BC to transport his huge army into Europe: and meanwhile other chief-constructors proceeded to make the bridges; and thus they made them: They put together fifty-oared galleys and triremes, three hundred and sixty to be under the bridge towards the Euxine Sea, and three hundred and fourteen to be under the other, the vessels lying in the direction of the stream of the Hellespont (though crosswise in respect to the Pontus), to support the tension of the ropes. They placed them together thus, and let down very large anchors, those on the one side towards the Pontus because of the winds which blow from within outwards, and on the other side, towards the West and the Egean, because of the South-East and South Winds. They left also an opening for a passage through, so that any who wished might be able to sail into the Pontus with small vessels, and also from the Pontus outwards. Having thus done, they proceeded to stretch tight the ropes, straining them with wooden windlasses, not now appointing the two kinds of rope to be used apart from one another, but assigning to each bridge two ropes of white flax and four of the papyrus ropes. The thickness and beauty of make was the same for both, but the flaxen ropes were heavier in proportion, and of this rope a cubit weighed one talent. When the passage was bridged over, they sawed up logs of wood, and making them equal in length to the breadth of the bridge they laid them above the stretched ropes, and having set them thus in order they again fastened them above. When this was done, they carried on brushwood, and having set the brushwood also in place, they carried on to it earth; and when they had stamped down the earth firmly, they built a barrier along on each side, so that the baggage-animals and horses might not be frightened by looking out over the sea.[19] According to John Hale's Lords of the Sea, to celebrate the onset of the Sicilian Expedition (415 - 413 B.C.), the Athenian general, Nicias, paid builders to engineer an extraordinary pontoon bridge composed of gilded and tapestried ships for a festival that drew Athenians and Ionians across the sea to the sanctuary of Apollo on Delos. On the occasion when Nicias was a sponsor, young Athenians paraded across the boats, singing as they walked, to give the armada a spectacular farewell.[20] A relief of a Roman bridge of boats by Cichorius The late Roman writer Vegetius, in his work De Re Militari, wrote: But the most commodious invention is that of the small boats hollowed out of one piece of timber and very light both by their make and the quality of the wood. The army always has a number of these boats upon carriages, together with a sufficient quantity of planks and iron nails. Thus with the help of cables to lash the boats together, a bridge is instantly constructed, which for the time has the solidity of a bridge of stone.[21] The emperor Caligula is said to have ridden a horse across a pontoon bridge stretching two miles between Baiae and Puteoli while wearing the armour of Alexander the Great to mock a soothsayer who had claimed he had "no more chance of becoming emperor than of riding a horse across the Bay of Baiae". Caligula's construction of the bridge cost a massive sum of money and added to discontent with his rule.[citation needed] Middle Ages[edit] The old Puente de barcas, connected Seville and Triana from 1171 to 1851 During the Middle Ages, pontoons were used alongside regular boats to span rivers during campaigns, or to link communities which lacked resources to build permanent bridges.[22] The Hun army of Attila built a bridge across the Nišava during the siege of Naissus in 442 to bring heavy siege towers within range of the city.[23] Sassanid forces crossed the Euphrates on a quickly-built pontoon bridge during the siege of Kallinikos in 542. The Ostrogothic Kingdom constructed a fortified bridge across the Tiber during the Siege of Rome in 545 to block Byzantine general Belisarius' relief flotillas to the city.[23] The Avar Khaganate forced Syriac-Roman engineers to construct two pontoon bridges across the Sava during the Siege of Sirmium in 580 to completely surround the city with their troops and siege works.[23] Emperor Heraclius crossed the Bosporus on horseback on a large pontoon bridge in 638. The army of the Umayyad Caliphate built a pontoon bridge over the Bosporus in 717 during the Siege of Constantinople (717–718). The Carolingian army of Charlemagne constructed a portable pontoon bridge of anchored boats bound together and used it to cross the Danube during campaigns against the Avar Khaganate in the 790s.[24] Charlemagne's army built two fortified pontoon bridges across the Elbe in 789 during a campaign against the Slavic Veleti.[25] The German army of Otto the Great employed three pontoon bridges, made from pre-fabricated materials, to rapidly cross the Recknitz river at the Battle on the Raxa in 955 and win decisively against the Slavic Obotrites.[26] Tenth-Century German Ottonian capitularies demanded that royal fiscal estates maintain watertight, river-fordable wagons for purposes of war.[26] The Danish Army of Cnut the Great completed a pontoon bridge across the Helge River during the Battle of Helgeå in 1026. Crusader forces constructed a pontoon bridge across the Orontes river to expedite resupply during the Siege of Antioch in December 1097. According to the chronicles, the earliest floating bridge across the Dnieper River was built in 1115. It was located near Vyshhorod, Kiev. Bohemian troops under the command of Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor crossed the Adige in 1157 on a pontoon bridge built in advance by the people of Verona on orders of the German Emperor. The French Royal Army of King Philip II of France constructed a pontoon bridge across the Seine to seize Les Andelys from the English at the Siege of Château Gaillard in 1203. During the Fifth Crusade, the Crusaders built two pontoon bridges across the Nile at the Siege of Damietta (1218-1219), including one supported by 38 boats. On 27 May 1234, Crusader troops crossed the river Ochtum in Germany on a pontoon bridge during the fight against the Stedingers. Imperial Mongol troops constructed a pontoon bridge at the Battle of Mohi in 1241 to outflank the Hungarian army. The French army of King Louis IX of France crossed the Charente river on multiple pontoon bridges during the Battle of Taillebourg on 21 July 1242. Louis IX had a pontoon bridge built across the Nile to provide unimpeded access to troops and supplies in early March 1250 during the Seventh Crusade. A Florentine army erected a pontoon bridge across the Arno river during the Siege of Pisa in 1406. The English army of John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury crossed the Oise river across a pontoon bridge of portable leather vessels in 1441. Ottoman engineers built a pontoon bridge across the Golden Horn during the Siege of Constantinople (1453), using over a thousand barrels. The bridge was strong enough to support carts. The Ottoman Army constructed a pontoon bridge during the Siege of Rhodes (1480). Venetian pioneers built a floating bridge across the Adige at the Battle of Calliano (1487). Early modern period[edit] Parma's bridge over the Scheldt in 1584, built of ships. 1616 illustration. Pontoon boat of the U.S. Army, 1864 Pontoon bridge across the James River at Richmond, Virginia, 1865 A bridge of boats over the Ravi River in British India, 1895 The Spanish Army constructed a pontoon bridge at the Battle of Río Bueno in 1654. However, as the bridge broke apart it all ended in a sound defeat of the Spanish by local Mapuche-Huilliche forces.[27][28] French general Jean Lannes's troops built a pontoon bridge to cross the Po river prior to the Battle of Montebello (1800). Napoleon's Grande Armée made extensive use of pontoon bridges at the battles of Aspern-Essling and Wagram under the supervision of General Henri Gatien Bertrand. General Jean Baptiste Eblé's engineers erected four pontoon bridges in a single night across the Dnieper during the Battle of Smolensk (1812). Working in cold water, Eblé's Dutch engineers constructed a 100-meter-long pontoon bridge during the Battle of Berezina to allow the Grande Armée to escape to safety. During the Peninsular War the British army transported "tin pontoons"[29]:353 that were lightweight and could be quickly turned into a floating bridge. Lt Col Charles Pasley of the Royal School of Military Engineering at Chatham England developed a new form of pontoon which was adopted in 1817 by the British Army. Each pontoon was split into two halves, and the two pointed ends could be connected together in locations with tidal flow. Each half was enclosed, reducing the risk of swamping, and the sections bore multiple lashing points.[30] The "Palsey Pontoon" lasted until 1836 when it was replaced by the "Blanshard Pontoon" which comprised tin cylinders 3 feet wide and 22 feet long, placed 11 feet apart, making the pontoon very buoyant.[30] The pontoon was tested with the Palsey Pontoon on the Medway.[31] An alternative proposed by Charles Pasley comprised two copper canoes, each 2 foot 8 inches wide and 22 foot long and coming in two sections which were fastened side by side to make a double canoe raft. Copper was used in preference to fast-corroding tin. Lashed at 10 foot centres, these were good for cavalry, infantry and light guns; lashed at 5 foot centres, heavy cannon could cross. The canoes could also be lashed together to form rafts. One cart pulled by two horse carried two half canoes and stores.[32] A comparison of pontoons used by each nations army shows that almost all were open boats coming in one, two or even three pieces, mainly wood, some with canvas and rubber protection. Belgium used an iron boat; the United States used cylinders split into three.[30] In 1862 the Union forces commanded by Major General Ambrose Burnside were stuck on the wrong side of the Rappahannock River at the Battle of Fredericksburg for lack of the arrival of the Pontoon train resulting in severe losses.[33]:115 [34] The report of this disaster resulted in Britain forming and training a Pontoon Troop of Engineers.[33]:116–8 During the American Civil War various forms of pontoon bridges were tried and discarded. Wooden pontoons and India rubber bag pontoons shaped like a torpedo proved impractical until the development of cotton-canvas covered pontoons, which required more maintenance but were lightweight and easier to work with and transport.[34] From 1864 a lightweight design known as Cumberland Pontoons, a folding boat system, were widely used during the Atlanta Campaign to transport soldiers and artillery across rivers in the South.[citation needed] In 1872 at a military review before Queen Victoria, a pontoon bridge was thrown across the River Thames at Windsor, Berkshire, where the river was 250 feet (76 m) wide. The bridge, comprising 15 pontoons held by 14 anchors, was completed in 22 minutes and then used to move five battalions of troops across the river. It was removed in 34 minutes the next day.[33]:122–124 At Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, the Pile-Pontoon Railroad Bridge was constructed in 1874 over the Mississippi River to carry a railroad track connecting that city with Marquette, Iowa. Because the river level could vary by as much as 22 feet, the track was laid on an adjustable platform above the pontoons.[35] This unique structure remained in use until the railroad was abandoned in 1961, when it was removed. The British Blanshard Pontoon stayed in British use until the late 1870s, when it was replaced by the "Blood Pontoon". The Blood Pontoon returned to the open boat system, which enabled use as boats when not needed as pontoons. Side carrying handles helped transportation.[30] The new pontoon proved strong enough to support loaded elephants and siege guns as well as military traction engines.[33]:119 Early 20th century[edit] 3e régiment du génie (French Wikipedia), The 3rd French Regiment of Pioneers are building a Pontoon Bridge over the river Ourthe in Chênée, Belgium in the 1930s. The British Blood Pontoon MkII, which took the original and cut it into two halves, was still in use with the British Army in 1924.[30] The First World War saw developments on "trestles" to form the link between a river bank and the pontoon bridge. Some infantry bridges in WW1 used any material available, including petrol cans as flotation devices.[30] The Kapok Assault Bridge for infantry was developed for the British Army, using kapok filled canvas float and timber foot walks. America created their own version.[30] Folding Boat Equipment was developed in 1928 and went through several versions until it was used in WW2 to complement the Bailey Pontoon. It had a continuous canvas hinge and could fold flat for storage and transportation. When assembled it could carry 15 men and with two boats and some additional toppings it could transport a 3-ton truck. Further upgrades during WW2 resulted in it moving to a Class 9 bridge.[30] World War II[edit] Pontoon bridges were used extensively during World War II, mainly in the European Theater of Operations. The United States was the principal user, with Britain next. United States[edit] In the United States, combat engineers were responsible for bridge deployment and construction. These were formed principally into Engineer Combat Battalions, which had a wide range of duties beyond bridging, and specialized units, including Light Ponton Bridge Companies, Heavy Ponton Bridge Battalions, and Engineer Treadway Bridge Companies; any of these could be organically attached to infantry units or directly at the divisional, corps, or army level.[citation needed] American Engineers built three types of floating bridges: M1938 infantry footbridges, M1938 ponton bridges, and M1940 treadway bridges, with numerous subvariants of each. These were designed to carry troops and vehicles of varying weight, using either an inflatable pneumatic ponton or a solid aluminum-alloy ponton bridge.[5] Both types of bridges were supported by pontons (known today as "pontoons") fitted with a deck built of balk, which were square, hollow aluminum beams.[36] American Light Ponton Bridge Company Main article: Engineer Light Ponton Company An Engineer Light Ponton Company consisted of three platoons: two bridge platoons, each equipped with one unit of M3 pneumatic bridge, and a lightly equipped platoon which had one unit of footbridge and equipment for ferrying.[37] The bridge platoons were equipped with the M3 pneumatic bridge, which was constructed of heavy inflatable pneumatic floats and could handle up to 10 short tons (9.1 t); this was suitable for all normal infantry division loads without reinforcement, greater with. American Heavy Ponton Bridge Battalion A Heavy Ponton Bridge Battalion was provided with equipage required to provide stream crossing for heavy military vehicles that could not be supported by a light ponton bridge. The Battalion had two lettered companies of two bridge platoons each. Each platoon was equipped with one unit of heavy ponton equipage. The battalion was an organic unit of army and higher echelons. The M1940 could carry up to 25 short tons (23 t).[37][38] The M1 Treadway Bridge could support up to 20 short tons (18 t). The roadway, made of steel, could carry up to 50 short tons (45 t), while the center section made of 4 inches (100 mm) thick plywood could carry up to 30 short tons (27 t). The wider, heavier tanks used the outside steel treadway while the narrower, lighter jeeps and trucks drove across the bridge with one wheel in the steel treadway and the other on the plywood.[39][40] American Engineer Treadway Bridge Company An Engineer Treadway Bridge Company consisted of company headquarters and two bridge platoons. It was an organic unit of the armored force, and normally was attached to an Armored Engineer Battalion. Each bridge platoon transported one unit of steel treadway bridge equipage for construction of ferries and bridges in river-crossing operations of the armored division.[37] Stream-crossing equipment included utility powerboats, pneumatic floats, and two units of steel treadway bridge equipment, each of which allowed the engineers to build a floating bridge about 540 feet (160 m) in length.[37] Materials and equipment Pneumatic ponton The United States Army Corps of Engineers designed a self-contained bridge transportation and erection system. The Brockway model B666 6 short tons (5.4 t) 6x6 truck chassis (also built under license by Corbitt and White) was used to transport both the bridge's steel and rubber components. A single Brockway truck could carry material for 30 feet (9.1 m) of bridge, including two pontons, two steel saddles that were attached to the pontons, and four treadway sections.[41] Each treadway was 15 feet (4.6 m) long with high guardrails on either side of the 2 feet (0.61 m) wide track.[41] The truck was mounted with a 4 short tons (3.6 t) hydraulic crane that was used to unload the 45 inches (110 cm) wide steel treadways. A custom designed twin boom arm was attached to rear of the truck bed and helped unroll and place the heavy inflatable rubber pontoons upon which the bridge was laid. The 220 inches (560 cm) wheelbase chassis included a 25,000 pounds (11,000 kg) front winch and extra-large air-brake tanks that also served to inflate the rubber pontoons before they were placed in the water.[42] A pneumatic float was made of rubberized fabric separated by bulkheads into 12 airtight compartments and inflated with air.[43] The pneumatic float consisted of an outer perimeter tube, a floor, and a removable center tube. The 18 short tons (16 t) capacity float was 8 feet 3 inches (2.51 m) wide, 33 feet (10 m) long, 2 feet 9 inches (0.84 m) deep.[44] Solid ponton Solid aluminum-alloy pontons were used in place of pneumatic floats to support heavier bridges and loads.[36] They were also pressed into service for lighter loads as needed. Treadway A treadway bridge was a multi-section, prefabricated floating steel bridge supported by pontoons carrying two metal tracks (or "tread ways") forming a roadway. Depending on its weight class, the treadway bridge was supported either by heavy inflatable pneumatic pontons or by aluminum-alloy half-pontons. The aluminum half-pontons were 29 feet 7 inches (9.02 m) long overall, 6 feet 11 inches (2.11 m) wide at the gunwales, and 3 feet 4 inches (1.02 m) deep except at the bow where the gunwale was raised. The gunwales were 6 feet 8 inches (2.03 m) center-to-center. At 6 inches (150 mm) freeboard, the half-ponton has a displacement of 26,500 pounds (12,000 kg). The sides and bow of the half-ponton sloped inward, permitting two or more to be nested for transporting or storing.[45] A treadway bridge could be built of floating spans or fixed spans.[46] An M2 treadway bridge was designed to carry artillery, heavy duty trucks, and medium tanks up to 40 short tons (36 t).[38] This could be of any length, and was what was used over major river obstacles such as the Rhine and Moselle. Doctrine stated that it would take 5 1/2 hours to place a 362-foot section of M2 treadway during daylight and 7 1/2 hours at night. Pergrin says that in practise 50 ft/hour of treadway construction was expected, which is a little slower than the speed specified by doctrine.[47] By 1943, combat engineers faced the need for bridges to bear weights of 35 tons or more. To increase weight bearing capacity, they used bigger floats to add buoyancy. This overcame the capacity limitation, but the larger floats were both more difficult to transport to the crossing site and requiring more and larger trucks in the divisional and corps trains.[48] Britain[edit] A Whale floating roadway leading to a Spud pier at Mulberry A off Omaha Beach Donald Bailey invented the Bailey bridge, which was made up of modular, pre-fabricated steel trusses capable of carrying up to 40 short tons (36 t) over spans up to 180 feet (55 m). While typically constructed point-to-point over piers, they could be supported by pontoons as well.[47] The Bailey bridge was used for the first time in 1942. The first version put into service was a Bailey Pontoon and Raft with a 30 feet (9.1 m) single-single Bailey bay supported on two pontoons. A key feature of the Bailey Pontoon was the use of a single span from the bank to the bridge level which eliminated the need for bridge trestles.[30] For lighter vehicle bridges the Folding Boat Equipment could be used and the Kapok Assault Bridge was available for infantry.[30] An open sea type of pontoon, another British war time invention, known by their code names, the Mulberry harbours floated across the English Channel to provide harbours for the June 1944 Allied invasion of Normandy. The dock piers were code named "Whale". These piers were the floating roadways that connected the "Spud" pier heads to the land. These pier heads or landing wharves, at which ships were unloaded each consisted of a pontoon with four legs that rested on the sea bed to anchor the pontoon, yet allowed it to float up and down freely with the tide. "Beetles" were pontoons that supported the "Whale" piers. They were moored in position using wires attached to "Kite" anchors which were also designed by Allan Beckett. These anchors had a high holding power[49] as was demonstrated in D+13 Normandy storm where the British Mulberry survived most of the storm damage whereas the American Mulberry, which only had 20% of its Kite Anchors deployed, was destroyed. Gallery[edit] Pontoon bridges during World War II Smaller, lighter pneumatic pontons piggy-backed upon large aluminum heavy pontons for combined transport Pneumatic pontons support a treadway bridge Pneumatic pontons being carried by heavy 6×6 transports Heavy ponton bridge supported by large aluminum pontons Treadway bridge atop pneumatic pontons Infantry support bridge supported by light aluminum pontoons Treadway being installed using truck mounted crane Infantry footbridge supported by pontons Treadway style infantry support bridge built on light aluminum pontons M2 Treadway bridge supported by pneumatic floats British troops crossing the Seine at Vernon, France on 28 August 1944 Heavy ponton bridge Bailey bridge supported by pontoons German pioneers construct a pontoon bridge across the Dnieper during the battle of Kiev, September 1941 German engineers building a pontoon bridge across the Prut River during the advance towards Uman, July 1941 Modern military uses[edit] M4T6 pontoon bridge 1983 Pontoon bridges were extensively used by both armies and civilians throughout the latter half of the 20th century. From the Post-War period into the early 1980s the U.S. Army and its NATO and other allies employed three main types of pontoon bridge/raft. The M4 bridge featured a lightweight aluminum balk deck supported by rigid aluminum hull pontoons. The M4T6 bridge used the same aluminum balk deck of the M4, but supported instead by inflatable rubber pontoons. The Class 60 bridge consisted of a more robust steel girder and grid deck supported by inflatable rubber pontoons. All three pontoon bridge types were cumbersome to transport and deploy, and slow to assemble, encouraging the development of an easier to transport, deploy and assemble floating bridge. Amphibious Float Bridges[edit] EWK-Gillois amphibious bridging vehicle German M3 amphibious bridging vehicles 2015 Mobile Floating Assault Bridge-Ferry 1980 Several alternatives featured a self-propelled amphibious integrated transporter, floating pontoon, bridge deck section that could be delivered and assembled in the water under its own power, linking as many units as required to bridge a gap or form a raft ferry. An early example was the Engin de Franchissement de l’Avant EFA (mobile bridge) amphibious forward crossing apparatus conceived by French General Jean Gillois in 1955. The system consisted of a wheeled amphibious truck equipped with inflatable outboard flotation sponsons and a rotating vehicle bridge deck section. The system was developed by the West German firm Eisenwerke-Kaiserslauter (EWK) and entered production by the French-German consortium Pontesa. The EFA system was first deployed by the French Army in 1965, and subsequently by the West German Bundeswehr, British Army, and on a very limited basis by the U.S. Army, where it was referred to as Amphibious River Crossing Equipment (ARCE). Production ended in 1973. The EFA was used in combat by the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), which employed former U.S. Army equipment to cross the Suez Canal in their counterattack into Egypt during the Yom Kippur War of 1973. Mobile Floating Assault Bridge 1982 EWK further developed the EFA system into the M2 "Alligator" Amphibious Bridging Vehicle equipped with fold-out aluminum flotation pontoons, which was produced from 1967 to 1970 and sold to the West German, British and Singapore militaries. The M2 was followed by the revised M3 version, entering service in 1996 with Germany, Britain, Taiwan and Singapore. The M3 was used in combat by British Forces during the Iraq War. More recently, Turkey has developed a similar system in the FNSS Samur wheeled amphibious assault bridge, while the Russian PMM-2 and Chinese GZM003 armoured amphibious assault bridge ride on tracks. A similar amphibious system, the Mobile Floating Assault Bridge-Ferry (MFAB-F) was developed in the U.S. by Chrysler between 1959 and 1962. As with the French EFA, the MFAB-F consisted of an amphibious truck with a rotating bridge deck section, but there were no outboard flotation sponsons. The MFAB-F was first deployed by the U.S. Army in 1964 and later by Belgium. An improved version was produced by FMC from 1970 to 1976. The MFAB-F remained in service into the early 1980s before being replaced by a simpler continuous pontoon or "ribbon bridge" system. Ribbon Float Bridges[edit] PMP Folding Float Bridge 1996 In the early Cold War period the Soviet Red Army began development of a new kind of continuous pontoon bridge made up of short folding sections or bays that could be transported and deployed rapidly, automatically unfold in the water, and quickly be assembled into a floating bridge of variable length. Known as the PMP Folding Float Bridge, it was first deployed in 1962 and subsequently adopted by Warsaw Pact countries and other states employing Soviet military equipment. The PMP proved its viability in combat when it was used by Egyptian forces to cross the Suez Canal in 1973. Operation Badr, which opened the Yom Kippur War between Egypt and Israel, involved the erection of at least 10 pontoon bridges to cross the Canal.[50] Standard Ribbon Bridge 2004 Beginning in 1969 the U.S. Army Mobility Equipment Research and Development Command (MERADCOM) reverse-engineered the Russian PMP design to develop the Improved Float Bridge (IFB), later known as the Standard Ribbon Bridge (SRB). The IFB/SRB was type classified in 1972 and first deployed in service in 1976. It was very similar to the PMP but was constructed of lightweight aluminium instead of heavier steel. In 1977 the West German Bundeswehr decided to adopt the SRB with some modifications and improvements, entering service in 1979 as the Faltschwimmbrücke, or Foldable Floating Bridge (FSB). Work on designing an improved version of the U.S. SRB incorporating features of the German FSB began in the 1990s, with first deployment by the U.S. Army in the early 2000s as the Improved Ribbon Bridge (IRB). In addition to the U.S. and Germany, the IFB/SRB/FSB/IRB has been adopted by the Armed Forces of Australia, Brazil, Canada, the Netherlands, Portugal, South Korea and Sweden, among others. Yugoslav wars[edit] During the Yugoslav wars of the 1990s, the Maslenica Bridge was destroyed and a short pontoon bridge was built by Croatian civilian and military authorities in July 1993 over a narrow sea outlet in the town of Maslenica, after the territory was retaken from Serbian Krajina. Between 1993 and 1995 the pontoon served as one of the two operational land links toward Dalmatia and Croat- and Bosnian Muslim-held areas of Bosnia-Herzegovina that did not go through Serb-held territory.[51] In 1995 the 502nd and 38th Engineer Companies of the U.S. Army's 130th Engineer Brigade, and the 586th Engineer Company from Ft. Benning GA, operating as part of IFOR assembled a Standard Ribbon Bridge under adverse weather conditions across the Sava River near Županja (between Croatia and Bosnia), with a total length of 2,034 feet (620 m). It was dismantled in 1996.[citation needed] Iran-Iraq war[edit] Numerous Pontoon Bridges were constructed by the Iranians and Iraqis to cross the various rivers and marshes alongside the Iraqi border. Notable instances include one constructed over the Karkeh river to ambush Iraqi Armor during Operation Nasr, and another where they crossed certain marshes during Operation Dawn 8. They were extremely prominent due to their use in allowing for tanks and transports to cross rivers. Invasion of Iraq[edit] Play media Improved Ribbon Bridge built by 341st Engineer General Service Regiment at Drawsko Pomorskie training area, June 11, 2018. The United States Army's 299th Multi-role Bridge Company, USAR deployed a Standard Ribbon Bridge across the Euphrates River at Objective Peach near Al Musayib on the night of 3 April 2003. The 185-meter bridge was built to support retrograde operations because of the heavy-armor traffic crossing a partially destroyed adjacent highway span.[52] "By dawn on 4 April 2003, the 299th Engineer Company had emplaced a 185-meter long Assault Float Bridge—the first time in history that a bridge of its type was built in combat."[53] This took place during the 2003 invasion of Iraq by American and British forces. That same night, the 299th also constructed a 40-metre (130 ft) single-story Medium Girder Bridge to patch the damage done to the highway span. The 299th was part of the U.S. Army's 3rd Infantry Division as they crossed the border into Iraq on 20 March 2003. Permanent pontoon bridges in civilian use[edit] This design for bridges is also used for permanent bridges designed for highway traffic, pedestrian traffic and bicycles, with sections for boats to ply the lake or river being crossed. Seattle has several permanent pontoon bridges.[54] Seattle in the US and Kelowna in British Columbia, Canada are two places with permanent pontoon bridges, see William R. Bennett Bridge in British Columbia and these in Seattle: Lacey V. Murrow Memorial Bridge, Evergreen Point Floating Bridge and Homer M. Hadley Memorial Bridge. Failures and disasters[edit] The Saint Isaac's Bridge across the Neva River in Saint Petersburg suffered two disasters, one natural, a gale in 1733, and then a fire in 1916. Floating bridges can be vulnerable to inclement weather, especially strong winds. The U.S. state of Washington is home to some of the longest permanent floating bridges in the world, and two of these failed in part due to strong winds.[55] In 1979, the longest floating bridge crossing salt water, the Hood Canal Bridge, was subjected to winds of 80 miles per hour (130 km/h), gusting up to 120 miles per hour (190 km/h). Waves of 10–15 feet (3.0–4.6 m) battered the sides of the bridge, and within a few hours the western 3⁄4 mile (1.2 km) of the structure had sunk.[56] It has since been rebuilt. In 1990, the 1940 Lacey V. Murrow Memorial Bridge was closed for renovations. Specifically, the sidewalks were being removed to widen the traffic lanes to the standards mandated by the Interstate Highway System. Engineers realized that jackhammers could not be employed to remove the sidewalks without risking compromising the structural integrity of the entire bridge. As such, a unique process called hydrodemolition was employed, in which powerful jets of water are used to blast away concrete, bit by bit. The water used in this process was temporarily stored in the hollow chambers in the pontoons of the bridge in order to prevent it from contaminating the lake. During a week of rain and strong winds, the watertight doors were not closed and the pontoons filled with water from the storm, in addition to the water from the hydrodemolition. The inundated bridge broke apart and sank.[56] The bridge was rebuilt in 1993. A minor disaster occurs if anchors or connections between the pontoon bridge segments fail. This may happen because of overloading, extreme weather or flood. The bridge disintegrates and parts of it start to float away. Many cases are known. When the Lacey V. Murrow Memorial Bridge sank, it severed the anchor cables of the bridge parallel to it. A powerful tugboat pulled on that bridge against the wind during a subsequent storm, and prevented further damage.[57] See also[edit] Floating dock List of pontoon bridges Mabey Logistic Support Bridge bailey type bridge that can be made into a multi-span bridge on pontoons Military bridges Medium Girder Bridge for another bridge type with mobile military application. Mulberry Harbour – as used at D-Day Okanagan Lake Bridge William R. Bennett Bridge 549th Engineer Light Ponton Company Vlotbrug, a design of retractable pontoon bridge specific to the Netherlands Notes[edit] ^ Beck, Alfred M., et al., The Corps of Engineers: The War Against Germany, Center of Military History (U.S. Army), 1985. The bridge was built by the 85th Engineer Heavy Combat Battalion on March 26, 1945, 200 feet downstream from the demolished Ernst Ludwig highway bridge. It was named the Alexander Patch Bridge after the Seventh Army commander, General Alexander Patch. A stone tower of the former bridge is visible on the opposite bank. ^ "UK Military Bridging – Floating Equipment". Retrieved 6 December 2014. ^ Organization of the Bridge Equipage of the United States Army: With Directions for the Construction of Military Bridges. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1870. p. 60. ^ US patent 1115674, Sylvester N. Stewart, "Ponton-bridge", issued 1890-July-23  ^ a b Anderson, Rich. "U.S. Army in World War II Engineers and Logistics". Retrieved 6 December 2014. ^ US patent 407422, Sylvester N. Stewart, "Ponton-bridge"  ^ "The Military Engineer". 12–13. Society of American Military Engineers. 1920. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ "Pneumatic Ponton Bridge M3". Washington, D.C. UNT Digital Library: United States War Department. Retrieved February 8, 2015. ^ United States Joint Task Force One (1946). Operation Crossroads, the Official Pictorial Record. New York: W.H. Wise & Co., Inc. p. 49. ^ "pontoon (n.)". Etymonline. ^ "Archimedes' Principle". ^ "Making the Critical Connections". ^ de Tousard, Louis. American Artillerist's Companion: Or Elements of Artillery. Treating of All ... p. 424. ^ "Floating Trail Bridges and Docks" (PDF). ^ "Historic Hobart floating bridge declared National Engineering Heritage Landmark". ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 160. ^ Graff, 87. ^ Brook, 38. ^ "The history of Herodotus — Volume 2 by Herodotus - Project Gutenberg". Gutenberg.org. 2001-01-01. Retrieved 2010-09-02. ^ Hale, John R. (2010). Lords of the sea : the epic story of the Athenian navy and the birth of democracy. New York: Viking Penguin. p. 188. ISBN 9780143117681. OCLC 276819722. ^ "Digital | Attic - Warfare : De Re Militari Book III: Dispositions for Action". Pvv.ntnu.no. Archived from the original on 2005-12-24. Retrieved 2010-09-02. ^ Per Hoffmann, The Medieval Fleet Archived May 24, 2008, at the Wayback Machine ^ a b c Petersen 2013, p. 280. ^ Bowlus 1995, p. 56. ^ Petersen 2013, p. 749. ^ a b Bachrach 2014, p. 218. ^ Barros Arana, Diego. "Capítulo XIV". Historia general de Chile (in Spanish). Tomo cuarto (Digital edition based on the second edition of 2000 ed.). Alicante: Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes. p. 347. ^ Pinochet Ugarte, Augusto; Villaroel Carmona, Rafael; Lepe Orellana, Jaime; Fuente-Alba Poblete, J. Miguel; Fuenzalida Helms, Eduardo (1997). Historia militar de Chile (in Spanish) (3rd ed.). Biblioteca Militar. p. 79. ^ Porter, Maj Gen Whitworth (1889). History of the Corps of Royal Engineers Vol I. Chatham: The Institution of Royal Engineers. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "UK Military Bridging – Floating Equipment". thinkdefence.co.uk. ^ "CW Pasley & T Blanshard article". Army and Navy Chronicle. p. Volumes 3 No 18 page 273. ^ "CW Pasley letter dated 28 June 1836". Army and Navy Chronicle. p. Volumes 3 No 18 page 274. ^ a b c d Porter, Maj Gen Whitworth (1889). History of the Corps of Royal Engineers Vol II. Chatham: The Institution of Royal Engineers. ^ a b "Civil War Pontoon Bridges". ^ Hegeman, J. "The Bridge That Floats", Trains and Travel magazine, January 1952 ^ a b "M4T6 Floating Bridges And Rafts". Military Float Bridging Equipment (Training Circular No. 5-210 ed.). 27 December 1988. Archived from the original on 27 April 2015. Retrieved 8 December 2014. ^ a b c d Engineer Field Manual FM 5-5 ^ a b "What They Did: Building Bridges and Roads". WW II 300th Combat Engineers. Retrieved 6 December 2014. ^ Beck, Alfred M. (Dec 31, 1985). The Corps of Engineers-The Technical Services: The War Against Germany (United States Army in World War II). Center for Military History. p. 293. ISBN 978-0160019388. ^ Roe, Pat. "General O. P Smith Interview". Chosin Reservoir Korea November - December 1950. ^ a b O'Brine, Jack (December 1943). "Combat Engineers Take a River in Their Stride". Popular Mechanics. Retrieved 18 December 2014. ^ "The Right Way, a History of Brockway Trucks". Retrieved 8 December 2014. ^ U.S. Army Explosives and Demolitions Handbook Department of the Army ^ Wong, John B. (2004). Battle Bridges: Combat River Crossings: World War II. Victoria, B.C.: Trafford. ISBN 9781412020671. Retrieved 8 December 2014. ^ Bridge Floating M4. United States Army. 1954. Retrieved December 7, 2014. ^ "treadway bridge". Merriam Webster. Retrieved 6 December 2014. ^ a b "Battlefront WWII Some Facts about Bridging operations". Retrieved 28 March 2015. ^ "Treadway Bridge". Retrieved December 7, 2014. ^ "Development of the Kite Anchor for Mulberry Harbour". Archived from the original on 2015-09-23. ^ George W. Gawrych (1992). "Combined Arms in battle since 1939: Combat Engineering". U.S. Army Command and General Staff College. Archived from the original on 13 October 2009. Retrieved 11 April 2009. ^ ASP scripting: Drago Kelemen, dkelemen@.morh.hr. "Article on the 16th anniversary of Operation Maslenica". Hrvatski-vojnik.hr. Archived from the original on 2014-08-19. Retrieved 2014-08-17. ^ Pike, John. "On Point - The United States Army in Operation Iraqi Freedom". globalsecurity.org. ^ "OBJECTIVE PEACH NARRATIVE CPT Steven J. Thompson, Commander, 299th Engineer Company (MRB)". ^ Conroy, Bill (June 2019). "The Lake Washington Floating Bridge Connects Seattle's History to the Road Ahead". Seattle Business. Retrieved November 24, 2020. ^ Gutierrez, Scott (February 29, 2012). "Washington: Floating bridge capitol of the world". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. Retrieved July 23, 2015. ^ a b "Pontoon Bridges". Inland Marine Underwriters Association. 1993. ^ Davies, John (December 3, 1990). "Tug Fleet Continues to Keep Seattle Bridge in Place". The Journal of Commerce. Retrieved August 5, 2017. References[edit] Bachrach, D. (2014). Warfare in Tenth-Century Germany. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. ISBN 978-1843839279. Bowlus, C. (1995). Franks, Moravians, and Magyars: The Struggle for the Middle Danube, 788-907. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 9780812232769. Brook, Timothy. (1998). The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22154-0 Graff, David Andrew and Robin Higham (2002). A Military History of China. Boulder: Westview Press. Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Petersen, L. (2013). Siege Warfare and Military Organization in the Successor States (400-800 A.D.). Leiden: Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-9004251991. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pontoon bridge. "Combat Engineers Take a River In Their Stride" , December 1943, Popular Mechanics detailed World War Two article with rare photos of setting up of a pontoon bridge Wilson, James Harrison (1879). "Bridge, Military" . 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en-wikipedia-org-9423	----	Atropates - Wikipedia Atropates From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Painting of Atropates meeting with Alexander the Great. National Museum of History of Azerbaijan Atropates (Greek Aτρoπάτης, from Old Persian Aturpat "guardian of fire";[1] c. 370 BC – after 321 BC) was a Persian[2] nobleman who served Darius III, then Alexander the Great, and eventually founded an independent kingdom and dynasty that was named after him. Diodorus (18.4) refers to him as 'Atrapes', while Quintus Curtius (8.3.17) erroneously names him 'Arsaces'. Contents 1 Biography 2 Legacy 3 References 4 Bibliography 4.1 Ancient works 4.2 Modern works Biography[edit] Towards the end of the Achaemenid Empire, Atropates was governor (satrap) of the Achaemenid province of Media. In the decisive Battle of Gaugamela (October 331 BCE) between Darius and Alexander, Atropates commanded the Achaemenid troops of Media and Sacasene. Atropates was allocated the Hellenistic satrapy of Media, in the Partition of Babylon (323 BC) following Alexander's death. Following his defeat in that battle, Darius fled to the Median capital of Ecbatana, where Atropates gave him hospitality. Darius attempted to raise a new army but was forced to flee Ecbatana in June 330 BCE. After Darius' death a month later at the hands of Bessus, Atropates surrendered to Alexander.[1] Alexander initially chose Oxydates as satrap of Media, but in 328-327 BCE after a period of two years Alexander lost trust in Oxydates' loyalty, and Atropates was reinstated to his old position.[3] In 325-324, Atropates delivered Baryaxes (a sought-after rebel of the region) to Alexander while the latter was at Pasargadae. Alexander's esteem for the governor rose so high that soon afterwards Atropates' daughter was married to Alexander's confidant and cavalry commander Perdiccas at the famous mass wedding at Susa in February 324 BCE.[1] Later that year, Alexander visited Atropates in Ecbatana with his good friend and second-in-command Hephaestion, who fell ill and died in October 324 BCE. At this time, "[i]t was related by some authors, that Atropates on one occasion presented Alexander with a hundred women, said to be Amazons; but Arrian ([Anabasis] vii. 13) disbelieved the story."[4] Alexander himself died eight months later on June 10, 323 BCE, and Atropates' new son-in-law Perdiccas was named regent of Alexander's half-brother Philip III. Following the "Partition of Babylon" in 323 BCE, Media was divided into two parts: the greater portion in the south-east was to be governed by Peithon, a general of Perdiccas, while a smaller portion in the north west (principally around the Araxes River basin) was given to Atropates. At some point thereafter, Atropates refused to convey allegiance to the diadochi and made his part of Media an independent kingdom, while his son-in-law Perdiccas was eventually murdered by Peithon in the summer of 320 BCE. Legacy[edit] The dynasty Atropates founded would rule the kingdom for several centuries, at first either independently or as vassals of the Seleucids, then as vassals of the Arsacids, into whose house they are said[5] to have married. They became, however, the new House of Parthia through the marriage of the Arsacid heiress to the Atropatenid heir. The region that encompassed Atropates' kingdom come to be known to the Greeks as "Media Atropatene" after Atropates, and eventually simply "Atropatene". The Arsacids called it 'Aturpatakan' in Parthian, as did also the Sassanids who eventually succeeded them. Eventually Middle Iranian 'Aturpatakan' became 'Azerbaijan', whence, according to one etymological theory,[5][6] the modern nation of Azerbaijan and the Iranian province of Azerbaijan (which province is largely contiguous with the borders of ancient Atropatene) got their names; another theory traces the etymology from the ancient Persian words "Āzar" (Persian: آذر‎), meaning Fire, and "Pāyegān" (Persian: پایگان‎) meaning Guardian/Protector.[7] References[edit] ^ a b c Chaumont 1987, pp. 17–18. ^ Fredricksmeyer 2002, p. 92; Schippmann 1987, pp. 221–224; Roisman 2002, p. 187 ^ Roisman 2002, p. 189. ^ Smith, William, ed. (1867), "Atropates", Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, Boston ^ a b Schippmann 1987, pp. 221–224. ^ Houtsma, M. Th. (1993). First Encyclopaedia of Islam 1913–1936 (reprint ed.). BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-09796-4. ^ de Planhol 1987, pp. 205–215. Bibliography[edit] Ancient works[edit] Justin, Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus. Strabo, Geographica. Modern works[edit] Boyce, Mary (2000). "Ganzak". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. X, Fasc. 3. pp. 289–290. Chaumont, M. L. (1987). "Atropates". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. III, Fasc. 1. pp. 17–18. Fredricksmeyer, Ernst (2002). Bosworth, A. B.; Baynham, E. J. (eds.). Alexander the Great and the Kingship of Asia. Alexander the Great in Fact and Fiction: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–370. ISBN 9780199252756. de Planhol, X. (1987). "Azerbaijan i. Geography". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. III, Fasc. 2. pp. 205–215. Schippmann, K. (1987). "Azerbaijan iii. Pre-Islamic History". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. III, Fasc. 2. pp. 221–224. Roisman, Joseph (2002). Brill's Companion to Alexander the Great. London and New York: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 1–436. ISBN 9789004217553. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC v t e Hellenistic satraps Satraps under Alexander the Great (334-323 BC) Ada (Queen of Caria) Asander, Menander (Lydia) Calas, Demarchus (Hellespontine Phrygia) Antigonus (Greater Phrygia) Balakros, Menes (Cilicia) Abistamenes (Cappadocia) Abdalonymus (Sidon) Mithrenes (Armenia) Mazaeus, Stamenes (Babylon) Mazakes (Mesopotamia) Abulites (Susiana) Oxydates, Atropates (Media) Phrasaortes, Oxines, Peucestas (Persis) Cleomenes of Naucratis (Egypt) Satibarzanes (Aria) Sibyrtius (Carmania) Autophradates (Tapuri, Mardi) Andragoras (Parthia) Amminapes, Phrataphernes, Pharismanes (Hyrcania and Parthia) Artabazos, Cleitus the Black, Amyntas (Bactria) Oxyartes (Paropamisia) Philip, Eudemus (India) Peithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara) Taxiles (Punjab) Porus (Indus) Satraps at the Partition of Babylon (323 BC) Antipater (Macedon and Greece) Philo (Illyria) Lysimachus (Thrace) Leonnatus (Hellespontine Phrygia) Antigonus (Phrygia) Asander (Caria) Nearchus (Lycia and Pamphylia) Menander (Lydia) Philotas (Cilicia) Eumenes (Cappadocia and Paphlagonia) Ptolemy (Egypt) Laomedon of Mytilene (Syria) Neoptolemus (Armenia) Peucestas (Persis) Arcesilaus (Mesopotamia) Peithon (Greater Media) Atropates (Lesser Media) Scynus (Susiana) Tlepolemus (Persia) Nicanor (Parthia) Phrataphernes (Armenia, Parthia) Antigenes (Susiana) Archon (Pelasgia) Philip (Hyrcania) Stasanor (Aria and Drangiana) Sibyrtius (Arachosia and Gedrosia) Amyntas (Bactria) Scythaeus (Sogdiana) Oxyartes (Paropamisia) Taxiles (Punjab) Peithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara) Porus (Indus) Satraps at the Partition of Triparadisus (321 BC) Antipater (Macedon and Greece) Lysimachus (Thrace) Arrhidaeus (Hellespontine Phrygia) Antigonus (Phrygia, Lycia and Pamphylia) Cassander (Caria) Cleitus the White (Lydia) Philoxenus (Cilicia) Nicanor (Cappadocia and Paphlagonia) Ptolemy (Egypt) Laomedon of Mytilene (Syria) Peucestas (Persis) Amphimachus (Mesopotamia) Peithon (Media) Tlepolemus (Carmania) Philip (Parthia) Antigenes (Susiana) Seleucus (Babylonia) Stasanor (Bactria and Sogdiana) Stasander (Aria and Drangiana) Sibyrtius (Arachosia and Gedrosia) Oxyartes (Paropamisia) Taxiles (Punjab) Peithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara) Porus (Indus) Later Satraps Peithon, son of Agenor (Babylon) Sibyrtius (Arachosia, Drangiana) Eudemus (Indus) Bagadates, Ardakhshir I, Wahbarz, Vadfradad I, Vadfradad II, Alexander c.220 BC (Persis) Andragoras (Parthia) Demodamas (Bactria, Sogdiana) Diodotus (Bactria) Alexander (Lydia) Molon c.220 BC, Timarchus, c.175 BC (Media) Apollodorus (Susiana) Ptolemaeus (Commagene) Noumenios, Hyspaosines c.150 BC (Characene) Hellenistic satraps were preceded by Achaemenid rulers, and followed or ruled by Hellenistic rulers Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atropates&oldid=993602005" Categories: Satraps of the Alexandrian Empire Achaemenid satraps of Media Rulers of Media Atropatene 4th-century BC rulers Ancient Persian people 4th-century BC Iranian people Darius III Atropatene Hidden categories: Articles containing Persian-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Galego Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa 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en-wikipedia-org-9432	----	Category:Pharaohs of the Achaemenid dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Help Category:Pharaohs of the Achaemenid dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Asia portal Pharaohs−kings of Achaemenid dynasty of Egypt (6th−4th centuries BCE) — from the Persian Achaemenid Dynasty ruling over Ancient Egypt. Subcategories This category has the following 5 subcategories, out of 5 total. A ► Artaxerxes I of Persia‎ (6 P) D ► Darius the Great‎ (4 C, 21 P) ► Darius II‎ (5 P) ► Darius III‎ (19 P) X ► Xerxes I‎ (1 C, 14 P) Pages in category "Pharaohs of the Achaemenid dynasty of Egypt" The following 10 pages are in this category, out of 10 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). A Arses of Persia Artaxerxes I Artaxerxes III B Bardiya C Cambyses II D Darius II Darius III S Sogdianus X Xerxes I Xerxes II Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Pharaohs_of_the_Achaemenid_dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=925619045" Categories: Pharaohs Achaemenid Egypt Kings of the Achaemenid Empire 6th-century BC rulers 5th-century BC rulers 4th-century BC rulers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Български فارسی 한국어 Македонски Polski Slovenščina ไทย اردو Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 11 November 2019, at 07:16 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9434	----	Template:Achaemenid rulers - Wikipedia Template:Achaemenid rulers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Initial visibility: currently defaults to autocollapse To set this template's initial visibility, the |state= parameter may be used: |state=collapsed: {{Achaemenid rulers|state=collapsed}} to show the template collapsed, i.e., hidden apart from its title bar |state=expanded: {{Achaemenid rulers|state=expanded}} to show the template expanded, i.e., fully visible |state=autocollapse: {{Achaemenid rulers|state=autocollapse}} shows the template collapsed to the title bar if there is a {{navbar}}, a {{sidebar}}, or some other table on the page with the collapsible attribute shows the template in its expanded state if there are no other collapsible items on the page If the |state= parameter in the template on this page is not set, the template's initial visibility is taken from the |default= parameter in the Collapsible option template. For the template on this page, that currently evaluates to autocollapse. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Achaemenid_rulers&oldid=989328017" Categories: Achaemenid Empire templates Ruler navigational boxes Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Iran templates Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Template Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages فارسی Edit links This page was last edited on 18 November 2020, at 10:33 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9435	----	Help:CS1 errors - Wikipedia Help:CS1 errors From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This help page is a how-to guide. It details processes or procedures of some aspect(s) of Wikipedia's norms and practices. It is not one of Wikipedia's policies or guidelines, and may reflect varying levels of consensus and vetting. This page describes the error messages reported by the Citation Style 1 and Citation Style 2 citations, what they mean, and how editors might resolve the errors. Category:CS1 errors is the general errors category and Category:CS1 maintenance is the general maintenance category. Errors issued by Wikipedia's <ref> system, in which citation templates are typically embedded, can be found at Help:Cite errors. Contents 1 Controlling error message display 2 Most common errors 3 |access-date= requires |url= 4 |archive-url= is malformed 5 |archive-url= requires |archive-date= 6 |archive-url= requires |url= 7 |arxiv= required 8 |biorxiv= required 9 |chapter= ignored 10 <char> character in |<param>= at position n 11 Check |arxiv= value 12 Check |asin= value 13 Check |bibcode= <message> 14 Check |biorxiv= value 15 Check |citeseerx= value 16 Check date values in: |<param1>=, |<param2>=, ... 17 Check |doi= value 18 Check |hdl= value 19 Check |isbn= value 20 Check |ismn= value 21 Check |issn= value 22 Check |jfm= value 23 Check |jstor= value 24 Check |lccn= value 25 Check |message-id= value 26 Check |mr= value 27 Check |oclc= value 28 Check |ol= value 29 Check |osti= value 30 Check |<param>-link= value 31 Check |pmc= value 32 Check |pmid= value 33 Check |rfc= value 34 Check |sbn= value 35 Check |ssrn= value 36 Check |s2cid= value 37 Check |url= value 38 Check |zbl= value 39 Cite has empty unknown parameter: <param> 40 Cite <template> requires |<param>= 41 Cite uses deprecated parameter |<param>= 42 Cite uses generic title 43 |citeseerx= required 44 |class= ignored 45 |contributor= ignored 46 |contributor= requires |<param>= 47 |edition= has extra text 48 Empty citation 49 Explicit use of et al. 50 External link in |<param>= 51 |<first>n= missing |<last>n= 52 |format= requires |url= 53 Invalid |display-<names>=<value> 54 Invalid <param>=<value> 55 Invalid |script-<param>=: <type> 56 Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |<param>= 57 Missing |<name>n= 58 Missing or empty |title= 58.1 Bare URL without a title 58.2 Citation without a title of any form 59 Missing or empty |url= 60 Missing pipe 61 More than one of |<param1>=, |<param2>=, and |<param3>= specified 62 |page(s)= has extra text 63 |<param>-access= requires |<param>= 64 |<param>= requires |doi= 65 |ssrn= required 66 Text "????" ignored 67 |trans-<param>= requires |<param>= or |script-<param> 68 Unknown parameter |<param>= ignored 69 URL–wikilink conflict 70 Vancouver style error 71 Notes 72 References Controlling error message display By default, Citation Style 1 and Citation Style 2 error messages are visible to all readers and maintenance category messages are hidden from all readers. To display maintenance messages, include the following text in your common CSS page or your specific skin's CSS page (common.css and skin.css respectively): .mw-parser-output span.cs1-maint {display: inline;} /* display Citation Style 1 maintenance messages */ To display hidden-by-default error messages: .mw-parser-output span.cs1-hidden-error {display: inline;} /* display hidden Citation Style 1 error messages */ Even with this CSS installed, older pages in Wikipedia's cache may not have been updated to show these error messages even though the page is listed in one of the tracking categories. A null edit will resolve that issue. To hide normally-displayed error messages: .mw-parser-output span.cs1-visible-error {display: none;} /* hide Citation Style 1 error messages */ You can personalize the display of these messages (such as changing the color), but you will need to ask someone who knows CSS or at the technical village pump if you do not understand how. Most common errors #Cite <template> requires |<param>=, ~56k pages #Citation without a title of any form, ~40k pages #Bare URL without a title, ~28k pages #Check date values in: |<param1>=, |<param2>=, ..., ~13k pages #External link in |<param>=, ~12k pages #Missing or empty |url=, ~9k pages See also: Category:CS1 errors and Category:CS1 maintenance |access-date= requires |url= Help desk |access-date= requires |url= The |access-date= (or its alias, |accessdate=) is the date that the online resource addressed by |url= was added to the article. If |access-date= has been included in the citation without |url= then this message appears. If the citation does not use a web link, then |access-date= is redundant and should be removed. When the online resource has a publication or other fixed date associated with it, |access-date= is of limited value though may be useful in identifying an appropriate archived version of the resource. Without |url=, |access-date= is not considered useful. 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Some of these are: https://web.archive.org/web/YYYYMMDDhhmmss/http://www.example.com – a single snapshot; this is the preferred form for use with |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.example.com – a wildcard search results page; useful for locating an appropriate snapshot but not appropriate in a citation https://web.archive.org/web/201603/http://www.example.com – incomplete timestamp; archive.org returns the most recent snapshot https://web.archive.org/save/http://www.example.com – saves a new snapshot of the current target; do not use this form There are two forms of the basic URL: https://web.archive.org/<timestamp>/... – the old form https://web.archive.org/web/<timestamp><flags>/... – the new form The error message identifies the reason for the message. 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Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: archive-url.[a] |arxiv= required Help desk |arxiv= required {{cite arXiv}} requires one, but not both, of the identifier parameters |arxiv= or |eprint= to specify an arXiv identifier. To resolve this error, ensure that the template has |arxiv= or |eprint= with a properly constructed value. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: arXiv.[a] |biorxiv= required Help desk |biorxiv= required {{cite bioRxiv}} requires the identifier parameter |biorxiv=. To resolve this error, ensure that the template has |biorxiv= with a properly constructed value. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: bioRxiv.[a] |chapter= ignored Help desk |chapter= ignored Citation Style 1 templates {{cite web}}, {{cite news}}, {{cite journal}}, {{cite press release}}, {{cite podcast}}, {{cite newsgroup}}, as well as template {{citation}} when it uses |work= or any of its aliases, do not support |chapter= or the aliases |contribution=, |entry=, |article=, or |section=. To resolve this error: use a more appropriate citation template, or place the content of the |chapter= parameter in |title=, or for {{cite news}}, |department= can be used to give the name of the newspaper's section, such as "Obituaries", or for {{citation}}, remove |work= or its aliases such as |website= and place their content in |title= if appropriate Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: chapter ignored.[a] <char> character in |<param>= at position n Help desk <char> character in |<param>= at position n This error is reported for citations with parameter values that contain invisible or non-printable characters known as control characters; the error includes the position at which the character can be found. Module:Citation/CS1 detects parameter values that contain any of these characters: non-breaking space, U+00A0 soft hyphen, U+00AD replacement character, U+FFFD hair space, U+200A zero width space, U+200B zero width joiner, U+200D horizontal tab, U+0009 (HT) line feed, U+0010 (LF) carriage return, U+0013 (CR) delete character, U+007F (DEL) C0 control, U+0000–U+001F (NULL–US) C1 control, U+0080–U+009F (XXX–APC) To resolve invisible-character errors, remove or replace the identified character. Because these characters are mostly invisible, the error message identifies the character's position in the parameter value counted from the left. Space characters between the assignment operator (the '=' sign) and the parameter value are not counted. If you move through the citation with the arrow keys then the cursor may stand still once at an invisible character which can be removed with Delete or ← Backspace. If you copy-paste a string to the "Characters" field at https://r12a.github.io/app-conversion/ and click "View in UniView" then the position and name of all characters is shown. <name> stripmarker in |<param>= at position n Strip markers are special sequences of characters that MediaWiki inserts as a place-holder for certain xml-like tags. These tags include <gallery>...</gallery>, <math>...</math>, <nowiki>...</nowiki>, <pre>...</pre>, and <ref>...</ref>. The strip markers are replaced with content before the final page rendering. The module ignores math and nowiki strip markers. To resolve strip marker errors, remove or replace the identified tag. The error message identifies the strip marker's position in the parameter value counted from the left. Space characters between the assignment operator (the '=' sign) and the parameter value are not counted. Strip marker errors can also be caused by unsupported additional text or templates in parameter values—for example, {{ISBN}} in |title=. Resolve the problem by moving the extraneous text outside of the citation template or by removing the extraneous text or template markup, as appropriate. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: invisible characters.[a] Check |arxiv= value Help desk Check |arxiv= value When Citation Style 1 and Citation Style 2 templates contain |arxiv=, a test is done to see if the arXiv identifier conforms with the arXiv identifier scheme.[3] The identifier is checked for a valid number of digits in the article id; valid year and month values; and properly-placed hyphens, slashes, and dots. To resolve this error, ensure that the |arxiv= value is correct. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: arXiv.[a] Check |asin= value Help desk Check |asin= value When Citation Style 1 and Citation Style 2 templates contain |asin=, a test is done to see if the ASIN identifier contains ten upper-case alphanumeric characters without punctuation or spaces and that if the first character is numeric, that the ASIN conforms to the rules for a ten-digit ISBN. To resolve this error, ensure that the |asin= value is correct. If the |asin= value is correct and all-numeric, use |isbn= instead and delete any |asin-tld= parameters. Articles with CS1 citations that use |asin= with all numeric values are categorized in Category:CS1 maint: ASIN uses ISBN. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: ASIN.[a] Check |bibcode= <message> Help desk Check |bibcode= <message> When Citation Style 1 and Citation Style 2 templates contain |bibcode=, a test is done to see if the bibcode identifier has the proper format.[4] Bibcodes are expected to match these requirements: length must be 19 characters (<message> = 'length') characters in position(s): (except as specified otherwise, violations produce 'value' in the <message> portion of the error message): 1–4 must be digits and must represent a year in the range of 1000 – next year (<message> = 'year') 5 must be a letter 6–8 must be a letter, ampersand, or dot (ampersand cannot directly precede a dot; &. (<message> = 'journal')) 9 must be a letter or dot 10–18 must be a letter, digit, or dot 19 must be a letter or dot To resolve this error, ensure that the |bibcode= value is correct. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: bibcode.[a] Check |biorxiv= value Help desk Check |biorxiv= value When Citation Style 1 and Citation Style 2 templates contain |biorxiv=, a test is done to see if the bioRxiv identifier has the proper form. There are two valid forms: six numeric characters without punctuation or spaces. ymd format date prefix followed by six numeric characters without punctuation or spaces followed by optional version: |biorxiv=yyyy.mm.dd.######v# where: yyyy.mm.dd. – represents a date no earlier than 11 December 2019 (2019.12.11.) and no later than tomorrow's date; date must be a valid date ###### – 6-digit bioRxiv identifier v# – optional version indicator A common error is to include the bioRxiv URL (https://dx.doi.org/10.1101/<BIORXIV>), or the biorxiv DOI (10.1101/<BIORXIV>). To resolve this error, ensure that the |biorxiv= value is correct. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: bioRxiv.[a] Check |citeseerx= value Help desk Check |citeseerx= value When Citation Style 1 and Citation Style 2 templates contain |citeseerx=, a test is done to see if the CiteSeerX identifier has the proper format. The expected identifier is the value assigned to the ?doi= query key in the URL of a CiteSeerX document. (This query key should not be confused with a Digital Object Identifier: it should not be input as |doi=.) For instance, if you want to link to http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.220.7880, use |citeseerx=10.1.1.220.7880. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: citeseerx.[a] Check date values in: |<param1>=, |<param2>=, ... Help desk Check date values in: |<param1>=, |<param2>=, ... When Citation Style 1 and Citation Style 2 templates contain date-holding parameters, an automated test is done to see if the dates are real dates that comply with a subset of the date rules in Wikipedia's Manual of Style, specifically checking for violations of MOS:DATEFORMAT. To resolve this error, ensure that the date is an actual date and that the date format follows the Wikipedia Manual of Style's guidance on dates in the named parameter. See examples of unacceptable dates and how to fix them, below. Or, some conceptual issues to look for: impossible dates, such as 29 February 2011 (2011 was not a leap year) |access-date= must specify a day, not just a month or year. misplaced, incorrect, or extraneous punctuation extraneous text hyphens or slashes instead of en dashes in date ranges (en dashes are required) misspelling or improper capitalization (see MOS:ALLCAPS for more detail that is not in Wikipedia Manual of Style's guidance on dates) other unacceptable date formats listed in MOS:BADDATEFORMAT more than one date in a date-holding parameter years before 100 AD, including BCE/BC dates. Try using parameter |orig-date= instead. See Help: Citation Style 1 for information about limitations in the CS1 citation templates' handling of date formats. The MOS section on date ranges describes how to separate dates in a date range. Do not use &nbsp;, &ndash;, or {{spaced ndash}} as these corrupt the metadata. To add an en dash, use the CharInsert edit tool or see Wikipedia:How to make dashes. You may also use this one: –. A bot is often able to correct the separator, provided the overall format is unambiguous. Future dates in |date= in CS1|2 citations are limited to current year + 1; that is, for 2021, citation dates in 2022 are acceptable but citation dates in 2023 and beyond are not. Dates prior to 1582 are treated as Julian calendar dates. Dates from 1582 onward are treated as Gregorian calendar dates. The Julian calendar was used in some places until approximately 1923. Three Julian calendar dates in the overlap period, 29 February in the years 1700, 1800, and 1900, will cause this error message because those years are not leap years in the Gregorian calendar. The access date (in |access-date=) is checked to ensure that it contains a full date (day, month, and year) and is between 15 January 2001 (the founding date of Wikipedia) and today's date plus one day, because it represents the date that an editor viewed a web-based source to verify a statement on Wikipedia. Because editors may be in time zones that are one day ahead of the UTC date, one extra day is accepted. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: dates.[a] Examples of unacceptable dates and how to fix them Issue Unacceptable Acceptable Hyphen in date range (use en dash) |date=2002-2003 |date=2002–2003 Slash in date range (use en dash) |date=2002/2003 or |date=July/August 2003 |date=2002–2003 or |date=July–August 2003 Hyphen in date range (use en dash) |date=April-May 2004 |date=April–May 2004 Missing space around en dash for range of full dates |date=April 2003–May 2004 |date=April 2003 – May 2004 Month capitalization |date=28 february 1900 |date=28 February 1900 Month capitalization |date=28 FEBRUARY 1900 |date=28 February 1900 Season capitalization |date=spring 2011 |date=Spring 2011 Future date (typo) |date=2102 |date=2012 Access date in future (see note above) |access-date=January 27, 2021 |access-date=January 25, 2021 Access date impossibly far in the past (typo) |access-date=1 January 2001 |access-date=1 January 2010 Access date only specifies month |access-date=January 2015 |access-date=12 January 2015 Ambiguous date range or year and month |date=2002-03 |date=2002–2003 |date=March 2002 Bad abbreviation |date=Febr. 28, 1900 |date=Feb 28, 1900 |date=February 28, 1900 Nonexistent date |date=February 29, 1900 Undated |date=Undated |date=n.d. Comma in month and year |date=February, 1900 |date=February 1900 Comma in season |date=Winter, 1900–1901 |date=Winter 1900–1901 Missing comma in format which requires it |date=February 28 1900 |date=February 28, 1900 or |date=28 February 1900 Non-date text |date=2008, originally 2000 |date=2008 |orig-date=2000 Zero-padding |date=January 04, 1987 |date=January 4, 1987 Date with slashes |date=12/6/87 |date=December 6, 1987 |date=12 June 1987 Two-digit year |date=87-12-06 |date=1987-12-06 One-digit month or day |date=2007-3-6 |date=2007-03-06 Wikified date |date=[[April 1]], [[1999]] |date=April 1, 1999 "mm-dd-yyyy" or "dd-mm-yyyy" date format |date=07-12-2009 |date=7 December 2009 or |date=12 July 2009 or |date=July 12, 2009 or |date=December 7, 2009 Approximate or uncertain dates |date=circa 1970 or |date={{circa}} 1970 |date=c. 1970 Check |doi= value Help desk Check |doi= value When Citation Style 1 and Citation Style 2 templates contain |doi=, a test is done to see if the prefix portion of the DOI value is correctly formatted and has what appears to be a valid registrant code. A proper DOI prefix begins with the 10. directory indicator. The remaining portion of the prefix is a string of digits and the dot character which form the registrant code. When the directory indicator is 10., the CS1|2 templates test for a valid registrant code. Valid registrant codes: must be composed of digits must be in the range: 1000–9999 10000–49999 may have one or more subcodes that begin with a dot followed by digits (1000.10) must not be 5555 (invalid/temporary/test) Additionally, the |doi= value is checked to make sure that it does not contain spaces, en dashes, does not end with punctuation. Further validation of the DOI is not performed. Do not include the https://doi.org/ scheme and domain name from a URL. A proper |doi= value looks like |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.80.904. To resolve this error, ensure that the |doi= value is correct. In very rare cases, publishers have released works with a DOI deviating from the standard form. If you are certain that such a non-conforming DOI truly corresponds to the published work, then you can add accept-this-as-written markup around the identifier to suppress the error message. (Do not use this markup for DOIs, which are inactive rather than non-conforming. Instead, use |doi-broken-date= for them.) Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: DOI.[a] Check |hdl= value Help desk Check |hdl= value When Citation Style 1 and Citation Style 2 templates contain |hdl=, a test is done to see if the hdl value looks like a properly defined value. The |hdl= value is checked to make sure that it does not contain spaces or en dashes and does not end with punctuation. Further validation of the hdl is not performed. To resolve this error, ensure that the |hdl= value is correct. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: HDL.[a] Check |isbn= value Help desk Check |isbn= value: <type> Citation Style 1 and Citation Style 2 templates that contain |isbn= are checked to ensure that the ISBN is the proper length (ten or thirteen digits), that the ISBN uses the correct optional separators (simple space or hyphen), and that the final check digit is correct according to the ISBN specification. Only one ISBN is allowed in this field because the whole |isbn= value is included in the citation's COinS metadata. See also Wikipedia:COinS. More than one ISBN, or characters that are not part of the ISBN, corrupt the COinS metadata and may also corrupt the link to Special:BookSources. (If relevant, they can be specified using |id={{ISBN|...}} instead.) The error message <type> indicator can be: length – ISBN is not 10 or 13 digits checksum – ISBN has one or more incorrect digits; look for typos and transposition invalid character – ISBN has one or more 'digits' that is not in the allowed set appropriate to ISBN length invalid prefix – 13-digit ISBNs must begin with '978' or '979' invalid form – 10-digit ISBNs with the mis-positioned 'X' character invalid group id – 13-digit ISBN begins with '9790'; this prefix / group ID combination is reserved to ISMN To resolve this error, ensure that the |isbn= value is correct, that only one ISBN is used, that the proper optional separators are used, and that no other text is included. Use the ISBN printed on the work rather than one retrieved from third-party sources. If both are available, use the 13-digit ISBN.. When a 10-digit ISBN is used, if the check digit is a lowercase 'x', change it to an uppercase 'X'. Do not try to resolve the error by simply recalculating the check digit. The check digit is there to check whether the main part of the number is correct. If the ISBN is failing to validate, it is likely that there is a typo in the main part of the number. In this case, recalculating the check digit results in an apparently valid ISBN that leads to the wrong source (or to nowhere). If you only have a 10-digit ISBN, do use the number as-is, do not try to convert it to the 13-digit form. If the ISBN as printed in your source is refusing to validate, do check both the front matter and the book cover for ISBNs. It is not uncommon for the ISBN to be misprinted in the front matter but correct on the cover. Do preview your edit and check that the new ISBN does now link to the correct source. In very rare cases, publishers have released books with malformed ISBNs. If you are certain that a non-conforming ISBN truly corresponds to the published work, then you can add accept-this-as-written markup around the identifier to suppress the error message. In many cases, books may have been reissued with a corrected ISBN. Use a corrected ISBN when possible. Sometimes there are numbers assigned to |isbn= that appear to be legitimate – length is right, check digit is correct – but that aren't true ISBN numbers. This tool may be helpful. See also Wikipedia:ISBN. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: ISBN.[a] Check |ismn= value Help desk Check |ismn= value Citation Style 1 and Citation Style 2 templates that contain |ismn= are checked to ensure that the ISMN is the proper length (thirteen digits), that the ISMN uses the correct optional separators (simple space or hyphen), and that the final check digit is correct according to the ISMN specification. Only one ISMN is allowed in this field because the whole |ismn= value is included in the citation's COinS metadata. See also Wikipedia:COinS. More than one ISMN, or characters that are not part of the ISMN, corrupt the COinS metadata. (If relevant, they can be specified using |id={{ISMN|...}} instead.) To resolve this error, ensure that the |ismn= value is correct, that only one ISMN is used, that the proper optional separators are used, and that no other text is included. Make sure that the ISMN contains exactly 13 digits. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: ISMN.[a] Check |issn= value Help desk Check |issn= value Check |eissn= value Citation Style 1 and Citation Style 2 templates that contain |issn= and/or |eissn= are checked to ensure that the ISSN is the proper length (eight digits) and that the final check digit validates according to the ISSN specification. Only one each of ISSN and eISSN is allowed in this field because the whole |issn= and |eissn= values are included in the citation's COinS metadata. See also Wikipedia:COinS. (If relevant, they can be specified using |id={{ISSN|...}} {{EISSN|...}} instead.) The ISSN and eISSN are always rendered as two four-digit numbers separated with a hyphen. To resolve this error, ensure that the |issn= and |eissn= values are correct, that only one value per parameter is used, and that no other text is included (allowable characters are 0–9, X, and -). If the check-digit is a lowercase 'x', change it to an uppercase 'X'. In very rare cases, publishers have released works with a malformed identifier. If you are certain that a non-conforming identifier truly corresponds to the published work, then you can add accept-this-as-written markup around the identifier to suppress the error message. In some cases, works may have been reissued with a corrected identifier. Use the corrected one when possible. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: ISSN.[a] Check |jfm= value Help desk Check |jfm= value When Citation Style 1 and Citation Style 2 templates contain |jfm=, a test is done to see if the JFM identifier value looks like a properly defined value. The |jfm= identifier is checked to make sure that it has the form: nn.nnnn.nn where n is any digit 0–9. Further validation of the JFM identifier is not performed. To resolve this error, ensure that the |jfm= value is correct. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: JFM.[a] Check |jstor= value Help desk Check |jstor= value When Citation Style 1 and Citation Style 2 templates contain |jstor=, a test is done to see if the JSTOR identifier value looks like a properly defined value. Error messages are emitted when the assigned value has some form of the string 'jstor' (case-agnostic), or has a URI scheme (http:// or https://), or has any space characters. To resolve this error, ensure that the |jstor= value is correct. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: JSTOR.[a] Check |lccn= value Help desk Check |lccn= value The |lccn= parameter is for the Library of Congress Control Number identifier. It is checked to ensure that the identifier is the proper length and has the correct initial digits. LCCN is a character string 8–12 characters long. The length of the LCCN dictates the character type of the initial 1–3 characters; the rightmost eight are always digits.[5] LCCN format description Length Description 8 all characters are digits 9 first character is a lower case letter 10 first two characters are either both lower case letters or both digits 11 first character is a lower case letter, second and third characters are either both lower case letters or both digits 12 first two characters are both lower case letters Further validation is not performed. To resolve this error, ensure that the |lccn= value is correct and that there are no other letters, punctuation, or other characters. When receiving this error, be on the lookout for publishers who omitted leading zeros in the LCCN following the two or four digit year. For example, an LCCN that is properly 92-035427 could be shortened in the printed work to 92-35247. When experimenting with inserting omitted zeroes, cross-check the finished number against the LCCN permalinks online. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: LCCN.[a] Check |message-id= value Help desk Check |message-id= value The |message-id= parameter holds the unique identifier associated with a netnews message.[6] The value in |message-id= is checked to make sure that it contains @ between left and right identifiers. |message-id= is also checked to make sure that the first character is not < and the last character is not >. Module:Citation/CS1 adds the URI scheme news: to the value in |message-id=. If the value in |message-id= is wrapped in <...> characters, the link created fails. Further validation is not performed. To resolve this error, ensure that the |message-id= value is correct, that it contains @ and is not wrapped in <...> characters. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: message-id.[a] Check |mr= value Help desk Check |mr= value When Citation Style 1 and Citation Style 2 templates contain |mr=, a test is done to see if the MR identifier value looks like a properly defined value. The |mr= identifier is checked to make sure that it contains only digits and that it is no more than seven digits in length. Further validation of the MR identifier is not performed. To resolve this error, ensure that the |mr= value is correct. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: MR.[a] Check |oclc= value Help desk Check |oclc= value The |oclc= parameter is for the OCLC identifier. Only a single OCLC identifier is allowed. (If relevant, multiple OCLCs can be specified using |id={{OCLC|...}} instead.) The identifier must be in one of these forms: prefix ocm followed by 8 digits prefix ocn followed by 9 digits prefix on followed by 10 (or more) digits prefix (OCoLC) followed by a variable number of digits without leading zeros 1 to 10 (or more) digits without prefix Further validation is not performed. To resolve this error, ensure that the |oclc= value is correct. If the value is correct and larger than the currently configured limit of 9999999999, please report this at Help talk:Citation Style 1, so that the limit can be updated. A tip for fixing this error: Editors sometimes place valid ISBN, LCCN, ASIN, or other identifiers in |oclc=. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: OCLC.[a] Check |ol= value Help desk Check |ol= value The |ol= parameter is for the Open Library identifier. The identifier is one or more digits followed by a last character that is either A (authors), M (books), or W (works). Further validation is not performed. To resolve this error, ensure that the |ol= value is correct. Do not include "OL" in the value. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: OL.[a] Check |osti= value Help desk Check |osti= value The |osti= parameter is for the Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI) identifier. OSTIs are checked to ensure that the identifier is a simple number without punctuation or spaces with a value between 1018 and 23000000. Further validation is not performed. A common error is to include the OSTI URL (https://dx.doi.org/10.2172/<OSTI>), or the OSTI DOI (10.2172/<OSTI>). To resolve this error, ensure that the |osti= value is correct. If the value is correct and lower than 1018 or larger than the currently configured limit of 23000000, please report this at Help talk:Citation Style 1, so that the limit can be updated. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: OSTI.[a] Check |<param>-link= value Help desk Check |<param>-link= value Check |<param>= value These link-holding parameters and their matching title-holding parameters are combined to create a working wikilink to a related article. |author-link= |contributor-link= |editor-link= |episode-link= |interviewer-link= |series-link= |subject-link= |title-link= |translator-link= |author= |contributor= |editor= |episode= |interviewer= |series= |subject= |title= |translator= (Parameters checked for this error may also be of the form |author-linkn= or |authorn-link=.) This error occurs when any of these |<param>-link= parameters contain a wikilink or a URL, or they contain any of the characters not permitted in Wikipedia article titles per WP:TITLESPECIALCHARACTERS (except _ (underscore), used as a replacement for spaces, and #, used as a fragment identifier when linking to article sections). The prohibited characters are: < > [ ] | { }. The |<param>-link= parameter value should contain only the title of a Wikipedia article or a link to a section of a Wikipedia article. Module:Citation/CS1 checks the |<param>-link= parameter values for wikimarkup and for a URI scheme (http://, https://, the protocol relative scheme //, etc.). Interlanguage links in any of the |<param>-link= parameters require a leading colon: :fr:Période d'exil de Caravage While primarily intended to catch the errors mentioned above, Module:Citation/CS1 will also catch malformed interlanguage wikilinks wherever they occur. Interlanguage wikilinks that have the form: [[fr:Période d'exil de Caravage]] do not create visible clickable links in the article text. Instead, these links appear in the left pane in the languages list. Module:Citation/CS1 disables interlanguage links in this form and emits an error message. The correct form is: [[:fr:Période d'exil de Caravage]] This error can also be caused when there is a |<param>-link= value and the matching |<param>= parameter contains a wikilink. To resolve this error, do one of the following: Ensure that the |<param>-link= value is the full name of a Wikipedia article (without brackets) or a section of an article, and not a link to an external web site. Make sure that there are no wikilinks in the matching |<param>= parameters. If you want to link to a URL outside of Wikipedia, move the link to |url= or a similar parameter, if one is available in the template you are using. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: parameter link.[a] Check |pmc= value Help desk Check |pmc= value The |pmc= parameter is for the PubMed Central identifier. PMCs are sequential numbers beginning at 1 and counting up. Module:Citation/CS1 checks the PMC identifier to make sure that the value is a number greater than zero and less than 8000000 and that the identifier contains only digits. Further validation is not performed. To resolve this error, ensure that the |pmc= value is correct, and that there are no letters, punctuation, or other characters. Do not include "PMC" in the value. If the value is correct and larger than the currently configured limit of 8000000, please report this at Help talk:Citation Style 1, so that the limit can be updated. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: PMC.[a] Check |pmid= value Help desk Check |pmid= value The |pmid= parameter is for the PubMed identifier. PMIDs are checked to ensure that the identifier is a simple number without punctuation or spaces with a value between 1 and 33500000. Further validation is not performed. To resolve this error, ensure that the |pmid= value is correct. If you find something that looks like a PMID and begins with "PMC", use |pmc= instead of |pmid=. If the value is correct and larger than the currently configured limit of 33500000, please report this at Help talk:Citation Style 1, so that the limit can be updated. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: PMID.[a] Check |rfc= value Help desk Check |rfc= value The |rfc= parameter is for the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) RFC identifier (unrelated to Wikipedia's internal RfCs). IETF RFCs are checked to ensure that the identifier is a simple number without punctuation or spaces with a value between 1 and 9000. Further validation is not performed. To resolve this error, ensure that the |rfc= value is correct. If the value is correct and larger than the currently configured limit of 9000, please report this at Help talk:Citation Style 1, so that the limit can be updated. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: RFC.[a] Check |sbn= value Help desk Check |sbn= value: <type> Citation Style 1 and Citation Style 2 templates that contain |sbn= are checked to ensure that the SBN is the proper length (nine digits), that the SBN uses the correct optional separators (simple space or hyphen), and that the final check digit is correct according to the SBN specification. Only one SBN is allowed in this field because the whole |sbn= value is included in the citation's COinS metadata. See also Wikipedia:COinS. More than one SBN, or characters that are not part of the SBN, corrupt the COinS metadata and may also corrupt the link to Special:BookSources. The error message <type> indicator can be: length – SBN is not 9 digits checksum – SBN has one or more incorrect digits; look for typos and transposition invalid character – SBN has one or more 'digits' that is not in the allowed set invalid form – mis-positioned 'X' check digit To resolve this error, ensure that the |sbn= value is correct, that only one SBN is used, that the proper optional separators are used, and that no other text is included. If the check digit is a lowercase 'x', change it to an uppercase 'X'. Do not try to resolve the error by simply recalculating the check digit. The check digit is there to check whether the main part of the number is correct. If the SBN is failing to validate, it is likely that there is a typo in the main part of the number. In this case, recalculating the check digit results in an apparently valid ISBN that leads to the wrong source (or to nowhere). If the SBN as printed in your source is refusing to validate, do check both the front matter and the book cover for SBNs. It is not uncommon for the SBN to be misprinted in the front matter but correct on the cover. Do preview your edit and check that the new SBN does now link to the correct source. In very rare cases, publishers have released books with malformed SBNs. If you are certain that a non-conforming SBN truly corresponds to the published work, then you can add accept-this-as-written markup around the identifier to suppress the error message. In many cases, books may have been reissued with a corrected SBN. Use a corrected SBN when possible. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: SBN.[a] Check |ssrn= value Help desk Check |ssrn= value The |ssrn= parameter is for the Social Science Research Network identifier. SSRNs are checked to ensure that the identifier is a simple number without punctuation or spaces with a value between 100 and 4000000. Further validation is not performed. To resolve this error, ensure that the |ssrn= value is correct. If the value is correct and larger than the currently configured limit of 4000000, please report this at Help talk:Citation Style 1, so that the limit can be updated. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: SSRN.[a] Check |s2cid= value Help desk Check |s2cid= value The |s2cid= parameter is for the Semantic Scholar corpus identifier. S2CIDs are checked to ensure that the identifier is a simple number without punctuation or spaces with a value between 1 and 230000000. Further validation is not performed. To resolve this error, ensure that the |s2cid= value is correct. If the value is correct and larger than the currently configured limit of 230000000, please report this at Help talk:Citation Style 1, so that the limit can be updated. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: S2CID.[a] Check |url= value Help desk Check |url= value External links in Citation Style 1 and Citation Style 2 templates are made from two parts: the title (|title=, |chapter=, etc.) and the URL (|url=, |archive-url=, |chapter-url=, |lay-url=, etc.). The |url= parameter and other URL parameters must begin with a supported URI scheme. The URI schemes http://, https:// and the protocol relative scheme // are most commonly used; irc://, ircs://, ftp://, news:, mailto: and gopher:// are also supported. The URL field is checked to ensure that it contains only Latin characters and does not contain spaces. The URL may be protocol relative (begins with //). If there are no spaces and the URL is not protocol relative, then the scheme must comply with RFC 3986.[7] Top- and second-level domain names are checked for proper form. Generally, top-level domain names must be two or more letters; second-level domain names must be two or more letters, digits, or hyphens (first and last character must be a letter or digit). Single-letter second-level domains are supported for: all cc TLDs (the country code is not validated) the .org TLD certain letters of the .com TLD (q, x, z) certain letters of the .net TLD (i, q) Third- and subsequent-level domain names are not checked. The path portion of the URL is not checked. To resolve this error, ensure that |url= and other URL parameters contain valid URLs. Online tools are available to internationalize URLs that are written in non-Latin scripts: "IDN Conversion Tool". Verisign. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: URL.[a] Check |zbl= value Help desk Check |zbl= value When Citation Style 1 and Citation Style 2 templates contain |zbl=, a test is done to see if the Zbl identifier value looks like a properly defined value. The |zbl= identifier is checked to make sure that it has the form: nnnn.nnnnn where n is any digit 0–9. Up to three leading zeros in the first quartet may be omitted. Further validation of the Zbl identifier is not performed. To resolve this error, ensure that the |zbl= value is correct. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: Zbl.[a] Cite has empty unknown parameter: <param> Help desk Cite has empty unknown parameter: |<param>= Cite has empty unknown parameters: |<param1>=, |<param2>=, ... This error message is hidden. To show this error message see Controlling error message display. This error message highlights CS1|2 templates that hold empty parameters with names that are not known to CS1|2. This error message is a companion to Unknown parameter |xxxx= ignored. Empty positional parameters, which typically look like two adjacent pipes in a template, | |, or a pipe and then the end of the template, |}}, are identified as numbered parameters: |1=. Similarly, a pipe followed by an HTML comment that encloses everything before the next pipe or closing brace, | <!--<param name/value pair>--> | will be identified as an empty numbered parameter. Parameters that have both a pipe and an equal sign but do not have a name are identified as empty-string parameters: |= or | = → |(empty string)=. Various templates that wrap CS1|2 templates may cause this error when they use constructs like this: |{{#if:{{{2|}}}|title}}={{{2|}}}. When {{{2|}}} does not have a value, the template creates |=. To resolve this error, remove the extra pipe, correct the parameter name, or remove the parameter from the CS1|2 template. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: empty unknown parameters.[a] Cite <template> requires |<param>= Help desk Cite <template> requires |<param>= This error message is hidden. To show this error message see Controlling error message display. These CS1 periodical templates require a periodical parameter. The periodical templates are: {{cite journal}} {{cite magazine}} The error message suggests a periodical parameter that matches the template, but there is no requirement to use the suggested parameter; any one of these periodical parameters may be used: |journal= |magazine= |newspaper= |periodical= |website= |work= In some cases, an incorrect template has been used (e.g. {{cite journal}} for a web page, book, or standalone document). The appropriate resolution in these cases is to change the incorrect template to {{cite web}}, {{cite book}}, or a different, more appropriate template. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: missing periodical.[a] Cite uses deprecated parameter |<param>= Help desk Cite uses deprecated parameter |<param>= Over time, some parameters have become obsolete or unnecessary. When this happens, the parameters are identified as deprecated. Editors are encouraged to use other parameters that accomplish the same purpose as those that have been deprecated. The CS1|2 deprecated parameters are listed in the following table, along with recommended replacement parameters. Parameter names are case-sensitive. Editors should expect that support for deprecated parameters will be withdrawn. To resolve this error, use a supported parameter. Plan for the future: All non-hyphenated, multiword parameter names are aliases of hyphenated multiword parameter names. The non-hyphenated aliases exist only for legacy support. Editors should expect that support for non-hyphenated parameter names will be withdrawn. Choose the hyphenated form when adding parameters to a citation template. Consider replacing non-hyphenated parameters with the hyphenated equivalents at the same time. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: deprecated parameters.[a] Deprecated CS1/CS2 parameters Deprecated parameter Replace with Date |conferenceurl= |conference-url= January 2021 |contributionurl= |contribution-url= January 2021 |laydate= |lay-date= January 2021 |laysource= |lay-source= January 2021 |layurl= |lay-url= January 2021 |sectionurl= |section-url= January 2021 |seriesno= |series-no= January 2021 |timecaption= |time-caption= January 2021 |titlelink= |title-link= January 2021 Recently removed CS1/CS2 parameters Removed parameter Replace with Date |authorfirst= |author-first= October 2020 |authorfirstn= |author-firstn= October 2020 |authornfirst= |authorn-first= October 2020 |authorgiven= |author-given= October 2020 |authorgivenn= |author-givenn= October 2020 |authorngiven= |authorn-given= October 2020 |authorlast= |author-last= October 2020 |authorlastn= |author-lastn= October 2020 |authornlast= |authorn-last= October 2020 |authormask= |author-mask= January 2021 |authormaskn= |author-maskn= January 2021 |authornmask= |authorn-mask= January 2021 |authorsurname= |author-surname= October 2020 |authorsurnamen= |author-surnamen= October 2020 |authornsurname= |authorn-surname= October 2020 |deadurl=yes |url-status=dead September 2019 |dead-url=yes |url-status=dead September 2019 |displayauthors= |display-authors= January 2021 |displayeditors= |display-editors= October 2020 |doi-broken= |doi-broken-date= October 2020 |doi-inactive-date= |doi-broken-date= October 2020 |editorfirst= |editor-first= October 2020 |editorfirstn= |editor-firstn= October 2020 |editornfirst= |editorn-first= October 2020 |editorgiven= |editor-given= October 2020 |editorgivenn= |editor-givenn= October 2020 |editorngiven= |editorn-given= October 2020 |editorlast= |editor-last= October 2020 |editorlastn= |editor-lastn= October 2020 |editornlast= |editorn-last= October 2020 |editorlink= |editor-link= January 2021 |editorlinkn= |editor-linkn= January 2021 |editornlink= |editorn-link= January 2021 |editors= |editor= (one editor) or |editorn= (more than one editor) or |veditors= (for Vancouver style editors). Consider splitting |editorn= into |editor-firstn= and |editor-lastn=, if possible. Consider |editor-maskn=, if annotation is required. January 2021 |editorsurname= |editor-surname= October 2020 |editorsurnamen= |editor-surnamen= October 2020 |editornsurname= |editorn-surname= October 2020 |editormask= |editor-mask= October 2020 |editormaskn= |editor-maskn= October 2020 |editornmask= |editorn-mask= October 2020 |embargo= |pmc-embargo-date= October 2020 |event-format= (delete) January 2021 |eventurl= (delete) January 2021 |event-url= (delete) January 2021 |ignoreisbnerror= |isbn=((<isbn>)) October 2020 |ignore-isbn-error= |isbn=((<isbn>)) January 2021 |interviewerlink= |interviewer-link= October 2020 |interviewerlinkn= |interviewer-linkn= October 2020 |interviewernlink= |interviewern-link= October 2020 |interviewermask= |interviewer-mask= October 2020 |interviewermaskn= |interviewer-maskn= October 2020 |interviewernmask= |interviewern-mask= October 2020 |last-author-amp= |name-list-style=amp January 2021 |lastauthoramp= |name-list-style=amp January 2021 |nocat= |no-tracking= January 2021 |no-cat= |no-tracking= October 2020 |notracking= |no-tracking= October 2020 |registration= |url-access=registration January 2020 |seriesnumber= (delete) January 2021 |series-separator= (delete) October 2020 |subjectlink= |subject-link= January 2021 |subjectlinkn= |subject-linkn= January 2021 |subjectnlink= |subjectn-link= January 2021 |subscription= |url-access=subscription January 2020 Cite uses generic title Help desk Cite uses generic title Articles are listed in this category when Module:Citation/CS1 identifies template |title= parameters that use place-holder titles. Such titles may have been provided by bots or other tools that are unable to identify the source's correct title. Pages in this category should only be added by Module:Citation/CS1. CS1|2 maintains a short list of 'titles' that are typically not the title of the cited source. Some examples are: Wayback machine This website is for sale Are you a robot? To resolve this error, replace the place-holder title with the source's actual title. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: generic title.[a] See also the maintenance category Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title. |citeseerx= required Help desk |citeseerx= required {{cite citeseerx}} requires the identifier parameter |citeseerx=. To resolve this error, ensure that the template has |citeseerx= with a properly constructed value. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: citeseerx.[a] |class= ignored Help desk |class= ignored Only used in {{cite arXiv}} templates, |class= is only appropriate when the template uses |arxiv=YYMM.NNNN or |arxiv=YYMM.NNNNN identifier formats; see Cite arXiv §Usage. To resolve this error, remove |class=. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: class.[a] |contributor= ignored Help desk |contributor= ignored Only used in book citations, |contributor= identifies the author of a contribution, typically an afterword, foreword, introduction, preface, etc., to another (primary) author's work. This error occurs when |contributor= is used in a template that is not {{cite book}} or {{citation}} or is one of these two templates and one of the |work= parameter aliases is set. To resolve this error, choose a more appropriate CS1 or CS2 template or remove |contributor=. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: contributor.[a] |contributor= requires |<param>= Help desk |contributor= requires |author= |contributor= requires |contribution= Only used in book citations, |contributor= identifies the author of a contribution, typically an afterword, foreword, introduction, preface, etc., to another (primary) author's work. As such, the primary author is required (|author= or appropriate alias) as is the title of the contribution (|contribution=). To resolve this error, include the book's primary author in |author1=, or |last1=, |first1=, or |vauthors= and include the contribution title in |contribution=; or remove |contributor=. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: contributor.[a] |edition= has extra text Help desk |edition= has extra text The templates are responsible for static text rendered in the citation. When |edition= is used in a template, cs1|2 adds the abbreviation 'ed.' to the value in the parameter so: |edition=1st renders as: 1st ed. The templates emit this error message when various forms of ed, edn, or edition are found in the value assigned to |edition=. To resolve this error, remove the extraneous text from the parameter value. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: extra text: edition.[a] Empty citation Help desk Empty citation A Citation Style 1 or Citation Style 2 template marked as "Empty" contains no recognizable parameter identifiers. For example, this citation is marked as "empty" even though it contains usable information: {{cite web |http://www.foobar.com |The Foobar News}} The citation is "empty" because it does not contain the necessary parameter identifiers (in this case |url= and |title=) that tell {{cite web}} how to use the information that the citation does contain. A citation is also marked as "empty" when it contains only parameters that it doesn't recognize: {{cite book |titolo=The Bazquux Uprising |anno=2015}} This citation is "empty" because the Italian-language parameters |titolo= and |anno= are not recognized as valid parameter names on the English Wikipedia. "Empty citation" may also mean that an editor meant to use another template entirely. Perhaps the editor used {{citation}} when the intent was to use {{citation needed}} or {{quote}}. To resolve this error, add appropriate parameter identifiers, translate foreign language parameter names to their English equivalents, or replace the CS1/CS2 template with a more appropriate template. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: empty citation.[a] Explicit use of et al. Help desk Explicit use of et al. in: |<param>= This error occurs where a Citation Style 1 or Citation Style 2 template detects that one of the names parameters contains some form of "et al." either as a separate name parameter (|author6=et al.) or as a suffix added to a name list (|author=Smith, A.B. et al.) or first name (|first=John, et al.). This error can occur in any of the author, editor, interviewer, translator, or contributor parameters. Use the |display-authors= parameter instead (or other applicable |display-<names>= parameter), as documented at Help:Citation Style 1#Display options. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: explicit use of et al..[a] External link in |<param>= Help desk External link in |<param>= This error occurs when any of the CS1 or CS2 citation title-holding parameters – |title=, |chapter=, |publisher=, |work= or any of its aliases: |journal=, |magazine=, |newspaper=, |periodical= and |website= – hold an external link (URL). External links in these parameters corrupt the citation's metadata and can be the source of a variety of other error messages. To resolve this error, remove the external link from the identified parameter. Consider placing the external link in a more appropriate parameter: for |chapter=, the URL may belong in |chapter-url=. for other parameters, it may belong in |url=. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: external links.[a] |<first>n= missing |<last>n= Help desk |<first>n= missing |<last>n= Citation Style 1 and Citation Style 2 templates requires a |<last>n= parameter for each |<first>n= parameter in a citation. Author, contributor, editor, interviewer, and translator lists are checked for proper last/first pairing. CS1|2 will emit this error message for the first mismatch it detects. If there are more last/first mismatches in a citation, subsequent mismatches are not detected. There is no requirement that each |<last>n= have a matching |<first>n=. To resolve this error, ensure that each |<first>n= has a corresponding |<last>n=. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: missing name.[a] |format= requires |url= Help desk |format= requires |url= |...-format= requires |...-url= These errors occur when Citation Style 1 and Citation Style 2 templates use |format= or |...-format= without also providing a corresponding URL for |url= or |...-url=, respectively. The |format= and |...-format= parameters are used to specify the file format of a web resource, such as PDF, DOC, or XLS. In some cases an editor may have intended to use |type= to specify a kind of document, such as hard cover, paperback, or pamphlet. The |format= and |...-format= value is always displayed. The list of |...-format= parameters is: |archive-format=, |article-format=, |chapter-format=, |conference-format=, |contribution-format=, |entry-format=, |event-format=, |lay-format=, |map-format=, |section-format=, |transcript-format= (Citations that relied on the pre-2014, somewhat odd use of |url= and |format= may need adjustment in regard to |chapter-format=.) To resolve this error, remove |format= or |chapter-format=; define |url= or |chapter-url=; or change |format= to |type= (or to |chapter-format= if |chapter-url= is used without |url=. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: format without URL.[a] Invalid |display-<names>=<value> Help desk Invalid |display-<names>=<value> These error messages are emitted when Module:Citation/CS1 identifies citations that use one or more of the |display-<names>= parameters with an invalid assigned <value>. An invalid assigned <value> is a number that is greater than or equal to the number of <names> in the associated name-list or it is non-numeric text that Module:Citation/CS1 cannot recognize as a form of the keyword etal. To resolve this error, do one of the following: Remove the |display-<names>= parameter from the citation (because "et al." is not appropriate in the citation) Change the <value> of the |display-<names>= parameter such that it is less than the number of <names> in the name-list (thereby truncating the displayed list to the number) Change the <value> of the |display-<names>= parameter to etal, which will cause "et al" to display after the last <name>. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: display-names.[a] Invalid <param>=<value> Help desk Invalid |<param>=<value> To function properly, some parameters are limited to a certain set of acceptable values. This error message indicates that a parameter has been assigned a value that is not a member of the parameter's defined set of acceptable values. Letters in values must all be in lower case, as shown below. Parameters with limited acceptable values Parameter Acceptable values |df= dmy, dmy-all, mdy, mdy-all, ymd, ymd-all |mode= cs1, cs2 |name-list-style= amp, ampersand, and, &, serial, vanc |no-pp= true, y, yes |no-tracking= |bibcode-access= free |doi-access= |hdl-access= |jstor-access= |ol-access= |osti-access= |s2cid-access= |url-access= subscription, registration, limited |article-url-access= |chapter-url-access= |contribution-url-access= |entry-url-access= |map-url-access= |section-url-access= |url-status= dead, live, unfit, usurped To resolve this error, use an appropriate value. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: invalid parameter value.[a] Invalid |script-<param>=: <type> Help desk Invalid |script-<param>=: <type> The various |script-<param>= parameters are checked for proper form. When an error is detected, the error message briefly identifies the type of the error: missing title part – the |script-<param>= parameter has a language-code prefix but is otherwise empty missing prefix – the |script-<param>= parameter has text but is missing the required language-code prefix; the prefix has the form xx: or xxx: where xx or xxx is a valid ISO 639-1 or ISO 639-3 language code known to CS1|2 as a language that uses a non-Latin script; the colon (:) is required unknown language code – the |script-<param>= parameter has a (possibly valid) language code that CS1|2 does not recognize as a language using a non-Latin script Language codes known to CS1|2 for languages that do not use a Latin script are: am: Amharic ar: Arabic be: Belarusian bg: Bulgarian bn: Bengali bo: Tibetan bs: Bosnian dv: Divehi dz: Dzongkha el: Greek fa: Persian gu: Gujarati he: Hebrew hi: Hindi hy: Armenian ja: Japanese ka: Georgian kk: Kazakh km: Khmer kn: Kannada ko: Korean ku: Kurdish ky: Kyrgyz lo: Lao mk: Macedonian ml: Malayalam mn: Mongolian mr: Marathi my: Burmese ne: Nepali or: Odia ota: Ottoman Turkish ps: Pashto ru: Russian sd: Sindhi si: Sinhala sr: Serbian ta: Tamil te: Telugu tg: Tajik th: Thai ti: Tigrinya ug: Uyghur uk: Ukrainian ur: Urdu uz: Uzbek yi: Yiddish zh: Chinese Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: script parameters.[a] Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |<param>= Help desk Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |<param>n= Italic ('') or bold (''') wikimarkup is not allowed in publisher and periodical parameters. These parameters include: |publisher= |journal= |magazine= |newspaper= |periodical= |website= |work= To resolve this error, remove wiki markup from the named parameter's value and ensure that the template is using the correct parameters; when citing a newspaper, use |newspaper= for the newspaper's name, not |publisher=, etc. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: markup.[a] Missing |<name>n= Help desk Missing |<name>n= So that all names are listed in a rendered citation, Citation Style 1 and Citation Style 2 templates require n in |<last>n= (and its aliases) to increment by 1 for each name in the list (author, contributor, editor, interviewer, translator). This error message is emitted when there is a 'hole' in the numbering (an author list made up of |author1= and |author3= but without |author2= for example). The test will not detect a 'hole' that is larger than 1. It is presumed that when |authorn= and |authorn+1= are both not present, then the test has reached the end of the list. To resolve this error, ensure that the numbering of the |<last>n= parameters increments properly. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: missing name.[a] Missing or empty |title= There are two slightly different error conditions that can arise when CS1 citations lack appropriate titles. In each case, CS1 reports this error message. The necessary resolution may vary depending on the cause of the error. The error message links to the appropriate description below. Bare URL without a title Help desk |<param>= missing title All Citation Style 1 and Citation Style 2 templates report this error when one of the URL-containing parameters cannot be paired with an associated title. This error may also occur when |title= cannot be linked with |url= because the citation also contains a conflicting |title-link= parameter. URL-containing parameters and associated title parameters URL parameters Title parameters |archive-url= |title= |article-url= |article=, |chapter=, |contribution=, |entry=, |section= |chapter-url= |chapter=, |article=, |contribution=, |entry=, |section= |conference-url= |conference=, |event= |contribution-url= |contribution=, |chapter=, |article=, |entry=, |section= |entry-url= |entry=, |chapter=, |article=, |contribution=, |section= |event-url= |event=, |conference= |map-url= |map= |section-url= |section=, |chapter=, |article=, |contribution=, |entry= |transcript-url= |transcript= |url= |title= A unique case exists for {{cite journal}}: if |pmc= or |doi= has a value, |url= is omitted or empty, and |title-link= does not point to an article, then |title= is automatically linked with the same URL as the PMC or DOI. This default behaviour can be overridden using |title-link=none/pmc/doi. Because URLs are ugly and generally uninformative, it is expected that editors should provide a meaningful title for each URL. In most cases this can be accomplished by using the |title= parameter. To resolve this error, provide an appropriate title for the URL-containing parameter. In the case where |url= and |title-link= are contending for |title= you must choose which one to keep. Consider moving |url= or |title-link= to a more suitable parameter. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: bare URL (27,979 pages).[a] Citation without a title of any form Help desk Missing or empty |title= Missing or empty |series= This error occurs for Citation Style 1 and Citation Style 2 templates when all of |title=, |trans-title=, and |script-title= are omitted or left blank. At least one of these title parameters must be provided for each citation. {{cite episode}} will show this error if |series= is omitted or left blank (even if a |title= is provided). Sometimes this error occurs because an editor has used a CS1|2 citation as a shortened footnote when {{sfn}} or one of the {{harv}} family of templates would have been more appropriate. This error also occurs when an editor used {{citation}} but intended to use {{citation needed}}. To resolve this error, provide a value for |title=, |trans-title=, and/or |script-title= or replace the CS1|2 template with a more appropriate template. If you are listing a periodical or an issue of a periodical in a bibliography rather than within <ref>...</ref> tags, {{List journal}} may be more appropriate. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: missing title (39,658 pages).[a] Missing or empty |url= Help desk Missing or empty |url= This error message is reported by {{cite web}}, {{cite podcast}}, and {{cite mailing list}} when the template parameters |url= and |archive-url= are both missing, blank or not properly entered. Note that |website= or |work= is the name of the site, not the URL. To resolve this error, provide a value for |url= or use a more appropriate template such as {{cite book}}, {{cite journal}} or other Citation Style 1 or Citation Style 2 template. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: requires URL (8,238 pages).[a] Missing pipe Help desk Missing pipe in: |<param>= Citation Style 1 and Citation Style 2 templates report this error when one parameter has text that looks like it is a parameter missing a pipe (|). This error occurs when a template parameter value contains characters and digits followed by an equal sign. If the alphanumeric text immediately preceding the equal sign is a valid CS1|2 parameter name, the module assumes that the template is missing a pipe and emits this error message. Some legitimate titles will contain a CS1|2 parameter name followed by an equal sign. In that case, enclose the equal sign in nowiki tags, like this: <nowiki>=</nowiki>. For most other cases, simply add the missing pipe. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: missing pipe.[a] More than one of |<param1>=, |<param2>=, and |<param3>= specified Help desk More than one of |<param1>=, |<param2>=, and |<param3>= specified This error occurs when a Citation Style 1 or Citation Style 2 template includes more than one parameter that maps to the same meaning. For example, |author=, |last=, and |last1= are all synonyms of each other, so no more than one of these parameters should ever be used in a single template. To resolve this error, remove or modify the redundant parameter(s). More than one of author-name-list parameters specified More than one of editor-name-list parameters specified This error occurs when a CS1 or CS2 template uses more than one type of author or editor name-list style. There are three kinds of incompatible author-name-list styles: |authorn= and |lastn= / |firstn= (and their various aliases), |vauthors=, and |authors= and similarly, three editor-name-list styles: |editorn= and |editor-lastn= / |editor-firstn= (and their various aliases) as well as |veditors= To resolve this error, choose one name-list-style. Use the chosen style for both of the author and editor name-lists. Pages with these errors are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: redundant parameter.[a] |page(s)= has extra text Help desk |page(s)= has extra text The templates are responsible for static text rendered in the citation. When |page=/|p=, |pages=/|pp=, |quote-page= or |quote-pages= is used in a template, cs1|2 inserts the appropriate pagination prefix 'p.' or 'pp.' ahead of the value in the parameter so: |page=123 renders as: p. 123 and: |page=123–125 renders as: pp. 123–125 The templates emit this error message when various forms of p, pp, pg, pgs, page, or pages are found in the value assigned to |page=/|p=, |pages=/|pp=, |quote-page= or |quote-pages=. To resolve this error, remove the extraneous text from the parameter value. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: extra text: pages.[a] |<param>-access= requires |<param>= Help desk |<param>-access= requires |<param>= This error is reported when an access level has been specified for some external link, but the corresponding required parameter is missing or empty. The parameter can be one of Access-level specifier required parameter Specifier Required parameter |article-url-access= |article-url= |bibcode-access= |bibcode= |chapter-url-access= |chapter-url= |contribution-url-access= |contribution-url= |doi-access= |doi= |entry-url-access= |entry-url= |hdl-access= |hdl= |jstor-access= |jstor= |map-url-access= |map-url= |ol-access= |ol= |osti-access= |osti= |section-url-access= |section-url= |s2cid-access= |s2cid= |url-access= |url= To resolve this error, either provide a value for the parameter, or remove the access level specification. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: param-access.[a] |<param>= requires |doi= Help desk |<param>= requires |doi= When |doi-broken-date= is used in a CS1|2 template, |doi= or |DOI= (with value) must also be present. To resolve this error, either add the missing DOI or remove the 'broken' parameter. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: DOI.[a] |ssrn= required Help desk |ssrn= required {{cite ssrn}} requires the identifier parameter |ssrn=. To resolve this error, ensure that the template has |ssrn= with a properly constructed value. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: SSRN.[a] Text "????" ignored Help desk Text "????" ignored Unlike many Wikipedia templates, the Citation Style 1 and Citation Style 2 templates do not use unnamed or positional parameters. When a citation contains text between vertical bars and that text does not contain an equal sign (=), CS1|2 ignores the text and reports the error. This is true even when the text is the name of a valid parameter. This error can also be caused by vertical bars (pipe characters) that are part of URLs or titles. When vertical bars occur in URLs, replace each vertical bar with %7C. When vertical bars occur in parameter values that are not URLs, replace each vertical bar with &#124; or {{!}}. To resolve this error, remove the extraneous text, add '=', add an appropriate parameter name from the template you're using to complete the parameter, or properly encode vertical bars in URLs and titles. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: unrecognized parameter.[a] |trans-<param>= requires |<param>= or |script-<param> Help desk |trans-<param>= requires |<param>= or |script-<param>= Citation Style 1 and Citation Style 2 templates report this error when the citation has an English translation of the title in |trans-title= or chapter title in |trans-chapter= but does not have the original-language title in |title= or original-language chapter title in |chapter=. To resolve this error, provide the original language title for |title= or chapter title for |chapter=. Consider adding |language= if not already part of the citation. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: translated title.[a] Unknown parameter |<param>= ignored Help desk Unknown parameter |<param>= ignored Unknown parameter |<param>= ignored (|<sparam>= suggested) Citation Style 1 and Citation Style 2 templates report this error when the name portion of a parameter's |name=value pair is not recognized as a valid name. Typically, this is caused by spelling or capitalization errors or when a page is reverted to a version where the citation template did support the parameter. The CS1|2 engine does not ignore unrecognized parameters. The purpose of the citation is to properly identify the source, not to act as a repository of notes and ancillary information. CS1|2 template parameters are lower case. CS1|2 will report this error when the parameter's name contains uppercase letters (Xxxx, xxXx, XXXX) but the parameter's name is defined as lowercase (xxxx). Some identifier parameters, like |isbn=, |pmc=, |doi=, etc., can be either lower case or upper case, but not of mixed case (|isbn= or |ISBN= but not |Isbn=). For common parameter misspellings, like |pubisher= instead of |publisher= and some former template parameters, CS1|2 will suggest a valid parameter name. The list of deprecated and recently removed parameters may contain additional information as well. Reported unknown parameters following a |DUPLICATE_<param>= scheme are created by Citation Bot when it finds duplicate parameters |<param>= in a template. To resolve this error, replace the erroneous parameter name with a correct one, possibly using the suggested name. Ensure that the parameter's name is correctly spelled and that there are no characters except spaces between the parameter's name and the leading vertical bar (|) or trailing equals sign (=). A list of valid parameters can be found by consulting Help:Citation Style 1 or visiting the description page of the specific template being used, such as {{cite web}}, {{cite book}}, {{cite journal}}, etc. Consider moving information associated with the unknown parameter into an appropriate parameter or to a section of the article's talk page for preservation. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: unsupported parameter.[a] URL–wikilink conflict Help desk URL–wikilink conflict External links in a rendered citation are a combination of url-holding parameters, |url=, |chapter-url=, etc., with title-holding parameters, |title=, |chapter=, etc. Title-holding parameters may be wikilinked to another Wikipedia article but not when there is a matching url-holding parameter in the citation. When this condition occurs, the wikilink is suppressed, the wiki markup ignored, and the rendered citation links to the external site. Some templates will also cause this error if they are part of a title-holding parameter. The error occurs when the template produces wikilinked content. For example, {{lang}} templates output a wikilinked category. Templates in url-holding parameters may also corrupt the citation's COinS metadata. As a general rule, avoid using templates in title-holding parameters unless you know that the template's effects are entirely visual ({{!}} and the like). This type of error may also occur in identifier-based templates ({{cite doi}}, etc.). When this happens, the error message is shown in the article but the error is actually located in the identifier-based citation template. To resolve this error, remove wikilinks from title-holding parameters that are intended to be externally linked or remove the external URL, which will allow the internal wikilinks to work as expected. If wikilink-producing templates are important to the citation, move them out of the CS1 template but leave them inside the citation's <ref>...</ref> tags. Some of the functionality provided by templates may also be available through CS1 parameters. To resolve errors in identifier-based citation templates, the template must be edited to correct the error. Exercise caution when editing these templates because identifier-based citation templates are often used in multiple articles. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: URL–wikilink conflict.[a] Vancouver style error Help desk Vancouver style error: <type> This error is reported for citations that use |vauthors=, |veditors=, |name-list-style=vanc. Vancouver style restricts author or editor names to the Latin alphabet. For the purposes of this test, Module:Citation/CS1 defines the Latin alphabet as the letters defined in the Unicode Latin character sets: C0 Controls and Basic Latin[8] (0041–005A, 0061–007A) C1 Controls and Latin-1 Supplement[9] (00C0–00D6, 00D8–00F6, 00F8–00FF) Latin Extended-A[10] (0100–017F) Latin Extended-B[11] (0180–01BF, 01C4–024F) This error is also reported when more than two initials are used: in case of more than two initials, list only the first two. This error is also reported when a corporate or institutional author is listed in |vauthors= without proper delimiters. Corporate authors should be listed this way: |vauthors=First Surname FM, Surname AB, ((Corporate or institutional Author)), Last Surname XY While normally correct, sometimes the names listed on a PMID page contain errors when the author surname has a lowercase nobiliary particle. For example, PMID 17726700 lists Magnus von Knebel Doeberitz as Doeberitz Mv which is not correct. This author's name should be listed as |vauthors=von Knebel Doeberitz M.[12] Certain punctuation will be flagged as an error. For example, Unicode U+2019, right single quotation mark, causes an error because it is not a member of the Latin character sets identified above: |vauthors=Van’t Veer M. Replace this character with the straight (or typewriter) apostrophe: |vauthors=Van't Veer M. To resolve this error, Romanize author and editor names.[13] Romanizing can result in two-letter initials, for example, the Greek letter 'Θ' Romanizes to 'Th'.[14] When author names have this kind of initial, Module:Citation/CS1 can't know if this kind of initial is a typo or a legitimate Romanized character so it will emit the Vancouver error. To suppress the error after determining that the two-character initial is correct and not a typo, treat the name as if it were a corporate name by wrapping it in doubled parentheses: |vauthors=..., Tatarinov IuS, ... → |vauthors=..., ((Tatarinov IuS)), ... Similarly, Chinese hyphenated given names may appear in PubMed listings. For example: 'Wang Hsien-yu' may be listed on PubMed as 'Wang Hy' which will result in a Vancouver error. When this occurs, and upon verification that such names are correct, wrap them in doubled parentheses. Specific Rules for Names:[15] Surnames with hyphens and other punctuation in them Other surname rules Given names containing punctuation, a prefix, a preposition, or particle Degrees, titles, and honors before or after a personal name Designations of rank within a family, such as Jr and III Names appearing in non-roman alphabets (Cyrillic, Greek, Arabic, Hebrew, Korean) or character-based languages (Chinese, Japanese) Organizations as author CS1|2 does not obey the semicolon-as-separator rule. Separate corporate and organizational names from each other and from individual names with a comma; wrap corporate and organizational names in doubled parentheses as described above. Pages with this error are automatically placed in Category:CS1 errors: Vancouver style.[a] Notes ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq Pages in the Book talk, Category talk, Draft talk, Education Program talk, File talk, Help talk, MediaWiki talk, Module talk, Portal talk, Talk, Template talk, User, User talk, and Wikipedia talk namespaces are not included in the error tracking categories. References ^ a b "archive.org website". Internet Archive. ^ a b "webcitation.org website". WebCite. ^ "Understanding the arXiv identifier". Cornell University Library. Retrieved 2014-08-20. ^ "1.2.3 - Bibliographic Identifiers". The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System. ^ "The LCCN Namespace". Network Development and MARC Standards Office. Library of Congress. November 2003. ^ "Netnews Article Format". Internet Engineering Task Force. November 2009. 3.1.3. RFC 5536. ^ "Scheme". Uniform Resource Identifier (URI): Generic Syntax. Internet Engineering Task Force. January 2005. RFC 3986. ^ "C0 Controls and Basic Latin" (PDF). Unicode. Retrieved 2015-04-19. ^ "C1 Controls and Latin-1 Supplement" (PDF). Unicode. Retrieved 2015-04-19. ^ "Latin Extended-A" (PDF). Unicode. Retrieved 2015-04-19. ^ "Latin Extended-B" (PDF). Unicode. Retrieved 2015-04-19. ^ "Other surname rules". National Center for Biotechnology Information. 2018-05-18. ^ Patrias, K. (2007). "Names in non-roman alphabets or character-based languages". In Wendling, D. (ed.). Citing Medicine: The NLM Style Guide for Authors, Editors, and Publishers [Internet] (2nd ed.). Bethesda, MD, USA: National Library of Medicine. ^ "Greek" (PDF). Library of Congress. ^ Patrias, K. (2007). Wendling, D. (ed.). Citing Medicine: The NLM Style Guide for Authors, Editors, and Publishers [Internet] (2nd ed.). Bethesda, MD, USA: National Library of Medicine (US). 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en-wikipedia-org-9439	----	Zoroastrianism - Wikipedia Zoroastrianism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Religion ascribed to the teachings of Zoroaster Zoroastrianism The Faravahar, a symbol commonly used to signify Zoroastrianism Classification Iranian religions Scripture Avesta Theology Dualism in cosmology Region India,[1] Iran,[1] United States,[1] Pakistan,[1] and Kurdistan Language Avestan Founder Zarathusthra Zoroaster Origin 5th century BC[2] Greater Iran Separations Mazdakism[3] Members c. 110,000–120,000[1] Other name(s) Mazdaism Part of a series on Zoroastrianism Atar (fire), a primary symbol of Zoroastrianism Primary topics Ahura Mazda Zarathustra Asha Vohu Manah Persia/Iran Faravahar Avestan Divine entities Amesha Spentas Yazatas Ahuras Daevas Angra Mainyu Scripture and worship Adur Burzen-Mihr Adur Gushnasp Avesta Cypress of Kashmar Gathas Yasna Vendidad Visperad Yashts Khordeh Avesta The Revayats Ab-Zohr Ashem Vohu Ahuna Vairya Yenghe hatam Airyaman ishya Fire Temples 101 Names of Ahura Mazda Accounts and legends Dēnkard Bundahišn Book of Arda Viraf Book of Jamasp Story of Sanjan Chinvat Bridge Frashokereti History and culture Zurvanism Mazdakism Khurramites Calendar Festivals Marriage Burial Adherents Zoroastrians in India Zoroastrians in Iran Parsis Zoroastrianism in the United States Iranis Persecution of Zoroastrians Related topics Criticism of Zoroastrianism  Religion portal v t e Zoroastrianism or Mazdayasna is one of the world's oldest continuously practiced religions. It is a multi-faceted faith centered on a dualistic cosmology of good and evil and an eschatology predicting the ultimate conquest of evil with theological elements of henotheism, monotheism/monism, and polytheism.[4][5][6][7] Ascribed to the teachings of the Iranian-speaking spiritual leader Zoroaster (also known as Zarathustra),[8] it exalts an uncreated and benevolent deity of wisdom, Ahura Mazda (Wise Lord), as its supreme being.[9] Historical features of Zoroastrianism, such as messianism, judgment after death, heaven and hell, and free will may have influenced other religious and philosophical systems, including Second Temple Judaism, Gnosticism, Greek philosophy,[10] Christianity, Islam,[11] the Baháʼí Faith, and Buddhism.[12] With possible roots dating back to the second millennium BCE, Zoroastrianism enters recorded history in the 5th century BCE.[13] It served as the state religion of the ancient Iranian empires for more than a millennium, from around 600 BCE to 650 CE, but declined from the 7th century onwards following the Muslim conquest of Persia of 633–654.[14] Recent estimates place the current number of Zoroastrians at around 110,000–120,000[1] at most with the majority living in India, Iran, and North America; their number has been thought to be declining.[15][16] The most important texts of the religion are those of the Avesta, which includes as central the writings of Zoroaster known as the Gathas, enigmatic ritual poems that define the religion's precepts, which is within Yasna, the main worship service of modern Zoroastrianism. The religious philosophy of Zoroaster divided the early Iranian gods of the Proto-Indo-Iranian tradition into ahuras[17] and daevas,[18] the latter of which were not considered worthy of worship. Zoroaster proclaimed that Ahura Mazda was the supreme creator, the creative and sustaining force of the universe through Asha,[9] and that human beings are given a right of choice between supporting Ahura Mazda or not, making them responsible for their choices. Though Ahura Mazda has no equal contesting force, Angra Mainyu (destructive spirit/mentality), whose forces are born from Aka Manah (evil thought), is considered the main adversarial force of the religion, standing against Spenta Mainyu (creative spirit/mentality).[19] Middle Persian literature developed Angra Mainyu further into Ahriman and advancing him to be the direct adversary to Ahura Mazda.[20] In Zoroastrianism, Asha (truth, cosmic order), the life force that originates from Ahura Mazda,[9][21] stands in opposition to Druj (falsehood, deceit)[22][23] and Ahura Mazda is considered to be all-good with no evil emanating from the deity.[9] Ahura Mazda works in gētīg (the visible material realm) and mēnōg (the invisible spiritual and mental realm)[24] through the seven (six when excluding Spenta Mainyu) Amesha Spentas[25] (the direct emanations of Ahura Mazda) and the host of other Yazatas (literally meaning "worthy of worship"), who all worship Ahura Mazda in the Avesta and other texts and who Ahura Mazda requests worship towards in the same texts.[5] Zoroastrianism is not uniform in theological and philosophical thought, especially with historical and modern influences having a significant impact on individual and local beliefs, practices, values and vocabulary, sometimes merging with tradition and in other cases displacing it.[26] Modern Zoroastrianism, however, tends to divide itself into either Reformist or Traditionalist camps with various smaller movements arising.[27] In Zoroastrianism, the purpose in life is to become an Ashavan (a master of Asha) and to bring happiness into the world, which contributes to the cosmic battle against evil. Zoroastrianism's core teachings include: Follow the Threefold Path of Asha: Humata, Huxta, Huvarshta (Good Thoughts, Good Words, Good Deeds).[28] Charity is a way of maintaining one's soul aligned to Asha and to spread happiness.[29] The spiritual equality and duty of the genders.[30] Being good for the sake of goodness and without the hope of reward (see Ashem Vohu). Contents 1 Terminology 2 Overview 2.1 Theology 2.2 Practices 3 History 3.1 Classical antiquity 3.2 Late antiquity 3.3 Decline in the Middle Ages 3.3.1 Conversion 3.3.2 Survival 3.4 Modern 4 Relation to other religions and cultures 4.1 Indo-Iranian origins 4.2 Manichaeism 4.3 Present-day Iran 5 Religious text 5.1 Avesta 5.2 Middle Persian (Pahlavi) 6 Zoroaster 6.1 Zoroaster in legend 6.2 Cypress of Kashmar 7 Principal beliefs 7.1 Cosmology: Creation of the universe 7.2 Eschatology: Renovation and judgment 7.3 Ritual and prayer 8 Demographics 8.1 In South Asia 8.1.1 India 8.1.2 Pakistan 8.2 Iran, Iraq and Central Asia 8.3 Western world 9 See also 10 References 11 Bibliography 12 External links Terminology The name Zoroaster (Ζωροάστηρ) is a Greek rendering of the Avestan name Zarathustra. He is known as Zartosht and Zardosht in Persian and Zaratosht in Gujarati.[31] The Zoroastrian name of the religion is Mazdayasna, which combines Mazda- with the Avestan word yasna, meaning "worship, devotion".[9] In English, an adherent of the faith is commonly called a Zoroastrian or a Zarathustrian. An older expression still used today is Behdin, meaning "The best religion | beh < Middle Persian weh ‘good’ + din < Middle Persian dēn < Avestan daēnā". In Zoroastrian liturgy the term is used as a title for an individual who has been formally inducted into the religion in a Navjote ceremony.[32] The first surviving reference to Zoroaster in English scholarship is attributed to Thomas Browne (1605–1682), who briefly refers to Zoroaster in his 1643 Religio Medici.[33] The term Mazdaism (/ˈmæzdə.ɪzəm/) is an alternative form in English used as well for the faith, taking Mazda- from the name Ahura Mazda and adding the suffix -ism to suggest a belief system.[34] Overview Theology Zoroastrians believe that there is one universal, transcendent, all-good, and uncreated supreme creator deity, Ahura Mazda, or the "Wise Lord". (Ahura meaning "Lord" and Mazda meaning "Wisdom" in Avestan).[35] Zoroaster keeps the two attributes separate as two different concepts in most of the Gathas yet sometimes combines them into one form. Zoroaster also claims that Ahura Mazda is omniscient but not omnipotent.[9] In the Gathas, Ahura Mazda is noted as working through emanations known as the Amesha Spenta[25] and with the help of "other ahuras",[5] of which Sraosha is the only one explicitly named of the latter category. Scholars and theologians have long debated on the nature of Zoroastrianism, with dualism, monotheism, and polytheism being the main terms applied to the religion.[4][5][6] Some scholars assert that Zoroastrianism's concept of divinity covers both being and mind as immanent entities, describing Zoroastrianism as having a belief in an immanent self-creating universe with consciousness as its special attribute, thereby putting Zoroastrianism in the pantheistic fold sharing its origin with Indian Brahmanism.[36][37] In any case, Asha, the main spiritual force which comes from Ahura Mazda,[21] is the cosmic order which is the antithesis of chaos, which is evident as druj, falsehood and disorder.[22] The resulting cosmic conflict involves all of creation, mental/spiritual and material, including humanity at its core, which has an active role to play in the conflict.[38] In the Zoroastrian tradition, druj comes from Angra Mainyu (also referred to in later texts as "Ahriman"), the destructive spirit/mentality, while the main representative of Asha in this conflict is Spenta Mainyu, the creative spirit/mentality.[19] Ahura Mazda is immanent in humankind and interacts with creation through emanations known as the Amesha Spenta, the bounteous/holy immortals, which are representative and guardians of different aspects of creation and the ideal personality.[25] Ahura Mazda, through these Amesha Spenta, is assisted by a league of countless divinities called Yazatas, meaning "worthy of worship", and each is generally a hypostasis of a moral or physical aspect of creation. According to Zoroastrian cosmology, in articulating the Ahuna Vairya formula, Ahura Mazda made the ultimate triumph of good against Angra Mainyu evident.[39] Ahura Mazda will ultimately prevail over the evil Angra Mainyu, at which point reality will undergo a cosmic renovation called Frashokereti[40] and limited time will end. In the final renovation, all of creation—even the souls of the dead that were initially banished to or chose to descend into "darkness"—will be reunited with Ahura Mazda in the Kshatra Vairya (meaning "best dominion"),[41] being resurrected to immortality. In Middle Persian literature, the prominent belief was that at the end of time a savior-figure known as the Saoshyant would bring about the Frashokereti, while in the Gathic texts the term Saoshyant (meaning "one who brings benefit") referred to all believers of Mazdayasna but changed into a messianic concept in later writings. Zoroastrian theology includes foremost the importance of following the Threefold Path of Asha revolving around Good Thoughts, Good Words, and Good Deeds.[28] There is also a heavy emphasis on spreading happiness, mostly through charity,[29] and respecting the spiritual equality and duty of the genders.[30] Zoroastrianism's emphasis on the protection and veneration of nature and its elements has led some to proclaim it as the "world's first proponent of ecology."[42] The Avesta and other texts call for the protection of water, earth, fire and air making it, in effect, an ecological religion: "It is not surprising that Mazdaism…is called the first ecological religion. The reverence for Yazatas (divine spirits) emphasizes the preservation of nature (Avesta: Yasnas 1.19, 3.4, 16.9; Yashts 6.3–4, 10.13)."[43] However, this particular assertion is undermined by the fact that early Zoroastrians had a duty to exterminate "evil" species, a dictate no longer followed in modern Zoroastrianism.[44] Practices An 8th century Tang dynasty Chinese clay figurine of a Sogdian man wearing a distinctive cap and face veil, possibly a camel rider or even a Zoroastrian priest engaging in a ritual at a fire temple, since face veils were used to avoid contaminating the holy fire with breath or saliva; Museum of Oriental Art (Turin), Italy.[45] The religion states that active and ethical participation in life through good deeds formed from good thoughts and good words is necessary to ensure happiness and to keep chaos at bay. This active participation is a central element in Zoroaster's concept of free will and Zoroastrianism as such rejects extreme forms of asceticism and monasticism but historically has allowed for moderate expressions of these concepts.[46] In Zoroastrian tradition, life is a temporary state in which a mortal is expected to actively participate in the continuing battle between Asha and Druj. Prior to being born, the urvan (soul) of an individual is still united with its fravashi (personal/higher spirit), which has existed since Ahura Mazda created the universe. The fravashi before the urvan's split act as aids in the maintenance of creation with Ahura Mazda. During life, the fravashi act as aspirational concepts, spiritual protectors, and the fravashi of bloodline, cultural, and spiritual ancestors and heroes are venerated and can be called upon for aid.[47] On the fourth day after death, the urvan is reunited with its fravashi, in which the experiences of life in the material world are collected for the continuing battle in the spiritual world. For the most part, Zoroastrianism does not have a notion of reincarnation, at least not until the Frashokereti. Followers of Ilm-e-Kshnoom in India believe in reincarnation and practice vegetarianism, among other currently non-traditional opinions,[48] although there have been various theological statements supporting vegetarianism in Zoroastrianism's history and claims that Zoroaster was vegetarian.[49] In Zoroastrianism, water (aban) and fire (atar) are agents of ritual purity, and the associated purification ceremonies are considered the basis of ritual life. In Zoroastrian cosmogony, water and fire are respectively the second and last primordial elements to have been created, and scripture considers fire to have its origin in the waters. Both water and fire are considered life-sustaining, and both water and fire are represented within the precinct of a fire temple. Zoroastrians usually pray in the presence of some form of fire (which can be considered evident in any source of light), and the culminating rite of the principal act of worship constitutes a "strengthening of the waters". Fire is considered a medium through which spiritual insight and wisdom are gained, and water is considered the source of that wisdom. Both fire and water are also hypostasized as the Yazatas Atar and Anahita, which worship hymns and litanies dedicated to them. A corpse is considered a host for decay, i.e., of druj. Consequently, scripture enjoins the safe disposal of the dead in a manner such that a corpse does not pollute the good creation. These injunctions are the doctrinal basis of the fast-fading traditional practice of ritual exposure, most commonly identified with the so-called Towers of Silence for which there is no standard technical term in either scripture or tradition. Ritual exposure is currently mainly practiced by Zoroastrian communities of the Indian subcontinent, in locations where it is not illegal and diclofenac poisoning has not led to the virtual extinction of scavenger birds. Other Zoroastrian communities either cremate their dead, or bury them in graves that are cased with lime mortar, though Zoroastrians are keen to dispose of their dead in the most environmental way possible. While the Parsees in India have traditionally since the 19th century been opposed to proselytizing,[27] and even considered it a crime for which the culprit may face expulsion,[50] Iranian Zoroastrians have never been opposed to conversion, and the practice has been endorsed by the Council of Mobeds of Tehran. While the Iranian authorities do not permit proselytizing within Iran, Iranian Zoroastrians in exile have actively encouraged missionary activities, with the Zarathushtrian Assembly in Los Angeles and the International Zoroastrian Centre in Paris as two prominent organizations and the Federation of Zoroastrian Associations of North America being in favor of conversion and welcoming to converts. Converts from both traditionally Persian and non-Persian ethnicities have even been welcomed at international events, even attending and speaking at events such as the World Zoroastrian Congress and the World Zoroastrian Youth Congress.[51][52] Zoroastrians are encouraged to marry others of the same faith, but this is not a requirement outside of traditionalist communities where it is strictly enforced in regards to women marrying outside of the faith but not men.[53] History Painted clay and alabaster head of a Zoroastrian priest wearing a distinctive Bactrian-style headdress, Takhti-Sangin, Tajikistan, Greco-Bactrian kingdom, 3rd–2nd century BCE Classical antiquity See also: Western Perceptions of Zoroastrianism The Tomb of Cyrus the Great at Pasargadae, Iran. The roots of Zoroastrianism are thought to have emerged from a common prehistoric Indo-Iranian religious system dating back to the early 2nd millennium BCE.[54] The prophet Zoroaster himself, though traditionally dated to the 6th century BCE, is thought by many modern historians to have been a reformer of the polytheistic Iranian religion who lived in the 10th century BCE.[55] Zoroastrianism as a religion was not firmly established until several centuries later. Zoroastrianism enters recorded history in the mid-5th century BCE. Herodotus' The Histories (completed c. 440 BCE) includes a description of Greater Iranian society with what may be recognizably Zoroastrian features, including exposure of the dead. The Histories is a primary source of information on the early period of the Achaemenid era (648–330 BCE), in particular with respect to the role of the Magi. According to Herodotus, the Magi were the sixth tribe of the Medes (until the unification of the Persian empire under Cyrus the Great, all Iranians were referred to as "Mede" or "Mada" by the peoples of the Ancient World) and wielded considerable influence at the courts of the Median emperors.[56] Following the unification of the Median and Persian empires in 550 BCE, Cyrus the Great and later his son Cambyses II curtailed the powers of the Magi after they had attempted to sow dissent following their loss of influence. In 522 BCE, the Magi revolted and set up a rival claimant to the throne. The usurper, pretending to be Cyrus' younger son Smerdis, took power shortly thereafter.[57] Owing to the despotic rule of Cambyses and his long absence in Egypt, "the whole people, Persians, Medes and all the other nations" acknowledged the usurper, especially as he granted a remission of taxes for three years.[56] Darius I and later Achaemenid emperors acknowledged their devotion to Ahura Mazda in inscriptions, as attested to several times in the Behistun inscription, and appear to have continued the model of coexistence with other religions. Whether Darius was a follower of the teachings of Zoroaster has not been conclusively established as there is no indication of note that worship of Ahura Mazda was exclusively a Zoroastrian practice.[58] According to later Zoroastrian legend (Denkard and the Book of Arda Viraf), many sacred texts were lost when Alexander the Great's troops invaded Persepolis and subsequently destroyed the royal library there. Diodorus Siculus's Bibliotheca historica, which was completed circa 60 BCE, appears to substantiate this Zoroastrian legend.[59] According to one archaeological examination, the ruins of the palace of Xerxes bear traces of having been burned.[60] Whether a vast collection of (semi-)religious texts "written on parchment in gold ink", as suggested by the Denkard, actually existed remains a matter of speculation, but it is unlikely.[61] Alexander's conquests largely displaced Zoroastrianism with Hellenistic beliefs,[55] though the religion continued to be practiced many centuries following the demise of the Achaemenids in mainland Persia and the core regions of the former Achaemenid Empire, most notably Anatolia, Mesopotamia, and the Caucasus. In the Cappadocian kingdom, whose territory was formerly an Achaemenid possession, Persian colonists, cut off from their co-religionists in Iran proper, continued to practice the faith [Zoroastrianism] of their forefathers; and there Strabo, observing in the first century B.C., records (XV.3.15) that these "fire kindlers" possessed many "holy places of the Persian Gods", as well as fire temples.[62] Strabo further states that these were "noteworthy enclosures; and in their midst there is an altar, on which there is a large quantity of ashes and where the magi keep the fire ever burning."[62] It was not until the end of the Parthian period (247 b.c.– a.d. 224) that Zoroastrianism would receive renewed interest.[55] Late antiquity As late as the Parthian period, a form of Zoroastrianism was without a doubt the dominant religion in the Armenian lands.[63] The Sassanids aggressively promoted the Zurvanite form of Zoroastrianism, often building fire temples in captured territories to promote the religion. During the period of their centuries long suzerainty over the Caucasus, the Sassanids made attempts to promote Zoroastrianism there with considerable successes, and it was prominent in the pre-Christian Caucasus (especially modern-day Azerbaijan). Due to its ties to the Christian Roman Empire, Persia's arch-rival since Parthian times, the Sassanids were suspicious of Roman Christianity, and after the reign of Constantine the Great, sometimes persecuted it.[64] The Sassanid authority clashed with their Armenian subjects in the Battle of Avarayr ( a.d. 451), making them officially break with the Roman Church. But the Sassanids tolerated or even sometimes favored the Christianity of the Church of the East. The acceptance of Christianity in Georgia (Caucasian Iberia) saw the Zoroastrian religion there slowly but surely decline,[65] but as late the 5th century a.d. it was still widely practised as something like a second established religion.[66][67] Decline in the Middle Ages See also: Persecution of Zoroastrians A scene from the Hamzanama where Hamza ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib Burns Zarthust's Chest and Shatters the Urn with his Ashes Most of the Sassanid Empire was overthrown by the Arabs over the course of 16 years in the 7th century. Although the administration of the state was rapidly Islamicized and subsumed under the Umayyad Caliphate, in the beginning "there was little serious pressure" exerted on newly subjected people to adopt Islam.[68] Because of their sheer numbers, the conquered Zoroastrians had to be treated as dhimmis (despite doubts of the validity of this identification that persisted down the centuries),[69] which made them eligible for protection. Islamic jurists took the stance that only Muslims could be perfectly moral, but "unbelievers might as well be left to their iniquities, so long as these did not vex their overlords."[69] In the main, once the conquest was over and "local terms were agreed on", the Arab governors protected the local populations in exchange for tribute.[69] The Arabs adopted the Sassanid tax-system, both the land-tax levied on land owners and the poll-tax levied on individuals,[69] called jizya, a tax levied on non-Muslims (i.e., the dhimmis). In time, this poll-tax came to be used as a means to humble the non-Muslims, and a number of laws and restrictions evolved to emphasize their inferior status. Under the early orthodox caliphs, as long as the non-Muslims paid their taxes and adhered to the dhimmi laws, administrators were enjoined to leave non-Muslims "in their religion and their land." (Caliph Abu Bakr, qtd. in Boyce 1979, p. 146). Under Abbasid rule, Muslim Iranians (who by then were in the majority) in many instances showed severe disregard for and mistreated local Zoroastrians. For example, in the 9th century, a deeply venerated cypress tree in Khorasan (which Parthian-era legend supposed had been planted by Zoroaster himself) was felled for the construction of a palace in Baghdad, 2,000 miles (3,200 km) away. In the 10th century, on the day that a Tower of Silence had been completed at much trouble and expense, a Muslim official contrived to get up onto it, and to call the adhan (the Muslim call to prayer) from its walls. This was turned into a pretext to annex the building.[70] Ultimately, Muslim scholars like Al-Biruni found little records left of the belief of for instance the Khawarizmians because figures like Qutayba ibn Muslim "extinguished and ruined in every possible way all those who knew how to write and read the Khawarizmi writing, who knew the history of the country and who studied their sciences." As a result, "these things are involved in so much obscurity that it is impossible to obtain an accurate knowledge of the history of the country since the time of Islam…"[71] Conversion Though subject to a new leadership and harassment, the Zoroastrians were able to continue their former ways. But there was a slow but steady social and economic pressure to convert.[72][73] The nobility and city-dwellers were the first to convert, with Islam more slowly being accepted among the peasantry and landed gentry.[74] "Power and worldly-advantage" now lay with followers of Islam, and although the "official policy was one of aloof contempt, there were individual Muslims eager to proselytize and ready to use all sorts of means to do so."[73] In time, a tradition evolved by which Islam was made to appear as a partly Iranian religion. One example of this was a legend that Husayn, son of the fourth caliph Ali and grandson of Islam's prophet Muhammad, had married a captive Sassanid princess named Shahrbanu. This "wholly fictitious figure"[75] was said to have borne Husayn a son, the historical fourth Shi'a imam, who claimed that the caliphate rightly belonged to him and his descendants, and that the Umayyads had wrongfully wrested it from him. The alleged descent from the Sassanid house counterbalanced the Arab nationalism of the Umayyads, and the Iranian national association with a Zoroastrian past was disarmed. Thus, according to scholar Mary Boyce, "it was no longer the Zoroastrians alone who stood for patriotism and loyalty to the past."[75] The "damning indictment" that becoming Muslim was Un-Iranian only remained an idiom in Zoroastrian texts.[75] With Iranian support, the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads in 750, and in the subsequent caliphate government—that nominally lasted until 1258—Muslim Iranians received marked favor in the new government, both in Iran and at the capital in Baghdad. This mitigated the antagonism between Arabs and Iranians, but sharpened the distinction between Muslims and non-Muslims. The Abbasids zealously persecuted heretics, and although this was directed mainly at Muslim sectarians, it also created a harsher climate for non-Muslims.[76] Although the Abbasids were deadly foes of Zoroastrianism, the brand of Islam they propagated throughout Iran became ever more "Zoroastrianized", making it easier for Iranians to embrace Islam. Survival The fire temple of Baku, c. 1860 Despite economic and social incentives to convert, Zoroastrianism remained strong in some regions, particularly in those furthest away from the Caliphate capital at Baghdad. In Bukhara (in present-day Uzbekistan), resistance to Islam required the 9th-century Arab commander Qutaiba to convert his province four times. The first three times the citizens reverted to their old religion. Finally, the governor made their religion "difficult for them in every way", turned the local fire temple into a mosque, and encouraged the local population to attend Friday prayers by paying each attendee two dirhams.[73] The cities where Arab governors resided were particularly vulnerable to such pressures, and in these cases the Zoroastrians were left with no choice but to either conform or migrate to regions that had a more amicable administration.[73] The 9th century came to define the great number of Zoroastrian texts that were composed or re-written during the 8th to 10th centuries (excluding copying and lesser amendments, which continued for some time thereafter). All of these works are in the Middle Persian dialect of that period (free of Arabic words), and written in the difficult Pahlavi script (hence the adoption of the term "Pahlavi" as the name of the variant of the language, and of the genre, of those Zoroastrian books). If read aloud, these books would still have been intelligible to the laity. Many of these texts are responses to the tribulations of the time, and all of them include exhortations to stand fast in their religious beliefs. Some, such as the "Denkard", are doctrinal defenses of the religion, while others are explanations of theological aspects (such as the Bundahishn's) or practical aspects (e.g., explanation of rituals) of it. Fire temple in Yazd Museum of Zoroastrians in Kerman In Khorasan in northeastern Iran, a 10th-century Iranian nobleman brought together four Zoroastrian priests to transcribe a Sassanid-era Middle Persian work titled Book of the Lord (Khwaday Namag) from Pahlavi script into Arabic script. This transcription, which remained in Middle Persian prose (an Arabic version, by al-Muqaffa, also exists), was completed in 957 and subsequently became the basis for Firdausi's Book of Kings. It became enormously popular among both Zoroastrians and Muslims, and also served to propagate the Sassanid justification for overthrowing the Arsacids (i.e., that the Sassanids had restored the faith to its "orthodox" form after the Hellenistic Arsacids had allowed Zoroastrianism to become corrupt). Among migrations were those to cities in (or on the margins of) the great salt deserts, in particular to Yazd and Kerman, which remain centers of Iranian Zoroastrianism to this day. Yazd became the seat of the Iranian high priests during Mongol Il-Khanate rule, when the "best hope for survival [for a non-Muslim] was to be inconspicuous."[77] Crucial to the present-day survival of Zoroastrianism was a migration from the northeastern Iranian town of "Sanjan in south-western Khorasan",[78] to Gujarat, in western India. The descendants of that group are today known as the Parsis—"as the Gujaratis, from long tradition, called anyone from Iran"[78]—who today represent the larger of the two groups of Zoroastrians. The struggle between Zoroastrianism and Islam declined in the 10th and 11th centuries. Local Iranian dynasties, "all vigorously Muslim,"[78] had emerged as largely independent vassals of the Caliphs. In the 16th century, in one of the early letters between Iranian Zoroastrians and their co-religionists in India, the priests of Yazd lamented that "no period [in human history], not even that of Alexander, had been more grievous or troublesome for the faithful than 'this millennium of the demon of Wrath'."[79] Modern Further information: Parsi, Irani (India), and Zoroastrians in Iran A modern Zoroastrian fire temple in Western India Sadeh in Tehran, 2011 Zoroastrianism has survived into the modern period, particularly in India, where it has been present since about the 9th century. Today Zoroastrianism can be divided in two main schools of thought: reformists and traditionalists. Traditionalists are mostly Parsis and accept, beside the Gathas and Avesta, also the Middle Persian literature and like the reformists mostly developed in their modern form from 19th century developments.[27] They generally do not allow conversion to the faith and, as such, for someone to be a Zoroastrian they must be born of Zoroastrian parents. Some traditionalists recognize the children of mixed marriages as Zoroastrians, though usually only if the father is a born Zoroastrian.[80] Reformists tend to advocate a "return" to the Gathas, the universal nature of the faith, a decrease in ritualization, and an emphasis on the faith as philosophy rather than religion.[27] Not all Zoroastrians identify with either school and notable examples are getting traction including Neo-Zoroastrians/Para-Zoroastrians, which are usually radical reinterpretations of Zoroastrianism appealing towards Western concerns,[81] and Revivalists, who center the idea of Zoroastrianism as a living religion and advocate the revival and maintenance of old rituals and prayers while supporting ethical and social progressive reforms. Both of these latter schools tend to center the Gathas without outright rejecting other texts except the Vendidad. Ilm-e-Khshnoom and the Pundol Group are Zoroastrian mystical schools of thought popular among a small minority of the Parsi community inspired mostly by 19th-century theosophy and typified by a spiritual ethnocentric mentality.[27] From the 19th century onward, the Parsis gained a reputation for their education and widespread influence in all aspects of society. They played an instrumental role in the economic development of the region over many decades; several of the best-known business conglomerates of India are run by Parsi-Zoroastrians, including the Tata, Godrej, Wadia families, and others. Though the Armenians share a rich history affiliated with Zoroastrianism (that eventually declined with the advent of Christianity), reports indicate that there were Zoroastrian Armenians in Armenia until the 1920s.[82] A comparatively minor population persisted in Central Asia, the Caucasus, and Persia, and a growing large expatriate community has formed in the United States mostly from India and Iran, and to a lesser extent in the United Kingdom, Canada and Australia. At the request of the government of Tajikistan, UNESCO declared 2003 a year to celebrate the "3000th anniversary of Zoroastrian culture", with special events throughout the world. In 2011 the Tehran Mobeds Anjuman announced that for the first time in the history of modern Iran and of the modern Zoroastrian communities worldwide, women had been ordained in Iran and North America as mobedyars, meaning women assistant mobeds (Zoroastrian clergy).[83][84][85] The women hold official certificates and can perform the lower-rung religious functions and can initiate people into the religion.[86] Relation to other religions and cultures The Achaemenid Empire in the 5th century BCE was the largest empire in history by percentage of world population.[87] Some scholars believe[88] that key concepts of Zoroastrian eschatology and demonology influenced the Abrahamic religions.[89][90] On the other hand, Zoroastrianism itself inherited ideas from other belief systems and, like other "practiced" religions, accommodates some degree of syncretism,[91] with Zoroastrianism in Sogdia, the Kushan Empire, Armenia, China, and other places incorporating local and foreign practices and deities.[92] Zoroastrian influences on Hungarian, Slavic, Ossetian, Turkic and Mongol mythologies have also been noted, all of which bearing extensive light-dark dualisms and possible sun god theonyms related to Hvare-khshaeta.[93][94][95] Indo-Iranian origins See also: Indo-Iranians and Proto-Indo-Iranian religion The religion of Zoroastrianism is closest to Vedic religion to varying degrees. Some historians believe that Zoroastrianism, along with similar philosophical revolutions in South Asia were interconnected strings of reformation against a common Indo-Aryan thread. Many traits of Zoroastrianism can be traced back to the culture and beliefs of the prehistorical Indo-Iranian period, that is, to the time before the migrations that led to the Indo-Aryans and Iranics becoming distinct peoples. Zoroastrianism consequently shares elements with the historical Vedic religion that also has its origins in that era. Some examples include cognates between the Avestan word Ahura ("Ahura Mazda") and the Vedic Sanskrit word Asura ("demon; evil demigod"); as well as Daeva ("demon") and Deva ("god") and they both descend from a common Proto-Indo-Iranian religion. Manichaeism Zoroastrianism is often compared with Manichaeism. Nominally an Iranian religion, it has its origins in Middle-Eastern Gnosticism. Superficially such a comparison seems apt, as both are dualistic and Manichaeism adopted many of the Yazatas for its own pantheon. Gherardo Gnoli, in The Encyclopaedia of Religion,[96] says that "we can assert that Manichaeism has its roots in the Iranian religious tradition and that its relationship to Mazdaism, or Zoroastrianism, is more or less like that of Christianity to Judaism".[97] But they are quite different.[98] Manichaeism equated evil with matter and good with spirit, and was therefore particularly suitable as a doctrinal basis for every form of asceticism and many forms of mysticism. Zoroastrianism, on the other hand, rejects every form of asceticism, has no dualism of matter and spirit (only of good and evil), and sees the spiritual world as not very different from the natural one (the word "paradise", or pairi.daeza, applies equally to both.) Manichaeism's basic doctrine was that the world and all corporeal bodies were constructed from the substance of Satan, an idea that is fundamentally at odds with the Zoroastrian notion of a world that was created by God and that is all good, and any corruption of it is an effect of the bad.[citation needed] Present-day Iran Many aspects of Zoroastrianism are present in the culture and mythologies of the peoples of Greater Iran, not least because Zoroastrianism was a dominant influence on the people of the cultural continent for a thousand years. Even after the rise of Islam and the loss of direct influence, Zoroastrianism remained part of the cultural heritage of the Iranian language-speaking world, in part as festivals and customs, but also because Ferdowsi incorporated a number of the figures and stories from the Avesta in his epic Shāhnāme, which is pivotal to Iranian identity. One notable example is the incorporation of the Yazata Sraosha as an angel venerated within Shia Islam in Iran.[99] Religious text Avesta Main articles: Avesta and Avestan language The Avesta is a collection of the central religious texts of Zoroastrianism written in the old Iranian dialect of Avestan. The history of the Avesta is speculated upon in many Pahlavi texts with varying degrees of authority, with the current version of the Avesta dating at oldest from the times of the Sasanian Empire.[100] According to Middle Persian tradition, Ahura Mazda created the twenty-one Nasks of the original Avesta which Zoroaster brought to Vishtaspa. Here, two copies were created, one which was put in the house of archives and the other put in the Imperial treasury. During Alexander's conquest of Persia, the Avesta was burned, and the scientific sections that the Greeks could use were dispersed among themselves. However, there is no strong evidence historically towards these claims and they remain contested academically and within the faith.[100] As tradition continues, under the reign of King Valax of the Arsacis Dynasty, an attempt was made to restore what was considered the Avesta. During the Sassanid Empire, Ardeshir ordered Tansar, his high priest, to finish the work that King Valax had started. Shapur I sent priests to locate the scientific text portions of the Avesta that were in the possession of the Greeks. Under Shapur II, Arderbad Mahrespandand revised the canon to ensure its orthodox character, while under Khosrow I, the Avesta was translated into Pahlavi. The compilation of the Avesta can be authoritatively traced, however, to the Sasanian Empire, of which only fraction survive today if the Middle Persian literature is correct.[100] The later manuscripts all date from after the fall of the Sasanian Empire, the latest being from 1288, 590 years after the fall of the Sasanian Empire. The texts that remain today are the Gathas, Yasna, Visperad and the Vendidad, of which the latter's inclusion is disputed within the faith.[101] Along with these texts is the individual, communal, and ceremonial prayer book called the Khordeh Avesta, which contains the Yashts and other important hymns, prayers, and rituals. The rest of the materials from the Avesta are called "Avestan fragments" in that they are written in Avestan, incomplete, and generally of unknown provenance.[102] Middle Persian (Pahlavi) Middle Persian and Pahlavi works created in the 9th and 10th century contain many religious Zoroastrian books, as most of the writers and copyists were part of the Zoroastrian clergy. The most significant and important books of this era include the Denkard, Bundahishn, Menog-i Khrad, Selections of Zadspram, Jamasp Namag, Epistles of Manucher, Rivayats, Dadestan-i-Denig, and Arda Viraf Namag. All Middle Persian texts written on Zoroastrianism during this time period are considered secondary works on the religion, and not scripture. Nonetheless, these texts have had a strong influence on the religion. Zoroaster Main article: Zoroaster Zoroastrianism was founded by Zoroaster (or Zarathushtra) in ancient Iran. The precise date of the founding of Zoroastrianism is uncertain and dates differ wildly from 2000 BCE to "200 years before Alexander". Zoroaster was born in either Northeast Iran or Southwest Afghanistan. He was born into a culture with a polytheistic religion, which included excessive animal sacrifice[103] and the excessive ritual use of intoxicants, and his life was defined heavily by the settling of his people and the constant threats of raids and conflict. Zoroaster's birth and early life are little documented but speculated heavily upon in later texts. What is known is recorded in the Gathas—the core of the Avesta, which contains hymns thought to be composed by Zoroaster himself. Born into the Spitama clan, he refers to himself as a poet-priest and spiritual master. He had a wife, three sons, and three daughters, the numbers of which are gathered from various texts.[104] Zoroaster rejected many of the gods of the Bronze Age Iranians and their oppressive class structure, in which the Karvis and Karapans (princes and priests) controlled the ordinary people. He also opposed cruel animal sacrifices and the excessive use of the hallucinogenic Haoma plant (possibly a species of ephedra), but did not outright condemn completely either practice in moderate forms.[105][106] Zoroaster in legend According to later Zoroastrian tradition, when Zoroaster was 30 years old, he went into the Daiti river to draw water for a Haoma ceremony; when he emerged, he received a vision of Vohu Manah. After this, Vohu Manah took him to the other six Amesha Spentas, where he received the completion of his vision.[107] This vision radically transformed his view of the world, and he tried to teach this view to others. Zoroaster believed in one supreme creator deity and acknowledged this creator's emanations (Amesha Spenta) and other divinities which he called Ahuras (Yazata). Some of the deities of the old religion, the Daevas (Devas in Sanskrit), appeared to delight in war and strife and were condemned as evil workers of Angra Mainyu by Zoroaster. Zoroaster's ideas were not taken up quickly; he originally only had one convert: his cousin Maidhyoimanha.[108] The local religious authorities opposed his ideas, considering that their faith, power, and particularly their rituals were threatened by Zoroaster's teaching against the bad and overly-complicated ritualization of religious ceremonies. Many did not like Zoroaster's downgrading of the Daevas to evil ones not worthy of worship. After twelve years of little success, Zoroaster left his home. In the country of King Vishtaspa, the king and queen heard Zoroaster debating with the religious leaders of the land and decided to accept Zoroaster's ideas as the official religion of their kingdom after having Zoroaster prove himself by healing the king's favorite horse. Zoroaster is believed to have died in his late 70s, either by murder by a Turanian or old age. Very little is known of the time between Zoroaster and the Achaemenian period, except that Zoroastrianism spread to Western Iran and other regions. By the time of the founding of the Achaemenid Empire, Zoroastrianism is believed to have been already a well-established religion. Cypress of Kashmar Main article: Cypress of Kashmar The Cypress of Kashmar is a mythical cypress tree of legendary beauty and gargantuan dimensions. It is said to have sprung from a branch brought by Zoroaster from Paradise and to have stood in today's Kashmar in northeastern Iran and to have been planted by Zoroaster in honor of the conversion of King Vishtaspa to Zoroastrianism. According to the Iranian physicist and historian Zakariya al-Qazwini King Vishtaspa had been a patron of Zoroaster who planted the tree himself. In his ʿAjā'ib al-makhlūqāt wa gharā'ib al-mawjūdāt, he further describes how the Al-Mutawakkil in 247 AH (861 AD) caused the mighty cypress to be felled, and then transported it across Iran, to be used for beams in his new palace at Samarra. Before, he wanted the tree to be reconstructed before his eyes. This was done in spite of protests by the Iranians, who offered a very great sum of money to save the tree. Al-Mutawakkil never saw the cypress, because he was murdered by a Turkish soldier (possibly in the employ of his son) on the night when it arrived on the banks of the Tigris.[109][110] Principal beliefs Humata, Huxta, Huvarshta (Good Thoughts, Good Words, Good Deeds), the Threefold Path of Asha, is considered the core maxim of Zoroastrianism especially by modern practitioners. In Zoroastrianism, good transpires for those who do righteous deeds for its own sake, not for the search of reward. Those who do evil are said to be attacked and confused by the druj and are responsible for aligning themselves back to Asha by following this path.[28] Faravahar (or Ferohar), one of the primary symbols of Zoroastrianism, believed to be the depiction of a Fravashi or the Khvarenah. In Zoroastrianism, Ahura Mazda is the beginning and the end, the creator of everything that can and cannot be seen, the eternal and uncreated, the all-good and source of Asha.[9] In the Gathas, the most sacred texts of Zoroastrianism thought to have been composed by Zoroaster himself, Zoroaster acknowledged the highest devotion to Ahura Mazda, with worship and adoration also given to Ahura Mazda's manifestations (Amesha Spenta) and the other ahuras (Yazata) that support Ahura Mazda.[111] Daena (din in modern Persian and meaning "that which is seen") is representative of the sum of one's spiritual conscience and attributes, which through one's choice Asha is either strengthened or weakened in the Daena.[112] Traditionally, the manthras, spiritual prayer formulas, are believed to be of immense power and the vehicles of Asha and creation used to maintain good and fight evil.[113] Daena should not be confused with the fundamental principle of Asha, believed to be the cosmic order which governs and permeates all existence, and the concept of which governed the life of the ancient Indo-Iranians. For these, asha was the course of everything observable—the motion of the planets and astral bodies; the progression of the seasons; and the pattern of daily nomadic herdsman life, governed by regular metronomic events such as sunrise and sunset, and was strengthened through truth-telling and following the Threefold Path.[21] All physical creation (getig) was thus determined to run according to a master plan—inherent to Ahura Mazda—and violations of the order (druj) were violations against creation, and thus violations against Ahura Mazda.[24] This concept of asha versus the druj should not be confused with Western and especially Abrahamic notions of good versus evil, for although both forms of opposition express moral conflict, the asha versus druj concept is more systemic and less personal, representing, for instance, chaos (that opposes order); or "uncreation", evident as natural decay (that opposes creation); or more simply "the lie" (that opposes truth and goodness).[21] Moreover, in the role as the one uncreated creator of all, Ahura Mazda is not the creator of druj, which is "nothing", anti-creation, and thus (likewise) uncreated and developed as the antithesis of existence through choice.[22] A Parsi Wedding, 1905 In this schema of asha versus druj, mortal beings (both humans and animals) play a critical role, for they too are created. Here, in their lives, they are active participants in the conflict, and it is their spiritual duty to defend Asha, which is under constant assault and would decay in strength without counteraction.[21] Throughout the Gathas, Zoroaster emphasizes deeds and actions within society and accordingly extreme asceticism is frowned upon in Zoroastrianism but moderate forms are allowed within.[46] This was explained as fleeing from the experiences and joys of life, which was the very purpose that the urvan (most commonly translated as the "soul") was sent into the mortal world to collect. The avoidance of any aspect of life which does not bring harm to another and engage in activities that support the druj, which includes the avoidance of the pleasures of life, is a shirking of the responsibility and duty to oneself, one's urvan, and one's family and social obligations.[22] Central to Zoroastrianism is the emphasis on moral choice, to choose the responsibility and duty for which one is in the mortal world, or to give up this duty and so facilitate the work of druj. Similarly, predestination is rejected in Zoroastrian teaching and the absolute free will of all conscious beings is core, with even divine beings having the ability to choose. Humans bear responsibility for all situations they are in, and in the way they act toward one another. Reward, punishment, happiness, and grief all depend on how individuals live their lives.[114] In the 19th century, through contact with Western academics and missionaries, Zoroastrianism experienced a massive theological change that still affects it today. The Rev. John Wilson led various missionary campaigns in India against the Parsi community, disparaging the Parsis for their "dualism" and "polytheism" and as having unnecessary rituals while declaring the Avesta to not be "divinely inspired". This caused mass dismay in the relatively uneducated Parsi community, which blamed its priests and led to some conversions towards Christianity. The arrival of the German orientalist and philologist Martin Haug led to a rallied defense of the faith through Haug's reinterpretation of the Avesta through Christianized and European orientalist lens. Haug postulated that Zoroastrianism was solely monotheistic with all other divinities reduced to the status of angels while Ahura Mazda became both omnipotent and the source of evil as well as good. Haug's thinking was subsequently disseminated as a Parsi interpretation, thus corroborating Haug's theory, and the idea became so popular that it is now almost universally accepted as doctrine though being reevaluated in modern Zoroastrianism and academia.[27][5] Throughout Zoroastrian history, shrines and temples have been the focus of worship and pilgrimage for adherents of the religion. Early Zoroastrians were recorded as worshiping in the 5th century BCE on mounds and hills where fires were lit below the open skies.[115] In the wake of Achaemenid expansion, shrines were constructed throughout the empire and particularly influenced the role of Mithra, Aredvi Sura Anahita, Verethragna and Tishtrya, alongside other traditional Yazata who all have hymns within the Avesta and also local deities and culture-heroes. Today, enclosed and covered fire temples tend to be the focus of community worship where fires of varying grades are maintained by the clergy assigned to the temples.[116] Cosmology: Creation of the universe According to the Zoroastrian creation myth, Ahura Mazda existed in light and goodness above, while Angra Mainyu existed in darkness and ignorance below. They have existed independently of each other for all time, and manifest contrary substances. Ahura Mazda first manifested seven divine beings called Amesha Spentas, who support him and represent beneficent aspects of personality and creation, along with numerous Yazatas, divinities worthy of worship. Ahura Mazda then created the material and visible world itself in order to ensnare evil. Ahura Mazda created the floating, egg-shaped universe in two parts: first the spiritual (menog) and 3,000 years later, the physical (getig). Ahura Mazda then created Gayomard, the archetypical perfect man, and Gavaevodata, the primordial bovine.[114] While Ahura Mazda created the universe and humankind, Angra Mainyu, whose very nature is to destroy, miscreated demons, evil daevas, and noxious creatures (khrafstar) such as snakes, ants, and flies. Angra Mainyu created an opposite, evil being for each good being, except for humans, which he found he could not match. Angra Mainyu invaded the universe through the base of the sky, inflicting Gayomard and the bull with suffering and death. However, the evil forces were trapped in the universe and could not retreat. The dying primordial man and bovine emitted seeds, which were protect by Mah, the Moon. From the bull's seed grew all beneficial plants and animals of the world and from the man's seed grew a plant whose leaves became the first human couple. Humans thus struggle in a two-fold universe of the material and spiritual trapped and in long combat with evil. The evils of this physical world are not products of an inherent weakness, but are the fault of Angra Mainyu's assault on creation. This assault turned the perfectly flat, peaceful, and ever day-lit world into a mountainous, violent place that is half night.[114] Eschatology: Renovation and judgment Main article: Frashokereti Zoroastrianism also includes beliefs about the renovation of the world (Frashokereti) and individual judgment (cf. general and particular judgment), including the resurrection of the dead, which are alluded to in the Gathas but developed in later Avestan and Middle Persian writings. Individual judgment at death is at the Chinvat Bridge ("bridge of judgement" or "bridge of choice"), which each human must cross, facing a spiritual judgment, though modern belief is split as to whether it is representative of a mental decision during life to choose between good and evil or an afterworld location. Humans' actions under their free will through choice determine the outcome. According to tradition, the soul is judged by the Yazatas Mithra, Sraosha, and Rashnu, where depending on the verdict one is either greeted at the bridge by a beautiful, sweet-smelling maiden or by an ugly, foul-smelling old hag representing their Daena affected by their actions in life. The maiden leads the dead safely across the bridge, which widens and becomes pleasant for the righteous, towards the House of Song. The hag leads the dead down a bridge that narrows to a razor's edge and is full of stench until the departed falls off into the abyss towards the House of Lies.[114][117] Those with a balance of good and evil go to Hamistagan, a neutral place of waiting where according to the Dadestan-i Denig, a Middle Persian work from the 9th century, the souls of the departed can relive their lives and conduct good deeds to raise themselves towards the House of Song or await the final judgement and the mercy of Ahura Mazda.[118] The House of Lies is considered temporary and reformative; punishments fit the crimes, and souls do not rest in eternal damnation. Hell contains foul smells and evil food, a smothering darkness, and souls are packed tightly together although they believe they are in total isolation.[114] In ancient Zoroastrian eschatology, a 3,000-year struggle between good and evil will be fought, punctuated by evil's final assault. During the final assault, the sun and moon will darken and humankind will lose its reverence for religion, family, and elders. The world will fall into winter, and Angra Mainyu's most fearsome miscreant, Azi Dahaka, will break free and terrorize the world.[114] According to legend, the final savior of the world, known as the Saoshyant, will be born to a virgin impregnated by the seed of Zoroaster while bathing in a lake. The Saoshyant will raise the dead—including those in all afterworlds—for final judgment, returning the wicked to hell to be purged of bodily sin. Next, all will wade through a river of molten metal in which the righteous will not burn but through which the impure will be completely purified. The forces of good will ultimately triumph over evil, rendering it forever impotent but not destroyed. The Saoshyant and Ahura Mazda will offer a bull as a final sacrifice for all time and all humans will become immortal. Mountains will again flatten and valleys will rise; the House of Song will descend to the moon, and the earth will rise to meet them both.[114] Humanity will require two judgments because there are as many aspects to our being: spiritual (menog) and physical (getig).[114] Thus, Zoroastrianism can be said to be a universalist religion with respect to salvation in that all souls are redeemed at the final judgement. Ritual and prayer The central ritual of Zoroastrianism is the Yasna, which is a recitation of the eponymous book of the Avesta and sacrificial ritual ceremony involving Haoma.[119] Extensions to the Yasna ritual are possible through use of the Visperad and Vendidad, but such an extended ritual is rare in modern Zoroastrianism.[120][121] The Yasna itself descended from Indo-Iranian sacrificial ceremonies and animal sacrifice of varying degrees are mentioned in the Avesta and are still practiced in Zoroastrianism albeit through reduced forms such as the sacrifice of fat before meals.[105] High rituals such as the Yasna are considered to be the purview of the Mobeds with a corpus of individual and communal rituals and prayers included in the Khordeh Avesta.[119][122] A Zoroastrian is welcomed into the faith through the Navjote/Sedreh Pushi ceremony, which is traditionally conducted during the later childhood or pre-teen years of the aspirant, though there is no defined age limit for the ritual.[113][123] After the ceremony, Zoroastrians are encouraged to wear their sedreh (ritual shirt) and kusti (ritual girdle) daily as a spiritual reminder and for mystical protection, though modern Zoroastrians tend to only wear them during festivals, ceremonies, and prayers.[124][113][123] The incorporation of cultural and local rituals is quite common and traditions have been passed down in historically Zoroastrian communities such as herbal healing practices, wedding ceremonies, and the like.[125][126][113] Traditionally, Zoroastrian rituals have also included shamanic elements involving mystical methods such as spirit travel to the invisible realm and involving the consumption of fortified wine, Haoma, mang, and other ritual aids.[127][24][128][129][130] Historically, Zoroastrians are encouraged to pray the five daily Gāhs and to maintain and celebrate the various holy festivals of the Zoroastrian calendar, which can differ from community to community.[131][132] Zoroastrian prayers, called manthras, are conducted usually with hands outstretched in imitation of Zoroaster's prayer style described in the Gathas and are of a reflectionary and supplicant nature believed to be endowed with the ability to banish evil.[133][134][39] Devout Zoroastrians are known to cover their heads during prayer, either with traditional topi, scarves, other headwear, or even just their hands. However, full coverage and veiling which is traditional in Islamic practice is not a part of Zoroastrianism and Zoroastrian women in Iran wear their head coverings displaying hair and their faces to defy mandates by the Islamic Republic of Iran.[135] Demographics The sacred Zoroastrian pilgrimage shrine of Chak Chak in Yazd, Iran. Further information: List of countries by Zoroastrian population and List of Zoroastrians Zoroastrian communities internationally tend to comprise mostly two main groups of people: Indian Parsis and Iranian Zoroastrians. According to a study in 2012 by the Federation of Zoroastrian Associations of North America, the number of Zoroastrians worldwide was estimated to be between 111,691 and 121,962. The number is imprecise because of diverging counts in Iran.[1] Small Zoroastrian communities may be found all over the world, with a continuing concentration in Western India, Central Iran, and Southern Pakistan. Zoroastrians of the diaspora are primarily located in the United States, Great Britain and the former British colonies, particularly Canada and Australia, and usually anywhere where there is a strong Iranian and Gujarati presence. In South Asia India Main articles: Parsi and Irani (India) Parsi Navjote ceremony (rites of admission into the Zoroastrian faith) India is considered to be home to the single largest Zoroastrian population in the world. When the Islamic armies, under the first caliphs, invaded Persia, those locals who were unwilling to convert to Islam sought refuge, first in the mountains of Northern Iran, then the regions of Yazd and its surrounding villages. Later, in the ninth century CE, a group sought refuge in the western coastal region of India, and also scattered to other regions of the world. Following the fall of the Sassanid Empire in 651 CE, many Zoroastrians migrated. Among them were several groups who ventured to Gujarat on the western shores of the Indian subcontinent, where they finally settled. The descendants of those refugees are today known as the Parsis. The year of arrival on the subcontinent cannot be precisely established, and Parsi legend and tradition assigns various dates to the event. In the Indian census of 2001, the Parsis numbered 69,601, representing about 0.006% of the total population of India, with a concentration in and around the city of Mumbai. Due to a low birth rate and high rate of emigration, demographic trends project that by 2020 the Parsis will number only about 23,000 or 0.002% of the total population of India. By 2008, the birth-to-death ratio was 1:5; 200 births per year to 1,000 deaths.[136] India's 2011 Census recorded 57,264 Parsi Zoroastrians.[137] Pakistan In Pakistan, the Zoroastrian population was estimated to number 1,675 people in 2012,[1] mostly living in Sindh (especially Karachi) followed by Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.[138][139] The National Database and Registration Authority (NADRA) of Pakistan claimed that there were 3,650 Parsi voters during the elections in Pakistan in 2013 and 4,235 in 2018.[140] Iran, Iraq and Central Asia Main article: Zoroastrians in Iran Iran's figures of Zoroastrians have ranged widely; the last census (1974) before the revolution of 1979 revealed 21,400 Zoroastrians.[141] Some 10,000 adherents remain in the Central Asian regions that were once considered the traditional stronghold of Zoroastrianism, i.e., Bactria (see also Balkh), which is in Northern Afghanistan; Sogdiana; Margiana; and other areas close to Zoroaster's homeland. In Iran, emigration, out-marriage and low birth rates are likewise leading to a decline in the Zoroastrian population. Zoroastrian groups in Iran say their number is approximately 60,000.[142] According to the Iranian census data from 2011 the number of Zoroastrians in Iran was 25,271.[143] Communities exist in Tehran, as well as in Yazd, Kerman and Kermanshah, where many still speak an Iranian language distinct from the usual Persian. They call their language Dari (not to be confused with the Dari of Afghanistan). Their language is also called Gavri or Behdini, literally "of the Good Religion". Sometimes their language is named for the cities in which it is spoken, such as Yazdi or Kermani. Iranian Zoroastrians were historically called Gabrs, originally without a pejorative connotation but in the present-day derogatorily applied to all non-Muslims. The number of Kurdish Zoroastrians, along with those of non-ethnic converts, has been estimated differently.[144] The Zoroastrian Representative of the Kurdistan Regional Government in Iraq has claimed that as many as 100,000 people in Iraqi Kurdistan have converted to Zoroastrianism recently, with community leaders repeating this claim and speculating that even more Zoroastrians in the region are practicing their faith secretly.[145][146][147] However, this has not been confirmed by independent sources.[148] The surge in Kurdish Muslims converting to Zoroastrianism is largely attributed to disillusionment with Islam after experiencing violence and oppression perpetrated by ISIS in the area.[149] Western world North America is thought to be home to 18,000–25,000 Zoroastrians of both South Asian and Iranian background. A further 3,500 live in Australia (mainly in Sydney). As of 2012, the population of Zoroastrians in USA was 15,000, making it the third-largest Zoroastrian population in the world after those of India and Iran.[150] It has been claimed that 3,000 Kurds have converted to Zoroastrianism in Sweden.[151] In 2020, Historic England published A Survey of Zoroastrianism Buildings in England with the aim of providing information about buildings that Zoroastrians use in England so that HE can work with communities to enhance and protect those buildings now and in the future. The scoping survey identified four buildings in England.[152] See also Religion portal Asia portal Iran portal Dualistic cosmology Iranian religions Proto-Indo-European religion Zoroastrian calendar Persecution of Zoroastrians Muslim conquest of Persia References ^ a b c d e f g h Rivetna, Roshan. "The Zarathushti World, a 2012 Demographic Picture" (PDF). Fezana.org. ^ "ZOROASTRIANISM i. HISTORY TO THE ARAB CONQUEST – Encyclopaedia Iranica". Encyclopædia Iranica. 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(2004), An Introduction to the History of the Assyrian Church, or, The Church of the Sassanid Persian Empire, 100–640 A.D, Gorgias Press, p. 34, ISBN 978-1593331030 ^ Dr Stephen H Rapp Jr. The Sasanian World through Georgian Eyes: Caucasia and the Iranian Commonwealth in Late Antique Georgian Literature Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 28 September 2014. ISBN 1472425529, p. 160 ^ Ronald Grigor Suny. The Making of the Georgian Nation Indiana University Press, 1994, ISBN 0253209153, p. 22 ^ Roger Rosen, Jeffrey Jay Foxx. The Georgian Republic, Volume 1992 Passport Books, 1992 p. 34 ^ Boyce 1979, p. 150. ^ a b c d Boyce 1979, p. 146. ^ Boyce 1979, p. 158. ^ "Kamar Oniah Kamaruzzaman, Al-Biruni: Father of Comparative Religion". Lib.iium.edu.my. Archived from the original on 13 July 2015. 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Amordad6485.blogfa.com. Retrieved 2017-06-14. ^ "Sedreh Pooshi by Female Mobedyar in Toronto Canada". Parsinews.net. 2013-06-19. Retrieved 2017-06-14. ^ "گزارش تصویری-موبدیاران بانوی زرتشتی، به جرگه موبدیاران پیوستند (بخش نخست)". Archived from the original on September 27, 2013. Retrieved August 10, 2013.CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) ^ While estimates for the Achaemenid Empire range from 10–80+ million, most prefer 50 million. Prevas (2009, p. 14) estimates 10 million 1. Langer (2001, p. 40) estimates around 16 million 2. McEvedy and Jones (2001, p. 50) estimates 17 million 3 Archived 2013-10-13 at the Wayback Machine. Strauss (2004, p. 37) estimates about 20 million 4. Ward (2009, p. 16) estimates at 20 million 5. Aperghis (2007, p. 311) estimates 32 million 6. Scheidel (2009, p. 99) estimates 35 million 7. Zeinert (1996, p. 32) estimates 40 million 8. Rawlinson and Schauffler (1898, p. 270) estimates possibly 50 million 9. Astor (1899, p. 56) estimates almost 50 million 10. Lissner (1961, p. 111) estimates probably 50 million 11. Milns (1968, p. 51) estimates some 50 million 12. Hershlag (1980, p. 140) estimates nearly 50 million 13. Yarshater (1996, p. 47) estimates by 50 million 14. Daniel (2001, p. 41) estimates at 50 million 15. Meyer and Andreades (2004, p. 58) estimates to 50 million 16. Pollack (2004, p. 7) estimates about 50 million 17. Jones (2004, p. 8) estimates over 50 million 18. Safire (2007, p. 627) estimates in 50 million 19. Dougherty (2009, p. 6) estimates about 70 million 20. Richard (2008, p. 34) estimates nearly 70 million 21. Mitchell (2004, p. 16) estimates over 70 million 22. Hanson (2001, p. 32) estimates almost 75 million 23. West (1913, p. 85) estimates about 75 million 24. Zenos (1889, p. 2) estimates exactly 75 million 25. Cowley (1999 and 2001, p. 17) estimates possibly 80 million 26. Cook (1904, p. 277) estimates exactly 80 million 27. ^ "Zoroastrianism". jewishencyclopedia.com. 2012. Retrieved 23 February 2012. ^ Black & Rowley 1987, p. 607b harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBlackRowley1987 (help). ^ Duchesne-Guillemin 1988, p. 815. ^ e.g., Boyce 1982, p. 202. ^ The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Zoroastrianism. John Wiley & Sons. 2015. pp. 83–191. ISBN 9781444331356. ^ Š. Kulišić; P.Ž. Petrović; N. Pantelić. "Бели бог". Српски митолошки речник (in Serbian). Belgrade: Nolit. pp. 21–22. ^ Juha Pentikäinen, Walter de Gruyter, Shamanism and Northern Ecology 11/07/2011 ^ Diószegi, Vilmos (1998) [1958]. A sámánhit emlékei a magyar népi műveltségben (in Hungarian) (1. reprint kiadás ed.). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. ISBN 963-05-7542-6. The title means: “Remnants of shamanistic beliefs in Hungarian folklore”. ^ Gherardo Gnoli, “Manichaeism: An Overview”, in Encyclopedia of Religion, ed. Mircea Eliade (NY: MacMillan Library Reference USA, 1987), 9: 165. ^ Contrast with Henning's observations: Henning, W.B., The Book of Giants, BSOAS, Vol. XI, Part 1, 1943, pp. 52–74: It is noteworthy that Mani, who was brought up and spent most of his life in a province of the Persian empire, and whose mother belonged to a famous Parthian family, did not make any use of the Iranian mythological tradition. There can no longer be any doubt that the Iranian names of Sām, Narīmān, etc., that appear in the Persian and Sogdian versions of the Book of the Giants, did not figure in the original edition, written by Mani in the Syriac language ^ Zaehner 1956, pp. 53–54 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFZaehner1956 (help). ^ "SRAOŠA". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2019-07-13. ^ a b c "AVESTA i. Survey of the history and contents o". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2019-07-13. ^ "Is The Vandidad a Zarathushtrian Scripture?". English Zoroastrian. Retrieved 2019-07-13. ^ Bromiley 1995, p. 124. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBromiley1995 (help) ^ Boyce (1979), p. 26 ^ "ZOROASTER". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2019-07-13. ^ a b "SACRIFICE i. IN ZOROASTRIANISM". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2019-07-13. ^ "HAOMA". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2019-07-13. ^ Boyce (1979), p. 19 ^ Boyce (1979), pp. 30–31 ^ "The Destruction of Sacred Trees". www.goldenassay.com. Retrieved 6 February 2020. ^ "The Cypress of Kashmar and Zoroaster". www.zoroastrian.org.uk. Retrieved 6 February 2020. ^ "GATHAS". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2019-07-13. ^ "DĒN". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2019-07-13. ^ a b c d "ZOROASTRIAN RITUALS". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2019-07-13. ^ a b c d e f g h Cavendish, Richard; Ling, Trevor Oswald (1980), Mythology: an Illustrated Encyclopedia, Rizzoli, pp. 40–45, ISBN 978-0847802869 ^ "Herodotus, The Histories, Book 1, chapter 131". Perseus Digital Library. Retrieved 2019-07-13. ^ "ĀTAŠKADA". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2019-07-13. ^ "ČINWAD PUHL". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2019-07-13. ^ "Dadestan-i Denig ('Religious Decisions'): Chapters 1-41". Avesta. Retrieved 2019-07-13. ^ a b "YASNA". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2019-07-13. ^ "VISPERAD". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2019-07-13. ^ "VENDĪDĀD". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2019-07-13. ^ "KHORDEH AVESTĀ". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2019-07-13. ^ a b "Zoroastrian rituals: Navjote/Sudre-Pooshi (initiation) ceremony". Avesta. Retrieved 2019-07-13. ^ "KUSTĪG". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2019-07-13. ^ Ajiri, Denise Hassanzade; correspondent, Tehran Bureau (2016-04-11). "Herbal life: traditional medicine gets a modern twist in Iran". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2019-07-13. ^ "Zoroastrian Rituals: Wedding". Avesta. Retrieved 2019-07-13. ^ "ARDĀ WĪRĀZ". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2019-07-13. ^ "KARTIR". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2019-07-13. ^ "BANG". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2019-07-13. ^ "MAGIC i. MAGICAL ELEMENTS IN THE AVESTA AND NĒRANG LITERATURE". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2019-07-13. ^ "GĀH". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2019-07-13. ^ "FESTIVALS i. ZOROASTRIAN". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2019-07-13. ^ "YEŊ́HĒ HĀTĄM". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2019-07-13. ^ "AŠƎM VOHŪ (Ashem vohu)". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2019-07-13. ^ "ČĀDOR (2)". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2019-07-13. ^ "Doomed by faith", The Independent, 2008-06-28, retrieved 2008-06-28 ^ "Parsi population dips by 22 per cent between 2001–2011: study", The Hindu, PTI, 2016-07-26, retrieved 2016-07-26 ^ "The Parsi Community in Karachi, Pakistan". Public Radio International. ^ Khan, Iftikhar A. (May 28, 2018). "Number of non-Muslim voters in Pakistan shows rise of over 30pc". Dawn. Retrieved September 12, 2019. ^ "Over 35,000 Buddhists, Baháʼís call Pakistan home". The Express Tribune. September 2, 2012. Retrieved September 12, 2019. ^ K. E. Eduljee (2008-06-28). "Zoroastrian Demographics & Group Names". Heritageinstitute.com. Retrieved 2017-06-14. ^ U.S. State Department (2009-10-26). "Iran – International Religious Freedom Report 2009". The Office of Electronic Information, Bureau of Public Affair. Archived from the original on 2009-10-29. Retrieved 2009-12-01. ^ "Census: Iran young, urbanised and educated". Egypt Independent. 2012-07-29. Retrieved 2017-06-14. ^ Fatah, Lara (2015-11-26). "The curious rebirth of Zoroastrianism in Iraqi Kurdistan". Projects21.org. Retrieved 27 February 2018. ^ "Hamazor Issue #2 2017: "Kurdistan reclaims its ancient Zoroastrian Faith" (PDF). Hamazor. ^ "Zoroastrian faith returns to Kurdistan in response to ISIS violence". Rudaw. 2015-06-02. Retrieved 2016-05-17. ^ "Kurdistan, the only government in Middle East that recognizes religious diversity". Kurdistan24. Retrieved 2019-07-13. ^ "Zoroastrian faith returns to Kurdistan in response to ISIL viole". Rudaw. Retrieved 18 September 2015. ^ "Iraqi Kurds turn to Zoroastrianism as faith, identity entwine". France24. 23 October 2019. ^ NIAC inSight, Washington insights for the Iranian-American community from the National Iranian American Council. "An Old Faith in the New World – Zoroastrianism in the United States". NIAC inSight. ^ Stewart, Sarah; Hintze, Almut; Williams, Alan (2016). The Zoroastrian Flame: Exploring Religion, History and Tradition. London: I.B Tauris. ISBN 9781784536336. ^ Tomalin, Emma (2020). "A Survey of Zoroastrianism Buildings in England. Historic England Research Report 203/2020". research.historicengland.org.uk. Retrieved 2020-06-16. Bibliography Black, Matthew; Rowley, H. H., eds. (1982), Peake's Commentary on the Bible, New York: Nelson, ISBN 978-0-415-05147-7 Boyce, Mary (1984), Textual sources for the study of Zoroastrianism, Manchester: Manchester UP, ISBN 978-0-226-06930-2 Boyce, Mary (1987), Zoroastrianism: A Shadowy but Powerful Presence in the Judaeo-Christian World, London: William's Trust Boyce, Mary (1979), Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, London: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-23903-5 (note to catalogue searchers: the spine of this edition misprints the title "Zoroastrians" as "Zoroastians", and this may lead to catalogue errors; there is a second edition published in 2001 with the same ISBN) Boyce, Mary (1975), The History of Zoroastrianism, 1, Leiden: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-10474-7, (repr. 1996) Boyce, Mary (1982), The History of Zoroastrianism, 2, Leiden: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-06506-2, (repr. 1997) Boyce, Mary (1991), The History of Zoroastrianism, 3, Leiden: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-09271-6, (repr. 1997) Boyce, Mary (2007), Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, London: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-23903-5 Boyce, Mary (1983), "Ahura Mazdā", Encyclopaedia Iranica, 1, New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul pp. 684–687 Bulliet, Richard W. (1979), Conversion to Islam in the Medieval Period: An Essay in Quantitative History, Cambridge: Harvard UP, ISBN 978-0-674-17035-3 Carroll, Warren H. (1985), Founding Of Christendom: History Of Christendom, 1, Urbana: Illinois UP, ISBN 978-0-931888-21-2, (repr. 2004) Clark, Peter (1998), Zoroastrianism: An Introduction to an Ancient Faith, Brighton: Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1-898723-78-3 Dhalla, Maneckji Nusservanji (1938), History of Zoroastrianism, New York: OUP Duchesne-Guillemin, Jacques (1988), "Zoroastrianism", Encyclopedia Americana, 29, Danbury: Grolier pp. 813–815 Duchesne-Guillemin, Jacques (2006), "Zoroastrianism: Relation to other religions", Encyclopædia Britannica (Online ed.), archived from the original on 2007-12-14, retrieved 2006-05-31 Eliade, Mircea; Couliano, Ioan P. (1991), The Eliade Guide to World Religions, New York: Harper Collins Foltz, Richard (2013), Religions of Iran: From Prehistory to the Present, London: Oneworld publications, ISBN 978-1-78074-308-0 Hourani, Albert (1947), Minorities in the Arab World, New York: AMS Press Kellens, Jean, "Avesta", Encyclopaedia Iranica, 3, New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul pp. 35–44. Khan, Roni K (1996), The Tenets of Zoroastrianism King, Charles William (1998) [1887], Gnostics and their Remains Ancient and Mediaeval, London: Bell & Daldy, ISBN 978-0-7661-0381-8 Melton, J. Gordon (1996), Encyclopedia of American Religions, Detroit: Gale Research Malandra, William W. (1983), An Introduction to Ancient Iranian Religion. Readings from the Avesta and Achaemenid Inscriptions, Minneapolis: U. Minnesota Press, ISBN 978-0-8166-1114-0 Malandra, William W. (2005), "Zoroastrianism: Historical Review", Encyclopaedia Iranica, New York: iranicaonline.org Moulton, James Hope (1917), The Treasure of the Magi: A Study of Modern Zoroastrianism, London: OUP, 1-564-59612-5 (repr. 1997) Robinson, B.A. (2008), Zoroastrianism: Holy text, beliefs and practices, retrieved 2010-03-01 Russell, James R. (1987), Zoroastrianism in Armenia (Harvard Iranian Series), Oxford: Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-96850-9 Simpson, John A.; Weiner, Edmund S., eds. (1989), "Zoroastrianism", Oxford English Dictionary (2nd ed.), London: Oxford UP, ISBN 978-0-19-861186-8 Stolze, Franz (1882), Die Achaemenidischen und Sasanidischen Denkmäler und Inschriften von Persepolis, Istakhr, Pasargadae, Shâpûr, Berlin: A. Asher Verlag, Chronik (2008), The Chronicle of World History, United States: Konecky and Konecky Zaehner, Robert Charles (1961), The Dawn and Twilight of Zoroastrianism, London: Phoenix Press, ISBN 978-1-84212-165-8 External links Zoroastrianismat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Data from Wikidata Encyclopedia Iranica - Zoroastrianism Zoroastrianism at Curlie FEZANA – Federation of Zoroastrian Associations of North America Zoroastrianism, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis, Farrokh Vajifdar & Alan Williams (In Our Time, Nov. 11, 2004) v t e Iranian-Zoroastrian calendar Days Hormazd Bahman Ardibehest Shehrevar Aspandarmad Khordad Amardad Dae-Pa-Adar Adar Avan Khorshed Mohor Tir Gosh Dae-Pa-Meher Meher Srosh Rashne Fravardin Behram Ram Govad Dae-Pa-Din Din Ashishvangh Ashtad Asman Zamyad Mahraspand Aneran Months Fravardin Ardibehest Khordad Tir Amardad Shehrevar Meher Avan Adar Dae Bahman Aspandarmad Festivals Gambhars Khordad Sal Fravardigan Tiragan Meheragan Avan Roj Nu Parab Adar Roj Nu Parab Jashn-e-Sadeh Zartosht No-Diso Papeti Nowruz  Religion portal Category v t e Zoroastrianism Date Zoroaster Vishtaspa Firooz Bahram High School Concepts Ahura Mazda Yazata Ahriman Amesha Spenta Saoshyant Zurvanism Asha Haoma Magi Anahita Fravashi Chinvat Bridge Frashokereti Mobad Vohu Manah Spenta Armaiti Haurvatat Mordad Atash Behram The forces of evil Ahriman Demon Apaosha Jahi Aka Manah Indra Important people Vishtaspa Kartir Paul the Persian Adurbad-i Mahraspand Babak Khorramdin Farhang Mehr Jamasp Maneckji Nusserwanji Dhalla Mazdak Book of Arda Viraf Zartosht Bahram-e Pazhdo Mazyar Ardashir I Shapur II Khosrow I Keikhosrow Shahrokh Maneckji Limji Hataria Zubin Mehta Jamsetji Tata Meher Baba Jahangir Oshidri Rostam Giv Farangis Yeganegi Sacred mirrors and places Zoroastrian festivals Xwedodah Gahambars Navjote Barsom Kushti Trial by ordeal Zoroastrian calendar 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en-wikipedia-org-9460	----	Babylonia - Wikipedia Babylonia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the ancient (pre-539 BC) empires. For the region called Babylonia by Jewish sources in the later, Talmudic period, see Talmudic Academies in Babylonia. For other uses, see Babylonia (disambiguation). Ancient Akkadian region in Mesopotamia This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (May 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Babylonia 𒆳𒆍𒀭𒊏𒆠  (Akkadian) māt Akkadī 1895 BC–539 BC The extent of the Babylonian Empire at the start and end of Hammurabi's reign, located in what today is modern day Kuwait and Iraq Capital Babylon Official languages Akkadian Sumerian Aramaic Common languages Akkadian Aramaic Religion Babylonian religion History   • Established 1895 BC • Disestablished 539 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Sumeria Akkadian Empire Achaemenid Empire Today part of  Iraq  Syria Part of a series on the History of Iraq Prehistory Ubaid period Hassuna culture Halaf culture Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period Samarra culture (Eridu) Uruk period Jemdet Nasr Period Bronze Age Sumer Assyria Akkadian Empire Simurrum Babylonia Neo-Assyrian Empire Neo-Babylonian Empire Median Kingdom Iron Age Achaemenid Assyria Seleucid Babylonia Parthian Babylonia Roman Mesopotamia Sasanian Asorestan Middle Ages Islamic conquest Rashidun Caliphate Umayyad Caliphate Abbasid Caliphate Hamdanids Buyid amirate of Iraq Marwanids Uqaylids Al-Mazeedi Ayyubids Seljuk Empire Zengids Ilkhanate Jalairid Sultanate Kara Koyunlu Aq Qoyunlu Early modern period Safavids Ottoman Iraq Mamluk dynasty Modern Iraq Mandatory Iraq Kingdom of Iraq Republic (1958–68) Ba'athist rule (1968–2003) Occupation (2003–11) Recent history  Iraq portal v t e Ancient history Preceded by prehistory Near East Sumer · Egypt · Elam · Akkad · Assyria · Babylonia · Mitanni · Hittites · Sea Peoples · Anatolia · Israel and Judah · Arabia · Berbers · Phoenicia · Persia Europe Minoans · Greece · Illyrians · Argaric · Nuragic · Tartessos · Iberia · Celts · Germanics · Etruscans · Rome · Slavs · Daco-Thracians Horn of Africa Land of Punt · Opone · Macrobia · Kingdom of Dʿmt · Axumite Empire · Mosylon · Sarapion Eurasian Steppe Proto-Indo-Europeans · Afanasievo · Indo-Iranians · Scythia · Tocharians · Huns · Xionites · Turks East Asia China · Japan · Korea · Mongolia South Asia History of India · Outline of ancient India · Indus Valley Civilisation · Vedic period · Mahajanapadas · Nanda Empire · Maurya Empire · Satavahana dynasty · Sangam period · Middle Kingdoms · Gupta Empire Mississippi and Oasisamerica Adena · Hopewell · Mississippian · Puebloans Mesoamerica Olmecs · Epi-Olmec · Zapotec · Mixtec · Maya · Teotihuacan · Toltec Empire Andes Norte Chico · Sechin · Chavín · Paracas · Nazca · Moche · Lima · Tiwanaku · Wari West Africa Dhar Tichitt · Oualata · Nok · Senegambia · Djenné-Djenno · Bantu · Ghana Empire Southeast Asia and Oceania Vietnam · Austronesians · Australia · Polynesia · Funan · Tarumanagara See also Human history · Ancient maritime history Protohistory · Axial Age · Iron Age Historiography · Ancient literature Ancient warfare · Cradle of civilization Category Followed by Post-classical history v t e Babylonia (/ˌbæbɪˈloʊniə/) was an ancient Akkadian-speaking state and cultural area based in central-southern Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq and Syria). A small Amorite-ruled state emerged in 1894 BCE, which contained the minor administrative town of Babylon.[1] It was merely a small provincial town during the Akkadian Empire (2335–2154 BCE) but greatly expanded during the reign of Hammurabi in the first half of the 18th century BCE and became a major capital city. During the reign of Hammurabi and afterwards, Babylonia was called "the country of Akkad" (Māt Akkadī in Akkadian), a deliberate archaism in reference to the previous glory of the Akkadian Empire.[2][3] It was often involved in rivalry with the older state of Assyria to the north and Elam to the east in Ancient Iran. Babylonia briefly became the major power in the region after Hammurabi (fl. c. 1792–1752 BCE middle chronology, or c. 1696–1654 BCE, short chronology) created a short-lived empire, succeeding the earlier Akkadian Empire, Third Dynasty of Ur, and Old Assyrian Empire. The Babylonian Empire rapidly fell apart after the death of Hammurabi and reverted to a small kingdom. Like Assyria, the Babylonian state retained the written Akkadian language (the language of its native populace) for official use, despite its Northwest Semitic-speaking Amorite founders and Kassite successors, who spoke a language isolate, not being native Mesopotamians. It retained the Sumerian language for religious use (as did Assyria), but already by the time Babylon was founded, this was no longer a spoken language, having been wholly subsumed by Akkadian. The earlier Akkadian and Sumerian traditions played a major role in Babylonian and Assyrian culture, and the region would remain an important cultural center, even under its protracted periods of outside rule. The earliest mention of the city of Babylon can be found in a clay tablet from the reign of Sargon of Akkad (2334–2279 BCE), dating back to the 23rd century BCE. Babylon was merely a religious and cultural centre at this point and neither an independent state nor a large city; like the rest of Mesopotamia, it was subject to the Akkadian Empire which united all the Akkadian and Sumerian speakers under one rule. After the collapse of the Akkadian Empire, the south Mesopotamian region was dominated by the Gutian people for a few decades before the rise of the Third Dynasty of Ur, which restored order to the region and which, apart from northern Assyria, encompassed the whole of Mesopotamia, including the town of Babylon. Contents 1 History 1.1 Pre-Babylonian Sumero-Akkadian period 1.2 First Babylonian dynasty – Amorite dynasty, 1894–1595 BCE 1.2.1 Empire Of Hammurabi 1.2.2 Decline 1.2.3 The sack of Babylon and ancient Near East chronology 1.3 Kassite dynasty, 1595–1155 BCE 1.4 Early Iron Age – Native rule, second dynasty of Isin, 1155–1026 BCE 1.5 Period of chaos, 1026–911 BCE 1.6 Assyrian rule, 911–619 BCE 1.6.1 Destruction of Babylon 1.6.2 Restoration and rebuilding 1.6.3 Babylonian revolt 1.7 Neo-Babylonian Empire (Chaldean Empire) 1.8 Persian Babylonia 2 Culture 2.1 Babylonian culture 2.1.1 Art and architecture 2.1.2 Astronomy 2.1.3 Medicine 2.1.4 Literature 2.2 Neo-Babylonian culture 2.2.1 Astronomy 2.2.2 Mathematics 2.2.3 Philosophy 3 Legacy 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Bibliography 8 External links History[edit] Pre-Babylonian Sumero-Akkadian period[edit] Mesopotamia had already enjoyed a long history prior to the emergence of Babylon, with Sumerian civilization emerging in the region c. 3500 BC, and the Akkadian-speaking people appearing by the 30th century BC.[citation needed] During the 3rd millennium BCE, an intimate cultural symbiosis occurred between Sumerian and Akkadian-speakers, which included widespread bilingualism.[4] The influence of Sumerian on Akkadian and vice versa is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a massive scale, to syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence.[4] This has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian in the third millennium as a sprachbund.[4] Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as the spoken language of Mesopotamia somewhere around the turn of the third and the second millennium BC (the precise timeframe being a matter of debate).[5] From c. 3500 BC until the rise of the Akkadian Empire in the 24th century BCE, Mesopotamia had been dominated by largely Sumerian cities and city states, such as Ur, Lagash, Uruk, Kish, Isin, Larsa, Adab, Eridu, Gasur, Assur, Hamazi, Akshak, Arbela and Umma, although Semitic Akkadian names began to appear on the king lists of some of these states (such as Eshnunna and Assyria) between the 29th and 25th centuries BCE. Traditionally, the major religious center of all Mesopotamia was the city of Nippur where the god Enlil was supreme, and it would remain so until replaced by Babylon during the reign of Hammurabi in the mid-18th century BCE.[citation needed] The Akkadian Empire (2334–2154 BCE) saw the Akkadian Semites and Sumerians of Mesopotamia unite under one rule, and the Akkadians fully attain ascendancy over the Sumerians and indeed come to dominate much of the ancient Near East. The empire eventually disintegrated due to economic decline, climate change, and civil war, followed by attacks by the Gutians from the Zagros Mountains. Sumer rose up again with the Third Dynasty of Ur in the late 22nd century BCE, and ejected the Gutians from southern Mesopotamia in 2161 BCE as suggested by surviving tablets and astronomical simulations.[6] They also seem to have gained ascendancy over much of the territory of the Akkadian kings of Assyria in northern Mesopotamia for a time. Followed by the collapse of the Sumerian "Ur-III" dynasty at the hands of the Elamites in 2002 BCE, the Amorites ("Westerners"), a foreign Northwest Semitic-speaking people, began to migrate into southern Mesopotamia from the northern Levant, gradually gaining control over most of southern Mesopotamia, where they formed a series of small kingdoms, while the Assyrians reasserted their independence in the north. The states of the south were unable to stem the Amorite advance, and for a time may have relied on their fellow Akkadians in Assyria for protection.[citation needed] King Ilu-shuma (c. 2008–1975 BCE) of the Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1750 BCE) in a known inscription describes his exploits to the south as follows: The freedom[n 1] of the Akkadians and their children I established. I purified their copper. I established their freedom from the border of the marshes and Ur and Nippur, Awal, and Kish, Der of the goddess Ishtar, as far as the City of (Ashur).[7] Past scholars originally extrapolated from this text that it means he defeated the invading Amorites to the south and Elamites to the east, but there is no explicit record of that, and some scholars believe the Assyrian kings were merely giving preferential trade agreements to the south. These policies were continued by his successors Erishum I and Ikunum. However, when Sargon I (1920–1881 BCE) succeeded as king in Assyria in 1920 BCE, he eventually withdrew Assyria from the region, preferring to concentrate on continuing the vigorous expansion of Assyrian colonies in Anatolia and the Levant, and eventually southern Mesopotamia fell to the Amorites, a Northwest Semitic-speaking people from the northern Levant. During the first centuries of what is called the "Amorite period", the most powerful city states in the south were Isin, Eshnunna and Larsa, together with Assyria in the north. First Babylonian dynasty – Amorite dynasty, 1894–1595 BCE[edit] Main article: First Babylonian dynasty Hammurabi (standing), depicted as receiving his royal insignia from Shamash (or possibly Marduk). Hammurabi holds his hands over his mouth as a sign of prayer[8] (relief on the upper part of the stele of Hammurabi's code of laws). One of these Amorite dynasties founded a small kingdom of Kazallu which included the then still minor town of Babylon circa 1894 BCE, which would ultimately take over the others and form the short-lived first Babylonian empire, also called the First Babylonian dynasty. An Amorite chieftain named Sumu-abum appropriated a tract of land which included the then relatively small city of Babylon from the neighbouring Amorite ruled Mesopotamian city state of Kazallu, of which it had initially been a territory, turning his newly acquired lands into a state in its own right. His reign was concerned with establishing statehood amongst a sea of other minor city states and kingdoms in the region. However, Sumuabum appears never to have bothered to give himself the title of King of Babylon, suggesting that Babylon itself was still only a minor town or city, and not worthy of kingship.[9] He was followed by Sumu-la-El, Sabium, Apil-Sin, each of whom ruled in the same vague manner as Sumuabum, with no reference to kingship of Babylon itself being made in any written records of the time. Sin-Muballit was the first of these Amorite rulers to be regarded officially as a king of Babylon, and then on only one single clay tablet. Under these kings, the nation in which Babylon lay remained a small nation which controlled very little territory, and was overshadowed by neighbouring kingdoms that were both older, larger, and more powerful, such as; Isin, Larsa, Assyria to the north and Elam to the east in ancient Iran. The Elamites occupied huge swathes of southern Mesopotamia, and the early Amorite rulers were largely held in vassalage to Elam. Empire Of Hammurabi[edit] Babylon remained a minor town in a small state until the reign of its sixth Amorite ruler, Hammurabi, during 1792–1750 BCE (or c. 1728 – 1686 BC in the short chronology). He conducted major building work in Babylon, expanding it from a small town into a great city worthy of kingship. A very efficient ruler, he established a bureaucracy, with taxation and centralized government. Hammurabi freed Babylon from Elamite dominance, and indeed drove the Elamites from southern Mesopotamia entirely. He then systematically conquered southern Mesopotamia, including the cities of Isin, Larsa, Eshnunna, Kish, Lagash, Nippur, Borsippa, Ur, Uruk, Umma, Adab, Sippar, Rapiqum, and Eridu. His conquests gave the region stability after turbulent times, and coalesced the patchwork of small states into a single nation; it is only from the time of Hammurabi that southern Mesopotamia acquired the name Babylonia. Hammurabi turned his disciplined armies eastwards and invaded the region which a thousand years later became Iran, conquering Elam, Gutians, Lullubi and Kassites. To the west, he conquered the Amorite states of the Levant (modern Syria and Jordan) including the powerful kingdoms of Mari and Yamhad. Hammurabi then entered into a protracted war with the Old Assyrian Empire for control of Mesopotamia and dominance of the Near East. Assyria had extended control over much of the Hurrian and Hattian parts of southeast Anatolia from the 21st century BC, and from the latter part of the 20th century BC had asserted itself over the northeast Levant and central Mesopotamia. After a protracted struggle over decades with the powerful Assyrian kings Shamshi-Adad I and Ishme-Dagan I, Hammurabi forced their successor Mut-Ashkur to pay tribute to Babylon c. 1751 BCE, giving Babylonia control over Assyria's centuries-old Hattian and Hurrian colonies in Anatolia.[10] One of Hammurabi's most important and lasting works was the compilation of the Babylonian law code, which improved the much earlier codes of Sumer, Akkad and Assyria. This was made by order of Hammurabi after the expulsion of the Elamites and the settlement of his kingdom. In 1901, a copy of the Code of Hammurabi was discovered on a stele by Jacques de Morgan and Jean-Vincent Scheil at Susa in Elam, where it had later been taken as plunder. That copy is now in the Louvre. From before 3000 BC until the reign of Hammurabi, the major cultural and religious center of southern Mesopotamia had been the ancient city of Nippur, where the god Enlil was supreme. Hammurabi transferred this dominance to Babylon, making Marduk supreme in the pantheon of southern Mesopotamia (with the god Ashur, and to some degree Ishtar, remaining the long-dominant deity in northern Mesopotamian Assyria). The city of Babylon became known as a "holy city" where any legitimate ruler of southern Mesopotamia had to be crowned. Hammurabi turned what had previously been a minor administrative town into a large, powerful and influential city, extended its rule over the entirety of southern Mesopotamia, and erected a number of impressive buildings. The Amorite-ruled Babylonians, like their predecessor states, engaged in regular trade with the Amorite and Canaanite city-states to the west, with Babylonian officials or troops sometimes passing to the Levant and Canaan, and Amorite merchants operating freely throughout Mesopotamia. The Babylonian monarchy's western connections remained strong for quite some time. Ammi-Ditana, great-grandson of Hammurabi, still titled himself "king of the land of the Amorites". Ammi-Ditana's father and son also bore Amorite names: Abi-Eshuh and Ammi-Saduqa. Decline[edit] Cylinder seal, ca. 18th–17th century BC. Babylonia Southern Mesopotamia had no natural, defensible boundaries, making it vulnerable to attack. After the death of Hammurabi, his empire began to disintegrate rapidly. Under his successor Samsu-iluna (1749–1712 BCE) the far south of Mesopotamia was lost to a native Akkadian-speaking king Ilum-ma-ili who ejected the Amorite-ruled Babylonians. The south became the native Sealand Dynasty, remaining free of Babylon for the next 272 years.[11] Both the Babylonians and their Amorite rulers were driven from Assyria to the north by an Assyrian-Akkadian governor named Puzur-Sin c. 1740 BCE, who regarded king Mut-Ashkur as both a foreign Amorite and a former lackey of Babylon. After six years of civil war in Assyria, a native king named Adasi seized power c. 1735 BCE, and went on to appropriate former Babylonian and Amorite territory in central Mesopotamia, as did his successor Bel-bani. Amorite rule survived in a much reduced Babylon, Samshu-iluna's successor Abi-Eshuh made a vain attempt to recapture the Sealand Dynasty for Babylon, but met defeat at the hands of king Damqi-ilishu II. By the end of his reign Babylonia had shrunk to the small and relatively weak nation it had been upon its foundation, although the city itself was far larger than the small town it had been prior to the rise of Hammurabi. He was followed by Ammi-Ditana and then Ammi-Saduqa, both of whom were in too weak a position to make any attempt to regain the many territories lost after the death of Hammurabi, contenting themselves with peaceful building projects in Babylon itself. Samsu-Ditana was to be the last Amorite ruler of Babylon. Early in his reign he came under pressure from the Kassites, a people speaking an apparent language isolate originating in the mountains of what is today northwest Iran. Babylon was then attacked by the Indo-European-speaking, Anatolia-based Hittites in 1595 BCE. Shamshu-Ditana was overthrown following the "sack of Babylon" by the Hittite king Mursili I. The Hittites did not remain for long, but the destruction wrought by them finally enabled their Kassite allies to gain control. The sack of Babylon and ancient Near East chronology[edit] This section is missing information about the event itself, as opposed to just its role in chronological calculations. Please expand the section to include this information. Further details may exist on the talk page. (February 2019) The date of the sack of Babylon by the Hittites under king Mursili I is considered crucial to the various calculations of the early chronology of the ancient Near East, as it is taken as a fixed point in the discussion. Suggestions for its precise date vary by as much as 230 years, corresponding to the uncertainty regarding the length of the "Dark Age" of the much later Late Bronze Age collapse, resulting in the shift of the entire Bronze Age chronology of Mesopotamia with regard to the Egyptian chronology. Possible dates for the sack of Babylon are: ultra-short chronology: 1499 BCE short chronology: 1531 BCE middle chronology: 1595 BCE long chronology: 1651 BCE (favored by astronomical events reconstruction)[6] ultra-long chronology: 1736 BCE[12] Kassite dynasty, 1595–1155 BCE[edit] Main article: Kassites The extent of the Babylonian Empire during the Kassite dynasty The Kassite dynasty was founded by Gandash of Mari. The Kassites, like the Amorite rulers who had preceded them, were not originally native to Mesopotamia. Rather, they had first appeared in the Zagros Mountains of what is today northwestern Iran. The ethnic affiliation of the Kassites is unclear. Still, their language was not Semitic or Indo-European, and is thought to have been either a language isolate or possibly related to the Hurro-Urartian language family of Anatolia,[13] although the evidence for its genetic affiliation is meager due to the scarcity of extant texts. That said, several Kassite leaders may have borne Indo-European names, and they may have had an Indo-European elite similar to the Mitanni elite that later ruled over the Hurrians of central and eastern Anatolia.[14][15] The Kassites renamed Babylon Karduniaš and their rule lasted for 576 years, the longest dynasty in Babylonian history. This new foreign dominion offers a striking analogy to the roughly contemporary rule of the Hyksos in ancient Egypt. Most divine attributes ascribed to the Amorite kings of Babylonia disappeared at this time; the title "god" was never given to a Kassite sovereign. Babylon continued to be the capital of the kingdom and one of the holy cities of western Asia, where the priests of the ancient Mesopotamian religion were all-powerful, and the only place where the right to inheritance of the short lived old Babylonian empire could be conferred.[16] Babylonia experienced short periods of relative power, but in general proved to be relatively weak under the long rule of the Kassites, and spent long periods under Assyrian and Elamite domination and interference. It is not clear precisely when Kassite rule of Babylon began, but the Indo-European Hittites from Anatolia did not remain in Babylonia for long after the sacking of the city, and it is likely the Kassites moved in soon afterwards. Agum II took the throne for the Kassites in 1595 BCE, and ruled a state that extended from Iran to the middle Euphrates; The new king retained peaceful relations with Erishum III, the native Mesopotamian king of Assyria, but successfully went to war with the Hittite Empire, and twenty-four years after, the Hittites took the sacred statue of Marduk, he recovered it and declared the god equal to the Kassite deity Shuqamuna. Map of Mesopotamia c. 1450 BC Burnaburiash I succeeded him and drew up a peace treaty with the Assyrian king Puzur-Ashur III, and had a largely uneventful reign, as did his successor Kashtiliash III. The Sealand Dynasty of southern Mesopotamia remained independent of Babylonia and in native Akkadian-speaking hands. Ulamburiash managed to attack it and conquered parts of the land from Ea-gamil, a king with a distinctly Sumerian name, around 1450 BC, whereupon Ea-Gamil fled to his allies in Elam. The Sealand Dynasty region still remained independent, and the Kassite king seems to have been unable to finally conquer it. Ulamburiash began making treaties with ancient Egypt, which then was ruling southern Canaan, and Assyria to the north. Karaindash built a bas-relief temple in Uruk and Kurigalzu I (1415–1390 BCE) built a new capital Dur-Kurigalzu named after himself, transferring administrative rule from Babylon. Both of these kings continued to struggle unsuccessfully against the Sealand Dynasty. Agum III also campaigned against the Sealand Dynasty, finally wholly conquering the far south of Mesopotamia for Babylon, destroying its capital Dur-Enlil in the process. From there Agum III extended farther south still, invading what was many centuries later to be called the Arabian Peninsula or Arabia, and conquering the pre-Arab state of Dilmun (in modern Bahrain). Karaindash strengthened diplomatic ties with the Assyrian king Ashur-bel-nisheshu and the Egyptian Pharaoh Thutmose III and protected Babylonian borders with Elam. Kadašman-Ḫarbe I succeeded Karaindash, and briefly invaded Elam before being eventually defeated and ejected by its king Tepti Ahar. He then had to contend with the Suteans, ancient Semitic-speaking peoples from the southeastern Levant who invaded Babylonia and sacked Uruk. He describes having "annihilated their extensive forces", then constructed fortresses in a mountain region called Ḫiḫi, in the desert to the west (modern Syria) as security outposts, and "he dug wells and settled people on fertile lands, to strengthen the guard".[17] Kurigalzu I succeeded the throne, and soon came into conflict with Elam, to the east. When Ḫur-batila, the successor of Tepti Ahar took the throne of Elam, he began raiding the Babylonia, taunting Kurigalzu to do battle with him at Dūr-Šulgi. Kurigalzu launched a campaign which resulted in the abject defeat and capture of Ḫur-batila, who appears in no other inscriptions. He went on to conquer the eastern lands of Elam. This took his army to the Elamite capital, the city of Susa, which was sacked. After this a puppet ruler was placed on the Elamite throne, subject to Babylonia. Kurigalzu I maintained friendly relations with Assyria, Egypt and the Hittites throughout his reign. Kadashman-Enlil I (1374–1360 BC) succeeded him, and continued his diplomatic policies. Burna-Buriash II ascended to the throne in 1359 BCE, he retained friendly relations with Egypt, but the resurgent Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1050 BCE) to the north was now encroaching into northern Babylonia, and as a symbol of peace, the Babylonian king took the daughter of the powerful Assyrian king Ashur-uballit I in marriage. He also maintained friendly relations with Suppiluliuma I, ruler of the Hittite Empire. He was succeeded by Kara-ḫardaš (who was half Assyrian, and the grandson of the Assyrian king) in 1333 BC, a usurper named Nazi-Bugaš deposed him, enraging Ashur-uballit I, who invaded and sacked Babylon, slew Nazi-Bugaš, annexed Babylonian territory for the Middle Assyrian Empire, and installed Kurigalzu II (1345–1324 BCE) as his vassal ruler of Babylonia. Soon after Arik-den-ili succeeded the throne of Assyria in 1327 BC, Kurigalzu III attacked Assyria in an attempt to reassert Babylonian power. After some impressive initial successes he was ultimately defeated, and lost yet more territory to Assyria. Between 1307 BCE and 1232 BCE his successors, such as Nazi-Maruttash, Kadashman-Turgu, Kadashman-Enlil II, Kudur-Enlil and Shagarakti-Shuriash, allied with the empires of the Hittites and the Mitanni, (who were both also losing swathes of territory to the resurgent Assyrians). in a failed attempt to stop Assyrian expansion, which nevertheless continued unchecked. Kashtiliash IV's (1242–1235 BCE) reign ended catastrophically as the Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I (1243–1207 BCE) routed his armies, sacked and burned Babylon and set himself up as king, ironically becoming the first native Mesopotamian to rule the state, its previous rulers having all been non-Mesopotamian Amorites and Kassites.[11] Kashtiliash himself was taken to Ashur as a prisoner of war. An Assyrian governor/king named Enlil-nadin-shumi was placed on the throne to rule as viceroy to Tukulti-Ninurta I, and Kadashman-Harbe II and Adad-shuma-iddina succeeded as Assyrian governor/kings, subject to Tukulti-Ninurta I until 1216 BC. Babylon did not begin to recover until late in the reign of Adad-shuma-usur (1216–1189 BCE), as he too remained a vassal of Assyria until 1193 BC. However, he was able to prevent the Assyrian king Enlil-kudurri-usur from retaking Babylonia, which, apart from its northern reaches, had mostly shrugged off Assyrian domination during a short period of civil war in the Assyrian empire, in the years after the death of Tukulti-Ninurta. Meli-Shipak II (1188–1172 BCE) seems to have had a peaceful reign. Despite not being able to regain northern Babylonia from Assyria, no further territory was lost, Elam did not threaten, and the Late Bronze Age collapse now affecting the Levant, Canaan, Egypt, the Caucasus, Anatolia, Mediterranean, North Africa, northern Iran and Balkans seemed (initially) to have little impact on Babylonia (or indeed Assyria and Elam). War resumed under subsequent kings such as Marduk-apla-iddina I (1171–1159 BCE) and Zababa-shuma-iddin (1158 BCE). The long reigning Assyrian king Ashur-dan I (1179–1133 BCE) resumed expansionist policies and conquered further parts of northern Babylonia from both kings, and the Elamite ruler Shutruk-Nakhunte eventually conquered most of eastern Babylonia. Enlil-nadin-ahhe (1157–1155 BCE) was finally overthrown and the Kassite dynasty ended after Ashur-dan I conquered yet more of northern and central Babylonia, and the equally powerful Shutruk-Nahhunte pushed deep into the heart of Babylonia itself, sacking the city and slaying the king. Poetical works have been found lamenting this disaster. Despite the loss of territory, general military weakness, and evident reduction in literacy and culture, the Kassite dynasty was the longest-lived dynasty of Babylon, lasting until 1155 BCE, when Babylon was conquered by Shutruk-Nakhunte of Elam, and reconquered a few years later by the Nebuchadnezzar I, part of the larger Late Bronze Age collapse. Early Iron Age – Native rule, second dynasty of Isin, 1155–1026 BCE[edit] The Elamites did not remain in control of Babylonia long, instead entering into an ultimately unsuccessful war with Assyria, allowing Marduk-kabit-ahheshu (1155–1139 BCE) to establish the Dynasty IV of Babylon, from Isin, with the very first native Akkadian-speaking south Mesopotamian dynasty to rule Babylonia, with Marduk-kabit-ahheshu becoming only the second native Mesopotamian to sit on the throne of Babylon, after the Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I. His dynasty was to remain in power for some 125 years. The new king successfully drove out the Elamites and prevented any possible Kassite revival. Later in his reign he went to war with Assyria, and had some initial success, briefly capturing the south Assyrian city of Ekallatum before ultimately suffering defeat at the hands of Ashur-Dan I. Itti-Marduk-balatu succeeded his father in 1138 BCE, and successfully repelled Elamite attacks on Babylonia during his 8-year reign. He too made attempts to attack Assyria, but also met with failure at the hands of the still reigning Ashur-Dan I. Ninurta-nadin-shumi took the throne in 1137 BCE, and also attempted an invasion of Assyria, his armies seem to have skirted through eastern Aramea (modern Syria) and then made an attempt to attack the Assyrian city of Arbela (modern Erbil) from the west. However, this bold move met with defeat at the hands of Ashur-resh-ishi I who then forced a treaty in his favour upon the Babylonian king. Nebuchadnezzar I (1124–1103 BCE) was the most famous ruler of this dynasty. He fought and defeated the Elamites and drove them from Babylonian territory, invading Elam itself, sacking the Elamite capital Susa, and recovering the sacred statue of Marduk that had been carried off from Babylon during the fall of the Kassites. Shortly afterwards, the king of Elam was assassinated and his kingdom disintegrated into civil war. However, Nebuchadnezzar failed to extend Babylonian territory further, being defeated a number of times by Ashur-resh-ishi I (1133–1115 BCE), king of the Middle Assyrian Empire, for control of formerly Hittite-controlled territories in Aram and Anatolia. The Hittite Empire of the northern and western Levant and eastern Anatolia had been largely annexed by the Middle Assyrian Empire, and its heartland finally overrun by invading Phrygians from the Balkans. In the later years of his reign, Nebuchadnezzar I devoted himself to peaceful building projects and securing Babylonia's borders against the Assyrians, Elamites and Arameans. Nebuchadnezzar was succeeded by his two sons, firstly Enlil-nadin-apli (1103–1100), who lost territory to Assyria. The second of them, Marduk-nadin-ahhe (1098–1081 BCE) also went to war with Assyria. Some initial success in these conflicts gave way to a catastrophic defeat at the hands of the powerful Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser I (1115–1076 BCE), who annexed huge swathes of Babylonian territory, thus further expanding the Assyrian Empire. Following this a terrible famine gripped Babylon, inviting attacks and migrations from the northwest Semitic tribes of Aramaeans and Suteans from the Levant. In 1072 BC Marduk-shapik-zeri signed a peace treaty with Ashur-bel-kala (1075–1056 BCE) of Assyria, however, his successor Kadašman-Buriaš was not so friendly to Assyria, prompting the Assyrian king to invade Babylonia and depose him, placing Adad-apla-iddina on the throne as his vassal. Assyrian domination continued until c. 1050 BC, with Marduk-ahhe-eriba and Marduk-zer-X regarded as vassals of Assyria. After 1050 BCE the Middle Assyrian Empire descended into a period of civil war, followed by constant warfare with the Arameans, Phrygians, Neo-Hittite states and Hurrians, allowing Babylonia to once more largely free itself from the Assyrian yoke for a few decades. However, East Semitic-speaking Babylonia soon began to suffer further repeated incursions from West Semitic nomadic peoples migrating from the Levant during the Bronze Age collapse, and during the 11th century BCE large swathes of the Babylonian countryside was appropriated and occupied by these newly arrived Arameans and Suteans. Arameans settled much of the countryside in eastern and central Babylonia and the Suteans in the western deserts, with the weak Babylonian kings being unable to stem these migrations. Period of chaos, 1026–911 BCE[edit] The ruling Babylonian dynasty of Nabu-shum-libur was deposed by marauding Arameans in 1026 BCE, and the heart of Babylonia, including the capital city itself descended into anarchic state, and no king was to rule Babylon for over 20 years. However, in southern Mesopotamia (a region corresponding with the old Dynasty of the Sealand), Dynasty V (1025–1004 BC) arose, this was ruled by Simbar-shipak, leader of a Kassite clan, and was in effect a separate state from Babylon. The state of anarchy allowed the Assyrian ruler Ashur-nirari IV (1019–1013 BCE) the opportunity to attack Babylonia in 1018 BC, and he invaded and captured the Babylonian city of Atlila and some northern regions for Assyria. The south Mesopotamian dynasty was replaced by another Kassite Dynasty (Dynasty VI; 1003–984 BCE) which also seems to have regained control over Babylon itself. The Elamites deposed this brief Kassite revival, with king Mar-biti-apla-usur founding Dynasty VII (984–977 BCE). However, this dynasty too fell, when the Arameans once more ravaged Babylon. Babylonian rule was restored by Nabû-mukin-apli in 977 BCE, ushering in Dynasty VIII. Dynasty IX begins with Ninurta-kudurri-usur II, who ruled from 941 BCE. Babylonia remained weak during this period, with whole areas of Babylonia now under firm Aramean and Sutean control. Babylonian rulers were often forced to bow to pressure from Assyria and Elam, both of which had appropriated Babylonian territory. Assyrian rule, 911–619 BCE[edit] Babylonia remained in a state of chaos as the 10th century BCE drew to a close. A further migration of nomads from the Levant occurred in the early 9th century BCE with the arrival of the Chaldeans, another nomadic northwest Semitic people described in Assyrian annals as the "Kaldu". The Chaldeans settled in the far southeast of Babylonia, joining the already long extant Arameans and Suteans. By 850 BCE the migrant Chaldeans had established their own land in the extreme southeast of Mesopotamia. From 911 BCE with the founding of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BCE) by Adad-nirari II, Babylon found itself once again under the domination and rule of its fellow Mesopotamian state for the next three centuries. Adad-nirari II twice attacked and defeated Shamash-mudammiq of Babylonia, annexing a large area of land north of the Diyala River and the towns of Hīt and Zanqu in mid Mesopotamia. He made further gains over Babylonia under Nabu-shuma-ukin I later in his reign. Tukulti-Ninurta II and Ashurnasirpal II also forced Babylonia into vassalage, and Shalmaneser III (859–824 BCE) sacked Babylon itself, slew king Nabu-apla-iddina, subjugated the Aramean, Sutean and Chaldean tribes settled within Babylonia, and installed Marduk-zakir-shumi I (855–819 BCE) followed by Marduk-balassu-iqbi (819–813 BCE) as his vassals. It was during the late 850's BCE, in the annals of Shalmaneser III, that the Chaldeans and Arabs are first mentioned in the pages of written recorded history. Upon the death of Shalmaneser II, Baba-aha-iddina was reduced to vassalage by the Assyrian queen Shammuramat (known as Semiramis to the Persians, Armenians and Greeks), acting as regent to his successor Adad-nirari III who was merely a boy. Adad-nirari III eventually killed Baba-aha-iddina and ruled there directly until 800 BCE until Ninurta-apla-X was crowned. However, he too was subjugated by Adad-Nirari II. The next Assyrian king, Shamshi-Adad V then made a vassal of Marduk-bel-zeri. Prism of Sennacherib (705–681 BC), containing records of his military campaigns, culminating with Babylon's destruction. Exhibited at the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Babylonia briefly fell to another foreign ruler when Marduk-apla-usur ascended the throne in 780 BCE, taking advantage of a period of civil war in Assyria. He was a member of the Chaldean tribe who had a century or so earlier settled in a small region in the far southeastern corner of Mesopotamia, bordering the Persian Gulf and southwestern Elam. Shalmaneser IV attacked him and retook northern Babylonia, forcing a border treaty in Assyria's favour upon him. However, he was allowed to remain on the throne, and successfully stabilised the part of Babylonia he controlled. Eriba-Marduk, another Chaldean, succeeded him in 769 BCE and his son, Nabu-shuma-ishkun in 761 BCE. Babylonia appears to have been in a state of chaos during this time, with the north occupied by Assyria, its throne occupied by foreign Chaldeans, and civil unrest prominent throughout the land. The Babylonian king Nabonassar overthrew the Chaldean usurpers in 748 BCE, and successfully stabilised Babylonia, remaining untroubled by Ashur-nirari V of Assyria. However, with the accession of Tiglath-Pileser III (745–727 BCE) Babylonia came under renewed attack. Babylon was invaded and sacked and Nabonassar reduced to vassalage. His successors Nabu-nadin-zeri, Nabu-suma-ukin II and Nabu-mukin-zeri were also in servitude to Tiglath-Pileser III, until in 729 BCE the Assyrian king decided to rule Babylon directly as its king instead of allowing Babylonian kings to remain as vassals of Assyria as his predecessors had done for two hundred years. It was during this period that Eastern Aramaic was introduced by the Assyrians as the lingua franca of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, and Mesopotamian Aramaic began to supplant Akkadian as the spoken language of the general populace of both Assyria and Babylonia. The Assyrian king Shalmaneser V was declared king of Babylon in 727 BCE, but died whilst besieging Samaria in 722 BCE. Revolt was then fomented against Assyrian domination by Marduk-apla-iddina II, a Chaldean malka (chieftain) of the far southeast of Mesopotamia, with strong Elamite support. Marduk-apla-iddina managed to take the throne of Babylon itself between 721–710 BCE whilst the Assyrian king Sargon II (722–705 BCE) were otherwise occupied in defeating the Scythians and Cimmerians who had attacked Assyria's Persian and Median vassal colonies in ancient Iran. Marduk-apla-iddina II was eventually defeated and ejected by Sargon II of Assyria, and fled to his protectors in Elam. Sargon II was then declared king in Babylon. Destruction of Babylon[edit] Sennacherib (705–681 BCE) succeeded Sargon II, and after ruling directly for a while, he placed his son Ashur-nadin-shumi on the throne. However, Merodach-Baladan and his Elamite protectors continued to unsuccessfully agitate against Assyrian rule. Nergal-ushezib, an Elamite, murdered the Assyrian prince and briefly took the throne. This led to the infuriated Assyrian king Sennacherib invading and subjugating Elam and sacking Babylon, laying waste to and largely destroying the city. Sennacherib was soon murdered by his own sons while praying to the god Nisroch in Nineveh in 681 BC. A puppet king Marduk-zakir-shumi II was placed on the throne by the new Assyrian king Esarhaddon. However, Marduk-apla-iddina returned from exile in Elam, and briefly deposed him, forcing Esarhaddon to attack and defeat him, whereupon he once more fled to his masters in Elam, where he died in exile. Restoration and rebuilding[edit] Esarhaddon (681–669 BCE) ruled Babylon personally, he completely rebuilt the city, bringing rejuvenation and peace to the region. Upon his death, and in an effort to maintain harmony within his vast empire (which stretched from the Caucasus to Egypt and Nubia and from Cyprus to Iran), he installed his eldest son Shamash-shum-ukin as a subject king in Babylon, and his youngest, the highly educated Ashurbanipal (669–627 BCE), in the more senior position as king of Assyria and overlord of Shamash-shum-ukin. Babylonian revolt[edit] Babylonian prisoners under the surveillance of an Assyrian guard, reign of Ashurbanipal 668-630 BCE, Nineveh, British Museum ME 124788 Despite being an Assyrian himself, Shamash-shum-ukin, after decades subject to his brother Ashurbanipal, declared that the city of Babylon (and not the Assyrian city of Nineveh) should be the seat of the immense empire. He raised a major revolt against his brother, Ashurbanipal. He led a powerful coalition of peoples also resentful of Assyrian subjugation and rule, including Elam, the Persians, Medes, the Babylonians, Chaldeans and Suteans of southern Mesopotamia, the Arameans of the Levant and southwest Mesopotamia, the Arabs and Dilmunites of the Arabian Peninsula and the Canaanites-Phoenicians. After a bitter struggle Babylon was sacked and its allies vanquished, Shamash-shum-ukim being killed in the process. Elam was destroyed once and for all, and the Babylonians, Persians, Chaldeans, Arabs, Medes, Elamites, Arameans, Suteans and Canaanites were violently subjugated, with Assyrian troops exacting savage revenge on the rebelling peoples. An Assyrian governor named Kandalanu was placed on the throne to rule on behalf of the Assyrian king.[11] Upon Ashurbanipal's death in 627 BCE, his son Ashur-etil-ilani (627–623 BCE) became ruler of Babylon and Assyria. However, Assyria soon descended into a series of brutal internal civil wars which were to cause its downfall. Ashur-etil-ilani was deposed by one of his own generals, named Sin-shumu-lishir in 623 BCE, who also set himself up as king in Babylon. After only one year on the throne amidst continual civil war, Sinsharishkun (622–612 BCE) ousted him as ruler of Assyria and Babylonia in 622 BC. However, he too was beset by constant unremitting civil war in the Assyrian heartland. Babylonia took advantage of this and rebelled under Nabopolassar, a previously unknown malka (chieftain) of the Chaldeans, who had settled in southeastern Mesopotamia by c. 850 BCE. It was during the reign of Sin-shar-ishkun that Assyria's vast empire began to unravel, and many of its former subject peoples ceased to pay tribute, most significantly for the Assyrians; the Babylonians, Chaldeans, Medes, Persians, Scythians, Arameans and Cimmerians. Neo-Babylonian Empire (Chaldean Empire)[edit] Main articles: Neo-Babylonian Empire and Chaldea The Neo-Babylonian Empire Panorama view of the reconstructed Southern Palace of Nebuchadnezzar II, 6th century BCE, Babylon, Iraq In 620 BC Nabopolassar seized control over much of Babylonia with the support of most of the inhabitants, with only the city of Nippur and some northern regions showing any loyalty to the beleaguered Assyrian king.[11] Nabopolassar was unable to utterly secure Babylonia, and for the next four years he was forced to contend with an occupying Assyrian army encamped in Babylonia trying to unseat him. However, the Assyrian king, Sin-shar-ishkun was plagued by constant revolts among his people in Nineveh, and was thus prevented from ejecting Nabopolassar. The stalemate ended in 615 BCE, when Nabopolassar entered the Babylonians and Chaldeans into alliance with Cyaxares, an erstwhile vassal of Assyria, and king of the Iranian peoples; the Medes, Persians, Sagartians and Parthians. Cyaxares had also taken advantage of the Assyrian destruction of the formerly regionally dominant pre-Iranian Elamite and Mannean nations and the subsequent anarchy in Assyria to free the Iranic peoples from three centuries of the Assyrian yoke and regional Elamite domination. The Scythians from north of the Caucasus, and the Cimmerians from the Black Sea who had both also been subjugated by Assyria, joined the alliance, as did regional Aramean tribes. In 615 BCE, while the Assyrian king was fully occupied fighting rebels in both Babylonia and Assyria itself, Cyaxares launched a surprise attack on the Assyrian heartlands, sacking the cities of Kalhu (the Biblical Calah, Nimrud) and Arrapkha (modern Kirkuk), Nabopolassar was still pinned down in southern Mesopotamia and thus not involved in this breakthrough. From this point on the coalition of Babylonians, Chaldeans, Medes, Persians, Scythians, Cimmerians and Sagartians fought in unison against a civil war ravaged Assyria. Major Assyrian cities such as Ashur, Arbela (modern Irbil), Guzana, Dur Sharrukin (modern Khorsabad), Imgur-Enlil, Nibarti-Ashur, Gasur, Kanesh, Kar Ashurnasipal and Tushhan fell to the alliance during 614 BCE. Sin-shar-ishkun somehow managed to rally against the odds during 613 BCE, and drove back the combined forces ranged against him. However, the alliance launched a renewed combined attack the following year, and after five years of fierce fighting Nineveh was sacked in late 612 BCE after a prolonged siege, in which Sin-shar-ishkun was killed defending his capital. House to house fighting continued in Nineveh, and an Assyrian general and member of the royal household, took the throne as Ashur-uballit II (612–605 BCE). He was offered the chance of accepting a position of vassalage by the leaders of the alliance according to the Babylonian Chronicle. However, he refused and managed to successfully fight his way out of Nineveh and to the northern Assyrian city of Harran in Upper Mesopotamia where he founded a new capital. The fighting continued, as the Assyrian king held out against the alliance until 607 BCE, when he was eventually ejected by the Medes, Babylonians, Scythians and their allies, and prevented in an attempt to regain the city the same year. Stele of Nabonidus exhibited in the British Museum. The king is shown praying to the Moon, the Sun and Venus and is depicted as being the closest to the Moon. The Egyptian Pharaoh Necho II, whose dynasty had been installed as vassals of Assyria in 671 BCE, belatedly tried to aid Egypt's former Assyrian masters, possibly out of fear that Egypt would be next to succumb to the new powers without Assyria to protect them, having already been ravaged by the Scythians. The Assyrians fought on with Egyptian aid until what was probably a final decisive victory was achieved against them at Carchemish in northwestern Assyria in 605 BCE. The seat of empire was thus transferred to Babylonia[18] for the first time since Hammurabi over a thousand years before. Nabopolassar was followed by his son Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BCE), whose reign of 43 years made Babylon once more the ruler of much of the civilized world, taking over portions of the former Assyrian Empire, with the eastern and northeastern portion being taken by the Medes and the far north by the Scythians.[18] Nebuchadnezzar II may have also had to contend with remnants of the Assyrian resistance. Some sections of the Assyrian army and administration may have still continued in and around Dur-Katlimmu in northwest Assyria for a time, however, by 599 BCE Assyrian imperial records from this region also fell silent. The fate of Ashur-uballit II remains unknown, and he may have been killed attempting to regain Harran, at Carchemish, or continued to fight on, eventually disappearing into obscurity. The Scythians and Cimmerians, erstwhile allies of Babylonia under Nabopolassar, now became a threat, and Nebuchadnezzar II was forced to march into Anatolia and rout their forces, ending the northern threat to his Empire. The Egyptians attempted to remain in the Near East, possibly in an effort to aid in restoring Assyria as a secure buffer against Babylonia and the Medes and Persians, or to carve out an empire of their own. Nebuchadnezzar II campaigned against the Egyptians and drove them back over the Sinai. However, an attempt to take Egypt itself as his Assyrian predecessors had succeeded in doing failed, mainly due to a series of rebellions from the Israelites of Judah and the former kingdom of Ephraim, the Phoenicians of Caanan and the Arameans of the Levant. The Babylonian king crushed these rebellions, deposed Jehoiakim, the king of Judah and deported a sizeable part of the population to Babylonia. Cities like Tyre, Sidon and Damascus were also subjugated. The Arabs and other South Arabian peoples who dwelt in the deserts to the south of the borders of Mesopotamia were then also subjugated. In 567 BCE he went to war with Pharaoh Amasis, and briefly invaded Egypt itself. After securing his empire, which included marrying a Median princess, he devoted himself to maintaining the empire and conducting numerous impressive building projects in Babylon. He is credited with building the fabled Hanging Gardens of Babylon.[19] Amel-Marduk succeeded to the throne and reigned for only two years. Little contemporary record of his rule survives, though Berosus later stated that he was deposed and murdered in 560 BCE by his successor Neriglissar for conducting himself in an "improper manner". Neriglissar (560–556 BCE) also had a short reign. He was the son in law of Nebuchadnezzar II, and it is unclear if he was a Chaldean or native Babylonian who married into the dynasty. He campaigned in Aram and Phoenicia, successfully maintaining Babylonian rule in these regions. Neriglissar died young however, and was succeeded by his son Labashi-Marduk (556 BCE), who was still a boy. He was deposed and killed during the same year in a palace conspiracy. Of the reign of the last Babylonian king, Nabonidus (Nabu-na'id, 556–539 BCE) who is the son of the Assyrian priestess Adda-Guppi and who managed to kill the last Chaldean king, Labashi-Marduk, and took the reign, there is a fair amount of information available. Nabonidus (hence his son, the regent Belshazzar) was, at least from the mother's side, neither Chaldean nor Babylonian, but ironically Assyrian, hailing from its final capital of Harran (Kharranu). His father's origins remain unknown. Information regarding Nabonidus is chiefly derived from a chronological tablet containing the annals of Nabonidus, supplemented by another inscription of Nabonidus where he recounts his restoration of the temple of the Moon-god Sin at Harran; as well as by a proclamation of Cyrus issued shortly after his formal recognition as king of Babylonia.[18] A number of factors arose which would ultimately lead to the fall of Babylon. The population of Babylonia became restive and increasingly disaffected under Nabonidus. He excited a strong feeling against himself by attempting to centralize the polytheistic religion of Babylonia in the temple of Marduk at Babylon, and while he had thus alienated the local priesthoods, the military party also despised him on account of his antiquarian tastes. He seemed to have left the defense of his kingdom to his son Belshazzar (a capable soldier but poor diplomat who alienated the political elite), occupying himself with the more congenial work of excavating the foundation records of the temples and determining the dates of their builders.[18] He also spent time outside Babylonia, rebuilding temples in the Assyrian city of Harran, and also among his Arab subjects in the deserts to the south of Mesopotamia. Nabonidus and Belshazzar's Assyrian heritage is also likely to have added to this resentment. In addition, Mesopotamian military might had usually been concentrated in the martial state of Assyria. Babylonia had always been more vulnerable to conquest and invasion than its northern neighbour, and without the might of Assyria to keep foreign powers in check and Mesopotamia dominant, Babylonia was ultimately exposed. It was in the sixth year of Nabonidus (549 BCE) that Cyrus the Great, the Achaemenid Persian "king of Anshan" in Elam, revolted against his suzerain Astyages, "king of the Manda" or Medes, at Ecbatana. Astyages' army betrayed him to his enemy, and Cyrus established himself at Ecbatana, thus putting an end to the empire of the Medes and making the Persian faction dominant among the Iranic peoples.[20] Three years later Cyrus had become king of all Persia, and was engaged in a campaign to put down a revolt among the Assyrians. Meanwhile, Nabonidus had established a camp in the desert of his colony of Arabia, near the southern frontier of his kingdom, leaving his son Belshazzar (Belsharutsur) in command of the army. In 539 BCE Cyrus invaded Babylonia. A battle was fought at Opis in the month of June, where the Babylonians were defeated; and immediately afterwards Sippar surrendered to the invader. Nabonidus fled to Babylon, where he was pursued by Gobryas, and on the 16th day of Tammuz, two days after the capture of Sippar, "the soldiers of Cyrus entered Babylon without fighting." Nabonidus was dragged from his hiding place, where the services continued without interruption. Cyrus did not arrive until the 3rd of Marchesvan (October), Gobryas having acted for him in his absence. Gobryas was now made governor of the province of Babylon, and a few days afterwards Belshazzar the son of Nabonidus died in battle. A public mourning followed, lasting six days, and Cyrus' son Cambyses accompanied the corpse to the tomb.[21] One of the first acts of Cyrus accordingly was to allow the Jewish exiles to return to their own homes, carrying with them their sacred temple vessels. The permission to do so was embodied in a proclamation, whereby the conqueror endeavored to justify his claim to the Babylonian throne.[21] Cyrus now claimed to be the legitimate successor of the ancient Babylonian kings and the avenger of Bel-Marduk, who was assumed to be wrathful at the impiety of Nabonidus in removing the images of the local gods from their ancestral shrines to his capital Babylon.[21] The Chaldean tribe had lost control of Babylonia decades before the end of the era that sometimes bears their name, and they appear to have blended into the general populace of Babylonia even before this (for example, Nabopolassar, Nebuchadnezzar II and their successors always referred to themselves as Shar Akkad and never as Shar Kaldu on inscriptions), and during the Persian Achaemenid Empire the term Chaldean ceased to refer to a race of people, and instead specifically to a social class of priests educated in classical Babylonian literature, particularly Astronomy and Astrology. By the mid Seleucid Empire (312–150 BCE) period this term too had fallen from use. Persian Babylonia[edit] Further information: Achaemenid Assyria and Fall of Babylon Babylonian soldier of the Achaemenid army, circa 480 BC. Relief of the tomb of Xerxes I. Babylonia was absorbed into the Achaemenid Empire in 539 BC. A year before Cyrus' death, in 529 BCE, he elevated his son Cambyses II in the government, making him king of Babylon, while he reserved for himself the fuller title of "king of the (other) provinces" of the empire. It was only when Darius I acquired the Persian throne and ruled it as a representative of the Zoroastrian religion, that the old tradition was broken and the claim of Babylon to confer legitimacy on the rulers of western Asia ceased to be acknowledged.[21] Immediately after Darius seized Persia, Babylonia briefly recovered its independence under a native ruler, Nidinta-Bel, who took the name of Nebuchadnezzar III, and reigned from October 522 BCE to August 520 BCE, when Darius took the city by storm, during this period Assyria to the north also rebelled. A few years later, probably 514 BCE, Babylon again revolted under the Armenian king Nebuchadnezzar IV; on this occasion, after its capture by the Persians, the walls were partly destroyed. The Esagila, the great temple of Bel, however, still continued to be kept in repair and to be a center of Babylonian religious feelings.[21] Alexander the Great conquered Babylon in 333 BCE for the Greeks, and died there in 323 BCE. Babylonia and Assyria then became part of the Greek Seleucid Empire.[citation needed] It has long been maintained that the foundation of Seleucia diverted the population to the new capital of southern Mesopotamia, and that the ruins of the old city became a quarry for the builders of the new seat of government,[21] but the recent publication of the Babylonian Chronicles has shown that urban life was still very much the same well into the Parthian Empire (150 BC to 226 AD). The Parthian king Mithridates conquered the region into the Parthian Empire in 150 BCE, and the region became something of a battleground between Greeks and Parthians. There was a brief interlude of Roman conquest (the provinces of Assyria and Mesopotamia; 116–118 AD) under Trajan, after which the Parthians reasserted control. The satrapy of Babylonia was absorbed into Asōristān (meaning The land of the Assyrians in Persian) in the Sasanian Empire, which began in 226 AD, and by this time East Syriac Rite Syriac Christianity (which emerged in Assyria and Upper Mesopotamia the first century AD) had become the dominant religion among the native Assyrian-Babylonian populace, who had never adopted the Zoroastrianism or Hellenic religions and languages of their rulers. Apart from the small 2nd century BCE to 3rd century AD independent Neo-Assyrian states of Adiabene, Osroene, Assur, Beth Garmai, Beth Nuhadra and Hatra in the north, Mesopotamia remained under largely Persian control until the Arab Muslim conquest of Persia in the seventh century AD. Asōristān was dissolved as a geopolitical entity in 637 AD, and the native Eastern Aramaic-speaking and largely Christian populace of southern and central Mesopotamia (with the exception of the Mandeans) gradually underwent Arabization and Islamization in contrast to northern Mesopotamia where an Assyrian continuity endures to the present day. Culture[edit] Bronze Age to Early Iron Age Mesopotamian culture is sometimes summarized as "Assyro-Babylonian", because of the close ethnic, linguistic and cultural interdependence of the two political centers. The term "Babylonia", especially in writings from around the early 20th century, was formerly used to also include Southern Mesopotamia's earliest pre-Babylonian history, and not only in reference to the later city-state of Babylon proper. This geographic usage of the name "Babylonia" has generally been replaced by the more accurate term Sumer or Sumero-Akkadian in more recent writing, referring to the pre-Assyro-Babylonian Mesopotamian civilization. Babylonian culture[edit] Old Babylonian Cylinder Seal, hematite, The king makes an animal offering to Shamash. This seal was probably made in a workshop at Sippar.[22] Art and architecture[edit] Further information: Architecture of Mesopotamia and Art of Mesopotamia Man and woman, Old-Babylonian fired clay plaque from Southern Mesopotamia, Iraq In Babylonia, an abundance of clay, and lack of stone, led to greater use of mudbrick; Babylonian, Sumerian and Assyrian temples were massive structures of crude brick which were supported by buttresses, the rain being carried off by drains. One such drain at Ur was made of lead. The use of brick led to the early development of the pilaster and column, and of frescoes and enameled tiles. The walls were brilliantly coloured, and sometimes plated with zinc or gold, as well as with tiles. Painted terracotta cones for torches were also embedded in the plaster. In Babylonia, in place of the relief, there was greater use of three-dimensional figures—the earliest examples being the Statues of Gudea, that are realistic if somewhat clumsy. The paucity of stone in Babylonia made every pebble precious, and led to a high perfection in the art of gem-cutting.[23] Astronomy[edit] Main article: Babylonian astronomy Tablets dating back to the Old Babylonian period document the application of mathematics to the variation in the length of daylight over a solar year. Centuries of Babylonian observations of celestial phenomena are recorded in the series of cuneiform script tablets known as the 'Enūma Anu Enlil'. The oldest significant astronomical text that we possess is Tablet 63 of 'Enūma Anu Enlil', the Venus tablet of Ammi-Saduqa, which lists the first and last visible risings of Venus over a period of about 21 years and is the earliest evidence that the phenomena of a planet were recognized as periodic. The oldest rectangular astrolabe dates back to Babylonia c. 1100 BC. The MUL.APIN, contains catalogues of stars and constellations as well as schemes for predicting heliacal risings and the settings of the planets, lengths of daylight measured by a water clock, gnomon, shadows, and intercalations. The Babylonian GU text arranges stars in 'strings' that lie along declination circles and thus measure right-ascensions or time-intervals, and also employs the stars of the zenith, which are also separated by given right-ascensional differences.[24][25][26] Medicine[edit] Medical diagnosis and prognosis Medical recipe concerning poisoning. Terracotta tablet, from Nippur, Iraq, 18th century BC. Ancient Orient Museum, Istanbul We find [medical semiotics] in a whole constellation of disciplines. ... There was a real common ground among these [Babylonian] forms of knowledge ... an approach involving analysis of particular cases, constructed only through traces, symptoms, hints. ... In short, we can speak about a symptomatic or divinatory [or conjectural] paradigm which could be oriented toward past present or future, depending on the form of knowledge called upon. Toward future ... that was the medical science of symptoms, with its double character, diagnostic, explaining past and present, and prognostic, suggesting likely future. ... — Carlo Ginzburg[27] The oldest Babylonian (i.e., Akkadian) texts on medicine date back to the First Babylonian dynasty in the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE[28] although the earliest medical prescriptions appear in Sumerian during the Third Dynasty of Ur period.[29] The most extensive Babylonian medical text, however, is the Diagnostic Handbook written by the ummânū, or chief scholar, Esagil-kin-apli of Borsippa,[30] during the reign of the Babylonian king Adad-apla-iddina (1069–1046 BCE).[31] Along with contemporary ancient Egyptian medicine, the Babylonians introduced the concepts of diagnosis, prognosis, physical examination, and prescriptions. In addition, the Diagnostic Handbook introduced the methods of therapy and aetiology and the use of empiricism, logic and rationality in diagnosis, prognosis and therapy. The text contains a list of medical symptoms and often detailed empirical observations along with logical rules used in combining observed symptoms on the body of a patient with its diagnosis and prognosis.[32] The symptoms and diseases of a patient were treated through therapeutic means such as bandages, creams and pills. If a patient could not be cured physically, the Babylonian physicians often relied on exorcism to cleanse the patient from any curses. Esagil-kin-apli's Diagnostic Handbook was based on a logical set of axioms and assumptions, including the modern view that through the examination and inspection of the symptoms of a patient, it is possible to determine the patient's disease, its aetiology and future development, and the chances of the patient's recovery.[30] Esagil-kin-apli discovered a variety of illnesses and diseases and described their symptoms in his Diagnostic Handbook. These include the symptoms for many varieties of epilepsy and related ailments along with their diagnosis and prognosis.[33] Later Babylonian medicine resembles early Greek medicine in many ways. In particular, the early treatises of the Hippocratic Corpus show the influence of late Babylonian medicine in terms of both content and form.[34] Literature[edit] Main article: Akkadian literature There were libraries in most towns and temples; an old Sumerian proverb averred that "he who would excel in the school of the scribes must rise with the dawn". Women as well as men learned to read and write,[35][36] and in Semitic times, this involved knowledge of the extinct Sumerian language, and a complicated and extensive syllabary.[35] A considerable amount of Babylonian literature was translated from Sumerian originals, and the language of religion and law long continued to be written in the old agglutinative language of Sumer. Vocabularies, grammars, and interlinear translations were compiled for the use of students, as well as commentaries on the older texts and explanations of obscure words and phrases. The characters of the syllabary were all arranged and named, and elaborate lists of them were drawn up.[35] There are many Babylonian literary works whose titles have come down to us. One of the most famous of these was the Epic of Gilgamesh, in twelve books, translated from the original Sumerian by a certain Sin-liqi-unninni, and arranged upon an astronomical principle. Each division contains the story of a single adventure in the career of Gilgamesh. The whole story is a composite product, and it is probable that some of the stories are artificially attached to the central figure .[35] Neo-Babylonian culture[edit] The brief resurgence of Babylonian culture in the 7th to 6th centuries BCE was accompanied by a number of important cultural developments. Astronomy[edit] Main articles: Babylonian astronomy and Chronology of the ancient Near East Among the sciences, astronomy and astrology still occupied a conspicuous place in Babylonian society. Astronomy was of old standing in Babylonia. The zodiac was a Babylonian invention of great antiquity; and eclipses of the sun and moon could be foretold.[35] There are dozens of cuneiform records of original Mesopotamian eclipse observations. Babylonian astronomy was the basis for much of what was done in ancient Greek astronomy, in classical , in Sasanian, Byzantine and Syrian astronomy, astronomy in the medieval Islamic world, and in Central Asian and Western European astronomy.[35][24] Neo-Babylonian astronomy can thus be considered the direct predecessor of much of ancient Greek mathematics and astronomy, which in turn is the historical predecessor of the European (Western) scientific revolution.[37] During the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Babylonian astronomers developed a new approach to astronomy. They began studying philosophy dealing with the ideal nature of the early universe and began employing an internal logic within their predictive planetary systems. This was an important contribution to astronomy and the philosophy of science and some scholars have thus referred to this new approach as the first scientific revolution.[38] This new approach to astronomy was adopted and further developed in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy. In Seleucid and Parthian times, the astronomical reports were of a thoroughly scientific character;[35] how much earlier their advanced knowledge and methods were developed is uncertain. The Babylonian development of methods for predicting the motions of the planets is considered to be a major episode in the history of astronomy. The only Babylonian astronomer known to have supported a heliocentric model of planetary motion was Seleucus of Seleucia (b. 190 BC).[39][40][41] Seleucus is known from the writings of Plutarch. He supported the heliocentric theory where the Earth rotated around its own axis which in turn revolved around the Sun. According to Plutarch, Seleucus even proved the heliocentric system, but it is not known what arguments he used. Mathematics[edit] Main article: Babylonian mathematics Babylonian mathematical texts are plentiful and well edited.[37] In respect of time they fall in two distinct groups: one from the First Babylonian dynasty period (1830–1531 BCE), the other mainly Seleucid from the last three or four centuries BC. In respect of content there is scarcely any difference between the two groups of texts. Thus Babylonian mathematics remained stale in character and content, with very little progress or innovation, for nearly two millennia.[dubious – discuss][37] The Babylonian system of mathematics was sexagesimal, or a base 60 numeral system. From this we derive the modern-day usage of 60 seconds in a minute, 60 minutes in an hour, and 360 (60 × 6) degrees in a circle. The Babylonians were able to make great advances in mathematics for two reasons. First, the number 60 has many divisors (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, and 30), making calculations easier. Additionally, unlike the Egyptians and Romans, the Babylonians had a true place-value system, where digits written in the left column represented larger values (much as in our base-ten system: 734 = 7×100 + 3×10 + 4×1). Among the Babylonians' mathematical accomplishments were the determination of the square root of two correctly to seven places (YBC 7289). They also demonstrated knowledge of the Pythagorean theorem well before Pythagoras, as evidenced by this tablet translated by Dennis Ramsey and dating to c. 1900 BCE: 4 is the length and 5 is the diagonal. What is the breadth? Its size is not known. 4 times 4 is 16. And 5 times 5 is 25. You take 16 from 25 and there remains 9. What times what shall I take in order to get 9? 3 times 3 is 9. 3 is the breadth. The ner of 600 and the sar of 3600 were formed from the unit of 60, corresponding with a degree of the equator. Tablets of squares and cubes, calculated from 1 to 60, have been found at Senkera, and a people acquainted with the sun-dial, the clepsydra, the lever and the pulley, must have had no mean knowledge of mechanics. A crystal lens, turned on the lathe, was discovered by Austen Henry Layard at Nimrud along with glass vases bearing the name of Sargon; this could explain the excessive minuteness of some of the writing on the Assyrian tablets, and a lens may also have been used in the observation of the heavens.[42] The Babylonians might have been familiar with the general rules for measuring the areas. They measured the circumference of a circle as three times the diameter and the area as one-twelfth the square of the circumference, which would be correct if π were estimated as 3. The volume of a cylinder was taken as the product of the base and the height, however, the volume of the frustum of a cone or a square pyramid was incorrectly taken as the product of the height and half the sum of the bases. Also, there was a recent discovery in which a tablet used π as 3 and 1/8. The Babylonians are also known for the Babylonian mile, which was a measure of distance equal to about 11 kilometres (7 mi) today. This measurement for distances eventually was converted to a time-mile used for measuring the travel of the Sun, therefore, representing time. (Eves, Chapter 2) The Babylonians used also space time graphs to calculate the velocity of Jupiter. This is an idea that is considered highly modern, traced to the 14th century England and France and anticipating integral calculus.[43] Philosophy[edit] Further information: Babylonian literature § Philosophy The origins of Babylonian philosophy can be traced back to early Mesopotamian wisdom literature, which embodied certain philosophies of life, particularly ethics, in the forms of dialectic, dialogs, epic poetry, folklore, hymns, lyrics, prose, and proverbs. Babylonian reasoning and rationality developed beyond empirical observation.[44] It is possible that Babylonian philosophy had an influence on Greek philosophy, particularly Hellenistic philosophy. The Babylonian text Dialogue of Pessimism contains similarities to the agonistic thought of the sophists, the Heraclitean doctrine of contrasts, and the dialogs of Plato, as well as a precursor to the maieutic Socratic method of Socrates.[45] The Milesian philosopher Thales is also known to have studied philosophy in Mesopotamia. Legacy[edit] Babylonia, and particularly its capital city Babylon, has long held a place in the Abrahamic religions as a symbol of excess and dissolute power. Many references are made to Babylon in the Bible, both literally (historical) and allegorically. The mentions in the Tanakh tend to be historical or prophetic, while New Testament apocalyptic references to the Whore of Babylon are more likely figurative, or cryptic references possibly to pagan Rome, or some other archetype. The legendary Hanging Gardens of Babylon and the Tower of Babel are seen as symbols of luxurious and arrogant power respectively. Early Christians sometimes referred to Rome as Babylon: The apostle Peter ends his first letter with this advice: "She who is in Babylon [Rome], chosen together with you, sends you her greetings, and so does my son Mark." (1 Peter 5:13). Revelation 14:8 says: "A second angel followed and said, 'Fallen! Fallen is Babylon the Great,' which made all the nations drink the maddening wine of her adulteries". Other examples can be found in Revelation 16:19 and Revelation 18:2. Babylon is referred to in Quran in verse 102 of chapter 2 of Surah Baqarah (The Cow): The Quran, chapter 2 (Al-Baqara), verse 102:[46] And they followed [instead] what the devils had recited during the reign of Solomon. It was not Solomon who disbelieved, but the devils disbelieved, teaching people magic and that which was revealed to the two angels at Babylon, Harut and Marut. But the two angels do not teach anyone unless they say, "We are a trial, so do not disbelieve [by practicing magic]". And [yet] they learn from them that by which they cause separation between a man and his wife. But they do not harm anyone through it except by permission of Allah. And the people learn what harms them and does not benefit them. But the Children of Israel certainly knew that whoever purchased the magic would not have in the Hereafter any share. And wretched is that for which they sold themselves, if they only knew. — translated by Sahih International See also[edit] Asia portal Timeline of the Assyrian Empire Notes[edit] ^ Freedom = Akk. addurāru. References[edit] ^ F. Leo Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia ^ Aliraqi - Babylonian Empire ^ Babylonian Empire - Livius ^ a b c Deutscher, Guy (2007). Syntactic Change in Akkadian: The Evolution of Sentential Complementation. Oxford University Press US. pp. 20–21. ISBN 978-0-19-953222-3. ^ Woods C. 2006 "Bilingualism, Scribal Learning, and the Death of Sumerian". In S.L. Sanders (ed) Margins of Writing, Origins of Culture: 91–120 Chicago [1] ^ a b Khalisi, Emil (2020), The Double Eclipse at the Downfall of Old Babylon, arXiv:2007.07141 ^ A. K. Grayson (1972). Assyrian Royal Inscriptions, Volume 1. Otto Harrassowitz. pp. 7–8. ^ Roux, Georges (27 August 1992), "The Time of Confusion", Ancient Iraq, Penguin Books, p. 266, ISBN 9780141938257 ^ Robert William Rogers, A History of Babylonia and Assyria, Volume I, Eaton and Mains, 1900. ^ Oppenheim Ancient Mesopotamia ^ a b c d Georges Roux, Ancient Iraq ^ Eder, Christian., Assyrische Distanzangaben und die absolute Chronologie Vorderasiens, AoF 31, 191–236, 2004. ^ Schneider, Thomas (2003). "Kassitisch und Hurro-Urartäisch. Ein Diskussionsbeitrag zu möglichen lexikalischen Isoglossen". Altorientalische Forschungen (in German) (30): 372–381. ^ "India: Early Vedic period". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 8 September 2012. ^ "Iranian art and architecture". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 8 September 2012. ^ Sayce 1911, p. 104. ^ H. W. F. Saggs (2000). Babylonians. British Museum Press. p. 117. ^ a b c d Sayce 1911, p. 105. ^ "World Wide Sechool". History of Phoenicia – Part IV. Archived from the original on 2012-09-18. Retrieved 2007-01-09. ^ Sayce 1911, pp. 105–106. ^ a b c d e f Sayce 1911, p. 106. ^ Al-Gailani Werr, L., 1988. Studies in the chronology and regional style of Old Babylonian Cylinder Seals. Bibliotheca Mesopotamica, Volume 23. ^ Sayce 1911, p. 108. ^ a b Pingree, David (1998), "Legacies in Astronomy and Celestial Omens", in Dalley, Stephanie (ed.), The Legacy of Mesopotamia, Oxford University Press, pp. 125–137, ISBN 978-0-19-814946-0 ^ Rochberg, Francesca (2004), The Heavenly Writing: Divination, Horoscopy, and Astronomy in Mesopotamian Culture, Cambridge University Press ^ Evans, James (1998). The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. Oxford University Press. pp. 296–297. ISBN 978-0-19-509539-5. Retrieved 2008-02-04. ^ Ginzburg, Carlo (1984). "Morelli, Freud, and Sherlock Holmes: Clues and Scientific Method". In Eco, Umberto; Sebeok, Thomas (eds.). The Sign of Three: Dupin, Holmes, Peirce. Bloomington, IN: History Workshop, Indiana University Press. pp. 81–118. ISBN 978-0-253-35235-4. LCCN 82049207. OCLC 9412985. Ginzburg stresses the significance of Babylonian medicine in his discussion of the conjectural paradigm as evidenced by the methods of Giovanni Morelli, Sigmund Freud and Sherlock Holmes in the light of Charles Sanders Peirce's logic of making educated guesses or abductive reasoning ^ Leo Oppenheim (1977). Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization. University of Chicago Press. p. 290. ^ R D. Biggs (2005). "Medicine, Surgery, and Public Health in Ancient Mesopotamia". Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies. 19 (1): 7–18. ^ a b H. F. J. Horstmanshoff, Marten Stol, Cornelis Tilburg (2004), Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine, p. 99, Brill Publishers, ISBN 90-04-13666-5. ^ Marten Stol (1993), Epilepsy in Babylonia, p. 55, Brill Publishers, ISBN 90-72371-63-1. ^ H. F. J. Horstmanshoff, Marten Stol, Cornelis Tilburg (2004), Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine, p. 97–98, Brill Publishers, ISBN 90-04-13666-5. ^ Marten Stol (1993), Epilepsy in Babylonia, p. 5, Brill Publishers, ISBN 90-72371-63-1. ^ M. J. Geller (2004). H. F. J. Horstmanshoff; Marten Stol; Cornelis Tilburg (eds.). West Meets East: Early Greek and Babylonian Diagnosis. Magic and rationality in ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman medicine. 27. Brill Publishers. pp. 11–186. ISBN 978-90-04-13666-3. PMID 17152166. ^ a b c d e f g Sayce 1911, p. 107. ^ Tatlow, Elisabeth Meier Women, Crime, and Punishment in Ancient Law and Society: The Ancient Near East Continuum International Publishing Group Ltd. (31 March 2005) ISBN 978-0-8264-1628-5 p. 75 [2] ^ a b c Aaboe, Asger. "The culture of Babylonia: Babylonian mathematics, astrology, and astronomy". The Assyrian and Babylonian Empires and other States of the Near East, from the Eighth to the Sixth Centuries B.C. Eds. John Boardman, I. E. S. Edwards, N. G. L. Hammond, E. Sollberger and C. B. F. Walker. Cambridge University Press, (1991) ^ D. Brown (2000), Mesopotamian Planetary Astronomy-Astrology, Styx Publications, ISBN 90-5693-036-2. ^ Otto E. Neugebauer (1945). "The History of Ancient Astronomy Problems and Methods", Journal of Near Eastern Studies 4 (1), pp. 1–38. ^ George Sarton (1955). "Chaldaean Astronomy of the Last Three Centuries B.C.", Journal of the American Oriental Society 75 (3), pp. 166–173 [169]. ^ William P. D. Wightman (1951, 1953), The Growth of Scientific Ideas, Yale University Press p. 38. ^ Sayce 1911, pp. 107–108. ^ Ossendrijver, Mathieu (29 January 2016). "Ancient Babylonian astronomers calculated Jupiter's position from the area under a time-velocity graph". Science. 351 (6272): 482–484. Bibcode:2016Sci...351..482O. doi:10.1126/science.aad8085. PMID 26823423. S2CID 206644971. ^ Giorgio Buccellati (1981), "Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia", Journal of the American Oriental Society 101 (1), pp. 35–47. ^ Giorgio Buccellati (1981), "Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia", Journal of the American Oriental Society 101 (1), pp. 35–47 [43]. ^ The Qur'an. Center for Muslim–Jewish Engagement, University of Southern California. 2008. Archived from the original on 18 June 2017. Bibliography[edit] Theophilus G. Pinches, The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (Many deities' names are now read differently, but this detailed 1906 work is a classic.) Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Babylonian and Assyrian Religion" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Sayce, Archibald Henry (1911). "Babylonia and Assyria". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Sayce, Archibald Henry (1878). "Babylon–Babylonia" . In Baynes, T. S. (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 3 (9th ed.). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 182–194. Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Babylonia" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. The History Files Ancient Mesopotamia Legends of Babylon and Egypt in Relation to Hebrew Tradition, by Leonard W. King, 1918 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format) The Babylonian Legends of the Creation and the Fight between Bel and the Dragon, as told by Assyrian Tablets from Nineveh, 1921 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format) The Civilization of Babylonia and Assyria; its remains, language, history, religion, commerce, law, art, and literature, by Morris Jastrow, Jr. ... with map and 164 illustrations, 1915 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format or [httpw://www.wisdomlib.org/mesopotamian/book/the-civilization-of-babylonia-and-assyria/index.html Readable HTML]) External links[edit] Old Babylonian Period From under the Dust of Ages by William St. Chad Boscawen The Chaldean account of Genesis by George Smith Babylonian Mathematics Babylonian Numerals Babylonian Astronomy/Astrology Bibliography of Babylonian Astronomy/Astrology Recordings of modern scholars reading Babylonian poetry in the original language (http://www.speechisfire.com). 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en-wikipedia-org-9478	----	Second Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Second Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Second Dynasty" redirects here. For other uses, see Second Dynasty (disambiguation). Second Dynasty of Egypt ca. 2890 BC–ca. 2686 BC Statue of Khasekhemwy, Ashmolean Museum Capital Thinis Common languages Egyptian language Religion ancient Egyptian religion Government Absolute monarchy Historical era Bronze Age • Established ca. 2890 BC • Disestablished ca. 2686 BC Preceded by Succeeded by First Dynasty of Egypt Third Dynasty of Egypt Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The Second Dynasty of ancient Egypt (or Dynasty II, c. 2890 – c. 2686 BC[1]) is the latter of the two dynasties of the Egyptian Archaic Period, when the seat of government was centred at Thinis. It is most known for its last ruler, Khasekhemwy, but is otherwise one of the most obscure periods in Egyptian history. Though archaeological evidence of the time is very scant, contrasting data from the First and Third Dynasties indicates important institutional and economic developments during the Second Dynasty.[2][3] Rulers[edit] For the first four pharaohs, sources are fairly close in agreement: Name Years Reigned Hotepsekhemwy 25-29 Nebra (maybe identifiable with Weneg)[4] 10–14 Nynetjer 40 Senedj (maybe identifiable with Horus Sa[5]) 20 But the identity of the next two or three rulers is unclear. Surviving sources might be giving the Horus name or the Nebty name and the birth names of these rulers. They may also be entirely different individuals, or could be legendary names. This might never be resolved. Manetho's list of rulers is at odds with those usually given by Egyptologists: Modern consensus Manetho's List Seth-Peribsen Kaires Nepherkheres Sekhemib-Perenmaat Sesokhris With the last ruler, the sources return to an agreement: Name Years Reigned Khasekhemwy 17–18 Manetho states Thinis was the capital, as in the First Dynasty, but the first three kings were buried at Saqqara, suggesting the center of power had moved to Memphis. Beyond this, little can be said about the events during this period as the annual records on the Palermo stone only survive to the end of the reign of Nebra and for parts of Nynetjer's. One important event possibly happened during the reign of Khasekhemwy.[which?] Many Egyptologists read his name, Khasekhemwy, as "the Two Powers arise". This might commemorate the union of Upper and Lower Egypt. See also[edit] Dynasties of ancient Egypt Early Dynastic Period (Egypt) Predynastic Egypt References[edit] ^ Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. p. 480. ISBN 0-19-815034-2. ^ Romer, John (2013) [2012]. "Chapter 18 — The Lost Dynasty". A History of Ancient Egypt. Volume 1. London, ENG: Penguin Books. pp. 221–22. ISBN 978-1-8-4614377-9. Whatever else was taking place at the court of the Second Dynasty of kings, it is clear that the fundamental institutions of pharaonic government, its systems of supply, not only survived throughout that century and a half, but flourished to the extent that, when the kings emerge into the light of history again with the pyramid builders of the Third Dynasty, the state on the lower Nile was more efficient than it had ever been: that there was, therefore, strong institutional continuity. ^ Bard, Kathryn A. (2002) [2000]. "Chapter 4 — The Emergence of the Egyptian State". In Shaw, Ian (ed.). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (paperback) (1st ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-19-280293-4. There is much less evidence for the kings of the 2nd Dynasty than those of the 1st Dynasty until the last two reigns (Peribsen and Khasekhemwy). Given what is known about the early Old Kingdom in the 3rd Dynasty, the 2nd Dynasty must have been a time when the economic and political foundations were put in place for the strongly centralized state, which developed with truly vast resources. Such a major transition, however, cannot be demonstrated from the archaeological evidence for the 2nd Dynasty. ^ Kahl, Jochem (2007), "Ra is my Lord", Searching for the Rise of the Sun God at the Dawn of Egyptian History, Wiesbaden. ^ Von der Way, Thomas (1997), "Zur Datierung des "Labyrinth-Gebäudes" auf dem Tell el-Fara'in (Buto)", Göttinger Miszellen, 157: 107–11. Preceded by First Dynasty Dynasty of Egypt c. 2890 – 2686 BC Succeeded by Third Dynasty v t e Second Dynasty of Ancient Egypt Attested pharaohs Hotepsekhemwy Nebra Weneg Nynetjer Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Khasekhemwy Obscure pharaoh names Horus Ba Ba Horus Sa Hudjefa I Neferkara I Neferkasokar Nubnefer Senedj Sneferka Wadjenes Queen consort Nimaathap Other royals Khenmetptah Satkhnum Sehener Shepset-ipet Wadjitefni (Mesen-ka) Pehen-Ptah Nisuheqet Nefer-Setekh Monument Gisr el-Mudir Capital Thinis Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Second_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=994217273" Categories: Second Dynasty of Egypt States and territories established in the 3rd millennium BC States and territories disestablished in the 3rd millennium BC Dynasties of ancient Egypt 29th century BC in Egypt 28th century BC in Egypt 27th century BC in Egypt 3rd-millennium BC establishments in Egypt 3rd-millennium BC disestablishments in Egypt 3rd millennium BC in Egypt Hidden categories: CS1: long volume value All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from March 2018 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ქართული Magyar Македонски مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский සිංහල Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 December 2020, at 17:24 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9487	----	Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt - Wikipedia Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt 1991 BC – 1802 BC Fragment of a statue of Amenemhat III 12th Dynasty c. 1800 BC State Museum of Egyptian Art, Munich Capital Thebes, Itjtawy Common languages Egyptian language Religion ancient Egyptian religion Government Absolute monarchy Historical era Bronze Age • Established 1991 BC  • Disestablished  1802 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Periods and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt All years are BC Early Pre-dynastic period First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890 Second Dynasty II 2890–2686 Old Kingdom Third Dynasty III 2686–2613 Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498 Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345 Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181 First Intermediate Seventh Dynasty VII spurious Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160 Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130 Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040 Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061 Middle Kingdom Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991 Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803 Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649 Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690 Second Intermediate Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535 Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600 Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600 Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549 New Kingdom Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292 Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189 Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077 Third Intermediate Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945 Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720 Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728 Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720 Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653 Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525 Twenty-seventh Dynasty (1st Persian Period) XXVII 525–404 Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398 Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380 Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343 Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Persian Period) XXXI 343–332 Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) Argead Dynasty 332–305 Ptolemaic Kingdom 305–30 See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty Periodization of Ancient Egypt v t e The Twelfth Dynasty of ancient Egypt (Dynasty XII) is considered to be the apex of the Middle Kingdom by Egyptologists. It often is combined with the Eleventh, Thirteenth, and Fourteenth dynasties under the group title, Middle Kingdom. Contents 1 History 2 Rulers 2.1 Amenemhat I 2.2 Senusret I 2.3 Amenemhat II 2.4 Senusret II 2.5 Senusret III 2.6 Amenemhat III 2.7 Amenemhat IV 2.8 Sobekneferu 3 Ancient Egyptian literature refined 4 See also 5 References History[edit] The chronology of the Twelfth Dynasty is the most stable of any period before the New Kingdom. The Turin Royal Canon gives 213 years (1991–1778 BC). Manetho stated that it was based in Thebes, but from contemporary records it is clear that the first king of this dynasty, Amenemhat I, moved its capital to a new city named "Amenemhat-itj-tawy" ("Amenemhat the Seizer of the Two Lands"), more simply called, Itjtawy.[1] The location of Itjtawy has not been discovered yet, but is thought to be near the Fayyum, probably near the royal graveyards at el-Lisht.[2] The order of its rulers of the Twelfth Dynasty is well known from several sources: two lists recorded at temples in Abydos and one at Saqqara, as well as lists derived from Manetho's work. A recorded date during the reign of Senusret III can be correlated to the Sothic cycle,[3] consequently, many events during this dynasty frequently are able to be assigned to a specific year. Rulers[edit] Dynasty XII Kings of Egypt Name Horus (throne) name Image Date Pyramid Queen(s) Amenemhat I Sehetepibre 1991 – 1962 BC Pyramid of Amenemhet I Neferitatjenen Senusret I (Sesostris I) Kheperkare 1971 – 1926 BC Pyramid of Senusret I Neferu III Amenemhat II Nubkhaure 1929 – 1895 BC White Pyramid Kaneferu Keminub? Senusret II (Sesostris II) Khakheperre 1897 – 1878 BC Pyramid at El-Lahun Khenemetneferhedjet I Nofret II Itaweret? Khnemet Senusret III (Sesostris III) Khakaure 1878 – 1839 BC Pyramid at Dahshur Meretseger Neferthenut Khnemetneferhedjet II Sithathoriunet Amenemhat III Nimaatre 1860 – 1814 BC Black Pyramid; Pyramid at Hawara Aat Hetepi Khenemetneferhedjet III Amenemhat IV Maakherure 1815 – 1806 BC Southern Mazghuna pyramid (conjectural) Sobekneferu Sobekkare 1806 – 1802 BC Northern Mazghuna pyramid (conjectural) Known rulers of the Twelfth Dynasty are as follows:[4] Amenemhat I[edit] This dynasty was founded by Amenemhat I, who may have been vizier to the last king of Dynasty XI, Mentuhotep IV. His armies campaigned south as far as the Second Cataract of the Nile and into southern Canaan. He also reestablished diplomatic relations with the Canaanite state of Byblos and Hellenic rulers in the Aegean Sea. He was the father of Senusret I. Senusret I[edit] Senusret I followed his father's triumphs with an expedition south to the Third Cataract. Amenemhat II[edit] Amenemhat II was king during a very peaceful time. Senusret II[edit] Senusret II also was content to live in peace. Head of Senusret III with youthful features, 12th Dynasty, c. 1870 BC, State Museum of Egyptian Art, Munich Sobekneferu was the last king of the 12th Dynasty Stele of Abkau dates to the 12th Dynasty Senusret III[edit] Finding Nubia had grown restive under the previous rulers, Senusret sent punitive expeditions into that land. He also sent an expedition into the Levant. His military campaigns gave birth to a legend of a mighty warrior named Sesostris, a story retold by Manetho, Herodotus, and Diodorus Siculus. Manetho claimed the mythical Sesostris not only subdued the lands as had Senusret I, but also conquered parts of Canaan and had crossed over into Europe to annex Thrace. However, there are no records of the time, either in Egyptian or other contemporary writings that confirm Manetho's additional claims. Amenemhat III[edit] Senusret's successor Amenemhat III reaffirmed his predecessor's foreign policy. However, after Amenemhat, the energies of this dynasty were largely spent, and the growing troubles of government were left to the dynasty's last ruler, Sobekneferu, to resolve. Amenemhat was remembered for the mortuary temple at Hawara that he built, known to Herodotus, Diodorus, and Strabo as the "Labyrinth". Additionally, under his reign, the marshy Fayyum was first exploited. Amenemhat IV[edit] Amenemhat IV succeeded his father, Amenemhat III, and ruled for approximately nine years. Sobekneferu[edit] Sobekneferu, a daughter of Amenemhat III, was left with the unresolved governmental issues that are noted as arising during her father's reign when she succeeded Amenemhat IV, thought to be her brother, half brother, or step brother.[5] Upon his death, she became the heir to the throne because her older sister, Neferuptah, who would have been the next in line to rule, died at an early age. Sobekneferu was the last king of the twelfth dynasty. There is no record of her having an heir. She also had a relatively short reign and the next dynasty began with a shift in succession, possibly to unrelated heirs of Amenemhat IV.[6] Ancient Egyptian literature refined[edit] It was during the twelfth dynasty that Ancient Egyptian literature was refined. Perhaps the best known work from this period is The Story of Sinuhe, of which several hundred papyrus copies have been recovered. Also written during this dynasty were a number of Didactic works, such as the Instructions of Amenemhat and The Tale of the Eloquent Peasant. Also, the kings of dynasties twelve through eighteen are credited with preserving for posterity some of the most remarkable Egyptian papyri that have survived to today: 1900 BC – Prisse Papyrus 1800 BC – Berlin Papyrus 1800 BC – Moscow Mathematical Papyrus 1650 BC – Rhind Mathematical Papyrus 1600 BC – Edwin Smith papyrus 1550 BC – Ebers papyrus See also[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to 12th dynasty of Egypt. Execration texts History of Ancient Egypt Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt family tree References[edit] ^ Arnold, Dorothea (1991). "Amenemhat I and the Early Twelfth Dynasty at Thebes". Metropolitan Museum Journal. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 26: 5–48. doi:10.2307/1512902. JSTOR 1512902. ^ Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 159. ^ Parker, Richard A., "The Sothic Dating of the Twelfth and Eighteenth Dynasties," in Studies in Honor of George R. Hughes, 1977 [1] ^ Aidan Dodson, Dyan Hilton: The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press, London 2004 ^ Dodson, Hilton, The Complete Royal Families of Egypt, 2004, p. 98. ^ Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period (1997), p. 15. Preceded by Eleventh Dynasty Dynasty of Egypt 1991 − 1802 BCE Succeeded by Thirteenth Dynasty Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Twelfth_Dynasty_of_Egypt&oldid=981094758" Categories: Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt States and territories established in the 20th century BC States and territories disestablished in the 19th century BC Dynasties of ancient Egypt 20th century BC in Egypt 19th century BC in Egypt 2nd-millennium BC establishments in Egypt 2nd-millennium BC disestablishments in Egypt 2nd millennium BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ქართული Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 30 September 2020, at 07:37 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9461	----	Eunuch - Wikipedia Eunuch From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Eunuchs) Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Eunuch (disambiguation). castrated male human The Harem Ağası, head of the black eunuchs of the Ottoman Imperial Harem. Generally, a eunuch (/ˈjuːnək/ YOO-nək)[1] is a man who has been castrated[2] to serve a specific social function. The earliest records for intentional castration to produce eunuchs are from the Sumerian city of Lagash in the 21st century BC.[3][4] Over the millennia since, they have performed a wide variety of functions in many different cultures: courtiers or equivalent domestics, treble singers, concubines or sexual partners, religious specialists, soldiers, royal guards, government officials, and guardians of women or harem servants. Eunuchs would usually be servants or slaves who had been castrated to make them reliable servants of a royal court where physical access to the ruler could wield great influence.[5] Seemingly lowly domestic functions—such as making the ruler's bed, bathing him, cutting his hair, carrying him in his litter, or even relaying messages—could in theory, give a eunuch "the ruler's ear" and impart de facto power on the formally humble but trusted servant. Similar instances are reflected in the humble origins and etymology of many high offices. Eunuchs supposedly did not generally have loyalties to the military, the aristocracy, or a family of their own (having neither offspring nor in-laws, at the very least). They were thus seen as more trustworthy and less interested in establishing a private 'dynasty.' Because their condition usually lowered their social status, they could also be easily replaced or killed without repercussion. In cultures that had both harems and eunuchs, eunuchs were sometimes used as harem servants. Contents 1 Etymology 2 By region and epoch 2.1 Ancient Middle East 2.2 Ancient Greece, Rome and Byzantium 2.3 China 2.3.1 Qin dynasty 2.3.2 Han dynasty 2.3.3 Tang dynasty 2.3.4 Liao dynasty 2.3.5 Yuan dynasty 2.3.6 Ming dynasty 2.3.7 The path to the occupation 2.3.8 The daily functions of normal eunuchs 2.3.9 The relationship with other occupations in the royal palace 2.3.10 The power of eunuchs in the palace 2.3.11 The reputation of eunuchs in China 2.3.12 Qing dynasty 2.4 Korea 2.5 Vietnam 2.5.1 Lý Dynasty 2.5.2 Trần Dynasty 2.5.3 Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam (Ming dynasty) 2.5.4 Lê Dynasty 2.5.5 Nguyễn Dynasty 2.6 Thailand 2.7 Burma 2.8 Ottoman Empire 2.8.1 Coptic involvement 2.8.2 Algiers 2.9 Indian subcontinent 2.9.1 Eunuchs in Indian sultanates (before the Mughals) 2.9.2 The hijra of South Asia 3 Religious castration 4 In the Bible 5 Non-castrated eunuchs 6 Castrato singers 7 In popular culture 8 Notable eunuchs 8.1 First millennium BC 8.2 First millennium AD 8.3 Second millennium AD 9 See also 10 Footnotes 11 References 11.1 Citations 11.2 Further reading 12 External links Etymology[edit] Eunuch comes from the Ancient Greek word εὐνοῦχος (eunoukhos), first attested in a fragment of Hipponax,[6] the 6th century BC comic poet and prolific inventor of compound words.[7] The acerbic poet describes a particular lover of fine food having "consumed his estate dining lavishly and at leisure every day on tuna and garlic-honey cheese paté like a Lampsacene eunoukhos."[8] The earliest surviving etymology of the word is from late antiquity. The 5th century (AD) Etymologicon by Orion of Thebes offers two alternative origins for the word eunuch: first, to tēn eunēn ekhein, "guarding the bed", a derivation inferred from eunuchs' established role at the time as "bedchamber attendants" in the imperial palace, and second, to eu tou nou ekhein, "being good with respect to the mind", which Orion explains based on their "being deprived of intercourse (esterēmenou tou misgesthai), the things that the ancients used to call irrational (anoēta, literally: 'mindless')".[9] Orion's second option reflects well-established idioms in Greek, as shown by entries for noos, eunoos and ekhein in Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon, while the first option is not listed as an idiom under eunē in that standard reference work.[10] However, the first option was cited by the late 9th century Byzantine emperor Leo VI in his New Constitution 98 banning the marriage of eunuchs, in which he noted eunuchs' reputation as trustworthy guardians of the marriage bed (eunē) and claimed that the very word eunuch attested to this kind of employment.[11] The emperor also goes further than Orion by attributing eunuchs' lack of male-female intercourse specifically to castration, which he said was performed with the intention "that they will no longer do the things that males do, or at least to extinguish whatever has to do with desire for the female sex".[12] The 11th century Byzantine monk Nikon of the Black Mountain, opting instead for Orion's second alternative, stated that the word came from eunoein (eu "good" + nous "mind"), thus meaning "to be well-minded, well-inclined, well-disposed or favorable", but unlike Orion he argued that this was due to the trust that certain jealous and suspicious foreign rulers placed in the loyalty of their eunuchized servants.[13] Theophylact of Ohrid in a dialogue In Defence of Eunuchs also stated that the origin of the word was from eunoein and ekhein, "to have, hold", since they were always "well-disposed" toward the master who "held" or owned them.[14][15] The 12th century Etymologicum Magnum (s.v. eunoukhos) essentially repeats the entry from Orion, but stands by the first option, while attributing the second option to what "some say". In the late 12th century, Eustathius of Thessalonica (Commentaries on Homer 1256.30, 1643.16) offered an original derivation of the word from eunis + okheuein, "deprived of mating". In translations of the Bible into modern European languages, such as the Luther Bible or the King James Bible, the word eunuchus as found in the Latin Vulgate is usually rendered as an officer, official or chamberlain, consistent with the idea that the original meaning of eunuch was bed-keeper (Orion's first option). Modern religious scholars have been disinclined to assume that the courts of Israel and Judah included castrated men,[16] even though the original translation of the Bible into Greek used the word eunoukhos. The early 17th century scholar and theologian Gerardus Vossius therefore explains that the word originally designated an office, and he affirms the view that it was derived from eunē and ekhein (i.e. "bed-keeper").[17] He says the word came to be applied to castrated men in general because such men were the usual holders of that office. Still, Vossius notes the alternative etymologies offered by Eustathius ("deprived of mating") and others ("having the mind in a good state"), calling these analyses "quite subtle". Then, after having previously declared that eunuch designated an office (i.e., not a personal characteristic), Vossius ultimately sums up his argument in a different way, saying that the word "originally signified continent men" to whom the care of women was entrusted, and later came to refer to castration because "among foreigners" that role was performed "by those with mutilated bodies". Modern etymologists have followed Orion's first option.[18][19] In an influential 1925 essay on the word eunuch and related terms, Ernst Maass suggested that Eustathius's derivation "can or must be laid to rest", and he affirmed the derivation from eunē and ekhein ("guardian of the bed"),[18] without mentioning the other derivation from eunoos and ekhein ("having a well-disposed state of mind"). In Latin, the words eunuchus,[20] spado (Greek: σπάδων spadon),[21][22] and castratus were used to denote eunuchs.[23] By region and epoch[edit] Ancient Middle East[edit] The four-thousand-year-old Egyptian Execration Texts threaten enemies in Nubia and Asia, specifically referencing "all males, all eunuchs, all women."[24] Castration was sometimes punitive; under Assyrian law, homosexual acts were punishable by castration.[25][26] Limestone wall relief depicting an Assyrian royal attendant, a eunuch. From the Central Palace at Nimrud, Iraq, 744–727 BCE. Ancient Orient Museum, Istanbul Eunuchs were familiar figures in the Assyrian Empire (ca. 850 until 622 BCE)[27] and in the court of the Egyptian Pharaohs (down to the Lagid dynasty known as Ptolemies, ending with Cleopatra VII, 30 BCE). Eunuchs sometimes were used as regents for underage heirs to the throne, as it seems to be the case for the Neo-Hittite state of Carchemish.[28] Political eunuchism became a fully established institution among the Achamenide Persians.[29] Eunuchs held powerful positions in the Achaemenide court. The eunuch Bagoas (not to be confused with Alexander's Bagoas) was the Vizier of Artaxerxes III and Artaxerxes IV, and was the primary power behind the throne during their reigns, until he was killed by Darius III.[30] Marmon (1995) writes "Mamluk biographies of the eunuchs often praise their appearance with adjectives such as jamil (beautiful), wasim (handsome), and ahsan (the best, most beautiful) or akmal (the most perfect)."[31] Ancient Greece, Rome and Byzantium[edit] The practice was also well established in other Mediterranean areas among the Greeks and Romans, although a role as court functionary does not arise until Byzantine times. The Galli or Priests of Cybele were eunuchs. In the late period of the Roman Empire, after the adoption of the oriental royal court model by the Emperors Diocletian (r. 284-305) and Constantine (r. 306–337), emperors were surrounded by eunuchs for such functions as bathing, haircutting, dressing, and bureaucratic functions, in effect acting as a shield between the emperor and his administrators from physical contact, thus enjoying great influence in the imperial court (see Eusebius and Eutropius). Julian (r. 361–363) released the eunuchs from their service because he felt they were overpaid, and he subsequently realized how much they had contributed to palace operations.[32] The Roman poet Martial rails against a woman who has sex with partially castrated eunuchs (those whose testicles were removed or rendered inactive only) in the bitter epigram (VI, 67): "Do you ask, Panychus, why your Caelia only consorts with eunuchs? Caelia wants the flowers of marriage – not the fruits."[33] It is up for debate whether this passage is representative of any sort of widely practiced behavior, however. At the Byzantine imperial court, there were a great number of eunuchs employed in domestic and administrative functions, actually organized as a separate hierarchy, following a parallel career of their own. Archieunuchs—each in charge of a group of eunuchs—were among the principal officers in Constantinople, under the emperors.[34] Under Justinian in the 6th century, the eunuch Narses functioned as a successful general in a number of campaigns. By the last centuries of the Empire the number of roles reserved for eunuchs had reduced, and their use may have been all but over. Following the Byzantine tradition, eunuchs had important tasks at the court of the Norman kingdom of Sicily during the middle 12th century. One of them, Philip of Mahdia, has been admiratus admiratorum, and another one, Ahmed es-Sikeli, was prime minister. China[edit] See also: Category:Chinese eunuchs A group of eunuchs. Mural from the tomb of the prince Zhanghuai, 706 AD. In China, castration included removal of the penis as well as the testicles (see emasculation). Both organs were cut off with a knife at the same time.[35] Eunuchs have existed in China since about 4,000 years ago, were imperial servants by 3,000 years ago, and were common as civil servants by the time of the Qin dynasty.[36][37] From those ancient times until the Sui dynasty, castration was both a traditional punishment (one of the Five Punishments) and a means of gaining employment in the Imperial service. Certain eunuchs gained immense power that occasionally superseded that of even the Grand Secretaries such as the Ming dynasty official Zheng He. Self-castration was a common practice, although it was not always performed completely, which led to it being made illegal. It is said that the justification for the employment of eunuchs as high-ranking civil servants was that, since they were incapable of having children, they would not be tempted to seize power and start a dynasty. In many cases, eunuchs were considered more reliable than the scholar officials.[38] As a symbolic assignment of heavenly authority to the palace system, a constellation of stars was designated as the Emperor's, and, to the west of it, four stars were identified as his "eunuchs."[39] The tension between eunuchs in the service of the emperor and virtuous Confucian officials is a familiar theme in Chinese history. In his History of Government, Samuel Finer points out that reality was not always that clear-cut. There were instances of very capable eunuchs who were valuable advisers to their emperor, and the resistance of the "virtuous" officials often stemmed from jealousy on their part. Ray Huang argues that in reality, eunuchs represented the personal will of the Emperor, while the officials represented the alternative political will of the bureaucracy. The clash between them would thus have been a clash of ideologies or political agenda.[40] The number of eunuchs in Imperial employ fell to 470 by 1912, when the practice of using them ceased. The last Imperial eunuch, Sun Yaoting, died in December 1996.[41] Qin dynasty[edit] Men sentenced to castration were turned into eunuch slaves of the Qin dynasty state to perform forced labor for projects such as the Terracotta Army.[42] The Qin government confiscated the property and enslaved the families of rapists who received castration as a punishment.[43] Men punished with castration during the Han dynasty were also used as slave labor.[44] Han dynasty[edit] In Han dynasty China, castration continued to be used as a punishment for various offenses.[45][46] Sima Qian, the famous Chinese historian, was castrated by order of the Han Emperor of China for dissent.[47] In another incident multiple people, including a chief scribe and his underlings, were subjected to castration.[48] Near the end of the Han dynasty in 189, a group of eunuchs known as the Ten Attendants managed to gain considerable power at the imperial court, so that a number of warlords decided they had to be eliminated to restore the Emperor's government.[49] However, the loyalist warlord, He Jin, was lured into a trap inside the palace and killed by the eunuchs.[49] The other warlords led by Yuan Shao then stormed the palace and massacred the Ten Attendants and many other eunuchs.[49][50] In the wake of the fighting, Dong Zhuo seized power.[50] Tang dynasty[edit] Indigenous tribals from southern China were used as eunuchs during the Sui and Tang dynasties.[51] The rebel An Lushan had a Khitan eunuch named Li Zhu'er (李豬兒) (Li Chu-erh) who was working for An Lushan when he was a teenager. An Lushan used a sword to sever his genitals and he almost died, losing multiple pints of blood. An Lushan revived him after smearing ashes on his injury. Li Zhu'er was An Lushan's eunuch after this and highly used and trusted by him. Li Zhu'er and another two men helped carry the obese An Lushan when he dressed and undressed. Li Zhu'er also helped An Lushan dress at the Huaqing (Hua-ch'ing) steam baths granted by Emperor Xuanzang. Later, An Lushan was stricken with a skin disease and became blind and paranoid. He started flogging and murdering his subordinates, and Li Zhuer was approached by people who wanted to assassinate An Lushan. An Lushan was stabbed in the stomach and disemboweled by Li Zhuer and Yan Zhuang (Yen Chuang) (嚴莊), another conspirator whom An Lushan had previously beaten. An Lushan screamed, "This is a thief of my own household!" as he desperately shook his curtains since he could not find his sword to defend himself.[52][53][54] Liao dynasty[edit] The Khitans adopted the practice of using eunuchs from the Chinese, and the eunuchs were non-Khitan prisoners of war. When they founded the Liao dynasty, they developed a harem system with concubines and wives and adopted eunuchs as part of it. The Khitans captured Chinese eunuchs at the Jin court when they invaded the Later Jin. Another source was during their war with the Song dynasty, the Khitan would raid China, capture Han Chinese boys as prisoners of war and emasculate them to become eunuchs. The emasculation of captured Chinese boys guaranteed a continuous supply of eunuchs to serve in the Liao Dynasty harem. The Empress Dowager, Chengtian, played a large role in the raids to capture and emasculate the boys. She personally led her own army and defeated the Song in 986,[55] fighting the retreating Chinese army. She then ordered the castration of around 100 Chinese boys she had captured, supplementing the Khitan's supply of eunuchs to serve at her court, among them was Wang Ji'en. The boys were all under ten years old and were selected for their good looks.[56][57] Yuan dynasty[edit] As with all parts of the Mongol Empire, Goryeo provided eunuchs to the Mongols.[58] One of them was Bak Bulhwa, who caused harm to Goryeo.[59] Ming dynasty[edit] There were eunuchs from China's various ethnic tribes, Mongolia, Korea,[60][61] Vietnam,[62] Cambodia, Central Asia, Thailand, and Okinawa.[63]:14–16 There were Korean, Jurchen, Mongol, Central Asian, and Vietnamese eunuchs under the Yongle Emperor,[64]:36ff[65] including Mongol eunuchs who served him while he was the Prince of Yan.[66] Muslim and Mongol eunuchs were present in the Ming court,[63]:14 such as the ones captured from Mongol-controlled Yunnan in 1381, and among them was the great Ming maritime explorer Zheng He,[63]:14ff[67] who served Yongle.[68] Muslim eunuchs were sent as ambassadors to the Timurids.[69] Vietnamese eunuchs like Ruan Lang, Ruan An, Fan Hong, Chen Wu, and Wang Jin were sent by Zhang Fu to the Ming.[70] During Ming's early contentious relations with Joseon, when there were disputes such as competition for influence over the Jurchens in Manchuria, Korean officials were even flogged by Korean-born Ming eunuch ambassadors when their demands were not met.[71] Some of the ambassadors were arrogant, such as Sin Kwi-saeng who, in 1398, got drunk and brandished a knife at a dinner in the presence of the king.[72] Sino-Korean relations later became amiable, and Korean envoys' seating arrangement in the Ming court was always the highest among the tributaries.[71] Korea stopped sending human tribute after 1435.[71] A total of 198 eunuchs were sent from Korea to Ming.[73] The Ming eunuch hats were similar to the Korean royal hats, indicating the foreign origins of the Ming eunuchs, many of whom came from Southeast Asia and Korea.[74] Yishiha was a Jurchen eunuch in the Ming dynasty. During the Miao Rebellions, the Ming Governor castrated thousands of Miao boys when their tribes revolted, and then gave them as slaves to various officials. The Governor who ordered the castration of the Miao was reprimanded and condemned by the Ming Tianshun Emperor for doing it once the Ming government heard of the event.[63]:16 Zhu Shuang (Prince of Qin), while he was high on drugs, had some Tibetan boys castrated, and Tibetan women seized after a war against minority Tibetan peoples. As a result he was denounced after he died from an overdose.[75] On 30 January 1406, the Yongle Emperor expressed horror when the Ryukyuans castrated some of their own children to become eunuchs to give them to the emperor. The Yongle Emperor said that the boys who were castrated were innocent and did not deserve castration, and he returned the boys to Ryukyu and instructed them not to send eunuchs again.[76] An anti-pig slaughter edict led to speculation that the Zhengde Emperor adopted Islam due to his use of Muslim eunuchs who commissioned the production of porcelain with Persian and Arabic inscriptions in white and blue color.[77] Muslim eunuchs contributed money in 1496 to repairing Niujie Mosque.[78] It is unknown who really was behind the anti-pig slaughter edict.[79] At the end of the Ming dynasty, there were about 70,000 eunuchs (宦官 huànguān, or 太監 tàijiàn) employed by the emperor with some serving inside the imperial palace. There were 100,000 eunuchs at the height of their numbers during the Ming.[63]:34ff[80][81][82] In popular culture texts such as Zhang Yingyu's The Book of Swindles (ca. 1617), eunuchs were often portrayed in starkly negative terms as enriching themselves through excessive taxation and indulging in cannibalism and debauched sexual practices.[83] The path to the occupation[edit] In Ming China, the royal palace acquired eunuchs from both domestic and foreign sources.[84]:126–138 On the one hand, the eunuchs in Ming China came from foreign sources. The enemies of Ming China were castrated as a means of punishment when they are captured by the Ming army as prisoners.[84]:127 For example, the population of Mongol eunuchs in Nanjing increased significantly during Yongle's reign when there was a war between Ming China and the Mongols.[84]:127 The foreign eunuchs also came as tribute from many small countries around China.[84]:127 On the other hand, eunuchs also came from indigenous Chinese. In Ming China, many men castrated themselves in order to be hired in the palace, when the only way for these men to enter into a life of privilege was through eunuchism.[84]:128 Besides the royal palace, bureaucratic elites, such as mandarin officials, also hired eunuchs to be servants in their families.[84]:131 With this demand, many men were willing to castrate themselves to become eunuchs. The daily functions of normal eunuchs[edit] Eunuchs in Ming China also played a critical role in the operation of the imperial palace. Their responsibilities varied in significance with jobs that included almost every aspect of everyday routine in the imperial palace. Some of their responsibilities were procuring copper, tin, wood, and iron. Also, they had to repair and construct ponds, castle gates, and palaces in major cities like Beijing and Nanjing, and the mansions and mausolea in the living spaces of imperial relatives.[84]:131 They prepared meals for a great number of people in the palace. Taking care of the animals in the palace was another one of their jobs. In a word, the eunuchs' work was the cornerstone of the palace's daily operation, and they were responsible for the Emperor and his relatives' comfortable life.[84]:125 The relationship with other occupations in the royal palace[edit] The eunuchs also highly associated with other lower ranking occupations in the royal palace. For example, some eunuchs would have special relationships with serving women in the palace. Some eunuchs would form a partnership with serving women in order to support each other, which was called a "vegetarian couple" (Duishi).[85]:43 In this kind of relationship, both the eunuchs and serving women could be more secure when they encountered conflicts with the those of higher rank such as mandarin bureaucrats.[85]:60 The power of eunuchs in the palace[edit] The eunuchs also had an opportunity to rise to higher ranks. For example, the duties and jobs of eunuchs gradually changed in Ming dynasty. In the Hongwu Emperor's time, the Emperor decreed that the eunuchs were to be kept in small numbers and of minimal literacy to prevent them from seizing power.[64]:64 However, in later generations, the Emperors began to train and educate the eunuchs and made them their personal secretaries.[64]:65 The lack of the restrictions allowed some eunuchs to rise to great power, for example, Wang Zhen, Liu Jin, and Wei Zhongxian especially. There were even an eunuch supervised secret police, which worked for the emperor. It was known as the Eastern Depot and Western Depot.[64]:65 Also, Zheng He, a famous eunuch in China's history, became an early pioneer of seafaring and spread Chinese influence around the world.[86] The reputation of eunuchs in China[edit] However, the reputation of eunuchs was controversial in Ming China, especially considering the way they had their eyes and ears everywhere. Since the Eunuchs served both the haram and the emperors, it was believed that they were able to carry valuable information that could either break or create an emperor's status, so out of fear, Chinese bureaucrat-scholars always depicted eunuchs negatively as greedy, evil, cunning, and duplicitous.[84]:121 The Chinese seemed to have a stereotypical view toward the eunuchs. This bad reputation may be explained by the fact that the eunuchs, in order to get employment in the royal palace or official houses, needed to be castrated. Castration gave the eunuchs the license to work in the palace or official houses in Ming China because the officials and the Emperor in Ming China usually kept many concubines.[84]:133 However, In Chinese society, castration broke with conventional moral rules. A son who could not have a male heir to carry on the family name contradicted Confucian ideology.[84]:132 The eunuchs, despite their awareness of losing the ability to have children, would get castrated in order to have better lives. Another stereotypical view of eunuchs in the palace was that they exceeded their power in areas they did not belong. Or that the eunuchs did unpleasant work. For example, they were spies for emperors or officials. The Yongle emperor gave the eunuchs the authority to be in charge in the implementation of political tasks. As the eunuchs' presence and power grew, they gradually took over the duties of female palace musicians and become the dominant musicians in the Ming palace.[87] When they came to power, eunuchs would even interfere in politics such as the succession to the throne.[84]:125 Qing dynasty[edit] Empress Dowager Cixi carried and accompanied by palace eunuchs, before 1908 While eunuchs were employed in all Chinese dynasties, their number decreased significantly under the Qing, and the tasks they performed were largely replaced by the Imperial Household Department.[88] At the beginning of the 20th century, there were about 2,000 eunuchs working in the Forbidden City.[89][90] The eunuchs at the Forbidden City during the later Qing period were infamous for their corruption, stealing as much as they could.[91] The position of a eunuch in the Forbidden City offered opportunity for theft and corruption. China was such a poor country that countless men willingly became eunuchs in order to live a better life.[91] However, eunuchs as the Emperor's slaves had no rights and could be abused at the Emperor's whim. The Emperor Puyi recalled in his memoirs of growing up in the Forbidden City that: "By the age of 11, flogging eunuchs was part of my daily routine. My cruelty and love of power were already too firmly set for persuasion to have any effect on me... Whenever I was in a bad temper the eunuchs would be in for trouble."[89][92] After the revolution of 1911–12 that toppled the Qing, the last emperor, Puyi, continued to live in the Forbidden City with his eunuchs as if the revolution had never happened while receiving financial support from the new Chinese republic until 1924 when the former Emperor and his entourage were expelled from the Forbidden City by the warlord General Feng Yuxiang. In 1923, after a case of arson that Puyi believed was started to cover the theft of his Imperial treasures, Puyi expelled all of the eunuchs from the Forbidden City.[89] The sons and grandsons of the Tajik rebel, Yaqub Beg, in China were all castrated. Surviving members of Yaqub Beg's family included 4 sons, 4 grandchildren (2 grandsons and 2 granddaughters), and 4 wives. They either mostly died in prison in Lanzhou, Gansu, or were killed. However, his sons, Yima Kuli, K'ati Kuli, Maiti Kuli, and grandson, Aisan Ahung, were the only survivors in 1879. They were all underage children, and put on trial, sentenced to an agonizing death if they were complicit in their father's rebellious "sedition", or if they were innocent of their fathers' crimes, were to be sentenced to castration and serve as eunuch slaves to Chinese troops, when they reached 11 years old. They were handed over to the Imperial Household to be executed or castrated.[93][94][95] In 1879, it was confirmed that the sentence of castration was carried out; Yaqub Beg's son and grandsons were castrated by the Chinese court in 1879 and turned into eunuchs to work in the Imperial Palace.[96] Korea[edit] The eunuchs of Korea, called Naesi (내시, 內侍),[97] were officials to the king and other royalty in traditional Korean society. The first recorded appearance of a Korean eunuch was in Goryeosa ("History of Goryeo"), a compilation about the Goryeo period. In 1392, with the founding of the Joseon Dynasty, the Naesi system was revised, and the department was renamed the "Department of Naesi" (내시부, 內侍府).[98] The Naesi system included two ranks, those of Sangseon (상선, 尙膳, "Chief of Naesi"), who held the official title of senior second rank, and Naegwan (내관, 內官, "Common official naesi"), both of which held rank as officers. 140 naesi in total served the palace in Joseon Dynasty period. They also took the exam on Confucianism every month.[98] The naesi system was repealed in 1894 following Gabo reform. During the Yuan dynasty, eunuchs became a desirable commodity for tributes, and dog bites were replaced by more sophisticated surgical techniques.[99][100] Eunuchs were the only males outside the royal family allowed to stay inside the palace overnight. Court records going back to 1392 indicate that the average lifespan of eunuchs was 70.0 ± 1.76 years, which was 14.4–19.1 years longer than the lifespan of non-castrated men of similar socioeconomic status.[101] Vietnam[edit] The Vietnamese adopted the eunuch system and castration techniques from China. Records show that the Vietnamese performed castration in a painful procedure by removing the entire genitalia with both penis and testicles being cut off with a sharp knife or metal blade. The procedure was agonizing since the entire penis was cut off.[102] The young man's thighs and abdomen would be tied and others would pin him down on a table. The genitals would be washed with pepper water and then cut off. A tube would be then inserted into the urethra to allow urination during healing.[103] Many Vietnamese eunuchs were products of self castration in order to gain access to the palaces and power. In other cases they might be paid to become eunuchs. They served in many capacities, from supervising public works, to investigating crimes, to reading public proclamations.[104] Lý Dynasty[edit] This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2013) Lý Thường Kiệt was a prominent eunuch general during the Lý Dynasty (1009–1225). Trần Dynasty[edit] A boy student was given money in exchange for becoming a eunuch by Tran Canh in 1254 since many men castrated themselves to become eunuchs during the Tran and Ly dynasties.[105] The Trần Dynasty sent Vietnamese boy eunuchs as tribute to Ming dynasty China several times, in 1383, 1384 and 1385[106] Nguyen Dao, Nguyen Toan, Tru Ca, and Ngo Tin were among several Vietnamese eunuchs sent to China.[107] Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam (Ming dynasty)[edit] During the Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam, the Ming Chinese under the Yongle Emperor castrated many young Vietnamese boys, choosing them for their handsomeness and ability, and brought them to Nanjing to serve as eunuchs. Among them were the architect-engineer Nguyễn An[108] and Nguyen Lang (阮浪).[109] Vietnamese were among the many eunuchs of different origins found at the Yongle Emperor's court.[110] Among the eunuchs in charge of the Capital Battalions of Beijing was Xing An, a Vietnamese.[111] Lê Dynasty[edit] In the Lê Dynasty the Vietnamese Emperor Lê Thánh Tông was aggressive in his relations with foreign countries including China. A large amount of trade between Guangdong and Vietnam happened during his reign. Early accounts recorded that the Vietnamese captured Chinese whose ships had blown off course and detained them. Young Chinese men were selected by the Vietnamese for castration to become eunuch slaves to the Vietnamese. It has been speculated by modern historians that the Chinese who were captured and castrated by the Vietnamese were involved in trade between China and Vietnam instead of actually being blown off course by the wind and they were punished as part of a crackdown on foreign trade by Vietnam.[112] Several Malay envoys from the Malacca sultanate were attacked and captured in 1469 by the Lê Dynasty of Annam (Vietnam) as they were returning to Malacca from China. The Vietnamese enslaved and castrated the young from among the captured.[113][114][115] A 1472 entry in the Ming Shilu, reported that some Chinese from Nanhai county escaped back to China after their ship had been blown off course into Vietnam, where they had been forced to serve as soldiers in Vietnam's military. The escapees also reported that they found out that up to 100 Chinese men remained captive in Vietnam after they were caught and castrated by the Vietnamese after their ships were blown off course into Vietnam. The Chinese Ministry of Revenue responded by ordering Chinese civilians and soldiers to stop going abroad to foreign countries.[116][117] China's relations with Vietnam during this period were marked by the punishment of prisoners by castration.[118][119] A 1499 entry in the Ming Shilu recorded that thirteen Chinese men from Wenchang, including a man named Wu Rui (吳瑞), were captured by the Vietnamese after their ship was blown off course while traveling from Hainan to Guangdong's Qin subprefecture (Qinzhou), causing them to end up near the coast of Vietnam during the Chenghua Emperor's rule (1447–1487). Twelve of them were enslaved as agricultural laborers, while Wu Rui, the only one still young, was castrated and became a eunuch attendant at the Vietnamese Imperial Palace in Thang Long. After years of service, upon the death of the Vietnamese ruler in 1497, he was promoted to a military position in northern Vietnam. There, a soldier told him of an escape route back to China through which Wu Rui then escaped to Longzhou. The local chief planned to sell him back to the Vietnamese, but Wu was rescued by the Pingxiang Magistrate, then was sent to Beijing to work as a eunuch in the palace.[120] The Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư records that in 1467 in An Bang province of Dai Viet (now Quảng Ninh Province) a Chinese ship blew off course onto the shore. The Chinese were detained and not allowed to return to China as ordered by Le Thanh Tong.[121] This incident may be the same one where Wu Rui was captured.[122] Nguyễn Dynasty[edit] The poet Hồ Xuân Hương mocked eunuchs in her poem as a stand-in for criticizing the government.[123] Commoners were banned from undergoing castration in Vietnam. Only adult men of high social rank could be castrated. Most eunuchs were born as such with a congenital abnormality. The Vietnamese government mandated that boys born with defective genitalia were to be reported to officials, in exchange for the town being freed from mandatory labor requirements. The boy would have the option of serving as a eunuch official or serving the palace women when he became ten years old.[124] This law was put in place in 1838 during the Nguyễn Dynasty.[125] The only males allowed inside the Forbidden City at Huế were the Emperor and his eunuchs.[126] The presence of eunuchs in Vietnam was used by the French colonizers to degrade the Vietnamese.[127] Thailand[edit] In Siam (modern Thailand) Indian Muslims from the Coromandel Coast served as eunuchs in the Thai palace and court.[128][129] The Thai at times asked eunuchs from China to visit the court in Thailand and advise them on court ritual since they held them in high regard.[130][131] Burma[edit] Sir Henry Yule saw many Muslims serving as eunuchs in the Konbaung Dynasty of Burma (modern Myanmar) while on a diplomatic mission.[132] Ottoman Empire[edit] Chief Eunuch of Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II at the Imperial Palace, 1912. In the Ottoman Empire, eunuchs were typically slaves imported from outside their domains. A fair proportion of male slaves were imported as eunuchs.[133] The Ottoman court harem—within the Topkapı Palace (1465–1853) and later the Dolmabahçe Palace (1853–1909) in Istanbul—was under the administration of the eunuchs. These were of two categories: black eunuchs and white eunuchs. Black eunuchs were African slaves who served the concubines and officials in the Harem together with chamber maidens of low rank. The white eunuchs were Europeans from the Balkans or the Caucasus, either purchased in the slave markets or taken as boys from Christian families in the Balkans who were unable to pay the Jizya tax. They served the recruits at the Palace School and were from 1582 prohibited from entering the Harem. An important figure in the Ottoman court was the Chief Black Eunuch (Kızlar Ağası or Dar al-Saada Ağası). In control of both the Harem and a net of spies among the black eunuchs, the Chief Eunuch was involved in almost every palace intrigue and thereby could gain power over either the sultan or one of his viziers, ministers, or other court officials.[134] One of the most powerful Chief Eunuchs was Beshir Agha in the 1730s, who played a crucial role in establishing the Ottoman version of Hanafi Islam throughout the Empire by founding libraries and schools.[135] Coptic involvement[edit] In the 14th century, the Muslim Egyptian religious scholar Taj-al-Din Abu Nasr 'Abdal-Wahhab al-Subki discussed eunuchs in his book Kitab Mu'id al-Ni'am wa Mubid al-Niqam (كتاب معيد النعم ومبيد النقم), a title that has been translated as Book of the Guide to [Divine] Benefits and Averting of [Divine] Vengeance and also as Book of Tutor of Graces and Annihilator of Misfortunes. In a chapter dedicated to eunuchs, Al-Subki made "the clear implication that 'eunuchness' is itself an office," Shaun Marmon explained, adding that al-Subki had specified occupational subgroups for the tawashiya [eunuchs]: the zimam watched over women, and the muqaddam al-mamalik over adolescent boys.[136] Edmund Andrews of Northwestern University, in an 1898 article called "Oriental Eunuchs" in the American Journal of Medicine, refers to Coptic priests in "Abou Gerhè in Upper Egypt" castrating slave boys.[137] A black eunuch of the Ottoman Sultan. Photograph by Pascal Sebah, 1870s. Coptic castration of slaves was discussed by Peter Charles Remondino, in his book History of Circumcision from the Earliest Times to the Present,[138] published in 1900. He refers to the "Abou-Gerghè" monastery in a place he calls "Mount Ghebel-Eter". He adds details not mentioned by Andrews such as the insertion of bamboo into the victim. Bamboo was used with Chinese eunuchs. Andrews states his information is derived from an earlier work, Les Femmes, les eunuques, et les guerriers du Soudan,[138] published by a French explorer, Count Raoul du Bisson, in 1868, though this detail does not appear in Du Bisson's book.[139] Remondino's claims were repeated in similar form by Henry G. Spooner in 1919, in the American Journal of Urology and Sexology. Spooner, an associate of William J. Robinson, referred to the monastery as "Abou Gerbe in Upper Egypt".[140] According to Remondino, Spooner, and several later sources, the Coptic priests sliced the penis and testicles off Nubian or Abyssinian slave boys around the age of eight. The boys were captured from Abyssinia and other areas in Sudan like Darfur and Kordofan, then brought into Sudan and Egypt. During the operation, the Coptic clergyman chained the boys to tables, then, after slicing off their sexual organs, stuck a piece of bamboo into the urethra and submerged them in neck-high sand under the sun. The survival rate was ten percent. Slave traders made especially large profits off of eunuchs from this region.[141][142][143][144] Algiers[edit] In the 16th century, an Englishman, Samson Rowlie, was captured and castrated to serve the Ottoman governor in Algiers. Indian subcontinent[edit] Eunuchs in Indian sultanates (before the Mughals)[edit] Eunuchs were frequently employed in Imperial palaces by Muslim rulers as servants for female royalty, as guards of the royal harem, and as sexual mates for the nobles. Some of these attained high-status positions in society. An early example of such a high-ranking eunuch was Malik Kafur. Eunuchs in Imperial palaces were organized in a hierarchy, often with a senior or Chief Eunuch (Urdu: Khwaja Saras), directing junior eunuchs below him. Eunuchs were highly valued for their strength and trustworthiness, allowing them to live amongst women with fewer worries. This enabled eunuchs to serve as messengers, watchmen, attendants and guards for palaces. Often, eunuchs also doubled as part of the King's court of advisers.[145][146] The hijra of South Asia[edit] Main article: Hijra (South Asia) Hijras of Delhi, India. Hijra, an Urdu term traditionally translated into English as "eunuch", actually refers to what modern Westerners would call transgender women and effeminate homosexual men (although some of them reportedly identify as belonging to a third sex). The history of this third sex is mentioned in the Ancient Indian Kama Sutra, which refers to people of a "third sex" (triteeyaprakrti).[147] Some of them undergo ritual castration, but the majority do not. They usually dress in saris (traditional Indian garb worn by women) or shalwar kameez (traditional garb worn by women in South Asia) and wear heavy make-up. They typically live on the margins of society and face discrimination.[148][149] However, they are integral to several Hindu ceremonies which is the primary form of their livelihood. They are a part of dance programs (sometimes adult[clarification needed]) in marriage ceremonies. They also perform certain ceremonies for the couple in Hindu tradition. Other means to earn their living are: by coming, uninvited at weddings, births, new shop openings and other major family events, singing until they are paid or given gifts to go away.[150] The ceremony is supposed to bring good luck and fertility, while the curse of an unappeased hijra is feared by many. Hijra often engage in prostitution and begging to earn money; the begging is accompanied by singing and dancing. Some Indian provincial officials have used the assistance of hijras to collect taxes in the same fashion—they knock on the doors of shopkeepers, while dancing and singing, embarrassing them into paying.[151] Recently, hijras have started to found organizations to improve their social condition and fight discrimination, such as the Shemale Foundation Pakistan. Religious castration[edit] Castration as part of religious practice, and eunuchs occupying religious roles, have been established prior to classical antiquity. Archaeological finds at Çatalhöyük in Anatolia indicate worship of a 'Magna Mater' figure, a forerunner of the goddess Cybele found in later Anatolia and other parts of the near East.[152] Later Roman followers of Cybele were called Galli, who practiced ritual self-castration, known as sanguinaria.[152] Eunuch priests also figured prominently in the Atargatis cult in Syria during the first centuries AD.[153] The practice of religious castration continued into the Christian era, with members of the early church practicing celibacy (including castration) for religious purposes,[154] although the extent and even the existence of this practice among Christians is subject to debate.[155] The early theologian Origen found evidence of the practice in Matthew 19:10–12:[156] "His disciples said to him, 'If such is the case of a man with his wife, it is better not to marry.' But he said to them, 'Not everyone can accept this teaching, but only those to whom it is given. For there are eunuchs who have been so from birth, and there are eunuchs who have been made eunuchs by others, and there are eunuchs who have made themselves eunuchs for the sake of the kingdom of heaven. Let anyone accept this who can.'" (NRSV) Tertullian, a 2nd-century Church Father, described Jesus himself and Paul of Tarsus as spadones, which is translated as "eunuchs" in some contexts.[157] Quoting from the cited book:[157] "Tertullian takes 'spado' to mean virgin". The meaning of spado in late antiquity can be interpreted as a metaphor for celibacy. Tertullian even goes so far with the metaphor as to say St. Paul had been "castrated".[157] Eunuch priests have served various goddesses from India for many centuries. Similar phenomena are exemplified by some modern Indian communities of the hijra, which are associated with a deity and with certain rituals and festivals – notably the devotees of Yellammadevi, or jogappas, who are not castrated,[158] and the Ali of southern India, of whom at least some are.[159] The 18th-century Russian Skoptzy (скопцы) sect was an example of a castration cult, where its members regarded castration as a way of renouncing the sins of the flesh.[160] Several members of the 20th-century Heaven's Gate cult were found to have been castrated, apparently voluntarily and for the same reasons.[161] In the Bible[edit] For there are some eunuchs, which were so born from their mother's womb: and there are some eunuchs, which were made eunuchs of men: and there be eunuchs, which have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven's sake. He that is able to receive it, let him receive it. — Matthew 19:12 Rembrandt, The Baptism of the Eunuch, 1626. Eunuchs are mentioned many times in the Bible, such as in the Book of Isaiah (56:4) using the word סריס (saris). Although the Ancient Hebrews did not practice castration, eunuchs were common in other cultures featured in the Bible, such as ancient Egypt, Babylonia, the Persian Empire, and ancient Rome. In the Book of Esther, servants of the harem of Ahasuerus, such as Hegai and Shashgaz, as well as other servants such as Hatach, Harbonah, Bigthan, and Teresh, are referred to as sarisim. Being exposed to the consorts of the king, they would likely have been castrated. There is some confusion regarding eunuchs in Old Testament passages, since the Hebrew word for eunuch, saris (סריס), could also refer to other servants and officials who had not been castrated but served in similar capacities.[162][163] The Egyptian royal servant, Potiphar, is described as a saris in Genesis 39:1, although he was married and hence unlikely to have been a castrated eunuch. One of the earliest converts to Christianity was an Ethiopian eunuch who was a high court official of Candace, the Queen of Ethiopia (Acts 8:27–39). The reference to "eunuchs" in Matthew 19:12 has yielded various interpretations. Non-castrated eunuchs[edit] The term eunuch has sometimes figuratively been used for a wide range of men who were seen to be physically unable to procreate. Hippocrates describes the Scythians as being afflicted with high rates of erectile dysfunction and thus "the most eunuchoid of all nations" (Airs Waters Places 22). In the Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary, the term literally used for impotent males is spado but may also be used for eunuchs. Castrato singers[edit] Main article: Castrato Eunuchs castrated before puberty were also valued and trained in several cultures for their exceptional voices, which retained a childlike and other-worldly flexibility and treble pitch (a high-pitched voice). Such eunuchs were known as castrati. As women were sometimes forbidden to sing in Church, their place was taken by castrati. Castrati became very popular in 18th century opera seria. The practice, known as castratism, remained popular until the 18th century and was known into the 19th century. The last famous Italian castrato, Giovanni Velluti, died in 1861. The sole existing sound recording of a castrato singer documents the voice of Alessandro Moreschi, the last eunuch in the Sistine Chapel choir, who died in 1922. In popular culture[edit] Main article: Eunuchs in popular culture Notable eunuchs[edit] See also: Category:Eunuchs In chronological order. First millennium BC[edit] Mutakkil-Marduk (8th century BC): Assyrian chief eunuch, eponym of the year 798 BC in an Assyrian eponym chronicle.[164] Yariri (8th century BC): regent of Neo-Hittite Carchemish thought likely to be a eunuch.[28] Sin-shumu-lishir (7th century BC): Assyrian eunuch who attempted to usurp power in the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Aspamistres or Mithridates (5th century BC): bodyguard of Xerxes I of Persia, and (with Artabanus) his murderer. Artoxares: an envoy of Artaxerxes I and Darius II of Persia. Bagoas (4th century BC): prime minister of king Artaxerxes III of Persia, and his assassin (Bagoas is an old Persian word meaning eunuch). Bagoas (4th century BC): a favorite of Alexander the Great. Influential in changing Alexander's attitude toward Persians and therefore in the king's policy decision to try to integrate the conquered peoples fully into his Empire as loyal subjects. He thereby paved the way for the relative success of Alexander's Seleucid successors and greatly enhanced the diffusion of Greek culture to the East. Batis (4th century BC): resisted Alexander the Great at the Siege of Gaza. Philetaerus (4th/3rd century BC): founder of the Attalid dynasty of Pergamum Zhao Gao: favourite of Qin Shihuangdi, who plotted against Li Si (died 210 BC). Sima Qian (old romanization Ssu-ma Chi'en; 2nd/1st century BC): the first person to have practiced modern historiography – gathering and analyzing both primary and secondary sources to write his monumental history of the Chinese Empire. Ganymedes (1st century BC): highly capable adviser and general of Cleopatra VII's sister and rival, Princess Arsinoe. Unsuccessfully attacked Julius Caesar three times at Alexandria. Pothinus (1st century BC): regent for pharaoh Ptolemy XII. Sporus (1st century BC): an attractive Roman boy who was castrated by, and later married to, Emperor Nero. First millennium AD[edit] Unidentified eunuch of the Ethiopian court (1st century AD), described in the Acts of the Apostles (chapter 8). Philip the Evangelist, one of the original seven deacons, is directed by the Holy Spirit to catch up to the eunuch's chariot and hears him reading from the Book of Isaiah (chapter 53). Philip explained that the section prophesies Jesus' crucifixion, which Philip described to the eunuch. The eunuch was baptized shortly thereafter. Halotus (c. 20–30 AD – c. 70–80 AD), servant to the Roman Emperor Claudius and suspected of poisoning him. Cai Lun (old romanization Ts'ai Lun; 1st/2nd century AD): Former attribution to Lun as the inventor of paper has been rescinded following discovery of many earlier manuscripts written on paper. It is now highly questionable if he was directly involved in making paper. Dorotheus of Tyre (255–362): A bishop who attended the Council of Nicaea, was exiled by Diocletian and Julian, and was martyred. Origen: early Christian theologian, allegedly castrated himself based on his reading of the Gospel of Matthew 19:12 ("For there are eunuchs, who were born so from their mother's womb: and there are eunuchs, who were made so by men: and there are eunuchs, who have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven. He that can take, let him take it."). Despite the fact that the early Christian theologian Tertullian wrote that Jesus was a eunuch, there is no corroboration in any other early source.[165] (The Skoptsy did, however, believe it to be true.[166]) Chusdazat (d. 341): He served King Shapur II, who killed him for declaring his Christian identity. Eutropius (5th century): only eunuch known to have attained the highly distinguished office of Roman Consul. Chrysaphius: chief minister of Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II, architect of imperial policy towards the Huns. Narses (478–573): general of Byzantine emperor Justinian I, responsible for destroying the Ostrogoths in 552 at the Battle of Taginae in Italy and reconquering Rome for the empire. Solomon: general and governor of Africa under Justinian I. Staurakios: chief associate and minister of the Byzantine empress Irene of Athens. Ignatius of Constantinople (799–877): twice Patriarch of Constantinople during troubled political times (847–858 and 867–877). First absolutely unquestioned eunuch saint, recognized by both the Orthodox and Roman Churches. (There are a great many early saints who were probably eunuchs, though few either as influential nor unquestioned as to their castration.) Yazaman al-Khadim (died 891): Emir of Tarsus and successful commander in the wars against the Byzantine Empire. Mu'nis al-Khadim (845/846–933/934): Commander-in-chief of the Abbasid armies between 908 and his death. Joseph Bringas: chief minister of the Byzantine Empire under Romanos II (959–963). Second millennium AD[edit] Jia Xian (c. 1010 – c. 1070): Chinese mathematician; invented the Jia Xian triangle for the calculation of square roots and cube roots. Ly Thuong Kiet (1019–1105): general during the Lý Dynasty in Vietnam. Penned what is considered the first Vietnamese declaration of independence. Regarded as a Vietnamese national hero. Pierre Abélard (1079–1142): French scholastic philosopher and theologian. Forcibly castrated by his girlfriend's uncle while in bed. Malik Kafur (fl. 1296–1316): a eunuch slave who became a general in the army of Alauddin Khalji, ruler of the Delhi sultanate. Zheng He (1371–1433): famous admiral who led huge Chinese fleets of exploration around the Indian Ocean. Judar Pasha (late 16th century): a Spanish eunuch who became the head of the Moroccan invasion force into the Songhai Empire. Kim Cheo Seon [ko]: one of the most famous eunuchs in Korean Joseon Dynasty, ably served kings in the Joseon dynasty. His life is the subject of a historical drama in South Korea. Mohammad Khan Qajar: chief of the Qajar tribe. He became the King/Shah of Persia in 1794 and established the Qajar dynasty. Zhang Rang: head of the infamous "10 Changshi" (ten attendants) of the Eastern Han dynasty. Huang Hao: eunuch in the state of Shu; also appears in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Cen Hun: eunuch in the state of Wu during the Three Kingdoms Period. Gao Lishi: a loyal and trusted friend of Tang emperor Xuanzong. Le Van Duyet: 18th-century Vietnamese eunuch, military strategist and government official (not a true eunuch, he was born a hermaphrodite). Senesino (1686–1758): Italian contralto castrato singer. Farinelli (1705–1782): Italian soprano castrato singer. Giusto Fernando Tenducci (c. 1736–1790): Italian soprano castrato singer. Li Fuguo: Tang eunuch who began another era of eunuch rule. Yu Chao'en: Tang eunuch who began his career as army supervisor. Wang Zhen: first Ming eunuch with much power; see Tumu Crisis. Gang Bing: patron saint of eunuchs in China who castrated himself to demonstrate his loyalty to the Yongle Emperor. Yishiha: admiral in charge of expeditions down the Amur River under the Yongle and Xuande Emperors. Liu Jin: corrupt eunuch official of the Ming dynasty and de facto emperor, member of the Eight Tigers. Wei Zhongxian: eunuch of the Ming dynasty, considered the most powerful eunuch in Chinese history. Wu Rui: a Chinese eunuch in Lê Dynasty Annam (Vietnam). Li Lianying: a despotic eunuch of the Qing dynasty. Thomas P. Corbett/Boston Corbett (b. 1832; presumed dead 1894): killer of John Wilkes Booth, the assassin of Abraham Lincoln, who castrated himself to avoid temptation from prostitutes. Alessandro Moreschi (1858–1922): Italian castrato singer, the only one to make recordings. Xin Xiuming (1878–1959): Entered Emperor Puyi's service in 1902; left palace service in 1911; became abbot of the Taoist temple at the Babaoshan Revolutionary Cemetery by 1930; wrote memoir Eunuch's Recollection (老太监的回忆). Sun Yaoting (1902–1996): last surviving imperial eunuch of Chinese history. See also[edit] Nullo (body modification) Footnotes[edit] References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ εὐνοῦχος. 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Hackett Publishing. pp. 57–. ISBN 978-1-60384-311-9. ^ a b c Hudson, Roger (August 2013). "The Eunuchs are Expelled". History Today. Retrieved 28 March 2016. ^ "Chinese Cultural Studies: Mary M. Anderson, Hidden Power: The Palace Eunuchs of Imperial China". Archived from the original on 27 July 2008. Retrieved 18 August 2008. ^ a b Behr, Edward The Last Emperor London: Futura, 1987 page 73. ^ Behr, Edward The Last Emperor London: Futura, 1987 page 74. ^ Translations of the Peking Gazette. 1880. p. 83. Retrieved 12 May 2011. ^ The American annual cyclopedia and register of important events of the year ..., Volume 4. D. Appleton and Company. 1888. p. 145. Retrieved 12 May 2011. ^ Appletons' annual cyclopedia and register of important events: Embracing political, military, and ecclesiastical affairs; public documents; biography, statistics, commerce, finance, literature, science, agriculture, and mechanical industry, Volume 19. Appleton. 1886. p. 145. Retrieved 12 May 2011. ^ Peter Tompkins (1963). The eunuch and the virgin: a study of curious customs. C. N. Potter. p. 32. Retrieved 30 November 2010. ^ "내시". ^ a b (in Korean) 내시 – 네이버 백과사전 ^ "WHKMLA : Eunuchs in East Asian History". zum.de. ^ Gwyn Campbell; Suzanne Miers; Joseph C. Miller (8 September 2009). Children in Slavery through the Ages. Ohio University Press. p. 137. ISBN 978-0-8214-4339-2. ^ JinMin, Kyung (25 September 2012). "The lifespan of Korean eunuchs". Current Biology. 22 (18): R792–R793. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2012.06.036. PMID 23017989. ^ "Bí mật về thái giám trong cung triều Nguyễn". Zing News. Theo Công An Nhân Dân. 18 July 2013. Archived from the original on 21 July 2013. Retrieved 27 July 2013.CS1 maint: others (link) ^ Theo Công An Nhân Dân (18 July 2013). "Bí mật về thái giám trong cung triều Nguyễn". Zing news. Archived from the original on 21 July 2013. Retrieved 1 August 2013. ^ Taylor, K. W. (2013). A history of the Vietnamese. Cambridge University Press. p. 121. ISBN 978-0521875868. ^ K. W. Taylor (9 May 2013). A History of the Vietnamese. Cambridge University Press. pp. 121–. ISBN 978-0-521-87586-8. ^ Tsai (1996), p. 15 The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty (Ming Tai Huan Kuan), p. 15, at Google Books ^ Nguyẽ̂n (2008), p. 169 The History Buddhism in Vietnam, Vol. IIID.5, p. 169, at Google Books ^ Wang (2000), p. 135 Aching for Beauty: Footbinding in China, p. 135, at Google Books ^ Goodrich (1976), p. 691 Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368–1644 , p. 691, at Google Books ^ Campbell (2009), p. 147 Children in Slavery Through the Ages, p. 147, at Google Books ^ Tran (2006), p. 116 Việt Nam: Borderless Histories, p. 116, at Google Books ^ Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Straits Branch, Reinhold Rost (1887). Miscellaneous papers relating to Indo-China: reprinted for the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society from Dalrymple's "Oriental Repertory," and the "Asiatic Researches" and "Journal" of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Volume 1. LONDON: Trübner & Co. p. 252. Retrieved 1 February 2020.(Original from the New York Public Library) ^ Tsai (1996), p. 15 The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty (Ming Tai Huan Kuan), p. 15, at Google Books ^ Rost (1887), p. 252 Miscellaneous papers relating to Indo-China and Indian archipelage: reprinted for the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. Second Series, Volume 1, p. 252, at Google Books ^ Wade 2005, p. 3785/86 ^ Wade 2005, pp. 2078–2079 ^ Leo K. Shin (2007). "Ming China and Its Border with Annam" (PDF). In Diana Lary (ed.). The Chinese State at the Borders (illustrated ed.). UBC Press. p. 92. ISBN 978-0774813334. Retrieved 5 January 2013. ^ Tsai (1996), p. 16 The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty (Ming Tai Huan Kuan), p. 16, at Google Books ^ Tsai (1996), p. 245 The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty (Ming Tai Huan Kuan), p. 245, at Google Books ^ Leo K. Shin (2007). Diana Lary (ed.). The Chinese State at the Borders (illustrated ed.). UBC Press. p. 91. ISBN 978-0774813334. Retrieved 5 January 2013. ^ Cooke (2011), p. 108 The Tongking Gulf Through History, p. 108, at Google Books ^ Cooke (2011), p. 109 The Tongking Gulf Through History, p. 109, at Google Books ^ Chandler (1987), p. 129 In Search of Southeast Asia: A Modern History, p. 129, at Google Books ^ Andaya (2006), p. 177 The Flaming Womb: Repositioning Women in Early Modern Southeast Asia, p. 177, at Google Books ^ Woodside (1971), p. 66 Vietnam and the Chinese Model: A Comparative Study of Nguyen and Ch'ing Civil Government in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century, p. 66, at Google Books ^ Fodor's (2012), p. 31 Fodor's See It Vietnam, 3rd Edition, p. 31, at Google Books ^ Stearns (2006), p. 1 Aching for Beauty: Footbinding in China, p. 1, at Google Books ^ Peletz (2009), p. 73 Gender Pluralism: Southeast Asia Since Early Modern Times, p. 73, at Google Books ^ Peletz (2009), p. 73 Gender Pluralism: Southeast Asia Since Early Modern Times, p. 73, at Google Books ^ Peletz (2009), p. 75 Gender Pluralism: Southeast Asia Since Early Modern Times, p. 75, at Google Books ^ Peletz (2009), p. 75 Gender Pluralism: Southeast Asia Since Early Modern Times, p. 75, at Google Books ^ Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma. O. Harrassowitz. p. 10. ISBN 978-3447013574. Retrieved 24 February 2020. ^ Lewis. Race and Slavery in the Middle East, Oxford Univ Press 1994. ^ Lad, Jateen. "Panoptic Bodies. Black Eunuchs in the Topkapi Palace", Scroope: Cambridge Architecture Journal, No.15, 2003, pp.16–20. ^ Hathaway, Jane (2005). Beshir Agha : chief eunuch of the Ottoman imperial harem. Oxford: Oneworld. pp. xii, xiv. ISBN 1-85168-390-9. ^ Marmon, Shaun Elizabeth (1995). Eunuchs and Sacred Boundaries in Islamic Society. Oxford University Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-19-507101-6. ^ "Journal of the American Medical Association". American Medical Association. 1 January 1898 – via Google Books. ^ a b Remondino, P. C. (1 June 2001). History of Circumcision. The Minerva Group, Inc. ISBN 9780898754100 – via Google Books. ^ "Les femmes, les eunuques et les guerriers du Soudan". E. Dentu. 1868. ^ Henry G. Spooner (1919). The American Journal of Urology and Sexology, Volume 15. The Grafton Press. p. 522. Retrieved 11 January 2011. In the Turkish Empire most of the eunuchs are furnished by the monastery Abou-Gerbe in Upper Egypt where the Coptic priests castrate Nubian and Abyssinian boys at about eight years of age and afterward sell them to the Turkish market. The Coptic priests perform the 'complete' operation, that is, they cut away the whole scrotum, testes and penis. ^ Northwestern lancet, Volume 17. s.n. 1897. p. 467. Retrieved 11 January 2011. ^ John O. Hunwick; Eve Troutt Powell (2002). The African diaspora in the Mediterranean lands of Islam. Markus Wiener Publishers. p. 100. ISBN 1-55876-275-2. Retrieved 11 January 2011. ^ American Medical Association (1898). The Journal of the American Medical Association, Volume 30, Issues 1–13. American Medical Association. p. 176. Retrieved 11 January 2011. the Coptic priests castrate Nubian and Abyssinian slave boys at about 8 years of age and afterward sell them to the Turkish market. Turks in Asia Minor are also partly supplied by Circassian eunuchs. The Coptic priests before. ^ New African (27 March 2018). "Recalling Africa's harrowing tale of its first slavers – The Arabs". New African Magazine. Retrieved 6 July 2020. ^ "Akbar-Birbal Anecdotes". Retrieved 2 November 2008. ^ "Ghilmans and Eunuchs". Archived from the original on 27 December 2008. Retrieved 2 November 2008. ^ "Gender identity – Developing a statistical standard" (PDF). UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs – Statistics Department. United Nations. Retrieved 23 February 2020. ^ Ravaging the Vulnerable: Abuses Against Persons at High Risk of HIV Infection in Bangladesh, Human Rights Watch, August 2003. Report online. ^ People's Union of Civil Liberties (Karnataka) Report on Human Rights Violations Against the Transgender Community, September 2003. Reported in Siddarth Narrain (14 October 2003), "Being a Eunuch", Frontline. ^ Baldev Chauhan (24 July 2003). "Eunuchs 'cut off man's penis'". BBC News. Retrieved 27 February 2020. ^ "Dancing eunuchs taxing red-faced shopkeepers. Reuters. November 10, 2006". Reuters. 10 November 2006. Retrieved 6 November 2010. ^ a b Roller, Lynn (1999). In search of god the mother. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-21024-0. castration. ^ Dirven, Lucinda (1999). The Palmyrenes of Dura-Europos: A Study of Religious Interaction in Roman Syria. BRILL. p. 296. ISBN 9004115897. ^ Caner, Daniel (1997). "The Practice and Prohibition of Self-Castration in Early Christianity". Vigiliae Christianae. Brill. 51 (4): 396–415. doi:10.1163/157007297X00291. JSTOR 1583869. ^ Hester, David (2005). "Eunuchs and the Postgender Jesus: Matthew 19:12 and Transgressive Sexualities". Journal for the Study of the New Testament. Sage Publications. 28 (1): 13–40. doi:10.1177/0142064X05057772. S2CID 145724743. ^ Frend, W. H. C., The Rise of Christianity, Fortress Press, Philadelphia, 1984, p. 374, which in footnote 45 cites Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica VI.8.2 ^ a b c Moxnes, By Halvor (2004). Putting Jesus in his place. Westminster John Knox Press. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-664-22310-6. ^ "Yellamma cult of India". Kamat.com. Retrieved 6 November 2010. ^ "The Mystery of the Threshold: 'Ali' of Southern India". 25 November 2006. Archived from the original on 25 November 2006. Retrieved 6 November 2010. ^ Christel, Lane (1978). Christian religion in the Soviet Union. State University of New York Press. p. 94. ISBN 978-0-87395-327-6. ^ "Some members of suicide cult castrated". CNN. 28 March 1997. Retrieved 6 November 2010. ^ The Old Testament Hebrew Lexicon Archived 26 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine at Heartlight. ^ EUNUCH Biblical at Gender Tree. ^ Jean-Jaques Glassner: Mesopotamian Chronicles. Atlanta 2004, p. 169. ^ Kuefler, Mathew (2001). The manly eunuch: masculinity, gender ambiguity, and Christian ideology in late antiquity. University of Chicago Press. p. 266. ISBN 978-0226457390. ^ Frick, Karl R. H. (1975). Licht und Finsternis: gnostisch-theosophische und freimaurerisch-okkulte Geheimgesellschaften bis an die Wende zum 20. Jahrhundert [Light and darkness: Gnostic-Theosophical and Freemason-occult secret societies to the turn of the 20th century] (in German). Akademische Druck- u. Verlagsanstalt. p. 456. ISBN 978-3201009515. Further reading[edit] English translation of Rudople Guilland's essay on Byzantine eunuchs "Les Eunuques dans l'Empire Byzantin: Étude de titulature et de prosopographie byzantines", in 'Études Byzantines', Vol. I (1943), pp. 197–238 with many examples Bauer, Susan Wise (2010). The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade (illustrated ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0393078176. Retrieved 5 September 2013. Chen, Gilbert (2016). "Castration and connection: Kinship organization among Ming Eunuchs". Ming Studies. 2016 (74): 27–47. doi:10.1080/0147037X.2016.1179552. S2CID 152169027. Cooke, Nola; Li, Tana; Anderson, James, eds. (2011). The Tongking Gulf Through History (illustrated ed.). University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0812243369. Retrieved 4 January 2013. Keay, John (2010). China: A History. HarperCollins UK. ISBN 978-0007372089. Retrieved 5 September 2013. Lary, Diana (2007). Diana Lary (ed.). The Chinese State at the Borders (illustrated ed.). UBC Press. ISBN 978-0774813334. Retrieved 4 January 2013. Kutcher, Norman (2018). Eunuch and Emperor in the Great Age of Qing Rule. Oakland, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 9780520297524.</ref> McMahon, Keith (2013). Women Shall Not Rule: Imperial Wives and Concubines in China from Han to Liao. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-1442222908. Retrieved 5 September 2013. Peterson, Barbara Bennett, ed. (2000). Notable Women of China: Shang Dynasty to the Early Twentieth Century (illustrated ed.). M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 0765619296. Retrieved 5 September 2013. Robinson, David (1995). "Notes on Eunuchs in Hebei during the Mid-Ming Period". Ming Studies. 1: 1–16. doi:10.1179/014703795788763645. Tsai, Shih-Shan Henry (1996). The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty (Ming Tai Huan Kuan) (illustrated ed.). SUNY Press. ISBN 0791426874. Tuotuo. Liaoshi [History of Liao]. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1974 (or Tuotuo, Liaoshi (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1974)) Toqto'a; et al. (1344). Liao Shi (宋史) [History of Liao] (in Chinese). Van Derven, H. J., ed. (2000). Warfare in Chinese History. Volume 47 of Sinica Leidensia / Sinica Leidensia (illustrated ed.). BRILL. ISBN 9004117741. Retrieved 5 September 2013. Wade, Geoff (2005). "Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu: an open access resource". Asia Research Institute and the Singapore E-Press, National University of Singapore. Retrieved 6 November 2012. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Wang, Yuan-Kang (2013). Harmony and War: Confucian Culture and Chinese Power Politics (illustrated ed.). Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0231522403. Retrieved 5 September 2013. 祝建龙 (Zhu Jianlong) (April 2009). 辽代后宫制度研究 [Research on the System of Imperial Harem in the Liao Dynasty] (Master's thesis) (in Chinese). Jilin University. Retrieved 4 October 2013. "Hidden Power: The Palace Eunuchs of Imperial China". Brooklyn.cuny.edu. Archived from the original on 27 July 2008. Wilson, Jean D.; Roehrborn, Claus (1 December 1999). "Long-Term consequences of Castration in Men: Lessons from the Skoptzy and the Eunuchs of the Chinese and Ottoman Courts". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. 84 (12): 4324–4331. doi:10.1210/jcem.84.12.6206. PMID 10599682. Tsai, Shih-Shan Henry (1 January 1996). The Eunuchs of Ming Dynasty China. ISBN 9780791426876. "A Eunuch Cooks Boys to Make a Tonic of Male Essence," in Zhang Yingyu, The Book of Swindles: Selections from a Late Ming Collection, translated by Christopher Rea and Bruce Rusk (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 2017), pp. 138–141. English language Abstracts of the thesis Research on the System of Imperial Harem in Liao Dynasty Research on the System of Imperial Harem in Liao Dynasty External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Eunuchs. "38 rare pictures of eunuchs during Qing Dynasty". China Underground. "Born Eunuchs". Well.com. "Eunuchs in Pharaonic Egypt". well.com. "The Ancient Roman and Talmudic Definition of Natural Eunuchs". well.com. "The Eunuch Archive". eunuch.org. "The Perfect Servant: Eunuchs and the Social Construction of Gender in Byzantium". Archived from the original on 29 December 2007 – via Find Articles. v t e Gender and sexual identities Gender identities Genders Man Woman Male Female Androgynos Androgyne Boi Cisgender Cross-dresser Gender bender Gender neutrality Non-binary (or genderqueer) Postgenderism Gender variance Transgender Trans man Trans woman Transsexual Third genders or third sexes Akava'ine Apwint Bakla Bugis genders Bissu Calabai Calalai Chibados Enaree Eunuch Fa'afafine Fakaleitī Femminiello Galli Hijra Kathoey Khanith Köçek Koekchuch Lhamana Māhū Mak nyah Mukhannathun Muxe Nádleehi Nullo Rae-rae Sipiniq Sworn virgin Takatāpui Travesti Tumtum Two-spirit Winkte Sexual orientation identities Sexual orientations Asexual Bisexual Heterosexual Homosexual Alternative labels Banjee Bi-curious Ex-gay Ex-ex-gay Gay Gay men Gray asexual Heteroflexible Lesbian Non-heterosexual Pansexual Polysexual Queer Questioning Same gender loving Social aspects Sociosexuality Antisexuality Monogamy Non-monogamy Polyamorous Asociality Homosociality Heterosociality Other Analloeroticism Androphilia and gynephilia Attraction to transgender people Kinsey scale Monosexuality Romantic orientation See also Gender roles Intersex Queer heterosexuality Sex and gender distinction Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures Social construction of gender Authority control NDL: 00564870 NKC: ph211951 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eunuch&oldid=1000291296" Categories: Eunuchs Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with incomplete citations Articles with incomplete citations from January 2021 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1728 Cyclopaedia Wikipedia articles incorporating text from Cyclopaedia CS1: long volume value CS1 errors: missing periodical CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown Articles with Korean-language sources (ko) CS1 maint: others CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty Webarchive template wayback links CS1 German-language sources (de) Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from March 2020 Articles to be expanded from December 2013 All articles to be expanded Articles using small message boxes Wikipedia articles needing clarification from February 2020 CS1 Chinese-language sources (zh) CS1 uses Chinese-language script (zh) Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية বাংলা Български Brezhoneg Буряад Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Malagasy मराठी Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 January 2021, at 14:36 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9518	----	Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt family tree - Wikipedia Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt family tree From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt conventionally starts with the Pharaoh Mentuhotep I and ends with the death of Mentuhotep IV, while the beginning of the Middle Kingdom is marked by the reunification of ancient Egypt under Mentuhotep II. As with many other dynasties, the 11th Dynasty family tree is partially unclear, with many obscure relationships. Iku (♀) Intef the Elder Mentuhotep I Neferu I Intef I Intef II Intef III Iah Neferu II Tem Mentuhotep II Ashayet Henhenet Kawit Kemsit Sadeh Mentuhotep III (?) Imi Mentuhotep IV References[edit] Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson, 2004, pp. 82–89. v t e Royal or noble family trees Monarchies by region Africa Egypt House of Muhammad Ali Ethiopia Solomonic dynasty Madagascar Morocco Tunisia Americas Aztec Brazil Mexico Asia Brunei Cambodia China Ancient Warring States Early Middle Late India Mughal Mughal-Mongol Iran Pre-Islamic: Achaemenid Arsacid Sasanian post-Islamic dynasties Modern: Safavid Afsharid Zand Qajar Pahlavi Japan Shōgun: Kamakura Ashikaga Tokugawa Jerusalem Korea Silla Goryeo Joseon Kuwait Malaysia Johor Kedah Kelantan Negeri Sembilan Pahang Perak Perlis Selangor Terengganu Mongol Borjigin Yuan Ilkhanate Timurid Myanmar Ottoman simplified Seljuk Anatolian Seljuk Sri Lanka Thailand Vietnam Europe Aragon Belgium Bohemia Bosnia Castile Croatia Denmark France simplified House of Bonaparte Greece Hungary Leon Luxembourg Monaco Naples Navarre Netherlands Norway Orange-Nassau Poland Portugal Holy Roman Empire/Germany House of Habsburg (incl. Holy Roman Empire after 1440) Romania Russia Serbia Medieval: Vlastimirović Vojislavljević Vukanović Nemanjić Lazarević Branković Modern: Karađorđević Obrenović Sicily Spain Sweden United Kingdom England simplified) (Wessex Mercia Northumbria Scotland Wales after 1603 Visigoths Oceania Hawaii Kamehameha Lunalilo Kalākaua Huahine Mangareva Samoa Malietoa Tui Manua Tupua Tamasese Tahiti Tonga Dukes, princes and counts Artois Brittany Aquitaine Brabant Lorraine Burgundy Bourbon Condé Conti Flanders Fujiwara Hainault Holland Jagiello La Fayette Lithuania Norfolk Swabia Monarchies of the ancient world Egypt 1st 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st, 22nd & 23rd 25th 26th Near East Yamhad Israel/Judah Georgia Iberia Bagrationi of Tao-Klarjeti and Georgia Kartli Kakheti Imereti Greece and Hellenistic World House of Atreus Erechtheids of Athens Alcmaeonids of Athens Heraclidae Kings of Sparta Argead dynasty Ptolemies Attalid Seleucids Rome Roman Emperors Caecilii Metelli Cornelii Scipiones Julio-Claudian dynasty Severan dynasty Flavian dynasty Constantinian dynasty Valentinianic dynasty Eastern Roman/Byzantine Emperors See also Family tree Ahnentafel Genealogical numbering systems Quarters of nobility Seize quartiers Royal descent v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eleventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree&oldid=868341801" Categories: Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Ancient Egyptian family trees Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit 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en-wikipedia-org-9510	----	List of pharaohs - Wikipedia List of pharaohs From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia list article This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "List of pharaohs" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Pharaoh of Egypt The Pschent combined the Red Crown of Lower Egypt and the White Crown of Upper Egypt. A typical depiction of a pharaoh. Details Style Five-name titulary First monarch Narmer (a.k.a. Menes) Last monarch Nectanebo II (last native)[1] Cleopatra and Caesarion (last actual) Maximinus Daia (last to be referred to as Pharaoh) [2] Formation c. 3100 BC Abolition 343 BC (last native pharaoh)[1] 30 BC (last Greek pharaohs) 314 AD (last Roman Emperor to be called Pharaoh)[2] Residence Varies by era Appointer Divine right The title "Pharaoh" is used for those rulers of Ancient Egypt who ruled after the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt by Narmer during the Early Dynastic Period, approximately 3100 BC. However, the specific title "Pharaoh" was not used to address the kings of Egypt by their contemporaries until the rule of Merneptah in the 19th Dynasty, c. 1200 BC. Along with the title Pharaoh for later rulers, there was an Ancient Egyptian royal titulary used by Egyptian kings which remained relatively constant during the course of Ancient Egyptian history, initially featuring a Horus name, a Sedge and Bee (nswt-bjtj) name and a Two Ladies (nbtj) name, with the additional Golden Horus, nomen and prenomen titles being added successively during later dynasties. Egypt was continually governed, at least in part, by native pharaohs for approximately 2500 years, until it was conquered by the Kingdom of Kush in the late 8th century BC, whose rulers adopted the traditional pharaonic titulature for themselves. Following the Kushite conquest, Egypt experienced another period of independent native rule before being conquered by the Achaemenid Empire, whose rulers also adopted the title of "Pharaoh". The last native pharaoh of Egypt was Nectanebo II, who was pharaoh before the Achaemenids conquered Egypt for a second time. Achaemenid rule over Egypt came to an end through the conquests of Alexander the Great in 332 BC, after which it was ruled by the Hellenic Pharaohs of the Ptolemaic Dynasty. Their rule, and the independence of Egypt, came to an end when Egypt became a province of Rome in 30 BC. Augustus and subsequent Roman emperors were styled as Pharaoh when in Egypt until the reign of Maximinus Daia in 314 AD. The dates given in this list of pharaohs are approximate. They are based primarily on the conventional chronology of Ancient Egypt, mostly based on the Digital Egypt for Universities[3] database developed by the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, but alternative dates taken from other authorities may be indicated separately. Contents 1 Ancient Egyptian king lists 2 Predynastic period 2.1 Lower Egypt 2.2 Upper Egypt 2.3 Predynastic rulers: Dynasty 0 3 Early Dynastic Period 3.1 First Dynasty 3.2 Second Dynasty 4 Old Kingdom 4.1 Third Dynasty 4.2 Fourth Dynasty 4.3 Fifth Dynasty 4.4 Sixth Dynasty 5 First Intermediate Period 5.1 Seventh and Eighth Dynasties (combined) 5.2 Ninth Dynasty 5.3 Tenth Dynasty 5.4 Eleventh Dynasty 6 Middle Kingdom 6.1 Eleventh Dynasty continued 6.2 Enigmatic kings, only attested in Lower Nubia 6.3 Twelfth Dynasty 7 Second Intermediate Period 7.1 Thirteenth Dynasty 7.2 Fourteenth Dynasty 7.3 Fifteenth Dynasty 7.4 Abydos Dynasty 7.5 Sixteenth Dynasty 7.6 Seventeenth Dynasty 8 New Kingdom 8.1 Eighteenth Dynasty 8.2 Nineteenth Dynasty 8.3 Twentieth Dynasty 9 Third Intermediate Period 9.1 Twenty-First Dynasty 9.2 Theban High Priests of Amun 9.3 Twenty-Second Dynasty 9.4 Twenty-Third Dynasty 9.5 Twenty-Fourth Dynasty 9.6 Twenty-Fifth Dynasty (Nubian/Kushite Period) 10 Late Period 10.1 Twenty-Sixth Dynasty 10.2 Twenty-Seventh Dynasty (First Persian Period) 10.3 Twenty-Eighth Dynasty 10.4 Twenty-Ninth Dynasty 10.5 Thirtieth Dynasty 10.6 Thirty-First Dynasty (Second Persian Period) 11 Hellenistic period 11.1 Argead Dynasty 11.2 Ptolemaic Dynasty 12 Rome 13 See also 14 References 15 Further reading 16 External links Ancient Egyptian king lists[edit] Modern lists of pharaohs are based on historical records, including Ancient Egyptian king lists and later histories, such as Manetho's Aegyptiaca, as well as archaeological evidence. Concerning ancient sources, Egyptologists and historians alike call for caution in regard to the credibility, exactitude and completeness of these sources, many of which were written long after the reigns they report.[4] An additional problem is that ancient king lists are often damaged, inconsistent with one another and/or selective. The following ancient king lists are known (along with the dynasty under which they were created)):[5] Den seal impressions (1st Dynasty); found on a cylinder seal in Den's tomb. It lists all 1st Dynasty kings from Narmer to Den by their Horus names.[6] Palermo stone (5th Dynasty); carved on an olivine-basalt slab. Broken into pieces and thus today incomplete. Giza writing board (6th Dynasty); painted with red, green and black ink on gypsum and cedar wood. Very selective. South Saqqara Stone (6th Dynasty); carved on a black basalt slab. Very selective. Karnak King List (18th Dynasty); carved on limestone. Very selective. Abydos King List of Seti I (19th Dynasty); carved on limestone. Very detailed, but omitting the First Intermediate Period. Abydos King List of Ramesses II (19th Dynasty); carved on limestone. Very selective. Ramesseum king list (19th Dynasty); carved on limestone. Contains most of the New Kingdom pharaohs up to Ramesses II. Saqqara Tablet (19th Dynasty), carved on limestone. Very detailed, but omitting most kings of the 1st Dynasty for unknown reasons. Turin King List (19th Dynasty); written with red and black ink on papyrus. Likely the most complete king-list in history, today damaged. Medinet Habu king list (20th Dynasty); carved on limestone and very similar to the Ramesseum king list. Manetho's Aegyptiaca (Greek Period); possibly written on papyrus. The original writings are lost today and many anecdotes assigned to certain kings seem fictitious. Predynastic period[edit] Main article: Prehistoric Egypt Lower Egypt[edit] Main article: Lower Egypt Lower Egypt geographically consisted of the northern Nile and the Nile delta. The following list may be incomplete: Name Image Comments Reign Hedju Hor Only known from two clay jugs from Tura Naqada II?? Ny-Hor Only known from clay and stone vessels found in tombs near Tarchan, Tura, Tarjan, and Nagada Naqada II?? King 01 (missing) Only known from the Palermo stone[7] Unknown Hsekiu / Seka Only known from the Palermo stone[8] Unknown Khayu Only known from the Palermo stone[9] Unknown Tiu / Teyew Only known from the Palermo stone[10] Unknown Thesh / Tjesh Only known from the Palermo stone[11] Unknown Neheb Only known from the Palermo stone[12] Unknown Wazner Only known from the Palermo stone[13] Ruled around or earlier than 3180 BC Hat-Hor — Around 3180 BC Mekh Only known from the Palermo stone[14] Unknown King 09 (destroyed) Only known from the Palermo stone[14] Unknown Double Falcon May also have ruled in Upper Egypt Naqada III (32nd century BC) Wash Only known from the Narmer Palette[15] Around 3150 BC Naqada III Upper Egypt[edit] Main article: Dynasty 00 Regrouped here are predynastic rulers of Upper Egypt belonging to the late Naqada III period, sometimes informally described as Dynasty 00. Name Image Comments Reign Finger Snail — The existence of this king is very doubtful.[16] Naqada III Fish[17] — Only known from artifacts that bear his mark, around 3250–3220 BC. He most likely never existed.[16] Naqada III Elephant[18] Around 3240–3220 BC; more than likely never existed Naqada III Stork[19][20] — most likely never existed.[16] Naqada III Bull — most likely never existed.[16] Naqada III Scorpion I — First ruler of Upper Egypt, Around 3250–3200 BC. Naqada III Predynastic rulers: Dynasty 0[edit] Main article: Dynasty 0 The following list of predynastic rulers may be incomplete. Since these kings precede the First Dynasty, they have been informally grouped as "Dynasty 0". Name Image Comments Dates Iry-Hor Correct chronological position unclear.[21] Around 3170 BC Crocodile Potentially read Shendjw; identity and existence are disputed.[22] Around 3170 BC Ka Maybe read Sekhen rather than Ka. Correct chronological position unclear.[23] Around 3170 BC Scorpion II Potentially read Serqet; possibly the same person as Narmer.[24] Around 3170 BC Early Dynastic Period[edit] Main article: Early Dynastic Period of Egypt The Early Dynastic Period of Egypt stretches from around 3100 to 2686 BC.[25] First Dynasty[edit] Main article: First Dynasty of Egypt The First Dynasty ruled from around 3100 to 2890 BC.[25] Name Image Comments Dates Narmer Believed to be the same person as Menes and to have unified Upper and Lower Egypt. Around 3100 BC[25] Hor-Aha Son of Narmer Greek form: Athotís. Around 3050 BC Djer Son of Hor-Aha Greek form: Uenéphes (after his Gold name In-nebw); His name and titulary appear on the Palermo Stone. His tomb was later thought to be the legendary tomb of Osiris. 54 years[26] Djet Brother of Djer Greek form: Usapháis. 10 years[27] Den Son of Djet Greek form: Kénkenes (after the ramesside diction of his birthname: Qenqen[28]). First pharaoh depicted wearing the double crown of Egypt, first pharaoh with a full niswt bity-name. 42 years[27] Anedjib Grandson of Djet & nephew of Den Greek form: Miebidós. Known for his ominous nebwy-title.[29] 10 years Semerkhet Son of Anedjib or brother of him Greek form: Semempsés. First Egyptian ruler with a fully developed Nebty name. His complete reign is preserved on the Cairo stone. 8½ years[27] Qa'a Son of Semerkhet Greek form: Bienéches. Ruled very long, his tomb is the last one with subsidiary tombs. 34 years Sneferka Unknown son of Qa’a? Very short reign, correct chronological position unknown. Around 2900 BC Horus Bird Brother? Very short reign, correct chronological position unknown. Around 2900 BC Second Dynasty[edit] Main article: Second Dynasty of Egypt The Second Dynasty ruled from 2890 to 2686 BC.[25] Name Image Comments Dates Hotepsekhemwy[30] Manetho names him Boëthos and claims that under this ruler an earthquake killed many people. 15 years Nebra[31] Greek form: Kaíechós (after the Ramesside cartouche name Kakaw). First ruler who uses the sun-symbol in his royal name, could be identical to king Weneg. 14 years Nynetjer[32] Greek form: Binóthris. May have divided Egypt between his successors, allegedly allowed women to rule like pharaohs. 43–45 years Weneg-Nebty[33] Greek form: Ougotlas/Tlás. Could be an independent ruler or the same as Peribsen, Sekhemib-Perenmaat or Raneb. Around 2740 BC Senedj[34] Greek form: Sethenes. Possibly the same person as Peribsen. This, however, is highly disputed.[35] 47 years (Supposedly) Seth-Peribsen Used a Seth-animal above his serekh rather than an Horus falcon. He promoted the sun-cult in Egypt and reduced the powers of officials, nomarchs and palatines. Some scholars believe that he ruled over a divided Egypt.[36] Unknown Sekhemib-Perenmaat Could be the same person as Seth-Peribsen.[37] Around 2720 BC Neferkara I Greek form: Néphercherés. Known only from Ramesside king lists, not archaeologically attested. 25 years(according to Manetho) Neferkasokar Greek form: Sesóchris. Known only from Ramesside king lists, not archaeologically attested. Old Kingdom legends claim that this ruler saved Egypt from a long lasting drought.[38] 8 years Hudjefa I Known only from Ramesside king lists, his "name" is actually a paraphrase pointing out that the original name of the king was already lost in Ramesside times. 11 years(According to the Turin Canon) Khasekhem(wy)[39][40] Greek form: Chenerés. May have reunified Egypt after a period of trouble, his serekh name is unique for presenting both Horus and Set. 18 years Old Kingdom[edit] Main article: Old Kingdom of Egypt The Old Kingdom of Egypt is the point of Egypt which succeeded the Early Dynastic Egypt and precedes the troubled First Intermediate Period. The kingdom ruled from 2686 to 2181 BC.[41] Third Dynasty[edit] Main article: Third Dynasty of Egypt The Third Dynasty ruled from 2686 to 2613 BC.[41] Name Image Comments Dates Djoser[42][43] Hellenized names Sesorthos and Tosórthros. Commissioned the first Pyramid in Egypt, created by chief architect and scribe Imhotep. 19 or 28 years, possibly around 2650 BC[44] Sekhemkhet[45] Greek form: Tyréis (after the ramesside cartouche name for Sekhemkhet, Teti). In the necropolis of his unfinished step pyramid, the remains of a 2-year old infant were found.[46] 2649–2643 BC Sanakht Likely to be identified with the throne name Nebka; Hellenized names Necherôchis and Necherôphes. May have reigned 6 years if identified with the penultimate king of the Dynasty on the Turin canon. Around 2650 BC Khaba Possibly built an unfinished step pyramid, could be identical with Huni. 2643–2637 BC Huni[47] Greek form: Áches. Could be the same as Qahedjet or Khaba. Possibly built an unfinished step pyramid and several cultic pyramids throughout Egypt. Huni was for a long time credited with the building of the pyramid of Meidum. This, however, is disproved by New Kingdom graffiti that praise king Snofru, not Huni. 2637–2613 BC Fourth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Fourth Dynasty of Egypt The Fourth Dynasty ruled from 2613 to 2496 BC.[41] Name Image Comments Dates Sneferu Greek form: Sóris. Reigned 48 years, giving him enough time to build the Meidum Pyramid, the Bent Pyramid and the Red Pyramid. Some scholars believe that he was buried in the Red Pyramid. For a long time it was thought that the Meidum Pyramid was not Sneferu's work, but that of king Huni. Ancient Egyptian documents describe Sneferu as a pious, generous and even accostable ruler.[48] 2613–2589 BC[41] Khufu Greek form: Cheops and Suphis. Built the Great pyramid of Giza. Khufu is depicted as a cruel tyrant by ancient Greek authors, Ancient Egyptian sources however describe him as a generous and pious ruler. He is the main protagonist of the famous Westcar Papyrus. The first imprinted papyri originate from Khufu's reign, which may have made ancient Greek authors believe that Khufu wrote books in attempt to praise the gods. 2589–2566 BC Djedefre Greek form: Rátoises. Some scholars believe he created the Great Sphinx of Giza as a monument for his deceased father. He also created a pyramid at Abu Rawash. However, this pyramid is no longer extant; it is believed the Romans re-purposed the materials from which it was made. 2566–2558 BC Khafre Greek form: Chéphren and Suphis II. His pyramid is the second largest in Giza. Some scholars prefer him as the creator of the Great Sphinx before Djedefra. Ancient Greek authors describe Khafra as likewise cruel as Khufu. 2558–2532 BC Baka/Bauefrê Greek form: Bikheris. Could be the owner of the Unfinished Northern Pyramid of Zawyet el'Aryan. Around 2570 BC Menkaure Greek form: Menchéres. His pyramid is the third and smallest in Giza. A legend claims that his only daughter died due to an illness and Menkaura buried her in a golden coffin in shape of a cow. 2532–2503 BC Shepseskaf Greek form: Seberchéres. Owner of the Mastabat el-Fara'un. 2503–2498 BC Thamphthis — According to Manetho the last king of the 4th dynasty. He is not archaeologically attested and thus possibly fictional. Around 2500 BC Fifth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Fifth Dynasty of Egypt The Fifth Dynasty ruled from 2496 to 2345 BC.[41] Name Image Comments Dates Userkaf Buried in a pyramid in Saqqara. Built the first solar temple at Abusir. 2496–2491 BC Sahure Moved the royal necropolis to Abusir, where he built his pyramid. 2490–2477 BC Neferirkare Kakai Son of Sahure, born with the name Ranefer 2477–2467 BC Neferefre Son of Neferirkare 2460–2458 BC Shepseskare Reigned most likely after Neferefre and for only a few months, possibly a son of Sahure.[49] A few months Nyuserre Ini Brother to Neferefre, built extensively in the Abusir necropolis. 2445–2422 BC Menkauhor Kaiu Last pharaoh to build a sun temple 2422–2414 BC Djedkare Isesi Effected comprehensive reforms of the Egyptian administration. Enjoyed the longest reign of his dynasty, with likely more than 35 years on the throne. 2414–2375 BC Unas The Pyramid of Unas is inscribed with the earliest instance of the pyramid texts 2375–2345 BC Sixth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Sixth Dynasty of Egypt The Sixth Dynasty ruled from 2345 to 2181 BC.[41] Name Image Comments Dates Teti According to Manetho, he was murdered. 2345–2333 BC Userkare Reigned 1 to 5 years, may have usurped the throne at the expense of Teti 2333–2332 BC Meryre Pepi I Faced conspiracies and political troubles yet became the most prolific builder of his dynasty 2332–2283 BC Merenre Nemtyemsaf I — 2283–2278 BC Neferkare Pepi II Possibly the longest reigning monarch of human history with 94 years on the throne. Alternatively, may have reigned "only" 64 years. 2278–2184 BC Neferka — Reigned during Pepi II; was possibly his son or co-ruler. 2200–2199 BC Merenre Nemtyemsaf II[50] Short lived pharaoh, possibly an aged son of Pepi II. 1 year and 1 month c. 2184 BC Neitiqerty Siptah Identical with Netjerkare. This male king gave rise to the legendary queen Nitocris of Herodotus and Manetho.[51] Sometimes classified as the first king of the combined 7th/8th Dynasties. Short reign: c. 2184–2181 BC First Intermediate Period[edit] Main article: First Intermediate Period of Egypt The First Intermediate Period (2181–2060 BC) is a period of disarray and chaos between the end of the Old Kingdom and the advent of the Middle Kingdom. The Old Kingdom rapidly collapsed after the death of Pepi II. He had reigned for more than 64 and likely up to 94 years, longer than any monarch in history. The latter years of his reign were marked by inefficiency because of his advanced age. The union of the Two Kingdoms fell apart and regional leaders had to cope with the resulting famine. The kings of the 7th and 8th Dynasties, who represented the successors of the 6th Dynasty, tried to hold onto some power in Memphis but owed much of it to powerful nomarchs. After 20 to 45 years, they were overthrown by a new line of pharaohs based in Herakleopolis Magna. Some time after these events, a rival line based at Thebes revolted against their nominal Northern overlords and united Upper Egypt. Around 2055 BC, Mentuhotep II, the son and successor of pharaoh Intef III defeated the Herakleopolitan pharaohs and reunited the Two Lands, thereby starting the Middle Kingdom. Seventh and Eighth Dynasties (combined)[edit] Main articles: Seventh Dynasty of Egypt and Eighth Dynasty of Egypt The Seventh and Eighth Dynasties ruled for approximately 20–45 years (possibly 2181 to 2160 BC[52]). They comprise numerous ephemeral kings reigning from Memphis over a possibly divided Egypt and, in any case, holding only limited power owing to the effectively feudal system into which the administration had evolved. The list below is based on the Abydos King List dating to the reign of Seti I and taken from Jürgen von Beckerath's Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen[53] as well as from Kim Ryholt's latest reconstruction of the Turin canon, another king list dating to the Ramesside Era.[54] Name Image Comments Dates Menkare Likely attested by a relief fragment from the tomb of queen Neit.[55][56][57] Probably short, Around 2181 BC Neferkare II — Unknown Neferkare (III) Neby Attested by inscriptions in the tomb of his mother Ankhesenpepi, started the construction of a pyramid in Saqqara. Unknown Djedkare Shemai — Unknown Neferkare (IV) Khendu — Unknown Merenhor — Unknown Neferkamin — Unknown Nikare Possibly attested by a cylinder-seal. Unknown Neferkare (V) Tereru — Unknown Neferkahor Attested by a cylinder seal. Unknown Neferkare (VI) Pepiseneb — Unknown to 2171 BC Neferkamin Anu — Around 2170 BC Qakare Ibi Built a pyramid at Saqqara inscribed with the last known instance of the Pyramid Texts 2169–2167 BC Neferkaure Attested by one to three decrees from the temple of Min at Coptos. 2167–2163 BC Neferkauhor Khuwihapi Attested by eight decrees from the temple of Min and an inscription in the tomb of Shemay. 2163–2161 BC Neferirkare Possibly to be identified with horus Demedjibtawy, in which case he is attested by a decree from the temple of Min. 2161–2160 BC Ninth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Ninth Dynasty of Egypt The Ninth Dynasty[58] ruled from 2160 to 2130 BC.[59] The Turin King List has 18 kings reigning in the Ninth and Tenth Dynasties. Of these, twelve names are missing and four are partial.[58] Name Image Comments Dates Meryibre Khety I (Acthoes I) Manetho states that Achthoes founded this dynasty. 2160 BC–unknown — — — Unknown Neferkare VII — — Unknown Nebkaure Khety II (Acthoes II) — Unknown Senenh— or Setut — — Unknown — — — Unknown Mery— — — Unknown Shed— — — Unknown H— — — Unknown Tenth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Tenth Dynasty of Egypt The Tenth Dynasty was a local group that held sway over Lower Egypt that ruled from 2130 to 2040 BC.[59] Name Image Comments Dates Meryhathor — 2130 BC–unknown Neferkare VIII — — Between 2130 and 2040 BCE Wahkare Khety (Acthoes III) — Unknown Merykare — Unknown–2040 BC Eleventh Dynasty[edit] Main article: Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt The Eleventh Dynasty was a local group with roots in Upper Egypt that ruled from 2134 to 1991 BC. The 11th dynasty originated from a dynasty of Theban nomarchs serving kings of the 8th, 9th or 10th dynasty. Name Image Comments Dates Intef the Elder Iry-pat Theban nomarch serving an unnamed king, later considered a founding figure of the 11th Dynasty. Unknown The successors of Intef the Elder, starting with Mentuhotep I, became independent from their northern overlords and eventually conquered Egypt under Mentuhotep II. Name Image Comments Dates Mentuhotep I Tepy-a Nominally a Theban nomarch but may have ruled independently. Unknown–2133 BC[59] Sehertawy Intef I First member of the dynasty to claim a Horus name. 2133–2117 BC[59] Wahankh Intef II Conquered Abydos and its nome. 2117–2068 BC[59] Nakhtnebtepnefer Intef III Conquered Asyut and possibly moved further North up to the 17th nome.[60] 2068–2060 BC[59] Middle Kingdom[edit] Main article: Middle Kingdom of Egypt The Middle Kingdom (2060–1802 BC) is the period from the end of the First Intermediate Period to the beginning of the Second Intermediate Period. In addition to the Twelfth Dynasty, some scholars include the Eleventh, Thirteenth and Fourteenth Dynasties in the Middle Kingdom. The Middle Kingdom can be noted for the expansion of trade outside of the kingdom that occurred during this time. Eleventh Dynasty continued[edit] The second part of the Eleventh Dynasty is considered to be part of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt. Name Image Comments Dates Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II[61] Gained all Egypt c. 2015 BC, Middle Kingdom begins, becomes first pharaoh of Middle Kingdom. 2060–2040 BC[59] (King of Upper Egypt Only) 2060–2009 BC[59] (King of Upper and Lower Egypt) Sankhkare Mentuhotep III[62] Commanded the first expedition to Punt of the Middle Kingdom 2009–1997 BC[59] Nebtawyre Mentuhotep IV[63] Obscure pharaoh absent from later king lists; tomb unknown. May have been overthrown by his vizier and successor Amenemhat I. 1997–1991 BC[59] Enigmatic kings, only attested in Lower Nubia[edit] Name Image Comments Dates Segerseni[64] Obscure pharaoh absent from later king lists; tomb unknown. Only attested in Lower Nubia, most likely an usurper at the end of the Eleventh Dynasty or early Twelfth Dynasty. Early 20th century BC Qakare Ini[64] Obscure pharaoh absent from later king lists; tomb unknown. Only attested in Lower Nubia, most likely an usurper at the end of the Eleventh Dynasty or early Twelfth Dynasty. Early 20th century BC Iyibkhentre[64] Obscure pharaoh absent from later king lists; tomb unknown. Only attested in Lower Nubia, most likely an usurper at the end of the Eleventh Dynasty or early Twelfth Dynasty. Early 20th century BC Twelfth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt The Twelfth Dynasty ruled from 1991 to 1802 BC. Name Image Comments Dates Sehetepibre Amenemhat I[65][66] Possibly overthrew Mentuhotep IV. Assassinated by his own guards. 1991–1962 BC Kheperkare Senusret I[67] (Sesostris I) Built the White Chapel 1971–1926 BC Nubkaure Amenemhat II[68] Ruled for at least 35 years. 1929–1895 BC Khakheperre Senusret II[69] (Sesostris II) — 1897–1878 BC Khakaure Senusret III[70] (Sesostris III) Most powerful of the Middle Kingdom pharaohs. 1878–1860 BC Nimaatre Amenemhat III[71] — 1860–1815 BC Maakherure Amenemhat IV[72] Had a co-regency lasting at least 1 year based on an inscription at Knossos. 1815–1807 BC Sobekkare Sobekneferu[73] The first known archeologically attested female Pharaoh. 1807–1802 BC The position of a possible additional ruler, Seankhibtawy Seankhibra, is uncertain. He may be an ephemeral king, or a name variant of a king of the 12th or 13th Dynasty. Second Intermediate Period[edit] Main article: Second Intermediate Period of Egypt The Second Intermediate Period (1802–1550 BC) is a period of disarray between the end of the Middle Kingdom, and the start of the New Kingdom. It is best known as when the Hyksos, whose reign comprised the Fifteenth Dynasty, made their appearance in Egypt. The Thirteenth Dynasty was much weaker than the Twelfth Dynasty, and was unable to hold onto the two lands of Egypt. Either at the start of the dynasty, c. 1805 BC or toward the middle of it in c. 1710 BC, the provincial ruling family in Xois, located in the marshes of the eastern Delta, broke away from the central authority to form the Canaanite Fourteenth Dynasty. The Hyksos made their first appearance during the reign of Sobekhotep IV, and around 1720 BC took control of the town of Avaris (the modern Tell el-Dab'a/Khata'na), conquering the kingdom of the 14th dynasty. Sometime around 1650 BC the Hyksos, perhaps led by Salitis the founder of the Fifteenth Dynasty, conquered Memphis, thereby terminating the 13th dynasty. The power vacuum in Upper Egypt resulting from the collapse of the 13th dynasty allowed the 16th dynasty to declare its independence in Thebes, only to be overrun by the Hyksos kings shortly thereafter. Subsequently, as the Hyksos withdrew from Upper Egypt, the native Egyptian ruling house in Thebes set itself up as the Seventeenth Dynasty. This dynasty eventually drove the Hyksos back into Asia under Seqenenre Tao, Kamose and finally Ahmose, first pharaoh of the New Kingdom. Thirteenth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt The Thirteenth Dynasty (following the Turin King List) ruled from 1802 to around 1649 BC and lasted 153 or 154 years according to Manetho. This table should be contrasted with Known kings of the 13th Dynasty. Name Image Comments Dates Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep I Founded the 13th Dynasty. His reign is well attested. Referred to as Sobekhotep I in dominant hypothesis, known as Sobekhotep II in older studies 1802–1800 BC[74] Sonbef Perhaps a brother of Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep and son of Amenemhat IV[74] 1800–1796 BC[74] Nerikare Attested on a Nile record from Semna.[75] 1796 BC Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ruled for 3 to 4 years[74] 1796–1793 BC[74] Ameny Qemau Buried in his pyramid in south Dashur 1795–1792 BC Hotepibre Qemau Siharnedjheritef Also called Sehotepibre 1792–1790 BC Iufni — Only attested on the Turin canon Very short reign, possibly c. 1790 – 1788 BC[74] Seankhibre Amenemhet VI Attested on the Turin Canon.[76] 1788–1785 BC Semenkare Nebnuni Attested on the Turin Canon[77] 1785–1783 BC[74] or 1739 BC[78] Sehetepibre Sewesekhtawy Attested on the Turin Canon[79] 1783–1781 BC[74] Sewadjkare — Known only from the Turin canon 1781 BCE Nedjemibre — Known only from the Turin canon 7 months, 1780 BC[74] or 1736 BC[78] Khaankhre Sobekhotep Referred to as Sobekhotep II in dominant hypothesis, known as Sobekhotep I in older studies Reigned c. 3 years, 1780–1777 BC[74] Renseneb — 4 months 1777 BC[74] Awybre Hor I Famous for his intact tomb treasure and Ka statue Reigned 1 year and 6 months, 1777–1775 BC[74] Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Possibly a son of Hor Awibre Estimated reign 3 years, 1775–1772 BC[74] Djedkheperew Possibly a son of Hor Awibre and brother of Khabaw, previously identified with Khendjer Estimated reign 2 years, 1772–1770 BC[74] Sebkay Possibly two kings, Seb and his son Kay.[74] Sedjefakare A well known king attested on numerous stelas and other documents. 5 to 7 years or 3 years, 1769–1766 BC[74] Khutawyre Wegaf Founder of the dynasty in old studies Around 1767 BC Khendjer Possibly the first semitic pharaoh, built a pyramid at Saqqara Minimum 4 years and 3 months c. 1765 BC Imyremeshaw Attested by two colossal statues Reigned less than 10 years, starting 1759 BC[74] or 1711 BC.[80] Sehetepkare Intef IV — Less than 10 years Seth Meribre — Reign ended 1749 BCE Sekhemresewadjtawy Sobekhotep III 4 years and 2 months 1755–1751 BC Khasekhemre Neferhotep I 11 years 1751–1740 BC Menwadjre Sihathor Ephemeral coregent with his brother Neferhotep I, may not have reigned independently. 1739 BC[74] Khaneferre Sobekhotep IV 10 or 11 years 1740–1730 BC Merhotepre Sobekhotep V — 1730 BC Khahotepre Sobekhotep VI 4 years 8 months and 29 days Around 1725 BC Wahibre Ibiau 10 years and 8 months 1725–1714 BC or 1712–1701 BC[74] Merneferre Ay I Longest reigning king of the dynasty 23 years, 8 months and 18 days, 1701–1677 BC[74] or 1714–1691 BC Merhotepre Ini Possibly a son of his predecessor 2 Years 3 or 4 Months and 9 days, 1677–1675 BC[74] or 1691–1689 BC Sankhenre Sewadjtu — Attested only on the Turin canon 3 years and 2–4 months, 1675–1672 BC[74] Mersekhemre Ined May be the same person as Neferhotep II 3 years, 1672–1669 BC[74] Sewadjkare Hori — 5 years 5 years Merkawre Sobekhotep VII 2 years and 6 months[74] 1664–1663 BC[74] Seven kings — Names lost in a lacuna of the Turin canon[74] 1663 BC –?[74] Mer[...]re — — Unknown Merkheperre — Some time between 1663 BC and 1649 BC[74] Merkare — Attested only on the Turin canon Some time between 1663 BC and 1649 BC[74] Name lost — — Unknown Sewadjare Mentuhotep V — Around 1655 BC[74] [...]mosre — — Unknown Ibi [...]maatre — — Unknown Hor[...] [...]webenre — — Unknown Se...kare — Unknown Unknown Seheqenre Sankhptahi May be the son of his predecessor Between 1663-1649 BC ...re — Unknown Unknown Se...enre — Unknown Unknown–1649 BC[74] The position of the following kings is uncertain: Name Image Comments Dates Dedumose I Possibly a king of the 16th dynasty Around 1654 Dedumose II Possibly a king of the 16th dynasty Unknown Sewahenre Senebmiu Late 13th dynasty. After 1660 BC.[74] Snaaib Possibly a king of the Abydos Dynasty Unknown Mershepsesre Ini II Late 13th dynasty. Unknown Fourteenth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt The Fourteenth Dynasty was a local group from the eastern Delta, based at Avaris,[81] that ruled from either from 1805 BC or c. 1710 BC until around 1650 BC. The dynasty comprised many rulers with West Semitic names and is thus believed to have been Canaanite in origin. It is here given according to Ryholt, however this reconstruction of the dynasty is heavily debated with the position of the five kings preceding Nehesy highly disputed. Name Image Comments Dates Yakbim Sekhaenre Chronological position uncertain, here given according to Ryholt[81] 1805–1780 BC Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Chronological position uncertain, here given per Ryholt[81] 1780–1770 BC Qareh Khawoserre[81] Chronological position uncertain, here given per Ryholt[81] 1770–1760 BC 'Ammu Ahotepre[81] Chronological position uncertain, here given per Ryholt[81] 1760–1745 BC Sheshi[82] Chronological position, duration of reign and extend of rule uncertain, here given according to Ryholt.[81] Alternatively, he could be an early Hyksos king, a Hyksos ruler of the second part of the 15th Dynasty or a vassal of the Hyksos. 1745–1705 BC Nehesy Short reign, perhaps a son of Sheshi[81] Around 1705 Khakherewre — — Unknown Nebefawre — — Around 1704 BC Sehebre — Possibly identifiable with Wazad or Sheneh[74] Around 1704 to 1699 BC Merdjefare Possibly identifiable with Wazad or Sheneh[74] Around 1699 BC Sewadjkare III — — Unknown Nebdjefare — — 1694 BC Webenre — — Unknown — — — Unknown Djefare? — — Unknown Webenre — — Around 1690 BC Nebsenre[81] Attested by a jar bearing his prenomen At least 5 months of reign, some time between 1690 BC and 1649 BC Sekheperenre[81] Attested by a single scarab seal 2 months, some time between 1690 BC and 1649 BC Anati Djedkare[81] — Only known from the Turin canon Unknown Bebnum[81] — Only known from the Turin canon Some time between 1690 BC and 1649 BC 'Apepi[81] — Possibly attested as a king's son by 5 scarabs-seals c. 1650 BC The position and identity of the following pharaohs is uncertain: Name Image Comments Dates Nuya[74] Attested by a scarab-seal Unknown Wazad[74] May be identifiable with Sehebre or Merdjefare Around 1700 BC ? Sheneh[74] May be identifiable with Sehebre or Merdjefare Unknown Shenshek[74] Attested by a scarab-seal Unknown Khamure[74] — Unknown Yakareb[74] — Unknown Yaqub-Har[82] May belong to the 14th dynasty, the 15th dynasty or be a vassal of the Hyksos. Possibly the Pharaoh that was mentioned in Genesis 41. 17th–16th centuries BC The Turin King List provides additional names, none of which are attested beyond the list. Fifteenth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt The Fifteenth Dynasty arose from among the Hyksos people who emerged from the Fertile Crescent to establish a short-lived governance over much of the Nile region, and ruled from 1674 to 1535 BC. Name Image Comments Dates Semqen Chronological position uncertain. 1649 BC – Unknown 'Aper-'Anat Chronological position uncertain. Unknown Sakir-Har — — Unknown Khyan Apex of the Hyksos' power, conquered Thebes toward the end of his reign 30–40 years Apepi — 40 years or more Khamudi — 1555–1544 BC Abydos Dynasty[edit] Main article: Abydos Dynasty The Second Intermediate Period may include an independent dynasty reigning over Abydos from c. 1650 BC until 1600 BC.[83][84][85] Four attested kings may be tentatively attributed to the Abydos Dynasty, and they are given here without regard for their (unknown) chronological order: Name Image Comments Dates Sekhemraneferkhau Wepwawetemsaf May belong to the late 16th Dynasty[86] Uncertain Sekhemrekhutawy Pantjeny May belong to the late 16th Dynasty[86] Uncertain Menkhaure Snaaib May belong to the late 13th Dynasty.[87][88][89] Uncertain Woseribre Senebkay Tomb discovered in 2014. Perhaps identifiable with a Woser[...]re of the Turin canon. Around 1650 BC Sixteenth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt The Sixteenth Dynasty was a native Theban dynasty emerging from the collapse of the Memphis-based 13th dynasty c. 1650 BC and finally conquered by the Hyksos 15th dynasty c. 1580 BC. The 16th dynasty held sway over Upper Egypt only. Name Image Comments Dates — — Name of the first king is lost here in the Turin King List and cannot be recovered Unknown Sekhemresementawy Djehuti – 3 years Sekhemreseusertawy Sobekhotep VIII – 16 years Sekhemresankhtawy Neferhotep III – 1 year Seankhenre Mentuhotepi May be a king of the 17th Dynasty[88] 1 year Sewadjenre Nebiryraw I – 26 years Neferkare(?) Nebiryraw II – Around 1600 BC Semenre – Around 1600 BC Seuserenre Bebiankh – 12 years Djedhotepre Dedumose I May be a king of the 13th Dynasty[88] Around 1588-1582 BC Djedneferre Dedumose II – Around 1588-1582 BC Djedankhre Montemsaf – Around 1590 BC Merankhre Mentuhotep VI – Short reign, around 1585 BC Seneferibre Senusret IV – Unknown Sekhemre Shedwast — May be the same as Sekhemre Shedtawy Sobekemsaf II Unknown The 16th Dynasty may also have comprised the reigns of pharaohs Sneferankhre Pepi III[90] and Nebmaatre. Their chronological position is uncertain.[87][88] Seventeenth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt The Seventeenth Dynasty was based in Upper Egypt and ruled from 1650 to 1550 BC: Name Image Comments Dates Sekhemrewahkhaw Rahotep — Around 1620 BC Sekhemre Wadjkhaw Sobekemsaf I — At least 7 years Sekhemre Shedtawy Sobekemsaf II His tomb was robbed and burned during the reign of Ramesses IX. Unknown to around 1573 BC Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef V — Possibly around 1573-1571 BC Nubkheperre Intef VI Reigned more than 3 years Around 1571 to the mid-1560s BC Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef VII — Late 1560s BC Senakhtenre Ahmose — Around 1558 BC Seqenenre Tao Died in battle against the Hyksos. 1558–1554 BC Wadjkheperre Kamose — 1554–1549 BC The early 17th Dynasty may also have included the reign of a pharaoh Nebmaatre, whose chronological position is uncertain.[74] New Kingdom[edit] Main article: New Kingdom of Egypt The New Kingdom (1550–1077 BC) is the period covering the Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth dynasty of Egypt, from the 16th to the 11th century BC, between the Second Intermediate Period, and the Third Intermediate Period. Through military dominance abroad, the New Kingdom saw Egypt's greatest territorial extent. It expanded far into Nubia in the south, and held wide territories in the Near East. Egyptian armies fought with Hittite armies for control of modern-day Syria. Three of the best known pharaohs of the New Kingdom are Akhenaten, also known as Amenhotep IV, whose exclusive worship of the Aten is often interpreted as the first instance of monotheism, Tutankhamun known for the discovery of his nearly intact tomb, and Ramesses II who attempted to recover the territories in modern Israel/Palestine, Lebanon and Syria that had been held in the Eighteenth Dynasty. His reconquest led to the Battle of Qadesh, where he led the Egyptian armies against the army of the Hittite king Muwatalli II. Eighteenth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt The Eighteenth Dynasty ruled from c. 1550 to 1292 BC: Name Image Comments Dates Nebpehtire Ahmose I, Ahmosis I Brother and successor to Kamose, conquered north of Egypt from the Hyksos. Around 1550–1525 BC; Radiocarbon date range for the start of his reign is 1570–1544 BC, the mean point of which is 1557 BC[91] Djeserkare Amenhotep I Son of Ahmose I. 1541–1520 BC Aakheperkare Thutmose I Father unknown, though possibly Amenhotep I. His mother is known to be Senseneb. Expanded Egypt's territorial extent during his reign. 1520–1492 BC Aakheperenre Thutmose II Son of Thutmose I. Grandson of Amenhotep I through his mother, Mutnofret. 1492–1479 BC Maatkare Hatshepsut The second known female ruler of Egypt. May have ruled jointly with her nephew Thutmose III during the early part of her reign. Famous for her expedition to Punt documented on her famous Mortuary Temple at Deir el-Bahari. Built many temples and monuments. Ruled during the height of Egypt's power. Was the daughter of Thutmose I and the Great Wife of her brother Thutmose II. 1479–1458 BC Menkheperre Thutmose III Son of Thutmose II. May have ruled jointly with Hatshepsut, his aunt and step-mother, during the early part of her reign. Famous for his territorial expansion into the Levant and Nubia. Under his reign, the Ancient Egyptian Empire was at its greatest extent. Ruled during the height of Egypt's Power. Before the end of his reign, he obliterated Hatshepsut's name and image from temples and monuments. 1458–1425 BC Aakheperrure Amenhotep II Son of Thutmose III. Ruled during the height of Egypt's Power. 1425–1400 BC Menkheperure Thutmose IV Famous for his Dream Stele. Son of Amenhotep II. Ruled during the height of Egypt's Power. 1400–1390 BC Nebmaatre Amenhotep III The Magnificent King Father of Akhenaten and grandfather of Tutankhamun. Ruled Egypt at the height of its power. Built many temples and monuments, including his enormous Mortuary Temple. Was the son of Thutmose IV. 1390–1352 BC Neferkheperure-waenre Amenhotep IV/Akhenaten Founder of the Amarna Period in which he changed the state religion from the polytheistic Ancient Egyptian religion to the Monotheistic Atenism, centered around the worship of the Aten, an image of the sun disc. He moved the capital to Akhetaten. Was the second son of Amenhotep III. He changed his name from Amenhotep (Amun is pleased) to Akhenaten (Effective for the Aten) to reflect his religion change. 1352–1336 BC Ankhkheperure Smenkhkare Ruled jointly with Akhenaten during the later years of his reign. Unknown if Smenkhare ever ruled in his own right. Identity and even the gender of Smenkhare is uncertain. Some suggest he may have been the son of Akhenaten, possibly the same person as Tutankhamun; others speculate Smenkhare may have been Nefertiti or Meritaten. May have been succeeded by or identical with a female Pharaoh named Neferneferuaten. 1335–1334 BC Ankhkheperure-mery-Neferkheperure/Neferneferuaten A female Pharaoh, possibly the same ruler as Smenkhkare. Archaeological evidence relates to a woman who reigned as pharaoh toward the end of the Amarna Period. It is likely she was Nefertiti. 1334-1332 BC Nebkheperure Tutankhaten/Tutankhamun Commonly believed to be the son of Akhenaten, most likely reinstated the polytheistic Ancient Egyptian religion. His name change from Tutankhaten to Tutankhamun reflects the change in religion from the monolatristic Atenism to the classic religion, of which Amun is a major deity. He is thought to have taken the throne at around age eight or nine and to have died around age eighteen or nineteen, giving him the nickname "The Boy King." Tutankhamun was a weak ruler suffering from multiple health issues. However, he became famous for being buried in a decorative tomb intended for someone else called KV62. 1332–1324 BC Kheperkheperure Ay (II) Was Grand Vizier to Tutankhamun and an important official during the reigns of Akhenaten and Smenkhkare. Possibly the brother of Tiye, Great Wife of Amenhotep III, and also possibly father of Nefertiti, Great Wife of Akhenaten. Believed to have been born into nobility, but not royalty. Succeeded Tutankhamun due to his lack of an heir. 1324–1320 BC Djeserkheperure-setpenre Horemheb Born a Commoner. Was a General during the Amarna Period. Obliterated Images of the Amarna Pharaohs and destroyed and vandalized buildings and monuments associated with them. Succeeded Ay despite Nakhtmin being the intended heir. 1320–1292 BC Nineteenth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt The Nineteenth Dynasty ruled from 1292 to 1186 BC and includes one of the greatest pharaohs: Rameses II the Great. Name Image Comments Dates Menpehtire Ramesses I[92] Of non-royal birth. Succeeded Horemheb due to his lack of an heir. 1292–1290 BC Menmaatre Seti I Regained much of the territory that was lost under the reign of Akhenaten. 1290–1279 BC Usermaatre-setpenre Ramesses II the Great Continued expanding Egypt's territory until he reached a stalemate with the Hittite Empire at the Battle of Kadesh in 1275 BC, after which the famous Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty was signed in 1258 BC. Had one of the longest Egyptian reigns. 1279–1213 BC Banenre Merenptah[93] Thirteenth son of Ramesses II. 1213–1203 BC Menmire-setpenre Amenmesse Most likely a usurper to the throne. Possibly ruled in opposition to Seti II. Suggested son of Merneptah. 1203–1200 BC Userkheperure Seti II[94] Son of Merneptah. May have had to overcome a contest by Amenmesse before he could solidify his claim to the throne. 1203–1197 BC Sekhaenre/Akhenre Merenptah Siptah[95] Possibly son of Seti II or Amenmesse, ascended to throne at a young age. 1197–1191 BC Satre-merenamun Tausret Probably the wife of Seti II. Also known as Twosret or Tawosret. 1191–1190 BC Twentieth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt The Twentieth Dynasty ruled from 1190 to 1077 BC: Name Image Comments Dates Userkhaure Setnakhte Not related to Seti II, Siptah, or Tausret. May have usurped the throne from Tausret. Did not recognize Siptah or Tausret as legitimate rulers. Possibly a member of a minor line of the Ramesside royal family. Also called Setnakt. 1190–1186 BC Usermaatre-meryamun Ramesses III Son of Setnakhte. Fought the Sea Peoples in 1175 BC. Possibly assassinated (Harem conspiracy). 1186–1155 BC Usermaatre/Heqamaatre-setpenamun Ramesses IV Son of Ramesses III. During his reign, Egyptian power started to decline. 1155–1149 BC Usermaatre-sekheperenre Ramesses V Son of Ramesses IV 1149–1145 BC Nebmaatre-meryamun Ramesses VI Son of Ramesses III. Brother of Ramesses IV. Uncle of Ramesses V. 1145–1137 BC Usermaatre-setpenre-meryamun Ramesses VII Son of Ramesses VI. 1137–1130 BC Usermaatre-akhenamun Ramesses VIII An obscure Pharaoh, who reigned only around a year. Identifiable with Prince Sethiherkhepeshef II. Son of Ramesses III. Brother of Ramesses IV and Ramesses VI. Uncle of Ramesses V and Ramesses VII. He is the sole Pharaoh of the Twentieth Dynasty whose tomb has not been found. 1130–1129 BC Neferkare-setpenre Ramesses IX Probably grandson of Ramesses III through his father, Montuherkhopshef. First cousin of Ramesses V and Ramesses VII. 1129–1111 BC Khepermaatre-setpenptah Ramesses X[96] A poorly documented Pharaoh, his reign was between 3 and 10 years long. His origins are completely uncertain. 1111–1107 BC Menmaatre-setpenptah Ramesses XI[97] Possibly the son of Ramesses X. During the second half of his reign, High Priest of Amun Herihor ruled over the south from Thebes, limiting his power to Lower (Northern) Egypt. He was succeeded in the north by Smendes. 1107–1077 BC Third Intermediate Period[edit] Main article: Third Intermediate Period of Egypt The Third Intermediate Period (1077–664 BC) marked the end of the New Kingdom after the collapse of the Egyptian empire. A number of dynasties of Libyan origin ruled, giving this period its alternative name of the Libyan Period. Twenty-First Dynasty[edit] Main article: Twenty-first dynasty of Egypt The Twenty-First Dynasty was based at Tanis and was a relatively weak group. Theoretically, they were rulers of all Egypt, but in practice their influence was limited to Lower Egypt. They ruled from 1069 to 943 BC. Name Image Comments Dates Hedjkheperre-setpenre Nesbanebdjed I (Smendes I)[98] Married to Tentamun, probable daughter of Ramesses XI. 1077–1051 BC Neferkare Heqawaset Amenemnisu Obscure four-year reign. 1051–1047 BC Aakheperre Pasebakhenniut I (Psusennes I) Son of Pinedjem I, a High Priest of Amun. Ruled for 40 to 51 years. Famous for his intact tomb at Tanis. Known as "The Silver Pharaoh" due to the magnificent silver coffin he was buried in. One of the most powerful rulers of the Dynasty. 1047–1001 BC Usermaatre Amenemope Son of Psusennes I. 1001–992 BC Aakheperre Setepenre Osorkon (Osorkon the Elder) Son of Shoshenq A, Great Chief of the Meshwesh (Libya). Also known as Osochor. 992–986 BC Netjerikheperre-setpenamun Siamun-meryamun Unknown Origins. Built extensively for a third intermediate period Pharaoh. One of the most powerful rulers of the dynasty. 986–967 BC Titkheperure Pasebakhenniut II (Psusennes II) Son of Pinedjem II, a High Priest of Amun. 967–943 BC Theban High Priests of Amun[edit] Main article: Theban High Priests of Amun Though not officially pharaohs, the High Priests of Amun at Thebes were the de facto rulers of Upper Egypt during the Twenty-first dynasty, writing their names in cartouches and being buried in royal tombs. Name Image Comments Dates Herihor First High Priest of Amun to claim to be pharaoh. He ruled in the south in Thebes, while Ramesses XI ruled from the north in Pi-Ramesses. Some sources suggest he may have reigned after Piankh. 1080–1074 BC Piankh Some sources suggest he may have reigned before Herihor. 1074–1070 BC Pinedjem I Son of Piankh. Father of Psusennes I. 1070–1032 BC Masaharta Son of Pinedjem I. 1054–1045 BC Djedkhonsuefankh Son of Pinedjem I. 1046–1045 BC Menkheperre Son of Pinedjem I. 1045–992 BC Nesbanebdjed II (Smendes II) Son of Menkheperre. 992–990 BC Pinedjem II Son of Menkheperre, Father of Psusennes II. 990–976 BC Pasebakhaennuit III (Psusennes III) — Possibly the same person as Psusennes II. Either he or Pinedjem II is generally considered to be the last High Priest of Amun to consider himself as a pharaoh-like figure. 976–943 BC Twenty-Second Dynasty[edit] Main article: Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt The pharaohs of the Twenty-Second Dynasty were Libyans, ruling from around 943 to 728 BC: Name Image Comments Dates Hedjkheperre-setepenre Shoshenq I Son of Nimlot A, a brother of Osorkon the Elder and a Great Chief of the Meshwesh (Libya). Possibly the biblical Shishaq. 943–922 BC Sekhemkheperre Osorkon I Son of Shoshenq I. 922–887 BC Heqakheperre Shoshenq II Obscure pharaoh, possibly a usurper. 887–885 BC Tutkheperre Shoshenq IIb — Obscure pharaoh, placement uncertain. 880s BC Hedjkheperre Harsiese An obscure rebel, at Thebes. 880–860 BC Takelot I Son of Osorkon I. 885–872 BC Usermaatre-setepenamun Osorkon II Son of Takelot I. 872–837 BC Usermaatre-setepenre Shoshenq III — 837–798 BC Shoshenq IV — 798–785 BC Usermaatre-setepenre Pami — 785–778 BC Aakheperre Shoshenq V — 778–740 BC Usermaatre Osorkon IV — 740–720 BC Twenty-Third Dynasty[edit] Main article: Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt The Twenty-Third Dynasty was a local group, again of Libyan origin, based at Herakleopolis and Thebes that ruled from 837 to c. 735 BC: Name Image Comments Dates Hedjkheperre-setpenre Takelot II Previously thought to be a 22nd Dynasty pharaoh, he is now known to be the founder of the 23rd. 837–813 BC Usermaatre-setepenamun Pedubast A rebel—seized Thebes from Takelot II. 826–801 BC Usermaatre-setepenamun Iuput I — Co-regent with Pedubast. 812–811 BC Usermaatre Shoshenq VI — Successor to Pedubast. 801–795 BC Usermaatre-setepenamun Osorkon III Son of Takelot II; recovered Thebes, then proclaimed himself king. 795–767 BC Usermaatre-setpenamun Takelot III Co-reign with his father Osorkon III for the first five years of his reign. 773–765 BC Usermaatre-setpenamun Rudamun Younger son of Osorkon III and brother of Takelot III. 765–762 BC Hedjkheperre Setepenre Shoshenq VII A poorly attested king. Rudamun was succeeded in Thebes by a local ruler: Name Image Comments Dates Menkheperre Ini Reigned at Thebes only. 762–Unknown BC Twenty-Fourth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt The Twenty-fourth Dynasty was a short-lived rival dynasty located in the western Delta (Sais), with only two pharaohs ruling from 732 to 720 BC. Name Image Comments Dates Shepsesre Tefnakhte — 732–725 BC Wahkare Bakenrenef (Bocchoris) — 725–720 BC Twenty-Fifth Dynasty (Nubian/Kushite Period)[edit] Main article: Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt Nubians invaded Lower Egypt and took the throne of Egypt under Piye although they already controlled Thebes and Upper Egypt in the early years of Piye's reign. Piye's conquest of Lower Egypt established the Twenty-fifth Dynasty which ruled until 656 BC. Name Image Comments Dates Usermaatre Piye King of Nubia; conquered Egypt in his 20th year; full reign at least 24 years, possibly 30+ years 744–714 BC, according to Frédéric Payraudeau[99] Djedkaure Shebitku Believed to be Shabaka's successor until the 2010s 714–705 BC, according to Frédéric Payraudeau[99] Neferkare Shabaka Believed to be Shebitku's predecessor until the 2010s 705–690 BC, according to Frédéric Payraudeau[99] Khuinefertemre Taharqa Died in 664 BC 690–664 BC[100] Bakare Tantamani Lost control of Upper Egypt in 656 BC when Psamtik I extended his authority into Thebes in that year. 664–653 BC They were ultimately driven back into Nubia, where they established a kingdom at Napata (656–590), and, later, at Meroë (590 BC – AD 500). Late Period[edit] Main article: Late Period of Ancient Egypt The Late Period runs from around 664 to 332 BC, and includes periods of rule by native Egyptians and Persians. Twenty-Sixth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt The Twenty-sixth Dynasty ruled from around 664 to 525 BC.[101] Name Image Comments Dates Tefnakht II Manetho's Stephinates. May have been a descendant of the Twenty-fourth Dynasty. The father of Necho I. 685–678 BC Nekauba — Manetho's Nechepsos. His existence has been questioned. 678–672 BC Menkheperre Nekau I (Necho I) Was killed by an invading Kushite force in 664 BC under Tantamani. Father of Psamtik I. 672–664 BC The son and successor of Necho I, Psamtik I, managed to reunify Egypt and is generally regarded as the founder of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty. Name Image Comments Dates Wahibre Psamtik I (Psammetichus I) Reunified Egypt. Son of Necho I and father of Necho II. 664–610 BC[100] Wehemibre Necho II (Necho II) Most likely the pharaoh mentioned in several books of the Bible and the death of Josiah. Son of Psamtik I and father of Psamtik II. 610–595 BC[100] Neferibre Psamtik II (Psammetichus II) Son of Necho II and father of Apries. 595–589 BC[100] Haaibre Wahibre (Apries) Fled Egypt after Amasis II (who was a general at the time) declared himself pharaoh following a civil war. Son of Psamtik II. 589–570 BC[100] Khnemibre Ahmose II (Amasis II) He was the last great ruler of Egypt before the Persian conquest. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, he was of common origins. Father of Psamtik III. 570–526 BC[100] Ankhkaenre Psamtik III (Psammetichus III) Son of Amasis II. Ruled for about six months before being defeated by the Persians in the Battle of Pelusium and subsequently executed for attempting to revolt. 526–525 BC[100] Twenty-Seventh Dynasty (First Persian Period)[edit] Main article: Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt Egypt was conquered by the Persian Empire in 525 BC and constituted a satrapy as part of this empire until 404 BC. The Achaemenid Shahanshahs were acknowledged as Pharaohs in this era, forming the 27th Dynasty: Name Image Comments Dates Cambyses (Cambyses II) Defeated Psamtik III at the Battle of Pelusium at 525 BC. 525–1 July 522 BC[100] Smerdis (Bardiya) — Son of Cyrus the Great. 522 BC[100] Petubastis III[102] A native Egyptian rebel in the Delta. 522/21–520 BC Darius I the Great Ascended throne by overthrowing Gaumata[103] 522–November 486 BC[100] Psammetichus IV[102] — A proposed native Egyptian rebel leader. Exact date uncertain. Possibly in the 480s BC Xerxes I the Great Assassinated by Artabanus of Persia. November 486–December 465 BC[100] Artabanus the Hyrcanian — — 465-464 BC Artaxerxes I Longhand Died in 424 BC 464–424 BC Xerxes II — A claimant. 424–423 BC[100] Sogdianus — A claimant. 423–July 423 BC[100] Darius II Died in 404 BC July 423–March 404 BC[100] Twenty-Eighth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt The Twenty-eighth Dynasty lasted only 6 years, from 404 to 398 BC, with one pharaoh: Name Image Comments Dates Amyrtaeus Descendant of the Saite pharaohs of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty; led a successful revolt against the Persians. 404–398 BC Twenty-Ninth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt The Twenty-ninth Dynasty ruled from 398 to 380 BC: Name Image Comments Dates Baenre Nefaarud I Also known as Nepherites. Defeated Amyrtaeus in open battle and had him executed. 399–393 BC Khenemmaatre Hakor (Achoris) Son of Nefaarud I. Around 392–around 391 BC Psammuthes Possibly dethroned Hakor for a year. Around 391 BC Hakor (restored) Retook the throne from Psammuthes. Around 390–around 379 BC Nefaarud II — Was deposed and likely killed by Nectanebo I after ruling for only 4 months. Son of Hakor. Around 379 BC Thirtieth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt The Thirtieth Dynasty ruled from 380 until Egypt once more came under Persian rule in 343 BC:[104] Name Image Comments Dates Kheperkare Nekhtnebef (Nectanebo I) Also known as Nekhtnebef. Deposed and likely killed Nefaarud II, starting the last dynasty of native Egyptians. Father of Teos. 379–361 BC Irimaatenre Djedher (Teos) Co-regent with his father Nectanebo I from about 365 BC. Was overthrown by Nectanebo II with the aid of Agesilaus II of Sparta. 361–359 BC Senedjemibre Nakhthorhebyt (Nectanebo II) Last native ruler of ancient Egypt[105] to be recognized by Manetho. 359–342 BC Thirty-First Dynasty (Second Persian Period)[edit] Main article: Thirty-first dynasty of Egypt Egypt again came under the control of the Achaemenid Persians. After the practice of Manetho, the Persian rulers from 343 to 332 BC are occasionally designated as the Thirty-first Dynasty: Name Image Comments Dates Artaxerxes III Egypt came under Persian rule for the second time. 343–September 338 BC[104] Artaxerxes IV Arses Only reigned in Lower Egypt. 338–336 BC Khababash Rebel pharaoh who led an invasion in Nubia. 338–335 BC[104] Darius III Upper Egypt returned to Persian control in 335 BC. The Persian Empire was conquered by Alexander the Great in 332 B.C. 336–332 BC Hellenistic period[edit] Main article: Hellenistic period Argead Dynasty[edit] Main article: Argead dynasty The Macedonian Greeks under Alexander the Great ushered in the Hellenistic period with his conquest of Persia and Egypt. The Argeads ruled from 332 to 309 BC: Name Image Comments Dates Setepenre-meryamun Alexander III (Alexander the Great) Macedon conquered Persia and Egypt. 332–13 June 323 BC[106] Philip III Arrhidaeus Feeble-minded half-brother of Alexander the Great. 323–317 BC Haaibre Alexander IV Son of Alexander III the Great and Roxana. 317–309 BC Ptolemaic Dynasty[edit] Main article: Ptolemaic Kingdom The second Hellenistic dynasty, the Ptolemies, ruled Egypt from 305 BC until Egypt became a province of Rome in 30 BC (whenever two dates overlap, that means there was a co-regency). The most famous member of this dynasty was Cleopatra VII, in modern times known simply as Cleopatra, who was successively the consort of Julius Caesar and, after Caesar's death, of Mark Antony, having children with both of them. Cleopatra strove to create a dynastic and political union between Egypt and Rome, but the assassination of Caesar and the defeat of Mark Antony doomed her plans.[citation needed] Caesarion (Ptolemy XV Philopator Philometor Caesar) was the last king of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, and he reigned jointly with his mother Cleopatra VII of Egypt, from September 2, 47 BC. He was the eldest son of Cleopatra VII, and possibly the only son of Julius Caesar, after whom he was named. Between the alleged death of Cleopatra, on August 12, 30 BC, up to his own alleged death on August 23, 30 BC, he was nominally the sole pharaoh. It is tradition that he was hunted down and killed on the orders of Octavian, who would become the Roman emperor Augustus, but the historical evidence does not exist.[citation needed] Name Image Comments Dates Setepenre-meryamun Ptolemy I Soter Abdicated in 285 BC[citation needed] 7 November 305–January 282 BC[104] Weserkare-meryamun Ptolemy II Philadelphos — 28 March 284–28 January 246 BC Arsinoe II Wife of Ptolemy II c. 277–July 270 BC[104] Ptolemy III Euergetes I — 28 January 246–November/December 222 BC Berenice II Wife of Ptolemy III. Was Murdered. 244/243–222 BC Ptolemy IV Philopator Died in unclear circumstances, possibly by fire in the palace or murder. November/December 222–July/August 204 BC Arsinoe III Wife of Ptolemy IV. Was Murdered. 220–204 BC Hugronaphor — Revolutionary pharaoh in the South 205–199 BC Ankhmakis — Revolutionary pharaoh in the South 199–185 BC Ptolemy V Epiphanes Upper Egypt in revolt 207–186 BC July/August 204–September 180 BC Cleopatra I Wife of Ptolemy V, co-regent with Ptolemy VI during his minority c. February 193–176 BC[107] Ptolemy VI Philometor Died 145 BC 180–October 164 BC[107] Cleopatra II Wife of Ptolemy VI 175-October 164 BC Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II Proclaimed king by Alexandrians in 170 BC; ruled jointly with Ptolemy VI Philometor and Cleopatra II from 169 to 164 BC. Died 116 BC 171–163 BC Ptolemy VI Philometor Egypt under the control of Ptolemy VIII 164 BC–163 BC; Ptolemy VI restored 163 BC 163–July 145 BC[107] Cleopatra II Married Ptolemy VIII; led revolt against him in 131 BC and became sole ruler of Egypt. 163–127 BC Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Proclaimed co-ruler by his father; later ruled under regency of his mother Cleopatra II 145–144 BC Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II Restored 145–131 BC Cleopatra III Second wife of Ptolemy VIII. Was murdered by her own son Ptolemy X. 142–131 BC Ptolemy Memphites — Proclaimed King by Cleopatra II; soon killed by Ptolemy VIII 131 BC Harsiesi — Revolutionary pharaoh in the South 131–130 BC Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II Restored 127–116 BC Cleopatra III Restored with Ptolemy VIII; later co-regent with Ptolemy IX and X. 127–107 BC Cleopatra II Reconciled with Ptolemy VIII; co-ruled with Cleopatra III and Ptolemy until 116. 124–116 BC Ptolemy IX Soter II Died 80 BC 116–110 BC Cleopatra IV Briefly married to Ptolemy IX, but was pushed out by Cleopatra III. Later murdered. 116–115 BC Ptolemy X Alexander I Died 88 BC 110–109 BC Berenice III Forced to marry Ptolemy XI; murdered on his orders 19 days later 81–80 BC Ptolemy XI Alexander II — Young son of Ptolemy X Alexander; installed by Sulla; ruled for 80 days before being lynched by citizens for killing Berenice III 80 BC Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos (Auletes) Son of Ptolemy IX; died 51 BC 80–58 BC Cleopatra V Tryphaena — Wife of Ptolemy XII, mother of Berenice IV 79–68 BC Cleopatra VI — Daughter of Ptolemy XII, but theorised by some Egyptologists to actually be the same person as Cleopatra V.[108] 58–57 BC Berenice IV — Daughter of Ptolemy XII; forced to marry Seleucus Kybiosaktes, but had him strangled. Joint rule with Cleopatra VI until 57 BC. 58–55 BC Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Restored; reigned briefly with his daughter Cleopatra VII before his death 55–51 BC Cleopatra VII Jointly with her father Ptolemy XII, her brother Ptolemy XIII, her brother-husband Ptolemy XIV, and her son Ptolemy XV; in modern usage, the stand-alone use of Cleopatra with no ordinal number usually refers to Cleopatra VII. Committed suicide. 31 May 52[109]–12 August 30 BC Ptolemy XIII Brother of Cleopatra VII 51–13 January 47 BC Arsinoe IV In opposition to Cleopatra VII December 48–January 47 BC Ptolemy XIV Younger brother of Cleopatra VII and Ptolemy XIII 13 January 47–26 July 44 BC Ptolemy XV Infant son of Cleopatra VII; aged 3 when proclaimed co-ruler with Cleopatra. Last known ruler of ancient Egypt when Rome took over. 2 September 44–August 30 BC Rome[edit] Main article: Roman pharaoh Egyptian relief depicting the Roman Emperor Trajan (right, reigned 98–117 AD) in full pharaonic style. Cleopatra VII had affairs with Roman dictator Julius Caesar and Roman general Mark Antony, but it was not until after her suicide (after Mark Antony was defeated by Octavian, who would later be Emperor Augustus Caesar) that Egypt became a province of the Roman Republic in 30 BC. Subsequent Roman emperors were accorded the title of pharaoh, although exclusively while in Egypt. The last Roman emperor to be conferred the title of pharaoh was Maximinus Daia (reigned 311–313 AD).[2][110] See also[edit] Ancient Egypt portal Monarchy portal Egyptian chronology History of Egypt List of Ancient Egyptian Royal Consorts References[edit] ^ a b Clayton 1995, p. 217. "Although paying lip-service to the old ideas and religion, in varying degrees, pharaonic Egypt had in effect died with the last native pharaoh, Nectanebo II in 343 BC" ^ a b c von Beckerath, Jürgen (1999). Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen. Verlag Philipp von Zabern. pp. 266–267. ISBN 978-3422008328. ^ "Digital Egypt for Universities". www.ucl.ac.uk. Retrieved 2019-02-12. ^ Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Royal Annals Of Ancient Egypt. Routledge, London 2012, ISBN 1-136-60247-X, p. 50. ^ Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Royal Annals Of Ancient Egypt. Routledge, London 2012, ISBN 1-136-60247-X, p. 61. ^ Cervello-Autuori, Josep (2003). "Narmer, Menes and the Seals from Abydos". In Hawass, Zahi (ed.). Egyptology at the Dawn of the Twenty-first Century: Proceedings of the Eighth International Congress of Egyptologists, 2000. 2. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press. pp. 168–75. ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, p. 259. ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, p. 259. ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, p. 139. ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, p. 199. ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, p. 138. ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, p. 181. ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, p. 311. ^ a b Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, p. 137. ^ Felde, Rolf: Gottheiten, Pharaonen und Beamte im alten Ägypten, Norderstedt 2017, S. 125. ^ a b c d Barry Kemp (a1), Andrew Boyce and James Harrell, The Colossi from the Early Shrine at Coptos in Egypt, in: Cambridge Archaeological Journal Volume 10, Issue 2April 2000, 233 ^ zur Altägyptischen Kultur, Band 37 ^ Ludwig David Morenz: Bild-Buchstaben und symbolische Zeichen. Die Herausbildung der Schrift der hohen Kultur Altägyptens (= Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis 205). Fribourg 2004, ISBN 3-7278-1486-1, p. 91. ^ [1] ^ [2] ^ P. Tallet, D. Laisnay: Iry-Hor et Narmer au Sud-Sinaï (Ouadi 'Ameyra), un complément à la chronologie des expéditios minière égyptiene. In: Bulletin de L'Institute Français D'Archéologie Orientale (BIFAO) 112. Ausgabe 2012, S. 381–395. ^ Günter Dreyer: Horus Krokodil, ein Gegenkönig der Dynastie 0. In: Renee Friedman and Barbara Adams (Hrsg.): The Followers of Horus, Studies dedicated to Michael Allen Hoffman, 1949–1990 (= Egyptian Studies Association Publication, vol. 2). Oxbow Publications, Bloomington (IN) 1992, ISBN 0-946897-44-1, p. 259–263. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen (= Münchner ägyptologische Studien, vol. 49. von Zabern, Mainz 1999, ISBN 3-8053-2591-6, p. 36–37. ^ Toby Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt: Strategy, Society and Security. Routeledge, London 1999, ISBN 0-415-18633-1, p. 38, 56 & 57. ^ a b c d Stewart, John (1989). African States and Rulers. London: McFarland. p. 81. ISBN 0-89950-390-X. ^ Wolfgang Helck: Untersuchungen zur Thinitenzeit (= Ägyptologische Abhandlungen (ÄA), Vol. 45). Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1987, ISBN 3-447-02677-4, p. 124. ^ a b c Wolfgang Helck: Untersuchungen zur Thinitenzeit (Agyptologische Abhandlungen), ISBN 3-447-02677-4, O. Harrassowitz (1987), p. 124 ^ William Matthew Flinders Petrie: The Royal Tombs of the Earliest Dynasties. Cambridge University Press, New York 2013 (reprint of 1901), ISBN 1-108-06612-7, p. 49. ^ Nicolas-Christophe Grimal: A History of Ancient Egypt. Blackwell, Oxford UK/ Cambridge USA 1992, ISBN 978-0-631-19396-8, p. 53. ^ Wilkinson (1999) pp. 83–84 ^ Dietrich Wildung: Die Rolle ägyptischer Könige im Bewußtsein ihrer Nachwelt. Teil I. Posthume Quellen über die Könige der ersten vier Dynastien. In: Münchener Ägyptologische Studien, vol. 17. Deutscher Kunstverlag, Munich/Berlin 1969, p. 31–33. ^ Wilkinson (1999) p. 79 ^ Wilkinson (1999) pp. 87–88 ^ Pascal Vernus, Jean Yoyotte, The Book of the Pharaohs, Cornell University Press 2003, p.27 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen. Deutscher Kunstverlag, München/Berlin 1984, ISBN 3-422-00832-2, page 171. ^ Toby A.H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, London/New York 2002, ISBN 1-134-66420-6, p. 75–76. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen. 2. verbesserte und erweiterte Auflage. von Zabern, Mainz 1999, S. 44–45. ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, page 175. ^ [3] King Khasekhem ^ [4] King Khasekhemwy ^ a b c d e f Stewart, John (1989). African States and Rulers. London: McFarland. p. 82. ISBN 0-89950-390-X. ^ Wilkinson, Toby (1999). Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge. pp. 83 & 95. ISBN 0-415-18633-1. ^ Wilkinson, Toby. Royal Annals of Ancient Egypt. pp. 79 & 258. ^ "Pharaohs - Timeline Index". www.timelineindex.com. Retrieved 2020-03-23. ^ Clayton (1994) p.32 ^ Lehner, Mark (1997). Geheimnis der Pyramiden (in German). Düsseldorf: Econ. pp. 94–96. ISBN 3-572-01039-X. ^ Clayton (1994) p.42 ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, S. 278–279. ^ Miroslav Verner (2000): Who was Shepseskara, and when did he reign?, in: Miroslav Bárta, Jaromír Krejčí (editors): Abusir and Saqqara in the Year 2000, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Oriental Institute, Prague, ISBN 80-85425-39-4, p. 581–602, available online Archived 2011-02-01 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Dodson & Hilton (2004) p.73 ^ Ryholt & Bardrum (2000) pp.87–100. ^ Stewart, John (1989). African States and Rulers. London: McFarland. p. 82-83. ISBN 0-89950-390-X. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz : P. von Zabern, 1999, ISBN 3-8053-2591-6, available online Archived 2015-12-22 at the Wayback Machine ^ Kim Ryholt: "The Late Old Kingdom in the Turin King-list and the Identity of Nitocris", Zeitschrift für ägyptische, 127, 2000, p. 99 ^ Gustave Jéquier, Maṣlaḥat al-Āthār (1993): Les pyramides des reines Neit et Apouit (in French), Cairo: Institut français d'archéologie orientale, OCLC 195690029, see plate 5. ^ Percy Newberry (1943): Queen Nitocris of the Sixth Dynasty, in: The Journal of Egyptian Archeology, vol. 29, pp=51–54 ^ Gae Callender: Queen Neit-ikrety/Nitokris, in: Miroslav Barta, Filip Coppens, Jaromic Krecji (editors): Abusir and Saqqara in the year 2010/1, Prague: Czech Institute of Egyptology, Faculty of Arts, Charles University, 2011, ISBN 978-80-7308-384-7, see pp. 249–250 ^ a b Turin Kinglist, Columns IV,18 to V,10, Ancient Egypt dot org. 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Digital Egypt for Universities. ^ Grajetzki (2006) pp. 61–63 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao K.S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997 ^ "Nerikare", Wikipedia, 2018-11-02, retrieved 2019-10-06 ^ "Amenemhet VI", Wikipedia, 2019-09-21, retrieved 2019-10-06 ^ "Semenkare Nebnuni", Wikipedia, 2019-08-14, retrieved 2019-10-06 ^ a b Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen, Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3 ^ "Sehetepibre", Wikipedia, 2018-11-02, retrieved 2019-10-06 ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen, Albatros, 2002 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997 ^ a b Kings of the 2nd Intermediate Period ^ Detlef Franke: Zur Chronologie des Mittleren Reiches. Teil II: Die sogenannte Zweite Zwischenzeit Altägyptens, In Orientalia 57 (1988), p. 259 ^ Ryholt, K.S.B. (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800–1550 B.C. Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 164. ISBN 978-87-7289-421-8. ^ "Giant Sarcophagus Leads Penn Museum Team in Egypt To the Tomb of a Previously Unknown Pharaoh". Penn Museum. January 2014. Retrieved 16 Jan 2014. ^ a b Marcel Marée: A sculpture workshop at Abydos from the late Sixteenth or early Seventeenth Dynasty, in: Marcel Marée (editor): The Second Intermediate period (Thirteenth-Seventeenth Dynasties), Current Research, Future Prospects, Leuven, Paris, Walpole, MA. 2010 ISBN 978-90-429-2228-0. p. 247, 268 ^ a b Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964 ^ a b c d Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46. Mainz am Rhein, 1997 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien 49, Mainz 1999. ^ Wolfgang Helck, Eberhard Otto, Wolfhart Westendorf, Stele – Zypresse: Volume 6 of Lexikon der Ägyptologie, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1986, Page 1383 ^ Christopher Bronk Ramsey et al., Radiocarbon-Based Chronology for Dynastic Egypt, Science 18 June 2010: Vol. 328. no. 5985, pp. 1554–1557. ^ "Ramesses I Menpehtire". Digital Egypt. University College London. 2001. Retrieved 2007-09-29. ^ "King Merenptah". Digital Egypt. University College London. 2001. Retrieved 2007-09-29. ^ "Sety II". Digital Egypt. University College London. 2001. Retrieved 2007-10-27. ^ "Siptah Sekhaenre/Akhenre". Digital Egypt. University College London. 2001. Retrieved 2007-10-27. ^ Grimal (1992) p.291 ^ "Ramesses XI Menmaatre-setpenptah". Retrieved 2007-10-28. ^ Cerny p.645 ^ a b c F. Payraudeau, Retour sur la succession Shabaqo-Shabataqo, Nehet 1, 2014, p. 115-127 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Stewart, John (1989). African States and Rulers. London: McFarland. p. 88. ISBN 0-89950-390-X. ^ "Late Period Kings". Retrieved 2007-10-27. ^ a b Placed in this dynasty only for chronological reasons, as he was not related to the Achaemenids. ^ "Darius the Great", Wikipedia, 2019-09-25, retrieved 2019-10-06 ^ a b c d e Stewart, John (1989). African States and Rulers. London: McFarland. p. 89. ISBN 0-89950-390-X. ^ "Nakhthorhebyt". Digital Egypt for Universities. Retrieved March 1, 2011. ^ Stewart, John (1989). African States and Rulers. London: McFarland. p. 10. ISBN 0-89950-390-X. ^ a b c Stewart, John (1989). African States and Rulers. London: McFarland. p. 90. ISBN 0-89950-390-X. ^ Tyldesley, Joyce (2006), Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt, p. 200, ISBN 0-500-05145-3. ^ Roller, Duane W. (2010). Cleopatra: a Biography. Oxford University Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-195-36553-5. ^ Vernus, Pascal; Yoyotte, Jean (2003). The Book of the Pharaohs. Cornell University Press. pp. 238–256. ISBN 9780801440502. maximinus pharaoh. Further reading[edit] J. H. Breasted, History of Egypt from the Earliest Time to the Persian Conquest, 1909 J. Cerny, 'Egypt from the Death of Ramesses III to the End of the Twenty-First Dynasty' in The Middle East and the Aegean Region c.1380–1000 BC, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-08691-4 Clayton, Peter A. (1995). Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. The Chronicles Series (Reprinted ed.). London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05074-3. Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004. ISBN 0-500-05128-3 Sir Alan Gardiner Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs, Third Edition, Revised. London: Oxford University Press, 1964. Excursus A, pp. 71–76. Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, (Blackwell Books: 1992) Murnane, William J. Ancient Egyptian Coregencies, Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization. No. 40. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 1977 Michael Rice, Who's Who in Ancient Egypt, Routledge 1999 Ryholt, Kim & Steven Bardrum. 2000. "The Late Old Kingdom in the Turin King-list and the Identity of Nitocris." Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 127 Shaw, Garry. The Pharaoh, Life at Court and on Campaign, Thames and Hudson, 2012. Toby A. H. Wilkinson, Early Dynastic Egypt, Routledge 1999, ISBN 0-415-18633-1 Verner, Miroslav,The Pyramids – Their Archaeology and History, Atlantic Books, 2001, ISBN 1-84354-171-8 Egypt, History & Civilisation By Dr. R Ventura. Published by Osiris, PO Box 107 Cairo. External links[edit] Egyptian Royal Genealogy Manetho and the King Lists Review of different primary king lists Chronology Table - 0 Dynasty&History Period, by Dariusz Sitek Multi-pages of list of pharaohs in different king lists, without the god kings, in Egyptian hieroglyphs and English Egyptian Journey 2003: History: King Lists Hyperlink texts of the Manetho, Abydos & Turin king lists, without the god-kings Digital Egypt for Universities List of all female Pharaohs v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Ancient Egypt topics Index Major topics Glossary of artifacts Agriculture Architecture (Egyptian Revival architecture) Art Portraiture Astronomy Chronology Cities (list) Clothing Cuisine Dance Dynasties Funerary practices Geography Great Royal Wives (list) Hieroglyphs History Language Literature Mathematics Medicine Military Music Mythology People Pharaohs (list) Philosophy Religion Sites Technology Trade Writing Egyptology Egyptologists Museums  Ancient Egypt portal Book Category WikiProject Commons Outline Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_pharaohs&oldid=1000781280" Categories: Pharaohs Ancient Egypt-related lists Lists of monarchs Lists of rulers of Egypt Hidden categories: CS1 German-language sources (de) Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles needing additional references from March 2012 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2018 Articles with unsourced statements from January 2021 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views 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en-wikipedia-org-9531	----	Acropolis of Athens - Wikipedia Acropolis of Athens From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Athenian Acropolis) Jump to navigation Jump to search For the neighbourhood of Athens, see Acropolis (neighbourhood). Ancient citadel above the city of Athens, Greece Acropolis, Athens UNESCO World Heritage Site The Acropolis of Athens, seen from the Hill of the Muses Location Athens, Attica, Greece Criteria Cultural: i, ii, iii, iv, vi Reference 404 Inscription 1987 (11th session) Area 3.04 ha Buffer zone 116.71 ha Coordinates 37°58′15″N 23°43′34″E / 37.97083°N 23.72611°E / 37.97083; 23.72611Coordinates: 37°58′15″N 23°43′34″E / 37.97083°N 23.72611°E / 37.97083; 23.72611 Location of Athens in Greece The Acropolis of Athens is an ancient citadel located on a rocky outcrop above the city of Athens and contains the remains of several ancient buildings of great architectural and historic significance, the most famous being the Parthenon. The word acropolis is from the Greek words ἄκρον (akron, "highest point, extremity") and πόλις (polis, "city").[1] Although the term acropolis is generic and there are many other acropoleis in Greece, the significance of the Acropolis of Athens is such that it is commonly known as "The Acropolis" without qualification. During ancient times it was known also more properly as Cecropia, after the legendary serpent-man, Cecrops, the supposed first Athenian king. While there is evidence that the hill was inhabited as far back as the fourth millennium BC, it was Pericles (c. 495–429 BC) in the fifth century BC who coordinated the construction of the site's most important present remains including the Parthenon, the Propylaea, the Erechtheion and the Temple of Athena Nike.[2][3] The Parthenon and the other buildings were seriously damaged during the 1687 siege by the Venetians during the Morean War when gunpowder being stored in the Parthenon by the Ottomans was hit by a cannonball and exploded.[4] Contents 1 History 1.1 Early settlement 1.2 Archaic Acropolis 1.3 The Periclean building program 1.4 Hellenistic and Roman period 1.5 Byzantine, Latin and Ottoman period 2 Archaeological remains 2.1 Site plan 3 The Acropolis Restoration Project 4 Cultural significance 5 Geology 5.1 Geological Issues 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links History[edit] The Acropolis of Athens as seen from Mount Lycabettus The wooded Hill of the Nymphs is half-visible on its right, and Philopappos Hill on the left, immediately behind. The Philopappos Monument stands where, in the distant background, the coast of Peloponnese meet the waters of the Saronic Gulf. Early settlement[edit] The Acropolis is located on a flattish-topped rock that rises 150 m (490 ft) above sea level in the city of Athens, with a surface area of about 3 hectares (7.4 acres). While the earliest artifacts date to the Middle Neolithic era, there have been documented habitations in Attica from the Early Neolithic period (6th millennium BC). Warrior wearing a boar tusk helmet, from a Mycenaean chamber tomb in the Acropolis of Athens, 14th–13th century BC There is little doubt that a Mycenaean megaron palace stood upon the hill during the late Bronze Age. Nothing of this megaron survives except, probably, a single limestone column-base and pieces of several sandstone steps.[5] Soon after the palace was constructed, a Cyclopean massive circuit wall was built, 760 meters long, up to 10 meters high, and ranging from 3.5 to 6 meters thick. This wall would serve as the main defense for the acropolis until the 5th century.[6] The wall consisted of two parapets built with large stone blocks and cemented with an earth mortar called emplekton (Greek: ἔμπλεκτον).[7] The wall uses typical Mycenaean conventions in that it followed the natural contour of the terrain and its gate, which was towards the south, was arranged obliquely, with a parapet and tower overhanging the incomers' right-hand side, thus facilitating defense. There were two lesser approaches up the hill on its north side, consisting of steep, narrow flights of steps cut in the rock. Homer is assumed to refer to this fortification when he mentions the "strong-built House of Erechtheus" (Odyssey 7.81). At some time before the 13th century BC, an earthquake caused a fissure near the northeastern edge of the Acropolis. This fissure extended some 35 meters to a bed of soft marl in which a well was dug.[8] An elaborate set of stairs was built and the well served as an invaluable, protected source of drinking water during times of siege for some portion of the Mycenaean period.[9] Archaic Acropolis[edit] Primitive Acropolis with the Pelargicon and the Old Temple of Athena. Elevation view of a proposed reconstruction of the Old Temple of Athena. Built around 525 BC, it stood between the Parthenon and the Erechtheum. Fragments of the sculptures in its pediments are in the Acropolis Museum. Not much is known about the architectural appearance of the Acropolis until the Archaic era. During the 7th and the 6th centuries BC, the site was controlled by Kylon during the failed Kylonian revolt,[10] and twice by Peisistratos; each of these were attempts directed at seizing political power by coups d'état. Apart from the Hekatompedon mentioned later, Peisistratos also built an entry gate or propylaea.[11] Nevertheless, it seems that a nine-gate wall, the Enneapylon,[12] had been built around the acropolis hill and incorporating the biggest water spring, the Clepsydra, at the northwestern foot. A temple to Athena Polias, the tutelary deity of the city, was erected between 570–550 BC. This Doric limestone building, from which many relics survive, is referred to as the Hekatompedon (Greek for "hundred–footed"), Ur-Parthenon (German for "original Parthenon" or "primitive Parthenon"), H–Architecture or Bluebeard temple, after the pedimental three-bodied man-serpent sculpture, whose beards were painted dark blue. Whether this temple replaced an older one, or just a sacred precinct or altar, is not known. Probably, the Hekatompedon was built where the Parthenon now stands.[13] Destruction of the Acropolis by the armies of Xerxes I, during the Second Persian invasion of Greece, 480-479 BC Between 529–520 BC yet another temple was built by the Peisistratids, the Old Temple of Athena, usually referred to as the Arkhaios Neōs (ἀρχαῖος νεώς, "ancient temple"). This temple of Athena Polias was built upon the Dörpfeld foundations,[14] between the Erechtheion and the still-standing Parthenon. Arkhaios Neōs was destroyed as part of the Achaemenid destruction of Athens during the Second Persian invasion of Greece during 480–479 BC; however, the temple was probably reconstructed during 454 BC, since the treasury of the Delian League was transferred in its opisthodomos. The temple may have been burnt down during 406/405 BC as Xenophon mentions that the old temple of Athena was set afire. Pausanias does not mention it in his 2nd century AD Description of Greece.[15] Around 500 BC the Hekatompedon was dismantled to make place for a new grander building, the "Older Parthenon" (often referred to as the Pre-Parthenon, "early Parthenon"). For this reason, Athenians decided to stop the construction of the Olympieion temple which was connoted with the tyrant Peisistratos and his sons and, instead, used the Piraeus limestone destined for the Olympieion to build the Older Parthenon. In order to accommodate the new temple, the south part of the summit was cleared, made level by adding some 8,000 two-ton blocks of limestone, a foundation 11 m (36 ft) deep at some points, and the rest was filled with soil kept in place by the retaining wall. However, after the victorious Battle of Marathon in 490 BC, the plan was revised and marble was used instead. The limestone phase of the building is referred to as Pre-Parthenon I and the marble phase as Pre-Parthenon II. In 485 BC, construction stalled to save resources as Xerxes became king of Persia and war seemed imminent.[16] The Older Parthenon was still under construction when the Persians invaded and sacked the city in 480 BC. The building was burned and looted, along with the Ancient Temple and practically everything else on the rock.[17][18] After the Persian crisis had subsided, the Athenians incorporated many architectural parts of the unfinished temple (unfluted column drums, triglyphs, metopes, etc.) into the newly built northern curtain wall of the Acropolis, where they served as a prominent "war memorial" and can still be seen today. The devastated site was cleared of debris. Statuary, cult objects, religious offerings and unsalvageable architectural members were buried ceremoniously in several deeply dug pits on the hill, serving conveniently as a fill for the artificial plateau created around the classic Parthenon. This "Persian debris" was the richest archaeological deposit excavated on the Acropolis by 1890.[19] The Periclean building program[edit] The Parthenon, as seen from the north-west. After winning at Eurymedon during 468 BC, Cimon and Themistocles ordered the reconstruction of the southern and northern walls of the Acropolis. Most of the major temples, including the Parthenon, were rebuilt by order of Pericles during the so-called Golden Age of Athens (460–430 BC). Phidias, an Athenian sculptor, and Ictinus and Callicrates, two famous architects, were responsible for the reconstruction.[20] During 437 BC, Mnesicles started building the Propylaea, a monumental gate at the western end of the Acropolis with Doric columns of Pentelic marble, built partly upon the old propylaea of Peisistratos.[21] These colonnades were almost finished during 432 BC and had two wings, the northern one decorated with paintings by Polygnotus.[22] About the same time, south of the Propylaea, building started on the small Ionic Temple of Athena Nike in Pentelic marble with tetrastyle porches, preserving the essentials of Greek temple design. After an interruption caused by the Peloponnesian War, the temple was finished during the time of Nicias' peace, between 421 BC and 409 BC.[23] The Erechtheum Construction of the elegant temple of Erechtheion in Pentelic marble (421–406 BC) was in accordance with a complex plan which took account of the extremely uneven ground and the need to circumvent several shrines in the area. The entrance, facing east, is lined with six Ionic columns. Unusually, the temple has two porches, one on the northwest corner borne by Ionic columns, the other, to the southwest, supported by huge female figures or Caryatids. The eastern part of the temple was dedicated to Athena Polias, while the western part, serving the cult of the archaic king Poseidon-Erechtheus, housed the altars of Hephaestus and Voutos, brother of Erechtheus. Little is known about the original plan of the interior which was destroyed by fire during the first century BC and has been rebuilt several times.[24][25] During the same period, a combination of sacred precincts including the temples of Athena Polias, Poseidon, Erechtheus, Cecrops, Herse, Pandrosos and Aglauros, with its Kore Porch (Porch of the Maidens) or Caryatids' balcony was begun.[26] Between the temple of Athena Nike and the Parthenon, there was the Sanctuary of Artemis Brauronia (or the Brauroneion), the goddess represented as a bear and worshipped in the deme of Brauron. According to Pausanias, a wooden statue or xoanon of the goddess and a statue of Artemis made by Praxiteles during the 4th century BC were both in the sanctuary.[27] The Propylaea Behind the Propylaea, Phidias' gigantic bronze statue of Athena Promachos ("Athena who fights in the front line"), built between 450 BC and 448 BC, dominated. The base was 1.50 m (4 ft 11 in) high, while the total height of the statue was 9 m (30 ft). The goddess held a lance, the gilt tip of which could be seen as a reflection by crews on ships rounding Cape Sounion, and a giant shield on the left side, decorated by Mys with images of the fight between the Centaurs and the Lapiths.[28] Other monuments that have left almost nothing visible to the present day are the Chalkotheke, the Pandroseion, Pandion's sanctuary, Athena's altar, Zeus Polieus's sanctuary and, from Roman times, the circular temple of Augustus and Rome.[29] Hellenistic and Roman period[edit] 3-D model of the Acropolis in 165 AD (click to rotate) During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, many of the existing buildings in the area of the Acropolis were repaired, due to damage from age, and occasionally, war.[30] Monuments to foreign kings were erected, notably those of the Attalid kings of Pergamon Attalos II (in front of the NW corner of the Parthenon), and Eumenes II, in front of the Propylaia. These were rededicated during the early Roman Empire to Augustus or Claudius (uncertain), and Agrippa, respectively.[31] Eumenes was also responsible for constructing a stoa on the South slope, not unlike that of Attalos in the Agora below.[32] During the Julio-Claudian period, the Temple of Rome and Augustus, a small, round edifice, about 23 meters from the Parthenon, was to be the last significant ancient construction on the summit of the rock.[33] Around the same time, on the North slope, in a cave next to the one dedicated to Pan since the classical period, a sanctuary was founded where the archons dedicated to Apollo on assuming office.[34] During 161 AD, on the South slope, the Roman Herodes Atticus built his grand amphitheatre or Odeon. It was destroyed by the invading Herulians a century later but was reconstructed during the 1950s.[35] During the 3rd century, under threat from a Herulian invasion, repairs were made to the Acropolis walls, and the "Beulé Gate" was constructed to restrict entrance in front of the Propylaia, thus returning the Acropolis to use as a fortress.[30] Byzantine, Latin and Ottoman period[edit] Depiction of the Venetian siege of the Acropolis of Athens during 1687. During the Byzantine period, the Parthenon was used as a church, dedicated to the Virgin Mary.[36] During the Latin Duchy of Athens, the Acropolis functioned as the city's administrative center, with the Parthenon as its cathedral, and the Propylaea as part of the Ducal Palace.[37] A large tower was added, the "Frankopyrgos", demolished during the 19th century.[38] After the Ottoman conquest of Greece, the Parthenon was used as the garrison headquarters of the Turkish army,[39] and the Erechtheum was turned into the governor's private harem. The buildings of the Acropolis suffered significant damage during the 1687 siege by the Venetians in the Morean War. The Parthenon, which was being used as a gunpowder magazine, was hit by artillery shot and damaged severely.[40] 1842 daguerreotype by Joseph-Philibert Girault de Prangey (the earliest photography of the site) Idealized reconstruction of the Acropolis and Areios Pagos in Athens, Leo von Klenze, 1846. During subsequent years, the Acropolis was a site of bustling human activity with many Byzantine, Frankish, and Ottoman structures. The dominant feature during the Ottoman period was a mosque inside the Parthenon, complete with a minaret. The Acropolis was besieged thrice during the Greek War of Independence (two sieges from the Greeks in 1821–1822 and one from the Ottomans in 1826–1827. A new bulwark named after Odysseas Androutsos was built by the Greeks between 1822 and 1825 to protect the recently rediscovered Klepsydra spring which became the sole fresh water supply of the fortress. After independence, most features that dated from the Byzantine, Frankish and Ottoman periods were cleared from the site in an attempt to restore the monument to its original form, "cleansed" of all later additions.[41] Archaeological remains[edit] Remains of the Theatre of Dionysus as of 2007 The entrance to the Acropolis was a monumental gateway termed the Propylaea. To the south of the entrance is the tiny Temple of Athena Nike. At the centre of the Acropolis is the Parthenon or Temple of Athena Parthenos (Athena the Virgin). East of the entrance and north of the Parthenon is the temple known as the Erechtheum. South of the platform that forms the top of the Acropolis there are also the remains of the ancient, though often remodelled, Theatre of Dionysus. A few hundred metres away, there is the now partially reconstructed Odeon of Herodes Atticus.[42] All the valuable ancient artifacts are situated in the Acropolis Museum, which resides on the southern slope of the same rock, 280 metres from the Parthenon.[43] Site plan[edit] Site plan of the Acropolis at Athens showing the major archaeological remains Parthenon Old Temple of Athena Erechtheum Statue of Athena Promachos Propylaea Temple of Athena Nike Eleusinion Sanctuary of Artemis Brauronia or Brauroneion Chalkotheke Pandroseion Arrephorion Altar of Athena Sanctuary of Zeus Polieus Sanctuary of Pandion Odeon of Herodes Atticus Stoa of Eumenes Sanctuary of Asclepius or Asclepieion Theatre of Dionysus Eleuthereus Odeon of Pericles Temenos of Dionysus Eleuthereus Aglaureion The Acropolis Restoration Project[edit] View east toward the Acropolis under construction during summer 2014. The Project began during 1975 and the goal of the restoration was to reverse the decay of centuries of attrition, pollution, destruction stemming from military use, and misguided past restorations. The project included collection and identification of all stone fragments, even small ones, from the Acropolis and its slopes and the attempt was made to restore as much as possible using reassembled original material (anastylosis), with new marble from Mount Pentelicus used sparingly. All restoration was made using titanium dowels and is designed to be completely reversible, in case future experts decide to change things. A combination of cutting-edge modern technology and extensive research and reinvention of ancient techniques were used.[44] The Parthenon colonnades, largely destroyed by Venetian bombardment during the 17th century, were restored, with many wrongly assembled columns now properly placed. The roof and floor of the Propylaea were partly restored, with sections of the roof made of new marble and decorated with blue and gold inserts, as in the original.[44] Restoration of the Temple of Athena Nike was completed in 2010.[45] A total of 2,675 tons of architectural members were restored, with 686 stones reassembled from fragments of the originals, 905 patched with new marble, and 186 parts made entirely of new marble. A total of 530 cubic meters of new Pentelic marble were used.[46] Cultural significance[edit] Every four years, the Athenians had a festival called the Great Panathenaea that rivaled the Olympic Games in popularity. During the festival, a procession (believed to be depicted on the Parthenon frieze) traveled through the city via the Panathenaic Way and culminated on the Acropolis. There, a new robe of woven wool (peplos) was placed on either the statue of Athena Polias in the Erechtheum (during the annual Lesser Panathenaea) or on the statue of Athena Parthenos in the Parthenon (during the Great Panathenaea, held every four years).[47] Within the later tradition of Western Civilization and classical revival, the Acropolis, from at least the mid-18th century on, has often been invoked as a key symbol of the Greek legacy and of the glories of Classical Greece. Geology[edit] Potentially tectonically susceptible structure The Acropolis is a klippe consisting of two lithostratigraphic units, the Athens schist and the overlying Acropolis limestone. The Athens schist is a soft reddish rock dating from the upper Cretaceous period. The original sediments were deposited in a river delta approximately 72 million years ago. The Acropolis limestone dates from the upper Jurassic period, predating the underlying Athens schist by about 30 million years. The Acropolis limestone was thrust over the Athens schist by compressional tectonic forces (Plate tectonics), forming a nappe or overthrust sheet. Erosion of the limestone nappe led to the eventual detachment of the Acropolis, forming the present day feature. Where the Athens schist and the limestone meet there are springs and karstic caves. Many of the hills in the Athens region were formed by the erosion of the same nappe as the Acropolis. These include the hills of Lykabettos, Areopagus, and Mouseion. The marble utilized to construct the buildings of the Acropolis was sourced from the quarries of Mount Pentelicus, a mountain to the northeast of the city. Geological Issues[edit] The limestone that The Acropolis is built upon is unstable because of the erosion and tectonic shifts that the region is prone to. This instability can cause rock slides that cause damage to the historic site. Various measures have been implemented to protect the site including retaining walls, drainage systems and rock bolts. These measures work to counter the natural processes that threaten the historic site. See also[edit] Landscaping of the Acropolis of Athens References[edit] ^ acro-. (n.d.). In Greek, Acropolis means "Highest City". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Retrieved September 29, 2008, from Dictionary.com website: Quote: "[From Greek akros, extreme; see ak- in Indo-European roots.]" ^ Hurwit 2000, p. 87 ^ "History", Odysseus. Retrieved 2 December 2012. ^ Nicholas Reeves and Dyfri Williams, "The Parthenon in Ruins" Archived 2009-08-06 at the Wayback Machine, British Museum Magazine 57 (spring/summer 2007), pp. 36–38. Retrieved 2 December 2012. ^ Castleden, Rodney (2005). Mycenaeans. Routledge. pp. 64–. ISBN 978-1-134-22782-2. ^ Hurwit 2000, pp. 74–75. ^ ἔμπλεκτος, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library ^ Hurwit 2000, p. 78. ^ "The springs and fountains of the Acropolis hill" Archived 2013-07-28 at the Wayback Machine, Hydria Project. Retrieved 2 December 2012. ^ Pomeroy, Sarah B. (1999). Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History. Oxford University Press. pp. 163–. ISBN 978-0-19-509742-9. ^ Starr, Chester G. "Peisistratos". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2 December 2012. ^ "Acropolis fortification wall", Odysseus. Retrieved 2 December 2012. ^ Hurwit 2000, p. 111. ^ Hurwit 2000, p. 121. ^ (in Greek) [1], Retrieved 5 June 2012 ^ Manolis Korres, Topographic Issues of the Acropolis, Archaeology of the City of Athens; Retrieved 7 June 2012 ^ "Athens, Pre-Parthenon (Building)", Perseus Digital Library. Retrieved 3 December 2012. ^ Dörpfeld, W: Der aeltere Parthenon, Ath. Mitt, XVII, 1892, pp. 158–189. (in German) ^ Kavvadias, Panagiotis, Kawerau, Georg: Die Ausgrabung der Akropolis vom Jahre 1885 bis zum Jahre 1890, Athens, 1906 (in German) ^ "Ictinus and Callicrates with Phidias", Architecture Week. Retrieved 3 December 2012. ^ "Mnesicles". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 6 December 2012. ^ McCulloch, John Ramsay (1841). A Dictionary, Geographical, Statistical, and Historical: Of the Various Countries, Places and Principal Natural Objects in the World. Longman, Orme, Brown, Green and Longmans. pp. 205–. ^ Mark, Ira S. (1993). The Sanctuary of Athena Nike in Athens: Architectural Stages and Chronology. ASCSA. pp. 72–. ISBN 978-0-87661-526-3. ^ Thomas Sakoulas, "Erechtheion", Ancient-Greece.org. Retrieved 7 December 2012. ^ Venieri, "Erechtheion", Odysseus. Retrieved 7 December 2012. ^ "The Acropolis of Athens" Archived 2012-04-02 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 9 February 2013. ^ "The Sanctuary of Artemis Brauronia", Acropolis Museum. Retrieved 9 February 2013. ^ Mikalson, Jon D. (2011). Ancient Greek Religion. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 73–. ISBN 978-1-4443-5819-3. Retrieved 9 February 2013. ^ Brouskarē, Maria S. (1997). The monuments of the Acropolis. Ministry of Culture, Archeological Receipts Fund. pp. 56–57. ISBN 978-960-214-158-8. Retrieved 9 February 2013. ^ a b Travlos, John, Pictorial Dictionary of Ancient Athens, London: Thames and Hudson, 1971. p. 54. ^ Hurwit 2000 p. 278 ^ "The Stoa of Eumenes", The Acropolis of Athens. Greek Thesaurus. Retrieved 9 February 2013. ^ Hurwit 2000, p. 279. ^ Nulton, Peter, The Sanctuary of Apollo Hypoakraios and Imperial Athens, Archaeologia Transatlantica XXI, 2003. ^ Steves, Rick (2011). Rick Steves' Greece: Athens & the Peloponnese. Avalon Travel. pp. 115–. ISBN 978-1-61238-060-5. Retrieved 9 February 2013. ^ "The Partenon", Ancient Greece. Retrieved 9 February 2013. ^ Melton, J. Gordon; Baumann, Martin (21 September 2010). Religions of the World, Second Edition: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices. ABC-CLIO. pp. 233–. ISBN 978-1-59884-204-3. ^ Neils, Jenifer (5 September 2005). The Parthenon: From Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge University Press. pp. 346–. ISBN 978-0-521-82093-6. ^ Hellenistic ministry of culture History of the Acropolis of Athens ^ "Acropolis, Athens: Long description", UNESCO. Retrieved 9 February 2013. ^ Nicholas Reeves and Dyfri Williams, "The Parthenon in Ruins" Archived 2009-08-06 at the Wayback Machine, British Museum Magazine, No. 57, 2007, pp. 36–38. Retrieved 9 February 2013. ^ Hadingham, Evan (February 2008). "Unlocking Mysteries of the Parthenon". Smithsonian. ^ "The Acropolis Museum". Retrieved 9 February 2013. ^ a b Fani Mallouchou-Tufano, "The Restoration of the Athenian Acropolis" Archived 2012-12-02 at the Wayback Machine, University of Michigan. Retrieved 9 February 2013. ^ "2010–2011, The progress of restoration on the Acropolis" Archived 2018-08-20 at the Wayback Machine, The Acropolis Restoration News, July 2011. Retrieved 9 February 2013. ^ "Acropolis Restoration Project-Lecture by Maria Ioannidou, Director, Acropolis Restoration Service", Columbia University. Retrieved 9 February 2013. ^ "Panathenaic Festical". Archived from the original on 2012-04-27. Bibliography[edit] Andronicos, Manolis (2005). The Acropolis. Ekdotike Athenon S.A. ISBN 978-960-213-006-3. Bouras, Charalampos; Ioannidou, Maria; Jenkins, Ian (2012). Acropolis Restored. British Museum Press. ISBN 978-0-86159-187-9. Brouskarē, Maria S. (1997). The monuments of the Acropolis. Ministry of Culture, Archeological Receipts Fund. ISBN 978-960-214-158-8. Cohen, Beth. (2010). "Deconstructing the Acropolis: The Acropolis Museum, Athens, opened 20 June 2009 by Bernard Tschumi Architects." American Journal of Archaeology 114:745–753. Economakis, Richard; Bettella, Mario (2010). Acropolis: Ancient Cities. Artmedia Press. ISBN 978-1-902889-06-1. Goette, Hans Rupprecht. (2001). Athens, Attica and the Megarid: An Archaeological Guide. London and New York: Routledge. Harris, Diane. (1995). The Treasures of the Parthenon and Erechtheion. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. Higgins, Michael D; Higgins, Reynold (1996). A Geological Companion to Greece and the Aegean. Duckworths. ISBN 0-8014-3337-1. Hurwit, Jeffrey M. (2000). The Athenian Acropolis: History, Mythology, and Archaeology from the Neolithic Era to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-42834-7. Hurwit, Jeffrey M. (2004). The Acropolis in the Age of Pericles. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-52740-8. Keesling, Catherine M. (2008). The Votive Statues of the Athenian Acropolis. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-07126-0. Miller, Walter (2009). A History of the Akropolis of Athens. Gorgias Press. ISBN 978-1-60724-498-1. Neils, Jenifer (2005). The Parthenon: From Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-82093-6. Neils, Jenifer, ed. (1996). Worshipping Athena: Panathenaia and Parthenon. Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press. Pollitt, Jerome J. (1990). The Art of Ancient Greece: Sources and Documents. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press. Rhodes, Robin Francis (1995). Architecture and Meaning on the Athenian Acropolis. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-46981-4. Shuter, Jane (1999). The Acropolis. Heinemann Library. ISBN 978-1-57572-855-1. Servi, Katerina (2011). The Acropolis: The Acropolis Museum. Ekdotike Athenon. ISBN 978-960-213-452-8. Tanaka, Michitaro (1978). The Acropolis. Kodansha America, Inc. ISBN 978-0-87011-085-6. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Acropolis of Athens. Library resources about Acropolis of Athens Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries The Acropolis of Athens (Greek Government website) The Acropolis Restoration Project (Greek Government website) The Acropolis of Athens Virtual Tour The Acropolis Museum and the Goddess Athena The Glafka Project UNESCO World Heritage Centre — Acropolis, Athens Ancient Athens 3D Excerpt on the geology of Athens from: A Geological Companion to Greece and the Aegean by Michael and Reynold Higgins, Cornell University Press, 1996 The Acropolis of Athens-Athensguide Tour of Acropolis of Athens, Site of the Parthenon-About.com Athenian Acropolis Videos Acropolis of Athens, Full Reconstruction, animation by the Technological Research Institute, University of Santiago de Compostela, on YouTube Timelapse video of Acropolis during Earth Hour 2010 Timelapse showing how the Acropolis of Athens switched off & on the lights during Earth Hour 2010 The Acropolis in 1955 The Acropolis in 1969 Greek Glory A tour of ancient Greek buildings and monuments in Athens in the 1940s Acropolis of Athens from the old Greek TV show "Ελλάδος Περιήγησις..." (Greece Tours), 1998 (in Greek) Athens, Greece: Ancient Acropolis and Agora by Rick Steves Three dimensional reconstruction of ancient Acropolis Βασιλόπουλος (Vasilopoulos), Χρίστος (Christos) (2011). "Η ιστορία της Ακρόπολης" [The history of Acropolis]. Μηχανή Του Χρόνου (The Time Machine) (in Greek). Greece. NET. 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en-wikipedia-org-9532	----	Isthmus - Wikipedia Isthmus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Narrow strip of land connecting two larger land areas For other uses, see Isthmus (disambiguation). The sandy isthmus or tombolo "The Neck" connecting North and South Bruny Island in Tasmania, Australia An isthmus ( /ˈɪsθməs/ or /ˈɪsməs/;[1] plural: isthmuses or isthmi; from Ancient Greek: ἰσθμός, romanized: isthmós, lit. 'neck')[2] is a narrow piece of land connecting two larger areas across an expanse of water by which they are otherwise separated.[3] A tombolo is an isthmus that consists of a spit or bar, and a strait is the sea counterpart of an isthmus. Canals are often built across isthmuses, where they may be a particularly advantageous shortcut for marine transport. For example, the Panama Canal crosses the Isthmus of Panama, connecting the North Atlantic and Pacific Oceans; the Suez Canal connects the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea, cutting across the western side of the Isthmus of Suez, formed by the Sinai Peninsula; and the Crinan Canal crosses the isthmus between Loch Crinan and Loch Gilp, which connects the Kintyre peninsula with the rest of Scotland. Another example is the Welland Canal in the Niagara Peninsula (technically an isthmus). It connects Lake Ontario to Lake Erie. The city of Auckland in the North Island of New Zealand is situated on an isthmus. Contents 1 Isthmus vs land bridge vs peninsula 2 Major isthmuses 3 See also 4 Notes Isthmus vs land bridge vs peninsula[edit] Isthmus and land bridge are related terms with isthmus having a broader meaning. A land bridge is an isthmus connecting the Earth's major landmasses. The term land bridge is usually used in biogeology to describe land connections that used to exist between continents at various times and were important for migration of people, and various species of animals and plants, e.g. Bering Land Bridge and Doggerland.[4] An isthmus is a land connection between two bigger landmasses, while a peninsula is rather a land protrusion which is connected to a bigger landmass on one side only and surrounded by water on all other sides. Technically, an isthmus can have canals running from coast to coast (e.g. the Panama Canal), and thus resemble two peninsulas; however, canals are artificial features distinguished from straits. Major isthmuses[edit] Karelian Isthmus between the Gulf of Finland and Lake Ladoga Major isthmuses include the Isthmus of Panama and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in the Americas, the Isthmus of Kra in South-East Asia, the Isthmus of Suez between Africa and Asia, and the Karelian Isthmus in Europe. Of historic importance was the Isthmus of Corinth in Greece. See also[edit] Aerial perspective of the isthmus of Bruny Island Geography portal Land bridge – Connection between two land form bodies List of isthmuses List of straits Notes[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Isthmi. ^ "Isthmus". Collins English Dictionary. Collins. Retrieved 19 December 2016. ^ LSJ entry ισθμός ^ "Isthmus". Britannica. Retrieved September 22, 2013. ^ "Land bridge | isthmus". 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en-wikipedia-org-9555	----	Sahure - Wikipedia Sahure From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Egyptian pharaoh, second ruler of the Fifth Dynasty, 25th century BC Sahure Sahura, Sahu-Re, Sephrês, Σϵϕρής Head of a gneiss statue of Sahure in the gallery 103 of the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art.[1][2][3] Pharaoh Reign Duration: 13 years, 5 months and 12 days in the early 25th century BC[note 1] (Fifth Dynasty) Predecessor Userkaf Successor Neferirkare Kakai Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sahure sꜣḥ.w.rꜥ He who is close to Ra Alternative translations: He whom Ra has touched[22] Ra has endowed me[23] Nomen Sahure sꜣḥ.w.rꜥ He who is close to Ra Horus name Horus Nebkhau nb-ḫˁ-w Horus, Lord of apparitions Nebty name Nebti Nebkhau nb.tj nb ḫˁ w Two Ladies, Lord of apparitions Golden Horus Bikwy Nebw bḳ.wj nbw The golden double falcon[23] Consort Meretnebty[24] Children Ranefer ♂ (ascended the throne as Neferirkare Kakai), Netjerirenre ♂ (possibly the same person as Shepseskare), Horemsaf ♂, Raemsaf ♂, Khakare ♂ and Nebankhre ♂[25][26] Father Userkaf Mother Neferhetepes II Burial Pyramid of Sahure Monuments Pyramid of Sahure "The Rising of the Ba Spirit of Sahure"[27] Sun temple "The Field of Ra" Palaces "Sahure's splendor soars up to heaven" and "The crown of Sahure appears" Sahure (also Sahura, meaning "He who is close to Re") was a pharaoh of ancient Egypt and the second ruler of the Fifth Dynasty (c. 2465 – c. 2325 BC). He reigned for about 12 years in the early 25th century BC during the Old Kingdom Period. Sahure's reign marks the political and cultural high point of the Fifth Dynasty.[28] He was probably the son of his predecessor Userkaf with Queen Neferhetepes II, and was in turn succeeded by his son Neferirkare Kakai. During Sahure's rule, Egypt had important trade relations with the Levantine coast. Sahure launched several naval expeditions to modern-day Lebanon to procure cedar trees, slaves and exotic items. His reign may have witnessed the flourishing of the Egyptian navy, which included a high-seas fleet as well as specialized racing boats. Relying on this, Sahure ordered the earliest attested expedition to the land of Punt, which brought back large quantities of myrrh, malachite and electrum. Sahure is shown celebrating the success of this venture in a relief from his mortuary temple which shows him tending a myrrh tree in the garden of his palace named "Sahure's splendor soars up to heaven". This relief is the only one in Egyptian art depicting a king gardening. Sahure sent further expeditions to the turquoise and copper mines in Sinai. He also ordered military campaigns against Libyan chieftains in the Western Desert, bringing back livestock to Egypt. Sahure had a pyramid built for himself in Abusir, thereby abandoning the royal necropolises of Saqqara and Giza, where his predecessors had built their monuments. This decision was possibly motivated by the presence of the sun temple of Userkaf in Abusir, the first such temple of the Fifth Dynasty. The Pyramid of Sahure is much smaller than the pyramids of the preceding Fourth Dynasty but the decoration and architecture of his mortuary temple is more elaborate. The valley temple, causeway and mortuary temple of his pyramid complex were once adorned by over 10,000 m2 (110,000 sq ft) of exquisite polychrome reliefs, representing the highest form reached by this art during the Old Kingdom period. The Ancient Egyptians recognized this particular artistic achievement and tried to emulate the reliefs in the tombs of subsequent kings and queens. The architects of Sahure's pyramid complex introduced the use of palmiform columns (that is columns whose capital has the form of palm leaves), which would soon become a hallmark of ancient Egyptian architecture. The layout of his mortuary temple was also innovative and became the architectural standard for the remainder of the Old Kingdom period. Sahure is also known to have constructed a sun temple called "The Field of Ra", and although it is yet to be located it is presumably also in Abusir. Sahure was the object of a funerary cult, the food offerings for which were initially provided by agricultural estates set up during his reign. This official, state-sponsored cult endured until the end of the Old Kingdom. Subsequently, during the Middle Kingdom period, Sahure was venerated as a royal ancestor figure but his cult no longer had dedicated priests. During the New Kingdom, Sahure was equated with a form of the goddess Sekhmet for unknown reasons. The cult of "Sekhmet of Sahure" had priests and attracted visitors from all over Egypt to Sahure's temple. This unusual cult, which was celebrated well beyond Abusir, persisted up until the end of the Ptolemaic period nearly 2500 years after Sahure's death. Contents 1 Family 1.1 Parentage 1.2 Children 2 Reign 2.1 Chronology 2.1.1 Relative chronology 2.1.2 Reign length 2.2 Foreign activities 2.2.1 Trade and tribute 2.2.2 Military campaigns 2.3 Activities in Egypt 2.3.1 Religious activities 2.3.2 Building and mining activities 2.3.3 Development of the Egyptian Navy 2.4 Court life 2.4.1 Officials 2.4.2 Evolution of the high offices 3 Sun temples 3.1 Sekhetre 3.2 Nekhenre 4 Pyramid complex 4.1 Location 4.2 Mortuary temple 4.3 Pyramid 5 Legacy 5.1 Artistic and architectural legacy 5.2 Cults 5.2.1 Old Kingdom 5.2.2 Middle Kingdom 5.2.3 New Kingdom: emergence of Sekhmet of Sahure 5.2.4 Third intermediate, late and Ptolemaic periods 6 Notes 7 References 8 Bibliography Family[edit] Parentage[edit] The Westcar Papyrus, dating to the Seventeenth Dynasty but probably first written during the Twelfth Dynasty, tells the myth of the origins of the Fifth Dynasty. Excavations at the pyramid of Sahure in Abusir under the direction of Miroslav Verner and Tarek El-Awady in the early 2000s provide a picture of the royal family of the early Fifth Dynasty. In particular, reliefs from the causeway linking the valley and mortuary temples of the pyramid complex reveal that Sahure's mother was queen Neferhetepes II.[29] She was the wife of pharaoh Userkaf, as indicated by the location of her pyramid immediately adjacent to that of Userkaf,[30] and bore the title of "king's mother".[note 2][31] This makes Userkaf the father of Sahure in all likelihood. This is further reinforced by the discovery of Sahure's cartouche in the mortuary temple of Userkaf at Saqqara, indicating that Sahure finished the structure started most probably by his father.[30] This contradicts older, alternative theories according to which Sahure was the son of queen Khentkaus I,[32] believed to be the wife of the last pharaoh of the preceding Fourth Dynasty, Shepseskaf and a brother to either Userkaf or Neferirkare.[note 3][35] Sahure's figure towering next to those of his sons including Netjerirenre, Khakare and Neferirkare Kakai on a relief from his mortuary temple[36] Children[edit] Sahure is known to have been succeeded by Neferirkare Kakai,[note 4] who until 2005 was believed to be his brother.[37] That year, a relief originally adorning the causeway of Sahure's pyramid and showing Sahure seated in front of two of his sons, Ranefer and Netjerirenre,[38] was discovered by Verner and another Egyptologist, Tarek El-Awady.[39] Next to Ranefer's name the text "Neferirkare Kakai king of Upper and Lower Egypt" had been added, indicating that Ranefer was Sahure's son and had assumed the throne under the name "Neferirkare Kakai" at the death of his father.[29] Since both Ranefer and Netjerirenre are given the titles of "king's eldest son", Verner and El-Awady speculate that they may have been twins with Ranefer born first. They propose that Netjerirenre may have later seized the throne for a brief reign under the name "Shepseskare", although this remains conjectural.[40] The same relief further depicts queen Meretnebty,[41] who was thus most likely Sahure's consort[42] and the mother of Ranefer and Netjerirenre.[39] Three more sons, Khakare,[43] Horemsaf,[44] and Nebankhre[45] are shown on reliefs from Sahure's mortuary temple, but the identity of their mother(s) is unknown.[24] Netjerirenre bore several religious titles corresponding to high-ranking positions in the court and which suggest that he may have acted as a vizier for his father.[46] This is debated, as Michel Baud points out that at the time of Sahure, the eviction of royal princes from the vizierate was ongoing if not already complete.[47] Reign[edit] Chronology[edit] Cartouche of Sahure on the Abydos king list Relative chronology[edit] The relative chronology of Sahure's reign is well established by historical records, contemporary artifacts and archeological evidence, which agree that he succeeded Userkaf and was in turn succeeded by Neferirkare Kakai.[48] An historical source supporting this order of succession is the Aegyptiaca (Αἰγυπτιακά), a history of Egypt written in the 3rd century BC during the reign of Ptolemy II (283–246 BC) by Manetho. No copies of the Aegyptiaca have survived and it is now known only through later writings by Sextus Julius Africanus and Eusebius. According to the Byzantine scholar George Syncellus, Africanus wrote that the Aegyptiaca mentioned the succession "Usercherês → Sephrês → Nefercherês" at the start of the Fifth Dynasty. Usercherês, Sephrês (in Greek, Σϵϕρής), and Nefercherês are believed to be the Hellenized forms for Userkaf, Sahure and Neferirkare, respectively.[49] Manetho's reconstruction of the early Fifth Dynasty is in agreement with those given on two more historical sources, the Abydos king list where Sahure's cartouche is on the 27th entry, and the Saqqara Tablet where Sahure's name is given on the 33rd entry. These lists of kings were written during the reigns of Seti I and Ramses II, respectively.[50] Reign length[edit] The Turin canon, a king list written during the Nineteenth Dynasty in the early Ramesside era (1292–1189 BC), credits him with a reign of twelve years five months and twelve days. In contrast, the near contemporary royal annal of the Fifth Dynasty known as the Palermo Stone records his second, third, fifth and sixth years on the throne as well as his final 13th or 14th year of reign[note 5] and even records the day of his death as the 28th of Shemu I, which corresponds to the end of the ninth month.[55][56] Taken together these pieces of information indicate that the royal annal of the Fifth Dynasty recorded a reign of 13 years 5 months and 12 days for Sahure, only one year more than given by the Turin Canon and close to the 13 years figure given in Manetho's Aegyptiaca.[49] Sahure appears in two further historical records: on the third entry of the Karnak king list, which was made during the reign of Thutmose III (1479–1425 BC) and on the 26th entry of the Saqqara Tablet dating to the reign of Ramses II (1279–1213 BC).[12] Neither of these sources give his reign length. The absolute dates of Sahure's reign are uncertain but most scholars date it to the first half of the 25th century BC, see note 1 for details.[12] Foreign activities[edit] Trade and tribute[edit] Relief of Sahure from the Wadi Maghareh[57][58] Historical records and surviving artifacts suggest that contacts with foreign lands were numerous during Sahure's reign. Furthermore, these contacts seem to have been mostly economic rather than military in nature. Reliefs from his pyramid complex show the return of a naval expedition to Lebanon, the boats laden with the trunks of precious cedar trees.[27] Other ships are represented loaded with "Asiatics",[note 6] both adults and children who were either slaves,[9][12][59] or merchants,[60] greeting Sahure: Hail to thee, O Sahure! God of the living, we behold thy beauty!.[61] The same relief strongly suggests that interpreters were on board the ships, tasked with translations to facilitate trade with foreign lands.[62] A relief, unique to Egyptian art, depicts several Syrian brown bears, presumably brought back from the Levantine coast by seagoing ships as well. These bears appear in association with 12 red-painted one-handled jars from Syria. The Egyptologists Karin Sowada and William Stevenson Smith have proposed that, taken together, the bears and jars are likely to constitute a tribute.[63][64] Trade contacts with Byblos took place during Sahure's reign. Excavations of the temple of Baalat-Gebal yielded an alabaster bowl inscribed with Sahure's name.[12] The layout of the fourth phase of this temple might even have been influenced by the architecture of Sahure's valley temple,[note 7][67] although this remains debated.[68] There is further corroborating evidence for trade with the wider Levant during the Fifth Dynasty, several stone vessels being inscribed with cartouches of pharaohs of this dynasty discovered in Lebanon.[note 8][71] So much so that the archeologist Gregory Mumford points to the fact that "Sahure is [the] best attested [king] for international relations" and has the highest number of texts inscribed in Sinai proportionally to his reign length.[72] In his last year, Sahure sent the first documented[73] expedition to the fabled land of Punt,[74] probably along the Somalian coast.[75] The expedition, which is conjectured to have departed Egypt from the harbor of Mersa Gawasis,[16] is reported on the Palermo Stone[6] where it is said to have come back with 80,000 of an unspecified measure of myrrh, along with malachite, 6000 measures of electrum and 2600 or 23,020 staves,[12][76] possibly made of ebony.[19] In his last year Sahure sent another expedition abroad, this time to the copper and turquoise mines of Wadi Maghareh[5][57][77] and Wadi Kharit in Sinai,[note 9][79][80] which had been active since at least the beginning of the Third Dynasty.[81] This expedition, also mentioned by the Palermo stone,[6] brought back over 6000 units of turquoise to Egypt[61] and produced two reliefs in Sinai, one of which shows Sahure in the traditional act of smiting Asiatics[12] and boasting "The Great God smites the Asiatics of all countries".[82] In parallel with these activities, diorite quarries near Abu Simbel were exploited throughout Sahure's reign.[75] Military campaigns[edit] Silver cylinder seal of king Sahure, Walters Art Museum[7] Sahure's military career is known primarily from reliefs in his mortuary complex. It apparently consisted of campaigns against Libyans from Tjemehu, a land possibly located in the northern Western desert.[6] These campaigns are said to have yielded livestock in huge numbers[note 10] and Sahure is shown smiting local chieftains. The historical veracity of these depictions remains in doubt as such representations are part of the standard iconography meant to exalt the king.[6] The same scene of the Libyan attack was used two hundred years later in the mortuary temple of Pepi II (2284–2184 BC) and in the temple of Taharqa at Kawa, built some 1800 years after Sahure's lifetime.[86] In particular, the same names are quoted for the local chieftains. Therefore, it is possible that Sahure too was copying an even earlier representation of this scene.[87][88] Nonetheless, several overseers of the Western Nile Delta region were nominated by Sahure, a significant decision as these officials occupied an administrative position that existed only irregularly during the Old Kingdom period and which likely served to provide "traffic regulation across the Egypto-Libyan border".[89] At the same time, Sahure's mortuary temple presents the earliest known mention of pirates raiding the Nile Delta, possibly from the coast of Epirus.[90] Sahure's pretensions regarding the lands and riches surrounding Egypt are encapsulated in several reliefs from his mortuary temple which show the god Ash telling the king "I will give you all that is in this [Libya] land", "I give you all hostile peoples with all the provisions that there are in foreign lands" and "I grant thee all western and eastern foreign lands with all the Iunti and the Montiu bowmen who are in every land".[note 11][91][61] Activities in Egypt[edit] Religious activities[edit] Sahure might have visited Elephantine early in his reign. The majority of Sahure's activities in Egypt recorded on the Palermo stone are religious in nature. This royal annal records that in the "year of the first time of traveling around", Sahure journeyed to the Elephantine fortress, where he may have received the submission of the Nubian chiefs in a ceremonial act connected with the commencement of his reign.[92][93] The fashioning of six statues of the king as well as the subsequent opening of the mouth ceremonies are also reported.[94] During Sahure's fifth year on the throne, the Palermo stone mentions the making of a divine barge, possibly in Heliopolis, the appointment of 200 priests and the exact quantity of daily offerings of bread and beer to Ra (138, 40 and 74 measures in three temples), Hathor (4 measures), Nekhbet (800 measures) and Wadjet (4800 measures) fixed by the king.[95] Also reported are gifts of lands to temples of between 1 and 204 arouras (0.7 to nearly 140 acres).[82] Concerning Lower Egypt, the stone register corresponding to this reign gives the earliest known mention of the city of Athribis in the Delta region.[96] Further indication of religious activities lies in that Sahure is the earliest known king to have used the Egyptian title of Nb írt-ḫt.[97] This title, possibly meaning "Lord of doing effective things", indicates that he personally performed physical cultic activities to ensure the existence and persistence of the Maat, the Egyptian concept of order and justice.[98] This title remained in use until the time of Herihor, some 1500 years later.[99] Sahure's reign is also the earliest during which the ceremony of the "driving of the calves" is known to have taken place. This is significant in the context of the progressive emergence of the cult of Osiris throughout the Fifth Dynasty, as this ceremony subsequently became an integral part of the Osiris myth. In subsequent times, the ceremony corresponded to Seth's threshing of Osiris by driving calves trampling fields of barley.[100] Sahure reorganized the cult of his mother, Nepherhetepes II, whose mortuary complex had been built by Userkaf in Saqqara.[101] He added an entrance portico with four columns to her temple, so that the entrance was not facing Userkaf's pyramid any more.[101][102] Building and mining activities[edit] A statue of Sahure was uncovered in Elkab, which may have been the starting point of mining expeditions during his reign. Archeological evidence suggests that Sahure's building activities were mostly concentrated in Abusir and its immediate vicinity, where he constructed his pyramid and where his sun temple is probably located.[103] Also nearby was the palace of Sahure, called Uetjes Neferu Sahure, "Sahure's splendor soars up to heaven". The palace is known from an inscription on beef tallow containers discovered in February 2011 in Neferefre's mortuary temple.[104] A second palace, "The Crown of Sahure appears", is known from an inscription in the tomb of his chief physician.[105] Both palaces, if they were different buildings, were likely on the shores of the Abusir lake.[106] The stones for Sahure's buildings and statues were quarried throughout Egypt. For example, the limestone cladding of the pyramid comes from Tura, while the black basalt used for the flooring of Sahure's mortuary temple comes from Gebel Qatrani, near the Faiyum in Middle Egypt.[107] South of Egypt, a stele bearing Sahure's name was discovered in the diorite quarries located in the desert north-west of Abu Simbel in Lower Nubia.[108] Further mining and quarrying expeditions may be inferred from indirect evidence. An inscription of Sahure in the Wadi Abu Geridah in the Eastern desert[109] as well as other Old Kingdom inscriptions there suggest that iron ore was mined in the vicinity since the times of the Fourth Dynasty.[110] The lower half of a statue with the name of the king was discovered in 2015 in Elkab, a location possibly connected with expeditions to the Eastern desert and south of Egypt to Nubia.[note 12][111] Sahure's cartouche has been found in graffiti in Tumas and on seal impressions from Buhen at the second cataract of the Nile in Lower Nubia.[112][113][114] Development of the Egyptian Navy[edit] Relief from Sahure's mortuary temple showing the Egyptian fleet returning from the Levant Sahure's reign may have been a time of development for the Egyptian navy. His expeditions to Punt and Byblos demonstrate the existence of a high seas navy and reliefs from his mortuary complex are described by Shelley Wachsmann as the "first definite depictions of seagoing ships in Egypt",[115][116] some of which must have been 100-cubits long (c. 50 m, 170 ft).[27] Because of this, Sahure has been credited by past scholars with establishing the Egyptian navy. It is recognized today that this is an overstatement: fragmentary reliefs from Userkaf's temple depict numerous boats, while a high seas navy must have existed as early as the Third Dynasty.[116] The oldest known sea harbor, Wadi al-Jarf on the Red Sea was operating under Khufu.[117] Finally, there is the distinct possibility that some of the reliefs are copied from earlier examples. Nonetheless, Sahure remains the earliest known ruler to have depicted, and thus possibly made use of, sea power for transporting troops over the Mediterranean sea, to Syria.[118] The extensive nautical scenes from Sahure's mortuary complex are sufficiently detailed to show that specialized racing boats for the military and perhaps for ceremonial training were built at the time.[119] They also give the earliest depiction of specific rope uses aboard ships, such as that of a hogging-truss.[120] They permit precise estimates regarding shipbuilding, for example indicating that the mid-ship freeboard for seagoing vessels was of 1 m (3.3 ft),[121] and that the masts employed at the time were bipodal, resembling an inverted Y.[122] Further rare depictions include the king standing in the stern of a sailing boat with a highly decorated sail,[123][124] and one of only two[note 13] reliefs from ancient Egypt showing men aboard a ship paddling in a wave pattern, possibly during a race.[126] Court life[edit] Niankhsekhmet and his wife shown on his false door, carved and painted in the presence of Sahure Officials[edit] Several high officials serving Sahure during his lifetime are known from their tombs as well as from the decoration of the mortuary temple of the king. Niankhsekhmet, chief physician of Sahure and first known rhinologist in history,[127] reports that he asked the king that a false door be made for his [Niankhsekhmet's] tomb, to which the king agreed.[128] Sahure had the false door made of fine Tura limestone, carved and painted blue in his audience-hall, and made personal daily inspections of the work.[10][105][129] The king wished a long life to his physician, telling him: As my nostrils enjoy health, as the gods love me, may you depart into the cemetery at an advanced old age as one revered.[128][130] A similar though much less detailed anecdote is reported by Khufuankh, who was overseer of the palace and singer of the king.[131] Other officials include Hetepka, who was keeper of the diadem and overseer of the hairdressers of the king,[132] Pehenewkai, priest of the cult of Userkaf during the reigns of Sahure and Neferirkare Kakai, then vizier for the latter;[133] Persen, a mortuary priest in the funerary cult of Sahure's mother Nepherhetepes;[note 14] and Washptah, a priest of Sahure, then vizier of Neferirkare Kakai.[136] The high-official Ptahshepses, probably born during the reign of Menkaure, was high priest of Ptah and royal manicure under Sahure, later promoted to vizier by Nyuserre Ini.[137] Two viziers of Sahure are known: Sekhemkare, royal prince, son of Khafre and vizier under Userkaf and Sahure;[138] and Werbauba, vizier during Sahure's reign, attested in the mortuary temple of the king.[139][140][141] Evolution of the high offices[edit] Werbauba on Sahure's royal hunt relief[142] Sahure pursued Userkaf's policy of appointing non-royal people to high offices.[139][143] This is best exemplified by the office of vizier, which was exclusively held by princes of royal blood with the title of "King's son" since the mid-Fourth Dynasty and up until the early Fifth Dynasty.[144] Toward the end of this period princes were progressively excluded from the highest office, an evolution undoubtedly correlated with changes in the nature of kingship.[145] This process, possibly initiated by Menkaure because of dynastic disputes,[146] seems to have been completed by Sahure's time as from then onwards no royal prince was promoted to vizier. Those already in post were allowed to keep their status[147] and so in the early part of Sahure's reign vizier Sekhemkare was a "King's son" while his successor, Werbauba, seems to have been non-royal. In response to this change, the state administration began its expansion as it included more and more non-royal people.[148] Concurrently with these developments, architectural and artistic innovations relating to tombs of private individuals can be dated to Sahure's reign. These including torus molding and cornices for false doors, first found in Persen's tomb.[149] This feature would subsequently become common and here demonstrates the particularly high esteem in which Persen must have been held by the king.[150] Another innovation is the depiction of small unusual offerings such as that of seven sacred oils on false doors, first found in Niankhsekhmet's tomb.[151] The canonical list of offerings was also developed during or shortly before Sahure's time in the tombs of the royal family, and spread to those of non-royal high-officials[152] – the earliest of whom was Seshemnefer I – under Sahure.[153] Sun temples[edit] Sekhetre[edit] Sahure built or started to build a temple dedicated to the sun god Ra, the second such temple of the Fifth Dynasty. Yet to be located, it is known to have existed thanks an inscription on the Palermo stone where it is called Sekhetre (also spelt Sekhet Re), meaning "The Field of Ra"[82] as well as mentions of it in 24 tombs of administration officials.[154] A few limestone blocks bearing reliefs which once adorned the temple have been found embedded in the walls of the mortuary complex of Nyuserre Ini, Sahure's fourth successor.[103] This suggests either that these blocks were leftovers from the construction of the temple, or as Wener Kaiser has posited,[155] that Nyuserre dismantled Sahure's temple,[156] using it as a quarry for construction materials because it was largely unfinished.[52][103] Indeed, the rather meager evidence for the Sekhetre leads Miroslav Verner to propose that it never fully functioned as a sun temple.[156] New analyses of the verso of the Palermo stone performed in 2018 by the Czech Institute of Archeology enabled the reading of further inscriptions mentioning precisely the architecture of the temple as well as lists of donations it received, establishing firmly that it was a distinct entity from the earlier sun temple of Userkaf, the Nekhenre but leaving its ultimate fate uncertain.[157] Further precision as to the architecture of the temple may be inferred from the absence[156] of the obelisk determinative in some hieroglyphic variants of the name Sekhetre and its presence in others. For Anthony Spalinger this possibly indicates that Sahure's sun temple was effectively built and acquired such an obelisk at some point after its construction, perhaps after Sahure's reign.[158] Nekhenre[edit] Userkaf was the first king to build a sun temple in Abusir. Known to the ancient Egyptians as the Nekhenre, or "Fortress of Re", it was unfinished at his death. Construction works continued in at least four building phases, the first of which may have taken place under Sahure,[156] and then under his successors Neferirkare Kakai and Nyuserre Ini.[159][160] Pyramid complex[edit] Main article: Pyramid of Sahure The ruined pyramid of Sahure as seen from the pyramid's causeway Sahure built a pyramid complex for his tomb and funerary cult, named Khaba Sahura,[161] which is variously translated as "The Rising of the Ba Spirit of Sahure",[162][163] "The Ba of Sahure appears",[6] "Sahure's pyramid where the royal soul rises in splendor",[164] or "In glory comes forth the soul of Sahure".[165] The builders and artisans who worked on Sahure's mortuary complex lived in an enclosed pyramid town located next to the causeway leading up to Sahure's pyramid and mortuary temple. The town later flourished under Nyuserre and seems to have still been in the existence during the First Intermediate Period.[166] In terms of the size, volume, and the cheap construction techniques employed, Sahure's pyramid exemplifies the decline of pyramid building.[note 15] At the same time, the quality and variety of the stones employed in other parts of the complex increased,[168] and the mortuary temple is considered to be the most sophisticated one built up to that time.[12] With its many architectural innovations, such as the use of palmiform columns, the overall layout of Sahure's complex would serve as the template for all mortuary complexes constructed from Sahure's reign until the end of the Sixth Dynasty, some 300 years later.[27][169] The highly varied colored reliefs decorating the walls of the entire funerary complex display a quality of workmanship and a richness of conception that reach their highest level of the entire Old Kingdom period.[168] Location[edit] Sahure chose to construct his pyramid complex in Abusir, thereby abandoning both Saqqara and Giza, which had been the royal necropolises up to that time. A possible motivation for Sahure's decision was the presence of the sun temple of Userkaf,[170] something which supports the hypothesis that Sahure was Userkaf's son.[171] Following Sahure's choice, Abusir became the main necropolis of the early Fifth Dynasty, as pharaohs Neferirkare Kakai, Neferefre, Nyuserre Ini and possibly Shepseskare built their pyramids there. In their wake, many smaller tombs belonging to members of the royal family were built in Abusir, with the notable exceptions of those of the highest-ranking members, many of whom chose to be buried in Giza or Saqqarah.[172] Mortuary temple[edit] Nome deities and personified agricultural estates marching into the mortuary temple of Sahure with offerings Sahure's mortuary temple was extensively decorated with an estimated 10,000 m2 (110,000 sq ft) of fine reliefs.[173] This extensive decoration seems to have been completed within Sahure's lifetime.[174] The walls of the entire 235 m (771 ft)-long causeway were also covered with polychrome bas-reliefs.[162][175] Miroslav Bárta describes the reliefs as "the largest collection known from the third millennium BCE".[176] Many surviving fragments of the reliefs which decorated the walls of the mortuary complex are of very high quality and much more elaborate than those from preceding mortuary temples.[9][177] Several of the depictions are unique in Egyptian art. These include a relief showing Sahure tending a myrrh tree (Commiphora myrrha) in his palace in front of his family;[178][179] a relief depicting Syrian brown bears and another showing the bringing of the pyramidion to the main pyramid and the ceremonies following the completion of the complex.[180] The high craftmanship of the reliefs is here manifested by the finely rounded edges of all figures, so that they simultaneously blend in with the background and stand out clearly.[181] Reliefs are sufficiently detailed to permit the identification of the animals shown, such as hedgehogs and jerboas,[182] and even show personified plants such as corn represented as a man with corn-ears instead of hair.[90] The many reliefs of the mortuary, causeway and valley temples also depict, among other things, Sahure hunting wild bulls and hippopotamuses,[183] Sahure being suckled by Nekhbet,[184] the earliest depictions of a king fishing and fowling,[185][186] a counting of foreigners by or in front of the goddess Seshat, which Egyptologist Mark Lehner believes was "meant to ward off any evil or disorder",[162] the god Sopdu "Lord of the Foreign Countries" leading bound Asiatic captives,[72] and the return of an Egyptian fleet from Asia, perhaps Byblos. Some of the low relief-cuttings in red granite are still in place at the site.[28][187] Among the seminal innovations of Sahure's temple are the earliest relief depictions of figures in adoration, either standing or squatting with both arms raised, their hands open and their palms facing down.[188] The mortuary temple featured the first palmiform columns of any Egyptian temple,[27] massive granite architraves inscribed with Sahure's titulary overlaid with copper, lion-headed waterspouts, black basalt flooring[189] and granite dados.[27] Pyramid[edit] A massive pink granite architrave inscribed with Sahure's titulary, from the courtyard of his mortuary temple The pyramid of Sahure reached 47 m (154 ft) at the time of its construction,[162] much smaller than the pyramids of the preceding Fourth Dynasty. Its inner core is made of roughly hewn stones organized in steps and held together in many sections with a thick mortar of mud. This construction technique, much cheaper and faster to execute than the stone-based techniques hitherto employed, fared much worse over time. Owing to this, Sahure's pyramid is now largely ruined and amounts to little more than a pile of rubble showing the crude filling of debris and mortar constituting the core, which became exposed after the casing stones were stolen in antiquity.[27] While the core was under construction, a corridor was left open leading into the shaft where the grave chamber was built separately and later covered by leftover stone blocks and debris. This construction strategy is clearly visible in later unfinished pyramids, in particular the Pyramid of Neferefre.[27] This technique also reflects the older style from the Third Dynasty seemingly coming back into fashion after being temporarily abandoned by the builders of the five great pyramids at Dahshur and Giza during the Fourth Dynasty.[27] The entrance at the north side is a short descending corridor lined with red granite followed by a passageway ending at the burial chamber with its gabled roof comprising large limestone beams of several tons each.[190] Today all of these beams are fractured, which weakens the pyramid structure. Fragments of a basalt sarcophagus, likely Sahure's, were found here in the burial chamber when it was first entered by John Shae Perring in the mid 19th century.[27] The mortuary complex immediately around the pyramid also includes a second smaller cult pyramid which must have stood nearly 12 m (39 ft) high, originally built for the Ka of the king.[27] Legacy[edit] Palmiform columns, an innovation of Sahure's temple, became a hallmark of Egyptian architecture.[27] Artistic and architectural legacy[edit] The painted reliefs covering the walls of Sahure's mortuary temple were recognized as an artistic achievement of the highest degree by the Ancient Egyptians. A New Kingdom inscription found in Abusir for example poetically compares the temple to the heaven lit by full moon.[191] Subsequent generations of artists and craftsmen tried to emulate Sahure's reliefs, using them as templates for the tombs of later kings and queens of the Old Kingdom period.[192] The layout of Sahure's high temple was also novel and it became the standard template for all subsequent pyramid complexes of the Old Kingdom. Some of its architectural elements, such as its palmiform columns, became hallmarks of Egyptian architecture.[note 16][27][194] This trend continued to hold in later times. For example, in the Middle Kingdom, Senusret I had reliefs for his temple directly copied from those of Sahure. He also chose to follow the innovative layout of Sahure's complex once again. At the time, Senusret I's decision was in stark contrast with the burial customs of the 11th Dynasty pharaohs, who were buried in saff tombs. These consisted of an open courtyard fronting a row of entrances into subterranean corridors and chambers dug in the hillsides of El-Tarif and Deir el-Bahari, near Thebes.[note 17][195] Cults[edit] Old Kingdom[edit] Sahure was the object of a funerary cult from the time of his death and which continued until the end of the Old Kingdom, some 300 years later. At least 22 agricultural estates were established to produce the goods necessary for providing the offerings to be made for this cult.[139] Decorated reliefs from the upper part of the causeway represent the procession of over 150 personified funerary domains created by and for Sahure, demonstrating the existence of a sophisticated economic system associated with the king's funerary cult.[196] The enormous quantities of offerings pouring into the mortuary and sun temples of Sahure benefitted other cults as well, such as that of Hathor, which had priests officiating on the temple premises.[197] Several priests serving the mortuary cult or in Sahure's sun temple during the later Fifth and Sixth Dynasties are known thanks to inscriptions and artifacts from their tombs in Saqqara and Abusir.[198] These include Tjy, overseer of the sun temples of Sahure, Neferirkare, Neferefre and Nyuserre;[199] Neferkai priest of Sahure's funerary cult;[200] Khabauptah priest of Sahure, Neferirkare, Neferefre, and Niuserre,[201][202] Atjema, priest of the sun temple of Sahure during the Sixth Dynasty;[203] Khuyemsnewy, who served as priest of the mortuary cult of Sahure during the reigns of Neferirkare and Nyuserre;[note 18] Nikare, priest of the cult of Sahure and overseer of the scribes of the granary during the Fifth Dynasty.[205] Further priests are known, such as Senewankh, serving in the cults of Userkaf and Sahure and buried in a mastaba in Saqqara;[206] Sedaug, a priest of the cult of Sahure, priest of Ra in the sun-temple of Userkaf and holder of the title of royal acquaintance;[207] Tepemankh, priest of the cults of kings of the Fourth to early Fifth Dynasty including Userkaf and Sahure, buried in a mastaba at Abusir.[208][209][210] Middle Kingdom[edit] Statue of Sahure enthroned, commissioned by Senusret I[211] No priest serving in the funerary cult of Sahure is known from the Middle Kingdom period. Evidence from this period rather come from works undertaken in the Karnak temple by 12th Dynasty pharaoh Senusret I (fl. 20th century BC), who dedicated statues of Old Kingdom kings[212] including one of Sahure.[note 19][214] The statue and the accompanying group of portraits of deceased kings indicates the existence of a generic cult of royal ancestor figures, a "limited version of the cult of the divine" as Jaromir Málek writes.[215] The statue of Sahure, now in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo (catalog number CG 42004), is made of black granite and is 50 cm (20 in) tall. Sahure is shown enthroned, wearing a pleated skirt and a round curly wig. Both sides of the throne bear inscriptions identifying the work as a portrait of Sahure made on the orders of Senusret I.[216] Sahure's legacy had endured sufficiently by the Middle Kingdom period that he is mentioned in a story of the Westcar Papyrus, probably written during the 12th Dynasty although the earliest extent copy dates to the Seventeenth Dynasty.[217] The papyrus tells the mythical story of the origins of the Fifth Dynasty, presenting kings Userkaf, Sahure and Neferirkare Kakai as three brothers, sons of Ra and a woman named Rededjet destined to supplant Khufu's line.[34] New Kingdom: emergence of Sekhmet of Sahure[edit] As a deceased king, Sahure continued to receive religious offerings during the New Kingdom as part of the standard cult of the royal ancestors. For example, Sahure is present on the Karnak king list, a list of kings inscribed on the walls of the Akhmenu, the Karnak temple of Thutmose III. Unlike other ancient Egyptian king lists, the kings there are not listed in chronological order. Rather, the purpose of the list was purely religious, its aim being to name the deceased kings to be honored in the Karnak temple.[214] In the second part of the Eighteenth Dynasty and during the Nineteenth Dynasty numerous visitors left inscriptions, stelae and statues in the temple.[218][219] These activities were related to a cult then taking place in the mortuary temple of Sahure since the time of Thutmose III. This cult was devoted to the deified king in a form associated with the goddess Sekhmet[220][221][222] named "Sekhmet of Sahure".[223] For example, the scribe Ptahemuia and fellow scribes visited Sahure's temple in the 30th year of Ramses II's reign (c. 1249 BC) to ask Sekhmet to grant them a long life of 110 years.[224] The reason for the appearance of this cult during the New Kingdom is unknown.[225] In any case, the cult of Sekhmet of Sahure was not a purely local phenomenon as traces of it were found in the Upper Egyptian village of Deir el-Medina, where it was celebrated during two festivals taking place every year, on the 16th day of the first month of Peret and on the 11th day of the fourth month of that season.[226] During the same period, prince Khaemwaset, a son of Ramses II, undertook works throughout Egypt on pyramids and temples which had fallen into ruin, possibly to appropriate stones for his father's construction projects while ensuring a minimal restoration for cultic purposes.[227] Inscriptions on the stone cladding of the pyramid of Sahure show that it was the object of such works at this time.[198][228] This renewed attention had negative consequences as the first wave of dismantlement of the Abusir monuments, particularly for the acquisition of valuable Tura limestone, arrived with it. Sahure's mortuary temple may have been spared at this time due to the presence of the cult of Sekhmet.[229] The cult's influence likely waned after the end of Ramses II's reign, becoming a site of local worship only.[230] Third intermediate, late and Ptolemaic periods[edit] During the Twenty-fifth Dynasty (744–656 BC) at the end of the Third Intermediate Period, some of Sahure's temple reliefs were copied by Taharqa,[231] including images of the king crushing his enemies as a sphinx.[232] Shortly after, under the Twenty-sixth Dynasty (664–525 BC) of the Late Period, a statue of Sahure was among a group of statues of Old Kingdom kings hidden in a cachette of the Karnak temple, testifying to some form of cultic interest up to that time.[233] In parallel, a new period of dismantlement of the pyramids of Abusir took place, yet Sahure's was once again spared. This might be because of the cult of Sekhmet of Sahure[223] the temple hosted well into the Ptolemaic period (332–30 BC), albeit with a very reduced influence.[234] Several graffiti dating from the reigns of Amasis II (570–526 BC), Darius II (423–404 BC) and up until the Ptolemaic period attest to continued cultic activities on the site.[198][235][236] For example, a certain Horib was "Priest of Sekhmet of the temple of Sekhmet of Sahure" under the Ptolemaic dynasty.[237] The dismantlement of Sahure's pyramid started in earnest in the Roman period, as shown by the abundant production of mill-stones, presence of lime production facilities and worker shelters in the vicinity.[238] Notes[edit] ^ Proposed dates for the reign of Sahure: 2517–2505 BC,[4] 2506–2492 BC,[5][6] 2496–2483 BC,[7][8] 2491–2477 BC,[9] 2487–2475 BC,[10][11][12][13][14][15][16] 2471–2458 BC,[17] 2458–2446 BC,[1][18][19] 2446–2433BC,[8] 2428–2417 BC,[20] 2428–2416 BC.[21] ^ Ancient Egyptian Mwt-Nswt.[31] ^ In a version of this theory, Khentkaus possibly remarried Userkaf after the death of her first husband[33] and became the mother of Sahure and his successor on the throne, Neferirkare Kakai.[10] This theory is based on the fact that Khentkaus is known to have borne the title of mwt nswt bity nswt bity, which could be translated as "mother of two kings". A story from the Westcar Papyrus tells of a magician foretelling to Khufu that the future demise of his lineage will come from three brothers, born of the god Ra and a woman named Rededjet, who will reign successively as the first three kings of the Fifth Dynasty.[34] Some Egyptologists have therefore proposed that Khentkaus was the mother of Sahure and the historical figure on which Rededjet is based. Following the discoveries of Verner and El-Awady in Abusir, this theory has been abandoned[29] and the real role of Khentkaus remains difficult to ascertain. This is in part because the translation of her title is problematic and because the details of the transition from the Fourth to the Fifth Dynasty are not yet clear. In particular, an ephemeral pharaoh Djedefptah may have ruled between Shepseskaf and Userkaf.[33] ^ The first pharaoh to have a throne name, called the prenomen, different from his birth name, called the nomen ^ During the Old Kingdom period, the Egyptians did not record time as we do today. Rather, they counted years since the beginning of the reign of the current king. Furthermore these years were referred to by the number of cattle counts which had taken place since the start of the reign. The cattle count was an important event aimed at evaluating the amount of taxes to be levied on the population. This involved counting cattle, oxen and small livestock.[51] During the first half of the Fifth Dynasty, this count might have been biennial[52] although it may not always have happened at regular intervals.[53] Following these principles, the Palermo stone actually talks of the years after the first, second and either sixth or seventh[54] cattle counts of Sahure's reign. If the count was indeed biennial, which is uncertain, this would correspond to Sahure's second, third and fourteenth years. ^ In the context of Egyptology, the term "Asiatics" is used to refer to people from the Levant, including Canaan, modern-day Lebanon and the southern coast of modern-day Turkey. ^ It is possible that the Egyptians wielded sufficient influence over Byblos at the time to have the temple built to satisfy their cultic needs, as they could have sought the protection of Baalat as a form of Hathor. As this remains conjectural, alternative explanations have been brought forth to explain the presence of Egyptian artifacts and Egyptian influence on the temple layout. The architects of the temple may have been Egyptians working for the Byblite king while the alabaster bowl found in the temple could come from Egyptian payments to the Byblite king for wood,[65] or it may have been donated by pious individuals.[66] While the Egyptian influence over Byblos cannot be denied, there is far from enough evidence to conclude that Byblos functioned as an Egyptian colony at the time of Sahure.[66] ^ Finally, a piece of thin gold stamped to a wooden throne and bearing Sahure's cartouches has been purportedly found during illegal excavations in Turkey among a wider assemblage known as the "Dorak Treasure".[9][69][6] The existence of the treasure is now widely doubted.[70] ^ The expedition to the copper mine of Wadi Kharit left an inscription reading: "Horus Lord-of-Risings, the king of Upper and Lower Egypt, Sahure, granted life eternally. Thot lord-of-terror who smashes Asia".[78] ^ The relief say that the following was taken as bounty: over 123,440 cattle, more than 223,200 donkeys, 232,413 goats and 243,688 sheep.[83] In another scene, 212,400 donkeys are said to have been taken.[84][85] Even if these numbers are overestimates, they show that Tjemehu was seen by the Egyptians as a rich land,[83] and that economic considerations motivated Egyptians attempts at controlling the neighboring lands.[60] ^ The Iunti and Montiu were Nubian and Asiatic nomads, respectively.[91] ^ This is one of only three known statues of Sahure, the other two being that of Sahure with a nome god heading this article, and that dedicated by Senusret I shown at the end this article.[111] ^ The only other similar relief is found in Userkaf's temple.[125] ^ His mastaba tomb is located close to Nepherhetepes's pyramid in Saqqara.[29][134][135] ^ For example, Sahure's main pyramid had a volume of 98,000 m3 (3,500,000 cu ft) versus Khufu's 2,595,000 m3 (91,600,000 cu ft).[167] ^ The standard work on Sahure's pyramid complex is Borchardt's excavation report, available online in its entirety.[193] ^ This change may have been spurred by the return of the Egyptian capital to Middle Egypt, in Itjtawy, close to Memphis and the attraction of then already ancient pyramids of the Fourth and Fifth Dynasties.[195] ^ Khuyemsnewy was also priest of Ra and Hathor in Neferirkare's sun temple, priest of Neferirkare, priest in Nyuserre Ini's and Neferirkare Kakai's pyramid complexes and Overseer of the Two Granaries.[204] ^ Another statue from this group is that of Intef the Elder.[213] References[edit] ^ a b MET 2015. ^ Allen et al. 1999, pp. 329–330. ^ Online archive 2014. ^ Wright & Pardee 1988, p. 144. ^ a b Verner 2001b, p. 588. ^ a b c d e f g Altenmüller 2001, p. 598. ^ a b Walters Art Museum website 2015. ^ a b von Beckerath 1997, p. 188. ^ a b c d Clayton 1994, pp. 60–63. ^ a b c Rice 1999, p. 173. ^ Málek 2000a, pp. 83–85. ^ a b c d e f g h Baker 2008, pp. 343–345. ^ Sowada 2009, p. 3. ^ Mark 2013, p. 270. ^ Huyge 2017, p. 41. ^ a b Bard & Fattovich 2011, p. 116. ^ von Beckerath 1999, p. 283. ^ Allen et al. 1999, p. xx. ^ a b Phillips 1997, p. 426. ^ Strudwick 1985, p. 3. ^ Hornung 2012, p. 491. ^ Allen et al. 1999, p. 337. ^ a b Leprohon 2013, p. 38. ^ a b Dodson & Hilton 2004, pp. 62–69. ^ El Awady 2006a, pp. 214–216. ^ Borchardt 1910, p. Plate (Blatt) 32, 33 & 34. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Lehner 2008, pp. 142–144. ^ a b Brinkmann 2010a, Book abstract, English translation available online and on the Internet archive. ^ a b c d El Awady 2006a, pp. 192–198. ^ a b Labrousse & Lauer 2000. ^ a b Baud 1999b, p. 494. ^ Clayton 1994, p. 46. ^ a b Hayes 1978, pp. 66–68 & p. 71. ^ a b Lichteim 2000, pp. 215–220. ^ Baud 1999b, pp. 547–548 & 550. ^ Borchardt 1910, Pl. 32, 33 & 34. ^ Verner 2002, p. 268. ^ Baud 1999b, pp. 509–510. ^ a b El Awady 2006a, pp. 208–213. ^ El Awady 2006a, pp. 213–214. ^ El Awady 2006a, pp. 198–203. ^ Callender 2011, p. 133 & 141. ^ Baud 1999b, p. 535. ^ Baud 1999b, p. 521. ^ Baud 1999b, p. 487. ^ Mac Farlane 1991, p. 80. ^ Baud 1999a, p. 297. ^ von Beckerath 1999, pp. 56–57, king number 2. ^ a b Waddell 1971, p. 51. ^ Daressy 1912, p. 205. ^ Katary 2001, p. 352. ^ a b Verner 2001a, p. 391. ^ Spalinger 1994, p. 297. ^ Wilkinson 2000, p. 168. ^ Wilkinson 2000, p. 259. ^ Breasted 1906, p. 70. ^ a b Gardiner, Peet & Černý 1955, p. 15. ^ Sethe 1903, p. 32. ^ Hayes 1978, pp. 66–67. ^ a b Bresciani 1997, p. 228. ^ a b c Redford 1986, p. 137. ^ Bresciani 1997, p. 229. ^ Sowada 2009, p. 160 and Fig. 39. ^ Smith 1971, p. 233. ^ Wright & Pardee 1988, p. 150. ^ a b Wright & Pardee 1988, p. 151. ^ Saghieh 1983, p. 121. ^ Espinel 2002, pp. 105–106. ^ Smith 1965, p. 110. ^ Mazur 2005. ^ Mumford 2006, p. 54. ^ a b Mumford 2006, p. 55. ^ Sowada 2009, p. 198. ^ Hawass 2003, pp. 260–263. ^ a b Verner 2001b, p. 589. ^ Wicker 1998, p. 155. ^ Strudwick 2005, p. 135, text number 57. ^ Giveon 1977, p. 61. ^ Giveon 1977, pp. 61–63. ^ Giveon 1978, p. 76. ^ Mumford 1999, pp. 875–876. ^ a b c Breasted 1906, pp. 108–110. ^ a b García 2015, p. 78. ^ Borchardt 1913, pl. 1–5 & 19. ^ Sethe 1903, pp. 167–169. ^ Wright & Pardee 1988, p. 156. ^ Baines 2011, pp. 65–66. ^ Kuiper 2010, p. 48. ^ García 2015, p. 79 & 99. ^ a b Eisler & Hildburgh 1950, p. 130. ^ a b Bresciani 1997, p. 268. ^ Goedicke 1988, p. 119. ^ Sethe 1903, 243,3. ^ Dunn Friedman & Friedman 1995, p. 29 & Fig. 18b p. 31. ^ Strudwick 2005, pp. 71–72. ^ Rowland 2011, p. 29. ^ Routledge 2007, p. 216. ^ Routledge 2007, p. 220. ^ Routledge 2007, p. 194. ^ Tooley 1996, p. 174, footnote 22. ^ a b Baud 1999a, p. 336. ^ Labrousse 1997, p. 265. ^ a b c Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 110. ^ Verner 2012, pp. 16–19. ^ a b Wilson 1947, pp. 241–242. ^ Verner 2003, p. 150. ^ Bloxam & Heldal 2007, p. 312. ^ Smith 1971, p. 167. ^ Green 1909, p. 321 & pl. 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Preceded by Userkaf Pharaoh of Egypt Fifth Dynasty Succeeded by Neferirkare Kakai v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control BNF: cb16967854m (data) GND: 118604864 ISNI: 0000 0000 2371 412X LCCN: n83226638 VIAF: 72779430 WorldCat Identities: viaf-72779430 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sahure&oldid=995752736" Categories: 25th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Pharaohs Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata CS1 French-language sources (fr) CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1: long volume value Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers 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en-wikipedia-org-9559	----	Pharnabazus I - Wikipedia Pharnabazus I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Pharnacid dynasty (Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia) c.550–497 BC (Pharnaces) c.480–455 BC Artabazus I c.455–430 BC Pharnabazus I c.430–420 BC Pharnaces II c.413–374 BC Pharnabazus II c.407–362 BC Ariobarzanes c.389–329 BC Artabazus II c.370–320 BC Pharnabazus III v t e Coinage of Hellespontine Phrygia at the time of Pharnabazus I, Kyzikos, Mysia. Circa 500-450 BC. This type of electrum coins were treated as gold coinage, and competed alongside Achaemenid Darics.[1] Pharnabazus (Old Iranian: Farnabāzu, Ancient Greek: Φαρνάβαζος; died before 430 BCE), was a member of the Pharnacid dynasty that governed the province of Hellespontine Phrygia as satraps for the Achaemenid Empire. He is a very obscure figure, almost always mentioned alongside his father Artabazus. He may have succeeded his father as satrap between 455 and 430 BCE, but it is also possible that Artabazus was directly succeeded by his grandson (Pharnabazus' son), Pharnaces II. References[edit] ^ CNG: MYSIA, Kyzikos. Circa 500-450 BC. EL Stater (20mm, 16.23 g). This Achaemenid biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e This Ancient Near East-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pharnabazus_I&oldid=1002464659" Categories: 430s BC deaths Achaemenid satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia 5th-century BC Iranian people Pharnacid dynasty Achaemenid people stubs Ancient Near East stubs Hidden categories: Year of birth unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Hrvatski 日本語 Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 16:14 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-956	----	Ptolemy IV Philopator - Wikipedia Ptolemy IV Philopator From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ptolemy IV Philopator Greek: Πτολεμαῖος Φιλοπάτωρ Ancient Egyptian: Iwaennetjerwymenkhwy Setepptah Userkare Sekhemankhamun[1] Gold octadrachm issued by Ptolemy IV Philopator, British Museum King of Egypt Reign 221 – 204 BC (Ptolemaic dynasty) Predecessor Ptolemy III Successor Ptolemy V Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) jwꜤ-n-nṯrwj-mnḫwj stp.n-ptḥ wsr-kꜢ-rꜤ sḫm-Ꜥnḫ-n-jmn Iwaennetjerwymenekhwy Setepenptah Userkare Sekhemankhamun The heir of the two potent gods, chosen by Ptah, the strong one of the ka of Ra, the living image of Amun Nomen ptwlmjs Ꜥnḫ-ḏt mrj-Ꜣst Ptolemys ankhdjet meryaset Ptolemaios, living forever, beloved of Isis Horus name ḥnw-ḳni sḫꜤi.n-sw-it.f Khunuqeni sekhaensuitef The strong youth whose father has allowed him to appear Nebty name wr-pḥtj mnḫ-jb-ḫr-nṯrw-nbw nḏtj-n-ḥnmmt Werpekhty menekhibkhernetjerunebu nedjtyenkhenmemet Whose might is great, whose heart is beneficial with all the Gods, who is the savior of mankind Golden Horus swḏꜢ-bꜢḳt sḥḏ-gsw-prw smn-hpw-mi ḏḥwti-ꜤꜢ-ꜤꜢ nb-ḥbw-sd-mi-ptḥ-tꜢ-ṯnn ity-mi-rꜤ Sewedjabaqet sekhedjgesuperu semenhepumi Djehutia'a nebkhabusedmiptah-tatjenen itymire Who has kept Baqet safe by illuminating the temples and establishing laws like the twice-great Thoth, possessor of Sed festivals like Ptah Tatenen and a sovereign like Ra Consort Arsinoe III Children Ptolemy V Father Ptolemy III Mother Berenice II Born May or June 244 BC[2] Died July or August 204 BC (aged 40)[2] Ptolemy IV Philopator[note 1] (Greek: Πτολεμαῖος Φιλοπάτωρ, Ptolemaĩos Philopátōr "Ptolemy, lover of his Father"; May/June 244 – July/August 204 BC), son of Ptolemy III and Berenice II, was the fourth Pharaoh of Ptolemaic Egypt from 221 to 204 BC. Ptolemy's succession to the throne was accompanied by a wide-ranging purge of the Ptolemaic royal family, which left control of the realm's government largely in the hands of his courtiers Sosibius and Agathocles. His reign was marked by the Fourth Syrian War (219–217 BC) with the Seleucid empire, which culminated in a decisive Ptolemaic victory at the Battle of Raphia, one of the largest battles of the whole Hellenistic Age. In the final years of his rule, control over the southern portion of the country was lost to the rebel Pharaoh Hugronaphor. Ptolemy IV died in mysterious circumstances in 204 BC and was succeeded by his young son Ptolemy V Epiphanes under the regency of Sosibius and Agathocles. In ancient sources, Ptolemy was criticised for being more interested in luxury and court ceremony than government, politics, and foreign relations. The decline of the Ptolemaic dynasty is usually traced to his reign. Contents 1 Background and early life 2 Reign 2.1 Fourth Syrian War (219–217) 2.2 Foreign affairs in the later reign (217–205 BC) 2.3 Egyptian Revolt and death (206–204 BC) 3 Regime 3.1 Ptolemaic dynastic cult 3.2 Pharaonic ideology and Egyptian religion 3.3 Literature 3.4 Luxury 4 Legacy and reception 5 Marriage and issue 6 Ancestry 7 Notes 8 References 9 Bibliography 10 External links Background and early life[edit] Ptolemy IV was the second child and eldest son of Ptolemy III and his wife Berenice II, born about two years after his father's accession to the throne of Egypt. Ptolemy IV had an older sister, Arsinoe III, and three younger brothers, Lysimachus (name uncertain), Alexander and Magas, all born in the 240s BC. The whole family is commemorated by a statuary groups set up at Thermos and Delphi by the Aetolian League.[3][4] Under Ptolemy III, the Ptolemaic kingdom had reached its height, decisively defeating the rival Seleucid kingdom in the Third Syrian War (246–241 BC), financing mainland Greek opposition to Antigonid Macedonia, and maintaining control of nearly the entire eastern Mediterranean seaboard. However the reign was also marked by the first native Egyptian revolt against Ptolemaic rule, in 245 BC. In the final years of Ptolemy III's reign, the Cleomenean War (229–222 BC) broke out in Greece and, despite receiving substantial Ptolemaic support, Cleomenes III of Sparta had been completely defeated by an Antigonid-led coalition and forced to flee to Egypt.[5][6] Reign[edit] Coin of Cleomenes III Sometime between October and December 222 BC, Ptolemy III died and Ptolemy IV was crowned king. The new king was about twenty years old and was under the strong influence of two prominent aristocrats: Sosibius and Agathocles, the brother of Ptolemy's mistress Agathoclea. On Ptolemy's accession, Sosibius engineered a large-scale purge of the royal family in order to eliminate anyone who might be able to oppose him. Ptolemy IV's uncle Lysimachus was probably murdered at this time.[7][8] Ptolemy's mother Berenice II was believed to support his younger brother Magas who had held substantial military commands and was popular with the army, so Magas was scalded to death in the bath.[9][4] Berenice died shortly afterwards and is said to have been poisoned.[10][11] By contrast, Ptolemy's sister Arsinoe III was brought into close association with the king. By late 220 BC, Ptolemy had married his older sister, reviving the tradition of sibling-marriage that had been begun by Ptolemy's grandfather Ptolemy II Philadelphus and would remain the norm for the rest of the dynasty.[12] Fourth Syrian War (219–217)[edit] Louvre bust of Antiochus III Main article: Fourth Syrian War In 222 BC Antiochus III had assumed the Seleucid throne and he instantly proved a dynamic leader, determined to restore Seleucid power and to reverse the losses that the Seleucids had suffed in the Third Syrian War. In 221 BC, one year after his accession, Antiochus III invaded the Ptolemaic territories in Coele-Syria. He was rebuffed by the Ptolemaic governor of the region, Theodotus, and forced to turn east as a result of the revolt of his satrap of Media, Molon.[13][14] In spring 219 BC, Antiochus III tried again, attacking and capturing the key port city and 'hearth of the Seleucid dynasty' Seleucia Pieria, which had been under Ptolemaic control since 246 BC. Immediately after this, Theodotus, who had become unpopular at the Ptolemaic court, switched to the Seleucid side, bringing Coele Syria and a large portion of the Ptolemaic fleet with him.[15] Antiochus received the surrender of Tyre and Ptolemais Ake, but he became bogged down in protracted sieges of Sidon and Dora.[16][14] In the midst of this, there was a revolt in Alexandria, led by Cleomenes III of Sparta, which Polybius presents as having been a serious threat to Ptolemy IV's regime. Ptolemy III had promised to restore Cleomenes, now living in Alexandria with a force of 3,000 mercenaries, to the Spartan throne, but his death had put an end to these plans. Initially, Ptolemy IV and Sosibius had indulged Cleomenes, seeing him as a counter to Magas. But after Magas' death, Ptolemy's interest waned and Sosibius had had the Spartan placed under house arrest. In 219 BC, while Ptolemy IV was at Canopus, Cleomenes broke free and attempted to lead an armed uprising against Sosibius. He and his followers launched an attack on the main citadel in Alexandria, hoping to liberate the men imprisoned within, but this attack was unsuccessful and the people of Alexandria did not respond to their call to rise up. Cleomenes and his followers then committed suicide.[17][18] Mediterranean in 218 BC. Antiochus' efforts to consolidate his control over Coele Syria lasted for the rest of 219 BC. At the beginning of winter, he had to negotiate a ceasefire with Ptolemy IV. Formal peace negotiations followed at Seleucia Pieria, but they do not seem to have been undertaken in good faith on either side. Antiochus refused to consider returning Seleucia Pieria to the Ptolemies, while Ptolemy demanded that Antiochus recognise Achaeus, the de facto ruler of Asia Minor, who was considered a rebel by the Seleucid court, as a party to the piece.[19][14] Sosibius and Agathocles used the cease fire to whip the Ptolemaic army into shape, while Antiochus III used it to prepare for a new offensive. In early 218 BC, Antiochus obliterated the Ptolemaic forces at Berytus on land and at sea, opening the way for the invasion of Coele Syria. There he captured Philadelphia, but was unable to gain the southern Beqa'a valley, Damascus, or Sidon.[20][14] In 217 BC, Ptolemy IV and Arsinoe III led the Egyptian army into the Levant, where it met Antiochus army in battle at Raphia on 22 June 217 BC. This was one of the largest battles of the Hellenistic Age with over 150,000 soldiers participating in the melee. At the start of the battle, the Ptolemaic elephant forces were routed and Antiochus followed that up by charging in on horseback and breaking the Ptolemaic left wing. Polybius (generally hostile to Ptolemy) represents Ptolemy's sudden appearance on the front lines as the decisive turning point in the battle, inspiring his troops to fight on and defeat the rest of the Seleucid army which turned and fled while Antiochus was still chasing the fleeing Ptolemaic soldiers on the left wing. When he discovered what had happened, Antiochus had no choice but to retreat to Antioch.[21][14] After the battle, Ptolemy set to work reorganising the situation in Coele Syria and sent Sosibius to negotiate with Antiochus. At the end of summer, he invaded Seleucid Syria, forcing Antiochus to accept a peace treaty. Ptolemy IV retained the territories that they had held at the start of the war, except, apparently, Seleucia Pieria, and he received an enormous sum of gold. By 12 October, Ptolemy had returned to Egypt, where the victory was celebrated by a priestly synod at Memphis which issued the Raphia decree. The relatively mild terms of the peace and Ptolemy's failure to capitalise on his victory by going on the offensive have caused some surprise among modern scholars; the Raphia decree refers rather unclearly to "the treachery which the commanders of the troops perpetrated" which may be relevant to Ptolemy's decision to make peace.[22][14] Foreign affairs in the later reign (217–205 BC)[edit] After the Third Syrian War, Antiochus III quickly recovered his strength and led successful expeditions against other enemies. Probably as a result, Ptolemy's interactions with other states all focused on maintaining peaceful relations and preventing warfare. In mainland Greece, Ptolemy IV attempted to rebuild the Ptolemaic influence that had suffered a serious setback under Ptolemy III as a result of the Cleomenean War. In 217 BC, Ptolemy's diplomats helped to broker the Peace of Naupactus which brought an end to the Social War between Antigonid Macedonia and the Aetolian League.[23] He had much less success in his attempts to negotiate a peace between the Macedonia and the Roman Republic in the First Macedonian War (215-205 BC).[24] Ptolemy made large financial contributions to a number of Greek cities in order to gain their favour. He was responsible for the city walls at Gortyn in Crete[25] Ptolemy was honoured for his benefactions with monuments and cults in his honour at various cities, including Rhodes and Oropus[26][27] In the west, Ptolemy maintained friendly neutrality with the Roman Republic and Carthage, which were fighting against one another in the Second Punic War (218-201 BC). He received a friendly embassy from the Romans in 210 BC, requesting a gift of grain to help feed the starving populus. It is unknown how Ptolemy responded to this request.[28] Like his predecessors, Ptolemy maintained particularly close relations with the kingdom of Syracuse under King Hiero II, but the accession of his grandson Hieronymus in 215 BC threatened to upset the careful balance that Ptolemy had maintained, since he repeatedly tried to bring the Ptolemies into the Second Punic War on the Carthaginian side.[29] The situation was resolved with his assassination in 214 BC.[30] Egyptian Revolt and death (206–204 BC)[edit] Main article: Hugronaphor Sometime after the end of the Fourth Syrian War, revolts broke out in Egypt itself. Fighting took place in the north of the country in the Delta and separately in Upper Egypt, where fighting led to the interruption of building work on the Temple of Horus at Edfu in 207–206 BC.[31] The reasons for these revolts are unclear. The Hellenistic historian Polybius argued that they were a natural result of Ptolemy's decision to arm the Egyptians during the Fourth Syrian War.[32] Günther Hölbl argues that the fact that the rebels attacked Egyptian temples suggests that it was "a rebellion of the lower classes inspired by social injustice," that had been exacerbated by the heavy taxation necessary to fund that war.[33] In October or November 205 BC, the leader of the southern revolt captured the city of Thebes and had himself crowned Pharaoh, taking the name Horwennefer, rendered in Greek sources as Hugronaphor. Despite Ptolemaic efforts to suppress his regime, Horwennefer would retain his independence for nearly twenty years, until finally captured in August 186 BC.[34][35] The revolt meant that Ptolemaic forces were unable to defend southern Egypt from Nubian incursions. Probably in 207–06 BC, King Arqamani of Meroe seized control of the Dodecaschoenus. A number of the temple building projects that had been undertaken in this region were completed by Arqameni or his successor Adikhalamani. In many cases, the work of Ptolemy IV was simply appropriated by erasing his name from inscriptions and replacing it with that of Arqameni.[36] In the midst of this conflict, in July or August 204 BC, Ptolemy IV died in unclear circumstances. A late source, John of Antioch mentions a fire in the palace. Arsinoe III also died at this time. According to Justin, she had been divorced and murdered by Ptolemy IV under the influence of his mistress Agathoclea, shortly before his own death. According to Polybius, she was murdered by Sosibius. After a few days during which Ptolemy IV's death was kept secret, his six-year-old son Ptolemy V Epiphanes, who had been co-regent since 210 BC, was formally proclaimed king with Sosibius and Agathoclea's brother Agathocles as his regents.[37][2][30] Regime[edit] Ptolemaic dynastic cult[edit] Like early Ptolemaic monarchs, Ptolemy IV was proclaimed to be a deity on his accession to the throne, as the Theos Philopator (Father-loving God). Particularly after the Fourth Syrian War, Ptolemy IV systematised the dynastic cult, reinforcing the links between the worship of the reigning king and the cults of Alexander the Great and Dionysus.[36] In 216–215 BC, after the victory celebrations for the Fourth Syrian War, Ptolemy IV and his wife as the Theoi Philopatores (Father-loving gods) were formally incorporated into the dynastic cult. This meant that they were added to the title of the Priest of Alexander the Great in Alexandria, who led the Ptolemaia festival and whose name and titulary was used to name the year in all official and private documents. This followed the pattern that had been laid down by Ptolemy's predecessors, particularly Ptolemy III, whose incorporation into the dynastic cult seems to have formed part of the victory celebrations for the Third Syrian War.[2] In order to assert the unity of this dynastic cult, Ptolemy had the existing tomb of Alexander the Great and the tombs of the individual Ptolemaic kings in Alexandria demolished. A new, pyramidal structure was built within the palace district of Alexandria to house the bodies of Alexander and the Ptolemies together. This structure seems to have been consecrated at the Ptolemaia festival of 215–14 BC.[38][36] At the same time, Ptolemy IV incorporated the cult of the dynastic founders Ptolemy I and Berenice I as the Theoi Soteres (Saviour gods) into the main dynastic cult overseen by the priest of Alexandria. Probably also in 215–14 BC, Ptolemy IV instituted a new cult in the Greek city of Ptolemais in southern Egypt, dedicated to Ptolemy I and the reigning monarch.[36] In 211 BC, Ptolemy IV seems to have begun propagating another cult for his deceased mother Berenice II, on the model of the earlier cult for Ptolemy's grandmother, Arsinoe II. A temple for Berenice sozousa (Berenice who saves) was established in Alexandria, by the shore, and seems to have been associated with protection of sailors, closely paralleling the cult of Arsinoe II. Berenice also received a special priestess, the athlophorus (prize-bearer), who marched in the Ptolemaia procession and appeared in official records of the date ahead of the canephorus (basket-bearer) of Arsinoe II. Similar priestesses would be established for later queens in the following reigns.[36] Ptolemy IV depicted with a range of divine attributes on a gold octobdrachm. Ptolemy also strongly emphasised the cult of Dionysus and linked him closely to the dynastic cult. Dionysus was the Greek god of wine and was closely associated with the royal ideal of opulence and luxury, known in Greek as tryphe, which Ptolemy wished to cultivate. Several new festivals of Dionysus were inaugurated, in which Ptolemy himself led the processions, beating on a tympanon.[39] He renamed several areas of Alexandria in honour of the god and his attributes. Sometime before 217 BC, Ptolemy ordered all priests of Dionysus to come to Alexandria to be registered and to submit their holy books and mystery rites to government inspection. This demonstrates a desire to assert his total control of Dionysus worship within his realm. Ptolemy himself was referred to as the Neos Dionysos (New Dionysus) and depicted with attributes of the god in images.[36] Equations with other deities were also made in royal imagery: one notable set of gold octodrachms depicts him with the rayed crown of Apollo or Helios, the trident of Poseidon, and the aegis of Athena, Zeus, and Alexander the Great. Many Greek cities that were under Ptolemy's control or aligned with him also established official cults in his honour during his reign. Greek cities in this period regularly granted such cults to monarchs and other powerful individuals, usually in thanks for a specific benefaction. Notable examples are found in Jaffa and other cities of the Levant after the victory at Raphia.[36] Pharaonic ideology and Egyptian religion[edit] Relief depicting Ptolemy IV making an offering to Montu at Deir el-Medina. Alexandria Memphis Tanis Kharga Oasis Edfu Medamud Cusae Dakka Thebes Sehel Philae Koptos Tjebu Sites of construction work under Ptolemy IV Like his predecessors, Ptolemy IV presented himself as a typical Egyptian Pharaoh and actively supported the Egyptian priestly elite through donations and temple construction. Ptolemy III had introduced an important innovation in 238 BC by holding a synod of all the priests of Egypt at Canopus. Ptolemy IV continued this tradition by holding his own synod at Memphis in 217 BC, after the victory celebrations of the Fourth Syrian War. The result of this synod was the Raphia Decree, issued on 15 November 217 BC and preserved in three copies. Like other Ptolemaic decrees, the decree was inscribed in hieroglyphs, Demotic, and Koine Greek. The decree records the military success of Ptolemy IV and Arsinoe III and their benefactions to the Egyptian priestly elite. Throughout, Ptolemy IV is presented as taking on the role of Horus who avenges his father by defeating the forces of disorder led by the god Set. In return, the priests undertook to erect a statue group in each of their temples, depicting the god of the temple presenting a sword of victory to Ptolemy IV and Arsinoe III. A five-day festival was inaugurated in honour of the Theoi Philopatores and their victory. The decree thus seems to represent a successful marriage of Egyptian Pharaonic ideology and religion with the Hellenistic Greek ideology of the victorious king and his ruler cult.[40] Ptolemy IV also maintained a close and friendly relationship with the priestly elite by supporting and funding construction work at sanctuaries throughout Egypt, mostly continuing projects begun earlier in the dynasty. The most notable example of this is the Temple of Horus at Edfu, where construction had begun in 237 BC under Ptolemy III, but carried on through most of Ptolemy IV's reign until Hugronaphor's revolt forced the end of works in 207–06 BC. By that time most of the structure had been built and most of the interior decoration had been carved. These inscriptions present Ptolemy IV as an ideal Pharaoh, emphasising his military victories in Syria and his pious attitude towards the gods. Annual coronation rituals took place in the sanctuary, in which the god Horus symbolically received kingship from Ra and Osiris and the reigning Pharaoh received his kingship from Ra and Horus. Ptolemy never participated in this ritual personally; his role was played by a priest. Support for the sanctuary thus represented the Ptolemaic commitment to a traditional Egyptian theology of kingship.[41] Other construction work carried out under Ptolemy IV's auspices included (from north to south): A shrine of Harpocrates in the Serapeum at Alexandria;[36] Reconstruction of the Naos of the Temple of Mut, Khonsu, and Astarte at Tanis;[41][42] The east gate of the Temple of Ptah at Memphis;[41] A new temple for Hathor at Cusae;[41] A new temple of Nemty at Tjebu;[43] Extensions to the Temple of Min and Isis at Koptos;[44][45] Decorative work on the great gateway of the Precinct of Montu and a chapel of Khonsu-Neferhotep at Karnak, Thebes;[41] Shrine for Hathor and Maat at Deir el-Medina, west of Thebes;[41] Decorative work on the temple of the Theban triad at the Kharga Oasis;[41] Completion of the Temple of Montu at Medamud;[41] Decorative work and a sanctuary of Arensnuphis at Philae;[41] Completion of the temple of Isis on Sehel Island, Aswan;[41] Reconstruction of the temple of Thoth at Dakka.[41] Literature[edit] Philopator was devoted to orgiastic forms of religion and literary dilettantism.[46] He built a temple to Homer in Alexandria[47] and financed festivals for the Muses, both in Alexandria and in the valley of the Muses in Thespiae in Boeotia. He also composed a tragedy on Adonis, on which his courtier Agathocles wrote a commentary.[48] Luxury[edit] Speculative illustration of the Tessarakonteres with catamaran hulls, as proposed by Lionel Casson. Ptolemy is said to have built a giant ship known as the tessarakonteres ("forty-rowed"), a huge galley and possibly the largest human-powered vessel ever built. This showpiece galley was described by Callixenus of Rhodes, writing in the 3rd century BC, and quoted by Athenaeus in the 2nd century AD.[49] Plutarch also mentions that Ptolemy Philopator owned this immense vessel in his Life of Demetrios.[50] According to these sources, the ship was 128 m long and required 4,000 oarsmen. The appearance and structure of this ship have been much discussed in modern scholarship. Lionel Casson proposes that it was a catamaran. It is generally agreed that the tessarakonteres served as a pleasure boat, not a military vessel.[51][30] Legacy and reception[edit] The main surviving account of Ptolemy IV's life and character is provided by the historian Polybius. He presents Ptolemy as the archetypal bad king, entirely focused on luxury and court ceremony and completely neglecting of politics, foreign affairs, and military pursuits, which he left entirely to Sosibius. According to Polybius, this neglect was the cause of the disasters of his reign, including his death.[52] Polybius was not a contemporary of Ptolemy; he probably drew his account from two earlier works which are now lost: the Histories of Phylarchus and The Stories about Philopator by Ptolemy of Megalopolis. Both of these also seem to have criticised Ptolemy for his luxuriousness. However, for contemporaries, luxury (tryphe) was often presented as a virtue, which demonstrated a king's ability and willingness to make benefactions. It is possible that the surviving source tradition has taken efforts to advertise this virtue and twisted them into a negative account.[30] Ptolemy IV is a major character in the deuterocanonical biblical book 3 Maccabees, which was probably written in the first century AD. In this work, set after the Battle of Raphia, Ptolemy is presented as an oppressive tyrant who transgresses divine law by trying to enter the temple at Jerusalem and then launches an attempt to wipe out the Jews by gathering them all in the hippodrome at Alexandria and having them trampled by drunken elephants. These plans are repeatedly thwarted by the divine intervention of Yahweh. In the end, Ptolemy recants and grants extensive privileges to the Jews. It is not clear that this work indicates the existence of a negative Jewish tradition about Ptolemy. It may simply be using him to make a general moral point about the relative strength of secular and divine authorities. Some scholars argue that Ptolemy's character in this work was actually based on the Roman Emperor Caligula and his violations of Jewish sensibilities.[53] Marriage and issue[edit] Ptolemy IV Philopator married his older sister, Arsinoe III of Egypt. Their only son was Ptolemy V Epiphanes. Ptolemy IV may also have had a son by his mistress Agathoclea in late c. 210 BC. This child may have died shortly after his birth. However, it has been suggested that this child may actually have been Ptolemy V, on the basis of a passage in the geographer Strabo.[54][2] Ancestry[edit] Ancestors of Ptolemy IV Philopator 16. Lagus 8. Ptolemy I Soter, Pharaoh of Egypt 17. Arsinoe of Macedon 4. Ptolemy II Philadelphus, Pharaoh of Egypt 18. Magas of Macedon (=26) 9. Berenice I of Egypt (=13) 19. Antigone of Macedon (daughter of Cassander) (=27) 2. Ptolemy III Euergetes, Pharaoh of Egypt 20. Agathocles of Pella 10. Lysimachus, King of Thrace, Asia Minor and Macedon 21. Arsinoe 5. Arsinoe I 22. Antipater, Regent of Macedonia 11. Nicaea of Macedon 1. Ptolemy IV Philopator, Pharaoh of Egypt 24. Amyntas 12. Philip 6. Magas, King of Cyrenaica 26. Magas of Macedon (=18) 13. Berenice I of Egypt (=9) 27. Antigone of Macedon (daughter of Cassander) (=19) 3. Berenice II of Egypt 28. Seleucus I Nicator, Basileus of the Seleucid Empire 14. Antiochus I Soter, Basileus of the Seleucid Empire 29. Apama (daughter of Spitamenes) 7. Apama II 30. Demetrius I, King of Macedon 15. Stratonice of Syria 31. Phila of Macedon (daughter of 22) Notes[edit] ^ Numbering the Ptolemies is a modern convention. Older sources may give a number one higher or lower. The most reliable way of determining which Ptolemy is being referred to in any given case is by epithet (e.g. "Philopator"). References[edit] ^ Clayton (2006) p. 208. ^ a b c d e Bennett, Chris. "Ptolemy IV". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 29 October 2019. ^ IG IX.1² 1:56; R. Flacelière, Fouilles de Delphes III:4:2 no 233, pp 275ff ^ a b Bennett, Chris. "Magas". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 30 October 2019. ^ Plutarch Life of CLeomenes 32 ^ Hölbl 2001, pp. 43–54 ^ Polybius 15.25.2 ^ Bennett, Chris. "Lysimachus". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 30 October 2019. ^ Polybius 15.25.2; Plutarch, Life of Cleomenes 33; Pseudo-Plutarch Proverb. Alexandr. 13 ^ Polybius, 15.25.2. Cf. Zenobius, 5.94. ^ Hölbl 2001, pp. 127–128 ^ Bennett, Chris. "Arsinoe III". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 30 October 2019. ^ Polybius 5.45-46 ^ a b c d e f Hölbl 2001, pp. 128–132 ^ Polybius 5.40. ^ Polybius 5.61-63, 66 ^ Polybius 5.38-39; Plutarch Life of Cleomenes 33-37 ^ Hölbl 2001, p. 128 ^ Polybius 5.67 ^ Polybius 5.68-71 ^ Polybius 5.79-87; Justin, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus 30.1 ^ Raphia Decree (link to text); Polybius 5.87 ^ Polybius 5.100. ^ Polybius 11.4.1; Livy, Ab Urbe Condita 27.30 & 28.7. ^ Strabo, Geography 10.4.11 ^ IG XII.1 37; IG VII 298. ^ Hölbl 2001, p. 132 ^ Polybius 9.11a; Livy Ab Urbe Condita 27.4.10 ^ Polybius 7.2.2; Livy Ab Urbe Condita 24.26. ^ a b c d Hölbl 2001, p. 133 ^ Edfu IV.8.1-7, VII.7.5-7. ^ Polybius 5.107.1-3 ^ Hölbl 2001, pp. 153–154 ^ Hölbl 2001, pp. 154–155 ^ Bennett, Chris. "Horwennefer / Ankhwennefer". Egyptian Royal Genealogy. Retrieved 29 October 2019. ^ a b c d e f g h Hölbl 2001, pp. 161–162 ^ Polybius 15.25-26a; Justin, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus 30.2; John of Antioch FGrH 558 F54 ^ Strabo Geography 17.1.8; Zenobius 3.94 ^ Eratosthenes FGrH 241 F16 ^ Hölbl 2001, pp. 162–4 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Hölbl 2001, pp. 160–161 ^ Wilkinson, Richard H. (2000). The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames & Hudson. p. 113. ISBN 9780500283967. ^ Wilkinson, Richard H. (2000). The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames & Hudson. p. 142. ISBN 9780500283967. ^ Hölbl 2001, pp. 86–87 ^ Wilkinson, Richard H. (2000). The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames & Hudson. p. 151-152. ISBN 9780500283967. ^ Bevan, Edwyn (1927). The House of Ptolemy: a History of Egypt under the Ptolemaic Dynasty. London: Methuen. p. 233. ^ Aelian Variae Historiae 13.22 ^ Scholia to Aristophanes Thesmophoriazusae 1059 ^ Callixenus FGrH 627 F1 = Athenaeus Deipnosophistae V 37. ^ Demetrius 43.4-5. ^ Lionel Casson (1995). Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World. Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 108–109. ISBN 0801851300. ^ Polybius 5.34 & 14.12 ^ Clayton Croy, N. (2006). 3 Maccabees: Septuagint Commentary Series. Leiden: Brill. pp. xii–xiii. ^ Strabo Geography 17.1.11. Bibliography[edit] Clayton, Peter A. (2006). Chronicles of the Pharaohs: the reign-by-reign record of the rulers and dynasties of ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28628-0. Hölbl, Günther (2001). A History of the Ptolemaic Empire. London & New York: Routledge. pp. 143–152 & 181–194. ISBN 0415201454. Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Ptolemies" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 617. External links[edit] Ptolemy Philopator I at LacusCurtius — (Chapter VII of E. R. Bevan's House of Ptolemy, 1923) Ptolemy IV — (Egyptian Royal Genealogy) Ptolemaic Genealogy: Possible child of Ptolemy IV The great revolt of the Egyptians:205–186 BC (2004) Ptolemy IV Philopator entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemaic Dynasty Born: Unknown Died: 204 BC Preceded by Ptolemy III Euergetes Pharaoh of Egypt 221–204 BC Succeeded by Ptolemy V Epiphanes v t e Hellenistic rulers Argeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Kings of Cyrene Magas Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Kings of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Kings of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Kings of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Kings of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus Kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon (regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces Asander with Dynamis Mithridates II Asander with Dynamis Scribonius’ attempted rule with Dynamis Dynamis with Polemon Polemon with Pythodorida Aspurgus Mithridates III with Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 118641794 LCCN: no2003046116 PLWABN: 9810572479705606 SUDOC: 196448921 VcBA: 495/194377 VIAF: 2154849 WorldCat Identities: lccn-no2003046116 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ptolemy_IV_Philopator&oldid=998751475" Categories: 3rd-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Ptolemaic dynasty 3rd-century BC births 204 BC deaths 3rd-century BC Egyptian people 3rd-century BC Macedonians Old Testament apocrypha people Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Ancient Egyptian-language text Articles containing Greek-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers 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en-wikipedia-org-9580	----	Eretria - Wikipedia Eretria From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be confused with Eritrea. For other uses, see Eretria (disambiguation). Place in Greece Eretria Ερέτρια View of the town from the ancient citadel Eretria Location within the region Coordinates: 38°23′53″N 23°47′26″E / 38.39806°N 23.79056°E / 38.39806; 23.79056Coordinates: 38°23′53″N 23°47′26″E / 38.39806°N 23.79056°E / 38.39806; 23.79056 Country Greece Administrative region Central Greece Regional unit Euboea Area  • Municipality 168.56 km2 (65.08 sq mi)  • Municipal unit 58.65 km2 (22.64 sq mi) Elevation 8 m (26 ft) Population (2011)[1]  • Municipality 13,053  • Municipality density 77/km2 (200/sq mi)  • Municipal unit 6,330  • Municipal unit density 110/km2 (280/sq mi) Time zone UTC+2 (EET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+3 (EEST) Postal code 340 08 Area code(s) 22290 Vehicle registration ΧΑ Eretria (/əˈriːtriə/; Greek: Ερέτρια, Eretria, literally "city of the rowers"' Ancient Greek: Ἐρέτρια) is a town in Euboea, Greece, facing the coast of Attica across the narrow South Euboean Gulf. It was an important Greek polis in the 6th/5th century BC, mentioned by many famous writers and actively involved in significant historical events. Excavations of the ancient city began in the 1890s and have been conducted since 1964 by the Greek Archaeological Service (11th Ephorate of Antiquities) and the Swiss School of Archaeology in Greece.[2] Contents 1 History of Eretria 1.1 Prehistory 1.2 Archaic to Roman period 1.2.1 Macedonian Period 1.2.2 Roman Period 2 Site monuments 2.1 Temple of Apollo Daphnephoros 2.2 The ancient theatre of Eretria 2.3 Temple of Isis 2.4 House with the mosaics 2.5 Macedonian tomb of Erotes 2.6 Tholos 2.7 Gymnasium and Eileithyia's sanctuary 3 Modern Eretria 4 Municipality 5 Historical population 6 Notable people 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links History of Eretria[edit] Prehistory[edit] The first evidence for human activity in the area of Eretria are pottery shards and stone artifacts from the late Neolithic period (3500-3000 BC) found on the Acropolis as well as in the plain. No permanent structures have yet been found. It is therefore unclear whether a permanent settlement existed at that time. The first known settlement from the Early Helladic period (3000-2000 BC) was located on the plain. A granary and several other buildings, as well as a pottery kiln, have been found so far. This settlement was moved to the top of the Acropolis in the Middle Helladic period (2000-1600 BC) because the plain was flooded by the nearby lagoon. In the Late Helladic period (1600-1100 BC), the population dwindled and the remains found so far have been interpreted as an observation post. The site was abandoned during the Greek Dark Ages. Archaic to Roman period[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The ancient theatre with the gymnasion of Eretria. The oldest archaeological finds date the foundation of the city to the 9th century BC. It was probably founded as the harbour of Lefkandi, which is located 15 km to the west. The name comes from the Greek ἐρέτης, erétēs, rower, and the verb ἐρέσσειν/ἐρέττειν, eréssein/eréttein, to row, which makes Eretria the "City of the Rowers". Eretria's population and importance increased at the same time as Lefkandi began to decline in importance from c. 825 BC onwards. The natural superiority of Eretria's harbour and the importance of trade to the Euboeans is one explanation for this gradual population migration from Lefkandi to Eretria. Eretria had a strong agriculture power, but it is unknown where they planted their crops and fed cattle. Ancient Greek polychrome antefix, featuring a Gorgona. Archaeological Museum of Eretria Statue of a youth found in the gymnasium, now in the National Archaeological Museum in Athens The earliest surviving mention of Eretria was by Homer (Iliad 2.537), who listed Eretria as one of the Greek cities which sent ships to the Trojan War. In the 8th century BC, Eretria and her near neighbour and rival, Chalcis, were both powerful and prosperous trading cities. Eretria controlled the Aegean islands of Andros, Tenos and Ceos. They also held territory in Boeotia on the Greek mainland. Eretria was also involved in the Greek colonisation and founded the colonies of Pithekoussai and Cumae in Italy together with Chalcis. Coin of Eretria, 500-490 BC. Silver obol. Obverse: Facing head of cow. Reverse: Octopus in incuse square. At the end of the 8th century BC, however, Eretria and Chalcis fought a prolonged war (known mainly from the account in Thucydides as the Lelantine War) for control of the fertile Lelantine plain. Little is known of the details of this war, but it is clear that Eretria was defeated. The city was destroyed and Eretria lost her lands in Boeotia and her Aegean dependencies. Neither Eretria nor Chalcis ever again counted for much in Greek politics. As a result of this defeat, Eretria turned to colonisation. She planted colonies in the northern Aegean, on the coast of Macedon, in Italy and Sicily. The Eretrians were Ionians and were thus natural allies of Athens. When the Ionian Greeks in Asia Minor rebelled against Persia in 499 BC, Eretria joined Athens in sending aid to the rebels, because Miletus supported Eretria in the Lelantine War. The rebels burned Sardis, but were defeated and the Eretrian general Eualcides was killed. Darius made a point of punishing Eretria during his invasion of Greece. In 490 BC the city was sacked and burned by the Persians under the admiral Datis. Attributed to the resistance during the siege, all the male citizens were killed, while women and children were deported to Arderikka in Susiana, Persia and forced into slavery barefoot. The temple of Apollo, built around 510 BC, was destroyed by the Persians, and parts of a pediment were found in 1900, including the torso of an Athena statue. Eretria was rebuilt shortly afterwards and took part with 600 hoplites in the Battle of Plataea (479 BC). The ancient writer Plutarch mentions a woman of Eretria, "who was kept by Artabanus" at the Persian court of Artaxerxes, who facilitated the audience that Themistocles obtained with the Persian king.[3] During the fifth century BC the whole of Euboea became part of the Delian League, which later became the Athenian Empire. Eretria and other cities of Euboea rebelled unsuccessfully against Athens in 446 BC. During the Peloponnesian War Eretria was an Athenian ally against her Dorian rivals Sparta and Corinth. But soon the Eretrians, along with the rest of the Empire, found Athenian domination oppressive. When the Spartans defeated the Athenians at the Battle of Eretria in 411 BC, the Euboean cities all rebelled. After her eventual defeat by Sparta in 404 BC, Athens soon recovered and re-established her hegemony over Euboea, which was an essential source of grain for the urban population. The Eretrians rebelled again in 349 BC and this time the Athenians could not recover control. In 343 BC supporters of Philip II of Macedon gained control of the city, but the Athenians under Demosthenes recaptured it in 341 BC. Macedonian Period[edit] The Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC, in which Philip defeated the combined armies of the Greeks, marked the end of the Greek cities as independent states. However, under Macedonian rule Eretria experienced a new period of prosperity which lasted until the 3rd century as attested by many inscriptions, by extensions to the west and south sections of the walls and by many other private and public new buildings including the circus. From 318-312BC King Cassander lived at Eretria[4] and commissioned the painter Philoxenus of Eretria to paint the battle of Issus,[5][6] of which the famous Alexander Mosaic[7] in the Naples museum is a copy[8] and the wall paintings in Phillip's tomb at Vergina are connected. From 304BC Demetrius I granted the city partial autonomy. During this time the city was governed by Menedemos who founded the Eretrian school of philosophy. After the Chremonidean War (267-262BC) a permanent Macedonian garrison was installed. Roman Period[edit] In 198 BC in the Second Macedonian War Eretria was plundered by the Romans. The admiral Lucius Quinctius Flamininus was joined by the allied fleets of Attalus I of Pergamon and of Rhodes, and used them in besieging Eretria. He eventually took the town during a night-time assault during which the citizens surrendered. Flamininus came away with a large collection of art works as his share of the booty.[9] Eretria became an object of contention between the Romans and Macedonians, but was given partial independence and experienced a new period of prosperity. Under the Romans, athletic contests for children and youths called the Romaia were held. In 87 BC it was finally destroyed in the First Mithridatic War and gradually declined further. Ancient polygonal city walls on the acropolis Site monuments[edit] Many remains of the ancient city can be seen today including: Parts of the city walls and gates (of 4 km length) The Theatre Palaces I and II Upper and Lower Gymnasiums House of the mosaics The Baths Temple of Apollo Daphnephoros Temple of Artemis Temple of Isis Temple of Dionysos The Acropolis Macedonian tomb Temple of Apollo Daphnephoros[edit] Temple of Apollo Daphnephoros Temple of Apollo pediment sculptures The temple of Apollo Daphnephoros is the most important and wider known monument of Eretria, featuring sparkling and sharp sculptures on the pediments, their postures well in advance of experiments in Athens of the time.[10] Together with its enclosure it constituted the sacred temenos of Apollo, a religious centre and fundamental place of worship within the core of the ancient city, to the north of the Agora. According to the Homeric hymn to Apollo, when the god was seeking for a location to found its oracle, he arrived to the Lelantine plain. The first temple is dated to the Geometric period and was situated probably near the harbour, as the sea then reached the area of the Agora. The hecatompedon (hundred-footer) apsidal edifice is the earliest in its type among those mentioned by Homer, and slightly after the hecatompedon temple of Hera on the island of Samos. It was flanked to the south by another apsidal building which also came to light: the so-called Daphniforio or "space with laurels" (7.5 x 11.5m) is the most ancient edifice in Eretria, related to the early cult of Apollo in Delphi. At the centre of this edifice were preserved the clay bases supporting the laurel trunks that propped up the roof. In the early sixteenth century a second hecatompedon temple was erected through earth fills upon its Geometric predecessor, on a solid artificial terrace. This temple had wooden columns (six at the narrow sides and nineteen at the longer sides), and was subsequently covered with earth in order to build the later and most renowned of all temples in the city. Construction started at the late sixth century BC (520-490 BC) and the temple was perhaps still unfinished when the Persians razed the city in 490 BC. Poros stone and marble were the materials used for this Doric peristyle (surrounded by colonnades) temple (6 x 14 columns). It had a prodomos (anteroom) and an opisthodomos (back section) arranged with two columns in antis; the cella (in Greek sekos was divided into three naves by two interior colonnades. After the destruction of the city by the Persians, the temple was repaired and remained in use; yet in 198 BC it was destroyed again, this time by the Romans, a fact which initiated the gradual abandonment and dilapidation of the monument until the first century BC. Some important sculptures were found and are displayed in the Chalcis museum. One of the Amazons was salvaged in antiquity and carried off to Rome. Unfortunately, the majority of architectural parts from this temple and other sanctuaries of the city were re-used as construction material; only a few (column) drums together with fragmented capitals and triglyphs remain from the superstructure of the monument. Of the sumptuous sculptural decoration survive only parts of the west pediment featuring in relief the fight of the Amazons (or Amazonomachy, a usual motif for the iconography at the time). The centre was occupied by Athena and is partially preserved, depicting her trunk with the Gorgoneion on the thorax; a superb work of art is the complex of Theseus and Antiope marked by sensitivity and softness of the form, internal force and clarity, despite the ornamental tendency obvious in the coiffures and the folds of their clothes. These sculptures are impregnated by the rules of archaic plasticity; the analogies are rendered in an innovative manner, a precursor to the idealization and the force of the classical art. The entire composition supposedly featured chariots to Athena's right and left, one chariot presumably carrying Theseus and Antiope, while Hercules might ride the other, and the picture could be complemented by fighting Amazons and a dead warrior. The east pediment possibly narrated the Gigantomachy (fight of the Giants). The details of the faces and the clothes were coloured, thus rendering the depiction more vivid. Fragmented sculptures that may be part of the temple after the destruction by the Persians (warrior, Amazon and Athena's trunk) have been located in Rome. Today are visible only the foundations of the Post-Archaic temple, as well as remains of the Geometric temples uncovered in lower deposits. The temples in the temenos of Apollo Daphniforos were excavated between 1899 and 1910 by Κ. Kourouniotis. Further investigations were conducted by Mrs. I. Konstantinou and by the Swiss Archaeological School. The ancient theatre of Eretria[edit] The most impressive monument of ancient Eretria, one of the oldest known theatres, lies in the western section of town, between the western gate, the stadium and the upper gymnasium; the temple of Dionysos was found at its south-west end. As indicated by the architectural remains of the scene, the initial construction phase followed the invasion by the Persians and the reconstruction of the city in the fifth century BC, whereas the fourth century BC marked the site's peak. A striking fact is the construction of the cavea (Gr. koilo, auditorium) on an artificial hill surrounded by numerous retaining walls, instead of taking advantage of the citadel's slopes. During the first building phase, the scene looked like a palace, disposed of five adjacent rectangle rooms and found itself at the same level as the circular orchestra, leading to it via three entrances. At its peak (fourth century BC), the theatre suffered transformations and was shaped to a large extent in its present form. The cavea comprised eleven tiers divided by ten staircases. The circular orchestra was transferred for 8m to the north, and was lowered by 3m. The scene was amplified by two backstages connected through a portico with an Ionic façade, thus raising above the orchestra. This difference in heights was evened up by a vaulted underground gallery, leading through the scene to the centre of the orchestra; this was in all probability the "charonian stairway" (stairs of Hades) allowing actors impersonating chthonic deities and the dead to appear and perform at the orchestra. Local poros stone was used for the foundation and limestone for the parodoi (passageways), which sloped to the orchestra in order to diminish the difference in height with the cavea. The theatre seated 6,300 spectators and is reminiscent in form to the Theatre of Dionysos in Athens, after transformation of the latter in 330 BC. Following the destruction of Eretria by the Romans in 198 BC, it was rebuilt with lower quality materials and the rooms to the south of the parodos were then apparently decorated with colour mortars of the first Pompeian style. Unfortunately, most benches have been looted. There are still the impressive remains of the scene, especially the vaulted underground passage leading to the orchestra centre. Excavation of the monument was undertaken by the American Archaeological School, while the local Ephorate of Antiquities strived greatly for its restoration. Temple of Isis[edit] Temple of Isis at Eretria Among the most interesting monuments of ancient Eretria is the Iseion, a temple sacred to the goddess Isis and other Egyptian deities. Situated to the south of the town, between the baths and the Lower Gymnasium or the palaistra (wrestling area), it extends behind the small harbour, a detail that correlates the temenos with merchants who had their interests in Eretria. According to excavation and inscription testimonies, the temple was probably built in the fourth century BC and was surrounded by other edifices and auxiliary spaces. The initiation to the cult of Isis and the Egyptian deities occurred during the Hellenistic period by Greek merchants who came to Greece from Egypt after the unification of the then known world by Alexander the Great. Their worship in Eretria has also been attested by inscriptions, of which the most important is set on a limestone block to the left of the prodomos (anteroom) before the cella. The temple of Isis was initially simple and oriented to the east, with a prodomos that was distyle (two-columned) in antis. The ceremonial clay statue of the goddess stood on a base within the cella. In front of the temple was the altar and nearby a small drain tank. The temple was reconstructed after the destruction of the city by the Romans in 198 BC: it then acquired a larger external prodomos on ameliorated foundations and was surrounded by porticoes on three sides (north, south and west). Only the south-west end of the portico was covered by a roof. The columns were later replaced by a parapet. At the centre of the east forecourt was a portal facing the entrance of the sanctuary. Fifteen more edifices and auxiliary spaces lied to the north, considered by the excavators as places of purification. Among them was a courtyard and an andren (dining hall for male residents), while one room of the complex had a superb mosaic floor featuring lozenges. Excavations at the temenos sacred to Isis and other Egyptian deities were conducted in 1917 by the then Ephor of Antiquities for the island of Evia (Euboea), Ι. Papadakis. In recent years, the Archaeological Service of the Ministry of Culture undertook further excavations in the wider area of the temple, which brought to light an additional complex of courtyards and rooms directly related to the sanctuary. House with the mosaics[edit] House of the mosaics This splendid house was built in ca. 370 B.C. and remained in use for about a century. It is distinguished by its floors, covered with elegant pebble mosaics representing mythological scenes: Nereids on the back of a seahorse, legendary battles between Arimaspians and griffins, sphinxes and panthers. The building is a representative specimen of the Classical and Hellenistic domestic architecture. In the first century BC a funerary monument with a massive rectangular peribolos was erected over the ruins of the house. The monument was excavated between 1975 and 1980. Macedonian tomb of Erotes[edit] The so-called "tomb of Erotes" lies on a hill to the northwest of Eretria city and counts among the most significant monuments of Evia island. Based on the findings, it is dated to the fourth century BC, the time when these characteristic burial monuments of the Macedonian type make their appearance in southern Greece after the descent of the Macedons. More Macedonian tombs were found in the wider area around Eretria, namely in the settlements of Kotroni and Amarynthos. The tomb of Erotes consists of a single vaulted chamber and a dromos (entrance passageway) of stone and bricks. The burial chamber is reminiscent of a residential room; it is built of poros stone plastered with white mortar. During the excavation were found two replicas of painted stone thrones bearing relief decoration. At the rear corners of the burial chamber were two marble bed-shaped sarcophagi. The tomb had been pillaged. Among the findings today exhibited in the New York Metropolitan Museum, are bronze vases and clay statuettes of Erotes (Amors), which inspired the tomb's conventional name. Above the tomb was uncovered a stone-built construction, probably the basis of a sepulchre. The monument was excavated in 1897 and is well preserved to date. Tholos Tholos[edit] Excavations carried out by the Greek Archaeological Service have revealed the limestone foundations and crepis of a circular building. It was erected in the fifth century BC in the Agora of the city, and underwent several modifications in the fourth and the third centuries BC. A circular bothros has also survived at the centre of the monument. Upper Gymnasion Gymnasium and Eileithyia's sanctuary[edit] In 1917, archaeologists uncovered traces of a gymnasium dating to the 4th century BC. A sanctuary dedicated to Eileithyia, had been placed in the northwestern section of the building. Also, excavations in the area of the sanctuary found a well containing some 100 terracotta cups dating to the 3rd century BC. In 2018, new excavations in the area revealed more buildings.[11][12][13] Modern Eretria[edit] View of the harbour The office of the Swiss School of Archaeology in Greece at Eretria. Modern Eretria was created in 1824 by refugees from Psara after the Destruction of Psara, who gave to their settlement the name "Nea Psara". The ancient name was revived during the first years of the independent Greek state. The new city plan was appointed by Stamatios Kleanthis and Eduard Schaubert.[14] The modern town of Eretria is now a popular beachside resort. The historic and archaeological finds from Eretria and Lefkandi are displayed in the Eretria Museum, established by the Swiss School of Archaeology in Greece. The town can be reached from Skala Oropou, Attica by ferry or via Halkida by road. It is an important station on the way to the south of the island. It has many taverns and a long beach promenade. The archaeological excavations are located on the northern edge of the modern town. Municipality[edit] The municipality Eretria was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following two former municipalities, that became municipal units:[15] Amarynthos Eretria The municipality has an area of 168.557 km2, the municipal unit 58.648 km2.[16] Historical population[edit] Year Town Municipal unit Municipality 1981 3,711 - - 1991 3,022 4,987 - 2001 3,156 5,969 - 2011 4,166 6,330 13,053 Notable people[edit] Achaeus, tragic playwright Menedemus (345/4-261/0 BC), Greek philosopher Philoxenus (4th century BC), painter See also[edit] List of traditional Greek place names References[edit] ^ a b "Απογραφή Πληθυσμού - Κατοικιών 2011. ΜΟΝΙΜΟΣ Πληθυσμός" (in Greek). Hellenic Statistical Authority. ^ http://www.unil.ch/esag ESAG ^ Plutarch's Lives, Volume 1, The Dryden translation, ISBN 0-375-75676-0, p. 165 ^ Eretria, Ministry of Culture, ISBN 960-214-136-0 ^ Pliny: Natural History xxxv. 10, 36 ^ Kleiner, Fred S. (2008). Gardner's Art Through the Ages: A Global History. Cengage Learning. p. 142. ISBN 0-495-11549-5. ^ Alexander Mosaic by Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, Smarthistory, 2013 ^ Pliny the Elder, XXXV, 110 ^ Smith, William, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, Vol II (1867) ^ Greek Sculpture, the Archaic Period, John Boardman, ISBN 0 500 18166 7 ^ Ancient Gymnasium Uncovered on Greek Island of Evia ^ 2018 excavations of the South Palaestra in Eretria, Greece ^ Η Νότια Παλαίστρα στην Ερέτρια, ανασκαφές 2018 ^ Δήμος Ερέτρειας, Η ιστορία μας Archived 2011-06-27 at the Wayback Machine, ανακτήθηκε 4 Δεκεμβρίου 2010 ^ Kallikratis law Greece Ministry of Interior (in Greek) ^ "Population & housing census 2001 (incl. area and average elevation)" (PDF) (in Greek). National Statistical Service of Greece. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-09-21. Further reading[edit] ESAG, Eretria. A guide to the ancient city, Infolio éditions, Gollion, 2004. ISBN 2-88474-112-7 ESAG, ERETRIA Series, Excavations and researches Keith G. Walker, "Archaic Eretria. A Political and Social History from the Earliest Times to 490 BC", Routledge, London, 2004. External links[edit] Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Eretria. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Eretria. ESAG - Eretria The Swiss School Website of the excavations at Eretria Perseus – Eretria Links to resources about ancient Eretria Greek Ministry of Culture Eretria Ferry boats Eretria Dream island beach photo Eretria photo by night Photos of Eretria Ministry of Culture and Sports v t e Administrative division of the Central Greece Region Area 15,549 km2 (6,004 sq mi) Population 547,390 (as of 2011) Municipalities 25 (since 2011) Capital Lamia Regional unit of Boeotia Aliartos Distomo-Arachova-Antikyra Livadeia Orchomenos Tanagra Thebes Regional unit of Euboea Chalcis Dirfys-Messapia Eretria Istiaia-Aidipsos Karystos Kymi-Aliveri Mantoudi-Limni-Agia Anna Skyros Regional unit of Evrytania Agrafa Karpenisi Regional unit of Phocis Delphi Dorida Regional unit of Phthiotis Amfikleia-Elateia Domokos Lamia Lokroi Makrakomi Molos-Agios Konstantinos Stylida Regional governor Kostas Bakoyannis (since 2014) Decentralized Administration Thessaly and Central Greece v t e Subdivisions of the 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Theatres Category Portal Outline Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eretria&oldid=996115002" Categories: Ancient Eretria Cities in ancient Greece Populated places in ancient Euboea Municipalities of Central Greece Populated places established in 1824 Former populated places in Greece Populated places in Euboea Members of the Delian League Ancient Greek cities Greek city-states Hidden categories: CS1 Greek-language sources (el) Webarchive template wayback links Articles with Greek-language sources (el) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles needing additional references from November 2012 All articles needing additional references Commons category link from Wikidata Use British English from January 2015 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in 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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-958	----	Kuprilli - Wikipedia Kuprilli From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Kuprilli Coinage of Kuprilli. Head of Karneios or Zeus-Ammon and Triskeles. KO-Π-P(ΛΛ) around. Circa 480-440 BC. Allegiance Achaemenid Empire Years of service fl. 480 – 440 BC Rank Dynast of Lycia Location of Lycia. Anatolia/Asia Minor in the Greco-Roman period. The classical regions, including Lycia, and their main settlements Kuprilli (Lycian: KOΠPΛΛE, circa 480-440 BC) was a dynast of Lycia, at a time when this part of Anatolia was subject to the Persian, or Achaemenid, Empire.[1] Kuprilli ruled at the time of the Athenian alliance, the Delian League. Present-day knowledge of Lycia in the period of classical antiquity comes mostly from archaeology, in which this region is unusually rich.[2] There is evidence of a fire that destroyed the wooden tombs and temples of Xanthos in around 470 BC. This fire was probably caused by Cimon of Athens when he attacked the sacred citadel in retaliation for the destruction of the Athenian Acropolis by the Persians and their allies, including the Lycians, in 480 BC.[3] The Xanthians, under their dynast, Kuprilli, rebuilt the buildings in stone, which are reflected in the numerous Tombs of Xanthos visible today.[4] Coinage[edit] Coinage of Kuprilli. Circa 470-440 BC.[5] Coinage of Kuprilli c. 470-440 BC Notes[edit] ^ Morkholm, O. et Zahle, J. 1972, « The Coinage of Kuprilli. Numismatic and Archaeological Study », AcArtf : 57-113 ^ D. T. Potts, A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East (2012), p. 912: "...c. 380–370 BC, two western Lycian dynasts named Arttumpara and Mithrapata claimed power simultaneously." ^ Jenkins 2006, p. 155 ^ Jenkins 2006, p. 23 ^ CNG: DYNASTS of LYCIA. Kuprilli. Circa 470/60-440/35 BC. AR Tetrobol (19mm, 3.05 g, 10h). Sources[edit] Jenkins, Ian (2006), Greek architecture and its sculpture, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-02388-8 v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kuprilli&oldid=914547953" Categories: Lycians 5th-century BC rulers Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Edit links This page was last edited on 8 September 2019, at 02:14 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9601	----	Category:Articles containing Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text - Wikipedia Help Category:Articles containing Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This hidden category has an ISO 639-3 name with "ca." It deliberately ignores the MOS:CIRCA guideline to use "c." in articles. This category is not shown on its member pages unless the appropriate user preference (appearance → show hidden categories) is set. Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. Purge page cache This category contains articles with Old Persian-language text. The primary purpose of these categories is to facilitate manual or automated checking of text in other languages. This category should only be added with the {{Lang}} family of templates, never explicitly. For example {{Lang|peo|text in Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.) language here}}, which wraps the text with <span lang="peo">. Also available is {{Lang-peo|text in Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.) language here}} which displays as Old Persian: text in Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.) language here. Contents Top 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Pages in category "Articles containing Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text" The following 102 pages are in this category, out of 102 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). A Achaemenes Achaemenid Assyria Achaemenid Empire Achaemenid navy Ahasuerus Airyanem Vaejah Amardi Anahita Apadana Ariabignes Arsaces I of Parthia Arsaces II of Parthia Arsames Arses of Persia Arsites Artaxerxes I Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxias I Arvid Arya (name) Asha Ashk Aspathines Atropatene B Babylon Bahuvrihi Balkh Bardiya Bartatua Bhaga Black Sea Bobak Brahmi script C Cambyses II Cappadocia Carians Cilicia Cyrus Cyrus the Great Cyrus the Younger D Darius (given name) Darius the Great Darius II Darius III Dariush Dehqan Devanagari E Ecbatana Elam F Fars Province G Gandhara Gobryas Cyaxares Greek fire Gupta script H Harev (province) History of Cilicia I Intaphrenes Ionians Iran Iranian peoples Isfahan Ishpaka K Kashtariti L Late Period of ancient Egypt Libya (satrapy) List of country-name etymologies List of geographic names of Iranian origin M Mahsa Maka (satrapy) Medes Mithra Mithridates (soldier) N Names of the Croats and Croatia Names of the Greeks P Parthia Parysatis Pasha Persepolis Persian language Persians Phraortes R Ray, Iran Religion in Iran Rice S Saka Sardis Satrap Sogdia T Tehran Teispes Tigris Tocharian script Tritantaechmes Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt V Voiceless dental fricative W Western Persian X Xerxes I Xerxes II Xerxes of Sophene Y Kourosh Yaghmaei Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Articles_containing_Old_Persian_(ca._600-400_B.C.)-language_text&oldid=997643124" Hidden categories: Hidden categories Template Category TOC via CatAutoTOC on category with 101–200 pages CatAutoTOC generates standard Category TOC Articles containing non-English-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 1 January 2021, at 15:18 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9617	----	Thutmose III - Wikipedia Thutmose III From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sixth Egyptian Pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty For the name Thutmose (Thutmosis), see Thutmose. Thutmose III Tuthmosis III, "Manahpi(r)ya" in the Amarna letters Thutmosis III statue in Luxor Museum Pharaoh Reign 1479–1425 BC (Eighteenth Dynasty) Predecessor Hatshepsut (aunt & step-mother) Successor Amenhotep II (Son) Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Menkheperre Lasting is the Manifestation of Re[1] Nomen Thutmose Neferkheperu Thoth is born, beautiful of forms Horus name Kanakht Khaemwaset Mighty Bull, Arising in Thebes Nebty name Wahnesytmireempet Enduring in kingship like Re in heaven Golden Horus Sekhempahtydsejerkhaw Powerful of strength, holy of diadems Consort Satiah,[2] Hatshepsut-Meryetre, Nebtu, Menwi, Merti, Menhet, Nebsemi Children Amenemhat, Amenhotep II, Beketamun, Iset, Menkheperre, Meryetamun, Meryetamun, Nebetiunet, Nefertiri, Siamun[2] Father Thutmose II Mother Iset Born 1481 BC Died 1425 BC (aged 56) Burial KV34 Monuments Cleopatra's Needle Obelisk of Thutmosis III, at the base showing Theodosius I (Roman Emperor, 379–395). The obelisk stands among the ruins of the hippodrome of the former capital of the Byzantine Empire, Constantinople, now Istanbul, Turkey. In 390, Theodosius had the obelisk cut into three pieces and brought to Constantinople. Only the top part survives, and it stands today where he placed it, on a marble pedestal. Thutmose III (variously also spelt Tuthmosis or Thothmes) was the sixth pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty. Officially, Thutmose III ruled Egypt for almost 54 years and his reign is usually dated from 28 April 1479 BC to 11 March 1425 BC, from the age of two and until his death at age fifty-six; however, during the first 22 years of his reign, he was coregent with his stepmother and aunt, Hatshepsut, who was named the pharaoh. While he was shown first on surviving monuments, both were assigned the usual royal names and insignia and neither is given any obvious seniority over the other.[3] Thutmose served as the head of Hatshepsut's armies. During the final two years of his reign, he appointed his son and successor, Amenhotep II, as his junior co-regent. His firstborn son and heir to the throne, Amenemhat, predeceased Thutmose III. Becoming the sole ruling pharaoh of the kingdom after the deaths of Thutmose II and Hatshepsut, he created the largest empire Egypt had ever seen; no fewer than 17 campaigns were conducted and he conquered lands from the Niya Kingdom in northern Syria to the Fourth Cataract of the Nile in Nubia. When Thutmose III died, he was buried in the Valley of the Kings, as were the rest of the kings from this period in Egypt. Contents 1 Name 2 Family 3 Dates and length of reign 4 Thutmose's military campaigns 4.1 First Campaign 4.2 Tours of Canaan and Syria 4.3 Conquest of Syria 4.4 Attack on Mitanni 4.5 Tours of Syria 4.6 Nubian Campaign 5 Monumental construction 5.1 Artistic developments 5.2 Karnak 5.3 Tomb 6 Defacing of Hatshepsut's monuments 7 Death and burial 7.1 Mummy 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links Name Thutmose's two main names transliterate as mn-ḫpr-rˁ ḏḥwty-ms. They are normally realised as Menkheperra Djehutymes, meaning "Eternal are the manifestations of Ra, Born of Thoth". While modern Egyptological pronunciation renders his name as Djehutymes, at the time of his reign his name was probably pronounced as Tahati'missaw.[4] Family See also: Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree A fragment of a wall block. The hieroglyphs Son of Ra were inscribed over the cartouche of the birth-name of Thutmose III. 18th Dynasty. From Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London Thutmose III was the son of Thutmose II by a secondary wife, Iset.[5] His father's great royal wife was Queen Hatshepsut. Her daughter, Neferure, was Thutmose's half-sister. When Thutmose II died, Thutmose III was too young to rule. Hatshepsut became his regent, soon his co-regent, and shortly thereafter declared herself to be the pharaoh while never denying kingship to Thutmose III. Thutmosis III had little power over the empire while Hatshepsut exercised the formal titulary of kingship. Her rule was quite prosperous and marked by great advancements. When Thutmose III reached a suitable age and demonstrated the capability, she appointed him to head her armies.[citation needed] Thutmose III had several wives: Satiah: She may have been the mother of his firstborn son, Amenemhat.[6] An alternative theory is that the boy was the son of Neferure. Amenemhat predeceased his father.[2] Merytre-Hatshepsut. Thutmose's successor, the crown prince and future king Amenhotep II, was the son of Merytre-Hatshepsut.[6] Additional children include Menkheperre and daughters named Nebetiunet, Meryetamun (C), Meryetamun (D) and Iset. Merytre-Hatshepsut was the daughter of the divine adoratrice Huy.[2] Nebtu: she is depicted on a pillar in Thutmose III's tomb.[2] Menwi, Merti, Menhet, three foreign wives.[2] Neferure: Thutmose III may have married his half-sister,[6] but there is no conclusive evidence for this marriage. It has been suggested that Neferure, instead of Satiah, may have been the mother of Amenemhat.[2] Dates and length of reign Thutmose III reigned from 1479 BC to 1425 BC according to the Low Chronology of Ancient Egypt. This has been the conventional Egyptian chronology in academic circles since the 1960s,[7] though in some circles the older dates 1504 BC to 1450 BC are preferred from the High Chronology of Egypt.[8] These dates, just as all the dates of the Eighteenth Dynasty, are open to dispute because of uncertainty about the circumstances surrounding the recording of a Heliacal Rise of Sothis in the reign of Amenhotep I.[9] A papyrus from Amenhotep I's reign records this astronomical observation which theoretically could be used to perfectly correlate the Egyptian chronology with the modern calendar; however, to do this the latitude where the observation was taken must also be known. This document has no note of the place of observation, but it can safely be assumed that it was taken in either a Delta city, such as Memphis or Heliopolis, or in Thebes. These two latitudes give dates 20 years apart, the High and Low chronologies, respectively. The length of Thutmose III's reign is known to the day thanks to information found in the tomb of the military commander Amenemheb-Mahu.[10] Amenemheb-Mahu records Thutmose III's death to his master's 54th regnal year,[11] on the 30th day of the third month of Peret.[12] The day of Thutmose III's accession is known to be I Shemu day four, and astronomical observations can be used to establish the exact dates of the beginning and end of the king's reign (assuming the low chronology) from 28 April 1479 BC to 11 March 1425 BC respectively.[13] Thutmose's military campaigns Further information: Djehuty (general) and The Taking of Joppa Amada - Temple founded by Tuthmosis III and Amenophis II of the 18th dynasty Bronze knife blade inscribed with cartouche of Thutmose III, "Beloved of Min of Koptos". 18th Dynasty. Probably foundation deposit no.1, Temple of Min, Koptos, Egypt. Petrie Museum Widely considered a military genius by historians, Thutmose III conducted at least 16 campaigns in 20 years.[14] He was an active expansionist ruler, sometimes called Egypt's greatest conqueror or "the Napoleon of Egypt."[15] He is recorded to have captured 350 cities during his rule and conquered much of the Near East from the Euphrates to Nubia during seventeen known military campaigns. He was the first pharaoh after Thutmose I to cross the Euphrates, doing so during his campaign against Mitanni. His campaign records were transcribed onto the walls of the temple of Amun at Karnak and are now transcribed into Urkunden IV. He is consistently regarded as one of the greatest of Egypt's warrior pharaohs who transformed Egypt into an international superpower by creating an empire that stretched from the Asian regions of southern Syria and Canaan to the east, to Nubia to the south.[16] Whether the Egyptian empire covered even more areas is even less certain. The older Egyptologists, most recently Ed. Meyer, believed that Thutmosis had also subjected the islands of the Aegean Sea.[17] This can no longer be upheld today. A submission of Mesopotamia is unthinkable; and whether the tributes of Alashia (Cyprus) were more than occasional gifts remains questionable.[18] In most of his campaigns, his enemies were defeated town by town until being beaten into submission. The preferred tactic was to subdue a much weaker city or state one at a time resulting in surrender of each fraction until complete domination was achieved. Much is known about Thutmosis "the warrior" not only because of his military achievements, but also because of his royal scribe and army commander, Thanuny, who wrote about his conquests and reign. Thutmose III was able to conquer such a large number of lands because of the revolution and improvement in military weapons. When the Hyksos invaded and took over Egypt with more advanced weapons, such as horse-drawn chariots, the people of Egypt learned to use these weapons. Thutmose III encountered little resistance from neighbouring kingdoms, allowing him to expand his realm of influence easily. His army also carried boats on dry land. These campaigns are inscribed on the inner wall of the great chamber housing the "holy of holies" at the Karnak Temple of Amun. These inscriptions give the most detailed and accurate account of any Egyptian king.[citation needed] First Campaign Thutmose III smiting his enemies. Relief on the seventh pylon in Karnak. When Hatshepsut died on the 10th day of the sixth month of Thutmose III's 21st year, according to information from a single stela from Armant, the king of Kadesh advanced his army to Megiddo.[19] Thutmose III mustered his own army and departed Egypt, passing through the border fortress of Tjaru (Sile) on the 25th day of the eighth month. Thutmose marched his troops through the coastal plain as far as Jamnia, then inland to Yehem, a small city near Megiddo, which he reached in the middle of the ninth month of the same year.[20] The ensuing Battle of Megiddo probably was the largest battle of Thutmose's 17 campaigns. A ridge of mountains jutting inland from Mount Carmel stood between Thutmose and Megiddo and he had three potential routes to take.[21] The northern route and the southern route, both of which went around the mountain, were judged by his council of war to be the safest, but Thutmose, in an act of great bravery (or so he boasts, but such self-praise is normal in Egyptian texts), accused the council of cowardice and took a dangerous route[22] through the Aruna mountain pass, which he alleged was only wide enough for the army to pass "horse after horse and man after man."[20] Despite the laudatory nature of Thutmose's annals, such a pass does indeed exist, although not as narrow as Thutmose indicates,[23] and taking it was a brilliant strategic move since when his army emerged from the pass they were situated on the plain of Esdraelon, directly between the rear of the Canaanite forces and Megiddo itself.[21] For some reason, the Canaanite forces did not attack him as his army emerged,[22] and his army routed them decisively.[21] The size of the two forces is difficult to determine, but if, as Redford suggests, the amount of time it took to move the army through the pass may be used to determine the size of the Egyptian force, and if the number of sheep and goats captured may be used to determine the size of the Canaanite force, then both armies were around 10,000 men.[24] Most scholars believe that the Egyptian army was more numerous.[citation needed] According to Thutmose III's Hall of Annals in the Temple of Amun at Karnak, the battle occurred on "Year 23, I Shemu [day] 21, the exact day of the feast of the new moon",[25] a lunar date. This date corresponds to 9 May 1457 BC based on Thutmose III's accession in 1479 BC. After victory in battle, his troops stopped to plunder the enemy and the enemy was able to escape into Megiddo.[26] Thutmose was forced to besiege the city, but he finally succeeded in conquering it after a siege of seven or eight months (see Battle of Megiddo (15th century BC)).[26] This campaign drastically changed the political situation in the ancient Near East. By taking Megiddo, Thutmose gained control of all of northern Canaan and the Syrian princes were obligated to send tribute and their own sons as hostages to Egypt.[27] Beyond the Euphrates, the Assyrian, Babylonian and Hittite kings all gave Thutmose gifts, which he alleged to be "tribute" when he recorded it on the walls of Karnak.[28] The only noticeable absence is Mitanni, which would bear the brunt of the following Egyptian campaigns into Western Asia. Tours of Canaan and Syria Thutmose's tekhen waty, today standing in Rome as the Lateran obelisk. The move from Egypt to Rome was initiated by Constantine the Great (Roman Emperor, 324–337) in 326, though he died before it could be shipped out of Alexandria. His son, the Emperor Constantius II completed the transfer in 357. An account of the shipment was written by contemporary historian Ammianus Marcellinus. Thutmose's second, third and fourth campaigns appear to have been nothing more than tours of Syria and Canaan to collect tribute.[29] Traditionally, the material directly after the text of the first campaign has been considered to be the second campaign.[30] This text records tribute from the area which the Egyptians called Retjenu (roughly equivalent to Canaan) and it was also at this time that Assyria paid a second "tribute" to Thutmose III.[31] It is probable that these texts come from Thutmose's 40th year or later and thus have nothing to do with the second campaign at all. If so, no records of this campaign have been found.[30] Thutmose's third campaign was not considered significant enough to appear in his otherwise extensive Annals at Karnak. A survey was made of the animals and plants he found in Canaan, which was illustrated on the walls of a special room at Karnak.[32] This survey is dated to Thutmose's 25th year.[33] No record remains of Thutmose's fourth campaign,[34] but at some point a fort was built in lower Lebanon and timber was cut for construction of a processional barque, and this probably fits best during this time frame.[35] Conquest of Syria The fifth, sixth and seventh campaigns of Thutmose III were directed against the Phoenician cities in Syria and against Kadesh on the Orontes. In Thutmose's 29th year, he began his fifth campaign, where he first took an unknown city (the name falls in a lacuna) which had been garrisoned by Tunip.[36] He then moved inland and took the city and territory around Ardata;[37] the town was pillaged and the wheatfields burned. Unlike previous plundering raids, Thutmose III garrisoned the area known as Djahy, which is probably a reference to southern Syria.[29] This permitted him to ship supplies and troops between Syria and Egypt. Although there is no direct evidence for it, it is for this reason that some have supposed that Thutmose's sixth campaign, in his thirtieth year, commenced with a naval transportation of troops directly to Byblos, bypassing Canaan entirely.[37] After the troops arrived in Syria by whatever means, they proceeded into the Jordan River valley and moved north, pillaging Kadesh's lands.[38] Turning west again, Thutmose took Simyra and quelled a rebellion in Ardata, which apparently had rebelled again.[39] To stop such rebellions, Thutmose began taking hostages from the cities in Syria. The cities in Syria were not guided by the popular sentiment of the people so much as they were by the small number of nobles who were aligned to Mitanni: a king and a small number of foreign Maryannu. Thutmose III found that by taking family members of these key people to Egypt as hostages, he could drastically increase their loyalty to him.[38] Syria rebelled again in Thutmose's 31st year and he returned to Syria for his seventh campaign, took the port city of Ullaza[38] and the smaller Phoenician ports[39] and took more measures to prevent further rebellions.[38] All the excess grain which was produced in Syria was stored in the harbors he had recently conquered and was used for the support of the military and civilian Egyptian presence ruling Syria.[38] This left the cities in Syria desperately impoverished. With their economies in ruins, they had no means of funding a rebellion.[40] Depiction of Syrians bringing presents to Tuthmosis III, in the tomb of Rekhmire, circa 1400 BCE (actual painting and interpretional drawing). They are labeled "Chiefs of Retjenu".[41][42] Attack on Mitanni After Thutmose III had taken control of the Syrian cities, the obvious target for his eighth campaign was the state of Mitanni, a Hurrian country with an Indo-Aryan ruling class. However, to reach Mitanni, he had to cross the Euphrates River. He sailed directly to Byblos[43] and made boats which he took with him over land on what appeared to otherwise be just another tour of Syria,[39] and he proceeded with the usual raiding and pillaging as he moved north through the lands he had already taken.[44] He continued north through the territory belonging to the still unconquered cities of Aleppo and Carchemish and quickly crossed the Euphrates in his boats, taking the Mitannian king entirely by surprise.[44] It appears that Mitanni was not expecting an invasion, so they had no army of any kind ready to defend against Thutmose, although their ships on the Euphrates did try to defend against the Egyptian crossing.[43] Thutmose III then went freely from city to city and pillaged them while the nobles hid in caves, or at least this is the typically ignoble way Egyptian records chose to record it. During this period of no opposition, Thutmose put up a second stele commemorating his crossing of the Euphrates next to the stele his grandfather, Thutmose I, had put up several decades earlier. A militia was raised to fight the invaders, but it fared very poorly.[44] Thutmose III then returned to Syria by way of Niy, where he records that he engaged in an elephant hunt.[45] He collected tribute from foreign powers and returned to Egypt in victory.[43] Tours of Syria Thutmose III, Luxor Museum Thutmose III returned to Syria for his ninth campaign in his 34th year, but this appears to have been just a raid of the area called Nukhashshe, a region populated by semi-nomadic people.[46] The plunder recorded is minimal, so it was probably just a minor raid.[47] Records from his 10th campaign indicate much more fighting. By Thutmose's 35th year, the king of Mitanni had raised a large army and engaged the Egyptians around Aleppo. As usual for any Egyptian king, Thutmose boasted a total crushing victory, but this statement is suspect due to the very small amount of plunder taken.[48] Thutmose's annals at Karnak indicate he only took a total of 10 prisoners of war.[49] He may have fought the Mitannians to a stalemate,[48] yet he did receive tribute from the Hittites after that campaign, which seems to indicate the outcome of the battle was in Thutmose's favor.[45] The details about his next two campaigns are unknown.[45] His 11th is presumed to have happened in his 36th regnal year and his 12th is presumed to have happened in his 37th year since his 13th is mentioned at Karnak as happening in his 38th regnal year.[50] Part of the tribute list for his 12th campaign remains immediately before his 13th begins, and the contents recorded, specifically wild game and certain minerals of uncertain identification, might indicate that it took place on the steppe around Nukhashshe, but this remains mere speculation.[51] In his 13th campaign, Thutmose returned to Nukhashshe for a very minor campaign.[50] His 14th campaign, waged during his 39th year, was against the Shasu. The location of this campaign is impossible to determine since the Shasu were nomads who could have lived anywhere from Lebanon to the Transjordan to Edom.[52] After this campaign, the numbers given by Thutmose's scribes to his campaigns all fall in lacunae, so they can only be counted by date. In his 40th year, tribute was collected from foreign powers, but it is unknown if this was considered a campaign (i.e. if the king went with it or if it was led by an official).[53] Only the tribute list remains from Thutmose's next campaign,[54] and nothing may be deduced about it except that it was probably another raid to the frontiers around Niy.[55] His final Asian campaign is better documented. Sometime before Thutmose's 42nd year, Mitanni apparently began spreading revolt among all the major cities in Syria. Thutmose moved his troops by land up the coastal road and put down rebellions in the Arka plain ("Arkantu" in Thutmose's chronicle) and moved on Tunip.[55] After taking Tunip, his attention turned to Kadesh again. He engaged and destroyed three surrounding Mitannian garrisons and returned to Egypt in victory.[56] His victory in this final campaign was neither complete nor permanent since he did not take Kadesh,[56] and Tunip could not have remained aligned to him for very long, certainly not beyond his own death.[57] Nubian Campaign Thutmose's last campaign was waged in his 50th regnal year. He attacked Nubia, but only went so far as the fourth cataract of the Nile. Although no king of Egypt had ever penetrated so far with an army, previous kings' campaigns had spread Egyptian culture that far already, and the earliest Egyptian document found at Gebel Barkal dates from three years before Thutmose's campaign.[39] Monumental construction Sculpture of Thutmose III, with the god Montu-Ra and goddess Hathor, 18th Dynasty, from temple of Amun-Ra at Karnak, housed in the British Museum Thutmose III was a great builder and constructed over 50 temples, although some of these are now lost and only mentioned in written records.[8] He also commissioned the building of many tombs for nobles, which were made with greater craftsmanship than ever before. His reign was also a period of great stylistic changes in the sculpture, paintings and reliefs associated with construction, much of it beginning during the reign of Hatshepsut. Artistic developments A crown from Menhet, Menwi and Merti's tomb. Glass making advanced during the reign of Thutmose III and this cup bears his name. Depiction of Tuthmose III at Karnak holding a Hedj Club and a Sekhem Scepter standing before two obelisks he had erected there. Thutmose's architects and artisans showed great continuity with the formal style of previous kings, but several developments set him apart from his predecessors. Although he followed the traditional relief styles for most of his reign, after his 42nd year he began having himself depicted wearing the red crown of Lower Egypt and a šndyt-kilt, an unprecedented style.[58] Architecturally, his use of pillars also was unprecedented. He built Egypt's only known set of heraldic pillars, two large columns standing alone instead of being part of a set supporting the roof. His jubilee hall was also revolutionary and is arguably the earliest known building created in the basilica style.[59] Thutmose's artisans achieved new heights of skill in painting, and tombs from his reign were the earliest to be entirely painted instead of painted reliefs.[58] Although not directly pertaining to his monuments, it appears that Thutmose's artisans had learned glass making skills, developed in the early 18th Dynasty, to create drinking vessels by the core-formed method.[60] Karnak Thutmose dedicated far more attention to Karnak than any other site. In the Iput-isut, the temple proper in the center, he rebuilt the hypostyle hall of his grandfather Thutmose I, dismantled the red chapel of Hatshepsut, built Pylon VI, a shrine for the bark of Amun in its place, and built an antechamber in front of it, the ceiling of which was supported by his heraldic pillars. He built a temenos wall around the central chapel containing smaller chapels, along with workshops and storerooms. East of the main sanctuary, he built a jubilee hall in which to celebrate his Sed festival. The main hall was built in basilica style with rows of pillars supporting the ceiling on each side of the aisle. The central two rows were higher than the others to create windows where the ceiling was split.[59] Two of the smaller rooms in this temple contained the reliefs of the survey of the plants and animals of Canaan which he took in his third campaign.[61] East of the Iput-Isut, he erected another temple to Aten, where he was depicted as being supported by Amun.[62] It was inside this temple that Thutmose planned on erecting his tekhen waty, or "unique obelisk."[62] The tekhen waty was designed to stand alone instead as part of a pair and is the tallest obelisk ever successfully cut. It was not, however, erected until Thutmose IV raised it[62] 35 years later.[63] It was later moved to Rome by Emperor Constantius II and is now known as the Lateran Obelisk. In 390 AD, Christian Roman Emperor Theodosius I re-erected another obelisk from the Temple of Karnak in the Hippodrome of Constantinople, now known as the Obelisk of Theodosius. Thus, two obelisks of Tuthmosis III's Karnak temple stand in Papal Rome and in Caesaropapist Constantinople, the two main historical capitals of the Roman Empire. Thutmose also undertook building projects to the south of the main temple between the sanctuary of Amun and the temple of Mut. Immediately to the south of the main temple, he built the seventh pylon on the north–south road which entered the temple between the fourth and fifth pylons. It was built for use during his jubilee and was covered with scenes of defeated enemies. He set royal colossi on both sides of the pylon and put two more obelisks on the south face in front of the gateway. The eastern obelisk's base remains in place, but the western obelisk was transported to the Hippodrome in Constantinople.[62] Farther south along the road, he put up Pylon VIII, which Hatshepsut had begun.[59] East of the road, he dug a sacred lake of 250 by 400 feet and placed another alabaster bark shrine near it.[59] He commissioned royal artists to depict his extensive collections of fauna and flora in the Botanical garden of Thutmosis III. Tomb A scene from the Amduat on the walls of the tomb of Thutmose III, KV34, in the Valley of the Kings. Thutmose's tomb (KV34) was discovered by Victor Loret in 1898 in the Valley of the Kings. It uses a plan which is typical of 18th Dynasty tombs, with a sharp turn at the vestibule preceding the burial chamber. Two stairways and two corridors provide access to the vestibule, which is preceded by a quadrangular shaft or "well".[citation needed] A complete version of Amduat, an important New Kingdom funerary text, is in the vestibule, making it the first tomb where Egyptologists found the complete text. The burial chamber, which is supported by two pillars, is oval-shaped and its ceiling decorated with stars, symbolizing the cave of the deity Sokar. In the middle lies a large red quartzite sarcophagus in the shape of a cartouche. On the two pillars in the middle of the chamber there are passages from the Litanies of Re, a text that celebrates the later sun deity, who is identified with the pharaoh at this time. On the other pillar is a unique image depicting Thutmosis III being suckled by the goddess Isis in the guise of the tree.[citation needed] The wall decorations are executed in a simple "diagrammatic" way, imitating the manner of the cursive script one might expect to see on a funerary papyrus rather than the more typically lavish wall decorations seen on most other royal tomb walls. The colouring is similarly muted, executed in simple black figures accompanied by text on a cream background with highlights in red and pink. The decorations depict the pharaoh aiding the deities in defeating Apep, the serpent of chaos, thereby helping to ensure the daily rebirth of the sun as well as the pharaoh's own resurrection.[64] Defacing of Hatshepsut's monuments Djeser-Djeseru is the main building of Hatshepsut's mortuary temple complex at Deir el-Bahri; designed by Senemut, the building is an example of perfect symmetry that predates the Parthenon, and it was the first complex built on the site she chose, which is part of the larger Theban Necropolis. Until recently, a general theory has been that after the death of her husband Thutmose II, Hatshepsut 'usurped' the throne from Thutmose III. Although Thutmose III was a co-regent during this time, early historians have speculated that Thutmose III never forgave his stepmother for denying him access to the throne for the first two decades of his reign.[65] However, in recent times this theory has been revised after questions arose as to why Hatshepsut would have allowed a resentful heir to control armies, which it is known she did. This view is supported further by the fact that no strong evidence has been found to show Thutmose III sought to claim the throne. He kept Hatshepsut's religious and administrative leaders. Added to this is the fact that the monuments of Hatshepsut were not damaged until at least 25 years after her death, late in the reign of Thutmose III when he was quite elderly. He was in another coregency, this one with his son, who would become Amenhotep II, who is known to have attempted to identify the works of Hatshepsut as his own. Additionally, Thutmose III's mortuary temple was built directly next to Hatshepsut's, an act that would have been unlikely to occur if Thutmose III bore a grudge against her.[citation needed] After her death, many of Hatshepsut's monuments and depictions were subsequently defaced or destroyed, including those in her famous mortuary temple complex at Deir el-Bahri. Traditionally, these have been interpreted by early modern scholars to be evidence of acts of damnatio memoriae (condemning a person by erasure from recorded existence) by Thutmose III. However, recent research by scholars such as Charles Nims and Peter Dorman has re-examined these erasures and found that the acts of erasure which could be dated only began some time during year 46 or 47 of Thutmose's reign (c. 1433/2 BC).[66] Another often overlooked fact is that Hatshepsut was not the only one who received this treatment. The monuments of her chief steward, Senenmut, who was closely associated with her rule, were similarly defaced where they were found.[67] All of this evidence casts serious doubt upon the popular theory that Thutmose III ordered the destruction in a fit of vengeful rage shortly after his accession.[citation needed] Currently, the purposeful destruction of the memory of Hatshepsut is seen as a measure designed to ensure a smooth succession for the son of Thutmose III, the future Amenhotep II, as opposed to any of the surviving relatives of Hatshepsut who had an equal or better claim to the throne. It also may be likely that this measure could not have been taken until the deaths of powerful religious and administrative officials who had served under both Hatshepsut and Thutmose III.[66] Later, Amenhotep II even claimed that he had built the items he defaced.[citation needed] Death and burial Mummified head of Thutmose III. Statue of Thutmosis III at the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna. Annals of Thutmose III at Karnak depicting him standing before the offerings made to him after his foreign campaigns. According to the American Egyptologist Peter Der Manuelian, a statement in the tomb biography of an official named Amenemheb establishes that Thutmose III died in Year 54, III Peret day 30 of his reign after ruling Egypt for "53 years, 10 months and 26 days" (Urk. 180.15). Thutmose III died one month and four days shy of the start of his 54th regnal year.[68] When the co-regencies with Hatshepsut and Amenhotep II are deducted, he ruled alone as pharaoh for just over 30 of those years. Mummy Thutmose III's mummy was discovered in the Deir el-Bahri Cache above the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut in 1881. He was interred along with those of other 18th and 19th Dynasty leaders Ahmose I, Amenhotep I, Thutmose I, Thutmose II, Ramesses I, Seti I, Ramesses II and Ramesses IX, as well as the 21st Dynasty pharaohs Pinedjem I, Pinedjem II and Siamun. While it is popularly thought that his mummy originally was unwrapped by Gaston Maspero in 1886, it was in fact first unwrapped by Émile Brugsch, the Egyptologist who supervised the evacuation of the mummies from the Deir el-Bahri Cache in 1881. It was unwrapped soon after its arrival in the Boulak Museum while Maspero was away in France, and the Director General of the Egyptian Antiquities Service ordered the mummy re-wrapped. So when it was "officially" unwrapped by Maspero in 1886, he almost certainly knew it was in relatively poor condition.[69] The mummy had been damaged extensively in antiquity by tomb robbers and its wrappings subsequently cut into and torn by the Rassul family, who had rediscovered the tomb and its contents only a few years before.[70] Maspero's description of the body provides an idea as to the magnitude of the damage done: His mummy was not securely hidden away, for towards the close of the 20th dynasty it was torn out of the coffin by robbers, who stripped it and rifled it of the jewels with which it was covered, injuring it in their haste to carry away the spoil. It was subsequently re-interred, and has remained undisturbed until the present day; but before re-burial some renovation of the wrappings was necessary, and as portions of the body had become loose, the restorers, in order to give the mummy the necessary firmness, compressed it between four oar-shaped slips of wood, painted white, and placed, three inside the wrappings and one outside, under the bands which confined the winding-sheet.[71] Of the face, which was undamaged, Maspero says the following: Happily the face, which had been plastered over with pitch at the time of embalming, did not suffer at all from this rough treatment, and appeared intact when the protecting mask was removed. Its appearance does not answer to our ideal of the conqueror. His statues, though not representing him as a type of manly beauty, yet give him refined, intelligent features, but a comparison with the mummy shows that the artists have idealised their model. The forehead is abnormally low, the eyes deeply sunk, the jaw heavy, the lips thick, and the cheek-bones extremely prominent; the whole recalling the physiognomy of Thûtmosis II, though with a greater show of energy.[71] Maspero was so disheartened at the state of the mummy and the prospect that all of the other mummies were similarly damaged (as it turned out, few were in so poor a state) that he would not unwrap another for several years.[70] Unlike many other examples from the Deir el-Bahri Cache, the wooden mummiform coffin that contained the body was original to the pharaoh, though any gilding or decoration it might have had had been hacked off in antiquity. In his examination of the mummy, the anatomist Grafton Elliot Smith stated the height of Thutmose III's mummy to be 1.615m (5 ft. 3.58in.),[72] but the mummy was missing its feet, so Thutmose III was undoubtedly taller than the figure given by Smith.[73] The mummy of Thutmose III now resides in the Royal Mummies Hall of the Cairo Museum, catalog number 61068. See also Cleopatra's Needles History of ancient Egypt Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt Family Tree References ^ Clayton, Peter. Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames & Hudson Ltd., 1994. p. 104 ^ a b c d e f g Dodson, Aidan. Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, Thames and Hudson. p132. 2004. ISBN 0-500-05128-3 ^ Partridge, R., 2002. Fighting Pharaohs: Weapons and warfare in ancient Egypt. Manchester: Peartree. Pages: 202/203 ^ Leprohon, Ronald (2013), Denise Doxey, editor, The Great Name: Ancient Egyptian Royal Titulary, Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature ^ Joyce Tyldesley, Hatchepsut: The Female Pharaoh, pp.94–95 Viking, 1996. ^ a b c O'Connor, David and Cline, Eric H. Thutmose III: A New Biography, The University of Michigan Press, 2006, ISBN 0472114670 ^ Campbell, Edward Fay Jr. The Chronology of the Amarna Letters with Special Reference to the Hypothetical Coregency of Amenophis III and Akhenaten. p.5. Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins Press, 1964. ^ a b Lipinska, Jadwiga. "Thutmose III," p.401. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Ed. Donald Redford. Vol. 3, pp.401–403. Oxford University Press, 2001. ^ Grimal, Nicolas. A History of Ancient Egypt. p.202. Librairie Arthéme Fayard, 1988. ^ Redford, Donald B. The Chronology of the Eighteenth Dynasty. Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol 25, No 2. p.119. University of Chicago Press, 1966. ^ Breasted, James Henry. Ancient Records of Egypt, Vol. II p. 234. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1906. ^ Murnane, William J. Ancient Egyptian Coregencies. p.44. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 1977. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath, Chronologie des Pharaonischen Ägypten. Mainz, Philipp von Zabern, 1997. p.189 ^ Lichtheim, Miriam (2019). Ancient Egyptian Literature. Univ of California Press. p. 340. ISBN 9780520305847. Retrieved 22 October 2019. ^ J.H. Breasted, Ancient Times: A History of the Early World; An Introduction to the Study of Ancient History and the Career of Early Man. Outlines of European History 1. Boston: Ginn and Company, 1914, p.85 ^ page v–vi of the Preface to Thutmose III: A New Biography, University of Michigan Press, 2006 ^ "Ancient Egypt's Greatest Warrior: TuthmosIs The 3rd - Egypt's Napoleon (Full History Documentary)". dokus4free. 18 March 2019. Retrieved 30 March 2019. ^ "Google Translate". translate.google.com. Retrieved 30 March 2019. ^ Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. p. 156. Princeton University Press, Princeton NJ, 1992. ^ a b Steindorff, George; and Seele, Keith. When Egypt Ruled the East. p.53. University of Chicago, 1942. ^ a b c Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. p. 157. Princeton University Press, Princeton NJ, 1992. ^ a b Steindorff, George; and Seele, Keith. When Egypt Ruled the East. p.54. University of Chicago, 1947. ^ Gardiner, Alan. Egypt of the Pharaohs. p. 192 Oxford University Press, 1964 ^ Redford 2003, p. 197. ^ Urkunden der 18. Dynastie 657.2 ^ a b Steindorff, George; and Seele, Keith. When Egypt Ruled the East. p.55. University of Chicago, 1942. ^ Steindorff, George; and Seele, Keith. When Egypt Ruled the East. p.56. University of Chicago, 1942. ^ Gardiner, Alan. Egypt of the Pharaohs. p. 193 Oxford University Press, 1964 ^ a b Grimal, Nicolas. A History of Ancient Egypt. p.214. Librairie Arthéme Fayard, 1988. ^ a b Redford 2003, p. 53. ^ Breasted, James Henry. Ancient Records of Egypt, Vol. II p. 191. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1906. ^ Breasted, James Henry. Ancient Records of Egypt, Vol. II p. 192. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1906. ^ Redford 2003, p. 213. ^ Breasted, James Henry. Ancient Records of Egypt, Vol. II p. 193. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1906. ^ Redford 2003, p. 214. ^ Breasted, James Henry. Ancient Records of Egypt, Vol. II p. 195. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1906. ^ a b Redford 2003, p. 217 ^ a b c d e Redford 2003, p. 218. ^ a b c d Grimal, Nicolas. A History of Ancient Egypt. p.215. Librairie Arthéme Fayard, 1988. ^ Redford 2003, p. 219. ^ "The foreigners of the fourth register, with long hairstyles and calf-length fringed robes, are labeled Chiefs of Retjenu, the ancient name tor the Syrian region. Like the Nubians, they come with animals, in this case horses, an elephant, and a bear; they also offer weapons and vessels most likely filled with precious substance." in Hawass, Zahi A.; Vannini, Sandro (2009). The lost tombs of Thebes: life in paradise. Thames & Hudson. p. 120. ISBN 9780500051597. ^ Zakrzewski, Sonia; Shortland, Andrew; Rowland, Joanne (2015). Science in the Study of Ancient Egypt. Routledge. p. 268. ISBN 978-1-317-39195-1. ^ a b c Redford 2003, p. 226. ^ a b c Redford 2003, p. 225. ^ a b c Grimal, Nicolas. A History of Ancient Egypt. p.216. Librairie Arthéme Fayard, 1988. ^ Redford 2003, p. 81. ^ Redford 2003, p. 83. ^ a b Redford 2003, p. 229. ^ Redford 2003, p. 84. ^ a b Redford 2003, p. 87. ^ Redford 2003, p. 234. ^ Redford 2003, p. 92. ^ Redford 2003, p. 235. ^ Redford 2003, p. 94. ^ a b Redford 2003, p. 238. ^ a b Redford 2003, p. 240. ^ Redford 2003, p. 239. ^ a b Lipinska, Jadwiga. "Thutmose III," p.403. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Ed. Donald Redford. Vol. 3, pp.401–403. Oxford University Press, 2001. ^ a b c d Lipinska, Jadwiga. "Thutmose III," p.402. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Ed. Donald Redford. Vol. 3, pp.401–403. Oxford University Press, 2001. ^ W.B. Honey. Review of Glass Vessels before Glass-Blowing by Poul Fossing. p.135. The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs, (Apr. 1941) ^ Grimal, Nicolas. A History of Ancient Egypt. p.302. Librairie Arthéme Fayard, 1988. ^ a b c d Grimal, Nicolas. A History of Ancient Egypt. p.303. Librairie Arthéme Fayard, 1988. ^ Breasted, James Henry. Ancient Records of Egypt, Vol. II. p. 330. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1906. ^ Pemberton, Delia and Fletcher, Joann. Treasures of the Pharaohs. p.61. Chronicle Books LLC. 2004. ISBN 0-8118-4424-2. ^ Shaw, Ian, and Nicholson, Paul. The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt. p.120. Harry N. Abrams, Inc. ISBN 0-8109-9096-2. 1995. ^ a b Shaw, Ian. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. p.241. Oxford University Press. 2000. ISBN 0-19-280458-8 ^ Russman, Edna R. (ed) Eternal Egypt: Masterworks of Ancient Art from the British Museum. p.120-121. University of California Press. 2001. ISBN 1-885444-19-2. ^ Peter Der Manuelian, Studies in the Reign of Amenophis II, Hildesheimer Ägyptologische Beiträge(HÄB) Verlag: 1987, p.20 ^ Forbes, Dennis C. Tombs, Treasures, Mummies: Seven Great Discoveries of Egyptian Archaeology, p.43-44. KMT Communications, Inc. 1998. ^ a b Romer, John. The Valley of the Kings. p182. Castle Books, 2003. ISBN 0-7858-1588-0 ^ a b Maspero, Gaston. History Of Egypt, Chaldaea, Syria, Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 5 (of 12). 16 December 2005. Archived from the original on 23 May 2006. Retrieved 11 March 2015.CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link), Project Gutenberg EBook, Release Date: 16 December 2005. EBook #17325. ^ Smith, G Elliot. The Royal Mummies, p.34. Duckworth, 2000 (reprint) ^ Forbes, Dennis C. Tombs, Treasures, Mummies: Seven Great Discoveries of Egyptian Archaeology, p.631. KMT Communications, Inc. 1998. Further reading Eloise Jarvis McGraw, "Mara, Daughter of the Nile" Redford, Donald B. (2003). The Wars in Syria and Palestine of Thutmose III. Culture and History of the Ancient Near East 16. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-12989-4. Der Manuelian, Peter, Studies in the Reign of Amenophis II, Hildesheimer Ägyptologische Beiträge(HÄB) Verlag: 1987 Cline, Eric H. and O'Connor, David, Thutmose III : A New Biography, University of Michigan Press, 2006. ISBN 0-472-11467-0, incorporates a number of important new survey articles regarding the reign of Thutmose III, including administration, art, religion and foreign affairs Reisinger, Magnus, Entwicklung der ägyptischen Königsplastik in der frühen und hohen 18. Dynastie, Agnus-Verlag, Münster 2005, ISBN 3-00-015864-2 Breasted, James Henry. Ancient Records of Egypt, [Volume Two, The Eighteenth Dynasty], University of Illinois Press, 2001. ISBN 0-252-06974-9 River God by Smith, Wilbur along with the rest of his Egyptian series of historical fiction novels are based in a large part on Thutmose III's time along with his story and that of his mother through the eyes of his mother's vizier mixing in elements of the Hyksos' domination and eventual overthrow. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Thutmosis III. A Short History of Ancient Egypt -Dynasties XVIII to XX, with a few Thutmoside documents translated. Hatshepsut: from Queen to Pharaoh, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Thutmose III (see index) Thutmose III page of Archaeowiki at the Wayback Machine (archived 9 March 2012) v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Rulers of the Ancient Near East Territories/ dates [1][2][3][4] Egypt Canaan Ebla Mari Akshak/ Akkad Kish Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period 4000–3200 BCE Naqada culture (4000–3100 BCE) Proto-Cannaanites Sumerian period (4000–2340 BCE) Susa I Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE) Naqada I Naqada II Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests") Legendary ante-deluvian rulers: In Eridu: Alulim, Alalngar, then in Bad-tibira: En-men-lu-ana, En-men-gal-ana, Dumuzid, the Shepherd, then in Larag: En-sipad-zid-ana, then in Zimbir: En-men-dur-ana, then in Shuruppag: Ubara-Tutu "then the flood swept over"[5] Susa II (Uruk influence or control) 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ DenAnedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100-2700 BCE) Great Flood 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) First kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman En-me-barage-si ("made the land of Elam submit")[6] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba Uruk II dynasty Enshakushanna Mug-si Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions (3 kings)[7] Shushuntarana Napilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Urur Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun) Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion of Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[7] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian Empire (Semitic) Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Second Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) (Vassals of UR III) Shakkanakku dynasty (Semitic) Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Neo-Sumerian Period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians) Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (Vassals of Ur III)[8] Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal 2100 BCE Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin Ibbi-Sin 2050 BCE 2000 BCE Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV circa 2000 BCE Amorite invasions Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) 2025-1763 BCE Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ Third Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 1894–1595 BCE Second Intermediate Period Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham (Biblical) Yamhad First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Phoenicia Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Middle Assyrian Empire Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt 626–539 BCE Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116-117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ "The Sumerian king list: translation". etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 8 May 2008. ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ a b Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4. Authority control GND: 118642804 ISNI: 0000 0000 8195 8691 LCCN: n82094436 NKC: jn20020619002 VIAF: 57408149 WorldCat Identities: viaf-57408149 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thutmose_III&oldid=999591351" Categories: Thutmose III 15th-century BC births 15th-century BC deaths 15th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ancient child rulers Ancient Egyptian mummies Children of Thutmose II Hidden categories: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Wikipedia semi-protected pages Use dmy dates from April 2020 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2018 Articles with unsourced statements from April 2018 Articles with unsourced statements from December 2017 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Commons category link is on Wikidata Webarchive template wayback links Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans አማርኛ العربية Asturianu Авар Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Malagasy مصرى Bahasa Melayu Монгол Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Shqip සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 January 2021, at 23:53 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9619	----	Système universitaire de documentation - Wikipedia Système universitaire de documentation From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from SUDOC (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search "Sudoc" redirects here. For the US government document classification system, see United States Government Printing Office. Screenshot from the Système Universitaire de Documentation (Sudoc) The système universitaire de documentation or SUDOC is a system used by the libraries of French universities and higher education establishments to identify, track and manage the documents in their possession. The catalog, which contains nearly 13 million references, allows students and researchers to search for bibliographical and location information in more than 3,400 documentation centers. It is maintained by the Bibliographic Agency for Higher Education [fr] (ABES). External links[edit] Official website v t e Authority control files AAG • ACM DL • ADB • AGSA • autores.uy • AWR • BALaT • BIBSYS • Bildindex • BNC • BNE • BNF • Botanist • BPN • CANTIC • CiNii • CWGC • DAAO • DBLP • DSI • FNZA • GND • HDS • IAAF • ICCU • ICIA • ISNI • Joconde • KulturNav • LCCN • LIR • LNB • Léonore • MBA • MGP • NARA • NBL • NDL • NGV • NKC • NLA • NLG • NLI • NLK • NLP • NLR • NSK • NTA • ORCID • PIC • PLWABN • ResearcherID • RERO • RKD • RKDimages ID • RSL • SELIBR • SIKART • SNAC • SUDOC • S2AuthorId • TA98 • TDVİA • TE • TePapa • TH • TLS • Trove • UKPARL • ULAN • US Congress • VcBA • VIAF • WorldCat Identities This article relating to library science or information science is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Système_universitaire_de_documentation&oldid=922032708" Categories: Libraries in France Library cataloging and classification Library and information science stubs Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans العربية Asturianu भोजपुरी Български Català Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia עברית Malagasy مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Nordfriisk Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 October 2019, at 13:42 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9633	----	Otanes (son of Sisamnes) - Wikipedia Otanes (son of Sisamnes) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Achaemenid judge and later Satrap of Ionia during the reign of Darius the Great For other people with the same name, see Otanes. Otanes Otanes son of Sisamnes, according to Peter Paul Rubens. Native name Otanes Allegiance Achaemenid Empire Years of service Circa 500 BC Rank Judge, later Satrap of Lydia Battles/wars Ionian revolt Otanes (Old Persian: Utāna, Greek: Ὀτάνης), son of Sisamnes, was an Achaemenid judge and later Satrap of Ionia during the reign of Darius the Great, circa 500 BC. Contents 1 Career 2 Ionian revolt 3 References 4 Sources Career[edit] Otanes first replaced his father as judge, when the latter was condemned for corruption by Cambyses II. He later took on military responsibilities under Darius, that led him to have an important role in suppressing the Ionian Revolt. In Histories 5 (Histories 5.25-5.28),[1] Herodotus speaks of an Otanes - a son of a previously mentioned Sisamnes (3.31) - who served as a judge under Cambyses II and later under Darius I, who followed the European Scythian campaign of Darius I, and became governor in Asia Minor: First, however, (Darius) made Otanes governor of the people on the coast. Otanes' father Sisamnes had been one of the royal judges, and Cambyses had cut his throat and flayed off all his skin because he had been bribed to give an unjust judgment. — Herodotus 5.25.[2] Ionian revolt[edit] Otanes was a major Achaemenid actor in the Ionian Revolt. Cambyses II appointing Otanes as judge in place of his flayed father Sisamnes, after a painting by Peter Paul Rubens. The skin of his father appears above the seated Otanes.[3] Otanes seated in the chair of the judge after his father was flayed (center).[4] Otanes succeeded Megabazus as the governor/supreme commander of the united forces of the peoples of the Aegean (5.26.1), and subjugated Byzantium and other cities during the Ionian revolt (5.123.1, 5.116.1). According to Herodotus: This Otanes, then, who sat upon that seat, was now made successor to Megabazus in his governorship. He captured Byzantium, Calchedon, Antandrus in the Troad, and Lamponium, and with ships he had taken from the Lesbians, he took Lemnos and Imbros, both of which were still inhabited by Pelasgians.[1] According to Herodotus, this Otanes also married one of Darius' daughters (5.116.1): "Daurises, Hymaees, and Otanes, all of them Persian generals and married to daughters of Darius, pursued those Ionians who had marched to Sardis, and drove them to their ships. After this victory they divided the cities among themselves and sacked them." — Herodotus 5.116[5] "Otanes" is a name given to several figures that appear in the Histories of Herodotus. One or more of these figures may be the same person. References[edit] ^ a b Perseus Under Philologic: Hdt. 5.25.1. ^ Herodotus, The Histories, Book 5, chapter 25. ^ Metropolitan Museum of Art ^ Thronus Iustitiae. British Museum. ^ Herodotus V, 116 Sources[edit] Herodotus (1862). History of Herodotus, Volume 2. pp. 384–396. v t e Achaemenid Satraps of Lydia (546–334 BC) Tabalus (546–545 BC) Mazares (545–544 BC) Harpagus (540-530 BC) Oroetus (530–520 BC) Bagaeus (520 BC) Otanes (517 BC) Artaphernes (513–492 BC) Artaphernes II (492–480 BC) Pissuthnes (440–415 BC) Tissaphernes (415–408 BC) Cyrus the Younger (408–401 BC) Tissaphernes (400–395 BC) Tithraustes (392–380 BC) Tiribazus (375 BC) Struthas (370 BC) Autophradates (365 BC) Spithridates (365–334 BC) v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Otanes_(son_of_Sisamnes)&oldid=1002465166" Categories: Herodotus 6th-century BC Iranian people Officials of Darius the Great Achaemenid satraps of Ionia Military leaders of the Achaemenid Empire Ionian Revolt Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages فارسی Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 16:16 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9653	----	Leonidas I - Wikipedia Leonidas I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Leonidas" redirects here. For other uses, see Leonidas (disambiguation). King of Sparta who led Greek forces to a last stand at the Battle of Thermopylae (480 BC) King of Sparta Leonidas I Marble statue, possibly of Leonidas, (5th century BC), Sparta, Archæological Museum of Sparta, Greece King of Sparta Reign 489–480 BC Predecessor Cleomenes I Successor Pleistarchus Born c. 540 BC Sparta, Greece Died 19 September 480 BC (aged around 60) Thermopylae, Greece Consort Gorgo Issue Pleistarchus Greek Λεωνίδᾱς House Agiad Father Anaxandridas II Religion Greek polytheism Leonidas I (/liˈɒnɪdəs, -dæs/; Doric Λεωνίδας Α´, Leōnídas A'; Ionic and Attic Greek: Λεωνίδης Α´, Leōnídēs A' [leɔːnídɛːs]; "son of the lion";[1] died 19 September 480 BC) was a king of the Greek city-state of Sparta, and the 17th of the Agiad line, a dynasty which claimed descent from the mythological demigod Heracles and Cadmus. Leonidas I was son of King Anaxandridas II. He succeeded his half-brother King Cleomenes I to the throne in c. 489 BC. His co-ruler was King Leotychidas. He was succeeded by his son, King Pleistarchus. Leonidas had a notable participation in the Second Persian War, where he led the allied Greek forces to a last stand at the Battle of Thermopylae (480 BC) while attempting to defend the pass from the invading Persian army; he died at the battle and entered myth as the leader of the 300 Spartans. While the Greeks lost this battle, they were able to expel the Persian invaders in the following year. Contents 1 Life 2 Battle of Thermopylae 3 Legacy 3.1 Antiquity 3.2 Thermopylae monument 3.3 Literature 3.4 Film 3.5 Video games 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links Life According to Herodotus, Leonidas' mother was not only his father's wife but also his father's niece and had been barren for so long that the ephors, the five annually elected administrators of the Spartan constitution, tried to prevail upon King Anaxandridas II to set her aside and take another wife. Anaxandridas refused, claiming his wife was blameless, whereupon the ephors agreed to allow him to take a second wife without setting aside his first. This second wife, a descendant of Chilon of Sparta (one of the Seven Sages of Greece), promptly bore a son, Cleomenes. However, one year after Cleomenes' birth, Anaxandridas' first wife also gave birth to a son, Dorieus. Leonidas was the second son of Anaxandridas' first wife, and either the elder brother or twin of Cleombrotus.[2] King Anaxandridas II died in 520 BC,[3] and Cleomenes succeeded to the throne sometime between then and 516 BC.[4] Dorieus was so outraged that the Spartans had preferred his half-brother over himself that he found it impossible to remain in Sparta. He made one unsuccessful attempt to set up a colony in Africa and, when this failed, sought his fortune in Sicily, where after initial successes he was killed.[5] Leonidas' relationship with his bitterly antagonistic elder brothers is unknown, but he married Cleomenes' daughter, Gorgo, sometime before coming to the throne in 490 BC.[6] Leonidas was heir to the Agiad throne and a full citizen (homoios) at the time of the Battle of Sepeia against Argos (c. 494 BC).[7] Likewise, he was a full citizen when the Persians sought submission from Sparta and met with vehement rejection in or around 492/491 BC. His elder half-brother, king Cleomenes, had already been deposed on grounds of purported insanity, and had fled into exile when Athens sought assistance against the First Persian invasion of Greece, that ended at Marathon (490 BC). The Spartians throw Persian envoys into a well. Plutarch has recorded the following: "When someone said to him: 'Except for being king you are not at all superior to us,' Leonidas son of Anaxandridas and brother of Cleomenes replied: 'But were I not better than you, I should not be king.'"[8] As the product of the agoge, Leonidas is unlikely to have been referring to his royal blood alone but rather suggesting that he had, like his brother Dorieus, proven superior capability in the competitive environment of Spartan training and society, and that he believed this made him qualified to rule. Leonidas was chosen to lead the combined Greek forces determined to resist the Second Persian invasion of Greece in 481 BC.[9] This was not simply a tribute to Sparta's military prowess: The probability that the coalition wanted Leonidas personally for his capability as a military leader is underlined by the fact that just two years after his death, the coalition preferred Athenian leadership to the leadership of either Leotychidas or Leonidas' successor (as regent for his still under-aged son) Pausanias. The rejection of Leotychidas and Pausanias was not a reflection on Spartan arms. Sparta's military reputation had never stood in higher regard, nor was Sparta less powerful in 478 BC than it had been in 481 BC.[9] This selection of Leonidas to lead the defense of Greece against Xerxes' invasion led to Leonidas' death in the Battle of Thermopylae in 480 BC.[9] Battle of Thermopylae Main article: Battle of Thermopylae Leonidas at Thermopylae (1814) by Jacques-Louis David, who chose the subject in the aftermath of the French Revolution as a model of "civic duty and self-sacrifice", but also as a contemplation of loss and death, with Leonidas quietly poised and heroically nude[10] Upon receiving a request from the confederated Greek forces to aid in defending Greece against the Persian invasion, Sparta consulted the Oracle at Delphi. The Oracle is said to have made the following prophecy in hexameter verse: For you, inhabitants of wide-wayed Sparta, Either your great and glorious city must be wasted by Persian men, Or if not that, then the bound of Lacedaemon must mourn a dead king, from Heracles' line. The might of bulls or lions will not restrain him with opposing strength; for he has the might of Zeus. I declare that he will not be restrained until he utterly tears apart one of these.[11] In August 480 BC, Leonidas marched out of Sparta to meet Xerxes' army at Thermopylae with a small force of 1,200 men (900 helots and 300 Spartan hoplites), where he was joined by forces from other Greek city-states, who put themselves under his command to form an army of 7,000 strong. There are various theories on why Leonidas was accompanied by such a small force of hoplites. According to Herodotus, "the Spartans sent the men with Leonidas on ahead so that the rest of the allies would see them and march with no fear of defeat, instead of medizing like the others if they learned that the Spartans were delaying. After completing their festival, the Carneia, they left their garrison at Sparta and marched in full force towards Thermopylae. The rest of the allies planned to do likewise, for the Olympiad coincided with these events. They accordingly sent their advance guard, not expecting the war at Thermopylae to be decided so quickly."[12] Many modern commentators are unsatisfied with this explanation and point to the fact that the Olympic Games were in progress or impute internal dissent and intrigue. Whatever the reason Sparta's own contribution was just 300 Spartiates (accompanied by their attendants and probably perioikoi auxiliaries), the total force assembled for the defense of the pass of Thermopylae came to something between four and seven thousand Greeks. They faced a Persian army who had invaded from the north of Greece under Xerxes I. Herodotus stated that this army consisted of over two million men; modern scholars consider this to be an exaggeration and give estimates ranging from 70,000 to 300,000.[13] Xerxes waited four days to attack, hoping the Greeks would disperse. Finally, on the fifth day the Persians attacked. Leonidas and the Greeks repulsed the Persians' frontal attacks for the fifth and sixth days, killing roughly 10,000 of the enemy troops. The Persian elite unit known to the Greeks as "the Immortals" was held back, and two of Xerxes' brothers (Abrocomes and Hyperanthes) died in battle.[14] On the seventh day (August 11), a Malian Greek traitor named Ephialtes led the Persian general Hydarnes by a mountain track to the rear of the Greeks.[15][16] At that point Leonidas sent away all Greek troops and remained in the pass with his 300 Spartans, 900 helots, 400 Thebans and 700 Thespians. The Thespians stayed entirely of their own will, declaring that they would not abandon Leonidas and his followers. Their leader was Demophilus, son of Diadromes, and as Herodotus writes, "Hence they lived with the Spartans and died with them." Achaemenid king killing a Greek hoplite. Circa 500 BC–475 BC, at the time of Xerxes I. Metropolitan Museum of Art. One theory provided by Herodotus is that Leonidas sent away the remainder of his men because he cared about their safety. The King would have thought it wise to preserve those Greek troops for future battles against the Persians, but he knew that the Spartans could never abandon their post on the battlefield. The soldiers who stayed behind were to protect their escape against the Persian cavalry. Herodotus himself believed that Leonidas gave the order because he perceived the allies to be disheartened and unwilling to encounter the danger to which his own mind was made up. He therefore chose to dismiss all troops except the Thebans, Thespians and helots and save the glory for the Spartans.[11] Of the small Greek force, attacked from both sides, all were killed except for the 400 Thebans, who surrendered to Xerxes without a fight. When Leonidas was killed, the Spartans retrieved his body after driving back the Persians four times. Herodotus says that Xerxes' orders were to have Leonidas' head cut off and put on a stake and his body crucified. This was considered sacrilegious.[17] Legacy Antiquity A hero cult of Leonidas survived at Sparta until the Antonine era (2nd century AD).[18] Thermopylae monument A bronze statue of Leonidas was erected at Thermopylae in 1955.[19] A sign, under the statue, reads simply: "ΜΟΛΩΝ ΛΑΒΕ" ("Come and take them"), which was Leonidas' reply when Xerxes offered to spare the lives of the Spartans if they gave up their arms.[20] Another statue, also with the inscription ΜΟΛΩΝ ΛΑΒΕ, was erected at Sparta in 1968. Literature Leonidas I as depicted at the top of the monument to Felice Cavallotti in Milan, created by Ernesto Bazzaro in 1906. Leonidas was the name of an Epic poem written by Richard Glover, which originally appeared in 1737. It went on to appear in four other editions, being expanded from 9 books to 12.[21] He is a central figure in Steven Pressfield's novel Gates of Fire.[22] He appears as the protagonist of Frank Miller's 1998 comic book series 300. It presents a fictionalized version of Leonidas and the Battle of Thermopylae, as does the 2006 feature film adapted from it.[23] Helena P. Schrader has produced a three-part biographical novel on Leonidas. Leonidas of Sparta: A Boy of the Agoge,[24] Leonidas of Sparta: A Peerless Peer,[25] and Leonidas of Sparta: A Heroic King.[26] Film Further information: Battle of Thermopylae in popular culture and Sparta in popular culture In cinema, Leonidas has been portrayed by: Richard Egan in the 1962 epic The 300 Spartans.[27] Gerard Butler in the 2007 film 300, inspired by the graphic novel of the same name by Frank Miller and Lynn Varley. Tyler Neitzel portrayed Leonidas as a young man.[28] Voice actors for foreign dubs include Tilo Schmitz (German) and Jōji Nakata (Japanese).[citation needed] Video games Leonidas serves an important role to the plot of the 2018 video game Assassin's Creed: Odyssey. In the game, Leonidas is the grandfather of the player character, Kassandra/Alexios. Additionally, Leonidas's spear is an important plot point as it is one of many powerful ancient artifacts in the Assassin's Creed lore, as well as wielded by Kassandra/Alexios in combat throughout the game. See also Ancient Greece portal Biography portal Laconic phrase Notes ^ Robert Chambers, Book of Days ^ Herodotus, 5.39–41; Jones, p. 48. ^ Morris, 35 ^ Forrest, W. G. (1968). A History of Sparta 950–192 B.C. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 85. ^ Herodotus, 5.42–48 ^ Paul Cartledge, The Spartans: The World of the Warrior-Heroes of Ancient Greece, New York, Vintage Books, 2002, p. 126. ^ Ma, Former Fellow at Cambridge Professor of Humanity at Edinburgh and Vice Chancellor John Hazel; Hazel, John (4 July 2013). Who's Who in the Greek World. Routledge. p. 60. ISBN 978-1-134-80224-1. ^ Plutarch on Sparta, Sayings of Spartans, Leonidas son of Anaxandridas, #1 ^ a b c Oman, Charles (1898). "The death of Leonidas". A History of Greece from the Earliest Times to the Death of Alexander the Great. Longmans, Green, and Company. pp. 199–206. ^ Jack Johnson, "David and Literature," in Jacques-Louis David: New Perspectives (Rosemont, 2006), pp. 85–86 et passim. ^ a b Herodotus, 7.220 ^ Herodotus, 7:206 ^ De Souza, Philip (2003). The Greek and Persian Wars 499–386 BC. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. p. 41. ISBN 9781841763583. ^ Herodotus; George Rawlinson, editor (1885). The History of Herodotus. New York: D. Appleman and Company. pp. bk. 7. Archived from the original on 2009-12-17. Retrieved 2010-03-21. ^ Tod, Marcus Niebuhr (1911). "Leonidas" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 16 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 455. ^ Herodotus; Henry Cary, editor (1904). The Histories of Herodotus. New York: D. Appleton and Company. p. 438. ^ Herodotus, 7.238 ^ Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Part 12 By James Hastings p. 655. ISBN 0-567-09489-8 ^ Ring, Trudy; Watson, Noelle; Schellinger, Paul (2013). Southern Europe: International Dictionary of Historic Places. Routledge. p. 695. ISBN 978-1-134-25958-8. ^ Plutarch, Apophthegmata Laconica, 225c. ^ Jung, Sandro (2008). David Mallet, Anglo-Scot: Poetry, Patronage, and Politics in the Age of Union. Associated University Presse. pp. 94–95. ISBN 978-0-87413-005-8. ^ Pressfield, Steven (2007). Gates of Fire. Random House Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-553-90405-5. ^ Combe, K.; Boyle, B. (2013). Masculinity and Monstrosity in Contemporary Hollywood Films. Springer. pp. 83–84. ISBN 978-1-137-35982-7. ^ Schrader, Helena P. (2010). Leonidas of Sparta: A Boy of the Agoge. Wheatmark, Inc. ISBN 978-1-60494-474-7. ^ Schrader, Helena P. (2011). Leonidas of Sparta: A Peerless Peer. Wheatmark, Inc. ISBN 978-1-60494-602-4. ^ Schrader, Helena P. (2012). Leonidas of Sparta: A Heroic King. Wheatmark, Inc. ISBN 978-1-60494-830-1. ^ Nikoloutsos, Konstantinos P. (2013). Ancient Greek Women in Film. OUP Oxford. pp. 260–261. ISBN 978-0-19-967892-1. ^ Spielvogel, Jackson J. (2014). Western Civilization: Volume A: To 1500. Cengage Learning. p. 104. ISBN 978-1-285-98299-1. References Herodotus, Herodotus, with an English translation by A. D. Godley. Cambridge. Harvard University Press. 1920. Jones, A. H. M. Sparta, New York, Barnes and Nobles, 1967 Morris, Ian Macgregor, Leonidas: Hero of Thermopylae, New York, The Rosen Publishing Group, 2004. External links Wikiquote has quotations related to: Leonidas I Wikimedia Commons has media related to Leonidas I. Leonidas and the 300 Spartans with explanatory animations, videos and rare images from Sparta's Archaeological Museum Sparta Reconsidered provides a comprehensive look at Sparta including an essay on Leonidas.[1] The website Sparta-Leonidas-Gorgo is specifically dedicated to Leonidas and his wife Gorgo.[2] Preceded by Cleomenes I Agiad King of Sparta 489–480 BC Succeeded by Pleistarchus v t e Kings of Sparta Lelegids Lelex Myles Eurotas Lacedaemonids Lacedaemon Amyclas Argalus Cynortas Perieres Oebalus Tyndareus Hippocoon Atreids Menelaus Orestes Tisamenus Dion Early Heraclids Aristodemus Theras (regent) Heraclids Agiad dynasty Eurysthenes Agis I Echestratus Labotas Doryssus Agesilaus I Archelaus Teleclus Alcmenes Polydorus Eurycrates Anaxander Eurycratides Leon Anaxandridas II Cleomenes I Leonidas I Cleombrotus (regent) Pausanias (regent) Pleistarchus Pleistoanax Pausanias Agesipolis I Cleombrotus I Agesipolis II Cleomenes II Areus I Acrotatus II Areus II Leonidas II Cleombrotus II 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en-wikipedia-org-9661	----	Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Main Page From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Welcome to Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia that anyone can edit. 6,235,410 articles in English The arts Biography Geography History Mathematics Science Society Technology All portals From today's featured article Haile Selassie Rastafari is a religion that developed among impoverished and socially disenfranchised Afro-Jamaican communities in Jamaica during the 1930s. It is both a new religious movement and a social movement. There is no central authority and much diversity among practitioners. Rasta beliefs are based on a specific interpretation of the Bible; a belief in a single God, Jah, who partially resides within each individual, is integral. Rastas accord central importance to Haile Selassie (pictured), Emperor of Ethiopia between 1930 and 1974; many regard him as the Second Coming of Jesus and Jah incarnate; others see him as a human prophet. Rastafari is Afrocentric and focuses on the African diaspora. In the 1960s and 1970s, it gained increased respectability and greater visibility abroad through the popularity of Rasta-inspired reggae musicians, most notably Bob Marley. There are an estimated 700,000 to 1,000,000 Rastas across the world, the majority of whom are of black African descent. (Full article...) Recently featured: Francesco Caracciolo-class battleship Gigantorhynchus Æthelred I, King of Wessex Archive By email More featured articles Did you know ... Hearst Tower ... that the Hearst Tower (pictured) was built nearly eight decades after its base was completed? ... that clergyman David Williamson's time as an outlaw is commemorated in the traditional Scottish song "Dainty Davie"? ... that a political feud in the Eastside of Los Angeles began when Gloria Molina was told by Art Torres that she was not the chosen candidate to run for an office? ... that Setiadi Reksoprodjo, who was appointed Minister of Information at the age of 25, had a junior minister twice as old as him? ... that after the Morning Star sank on Lake Erie, the death toll was unknown because many of the passengers were not on the ship's manifest? ... that the Japanese television drama Ossan's Love is credited with popularizing the boys' love genre for a general audience outside of anime and manga fans? ... that Mat and Savanna Shaw's cover of "The Prayer" went viral at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, after which they released their debut album that was ranked 54th on the Billboard 200? ... that American conservation officer Terry Grosz busted an illegal snagging boat on the Eel River by waiting in the water and getting reeled in? Archive Start a new article Nominate an article In the news COVID-19 pandemic Disease Virus By location Impact Vaccines Portal Hank Aaron in 1974 In Russia, protests against the arrest of Alexei Navalny occur in more than 100 towns and cities. American baseball player Hank Aaron (pictured) dies at the age of 86. Faustin-Archange Touadéra is elected for a second term as President of the Central African Republic. LauncherOne becomes the first liquid-fueled aircraft-launched rocket to reach orbit. Ongoing: Indian farmers' protest Recent deaths: Walter Bernstein F. X. Sudjasmin Meherzia Labidi Maïza Nathalie Delon Aslan Byutukayev Dave Bolton Nominate an article On this day January 25: Feast day of Saint Gregory of Nazianzus (Eastern Orthodoxy) Idi Amin 1533 – Anne Boleyn, already pregnant with the future Elizabeth I, secretly married Henry VIII of England in the second of his six marriages. 1890 – American journalist Nellie Bly completed a circumnavigation of the globe, inspired by Jules Verne's Around the World in Eighty Days, in a then-record 72 days. 1971 – Idi Amin (pictured) seized power from Ugandan president Milton Obote in a coup d'état, beginning eight years of military rule. 2006 – Mexican professional wrestler Juana Barraza was arrested in conjunction with the serial killing of at least ten elderly women. 2011 – The Egyptian revolution began with protests on the "Day of Anger", eventually leading to the removal of President Hosni Mubarak after nearly 30 years of rule. Robert Burton (d. 1640) Ernst Alexanderson (b. 1878) Jane Bathori (d. 1970) More anniversaries: January 24 January 25 January 26 Archive By email List of days of the year From today's featured list Randolph Caldecott The Caldecott Medal annually recognizes the preceding year's "most distinguished American picture book for children". It is awarded to the illustrator by the Association for Library Service to Children, a division of the American Library Association. The Caldecott Medal was first proposed by Frederic G. Melcher, in 1937. The award was named after English illustrator Randolph Caldecott (pictured). Unchanged since its founding, the medal, which is given to every winner, features two of Caldecott's illustrations. To be eligible for a Caldecott, the book must be published in English, in the United States first, and be drawn by an American illustrator. Winning the award can lead to a substantial rise in books sold. It can also increase the prominence of illustrators. Illustrator and author Marcia Brown is the most recognized Caldecott illustrator, having won three medals and having six honor books. (Full list...) Recently featured: Danish football champions Accolades received by Avengers: Endgame Wikimedian of the Year Archive More featured lists Today's featured picture Peter Tatchell (born 25 January 1952) is an Australian-born British campaigner, author, journalist and broadcaster who speaks out on various issues of human rights and social justice. His attempts to promote the enforcement of international human-rights law have included efforts to secure the prosecution of Henry Kissinger on war crimes, and he attempted a citizen's arrest of Zimbabwean president Robert Mugabe in 1999 and again in 2001. 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en-wikipedia-org-9694	----	Evagoras I - Wikipedia Evagoras I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Phoenician king of ancient Salamis on Cyprus Evagoras or Euagoras (Ancient/Modern Greek: Εὐαγόρας) was the king of Salamis (411–374 BC) in Cyprus, known especially from the work of Isocrates, who presents him as a model ruler. The spelling "Evagoras" reflects the Latin transliteration of the name, and it comprises one of the rather rare cases that the Greek prefix εὐ- was rendered as ev- (instead of eu-) in Latin, and also happens to more closely reflect modern Greek pronunciation. History[edit] He claimed descent from Teucer, the son of Telamon and half-brother of Ajax, and his family had long been rulers of Salamis, although during his childhood Salamis came under Phoenician control, which resulted in his exile. While in Cilicia, Evagoras gathered the support of 50 followers and returned secretly in 410, to gain possession of the throne. Expecting an eventual Persian response to recapture Cyprus, he cultivated the friendship of the Athenians, and after Conon's defeat at the Battle of Aegospotami he provided him with a refuge. For a time he also maintained friendly relations with Persia, and secured the aid of Artaxerxes II for Athens against Sparta. He took part in the battle of Cnidus of 394 BC which he provided most of the resources for and in which the Spartan fleet was defeated thanks to his efforts, and for this service his statue was placed by the Athenians side by side with that of Conon in the Ceramicus. But relations between Evagoras and the Persians became strained. From 391 they were virtually at war. Aided by the Athenians and the Egyptian king Hakor (Achoris), Evagoras extended his rule over the greater part of Cyprus, crossed over to Asia Minor, took several cities in Phoenicia (including Tyre), and persuaded the Cilicians to revolt.[1] 1/10th stater, (411 – 374 BC), 0.71 g, SNG Copenhagen 733597 One result of the peace of Antalcidas (387), to which Evagoras refused to agree, was that the Athenians withdrew their support, since by its terms they recognized the lordship of Persia over Cyprus. The following years Evagoras carried on hostilities single-handed, except for occasional aid from Egypt, which was likewise threatened by the Persians.[1] While Evagoras was in Egypt asking for help, his younger son Pnytagoras was in charge of Salamis.[2] The Persian generals Tiribazus and Orontes at last invaded Cyprus in 385 BC, with an army far larger than what Evagoras could command.[citation needed] However, Evagoras managed to cut off this force from being resupplied, and the starving troops rebelled. The war then turned in the Persian favor when Evagoras' fleet was destroyed at the Battle of Citium, and he was compelled to flee to Salamis. Here, although closely blockaded, Evagoras managed to hold his ground, and took advantage of a quarrel between the two Persian generals to conclude peace (376). Evagoras was allowed to remain nominally king of Salamis, but in reality a vassal of Persia, to which he was to pay a yearly tribute. The chronology of the last part of his reign is uncertain. In 374 he was assassinated by a eunuch from motives of private revenge. He was succeeded by his son, Nicocles.[1] According to Isocrates's Panegyric, Evagoras was a model ruler, whose aim was to promote the welfare of his state and of his subjects by the cultivation of Greek refinement and civilization.[1] Isocrates also states that many people migrated from Greece to Cyprus because of the noble rule of Evagoras. Other sources of this period—Diodorus Siculus 14.115, 15.2-9; Xenophon, Hellenica 4.8—are not as unrestrainedly complimentary. Lysias in his Against Andocides 6.28 addresses him as the king of Cyprus. Although Cypriots were Greeks and their language a dialect of Greek, the Arcadocypriot, they used to write in an older and more difficult system, called the Cypriot syllabary. Evagoras has been called a pioneer of the adoption of the Greek alphabet in Cyprus in place of the older Cypriot syllabary. References[edit] ^ a b c d  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Evagoras". Encyclopædia Britannica. 9 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 959. ^ "Edward S. Forster, Isocrates Cyprian Orations, section 62". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2018-03-02. External links[edit] An Evagoras' coin on a stamp of Republic of Cyprus Preceded by Abdemon King of Salamis 411–374 BC Succeeded by Nicocles Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Evagoras_I&oldid=988704560" Categories: 5th-century BC births 374 BC deaths 4th-century BC Greek people Ancient Greek rulers Assassinated Cypriot people 4th-century BC murdered monarchs Kings of Salamis, Cyprus Arcadocypriot Greek Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2008 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Italiano Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 November 2020, at 19:46 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9644	----	Safavid Iran - Wikipedia Safavid Iran From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Safavid Empire) Jump to navigation Jump to search Twelver Shiʻi ruling dynasty of Iran Safavid Empire ملک وسیع‌الفضای ایران[a] The Expansive Realm of Iran[1] مملکت ایران[b] The Country of Iran[2] 1501–1736 Flag (1576–1732)[4] Emblem[3] The Safavid Empire under Shah Abbas the Great Status Empire Capital Tabriz (1501–1555) Qazvin (1555–1598) Isfahan (1598–1736) Common languages Persian[b] Azerbaijani[c] Georgian/Circassian/Armenian[d] Religion Twelver Shiʻa Islam Government Monarchy Shahanshah   • 1501–1524 Ismail I (first) • 1732–1736 Abbas III (last) Grand Vizier   • 1501–? Mohammad Zakariya Kujuji (first) • 1729–1736 Nader Qoli Beg (last) Legislature Council of State Historical era Early modern period • Establishment of the Safavid order by Safi-ad-din Ardabili 1301 • Established 22 December[5] 1501 • Hotaki Invasion 1722 • Reconquest under Nader Shah 1726–1729 • Disestablished 8 March 1736 • Nader Shah crowned 8 March 1736 [6] Currency Tuman, Abbasi (incl. Abazi), Shahi.[7] 1 Tuman = 50 Abbasi. 1 Tuman = 50 French livres. 1 Tuman = £3 6s 8d. Preceded by Succeeded by Timurid Empire Aq Qoyunlu Shirvanshah Marashiyan Paduspanids Mihrabanids Afrasiab dynasty Karkiya dynasty Kingdom of Ormus Hotaki dynasty Afsharid dynasty Russian Empire Ottoman Empire a State religion.[8] b Official language,[9] coinage,[10][11] civil administration,[12] court (since Isfahan became capital),[13] literary,[10][12][14] theological discourse,[10] diplomatic correspondence, historiography,[15] court-based religious posts[16] c Court,[17][18][19] religious dignitaries, military,[15][20][21][22] mother tongue,[15] poetry[15] d Court[23] Part of a series on the History of Iran Mythological history Pishdadian dynasty Kayanian dynasty Ancient period BC Prehistory of Iran Ancient Times–4000 Kura–Araxes culture 3400–2000 Proto-Elamite 3200–2700 Jiroft culture c. 3100 – c. 2200 Elam 2700–539 Akkadian Empire 2400–2150 Lullubi culture c. 2300-700 Kassites c. 1500 – c. 1155 Neo-Assyrian Empire 911–609 Urartu 860–590 Mannaeans 850–616 Imperial period Median Empire 678–550 BC (Scythian Kingdom) 652–625 BC Anshanite Kingdom 635 BC–550 BC Neo-Babylonian Empire 626 BC–539 BC Achaemenid Empire 550 BC–330 BC Kingdom of Armenia 331 BC–428 AD Atropatene c. 323 BC–226 AD Kingdom of Cappadocia 320s BC–17 AD Seleucid Empire 312 BC–63 BC Kingdom of Pontus 281 BC–62 BC Fratarakas 3rd-century BC–132 BC Parthian Empire 247 BC–224 AD Elymais 147 BC–224 AD Characene 141 BC–222 AD Kings of Persis 132 BC–224 AD Indo-Parthian Kingdom 19 AD–224/5 Paratarajas 125–300 Sasanian Empire 224–651 Zarmihrids 6th century–785 Qarinvandids 550s–11th century Medieval period Rashidun Caliphate 632-661 Umayyad Caliphate 661–750 Abbasid Caliphate 750–1258 Dabuyids 642–760 Bavandids 651–1349 Masmughans of Damavand 651–760 Baduspanids 665–1598 Justanids 791 – 11th century Alid dynasties 864 – 14th century Tahirid dynasty 821–873 Samanid Empire 819–999 Saffarid dynasty 861–1003 Ghurid dynasty pre-879 – 1215 Sajid dynasty 889–929 Sallarid dynasty 919–1062 Ziyarid dynasty 930–1090 Ilyasids 932–968 Buyid dynasty 934–1062 Ghaznavid dynasty 977–1186 Kakuyids 1008–1141 Nasrid dynasty 1029–1236 Shabankara 1030–1355 Seljuk Empire 1037–1194 Khwarazmian dynasty 1077–1231 Eldiguzids 1135–1225 Atabegs of Yazd 1141–1319 Salghurids 1148–1282 Hazaraspids 1155–1424 Pishkinid dynasty 1155–1231 Khorshidi dynasty 1184-1597 Qutlugh-Khanids 1223-1306 Mihrabanids 1236–1537 Kurt dynasty 1244–1396 Ilkhanate Empire 1256–1335 Chobanid dynasty 1335–1357 Muzaffarid dynasty 1335–1393 Jalayirid Sultanate 1337–1376 Sarbadars 1337–1376 Injuids 1335–1357 Afrasiyab dynasty 1349–1504 Mar'ashis 1359–1596 Timurid Empire 1370–1507 Kar-Kiya dynasty 1370s–1592 Kara Koyunlu 1406–1468 Aq Qoyunlu 1468–1508 Early modern period Safavid Iran 1501–1736 (Hotak dynasty) 1722–1729 Afsharid dynasty 1736–1796 Talysh Khanate 1747–1826 Zand dynasty 1751–1794 Qajar Iran 1789–1925 Modern period Pahlavi dynasty 1925–1979 Iranian Revolution, Interim Government 1979 Islamic Republic 1979–present Related articles Name Monarchs Heads of state Economic history Military history Wars Timeline  Iran portal v t e Safavid Iran or Safavid Persia (/ˈsæfəvɪd, ˈsɑː-/), also referred to as the Safavid Empire,[c] was one of the greatest Iranian empires after the 7th-century Muslim conquest of Persia, ruled from 1501 to 1736 by the Safavid dynasty.[24][25][26][27] It is often considered the beginning of modern Iranian history,[28] as well as one of the gunpowder empires.[29] The Safavid shahs established the Twelver school of Shia Islam as the official religion of the empire,[30] marking one of the most important turning points in Muslim history. The Safavid dynasty had its origin in the Safavid order of Sufism, which was established in the city of Ardabil in the Azerbaijan region. It was an Iranian dynasty of Kurdish origin[31] but during their rule they intermarried with Turkoman,[32] Georgian,[33] Circassian,[34][35] and Pontic Greek[36] dignitaries. From their base in Ardabil, the Safavids established control over parts of Greater Iran and reasserted the Iranian identity of the region,[37] thus becoming the first native dynasty since the Sasanian Empire to establish a national state officially known as Iran.[38] The Safavids ruled from 1501 to 1722 (experiencing a brief restoration from 1729 to 1736) and, at their height, they controlled all of what is now Iran, Republic of Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Armenia, eastern Georgia, parts of the North Caucasus including Russia, Iraq, Kuwait, and Afghanistan, as well as parts of Turkey, Syria, Pakistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. Despite their demise in 1736, the legacy that they left behind was the revival of Iran as an economic stronghold between East and West, the establishment of an efficient state and bureaucracy based upon "checks and balances", their architectural innovations and their patronage for fine arts. The Safavids have also left their mark down to the present era by spreading Twelver Islam in Iran, as well as major parts of the Caucasus, Anatolia, and Mesopotamia. Contents 1 Background—the Safavid Sufi order 2 History 2.1 Founding of the dynasty by Shāh Ismāʻil I (r. 1501–24) 2.1.1 Iran prior to Ismāʻil's rule 2.1.2 Rise of Shāh Ismāʻil I 2.1.3 Start of clashes with the Ottomans 2.2 Shāh Tahmāsp (r. 1524–76) 2.2.1 Civil strife during Tahmāsp's early reign 2.2.2 Foreign threats to the Empire 2.2.3 Royal refugees: Bayezid and Humayun 2.2.4 Legacy of Shah Tahmasp 2.3 Chaos under Tahmasp’s sons 2.3.1 Ismail II (r. 1576–77) 2.3.2 Mohammad Khodabanda (r. 1578–87) 2.4 Shah Abbas (r. 1588–1629) 2.4.1 Restoration of central authority 2.4.2 Recovery of territory from the Uzbeks and the Ottomans 2.4.3 Quelling the Georgian uprising 2.4.4 Suppressing the Kurdish rebellion 2.4.5 Contacts with Europe during Abbas's reign 2.4.6 Succession and legacy of Abbas I 2.5 Decline of the Safavid state 3 Shiʻa Islam as the state religion 4 Military and the role of Qizilbash 4.1 Reforms in the military 5 Society 5.1 The customs and culture of the people 5.1.1 Entertainment 5.1.2 Clothes and appearances 5.2 Turks and Tajiks 5.3 The third force: Caucasians 5.4 Emergence of a clerical aristocracy 5.5 Akhbaris versus Usulis 5.6 Allamah Majlisi 6 State and government 6.1 The government 6.2 The royal court 6.3 Local governments 6.4 Democratic institutions in a Authoritarian society 7 Legal system 8 Economy 8.1 Agriculture 8.2 Travel and caravanserais 8.3 Foreign trade and the Silk Road 9 Culture 9.1 Art 9.1.1 Architecture 9.1.2 Literature 9.2 The Isfahan School—Islamic philosophy revived 9.3 Medicine 10 The languages of the court, military, administration and culture 11 Legacy 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References 15 Bibliography 16 Further reading 17 External links Background—the Safavid Sufi order Main articles: Safaviyya, Safi al-Din Ardabili, and Ideology of Safavids Safavid history begins with the establishment of the Safaviyya by its eponymous founder Safi-ad-din Ardabili (1252–1334). In 700/1301, Safi al-Din assumed the leadership of the Zahediyeh, a significant Sufi order in Gilan, from his spiritual master and father-in-law Zahed Gilani. Due to the great spiritual charisma of Safi al-Din, the order was later known as the Safaviyya. The Safavid order soon gained great influence in the city of Ardabil, and Hamdullah Mustaufi noted that most of the people of Ardabil were followers of Safi al-Din. Religious poetry from Safi al-Din, written in the Old Azari language[39]—a now-extinct Northwestern Iranian language—and accompanied by a paraphrase in Persian that helps its understanding, has survived to this day and has linguistic importance.[39] After Safī al-Dīn, the leadership of the Safaviyya passed to Sadr al-Dīn Mūsā († 794/1391–92). The order at this time was transformed into a religious movement that conducted religious propaganda throughout Iran, Syria and Asia Minor, and most likely had maintained its Sunni Shafi’ite origin at that time. The leadership of the order passed from Sadr ud-Dīn Mūsā to his son Khwādja Ali († 1429) and in turn to his son Ibrāhīm († 1429–47). Mannequin of a Safavid Qizilbash soldier, showing characteristic red cap (Sa'dabad Palace, Teheran) When Shaykh Junayd, the son of Ibrāhim, assumed the leadership of the Safaviyya in 1447, the history of the Safavid movement was radically changed. According to R.M. Savory, "'Sheikh Junayd was not content with spiritual authority and he sought material power'". At that time, the most powerful dynasty in Iran was that of the Kara Koyunlu, the "Black Sheep", whose ruler Jahan Shah ordered Junāyd to leave Ardabil or else he would bring destruction and ruin upon the city.[30] Junayd sought refuge with the rival of Kara Koyunlu Jahan Shah, the Aq Qoyunlu (White Sheep Turkomans) Khan Uzun Hassan, and cemented his relationship by marrying Uzun Hassan's sister, Khadija Begum. Junayd was killed during an incursion into the territories of the Shirvanshah and was succeeded by his son Haydar Safavi. Haydar married Martha 'Alamshah Begom,[36] Uzun Hassan's daughter, who gave birth to Ismail I, founder of the Safavid dynasty. Martha's mother Theodora—better known as Despina Khatun[40]—was a Pontic Greek princess, the daughter of the Grand Komnenos John IV of Trebizond. She had been married to Uzun Hassan[41] in exchange for protection of the Grand Komnenos from the Ottomans. After Uzun Hassan's death, his son Ya'qub felt threatened by the growing Safavid religious influence. Ya'qub allied himself with the Shirvanshah and killed Haydar in 1488. By this time, the bulk of the Safaviyya were nomadic Oghuz Turkic-speaking clans from Asia Minor and Azerbaijan and were known as Qizilbash "Red Heads" because of their distinct red headgear. The Qizilbash were warriors, spiritual followers of Haydar, and a source of the Safavid military and political power. After the death of Haydar, the Safaviyya gathered around his son Ali Mirza Safavi, who was also pursued and subsequently killed by Ya'qub. According to official Safavid history, before passing away, Ali had designated his young brother Ismail as the spiritual leader of the Safaviyya.[30] History Founding of the dynasty by Shāh Ismāʻil I (r. 1501–24) Main article: Ismail I Iran prior to Ismāʻil's rule Ismail declares himself "Shah" by entering Tabriz; his troops in front of Arg of Tabriz, painter Chingiz Mehbaliyev, in private collection. After the decline of the Timurid Empire (1370–1506), Iran was politically splintered, giving rise to a number of religious movements. The demise of Tamerlane's political authority created a space in which several religious communities, particularly Shiʻi ones, could come to the fore and gain prominence. Among these were a number of Sufi brotherhoods, the Hurufis, Nuqtavis and Musha'sha'iyyah. Of these various movements, the Safavid Qizilbash was the most politically resilient, and due to its success Shah Isma’il I gained political prominence in 1501.[42] There were many local states prior to the Iranian state established by Ismāʻil.[43] The most important local rulers about 1500 were: Huṣayn Bāyqarā, the Timurid ruler of Herāt Alwand Mīrzā, the Aq Qoyunlu Khan of Tabrīz Murad Beg, Aq Qoyunlu ruler of Irāq al-Ajam Farrokh Yaṣar, the Shah of Širvan Badi Alzamān Mīrzā, local ruler of Balkh Huṣayn Kīā Chalavī, the local ruler of Semnān Murād Beg Bayandar, local ruler of Yazd Sultan Mahmud ibn Nizam al-Din Yahya, ruler of Sistan Several local rulers of Mazandaran and Gilan such as: Bisotun II, Ashraf ibn Taj al-Dawla, Mirza Ali, and Kiya Husayn II. Ismāʻil was able to unite all these lands under the Iranian Empire he created. Rise of Shāh Ismāʻil I Shah Ismail I The Safavid dynasty was founded about 1501 by Shāh Ismāʻil I.[44] His background is disputed: the language he used is not identical with that of his "race" or "nationality" and he was bilingual from birth.[45] Ismāʻil was of mixed Turkoman, Kurdish, Pontic Greek and Georgian descent, and was a direct descendant of Kurdish mystic Sheikh Safi al-Din.[46] As such, he was the last in the line of hereditary Grand Masters of the Safaviyeh order, prior to its ascent to a ruling dynasty. Ismāʻil was known as a brave and charismatic youth, zealous with regards to his Shi’a faith, and believed himself to be of divine descent—practically worshipped by his Qizilbash followers. Shāh Ismāʻil's empire In 1500, Ismāʻil invaded neighboring Shirvan to avenge the death of his father, Sheik Haydar, who had been murdered in 1488 by the ruling Shirvanshah, Farrukh Yassar. Afterwards, Ismail went on a conquest campaign, capturing Tabriz in July 1501, where he enthroned himself the Shāh of Azerbaijan,[47][48][49] proclaimed himself Shahanshah of Iran[50][51][52] and minted coins in his name, proclaiming Shiʻism the official religion of his domain.[30] The establishment of Shiʻism as the state religion led to various Sufi orders openly declaring their Shiʻi position, and others to promptly assume Shiʻism. Among these, the founder of one of the most successful Sufi orders, Shah Nimatullah Wali (d. 1431), traced his descent from the Ismail Imam Muhammad ibn Isma'il, as evidenced in a poem as well as another unpublished literary composition. Though Nimatullah was apparently Sunni, the Ni’matullahi order soon declared his order to be Shiʻi after the rise of the Safavid dynasty.[53] Although Ismail I initially gained mastery over Azerbaijan alone, the Safavids ultimately won the struggle for power over all of Iran, which had been going on for nearly a century between various dynasties and political forces. A year after his victory in Tabriz, Ismāʻil claimed most of Iran as part of his territory,[30] and within 10 years established a complete control over all of it. Ismail followed the line of Iranian and Turkmen rulers prior to his assumption of the title "Padishah-i-Iran", previously held by Uzun Hasan and many other Iranian kings.[54] The Ottoman sultans addressed him as the king of Iranian lands and the heir to Jamshid and Kai Khosrow.[55] Having started with just the possession of Azerbaijan, Shirvan, southern Dagestan (with its important city of Derbent), and Armenia in 1501,[56] Erzincan and Erzurum fell into his power in 1502,[57] Hamadan in 1503, Shiraz and Kerman in 1504, Diyarbakir, Najaf, and Karbala in 1507, Van in 1508, Baghdad in 1509, and Herat, as well as other parts of Khorasan, in 1510. In 1503, the kingdoms of Kartli and Kakheti were made his vassals as well.[58] By 1511, the Uzbeks in the north-east, led by their Khan Muhammad Shaybāni, were driven far to the north, across the Oxus River, where they continued to attack the Safavids. Ismail's decisive victory over the Uzbeks, who had occupied most of Khorasan, ensured Iran's eastern borders, and the Uzbeks never since expanded beyond the Hindukush. Although the Uzbeks continued to make occasional raids into Khorasan, the Safavid empire was able to keep them at bay throughout its reign. Start of clashes with the Ottomans Main articles: Battle of Chaldiran and Qizilbash Ismail's battle with Uzbek warlord Muhammad Shaybani Khan in 1510, on a folio from the Kebir Musaver Silsilname. After the battle Ismail purportedly gilded the skull of Shaybani Khan for use as a wine goblet. Artwork of the Battle of Chaldiran. More problematic for the Safavids was the powerful neighboring Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans, a Sunni dynasty, considered the active recruitment of Turkmen tribes of Anatolia for the Safavid cause as a major threat. To counter the rising Safavid power, in 1502, Sultan Bayezid II forcefully deported many Shiʻite Muslims from Anatolia to other parts of the Ottoman realm. In 1511, the Şahkulu rebellion was a widespread pro-Shia and pro-Safavid uprising directed against the Ottoman Empire from within the empire.[59] Furthermore, by the early 1510s Ismail's expansionistic policies had pushed the Safavid borders in Asia Minor even more westwards. The Ottomans soon reacted with a large-scale incursion into Eastern Anatolia by Safavid ghazis under Nūr-ʿAlī Ḵalīfa. This action coincided with the accession to the Ottoman throne in 1512 of Sultan Selim I, Bayezid II's son, and it was the casus belli leading to Selim's decision to invade neighbouring Safavid Iran two years later.[60] In 1514, Sultan Selim I marched through Anatolia and reached the plain of Chaldiran near the city of Khoy, where a decisive battle was fought. Most sources agree that the Ottoman army was at least double the size of that of Ismāʻil;[44] however, the Ottomans had the advantage of artillery, which the Safavid army lacked. According to R. M. Savory, "Salim's plan was to winter at Tabriz and complete the conquest of Persia the following spring. However, a mutiny among his officers who refused to spend the winter at Tabriz forced him to withdraw across territory laid waste by the Safavid forces, eight days later".[44] Although Ismāʻil was defeated and his capital was captured, the Safavid empire survived. The war between the two powers continued under Ismāʻil's son, Emperor Tahmasp I, and the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, until Shah Abbās retook the area lost to the Ottomans by 1602. The consequences of the defeat at Chaldiran were also psychological for Ismāʻil: the defeat destroyed Ismāʻil's belief in his invincibility, based on his claimed divine status.[30] His relationships with his Qizilbash followers were also fundamentally altered. The tribal rivalries among the Qizilbash, which temporarily ceased before the defeat at Chaldiran, resurfaced in intense form immediately after the death of Ismāʻil, and led to ten years of civil war (930–040/1524–1533) until Shāh Tahmāsp regained control of the affairs of the state. For most of the last decade of Ismail's reign, the domestic affairs of the empire were overseen by the Tajik vizier Mirza Shah Hossein until his assassination in 1523.[61] The Chaldiran battle also holds historical significance as the start of over 300 years of frequent and harsh warfare fueled by geo-politics and ideological differences between the Ottomans and the Iranian Safavids (as well as successive Iranian states) mainly regarding territories in Eastern Anatolia, the Caucasus, and Mesopotamia. Early Safavid power in Iran was based on the military power of the Qizilbash. Ismāʻil exploited the first element to seize power in Iran. But eschewing politics after his defeat in Chaldiran, he left the affairs of the government to the office of the wakīl (chief administrator, vakil in Turkish). Ismāʻil's successors, most manifestly Shāh Abbās I, successfully diminished the influence of the Qizilbash on the affairs of the state. Shāh Tahmāsp (r. 1524–76) Main article: Shah Tahmasp Civil strife during Tahmāsp's early reign Shah Tahmasp, fresco on the walls of the Chehel Sotoun Palace Shāh Tahmāsp, the young titular governor of Khorasan,[62] succeeded his father Ismāʻil in 1524, when he was ten years and three months old. The succession was evidently undisputed.[61] Tahmāsp was the ward of the powerful Qizilbash amir Ali Beg Rūmlū (titled "Div Soltān Rumlu") who saw himself as the de facto ruler of the state. Rūmlū and Kopek Sultān Ustajlu (who had been Ismail's last wakīl) established themselves as co-regents of the young shah.[61] The Qizilbash, which still suffered under the legacy of the battle of Chaldiran, was engulfed in internal rivalries. The first two years of Tahmāsp's reign was consumed with Div Sultān’s efforts to eliminate Ustajlu from power.[61] This court intrigue lead directly to tribal conflict. Beginning in 1526 periodic battles broke out, beginning in northwest Iran but soon involving all of Khorasan.[63] In the absence of a charismatic, messianic rallying figure like the young Ismail, the tribal leaders reclaimed their traditional prerogative and threatened to return to the time of local warlords. For nearly 10 years rival Qizilbash factions fought each other. Af first, Kopek Sultān's Ustajlu tribe suffered the heaviest, and he himself was killed in a battle. Thus Div Soltān emerged victorious in the first palace struggle, but he fell victim to Chuha Sultān of the Takkalu, who turned Tahmāsp against his first mentor. In 1527 Tahmāsp demonstrated his desire by shooting an arrow at Div Soltān before the assembled court. The Takkalu replaced the Rumlu as the dominant tribe. They in turn would be replaced by the Shamlu, whose amir, Husain Khan, became the chief adviser. This latest leader would only last until 1534, when he was deposed and executed.[64] At the downfall of Husain Khan, Tahmāsp asserted his rule. Rather than rely on another Turkmen tribe, he appointed a Persian wakīl. From 1553 for forty years the shah was able to avoid being ensnared in tribal treacheries. But the decade of civil war had exposed the empire to foreign danger and Tahmāsp had to turn his attention to the repeated raids by the Uzbeks.[65] Foreign threats to the Empire Main articles: Ottoman–Safavid War (1532–1555) and Peace of Amasya The Uzbeks, during the reign of Tahmāsp, attacked the eastern provinces of the kingdom five times, and the Ottomans under Soleymān I invaded Iran four times.[66] Decentralized control over Uzbek forces was largely responsible for the inability of the Uzbeks to make territorial inroads into Khorasan.[67] Putting aside internal dissension, the Safavid nobles responded to a threat to Herat in 1528 by riding eastward with Tahmāsp (then 17) and soundly defeating the numerically superior forces of the Uzbeks at Jām.[68] The victory resulted at least in part from Safavid use of firearms, which they had been acquiring and drilling with since Chaldiran.[69] Notwithstanding the success with firearms at Jām, Tahmāsp still lacked the confidence to engage their archrivals the Ottomans, choosing instead to cede territory, often using scorched earth tactics in the process.[70] The goal of the Ottomans in the 1534 and 1548–1549 campaigns, during the 1532–1555 Ottoman–Safavid War, was to install Tahmāsp's brothers (Sam Mirza and Alqas Mirza, respectively) as shah in order to make Iran a vassal state. Although in those campaigns (and in 1554) the Ottomans captured Tabriz, they lacked a communications line sufficient to occupy it for long.[71] Nevertheless, given the insecurity in Iraq and its northwest territory, Tahmāsp moved his court from Tabriz to Qazvin. In the gravest crisis of Tahmāsp's reign, Ottoman forces in 1553–54 captured Yerevan, Karabakh and Nakhjuwan, destroyed palaces, villas and gardens, and threatened Ardabil. During these operations an agent of the Samlu (now supporting Sam Mizra's pretensions) attempted to poison the shah. Tahmāsp resolved to end hostilities and sent his ambassador to Soleymān's winter quarters in Erzurum in September 1554 to sue for peace.[72] Temporary terms were followed by the Peace of Amasya in June 1555, ending the war with the Ottomans for the next two decades. The treaty was the first formal diplomatic recognition of the Safavid Empire by the Ottomans.[73] Under the Peace, the Ottomans agreed to restore Yerevan, Karabakh and Nakhjuwan to the Safavids and in turn would retain Mesopotamia (Iraq) and eastern Anatolia. Soleymān agreed to permit Safavid Shi’a pilgrims to make pilgrimages to Mecca and Medina as well as tombs of imams in Iraq and Arabia on condition that the shah would abolish the taburru, the cursing of the first three Rashidun caliphs.[74] It was a heavy price in terms of territory and prestige lost, but it allowed the empire to last, something that seemed improbable during the first years of Tahmāsp's reign. Royal refugees: Bayezid and Humayun Shah Suleiman I and his courtiers, Isfahan, 1670. Painter is Aliquli Jabbadar, and is kept at The St. Petersburg Institute of Oriental Studies in Russia, ever since it was acquired by Tsar Nicholas II. Note the two Georgian figures with their names at the top left. Almost simultaneously with the emergence of the Safavid Empire, the Mughal Empire, founded by the Timurid heir Babur, was developing in South-Asia. The Mughals adhered (for the most part) to a tolerant Sunni Islam while ruling a largely Hindu population. After the death of Babur, his son Humayun was ousted from his territories and threatened by his half-brother and rival, who had inherited the northern part of Babur's territories.[75] Having to flee from city to city, Humayun eventually sought refuge at the court of Tahmāsp in Qazvin in 1543. Tahmāsp received Humayun as the true emperor of the Mughal dynasty, despite the fact that Humayun had been living in exile for more than fifteen years.[75][76] After Humayun converted to Shiʻi Islam (under extreme duress),[75] Tahmāsp offered him military assistance to regain his territories in return for Kandahar, which controlled the overland trade route between central Iran and the Ganges. In 1545 a combined Iranian–Mughal force managed to seize Kandahar and occupy Kabul.[77] Humayun handed over Kandahar, but Tahmāsp was forced to retake it in 1558, after Humayun seized it on the death of the Safavid governor. Humayun was not the only royal figure to seek refuge at Tahmasp's court. A dispute arose in the Ottoman Empire over who was to succeed the aged Suleiman the Magnificent. Suleiman's favourite wife, Hürrem Sultan, was eager for her son, Selim, to become the next sultan. But Selim was an alcoholic and Hürrem's other son, Bayezid, had shown far greater military ability. The two princes quarrelled and eventually Bayezid rebelled against his father. His letter of remorse never reached Suleiman, and he was forced to flee abroad to avoid execution. In 1559 Bayezid arrived in Iran where Tahmasp gave him a warm welcome. Suleiman was eager to negotiate his son's return, but Tahmasp rejected his promises and threats until, in 1561, Suleiman compromised with him. In September of that year, Tahmasp and Bayezid were enjoying a banquet at Tabriz when Tahmasp suddenly pretended he had received news that the Ottoman prince was engaged in a plot against his life. An angry mob gathered and Tahmasp had Bayezid put into custody, alleging it was for his own safety. Tahmasp then handed the prince over to the Ottoman ambassador. Shortly afterwards, Bayezid was killed by agents sent by his own father.[78] Legacy of Shah Tahmasp Shah Tahmasp greets the exiled Humayun When the young Shah Tahmāsp took the throne, Iran was in a dire state. But in spite of a weak economy, a civil war and foreign wars on two fronts, Tahmāsp managed to retain his crown and maintain the territorial integrity of the empire (although much reduced from Ismail's time). During the first 30 years of his long reign, he was able to suppress the internal divisions by exerting control over a strengthened central military force. In the war against the Uzbeks he showed that the Safavids had become a gunpowder empire. His tactics in dealing with the Ottoman threat eventually allowed for a treaty which preserved peace for twenty years. In cultural matters, Tahmāsp presided the revival of the fine arts, which flourished under his patronage. Safavid culture is often admired for the large-scale city planning and architecture, achievements made during the reign of later shahs, but the arts of persian miniature, book-binding and calligraphy, in fact, never received as much attention as they did during his time.[79] Tahmāsp also planted the seeds that would, unintentionally, produce change much later. During his reign he had realized while both looking to his own empire and that of the neighboring Ottomans, that there were dangerous rivalling factions and internal family rivalries that were a threat to the heads of state. Not taken care of accordingly, these were a serious threat to the ruler, or worse, could bring the fall of the former or could lead to unnecessary court intrigues. According to Encyclopædia Iranica, for Tahmāsp, the problem circled around the military tribal elite of the empire, the Qezelbāš, who believed that physical proximity to and control of a member of the immediate Safavid family guaranteed spiritual advantages, political fortune, and material advancement.[80] Despite that Tahmāsp could nullify and neglect some of his consternations regarding potential issues related to his family by having his close direct male relatives such as his brothers and sons routinely transferred around to various governorships in the empire, he understood and realized that any long-term solutions would mainly involve minimizing the political and military presence of the Qezelbāš as a whole. According to Encyclopædia Iranica, his father and founder of the Empire, Ismail I, had begun this process on a bureaucratic level as he appointed a number of prominent Persians in powerful bureaucratic positions, and one can see this continued in Tahmāsp’s lengthy and close relationship with the chief vizier, Qāżi Jahān of Qazvin, after 1535.[80] While Persians continued to fill their historical role as administrators and clerical elites under Tahmāsp, little had been done so far to minimize the military role of the Qezelbāš.[80] Therefore, in 1540, Shah Tahmāsp started the first of a series of invasions of the Caucasus region, both meant as a training and drilling for his soldiers, as well as mainly bringing back massive numbers of Christian Circassian and Georgian slaves, who would form the basis of a military slave system,[81] alike to the janissaries of the neighbouring Ottoman Empire,[82] as well as at the same time forming a new layer in Iranian society composed of ethnic Caucasians. At the fourth invasion in 1553, it was now clear that Tahmāsp followed a policy of annexation and resettlement as he gained control over Tbilisi (Tiflis) and the region of Kartli while physically transplanting more than 30,000 people to the central Iranian heartlands.[80] According to Encyclopædia Iranica, this would be the starting point for the corps of the ḡolāmān-e ḵāṣṣa-ye-e šarifa, or royal slaves, who would dominate the Safavid military for most of the empire's length. As non-Turcoman converts to Islam, these Circassian and Georgian ḡolāmāns (also written as ghulams) were completely unrestrained by clan loyalties and kinship obligations, which was an attractive feature for a ruler like Tahmāsp whose childhood and upbringing had been deeply affected by Qezelbāš tribal politics.[80] In turn, many of these transplanted women became wives and concubines of Tahmāsp, and the Safavid harem emerged as a competitive, and sometimes lethal, arena of ethnic politics as cliques of Turkmen, Circassian, and Georgian women and courtiers vied with each other for the shah’s attention.[80] Although the first slave soldiers would not be organized until the reign of Abbas I, during Tahmāsp's time Caucasians would already become important members of the royal household, Harem and in the civil and military administration,[83][84] and by that becoming their way of eventually becoming an integral part of the society. One of Tahmāsp's sisters married a Circassian, who would use his court office to team up with Tahmāsp's daughter, Pari Khān Khānum to assert themselves in succession matters after Tahmāsp's death. After the Peace of Amasya, Tasmāsp underwent what he called a "sincere repentance." Tasmāsp at the same time removed his son Ismail from his Qizilbash followers and imprisoned him at Qahqaha. Moreover, he began to strengthen Shiʻi practice by such things as forbidding in the new capital of Qazvin poetry and music which did not esteem Ali and the Twelve Imams. He also reduced the taxes of districts that were traditionally Shiʻi, regulated services in mosques and engaged Shiʻi propagandists and spies. Extortion, intimidation and harassment were practiced against Sunnis.[85] When Tahmāsp died in 984/1576, Iran was calm domestically, with secure borders and no imminent threat from either the Uzbeks or the Ottomans. What remained unchanged, however, was the constant threat of local disaffection with the weak central authority. That condition would not change (and in fact it would worsen) until Tahmāsp's grandson, Abbas I, assumed the throne. Chaos under Tahmasp’s sons On Tahmāsp’s death support for a successor coalesced around two of his nine sons; the support divided on ethnic lines—Ismail was supported by most of the Turkmen tribes as well as his sister Pari Khān Khānum, her Circassian uncle Shamkhal Sultan as well as the rest of the Circassians, while Haydar was mostly supported by the Georgians at court although he also had support from the Turkmen Ustajlu.[86] Ismail had been imprisoned at Qahqaha since 1556 by his father on charges of plotting a coup, but his selection was ensured when 30,000 Qizilbash supporters demonstrated outside the prison.[87] Shortly after the installation of Ismail II on August 22, 1576, Haydar was beheaded. Ismail II (r. 1576–77) Main article: Ismail II Ismail's 14-month reign was notable for two things: continual bloodletting of his relatives and others (including his own supporters) and his reversal on religion. He had all his relatives killed except for his older brother, Mohammad Khudabanda, who, being nearly blind, was not a real candidate for the throne, and Mohammad's three sons, Hamza Mirza, Abbas Mirza and Abu Talib Mirza.[88] While the murderous actions of Ismail might be explained by political prudence (Ottoman sultans occasionally purged the bloodline to prevent succession rivals[89]), his actions against Shi’a suggest retaliation against his father, who saw himself as a pious practitioner. Ismail sought to reintroduce Sunni orthodoxy. But even here there may have been practical political considerations; namely, "concern about the excessively powerful position of Shiʻi dignitaries, which would have been undermined by a reintroduction of the Sunna."[90] His conduct might also be explained by his drug use. In any event, he was ultimately killed (according to some accounts) by his Circassian half-sister, Pari Khān Khānum, who championed him over Haydar. She is said to have poisoned his opium.[91] Mohammad Khodabanda (r. 1578–87) Main article: Mohammad Khodabanda "Jealousy among Rivals" attributed to Muhammadi. Miniature painting contained in a Persian volume entitled Busta by Sa'di in 1579, possibly under the patronage of Vizier Mirza Salman Jaberi. E.M. Soudavar Trust, Houston, Texas. On the death of Ismail II there were three candidates for succession: Shāh Shujā', the infant son of Ismail (only a few weeks old), Ismail's brother, Mohammad Khodabanda; and Mohammad’s son, Sultan Hamza Mirza, 11 years old at the time. Pari Khān Khānum, sister of Ismail and Mohammad, hoped to act as regent for any of the three (including her older brother, who was nearly blind). Mohammad was selected and received the crown on February 11, 1579.[92] Mohammad would rule for 10 years, and his sister at first dominated the court, but she fell in the first of many intrigues which continued even though the Uzbeks and Ottomans again used the opportunity to threaten Safavid territory. Mohammad allowed others to direct the affairs of state, but none of them had either the prestige, skill or ruthlessness of either Tahmāsp or Ismail II to rein in the ethnic or palace factions, and each of his rulers met grim ends. Mohammad's younger sister, who had a hand in elevating and deposing Ismail II and thus had considerable influence among the Qizilbash, was the first. She did not last much longer than Mohammad's installation at Qazvin, where she was murdered.[93] She was done in by intrigues by the vizier Mirza Salman Jaberi (who was a holdover from Ismail II's reign) and Mohammad's chief wife Khayr al-Nisa Begum, known as Mahd-i ‘Ulyā. There is some indication that Mirza Salman was the chief conspirator.[94] Pari Khān Khānum could master strong support among the Qizilbash, and her uncle, Shamkhal Sultan, was a prominent Circassian who held a high official position.[95] Mirza Salman left the capital before Pari Khān Khānum closed the gates and was able to meet Mohammad Khodabanda and his wife in Shiraz, to whom he offered his services.[96] He may have believed that he would rule once their enemy was disposed of, but Mahd-i ‘Ulyā proved the stronger of the two. She was by no means content to exercise a more or less indirect influence on affairs of state: instead, she openly carried out all essential functions herself, including the appointment of the chief officers of the realm. In place of the usual royal audience, these high dignitaries had to assemble each morning at the entrance to the women’s apartments in order to receive the Begum’s orders. On these occasions the royal edicts were drawn up and sealed.[93] The amirs demanded that she be removed, and Mahd-i Ulya was strangled in the harem in July 1579 on the ground of an alleged affair with the brother of the Crimean khan, Adil Giray,[93] who was captured during the 1578–1590 Ottoman war and held captive in the capital, Qazvin.[97] None of the perpetrators were brought to justice, although the shah lectured the assembled amirs on how they departed from the old ways when the shah was master to his Sufi disciples. The shah used that occasion to proclaim the 11-year-old Sultan Hamza Mirza (Mahd-i ‘Ulyā's favorite) crown-prince.[98] The palace intrigues reflected ethnic unrest which would soon erupt into open warfare. Iran's neighbors seized the opportunity to attack. The Uzbeks struck in the Spring of 1578 but were repelled by Murtaza Quli Sultan, governor of Mashhad.[99] More seriously the Ottomans ended the Peace of Amasya and commenced a war with Iran that would last until 1590 by invading Iran's territories of Georgia and Shirvan. While the initial attacks were repelled, the Ottomans continued and grabbed considerable territory in Transcaucasia, Dagestan, Kurdistan and Luristan and in 993/1585 they even took Tabriz.[100] In the midst of these foreign perils, rebellion broke out in Khorasan fomented by (or on behalf of) Mohammad's son, Abbas. Ali Quli Khan Shamlu, the lala of Abbas and Ismail II's man in Herat proclaimed Abbas shah there April 1581.[101] The following year the loyal Qizilbash forces (the Turkmen and Takkalu who controlled Qazvin), with vizier Mirza Salman and crown prince Sultan Hamza Mirza at their head, confronted the rebelling Ustajlu-Shamlu coalition which had assumed control of Khorasan under the nominal rule of young Abbas.[102] The Ustajlu chief, Murshid Quli Khan, immediately acquiesced and received a royal pardon. The Shumlu leader, Ali Quli Khan, however, holed himself inside Herat with Abbas. The vizier thought that the royal forces failed to prosecute the siege sufficiently and accused the forces of sedition. The loyal Qizibash recoiled at their treatment by Mirza Salman, who they resented for a number of reasons (not least of which was the fact that a Tajik was given military command over them), and demanded that he be turned over to them. The crown prince (the vizier's son-in-law) meekly turned him over, and the Qizilbash executed him and confiscated his property.[103] The siege of Herat thus ended in 1583 without Ali Quli Khan's surrender, and Khorasan was in a state of open rebellion. In 1585 two events occurred that would combine to break the impasse among the Qizilbash. First, in the west, the Ottomans, seeing the disarray of the warriors, pressed deep into Safavid territory and occupied the old capital of Tabriz. Crown prince Hamza Mirza, now 21 years old and director of Safavid affairs, led a force to confront the Ottomans, but in 1586 was murdered under mysterious circumstances. In the east Murshid Quli Khan, of the Ustajlu tribe, managed to snatch Abbas away from the Shamlus. Two years later in 1587, the massive invasion of Khorasan by the Uzbeks proved the occasion whereby Murshid Quli Khan would make a play for supremacy in Qazvin. When he reached the capital with Abbas a public demonstration in the boy's favor decided the issue, and Shah Mohammad voluntarily handed over the insignia of kingship to his son, who was crowned Abbas I on October 1, 1588. The moment was grave for the empire, with the Ottomans deep in Iranian territory in the west and north and the Uzbeks in possession of half of Khorasan in the east.[104] Shah Abbas (r. 1588–1629) Main article: Abbas I of Persia Shah ‘Abbās King of the Persians, copper engraving by Dominicus Custos, Atrium heroicum Caesarum (1600–1602) The 16-year-old Abbas I was installed as nominal shah in 1588, but the real power was intended to remain in the hands of his "mentor," Murshid Quli Khan, who reorganized court offices and principal governorships among the Qizilbash[105] and took the title of wakīl for himself.[106] Abbas' own position seemed even more dependent on Qizilbash approval than Mohammad Khodabanda's was. The dependence of Abbas on the Qizilbash (which provided the only military force) was further reinforced by the precarious situation of the empire, in the vice of Ottoman and Uzbek territorial plunder. Yet over the course of ten years Abbas was able, using cautiously-timed but nonetheless decisive steps, to affect a profound transformation of Safavid administration and military, throw back the foreign invaders, and preside over a flourishing of Persian art. Restoration of central authority Whether Abbas had fully formed his strategy at the onset, at least in retrospect his method of restoring the shah's authority involved three phases: (1) restoration of internal security and law and order; (2) recovery of the eastern territories from the Uzbeks; and (3) recovery of the western territories from the Ottomans.[107] Before he could begin to embark on the first stage, he needed relief from the most serious threat to the empire: the military pressure from the Ottomans. He did so by taking the humiliating step of coming to peace terms with the Ottomans by making, for now, permanent their territorial gains in Iraq and the territories in the north, including Azerbaijan, Qarabagh, Ganja, eastern Georgia (comprising the Kingdom of Kartli and Kakheti), Dagestan, and Kurdistan.[108][109] At the same time, he took steps to ensure that the Qizilbash did not mistake this apparent show of weakness as a signal for more tribal rivalry at the court. Although no one could have bristled more at the power grab of his "mentor" Murshid Quli Khan, he rounded up the leaders of a plot to assassinate the wakīl and had them executed. Then, having made the point that he would not encourage rivalries even purporting to favor his interests, he felt secure enough to have Murshid Quli Khan assassinated on his own orders in July 1589.[110] It was clear that Abbas' style of leadership would be entirely different than Mohammad Khodabanda's leadership. Safavid Persia, 1598 Abbas was able to begin gradually transforming the empire from a tribal confederation to a modern imperial government by transferring provinces from mamalik (provincial) rule governed by a Qizilbash chief and the revenue of which mostly supported local Qizilbash administration and forces to khass (central) rule presided over by a court appointee and the revenue of which reverted to the court. Particularly important in this regard were the Gilan and Mazandaran provinces, which produced Iran's single most important export; silk. With the substantial new revenue, Abbas was able to build up a central, standing army, loyal only to him. This freed him of his dependence on Qizilbash warriors loyal to local tribal chiefs.[111] Safavid Persia, 1610 What effectively fully severed Abbas's dependence on the Qizilbash, however, was how he constituted this new army. In order not to favor one Turkic tribe over another and to avoid inflaming the Turk-Persian enmity, he recruited his army from the "third force", a policy that had been implemented in its baby-steps since the reign of Tahmasp I—the Circassian, Georgian and to a lesser extent Armenian ghulāms (slaves) which (after conversion to Islam) were trained for the military or some branch of the civil or military administration. The standing army created by Abbas consisted of: (1) 10,000–15,000 cavalry ghulām regiments solely composed of ethnic Caucasians, armed with muskets in addition to the usual weapons (then the largest cavalry in the world[112]); (2) a corps of musketeers, tufangchiyān, mainly Iranians, originally foot soldiers but eventually mounted, and (3) a corps of artillerymen, tūpchiyān. Both corps of musketeers and artillerymen totaled 12,000 men. In addition the shah's personal bodyguard, made up exclusively of Caucasian ghulāms, was dramatically increased to 3,000.[113] This force of well-trained Caucasian ghulams under Abbas amounted to a total of near 40,000 soldiers paid for and beholden to the Shah.[114][115] Abbas also greatly increased the number of cannons at his disposal, permitting him to field 500 in a single battle.[115] Ruthless discipline was enforced and looting was severely punished. Abbas was also able to draw on military advice from a number of European envoys, particularly from the English adventurers Sir Anthony Shirley and his brother Robert Shirley, who arrived in 1598 as envoys from the Earl of Essex on an unofficial mission to induce Iran into an anti-Ottoman alliance.[116] As mentioned by the Encyclopaedia Iranica, lastly, from 1600 onwards, the Safavid statesman Allāhverdī Khan, in conjunction with Robert Sherley, undertook further reorganizations of the army, which meant among other things further dramatically increasing the number of ghulams to 25,000.[117] Abbas also moved the capital to Isfahan, deeper into central Iran. Abbas I built a new city next to the ancient Persian one. From this time the state began to take on a more Persian character. The Safavids ultimately succeeded in establishing a new Persian national monarchy. Recovery of territory from the Uzbeks and the Ottomans See also: Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–18) Abbas I as shown on one of the paintings in the Chehel Sotoun pavilion. Abbas I first fought the Uzbeks, recapturing Herat and Mashhad in 1598. Then he turned against Iran's archrival, the Ottomans, recapturing Baghdad, eastern Iraq and the Caucasian provinces by 1616, all through the 1603–1618, marking the first grand Safavid pitched victory over the Ottomans. He also used his new force to dislodge the Portuguese from Bahrain (1602) and, with English help, from Hormuz (1622), in the Persian Gulf (a vital link in Portuguese trade with India). He expanded commercial links with the English East India Company and the Dutch East India Company. Thus Abbas was able to break dependence on the Qizilbash for military might indefinitely, and therefore was able to fully centralize control for the first time since the foundation of the Safavid state. The Ottoman Turks and Safavids fought over the fertile plains of Iraq for more than 150 years. The capture of Baghdad by Ismail I in 1509 was only followed by its loss to the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman I in 1534. After subsequent campaigns, the Safavids recaptured Baghdad in 1623 during the Ottoman–Safavid War (1623–39) yet lost it again to Murad IV in 1638 after Abbas had died. Henceforth a treaty, signed in Qasr-e Shirin known as the Treaty of Zuhab was established delineating a border between Iran and Turkey in 1639, a border which still stands in northwest Iran/southeast Turkey. The 150-year tug-of-war accentuated the Sunni and Shi'a rift in Iraq. Quelling the Georgian uprising See also: Capture of Tbilisi and Gökçe war Rostom (also known as Rustam Khan), viceroy of Kartli, eastern Georgia, from 1633 to 1658. In 1614–16 during the Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–1618), Abbas suppressed a rebellion led by his formerly most loyal Georgian subjects Luarsab II and Teimuraz I (also known as Tahmuras Khan) in the Kingdom of Kakheti. In 1613, Abbas had appointed these trusted Georgian gholams of his on the puppet thrones of Kartli and Kakheti, the Iranian Safavid ruled areas of Georgia. Later that year, when the shah summoned them to join him on a hunting expedition in Mazandaran, they didn't show up due to the fear they would be either imprisoned or killed.[118] Ultimately forming an alliance, the two sought refuge with the Ottoman forces in Ottoman ruled Imereti. This defection of two of the shah's most trusted subjects and gholams infuriated the shah, as reported by the Safavid court historian Iskander Beg Munshi.[118] The following spring in 1614, Abbas I appointed a grandson of Alexander II of Imereti to the throne of Kartli, Jesse of Kakheti also known as "Isā Khān".[118] Raised at the court in Isfahan and a Muslim, he was fully loyal to the shah. Subsequently, the shah marched upon Grem, the capital of Imereti, and punished its peoples for harbouring his defected subjects. He returned to Kartli, and in two punitive campaigns he devastated Tbilisi, killed 60–70,000 Kakheti Georgian peasants, and deported between 130,000–200,000 Georgian captives to mainland Iran.[119][120][121][122] After fully securing the region, he executed the rebellious Luarsab II of Kartli and later had the Georgian queen Ketevan, who had been sent to the shah as negotiator, tortured to death when she refused to renounce Christianity, in an act of revenge for the recalcitrance of Teimuraz.[123][124] Kakheti lost two-thirds of its population in these years by Abbas' punitive campaign. The majority were deported to Iran, while some were slaughtered.[125] Teimuraz returned to eastern Georgia in 1615 and defeated a Safavid force. It was just a brief setback, however, as Abbas had already been making long-term plans to prevent further incursions. He was eventually successful in making the eastern Georgian territories an integral part of the Safavid provinces. In 1619 he appointed the loyal Simon II (or Semayun Khan) on the symbolic throne of Kakheti, while placing a series of his own governors to rule of districts where rebellious inhabitants were mostly located.[118] Moreover, he planned to deport all nobles of Kartli. Iranian rule had been fully restored over eastern Georgia, but the Georgian territories would continue to produce resistance to Safavid enroachments from 1624 until Abbas' death.[126] Suppressing the Kurdish rebellion In 1609–10, a war broke out between Kurdish tribes and the Safavid Empire. After a long and bloody siege led by the Safavid grand vizier Hatem Beg, which lasted from November 1609 to the summer of 1610, the Kurdish stronghold of Dimdim was captured. Shah Abbas ordered a general massacre in Beradost and Mukriyan (Mahabad, reported by Eskandar Beg Monshi, Safavid Historian (1557–1642), in "Alam Ara Abbasi") and resettled the Turkic Afshar tribe in the region while deporting many Kurdish tribes to Khorasan.[127][128] Nowadays, there is a community of nearly 1.7 million people who are descendants of the tribes deported from Kurdistan to Khorasan (Northeastern Iran) by the Safavids.[129] Contacts with Europe during Abbas's reign The ambassador Husain Ali Beg led the first Persian embassy to Europe (1599–1602). Abbas's tolerance towards Christians was part of his policy of establishing diplomatic links with European powers to try to enlist their help in the fight against their common enemy, the Ottoman Empire. The idea of such an anti-Ottoman alliance was not a new one—over a century before, Uzun Hassan, then ruler of part of Iran, had asked the Venetians for military aid—but none of the Safavids had made diplomatic overtures to Europe. Shah Ismail I was the first of the Safavids to try to establish once again an alliance against the common Ottoman enemy through the earlier stages of the Habsburg–Persian alliance, but this also proved to be largely unfruitful during his reign.[130] Abbas's attitude, however, was in marked contrast to that of his grandfather, Tahmasp I, who had expelled the English traveller Anthony Jenkinson from his court on hearing he was a Christian.[131] For his part, Abbas declared that he "preferred the dust from the shoe soles of the lowest Christian to the highest Ottoman personage."[132] Abbas would take active and all measures needed in order to seal the alliances. Fresco in the Doge's Palace, depicting Doge Marino Grimani receiving the Persian Ambassadors, 1599 In 1599, Abbas sent his first diplomatic mission to Europe. The group crossed the Caspian Sea and spent the winter in Moscow before proceeding through Norway and Germany (where it was received by Emperor Rudolf II) to Rome, where Pope Clement VIII gave the travellers a long audience. They finally arrived at the court of Philip III of Spain in 1602. Although the expedition never managed to return to Iran, being shipwrecked on the journey around Africa, it marked an important new step in contacts between Iran and Europe. The Europeans began to be fascinated by the Iranians and their culture — Shakespeare's Twelfth Night (1601–02), for example, makes two references (at II.5 and III.4) to 'the Sophy', then the English term for the Shahs of Iran.[133][134] Henceforward, the number of diplomatic missions to and fro greatly increased.[135] Abbas I as a new Caesar being honoured by the Trumpets of Fame, together with the 1609–1615 Persian embassy, in Allégorie de l'Occasion, by Frans II Francken, 1628 The shah had set great store on an alliance with Spain, the chief opponent of the Ottomans in Europe. Abbas offered trading rights and the chance to preach Christianity in Iran in return for help against the Ottomans. But the stumbling block of Hormuz remained, a vassal kingdom that had fallen into the hands of the Spanish Habsburgs when the King of Spain inherited the throne of Portugal in 1580. The Spanish demanded Abbas break off relations with the English before they would consider relinquishing the town. Abbas was unable to comply. Eventually Abbas became frustrated with Spain, as he did with the Holy Roman Empire, which wanted him to make his over 400,000 Armenian subjects swear allegiance to the Pope but did not trouble to inform the shah when the Emperor Rudolf signed a peace treaty with the Ottomans. Contacts with the Pope, Poland and Moscow were no more fruitful.[136] More came of Abbas's contacts with the English, although England had little interest in fighting against the Ottomans. The Shirley brothers arrived in 1598 and helped reorganize the Iranian army, which proved to be crucial in the Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–18), which resulted in Ottoman defeats in all stages of the war and the first clear pitched Safavid victory of their archrivals. One of the Shirley brothers, Robert Shirley, would lead Abbas's second diplomatic mission to Europe from 1609–1615.[137] The English at sea, represented by the English East India Company, also began to take an interest in Iran, and in 1622 four of its ships helped Abbas retake Hormuz from the Portuguese in the Capture of Ormuz (1622). This was the beginning of the East India Company's long-running interest in Iran.[138] Succession and legacy of Abbas I Due to his obsessive fear of assassination, Shah Abbas either put to death or blinded any member of his family who aroused his suspicion. His oldest son, the crown prince Mohammad Baqer Mirza, was executed following a court intrigue in which several Circassians were involved, while two others were blinded. Since two other sons had predeceased him, the result was a personal tragedy for Shah Abbas. When he died on 19 January 1629, he had no son capable of succeeding him.[139] During the early 17th century the power of the Qizilbash drastically diminished, the original militia that had helped Ismail I capture Tabriz and that had gained many administrative powers over the centuries. Power was shifting to the new class of Caucasian deportees and imports, many of the hundreds of thousands ethnic Georgians, Circassians, and Armenians. This new layer of society would continue to play a vital role in Iranian history up to and including the fall of the Qajar dynasty, some 300 years after Abbas' death. At its zenith, during the long reign of Shah Abbas I, the empire's reach comprised Iran, Iraq, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Dagestan, Kabardino-Balkaria, Bahrain, and parts of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Turkey. Decline of the Safavid state Main articles: Hotaki dynasty, Afsharid dynasty, Russo-Persian War (1722-1723), and Treaty of Constantinople (1724) Shah Abbas the II holding a banquet for foreign dignitaries. Detail from a ceiling fresco at the Chehel Sotoun Palace in Isfahan. In addition to fighting its perennial enemies, their archrival the Ottomans and the Uzbeks as the 17th century progressed, Iran had to contend with the rise of new neighbors. Russian Muscovy in the previous century had deposed two western Asian khanates of the Golden Horde and expanded its influence into Europe, the Caucasus Mountains and Central Asia. Astrakhan came under Russian rule, nearing the Safavid possessions in Dagestan. In the far eastern territories, the Mughals of India had expanded into Khorasan (now Afghanistan) at the expense of Iranian control, briefly taking Kandahar. David II of Kakheti (Emamqoli Khan) In 1659, the Kingdom of Kakheti rose up against the Safavid Iranian rule due to a change of policy that included the mass settling of Qizilbash Turkic tribes in the region in order to repopulate the province, after Shah Abbas' earlier mass deportations of between 130,000[140] – 200,000[120][121][141] Georgian subjects to Iran's mainland and massacre of another thousand in 1616 virtually left the province without any substantial population. This Bakhtrioni Uprising was successfully defeated under personal direction of Shah Abbas II himself. However, strategically it remained inconclusive.[142] The Iranian authority was restored in Kakheti, but the Qizilbash Turkics were prevented from settling in Kakheti, which undermined the planned Iranian policies in the respective province. More importantly, the Dutch East India Company and later the English/British used their superior means of maritime power to control trade routes in the western Indian Ocean. As a result, Iran was cut off from overseas links to East Africa, the Arabian peninsula, and South Asia.[143] Overland trade grew notably however, as Iran was able to further develop its overland trade with North and Central Europe during the second half of the seventeenth century.[144] In the late seventeenth century, Iranian merchants established a permanent presence as far north as Narva on the Baltic sea, in what now is Estonia.[145] The Dutch and English were still able to drain the Iranian government of much of its precious metal supplies. Except for Shah Abbas II, the Safavid rulers after Abbas I were therefore rendered ineffectual, and the Iranian government declined and finally collapsed when a serious military threat emerged on its eastern border in the early eighteenth century.[146] The end of the reign of Abbas II, 1666, thus marked the beginning of the end of the Safavid dynasty. Despite falling revenues and military threats, later shahs had lavish lifestyles. Sultan Husayn (1694–1722) in particular was known for his love of wine and disinterest in governance.[147] Map of the Safavid Empire, published 1736. The country was repeatedly raided on its frontiers—Kerman by Baloch tribes in 1698, Khorasan by the Hotakis in 1717, Dagestan and northern Shirvan by the Lezgins in 1721, constantly in Mesopotamia by Sunni peninsula Arabs. Sultan Hosein tried to forcibly convert his Afghan subjects in Qandahar from Sunni to Twelverism. In response, a Ghilzai Afghan chieftain named Mirwais Hotak revolted and killed Gurgin Khan, the Safavid governor of the region, along with his army. In 1722, an Afghan army led by Mir Wais' son Mahmud advanced on the heart of the empire and defeated the government forces at the Battle of Gulnabad. He then besieged the capital of Isfahan, until Shah Sultan Husayn abdicated and acknowledged him as the new king of Iran.[148][full citation needed] At the same time, the Russians led by Peter the Great attacked and conquered swaths of Safavid Iran's North Caucasian, Transcaucasian, and northern mainland territories through the Russo-Iranian War (1722-1723). The Safavids' archrivals, the neighbouring Ottomans, invaded western and northwestern Safavid Iran and took swaths of territory there, including the city of Baghdad. Together with the Russians, they agreed to divide and keep the conquered Iranian territories for themselves as confirmed in the Treaty of Constantinople (1724).[149] A map of Safavid Empire in 1720, showing different states of Persia The tribal Afghans rode roughshod over their conquered territory for seven years but were prevented from making further gains by Nader Shah, a former slave who had risen to military leadership within the Afshar tribe in Khorasan, a vassal state of the Safavids. Quickly making a name as a military genius both feared and respected amongst the empire's friends and enemies (including Iran's archrival the Ottoman Empire, and Russia; both empires Nader would deal with soon afterwards), Nader Shah easily defeated the Afghan Hotaki forces in the 1729 Battle of Damghan. He had removed them from power and banished them from Iran by 1729. In 1732 by the Treaty of Resht and in 1735 Treaty of Ganja, he negotiated an agreement with the government of Empress Anna Ioanovna that resulted in the return of the recently annexed Iranian territories, making most of the Caucasus fall back into Iranian hands, while establishing an Irano-Russian alliance against the common neighbouring Ottoman enemy.[150][151] In the Ottoman–Iranian War (1730–35), he retook all territories lost by the Ottoman invasion of the 1720s, as well as beyond. With the Safavid state and its territories secured, in 1738 Nader conquered the Hotaki's last stronghold in Kandahar; in the same year, in need of fortune to aid his military careers against his Ottoman and Russian imperial rivals, he started his invasion of the wealthy but weak Mughal Empire accompanied by his Georgian subject Erekle II,[152] occupying Ghazni, Kabul, Lahore, and as far as Delhi, in India, when he completely humiliated and looted the militarily inferior Mughals. These cities were later inherited by his Abdali Afghan military commander, Ahmad Shah Durrani, who would go on to found the Durrani Empire in 1747. Nadir had effective control under Shah Tahmasp II and then ruled as regent of the infant Abbas III until 1736 when he had himself crowned shah. Part of the Safavid Persian Empire (on right), the Ottoman Empire, and West Asia in general, Emanuel Bowen, 1744–52 Immediately after Nader Shah's assassination in 1747 and the disintegration of his short-lived empire, the Safavids were re-appointed as shahs of Iran in order to lend legitimacy to the nascent Zand dynasty. However, the brief puppet regime of Ismail III ended in 1760 when Karim Khan felt strong enough to take nominal power of the country as well and officially end the Safavid dynasty. Shiʻa Islam as the state religion Main article: Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam Even though the Safavids were not the first Shiʻi rulers in Iran, they played a crucial role in making Shiʻa Islam the official religion in the whole of Iran, as well as what is nowadays the Republic of Azerbaijan.[153] There were large Shiʻi communities in some cities like Qom and Sabzevar as early as the 8th century. In the 10th and 11th centuries the Buwayhids, who were of the Zaidiyyah branch of Shiʻa Islam, ruled in Fars, Isfahan and Baghdad. As a result of the Mongol conquest and the relative religious tolerance of the Ilkhanids, Shiʻi dynasties were re-established in Iran, Sarbedaran in Khorasan being the most important. The Ilkhanid ruler Öljaitü converted to Twelver Shiʻism in the 13th century. Following his conquest of Iran and Azerbaijan, Ismail I made conversion mandatory for the largely Sunni population. The Sunni Ulema or clergy were either killed or exiled[citation needed]. Ismail I, brought in mainstream Twelver Shi'a religious leaders and granted them land and money in return for loyalty. Later, during the Safavid and especially Qajar period, the Shiʻi Ulema's power increased and they were able to exercise a role, independent of or compatible with the government. Military and the role of Qizilbash Main articles: Military of the Safavid dynasty and Qizilbash A Safavid helmet The Qizilbash were a wide variety of Shiʻi Muslims (ghulāt) and mostly Turcoman militant groups who helped found the Safavid Empire. Their military power was essential during the reign of the Shahs Ismail and Tahmasp. The Qizilbash tribes were essential to the military of Iran until the rule of Shah Abbas I- their leaders were able to exercise enormous influence and participate in court intrigues (assassinating Shah Ismail II for example). A major problem faced by Ismail I after the establishment of the Safavid state was how to bridge the gap between the two major ethnic groups in that state: the Qizilbash ("Redhead") Turcomans, the "men of sword" of classical Islamic society whose military prowess had brought him to power, and the Persian elements, the "men of the pen", who filled the ranks of the bureaucracy and the religious establishment in the Safavid state as they had done for centuries under previous rulers of Iran, be they Arabs, Mongols, or Turkmens. As Vladimir Minorsky put it, friction between these two groups was inevitable, because the Qizilbash "were no party to the national Persian tradition". Between 1508 and 1524, the year of Ismail's death, the shah appointed five successive Persians to the office of vakil. When the second Persian vakil was placed in command of a Safavid army in Transoxiana, the Qizilbash, considering it a dishonor to be obliged to serve under him, deserted him on the battlefield with the result that he was slain. The fourth vakil was murdered by the Qizilbash, and the fifth was put to death by them.[44] Reforms in the military Persian Musketeer in time of Abbas I by Habib-Allah Mashadi after Falsafi (Berlin Museum of Islamic Art). Shah Abbas realized that in order to retain absolute control over his empire without antagonizing the Qizilbash, he needed to create reforms that reduced the dependency that the shah had on their military support. Part of these reforms was the creation of the 3rd force within the aristocracy and all other functions within the empire, but even more important in undermining the authority of the Qizilbash was the introduction of the Royal Corps into the military. This military force would serve the shah only and eventually consisted of four separate branches:[154] Shahsevans: these were 12,000 strong and built up from the small group of qurchis that Shah Abbas had inherited from his predecessor. The Shahsevans, or "Friends of the King", were Qizilbash tribesmen who had forsaken their tribal allegiance for allegiance to the shah alone.[155] Ghulams: Tahmasp I had started introducing huge amounts of Georgian, Circassian and Armenian slaves and deportees from the Caucasus, of whom a sizeable amount would become part of the future ghulam system. Shah Abbas expanded this program significantly and fully implemented it, and eventually created a force of 15,000 ghulam cavalrymen and 3,000 ghulam royal bodyguards. With the advent of the brother's Shirley at Abbas' court and by the efforts of statesman Allahverdi Khan, from 1600 onwards, the ghulam fighting regiments were further dramatically expanded under Abbas reaching 25,000.[117] Under Abbas, this force amounted to a total of near 40,000 soldiers paid for and beholden to the Shah.[114][115][156] They would become the elite soldiers of the Safavid armies (like the Ottoman Jannisary).[82] Musketeers: realizing the advantages that the Ottomans had because of their firearms, Shah Abbas was at pains to equip both the qurchi and the ghulam soldiers with up-to-date weaponry. More importantly, for the first time in Iranian history, a substantial infantry corps of musketeers (tofang-chis), numbering 12 000, was created. Artillery Corps: with the help of Westerners, he also formed an artillery corps of 12 000 men, although this was the weakest element in his army. According to Sir Thomas Herbert, who accompanied the British embassy to Iran in 1628, the Persians relied heavily on support from the Europeans in manufacturing cannons.[157] It wasn't until a century later, when Nader Shah became the Commander in Chief of the military that sufficient effort was put into modernizing the artillery corps and the Persians managed to excel and become self-sufficient in the manufacturing of firearms. Despite the reforms, the Qizilbash would remain the strongest and most effective element within the military, accounting for more than half of its total strength.[157] But the creation of this large standing army, that, for the first time in Safavid history, was serving directly under the Shah, significantly reduced their influence, and perhaps any possibilities for the type of civil unrest that had caused havoc during the reign of the previous shahs. Society A proper term for the Safavid society is what we today can call a meritocracy, meaning a society in which officials were appointed on the basis of worth and merit, and not on the basis of birth. It was certainly not an oligarchy, nor was it an aristocracy. Sons of nobles were considered for the succession of their fathers as a mark of respect, but they had to prove themselves worthy of the position. This system avoided an entrenched aristocracy or a caste society.[158] There even are numerous recorded accounts of laymen that rose to high official posts, as a result of their merits.[159] Nevertheless, the Iranian society during the Safavids was that of a hierarchy, with the Shah at the apex of the hierarchical pyramid, the common people, merchants and peasants at the base, and the aristocrats in between. The term dowlat, which in modern Persian means "government", was then an abstract term meaning "bliss" or "felicity", and it began to be used as concrete sense of the Safavid state, reflecting the view that the people had of their ruler, as someone elevated above humanity.[160] Also among the aristocracy, in the middle of the hierarchical pyramid, were the religious officials, who, mindful of the historic role of the religious classes as a buffer between the ruler and his subjects, usually did their best to shield the ordinary people from oppressive governments.[160] The customs and culture of the people Jean Chardin, the 17th-c French traveler, spent many years in Iran and commented at length on their culture, customs and character. He admired their consideration towards foreigners, but he also stumbled upon characteristics that he found challenging. His descriptions of the public appearance, clothes and customs are corroborated by the miniatures, drawings and paintings from that time which have survived.[161] He considered them to be a well-educated and well-behaved people.[162] Unlike Europeans, they much disliked physical activity, and were not in favor of exercise for its own sake, preferring the leisure of repose and luxuries that life could offer. Travelling was valued only for the specific purpose of getting from one place to another, not interesting them self in seeing new places and experiencing different cultures. It was perhaps this sort of attitude towards the rest of the world that accounted for the ignorance of Persians regarding other countries of the world. The exercises that they took part in were for keeping the body supple and sturdy and to acquire skills in handling of arms. Archery took first place. Second place was held by fencing, where the wrist had to be firm but flexible and movements agile. Thirdly there was horsemanship. A very strenuous form of exercise which the Persians greatly enjoyed was hunting.[163] Entertainment A persian miniature depicting a polo-match Since pre-Islamic times, the sport of wrestling had been an integral part of the Iranian identity, and the professional wrestlers, who performed in Zurkhanehs, were considered important members of the society. Each town had their own troop of wrestlers, called Pahlavans. Their sport also provided the masses with entertainment and spectacle. Chardin described one such event:[164] The two wrestlers were covered in grease. They are present on the level ground, and a small drum is always playing during the contest for excitement. They swear to a good fight and shake hands. That done, they slap their thighs, buttocks and hips to the rhythm of the drum. That is for the women and to get themselves in good form. After that they join together in uttering a great cry and trying to overthrow each other. As well as wrestling, what gathered the masses was fencing, tightrope dancers, puppet-players and acrobats, performing in large squares, such as the Royal square. A leisurely form of amusement was to be found in the cabarets, particularly in certain districts, like those near the mausoleum of Harun-e Velayat. People met there to drink liqueurs or coffee, to smoke tobacco or opium, and to chat or listen to poetry.[165] Clothes and appearances Lady's clothing in the 1600s Men's clothing in the 1600s A brocade garment, Safavid era As noted before, a key aspect of the Persian character was its love of luxury, particularly on keeping up appearances. They would adorn their clothes, wearing stones and decorate the harness of their horses. Men wore many rings on their fingers, almost as many as their wives. They also placed jewels on their arms, such as on daggers and swords. Daggers were worn at the waist. In describing the lady's clothing, he noted that Persian dress revealed more of the figure than did the European, but that women appeared differently depending on whether they were at home in the presence of friends and family, or if they were in the public. In private they usually wore a veil that only covered the hair and the back, but upon leaving the home, they put on manteaus, large cloaks that concealed their whole bodies except their faces. They often dyed their feet and hands with henna. Their hairstyle was simple, the hair gathered back in tresses, often adorned at the ends with pearls and clusters of jewels. Women with slender waists were regarded as more attractive than those with larger figures. Women from the provinces and slaves pierced their left nostrils with rings, but well-born Persian women would not do this.[166] The most precious accessory for men was the turban. Although they lasted a long time it was necessary to have changes for different occasions like weddings and the Nowruz, while men of status never wore the same turban two days running. Clothes that became soiled in any way were changed immediately.[167] Turks and Tajiks Although the Safavid rulers and citizens were of native stock and continuously reasserted their Iranian identity, the power structure of the Safavid state was mainly divided into two groups: the Turkic-speaking military/ruling elite—whose job was to maintain the territorial integrity and continuity of the Iranian empire through their leadership—and the Persian-speaking administrative/governing elite—whose job was to oversee the operation and development of the nation and its identity through their high positions. Thus came the term "Turk and Tajik", which was used by native Iranians for many generations to describe the Persianate, or Turko-Persian, nature of many dynasties which ruled over Greater Iran between the 12th and 20th centuries, in that these dynasties promoted and helped continue the dominant Persian linguistic and cultural identity of their states, although the dynasties themselves were of non-Persian (e.g. Turkic) linguistic origins. The relationship between the Turkic-speaking 'Turks' and Persian-speaking 'Tajiks' was symbiotic, yet some form of rivalry did exist between the two. As the former represented the "people of the sword" and the latter, "the people of the pen", high-level official posts would naturally be reserved for the Persians. Indeed, this had been the situation throughout Persian history, even before the Safavids, ever since the Arab conquest.[168] Shah Tahmasp introduced a change to this, when he, and the other Safavid rulers who succeeded him, sought to blur the formerly defined lines between the two linguistic groups, by taking the sons of Turkic-speaking officers into the royal household for their education in the Persian language. Consequently, they were slowly able to take on administrative jobs in areas which had hitherto been the exclusive preserve of the ethnic Persians.[169] The third force: Caucasians See also: Iranian Georgians and Iranian Circassians Daud Khan Undiladze, military commander, ghilman and the governor of Ganja and Karabakh from 1625 to 1630. From 1540 and onwards, Shah Tahmasp initiated a gradual transformation of the Iranian society by slowly constructing a new branch and layer solely composed of ethnic Caucasians. The implementation of this branch would be completed and significantly widened under Abbas the Great (Abbas I). According to the Encyclopædia Iranica, for Tahmasp, the background of this initiation and eventual composition that would be only finalized under Shah Abbas I, circled around the military tribal elite of the empire, the Qizilbash, who believed that physical proximity to and control of a member of the immediate Safavid family guaranteed spiritual advantages, political fortune, and material advancement.[80] This was a huge impedance for the authority of the Shah, and furthermore, it undermined any developments without the agreeing or shared profit of the Qizilbash. As Tahmasp understood and realized that any long-term solutions would mainly involve minimizing the political and military presence of the Qizilbash as a whole, it would require them to be replaced by a whole new layer in society, that would question and battle the authority of the Qizilbash on every possible level, and minimize any of their influences. This layer would be solely composed of hundreds of thousands of deported, imported, and to a lesser extent voluntarily migrated ethnic Circassians, Georgians, and Armenians. This layer would become the "third force" in Iranian society, alongside the other two forces, the Turkomans and Persians. The series of campaigns that Tahmāsp subsequently waged after realising this in the wider Caucasus between 1540 and 1554 were meant to uphold the morale and the fighting efficiency of the Qizilbash military,[170] but they brought home large numbers (over 70,000)[171] of Christian Georgian, Circassian and Armenian slaves as its main objective, and would be the basis of this third force; the new (Caucasian) layer in society.[81] According to the Encyclopædia Iranica, this would be as well the starting point for the corps of the ḡolāmān-e ḵāṣṣa-ye-e šarifa, or royal slaves, who would dominate the Safavid military for most of the empire's length, and would form a crucial part of the third force. As non-Turcoman converts to Islam, these Circassian and Georgian ḡolāmāns (also written as ghulams) were completely unrestrained by clan loyalties and kinship obligations, which was an attractive feature for a ruler like Tahmāsp whose childhood and upbringing had been deeply affected by Qizilbash tribal politics.[80] Their formation, implementation, and usage was very much alike to the janissaries of the neighbouring Ottoman Empire.[82] In turn, many of these transplanted women became wives and concubines of Tahmasp, and the Safavid harem emerged as a competitive, and sometimes lethal, arena of ethnic politics as cliques of Turkmen, Circassian, and Georgian women and courtiers vied with each other for the king's attention.[80] Although the first slave soldiers would not be organized until the reign of Abbas I, during Tahmasp's reign, Caucasians already became important members of the royal household, Harem and in the civil and military administration,[83][84] and were on their way of becoming an integral part of society. Tahmasp I's successor, Ismail II, brought another 30,000 Circassians and Georgians to Iran of which many joined the ghulam force.[172] Following the full implementation of this policy by Abbas I, the women (only Circassian and Georgian) now very often came to occupy prominent positions in the harems of the Safavid elite, while the men who became part of the ghulam "class" as part of the powerful third force were given special training on completion of which they were either enrolled in one of the newly created ghilman regiments, or employed in the royal household.[173] The rest of the masses of deportees and importees, a significant portion numbering many hundreds of thousands, were settled in various regions of mainland Iran, and were given all kinds of roles as part of society, such as craftsmen, farmers, cattle breeders, traders, soldiers, generals, governors, woodcutters, etc., all also part of the newly established layer in Iranian society.[174] Shah Abbas, who significantly enlargened and completed this program and under whom the creation of this new layer in society may be mentioned as fully "finalized", completed the ghulam system as well. As part of its completion, he greatly expanded the ghulam military corps from just a few hundred during Tahmāsp's era, to 15,000 highly trained cavalrymen,[175] as part of a whole army division of 40,000 Caucasian ghulams. He then went on to completely reduce the number of Qizilbash provincial governorships and systematically moved qizilbash governors to other districts, thus disrupting their ties with the local community, and reducing their power. Most were replaced by a ghulam, and within short time, Georgians, Circassians, and to a lesser extent Armenians had been appointed to many of the highest offices of state, and were employed within all other possible sections of society. By 1595, Allahverdi Khan, a Georgian, became one of the most powerful men in the Safavid state, when he was appointed the Governor-General of Fars, one of the richest provinces in Iran. And his power reached its peak in 1598, when he became the commander-in-chief of the armed forces.[176] Thus, starting from the reign of Tahmāsp I but only fully implemented and completed by Shah Abbas, this new group solely composed of ethnic Caucasians eventually came to constitute a powerful "third force" within the state as a new layer in society, alongside the Persians and the Qizilbash Turks, and it only goes to prove the meritocratic society of the Safavids. It is estimated that during Abbas' reign alone some 130,000–200,000 Georgians,[177][121][120][178] tens of thousands of Circassians, and around 300,000 Armenians[179][180] had been deported and imported from the Caucasus to mainland Iran, all obtaining functions and roles as part of the newly created layer in society, such as within the highest positions of the state, or as farmers, soldiers, craftspeople, as part of the Royal harem, the Court, and peasantry, amongst others. Emergence of a clerical aristocracy An important feature of the Safavid society was the alliance that emerged between the ulama (the religious class) and the merchant community. The latter included merchants trading in the bazaars, the trade and artisan guilds (asnāf) and members of the quasi-religious organizations run by dervishes (futuvva). Because of the relative insecurity of property ownership in Iran, many private landowners secured their lands by donating them to the clergy as so called vaqf. They would thus retain the official ownership and secure their land from being confiscated by royal commissioners or local governors, as long as a percentage of the revenues from the land went to the ulama. Increasingly, members of the religious class, particularly the mujtahids and the seyyeds, gained full ownership of these lands, and, according to contemporary historian Iskandar Munshi, Iran started to witness the emergence of a new and significant group of landowners.[181] Akhbaris versus Usulis The Akhbari movement "crystalized" as a "separate movement" with the writings of Muhammad Amin al-Astarabadi (died 1627 AD). It rejected the use of reasoning in deriving verdicts and believed that only the Quran, hadith, (prophetic sayings and recorded opinions of the Imams) and consensus should be used as sources to derive verdicts (fatāwā). Unlike Usulis, Akhbari did and do not follow marjas who practice ijtihad.[182] It achieved its greatest influence in the late Safavid and early post-Safavid era, when it dominated Twelver Shiʻi Islam.[183] However, shortly thereafter Muhammad Baqir Behbahani (died 1792), along with other Usuli mujtahids, crushed the Akhbari movement.[184] It remains only a small minority in the Shiʻi world. One result of the resolution of this conflict was the rise in importance of the concept of ijtihad and the position of the mujtahid (as opposed to other ulama) in the 18th and early 19th centuries. It was from this time that the division of the Shiʻa world into mujtahid (those who could follow their own independent judgment) and muqallid (those who had to follow the rulings of a mujtahid) took place. According to author Moojan Momen, "up to the middle of the 19th century there were very few mujtahids (three or four) anywhere at any one time," but "several hundred existed by the end of the 19th century."[185] Allamah Majlisi Muhammad Baqir Majlisi, commonly referenced to using the title Allamah, was a highly influential scholar during the 17th century (Safavid era). Majlisi's works emphasized his desire to purge Twelver Shiʻism of the influences of mysticism and philosophy, and to propagate an ideal of strict adherence to the Islamic law (sharia).[186] Majlisi promoted specifically Shiʻi rituals such as mourning for Hussein ibn Ali and visitation (ziyarat) of the tombs of the Imams and Imamzadas, stressing "the concept of the Imams as mediators and intercessors for man with God."[187] State and government The Safavid state was one of checks and balance, both within the government and on a local level. At the apex of this system was the Shah, with total power over the state, legitimized by his bloodline as a sayyid, or descendant of Muhammad. So absolute was his power, that the French merchant, and later ambassador to Iran, Jean Chardin thought the Safavid Shahs ruled their land with an iron fist and often in a despotic manner.[188] To ensure transparency and avoid decisions being made that circumvented the Shah, a complex system of bureaucracy and departmental procedures had been put in place that prevented fraud. Every office had a deputy or superintendent, whose job was to keep records of all actions of the state officials and report directly to the Shah. The Shah himself exercised his own measures for keeping his ministers under control by fostering an atmosphere of rivalry and competitive surveillance. And since the Safavid society was meritocratic, and successions seldom were made on the basis of heritage, this meant that government offices constantly felt the pressure of being under surveillance and had to make sure they governed in the best interest of their leader, and not merely their own. The government There probably did not exist any parliament, as we know them today. But the Portuguese ambassador to the Safavids, De Gouvea, still mentions the Council of State[189] in his records, which perhaps was a term for governmental gatherings of the time. The highest level in the government was that of the Prime Minister, or Grand Vizier (Etemad-e Dowlat), who was always chosen from among doctors of law. He enjoyed tremendous power and control over national affairs as he was the immediate deputy of the Shah. No act of the Shah was valid without the counter seal of the Prime Minister. But even he stood accountable to a deputy (vak’anevis), who kept records of his decision-makings and notified the Shah. Second to the Prime Minister post were the General of the Revenues (mostoufi-ye mamalek), or finance minister,[190] and the Divanbegi, Minister of Justice. The latter was the final appeal in civil and criminal cases, and his office stood next to the main entrance to the Ali Qapu palace. In earlier times, the Shah had been closely involved in judicial proceedings, but this part of the royal duty was neglected by Shah Safi and the later kings.[191] Next in authority were the generals: the General of the Royal Troops (the Shahsevans), General of the Musketeers, General of the Ghulams and The Master of Artillery. A separate official, the Commander-in-Chief, was appointed to be the head of these officials.[191] The royal court Frontpage on Jean Chardin's book on his journeys to Persia, published in 1739. As for the royal household, the highest post was that of the Nazir, Court Minister. He was perhaps the closest advisor to the Shah, and, as such, functioned as his eyes and ears within the Court. His primary job was to appoint and supervise all the officials of the household and to be their contact with the Shah. But his responsibilities also included that of being the treasurer of the Shah's properties. This meant that even the Prime Minister, who held the highest office in the state, had to work in association with the Nazir when it came to managing those transactions that directly related to the Shah.[191] The second most senior appointment was the Grand Steward (Ichik Agasi bashi), who would always accompany the Shah and was easily recognizable because of the great baton that he carried with him. He was responsible for introducing all guests, receiving petitions presented to the Shah and reading them if required. Next in line were the Master of the Royal Stables (Mirakor bashi) and the Master of the Hunt (Mirshekar bashi). The Shah had stables in all the principal towns, and Shah Abbas was said to have about 30,000 horses in studs around the country.[192] In addition to these, there were separate officials appointed for the caretaking of royal banquets and for entertainment. Chardin specifically noticed the rank of doctors and astrologers and the respect that the Shahs had for them. The Shah had a dozen of each in his service and would usually be accompanied by three doctors and three astrologers, who were authorized to sit by his side on various occasions.[191] The Chief Physician (Hakim-bashi) was a highly considered member of the Royal court,[193] and the most revered astrologer of the court was given the title Munajjim-bashi (Chief Astrologer).[194] The Safavid court was furthermore a rich mix of peoples from its earliest days.[195] As Prof. David Blow states, foremost among the courtiers were the old nobility of Turkoman Qizilbash lords and their sons. Although already by the early years of king Abbas' reign (r. 1588–1629) they were no longer controlling the state, the Turkoman Qizilbash continued to provide many of the senior army officers and to fill important administrative and ceremonial offices in the royal household.[195] There were the Persians who still dominated the bureaucracy and under Abbas held the two highest government offices of Grand Vizier and Comptroller-General of the Revenues (mostoufi-ye mamalek), which was the nearest thing to a finance minister.[195] There were also the large number of gholams or "slaves of the shah", who were mainly Georgians, Circassians and Armenians.[195] As a result of Abbas' reforms, they held high offices in the army, the administration and the royal household. Last but by no means least there were the palace eunuchs who were also ghulams – "white" eunuchs largely from the Caucasus, and "black" eunuchs from India and Africa.[195] Under Abbas, the eunuchs became an increasingly important element at the court.[195] During the first century of the dynasty, the primary court language remained Azeri,[190] although this increasingly changed after the capital was moved to Isfahan.[13] David Blow adds; "it seems likely that most, if not all, of the Turkoman grandees at the court also spoke Persian, which was the language of the administration and culture, as well as of the majority of the population. But the reverse seems not to have been true. When Abbas had a lively conversation in Turkish with the Italian traveller Pietro Della Valle, in front of his courtiers, he had to translate the conversation afterwards into Persian for the benefit of most of those present."[195] Lastly, due to the large amount of Georgians, Circassians, and Armenians at the Safavid court (the gholams and in the harem), the Georgian, Circassian and Armenian languages were spoken as well, since these were their mother tongues.[196] Abbas himself was able to speak Georgian as well.[197] Local governments See also: List of Safavid governors of Kerman View of Tbilisi by French traveler Jean Chardin, 1671. On a local level, the government was divided into public land and royal possessions. The public land was under the rule of local governors, or Khans. Since the earliest days of the Safavid dynasty, the Qizilbash generals had been appointed to most of these posts. They ruled their provinces like petty shahs and spent all their revenues on their own province, only presenting the Shah with the balance. In return, they had to keep ready a standing army at all times and provide the Shah with military assistance upon his request. It was also requested from them that they appoint a lawyer (vakil) to the Court who would inform them on matters pertaining to the provincial affairs.[198] Shah Abbas I intended to decrease the power of the Qizilbash by bringing some of these provinces into his direct control, creating so called Crown Provinces (Khassa). But it was Shah Safi, under influence by his Prime Minister, Saru Taqi, that initiated the program of trying to increase the royal revenues by buying land from the governors and putting in place local commissioners.[198] In time, this proved to become a burden to the people that were under the direct rule of the Shah, as these commissioners, unlike the former governors, had little knowledge about the local communities that they controlled and were primarily interested in increasing the income of the Shah. And, while it was in the governors’ own interest to increase the productivity and prosperity of their provinces, the commissioners received their income directly from the royal treasury and, as such, did not care so much about investing in agriculture and local industries. Thus, the majority of the people suffered from rapacity and corruption carried out in the name of the Shah.[198] Democratic institutions in a Authoritarian society In 16th and 17th century Iran, there existed a considerable number of local democratic institutions. Examples of such were the trade and artisan guilds, which had started to appear in Iran from the 1500s. Also, there were the quazi-religious fraternities called futuvva, which were run by local dervishes. Another official selected by the consensus of the local community was the kadkhoda, who functioned as a common law administrator.[199] The local sheriff (kalantar), who was not elected by the people but directly appointed by the Shah, and whose function was to protect the people against injustices on the part of the local governors, supervised the kadkhoda.[200] Legal system The Karkan, a tool used for punishment of state criminals In Safavid Iran there was little distinction between theology and jurisprudence, or between divine justice and human justice, and it all went under Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh). The legal system was built up of two branches: civil law, which had its roots in sharia, received wisdom, and urf, meaning traditional experience and very similar to the Western form of common law. While the imams and judges of law applied civil law in their practice, urf was primarily exercised by the local commissioners, who inspected the villages on behalf of the Shah, and by the Minister of Justice (Divanbegi). The latter were all secular functionaries working on behalf of the Shah.[201] The highest level in the legal system was the Minister of Justice, and the law officers were divided into senior appointments, such as the magistrate (darughah), inspector (visir), and recorder (vak’anevis). The lesser officials were the qazi, corresponding a civil lieutenant, who ranked under the local governors and functioned as judges in the provinces. According to Chardin:[202] There were no particular place assigned for the administration of justice. Each magistrate executes justice in his own house in a large room opening on to a courtyard or a garden which is raised two or three feet above the ground. The Judge is seated at one end of the room having a writer and a man of law by his side. Chardin also noted that bringing cases into court in Iran was easier than in the West. The judge (qazi) was informed of relevant points involved and would decide whether or not to take up the case. Having agreed to do so, a sergeant would investigate and summon the defendant, who was then obliged to pay the fee of the sergeant. The two parties with their witnesses pleaded their respective cases, usually without any counsel, and the judge would pass his judgment after the first or second hearing.[202] Criminal justice was entirely separate from civil law and was judged upon common law administered through the Minister of Justice, local governors and the Court minister (the Nazir). Despite being based on urf, it relied upon certain sets of legal principles. Murder was punishable by death, and the penalty for bodily injuries was invariably the bastinado. Robbers had their right wrists amputated the first time, and sentenced to death on any subsequent occasion. State criminals were subjected to the karkan, a triangular wooden collar placed around the neck. On extraordinary occasions when the Shah took justice into his own hand, he would dress himself up in red for the importance of the event, according to ancient tradition.[201] Economy A 19th-century drawing of Isfahan The growth of Safavid economy was fuelled by the stability which allowed the agriculture to thrive, as well as trade, due to Iran's position between the burgeoning civilizations of Europe to its west and India and Islamic Central Asia to its east and north. The Silk Road which led through northern Iran was revived in the 16th century. Abbas I also supported direct trade with Europe, particularly England and The Netherlands which sought Persian carpet, silk and textiles. Other exports were horses, goat hair, pearls and an inedible bitter almond hadam-talka used as a spice in India. The main imports were spice, textiles (woolens from Europe, cottons from Gujarat), metals, coffee, and sugar. In the late 17th century, Safavid Iran had higher living standards than in Europe. According to traveller Jean Chardin, for example, farmers in Iran had higher living standards than farmers in the most fertile European countries.[203] Agriculture According to the historian Roger Savory, the twin bases of the domestic economy were pastoralism and agriculture. And, just as the higher levels of the social hierarchy was divided between the Turkish "men of the sword" and the Persian "men of the pen"; so were the lower level divided between the Turcoman tribes, who were cattle breeders and lived apart from the surrounding population, and the Persians, who were settled agriculturalists.[204] The Safavid economy was to a large extent based on agriculture and taxation of agricultural products. According to the French jeweller Jean Chardin, the variety in agricultural products in Iran was unrivaled in Europe and consisted of fruits and vegetables never even heard of in Europe. Chardin was present at some feasts in Isfahan were there were more than fifty different kinds of fruit. He thought that there was nothing like it in France or Italy:[205] Tobacco grew all over the country and was as strong as that grown in Brazil. Saffron was the best in the world... Melons were regarded as excellent fruit, and there were more than 50 different sorts, the finest of which came from Khorasan. And in spite of being transported for more than thirty days, they were fresh when they reached Isfahan... After melons the finest fruits were grapes and dates, and the best dates were grown in Jahrom. Despite this, he was disappointed when travelling the country and witnessing the abundance of land that was not irrigated, or the fertile plains that were not cultivated, something he thought was in stark contrast to Europe. He blamed this on misgovernment, the sparse population of the country, and lack of appreciation of agriculture amongst the Persians.[206] In the period prior to Shah Abbas I, most of the land was assigned to officials (civil, military and religious). From the time of Shah Abbas onwards, more land was brought under the direct control of the shah. And since agriculture accounted for by far largest share of tax revenue, he took measures to expand it. What remained unchanged, was the "crop-sharing agreement" between whomever was the landlord, and the farmer. This agreement concisted of five elements: land, water, plough-animals, seed and labour. Each element constituted 20 percent of the crop production, and if, for instance, the farmer provided the labour force and the animals, he would be entitled to 40 percent of the earnings.[207][208] According to contemporary historians, though, the landlord always had the worst of the bargain with the farmer in the crop-sharing agreements. In general, the farmers lived in comfort, and they were well paid and wore good clothes, although it was also noted that they were subject to forced labour and lived under heavy demands.[209] Travel and caravanserais The Mothers Inn caravanserai in Isfahan, that was built during the reign of Shah Abbas II, was a luxury resort meant for the wealthiest merchants and selected guests of the shah. Today it is a luxury hotel and goes under the name of Hotel Abassi. Horses were the most important of all the beasts of burden, and the best were brought in from Arabia and Central-Asia. They were costly because of the widespread trade in them, including to Turkey and India. The next most important mount, when traveling through Iran, was the mule. Also, the camel was a good investment for the merchant, as they cost nearly nothing to feed, carried a lot weight and could travel almost anywhere.[210] Under the governance of the strong shahs, especially during the first half of the 17th century, traveling through Iran was easy because of good roads and the caravanserais, that were strategically placed along the route. Thévenot and Tavernier commented that the Iranian caravanserais were better built and cleaner than their Turkish counterparts.[211] According to Chardin, they were also more abundant than in the Mughal or Ottoman Empires, where they were less frequent but larger.[212] Caravanserais were designed especially to benefit poorer travelers, as they could stay there for as long as they wished, without payment for lodging. During the reign of Shah Abbas I, as he tried to upgrade the Silk Road to improve the commercial prosperity of the Empire, an abundance of caravanserais, bridges, bazaars and roads were built, and this strategy was followed by wealthy merchants who also profited from the increase in trade. To uphold the standard, another source of revenue was needed, and road toll, that were collected by guards (rah-dars), were stationed along the trading routes. They in turn provided for the safety of the travelers, and both Thevenot and Tavernier stressed the safety of traveling in 17th century Iran, and the courtesy and refinement of the policing guards.[213] The Italian traveler Pietro Della Valle was impressed by an encounter with one of these road guards:[214] He examined our baggage, but in the most obliging manner possible, not opening our trunks or packages, and was satisfied with a small tax, which was his due... Foreign trade and the Silk Road The Chehel Sotoun Palace in Isfahan was where the Shah would meet foreign dignitaries and embassies. It is famous for the frescoes that cover its walls. The Portuguese Empire and the discovery of the trading route around the Cape of Good Hope in 1487 not only hit a death blow to Venice as a trading nation, but it also hurt the trade that was going on along the Silk Road and especially the Persian Gulf. They correctly identified the three key points to control all seaborne trade between Asia and Europe: The Gulf of Aden, The Persian Gulf and the Straits of Malacca by cutting off and controlling these strategic locations with high taxation.[215] In 1602, Shah Abbas I drove the Portuguese out of Bahrain, but he needed naval assistance from the newly arrived British East India Company to finally expel them from the Strait of Hormuz and regain control of this trading route.[216] He convinced the British to assist him by allowing them to open factories in Shiraz, Isfahan and Jask.[217][218] With the later end of the Portuguese Empire, the British, Dutch and French in particular gained easier access to Persian seaborne trade, although they, unlike the Portuguese, did not arrive as colonisers, but as merchant adventurers. The terms of trade were not imposed on the Safavid shahs, but rather negotiated. The Silk Road In the long term, however, the seaborne trade route was of less significance to the Persians than was the traditional Silk Road. Lack of investment in ship building and the navy provided the Europeans with the opportunity to monopolize this trading route. The land-borne trade would thus continue to provide the bulk of revenues to the Iranian state from transit taxes. The revenue came not so much from exports, as from the custom charges and transit dues levied on goods passing through the country.[219] Shah Abbas was determined to greatly expand this trade, but faced the problem of having to deal with the Ottomans, who controlled the two most vital routes: the route across Arabia to the Mediterranean ports, and the route through Anatolia and Istanbul. A third route was therefore devised which circumvented Ottoman territory. By travelling across the Caspian sea to the north, they would reach Russia. And with the assistance of the Muscovy Company they could cross over to Moscow, reaching Europe via Poland. This trading route proved to be of vital importance, especially during times of war with the Ottomans.[220] By the end of the 17th century, the Dutch had become dominant in the trade that went via the Persian Gulf, having won most trade agreements, and managed to strike deals before the British or French were able to. They particularly established monopoly of the spice trade between the East Indies and Iran.[221] Culture Iranian art Visual arts Art Miniature Carpets Calligraphy Decorative arts Arts of Iran Jewelry Embroidery Motifs Tilework Handicrafts Pottery Literature Literature Mythology Folklore Philosophy Performance arts Dance Music Cinema Theatre Other Architecture Cuisine Gardens v t e Art Main article: Safavid art Abbas I recognized the commercial benefit of promoting the arts—artisan products provided much of Iran's foreign trade. In this period, handicrafts such as tile making, pottery and textiles developed and great advances were made in miniature painting, bookbinding, decoration and calligraphy. In the 16th century, carpet weaving evolved from a nomadic and peasant craft to a well-executed industry with specialization of design and manufacturing. Tabriz was the center of this industry. The carpets of Ardabil were commissioned to commemorate the Safavid dynasty. The elegantly baroque yet famously 'Polonaise' carpets were made in Iran during the 17th century. Reza Abbasi, Youth reading, 1625–26 Using traditional forms and materials, Reza Abbasi (1565–1635) introduced new subjects to Persian painting—semi-nude women, youth, lovers. His painting and calligraphic style influenced Iranian artists for much of the Safavid period, which came to be known as the Isfahan school. Increased contact with distant cultures in the 17th century, especially Europe, provided a boost of inspiration to Iranian artists who adopted modeling, foreshortening, spatial recession, and the medium of oil painting (Shah Abbas II sent Muhammad Zaman to study in Rome). The epic Shahnameh ("Book of Kings"), a stellar example of manuscript illumination and calligraphy, was made during Shah Tahmasp's reign. (This book was written by Ferdousi in 1000 AD for Sultan Mahmood Ghaznawi) Another manuscript is the Khamsa by Nizami executed 1539–1543 by Aqa Mirak and his school in Isfahan. Architecture See also: Persian architecture Painting by the French architect, Pascal Coste, visiting Persia in 1841 (from Monuments modernes de la Perse). In the Safavid era the Persian architecture flourished again and saw many new monuments, such as the Masjid-e Shah, part of Naghsh-i Jahan Square which is the biggest historic plaza in the world. Naqshe Jahan square in Isfahan is the epitome of 16th-century Iranian architecture. Isfahan bears the most prominent samples of the Safavid architecture, all constructed in the years after Shah Abbas I permanently moved the capital there in 1598: the Imperial Mosque, Masjid-e Shah, completed in 1630, the Imam Mosque (Masjid-e Imami) the Lutfallah Mosque and the Royal Palace. According to William Cleveland and Martin Bunton,[222] the establishment of Isfahan as the Great capital of Iran and the material splendor of the city attracted intellectual's from all corners of the world, which contributed to the city's rich cultural life. The impressive achievements of its 400,000 residents prompted the inhabitants to coin their famous boast, "Isfahan is half the world". A new age in Iranian architecture began with the rise of the Safavid dynasty. Economically robust and politically stable, this period saw a flourishing growth of theological sciences. Traditional architecture evolved in its patterns and methods leaving its impact on the architecture of the following periods. Indeed, one of the greatest legacies of the Safavids is the architecture. In 1598, when Shah Abbas decided to move the capital of his Iranian empire from the north-western city of Qazvin to the central city of Isfahan, he initiated what would become one of the greatest programmes in Iranian history; the complete remaking of the city. By choosing the central city of Isfahan, fertilized by the Zāyande roud ("The life-giving river"), lying as an oasis of intense cultivation in the midst of a vast area of arid landscape, he both distanced his capital from any future assaults by the Ottomans and the Uzbeks, and at the same time gained more control over the Persian Gulf, which had recently become an important trading route for the Dutch and British East India Companies.[223] The 16th-century Chehel Sotun pavilion in Qazvin, Iran. It is the last remains of the palace of the second Safavid king, Shah Tahmasp; it was heavily restored by the Qajars in the 19th century. The Chief architect of this colossal task of urban planning was Shaykh Bahai (Baha' ad-Din al-`Amili), who focused the programme on two key features of Shah Abbas's master plan: the Chahar Bagh avenue, flanked at either side by all the prominent institutions of the city, such as the residences of all foreign dignitaries. And the Naqsh-e Jahan Square ("Examplar of the World").[224] Prior to the Shah's ascent to power, Iran had a decentralized power-structure, in which different institutions battled for power, including both the military (the Qizilbash) and governors of the different provinces making up the empire. Shah Abbas wanted to undermine this political structure, and the recreation of Isfahan, as a Grand capital of Iran, was an important step in centralizing the power.[225] The ingenuity of the square, or Maidān, was that, by building it, Shah Abbas would gather the three main components of power in Iran in his own backyard; the power of the clergy, represented by the Masjed-e Shah, the power of the merchants, represented by the Imperial Bazaar, and of course, the power of the Shah himself, residing in the Ali Qapu Palace. Distinctive monuments like the Sheikh Lotfallah (1618), Hasht Behesht (Eight Paradise Palace) (1469) and the Chahar Bagh School (1714) appeared in Isfahan and other cities. This extensive development of architecture was rooted in Persian culture and took form in the design of schools, baths, houses, caravanserai and other urban spaces such as bazaars and squares. It continued until the end of the Qajar reign.[226] Literature Poetry stagnated under the Safavids; the great medieval ghazal form languished in over-the-top lyricism. Poetry lacked the royal patronage of other arts and was hemmed in by religious prescriptions. The arguably most renowned historian from this time was Iskandar Beg Munshi. His History of Shah Abbas the Great written a few years after its subject's death, achieved a nuanced depth of history and character. The Isfahan School—Islamic philosophy revived See also: School of Isfahan, Mulla Sadra, Mir Damad, Mir Fendereski, Shaykh Bahai, and Mohsen Fayz Kashani 19th-century painting of the Chahar Bagh School in Isfahan, built during the time of Soltan Hossein to serve as a theological and clerical school Islamic philosophy[227] flourished in the Safavid era in what scholars commonly refer to the School of Isfahan. Mir Damad is considered the founder of this school. Among luminaries of this school of philosophy, the names of Iranian philosophers such as Mir Damad, Mir Fendereski, Shaykh Bahai and Mohsen Fayz Kashani standout. The school reached its apogee with that of the Iranian philosopher Mulla Sadra who is arguably the most significant Islamic philosopher after Avicenna. Mulla Sadra has become the dominant philosopher of the Islamic East, and his approach to the nature of philosophy has been exceptionally influential up to this day.[228] He wrote the Al-Hikma al-muta‘aliya fi-l-asfar al-‘aqliyya al-arba‘a ("The Transcendent Philosophy of the Four Journeys of the Intellect"),[229] a meditation on what he called 'meta philosophy' which brought to a synthesis the philosophical mysticism of Sufism, the theology of Shi'a Islam, and the Peripatetic and Illuminationist philosophies of Avicenna and Suhrawardi. According to the Iranologist Richard Nelson Frye:[230] They were the continuers of the classical tradition of Islamic thought, which after Averroes died in the Arab west. The Persians schools of thought were the true heirs of the great Islamic thinkers of the golden age of Islam, whereas in the Ottoman empire there was an intellectual stagnation, as far as the traditions of Islamic philosophy were concerned. Medicine A Latin copy of The Canon of Medicine, dated 1484, located at the P.I. Nixon Medical Historical Library of The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, USA. The status of physicians during the Safavids stood as high as ever. Whereas neither the ancient Greeks nor the Romans accorded high social status to their doctors, Iranians had from ancient times honored their physicians, who were often appointed counselors of the Shahs. This would not change with the Arab conquest of Iran, and it was primarily the Persians that took upon them the works of philosophy, logic, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, astrology, music and alchemy.[231] By the sixteenth century, Islamic science, which to a large extent meant Persian science, was resting on its laurels. The works of al-Razi (865–92) (known to the West as Razes) were still used in European universities as standard textbooks of alchemy, pharmacology and pediatrics. The Canon of Medicine by Avicenna (c. 980–1037) was still regarded as one of the primary textbooks in medicine throughout most of the civilized world.[232] As such, the status of medicine in the Safavid period did not change much, and relied as much on these works as ever before. Physiology was still based on the four humours of ancient and mediaeval medicine, and bleeding and purging were still the principal forms of therapy by surgeons, something even Thevenot experienced during his visit to Iran.[193] The only field within medicine where some progress were made was pharmacology, with the compilement of the "Tibb-e Shifa’i" in 1556. This book was translated into French in 1681 by Angulus de Saint, under the name "Pharmacopoea Persica".[233] The languages of the court, military, administration and culture The Safavids by the time of their rise were Azerbaijani-speaking although they also used Persian as a second language. The language chiefly used by the Safavid court and military establishment was Azerbaijani.[15][21] But the official[9] language of the empire as well as the administrative language, language of correspondence, literature and historiography was Persian.[15] The inscriptions on Safavid currency were also in Persian.[234] Scene from Attar's The Conference of the Birds, by Habibulla Meshedi (1600). Safavids also used Persian as a cultural and administrative language throughout the empire and were bilingual in Persian.[45] According to Arnold J. Toynbee,[235] In the heyday of the Mughal, Safawi, and Ottoman regimes New Persian was being patronized as the language of litterae humaniores by the ruling element over the whole of this huge realm, while it was also being employed as the official language of administration in those two-thirds of its realm that lay within the Safawi and the Mughal frontiers According to John R. Perry,[236] In the 16th century, the Turcophone Safavid family of Ardabil in Azerbaijan, probably of Turkicized Iranian, origin, conquered Iran and established Turkic, the language of the court and the military, as a high-status vernacular and a widespread contact language, influencing spoken Persian, while written Persian, the language of high literature and civil administration, remained virtually unaffected in status and content. According to Zabiollah Safa,[21] In day-to-day affairs, the language chiefly used at the Safavid court and by the great military and political officers, as well as the religious dignitaries, was Turkish, not Persian; and the last class of persons wrote their religious works mainly in Arabic. Those who wrote in Persian were either lacking in proper tuition in this tongue, or wrote outside Iran and hence at a distance from centers where Persian was the accepted vernacular, endued with that vitality and susceptibility to skill in its use which a language can have only in places where it truly belongs. Prince Muhammad-Beik of Georgia by Reza Abbasi (1620) According to É. Á. Csató et al.,[237] A specific Turkic language was attested in Safavid Persia during the 16th and 17th centuries, a language that Europeans often called Persian Turkish ("Turc Agemi", "lingua turcica agemica"), which was a favourite language at the court and in the army because of the Turkic origins of the Safavid dynasty. The original name was just turki, and so a convenient name might be Turki-yi Acemi. This variety of Persian Turkish must have been also spoken in the Caucasian and Transcaucasian regions, which during the 16th century belonged to both the Ottomans and the Safavids, and were not fully integrated into the Safavid empire until 1606. Though that language might generally be identified as Middle Azerbaijanian, it is not yet possible to define exactly the limits of this language, both in linguistic and territorial respects. It was certainly not homogenous—maybe it was an Azerbaijanian-Ottoman mixed language, as Beltadze (1967:161) states for a translation of the gospels in Georgian script from the 18th century. According to Rula Jurdi Abisaab,[238] Although the Arabic language was still the medium for religious scholastic expression, it was precisely under the Safavids that hadith complications and doctrinal works of all sorts were being translated to Persian. The 'Amili (Lebanese scholars of Shiʻi faith) operating through the Court-based religious posts, were forced to master the Persian language; their students translated their instructions into Persian. Persianization went hand in hand with the popularization of 'mainstream' Shiʻi belief. According to Cornelis Versteegh,[239] The Safavid dynasty under Shah Ismail (961/1501) adopted Persian and the Shiʻite form of Islam as the national language and religion. According to David Blow,[195] The primary court language [with Abbas I's reign (r. 1588–1629)] remained Turkish. But it was not the Turkish of Istanbul. It was a Turkish dialect, the dialect of the Qizilbash Turkomans, which is still spoken today in the province of Azerbaijan, in north-western Iran. This form of Turkish was also the mother-tongue of Shah Abbas, although he was equally at ease speaking Persian. It seems likely that most, if not all, of the Turkoman grandees at the court also spoke Persian, which was the language of the administration and culture, as well as of the majority of the population. But the reverse seems not to have been true. When Abbas had a lively conversation in Turkish with the Italian traveller Pietro Della Valle, in front of his courtiers, he had to translate the conversation afterwards into Persian for the benefit of most of those present. Regarding the usage of Georgian, Circassian and Armenian at the Royal Court, David Blow states,[196] Georgian, Circassian and Armenian were also spoken, since these were the mother-tongues of many of the ghulams, as well as of a high proportion of the women of the harem. Figueroa heard Abbas speak Georgian, which he had no doubt acquired from his Georgian ghulams and concubines. Legacy Safavid Star from ceiling of Shah Mosque, Isfahan, Iran. It was the Safavids who made Iran the spiritual bastion of Shiʻism, and the repository of Persian cultural traditions and self-awareness of Iranianhood, acting as a bridge to modern Iran. The founder of the dynasty, Shah Isma'il, adopted the title of "King of Iran" (Pādišah-ī Īrān), with its implicit notion of an Iranian state stretching from Khorasan as far as Euphrates, and from the Oxus to the southern Territories of the Persian Gulf.[240] According to Professor Roger Savory:[241][242] In a number of ways the Safavids affected the development of the modern Iranian state: first, they ensured the continuance of various ancient and traditional Persian institutions, and transmitted these in a strengthened, or more 'national', form; second, by imposing Ithna 'Ashari Shi'a Islam on Iran as the official religion of the Safavid state, they enhanced the power of mujtahids. The Safavids thus set in train a struggle for power between the turban and the crown that is to say, between the proponents of secular government and the proponents of a theocratic government; third, they laid the foundation of alliance between the religious classes ('Ulama') and the bazaar which played an important role both in the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1905–1906, and again in the Islamic Revolution of 1979; fourth the policies introduced by Shah Abbas I conduced to a more centralized administrative system. According to Donald Struesand, "[a]lthough the Safavid unification of the eastern and western halves of the Iranian plateau and imposition of Twelver Shiʻi Islam on the region created a recognizable precursor of modern Iran, the Safavid polity itself was neither distinctively Iranian nor national."[243] Rudolph Matthee concluded that "[t]hough not a nation-state, Safavid Iran contained the elements that would later spawn one by generating many enduring bureaucratic features and by initiating a polity of overlapping religious and territorial boundaries."[244] See also Persianate states List of Shi'a Muslim dynasties Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam Khanates of the Caucasus Notes ^ Molke Vasi’ al-Fazâye Irân ^ Mamlekate Irân ^ Persian: شاهنشاهی صفوی‎ Šāhanšāhi-ye Safavi. References ^ Matthee* Matthee, Rudi (1 September 2009). "Was Safavid Iran an Empire?". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 53 (1): 241. doi:10.1163/002249910X12573963244449. S2CID 55237025. The term 'Iran', which after an absence of some six centuries had re-entered usage with the Ilkhanid branch of the Mongols, conveyed a shared self-awareness among the political and cultural elite of a geographical entity with distinct territorial and political implications. A core element of the Safavid achievement was the notion that the dynasty had united the eastern and western halves of Iran, Khurasan and Herat, the lands of the Timurids, in the East, and the territory of the Aq-Quyunlu in the West. The term mulk-i vasi' al-faza-yi Iran, 'the expansive realm of Iran', found in the seventeenth-century chronicle, Khuld-i barin, and again, in near identical terms, in the travelogue of Muhammad Rabi Shah Sulayman's envoy to Siam in the 1680s, similarly conveys the authors pride and self-consciousness with regard to the territory they inhabited or hailed from. ^ Savory, Roger (2 January 2007). "The Safavid state and polity". Iranian Studies. 7 (1–2): 206. doi:10.1080/00210867408701463. The somewhat vague phrase used during the early Safavid period, mamalik-i mahrusa, had assumed more concrete forms: mamālik-i īrān; mamālik-i 'ajam; mamlikat-i īrān; mulk-i īrān; or simply īrān. The royal throne was variously described as sarīr-i saltanat-i īrān; takht-i īrān; and takht-i sultān (sic)-i īrān. The inhabitants of the Safavid empire are referred to as ahl-i īrān, and Iskandar Beg describes himself as writing the history of the Iranians (sharh-i ahvāl-i īrān va īrāniān). Shah Abbas I is described as farmānravā-yi īrān and shahryār-i īrān; his seat is pāyitakht-i pādishāhān-i īrān, takhtgāh-i salātin-i īrān, or dār al-mulk-i īrān. His sovereign power is referred to as farmāndahi-yi mulk-i īrān, saltanat va pādishāhi-yi īrān, pādishāhi-yi īrān. The cities of Iran (bilād-i īrān) are thought of as belonging to a positive entity or state: Herat is referred to as a'zam-i bilād-i īrān (the greatest of the cities of Iran) and Isfahan as khulāsa-yi mulk-i īrān (the choicest part of the realm of Iran). ... The sense of geographical continuity referred to earlier is preserved by a phrase like kull-i vilāyat-i īrānzamīn. ... Affairs of state are referred to as muhimmāt-i īrān. To my mind however, one of the clearest indications that the Safavid state had become a state in the full sense of the word is provided by the revival of the ancient title of sipahsālār-i īrān or "commander-in-chief of the armed forces of Iran". ^ Flaskerud, Ingvild (2010). Visualizing Belief and Piety in Iranian Shiism. A&C Black. pp. 182–3. ISBN 978-1-4411-4907-7. ^ "... the Order of the Lion and the Sun, a device which, since the 17 century at least, appeared on the national flag of the Safavids the lion representing 'Ali and the sun the glory of the Shiʻi faith", Mikhail Borisovich Piotrovskiĭ, J. M. Rogers, Hermitage Rooms at Somerset House, Courtauld Institute of Art, Heaven on earth: Art from Islamic Lands: Works from the State Hermitage Museum and the Khalili Collection, Prestel, 2004, p. 178. ^ Ghereghlou, Kioumars (October–December 2017). "Chronicling a Dynasty on the Make: New Light on the Early Ṣafavids in Ḥayātī Tabrīzī's Tārīkh (961/1554)". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 137 (4): 827. doi:10.7817/jameroriesoci.137.4.0805 – via Columbia Academic Commons. Shah Ismāʿīl's enthronement took place in Tabrīz immediately after the battle of Sharūr, on 1 Jumādā II 907/22 December 1501. ^ Elton L. Daniel, The History of Iran (Greenwood Press, 2001) p. 95 ^ Ferrier, RW, A Journey to Persia: Jean Chardin's Portrait of a Seventeenth-century Empire, p. ix. ^ The New Encyclopedia of Islam, Ed. Cyril Glassé, (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2008), 449. ^ a b Roemer, H. R. (1986). "The Safavid Period". The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 6: The Timurid and Safavid Periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 189–350. ISBN 0-521-20094-6, p. 331: "Depressing though the condition in the country may have been at the time of the fall of Safavids, they cannot be allowed to overshadow the achievements of the dynasty, which was in many respects to prove essential factors in the development of Persia in modern times. These include the maintenance of Persian as the official language and of the present-day boundaries of the country, adherence to the Twelever Shiʻi, the monarchical system, the planning and architectural features of the urban centers, the centralised administration of the state, the alliance of the Shiʻi Ulama with the merchant bazaars, and the symbiosis of the Persian-speaking population with important non-Persian, especially Turkish speaking minorities". ^ a b c Rudi Matthee, "Safavids" in Encyclopædia Iranica, accessed on April 4, 2010. "The Persian focus is also reflected in the fact that theological works also began to be composed in the Persian language and in that Persian verses replaced Arabic on the coins." "The political system that emerged under them had overlapping political and religious boundaries and a core language, Persian, which served as the literary tongue, and even began to replace Arabic as the vehicle for theological discourse". ^ Ronald W Ferrier, The Arts of Persia. Yale University Press. 1989, p. 9. ^ a b John R Perry, "Turkic-Iranian contacts", Encyclopædia Iranica, January 24, 2006: "... written Persian, the language of high literature and civil administration, remained virtually unaffected in status and content" ^ a b Cyril Glassé (ed.), The New Encyclopedia of Islam, Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, revised ed., 2003, ISBN 0-7591-0190-6, p. 392: "Shah Abbas moved his capital from Qazvin to Isfahan. His reigned marked the peak of Safavid dynasty's achievement in art, diplomacy, and commerce. It was probably around this time that the court, which originally spoke a Turkic language, began to use Persian" ^ Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History, V, pp. 514–515. Excerpt: "in the heyday of the Mughal, Safawi, and Ottoman regimes New Persian was being patronized as the language of literae humaniores by the ruling element over the whole of this huge realm, while it was also being employed as the official language of administration in those two-thirds of its realm that lay within the Safawi and the Mughal frontiers" ^ a b c d e f Mazzaoui, Michel B; Canfield, Robert (2002). "Islamic Culture and Literature in Iran and Central Asia in the early modern period". Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective. Cambridge University Press. pp. 86–7. ISBN 978-0-521-52291-5. Safavid power with its distinctive Persian-Shiʻi culture, however, remained a middle ground between its two mighty Turkish neighbors. The Safavid state, which lasted at least until 1722, was essentially a "Turkish" dynasty, with Azeri Turkish (Azerbaijan being the family's home base) as the language of the rulers and the court as well as the Qizilbash military establishment. Shah Ismail wrote poetry in Turkish. The administration nevertheless was Persian, and the Persian language was the vehicle of diplomatic correspondence (insha'), of belles-lettres (adab), and of history (tarikh). ^ Ruda Jurdi Abisaab. "Iran and Pre-Independence Lebanon" in Houchang Esfandiar Chehabi, Distant Relations: Iran and Lebanon in the Last 500 Years, IB Tauris 2006, p. 76: "Although the Arabic language was still the medium for religious scholastic expression, it was precisely under the Safavids that hadith complications and doctrinal works of all sorts were being translated to Persian. The ʻAmili (Lebanese scholars of Shiʻi faith) operating through the Court-based religious posts, were forced to master the Persian language; their students translated their instructions into Persian. Persianization went hand in hand with the popularization of 'mainstream' Shiʻi belief." ^ Floor, Willem; Javadi, Hasan (2013). "The Role of Azerbaijani Turkish in Safavid Iran". Iranian Studies. 46 (4): 569–581. doi:10.1080/00210862.2013.784516. S2CID 161700244. ^ Hovannisian, Richard G.; Sabagh, Georges (1998). The Persian Presence in the Islamic World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 240. ISBN 978-0521591850. ^ Axworthy, Michael (2010). The Sword of Persia: Nader Shah, from Tribal Warrior to Conquering Tyrant. I.B.Tauris. p. 33. ISBN 978-0857721938. ^ Savory, Roger (2007). Iran Under the Safavids. Cambridge University Press. p. 213. ISBN 978-0-521-04251-2. qizilbash normally spoke Azari brand of Turkish at court, as did the Safavid shahs themselves; lack of familiarity with the Persian language may have contributed to the decline from the pure classical standards of former times ^ a b c Zabiollah Safa (1986), "Persian Literature in the Safavid Period", The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 6: The Timurid and Safavid Periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-20094-6, pp. 948–65. P. 950: "In day-to-day affairs, the language chiefly used at the Safavid court and by the great military and political officers, as well as the religious dignitaries, was Turkish, not Persian; and the last class of persons wrote their religious works mainly in Arabic. Those who wrote in Persian were either lacking in proper tuition in this tongue, or wrote outside Iran and hence at a distance from centers where Persian was the accepted vernacular, endued with that vitality and susceptibility to skill in its use which a language can have only in places where it truly belongs." ^ Price, Massoume (2005). Iran's Diverse Peoples: A Reference Sourcebook. ABC-CLIO. p. 66. ISBN 978-1-57607-993-5. The Shah was a native Turkic speaker and wrote poetry in the Azerbaijani language. ^ Blow, David (2009). Shah Abbas: The Ruthless King Who Became an Iranian Legend. I.B.Tauris. pp. 165–166. ISBN 978-0857716767. Georgian, Circassian and Armenian were also spoken [at the court], since these were the mother-tongues of many of the ghulams, as well as of a high proportion of the women of the harem. Figueroa heard Abbas speak Georgian, which he had no doubt acquired from his Georgian ghulams and concubines. ^ Helen Chapin Metz. Iran, a Country study. 1989. University of Michigan, p. 313. ^ Emory C. Bogle. Islam: Origin and Belief. University of Texas Press. 1989, p. 145. ^ Stanford Jay Shaw. History of the Ottoman Empire. Cambridge University Press. 1977, p. 77. ^ Andrew J. Newman, Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire, IB Tauris (March 30, 2006). ^ "SAFAVID DYNASTY". Encyclopædia Iranica. ^ Streusand, Douglas E., Islamic Gunpowder Empires: Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals (Boulder, Col : Westview Press, 2011) ("Streusand"), p. 135. ^ a b c d e f RM Savory, Safavids, Encyclopedia of Islam, 2nd ed. ^ Matthee, Rudi. (2005). The Pursuit of Pleasure: Drugs and Stimulants in Iranian History, 1500-1900. Princeton University Press. p. 18; "The Safavids, as Iranians of Kurdish ancestry and of nontribal background (...)". Savory, Roger. (2008). "EBN BAZZĀZ". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VIII, Fasc. 1. p. 8. "This official version contains textual changes designed to obscure the Kurdish origins of the Safavid family and to vindicate their claim to descent from the Imams." Amoretti, Biancamaria Scarcia; Matthee, Rudi. (2009). "Ṣafavid Dynasty". In Esposito, John L. (ed.) The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford University Press. "Of Kurdish ancestry, the Ṣafavids started as a Sunnī mystical order (...)" ^ Roemer, H.R. (1986). "The Safavid Period" in Jackson, Peter; Lockhart, Laurence. The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 6: The Timurid and Safavid Periods. Cambridge University Press. pp. 214, 229 Blow, David (2009). Shah Abbas: The Ruthless King Who Became an Iranian Legend. I.B.Tauris. p. 3 Savory, Roger M.; Karamustafa, Ahmet T. (1998) ESMĀʿĪL I ṢAFAWĪ. Encyclopaedia Iranica Vol. VIII, Fasc. 6, pp. 628-636 Ghereghlou, Kioumars (2016). ḤAYDAR ṢAFAVI. Encyclopaedia Iranica ^ Aptin Khanbaghi (2006) The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early. London & New York. IB Tauris. ISBN 1-84511-056-0, pp. 130–1 ^ Yarshater 2001, p. 493. ^ Khanbaghi 2006, p. 130. ^ a b Anthony Bryer. "Greeks and Türkmens: The Pontic Exception", Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. 29 (1975), Appendix II "Genealogy of the Muslim Marriages of the Princesses of Trebizond" ^ Why is there such confusion about the origins of this important dynasty, which reasserted Iranian identity and established an independent Iranian state after eight and a half centuries of rule by foreign dynasties? RM Savory, Iran under the Safavids (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1980), p. 3. ^ Alireza Shapur Shahbazi (2005), "The History of the Idea of Iran", in Vesta Curtis ed., Birth of the Persian Empire, IB Tauris, London, p. 108: "Similarly the collapse of Sassanian Eranshahr in AD 650 did not end Iranians' national idea. The name "Iran" disappeared from official records of the Saffarids, Samanids, Buyids, Saljuqs and their successor. But one unofficially used the name Iran, Eranshahr, and similar national designations, particularly Mamalek-e Iran or "Iranian lands", which exactly translated the old Avestan term Ariyanam Daihunam. On the other hand, when the Safavids (not Reza Shah, as is popularly assumed) revived a national state officially known as Iran, bureaucratic usage in the Ottoman empire and even Iran itself could still refer to it by other descriptive and traditional appellations". ^ a b Safavid Iran at Encyclopædia Iranica ^ Peter Charanis. "Review of Emile Janssens' Trébizonde en Colchide", Speculum, Vol. 45, No. 3 (July 1970), p. 476. ^ Anthony Bryer, open citation, p. 136. ^ Virani, Shafique N. The Ismailis in the Middle Ages: A History of Survival, A Search for Salvation (New York: Oxford University Press), 2007, p.113. ^ The writer Ṛūmlu documented the most important of them in his history. ^ a b c d "Ismail Safavi" Encyclopædia Iranica ^ a b V. Minorsky, "The Poetry of Shāh Ismā‘īl I", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 10/4 (1942): 1006–53. ^ Roemer, H.R. (1986). "The Safavid Period" in Jackson, Peter; Lockhart, Laurence. The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 6: The Timurid and Safavid Periods. Cambridge University Press. pp. 214, 229 Blow, David (2009). Shah Abbas: The Ruthless King Who Became an Iranian Legend. I.B.Tauris. p. 3 Savory, Roger M.; Karamustafa, Ahmet T. (1998) ESMĀʿĪL I ṢAFAWĪ. Encyclopaedia Iranica Vol. VIII, Fasc. 6, pp. 628-636 Ghereghlou, Kioumars (2016). ḤAYDAR ṢAFAVI. Encyclopaedia Iranica ^ Richard Tapper. "Shahsevan in Safavid Persia", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 37, No. 3, 1974, p. 324. ^ Lawrence Davidson, Arthur Goldschmid, A Concise History of the Middle East, Westview Press, 2006, p. 153. ^ Britannica Concise Archived 2008-01-20 at the Wayback Machine. "Safavid Dynasty", Online Edition 2007. ^ George Lenczowski, "Iran under the Pahlavis", Hoover Institution Press, 1978, p. 79: "Ismail Safavi, descendant of the pious Shaykh Ishaq Safi al-Din (d. 1334), seized Tabriz assuming the title of Shahanshah-e-Iran". ^ Stefan Sperl, C. Shackle, Nicholas Awde, "Qasida poetry in Islamic Asia and Africa", Brill Academic Pub; Set Only edition (February 1996), p. 193: "Like Shah Ni'mat Allah-i Vali he hosted distinguished visitors among them Ismail Safavi, who had proclaimed himself Shahanshah of Iran in 1501 after having taken Tabriz, the symbolic and political capital of Iran". ^ Heinz Halm, Janet Watson, Marian Hill, Shiʻism, translated by Janet Watson, Marian Hill, Edition: 2, illustrated, published by Columbia University Press, 2004, p. 80: "...he was able to make his triumphal entry into Alvand's capital Tabriz. Here he assumed the ancient Iranian title of King of Kings (Shahanshah) and setup up Shiʻi as the ruling faith" ^ Virani, Shafique N. The Ismailis in the Middle Ages: A History of Survival, A Search for Salvation (New York: Oxford University Press), 2007, 113. ^ H.R. Roemer, The Safavid Period, in Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. VI, Cambridge University Press 1986, p. 339: "Further evidence of a desire to follow in the line of Turkmen rulers is Ismail's assumption of the title "Padishah-i-Iran" ^ "Iranian identity iii. Medieval Islamic period" in Encyclopædia Iranica: "The Safavid kings called themselves, among other appellations, the "heart of the shrine of ʿAli" (kalb-e āstān-e ʿAli), while assuming the title of Šāhanšāh (the king of kings) of Persia/Iran". Quote 2: "Even Ottoman sultans, when addressing the Āq Quyunlu and Safavid kings, used such titles as the "king of Iranian lands" or the "sultan of the lands of Iran" or "the king of kings of Iran, the lord of the Persians" or the "holders of the glory of Jamšid and the vision of Faridun and the wisdom of Dārā." They addressed Shah Esmaʿil as: "the king of Persian lands and the heir to Jamšid and Kay-ḵosrow" (Navāʾi, pp. 578, 700–2, 707). During Shah ʿAbbās's reign the transformation is complete and Shiʿite Iran comes to face the two adjacent Sunni powers: the Ottoman Empire to the west and the Kingdom of Uzbeks to the east." ^ Ward, Steven R. (2014). Immortal, Updated Edition: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces. Georgetown University Press. p. 43. ISBN 978-1-62616-032-3. ^ Sinclair, T.A. (1989). Eastern Turkey: An Architectural & Archaeological Survey, Volume II. Pindar Press. p. 289. ISBN 978-1-904597-75-9. ^ Rayfield, Donald (2013). Edge of Empires: A History of Georgia. Reaktion Books. p. 165. ISBN 978-1-78023-070-2. ^ Christine Woodhead (15 Dec 2011). The Ottoman World. Routledge. p. 94. ISBN 978-1-136-49894-7. ^ Shah Ismail I Retrieved July 2015 ^ a b c d Streusand, p. 146. ^ Colin P. Mitchell, "Ṭahmāsp I" Encyclopædia Iranica (July 15, 2009). ^ H.R. Roemer, "The Safavid Period" in The Timurid and Safavid Periods ed. by Peter Jackson and Laurence Lockhart, volume 6 of The Cambridge History of Iran (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1968–1991) ("Roemer"), p. 233-34. ^ Roemer, p. 234. ^ Romer, pp. 234–37. ^ Savory, R, Iran under the Safavids, pp. 60–64. ^ Streusand, pp. 146–47. ^ Colin P. Mitchell, The Practice of Politics in Safavid Iran: Power, Religion and Rhetoric (London: I.B. Tauris, 2000), p. 59. ^ Streusand, p 147. ^ Mikheil Svanidze, "The Amasya Peace Treaty between the Ottoman Empire and Iran (June 1, 1555) and Georgia," Bulletin of the Georgian National Academy of Sciences, Vol. 3, pp. 191–97 (2009) ("Svanidze"), p. 191. ^ Streusand, p. 147. ^ Svanidze, p. 192 ^ Streusand, p. 50. ^ Max Scherberger, “The Confrontation between Sunni and Shiʻi Empires: Ottoman-Safavid Relations between the Fourteenth and the Seventeenth Centuries” in The Sunna and Shi'a in History: Division and Ecumenism in the Muslim Middle East ed. by Ofra Bengio & Meir Litvak (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011) (“Scherberger”), p. 60. ^ a b c John F. Richards, The Mughal Empire (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, c. 1995), p. 11. ^ Riazul Islam; Indo-Persian Relations: A Study of the Political and Diplomatic Relations between the Mughal Empire and Iran (Tehran: Iranian Cultural Foundation, 1970), pp. 22–47. ^ Savory, R, Iran under the Safavids, p. 66. ^ Nahavandi and Bomati pp. 284–286 ^ Savory, pp. 129–31. ^ a b c d e f g h i "Tahmāsp I". Retrieved 12 May 2015. ^ a b Streusand, p. 148. ^ a b c "BARDA and BARDA-DĀRI v. Military slavery in Islamic Iran". Retrieved 15 April 2014. ^ a b Manz, Beatrice. "Čarkas". Encyclopædia Iranica. Archived from the original on 2 November 2014. Retrieved 1 April 2014. ^ a b Lapidus, Ira M. (2012). Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. p. 494. ISBN 978-0-521-51441-5. ^ Rosemary Stanfield Johnson, "Sunni Survival in Safavid Iran: Anti-Sunni Activities during the Reign of Tahmasp I," Iranian Studies, vol. 27, pp. 123–33 (1994), pp. 125–26, 128–31 ^ Roemer. pp. 250–51. ^ Farrokh, Kaveh (2011). Iran at War: 1500-1988. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78096-240-5. ^ Streusand, p. 149. ^ Roemer, p. 251. ^ Roemer, p. 252. ^ Savory, p. 70. ^ Roemer, p. 253. ^ a b c Roemer, p. 255. ^ Roemer, p. 354 ^ Streusand, P. 149. ^ Abolala Soudavar, "The Patronage of Vizier Mirza Salman," Muqarmas. Vol. 30, pp. 213–34 (2013), p.216. ^ Sicker 2001, pp. 2–3. ^ Roemer, p. 256. ^ Roemer, p. 257. ^ Roemer, pp. 257–58. ^ Roemer, p. 259. ^ Streusand, p. 150 ^ Savory, p. 74. ^ Savory, pp. 74–76. ^ Streusand, p. 151 ^ Savory, p. 77. ^ Savory, p. 76. ^ Savory, p. 177 ^ Streusand, pp. 151–52. ^ Savory, pp. 82–83. ^ Streusand, p. 152. ^ Kremer, William (25 January 2013). "Why Did Men Stop Wearing High Heels?". BBC News. 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W.; A journey to Persia: Jean Chardin's portrait of a seventeenth-century Empire; p. 24. ^ Ferrier; p. 23. ^ Savory; p.187. ^ Blow, D.; Shah Abbas: The ruthless king who became an Iranian legend; p. 211. ^ Lambton, A. K. S.; Landlord and Peasant in Persia (Oxford 1953); p 127-8. ^ Ferrier; pp. 25–6. ^ Savory; p.190. ^ Ferrier; p. 31. ^ Savory; p. 191. ^ Blow; p. 210. ^ Savory, R; Iran under the Safavids; pp. 193–95. ^ Blow, D; Shah Abbas: The ruthless king who became an Iranian legend; pp. 113–131. ^ Blow; chapter: "English adventurers at the servise of Shah Abbas." ^ Savory; p. 195. ^ Blow; p. 212. ^ Savory; p. 196. ^ Savory; pp. 199–200. ^ William L. Cleveland and Martin P. Bunton, A History of the Modern Middle East (Westview Press, 2000), 2nd ed., pp. 56–57. ^ Savory, Roger; Iran under the Safavids, p. 155. ^ Sir Roger Stevens; The Land of the Great Sophy, p. 172. ^ Savory; chpt: The Safavid empire at the height of its power under Shāh Abbas the Great (1588–1629) ^ Jodidio, Philip, Iran: Architecture For Changing Societies:Umberto Allemandi (August 2, 2006). ^ Dabashi, H. (1996) 'Mir Damad and the Founding of the School of Isfahan', in SH Nasr and O. Leaman (eds) History of Islamic Philosophy, London: Routledge, ch. 34, 597–634. ^ Rizvi, Sajjad (Summer 2009). "Mulla Sadra". In Zalta, Edward N (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ Nasr, Seyyed Hossein, Sadr al-Din Shirazi and his Transcendent Theosophy, Background, Life and Works, 2nd ed., Tehran: Institute for Humanities and Cultural Studies. ^ RN Frye, The Golden Age of Persia, Phoenix Press, 2000, p. 234 ^ Savory, Roger: Iran under the Safavids, pp. 220–5. ^ Savory, pp. 220. ^ Savory, p. 222. ^ Ronald W. Ferrier, The Arts of Persia, Yale University Press, 1989, p. 199. ^ Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History, V, pp. 514–15. ^ John R. Perry, "Turkic-Iranian contacts", Encyclopædia Iranica, January 24, 2006. ^ É. Á. Csató, B. Isaksson, C Jahani. Linguistic Convergence and Areal Diffusion: Case Studies from Iranian, Semitic and Turkic, Routledge, 2004, p. 228, ISBN 0-415-30804-6. ^ Ruda Jurdi Abisaab. "Iran and Pre-Independence Lebanon" in Houchang Esfandiar Chehabi, Distant Relations: Iran and Lebanon in the Last 500 Years, I.B. Tauris (2006), p. 76. ^ Cornelis Henricus Maria Versteegh, The Arabic Language, Columbia University Press, 1997, p. 71. ^ Hillenbrand R., Islamic Art and Architecture, London (1999), ISBN 0-500-20305-9, p. 228. ^ Savory, RM. "18 Iran, Armenia and Georgia – Rise of a Shiʻi State in Iran and New Orientation in Islamic Thought and Culture". UNESCO: History of Humanity. 5: From the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century. London, New York: Routledge. p. 263. ^ Mujtahid: A mujtahid in Arabic means a person who qualified to engange in ijtihad, or interpretation of religious texts. Ithna 'ashari is the number twelve in Arabic, signifying Twelver Imami Shiʻi Islam. Ulama: Arabic for religious scholars. ^ Streusand, p. 137. ^ Rudolph P. Matthee, The Politics of Trade in Safavid Iran: Silk for Silver, 1600–1730 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. 231. Bibliography Blow, David (2009). Shah Abbas: The Ruthless King Who Became an Iranian Legend. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-0857716767. Jackson, Peter; Lockhart, Laurence, eds. (1986). The Timurid and Safavid Periods. The Cambridge History of Iran. 6. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521200943. Khanbaghi, Aptin (2006). The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1845110567. Mikaberidze, Alexander (2015). Historical Dictionary of Georgia (2 ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1442241466. Savory, Roger (2007). Iran under the Safavids. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521042512. Sicker, Martin (2001). The Islamic World in Decline: From the Treaty of Karlowitz to the Disintegration of the Ottoman Empire. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0275968915. Yarshater, Ehsan (2001). Encyclopædia Iranica. Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 978-0933273566. Further reading Christoph Marcinkowski (tr.),Persian Historiography and Geography: Bertold Spuler on Major Works Produced in Iran, the Caucasus, Central Asia, India and Early Ottoman Turkey, Singapore: Pustaka Nasional, 2003, ISBN 9971-77-488-7. Christoph Marcinkowski (tr., ed.),Mirza Rafi‘a's Dastur al-Muluk: A Manual of Later Safavid Administration. Annotated English Translation, Comments on the Offices and Services, and Facsimile of the Unique Persian Manuscript, Kuala Lumpur, ISTAC, 2002, ISBN 983-9379-26-7. Christoph Marcinkowski,From Isfahan to Ayutthaya: Contacts between Iran and Siam in the 17th Century, Singapore, Pustaka Nasional, 2005, ISBN 9971-77-491-7. "The Voyages and Travels of the Ambassadors", Adam Olearius, translated by John Davies (1662), External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Safavid Empire. 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en-wikipedia-org-9702	----	Nebiryraw I - Wikipedia Nebiryraw I From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sewadjenre Nebiryraw Nebiryerawet, Nebiriau Dagger of Nebiryraw I (JE 33702) Pharaoh Reign 1627–1601 BC (16th Dynasty) Predecessor Seankhenre Mentuhotepi Successor Nebiryraw II Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sewadjenre S.w3ḏ-n-Rˁ He who is made to flourish by Ra[1] Nomen Nebiryraw Nb-jrj-r-3w The possessor of all[2] Horus name Sewadjtawy S.w3ḏ-t3wj He who causes the Two Lands to flourish Nebty name Netjerkheperu Nṯrj-ḫprw Divine of transformations Golden Horus Neferkha Nfr-ḫa Golden falcon, perfect of appearances Turin canon: Nebiryawre Nb jrj 3w Rˁ The possessor of all (things of) Ra Karnak king list: Sewadjenre S.w3ḏ-n-Rˁ He who is made to flourish by Ra Children Nebiryraw II? Died 1601 BC Sewadjenre Nebiryraw (also Nebiriau I, Nebiryerawet I) was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the Theban-based 16th Dynasty, during the Second Intermediate Period. Contents 1 Reign 2 Attestations 3 References 4 External links Reign[edit] On the Turin Canon he is credited with a 26-year-long reign and was succeeded by his namesake Nebiryraw II, who may have been his son.[3] All the seals issued by Nebiryraw were made of clay or frit rather than the usual steatite which implies there were no mining expeditions dispatched to the Eastern Desert region of Egypt during his reign.[4] Two seals of this king were found at Lisht which at the time was part of the Hyksos realm; this finding may demonstrate diplomatic contacts between the Theban dynasty and the Hyksos during Nebiryraw's reign, although this is uncertain.[5] Attestations[edit] Besides the mention in the Turin Canon and the aforementioned seals, Nebiryraw I is mainly known from the Juridical Stela, a well known administrative document dated to his regnal Year 1, now at the Cairo Museum (JE 52453).[6] Also in Cairo (JE 33702) there is a copper dagger bearing his throne name, discovered by Flinders Petrie in a cemetery at Hu, in late 1890s.[7][8] Nebiryraw is also depicted along with the goddess Maat on a small stela which is part of the Egyptian collection located in Bonn.[9] Nebiryraw's throne name Sewadjenre (along with the epithets "good god" and "deceased") appears on the base of a bronze statuette of the god Harpocrates now in Cairo (JE 38189), along with other royal names, two of them – Ahmose and Binpu – apparently belonging to princes of the 17th Dynasty which would replace the 16th Dynasty shortly thereafter. The statuette also mentions a "good god Neferkare, deceased" which is generally believed to be the throne name of Nebiryraw's purported son and successor, Nebiryraw II. The statuette is clearly non-contemporary, however, since the cult of Harpocrates was introduced during the Ptolemaic period i.e. about 1500 years after the people named on the statuette had lived.[10] References[edit] ^ "Titulary". Archived from the original on 2008-08-08. Retrieved 2008-06-08. ^ Leprohon, Ronald J. (2013). The great name: ancient Egyptian royal titulary. Writings from the ancient world, no. 33. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature. ISBN 978-1-58-983736-2, see p. 84 ^ Ryholt, Kim (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period (=Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20). Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. ISBN 87-7289-421-0., pp. 155, 202 ^ Ryholt, pp. 159-60 ^ Ryholt, p. 162 ^ Lacau, Pierre (1949). "Une stèle juridique de Karnak". Annales du Service des Antiquités de l'Égypte. Supplément. 13. ^ Petrie, Flinders (1901). Diospolis Parva, the cemeteries of Abadiyeh and Hu, 1898-9, pl. 32, n. 17 ^ Ryholt, p. 178, n. 639 ^ Pieke, Gabi (ed.) (2006) Tod und Macht, Jenseitsvorstellungen in Altägypten, Bonn, fig. on p.61 ^ Redford, Donald B. (1986). Pharaonic king-lists, annals and day-books: a contribution to the study of the Egyptian sense of history. Mississauga: Benben Publications. ISBN 0920168078., p. 55 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nebiryraw I. scarab of Nebiriau I v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nebiryraw_I&oldid=992152165" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt 1601 BC deaths Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes 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en-wikipedia-org-9706	----	Creation (novel) - Wikipedia Creation (novel) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Novel by Gore Vidal Creation Cover of the first edition Author Gore Vidal Country United States Language English Genre Historical novel Publisher Random House Publication date 1 January 1981 Media type Print (Hardback and Paperback) Pages 510 pp (first edition, hardback) ISBN 0-394-50015-6 (first edition, hardback) OCLC 7158597 Dewey Decimal 813/.54 19 LC Class PS3543.I26 C7 Creation is an epic historical fiction novel by Gore Vidal published in 1981.[1] In 2002 he published a restored version, reinstating four chapters that a previous editor had cut and adding a brief foreword explaining what had happened and why he had restored the cut chapters. Contents 1 Plot summary 2 Major themes 3 Reception 4 References Plot summary[edit] The story follows the adventures of a fictional "Cyrus Spitama", an Achaemenid Persian diplomat of the 6th-5th century BCE who travels the known world comparing the political and religious beliefs of various empires, kingdoms and republics of the time. Over the course of his life, he meets many influential philosophical figures of his time, including Zoroaster, Socrates, Anaxagoras, the Buddha, Mahavira, Lao Tsu, and Confucius. Though vehemently identifying himself as a Persian and speaking disparagingly of the Greeks, he is half-Greek himself - having had a formidable Greek mother. Cyrus, who is the grandson of Zoroaster and who survives his murder, grows up at the Achaemenid court as a quasi-noble, and becomes a close friend of his schoolmate Xerxes. Because of Cyrus' talent for languages, the Achaemenid King, Darius I, sends him as an ambassador to certain kingdoms in India, and in fact as a spy gathering information for Darius' intended invasion and conquest of the Gangetic Plain. Cyrus becomes interested in the many religious theories he encounters there, but being a worldly courtier fails to be impressed with the Buddha and his concept of Nirvana. After coming to power, Cyrus' former schoolmate, now King Xerxes I, sends Cyrus to China, where he spends several years as a captive and "honored guest" in several of the warring states of the Middle Kingdom, and spends a great deal of time with Confucius - who unlike the Buddha, seeks "To rectify the world rather than withdraw from it". Upon returning home, Cyrus witnesses the defeat of Xerxes and the end of the Greco-Persian wars. Cyrus then goes into retirement, but is called upon by Xerxes' successor, Artaxerxes I, to serve as ambassador to Athens and witness to the secret peace treaty between Pericles and himself. The story is related in the first person as recalled to his Greek great-nephew Democritus. Cyrus's recollection is said to be motivated in part by his desire to set the record straight following the publication by Herodotus of an account of the Greco-Persian wars. Major themes[edit] Vidal evokes a theme which Robert Graves had previously explored, a skepticism of the reported facts and interpretations of our understanding of history as reported by the winners of its battles. The story features a rather amusingly sarcastic treatment of the pretensions to glory of Classical Golden Age of Athens. In the parts of the book that comment on history, Vidal makes obvious use of the Histories of Herodotus. As noted in Vidal's own introduction, it can be considered a "crash course" in comparative religion, as during the story, the hero sits down with each of the religious/philosophical figures (apart from Socrates) and discusses their views. Reception[edit] Stan Persky, writing for Salon referred to the book as a "very under-rated tale".[2] References[edit] ^ Dick, Bernard F. (Spring 1982). "Review: [Untitled]". World Literature Today. 56 (2): 340. doi:10.2307/40137645. JSTOR 40137645. ^ Persky, Stan (3 August 2013). "Gore Vidal still holds up". Salon.com. Retrieved 6 February 2020. v t e Gore Vidal Plays Visit to a Small Planet (1957) The Best Man (1960) Weekend (1968) An Evening with Richard Nixon (1972) Novels Williwaw (1946) The City and the Pillar (1948) Dark Green, Bright Red (1950) Messiah (1954) Julian (1964) Washington, D.C. (1967) Myra Breckinridge (1968) Two Sisters (1970) Burr (1973) Myron (1974) 1876 (1976) Kalki (1978) Creation (1981) Duluth (1983) Lincoln (1984) Empire (1987) Hollywood (1990) Live from Golgotha: The Gospel According to Gore Vidal (1992) The Smithsonian Institution (1998) The Golden Age (2000) Screenplays The Catered Affair (1956) I Accuse! (1958) The Left Handed Gun (1958) The Scapegoat (1959) Ben Hur (1959) (uncredited) Suddenly, Last Summer (1959) The Best Man (1964) Is Paris Burning? (1966) Last of the Mobile Hot Shots (1970) Caligula (1979) Dress Gray (1986) The Sicilian (1987) (uncredited) Billy the Kid (1989) The Palermo Connection (1989) Teleplays The Telltale Clue Danger Climax! Suspense The Best of Broadway Goodyear Television Playhouse Studio One NBC Matinee Theater General Electric Theater NBC Sunday Showcase Ford Startime People Eugene Luther Vidal (father) Nina Auchincloss Straight (half-sister) Burr Steers (nephew) Hugh Auchincloss Steers (nephew) Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis (stepsister) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Creation_(novel)&oldid=985091264" Categories: 1981 American novels English-language books American historical novels Novels by Gore Vidal Novels set in ancient Persia Novels set in ancient Greece Random House books Cultural depictions of Zoroaster Cultural depictions of Socrates Cultural depictions of Xerxes I Cultural depictions of Darius the Great Cultural depictions of Confucius Cultural depictions of Laozi Cultural depictions of Gautama Buddha Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español فارسی Italiano Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 23 October 2020, at 22:09 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9719	----	Civilization II - Wikipedia Civilization II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Civilization II Developer(s) MicroProse LTI Gray Matter (PS1) Publisher(s) MicroProse Activision (PS1) Producer(s) Jeff Briggs Designer(s) Brian Reynolds Douglas Kaufman Jeff Briggs Programmer(s) Brian Reynolds Jason S. Coleman Chris Taormino Artist(s) Michael O. Haire Writer(s) Dave Ellis Composer(s) Jeff Briggs Roland J. Rizzo Kevin Manthei (Fantastic Worlds) Series Civilization Platform(s) Windows Mac OS PlayStation Release Windows NA: February 29, 1996[citation needed] EU: 1996 Mac OS NA: 1997 PlayStation NA: January 1999 EU: 1999 Genre(s) Turn-based strategy Mode(s) Single player, multiplayer Sid Meier's Civilization II is a turn-based strategy video game in the Civilization series, developed and published by MicroProse. It was released in 1996 for PCs and later ported to the PlayStation by Activision. Civilization II was a commercial hit, with sales around 3 million units by 2001, and has won numerous awards and placements on "best games of all time" lists. Contents 1 Gameplay 2 Development 3 Release 3.1 Expansion sets 3.2 Remake 4 Reception 4.1 Sales 4.2 Critical reviews 5 Legacy 6 References 7 External links Gameplay[edit] The main game screen in Civilization II Civilization II is similar to the first Civilization, with some changes to the various units, civilizations, world wonders, tile "specials" and technologies. The graphics were changed from a top-down view to an isometric representation.[1] Rivers no longer occupy the whole of each tile along their length; instead, they are part of each topography square through which they flow, adding productive value, defensive bonuses and movement ability. The AI was improved as well, including the elimination of most random events by now making the computer player go through the same production requirements as the human player. The game features entirely new concepts, such as firepower and hit points, and changes to some units' abilities and strengths. For instance, engineers and settlers can be automated to improve surrounding areas, but do not ignore enemy zones of control. Damaged units can now retreat to cities, where their hit points are restored.[1] Some new units are added such as stealth aircraft. The player has the ability to consult the 'High Council' for advice (as long as the player still has the CD in the drive). The council consists of film clips of actors portraying advisors in the areas of the military (a brawny man, often drunk, angry or both; he becomes a stereotypical American general when Modern Age is reached), economics (a smooth-talking merchant, later a snooty and suave businessman), diplomacy (in the Modern Age, a saucy femme fatale with a vaguely Eastern European accent), technological progress (a nerdy scientist), and the people's happiness (an Elvis Presley caricature, wearing sunglasses even in the Ancient period). They often argue with and insult one another, as each advisor's department demands a different set of priorities. The counselors' costumes change with each new era. In many ways, the 'High Council' constitutes a bit of comic relief, especially from the expansionist military adviser, who will insist on more troops even when the player has 60 battleships, or during the Medieval Period will sing the last refrain from the 18th Century English traditional song "Down Among the Dead Men", punctuated with a hearty "No complaints, sire!". When the player is experiencing anarchy, the characters begin talking and shouting unintelligibly at the same time, interrupting each other, and finally beginning to fight, with all counselor windows shutting down and turning into the "Ⓐ" symbol of Anarchy. There are two paths to victory (and bonus points to the score) in this game: to be the last civilization remaining or to build a spaceship and reach Alpha Centauri before any of the other civilizations. The space race can be much more difficult because there are a limited number of turns in the game, which ends in the year 2020. If the spaceship does not reach Alpha Centauri by then, the game will simply end with the current score. The player can continue playing after all civilizations have been conquered, the spaceship has reached its destination, or the year 2020, but there will no longer be any scoring. The sooner a player conquers every other civilization, or the space ship arrives, the higher the player's score will be. This allows a player to play the game endlessly.[2] The scoring system measures the player's performance in the end of each game. Population is a major influence on scoring as each happy citizen contributes two points, each content citizen contributes one point, and each unhappy citizen contributes zero points. This means that higher population yields better scores. Additionally, each wonder of the world owned by the player will also add 20 points to their score. Each wonder of the world can only be built once per game. Each wonder adds different bonuses so the Player must choose carefully which one(s) they want to work on and try to build them before the computer opponents do. Each square with pollution deducts ten points. The length of time there has been peace (no armed conflict or war) up to the end of the game also adds three points per turn, up to a maximum of 100 points, and if the player won using a spaceship, additional points are rewarded, based on the number of people who reached Alpha Centauri alive. The final score will also give a civilization percentage, based on the difficulty level the game was played at (chosen at the very beginning of the game). The higher this percentage is, the better. Finally, a title will be given to the player. Particularly good ones include "Lion-Hearted", "the Great" with the greatest obtainable title being "The Magnificent". Development[edit] This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2013) Civilization II was designed by Brian Reynolds, Douglas Caspian-Kaufman and Jeff Briggs.[3] Development was carried on in secret for years, with the game only being publicly announced when the team had reached the point of final tweaks and balancing.[1] The game's working title was Civilization 2000.[4] Asked about Sid Meier's involvement in the project, Reynolds replied, "We sat down and brainstormed about it and hashed out ideas, that's about it."[5] Sid Meier commented, "Civilization greatly favored the military approach to achieving victory. We've now adjusted the balance to make trade and diplomacy a more integral part of the game."[1] The sound effect used for the combat between two infantry units is sampled from the movie Monty Python and the Holy Grail. Release[edit] This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2013) The game was re-released on December 9, 1998[6] as Civilization II: Multiplayer Gold Edition, which bundled both prior expansion packs and added options for networked and hotseat play, and features tweaked AI. All of the music tracks that were in the original release of Civilization II had been removed, however – only some of the "new" ones remained. The tweaked AI is also perpetually unfriendly, rendering most diplomatic functions useless.[citation needed] The Multiplayer Gold Edition was included in the Civilization Chronicles box set released in 2006. Expansion sets[edit] There were two expansion packs that slowly added more features to the game. The first, Conflicts in Civilization, included 20 new scenarios: 12 created by the makers of the game,[7] and eight "Best of the Net" by fans. It also added an enhanced macro language for scenario scripting with advanced programming features such as variable typing and network features, which was considered widely unnecessary. Due to a programming bug, the Encarta-style Civilopedia was disabled from the game. The second expansion was Civ II: Fantastic Worlds (a legal dispute arising from Sid Meier's departure prevented the use of the full word "Civilization", European version used the full word). It also added new scenarios that had many unique settings such as one scenario dealing with colonization of Mars, and one scenario called Midgard that had Elven, Goblin, Merman, and other civilizations from fantasy. There are also some scenarios based on other MicroProse games such as X-COM, Master of Orion and Master of Magic "Jr." scenarios. Fantastic Worlds also contains a new scenario editor that allowed users to edit the statistics and icons used for units, city improvements, terrain, and technologies, as well as creating event triggers and other enhancements to the game. Remake[edit] A remake called Civilization II: Test of Time was released in 1999, following Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri. Test of Time has a new palette and user interface, and new features such as animated units, a playable Alpha Centauri to settle, and new campaign modes. Reception[edit] Sales[edit] Civilization II placed second on PC Data's monthly computer game sales chart for April 1996.[8] The game secured position 3 for the next four months,[9][10] before dropping to #5 in September.[11] It exited PC Data's top 10 in December, after remaining there for an additional two months.[12][13][14] In the United States, Civilization II was the third-best-selling computer game of the first six months of 1996,[15] and the fifth-highest seller of the year as a whole.[16] Worldwide, its sales surpassed 400,000 copies by August, reached 500,000 in September and topped 600,000 by November.[17][18][19] In the United States alone, it sold 482,522 units and earned $21.1 million by the end of 1996.[20] By mid-January 1997, global sales of Civilization II had surpassed 720,000 copies.[21] It finished 20th on PC Data's monthly chart for March,[22] and was the United States' 17th-highest-selling computer game of the year's first half.[23] The game had topped its predecessor's 850,000 sales that August,[24] and continued to sell "over 20,000 units a month" by November, according to Microprose.[25] Civilization II reached 1.2 million units sold by April 1998; Terry Coleman of Computer Gaming World wrote that sales were "still going strong" at that time.[26] In the United Kingdom alone, the game sold 160,000 units by 1999.[27] It also received a "Gold" award from the Verband der Unterhaltungssoftware Deutschland (VUD) in August 1998,[28] for sales of at least 100,000 units across Germany, Austria and Switzerland.[29] Civilization II Gold alone sold 171,495 copies in the United States by September 2000, according to PC Data.[30] In August 2001, Jeff Briggs of Firaxis estimated that Civilization II had sold "about 3 million" copies.[31] Critical reviews[edit] Reception Aggregate scores Aggregator Score GameRankings 93%[33] Metacritic 94%[32] Review scores Publication Score AllGame [34] Game Informer 7.75/10 (PlayStation)[35] Next Generation (PC)[38] (PS)[39] PC Gamer (UK) 96%[37] PC Gamer (US) 97%[36] Macworld [40] PC PowerPlay 9/10[41] Computer Game Review 91/100[42] PC Games A[43] On release, a reviewer for Next Generation ventured that Civilization II "may be one of the most balanced and playable games ever released." He especially praised the added depth of the combat, diplomatic relations, and trade over the original Civilization, which he said was one of the best games ever released for PC.[38] Computer Gaming World gave it the Strategy Game of the Year award,[44] and PC Gamer US named it the overall game of the year, calling it and its predecessor "perhaps the finest strategy games ever made."[45] Civilization II was nominated as Computer Games Strategy Plus's 1996 game of the year, although it lost to Tomb Raider. However, it won the magazine's award for the best turn-based strategy game of the year.[46] It also won a Spotlight Award for Best PC/Mac Game.[47] Macworld's Michael Gowan wrote, "Hard-core strategists will enjoy this game's complexity."[40] Next Generation reviewed the PlayStation version of the game, rating it five stars out of five, and stated that "Overall, Civ II remains one of strategy gaming's finest hours and is a welcome addition on PlayStation. For those who are willing, it's a game of limitless possibilities."[39] In 2007, Civilization II was ranked as third in IGN's list of the 100 greatest video games of all time,[48] having previously rated it at number 15 in 2003.[49] In 2012, G4tv ranked it as the 62nd top video game of all time.[50] Polish web portal Wirtualna Polska ranked it as the most addictive game "that stole our childhood".[51] The journal article Theoretical Frameworks for Analysing Turn-Based Computer Strategy Games deemed it "significant and influential".[52] In Ted Friedman's essay "Civilization and its Discontents: Simulation, Subjectivity, and Space" from the collection Discovering Discs: Transforming Space and Genre on CD-ROM, he argues that the game "simultaneously denies and de-personalizes the violence in the history of ‘exploration, colonization, and development".[53] Computer Shopper deemed it a "worthy successor" to Civilization,[54] and "arguably the finest multiplayer game ever created".[55] In anticipation to the launch of Civilization III, New Strait Times described Civilization II as "the best turn-based empire- building strategy game".[56] Baltimore Afro-American was "obsessed with the game".[57] Tribune Business News deemed it an "old favorite".[58] The game was the fourth bestseller in October 1996 and the 3rd bestseller in December 1997.[59][60] PC Games argued that the game "cemented the franchise’s place in videogame history."[61] In 1998, PC Gamer declared it the 2nd-best computer game ever released, and the editors called it "intelligent, engrossing and entertaining beyond compare, it's one of the finest artistic achievements of the last decade".[62] Legacy[edit] In 2006, an N-Gage version of Civilization was released. It's based on Civilization II and III.[63] In 2011, researchers at MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory and University College London presented a paper at the annual meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics which demonstrated the ability to improve the ability of a machine-learning system to win at Civilization II by using the text from its official game manual to guide the development of a game-playing strategy.[64][65] A study found that "a linguistically-informed game-playing agent significantly outperforms its language-unaware counterpart, yielding a 27% absolute improvement and winning over 78% of games when playing against the builtin AI".[66] Another study found that "non-linear Monte-Carlo search wins 80% of games against the handcrafted, built-in AI".[67] In June 2012, a Reddit user named Lycerius posted details of his decade-long Civilization II game,[68] since dubbed "The Eternal War". This garnered a great deal of interest from users of the site and the story quickly went viral, spreading across the web to many well known blogs and news sites. The game, which had been played since 2002, closely mimicked the regime found in the novel Nineteen Eighty-Four, with three superpowers all engaged in perpetual multiple-front total warfare.[69][70] References[edit] Listen to this article (17 minutes) This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 7 May 2010 (2010-05-07), and does not reflect subsequent edits. (Audio help · More spoken articles) ^ a b c d "Civilization 2". Next Generation. No. 16. Imagine Media. April 1996. p. 66. ^ "Man Spends Decade Playing Epic PC Game". News.sky.com. Retrieved 2013-11-07. ^ "Interview with Brian Reynolds". IGN. Retrieved September 3, 2013. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 1997-04-19. Retrieved 2019-07-04.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ Staff (July 1996). "Interview with Brian Reynolds". Computer Game Review. Archived from the original on October 19, 1996. ^ "News Briefs". IGN. December 9, 1998. Archived from the original on March 5, 2000. Retrieved December 8, 2019. Civ II Gold Available: "Microprose has released Civilization II Gold Multiplayer..." ^ "Apolyton site, Civ II expansion scenarios". Apolyton.net. Archived from the original on 2010-06-16. Retrieved 2013-11-07. ^ Staff (June 29, 1996). "Top Software Best-selling Titles: Games". Hartford Courant. Archived from the original on April 2, 2018. ^ GamerX (August 8, 1996). "June's top 30 games". CNET Gamecenter. Archived from the original on February 5, 1997. Retrieved July 4, 2019. ^ GamerX (September 27, 1996). "August's top 30 games". CNET Gamecenter. Archived from the original on February 5, 1997. Retrieved July 4, 2019. ^ GamerX (October 29, 1996). "September's top 30 games". CNET Gamecenter. Archived from the original on February 5, 1997. Retrieved July 4, 2019. ^ GamerX (November 27, 1996). 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PC Gamer US. 5 (10): 86, 87, 89, 90, 92, 98, 101, 102, 109, 110, 113, 114, 117, 118, 125, 126, 129, 130. ^ Scheider, Peer (July 29, 2005). "Sid Meier's Civilization Preview". IGN. Ziff Davis. Archived from the original on July 6, 2015. Retrieved August 9, 2020. ^ "Computer learns language by playing games". Web.mit.edu. 2011-07-11. Retrieved 2013-11-07. ^ "Learning to Win by Reading Manuals in a Monte-Carlo Framework". Groups.csail.mit.edu. Retrieved 2013-11-07. ^ Branavan, S. R. K.; Silver, David; Barzilay, Regina (2011-01-01). Learning to Win by Reading Manuals in a Monte-Carlo Framework. Proceedings of the 49th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies - Volume 1. HLT '11. Stroudsburg, PA, USA: Association for Computational Linguistics. pp. 268–277. ISBN 9781932432879. ^ http://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/74248 ^ "I've been playing the same game of Civilization II for almost 10 years. This is the result. : gaming". Reddit.com. 2012-06-12. Retrieved 2013-11-07. ^ Jordison, Sam (2012-06-13). "From Civilization to Big Brother: how a game recreated Orwell's 1984". Guardian. Retrieved 2013-11-07. ^ "10-year-long video game creates 'hellish nightmare' world - CNN.com". Edition.cnn.com. 2012-06-18. Retrieved 2013-11-07. External links[edit] Official website Civilization II at MobyGames v t e Civilization List of media Video games Civilization II Conflicts in Civilization Test of Time III Play the World Conquests IV Warlords Beyond the Sword Colonization Revolution V Gods & Kings Brave New World World Revolution 2 Beyond Earth Rising Tide VI Rise and Fall Gathering Storm Tabletop games Civilization (2002) The Card Game Civilization (2010) Civilization: A New Dawn Predecessor games Civilization Advanced Civilization Incunabula Avalon Hill's Advanced Civilization Related games Sid Meier's Colonization Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri Call to Power II CivCity: Rome Sid Meier's Starships Free games and mods Freeciv C-evo FreeCol Rhye's and Fall of Civilization Miscellaneous Music "Baba Yetu" Nuclear Gandhi Category Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Civilization_II&oldid=995973893" Categories: 1996 video games 4X video games Alpha Centauri in fiction Civilization (series) Cultural depictions of Abraham Lincoln Historical simulation games Classic Mac OS games Multiplayer and single-player video games Play-by-email video games PlayStation (console) games Top-down video games Turn-based strategy video games Video games developed in the United States Video games scored by Jeff Briggs Video games scored by Kevin Manthei Video games using procedural generation Video games with expansion packs Video games with isometric graphics Windows games Hidden categories: CS1 maint: archived copy as title CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 errors: missing periodical All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2019 Articles using Infobox video game using locally defined parameters Articles using Wikidata infoboxes with locally defined images Articles to be expanded from November 2013 All articles to be expanded Articles using small message boxes Articles with unsourced statements from April 2020 Articles using Video game reviews template in multiple platform mode Articles with hAudio microformats Spoken articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Malagasy Nederlands Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 December 2020, at 21:29 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9721	----	Ramesses X - Wikipedia Ramesses X From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ramesses X Also written Ramses and Rameses Detail of Ramesses X a sketch of KV18 by Karl Richard Lepsius Pharaoh Reign 1111–1107 BC (20th Dynasty) Predecessor Ramesses IX Successor Ramesses XI Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Khepermaatre Setepenre Ḫpr-m3ˁ.t-Rˁ-stp-n-Rˁ Manifestation of the Maat of Ra, the chosen one of Ra Nomen Ramesses Amunherkhepeshef Meryamun Rˁ-msj-sw-Jmn-ḥr-ḫpš=f-mrj-Jmn Ra fashioned him, strong arm of Amun, beloved of Amun Ramesses Amun[herkhepeshef] Rˁ-msj-sw-Jmn-ḥr-ḫpš=f Ra fashioned him, strong arm of Amun Ramesses Rˁ-msj-sw Ra fashioned him Horus name Kanakht Sekhaaenre K3-nḫt-sḫˁˁ-n-Rˁ Strong bull, he who appears at the behest of Ra Children Ramesses XI? Died 1107 BC Burial KV18 Khepermaatre Ramesses X (also written Ramses and Rameses) (ruled c. 1111 BC – 1107 BC)[1] was the ninth pharaoh of the 20th Dynasty of Ancient Egypt. His birth name was Amonhirkhepeshef. His prenomen or throne name, Khepermaatre, means "The Justice of Re Abides."[2] His accession day fell on 1 prt 27 (first month of the Winter season, day 27).[3] His highest attested regnal year is year 3. The highest attested date in his reign is either "year 3, second month of the Inundation season, day 2"[4] or possibly "year 3, month 4 (no day given)".[5] Since Ramesses XI came to the throne on 3 šmw 20 (third month of the Summer season, day 20),[6] it automatically follows that Ramesses X must have lived into an as yet unattested regnal year 4. The theory put forward on astronomical grounds by Richard Parker that Ramesses X may have reigned for 9 years, has since been abandoned.[7] Likewise, the suggested ascription of Theban graffito 1860a to a hypothetical year 8 of Ramesses X[8][9] is no longer supported.[10] The English Egyptologist Aidan Dodson wrote in a 2004 book: No evidence is known to indicate the relationship between the final kings Ramesses IX, X and XI. If they were a father-son succession, Tyti, who bears the titles of King's Daughter, King's Wife and King's Mother, would seem [to be] a good candidate for the wife of Ramesses X, but little else can be discerned.[11] Scarab-seal of Ramesses X in Bologna However, Dodson's hypothesis here on Tyti's position must now be discarded since it has been proven in 2010 that Tyti was rather a queen of a previous 20th dynasty pharaoh instead. She is mentioned in the partly fragmented Harris papyrus to be Ramesses III's wife as Dodson himself acknowledges.[12] Ramesses X is a poorly documented king. His year 2 is attested by Papyrus Turin 1932+1939 while his third year is documented in the Necropolis Journal of the Workmen of Deir El Medina.[13] This diary mentions the general idleness of the necropolis workmen, at least partly due to the threat posed by Libyan marauders in the Valley of the Kings. It records that the Deir El-Medina workmen were absent from work in Year 3 IIIrd Month of Peret (i.e., Winter) days 6, 9, 11, 12, 18, 21 and 24 for fear of the "desert-dwellers" (i.e., the Libyans or Meshwesh) who evidently roamed through Upper Egypt and Thebes at will.[14] This is partly a reflection of the massive Libyan influx into the Western Delta region of Lower Egypt during this time. Ramesses X is also the last New Kingdom king whose rule over Nubia is attested from an inscription at Aniba.[15] His KV18 tomb in the Valley of the Kings was left unfinished. It is uncertain if he was ever buried there, since no remains or fragments of funerary objects were discovered within it. References[edit] ^ R. Krauss & D.A. Warburton "Chronological Table for the Dynastic Period" in Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss & David Warburton (editors), Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies), Brill, 2006. p.493 ^ Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames & Hudson Ltd., 2006 paperback, p.167 ^ J. von Beckerath, GM 79 (1984), 8-9 ^ Botti & Peet, Il Giornale della Necropoli, 55 ^ Botti & Peet, Il Giornale della Necropoli, 55, txt d ^ K. Ohlhafer, GM 135 (1993), 59ff ^ R.A. Parker, The Length of the Reign of Ramesses X, RdÉ 11 (1951), 163-164 ^ M. Bierbrier, JEA 58 (1972), 195-199 ^ M. Bierbrier, JEA 61 (1975), 251 ^ L.D. Bell, "Only one High Priest Ramessesnakht and the Second Prophet Nesamun his younger Son, Serapis 6 (1980), 7-27 ^ Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton: The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson, 2004, ISBN 0-500-05128-3, p.191 ^ Mark Collier, Aidan Dodson, & Gottfried Hamernik, P. BM 10052, Anthony Harris and Queen Tyti, JEA 96 (2010), pp.242-247 ^ E.F. Wente & C.C. Van Siclen, "A Chronology of the New Kingdom" in Studies in Honor of George R. Hughes, (SAOC 39) 1976, p.261 ^ J. Cerny, "Egypt from the Death of Ramesses III" in Cambridge Archaeological History (CAH), 'The Middle East and the Aegean Region c.1380-1000 BC', 1975, p.618 ^ Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, (Blackwell Books: 1992), p.291 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ramses X. KV18: The Tomb of Ramesses X Ramesses X at Find a Grave v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control BNF: cb165506863 (data) GND: 123112524 SELIBR: 333325 VIAF: 5831978 WorldCat Identities: viaf-120152499 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ramesses_X&oldid=975764342" Categories: Ramesses X 12th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt 1107 BC deaths 12th century BC in Egypt 12th-century BC rulers Ramesses IX Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 30 August 2020, at 08:25 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9725	----	Amenemhat II - Wikipedia Amenemhat II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search See Amenemhat, for other individuals with this name. Amenemhat II Ammenemes Sitting statue attributed to Amenemhat II later usurped by 19th Dynasty pharaohs Berlin, Pergamon Museum Pharaoh Reign about 35 years, 1914–1879/6 BCE;[1] 1878–1843 BCE;[2] 1877/6–1843/2 BCE[3] (12th Dynasty) Predecessor Senusret I Successor Senusret II Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Nubkaure Nbw-k3w-Rˁ Golden are the souls of Ra Nomen Amenemhat Jmn m ḥ3.t Amun is in front Variant form: Ameni Jmn-j (Ruler of ?) Amun Horus name Hekenemmaat ḥkn-m-m3ˁ.t He who delights in Maat Nebty name Hekenemmaat ḥkn-m-m3ˁ.t He who delights in Maat Golden Horus Maatkheru (Bjk-nbw)-m3ˁ.t-ḫrw The golden Horus, true of voice Variant form: Maatkheruemnebtawy (Bjk-nbw)-m3ˁ.t-ḫrw-m-nb-t3.w(j) The golden Horus, true of voice as the lord of the two lands Children See Family Father Senusret I Mother Neferu III Burial White Pyramid at Dahshur Nubkaure Amenemhat II was the third pharaoh of the 12th Dynasty of ancient Egypt. Although he ruled for at least 35 years, his reign is rather obscure, as well as his family relationships. Contents 1 Family 2 Reign 2.1 Accession 2.2 Account of reign 2.3 Court officials 2.4 Succession 3 Tomb 4 References 5 Bibliography 6 External links Family[edit] See also: Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Archaeological findings have provided the name of Amenemhat's mother, the "king's mother" Neferu III, but not the name of his father. Nevertheless, it is commonly assumed that he was a son of his predecessor Senusret I. An early attestation of Amenemhat may have come from the tomb of the namesake nomarch Amenemhat, buried at Beni Hasan This nomarch, who lived under Senusret I, escorted the "King's son Ameny" in an expedition to Nubia, and it is believed that this prince Ameny was no other than Amenemhat II in his youth.[3] The identity of Amenemhat's queen consort is unknown. Many royal women were buried within his pyramid complex, but their relationships with the king are unclear: a queen Keminub must be dated to the later 13th Dynasty, and three "king's daughters" named Ita, Itaweret, and Khenmet may have been Amenemhat's daughters, although a definitive proof is still lacking.[3] His successor Senusret II was likely his son, although this is never explicitly stated anywhere.[4] Other children were prince Amenemhatankh and the princesses Nofret II and Khenemetneferhedjet, likely the same person of Khenemetneferhedjet I; both those ladies later became wives of their purported brother Senusret II.[5] Reign[edit] Accession[edit] Sphinx of Amenemhat II, from Tanis. Louvre, A23 Necklace of Princess Khenmet, daughter of Amenemhat II Amenemhat II was once believed to have shared a period of coregency with his predecessor Senusret I, an hypothesis based on the double-dated stela of an official named Wepwawetō (Leiden, V4) that bears the regnal year 44 of Senusret I and the regnal year 2 of Amenemhat II.[6] The existence of such coregency is now considered unlikely and the meaning of the double-date on the stela is interpreted as a time range when Wepwawetō was in charge, from Senusret I's year 44 to Amenemhat II's year 2.[7][8] Account of reign[edit] Stela of the overseer of the chamber Senitef, who led the works at the "first temple", servants are shown bringing offerings to a statue of Amenemhat II (upper left), British Museum, EA 576 The most important record for Amenemhat's early reign is on fragments of the so-called Annals of Amenemhat II unearthed at Memphis (later reused during the 19th Dynasty). It provides records of donations to temples and, sometimes, of political events. Among the latter, there is a mention of a military expedition into Asia, the destruction of two cities – Iuai and Iasy – whose location is still unknown, and the coming of tribute-bearers from Asia and Kush.[9] Under Amenemhat II several mining expeditions are known: at least 3 in the Sinai, one in the Wadi Gasus (year 28) and one in search for amethysts in the Wadi el-Hudi. He is known to have ordered building works at Heliopolis, Herakleopolis, Memphis, in the Eastern Delta, and rebuilt a ruined temple at Hermopolis. There are some mentions of the building of a "First temple" but it is still unclear what it should have been.[10] A well-known finding associated with Amenemhat II is the Great Sphinx of Tanis (Louvre A23), later usurped by many other pharaohs. He is also named on the boxes of a treasure of silver objects found under the temple of Montu at Tod: notably, many of these objects are not of Egyptian workmanship but rather Aegean, evidencing contacts between Egypt and foreign civilizations in the Middle Kingdom. Many private stelae bears Amenemhat's cartouches – and sometimes even his regnal years – but are of little help in providing useful information about the events of his reign.[11] Court officials[edit] Some members of Amenemhat's court are known. Senusret was the vizier at the beginning of his reign, and one of his successors was Ameny, later likely followed by Siese who had a remarkable career and also was a treasurer and a high steward before his vizierate. Beside Siese, other known treasurers were Rehuerdjersen and Merykau. The "overseer of the gateway", Khentykhetywer, was buried near the king's pyramid. Other known officials were the "overseers of the chamber", Snofru and Senitef, and the royal scribe and iry-pat Samont.[10] As great overseer of troops, a certain Ameny dates most likely under the king. Succession[edit] Amenemhat II and his successor Senusret II shared a brief coregency, the only unquestionable one of the whole Middle Kingdom. Unlike most of the double-dated monuments, the stela of Hapu from Konosso explicitly states that these two kings ruled together for a while[8] and that the regnal year 3 of Senusret II equates the regnal year 35 of Amenemhat II. Amenemhat's year 35 on the stela of Hapu is also the highest date known for him.[12] Tomb[edit] Main article: White Pyramid Plan of Amenemhat II's pyramid complex at Dahshur Unlike his two predecessors who built their pyramids at Lisht, Amenemhat II chose Dahshur for this purpose, a location which was no more used as royal cemetery since the time of Sneferu and his Red Pyramid (4th Dynasty). At the present time, Amenemhat's pyramid – originally called Amenu-sekhem, but best known today as the White Pyramid – is poorly preserved and excavated. The mortuary temple adjacent the pyramid was called Djefa-Amenemhat.[13] Many people were buried within the pyramid complex, whose tombs were rediscovered by Jacques de Morgan in 1894/5: the three aforementioned princesses Ita, Itaweret, and Khenmet were found untouched, still containing their beautiful jewels, and also the tombs of the lady Sathathormeryt, the treasurer Amenhotep, and the queen Keminub; unlike the others, the latter two were looted in antiquity and are dated to the subsequent 13th Dynasty.[9][14] References[edit] ^ Amenemhat II on Digitalegypt ^ Hornung 2006, p. 491. ^ a b c Grajetzki 2006, p. 45. ^ Grajetzki 2006, p. 48. ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004, pp. 96–97. ^ Murnane 1977, pp. 5–6. ^ Delia 1979, pp. 16; 21–22. ^ a b Willems 2010, pp. 92–93. ^ a b Grajetzki 2006, pp. 45–46. ^ a b Grajetzki 2006, pp. 47–48. ^ Grajetzki 2006, p. 47. ^ Murnane 1977, p. 7. ^ Grajetzki 2006, pp. 46–47. ^ Untitled information on White Pyramid burials Bibliography[edit] Delia, Robert D. (1979). "A new look at some old dates: a reexamination of Twelfth Dynasty double dated inscriptions". Bulletin of the Egyptological Seminar of New York. 1: 15–28. Dodson, Aidan; Hilton, Dyan (2004). The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05128-3. Grajetzki, Wolfram (2006). The Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt: History, Archaeology and Society. London: Duckworth. ISBN 0-7156-3435-6. Hornung, Erik; Krauss, Rolf; Warburton, David, eds. (2006). Ancient Egyptian Chronology. Handbook of Oriental Studies. Leiden, Boston: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-11385-5. ISSN 0169-9423. Murnane, William J. (1977). Ancient Egyptian coregencies (=Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization, no. 40). Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. ISBN 0-918986-03-6. Willems, Harco (2010). "The First Intermediate Period and the Middle Kingdom". In Lloyd, Alan B. (ed.). A companion to Ancient Egypt, volume 1. Wiley-Blackwell. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Amenemhat II. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 119328305 ISNI: 0000 0001 1747 4809 LCCN: nr93045291 VIAF: 17101290 WorldCat Identities: lccn-nr93045291 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amenemhat_II&oldid=993454059" Categories: 19th-century BC deaths 20th-century BC Pharaohs 19th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans አማርኛ العربية Беларуская Български Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 December 2020, at 18:17 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9736	----	Union List of Artist Names - Wikipedia Union List of Artist Names From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from ULAN (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Sample entry, for Mark Rothko, screen 1 Sample ULAN Record, Mark Rothko continued. The Union List of Artist Names (ULAN) is a free online database of the Getty Research Institute using a controlled vocabulary, which by 2018 contained over 300,000 artists and over 720,000 names for them, as well as other information about artists.[1] Names in ULAN may include given names, pseudonyms, variant spellings, names in multiple languages, and names that have changed over time (e.g., married names). Among these names, one is flagged as the preferred name. Although it is displayed as a list, ULAN is structured as a thesaurus, compliant with ISO and NISO standards for thesaurus construction; it contains hierarchical, equivalence, and associative relationships. The focus of each ULAN record is an artist. In the database, each artist record (also called a subject) is identified by a unique numeric ID. The artist's nationality is given, as are places and dates of birth and death (if known).[2] Linked to each artist record are names, related artists, sources for the data, and notes. The temporal coverage of the ULAN ranges from Antiquity to the present and the scope is global. Artists may be either individuals (persons) or groups of individuals working together (corporate bodies). Artists in the ULAN generally represent creators involved in the conception or production of visual arts and architecture. Some performance artists are included (but typically not actors, dancers, or other performing artists). Repositories and some donors are included as well.[3] Contents 1 History 2 Design 3 See also 4 Footnotes 5 External links History[edit] Development of the ULAN began in 1984 by the J. Paul Getty Trust. The Trust, which already managed the Art and Architecture Thesaurus (AAT), began the project in response to requests from Getty projects for controlled vocabularies of artists' names.[4] The ULAN grows and changes via contributions from the user community and editorial work of the Getty Vocabulary Program.[4] Although originally intended only for use by Getty projects, the broader art information community outside the Getty expressed a need to use ULAN for cataloging and retrieval. The Getty thus distributed ULAN for broader use according to the tenets previously established for the construction and maintenance of the Art and Architecture Thesaurus: Its scope includes names needed to catalog and retrieve information about the visual arts and architecture; it is based on terminology that is current, warranted for use by authoritative literary sources, and validated by use in the scholarly art and architectural history community; and it is compiled and edited in response to the needs of the user community. Originally constructed as a simple alphabetized "union list" of clustered artist names and biographies, in order to make it consistent with the AAT and Getty Thesaurus of Geographic Names, in the late 1990s ULAN was brought into compliance with national and international standards for thesaurus construction. Its scope was broadened to include corporate bodies such as architectural firms and repositories of art, which may have hierarchical levels. The ULAN was founded under the management of Eleanor Fink (head of what was then called the Vocabulary Coordination Group, and later Director of the Art History Information Program, later called the Getty Information Institute).[5] The ULAN has been constructed over the years by numerous members of the user community and an army of dedicated editors, under the supervision of several managers. The ULAN was published in 1994 in hardcopy (Union List of Artist Names. Project manager, James M. Bower; senior editor, Murtha Baca. New York: G.K. Hall, 1994) and machine-readable files.[5] Given the growing size and frequency of changes and additions to the ULAN, by 1997 it had become evident that hard-copy publication was impractical. It is now published in automated formats only, in both a searchable online Web interface and in data files available for licensing. The data for ULAN is compiled and edited in an editorial system that was custom-built by Getty technical staff to meet the unique requirements of compiling data from many contributors, merging, moving, and publishing in various formats. Final editorial control of the ULAN is maintained by the Getty Vocabulary Program, using well-established editorial rules. The current managers of the ULAN are Patricia Harpring, Managing Editor, and Murtha Baca, Head, Vocabulary Program and Digital Resource Management. Design[edit] Even though the structure is relatively flat, the ULAN is constructed as a hierarchical database; its trees branch from a root called Top of the ULAN hierarchies (Subject_ID: 500000001); it currently has two published facets: Person and Corporate Body. Entities in the Person facet typically have no children. Entities in the Corporate Body facet may branch into trees. There may be multiple broader contexts, making the ULAN structure polyhierarchical. In addition to the hierarchical relationships, the ULAN also has equivalent and associative relationships. See also[edit] Benezit Dictionary of Artists the main competitor, now online via Oxford Art Online Art and Architecture Thesaurus (AAT) Categories for the Description of Works of Art (CDWA) Cultural Objects Name Authority (CONA) Getty Thesaurus of Geographic Names (TGN) Getty Vocabulary Program Footnotes[edit] ^ ULAN FAQ ^ Lerner, Heidi G. (2008)."Resources for Jewish Biography and Autobiography on the Internet". Shofar 26(2), 128–142. ^ About ULAN ^ a b Harpring, Patricia (2010). "Development of the Getty Vocabularies: AAT, TGN, ULAN, and CONA". Art Documentation: Journal of the Art Libraries Society of North America 29(1), 67–72. ^ a b Austin, David L. (1995). Art Documentation: Journal of the Art Libraries Society of North America 14(2), 48–49. External links[edit] Wikidata has the property: Union List of Artist Names ID (P245) (see uses) Union List of Artist Names Online About the Getty Vocabularies About ULAN Getty Vocabulary Editorial Guidelines The editorial guidelines for the AAT, ULAN, and TGN contain rules and guidelines intended for use by the editors of the Getty Vocabulary Program using the in-house editorial system, VCS (Vocabulary Coordination System). Contributors to the Getty Vocabularies and implementers of the licensed vocabulary data may consult these guidelines as well. Training materials and presentations created by the Getty Vocabulary Program The documents on this page include presentations and other training materials for the Getty Thesaurus of Geographic Names (TGN), the Union List of Artist Names (ULAN), the Art & Architecture Thesaurus (AAT), Cataloging Cultural Objects (CCO), Categories for the Description of Works of Art (CDWA), and standards in general. v t e Authority control files AAG • ACM DL • ADB • AGSA • autores.uy • AWR • BALaT • BIBSYS • Bildindex • BNC • BNE • BNF • Botanist • BPN • CANTIC • CiNii • CWGC • DAAO • DBLP • DSI • FNZA • GND • HDS • IAAF • ICCU • ICIA • ISNI • Joconde • KulturNav • LCCN • LIR • LNB • Léonore • MBA • MGP • NARA • NBL • NDL • NGV • NKC • NLA • NLG • NLI • NLK • NLP • NLR • NSK • NTA • ORCID • PIC • PLWABN • ResearcherID • RERO • RKD • RKDimages ID • RSL • SELIBR • SIKART • SNAC • SUDOC • S2AuthorId • TA98 • TDVİA • TE • TePapa • TH • TLS • Trove • UKPARL • ULAN • US Congress • VcBA • VIAF • WorldCat Identities Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Union_List_of_Artist_Names&oldid=913353894" Categories: Controlled vocabularies J. Paul Getty Trust Museum books Thesauri Arts databases Online person databases Library cataloging and classification Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Asturianu भोजपुरी Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gàidhlig Galego हिन्दी Ilokano Italiano עברית Magyar مصرى Nederlands Nordfriisk Português Română Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Suomi Svenska Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 31 August 2019, at 15:43 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-973	----	Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree - Wikipedia Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) As with most ancient Egyptian royal dynasties, the family tree for the Eighteenth Dynasty is complex and unclear. Senakhtenre Ahmose[1] Tetisheri Seqenenre Tao Ahhotep I Ahhotep II Kamose Seventeenth dynasty Ahmose-Sitkamose Ahmose I Ahmose-Nefertari Ahmose-ankh Ahmose Sapair Ahmose-Meritamon Amenhotep I Senseneb Ahmose Thutmose I Mutnofret Hatshepsut Thutmose II Iset Neferure Hatshepsut-Meryetre Thutmose III Tiaa Amenhotep II Mutemwiya Thutmose IV Yuya Tjuyu Amenhotep III Tiye Anen Kheperkheprure Ay Tey Sitamun? Henuttaneb Nebetah Thutmose Aset Beketaten "The Younger Lady" Akhenaten Nefertiti ( Neferneferuaten?) Mutnedjmet Horemheb Amenia Smenkhkare Tutankhamun Meketaten Neferneferuaten Tasherit Neferneferure Setepenre Meritaten Ankhesenamun Meritaten Tasherit Ankhesenpaaten Tasherit 317a and 317b mummies References[edit] ^ "Sénakht-en-Rê, la " redécouverte " d'un pharaon". CFEETK – Centre Franco-Égyptien d'Étude des Temples de Karnak. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Royal or noble family trees Monarchies by region Africa Egypt House of Muhammad Ali Ethiopia Solomonic dynasty Madagascar Morocco Tunisia Americas Aztec Brazil Mexico Asia Brunei Cambodia China Ancient Warring States Early Middle Late India Mughal Mughal-Mongol Iran Pre-Islamic: Achaemenid Arsacid Sasanian post-Islamic dynasties Modern: Safavid Afsharid Zand Qajar Pahlavi Japan Shōgun: Kamakura Ashikaga Tokugawa Jerusalem Korea Silla Goryeo Joseon Kuwait Malaysia Johor Kedah Kelantan Negeri Sembilan Pahang Perak Perlis Selangor Terengganu Mongol Borjigin Yuan Ilkhanate Timurid Myanmar Ottoman simplified Seljuk Anatolian Seljuk 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en-wikipedia-org-9749	----	Egyptian language - Wikipedia Egyptian language From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the modern and official language spoken in Egypt, see Egyptian Arabic. Language spoken in ancient Egypt, branch of the Afro-Asiatic languages Egyptian r n km.t[1] ϯⲙⲉⲧⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ (Coptic) Region Originally, throughout Ancient Egypt and parts of Nubia (especially during the times of the Nubian kingdoms)[2] Ethnicity Ancient Egyptians, Copts Era Late fourth millennium BC – 19th century AD (with the extinction of Coptic); still used as the liturgical language of the Coptic Orthodox and Coptic Catholic churches Revival Revitalisation efforts have been taking place since the 19th century[3] Language family Afro-Asiatic Egyptian Dialects Upper?[4][5] † Lower?[4][5] † Coptic dialects Writing system hieroglyphs, cursive hieroglyphs, hieratic, demotic and Coptic (later, occasionally, Arabic script in government translations and Latin script in scholars' transliterations and several hieroglyphic dictionaries[6]) Language codes ISO 639-2 egy (also cop for Coptic) ISO 639-3 egy (also cop for Coptic) Glottolog egyp1246 Linguasphere 11-AAA-a Ebers Papyrus detailing treatment of asthma This article contains Coptic text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Coptic letters. The Egyptian language (Egyptian: r n km.t, Middle Egyptian pronunciation: [ˈraʔ n̩ˈku.mat], Coptic: ϯⲙⲉⲧⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ)[1][7] is an Afro-Asiatic language which was spoken in ancient Egypt. Its attestation stretches over an extraordinarily long time, from the Old Egyptian stage (mid-4th millennium BC, Old Kingdom of Egypt). Its earliest known complete written sentence has been dated to about 2690 BC, which makes it one of the oldest recorded languages known, along with Sumerian.[8] Its classical form is known as Middle Egyptian, the vernacular of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt which remained the literary language of Egypt until the Roman period. The spoken language had evolved into Demotic by the time of Classical Antiquity, and finally into Coptic by the time of Christianisation. Spoken Coptic was almost extinct by the 17th century, but it remains in use as the liturgical language of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria.[9][10] Contents 1 Classification 2 History 2.1 Old Egyptian 2.2 Middle Egyptian 2.3 Late Egyptian 2.4 Demotic and Coptic 3 Dialects 4 Writing systems 5 Phonology 5.1 Consonants 5.2 Vowels 5.3 Phonotactics 5.4 Stress 5.5 Egyptological pronunciation 6 Morphology 6.1 Nouns 6.2 Pronouns 6.3 Verbs 6.4 Adjectives 6.5 Prepositions 6.6 Adverbs 7 Syntax 8 Legacy 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Bibliography 13 Literature 13.1 Overviews 13.2 Grammars 13.3 Dictionaries 13.4 Online dictionaries 14 External links Classification[edit] The Egyptian language belongs to the Afroasiatic language family.[11] Among the typological features of Egyptian that are typically Afroasiatic are its fusional morphology, nonconcatenative morphology, a series of emphatic consonants, a three-vowel system /a i u/, nominal feminine suffix *-at, nominal m-, adjectival *-ī and characteristic personal verbal affixes.[11] Of the other Afroasiatic branches, linguists have variously suggested that the Egyptian language shares its greatest affinities with Berber,[12] and Semitic.[13][14] In Egyptian, the Proto-Afroasiatic voiced consonants */d z ð/ developed into pharyngeal ⟨ꜥ⟩ /ʕ/: Egyptian ꜥr.t 'portal', Semitic dalt 'door'. Afroasiatic */l/ merged with Egyptian ⟨n⟩, ⟨r⟩, ⟨ꜣ⟩, and ⟨j⟩ in the dialect on which the written language was based, but it was preserved in other Egyptian varieties. Original */k g ḳ/ palatalise to ⟨ṯ j ḏ⟩ in some environments and are preserved as ⟨k g q⟩ in others.[15] The Egyptian language has many biradical and perhaps monoradical roots, in contrast to the Semitic preference for triradical roots. Egyptian is probably more conservative, and Semitic likely underwent later regularizations converting roots into the triradical pattern.[16] Although Egyptian is the oldest Afroasiatic language documented in written form, its morphological repertoire is very different from that of the rest of the Afroasiatic in general, and Semitic languages in particular. There are multiple possibilities: Egyptian had already undergone radical changes from Proto-Afroasiatic before it was recorded; the Afroasiatic family has so far been studied with an excessively Semito-centric approach; or, as G. W. Tsereteli suggests, Afroasiatic is an allogenetic rather than a genetic group of languages.[17] History[edit] The Egyptian language is conventionally grouped into six major chronological divisions:[18] Archaic Egyptian (before 2600 BC), the reconstructed language of the Early Dynastic Period, Old Egyptian (c. 2600 – 2000 BC), the language of the Old Kingdom, Middle Egyptian (c. 2000 – 1350 BC), the language of the Middle Kingdom to early New Kingdom and continuing on as a literary language into the 4th century, Late Egyptian (c. 1350 – 700 BC), Amarna period to Third Intermediate Period, Demotic (c. 700 BC – AD 400), the vernacular of the Late Period, Ptolemaic and early Roman Egypt, Coptic (after c. 200 AD), the vernacular at the time of Christianisation, and liturgical language of Egyptian Christianity. Old, Middle, and Late Egyptian were all written using both the hieroglyphic and hieratic scripts. Demotic is the name of the script derived from hieratic beginning in the 7th century BC. The Coptic alphabet was derived from the Greek alphabet, with adaptations for Egyptian phonology. It was first developed in the Ptolemaic period, and gradually replaced the Demotic script in about the 4th to 5th centuries of the Christian era. Diagram showing the use of the various lects of Egyptian by time period and linguistic register. Old Egyptian[edit] Seal impression from the tomb of Seth-Peribsen, containing the oldest known complete sentence in Egyptian The term "Archaic Egyptian" is sometimes reserved for the earliest use of hieroglyphs, from the late fourth through the early third millennia BC. At the earliest stage, around 3300 BC,[19] hieroglyphs were not a fully developed writing system, being at a transitional stage of proto-writing; over the time leading up to the 27th century BC, grammatical features such as nisba formation can be seen to occur.[20][21] Old Egyptian is dated from the oldest known complete sentence, including a finite verb, which has been found. Discovered in the tomb of Seth-Peribsen (dated c. 2690 BC), the seal impression reads: d(m)ḏ.n.f tꜣwj n zꜣ.f nsw.t-bj.t(j) pr-jb.sn(j) unite.PRF.3SG[22] land.DUAL.PREP son.3SG sedge-bee house-heart.3PL "He has united the Two Lands for his son, Dual King Peribsen."[23] Extensive texts appear from about 2600 BC.[21] The Pyramid Texts are the largest body of literature written in this phase of the language. One of its distinguishing characteristics is the tripling of ideograms, phonograms, and determinatives to indicate the plural. Overall, it does not differ significantly from Middle Egyptian, the classical stage of the language, though it is based on a different dialect. In the period of the 3rd dynasty (c. 2650 – c. 2575 BC), many of the principles of hieroglyphic writing were regularized. From that time on, until the script was supplanted by an early version of Coptic (about the third and fourth centuries), the system remained virtually unchanged. Even the number of signs used remained constant at about 700 for more than 2000 years.[24] Middle Egyptian[edit] Middle Egyptian was spoken for about 700 years, beginning around 2000 BC.[13] As the classical variant of Egyptian, Middle Egyptian is the best-documented variety of the language, and has attracted the most attention by far from Egyptology. Whilst most Middle Egyptian is seen written on monuments by hieroglyphs, it was also written using a cursive variant, and the related hieratic.[25] Middle Egyptian first became available to modern scholarship with the decipherment of hieroglyphs in the early 19th century. The first grammar of Middle Egyptian was published by Adolf Erman in 1894, surpassed in 1927 by Alan Gardiner's work. Middle Egyptian has been well-understood since then, although certain points of the verbal inflection remained open to revision until the mid-20th century, notably due to the contributions of Hans Jakob Polotsky.[26] The Middle Egyptian stage is taken to have ended around the 14th century BC, giving rise to Late Egyptian. This transition was taking place in the later period of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt (known as the Amarna Period). Middle Egyptian was retained as a literary standard language, and in this usage survived until the Christianisation of Roman Egypt in the 4th century.[citation needed] Late Egyptian[edit] Late Egyptian, appearing around 1350 BC, is represented by a large body of religious and secular literature, comprising such examples as the Story of Wenamun, the love poems of the Chester–Beatty I papyrus, and the Instruction of Any. Instructions became a popular literary genre of the New Kingdom, which took the form of advice on proper behavior. Late Egyptian was also the language of New Kingdom administration.[7][27] The Hebrew Bible contains some words, terms and names that are thought by scholars to be Egyptian in origin. An example of this is Zaphnath-Paaneah, the Egyptian name given to Joseph. Demotic and Coptic[edit] 10th century stela with Coptic inscription, in the Louvre Demotic is the name given to the Egyptian script used to write both the Egyptian vernacular of the Late Period from the eight century BC as well as texts in archaic forms of the language. It was written in a script derived from a northern variety of hieratic writing. The last evidence of archaic Egyptian in Demotic is a graffito written in 452 BC, but Demotic was used to write vernacular before and in parallel with the Coptic script throughout the early Ptolemaic Kingdom until it was supplanted by the Coptic alphabet entirely.[28] Coptic is the name given to the late Egyptian vernacular when it was written in a Greek-based alphabet, the Coptic alphabet; it flourished from the time of Early Christianity (c. 31/33–324) but first appeared during the Hellenistic period c. 3rd century BC.[29] It survived into the medieval period. By the 16th century Coptic was dwindling rapidly due to the persecution of Coptic Christians under the Mamluks. It probably survived in the Egyptian countryside as a spoken language for several centuries after that. Coptic survives as the liturgical language of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria and the Coptic Catholic Church. Dialects[edit] Most hieroglyphic Egyptian texts are written in a literary prestige register rather than the vernacular speech variety of their author. As a result, dialectical differences are not apparent in written Egyptian until the adoption of the Coptic alphabet.[4][5] Nevertheless, it is clear that these differences existed before the Coptic period. In one Late Egyptian letter (dated c. 1200 BC), a scribe jokes that his colleague's writing is incoherent like “the speech of a Delta man with a man of Elephantine.”[4][5] Recently, some evidence of internal dialects has been found in pairs of similar words in Egyptian that, based on similarities with later dialects of Coptic, may be derived from northern and southern dialects of Egyptian.[30] Written Coptic has five major dialects, which differ mainly in graphic conventions, most notably the southern Saidic dialect, the main classical dialect, and the northern Bohairic dialect, currently used in Coptic Church services.[4][5] Writing systems[edit] Most surviving texts in the Egyptian language are written on stone in hieroglyphs. The native name for Egyptian hieroglyphic writing is zẖꜣ n mdw-nṯr ("writing of the gods' words").[31][citation needed] In antiquity, most texts were written on perishable papyrus in hieratic and (later) demotic, which are now lost. There was also a form of cursive hieroglyphs, used for religious documents on papyrus, such as the Book of the Dead of the Twentieth Dynasty; it was simpler to write than the hieroglyphs in stone inscriptions, but it was not as cursive as hieratic and lacked the wide use of ligatures. Additionally, there was a variety of stone-cut hieratic, known as "lapidary hieratic".[citation needed] In the language's final stage of development, the Coptic alphabet replaced the older writing system. Hieroglyphs are employed in two ways in Egyptian texts: as ideograms to represent the idea depicted by the pictures and, more commonly, as phonograms to represent their phonetic value. As the phonetic realisation of Egyptian cannot be known with certainty, Egyptologists use a system of transliteration to denote each sound that could be represented by a uniliteral hieroglyph.[32] Phonology[edit] Further information: Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian While the consonantal phonology of the Egyptian language may be reconstructed, the exact phonetics are unknown, and there are varying opinions on how to classify the individual phonemes. In addition, because Egyptian is recorded over a full 2000 years, the Archaic and Late stages being separated by the amount of time that separates Old Latin from Modern Italian, significant phonetic changes must have occurred during that lengthy time frame.[33] Phonologically, Egyptian contrasted labial, alveolar, palatal, velar, uvular, pharyngeal, and glottal consonants. Egyptian also contrasted voiceless and emphatic consonants, as with other Afroasiatic languages, but exactly how the emphatic consonants were realised is unknown. Early research had assumed that the opposition in stops was one of voicing, but it is now thought to be either one of tenuis and emphatic consonants, as in many Semitic languages, or one of aspirated and ejective consonants, as in many Cushitic languages.[34] Since vowels were not written until Coptic, reconstructions of the Egyptian vowel system are much more uncertain and rely mainly on evidence from Coptic and records of Egyptian words, especially proper nouns, in other languages/writing systems. Also, scribal errors provide evidence of changes in pronunciation over time.[citation needed] The actual pronunciations reconstructed by such means are used only by a few specialists in the language. For all other purposes, the Egyptological pronunciation is used, but it often bears little resemblance to what is known of how Egyptian was pronounced. Consonants[edit] The following consonants are reconstructed for Archaic (before 2600 BC) and Old Egyptian (2686–2181 BC), with IPA equivalents in square brackets if they differ from the usual transcription scheme: Early Egyptian consonants[35] Labial Alveolar Postalveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyngeal Glottal Nasal m n Stop voiceless p t ṯ [c] k q* ʔ voiced b d* ḏ* [ɟ] ɡ* Fricative voiceless f s š [ʃ] ẖ [ç] ḫ [χ] ḥ [ħ] h voiced z* ꜣ (ȝ) [ʁ] ꜥ (ʿ) [ʕ] Approximant w l j Trill r *Possibly unvoiced ejectives. /l/ has no independent representation in the hieroglyphic orthography, and it is frequently written as if it were /n/ or /r/.[35] That is probably because the standard for written Egyptian is based on a dialect in which /l/ had merged with other sonorants.[15] Also, the rare cases of /ʔ/ occurring are not represented. The phoneme /j/ is written as ⟨j⟩ in initial position (⟨jt⟩ = */ˈjaːtVj/ 'father') and immediately after a stressed vowel (⟨bjn⟩ = */ˈbaːjin/ 'bad') and as ⟨jj⟩ word-medially immediately before a stressed vowel (⟨ḫꜥjjk⟩ = */χaʕˈjak/ 'you will appear') and are unmarked word-finally (⟨jt⟩ = /ˈjaːtVj/ 'father').[35] In Middle Egyptian (2055–1650 BC), a number of consonantal shifts take place. By the beginning of the Middle Kingdom period, /z/ and /s/ had merged, and the graphemes ⟨s⟩ and ⟨z⟩ are used interchangeably.[36] In addition, /j/ had become /ʔ/ word-initially in an unstressed syllable (⟨jwn⟩ /jaˈwin/ > */ʔaˈwin/ "colour") and after a stressed vowel (⟨ḥjpw⟩ */ˈħujpVw/ > /ˈħeʔp(Vw)/ '[the god] Apis').[37] In Late Egyptian (1069–700 BC), the phonemes d ḏ g gradually merge with their counterparts t ṯ k (⟨dbn⟩ */ˈdiːban/ > Akkadian transcription ti-ba-an 'dbn-weight'). Also, ṯ ḏ often become /t d/, but they are retained in many lexemes; ꜣ becomes /ʔ/; and /t r j w/ become /ʔ/ at the end of a stressed syllable and eventually null word-finally: ⟨pḏ.t⟩ */ˈpiːɟat/ > Akkadian transcription -pi-ta 'bow'.[38] More changes occur in the 1st millennium BC and the first centuries AD, leading to Coptic (1st–17th centuries AD). In Sahidic ẖ ḫ ḥ had merged into ϣ š (most often from ḫ) and ϩ /h/ (most often ẖ ḥ). Bohairic and Akhmimic are more conservative and have a velar fricative /x/ ( ϧ in Bohairic, ⳉ in Akhmimic).[39] Pharyngeal *ꜥ had merged into glottal /ʔ/ after it had affected the quality of the surrounding vowels.[40] /ʔ/ is not indicated orthographically unless it follows a stressed vowel; then, it is marked by doubling the vowel letter (except in Bohairic): Akhmimic ⳉⲟⲟⲡ /xoʔp/, Sahidic and Lycopolitan ϣⲟⲟⲡ šoʔp, Bohairic ϣⲟⲡ šoʔp 'to be' < ḫpr.w */ˈχapraw/ 'has become'.[39][nb 1] The phoneme ⲃ /b/ was probably pronounced as a fricative [β], becoming ⲡ /p/ after a stressed vowel in syllables that had been closed in earlier Egyptian (compare ⲛⲟⲩⲃ < */ˈnaːbaw/ 'gold' and ⲧⲁⲡ < */dib/ 'horn').[39] The phonemes /d g z/ occur only in Greek loanwords, with rare exceptions triggered by a nearby /n/: ⲁⲛⲍⲏⲃⲉ/ⲁⲛⲥⲏⲃⲉ < ꜥ.t n.t sbꜣ.w 'school'.[39] This article contains Coptic text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Coptic letters. Earlier *d ḏ g q are preserved as ejective t' c' k' k' before vowels in Coptic. Although the same graphemes are used for the pulmonic stops (⟨ ⲧ ϫ ⲕ⟩), the existence of the former may be inferred because the stops ⟨ ⲡ ⲧ ϫ ⲕ⟩ /p t c k/ are allophonically aspirated [pʰ tʰ cʰ kʰ] before stressed vowels and sonorant consonants.[41] In Bohairic, the allophones are written with the special graphemes ⟨ ⲫ ⲑ ϭ ⲭ⟩, but other dialects did not mark aspiration: Sahidic ⲡⲣⲏ, Bohairic ⲫⲣⲏ 'the sun'.[41][nb 2] Thus, Bohairic does not mark aspiration for reflexes of older *d ḏ g q: Sahidic and Bohairic ⲧⲁⲡ */dib/ 'horn'.[41] Also, the definite article ⲡ is unaspirated when the next word begins with a glottal stop: Bohairic ⲡ + ⲱⲡ > ⲡⲱⲡ 'the account'.[42] The consonant system of Coptic is as follows: Coptic consonants[43] Labial Dental Palatal Velar Glottal Nasal ⲙ m ⲛ n Stop voiceless ⲡ (ⲫ) p (pʰ) ⲧ (ⲑ) t (tʰ) ϫ (ϭ) c (cʰ) ⲕ (ⲭ) k (kʰ) * ʔ ejective ⲧ tʼ ϫ cʼ ⲕ kʼ voiced ⲇ d ⲅ ɡ Fricative voiceless ϥ f ⲥ s ϣ ʃ (ϧ, ⳉ) (x) ϩ ħ voiced ⲃ β ⲍ z Approximant (ⲟ)ⲩ w ⲗ l (ⲉ)ⲓ j Trill ⲣ r *Various orthographic representations; see above. Vowels[edit] Here is the vowel system reconstructed for earlier Egyptian: Earlier Egyptian vowel system[37] Front Back Close i iː u uː Open a aː Vowels are always short in unstressed syllables (⟨tpj⟩ = */taˈpij/ 'first') and long in open stressed syllables (⟨rmṯ⟩ = */ˈraːmac/ 'man'), but they can be either short or long in closed stressed syllables (⟨jnn⟩ = */jaˈnan/ 'we', ⟨mn⟩ = */maːn/ 'to stay').[44] In the Late New Kingdom, after Ramses II, around 1200 BC, */ˈaː/ changes to */ˈoː/ (like the Canaanite shift), ⟨ḥrw⟩ '(the god) Horus' */ħaːra/ > */ħoːrə/ (Akkadian transcription: -ḫuru).[38][45] */uː/, therefore, changes to */eː/: ⟨šnj⟩ 'tree' */ʃuːn(?)j/ > */ʃeːnə/ (Akkadian transcription: -sini).[38] In the Early New Kingdom, short stressed */ˈi/ changes to */ˈe/: ⟨mnj⟩ "Menes" */maˈnij/ > */maˈneʔ/ (Akkadian transcription: ma-né-e).[38] Later, probably 1000–800 BC, a short stressed */ˈu/ changes to */ˈe/: ⟨ḏꜥn.t⟩ "Tanis" */ˈɟuʕnat/ was borrowed into Hebrew as *ṣuʕn but would become transcribed as ⟨ṣe-e'-nu/ṣa-a'-nu⟩ during the Neo-Assyrian Empire.[46] Unstressed vowels, especially after a stress, become */ə/: ⟨nfr⟩ 'good' */ˈnaːfir/ > */ˈnaːfə/ (Akkadian transcription -na-a-pa).[46] */iː/ changes to */eː/ next to /ʕ/ and /j/: ⟨wꜥw⟩ 'soldier' */wiːʕiw/ > */weːʕə/ (earlier Akkadian transcription: ú-i-ú, later: ú-e-eḫ).[46] Egyptian vowel system c. 1000 BC[46] Front Central Back Close iː Mid e eː ə oː Open a In Sahidic and Bohairic Coptic, Late Egyptian stressed */ˈa/ becomes */ˈo/ and */ˈe/ becomes /ˈa/, but are unchanged in the other dialects: ⟨sn⟩ */san/ 'brother' > Sahaidic and Bohairic ⟨son⟩, Akhminic, Lycopolitan and Fayyumic ⟨san⟩; ⟨rn⟩ 'name' */rin/ > */ren/ > Sahaidic and Bohairic ⟨ran⟩, Akhminic, Lycopolitan and Fayyumic ⟨ren⟩.[40] However, Sahaidic and Bohairic preserve */ˈa/, and Fayyumic renders it as ⟨e⟩ in the presence of guttural fricatives: ⟨ḏbꜥ⟩ 'ten thousand' */ˈbaʕ/ > Sahaidic, Akhmimic and Lycopolitan ⟨tba⟩, Bohairic ⟨tʰba⟩, Fayyumic ⟨tbe⟩. In Akhmimic and Lycopolitan, */ˈa/ becomes /ˈo/ before etymological /ʕ, ʔ/: ⟨jtrw⟩ 'river' */ˈjatraw/ > */jaʔr(ə)/ > Sahaidic ⟨eioor(e)⟩, Bohairic ⟨ior⟩, Akhminic ⟨ioore, iôôre⟩, Fayyumic ⟨iaal, iaar⟩. Similarly, the diphthongs */ˈaj/, */ˈaw/, which normally have reflexes /ˈoj/, /ˈow/ in Sahidic and are preserved in other dialects, are in Bohairic ⟨ôi⟩ (in non-final position) and ⟨ôou⟩ respectively: "to me, to them" Sahidic ⟨eroi, eroou⟩, Akhminic and Lycopolitan ⟨arai, arau⟩, Fayyumic ⟨elai, elau⟩, Bohairic ⟨eroi, erôou⟩. Sahidic and Bohairic preserve */ˈe/ before /ʔ/ (etymological or from lenited /t r j/ or tonic-syllable coda /w/),: Sahidic and Bohairic ⟨ne⟩ /neʔ/ 'to you (fem.)' < */ˈnet/ < */ˈnic/. */e/ may also have different reflexes before sonorants, near sibilants and in diphthongs.[47] Old */aː/ surfaces as /uː/ after nasals and occasionally other consonants: ⟨nṯr⟩ 'god' */ˈnaːcar/ > /ˈnuːte/ ⟨noute⟩[48] /uː/ has acquired phonemic status, as is evidenced by minimal pairs like 'to approach' ⟨hôn⟩ /hoːn/ < */ˈçaːnan/ ẖnn vs. 'inside' ⟨houn⟩ /huːn/ < */ˈçaːnaw/ ẖnw.[49] An etymological */uː/ > */eː/ often surfaces as /iː/ next to /r/ and after etymological pharyngeals: ⟨hir⟩ < */χuːr/ 'street' (Semitic loan).[49] Most Coptic dialects have two phonemic vowels in unstressed position. Unstressed vowels generally became /ə/, written as ⟨e⟩ or null (⟨i⟩ in Bohairic and Fayyumic word-finally), but pretonic unstressed /a/ occurs as a reflex of earlier unstressed */e/ near an etymological pharyngeal, velar or sonorant ('to become many' ⟨ašai⟩ < ꜥšꜣ */ʕiˈʃiʀ/) or an unstressed */a/. Pretonic [i] is underlyingly /əj/: Sahidic 'ibis' ⟨hibôi⟩ < h(j)bj.w */hijˈbaːj?w/.[49] Thus, the following is the Sahidic vowel system c. AD 400: Sahidic vowel system circa 400 AD[40] Stressed Unstressed Front Back Central Close iː uː Mid e eː o oː ə Open a Phonotactics[edit] Earlier Egyptian has the syllable structure CV(:)(C) in which V is long in open stressed syllables and short elsewhere.[44] In addition, CV:C or CVCC can occur in word-final, stressed position.[44] However, CV:C occurs only in the infinitive of biconsonantal verbal roots, CVCC only in some plurals.[44][46] In later Egyptian, stressed CV:C, CVCC, and CV become much more common because of the loss of final dentals and glides.[46] Stress[edit] Earlier Egyptian stresses one of the last two syllables. According to some scholars, that is a development from a stage in Proto-Egyptian in which the third-last syllable could be stressed, which was lost as open posttonic syllables lost their vowels: */ˈχupiraw/ > */ˈχupraw/ 'transformation'.[50] Egyptological pronunciation[edit] As a convention, Egyptologists make use of an "Egyptological pronunciation" in English: the consonants are given fixed values, and vowels are inserted according to essentially arbitrary rules. Two consonants, alef and ayin, are generally pronounced /ɑː/. Yodh is pronounced /iː/, w /uː/. Between other consonants, /ɛ/ is then inserted. Thus, for example, the name of an Egyptian king is most accurately transliterated as Rꜥ-ms-sw and transcribed as "Rɑmɛssu"; it means "Ra has Fashioned (literally, 'Borne') Him". In transcription, ⟨a⟩, ⟨i⟩, and ⟨u⟩ all represent consonants; for example, the name Tutankhamun (1341–1323 BC) was written in Egyptian as twt-ꜥnḫ-ı͗mn. Experts have assigned generic sounds to these values as a matter of convenience, which is an artificial pronunciation and should not be mistaken for how Egyptian was ever pronounced at any time. For example, the name twt-ꜥnḫ-ı͗mn is conventionally pronounced /tuːtənˈkɑːmən/ in English, but, in his lifetime, it was likely to be pronounced something like *[taˈwaːtij ˈʕaːnaχ jaˈmaːnuw].,[51][52][53][54][55][56] transliterable as tawā́tij-ʿā́nakh-ʾamā́n. Morphology[edit] Egyptian is fairly typical for an Afroasiatic language in that at the heart of its vocabulary is most commonly a root of three consonants, but there are sometimes only two consonants in the root: rꜥ(w) [riːʕa] "sun" (the [ʕ] is thought to have been something like a voiced pharyngeal fricative). Larger roots are also common and can have up to five consonants: sḫdḫd "be upside-down". Vowels and other consonants are added to the root to derive different meanings, as Arabic, Hebrew, and other Afroasiatic languages still do. However, because vowels and sometimes glides are not written in any Egyptian script except Coptic, it can be difficult to reconstruct the actual forms of words. Thus, orthographic ⟨stp⟩ "to choose", for example, can represent the stative (whose endings can be left unexpressed), the imperfective forms or even a verbal noun ("a choosing"). Nouns[edit] Egyptian nouns can be masculine or feminine (the latter is indicated, as with other Afroasiatic languages, by adding a -t) and singular or plural (-w / -wt), or dual (-wy / -ty). Articles, both definite and indefinite, do not occur until Late Egyptian but are used widely thereafter. Pronouns[edit] Egyptian has three different types of personal pronouns: suffix, enclitic (called "dependent" by Egyptologists) and independent pronouns. There are also a number of verbal endings added to the infinitive to form the stative and are regarded by some linguists[57] as a "fourth" set of personal pronouns. They bear close resemblance to their Semitic counterparts. The three main sets of personal pronouns are as follows: Suffix Dependent Independent 1st sg. -ı͗ wı͗ ı͗nk 2nd sg. m. -k tw ntk 2nd sg. f. -t tn ntt 3rd sg. m. -f sw ntf 3rd sg. f. -s sy nts 1st pl. -n n ı͗nn 2nd pl. -tn tn nttn 3rd pl. -sn sn ntsn Demonstrative pronouns have separate masculine and feminine singular forms and common plural forms for both genders: Mas. Fem. Plu. Meaning pn tn nn this, that, these, those pf tf nf that, those pw tw nw this, that, these, those (archaic) pꜣ tꜣ nꜣ this, that, these, those (colloquial [earlier] & Late Egyptian) Finally are interrogative pronouns. They bear a close resemblance to their Semitic and Berber counterparts: Pronoun Meaning Dependency mı͗ who / what Dependent ptr who / what Independent iḫ what Dependent ı͗šst what Independent zı͗ which Independent & Dependent Verbs[edit] Egyptian verbs have finite and non-finite forms. Finite verbs convey person, tense/aspect, mood and voice. Each is indicated by a set of affixal morphemes attached to the verb: the basic conjugation is sḏm.f "he hears". Non-finite verbs occur without a subject and are the infinitive, the participles and the negative infinitive, which Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs calls "negatival complement". There are two main tenses/aspects in Egyptian: past and temporally-unmarked imperfective and aorist forms. The latter are determined from their syntactic context. Adjectives[edit] Adjectives agree in gender and number with the nouns they modify: s nfr "(the) good man" and st nfrt "(the) good woman". Attributive adjectives in phrases are after the nouns they modify: "(the) great god" (nṯr ꜥꜣ). However, when they are used independently as a predicate in an adjectival phrase, as "(the) god (is) great" (ꜥꜣ nṯr) (literally, "great (is the) god"), adjectives precede the nouns they modify. Prepositions[edit] While Afroasiatic, Egyptian makes use of prepositions, more common in English and other Indo-European languages. m "in, as, with, from" n "to, for" r "to, at" ı͗n "by" ḥnꜥ "with" mı͗ "like" ḥr "on, upon" ḥꜣ "behind, around" ẖr "under" tp "atop" ḏr "since" Adverbs[edit] Adverbs, in Egyptian, are at the end of a sentence: in zı͗.n nṯr ı͗m "the god went there", "there" (ı͗m) is the adverb. Here are some other common Egyptian adverbs: ꜥꜣ "here" ṯnı͗ "where" zy-nw "when" (lit. "which moment") mı͗-ı͗ḫ "how" (lit. "like-what") r-mı͗ "why" (lit. "for what") ḫnt "before" Syntax[edit] Old Egyptian, Classical Egyptian, and Middle Egyptian have verb-subject-object as the basic word order. However, that changed in the later stages of the language, including Late Egyptian, Demotic and Coptic. The equivalent to "the man opens the door" would be a sentence that would correspond, in the language's earlier stages, to "opens the man the door" (wn s ꜥꜣ). The so-called construct state combines two or more nouns to express the genitive, as in Semitic and Berber languages. The early stages of Egyptian have no articles, but the later forms use pꜣ, tꜣ and nꜣ. As with other Afroasiatic languages, Egyptian uses two grammatical genders: masculine and feminine. It also uses three grammatical numbers: singular, dual and plural. However, later Egyptian has a tendency to lose the dual as a productive form. Legacy[edit] Further information: Coptic language § Influence on other languages The Egyptian language survived into the early modern period in the form of the Coptic language. Coptic survived past the 16th century only as an isolated vernacular. However, in antiquity, Egyptian exerted some influence on Classical Greek, so that a number of Egyptian loanwords into Greek survive into modern usage. Examples include ebony (Egyptian 𓍁𓈖𓏭𓆱 hbny, via Greek and then Latin), ivory (Egyptian ꜣbw, literally "ivory, elephant"), natron (via Greek), lily (Coptic hlēri, via Greek), ibis (Egyptian hbj, via Greek), oasis (Demotic wḥj, via Greek), perhaps barge (Greek βᾶρις baris "Egyptian boat" from Coptic ⲃⲁⲁⲣⲉ baʔrə "small boat" from Egyptian bꜣjr ), and possibly cat;[58] and of course a number of terms and proper names directly associated with Ancient Egypt, such as pharaoh (Egyptian 𓉐𓉻 pr-ꜥꜣ, literally "great house", transmitted via Hebrew and Greek). The name Egypt itself is etymologically identical to that of the Copts, ultimately from the Late Egyptian name of Memphis, Hikuptah, a continuation of Middle Egyptian ḥwt-kꜣ-ptḥ "temple of the ka (soul) of Ptah".[59] A number of words in Biblical Hebrew are also traced to Egyptian;[60] apart from "Pharaoh", most of these have not entered Greek, Latin or English usage.[61] See also[edit] Altägyptisches Wörterbuch Ancient Egyptian literature Coptic language Demotic Egyptian Egyptian Arabic Egyptian hieroglyphs Egyptian numerals Hieratic Transliteration of ancient Egyptian Notes[edit] ^ There is evidence of Bohairic having a phonemic glottal stop: Loprieno (1995:44). ^ In other dialects, the graphemes are used only for clusters of a stop followed by /h/ and were not used for aspirates: see Loprieno (1995:248). References[edit] ^ a b Erman, Adolf; Grapow, Hermann, Wörterbuch der ägyptischen Sprache, Akademie-Verlag, Berlin, 1926–1961. ISBN 3050022647. ^ "Ancient Sudan~ Nubia: Writing: The Basic Languages of Christian Nubia: Greek, Coptic, Old Nubian, and Arabic". www.ancientsudan.org. Retrieved 9 March 2017. ^ http://www.stshenouda.com/coptlang/copthist.htm#Coptic19 ^ a b c d e Allen (2000:2) ^ a b c d e Loprieno (1995:8) ^ https://www.um.es/cepoat/egipcio/wp-content/uploads/egyptianhierogly.pdf ^ a b Loprieno (1995:7) ^ Allen (2013:2) ^ The language may have survived in isolated pockets in Upper Egypt as late as the 19th century, according to James Edward Quibell, "When did Coptic become extinct?" in Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde, 39 (1901), p. 87. ^ "Coptic language's last survivors". Daily Star Egypt, December 10, 2005 (archived) ^ a b Loprieno (1995:1) ^ Frajzyngier, Zygmunt; Shay, Erin (31 May 2012). The Afroasiatic Languages. Cambridge University Press. p. 102. ISBN 9780521865333. ^ a b Loprieno (1995:5) ^ Allan, Keith (2013). The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. OUP Oxford. p. 264. ISBN 978-0199585847. Retrieved 7 June 2018. ^ a b Loprieno (1995:31) ^ Loprieno (1995:52) ^ Loprieno (1995:51) ^ Bard, Kathryn A.; Steven Blake Shubert (1999). Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. Routledge. p. 325. ISBN 978-0-415-18589-9. ^ Richard Mattessich, "Oldest writings, and inventory tags of Egypt", Accounting Historians Journal, 2002, Vol. 29, No. 1, pp. 195–208. ^ Richard Mattessich (2002). "The oldest writings, and inventory tags of Egypt". Accounting Historians Journal. 29 (1): 195–208. doi:10.2308/0148-4184.29.1.195. JSTOR 40698264. ^ a b Allen (2013:2f.) ^ Werning, Daniel A. (2008) "Aspect vs. Relative Tense, and the Typological Classification of the Ancient Egyptian sḏm.n⸗f" in Lingua Aegyptia 16, p. 289. ^ Allen (2013:2) citing Jochem Kahl, Markus Bretschneider, Frühägyptisches Wörterbuch, Part 1 (2002), p. 229. ^ "Hieroglyph | writing character". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 5 December 2018. ^ http://archive.archaeology.org/9903/newsbriefs/egypt.html ^ Polotsky, H. J., Études de syntaxe copte, Société d'Archéologie Copte, Cairo (1944); Polotsky, H. J., Egyptian Tenses, Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Vol. 2, No. 5 (1965). ^ Meyers, op. cit., p. 209. ^ Allen, James (26 March 2020). Ancient Egyptian Phonology. Cambridge University Press. p. 23. ISBN 978-1-108-48555-5. ^ Allen, James (26 March 2020). Ancient Egyptian Phonology. Cambridge University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-108-48555-5. ^ Satzinger (2008:10) ^ Schiffman, Lawrence H. (1 January 2003). Semitic Papyrology in Context: A Climate of Creativity : Papers from a New York University Conference Marking the Retirement of Baruch A. Levine. BRILL. ISBN 978-9004128859. ^ Allen (2000:13) ^ Lipiński, E. (Edward) (2001). Semitic languages : outline of a comparative grammar. Peeters. ISBN 90-429-0815-7. OCLC 783059625. ^ See Egyptian Phonology, by Carsten Peust, for a review of the history of thinking on the subject; his reconstructions of words are nonstandard. ^ a b c Loprieno (1995:33) ^ Loprieno (1995:34) ^ a b Loprieno (1995:35) ^ a b c d Loprieno (1995:38) ^ a b c d Loprieno (1995:41) ^ a b c Loprieno (1995:46) ^ a b c Loprieno (1995:42) ^ Loprieno (1995:43) ^ Loprieno (1995:40–42) ^ a b c d Loprieno (1995:36) ^ Allen (2013) ^ a b c d e f Loprieno (1995:39) ^ Loprieno (1995:47) ^ Loprieno (1995:47–48) ^ a b c Loprieno (1995:48) ^ Loprieno (1995:37) ^ Fecht, Gerhard, Wortakzent und Silbenstruktur: Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der ägyptischen Sprache, J. J. Augustin, Glückstadt–Hamburg–New York 1960, §§ 112 A. 194, 254 A. 395. ^ Vergote, Jozef, Grammaire Copte, two vols. Peters, Louvain, 1973-1983. ^ Osing, J. Die Nominalbildung des Ägyptischen. Deutsches archäologisches Institut, Abteilung Kairo (1976) ^ Schenkel, W., Zur Rekonstruktion deverbalen Nominalbildung des Ägyptischen, Harrasowitz, Wiesbaden 1983, pp. 212, 214, 247. ^ Vycichl (1983:10, 224, 250) ^ Vycichl (1990:215) ^ Loprieno (1995:65) ^ Often assumed to represent the precursor of Coptic ϣⲁⲩ (šau "tomcat") suffixed with feminine -t, but some authorities dispute this, e.g. John Huehnergard, "Qitta: Arabic Cats", Classical Arabic Humanities in Their Own Terms (2007). ^ Hoffmeier, James K (1 October 2007). "Rameses of the Exodus narratives is the 13th B.C. Royal Ramesside Residence". Trinity Journal: 1. ^ Benjamin J. Noonan, "Egyptian Loanwords as Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus and Wilderness Traditions". ^ A possible exception is behemoth (of uncertain etymology, possibly from a presumed *pꜣ-jḥ-mw "hippopotamus", but it may also be a native Semitic word). Bibliography[edit] Allen, James P. (2000). Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-65312-1. Allen, James P. (2013). The Ancient Egyptian Language: An Historical Study. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-66467-8. Callender, John B. (1975). Middle Egyptian. Undena Publications. ISBN 978-0-89003-006-6. Loprieno, Antonio (1995). Ancient Egyptian: A Linguistic Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-44384-5. Satzinger, Helmut (2008). "What happened to the voiced consonants of Egyptian?" (PDF). 2. Acts of the X International Congress of Egyptologists. pp. 1537–1546. Vycichl, Werner (1983). Dictionnaire Étymologique de la Langue Copte. Leuven. ISBN 9782-7247-0096-1. Vycichl, Werner (1990). La Vocalisation de la Langue Égyptienne. Cairo: IFAO. ISBN 9782-7247-0096-1. Literature[edit] Overviews[edit] Allen, James P., The Ancient Egyptian Language: An Historical Study, Cambridge University Press, 2013. ISBN 978-1-107-03246-0 (hardback), ISBN 978-1-107-66467-8 (paperback). Loprieno, Antonio, Ancient Egyptian: A Linguistic Introduction, Cambridge University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-521-44384-9 (hardback), ISBN 0-521-44849-2 (paperback). Peust, Carsten, Egyptian phonology: An Introduction to the Phonology of a Dead Language, Peust & Gutschmidt, 1999. ISBN 3-933043-02-6 (PDF online). Vergote, Jozef, "Problèmes de la «Nominalbildung» en égyptien", Chronique d'Égypte 51 (1976), pp. 261–285. Vycichl, Werner, La Vocalisation de la Langue Égyptienne, IFAO, Cairo, 1990. ISBN 9782-7247-0096-1. Grammars[edit] Allen, James P., Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs, first edition, Cambridge University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-521-65312-6 (hardback) ISBN 0-521-77483-7 (paperback). Borghouts, Joris F., Egyptian: An Introduction to the Writing and Language of the Middle Kingdom, two vols., Peeters, 2010. ISBN 978-9-042-92294-5 (paperback). Collier, Mark, and Manley, Bill, How to Read Egyptian Hieroglyphs: A Step-by-Step Guide to Teach Yourself, British Museum Press ( ISBN 0-7141-1910-5) and University of California Press ( ISBN 0-520-21597-4), both 1998. Gardiner, Sir Alan H., Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs, Griffith Institute, Oxford, 3rd ed. 1957. ISBN 0-900416-35-1. Hoch, James E., Middle Egyptian Grammar, Benben Publications, Mississauga, 1997. ISBN 0-920168-12-4. Selden, Daniel L., Hieroglyphic Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Literature of the Middle Kingdom, University of California Press, 2013. ISBN 978-0-520-27546-1 (hardback). Dictionaries[edit] Erman, Adolf and Grapow, Hermann, Das Wörterbuch der ägyptischen Sprache, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH, Berlin, 1992. ISBN 978-3-05-002264-2 (paperback), ISBN 978-3-05-002266-6 (reference vols. 1–5). Faulkner, Raymond O., A Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian, Griffith Institute, Oxford, 1962. ISBN 0-900416-32-7 (hardback). Lesko, Leonard H., A Dictionary of Late Egyptian, 2nd ed., 2 vols., B. C. Scribe Publications, Providence, 2002 et 2004. ISBN 0-930548-14-0 (vol.1), ISBN 0-930548-15-9 (vol. 2). Shennum, David, English-Egyptian Index of Faulkner's Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian, Undena Publications, 1977. ISBN 0-89003-054-5. Bonnamy, Yvonne and Sadek, Ashraf-Alexandre, Dictionnaire des hiéroglyphes: Hiéroglyphes-Français, Actes Sud, Arles, 2010. ISBN 978-2-7427-8922-1. Vycichl, Werner, Dictionnaire Étymologique de la Langue Copte, Peeters, Leuven, 1984. ISBN 2-8017-0197-1. de Vartavan, Christian, Vocalised Dictionary of Ancient Egyptian, SAIS, London, 2016. ISBN 978-0-9954898-1-3. [Free PDF download: https://www.academia.edu/24283355/Vocalised_Dictionary_of_Ancient_Egyptian] Online dictionaries[edit] The Beinlich Wordlist, an online searchable dictionary of ancient Egyptian words (translations are in German). Thesaurus Linguae Aegyptiae, an online service available from October 2004 which is associated with various German Egyptological projects, including the monumental Altägyptisches Wörterbuch of the Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften (Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Berlin, Germany). Mark Vygus Dictionary 2018, a searchable dictionary of ancient Egyptian words, arranged by glyph. Important Note: The old grammars and dictionaries of E. A. Wallis Budge have long been considered obsolete by Egyptologists, even though these books are still available for purchase. More book information is available at Glyphs and Grammars. External links[edit] Look up Category:English terms derived from Egyptian in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Egyptian language repository of Wikisource, the free library Thesaurus Linguae Aegyptiae: Dictionary of the Egyptian language The Egyptian connection: Egyptian and the Semitic languages by Helmut Satzinger Ancient Egyptian in the wiki Glossing Ancient Languages (recommendations for the Interlinear Morphemic Glossing of Ancient Egyptian texts) v t e Major Afroasiatic languages Berber Kabyle Riffian Shawiya Shilha Tuareg Chadic Hausa Cushitic Afar Beja Oromo Somali Egyptian Ancient Egyptian Coptic Omotic Wolaytta North Semitic Akkadian Arabic (Varieties of Arabic) Aramaic (Assyrian Neo-Aramaic) Hebrew Phoenician Ethiopic Ethiopic languages Amharic Tigrinya Tigre Geʽez Gurage Italics indicate extinct languages v t e Ancient Egypt topics Index Major topics Glossary of artifacts Agriculture Architecture (Egyptian Revival architecture) Art Portraiture Astronomy Chronology Cities (list) Clothing Cuisine Dance Dynasties Funerary practices Geography Great Royal Wives (list) Hieroglyphs History Language Literature Mathematics Medicine Military Music Mythology People Pharaohs (list) Philosophy Religion Sites Technology Trade Writing Egyptology Egyptologists Museums  Ancient Egypt portal Book Category WikiProject Commons Outline Ancient Egypt portal Language portal v t e Languages of Egypt Official language Modern Standard Arabic Egypt portal Official dialects Egyptian Arabic Upper Egyptian Historical languages Egyptian language Minority languages Beja Coptic Domari Nobiin Siwi Sinai Peninsula (Sinawi) and others Foreign languages English French Immigrant minority languages Armenian Greek Italian Sign languages Egyptian Sign Language Authority control BNF: cb11935369g (data) GND: 4120107-3 LCCN: sh85041339 NDL: 00562074 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_language&oldid=1001405345" Categories: Ancient Egyptian language Languages attested from the 27th century BC Extinct languages of Africa Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Egyptian-language text Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from July 2013 Languages with ISO 639-2 code Language articles with unreferenced extinction date All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2020 Articles with unsourced statements from November 2017 Articles with unsourced statements from January 2019 Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans አማርኛ Аҧсшәа العربية Aragonés Asturianu Авар Azərbaycanca বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Dolnoserbski Eesti Ελληνικά Эрзянь Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Коми Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം مصرى Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Papiamentu پښتو Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Soomaaliga Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 吴语 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 January 2021, at 15:03 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9751	----	Shabaka - Wikipedia Shabaka From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the Arabic-language domain name, see .shabaka. For the Azerbaijani stained glass windows, see Shabaka (window). Shabaka Sphinx head of Shabaka, on display at the Egyptian Museum, Cairo. Pharaoh Reign 705–690 BC (25th Dynasty) Predecessor Shebitku Successor Taharqa Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Neferkare Beautiful is the Soul of Re Nomen Shabaka[1] Horus name Sebeqtawy Nebty name Sebeqtawy Golden Horus Sebeqtawy Consort Qalhata, Mesbat, possibly Tabekenamun Children Tantamani, Haremakhet, Piankharty, Isetemkheb[2] Father Kashta Mother Pebatjma Died 690 BC Burial el-Kurru Monuments Shabaka Stone nomen or birth name šȝ bȝ kȝ (Shabaka) in hieroglyphs Neferkare Shabaka, or Shabako (Egyptian: 𓆷𓃞𓂓 šꜣ bꜣ kꜣ, Assyrian: Sha-ba-ku-u) was the third Kushite pharaoh of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt, who reigned from 705–690 BC.[3] Contents 1 Shabaka's timeline 2 Family 3 Biography 4 Death 5 Image gallery 6 References 7 External links Shabaka's timeline[edit] The archaeological evidence now in 2016–2017 firmly favours a Shebitku-Shabaka succession. Gerard Broekman's GM 251 (2017) paper shows that Shebitku reigned before Shabaka since the upper edge of Shabaka’s NLR #30’s Year 2 Karnak quay inscription was carved over the left-hand side of the lower edge of Shebitku’s NLR#33 Year 3 inscription.[4] This can only mean that Shabaka ruled after Shebitku. Critically, Frederic Payraudeau writes in French that "the Divine Adoratrix or God's Wife of Amun Shepenupet I, the last Libyan Adoratrix, was still alive during the reign of Shebitku because she is represented performing rites and is described as "living" in those parts of the Osiris-Héqadjet chapel built during his reign (wall and exterior of the gate)[5][3] In the rest of the room, it is Amenirdis I, Shabaka's sister), who is represented with the Adoratrix title and provided with a coronation name. The succession Shepenupet I - Amenirdis I as God's Wife of Amun or Divine Adoratrix thus took place during the reign of Shebitku. This detail in itself is sufficient to show that the reign of Shabaka cannot precede that of Shebitku.[6] The construction of the tomb of Shebitku (Ku. 18) resembles that of Piye (Ku. 17) while that of Shabaka (Ku. 15) is similar to that of Taharqa (Nu. 1) and Tantamani (Ku. 16).[7][6] This also favours a Shebitku-Shabaka succession in the 25th dynasty. One of the strongest evidence that Shabaka ruled after Shebitku was demonstrated by the architectural features of the Kushite royal pyramids in El Kurru. Only in the pyramids of Piye (Ku 17) and Shebitku (Ku 18) are the burial-chambers open-cut structures with a corbelled roof, whereas fully tunnelled burial chamber substructures are found in the pyramids of Shabaka (Ku 15), Taharqa (Nu 1) and Tantamani (Ku 16), as well as with all subsequent royal pyramids in El Kurru and Nuri.[8] The fully tunnelled and once decorated burial chamber of Shabaka's pyramid was clearly an architectural improvement since it was followed by Taharqa and all his successors.[9] The pyramid design evidence also shows that Shabaka must have ruled after—and not before—Shebitku. In the Cairo CG 42204 of the High Priest of Amun, Haremakhet—son of Shabaka—calls himself as "king’s son of Shabaka, justified, who loves him, Sole Confidant of king Taharqa, justified, Director of the palace of the king of Upper and Lower Egypt Tanutamun/Tantamani, may he live for ever."[10] However, no mention of Haremakhet's service under Shebitku is made; even if Haremakhet was only a youth under Shebitku, this king's absence is strange since the intent of the statue's text was to render a chronological sequence of kings who reigned during Horemakhet's life, each of their names being accompanied by a reference to the relationship that existed between the king mentioned and Horemakhet.[11] This implies that when Haremakhet was born, king Shebitku was already dead, which would favour a Shebitku-Shabaka succession. Portrait of Shabaqa Payraudeau notes that Shebitku's shabtis are small (about 10 cm) and have a very brief inscription with only the king's birth name in a cartouche preceded by "the Osiris, king of Upper and Lower Egypt" and followed by mȝʿ-ḫrw.[12][6] They are thus very close to those of Piye/Piankhy [42 – D. Dunham, (see footnote 39), plate 44.]. However, Shabaka's shabtis are larger (about 15–20 cm) with more developed inscriptions, including the quotation from the Book of the Dead, which is also present on those Taharqo, Tanouetamani and Senkamanisken."[6] All this evidence suggests that Shebitku ruled before Shabaka. Finally, Payraudeau observes that in the traditional Shebitku-Shabaka chronology, the time span between the reign of Taharqa and Shabaka seems to be excessively long. He notes that Papyrus Louvre E 3328c from Year 2 or Year 6 of Taharqa mentions the sale of a slave by his owner who had bought him in Year 7 of Shabaka, that is 27 years earlier in the traditional chronology but if the reign of Shabaka is placed just before that of Taharqa (with no intervening reign of Shebitku), there is a gap of about 10 years which is much more credible.[13] The German scholar Karl Jansen Winkeln also endorsed a Shebitku-Shabaka succession in a JEH 10 (2017) N.1 paper titled 'Beiträge zur Geschichte der Dritten Zwischenzeit’, Journal of Egyptian History 10 (2017), pp. 23–42 when he wrote a postscript stating “Im Gegensatz zu meinen Ausführungen auf dem [2014] Kolloquium in Münster bin ich jetzt der Meinung, dass die (neue) Reihenfolge Schebitku—Schabako in der Tat richtig ist...” or ‘In contrast to my exposition at the [2014] Munster colloquium, I am now of the opinion that the (new) succession Shebitku-Shabako is in fact correct…’[14] Family[edit] See also: Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Shabaka is thought to be the son of King Kashta and Pebatjma, although a text from the time of Taharqa could be interpreted to mean that Shabaka was a brother of Taharqa and hence a son of Piye. Shabaka's Queen Consort was Qalhata, according to Assyrian records, a sister of Taharqa. Shabaka and Qalhata were the parents of King Tantamani and possibly the parents of King Shebitku as well, but this conflicts with evidence in favor of Shabaka ruling after Shebitku.[2] It is possible that Queen Tabekenamun was a wife of Shabaka.[15] She is thought by some to be a wife of Taharqa.[2] Shabaka's son Haremakhet became High Priest of Amun and is known from a statue and a fragment of a statue found in Karnak.[2] A lady named Mesbat is mentioned on the sarcophagus of Haremakhet and may be his mother.[15] Shabaka is the father of at least two more children, but the identity of their mother is not known. Piankharty later became the wife of her (half-)brother Tantamani. She is depicted on the Dream Stela with him. Isetemkheb H likely married Tantamani as well. She was buried in Abydos, Egypt.[2] Biography[edit] Donation stela of Shabaka. Shabaka appears standing to the right, with the cartouche designating him. Shabaka succeeded his uncle Shebitku on the throne, and adopted the throne name of the Sixth Dynasty ruler Pepi II Neferkare. Shabaka's reign was initially dated from 716 BC to 702 BC by Kenneth Kitchen. However, new evidence indicates that Shebitku died around 705 BC because Sargon II (722–705 BC) of Assyria states in an official inscription at Tang-i Var (in Northwest Iran)—which is datable to 706 BC—that it was Shebitku, Shabaka's predecessor, who extradited Iamanni of Ashdod to Shebitku as king of Egypt.[16][17] This view has been accepted by many Egyptologists today such as Aidan Dodson,[18] Rolf Krauss, David Aston, and Karl Jansen-Winkeln[19] among others because there is no concrete evidence for coregencies or internal political/regional divisions in the Nubian kingdom during the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. This point was also stressed by Dan'el Kahn in a 2006 article.[20] All contemporary records suggest that the Nubian Pharaohs ruled Egypt with only a single king on the throne, while Taharqa states explicitly on one of his Kawa steles that he assumed power only after the death of his brother, Shebitku.[21] Shabaka's reign is significant because he consolidated the Nubian Kingdom's control over all of Egypt from Nubia down to the Delta region. It also saw an enormous amount of building work undertaken throughout Egypt, especially at the city of Thebes, which he made the capital of his kingdom. In Karnak he erected a pink granite statue of himself wearing the twin crowns of Egypt. Shabaka succeeded in preserving Egypt's independence from outside foreign powers—especially the Neo-Assyrian Empire of Sargon II. The most famous relic from Shabaka's reign is the Shabaka Stone which records several Old Kingdom documents that the king ordered preserved.[22] Also notable is the Shabaka Gate, a large stone door unearthed by archeologists in 2011 and believed to have guarded the room where the king's treasures were stored. Despite being relative newcomers to Egypt, Shabaka and his family were immensely interested in Egypt's past and the art of the period reflects their tastes which harked back to earlier periods. Shabaka would grant refuge to king Iamanni of Ashdod after the latter fled to Egypt following the suppression of his revolt by Assyria in 712 BC. Death[edit] Shabaka is assumed to have died in his 15th regnal year based on BM cube statue 24429, which is dated to Year 15, II Shemu day 11 of Shabaka's reign.[23] Shabaka was buried in a pyramid at el-Kurru and was succeeded by his nephew Taharqa. Image gallery[edit] Shabaka Statue of Shabaka from the Louvre Statue head from Munich Large commemorative scarab of Shabaka References[edit] ^ [1] King Shabako ^ a b c d e Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton: The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson, 2004, ISBN 0-500-05128-3 p.237 ^ a b F. Payraudeau, Retour sur la succession Shabaqo-Shabataqo, Nehet 1, 2014, p. 115-127 online here ^ GPF Broekman, Genealogical considerations regarding the kings of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty in Egypt, GM 251 (2017), p.13 ^ [45 – G. Legrain, “Le temple et les chapelles d’Osiris à Karnak. Le temple d’Osiris-Hiq-Djeto, partie éthiopienne”, RecTrav 22 (1900) 128; JWIS III, 45.] ^ a b c d F. Payraudeau, pp.115-127 ^ [39 – D. Dunham, El-Kurru, The Royal Cemeteries of Kush, I, (1950) 55, 60, 64, 67; also D. Dunham, Nuri, The Royal Cemeteries of Kush, II, (1955) 6-7; J. Lull, Las tumbas reales egipcias del Tercer Periodo Intermedio (dinastías XXI-XXV). Tradición y cambios, BAR-IS 1045 (2002) 208.] ^ Dows D. Dunham, El Kurru; The Royal Cemeteries of Kush (Cambridge, Massachusetts 1950) ^ G.P.F. Broekman, The order of succession between Shabaka and Shabataka. A different view on the chronology of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty, GM 245, (2015), pp.21-22 ^ G.P.F. Broekman, The order of succession between Shabaka and Shabataka. A different view on the chronology of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty, GM 245, (2015), p.23 ^ G.P.F. Broekman, GM 245 (2015), p.24 ^ [41 – JWIS III, 51, number 9; D. Dunham, (see footnote 39), 69, plate 45A-B.]. ^ Payraudeau, Nehet I, 2014, p.119 ^ Jansen-Winkeln, Journal of Egyptian History 10 (2017), N.1, p.40 ^ a b R. Morkot: The Black Pharaohs, Egypt's Nubian Rulers, London 2000, p. 205 ISBN 0-948695-24-2 ^ G. Frame, The Inscription of Sargon II at Tang-i Var, Orientalia 68 (1999), pp. 31-57 ^ Dan'el Kahn, "The Inscription of Sargon II at Tang-i Var and the Chronology of Dynasty 25," Orientalia 70 (2001), pp. 1–3 ^ Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 88 (2002) p.182 ^ Karl Jansen-Winkeln, "The Third Intermediate Period" in Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss & David Warburton (editors), Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies), Brill, 2006. pp. 258–259 ^ Kahn, Dan'el., Divided Kingdom, Co-regency, or Sole Rule in the Kingdom(s) of Egypt-and-Kush?, Egypt and Levant 16 (2006), pp. 275–291 online PDF ^ Kawa Stela V, line 15 ^ Shabaka stone ^ Kitchen, Kenneth A. (1996).The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100–650 BC), 3rd edition (Warminster: Aris & Phillips), pp. 153-54 External links[edit] Media related to Shabaka at Wikimedia Commons v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs v t e Rulers of the Ancient Near East Territories/ dates [1][2][3][4] Egypt Canaan Ebla Mari Akshak/ Akkad Kish Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period 4000–3200 BCE Naqada culture (4000–3100 BCE) Proto-Cannaanites Sumerian period (4000–2340 BCE) Susa I Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE) Naqada I Naqada II Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests") Legendary ante-deluvian rulers: In Eridu: Alulim, Alalngar, then in Bad-tibira: En-men-lu-ana, En-men-gal-ana, Dumuzid, the Shepherd, then in Larag: En-sipad-zid-ana, then in Zimbir: En-men-dur-ana, then in Shuruppag: Ubara-Tutu "then the flood swept over"[5] Susa II (Uruk influence or control) 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ DenAnedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100-2700 BCE) Great Flood 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) First kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman En-me-barage-si ("made the land of Elam submit")[6] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of Mari (Semitic) Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba Uruk II dynasty Enshakushanna Mug-si Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions (3 kings)[7] Shushuntarana Napilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Urur Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun) Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion of Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[7] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian Empire (Semitic) Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Second Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) (Vassals of UR III) Shakkanakku dynasty (Semitic) Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Neo-Sumerian Period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians) Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (Vassals of Ur III)[8] Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal 2100 BCE Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin Ibbi-Sin 2050 BCE 2000 BCE Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV circa 2000 BCE Amorite invasions Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) 2025-1763 BCE Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ Third Eblaite Kingdom (Semitic) Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 1894–1595 BCE Second Intermediate Period Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham (Biblical) Yamhad First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Phoenicia Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Middle Assyrian Empire Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt 626–539 BCE Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116-117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ "The Sumerian king list: translation". etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2008-05-08. ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ a b Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shabaka&oldid=977327280" Categories: 700s BC deaths 8th-century BC Pharaohs 7th-century BC Pharaohs 8th-century BC monarchs of Kush 7th-century BC monarchs of Kush Pharaohs of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt Egyptian people of Nubian descent 8th century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français Italiano ქართული Lietuvių مصرى Nederlands Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Tagalog Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 8 September 2020, at 06:14 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-976	----	300 (film) - Wikipedia 300 (film) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the 2006 film. For the 2014 sequel, see 300: Rise of an Empire. 2006 American film by Zack Snyder 300 Theatrical release poster Directed by Zack Snyder Produced by Gianni Nunnari Mark Canton Bernie Goldman Jeffrey Silver Screenplay by Zack Snyder Kurt Johnstad Michael B. Gordon Based on 300 by Frank Miller Lynn Varley Starring Gerard Butler Lena Headey David Wenham Dominic West Music by Tyler Bates Cinematography Larry Fong Edited by William Hoy Production companies Legendary Pictures Virtual Studios Atmosphere Entertainment MM Hollywood Gang Productions Distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures Release date December 9, 2006 (2006-12-09) (Butt-Numb-A-Thon) March 9, 2007 (2007-03-09) (United States) Running time 116 minutes[1] Country United States Language English Budget $60–65 million[2][3] Box office $456.1 million[4] 300 is a 2006 American epic period action film[4][5] based on the 1998 comic series of the same name by Frank Miller and Lynn Varley. Both are fictionalized retellings of the Battle of Thermopylae within the Persian Wars. The film was co-written and directed by Zack Snyder, while Miller served as executive producer and consultant. It was filmed mostly with a superimposition chroma key technique to replicate the imagery of the original comic book. The plot revolves around King Leonidas (Gerard Butler), who leads 300 Spartans into battle against the Persian "God-King" Xerxes (Rodrigo Santoro) and his invading army of more than 300,000 soldiers. As the battle rages, Queen Gorgo (Lena Headey) attempts to rally support in Sparta for her husband. The story is framed by a voice-over narrative by the Spartan soldier Dilios (David Wenham). Through this narrative technique, various fantastical creatures are introduced, placing 300 within the genre of historical fantasy. 300 was released for the first time in Austin Butt-Numb-A-Thon on December 9, 2006, later released in Berlin International Film Festival on February 14, 2007, and finally released in both conventional and IMAX theaters in the United States on March 9, 2007, and on DVD, Blu-ray Disc, and HD DVD on July 31, 2007. Critics praised its visuals and style but criticised its depiction of the Persians, which some characterized as bigoted or Iranophobic. The film grossed over $456 million, and the film's opening was the 24th-largest in box office history at the time. A sequel, titled Rise of an Empire, based on Miller's previously unpublished graphic novel prequel Xerxes, was released on March 7, 2014. Contents 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production 4 Soundtrack 5 Promotion and release 6 Reception 6.1 Box office 6.2 Critical response 6.3 Accolades 7 Controversy 7.1 Historical inaccuracies 7.2 General criticism 7.3 Iranian criticism 8 In popular culture 9 Sequel 10 See also 11 References 12 External links Plot[edit] In 479 B.C., one year after the Battle of Thermopylae, Dilios, a hoplite in the Spartan army, begins his story by depicting the life of Leonidas I from childhood to kingship via Spartan doctrine. Dilios's story continues and a Persian herald arrives at the gates of Sparta demanding "earth and water" as a token of submission to King Xerxes—the Spartans reply by throwing the envoy and his escort into a deep well. Leonidas then visits the Ephors, proposing a strategy to drive back the numerically superior Persians through the Hot Gates. His plan involves building a wall in order to funnel the Persians into a narrow pass between the rocks and the sea: negating the Persian advantage in numbers, and giving the Greeks' heavy infantry the advantage over the vast waves of Persian light infantry. The Ephors consult the Oracle, who decrees that Sparta may not go to war during the Carneia. As Leonidas angrily departs, an agent from Xerxes appears, rewarding the Ephors for their covert support. Although the Ephors have denied him permission to mobilize Sparta's army, Leonidas gathers three hundred of his best soldiers in the guise of his personal bodyguard. They are joined along the way by a few thousand Arcadians. At Thermopylae, they construct the wall, using slain Persian scouts as mortar. Stelios, an elite Spartan soldier, orders an enraged Persian emissary to return to his lines and warn Xerxes, after cutting off his whipping arm. Meanwhile, Leonidas encounters Ephialtes, a deformed Spartan whose parents fled Sparta to spare him certain infanticide. Ephialtes asks to redeem his father's name by joining Leonidas' army, warning him of a secret path the Persians could use to outflank and surround the Spartans. Though sympathetic, Leonidas rejects him since his deformity physically prevents him from holding his shield high enough, potentially compromising the phalanx formation. The battle begins soon after the Spartans' refusal to lay down their weapons. Using the Hot Gates to their advantage, as well as their superior fighting skills, the Spartans repel wave after wave of the advancing Persian army. Xerxes personally approaches Leonidas and offers him wealth and power in exchange for his submission. Leonidas declines and mocks the inferior quality of Xerxes' fanatical warriors. In response, Xerxes sends in his elite guard, the Immortals; the Spartans nonetheless defeat them with few losses, with slight help from the Arcadians. On the second day, Xerxes sends in new waves of armies from Asia and other Persian subject states, including war elephants, to crush the Spartans, but to no avail. Meanwhile, an embittered Ephialtes defects to Xerxes to whom he reveals the secret path in exchange for wealth, luxury, women, and a Persian uniform. The Arcadians retreat upon learning of Ephialtes' betrayal, but the Spartans stay. Leonidas orders an injured but reluctant Dilios to return to Sparta and tell them of what has happened: a "tale of victory". In Sparta, Queen Gorgo tries to persuade the Spartan Council to send reinforcements to aid the 300. Theron, a corrupt politician, claims that he "owns" the Council and threatens the Queen, who reluctantly submits to his sexual demands in return for his help. When Theron disgraces her in front of the Council, Gorgo kills him out of rage, revealing within his robe a bag of Xerxes' gold. Marking his betrayal, the Council unanimously agrees to send reinforcements. On the third day, the Persians, led by Ephialtes, traverse the secret path, encircling the Spartans. Xerxes' general again demands their surrender. Leonidas seemingly kneels in submission, allowing Stelios to leap over him and kill the general. Angered, Xerxes orders his troops to attack. Leonidas throws his spear at Xerxes, barely missing him; the spear cuts across and wounds his face, proving the God-King's mortality. Leonidas and the remaining Spartans fight to the last man until they finally succumb to an arrow barrage. Dilios, now back in Sparta, concludes his tale before the Council. Inspired by Leonidas' sacrifice, the Greeks mobilize. One year later, the Persians face an army of 30,000 free Greeks led by a vanguard of 10,000 Spartans. After one final speech commemorating the 300, Dilios, now head of the Spartan Army, leads them to battle against the Persians across the fields of Plataea. Cast[edit] Gerard Butler as Leonidas, King of Sparta. David Wenham as Dilios, narrator and Spartan soldier. Lena Headey as Queen Gorgo, Queen of Sparta (Gorgo has a larger role in the film than she does in the comic book, where she only appears in the beginning).[6] Giovanni Cimmino as Pleistarchus, son of Leonidas and Gorgo (Pleistarchus does not feature in the comic book).[6] Dominic West as Theron, a fictional corrupt Spartan politician (Theron is not featured in the comic book).[6] Vincent Regan as Captain Artemis, Leonidas' loyal captain and friend. Tom Wisdom as Astinos, Captain Artemis' eldest son. In the film Astinos has a constant presence until he dies. In the comic book, the Captain's son is only mentioned when he dies.[6] Andrew Pleavin as Daxos, an Arcadian leader who joins forces with Leonidas. Andrew Tiernan as Ephialtes, a deformed Spartan outcast and traitor. Rodrigo Santoro as King Xerxes, the powerful and ruthless god-like supreme king of Persia. Stephen McHattie as the Loyalist, a loyal Spartan politician. Michael Fassbender as Stelios, a young, spirited and highly skilled Spartan soldier. Peter Mensah as a Persian messenger who gets kicked into the well by Leonidas. Kelly Craig as Pythia, an Oracle to the Ephors. Eli Snyder as young Leonidas (7/8 years old). Tyler Neitzel as young Leonidas (15 years old). Robert Maillet as Über Immortal (giant), a muscular and deranged Immortal who battles Leonidas during the Immortal fight. Patrick Sabongui as the Persian General who tries to get Leonidas to comply at the end of the battle. Leon Laderach as Executioner, a hulking, clawed man who executes men who have displeased Xerxes. Tyrone Benskin as the whip-wielding Persian Emissary. Production[edit] Above: the film version of a panel from the graphic novel (below) Producer Gianni Nunnari was not the only person planning a film about the Battle of Thermopylae; director Michael Mann already planned a film of the battle based on the book Gates of Fire. Nunnari discovered Frank Miller's graphic novel 300, which impressed him enough to acquire the film rights.[7][8] 300 was jointly produced by Nunnari and Mark Canton, and Michael B. Gordon wrote the script.[9] Director Zack Snyder was hired in June 2004[10] as he had attempted to make a film based on Miller's novel before making his debut with the remake of Dawn of the Dead.[11] Snyder then had screenwriter Kurt Johnstad rewrite Gordon's script for production[10] and Frank Miller was retained as consultant and executive producer.[12] Frank Miller's original graphic novel 300 was inspired by the film The 300 Spartans, which Miller first saw at age 6.[13] The film is a shot-for-shot adaptation of the comic book, similar to the film adaptation of Sin City.[14] Snyder photocopied panels from the comic book, from which he planned the preceding and succeeding shots. "It was a fun process for me… to have a frame as a goal to get to," he said.[15] Like the comic book, the adaptation also used the character Dilios as a narrator. Snyder used this narrative technique to show the audience that the surreal "Frank Miller world" of 300 was told from a subjective perspective. By using Dilios' gift of storytelling, he was able to introduce fantasy elements into the film, explaining that "Dilios is a guy who knows how not to wreck a good story with truth."[16] Snyder also added the subplot in which Queen Gorgo attempts to rally support for her husband.[17] Above: A scene during filming Below: The finished scene Two months of pre-production were required to create hundreds of shields, spears, and swords, some of which were recycled from Troy and Alexander. Creatures were designed by Jordu Schell,[18] and an animatronic wolf and thirteen animatronic horses were created. The actors trained alongside the stuntmen, and even Snyder joined in. Upwards of 600 costumes were created for the film, as well as extensive prosthetics for various characters and the corpses of Persian soldiers. Shaun Smith and Mark Rappaport worked hand in hand with Snyder in pre-production to design the look of the individual characters, and to produce the prosthetic makeup effects, props, weapons and dummy bodies required for the production.[19] 300 entered active production on October 17, 2005, in Montreal,[20] and was shot over the course of sixty days[19] in chronological order[17] with a budget of $60 million.[21] Employing the digital backlot technique, Snyder shot at the now-defunct Icestorm Studios in Montreal using bluescreens. Butler said that while he did not feel constrained by Snyder's direction, fidelity to the comic imposed certain limitations on his performance. Wenham said there were times when Snyder wanted to precisely capture iconic moments from the comic book, and other times when he gave actors freedom "to explore within the world and the confines that had been set".[22] Headey said of her experience with the bluescreens, "It's very odd, and emotionally, there's nothing to connect to apart from another actor."[23] Only one scene, in which horses travel across the countryside, was shot outdoors.[24] The film was an intensely physical production, and Butler pulled an arm tendon and developed foot drop.[25] Post-production was handled by Montreal's Meteor Studios and Hybride Technologies filled in the bluescreen footage with more than 1,500 visual effects shots. Visual effects supervisor Chris Watts and production designer Jim Bissell created a process dubbed "The Crush,"[19] which allowed the Meteor artists to manipulate the colors by increasing the contrast of light and dark. Certain sequences were desaturated and tinted to establish different moods. Ghislain St-Pierre, who led the team of artists, described the effect: "Everything looks realistic, but it has a kind of a gritty illustrative feel."[19][26] Various computer programs, including Maya, RenderMan, and RealFlow, were used to create the "spraying blood".[27] The post-production lasted for a year and was handled by a total of ten special effects companies.[28] Soundtrack[edit] Main article: 300 Original Motion Picture Soundtrack In July 2005, composer Tyler Bates began work on the film, describing the score as having "beautiful themes on the top and large choir," but "tempered with some extreme heaviness". The composer had scored for a test scene that the director wanted to show to Warner Bros. to illustrate the path of the project. Bates said that the score had "a lot of weight and intensity in the low end of the percussion" that Snyder found agreeable to the film.[29] The score was recorded at Abbey Road Studios and features the vocals of Azam Ali.[30] A standard edition and a special edition of the soundtrack containing 25 tracks was released on March 6, 2007, with the special edition containing a 16-page booklet and three two-sided trading cards.[31] The score has caused some controversy in the film composer community, garnering criticism for its striking similarity to several other recent soundtracks, including James Horner and Gabriel Yared's work for the film Troy. The heaviest borrowings are said to be from Elliot Goldenthal's 1999 score for Titus. "Remember Us," from 300, is identical in parts to the "Finale" from Titus, and "Returns a King" is similar to the cue "Victorius Titus".[32][33][34] On August 3, 2007, Warner Bros. Pictures acknowledged in an official statement: … a number of the music cues for the score of 300 were, without our knowledge or participation, derived from music composed by Academy Award-winning composer Elliot Goldenthal for the motion picture Titus. Warner Bros. Pictures has great respect for Elliot, our longtime collaborator, and is pleased to have amicably resolved this matter.[35] Promotion and release[edit] Lena Headey at the London premiere, 2007 The official 300 website was launched by Warner Bros. in December 2005. The "conceptual art" and Zack Snyder's production blog were the initial attractions of the site.[36] Later, the website added video journals describing production details, including comic-to-screen shots and the creatures of 300. In January 2007, the studio launched a MySpace page for the film.[37] The Art Institutes created a micro-site to promote the film.[38] At Comic-Con International in July 2006, the 300 panel aired a promotional teaser of the film, which was positively received.[39] Despite stringent security, the trailer was subsequently leaked on the Internet.[40] Warner Bros. released the official trailer for 300 on October 4, 2006,[41] and later on it made its debut on Apple.com where it received considerable exposure. The background music used in the trailers was "Just Like You Imagined" by Nine Inch Nails. A second 300 trailer, which was attached to Apocalypto, was released in theaters on December 8, 2006,[42] and online the day before.[43] On January 22, 2007, an exclusive trailer for the film was broadcast during prime-time television.[44] The trailers have been credited with igniting interest in the film and contributing to its box-office success.[45] In April 2006, Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment announced its intention to make a PlayStation Portable game, 300: March to Glory, based on the film. Collision Studios worked with Warner Bros. to capture the style of the film in the video game, which was released simultaneously with the film in the United States.[46] The National Entertainment Collectibles Association produced a series of action figures based on the film,[47] as well as replicas of weapons and armor.[48] Warner Bros. promoted 300 by sponsoring the Ultimate Fighting Championship's light heavyweight champion Chuck Liddell, who made personal appearances and participated in other promotional activities.[49] The studio also joined with the National Hockey League to produce a 30-second TV spot promoting the film in tandem with the Stanley Cup playoffs.[50] In August 2006, Warner Bros. announced 300's release date as March 16, 2007,[51] but in October the release was moved forward to March 9, 2007.[41] An unfinished cut of 300 was shown at Butt-Numb-A-Thon film festival on December 9, 2006.[52] 300 was released on DVD, Blu-ray Disc, and HD DVD on July 31, 2007, in region 1 territories, in single-disc and two-disc editions. 300 was released in single-disc and steelcase two-disc editions on DVD, BD and HD DVD in region 2 territories beginning August 2007. On July 21, 2009, Warner Bros. released a new Blu-ray Disc entitled 300: The Complete Experience to coincide with the Blu-ray Disc release of Watchmen. This new Blu-ray Disc is encased in a 40-page Digibook and includes all the extras from the original release as well as some new ones. These features include a picture-in-picture feature entitled The Complete 300: A Comprehensive Immersion, which enables the viewer to view the film in three different perspectives. This release also includes a digital copy.[53] An Ultra HD Blu-ray edition of the film was released on October 6, 2020.[54] On July 9, 2007, American cable channel TNT bought the rights to broadcast the film from Warner Bros.[55] TNT started airing the film in September 2009. Sources say that the network paid between $17 million[56] and just under $20 million[55] for the broadcasting rights. TNT agreed to a three-year deal instead of the more typical five-year deal.[56] Reception[edit] Box office[edit] 300 was released in North America on March 9, 2007, in both conventional and IMAX theaters.[57] It grossed $28,106,731 on its opening day and ended its North American opening weekend with $70,885,301,[58] breaking the record held by Ice Age: The Meltdown for the biggest opening weekend in the month of March and for a Spring release. Since then 300's Spring release record was broken by Fast and Furious and 300's March record was broken by Tim Burton's Alice in Wonderland.[59][60] 300's opening weekend gross is the 24th-highest in box office history, coming slightly below The Lost World: Jurassic Park but higher than Transformers.[61] It was the third-biggest opening for an R-rated film ever, behind The Matrix Reloaded ($91.8 million) and The Passion of the Christ ($83.8 million).[62] The film also set a record for IMAX cinemas with a $3.6 million opening weekend.[63] The film grossed $456,068,181 worldwide. 300 opened two days earlier, on March 7, 2007, in Sparta, and across Greece on March 8.[64][65] Studio executives were surprised by the showing, which was twice what they had expected.[66] They credited the film's stylized violence, the strong female role of Queen Gorgo which attracted a large number of women, and a MySpace advertising blitz.[67] Producer Mark Canton said, "MySpace had an enormous impact but it has transcended the limitations of the Internet or the graphic novel. Once you make a great movie, word can spread very quickly."[67] Critical response[edit] Since its world premiere at the Berlin International Film Festival on February 14, 2007, in front of 1,700 audience members, it received a standing ovation at the public premiere,[68] it was panned at a press screening hours earlier, where many attendees left during the showing and those who remained booed at the end.[69] As of January 2021, on Rotten Tomatoes, the film had an approval rating of 61% based on 236 reviews, with an average rating of 6.10/10. The site's critical consensus read, "A simple-minded but visually exciting experience, full of blood, violence, and ready-made movie quotes."[70] As of October 2020, on Metacritic, the film had an weighted average score of 52 out of 100, based on 42 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[71] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A–" on an A+ to F scale.[72] Some of the most unfavorable reviews came from major American newspapers. A. O. Scott of The New York Times describes 300 as "about as violent as Apocalypto and twice as stupid," while criticizing its color scheme and suggesting that its plot includes racist undertones; Scott also poked fun at the buffed bodies of the actors portraying the Spartans, declaring that the Persian characters are "pioneers in the art of face-piercing", but that the Spartans had access to "superior health clubs and electrolysis facilities".[73] Kenneth Turan writes in the Los Angeles Times that "unless you love violence as much as a Spartan, Quentin Tarantino or a video-game-playing teenage boy, you will not be endlessly fascinated".[74] Roger Ebert gave the film a 2 out of 4 rating, writing, "300 has one-dimensional caricatures who talk like professional wrestlers plugging their next feud."[75] Some critics employed at Greek newspapers have been particularly critical, such as film critic Robby Eksiel, who said that moviegoers would be dazzled by the "digital action" but irritated by the "pompous interpretations and one-dimensional characters".[65][76] Variety's Todd McCarthy describes the film as "visually arresting" although "bombastic"[77] while Kirk Honeycutt, writing in The Hollywood Reporter, praises the "beauty of its topography, colors and forms".[78] Writing in the Chicago Sun-Times, Richard Roeper acclaims 300 as "the Citizen Kane of cinematic graphic novels".[79] Empire gave the film three out of five, writing, "Visually stunning, thoroughly belligerent and as shallow as a pygmy's paddling pool, this is a whole heap of style tinged with just a smidgen of substance." Comic Book Resources' Mark Cronan found the film compelling, leaving him "with a feeling of power, from having been witness to something grand".[80] IGN's Todd Gilchrist acclaimed Zack Snyder as a cinematic visionary and "a possible redeemer of modern moviemaking".[81] Accolades[edit] At the MTV Movie Awards 2007, 300 was nominated for Best Movie, Best Performance for Gerard Butler, Best Breakthrough Performance for Lena Headey, Best Villain for Rodrigo Santoro, and Best Fight for Leonidas battling "the Über Immortal",[82] but only won the award for Best Fight. 300 won both the Best Dramatic Film and Best Action Film honors in the 2006–2007 Golden Icon Awards presented by Travolta Family Entertainment.[83] In December 2007, 300 won IGN's Movie of the Year 2007,[84] along with Best Comic Book Adaptation[85] and King Leonidas as Favorite Character.[86] The movie received 10 nominations for the 2008 Saturn Awards, winning the awards for Best Director and Best Action/Adventure/Thriller Film.[87] In 2009, National Review magazine ranked 300 number 5 on its 25 "Best Conservative Movies of the Last 25 Years" list.[88] Controversy[edit] Historical inaccuracies[edit] In the actual historical event, by the time of the Battle of Thermopylae the Spartans had already entered into an alliance with other Greek poleis against the Persians. Like during the Battle of Marathon 10 years before in 490, the time of Xerxes's invasion of Greece coincided with a Spartan religious festival, the Carneia, in which the Spartans were not permitted to make war. Still, realizing the threat of the Persians, and not wanting to appear as Persian sympathizers, the Spartan government—rather than Leonidas alone—decided to send Leonidas with his personal 300-strong bodyguard to Thermopylae.[89] Other Greek poleis joined the 300 Spartan men, totaling somewhere between 5,000 and 6,000 total Greek troops. The historical consensus among both ancient chroniclers and current scholars was that Thermopylae was a clear Greek defeat; the Persian invasion would be pushed back in later ground and naval battles.[90] Since few records about the actual martial arts used by the Spartans survive aside from accounts of formations and tactics, the fight choreography led by stunt coordinator and fight choreographer Damon Caro, was a synthesis of different weapon arts with Filipino martial arts as the base.[91] This can be seen in the blade work and the signature use of the off hand by Arnis/Kali/Eskrima in the offensive use of the shields. The Spartans' use of the narrow terrain, in those particular circumstances, is a military tactic known as "defeat in detail". Paul Cartledge, Professor of Greek History at Cambridge University, advised the filmmakers on the pronunciation of Greek names, and said they "made good use" of his published work on Sparta. He praises the film for its portrayal of "the Spartans' heroic code", and of "the key role played by women in backing up, indeed reinforcing, the male martial code of heroic honour", while expressing reservations about its "'West' (goodies) vs 'East' (baddies) polarization".[92] Cartledge writes that he enjoyed the film, although he found Leonidas' description of the Athenians as "boy lovers" ironic, since the Spartans themselves incorporated institutional pederasty into their educational system.[93] Ephraim Lytle, assistant professor of Hellenistic History at the University of Toronto, said 300 selectively idealizes Spartan society in a "problematic and disturbing" fashion, as well as portraying the "hundred nations of the Persians" as monsters and non-Spartan Greeks as weak. He suggests that the film's moral universe would have seemed "as bizarre to ancient Greeks as it does to modern historians".[94] Lytle also commented: "Ephialtes, who betrays the Greeks, is likewise changed from a local Malian of sound body into a Spartan outcast, a grotesquely disfigured troll who by Spartan custom should have been left exposed as an infant to die. Leonidas points out that his hunched back means Ephialtes cannot lift his shield high enough to fight in the phalanx. This is a transparent defence of Spartan eugenics, and convenient given that infanticide could as easily have been precipitated by an ill-omened birthmark."[94] Victor Davis Hanson, National Review columnist and former professor of Classical history at California State University, Fresno, who wrote the foreword to a 2007 re-issue of the graphic novel, said the film demonstrates a specific affinity with the original material of Herodotus in that it captures the martial ethos of ancient Sparta and represents Thermopylae as a "clash of civilizations". He remarks that Simonides, Aeschylus, and Herodotus viewed Thermopylae as a battle against "Eastern centralism and collective serfdom", which opposed "the idea of the free citizen of an autonomous polis".[95] He also said the film portrays the battle in a "surreal" manner, and that the intent was to "entertain and shock first, and instruct second".[96] Touraj Daryaee, now Baskerville Professor of Iranian History and the Persian World at the University of California, Irvine, criticized the film's use of classical sources, writing: Some passages from the Classical authors Aeschylus, Diodorus, Herodotus and Plutarch are split over the movie to give it an authentic flavor. Aeschylus becomes a major source when the battle with the "monstrous human herd" of the Persians is narrated in the film. Diodorus' statement about Greek valor to preserve their liberty is inserted in the film, but his mention of Persian valor is omitted. Herodotus' fanciful numbers are used to populate the Persian army, and Plutarch's discussion of Greek women, specifically Spartan women, is inserted wrongly in the dialogue between the "misogynist" Persian ambassador and the Spartan king. Classical sources are certainly used, but exactly in all the wrong places, or quite naively. The Athenians were fighting a sea battle during this.[97] Robert McHenry, former editor-in-chief of Encyclopædia Britannica and author of How to Know said the film "is an almost ineffably silly movie. Stills from the film could easily be used to promote Buns of Steel, or AbMaster, or ThighMaster. It's about the romanticizing of the Spartan 'ideal', a process that began even in ancient times, was promoted by the Romans, and has survived over time while less and less resembling the actual historical Sparta."[98] The director of 300, Zack Snyder, stated in an MTV interview that "the events are 90 percent accurate. It's just in the visualization that it's crazy... I've shown this movie to world-class historians who have said it's amazing. They can't believe it's as accurate as it is." Nevertheless, he also said the film is "an opera, not a documentary. That's what I say when people say it's historically inaccurate".[99] He was also quoted in a BBC News story as saying that the film is, at its core "a fantasy film". He also describes the film's narrator, Dilios, as "a guy who knows how not to wreck a good story with truth".[16] In an interview 300 writer Frank Miller said, "The inaccuracies, almost all of them, are intentional. I took those chest plates and leather skirts off of them for a reason. I wanted these guys to move and I wanted 'em to look good. I knocked their helmets off a fair amount, partly so you can recognize who the characters are. Spartans, in full regalia, were almost indistinguishable except at a very close angle. Another liberty I took was, they all had plumes, but I only gave a plume to Leonidas, to make him stand out and identify him as a king. I was looking for more an evocation than a history lesson. The best result I can hope for is that if the movie excites someone, they'll go explore the histories themselves. Because the histories are endlessly fascinating."[100] Dr. Kaveh Farrokh, in a paper entitled "The 300 Movie: Separating Fact from Fiction",[101] notes that the film falsely portrays "the Greco-Persian Wars in binary terms: the democratic, good, rational 'Us' versus the tyrannical, evil and irrational, 'other' of the ever-nebulous (if not exotic) 'Persia'". He highlights three points regarding the contribution of the Achaemenid Empire to the creation of democracy and human rights. "The founder of the Achaemenid Empire, Cyrus the Great, was the world's first emperor to openly declare and guarantee the sanctity of human rights and individual freedom", "Cyrus was a follower of the teachings of Zoroaster, the founder of one of the world's oldest monotheistic religions", and to put his own words in action "When Cyrus defeated King Nabonidus of Babylon, he officially declared the freedom of the Jews from their Babylonian captivity. This was the first time in history that a world power had guaranteed the survival of the Jewish people, religion, customs and culture." He abolished slavery.[102] The Persians really used elephants in combat, but not during the first two wars against the Greeks; historical sources say that the first time the Greeks encountered elephants was in the battle of Gaugamela, won by Alexander the Great, one hundred and fifty years later. Moreover, it is absolutely impossible that Persians used African rhinoceros like that shown in the film, also given the impossibility of training them for any purpose, as borne out by animal behavior's scientists. According to the Spartan tradition, newborns were inspected and discarded in case of deformity or weakness, but they were not pushed down a cliff as shown in the film. General criticism[edit] Before the release of 300, Warner Bros. expressed concerns about the political aspects of the film's theme. Snyder relates that there was "a huge sensitivity about East versus West with the studio".[103] Media speculation about a possible parallel between the Greco-Persian conflict and current events began in an interview with Snyder that was conducted before the Berlin Film Festival.[104] The interviewer remarked that "everyone is sure to be translating this [film] into contemporary politics". Snyder replied that, while he was aware that people would read the film through the lens of current events, no parallels between the film and the modern world were intended.[105] Outside the current political parallels, some critics have raised more general questions about the film's ideological orientation. The New York Post's Kyle Smith wrote that the film would have pleased "Adolf's boys,"[106] and Slate's Dana Stevens compares the film to The Eternal Jew, "as a textbook example of how race-baiting fantasy and nationalist myth can serve as an incitement to total war. Since it's a product of the post-ideological, post-Xbox 21st century, 300 will instead be talked about as a technical achievement, the next blip on the increasingly blurry line between movies and video games."[107] Roger Moore, a critic for the Orlando Sentinel, relates 300 to Susan Sontag's definition of "fascist art".[108] Newsday critic Gene Seymour, on the other hand, stated that such reactions are misguided, writing that "the movie's just too darned silly to withstand any ideological theorizing".[109] Snyder himself dismissed ideological readings, suggesting that reviewers who critique "a graphic novel movie about a bunch of guys... stomping the snot out of each other" using words like "'neocon,' 'homophobic,' 'homoerotic' or 'racist'" are "missing the point".[110] Snyder, however, also admitted to fashioning an effeminate villain specifically to make young straight males in the audience uncomfortable: "What's more scary to a 20-year-old boy than a giant god-king who wants to have his way with you?".[111] Slovenian critic Slavoj Žižek pointed out that the story represents "a poor, small country (Greece) invaded by the army of a much large[r] state (Persia)," suggesting that the identification of the Spartans with a modern superpower is flawed.[112] 300 writer Frank Miller said: "The Spartans were a paradoxical people. They were the biggest slave owners in Greece. But at the same time, Spartan women had an unusual level of rights. It's a paradox that they were a bunch of people who in many ways were fascist, but they were the bulwark against the fall of democracy. The closest comparison you can draw in terms of our own military today is to think of the red-caped Spartans as being like our special-ops forces. They're these almost superhuman characters with a tremendous warrior ethic, who were unquestionably the best fighters in Greece. I didn't want to render Sparta in overly accurate terms, because ultimately I do want you to root for the Spartans. I couldn't show them being quite as cruel as they were. I made them as cruel as I thought a modern audience could stand."[100] Michael M. Chemers, author of "'With Your Shield, or on It': Disability Representation in 300" in the Disability Studies Quarterly, said that the film's portrayal of the hunchback and his story "is not mere ableism: this is anti-disability".[113] Frank Miller—commenting on areas where he lessened the Spartan cruelty for narrative purposes—said: "I have King Leonidas very gently tell Ephialtes, the hunchback, that they can't use him [as a soldier], because of his deformity. It would be much more classically Spartan if Leonidas laughed and kicked him off the cliff."[100] Iranian criticism[edit] Some interpreted the portrayal of King Xerxes (right) as homosexual. Snyder said of Xerxes: "What's more scary to a 20-year-old boy than a giant god-king who wants to have his way with you?"[111] From its opening, 300 also attracted controversy over its portrayal of Persians. Officials of the Iranian government[114] denounced the film.[115][116][117] Some scenes in the film portray demon-like and other fictional creatures as part of the Persian army, and the fictionalized portrayal of Persian King Xerxes I has been criticized as effeminate.[118][119] Critics suggested that this was meant to stand in stark contrast to the portrayed masculinity of the Spartan army.[120] Steven Rea argued that the film's Persians were a vehicle for an anachronistic cross-section of Western aspirational stereotypes of Asian and African cultures.[121] The film's portrayal of ancient Persians caused a particularly strong reaction in Iran.[122] Various Iranian officials condemned the film.[123][124][125][126] The Iranian Academy of the Arts submitted a formal complaint against the film to UNESCO, labelling it an attack on the historical identity of Iran.[127][128] The Iranian mission to the U.N. protested the film in a press release,[129] and Iranian embassies protested its screening in France,[130] Thailand,[131] Turkey,[132] and Uzbekistan.[133] The film was banned within Iran as "hurtful American propaganda".[134] Reviewers in the United States and elsewhere "noted the political overtones of the West-against-Iran story line and the way Persians are depicted as decadent, sexually flamboyant and evil in contrast to the noble Greeks".[135] With bootleg versions of the film already available in Tehran with the film's international release and news of the film's surprising success at the U.S. box office, it prompted widespread anger in Iran. Azadeh Moaveni of Time reported, "All of Tehran was outraged. Everywhere I went yesterday, the talk vibrated with indignation over the film".[136] Newspapers in Iran featured headlines such as "Hollywood declares war on Iranians" and "300 Against 70 Million" (Iran's population). Ayende-No, an independent Iranian newspaper, said that "[t]he film depicts Iranians as demons, without culture, feeling or humanity, who think of nothing except attacking other nations and killing people".[136] Four Iranian Members of Parliament have called for Muslim countries to ban the film,[137] and a group of Iranian film makers submitted a letter of protest to UNESCO regarding the film's misrepresentation of Iranian history and culture.[138] Iran's cultural advisor to president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad has called the film an "American attempt for psychological warfare against Iran".[139] Moaveni identified two factors which may have contributed to the intensity of Iranian indignation over the film. First, she describes the timing of the film's release, on the eve of Norouz, the Persian New Year, as "inauspicious". Second, Iranians tend to view the era depicted in the film as "a particularly noble page in their history". Moaveni also suggests that "the box office success of 300, compared with the relative flop of Alexander (another spurious period epic dealing with Persians), is cause for considerable alarm, signaling ominous U.S. intentions".[136] According to The Guardian, Iranian critics of 300, ranging from bloggers to government officials, have described the movie "as a calculated attempt to demonise Iran at a time of intensifying U.S. pressure over the country's nuclear programme".[137] An Iranian government spokesman described the film as "hostile behavior which is the result of cultural and psychological warfare".[137] Moaveni reported that the Iranians she interacted with were "adamant that the movie was secretly funded by the U.S. government to prepare Americans for going to war against Iran".[136] In popular culture[edit] 300 has been spoofed in film, television, and other media, and spawned the "This is Sparta!" internet meme.[140] Skits based upon the film have appeared on Saturday Night Live[141] and Robot Chicken, the latter of which mimicked the visual style of 300 in a parody set during the American Revolutionary War, titled "1776".[142] Other parodies include an episode of South Park named "D-Yikes!",[143] the short film United 300 which won the 2007 MTV Movie Spoof Award,[144] and "BOO!" by Mad magazine in its September 2007 issue #481, written by Desmond Devlin and illustrated by Mort Drucker.[145] 20th Century Fox released Meet the Spartans, a spoof directed by Jason Friedberg and Aaron Seltzer. Universal Pictures once planned a similar parody, titled National Lampoon's 301: The Legend of Awesomest Maximus Wallace Leonidas.[146] 300, particularly its pithy quotations, has been "adopted" by the student body of Michigan State University (whose nickname is the Spartans), with chants of "Spartans, what is your profession?" becoming common at sporting events starting after the film's release, and Michigan State basketball head coach Tom Izzo dressed as Leonidas at one student event.[147][148] Nate Ebner, a football player with the New England Patriots in the National Football League and formerly with the Ohio State Buckeyes, was nicknamed "Leonidas," after the Greek warrior-king hero of Sparta acted by Gerard Butler in the movie 300, because of his intense workout regimen, and his beard.[149] Sequel[edit] Main article: 300: Rise of an Empire In June 2008, producers Mark Canton, Gianni Nunnari and Bernie Goldmann revealed that work had begun on a sequel to 300, 300: Rise of an Empire.[150] Legendary Pictures had announced that Frank Miller started writing the follow-up graphic novel, and Zack Snyder was interested in directing the adaptation, but moved on to develop and direct the Superman reboot Man of Steel.[151][152] Noam Murro directed instead, while Zack Snyder produced. The film focused on the Athenian admiral, Themistocles, as portrayed by Australian actor Sullivan Stapleton. The sequel, 300: Rise of an Empire, was released on March 7, 2014.[153] See also[edit] Ancient Greece portal Film portal United States portal List of historical drama films and series set in Near Eastern and Western civilization List of book-based war films (wars before 1775) References[edit] ^ "300 (15)". British Board of Film Classification. February 22, 2007. Archived from the original on September 16, 2016. Retrieved September 6, 2016. ^ Corliss, Richard (March 14, 2007). "7 Reasons Why 300 Is a Huge Hit". Time. Archived from the original on October 15, 2008. Retrieved November 18, 2008. ^ "300 (2007)". The Numbers. Retrieved December 29, 2020. ^ a b "300 (2006)". Box Office Mojo. Archived from the original on March 13, 2009. Retrieved March 8, 2009. ^ Zack Snyder. "300 (2007)". AllMovie. Archived from the original on January 27, 2019. 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Wikiquote has quotations related to: 300 (film) Listen to this article (35 minutes) This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 13 February 2009 (2009-02-13), and does not reflect subsequent edits. (Audio help · More spoken articles) Official website 300 at the American Film Institute Catalog 300 on IMDb 300 at AllMovie 300 at Rotten Tomatoes 300 at Metacritic 300 at Box Office Mojo Gerri Miller (March 2, 2007). "Inside 300". HowStuffWorks. 300 production notes Neil Miller (February 14, 2007). "Interview: Director Zach Snyder talks 300". Archived from the original on May 15, 2008. Victor Davis Hanson (March 28, 2007). "300: Fact or Fiction?". Tribune Media Services. Archived from the original on January 3, 2010. v t e Films based on Dark Horse Comics Single films Tank Girl Barb Wire Virus Mystery Men G-Men from Hell American Splendor R.I.P.D. Polar Franchises 300 300 300: Rise of an Empire Alien vs. Predator Alien vs. Predator Aliens vs. Predator: Requiem Hellboy Hellboy (2004) Hellboy II: The Golden Army (2008) Hellboy (2019) Animated Hellboy: Sword of Storms Hellboy: Blood and Iron The Mask The Mask Son of the Mask Sin City Sin City Sin City: A Dame to Kill For Timecop Timecop Timecop 2: The Berlin Decision Category v t e Frank Miller Batman comics The Dark Knight Returns Batman: Year One Spawn/Batman The Dark Knight Strikes Again All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder The Dark Knight III: The Master Race Other comics Written Bad Boy The Big Guy and Rusty the Boy Robot Daredevil "Born Again" Elektra: Assassin Give Me Liberty Martha Washington Hard Boiled RoboCop RoboCop Versus The Terminator Written and drawn 300 Daredevil Elektra Lives Again Rōnin Sin City The Hard Goodbye A Dame to Kill For The Big Fat Kill That Yellow Bastard Family Values Hell and Back Holy Terror Xerxes Drawn The Twilight Zone Daredevil Wolverine Heroes for Hope Characters DC Comics Arnold John Flass Carmine Falcone Carrie Kelley Gillian B. 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en-wikipedia-org-9772	----	Wepwawetemsaf - Wikipedia Wepwawetemsaf From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wepwawetemsaf Apuatemsaf, Oupouaout, Upwautemsaf, Wepwawemsaf Stele of Wepwawetemsaf, drawing made in 1913 by Wallis Budge[1] Pharaoh Reign Uncertain, 17th century BCE (possibly the Abydos Dynasty, the late 13th Dynasty[2] or the late 16th Dynasty.[3]) Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sekhemreneferkhau Sḫm-Rˁ Nfr-ḫˁw Mighty Ra, he whose apparitions are perfect Nomen Wepwawetemsaf Wp-w3wt-m-s3.f Wepwawet is his protection Sekhemraneferkhau Wepwawetemsaf was an Egyptian pharaoh during the Second Intermediate Period. According to the Egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, he was a king of the Abydos Dynasty, although they leave his position within this dynasty undetermined.[4][5] Alternatively, the Egyptologist Jürgen von Beckerath sees Wepwawetemsaf as a king of the late 13th Dynasty, while Marcel Marée proposes that he was a king of the late 16th Dynasty.[3][6] Contents 1 Attestations 2 Dynasty 3 References 4 External links Attestations[edit] The only contemporaneous attestation of Wepwawetemsaf's reign is a limestone stele "of exceptionally crude quality"[5] discovered in Abydos and now in the British Museum (EA 969).[7][8] The stele shows the king before the god "Wepwawet, lord of Abydos" and is generally described as of poor workmanship.[4] The stele was produced by a workshop operating in Abydos. Other steles produced by this workshop belong to king Rahotep and king Pantjeny. The Egyptologist Marcel Marée therefore concludes that these three kings reigned quite close in time. He believes that the stele of Pantjeny was made by a different artist, while the steles of Rahotep and Wepwawetemsaf were carved by the same man. He argues that Wepwawetemsaf reigned directly after king Rahotep. He does not assign single kings to specific dynasties, but comes to the conclusion that these kings belong to the late 16th or very early 17th Dynasty.[3] Another possible attestation of this king is a graffito discovered in tomb no. 2 at Beni Hasan belonging to the 12th Dynasty nomarch Amenemhat and located about 250 km north of Abydos, in Middle Egypt. The graffito has been tentatively read by Beckerath as "Sekhemreneferkhau" but this remains uncertain as the original is now lost.[4][5][9] Dynasty[edit] Graffito from Beni Hasan, possibly attributable to Wepwawetemsaf.[10] In his study of the Second Intermediate Period, Kim Ryholt elaborates on the idea originally proposed by Detlef Franke that following the collapse of the 13th Dynasty with the conquest of Memphis by the Hyksos, an independent kingdom centered on Abydos arose in Middle Egypt.[11] The Abydos Dynasty thus designates a group of local kinglets reigning for a short time in central Egypt. Ryholt notes that Wepwawetemsaf is only attested in central Egypt and that his name comprises the theophoric reference to the Abydene god Wepwawet. Thus he concludes that Wepwawetemsaf most likely ruled from Abydos and belongs to the Abydos Dynasty.[5] This conclusion is shared by Darrell Baker but not by Beckerath, who places Wepwawetemsaf in the late 13th Dynasty.[6] The Egyptologist Marcel Marée also rejects Ryholt's hypothesis and instead holds that Wepwawetemsaf is a king of the late 16th Dynasty. Indeed, Marée notes that the workshop which produced Wepwawetemsaf's stele is also responsible for the production of the steles of Pantjeny and Rahotep, the latter most often assigned to the early 17th Dynasty. Marée therefore concludes that Rahotep, Pantjeny and Wepwawetemsaf reigned quite close in time. This reasoning also precludes the existence of an Abydos Dynasty c. 1650 BC.[3] References[edit] ^ Wallis Budge: Hieroglyphic texts from Egyptian stelae, &c., in the British Museum, Part IV, London: Printed by order of the Trustees [by] Harrison and Sons, 1913, available copyright-free online ^ Jürgen von Beckerath, kings of the second intermediate period, available online ^ a b c d Marcel Marée: A sculpture workshop at Abydos from the late Sixteenth or early Seventeenth Dynasty, in: Marcel Marée (editor): The Second Intermediate period (Thirteenth-Seventeenth Dynasties, Current Research, Future Prospects, Leuven, Paris, Walpole, MA. 2010 ISBN 978-90-429-2228-0. p. 245, 261-275 ^ a b c Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 496-497 ^ a b c d K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800 – 1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997 ^ a b Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien 49, Mainz 1999. ^ Janine Bourriau: Pharaohs and Mortals: Egyptian art in the Middle Kingdom, Cambridge University Press, 1988, see p. 72-73, fig. 58 ^ Stele of Wepwawetemsaf ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964 ^ Drawing by Karl Richard Lepsius (1810 – 1884) published in 1897 source available online copyright-free, Text Band II Mittelaegypten mit dem Faiyum, see p. 76 ^ Detlef Franke: Zur Chronologie des Mittleren Reiches. Teil II: Die sogenannte Zweite Zwischenzeit Altägyptens, in Orientalia 57 (1988), p. 259 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Wepwawetemsaf. Wepwawetemsaf's stele. British Museum, EA969. v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wepwawetemsaf&oldid=954562591" Categories: 17th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Abydos Dynasty Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Català Español Français Italiano ქართული Magyar Slovenščina ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 3 May 2020, at 03:01 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9786	----	Rahotep - Wikipedia Rahotep From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the prince of the 4th Dynasty, see Prince Rahotep. Sekhemre-Wahkhau Rahotep Rehotep, Rahotpe, Rehotpe, Sekhem-uah-kha-ra, Sekhemre Wa-ka'u[1] Rahotep (raising arms) while offering to Osiris. Stele BM EA 833, drawn by Wallis Budge.[2] Pharaoh Reign 1580 BC – 1576 BC[3] (17th Dynasty) Successor Sobekemsaf I Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sekhemre-Wahkhau sḫm-rˁ w3ḥ-ḫaw Mighty is Re, enduring of apparitions Nomen Rahotep Rˁ ḥtp Ra is satisfied Horus name Wah-Ankh ˁnḫ-w3ḥ Enduring of life Nebty name User-Renput Wsr-rnpwt Powerful in years Golden Horus Wadj[...] bik-nbw-w3ḏ-[...] The Golden Falcon who regains strength [...] Karnak king list: [Sekhem]rewahkhau[4][3] [Sḫm]-Rˁ-w3ḥ-ḫˁw [Mighty is] Re, enduring of apparitions Rahotep was an Egyptian pharaoh who reigned during the Second Intermediate Period, when Egypt was ruled by multiple kings. The Egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker believe that Rahotep was the first king of the 17th Dynasty.[1][3] Contents 1 Attestations 2 Reign 3 References Attestations[edit] Rahotep is well known from a stele found at Coptos reporting the restoration of the temple of Min.[5] The stele, now in the Petrie Museum (UC 14327), reads[6][7] (year ... under) the Majesty of Horus Wahankh, Two Ladies Weserrenput, Horus of Gold, Wad ... (... Son of) Re Rahotep, given life. His Majesty (said?) to his nobles and the courtiers who were in his following ... the temple ... My Majesty found (concerning) my father (Min), who is at the head of all gods, that his gates and doors had fallen into ruin, (They did obeisance ? before) his Majesty and said: What your ka (commands) shall come to pass, O king, our lord. It is Hu, indeed, who is in your mouth, and Sia (who is in your heart). Ptah-Sokar ... the gods fashioned you ... that you might act for them to found their temples ... You have united Upper and Lower Egypt. May your heart be joyful upon the Horus-throne of the living ... You are ruling what the sun (encircles) ... the god (...) of the people, the refuge of all...night ... in sleeping ... the gods in seeking what is beneficial to this land. Re has placed you as his image ... what is removed (?)... as it was in the time of your fathers, the kings who followed Horus. Never was ... lost in my time ... which existed formerly. I made monuments for the gods ... wonders, which were brought ... Rahotep is also attested on a limestone stele, now in the British Museum (BM EA 833),[8] which shows him making an offering to Osiris for two deceased, an officer and a priest. Finally Rahotep is mentioned on a bow of a king's son dedicated to "the service of Min in all his feasts".[3][9] In the late New Kingdom tale Khonsuemheb and the ghost, the protagonist encounters a ghost who claims to have been in life "Overseer of the treasuries of king Rahotep". However, the ghost also claims to have died in regnal Year 14 of a later king Mentuhotep. These statements seem to contradict each other since none of Rahotep's successors named Mentuhotep is known to have reigned for so long, thus making the identification of both these kings problematic.[10] Reign[edit] Two scarabs bearing the inscription "Rahotep", believed by Flinders Petrie to referring to this king.[11] While Ryholt and Baker propose that Rahotep was the first king of the 17th Dynasty, Jürgen von Beckerath sees him as the second king of that dynasty.[12][13] Alternatively Claude Vandersleyen has tentatively dated Rahotep to the 13th Dynasty on the grounds that he believes Rahotep to be related to Sobekemsaf I, which Vandersleyen also dates to the 13th Dynasty because of the quality and number of statues attributable to him.[14] Baker deems these arguments "slim and rejected by most scholars".[1] If he was indeed a ruler of the early 17th Dynasty, Rahotep would have controlled Upper Egypt as far north as Abydos.[1] According to Ryholt's reconstruction of the Second Intermediate Period, Rahotep's reign would have taken place shortly after the collapse of the 16th Dynasty with the conquest of Thebes by the Hyksos and their subsequent withdrawal from the region. In the wake of the conflict the Hyksos would have looted and destroyed temples and palaces.[1] Rahotep consequently "boasts of restorations [he performed] in temples at Abydos and Coptos".[15] In Abydos he had the enclosure walls of the temple of Osiris renewed and in Coptos he restored the temple of Min of which "gates and doors [have] fallen into ruins".[1] This chronology of events is debated and some scholars contest that Thebes was ever conquered by the Hyksos. Rather, they believe the kings of Upper Egypt could have been vassals of the Hyksos. References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rahotep (pharaoh). ^ a b c d e f Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 341-342 ^ Wallis Budge: Hieroglyphic texts from Egyptian stelae, &c., in the British Museum, Part IV, London: Printed by order of the Trustees [by] Harrison and Sons, 1913, available not-in-copyright here, pl. 24. ^ a b c d K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here. ^ Number 54 on the Karnak king list ^ H.M. Stewart: Egyptian Stelae, Reliefs and Paintings from the Petrie Collection. Part Two: Archaic to Second Intermediate Period, Warminster 1979, 17-18, no. 78 ^ Image of the stele with translation ^ Stele on the Petrie Museum catalogue ^ Stele on the British Museum catalogue ^ O. D. Berlev: Un don du roi Rahotep, OLP 6-7 (1975/1976), p. 31-41 pl II. ^ Simpson, William K. (1973). The Literature of Ancient Egypt. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-01711-1., pp. 139–40 ^ Flinders Petrie: Scarabs and cylinders with names (1917), available copyright-free here, pl. XXIII ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46. Mainz am Rhein, 1997 ^ Claude Vandersleyen: Rahotep, Sébekemsaf Ier et Djéhouty, rois de la 13e Dynastie, Revue d'Égyptologie ^ Janine Bourriau, Ian Shaw (edit), The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt Oxford University Press, 2000. p.205 ISBN 978-0-19-280458-7 Preceded by Unknown Pharaoh of Egypt Seventeenth Dynasty Succeeded by Sobekemsaf I v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rahotep&oldid=999914096" Categories: 16th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Italiano ქართული Magyar مصرى 日本語 Norsk bokmål Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Tagalog ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 12 January 2021, at 16:03 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9798	----	Cabinet des Médailles - Wikipedia Cabinet des Médailles From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Gold 20-stater of Eucratides I (175–150 BC), the largest gold coin known to have been minted in Antiquity. The coin weighs 169.2 grams (5.44 troy oz), and has a diameter of 58 millimeters (2.3 in). It was originally found in Bukhara, and later acquired by Napoleon III. Cabinet des Médailles, Paris. The Cabinet des Médailles,[Note 1] more formally known as Département des Monnaies, Médailles et Antiques de la Bibliothèque nationale de France, is a department of the Bibliothèque nationale de France in Paris. The Cabinet des Médailles is located in the Richelieu-Louvois building – the former main building of the library – on the Rue de Richelieu.[Note 2] The Cabinet des Médailles Entrance to the Cabinet des Médailles Established (1560-1574) Collections coins, engraved gems, and antiquities, with its distant origins in the treasuries of the French kings of the Middle Ages.* Berthouville Treasure Cup of the Ptolemies Great Cameo of France Treasure of Gourdon The Cabinet des Médailles is a museum containing internationally important collections of coins, engraved gems, and antiquities, with its distant origins in the treasuries of the French kings of the Middle Ages. The disruptions of the Wars of Religion inspired Charles IX (1560-1574) to create the position of a garde particulier des médailles et antiques du roi ("Special guardian of the King's medals and antiques"). Thus the collection, which has been augmented and never again dispersed,[Note 3] passed from being the personal collection of the king to becoming a national property – a bien national – as the royal collection was declared during the Revolution. A stage in this aspect of its development was the bequest of the collection of pioneering archeologist comte de Caylus, who knew that in this fashion his antiquities would be most accessible to scholars. Other collectors followed suit: when the duc de Luynes gave his collection of Greek coins to the Cabinet Impérial in 1862, it was a national collection rather than simply an Imperial one he was enriching. The State also added to the treasury contained in the Cabinet des Médailles: a notable addition, in 1846, was the early sixth century gold Treasure of Gourdon. The cabinet, in the sense of a small private room for the conservation and display of intimate works of art and for private conversations, rather than a piece of furniture, took a stable shape under Henry IV, who nominated the connoisseur Rascas de Bagarris garde particulier des médailles et antiques du roi, the "particular guardian of the medals and antiquities of the King". The Sassanid "Cup of Chosroes", from Saint-Denis, where it was treasured as "King Solomon's Cup". Among the antiquarians and scholars who have had the charge of the Cabinet des Médailles, one of the most outstanding was Théophile Marion Dumersan, who began working there in 1795 at the age of sixteen, protected the collection from dispersal by the allies after Napoleon's defeat, and published at his own expense a history of the collection and description, as newly rearranged according to historical principles, in 1838[1] Earlier printed catalogues of parts of the collection had been published. Pierre-Jean Mariette, urged by the comte de Caylus, published a selection of the royal carved hardstones as volume II of hisTraité des pierres gravées.[2] Louis XIV of France, an acquisitive connoisseur, brought together the cabinet of curiosities of his uncle Gaston d'Orléans and acquired that of Hippolyte de Béthune, the nephew of Henri IV's minister Sully. In order to keep the collections closer at hand, he removed them from the old royal library in Paris to the Palace of Versailles. When Louis' great-grandson Louis XV had attained majority, the Cabinet was returned to Paris in 1724, to take up its present space in the royal library that was designed under the direction of Jules-Robert de Cotte, the son of Mansart's successor at the Bâtiments du Roi. In the Cabinet des Médailles, the medal-cabinet delivered in 1739 by the ébéniste du roi Antoine Gaudreau figures among the greatest pieces of French furniture. Other medal cabinets were delivered for Louis XIV by André-Charles Boulle. The cabinet also still houses its paintings by Boucher, Natoire and Van Loo. Following the French Revolution, a number of precious objects previously kept at the Treasury of Saint-Denis joined the collection of the Cabinet. The Cabinet des Médailles is considered the oldest museum in France. It is located in the former building of the Bibliothèque Nationale, 58 rue Richelieu, Paris I, and can be visited for free every afternoon (13:00-17:00), seven days a week. Contents 1 Significant objects 2 Notes 3 References 4 External links Significant objects[edit] Berthouville Treasure Cup of the Ptolemies Great Cameo of France Treasure of Gourdon Cameo with Valerian and Shapur I Romanos Ivory The type vases for several Ancient Greek vase painters, including the Amykos Painter, Class of Cabinet des Médailles 218, the Arkesilas Cup of the Arkesilas Painter. The Idalion Tablet Nazareth Inscription Baal Lebanon inscription Notes[edit] ^ The patriotic Cabinet de France, less redolent of Bourbons, was affected during republican phases of the 19th century and as late as World War I. ^ The Bibliothèque Nationale has new premises in the Tolbiac district, 13th arrondissement of Paris. ^ The first royal library, assembled at the Palais du Louvre by Charles V, which contained 973 volumes when it was inventoried in 1373, was dispersed during the following century. References[edit] ^ Dumersan, Théophile Marion (1838). Histoire de Cabinet des Médailles, antiques et pierres gravées, avec une notice sur la Bibliothèque Royale et une description des objets exposés dans cet établissement [History of the Cabinet des Médailles, antiques and engraved stones]. www.polybiblio.com. Paris. Archived from the original on 4 March 2007.. His earlier Notice des monuments exposés dans le cabinet des médailles et antiques de la bibliothèque du Roi ("List of the articles exhibited by the Cabinet des Médailles and Antiques in the King's Library") in several editions, concentrated on the antiquities and gems. ^ Mariette, Pierre-Jean (1750). Traité des pierres gravées [Treaty on engraved stones]. Paris. External links[edit] Coins, Medals and Antiques Department Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cabinet des médailles. Authority control BNF: cb12408994q (data) CiNii: DA09334865 ISNI: 0000 0001 2195 4717 LCCN: nr2004009749 SUDOC: 028220811 VIAF: 159311882 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 159311882 Coordinates: 48°52′04″N 2°20′18″E / 48.8678°N 2.3384°E / 48.8678; 2.3384 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cabinet_des_Médailles&oldid=995889539" Categories: Museums in Paris Numismatic museums in France Buildings and structures in the 1st arrondissement of Paris Bibliothèque nationale de France collections Collection of the Cabinet des Médailles, Paris Hidden categories: Articles containing French-language text Infobox mapframe without OSM relation ID on Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Coordinates on Wikidata Pages using the Kartographer extension Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Беларуская Čeština Deutsch Español Français Galego Italiano Latina Norsk bokmål Polski Русский Slovenščina Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 23 December 2020, at 12:37 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9806	----	Arbinas - Wikipedia Arbinas From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Arbinas Portrait of Arbinas wearing the satrapal headdress, from his coinage. Native name Erbinas Allegiance Achaemenid Empire Rank Satrap Location of Lycia. Anatolia/Asia Minor in the Greco-Roman period. The classical regions, including Lycia, and their main settlements Arbinas, in Achaemenid dress on the Nereid Monument. Arbinas, also Erbinas, Erbbina, was a Lycian Dynast who ruled circa 430/20-400 BCE. He is most famous for his tomb, the Nereid Monument, now on display in the British Museum.[1] Coinage seems to indicate that he ruled in the western part of Lycia, around Telmessos, while his tomb was established in Xanthos.[2] He was a subject of the Achaemenid Empire.[3] Contents 1 Rule 2 Tomb 3 Coinage 4 References Rule[edit] He was the son of the previous Lycian king Kheriga.[4] On his inscriptions, Erbinas is described as a tyrannos, and "the man who rules over the Lycians".[4] It seems the Lycia kingdom started to disintegrate during the rule of Arbinas, as numerous smaller rulers started to mint coinage throughout Lycia during his reign and after.[3] Tomb[edit] Main article: Nereid Monument His monumental tomb, the Nereid Monument, now in the British Museum, was the main inspiration for the famous Mausoleum at Halicarnassus.[5] Using the design of a Greek Temple for the building of a tomb was unheard of in mainland Greece. The Nereid Monument is thought to be the tomb of Arbinas. British Museum. Reconstitution of the original tomb of Erbinas. Arbinas portrait, with Persian cap. Nereid Monument. Arbinas, in Persian dress, receives emissaries. Nereid Monument. Coinage[edit] Coin of King Arbinas, wearing the Persian cap on the reverse. Circa 430/20-400 BC Coin of King Arbinas. Athena and Herakles on each side. Circa 430/20-400 BC Coin of King Arbinas. Athena and Herakles. References[edit] ^ Keen, Antony G. (1998). Dynastic Lycia: A Political of History of the Lycians and Their Relations with Foreign Powers : C. 545-362 B.C. BRILL. p. 145. ISBN 9004109560. ^ Keen, Antony G. (1998). Dynastic Lycia: A Political of History of the Lycians and Their Relations with Foreign Powers : C. 545-362 B.C. BRILL. p. 146. ISBN 9004109560. ^ a b Fried, Lisbeth S. (2004). The Priest and the Great King: Temple-palace Relations in the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. p. 150. ISBN 9781575060903. ^ a b Keen, Antony G. (1998). Dynastic Lycia: A Political of History of the Lycians and Their Relations with Foreign Powers : C. 545-362 B.C. BRILL. p. 47. ISBN 9004109560. ^ André-Salvini, Béatrice (2005). Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia. University of California Press. p. 46. ISBN 9780520247314. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arbinas&oldid=896229194" Categories: 4th-century BC Iranian people Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Lycians Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 9 May 2019, at 03:47 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9818	----	Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw - Wikipedia Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Drawing by Wallis Budge of a fragment of a red granite architrave discovered in Bubastis and bearing the name of Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw.[1] Pharaoh Reign 1775–1772 BC (Ryholt); 1–2 years (Baker); 1752-1746 BC (Schneider) (13th Dynasty) Coregency Hor? Predecessor Hor Successor Djedkheperew Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Sekemrekhutawy Sḫm-Rˁ-ḫwj-t3wj Mighty Ra, he who protects the two lands Nomen Unknown, possibly "Sobek"[2] Horus name Khabaw Ḫˁj-b3w The apparition of the Bas Nebty name Wehemdjed Wḥm-ḏd Permanent renewal Golden Horus Ankhrenput ˁnḫ-rnpwt Living of years Father Hor? Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw was an Egyptian pharaoh of the early 13th Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. According to the egyptologist Kim Ryholt, he was the sixteenth king of the dynasty, reigning for three years, from 1775 BC until 1772 BC.[2] Thomas Schneider, on the other hand, places his reign from 1752 BC until 1746 BC.[3] Alternatively, Jürgen von Beckerath sees him as the third king of the dynasty.[4][5][6] As a ruler of the early 13th Dynasty, Khabaw would have ruled from Memphis to Aswan and possibly over the western Nile Delta.[7] Contents 1 Attestations 2 Identity 3 See also 4 References Attestations[edit] Cylinder-seal of Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw, Petrie Museum UC 11527.[8][9] Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw is not listed on the Turin canon nor on any other ancient king list.[10] According to Ryholt, Khabaw's name was lost in a wsf (literally "missing") lacuna of the Turin canon reported in Column 7, line 17 of the document. The redactor of this king list, which was written in the early Ramesside period, wrote wsf when the older document from which he was copying the list had a lacuna.[2] Khabaw is however well attested through archaeological finds. Fragments of a red granite architrave measuring 2 feet 6 inches (0.76 m) by 5 feet 11 inches (1.80 m) bearing his Horus name and prenomen were discovered during excavations at Bubastis in 1891 conducted by Édouard Naville for the Egypt Exploration Society.[1][11] The architrave is now in the British Museum, under the catalog number BM EA 1100. Another architrave discovered in Tanis shows Khabaw's name together with that of pharaoh Hor of the 13th Dynasty. Darrell Baker and Ryholt suggest that this close association might mean that Khabaw was Hor's son and may have been his coregent.[7] Ryholt and Baker believe that both architraves did not originate from the Delta region but from Memphis. The architraves could have come to their find spots after the fall of the 13th Dynasty, when the Hyksos moved a large number of monuments from Memphis to Avaris and other cities of the Nile Delta such as Bubastis and Tanis.[7] Alternatively, the architraves may have stayed in Avaris until the reign of Ramses II, when this king built his capital at Pi-Ramesses using material from Avaris. Pi-Ramesses was subsequently dismantled during the 21st Dynasty and its monuments scattered in the Delta region.[2][12] Finally, Khabaw is attested by a cylinder-seal now in the Petrie Museum (UC 11527),[9] 4 seal impressions from Uronarti and one from Mirgissa, both places being Egyptian fortresses in Nubia.[2] Identity[edit] The nomen of Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw is unknown and his identity is therefore not completely established. Ryholt has proposed Khabaw's nomen could have been "Sobek", as this nomen is attested from artifacts which must belong to a king of the first half of the 13th Dynasty. Only two kings of this time period have their nomina unknown: Khabaw and Nerikare. "Sobek" may thus possibly be the nomen of Khabaw.[2] On the other hand, Jürgen von Beckerath identified Khabaw's nomen as Pantjeny, thereby equating Khabaw with Sekhemrekhutawy Pantjeny, who is otherwise attested by a single stele.[6] However, this hypothesis has been invalidated in a recent study of stele by Marcel Marée. Marée has shown that the stele was produced by the same workshop (and possibly the same person) who produced the stelae of Wepwawetemsaf and Rahotep. The latter is firmly dated to the early 17th Dynasty c. 1580 BC and thus Pantjeny must have ruled c. 1600 BC, possibly at the end of the 16th Dynasty.[13] Alternatively, Pantjeny could be a member of the Abydos Dynasty, which ruled over central Egypt from c. 1650 BC until 1600 BC.[2] Wolfgang Helck and Stephen Quirke have equated Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw with Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep, called Sobekhotep I or Sobekhotep II depending on the scholar. This hypothesis is considered incorrect by most Egyptologists including von Beckerath, Detlef Franke, Ryholt and Anthony Spalinger[14] Von Beckerath and Franke point out that although both kings have the same throne name, their other names are completely different. Spalinger argues that the Nile records of Nubia associated to Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep cannot be attributed to Khabaw.[14] Responding to these arguments, Stephen Quirke pointed out that the Horus and gold names of Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep are known from a single block from Medamud, the attribution of which is not entirely certain.[15] See also[edit] List of pharaohs References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Khabaw Sekhemrekhutawy. ^ a b Wallis Budge: Hieroglyphic Texts, V (1914) see p. 7 and pl. 18, available copyright-free online. ^ a b c d e f g K.S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800 – 1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997, excerpts available online here. ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen, Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, p. 255 and 259 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten, Glückstadt, 1964 ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägyptens, Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 46. Mainz am Rhein, 1997 ^ a b Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der Ägyptischen Königsnamen, MÄS 49, Philip Von Zabern. (1999) ^ a b c Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 289-290 ^ Flinders Petrie: Scarabs and cylinders with names (1917), available copyright-free here, pl. XVIII ^ a b Seal of Khabaw, catalog of the Petrie Museum. ^ Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 166-167 ^ E. Naville: Bubastis, 1891, 15, pl. XXXIII, available copyright-free online ^ See a similar situation for the colossi of Imyremeshaw. ^ Marcel Marée: A sculpture workshop at Abydos from the late Sixteenth or early Seventeenth Dynasty, in: Marcel Marée (editor): The Second Intermediate period (Thirteenth-Seventeenth Dynasties), Current Research, Future Prospects, Leuven, Paris, Walpole, MA. 2010 ISBN 978-90-429-2228-0. p. 247, 268 ^ a b A. Spalinger: Sobekhotep II, in: Wolfgang Helck editor: Lexikon der Ägyptologie, vol. 5. Harrasowitz, Wiesbaden 1984, ISBN 3-447-02489-5 ^ Stephen Quirke: In the Name of the King: on Late Middle Kingdom Cylinders, in: E. Czerny, I. Hein, H. Hunger, D. Melman, A. Schwab (editors): Timelines, Studies in Honour of Manfred Bietak, Volume I, Leuven, Paris/ Dufdley, MA ISBN 9789042917309, p. 263-274. Preceded by Hor Pharaoh of Egypt Thirteenth Dynasty Succeeded by Djedkheperew v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sekhemrekhutawy_Khabaw&oldid=976830464" Categories: 18th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special 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en-wikipedia-org-9842	----	Dadarsi - Wikipedia Dadarsi From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Dadarsi was a Persian general satrap of Bactria.[1][2] He served the Persian king Darius I the Great (522–486 BCE). He was ordered to suppress a revolt in Margiana.[3] References[edit] ^ Briant 2002, p. 82. ^ Fisher, William Bayne, Ilya Gershevitch, Ehsan Yar-Shater and Peter Avery, The Cambridge history of Iran, Vol.2, (Cambridge University Press, 1985), 219; "Most surprising, however, are the figures for the battle fought by the satrap of Bactria, a Persian, called Dadarsis, against the rebel Frada in Margiana...". ^ Asheri, David, Alan B. Lloyd and Aldo Corcella, A Commentary on Herodotus: Books 1-4, (Oxford University Press, 2007), 533;"After that I sent a Persian, Dadarsis by name, my subject, satrap of Bactria. Afterwards Dadarsis with the army marched off, and he fought a battle with the Margians.". Sources[edit] Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. pp. 1–1196. ISBN 9781575061207. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC This biographical article related to the military of Iran is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dadarsi&oldid=994520553" Categories: Generals of Darius the Great 6th-century BC Iranian people Achaemenid satraps of Bactria Officials of Darius the Great Asian military personnel stubs Iranian people stubs Iranian military stubs Hidden categories: All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Español فارسی Հայերեն Hrvatski مصرى Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 16 December 2020, at 03:45 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9849	----	Template talk:Achaemenid rulers - Wikipedia Template talk:Achaemenid rulers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search           This template is of interest to the following WikiProjects: WikiProject Biography / Royalty and Nobility (Rated Template-class) Biography portal v t e This template is within the scope of WikiProject Biography, a collaborative effort to create, develop and organize Wikipedia's articles about people. All interested editors are invited to join the project and contribute to the discussion. For instructions on how to use this banner, please refer to the documentation.BiographyWikipedia:WikiProject BiographyTemplate:WikiProject Biographybiography articles  Template  This template does not require a rating on the project's quality scale. This template is supported by WikiProject Royalty and Nobility.   WikiProject Iran (Rated Template-class) Iran portal v t e This template is within the scope of WikiProject Iran, an attempt to build a comprehensive and detailed guide to articles related to Iran on Wikipedia. If you would like to participate, please join the project where you can contribute to the discussions and help with our open tasks.IranWikipedia:WikiProject IranTemplate:WikiProject IranIran articles  Template  This template does not require a rating on the project's quality scale.   WikiProject Classical Greece and Rome (Rated Template-class) v t e This template is within the scope of WikiProject Classical Greece and Rome, a group of contributors interested in Wikipedia's articles on classics. If you would like to join the WikiProject or learn how to contribute, please see our project page. If you need assistance from a classicist, please see our talk page.Classical Greece and RomeWikipedia:WikiProject Classical Greece and RomeTemplate:WikiProject Classical Greece and RomeClassical Greece and Rome articles  Template  This template does not require a rating on the project's quality scale.   WikiProject Ancient Near East (Rated Template-class) v t e This template is within the scope of WikiProject Ancient Near East, a collaborative effort to improve the coverage of Ancient Near East related articles on Wikipedia. If you would like to participate, please visit the project page, where you can join the discussion and see a list of open tasks.Ancient Near EastWikipedia:WikiProject Ancient Near EastTemplate:WikiProject Ancient Near EastAncient Near East articles  Template  This template does not require a rating on the project's quality scale.   Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Achaemenid_rulers&oldid=985972937" Categories: Template-Class biography articles Template-Class biography (royalty) articles NA-importance biography (royalty) articles Royalty work group articles Template-Class Iran articles NA-importance Iran articles WikiProject Iran articles Template-Class Classical Greece and Rome articles NA-importance Classical Greece and Rome articles Template-Class Ancient Near East articles NA-importance Ancient Near East articles Ancient Near East articles by assessment Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Template Talk Variants Views Read Edit New section View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages This page was last edited on 29 October 2020, at 01:39 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9859	----	Agrigento - Wikipedia Agrigento From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Agrigentum) Jump to navigation Jump to search "Akragas" redirects here. For for other uses, see Akragas (disambiguation). Comune in Sicily, Italy Agrigento Girgenti / Giurgenti  (Sicilian) Comune Comune di Agrigento Agrigento as seen from the Valley of the Temples. Coat of arms Motto(s): Signat Agrigentum mirabilis aula gigantum Location of Agrigento Agrigento Location of Agrigento in Italy Show map of Italy Agrigento Agrigento (Sicily) Show map of Sicily Coordinates: 37°19′N 13°35′E / 37.317°N 13.583°E / 37.317; 13.583 Country Italy Region Sicily Province Agrigento (AG) Frazioni Fontanelle, Giardina Gallotti, Monserrato, Montaperto, San Leone, Villaggio La Loggia, Villaggio Mosè, Villaggio Peruzzo, Villaseta Government  • Mayor Francesco Miccichè (Civic) Area[1]  • Total 245.32 km2 (94.72 sq mi) Elevation 230 m (750 ft) Population (31 March 2016)[2]  • Total 59,791  • Density 240/km2 (630/sq mi) Demonyms Agrigentino Girgentino English: Agrigentines Girgintans Time zone UTC+1 (CET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+2 (CEST) Postal code 92100 Dialing code 0922 Patron saint St. Gerland (Gerlando) Saint day 25 February Website Official website Agrigento (Italian: [aɡriˈdʒɛnto] (listen); Sicilian: Girgenti [dʒɪɾˈdʒɛndɪ] or Giurgenti [dʒʊɾˈdʒɛndɪ]; Ancient Greek: Ἀκράγας, romanized: Akragas; Latin: Agrigentum or Acragas; Arabic: Kirkent or Jirjent) is a city on the southern coast of Sicily, Italy and capital of the province of Agrigento. It was one of the leading cities of Magna Graecia during the golden age of Ancient Greece with population estimates in the range of 200,000 to 800,000 before 406 BC.[3][4][5][6][7] Contents 1 History 2 Economy 3 Government 4 Main sights 5 People 6 International relations 7 See also 8 References 9 Sources 10 External links History[edit] Agrigento was founded on a plateau overlooking the sea, with two nearby rivers, the Hypsas and the Akragas, and a ridge to the north offering a degree of natural fortification. Its establishment took place around 582–580 BC and is attributed to Greek colonists from Gela, who named it "Akragas". Akragas grew rapidly, becoming one of the richest and most famous of the Greek colonies of Magna Graecia.[citation needed] Famously, Plato, upon seeing the living standard of the inhabitants, remarked that they build like they intend to live forever, yet eat like this is their last day.[8] The city came to prominence under the 6th-century tyrants Phalaris and Theron, and became a democracy after the overthrow of Theron's son Thrasydaeus. At this point it could have been as large as 100,000 to 200,000 people.[9][10] Although the city remained neutral in the conflict between Athens and Syracuse, its democracy was overthrown when the city was sacked by the Carthaginians in 406 BC. Akragas never fully recovered its former status, though it revived to some extent under Timoleon in the latter part of the 4th century. During the early 3rd century BC, a tyrant called Phintias declared himself king in Akragas, also controlling a variety of other cities. His kingdom was however not long-lived. Didrachm, 490–483 BC. The city was disputed between the Romans and the Carthaginians during the First Punic War. The Romans laid siege to the city in 262 BC and captured it after defeating a Carthaginian relief force in 261 BC and sold the population into slavery. Although the Carthaginians recaptured the city in 255 BC the final peace settlement gave Punic Sicily and with it Akragas to Rome. It suffered badly during the Second Punic War (218–201 BC) when both Rome and Carthage fought to control it. The Romans eventually captured Akragas in 210 BC and renamed it Agrigentum, although it remained a largely Greek-speaking community for centuries thereafter. It became prosperous again under Roman rule and its inhabitants received full Roman citizenship following the death of Julius Caesar in 44 BC. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the city successively passed into the hands of the Vandalic Kingdom, the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy and then the Byzantine Empire. During this period the inhabitants of Agrigentum largely abandoned the lower parts of the city and moved to the former acropolis, at the top of the hill. The reasons for this move are unclear but were probably related to the destructive coastal raids of the Saracens and other peoples around this time. In 828 AD the Saracens captured the diminished remnant of the city; the Arabic form of its name became كِركَنت (Kirkant) or جِرجَنت (Jirjant). Following the Norman conquest of Sicily, the city changed its name to the Norman version Girgenti.[11] In 1087, Norman Count Roger I established a Latin bishopric in the city. Normans built the Castello di Agrigento to control the area. The population declined during much of the medieval period but revived somewhat after the 18th century. In 1860, as in the rest of Sicily, the inhabitants supported the arrival of Giuseppe Garibaldi during the Expedition of the Thousand (one of the most dramatic events of the Unification of Italy) which marked the end of Bourbon rule.[12][13] In 1927, Benito Mussolini through the "Decree Law n. 159, July 12, 1927"[14] introduced the current Italianized version of the Latin name.[15] The decision remains controversial as a symbol of Fascism and the eradication of local history. Following the suggestion of Andrea Camilleri, a Sicilian writer of Agrigentine origin, the historic city centre was renamed to the Sicilian name "Girgenti" in 2016.[16] The city suffered a number of destructive bombing raids during World War II. Economy[edit] Agrigento is a major tourist centre due to its extraordinarily rich archaeological legacy. It also serves as an agricultural centre for the surrounding region. Sulphur and potash were mined locally from Minoan times until the 1970s, and were exported worldwide from the nearby harbour of Porto Empedocle (named after the philosopher Empedocles, who lived in ancient Akragas). In 2010, the unemployment rate in Agrigento was 19.2%,[17] almost twice the national average. Government[edit] See also: List of mayors of Agrigento Main sights[edit] Main article: Valle dei Templi Ancient Akragas covers a huge area—much of which is still unexcavated today—but is exemplified by the famous Valle dei Templi ("Valley of the Temples", a misnomer, as it is a ridge, rather than a valley). This comprises a large sacred area on the south side of the ancient city where seven monumental Greek temples in the Doric style were constructed during the 6th and 5th centuries BC. Now excavated and partially restored, they constitute some of the largest and best-preserved ancient Greek buildings outside of Greece itself. They are listed as a World Heritage Site. The best-preserved of the temples are two very similar buildings traditionally attributed to the goddesses Hera Lacinia and Concordia (though archaeologists believe this attribution to be incorrect). The latter temple is remarkably intact, due to its having been converted into a Christian church in 597 AD. Both were constructed to a peripteral hexastyle design. The area around the Temple of Concordia was later re-used by early Christians as a catacomb, with tombs hewn out of the rocky cliffs and outcrops. Temple of Hera. Temple of Concordia, Agrigento The other temples are much more fragmentary, having been toppled by earthquakes long ago and quarried for their stones. The largest by far is the Temple of Olympian Zeus, built to commemorate the Battle of Himera in 480 BC: it is believed to have been the largest Doric temple ever built. Although it was apparently used, it appears never to have been completed; construction was abandoned after the Carthaginian invasion of 406 BC. St Lawrence Church. The remains of the temple were extensively quarried in the 18th century to build the jetties of Porto Empedocle. Temples dedicated to Hephaestus, Heracles and Asclepius were also constructed in the sacred area, which includes a sanctuary of Demeter and Persephone (formerly known as the Temple of Castor and Pollux); the marks of the fires set by the Carthaginians in 406 BC can still be seen on the sanctuary's stones. Porta di Ponte. Palace of the Giants and the Church of San Domenico. Many other Hellenistic and Roman sites can be found in and around the town. These include a pre-Hellenic cave sanctuary near a Temple of Demeter, over which the Church of San Biagio was built. A late Hellenistic funerary monument erroneously labelled the "Tomb of Theron" is situated just outside the sacred area, and a 1st-century AD heroon (heroic shrine) adjoins the 13th century Church of San Nicola a short distance to the north. A sizeable area of the Greco-Roman city has also been excavated, and several classical necropoleis and quarries are still extant. Much of present-day Agrigento is modern but it still retains a number of medieval and Baroque buildings. These include the 14th century cathedral and the 13th century Church of Santa Maria dei Greci ("St. Mary of the Greeks"), again standing on the site of an ancient Greek temple (hence the name). The town also has a notable archaeological museum displaying finds from the ancient city. People[edit] Empedocles (5th Century BC), the Ancient Greek pre-Socratic philosopher, was a citizen of ancient Akragas. Tellias (Ancient Greek: Τελλίας) of Akragas, described in ancient sources as a hospitable man; when 500 horsemen were billeted with him during the winter, he gave each a tunic and cloak.[18][19] Tigellinus (born c10 AD), a Prefect of the Praetorian Guard and infamous associate of the Emperor Nero, belonged to a family of Greek descent in Agrigento - although he may have been born in Scyllaceum in Southern Italy, where his father is supposed to have lived in exile.[20] Paolo Girgenti (1767–1815), a painter active in Naples who served as president of the Accademia di Belle Arti di Napoli, was born in Agrigento. Luigi Pirandello (1867-1936), dramatist and Nobel prize winner for literature, was born at contrada u Càvusu in Agrigento. Vinnie Paz (b 1977), the Italian-American rapper and lyricist behind Philadelphia underground hip-hop group Jedi Mind Tricks. Larry Page (b 1973), co-founder of Google, became an honorary citizen of Agrigento on August 4, 2017.[21] International relations[edit] See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Italy Agrigento is twinned with: Tampa, Florida (United States)[22] Valenciennes, France[citation needed] Perm, Russia[23][24] See also[edit] Battle of Agrigentum (456) References[edit] ^ "Superficie di Comuni Province e Regioni italiane al 9 ottobre 2011". Istat. Retrieved 16 March 2019. ^ "Popolazione Residente al 1° Gennaio 2018". Istat. Retrieved 16 March 2019. ^ Hooke, N. (1818). The Roman history, from the building of Rome to the ruin of the commonwealth... New ed. Printed for F.C. and J. Rivington. p. 17. Retrieved 2014-10-10. ^ Lemprière, J. (1842). A Classical Dictionary: Containing a Full Account of All the Proper Names Mentioned in Ancient Authors, with Tables of Coins, Weights, and Measures, in Use Among the Greeks and Romans. To which is Now Prefixed, a Chronological Table. T. Allman. p. 26. Retrieved 2014-10-10. ^ Royal Institution of Great Britain (1828). Quarterly Journal of Science, Literature, and the Arts. James Eastburn. p. 98. Retrieved 2014-10-10. ^ Maynard, J. (2005). The Light of Alexandria. Lulu Enterprises Incorporated. p. 35. ISBN 9781411653351. Retrieved 2014-10-10. ^ Rollin, C.; Bell, J. (1870). The ancient history of the Egyptians, Carthaginians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Medes and Persians, Grecians and Macedonians: including a history of the arts and sciences of the ancients. Harper & Brothers. p. 286. Retrieved 2014-10-10. ^ The Book of Greek and Roman Folktales, Legends, and Myths. 14 February 2017. ISBN 9781400884674. ^ Ring, Trudy; Salkin, Robert M.; Boda, Sharon La (1 January 1994). International Dictionary of Historic Places: Southern Europe. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781884964022. Retrieved 19 September 2016 – via Google Books. ^ Hornblower, Simon (6 January 2005). A Commentary on Thucydides: Books IV-V.24. Clarendon Press. ISBN 9780199276257. Retrieved 19 September 2016 – via Google Books. ^ Sicilia, Esplora. "La Storia di Agrigento - Sicilia". Archived from the original on 16 October 2017. Retrieved 19 September 2016. ^ "Expedition of the Thousand: Italian campaign". Retrieved 19 September 2016. ^ "Garibaldi and the 1,000". Retrieved 19 September 2016 – via The Economist. ^ "Augusto - Automazione Gazzetta Ufficiale Storica". Archived from the original on 31 October 2016. Retrieved 19 September 2016. ^ "AGRIGENTO in "Enciclopedia Italiana"". Archived from the original on 26 October 2019. Retrieved 19 September 2016. ^ "Agrigento, ritorno al passatoIl sindaco: si chiamerà Girgenti (ma solo nel centro storico)". Corriere della Sera (in Italian). Retrieved 2018-12-03. ^ "Agrigento, investimenti al palo". Il Sole 24 ORE. 2 April 2011. Retrieved 2013-03-25. ^ Suda Encyclopedia, tau.272 ^ Suda Encyclopedia, al.731 ^ Ofonius Tigellinus Livius.org: [1] ^ "Larry Page di Google cittadino onorario di Agrigento - Tlc". ANSA.it (in Italian). 2017-08-04. Retrieved 2017-09-27. ^ "Tampa Sister Cities from City of Tampa website". Tampagov.net. Archived from the original on 2007-10-18. Retrieved 2011-04-17. ^ "Agrigento e Perm in festa per la Settimana Russa". Russia Beyond the Headlines. Retrieved May 28, 2017. ^ "Twin Cities of Perm". Sources[edit] "Acragas" The Concise Oxford Companion to Classical Literature. Ed. M.C. Howatson and Ian Chilvers. Oxford University Press, 1996. "Agrigento", The Columbia Encyclopædia. Columbia University Press, 2004 "Agrigento" Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names. John Everett-Heath. Oxford University Press 2005 "Agrigento" Encyclopædia Britannica, 2006 External links[edit] Agrigentoat Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons Travel guide from Wikivoyage Data from Wikidata Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Agrigentum. Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Girgenti. Yair Karelic's photos of the Valley of the Temples Agrigento Old Town v t e Sicily · Comuni of the Province of Agrigento Agrigento Alessandria della Rocca Aragona Bivona Burgio Calamonaci Caltabellotta Camastra Cammarata Campobello di Licata Canicattì Casteltermini Castrofilippo Cattolica Eraclea Cianciana Comitini Favara Grotte Joppolo Giancaxio Lampedusa e Linosa Licata Lucca Sicula Menfi Montallegro Montevago Naro Palma di Montechiaro Porto Empedocle Racalmuto Raffadali Ravanusa Realmonte Ribera Sambuca di Sicilia San Biagio Platani San Giovanni Gemini Sant'Angelo Muxaro Santa Elisabetta Santa Margherita di Belice Santo Stefano Quisquina Sciacca Siculiana Villafranca Sicula v t e Archaeological sites in Sicily Province of Agrigento Heraclea Minoa Akragas Valle dei Templi - Temple of Concordia - Temple of Heracles - Temple of Juno - Temple of Olympian Zeus Province of Caltanissetta Gela Bosco Littorio Greek baths of Gela Gibil Gabib Monte Bubbonia Polizzello archaeological site 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en-wikipedia-org-9847	----	Brazil - Wikipedia Brazil From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the country in South America. For other uses, see Brazil (disambiguation). Largest country in South America Coordinates: 10°S 52°W / 10°S 52°W / -10; -52 Federative Republic of Brazil República Federativa do Brasil  (Portuguese) Flag Coat of arms Motto: Ordem e Progresso (Portuguese) "Order and Progress" Anthem: "Hino Nacional Brasileiro" (Portuguese) "Brazilian National Anthem" Flag anthem: "Hino à Bandeira Nacional" (Portuguese)[1] "National Flag Anthem" National seal Selo Nacional do Brasil National Seal of Brazil Capital Brasília 15°47′S 47°52′W / 15.783°S 47.867°W / -15.783; -47.867 Largest city São Paulo 23°33′S 46°38′W / 23.550°S 46.633°W / -23.550; -46.633 Official language and national language Portuguese[2] Ethnic groups (2010)[3] 47.73% White[nt 1] 43.13% Mixed[nt 2] 7.61% Black 1.09% Asian[nt 3] 0.43% Indigenous Religion (2010)[4][5] 88.8% Christianity —64.6% Roman Catholic —22.2% Protestant —2.0% Other Christian 8.0% No religion 2.0% Spiritism 1.2% Other religions Demonym(s) Brazilian Government Federal presidential constitutional republic • President Jair Bolsonaro • Vice President Hamilton Mourão • President of the Chamber of Deputies Rodrigo Maia • President of the Federal Senate Davi Alcolumbre • President of the Supreme Federal Court Luiz Fux Legislature National Congress • Upper house Federal Senate • Lower house Chamber of Deputies Independence from the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves • Declared 7 September 1822 • Recognized 29 August 1825 • Republic 15 November 1889 • Current constitution 5 October 1988 Area • Total 8,515,767 km2 (3,287,956 sq mi) (5th) • Water (%) 0.65 Population • 2019 estimate 210,147,125[6] (6th) • Density 25/km2 (64.7/sq mi) (200th) GDP (PPP) 2020 estimate • Total $3.078 trillion[7] (8th) • Per capita $14,563[7] (83rd) GDP (nominal) 2020 estimate • Total $1.363 trillion[7] (12th) • Per capita $6,450[7] (83rd) Gini (2018)  53.9[8] high · 10th HDI (2019)  0.765[9] high · 84th Currency Real (R$) (BRL) Time zone UTC−2 to −5 (BRT) Date format dd/mm/yyyy (CE) Driving side right Calling code +55 ISO 3166 code BR Internet TLD .br Brazil (Portuguese: Brasil; Brazilian Portuguese: [bɾaˈziw]),[nt 4] officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: República Federativa do Brasil),[10] is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At 8.5 million square kilometers (3.2 million square miles)[11] and with over 211 million people, Brazil is the world's fifth-largest country by area and the sixth most populous. Its capital is Brasília, and its most populous city is São Paulo. The federation is composed of the union of the 26 states and the Federal District. It is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language and the only one in the Americas;[12][13] it is also one of the most multicultural and ethnically diverse nations, due to over a century of mass immigration from around the world;[14] as well as the most populous Roman Catholic-majority country. Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of 7,491 kilometers (4,655 mi).[15] It borders all other countries in South America except Ecuador and Chile and covers 47.3% of the continent's land area.[16] Its Amazon basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to diverse wildlife, a variety of ecological systems, and extensive natural resources spanning numerous protected habitats.[15] This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, and is the subject of significant global interest, environmental degradation through processes like deforestation has direct impacts on global issues like climate change and biodiversity loss. Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808 when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro. In 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, now called the National Congress. The country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup d'état. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, after which civilian governance resumed. Brazil's current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic.[17] Due to its rich culture and history, the country ranks thirteenth in the world by number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.[18] Brazil is classified as an upper-middle income economy by the World Bank[19] and a newly industrialized country,[20] with the largest share of global wealth in Latin America. It is considered an advanced emerging economy,[21] having the twelfth largest GDP in the world by nominal, and eighth by PPP measures.[22][23] It is one of the world's major breadbaskets, being the largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years.[24] Brazil is a regional power and sometimes considered a great[25][26][27] or a middle power in international affairs.[27][28][29][30][31][26] On account of its international recognition and influence, the country is subsequently classified as an emerging power[32] and a potential superpower by several analysts.[33][34][35] Brazil is a founding member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Mercosul, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States and the Community of Portuguese Language Countries. Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Pre-Cabraline era 2.2 Portuguese colonization 2.3 United Kingdom with Portugal 2.4 Independent empire 2.5 Early republic 2.6 Contemporary era 3 Geography 3.1 Climate 3.2 Biodiversity and environment 4 Government and politics 4.1 Law 4.2 Military 4.3 Foreign policy 4.4 Law enforcement and crime 4.5 Administrative divisions 5 Economy 5.1 Energy 5.2 Tourism 6 Infrastructure 6.1 Science and technology 6.2 Transport 6.3 Health 6.4 Education 6.5 Media and communication 7 Demographics 7.1 Race and ethnicity 7.2 Religion 7.3 Urbanization 7.4 Language 8 Culture 8.1 Architecture 8.2 Music 8.3 Literature 8.4 Cuisine 8.5 Cinema 8.6 Theatre 8.7 Visual arts 8.8 Sports 8.9 National holidays 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Bibliography 13 Further reading 14 External links Etymology Main article: Name of Brazil The word "Brazil" likely comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast.[36] In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology "red like an ember", formed from brasa ("ember") and the suffix -il (from -iculum or -ilium).[37] As brazilwood produces a deep red dye, it was highly valued by the European textile industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil.[38] Throughout the 16th century, massive amounts of brazilwood were harvested by indigenous peoples (mostly Tupi) along the Brazilian coast, who sold the timber to European traders (mostly Portuguese, but also French) in return for assorted European consumer goods.[39] The official Portuguese name of the land, in original Portuguese records, was the "Land of the Holy Cross" (Terra da Santa Cruz),[40] but European sailors and merchants commonly called it simply the "Land of Brazil" (Terra do Brasil) because of the brazilwood trade.[41] The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name. Some early sailors called it the "Land of Parrots".[42] In the Guarani language, an official language of Paraguay, Brazil is called "Pindorama". This was the name the indigenous population gave to the region, meaning "land of the palm trees".[43] History Main articles: History of Brazil and Timeline of Brazilian history Pre-Cabraline era Cave painting at Serra da Capivara National Park, one of the largest and oldest concentrations of prehistoric sites in the Americas.[44] Burial urn, Marajoara culture, American Museum of Natural History. That culture appeared to flourish between 400 AD and 1400 AD, based on archeological studies.[45] Some of the earliest human remains found in the Americas, Luzia Woman, were found in the area of Pedro Leopoldo, Minas Gerais and provide evidence of human habitation going back at least 11,000 years.[46][47] The earliest pottery ever found in the Western Hemisphere was excavated in the Amazon basin of Brazil and radiocarbon dated to 8,000 years ago (6000 BC). The pottery was found near Santarém and provides evidence that the tropical forest region supported a complex prehistoric culture.[48] The Marajoara culture flourished on Marajó in the Amazon delta from 400 CE to 1400 CE, developing sophisticated pottery, social stratification, large populations, mound building, and complex social formations such as chiefdoms.[45] Around the time of the Portuguese arrival, the territory of current day Brazil had an estimated indigenous population of 7 million people,[49] mostly semi-nomadic, who subsisted on hunting, fishing, gathering, and migrant agriculture. The indigenous population of Brazil comprised several large indigenous ethnic groups (e.g. the Tupis, Guaranis, Gês and Arawaks). The Tupí people were subdivided into the Tupiniquins and Tupinambás, and there were also many subdivisions of the other groups.[50] Before the arrival of the Europeans, the boundaries between these groups and their subgroups were marked by wars that arose from differences in culture, language and moral beliefs.[51] These wars also involved large-scale military actions on land and water, with cannibalistic rituals on prisoners of war.[52][53] While heredity had some weight, leadership status was more subdued over time, than allocated in succession ceremonies and conventions.[51] Slavery among the Indians had a different meaning than it had for Europeans, since it originated from a diverse socioeconomic organization, in which asymmetries were translated into kinship relations.[54] Portuguese colonization Main articles: Colonial Brazil, War of the Emboabas, and Inconfidência Mineira Representation of the landing of Pedro Álvares Cabral in Porto Seguro, 1500. Painting of 1922. The land now called Brazil was claimed for the Portuguese Empire on 22 April 1500, with the arrival of the Portuguese fleet commanded by Pedro Álvares Cabral.[55] The Portuguese encountered indigenous peoples divided into several tribes, most of whom spoke languages of the Tupi–Guarani family, and fought among themselves.[56] Though the first settlement was founded in 1532, colonization effectively began in 1534, when King John III of Portugal divided the territory into the fifteen private and autonomous Captaincy Colonies of Brazil.[57][58] However, the decentralized and unorganized tendencies of the captaincy colonies proved problematic, and in 1549 the Portuguese king restructured them into the Governorate General of Brazil in the city of Salvador, which became the capital of a single and centralized Portuguese colony in South America.[58][59] In the first two centuries of colonization, Indigenous and European groups lived in constant war, establishing opportunistic alliances in order to gain advantages against each other.[60][61][62][63] By the mid-16th century, cane sugar had become Brazil's most important export,[56][64] and slaves purchased in Sub-Saharan Africa, in the slave market of Western Africa[65] (not only those from Portuguese allies of their colonies in Angola and Mozambique), had become its largest import,[66][67] to cope with plantations of sugarcane, due to increasing international demand for Brazilian sugar.[68][69] Portuguese Brazil received more than 2.8 million slaves from Africa between the years of 1500 to 1800.[70] Painting showing the arrest of Tiradentes; he was sentenced to death for his involvement in the best known movement for independence in Colonial Brazil. Painting of 1914. By the end of the 17th century, sugarcane exports began to decline,[71] and the discovery of gold by bandeirantes in the 1690s would become the new backbone of the colony's economy, fostering a Brazilian Gold Rush[72] which attracted thousands of new settlers to Brazil from Portugal and all Portuguese colonies around the world.[73] This increased level of immigration in turn caused some conflicts between newcomers and old settlers.[74] Portuguese expeditions known as Bandeiras gradually advanced the Portugal colonial original frontiers in South America to approximately the current Brazilian borders.[75][76] In this era other European powers tried to colonize parts of Brazil, in incursions that the Portuguese had to fight, notably the French in Rio during the 1560s, in Maranhão during the 1610s, and the Dutch in Bahia and Pernambuco, during the Dutch–Portuguese War, after the end of Iberian Union.[77] The Portuguese colonial administration in Brazil had two objectives that would ensure colonial order and the monopoly of Portugal's wealthiest and largest colony: to keep under control and eradicate all forms of slave rebellion and resistance, such as the Quilombo of Palmares,[78] and to repress all movements for autonomy or independence, such as the Minas Conspiracy.[79] United Kingdom with Portugal Main article: United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves The Acclamation of King João VI of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves in Rio de Janeiro, 6 February 1818 In late 1807, Spanish and Napoleonic forces threatened the security of continental Portugal, causing Prince Regent João, in the name of Queen Maria I, to move the royal court from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro.[80] There they established some of Brazil's first financial institutions, such as its local stock exchanges,[81] and its National Bank, additionally ending the Portuguese monopoly on Brazilian trade and opening Brazil to other nations. In 1809, in retaliation for being forced into exile, the Prince Regent ordered the Portuguese conquest of French Guiana.[82] With the end of the Peninsular War in 1814, the courts of Europe demanded that Queen Maria I and Prince Regent João return to Portugal, deeming it unfit for the head of an ancient European monarchy to reside in a colony. In 1815, to justify continuing to live in Brazil, where the royal court had thrived for six years, the Crown established the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarves, thus creating a pluricontinental transatlantic monarchic state.[83] However, the leadership in Portugal, resentful of the new status of its larger colony, continued to demand the return of the court to Lisbon (v. Liberal Revolution of 1820). In 1821, acceding to the demands of revolutionaries who had taken the city of Porto,[84] D. João VI departed for Lisbon. There he swore an oath to the new constitution, leaving his son, Prince Pedro de Alcântara, as Regent of the Kingdom of Brazil.[85] Independent empire Main articles: Independence of Brazil and Empire of Brazil Declaration of the Brazilian independence by Prince Pedro (later Emperor Pedro I) on 7 September 1822. Tensions between Portuguese and Brazilians increased, and the Portuguese Cortes, guided by the new political regime imposed by the 1820 Liberal Revolution, tried to re-establish Brazil as a colony.[86] The Brazilians refused to yield, and Prince Pedro decided to stand with them, declaring the country's independence from Portugal on 7 September 1822.[87] A month later, Prince Pedro was declared the first Emperor of Brazil, with the royal title of Dom Pedro I, resulting in the foundation of the Empire of Brazil.[88] The Brazilian War of Independence, which had already begun along this process, spread through the northern, northeastern regions and in Cisplatina province.[89] The last Portuguese soldiers surrendered on 8 March 1824;[90] Portugal officially recognized Brazil on 29 August 1825.[91] On 7 April 1831, worn down by years of administrative turmoil and political dissent with both liberal and conservative sides of politics, including an attempt of republican secession,[92] and unreconciled to the way that absolutists in Portugal had given in the succession of King John VI, Pedro I went to Portugal to reclaim his daughter's crown, abdicating the Brazilian throne in favor of his five-year-old son and heir (who thus became the Empire's second monarch, with the royal title of Dom Pedro II).[93] Pedro II, Emperor of Brazil between 1831 and 1889. As the new Emperor could not exert his constitutional powers until he came of age, a regency was set up by the National Assembly.[94] In the absence of a charismatic figure who could represent a moderate face of power, during this period a series of localized rebellions took place, such as the Cabanagem in Grão-Pará Province, the Malê Revolt in Salvador da Bahia, the Balaiada (Maranhão), the Sabinada (Bahia), and the Ragamuffin War, which began in Rio Grande do Sul and was supported by Giuseppe Garibaldi. These emerged from the dissatisfaction of the provinces with the central power, coupled with old and latent social tensions peculiar to a vast, slaveholding and newly independent nation state.[95] This period of internal political and social upheaval, which included the Praieira revolt in Pernambuco, was overcome only at the end of the 1840s, years after the end of the regency, which occurred with the premature coronation of Pedro II in 1841.[96] During the last phase of the monarchy, internal political debate centered on the issue of slavery. The Atlantic slave trade was abandoned in 1850,[97] as a result of the British Aberdeen Act, but only in May 1888 after a long process of internal mobilization and debate for an ethical and legal dismantling of slavery in the country, was the institution formally abolished.[98] The foreign-affairs policies of the monarchy dealt with issues with the countries of the Southern Cone with whom Brazil had borders. Long after the Cisplatine War that resulted in independence for Uruguay,[99] Brazil won three international wars during the 58-year reign of Pedro II. These were the Platine War, the Uruguayan War and the devastating Paraguayan War, the largest war effort in Brazilian history.[100][101] Although there was no desire among the majority of Brazilians to change the country's form of government,[102] on 15 November 1889, in disagreement with the majority of Army officers, as well as with rural and financial elites (for different reasons), the monarchy was overthrown by a military coup.[103] 15 November is now Republic Day, a national holiday.[104] Early republic Main articles: First Brazilian Republic, Vargas Era § Estado Novo, and Second Brazilian Republic Proclamation of the Republic, 1893, oil on canvas by Benedito Calixto. The early republican government was nothing more than a military dictatorship, with army dominating affairs both in Rio de Janeiro and in the states. Freedom of the press disappeared and elections were controlled by those in power.[105] Not until 1894, following an economic crisis and a military one, did civilians take power, remaining there until October 1930.[106][107][108] If in relation to its foreign policy, the country in this first republican period maintained a relative balance characterized by a success in resolving border disputes with neighboring countries,[109] only broken by the Acre War (1899–1902) and its involvement in World War I (1914–1918),[110][111][112] followed by a failed attempt to exert a prominent role in the League of Nations;[113] Internally, from the crisis of Encilhamento[114][115][116] and the Armada Revolts,[117] a prolonged cycle of financial, political and social instability began until the 1920s, keeping the country besieged by various rebellions, both civilian[118][119][120] and military.[121][122][123] In half of the first 100 years of republic, the Army exercised power directly or through figures like Getúlio Vargas (center). Soldiers of the Brazilian Expeditionary Force greet Italian civilians in Massarosa, during World War II. Brazil was the only independent Latin American country to send ground troops to fight in WWII. Little by little, a cycle of general instability sparked by these crises undermined the regime to such an extent that in the wake of the murder of his running mate, the defeated opposition presidential candidate Getúlio Vargas, supported by most of the military, successfully led the October 1930 Coup.[124][125] Vargas and the military were supposed to assume power temporarily, but instead closed the Congress, extinguished the Constitution, ruled with emergency powers and replaced the states' governors with their own supporters.[126][127] In the 1930s, three failed attempts to remove Vargas and his supporters from power occurred. The first was the Constitutionalist Revolution in 1932, led by the Paulista oligarchy. The second was a Communist uprising in November 1935, and the last one a putsch attempt by local fascists in May 1938.[128][129][130] The 1935 uprising created a security crisis in which the Congress transferred more power to the executive. The 1937 coup d'état resulted in the cancellation of the 1938 election, formalized Vargas as dictator, beginning the Estado Novo era, which was noted for government brutality and censorship of the press.[131] Foreign policy during the Vargas years was marked by the antecedents[clarification needed] and World War II. Brazil remained neutral until August 1942, when the country entered on the allied side,[132][133] after suffering retaliation by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, in a strategic dispute over the South Atlantic.[134] In addition to its participation in the battle of the Atlantic, Brazil also sent an expeditionary force to fight in the Italian campaign.[135] With the Allied victory in 1945 and the end of the Nazi-fascist regimes in Europe, Vargas's position became unsustainable and he was swiftly overthrown in another military coup, with democracy "reinstated" by the same army that had ended it 15 years earlier.[136] Vargas committed suicide in August 1954 amid a political crisis, after having returned to power by election in 1950.[137][138] Contemporary era Main articles: Military dictatorship in Brazil and History of Brazil since 1985 Several brief interim governments followed Vargas's suicide.[139] Juscelino Kubitschek became president in 1956 and assumed a conciliatory posture towards the political opposition that allowed him to govern without major crises.[140] The economy and industrial sector grew remarkably,[141] but his greatest achievement was the construction of the new capital city of Brasília, inaugurated in 1960.[142] Construction of the building of National Congress of Brazil in Brasília, the new capital, 1959. M41s along the Avenida Presidente Vargas during the military government. Kubitschek's successor, Jânio Quadros, resigned in 1961 less than a year after taking office.[143] His vice-president, João Goulart, assumed the presidency, but aroused strong political opposition[144] and was deposed in April 1964 by a coup that resulted in a military regime.[145] The new regime was intended to be transitory[146] but gradually closed in on itself and became a full dictatorship with the promulgation of the Fifth Institutional Act in 1968.[147] Oppression was not limited to those who resorted to guerrilla tactics to fight the regime, but also reached institutional opponents, artists, journalists and other members of civil society,[148][149] inside and outside the country through the infamous "Operation Condor".[150][151] Despite its brutality, like other authoritarian regimes, due to an economic boom, known as an "economic miracle", the regime reached a peak in popularity in the early 1970s.[152] Slowly, however, the wear and tear of years of dictatorial power that had not slowed the repression, even after the defeat of the leftist guerrillas,[153] plus the inability to deal with the economic crises of the period and popular pressure, made an opening policy inevitable, which from the regime side was led by Generals Ernesto Geisel and Golbery do Couto e Silva.[154] With the enactment of the Amnesty Law in 1979, Brazil began a slow return to democracy, which was completed during the 1980s.[96] Civilians returned to power in 1985 when José Sarney assumed the presidency. He became unpopular during his tenure through failure to control the economic crisis and hyperinflation he inherited from the military regime.[155] Sarney's unsuccessful government led to the election in 1989 of the almost-unknown Fernando Collor, subsequently impeached by the National Congress in 1992.[156] Collor was succeeded by his vice-president, Itamar Franco, who appointed Fernando Henrique Cardoso Minister of Finance. In 1994, Cardoso produced a highly successful Plano Real,[157] that, after decades of failed economic plans made by previous governments attempting to curb hyperinflation, finally stabilized the Brazilian economy.[158][159] Cardoso won the 1994 election, and again in 1998.[160] Ulysses Guimarães holding the Constitution of 1988 in his hands. Protesters climbed the National Congress during the massive 2013 protests. The peaceful transition of power from Cardoso to his main opposition leader, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva (elected in 2002 and re-elected in 2006), was seen as proof that Brazil had achieved a long-sought political stability.[161][162] However, sparked by indignation and frustrations accumulated over decades from corruption, police brutality, inefficiencies of the political establishment and public service, numerous peaceful protests erupted in Brazil from the middle of first term of Dilma Rousseff, who had succeeded Lula after winning election in 2010.[163][164] Rousseff was impeached by the Brazilian Congress in 2016.[165][166] Large street protests for and against her took place during the impeachment process.[167] The charges against her were fueled by political and economic crises along with evidence of involvement with politicians (from all the primary political parties) in several bribery and tax evasion schemes.[168][169] In 2017, the Supreme Court requested the investigation of 71 Brazilian lawmakers and nine ministers of President Michel Temer's cabinet who were allegedly linked to the Petrobras corruption scandal.[170] President Temer himself was also accused of corruption.[171] According to a 2018 poll, 62% of the population said that corruption was Brazil's biggest problem.[172] Starting in 2013, there is a total change in Brazilian politics, with the overthrow of the left and the rise of conservatism in right. With the discovery that the PT governments have practically gone bankrupt in Petrobras,[173] Correios[174] and many other state companies, through a great diversion of public funds and the use of their funds to bribe the National Congress, the Brazilian Senate and Judiciary, in addition to the indiscriminate use of BNDES to finance socialist dictatorships in Cuba, Venezuela, Latin America, Africa and the Middle East[175] (with Lula and Dilma openly supporting controversial figures such as Hugo Chávez,[176] Nicolás Maduro,[177] Mahmoud Ahmadinejad,[178] Evo Morales,[179] Vladimir Putin,[180] Kim Jong-un and the Chinese Communist Party,[181] among others), also counting on the attempts of Dilma Roussef to install "Popular Councils" to replace the power of the federal deputies,[182] Jair Bolsonaro, former captain of the army and candidate of the right, is elected.[183] Through the Operation Car Wash, the Federal Police of Brazil has since acted on the deviations and corruption of the PT and allied parties at that time. In the 2018 elections, candidate Jair Bolsonaro of the Social Liberal Party (PSL) was elected president, who won in the second round Fernando Haddad, of the Workers Party (PT), with the support of 55.13% of the valid votes.[184] Geography Main article: Geography of Brazil Topographic map of Brazil Brazil occupies a large area along the eastern coast of South America and includes much of the continent's interior,[185] sharing land borders with Uruguay to the south; Argentina and Paraguay to the southwest; Bolivia and Peru to the west; Colombia to the northwest; and Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and France (French overseas region of French Guiana) to the north. It shares a border with every South American country except Ecuador and Chile.[15] It also encompasses a number of oceanic archipelagos, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz.[15] Its size, relief, climate, and natural resources make Brazil geographically diverse.[185] Including its Atlantic islands, Brazil lies between latitudes 6°N and 34°S, and longitudes 28° and 74°W.[15] Brazil is the fifth largest country in the world, and third largest in the Americas, with a total area of 8,515,767.049 km2 (3,287,956 sq mi),[186] including 55,455 km2 (21,411 sq mi) of water.[15] It spans four time zones; from UTC−5 comprising the state of Acre and the westernmost portion of Amazonas, to UTC−4 in the western states, to UTC−3 in the eastern states (the national time) and UTC−2 in the Atlantic islands.[187] Rock formations and the Dedo de Deus (God's Finger) peak in the background, Serra dos Órgãos National Park, Rio de Janeiro state Brazil is the longest country in the world, spanning 4,395 km (2,731 mi) from north to south. Brazil is also the only country in the world that has the equator and the Tropic of Capricorn running through it. Brazilian topography is also diverse and includes hills, mountains, plains, highlands, and scrublands. Much of the terrain lies between 200 metres (660 ft) and 800 metres (2,600 ft) in elevation.[188] The main upland area occupies most of the southern half of the country.[188] The northwestern parts of the plateau consist of broad, rolling terrain broken by low, rounded hills.[188] The southeastern section is more rugged, with a complex mass of ridges and mountain ranges reaching elevations of up to 1,200 metres (3,900 ft).[188] These ranges include the Mantiqueira and Espinhaço mountains and the Serra do Mar.[188] In the north, the Guiana Highlands form a major drainage divide, separating rivers that flow south into the Amazon Basin from rivers that empty into the Orinoco River system, in Venezuela, to the north. The highest point in Brazil is the Pico da Neblina at 2,994 metres (9,823 ft), and the lowest is the Atlantic Ocean.[15] Brazil has a dense and complex system of rivers, one of the world's most extensive, with eight major drainage basins, all of which drain into the Atlantic.[189] Major rivers include the Amazon (the world's second-longest river and the largest in terms of volume of water), the Paraná and its major tributary the Iguaçu (which includes the Iguazu Falls), the Negro, São Francisco, Xingu, Madeira and Tapajós rivers.[189] Climate Main article: Climate of Brazil Brazil map of Köppen climate classification zones The climate of Brazil comprises a wide range of weather conditions across a large area and varied topography, but most of the country is tropical.[15] According to the Köppen system, Brazil hosts six major climatic subtypes: desert, equatorial, tropical, semiarid, oceanic and subtropical. The different climatic conditions produce environments ranging from equatorial rainforests in the north and semiarid deserts in the northeast, to temperate coniferous forests in the south and tropical savannas in central Brazil.[190] Many regions have starkly different microclimates.[191][192] An equatorial climate characterizes much of northern Brazil. There is no real dry season, but there are some variations in the period of the year when most rain falls.[190] Temperatures average 25 °C (77 °F),[192] with more significant temperature variation between night and day than between seasons.[191] Over central Brazil rainfall is more seasonal, characteristic of a savanna climate.[191] This region is as extensive as the Amazon basin but has a very different climate as it lies farther south at a higher altitude.[190] In the interior northeast, seasonal rainfall is even more extreme.[193] The semiarid climatic region generally receives less than 800 millimetres (31.5 in) of rain,[193] most of which generally falls in a period of three to five months of the year[194] and occasionally less than this, creating long periods of drought.[191] Brazil's 1877–78 Grande Seca (Great Drought), the worst in Brazil's history,[195] caused approximately half a million deaths.[196] A similarly devastating drought occurred in 1915.[197] South of Bahia, near the coasts, and more southerly most of the state of São Paulo, the distribution of rainfall changes, with rain falling throughout the year.[190] The south enjoys subtropical conditions, with cool winters and average annual temperatures not exceeding 18 °C (64.4 °F);[192] winter frosts and snowfall are not rare in the highest areas.[190][191] Biodiversity and environment Main articles: Wildlife of Brazil, Deforestation in Brazil, and Conservation in Brazil Female pantanal jaguar in Piquirí River, Pantanal Golden lion tamarin, an endemic animal of Brazil, in the Poço das Antas Biological Reserve The Amazon rainforest, the most biodiverse rainforest in the world Brazil's large territory comprises different ecosystems, such as the Amazon rainforest, recognized as having the greatest biological diversity in the world,[198] with the Atlantic Forest and the Cerrado, sustaining the greatest biodiversity.[199] In the south, the Araucaria pine forest grows under temperate conditions.[199] The rich wildlife of Brazil reflects the variety of natural habitats. Scientists estimate that the total number of plant and animal species in Brazil could approach four million, mostly invertebrates.[199] Larger mammals include carnivores pumas, jaguars, ocelots, rare bush dogs, and foxes, and herbivores peccaries, tapirs, anteaters, sloths, opossums, and armadillos. Deer are plentiful in the south, and many species of New World monkeys are found in the northern rain forests.[199][200] Concern for the environment has grown in response to global interest in environmental issues.[201] Brazil's Amazon Basin is home to an extremely diverse array of fish species, including the red-bellied piranha. By 2013, Brazil's "dramatic policy-driven reduction in Amazon Basin deforestation" was a "global exception in terms of forest change", according to scientific journal Science.[202]:852 From 2003 to 2011, compared to all other countries in the world, Brazil had the "largest decline in annual forest loss", as indicated in the study using high-resolution satellite maps showing global forest cover changes.[202]:850 The annual loss of forest cover decreased from a 2003/2004 record high of more than 40,000 square kilometres (4,000×10^3 ha; 9.9×10^6 acres; 15,000 sq mi) to a 2010/2011 low of under 20,000 square kilometres (2,000×10^3 ha; 4.9×10^6 acres; 7,700 sq mi),[202]:850 reversing widespread deforestation[202]:852 from the 1970s to 2003. However, in 2019, when the Bolsonaro government came to power, the rate of deforestation of the Amazon rainforest increased sharply threatening to reach a tipping point after it the forest will collapse, having severe consequences for the world (see Tipping points in the climate system) and possibly complicating the trade agreement with the European Union.[203] According to a 2008 GreenPeace article, the natural heritage of Brazil is severely threatened by cattle ranching and agriculture, logging, mining, resettlement, oil and gas extraction, over-fishing, wildlife trade, dams and infrastructure, water pollution, climate change, fire, and invasive species.[198] In many areas of the country, the natural environment is threatened by development.[204] The construction of highways has opened up previously remote areas for agriculture and settlement; dams have flooded valleys and inundated wildlife habitats; and mines have scarred and polluted the landscape.[201][205] At least 70 dams are said to be planned for the Amazon region, including the controversial Belo Monte hydroelectric dam.[206] In summer 2019, 2 states in Brazil Paraná and Santa Catarina banned fracking, what it is expected to have positive effects on the climate and water quality, because the shale gas and shale oil reserves in the state of Parana are the larger in the southern hemisphere.[207][208] In 2020 the government of Brazil pledged to reduce its annual Greenhouse Gases emissions by 43% by 2030. It also set as indicative target of reaching carbon neutrality by the year 2060 if the country gets 10 billion dollars per year.[209] Government and politics Main articles: Politics of Brazil, Federal government of Brazil, and Elections in Brazil Palácio do Planalto ("Plateau Palace"), the official workplace of the President of Brazil. The form of government is a democratic federative republic, with a presidential system.[17] The president is both head of state and head of government of the Union and is elected for a four-year term,[17] with the possibility of re-election for a second successive term. The current president is Jair Bolsonaro. The previous president, Michel Temer, replaced Dilma Rousseff after her impeachment.[210] The President appoints the Ministers of State, who assist in government.[17] Legislative houses in each political entity are the main source of law in Brazil. The National Congress is the Federation's bicameral legislature, consisting of the Chamber of Deputies and the Federal Senate. Judiciary authorities exercise jurisdictional duties almost exclusively. Brazil is a democracy, according to the Democracy Index 2010.[211] The political-administrative organization of the Federative Republic of Brazil comprises the Union, the states, the Federal District, and the municipalities.[17] The Union, the states, the Federal District, and the municipalities, are the "spheres of government". The federation is set on five fundamental principles:[17] sovereignty, citizenship, dignity of human beings, the social values of labor and freedom of enterprise, and political pluralism. The classic tripartite branches of government (executive, legislative and judicial under a checks and balances system) are formally established by the Constitution.[17] The executive and legislative are organized independently in all three spheres of government, while the judiciary is organized only at the federal and state and Federal District spheres. National Congress, seat of the legislative branch. All members of the executive and legislative branches are directly elected.[212][213][214] Judges and other judicial officials are appointed after passing entry exams.[212] For most of its democratic history, Brazil has had a multi-party system, proportional representation. Voting is compulsory for the literate between 18 and 70 years old and optional for illiterates and those between 16 and 18 or beyond 70.[17] Together with several smaller parties, four political parties stand out: Workers' Party (PT), Brazilian Social Democracy Party (PSDB), Brazilian Democratic Movement (MDB) and Democrats (DEM). Fifteen political parties are represented in Congress. It is common for politicians to switch parties, and thus the proportion of congressional seats held by particular parties changes regularly.[215] Almost all governmental and administrative functions are exercised by authorities and agencies affiliated to the Executive. The country has more than 40 active political parties, and only one of them defines itself as a right-wing party (PSL), with a clear political imbalance. The country has several far-left parties like PSOL, PCO, PSTU, PCB, PC do B, left parties like PT, PSB, PDT, PV, Rede and Solidariedade and center-left like PSDB, DEM, PMN and Cidadania. Ten parties declare themselves as the center: MDB, PL, PSD, PTC, DC, PROS, Avante, Patriota, Podemos and PMB. Five parties declare themselves as center-right: PTB, Progressistas, PSC, PRTB and Republicanos. The only party that claims to be purely liberal, without further consideration, is Novo. When asked about their ideological spectrum, Brazilian parties tend to give obtuse and non-conclusive answers on the subject.[216] Law Main articles: Law of Brazil, Law enforcement in Brazil, and Crime in Brazil Supreme Federal Court of Brazil serves primarily as the Constitutional Court of the country Brazilian law is based on the civil law legal system[217] and civil law concepts prevail over common law practice. Most of Brazilian law is codified, although non-codified statutes also represent a substantial part, playing a complementary role. Court decisions set out interpretive guidelines; however, they are seldom binding on other specific cases. Doctrinal works and the works of academic jurists have strong influence in law creation and in law cases. The legal system is based on the Federal Constitution, promulgated on 5 October 1988, and the fundamental law of Brazil. All other legislation and court decisions must conform to its rules.[218] As of April 2007[update], there have been 53 amendments. States have their own constitutions, which must not contradict the Federal Constitution.[219] Municipalities and the Federal District have "organic laws" (leis orgânicas), which act in a similar way to constitutions.[220] Legislative entities are the main source of statutes, although in certain matters judiciary and executive bodies may enact legal norms.[17] Jurisdiction is administered by the judiciary entities, although in rare situations the Federal Constitution allows the Federal Senate to pass on legal judgments.[17] There are also specialized military, labor, and electoral courts.[17] The highest court is the Supreme Federal Court. This system has been criticized over the last few decades for the slow pace of decision-making. Lawsuits on appeal may take several years to resolve, and in some cases more than a decade elapses before definitive rulings.[221] Nevertheless, the Supreme Federal Tribunal was the first court in the world to transmit its sessions on television, and also via YouTube.[222][223] More recently, in December 2009, the Supreme Court adopted Twitter to display items on the day planner of the ministers, to inform the daily actions of the Court and the most important decisions made by them.[224] Military Main article: Brazilian Armed Forces Brazilian Air Force Saab Gripen NG Brazilian Army Astros 2020 Brazilian Navy's flagship PHM Atlântico The armed forces of Brazil are the largest in Latin America by active personnel and the largest in terms of military equipment.[225] It consists of the Brazilian Army (including the Army Aviation Command), the Brazilian Navy (including the Marine Corps and Naval Aviation), and the Brazilian Air Force. Brazil's conscription policy gives it one of the world's largest military forces, estimated at more than 1.6 million reservists annually.[226] Numbering close to 236,000 active personnel,[227] the Brazilian Army has the largest number of armored vehicles in South America, including armored transports and tanks.[228] It is also unique in Latin America for its large, elite forces specializing in unconventional missions, the Brazilian Special Operations Command,[229][230][231] and the versatile Strategic Rapid Action Force, made up of highly mobilized and prepared Special Operations Brigade, Infantry Brigade Parachutist,[232][233] 1st Jungle Infantry Battalion (Airmobile)[234] and 12th Brigade Light Infantry (Airmobile)[235] able to act anywhere in the country, on short notice, to counter external aggression.[236] The states' Military Police and the Military Firefighters Corps are described as an ancillary forces of the Army by the constitution, but are under the control of each state's governor.[17] Brazil's navy, the second-largest in the Americas, once operated some of the most powerful warships in the world with the two Minas Geraes-class dreadnoughts, which sparked a South American dreadnought race between Argentina, Brazil, and Chile.[237] Today, it is a green water force and has a group of specialized elite in retaking ships and naval facilities, GRUMEC, unit specially trained to protect Brazilian oil platforms along its coast.[238] It is the only navy in Latin America that operates an aircraft carrier, PHM Atlantico,[239] and one of the ten navies of the world to operate one.[228] The Air Force is the largest in Latin America and has about 700 manned aircraft in service and effective about 67,000 personnel.[240] Brazil has not been invaded since 1865 during the Paraguayan War.[241] Additionally, Brazil has no contested territorial disputes with any of its neighbors[242] and neither does it have rivalries, like Chile and Bolivia have with each other.[243][244] The Brazilian military has also three times intervened militarily to overthrow the Brazilian government.[245] It has built a tradition of participating in UN peacekeeping missions such as in Haiti, East Timor and Central African Republic.[246] Brazil signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.[247] Foreign policy Main article: Foreign relations of Brazil Itamaraty Palace, the seat of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Brazil's international relations are based on Article 4 of the Federal Constitution, which establishes non-intervention, self-determination, international cooperation and the peaceful settlement of conflicts as the guiding principles of Brazil's relationship with other countries and multilateral organizations.[248] According to the Constitution, the President has ultimate authority over foreign policy, while the Congress is tasked with reviewing and considering all diplomatic nominations and international treaties, as well as legislation relating to Brazilian foreign policy.[249] Brazil's foreign policy is a by-product of the country's position as a regional power in Latin America, a leader among developing countries, and an emerging world power.[250] Brazilian foreign policy has generally been based on the principles of multilateralism, peaceful dispute settlement, and non-intervention in the affairs of other countries.[251] Brazil is a founding member state of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), also known as the Lusophone Commonwealth, an international organization and political association of Lusophone nations across four continents, where Portuguese is an official language. An increasingly well-developed tool of Brazil's foreign policy is providing aid as a donor to other developing countries.[252] Brazil does not just use its growing economic strength to provide financial aid, but it also provides high levels of expertise and most importantly of all, a quiet non-confrontational diplomacy to improve governance levels.[252] Total aid is estimated to be around $1 billion per year, which includes:[252] Diplomatic missions of Brazil technical cooperation of around $480 million ($30 million in 2010 provided directly by the Brazilian Cooperation Agency (ABC)); estimated $450 million for in-kind expertise provided by Brazilian institutions specializing in technical cooperation. In addition, Brazil manages a peacekeeping mission in Haiti ($350 million) and makes in-kind contributions to the World Food Programme ($300 million).[252] This is in addition to humanitarian assistance and contributions to multilateral development agencies. The scale of this aid places it on par with China and India.[252] The Brazilian South-South aid has been described as a "global model in waiting."[253] Law enforcement and crime Main articles: Law enforcement in Brazil and Crime in Brazil Field agents of the Federal Police's Tactical Operations Command. In Brazil, the Constitution establishes five different police agencies for law enforcement: Federal Police Department, Federal Highway Police, Federal Railroad Police, Military Police and Civil Police. Of these, the first three are affiliated with federal authorities and the last two are subordinate to state governments. All police forces are the responsibility of the executive branch of any of the federal or state powers.[17] The National Public Security Force also can act in public disorder situations arising anywhere in the country.[254] The country still has above-average levels of violent crime and particularly high levels of gun violence and homicide. In 2012, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated the number of 32 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants, one of the highest rates of homicide of the world.[255] The number considered tolerable by the WHO is about 10 homicides per 100,000 inhabitants.[256] In 2018, Brazil had a record 63,880 murders.[257] However, there are differences between the crime rates in the Brazilian states. While in São Paulo the homicide rate registered in 2013 was 10.8 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants, in Alagoas it was 64.7 homicides per 100,000 inhabitants.[258] Brazil also has high levels of incarceration and the third largest prison population in the world (behind only China and the United States), with an estimated total of approximately 700,000 prisoners around the country (June 2014), an increase of about 300% compared to the index registered in 1992.[259] The high number of prisoners eventually overloaded the Brazilian prison system, leading to a shortfall of about 200,000 accommodations.[260] Administrative divisions Main articles: States of Brazil and Municipalities of Brazil See also: Regions of Brazil Atlantic Ocean Pacific Ocean North Region Northeast Region Central-West Region Southeast Region South Region Acre Amazonas Pará Roraima Amapá Rondônia Tocantins Maranhão Bahia Piauí Ceará Rio Grande do Norte Paraíba Pernambuco Alagoas Sergipe Mato Grosso Mato Grosso do Sul Federal District Goiás Minas Gerais São Paulo Rio de Janeiro Espírito Santo Paraná Santa Catarina Rio Grande do Sul Argentina Bolivia Chile Colombia French Guiana Guyana Paraguay Peru Suriname Uruguay Venezuela States of Brazil and Regions of Brazil Brazil is a federation composed of 26 states, one federal district, and the 5570 municipalities.[17] States have autonomous administrations, collect their own taxes and receive a share of taxes collected by the Federal government. They have a governor and a unicameral legislative body elected directly by their voters. They also have independent Courts of Law for common justice. Despite this, states have much less autonomy to create their own laws than in the United States. For example, criminal and civil laws can be voted by only the federal bicameral Congress and are uniform throughout the country.[17] The states and the federal district may be grouped into regions: Northern, Northeast, Central-West, Southeast and Southern. The Brazilian regions are merely geographical, not political or administrative divisions, and they do not have any specific form of government. Although defined by law, Brazilian regions are useful mainly for statistical purposes, and also to define the distribution of federal funds in development projects. Municipalities, as the states, have autonomous administrations, collect their own taxes and receive a share of taxes collected by the Union and state government.[17] Each has a mayor and an elected legislative body, but no separate Court of Law. Indeed, a Court of Law organized by the state can encompass many municipalities in a single justice administrative division called comarca (county). Economy Main article: Economy of Brazil See also: Brazilian real, Agriculture in Brazil, Mining in Brazil, and Industry in Brazil Quotes panel in the interior of B3, in São Paulo, one of the top 20 stock exchanges by market capitalization. Soybean crop in Rondonópolis, Mato Grosso. Brazil is the second largest agricultural exporter in the world. The country is a major exporter of soy, maize, sugar, coffee, tobacco, cotton and fruit juices, among other agricultural products.[261] Iron mine in Minas Gerais. The country is the world's 2nd largest producer and exporter of iron ore Klabin complex in Paraná. Brazil is the 2nd largest producer of pulp and the 8th largest producer of paper, being a major pulp exporter Meat industry in Santa Catarina. The country is one of the world's top 5 producers of beef, chicken, pork and cow's milk, being a major meat exporter Shoe factory in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil is the 4th largest producer in the world, being an exporter of quality shoes Brazil is the largest national economy in Latin America, the world's ninth largest economy and the eighth largest in purchasing power parity (PPP) according to 2018 estimates. Brazil has a mixed economy with abundant natural resources. After rapid growth in preceding decades, the country entered an ongoing recession in 2014 amid a political corruption scandal and nationwide protests. Its Gross domestic product (PPP) per capita was $15,919 in 2017[262] putting Brazil in the 77th position according to IMF data. Active in agricultural, mining, manufacturing and service sectors Brazil has a labor force of over 107 million (ranking 6th worldwide) and unemployment of 6.2% (ranking 64th worldwide).[263] The country has been expanding its presence in international financial and commodities markets, and is one of a group of four emerging economies called the BRIC countries.[264] Brazil has been the world's largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years.[24] The country is a major exporter of soy, iron ore, pulp (cellulose), maize, beef, chicken meat, soybean meal, sugar, coffee, tobacco, cotton, orange juice, footwear, airplanes, cars, vehicle parts, gold, ethanol, semi-finished iron, among other products.[265][266] Brazil's diversified economy includes agriculture, industry, and a wide range of services.[267] Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry, logging and fishing accounted for 5.1% of the GDP in 2007.[268] Brazil is the largest producer of sugarcane, soy, coffee, orange, guaraná, açaí and Brazil nut; is one of the top 5 producers of maize, papaya, tobacco, pineapple, banana, cotton, beans, coconut, watermelon and lemon; is one of the top 10 world producers of cocoa, cashew, avocado, tangerine, persimmon, mango, guava, rice, sorghum and tomato; and is one of the top 15 world producers of grape, apple, melon, peanut, fig, peach, onion, palm oil and natural rubber.[a] The country also produces large quantities of potato,[300][301] carrot,[302] strawberry,[303] yerba mate,[304] wheat, among others. Part of the production is exported, and another part goes to the domestic market. In the production of animal proteins, Brazil is today one of the largest countries in the world. In 2019, the country was the world's largest exporter of chicken meat.[305][306] It was also the second largest producer of beef,[307] the world's third largest producer of milk,[308] the world's fourth largest producer of pork[309] and the seventh largest producer of eggs in the world.[310] In the mining sector, Brazil stands out in the extraction of iron ore (where it is the second world exporter), copper, gold, bauxite (one of the 5 largest producers in the world), manganese (one of the 5 largest producers in the world), tin (one of the largest producers in the world), niobium (concentrates 98% of reserves known to the world) and nickel. In terms of precious stones, Brazil is the world's largest producer of amethyst, topaz, agate and one of the main producers of tourmaline, emerald, aquamarine and garnet.[311][312][313][314][315][316] Industry in Brazil – from automobiles, steel and petrochemicals to computers, aircraft and consumer durables – accounted for 30.8% of the gross domestic product.[268] Industry is highly concentrated in metropolitan São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Campinas, Porto Alegre, and Belo Horizonte.[317] Brazil has become the fourth largest car market in the world.[318] Major export products include aircraft, electrical equipment, automobiles, ethanol, textiles, footwear, iron ore, steel, coffee, orange juice, soybeans and corned beef.[319] In total, Brazil ranks 23rd worldwide in value of exports. In the food industry, in 2019, Brazil was the second largest exporter of processed foods in the world.[320][321][322] In 2016, the country was the 2nd largest producer of pulp in the world and the 8th producer of paper.[323][324][325] In the footwear industry, in 2019, Brazil ranked 4th among world producers.[326][327][328][329] In 2019, the country was the 8th producer of vehicles and the 9th producer of steel in the world.[330][331][332] In 2018, the chemical industry of Brazil was the 8th in the world.[333][334][335] Although it was among the 5 largest world producers in 2013, Brazil's textile industry is very little integrated into world trade.[336] The representativeness of the tertiary sector (trade and services) was 75.8% of the country's GDP in 2018, according to the IBGE. The service sector was responsible for 60% of GDP and trade for 13%. It covers a wide range of activities: commerce, accommodation and catering, transport, communications, financial services, real estate activities and services provided to businesses, public administration (urban cleaning, sanitation, etc.) and other services such as education, social and health services, research and development, sports activities, etc., since it consists of activities complementary to other sectors. [337] [338] Micro and small businesses represent 30% of the country's GDP. In the commercial sector, for example, they represent 53% of the GDP within the activities of the sector.[339] In 2017, the number of people employed in commercial activities in Brazil was 10.2 million people (74.3% in retail trade, 17.0% in wholesale trade and 8.7% in trade of vehicles, parts and motorcycles). The number of commercial enterprises was 1.5 million and the number of stores 1.7 million. Business activity in the country generated R $ 3.4 trillion in net operating income (gross income minus deductions, such as cancellations, discounts and taxes) and R $ 583.7 billion in gross value added. The trade margin (defined as the difference between net income from resale and cost of goods sold) reached R $ 765.1 billion in 2017. Of this total, retail was responsible for 56.4%, the wholesale trade 36.0% and trade in vehicles, spare parts and motorcycles 7.6%. In 2017 net operating income, retail trade accounted for 45.5%, wholesale trade 44.6% and automotive sector with 9.9%. Among the commercial activity groups, Hypermarkets and Supermarkets have 12.5%; the wholesale trade in fuels and lubricants represented 11.3%; retail and wholesale trade in food, beverages and tobacco accounted for 4.8% and 8.4% respectively; trade in motor vehicles, 6.1%; wholesale trade in machinery, apparatus and equipment, including information and communication technologies, accounted for 3.7%. [340] Brazil pegged its currency, the real, to the U.S. dollar in 1994. However, after the East Asian financial crisis, the Russian default in 1998[341] and the series of adverse financial events that followed it, the Central Bank of Brazil temporarily changed its monetary policy to a managed float regime[342] scheme while undergoing a currency crisis, until definitively changing the exchange regime to free-float in January 1999.[343] Brazil received an International Monetary Fund (IMF) rescue package in mid-2002 of $30.4 billion,[344] a record sum at the time. Brazil's central bank repaid the IMF loan in 2005, although it was not due to be repaid until 2006.[345] One of the issues the Central Bank of Brazil recently dealt with was an excess of speculative short-term capital inflows to the country, which may have contributed to a fall in the value of the U.S. dollar against the real during that period.[346] Nonetheless, foreign direct investment (FDI), related to long-term, less speculative investment in production, is estimated to be $193.8 billion for 2007.[347] Inflation monitoring and control currently plays a major part in the Central bank's role in setting short-term interest rates as a monetary policy measure.[348] Between 1993 and 2010, 7012 mergers and acquisitions with a total known value of $707 billion with the involvement of Brazilian firms were announced.[349] The year 2010 was a new record in terms of value with US$115 billion in transactions. The largest transaction with involvement of Brazilian companies was the Cia. Vale do Rio Doce acquisition of Inco in a tender offer valued at US$18.9 billion. Corruption costs Brazil almost $41 billion a year alone in 2010, with 69.9% of the country's firms identifying the issue as a major constraint in successfully penetrating the global market.[350] Local government corruption is so prevalent that voters perceive it as a problem only if it surpasses certain levels, and only if a local media e.g. a radio station is present to divulge the findings of corruption charges.[351] Initiatives, like this exposure, strengthen awareness which is indicated by the Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index; ranking Brazil 69th out of 178 countries in 2012.[352] The purchasing power in Brazil is eroded by the so-called Brazil cost.[353] Brazil also has a large cooperative sector that provides 50% of the food in the country.[354] The world's largest healthcare cooperative Unimed is also located in Brazil, and accounts for 32% of the healthcare insurance market in the country.[355] Energy Main article: Energy in Brazil Wind farm in Parnaíba, Piauí. Brazil is one of the 10 largest producers of wind energy in the world Pirapora Solar complex, the largest in Brazil and Latin America with 321 MW Brazil is the world's tenth largest energy consumer with much of its energy coming from renewable sources, particularly hydroelectricity and ethanol; the Itaipu Dam is the world's largest hydroelectric plant by energy generation,[356] and the country has other large plants like Belo Monte and Tucuruí. The first car with an ethanol engine was produced in 1978 and the first airplane engine running on ethanol in 2005.[357] In total electricity generation, in 2019 Brazil reached 170,000 megawatts of installed capacity, more than 75% from renewable sources (the majority, hydroelectric plants).[358] Brazil is one of the 5 largest hydroelectric energy producers in the world (2nd place in 2017).[359] As of September 2020,[ref] according to ONS, total installed capacity of wind power was 16.3 GW, with average capacity factor of 58%.[360] While the world average wind production capacity factors is 24.7%, there are areas in Northern Brazil, specially in Bahia State, where some wind farms record with average capacity factors over 60%;[361] the average capacity factor in the Northeast Region is 45% in the coast and 49% in the interior.[362] In 2019, wind energy represented 9% of the energy generated in the country.[363] In 2019, it was estimated that the country had an estimated wind power generation potential of around 522 GW (this, only onshore), enough energy to meet three times the country's current demand.[364][365] Brazil is one of the 10 largest wind energy producers in the world (8th place in 2019, with 2.4% of world production).[366][367] As of September 2020,[ref] according to ONS, total installed capacity of photovoltaic solar was 6.9 GW, with average capacity factor of 23%. Some of the most irradiated Brazilian States are Minas Gerais, Bahia and Goiás.[368][369] In 2019, solar power represented 1.27% of the energy generated in the country.[370] Recent oil discoveries in the pre-salt layer have opened the door for a large increase in oil production.[371] The governmental agencies responsible for the energy policy are the Ministry of Mines and Energy, the National Council for Energy Policy, the National Agency of Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels, and the National Agency of Electricity.[372] In the beginning of 2020, in the production of oil and natural gas, the country exceeded 4 million barrels of oil equivalent per day, for the first time. In January this year, 3.168 million barrels of oil per day and 138.753 million cubic meters of natural gas were extracted.[373] Tourism Main article: Tourism in Brazil Sancho Bay in Fernando de Noronha Archipelago, Pernambuco, voted the most beautiful beach in the world by TripAdvisor.[374] Bonito, Mato Grosso do Sul. The rivers in the region are known for their crystal clear waters. Tourism in Brazil is a growing sector and key to the economy of several regions of the country. The country had 6.36 million visitors in 2015, ranking in terms of the international tourist arrivals as the main destination in South America and second in Latin America after Mexico.[375] Revenues from international tourists reached US$6 billion in 2010, showing a recovery from the 2008–2009 economic crisis.[376] Historical records of 5.4 million visitors and US$6.8 billion in receipts were reached in 2011.[377][378] Natural areas are its most popular tourism product, a combination of ecotourism with leisure and recreation, mainly sun and beach, and adventure travel, as well as cultural tourism. Among the most popular destinations are the Amazon Rainforest, beaches and dunes in the Northeast Region, the Pantanal in the Center-West Region, beaches at Rio de Janeiro and Santa Catarina, cultural tourism in Minas Gerais and business trips to São Paulo.[379] In terms of the 2015 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index (TTCI), which is a measurement of the factors that make it attractive to develop business in the travel and tourism industry of individual countries, Brazil ranked in the 28st place at the world's level, third in the Americas, after Canada and United States.[380][381] Brazil's main competitive advantages are its natural resources, which ranked 1st on this criteria out of all countries considered, and ranked 23rd for its cultural resources, due to its many World Heritage sites. The TTCI report notes Brazil's main weaknesses: its ground transport infrastructure remains underdeveloped (ranked 116th), with the quality of roads ranking in 105th place; and the country continues to suffer from a lack of price competitiveness (ranked 114th), due in part to high ticket taxes and airport charges, as well as high prices and high taxation. Safety and security have improved significantly: 75th in 2011, up from 128th in 2008.[381] According to the World Tourism Organization (WTO), international travel to Brazil accelerated in 2000, particularly during 2004 and 2005. However, in 2006 a slow-down took place, and international arrivals had almost no growth in 2007–08.[382][383][384] In spite of this trend, revenues from international tourism continued to rise, from USD 4 billion in 2005 to 5 billion in 2007, despite 330 000 fewer arrivals. This favorable trend is the result of the strong devaluation of the US dollar against the Brazilian Real, which began in 2004, but which makes Brazil a more expensive international destination.[385] The city of Rio de Janeiro is featured in tourism in Brazil. Iguazu Falls, Paraná, at the Brazil-Argentina border. The Garganta do Diabo Walkway allows a panoramic view of the falls from the Brazilian side. This trend changed in 2009, when both visitors and revenues fell as a result of the Great Recession of 2008–09.[386] By 2010, the industry had recovered, and arrivals grew above 2006 levels to 5.2 million international visitors, and receipts from these visitors reached US$6 billion.[376] In 2011 the historical record was reached with 5.4 million visitors and US$6.8 billion in receipts.[377][378] Despite continuing record-breaking international tourism revenues, the number of Brazilian tourists travelling overseas has been growing steadily since 2003, resulting in a net negative foreign exchange balance, as more money is spent abroad by Brazilians than comes in as receipts from international tourists visiting Brazil.[387] Tourism expenditures abroad grew from US$5.8 billion in 2006, to US$8.2 billion in 2007, a 42% increase, representing a net deficit of US$3.3 billion in 2007, as compared to US$1.5 billion in 2006, a 125% increase from the previous year.[387] This trend is caused by Brazilians taking advantage of the stronger Real to travel and making relatively cheaper expenditures abroad.[387] Brazilians traveling overseas in 2006 represented 4% of the country's population.[388] In 2005, tourism contributed with 3.2% of the country's revenues from exports of goods and services, and represented 7% of direct and indirect employment in the Brazilian economy.[389] In 2006 direct employment in the sector reached 1.9 million people.[390] Domestic tourism is a fundamental market segment for the industry, as 51 million people traveled throughout the country in 2005,[391] and direct revenues from Brazilian tourists reached US$22 billion,[392] 5.6 times more receipts than international tourists in 2005. In 2005, Rio de Janeiro, Foz do Iguaçu, São Paulo, Florianópolis and Salvador were the most visited cities by international tourists for leisure trips. The most popular destinations for business trips were São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Porto Alegre.[393] In 2006 Rio de Janeiro and Fortaleza were the most popular destinations for business trips. Infrastructure Science and technology Main article: Science and technology in Brazil VLS-1 at the Alcântara Launch Center of the Brazilian Space Agency. Sirius, a diffraction-limited storage ring synchrotron light source at the Laboratório Nacional de Luz Síncrotron, in the municipality of Campinas, São Paulo. Technological research in Brazil is largely carried out in public universities and research institutes, with the majority of funding for basic research coming from various government agencies.[394] Brazil's most esteemed technological hubs are the Oswaldo Cruz Institute, the Butantan Institute, the Air Force's Aerospace Technical Center, the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation and the INPE.[395][396] The Brazilian Space Agency has the most advanced space program in Latin America, with significant resources to launch vehicles, and manufacture of satellites.[397] Owner of relative technological sophistication, the country develops submarines, aircraft, as well as being involved in space research, having a Vehicle Launch Center Light and being the only country in the Southern Hemisphere the integrate team building International Space Station (ISS).[398] The country is also a pioneer in the search for oil in deep water, from where it extracts 73% of its reserves. Uranium is enriched at the Resende Nuclear Fuel Factory, mostly for research purposes (as Brazil obtains 88% from its electricity from hydroelectricity[399]) and the country's first nuclear submarine was delivered in 2015 (by France).[400] Brazil is one of the three countries in Latin America[401] with an operational Synchrotron Laboratory, a research facility on physics, chemistry, material science and life sciences, and Brazil is the only Latin American country to have a semiconductor company with its own fabrication plant, the CEITEC.[402] According to the Global Information Technology Report 2009-2010 of the World Economic Forum, Brazil is the world's 61st largest developer of information technology.[403] Among the most renowned Brazilian inventors are priests Bartolomeu de Gusmão, Landell de Moura and Francisco João de Azevedo, besides Alberto Santos-Dumont,[404] Evaristo Conrado Engelberg,[405] Manuel Dias de Abreu,[406] Andreas Pavel[407] and Nélio José Nicolai.[408] Brazilian science is represented by the likes of César Lattes (Brazilian physicist Pathfinder of Pi Meson),[409] Mário Schenberg (considered the greatest theoretical physicist of Brazil),[410] José Leite Lopes (only Brazilian physicist holder of the UNESCO Science Prize),[411] Artur Ávila (the first Latin American winner of the Fields Medal)[412] and Fritz Müller (pioneer in factual support of the theory of evolution by Charles Darwin).[413] Transport Main article: Transport in Brazil Road system in Brazil, with divided highways highlighted in red. Main ports in Brazil Brazilian roads are the primary carriers of freight and passenger traffic. The road system totaled 1.98 million km (1.23 million mi) in 2002. The total of paved roads increased from 35,496 km (22,056 mi) in 1967 to 215,000 km (133,595 mi) in 2018.[414] [415] The country has about 14,000 km (8,699 mi) of divided highways, 5,000 km (3,107 mi) only in the State of São Paulo. Currently it's possible to travel from Rio Grande, in the extreme south of the country, to Brasília (2,580 km (1,603 mi)) or Casimiro de Abreu, in the state of Rio de Janeiro (2,045 km (1,271 mi)), only on divided highways. The first investments in road infrastructure have given up in the 1920s, the government of Washington Luís, being pursued in the governments of Getúlio Vargas and Eurico Gaspar Dutra.[416] President Juscelino Kubitschek (1956–61), who designed and built the capital Brasília, was another supporter of highways. Kubitschek was responsible for the installation of major car manufacturers in the country (Volkswagen, Ford and General Motors arrived in Brazil during his rule) and one of the points used to attract them was support for the construction of highways. With the implementation of Fiat in 1976 ending an automobile market closed loop, from the end of the 1990s the country has received large foreign direct investments installing in its territory other major car manufacturers and utilities, such as Iveco, Renault, Peugeot, Citroën, Honda, Mitsubishi, Mercedes-Benz, BMW, Hyundai, Toyota among others.[417] Brazil is the seventh most important country in the auto industry.[418] Brazil's railway system has been declining since 1945, when emphasis shifted to highway construction. The total length of railway track was 30,875 km (19,185 mi) in 2002, as compared with 31,848 km (19,789 mi) in 1970. Most of the railway system belonged to the Federal Railroad Corporation RFFSA, which was privatized in 2007.[419] The São Paulo Metro was the first underground transit system in Brazil. The other metro systems are in Rio de Janeiro, Porto Alegre, Recife, Belo Horizonte, Brasília, Teresina and Fortaleza. The country has an extensive rail network of 28,538 kilometres (17,733 miles) in length, the tenth largest network in the world.[420] Currently, the Brazilian government, unlike the past, seeks to encourage this mode of transport; an example of this incentive is the project of the Rio–São Paulo high-speed rail, that will connect the two main cities of the country to carry passengers. There are about 2,500 airports in Brazil, including landing fields: the second largest number in the world, after the United States.[421] São Paulo–Guarulhos International Airport, near São Paulo, is the largest and busiest airport with nearly 20 million passengers annually, while handling the vast majority of commercial traffic for the country.[422] For freight transport waterways are of importance, e.g. the industrial zones of Manaus can be reached only by means of the Solimões–Amazonas waterway (3,250 kilometres (2,020 miles) with 6 metres (20 feet) minimum depth). The country also has 50,000 kilometres (31,000 miles) of waterways.[420] Coastal shipping links widely separated parts of the country. Bolivia and Paraguay have been given free ports at Santos. Of the 36 deep-water ports, Santos, Itajaí, Rio Grande, Paranaguá, Rio de Janeiro, Sepetiba, Vitória, Suape, Manaus and São Francisco do Sul are the most important.[423] Bulk carriers have to wait up to 18 days before being serviced, container ships 36.3 hours on average.[424] Health Main article: Health in Brazil Institute of Cancer of the University of São Paulo Clinics Hospital, the largest hospital complex in Latin America.[425] The Brazilian public health system, the Unified Health System (SUS), is managed and provided by all levels of government,[426] being the largest system of this type in the world.[427] On the other hand, private healthcare systems play a complementary role.[428] Public health services are universal and offered to all citizens of the country for free. However, the construction and maintenance of health centers and hospitals are financed by taxes, and the country spends about 9% of its GDP on expenditures in the area. In 2012, Brazil had 1.85 doctors and 2.3 hospital beds for every 1,000 inhabitants.[429][430] Despite all the progress made since the creation of the universal health care system in 1988, there are still several public health problems in Brazil. In 2006, the main points to be solved were the high infant (2.51%) and maternal mortality rates (73.1 deaths per 1000 births).[431] The number of deaths from noncommunicable diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases (151.7 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants) and cancer (72.7 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants), also has a considerable impact on the health of the Brazilian population. Finally, external but preventable factors such as car accidents, violence and suicide caused 14.9% of all deaths in the country.[431] The Brazilian health system was ranked 125th among the 191 countries evaluated by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2000.[432] Education Main article: Education in Brazil Historical building of the Federal University of Paraná, one of the oldest universities in Brazil, located in Curitiba Classroom in the main campus of the University of Campinas, São Paulo The Federal Constitution and the Law of Guidelines and Bases of National Education determine that the Union, the states, the Federal District, and the municipalities must manage and organize their respective education systems. Each of these public educational systems is responsible for its own maintenance, which manages funds as well as the mechanisms and funding sources. The constitution reserves 25% of the state budget and 18% of federal taxes and municipal taxes for education.[433] According to the IBGE, in 2011, the literacy rate of the population was 90.4%, meaning that 13 million (9.6% of population) people are still illiterate in the country; functional illiteracy has reached 21.6% of the population.[434] Illiteracy is highest in the Northeast, where 19.9% of the population is illiterate.[435] Higher education starts with undergraduate or sequential courses, which may offer different options of specialization in academic or professional careers. Depending on the choice, students can improve their educational background with courses of post-graduate studies or broad sense. Attending an institution of higher education is required by Law of Guidelines and Bases of Education. Kindergarten, elementary and medium education are required of all students, provided the student does not hold any disability, whether physical, mental, visual or hearing. The University of São Paulo is the second best university in Latin America, according to recent 2019 QS World University Rankings. Of the top 20 Latin American universities, eight are Brazilian. Most of them are public.[436] Brazil's private institutions tend to be more exclusive and offer better quality education, so many high-income families send their children there. The result is a segregated educational system that reflects extreme income disparities and reinforces social inequality. However, efforts to change this are making impacts.[437] Media and communication Main articles: Telecommunications in Brazil and Television in Brazil See also: Concentration of media ownership § Brazil Former President Dilma Rousseff at Jornal Nacional news program. Rede Globo is the world's second-largest commercial television network.[438] The Brazilian press was officially born in Rio de Janeiro on 13 May 1808 with the creation of the Royal Printing National Press by the Prince Regent Dom João.[439] The Gazeta do Rio de Janeiro, the first newspaper published in the country, began to circulate on 10 September 1808.[440] The largest newspapers nowadays are Folha de S.Paulo, Super Notícia, O Globo and O Estado de S. Paulo.[441] Radio broadcasting began on 7 September 1922, with a speech by then President Pessoa, and was formalized on 20 April 1923 with the creation of "Radio Society of Rio de Janeiro."[442] Television in Brazil began officially on 18 September 1950, with the founding of TV Tupi by Assis Chateaubriand.[443] Since then television has grown in the country, creating large commercial broadcast networks such as Globo, SBT, RecordTV, Bandeirantes and RedeTV. Today it is the most important factor in popular culture of Brazilian society, indicated by research showing that as much as 67%[444][445] of the general population follow the same daily soap opera broadcast. Digital Television, using the SBTVD standard (based on the Japanese standard ISDB-T), was adopted on 29 June 2006 and launched on 2 November 2007.[446] In May 2010, the Brazilian government launched TV Brasil Internacional, an international television station, initially broadcasting to 49 countries.[447] Commercial television channels broadcast internationally include Globo Internacional, RecordTV Internacional and Band Internacional. Demographics Main articles: Demographics of Brazil and Brazilians See also: Immigration to Brazil and List of Brazilian states by population density Population density of Brazilian municipalities The population of Brazil, as recorded by the 2008 PNAD, was approximately 190 million[448] (22.31 inhabitants per square kilometre or 57.8/sq mi), with a ratio of men to women of 0.95:1[449] and 83.75% of the population defined as urban.[450] The population is heavily concentrated in the Southeastern (79.8 million inhabitants) and Northeastern (53.5 million inhabitants) regions, while the two most extensive regions, the Center-West and the North, which together make up 64.12% of the Brazilian territory, have a total of only 29.1 million inhabitants. The first census in Brazil was carried out in 1872 and recorded a population of 9,930,478.[451] From 1880 to 1930, 4 million Europeans arrived.[452] Brazil's population increased significantly between 1940 and 1970, because of a decline in the mortality rate, even though the birth rate underwent a slight decline. In the 1940s the annual population growth rate was 2.4%, rising to 3.0% in the 1950s and remaining at 2.9% in the 1960s, as life expectancy rose from 44 to 54 years[453] and to 72.6 years in 2007.[454] It has been steadily falling since the 1960s, from 3.04% per year between 1950 and 1960 to 1.05% in 2008 and is expected to fall to a negative value of –0.29% by 2050[455] thus completing the demographic transition.[456] In 2008, the illiteracy rate was 11.48%[457] and among the youth (ages 15–19) 1.74%. It was highest (20.30%) in the Northeast, which had a large proportion of rural poor.[458] Illiteracy was high (24.18%) among the rural population and lower (9.05%) among the urban population.[459] Race and ethnicity Main article: Race and ethnicity in Brazil Immigration Museum of the State of São Paulo in the neighborhood of Mooca, in São Paulo city. The Italian Brazilians are 15% of the population and the largest Italian community outside Italy.[460] Race and ethnicity in Brazil[461][462][463]   White (47.7%)   Pardo (Multiracial) (43.1%)   Black (7.6%)   Asian (1.1%)   Natives (0.4%) According to the National Research by Household Sample (PNAD) of 2008, 48.43% of the population (about 92 million) described themselves as White; 43.80% (about 83 million) as Pardo (brown), 6.84% (about 13 million) as Black; 0.58% (about 1.1 million) as Asian; and 0.28% (about 536 thousand) as Amerindian (officially called indígena, Indigenous), while 0.07% (about 130 thousand) did not declare their race.[464] In 2007, the National Indian Foundation estimated that Brazil has 67 different uncontacted tribes, up from their estimate of 40 in 2005. Brazil is believed to have the largest number of uncontacted peoples in the world.[465] Since the arrival of the Portuguese in 1500, considerable genetic mixing between Amerindians, Europeans, and Africans has taken place in all regions of the country (with European ancestry being dominant nationwide according to the vast majority of all autosomal studies undertaken covering the entire population, accounting for between 65% to 77%).[466][467][468][469] Brazilian society is more markedly divided by social class lines, although a high income disparity is found between race groups, so racism and classism can be conflated. Socially significant closeness to one racial group is taken in account more in the basis of appearance (phenotypes) rather than ancestry, to the extent that full siblings can pertain to different "racial" groups.[470] Socioeconomic factors are also significant, because a minority of pardos are likely to start declaring themselves White or Black if socially upward.[471] Skin color and facial features do not line quite well with ancestry (usually, Afro-Brazilians are evenly mixed and European ancestry is dominant in Whites and pardos with a significant non-European contribution, but the individual variation is great).[469][472][473][474] The brown population (officially called pardo in Portuguese, also colloquially moreno)[475][476] is a broad category that includes caboclos (assimilated Amerindians in general, and descendants of Whites and Natives), mulatos (descendants of primarily Whites and Afro-Brazilians) and cafuzos (descendants of Afro-Brazilians and Natives).[475][476][477][478][479] People of considerable Amerindian ancestry form the majority of the population in the Northern, Northeastern and Center-Western regions.[480] Higher percents of Blacks, mulattoes and tri-racials can be found in the eastern coast of the Northeastern region from Bahia to Paraíba[479][481] and also in northern Maranhão,[482][483] southern Minas Gerais[484] and in eastern Rio de Janeiro.[479][484] From the 19th century, Brazil opened its borders to immigration. About five million people from over 60 countries migrated to Brazil between 1808 and 1972, most of them of Portuguese, Italian, Spanish, German, Ukrainian, Polish, Jewish, Russian, Chinese, Japanese, and Arab origin.[485][486] Brazil has the second largest Jewish community in Latin America making up 0.06% of its population.[487] Religion Main article: Religion in Brazil Further information: Catholic Church in Brazil and Protestantism in Brazil Religion in Brazil (2010 Census)   Catholicism (64.6%)   Protestantism (22.2%)   Spiritism (2.0%)   Other (3.2%)   No religion (8.0%) Roman Catholicism is the country's predominant faith. Brazil has the world's largest Catholic population.[488][489] According to the 2010 Demographic Census (the PNAD survey does not inquire about religion), 64.63% of the population followed Roman Catholicism; 22.2% Protestantism; 2.0% Kardecist spiritism; 3.2% other religions, undeclared or undetermined; while 8.0% have no religion.[4] Religion in Brazil was formed from the meeting of the Catholic Church with the religious traditions of enslaved African peoples and indigenous peoples.[490] This confluence of faiths during the Portuguese colonization of Brazil led to the development of a diverse array of syncretistic practices within the overarching umbrella of Brazilian Catholic Church, characterized by traditional Portuguese festivities,[491] and in some instances, Allan Kardec's Spiritism (a religion which incorporates elements of spiritualism and Christianity). Religious pluralism increased during the 20th century,[492] and the Protestant community has grown to include over 22% of the population.[493] The most common Protestant denominations are Evangelical Pentecostal ones. Other Protestant branches with a notable presence in the country include the Baptists, Seventh-day Adventists, Lutherans and the Reformed tradition.[494] However, in the last ten years Protestantism, particularly in forms of Pentecostalism and Evangelicalism, has spread in Brazil, while the proportion of Catholics has dropped significantly.[495] After Protestantism, individuals professing no religion are also a significant group, exceeding 8% of the population as of the 2010 census. The cities of Boa Vista, Salvador, and Porto Velho have the greatest proportion of Irreligious residents in Brazil. Teresina, Fortaleza, and Florianópolis were the most Roman Catholic in the country.[496] Greater Rio de Janeiro, not including the city proper, is the most irreligious and least Roman Catholic Brazilian periphery, while Greater Porto Alegre and Greater Fortaleza are on the opposite sides of the lists, respectively.[496] The Christ the Redeemer statue in Rio de Janeiro is one of the most famous religious statues worldwide[497][498] In October 2009, the Brazilian Senate approved and enacted by the President of Brazil in February 2010, an agreement with the Vatican, in which the Legal Statute of the Catholic Church in Brazil is recognized. The agreement confirmed norms that were normally complied with regarding religious education in public elementary schools (which also ensures the teaching of other beliefs), marriage and spiritual assistance in prisons and hospitals. The project was criticized by parliamentarians who understood the end of the secular state with the approval of the agreement.[499][500] Urbanization Main articles: List of largest cities in Brazil and Municipalities of Brazil According to IBGE (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics) urban areas already concentrate 84.35% of the population, while the Southeast region remains the most populated one, with over 80 million inhabitants.[501] The largest urban agglomerations in Brazil are São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Belo Horizonte – all in the Southeastern Region – with 21.1, 12.3, and 5.1 million inhabitants respectively.[502][503][504] The majority of state capitals are the largest cities in their states, except for Vitória, the capital of Espírito Santo, and Florianópolis, the capital of Santa Catarina.[505]   v t e Largest urban agglomerations in Brazil 2017 Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics estimates[502][506][507] Rank Name State Pop. Rank Name State Pop. 1 São Paulo São Paulo 21,314,716 11 Belém Pará 2,157,180 2 Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro 12,389,775 12 Manaus Amazonas 2,130,264 3 Belo Horizonte Minas Gerais 5,142,260 13 Campinas São Paulo 2,105,600 4 Recife Pernambuco 4,021,641 14 Vitória Espírito Santo 1,837,047 5 Brasília Federal District 3,986,425 15 Baixada Santista São Paulo 1,702,343 6 Porto Alegre Rio Grande do Sul 3,894,232 16 São José dos Campos São Paulo 1,572,943 7 Salvador Bahia 3,863,154 17 São Luís Maranhão 1,421,569 8 Fortaleza Ceará 3,594,924 18 Natal Rio Grande do Norte 1,349,743 9 Curitiba Paraná 3,387,985 19 Maceió Alagoas 1,231,965 10 Goiânia Goiás 2,347,557 20 João Pessoa Paraíba 1,168,941 Language Main articles: Languages of Brazil, Portuguese language, Brazilian Portuguese, and List of endangered languages in Brazil Museum of the Portuguese Language in São Paulo city, São Paulo. Ocas of the Kuikuro people, Xingu Indigenous Park, Mato Grosso The official language of Brazil is Portuguese[508] (Article 13 of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Brazil), which almost all of the population speaks and is virtually the only language used in newspapers, radio, television, and for business and administrative purposes. Brazil is the only Portuguese-speaking nation in the Americas, making the language an important part of Brazilian national identity and giving it a national culture distinct from those of its Spanish-speaking neighbors.[509] Brazilian Portuguese has had its own development, mostly similar to 16th-century Central and Southern dialects of European Portuguese[510] (despite a very substantial number of Portuguese colonial settlers, and more recent immigrants, coming from Northern regions, and in minor degree Portuguese Macaronesia), with a few influences from the Amerindian and African languages, especially West African and Bantu restricted to the vocabulary only.[511] As a result,[citation needed] the language is somewhat different, mostly in phonology, from the language of Portugal and other Portuguese-speaking countries (the dialects of the other countries, partly because of the more recent end of Portuguese colonialism in these regions, have a closer connection to contemporary European Portuguese). These differences are comparable to those between American and British English.[511] In 1990, the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), which included representatives from all countries with Portuguese as the official language, reached an agreement on the reform of the Portuguese orthography to unify the two standards then in use by Brazil on one side and the remaining lusophone countries on the other. This spelling reform went into effect in Brazil on 1 January 2009. In Portugal, the reform was signed into law by the President on 21 July 2008 allowing for a six-year adaptation period, during which both orthographies will co-exist. The remaining CPLP countries are free to establish their own transition timetables.[512] The sign language law legally recognized in 2002,[513] (the law was regulated in 2005)[514] the use of the Brazilian Sign Language, more commonly known by its Portuguese acronym LIBRAS, in education and government services. The language must be taught as a part of the education and speech and language pathology curricula. LIBRAS teachers, instructors and translators are recognized professionals. Schools and health services must provide access ("inclusion") to deaf people.[515] Pomerode, Santa Catarina, is one of the municipalities with a cooficial language. In this region, Hunsrückisch and East Pomeranian, German dialects, are two of the minor languages (see Brazilian German). Minority languages are spoken throughout the nation. One hundred and eighty Amerindian languages are spoken in remote areas and a significant number of other languages are spoken by immigrants and their descendants.[511] In the municipality of São Gabriel da Cachoeira, Nheengatu (a currently endangered South American creole language – or an 'anti-creole', according to some linguists – with mostly Indigenous Brazilian languages lexicon and Portuguese-based grammar that, together with its southern relative língua geral paulista, once was a major lingua franca in Brazil,[516] being replaced by Portuguese only after governmental prohibition led by major political changes)[excessive detail?], Baniwa and Tucano languages had been granted co-official status with Portuguese.[517] There are significant communities of German (mostly the Brazilian Hunsrückisch, a High German language dialect) and Italian (mostly the Talian, a Venetian dialect) origins in the Southern and Southeastern regions, whose ancestors' native languages were carried along to Brazil, and which, still alive there, are influenced by the Portuguese language.[518][519] Talian is officially a historic patrimony of Rio Grande do Sul,[520] and two German dialects possess co-official status in a few municipalities.[521] Italian is also recognized as ethnic language in the Santa Teresa microregion and Vila Velha (Espirito Santo state), and is taught as mandatory second language at school.[522] Learning at least one second language (generally English or Spanish) is mandatory for all the 12 grades of the mandatory education system (primary and secondary education, there called ensino fundamental and ensino médio respectively). Brazil is the first country in South America to offer Esperanto to secondary students.[523] Culture Main article: Culture of Brazil Interior of the São Francisco Church and Convent in Salvador, Bahia, one of the richest expressions of Brazilian baroque. The core culture of Brazil is derived from Portuguese culture, because of its strong colonial ties with the Portuguese Empire.[524] Among other influences, the Portuguese introduced the Portuguese language, Roman Catholicism and colonial architectural styles. The culture was, however, also strongly influenced by African, indigenous and non-Portuguese European cultures and traditions.[525] Some aspects of Brazilian culture were influenced by the contributions of Italian, German and other European as well as Japanese, Jewish and Arab immigrants who arrived in large numbers in the South and Southeast of Brazil during the 19th and 20th centuries.[526] The Amerindians influenced Brazil's language and cuisine; and the Africans influenced language, cuisine, music, dance and religion.[527] Brazilian art has developed since the 16th century into different styles that range from Baroque (the dominant style in Brazil until the early 19th century)[528][529] to Romanticism, Modernism, Expressionism, Cubism, Surrealism and Abstractionism. Brazilian cinema dates back to the birth of the medium in the late 19th century and has gained a new level of international acclaim since the 1960s.[530] Architecture Main article: Architecture of Brazil The Museum of the Inconfidência in Minas Gerais, an example of Portuguese colonial architecture The Cathedral of Brasília, an example of Modern architecture The architecture of Brazil is influenced by Europe, especially Portugal. It has a history that goes back 500 years to the time when Pedro Cabral discovered Brazil in 1500. Portuguese colonial architecture was the first wave of architecture to go to Brazil.[531] It is the basis for all Brazilian architecture of later centuries.[532] In the 19th century during the time of the Empire of Brazil, Brazil followed European trends and adopted Neoclassical and Gothic Revival architecture. Then in the 20th century especially in Brasília, Brazil experimented with Modernist architecture. The colonial architecture of Brazil dates to the early 16th century when Brazil was first explored, conquered and settled by the Portuguese. The Portuguese built architecture familiar to them in Europe in their aim to colonize Brazil. They built Portuguese colonial architecture which included churches, civic architecture including houses and forts in Brazilian cities and the countryside. During 19th century Brazilian architecture saw the introduction of more European styles to Brazil such as Neoclassical and Gothic Revival architecture. This was usually mixed with Brazilian influences from their own heritage which produced a unique form of Brazilian architecture. In the 1950s the modernist architecture was introduced when Brasília was built as new federal capital in the interior of Brazil to help develop the interior. The architect Oscar Niemeyer idealized and built government buildings, churches and civic buildings in the modernist style.[533][534] Music Main article: Music of Brazil Heitor Villa-Lobos, the most widely known South American composer.[535] Tom Jobim, one of the creators of bossa nova, and Chico Buarque, one of the leading names of MPB. The music of Brazil was formed mainly from the fusion of European and African elements.[536] Until the nineteenth century, Portugal was the gateway to most of the influences that built Brazilian music, although many of these elements were not of Portuguese origin, but generally European. The first was José Maurício Nunes Garcia, author of sacred pieces with influence of Viennese classicism.[537] The major contribution of the African element was the rhythmic diversity and some dances and instruments that had a bigger role in the development of popular music and folk, flourishing especially in the twentieth century.[536] Popular music since the late eighteenth century began to show signs of forming a characteristically Brazilian sound, with samba considered the most typical and on the UNESCO cultural heritage list.[538] Maracatu and Afoxê are two Afro-Brazilian music traditions that have been popularized by their appearance in the annual Brazilian Carnivals.[539] The sport of capoeira is usually played with its own music referred to as capoeira music, which is usually considered to be a call-and-response type of folk music.[540] Forró is a type of folk music prominent during the Festa Junina in northeastern Brazil.[541] Jack A. Draper III, a professor of Portuguese at the University of Missouri,[542] argues that Forró was used as a way to subdue feelings of nostalgia for a rural lifestyle.[543] Choro is a very popular music instrumental style. Its origins are in 19th-century Rio de Janeiro. In spite of the name, the style often has a fast and happy rhythm, characterized by virtuosity, improvisation, subtle modulations and full of syncopation and counterpoint.[544] Bossa nova is also a well-known style of Brazilian music developed and popularized in the 1950s and 1960s.[545] The phrase "bossa nova" means literally "new trend".[546] A lyrical fusion of samba and jazz, bossa nova acquired a large following starting in the 1960s.[547] Literature Main article: Brazilian literature Machado de Assis, poet and novelist, founder of the Brazilian Academy of Letters. Carlos Drummond de Andrade, considered by some as the greatest Brazilian poet.[548] Brazilian literature dates back to the 16th century, to the writings of the first Portuguese explorers in Brazil, such as Pêro Vaz de Caminha, filled with descriptions of fauna, flora and commentary about the indigenous population that fascinated European readers.[549] Brazil produced significant works in Romanticism – novelists like Joaquim Manuel de Macedo and José de Alencar wrote novels about love and pain. Alencar, in his long career, also treated indigenous people as heroes in the Indigenist novels O Guarani, Iracema and Ubirajara.[550] Machado de Assis, one of his contemporaries, wrote in virtually all genres and continues to gain international prestige from critics worldwide.[551][552][553] Brazilian Modernism, evidenced by the Week of Modern Art in 1922, was concerned with a nationalist avant-garde literature,[554] while Post-Modernism brought a generation of distinct poets like João Cabral de Melo Neto, Carlos Drummond de Andrade, Vinicius de Moraes, Cora Coralina, Graciliano Ramos, Cecília Meireles, and internationally known writers dealing with universal and regional subjects like Jorge Amado, João Guimarães Rosa, Clarice Lispector and Manuel Bandeira.[555][556][557] Cuisine Main article: Brazilian cuisine See also: List of Brazilian dishes Pão de queijo with coffee and a small cachaça bottle, examples of the cuisine from the interior of Brazil Brigadeiro is recognized as one of the main dishes of Brazilian cuisine Brazilian cuisine varies greatly by region, reflecting the country's varying mix of indigenous and immigrant populations. This has created a national cuisine marked by the preservation of regional differences.[558] Examples are feijoada, considered the country's national dish;[559] and regional foods such as beiju, feijão tropeiro, vatapá, moqueca, polenta (from Italian cuisine) and acarajé (from African cuisine).[560] The national beverage is coffee and cachaça is Brazil's native liquor. Cachaça is distilled from sugar cane and is the main ingredient in the national cocktail, caipirinha.[561] A typical meal consists mostly of rice and beans with beef, salad, french fries and a fried egg.[562] Often, it is mixed with cassava flour (farofa). Fried potatoes, fried cassava, fried banana, fried meat and fried cheese are very often eaten in lunch and served in most typical restaurants.[563] Popular snacks are pastel (a fried pastry); coxinha (a variation of chicken croquete); pão de queijo (cheese bread and cassava flour / tapioca); pamonha (corn and milk paste); esfirra (a variation of Lebanese pastry); kibbeh (from Arabic cuisine); empanada (pastry) and empada, little salt pies filled with shrimps or heart of palm. Brazil has a variety of desserts such as brigadeiros (chocolate fudge balls), bolo de rolo (roll cake with goiabada), cocada (a coconut sweet), beijinhos (coconut truffles and clove) and romeu e julieta (cheese with goiabada). Peanuts are used to make paçoca, rapadura and pé-de-moleque. Local common fruits like açaí, cupuaçu, mango, papaya, cocoa, cashew, guava, orange, lime, passionfruit, pineapple, and hog plum are turned in juices and used to make chocolates, ice pops and ice cream.[564] Cinema Main article: Cinema of Brazil Festival de Gramado, the biggest film festival in the country Fernando Meirelles, who was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Director for City of God The Brazilian film industry began in the late 19th century, during the early days of the Belle Époque. While there were national film productions during the early 20th century, American films such as Rio the Magnificent were made in Rio de Janeiro to promote tourism in the city.[565] The films Limite (1931) and Ganga Bruta (1933), the latter being produced by Adhemar Gonzaga through the prolific studio Cinédia, were poorly received at release and failed at the box office, but are acclaimed nowadays and placed among the finest Brazilian films of all time.[566] The 1941 unfinished film It's All True was divided in four segments, two of which were filmed in Brazil and directed by Orson Welles; it was originally produced as part of the United States' Good Neighbor Policy during Getúlio Vargas' Estado Novo government. During the 1960s, the Cinema Novo movement rose to prominence with directors such as Glauber Rocha, Nelson Pereira dos Santos, Paulo César Saraceni and Arnaldo Jabor. Rocha's films Deus e o Diabo na Terra do Sol (1964) and Terra em Transe (1967) are considered to be some of the greatest and most influential in Brazilian film history.[567] During the 1990s, Brazil saw a surge of critical and commercial success with films such as O Quatrilho (Fábio Barreto, 1995), O Que É Isso, Companheiro? (Bruno Barreto, 1997) and Central do Brasil (Walter Salles, 1998), all of which were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, the latter receiving a Best Actress nomination for Fernanda Montenegro. The 2002 crime film City of God, directed by Fernando Meirelles, was critically acclaimed, scoring 90% on Rotten Tomatoes,[568] being placed in Roger Ebert's Best Films of the Decade list[569] and receiving four Academy Award nominations in 2004, including Best Director. Notable film festivals in Brazil include the São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro International Film Festivals and the Gramado Festival. Theatre São Paulo Municipal Theater, significant for its architectural value and its historical importance Interior of the Teatro Amazonas, in Manaus The theatre in Brazil has its origins in the period of Jesuit expansion when theater was used for the dissemination of Catholic doctrine in the 16th century. in the 17th and 18th centuries the first dramatists who appeared on the scene of European derivation was for court or private performances.[570] During the 19th century, dramatic theater gained importance and thickness, whose first representative was Luís Carlos Martins Pena (1813–1848), capable of describing contemporary reality. Always in this period the comedy of costume and comic production was imposed. Significant, also in the nineteenth century, was also the playwright Antônio Gonçalves Dias.[571] There were also numerous operas and orchestras. The Brazilian conductor Antônio Carlos Gomes became internationally known with operas like Il Guarany. At the end of the 19th century orchestrated dramaturgias became very popular and were accompanied with songs of famous artists like the conductress Chiquinha Gonzaga.[572] Already in the early 20th century there was the presence of theaters, entrepreneurs and actor companies, but paradoxically the quality of the products staggered, and only in 1940 the Brazilian theater received a boost of renewal thanks to the action of Paschoal Carlos Magno and his student's theater, the comedians group and the Italian actors Adolfo Celi, Ruggero Jacobbi and Aldo Calvo, founders of the Teatro Brasileiro de Comedia. From the 1960s it was attended by a theater dedicated to social and religious issues and to the flourishing of schools of dramatic art. The most prominent authors at this stage were Jorge Andrade and Ariano Suassuna.[571] Visual arts Main article: Brazilian painting The Night escorted by the geniuses of Love and Study, by Pedro Américo Discovery of the Land mural, by Brazilian painter Candido Portinari, at the Library of Congress Brazilian painting emerged in the late 16th century,[573] influenced by Baroque, Rococo, Neoclassicism, Romanticism, Realism, Modernism, Expressionism, Surrealism, Cubism and Abstracionism making it a major art style called Brazilian academic art.[574][575] The Missão Artística Francesa (French Artistic Mission) arrived in Brazil in 1816 proposing the creation of an art academy modeled after the respected Académie des Beaux-Arts, with graduation courses both for artists and craftsmen for activities such as modeling, decorating, carpentry and others and bringing artists like Jean-Baptiste Debret.[575] Upon the creation of the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts, new artistic movements spread across the country during the 19th century and later the event called Week of Modern Art broke definitely with academic tradition in 1922 and started a nationalist trend which was influenced by modernist arts. Among the best-known Brazilian painters are Ricardo do Pilar and Manuel da Costa Ataíde (baroque and rococo), Victor Meirelles, Pedro Américo and Almeida Junior (romanticism and realism), Anita Malfatti, Ismael Nery, Lasar Segall, Emiliano di Cavalcanti, Vicente do Rego Monteiro, and Tarsila do Amaral (expressionism, surrealism and cubism), Aldo Bonadei, José Pancetti and Cândido Portinari (modernism).[576] Sports Main article: Sport in Brazil Closing ceremony of the 2016 Summer Olympics at the Maracanã Stadium, Rio de Janeiro. The most popular sport in Brazil is football.[577] The Brazilian men's national team is ranked among the best in the world according to the FIFA World Rankings, and has won the World Cup tournament a record five times.[578][579] Volleyball, basketball, futsal, auto racing, and martial arts also attract large audiences.[580] The Brazil men's national volleyball team, for example, currently holds the titles of the World League, World Grand Champions Cup, World Championship and the World Cup. In auto racing, three Brazilian drivers have won the Formula One world championship eight times.[581][582][583] Some sport variations have their origins in Brazil: beach football,[584] futsal (indoor football)[585] and footvolley emerged in Brazil as variations of football. In martial arts, Brazilians developed Capoeira,[586] Vale tudo,[587] and Brazilian jiu-jitsu.[588] Brazil has hosted several high-profile international sporting events, like the 1950 FIFA World Cup[589] and recently has hosted the 2014 FIFA World Cup and 2019 Copa América.[590] The São Paulo circuit, Autódromo José Carlos Pace, hosts the annual Grand Prix of Brazil.[591] São Paulo organized the IV Pan American Games in 1963, and Rio de Janeiro hosted the XV Pan American Games in 2007.[592] On 2 October 2009, Rio de Janeiro was selected to host the 2016 Olympic Games and 2016 Paralympic Games, making it the first South American city to host the games[593] and second in Latin America, after Mexico City. Furthermore, the country hosted the FIBA Basketball World Cups in 1954 and 1963. At the 1963 event, the Brazil national basketball team won one of its two world championship titles.[594] Players at the podium with the first Olympic Gold of the Brazil national football team, won in the 2016 Summer Olympics. Football is the most popular sport in the country. Some of the most famous athletes in the history of Brazil are: César Cielo, Ricardo Prado, Gustavo Borges and Ana Marcela Cunha in swimming; Maria Esther Bueno, Gustavo Kuerten, Marcelo Melo and Bruno Soares in tennis; Ayrton Senna, Emerson Fittipaldi, Rubens Barrichello, Nelson Piquet and Felipe Massa in Formula 1; Oscar Schmidt and Hortência Marcari in basketball; Torben Grael and Robert Scheidt in sailing; Arthur Zanetti in artistic gymnastics; Éder Jofre and Acelino Freitas in boxing; Adhemar Ferreira da Silva, Joaquim Cruz, Maurren Maggi in athletics; Rodrigo Pessoa in equestrian; Aurélio Miguel, Sarah Menezes and Rogério Sampaio in judo; Isaquias Queiroz in canoeing; Bob Burnquist and Sandro Dias in skateboard; Falcão in futsal; Gabriel Medina in surf; Sandra Pires, Jackie Silva, Emanuel Rego, Ricardo Santos, Bruno Oscar Schmidt, Alison Cerutti in beach volleyball; Anderson Silva, José Aldo, Rodrigo Minotauro, Vitor Belfort, Lyoto Machida, Royce Gracie, Amanda Nunes in MMA. Until the 2016 Olympic Games, Brazil had won 129 medals in the history of the Olympic Games, all in the summer editions. There are 30 gold, 36 silver and 63 bronze medals, making it the South American country with the best record in modern Olympic Games history and the 4th largest winner of the Americas behind only the United States, Canada and Cuba, respectively. It's also one of the few countries to have an athlete who received the Pierre de Coubertin medal: Vanderlei Cordeiro de Lima. The country has already won Olympic gold medals in 11 different sports: sailing, athletics, volleyball, judo, beach volleyball, soccer, swimming, shooting, gymnastics, boxing and equestrian.[595] National holidays Date Local name Name Observation 1 January Confraternização Universal New Year's Day Beginning of the calendar year 21 April Tiradentes Tiradentes In honor of the martyr of the Minas Conspiracy 1 May Dia do Trabalhador Labor Day Tribute to all workers 7 September Independência Independence of Brazil Proclamation of Independence from Portugal 12 October Nossa Senhora Aparecida Our Lady of Aparecida Patroness of Brazil 2 November Finados All Souls' Day Day of remembrance for the dead 15 November Proclamação da República Proclamation of the Republic Transformation of Empire into Republic 25 December Natal Christmas Traditional Christmas celebration See also Brazil portal South America portal Index of Brazil-related articles Outline of Brazil Notes ^ includes Arab Brazilian, Jewish Brazilian, and Romani Brazilian ^ includes Caboclo, Hāfu, Mulatto, and Zambo ^ excludes those of West Asian/Arab background ^ European Portuguese: [bɾɐˈziɫ] ^ Sources:[269][270][271][272][273][274][275][276][277][278][279][280][281][282][283][284] [285][286][287][288][289][290][291][292] [293][294][295][296][297][298][299] References ^ Exército Brasileiro. 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"The Afro-Brazilian experiment: African influence on Brazilian culture". UNESCO. Archived from the original on 30 May 2012. Retrieved 8 June 2008. ^ Leandro Karnal, Teatro da fé: Formas de representação religiosa no Brasil e no México do século XVI, São Paulo, Editora Hucitec, 1998; available on fflch.usp.br Archived 24 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine ^ "The Brazilian Baroque," Encyclopaedia Itaú Cultural Archived 30 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine ^ Leslie Marsh (2012). Brazilian Women's Filmmaking: From Dictatorship to Democracy. University of Illinois Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-252-09437-8. ^ Hue, Jorge de Souza (1999). Uma visão da arquitectura colonial no Brasil [A vision of Colonial Architecture in Brazil] (in Portuguese). Rio de Janeiro. ^ Boxer, Charles Ralph (1962). The Golden Age of Brazil, 1695–1750: Growing Pains of a Colonial Society. University of California Press. ^ Guimaraens, Cêça de. Arquitetura Archived 15 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Portal do Ministério das Relações Exteriores. ^ Claro, Mauro. "Ambientes modernos. A casa modernista da Rua Santa Cruz, de Gregori Warchavchik, e outras casas da modernidade". In: Drops, 2008; 09 (025.03) ^ Wright 1992, 4. ^ a b Duduka Da Fonseca; Bob Weiner (1991). Brazilian Rhythms for Drumset. Alfred Music Publishing. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-7692-0987-6. ^ Donna M. Di Grazia (2013). Nineteenth-Century Choral Music. Routledge. p. 457. ISBN 978-1-136-29409-9. ^ "UNESCO Culture Sector – Intangible Heritage – 2003 Convention". Unesco.org. Retrieved 4 June 2013. ^ Larry Crook (2009). Focus: Music of Northeast Brazil. Taylor & Francis. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-415-96066-3. ^ Peter Fryer (2000). Rhythms of Resistance: African Musical Heritage in Brazil. Pluto Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-7453-0731-2. ^ "Brazil From A TO Z: FORRÓ". Brazilian Experience. 25 December 2015. ^ "Jack A. Draper III". Romance Languages and Literatures: University of Missouri. ^ Draper, Jack A., III (2010). Forró and redemptive regionalism from the Brazilian northeast: popular music in a culture of migration. New York: Lang. ISBN 978-1-4331-1076-4. OCLC 643568832. ^ MacGowan, Chris; Pessanha, Ricardo (1998). The Brazilian Sound: Samba, Bossa Nova, and the Popular Music of Brazil. Temple University Press. pp. 159–61. ISBN 978-1-56639-545-8. ^ MacGowan & Pessanha (1998), p. 6. ^ Gayle Kassing (2007). History of Dance: An Interactive Arts Approach. Human Kinetics 10%. p. 236. ISBN 978-0-7360-6035-6. ^ Michael Campbell (2011). Popular Music in America: The Beat Goes on. Cengage Learning. p. 299. ISBN 978-0-8400-2976-8. ^ Garner, Dwight (3 July 2015). "Review:Multitudinous Heart:Newly translated poetry by Carlos Drummond de Andrade". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 January 2016. ^ Crocitti & Vallance (2012), p. 360. ^ "Brazilian Literature: An Introduction." Embassy of Brasil – Ottawa. Visited on 2 November 2009. ^ Candido; Antonio. (1970) Vários escritos. São Paulo: Duas Cidades. p. 18 ^ Caldwell, Helen (1970) Machado de Assis: The Brazilian Master and his Novels. Berkeley, Los Angeles and London, University of California Press. ^ Fernandez, Oscar Machado de Assis: The Brazilian Master and His Novels The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 55, No. 4 (Apr. 1971), pp. 255–56 ^ Beatriz Mugayar Kühl, Arquitetura do ferro e arquitetura ferroviária em São Paulo: reflexões sobre a sua preservação, p. 202. Atelie Editorial, 1998. ^ Daniel Balderston and Mike Gonzalez, Encyclopedia of Latin American and Caribbean Literature, 1900–2003, p. 288. Routledge, 2004. ^ Sayers, Portugal and Brazil in Transitn, "Literature". U of Minnesota Press, 1 January 1999. ^ Marshall C. Eakin and Paulo Roberto de Almeida, Envisioning Brazil: A Guide to Brazilian Studies in the United States: "Literature, Culture and Civilization". University of Wisconsin Press, 31 October 2005. ^ "Way of Life". Encarta. MSN. Archived from the original on 29 October 2009. Retrieved 8 June 2008. ^ Roger, "Feijoada: The Brazilian national dish Archived 29 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine" braziltravelguide.com. ^ Cascudo, Luis da Câmara. História da Alimentação no Brasil. São Paulo/Belo Horizonte: Editora USP/Itatiaia, 1983. ^ Bayor, Ronald H. (2011). Multicultural America: An Encyclopedia of the Newest Americans. Georgia Institute of Technology. p. 181. ISBN 978-0-313-35786-2. ^ Barbosa, Lívia (2007). "Feijão com arroz e arroz com feijão: o Brasil no prato dos brasileiros". Horizontes Antropológicos. 13 (28): 87–116. doi:10.1590/S0104-71832007000200005. ^ Ferraccioli, Patrícia; Silveira, Eliane Augusta da (2010). "Cultural feeding influence on palative memories in the usual brazilian cuisine". Rev. Enferm. UERJ. 18 (2): 198–203. ^ Freyre, Gilberto. Açúcar. Uma Sociologia do Doce, com Receitas de Bolos e Doces do Nordeste do Brasil. São Paulo, Companhia das Letras, 1997. ^ "Rio the Magnificent (1932)". YouTube. Retrieved 19 October 2015. ^ Larry, Rohter (9 November 2010). "Brazil's Best, Restored and Ready for a 21st-Century Audience". The New York Times. Retrieved 3 November 2010. ^ Tose, Juliano. "Editorial". Contracampo – revista de cinema. Revista Contracampo. Retrieved 19 October 2015. ^ "Cidade de Deus (City of God) (2003) – Rotten Tomatoes". Rotten Tomatoes. Flixter. Retrieved 19 October 2015. ^ Ebert, Roger. "The best films of the decade". RogerEbert.com. Retrieved 19 October 2015. ^ Padre Anchieta Brasil Escola. ^ a b "Brazilian Theatre: An Introduction". Ambasciata brasiliana a Ottawa. Archived from the original on 5 February 2012. ^ O Teatro no Brasil Secretaria da Educação do Paraná. ^ Louzada, Maria Alice & Louzada, Julio. Os Primeiros Momentos da Arte Brasileira Archived 6 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Júlio Louzada Artes Plásticas Brasil. Acesso 5 out 2010 ^ Leite, José Roberto Teixeira & Lemos, Carlos A.C. Os Primeiros Cem Anos, in Civita, Victor. Arte no Brasil. São Paulo: Abril Cultural, 1979 ^ a b Biscardi & Rocha 2006 ^ Sevcenko, Nicolau. Pindorama revisitada: cultura e sociedade em tempos de virada. Série Brasil cidadão. Editora Peirópolis, 2000. pp. 39–47 ^ "Futebol, o esporte mais popular do Brasil, é destaque no Via Legal :: Notícias". Jusbrasil.com.br. Retrieved 16 April 2011. ^ "Football in Brazil". Goal Programme. International Federation of Association Football. 15 April 2008. Retrieved 6 June 2008. ^ Zirin, 2014. Chapter 4 "Futebol: The Journey from Daring to Fear" ^ "Futsal - the game that made football beautiful". BBC Sport. Retrieved 7 January 2021. ^ Donaldson, Gerald. "Emerson Fittipaldi". Hall of Fame. The Official Formula 1 Website. Retrieved 6 June 2008. ^ Donaldson, Gerald. "Nelson Piquet". Hall of Fame. The Official Formula 1 Website. Retrieved 6 June 2008. ^ Donaldson, Gerald. "Ayrton Senna". Hall of Fame. The Official Formula 1 Website. Retrieved 6 June 2008. ^ "Beach Soccer". International Federation of Association Football. Retrieved 6 June 2008. ^ "Futsal". International Federation of Association Football. Retrieved 6 June 2008. ^ "The art of capoeira". BBC. 20 September 2006. Retrieved 6 June 2008. ^ "Brazilian Vale Tudo". I.V.C. Archived from the original on 30 May 1998. Retrieved 6 June 2008. ^ "International Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Federation". International Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Federation. Archived from the original on 20 April 2008. Retrieved 6 June 2008. ^ "1950 FIFA World Cup Brazil". Previous FIFA World Cups. International Federation of Association Football. Retrieved 6 June 2008. ^ "2014 FIFA World Cup Brazil". International Federation of Association Football. Archived from the original on 9 June 2008. Retrieved 6 June 2008. ^ "The Official Formula 1 Website". Formula One Administration. Archived from the original on 4 June 2008. Retrieved 6 June 2008. ^ Ming Li; Eric W. MacIntosh; Gonzalo A. Bravo (2011). International Sport Management. Human Kinetics – College of Business at Ohio University. p. 129. ISBN 978-1-4504-2241-3. ^ "Olympics 2016: Tearful Pele and weeping Lula greet historic win for Rio," The Guardian, 2 October 2009. ^ "FIBA World Championship History (pdf)" (PDF). FIBA. 1 January 2007. Retrieved 24 February 2012. ^ Brasil at Olympics Bibliography Azevedo, Aroldo. O Brasil e suas regiões. São Paulo: Companhia Editora Nacional, 1971 Barman, Roderick J. Citizen Emperor: Pedro II and the Making of Brazil, 1825–1891. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8047-3510-7 Biscardi, Afrânio; Rocha, Frederico Almeida (May 2006), "O Mecenato Artístico de D. Pedro II e o Projeto Imperial", 19&20 – A revista eletrônica de DezenoveVinte, I (1) Boxer, Charles R.. The Portuguese Seaborne Empire (1969) O império marítimo português 1415–1825. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2002. ISBN 85-359-0292-9 Bueno, Eduardo. Brasil: uma História. São Paulo: Ática, 2003. ISBN 85-08-08213-4 Calmon, Pedro. História da Civilização Brasileira. Brasília: Senado Federal, 2002 Carvalho, José Murilo de. D. Pedro II. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2007 Coelho, Marcos Amorim. Geografia do Brasil. 4th ed. São Paulo: Moderna, 1996 Diégues, Fernando. A revolução brasílica. Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva, 2004 Enciclopédia Barsa. Volume 4: Batráquio – Camarão, Filipe. Rio de Janeiro: Encyclopædia Britannica do Brasil, 1987 Ermakoff, George (2006). Rio de Janeiro – 1840–1900 – Uma crônica fotográfica (in Portuguese). Rio de Janeiro: G. Ermakoff Casa Editorial. ISBN 978-85-98815-05-3. Fausto, Boris and Devoto, Fernando J. Brasil e Argentina: Um ensaio de história comparada (1850–2002), 2nd ed. São Paulo: Editoria 34, 2005. ISBN 85-7326-308-3 Gaspari, Elio. A ditadura envergonhada. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2002. ISBN 85-359-0277-5 Janotti, Aldo. O Marquês de Paraná: inícios de uma carreira política num momento crítico da história da nacionalidade. Belo Horizonte: Itatiaia, 1990 Lyra, Heitor. História de Dom Pedro II (1825–1891): Ascenção (1825–1870). v. 1. Belo Horizonte: Itatiaia, 1977 Lyra, Heitor. História de Dom Pedro II (1825–1891): Declínio (1880–1891). v. 3. Belo Horizonte: Itatiaia, 1977 Lustosa, Isabel. D. Pedro I: um herói sem nenhum caráter. São Paulo: Companhia das letras, 2006. ISBN 85-359-0807-2 Moreira, Igor A. G. O Espaço Geográfico, geografia geral e do Brasil. 18. Ed. São Paulo: Ática, 1981 Munro, Dana Gardner. The Latin American Republics; A History. New York: D. Appleton, 1942. Peres, Damião (1949) O Descobrimento do Brasil por Pedro Álvares Cabral: antecedentes e intencionalidade Porto: Portucalense. Scheina, Robert L. Latin America: A Naval History, 1810–1987. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1987. ISBN 0-87021-295-8 Lilia Moritz Schwarcz (30 November 1998). As barbas do imperador: D. Pedro II, um monarca nos trópicos (in Portuguese). São Paulo: Companhia das Letras. ISBN 978-85-7164-837-1. Wikidata Q18238040. Stuart B. Schwartz Sovereignty and Society in Colonial Brazil (1973) Early Latin America (1983) Sugar Plantations in the Formation of Brazilian Society (1985) Skidmore, Thomas E. Brazil: Five Centuries of Change (Oxford University Press, 1999) Uma História do Brasil. 4th ed. São Paulo: Paz e Terra, 2003. ISBN 85-219-0313-8 Souza, Adriana Barreto de. Duque de Caxias: o homem por trás do monumento. Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira, 2008. ISBN 978-85-200-0864-5. Wright, Simon. 1992. Villa-Lobos. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-315475-7 Vainfas, Ronaldo. Dicionário do Brasil Imperial. Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva, 2002. ISBN 85-7302-441-0 Vesentini, José William. Brasil, sociedade e espaço – Geografia do Brasil. 7th Ed. São Paulo: Ática, 1988 Vianna, Hélio. História do Brasil: período colonial, monarquia e república, 15th ed. São Paulo: Melhoramentos, 1994 Zirin, Dave. Brazil's Dance with the Devil: The World Cup, The Olympics, and the Fight for Democracy Haymarket Books 2014. ISBN 978-1-60846-360-2 Further reading Alencastro Felipe, Luiz Felipe de. The Trade in the Living: The Formation of Brazil in the South Atlantic, Sixteenth to Seventeenth Centuries (SUNY Press, 2019) excerpt Alves, Maria Helena Moreira (1985). State and Opposition in Military Brazil. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. Amann, Edmund (1990). The Illusion of Stability: The Brazilian Economy under Cardoso. World Development (pp. 1805–19). "Background Note: Brazil". US Department of State. Retrieved 16 June 2011. Bellos, Alex (2003). Futebol: The Brazilian Way of Life. London: Bloomsbury Publishing plc. Bethell, Leslie (1991). Colonial Brazil. Cambridge: CUP. Costa, João Cruz (1964). A History of Ideas in Brazil. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press. Fausto, Boris (1999). A Concise History of Brazil. Cambridge: CUP. Furtado, Celso. The Economic Growth of Brazil: A Survey from Colonial to Modern Times. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Leal, Victor Nunes (1977). Coronelismo: The Municipality and Representative Government in Brazil. Cambridge: CUP. Levine, Robert M. Historical Dictionary of Brazil (2019) Malathronas, John (2003). Brazil: Life, Blood, Soul. Chichester: Summersdale. Martinez-Lara, Javier (1995). Building Democracy in Brazil: The Politics of Constitutional Change. Macmillan. Prado Júnior, Caio (1967). The Colonial Background of Modern Brazil. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press. Schneider, Ronald (1995). Brazil: Culture and Politics in a New Economic Powerhouse. Boulder Westview. Skidmore, Thomas E. (1974). Black into White: Race and Nationality in Brazilian Thought. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Wagley, Charles (1963). An Introduction to Brazil. New York, New York: Columbia University Press. 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en-wikipedia-org-9863	----	Old Kingdom of Egypt - Wikipedia Old Kingdom of Egypt From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Old Kingdom" redirects here. For other uses, see Old Kingdom (disambiguation). Period of Ancient Egypt in the 3rd millennium BC Old Kingdom of Egypt c. 2686 BC–c. 2181 BC During the Old Kingdom of Egypt (circa 2700 BC – circa 2200 BC), Egypt consisted of the Nile River region south to Elephantine, as well as Sinai and the oases in the western desert. Capital Memphis Common languages Ancient Egyptian Religion Ancient Egyptian religion Government Divine, absolute monarchy Pharaoh   • c. 2686–c. 2649 BC Djoser (first) • c. 2184–c. 2181 BC Last king depends on the scholar, Neitiqerty Siptah (6th Dynasty) or Neferirkare (7th/8th Dynasty) History   • Established c. 2686 BC • Disestablished c. 2181 BC Population • 2500 BCE 1.6 million[1] Preceded by Succeeded by Early Dynastic Period of Egypt First Intermediate Period Part of a series on the History of Egypt Prehistoric Egypt pre–3150 BC Ancient Egypt Early Dynastic Period 3150–2686 BC Old Kingdom 2686–2181 BC 1st Intermediate Period 2181–2055 BC Middle Kingdom 2055–1650 BC 2nd Intermediate Period 1650–1550 BC New Kingdom 1550–1069 BC 3rd Intermediate Period 1069–664 BC Late Period 664–332 BC Greco-Roman Egypt Argead and Ptolemaic dynasties 332–30 BC Roman and Byzantine Egypt 30 BC–641 AD Sasanian Egypt 619–629 Medieval Egypt Rashidun Egypt 641–661 Umayyad Egypt 661–750 Abbasid Egypt 750–935 Tulunid dynasty 868–905 Ikhshidid dynasty 935–969 Fatimid dynasty 969–1171 Ayyubid dynasty 1171–1250 Mamluk dynasties 1250–1517 Early modern Egypt Ottoman Egypt 1517–1867 French occupation 1798–1801 Muhammad Ali dynasty 1805–1853 Khedivate of Egypt 1867–1914 Late Modern Egypt British occupation 1882–1922 Sultanate of Egypt 1914–1922 Kingdom of Egypt 1922–1953 Republic 1953–present  Egypt portal v t e In ancient Egyptian history, the Old Kingdom is the period spanning c. 2686–2181 BC. It is also known as the "Age of the Pyramids" or the "Age of the Pyramid Builders", as it encompasses the reigns of the great pyramid-builders of the Fourth Dynasty, such as King Sneferu, who perfected the art of pyramid-building, and the kings Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure, who constructed the pyramids at Giza.[2] Egypt attained its first sustained peak of civilization during the Old Kingdom, the first of three so-called "Kingdom" periods (followed by the Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom), which mark the high points of civilization in the lower Nile Valley.[3] The concept of an "Old Kingdom" as one of three "golden ages" was coined in 1845 by the German Egyptologist Baron von Bunsen, and its definition would evolve significantly throughout the 19th and the 20th centuries.[4] Not only was the last king of the Early Dynastic Period related to the first two kings of the Old Kingdom, but the "capital", the royal residence, remained at Ineb-Hedg, the Ancient Egyptian name for Memphis. The basic justification for a separation between the two periods is the revolutionary change in architecture accompanied by the effects on Egyptian society and economy of large-scale building projects.[3] The Old Kingdom is most commonly regarded as the period from the Third Dynasty to the Sixth Dynasty (2686–2181 BC). Information from the Fourth to the Sixth Dynasties of Egypt is scarce, and historians regard the history of the era as literally "written in stone" and largely architectural in that it is through the monuments and their inscriptions that scholars have been able to construct a history.[2] Egyptologists also include the Memphite Seventh and Eighth Dynasties in the Old Kingdom as a continuation of the administration, centralized at Memphis. While the Old Kingdom was a period of internal security and prosperity, it was followed by a period of disunity and relative cultural decline referred to by Egyptologists as the First Intermediate Period.[5] During the Old Kingdom, the King of Egypt (not called the Pharaoh until the New Kingdom) became a living god who ruled absolutely and could demand the services and wealth of his subjects.[6] Under King Djoser, the first king of the Third Dynasty of the Old Kingdom, the royal capital of Egypt was moved to Memphis, where Djoser established his court. A new era of building was initiated at Saqqara under his reign. King Djoser's architect, Imhotep, is credited with the development of building with stone and with the conception of the new architectural form, the step pyramid.[6] The Old Kingdom is perhaps best known for the large number of pyramids constructed at this time as burial places for Egypt's kings. Contents 1 History 1.1 Rise of the Old Kingdom 1.2 Height of the Old Kingdom 1.3 Fifth Dynasty 1.4 Decline into the First Intermediate Period 2 Art 3 References 4 Further reading 5 External links History[edit] Rise of the Old Kingdom[edit] Main article: Third Dynasty of Egypt The Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara. The first King of the Old Kingdom was Djoser (sometime between 2691 and 2625 BC) of the Third Dynasty, who ordered the construction of a pyramid (the Step Pyramid) in Memphis' necropolis, Saqqara. An important person during the reign of Djoser was his vizier, Imhotep. Temple of Djoser at Saqqara Head of a King, c. 2650–2600 BC, Brooklyn Museum. The earliest representations of Egyptian Kings are on a small scale. From the Third Dynasty, statues were made showing the ruler life-size; this head wearing the crown of Upper Egypt even surpasses human scale.[7] It was in this era that formerly independent ancient Egyptian states became known as nomes, under the rule of the king. The former rulers were forced to assume the role of governors or otherwise work in tax collection. Egyptians in this era worshiped their Pharaoh as a god, believing that he ensured the annual flooding of the Nile that was necessary for their crops. Egyptian views on the nature of time during this period held that the universe worked in cycles, and the Pharaoh on earth worked to ensure the stability of those cycles. They also perceived themselves as a specially selected people.[8] Height of the Old Kingdom[edit] Main article: Fourth Dynasty of Egypt The Great Sphinx of Giza in front of the Great Pyramid of Giza The Old Kingdom and its royal power reached a zenith under the Fourth Dynasty (2613–2494 BC), which began with Sneferu (2613–2589 BC). After Djoser, Pharaoh Sneferu was the next great pyramid builder. Sneferu commissioned the building of not one, but three pyramids. The first is called the Meidum Pyramid, named for its location in Egypt. Sneferu abandoned it after the outside casing fell off of the pyramid. The Meidum pyramid was the first to have an above-ground burial chamber.[9] Using more stones than any other Pharaoh, he built the three pyramids: a now collapsed pyramid in Meidum, the Bent Pyramid at Dahshur, and the Red Pyramid, at North Dahshur. However, the full development of the pyramid style of building was reached not at Saqqara, but during the building of 'The Great Pyramids' at Giza.[10] Sneferu was succeeded by his son, Khufu (2589–2566 BC), who built the Great Pyramid of Giza. After Khufu's death, his sons Djedefre (2566–2558 BC) and Khafre (2558–2532 BC) may have quarrelled. The latter built the second pyramid and (in traditional thinking) the Great Sphinx of Giza. Recent re-examination of evidence has led Egyptologist Vassil Dobrev to propose that the Sphinx had been built by Djedefra as a monument to his father Khufu.[11] Alternatively, the Sphinx has been proposed to be the work of Khafre and Khufu himself. There were military expeditions into Canaan and Nubia, with Egyptian influence reaching up the Nile into what is today the Sudan.[12] The later kings of the Fourth Dynasty were king Menkaure (2532–2504 BC), who built the smallest pyramid in Giza, Shepseskaf (2504–2498 BC) and, perhaps, Djedefptah (2498–2496 BC). Khufu, the builder of the Great Pyramid at Giza Fifth Dynasty[edit] Main article: Fifth Dynasty of Egypt The Fifth Dynasty (2494–2345 BC) began with Userkaf (2494–2487 BC) and was marked by the growing importance of the cult of sun god Ra. Consequently, fewer efforts were devoted to the construction of pyramid complexes than during the Fourth Dynasty and more to the construction of sun temples in Abusir. Userkaf was succeeded by his son Sahure (2487–2475 BC), who commanded an expedition to Punt. Sahure was in turn succeeded by Neferirkare Kakai (2475–2455 BC), who was Sahure's son. Neferirkare introduced the prenomen in the royal titulary. He was followed by two short-lived kings, his son Neferefre (2455–2453 BC) and Shepseskare, the latter of uncertain parentage.[13] Shepseskare may have been deposed by Neferefre's brother Nyuserre Ini (2445–2421 BC), a long lived pharaoh who built extensively in Abusir and restarted royal activity in Giza. The last pharaohs of the dynasty were Menkauhor Kaiu (2421–2414 BC), Djedkare Isesi (2414–2375 BC) and Unas (2375–2345), the earliest ruler to have the Pyramid Texts inscribed in his pyramid. Egypt's expanding interests in trade goods such as ebony, incense such as myrrh and frankincense, gold, copper and other useful metals inspired the ancient Egyptians to build suitable ships for navigation of the open sea. They traded with Lebanon for cedar and travelled the length of the Red Sea to the Kingdom of Punt—possibly modern day Somalia—for ebony, ivory and aromatic resins. Ship builders of that era did not use pegs (treenails) or metal fasteners, but relied on rope to keep their ships assembled. Planks and the superstructure were tightly tied and bound together. Decline into the First Intermediate Period[edit] Main articles: Sixth Dynasty of Egypt and First Intermediate Period During the Sixth Dynasty (2345–2181 BC) the power of pharaoh gradually weakened in favor of powerful nomarchs (regional governors). These no longer belonged to the royal family and their charge became hereditary, thus creating local dynasties largely independent from the central authority of the Pharaoh. However, Nile flood control was still the subject of very large works, including especially the canal to Lake Moeris around 2300 BC, which was likely also the source of water to the Giza pyramid complex centuries earlier. Internal disorders set in during the incredibly long reign of Pepi II (2278–2184 BC) towards the end of the dynasty. His death, certainly well past that of his intended heirs, might have created succession struggles. The country slipped into civil wars mere decades after the close of Pepi II's reign. The final blow was the 22nd century BC drought in the region that resulted in a drastic drop in precipitation. For at least some years between 2200 and 2150 BC, this prevented the normal flooding of the Nile.[14] Whatever its cause, the collapse of the Old Kingdom was followed by decades of famine and strife. An important inscription on the tomb of Ankhtifi, a nomarch during the early First Intermediate Period, describes the pitiful state of the country when famine stalked the land. Art[edit] The most defining feature of ancient Egyptian art is its function, as that was the entire purpose of creation. Art was not made for enjoyment in the strictest sense, but rather served a role of some kind in Egyptian religion and ideology.[15] This fact manifests itself in the artistic style, even as it evolved over the dynasties. The three primary principles of that style, frontality, composite composition, and hierarchy scale, illustrates this quite well.[15] These characteristics, initiated in the Early Dynastic Period[16] and solidified during the Old Kingdom, persisted with some adaptability throughout the entirety of ancient Egyptian history as the foundation of its art.[17] False Door from the Tomb of Metjetji. ca. 2353-2323 BC, Dynasty 5-6, Old Kingdom. Tomb of Metjetji at Saqqara.[18] Frontality, the first principle, indicates that art was viewed directly from the front. One was meant to approach a piece as they would a living individual, for it was meant to be a place of manifestation. The act of interaction would bring forth the divine entity represented in the art.[15] It was therefore imperative that whomever was represented be as identifiable as possible. The guide lines developed in the Old Kingdom and the later grid system developed in the Middle Kingdom ensured that art was axial, symmetrical, proportional, and most importantly reproducible and therefore recognizable.[19] Composite composition, the second principle, also contributes to the goal of identification. Multiple perspective were used in order to ensure that the onlooker could determine precisely what they saw.[15] Though Egyptian art almost always includes descriptive text, literacy rates were not high, so the art gave another method for communicating the same information. One of the best examples of composite composition is the human form. In most two-dimensional relief, the head, legs, and feet are seen in profile, while the torso faces directly front. Another common example is an aerial view of a building or location.[15] The third principle, hierarchy of scale, illustrates relative importance in society. The larger the figure, the more important the individual. The king is usually the largest, aside from deities. Similarity in size equated similarity in position. However, this is not to say that physical differences weren't shown as well. Women, for example, are usually shown as smaller than men. Children retain adult features and proportions, but are substantially smaller in size.[15] Aside from the three primary conventions, there are several characteristics that can help date a piece to a particular time frame. Proportions of the human figure are one of the most distinctive, as they vary between kingdoms.[19] Old Kingdom male figures have characteristically broad shoulders and a long torso, with obvious musculature. On the other hand, females are narrower in the shoulders and waist, with longer legs and a shorter torso.[19] However, in the Sixth Dynasty, the male figures lose their muscularity and their shoulders narrow. Eye also tend to get much larger.[15] In order to help maintain the consistency of these proportions, the Egyptians used a series of eight guidelines to divide the body. They occurred at the following locations: the top of the head, the hairline, the base of the neck, the underarms, the tip of the elbow or the bottom of the ribcage, the top of the thigh at the bottom of the buttocks, the knee, and the middle of the lower leg.[19] From the soles of the feet to the hairline was also divided into thirds, one-third between the soles and the knee, another third between the knee and the elbow, and the final third from the elbow to the hairline. The broad shoulders that appeared in the Fifth Dynasty constituted roughly that one-third length as well.[19] These proportions not only help with the identification of representations and the reproduction of art, but also tie into the Egyptian ideal of order, which tied into the solar aspect of their religion and the inundations of the Nile.[15] Statue of Menkaure with Hathor and Anput from the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Demonstrates a group statue of graywacke with Old Kingdom features and proportions.[20] Though the above concepts apply to most, if not all, figures in Egyptian art, there are additional characteristics that applied to the representations of the king. Their appearance was not an exact rendering of the king's visage, though kings are somewhat identifiable through looks alone. Identification could be supplied by inscriptions or context.[15] A huge, more important part of a king's portrayal was about the ideal of the office of kingship,[15] which were dependent on the time period. The Old Kingdom was considered a golden age for Egypt, a grandiose height to which all future kingdoms aspired. As such, the king was portrayed as young vital, with features that agreed with the standards of beauty of the time. The musculature seen in male figures was also applied to kings. A royal rite, the jubilee run which was established during the Old Kingdom, involved the king running around a group of markers that symbolized the geographic borders of Egypt. This was meant to be a demonstration of the king's physical vigor, which determined his capacity to continue his reign.[21] This idea of kingly youth and strength were pervasive in the Old Kingdom and thus shown in the art.[17] Sculpture was a major product of the Old Kingdom. The position of the figures in this period was mostly limited to sitting or standing, either with feet together or in the striding pose. Group statues of the king with either gods or family members, typically his wife and children, were also common.[16] It was not just the subject of sculpture that was important, but also the material: The use of hard stone, such as gneiss, graywacke, schist, and granite, was relatively common in the Old Kingdom.[22] The color of the stone had a great deal of symbolism and was chosen deliberately.[15] Four colors were distinguished in the ancient Egyptian language: black, green, red, and white.[22] Black was associated with Egypt due to the color of the soil after the Nile flood, green with vegetation and rebirth, red with the sun and its regenerative cycle, and white with purity.[15] The statue of Menkaure with Hathor and Anput is an example of a typical Old Kingdom sculpture. The three figures display frontality and axiality, while fitting with the proportions of this time period. The graywacke came from the Eastern Desert in Egypt[23] and is therefore associated with rebirth and the rising of the sun in the east. References[edit] ^ Steven Snape (16 March 2019). "Estimating Population in Ancient Egypt". Retrieved 5 January 2021. ^ a b "Old Kingdom of Egypt". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2017-12-04. ^ a b Malek, Jaromir. 2003. "The Old Kingdom (c. 2686–2160 BC)". In The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0192804587, p.83 ^ Schneider, Thomas (27 August 2008). "Periodizing Egyptian History: Manetho, Convention, and Beyond". In Klaus-Peter Adam (ed.). Historiographie in der Antike. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 181–197. ISBN 978-3-11-020672-2. ^ Carl Roebuck, The World of Ancient Times, pp. 55 & 60. ^ a b Carl Roebuck, The World of Ancient Times, p. 56. ^ Bothmer, Bernard (1974). Brief Guide to the Department of Egyptian and Classical Art. Brooklyn, NY: Brooklyn Museum. p. 22. ^ Herlin, Susan J. (2003). "Ancient African Civilizations to ca. 1500: Pharaonic Egypt to Ca. 800 BC". p. 27. Archived from the original on August 23, 2003. Retrieved 23 January 2017. ^ "Ancient Egypt - the Archaic Period and Old Kingdom". www.penfield.edu. Retrieved 2017-12-04. ^ Carl Roebuck (1984), The World of Ancient Times, p. 57. ^ Vassil Dobrev, French Institute, Cairo, link 1, link 2 ^ p.5, The Collins Encyclopedia of Military History (4th edition, 1993), Dupuy & Dupuy. ^ Miroslav Verner: Archaeological Remarks on the 4th and 5th Dynasty Chronology, Archiv Orientální, Volume 69: 2001 ^ Jean-Daniel Stanley; et al. (2003). "Nile flow failure at the end of the Old Kingdom, Egypt: Strontium isotopic and petrologic evidence". Geoarchaeology. 18 (3): 395–402. doi:10.1002/gea.10065. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Robins, Gay (2008). The Art of Ancient Egypt. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ^ a b Sourouzian, Hourig (2010). A Companion to Ancient Egypt. I. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. pp. 853–881. ^ a b Arnold, Dorothea (1999). When the Pyramids Were Built: Egyptian Art of the Old Kingdom. The Metropolitan Museum of Art and Rizzoli International Publications Inc. pp. 7–17. ^ "The Metropolitan Museum". ^ a b c d e Robins, Gay (1994). Proportion and Style in Ancient Egyptian Art. University of Texas Press. ^ "Statue of Menkaure with Hathor and Cynopolis". The Global Egyptian Museum. ^ Malek, Jaromir (1999). Egyptian Art. London: Phaidon Press Limited. ^ a b Morgan, Lyvia (2011). "Enlivening the Body: Color and Stone Statues in Old Kingdom Egypt". Notes in the History of Art. 30 (3): 4–11. doi:10.1086/sou.30.3.23208555. ^ Klemm, Dietrich (2001). "The Building Stones of Ancient Egypt: A Gift of its Geology". African Earth Sciences. 33 (3–4): 631–642. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.111.9099. doi:10.1016/S0899-5362(01)00085-9. Further reading[edit] Brewer, Douglas J. Ancient Egypt: Foundations of a Civilization. Harlow, UK: Pearson, 2005. Callender, Gae. Egypt In the Old Kingdom: An Introduction. South Melbourne: Longman, 1998. Kanawati, Naguib. Governmental Reforms In Old Kingdom Egypt. Warminster: Aris & Phillips, 1980. Kanawati, Naguib., and Alexandra Woods. Artists of the Old Kingdom: Techniques and Achievements. 1st English ed. Egypt: Supreme Council of Antiquities Press, 2009. Lehner, Mark. The Complete Pyramids. London: Thames and Hudson, 1997. Málek, Jaromír., and Werner Forman. In the Shadow of the Pyramids: Ancient Egypt During the Old Kingdom. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1986. McFarlane, A., and Anna-Latifa Mourad. Behind the Scenes: Daily Life In Old Kingdom Egypt. North Ryde, N.S.W.: Australian Centre for Egyptology, 2012. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Egyptian Art in the Age of the Pyramids. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1999. Papazian, Hratch. Domain of Pharaoh: The Structure and Components of the Economy of Old Kingdom Egypt. Hildesheim: Gerstenberg, 2012. Ryholt, Kim S. B. The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c. 1800–1550 BC. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum, 1997. Sowada, K., and Peter Grave. Egypt In the Eastern Mediterranean During the Old Kingdom: An Archaeological Perspective. Fribourg: Academic Press, 2009. Strudwick, Nigel. The Administration of Egypt In the Old Kingdom: The Highest Titles and Their Holders. London: KPI, 1985. Warden, Leslie Anne. Pottery and Economy In Old Kingdom Egypt. Boston: Brill, 2013. Wilkinson, Toby. Early Dynastic Egypt. London: Routledge, 2001. External links[edit] The Fall of the Egyptian Old Kingdom from BBC History Middle East on The Matrix: Egypt, The Old Kingdom – Photographs of many of the historic sites dating from the Old Kingdom Old Kingdom of Egypt- Aldokkan Preceded by Early Dynastic Period Time Periods of Egypt 2686–2181 BC Succeeded by First Intermediate Period v t e Ancient Egypt topics Index Major topics Glossary of artifacts Agriculture Architecture (Egyptian Revival architecture) Art Portraiture Astronomy Chronology Cities (list) Clothing Cuisine Dance Dynasties Funerary practices Geography Great Royal Wives (list) Hieroglyphs History Language Literature Mathematics Medicine Military Music Mythology People Pharaohs (list) Philosophy Religion Sites Technology Trade Writing Egyptology Egyptologists Museums  Ancient Egypt portal Book Category WikiProject Commons Outline Authority control GND: 7509671-7 LCCN: sh99002813 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt&oldid=999944686" Categories: Old Kingdom of Egypt States and territories established in the 3rd millennium BC States and territories disestablished in the 3rd millennium BC 27th century BC 22nd century BC 3rd millennium BC in Egypt Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ქართული Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy مصرى Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 12 January 2021, at 19:10 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9874	----	Ramesses IV - Wikipedia Ramesses IV From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The third pharaoh of the Twentieth Dynasty of the New Kingdom of Ancient Egypt Ramesses IV Ramses IV, Rameses IV Ramesses IV offering two Nu vases, British Museum. Pharaoh Reign 1155–1149 BC (20th Dynasty) Predecessor Ramesses III Successor Ramesses V Royal titulary Prenomen  (Praenomen) Usermaatre Setepenamun Wsr-m3ˁ.t-Rˁ-stp.n-Jmn Rich in Maat like Ra, the chosen one of Amun After the second year Heqamaatre Setepenamun Ḥq3-m3ˁ.t-Rˁ-stp.n-Jmn Ruler of the Maat like Ra, the chosen one of Amun Nomen Ramesisu Heqamaat Meriamun Rˁ-msj-sw-ḥq3-m3ˁt-mrj-Jmn Ra has fashioned him, ruler of the Maat, beloved of Amun[1] Horus name Horus Kanekhet Ankhemmaat Nebkhabused mi Itef Ptah Tatenen K3-nḫt-ˁnḫ-m-m3ˁ.t-nb-ḥ3bw-sd-mj-jt.f-Ptḥ-T3-ṯnn Horus, the strong bull, his Maat lives, master of the Heb-Sed like his father Ptah-Tatenen Nebty name Mekemetwaf Pedjut-9 Mk-kmt-wˁf-pḏwt-9 The protector of Egypt, he who vanquishes the 9 bows (the ennemies of Egypt) [2] Golden Horus Wser Renput Wer Nekhetu Wsr-rnpwt-wr-nḫtw The golden falcon, rich in years, whose victories are great Consort Duatentopet Children Ramesses V Father Ramesses III Mother Tyti[3] Died 1149 BC Burial KV2 Monuments Temple of Khonsu at Karnak Heqamaatre Ramesses IV (also written Ramses or Rameses) was the third pharaoh of the Twentieth Dynasty of the New Kingdom of Ancient Egypt. His name prior to assuming the crown was Amonhirkhopshef. He was the fifth son of Ramesses III and was appointed to the position of crown prince by the twenty-second year of his father's reign when all four of his elder brothers predeceased him.[4] His promotion to crown prince: is suggested by his appearance (suitably entitled) in a scene of the festival of Min at the Ramesses III temple at Karnak, which may have been completed by Year 22 [of his father's reign]. (the date is mentioned in the poem inscribed there)[5] As his father's chosen successor, the Prince employed three distinctive titles: "Hereditary Prince", "Royal scribe" and "Generalissimo"; the latter two of his titles are mentioned in a text at Amenhotep III's temple at Soleb[6] and all three royal titles appear on a lintel now in Florence, Italy.[7] As heir-apparent he took on increasing responsibilities; for instance, in Year 27 of his father's reign, he is depicted appointing a certain Amenemope to the important position of Third Prophet of Amun in the latter's TT 148 tomb.[8] Amenemope's Theban tomb also accords prince Ramesses all three of his aforementioned sets of royal titles.[9] Due to the three decade long rule of Ramesses III, Ramesses IV is believed to have been a man in his forties when he took the throne. His rule has been dated to either 1151 to 1145 BC or 1155 to 1149 BC. Contents 1 Family 2 Projects 3 Attestations 4 Death 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Family[edit] It is now believed that Ramesses IV's mother was most likely Queen Tyti from recently discovered notes published in the 2010 issue of the Journal of Egyptian Archaeology.[10] They reveal that Tyti—who was a king's daughter, a king's wife and a king's mother in her own right—was identified in Papyrus BM EA 10052 (i.e., the tomb-robbery papyri) to be a queen of Ramesses III, Ramesses IV's father. The 2010 JEA article authors—including Aidan Dodson—write that since Ramesses VI's mother is known to be a certain lady named Iset Ta-Hemdjert or Isis: only Ramesses IV and Ramesses VIII remain as candidates [for the son of Tyti]. Given that Ramesses VIII only reigned briefly some 25 years after his father’s death, it is hardly likely that the decoration of QV52, with the mwt-nsw (i.e., king's mother) title intimately mixed with Tyti’s other titles, could have been delayed this late to refer to him. This leaves Ramesses IV as the only credible primary 'subject' of the mwt-nsw title in the tomb. As for which--if any--of the other sons of Ramesses III were borne to Tyti, no unequivocal data is available, other than the fact that Amenhirkhopeshef B, buried in QV55,[11] was ms n Hmt-nTr mwt-nTr Hmt-nsw-wrt, paralleling Tyti's titles so closely that he may with some confidence be proposed as her son.[12] Thus, the identity of Ramesses IV's mother has been resolved in favour of Queen Tyti who was once erroneously thought to be the mother of another king in the mid-1980s: Ramesses XI.[13] Ramesses IV was succeeded to the throne by his son Ramesses V. Projects[edit] Limestone ostracon depicting Ramesses IV smiting his enemies. Statue of Ramesses IV, nomen and prenomen cartouches on shoulders, currently housed in the British Museum Ramesses IV came to the throne in difficult circumstances. Ramesses III, his father, was assassinated by conspirators led by Tiye, one of his secondary wives, to establish Pentawer, her own son and Ramesses IV's half-brother, on the throne.[14] Ramesses IV, however, was able to secure himself on the throne, and had the conspirators arrested and executed. At the start of his reign, the pharaoh initiated a substantial building program on the scale of Ramesses II by doubling the size of the work gangs at Deir el-Medina to a total of 120 men and dispatching numerous expeditions to the stone quarries of Wadi Hammamat and the turquoise mines of the Sinai.[15] The Great Rock stela of Ramesses IV at Wadi Hammamat records that the largest expedition—dated to his Year 3, third month of Shemu day 27—consisted of 8,368 men alone including 5,000 soldiers, 2,000 personnel of the Amun temples, 800 Apiru and 130 stonemasons and quarrymen under the personal command of the High Priest of Amun, Ramessesnakht.[16] The scribes who composed the text also noted that this figure included 900 men "who are dead and omitted from this list."[5] Consequently, once this omitted figure is included to the tally of 8,368 men who served in the Year 3 quarry expedition, a total of 900 men out of an original expedition of 8,368 men perished during this endeavour for a mortality rate of 10.7%. Some of the stones which were dragged 60 miles to the Nile from Wadi Hammamat weighed 40 tons or more.[17] Other Egyptian quarries including Aswan were located much closer to the Nile which enabled them to use barges to transport stones long distances. Part of the king's program included the extensive enlargement of his father's Temple of Khonsu at Karnak and the construction of a large mortuary temple near the Temple of Hatshepsut. Ramesses IV also sent several expeditions to the turquoise mines in the Sinai; a total of four expeditions are known prior to his fourth year. The Serabit el-Khadim stela of the Royal Butler Sobekhotep states: "Year 3, third month of Shemu. His Majesty sent his favoured and beloved one, the confident of his lord, the Overseer of the Treasury of Silver and Gold, Chief of the Secrets of the august Palace, Sobekhotep, justified, to bring for him all that his heart desired of turquoise (on) his fourth expedition."[18] This expedition dates to either Ramesses III or IV's reign since Sobekhotep is attested in office until at least the reign of Ramesses V.[5] Ramesses IV's final venture to the turquoise mines of the Sinai is documented by the stela of a senior army scribe named Panufer. Panufer states that this expedition's mission was both to procure turquoise and to establish a cult chapel of king Ramesses IV at the Hathor temple of Serabit el-Khadim.[19] The stela reads: Year 5, second month of Shomu [i.e., summer]. The sending by His Majesty <to> build the Mansion of Millions of Years of Ramesses IV in the temple of Hathor, Lady of Turquoise, by Panefer, the Scribe of the Commands of the Army, son of Pairy, justified.[20] While little is known regarding the route that the mining missions took from Egypt to Serabit el-Khadim, AJ Peden, who wrote a biography of Ramesses IV in 1994, states that there were "two obvious routes" to reach this site: The first was a straightforward march from a Delta base, such as Memphis, east south-east and then south into Sinai. Surviving a march in this inhospitable land would have presented formidable logistical obstacles, perhaps forcing an alternative route to be adopted. This would involve a departure from the Delta to a site near the modern port of Suez. From here they could have proceeded by boat to the ports of Abu Zenima or El-Markha on the west coast of the Sinai peninsula and from there it is a short journey inland of only a day or two to the actual site of Serabit el-Khadim.[5] Attestations[edit] Relief of Ramesses IV at the Temple of Khonsu in Karnak Ramesses IV is attested by his aforementioned building activity at Wadi Hammamat and Serabit el-Khadim in the Sinai as well as several papyri and even one obelisk. The creation of a royal cult in the Temple of Hathor is known under his reign at Serabit el-Khadim while Papyrus Mallet (or P. Louvre 1050) dates to Years 3 and 4 of his reign.[5] Papyrus Mallet is a six column text dealing partly with agricultural affairs; its first column lists the prices for various commodities between Year 31 of Ramesses III until Year 3 of Ramesses IV.[5] The final four columns contain a memorandum of 2 letters composed by the Superintendent of Cattle of the Estate of Amen-Re, Bakenkhons, to several mid-level administrators and their subordinates.[5] Meanwhile, surviving monuments of Ramesses IV in the Delta consists of an obelisk recovered in Cairo and a pair of his cartouches found on a pylon gateway both originally from Heliopolis.[5] The most important document to survive from this pharaoh's rule is Papyrus Harris I, which honours the life of his father, Ramesses III, by listing the latter's many accomplishments and gifts to the temples of Egypt, and the Turin papyrus, the earliest known geologic map. Ramesses IV was perhaps the last New Kingdom king to engage in large-scale monumental building after his father as "there was a marked decline in temple building even during the longer reigns of Ramesses IX and VI. The only apparent exception was the attempt of Ramesses V and VI to continue the vast and uncompleted mortuary temple of Ramesses IV at the Assasif."[5] Death[edit] Ushabti of Ramses IV, Musée du Louvre. Despite Ramesses IV's many endeavours for the gods and his prayer to Osiris—preserved on a Year 4 stela at Abydos—that "thou shalt give me the great age with a long reign [as my predecessor]", the king did not live long enough to accomplish his ambitious goals.[21] After a short reign of about six and a half years, Ramesses IV died and was buried in tomb KV2 in the Valley of the Kings. His mummy was found in the royal cache of Amenhotep II's tomb KV35 in 1898.[21] His chief wife is Queen Duatentopet or Tentopet or Male who was buried in QV74. His son, Ramesses V, would succeed him to the throne.[22] Originally, Ramesses IV had a tomb built for him in the Valley of the Queens, QV55. See also[edit] Biography portal List of megalithic sites Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ramses IV. Ring featuring ducks with Ramesses IV's name Relief of Ramesses IV at the Temple of Khonsu References[edit] ^ Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames & Hudson Ltd, 1994, p.167 ^ The Epigraphic Survey: Medinet Habu, Vol. I - VII, Band II., Tafel 101. ^ Jehon Grist: The Identity of the Ramesside Queen Tyti, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, Vol. 71, (1985), pp. 71-81 ^ Jacobus Van Dijk, 'The Amarna Period and the later New Kingdom' in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, ed. Ian Shaw, Oxford University Press paperback, 2002, p.306 ^ a b c d e f g h i A. J. Peden, The Reign of Ramesses IV, Aris & Phillips Ltd, 1994. ^ Kitchen, Ramesside Inscriptions, Vol. V 372: 16 ^ Kitchen, Ramesside Inscriptions, Vol. V, 373 (3) ^ G.A. Gaballa & K.A. Kitchen, "Amenemope, His Tomb and Family," MDAIK 37 (1981), pp.164-180 ^ Gaballa & Kitchen, pp.172-173 & 176-177 ^ Mark Collier, Aidan Dodson, & Gottfried Hamernik, P. BM EA 10052, Anthony Harris, and Queen Tyti, JEA 96 (2010) pp.242-246 ^ PM I (2), 759-761 ^ Collier, Dodson & Hamernik, JEA 96, p.246 ^ K.A. Kitchen, ‘Family Relationships of Ramesses IX and the Late Twentieth Dynasty’, SAK 11 (1984), 127–34 ^ Hawass, Zahi; Ismail, Somaia; et al. (December 17, 2012). "Revisiting the harem conspiracy and death of Ramesses III: anthropological, forensic, radiological,and genetic study". BMJ. BMJ Publishing Group Ltd. 345: e8268. doi:10.1136/bmj.e8268. hdl:10072/62081. PMID 23247979. Retrieved 20 June 2020. ^ Van Dijk, pp.306-307 ^ Kitchen, Ramesside Inscriptions, Vol. VI, 12-14 ^ Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Ramses II: Magnificence on the Nile (1993) p.133 ^ Kitchen, Ramesside Inscriptions, Vol. VI, 85-86 ^ Porter and Moss, Vol. VIII, 347-365 ^ Kitchen, Ramesside Inscriptions, Vol. VI, 29:4 ^ a b Clayton, Chronicle, p.167 ^ Van Dijk, p.307 Further reading[edit] Gabriella Dembitz, Les inscriptions de Ramsès IV de l'allée processionnelle nord-sud à Karnak révisées. Karnak Varia (§6), in: Cahiers de Karnak 16 (2017), 167-178. David F. Wieczorek, A Rock Inscription of Ramesses IV at Gebelein, a previously unknown New Kingdom expedition, in: Études et Travaux XXVIII (2015), 217-229. External links[edit] Ramesses IV at Find a Grave v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Authority control GND: 11874903X ISNI: 0000 0000 8775 7508 LCCN: n92068037 NLI: 000508007 VIAF: 127422598 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n92068037 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ramesses_IV&oldid=980753000" Categories: Ramesses IV 12th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Ancient Egyptian mummies 12th century BC in Egypt 12th-century BC rulers Ramesses III Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers 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Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 28 September 2020, at 07:27 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9878	----	Assyrian people - Wikipedia Assyrian people From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ethnic group indigenous to the Near East Some of this article's listed sources may not be reliable. Please help this article by looking for better, more reliable sources. Unreliable citations may be challenged or deleted. (January 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Assyrians Sūrāyē / Suryoye / ʾĀṯōrāyē Ethnic flag used by most Assyrians Total population 2–5 million[1][2][3][4][5] [6][7][8][9] Regions with significant populations Assyrian homeland: Numbers can vary  Syria 200,000–877,000 (pre-Syrian civil war)[10][11][12][10] [13]  Iraq 150,000–202,000[14][15][16]  Turkey 25,000[17]  Iran 7,000–17,000[18] Diaspora: Numbers can vary  United States 110,807–600,000[19][20][21][22][23]  Sweden 150,000[24]  Germany 70,000–100,000[25][26]  Lebanon Up to 80,000[27]  Australia 46,217[28]  Jordan 30,000–44,000–150,000[29][30]  Canada 10,810[31]  Netherlands Thousands[32]  France 16,000[33]  Russia 14,000[34]  Greece 6,000[35]  Georgia 3,299[36][37]  Ukraine 3,143[38]  Armenia 2,769–6,000[39][40]  New Zealand 1,497[41]  Israel 1,000–5,000[42][43]  Denmark 700[44]  Kazakhstan 350[45]  Finland 300[46]  United Kingdom 3,000–4,000[47]  Austria 2,500–5,000[48][49] Languages Neo-Aramaic (Assyrian, Chaldean, Turoyo) Religion Predominantly Syriac Christianity Also Protestantism Related ethnic groups Arabs,[50] Jews,[50] Mandeans Assyrians (ܣܘܪ̈ܝܐ, Sūrāyē/Sūrōyē) are an ethnic group indigenous to Assyria, a region in the Middle East.[51][52] Some self-identify as Syriacs,[53] Arameans,[54] and Chaldeans.[55] Speakers of the Neo-Aramaic branch of Semitic languages as well as the primary languages in their countries of residence,[56] modern Assyrians are Syriac Christians who claim descent from Assyria, one of the oldest civilizations in the world, dating back to 2500 BC in ancient Mesopotamia.[57] The tribal areas that form the Assyrian homeland are parts of present-day northern Iraq (Nineveh Plains and Dohuk Governorate), southeastern Turkey (Hakkari and Tur Abdin), northwestern Iran (Urmia) and, more recently, northeastern Syria (Al-Hasakah Governorate).[58] The majority have migrated to other regions of the world, including North America, the Levant, Australia, Europe, Russia and the Caucasus during the past century. Emigration was triggered by events such as the Massacres of Diyarbakır, the Assyrian Genocide (concurrent with the Armenian and Greek Genocides) during World War I by the Ottoman Empire and allied Kurdish tribes, the Simele Massacre in Iraq in 1933, the Iranian Revolution of 1979, Arab Nationalist Ba'athist policies in Iraq and Syria, the rise of Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) and its takeover of most of the Nineveh Plains.[59][60] Assyrians are predominantly Christian, mostly adhering to the East and West Syriac liturgical rites of Christianity.[61] The churches that constitute the East Syriac rite include the Chaldean Catholic Church, Assyrian Church of the East, and the Ancient Church of the East, whereas the churches of the West Syriac rite are the Syriac Orthodox Church and Syriac Catholic Church. Both rites use Classical Syriac as their liturgical language. Most recently, the post-2003 Iraq War and the Syrian Civil War, which began in 2011, have displaced much of the remaining Assyrian community from their homeland as a result of ethnic and religious persecution at the hands of Islamic extremists. Of the one million or more Iraqis reported by the United Nations to have fled Iraq since the occupation, nearly 40% were Assyrians even though Assyrians accounted for only around 3% of the pre-war Iraqi demography.[62][63] Because of the emergence of ISIL and the taking over of much of the Assyrian homeland by the terror group, another major wave of Assyrian displacement has taken place. ISIL was driven out from the Assyrian villages in the Khabour River Valley and the areas surrounding the city of Al-Hasakah in Syria by 2015, and from the Nineveh plains in Iraq by 2017. In northern Syria, Assyrian groups have been taking part both politically and militarily in the Kurdish-dominated but multiethnic Syrian Democratic Forces (see Khabour Guards and Sutoro) and Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria. Contents 1 History 1.1 Pre-Christian history 1.1.1 Language 1.2 Early Christian period 1.3 Arab conquest 1.4 Mongolian and Turkic rule 1.5 From Iranian Safavid to confirmed Ottoman rule 1.5.1 World War I and aftermath 1.6 Modern history 1.6.1 21st century 2 Demographics 2.1 Homeland 2.2 Assyrian subgroups 2.3 Persecution 2.4 Diaspora 3 Identity and subdivisions 3.1 Self-designation 3.2 Assyrian vs. Syrian naming controversy 4 Culture 4.1 Language 4.1.1 Script 4.2 Religion 4.3 Music 4.4 Dance 4.5 Festivals 4.6 Traditional clothing 4.7 Cuisine 5 Genetics 5.1 Haplogroups 6 See also 7 References 8 Sources 9 External links History Main article: History of the Assyrian people Pre-Christian history Main articles: Achaemenid Empire, Achaemenid Assyria, and Neo-Assyrian Empire Part of the Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal, c. 645–635 BC Assyria is the homeland of the Assyrian people; it is located in the ancient Near East. In prehistoric times, the region that was to become known as Assyria (and Subartu) was home to Neanderthals such as the remains of those which have been found at the Shanidar Cave. The earliest Neolithic sites in Assyria belonged to the Jarmo culture c. 7100 BC and Tell Hassuna, the centre of the Hassuna culture, c. 6000 BC. The history of Assyria begins with the formation of the city of Assur perhaps as early as the 25th century BC.[64] The Assyrian king list records kings dating from the 25th century BC onwards, the earliest being Tudiya, who was a contemporary of Ibrium of Ebla. However, many of these early kings would have been local rulers, and from the late 24th century BC to the early 22nd century BC, they were usually subjects of the Akkadian Empire. During the early Bronze Age period, Sargon of Akkad united all the native Semitic-speaking peoples (including the Assyrians) and the Sumerians of Mesopotamia under the Akkadian Empire (2335–2154 BC). The cities of Assur and Nineveh (modern day Mosul), which was the oldest and largest city of the ancient Assyrian Empire,[65] together with a number of other towns and cities, existed as early as the 25th century BC, although they appear to have been Sumerian-ruled administrative centres at this time, rather than independent states. The Sumerians were eventually absorbed into the Akkadian (Assyro-Babylonian) population.[66] Assyrian soldier of the Achaemenid Army circa 480 BC, Xerxes I tomb, Naqsh-e Rustam. In the traditions of the Assyrian Church of the East, they are descended from Abraham's grandson (Dedan son of Jokshan), progenitor of the ancient Assyrians.[67] However, there is no historical basis for the biblical assertion whatsoever; there is no mention in Assyrian records (which date as far back as the 25th century BC). Ashur-uballit I overthrew the Mitanni c. 1365 BC, and the Assyrians benefited from this development by taking control of the eastern portion of Mitanni territory, and later also annexing Hittite, Babylonian, Amorite and Hurrian territories.[68] The Assyrian people, after the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 609 BC were under the control of the Neo-Babylonian and later the Persian Empire, which consumed the entire Neo-Babylonian or "Chaldean" Empire in 539 BC. Assyrians became front line soldiers for the Persian Empire under Xerxes I, playing a major role in the Battle of Marathon under Darius I in 490 BC.[69] Herodotus, whose Histories are the main source of information about that battle, makes no mention of Assyrians in connection with it.[70] Despite the influx of foreign elements, the presence of Assyrians is confirmed by the worship of the god Ashur; references to the name survive into the 3rd century AD.[71] The Greeks, Parthians, and Romans had a rather low level of integration with the local population in Mesopotamia, which allowed their cultures to survive.[72] The kingdoms of Osroene, which inhabitants was mainly a mix of Greeks, Parthians and Arameans,[73][74] Adiabene, Hatra and Assur, which were under Parthian overlordship, had an Assyrian identity[citation needed] Language Emerging in Sumer c. 3500 BC, cuneiform writing began as a system of pictograms. Around 3000 BC, the pictorial representations became simplified and more abstract as the number of characters in use grew smaller. The original Sumerian script was adapted for the writing of the Akkadian (Babylonian and Assyrian) and Hittite languages.[75] The Kültepe texts, which were written in Old Assyrian, preserve the earliest known traces of the Hittite language, and the earliest attestation of any Indo-European language, dated to the 20th century BC. Most of the archaeological evidence is typical of Anatolia rather than of Assyria, but the use of both cuneiform and the dialect is the best indication of Assyrian presence. To date, over 20,000 cuneiform tablets have been recovered from the site.[76][77] From 1700 BC and onward, the Sumerian language was preserved by the ancient Babylonians and Assyrians only as a liturgical and classical language for religious, artistic and scholarly purposes.[78] The Akkadian language, with its main dialects Assyrian and Babylonian, once the lingua franca of the Ancient Near East, began to decline during the Neo-Assyrian Empire around the 8th century BC, being marginalized by Old Aramaic during the reign of Tiglath-Pileser III. By the Hellenistic period, the language was largely confined to scholars and priests working in temples in Assyria and Babylonia. Early Christian period Map of Asōristān (226–637 AD) Further information: Syriac Christianity, History of Eastern Christianity, and Asōristān From the 1st century BC, Assyria was the theatre of the protracted Roman–Persian Wars. Much of the region would become the Roman province of Assyria from 116 to 118 AD following the conquests of Trajan, but after a Parthian-inspired Assyrian rebellion, the new emperor Hadrian withdrew from the short-lived Roman province of Assyria and its neighboring provinces in 118 AD.[79] Following a successful campaign in 197–198, Severus converted the kingdom of Osroene, centred on Edessa, into a frontier Roman province.[80] Roman influence in the area came to an end under Jovian in 363, who abandoned the region after concluding a hasty peace agreement with the Sassanians.[81] From the later 2nd century, the Roman Senate included several notable Assyrians, including Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus and Avidius Cassius. The Assyrians were Christianized in the first to third centuries in Roman Syria and Roman Assyria. The population of the Sasanian province of Asōristān was a mixed one, composed of Assyrians, Arameans in the far south and the western deserts, and Persians.[82] The Greek element in the cities, still strong during the Parthian Empire, ceased to be ethnically distinct in Sasanian times. The majority of the population were Eastern Aramaic speakers. Along with the Arameans, Armenians, Greeks, and Nabataeans, the Assyrians were among the first people to convert to Christianity and spread Eastern Christianity to the Far East in spite of becoming, from the 8th century, a minority religion in their homeland following the Muslim conquest of Persia. In 410, the Council of Seleucia-Ctesiphon, the capital of the Sasanian Empire,[83] organized the Christians within that empire into what became known as the Church of the East. Its head was declared to be the bishop of Seleucia-Ctesiphon, who in the acts of the council was referred to as the Grand or Major Metropolitan, and who soon afterward was called the Catholicos of the East. Later, the title of Patriarch was also used. Dioceses were organised into provinces, each of which was under the authority of a metropolitan bishop. Six such provinces were instituted in 410. A 6th century church, St. John the Arab, in Hakkari, Turkey (Geramon). Another council held in 424 declared that the Catholicos of the East was independent of "western" ecclesiastical authorities (those of the Roman Empire). Soon afterwards, Christians in the Roman Empire were divided by their attitude regarding the Council of Ephesus (431), which condemned Nestorianism, and the Council of Chalcedon (451), which condemned Monophysitism. Those who for any reason refused to accept one or other of these councils were called Nestorians or Monophysites, while those who accepted both councils, held under the auspices of the Roman emperors, were called Melkites (derived from Syriac malkā, king),[84] meaning royalists. All three groups existed among the Syriac Christians, the East Syriacs being called Nestorians and the West Syriacs being divided between the Monophysites (today the Syriac Orthodox Church, also known as Jacobites, after Jacob Baradaeus) and those who accepted both councils (primarily today's Orthodox Church, which has adopted the Byzantine Rite in Greek, but also the Maronite Church, which kept its West Syriac Rite and was not as closely aligned with Constantinople). After this division the West Syriacs, who was under Roman/Byzantine influence and the East Syriacs, under Persian influence, developed dialects that was different from each other, both in pronunciation and written symbolization of vowels.[85] With the rise of Syriac Christianity, eastern Aramaic enjoyed a renaissance as a classical language in the 2nd to 8th centuries, and varieties of that form of Aramaic (Neo-Aramaic languages) are still spoken by a few small groups of Jacobite and Nestorian Christians in the Middle East.[86] Arab conquest Further information: Muslim conquest of Persia The Assyrians initially experienced some periods of religious and cultural freedom interspersed with periods of severe religious and ethnic persecution after the 7th century Muslim conquest of Persia. Assyrians contributed to Islamic civilizations during the Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates by translating works of Greek philosophers to Syriac and afterwards to Arabic. They also excelled in philosophy, science (Qusta ibn Luqa, Masawaiyh,[87] Eutychius of Alexandria, and Jabril ibn Bukhtishu[88]) and theology (such as Tatian, Bardaisan, Babai the Great, Nestorius, and Thomas of Marga) and the personal physicians of the Abbasid Caliphs were often Assyrians, such as the long-serving Bukhtishu dynasty.[89] Many scholars of the House of Wisdom were of Assyrian Christian background.[90] Indigenous Assyrians became second-class citizens (dhimmi) in a greater Arab Islamic state, and those who resisted Arabisation and conversion to Islam were subject to severe religious, ethnic and cultural discrimination, and had certain restrictions imposed upon them.[91] Assyrians were excluded from specific duties and occupations reserved for Muslims, they did not enjoy the same political rights as Muslims, their word was not equal to that of a Muslim in legal and civil matters, as Christians they were subject to payment of a special tax (jizya), they were banned from spreading their religion further or building new churches in Muslim-ruled lands, but were also expected to adhere to the same laws of property, contract and obligation as the Muslim Arabs.[92] They couldn't seek conversion of a Muslim, a non-Muslim man couldn't marry a Muslim woman and the child of such a marriage would be considered Muslim. They couldn't own a Muslim slave and had to wear different clothing from Muslims in order to be distinguishable. In addition to the jizya tax, they were also required to pay the kharaj tax on their land which was heavier than the jizya. However they were ensured protection, given religious freedom and to govern themselves in accordance to their own laws.[93] As non-Islamic proselytising was punishable by death under Sharia, the Assyrians were forced into preaching in Transoxiana, Central Asia, India, Mongolia and China where they established numerous churches. The Church of the East was considered to be one of the major Christian powerhouses in the world, alongside Latin Christianity in Europe and the Byzantine Empire.[94] From the 7th century AD onwards Mesopotamia saw a steady influx of Arabs, Kurds and other Iranian peoples,[95] and later Turkic peoples. Assyrians were increasingly marginalized, persecuted, and gradually became a minority in their own homeland. Conversion to Islam as a result of heavy taxation which also resulted in decreased revenue from their rulers. As a result, the new converts migrated to Muslim garrison towns nearby. Assyrians remained dominant in Upper Mesopotamia as late as the 14th century,[96] and the city of Ashur was still occupied by Assyrians during the Islamic period until the mid-14th century when the Muslim Turco-Mongol ruler Timur conducted a religiously motivated massacre against Assyrians. After, there were no records of Assyrians remaining in Ashur according to the archaeological and numismatic record. From this point, the Assyrian population was dramatically reduced in their homeland.[97] From the 19th century, after the rise of nationalism in the Balkans, the Ottomans started viewing Assyrians and other Christians in their eastern front as a potential threat. The Kurdish Emirs sought to consolidate their power by attacking Assyrian communities which were already well-established there. Scholars estimate that tens of thousands of Assyrian in the Hakkari region were massacred in 1843 when Bedr Khan Beg, the emir of Bohtan, invaded their region.[98] After a later massacre in 1846, the Ottomans were forced by the western powers into intervening in the region, and the ensuing conflict destroyed the Kurdish emirates and reasserted the Ottoman power in the area. The Assyrians were subject to the massacres of Diyarbakır soon after.[99] Being culturally, ethnically, and linguistically distinct from their Muslim neighbors in the Middle East—the Arabs, Persians, Kurds, Turks—the Assyrians have endured much hardship throughout their recent history as a result of religious and ethnic persecution by these groups.[100] Mongolian and Turkic rule Further information: Timurid Empire, Aq Qoyunlu, and Kara Koyunlu Aramaic language and Syriac Christianity in the Middle East and Central Asia until being largely annihilated by Tamerlane in the 14th century After initially coming under the control of the Seljuk Empire and the Buyid dynasty, the region eventually came under the control of the Mongol Empire after the fall of Baghdad in 1258. The Mongol khans were sympathetic with Christians and did not harm them. The most prominent among them was probably Isa Kelemechi, a diplomat, astrologer, and head of the Christian affairs in Yuan China. He spent some time in Persia under the Ilkhanate. The 14th century massacres of Timur devastated the Assyrian people. Timur's massacres and pillages of all that was Christian drastically reduced their existence. At the end of the reign of Timur, the Assyrian population had almost been eradicated in many places. Toward the end of the thirteenth century, Bar Hebraeus, the noted Assyrian scholar and hierarch, found "much quietness" in his diocese in Mesopotamia. Syria's diocese, he wrote, was "wasted."[citation needed] The region was later controlled by the in Iran-based Turkic confederations of the Aq Qoyunlu and Kara Koyunlu. Subsequently, all Assyrians, like with the rest of the ethnicities living in the former Aq Qoyunlu territories, fell into Safavid hands from 1501 and on. From Iranian Safavid to confirmed Ottoman rule See also: Massacres of Badr Khan and Massacres of Diyarbakir (1895) Further information: Safavid Empire, Afsharid Empire, Zand dynasty, Qajar dynasty, Ottoman Empire, Ottoman-Persian Wars, and Treaty of Zuhab Mar Elias (Eliya), the Nestorian bishop of the Urmia plain village of Geogtapa, c.1831 The Ottomans secured their control over Mesopotamia and Syria in the first half of the 17th century following the Ottoman–Safavid War (1623–39) and the resulting Treaty of Zuhab. Non-Muslims were organised into millets. Syriac Christians, however, were often considered one millet alongside Armenians until the 19th century, when Nestorian, Syriac Orthodox and Chaldeans gained that right as well.[101] The Aramaic-speaking Mesopotamian Christians had long been divided between followers of the Church of the East, commonly referred to as "Nestorians", and followers of the Syriac Orthodox Church, commonly called Jacobites. The latter were organised by Marutha of Tikrit (565–649) as 17 dioceses under a "Metropolitan of the East" or "Maphrian", holding the highest rank in the Syriac Orthodox Church after that of the Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch and All the East. The Maphrian resided at Tikrit until 1089, when he moved to the city of Mosul for half a century, before settling in the nearby Monastery of Mar Mattai (still belonging to the Syriac Orthodox Church) and thus not far from the residence of the Eliya line of Patriarchs of the Church of the East. From 1533, the holder of the office was known as the Maphrian of Mosul, to distinguish him from the Maphrian of the Patriarch of Tur Abdin.[102] In 1552, a group of bishops of the Church of the East from the northern regions of Amid and Salmas, who were dissatisfied with reservation of patriarchal succession to members of a single family, even if the designated successor was little more than a child, elected as a rival patriarch the abbot of the Rabban Hormizd Monastery, Yohannan Sulaqa. This was by no means the first schism in the Church of the East. An example is the attempt to replace Timothy I (779–823) with Ephrem of Gandīsābur.[103] By tradition, a patriarch could be ordained only by someone of archiepiscopal (metropolitan) rank, a rank to which only members of that one family were promoted. For that reason, Sulaqa travelled to Rome, where, presented as the new patriarch elect, he entered communion with the Catholic Church and was ordained by the Pope and recognized as patriarch. The title or description under which he was recognized as patriarch is given variously as "Patriarch of Mosul in Eastern Syria";[104] "Patriarch of the Church of the Chaldeans of Mosul";[105] "Patriarch of the Chaldeans";[106][107][108] "patriarch of Mosul";[109][110][111] or "patriarch of the Eastern Assyrians", this last being the version given by Pietro Strozzi on the second-last unnumbered page before page 1 of his De Dogmatibus Chaldaeorum,[112] of which an English translation is given in Adrian Fortescue's Lesser Eastern Churches.[113][114] Mar Shimun VIII Yohannan Sulaqa returned to northern Mesopotamia in the same year and fixed his seat in Amid. Before being imprisoned for four months and then in January 1555 put to death by the governor of Amadiya at the instigation of the rival patriarch of Alqosh, of the Eliya line,[115] he ordained two metropolitans and three other bishops,[116] thus beginning a new ecclesiastical hierarchy: the patriarchal line known as the Shimun line. The area of influence of this patriarchate soon moved from Amid east, fixing the see, after many changes, in the isolated village of Qochanis. A massacre of Armenians and Assyrians in the city of Adana, Ottoman Empire, April 1909 The Shimun line eventually drifted away from Rome and in 1662 adopted a profession of faith incompatible with that of Rome. Leadership of those who wished communion with Rome passed to the Archbishop of Amid Joseph I, recognized first by the Turkish civil authorities (1677) and then by Rome itself (1681). A century and a half later, in 1830, headship of the Catholics (the Chaldean Catholic Church) was conferred on Yohannan Hormizd, a member of the family that for centuries had provided the patriarchs of the legitimist "Eliya line", who had won over most of the followers of that line. Thus the patriarchal line of those who in 1553 entered communion with Rome are now patriarchs of the "traditionalist" wing of the Church of the East, that which in 1976 officially adopted the name "Assyrian Church of the East".[117][118][119][120] In the 1840s many of the Assyrians living in the mountains of Hakkari in the south eastern corner of the Ottoman Empire were massacred by the Kurdish emirs of Hakkari and Bohtan.[121] Another major massacre of Assyrians (and Armenians) in the Ottoman Empire occurred between 1894 and 1897 by Turkish troops and their Kurdish allies during the rule of Sultan Abdul Hamid II. The motives for these massacres were an attempt to reassert Pan-Islamism in the Ottoman Empire, resentment at the comparative wealth of the ancient indigenous Christian communities, and a fear that they would attempt to secede from the tottering Ottoman Empire. Assyrians were massacred in Diyarbakir, Hasankeyef, Sivas and other parts of Anatolia, by Sultan Abdul Hamid II. These attacks caused the death of over thousands of Assyrians and the forced "Ottomanisation" of the inhabitants of 245 villages. The Turkish troops looted the remains of the Assyrian settlements and these were later stolen and occupied by Kurds. Unarmed Assyrian women and children were raped, tortured and murdered.[122] World War I and aftermath Assyrian flag, c. 1920[123][124] The burning of bodies of Assyrian women Main articles: Assyrian Genocide and Assyrian struggle for independence The Assyrians suffered a number of religiously and ethnically motivated massacres throughout the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries,[121] culminating in the large-scale Hamidian massacres of unarmed men, women and children by Muslim Turks and Kurds in the late 19th century at the hands of the Ottoman Empire and its associated (largely Kurdish and Arab) militias, which further greatly reduced numbers, particularly in southeastern Turkey. The most significant recent persecution against the Assyrian population was the Assyrian genocide which occurred during the First World War. Between 275,000 and 300,000 Assyrians were estimated to have been slaughtered by the armies of the Ottoman Empire and their Kurdish allies, totalling up to two-thirds of the entire Assyrian population. This led to a large-scale migration of Turkish-based Assyrian people into countries such as Syria, Iran, and Iraq (where they were to suffer further violent assaults at the hands of the Arabs and Kurds), as well as other neighbouring countries in and around the Middle East such as Armenia, Georgia and Russia.[125][126][127][128] In reaction to the Assyrian Genocide and lured by British and Russian promises of an independent nation, the Assyrians led by Agha Petros and Malik Khoshaba of the Bit-Tyari tribe, fought alongside the Allies against Ottoman forces in an Assyrian war of independence. Despite being heavily outnumbered and outgunned the Assyrians fought successfully, scoring a number of victories over the Turks and Kurds. This situation continued until their Russian allies left the war, and Armenian resistance broke, leaving the Assyrians surrounded, isolated and cut off from lines of supply. The sizable Assyrian presence in south eastern Anatolia which had endured for over four millennia was thus reduced to no more than 15,000 by the end of World War I. Modern history Assyrian refugees on a wagon moving to a newly constructed village on the Khabur River in Syria The majority of Assyrians living in what is today modern Turkey were forced to flee to either Syria or Iraq after the Turkish victory during the Turkish War of Independence. In 1932, Assyrians refused to become part of the newly formed state of Iraq and instead demanded their recognition as a nation within a nation. The Assyrian leader Shimun XXI Eshai asked the League of Nations to recognize the right of the Assyrians to govern the area known as the "Assyrian triangle" in northern Iraq. During the French mandate period, some Assyrians, fleeing ethnic cleansings in Iraq during the Simele massacre, established numerous villages along the Khabur River during the 1930s. The Assyrian Levies were founded by the British in 1928, with ancient Assyrian military rankings such as Rab-shakeh, Rab-talia and Tartan, being revived for the first time in millennia for this force. The Assyrians were prized by the British rulers for their fighting qualities, loyalty, bravery and discipline,[129] and were used to help the British put down insurrections among the Arabs and Kurds. During World War II, eleven Assyrian companies saw action in Palestine and another four served in Cyprus. The Parachute Company was attached to the Royal Marine Commando and were involved in fighting in Albania, Italy and Greece. The Assyrian Levies played a major role in subduing the pro-Nazi Iraqi forces at the battle of Habbaniya in 1941. However, this cooperation with the British was viewed with suspicion by some leaders of the newly formed Kingdom of Iraq. The tension reached its peak shortly after the formal declaration of independence when hundreds of Assyrian civilians were slaughtered during the Simele Massacre by the Iraqi Army in August 1933. The events lead to the expulsion of Shimun XXI Eshai the Catholicos Patriarch of the Assyrian Church of the East to the United States where resided until his death in 1975.[130][131] Celebration at a Syriac Orthodox monastery in Mosul, Ottoman Syria, early 20th century The period from the 1940s through to 1963 saw a period of respite for the Assyrians. The regime of President Abd al-Karim Qasim in particular saw the Assyrians accepted into mainstream society. Many urban Assyrians became successful businessmen, others were well represented in politics and the military, their towns and villages flourished undisturbed, and Assyrians came to excel, and be over represented in sports. The Ba'ath Party seized power in Iraq and Syria in 1963, introducing laws aimed at suppressing the Assyrian national identity via arabization policies. The giving of traditional Assyrian names was banned and Assyrian schools, political parties, churches and literature were repressed. Assyrians were heavily pressured into identifying as Iraqi/Syrian Christians. Assyrians were not recognized as an ethnic group by the governments and they fostered divisions among Assyrians along religious lines (e.g. Assyrian Church of the East vs. Chaldean Catholic Church vs Syriac Orthodox Church).[132] In response to Baathist persecution, the Assyrians of the Zowaa movement within the Assyrian Democratic Movement took up armed struggle against the Iraqi government in 1982 under the leadership of Yonadam Kanna,[133] and then joined up with the Iraqi-Kurdistan Front in the early 1990s. Yonadam Kanna in particular was a target of the Saddam Hussein Ba'ath government for many years. The Anfal campaign of 1986–1989 in Iraq, which was intended to target Kurdish opposition, resulted in 2,000 Assyrians being murdered through its gas campaigns. Over 31 towns and villages, 25 Assyrian monasteries and churches were razed to the ground. Some Assyrians were murdered, others were deported to large cities, and their lands and homes then being appropriated by Arabs and Kurds.[134][135] 21st century Assyrian Genocide Memorial in Yerevan, Armenia Main articles: Assyrian exodus from Iraq and 2008 attacks on Christians in Mosul Since the 2003 Iraq War social unrest and chaos have resulted in the unprovoked persecution of Assyrians in Iraq, mostly by Islamic extremists (both Shia and Sunni) and Kurdish nationalists (ex. Dohuk Riots of 2011 aimed at Assyrians & Yazidis). In places such as Dora, a neighborhood in southwestern Baghdad, the majority of its Assyrian population has either fled abroad or to northern Iraq, or has been murdered.[136] Islamic resentment over the United States' occupation of Iraq, and incidents such as the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons and the Pope Benedict XVI Islam controversy, have resulted in Muslims attacking Assyrian communities. Since the start of the Iraq war, at least 46 churches and monasteries have been bombed.[137] In recent years, the Assyrians in northern Iraq and northeast Syria have become the target of extreme unprovoked Islamic terrorism. As a result, Assyrians have taken up arms alongside other groups (such as the Kurds, Turcomans and Armenians) in response to unprovoked attacks by Al Qaeda, the Islamic State (ISIL), Nusra Front and other terrorist Islamic Fundamentalist groups. In 2014 Islamic terrorists of ISIL attacked Assyrian towns and villages in the Assyrian Homeland of northern Iraq, together with cities such as Mosul and Kirkuk which have large Assyrian populations. There have been reports of atrocities committed by ISIL terrorists since, including; beheadings, crucifixions, child murders, rape, forced conversions, Ethnic Cleansing, robbery, and extortion in the form of illegal taxes levied upon non Muslims. Assyrians in Iraq have responded by forming armed militias to defend their territories. In response to the Islamic State's invasion of the Assyrian homeland in 2014, many Assyrian organizations also formed their own independent fighting forces to combat ISIL and potentially retake their "ancestral lands."[138] These include the Nineveh Plain Protection Units,[139][138][140] Dwekh Nawsha,[141][142] and the Nineveh Plain Forces.[143][144] The latter two of these militias were eventually disbanded.[145] In Syria, the Dawronoye modernization movement has influenced Assyrian identity in the region.[146] The largest proponent of the movement, the Syriac Union Party (SUP) has become a major political actor in the Democratic Federation of Northern Syria. In August 2016, the Ourhi Centre in the city of Zalin was started by the Assyrian community, to educate teachers in order to make Syriac an optional language of instruction in public schools,[147][148] which then started with the 2016/17 academic year.[149] With that academic year, states the Rojava Education Committee, "three curriculums have replaced the old one, to include teaching in three languages: Kurdish, Arabic and Assyrian."[150] Associated with the SUP is the Syriac Military Council, an Assyrian militia operating in Syria, established in January 2013 to protect and stand up for the national rights of Assyrians in Syria as well as working together with the other communities in Syria to change the current government of Bashar al-Assad.[151] Since 2015 it is a component of the Syrian Democratic Forces. However, many Assyrians and the organizations that represent them, particularly those outside of Syria, are critical of the Dawronoye movement. Assyrian activist organizations such as the Assyrian Policy Institute are critical of the fact that the movement is funded and controlled entirely by the PKK and the PYD, and claim that the movement exists to serve the interests of those groups.[152][153] A report by the Assyrian International News Agency alleged that the leadership of the Dawronoye movement had engaged in numerous cases of abuses of the Assyrian people, including: “Extensive harassment and intimidation of Assyrians who resist the policies of the Kurdish self-administration Physical violence committed by both the PYD asayish and the Dawronoye Syriac Military Council (MFS) security forces against Assyrians Forced conscription and parallel tax systems The imposition of Kurdish nationalist ideology through an overhaul of the education system Attempts at land confiscation and the annexation of Khabur by Kurdish nationalist forces Manipulation of rhetoric and propaganda that seek to fully absorb the Assyrian experience into the Kurdish nationalist cause as articulated by the PYD/YPG, paving the way for the long-term absence of any Assyrian representation outside or apart from the Kurdish self-administration."[154] The report concluded that the Dawronoye movement existed to create a sense of pluralism and inclusion of Assyrians to the outside world by Kurdish leadership in Syria. They also claim that it serves to advance Kurdish-nationalist interests within the Assyrian community of Syria.[154] A 2018 report stated that Kurdish authorities in Syria, in conjunction with Dawronoye officials, had shut down several Assyrian schools in Northern Syria and fired their administration. This was said to be because these schooled failed to register for a license and for rejecting the new curriculum approved by the Education Authority. Closure methods ranged from officially shutting down schools to having armed men enter the schools and shut them down forcefully. An Assyrian educator named Isa Rashid was later badly beaten outside of his home for rejecting the Kurdish self-administration’s curriculum.[153][152] The Assyrian Policy Institute claimed that an Assyrian reporter named Souleman Yusph was arrested by Kurdish forces for his reports on the Dawronoye-related school closures in Syria. Specifically, he had shared numerous photographs on Facebook detailing the closures.[153] Demographics Maunsell's map, a Pre-World War I British Ethnographical Map of the Middle East showing "Chaldeans", "Jacobites", and "Nestorians" The Assyro-Chaldean Delegation's map of an independent Assyria, presented at the Paris Peace Conference 1919 Homeland Main articles: Assyrian homeland, List of Assyrian tribes, and Proposals for Assyrian autonomy in Iraq The Assyrian homeland includes the ancient cities of Nineveh (Mosul), Nuhadra (Dohuk), Arrapha/Beth Garmai (Kirkuk), Al Qosh, Tesqopa and Arbela (Erbil) in Iraq, Urmia in Iran, and Hakkari (a large region which comprises the modern towns of Yuksekova, Hakkâri, Çukurca, Semdinli and Uludere), Edessa/Urhoy (Urfa), Harran, Amida (Diyarbakir) and Tur Abdin (Midyat and Kafro) in Turkey, among others.[155] Some of the cities are presently under Kurdish control and some still have an Assyrian presence, namely those in Iraq, as the Assyrian population in southeastern Turkey (such as those in Hakkari) was ethnically cleansed during the Assyrian Genocide of the First World War.[58] Those who survived fled to unaffected areas of Assyrian settlement in northern Iraq, with others settling in Iraqi cities to the south. Though many also immigrated to neighbouring countries in and around the Caucasus and Middle East like Armenia, Syria, Georgia, southern Russia, Lebanon and Jordan.[156] In ancient times, Akkadian-speaking Assyrians have existed in what is now Syria, Jordan, Israel and Lebanon, among other modern countries, due to the sprawl of the Neo-Assyrian empire in the region.[157] Though recent settlement of Christian Assyrians in Nisabina, Qamishli, Al-Hasakah, Al-Qahtaniyah, Al Darbasiyah, Al-Malikiyah, Amuda, Tel Tamer and a few other small towns in Al-Hasakah Governorate in Syria, occurred in the early 1930s,[158] when they fled from northern Iraq after they were targeted and slaughtered during the Simele massacre.[159] The Assyrians in Syria did not have Syrian citizenship and title to their established land until late the 1940s.[160] Sizable Assyrian populations only remain in Syria, where an estimated 400,000 Assyrians live,[161] and in Iraq, where an estimated 300,000 Assyrians live.[162] In Iran and Turkey, only small populations remain, with only 20,000 Assyrians in Iran,[163][164] and a small but growing Assyrian population in Turkey, where 25,000 Assyrians live, mostly in the cities and not the ancient settlements. In Tur Abdin, a traditional center of Assyrian culture, there are only 2,500 Assyrians left.[165] Down from 50,000 in the 1960 census, but up from 1,000 in 1992. This sharp decline is due to an intense conflict between Turkey and the PKK in the 1980s. However, there are an estimated 25,000 Assyrians in all of Turkey, with most living in Istanbul. Most Assyrians currently reside in the West due to the centuries of persecution by the neighboring Muslims.[166] Prior to the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, in a 2013 report by a Chaldean Syriac Assyrian Popular Council official, it was estimated that 300,000 Assyrians remained in Iraq.[162] Assyrian subgroups There are three main Assyrian subgroups: Eastern, Western, Chaldean. These subdivisions are only partially overlapping linguistically, historically, culturally, and religiously. The Eastern subgroup historically inhabited Hakkari in the northern Zagros Mountains, the Simele and Sapna valleys in Nuhadra, and parts of the Nineveh and Urmia Plains. They speak Northeastern Neo-Aramaic dialects and are religiously diverse, adhering to the East Syriac churches,[167] Protestantism,[168] Judaism,[citation needed] or are irreligious.[citation needed] The Chaldean subgroup is a subgroup of the Eastern one. The group is often equated with the adherents of the Chaldean Catholic Church,[169] however not all Chaldean Catholics identify as Chaldean.[170][171] They are traditionally speakers of Northeastern Neo-Aramaic dialects, however there are some Turoyo speakers. In Iraq, Chaldean Catholics inhabit the western Nineveh Plains villages of Alqosh, Batnaya, Tel Keppe and Tesqopa, as well as the Nahla valley and Aqra. In Syria they live in Aleppo and the Al-Hasakah Governorate. In Turkey, they live scattered in Istanbul, Diyarbakir, Sirnak Province and Mardin Province.[172] The Western subgroup, historically inhabited Tur Abdin[173][174] and now have a significant presence in the Al-Hasakah Governorate in Syria.[citation needed] They mainly speak the Central Neo-Aramaic language Turoyo. Most adhere to the West Syriac churches,[167] but a number are also irreligious. Map depicting Assyrian relocation after Seyfo in 1914 Persecution Due to their Christian faith and ethnicity, the Assyrians have been persecuted since their adoption of Christianity. During the reign of Yazdegerd I, Christians in Persia were viewed with suspicion as potential Roman subversives, resulting in persecutions while at the same time promoting Nestorian Christianity as a buffer between the Churches of Rome and Persia. Persecutions and attempts to impose Zoroastrianism continued during the reign of Yazdegerd II.[175][176] During the eras of Mongol rule under Genghis Khan and Timur, there was indiscriminate slaughter of tens of thousands of Assyrians and destruction of the Assyrian population of northwestern Iran and central and northern Iran.[177] More recent persecutions since the 19th century include the Massacres of Badr Khan, the Massacres of Diyarbakır (1895), the Adana massacre, the Assyrian genocide, the Simele Massacre, and the al-Anfal campaign. Diaspora Main article: Assyrian Diaspora See also: List of Assyrian settlements and Assyrian population by country Assyrian world population   more than 500,000   100,000–500,000   50,000–100,000   10,000–50,000   less than 10,000 Since the Assyrian genocide, many Assyrians have left the Middle East entirely for a more safe and comfortable life in the countries of the Western world. As a result of this, the Assyrian population in the Middle East has decreased dramatically. As of today there are more Assyrians in the diaspora than in their homeland. The largest Assyrian diaspora communities are found in Sweden (100,000),[178] Germany (100,000),[179] the United States (80,000),[180] and in Australia (46,000).[181] By ethnic percentage, the largest Assyrian diaspora communities are located in Södertälje in Stockholm County, Sweden, and in Fairfield City in Sydney, Australia, where they are the leading ethnic group in the suburbs of Fairfield, Fairfield Heights, Prairiewood and Greenfield Park.[182][183][184] There is also a sizable Assyrian community in Melbourne, Australia (Broadmeadows, Meadow Heights and Craigieburn)[185] In the United States, Assyrians are mostly found in Chicago (Niles and Skokie), Detroit (Sterling Heights, and West Bloomfield Township), Phoenix, Modesto (Stanislaus County) and Turlock.[186] Furthermore, small Assyrian communities are found in San Diego, Sacramento and Fresno in the United States, Toronto in Canada and also in London, UK (London Borough of Ealing). In Germany, pocket-sized Assyrian communities are scattered throughout Munich, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Berlin and Wiesbaden. In Paris, France, the commune of Sarcelles has a small number of Assyrians. Assyrians in the Netherlands mainly live in the east of the country, in the province of Overijssel. In Russia, small groups of Assyrians mostly reside in Krasnodar Kray and Moscow.[187] To note, the Assyrians residing in California and Russia tend to be from Iran, whilst those in Chicago and Sydney are predominantly Iraqi Assyrians. More recently, Syrian Assyrians are growing in size in Sydney after a huge influx of new arrivals in 2016, who were granted asylum under the Federal Government's special humanitarian intake.[188][189] The Assyrians in Detroit are primarily Chaldean speakers, who also originate from Iraq. Assyrians in such European countries as Sweden and Germany would usually be Turoyo-speakers or Western Assyrians.[190] Identity and subdivisions Further information: Assyrian nationalism, Arabization, Turkification, and Kurdification Assyrian flag (adopted in 1968)[191] Syriac-Aramean flag[192] Chaldean flag (published in 1999)[193] Assyrians of the Middle East and diaspora employ different terms for self-identification based on conflicting beliefs in the origin and identity of their respective communities.[194] In certain areas of the Assyrian homeland, identity within a community depends on a person's village of origin (see List of Assyrian settlements) or Christian denomination rather than their ethnic commonality, for instance Chaldean Catholics preferring to be called Chaldeans instead of Assyrians, or a Syriac Orthodox Christian preferring to be called a Syriac.[195] During the 19th century English archaeologist Austen Henry Layard believed that the Syriac Christian communities were descended from the ancient Assyrians, a view that was also shared by William Ainger Wigram.[196] Today, Assyrians and other minority ethnic groups in the Middle East, feel pressure to identify as "Arabs",[197][198] "Turks" and "Kurds".[199] In addition, Western media often makes no mention of any ethnic identity of the Christian people of the region and simply call them Christians,[161] Iraqi Christians, Iranian Christians, Syrian Christians, and Turkish Christians, a label rejected by Assyrians. Self-designation Main article: Names of Syriac Christians Below are terms commonly used by Assyrians to self-identify:. Assyrian, named after the ancient Assyrian people, is advocated by followers from within all Middle Eastern based East and West Syriac Rite Churches as a catch all term. (see Syriac Christianity)[194][200] Chaldean is a term that was used for centuries by western writers and scholars as designation for the Aramaic language. It was so used by Jerome,[201] and was still the normal terminology in the nineteenth century.[202][203][204] Only in 1445 did it begin to be used to mean Aramaic speakers who had entered communion with the Catholic Church. This happened at the Council of Florence,[205] which accepted the profession of faith that Timothy, metropolitan of the Aramaic speakers in Cyprus, made in Aramaic, and which decreed that "nobody shall in future dare to call [...] Chaldeans, Nestorians".[206][207][208] Previously, when there were as yet no Catholic Aramaic speakers of Mesopotamian origin, the term "Chaldean" was applied with explicit reference to their "Nestorian" religion. Thus Jacques de Vitry wrote of them in 1220/1 that "they denied that Mary was the Mother of God and claimed that Christ existed in two persons. They consecrated leavened bread and used the 'Chaldean' (Syriac) language".[209] Until the second half of the 19th century. the term "Chaldean" continued in general use for East Syriac Christians, whether "Nestorian" or Catholic:[210][211][212][213] it was the West Syriacs who were reported as claiming descent from Asshur, the second son of Shem.[214] Syriac, named after the Syriac language and as a corruption of "Assyrian" by the Greek Seleucid Empire, can be found advocated by followers of the Western Rite Syriac Orthodox Church and Syriac Catholic Church.[161] Aramean, also known as West Assyrian or Syriac-Aramean,[citation needed] named after the ancient Aramean people, is advocated by followers of the Syriac Orthodox Church in Syria[215][216] and some followers of Syriac Catholic Church in Israel.[217] Furthermore, those identifying as Aramean have obtained recognition from the Israeli government.[218] To note, ancient Arameans were a separate ethnic group that lived concurrently with the Assyrian empire in what is now Syria and parts of Lebanon, Israel/Palestine, Jordan, Iraq and Turkey.[219][220][221][222] As such, some Assyrians are fervently critical of the Aramean self-identity advocated mainly by those who belong to the Syriac Orthodox Church, stating that, because they were concentrated in Tur Abdin (region in modern southeastern Turkey) in Upper Mesopotamia, they cannot claim ties to the ancient Aramean land, as it was centred mainly in the Levant.[223] Assyrian vs. Syrian naming controversy Proximity between Roman Syria and Mesopotamia in the 1st century AD (Alain Manesson Mallet, 1683) As early as the 8th century BC Luwian and Cilician subject rulers referred to their Assyrian overlords as Syrian, a western Indo-European corruption of the original term Assyrian. The Greeks used the terms "Syrian" and "Assyrian" interchangeably to indicate the indigenous Arameans, Assyrians and other inhabitants of the Near East, Herodotus considered "Syria" west of the Euphrates. Starting from the 2nd century BC onwards, ancient writers referred to the Seleucid ruler as the King of Syria or King of the Syrians.[224] The Seleucids designated the districts of Seleucis and Coele-Syria explicitly as Syria and ruled the Syrians as indigenous populations residing west of the Euphrates (Aramea) in contrast to Assyrians who had their native homeland in Mesopotamia east of the Euphrates.[225][226] This version of the name took hold in the Hellenic lands to the west of the old Assyrian Empire, thus during Greek Seleucid rule from 323 BC the name Assyria was altered to Syria, and this term was also applied to Aramea to the west which had been an Assyrian colony, and from this point the Greeks applied the term without distinction between the Assyrians of Mesopotamia and Arameans of the Levant.[227][228] When the Seleucids lost control of Assyria to the Parthians they retained the corrupted term (Syria), applying it to ancient Aramea, while the Parthians called Assyria "Assuristan," a Parthian form of the original name. It is from this period that the Syrian vs Assyrian controversy arises. Today it is accepted by the majority of scholars that the Medieval, Renaissance and Victorian term Syriac when used to describe the indigenous Christians of Mesopotamia and its immediate surrounds in effect means Assyrian.[229] The question of ethnic identity and self-designation is sometimes connected to the scholarly debate on the etymology of "Syria". The question has a long history of academic controversy, but majority mainstream opinion currently strongly favours that Syria is indeed ultimately derived from the Assyrian term Aššūrāyu.[230][231][232][233] Meanwhile, some scholars has disclaimed the theory of Syrian being derived from Assyrian as "simply naive", and detracted its importance to the naming conflict.[234] Rudolf Macuch points out that the Eastern Neo-Aramaic press initially used the term "Syrian" (suryêta) and only much later, with the rise of nationalism, switched to "Assyrian" (atorêta).[235] According to Tsereteli, however, a Georgian equivalent of "Assyrians" appears in ancient Georgian, Armenian and Russian documents.[236] This correlates with the theory of the nations to the East of Mesopotamia knew the group as Assyrians, while to the West, beginning with Greek influence, the group was known as Syrians. Syria being a Greek corruption of Assyria. The debate appears to have been settled by the discovery of the Çineköy inscription in favour of Syria being derived from Assyria. The Çineköy inscription is a Hieroglyphic Luwian-Phoenician bilingual, uncovered from Çineköy, Adana Province, Turkey (ancient Cilicia), dating to the 8th century BC. Originally published by Tekoglu and Lemaire (2000),[237] it was more recently the subject of a 2006 paper published in the Journal of Near Eastern Studies, in which the author, Robert Rollinger, lends support to the age-old debate of the name "Syria" being derived from "Assyria" (see Etymology of Syria). The object on which the inscription is found is a monument belonging to Urikki, vassal king of Hiyawa (i.e., Cilicia), dating to the eighth century BC. In this monumental inscription, Urikki made reference to the relationship between his kingdom and his Assyrian overlords. The Luwian inscription reads "Sura/i" whereas the Phoenician translation reads ’ŠR or "Ashur" which, according to Rollinger (2006), "settles the problem once and for all".[238] The modern terminological problem goes back to colonial times, but it became more acute in 1946, when with the independence of Syria, the adjective Syrian referred to an independent state. The controversy isn't restricted to exonyms like English "Assyrian" vs. "Aramaean", but also applies to self-designation in Neo-Aramaic, the minority "Aramaean" faction endorses both Sūryāyē ܣܘܪܝܝܐ and Ārāmayē ܐܪܡܝܐ, while the majority "Assyrian" faction insists on Āṯūrāyē ܐܬܘܪܝܐ but also accepts Sūryāyē. Culture Main article: Assyrian culture Assyrian child dressed in traditional clothes Assyrian culture is largely influenced by Christianity.[239] There are many Assyrian customs that are common in other Middle Eastern cultures. Main festivals occur during religious holidays such as Easter and Christmas. There are also secular holidays such as Kha b-Nisan (vernal equinox).[240] People often greet and bid relatives farewell with a kiss on each cheek and by saying "ܫܠܡܐ ܥܠܝܟ" Shlama/Shlomo lokh, which means: "Peace be upon you" in Neo-Aramaic. Others are greeted with a handshake with the right hand only; according to Middle Eastern customs, the left hand is associated with evil. Similarly, shoes may not be left facing up, one may not have their feet facing anyone directly, whistling at night is thought to waken evil spirits, etc.[241] A parent will often place an eye pendant on their baby to prevent "an evil eye being cast upon it".[242] Spitting on anyone or their belongings is seen as a grave insult. Assyrians are endogamous, meaning they generally marry within their own ethnic group, although exogamous marriages are not perceived as a taboo, unless the foreigner is of a different religious background, especially a Muslim.[243] Throughout history, relations between the Assyrians and Armenians have tended to be very friendly, as both groups have practised Christianity since ancient times and have suffered through persecution under Muslim rulers. Therefore, mixed marriage between Assyrians and Armenians is quite common, most notably in Iraq, Iran, and as well as in the diaspora with adjacent Armenian and Assyrian communities.[244] Language Main article: Neo-Aramaic languages The Assyrian dialects The Neo-Aramaic languages, which are in the Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family, ultimately descend from Late Old Eastern Aramaic, the lingua franca in the later phase of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, which displaced the East Semitic Assyrian dialect of Akkadian and Sumerian. The Arameans, a semitic people were absorbed into the Assyrian empire after being conquered by them. Ultimately, the Arameans and many other ethnic groups were thought of as Assyrians, and the Aramean language, Aramaic became the official language of Assyria, alongside Akkadian, because Aramaic was easier to write than their original language.[74][245] Aramaic was the language of commerce, trade and communication and became the vernacular language of Assyria in classical antiquity.[220][246][222] By the 1st century AD, Akkadian was extinct, although its influence on contemporary Eastern Neo-Aramaic languages spoken by Assyrians is significant and some loaned vocabulary still survives in these languages to this day.[247][248] To the native speaker, "Syriac" is usually called Surayt, Soureth, Suret or a similar regional variant. A wide variety of languages and dialects exist, including Assyrian Neo-Aramaic, Chaldean Neo-Aramaic, and Turoyo. Minority dialects include Senaya and Bohtan Neo-Aramaic, which are both near extinction. All are classified as Neo-Aramaic languages and are written using Syriac script, a derivative of the ancient Aramaic script. Jewish varieties such as Lishanid Noshan, Lishán Didán and Lishana Deni, written in the Hebrew script, are spoken by Assyrian Jews.[249][250][251] There is a considerable amount of mutual intelligibility between Assyrian Neo-Aramaic, Chaldean Neo-Aramaic, Senaya, Lishana Deni and Bohtan Neo-Aramaic. Therefore, these "languages" would generally be considered to be dialects of Assyrian Neo-Aramaic rather than separate languages. The Jewish Aramaic languages of Lishan Didan and Lishanid Noshan share a partial intelligibility with these varieties. The mutual intelligibility between the aforementioned languages and Turoyo is, depending on the dialect, limited to partial, and may be asymmetrical.[249][252][253] Being stateless, Assyrians are typically multilingual, speaking both their native language and learning those of the societies they reside in. While many Assyrians have fled from their traditional homeland recently,[254][255] a substantial number still reside in Arabic-speaking countries speaking Arabic alongside the Neo-Aramaic languages[256][1][3][257] and is also spoken by many Assyrians in the diaspora. The most commonly spoken languages by Assyrians in the diaspora are English, German and Swedish. Historically many Assyrians also spoke Turkish, Armenian, Azeri, Kurdish, and Persian and a smaller number of Assyrians that remain in Iran, Turkey (Istanbul and Tur Abdin) and Armenia still do today. Many loanwords from the aforementioned languages also exist in the Neo-Aramaic languages, with the Iranian languages and Turkish being the greatest influences overall. Only Turkey is reported to be experiencing a population increase of Assyrians in the four countries constituting their historical homeland, largely consisting of Assyrian refugees from Syria and a smaller number of Assyrians returning from the diaspora in Europe.[258] Script Main article: Syriac alphabet Assyrians predominantly use the Syriac script, which is written from right to left. It is one of the Semitic abjads directly descending from the Aramaic alphabet and shares similarities with the Phoenician, Hebrew and the Arabic alphabets.[259] It has 22 letters representing consonants, three of which can be also used to indicate vowels. The vowel sounds are supplied either by the reader's memory or by optional diacritic marks. Syriac is a cursive script where some, but not all, letters connect within a word. It was used to write the Syriac language from the 1st century AD.[260] The oldest and classical form of the alphabet is the ʾEsṭrangēlā script.[261] Although ʾEsṭrangēlā is no longer used as the main script for writing Syriac, it has received some revival since the 10th century, and it has been added to the Unicode Standard in September, 1999. The East Syriac dialect is usually written in the Maḏnḥāyā form of the alphabet, which is often translated as "contemporary", reflecting its use in writing modern Neo-Aramaic. The West Syriac dialect is usually written in the Serṭā form of the alphabet. Most of the letters are clearly derived from ʾEsṭrangēlā, but are simplified, flowing lines.[262] Furthermore, for practical reasons, Assyrian people would also use the Latin alphabet, especially in social media. Religion Main article: Syriac Christianity Historical divisions within Syriac Christian Churches in the Middle East Assyrians belong to various Christian denominations such as the Assyrian Church of the East, with an estimated 400,000 members,[263] the Chaldean Catholic Church, with about 600,000 members,[264] and the Syriac Orthodox Church (ʿIdto Suryoyto Triṣaṯ Šuḇḥo), which has between 1 million and 4 million members around the world (only some of whom are Assyrians),[265] the Ancient Church of the East with some 100,000 members. A small minority of Assyrians accepted the Protestant Reformation thus are Reform Orthodox in the 20th century, possibly due to British influences, and is now organized in the Assyrian Evangelical Church, the Assyrian Pentecostal Church and other Protestant/Reform Orthodox Assyrian groups. While Assyrians are predominantly Christian, an echoing minority, particularly those raised in the west, tend to be irreligious or atheistic in nature. Many members of the following churches consider themselves Assyrian. Ethnic identities are often deeply intertwined with religion, a legacy of the Ottoman Millet system. The group is traditionally characterized as adhering to various churches of Syriac Christianity and speaking Neo-Aramaic languages. It is subdivided into: adherents of the Assyrian Church of the East and Ancient Church of the East following the East Syriac Rite also known as Nestorians adherents of the Chaldean Catholic Church following the East Syriac Rite also known as Chaldeans adherents of the Syriac Orthodox Church following the West Syriac Rite also known as Jacobites adherents of the Syriac Catholic Church following the West Syriac Rite Baptism and First Communion are celebrated extensively, similar to a Brit Milah or Bar Mitzvah in Jewish communities. After a death, a gathering is held three days after burial to celebrate the ascension to heaven of the dead person, as of Jesus; after seven days another gathering commemorates their death. A close family member wears only black clothes for forty days and nights, or sometimes a year, as a sign of mourning. During the "Seyfo" genocide, there were a number of Assyrians who converted to Islam. They reside in Turkey, and practice Islam but still retain their identity.[266][267] A small number of Assyrian Jews exist as well.[268] Music Main articles: Assyrian/Syriac folk music and Syriac sacral music Traditional clothing may be worn for Assyrian folk dance. Assyrian music is a combination of traditional folk music and western contemporary music genres, namely pop and soft rock, but also electronic dance music. Instruments traditionally used by Assyrians include the zurna and davula, but has expanded to include guitars, pianos, violins, synthesizers (keyboards and electronic drums), and other instruments. Some well known Assyrian singers in modern times are Ashur Bet Sargis, Sargon Gabriel, Evin Agassi, Janan Sawa, Juliana Jendo, and Linda George. Assyrian artists that traditionally sing in other languages include Melechesh, Timz and Aril Brikha. Assyrian-Australian band Azadoota performs its songs in the Assyrian language whilst using a western style of instrumentation. The first international Aramaic Music Festival was held in Lebanon in August 2008 for Assyrian people internationally. Dance Main article: Assyrian folk dance Folk dance in an Assyrian party in Chicago Assyrians have numerous traditional dances which are performed mostly for special occasions such as weddings. Assyrian dance is a blend of both ancient indigenous and general Near Eastern elements. Assyrian folk dances are mainly made up of circle dances that are performed in a line, which may be straight, curved, or both. The most common form of Assyrian folk dance is khigga, which is routinely danced as the bride and groom are welcomed into the wedding reception. Most of the circle dances allow unlimited number of participants, with the exception of the Sabre Dance, which require three at most. Assyrian dances would vary from weak to strong, depending on the mood and tempo of a song. Festivals Assyrian festivals tend to be closely associated with their Christian faith, of which Easter is the most prominent of the celebrations. Members of the Assyrian Church of the East, Chaldean Catholic Church and Syriac Catholic Church follow the Gregorian calendar and as a result celebrate Easter on a Sunday between March 22 and April 25 inclusively.[269] However, members of the Syriac Orthodox Church and Ancient Church of the East celebrate Easter on a Sunday between April 4 and May 8 inclusively on the Gregorian calendar (March 22 and April 25 on the Julian calendar). During Lent, Assyrians are encouraged to fast for 50 days from meat and any other foods which are animal based. Assyrians celebrate a number of festivals unique to their culture and traditions as well as religious ones: Kha b-Nisan ܚܕ ܒܢܝܣܢ‎, the Assyrian New Year, traditionally on April 1, though usually celebrated on January 1. Assyrians usually wear traditional costumes and hold social events including parades and parties, dancing, and listening to poets telling the story of creation.[270] Sauma d-Ba'utha ܒܥܘܬܐ ܕܢܝܢܘܝܐ‎, the Nineveh fast, is a three-day period of fasting and prayer.[271] Somikka, All Saints Day, is celebrated to motivate children to fast during Lent through use of frightening costumes Kalu d'Sulaqa, feast of the Bride of the Ascension, celebrates Assyrian resistance to the invasion of Assyria by Tamerlane Nusardyl, commemorating the baptism of the Assyrians of Urmia by St. Thomas.[272] Sharra d'Mart Maryam, usually on August 15, a festival and feast celebrating St. Mary with games, food, and celebration.[272] Other Sharras (special festivals) include: Sharra d'Mart Shmuni, Sharra d'Mar Shimon Bar-Sabbaye, Sharra d'Mar Mari, and Shara d'Mar Zaia, Mar Bishu, Mar Sawa, Mar Sliwa, and Mar Odisho Yoma d'Sah'deh (Day of Martyrs), commemorating the thousands massacred in the Simele Massacre and the hundreds of thousands massacred in the Assyrian Genocide. It is commemorated annually on August 7. Assyrians also practice unique marriage ceremonies. The rituals performed during weddings are derived from many different elements from the past 3,000 years. An Assyrian wedding traditionally lasted a week. Today, weddings in the Assyrian homeland usually last 2–3 days; in the Assyrian diaspora they last 1–2 days. Traditional clothing Main article: Assyrian clothing Assyrian clothing varies from village to village. Clothing is usually blue, red, green, yellow, and purple; these colors are also used as embroidery on a white piece of clothing. Decoration is lavish in Assyrian costumes, and sometimes involves jewellery. The conical hats of traditional Assyrian dress have changed little over millennia from those worn in ancient Mesopotamia, and until the 19th and early 20th centuries the ancient Mesopotamian tradition of braiding or platting of hair, beards and moustaches was still commonplace. Cuisine Main article: Assyrian cuisine Typical Assyrian cuisine Assyrian cuisine is similar to other Middle Eastern cuisines and is rich in grains, meat, potato, cheese, bread and tomatoes. Typically, rice is served with every meal, with a stew poured over it. Tea is a popular drink, and there are several dishes of desserts, snacks, and beverages. Alcoholic drinks such as wine and wheat beer are organically produced and drunk. Assyrian cuisine is primarily identical to Iraqi/Mesopotamian cuisine, as well as being very similar to other Middle Eastern and Caucasian cuisines, as well as Greek cuisine, Levantine cuisine, Turkish cuisine, Iranian cuisine, Israeli cuisine, and Armenian cuisine, with most dishes being similar to the cuisines of the area in which those Assyrians live/originate from.[273] It is rich in grains such as barley, meat, tomato, herbs, spices, cheese, and potato as well as herbs, fermented dairy products, and pickles.[274] Genetics Further information: Genetic history of the Near East Late-20th-century DNA analysis conducted by Cavalli-Sforza, Paolo Menozzi and Alberto Piazza, "shows that Assyrians have a distinct genetic profile that distinguishes their population from any other population."[275] Genetic analyses of the Assyrians of Persia demonstrated that they were "closed" with little "intermixture" with the Muslim Persian population and that an individual Assyrian's genetic makeup is relatively close to that of the Assyrian population as a whole.[276][277] "The genetic data are compatible with historical data that religion played a major role in maintaining the Assyrian population's separate identity during the Christian era".[275] In a 2006 study of the Y chromosome DNA of six regional Armenian populations, including, for comparison, Assyrians and Syrians, researchers found that, "the Semitic populations (Assyrians and Syrians) are very distinct from each other according to both [comparative] axes. This difference supported also by other methods of comparison points out the weak genetic affinity between the two populations with different historical destinies."[278] A 2008 study on the genetics of "old ethnic groups in Mesopotamia", including 340 subjects from seven ethnic communities ("Assyrian, Jewish, Zoroastrian, Armenian, Turkmen, the Arab peoples in Iran, Iraq, and Kuwait") found that Assyrians were homogeneous with respect to all other ethnic groups sampled in the study, regardless of religious affiliation.[279] In a 2011 study focusing on the genetics of Marsh Arabs of Iraq, researchers identified Y chromosome haplotypes shared by Marsh Arabs, Iraqis, and Assyrians, "supporting a common local background."[280] In a 2017 study focusing on the genetics of Northern Iraqi populations, it was found that Iraqi Assyrians and Iraqi Yazidis clustered together, but away from the other Northern Iraqi populations analyzed in the study, and largely in between the West Asian and Southeastern European populations. According to the study, "contemporary Assyrians and Yazidis from northern Iraq may in fact have a stronger continuity with the original genetic stock of the Mesopotamian people, which possibly provided the basis for the ethnogenesis of various subsequent Near Eastern populations".[281] Haplogroups Y-DNA haplogroup J-M304 has been measured at 55% among Assyrians of Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, and diaspora; while it has been found at 11% among Assyrians of Iran.[282] Haplogroup T-M184 [reported as K*] has been measured at 15.09% among Assyrians in Armenia.[283] The haplogroup is frequent in Middle Eastern Jews, Georgians, Druze and Somalians. According to a 2011 study by Lashgary et al., R1b [reported as R*(xR1a)] has been measured at 40% among Assyrians in Iran, making it major haplogroup among Iranian Assyrians.[282] Yet another DNA test comprising 48 Assyrian male subjects from Iran, the Y-DNA haplogroups J-M304, found in its greatest concentration in the Arabian peninsula, and the northern R-M269, were also frequent at 29.2% each.[284] Lashgary et al. explain the presence of haplogroup R in Iranian Assyrians as well as in other Assyrian communities (~23%) as a consequence of mixing with Armenians and assimilation/integration of different peoples carrying haplogroup R, while explain its frequency as a result of genetic drift due to small population size and endogamy due to religious barriers.[282] Haplogroup J2 has been measured at 13.4%, which is commonly found in the Fertile Crescent, the Caucasus, Anatolia, Italy, coastal Mediterranean, and the Iranian plateau.[285][286] See also Christianity portal Assyria Assyrian diaspora Assyrian genocide Assyrian homeland Assyrian independence movement Assyrian Universal Alliance The Last Assyrians List of Assyrians Neo-Aramaic languages Proposals for Assyrian autonomy in Iraq Syriac Christianity Syriac Language Syriac Universal Alliance World Council of Arameans (Syriacs) References ^ a b Murre-van den Berg, Heleen (2011). 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Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies. 13 (1): 15–30. Yildiz, Efrem (2000a). "The Aramaic Language and Its Classification". Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies. 14 (1): 23–44. Yildiz, Efrem (2000b). "Los Asirio-Caldeos, Cristianos orientales arameoparlantes" (PDF). Dialogo Ecumenico. 35 (112): 263–282. Yildiz, Efrem (2012). "The Assyrian Linguistic Heritage and its Survival in Diaspora". The Assyrian Heritage: Threads of Continuity and Influence. Uppsala: Uppsala Universitet. pp. 201–220. External links Media related to Assyrian people at Wikimedia Commons BetNahrain - Assyrian Center in Armenia A virtual Assyria: Cyberland A virtual Assyria: Christians from the Middle East Traditional Assyrian Costumes Assyrian Iraqi Document Projects Who Are Assyrians? 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en-wikipedia-org-9882	----	Seth-Peribsen - Wikipedia Seth-Peribsen From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Egyptian ruler Seth-Peribsen Peribsen, Ash-Peribsen Stone vase of Seth-Peribsen with the inscription "tribute of the people of Sethroë", National Archaeological Museum (France). Pharaoh Reign length of reign unknown (2nd Dynasty; around 2740 BC) Predecessor uncertain; Wadjenes, Senedj or Sekhemib Successor uncertain; Senedj, Sekhemib or Khasekhemwy Royal titulary Nomen Nisut-bitj-Nebty-Peribsen nsw.t-bjtj-nbtj-Pr.-jb-sn King of Upper and Lower Egypt, he of the Two Ladies, Peribsen Saqqara, tomb of Shery (4th dynasty) Peribsen Pr.-jb-sn Horus name Seth-Peribsen Stš-pr-jb-sn He who comes forth by the will of Seth Burial Tomb 'P' at Abydos Seth-Peribsen (also known as Ash-Peribsen, Peribsen and Perabsen) is the serekh name of an early Egyptian monarch (pharaoh), who ruled during the Second Dynasty of Egypt (c. 2890 – c. 2686 BC).[1] His chronological position within this dynasty is unknown and it is disputed who ruled both before and after him. The duration of his reign is also unknown.[2] Peribsen's name is unusual, in that Set, not Horus, was his patron deity. This goes against the Egyptian tradition of a king choosing the falcon-shaped deity Horus as his royal patron. Peribsen's tomb was discovered in 1898 at Abydos. It was well preserved and showed traces of restoration undertaken during later dynastic periods.[3] Contents 1 Attestations 1.1 Contemporaneous sources 1.2 Historical sources 2 Name 2.1 Religious theories uniting Peribsen with Seth 2.2 Political theories 3 Identity 4 Reign 4.1 Proponents of the divided-realm-theory 4.2 Opponents of the divided-realm-theory 4.3 Political accomplishments 4.4 Religious changes 5 Tomb 5.1 Findings 5.2 Royal funerary enclosure 6 References 7 External links Attestations[edit] Contemporaneous sources[edit] Granodiorite tomb stela of Peribsen, now on display at the British Museum [4] The serekh for Peribsen was found pressed in earthen jar seals made of clay and mud and in inscriptions on alabaster, sandstone, porphyry and black schist vessels. These seals and vessels were excavated from Peribsen's tomb and at an excavation site in Elephantine. One clay seal with Peribsen's name was found inside the mastaba tomb K1 at Beit Khallaf.[5][6] Two large tomb stelae made of granite were found at his burial site. Their shape is unusual and they appear unfinished and rough. Egyptologists suspect that this was done deliberately, but the reasons are unknown.[7][8] A cylinder seal of unknown provenance shows Peribsen's name inside a cartouche and gives the epithet Merj-netjeru ("beloved of the gods"). This arrangement leads Egyptologists and archaeologists to the conclusion that the seal must have been created later, in memoriam, because the use of royal cartouches began long after Peribsen's reign. Another seal of the same material shows Peribsen's name without a cartouche, but with the royal title Nisut-Bity ("king of Upper- and Lower Egypt") instead.[9][10] Historical sources[edit] Existing skeptical views about Peribsen's existence are based on New Kingdom Ramesside king lists, such as the Abydos King List, the Saqqara King List and the Royal Canon of Turin, which all omit Peribsen's name. These, however, are known to have been created nearly 1,500 years after his death[11] and several Fourth Dynasty tombs of priests performing the funerary cult for Peribsen have been uncovered. These tombs report Peribsen's name correctly and their existence demonstrates that Peribsen was seen as a legitimate pharaoh, not subject to damnatio memoriae as Akhenaten later would be. Historians and Egyptologists therefore consider the possibility that Peribsen's name was actually forgotten over time or that his name was preserved in a distorted, misspelled form.[12] Name[edit] pr-jb.sn in hieroglyphs Peribsen's royal name is a subject of curiosity for Egyptologists because it is connected to the deity Seth rather than Horus, as was traditional for the name of a pharaoh. Traditionally, the Horus name of the king was written within a serekh: the image of the facade of the royal palace beneath a falcon representing the god Horus (see Egyptian hieroglyphs). Instead, Peribsen chose to have the Set animal, representing Seth, on his serekh. Although Peribsen is the only known pharaoh to have the Set animal preside alone over his serekh, he is not the only king to associate himself with Seth. Examples include the 13th Dynasty pharaoh Seth Meribre,[13] the 19th Dynasty rulers Seti I and Seti II and the 20th Dynasty king Setnakhte.[14][15] The debate continues over why Peribsen chose this name. Earlier theories favoured the idea that Egypt was split into two realms during Peribsen's time or that he was a heretic who sought to start a new monotheistic religion with Seth as the only worshipped god.[11] However, newer evidence and evaluations tend to show that the Egyptian kingdom was unified, but witnessed a vast and profound reform during the Second Dynasty. Seal impressions from tombs of this era reveal great changes in the titles held by high officials, pointing to a reduction of their power. Further seal impressions show that several deities were worshipped under Peribsen, refuting the monotheism theory. Other contemporary inscriptions indicate that Egyptian grammar was perfected during his time: In particular, the earliest seal impressions with complete sentences date back to Peribsen's reign. Thus, Peribsen's reign was in fact a time of cultural and religious advancement.[16][17] Peribsen's choice of patron, and his rule during the shadowy period of the mid-Second Dynasty, have led Egyptologists and historians to search for possible explanations for both his name and the troubled times he lived in. The following sections discuss some of the theories that they have put forth. Religious theories uniting Peribsen with Seth[edit] Inscription from a porphyry-vase displaying the serekh of Peribsen; note the Seth-animal with a sun-disk above.[18] Older theories A theory that was popular until the mid-20th century, supported by Egyptologists Percy Newberry, Jaroslav Černý,[19] Walter Bryan Emery[20] and Bernhard Grdseloff[11] held that Peribsen was a heretic who sought to introduce a new, monotheistic state religion to Egypt, with Seth as the only worshipped god. Peribsen's actions were thought to be similar to those of the much later 18th Dynasty pharaoh Akhenaten, who had required Egyptians to serve only the Aten. Newberry proposed that the priests of Horus and Seth fought each other "in the manner of a War of the Roses" during the second half of the Second Dynasty.[21] The "heretic Peribsen" theory was based on three observations: that the name "Peribsen" was excluded from later king lists, that the king's tomb had been destroyed and plundered during antiquity and, finally, that the tomb stelae of Peribsen, that once displayed the Set animal, were badly scratched with the clear intention of effacing the Seth image. Egyptologists hypothesized these were the actions of religious opponents to the Sethian priest-caste.[19][21] Lauer and Firth relied on the "heretic Peribsen" theory to explain the enormous quantity of stone vessels inscribed with the name of First and Second Dynasty kings found beneath Djoser's pyramid in bags bearing seals of Khasekhemwy and Djoser. They proposed that Peribsen had plundered the tombs of his predecessors, followers of Horus, and scattered their funerary equipment. These vessels were gathered in the royal treasury during Khasekhemwy's reign following his reunification of Egypt, and finally put beneath the Step Pyramid by Djoser, in an act of pious devotion.[22] Contemporary theories Today this theory, as well as Lauer and Firth's conclusions, is widely questioned. Archaeological evidence of Peribsen has been found almost entirely in Upper Egypt. In particular, his name does not appear in Lower Egyptian records surviving from that time. It is argued that Peribsen may not have ruled over all of Egypt and therefore did not have the authority to force a change in state religion. Another piece of evidence that argues against the "heretic Peribsen" theory is the false door of the priest Shery at Saqqara. Shery held office during the early Fourth Dynasty. The inscription on the false door connects the name of Peribsen in one sentence with another shadowy king of the Second Dynasty, Senedj. According to the addendum, Shery was "overseer of all wab-priests of king Peribsen in the necropolis of king Senedj, in his mortuary temple and at all other places". This implies that the funerary cult of Peribsen continued at least until the Fourth Dynasty, inconsistent with the assumption that Peribsen's name was not allowed to be mentioned. Additionally, Egyptologists such as Herman te Velde point out that Shery was not the only Fourth Dynasty priest participating in the funerary cult of Peribsen. Inkef, possibly a brother or cousin of Shery, also held the title of a "supervisor of Ka-priests of Peribsen".[16] Seal impressions found in Peribsen's tomb at Abydos show several deities: Ash, Min and Bastet, suggesting they were venerated during Peribsen's time on the throne. This finding argues against Peribsen worshipping a single god, or promoting monotheism.[23][24][25] The heretic theory of Newberry, Černý, Grdseloff and others was devised from the very limited archaeological information available during their lifetimes. Most of the clay seal impressions found were still undeciphered and untranslated in their time.[26] Vessel from the tomb of king Peribsen, Ashmolean Museum. In the opinion of Sainte Fare Garnot (1956) and te Velde (1956), the name of "Peribsen" accords religious meaning, even before association with a deity. The name "Peribsen" literally means "He who comes forth by their will" or "His heart and will comes forth for them."[citation needed][clarification needed] The Egyptian syllable sn means "them, their, those", revealing a clear plural writing. Te Velde and Garnot are convinced that Peribsen used the heraldic Seth animal as a serekh patron, but also linked his name to Horus. If true, it would prove that Peribsen worshipped Horus and Seth on an equal footing during his lifetime.[16][27] An ostentatious plural meaning with religious ambiguity was not uncommon for pharaohs' names in the early Egyptian dynasties. Peribsen may have been perceived as a living incarnation of both Horus and Seth in equal measure, just like his predecessors on the throne. Therefore, Peribsen's name may actually show no break in the sacred tradition; he added the power of Seth to Horus. As further examples, the titles of early dynastic queens used plural patron deities, such as "she who is allowed to see Horus and Seth" and "she who carries Horus and Seth".[16][27] Similarly, the unusual serekh of king Khasekhemwy, the last ruler of the Second Dynasty, shows the deities Horus and Seth together atop the serekh. Horus wears the White Crown of Upper Egypt and Seth wears the Red Crown of Lower Egypt. The two gods are depicted facing each other in a kissing gesture. This special name was meant to illustrate the dual incarnation of the king as the representative of Horus and Seth, with power over all Egypt. Khasekhemwy's name can be interpreted as an advanced form of Peribsen's serekh name.[16][27] Egyptologists Ludwig David Morenz and Wolfgang Helck[28] remark that the targeted gouging of Seth-animals did not occur until the New Kingdom of Egypt. The erasure of the Seth chimera on Peribsen's tomb stelae had been attributed to activity shortly after his death under the "heretic" theory; new discoveries suggested the defamation occurred centuries later.[29] Historian Dietrich Wildung states that the necropolis of Abydos was not the only one plundered in antiquity: the tombs at Saqqara and Giza were also ransacked. Thus, he concludes that any targeted action against one particular pharaoh can be excluded.[30] Political theories[edit] The earlier theories of Newberry, Černý and Grdseloff[11] said that the Egyptian state under Peribsen suffered from several civil wars, either economic or political in origin. If he was held responsible for the putative misery in the past, this could explain why later king lists excluded Peribsen.[19][21] In contrast, more recent theories now hold that, if the Egyptian kingdom was divided, the division happened peacefully. Egyptologists such as Michael Rice,[31] Francesco Tiradritti[32] and Wolfgang Helck point to the once palatial and well preserved mastaba tombs at Saqqara and Abydos belonging to high officials such as Ruaben and Nefer-Setekh. These are all dated from the reign of Nynetjer to that of Khasekhemwy, the last ruler of the Second Dynasty. Egyptologists consider the archaeological record of the mastabas' condition and the original architecture as proof that the statewide mortuary cults for kings and noblemen operated successfully during the entire dynasty. If true, their preservation is inconsistent with the theory of civil wars and economic problems during Peribsen's reign. Rice, Tiradritti and Helck think that Nynetjer decided to leave a divided realm because of private or political reasons and that the split was a formality sustained by Second Dynasty kings.[31][32][33] The origin of the political division is unknown. It might have happened at the beginning of Peribsen's rule or shortly before. Because Peribsen chose the deity Seth as his new throne patron, Egyptologists are of the view that Peribsen was a chieftain from Thinis or a prince of the Thinite royal house. This theory is based on Seth being a deity of Thinite origin, which would explain Peribsen's choice: his name changing may have been nothing more than smart political (and religious) propaganda.[33][34] Peribsen is thought to have gained the Thinite throne and ruled only Upper Egypt, whilst other rulers held the Memphite throne and ruled Lower Egypt.[26] Identity[edit] Seal impression of king Sekhemib from Abydos Seal impression of Peribsen Egyptologists Walter Bryan Emery, Kathryn A. Bard and Flinders Petrie believe that Peribsen was also known as Sekhemib-Perenmaat, another Second Dynasty ruler that had connected his name with the falcon god Horus. As evidence, clay seals of Sekhemib found in the entrance of Peribsen's tomb support this hypothesis. Sekhemib's tomb has not yet been found.[1][35][36][37] This theory is debatable; Hermann Alexander Schlögl, Wolfgang Helck, Peter Kaplony[38] and Jochem Kahl[39] argue that the clay seals were only found at the entrance area of Peribsen's tomb and none of them depict Peribsen and Sekhemib's names together in one inscription. Furthermore, they remark that it was customary for a pharaoh to bury his predecessor and seal his tomb; the presence of Sekhemib's seals shows the line of dynastic inheritance. Similar inferences can be drawn from the ivory tablets of king Hotepsekhemwy found at the entrance of king Qa'a's tomb and the clay seals of Djoser found at the entrance of Khasekhemwy's tomb. Schlögl, Helck, Kaplony and Kahl are convinced that the discovery of Sekhemib's seals support the view that Sekhemib immediately succeeded Peribsen and buried him.[26][40] Scholars Toby Wilkinson and Helck believe that Peribsen and Sekhemib could have been related. Their theory is based on the stone vessel inscriptions and seal impressions that show strong similarities in their typography and grammar. The vessels of Peribsen show the notation "ini-setjet" ("tribute of the people of Sethroë"), whilst Sekhemib's inscriptions have the notation "ini-khasut" ("tribute of the desert nomads"). A further indication that Peribsen and Sekhemib were related is their serekh names; they both used the syllables "Per" and "ib" in their names.[41][42] The false door inscription of Shery might indicate that Peribsen is identical with king Senedj ("Senedj" means "the frightening") and that this name was used in the king lists by proxy, as the Seth name was forbidden to mention.[43] In contrast, Dietrich Wildung and Wolfgang Helck identify Peribsen with the Ramesside cartouche name Wadjenes. They think it is possible that the name Per-ib-sen was misread from a sloppy hieratic inscription of Wadj-sen.[44] Reign[edit] Seal impression from Peribsen's tomb with the first known complete sentence in Egyptian history As some archaeological records support the view that the Egyptian state was divided during Peribsen's reign, there is continued debate as to why his predecessors decided to divide the realm, and whether Peribsen ruled part or all of Egypt. Proponents of the divided-realm-theory[edit] Egyptologists Wolfgang Helck,[40] Nicolas Grimal, Hermann Alexander Schlögl[45] and Francesco Tiradritti believe that king Nynetjer, the third ruler of the Second dynasty and predecessor to Peribsen, ruled an Egypt that was suffering from an overly complex state administration. Nynetjer decided to split Egypt to leave it to two chosen successors who would rule two separate kingdoms, in the hope that the state administration could improve. Archaeological evidence, such as the imprinted clay seals and inscribed jars, appear to support the claim that Peribsen ruled only in Upper Egypt. A great number of these were found in Abydos, Naqada and at Elephantine, with only a single clay seal bearing his name found in Lower Egypt, at Beit Khallaf. Historians think Peribsen's realm would have extended from Naqada to the Isle of Elephantine. The rest of Egypt would therefore have been controlled by a different, coexisting ruler.[32][46] Egyptologist Dimitri B. Proussakov supports his theory with notations on the famous Palermo stone concerning the year events of king Nynetjer. From the twelfth year event onward, "The king of Upper- and Lower Egypt appears" was amended to "The king of Lower Egypt appears". Proussakov sees this as a strong indication that Nynetjer's power over Egypt had diminished.[47] Egyptologists compare the situation to that of king Qa'a, one of the last rulers of the First Dynasty. When Qa'a died, obscure claimants appeared and battled for the throne of Egypt. The struggles reached an apex with the plundering of the royal cemetery at Abydos, whereupon the cemetery was abandoned and Saqqara became the new royal burial site. The conflict was ended by the ascension of king Hotepsekhemwy, the founder of the Second Dynasty.[48][49] Barbara Bell, another scholar, believes that an economic catastrophe such as a famine or a long-lasting drought affected Egypt. To better address the problem of feeding the Egyptian population, Nynetjer split the realm into two and his successors founded two independent realms, perhaps with intent to reunite after the famine. Bell points to the inscriptions of the Palermo stone, where, in her opinion, the records of the annual Nile floods show constantly low levels during this period.[50] Bell's theory is refuted today by Egyptologists such as Stephan Seidlmayer, who asserts her calculations were incorrect. Seidlmayer has shown that the annual Nile floods were at usual levels at Nynetjer's time up to the period of the Old Kingdom. Bell overlooked that the heights of the Nile floods in the Palermo stone inscription take into account the measurements of the nilometers around Memphis, but not elsewhere along the river. A state-wide drought was unlikely.[51] Rulers of Lower and Upper Egypt Egyptian historians such as Helck, Tiradritti, Schlögl, Emery and Grimal are convinced that Peribsen was a co-ruler. The investigation into the rulers of Lower Egypt is ongoing. The Rammesside king lists differ in their order of royal names from king Senedj onward. The royal table of Sakkara and the royal canon of Turin reflect Memphite traditions, which only allowed Memphite rulers to be mentioned. The Abydos king list reflects instead the Thinite traditions and therefore only Thinite rulers appear on that list. Until king Senedj, all the king lists are in agreement. After him, the Sakkara list and the Turin list mention three kings as successors: Neferkara I, Neferkasokar and Hudjefa I. The Abydos king list jumps forward to Khasekhemwy, calling him "Djadjay". The discrepancies are considered by Egyptologists to be the result of the division of Egypt during the Second dynasty.[26][32][46][52] Alabaster fragment with the nebti-name Weneg.[53] Additional contradictory findings are the Horus and Nebty names of kings discovered in the Great Southern Gallery in the necropolis of the (Third dynasty) king Djoser at Sakkara. Stone vessel inscriptions mention the kings Nubnefer, Weneg-Nebty, Horus Ba, Horus "Bird" and Za; each of these is mentioned only a few times, suggesting their reigns were short. King Sneferka might be identical with king Qa'a or an ephemeral successor of his. King Weneg-Nebty might be identical with the Ramesside cartouche name Wadjenes. But kings such as "Nubnefer", "Bird" and "Za" remain a mystery. They never appear anywhere else and the number of objects surviving from their lifetimes is very limited. Schlögl, Helck and Peter Kaplony postulate, that Nubnefer, Za and Bird were contemporaries of Peribsen and Sekhemib and ruled over Lower Egypt, whilst the latter two ruled Upper Egypt.[26][32][46][52][54] Opponents of the divided-realm-theory[edit] Scholars such as Herman TeVelde,[16] I. E. S. Edwards[55] and Toby Wilkinson[12] believe the inscription of the famous Annal stone of Fifth dynasty, a black olivin-basalt slabstone displaying a very detailed king list, argues against the division of the realm. On the stone the kings from 1st to 7th dynasty are listed by their Horus name, their gold name and their cartouche name, their name banderoles end with the name of their royal mother. The lists also contain rectangular windows presenting year events from the day of king's coronation up to his death. The most famous fragments of the Annal stone are called Palermo Stone and Cairo Stone. On the Cairo stone, in line IV, the nine last years of king Nynetjer are preserved (but most of the year windows are illegible now).[12] The date of Nynetjer's death is followed by a new king. Recent investigations reveal that the serekh of that new king is surmounted by a four-legged animal, not by the Horus-falcon. Since the only four-legged heraldic serekh animal in early Egypt was the chimera of the god Seth, despite passionate disagreement, the indicated ruler is likely to be Peribsen. Egyptologists such as TeVelde, Barta and Edwards do not agree; Peribsen might have not been the only king with a Seth-name. The year events under Nynetjer show increasing references to Seth, suggesting the tradition of a Horus name as the sole name of kings might have already evolved. The rise of a king allied with Seth was thus unsurprising. TeVelde, Barta and Edwards think that, in addition to Peribsen, the rulers Wadjenes, Nubnefer or Sened might have been Seth-kings as well; one of them surely was the true direct successor of Nynetjer. The comparatively large amount of archaeological finds from Peribsen's reign contradict the brief estimated length of rulership, only 10 to 12 years, as presented on the Annal stone.[12] The Annal stone gives absolutely no indication of a division of the Egyptian realm. Barta, TeVelde, Wilkinson and Edwards argue that the theory of state division is untenable. An administrative reorganization or split in the priesthood sects is more likely.[12] Political accomplishments[edit] During his time on the throne, Peribsen founded an administrative center called "The white house of treasury" as well as a new royal residence, called the "protection of Nubt", located near Ombos ("Nubt" being the Ancient Egyptian name of Naqada).[56] The administrative titles of scribes, seal-bearers and overseers were adjusted to correspond to the divided bureaucratic state administration. For example, titles like "sealer of the king" were changed into "sealer of the king of Upper Egypt". This bureaucratic reform may indicate an attempt by Peribsen to limit the power of these officials, further evidence for a bloated and unwieldy state administration under Nynetjer.[57] The administration system under Peribsen and Sekhemib had a clear and well-defined hierarchy; as an example, from highest to the lowest rank: Treasury house (royal and therefore highest in ranking) → pension office → property → vineyards → private vineyard (property of citizens and therefore lowest in ranking). King Khasekhemwy, the last ruler of the Second dynasty, was able to re-unify the state administration of Egypt and therefore unite the whole of Ancient Egypt. He brought the two treasury houses of Egypt under the control of the "House of the King", bringing them into a new, single administration centre.[57][58][59] Peribsen also founded royal edifices such as Per-nubt ("house of Ombos") and Per-Medjed ("house of meetings") and created several cities of economic importance. Their names, Afnut ("city of the headdress-makers"), Nebj ("protector's city"), Abet-desheret ("city of the red granite jars") and Huj-setjet ("city of the Asians'), are mentioned on numerous clay seals alongside Peribsen's serekh, often preceded by the phrase "visit of the king at ...".[59][60] Inscriptions on stone vessels also mention an "ini-setjet" ("tribute of the people of Sethroë"), which might indicate that Peribsen founded a cult centre for the deity Seth in the Nile Delta. This may suggest Peribsen ruled over the whole of Egypt, or, at least, that he was accepted as king across all of Egypt.[61] One official from Peribsen's reign, Nefer-Setekh ("Seth is beautiful"), the "wab-priest of the king", is known to Egyptologists by his stela. His name may highlight the appearance and popularity of Seth as a royal deity.[52] In Peribsen's tomb at Abydos, clay seals were found that demonstrate the first complete written sentence in recorded Egyptian history. The inscription reads:[62] "The golden one/He of Ombos hath unified/handed over the two realms for/to his son, the king of Lower and Upper Egypt, Peribsen". The title "The golden one", also read as "He of Ombos", is considered by Egyptologists to be a religious form of address to the deity Seth.[63][64][65] Religious changes[edit] Despite his alignment with Seth, numerous deities were worshipped by the populace under Peribsen. Numerous clay seal impressions and jar inscriptions mention the gods Ash, Horus, Nekhbet, Min, Bastet and Kherty. The depictions of the deities are followed by the name of the place or town where they had their principal cult center. On the Cairo stone, a statue of Ash and a fetish of Seth are credited to Peribsen, complementing the clay seal impressions. Curiously, several seal impressions show a sun disc over the Seth chimera atop the royal serekh: the ancient symbol for the god Ra. There is no archaeologic proof that the sun god Ra was part of the Egyptian pantheon at this early date; the appearance of the disc may be the first evidence of the evolving sun cult and theistic change. The sun disc appears in connection to one of the state patrons (for example, under Peribsen's predecessor Raneb the sun was connected to Horus); under Peribsen it was connected to Seth. Under king Khasekhemwy the sun finally received its own name (ra) and, at the time of throne change between Khasekhemwy and his follower Djoser, several priests and officials also connected their name to Ra.[66][67] Tomb[edit] Peribsen's tomb at Abydos, in the background the Great Enclosure of king Khasekhemwy is visible Mehen game board from Peribsen's tomb in Abydos, on display at the Louvre. Peribsen was buried in the tomb P of the royal cemetery at Umm el-Qa'ab near Abydos. The first excavation of the tomb started in 1898 under the supervision of French archaeologist and Egyptologist Émile Amélineau.[68] This first foray was followed by excavations in 1901 and 1902 under the supervision of British archaeologist Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie.[5][69][70] Further exploration of the tomb was undertaken in 1928 by the Swiss Egyptologist Edouard Naville.[71] The tomb's construction is straightforward and, compared to the size of other royal tombs in the same area, surprisingly small. The design model was the tomb of king Djer (third pharaoh of the First dynasty), thought to be the 'Tomb of Osiris' from the Middle Kingdom. The architecture of Peribsen's tomb is similar to the residential palace. The tomb measures 16 metres (52 ft) x 13 metres (43 ft) and comprises three independent structures nested into one another: in the center is the main burial chamber, measuring 7.3 metres (24 ft) x 2.9 metres (9.5 ft), and which is made of mud bricks, reeds, and wood. On the north, east and west sides the burial chamber is surrounded by nine small storage rooms leading into one another; on the south face is a long antechamber. A passageway runs between the inner structures and the outer wall.[5][69][70] Excavations under the supervision of the Deutsches Archäologisches Institut Kairo (DAIK) in 2001 and 2004 revealed that the tomb had been erected and completed in a great hurry. The building works took place in a single phase; the walls were plastered roughly; and the monument had collapsed several times over the centuries. During the Middle Kingdom, Peribsen's tomb was restored at least twice together with the tomb of Djer, which was thought to be that of Osiris.[69][72] Findings[edit] The tomb had been extensively plundered by tomb robbers during antiquity, yet numerous stone vessels and earthen jars remained. Some of the stone vessels had copper-coated rims and are similar to the better known finds from tomb of Khasekhemwy. Vessels from preceding rulers such as Nynetjer and Raneb were also found. Beads and bracelets made of fayence and carnelian and tools made of copper were excavated. Special findings include a silver needle engraved with the name of king Hor Aha and clay seal fragments with the name of king Sekhemib. The two stone stelae from the entrance, common to burial chambers of the First and Second dynasties, are now on display in two different museums.[5][69][70] Royal funerary enclosure[edit] A royal funerary enclosure made of mud bricks was found close to Peribsen's tomb. Clay seals with Peribsen's serekh name on them were located near the eastern entrance and inside a destroyed offering shrine. The findings support the view that the building was part of Peribsen's burial site. The funerary enclosure is commonly known as "Middle Fort". This was first discovered in 1904 under the supervision of Canadian archaeologist Charles Trick Currelly and British Egyptologist Edward Russell Ayrton. The enclosure wall was located on the north-west side of Khasekhemwy's funerary enclosure "Shunet ez Zebib" ("raisin barn"). Peribsen's measures 108 metres (354 ft) x 55 metres (180 ft) and housed only a few cult buildings. The enclosure has three entrances: one to the east, one to the south and one to the north. A small shrine, measuring 12.3 metres (40 ft) x 9.75 metres (32.0 ft) was located at the south-east corner of the funerary enclosure. It once comprised three small chapels. No subsidiary tombs were found.[69][70][73] The tradition of burying the family and court of the king when he died was abandoned at the time of Qa'a, one of the last rulers of the First dynasty.[74] References[edit] ^ a b Kathryn A. Bard: The Emergence of the Egyptian State, page 86, in: Ian Shaw (editor): The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press (2000), ISBN 0-19-815034-2. ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, p. 195. ^ Laurel Bestock: The Early Dynastic Funerary Enclosures of Abydos. In: Archéo-Nil. Vol. 18, 2008, ISSN 1161-0492, p. 42–59. ^ British Museum Website Archived 2015-10-18 at the Wayback Machine ^ a b c d William Matthew Flinders Petrie, Francis Llewellyn Griffith: The royal tombs of the earliest dynasties/ 1901: Part II. (= Memoir of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Vol. 21, ZDB-ID 988141-4). 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Egypt Exploration Fund u. a., London 1914, page 21–25 & 35–39. ^ Günter Dreyer and others.: Umm el-Qaab – Nachuntersuchungen im frühzeitlichen Königsfriedhof (16. / 17. / 18. Vorbericht). In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo. (MDAIK). vol. 62, 2006, ISSN 0342-1279, page 75–77 & 106–110. ^ W. M. Flinders Petrie: The Royal Tombs of the Earliest Dynasties. Volume II., London 1901, page 11–12 ^ Toby A. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, London 2001, ISBN 0-415-26011-6, page 281. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Peribsen. Francesco Raffaele: Seth-Peribsen Tomb P (Peribsen) at Abydos on digitalegypt v t e Second Dynasty of Ancient Egypt Attested pharaohs Hotepsekhemwy Nebra Weneg Nynetjer Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Khasekhemwy Obscure pharaoh names Horus Ba Ba Horus Sa Hudjefa I Neferkara I Neferkasokar Nubnefer Senedj Sneferka Wadjenes Queen consort Nimaathap Other royals Khenmetptah Satkhnum Sehener Shepset-ipet Wadjitefni (Mesen-ka) Pehen-Ptah Nisuheqet Nefer-Setekh Monument Gisr el-Mudir Capital Thinis v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seth-Peribsen&oldid=995690679" Categories: 28th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Second Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: Webarchive template 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en-wikipedia-org-9884	----	Userkare - Wikipedia Userkare From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the Semitic pharaoh of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt, see Userkare Khendjer. Userkare Woserkare Userkare's cartouche on the Abydos king list. Pharaoh Reign 1 to 5 years in the late 24th to early 23rd century BC[note 1] (Sixth Dynasty) Predecessor Teti Successor Pepi I Meryre Royal titulary Nomen Userkare Wsr-k3-Rˁ Powerful is the Ka of Ra[10] Golden Horus Conjectural:[11] Bikwy-nub Bjk.wj-nb.w The Two Golden Falcons Father uncertain, possibly Teti Mother uncertain, possibly Khuit Userkare (also Woserkare, meaning "Powerful is the soul of Ra") was the second pharaoh of the Sixth Dynasty, reigning briefly, 1 to 5 years, in the late 24th to early 23rd century BC. Userkare's relation to his predecessor Teti and successor Pepi I is unknown and his reign remains enigmatic. Although he is attested in historical sources, Userkare is completely absent from the tomb of the Egyptian officials who lived during his reign. In addition, the Egyptian priest Manetho reports that Userkare's predecessor Teti was murdered. Userkare is often considered to have been a short-lived usurper. Alternatively, he may have been a regent who ruled during Teti's son's childhood who later ascended the throne as Pepi I. Contents 1 Attestations 1.1 Historical sources 1.2 Contemporaneous sources 1.3 South Saqqara Stone 2 Reign 2.1 As a legitimate ruler 2.2 As an usurper to the throne 3 Tomb 4 Notes 5 References 6 Bibliography 7 External links Attestations[edit] Historical sources[edit] Userkare is present on the Abydos King List, a list of kings written during the reign of Seti I (1290–1279 BC) over 1000 years after the early Sixth Dynasty. Userkare's cartouche occupies the 35th entry of the list, between those of Teti and Pepi I,[12] making him the second pharaoh of the dynasty.[13] Userkare was possibly also listed on the Turin canon, a king list composed during the reign of Ramesses II (1279–1213 BC). Unfortunately, a large lacuna affects the second line of the fourth column of the papyrus on which the list was written, the place were Userkare's name might have been located.[14] Contemporaneous sources[edit] Secure attestations Few artefacts dating to Userkare's lifetime have survived to this day, the only secure attestions contemporaneous with his reign being two cylinder seals[2][note 2] inscribed with his name and titles[18] and a copper mallet from the Michaelides collection.[19] The mallet bears a small inscription giving the name of a crew of workmen "Beloved ones of Userkare" who hailed from Wadjet, the 10th nome of Upper Egypt, located around Tjebu, south of Asyut.[20] Possible attestations The French Egyptologists Michel Baud and Vassil Dobrev have also proposed that a copper axe head discovered in Syria could belong to Userkare.[11] The axe bears the name of another crew of workmen called the "Beloved ones of the Two Golden Falcons", where "Two Golden Falcons" is the golden Horus name of a pharaoh. Although both Khufu and Sahure bore this name and either one of them may be the owner of the axe,[21] Baud and Dobrev note that Teti's and Pepi's golden horus names are "Golden Falcon who Unites" and "Three Golden Falcons", respectively. It is thus tempting to conclude that Userkare's was "Two Golden Falcons" and that the axe belongs to him.[11] The English Egyptologist Flinders Petrie has tentatively identified Userkare with a king named Ity attested by a single rock inscription found in the Wadi Hammamat. The inscription, dated to the first year of reign of Ity, mentions a band of 200 sailors and 200 masons under the direction of the overseers Ihyemsaf and Irenakhet[22] sent to the Wadi Hammamat to collect stones for the construction of Ity's pyramid called "Bau Ity",[23] meaning "Glory of Ity".[24] Petrie's identification of Userkare with Ity relies solely on his estimation of the inscription to the Sixth Dynasty and the fact that Userkare is the only king of this period whose full titulary is not known.[23] This identification is nowadays deemed conjectural[25] and several First Intermediate Period dates have been proposed for Ity.[24] South Saqqara Stone[edit] In addition to historical and contemporaneous sources, details about Userkare's reign were once given on the nearly contemporaneous South Saqqara Stone, a royal annal of the Sixth Dynasty dating to the reign of Merenre Nemtyemsaf I or Pepi II.[26] Unfortunately, an estimated 92%[27] of the original text was lost when the stone was roughly polished to be reused as a sarcophagus lid, possibly in the late First Intermediate (c. 2160–2055 BC) to early Middle Kingdom period (c. 2055–1650 BC).[28] The presence of Userkare on the annal can nonetheless be inferred from a large space between the sections concerning the reigns of Teti and Pepi I[14] as well as from traces of a royal titulary in this space.[29] Although the text reporting Userkare's activities is lost, its length suggests that Userkare ruled Egypt for four or less likely two years.[30] Reign[edit] Given the scarcity of documents pertaining to Userkare, his relations to his predecessor and successor are largely uncertain and Egyptologists have proposed a number of hypotheses regarding his identity and reign. These fall broadly into two contradictory scenarios: one that sees Userkare as a legitimate ruler or regent,[31] while the other perceives Userkare as an usurper, possibly responsible for the murder of his predecessor Teti.[25] As a legitimate ruler[edit] The Egyptologists William Stevenson Smith,[32] William C. Hayes[33] and Nicolas Grimal[34] believe that Userkare briefly ruled Egypt either as a legitimate stopgap ruler or as a regent with queen Iput I. Indeed, Teti's son Pepi I reigned for circa 50 years, indicating that he was likely very young at the death of his father, likely too young to immediately assume the throne.[35] The theory that Userkare was merely a regent is rejected by many Egyptologists, including Naguib Kanawati, on the basis that Userkare is mentioned on the Turin and Abydos king lists and hold full royal titulary, something reserved exclusively to reigning pharaohs.[36] In support of the hypothesis that Userkare was a legitimate stopgap ruler, Grimal stresses that he is well attested by historical and contemporaneous sources, in particular the Saqqara Stone. This seems in contradiction with the idea that, being illegitimate, he was victim of a Damnatio memoriae by his successor Pepi.[note 3] In addition, there is no direct evidence of difficulties associated with Pepi I's rise on throne in the archeological record, which one could expect had Userkare been an usurper.[34] As an usurper to the throne[edit] The Egyptian priest Manetho who wrote an history of Egypt, the Aegyptiaca, in the 3rd century BC during the reign of Ptolemy II (283–246 BC), mentions that Othoes –the hellenized name of Teti– was murdered by his bodyguards or attendants.[38] Based on this statement, Egyptologists have found it plausible that Userkare participated in or at least benefited from Teti's assassination, despite Userkare's absence from the Aegyptiaca.[38] Userkare's name is theophoric and incorporates the name of the sun god Ra, a naming fashion common during the preceding Fifth Dynasty. Since Teti was not a son of the last Fifth Dynasty king Unas, some Egyptologists have proposed that Userkare could have been a descendant of a lateral branch of the Fifth Dynasty royal family who briefly seized power in a coup.[31] The Egyptian-Australian Egyptologist Naguib Kanawati also finds the hypothesis that Userkare was a short-lived legitimate ruler or regent "unconvincing".[39] Indeed, archeological evidence lends credence to the idea that Userkare was illegitimate in the eyes of his successor Pepi I. In particular, there is no mention of Userkare in the tombs and biographies of the many Egyptian officials who served under both Teti and Pepi I.[40] The viziers Inumin and Khentika, who served both Teti and Pepi I, are completely silent about Userkare and none of their activities during Userkare's time on the throne are reported in their tomb.[41] Furthermore, the tomb of Mehi, a guard who lived under Teti, Userkare and Pepi, yielded an inscription showing that the name of Teti was first erased to be replaced by that of another king, whose name was itself erased and replaced again by that of Teti.[42] Kanawati argues that the intervening name was that of Userkare to whom Mehi may have transferred his allegiance.[43] Mehi's attempt to switch back to Teti was seemingly unsuccessful, as there is evidence that work on his tomb stopped abruptly and that he was never buried there.[44] Tomb[edit] The location of the tomb of Userkare has not yet been identified. The brevity of his reign implies that the tomb was probably unfinished at his death, making modern identification difficult.[31] Since Userkare was a Sixth Dynasty pharaoh, his tomb was presumably planned to be a pyramid. A possible vindication of this hypothesis is the copper mallet mentioning a team of paid workers from the nome of Wadjet. These workers were likely involved in an important building project, likely to be Userkare's pyramid.[34] Two hypotheses for the location of Userkare's pyramid have been put forth. The Egyptologist Vassil Dobrev proposed that Userkare's pyramid is located in the area of Saqqara South known today as Tabbet al-Guesh, north-west of the mortuary complex of Pepi I. Indeed, a large necropolis of Sixth Dynasty administration officials is found there, which according to Dobrev, hints at the nearby presence of a royal pyramid.[45] The astrophysicist Giulio Magli believes instead that the pyramid of Userkare is to be found midway between those of Pepi I and Merenre Nemtyemsaf I, at a place that would make the three pyramids form a line parallel to the one formed by the pyramids of Sekhemkhet, Unas, Djoser, Userkaf and Teti to the North.[46] Notes[edit] ^ Proposed dates for Userkare's reign: c. 2408–2404 BC,[1] 2358–2354 BC,[2] 2337–2335 BC,[3] 2323–2321 BC,[4] 2312–2310 BC,[5] 2291–2289 BC,[6][7] 2279–2276 BC,[8] 2270–2265 BC.[9] ^ The Swiss Egyptologist Peter Kaplony attributes three seals to Userkare[15] but one of these seals reads "Userka[...]" and could instead belong to Userkaf.[16] In addition, a number of seals bering the name "Userkare" have been attributed to him but are now believed to belong to the 13th Dynasty pharaoh Userkare Khendjer.[17] ^ Baud and Dobrev do not take Userkare's presence on the Saqqara Stone as direct evidence that he was legitimate in the eyes of his successors. However, if Userkare was an usurper, then this would mean that royal annals were not affected by damnatio memoriae and would rather systematically record all royal activities, regardless of their political context.[37] References[edit] ^ Hayes 1978, p. 58. ^ a b Altenmüller 2001, p. 602. ^ Strudwick 2005, p. xxx. ^ Malek 2000, p. 104. ^ von Beckerath 1999, p. 283. ^ Arnold 1999. ^ Allen et al. 1999, p. xx. ^ Hornung 2012, p. 491. ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 288. ^ Allen et al. 1999, p. 10. ^ a b c Baud & Dobrev 1995, p. 59, footnote 92. ^ Goedicke 1986, p. 901. ^ von Beckerath 1999, pp. 62–63, king no. 2. ^ a b Baud & Dobrev 1995, p. 59. ^ Kaplony 1981, II.A pp. 361–362, no 1 and 2; II.B, pl. 98. ^ Baud & Dobrev 1995, p. 59, footnote 94. ^ Baud & Dobrev 1995, p. 59, footnote 93. ^ Hayes 1978, p. 125. ^ Kaplony 1965, p. 36, 38–39 and fig. 90. ^ Roth 1991, p. 122. ^ Roth 1991, pp. 122–123. ^ Strudwick 2005, p. 140, num. 63. ^ a b Petrie 1907, pp. 88–89. ^ a b Baker 2008, pp. 157–158. ^ a b Baud & Dobrev 1995, p. 60. ^ Baud & Dobrev 1995, p. 54. ^ Baud & Dobrev 1995, p. 25. ^ Baud & Dobrev 1995, pp. 54–55. ^ Baud & Dobrev 1995, p. 28. ^ Baud & Dobrev 1995, p. 53. ^ a b c Baker 2008, p. 487. ^ Stevenson Smith 1971, p. 191. ^ Hayes 1970, pp. 178–179. ^ a b c Grimal 1992, p. 81. ^ Grimal 1992, p. 82. ^ Kanawati 2003, p. 184. ^ Baud & Dobrev 1995, p. 62. ^ a b Waddell 1971, pp. 51–53. ^ Kanawati 2003, p. 4. ^ Kanawati 2003, p. 95. ^ Kanawati 2003, p. 89. ^ Kanawati 2003, pp. 94–95. ^ Kanawati 2003, p. 163. ^ Kanawati 2003, p. 164. ^ Dobrev 2006. ^ Magli 2010, p. 5. Bibliography[edit] Allen, James; Allen, Susan; Anderson, Julie; Arnold, Arnold; Arnold, Dorothea; Cherpion, Nadine; David, Élisabeth; Grimal, Nicolas; Grzymski, Krzysztof; Hawass, Zahi; Hill, Marsha; Jánosi, Peter; Labée-Toutée, Sophie; Labrousse, Audran; Lauer, Jean-Phillippe; Leclant, Jean; Der Manuelian, Peter; Millet, N. B.; Oppenheim, Adela; Craig Patch, Diana; Pischikova, Elena; Rigault, Patricia; Roehrig, Catharine H.; Wildung, Dietrich; Ziegler, Christiane (1999). Egyptian Art in the Age of the Pyramids. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0-81-096543-0. OCLC 41431623. Altenmüller, Hartwig (2001). "Old Kingdom: Sixth Dynasty". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 2. Oxford University Press. pp. 601–605. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5. Arnold, Dorothea (July 19, 1999). "Old Kingdom Chronology and List of Kings". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved March 31, 2015. Baker, Darrell (2008). The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC. Stacey International. ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9. Baud, Michel; Dobrev, Vassil (1995). "De nouvelles annales de l'Ancien Empire Egyptien. Une "Pierre de Palerme" pour la VIe dynastie" (PDF). Bulletin de l'Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale (in French). 95: 23–92. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-04-02. von Beckerath, Jürgen (1999). Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen (in German). Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz : Philip von Zabern. ISBN 978-3-8053-2591-2. Dobrev, Vassil (2006). "Old Kingdom Tombs at Tabbet al-Guesh (South Saqqara)". In Bárta, Miroslav; Coppens, Filip; Krejci, Jaromir (eds.). Abusir and Saqqara in the Year 2005. Prague: Czech Institute of Egyptology, Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague. pp. 229–235. ISBN 978-8-07-308116-4. Dodson, Aidan; Hilton, Dyan (2004). The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames & Hudson Ltd. ISBN 978-0-50-005128-3. Goedicke, Hans (1986). "Userkare". In Helck, Wolfgang; Otto, Eberhard; Westendorf, Wolfhart (eds.). Lexikon der Ägyptologie: Band VI. Stele-Zypresse (in German). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. ISBN 978-3-44-702663-5. Grimal, Nicolas (1992). A History of Ancient Egypt. Translated by Ian Shaw. Oxford: Blackwell publishing. ISBN 978-0-63-119396-8. Hayes, William (1970). "The Old Kingdom in Egypt". In Edwards, I. E. S.; Gadd, C. J.; Hammond, N. G. L. (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 1, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 178–179. ISBN 978-0-52-107051-5. Hayes, William (1978). The Scepter of Egypt: A Background for the Study of the Egyptian Antiquities in The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Vol. 1, From the Earliest Times to the End of the Middle Kingdom. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. OCLC 7427345. Hornung, Erik; Krauss, Rolf; Warburton, David, eds. (2012). Ancient Egyptian Chronology. Handbook of Oriental Studies. Leiden, Boston: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-11385-5. ISSN 0169-9423. Kanawati, Naguib (2003). Conspiracies in the Egyptian Palace: Unis to Pepy I. London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-20-316673-4. Kaplony, Peter (1965). "Bemerkungen zu einigen Steingefäßen mit archaïschen Königsnamen". Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo (MDAIK) (in German). 20: 1–46. Kaplony, Peter (1981). Die Rollsiegel des Alten Reiches. Band II; Text A: Katalog der Rollsiegel. Text B: Tafeln. Monumenta Aegyptiaca, 3B (in German). Bruxelles: Fondation Egyptologique Reine Élisabeth. OCLC 58642039. Magli, Giulio (2010). "Archaeoastronomy and the archaeo=topography as tools in the search for a missing Egyptian pyramid". PalArch's Journal of Archaeology of Egypt/Egyptology. 7 (5): 1–9. Malek, Jaromir (2000). "The Old Kingdom (c.2160-2055 BC)". In Shaw, Ian (ed.). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-815034-3. Petrie, William Matthew Flinders (1907). A History of Egypt. Volume 1: from the earliest times to the XVIth dynasty (6th ed.). London: Methuen & co. OCLC 1524193. Roth, Ann Macy (1991). Egyptian Phyles in the Old Kingdom: The Evolution of a System of Social Organization. Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 48. Chicago: The Oriental Institute. ISBN 978-0-91-898668-9. Stevenson Smith, William (1971). "The Old Kingdom in Egypt". In Edwards, I. E. S.; Gadd, C. J.; Hammond, N. G. L. (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 1, Part 2: Early History of the Middle East. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 145–207. ISBN 978-0-52-107791-0. Strudwick, Nigel (2005). Texts from the Pyramid Age (annotated ed.). Society of Biblical Literature. ISBN 978-1-58983-138-4. Waddell, William Gillan (1971). Manetho. Loeb classical library, 350. Cambridge, Massachusetts; London: Harvard University Press; W. Heinemann. OCLC 6246102. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Userkare. External links[edit] The South Saqqara Stone: Sixth Dynasty Annals Preceded by Teti Pharaoh of Egypt Sixth Dynasty Succeeded by Pepi I v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Userkare&oldid=993107109" Categories: 24th-century BC Pharaohs 23rd-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Sixth Dynasty of Egypt 24th-century BC rulers 24th century BC in Egypt Hidden categories: CS1 French-language sources (fr) CS1 German-language sources (de) Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 8 December 2020, at 20:44 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9927	----	Sabaces - Wikipedia Sabaces From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sabaces Satrap of Egypt Portrait of satrap Sabaces from his coinage. Circa 340-333 BC. Achaemenid Egypt. Predecessor Pherendates II Successor Mazaces Dynasty 31st Dynasty Pharaoh Darius III Coin of Sabaces, in imitation of Athenian coinage. Obverse: Head of Athena. Reverse: Athenian owl. To right: Sabaces symbol and Aramaic inscription 𐡎𐡅𐡉𐡊 SWYK. Circa 340-333 BC. Achaemenid Egypt.[1] Coin of Sabaces. Persian Egypt. Circa 335-333 BC Sabaces (name variants: Sabakes, Sauaces; Sataces; Diodorus Siculus calls him Tasiaces;[2] Aramaic: 𐡎𐡅𐡉𐡊 SWYK, died in 333 BC) was an Achaemenid satrap of the Achaemenid Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt during the reign of king Darius III of Persia. Contents 1 Resistance to Alexander the Great 2 Successor 3 Notes 4 References Resistance to Alexander the Great[edit] Some time before the Battle of Issus Sabaces left Egypt with his army to join Darius III in Syria and support him in his fight against Alexander the Great. When the Battle of Issus took place (November 333 BC) Alexander and his horsemen fought their way through the enemy troops until they came in close vicinity to Darius III, whose life was therefore threatened. Darius III was protected by the most noble Persians, among them also Sabaces, who was killed:[3] Of the Persians were killed Arsames, Rheomithres, and Atizyes who had commanded the cavalry at the Granicus. Sabaces, viceroy of Egypt, and Bubaces, one of the Persian dignitaries, were also killed, besides about 100,000 of the private soldiers, among them being more than 10,000 cavalry. — The Anabasis of Alexander by Arrian, translated by E. J. Chinnock, Book II, Chapter XI[4] The Persian king fled because he feared for his life; therefore the Macedonians won the battle. Successor[edit] Mazaces was probably the successor of Sabaces in Egypt, but because Sabaces had taken with him nearly all occupying forces, Mazaces was not able to organize military resistance against the Macedonians. Therefore, Alexander the Great was able to take Egypt without fighting (332 BC). Notes[edit] ^ CNG: EGYPT, Persian Administration. Sabakes. Circa 340-333 BC. AR Tetradrachm (24mm, 16.88 g, 9h). Imitating Athens. ^ Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica 17.34.5 ^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri 2.11.8; Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica 17.34.5; Quintus Curtius Rufus, Historiae Alexandri Magni 3.11.10 and 4.1.28 ^ The Anabasis of Alexander. References[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sabakes. Waldemar Heckel: Who’s who in the age of Alexander the Great. Prosopography of Alexander’s empire. Blackwell, Oxford 2006, ISBN 978-1-4051-1210-9 Siegfried Lauffer: Alexander der Große. dtv, Munich 1978, third edition 1993, ISBN 3-423-04298-2, p. 78 and 87. Preceded by Pherendates II Satrap of Egypt before 333 – 333 BCE Succeeded by Mazaces v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC This Iranian biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e This Ancient Egypt biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sabaces&oldid=961562348" Categories: Military personnel of the Achaemenid Empire killed in action Alexander the Great 333 BC deaths 4th-century BC Iranian people Achaemenid satraps of Egypt 4th century BC in Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt Iranian people stubs Ancient Egypt people stubs Hidden categories: Commons category link is on Wikidata Year of birth unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Català Deutsch Español فارسی Hrvatski Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 9 June 2020, at 05:38 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9928	----	Qahedjet - Wikipedia Qahedjet From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Qahedjet Huni ? Stela of Qahedjet Pharaoh Predecessor unknown Successor Huni? Sneferu? Royal titulary Horus name Hor-Qahedjet Ḥr-Q3j-ḥḏ.t Raised crown of Horus[1] He with the raised White Crown[2] Qahedjet (also Hor-Qahedjet) could be the Horus name of an ancient Egyptian king (pharaoh), who may have ruled during the 3rd Dynasty or could be a voluntarily archaistic representation of Thutmose III.[3] Since the only artifact attesting to the ruler and his name is a small stela made of polished limestone of uncertain origin and authenticity,[4] Egyptologists are discussing the chronological position and historical figure of Qahedjet. Contents 1 The stela 1.1 Description 1.2 Authenticity 2 Identity of Qahedjet 3 References The stela[edit] Description[edit] The stela of king Qahedjet is 50.5 cm high, 31.0 cm wide and 3.0 cm thick and made of finely polished limestone. It was bought in 1967 by the Louvre at Paris, where it is now on display. The front shows king Qahedjet embracing an anthropomorphic form of the god Horus. King Qahedjet wears the White crown of Upper Egypt and an artificial king's beard, and looks directly into Horus' eyes, both figures being the same height. His face looks remarkable with his crooked nose, the bulging lips and his square chin. The king wears a kilt with a dagger in a belt. In his left hand, he holds a mace while in his right hand he holds a staff with a wing-like mark at middle height. Horus has laid his right arm around Qahedjet's shoulder and holds Qahedjet's elbow in his left hand. The hieroglyphic inscription describes the king's visit to the northern shrine of the god Ra at Heliopolis.[1][5] Authenticity[edit] The authenticity of Qahedjet's stela is questioned by Egyptologists such as Jean-Pierre Pätznik and Jacques Vandier. They point to several stylistic contradictions that can be found within the relief motif. Firstly, they stress that the earliest known depiction of an anthropomorphic Horus is found in the pyramid temple of Sahure, second pharaoh of the 5th Dynasty. Secondly, they argue that the motif of a king embracing a god (or a god embracing a king) would be highly unusual for the Old Kingdom, since the king was then seen as the living representation of Horus (and Seth), but not seen on a par with them in this way. Depictions showing a king in an intimate pose with a god would therefore be heretical and provocative at the same time. Detail of the stela. Further arguments of Pätznik and Vandier concern the inscriptions right of Qahedjet's serekh. The hieroglyphic signs are unusually shifted to the right and they are not square in arrangement. This contradicts the Egyptian rules of calligraphy on royal monuments. Additionally, the details on the owl-sign (value m) of the stele do not appear before the first half of the 18th Dynasty and the stele would represent the earliest formulation Horus + m + toponym. Finally, serekh names involving a royal crown as a hieroglyphic symbol are otherwise only known from king Thutmose III of the 18th Dynasty onwards, and Pätznik and Vandier remark that Qahedjet is known to be a variant of Thutmose III's Horus name, so that the stele, if authentic, could be an archaistic work of the New Kingdom.[1] Alternatively, the square face of Qahedjet, that reminds the viewer so much of that of king Djoser, makes them think that the stela could be an archaistic production from the much later Sait period. During this era reliefs with clear hommages to the art of the Old Kingdom were seen as “en vogue”. As an example, Pätznik and Vandier point to a naos of Djoser found at Heliopolis (now in fragments), that shows Djoser sitting on a Hebsed-throne. Djoser appears nearly identical in the reliefs of his necropolis at Saqqara, but a small guiding inscription reveals that the naos was built in the 7th-6th century BCE, during the Saitic period.[1] Their last argument concerns the word Hut-a'a (meaning "great palace"), the place which Qahedjet is represented visiting. The way Hut-a'a is written on the stela is known not to be in use before the very end of the Old Kingdom and become common only from the time of king Senwosret I of the 12th Dynasty onwards. Furthermore, Hut-a'a is generally identified with the temple of Ra in Heliopolis, which is located in Lower Egypt while Qahedjet wears the crown of Upper Egypt. On the other hand, reliefs from Djoser's pyramid complex always depict the king wearing the crown corresponding to the places he is shown visiting. Thus, the several contradictions in the relief's artistic program make Jaques Vandier and Jean-Pierre Pätznik wonder if the stela is authentic or just a modern fake. The uncertain origins of the stela, which was acquired by the Louvre in 1967 from a private antique dealer in Cairo [4] only lends more weight to this possibility. Identity of Qahedjet[edit] Assuming its authenticity, Jacques Vandier proposed in his first study of the stele in 1968 that it be dated to the 3rd Dynasty on stylistic grounds, suggesting that Qahedjet be identified with king Huni, the last ruler of the dynasty. Toby A.H. Wilkinson and Ian Shaw are of the same opinion: they think that "Hor-Qahedjet" was the serekh name of Huni, although this assumption is only based on that Huni is the only king of this dynasty whose Horus name is unknown (the name "Huni" is a cartouche name only). Thus, their theory is not commonly accepted.[6][7] Similarly, Jürgen von Beckerath, Rainer Stadelmann and Dietrich Wildung considered Qahedjet to have ruled toward the end of the 3rd Dynasty. Again, their theory is based on the stylistic resemblances between Qahedjet's face and that of king Djoser on reliefs from his pyramid complex.[2][8] Finally, one must mention that Peter Kaplony dated the stela to the First Intermediate Period of Egypt.[9] References[edit] ^ a b c d Jean-Pierre Pätznik, Jacques Vandier: L’Horus Qahedjet: Souverain de la IIIe dynastie?. page 1455–1472. ^ a b Thomas Schneider: Lexikon der Pharaonen. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3. page 315. ^ Jean-Pierre Pätznick: L'Horus Qahedjet: souverain de la 3eme dynasty ?, Proceedings of the Ninth Congress of Egyptologists, Orientalia Lovaniensa Analecta, Ch. 2.1, p. 1455, Online ^ a b Chr. Ziegler: Catalogue des steles, peintures et reliefs egyptiens de l'Ancien Empire et de la Premiere Periode Intermediaire, Musee du Louvre, Paris 1990, pp. 54-57 ^ Toby Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, London/New York 1999, ISBN 0-415-18633-1, page 104–105. ^ Ian Shaw: The Oxford history of ancient Egypt. page 88. ^ Jacques Vandier: Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Inscriptions et des Belles-Lettres. 1968, page 16–22. ^ Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen. Deutscher Kunstverlag, München/ Berlin 1984, ISBN 3-422-00832-2. page 52 & 117. ^ Peter Kaplony: Die Rollsiegel des Alten Reiches (= Monumenta Aegyptiaca, vol. 3). Fondation égyptologique Reine Elisabeth, Bruxelles 1981, p. 155, com. 271 v t e Pharaohs Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Protodynastic (pre-3150 BC) Lower Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Hat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash Upper Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Early Dynastic (3150–2686 BC) I Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird II Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) III Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah 1st Intermediate (2181–2040 BC) VII/VIII Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut X Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Middle Kingdom (2040–1802 BC) XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Nubia Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 2nd Intermediate (1802–1550 BC) XIII Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi XIV Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har XV Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Salitis Sakir-Har Khyan Yanassi Apepi Khamudi XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III Abydos Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib XVII Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate (1069–664 BC) XXI Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II XXII Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV XXIII Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Shoshenq VII Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Late Period and Hellenistic Period  (664–30 BC) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female♀) uncertain Late (664–332 BC) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III Hellenistic (332–30 BC) Argead Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Ptolemaic Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetes♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Cleopatra II♀ Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Soter Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander I Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Cleopatra V♀ Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Arsinoe IV♀ Ptolemy XIV Ptolemy XV Caesarion Dynastic genealogies 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic List of pharaohs Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Qahedjet&oldid=997090564" Categories: 27th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Third Dynasty of Egypt Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Deutsch Español Euskara ქართული Македонски مصرى Polski Svenska Tagalog Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 29 December 2020, at 23:38 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9930	----	Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition - Wikipedia Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 1910 Encyclopedia Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition First page of the Encyclopædia Britannica, Eleventh Edition Country United States Language British English Release number 11 Subject General Publisher Horace Everett Hooper Publication date 1910–11 Media type Print and Digital Preceded by Encyclopædia Britannica Tenth Edition  Followed by Encyclepædia Britannica Twelfth Edition  Text Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition at Wikisource The Encyclopædia Britannica, Eleventh Edition (1910–11), is a 29-volume reference work, an edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica. It was developed during the encyclopaedia's transition from a British to an American publication. Some of its articles were written by the best-known scholars of the time. This edition of the encyclopaedia, containing 40,000 entries, is now in the public domain, and many of its articles have been used as a basis for articles in Wikipedia.[1] However, the outdated nature of some of its content makes its use as a source for modern scholarship problematic. Some articles have special value and interest to modern scholars as cultural artifacts of the 19th and early 20th centuries. Contents 1 Background 2 Notable commentary on the Eleventh Edition 3 1911 Britannica in the 21st century 4 Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links 8.1 Free, public-domain sources for 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica text 8.2 Other sources for 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica text Background[edit] Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th edition The 1911 eleventh edition was assembled with the management of American publisher Horace Everett Hooper. Hugh Chisholm, who had edited the previous edition, was appointed editor in chief, with Walter Alison Phillips as his principal assistant editor.[2] Originally, Hooper bought the rights to the 25-volume 9th edition and persuaded the British newspaper The Times to issue its reprint, with eleven additional volumes (35 volumes total) as the tenth edition, which was published in 1902. Hooper's association with The Times ceased in 1909, and he negotiated with the Cambridge University Press to publish the 29-volume eleventh edition. Though it is generally perceived as a quintessentially British work, the eleventh edition had substantial American influences, in not only the increased amount of American and Canadian content, but also the efforts made to make it more popular.[3] American marketing methods also assisted sales. Some 14% of the contributors (214 of 1507) were from North America, and a New York office was established to coordinate their work.[4] The initials of the encyclopaedia's contributors appear at the end of selected articles or at the end of a section in the case of longer articles, such as that on China, and a key is given in each volume to these initials. Some articles were written by the best-known scholars of the time, such as Edmund Gosse, J. B. Bury, Algernon Charles Swinburne, John Muir, Peter Kropotkin, T. H. Huxley, James Hopwood Jeans and William Michael Rossetti. Among the then lesser-known contributors were some who would later become distinguished, such as Ernest Rutherford and Bertrand Russell. Many articles were carried over from the 9th edition, some with minimal updating. Some of the book-length articles were divided into smaller parts for easier reference, yet others much abridged. The best-known authors generally contributed only a single article or part of an article. Most of the work was done by journalists, British Museum scholars and other scholars. The 1911 edition was the first edition of the encyclopædia to include more than just a handful of female contributors, with 34 women contributing articles to the edition.[5] The eleventh edition introduced a number of changes of the format of the Britannica. It was the first to be published complete, instead of the previous method of volumes being released as they were ready. The print type was kept in galley proofs and subject to continual updating until publication. It was the first edition of Britannica to be issued with a comprehensive index volume in which was added a categorical index, where like topics were listed. It was the first not to include long treatise-length articles. Even though the overall length of the work was about the same as that of its predecessor, the number of articles had increased from 17,000 to 40,000. It was also the first edition of Britannica to include biographies of living people. Sixteen maps of the famous 9th edition of Stielers Handatlas were exclusively translated to English, converted to Imperial units, printed in Gotha, Germany, by Justus Perthes and became part this edition. Later editions only included Perthes' maps as low quality reproductions.[6] According to Coleman and Simmons,[7] the content of the encyclopaedia was distributed as follows: Subject Content Geography 29% Pure and applied science 17% History 17% Literature 11% Fine art 9% Social science 7% Psychology 1.7% Philosophy 0.8% Hooper sold the rights to Sears, Roebuck and Company of Chicago in 1920, completing the Britannica's transition to becoming a substantially American publication.[8] In 1922, an additional three volumes (also edited by Hugh Chisholm) were published, covering the events of the intervening years, including World War I. These, together with a reprint of the eleventh edition, formed the twelfth edition of the work. A similar thirteenth edition, consisting of three volumes plus a reprint of the twelfth edition, was published in 1926, so the twelfth and thirteenth editions were closely related to the eleventh edition and shared much of the same content. However, it became increasingly apparent that a more thorough update of the work was required. The fourteenth edition, published in 1929, was considerably revised, with much text eliminated or abridged to make room for new topics. Nevertheless, the eleventh edition was the basis of every later version of the Encyclopædia Britannica until the completely new fifteenth edition was published in 1974, using modern information presentation. The eleventh edition's articles are still of value and interest to modern readers and scholars, especially as a cultural artifact: the British Empire was at its maximum, imperialism was largely unchallenged, much of the world was still ruled by monarchs, and the tumultuous world wars were still in the future. They are an invaluable resource for topics omitted from modern encyclopaedias, particularly for biography and the history of science and technology. As a literary text, the encyclopaedia has value as an example of early 20th-century prose. For example, it employs literary devices, such as pathetic fallacy (attribution of human-like traits to impersonal forces or inanimate objects), which are not as common in modern reference texts.[7] Notable commentary on the Eleventh Edition[edit] 1913 advertisement for the eleventh edition Wikisource has original text related to this article: Misinforming a Nation In 1917, using the pseudonym of S. S. Van Dine, the US art critic and author Willard Huntington Wright published Misinforming a Nation, a 200+ page criticism of inaccuracies and biases of the Encyclopædia Britannica eleventh edition. Wright claimed that Britannica was "characterized by misstatement, inexcusable omissions, rabid and patriotic prejudices, personal animosities, blatant errors of fact, scholastic ignorance, gross neglect of non-British culture, an astounding egotism, and an undisguised contempt for American progress".[9] Amos Urban Shirk, known for having read the eleventh and fourteenth editions in their entirety, said he found the fourteenth edition to be a "big improvement" over the eleventh, stating that "most of the material had been completely rewritten". Robert Collison, in Encyclopaedias: Their History Throughout The Ages (1966), wrote of the eleventh edition that it "was probably the finest edition of the Britannica ever issued, and it ranks with the Enciclopedia Italiana and the Espasa as one of the three greatest encyclopaedias. It was the last edition to be produced almost in its entirety in Britain, and its position in time as a summary of the world's knowledge just before the outbreak of World War I is particularly valuable". Sir Kenneth Clark, in Another Part of the Wood (1974), wrote of the eleventh edition, "One leaps from one subject to another, fascinated as much by the play of mind and the idiosyncrasies of their authors as by the facts and dates. It must be the last encyclopaedia in the tradition of Diderot which assumes that information can be made memorable only when it is slightly coloured by prejudice. When T. S. Eliot wrote 'Soul curled up on the window seat reading the Encyclopædia Britannica,' he was certainly thinking of the eleventh edition." (Clark refers to Eliot's 1929 poem "Animula".) It was one of Jorge Luis Borges's favorite works, and was a source of information and enjoyment for his entire working life.[10] In 1912, mathematician L. C. Karpinski criticised the eleventh edition for inaccuracies in articles on the history of mathematics, none of which had been written by specialists.[11] English writer and former priest Joseph McCabe claimed in Lies and Fallacies of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1947) that Britannica was censored under pressure from the Roman Catholic Church after the 11th edition.[12] Authorities ranging from Virginia Woolf to professors criticised the 11th edition for having bourgeois and old-fashioned opinions on art, literature, and social sciences.[5] A contemporary Cornell professor, Edward B. Titchener, wrote in 1912, "the new Britannica does not reproduce the psychological atmosphere of its day and generation... Despite the halo of authority, and despite the scrutiny of the staff, the great bulk of the secondary articles in general psychology ... are not adapted to the requirements of the intelligent reader".[13] Critics have charged several editions with racism[14][15] and sexism.[5] The eleventh edition characterises the Ku Klux Klan as protecting the white race and restoring order to the American South after the American Civil War, citing the need to "control the negro", and "the frequent occurrence of the crime of rape by negro men upon white women".[16][17] Similarly, the "Civilization" article argues for eugenics, stating that it is irrational to "propagate low orders of intelligence, to feed the ranks of paupers, defectives and criminals ... which to-day constitute so threatening an obstacle to racial progress".[18] The eleventh edition has no biography of Marie Curie, despite her winning of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903 and the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1911, although she is mentioned briefly under the biography of her husband Pierre Curie.[19] The Britannica employed a large female editorial staff that wrote hundreds of articles for which they were not given credit.[5] 1911 Britannica in the 21st century[edit] The 1911 edition is no longer restricted by copyright, and it is therefore available in several more modern forms. While it may once have been a reliable description of the consensus of its time,[according to whom?] many modern readers find fault with the Encyclopedia for several major errors, ethnocentric and racist remarks, and other issues: Contemporary opinions of race and ethnicity are included in the Encyclopædia's articles. For example, the entry for "Negro" states, "Mentally the negro is inferior to the white... the arrest or even deterioration of mental development [after adolescence] is no doubt very largely due to the fact that after puberty sexual matters take the first place in the negro's life and thoughts."[20] The article about the American War of Independence attributes the success of the United States in part to "a population mainly of good English blood and instincts".[21] Many articles are now outdated factually, in particular those concerning science, technology, international and municipal law, and medicine. For example, the article on the vitamin deficiency disease beriberi speculates that it is caused by a fungus, vitamins not having been discovered at the time. Articles about geographic places mention rail connections and ferry stops in towns that no longer employ such transport (though this in itself can be useful for those looking for historical information). Even where the facts might still be accurate, new information, theories and perspectives developed since 1911 have substantially changed the way the same facts might be interpreted. For example, the modern interpretation of the history of the Visigoths is now very different from that of 1911; readers of the eleventh edition who want to know about the social customs and political life of the tribe and its warriors are told to look up the entry for their king, Alaric I. The eleventh edition of Encyclopædia Britannica has become a commonly quoted source, both because of the reputation of the Britannica and because it is now in the public domain and has been made available on the Internet. It has been used as a source by many modern projects, including Wikipedia and the Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia. Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia[edit] The Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia is the eleventh edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, renamed to address Britannica's trademark concerns. Project Gutenberg's offerings are summarized below in the External links section and include text and graphics. As of 2018[update], Distributed Proofreaders are working on producing a complete electronic edition of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica. See also[edit] New American Cyclopedia References[edit] ^ Boyles, Denis (2016). Everything Explained That Is Explainable: On the Creation of the Encyclopaedia Britannica's Celebrated Eleventh Edition, 1910–1911. Knopf. pp. xi–x. ISBN 9780307269171. ^ S. Padraig Walsh, Anglo-American general encyclopedias: a historical bibliography (1968), p. 49 ^ "AuctionZip". AuctionZip. AuctionZip. Retrieved 4 April 2020. ^ Boyles (2016), p. 242. ^ a b c d Thomas, Gillian (1992). A Position to Command Respect: Women and the Eleventh Britannica. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0-8108-2567-8. ^ Wolfgang Lierz: Karten aus Stielers Hand-Atlas in der „Encyclopaedia Britannica“. In: Cartographica Helvetica. Heft 29, 2004, ISSN 1015-8480, S. 27–34 online Archived 2016-07-29 at the Wayback Machine. ^ a b All There is to Know (1994), edited by Alexander Coleman and Charles Simmons. Subtitled: "Readings from the Illustrious Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica". p. 32. ISBN 0-671-76747-X ^ "Encyclopædia Britannica - Eleventh edition and its supplements | English language reference work". Retrieved 2016-08-29. ^ Misinforming a Nation. 1917. Chapter 1. ^ Woodall, James (1996). Borges: A Life. New York: BasicBooks. p. 76. ISBN 0-465-04361-5. ^ Karpinski, L. C. (1912). "History of Mathematics in the Recent Edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica". Science. 35 (888): 29–31. Bibcode:1912Sci....35...29K. doi:10.1126/science.35.888.29. PMID 17752897. ^ McCabe, J (1947). Lies and Fallacies of the Encyclopædia Britannica. Haldeman-Julius. ASIN B0007FFJF4. Retrieved 2011-06-30. ^ Titchener, EB (1912). "The Psychology of the new 'Britannica'". American Journal of Psychology. University of Illinois Press. 23 (1): 37–58. doi:10.2307/1413113. JSTOR 1413113. ^ Chalmers, F. Graeme (1992). "The Origins of Racism in the Public School Art Curriculum". Studies in Art Education. 33 (3): 134–143. doi:10.2307/1320895. JSTOR 1320895. ^ Citing from the article on "Negro" and discussing the consequences of views such as those stated there: Brooks, Roy L., editor. “Redress for Racism?” When Sorry Isn't Enough: The Controversy Over Apologies and Reparations for Human Injustice, NYU Press, 1999, pp. 395–398. JSTOR j.ctt9qg0xt.75. Accessed 17 Aug. 2020. ^ Fleming, Walter Lynwood (1911). "Lynch Law" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ^ Fleming, Walter Lynwood (1911). "Ku Klux Klan" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ^ Williams, Henry Smith (1911). "Civilization" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Curie, Pierre" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 644. ^ Joyce, Thomas Athol (1911). "Negro" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 344. ^ Hannay, David (1911). "American War of Independence" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 845. Further reading[edit] Boyles, Denis. Everything Explained That Is Explainable: On the Creation of the Encyclopaedia Britannica's Celebrated Eleventh Edition, 1910-1911 (2016), ISBN 0307269175, online review External links[edit] Wikisource has original text related to this article: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikimedia Commons has media related to 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica. Free, public-domain sources for 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica text[edit] via HathiTrust Encyclopædia Britannica 11th ed. 1911, separate volumes in several formats, on the Internet Archive: Internet Archive – Text Archives Individual Volumes Volume From To Volume 1 A Androphagi Volume 2 Andros, Sir Edmund Austria Volume 3 Austria, Lower Bisectrix Volume 4 Bisharin Calgary Volume 5 Calhoun, John Caldwell Chatelaine Volume 6 Châtelet Constantine Volume 7 Constantine Pavlovich Demidov Volume 8 Demijohn Edward the Black Prince Volume 9 Edwardes, Sir Herbert Benjamin Evangelical Association Volume 10 Evangelical Church Conference Francis Joseph I Volume 11 Franciscans Gibson, William Hamilton Volume 12 Gichtel, Johann Georg Harmonium Volume 13 Harmony Hurstmonceaux Volume 14 Husband Italic Volume 15 Italy Kyshtym Volume 16 L Lord Advocate Volume 17 Lord Chamberlain Mecklenburg Volume 18 Medal Mumps Volume 19 Mun, Adrien Albert Marie de Oddfellows, Order of Volume 20 Ode Payment of members Volume 21 Payn, James Polka Volume 22 Poll Reeves, John Sims Volume 23 Refectory Sainte-Beuve, Charles Augustin Volume 24 Sainte-Claire Deville, Étienne Henri Shuttle Volume 25 Shuválov, Peter Andreivich Subliminal self Volume 26 Submarine mines Tom-Tom Volume 27 Tonalite Vesuvius Volume 28 Vetch Zymotic diseases Volume 29 Index List of contributors Volume 1 of 1922 supp Abbe English History Volume 2 of 1922 supp English Literature Oyama, Iwao Volume 3 of 1922 supp Pacific Ocean Islands Zuloaga Reader's Guide – 1913 Year-Book – 1913 Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia: Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia As of 16 December 2014[update] Section From To Volume 1:   A  –   Androphagi Volume 2.1:   Andros, Sir Edmund  –   Anise Volume 2.2:   Anjar  –   Apollo Volume 2.3:   Apollodorus  –   Aral Volume 2.4:   Aram, Eugene  –   Arcueil Volume 2.5:   Arculf  –   Armour, Philip Volume 2.6:   Armour Plates  –   Arundel, Earls of Volume 2.7:   Arundel, Thomas  –   Athens Volume 2.8:   Atherstone  –   Austria Volume 3.1:   Austria, Lower  –   Bacon Volume 3.2:   Baconthorpe  –   Bankruptcy Volume 3.3:   Banks  –   Bassoon Volume 3.4:   Basso-relievo  –   Bedfordshire Volume 3.5:   Bedlam  –   Benson, George Volume 3.6:   Bent, James  –   Bibirine Volume 3.7:   Bible  –   Bisectrix Volume 4.1:   Bisharin  –   Bohea Volume 4.2:   Bohemia  –   Borgia, Francis Volume 4.3:   Borgia, Lucrezia  –   Bradford, John Volume 4.4:   Bradford, William  –   Brequigny, Louis Volume 4.5:   Bréquigny  –   Bulgaria Volume 4.6:   Bulgaria  –   Calgary Volume 5.1:   Calhoun  –   Camoens Volume 5.2:   Camorra  –   Cape Colony Volume 5.3:   Capefigue  –   Carneades Volume 5.4:   Carnegie, Andrew  –   Casus Belli Volume 5.5:   Cat  –   Celt Volume 5.6:   Celtes, Konrad  –   Ceramics Volume 5.7:   Cerargyrite  –   Charing Cross Volume 5.8:   Chariot  –   Chatelaine Volume 6.1:   Châtelet  –   Chicago Volume 6.2:   Chicago, University of  –   Chiton Volume 6.3:   Chitral  –   Cincinnati Volume 6.4:   Cincinnatus  –   Cleruchy Volume 6.5:   Clervaux  –   Cockade Volume 6.6:   Cockaigne  –   Columbus, Christopher Volume 6.7:   Columbus  –   Condottiere Volume 6.8:   Conduction, Electric  –   Volume 7.1:   Prependix  –   Volume 7.2:   Constantine Pavlovich  –   Convention Volume 7.3:   Convention  –   Copyright Volume 7.4:   Coquelin  –   Costume Volume 7.5:   Cosway  –   Coucy Volume 7.6:   Coucy-le-Château  –   Crocodile Volume 7.7:   Crocoite  –   Cuba Volume 7.8:   Cube  –   Daguerre, Louis Volume 7.9:   Dagupan  –   David Volume 7.10:   David, St  –   Demidov Volume 8.2:   Demijohn  –   Destructor Volume 8.3:   Destructors  –   Diameter Volume 8.4:   Diameter  –   Dinarchus Volume 8.5:   Dinard  –   Dodsworth Volume 8.6:   Dodwell  –   Drama Volume 8.7:   Drama  –   Dublin Volume 8.8:   Dubner  –   Dyeing Volume 8.9:   Dyer  –   Echidna Volume 8.10:   Echinoderma  –   Edward Volume 9.1:   Edwardes  –   Ehrenbreitstein Volume 9.2:   Ehud  –   Electroscope Volume 9.3:   Electrostatics  –   Engis Volume 9.4:   England  –   English Finance Volume 9.5:   English History  –   Volume 9.6:   English Language  –   Epsom Salts Volume 9.7:   Equation  –   Ethics Volume 9.8:   Ethiopia  –   Evangelical Association Volume 10.1:   Evangelical Church Conference  –   Fairbairn, Sir William Volume 10.2:   Fairbanks, Erastus  –   Fens Volume 10.3:   Fenton, Edward  –   Finistère Volume 10.4:   Finland  –   Fleury, Andre Volume 10.5:   Fleury, Claude  –   Foraker, Joseph Henson Volume 10.6:   Foraminifera  –   Fox, Edward Volume 10.7:   Fox, George  –   France[p.775-p.894] Volume 10.8:   France[p.895-p.929]  –   Francis Joseph I. Volume 11.1:   Franciscians  –   French Language Volume 11.2:   French Literature  –   Frost, William Volume 11.3:   Frost  –   Fyzabad Volume 11.4:   G  –   Gaskell, Elizabeth Volume 11.5:   Gassendi, Pierre  –   Geocentric Volume 11.6:   Geodesy  –   Geometry Volume 11.7:   Geoponici  –   Germany[p.804-p.840] Volume 11.8:   Germany[p.841-p.901]  –   Gibson, William Volume 12.1:   Gichtel, Johann  –   Glory Volume 12.2:   Gloss  –   Gordon, Charles George Volume 12.3:   Gordon, Lord George  –   Grasses Volume 12.4:   Grasshopper  –   Greek Language Volume 12.5:   Greek Law  –   Ground-Squirrel Volume 12.6:   Groups, Theory of  –   Gwyniad Volume 12.7:   Gyantse  –   Hallel Volume 12.8:   Haller, Albrecht  –   Harmonium Volume 13.1:   Harmony  –   Heanor Volume 13.2:   Hearing  –   Helmond Volume 13.3:   Helmont, Jean  –   Hernosand Volume 13.4:   Hero  –   Hindu Chronology Volume 13.5:   Hinduism  –   Home, Earls of Volume 13.6:   Home, Daniel  –   Hortensius, Quintus Volume 13.7:   Horticulture  –   Hudson Bay Volume 13.8:   Hudson River  –   Hurstmonceaux Volume 14.1:   Husband  –   Hydrolysis Volume 14.2:   Hydromechanics  –   Ichnography Volume 14.3:   Ichthyology  –   Independence Volume 14.4:   Independence, Declaration of  –   Indo-European Languages Volume 14.5:   Indole  –   Insanity Volume 14.6:   Inscriptions  –   Ireland, William Henry Volume 14.7:   Ireland  –   Isabey, Jean Baptiste Volume 14.8:   Isabnormal Lines  –   Italic Volume 15.1:   Italy  –   Jacobite Church Volume 15.2:   Jacobites  –   Japan (part) Volume 15.3:   Japan (part)  –   Jeveros Volume 15.4:   Jevons, Stanley  –   Joint Volume 15.5:   Joints  –   Justinian I. Volume 15.6:   Justinian II.  –   Kells Volume 15.7:   Kelly, Edward  –   Kite Volume 15.8:   Kite-flying  –   Kyshtym Volume 16.1:   L  –   Lamellibranchia Volume 16.2:   Lamennais, Robert de  –   Latini, Brunetto Volume 16.3:   Latin Language  –   Lefebvre, Pierre François Joseph Volume 16.4:   Lefebvre, Tanneguy  –   Letronne, Jean Antoine Volume 16.5:   Letter  –   Lightfoot, John Volume 16.6:   Lightfoot, Joseph Barber  –   Liquidation Volume 16.7:   Liquid Gases  –   Logar Volume 16.8:   Logarithm  –   Lord Advocate Volume 17.1:   Lord Chamberlain  –   Luqmān Volume 17.2:   Luray Cavern  –   Mackinac Island Volume 17.3:   McKinley, William  –   Magnetism, Terrestrial Volume 17.4:   Magnetite  –   Malt Volume 17.5:   Malta  –   Map, Walter Volume 17.6:   Map  –   Mars Volume 17.7:   Mars  –   Matteawan Volume 17.8:   Matter  –   Mecklenburg Flash reader (Empanel) with full-page scans Other sources for 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica text[edit] Encyclopedia Britannica 1911, www.theodora.com – unedited, html version, from scan/ocr of the original text, with interactive alphabetical index, and Google translation into Spanish, Chinese, French, German, Russian, Hindi, Arabic and Portuguese. 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica, StudyLight.org – "Containing 35,820 entries cross-referenced and cross-linked to other resources on StudyLight.org". "Copyright Statement[:] these [EB 1911] files are public domain". The Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature and General Information (11th edition) at the Online Books Page of the University of Pennsylvania. The Encyclopaedia Britannica in Numerical Recipes bookreader format. The preceding links adopt the spellings used in the target. 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en-wikipedia-org-9933	----	2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire - Wikipedia 2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire) Jump to navigation Jump to search 2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire جشن‌های ۲۵۰۰ سالهٔ شاهنشاهی ایران The Cyrus Cylinder is in the centre of the emblem of the 2,500 Year Celebration Native name جشن‌های ۲۵۰۰ سالهٔ شاهنشاهی ایران Date 12–16 October 1971 (1971-10-12 – 1971-10-16) Location Iran Coordinates 29°55′58.7″N 52°53′11.9″E / 29.932972°N 52.886639°E / 29.932972; 52.886639Coordinates: 29°55′58.7″N 52°53′11.9″E / 29.932972°N 52.886639°E / 29.932972; 52.886639 The 2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire (Persian: جشن‌های ۲۵۰۰ سالهٔ شاهنشاهی ایران‎), officially known as the 2,500th Year of the Foundation of the Imperial State of Iran (Persian: دوهزار و پانصدمین سال بنیانگذاری شاهنشاهی ایران‎), consisted of an elaborate set of festivities that took place on 12–16 October 1971 to celebrate the anniversary of the founding of the Imperial State of Iran and the Achaemenid Empire by Cyrus the Great.[1][2] The intent of the celebration was to demonstrate Iran's ancient civilization and history and to showcase its contemporary advances under His Imperial Majesty Mohammad Reza Shah, the last Shah of Iran.[3] Some later historians came to think that this excess contributed to events that resulted in the Iranian Revolution and eventual replacement of the Persian monarchy with an Islamic republic under the Grand Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the leader of the revolution, who was supported by a wide range of people, including various leftist and Islamist organizations,[4] and student movements. The event has been described as the most expensive party ever held.[5] Contents 1 Planning 2 Tent City of Persepolis 3 Festivities 4 Security 5 Criticism 6 List of guests 6.1 Royalty and viceroys 6.2 Presidents, Prime Ministers and others 7 Film 8 Today 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Planning[edit] 2,500 year-celebration of the Persian Empire in Persepolis, October 1971. The planning for the party took a year, according to the 2016 BBC Storyville documentary, Decadence and Downfall: The Shah of Iran's Ultimate Party. The filmmakers interviewed people tasked by the Shah to organize the party. The Cyrus Cylinder served in the official logo as the symbol for the event. With the decision to hold the main event at the ancient city of Persepolis, near Shiraz, the local infrastructure had to be improved, including the Shiraz International Airport and a highway to Persepolis. While the press and supporting staff would be housed in Shiraz, the main festivities were planned for Persepolis. An elaborate tent city was planned to house attendees. The area around Persepolis was cleared of snakes and other vermin.[6] Trees and flowers were planted, and 50,000 song birds were imported from Europe.[3] Other events were scheduled for Pasargadae, the site of the Tomb of Cyrus, as well as Tehran. Tent City of Persepolis[edit] Tent City of Persepolis in 1971 The Tent City (also called Golden City) was planned by the Parisian interior-design firm of Maison Jansen on 160 acres (0.65 km2). They referred to the meeting between Francis I of France and Henry VIII of England at the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520.[6] Fifty 'tents' (prefabricated luxury apartments with traditional Persian tent-cloth surrounds) were arranged in a star pattern around a central fountain. Numerous trees were planted around them in the desert, to recreate how ancient Persepolis would have looked. Each tent was provided with direct telephone and telex connections for attendees to their respective countries. The entire celebration was televised to the world by way of a satellite connection from the site. The large Tent of Honor was designed for the reception of the dignitaries. The Banqueting Hall was the largest structure and measured 68 by 24 meters. The tent site was surrounded by gardens of trees and other plants flown in from France and adjacent to the ruins of Persepolis. Catering services were provided by Maxim's de Paris, which closed its restaurant in Paris for almost two weeks to provide for the glittering celebrations. Legendary hotelier Max Blouet came out of retirement to supervise the banquet. Lanvin designed the uniforms of the Imperial Household. 250 red Mercedes-Benz 600 limousines were used to chauffeur guests from the airport and back. The dinnerware was created using Limoges porcelain and linen by Porthault. Tent in Persepolis in 1971. Festivities[edit] Tomb of Cyrus at Pasargadae, where the festivities started. Persian Immortals, as portrayed during the celebrations. The festivities were opened on 12 October 1971, when the Shah and the Shahbanu paid homage to Cyrus the Great at his mausoleum at Pasargadae. For the next two days, the Shah and his wife greeted arriving guests, often directly at Shiraz's airport. On 14 October, a grand gala dinner took place in the Banqueting Hall in celebration of the birthday of the Shahbanu. Sixty members of royal families and heads of state were assembled at the single large serpentine table in the Banqueting Hall. The official toast was raised with a Dom Perignon Rosé 1959. The food and the wine for the celebration were provided by the Parisian restaurant Maxim's.[7] Six hundred guests dined over five and a half hours thus making for the longest and most lavish official banquet in modern history as recorded in successive editions of the Guinness Book of World Records. A son et lumière show, the Polytope of Persepolis designed by Iannis Xenakis and accompanied by the specially-commissioned electronic music piece Persepolis[8] concluded the evening. The next day saw a parade of armies of different Iranian empires covering two and half millennia by 1,724 men of the Iranian armed forces, all in period costume. In the evening, a less formal "traditional Persian party" was held in the Banqueting Hall as the concluding event at Persepolis.[9] On the final day, the Shah inaugurated the Shahyad Tower (later renamed the Azadi Tower after the Iranian Revolution) in Tehran to commemorate the event. The tower was also home to the Museum of Persian History. In it was displayed the Cyrus Cylinder, which the Shah promoted as "the first human rights charter in history".[10][11] The cylinder was also the official symbol of the celebrations, and the Shah's first speech at Cyrus' tomb praised the freedom that it had proclaimed, two and a half millennia previously. The festivities were concluded with the Shah paying homage to his father, Reza Shah Pahlavi, at his mausoleum.[9] The event brought together the rulers of two of the three oldest extant monarchies, the Shah and Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia. Emperor Hirohito of Japan was represented by his youngest brother, Prince Mikasa. By the end of the decade, both the Ethiopian and Iranian monarchies had ceased to exist. Commemorative set of gold and silver coins for Iranian Empire; Minted in Canada Security[edit] Security was a major concern. Persepolis was a favoured site for the festivities as it was isolated and thus could be tightly guarded, a very important consideration when many of the world's leaders were gathered there. Iran's security services, SAVAK, captured and took into "preventive custody" anyone that it suspected of being a potential threat. Criticism[edit] Criticism was voiced in the Western press and by Muslim clerics such as Khomeini and his followers; Khomeini called it the "Devil's Festival".[6] The Ministry of the Court placed the cost at $17 million (at that time); Ansari, one of the organizers, puts it at $22 million (at that time).[6] The actual figure is difficult to calculate exactly and is a partisan issue. List of guests[edit] Commemorative silver coin from a set of 9 gold and silver coins, minted on the occasion of the celebrations Obverse of the Medal for the 2500 anniversary of the Persian Empire Reverse of the Medal for the 2500 anniversary of the Persian Empire 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire Queen Elizabeth II had been advised not to attend, with security being an issue.[6] The Duke of Edinburgh and Princess Anne represented her instead.[12] Other major leaders who did not attend were Richard Nixon and Georges Pompidou. Nixon had initially planned to attend but later changed his mind and sent Spiro Agnew instead.[6] Some materials[13] say that the attendee of China was Guo Moruo; According to his daughter, Guo was originally planned to attend, but he fell ill on the way arriving and then-Chinese Ambassador to Pakistan Zhang Tong attended instead.[14] Some of the guests who were invited include: Royalty and viceroys[edit] Title Guest Country Emperor Haile Selassie[12]  Ethiopia King Frederick IX  Denmark Queen Ingrid King Baudouin  Belgium Queen Fabiola King Hussein  Jordan Princess Muna King Mahendra  Nepal Queen Ratna King Olav V  Norway Emir Sheikh Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa  Bahrain Emir Sheikh Ahmad bin Ali Al Thani  Qatar Emir Sheikh Sabah III Al-Salim Al-Sabah  Kuwait King Konstantínos II  Greece Queen Anne-Marie Sultan Qaboos bin Said al Said  Oman Musahiban Abdul Wali Khan  Afghanistan Princess Bilqis Begum King Moshoeshoe II  Lesotho Yang di-Pertuan Agong Tunku Abdul Halim  Malaysia Raja Permaisuri Agong Bahiyah Emir Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan Abu Dhabi Prince Franz Josef II  Liechtenstein Princess Georgina Prince Rainier III  Monaco Princess Grace Grand Duke Jean  Luxembourg Grand Duchess Joséphine Charlotte Prince Bernhard  Netherlands Prince Philip  United Kingdom Princess Anne Prince Aga Khan IV Princess Begum Om Habibeh Aga Khan Crown Prince Carl Gustaf  Sweden Prince Juan Carlos  Spain Princess Sofia Prince Victor Emmanuel  Italy Princess Marina Prince Takahito Mikasa  Japan Princess Yuriko Mikasa Prince Bhanubandhu Yugala  Thailand Prince Moulay Abdallah  Morocco Princess Lamia Governor General Roland Michener  Canada Governor-General Sir Paul Hasluck  Australia Presidents, Prime Ministers and others[edit] Title Guest Country President Josip Broz Tito  Yugoslavia First Lady Jovanka Broz Chairman of the Presidium Nikolai Podgorny  Soviet Union President Franz Jonas  Austria President Todor Zhivkov  Bulgaria President Emílio Garrastazu Médici  Brazil President Urho Kekkonen  Finland President Cevdet Sunay  Turkey President Pál Losonczi  Hungary President Suharto  Indonesia President Ludvík Svoboda  Czechoslovakia President Yahya Khan  Pakistan President Suleiman Franjieh  Lebanon President Jacobus Johannes Fouché  South Africa President Leopold Sedar Senghor  Senegal President V. V. Giri  India President Moktar Ould Daddah  Mauritania President Hubert Maga  Dahomey President (Conducător) Nicolae Ceauşescu  Romania[12] First Lady and Deputy Prime Minister Elena Ceaușescu President Mobutu Sese Seko  Zaire President Rudolf Gnägi   Switzerland Prime Minister Jacques Chaban-Delmas  France Prime Minister Kim Jong-pil  South Korea Prime Minister Emilio Colombo  Italy Prime Minister Prince Makhosini  Swaziland Deputy Chairman of the Council of State Mieczysław Klimaszewski  Poland Vice President Spiro Agnew  United States Vice Chairman of the National People's Congress Guo Moruo  China President of the Bundestag Kai-Uwe von Hassel  Germany Foreign Minister Rui Patrício  Portugal First Lady Imelda Marcos  Philippines Cardinal Maximilien de Fürstenberg   Holy See Film[edit] Iran's National Film Board produced a documentary of the celebrations, titled Forugh-e Javidan (Persian: فروغ جاویدان) in Persian and Flames of Persia in English. Farrokh Golestan directed, and Orson Welles who had said of the event "This was no party of the year, it was the celebration of 25 centuries!"[6] agreed to narrate the English text, written by Macdonald Hastings, in return for the Shah's brother-in-law funding Welles' own film, The Other Side of the Wind.[15][16] The film was aimed at a Western audience.[17] Despite a requirement to show the film in 60 cinemas in Tehran, its "overheated rhetoric" and popular resentment at the extravagance of the event meant it did poorly at the domestic box office.[18] Today[edit] Persepolis tent city ruins in 2007. Persepolis remains a major tourist attraction in Iran and apparently there are suggestions to rehabilitate the archeological site as it is a proclamation of Iranian history.[12] In 2005, it was visited by nearly 35,000 people during the Iranian new year holiday.[12] The tent city remained operating until 1979 for private and government rent, when it was looted after the Iranian Revolution and the departure of the Shah. The iron rods for the tents and roads built for the festival area still remain and are open to the public, but there are no markers making any reference to what they were originally for.[19] The dedicated Shahyad Tower remains as a major landmark in Tehran, although it was renamed Azadi Tower in 1979. See also[edit] Iranian Art Museum Garden References[edit] ^ Amuzegar, The Dynamics of the Iranian Revolution, (1991), pp. 4, 9–12 ^ Narrative of Awakening : A Look at Imam Khomeini's Ideal, Scientific and Political Biography from Birth to Ascension by Hamid Ansari, Institute for Compilation and Publication of the Works of Imam Khomeini, International Affairs Division, [no date], p. 163 ^ a b Nina Adler (14 February 2017). "Als der Schah zur größten Party auf Erden lud" (in German). Der Spiegel. Retrieved 14 February 2017. ^ Jubin M. GOODARZİ (8 February 2013). "Syria and Iran: Alliance Cooperation in a Changing Regional Environment" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 October 2013. Retrieved 18 October 2014. ^ https://www.alimentarium.org/en/magazine/history/most-expensive-party-ever ^ a b c d e f g Kadivar C (25 January 2002). "We are awake. 2,500-year celebrations revisited". Archived from the original on 8 November 2002. Retrieved 23 October 2006. ^ Van Kemenade, Willem (November 2009). "Iran's relations with China and the West" (PDF). Clingendael. Retrieved 9 August 2013. ^ Karkowski, Z.; Harley, J.; Szymanksi, F.; Gable, B. (2002). "Liner Notes". Iannis Xenakis: Persepolis + Remixes. San Francisco: Asphodel LTD. ^ a b "The Persepolis Celebrations". Retrieved 23 October 2006. ^ British Museum explanatory notes, "Cyrus Cylinder": "For almost 100 years the cylinder was regarded as ancient Mesopotamian propaganda. This changed in 1971 when the Shah of Iran used it as a central image in his own propaganda celebrating 2500 years of Iranian monarchy. In Iran, the cylinder has appeared on coins, banknotes and stamps. Despite being a Babylonian document it has become part of Iran's cultural identity." ^ Neil MacGregor, "The whole world in our hands", in Art and Cultural Heritage: Law, Policy, and Practice, p. 383–4, ed. Barbara T. Hoffman. Cambridge University Press, 2006. ISBN 0-521-85764-3 ^ a b c d e Tait, Robert (22 September 2005). "Iran to rebuild spectacular tent city at Persepolis". The Guardian. Persepolis. Retrieved 8 August 2013. ^ [1], spelt as "Kuo Mo-jo" ^ 庶英, 郭 (24 August 2004). "忆父亲郭沫若". Guangming Online. ^ Naficy, Hamid (2003). "Iranian Cinema". In Oliver Leaman (ed.). Companion Encyclopedia of Middle Eastern and North African Film. Routledge. p. 140. ISBN 9781134662524. ^ Welles, Orson (1998). This is Orson Welles. Perseus Books Group. p. xxvii. ISBN 9780306808340. ^ Watson, James A.F. (March 2015). "Stop, look, and listen: orientalism, modernity, and the Shah's quest for the West's imagination" (PDF). The UBC Journal of Political Studies. Vancouver: Department of Political Science at the University of British Columbia. 17: 22–36: 26–28. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 February 2016. Retrieved 15 February 2016. ^ Naficy, Hamid (2011). A Social History of Iranian Cinema, Volume 2: The Industrializing Years, 1941–1978. Duke University Press. p. 139. ISBN 9780822347743. ^ Iran Daily (23 June 2007). "Team Named For Renovating Persepolis". Archived from the original on 2 July 2007. Retrieved 9 March 2008. Further reading[edit] Steele, Robert (2021). The Shah's Imperial Celebrations of 1971: Nationalism, Culture and Politics in Late Pahlavi Iran. London: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-8386-0417-2. External links[edit] 1971 Celebration of the Shah of Persia in Persepolis (ARTE Documentary Film) 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire on Facebook Wikimedia Commons has media related to 2500 year celebration of the Persian Empire. v t e Achaemenid Empire History Kingdom Family tree Timeline History of democracy Art Achaemenid Persian Lion Rhyton Achaemenid coinage Danake Persian daric Architecture Achaemenid architecture Persepolis Pasargadae Tomb of Cyrus Naqsh-e Rostam Ka'ba-ye Zartosht Mausoleum at Halicarnassus Tombs at Xanthos Harpy Tomb Nereid Monument Tomb of Payava Culture Persepolis Administrative Archives Old Persian cuneiform Old Persian Behistun Inscription Xerxes I's inscription at Van Ganjnameh Warfare Persian Revolt Battle of Hyrba Battle of the Persian Border Lydian-Persian Wars Battle of Pteria Battle of Thymbra Siege of Sardis (547 BC) Battle of Opis First conquest of Egypt Battle of Cunaxa Conquest of the Indus Valley Scythian campaign of Darius I Greco-Persian Wars Ionian Revolt Battle of Thermopylae Battle of Artemisium Battle of Salamis Battle of Plataea Battle of Mycale Battle of Marathon Delian League Battle of Lade Siege of Eretria Siege of Naxos (499 BC) Wars of the Delian League Battle of the Eurymedon Peloponnesian War Battle of Cyzicus Corinthian War Battle of Cnidus Great Satraps' Revolt Second conquest of Egypt Wars of Alexander the Great Battle of Gaugamela Battle of the Granicus Battle of the Persian Gate Battle of Issus Siege of Gaza Siege of Halicarnassus Siege of Miletus Siege of Perinthus Siege of Tyre (332 BC) Related Achaemenid dynasty Pharnacid dynasty Peace of Antalcidas Peace of Callias Kingdom of Pontus Mithridatic dynasty Kingdom of Cappadocia Ariarathid dynasty 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire Districts of the Empire Royal Road Xanthian Obelisk v t e Persepolis Palace Tachara Gate of All Nations Other sections Tomb of Artaxerxes III builders Darius the Great Xerxes I Artaxerxes I of Persia Researchers Heidemarie Koch Erich Schmidt (archaeologist) Alireza Shapour Shahbazi Related Tangeh Bolaghi 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire Sivand Dam Persepolis Administrative Archives Waterskin Achaemenid architecture Category:Persepolis Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2,500-year_celebration_of_the_Persian_Empire&oldid=1001194950" Categories: Events in Iran 1971 in Iran Historiography of Iran Mohammad Reza Pahlavi Achaemenid Empire Persepolis Pahlavi dynasty Diplomatic visits Hidden categories: CS1 German-language sources (de) Use dmy dates from June 2020 Coordinates on Wikidata Articles containing Persian-language text Commons category link from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Bahasa Melayu 日本語 Русский Suomi Тоҷикӣ Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 18 January 2021, at 17:22 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9936	----	Artemisia II of Caria - Wikipedia Artemisia II of Caria From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 4th-century BC female ruler of Caria For the female ruler of Halicarnassus who fought at the Battle of Salamis, see Artemisia I of Caria. Satrap of Caria Artemisia II Original and reconstitution of the statue traditionally identified as Artemisia, from the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, now in the British Museum. Satrap of Caria Reign 353–351 BCE Predecessor Mausolus Successor Idrieus Consort Mausolus House Hecatomnids Father Hecatomnus Hecatomnid dynasty (Dynasts of Caria) c. 395–377 BCE Hecatomnus c. 377–353 BCE Mausolus c. 353–351 BCE Artemisia II c. 351–344 BCE Idrieus c. 344–340 BCE Ada c. 340–335 BCE Pixodarus c. 334–326 BCE Ada v t e Artemisia II of Caria (Greek: Ἀρτεμισία; died 350 BC) was a naval strategist, commander and the sister (and later spouse) and the successor of Mausolus, ruler of Caria. Mausolus was a satrap of the Achaemenid Empire, yet enjoyed the status of king or dynast of the Hecatomnid dynasty. After the death of her brother/husband, Artemisia reigned for two years, from 353 to 351 BCE. Her ascension to the throne prompted a revolt in some of the island and coastal cities under her command due to their objection to a female ruler.[1]:27 Her administration was conducted on the same principles as that of her husband; in particular, she supported the oligarchical party on the island of Rhodes.[2] Because of Artemisia's grief for her brother-husband, and the extravagant and bizarre forms it took, she became to later ages "a lasting example of chaste widowhood and of the purest and rarest kind of love", in the words of Giovanni Boccaccio.[3] In art, she was usually shown in the process of consuming his ashes, mixed in a drink. Another Artemisia of Caria is also a well-known military strategist, Artemisia I of Caria, satrap of Caria and ally of Xerxes I about 150 years earlier in the early 5th century BCE. Contents 1 Life 2 Other monuments 3 In later art 4 Other cultural references 4.1 Plant genus 5 Representations of Artemisia in art 6 Citations 7 References 8 External links Life[edit] Colossal statues of a man and a woman from the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, traditionally identified as Artemisia II and Mausolos, around 350 BCE, British Museum. Artemisia is renowned in history for her extraordinary grief at the death of her husband (and brother) Mausolus. She is said to have mixed his ashes in her daily drink, and to have gradually pined away during the two years that she survived him. She induced the most eminent Greek rhetoricians to proclaim his praise in their oratory; and to perpetuate his memory she built at Halicarnassus the celebrated Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, listed by Antipater of Sidon as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World and whose name subsequently became the generic term for any splendid sepulchral monument.[4] Artemisia is known for commanding a fleet and played a role in the military-political affairs of the Aegean after the decline in the Athenian naval superiority.[1]:27 The island republic of Rhodes objected to the fact that a woman was ruling Caria. Rhodes sent a fleet against Artemisia without knowing that her deceased husband had built a secret harbour. Artemisia hid ships rowers, and marines and allowed the Rhodians to enter the main harbour. Artemisia and her citizens met the Rhodians at the city walls and invited them into the city. When the Rhodians began exiting their ships, Artemisia sailed her fleet through an outlet in the sea and into the main harbour. She captured empty Rhodian ships, and the Rhodian men who disembarked were killed in the marketplace. Artemisia then put her men on the Rhodian ships and had them sail back to Rhodes. The men were welcomed in the Rhodian harbour and they took over Rhodes.[1]:28 Polyaenus, in the eighth book of his work Stratagems, mentions that when Artemisia (he may have been referring to Artemisia I, but more probably Artemisia II) wanted to conquer Latmus, she placed soldiers in ambush near the city and she, with women, eunuchs and musicians, celebrated a sacrifice at the grove of the Mother of the Gods, which was about seven stades distant from the city. When the inhabitants of Latmus came out to see the magnificent procession, the soldiers entered the city and took possession of it.[5] Scale model of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, Miniatürk, Istanbul Other monuments[edit] Another celebrated monument was erected by Artemisia in Rhodes to commemorate her conquest of the island. The Rhodians, after regaining their liberty, made it inaccessible, whence it was called in later times the Abaton (άβατον).[6] In later art[edit] Artemisia drinking her husband's ashes was a subject in painting from the Renaissance onwards, especially enjoying a vogue in Dutch Golden Age painting around the middle of the 17th century, being painted by Rembrandt (Prado) among others. This was probably stimulated by the publication in 1614 of a Dutch translation of the collection of anecdotes of Valerius Maximus, who was active in the reign of Tiberius. Rembrandt for one can be shown to have read and used this book.[7] Artemisia is always shown with a cup or urn, either alone or with a group of attendants offering or helping to mix the drink. The subject is therefore very similar to Sophonisba taking poison, and the Rembrandt, and a Donato Creti in the National Gallery, are examples of works where the intended subject remains uncertain between the two.[8] Other cultural references[edit] Artemisia annua Artemisia received a full and friendly biography in the De mulieribus claris ("On Famous Women"), a collection of biographies of historical and mythological women by the Florentine author Giovanni Boccaccio, written by 1374. Boccaccio completely omits reference to her husband being her brother ("... knowledge of her parents or native country has not reached us ..."), and praised her: "to posterity she is a lasting example of chaste widowhood and of the purest and rarest kind of love".[3] Plant genus[edit] According to Pliny, the plant genus Artemisia was named after Queen Artemisia II of Caria, who was also a botanist and medical researcher.[9][10][11] The anti-malarial drug Artemisinin, extracted from the plant variety Artemisia annua, is also derived from the name of Queen Artemisia II of Caria.[11]:1217 Mulieres quoque hanc gloriam adfectavere, in quibus Artemisia uxor Mausoli adoptata herba, quae antea parthenis vocabatur. [Women too have been ambitious to gain this distinction, among them Artemisia, the wife of Mausolus, who gave her name to a plant which before was called parthenis.] — Pliny the Elder, Natural History XXV.xxxvi.73[12][13] Representations of Artemisia in art[edit] Artemisia Prepares to Drink the Ashes of her Husband, Mausolus (c.1630) by Francesco Furini Master Of The Story Of Griselda, Siena, 15th century, one of a series of heroes and heroines who behaved well to the opposite sex Rembrandt, about 1634 CE Gerrit van Honthorst, about 1635 CE, Princeton University Art Museum Erasmus Quellinus II, 1652 CE Domenico Fetti Arnold Houbraken, before 1719 CE Johann Heinrich Tischbein, 1775 CE, Portrait of Countess Augusta Reuss of Ebersdorf, Queen Victoria's grandmother, as Artemesia Schönbrunn Palace, Vienna, 1773–1780 CE Statue of Artemisia II in Versailles Citations[edit] ^ a b c Pennington, Reina (2003). Amazons to Fighter Pilots: A biographical dictionary of military women. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. pp. 27–28. ISBN 0313327076. ^ Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca, xvi. 36, 45; Demosthenes, Speeches, "On the liberty of the Rhodians", 11, 27 ^ a b Boccaccio, Giovanni (2003). "Chapter 57". De mulieribus claris [On Famous Women]. Translated by Brown, Virginia. Harvard University Press. pp. 115–118. ISBN 0-674-01130-9. ISBN 9780674011304 ^ Cicero, Tusculanae Disputationes, iii. 31; Strabo, Geography, xiv. 2; Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae, x. 18; Pliny, Natural History, xxv. 36, xxxvi. 4; Valerius Maximus, Facta et dicta memorabilia, iv. 6; Suda, s.v. "Artemisia", "Mausolos" ^ Polyaenus. Stratagems. book 8, 53.4. Artemisia planted soldiers in ambush near Latmus; and herself, with a numerous train of women, eunuchs and musicians, celebrated a sacrifice at the grove of the Mother of the Gods, which was about seven stades distant from the city. When the inhabitants of Latmus came out to see the magnificent procession, the soldiers entered the city and took possession of it. Thus did Artemisia, by flutes and cymbals, possess herself of what she had in vain endeavoured to obtain by force of arms. ^ Vitruvius, De architectura, ii. 8 ^ Golahny, Amy (2003). Rembrandt's Reading: The artist's bookshelf of ancient poetry and history. Amsterdam University Press. pp. 129-133. ISBN 9789053566091. ISBN 9053566090 ^ Finaldi, Gabriele; Kitson, Michael (1997). Discovering the Italian Baroque: the Denis Mahon collection. London, UK; New Haven, CT: National Gallery Publications; Yale U. Press. p. 56. ISBN 1857091779. ^ "Artemisia II". Etymology. Encyclopedia Britannica. article 9009683. Retrieved 7 June 2012. ^ Comstock, John Lee (1833). An Introduction to the Study of Botany. D.F. Robinson & Company. p. 175. In which the science is illustrated by examples of native and exotic plants: Designed for the use of schools and private students. ^ a b "Artemisinin". Etymologia. Emerging Infectious Diseases. Centers for Disease Control. 20 (7): 1217. July 2014. doi:10.3201/eid2007.ET2007. PMC 4073852. Retrieved 4 July 2014. ^ Pliny the Elder. Natural History. Translated by Henderson, Jeffrey. Loeb Classics. ^ Lacus Curtius • Pliny the Elder's Natural History. University of Chicago. book 25, pages XXV.xxxvi.73. References[edit] Smith, William, ed. (1867). "Artemisia (2)". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Boston, MA. Archived from the original on 2006-05-11. Boccaccio, Giovanni (2001). De mulieribus claris [Famous Women]. Translated by Brown, Virginia. Harvard University Press. pp. 115–118. ISBN 0-674-01130-9. ISBN 9780674011304  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Artemisia II". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Artemisia II. Artemisia by Jona Lendering Authority control SUDOC: 140712097 VcBA: 495/281276 VIAF: 207276853 WorldCat Identities: viaf-207276853 v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Artemisia_II_of_Caria&oldid=982624138" Categories: Ancient queens regnant 350 BC deaths Carian people 4th-century BC women rulers Achaemenid satraps of Caria Women in ancient Greek warfare Hecatomnid dynasty Women of the Achaemenid Empire Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Brezhoneg Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano עברית Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 9 October 2020, at 09:08 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9942	----	Tennes - Wikipedia Tennes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Phoenician king of Sidon For the Greek hero, see Tenes. For the 5th century king of Sidon, see Tabnit. Tennes Coinage of Sidon, dated 351/0 BC. Phoenician pentekonter sailing left. Date above (here faint), waves below. King of Persia standing right, holding up lion by lock of mane; Aramaic T’ between. Allegiance Achaemenid Empire Years of service Circa 351-346 BC Rank King of Sidon Battles/wars Revolt against the Achaemenid Empire Sidon The capital of Tennet was Sidon. Persian style bull protome found in Sidon gives testimony of the Aecheminid rule and influence. Marble, 5th century BC Coin of Tennes. Tennes can be seen walking behind the Achaemenid king on his carriage. Tennes (Tabnit in Phoenician)[1] was a King of Sidon under the Achaemenid Empire. His predecessor was Abdashtart I (in Greek, Straton I),[2] the son of Baalshillem II, who ruled the Phoenician city-state of Sidon from 365 to 352 BC,[3] having been associated in power by his father since the 380s.[4] It remains uncertain whether his known heir and successor, Tennes, was his son or some other close relative.[5] Rebellion of Sidon against the Achaemenid Empire[edit] Soon after the failure of the Egyptian campaign of the Achaemenid ruler Artaxerxes III, the Phoenicians declared their independence from Persian rule. This was also followed by rulers of Anatolia and Cyprus. Artaxerxes initiated a counter-offensive against Sidon by commanding the satrap of Syria Belesys and Mazaeus, the satrap of Cilicia, to invade the city and to keep the Phoenicians in check.[6] Both satraps suffered crushing defeats at the hands of Tennes, who was aided by 40,000 Greek mercenaries sent to him by Nectanebo II and commanded by Mentor of Rhodes.[7] As a result, the Persian forces were driven out of Phoenicia.[8] After this, Artaxerxes personally led an army of 330,000 men against Sidon. Artaxerxes' army comprised 300,000 foot soldiers, 30,000 cavalry, 300 triremes, and 500 transports or provision ships. After gathering this army, he sought assistance from the Greeks. Though refused aid by Athens and Sparta, he succeeded in obtaining a thousand Theban heavily-armed hoplites under Lacrates, three thousand Argives under Nicostratus, and six thousand Æolians, Ionians, and Dorians from the Greek cities of Anatolia. This Greek support was numerically small, amounting to no more than 10,000 men, but it formed, together with the Greek mercenaries from Egypt who went over to him afterwards, the force on which he placed his chief reliance, and to which the ultimate success of his expedition was mainly due. The approach of Artaxerxes sufficiently weakened the resolution of Tennes that he endeavoured to purchase his own pardon by delivering up 100 principal citizens of Sidon into the hands of the Persian king, and then admitting Artaxerxes within the defences of the town. Artaxerxes had the 100 citizens transfixed with javelins, and when 500 more came out as supplicants to seek his mercy, Artaxerxes consigned them to the same fate. Sidon was then burnt to the ground, either by Artaxerxes or by the Sidonian citizens. Forty thousand people died in the conflagration.[8] Artaxerxes sold the ruins at a high price to speculators, who calculated on reimbursing themselves by the treasures which they hoped to dig out from among the ashes.[9] Tennes was put to death by Artaxerxes III in 346-345 BC.[1][10] Artaxerxes later sent Jews who supported the revolt to Hyrcania, on the south coast of the Caspian Sea.[11][12] References[edit] ^ a b Stronk, Jan (2016). Semiramis' Legacy: The History of Persia According to Diodorus of Sicily. Edinburgh University Press. p. 259. ISBN 9781474414265. ^ Markoe, Glenn (2000). Phoenicians. U of California P. pp. 58–. ISBN 9780520226142. ^ Steiner, Margreet L.; Killebrew, Ann E. (2014). The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Levant: c. 8000-332 BCE. OUP Oxford. pp. 109, 117. ISBN 9780191662553. Retrieved 17 March 2016. ^ Sagona, C. (ed.), Beyond the Homeland: Markers in Phoenician Chronology (Leuven, 2008), p. 105 ^ Sagona, C. (ed.), Beyond the Homeland: Markers in Phoenician Chronology (Leuven, 2008), p. 106 ^ Heckel, Waldemar (2008). Who's Who in the Age of Alexander the Great: Prosopography of Alexander's Empire. John Wiley & Sons. p. 172. ISBN 9781405154697. ^ Gershevitch, I.; Fisher, William Bayne (1985). The Cambridge History of Iran. Cambridge University Press. p. 385. ISBN 9780521200912. ^ a b "Artaxerxes III Ochus ( 358 BC to 338 BC )". Retrieved March 2, 2008. ^ Rawlinson, George (1889). "Phœnicia under the Persians". History of Phoenicia. Longmans, Green. Archived from the original on July 20, 2006. Retrieved March 10, 2008. ^ Meyer, Eduard (1911). "Artaxerxes" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 661–663. ^ "The Legend Of Gog And Magog". Archived from the original on March 15, 2008. Retrieved March 10, 2008. ^ Bruce, Frederick Fyvie (1990). The Acts of the Apostles: The Greek Text with Introduction and Commentary. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 117. ISBN 0-8028-0966-9. v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tennes&oldid=1000481291" Categories: 4th-century BC rulers in Asia Kings of Sidon Rebellions against the Achaemenid Empire Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire People executed by the Achaemenid Empire Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Català Deutsch Hrvatski Nederlands Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 15 January 2021, at 08:12 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9948	----	Iranian languages - Wikipedia Iranian languages From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Old Iranian) Jump to navigation Jump to search Language family This article is about the language family. For languages spoken in Iran, see Languages of Iran. For the official language of Iran, see Persian language. Iranian Iranic Ethnicity Iranian peoples Geographic distribution West Asia, Caucasus, Central Asia, and South Asia Linguistic classification Indo-European Indo-Iranian Iranian Proto-language Proto-Iranian Subdivisions Western Avestan (Central) Eastern ISO 639-2 / 5 ira Linguasphere 58= (phylozone) Glottolog iran1269 Countries and areas where an Iranian language has official status or is spoken by a majority Part of a series on Indo-European topics Languages List of Indo-European languages Historical Albanian Armenian Balto-Slavic Baltic Slavic Celtic Germanic Hellenic Greek Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Italic Romance Extinct Anatolian Tocharian Paleo-Balkan Dacian Illyrian Liburnian Messapian Mysian Paeonian Phrygian Thracian Reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language Phonology: Sound laws, Accent, Ablaut Hypothetical Daco-Thracian Graeco-Armenian Graeco-Aryan Graeco-Phrygian Indo-Hittite Italo-Celtic Thraco-Illyrian Grammar Vocabulary Root Verbs Nouns Pronouns Numerals Particles Other Proto-Albanian Proto-Anatolian Proto-Armenian Proto-Germanic (Proto-Norse) Proto-Celtic Proto-Italic Proto-Greek Proto-Balto-Slavic (Proto-Slavic) Proto-Indo-Iranian (Proto-Iranian) Philology Hittite texts Hieroglyphic Luwian Linear B Rigveda Avesta Homer Behistun Gaulish epigraphy Latin epigraphy Runic epigraphy Ogam Gothic Bible Armenian Bible Slanting Brahmi Old Irish glosses Origins Homeland Proto-Indo-Europeans Society Religion Mainstream Kurgan hypothesis Indo-European migrations Eurasian nomads Alternative and fringe Anatolian hypothesis Armenian hypothesis Indigenous Aryans Baltic homeland Paleolithic Continuity Theory Archaeology Chalcolithic (Copper Age) Pontic Steppe Domestication of the horse Kurgan Kurgan culture Steppe cultures Bug–Dniester Sredny Stog Dnieper–Donets Samara Khvalynsk Yamnaya Mikhaylovka culture Novotitorovka culture Caucasus Maykop East Asia Afanasievo Eastern Europe Usatovo Cernavodă Cucuteni Northern Europe Corded ware Baden Middle Dnieper Bronze Age Pontic Steppe Chariot Yamnaya Catacomb Multi-cordoned ware Poltavka Srubna Northern/Eastern Steppe Abashevo culture Andronovo Sintashta Europe Globular Amphora Corded ware Beaker Unetice Trzciniec Nordic Bronze Age Terramare Tumulus Urnfield Lusatian South Asia BMAC Yaz Gandhara grave Iron Age Steppe Chernoles Europe Thraco-Cimmerian Hallstatt Jastorf Caucasus Colchian India Painted Grey Ware Northern Black Polished Ware Peoples and societies Bronze Age Anatolian peoples (Hittites) Armenians Mycenaean Greeks Indo-Iranians Iron Age Indo-Aryans Indo-Aryans Iranians Iranians Persians Medes Parthians Scythians Saka Sarmatians Massagetae Alans East Asia Wusun Yuezhi Europe Celts Gauls Celtiberians Insular Celts Cimmerians Hellenic peoples Italic peoples Germanic peoples Paleo-Balkan/Anatolia Thracians Dacians Illyrians Paeonians Phrygians Middle Ages East Asia Tocharians Europe Albanians Balts Slavs Norsemen/Medieval Scandinavians Medieval Europe Indo-Aryan Medieval India Iranian Greater Persia Religion and mythology Reconstructed Proto-Indo-European mythology Proto-Indo-Iranian religion Ancient Iranian religion Historical Hittite Indo-Aryan Vedic Hinduism Buddhism Jainism Sikhism Iranian Persian Zoroastrianism Kurdish Yazidism Yarsanism Scythian Ossetian Others Armenian Europe Paleo-Balkan (Albanian · Illyrian · Thracian · Dacian) Greek Roman Celtic Irish Scottish Breton Welsh Cornish Germanic Anglo-Saxon Continental Norse Baltic Latvian Lithuanian Slavic Practices Fire sacrifice Horse sacrifice Sati Winter solstice/Yule Indo-European studies Scholars Marija Gimbutas J. P. Mallory Institutes Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European Publications Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture The Horse, the Wheel and Language Journal of Indo-European Studies Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch Indo-European Etymological Dictionary v t e The Iranian or Iranic languages[1][2] are a branch of the Indo-Iranian languages in the Indo-European language family that are spoken natively by the Iranian peoples. The Iranian languages are grouped in three stages: Old Iranian (until 400 BC), Middle Iranian (400 BC – 900 AD), and New Iranian (since 900 AD). The two directly attested Old Iranian languages are Old Persian (from the Achaemenid Empire) and Old Avestan (the language of the Avesta). Of the Middle Iranian languages, the better understood and recorded ones are Middle Persian (from the Sasanian Empire), Parthian (from the Parthian Empire), and Bactrian (from the Kushan and Hephthalite empires). As of 2008, there were an estimated 150–200 million native speakers of the Iranian languages.[3] Ethnologue estimates that there are 86 Iranian languages,[4][5] the largest among them being Persian, Pashto, Kurdish, and the Balochi languages.[6] Contents 1 Term 2 Proto-Iranian 3 Old Iranian 3.1 Isoglosses 4 Middle Iranian languages 5 New Iranian languages 6 Comparison table 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 Further reading 10 External links Term[edit] The term Iranian is applied to any language which descends from the ancestral Proto-Iranian language.[7] Some scholars such as John Perry prefer the term Iranic as the anthropological name for the linguistic family and ethnic groups of this category (many of which exist outside Iran), while Iranian for anything about the country Iran. He uses the same analogue as in differentiating German from Germanic or differentiating Turkish and Turkic.[8] This use of the term for the Iranian language family was introduced in 1836 by Christian Lassen.[9] Robert Needham Cust used the term Irano-Aryan in 1878,[10] and Orientalists such as George Abraham Grierson and Max Müller contrasted Irano-Aryan (Iranian) and Indo-Aryan (Indic). Some recent scholarship, primarily in German, has revived this convention.[11][12][13][14] The Iranian languages are divided into the following branches: The Western Iranian languages subdivided into: Southwestern, of which Persian is the dominant member; Northwestern, of which the Kurdish languages are the dominant members. The Eastern Iranian languages subdivided into: Southeastern, of which Pashto is the dominant member; Northeastern, by far the smallest branch, of which Ossetian is the dominant member. Proto-Iranian[edit] Historical distribution in 100 BC: shown are Sarmatia, Scythia, Bactria (Eastern Iranian, in orange); and the Parthian Empire (Western Iranian, in red) The Iranian languages all descend from a common ancestor: Proto-Iranian which itself evolved from Proto-Indo-Iranian. This ancestor language is speculated to have origins in Central Asia, and the Andronovo Culture is suggested as a candidate for the common Indo-Iranian culture around 2000 BC.[citation needed] It was situated precisely in the western part of Central Asia that borders present-day Russia (and present-day Kazakhstan). It was in relative proximity to the other satem ethno-linguistic groups of the Indo-European family, like Thracian, Balto-Slavic and others, and to common Indo-European's original homeland (more precisely, the Eurasian Steppe to the north of the Caucasus), according to the reconstructed linguistic relationships of common Indo-European. Proto-Iranian thus dates to some time after Proto-Indo-Iranian break-up, or the early second millennium BCE, as the Old Iranian languages began to break off and evolve separately as the various Iranian tribes migrated and settled in vast areas of southeastern Europe, the Iranian plateau, and Central Asia. Proto-Iranian innovations compared to Proto-Indo-Iranian include:[15] the turning of sibilant fricative *s into non-sibilant fricative glottal *h; the voiced aspirated plosives *bʰ, *dʰ, *gʰ yielding to the voiced unaspirated plosives *b, *d, *g resp.; the voiceless unaspirated stops *p, *t, *k before another consonant changing into fricatives *f, *θ, *x resp.; voiceless aspirated stops *pʰ, *tʰ, *kʰ turning into fricatives *f, *θ, *x, resp. Old Iranian[edit] The multitude of Middle Iranian languages and peoples indicate that great linguistic diversity must have existed among the ancient speakers of Iranian languages. Of that variety of languages/dialects, direct evidence of only two have survived. These are: Avestan, the two languages/dialects of the Avesta, i.e. the liturgical texts of Zoroastrianism. Old Persian, the native language of a south-western Iranian people known as Persians.[16] Indirectly attested Old Iranian languages are discussed below. Old Persian was an Old Iranian dialect as it was spoken in southwestern Iran (the modern-day province of Fars) by the inhabitants of Parsa, Persia or Persis who also gave their name to their region and language. Genuine Old Persian is best attested in one of the three languages of the Behistun inscription, composed circa 520 BC, and which is the last inscription (and only inscription of significant length) in which Old Persian is still grammatically correct. Later inscriptions are comparatively brief, and typically simply copies of words and phrases from earlier ones, often with grammatical errors, which suggests that by the 4th century BC the transition from Old Persian to Middle Persian was already far advanced, but efforts were still being made to retain an "old" quality for official proclamations. The other directly attested Old Iranian dialects are the two forms of Avestan, which take their name from their use in the Avesta, the liturgical texts of indigenous Iranian religion that now goes by the name of Zoroastrianism but in the Avesta itself is simply known as vohu daena (later: behdin). The language of the Avesta is subdivided into two dialects, conventionally known as "Old (or 'Gathic') Avestan", and "Younger Avestan". These terms, which date to the 19th century, are slightly misleading since 'Younger Avestan' is not only much younger than 'Old Avestan', but also from a different geographic region. The Old Avestan dialect is very archaic, and at roughly the same stage of development as Rigvedic Sanskrit. On the other hand, Younger Avestan is at about the same linguistic stage as Old Persian, but by virtue of its use as a sacred language retained its "old" characteristics long after the Old Iranian languages had yielded to their Middle Iranian stage. Unlike Old Persian, which has Middle Persian as its known successor, Avestan has no clearly identifiable Middle Iranian stage (the effect of Middle Iranian is indistinguishable from effects due to other causes). In addition to Old Persian and Avestan, which are the only directly attested Old Iranian languages, all Middle Iranian languages must have had a predecessor "Old Iranian" form of that language, and thus can all be said to have had an (at least hypothetical) "Old" form. Such hypothetical Old Iranian languages include Carduchian (the hypothetical predecessor to Kurdish) and Old Parthian. Additionally, the existence of unattested languages can sometimes be inferred from the impact they had on neighbouring languages. Such transfer is known to have occurred for Old Persian, which has (what is called) a "Median" substrate in some of its vocabulary.[17] Also, foreign references to languages can also provide a hint to the existence of otherwise unattested languages, for example through toponyms/ethnonyms or in the recording of vocabulary, as Herodotus did for what he called "Scythian". Isoglosses[edit] Conventionally, Iranian languages are grouped in "western" and "eastern" branches.[18] These terms have little meaning with respect to Old Avestan as that stage of the language may predate the settling of the Iranian peoples into western and eastern groups. The geographic terms also have little meaning when applied to Younger Avestan since it isn't known where that dialect (or dialects) was spoken either. Certain is only that Avestan (all forms) and Old Persian are distinct, and since Old Persian is "western", and Avestan was not Old Persian, Avestan acquired a default assignment to "eastern". Confusing the issue is the introduction of a western Iranian substrate in later Avestan compositions and redactions undertaken at the centers of imperial power in western Iran (either in the south-west in Persia, or in the north-west in Nisa/Parthia and Ecbatana/Media). Two of the earliest dialectal divisions among Iranian indeed happen to not follow the later division into Western and Eastern blocks. These concern the fate of the Proto-Indo-Iranian first-series palatal consonants, *ć and *dź:[19] Avestan and most other Iranian languages have deaffricated and depalatalized these consonants, and have *ć > s, *dź > z. Old Persian, however, has fronted these consonants further: *ć > θ, *dź > *ð > d. As a common intermediate stage, it is possible to reconstruct depalatalized affricates: *c, *dz. (This coincides with the state of affairs in the neighboring Nuristani languages.) A further complication however concerns the consonant clusters *ćw and *dźw: Avestan and most other Iranian languages have shifted these clusters to sp, zb. In Old Persian, these clusters yield s, z, with loss of the glide *w, but without further fronting. The Saka language, attested in the Middle Iranian period, and its modern relative Wakhi fail to fit into either group: in these, palatalization remains, and similar glide loss as in Old Persian occurs: *ćw > š, *dźw > ž. A division of Iranian languages in at least three groups during the Old Iranian period is thus implied: Persid (Old Persian and its descendants) Sakan (Saka, Wakhi, and their Old Iranian ancestor) Central Iranian (all other Iranian languages) It is possible that other distinct dialect groups were already in existence during this period. Good candidates are the hypothetical ancestor languages of Alanian/Scytho-Sarmatian subgroup of Scythian in the far northwest; and the hypothetical "Old Parthian" (the Old Iranian ancestor of Parthian) in the near northwest, where original *dw > *b (paralleling the development of *ćw). Middle Iranian languages[edit] What is known in Iranian linguistic history as the "Middle Iranian" era is thought to begin around the 4th century BCE lasting through the 9th century. Linguistically the Middle Iranian languages are conventionally classified into two main groups, Western and Eastern. The Western family includes Parthian (Arsacid Pahlavi) and Middle Persian, while Bactrian, Sogdian, Khwarezmian, Saka, and Old Ossetic (Scytho-Sarmatian) fall under the Eastern category. The two languages of the Western group were linguistically very close to each other, but quite distinct from their eastern counterparts. On the other hand, the Eastern group was an areal entity whose languages retained some similarity to Avestan. They were inscribed in various Aramaic-derived alphabets which had ultimately evolved from the Achaemenid Imperial Aramaic script, though Bactrian was written using an adapted Greek script. Middle Persian (Pahlavi) was the official language under the Sasanian dynasty in Iran. It was in use from the 3rd century CE until the beginning of the 10th century. The script used for Middle Persian in this era underwent significant maturity. Middle Persian, Parthian and Sogdian were also used as literary languages by the Manichaeans, whose texts also survive in various non-Iranian languages, from Latin to Chinese. Manichaean texts were written in a script closely akin to the Syriac script.[20] New Iranian languages[edit] See also: Persian literature, Pashto literature, Ossetian literature, Kurdish literature, and Tajik literature Dark green: countries where Iranian languages are official. Teal: countries where Iranian languages are official in a subdivision Following the Islamic Conquest of Persia, there were important changes in the role of the different dialects within the Persian Empire. The old prestige form of Middle Iranian, also known as Pahlavi, was replaced by a new standard dialect called Dari as the official language of the court. The name Dari comes from the word darbâr (دربار), which refers to the royal court, where many of the poets, protagonists, and patrons of the literature flourished. The Saffarid dynasty in particular was the first in a line of many dynasties to officially adopt the new language in 875 CE. Dari may have been heavily influenced by regional dialects of eastern Iran, whereas the earlier Pahlavi standard was based more on western dialects. This new prestige dialect became the basis of Standard New Persian. Medieval Iranian scholars such as Abdullah Ibn al-Muqaffa (8th century) and Ibn al-Nadim (10th century) associated the term "Dari" with the eastern province of Khorasan, while they used the term "Pahlavi" to describe the dialects of the northwestern areas between Isfahan and Azerbaijan, and "Pârsi" ("Persian" proper) to describe the Dialects of Fars. They also noted that the unofficial language of the royalty itself was yet another dialect, "Khuzi", associated with the western province of Khuzestan. Geographic distribution of modern Iranian languages The Islamic conquest also brought with it the adoption of Arabic script for writing Persian and much later, Kurdish, Pashto and Balochi. All three were adapted to the writing by the addition of a few letters. This development probably occurred some time during the second half of the 8th century, when the old middle Persian script began dwindling in usage. The Arabic script remains in use in contemporary modern Persian. Tajik script, used to write the Tajik language, was first Latinised in the 1920s under the then Soviet nationality policy. The script was however subsequently Cyrillicized in the 1930s by the Soviet government. The geographical regions in which Iranian languages were spoken were pushed back in several areas by newly neighbouring languages. Arabic spread into some parts of Western Iran (Khuzestan), and Turkic languages spread through much of Central Asia, displacing various Iranian languages such as Sogdian and Bactrian in parts of what is today Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. In Eastern Europe, mostly comprising the territory of modern-day Ukraine, southern European Russia, and parts of the Balkans, the core region of the native Scythians, Sarmatians, and Alans had been decisively taken over as a result of absorption and assimilation (e.g. Slavicisation) by the various Proto-Slavic population of the region, by the 6th century AD.[21][22][23][24] This resulted in the displacement and extinction of the once predominant Scythian languages of the region. Sogdian's close relative Yaghnobi barely survives in a small area of the Zarafshan valley east of Samarkand, and Saka as Ossetic in the Caucasus, which is the sole remnant of the once predominant Scythian languages in Eastern Europe proper and large parts of the North Caucasus. Various small Iranian languages in the Pamir Mountains survive that are derived from Eastern Iranian. Comparison table[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) English Zaza Sorani Kurmanji Pashto Tati Talyshi Balochi Mazanderani Tat Persian Middle Persian Parthian Old Persian Avestan Ossetian beautiful rınd, xasek nayab, cuwan rind, delal, bedew, xweşik x̌kūlay, x̌āista xojir ghašang dorr, soherâ, mah rang, sharr, juwān xoşgel, xojir güzəl, ziba, qəşəng zibā/xuš-čehr(e)/xoşgel(ak)/ghashanq/najib hučihr, hužihr hužihr naiba vahu-, srîra ræsughd blood goni xwên xwîn, xûn wīna xevn xun hon xun xun xūn xōn gōxan vohuni- tug bread nan, non nan nan ḍoḍəi, məṛəi nun nun nān, nagan nun nun nān nān nān dzul bring ardene /anîn, hawerdin anîn (rā)wṛəl vârden, biyordon varde âurten, yārag, ārag biyârden avardən āwurdan, biyār ("(you) bring!") āwurdan, āwāy-, āwar-, bar- āwāy-, āwar-, bar- bara- bara, bar- xæssyn brother bıra brader, bira bira wror bərâr bira, boli brāt, brās birâr birar barādar brād, brâdar brād, brādar brātar brātar- æfsymær come ameyene hatin, were hatin, were, rā tləl biyâmiyan ome āhag, āyag, hatin biyamona, enen, biyâmuen amarən āmadan āmadan, awar awar, čām āy-, āgam āgam- cæwyn cry bermayene girîn, giryan girîn žəṛəl bərma berame, bame greewag, grehten birme girəstən gerīstan/gerīye griy-, bram- barmâdan kæwyn dark tari tarî/tarîk tarî skəṇ, skaṇ, tyara ul, gur, târica, târek toki tār tariki tārīk, tār tārīg/k tārīg, tārēn tārīk sâmahe, sâma tar daughter kêna/keyna, çêna/çêneke[25] kîj, kiç, kenişk, düet (pehlewanî) dot, keç lūr titiye, dətar kinə, kila dohtir, duttag kîjâ(girl), deter (daughter) duxtər doxtar duxtar duxt, duxtar duxδar čyzg (Iron), kizgæ (Digor) day roce, roje, roze řoj roj wrəd͡z (rwəd͡z) revj, ruz ruj roç ruz, ruj ruz rūz rōz raucah- raocah- bon do kerdene kirdin kirin kawəl kardan, kordan karde kanag, kurtin hâkerden saxtən kardan kardan kartan kạrta- kәrәta- kænyn door ber, keyber, çêber derge/derke, derga derî wər darvâca bə dar, gelo, darwāzag dar, loş dər dar dar dar, bar duvara- dvara- dwar die merdene merden mirin mrəl bamarden marde mireg, murten bamerden mürdən mordan murdan mạriya- mar- mælyn donkey her ker ker xər astar, xar hə, hər har, her, kar xar xər xar xar xæræg eat werdene xwardin xwarin xwāṛə, xurāk / xwaṛəl harden harde warag, warâk, wārten xerâk / baxârden xardən xordan / xurāk parwarz / xwâr, xwardīg parwarz / xwâr hareθra / ad-, at- xærinag egg hak, akk hêk/hêlke, tum hêk hagəi merqâna, karxâ morqana, uyə heyg, heyk, ā morg merqâne, tîm, balî xaykərg toxm, xāya ("testicle") toxmag, xâyag taoxmag, xâyag taoxma- ajk earth erd zemîn, zawî, ʿerz, erd erd, zevî d͡zməka (md͡zəka) zemin zamin zemin, degār zamîn, bene xari zamīn zamīg zamīg zam- zãm, zam, zem zæxx evening şan, êre êware êvar māx̌ām (māš̥ām) nomâzyar, nomâšon shav begáh nemâşun şangum begáh ēvārag êbêrag izær eye çım çaw/çaş çav stərga coš čaş,gelgan cham, chem çəş, bəj çüm čashm čašm čašm čaša- čašman- cæst father pi, pêr bawk, bab,baba bav, bab plār piyar, piya, dada piya, lala, po pet, pes pîyer, per piyər pedar, bābā pidar pid pitar pitar fyd fear ters tirs tirs wēra (yara), bēra târs tars turs, terseg taşe-vaşe, tars tərsi tars, harās tars tars tạrsa- tares- tas fiancé waşti dasgîran,xwşavest dergîstî, xwestî čənghol [masculine], čənghəla [feminine] numzâ nomja nāmzād numze nükürdə nāmzād - - usag fine weş, hewl xwş xweş x̌a (š̥a), səm xojir, xar xoş wash, hosh xâr, xeş, xojir xuş, xas, xub xoš, xūb, beh dārmag srîra xorz, dzæbæx finger engışte/gışte, bêçıke engust, pence,angus tilî, pêçî gwəta anquš anqiştə changol, mordâneg, lenkutk angus əngüşt angošt angust dišti- ængwyldz fire adır ager/awir, ahir,ayer agir wōr (ōr) taš otaş âch, atesh, âs taş ataş ātaš, āzar âdur, âtaxsh ādur âç- âtre-/aêsma- art fish mase masî masî kəb mâyi moy māhi, māhig mâhî mahi māhi māhig māsyāg masya kæsag go şiayene çûn, řoştin, řoyiştin çûn tləl šiyen, bišiyan şe shoten şunen / burden raftən ro/şo şow/row ay- ai- ay-, fra-vaz cæwyn God Homa/Huma/Oma, Heq Yezdan, Xwedê, Xuda, Xodê, Xwa(y) Xwedê, Xweda, Xwadê, Xudê Xwədāi Xədâ Xıdo Xoda, Hwdâ Xedâ Xuda Xodā, Izad, Yazdān, Baq Xudā/Yazdān baga- baya- xwycaw good hewl, rınd, weş baş, çak,xas baş, rind x̌ə (š̥ə) xâr, xojir çok zabr, sharr, jowain xâr, xeş, xojir xub, xas xub, nīkū, beh xūb, nêkog, beh vahu- vohu, vaŋhu- xorz grass vaş giya/gya gîya, çêre wāx̌ə (wāš̥ə) vâš alaf rem, sabzag vâş güyo sabzeh, giyāh giyâ giya viş urvarâ kærdæg great gırd/gırs, pil gewre,mazen mezin, gir lōy, stər pilla yol, yal, vaz, dıjd mastar, mazan,tuh gat, pilla kələ bozorg wuzurg, pīl, yal vazraka- uta-, avañt styr hand dest dast, das dest lās bâl dast dast das, bāl dəs dast dast dast dasta- zasta- k'ux / arm head ser ser ser sər kalla sə, sər sar, sarag, saghar kalle, sar sər sar sar kalli sairi sær heart zerri/zerre dil/dił/dir(Erbil)/zil dil zṛə dəl dıl dil, hatyr del, zel, zil dül del dil dil aηhuš zærdæ horse estor/ostor/astor asp/hesp/esp, hês(t)ir hesp ās [male], aspa [female] asb, astar asp asp asp, as əs asb asp, stōr asp, stōr aspa aspa- bæx house keye/çeye,[26][27] ban mał, xanu, xang, ghat xanî kor kiya ka ges, dawâr, log sere, xene xunə xāne xânag demâna-, nmâna- xædzar hungry vêşan/veyşan bersî birçî, birsî (behdînî) lwəga vašnâ, vešir, gesnâ vahşian shudig, shud veşnâ gisnə gorosne, goşne gursag, shuy veşnâg language (also tongue) zıwan, zon, zuan, zuon, juan, jüan zeman, zuwan ziman žəba zobun, zəvân zivon zewān, zobān zivun, zebun zuhun zabān zuwān izβān hazâna- hizvā- ævzag laugh huyayene kenîn/pêkenîn, kenîn,xanda,xana kenîn xandəl/xənda xurəsen, xandastan sıre hendag, xandag rîk, baxendesten xəndə xande xande, xand karta Syaoθnâvareza- xudyn life cuye, weşiye jiyan,gyian jiyan žwəndūn, žwənd zindәgi jimon zendegih, zind zindegî, jan həyat zendegi, jan zīndagīh, zīwišnīh žīwahr, žīw- gaêm, gaya- card man mêrdek, camêrd/cüamêrd merd, pîyaw, mêr, camêr səṛay, mēṛə mardak, miarda merd merd mard(î) mərd mard mard mard martiya- mašîm, mašya adæjmag moon aşme, menge (for month) mang meh, heyv spūgməi (spōẓ̌məi) mâng mang, owşum máh ma, munek ma mâh, mâng, mânk māh māh mâh- måŋha- mæj mother may, mar, dayîke, dadî [28] dayek dayik, dê mōr mâr, mâya, nana moa, ma, ina mât, mâs mâr may mâdar mâdar dayek mâtar mâtar- mad mouth fek dam,kat,sardam,sat dev xūla (xʷəla) duxun, dâ:ân gəv dap dâhun, lâmîze duhun dahân dahân, rumb åŋhânô, âh, åñh dzyx name name naw, nêw nav nūm num nom nâm num num nâm nâm nâman nãman nom night şew şaw şev špa šö, šav şav šap, shaw şow şöü shab shab xšap- xšap- æxsæv open (v) akerdene kirdinewe vekirin prānistəl vâz-kardan okarde pāch, pabozag vâ-hekârden vakardən bâz-kardan, va-kardan abâz-kardan, višādag būxtaka- būxta- gom kænyn peace haşti/aşti aştî, aramî aştî, aramî rōɣa, t͡sōkāləi dinj aşiş ârâm âştî salaməti, dinci âshti, ârâmeš, ârâmî, sâzish âštih, râmīšn râm, râmīšn šiyâti- râma- fidyddzinad pig xoz/xonz, xınzır beraz,goraz beraz soḍər, xənd͡zir (Arabic), xug xu, xuyi, xug xug khug, huk xî xug xūk xūk hū xwy place ca je(jega), ga cih, geh d͡zāi yâga vira ja, jaygah, hend jâ cigə, cə jâh/gâh gâh gâh gâθu- gâtu-, gâtav- ran read wendene xwendin/xwêndin xwendin lwastəl, kōtəl baxânden hande, xwande wánag, wānten baxinden, baxundesten xundən xândan xwândan kæsyn say vatene gutin, witin gotin wayəl vâten, baguten vote gushag, guashten baowten guftirən, gaf saxtən goftan, gap(-zadan) guftan, gōw-, wâxtan gōw- gaub- mrû- dzuryn sister waye xweh, xweşk, xoşk, xuşk, xoyşk xwîşk xōr (xʷōr) xâke, xâv, xâxor, xuâr hova gwhâr xâxer xuvar xâhar/xwâhar xwahar x ̌aŋhar- "sister" xo small qıc/qıyt, werdi giçke, qicik, hûr biçûk, hûr kūčnay, waṛ(ū)kay qijel, ruk hırd gwand, hurd peçik, biçuk, xurd küçük, küşkin, kişgələ, kəm kuchak, kam, xurd, rîz kam, rangas kam kamna- kamna- chysyl son lac, laj law/kuř kur, law d͡zoy (zoy) pur, zâ zoə, zurə possag, baç piser/rîkâ kuk pesar, pur pur, pusar puhr puça pūθra- fyrt soul roh, gan jan, giyan, rewan, revan reh, can sā rəvân con rawân ro, jân can ravân, jân rūwân, jyân rūwân, jyân urvan- ud spring wesar/usar bahar, wehar bihar, behar spərlay vâ:âr əvəsor, bahar bārgāh vehâr vasal bahâr wahâr vâhara- θūravâhara- tall berz bilind/berz bilind/berz lwəṛ, ǰəg pilla barz, bılınd borz, bwrz bilen(d) bülünd boland / bârz buland, borz bârež barez- bærzond ten des deh/de deh ləs da da dah da də dah dah datha dasa dæs three hirê/hiri sê sê drē so, se se, he sey se sə se sê hrē çi- θri- ærtæ village dewe gund, dêhat, dê gund kəlay döh, da di dehāt, helk, kallag, dê dih, male, kola di deh, wis wiž dahyu- vîs-, dahyu- vîs qæw want waştene xwastin, wîstin xwestin ɣ(ʷ)ux̌təl begovastan, jovastan piye loath, loteten bexâsten xastən, vayistən xâstan xwâstan fændyn water awe/awk, owe, ou aw av obə/ūbə âv, ö ov, wat(orandian dialect) âp ow ou âb âb/aw aw âpi avô- don when key key kengê, kîngê kəla key keyna kadi, ked ke key, çüvəxti key kay ka čim- kæd wind va ba, wa (pehlewanî) ba siləi vâ vo gwáth vâ var bâd wâd wa vâta- dymgæ / wad wolf verg gurg, gur lewə, šarmux̌ (šarmuš̥) varg varg gurk verg gürg gorg gurg varka- vehrka birægh woman cıni/ceni jin,zindage,gyian jin x̌əd͡za (š̥əd͡za) zeyniye, zenak jen, jiyan jan, jinik zan zən zan zan žan gǝnā, γnā, ǰaini-, sylgojmag / us year serre sal/sał sal kāl sâl sor, sal sâl sâl sal sâl sâl θard ýâre, sarәd az yes / no ya, heya, ê / nê, ney, ni bełê, a / na, ne erê, belê, a / na Hao, ao, wō / na, ya ahan / na ha / ne, na ere, hān / na are / nâ həri, hə / nə baleh, ârē, hā / na, née ōhāy / ne hâ / ney yâ / nay, mâ yâ / noit, mâ o / næ yesterday vizêr dwênê, duêka duho parūn azira, zira, diru zir, zinə zí dîruz deydi diruz dêrûž diya(ka) zyō znon English Zaza Sorani Kurmanji Pashto Tati Talyshi Balochi Mazandarani Tat Persian Middle Persian Parthian\ Old Persian Avestan Ossetian References[edit] ^ Johannes Bechert; Giuliano Bernini; Claude Buridant (1990). Toward a Typology of European Languages. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-012108-7. ^ Gernot Windfuhr (1979). Persian Grammar: History and State of Its Study. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-90-279-7774-8. ^ Windfuhr, Gernot. The Iranian languages. Routledge Taylor and Francis Group. ^ "Ethnologue report for Iranian". Ethnologue.com. ^ Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.) (2005). "Report for Iranian languages". Ethnologue: Languages of the World (Fifteenth ed.). Dallas: SIL International.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) ^ Cardona, George. "Indo-Iranian languages". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 28 August 2018. ^ (Skjærvø 2006) ^ John R. Perry Iranian Studies Vol. 31, No. 3/4, A Review of the "Encyclopaedia Iranica" (Summer - Autumn, 1998), pp. 517-525 ^ Lassen, Christian. 1936. Die altpersischen Keil-Inschriften von Persepolis. Entzifferung des Alphabets und Erklärung des Inhalts. Bonn: Weber. S. 182. This was followed by Wilhelm Geiger in his Grundriss der Iranischen Philologie (1895). Friedrich von Spiegel (1859), Avesta, Engelmann (p. vii) used the spelling Eranian. ^ Cust, Robert Needham. 1878. A sketch of the modern languages of the East Indies. London: Trübner. ^ Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1989. History of northern areas of Pakistan. Historical studies (Pakistan) series. National Institute of Historical and Cultural Research. "We distinguish between the Aryan languages of Iran, or Irano-Aryan, and the Aryan languages of India, or Indo-Aryan. For the sake of brevity, Iranian is commonly used instead of Irano-Aryan". ^ Lazard, Gilbert. 1977. Preface in: Oranskij, Iosif M. Les langues iraniennes. Traduit par Joyce Blau. ^ Schmitt, Rüdiger. 1994. Sprachzeugnisse alt- und mitteliranischer Sprachen in Afghanistan in: Indogermanica et Caucasica. Festschrift für Karl Horst Schmidt zum 65. Geburtstag. Bielmeier, Robert und Reinhard Stempel (Hrg.). De Gruyter. S. 168–196. ^ Lazard, Gilbert. 1998. Actancy. Empirical approaches to language typology. Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-015670-9, ISBN 978-3-11-015670-6 ^ Michael Witzel (2001): Autochthonous Aryans? The evidence from Old Indian and Iranian texts. Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies 7(3): 1–115. ^ Roland G. Kent: "Old Persion: Grammar Texts Lexicon". Part I, Chapter I: The Linguistic Setting of Old Persian. American Oriental Society, 1953. ^ (Skjaervo 2006) harv error: no target: CITEREFSkjaervo2006 (help) vi(2). Documentation. ^ Nicholas Sims-Williams, Iranica, under entry: Eastern Iranian languages ^ Windfuhr, Gernot (2009). "Dialectology and Topics". The Iranian Languages. Routledge. pp. 18–21. ^ Mary Boyce. 1975. A Reader in Manichaean Middle Persian and Parthian, p. 14. ^ Brzezinski, Richard; Mielczarek, Mariusz (2002). The Sarmatians, 600 BC-AD 450. Osprey Publishing. p. 39. (..) Indeed, it is now accepted that the Sarmatians merged in with pre-Slavic populations. ^ Adams, Douglas Q. (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Taylor & Francis. p. 523. (..) In their Ukrainian and Polish homeland the Slavs were intermixed and at times overlain by Germanic speakers (the Goths) and by Iranian speakers (Scythians, Sarmatians, Alans) in a shifting array of tribal and national configurations. ^ Atkinson, Dorothy; et al. (1977). Women in Russia. Stanford University Press. p. 3. ISBN 9780804709101. (..) Ancient accounts link the Amazons with the Scythians and the Sarmatians, who successively dominated the south of Russia for a millennium extending back to the seventh century B.C. The descendants of these peoples were absorbed by the Slavs who came to be known as Russians. ^ Slovene Studies. 9–11. Society for Slovene Studies. 1987. p. 36. (..) For example, the ancient Scythians, Sarmatians (amongst others), and many other attested but now extinct peoples were assimilated in the course of history by Proto-Slavs. ^ http://turkcekurtcesozluk.com/legerin.php?legerin=k%C4%B1z&z= ^ http://turkcekurtcesozluk.com/peyv.php?peyv_id=keye ^ http://turkcekurtcesozluk.com/peyv.php?peyv_id=ceye ^ http://turkcekurtcesozluk.com/legerin.php?legerin=anne&z= Bibliography[edit] Bailey, H. W. (1979). Dictionary of Khotan Saka. Cambridge University Press. 1979. 1st Paperback edition 2010. ISBN 978-0-521-14250-2. Schmitt, Rüdiger (ed.) (1989). Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum (in German). Wiesbaden: Reichert. ISBN 978-3-88226-413-5.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) Sims-Williams, Nicholas (1996). "Iranian languages". Encyclopedia Iranica. 7. Costa Mesa: Mazda. pp. 238–245. Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.) (1996). "Iran". Encyclopedia Iranica. 7. Costa Mesa: Mazda.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) Frye, Richard N. (1996). "Peoples of Iran". Encyclopedia Iranica. 7. Costa Mesa: Mazda. Windfuhr, Gernot L. (1995). "Cases in Iranian languages and dialects". Encyclopedia Iranica. 5. Costa Mesa: Mazda. pp. 25–37. Lazard, Gilbert (1996). "Dari". Encyclopedia Iranica. 7. Costa Mesa: Mazda. Henning, Walter B. (1954). "The Ancient language of Azarbaijan". Transactions of the Philological Society. 53 (1): 157–177. doi:10.1111/j.1467-968X.1954.tb00282.x. Rezakhani, Khodadad (2001). "The Iranian Language Family". Archived from the original on 2004-10-09. Skjærvø, Prods Oktor (2006). "Iran, vi. Iranian languages and scripts". Encyclopædia Iranica. 13. Delshad, Farshid (2010). Georgica et Irano-Semitica (PDF). Ars Poetica. Deutscher Wissenschaftsverlag DWV. ISBN 978-3-86888-004-5. Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (2006). The Oxford introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European world. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-929668-2. Toroghdar, Zia (2018). "From Astara to Fuman: Comparison words from dialects of different languages Talysh and Tatic". Farhang-e Ilia. pp. 38–172. Further reading[edit] Sokolova, V. S. "New information on the phonetics of Iranic languages." Trudy Instituta jazykoznanija NN SSR (Moskva) 1 (1952): 178-192. External links[edit] "Areal developments in the history of Iranic: West vs. East" (PDF). Martin Joachim Kümmel, department of Indo-European linguistics, University of Jena. Society for Iranian Linguistics Kurdish and other Iranic Languages Iranian EFL Journal Iranian language tree in Russian, identical with above classification. Old Iranian Online by Scott L. Harvey and Jonathan Slocum, free online lessons at the Linguistics Research Center at the University of Texas at Austin v t e Indo-European languages Albanian Albanian Armenian Armenian Balto-Slavic Baltic Slavic Celtic Insular Celtic Continental Celtic Germanic North Germanic West Germanic East Germanic Hellenic Greek Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Nuristani Italic Latino-Faliscan Osco-Umbrian Tocharian Tocharian Anatolian Anatolian Proto-languages Proto-Indo-European Proto-Albanian Proto-Armenian Proto-Balto-Slavic Proto-Slavic Proto-Celtic Proto-Germanic Proto-Norse Proto-Hellenic Proto-Indo-Iranian Proto-Indo-Aryan Proto-Iranian Proto-Italic Proto-Romance Proto-Tocharian Proto-Anatolian Italics indicate extinct languages v t e Iranian languages Old Eastern Avestan Old Scythian Western Median Old Persian Middle Eastern Bactrian Khwarezmian Ossetic Jassic Saka Scythian Sogdian Western Middle Persian Parthian Modern Eastern Pamir Bartangi Ishkashimi Khufi Munji Roshani Sanglechi Sarikoli Shughni Vanji Wakhi Yazghulami Yidgha Others Ossetian Digor Iron Pashto Central Northern Southern Wanetsi Ormuri Parachi Yaghnobi Western North Balochi Daylami Fars Gilaki Gorani Kurdish Kurmanji Laki Sorani Xwarin Mazandarani Old Azari Semnani Lasgerdi, Sangsari, Sorkhei Taleshi Tati Zaza Zoroastrian Dari South Achomi Bashkardi Kumzari Luri Bakhtiari Persian Caucasian Tat Dari Hazaragi Tajik Italics indicate extinct languages. v t e Iranian peoples Ethnic groups Achomis Balochs Farsiwan Gilaks Kurds Kurdish tribes Laks Lurs Bakhtiaris Mazanderanis Ossetians Digors Irons Jaszs Kudars Pamiris Tajiks of Xinjiang Wakhis Pashtuns Pashtun tribes Persians Tajiks Talyshs Tats of the Caucasus Tats of Iran Yaghnobis Yazidis Zazas Related ethnic groups Aimaqs Hazaras Ancient peoples Ancient Iranian peoples Origin Indo-Iranians Proto-Indo-Europeans Languages Iranian languages Iranian religions Ancient Iranian religion Assianism Bábism Baháʼí Faith Khurramites Manichaeism Mazdakism Mazdaznan Scythian Yarsanism Yazidism Zoroastrianism v t e Persian language History Proto-Indo-European (c. 3000 BCE) Proto-Indo-Iranian (c. 2000 BCE) Proto-Iranian (c. 1500 BCE) Old Persian (c. 525 – 300 BCE) Middle Persian (c. 300 BCE – 800 CE) Modern Persian (from 800) Language families Indo-Iranian languages Iranian languages Western Iranian languages Dialects and varieties Western (Iranian) Dari (Afghanistan) Tajik Hazaragi Aimaq Kuwaiti Persian Tat Judeo-Persian Judeo-Tat (Juhuri) Bukhori Sistani Dehwari Standard Persian Language features Vocabulary Nouns Verbs Phonology Grammar Persian grammar Ezāfe Tajik grammar Writing system Old Persian cuneiform Pahlavi scripts Persian alphabet Persian calligraphy Tajik alphabet Romanized Persian alphabet Persian Braille Literature Persian literature Middle Persian literature Tajik literature Other topics List of English words of Persian origin List of French loanwords in Persian List of territorial entities where Persian is an official language Persian language in South Asia Authority control GND: 4034859-3 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Iranian_languages&oldid=995105626#Old_Iranian" Categories: Indo-European languages Iranian languages Iranian peoples Hidden categories: CS1 maint: extra text: authors list Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2020 Articles needing additional references from October 2013 All articles needing additional references CS1 German-language sources (de) Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools 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en-wikipedia-org-9966	----	Template:Hellenistic satraps - Wikipedia Template:Hellenistic satraps From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search v t e Hellenistic satraps Satraps under Alexander the Great (334-323 BC) Ada (Queen of Caria) Asander, Menander (Lydia) Calas, Demarchus (Hellespontine Phrygia) Antigonus (Greater Phrygia) Balakros, Menes (Cilicia) Abistamenes (Cappadocia) Abdalonymus (Sidon) Mithrenes (Armenia) Mazaeus, Stamenes (Babylon) Mazakes (Mesopotamia) Abulites (Susiana) Oxydates, Atropates (Media) Phrasaortes, Oxines, Peucestas (Persis) Cleomenes of Naucratis (Egypt) Satibarzanes (Aria) Sibyrtius (Carmania) Autophradates (Tapuri, Mardi) Andragoras (Parthia) Amminapes, Phrataphernes, Pharismanes (Hyrcania and Parthia) Artabazos, Cleitus the Black, Amyntas (Bactria) Oxyartes (Paropamisia) Philip, Eudemus (India) Peithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara) Taxiles (Punjab) Porus (Indus) Satraps at the Partition of Babylon (323 BC) Antipater (Macedon and Greece) Philo (Illyria) Lysimachus (Thrace) Leonnatus (Hellespontine Phrygia) Antigonus (Phrygia) Asander (Caria) Nearchus (Lycia and Pamphylia) Menander (Lydia) Philotas (Cilicia) Eumenes (Cappadocia and Paphlagonia) Ptolemy (Egypt) Laomedon of Mytilene (Syria) Neoptolemus (Armenia) Peucestas (Persis) Arcesilaus (Mesopotamia) Peithon (Greater Media) Atropates (Lesser Media) Scynus (Susiana) Tlepolemus (Persia) Nicanor (Parthia) Phrataphernes (Armenia, Parthia) Antigenes (Susiana) Archon (Pelasgia) Philip (Hyrcania) Stasanor (Aria and Drangiana) Sibyrtius (Arachosia and Gedrosia) Amyntas (Bactria) Scythaeus (Sogdiana) Oxyartes (Paropamisia) Taxiles (Punjab) Peithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara) Porus (Indus) Satraps at the Partition of Triparadisus (321 BC) Antipater (Macedon and Greece) Lysimachus (Thrace) Arrhidaeus (Hellespontine Phrygia) Antigonus (Phrygia, Lycia and Pamphylia) Cassander (Caria) Cleitus the White (Lydia) Philoxenus (Cilicia) Nicanor (Cappadocia and Paphlagonia) Ptolemy (Egypt) Laomedon of Mytilene (Syria) Peucestas (Persis) Amphimachus (Mesopotamia) Peithon (Media) Tlepolemus (Carmania) Philip (Parthia) Antigenes (Susiana) Seleucus (Babylonia) Stasanor (Bactria and Sogdiana) Stasander (Aria and Drangiana) Sibyrtius (Arachosia and Gedrosia) Oxyartes (Paropamisia) Taxiles (Punjab) Peithon, son of Agenor (Gandhara) Porus (Indus) Later Satraps Peithon, son of Agenor (Babylon) Sibyrtius (Arachosia, Drangiana) Eudemus (Indus) Bagadates, Ardakhshir I, Wahbarz, Vadfradad I, Vadfradad II, Alexander c.220 BC (Persis) Andragoras (Parthia) Demodamas (Bactria, Sogdiana) Diodotus (Bactria) Alexander (Lydia) Molon c.220 BC, Timarchus, c.175 BC (Media) Apollodorus (Susiana) Ptolemaeus (Commagene) Noumenios, Hyspaosines c.150 BC (Characene) Hellenistic satraps were preceded by Achaemenid rulers, and followed or ruled by Hellenistic rulers Initial visibility: currently defaults to autocollapse To set this template's initial visibility, the |state= parameter may be used: |state=collapsed: {{Hellenistic satraps|state=collapsed}} to show the template collapsed, i.e., hidden apart from its title bar |state=expanded: {{Hellenistic satraps|state=expanded}} to show the template expanded, i.e., fully visible |state=autocollapse: {{Hellenistic satraps|state=autocollapse}} shows the template collapsed to the title bar if there is a {{navbar}}, a {{sidebar}}, or some other table on the page with the collapsible attribute shows the template in its expanded state if there are no other collapsible items on the page If the |state= parameter in the template on this page is not set, the template's initial visibility is taken from the |default= parameter in the Collapsible option template. For the template on this page, that currently evaluates to autocollapse. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Hellenistic_satraps&oldid=994443477" Categories: Hellenistic rulers Ruler navigational boxes Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Template Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 15 December 2020, at 19:23 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9967	----	Evagoras II - Wikipedia Evagoras II From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Evagoras II" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (June 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Silver tetradrachm of Evagoras II (Cabinet des Médailles, Paris) Evagoras II or Euagoras II (Greek: Εὐαγόρας) was a king of the Ancient Greek city-state of Salamis in Cyprus, and later satrap for Achaemenid Persia in Phoenicia. He was possibly a son of his predecessor, Nicocles, and a grandson of Evagoras I. He followed a pro-Persian course, for which he was deposed ca. 351 BC by a popular revolt led by his nephew Pnytagoras, who succeeded him as king. Evagoras fled to the Persian court, where Artaxerxes III gave him the government of the Phoenician city of Sidon, following the defeat of the rebellion of Tennes. His administration of Sidon was so bad that after three years, in 346 BC, he was chased out of the city by the populace, who called upon a descendant of the ancient royal line, Abdashtart II, to replace him. Evagoras fled back to Cyprus, where he was arrested and executed. Preceded by Nicocles King of Salamis 361–351 BC Succeeded by Pnytagoras v t e Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire Achaemenes Ariaramnes Arsames Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Cambyses II Smerdis Gaumata Darius the Great (Darius I) Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus Artaxerxes V Bessus Satraps of Lydia Tabalus Mazares Harpagus Oroetus Bagaeus Otanes Artaphernes I Artaphernes II Pissuthnes Tissaphernes Cyrus the Younger Tissaphernes Tithraustes Tiribazus Struthas Autophradates Spithridates Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia Mitrobates Megabazus Megabates Oebares II Artabazus I Pharnabazus I Pharnaces II Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II Pharnabazus III Arsites Satraps of Cappadocia Datames Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities Miltiades Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus Aristagoras Themistocles Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus Dynasts of Lycia Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle Dynasts of Caria Lygdamis I Artemisia Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus Mausolus Artemisia II Idrieus Ada Pixodarus Orontobates Ada Kings of Macedonia Amyntas I of Macedon Alexander I of Macedon Kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III Satraps of Armenia Artasyrus Orontes I Darius III Orontes II Satraps of Egypt Aryandes Pherendates Achaemenes Arsames Pherendates II Sabaces Mazaces Satraps of Bactria Hystaspes Dadarsi Masistes Bessus Satraps of Media Hydarnes Hydarnes II Atropates Satraps of Cilicia Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus Arsames Other known satraps Megabyzus, Abrocomas, Belesys (Syria) Ochus (Hyrcania) Satibarzanes (Aria) Atizyes (Greater Phrygia) Phrataphernes (Parthia) Ariobarzanes (Persis) Abulites (Susiana) Mazaeus (Babylon) In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC This Ancient Greek biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Evagoras_II&oldid=982290080" Categories: 340s BC deaths 4th-century BC Greek people Ancient Greek rulers People from Salamis Kings of Salamis, Cyprus Satraps of the Achaemenid Empire Executed monarchs Kings of Sidon Ancient Greek people stubs Hidden categories: Articles lacking sources from June 2019 All articles lacking sources Articles containing Greek-language text Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Azərbaycanca Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Français 日本語 Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 7 October 2020, at 07:38 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
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Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: {{Navbox | name = Achaemenid rulers | title = [[:Category:Rulers|Rulers]] in the [[Achaemenid Empire]] | listclass = hlist |state=autocollapse | groupstyle = text-align:center | image = [[File:Darius_In_Parse.JPG|120px|right]] | above = [[Achaemenid family tree|Family tree]] - [[Achaemenid Kingdom]] | group1 = Kings of Kings<br>of the [[Achaemenid Empire]] | list1 = * ''[[Achaemenes]]'' * ''[[Ariaramnes]]'' * ''[[Arsames]]'' * [[Teispes]] * [[Cyrus I]] * [[Cambyses I]] * [[Cyrus the Great|Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II)]] * [[Cambyses II]] * [[Bardiya|Smerdis]] * [[Gaumata]] * [[Darius the Great|Darius the Great (Darius I)]] * [[Xerxes I|Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I)]] * [[Artaxerxes I of Persia|Artaxerxes I]] * [[Xerxes II of Persia|Xerxes II]] * [[Sogdianus of Persia|Sogdianus]] * [[Darius II]] * [[Artaxerxes II of Persia|Artaxerxes II Mnemon]] * [[Artaxerxes III|Artaxerxes III Ochus]] * [[Arses of Persia|Artaxerxes IV Arses]] * [[Darius III|Darius III Codomannus]] * [[Bessus|Artaxerxes V Bessus]] | group2 = Satraps of [[Lydia (satrapy)|Lydia]] | list2 = *[[Tabalus]] *[[Mazares]] *[[Harpagus]] *[[Oroetus]] *[[Bagaeus]] *[[Otanes (son of Sisamnes)|Otanes]] *[[Artaphernes|Artaphernes I]] *[[Artaphernes II]] *[[Pissuthnes]] *[[Tissaphernes]] *[[Cyrus the Younger]] *[[Tissaphernes]] *[[Tithraustes]] *[[Tiribazus]] *[[Struthas]] *[[Autophradates]] *[[Spithridates]] | group3 = Satraps of [[Hellespontine Phrygia]] | list3 = * [[Mitrobates]] * [[Megabazus]] * [[Megabates]] * [[Oebares II]] * [[Artabazos I of Phrygia|Artabazus I]] * [[Pharnabazus I]] * [[Pharnaces II of Phrygia|Pharnaces II]] * [[Pharnabazus II]] * [[Ariobarzanes of Phrygia|Ariobarzanes]] * [[Artabazos II|Artabazus II]] * [[Pharnabazus III]] * [[Arsites]] | group4 = Satraps of [[Cappadocia (satrapy)|Cappadocia]] | list4 = *[[Datames]] *[[Ariamnes|Ariamnes I]] *[[Mithrobuzanes]] *[[Ariarathes I of Cappadocia|Ariarathes I]] | group5 = Greek Governors of [[Asia Minor]] cities | list5 = *[[Miltiades]] *[[Demaratus]] *[[Gongylos]] *[[Eurysthenes (Pergamon)|Eurysthenes]] *[[Prokles (Pergamon)|Prokles]] *[[Histiaeus]] *[[Aristagoras]] *[[Themistocles]] *[[Archeptolis]] *[[Aridolis]] *[[Amyntas II (son of Bubares)|Amyntas II]] *[[Philiscus of Abydos|Philiscus]] | group6 = Dynasts of [[Lycia]] | list6 = *Kheziga *[[Kybernis]] *[[Kuprilli]] *Harpagus *Teththiweibi *[[Kheriga]] *[[Kherei]] *[[Arbinas]] *Artembares *[[Artumpara]] *[[Mithrapata]] *[[Pericles, Dynast of Lycia|Perikle]] | group7 = Dynasts of [[Caria]] | list7 = *[[Lygdamis of Halicarnassus|Lygdamis I]] *[[Artemisia I of Caria|Artemisia]] *[[Pisindelis]] *[[Lygdamis II of Halicarnassus|Lygdamis II]] *[[Adusius]] (satrap) *[[Hecatomnus]] *[[Mausolus]] *[[Artemisia II of Caria|Artemisia II]] *[[Idrieus]] *[[Ada of Caria|Ada]] *[[Pixodarus]] *[[Orontobates]] *[[Ada of Caria|Ada]] | group8 = Kings of [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia]] | list8 = *[[Amyntas I of Macedon]] *[[Alexander I of Macedon]] | group9 = [[Kings of Tyre]] | list9 = *Mattan IV *Boulomenus *[[Abdemon]] *[[Evagoras I|Evagoras]] *Eugoras *[[Azemilcus, King of Tyre|Azemilcus]] | group10 = [[Kings of Sidon]] | list10 = *Eshmunazar I *[[Tabnit]] *Queen Amoashtart *[[Eshmunazar II sarcophagus|Eshmunazar II]] *[[Bodashtart]] *[[Yatonmilk]] *Anysos *Tetramnestos *Baalshillem I *Baana *Baalshillem II *[[Abdashtart I]] *[[Tennes]] *[[Evagoras II]] *Abdashtart II *Abdashtart III | group11 = Satraps of [[Satrapy of Armenia|Armenia]] | list11 = * [[Artasyrus]] * [[Orontes I]] * [[Darius III]] * [[Orontes II]] | group12 = Satraps of [[Egypt]] | list12 = * [[Aryandes]] * [[Pherendates]] * [[Achaemenes (satrap)|Achaemenes]] * [[Arsames (satrap of Egypt)|Arsames]] * [[Pherendates II]] * [[Sabaces]] * [[Mazaces]] | group13 = Satraps of [[Bactria]] | list13 = * [[Hystaspes (father of Darius I)|Hystaspes]] * [[Dadarsi]] * [[Masistes]] * [[Bessus]] | group14 = Satraps of [[Median Empire|Media]] | list14 = * [[Hydarnes]] * [[Hydarnes II]] * [[Atropates]] | group15= Satraps of [[Cilicia]] | list15 = *[[Syennesis (5th century)|Syennesis]] *[[Camisares]] *[[Mazaeus]] *[[Arsames (satrap of Cilicia)|Arsames]] | group16= Other known satraps | list16 = * [[Megabyzus]], [[Abrocomas]], [[Belesys]] ([[Syria]]) * [[Darius II|Ochus]] ([[Hyrcania]]) * [[Satibarzanes]] ([[Aria]]) * [[Atizyes]] ([[Greater Phrygia]]) * [[Phrataphernes]] ([[Parthia]]) * [[Ariobarzanes of Persis|Ariobarzanes]] ([[Persis]]) * [[Abulites]] ([[Susiana]]) * [[Mazaeus]] ([[Babylon]]) | below=In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by [[Template:Hellenistic satraps|Hellenistic satraps]] and [[Template:Hellenistic rulers|Hellenistic rulers]] from around 330 BC }}<noinclude> {{collapsible option|statename=optional}} [[Category:Achaemenid Empire templates]] [[Category:Ruler navigational boxes]] [[Category:Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire]] 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en-wikipedia-org-9984	----	Category:Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Pages in category "Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 642,380 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). 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en-wikipedia-org-9995	----	Tangeh Bolaghi - Wikipedia Tangeh Bolaghi From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Rāh-e Shāhi Tangeh Bolāghi, also transliterated as Tange-ye Bolāghi[1] (Persian: تنگه بلاغی‎), or Bolāghi Gorge, is an archaeologically significant valley consisting of 130 ancient settlements, dating back to the period between 5000 BCE and the Sassanian dynastic era (224-651 CE). It is situated in Iran’s southern province of Fars, some 7 kilometres from Pasargadae, Iran. This is the valley of the Polvar River, a tributary to Kor River. Archaeological research since 2005 have discovered a section of the Royal Road (Rāh-e Shāhi — راه شاهی) connecting Pasargadae to Persepolis, Susa and other regions of the Persian Empire up to Sardis. Excavations have provided archaeologists with a unique insight into the lives of the people living in the Achaemenid dynastic era. Contents 1 Archaeology 2 Gallery 3 See also 4 Notes and references 5 External links Archaeology[edit] Prior to Sivand Dam being completed in 2007, rescue archaeology was conducted in the area. In May 2005, archaeologists unearthed a complete human skeleton at one of the excavation sites, thought to date back to the Sassanid era (224-651). The skeleton, found in a squatting position, is of an adult man. An earthenware item was also found at this site which is considered to be the largest ancient earthenware of its kind ever found in Iran. In April 2006 this find was overshadowed by the discovery of the 7000-years old skeleton of a young woman dating from the Tell-i Bakun Era (the fifth and fourth millennia BC) by a joint Iranian-German team of archaeologists in the same area. The archaeologists further found eight stone beads with the skeleton close to her wrists and neck. "The girl was buried while sleeping on her side and bending her legs with arms under her head like the sleep position of most children", according to the head of the team.[2][3] When the Sivand Dam came into full service in 2007, part of an ancient site including the Achaemenid Shah's Road between Cyrus's tomb and Pasargadae, 130 ancient settlements and a palace ascribed to Darius the Great may have been immersed in water from the rising Polvar River. Yet some reports indicated that there was not enough water flow in the river to fill up the dam completely. Gallery[edit] Skeleton of a young woman (estimated to have been between 14 and 16 at the time of death) dating from 7000 years ago, excavated in Tangeh Bolāghi The same as the previous photograph See also[edit] Sivand Dam Pasargadae Cyrus the Great Notes and references[edit] ^ Pronounced Tange-ye Bolāghi, where "ye" is for ezāfe, and is usually omitted in transliteration. ^ Cultural Heritage News Agency, 26 April 2006, Disturbing a 7000-Year-Old Girl’s Nap in Bolaghi Gorge. ^ Cultural Heritage News Agency, 30 April 2006, 7000-Year-Old Mass Grave Discovered in Bolaghi Gorge. External links[edit] Pasargadae World Heritage Site, Pasargadae official website. [1] Nota bene: This domain name seems to have been sold to a commercial company and therefore does not represent the original site. Cultural Heritage News Agency (CHN). (Khabar-gozāri-e Mirās-e Farhangi - خبرگزاری میراث فرهنگی). CHN, Archaeological excavations in Bolaghi Gorge — 8 Images (with English captions). CHN, Archaeological excavations in Bolaghi Gorge — 8 Images (with Persian captions). CHN, 26 April 2006, Disturbing a 7000-Year-Old Girl’s Nap in Bolaghi Gorge. CHN, 30 April 2006, 7000-Year-Old Mass Grave Discovered in Bolaghi Gorge. CHN, 15 May 2006, Palace of Darius the Great Discovered in Bolaghi Gorge. CHN, 27 June 2006, 5000-Year-Old Settlement Areas Found in Bolaghi Gorge. CHN, 13 August 2006, Life Goes Back to 10000 Years Ago in Bolaghi Gorge. CHN, 30 September 2006, Looking for the Extent of Wine Production in Bolaghi Gorge. CHN, 24 February 2007, Palace of Darius the Great to be Unearthed in Bolaghi Gorge. CHN, 5 March 2007, Eastern Porch of Darius’ Palace Discovered in Bolaghi Gorge. CHN, 14 March 2007, Wine Production Structures in Bolaghi Gorge are in Danger. CHN, 19 March 2007, Eyes of Achaemenid Statues Found in Bolaghi Gorge. CHN, 12 April 2007, Initial Measures for Sivand Inundation Started. CHN, 21 July 2007, Darius Palace in Bolaghi Gorge to be Restored. International Committee to Save the Archaeological Sites of Pasargad: English, Persian. Mohammad Sālehi-Zādeh and Negār Sālehi-Zādeh, directors and producers, The last screams of Bolāghi Gorge and Pasargadae Plains ("Ākharin Faryād'ha'ye Tang-e ye Bolāghi va Dasht-e Pāsār'gād"), dedicated to International Committee to Save the Archaeological Sites of Pasargad, YouTube. Persepolis, Encyclopædia Britannica On-line. [2] Pasargad, Bam registered in World Heritage list, Payvand, January 7, 2005. [3] Heritage of the forgotten empire [4]. (This is a link to a commercial Air travelling company - may be removed.) Sivand Deutsches Archäologisches Institut (German Archaeological Institute), Iran: Darre-ye Bolāghi (in English). Kamyar Abdi, Sensationalism vs. Rationalism. The Sivand Dam: political sensationalism vs. archaeological rationalism, September 12, 2005, Iranian.com. Ali Mousavi, Cyrus can rest in peace. Pasargadae and rumors about the dangers of Sivand Dam, September 16, 2005, Iranian.com. Coordinates: 30°12′12″N 53°10′44″E / 30.2033°N 53.1790°E / 30.2033; 53.1790 v t e Persepolis Palace Tachara Gate of All Nations Other sections Tomb of Artaxerxes III builders Darius the Great Xerxes I Artaxerxes I of Persia Researchers Heidemarie Koch Erich Schmidt (archaeologist) Alireza Shapour Shahbazi Related Tangeh Bolaghi 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire Sivand Dam Persepolis Administrative Archives Waterskin Achaemenid architecture Category:Persepolis v t e Fars Province Capital Shiraz Counties and cities Abadeh County Abadeh Bahman Izadkhvast Soghad Surmaq Abadeh Tashk County Abadeh Tashk Arsanjan County Arsanjan Beyza County Beyza Bavanat County Surian Chenar Shahijan County Qaemiyeh Darab County Darab Jannat Shahr Eqlid County Eqlid Sedeh Estahban County Estahban Ij Runiz Evaz County Evaz Fishvar Farashband County Farashband Dehram Nujin Fasa County Fasa Now Bandegan Sheshdeh Zahedshahr Firuzabad County Firuzabad Meymand Gerash County Gerash Arad Jahrom County Jahrom Duzeh Qotbabad Kavar County Kavar Kazerun County Kazerun Baladeh Khesht Konartakhteh Nowdan Kharameh County Kharameh Khonj County Khonj Khorrambid County Safashahr Qaderabad Lamerd County Lamerd Ahel Alamarvdasht Eshkanan Larestan County Lar Beyram Banaruiyeh Juyom Khur Latifi Mamasani County Nurabad Khumeh Zar Marvdasht County Marvdasht Kamfiruz Ramjerd Seyyedan Mohr County Mohr Asir Galleh Dar Varavi Neyriz County Neyriz Meshkan Qatruyeh Pasargad County Saadat Shahr Qir and Karzin County Qir Efzar Karzin Rostam County Masiri Sarchehan County Korehi Sarvestan County Sarvestan Sepidan County Ardakan Hamashahr Zarqan County Lapui Zarqan Shiraz County Shiraz Darian Zarrin Dasht County Hajjiabad Dowbaran Shahr-e Pir Khafr County Bab Anar Khavaran Landmarks Afif-Abad Garden Amir's dam Arg of Karim Khan Barmdelak lagoon Bishapur Delgosha Garden Eram Garden Istakhr Ghal'eh Dokhtar Ka'ba-ye Zartosht Kazerun fire temple Lake Parishan Naqsh-e Rajab Naqsh-e Rustam Palace of Ardashir Sangtarashan cave Pars Museum Pasargadae Persepolis Qavam House Qur'an Gate Saadi's mausoleum Sarvestan Sassanian palace Shah Cheragh Colossal Statue of Shapur I in Shapur cave Tangeh Bolaghi Hāfezieh Tounbbot Vakil Bath Vakil Bazaar Vakil Mosque Populated places List of cities, towns and villages in Fars Province Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tangeh_Bolaghi&oldid=996268894" Categories: Archaeological sites in Iran Architecture of Iran Geography of Fars Province Hidden categories: Articles containing Persian-language text Coordinates on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages فارسی Zazaki Edit links This page was last edited on 25 December 2020, at 15:00 (UTC). 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en-wikisource-org-3301	----	1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Xerxes - Wikisource, the free online library 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Xerxes From Wikisource < 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Jump to navigation Jump to search ←Xenophon 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume 28 Xerxes by Eduard Meyer Xiphilinus, Joannes→ sister projects: Wikidata item. See also Xerxes I of Persia and Xerxes II of Persia on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer. 20358611911 Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume 28 — Xerxes ​ XERXES (the Greek form of the Pers. Khshayārshā; Old testament Ahasverus, Akhashverosh—i.e. Ahasuerus (q.v.)—with wrong vocalization and substitution of y for v, instead of Akhshavarsh; in Aramaic inscriptions and papyri from Egypt the name is written Khshai'arsh), the name of two Persian kings of the Achaemenid dynasty. 1. Xerxes I., son of Darius I. and Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus the Great, and therefore appointed successor to his father in preference to his eldest half-brothers, who were born before Darius had become king (Herod, vii. 2 f.). After his accession in October 485 B.C. he suppressed the revolt in Egypt which had broken out in 486, appointed his brother Achaemenes as satrap and “brought Egypt under a much heavier yoke than it had been before” (Herod, vii. 7). His predecessors, especially Darius, had not been successful in their attempts to conciliate the ancient civilizations. This probably was the reason why Xerxes in 484 abolished the “kingdom of Babel” and took away the golden statue of Bel (Marduk, Merodach), the hands of which the legitimate king of Babel had to seize on the first day of each year, and killed the priest who tried to hinder him.[1] Therefore Xerxes does not bear the title of “King of Babel” in the Babylonian documents dated from his reign, but “King of Persia and Media,” or simply “King of countries” (i.e. of the world). This proceeding led to two rebellions, probably in 484 and 479; in the Babylonian documents occur the names of two ephemeral kings, Shamash-irbā and Tarziya, who belong to this time. One of these rebellions was suppressed by Megabyzus, son of Zopyrus, the satrap whom the Babylonians had slain.[2] Darius had left to his son the task of punishing the Greeks for their interference in the Ionian rebellion and the victory of Marathon. From 483 Xerxes prepared his expedition with great care: a channel was dug through the isthmus of the peninsula of Mount Athos; provisions were stored in the stations on the road through Thrace; two bridges were thrown across the Hellespont. Xerxes concluded an alliance with Carthage, and thus deprived Greece of the support of the powerful monarchs of Syracuse and Agrigentum. Many smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians (“Medized”), especially Thessaly, Thebes and Argos. A large fleet and a numerous army were gathered. In the spring of 480 Xerxes set out from Sardis. At first Xerxes was victorious everywhere. The Greek fleet was beaten at Artemisium, Thermopylae stormed, Athens conquered, the Greeks driven back to their last line of defence at the Isthmus of Corinth and in the Bay of Salamis. But Xerxes was induced by the astute message of Themistocles (against the advice of Artemisia of Halicarnassus} to attack the Greek fleet under unfavourable conditions, instead of sending a part of his ships to the Peloponnesus and awaiting the dissolution of the Greek armament.[3] The battle of Salamis (28th of September 480) decided the war (see Salamis). Having lost his communication by sea with Asia, Xerxes was forced to retire to Sardis; the army which he left in Greece under Mardonius was in 479 beaten at Plataea (q.v.). The defeat of the Persians at Mycale roused the Greek cities of Asia. Of the later years of Xerxes little is known. He sent out Sataspes to attempt the circumnavigation of Africa (Herod, iv. 143), but the victory of the Greeks threw the empire into a state of languid torpor, from which it could not rise again. The king himself became involved in intrigues of the harem (cf. Herod, ix. 108 ff.—compare the late Jewish novel of Esther, in which a remembrance of the true character of the king is retained) and was much dependent upon courtiers and eunuchs. He left inscriptions at Persepolis, where he added a new palace to that of Darius, at Van in Armenia, and on Mount Elvend near Ecbatana; in these texts he merely copies the words of his father. In 465 he was murdered by his vizier Artabanus (q.v.), who raised Artaxerxes I. to the throne. 2. Xerxes II., son and successor of Artaxerxes I., was assassinated in 424 after a reign of forty-five days by his brother Secydianus or Sogdianus, who in his turn was murdered by Darius II. (q.v.). See Ctesias, Pers. 44; Diod. xii., 64, 71, and the chronographers; neither of the two ephemeral kings is mentioned in the canon of Ptolemy nor in the dates of Babylonian contracts of this time. The name Xerxes was also borne by a king of Armenia, killed about 212 B.C. by Antiochus the Great (Polyb. viii. 25; Johannes Antiochenus, p. 53; his name occurs on copper coins); and by a son of Mithradates the Great of Pontus (Appian, Mithr. 108, 117). (Ed. M.) ↑ Herod, i. 183, by Ctesias changed into a plundering of the tomb of Belitanas or Belus: cf. Aelian, Var. Hist. 13, 3; Aristobulus ap. Arrian vii. 17, 2, and Strabo xvi. p. 738. ↑ Ctesias, Pers. 22; his legendary history is transferred by Herodotus, iii. 150 ff., to the former rebellion against Darius. ↑ See G. B. Grundy, Great Persian War (1901), and in criticism W. W. Tarn, “The Fleet of Xerxes,” in Journal of Hellenic Studies (1908), 202-34; also Macan's notes on Herod, iv.-vi. (1895), and authorities for Plataea, Salamis. 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eo-wikipedia-org-9367	----	Kserkso la 1-a (Persio) - Vikipedio Kserkso la 1-a (Persio) El Vikipedio, la libera enciklopedio Salti al navigilo Salti al serĉilo Kserkso la 1-a King of the Kings Persona informo Naskiĝo en Irano Morto 1-an de decembro 2004 (2004-12-01) en Persio Mortigita de Artabanus of Persia [#] Tombo Irano [#] Religio Zaratuŝtrismo [#] Ŝtataneco Aĥemenida Imperio [#] Familio Dinastio Aĥemenida dinastio [#] Patro Dario la 1-a [#] Patrino Atosa [#] Gefratoj Artazostre • Gobryas • Arsames • Artobazanes • Ariamenes • Ariabignes • Abrocomes • Masistes • Aĥemeno de Egiptio • Arsamo [#] Edz(in)o Vasti • Amestris • Estero [#] Infanoj Artaĥŝaŝt • Amytis • Artabanus • Q3507242 • Histaspes • Darius • Rodoguna [#] Profesio Okupo ŝtatreprezentanto [#] [#] Fonto: Vikidatumoj v • d • r Kserkso la 1-a (naskiĝis en 519 a. K.; mortis en 465 a. K.) regis la Persan imperion. Li invadis Grekion kaj venkis batalon de ĉe Termopiloj, sed malvenkis la militon. Li estis de Aĥemenida dinastio. Vidu ankaŭ[redakti | redakti fonton] Grek-persaj militoj Batalo de Plateo Opero Serse de George Frideric Handel. Ĉi tiu artikolo ankoraŭ estas ĝermo pri biografio. Helpu al Vikipedio plilongigi ĝin. Se jam ekzistas alilingva samtema artikolo pli disvolvita, traduku kaj aldonu el ĝi (menciante la fonton). Elŝutita el "https://eo.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kserkso_la_1-a_(Persio)&oldid=7009315" Kategorioj: Naskiĝintoj en Irano Mortintoj en 2004 Regnestroj Persa imperio Kaŝita kategorio: Ĝermoj pri biografio Navigada menuo Personaj iloj Ne ensalutinta Diskuto Kontribuoj Krei konton Ensaluti Nomspacoj Artikolo Diskuto Variantoj Vidoj Legi Redakti Redakti fonton Vidi historion Pli Serĉi Navigado Ĉefpaĝo Komunuma portalo Diskutejo Aktualaĵoj Lastaj ŝanĝoj Novaj paĝoj Hazarda paĝo Helpo Donaci Iloj Ligiloj ĉi tien Rilataj ŝanĝoj Alŝuti dosieron Specialaj paĝoj Konstanta ligilo Informoj pri la paĝo Citi ĉi tiun artikolon Vikidatumoj‑ero Presi/elporti Krei libron Elŝuti kiel PDF Presebla versio En aliaj projektoj Vikimedia Komunejo En aliaj lingvoj Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Redakti ligilojn Ĉi tiu paĝo estis lastafoje redaktita je 20:26, 17 aŭg. 2020. La teksto disponeblas laŭ la permesilo Krea Komunaĵo Atribuite-Samkondiĉe 3.0 Neadaptita; eble aldonaj kondiĉoj aplikeblas. Vidu la uzkondiĉojn por detaloj. Regularo pri respekto de la privateco Pri Vikipedio Malgarantioj Poŝtelefona vido Programistoj Statistikoj Deklaro pri kuketoj 
es-wikipedia-org-2860	----	Jerjes I - Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre Jerjes I De Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre Ir a la navegación Ir a la búsqueda Para otros usos de este término, véase Jerjes (desambiguación). Jerjes I Gran Rey (Shah) de Persia Faraón de la Dinastía XXVII de Egipto Reinado Octubre de 486 a agosto de 465 a. C. (19 años) Predecesor Darío I Sucesor Artajerjes I Información personal Nacimiento 519 a. C. Persia Fallecimiento 465 a. C. (53 años) Persia Entierro Persia Familia Dinastía Aqueménida Padre Darío I el Grande Madre Atossa Consorte Amestris [editar datos en Wikidata] Jerjes I, también conocido como Jerjes el Grande en persa (خشایارشا/xšayāršā) (circa 519-465 a. C.), fue el quinto Gran Rey del Imperio aqueménida (486-465 a. C.), hijo de Darío I y de Atosa, hija de Ciro II el Grande. Su nombre Jerjes (también escrito Xerxes) es una transliteración al griego (Ξερξης, "Xerxēs") de su nombre persa tras su ascensión al trono, Jshāyār shāh, que significa "gobernador de héroes". En la Biblia se lo menciona como «Asuero» (אחשורש, Axashverosh, o Ahasuerus transliterado al griego), y se dice que reinó desde la India hasta Cus (Etiopía).[1]​[2]​ Índice 1 Las revueltas de Egipto y Babilonia 2 La segunda guerra Médica 3 Últimos años 4 Muerte 5 Jerjes en la Biblia 6 Los hijos de Jerjes 7 Titulatura 8 Jerjes I en la filmografía 9 Véase también 10 Referencias 11 Bibliografía 12 Enlaces externos Las revueltas de Egipto y Babilonia[editar] Jerjes fue designado sucesor de Darío I por delante de todos sus hermanastros, mayores que él, y que nacieron antes de que Darío ascendiera al trono. Tras ser coronado en octubre de 486 a. C., se enfrentó victoriosamente a una rebelión en el Egipto sometido, que comenzó en 486 a. C.. Dejó a su hermano Aquemenes como sátrapa de esa región, sobre la cual ejerció un control represivo. Sus predecesores, especialmente su padre, no fueron muy afortunados en sus intentos de conciliar las antiguas civilizaciones sometidas con el gobierno persa. Esta fue probablemente la razón por la cual Jerjes abolió definitivamente el reino de Babilonia en 484 a. C., cuando también se llevó la estatua dorada de Bel (Marduk o Merodac, cuyas manos debían tocar el legítimo rey de Babilonia el primer día de cada año) y mató a los sacerdotes que trataban de impedírselo.[3]​ Por lo tanto, no aparece con el título de Rey de Babilonia en los textos babilónicos que datan de su reinado, pero sí con el de Rey de Persia y Media, o simplemente Rey de naciones (equivalente a Rey del mundo). Este proceder desencadenó dos rebeliones, en 484 a. C. y en 479 a. C., que fueron sofocadas enérgicamente. La segunda guerra Médica[editar] Artículo principal: Segunda Guerra Médica Inscripción bilingüe de Jerjes I, en Persépolis. Una vez sofocadas todas las revueltas, y alentado por su primo Mardonio,[4]​ trató de vengar la derrota sufrida por su padre, Darío I, en la batalla de Maratón, durante la Primera Guerra Médica (490 a. C.). Darío no había podido castigar a los atenienses por su intromisión en la Revuelta jónica en Asia Menor, por lo que Jerjes planificó la operación de castigo y conquista con sumo cuidado (483 a. C.). Ya que una flota persa había naufragado en el año 492 a. C. al pie del monte Athos, mandó excavar el Canal de Jerjes a través del istmo que comunicaba la Península Calcídica, donde está el Monte Athos, con el continente europeo;[5]​ se almacenaron provisiones en escalas a lo largo de la ruta que recorría Tracia y se erigieron dos puentes que atravesaban el Helesponto. Jerjes concluyó una alianza con Cartago, lo cual privó a los griegos helénicos del apoyo de los griegos sicilianos de Agrigento y Siracusa, a la vez que consiguió ganar para la causa persa a varios Estados griegos, como Tesalia, Macedonia, Tebas y Argos. Los persas lograron reunir para la ocasión una gran flota (la mayoría de las naves procedían de sus vasallos fenicios y chipriotas) y un poderoso ejército. En relación al número de efectivos, podemos mencionar lo siguiente extraído del libro VII de Heródoto: "No puedo en verdad decir detalladamente el número de gente que cada nación presentó, no hallando hombre alguno que de él me informe. El grueso de todo el ejército en la reseña ascendió a un millón y setecientos mil hombres; el modo de contarlos fue singular: juntaron en un sitio determinado diez mil hombres apiñados entre sí lo más que fue posible y tiraron después una línea alrededor de dicho sitio, sobre la cual levantaron una pared alrededor, alta hasta el ombligo de un hombre. Salidos los primeros diez mil, fueron después metiendo otros dentro del cerco, hasta que así acabaron de contarlos a todos, y contados ya, los fueron separando y ordenando por naciones". Heródoto, Historia VII, 60,1) De esta forma, en la primavera del año 480 a. C., Jerjes abandonó Sardes al frente de su ejército, desencadenando así la Segunda Guerra Médica contra la alianza griega de Atenas y Esparta. En principio el ejército persa consiguió importantes victorias: la flota griega fue rechazada en el cabo Artemisio, y tras la victoria sobre Leónidas I de Esparta y sus 300 hombres en el desfiladero de las Termópilas,[6]​ los persas devastaron Beocia y el Ática, llegando hasta Atenas. La ciudad había sido evacuada previamente por orden de Temístocles, refugiándose sus habitantes en las islas cercanas, de manera que el ejército persa solo tuvo que enfrentarse a la guarnición de la Acrópolis, saqueando a continuación la ciudad e incendiando y arrasando los templos de la Acrópolis, mientras las fuerzas espartanas y atenienses establecían su última línea de resistencia en el istmo de Corinto y el golfo Sarónico. Sin embargo, Jerjes fue engañado por un astuto mensaje de Temístocles, llevado por un falso esclavo huido del campo griego, en el que animaba a los persas a atacar cuanto antes.[7]​ De opinión en contra fue la advertencia de Artemisia de Halicarnaso), reina aliada de Jerjes, que estimaba perjudicial atacar a la flota griega bajo condiciones adversas, en lugar de enviar parte de sus barcos al Peloponeso y esperar simplemente la disolución del ejército griego tras un prolongado asedio.[8]​ La batalla naval librada en Salamina (480 a. C.), donde la flota griega se había refugiado en el golfo entre el Ática y la isla de Salamina, fue ganada por los griegos. Interrumpidas las líneas de suministro marítimas con Asia Menor, Jerjes decidió retornar a Sardes, mientras para los griegos la victoria supuso un respiro y les dio la posibilidad de reorganizarse en busca de una batalla decisiva.[9]​[10]​ Así, el ejército que Jerjes dejó en Grecia al mando de Mardonio fue derrotado en 479 a. C. en Platea. La posterior derrota persa en Mícala, al norte de Mileto, supuso la libertad de las ciudades griegas de Asia Menor y la renuncia de Jerjes a las mismas, dejando de entrometerse en la política griega. Según narra Heródoto, las motivaciones de Jerjes para efectuar la expedición de conquista contra los griegos eran dos: el castigo del apoyo militar que los atenienses habían dado a la sublevación jonia y la consecución de una monarquía universal sometida al dominio persa.[11]​[12]​ Un hecho a resaltar es que Jerjes no combatió contra todos los griegos, ni contra Grecia entendida como país (ya que el país de Grecia era inexistente; solo existían las polis), sino contra una alianza de ciudades griegas, contra la cual consiguió la ayuda de otras ciudades griegas de la propia Hélade, no interesadas en un frente común, bien por no sentirse amenazadas por los persas, o por haberse aliado con estos, abiertamente o en secreto, como fue el caso de los príncipes de Tesalia, de Argos, enemiga jurada de Esparta, o de los aqueos del norte del Peloponeso, no interesados en ninguna guerra.[13]​ Últimos años[editar] De los últimos años del reinado de Jerjes poco se sabe. Se conoce que envió a sátrapas a intentar la circunnavegación de África, pero la victoria de los griegos en la Segunda Guerra Médica supuso la paulatina inmersión del Imperio aqueménida en un estado de apatía, de la cual no volvería a despertar. El mismo rey se vio involucrado en varias intrigas palaciegas, dependiendo en exceso de sus cortesanos y eunucos. Tumba excavada en roca, en Naqsh-e Rustam, al norte de Persépolis, que se asume como de Jerjes. Después de los errores militares cometidos en Grecia, volvió a Persia. Allí supervisó la finalización de muchos proyectos iniciados por su padre en Susa y Persépolis, como la Puerta de las Naciones y la Sala de las cien columnas, en Persépolis, que son las estructuras más grandes e impactantes del palacio. También la conclusión de la Apadana del palacio de Darío, y el Tesoro, ambos empezados por Darío, y su propio palacio, que alcanzó el doble de tamaño del de su padre. Su gusto arquitectónico era similar al de Darío, aunque a una escala todavía más gigantesca.[14]​ Dejó varias inscripciones: en Van (Armenia), en el Monte Elvend (cerca de Ecbatana) y en Persépolis. En todos esos textos simplemente recogió las palabras de su padre. Muerte[editar] En 465 a. C., Jerjes fue asesinado por Artabano, comandante de la guardia real y el más poderoso funcionario de la corte persa. Aunque Artabano llevaba el mismo nombre que el famoso tío de Jerjes, su ascenso se debió a su popularidad en los sectores religiosos de la corte y a intrigas del harén. Ideó un plan para destronar a los aqueménidas y colocó a sus siete hijos en posiciones clave del gobierno.[15]​ Aunque existe una contradicción: en el año 475 a. C., Artabano lideró junto al eunuco Aspamitres (o Mitrídates) la conspiración que asesinó a Jerjes. Artabano inculpó a Darío, primogénito del rey, el cual fue ejecutado por el segundo hijo, el futuro rey Artajerjes I. Enterado del engaño por medio de Megabizo, Artajerjes derrotó y dio muerte a Artabano, para luego defender su pretensión al trono frente a Histaspes, su hermano menor. El 4 de agosto de este año, Artabano asesinó a Jerjes[16]​ con la ayuda de un eunuco llamado Aspamitres. Los historiadores griegos dan versiones contradictorias sobre el suceso. Según Ctesias (en Persica 20), Artabano acusó del asesinato al príncipe heredero, Darío, primogénito de Jerjes, y persuadió a otro de los hijos de Jerjes, Artajerjes, a vengar el parricidio, matando a Darío. Pero según Aristóteles (en Política 5-1311b), Artabano mató primero a Darío y luego a Jerjes. Cuando Artajerjes descubrió los asesinatos, mató a Artabano y a sus hijos.[17]​ En estas intrigas participó el general Megabizo, cuya decisión de cambiar de bando probablemente salvó a los aqueménidas de perder el trono persa.[18]​ Jerjes en la Biblia[editar] En el libro bíblico de Ester, se menciona a Jerjes con el nombre Asuero —Aḥashverosh (Ahasuerus en griego, אֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹשׁ en hebreo)—.[1]​[2]​ Durante su reinado, y también en el de su antecesor (Darío I) y en el de su sucesor (Artajerjes I), muchos samaritanos pidieron ayuda al rey de Persia con acusaciones contra los judíos. Igualmente se indica que Asuero repudió a su reina consorte Vasti, debido a que ella se negó a obedecer su orden de aparecer como reina del imperio en una fiesta que el rey había organizado para mostrar las riquezas y poderío de su reino. Según las usanzas persas, tal comportamiento por parte de la reina debía ser castigado con su inmediata destitución. Una vez hecho esto, el rey debía elegir para sí una reina, por lo que después de reunir a un considerable número de muchachas vírgenes de todo el imperio, Asuero escogió finalmente a Ester, cuyo origen judío había ocultado hasta al mismo rey. Hamán, el agagueo, ministro del rey y proveniente de un pueblo que había sido destruido por Israel obedeciendo el mandato de Dios, aprovechó un disgusto personal con un judío de nombre Mardoqueo (primo[19]​ y tutor de Ester), ya que este rehusaba inclinarse ante él, para convencer al rey Asuero de ordenar por decreto la destrucción del pueblo judío por no seguir sus mandatos. Tal decreto fue publicado. Sin embargo, la reina Ester, aconsejada por su primo[19]​ Mardoqueo, halló gracia ante su esposo (el rey Asuero), y logró intervenir en favor de su pueblo al desvelarle a él su identidad judía y dejar al descubierto la trama de Hamán. Como los decretos del rey eran irrevocables, hubo de publicarse un nuevo decreto, dando al pueblo judío el derecho a defenderse de sus atacantes. En su obra Antigüedades de los Judíos, Flavio Josefo sugiere que esta historia es real, y que tanto Ester como Vasti fueron personajes que existieron realmente. Pero Heródoto, por su parte, señaló que la reina consorte de Jerjes era Amestris, la hija de Ótanes. Vasija con escritura cuneiforme y jeroglífica del nombre de Jerjes. Los hijos de Jerjes[editar] De Amestris[20]​ Amitis, esposa de Megabizo. El futuro rey Artajerjes I (465/464 - 424 a. C.). Darío, el primogénito, asesinado por su hermano Artajerjes a instigación de Artabano (c. 465 a. C.). Histaspes, tal vez sátrapa de Bactriana, asesinado por Artajerjes (c. 465 a. C.). Rodoguna De madres desconocidas Aquemenes, según Ctesias. No obstante, Heródoto comenta que es hijo de Darío y hermano de Jerjes. Artario, futuro sátrapa de Babilonia, padre de Menostanes. Titraustes Ratahshah Titulatura[editar] Titulatura Jeroglífico Transliteración (transcripción) - traducción - (referencias) Nombre de Sa-Ra: ḫšyrš (Jeshyresh) Jerjes Jerjes I en la filmografía[editar] David Farrar interpreta a Jerjes en la película Los trescientos espartanos (The 300 spartans, 1962), también traducida como El león de Esparta, y dirigida por Rudolph Maté. Richard Egan interpreta al rey persa Asuero (Jerjes) en la película Esther y el rey (Esther and the King) dirigida por Raoul Walsh y Mario Bava en 1960. Rodrigo Santoro interpreta al rey persa en la película 300 (2007) dirigida por Zack Snyder. Y también en su secuela 300: Rise of an Empire (2014) dirigida por Noam Murro. Luke Goss interpreta a Jerjes I en la película One night with the king (2006), basada en el libro homónimo de Tommy Tenney. Véase también[editar] Guerras Médicas Reyes de Persia Dinastía aqueménida Referencias[editar] ↑ a b Esdras 4:6 ↑ a b Ester 1:1 ↑ «El persa Jerjes I». La Factoria Historica. 10 de agosto de 2011. Consultado el 13 de noviembre de 2018.  ↑ [según Heródoto, en Historia VII, 5, 1] ↑ H.Bengtson. El mundo mediterráneo en la edad antigua. Griegos y persas, p.43 ↑ H. Bengtson. Obra citada, p.47 ↑ H. Bengtson. Obra citada, p. 52 ↑ Heródoto VIII,68. ↑ VV.AA. Historia de la Grecia Antigua, p.196. Salamanca: Universidad de Salamanca, 1998. ISBN 84-7481-889-3. ↑ Gonzalo Bravo, Historia del mundo antiguo, p.248, Madrid: Alianza (2008), ISBN 978-84-206-8272-3. ↑ César Sierra Martín, Fundamentos médico-filosóficos en los discursos histórico-políticos en la Grecia antigua, p.31, tesis doctoral, Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona (2012). ↑ Heródoto VII,8. ↑ H. Bengtson Obra citada, p.44 ↑ Ghirshman, Iran, p.172 ↑ Iran-e-Bastan/Pirnia book 1 p 873 ↑ M. W. Stolper, "Late Achaemenid Chronology", en NABU 1999-6 (Achemenet.com > Resources > Publications en ligne > NABU). ↑ Dandamayev ↑ History of Persian Empire-Olmstead p 289/90 ↑ a b Ester 2:5-7 ↑ Para esta sección, véase M. Brosius, Woman in Ancient Persia, Clarendon Press, 1998. Bibliografía[editar] Hermann Bengtson. El mundo mediterráneo en la edad antigua. Griegos y persas. Historia universal siglo XXI. 1985- ISBN 84-323-0070-5 Enlaces externos[editar] Wikimedia Commons alberga una categoría multimedia sobre Jerjes I. Inscripciones de Jerjes: del harén y Daiva - traducción castellana Inscripciones reeales Aqueménidas - traducción inglesa Predecesor: Darío I el Grande Gran Rey (Shah) de Persia 486 a. C. - 466 a. C. Sucesor: Artajerjes I Predecesor: Darío I el Grande Faraón de la Dinastía XXVII de Egipto 486 a. C. - 466 a. C. Sucesor: Artajerjes I Control de autoridades Proyectos Wikimedia Datos: Q129165 Multimedia: Xerxes I Identificadores WorldCat VIAF: 282770127 ISNI: 0000 0000 6300 8852 BNE: XX1153338 BNF: 150689088 (data) CANTIC: a12318310 GND: 118808109 LCCN: n81070675 NKC: mzk2005313022 NLA: 66228176 SUDOC: 050588400 ULAN: 500354810 UB: a1383222 Diccionarios y enciclopedias Britannica: url Datos: Q129165 Multimedia: Xerxes I Obtenido de «https://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jerjes_I&oldid=132558911» Categorías: Hombres Nacidos en año desconocido Fallecidos en 465 a. C. Faraones Dinastía XXVII Reyes del Imperio aqueménida Monarcas asesinados Reyes del siglo V a. C. Personas de las guerras médicas Iraníes del siglo V a. C. 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en-wikisource-org-4513	----	The History of Herodotus (Rawlinson)/Book 6 - Wikisource, the free online library The History of Herodotus (Rawlinson)/Book 6 From Wikisource < The History of Herodotus (Rawlinson)(Redirected from History of Herodotus/Book 6) Jump to navigation Jump to search ←Book 5 The History of Herodotus (Rawlinson) by Herodotus The Sixth Book, Entitled Erato Book 7→ 139736The History of Herodotus (Rawlinson) — The Sixth Book, Entitled EratoHerodotus Aristagoras, the author of the Ionian revolt, perished in the way which I have described. Meanwhile Histiaeus, tyrant of Miletus, who had been allowed by Darius to leave Susa, came down to Sardis. On his arrival, being asked by Artaphernes, the Sardian satrap, what he thought was the reason that the Ionians had rebelled, he made answer that he could not conceive, and it had astonished him greatly, pretending to be quite unconscious of the whole business. Artaphernes, however, who perceived that he was dealing dishonestly, and who had in fact full knowledge of the whole history of the outbreak, said to him, "I will tell thee how the case stands, Histiaeus: this shoe is of thy stitching; Aristagoras has but put it on." Such was the remark made by Artaphernes concerning the rebellion. Histiaeus, alarmed at the knowledge which he displayed, so soon as night fell, fled away to the coast. Thus he forfeited his word to Darius; for though he had pledged himself to bring Sardinia, the biggest island in the whole world, under the Persian yoke, he in reality sought to obtain the direction of the war against the king. Crossing over to Chios, he was there laid in bonds by the inhabitants, who accused him of intending some mischief against them in the interest of Darius. However, when the whole truth was laid before them, and they found that Histiaeus was in reality a foe to the king, they forthwith set him at large again. After this the Ionians inquired of him for what reason he had so strongly urged Aristagoras to revolt from the king, thereby doing their nation so ill a service. In reply, he took good care not to disclose to them the real cause, but told them that King Darius had intended to remove the Phoenicians from their own country, and place them in Ionia, while he planted the Ionians in Phoenicia, and that it was for this reason he sent Aristagoras the order. Now it was not true that the king had entertained any such intention, but Histiaeus succeeded hereby in arousing the fears of the Ionians. After this, Histiaeus, by means of a certain Hermippus, a native of Atarneus, sent letters to many of the Persians in Sardis, who had before held some discourse with him concerning a revolt. Hermippus, however, instead of conveying them to the persons to whom they were addressed, delivered them into the hands of Artaphernes, who, perceiving what was on foot, commanded Hermippus to deliver the letters according to their addresses, and then bring him back the answers which were sent to Histiaeus. The traitors being in this way discovered, Artaphernes put a number of Persians to death, and caused a commotion in Sardis. As for Histiaeus, when his hopes in this matter were disappointed, he persuaded the Chians to carry him back to Miletus; but the Milesians were too well pleased at having got quit of Aristagoras to be anxious to receive another tyrant into their country; besides which they had now tasted liberty. They therefore opposed his return; and when he endeavoured to force an entrance during the night, one of the inhabitants even wounded him in the thigh. Having been thus rejected from his country, he went back to Chios; whence, after failing in an attempt to induce the Chians to give him ships, he crossed over to Mytilene, where he succeeded in obtaining vessels from the Lesbians. They fitted out a squadron of eight triremes, and sailed with him to the Hellespont, where they took up their station, and proceeded to seize all the vessels which passed out from the Euxine, unless the crews declared themselves ready to obey his orders. While Histiaeus and the Mytilenaeans were thus employed, Miletus was expecting an attack from a vast armament, which comprised both a fleet and also a land force. The Persian captains had drawn their several detachments together, and formed them into a single army; and had resolved to pass over all the other cities, which they regarded as of lesser account, and to march straight on Miletus. Of the naval states, Phoenicia showed the greatest zeal; but the fleet was composed likewise of the Cyprians (who had so lately been brought under), the Cilicians, and also the Egyptians. While the Persians were thus making preparations against Miletus and Ionia, the Ionians, informed of their intent, sent their deputies to the Panionium, and held a council upon the posture of their affairs. Hereat it was determined that no land force should be collected to oppose the Persians, but that the Milesians should be left to defend their own walls as they could; at the same time they agreed that the whole naval force of the states, not excepting a single ship, should be equipped, and should muster at Lade, a small island lying off Miletus- to give battle on behalf of the place. Presently the Ionians began to assemble in their ships, and with them came the Aeolians of Lesbos; and in this way they marshalled their line:- The wing towards the east was formed of the Milesians themselves, who furnished eighty ships; next to them came the Prienians with twelve, and the Myusians with three ships; after the Myusians were stationed the Teians, whose ships were seventeen; then the Chians, who furnished a hundred. The Erythraeans and Phocaeans followed, the former with eight, the latter with three ships; beyond the Phocaeans were the Lesbians, furnishing seventy; last of all came the Samians, forming the western wing, and furnishing sixty vessels. The fleet amounted in all to three hundred and fifty-three triremes. Such was the number on the Ionian side. On the side of the barbarians the number of vessels was six hundred. These assembled off the coast of Milesia, while the land army collected upon the shore; but the leaders, learning the strength of the Ionian fleet, began to fear lest they might fail to defeat them, in which case, not having the mastery at sea, they would be unable to reduce Miletus, and might in consequence receive rough treatment at the hands of Darius. So when they thought of all these things, they resolved on the following course:- Calling together the Ionian tyrants, who had fled to the Medes for refuge when Aristagoras deposed them from their governments, and who were now in camp, having joined in the expedition against Miletus, the Persians addressed them thus: "Men of Ionia, now is the fit time to show your zeal for the house of the king. Use your best efforts, every one of you, to detach your fellow-countrymen from the general body. Hold forth to them the promise that, if they submit, no harm shall happen to them on account of their rebellion; their temples shall not be burnt, nor any of their private buildings; neither shall they be treated with greater harshness than before the outbreak. But if they refuse to yield, and determine to try the chance of a battle, threaten them with the fate which shall assuredly overtake them in that case. Tell them, when they are vanquished in fight, they shall be enslaved; their boys shall be made eunuchs, and their maidens transported to Bactra; while their country shall be delivered into the hands of foreigners." Thus spake the Persians. The Ionian tyrants sent accordingly by night to their respective citizens, and reported the words of the Persians; but the people were all staunch, and refused to betray their countrymen, those of each state thinking that they alone had had made to them. Now these events happened on the first appearance of the Persians before Miletus. Afterwards, while the Ionian fleet was still assembled at Lade, councils were held, and speeches made by divers persons- among the rest by Dionysius, the Phocaean captain, who thus expressed himself:- "Our affairs hang on the razor's edge, men of Ionia, either to be free or to be slaves; and slaves, too, who have shown themselves runaways. Now then you have to choose whether you will endure hardships, and so for the present lead a life of toil, but thereby gain ability to overcome your enemies and establish your own freedom; or whether you will persist in this slothfulness and disorder, in which case I see no hope of your escaping the king's vengeance for your rebellion. I beseech you, be persuaded by me, and trust yourselves to my guidance. Then, if the gods only hold the balance fairly between us, I undertake to say that our foes will either decline a battle, or, if they fight, suffer complete discomfiture." These words prevailed with the Ionians, and forthwith they committed themselves to Dionysius; whereupon he proceeded every day to make the ships move in column, and the rowers ply their oars, and exercise themselves in breaking the line; while the marines were held under arms, and the vessels were kept, till evening fell, upon their anchors, so that the men had nothing but toil from morning even to night. Seven days did the Ionians continue obedient, and do whatsoever he bade them; but on the eighth day, worn out by the hardness of the work and the heat of the sun, and quite unaccustomed to such fatigues, they began to confer together, and to say one to another, "What god have we offended to bring upon ourselves such a punishment as this? Fools and distracted that we were, to put ourselves into the hands of this Phocaean braggart, who does but furnish three ships to the fleet! He, now that he has got us, plagues us in the most desperate fashion; many of us, in consequence, have fallen sick already- many more expect to follow. We had better suffer anything rather than these hardships; even the slavery with which we are threatened, however harsh, can be no worse than our present thraldom. Come, let us refuse him obedience." So saying, they forthwith ceased to obey his orders, and pitched their tents, as if they had been soldiers, upon the island, where they reposed under the shade all day, and refused to go aboard the ships and train themselves. Now when the Samian captains perceived what was taking place, they were more inclined than before to accept the terms which Aeaces, the son of Syloson, had been authorised by the Persians to offer them, on condition of their deserting from the confederacy. For they saw that all was disorder among the Ionians, and they felt also that it was hopeless to contend with the power of the king; since if they defeated the fleet which had been sent against them, they knew that another would come five times as great. So they took advantage of the occasion which now offered, and as soon as ever they saw the Ionians refuse to work, hastened gladly to provide for the safety of their temples and their properties. This Aeaces, who made the overtures to the Samians, was the son of Syloson, and grandson of the earlier Aeaces. He had formerly been tyrant of Samos, but was ousted from his government by Aristagoras the Milesian, at the same time with the other tyrants of the Ionians. The Phoenicians soon afterwards sailed to the attack; and the Ionians likewise put themselves in line, and went out to meet them. When they had now neared one another, and joined battle, which of the Ionians fought like brave men and which like cowards, I cannot declare with any certainty, for charges are brought on all sides; but the tale goes that the Samians, according to the agreement which they had made with Aeaces, hoisted sail, and quitting their post bore away for Samos, except eleven ships, whose captains gave no heed to the orders of the commanders, but remained and took part in the battle. The state of Samos, in consideration of this action, granted to these men, as an acknowledgment of their bravery, the honour of having their names, and the names of their fathers, inscribed upon a pillar, which still stands in the market-place. The Lesbians also, when they saw the Samians, who were drawn up next them, begin to flee, themselves did the like; and the example, once set, was followed by the greater number of the Ionians. Of those who remained and fought, none were so rudely handled as the Chians, who displayed prodigies of valour, and disdained to play the part of cowards. They furnished to the common fleet, as I mentioned above, one hundred ships, having each of them forty armed citizens, and those picked men, on board; and when they saw the greater portion of the allies betraying the common cause, they for their part, scorning to imitate the base conduct of these traitors, although they were left almost alone and unsupported, a very few friends continuing to stand by them, notwithstanding went on with the fight, and ofttimes cut the line of the enemy, until at last, after they had taken very many of their adversaries' ships, they ended by losing more than half of their own. Hereupon, with the remainder of their vessels, the Chians fled away to their own country. As for such of their ships as were damaged and disabled, these, being pursued by the enemy, made straight for Mycale, where the crews ran them ashore, and abandoning them began their march along the continent. Happening in their way upon the territory of Ephesus, they essayed to cross it; but here a dire misfortune befell them. It was night, and the Ephesian women chanced to be engaged in celebrating the Thesmophoria- the previous calamity of the Chians had not been heard of- so when the Ephesians saw their country invaded by an armed band, they made no question of the new-comers being robbers who purposed to carry off their women; and accordingly they marched out against them in full force, and slew them all. Such were the misfortunes which befell them of Chios. Dionysius, the Phocaean, when he perceived that all was lost, having first captured three ships from the enemy, himself took to flight. He would not, however, return to Phocaea, which he well knew must fall again, like the rest of Ionia, under the Persian yoke; but straightway, as he was, he set sail for Phoenicia, and there sunk a number of merchantmen, and gained a great booty; after which he directed his course to Sicily, where he established himself as a corsair, and plundered the Carthaginians and Tyrrhenians, but did no harm to the Greeks. The Persians, when they had vanquished the Ionians in the sea-fight, besieged Miletus both by land and sea, driving mines under the walls, and making use of every known device, until at length they took both the citadel and the town, six years from the time when the revolt first broke out under Aristagoras. All the inhabitants of the city they reduced to slavery, and thus the event tallied with the announcement which had been made by the oracle. For once upon a time, when the Argives had sent to Delphi to consult the god about the safety of their own city, a prophecy was given them, in which others besides themselves were interested; for while it bore in part upon the fortunes of Argos, it touched in a by-clause the fate of the men of Miletus. I shall set down the portion which concerned the Argives when I come to that part of my History, mentioning at present only the passage in which the absent Milesians were spoken of. This passage was as follows:- Then shalt thou, Miletus, so oft the contriver of evil, Be, thyself, to many a least and an excellent booty: Then shall thy matrons wash the feet of long-haired masters- Others shall then possess our lov'd Didymian temple. Such a fate now befell the Milesians; for the Persians, who wore their hair long, after killing most of the men, made the women and children slaves; and the sanctuary at Didyma, the oracle no less than the temple was plundered and burnt; of the riches whereof I have made frequent mention in other parts of my History. Those of the Milesians whose lives were spared, being carried prisoners to Susa, received no ill treatment at the hands of King Darius, but were established by him in Ampe, a city on the shores of the Erythraean sea, near the spot where the Tigris flows into it. Miletus itself, and the plain about the city, were kept by the Persians for themselves, while the hill-country was assigned to the Carians of Pedasus. And now the Sybarites, who after the loss of their city occupied Laus and Scidrus, failed duly to return the former kindness of the Milesians. For these last, when Sybaris was taken by the Crotoniats, made a great mourning, all of them, youths as well as men, shaving their heads; since Miletus and Sybaris were, of all the cities whereof we have any knowledge, the two most closely united to one another. The Athenians, on the other hand, showed themselves beyond measure afflicted at the fall of Miletus, in many ways expressing their sympathy, and especially by their treatment of Phrynichus. For when this poet brought out upon the stage his drama of the Capture of Miletus, the whole theatre burst into tears; and the people sentenced him to pay a fine of a thousand drachms, for recalling to them their own misfortunes. They likewise made a law that no one should ever again exhibit that piece. Thus was Miletus bereft of its inhabitants. In Samos the people of the richer sort were much displeased with the doings of the captains, and the dealings they had had the Medes; they therefore held a council, very shortly after the sea-fight, and resolved that they would not remain to become the slaves of Aeaces and the Persians, but before the tyrant set foot in their country, would sail away and found a colony in another land. Now it chanced that about this time the Zanclaeans of Sicily had sent ambassadors to the Ionians, and invited them to Kale-Acte where they wished an Ionian city to be founded. This place, Kale-Acte (or the Fair Strand) as it is called, is in the country of the Sicilians, and is situated in the part of Sicily which looks towards Tyrrhenia. The offer thus made to all the Ionians was embraced only by the Samians, and by such of the Milesians as had contrived to effect their escape. Hereupon this is what ensued. The Samians on their voyage reached the country of the Epizephyrian Locrians, at a time when the Zanclaeans and their king Scythas were engaged in the siege of a Sicilian town which they hoped to take. Anaxilaus, tyrant of Rhegium, who was on ill terms with the Zanclaeans knowing how matters stood, made application to the Samians, and persuaded them to give up the thought of Kale-Acte the place to which they were bound, and to seize Zancle itself, which was left without men. The Samians followed this counsel and possessed themselves of the town; which the Zanclaeans no sooner heard than they hurried to the rescue, calling to their aid Hippocrates, tyrant of Gela, who was one of their allies. Hippocrates came with his army to their assistance; but on his arrival he seized Scythas, the Zanclaean king, who had just lost his city, and sent him away in chains, together with his brother Pythogenes, to the town of Inycus; after which he came to an understanding with the Samians, exchanged oaths with them, and agreed to betray the people of Zancle. The reward of his treachery was to be one-half of the goods and chattels, including slaves, which the town contained, and all that he could find in the open country. Upon this Hippocrates seized and bound the greater number of the Zanclaeans as slaves; delivering, however, into the hands of the Samians three hundred of the principal citizens, to be slaughtered; but the Samians spared the lives of these persons. Scythas, the king of the Zanclaeans, made his escape from Inycus, and fled to Himera; whence he passed into Asia, and went up to the court of Darius. Darius thought him the most upright of all the Greeks to whom he afforded a refuge; for with the king's leave he paid a visit to Sicily, and thence returned back to Persia, where he lived in great comfort, and died by a natural death at an advanced age. Thus did the Samians escape the yoke of the Medes, and possess themselves without any trouble of Zancle, a most beautiful city. At Samos itself the Phoenicians, after the fight which had Miletus for its prize was over, re-established Aeaces, the son of Syloson, upon his throne. This they did by the command of the Persians, who looked upon Aeaces as one who had rendered them a high service and therefore deserved well at their hands. They likewise spared the Samians, on account of the desertion of their vessels, and did not burn either their city or their temples, as they did those of the other rebels. Immediately after the fall of Miletus the Persians recovered Caria, bringing some of the cities over by force, while others submitted of their own accord. Meanwhile tidings of what had befallen Miletus reached Histiaeus the Milesian, who was still at Byzantium, employed in intercepting the Ionian merchantmen as they issued from the Euxine. Histiaeus had no sooner heard the news than he gave the Hellespont in charge to Bisaltes, son of Apollophanes, a native of Abydos, and himself, at the head of his Lesbians, set sail for Chios. One of the Chian garrisons which opposed him he engaged at a place called "The Hollows," situated in the Chian territory, and of these he slaughtered a vast number; afterwards, by the help of his Lesbians, he reduced all the rest of the Chians, who were weakened by their losses in the sea-fight, Polichne, a city of Chios, serving him as head-quarters. It mostly happens that there is some warning when great misfortunes are about to befall a state or nation; and so it was in this instance, for the Chians had previously had some strange tokens sent to them. A choir of a hundred of their youths had been despatched to Delphi; and of these only two had returned; the remaining ninety-eight having been carried off by a pestilence. Likewise, about the same time, and very shortly before the sea-fight, the roof of a school-house had fallen in upon a number of their boys, who were at lessons; and out of a hundred and twenty children there was but one left alive. Such were the signs which God sent to warn them. It was very shortly afterwards that the sea-fight happened, which brought the city down upon its knees; and after the sea-fight came the attack of Histiaeus and his Lesbians, to whom the Chians, weakened as they were, furnished an easy conquest. Histiaeus now led a numerous army, composed of Ionians and Aelians, against Thasos, and had laid siege to the place when news arrived that the Phoenicians were about to quit Miletus and attack the other cities of Ionia. On hearing this, Histiaeus raised the siege of Thasos, and hastened to Lesbos with all his forces. There his army was in great straits for want of food; whereupon Histiaeus left Lesbos and went across to the mainland, intending to cut the crops which were growing in the Atarnean territory, and likewise in the plain of the Caicus, which belonged to Mysia. Now it chanced that a certain Persian named Harpagus was in these regions at the head of an army of no little strength. He, when Histiaeus landed, marched out to meet him, and engaging with his forces destroyed the greater number of them, and took Histiaeus himself prisoner. Histiaeus fell into the hands of the Persians in the following manner. The Greeks and Persians engaged at Malena, in the region of Atarneus; and the battle was for a long time stoutly contested, till at length the cavalry came up, and, charging the Greeks, decided the conflict. The Greeks fled; and Histiaeus, who thought that Darius would not punish his fault with death, showed how he loved his life by the following conduct. Overtaken in his flight by one of the Persians, who was about to run him through, he cried aloud in the Persian tongue that he was Histiaeus the Milesian. Now, had he been taken straightway before King Darius, I verily believe that he would have received no hurt, but the king would have freely forgiven him. Artaphernes, however, satrap of Sardis, and his captor Harpagus, on this very account- because they were afraid that, if he escaped, he would be again received into high favour by the king- put him to death as soon as he arrived at Sardis. His body they impaled at that place, while they embalmed his head and sent it up to Susa to the king. Darius, when he learnt what had taken place, found great fault with the men engaged in this business for not bringing Histiaeus alive into his presence, and commanded his servants to wash and dress the head with all care, and then bury it, as the head of a man who had been a great benefactor to himself and the Persians. Such was the sequel of the history of Histiaeus. The naval armament of the Persians wintered at Miletus, and in the following year proceeded to attack the islands off the coast, Chios, Lesbos, and Tenedos, which were reduced without difficulty. Whenever they became masters of an island, the barbarians, in every single instance, netted the inhabitants. Now the mode in which they practise this netting is the following. Men join hands, so as to form a line across from the north coast to the south, and then march through the island from end to end and hunt out the inhabitants. In like manner the Persians took also the Ionian towns upon the mainland, not however netting the inhabitants, as it was not possible. And now their generals made good all the threats wherewith they had menaced the Ionians before the battle. For no sooner did they get possession of the towns than they choose out all the best favoured boys and made them eunuchs, while the most beautiful of the girls they tore from their homes and sent as presents to the king, at the same time burning the cities themselves, with their temples. Thus were the Ionians for the third time reduced to slavery; once by the Lydians, and a second, and now a third time, by the Persians. The sea force, after quitting Ionia, proceeded to the Hellespont, and took all the towns which lie on the left shore as one sails into the straits. For the cities on the right bank had already been reduced by the land force of the Persians. Now these are the places which border the Hellespont on the European side; the Chersonese, which contains a number of cities, Perinthus, the forts in Thrace, Selybria, and Byzantium. The Byzantines at this time, and their opposite neighbours, the Chalcedonians, instead of awaiting the coming of the Phoenicians, quitted their country, and sailing into the Euxine, took up their abode at the city of Mesembria. The Phoenicians, after burning all the places above mentioned, proceeded to Proconnresus and Artaca, which they likewise delivered to the flames; this done, they returned to the Chersonese, being minded to reduce those cities which they had not ravaged in their former cruise. Upon Cyzicus they made no attack at all, as before their coming the inhabitants had made terms with Oebares, the son of Megabazus, and satrap of Dascyleium, and had submitted themselves to the king. In the Chersonese the Phoenicians subdued all the cities, excepting Cardia. Up to this time the cities of the Chersonese had been under the government of Miltiades, the son of Cimon, and grandson of Stesagoras, to whom they had descended from Miltiades, the son of Cypselus, who obtained possession of them in the following manner. The Dolonci, a Thracian tribe, to whom the Chersonese at that time belonged, being harassed by a war in which they were engaged with the Apsinthians, sent their princes to Delphi to consult the oracle about the matter. The reply of the Pythoness bade them "take back with them as a colonist into their country the man who should first offer them hospitality after they quitted the temple." The Dolonci, following the Sacred Road, passed through the regions of Phocis and Boeotia; after which, as still no one invited them in, they turned aside, and travelled to Athens. Now Pisistratus was at this time sole lord of Athens; but Miltiades, the son of Cypselus, was likewise a person of much distinction. He belonged to a family which was wont to contend in the four-horse-chariot races, and traced its descent to Aeacus and Egina, but which, from the time of Philaeas, the son of Ajax, who was the first Athenian citizen of the house, had been naturalised at Athens. It happened that as the Dolonci passed his door Miltiades was sitting in his vestibule, which caused him to remark them, dressed as they were in outlandish garments, and armed moreover with lances. He therefore called to them, and, on their approach, invited them in, offering them lodging and entertainment. The strangers accepted his hospitality, and, after the banquet was over, they laid before him in full the directions of the oracle and besought him on their own part to yield obedience to the god. Miltiades was persuaded ere they had done speaking; for the government of Pisistratus was irksome to him, and he wanted to be beyond the tyrant's reach. He therefore went straightway to Delphi, and inquired of the oracle whether he should do as the Dolonci desired. As the Pythoness backed their request, Miltiades, son of Cypselus who had already won the four-horse chariot-race at Olympia, left Athens, taking with him as many of the Athenians as liked to join in the enterprise, and sailed away with the Dolonci. On his arrival at the Chersonese, he was made king by those who had invited him. After this his first act was to build a wall across the neck of the Chersonese from the city of Cardia to Pactya, to protect the country from the incursions and ravages of the Apsinthians. The breadth of the isthmus at this part is thirty-six furlongs, the whole length of the peninsula within the isthmus being four hundred and twenty furlongs. When he had finished carrying the wall across the isthmus, and had thus secured the Chersonese against the Apsinthians, Miltiades proceeded to engage in other wars, and first of all attacked the Lampsacenians; but falling into an ambush which they had laid he had the misfortune to be taken prisoner. Now it happened that Miltiades stood high in the favour of Croesus, king of Lydia. When Croesus therefore heard of his calamity, he sent and commanded the men of Lampsacus to give Miltiades his freedom; "if they refused," he said, "he would destroy them like a fir." Then the Lampsacenians were somewhile in doubt about this speech of Croesus, and could not tell how to construe his threat "that he would destroy them like a fir"; but at last one of their elders divined the true sense, and told them that the fir is the only tree which, when cut down, makes no fresh shoots, but forthwith dies outright. So the Lampsacenians, being greatly afraid of Croesus, released Miltiades, and let him go free. Thus did Miltiades, by the help of Croesus, escape this danger. Some time afterwards he died childless, leaving his kingdom and his riches to Stesagoras, who was the son of Cimon, his half-brother. Ever since his death the people of the Chersonese have offered him the customary sacrifices of a founder; and they have further established in his honour a gymnic contest and a chariot-race, in neither of which is it lawful for any Lampsacenian to contend. Before the war with Lampsacus was ended Stesagoras too died childless: he was sitting in the hall of justice when he was struck upon the head with a hatchet by a man who pretended to be a deserter, but was in good sooth an enemy, and a bitter one. Thus died Stesagoras; and upon his death the Pisistratidae fitted out a trireme, and sent Miltiades, the son of Cimon, and brother of the deceased, to the Chersonese, that he might undertake the management of affairs in that quarter. They had already shown him much favour at Athens, as if, forsooth, they had been no parties to the death of his father Cimon- a matter whereof I will give an account in another place. He upon his arrival remained shut up within the house, pretending to do honour to the memory of his dead brother; whereupon the chief people of the Chersonese gathered themselves together from all the cities of the land, and came in a procession to the place where Miltiades was, to condole with him upon his misfortune. Miltiades commanded them to be seized and thrown into prison; after which he made himself master of the Chersonese, maintained a body of five hundred mercenaries, and married Hegesipyla, daughter of the Thracian king Olorus. This Miltiades, the son of Cimon, had not been long in the country when a calamity befell him yet more grievous than those in which he was now involved: for three years earlier he had had to fly before an incursion of the Scyths. These nomads, angered by the attack of Darius, collected in a body and marched as far as the Chersonese. Miltiades did not await their coming, but fled, and remained away until the Scyths retired, when the Dolonci sent and fetched him back. All this happened three years before the events which befell Miltiades at the present time. He now no sooner heard that the Phoenicians were attacking Tenedos than he loaded five triremes with his goods and chattels, and set sail for Athens. Cardia was the point from which he took his departure; and as he sailed down the gulf of Melas, along the shore of the Chersonese, he came suddenly upon the whole Phoenician fleet. However he himself escaped, with four of his vessels, and got into Imbrus, one trireme only falling into the hands of his pursuers. This vessel was under the command of his eldest son Metiochus, whose mother was not the daughter of the Thracian king Olorus, but a different woman. Metiochus and his ship were taken; and when the Phoenicians found out that he was a son of Miltiades they resolved to convey him to the king, expecting thereby to rise high in the royal favour. For they remembered that it was Miltiades who counselled the Ionians to hearken when the Scyths prayed them to break up the bridge and return home. Darius, however, when the Phoenicians brought Metiochus into his presence, was so far from doing him any hurt, that he loaded him with benefits. He gave him a house and estate, and also a Persian wife, by whom there were children born to him who were accounted Persians. As for Miltiades himself, from Imbrus he made his way in safety to Athens. At this time the Persians did no more hurt to the Ionians; but on the contrary, before the year was out, they carried into effect the following measures, which were greatly to their advantage. Artaphernes, satrap of Sardis, summoned deputies from all the Ionian cities, and forced them to enter into agreements with one another, not to harass each other by force of arms, but to settle their disputes by reference. He likewise took the measurement of their whole country in parasangs- such is the name which the Persians give to a distance of thirty furlongs- and settled the tributes which the several cities were to pay, at a rate that has continued unaltered from the time when Artaphernes fixed it down to the present day. The rate was very nearly the same as that which had been paid before the revolt. Such were the peaceful dealings of the Persians with the Ionians. The next spring Darius superseded all the other generals, and sent down Mardonius, the son of Gobryas, to the coast, and with him a vast body of men, some fit for sea, others for land service. Mardonius was a youth at this time, and had only lately married Artazostra, the king's daughter. When Mardonius, accompanied by this numerous host, reached Cilicia, he took ship and proceeded along shore with his fleet, while the land army marched under other leaders towards the Hellespont. In the course of his voyage along the coast of Asia he came to Ionia; and here I have a marvel to relate which will greatly surprise those Greeks who cannot believe that Otanes advised the seven conspirators to make Persia a commonwealth. Mardonius put down all the despots throughout Ionia, and in lieu of them established democracies. Having so done, he hastened to the Hellespont, and when a vast multitude of ships had been brought together, and likewise a powerful land force, he conveyed his troops across the strait by means of his vessels, and proceeded through Europe against Eretria and Athens. At least these towns served as a pretext for the expedition, the real purpose of which was to subjugate as great a number as possible of the Grecian cities; and this became plain when the Thasians, who did not even lift a hand in their defence, were reduced by the sea force, while the land army added the Macedonians to the former slaves of the king. All the tribes on the hither side of Macedonia had been reduced previously. From Thasos the fleet stood across to the mainland, and sailed along shore to Acanthus, whence an attempt was made to double Mount Athos. But here a violent north wind sprang up, against which nothing could contend, and handled a large number of the ships with much rudeness, shattering them and driving them aground upon Athos. 'Tis said the number of the ships destroyed was little short of three hundred; and the men who perished were more than twenty thousand. For the sea about Athos abounds in monsters beyond all others; and so a portion were seized and devoured by these animals, while others were dashed violently against the rocks; some, who did not know how to swim, were engulfed; and some died of the cold. While thus it fared with the fleet, on land Mardonius and his army were attacked in their camp during the night by the Brygi, a tribe of Thracians; and here vast numbers of the Persians were slain, and even Mardonius himself received a wound. The Brygi, nevertheless, did not succeed in maintaining their own freedom: for Mardonius would not leave the country till he had subdued them and made them subjects of Persia. Still, though he brought them under the yoke, the blow which his land force had received at their hands, and the great damage done to his fleet off Athos, induced him to set out upon his retreat; and so this armament, having failed disgracefully, returned to Asia. The year after these events, Darius received information from certain neighbours of the Thasians that those islanders were making preparations for revolt; he therefore sent a herald, and bade them dismantle their walls, and bring all their ships to Abdera. The Thasians, at the time when Histiaeus the Milesian made his attack upon them, had resolved that, as their income was very great, they would apply their wealth to building ships of war, and surrounding their city with another and a stronger wall. Their revenue was derived partly from their possessions upon the mainland, partly from the mines which they owned. They were masters of the gold mines at Scapte-Hyle, the yearly produce of which amounted in all to eighty talents. Their mines in Thasos yielded less, but still were so far prolific that, besides being entirely free from land-tax, they had a surplus income, derived from the two sources of their territory on the main and their mines, in common years of two hundred, and in the best years of three hundred talents. I myself have seen the mines in question: by far the most curious of them are those which the Phoenicians discovered at the time when they went with Thasus and colonised the island, which afterwards took its name from him. These Phoenician workings are in Thasos itself, between Coenyra and a place called Aenyra, over against Samothrace: a huge mountain has been turned upside down in the search for ores. Such then was the source of their wealth. On this occasion no sooner did the Great King issue his commands than straightway the Thasians dismantled their wall, and took their whole fleet to Abdera. After this Darius resolved to prove the Greeks, and try the bent of their minds, whether they were inclined to resist him in arms or prepared to make their submission. He therefore sent out heralds in divers directions round about Greece, with orders to demand everywhere earth and water for the king. At the same time he sent other heralds to the various seaport towns which paid him tribute, and required them to provide a number of ships of war and horse-transports. These towns accordingly began their preparations; and the heralds who had been sent into Greece obtained what the king had bid them ask from a large number of the states upon the mainland, and likewise from all the islanders whom they visited. Among these last were included the Eginetans, who, equally with the rest, consented to give earth and water to the Persian king. When the Athenians heard what the Eginetans had done, believing that it was from enmity to themselves that they had given consent, and that the Eginetans intended to join the Persian in his attack upon Athens, they straightway took the matter in hand. In good truth it greatly rejoiced them to have so fair a pretext; and accordingly they sent frequent embassies to Sparta, and made it a charge against the Eginetans that their conduct in this matter proved them to be traitors to Greece. Hereupon Cleomenes, the son of Anaxandridas, who was then king of the Spartans, went in person to Egina, intending to seize those whose guilt was the greatest. As soon however as he tried to arrest them, a number of the Eginetins made resistance; a certain Crius, son of Polycritus, being the foremost in violence. This person told him "he should not carry off a single Eginetan without it costing him dear- the Athenians had bribed him to make this attack, for which he had no warrant from his own government- otherwise both the kings would have come together to make the seizure." This he said in consequence of instructions which he had received from Demaratus. Hereupon Cleomenes, finding that he must quit Egina, asked Crius his name; and when Crius told him, "Get thy horns tipped with brass with all speed, O Crius!" he said, "for thou wilt have to struggle with a great danger." Meanwhile Demaratus, son of Ariston, was bringing charges against Cleomenes at Sparta. He too, like Cleomenes, was king of the Spartans, but he belonged to the lower house- not indeed that his house was of any lower origin than the other, for both houses are of one blood- but the house of Eurysthenes is the more honoured of the two, inasmuch as it is the elder branch. The Lacedaemonians declare, contradicting therein all the poets, that it was king Aristodemus himself, son of Aristomachus, grandson of Cleodaeus, and great-grandson of Hyllus, who conducted them to the land which they now possess, and not the sons of Aristodemus. The wife of Aristodemus, whose name (they say) was Argeia, and who was daughter of Autesion, son of Tisamenus, grandson of Thersander, and great-grandson of Polynices, within a little while after their coming into the country, gave birth to twins. Aristodemus just lived to see his children, but died soon afterwards of a disease. The Lacedaemonians of that day determined, according to custom, to take for their king the elder of the two children; but they were so alike, and so exactly of one size, that they could not possibly tell which of the two to choose: so when they found themselves unable to make a choice, or haply even earlier, they went to the mother and asked her to tell them which was the elder, whereupon she declared that "she herself did not know the children apart"; although in good truth she knew them very well, and only feigned ignorance in order that, if it were possible, both of them might be made kings of Sparta. The Lacedaemonians were now in a great strait; so they sent to Delphi and inquired of the oracle how they should deal with the matter. The Pythoness made answer, "Let both be taken to be kings; but let the elder have the greater honour." So the Lacedaemonians were in as great a strait as before, and could not conceive how they were to discover which was the first-born, till at length a certain Messenian, by name Panites, suggested to them to watch and see which of the two the mother washed and fed first; if they found she always gave one the preference, that fact would tell them all they wanted to know; if, on the contrary, she herself varied, and sometimes took the one first, sometimes the other, it would be plain that she knew as little as they; in which case they must try some other plan. The Lacedaemonians did according to the advice of the Messenian, and, without letting her know why, kept a watch upon the mother; by which means they discovered that, whenever she either washed or fed her children, she always gave the same child the preference. So they took the boy whom the mother honoured the most, and regarding him as the first-born, brought him up in the palace; and the name which they gave to the elder boy was Eurysthenes, while his brother they called Procles. When the brothers grew up, there was always, so long as they lived, enmity between them; and the houses sprung from their loins have continued the feud to this day. Thus much is related by the Lacedaemonians, but not by any of the other Greeks; in what follows I give the tradition of the Greeks generally. The kings of the Dorians (they say)- counting up to Perseus, son of Danae, and so omitting the god- are rightly given in the common Greek lists, and rightly considered to have been Greeks themselves; for even at this early time they ranked among that people. I say "up to Perseus," and not further, because Perseus has no mortal father by whose name he is called, as Hercules has in Amphitryon; whereby it appears that I have reason on my side, and am right in saying, "up to Perseus." If we follow the line of Danad, daughter of Acrisius, and trace her progenitors, we shall find that the chiefs of the Dorians are really genuine Egyptians. In the genealogies here given I have followed the common Greek accounts. According to the Persian story, Perseus was an Assyrian who became a Greek; his ancestors, therefore, according to them, were not Greeks. They do not admit that the forefathers of Acrisius were in any way related to Perseus, but say they were Egyptians, as the Greeks likewise testify. Enough however of this subject. How it came to pass that Egyptians obtained the kingdoms of the Dorians, and what they did to raise themselves to such a position, these are questions concerning which, as they have been treated by others, I shall say nothing. I proceed to speak of points on which no other writer has touched. The prerogatives which the Spartans have allowed their kings are the following. In the first place, two priesthoods, those (namely) of Lacedaemonian and of Celestial Jupiter; also the right of making war on what country soever they please, without hindrance from any of the other Spartans, under pain of outlawry; on service the privilege of marching first in the advance and last in the retreat, and of having a hundred picked men for their body guard while with the army; likewise the liberty of sacrificing as many cattle in their expeditions as it seems them good, and the right of having the skins and the chines of the slaughtered animals for their own use. Such are their privileges in war; in peace their rights are as follows. When a citizen makes a public sacrifice the kings are given the first seats at the banquet; they are served before any of the other guests, and have a double portion of everything; they take the lead in the libations; and the hides of the sacrificed beasts belong to them. Every month, on the first day, and again on the seventh of the first decade, each king receives a beast without blemish at the public cost, which he offers up to Apollo; likewise a medimnus of meal, and of wine a Laconian quart. In the contests of the Games they have always the seat of honour; they appoint the citizens who have to entertain foreigners; they also nominate, each of them, two of the Pythians, officers whose business it is to consult the oracle at Delphi, who eat with the kings, and, like them, live at the public charge. If the kings do not come to the public supper, each of them must have two choenixes of meal and a cotyle of wine sent home to him at his house; if they come, they are given a double quantity of each, and the same when any private man invites them to his table. They have the custody of all the oracles which are pronounced; but the Pythians must likewise have knowledge of them. They have the whole decision of certain causes, which are these, and these only:- When a maiden is left the heiress of her father's estate, and has not been betrothed by him to any one, they decide who is to marry her; in all matters concerning the public highways they judge; and if a person wants to adopt a child, he must do it before the kings. They likewise have the right of sitting in council with the eight-and-twenty senators; and if they are not present, then the senators nearest of kin to them have their privileges, and give two votes as the royal proxies, besides a third vote, which is their own. Such are the honours which the Spartan people have allowed their kings during their lifetime; after they are dead other honours await them. Horsemen carry the news of their death through all Laconia, while in the city the women go hither and thither drumming upon a kettle. At this signal, in every house two free persons, a man and a woman, must put on mourning, or else be subject to a heavy fine. The Lacedaemonians have likewise a custom at the demise of their kings which is common to them with the barbarians of Asia- indeed with the greater number of the barbarians everywhere- namely, that when one of their kings dies, not only the Spartans, but a certain number of the country people from every part of Laconia are forced, whether they will or no, to attend the funeral. So these persons and the helots, and likewise the Spartans themselves, flock together to the number of several thousands, men and women intermingled; and all of them smite their foreheads violently, and weep and wall without stint, saying always that their last king was the best. If a king dies in battle, then they make a statue of him, and placing it upon a couch right bravely decked, so carry it to the grave. After the burial, by the space of ten days there is no assembly, nor do they elect magistrates, but continue mourning the whole time. They hold with the Persians also in another custom. When a king dies, and another comes to the throne, the newly-made monarch forgives all the Spartans the debts which they owe either to the king or to the public treasury. And in like manner among the Persians each king when he begins to reign remits the tribute due from the provinces. In one respect the Lacedaemonians resemble the Egyptians. Their heralds and flute-players, and likewise their cooks, take their trades by succession from their fathers. A flute-player must be the son of a flute-player, a cook of a cook, a herald of a herald; and other people cannot take advantage of the loudness of their voice to come into the profession and shut out the heralds' sons; but each follows his father's business. Such are the customs of the Lacedaemonians. At the time of which we are speaking, while Cleomenes in Egina was labouring for the general good of Greece, Demaratus at Sparta continued to bring charges against him, moved not so much by love of the Eginetans as by jealousy and hatred of his colleague. Cleomenes therefore was no sooner returned from Egina than he considered with himself how he might deprive Demaratus of his kingly office; and here the following circumstance furnished a ground for him to proceed upon. Ariston, king of Sparta, had been married to two wives, but neither of them had borne him any children; as however he still thought it was possible he might have offspring, he resolved to wed a third; and this was how the wedding was brought about. He had a certain friend, a Spartan, with whom he was more intimate than with any other citizen. This friend was married to a wife whose beauty far surpassed that of all the other women in Sparta; and what was still more strange, she had once been as ugly as she now was beautiful. For her nurse, seeing how ill-favoured she was, and how sadly her parents, who were wealthy people, took her bad looks to heart, bethought herself of a plan, which was to carry the child every day to the temple of Helen at Therapna, which stands above the Phoebeum, and there to place her before the image, and beseech the goddess to take away the child's ugliness. One day, as she left the temple, a woman appeared to her, and begged to know what it was she held in her arms. The nurse told her it was a child, on which she asked to see it; but the nurse refused; the parents, she said, had forbidden her to show the child to any one. However the woman would not take a denial; and the nurse, seeing how highly she prized a look, at last let her see the child. Then the woman gently stroked its head, and said, "One day this child shall be the fairest dame in Sparta." And her looks began to change from that very day. When she was of marriageable age, Agetus, son of Alcides, the same whom I have mentioned above as the friend of Ariston, made her his wife. Now it chanced that Ariston fell in love with this person; and his love so preyed upon his mind that at last he devised as follows. He went to his friend, the lady's husband, and proposed to him that they should exchange gifts, each taking that which pleased him best out of all the possessions of the other. His friend, who felt no alarm about his wife, since Ariston was also married, consented readily; and so the matter was confirmed between them by an oath. Then Ariston gave Agetus the present, whatever it was, of which he had made choice, and when it came to his turn to name the present which he was to receive in exchange, required to be allowed to carry home with him Agetus's wife. But the other demurred, and said, "except his wife, he might have anything else": however, as he could not resist the oath which he had sworn, or the trickery which had been practised on him, at last he suffered Ariston to carry her away to his house. Ariston hereupon put away his second wife and took for his third this woman; and she, in less than the due time- when she had not yet reached her full term of ten months- gave birth to a child, the Demaratus of whom we have spoken. Then one of his servants came and told him the news, as he sat in council with the Ephors; whereat, remembering when it was that the woman became his wife, he counted the months upon his fingers, and having so done, cried out with an oath, "The boy cannot be mine." This was said in the hearing of the Ephors; but they made no account of it at the time. The boy grew up; and Ariston repented of what he had said; for he became altogether convinced that Demaratus was truly his son. The reason why he named him Demaratus was the following. Some time before these events the whole Spartan people, looking upon Ariston as a man of mark beyond all the kings that had reigned at Sparta before him, had offered up a prayer that he might have a son. On this account, therefore, the name Demaratus was given. In course of time Ariston died; and Demaratus received the kingdom: but it was fated, as it seems, that these words, when bruited abroad, should strip him of his sovereignty. This was brought about by means of Cleomenes, whom he had twice sorely vexed, once when he led the army home from Eleusis, and a second time when Cleomenes was gone across to Egina against such as had espoused the side of the Medes. Cleomenes now, being resolved to have his revenge upon Demaratus, went to Leotychides, the son of Menares, and grandson of Agis, who was of the same family as Demaratus, and made agreement with him to this tenor following. Cleomenes was to lend his aid to make Leotychides king in the room of Demaratus; and then Leotychides was to take part with Cleomenes against the Eginetans. Now Leotychides hated Demaratus chiefly on account of Percalus, the daughter of Chilon, son of Demarmenus: this lady had been betrothed to Leotychides; but Demaratus laid a plot, and robbed him of his bride, forestalling him in carrying her off, and marrying her. Such was the origin of the enmity. At the time of which we speak, Leotychides was prevailed upon by the earnest desire of Cleomenes to come forward against Demaratus and make oath "that Demaratus was not rightful king of Sparta, since he was not the true son of Ariston." After he had thus sworn, Leotychides sued Demaratus, and brought up against him the phrase which Ariston had let drop when, on the coming of his servant to announce to him the birth of his son, he counted the months, and cried out with an oath that the child was not his. It was on this speech of Ariston's that Leotychides relied to prove that Demaratus was not his son, and therefore not rightful king of Sparta; and he produced as witnesses the Ephors who were sitting with Ariston at the time and heard what he said. At last, as there came to be much strife concerning this matter, the Spartans made a decree that the Delphic oracle should be asked to say whether Demaratus were Ariston's son or no. Cleomenes set them upon this plan; and no sooner was the decree passed than he made a friend of Cobon, the son of Aristophantus, a man of the greatest weight among the Delphians; and this Cobon prevailed upon Perialla, the prophetess, to give the answer which Cleomenes wished. Accordingly, when the sacred messengers came and put their question, the Pythoness returned for answer "that Demaratus was not Ariston's son." Some time afterwards all this became known; and Cobon was forced to fly from Delphi; while Perialla the prophetess was deprived of her office. Such were the means whereby the deposition of Demaratus was brought about; but his flying from Sparta to the Medes was by reason of an affront which was put upon him. On losing his kingdom he had been made a magistrate; and in that office soon afterwards, when the feast of the Gymnopaediae came around, he took his station among the lookers-on; whereupon Leotychides, who was now king in his room, sent a servant to him and asked him, by way of insult and mockery, "how it felt to be a magistrate after one had been a king?" Demaratus, who was hurt at the question, made answer- "Tell him I have tried them both, but he has not. Howbeit this speech will be the cause to Sparta of infinite blessings or else of infinite woes." Having thus spoken he wrapped his head in his robe, and, leaving the theatre, went home to his own house, where he prepared an ox for sacrifice, and offered it to Jupiter, after which he called for his mother. When she appeared, he took of the entrails, and placing them in her hand, besought her in these words following:- "Dear mother, I beseech you, by all the gods, and chiefly by our own hearth-god Jupiter, tell me the very truth, who was really my father. For Leotychides, in the suit which we had together, declared that when thou becamest Ariston's wife thou didst already bear in thy womb a child by thy former husband, and others repeat a yet more disgraceful tale, that our groom found favour in thine eyes, and that I am his son. I entreat thee therefore by the gods to tell me the truth. For if thou hast gone astray, thou hast done no more than many a woman; and the Spartans remark it as strange, if I am Ariston's son, that he had no children by his other wives." Thus spake Demaratus; and his mother replied as follows: "Dear son, since thou entreatest so earnestly for the truth, it shall indeed be fully told to thee. When Ariston brought me to his house, on the third night after my coming, there appeared to me one like to Ariston, who, after staying with me a while, rose, and taking the garlands from his own brows placed them upon my head, and so went away. Presently after Ariston entered, and when he saw the garlands which I still wore, asked me who gave them to me. I said, 'twas he; but this he stoutly denied; whereupon I solemnly swore that it was none other, and told him he did not do well to dissemble when he had so lately risen from my side and left the garlands with me. Then Ariston, when he heard my oath, understood that there was something beyond nature in what had taken place. And indeed it appeared that the garlands had come from the hero-temple which stands by our court gates- the temple of him they call Astrabacus- and the soothsayers, moreover, declared that the apparition was that very person. And now, my son, I have told thee all thou wouldest fain know. Either thou art the son of that hero- either thou mayest call Astrabacus sire; or else Ariston was thy father. As for that matter which they who hate thee urge the most, the words of Ariston, who, when the messenger told him of thy birth, declared before many witnesses that 'thou wert not his son, forasmuch as the ten months were not fully out,' it was a random speech, uttered from mere ignorance. The truth is, children are born not only at ten months, but at nine, and even at seven. Thou wert thyself, my son, a seven months' child. Ariston acknowledged, no long time afterwards, that his speech sprang from thoughtlessness. Hearken not then to other tales concerning thy birth, my son: for be assured thou hast the whole truth. As for grooms, pray Heaven Leotychides and all who speak as he does may suffer wrong from them!" Such was the mother's answer. Demaratus, having learnt all that he wished to know, took with him provision for the journey, and went into Elis, pretending that he purposed to proceed to Delphi, and there consult the oracle. The Lacedaemonians, however, suspecting that he meant to fly his country, sent men in pursuit of him; but Demaratus hastened, and leaving Elis before they arrived, sailed across to Zacynthus. The Lacedaemonians followed, and sought to lay hands upon him, and to separate him from his retinue; but the Zacynthians would not give him up to them: so he escaping, made his way afterwards by sea to Asia, and presented himself before King Darius, who received him generously, and gave him both lands and cities. Such was the chance which drove Demaratus to Asia, a man distinguished among the Lacedaemonians for many noble deeds and wise counsels, and who alone of all the Spartan kings brought honour to his country by winning at Olympia the prize in the four-horse chariot-race. After Demaratus was deposed, Leotychides, the son of Menares, received the kingdom. He had a son, Zeuxidamus, called Cyniscus by many of the Spartans. This Zeuxidamus did not reign at Sparta, but died before his father, leaving a son, Archidamus. Leotychides, when Zeuxidamus was taken from him, married a second wife, named Eurydame, the sister of Menius and daughter of Diactorides. By her he had no male offspring, but only a daughter called Lampito, whom he gave in marriage to Archidamus, Zeuxidamus' son. Even Leotychides, however, did not spend his old age in Sparta, but suffered a punishment whereby Demaratus was fully avenged. He commanded the Lacedaemonians when they made war against Thessaly, and might have conquered the whole of it, but was bribed by a large sum of money. It chanced that he was caught in the fact, being found sitting in his tent on a gauntlet, quite full of silver. Upon this he was brought to trial and banished from Sparta; his house was razed to the ground; and he himself fled to Tegea, where he ended his days. But these events took place long afterwards. At the time of which we are speaking, Cleomenes, having carried his proceedings in the matter of Demaratus to a prosperous issue, forthwith took Leotychides with him, and crossed over to attack the Eginetans; for his anger was hot against them on account of the affront which they had formerly put upon him. Hereupon the Eginetans, seeing that both the kings were come against them, thought it best to make no further resistance. So the two kings picked out from all Egina the ten men who for wealth and birth stood the highest, among whom were Crius, son of Polycritus, and Casambus, son of Aristocrates, who wielded the chief power; and these men they carried with them to Attica, and there deposited them in the hands of the Athenians, the great enemies of the Eginetans. Afterwards, when it came to be known what evil arts had been used against Demaratus, Cleomenes was seized with fear of his own countrymen, and fled into Thessaly. From thence he passed into Arcadia, where he began to stir up troubles, and endeavoured to unite the Arcadians against Sparta. He bound them by various oaths to follow him whithersoever he should lead, and was even desirous of taking their chief leaders with him to the city of Nonacris, that he might swear them to his cause by the waters of the Styx. For the waters of Styx, as the Arcadians say, are in that city, and this is the appearance they present: you see a little water, dripping from a rock into a basin, which is fenced round by a low wall. Nonacris, where this fountain is to be seen, is a city of Arcadia near Pheneus. When the Lacedaemonians heard how Cleomenes was engaged, they were afraid, and agreed with him that he should come back to Sparta and be king as before. So Cleomenes came back; but had no sooner returned than he, who had never been altogether of sound mind, was smitten with downright madness. This he showed by striking every Spartan he met upon the face with his sceptre. On his behaving thus, and showing that he was gone quite out of his mind, his kindred imprisoned him, and even put his feet in the stocks. While so bound, finding himself left alone with a single keeper, he asked the man for a knife. The keeper at first refused, whereupon Cleomenes began to threaten him, until at last he was afraid, being only a helot, and gave him what he required. Cleomenes had no sooner got the steel than, beginning at his legs, he horribly disfigured himself, cutting gashes in his flesh, along his legs, thighs, hips, and loins, until at last he reached his belly, which he likewise began to gash, whereupon in a little time he died. The Greeks generally think that this fate came upon him because he induced the Pythoness to pronounce against Demaratus; the Athenians differ from all others in saying that it was because he cut down the sacred grove of the goddesses when he made his invasion by Eleusis; while the Argives ascribe it to his having taken from their refuge and cut to pieces certain argives who had fled from battle into a precinct sacred to Argus, where Cleomenes slew them, burning likewise at the same time, through irreverence, the grove itself. For once, when Cleomenes had sent to Delphi to consult the oracle, it was prophesied to him that he should take Argos; upon which he went out at the head of the Spartans, and led them to the river Erasinus. This stream is reported to flow from the Stymphalian lake, the waters of which empty themselves into a pitch-dark chasm, and then (as they say) reappear in Argos, where the Argives call them the Erasinus. Cleomenes, having arrived upon the banks of this river, proceeded to offer sacrifice to it, but, in spite of all that he could do, the victims were not favourable to his crossing. So he said that he admired the god for refusing to betray his countrymen, but still the Argives should not escape him for all that. He then withdrew his troops, and led them down to Thyrea, where he sacrificed a bull to the sea, and conveyed his men on shipboard to Nauplia in the Tirynthian territory. The Argives, when they heard of this, marched down to the sea to defend their country; and arriving in the neighbourhood of Tiryns, at the place which bears the name of Sepeia, they pitched their camp opposite to the Lacedaemonians, leaving no great space between the hosts. And now their fear was not so much lest they should be worsted in open fight as lest some trick should be practised on them; for such was the danger which the oracle given to them in common with the Milesians seemed to intimate. The oracle ran as follows:- Time shall be when the female shall conquer the male, and shall chase him Far away- gaining so great praise and honour in Argos; Then full many an Argive woman her cheeks shall mangle Hence, in the times to come 'twill be said by the men who are unborn, "Tamed by the spear expired the coiled terrible serpent." At the coincidence of all these things the Argives were greatly cast down; and so they resolved that they would follow the signals of the enemy's herald. Having made this resolve, they proceeded to act as follows: whenever the herald of the Lacedaemonians gave an order to the soldiers of his own army, the Argives did the like on their side. Now when Cleomenes heard that the Argives were acting thus, he commanded his troops that, so soon as the herald gave the word for the soldiers to go to dinner, they should instantly seize their arms and charge the host of the enemy. Which the Lacedaemonians did accordingly, and fell upon the Argives just as, following the signal, they had begun their repast; whereby it came to pass that vast numbers of the Argives were slain, while the rest, who were more than they which died in the fight, were driven to take refuge in the grove of Argus hard by, where they were surrounded, and watch kept upon them. When things were at this pass Cleomenes acted as follows: Having learnt the names of the Argives who were shut up in the sacred precinct from certain deserters who had come over to him, he sent a herald to summon them one by one, on pretence of having received their ransoms. Now the ransom of prisoners among the Peloponnesians is fixed at two minae the man. So Cleomenes had these persons called forth severally, to the number of fifty, or thereabouts, and massacred them. All this while they who remained in the enclosure knew nothing of what was happening; for the grove was so thick that the people inside were unable to see what was taking place without. But at last one of their number climbed up into a tree and spied the treachery; after which none of those who were summoned would go forth. Then Cleomenes ordered all the helots to bring brushwood, and heap it around the grove; which was done accordingly; and Cleomenes set the grove on fire. As the flames spread he asked a deserter "Who was the god of the grove?" whereto the other made answer, "Argus." So he, when he heard that, uttered a loud groan, and said:- "Greatly hast thou deceived me, Apollo, god of prophecy, in saying that I should take Argos. I fear me thy oracle has now got its accomplishment." Cleomenes now sent home the greater part of his army, while with a thousand of his best troops he proceeded to the temple of Juno, to offer sacrifice. When however he would have slain the victim on the altar himself, the priest forbade him, as it was not lawful (he said) for a foreigner to sacrifice in that temple. At this Cleomenes ordered his helots to drag the priest from the altar and scourge him, while he performed the sacrifice himself, after which he went back to Sparta. Thereupon his enemies brought him up before the Ephors, and made it a charge against him that he had allowed himself to be bribed, and on that account had not taken Argos when he might have captured it easily. To this he answered- whether truly or falsely I cannot say with certainty- but at any rate his answer to the charge was that "so soon as he discovered the sacred precinct which he had taken to belong to Argos, he directly imagined that the oracle had received its accomplishment; he therefore thought it not good to attempt the town, at the least until he had inquired by sacrifice, and ascertained if the god meant to grant him the place, or was determined to oppose his taking it. So he offered in the temple of Juno, and when the omens were propitious, immediately there flashed forth a flame of fire from the breast of the image; whereby he knew of a surety that he was not to take Argos. For if the flash had come from the head, he would have gained the town, citadel and all; but as it shone from the breast, he had done so much as the god intended." And his words seemed to the Spartans so true and reasonable, that he came clear off from his adversaries. Argos however was left so bare of men that the slaves managed the state, filled the offices, and administered everything until the sons of those who were slain by Cleomenes grew up. Then these latter cast out the slaves, and got the city back under their own rule; while the slaves who had been driven out fought a battle and won Tiryns. After this for a time there was peace between the two; but a certain man, a soothsayer, named Cleander, who was by race a Phigalean from Arcadia, joined himself to the slaves, and stirred them up to make a fresh attack upon their lords. Then were they at war with one another by the space of many years; but at length the Argives with much trouble gained the upper hand. The Argives say that Cleomenes lost his senses, and died so miserably, on account of these doings. But his own countrymen declare that his madness proceeded not from any supernatural cause whatever, but only from the habit of drinking wine unmixed with water, which he learnt of the Scyths. These nomads, from the time that Darius made his inroad into their country, had always had a wish for revenge. They therefore sent ambassadors to Sparta to conclude a league, proposing to endeavour themselves to enter Media by the Phasis, while the Spartans should march inland from Ephesus, and then the two armies should join together in one. When the Scyths came to Sparta on this errand Cleomenes was with them continually; and growing somewhat too familiar, learnt of them to drink his wine without water, a practice which is thought by the Spartans to have caused his madness. From this distance of time the Spartans, according to their own account, have been accustomed, when they want to drink purer wine than common, to give the order to fill "Scythian fashion." The Spartans then speak thus concerning Cleomenes; but for my own part I think his death was a judgment on him for wronging Demaratus. No sooner did the news of Cleomenes' death reach Egina than straightway the Eginetans sent ambassadors to Sparta to complain of the conduct of Leotychides in respect of their hostages, who were still kept at Athens. So they of Lacedaemon assembled a court of justice and gave sentence upon Leotychides, that whereas he had grossly affronted the people of Egina, he should be given up to the ambassadors, to be led away in place of the men whom the Athenians had in their keeping. Then the ambassadors were about to lead him away; but Theasides, the son of Leoprepes, who was a man greatly esteemed in Sparta, interfered, and said to them:- "What are ye minded to do, ye men of Egina? To lead away captive the king of the Spartans, whom his countrymen have given into your hands? Though now in their anger they have passed this sentence, yet belike the time will come when they will punish you, if you act thus, by bringing utter destruction upon your country." The Eginetans, when they heard this, changed their plan, and, instead of leading Leotychides away captive, agreed with him that he should come with them to Athens, and give them back their men. When however he reached that city, and demanded the restoration of his pledge, the Athenians, being unwilling to comply, proceeded to make excuses, saying "that two kings had come and left the men with them, and they did not think it right to give them back to the one without the other." So when the Athenians refused plainly to restore the men, Leotychides said to them:- "Men of Athens, act which way you choose- give me up the hostages, and be righteous, or keep them, and be the contrary. I wish, however, to tell you what happened once in Sparta about a pledge. The story goes among us that three generations back there lived in Lacedaemon one Glaucus, the son of Epicydes, a man who in every other respect was on a par with the first in the kingdom, and whose character for justice was such as to place him above all the other Spartans. Now to this man at the appointed season the following events happened. A certain Milesian came to Sparta and, having desired to speak with him, said- 'I am of Miletus, and I have come hither, Glaucus, in the hope of profiting by thy honesty. For when I heard much talk thereof in Ionia and through all the rest of Greece, and when I observed that whereas Ionia is always insecure, the Peloponnese stands firm and unshaken, and noted likewise how wealth is continually changing hands in our country, I took counsel with myself and resolved to turn one-half of my substance into money, and place it in thy hands, since I am well assured that it will be safe in thy keeping. Here then is the silver- take it- and take likewise these tallies, and be careful of them; remember thou art to give back the money to the person who shall bring you their fellows.' Such were the words of the Milesian stranger; and Glaucus took the deposit on the terms expressed to him. Many years had gone by when the sons of the man by whom the money was left came to Sparta, and had an interview with Glaucus, whereat they produced the tallies, and asked to have the money returned to them. But Glaucus sought to refuse, and answered them: 'I have no recollection of the matter; nor can I bring to mind any of those particulars whereof ye speak. When I remember, I will certainly do what is just. If I had the money, you have a right to receive it back; but if it was never given to me, I shall put the Greek law in force against you. For the present I give you no answer; but four months hence I will settle the business.' So the Milesians went away sorrowful, considering that their money was utterly lost to them. As for Glaucus, he made a journey to Delphi, and there consulted the oracle. To his question if he should swear, and so make prize of the money, the Pythoness returned for answer these lines following:- Best for the present it were, O Glaucus, to do as thou wishest, Swearing an oath to prevail, and so to make prize of the money. Swear then- death is the lot e'en of those who never swear falsely. Yet hath the Oath-God a son who is nameless, footless, and handless; Mighty in strength he approaches to vengeance, and whelms in destruction, All who belong to the race, or the house of the man who is perjured. But oath- keeping men leave behind them a flourishing offspring. Glaucus when he heard these words earnestly besought the god to pardon his question; but the Pythoness replied that it was as bad to have tempted the god as it would have been to have done the deed. Glaucus, however, sent for the Milesian strangers, and gave them back their money. And now I will tell you, Athenians, what my purpose has been in recounting to you this history. Glaucus at the present time has not a single descendant; nor is there any family known as his- root and branch has he been removed from Sparta. It is a good thing, therefore, when a pledge has been left with one, not even in thought to doubt about restoring it." Thus spake Leotychides; but, as he found that the Athenians would not hearken to him, he left them and went his way. The Eginetans had never been punished for the wrongs which, to pleasure the Thebans, they had committed upon Athens. Now, however, conceiving that they were themselves wronged, and had a fair ground of complaint against the Athenians, they instantly prepared to revenge themselves. As it chanced that the Athenian theoris, which was a vessel of five banks of oars, lay at Sunium, the Eginetans contrived an ambush, and made themselves masters of the holy vessel, on board of which were a number of Athenians of the highest rank, whom they took and threw into prison. At this outrage the Athenians no longer delayed, but set to work to scheme their worst against the Eginetans; and, as there was in Egina at that time a man of mark, Nicodromus by name, the son of Cnoethus, who was on ill terms with his countrymen because on a former occasion they had driven him into banishment, they listened to overtures from this man, who had heard how determined they were to do the Eginetans a mischief, and agreed with him that on a certain day he should be ready to betray the island into their hands, and they would come with a body of troops to his assistance. And Nicodromus, some time after, holding to the agreement, made himself master of what is called the old town. The Athenians, however, did not come to the day; for their own fleet was not of force sufficient to engage the Eginetans, and while they were begging the Corinthians to lend them some ships, the failure of the enterprise took place. In those days the Corinthians were on the best of terms with the Athenians; and accordingly they now yielded to their request, and furnished them with twenty ships; but, as their law did not allow the ships to be given for nothing, they sold them to the Athenians for five drachms apiece. As soon then as the Athenians had obtained this aid, and, by manning also their own ships, had equipped a fleet of seventy sail, they crossed over to Egina, but arrived a day later than the time agreed upon. Meanwhile Nicodromus, when he found the Athenians did not come to the time appointed, took ship and made his escape from the island. The Eginetans who accompanied him were settled by the Athenians at Sunium, whence they were wont to issue forth and plunder the Eginetans of the island. But this took place at a later date. When the wealthier Eginetans had thus obtained the victory over the common people who had revolted with Nicodromus, they laid hands on a certain number of them, and led them out to death. But here they were guilty of a sacrilege, which, notwithstanding all their efforts, they were never able to atone, being driven from the island before they had appeased the goddess whom they now provoked. Seven hundred of the common people had fallen alive into their hands; and they were all being led out to death, when one of them escaped from his chains, and flying to the gateway of the temple of Ceres the Lawgiver, laid hold of the doorhandles, and clung to them. The others sought to drag him from his refuge; but, finding themselves unable to tear him away, they cut off his hands, and so took him, leaving the hands still tightly grasping the handles. Such were the doings of the Eginetans among themselves. When the Athenians arrived, they went out to meet them with seventy ships; and a battle took place, wherein the Eginetans suffered a defeat. Hereupon they had recourse again to their old allies, the Argives; but these latter refused now to lend them any aid, being angry because some Eginetan ships, which Cleomenes had taken by force, accompanied him in his invasion of Argolis, and joined in the disembarkation. The same thing had happened at the same time With certain vessels of the Sicyonians; and the Argives had laid a fine of a thousand talents upon the misdoers, five hundred upon each: whereupon they of Sicyon acknowledged themselves to have sinned, and agreed with the Argives to pay them a hundred talents, and so be quit of the debt; but the Eginetans would make no acknowledgment at all, and showed themselves proud and stiffnecked. For this reason, when they now prayed the Argives for aid, the state refused to send them a single soldier. Notwithstanding, volunteers joined them from Argos to the number of a thousand, under a captain, Eurybates, a man skilled in the pentathlic contests. Of these men the greater part never returned, but were slain by the Athenians in Egina. Eurybates, their captain, fought a number of single combats, and, after killing three men in this way, was himself slain by the fourth, who was a Decelean, named Sophanes. Afterwards the Eginetans fell upon the Athenian fleet when it was in some disorder and beat it, capturing four ships with their crews. Thus did war rage between the Eginetans and Athenians. Meantime the Persian pursued his own design, from day to day exhorted by his servant to "remember the Athenians," and likewise urged continually by the Pisistratidae, who were ever accusing their countrymen. Moreover it pleased him well to have a pretext for carrying war into Greece, that so he might reduce all those who had refused to give him earth and water. As for Mardonius, since his expedition had succeeded so ill, Darius took the command of the troops from him, and appointed other generals in his stead, who were to lead the host against Eretria and Athens; to wit, Datis, who was by descent a Mede, and Artaphernes, the son of Artaphernes, his own nephew. These men received orders to carry Athens and Eretria away captive, and to bring the prisoners into his presence. So the new commanders took their departure from the court and went down to Cilicia, to the Aleian plain, having with them a numerous and wellappointed land army. Encamping here, they were joined by the sea force which had been required of the several states, and at the same time by the horsetransports which Darius had, the year before, commanded his tributaries to make ready. Aboard these the horses were embarked; and the troops were received by the ships of war; after which the whole fleet, amounting in all to six hundred triremes, made sail for Ionia. Thence, instead of proceeding with a straight course along the shore to the Hellespont and to Thrace, they loosed from Samos and voyaged across the Icarian sea through the midst of the islands; mainly, as I believe, because they feared the danger of doubling Mount Athos, where the year before they had suffered so grievously on their passage; but a constraining cause also was their former failure to take Naxos. When the Persians, therefore, approaching from the Icarian Sea, cast anchor at Naxos, which, recollecting what there befell them formerly, they had determined to attack before any other state, the Naxians, instead of encountering them, took to flight, and hurried off to the hills. The Persians however succeeded in laying hands on some, and them they carried away captive, while at the same time they burnt all the temples together with the town. This done, they left Naxos, and sailed away to the other islands. While the Persians were thus employed, the Delians likewise quitted Delos, and took refuge in Tenos. And now the expedition drew near, when Datis sailed forward in advance of the other ships; commanding them, instead of anchoring at Delos, to rendezvous at Rhenea, over against Delos, while he himself proceeded to discover whither the Delians had fled; after which he sent a herald to them with this message: "Why are ye fled, O holy men? Why have ye judged me so harshly and so wrongfully? I have surely sense enough, even had not the king so ordered, to spare the country which gave birth to the two gods- to spare, I say, both the country and its inhabitants. Come back therefore to your dwellings; and once more inhabit your island." Such was the message which Datis sent by his herald to the Delians. He likewise placed upon the altar three hundred talents' weight of frankincense, and offered it. After this he sailed with his whole host against Eretria, taking with him both Ionians and Aeolians. When he was departed, Delos (as the Delians told me) was shaken by an earthquake, the first and last shock that has been felt to this day. And truly this was a prodigy whereby the god warned men of the evils that were coming upon them. For in the three following generations of Darius the son of Hystaspes, Xerxes the son of Darius, and Artaxerxes the son of Xerxes, more woes befell Greece than in the twenty generations preceding Darius- woes caused in part by the Persians, but in part arising from the contentions among their own chief men respecting the supreme power. Wherefore it is not surprising that Delos, though it had never before been shaken, should at that time have felt the shock of an earthquake. And indeed there was an oracle, which said of Delos- Delo's self will I shake, which never yet has been shaken Of the above names Darius may be rendered "Worker," Xerxes "Warrior," and Artaxerxes "Great Warrior." And so might we call these kings in our own language with propriety. The barbarians, after loosing from Delos, proceeded to touch at the other islands, and took troops from each, and likewise carried off a number of the children as hostages. Going thus from one to another, they came at last to Carystus; but here the hostages were refused by the Carystians, who said they would neither give any, nor consent to bear arms against the cities of their neighbours, meaning Athens and Eretria. Hereupon the Persians laid siege to Carystus, and wasted the country round, until at length the inhabitants were brought over and agreed to do what was required of them. Meanwhile the Eretrians, understanding that the Persian armament was coming against them, besought the Athenians for assistance. Nor did the Athenians refuse their aid, but assigned to them as auxiliaries the four thousand landholders to whom they had allotted the estates of the Chalcidean Hippobatae. At Eretria, however, things were in no healthy state; for though they had called in the aid of the Athenians, yet they were not agreed among themselves how they should act; some of them were minded to leave the city and to take refuge in the heights of Euboea, while others, who looked to receiving a reward from the Persians, were making ready to betray their country. So when these things came to the ears of Aeschines, the son of Nothon, one of the first men in Eretria, he made known the whole state of affairs to the Athenians who were already arrived, and besought them to return home to their own land, and not perish with his countrymen. And the Athenians hearkened to his counsel, and, crossing over to Oropus, in this way escaped the danger. The Persian fleet now drew near and anchored at Tamynae, Choereae, and Aegilia, three places in the territory of Eretria. Once masters of these posts, they proceeded forthwith to disembark their horses, and made ready to attack the enemy. But the Eretrians were not minded to sally forth and offer battle; their only care, after it had been resolved not to quit the city, was, if possible, to defend their walls. And now the fortress was assaulted in good earnest, and for six days there fell on both sides vast numbers, but on the seventh day Euphorbus, the son of Alcimachus, and Philagrus, the son of Cyneas, who were both citizens of good repute, betrayed the place to the Persians. These were no sooner entered within the walls than they plundered and burnt all the temples that there were in the town, in revenge for the burning of their own temples at Sardis; moreover, they did according to the orders of Darius, and carried away captive all the inhabitants. The Persians, having thus brought Eretria into subjection after waiting a few days, made sail for Attica, greatly straitening the Athenians as they approached, and thinking to deal with them as they had dealt with the people of Eretria. And, because there was no Place in all Attica so convenient for their horse as Marathon, and it lay moreover quite close to Eretria, therefore Hippias, the son of Pisistratus, conducted them thither. When intelligence of this reached the Athenians, they likewise marched their troops to Marathon, and there stood on the defensive, having at their head ten generals, of whom one was Miltiades. Now this man's father, Cimon, the son of Stesagoras, was banished from Athens by Pisistratus, the son of Hippocrates. In his banishment it was his fortune to win the four-horse chariot-race at Olympia, whereby he gained the very same honour which had before been carried off by Miltiades, his half-brother on the mother's side. At the next Olympiad he won the prize again with the same mares; upon which he caused Pisistratus to be proclaimed the winner, having made an agreement with him that on yielding him this honour he should be allowed to come back to his country. Afterwards, still with the same mares, he won the prize a third time; whereupon he was put to death by the sons of Pisistratus, whose father was no longer living. They set men to lie in wait for him secretly; and these men slew him near the government-house in the night-time. He was buried outside the city, beyond what is called the Valley Road; and right opposite his tomb were buried the mares which had won the three prizes. The same success had likewise been achieved once previously, to wit, by the mares of Evagoras the Lacedaemonian, but never except by them. At the time of Cimon's death Stesagoras, the elder of his two sons, was in the Chersonese, where he lived with Miltiades his uncle; the younger, who was called Miltiades after the founder of the Chersonesite colony, was with his father in Athens. It was this Miltiades who now commanded the Athenians, after escaping from the Chersonese, and twice nearly losing his life. First he was chased as far as Imbrus by the Phoenicians, who had a great desire to take him and carry him up to the king; and when he had avoided this danger, and, having reached his own country, thought himself to be altogether in safety, he found his enemies waiting for him, and was cited by them before a court and impeached for his tyranny in the Chersonese. But he came off victorious here likewise, and was thereupon made general of the Athenians by the free choice of the people. And first, before they left the city, the generals sent off to Sparta a herald, one Pheidippides, who was by birth an Athenian, and by profession and practice a trained runner. This man, according to the account which he gave to the Athenians on his return, when he was near Mount Parthenium, above Tegea, fell in with the god Pan, who called him by his name, and bade him ask the Athenians "wherefore they neglected him so entirely, when he was kindly disposed towards them, and had often helped them in times past, and would do so again in time to come?" The Athenians, entirely believing in the truth of this report, as soon as their affairs were once more in good order, set up a temple to Pan under the Acropolis, and, in return for the message which I have recorded, established in his honour yearly sacrifices and a torch-race. On the occasion of which we speak when Pheidippides was sent by the Athenian generals, and, according to his own account, saw Pan on his journey, he reached Sparta on the very next day after quitting the city of Athens- Upon his arrival he went before the rulers, and said to them:- "Men of Lacedaemon, the Athenians beseech you to hasten to their aid, and not allow that state, which is the most ancient in all Greece, to be enslaved by the barbarians. Eretria, look you, is already carried away captive; and Greece weakened by the loss of no mean city." Thus did Pheidippides deliver the message committed to him. And the Spartans wished to help the Athenians, but were unable to give them any present succour, as they did not like to break their established law. It was then the ninth day of the first decade; and they could not march out of Sparta on the ninth, when the moon had not reached the full. So they waited for the full of the moon. The barbarians were conducted to Marathon by Hippias. the son of Pisistratus, who the night before had seen a strange vision in his sleep. He dreamt of lying in his mother's arms, and conjectured the dream to mean that he would be restored to Athens, recover the power which he had lost, and afterwards live to a good old age in his native country. Such was the sense in which he interpreted the vision. He now proceeded to act as guide to the Persians; and, in the first place, he landed the prisoners taken from Eretria upon the island that is called Aegileia, a tract belonging to the Styreans, after which he brought the fleet to anchor off Marathon, and marshalled the bands of the barbarians as they disembarked. As he was thus employed it chanced that he sneezed and at the same time coughed with more violence than was his wont. Now, as he was a man advanced in years, and the greater number of his teeth were loose, it so happened that one of them was driven out with the force of the cough, and fell down into the sand. Hippias took all the pains he could to find it; but the tooth was nowhere to be seen: whereupon he fetched a deep sigh, and said to the bystanders:- "After all, the land is not ours; and we shall never be able to bring it under. All my share in it is the portion of which my tooth has possession." So Hippias believed that in this way his dream was fulfilled. The Athenians were drawn up in order of battle in a sacred close belonging to Hercules, when they were joined by the Plataeans, who came in full force to their aid. Some time before, the Plataeans had put themselves under the rule of the Athenians; and these last had already undertaken many labours on their behalf. The occasion of the surrender was the following. The Plataeans suffered grievous things at the hands of the men of Thebes; so, as it chanced that Cleomenes, the son of Anaxandridas, and the Lacedaemonians were in their neighbourhood, they first of all offered to surrender themselves to them. But the Lacedaemonians refused to receive them, and said:- "We dwell too far off from you, and ours would be but chill succour. Ye might oftentimes be carried into slavery before one of us heard of it. We counsel you rather to give yourselves up to the Athenians, who are your next neighbours, and well able to shelter you." This they said, not so much out of good will towards the Plataeans as because they wished to involve the Athenians in trouble by engaging them in wars with the Boeotians. The Plataeans, however, when the Lacedaemonians gave them this counsel, complied at once; and when the sacrifice to the Twelve Gods was being offered at Athens, they came and sat as suppliants about the altar, and gave themselves up to the Athenians. The Thebans no sooner learnt what the Plataeans had done than instantly they marched out against them, while the Athenians sent troops to their aid. As the two armies were about to join battle, the Corinthians, who chanced to be at hand, would not allow them to engage; both sides consented to take them for arbitrators, whereupon they made up the quarrel, and fixed the boundary-line between the two states upon this condition: to wit, that if any of the Boeotians wished no longer to belong to Boeotia, the Thebans should allow them to follow their own inclinations. The Corinthians, when they had thus decreed, forthwith departed to their homes: the Athenians likewise set off on their return; but the Boeotians fell upon them during the march, and a battle was fought wherein they were worsted by the Athenians. Hereupon these last would not be bound by the line which the Corinthians had fixed, but advanced beyond those limits, and made the Asopus the boundary-line between the country of the Thebans and that of the Plataeans and Hysians. Under such circumstances did the Plataeans give themselves up to Athens; and now they were come to Marathon to bear the Athenians aid. The Athenian generals were divided in their opinions; and some advised not to risk a battle, because they were too few to engage such a host as that of the Medes, while others were for fighting at once; and among these last was Miltiades. He therefore, seeing that opinions were thus divided, and that the less worthy counsel appeared likely to prevail, resolved to go to the Polemarch, and have a conference with him. For the man on whom the lot fell to be Polemarch at Athens was entitled to give his vote with the ten generals, since anciently the Athenians allowed him an equal right of voting with them. The Polemarch at this juncture was Callimachus of Aphidnae; to him therefore Miltiades went, and said:- "With thee it rests, Callimachus, either to bring Athens to slavery, or, by securing her freedom, to leave behind thee to all future generations a memory beyond even Harmodius and Aristogeiton. For never since the time that the Athenians became a people were they in so great a danger as now. If they bow their necks beneath the yoke of the Medes, the woes which they will have to suffer when given into the power of Hippias are already determined on; if, on the other hand, they fight and overcome, Athens may rise to be the very first city in Greece. How it comes to pass that these things are likely to happen, and how the determining of them in some sort rests with thee, I will now proceed to make clear. We generals are ten in number, and our votes are divided; half of us wish to engage, half to avoid a combat. Now, if we do not fight, I look to see a great disturbance at Athens which will shake men's resolutions, and then I fear they will submit themselves; but if we fight the battle before any unsoundness show itself among our citizens, let the gods but give us fair play, and we are well able to overcome the enemy. On thee therefore we depend in this matter, which lies wholly in thine own power. Thou hast only to add thy vote to my side and thy country will be free, and not free only, but the first state in Greece. Or, if thou preferrest to give thy vote to them who would decline the combat, then the reverse will follow." Miltiades by these words gained Callimachus; and the addition of the Polemarch's vote caused the decision to be in favour of fighting. Hereupon all those generals who had been desirous of hazarding a battle, when their turn came to command the army, gave up their right to Miltiades. He however, though he accepted their offers, nevertheless waited, and would not fight until his own day of command arrived in due course. Then at length, when his own turn was come, the Athenian battle was set in array, and this was the order of it. Callimachus the Polemarch led the right wing; for it was at that time a rule with the Athenians to give the right wing to the Polemarch. After this followed the tribes, according as they were numbered, in an unbroken line; while last of all came the Plataeans, forming the left wing. And ever since that day it has been a custom with the Athenians, in the sacrifices and assemblies held each fifth year at Athens, for the Athenian herald to implore the blessing of the gods on the Plataeans conjointly with the Athenians. Now, as they marshalled the host upon the field of Marathon, in order that the Athenian front might be of equal length with the Median, the ranks of the centre were diminished, and it became the weakest part of the line, while the wings were both made strong with a depth of many ranks. So when the battle was set in array, and the victims showed themselves favourable, instantly the Athenians, so soon as they were let go, charged the barbarians at a run. Now the distance between the two armies was little short of eight furlongs. The Persians, therefore, when they saw the Greeks coming on at speed, made ready to receive them, although it seemed to them that the Athenians were bereft of their senses, and bent upon their own destruction; for they saw a mere handful of men coming on at a run without either horsemen or archers. Such was the opinion of the barbarians; but the Athenians in close array fell upon them, and fought in a manner worthy of being recorded. They were the first of the Greeks, so far as I know, who introduced the custom of charging the enemy at a run, and they were likewise the first who dared to look upon the Median garb, and to face men clad in that fashion. Until this time the very name of the Medes had been a terror to the Greeks to hear. The two armies fought together on the plain of Marathon for a length of time; and in the mid battle, where the Persians themselves and the Sacae had their place, the barbarians were victorious, and broke and pursued the Greeks into the inner country; but on the two wings the Athenians and the Plataeans defeated the enemy. Having so done, they suffered the routed barbarians to fly at their ease, and joining the two wings in one, fell upon those who had broken their own centre, and fought and conquered them. These likewise fled, and now the Athenians hung upon the runaways and cut them down, chasing them all the way to the shore, on reaching which they laid hold of the ships and called aloud for fire. It was in the struggle here that Callimachus the Polemarch, after greatly distinguishing himself, lost his life; Stesilaus too, the son of Thrasilaus, one of the generals, was slain; and Cynaegirus, the son of Euphorion, having seized on a vessel of the enemy's by the ornament at the stern, had his hand cut off by the blow of an axe, and so perished; as likewise did many other Athenians of note and name. Nevertheless the Athenians secured in this way seven of the vessels; while with the remainder the barbarians pushed off, and taking aboard their Eretrian prisoners from the island where they had left them, doubled Cape Sunium, hoping to reach Athens before the return of the Athenians. The Alcmaeonidae were accused by their countrymen of suggesting this course to them; they had, it was said, an understanding with the Persians, and made a signal to them, by raising a shield, after they were embarked in their ships. The Persians accordingly sailed round Sunium. But the Athenians with all possible speed marched away to the defence of their city, and succeeded in reaching Athens before the appearance of the barbarians: and as their camp at Marathon had been pitched in a precinct of Hercules, so now they encamped in another precinct of the same god at Cynosarges. The barbarian fleet arrived, and lay to off Phalerum, which was at that time the haven of Athens; but after resting awhile upon their oars, they departed and sailed away to Asia. There fell in this battle of Marathon, on the side of the barbarians, about six thousand and four hundred men; on that of the Athenians, one hundred and ninety-two. Such was the number of the slain on the one side and the other. A strange prodigy likewise happened at this fight. Epizelus, the son of Cuphagoras, an Athenian, was in the thick of the fray, and behaving himself as a brave man should, when suddenly he was stricken with blindness, without blow of sword or dart; and this blindness continued thenceforth during the whole of his after life. The following is the account which he himself, as I have heard, gave of the matter: he said that a gigantic warrior, with a huge beard, which shaded all his shield, stood over against him; but the ghostly semblance passed him by, and slew the man at his side. Such, as I understand, was the tale which Epizelus told. Datis meanwhile was on his way back to Asia, and had reached Myconus, when he saw in his sleep a vision. What it was is not known; but no sooner was day come than he caused strict search to be made throughout the whole fleet, and finding on board a Phoenician vessel an image of Apollo overlaid with gold, he inquired from whence it had been taken, and learning to what temple it belonged, he took it with him in his own ship to Delos, and placed it in the temple there, enjoining the Delians, who had now come back to their island, to restore the image to the Theban Delium, which lies on the coast over against Chalcis. Having left these injunctions, he sailed away; but the Delians failed to restore the statue; and it was not till twenty years afterwards that the Thebans, warned by an oracle, themselves brought it back to Delium. As for the Eretrians, whom Datis and Artaphernes had carried away captive, when the fleet reached Asia, they were taken up to Susa. Now King Darius, before they were made his prisoners, nourished a fierce anger against these men for having injured him without provocation; but now that he saw them brought into his presence, and become his subjects, he did them no other harm, but only settled them at one of his own stations in Cissia- a place called Ardericea- two hundred and ten furlongs distant from Susa, and forty from the well which yields produce of three different kinds. For from this well they get bitumen, salt, and oil, procuring it in the way that I will now describe: they draw with a swipe, and instead of a bucket make use of the half of a wine-skin; with this the man dips, and after drawing, pours the liquid into a reservoir, wherefrom it passes into another, and there takes three different shapes. The salt and the bitumen forthwith collect and harden, while the oil is drawn off into casks. It is called by the Persians "rhadinace," is black, and has an unpleasant smell. Here then King Darius established the Eretrians; and here they continued to my time, and still spoke their old language. So thus it fared with the Eretrians. After the full of the moon two thousand Lacedaemonians came to Athens. So eager had they been to arrive in time, that they took but three days to reach Attica from Sparta. They came, however, too late for the battle; yet, as they had a longing to behold the Medes, they continued their march to Marathon and there viewed the slain. Then, after giving the Athenians all praise for their achievement, they departed and returned home. But it fills me with wonderment, and I can in no wise believe the report, that the Alcmaeonidae had an understanding with the Persians, and held them up a shield as a signal, wishing Athens to be brought under the yoke of the barbarians and of Hippias- the Alcmaeonidae, who have shown themselves at least as bitter haters of tyrants as was Callias, the son of Phaenippus, and father of Hipponicus. This Callias was the only person at Athens who, when the Pisistratidae were driven out, and their goods were exposed for sale by the vote of the people, had the courage to make purchases, and likewise in many other ways to display the strongest hostility. He was a man very worthy to be had in remembrance by all, on several accounts. For not only did he thus distinguish himself beyond others in the cause of his country's freedom; but likewise, by the honours which he gained at the Olympic Games, where he carried off the prize in the horse-race, and was second in the four-horse chariot-race, and by his victory at an earlier period in the Pythian Games, he showed himself in the eyes of all the Greeks a man most unsparing in his expenditure. He was remarkable too for his conduct in respect of his daughters, three in number; for when they came to be of marriageable age, he gave to each of them a most ample dowry, and placed it at their own disposal, allowing them to choose their husbands from among all the citizens of Athens, and giving each in marriage to the man of her own choice. Now the Alcmaeonidae fell not a whit short of this person in their hatred of tyrants, so that I am astonished at the charge made against them, and cannot bring myself to believe that they held up a shield; for they were men who had remained in exile during the whole time that the tyranny lasted, and they even contrived the trick by which the Pisistratidae were deprived of their throne. Indeed I look upon them as the persons who in good truth gave Athens her freedom far more than Harmodius and Aristogeiton. For these last did but exasperate the other Pisistratidae by slaying Hipparchus, and were far from doing anything towards putting down the tyranny: whereas the Alcmaeonidae were manifestly the actual deliverers of Athens, if at least it be true that the Pythoness was prevailed upon by them to bid the Lacedaemonians set Athens free, as I have already related. But perhaps they were offended with the people of Athens; and therefore betrayed their country. Nay, but on the contrary there were none of the Athenians who were held in such general esteem, or who were so laden with honours. So that it is not even reasonable to suppose that a shield was held up by them on this account. A shield was shown, no doubt; that cannot be gainsaid; but who it was that showed it I cannot any further determine. Now the Alcmaeonidae were, even in days of yore, a family of note at Athens; but from the time of Alcmaeon, and again of Megacles, they rose to special eminence. The former of these two personages, to wit, Alcmaeon, the son of Megacles, when Croesus the Lydian sent men from Sardis to consult the Delphic oracle, gave aid gladly to his messengers, assisted them to accomplish their task. Croesus, informed of Alcmaeon's kindnesses by the Lydians who from time to time conveyed his messages to the god, sent for him to Sardis, and when he arrived, made him a present of as much gold as he should be able to carry at one time about his person. Finding that this was the gift assigned him, Alcmaeon took his measures, and prepared himself to receive it in the following way. He clothed himself in a loose tunic, which he made to bag greatly at the waist, and placing upon his feet the widest buskins that he could anywhere find, followed his guides into the treasure-house. Here he fell to upon a heap of gold-dust, and in the first place packed as much as he could inside his buskins, between them and his legs; after which he filled the breast of his tunic quite full of gold, and then sprinkling some among his hair, and taking some likewise in his mouth, he came forth from the treasure-house, scarcely able to drag his legs along, like anything rather than a man, with his mouth crammed full, and his bulk increased every way. On seeing him, Croesus burst into a laugh, and not only let him have all that he had taken, but gave him presents besides of fully equal worth. Thus this house became one of great wealth; and Alcmaeon was able to keep horses for the chariot-race, and won the prize at Olympia. Afterwards, in the generation which followed, Clisthenes, king of Sicyon, raised the family to still greater eminence among the Greeks than even that to which it had attained before. For this Clisthenes, who was the son of Aristonymus, the grandson of Myron, and the great-grandson of Andreas, had a daughter, called Agarista, whom he wished to marry to the best husband that he could find in the whole of Greece. At the Olympic Games, therefore, having gained the prize in the chariot race, he caused public proclamation to be made to the following effect:- "Whoever among the Greeks deems himself worthy to become the son-in-law of Clisthenes, let him come, sixty days hence, or, if he will, sooner, to Sicyon; for within a year's time, counting from the end of the sixty days, Clisthenes will decide on the man to whom he shall contract his daughter." So all the Greeks who were proud of their own merit or of their country flocked to Sicyon as suitors; and Clisthenes had a foot-course and a wrestling-ground made ready, to try their powers. From Italy there came Smindyrides, the son of Hippocrates, a native of Sybaris- which city about that time was at the very height of its prosperity. He was a man who in luxuriousness of living exceeded all other persons. Likewise there came Damasus, the son of Amyris, surnamed the Wise, a native of Siris. These two were the only suitors from Italy. From the Ionian Gulf appeared Amphimnestus, the son of Epistrophus, an Epidamnian; from Aetolia, Males, the brother of that Titormus who excelled all the Greeks in strength, and who wishing to avoid his fellow-men, withdrew himself into the remotest parts of the Aetolian territory. From the Peloponnese came several- Leocedes, son of that Pheidon, king of the Argives, who established weights and measures throughout the Peloponnese, and was the most insolent of all the Grecians- the same who drove out the Elean directors of the Games, and himself presided over the contests at Olympia- Leocedes, I say, appeared, this Pheidon's son; and likewise Amiantus, son of Lycurgus, an Arcadian of the city of Trapezus; Laphanes, an Azenian of Paeus, whose father, Euphorion, as the story goes in Arcadia, entertained the Dioscuri at his residence, and thenceforth kept open house for all comers; and lastly, Onomastus, the son of Agaeus, a native of Elis. These four came from the Peloponnese. From Athens there arrived Megacles, the son of that Alcmaeon who visited Croesus, and Tisander's son, Hippoclides, the wealthiest and handsomest of the Athenians. There was likewise one Euboean, Lysanias, who came from Eretria, then a flourishing city. From Thessaly came Diactorides, a Cranonian, of the race of the Scopadae; and Alcon arrived from the Molossians. This was the list of the suitors. Now when they were all come, and the day appointed had arrived, Clisthenes first of all inquired of each concerning his country and his family; after which he kept them with him a year, and made trial of their manly bearing, their temper, their accomplishments, and their disposition, sometimes drawing them apart for converse, sometimes bringing them all together. Such as were still youths he took with him from time to time to the gymnasia; but the greatest trial of all was at the banquettable. During the whole period of their stay he lived with them as I have said; and, further, from first to last he entertained them sumptuously. Somehow or other the suitors who came from Athens pleased him the best of all; and of these Hippoclides, Tisander's son, was specially in favour, partly on account of his manly bearing, and partly also because his ancestors were of kin to the Corinthian Cypselids. When at length the day arrived which had been fixed for the espousals, and Clisthenes had to speak out and declare his choice, he first of all made a sacrifice of a hundred oxen, and held a banquet, whereat he entertained all the suitors and the whole people of Sicyon. After the feast was ended, the suitors vied with each other in music and in speaking on a given subject. Presently, as the drinking advanced, Hippoclides, who quite dumbfoundered the rest, called aloud to the flute-player, and bade him strike up a dance; which the man did, and Hippoclides danced to it. And he fancied that he was dancing excellently well; but Clisthenes, who was observing him, began to misdoubt the whole business. Then Hippoclides, after a pause, told an attendant to bring in a table; and when it was brought, he mounted upon it and danced first of all some Laconian figures, then some Attic ones; after which he stood on his head upon the table, and began to toss his legs about. Clisthenes, notwithstanding that he now loathed Hippoclides for a son-in-law, by reason of his dancing and his shamelessness, still, as he wished to avoid an outbreak, had restrained himself during the first and likewise during the second dance; when, however, he saw him tossing his legs in the air, he could no longer contain himself, but cried out, "Son of Tisander, thou hast danced thy wife away!" "What does Hippoclides care?" was the other's answer. And hence the proverb arose. Then Clisthenes commanded silence, and spake thus before the assembled company:- "Suitors of my daughter, well pleased am I with you all; and right willingly, if it were possible, would I content you all, and not by making choice of one appear to put a slight upon the rest. But as it is out of my power, seeing that I have but one daughter, to grant to all their wishes, I will present to each of you whom I must needs dismiss a talent of silver, for the honour that you have done me in seeking to ally yourselves with my house, and for your long absence from your homes. But my daughter, Agarista, I betroth to Megacles, the son of Alcmaeon, to be his wife, according to the usage and wont of Athens." Then Megacles expressed his readiness; and Clisthenes had the marriage solemnised. Thus ended the affair of the suitors; and thus the Alcmaeonidae came to be famous throughout the whole of Greece. The issue of this marriage was the Clisthenes named after his grandfather the Sicyonian- who made the tribes at Athens, and set up the popular government. Megacles had likewise another son, called Hippocrates, whose children were a Megacles and an Agarista, the latter named after Agarista the daughter of Clisthenes. She married Xanthippus, the son of Ariphron; and when she was with child by him had a dream, wherein she fancied that she was delivered of a lion; after which, within a few days, she bore Xanthippus a son, to wit, Pericles. After the blow struck at Marathon, Miltiades, who was previously held in high esteem by his countrymen, increased yet more in influence. Hence, when he told them that he wanted a fleet of seventy ships, with an armed force, and money, without informing them what country he was going to attack, but only promising to enrich them if they would accompany him, seeing that it was a right wealthy land, where they might easily get as much gold as they cared to have- when he told them this, they were quite carried away, and gave him the whole armament which he required. So Miltiades, having got the armament, sailed against Paros, with the object, as he alleged, of punishing the Parians for having gone to war with Athens, inasmuch as a trireme of theirs had come with the Persian fleet to Marathon. This, however, was a mere pretence; the truth was, that Miltiades owed the Parians a grudge, because Lysagoras, the son of Tisias, who was a Parian by birth, had told tales against him to Hydarnes the Persian. Arrived before the place against which his expedition was designed, he drove the Parians within their walls, and forthwith laid siege to the city. At the same time he sent a herald to the inhabitants, and required of them a hundred talents, threatening that, if they refused, he would press the siege, and never give it over till the town was taken. But the Parians, without giving his demand a thought, proceeded to use every means that they could devise for the defence of their city, and even invented new plans for the purpose, one of which was, by working at night, to raise such parts of the wall as were likely to be carried by assault to double their former height. Thus far all the Greeks agree in their accounts of this business; what follows is related upon the testimony of the Parians only. Miltiades had come to his wit's end, when one of the prisoners, a woman named Timo, who was by birth a Parian, and had held the office of under-priestess in the temple of the infernal goddesses, came and conferred with him. This woman, they say, being introduced into the presence of Miltiades, advised him, if he set great store by the capture of the place, to do something which she could suggest to him. When therefore she had told him what it was she meant, he betook himself to the hill which lies in front of the city, and there leapt the fence enclosing the precinct of Ceres Thesmophorus, since he was not able to open the door. After leaping into the place he went straight to the sanctuary, intending to do something within it- either to remove some of the holy things which it was not lawful to stir, or to perform some act or other, I cannot say what- and had just reached the door, when suddenly a feeling of horror came upon him, and he returned back the way he had come; but in jumping down from the outer wall, he strained his thigh, or, as some say, struck the ground with his knee. So Miltiades returned home sick, without bringing the Athenians any money, and without conquering Paros, having done no more than to besiege the town for six-and-twenty days, and ravage the remainder of the island. The Parians, however, when it came to their knowledge that Timo, the under-priestess of the goddesses, had advised Miltiades what he should do, were minded to punish her for her crime; they therefore sent messengers to Delphi, as soon as the siege was at an end, and asked the god if they should put the under-priestess to death. "She had discovered," they said, "to the enemies of her country how they might bring it into subjection, and had exhibited to Miltiades mysteries which it was not lawful for a man to know." But the Pythoness forbade them, and said, "Timo was not in fault; 'twas decreed that Miltiades should come to an unhappy end; and she was sent to lure him to his destruction." Such was the answer given to the Parians by the Pythoness. The Athenians, upon the return of Miltiades from Paros, had much debate concerning him; and Xanthippus, the son of Ariphron, who spoke more freely against him than all the rest, impleaded him before the people, and brought him to trial for his life, on the charge of having dealt deceitfully with the Athenians. Miltiades, though he was present in court, did not speak in his own defence; for his thigh had begun to mortify, and disabled him from pleading his cause. He was forced to lie on a couch while his defence was made by his friends, who dwelt at most length on the fight at Marathon, while they made mention also of the capture of Lemnos, telling how Miltiades took the island, and, after executing vengeance on the Pelasgians, gave up his conquest to Athens. The judgment of the people was in his favour so far as to spare his life; but for the wrong he had done them they fined him fifty talents. Soon afterwards his thigh completely gangrened and mortified: and so Miltiades died; and the fifty talents were paid by his son Cimon. Now the way in which Miltiades had made himself master of Lemnos was the following. There were certain Pelasgians whom the Athenians once drove out of Attica; whether they did it- justly or unjustly I cannot say, since I only know what is reported concerning it, which is the following: Hecataeus, the son of Hegesander, says in his History that it was unjustly. "The Athenians," according to him, "had given to the Pelasgi a tract of land at the foot of Hymettus as payment for the wall with which the Pelasgians had surrounded their citadel. This land was barren, and little worth at the time; but the Pelasgians brought it into good condition; whereupon the Athenians begrudged them the tract, and desired to recover it. And so, without any better excuse, they took arms and drove out the Pelasgians." But the Athenians maintain that they were justified in what they did. "The Pelasgians," they say, "while they lived at the foot of Hymettus, were wont to sally forth from that region and commit outrages on their children. For the Athenians used at that time to send their sons and daughters to draw water at the fountain called 'the Nine Springs,' inasmuch as neither they nor the other Greeks had any household slaves in those days; and the maidens, whenever they came, were used rudely and insolently by the Pelasgians. Nor were they even content thus; but at the last they laid a plot, and were caught by the Athenians in the act of making an attempt upon their city. Then did the Athenians give a proof how much better men they were than the Pelasgians; for whereas they might justly have killed them all, having caught them in the very act of rebelling, the; spared their lives, and only required that they should leave the country. Hereupon the Pelasgians quitted Attica, and settled in Lemnos and other places." Such are the accounts respectively of Hecataeus and the Athenians. These same Pelasgians, after they were settled in Lemnos, conceived the wish to be revenged on the Athenians. So, as they were well acquainted with the Athenian festivals, they manned some penteconters, and having laid an ambush to catch the Athenian women as they kept the festival of Diana at Brauron, they succeeded in carrying off a large number, whom they took to Lemnos and there kept as concubines. After a while the women bore children, whom they taught to speak the language of Attica and observe the manners of the Athenians. These boys refused to have any commerce with the sons of the Pelasgian women; and if a Pelasgian boy struck one of their number, they all made common cause, and joined in avenging their comrade; nay, the Greek boys even set up a claim to exercise lordship over the others, and succeeded in gaining the upper hand. When these things came to the ears of the Pelasgians, they took counsel together, and, on considering the matter, they grew frightened, and said one to another, "If these boys even now are resolved to make common cause against the sons of our lawful wives, and seek to exercise lordship over them, what may we expect when they grow up to be men?" Then it seemed good to the Pelasgians to kill all the sons of the Attic women; which they did accordingly, and at the same time slew likewise their mothers. From this deed, and that former crime of the Lemnian women, when they slew their husbands in the days of Thoas, it has come to be usual throughout Greece to call wicked actions by the name of "Lemnian deeds." When the Pelasgians had thus slain their children and their women, the earth refused to bring forth its fruits for them, and their wives bore fewer children, and their flocks and herds increased more slowly than before, till at last, sore pressed by famine and bereavement, they sent men to Delphi, and begged the god to tell them how they might obtain deliverance from their sufferings. The Pythoness answered that "they must give the Athenians whatever satisfaction they might demand." Then the Pelasgians went to Athens and declared their wish to give the Athenians satisfaction for the wrong which they had done to them. So the Athenians had a couch prepared in their townhall, and adorned it with the fairest coverlets, and set by its side a table laden with all manner of good things, and then told the Pelasgians they must deliver up their country to them in a similar condition. The Pelasgians answered and said, "When a ship comes with a north wind from your country to ours in a single day, then will we give it up to you." This they said because they knew that what they required was impossible, for Attica lies a long way to the south of Lemnos. No more passed at that time. But very many years afterwards, when the Hellespontian Chersonese had been brought under the power of Athens, Miltiades, the son of Cimon, sailed, during the prevalence of the Etesian winds, from Elaeus in the Chersonese to Lemnos, and called on the Pelasgians to quit their island, reminding them of the prophecy which they had supposed it impossible to fulfil. The people of Hephaestia obeyed the call; but they of Myrina, not acknowledging the Chersonese to be any part of Attica, refused and were besieged and brought over by force. Thus was Lemnos gained by the Athenians and Miltiades. Retrieved from "https://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=The_History_of_Herodotus_(Rawlinson)/Book_6&oldid=6173902" Hidden category: Subpages Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Page Discussion Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main Page Community portal Central discussion Recent changes Subject index Authors Random work Random author Random transcription Help Donate Display Options Tools What links here Related changes Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Download/print Compile a book Printable version Download EPUB Download MOBI Download PDF Other formats In other languages Ελληνικά Français Add links This page was last edited on 1 April 2016, at 15:41. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. 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et-wikipedia-org-9295	----	Xerxes I – Vikipeedia Xerxes I Allikas: Vikipeedia Mine navigeerimisribale Mine otsikasti Xerxes I kuju Hadishi palees Persepolises Xerxes I (pärsia خشیارشا; vanapärsia Xšaya-ṛšā; heebrea אחשורוש; kreeka Ξέρξης; ladina Xerses; umbes 519 eKr – 4. august 465 eKr) oli Pärsia neljas suurkuningas. Ta valitses aastast 486 eKr kuni surmani. Vanapärsia keeles tähendab tema nimi 'kangelaste üle valitseja'. Sisukord 1 Elulugu 1.1 Noorus ja võimuletulek 1.2 Sõjakäigud 1.2.1 Sissetung Kreekasse 1.2.2 Termopüülid ja Ateena 1.3 Ehitusprojektid 1.4 Surm 2 Perekond 3 Kajastamine kultuuris 4 Viited Elulugu[muuda | muuda lähteteksti] Noorus ja võimuletulek[muuda | muuda lähteteksti] Kohe pärast võimu haaramist abiellus suurkuningas Dareios I üle-eelmise valitseja Kyros II tütre Atossaga. Erinevaid Ahhemeniidide harusid mööda põlvnesid nad mõlemad dünastia rajajast Achaimenesest. Kyrose tütrega abiellumine kindlustas Dareiose positsiooni suurkuningana.[1] Dareios oli tegus valitseja, kes võttis ette suuri ehitustöid Persepolises, Susas, Egiptuses ja mujal oma impeeriumis. Valitsemisaja lõpul kavandas ta karistusretke Ateena vastu, kuid esmalt tuli maha suruda Egiptuses puhkenud uus ülestõus (mida juhtis tõenäoliselt kohalik Pärsia satraap). Vastavalt Pärsia seadustele pidi valitseja enne sellisele sõjaretkele asumist nimetama endale järeltulija. Oma lahkumise eel, 487–486 eKr[2] rajas Dareios Naqsh-i Rustami oma hauakambri ning määras oma järeltulijaks Xerxese, kes oli tema vanim poeg abielust Atossaga. Valitseja halvenev tervis takistas teda sõjaretke etteotsa asumast ja ta suri oktoobris 486.[3] Dareiose vanim poeg Artabazanes pretendeeris ka ise troonile, sest kogu maailmas oli levinud komme, et eesõigus on esmasündinul. Xerxes kasutas enda toetuseks argumenti, et tema oli Atossa, Kyrose tütre poeg, ja just Kyros oli olnud see, kes rajas sõltumatu Pärsia riigi. Ka mitme tänapäevase ajaloolase hinnangul võttis Dareios endale järeltulija määramisel arvesse just Kyros II ja tema tütre Atossa erilist positsiooni.[4] Artabazanes oli sündinud enne Dareiose võimuletulekut ja tema ema pärines lihtrahva hulgast; Xerxes oli esimene laps, kes sündis pärast Dareiose troonile tõusmist, ja tema ema oli impeeriumi rajaja tütar.[5] Xerxes krooniti isa järel suurkuningaks vahemikus oktoobrist detsembrini 486 eKr,[6] kui ta oli umbes 36-aastane.[2] Võimu üleminek Xerxesele läks ladusalt, osaliselt tema ema Atossa suure autoriteedi ja mõju tõttu.[1] Xerxese trooniletulekut ei püüdnud takistada keegi õukonnast ega Ahhemeniidide perekonnast.[7] Peaaegu kohe surus ta maha aasta varem puhkenud ülestõusud Egiptuses ja Babüloonias ning nimetas oma venna Achaimenese uueks Egiptuse satraabiks ehk asevalitsejaks. 484 eKr vihastas ta välja babüloonlased, sest ta konfiskeeris vägivalda kasutades ja sulatas Marduki kullast kuju, mille käsi pidid Babüloonia kuningad iga uue aasta esimesel päeval puudutama.[8] See pühaduseteotus tõi aastatel 484 eKr ja 482 eKr kaasa uued babüloonlaste ülestõusud. Babüloonia ürikud kirjeldavad, et Xerxes keeldus erinevalt oma isast kasutamast Babüloonia kuninga tiitlit, nimetades ennast ainult Pärsia ja Meedia kuningaks, suurkuningaks, kuningate kuningaks ja rahvaste (st maailma) kuningaks. Kuigi Herodotose "Ajaloos" toodud andmed on tekitanud küsimusi seoses Xerxese usulise kuuluvusega, peavad tänapäeva ajaloolased teda zoroasterlaseks.[9] Sõjakäigud[muuda | muuda lähteteksti] Sissetung Kreekasse[muuda | muuda lähteteksti] Xerxes jälgib Hellespontose karistamist (joonistus 1909. aastast)  Pikemalt artiklis Kreeka-Pärsia sõjad Dareios I suri ajal, mil ta valmistas ette sissetungi Kreekasse, et karistada Ateena, Naxose ja Eretria elanikke Joonia ülestõusu sekkumise, Sardise põletamise ja pärslaste purustamise eest Maratoni lahingus. See ülesanne jäi tema pojale Xerxesele, kes valmistas alates aastast 483 eKr ette oma sõjakäiku: läbi Áthose poolsaare maakitsuse kaevati kanal, Traakiat läbiva tee äärsetesse tugipunktidesse toimetati varustust, üle Hellespontose ehitati kaks pontoonsilda. Xerxese armees teenisid eri päritolu sõdurid, teiste seas assüürlased, foiniiklased, babüloonlased, egiptlased ja juudid.[10] Kreeka ajaloolase Herodotose andmetel lõppes Xerxese esimene katse Hellespontost ületada ebaõnnestumisega, sest torm hävitas sildade linast ja papüürusest köied. Seepeale käskis Xerxes Hellespontose väina kolmsada korda piitsutada ja heita vette jalarauad. Tema teine katse väina ületada läks korda.[11] Xerxes sõlmis liidu Kartaagoga ja lõikas sellega kreeklased ära Sitsiilias asuvate Sürakuusa ja Agrigentumi valitsejate toetusest. Paljud väiksemad Kreeka riigid asusid pärslaste poolele, teiste seas Tessaalia, Teeba ja Argos. Esimestes lahingutes saatis Xerxese vägesid edu. Aastal 480 eKr asus kuningas ise Sardisest teele laevastiku ja sõjaväega, mille suuruseks oli Herodotose hinnangul 1 miljon meest, teistes seas ka 10 000 eliitsõdurit, keda nimetati Pärsia surematuteks. Tänapäevaste hinnangute kohaselt võis Pärsia armees olla umbes 60 000 võitlusvõimelist meest,[12] sest ükski maa ei oleks sel ajal suutnud üleval pidada taolist tohutut hulka sõdureid, eriti veel tänase Süüria, Iraagi ja Türgi karmid, poolkõrbelised alad, kus Pärsia armee kogunes. Termopüülid ja Ateena[muuda | muuda lähteteksti] Termopüülide lahingus seisis pärslaste vastas arvuliselt väike kreeklaste armee, mida juhtis Sparta kuningas Leonidas I. Kuigi kreeklased võitlesid vapralt, said nad lõpuks lüüa. Herodotose andmetel purustasid pärslased Sparta faalanksi pärast seda kui kreeklane nimega Ephialtes reetis oma riigi ja rahva, rääkides pärslastele mäekurust, mis viis kreeklaste selja taha. Pärast Termopüülide lahingut langes Ateena ning ateenlased pidid taanduma oma viimastele kaitsepositsioonidele Korinthose maakitsusel ja Saroni lahel. Edasiste sündmuste osas on andmed vastuolulised. Herodotose kohaselt lasi eest tühja linna leidnud Xerxes isegi Pärsia valitsejatele ebaharilikus raevuhoos Ateena maha põletada. Kohe seejärel kahetses ta oma tegu ja käskis järgmisel päeval linna üles ehitada. Pärsia uurijad on seda nimetanud hellenistlikuks propagandaks, väites, et Kreeka sõjakäigul oli Xerxese põhivaenlaseks Sparta, mitte Ateena. Xerxes ei oleks saavutanud midagi olulise kaubandus- ja ärikeskuse nagu Ateena mahapõletamisega, eriti veel pärast selle vallutamist. Xerxes I raidkiri Vani kindluse lähistel Sel ajal olid Pärsia-vastased meeleolud Peloponnesose kreeklaste seas tugevad ja kuulujutt Ateena hävitamisest Xerxese poolt levis kiiresti, olgugi et on ka teisi vähemalt sama tõenäolisi põlengu puhkemise võimalusi. Tulekahju võisid süüdata linnast lahkuvad ateenlased ise, kas siis paanikas põgenedes või kasutades Xerxese armee vastu põletatud maa taktikat. Artemisionis olid suured tormid purustanud Kreeka laevastiku. Kui kreeklased kuulsid kaotusest Termopüülide all, otsustasid nad taganeda. Kreeka admirali Themistoklese sõnum vihastas aga Xerxest nii väga, et vastupidiselt oma asevalitseja Artemisia I hoiatustele otsustas ta Kreeka laevastikku ebasoodsates tingimustes rünnata, kuigi kuningas oleks võinud saata osa laevadest Peloponnesose rannikule ja lihtsalt oodata Kreeka armee lagunemist. Septembris 480 toimunud Salamise merelahingus said pärslased kreeklastelt lüüa, pärast mida asus Xerxes Tessaalias talvelaagrisse. Rahutuste tõttu Babülonis oli Xerxes sunnitud suurema osaga armeest ülestõusu ärahoidmiseks koju minema, jättes Kreekasse Mardoniose juhitud väeüksuse. Mardonios sai järgmisel aastal kreeklastelt Plataia lahingus lüüa.[13] Mykale lahingus põletasid kreeklased ka Mykale juures ankrus olnud Pärsia laevastiku. See lõikas pärslased ära varudest, mida nad hiiglasliku armee ülalpidamiseks vajasid ja neil polnud muud valikut kui taganeda. Pärslaste taganemine õhutas omakorda mässama Ees-Aasias asunud kreeka linnriigid. Ehitusprojektid[muuda | muuda lähteteksti] Kivisse raiutud hauda Naqsh-i Rustamis Persepolisest põhja pool, mis on Dareios I haua koopia, peetakse reeglina Xerxes I hauaks Pärast sõjalisi ebaõnnestumisi Kreekas pöördus Xerxes Pärsiasse tagasi ja viis lõpule oma isa pooleli jäänud arvukad ehitusprojektid Susas ja Persepolises. Persepolisesse ehitas ta kõigi rahvaste värava ja saja sambaga saali, mis on sealse palee suurimad ja kõige muljetavaldavamad osad. Ta viis ka lõpule Dareiose palee, varakambri ja apadana rajamise ning ehitas lisaks oma palee, mis oli isa paleest kaks korda suurem. Arhitektuuri alal sarnanes tema maitse Dareiose omaga, kuigi Xerxese ehitised on veel hiiglaslikumad.[14] Ta jätkas ka isa rajatud kuningliku tee haldamist, ehitas valmis Susa värava ja ehitas Susasse palee.[15] Surm[muuda | muuda lähteteksti] Augustis 465 eKr mõrvas Xerxese kuningliku ihukaitse ülem Artabanos, kõige mõjuvõimsam ametnik Pärsia õukonnas. See konkreetne Artabanos, kes kandis kuninga onuga sama nime, saavutas oma positsiooni läbi haaremiintriigide ja tänu preestrite toetusele. Ta pani võtmekohtadele ka oma seitse poega ja haudus plaane Ahhemeniidid troonilt tõrjuda. Mõrva kavandamisel kasutas Artabanos eunuhh Aspamitrese abi. Kreeka ajaloolased on esitanud selle sündmuse kohta vastuolulisi andmeid. Ktesias on oma "Persicas" kirjutanud, et mõrva järel süüdistas Artabanos mõrvas Xerxese vanimat poega, kroonprints Dareiost ja veenis Xerxese teist poega Artaxerxest kättemaksuks Dareiost tapma. Aristotelese andmetele tappis Aratabanos esimesena Dareiose ja alles seejärel Xerxese. Kui Artaxerxes mõrvadest teada sai, tappis ta Artabanose ja tolle pojad.[16] Nendes vandenõudes osales ka väepealik Megabyzos, kelle otsus pooli vahetada kindlustas ilmselt Ahhemeniidide püsimise Pärsia troonil.[17] Xerxese täpne surmakuupäev – 4. august – on suudetud kindlaks teha kuuvarjutusest kõneleva kiilkirjafragmendi abil.[18] Perekond[muuda | muuda lähteteksti] Xerxes oli abielus Amestrisega. Amestrise isa oli Otanes, üks seitsmest ülikust, kes tapsid aastal 522 eKr Pärsia usurpaatorist kuninga Bardiya ja avasid Dareios I tee troonile. Amestrisega oli Xerxesel kuus last: Dareios, esmasündinu, kes tapeti umbes samal ajal isaga Artaxerxes, kes päris venna surma tõttu trooni Hystaspes, kes tapeti vanema venna Artaxerxese käsul Achaimenes, kes langes võitluses egiptlastega Amytis, kes oli väepealik Megabyzose naine Rhodogune Lisaks oli tal lapsi veel liignaistega, kelle nimed pole teada. Need lapsed olid: Artarios, kes oli hiljem Babüloonia satraap Tithraostes Arsames või Arsamenes, kes oli hiljem Egiptuse satraap Parysatis Ratashah[19] Kajastamine kultuuris[muuda | muuda lähteteksti] Xerxest samastatakse Piiblis Vana Testamendi Estri raamatus mainitud kuningas Ahasverosega. Samas on Estri raamatu kreekakeelses versioonis, Flavius Josephuse ajaloos ja mitmetes hilisemates piiblikommentaarides Ahasverose prototüübiks peetud hilisemat Pärsia valitsejat Artaxerxes II. Xerxes on peategelane tuntud barokkhelilooja Georg Friedrich Händeli ooperis "Xerxes", mille esmaettekanne toimus Londoni kuninglikus teatris 15. aprillil 1738. Ooperi avab tuntud aaria "Ombra mai fù". Hilisemate sugupõlvede vaimustumine muistsest Spartast ja eriti Termopüülide lahingust on toonud kaasa Xerxese sagedase kujutamise popkultuuris. Enamasti on näidatud teda negatiivses valguses, kusjuures kujutamisviisid kõiguvad lihtsalt ebasümpaatsest suurustushulluses vaevleva psühhopaadini. 1962. aasta filmis "300 spartalast" mängis teda näitleja David Farrar. Seal on Xerxest kujutatud julma, võimust hullunud despoodina ja saamatu väejuhina. Samuti on tal keskne roll Frank Milleri koomiksis "300" ja selle põhjal tehtud samanimelises filmis, kus teda mängib brasiilia näitleja Rodrigo Santoro ja kus teda on kujutatud hiiglasest jumal-kuningana. Taoline kujutamisviis on tekitanud pahameelt, eriti Iraanis.[20] Mitmed muudki teosed, mis käsitlevad Pärsia impeeriumi või Estri raamatut, on viidanud Xerxesele. Näiteks esineb ta videomängus "Assassin's Creed II" ja filmis "Üks öö kuningaga", kus Ahasverost ehk Xerxest mängib Briti näitleja Luke Goss. Video- ja arvutimängudes "Civilization II" ja "Civilization III" on ta Pärsia tsivilisatsiooni juht, kuid mängu neljandas versioonis asendavad Xerxest Kyros II ja Dareios I. Kirjanik Gore Vidal kirjeldab oma ajaloolises romaanis "Creation" pikalt Ahhemeniidide ja eriti Dareios I tõusu ning räägib ka Xerxes I elust ja surmast. Tema ajalookäsitlus vastandub vanakreeka ajalookirjutuse seisukohtadele. Viited[muuda | muuda lähteteksti] ↑ 1,0 1,1 Viitamistõrge: Vigane <ref>-silt. Viide nimega atossa-EI on ilma tekstita. ↑ 2,0 2,1 Viitamistõrge: Vigane <ref>-silt. Viide nimega phae-xx on ilma tekstita. ↑ Viitamistõrge: Vigane <ref>-silt. Viide nimega darius-EI on ilma tekstita. ↑ Viitamistõrge: Vigane <ref>-silt. Viide nimega lHA0q on ilma tekstita. ↑ Viitamistõrge: Vigane <ref>-silt. Viide nimega cTl40 on ilma tekstita. ↑ Viitamistõrge: Vigane <ref>-silt. Viide nimega 1g9iC on ilma tekstita. ↑ Viitamistõrge: Vigane <ref>-silt. Viide nimega nLpY8 on ilma tekstita. ↑ Viitamistõrge: Vigane <ref>-silt. Viide nimega 0GIsy on ilma tekstita. ↑ Viitamistõrge: Vigane <ref>-silt. Viide nimega jkN48 on ilma tekstita. ↑ Viitamistõrge: Vigane <ref>-silt. Viide nimega GZ9sV on ilma tekstita. ↑ Viitamistõrge: Vigane <ref>-silt. Viide nimega wHZlR on ilma tekstita. ↑ Viitamistõrge: Vigane <ref>-silt. Viide nimega D1CEW on ilma tekstita. ↑ Viitamistõrge: Vigane <ref>-silt. Viide nimega qlOzh on ilma tekstita. ↑ Viitamistõrge: Vigane <ref>-silt. Viide nimega lmN1f on ilma tekstita. ↑ Viitamistõrge: Vigane <ref>-silt. Viide nimega 8koqG on ilma tekstita. ↑ Viitamistõrge: Vigane <ref>-silt. Viide nimega mI3HT on ilma tekstita. ↑ Viitamistõrge: Vigane <ref>-silt. Viide nimega mGF1G on ilma tekstita. ↑ Viitamistõrge: Vigane <ref>-silt. Viide nimega LZkDq on ilma tekstita. ↑ Viitamistõrge: Vigane <ref>-silt. Viide nimega fXTS7 on ilma tekstita. ↑ Viitamistõrge: Vigane <ref>-silt. Viide nimega aGKRR on ilma tekstita. Viitamistõrge: <references>-sildis kirjeldatud <ref>-sildil on rühmatunnus "", mis puudub eelnevas tekstis. Viitamistõrge: <references>-sildis kirjeldatud <ref>-sildil on rühmatunnus "", mis puudub eelnevas tekstis. 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Eelnev: Dareios I Pärsia suurkuningas 486–465 eKr Järgnev: Artaxerxes I Egiptuse vaarao 486–465 eKr Pärit leheküljelt "https://et.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&oldid=5423889" Kategooriad: Vana-Pärsia monarhid Ahhemeniidid Sündinud 6. sajandil eKr Surnud 460. aastatel eKr Peidetud kategooria: Viitamistõrgetega leheküljed Navigeerimismenüü Personaalsed tööriistad Sisse logimata Arutelu Kaastöö Loo konto Logi sisse Nimeruumid Artikkel Arutelu Variandid vaatamisi Vaata Muuda Muuda lähteteksti Näita ajalugu Veel Otsing Navigeerimine Esileht Üldine arutelu Sündmused maailmas Viimased muudatused Juhuslik lehekülg Juhend Annetused Kontakt Trüki või ekspordi Koosta raamat Laadi alla PDF-failina Prinditav versioon Tööriistad Lingid siia Seotud muudatused Erileheküljed Püsilink Lehekülje teave Viita leheküljele Andmeüksus Teistes projektides Commons Teistes keeltes Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bahasa Indonesia Bahasa Melayu Беларуская Bosanski Brezhoneg Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Кыргызча Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Malagasy मराठी مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча پنجابی پښتو Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Tiếng Việt Türkçe Українська اردو Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Redigeeri linke Selle lehekülje viimane muutmine: 14:09, 13. august 2019. 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eu-wikipedia-org-8258	----	Xerxes I.a - Wikipedia, entziklopedia askea. Jump to content Toggle sidebar Bilatu Tresna pertsonalak Saioa hasi gabe Eztabaida Ekarpenak Sortu kontua Hasi saioa Nabigazioa Azala Txikipedia Txokoa Albisteak Aldaketa berriak Ausazko orria Laguntza Dohaintza egin Tresnak Honanzko lotura duten orriak Lotutako orrietako aldaketak Fitxategia igo Orri bereziak Lotura iraunkorra Orri honen datuak Artikulu hau aipatu Wikidata itema Inprimatu/esportatu Liburu bat sortu PDF gisa jaitsi Inprimatzeko bertsioa Beste proiektuetan Wikimedia Commons Beste hizkuntzak Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Aldatu loturak Nabigazio menua Izen-tarteak Artikulua Eztabaida Aldaerak Ikusketak Irakurri Aldatu Aldatu iturburu kodea Ikusi historia Gehiago Xerxes I.a Wikipedia, Entziklopedia askea Xerxes I.a Irudi gehiago King of the Kings (en) K.a. 485 - K.a. 465 ← Dario I.a - Artaxerxes I.a → Faraoi Bizitza Jaiotza Iran, K.a. 519 Herrialdea  Akemenestar Inperioa Heriotza Q3746183 , K.a. 465 (43/44 urte) Hobiratze lekua Iran Hiltzailea Artabanus of Persia (en) Familia Aita Dario I.a Ama Atossa Ezkontidea(k) Vasti Amestris (en) Ester Seme-alabak ikusi Artaxerxes I.a Amytis (en) Artabanus (en) Q3507242 Histaspes (en) Darius (en) Rodoguna (en) Anai-arrebak ikusi Artazostre (en) Gobryas (en) Arsames (en) Artobazanes (en) Ariamenes (en) Ariabignes (en) Abrocomes (en) Masistes (en) Achaemenes (en) Artsames Leinua Akemenestar dinastia Jarduerak Jarduerak estatu-politikaria Sinesmenak eta ideologia Erlijioa Zoroastrismoa Xerxes I.a edo Xerxes Handia[1] (antzinako persieraz: Xšaya-ṛšā‎; persieraz: خشایارشا‎, antzinako grezieraz: Ξερξης eta hebreeraz: אֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹשׁ‎; Persia, K.a. 519 - K.a. 465) Persiako Errege Handia (Shah) izan zen. Mediar Gerretan zehar Termopiletako guduan Espartako Leonidas I.a erregea eta 300 espartarren aurka borrokatzeagatik ezaguna izan zen. Erreferentziak[aldatu | aldatu iturburu kodea] ↑ Euskaltzaindia. (2014-03-28). (PDF) 175. araua: Antzinateko pertsona-izenak eta izen mitologikoak (I): Mesopotamia, Mediako Inperioa, Akemenestar Inperioa eta Lidia. Bilbo, 6 or.. Wikimedia Commonsen badira fitxategi gehiago, gai hau dutenak: Xerxes I.a Mediar eta akemenestar erregeak Mediar (k. a. 728–550) Dejozes Fraortes Ziaxares Astiages Akemenestar (k. a. 550–330) Akemenes Ariaramnes Artsames Teispes Ziro I.a Kanbises I.a Ziro II.a Handia Kanbises II.a Esmerdis Gaumata Dario I.a Handia Xerxes Handia Artaxerxes I.a Xerxes II.a Sogdiano Dario II.a Nothus Artaxerxes II.a Mnemon Artaxerxes III.a Oko Artaxerxes IV.a Arses Dario III.a Kodomano Artaxerxes V.a Bessos Letra etzanean ziur asko kondairazko erregeak direnak. "https://eu.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I.a&oldid=7012915"(e)tik eskuratuta Kategoriak: Akemenestar erregeak Egiptoko XXVII. dinastiako faraoiak Bibliako pertsonaiak K.a. V. mendeko biografiak Ezkutuko kategoriak: Testuan erdara duten artikuluak Testuan persiera duten artikuluak Testuan antzinako greziera duten artikuluak Testuan hebreera duten artikuluak Commonskat txantiloiaren mantenimendu bilaketak Orriaren azken aldaketa: 10 uztaila 2019, 01:59. Testua Creative Commons Aitortu-PartekatuBerdin 3.0 lizentziari jarraituz erabil daiteke; baliteke beste klausularen batzuk ere aplikatu behar izatea. Xehetasunen berri izateko, ikus erabilera-baldintzak. Pribazitate politika Wikipediari buruz Lege oharra Mugikorreko bista Garatzaileak Statistics Cookie adierazpena 
fi-wikipedia-org-5582	----	Kserkses I – Wikipedia Kserkses I Wikipediasta Siirry navigaatioon Siirry hakuun Tähän artikkeliin tai osioon ei ole merkitty lähteitä, joten tiedot kannattaa tarkistaa muista tietolähteistä. Voit lisätä artikkeliin tarkistettavissa olevia lähteitä ja merkitä ne ohjeen mukaan. Tarkennus: Artikkeliin pitää laittaa lähteet joihin voi sitten viitata Kserkses I:n reliefi. Kserkses I eli Ahasveros[1] (persiaksi خشایارشا, Khšāyāršā, m.kreik. Ξέρξης) oli Persian kuninkaana vuosina 485–465 eaa. Hän jatkoi isänsä Dareioksen aloittamia persialaissotia, mutta kreikkalaisten voitettua Salamiin meritaistelussa (480 eaa.) ja Plataiaissa (479 eaa.) Kserkses luopui Kreikkaa vastaan käydystä sodasta. Pedro Damianon (1480-1544) kirjassaan referoiman perimätiedon mukaan Kserkses I oli nykyisen shakkipelin kehittäjä.[2] Sisällysluettelo 1 Nousu valtaistuimelle 2 Hyökkäys Kreikkaan 3 Myöhemmät vuodet 4 Lähteet Nousu valtaistuimelle[muokkaa | muokkaa wikitekstiä] Kserkses oli Dareios I:n ja Kyyros Suuren tyttären Atossan poika. Noustuaan valtaan 485 eaa. hän kukisti kapinat Egyptissä ja Babylonissa. Hän nimitti veljensä Akhaimeneen Egyptin satraapiksi. Vuonna 484 eaa. Kserkses vei Babylonista erään seremoniallisesti tärkeän jumalan patsaan ja tappoi paikallisen papin. Tämä johti kahteen kapinaan todennäköisesti vuosina 484 ja 479 eaa. Hyökkäys Kreikkaan[muokkaa | muokkaa wikitekstiä] Dareioksen aikana ateenalaiset, naksoslaiset ja eretrialaiset olivat sekaantuneet Joonian kapinaan. Lisäksi kreikkalaiset olivat aiheuttaneet persialaisille tappion Marathonin taistelussa. Suuttuen Marathonin tappiosta kokosi Dareios koko valtakuntansa sotavoimat, aikoen itse lähteä johtamaan uutta kostosotaa, mutta hän kuoli kesken varustuksiansa. Hänen poikansa Kserkses läksi Aasiasta viemään länttä kohti yhtä maailmanhistorian suurimmista sotajoukoista. Kserkseen joukot oli koottu suurelta osin väkipakolla eri puolilta mahtavaa valtakuntaa: persialaisia komeissa varustuksissaan, medialaisia kalleissa pukimissaan, intialaisia, joilla oli pajusta palmikoidut panssarit ja bamburuokonuolet, skyyttilaispaimentolaisia nahkahaarniskoineen ja sotakirveineen, lyhytnuttuisia arabialaisia pitkine jousineen, etiopialaisia leijonan- ja pantterintaljat pukimina, kolkilaisia päässä puukypärät ja kädessä nahkakilvet, nahkapukuisia traakialaisia lyhyine miekkoineen ja paljon muita. Lisäksi Kserkses oli muodostanut ennen sotaa useita liittolaissuhteita muun muassa Karthagon ja monien pienempien kreikkalaisten kaupunkivaltioiden kanssa. Kserkseen julmasta kurista kerrottiin tarinoita. Yhden mukaan tapahtui seuraava: Kun sotajoukko kokoutui Sardeeseen, toimitti rikas Pytios pidot kaikille. Ennen sotaväen lähtöä hän astui kuninkaan eteen ja rukoili suosionosoitusta. Kuningas lupasi täyttää pyynnön. Silloin Pytios lausui: "Herra, minulla on viisi poikaa, ja heidän täytyy lähteä sotaan sinun kanssasi. Armahda, kuningas, nyt minua, vanhaa miestä, ja vapauta vanhin poikani sotapalveluksesta. Muut neljä seuratkoot sinua." Kserkses vastasi äkäisesti: "Kelvoton mies, uskallatko ajatella poikaasi, vaikka olet minun orjani ja sinun oikeastaan pitäisi koko huonekuntasi kanssa seuraaman sotajoukkoani!" Sitten kuningas käski hakkaamaan Pytioksen vanhimman pojan keskeltä kahtia ja panemaan puolikkaat molemmin puolin tietä, jota sotajoukon piti marssia, niin ettei kukaan enää uskaltaisi pyytää vapautusta sotapalveluksesta. Kserkses suunnitteli hyökkäyksen ja sen huollon perinpohjaisen huolellisesti. Hellespontokselle hän oli teettänyt sillan. Kreikkalainen historioitsija Herodotos kertoo, että kun ensimmäinen sillanrakennusyritys epäonnistui myrskyn revittyä sillan kappaleiksi, Kserkses antoi ruoskia meren aallot ja mestata rakentajat. Toinen rakentamisyritys onnistui. Vuonna 480 eaa. siirtyi sotajoukko Sardeesta Abydokseen. Ensin kulkivat kuorma- ja vetojuhdat ja niiden jäljessä toinen puoli sotaväkeä, järjestämätön joukko kaikenlaisia kansoja. Sitten tuli kuninkaan etujoukkona 1 000 valittua persialaista ratsumiestä ja yhtä monta keihäsmiestä. Näitä seurasivat Ormutsin pyhät vaunut, kahdeksan valkoista hevosta edessä, joiden ajaja astui vieressä, sillä ei kukaan kuolevainen saanut nousta niiden vaunujen istuimelle. Sitten Kserkses itse ajoi istuen korkeissa vaunuissa, joiden vieressä ajaja astui. Kuninkaan jälkijoukkona oli kuten edelläkin 1 000 valittua ratsumiestä ja yhtä monta keihäsmiestä sekä 10 000 muuta ratsumiestä ja yhtä monta miestä parasta jalkaväkeä. Kuninkaan seurueen jäljessä vaelsi kirjavassa epäjärjestyksessä suuren sotajoukon toinen puoli. Laivaston purjehtiessa pitkin rantaa marssi maajoukko Hellespontoksen yli Traakian rannalle Doriskon viereiselle tasangolle. Siellä Kserkses antoi Herodotoksen mukaan laskea sotaväkensä, joka tapahtui siten, että ensin koottiin kymmenen tuhatta miestä, jotka sullottiin tiheään ja ympäröitiin kaksiovisella aidalla. Niiden pois marssittua tuli aitaus täyteen toisia miehiä ja sitten taas toisia, kunnes kaikki väki oli laskettu. Tässä Kserkseen joukossa oli yli kaksi miljoonaa miestä. Lisäksi palvelijoita, kokkeja ja naisia kerrotaan olleen yhtä paljon. Tämä suunnaton joukko lähestyi hitaasti Kreikanmaata. Herodotos luettelee jokia, jotka kuivuivat, kun sotaväki niistä otti tarpeekseen vettä, ja kaupunkeja, jotka perin köyhtyivät, kun niiden täytyi toimittaa sille yksi ateria. Makedonian kuningas osoitti alamaisuutta mahtavalle hallitsijalle. Tessalian rajalla otettiin vastaan palaavat sanansaattajat, jotka oli lähetetty vaatimaan kreikkalaisilta valtioilta maata ja vettä, noita alamaisuuteen antautumisen merkkejä. Enimmät sanansaattajat olivat niitä saaneetkin. Ateenaan ja Spartaan ei ollut lähetetty ketään. Ne molemmat valtiot ja muut, jotka vielä uskalsivat puolustautua, varustautuivat vastarintaan.[3] Sotaonni oli aluksi Kserkseelle myötä. Thermopylain taistelussa pieni joukko sotilaita johtajanaan Spartan kuningas Leonidas pidätteli persialaisia pitkään, mutta lopulta persialaiset saivat voiton. Thermopylain jälkeen Ateena vallattiin ja ateenalaiset ajettiin spartalaisten kanssa Korintin kannakselle ja Saronikoslahdelle. Lopulta kuitenkin Salamiin taistelussa ateenalaisten laivasto sai voiton. Ilman laivastotukea Kserkses joutui vetäytymään. Lopulta myös hänen Kreikkaan jättämänsä jälkijoukko lyötiin. Myöhemmät vuodet[muokkaa | muokkaa wikitekstiä] Kserkseen myöhemmistä vuosista tiedetään vain vähän. Häneltä on jäänyt joitain piirtokirjoituksia muun muassa Persepoliiseen. Vuonna 465 eaa. hänen visiirinsä Artabanos murhasi hänet ja nosti valtaan Artakserkses I:n. Lähteet[muokkaa | muokkaa wikitekstiä] ↑ Pyhä Raamattu, Est. 1:2. ↑ Damiano da Odemira Auteur du texte: Questo libro e da imparare giocare a scachi et de le partite ([Reprod.]) / [Damiano]. {{{Julkaisija}}}, 1512. Teoksen verkkoversio (viitattu 29.10.2020). FR ↑ Sjögren, Otto: Historiallinen lukukirja: Vanha ja Keski-aika. WSOY, 1888. Edeltäjä: Dareios I Persian kuningas Akemenidien hallitsijasuku Seuraaja: Artakserkses I Edeltäjä: Dareios I Egyptin faarao Akemenidien hallitsijasuku 27. Dynastia Seuraaja: Artakserkses I Noudettu kohteesta ”https://fi.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kserkses_I&oldid=19390992” Luokat: Persian kuninkaat Egyptin faaraot Akhaimenidit Ennen ajanlaskumme alkua syntyneet Ennen ajanlaskumme alkua kuolleet Piilotetut luokat: Kotoistettuja päivämääriä sisältävät artikkelit Julkaisija-parametri puuttuu Lähteettömät artikkelit Seulonnan keskeiset artikkelit Navigointivalikko Henkilökohtaiset työkalut Et ole kirjautunut Keskustelu Muokkaukset Luo tunnus Kirjaudu sisään Nimiavaruudet Artikkeli Keskustelu Kirjoitusjärjestelmät Näkymät Lue Muokkaa Muokkaa wikitekstiä Näytä historia Muut Haku Valikko Etusivu Tietoja Wikipediasta Kaikki sivut Satunnainen artikkeli Osallistuminen Ohje Kahvihuone Ajankohtaista Tuoreet odottavat muutokset Tuoreet muutokset Lahjoitukset Työkalut Tänne viittaavat sivut Linkitettyjen sivujen muutokset Toimintosivut Ikilinkki Sivun tiedot Viitetiedot Wikidata-kohde Tulosta tai vie Lataa PDF-tiedostona Tulostettava versio Muissa hankkeissa Wikimedia Commons Muilla kielillä Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bahasa Indonesia Bahasa Melayu Беларуская Bosanski Brezhoneg Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Кыргызча Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Malagasy मराठी مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча پنجابی پښتو Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Tiếng Việt Türkçe Українська اردو Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Muokkaa linkkejä Sivua on viimeksi muutettu 6. joulukuuta 2020 kello 18.19. 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en-wikisource-org-807	----	The History of Herodotus (Rawlinson)/Book 7 - Wikisource, the free online library The History of Herodotus (Rawlinson)/Book 7 From Wikisource < The History of Herodotus (Rawlinson)(Redirected from History of Herodotus/Book 7) Jump to navigation Jump to search ←Book 6 The History of Herodotus (Rawlinson) by Herodotus The Seventh Book, Entitled Polymnia Book 8→ 140822The History of Herodotus (Rawlinson) — The Seventh Book, Entitled PolymniaHerodotus 1. Now when tidings of the battle that had been fought at Marathon reached the ears of King Darius, the son of Hystaspes, his anger against the Athenians, which had been already roused by their attack upon Sardis, waxed still fiercer, and he became more than ever eager to lead an army against Greece. Instantly he sent off messengers to make proclamation through the several states that fresh levies were to be raised, and these at an increased rate; while ships, horses, provisions, and transports were likewise to be furnished. So the men published his commands; and now all Asia was in commotion by the space of three years, while everywhere, as Greece was to be attacked, the best and bravest were enrolled for the service, and had to make their preparations accordingly. After this, in the fourth year, the Egyptians whom Cambyses had enslaved revolted from the Persians; whereupon Darius was more hot for war than ever, and earnestly desired to march an army against both adversaries. 2. Now, as he was about to lead forth his levies against Egypt and Athens, a fierce contention for the sovereign power arose among his sons; since the law of the Persians was that a king must not go out with his army, until he has appointed one to succeed him upon the throne. Darius, before he obtained the kingdom, had had three sons born to him from his former wife, who was a daughter of Gobryas; while, since he began to reign, Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus, had borne him four. Artabazanes was the eldest of the first family, and Xerxes of the second. These two, therefore, being the sons of different mothers, were now at variance. Artabazanes claimed the crown as the eldest of all the children, because it was an established custom all over the world for the eldest to have the pre-eminence; while Xerxes, on the other hand, urged that he was sprung from Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus, and that it was Cyrus who had won the Persians their freedom. 3. Before Darius had pronounced on the matter, it happened that Demaratus, the son of Ariston, who had been deprived of his crown at Sparta, and had afterwards, of his own accord, gone into banishment, came up to Susa, and there heard of the quarrel of the princes. Hereupon, as report says, he went to Xerxes, and advised him, in addition to all that he had urged before, to plead - that at the time when he was born Darius was already king, and bore rule over the Persians; but when Artabazanes came into the world, he was a mere private person. It would therefore be neither right nor seemly that the crown should go to another in preference to himself. "For at Sparta," said Demaratus, byway of suggestion, "the law is that if a king has sons before he comes to the throne, and another son is born to him afterwards, the child so born is heir to his father's kingdom." Xerxes followed this counsel, and Darius, persuaded that he had justice on his side, appointed him his successor. For my own part I believe that, even without this, the crown would have gone to Xerxes; for Atossa was all-powerful. 4. Darius, when he had thus appointed Xerxes his heir, was minded to lead forth his armies; but he was prevented by death while his preparations were still proceeding. He died in the year following the revolt of Egypt and the matters here related, after having reigned in all six-and-thirty years, leaving the revolted Egyptians and the Athenians alike unpunished. At his death the kingdom passed to his son Xerxes. 5. Now Xerxes, on first mounting the throne, was coldly disposed towards the Grecian war, and made it his business to collect an army against Egypt. But Mardonius, the son of Gobryas, who was at the court, and had more influence with him than any of the other Persians, being his own cousin, the child of a sister of Darius, plied him with discourses like the following:- "Master, it is not fitting that they of Athens escape scot-free, after doing the Persians such great injury. Complete the work which thou hast now in hand, and then, when the pride of Egypt is brought low, lead an army against Athens. So shalt thou thyself have good report among men, and others shall fear hereafter to attack thy country." Thus far it was of vengeance that he spoke; but sometimes he would vary the theme, and observe by the way, "that Europe was a wondrous beautiful region, rich in all kinds of cultivated trees, and the soil excellent: no one, save the king, was worthy to own such a land." 6. All this he said, because he longed for adventures, and hoped to become satrap of Greece under the king; and after a while he had his way, and persuaded Xerxes to do according to his desires. Other things, however, occurring about the same time, helped his persuasions. For, in the first place, it chanced that messengers arrived from Thessaly, sent by the Aleuadae, Thessalian kings, to invite Xerxes into Greece, and to promise him all the assistance which it was in their power to give. And further, the Pisistratidae, who had come up to Susa, held the same language as the Aleuadae, and worked upon him even more than they, by means of Onomacritus of Athens, an oracle-monger, and the same who set forth the prophecies of Musaeus in their order. The Pisistratidae had previously been at enmity with this man, but made up the quarrel before they removed to Susa. He was banished from Athens by Hipparchus, the son of Pisistratus, because he foisted into the writings of Musaeus a prophecy that the islands which lie off Lemnos would one day disappear in the sea. Lasus of Hermione caught him in the act of so doing. For this cause Hipparchus banished him, though till then they had been the closest of friends. Now, however, he went up to Susa with the sons of Pisistratus, and they talked very grandly of him to the king; while he, for his part, whenever he was in the king's company, repeated to him certain of the oracles; and while he took care to pass over all that spoke of disaster to the barbarians, brought forward the passages which promised them the greatest success. "'Twas fated," he told Xerxes, "that a Persian should bridge the Hellespont, and march an army from Asia into Greece." While Onomacritus thus plied Xerxes with his oracles, the Pisistratidae and Aleuadae did not cease to press on him their advice, till at last the king yielded, and agreed to lead forth an expedition. 7. First, however, in the year following the death of Darius, he marched against those who had revolted from him; and having reduced them, and laid all Egypt under a far harder yoke than ever his father had put upon it, he gave the government to Achaeamenes, who was his own brother, and son to Darius. This Achaeamenes was afterwards slain in his government by Inaros, the son of Psammetichus, a Libyan. 8. After Egypt was subdued, Xerxes, being about to take in hand the expedition against Athens, called together an assembly of the noblest Persians to learn their opinions, and to lay before them his own designs. So, when the men were met, the king spake thus to them:- "Persians, I shall not be the first to bring in among you a new custom - I shall but follow one which has come down to us from our forefathers. Never yet, as our old men assure me, has our race reposed itself, since the time when Cyrus overcame Astyages, and so we Persians wrested the sceptre from the Medes. Now in all this God guides us; and we, obeying his guidance, prosper greatly. What need have I to tell you of the deeds of Cyrus and Cambyses, and my own father Darius, how many nations they conquered, and added to our dominions? Ye know right well what great things they achieved. But for myself, I will say that, from the day on which I mounted the throne, I have not ceased to consider by what means I may rival those who have preceded me in this post of honour, and increase the power of Persia as much as any of them. And truly I have pondered upon this, until at last I have found out a way whereby we may at once win glory, and likewise get possession of a land which is as large and as rich as our own nay, which is even more varied in the fruits it bears - while at the same time we obtain satisfaction and revenge. For this cause I have now called you together, that I may make known to you what I design to do. My intent is to throw a bridge over the Hellespont and march an army through Europe against Greece, that thereby I may obtain vengeance from the Athenians for the wrongs committed by them against the Persians and against my father. Your own eyes saw the preparations of Darius against these men; but death came upon him, and balked his hopes of revenge. In his behalf, therefore, and in behalf of all the Persians, I undertake the war, and pledge myself not to rest till I have taken and burnt Athens, which has dared, unprovoked, to injure me and my father. Long since they came to Asia with Aristagoras of Miletus, who was one of our slaves, and, entering Sardis, burnt its temples and its sacred groves; again, more lately, when we made a landing upon their coast under Datis and Artaphernes, how roughly they handled us ye do not need to be told. For these reasons, therefore, I am bent upon this war; and I see likewise therewith united no few advantages. Once let us subdue this people, and those neighbours of theirs who hold the land of Pelops the Phrygian, and we shall extend the Persian territory as far as God's heaven reaches. The sun will then shine on no land beyond our borders; for I will pass through Europe from one end to the other, and with your aid make of all the lands which it contains one country. For thus, if what I hear be true, affairs stand: the nations whereof I have spoken, once swept away, there is no city, no country left in all the world, which will venture so much as to withstand us in arms. By this course then we shall bring all mankind under our yoke, alike those who are guilty and those who are innocent of doing us wrong. For yourselves, if you wish to please me, do as follows: when I announce the time for the army to meet together, hasten to the muster with a good will, every one of you; and know that to the man who brings with him the most gallant array I will give the gifts which our people consider the most honourable. This then is what ye have to do. But to show that I am not self-willed in this matter, I lay the business before you, and give you full leave to speak your minds upon it openly." Xerxes, having so spoken, held his peace. 9. Whereupon Mardonius took the word, and said: "Of a truth, my lord, thou dost surpass, not only all living Persians, but likewise those yet unborn. Most true and right is each word that thou hast now uttered; but best of all thy resolve not to let the Ionians who live in Europe - a worthless crew - mock us any more. It were indeed a monstrous thing if, after conquering and enslaving the Sacae, the Indians, the Ethiopians, the Assyrians, and many other mighty nations, not for any wrong that they had done us, but only to increase our empire, we should then allow the Greeks, who have done us such wanton injury, to escape our vengeance. What is it that we fear in them? - not surely their numbers? - not the greatness of their wealth? We know the manner of their battle - we know how weak their power is; already have we subdued their children who dwell in our country, the Ionians, Aeolians, and Dorians. I myself have had experience of these men when I marched against them by the orders of thy father; and though I went as far as Macedonia, and came but a little short of reaching Athens itself, yet not a soul ventured to come out against me to battle. And yet, I am told, these very Greeks are wont to wage wars against one another in the most foolish way, through sheer perversity and doltishness. For no sooner is war proclaimed than they search out the smoothest and fairest plain that is to be found in all the land, and there they assemble and fight; whence it comes to pass that even the conquerors depart with great loss: I say nothing of the conquered, for they are destroyed altogether. Now surely, as they are all of one speech, they ought to interchange heralds and messengers, and make up their differences by any means rather than battle; or, at the worst, if they must needs fight one against another, they ought to post themselves as strongly as possible, and so try their quarrels. But, notwithstanding that they have so foolish a manner of warfare, yet these Greeks, when I led my army against them to the very borders of Macedonia, did not so much as think of offering me battle. Who then will dare, O king! to meet thee in arms, when thou comest with all Asia's warriors at thy back, and with all her ships? For my part I do not believe the Greek people will be so foolhardy. Grant, however, that I am mistaken herein, and that they are foolish enough to meet us in open fight; in that case they will learn that there are no such soldiers in the whole world as we. Nevertheless let us spare no pains; for nothing comes without trouble; but all that men acquire is got by painstaking." When Mardonius had in this way softened the harsh speech of Xerxes, he too held his peace. 10. The other Persians were silent; all feared to raise their voice against the plan proposed to them. But Artabanus, the son of Hystaspes, and uncle of Xerxes, trusting to his relationship, was bold to speak:- "O king!" he said, "it is impossible, if no more than one opinion is uttered, to make choice of the best: a man is forced then to follow whatever advice may have been given him; but if opposite speeches are delivered, then choice can be exercised. In like manner pure gold is not recognised by itself; but when we test it along with baser ore, we perceive which is the better. I counselled thy father, Darius, who was my own brother, not to attack the Scyths, a race of people who had no town in their whole land. He thought however to subdue those wandering tribes, and would not listen to me, but marched an army against them, and ere he returned home lost many of his bravest warriors. Thou art about, O king! to attack a people far superior to the Scyths, a people distinguished above others both by land and sea. 'Tis fit therefore that I should tell thee what danger thou incurrest hereby. Thou sayest that thou wilt bridge the Hellespont, and lead thy troops through Europe against Greece. Now suppose some disaster befall thee by land or sea, or by both. It may be even so; for the men are reputed valiant. Indeed one may measure their prowess from what they have already done; for when Datis and Artaphernes led their huge army against Attica, the Athenians singly defeated them. But grant they are not successful on both elements. Still, if they man their ships, and, defeating us by sea, sail to the Hellespont, and there destroy our bridge - that, sire, were a fearful hazard. And here 'tis not by my own mother wit alone that I conjecture what will happen; but I remember how narrowly we escaped disaster once, when thy father, after throwing bridges over the Thracian Bosphorus and the Ister, marched against the Scythians, and they tried every sort of prayer to induce the Ionians, who had charge of the bridge over the Ister, to break the passage. On that day, if Histiaeus, the king of Miletus, had sided with the other princes, and not set himself to oppose their views, the empire of the Persians would have come to nought. Surely a dreadful thing is this even to hear said, that the king's fortunes depended wholly on one man. "Think then no more of incurring so great a danger when no need presses, but follow the advice I tender. Break up this meeting, and when thou hast well considered the matter with thyself, and settled what thou wilt do, declare to us thy resolve. I know not of aught in the world that so profits a man as taking good counsel with himself; for even if things fall out against one's hopes, still one has counselled well, though fortune has made the counsel of none effect: whereas if a man counsels ill and luck follows, he has gotten a windfall, but his counsel is none the less silly. Seest thou how God with his lightning smites always the bigger animals, and will not suffer them to wax insolent, while those of a lesser bulk chafe him not? How likewise his bolts fall ever on the highest houses and the tallest trees? So plainly does He love to bring down everything that exalts itself. Thus ofttimes a mighty host is discomfited by a few men, when God in his jealousy sends fear or storm from heaven, and they perish in a way unworthy of them. For God allows no one to have high thoughts but Himself. Again, hurry always brings about disasters, from which huge sufferings are wont to arise; but in delay lie many advantages, not apparent (it may be) at first sight, but such as in course of time are seen of all. Such then is my counsel to thee, O king! "And thou, Mardonius, son of Gobryas, forbear to speak foolishly concerning the Greeks, who are men that ought not to be lightly esteemed by us. For while thou revilest the Greeks, thou dost encourage the king to lead his own troops against them; and this, as it seems to me, is what thou art specially striving to accomplish. Heaven send thou succeed not to thy wish! For slander is of all evils the most terrible. In it two men do wrong, and one man has wrong done to him. The slanderer does wrong, forasmuch as he abuses a man behind his back; and the hearer, forasmuch as he believes what he has not searched into thoroughly. The man slandered in his absence suffers wrong at the hands of both: for one brings against him a false charge; and the other thinks him an evildoer. If, however, it must needs be that we go to war with this people, at least allow the king to abide at home in Persia. Then let thee and me both stake our children on the issue, and do thou choose out thy men, and, taking with thee whatever number of troops thou likest, lead forth our armies to battle. If things go well for the king, as thou sayest they will, let me and my children be put to death; but if they fall out as I prophesy, let thy children suffer, and thyself too, if thou shalt come back alive. But shouldest thou refuse this wager, and still resolve to march an army against Greece, sure I am that some of those whom thou leavest behind thee here will one day receive the sad tidings that Mardonius has brought a great disaster upon the Persian people, and lies a prey to dogs and birds somewhere in the land of the Athenians, or else in that of the Lacedaemonians; unless indeed thou shalt have perished sooner by the way, experiencing in thy own person the might of those men on whom thou wouldest fain induce the king to make war." 11. Thus spake Artabanus. But Xerxes, full of wrath, replied to him:- "Artabanus, thou art my father's brother - that shall save thee from receiving the due meed of thy silly words. One shame however I will lay upon thee, coward and faint-hearted as thou art - thou shalt not come with me to fight these Greeks, but shalt tarry here with the women. Without thy aid I will accomplish all of which I spake. For let me not be thought the child of Darius, the son of Hystaspes, the son of Arsames, the son of Ariaramnes, the son of Teispes, the son of Cyrus, the son of Cambyses, the son of Teispes, the son of Achaemenes, if I take not vengeance on the Athenians. Full well I know that, were we to remain at rest, yet would not they, but would most certainly invade our country, if at least it be right to judge from what they have already done; for, remember, it was they who fired Sardis and attacked Asia. So now retreat is on both sides impossible, and the choice lies between doing and suffering injury; either our empire must pass under the dominion of the Greeks, or their land become the prey of the Persians; for there is no middle course left in this quarrel. It is right then that we, who have in times past received wrong, should now avenge it, and that I should thereby discover what that great risk is which I run in marching against these men - men whom Pelops the Phrygian, a vassal of my forefathers, subdued so utterly, that to this day both the land, and the people who dwell therein, alike bear the name of the conqueror!" 12. Thus far did the speaking proceed. Afterwards evening fell; and Xerxes began to find the advice of Artabanus greatly disquiet him. So he thought upon it during the night, and concluded at last that it was not for his advantage to lead an army into Greece. When he had thus made up his mind anew, he fell asleep. And now he saw in the night, as the Persians declare, a vision of this nature - he thought a tall and beautiful man stood over him and said, "Hast thou then changed thy mind, Persian, and wilt thou not lead forth thy host against the Greeks, after commanding the Persians to gather together their levies? Be sure thou doest not well to change; nor is there a man here who will approve thy conduct. The course that thou didst determine on during the day, let that be followed." After thus speaking the man seemed to Xerxes to fly away. 13. Day dawned; and the king made no account of this dream, but called together the same Persians as before, and spake to them as follows:- "Men of Persia, forgive me if I alter the resolve to which I came so lately. Consider that I have not yet reached to the full growth of my wisdom, and that they who urge me to engage in this war leave me not to myself for a moment. When I heard the advice of Artabanus, my young blood suddenly boiled; and I spake words against him little befitting his years: now however I confess my fault, and am resolved to follow his counsel. Understand then that I have changed my intent with respect to carrying war into Greece, and cease to trouble yourselves." When they heard these words, the Persians were full of joy, and, falling down at the feet of Xerxes, made obeisance to him. 14. But when night came, again the same vision stood over Xerxes as he slept, and said, "Son of Darius, it seems thou hast openly before all the Persians renounced the expedition, making light of my words, as though thou hadst not heard them spoken. Know therefore and be well assured, that unless thou go forth to the war, this thing shall happen unto thee thou art grown mighty and puissant in a short space, so likewise shalt thou within a little time be brought low indeed." 15. Then Xerxes, greatly frightened at the vision which he had seen, sprang from his couch, and sent a messenger to call Artabanus, who came at the summons, when Xerxes spoke to him in these words:- "Artabanus, at the moment I acted foolishly, when I gave thee ill words in return for thy good advice. However it was not long ere I repented, and was convinced that thy counsel was such as I ought to follow. But I may not now act in this way, greatly as I desire to do so. For ever since I repented and changed my mind a dream has haunted me, which disapproves my intentions, and has now just gone from me with threats. Now if this dream is sent to me from God, and if it is indeed his will that our troops should march against Greece, thou too wilt have the same dream come to thee and receive the same commands as myself. And this will be most sure to happen, I think, if thou puttest on the dress which I am wont to wear, and then, after taking thy seat upon my throne, liest down to sleep on my bed." 16. Such were the words of Xerxes. Artabanus would not at first yield to the command of the king; for he deemed himself unworthy to sit upon the royal throne. At the last however he was forced to give way, and did as Xerxes bade him; but first he spake thus to the king:- "To me, sire, it seems to matter little whether a man is wise himself or willing to hearken to such as give good advice. In thee truly are found both but the counsels of evil men lead thee astray: they are like the gales of wind which vex the sea - else the most useful thing for man in the whole world - and suffer it not to follow the bent of its own nature. For myself, it irked me not so much to be reproached by thee, as to observe that when two courses were placed before the Persian people, one of a nature to increase their pride, the other to humble it, by showing them how hurtful it is to allow one's heart always to covet more than one at present possesses, thou madest choice of that which was the worse both for thyself and for the Persians. Now thou sayest that from the time when thou didst approve the better course, and give up the thought of warring against Greece, a dream has haunted thee, sent by some god or other, which will not suffer thee to lay aside the expedition. But such things, my son, have of a truth nothing divine in them. The dreams that wander to and fro among mankind, I will tell thee of what nature they are - I who have seen so many more years than thou. Whatever a man has been thinking of during the day is wont to hover round him in the visions of his dreams at night. Now we during these many days past have had our hands full of this enterprise. If however the matter be not as I suppose, but God has indeed some part therein, thou hast in brief declared the whole that can be said concerning it - let it e'en appear to me as it has to thee, and lay on me the same injunctions. But it ought not to appear to me any the more if I put on thy clothes than if I wear my own, nor if I go to sleep in thy bed than if I do so in mine - supposing, I mean, that it is about to appear at all. For this thing, be it what it may, that visits thee in thy sleep, surely is not so far gone in folly as to see me, and because I am dressed in thy clothes, straightway to mistake me for thee. Now however our business is to see if it will regard me as of small account, and not vouchsafe to appear to me, whether I wear mine own clothes or thine, while it keeps on haunting thee continually. If it does so, and appears often, I should myself say that it was from God. For the rest, if thy mind is fixed, and it is not possible to turn thee from thy design, but I must needs go and sleep in thy bed, well and good, let it be even so; and when I have done as thou wishest, then let the dream appear to me. Till such time, however, I shall keep to my former opinion." 17. Thus spake Artabanus; and when he had so said, thinking to show Xerxes that his words were nought, he did according to his orders. Having put on the garments which Xerxes was wont to wear and taken his seat upon the royal throne, he lay down to sleep upon the king's own bed. As he slept, there appeared to him the very same dream which had been seen by Xerxes; it came and stood over Artabanus, and said:- "Thou art the man, then, who, feigning to be tender of Xerxes, seekest to dissuade him from leading his armies against the Greeks! But thou shalt not escape scathless, either now or in time to come, because thou hast sought to prevent that which is fated to happen. As for Xerxes, it has been plainly told to himself what will befall him, if he refuses to perform my bidding." 18. In such words, as Artabanus thought, the vision threatened him, and then endeavoured to burn out his eyes with red-hot irons. At this he shrieked, and, leaping from his couch, hurried to Xerxes, and, sitting down at his side, gave him a full account of the vision; after which he went on to speak in the words which follow:- "I, O King! am a man who have seen many mighty empires overthrown by weaker ones; and therefore it was that I sought to hinder thee from being quite carried away by thy youth; since I knew how evil a thing it is to covet more than one possesses. I could remember the expedition of Cyrus against the Massagetae, and what was the issue of it; I could recollect the march of Cambyses against the Ethiops; I had taken part in the attack of Darius upon the Scyths - bearing therefore all these things in mind, I thought with myself that if thou shouldst remain at peace, all men would deem thee fortunate. But as this impulse has plainly come from above, and a heaven-sent destruction seems about to overtake the Greeks, behold, I change to another mind, and alter my thoughts upon the matter. Do thou therefore make known to the Persians what the god has declared, and bid them follow the orders which were first given, and prepare their levies. Be careful to act so that the bounty of the god may not be hindered by slackness on thy part." Thus spake these two together; and Xerxes, being in good heart on account of the vision, when day broke, laid all before the Persians; while Artabanus, who had formerly been the only person openly to oppose the expedition, now showed as openly that he favoured it. 19. After Xerxes had thus determined to go forth to the war, there appeared to him in his sleep yet a third vision. The Magi were consulted upon it, and said that its meaning reached to the whole earth, and that all mankind would become his servants. Now the vision which the king saw was this: he dreamt that he was crowned with a branch of an olive tree, and that boughs spread out from the olive branch and covered the whole earth; then suddenly the garland, as it lay upon his brow, vanished. So when the Magi had thus interpreted the vision, straightway all the Persians who were come together departed to their several governments, where each displayed the greatest zeal, on the faith of the king's offers. For all hoped to obtain for themselves the gifts which had been promised. And so Xerxes gathered together his host, ransacking every corner of the continent. 20. Reckoning from the recovery of Egypt, Xerxes spent four full years in collecting his host and making ready all things that were needful for his soldiers. It was not till the close of the fifth year that he set forth on his march, accompanied by a mighty multitude. For of all the armaments whereof any mention has reached us, this was by far the greatest; insomuch that no other expedition compared to this seems of any account, neither that which Darius undertook against the Scythians, nor the expedition of the Scythians (which the attack of Darius was designed to avenge), when they, being in pursuit of the Cimmerians, fell upon the Median territory, and subdued and held for a time almost the whole of Upper Asia; nor, again, that of the Atridae against Troy, of which we hear in story; nor that of the Mysians and Teucrians, which was still earlier, wherein these nations crossed the Bosphorus into Europe, and, after conquering all Thrace, pressed forward till they came to the Ionian Sea, while southward they reached as far as the river Peneus. 21. All these expeditions, and others, if such there were, are as nothing compared with this. For was there a nation in all Asia which Xerxes did not bring with him against Greece? Or was there a river, except those of unusual size, which sufficed for his troops to drink? One nation furnished ships; another was arrayed among the foot-soldiers; a third had to supply horses; a fourth, transports for the horse and men likewise for the transport service; a fifth, ships of war towards the bridges; a sixth, ships and provisions. 22. And in the first place, because the former fleet had met with so great a disaster about Athos, preparations were made, by the space of about three years, in that quarter. A fleet of triremes lay at Elaeus in the Chersonese; and from this station detachments were sent by the various nations whereof the army was composed, which relieved one another at intervals, and worked at a trench beneath the lash of taskmasters; while the people dwelling about Athos bore likewise a part in the labour. Two Persians, Bubares, the son of Megabazus, and Artachaees, the son of Artaeus, superintended the undertaking. Athos is a great and famous mountain, inhabited by men, and stretching far out into the sea. Where the mountain ends towards the mainland it forms a peninsula; and in this place there is a neck of land about twelve furlongs across, the whole extent whereof, from the sea of the Acanthians to that over against Torone, is a level plain, broken only by a few low hills. Here, upon this isthmus where Athos ends, is Sand, a Greek city. Inside of Sand, and upon Athos itself, are a number of towns, which Xerxes was now employed in disjoining from the continent: these are Dium, Olophyxus, Acrothoum, Thyssus, and Cleonae. Among these cities Athos was divided. 23. Now the manner in which they dug was the following: a line was drawn across by the city of Sand; and along this the various nations parcelled out among themselves the work to be done. When the trench grew deep, the workmen at the bottom continued to dig, while others handed the earth, as it was dug out, to labourers placed higher up upon ladders, and these taking it, passed it on farther, till it came at last to those at the top, who carried it off and emptied it away. All the other nations, therefore, except the Phoenicians, had double labour; for the sides of the trench fell in continually, as could not but happen, since they made the width no greater at the top than it was required to be at the bottom. But the Phoenicians showed in this the skill which they are wont to exhibit in all their undertakings. For in the portion of the work which was allotted to them they began by making the trench at the top twice as wide as the prescribed measure, and then as they dug downwards approached the sides nearer and nearer together, so that when they reached the bottom their part of the work was of the same width as the rest. In a meadow near, there was a place of assembly and a market; and hither great quantities of corn, ready ground, were brought from Asia. 24. It seems to me, when I consider this work, that Xerxes, in making it, was actuated by a feeling of pride, wishing to display the extent of his power, and to leave a memorial behind him to posterity. For notwithstanding that it was open to him, with no trouble at all, to have had his ships drawn across the isthmus, yet he issued orders that a canal should be made through which the sea might flow, and that it should be of such a width as would allow of two triremes passing through it abreast with the oars in action. He likewise gave to the same persons who were set over the digging of the trench, the task of making a bridge across the river Strymon. 25. While these things were in progress, he was having cables prepared for his bridges, some of papyrus and some of white flax, a business which he entrusted to the Phoenicians and the Egyptians. He likewise laid up stores of provisions in divers places, to save the army and the beasts of burthen from suffering want upon their march into Greece. He inquired carefully about all the sites, and had the stores laid up in such as were most convenient, causing them to be brought across from various parts of Asia and in various ways, some in transports and others in merchantmen. The greater portion was carried to Leuce-Acte, upon the Thracian coast; some part, however, was conveyed to Tyrodiza, in the country of the Perinthians, some to Doriscus, some to Eion upon the Strymon, and some to Macedonia. 26. During the time that all these labours were in progress, the land army which had been collected was marching with Xerxes towards Sardis, having started from Critalla in Cappadocia. At this spot all the host which was about to accompany the king in his passage across the continent had been bidden to assemble. And here I have it not in my power to mention which of the satraps was adjudged to have brought his troops in the most gallant array, and on that account rewarded by the king according to his promise; for I do not know whether this matter ever came to a judgment. But it is certain that the host of Xerxes, after crossing the river Halys, marched through Phrygia till it reached the city of Celaenae. Here are the sources of the river Maeander, and likewise of another stream of no less size, which bears the name of Catarrhactes (or the Cataract); the last-named river has its rise in the market-place of Celaenae, and empties itself into the Maeander. Here, too, in this market-place, is hung up to view the skin of the Silenus Marsyas, which Apollo, as the Phrygian story goes, stripped off and placed there. 27. Now there lived in this city a certain Pythius, the son of Atys, a Lydian. This man entertained Xerxes and his whole army in a most magnificent fashion, offering at the same time to give him a sum of money for the war. Xerxes, upon the mention of money, turned to the Persians who stood by, and asked of them, "Who is this Pythius, and what wealth has he, that he should venture on such an offer as this?" They answered him, "This is the man, O king! who gave thy father Darius the golden plane-tree, and likewise the golden vine; and he is still the wealthiest man we know of in all the world, excepting thee." 28. Xerxes marvelled at these last words; and now, addressing Pythius with his own lips, he asked him what the amount of his wealth really was. Pythius answered as follows:- "O king! I will not hide this matter from thee, nor make pretence that I do not know how rich I am; but as I know perfectly, I will declare all fully before thee. For when thy journey was noised abroad, and I heard thou wert coming down to the Grecian coast, straightway, as I wished to give thee a sum of money for the war, I made count of my stores, and found them to be two thousand talents of silver, and of gold four millions of Daric staters, wanting seven thousand. All this I willingly make over to thee as a gift; and when it is gone, my slaves and my estates in land will be wealth enough for my wants." 29. This speech charmed Xerxes, and he replied, "Dear Lydian, since I left Persia there is no man but thou who has either desired to entertain my army, or come forward of his own free will to offer me a sum of money for the war. Thou hast done both the one and the other, feasting my troops magnificently, and now making offer of a right noble sum. In return, this is what I will bestow on thee. Thou shalt be my sworn friend from this day; and the seven thousand staters which are wanting to make up thy four millions I will supply, so that the full tale may be no longer lacking, and that thou mayest owe the completion of the round sum to me. Continue to enjoy all that thou hast acquired hitherto; and be sure to remain ever such as thou now art. If thou dost, thou wilt not repent of it so long as thy life endures." 30. When Xerxes had so spoken and had made good his promises to Pythius, he pressed forward upon his march; and passing Anaua, a Phrygian city, and a lake from which salt is gathered, he came to Colossae, a Phrygian city of great size, situated at a spot where the river Lycus plunges into a chasm and disappears. This river, after running under ground a distance of about five furlongs, reappears once more, and empties itself, like the stream above mentioned, into the Maeander. Leaving Colossae, the army approached the borders of Phrygia where it abuts on Lydia; and here they came to a city called Cydrara, where was a pillar set up by Croesus, having an inscription on it, showing the boundaries of the two countries. 31. Where it quits Phrygia and enters Lydia the road separates; the way on the left leads into Caria, while that on the right conducts to Sardis. If you follow this route, you must cross the Maeander, and then pass by the city Callatebus, where the men live who make honey out of wheat and the fruit of the tamarisk. Xerxes, who chose this way, found here a plane-tree so beautiful, that he presented it with golden ornaments, and put it under the care of one of his Immortals. The day after, he entered the Lydian capital. 32. Here his first care was to send off heralds into Greece, who were to prefer a demand for earth and water, and to require that preparations should be made everywhere to feast the king. To Athens indeed and to Sparta he sent no such demand; but these cities excepted, his messengers went everywhere. Now the reason why he sent for earth and water to states which had already refused was this: he thought that although they had refused when Darius made the demand, they would now be too frightened to venture to say him nay. So he sent his heralds, wishing to know for certain how it would be. 33. Xerxes, after this, made preparations to advance to Abydos, where the bridge across the Hellespont from Asia to Europe was lately finished. Midway between Sestos and Madytus in the Hellespontine Chersonese, and right over against Abydos, there is a rocky tongue of land which runs out for some distance into the sea. This is the place where no long time afterwards the Greeks under Xanthippus, the son of Ariphron, took Artayctes the Persian, who was at that time governor of Sestos, and nailed him living to a plank. He was the Artayctes who brought women into the temple of Protesilaus at Elaeus, and there was guilty of most unholy deeds. 34. Towards this tongue of land then, the men to whom the business was assigned carried out a double bridge from Abydos; and while the Phoenicians constructed one line with cables of white flax, the Egyptians in the other used ropes made of papyrus. Now it is seven furlongs across from Abydos to the opposite coast. When, therefore, the channel had been bridged successfully, it happened that a great storm arising broke the whole work to pieces, and destroyed all that had been done. 35. So when Xerxes heard of it he was full of wrath, and straightway gave orders that the Hellespont should receive three hundred lashes, and that a pair of fetters should be cast into it. Nay, I have even heard it said that he bade the branders take their irons and therewith brand the Hellespont. It is certain that he commanded those who scourged the waters to utter, as they lashed them, these barbarian and wicked words: "Thou bitter water, thy lord lays on thee this punishment because thou hast wronged him without a cause, having suffered no evil at his hands. Verily King Xerxes will cross thee, whether thou wilt or no. Well dost thou deserve that no man should honour thee with sacrifice; for thou art of a truth a treacherous and unsavoury river." While the sea was thus punished by his orders, he likewise commanded that the overseers of the work should lose their heads. 36. Then they, whose business it was, executed the unpleasing task laid upon them; and other master-builders were set over the work, who accomplished it in the way which I will now describe. They joined together triremes and penteconters, 360 to support the bridge on the side of the Euxine Sea, and 314 to sustain the other; and these they placed at right angles to the sea, and in the direction of the current of the Hellespont, relieving by these means the tension of the shore cables. Having joined the vessels, they moored them with anchors of unusual size, that the vessels of the bridge towards the Euxine might resist the winds which blow from within the straits, and that those of the more western bridge facing the Egean might withstand the winds which set in from the south and from the south-east. A gap was left in the penteconters in no fewer than three places, to afford a passage for such light craft as chose to enter or leave the Euxine. When all this was done, they made the cables taut from the shore by the help of wooden capstans. This time, moreover, instead of using the two materials separately, they assigned to each bridge six cables, two of which were of white flax, while four were of papyrus. Both cables were of the same size and quality; but the flaxen were the heavier, weighing not less than a talent the cubit. When the bridge across the channel was thus complete, trunks of trees were sawn into planks, which were out to the width of the bridge, and these were laid side by side upon the tightened cables, and then fastened on the top. This done, brushwood was brought, and arranged upon the planks, after which earth was heaped upon the brushwood, and the whole trodden down into a solid mass. Lastly a bulwark was set up on either side of this causeway, of such a height as to prevent the sumpter-beasts and the horses from seeing over it and taking fright at the water. 37. And now when all was prepared - the bridges, and the works at Athos, the breakwaters about the mouths of the cutting, which were made to hinder the surf from blocking up the entrances, and the cutting itself; and when the news came to Xerxes that this last was completely finished - then at length the host, having first wintered at Sardis, began its march towards Abydos, fully equipped, on the first approach of spring. At the moment of departure, the sun suddenly quitted his seat in the heavens, and disappeared, though there were no clouds in sight, but the sky was clear and serene. Day was thus turned into night; whereupon Xerxes, who saw and remarked the prodigy, was seized with alarm, and sending at once for the Magians, inquired of them the meaning of the portent. They replied - "God is foreshowing to the Greeks the destruction of their cities; for the sun foretells for them, and the moon for us." So Xerxes, thus instructed, proceeded on his way with great gladness of heart. 38. The army had begun its march, when Pythius the Lydian, affrighted at the heavenly portent, and emboldened by his gifts, came to Xerxes and said - "Grant me, O my lord! a favour which is to thee a light matter, but to me of vast account." Then Xerxes' who looked for nothing less than such a prayer as Pythius in fact preferred, engaged to grant him whatever he wished, and commanded him to tell his wish freely. So Pythius, full of boldness, went on to say:- "O my lord! thy servant has five sons; and it chances that all are called upon to join thee in this march against Greece. I beseech thee, have compassion upon my years; and let one of my sons, the eldest, remain behind, to be my prop and stay, and the guardian of my wealth. Take with thee the other four; and when thou hast done all that is in thy heart, mayest thou come back in safety." 39. But Xerxes was greatly angered, and replied to him: "Thou wretch! darest thou speak to me of thy son, when I am myself on the march against Greece, with sons, and brothers, and kinsfolk, and friends? Thou, who art my bond-slave, and art in duty bound to follow me with all thy household, not excepting thy wife! Know that man's spirit dwelleth in his ears, and when it hears good things, straightway it fills all his body with delight; but no sooner does it hear the contrary than it heaves and swells with passion. As when thou didst good deeds and madest good offers to me, thou wert not able to boast of having outdone the king in bountifulness, so now when thou art changed and grown impudent, thou shalt not receive all thy deserts, but less. For thyself and four of thy five sons, the entertainment which I had of thee shall gain protection; but as for him to whom thou clingest above the rest, the forfeit of his life shall be thy punishment." Having thus spoken, forthwith he commanded those to whom such tasks were assigned to seek out the eldest of the sons of Pythius, and having cut his body asunder, to place the two halves. one on the right, the other on the left, of the great road, so that the army might march out between them. 40. Then the king's orders were obeyed; and the army marched out between the two halves of the carcase. First of all went the baggage-bearers, and the sumpter-beasts, and then a vast crowd of many nations mingled together without any intervals, amounting to more than one half of the army. After these troops an empty space was left, to separate between them and the king. In front of the king went first a thousand horsemen, picked men of the Persian nation - then spearmen a thousand, likewise chosen troops, with their spearheads pointing towards the ground - next ten of the sacred horses called Nisaean, all daintily caparisoned. (Now these horses are called Nisaean, because they come from the Nisaean plain, a vast flat in Media, producing horses of unusual size.) After the ten sacred horses came the holy chariot of Jupiter, drawn by eight milk-white steeds, with the charioteer on foot behind them holding the reins; for no mortal is ever allowed to mount into the car. Next to this came Xerxes himself, riding in a chariot drawn by Nisaean horses, with his charioteer, Patiramphes, the son of Otanes, a Persian, standing by his side. 41. Thus rode forth Xerxes from Sardis - but he was accustomed every now and then, when the fancy took him, to alight from his chariot and travel in a litter. Immediately behind the king there followed a body of a thousand spearmen, the noblest and bravest of the Persians, holding their lances in the usual manner - then came a thousand Persian horse, picked men - then ten thousand, picked also after the rest, and serving on foot. Of these last one thousand carried spears with golden pomegranates at their lower end instead of spikes; and these encircled the other nine thousand, who bore on their spears pomegranates of silver. The spearmen too who pointed their lances towards the ground had golden pomegranates; and the thousand Persians who followed close after Xerxes had golden apples. Behind the ten thousand footmen came a body of Persian cavalry, likewise ten thousand; after which there was again a void space for as much as two furlongs; and then the rest of the army followed in a confused crowd. 42. The march of the army, after leaving Lydia, was directed upon the river Caicus and the land of Mysia. Beyond the Caius the road, leaving Mount Cana upon the left, passed through the Atarnean plain, to the city of Carina. Quitting this, the troops advanced across the plain of Thebe, passing Adramyttium, and Antandrus, the Pelasgic city; then, holding Mount Ida upon the left hand, it entered the Trojan territory. On this march the Persians suffered some loss; for as they bivouacked during the night at the foot of Ida, a storm of thunder and lightning burst upon them, and killed no small number. 43. On reaching the Scamander, which was the first stream, of all that they had crossed since they left Sardis, whose water failed them and did not suffice to satisfy the thirst of men and cattle, Xerxes ascended into the Pergamus of Priam, since he had a longing to behold the place. When he had seen everything, and inquired into all particulars, he made an offering of a thousand oxen to the Trojan Minerva, while the Magians poured libations to the heroes who were slain at Troy. The night after, a panic fell upon the camp: but in the morning they set off with daylight, and skirting on the left hand the towns Rhoeteum, Ophryneum, and Dardanus (which borders on Abydos), on the right the Teucrians of Gergis, so reached Abydos. 44. Arrived here, Xerxes wished to look upon all his host; so as there was a throne of white marble upon a hill near the city, which they of Abydos had prepared beforehand, by the king's bidding, for his especial use, Xerxes took his seat on it, and, gazing thence upon the shore below, beheld at one view all his land forces and all his ships. While thus employed, he felt a desire to behold a sailing-match among his ships, which accordingly took place, and was won by the Phoenicians of Sidon, much to the joy of Xerxes, who was delighted alike with the race and with his army. 45. And now, as he looked and saw the whole Hellespont covered with the vessels of his fleet, and all the shore and every plain about Abydos as full as possible of men, Xerxes congratulated himself on his good fortune; but after a little while he wept. 46. Then Artabanus, the king's uncle (the same who at the first so freely spake his mind to the king, and advised him not to lead his army against Greece), when he heard that Xerxes was in tears, went to him, and said:- "How different, sire, is what thou art now doing, from what thou didst a little while ago! Then thou didst congratulate thyself; and now, behold! thou weepest." "There came upon me," replied he, "a sudden pity, when I thought of the shortness of man's life, and considered that of all this host, so numerous as it is, not one will be alive when a hundred years are gone by." "And yet there are sadder things in life than that," returned the other. "Short as our time is, there is no man, whether it be here among this multitude or elsewhere, who is so happy, as not to have felt the wish - I will not say once, but full many a time - that he were dead rather than alive. Calamities fall upon us; sicknesses vex and harass us, and make life, short though it be, to appear long. So death, through the wretchedness of our life, is a most sweet refuge to our race: and God, who gives us the tastes that we enjoy of pleasant times, is seen, in his very gift, to be envious." 47. "True," said Xerxes; "human life is even such as thou hast painted it, O Artabanus! But for this very reason let us turn our thoughts from it, and not dwell on what is so sad, when pleasant things are in hand. Tell me rather, if the vision which we saw had not appeared so plainly to thyself, wouldst thou have been still of the same mind as formerly, and have continued to dissuade me from warring against Greece, or wouldst thou at this time think differently? Come now, tell me this honestly." "O king!" replied the other, "may the dream which hath appeared to us have such issue as we both desire! For my own part, I am still full of fear, and have scarcely power to control myself, when I consider all our dangers, and especially when I see that the two things which are of most consequence are alike opposed to thee." 48. "Thou strange man!" said Xerxes in reply - "what, I pray thee, are the two things thou speakest of? Does my land army seem to thee too small in number, and will the Greeks, thinkest thou, bring into the field a more numerous host? Or is it our fleet which thou deemest weaker than theirs? Or art thou fearful on both accounts? If in thy judgment we fall short in either respect, it were easy to bring together with all speed another armament." 49. "O king!" said Artabanus, "it is not possible that a man of understanding should find fault with the size of thy army or the number of thy ships. The more thou addest to these, the more hostile will those two things, whereof I spake, become. Those two things are the land and the sea. In all the wide sea there is not, I imagine, anywhere a harbour large enough to receive thy vessels, in case a storm arise, and afford them a sure protection. And yet thou wilt want, not one such harbour only, but many in succession, along the entire coast by which thou art about to make thy advance. In default then of such harbours, it is well to bear in mind that chances rule men, and not men chances. Such is the first of the two dangers; and now I will speak to thee of the second. The land will also be thine enemy; for if no one resists thy advance, as thou proceedest farther and farther, insensibly allured onwards (for who is ever sated with success?), thou wilt find it more and more hostile. I mean this, that, should nothing else withstand thee, yet the mere distance, becoming greater as time goes on, will at last produce a famine. Methinks it is best for men, when they take counsel, to be timorous, and imagine all possible calamities, but when the time for action comes, then to deal boldly." 50. Whereto Xerxes answered - "There is reason, O Artabanus! in everything which thou hast said; but I pray thee, fear not all things alike, nor count up every risk. For if in each matter that comes before us thou wilt look to all possible chances, never wilt thou achieve anything. Far better is it to have a stout heart always, and suffer one's share of evils, than to be ever fearing what may happen, and never incur a mischance. Moreover, if thou wilt oppose whatever is said by others, without thyself showing us the sure course which we ought to take, thou art as likely to lead us into failure as they who advise differently; for thou art but on a par with them. And as for that sure course, how canst thou show it us when thou art but a man? I do not believe thou canst. Success for the most part attends those who act boldly, not those who weigh everything, and are slack to venture. Thou seest to how great a height the power of Persia has now reached - never would it have grown to this point if they who sate upon the throne before me had been like-minded with thee, or even, though not like-minded, had listened to councillors of such a spirit. 'Twas by brave ventures that they extended their sway; for great empires can only be conquered by great risks. We follow then the example of our fathers in making this march; and we set forward at the best season of the year; so, when we have brought Europe under us, we shall return, without suffering from want or experiencing any other calamity. For while on the one hand we carry vast stores of provisions with us, on the other we shall have the grain of all the countries and nations that we attack; since our march is not directed against a pastoral people, but against men who are tillers of the ground." 51. Then said Artabanus - "If, sire, thou art determined that we shall not fear anything, at least hearken to a counsel which I wish to offer; for when the matters in hand are so many, one cannot but have much to say. Thou knowest that Cyrus the son of Cambyses reduced and made tributary to the Persians all the race of the Ionians, except only those of Attica. Now my advice is that thou on no account lead forth these men against their fathers; since we are well able to overcome them without such aid. Their choice, if we take them with us to the war, lies between showing themselves the most wicked of men by helping to enslave their fatherland, or the most righteous by joining in the struggle to keep it free. If then they choose the side of injustice, they will do us but scant good; while if they determine to act justly, they may greatly injure our host. Lay thou to heart the old proverb, which says truly, 'The beginning and end of a matter are not always seen at once.' 52. "Artabanus," answered Xerxes, "there is nothing in all that thou hast said, wherein thou art so wholly wrong as in this, that thou suspectest the faith of the Ionians. Have they not given us the surest proof of their attachment - a proof which thou didst thyself witness, and likewise all those who fought with Darius against the Scythians? When it lay wholly with them to save or to destroy the entire Persian army, they dealt by us honourably and with good faith, and did us no hurt at all. Besides, they will leave behind them in our country their wives, their children, and their properties - can it then be conceived that they will attempt rebellion? Have no fear, therefore, on this score; but keep a brave heart and uphold my house and empire. To thee, and thee only, do I intrust my sovereignty." 53. After Xerxes had thus spoken, and had sent Artabanus away to return to Susa, he summoned before him all the Persians of most repute, and when they appeared, addressed them in these words:- "Persians, I have brought you together because I wished to exhort you to behave bravely, and not to sully with disgrace the former achievements of the Persian people, which are very great and famous. Rather let us one and all, singly and jointly, exert ourselves to the uttermost; for the matter wherein we are engaged concerns the common weal. Strain every nerve, then, I beseech you, in this war. Brave warriors are the men we march against, if report says true; and such that, if we conquer them, there is not a people in all the world which will venture thereafter to with. stand our arms. And now let us offer prayers to the gods who watch over the welfare of Persia, and then cross the channel." 54. All that day the preparations for the passage continued; and on the morrow they burnt all kinds of spices upon the bridges, and strewed the way with myrtle boughs, while they waited anxiously for the sun, which they hoped to see as he rose. And now the sun appeared; and Xerxes took a golden goblet and poured from it a libation into the sea, praying the while with his face turned to the sun "that no misfortune might befall him such as to hinder his conquest of Europe, until he had penetrated to its uttermost boundaries." After he had prayed, he cast the golden cup into the Hellespont, and with it a golden bowl, and a Persian sword of the kind which they call acinaces. I cannot say for certain whether it was as an offering to the sun-god that he threw these things into the deep, or whether he had repented of having scourged the Hellespont, and thought by his gifts to make amends to the sea for what he had done. 55. When, however, his offerings were made, the army began to cross; and the foot-soldiers, with the horsemen, passed over by one of the bridges - that (namely) which lay towards the Euxine - while the sumpter-beasts and the camp-followers passed by the other, which looked on the Egean. Foremost went the Ten Thousand Persians, all wearing garlands upon their heads; and after them a mixed multitude of many nations. These crossed upon the first day. On the next day the horsemen began the passage; and with them went the soldiers who carried their spears with the point downwards, garlanded, like the Ten Thousand; - then came the sacred horses and the sacred chariot; next Xerxes with his lancers and the thousand horse; then the rest of the army. At the same time the ships sailed over to the opposite shore. According, however, to another account which I have heard, the king crossed the last. 56. As soon as Xerxes had reached the European side, he stood to contemplate his army as they crossed under the lash. And the crossing continued during seven days and seven nights, without rest or pause. 'Tis said that here, after Xerxes had made the passage, a Hellespontian exclaimed - "Why, O Jove, dost thou, in the likeness of a Persian man, and with the name of Xerxes instead of thine own, lead the whole race of mankind to the destruction of Greece? It would have been as easy for thee to destroy it without their aid!" 57. When the whole army had crossed, and the troops were now upon their march, a strange prodigy appeared to them, whereof the king made no account, though its meaning was not difficult to conjecture. Now the prodigy was this:- a mare brought forth a hare. Hereby it was shown plainly enough, that Xerxes would lead forth his host against Greece with mighty pomp and splendour, but, in order to reach again the spot from which he set out, would have to run for his life. There had also been another portent, while Xerxes was still at Sardis - a mule dropped a foal, neither male nor female; but this likewise was disregarded. 58. So Xerxes, despising the omens, marched forwards; and his land army accompanied him. But the fleet held an opposite course, and, sailing to the mouth of the Hellespont, made its way along the shore. Thus the fleet proceeded westward, making for Cape Sarpedon, where the orders were that it should await the coming up of the troops; but the land army marched eastward along the Chersonese, leaving on the right the tomb of Helle, the daughter of Athamas, and on the left the city of Cardia. Having passed through the town which is called Agora, they skirted the shores of the Gulf of Melas, and then crossed the river Melas, whence the gulf takes its name, the waters of which they found too scanty to supply the host. From this point their march was to the west; and after passing Aenos, an Aeolian settlement, and likewise Lake Stentoris, they came to Doriscus. 59. The name Doriscus is given to a beach and a vast plain upon the coast of Thrace, through the middle of which flows the strong stream of the Hebrus. Here was the royal fort which is likewise called Doriscus, where Darius had maintained a Persian garrison ever since the time when he attacked the Scythians. This place seemed to Xerxes a convenient spot for reviewing and numbering his soldiers; which things accordingly he proceeded to do. The sea-captains, who had brought the fleet to Doriscus, were ordered to take the vessels to the beach adjoining, where Sale stands, a city of the Samothracians, and Zone, another city. The beach extends to Serrheum, the well-known promontory; the whole district in former times was inhabited by the Ciconians. Here then the captains were to bring their ships, and to haul them ashore for refitting, while Xerxes at Doriscus was employed in numbering the soldiers. 60. What the exact number of the troops of each nation was I cannot say with certainty - for it is not mentioned by any one - but the whole land army together was found to amount to one million seven hundred thousand men. The manner in which the numbering took place was the following. A body of ten thousand men was brought to a certain place, and the men were made to stand as close together as possible; after which a circle was drawn around them, and the men were let go: then where the circle had been, a fence was built about the height of a man's middle; and the enclosure was filled continually with fresh troops, till the whole army had in this way been numbered. When the numbering was over, the troops were drawn up according to their several nations. 61. Now these were the nations that took part in this expedition. The Persians, who wore on their heads the soft hat called the tiara, and about their bodies, tunics with sleeves of divers colours, having iron scales upon them like the scales of a fish. Their legs were protected by trousers; and they bore wicker shields for bucklers; their quivers hanging at their backs, and their arms being a short spear, a bow of uncommon size, and arrows of reed. They had likewise daggers suspended from their girdles along their right thighs. Otanes, the father of Xerxes' wife, Amestris, was their leader. This people was known to the Greeks in ancient times by the name of Cephenians; but they called themselves and were called by their neighbours, Artaeans. It was not till Perseus, the son of Jove and Danae, visited Cepheus the son of Belus, and, marrying his daughter Andromeda, had by her a son called Perses (whom he left behind him in the country because Cepheus had no male offspring), that the nation took from this Perses the name of Persians. 62. The Medes had exactly the same equipment as the Persians; and indeed the dress common to both is not so much Persian as Median. They had for commander Tigranes, of the race of the Achaemenids. These Medes were called anciently by all people Arians; but when Media, the Colchian, came to them from Athens, they changed their name. Such is the account which they themselves give. The Cissians were equipped in the Persian fashion, except in one respect:- they wore on their heads, instead of hats, fillets. Anaphes, the son of Otanes, commanded them. The Hyrcanians were likewise armed in the same way as the Persians. Their leader was Megapanus, the same who was afterwards satrap of Babylon. 63. The Assyrians went to the war with helmets upon their heads made of brass, and plaited in a strange fashion which it is not easy to describe. They carried shields, lances, and daggers very like the Egyptian; but in addition, they had wooden clubs knotted with iron, and linen corselets. This people, whom the Greeks call Syrians, are called Assyrians by the barbarians. The Chaldaeans served in their ranks, and they had for commander Otaspes, the son of Artachaeus. 64. The Bactrians went to the war wearing a head-dress very like the Median, but armed with bows of cane, after the custom of their country, and with short spears. The Sacae, or Scyths, were clad in trousers, and had on their heads tall stiff caps rising to a point. They bore the bow of their country and the dagger; besides which they carried the battle-axe, or sagaris. They were in truth Amyrgian Scythians, but the Persians called them Sacae, since that is the name which they give to all Scythians. The Bactrians and the Sacae had for leader Hystaspes, the son of Darius and of Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus. 65. The Indians wore cotton dresses, and carried bows of cane, and arrows also of cane with iron at the point. Such was the equipment of the Indians, and they marched under the command of Pharnazathres the son of Artabates. 66. The Arians carried Median bows, but in other respects were equipped like the Bactrians. Their commander was Sisamnes the son of Hydarnes. The Parthians and Chorasmians, with the Sogdians, the Gandarians, and the Dadicae, had the Bactrian equipment in all respects. The Parthians and Chorasmians were commanded by Artabazus the son of Pharnaces, the Sogdians by Azanes the son of Artaeus, and the Gandarians and Dadicae by Artyphius the son of Artabanus. 67. The Caspians were clad in cloaks of skin, and carried the cane bow of their country and the scymitar. So equipped they went to the war; and they had for commander Ariomardus the brother of Artyphius. The Sarangians had dyed garments which showed brightly, and buskins which reached to the knee: they bore Median bows, and lances. Their leader was Pherendates, the son of Megabazus. The Pactyans wore cloaks of skin, and carried the bow of their country and the dagger. Their commander was Artyntes, the son of Ithamatres. 68. The Utians, the Mycians, and the Paricanians were all equipped like the Pactyans. They had for leaders, Arsamenes, the son of Darius, who commanded the Utians and Mycians; and Siromitres, the son of Oeobazus, who commanded the Paricanians. 69. The Arabians wore the zeira, or long cloak, fastened about them with a girdle; and carried at their right side long bows, which when unstrung bent backwards. The Ethiopians were clothed in the skins of leopards and lions, and had long bows made of the stem of the palm-leaf, not less than four cubits in length. On these they laid short arrows made of reed, and armed at the tip, not with iron, but with a piece of stone, sharpened to a point, of the kind used in engraving seals. They carried likewise spears, the head of which was the sharpened horn of an antelope; and in addition they had knotted clubs. When they went into battle they painted their bodies, half with chalk, and half with vermilion. The Arabians, and the Ethiopians who came from the region above Egypt, were commanded by Arsames, the son of Darius and of Artystone daughter of Cyrus. This Artystone was the best-beloved of all the wives of Darius; and it was she whose statue he caused to be made of gold wrought with the hammer. Her son Arsames commanded these two nations. 70. The eastern Ethiopians - for two nations of this name served in the army - were marshalled with the Indians. They differed in nothing from the other Ethiopians, save in their language, and the character of their hair. For the eastern Ethiopians have straight hair, while they of Libya are more woolly-haired than any other people in the world. Their equipment was in most points like that of the Indians; but they wore upon their heads the scalps of horses, with the ears and mane attached; the ears were made to stand upright, and the mane served as a crest. For shields this people made use of the skins of cranes. 71. The Libyans wore a dress of leather, and carried javelins made hard in the fire. They had for commander Massages, the son of Oarizus. 72. The Paphlagonians went to the war with plaited helmets upon their heads, and carrying small shields and spears of no great size. They had also javelins and daggers, and wore on their feet the buskin of their country, which reached half way up the shank. In the same fashion were equipped the Ligyans, the Matienians, the Mariandynians, and the Syrians (or Cappadocians, as they are called by the Persians). The Paphlagonians and Matienians were under the command of Dotus the son of Megasidrus; while the Mariandynians, the Ligyans, and the Syrians had for leader Gobryas, the son of Darius and Artystone. 73. The dress of the Phrygians closely resembled the Paphlagonian, only in a very few points differing from it. According to the Macedonian account, the Phrygians, during the time that they had their abode in Europe and dwelt with them in Macedonia, bore the name of Brigians; but on their removal to Asia they changed their designation at the same time with their dwelling-place. The Armenians, who are Phrygian colonists, were armed in the Phrygian fashion. Both nations were under the command of Artochmes, who was married to one of the daughters of Darius. 74. The Lydians were armed very nearly in the Grecian manner. These Lydians in ancient times were called Maeonians, but changed their name, and took their present title from Lydus the son of Atys. The Mysians wore upon their heads a helmet made after the fashion of their country, and carried a small buckler; they used as javelins staves with one end hardened in the fire. The Mysians are Lydian colonists, and from the mountain-chain of Olympus, are called Olympieni. Both the Lydians and the Mysians were under the command of Artaphernes, the son of that Artaphernes who, with Datis, made the landing at Marathon. 75. The Thracians went to the war wearing the skins of foxes upon their heads, and about their bodies tunics, over which was thrown a long cloak of many colours. Their legs and feet were clad in buskins made from the skins of fawns; and they had for arms javelins, with light targes, and short dirks. This people, after crossing into Asia, took the name of Bithynians; before, they had been called Strymonians, while they dwelt upon the Strymon; whence, according to their own account, they had been driven out by the Mysians and Teucrians. The commander of these Asiatic Thracians was Bassaces the son of Artabanus. 76. The . . . had made small shields made of the hide of the ox, and carried each of them two spears such as are used in wolf-hunting. Brazen helmets protected their heads; and above these they wore the ears and horns of an ox fashioned in brass. They had also crests on their helms; and their legs were bound round with purple bands. There is an oracle of Mars in the country of this people. 77. The Cabalians, who are Maeonians, but are called Lasonians, had the same equipment as the Cilicians - an equipment which I shall describe when I come in due course to the Cilician contingent. The Milyans bore short spears, and had their garments fastened with buckles. Some of their number carried Lycian bows. They wore about their heads skull-caps made of leather. Badres the son of Hystanes led both nations to battle. 78. The Moschians wore helmets made of wood, and carried shields and spears of a small size: their spear-heads, however, were long. The Moschian equipment was that likewise of the Tibarenians, the Macronians, and the Mosynoecians. The leaders of these nations were the following: the Moschians and Tibarenians were under the command of Ariomardus, who was the son of Darius and of Parmys, daughter of Smerdis son of Cyrus; while the Macronians and Mosynoecians. had for leader Artayctes, the son of Cherasmis, the governor of Sestos upon the Hellespont. 79. The Mares wore on their heads the plaited helmet peculiar to their country, and used small leathern bucklers, and javelins. The Colchians wore wooden helmets, and carried small shields of raw hide, and short spears; besides which they had swords. Both Mares and Colchians were under the command of Pharandates, the son of Teaspes. The Alarodians and Saspirians were armed like the Colchians; their leader was Masistes, the son of Siromitras. 80. The Islanders who came from the Erythraean Sea, where they inhabited the islands to which the king sends those whom he banishes, wore a dress and arms almost exactly like the Median. Their leader was Mardontes the son of Bagaeus, who the year after perished in the battle of Mycale, where he was one of the captains. 81. Such were the nations who fought upon the dry land, and made up the infantry of the Persians. And they were commanded by the captains whose names have been above recorded. The marshalling and numbering of the troops had been committed to them; and by them were appointed the captains over a thousand, and the captains over ten thousand; but the leaders of ten men, or a hundred, were named by the captains over ten thousand. There were other officers also, who gave the orders to the various ranks and nations; but those whom I have mentioned above were the commanders. 82. Over these commanders themselves, and over the whole of the infantry, there were set six generals - namely Mardonius, son of Gobryas; Tritantaechmes, son of the Artabanus who gave his advice against the war with Greece; Smerdomenes, son of Otanes - these two were the sons of Darius' brothers, and thus were cousins of Xerxes - Masistes, son of Darius and Atossa; Gergis, son of Arizus; and Megabyzus, son of Zopyrus. 83. The whole of the infantry was under the command of these generals, excepting the Ten Thousand. The Ten Thousand, who were all Persians and all picked men, were led by Hydarnes, the son of Hydarnes. They were called "the Immortals," for the following reason. If one of their body failed either by the stroke of death or of disease, forthwith his place was filled up by another man, so that their number was at no time either greater or less than 10,000. Of all the troops the Persians were adorned with the greatest magnificence, and they were likewise the most valiant. Besides their arms, which have been already described, they glittered all over with gold, vast quantities of which they wore about their persons. They were followed by litters, wherein rode their concubines, and by a numerous train of attendants handsomely dressed. Camels and sumpter-beasts carried their provision, apart from that of the other soldiers. 84. All these various nations fight on horseback; they did not, however, at this time all furnish horsemen, but only the following:- The Persians, who were armed in the same way as their own footmen, excepting that some of them wore upon their heads devices fashioned with the hammer in brass or steel. 85. The wandering tribe known by the name of Sagartians - a people Persian in language, and in dress half Persian, half Pactyan, who furnished to the army as many as eight thousand horse. It is not the wont of this people to carry arms, either of bronze or steel, except only a dirk; but they use lassoes made of thongs plaited together, and trust to these whenever they go to the wars. Now the manner in which they fight is the following: when they meet their enemy, straightway they discharge their lassoes, which end in a noose; then, whatever the noose encircles, be it man or be it horse, they drag towards them; and the foe, entangled in the toils, is forthwith slain. Such is the manner in which this people fight; and now their horsemen were drawn up with the Persians. 86. The Medes, and Cissians, who had the same equipment as their foot-soldiers. The Indians, equipped as their foot. men, but some on horseback and some in chariots - the chariots drawn either by horses, or by wild asses. The Bactrians and Caspians, arrayed as their foot-soldiers. The Libyans, equipped as their foot-soldiers, like the rest; but all riding in chariots. The Caspeirians and Paricanians, equipped as their foot-soldiers. The Arabians, in the same array as their footmen, but all riding on camels, not inferior in fleetness to horses. 87. These nations, and these only, furnished horse to the army: and the number of the horse was eighty thousand, without counting camels or chariots. All were marshalled in squadrons, excepting the Arabians; who were placed last, to avoid frightening the horses, which cannot endure the sight of the camel. 88. The horse was commanded by Armamithras and Tithaeus, sons of Datis. The other commander, Pharnuches, who was to have been their colleague, had been left sick at Sardis; since at the moment that he was leaving the city, a sad mischance befell him:- a dog ran under the feet of the horse upon which he was mounted; and the horse, not seeing it coming, was startled, and, rearing bolt upright, threw his rider. After this fall Pharnuches spat blood, and fell into a consumption. As for the horse, he was treated at once as Pharnuches ordered: the attendants took him to the spot where he had thrown his master, and there cut off his four legs at the hough. Thus Pharnuches lost his command. 89. The triremes amounted in all to twelve hundred and seven; and were furnished by the following nations:- The Phoenicians, with the Syrians of Palestine, furnished three hundred vessels, the crews of which were thus accoutred: upon their heads they wore helmets made nearly in the Grecian manner; about their bodies they had breastplates of linen; they carried shields without rims; and were armed with javelins. This nation, according to their own account, dwelt anciently upon the Erythraean Sea, but crossing thence, fixed themselves on the seacoast of Syria, where they still inhabit. This part of Syria, and all the region extending from hence to Egypt, is known by the name of Palestine. The Egyptians furnished two hundred ships. Their crews had plaited helmets upon their heads, and bore concave shields with rims of unusual size. They were armed with spears suited for a sea-fight, and with huge pole-axes. The greater part of them wore breastplates; and all had long cutlasses. 90. The Cyprians furnished a hundred and fifty ships, and were equipped in the following fashion. Their kings had turbans bound about their heads, while the people wore tunics; in other respects they were clad like the Greeks. They are of various races; some are sprung from Athens and Salamis, some from Arcadia, some from Cythnus, some from Phoenicia, and a portion, according to their own account, from Ethiopia. 91. The Cilicians furnished a hundred ships. The crews wore upon their heads the helmet of their country, and carried instead of shields light targes made of raw hide; they were clad in woollen tunics, and were each armed with two javelins, and a sword closely resembling the cutlass of the Egyptians. This people bore anciently the name of Hypachaeans, but took their present title from Cilix, the son of Agenor, a Phoenician. The Pamphylians furnished thirty ships, the crews of which were armed exactly as the Greeks. This nation is descended from those who on the return from Troy were dispersed with Amphilochus and Calchas. 92. The Lycians furnished fifty ships. Their crews wore greaves and breastplates, while for arms they had bows of cornel wood, reed arrows without feathers, and javelins. Their outer garment was the skin of a goat, which hung from their shoulders; their headdress a hat encircled with plumes; and besides their other weapons they carried daggers and falchions. This people came from Crete, and were once called Termilae; they got the name which they now bear from Lycus, the son of Pandion, an Athenian. 93. The Dorians of Asia furnished thirty ships. They were armed in the Grecian fashion, inasmuch as their forefathers came from the Peloponnese. The Carians furnished seventy ships, and were equipped like the Greeks, but carried, in addition, falchions and daggers. What name the Carians bore anciently was declared in the first part of this History. 94. The Ionians furnished a hundred ships, and were armed like the Greeks. Now these Ionians, during the time that they dwelt in the Peloponnese and inhabited the land now called Achaea (which was before the arrival of Danaus and Xuthus in the Peloponnese), were called, according to the Greek account, Aegialean Pelasgi, or "Pelasgi of the Sea-shore"; but afterwards, from Ion the son of Xuthus, they were called Ionians. 95. The Islanders furnished seventeen ships, and wore arms like the Greeks. They too were a Pelasgian race, who in later times took the, name of Ionians for the same reason me reason as those who inhabited the twelve cities founded from Athens. The Aeolians furnished sixty ships, and were equipped in the Grecian fashion. They too were anciently called Pelasgians, as the Greeks declare. The Hellespontians from the Pontus, who are colonists of the Ionians and Dorians, furnished a hundred ships, the crews of which wore the Grecian armour. This did not include the Abydenians, who stayed in their own country, because the king had assigned them the special duty of guarding the bridges. 96. On board of every ship was a band of soldiers, Persians, Medes, or Sacans. The Phoenician ships were the best sailers in the fleet, and the Sidonian the best among the Phoenicians. The contingent of each nation, whether to the fleet or to the land army, had at its head a native leader; but the names of these leaders I shall not mention, as it is not necessary for the course of my History. For the leaders of some nations were not worthy to have their names recorded; and besides, there were in each nation as many leaders as there were cities. And it was not really as commanders that they accompanied the army, but as mere slaves, like the rest of the host. For I have already mentioned the Persian generals who had the actual command, and were at the head of the several nations which composed the army. 97. The fleet was commanded by the following - Ariabignes, the son of Darius, Prexaspes, the son of Aspathines, Megabazus, the son of Megabates, and Achaemenes, the son of Darius. Ariabignes, who was the child of Darius by a daughter of Gobryas, was leader of the Ionian and Carian ships; Achaemenes, who was own brother to Xerxes, of the Egyptian; the rest of the fleet was commanded by the other two. Besides the triremes, there was an assemblage of thirty-oared and fifty-oared galleys, of cercuri, and transports for conveying horses, amounting in all to three thousand. 98. Next to the commanders, the following were the most renowned of those who sailed aboard the fleet:- Tetramnestus, the son of Anysus, the Sidonian; Mapen, the son of Sirom, the Tyrian; Merbal, the son of Agbal, the Aradian; Syennesis, the son of Oromedon, the Cilician; Cyberniscus, the son of Sicas, the Lycian; Gorgus, the son of Chersis, and Timonax, the son of Timagoras, the Cyprians; and Histiaeus, the son of Timnes, Pigres, the son of Seldomus, and Damasithymus, the son of Candaules, the Carians. 99. Of the other lower officers I shall make no mention, since no necessity is laid on me; but I must speak of a certain leader named Artemisia, whose participation in the attack upon Greece, notwithstanding that she was a woman, moves my special wonder. She had obtained the sovereign power after the death of her husband; and, though she had now a son grown up, yet her brave spirit and manly daring sent her forth to the war, when no need required her to adventure. Her name, as I said, was Artemisia, and she was the daughter of Lygdamis; by race she was on his side a Halicarnassian, though by her mother a Cretan. She ruled over the Halicarnassians, the men of Cos, of Nisyrus, and of Calydna; and the five triremes which she furnished to the Persians were, next to the Sidonian, the most famous ships in the fleet. She likewise gave to Xerxes sounder counsel than any of his other allies. Now the cities over which I have mentioned that she bore sway were one and all Dorian; for the Halicarnassians were colonists from Troezen, while the remainder were from Epidaurus. Thus much concerning the sea-force. 100. Now when the numbering and marshalling of the host was ended, Xerxes conceived a wish to go himself throughout the forces, and with his own eyes behold everything. Accordingly he traversed the ranks seated in his chariot, and, going from nation to nation, made manifold inquiries, while his scribes wrote down the answers; till at last he had passed from end to end of the whole land army, both the horsemen and likewise the foot. This done, he exchanged his chariot for a Sidonian galley, and, seated beneath a golden awning, sailed along the prows of all his vessels (the vessels having now been hauled down and launched into the sea), while he made inquiries again, as he had done when he reviewed the land-force, and caused the answers to be recorded by his scribes. The captains took their ships to the distance of about four hundred feet from the shore, and there lay to, with their vessels in a single row, the prows facing the land, and with the fighting-men upon the decks accoutred as if for war, while the king sailed along in the open space between the ships and the shore, and so reviewed the fleet. 101. Now after Xerxes had sailed down the whole line and was gone ashore, he sent for Demaratus the son of Ariston, who had accompanied him in his march upon Greece, and bespake him thus:- "Demaratus, it is my pleasure at this time to ask thee certain things which I wish to know. Thou art a Greek, and, as I hear from the other Greeks with whom I converse, no less than from thine own lips, thou art a native of a city which is not the meanest or the weakest in their land. Tell me, therefore, what thinkest thou? Will the Greeks lift a hand against us? Mine own judgment is, that even if all the Greeks and all the barbarians of the West were gathered together in one place, they would not be able to abide my onset, not being really of one mind. But I would fain know what thou thinkest hereon." Thus Xerxes questioned; and the other replied in his turn, - "O king! is it thy will that I give thee a true answer, or dost thou wish for a pleasant one?" Then the king bade him speak the plain truth, and promised that he would not on that account hold him in less favour than heretofore. 102. So Demaratus, when he heard the promise, spake as follows:- "O king! since thou biddest me at all risks speak the truth, and not say what will one day prove me to have lied to thee, thus I answer. Want has at all times been a fellow-dweller with us in our land, while Valour is an ally whom we have gained by dint of wisdom and strict laws. Her aid enables us to drive out want and escape thraldom. Brave are all the Greeks who dwell in any Dorian land; but what I am about to say does not concern all, but only the Lacedaemonians. First then, come what may, they will never accept thy terms, which would reduce Greece to slavery; and further, they are sure to join battle with thee, though all the rest of the Greeks should submit to thy will. As for their numbers, do not ask how many they are, that their resistance should be a possible thing; for if a thousand of them should take the field, they will meet thee in battle, and so will any number, be it less than this, or be it more." 103. When Xerxes heard this answer of Demaratus, he laughed and answered:- "What wild words, Demaratus! A thousand men join battle with such an army as this! Come then, wilt thou - who wert once, as thou sayest, their king - engage to fight this very day with ten men? I trow not. And yet, if all thy fellow-citizens be indeed such as thou sayest they are, thou oughtest, as their king, by thine own country's usages, to be ready to fight with twice the number. If then each one of them be a match for ten of my soldiers, I may well call upon thee to be a match for twenty. So wouldest thou assure the truth of what thou hast now said. If, however, you Greeks, who vaunt yourselves so much, are of a truth men like those whom I have seen about my court, as thyself, Demaratus, and the others with whom I am wont to converse - if, I say, you are really men of this sort and size, how is the speech that thou hast uttered more than a mere empty boast? For, to go to the very verge of likelihood - how could a thousand men, or ten thousand, or even fifty thousand, particularly if they were all alike free, and not under one lord - how could such a force, I say, stand against an army like mine? Let them be five thousand, and we shall have more than a thousand men to each one of theirs. If, indeed, like our troops, they had a single master, their fear of him might make them courageous beyond their natural bent; or they might be urged by lashes against an enemy which far outnumbered them. But left to their own free choice, assuredly they will act differently. For mine own part, I believe, that if the Greeks had to contend with the Persians only, and the numbers were equal on both sides, the Greeks would find it hard to stand their ground. We too have among us such men as those of whom thou spakest - not many indeed, but still we possess a few. For instance, some of my bodyguard would be willing to engage singly with three Greeks. But this thou didst not know; and therefore it was thou talkedst so foolishly." 104. Demaratus answered him - "I knew, O king! at the outset, that if I told thee the truth, my speech would displease thine ears. But as thou didst require me to answer thee with all possible truthfulness, I informed thee what the Spartans will do. And in this I spake not from any love that I bear them - for none knows better than thou what my love towards them is likely to be at the present time, when they have robbed me of my rank and my ancestral honours, and made me a homeless exile, whom thy father did receive, bestowing on me both shelter and sustenance. What likelihood is there that a man of understanding should be unthankful for kindness shown him, and not cherish it in his heart? For mine own self, I pretend not to cope with ten men, nor with two - nay, had I the choice, I would rather not fight even with one. But, if need appeared, or if there were any great cause urging me on, I would contend with right good will against one of those persons who boast themselves a match for any three Greeks. So likewise the Lacedaemonians, when they fight singly, are as good men as any in the world, and when they fight in a body, are the bravest of all. For though they be free-men, they are not in all respects free; Law is the master whom they own; and this master they fear more than thy subjects fear thee. Whatever he commands they do; and his commandment is always the same: it forbids them to flee in battle, whatever the number of their foes, and requires them to stand firm, and either to conquer or die. If in these words, O king! I seem to thee to speak foolishly, I am content from this time forward evermore to hold my peace. I had not now spoken unless compelled by thee. Certes, I pray that all may turn out according to thy wishes." 105. Such was the answer of Demaratus; and Xerxes was not angry with him at all, but only laughed, and sent him away with words of kindness. After this interview, and after he had made Mascames the son of Megadostes governor of Doriscus, setting aside the governor appointed by Darius, Xerxes started with his army, and marched upon Greece through Thrace. 106. This man, Mascames, whom he left behind him, was a person of such merit that gifts were sent him yearly by the king as a special favour, because he excelled all the other governors that had been appointed either by Xerxes or by Darius. In like manner, Artaxerxes, the son of Xerxes, sent gifts yearly to the descendants of Mascames. Persian governors had been established in Thrace and about the Hellespont before the march of Xerxes began; but these persons, after the expedition was over, were all driven from their towns by the Greeks, except the governor of Doriscus: no one succeeded in driving out Mascames, though many made the attempt. For this reason the gifts are sent him every year by the king who reigns over the Persians. 107. Of the other governors whom the Greeks drove out, there was not one who, in the judgment of Xerxes, showed himself a brave man, excepting Boges, the governor of Eion. Him Xerxes never could praise enough; and such of his sons as were left in Persia, and survived their father, he very specially honoured. And of a truth this Boges was worthy of great commendation; for when he was besieged by the Athenians under Cimon, the son of Miltiades, and it was open to him to retire from the city upon terms, and return to Asia, he refused, because he feared the king might think he had played the coward to save his own life, wherefore, instead of surrendering, he held out to the last extremity. When all the food in the fortress was gone, he raised a vast funeral pile, slew his children, his wife, his concubines, and his household slaves, and cast them all into the flames. Then, collecting whatever gold and silver there was in the place, he flung it from the walls into the Strymon; and, when that was done, to crown all, he himself leaped into the fire. For this action Boges is with reason praised by the Persians even at the present day. 108. Xerxes, as I have said, pursued his march from Doriscus against Greece; and on his way he forced all the nations through which he passed to take part in the expedition. For the whole country as far as the frontiers of Thessaly had been (as I have already shown) enslaved and made tributary to the king by the conquests of Megabazus, and, more lately, of Mardonius. And first, after leaving Doriscus, Xerxes passed the Samothracian fortresses, whereof Mesambria is the farthermost as one goes toward the west. The next city is Stryme, which belongs to Thasos. Midway between it and Mesambria flows the river Lissus, which did not suffice to furnish water for the army, but was drunk up and failed. This region was formerly called Gallaica; now it bears the name of Briantica; but in strict truth it likewise is really Ciconian. 109. After crossing the dry channel of the Lissus, Xerxes passed the Grecian cities of Maroneia, Dicaea, and Abdera, and likewise the famous lakes which are in their neighbourhood, Lake Ismaris between Maroneia and Stryme, and Lake Bistonis near Dicaea, which receives the waters of two rivers, the Travus and the Compsatus. Near Abdera there was no famous lake for him to pass; but he crossed the river Nestus, which there reaches the sea. Proceeding further upon his way, he passed by several continental cities, one of them possessing a lake nearly thirty furlongs in circuit, full of fish, and very salt, of which the sumpter-beasts only drank, and which they drained dry. The name of this city was Pistyrus. All these towns, which were Grecian, and lay upon the coast, Xerxes kept upon his left hand as he passed along. 110. The following are the Thracian tribes through whose country he marched: the Paeti, the Ciconians, the Bistonians, the Sapaeans, the Dersaeans, the Edonians, and the Satrae. Some of these dwelt by the sea, and furnished ships to the king's fleet; while others lived in the more inland parts, and of these all the tribes which I have mentioned, except the Satrae, were forced to serve on foot. 111. The Satrae, so far as our knowledge goes, have never yet been brought under by any one, but continue to this day a free and unconquered people, unlike the other Thracians. They dwell amid lofty mountains clothed with forests of different trees and capped with snow, and are very valiant in fight. They are the Thracians who have an oracle of Bacchus in their country, which is situated upon their highest mountain-range. The Bessi, a Satrian race, deliver the oracles; but the prophet, as at Delphi, is a woman; and her answers are not harder to read. 112. When Xerxes had passed through the region mentioned above, he came next to the Pierian fortresses, one of which is called Phagres, and another Pergamus. Here his line of march lay close by the walls, with the long high range of Pangaeum upon his right, a tract in which there are mines both of gold and silver, some worked by the Pierians and Odomantians, but the greater part by the Satrae. 113. Xerxes then marched through the country of the Paeonian tribes - the Doberians and the Paeoplae - which lay to the north of Pangaeum, and, advancing westward, reached the river Strymon and the city Eion, whereof Boges, of whom I spoke a short time ago, and who was then still alive, was governor. The tract of land lying about Mount Pangaeum is called Phyllis; on the west it reaches to the river Angites, which flows into the Strymon, and on the south to the Strymon itself, where at this time the Magi were sacrificing white horses to make the stream favourable. 114. After propitiating the stream by these and many other magical ceremonies, the Persians crossed the Strymon, by bridges made before their arrival, at a place called "The Nine Ways," which was in the territory of the Edonians. And when they learnt that the name of the place was "The Nine Ways," they took nine of the youths of the land and as many of their maidens, and buried them alive on the spot. Burying alive is a Persian custom. I have heard that Amestris, the wife of Xerxes, in her old age buried alive seven pairs of Persian youths, sons of illustrious men, as a thank-offering to the god who is supposed to dwell underneath the earth. 115. From the Strymon the army, proceeding westward, came to a strip of shore, on which there stands the Grecian town of Argilus. This shore, and the whole tract above it, is called Bisaltia. Passing this, and keeping on the left hand the Gulf of Posideium, Xerxes crossed the Sylean plain, as it is called, and passing by Stagirus, a Greek city, came to Acanthus. The inhabitants of these parts, as well as those who dwelt about Mount Pangaeum, were forced to join the armament, like those others of whom I spoke before; the dwellers along the coast being made to serve in the fleet, while those who lived more inland had to follow with the land forces. The road which the army of Xerxes took remains to this day untouched: the Thracians neither plough nor sow it, but hold it in great honour. 116. On reaching Acanthus, the Persian king, seeing the great zeal of the Acanthians for his service, and hearing what had been done about the cutting, took them into the number of his sworn friends, sent them as a present a Median dress, and besides commended them highly. 117. It was while he remained here that Artachaees, who presided over the canal, a man in high repute with Xerxes, and by birth an Achaemenid, who was moreover the tallest of all the Persians, being only four fingers short of five cubits, royal measure, and who had a stronger voice than any other man in the world, fell sick and died. Xerxes therefore, who was greatly afflicted at the mischance, carried him to the tomb and buried him with all magnificence; while the whole army helped to raise a mound over his grave. The Acanthians, in obedience to an oracle, offer sacrifice to this Artachaees as a hero, invoking him in their prayers by name. But King Xerxes sorrowed greatly over his death. 118. Now the Greeks who had to feed the army, and to entertain Xerxes, were brought thereby to the very extremity of distress, insomuch that some of them were forced even to forsake house and home. When the Thasians received and feasted the host, on account of their possessions upon the mainland, Antipater, the son of Orges, one of the citizens of best repute, and the man to whom the business was assigned, proved that the cost of the meal was four hundred talents of silver. 119. And estimates almost to the same amount were made by the superintendents in other cities. For the entertainment, which had been ordered long beforehand and was reckoned to be of much consequence, was, in the manner of it, such as I will now describe. No sooner did the heralds who brought the orders give their message, than in every city the inhabitants made a division of their stores of corn, and proceeded to grind flour of wheat and of barley for many months together. Besides this, they purchased the best cattle that they could find, and fattened them; and fed poultry and water-fowl in ponds and buildings, to be in readiness for the army; while they likewise prepared gold and silver vases and drinking-cups, and whatsoever else is needed for the service of the table. These last preparations were made for the king only, and those who sat at meat with him; for the rest of the army nothing was made ready beyond the food for which orders had been given. On the arrival of the Persians, a tent ready pitched for the purpose received Xerxes, who took his rest therein, while the soldiers remained under the open heaven. When the dinner hour came, great was the toil of those who entertained the army; while the guests ate their fill, and then, after passing the night at the place, tore down the royal tent next morning, and seizing its contents, carried them all off, leaving nothing behind. 120. On one of these occasions Megacreon of Abdera wittily recommended his countrymen "to go to the temples in a body, men and women alike, and there take their station as suppliants, and beseech the gods that they would in future always spare them one-half of the woes which might threaten their peace - thanking them at the same time very warmly for their past goodness in that they had caused Xerxes to be content with one meal in the day." For had the order been to provide breakfast for the king as well as dinner, the Abderites must either have fled before Xerxes came, or, if they awaited his coming, have been brought to absolute ruin. As it was, the nations, though suffering heavy pressure, complied nevertheless with the directions that had been given. 121. At Acanthus, Xerxes separated from his fleet, bidding the captains sail on ahead and await his coming at Therma, on the Thermaic Gulf, the place from which the bay takes its name. Through this town lay, he understood, his shortest road. Previously, his order of march had been the following:- from Doriscus to Acanthus his land force had proceeded in three bodies, one of which took the way along the sea-shore in company with the fleet, and was commanded by Mardonius and Masistes, while another pursued an inland track under Tritantaechmes and Gergis; the third, with which was Xerxes himself marching midway between the other two, and having for its leaders Smerdomenes and Megabyzus. 122. The fleet, therefore, after leaving the king, sailed through the channel which had been cut for it by Mount Athos, and came into the bay whereon lie the cities of Assa, Pilorus, Singus, and Sarta; from all which it received contingents. Thence it stood on for the Thermaic Gulf, and rounding Cape Ampelus, the promontory of the Toronaeans, passed the Grecian cities Torone, Galepsus, Sermyla, Mecyberna, and Olynthus, receiving from each a number of ships and men. This region is called Sithonia. 123. From Cape Ampelus the fleet stretched across by a short course to Cape Canastraeum, which is the point of the peninsula of Palline that runs out farthest into the sea, and gathered fresh supplies of ships and men from Potidaea, Aphytis, Neapolis, Aega, Therambus, Scione, Mende, and Sane. These are the cities of the tract called anciently Phlegra, but now Palline. Hence they again followed the coast, still advancing towards the place appointed by the king, and had accessions from all the cities that lie near Pallene, and border on the Thermaic Gulf, whereof the names are Lipaxus, Combreia, Lisae, Gigonus, Campsa, Smila, and Aenea. The tract where these towns lie still retains its old name of Crossaea. After passing Aenea, the city which I last named, the fleet found itself arrived in the Thermaic Gulf, off the land of Mygdonia. And so at length they reached Therma, the appointed place, and came likewise to Sindus and Chalestra upon the river Axius, which separates Bottiaea from Mygdonia. Bottiaea has a scanty sea-board, which is occupied by the two cities Ichnae and Pella. 124. So the fleet anchored off the Axius, and off Therma, and the towns that lay between, waiting the king's coming. Xerxes meanwhile with his land force left Acanthus, and started for Therma, taking his way across the land. This road led him through Paeonia and Crestonia to the river Echeidorus, which rising in the country of the Crestonians, flows through Mygdonia, and reaches the sea near the marsh upon the Axius. 125. Upon this march the camels that carried the provisions of the army were set upon by lions, which left their lairs and came down by night, but spared the men and the sumpter-beasts, while they made the camels their prey. I marvel what may have been the cause which compelled the lions to leave the other animals untouched and attack the camels, when they had never seen that beast before, nor had any experience of it. 126. That whole region is full of lions and wild bulls, with gigantic horns, which are brought into Greece. The lions are confined within the tract lying between the river Nestus (which flows through Abdera) on the one side, and the Achelous (which waters Acarnania) on the other. No one ever sees a lion in the fore part of Europe east of the Nestus, nor through the entire continent west of the Achelous; but in the space between these bounds lions are found. 127. On reaching Therma Xerxes halted his army, which encamped along the coast, beginning at the city of Therma in Mygdonia, and stretching out as far as the rivers Lydias and Haliacmon, two streams which, mingling their waters in one, form the boundary between Bottiaea and Macedonia. Such was the extent of country through which the barbarians encamped. The rivers here mentioned were all of them sufficient to supply the troops, except the Echeidorus, which was drunk dry. 128. From Therma Xerxes beheld the Thessalian mountains, Olympus and Ossa, which are of a wonderful height. Here, learning that there lay between these mountains a narrow gorge through which the river Peneus ran, and where there was a road that gave an entrance into Thessaly, he formed the wish to go by sea himself, and examine the mouth of the river. His design was to lead his army by the upper road through the country of the inland Macedonians, and so to enter Perrhaebia, and come down by the city of Gonnus; for he was told that that way was the most secure. No sooner therefore had he formed this wish than he acted accordingly. Embarking, as was his wont on all such occasions, aboard a Sidonian vessel, he gave the signal to the rest of the fleet to get under weigh, and quitting his land army, set sail and proceeded to the Peneus. Here the view of the mouth caused him to wonder greatly; and sending for his guides, he asked them whether it were possible to turn the course of the stream, and make it reach the sea at any other point. 129. Now there is a tradition that Thessaly was in ancient times a lake, shut in on every side by huge hills. Ossa and Pelion- ranges which join at the foot- do in fact inclose it upon the east, while Olympus forms a barrier upon the north, Pindus upon the west, and Othrys towards the south. The tract contained within these mountains, which is a deep basin, is called Thessaly. Many rivers pour their waters into it; but five of them are of more note than the rest, namely, the Peneus, the Apidanus, the Onochonus, the Enipeus, and the Pamisus. These streams flow down from the mountains which surround Thessaly, and, meeting in the plain, mingle their waters together, and discharge themselves into the sea by a single outlet, which is a gorge of extreme narrowness. After the junction all the other names disappear, and the river is known as the Peneus. It is said that of old the gorge which allows the waters an outlet did not exist; accordingly the rivers, which were then as well as the Lake Boebeis, without names but flowed with as much water as at present, made Thessaly a sea. The Thessalians tell us that the gorge through which the water escapes was caused by Neptune; and this: is likely enough; at least any man who believes that Neptune causes earthquakes, and that chasms so produced are his handiwork, would say, upon seeing this rent, that Neptune did it. For it plainly appeared to me that the hills had been torn asunder by an earthquake. 130. When Xerxes therefore asked the guides if there were any other outlet by which the waters could reach the sea, they, being men well acquainted with the nature of their country, made answer:- "O king! there is no other passage by which this stream can empty itself into the sea save that which thine eye beholds. For Thessaly is girt about with a circlet of hills." Xerxes is said to have observed upon this - "Wise men truly are they of Thessaly, and good reason had they to change their minds in time and consult for their own safety. For, to pass by others matters, they must have felt that they lived in a country which may easily be brought under and subdued. Nothing more is needed than to turn the river upon their lands by an embankment.which should fill up the gorge and force the stream from its present channel, and lo! all Thessaly, except the mountains, would at once be laid under water." The king aimed in this speech at the sons of Aleuas, who were Thessalians, and had been the first of all the Greeks to make submission to him. He thought that they had made their friendly offers in the name of the whole people. So Xerxes, when he had viewed the place, and made the above speech, went back to Therma. 131. The stay of Xerxes in Pieria lasted for several days, during which a third part of his army was employed in cutting down the woods on the Macedonian mountain-range to give his forces free passage into Perrhaebia. At this time the heralds who had been sent into Greece to require earth for the king returned to the camp, some of them empty-handed, others with earth and water. 132. Among the number of those from whom earth and water were brought were the Thessalians, Dolopians, Enianians, Perrhaebians, Locrians, Magnetians, Malians, Achaeans of Phthiotis, Thebans, and Boeotians generally, except those of Plataea and Thespiae. These are the nations against whom the Greeks that had taken up arms to resist the barbarians swore the oath, which ran thus - "From all those of Greek blood who delivered themselves up to the Persians without necessity, when their affairs were in good condition, we will take a tithe of their goods, and give it to the god at Delphi." So ran the words of the Greek oath. 133. King Xerxes had sent no heralds either to Athens or Sparta to ask earth and water, for a reason which I will now relate. When Darius some time before sent messengers for the same purpose, they were thrown, at Athens, into the pit of punishment, at Sparta into a well, and bidden to take therefrom earth and water for themselves, and carry it to their king. On this account Xerxes did not send to ask them. What calamity came upon the Athenians to punish them for their treatment of the heralds I cannot say, unless it were the laying waste of their city and territory; but that I believe was not on account of this crime. 134. On the Lacedaemonians, however, the wrath of Talthybius, Agamemnon's herald, fell with violence. Talthybius has a temple at Sparta; and his descendants, who are called Talthybiadae, still live there, and have the privilege of being the only persons who discharge the office of herald. When therefore the Spartans had done the deed of which we speak, the victims at their sacrifices failed to give good tokens; and this failure lasted for a very long time. Then the Spartans were troubled; and, regarding what had befallen them as a grievous calamity, they held frequent assemblies of the people, and made proclamation through the town, "Was any Lacedaemonian willing to give his life for Sparta?" Upon this two Spartans, Sperthias, the son Aneristus, and Bulis, the son of Nicolaus, both men of noble birth, and among the wealthiest in the place, came forward and freely offered themselves as an atonement to Xerxes for the heralds of Darius slain at Sparta. So the Spartans sent them away to the Medes to undergo death. 135. Nor is the courage which these men hereby displayed alone worthy of wonder; but so likewise are the following speeches which were made by them. On their road to Susa they presented themselves before Hydarnes. This Hydarnes was a Persian by birth, and had the command of all the nations that dwelt along the sea-coast of Asia. He accordingly showed them hospitality, and invited them to a banquet, where, as they feasted, he said to them:- "Men of Lacedaemon, why will ye not consent to be friends with the king? Ye have but to look at me and my fortune to see that the king knows well how to honour merit. In like manner ye yourselves, were ye to make your submission to him, would receive at his hands, seeing that he deems you men of merit, some government in Greece." "Hydarnes," they answered, "thou art a one-sided counsellor. Thou hast experience of half the matter; but the other half is beyond thy knowledge. A slave's life thou understandest; but, never having tasted liberty, thou canst not tell whether it be sweet or no. Ah! hadst thou known what freedom is, thou wouldst have bidden us fight for it, not with the spear only, but with the battle-axe." So they answered Hydarnes. 136. And afterwards, when they were come to Susa into the king's presence, and the guards ordered them to fall down and do obeisance, and went so far as to use force to compel them, they refused, and said they would never do any such thing, even were their heads thrust down to the ground; for it was not their custom to worship men, and they had not come to Persia for that purpose. So they fought off the ceremony; and having done so, addressed the king in words much like the following:- "O king of the Medes! the Lacedaemonians have sent us hither, in the place of those heralds of thine who were slain in Sparta, to make atonement to thee on their account." Then Xerxes answered with true greatness of soul "that he would not act like the Lacedaemonians, who, by killing the heralds, had broken the laws which all men hold in common. As he had blamed such conduct in them, he would never be guilty of it himself. And besides, he did not wish, by putting the two men to death, to free the Lacedaemonians from the stain of their former outrage." 137. This conduct on the part of the Spartans caused the anger of Talthybius to cease for a while, notwithstanding that Sperthias and Bulis returned home alive. But many years afterwards it awoke once more, as the Lacedaemonians themselves declare, during the war between the Peloponnesians and the Athenians. In my judgment this was a case wherein the hand of Heaven was most plainly manifest. That the wrath of Talthybius should have fallen upon ambassadors and not slacked till it had full vent, so much justice required; but that it should have come upon the sons of the very men who were sent up to the Persian king on its account - upon Nicolaus, the son of Bulis, and Aneristus, the son of Sperthias (the same who carried off fishermen from Tiryns, when cruising in a well-manned merchant-ship) - this does seem to me to be plainly a supernatural circumstance. Yet certain it is that these two men, having been sent to Asia as ambassadors by the Lacedaemonians, were betrayed by Sitalces, the son of Teres, king of Thrace, and Nymphodorus, the son of Pythes, a native of Abdera, and being made prisoners at Bisanthe, upon the Hellespont, were conveyed to Attica, and there put to death by the Athenians, at the same time as Aristeas, the son of Adeimantus, the Corinthian. All this happened, however, very many years after the expedition of Xerxes. 138. To return, however, to my main subject - the expedition of the Persian king, though it was in name directed against Athens, threatened really the whole of Greece. And of this the Greeks were aware some time before; but they did not all view the matter in the same light. Some of them had given the Persian earth and water, and were bold on this account, deeming themselves thereby secured against suffering hurt from the barbarian army; while others, who had refused compliance, were thrown into extreme alarm. For whereas they considered all the ships in Greece too few to engage the enemy, it was plain that the greater number of states would take no part in the war, but warmly favoured the Medes. 139. And here I feel constrained to deliver an opinion, which most men, I know, will mis-like, but which, as it seems to me to be true, I am determined not to withhold. Had the Athenians, from fear of the approaching danger, quitted their country, or had they without quitting it submitted to the power of Xerxes, there would certainly have been no attempt to resist the Persians by sea; in which case the course of events by land would have been the following. Though the Peloponnesians might have carried ever so many breastworks across the Isthmus, yet their allies would have fallen off from the Lacedaemonians, not by voluntary desertion, but because town after town must have been taken by the fleet of the barbarians; and so the Lacedaemonians would at last have stood alone, and, standing alone, would have displayed prodigies of valour and died nobly. Either they would have done thus, or else, before it came to that extremity, seeing one Greek state after another embrace the cause of the Medes, they would have come to terms with King Xerxes - and thus, either way Greece would have been brought under Persia. For I cannot understand of what possible use the walls across the Isthmus could have been, if the king had had the mastery of the sea. If then a man should now say that the Athenians were the saviours of Greece, he would not exceed the truth. For they truly held the scales; and whichever side they espoused must have carried the day. They too it was who, when they had determined to maintain the freedom of Greece, roused up that portion of the Greek nation which had not gone over to the Medes; and so, next to the gods, they repulsed the invader. Even the terrible oracles which reached them from Delphi, and struck fear into their hearts, failed to persuade them to fly from Greece. They had the courage to remain faithful to their land, and await the coming of the foe. 140. When the Athenians, anxious to consult the oracle, sent their messengers to Delphi, hardly had the envoys completed the customary rites about the sacred precinct, and taken their seats inside the sanctuary of the god, when the Pythoness, Aristonice by name, thus prophesied - Wretches, why sit ye here? Fly, fly to the ends of creation, Quitting your homes, and the crags which your city crowns with her circlet. Neither the head, nor the body is firm in its place, nor at bottom Firm the feet, nor the hands; nor resteth the middle uninjur'd. All - all ruined and lost. Since fire, and impetuous Ares, Speeding along in a Syrian chariot, hastes to destroy her. Not alone shalt thou suffer; full many the towers he will level, Many the shrines of the gods he will give to a fiery destruction. Even now they stand with dark sweat horribly dripping, Trembling and quaking for fear; and lo! from the high roofs trickleth Black blood, sign prophetic of hard distresses impending. Get ye away from the temple; and brood on the ills that await ye! 141. When the Athenian messengers heard this reply, they were filled with the deepest affliction: whereupon Timon, the son of Androbulus, one of the men of most mark among the Delphians, seeing how utterly cast down they were at the gloomy prophecy, advised them to take an olive-branch, and entering the sanctuary again, consult the oracle as suppliants. The Athenians followed this advice, and going in once more, said - "O king! we pray thee reverence these boughs of supplication which we bear in our hands, and deliver to us something more comforting concerning our country. Else we will not leave thy sanctuary, but will stay here till we die." Upon this the priestess gave them a second answer, which was the following:- Pallas has not been able to soften the lord of Olympus, Though she has often prayed him, and urged him with excellent counsel. Yet once more I address thee in words than adamant firmer. When the foe shall have taken whatever the limit of Cecrops Holds within it, and all which divine Cithaeron, shelters, Then far-seeing Jove grants this to the prayers of Athene; Safe shall the wooden wall continue for thee and thy children. Wait not the tramp of the horse, nor the footmen mightily moving Over the land, but turn your hack to the foe, and retire ye. Yet shall a day arrive when ye shall meet him in battle. Holy Salamis, thou shalt destroy the offspring of women, When men scatter the seed, or when they gather the harvest. 142. This answer seemed, as indeed it was, gentler than the former one; so the envoys wrote it down, and went back with it to Athens. When, however, upon their arrival, they produced it before the people, and inquiry began to be made into its true meaning, many and various were the interpretations which men put on it; two, more especially, seemed to be directly opposed to one another. Certain of the old men were of opinion that the god meant to tell them the citadel would escape; for this was anciently defended by a palisade; and they supposed that barrier to be the "wooden wall" of the oracle. Others maintained that the fleet was what the god pointed at; and their advice was that nothing should be thought of except the ships, which had best be at once got ready. Still such as said the "wooden wall" meant the fleet, were perplexed by the last two lines of the oracle - Holy Salamis, thou shall destroy the offspring of women, When men scatter the seed, or when they gather the harvest. These words caused great disturbance among those who took the wooden wall to be the ships; since the interpreters understood them to mean that, if they made preparations for a sea-fight, they would suffer a defeat off Salamis. 143. Now there was at Athens a man who had lately made his way into the first rank of citizens: his true name was Themistocles; but he was known more generally as the son of Neocles. This man came forward and said that the interpreters had not explained the oracle altogether aright - "for if," he argued, "the clause in question had really respected the Athenians, it would not have been expressed so mildly; the phrase used would have been 'Luckless Salamis,' rather than 'Holy Salamis,' had those to whom the island belonged been about to perish in its neighbourhood. Rightly taken, the response of the god threatened the enemy, much more than the Athenians." He therefore counselled his countrymen to make ready to fight on board their ships, since they were the wooden wall in which the god told them to trust. When Themistocles had thus cleared the matter, the Athenians embraced his view, preferring it to that of the interpreters. The advice of these last had been against engaging in a sea-fight; "all the Athenians could do," they said, "was, without lifting a hand in their defence, to quit Attica, and make a settlement in some other country." 144. Themistocles had before this given a counsel which prevailed very seasonably. The Athenians, having a large sum of money in their treasury, the produce of the mines at Laureium, were about to share it among the full-grown citizens, who would have received ten drachmas apiece, when Themistocles persuaded them to forbear the distribution, and build with the money two hundred ships, to help them in their war against the Eginetans. It was the breaking out of the Eginetan war which was at this time the saving of Greece; for hereby were the Athenians forced to become a maritime power. The new ships were not used for the purpose for which they had been built, but became a help to Greece in her hour of need. And the Athenians had not only these vessels ready before the war, but they likewise set to work to build more; while they determined, in a council which was held after the debate upon the oracle, that, according to the advice of the god, they would embark their whole force aboard their ships, and, with such Greeks as chose to join them, give battle to the barbarian invader. Such, then, were the oracles which had been received by the Athenians. 145. The Greeks who were well affected to the Grecian cause, having assembled in one place, and there consulted together, and interchanged pledges with each other, agreed that, before any other step was taken, the feuds and enmities which existed between the different nations should first of all be appeased. Many such there were; but one was of more importance than the rest, namely, the war which was still going on between the Athenians and the Eginetans. When this business was concluded, understanding that Xerxes had reached Sardis with his army, they resolved to despatch spies into Asia to take note of the king's affairs. At the same time they determined to send ambassadors to the Argives, and conclude a league with them against the Persians; while they likewise despatched messengers to Gelo, the son of Deinomenes, in Sicily, to the people of Corcyra, and to those of Crete, exhorting them to send help to Greece. Their wish was to unite, if possible, the entire Greek name in one, and so to bring all to join in the same plan of defence, inasmuch as the approaching dangers threatened all alike. Now the power of Gelo was said to be very great, far greater than that of any single Grecian people. 146. So when these resolutions had been agreed upon, and the quarrels between the states made up, first of all they sent into Asia three men as spies. These men reached Sardis, and took note of the king's forces, but, being discovered, were examined by order of the generals who commanded the land army, and, having been condemned to suffer death, were led out to execution. Xerxes, however, when the news reached him, disapproving the sentence of the generals, sent some of his bodyguard with instructions, if they found the spies still alive, to bring them into his presence. The messengers found the spies alive, and brought them before the king, who, when he heard the purpose for which they had come, gave orders to his guards to take them round the camp, and show them all the footmen and all the horse, letting them gaze at everything to their hearts' content; then, when they were satisfied, to send them away unharmed to whatever country they desired. 147. For these orders Xerxes gave afterwards the following reasons. "Had the spies been put to death," he said, "the Greeks would have continued ignorant of the vastness of his army, which surpassed the common report of it; while he would have done them a very small injury by killing three of their men. On the other hand, by the return of the spies to Greece, his power would become known; and the Greeks," he expected, "would make surrender of their freedom before he began his march, by which means his troops would be saved all the trouble of an expedition." This reasoning was like to that which he used upon another occasion. While he was staying at Abydos, he saw some corn-ships, which were passing through the Hellespont from the Euxine, on their way to Egina and the Peloponnese. His attendants, hearing that they were the enemy's, were ready to capture them, and looked to see when Xerxes would give the signal. He, however, merely asked "whither the ships were bound?" and when they answered, "For thy foes, master, with corn on board, "We too are bound thither," he rejoined, "laden, among other things, with corn. What harm is it, if they carry our provisions for us?" So the spies, when they had seen everything, were dismissed, and came back to Europe. 148. The Greeks who had banded themselves together against the Persian king, after despatching the spies into Asia, sent next ambassadors to Argos. The account which the Argives give of their own proceedings is the following. They say that they had information from the very first of the preparations which the barbarians were making against Greece. So, as they expected that the Greeks would come upon them for aid against the assailant, they sent envoys to Delphi to inquire of the god what it would be best for them to do in the matter. They had lost, not long before, six thousand citizens, who had been slain by the Lacedaemonians under Cleomenes the son of Anaxandridas; which was the reason why they now sent to Delphi. When the Pythoness heard their question, she replied - Hated of all thy neighbors, beloved of the blessed Immortals, Sit thou still, with thy lance drawn inward, patiently watching; Warily guard thine head, and the head will take care of the body. This prophecy had been given them some time before the envoys came; but still, when they afterwards arrived, it was permitted them to enter the council-house, and there deliver their message. And this answer was returned to their demands - "Argos is ready to do as ye require, if the Lacedaemonians will first make a truce for thirty years, and will further divide with Argos the leadership of the allied army. Although in strict right the whole command should be hers, she will be content to have the leadership divided equally." 149. Such, they say, was the reply made by the council, in spite of the oracle which forbade them to enter into a league with the Greeks. For, while not without fear of disobeying the oracle, they were greatly desirous of obtaining a thirty years' truce, to give time for their sons to grow to man's estate. They reflected, that if no such truce were concluded, and it should be their lot to suffer a second calamity at the hands of the Persians, it was likely they would fall hopelessly under the power of Sparta. But to the demands of the Argive council the Lacedaemonian envoys made answer - "They would bring before the people the question of concluding a truce. With regard to the leadership, they had received orders what to say, and the reply was that Sparta had two kings, Argos but one - it was not possible that either of the two Spartans should be stripped of his dignity - but they did not oppose the Argive king having one vote like each of them." The Argives say that they could not brook this arrogance on the part of Sparta, and rather than yield one jot to it, they preferred to be under the rule of the barbarians. So they told the envoys to be gone, before sunset, from their territory, or they should be treated as enemies. 150. Such is the account which is given of these matters by the Argives themselves. There is another story, which is told generally through Greece, of a different tenor. Xerxes, it is said, before he set forth on his expedition against Greece, sent a herald to Argos, who on his arrival spoke as follows: "Men of Argos, King Xerxes speaks thus to you. We Persians deem that the Perses from whom we descend was the child of Perseus the son of Danae, and of Andromeda the daughter of Cepheus. Hereby it would seem that we come of your stock and lineage. So then it neither befits us to make war upon those from whom we spring; nor can it be right for you to fight, on behalf of others, against us. Your place is to keep quiet and hold yourself aloof. Only let matters proceed as I wish, and there is no people whom I shall have in higher esteem than you." This address, says the story, was highly valued by the Argives, who therefore at the first neither gave a promise to the Greeks nor yet put forward a demand. Afterwards, however, when the Greeks called upon them to give their aid, they made the claim which has been mentioned, because they knew well that the Lacedaemonians would never yield it, and so they would have a pretext for taking no part in the war. 151. Some of the Greeks say that this account agrees remarkably with what happened many years afterwards. Callias, the son of Hipponicus, and certain others with him, had gone up to Susa, the city of Memnon, as ambassadors of the Athenians, upon a business quite distinct from this. While they were there, it happened that the Argives likewise sent ambassadors to Susa, to ask Artaxerxes, the son of Xerxes, "if the friendship which they had formed with his father still continued, or if he looked upon them as his enemies?" - to which King Artaxerxes replied, "Most certainly it continues; and there is no city which I reckon more my friend than Argos." 152. For my own part I cannot positively say whether Xerxes did send the herald to Argos or not; nor whether Argive ambassadors at Susa did really put this question to Artaxerxes about the friendship between them and him; neither do I deliver any opinion hereupon other than that of the Argives themselves. This, however, I know - that if every nation were to bring all its evil deeds to a given place, in order to make an exchange with some other nation, when they had all looked carefully at their neighbours' faults, they would be truly glad to carry their own back again. So, after all, the conduct of the Argives was not perhaps more disgraceful than that of others. For myself, my duty is to report all that is said; but I am not obliged to believe it all alike - a remark which may be understood to apply to my whole History. Some even go so far as to say that the Argives first invited the Persians to invade Greece, because of their ill success in the war with Lacedaemon, since they preferred anything to the smart of their actual sufferings. Thus much concerning the Argives. 153. Other ambassadors, among whom was Syagrus from Lacedaemon, were sent by the allies into Sicily, with instructions to confer with Gelo. The ancestor of this Gelo, who first settled at Gela, was a native of the isle of Telos, which lies off Triopium. When Gela was colonised by Antiphemus and the Lindians of Rhodes, he likewise took part in the expedition. In course of time his descendants became the high-priests of the gods who dwell below - an office which they held continually, from the time that Telines, one of Gelo's ancestors, obtained it in the way which I will now mention. Certain citizens of Gela, worsted in a sedition, had found a refuge at Mactorium, a town situated on the heights above Gela. Telines reinstated these men, without any human help, solely by means of the sacred rites of these deities. From whom he received them, or how he himself acquired them, I cannot say; but certain it is that relying on their power he brought the exiles back. For this his reward was to be the office of high-priest of those gods for himself and his seed for ever. It surprises me especially that such a feat should have been performed by Telines; for I have always looked upon acts of this nature as beyond the abilities of common men, and only to be achieved by such as are of a bold and manly spirit; whereas Telines is said by those who dwell about Sicily to have been a soft-hearted and womanish person. He however obtained this office in the manner above described. 154. Afterwards, on the death of Cleander the son of Pantares, who was slain by Sabyllus, a citizen of Gela, after he had held the tyranny for seven years, Hippocrates, Cleander's brother, mounted the throne. During his reign, Gelo, a descendant of the high-priest Telines, served with many others - of whom Aenesidemus, son of Pataicus, was one - in the king's bodyguard. Within a little time his merit caused him to be raised to the command of all the horse. For when Hippocrates laid siege to Callipolis, and afterwards to Naxos, to Zancle, to Leontini, and moreover to Syracuse, and many cities of the barbarians, Gelo in every war distinguished himself above all the combatants. Of the various cities above named, there was none but Syracuse which was not reduced to slavery. The Syracusans were saved from this fate, after they had suffered defeat on the river Elorus, by the Corinthians and Corcyraeans, who made peace between them and Hippocrates, on condition of their ceding Camarina to him; for that city anciently belonged to Syracuse. 155. When, however, Hippocrates, after a reign of the same length as that of Cleander his brother, perished near the city Hybla, as he was warring with the native Sicilians, then Gelo, pretending to espouse the cause of the two sons of Hippocrates, Eucleides and Cleander, defeated the citizens who were seeking to recover their freedom, and having so done, set aside the children, and himself took the kingly power. After this piece of good fortune, Gelo likewise became master Syracuse, in the following manner. The Syracusan landholders, as they were called, had been driven from their city by the common people assisted by their own slaves, the Cyllyrians, and had fled to Casmenae. Gelo brought them back to Syracuse, and so got possession of the town; for the people surrendered themselves, and gave up their city on his approach. 156. Being now master of Syracuse, Gelo cared less to govern Gela, which he therefore entrusted to his brother Hiero, while he strengthened the defences of his new city, which indeed was now all in all to him. And Syracuse sprang up rapidly to power and became a flourishing place. For Gelo razed Camarina to the ground, and brought all the inhabitants to Syracuse, and made them citizens; he also brought thither more than half the citizens of Gela, and gave them the same rights as the Camarinaeans. So likewise with the Megarians of Sicily - after besieging their town and forcing them to surrender, he took the rich men, who, having made the war, looked now for nothing less than death at his hands, and carrying them to Syracuse, established them there as citizens; while the common people, who, as they had not taken any share in the struggle, felt secure that no harm would be done to them, he carried likewise to Syracuse, where he sold them all as slaves to be conveyed abroad. He did the like also by the Euboeans of Sicily, making the same difference. His conduct towards both nations arose from his belief that a "people" was a most unpleasant companion. In this way Gelo became a great king. 157. When the Greek envoys reached Syracuse, and were admitted to an audience, they spoke as follows - "We have been sent hither by the Lacedaemonians and Athenians, with their respective allies, to ask thee to join us against the barbarian. Doubtless thou hast heard of his invasion, and art aware that a Persian is about to throw a bridge over the Hellespont, and, bringing with him out of Asia all the forces of the East, to carry war into Greece - professing indeed that he only seeks to attack Athens, but really bent on bringing all the Greeks into subjection. Do thou therefore, we beseech thee, aid those who would maintain the freedom of Greece, and thyself assist to free her; since the power which thou wieldest is great, and thy portion in Greece, as lord of Sicily, is no small one. For if all Greece join together in one, there will be a mighty host collected, and we shall be a match for our assailants; but if some turn traitors, and others refuse their aid, and only a small part of the whole body remains sound, then there is reason to fear that all Greece may perish. For do not thou cherish a hope that the Persian, when he has conquered our country, will be content and not advance against thee. Rather take thy measures beforehand, and consider that thou defendest thyself when thou givest aid to us. Wise counsels, be sure, for the most part have prosperous issues." 158. Thus spake the envoys; and Gelo replied with vehemence:- "Greeks, ye have had the face to come here with selfish words, and exhort me to join in league with you against the barbarian. Yet when I erewhile asked you to join with me in fighting barbarians, what time the quarrel broke out between me and Carthage; and when I earnestly besought you to revenge on the men of Egesta their murder of Dorieus, the son of Anaxandridas, promising to assist you in setting free the trading places from which you receive great profits and advantages, you neither came hither to give me succour, nor yet to revenge Dorieus; but, for any efforts on your part to hinder it, these countries might at this time have been entirely under the barbarians. Now, however, that matters have prospered and gone well with me, while the danger has shifted its ground and at present threatens yourselves, lo! you call Gelo to mind. But though ye slighted me then, I will not imitate you now: I am ready to give you aid, and to furnish as my contribution two hundred triremes, twenty thousand men-at-arms, two thousand cavalry, and an equal number of archers, slingers, and light horsemen, together with corn for the whole Grecian army so long as the war shall last. These services, however, I promise on one condition - that ye appoint me chief captain and commander of the Grecian forces during the war with the barbarian. Unless ye agree to this, I will neither send succours, nor come myself." 159. Syagrus, when he heard these words, was unable to contain himself, and exclaimed:- "Surely a groan would burst from Pelops' son, Agamemnon, did he hear that her leadership was snatched from Sparta by Gelo and the men of Syracuse. Speak then no more of any such condition, as that we should yield thee the chief command; but if thou art minded to come to the aid of Greece, prepare to serve under Lacedaemonian generals. Wilt thou not serve under a leader? - then, prithee, withhold thy succours." 160. Hereupon Gelo, seeing the indignation which showed itself in the words of Syagrus, delivered to the envoys his final offer:- "Spartan stranger," he said, "reproaches cast forth against a man are wont to provoke him to anger; but the insults which thou hast uttered in thy speech shall not persuade me to outstep good breeding in my answer. Surely if you maintain so stoutly your right to the command, it is reasonable that I should be still more stiff in maintaining mine, forasmuch as I am at the head of a far larger fleet and army. Since, however, the claim which I have put forward is so displeasing to you, I will yield, and be content with less. Take, if it please you, the command of the land-force, and I will be admiral of the fleet; or assume, if you prefer it, the command by sea, and I will be leader upon the land. Unless you are satisfied with these terms, you must return home by yourselves, and lose this great alliance." Such was the offer which Gelo made. 161. Hereat broke in the Athenian envoy, before the Spartan could answer, and thus addressed Gelo - "King of the Syracusans! Greece sent us here to thee to ask for an army, and not to ask for a general. Thou, however, dost not promise to send us any army at all, if thou art not made leader of the Greeks; and this command is what alone thou sticklest for. Now when thy request was to have the whole command, we were content to keep silence; for well we knew that we might trust the Spartan envoy to make answer for us both. But since, after failing in thy claim to lead the whole armament, thou hast now put forward a request to have the command of the fleet, know that, even should the Spartan envoy consent to this, we will not consent. The command by sea, if the Lacedaemonians do not wish for it, belongs to us. While they like to keep this command, we shall raise no dispute; but we will not yield our right to it in favour of any one else. Where would be the advantage of our having raised up a naval force greater than that of any other Greek people, if nevertheless we should suffer Syracusans to take the command away from us? - from us, I say, who are Athenians, the most ancient nation in Greece, the only Greeks who have never changed their abode - the people who are said by the poet Homer to have sent to Troy the man best able of all the Greeks to array and marshal an army - so that we may be allowed to boast somewhat." 162. Gelo replied - "Athenian stranger, ye have, it seems, no lack of commanders; but ye are likely to lack men to receive their orders. As ye are resolved to yield nothing and claim everything, ye had best make haste back to Greece, and say that the spring of her year is lost to her." The meaning of this expression was the following: as the spring is manifestly the finest season of the year, so (he meant to say) were his troops the finest of the Greek army - Greece, therefore, deprived of his alliance, would be like a year with the spring taken from it. 163. Then the Greek envoys, without having any further dealings with Gelo, sailed away home. And Gelo, who feared that the Greeks would be too weak to withstand the barbarians, and yet could not any how bring himself to go to the Peloponnese, and there, though king of Sicily, serve under the Lacedaemonians, left off altogether to contemplate that course of action, and betook himself to quite a different plan. As soon as ever tidings reached him of the passage of the Hellespont by the Persians, he sent off three penteconters, under the command of Cadmus, the son of Scythas, a native of Cos, who was to go to Delphi, taking with him a large sum of money and a stock of friendly words: there he was to watch the war, and see what turn it would take: if the barbarians prevailed, he was to give Xerxes the treasure, and with it earth and water for the lands which Gelo ruled - if the Greeks won the day, he was to convey the treasure back. 164. This Cadmus had at an earlier time received from his father the kingly power at Cos in a right good condition, and had of his own free will and without the approach of any danger, from pure love of justice, given up his power into the hands of the people at large, and departed to Sicily; where he assisted in the Samian seizure and settlement of Zancle, or Messana, as it was afterwards called. Upon this occasion Gelo chose him to send into Greece, because he was acquainted with the proofs of honesty which he had given. And now he added to his former honourable deeds an action which is not the least of his merits. With a vast sum entrusted to him and completely in his power, so that he might have kept it for his own use if he had liked, he did not touch it; but when the Greeks gained the sea-fight and Xerxes fled away with his army, he brought the whole treasure back with him to Sicily. 165. They, however, who dwell in Sicily, say that Gelo, though he knew that he must serve under the Lacedaemonians, would nevertheless have come to the aid of the Greeks, had not it been for Terillus, the son of Crinippus, king of Himera; who, driven from his city by Thero, the son of Aenesidemus, king of Agrigentum, brought into Sicily at this very time an army of three hundred thousand men, Phoenicians, Libyans, Iberians, Ligurians, Helisycians, Sardinians, and Corsicans, under the command of Hamilcar the son of Hanno, king of the Carthaginians. Terillus prevailed upon Hamilcar, partly as his sworn friend, but more through the zealous aid of Anaxilaus the son of Cretines, king of Rhegium; who, by giving his own sons to Hamilcar as hostages, induced him to make the expedition. Anaxilaus herein served his own father-in-law; for he was married to a daughter of Terillus, by name Cydippe. So, as Gelo could not give the Greeks any aid, he sent (they say) the sum of money to Delphi. 166. They say too, that the victory of Gelo and Thero in Sicily over Hamilcar the Carthaginian fell out upon the very day that the Greeks defeated the Persians at Salamis. Hamilcar, who was a Carthaginian on his father's side only, but on his mother's a Syracusan, and who had been raised by his merit to the throne of Carthage, after the battle and the defeat, as I am informed, disappeared from sight: Gelo made the strictest search for him, but he could not be found anywhere, either dead or alive. 167. The Carthaginians, who take probability for their guide, give the following account of this matter:- Hamilcar, they say, during all the time that the battle raged between the Greeks and the barbarians, which was from early dawn till evening, remained in the camp, sacrificing and seeking favourable omens, while he burned on a huge pyre the entire bodies of the victims which he offered. Here, as he poured libations upon the sacrifices, he saw the rout of his army; whereupon he cast himself headlong into the flames, and so was consumed and disappeared. But whether Hamilcar's disappearance happened, as the Phoenicians tell us, in this way, or, as the Syracusans maintain, in some other, certain it is that the Carthaginians offer him sacrifice, and in all their colonies have monuments erected to his honour, as well as one, which is the grandest of all, at Carthage. Thus much concerning the affairs of Sicily. 168. As for the Corcyraeans, whom the envoys that visited Sicily took in their way, and to whom they delivered the same message as to Gelo - their answers and actions were the following. With great readiness they promised to come and give their help to the Greeks; declaring that "the ruin of Greece was a thing which they could not tamely stand by to see; for should she fall, they must the very next day submit to slavery; so that they were bound to assist her to the very uttermost of their power." But notwithstanding that they answered so smoothly, yet when the time came for the succours to be sent, they were of quite a different mind; and though they manned sixty ships, it was long ere they put to sea with them; and when they had so done, they went no further than the Peloponnese, where they lay to with their fleet, off the Lacedaemonian coast, about Pylos and Taenarum - like Gelo, watching to see what turn the war would take. For they despaired altogether of the Greeks gaining the day, and expected that the Persian would win a great battle, and then be master of the whole of Greece. They therefore acted as I have said, in order that they might be able to address Xerxes in words like these: "O king! though the Greeks sought to obtain our aid in their war with thee, and though we had a force of no small size, and could have furnished a greater number of ships than any Greek state except Athens, yet we refused, since we would not fight against thee, nor do aught to cause thee annoyance." The Corcyraeans hoped that a speech like this would gain them better treatment from the Persians than the rest of the Greeks; and it would have done so, in my judgment. At the same time, they had an excuse ready to give their countrymen, which they used when the time came. Reproached by them for sending no succours, they replied "that they had fitted out a fleet of sixty triremes, but that the Etesian winds did not allow them to double Cape Malea, and this hindered them from reaching Salamis - it was not from any bad motive that they had missed the sea-fight." In this way the Corcyraeans eluded the reproaches of the Greeks. 169. The Cretans, when the envoys sent to ask aid from them came and made their request, acted as follows. They despatched messengers in the name of their state to Delphi, and asked the god, whether it would make for their welfare if they should lend succour to Greece. "Fools!" replied the Pythoness, "do ye not still complain of the woes which the assisting of Menelaus cost you at the hands of angry Minos? How wroth was he, when, in spite of their having lent you no aid towards avenging his death at Camicus, you helped them to avenge the carrying off by a barbarian of a woman from Sparta!" When this answer was brought from Delphi to the Cretans, they thought no more of assisting the Greeks. 170. Minos, according to tradition, went to Sicania, or Sicily, as it is now called, in search of Daedalus, and there perished by a violent death. After a while the Cretans, warned by some god or other, made a great expedition into Sicania, all except the Polichnites and the Praesians, and besieged Camicus (which in my time belonged to Agrigentum) by the space of five years. At last, however, failing in their efforts to take the place, and unable to carry on the siege any longer from the pressure of hunger, they departed and went their way. Voyaging homewards they had reached Iapygia, when a furious storm arose and threw them upon the coast. All their vessels were broken in pieces; and so, as they saw no means of returning to Crete, they founded the town of Hyria, where they took up their abode, changing their name from Cretans to Messapian Iapygians, and at the same time becoming inhabitants of the mainland instead of islanders. From Hyria they afterwards founded those other towns which the Tarentines at a much later period endeavoured to take, but could not, being defeated signally. Indeed so dreadful a slaughter of Greeks never happened at any other time, so far as my knowledge extends: nor was it only the Tarentines who suffered; but the men of Rhegium too, who had been forced to go to the aid of the Tarentines by Micythus the son of Choerus, lost here three thousand of their citizens; while the number of the Tarentines who fell was beyond all count. This Micythus had been a household slave of Anaxilaus, and was by him left in charge of Rhegium: he is the same man who was afterwards forced to leave Rhegium, when he settled at Tegea in Arcadia, from which place he made his many offerings of statues to the shrine at Olympia. 171. This account of the Rhegians and the Tarentines is a digression from the story which I was relating. To return - the Praesians say that men of various nations now flocked to Crete, which was stript of its inhabitants; but none came in such numbers as the Grecians. Three generations after the death of Minos the Trojan war took place; and the Cretans were not the least distinguished among the helpers of Menelaus. But on this account, when they came back from Troy, famine and pestilence fell upon them, and destroyed both the men and the cattle. Crete was a second time stript of its inhabitants, a remnant only being left; who form, together with fresh settlers, the third "Cretan" people by whom the island has been inhabited. These were the events of which the Pythoness now reminded the men of Crete; and thereby she prevented them from giving the Greeks aid, though they wished to have gone to their assistance. 172. The Thessalians did not embrace the cause of the Medes until they were forced to do so; for they gave plain proof that the intrigues of the Aleuadae were not at all to their liking. No sooner did they hear that the Persian was about to cross over into Europe than they despatched envoys to the Greeks who were met to consult together at the Isthmus, whither all the states which were well inclined to the Grecian cause had sent their delegates. These envoys on their arrival thus addressed their countrymen:- "Men of Greece, it behoves you to guard the pass of Olympus; for thus will Thessaly be placed in safety, as well as the rest of Greece. We for our parts are quite ready to take our share in this work; but you must likewise send us a strong force: otherwise we give you fair warning that we shall make terms with the Persians. For we ought not to be left, exposed as we are in front of all the rest of Greece, to die in your defence alone and unassisted. If however you do not choose to send us aid, you cannot force us to resist the enemy; for there is no force so strong as inability. We shall therefore do our best to secure our own safety." Such was the declaration of the Thessalians. 173. Hereupon the Greeks determined to send a body of foot to Thessaly by sea, which should defend the pass of Olympus. Accordingly a force was collected, which passed up the Euripus, and disembarking at Alus, on the coast of Achaea, left the ships there, and marched by land into Thessaly. Here they occupied the defile of Tempe; which leads from Lower Macedonia into Thessaly along the course of the Peneus, having the range of Olympus on the one hand and Ossa upon the other. In this place the Greek force that had been collected, amounting to about 10,000 heavy-armed men, pitched their camp; and here they were joined by the Thessalian cavalry. The commanders were, on the part of the Lacedaemonians, Evaenetus, the son of Carenus, who had been chosen out of the Polemarchs, but did not belong to the blood royal; and on the part of the Athenians Themistocles, the son of Neocles. They did not however maintain their station for more than a few days; since envoys came from Alexander, the son of Amyntas, the Macedonian, and counselled them to decamp from Tempe, telling them that if they remained in the pass they would be trodden under foot by the invading army, whose numbers they recounted, and likewise the multitude of their ships. So when the envoys thus counselled them, and the counsel seemed to be good, and the Macedonian who sent it friendly, they did even as he advised. In my opinion what chiefly wrought on them was the fear that the Persians might enter by another pass, whereof they now heard, which led from Upper Macedonia into Thessaly through the territory of the Perrhaebi, and by the town of Gonnus - the pass by which soon afterwards the army of Xerxes actually made its entrance. The Greeks therefore went back to their ships and sailed away to the Isthmus. 174. Such were the circumstances of the expedition into Thessaly; they took place when the king was at Abydos, preparing to pass from Asia into Europe. The Thessalians, when their allies forsook them, no longer wavered, but warmly espoused the side of the Medes; and afterwards, in the course of the war, they were of the very greatest service to Xerxes. 175. The Greeks, on their return to the Isthmus, took counsel together concerning the words of Alexander, and considered where they should fix the war, and what places they should occupy. The opinion which prevailed was that they should guard the pass of Thermopylae; since it was narrower than the Thessalian defile, and at the same time nearer to them. Of the pathway, by which the Greeks who fell at Thermopylae were intercepted, they had no knowledge, until, on their arrival at Thermopylae, it was discovered to them by the Trachinians. This pass then it was determined that they should guard, in order to prevent the barbarians from penetrating into Greece through it; and at the same time it was resolved that the fleet should proceed to Artemisium, in the region of Histiaeotis, for, as those places are near to one another, it would be easy for the fleet and army to hold communication. The two places may be thus described. 176. Artemisium is where the sea of Thrace contracts into a narrow channel, running between the isle of Sciathus and the mainland of Magnesia. When this narrow strait is passed you come to the line of coast called Artemisium; which is a portion of Euboea, and contains a temple of Artemis (Diana). As for the entrance into Greece by Trachis, it is, at its narrowest point, about fifty feet wide. This however is not the place where the passage is most contracted; for it is still narrower a little above and a little below Thermopylae. At Alpini, which is lower down than that place, it is only wide enough for a single carriage; and up above, at the river Phoenix, near the town called Anthela, it is the same. West of Thermopylae rises a lofty and precipitous hill, impossible to climb, which runs up into the chain of Oeta; while to the east the road is shut in by the sea and by marshes. In this place are the warm springs, which the natives call "The Cauldrons"; and above them stands an altar sacred to Hercules. A wall had once been carried across the opening; and in this there had of old times been a gateway. These works were made by the Phocians, through fear of the Thessalians, at the time when the latter came from Thesprotia to establish themselves in the land of Aeolis, which they still occupy. As the Thessalians strove to reduce Phocis, the Phocians raised the wall to protect themselves, and likewise turned the hot springs upon the pass, that so the ground might be broken up by watercourses, using thus all possible means to hinder the Thessalians from invading their country. The old wall had been built in very remote times; and the greater part of it had gone to decay through age. Now however the Greeks resolved to repair its breaches, and here make their stand against the barbarian. At this point there is a village very nigh the road, Alpeni by name, from which the Greeks reckoned on getting corn for their troops. 177. These places, therefore, seemed to the Greeks fit for their purpose. Weighing well all that was likely to happen, and considering that in this region the barbarians could make no use of their vast numbers, nor of their cavalry, they resolved to await here the invader of Greece. And when news reached them of the Persians being in Pieria, straightway they broke up from the Isthmus, and proceeded, some on foot to Thermopylae, others by sea to Artemisium. 178. The Greeks now made all speed to reach the two stations; and about the same time - the Delphians, alarmed both for themselves and for their country, consulted the god, and received for answer a command to "pray to the winds, for the winds would do Greece good service." So when this answer was given them, forthwith the Delphians sent word of the prophecy to those Greeks who were zealous for freedom, and, cheering them thereby amid the fears which they entertained with respect to the barbarian, earned their everlasting gratitude. This done, they raised an altar to the winds at Thyia (where Thyia, the daughter of Cephissus, from whom the region takes its name, has a precinct), and worshipped them with sacrifices. And even to the present day the Delphians sacrifice to the winds, because of this oracle. 179. The fleet of Xerxes now departed from Therma; and ten of the swiftest sailing ships ventured to stretch across direct for Sciathus, at which place there were upon the look-out three vessels belonging to the Greeks, one a ship of Troezen, another of Egina, and the third from Athens. These vessels no sooner saw from a distance the barbarians approaching than they all hurriedly took to flight. 180. The barbarians at once pursued, and the Troezenian ship, which was commanded by Prexinus, fell into their hands. Hereupon the Persians took the handsomest of the men-at-arms, and drew him to the prow of the vessel, where they sacrificed him; for they thought the man a good omen to their cause, seeing that he was at once so beautiful, and likewise the first captive they had made. The man who was slain in this way was called Leo; and it may be that the name he bore helped him to his fate in some measure. 181. The Eginetan trireme, under its captain, Asonides, gave the Persians no little trouble, one of the men-at-arms, Pythes, the son of Ischenous, distinguishing himself beyond all the others who fought that day. After the ship was taken this man continued to resist, and did not cease fighting till he fell quite covered with wounds. The Persians who served as men-at-arms in the squadron, finding that he was not dead, but still breathed, and being very anxious to save his life, since he had behaved so valiantly, dressed his wounds with myrrh, and bound them up with bandages of cotton. Then, when they were returned to their own station, they displayed their prisoner admiringly to the whole host, and behaved towards him with much kindness; but all the rest of the ship's crew were treated merely as slaves. 182. Thus did the Persians succeed in taking two of the vessels. The third, a trireme commanded by Phormus of Athens, took to flight and ran aground at the mouth of the river Peneus. The barbarians got possession of the bark but not of the men. For the Athenians had no sooner run their vessel aground than they leapt out, and made their way through Thessaly back to Athens. When the Greeks stationed at Artemisium learnt what had happened by fire-signals from Sciathus, so terrified were they, that, quitting their anchorage-ground at Artemisium, and leaving scouts to watch the foe on the highlands of Euboea, they removed to Chalcis, intending to guard the Euripus. 183. Meantime three of the ten vessels sent forward by the barbarians advanced as far as the sunken rock between Sciathus and Magnesia, which is called "The Ant," and there set up a stone pillar which they had brought with them for that purpose. After this, their course being now clear, the barbarians set sail with all their ships from Therma, eleven days from the time that the king quitted the town. The rock, which lay directly in their course, had been made known to them by Pammon of Scyros. A day's voyage without a stop brought them to Sepias in Magnesia, and to the strip of coast which lies between the town of Casthanaea and the promontory of Sepias. 184. As far as this point then, and on land, as far as Thermopylae, the armament of Xerxes had been free from mischance; and the numbers were still, according to my reckoning, of the following amount. First there was the ancient complement of the twelve hundred and seven vessels which came with the king from Asia - the contingents of the nations severally - amounting, if we allow to each ship a crew of two hundred men, to 241,400 - Each of these vessels had on board, besides native soldiers, thirty fighting men, who were either Persians, Medes, or Sacans; which gives an addition of 36,210. To these two numbers I shall further add the crews of the penteconters; which may be reckoned, one with another, at fourscore men each. Of such vessels there were (as I said before) three thousand; and the men on board them accordingly would be 240,000. This was the sea force brought by the king from Asia; and it amounted in all to 517,610 men. The number of the foot soldiers was 1,700,000; that of the horsemen 80,000; to which must be added the Arabs who rode on camels, and the Libyans who fought in chariots, whom I reckon at 20,000. The whole number, therefore, of the land and sea forces added together amounts to 2,317,610 men. Such was the force brought from Asia, without including the camp followers, or taking any account of the provision- ships and the men whom they had on board. 185. To the amount thus reached we have still to add the forces gathered in Europe, concerning which I can only speak from conjecture. The Greeks dwelling in Thrace, and in the islands off the coast of Thrace, furnished to the fleet one hundred and twenty ships; the crews of which would amount to 24,000 men. Besides these, footmen were furnished by the Thracians, the Paeonians, the Eordians, the Bottiaeans, by the Chalcidean tribes, by the Brygians, the Pierians, the Macedonians, the Perrhaebians the Enianians, the Dolopians, the Magnesians, the Achaeans and by all the dwellers upon the Thracian sea-board; and the forces of these nations amounted, I believe, to three hundred thousand men. These numbers, added to those of the force which came out of Asia, make the sum of the fighting men 2,641,610. 186. Such then being the number of the fighting men, it is my belief that the attendants who followed the camp, together with the crews of the corn-barks, and of the other craft accompanying the army, made up an amount rather above than below that of the fighting men. However I will not reckon them as either fewer or more, but take them at an equal number. We have therefore to add to the sum already reached an exactly equal amount. This will give 5,283,220 as the whole number of men brought by Xerxes, the son of Darius, as far as Sepias and Thermopylae. 187. Such then was the amount of the entire host of Xerxes. As for the number of the women who ground the corn, of the concubines, and the eunuchs, no one can give any sure account of it; nor can the baggage-horses and other sumpter-beasts, nor the Indian hounds which followed the army, be calculated, by reason of their multitude. Hence I am not at all surprised that the water of the rivers was found too scant for the army in some instances; rather it is a marvel to me how the provisions did not fail, when the numbers were so great. For I find on calculation that if each man consumed no more than a choenix of corn a day, there must have been used daily by the army 110,340 medimni, and this without counting what was eaten by the women, the eunuchs, the sumpter-beasts, and the hounds. Among all this multitude of men there was not one who, for beauty and stature, deserved more than Xerxes himself to wield so vast a power. 188. The fleet then, as I said, on leaving Therma, sailed to the Magnesian territory, and there occupied the strip of coast between the city of Casthanaea and Cape Sepias. The ships of the first row were moored to the land, while the remainder swung at anchor further off. The beach extended but a very little way, so that they had to anchor off the shore, row upon row, eight deep. In this manner they passed the night. But at dawn of day calm and stillness gave place to a raging sea, and a violent storm, which fell upon them with a strong gale from the east - a wind which the people in those parts call Hellespontias. Such of them as perceived the wind rising, and were so moored as to allow of it, forestalled the tempest by dragging their ships up on the beach, and in this way saved both themselves and their vessels. But the ships which the storm caught out at sea were driven ashore, some of them near the place called Ipni, or "The Ovens," at the foot of Pelion; others on the strand itself; others again about Cape Sepias; while a portion were dashed to pieces near the cities of Meliboea and Casthanaea. There was no resisting the tempest. 189. It is said that the Athenians had called upon Boreas to aid the Greeks, on account of a fresh oracle which had reached them, commanding them to "seek help from their son-in-law." For Boreas, according to the tradition of the Greeks, took to wife a woman of Attica, viz., Orithyia, the daughter of Erechtheus. So the Athenians, as the tale goes, considering that this marriage made Boreas their son-in-law, and perceiving, while they lay with their ships at Chalcis of Euboea, that the wind was rising, or, it may be, even before it freshened, offered sacrifice both to Boreas and likewise to Orithyia, entreating them to come to their aid and to destroy the ships of the barbarians, as they did once before off Mount Athos. Whether it was owing to this that Boreas fell with violence on the barbarians at their anchorage I cannot say; but the Athenians declare that they had received aid from Boreas before, and that it was he who now caused all these disasters. They therefore, on their return home, built a temple to this god on the banks of the Ilissus. 190. Such as put the loss of the Persian fleet in this storm at the lowest say that four hundred of their ships were destroyed, that a countless multitude of men were slain, and a vast treasure engulfed. Ameinocles, the son of Cretines, a Magnesian, who farmed land near Cape Sepias, found the wreck of these vessels a source of great gain to him; many were the gold and silver drinking-cups, cast up long afterwards by the surf, which he gathered; while treasure-boxes too which had belonged to the Persians, and golden articles of all kinds and beyond count, came into his possession. Ameinocles grew to be a man of great wealth in this way; but in other respects things did not go over well with him: he too, like other men, had his own grief - the calamity of losing his offspring. 191. As for the number of the provision craft and other merchant ships which perished, it was beyond count. Indeed, such was the loss, that the commanders of the sea force, fearing lest in their shattered condition the Thessalians should venture on an attack, raised a lofty barricade around their station out of the wreck of the vessels cast ashore. The storm lasted three days. At length the Magians, by offering victims to the Winds, and charming them with the help of conjurers, while at the same time they sacrificed to Thetis and the Nereids, succeeded in laying the storm four days after it first began; or perhaps it ceased of itself. The reason of their offering sacrifice to Thetis was this: they were told by the Ionians that here was the place whence Peleus carried her off, and that the whole promontory was sacred to her and to her sister Nereids. So the storm lulled upon the fourth day. 192. The scouts left by the Greeks about the highlands of Euboea hastened down from their stations on the day following that whereon the storm began, and acquainted their countrymen with all that had befallen the Persian fleet. These no sooner heard what had happened than straightway they returned thanks to Neptune the Saviour, and poured libations in his honour; after which they hastened back with all speed to Artemisium, expecting to find a very few ships left to oppose them, and arriving there for the second time, took up their station on that strip of coast: nor from that day to the present have they ceased to address Neptune by the name then given him, of "Saviour." 193. The barbarians, when the wind lulled and the sea grew smooth, drew their ships down to the water, and proceeded to coast along the mainland. Having then rounded the extreme point of Magnesia, they sailed straight into the bay that runs up to Pagasae. There is a place in this bay, belonging to Magnesia, where Hercules is said to have been put ashore to fetch water by Jason and his companions; who then deserted him and went on their way to Aea in Colchis, on board the ship Argo, in quest of the golden fleece. From the circumstance that they intended, after watering their vessel at this place, to quit the shore and launch forth into the deep, it received the name of Aphetae. Here then it was that the fleet of Xerxes came to an anchor. 194. Fifteen ships, which had lagged greatly behind the rest, happening to catch sight of the Greek fleet at Artemisium, mistook it for their own, and sailing down into the midst of it, fell into the hands of the enemy. The commander of this squadron was Sandoces, the son of Thamasius, governor of Cyme, in Aeolis. He was of the number of the royal judges, and had been crucified by Darius some time before, on the charge of taking a bribe to determine a cause wrongly; but while he yet hung on the cross, Darius bethought him that the good deeds of Sandoces towards the king's house were more numerous than his evil deeds; and so, confessing that he had acted with more haste than wisdom, he ordered him to be taken down and set at large. Thus Sandoces escaped destruction at the hands of Darius, and was alive at this time; but he was not fated to come off so cheaply from his second peril; for as soon as the Greeks saw the ships making towards them, they guessed their mistake, and putting to sea, took them without difficulty. 195. Aridolis, tyrant of Alabanda in Caria, was on board one of the ships, and was made prisoner; as also was the Paphian general, Penthylus, the son of Domonous, who was on board another. This person had brought with him twelve ships from Paphos, and, after losing eleven in the storm off Sepias, was taken in the remaining one as he sailed towards Artemisium. The Greeks, after questioning their prisoners as much as they wished concerning the forces of Xerxes, sent them away in chains to the Isthmus of Corinth. 196. The sea force of the barbarians, with the exception of the fifteen ships commanded (as I said) by Sandoces, came safe to Aphetae. Xerxes meanwhile, with the land army, had proceeded through Thessaly and Achaea, and three days earlier, had entered the territory of the Malians. In Thessaly, he matched his own horses against the Thessalian, which he heard were the best in Greece, but the Greek coursers were left far behind in the race. All the rivers in this region had water enough to supply his army, except only the Onochonus; but in Achaea, the largest of the streams, the Apidanus, barely held out. 197. On his arrival at Alus in Achaea, his guides, wishing to inform him of everything, told him the tale known to the dwellers in those parts concerning the temple of the Laphystian Jupiter - how that Athamas the son of Aeolus took counsel with Ino and plotted the death of Phrixus; and how that afterwards the Achaeans, warned by an oracle, laid a forfeit upon his posterity, forbidding the eldest of the race ever to enter into the court-house (which they call the people's house), and keeping watch themselves to see the law obeyed. If one comes within the doors, he can never go out again except to be sacrificed. Further, they told him how that many persons, when on the point of being slain, are seized with such fear that they flee away and take refuge in some other country; and that these, if they come back long afterwards, and are found to be the persons who entered the court-house, are led forth covered with chaplets, and in a grand procession, and are sacrificed. This forfeit is paid by the descendants of Cytissorus the son of Phrixus, because, when the Achaeans, in obedience to an oracle, made Athamas the son of Aeolus their sin-offering, and were about to slay him, Cytissorus came from Aea in Colchis and rescued Athamus; by which deed he brought the anger of the god upon his own posterity. Xerxes, therefore, having heard this story, when he reached the grove of the god, avoided it, and commanded his army to do the like. He also paid the same respect to the house and precinct of the descendants of Athamas. 198. Such were the doing of Xerxes in Thessaly and in Achaea, From hence he passed on into Malis, along the shores of a bay, in which there is an ebb and flow of the tide daily. By the side of this bay lies a piece of flat land, in one part broad, but in another very narrow indeed, around which runs a range of lofty hills, impossible to climb, enclosing all Malis within them, and called the Trachinian cliffs. The first city upon the bay, as you come from Achaea, is Anticyra, near which the river Spercheius, flowing down from the country of the Enianians, empties itself into the sea. About twenty furlongs from this stream there is a second river, called the Dyras, which is said to have appeared first to help Hercules when he was burning. Again, at the distance of twenty furlongs, there is a stream called the Melas, near which, within about five furlongs, stands the city of Trachis. 199. At the point where this city is built, the plain between the hills and the sea is broader than at any other, for it there measures 22,000 plethra. South of Trachis there is a cleft in the mountain-range which shuts in the territory of Trachinia; and the river Asopus issuing from this cleft flows for a while along the foot of the hills. 200. Further to the south, another river, called the Phoenix, which has no great body of water, flows from the same hills, and falls into the Asopus. Here is the narrowest place of all; for in this part there is only a causeway wide enough for a single carriage. From the river Phoenix to Thermopylae is a distance of fifteen furlongs; and in this space is situate the village called Anthela, which the river Asopus passes ere it reaches the sea. The space about Anthela is of some width, and contains a temple of Amphictyonian Ceres, as well as the seats of the Amphictyonic deputies, and a temple of Amphictyon himself. 201. King Xerxes pitched his camp in the region of Malis called Trachinia, while on their side the Greeks occupied the straits. These straits the Greeks in general call Thermopylae (the Hot Gates); but the natives, and those who dwell in the neighbourhood, call them Pylae (the Gates). Here then the two armies took their stand; the one master of all the region lying north of Trachis, the other of the country extending southward of that place to the verge of the continent. 202. The Greeks who at this spot awaited the coming of Xerxes were the following:- From Sparta, three hundred men-at-arms; from Arcadia, a thousand Tegeans and Mantineans, five hundred of each people; a hundred and twenty Orchomenians, from the Arcadian Orchomenus; and a thousand from other cities: from Corinth, four hundred men; from Phlius, two hundred; and from Mycenae eighty. Such was the number from the Peloponnese. There were also present, from Boeotia, seven hundred Thespians and four hundred Thebans. 203. Besides these troops, the Locrians of Opus and the Phocians had obeyed the call of their countrymen, and sent, the former all the force they had, the latter a thousand men. For envoys had gone from the Greeks at Thermopylae among the Locrians and Phocians, to call on them for assistance, and to say - "They were themselves but the vanguard of the host, sent to precede the main body, which might every day be expected to follow them. The sea was in good keeping, watched by the Athenians, the Eginetans, and the rest of the fleet. There was no cause why they should fear; for after all the invader was not a god but a man; and there never had been, and never would be, a man who was not liable to misfortunes from the very day of his birth, and those misfortunes greater in proportion to his own greatness. The assailant therefore, being only a mortal, must needs fall from his glory." Thus urged, the Locrians and the Phocians had come with their troops to Trachis. 204. The various nations had each captains of their own under whom they served; but the one to whom all especially looked up, and who had the command of the entire force, was the Lacedaemonian, Leonidas. Now Leonidas was the son of Anaxandridas, who was the son of Leo, who was the son of Eurycratidas, who was the son of Anaxander, who was the son of Eurycrates, who was the son of Polydorus, who was the son of Alcamenes, who was the son of Telecles, who was the son of Archelaus, who was the son of Agesilaus, who was the son of Doryssus, who was the son of Labotas, who was the son of Echestratus, who was the son of Agis, who was the son of Eurysthenes, who was the son of Aristodemus, who was the son of Aristomachus, who was the son of Cleodaeus, who was the son of Hyllus, who was the son of Hercules. Leonidas had come to be king of Sparta quite unexpectedly. 205. Having two elder brothers, Cleomenes and Dorieus, he had no thought of ever mounting the throne. However, when Cleomenes died without male offspring, as Dorieus was likewise deceased, having perished in Sicily, the crown fell to Leonidas, who was older than Cleombrotus, the youngest of the sons of Anaxandridas, and, moreover, was married to the daughter of Cleomenes. He had now come to Thermopylae, accompanied by the three hundred men which the law assigned him, whom he had himself chosen from among the citizens, and who were all of them fathers with sons living. On his way he had taken the troops from Thebes, whose number I have already mentioned, and who were under the command of Leontiades the son of Eurymachus. The reason why he made a point of taking troops from Thebes, and Thebes only, was that the Thebans were strongly suspected of being well inclined to the Medes. Leonidas therefore called on them to come with him to the war, wishing to see whether they would comply with his demand, or openly refuse, and disclaim the Greek alliance. They, however, though their wishes leant the other way, nevertheless sent the men. 206. The force with Leonidas was sent forward by the Spartans in advance of their main body, that the sight of them might encourage the allies to fight, and hinder them from going over to the Medes, as it was likely they might have done had they seen that Sparta was backward. They intended presently, when they had celebrated the Carneian festival, which was what now kept them at home, to leave a garrison in Sparta, and hasten in full force to join the army. The rest of the allies also intended to act similarly; for it happened that the Olympic festival fell exactly at this same period. None of them looked to see the contest at Thermopylae decided so speedily; wherefore they were content to send forward a mere advanced guard. Such accordingly were the intentions of the allies. 207. The Greek forces at Thermopylae, when the Persian army drew near to the entrance of the pass, were seized with fear; and a council was held to consider about a retreat. It was the wish of the Peloponnesians generally that the army should fall back upon the Peloponnese, and there guard the Isthmus. But Leonidas, who saw with what indignation the Phocians and Locrians heard of this plan, gave his voice for remaining where they were, while they sent envoys to the several cities to ask for help, since they were too few to make a stand against an army like that of the Medes. 208. While this debate was going on, Xerxes sent a mounted spy to observe the Greeks, and note how many they were, and see what they were doing. He had heard, before he came out of Thessaly, that a few men were assembled at this place, and that at their head were certain Lacedaemonians, under Leonidas, a descendant of Hercules. The horseman rode up to the camp, and looked about him, but did not see the whole army; for such as were on the further side of the wall (which had been rebuilt and was now carefully guarded) it was not possible for him to behold; but he observed those on the outside, who were encamped in front of the rampart. It chanced that at this time the Lacedaemonians held the outer guard, and were seen by the spy, some of them engaged in gymnastic exercises, others combing their long hair. At this the spy greatly marvelled, but he counted their number, and when he had taken accurate note of everything, he rode back quietly; for no one pursued after him, nor paid any heed to his visit. So he returned, and told Xerxes all that he had seen. 209. Upon this, Xerxes, who had no means of surmising the truth - namely, that the Spartans were preparing to do or die manfully - but thought it laughable that they should be engaged in such employments, sent and called to his presence Demaratus the son of Ariston, who still remained with the army. When he appeared, Xerxes told him all that he had heard, and questioned him concerning the news, since he was anxious to understand the meaning of such behaviour on the part of the Spartans. Then Demaratus said - "I spake to thee, O king! concerning these men long since, when we had but just begun our march upon Greece; thou, however, didst only laugh at my words, when I told thee of all this, which I saw would come to pass. Earnestly do I struggle at all times to speak truth to thee, sire; and now listen to it once more. These men have come to dispute the pass with us; and it is for this that they are now making ready. 'Tis their custom, when they are about to hazard their lives, to adorn their heads with care. Be assured, however, that if thou canst subdue the men who are here and the Lacedaemonians who remain in Sparta, there is no other nation in all the world which will venture to lift a hand in their defence. Thou hast now to deal with the first kingdom and town in Greece, and with the bravest men." Then Xerxes, to whom what Demaratus said seemed altogether to surpass belief, asked further "how it was possible for so small an army to contend with his?" "O king!" Demaratus answered, "let me be treated as a liar, if matters fall not out as I say." 210. But Xerxes was not persuaded any the more. Four whole days he suffered to go by, expecting that the Greeks would run away. When, however, he found on the fifth that they were not gone, thinking that their firm stand was mere impudence and recklessness, he grew wroth, and sent against them the Medes and Cissians, with orders to take them alive and bring them into his presence. Then the Medes rushed forward and charged the Greeks, but fell in vast numbers: others however took the places of the slain, and would not be beaten off, though they suffered terrible losses. In this way it became clear to all, and especially to the king, that though he had plenty of combatants, he had but very few warriors. The struggle, however, continued during the whole day. 211. Then the Medes, having met so rough a reception, withdrew from the fight; and their place was taken by the band of Persians under Hydarnes, whom the king called his "Immortals": they, it was thought, would soon finish the business. But when they joined battle with the Greeks, 'twas with no better success than the Median detachment - things went much as before - the two armies fighting in a narrow space, and the barbarians using shorter spears than the Greeks, and having no advantage from their numbers. The Lacedaemonians fought in a way worthy of note, and showed themselves far more skilful in fight than their adversaries, often turning their backs, and making as though they were all flying away, on which the barbarians would rush after them with much noise and shouting, when the Spartans at their approach would wheel round and face their pursuers, in this way destroying vast numbers of the enemy. Some Spartans likewise fell in these encounters, but only a very few. At last the Persians, finding that all their efforts to gain the pass availed nothing, and that, whether they attacked by divisions or in any other way, it was to no purpose, withdrew to their own quarters. 212. During these assaults, it is said that Xerxes, who was watching the battle, thrice leaped from the throne on which he sate, in terror for his army. Next day the combat was renewed, but with no better success on the part of the barbarians. The Greeks were so few that the barbarians hoped to find them disabled, by reason of their wounds, from offering any further resistance; and so they once more attacked them. But the Greeks were drawn up in detachments according to their cities, and bore the brunt of the battle in turns - all except the Phocians, who had been stationed on the mountain to guard the pathway. So, when the Persians found no difference between that day and the preceding, they again retired to their quarters. 213. Now, as the king was in great strait, and knew not how he should deal with the emergency, Ephialtes, the son of Eurydemus, a man of Malis, came to him and was admitted to a conference. Stirred by the hope of receiving a rich reward at the king's hands, he had come to tell him of the pathway which led across the mountain to Thermopylae; by which disclosure he brought destruction on the band of Greeks who had there withstood the barbarians. This Ephialtes afterwards, from fear of the Lacedaemonians, fled into Thessaly; and during his exile, in an assembly of the Amphictyons held at Pylae, a price was set upon his head by the Pylagorae. When some time had gone by, he returned from exile, and went to Anticyra, where he was slain by Athenades, a native of Trachis. Athenades did not slay him for his treachery, but for another reason, which I shall mention in a later part of my history: yet still the Lacedaemonians honoured him none the less. Thus then did Ephialtes perish a long time afterwards. 214. Besides this there is another story told, which I do not at all believe - to wit, that Onetas the son of Phanagoras, a native of Carystus, and Corydallus, a man of Anticyra, were the persons who spoke on this matter to the king, and took the Persians across the mountain. One may guess which story is true, from the fact that the deputies of the Greeks, the Pylagorae, who must have had the best means of ascertaining the truth, did not offer the reward for the heads of Onetas and Corydallus, but for that of Ephialtes of Trachis; and again from the flight of Ephialtes, which we know to have been on this account. Onetas, I allow, although he was not a Malian, might have been acquainted with the path, if he had lived much in that part of the country; but as Ephialtes was the person who actually led the Persians round the mountain by the pathway, I leave his name on record as that of the man who did the deed. 215. Great was the joy of Xerxes on this occasion; and as he approved highly of the enterprise which Ephialtes undertook to accomplish, he forthwith sent upon the errand Hydarnes, and the Persians under him. The troops left the camp about the time of the lighting of the lamps. The pathway along which they went was first discovered by the Malians of these parts, who soon afterwards led the Thessalians by it to attack the Phocians, at the time when the Phocians fortified the pass with a wall, and so put themselves under covert from danger. And ever since, the path has always been put to an ill use by the Malians. 216. The course which it takes is the following:- Beginning at the Asopus, where that stream flows through the cleft in the hills, it runs along the ridge of the mountain (which is called, like the pathway over it, Anopaea), and ends at the city of Alpenus - the first Locrian town as you come from Malis - by the stone called Melampygus and the seats of the Cercopians. Here it is as narrow as at any other point. 217. The Persians took this path, and, crossing the Asopus, continued their march through the whole of the night, having the mountains of Oeta on their right hand, and on their left those of Trachis. At dawn of day they found themselves close to the summit. Now the hill was guarded, as I have already said, by a thousand Phocian men-at-arms, who were placed there to defend the pathway, and at the same time to secure their own country. They had been given the guard of the mountain path, while the other Greeks defended the pass below, because they had volunteered for the service, and had pledged themselves to Leonidas to maintain the post. 218. The ascent of the Persians became known to the Phocians in the following manner:- During all the time that they were making their way up, the Greeks remained unconscious of it, inasmuch as the whole mountain was covered with groves of oak; but it happened that the air was very still, and the leaves which the Persians stirred with their feet made, as it was likely they would, a loud rustling, whereupon the Phocians jumped up and flew to seize their arms. In a moment the barbarians came in sight, and, perceiving men arming themselves, were greatly amazed; for they had fallen in with an enemy when they expected no opposition. Hydarnes, alarmed at the sight, and fearing lest the Phocians might be Lacedaemonians, inquired of Ephialtes to what nation these troops belonged. Ephialtes told him the exact truth, whereupon he arrayed his Persians for battle. The Phocians, galled by the showers of arrows to which they were exposed, and imagining themselves the special object of the Persian attack, fled hastily to the crest of the mountain, and there made ready to meet death; but while their mistake continued, the Persians, with Ephialtes and Hydarnes, not thinking it worth their while to delay on account of Phocians, passed on and descended the mountain with all possible speed. 219. The Greeks at Thermopylae received the first warning of the destruction which the dawn would bring on them from the seer Megistias, who read their fate in the victims as he was sacrificing. After this deserters came in, and brought the news that the Persians were marching round by the hills: it was still night when these men arrived. Last of all, the scouts came running down from the heights, and brought in the same accounts, when the day was just beginning to break. Then the Greeks held a council to consider what they should do, and here opinions were divided: some were strong against quitting their post, while others contended to the contrary. So when the council had broken up, part of the troops departed and went their ways homeward to their several states; part however resolved to remain, and to stand by Leonidas to the last. 220. It is said that Leonidas himself sent away the troops who departed, because he tendered their safety, but thought it unseemly that either he or his Spartans should quit the post which they had been especially sent to guard. For my own part, I incline to think that Leonidas gave the order, because he perceived the allies to be out of heart and unwilling to encounter the danger to which his own mind was made up. He therefore commanded them to retreat, but said that he himself could not draw back with honour; knowing that, if he stayed, glory awaited him, and that Sparta in that case would not lose her prosperity. For when the Spartans, at the very beginning of the war, sent to consult the oracle concerning it, the answer which they received from the Pythoness was "that either Sparta must be overthrown by the barbarians, or one of her kings must perish." The prophecy was delivered in hexameter verse, and ran thus:- O ye men who dwell in the streets of broad Lacedaemon! Either your glorious town shall be sacked by the children of Perseus, Or, in exchange, must all through the whole Laconian country Mourn for the loss of a king, descendant of great Heracles. He cannot be withstood by the courage of bulls nor of lions, Strive as they may; he is mighty as Jove; there is nought that shall stay him, Till he have got for his prey your king, or your glorious city. The remembrance of this answer, I think, and the wish to secure the whole glory for the Spartans, caused Leonidas to send the allies away. This is more likely than that they quarrelled with him, and took their departure in such unruly fashion. 221. To me it seems no small argument in favour of this view, that the seer also who accompanied the army, Megistias, the Acarnanian - said to have been of the blood of Melampus, and the same who was led by the appearance of the victims to warn the Greeks of the danger which threatened them - received orders to retire (as it is certain he did) from Leonidas, that he might escape the coming destruction. Megistias, however, though bidden to depart, refused, and stayed with the army; but he had an only son present with the expedition, whom he now sent away. 222. So the allies, when Leonidas ordered them to retire, obeyed him and forthwith departed. Only the Thespians and the Thebans remained with the Spartans; and of these the Thebans were kept back by Leonidas as hostages, very much against their will. The Thespians, on the contrary, stayed entirely of their own accord, refusing to retreat, and declaring that they would not forsake Leonidas and his followers. So they abode with the Spartans, and died with them. Their leader was Demophilus, the son of Diadromes. 223. At sunrise Xerxes made libations, after which he waited until the time when the forum is wont to fill, and then began his advance. Ephialtes had instructed him thus, as the descent of the mountain is much quicker, and the distance much shorter, than the way round the hills, and the ascent. So the barbarians under Xerxes began to draw nigh; and the Greeks under Leonidas, as they now went forth determined to die, advanced much further than on previous days, until they reached the more open portion of the pass. Hitherto they had held their station within the wall, and from this had gone forth to fight at the point where the pass was the narrowest. Now they joined battle beyond the defile, and carried slaughter among the barbarians, who fell in heaps. Behind them the captains of the squadrons, armed with whips, urged their men forward with continual blows. Many were thrust into the sea, and there perished; a still greater number were trampled to death by their own soldiers; no one heeded the dying. For the Greeks, reckless of their own safety and desperate, since they knew that, as the mountain had been crossed, their destruction was nigh at hand, exerted themselves with the most furious valour against the barbarians. 224. By this time the spears of the greater number were all shivered, and with their swords they hewed down the ranks of the Persians; and here, as they strove, Leonidas fell fighting bravely, together with many other famous Spartans, whose names I have taken care to learn on account of their great worthiness, as indeed I have those of all the three hundred. There fell too at the same time very many famous Persians: among them, two sons of Darius, Abrocomes and Hyperanthes, his children by Phratagune, the daughter of Artanes. Artanes was brother of King Darius, being a son of Hystaspes, the son of Arsames; and when he gave his daughter to the king, he made him heir likewise of all his substance; for she was his only child. 225. Thus two brothers of Xerxes here fought and fell. And now there arose a fierce struggle between the Persians and the Lacedaemonians over the body of Leonidas, in which the Greeks four times drove back the enemy, and at last by their great bravery succeeded in bearing off the body. This combat was scarcely ended when the Persians with Ephialtes approached; and the Greeks, informed that they drew nigh, made a change in the manner of their fighting. Drawing back into the narrowest part of the pass, and retreating even behind the cross wall, they posted themselves upon a hillock, where they stood all drawn up together in one close body, except only the Thebans. The hillock whereof I speak is at the entrance of the straits, where the stone lion stands which was set up in honour of Leonidas. Here they defended themselves to the last, such as still had swords using them, and the others resisting with their hands and teeth; till the barbarians, who in part had pulled down the wall and attacked them in front, in part had gone round and now encircled them upon every side, overwhelmed and buried the remnant which was left beneath showers of missile weapons. 226. Thus nobly did the whole body of Lacedaemonians and Thespians behave; but nevertheless one man is said to have distinguished himself above all the rest, to wit, Dieneces the Spartan. A speech which he made before the Greeks engaged the Medes, remains on record. One of the Trachinians told him, "Such was the number of the barbarians, that when they shot forth their arrows the sun would be darkened by their multitude." Dieneces, not at all frightened at these words, but making light of the Median numbers, answered "Our Trachinian friend brings us excellent tidings. If the Medes darken the sun, we shall have our fight in the shade." Other sayings too of a like nature are reported to have been left on record by this same person. 227. Next to him two brothers, Lacedaemonians, are reputed to have made themselves conspicuous: they were named Alpheus and Maro, and were the sons of Orsiphantus. There was also a Thespian who gained greater glory than any of his countrymen: he was a man called Dithyrambus, the son of Harmatidas. 228. The slain were buried where they fell; and in their honour, nor less in honour of those who died before Leonidas sent the allies away, an inscription was set up, which said:- Here did four thousand men from Pelops' land Against three hundred myriads bravely stand. This was in honour of all. Another was for the Spartans alone:- Go, stranger, and to Lacedaemon tell That here, obeying her behests, we fell. This was for the Lacedaemonians. The seer had the following:- The great Megistias' tomb you here may view, Whom slew the Medes, fresh from Spercheius' fords. Well the wise seer the coming death foreknew, Yet scorned he to forsake his Spartan lords. These inscriptions, and the pillars likewise, were all set up by the Amphictyons, except that in honour of Megistias, which was inscribed to him (on account of their sworn friendship) by Simonides, the son of Leoprepes. 229. Two of the three hundred, it is said, Aristodemus and Eurytus, having been attacked by a disease of the eyes, had received orders from Leonidas to quit the camp; and both lay at Alpeni in the worst stage of the malady. These two men might, had they been so minded, have agreed together to return alive to Sparta; or if they did not like to return, they might have gone both to the field and fallen with their countrymen. But at this time, when either way was open to them, unhappily they could not agree, but took contrary courses. Eurytus no sooner heard that the Persians had come round the mountain than straightway he called for his armour, and having buckled it on, bade his helot lead him to the place where his friends were fighting. The helot did so, and then turned and fled; but Eurytus plunged into the thick of the battle, and so perished. Aristodemus, on the other hand, was faint of heart, and remained at Alpeni. It is my belief that if Aristodemus only had been sick and returned, or if both had come back together, the Spartans would have been content and felt no anger; but when there were two men with the very same excuse, and one of them was chary of his life, while the other freely gave it, they could not but be very wroth with the former. 230. This is the account which some give of the escape of Aristodemus. Others say that he, with another, had been sent on a message from the army, and, having it in his power to return in time for the battle, purposely loitered on the road, and so survived his comrades; while his fellow-messenger came back in time, and fell in the battle. 231. When Aristodemus returned to Lacedaemon, reproach and disgrace awaited him; disgrace, inasmuch as no Spartan would give him a light to kindle his fire, or so much as address a word to him; and reproach, since all spoke of him as "the craven." However he wiped away all his shame afterwards at the battle of Plataea. 232. Another of the three hundred is likewise said to have survived the battle, a man named Pantites, whom Leonidas had sent on an embassy into Thessaly. He, they say, on his return to Sparta, found himself in such disesteem that he hanged himself. 233. The Thebans under the command of Leontiades remained with the Greeks, and fought against the barbarians, only so long as necessity compelled them. No sooner did they see victory inclining to the Persians, and the Greeks under Leonidas hurrying with all speed towards the hillock, than they moved away from their companions, and with hands upraised advanced towards the barbarians, exclaiming, as was indeed most true - "that they for their part wished well to the Medes, and had been among the first to give earth and water to the king; force alone had brought them to Thermopylae; and so they must not be blamed for the slaughter which had befallen the king's army." These words, the truth of which was attested by the Thessalians, sufficed to obtain the Thebans the grant of their lives. However, their good fortune was not without some drawback; for several of them were slain by the barbarians on their first approach; and the rest, who were the greater number, had the royal mark branded upon their bodies by the command of Xerxes - Leontiades, their captain, being the first to suffer. (This man's son, Eurymachus, was afterwards slain by the Plataeans, when he came with a band of 400 Thebans, and seized their city.) 234. Thus fought the Greeks at Thermopylae. And Xerxes, after the fight was over, called for Demaratus to question him; and began as follows:- "Demaratus, thou art a worthy man; thy true-speaking proves it. All has happened as thou didst forewarn. Now then, tell me, how many Lacedaemonians are there left, and of those left how many are such brave warriors as these? Or are they all alike?" "O king!" replied the other, "the whole number of the Lacedaemonians is very great; and many are the cities which they inhabit. But I will tell thee what thou really wishest to learn. There is a town of Lacedaemon called Sparta, which contains within it about eight thousand full-grown men. They are, one and all, equal to those who have fought here. The other Lacedaemonians are brave men, but not such warriors as these." "Tell me now, Demaratus," rejoined Xerxes, "how we may with least trouble subdue these men. Thou must know all the paths of their counsels, as thou wert once their king." 235. Then Demaratus answered - "O king! since thou askest my advice so earnestly, it is fitting that I should inform thee what I consider to be the best course. Detach three hundred vessels from the body of thy fleet, and send them to attack the shores of Laconia. There is an island called Cythera in those parts, not far from the coast, concerning which Chilon, one of our wisest men, made the remark that Sparta would gain if it were sunk to the bottom of the sea - so constantly did he expect that it would give occasion to some project like that which I now recommend to thee. I mean not to say that he had a foreknowledge of thy attack upon Greece; but in truth he feared all armaments. Send thy ships then to this island, and thence affright the Spartans. If once they have a war of their own close to their doors, fear not their giving any help to the rest of the Greeks while thy land force is engaged in conquering them. In this way may all Greece be subdued; and then Sparta, left to herself, will be powerless. But if thou wilt not take this advice, I will tell thee what thou mayest look to see. When thou comest to the Peloponnese, thou wilt find a narrow neck of land, where all the Peloponnesians who are leagued against thee will be gathered together; and there thou wilt have to fight bloodier battles than any which thou hast yet witnessed. If, however, thou wilt follow my plan, the Isthmus and the cities of Peloponnese will yield to thee without a battle." 236. Achaeamenes, who was present, now took the word, and spoke - he was brother to Xerxes, and, having the command of the fleet, feared lest Xerxes might be prevailed upon to do as Demaratus advised "I perceive, O king" (he said), "that thou art listening to the words of a man who is envious of thy good fortune, and seeks to betray thy cause. This is indeed the common temper of the Grecian people - they envy good fortune, and hate power greater than their own. If in this posture of our affairs, after we have lost four hundred vessels by shipwreck, three hundred more be sent away to make a voyage round the Peloponnese, our enemies will be, come a match for us. But let us keep our whole fleet in one body, and it will be dangerous for them to venture on an attack, as they will certainly be no match for us then. Besides, while our sea and land forces advance together, the fleet and army can each help the other; but if they be parted, no aid will come either from thee to the fleet, or from the fleet to thee. Only order thy own matters well, and trouble not thyself to inquire concerning the enemy - where they will fight, or what they will do, or how many they are. Surely they can manage their own concerns without us, as we can ours without them. If the Lacedaemonians come out against the Persians to battle, they will scarce repair the disaster which has befallen them now." 237. Xerxes replied - "Achaeamenes, thy counsel pleases me well, and I will do as thou sayest. But Demaratus advised what he thought best - only his judgment was not so good as thine. Never will I believe that he does not wish well to my cause; for that is disproved both by his former counsels, and also by the circumstances of the case. A citizen does indeed envy any fellow-citizen who is more lucky than himself, and often hates him secretly; if such a man be called on for counsel, he will not give his best thoughts, unless indeed he be a man of very exalted virtue; and such are but rarely found. But a friend of another country delights in the good fortune of his foreign bond-friend, and will give him, when asked, the best advice in his power. Therefore I warn all men to abstain henceforth from speaking ill of Demaratus, who is my bond-friend." 238. When Xerxes had thus spoken, he proceeded to pass through the slain; and finding the body of Leonidas, whom he knew to have been the Lacedaemonian king and captain, he ordered that the head should be struck off, and the trunk fastened to a cross. This proves to me most clearly, what is plain also in many other ways - namely, that King Xerxes was more angry with Leonidas, while he was still in life, than with any other mortal. Certes, he would not else have used his body so shamefully. For the Persians are wont to honour those who show themselves valiant in fight more highly than any nation that I know. They, however, to whom the orders were given, did according to the commands of the king. 239. I return now to a point in my History, which at the time I left incomplete. The Lacedaemonians were the first of the Greeks to hear of the king's design against their country; and it was at this time that they sent to consult the Delphic oracle, and received the answer of which I spoke a while ago. The discovery was made to them in a very strange way. Demaratus, the son of Ariston, after he took refuge with the Medes, was not, in my judgment, which is supported by probability, a well-wisher to the Lacedaemonians. It may be questioned, therefore, whether he did what I am about to mention from good-will or from insolent triumph. It happened that he was at Susa at the time when Xerxes determined to lead his army into Greece; and in this way becoming acquainted with his design, he resolved to send tidings of it to Sparta. So as there was no other way of effecting his purpose, since the danger of being discovered was great, Demaratus framed the following contrivance. He took a pair of tablets, and, clearing the wax away from them, wrote what the king was purposing to do upon the wood whereof the tablets were made; having done this, he spread the wax once more over the writing, and so sent it. By these means, the guards placed to watch the roads, observing nothing but a blank tablet, were sure to give no trouble to the bearer. When the tablet reached Lacedaemon, there was no one, I understand, who could find out the secret, till Gorgo, the daughter of Cleomenes and wife of Leonidas, discovered it, and told the others. "If they would scrape the wax off the tablet," she said, "they would be sure to find the writing upon the wood." The Lacedaemonians took her advice, found the writing, and read it; after which they sent it round to the other Greeks. Such then is the account which is given of this matter. 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fa-wikipedia-org-8927	----	خشایارشا - ویکی‌پدیا، دانشنامهٔ آزاد پرش به محتوا جمع و باز کردن نوار کناری جستجو ابزارهای شخصی به سامانه وارد نشده‌اید بحث مشارکت‌ها ایجاد حساب کاربری ورود بازدید محتوا صفحهٔ اصلی رویدادهای کنونی مقالهٔ تصادفی کمک مالی همکاری تغییرات اخیر ویکی‌نویس شوید! راهنما تماس با ویکی‌پدیا ابزارها پیوندها به این صفحه تغییرات مرتبط بارگذاری پرونده صفحه‌های ویژه پیوند پایدار اطلاعات صفحه یادکرد پیوند این مقاله آیتم ویکی‌داده نسخه‌برداری ایجاد کتاب دریافت به‌صورت PDF نسخهٔ قابل چاپ در دیگر پروژه‌ها ویکی‌انبار به زبان‌های دیگر Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 ویرایش پیوندها منوی ناوبری فضاهای نام مقاله بحث گویش‌ها بازدیدها خواندن ویرایش نمایش تاریخچه بیشتر خشایارشا از ویکی‌پدیا، دانشنامهٔ آزاد خشایارشا 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠 شاه شاهان شاه بزرگ شاه پارس شاه بابل فرعون مصر شاه کشورها سنگ نگاره خشایارشا، برفراز کوه رحمت، نقش رستم پنجمین شاهنشاه هخامنشی سلطنت اکتبر ۴۸۶ – آگوست ۴۶۵ پ.م. (۲۰ سال) پیشین داریوش بزرگ جانشین اردشیر یکم زاده ۵۱۹ پ.م. درگذشته ۴۶۶ پ‌.م. (۵۴ سال) آرامگاه کوه رحمت، نقش رستم همسر(ان) آمستریس[۱] فرزند(ان) امیتیس داریوش ویشتاسپ اردشیر یکم روزگونه هخامنش آرشام آرتاریوس تیفراتس رته‌شه خاندان هخامنشیان پدر داریوش بزرگ مادر آتوسا دین و مذهب مزدیسنا خَشایارشا یکم، (به پارسی باستان:)، یا خَشایارشای بزرگ،[۲] پسر داریوش بزرگ و آتوسا دختر کوروش بزرگ، پنجمین پادشاه هخامنشی در سال‌های ۴۸۵ تا ۴۶۵ پیش از میلاد است. داریوش بزرگ پسران بسیاری داشت که بزرگ‌ترین آنها آرتابرزن بود، ولی داریوش خشایارشا را که بزرگ‌ترین فرزند آتوسا دختر کوروش بود به جانشینی برگزید. خشایارشا در سال ۴۸۶ پیش از میلاد در سی و چهار سالگی پس از مرگ پدر به پادشاهی رسید.[۳] خشایارشا بر کشوری فرمان می‌راند که بزرگترین شاهنشاهی تاریخ جهان از نگر درصد مردمانی که در آن می‌زیسته‌اند است. ۴۴ درصد مردمان جهان در این گستره زندگی می‌کرده‌اند.[۴] نام خشایارشا از دو بخش «خشای» به معنای «فرمان‌روا» و «آرشا» به‌معنای «قهرمان، مرد» پدید آمده‌است.[۵] معنای این نام می‌تواند «کسی که در میان شاهان پهلوان است»[۶] یا فرمانروای قهرمانان باشد.[۷] خشایار (اگزرسس) یعنی آنکه در راستی سلطنت می‌کند و وقتی که به سمت ولایتعهدی منسوب شد این لقب را بر او نهادند.[۸] محتویات ۱ منبع‌شناسی برای زندگانی خشایارشا ۲ سالشمار ۳ خشایارشا در عهد عتیق ۳.۱ دیدگاه‌های نادرستی اشونسک استر ۴ فرونشاندن شورش مصر و بابل ۵ لشکرکشی به یونان و رژه در آتن ۵.۱ تنگهٔ داردانل ۵.۲ نبرد ترموپیل ۵.۳ گشایش آتن ۵.۴ نبرد سالامیس ۵.۵ نبرد پلاته ۵.۶ نبرد میکال ۶ رویدادهای پس از جنگ با یونان ۷ چرایی ‌های ناکامی ایرانیان بر یونانیان ۸ کشته شدن خشایارشا به دست اردوان ۹ نشانه‌های باستانی به‌جامانده از خشایارشا ۱۰ نگارخانه ۱۱ جستارهای وابسته ۱۲ پانویس ۱۳ بازبُردها منبع‌شناسی برای زندگانی خشایارشا[ویرایش] نوشتار اصلی: منبع‌شناسی تاریخ ماد و هخامنشی نوشته‌های هرودوت از بن‌مایه‌های زندگانی خشایارشااست. نوشته‌های هرودوت ۹ پوشینه (جلد) است و هر پوشینه را ویژهٔ یکی از خدایان تاریخ، (خنیاگری، خندانندگی (طنز)، سوگ، پایکوبی، چکامه، ستارگان و گفتار) ساخته‌است. بن‌مایه‌های هرودت برای نگارش کتاب‌هایش نوشته‌های گاه‌نگاران و گزارش‌های گفتاری و رویدادهایی را که خود به چشم دیده هستند. از گاه‌نگارانی که از نوشته‌هایشان وام گرفته می‌توان هکاته را نام برد؛ ولی مهم‌ترین بن‌مایه‌هایش، خودش و بازگفت‌هایی هستند که راسته یا ناراسته از دیگران شنیده‌است.[۹] به‌راستی هر جا که هرودوت بازگوی گزارش‌های آگاهانه و درست بوده، نوشته‌هایش نیز با یافته‌های تازه و دپه‌های (سندهای) باستان‌شناسی هماهنگ است.[۱۰] با این همه، گرچه هرودت امانت داشته و دادمند بوده، داده‌هایش از غرض‌ورزی تاریخ‌گزارانی که او بازگوکننده‌شان است تهی نیست.[۱۱] هم‌چنین گرچه هرودوت به بن‌مایه‌های پرشماری دسترسی داشته، تنها بن‌مایه‌هایی را که از نگر او راست‌تر می‌نموده یاد کرده‌است؛ بنابراین باور کورکورانه به برداشت‌های تاریخی هرودت شایسته نیست.[۱۲] گاه‌نگاران امروزی بر این باورند که هرودوت همواره پرسمان‌های برجسته تاریخی را با افسانه‌پردازی آمیخته‌است. هرودوت زمان کودکی و بالندگی کوروش بزرگ را بر پایهٔ افسانه‌های تودگانه (عامیانه) و ناراستینه بازمی‌گوید. دربارهٔ زندگی کوروش او سه بازگفت دارد: از آگاهان پارسی، ژوستین و نیکلای دمشقی برگرفته از کتزیاس. ولی همهٔ این بازگفت‌ها بی‌گمان زاییده خواسته‌های سیاسی و تبلیغی است.[۱۳] در جای دیگر، هرودوت به نخستین آشنایی پارسیان با یونان، از راه پزشک دربار داریوش، دموکدس، می‌پردازد؛ ولی این بازگفت نیز با افسانه‌هایی ناهمساز با نگاه تاریخ‌نگاران امروزین درآمیخته است. افزون بر این هرودوت بارها گاهدادها (تاریخ روی‌دادها) و زمان‌بندی‌ها را درست یاد نکرده‌است.[۱۴] رویدادگزاران تاریخ هخامنشیان نیز گاه چنین غرض‌ورزی‌هایی را برای هرودت برشمرده‌اند. برای نمونه، برداشت‌ها و اندریافت‌های هرودوت از سرآغاز هخامنشیان درست نیست. او بر پایهٔ رویدادها و شنیده‌هایش، کشورگشایی‌های کوروش بزرگ را شبیخون‌های چادرنشینانی برای چپاول و دستبرد به سرزمین‌های دیگر یاد می‌کند. هم‌چنین پیروزی بر مادها را از سر بخت‌یاری و برآمده از دشمن‌یاری‌های (خیانت) پیرامونیان آستیاگ دانسته‌است. گواه‌های تاریخی بسیاری نشان از نادرستی برخی از گزارش‌های هرودت دارد. برای نمونه، دپه‌های بابلی و گزارش‌های گزنفون. گزنفون به‌سازی‌های جنگی و لشکری گسترده‌ای را برای پارس‌ها برمی‌شمرد: ساماندهی فرماندهی سپاه بر پایه سازمان ده‌هزار تنی، سازوبرگ دادن به نیروی سواره و ارابه‌سواران. با چنین سازمان‌دهی جنگی نمی‌توان دیدگاه هرودوت را در زمینهٔ پیروزی کوروش بر مادها و چادرنشین بودن پارس‌ها پذیرفت. با این همه شگفتا که بسیاری بر هرودوت به انگ هوادارای از خاوریان و از آسیایی‌ها (بربرها) بر وی حمله کرده اند، چه در روزگار باستان و چه در روزگار نوین.[۱۵] گروهی وی را افسانه‌پرداز و داستان‌ساز خوانده‌اند، از این میان پلوتارک، گاه‌نگار سدهٔ نخست میلادی، کتابی با نام غرض‌ورزی هرودوت نوشته‌است. سالشمار[ویرایش] سنگ نگاره خشایارشا بر فراز آرامگاه شاهی در نقش رستم ۴۸۶ پ.م.: پس از مرگ داریوش، فرزندش خشایارشای یکم بر تخت شاهی نشست.[۳] ۴۸۵ پ.م.: خشایارشا شورش مصر را سرکوب کرد و برادرش هخامنش را بر استان‌داری (ساتراپی) مصر گمارد.[۳] ۴۸۴ پ.م.: خشایارشا در سرکوب شورش بابل، سنگربندی‌های پدافندی آنجا و تندیس خدای مردوخ را ویران کرد.[۳] ۴۸۰ پ.م.: ارتش هخامنشی به یونان یورش برد و در شهر آتن رژه رفت ولی ناوگان دریای هخامنشی در نبرد سالامیس شکست خورد و سرانجام یورش‌های ایران در این سال پایان پذیرفت.[۳] ۴۷۹ پ.م.: در جنگ پلاته ایران از یونان شکست خورد.[۳] ۴۶۵ پ.م.: یکی از رای‌زنان (پاسداران) خشایارشا به نام اردوان، خشایارشا را کشت.[۳] ۴۶۵ پ.م.: اردشیر یکم پس از کشته شدن پدرش خشایارشا و برادرش داریوش، که جانشین بودنش روا بود، بر تخت شاهی نشست.[۳] خشایارشا در عهد عتیق[ویرایش] نوشتار اصلی: اخشورش عهد عتیق از اشونسک‌های (کتاب‌های مقدس) یهودیان است. کتاب استر پنجمین بخش از تخش یا همان عهد عتیق است. نسک استر به شه‌بانو شدن دختری یهودی به نام استر می‌پردازد. همانا استر همسر یهودی اخشورش، پادشاه پارس است و بسیاری اخشورش را همان خشایارشا می‌دانند. استر جایگزین شه‌بانوی وَشتی شده‌است تا یهودیان در ایران را از برنامه‌های‌ هامان برهاند. هامان وزیر اخشورش فرمان کشتار یهودیان را داده‌است و استر می‌کوشد تا از کشتار یهودیان پیش‌گیری کند. تلاش او با شکستن فرمان کشتار یهودیان به بار می‌نشیند. هم‌چنین‌ هامان به دار آویخته می‌شود (هر ساله جشن پوریم به یادآوری این رهایی برگزار می‌شود).[۱۶] دیدگاه‌های نادرستی اشونسک استر[ویرایش] بسیاری از پژوهندگان داستان استر را یک داستان افسانه‌آمیز که از افسانه‌های آشوری برگرفته شده‌است، می‌دانند.[۱۷] این داستان تنها در بن‌مایه‌های یهودی آمده‌است و نشانی از آن در گفته تاریخ‌نگاران یونانی و نشانه‌های به جا مانده از هخامنشیان نیست. هم‌چنین برخی از گاه‌نگاران یونانی پامی فشرند که خشایارشا تنها یک شه‌بانو به نام آمستریس داشته‌است. آمستریس به سال پیری رسیده‌است و از این رو جایگزینی شه‌بانو در زمان خشایارشا رخ نداده‌است.[۱۸] افزون بر این، نام همسر خشایارشا به گواه هرودوت، آمستریس دختر اتانس بوده ولی هیچ نشانی از وشتی یا استر در تاریخ هرودوت نیست.[۱۹] هم‌چنین، در نسک استر اخشورش (خشایارشا) بر بیش از ۱۲۷ استان از هند تا حبشه فرمان می‌راند و باژ بر زمین و کرانهٔ دریا می‌نهد؛ ولیک هیچ سخنی از یورش ناکام به یونان و گسترش پارسه نشده‌است. پافشاری نویسنده نسک استر بر ۱۲۷ استان شاهنشاهی ایران[۲۰] با راستینگی تاریخی بیست شهربانی ناسازگار است. هم‌چنین، بیش‌تر نام‌هایی که در این نسک آمده، نام‌های سامی و عبری و نه نام‌های ایرانی‌اند. این ناسازگاری‌ها گویا از روی ناآگاهی نویسنده از تاریخ ایران بوده‌است. به گفته مک‌کولوگ شاید اندکی راستی در پشت داستان استر باشد ولی نسک در دیسهٔ کنونی‌اش دارای کژی‌ها و دوگانگی‌هایی است. از این روی باید نسک را افسانه‌ای تاریخی و نه گزارشی تاریخی برشمرد. مهم‌ترین دلیلی که پژوهش‌گران بر بی‌پشتوانگی گزارش اشونسک استر دربارهٔ همسری خشایارشا به آن دست می‌یازند، این گفتهٔ هرودوت (۷٫۶۱) است که شه‌بانو خشایارشا آمستریس بود نه وَشتیِ اشونسک استر (استر، ۹:۱). آمستریس زنی بی‌اندازه نیرومند و کینه‌توز و با نفوذ بود. داستان واکنشش به دل باختن خشایارشا به دختری دیگر این کینه‌جویش را به خوبی نشان می‌دهد. دل‌باختگی خشایارشا در زمان بودن او در سارد هنگام لشکرکشی به یونان روی داد. خشایارشا نخست دل دادهٔ زن برادر خود ماسیست شد (نیاز به منبع دارد)؛ ولیک چون از او پاسخ نه شنید با دختر او آرتائونته نرد دل باخت (نیاز به منبع دارد). پادشاه به این زن جامه‌ای را بخشید که آمستریس بافته بود. آمستریس از این دلباختگی آگاه و سخت خشمگین شد. آیین باستانی بایسته می‌کرد که شهریار هر درخواستی را که در یک مهمانی پادشاهی از او می‌شد برآورده می‌کرد؛ از این رو آمستریس تا بزم زادروز شاه دست نگه داشت تا کینه‌اش را در این مهمانی بتوزد. آمستریس نیز درخواست کشتن مادر آرتائونته را کرد. خشایارشا نیز ناگزیر به خواستهٔ همسرش گردن نهاد. آمستریس دستور داد تا مادر آرتائونته را تکه‌تکه کنند (نیاز به منبع دارد). با این همه، برخی از پژوهندگان هماهنگی‌هایی را میان اشونسک استر و گزارش‌های تاریخی می‌یابند. از این میان استافورد رایت و ویلیام شِی می‌گویند که با پذیرفتن برخی ویرایش‌ها می‌توان وَشتی را با آمستریس یکی دانست.[۲۱][۲۲][۲۳] شِی می‌کوشد تا نشان دهد که هماهنگی‌هایی میان اشونسک و گزارش‌های تاریخی هست و آن را با رد دیدگاه‌های دیگران در نادرستی اشونسک همراه می‌سازد. از این میان، از دلیل‌هایی که برای نادرست بودن اشونسک استر می‌آورند آن است که چون که آمستریس / وَشتی پس از دست یافتن پسرش اردشیر اول به تاج و تخت در سال ۴۶۴ پ. م، فرمان و خواست خود را می‌رانده، استر نمی‌توانسته شه‌بانو شود. شِی در این باره یک گاه‌نگاری ساخته تا نشان دهد می‌توان این دلیل را رد کرد. در گاه‌نامه او شکافی در رویدادهای اشونسک استر میان سال سوم (استر، ۳:۱) و سال هفتم (استر، ۱۶:۲) هست. این شکاف درست هماهنگ است با نبود خشایارشا به دلیل لشکرکشی‌اش به یونان از سال ۴۸۰ تا ۴۷۹ پ.م. او می‌گوید: «در اصل هرودوت روایت خود دربارهٔ سلطنت خشایارشا در این برهه را (سال ۴۷۹ پ. م) پس از شرح آن رویدادهایی به پایان می‌رساند که در سال هفتم سلطنت متعاقب بازگشت شاه از لشکرکشی یونان اتفاق افتادند؛ بنابراین، این گفته که آمستریس بین سال‌های هفتم تا دوازدهم سلطنت ملکهٔ خشایارشا بوده، اغراق‌آمیز است، چرا که ما تا زمانی که پسرش اردشیر اول بر تخت پادشاهی ایران نشست هیچ آگاهی دیگری از او نداریم. با توجه به سکوت منابع، هیچ مدرک مشخصی وجود ندارد که نشان دهد آیا آمستریس از سال هفتم سلطنت خشایارشا تا پایان سلطنت او همسر اصلی اش به‌شمار می‌رفته یا نه.».[۲۴] از سوی دیگر، اشونسک تنها کاسته‌شدن جایگاه وَشتی را در پرده‌سرا می‌گزارد و نه کشته شدن یا جدایی‌اش از پادشاه. شِی می‌گوید که اگر کنش سنگ‌دلانهٔ آمستریس / وَشتی درست باشد و پس از بازگشت خشایارشا از باختر در شوش رخ داده باشد، شاه انگیزهٔ بیشتری در گزیدن همسری دیگر داشته‌است. از دیگر گواه‌هایی که به درستی استر می‌آورند، سخن کلاینز دربارهٔ زمان پیری آمسترس است. او برداشت رایت از سرنگونی و همراهی (آمستریس/ وشتی) را نادرست می‌انگارد. رایت می‌گوید: «دشواری دیدگاه رایت این است که (آمستریس/ وشتی) که در استر در سال سوم پادشاهی خشایارشا (۴۸۳/۴) سرنگون شد، بر اساس گفتهٔ هرودوت دست کم در بخشی از مبارزهٔ خشایارشا علیه یونان (۴۸۱–۴۷۹ پ. م) همراه اوست.»[۲۵] او گوید که نباید وَشتی و آمستریس را یکی شمرد. هم‌چنین در رد همراهی آمستریس با خشایارشا به گفتهٔ هرودت دست می‌یازد. هرودت می‌گوید که آمستریس یک بار به اندازه شمار پسران و دخترانی که در کنار رود اسرومون در تراس به خاک سپرده شده بودند، پارسی به خاک سپرد. برخی چنین برداشت کرده‌اند که این خاک‌سپاری نشان از هم‌راهی آمستریس با خشایارشا در لشکرکشی‌ها بوده‌است؛ ولی شِی می‌گوید که این برداشت درست نیست. هرودوت نمی‌گوید که آمستریس همراه خشایارشا بود؛ او به روشنی می‌گوید که این روی‌داد هنگامی که آمستریس «رو به پیری» بود رخ داده‌است.[۲۶] افزون بر آنچه گفته شد، پژوهندگان هماهنگی‌هایی دیگری نیز میان اشونسک استر و گزارش‌های هرودت می‌یابند. برای نمونه، بر پایهٔ نوشتهٔ آندره باروک[۲۷] و مور[۲۸] اَخشورُش در استر را با آن‌که هرودوت گزارش می‌دهد یکسان می‌دانند. باروک می‌گوید آخشورش که در استر آمده‌است «به‌طور کامل با خشایارشایی که از طریق هرودوت می‌شناسیم مطابقت دارد.» مور در این باره می‌گوید: «بیش تر آنچه نویسندهٔ استر دربارهٔ خشایارشا می‌گوید به گونه‌ای نسبتاً دقیق بر آنچه این نویسندهٔ یونان باستان می‌بایست دربارهٔ چنین چیزهایی می‌گفته‌است، مطابقت دارد.» از دیگر نمونه‌هایی که اخشورش گزارده شده در اشو نسک استر یکسان می‌داند نگارهٔ شناخته‌شدهٔ استر در کنیسهٔ دورااروپوس است. این نگاره اخشورش را با شلوار پارتی نشسته بر تخت پادشاهی نشان می‌دهد. دالیا لویت-تاویل می‌گوید: «در نتیجه، نظر ما این است که صحنهٔ نشستن اَخشورُش بر تاج و تخت نماد حق‌الهی و مشروع شاه ایران برای پادشاهی است، چنان‌که نقش او به عنوان حامی قانون و عدالت مروج چنین حقی است.»[۲۹] فرونشاندن شورش مصر و بابل[ویرایش] خشایارشا پس از نشستن به تخت با لشکری به سوی مصر رفت و توانست که شورشی را که در آن جا بر پا شده بود فرو بنشاند. او برادر خود هخامنش را ساتراپ (شهربان) مصر کرد و بزرگ‌زادگان و دین‌بران مصر به کارانه و آزادکاری‌های پشین خود بازرسانید. این شورش در سال (۴۸۶ پیش از میلاد) روی داد. بابل نیز در همین زمان‌ها سر به نافرمانی برداشت. همانا خشایارشا توانست شورش را فرو بنشاند و زوپیر از سوی ایران شهربان بابل شد؛ ولی پس از چندی شهربان کشته شد و پسرش بغابوخش (مگابیز دوم به نوشته یونانی‌ها) به جای او برگماشته شد. هرودوت در کتاب خود می‌نویسد که به دستور خشایارشا دژ و پرستش‌گاه‌های بابل را رمباندند و خدای بزرگ آنها را به ایران آوردند. این تندیس زرین نزد بابلیان بسیار ارجمند بود و هر پادشاهی باید در آغاز سال بابلی دست آن را می‌گرفت. خشایارشا از شورش بابل آن اندازه آزرد که از آن پس فرنام شاه بابل را از فرنام‌های خود زدود و خود را تنها شاه پارسی‌ها و مادی‌ها خواند.[۳۰] بدین سان بابل با شورش‌های بسیار از پایتختی بی‌بهره شد. در آینده شهرهای دیگری از آن سرزمین چون نیپور، سلوکیه، تیسفون و بغداد پیشرفت کردند. شورش بابل در سال سوم یا چهارم پادشاهی خشایارشا برابر با سال (۴۸۲ یا ۴۸۱ پیش از میلاد) روی داد. در بابل، زیگورات بزرگ (اته منانکی) و معبد مردوک (اساگیلا) ویران شدند. آریان (۳:۱۶) نوشته‌است: «اسکندر که وارد بابل شد پیشنهاد کرد اهالی بابل پرستشگاه‌هایی را که خشایارشا ویران کرده بود، از نو بسازند، به ویژه پرستشگاه بل که بیش از همهٔ خدایان مورد احترام بابلیان بود.» استرابو (Geography 16:15) نوشته‌است که اسکندر نتوانست این زیگورات را بازسازی کند. همه این کارها درست وارونهٔ آن سیاست دلجویانه‌ای بود که کوروش بنیاد نهاده بود. خشایارشا بایست در دوران طولانی اقامت پیش از پادشاهی خود در بابل به خوبی با مذهب بابلیان و آیین آن آشنا شده باشد. او می‌دانست که پیکرهٔ مردوک برای برگزاری مراسم جشن سال نو ضرورت دارد.[۳۱] لشکرکشی به یونان و رژه در آتن[ویرایش] نوشتار اصلی: جنگ‌های ایران و یونان گسترهٔ ایران در سال ۴۹۰ پیش از میلاد. داریوش بزرگ در واپسین سال‌های زندگانی می‌خواست که برای تاوان‌خواهی از یونانیان برای چپاول و به آتش کشیدن سارد پایتخت لیدیه و هم‌چنین به تاوان شکست سپاه ایران، در نخستین سری جنگ‌های ایران و یونان و نبرد ماراتون، به یونان لشکر بکشد؛ ولی پیش از آن داریوش زندگی را بدرود گفت. پس از او پسرش خشایارشا آهنگ خونخواهی کرد تا کار پدر را به سرانجام برساند. شاید به جز این، آنچه وی را به این اندیشه انداخت، پافشاری مردونیه (داماد داریوش بزرگ و پسر گبریاس) و به ویژه دورشدگان (تبعیدیان) آتنی در پناه دربار بود. در خود آتن هم همانا این خون‌خواهی را پیش‌بینی می‌کردند و تمیستوکل سردار آتن پس از سرگذشت ماراتون، بخش بزرگی از سرمایهٔ آتن را در راه توانمندی نیروی دریایی هزینه کرد. سرانجام خشایارشا آهنگ جنگ با یونان کرد و بی‌گمان نیرویی را که پیش از دیده نشده بود آماده کرد؛ ولی این نیرو آن اندازه هم که هرودوت می‌داود (داوی می‌کند)، نمی‌توانست ارتشی میلیونی باشد، چرا که چنین شمار سپاه و افزارها اگر هم سازوبرگش برای خشایارشا شدنی بود، آماده کردن افزار و توشهٔ آن در سرزمین‌های تراکیه و مقدونیه انجام‌پذیر نبود. بااین همه، این که هرودوت می‌گوید چهل و هشت تیرهٔ گوناگون درین سپاه بوده‌اند شاید درست باشد. بر پایهٔ گفتهٔ هرودوت خشایارشا در بهار سال ۴۸۰ پیش از میلاد از لیدی به سوی یونان لشکر کشید. تنگهٔ داردانل[ویرایش] نوشتار اصلی: پل‌های موقت خشایارشا تنگهٔ داردانل جایگاه تنگهٔ داردانل. با نوآوری خشایارشا پلی از کرجی‌ها بر روی داردانل (هلس پونت)، به دست اندازه‌گیران مصری، فنیقی و (لبنانی) ساخته شد که نیروی زمینی ایران توانست از روی آن گذشته و به خاک یونان درآید. یونانی‌ها که در برابر این تندآب سپاه، ستیزه‌جویی را بیهوده یافتند در مقدونیه و تسالی (در کانون یونان) هیچ ایستادگی نشان ندادند و تا آن جا که در خود آتن هم دربارهٔ جنگ دودلی و لغزش در میان بود[۳۲] ولی کسی از آتن به نام تمیستوکل گام پیش نهاده مردم را به جنگ و افزارآرایی آن برانگیخت، سرانجام پشتیبانان جنگ پیروز شدند و شهرهای دیگر یونانی هم که اسپارت و سی شهر دیگر از آن میان بودند، به دشمنی ایران در یک هم‌پیمانی یونانی درآمدند.[۳۳] نبرد ترموپیل[ویرایش] زمان و جای جنگ میان سپاه ایرانیان و یونانیان. نخستین جنگ از دومین سری جنگ‌های ایران و یونان نبرد ترموپیل بود. چون یونانیان می‌دانستند که در دشت گسترده از پس سپاهیان سواره ایران برنخواهند آمد، نیروهای یونانی در تنگهٔ ترموپیل باریکه‌ای میان کوه و دریا در چشم به راه دشمن نشستند. در نبرد ترموپیل فرماندهی نیروی زمینی یونان با لئونیداس پادشاه اسپارت بود و فرمان‌دهی نیروی دریایی را آوری بیاد بر دوش داشت. در آغاز جنگ در دریا درگرفت که از برای بادهای تندی که وزید برنامه‌های جنگی ایران کارساز نیفتاد و نبرد دریایی بدون این که برآیند صددرصد داشته باشد، پایان یافت. در این هنگام نیروی ایران که از راه خشکی پیش می‌آمد به تنگهٔ ترموپیل رسید و به سپاه لئونیداس برخورد. گذر از تنگه برای سپاه سترگ خشایارشا شدنی نشد ولی فرماندهٔ سپاه ایران از یک کوره‌راه، خود را به پشت سپاه یونانی رساند و سپاه یونانی پراکنده شد و تنها لئونیداس سردار و پادشاه اسپارتی و یک دستهٔ اندک از کسان اسپارت که او خویشتن برگزید،[۳۴] در آنجا پایداری از خود نشان دادند و خود را به کشتن دادند، تا مردمشان بتوانند پشت بنشینند. گشایش آتن[ویرایش] نوشتار اصلی: فتح آتن در زمان خشایارشا پس از گشایش ترموپیل آتن نیز در معرض یورش بود و آتنی‌ها ناچار همراه زنان و کودکان خویش، به سوی آبخوست سالامیس در جنوب آتن روانه شدند. پس از اینکه خشایارشا به آتن درآمد اردوگاه خود را در بیرون آتن برپا کرد. وی می‌دانست که یونانیان در پلوپونز در جنوب یونان ارتشی دارند و پیش‌بینی می‌کرد که آن ارتش به آتن بیاید و وی را در آن شهر در چنبره اش بگیرد. این بود که ارتش ایران را در برون از آتن گرد آورد. پس از درآمدن به شهر، خود خشایارشا همراه با گارد جاوید در ساختمان «پوله ته ریوم» که ساختمان مجلس سنای آتن بود ماند. روزی که ارتش ایران به آتن درآمد در آن شهر حتی یک کس هم به چشم نمی‌خورد، ولی ساختمان آکروپل پر از مردمانی بود که به آن پناه برده بودند تا خدای آتنه که خدای آتن بود از آنها نگاهداری کند. همین هم شد و خشایارشا فرمود که کسی آنها را نیازارد. آنهایی که در آکروپل گرد آمده بودند کسانی بودند که نتوانسته بودند خود را از آتن دور کنند، برخی از آنها از روی کمبود ترابرها و برخی از روی نداشتن دارایی در پرستشگاه بزرگ بست نشسته بودند. به امید این که خدای آتنه آنتیان را خواهد رهانید، از همین روی خشایارشا از یورش به آکروپل و کسانی که در آن بودند بازایستاد. خشایارشا می‌دانست آنهایی که در آکروپل نشسته‌اند از نبود خواربار به تنگ خواهند آمد و به آنها آزادی داد که از آنجا برون آیند و برای خود خوراک فراهم آورند.[۳۵] نبرد سالامیس[ویرایش] پس از گشودن آتن اگر ایرانیان خودشان دست به جنگ نمی‌زدند، داستان پایان یافته بود و یونانی‌ها جز گردن نهادن چاره‌ای نداشتند. به راستی به جنگ دیگری نیاز نبود، چرا که نیروی دریایی ایران در آن هنگام بر دریاها چیره بود. با این همه، در دریا نیرنگ تمیستوکل نیروی دریایی ایران را در تنگنای گذرگاه سالامیس به یک جنگ بی‌پروایانه واداشت و تنگی جا و میدان کار آسیب و کشته‌های بسیاری را برای این ناوگان سترگ به بار آورد.[۳۶] پس از گشایش آتن، یونانیان کنکاشیدند. یکی از بزرگان آتن به نام تمیستوکل باور داشت که در آبخوست سالامیس به پدافند بپردازند. نامه‌ای به پادشاه ایران نوشت و خود را از هواداران ایران نشان داده گفت که چون سپاهیان یونان می‌خواهند بگریزند هنگام آن است که سپاه ایران آنان را یک‌سره نابود کند. خشایارشا پیغام را راست انگاشته، ناوگان مصری فرمانبردار ایران، آبخوست پنسیلوانیا را گرفت. یونانیان در آبخوست سالامیس گیر افتادند و از این روی گفتند یا باید در همین‌جا پایداری کنیم یا نابود شویم و این همان چیزی بود که تمیستوکلس می‌خواست. هرودوت دربارهٔ فرماندهان نیروی دریایی ایران چنین نوشته‌است، از میان فرماندهان یک فرمانده برجسته به نام بانو آرتمیس هست که از یاد نامش نتوان خودداری کرد. به نگر من بسیار دور و شگفت‌انگیز می‌نماید که این بانو پاد یونان برخاست. پس از مرگ شوهرش فرمان‌روایی کاریا به دستش افتاد و خود با اینکه پسر بزرگی داشت و نیازی به یاری او در جنگ نبود، خود در نیروی دریایی خشایارشا انبازید و ازخودگذشتگی‌ها کرد. هیچ‌کدام از فرماندهان پیرو ایران به اندازهٔ او به خشایارشا کنکاش درست نداده و راه‌نمایی گران‌بها نکرد.[۳۷] پیش از جنگ سالامیس همهٔ فرماندهان ایران، رایشان با درگیری با نیروی دریایی یونان بود مگر نگر یک تن و آن رای دیگر را آرتمیس داد.[۳۸] نیروی دریایی ایران در نبرد سالامیس پاد کشتی‌های یونانی که آرایش رسته‌ای داشتند از روی تنگی جا ستونی یورش برد و ناگهان زیر آتش نیروهای دشمن جای گرفت. جنگ تا شب دنبال شد و در این جنگ بیش از نیمی از کشتی‌های ایران نابود شدند و بنابراین سپاه ایران پشت نشست. یونانیان که نخست از پیروزی خود آگاه نبودند، در بامداد روز پسین با شگفتی دیدند که از کشتی‌های ایرانی نشانی نیست. در همین زمان خشایارشا پیام‌های بدی از ایران دریافت کرد و از این روی با سرداران خود کنکاشید. نگر مردونیه این بود که خود مردونیه با سیصد هزار سپاهی برای گشایش همهٔ یونان در این سرزمین بمانند و خشایارشا به ایران بازگردد. پادشاه پس از رایزنی با آرتمیس این نگر را پذیرفت و با بیش‌تر سپاه خویش به پارس بازگشت. نبرد پلاته[ویرایش] شهر باستانی پلاته در یونان. خشایارشا مردونیه را با شمار چشمگیری از نیروهایش در یونان به جای گذاشت که به گفتهٔ هرودوت سیصد هزار تن بوده‌اند. پژوهندگان برآنند که شمار درست آنان نزدیک به صد هزار یا شصت هزار تن بوده‌است.[۳۹][۴۰][۴۱] مردونیه به یونانیان پیشنهاد داد که اگر از ایران فرمان پذیرند، در کارهای درون‌کشوری خویش آزادند؛ ولی آنان این پیشنهاد را نپذیرفتند. دوباره جنگی درگرفت و مردونیه آتن را باز شکست داد.[۳۶] سپس، به سال ۴۷۹ پیش از میلاد، در نزدیکی پلاته، صدهزار یونانی رویاروی مردونیه رسته‌ها آراستند و زد و خورد خونینی میان مردونیه و پوزانیاس (پائوزانیاس) روی داد. در آغاز انگار که ایرانیان پیروز هستند چرا که بی‌اندازه دلاوری کردند ولی این‌گونه نشد. مردونیه در آغاز جنگ، با تیری کشته شد و سپاه بی‌سردار ایرانی نبرد بی‌بهره‌ای را آغازیدند که تنها سه هزار ایرانی از آن جان به در بردند. نبرد میکال[ویرایش] واپسین نبرد از دومین چرخهٔ جنگ‌های ایران و یونان نبرد میکال بود. بخشی از نیروی دریایی ایران هم که در نزدیکی دماغهٔ میکال (در جنوب باختری آسیای کوچک) جای داشت در همین زمان به دست یونانی‌ها نابود شد. پس از آن شکست، دریای اژه نیز به دست یونانیان افتاد دریایی که داریوش رسیدن بدان را برای نگاه‌داری درهٔ نیل (مصر) بایسته می‌شمرد.[۳۶] محققان بر این باورند که هر چند هر دو نبرد پلاته و میکال در ماه اوت سال ۴۷۹ پ. م روی داده‌اند، اما نبرد میکال (موکاله) بایست پس از جنگ پلاته رخ داده باشد.[۴۲] رویدادهای پس از جنگ با یونان[ویرایش] سنگ‌نبشتهٔ سه زبانهٔ خشایارشا سرلشکر پوزانیاس (پائوزانیاس) برادرزادهٔ لئونیداس از روی خردسالگی پسر لئونیداس، سرپرست این شاه‌زاده بود و گذارانه بر اسپارت فرمان می‌راند، پوزانیاس پنهانی با دربار خشایارشا چانه‌زنی می‌کرد. پوزانیاس می‌خواست ایران دوباره بر روند سیاسی یونان چیره شود. لو رفتن این چانه‌زنی‌ها، مایهٔ رسوایی و مرگ پوزانیاس، در سال ۴۷۰ پیش از میلاد شد.[۳۶] تمیستوکلس پیروز آتنی نبرد سالامیس، پس از رانده شدن از آتن به دربار ایران در شوش پناه برد و شاید نخستین نام‌آور باختریست که در دربار ایران می‌توانست با زبان ایرانی سخن بگوید.[۴۳] پس از پیش‌نشستن ایرانیان، یونانیان با به چنگ آوردن بسفور و داردانل آنچه را در افسانه‌های پهلوانی خویش در جنگ تروآ برای آن کوشیده بودند، در چنگ خویش یافتند. پس از چندین سال نیز به دارایی‌های ایران حمله کردند و برخی از آبخوست‌های باختری آسیای کوچک، چون قبرس را به چنگ درآوردند.[۳۶] چرایی ‌های ناکامی ایرانیان بر یونانیان[ویرایش] سنگ‌نبشتهٔ سه زبانی خشایارشا بر جرز غربی ایوان جنوبی کاخ تچر تاریخ نویسان علت ناکامی ایران را در گشایش همهٔ یونان چنین برمی‌شمرند: ۱. پرهیز پذیر بودن این جنگ‌ها برای ایران: براستی ایران نیازی به این لشکرکشی‌ها نداشت. خشایارشا با ساستارهای (سیاستهای) درست بهتر می‌توانست به خواستش برسد تا با این جنگ‌ها و لشکرکشی‌های کلان.[۴۴][۴۵] شمار بیش از اندازه سپاهیان ایران: هر چند بازگفت‌ها و شمارهای یونانی‌ها، در این باره آشکارا بسیار گزاف برمی‌آید. درخور نبودن جنگ‌افزار ایرانیان در برابر جنگ‌افزارهای سنگین یونانیان: به جز هنگ جاویدان، ماندهٔ سپاه ایران ناورزیده بودند و از افزارهایی سبک هم‌چون تبر داشتند. ناهمواری جلگه‌های یونانی: سپاهیان سوارهٔ ایران به جنگ در جلگه‌های گسترده خو کرده بودند و نمی‌توانستند به سپاهیان پیاده در سرزمین کوهستانی و گذرگاه‌های تنگ یونان کمک کنند. آغاز جنگ و نبردی دیگر در سالامیس: براستی نیازی نبود و در پایان مایهٔ ناآگاهی ارتش و نیروی دریایی ایران شد. ۶. انگیزهٔ بالای یونانیان: یونانیان مردمانی خودسالار بودند و تن به فرمان‌برداری از ایران نمی‌دادند. در لشگریان ایران آن شور و از خودگذشتگی یونانی‌ها نبود. یونانیان در و برای خانهٔ خود می‌جنگیدند و پیروزی و شکست، پرسمان زندگانیشان بود.[۴۶] کشته شدن خشایارشا به دست اردوان[ویرایش] گویند که خشایارشا از شاه‌بانو آمستریس شش یا هفت فرزند و از دیگر همسرانش پنج فرزند داشت. خشایارشا پس از ۲۰ سال پادشاهی، در اکتبر ۴۶۵ پیش از میلاد در خواب‌گاه خویش به دست فرنشین هنگ شاهنشاهی اردوان و یک خواجه به نام میترا یا اسپنت‌میترا که با یکدیگر هم‌دست شده بودند، کشته شد. سپس اردوان پسر بزرگ خشایارشا به نام داریوش را کشت. چون پسر دوم پادشاه، ویشتاسپ که استاندار باکتریه بود، نیز از پایتخت دور بود، اردوان چند ماه جانشینی پادشاه را داشت. او گذارانه، اردشیر، پسر سوم خشایارشا را بر تخت نشاند. اردوان و پسرانش می‌خواستند به‌هنگام اردشیر را نیز از میان بردارند، ولی اردشیر از این نیرنگ آگاه شد و پیش‌دستی کرد. در پی یک زدوخورد درونی که در چهار دیوار پرده‌سرا درگرفت، اردشیر یکم اردوان و پسرانش را کشت و خود را شاهنشاه خواند.[۴۷] سپاهیان ارتش خشایارشا از راست به چپ: سرباز کاپادوکیهای، سرباز ارمنی و درفش‌دار پارسی. ارتش ایران و چهرهٔ سپاهیان هخامنشی در زمان خشایارشا، از راست به چپ: سرباز پیاده آشوری، کمان‌دار بابلی، سرباز پیاده پارسی، سرباز پیاده کلدانی. نشانه‌های باستانی به‌جامانده از خشایارشا[ویرایش] آرام‌گاه خشایارشا، نقش رستم. خشایارشا در تخت جمشید که به دستور پدرش داریوش ساخته شده بود کاخ‌های دیگری ساخت که بر بزرگی و شکوه این گنجینهٔ باستانی افزود. سنگ‌نبشته‌ای که از خشایارشا در سنگ‌نبشته‌های گنج‌نامه بر روی کوه الوند در همدان در کنار سنگ‌نبشتهٔ داریوش بزرگ به جای مانده و هم‌چنین سنگ‌نبشته(ها) ای دیگر در ارمنستان. او در سنگ‌نبشتهٔ گنج‌نامه می‌نویسد: خدای بزرگ است اهورامزدا، بزرگ‌ترین خدایان است که این زمین را آفرید، که آن آسمان را آفرید، که مردم را آفرید، که برای مردم شادی آفرید، که خشایارشا را شاه کرد، یگانه از میان شاهان بسیار، یگانه فرمان‌روا از میان فرمان‌روایان بی‌شمار. من خشایارشا، شاه بزرگ، شاهِ شاهان، شاهِ کشورهای دارای مردمان بسیار، شاه این سرزمین بزرگِ دوردستِ پهناور، پسر داریوش شاه هخامنشی. پادشاه پیشین: داریوش بزرگ خشایارشا شاهنشاه ایران ۴۸۵ تا ۴۶۵ پیش از میلاد. جانشین: اردشیر یکم نگارخانه[ویرایش] سنگ‌نگارهٔ خشایارشا در پارسه سنگ‌نبشته‌های گنج‌نامه در همدان سنگ‌نبشتهٔ دو زبانه از خشایارشا در تخت جمشید سنگ‌نبشتهٔ سه زبانه خشایارشا در وان ترکیه تکهٔ یک سفال شکسته با بخشی از نام خشایارشا که برروی آن کنده شده‌است. موزه لوور. آرامگاه خشایارشا در نقش رستم آرامگاه خشایارشا در نقش رستم، پارسه آرامگاه خشایارشا در نقش رستم درون آرامگاه خشایارشا اول نقش رستم جستارهای وابسته[ویرایش] اخشورش آمستریس نبرد پلاته نبرد میکال کانال آتوس نبرد ترموپیل نبرد سالامیس نبرد آرتمیزیوم آرامگاه خشایارشا جنگ های ایران و یونان پل‌های موقت خشایارشا فتح آتن در زمان خشایارشا فهرست شاهان هخامنشی منبع‌شناسی تاریخ ماد و هخامنشی پانویس[ویرایش] ↑ Smith, William (1867). "Amestris (I)". In William Smith. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 1. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. p. 137. ↑ "Xerxes the Great". ancienthistory.about. Retrieved 26 January 2014. ↑ ۳٫۰ ۳٫۱ ۳٫۲ ۳٫۳ ۳٫۴ ۳٫۵ ۳٫۶ ۳٫۷ CHRONOLOGY OF IRANIAN HISTORY PART 1 iranicaonline.org ↑ [نیازمند منبع موثق در پیوند درج شده تأییدی براین مدعا بزرگ یافت نشد-empire-by-percentage-of-world-population کتاب رکوردهای گینس- هخامنشیان، بزرگترین امپراتوری دنیا] ↑ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/xerxes-1-name ↑ فرمان‌های شاهنشاهان هخامنشی، رلف نارمن شارپ ص ۱۶۱ ↑ Schmitt، Rüdiger. «XERXES i. The Name». Encyclopædia Iranica. دریافت‌شده در ۲۰۱۲-۰۴-۱۵. ↑ هرتسفلد، ارنست (۱۳۵۴). تاریخ باستانی ایران بر بنیاد باستانشناسی. تهران: انجمن آثار ملی. صص. ۷۸ و ۷۹. ↑ جعفری دهقی، بازشناسی منابع و مآخذ تاریخ ایران باستان، 37. ↑ جعفری دهقی، بازشناسی منابع و مآخذ تاریخ ایران باستان، 37. ↑ جعفری دهقی، بازشناسی منابع و مآخذ تاریخ ایران باستان، 35-36. ↑ جعفری دهقی، بازشناسی منابع و مآخذ تاریخ ایران باستان، 36. ↑ جعفری دهقی، بازشناسی منابع و مآخذ تاریخ ایران باستان، 38. ↑ جعفری دهقی، بازشناسی منابع و مآخذ تاریخ ایران باستان، 38. ↑ جعفری دهقی، بازشناسی منابع و مآخذ تاریخ ایران باستان، 36-37. ↑ برای داده‌های بیشتر برگردید به: کتاب استر ↑ پیامبر آریایی، ص ۲۹۲ ↑ هرودوت و آشیل در نمایش حزن‌انگیز پارسی ها ↑ McCullough، W. S. «AHASUREUS». Encyclopædia Iranica. دریافت‌شده در ۲۰۱۲-۰۴-۱۵. ↑ استر ۲:۱ ↑ J. S. Wright, The Historicity of ther Book of Esther, in New perspectives on the Old Testament rd, J. Barton payne (Waco: Word, 1970), pp. 40-41 ↑ Shea، Esther and History، 235. ↑ Yamauchi، Persia and the Bible، 251. ↑ Shea، Esther and History، 240. ↑ D. J. Clines, Ezra, Nehmiah, Esther (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1984), p. 258 ↑ How and Wells, Commentary, 2: 169, W. H. Shea, Eshter and History, AUSS 14, 1976, p. 240 ↑ A. Barrucq, Esther et La cour de Suse, Bible et Terre sainte 39, 1961,p.3 ↑ C.A Moore, Archalogy and the Book of Esther, BA 38, 1975, p.69 ↑ D.Lavit-Tawil, , p.74 ↑ زرین کوب، ص ۱۶۳. ↑ G. Beramin, Le song de Xerxes et Le rite babylonien du subsitute royal, REG 69, 1956,p.303-313 ↑ زرین کوب، ص ۱۶۴ ↑ پیرنیا، ص ۱۳۰ ↑ هرودوت، ص ۴۰۷ ↑ برای داده‌های بیشتر برگردید به: تحقیقات تاریخ آتن، پروفسور بارن انگلیسی. ↑ ۳۶٫۰ ۳۶٫۱ ۳۶٫۲ ۳۶٫۳ ۳۶٫۴ زرین کوب، ص ۱۶۵ ↑ هرودوت، ص ۳۸۲ ↑ هرودوت، ص ۴۴۶ ↑ یامااوچی، ایران و ادیان باستانی، 242. ↑ Bangtson، Greeks and the Persians، 61. ↑ Burn، Persia and the Greeks، 511. ↑ Cook، Persian Empire، 124. ↑ زرین کوب، ص ۱۷۵ ↑ زرین کوب، ص ۱۶۶ ↑ پیرنیا، ص ۱۳۵ ↑ پیرنیا، ص ۱۳۶ ↑ زرین کوب، ص ۱۶۹ بازبُردها[ویرایش] زرین‌کوب، عبدالحسین (۱۳۶۲). تاریخ مردم ایران، تاریخ ایران قبل از اسلام. تهران: مؤسسهٔ انتشارات امیرکبیر. پیرنیا، حسن (۱۳۶۲)، ایران باستان، دنیای کتاب یامااوچی، ادوین. ام (۱۳۹۰). ایران و ادیان باستانی. ترجمهٔ منوچهر پزشک. تهران: انتشارات ققنوس. شابک ۹۷۸-۹۶۴-۳۱۱-۸۹۱-۴. عطایی، امید (۱۳۸۶)، پیامبر آریایی، تهران: انتشارات عطایی، شابک ISBN ۹۶۴-۳۱۳-۶۰۱-۹ مقدار |شابک= را بررسی کنید: invalid character (کمک) هرودوت (۱۳۵۶). تاریخ هرودوت. ترجمهٔ وحید مازندرانی. تهران: انتشارات فرهنگستان ادب و هنر ایران. عبدالعظیم رضایی (۱۳۸۱)، تاریخ ده هزار ساله ایران، تهران: اقبال دهخدا، لغت نامه، تهران: موسسه انتشارات و چاپ دانشگاه تهران داندامایف، محمد عبدالقدیرویچ (۱۳۸۹). تاریخ سیاسی هخامنشیان. ترجمهٔ فرید جواهرکلام. تهران: انتشارات فرزان روز. شابک ۹۷۸-۹۶۴-۳۲۱-۳۱۰-۷. جعفری دهقی، محمود (۱۳۹۱). بازشناسی منابع و مآخذ تاریخ ایران باستان. تهران: سازمان مطالعه و تدوین کتب علوم انسانی دانشگاه‌ها (سمت). شابک ۹۷۸-۹۶۴-۴۵۹-۷۸۰-۰. ن ب و خشایارشا شاهنشاه هخامنشی (۴۸۶–۴۶۶ ق.م.) فرعون سلسلۀ بیست هفتم مصر (۴۸۶–۴۶۶ ق.م.) زندگی و سیاست دومین تهاجم ایرانیان به یونان • کانال خشایارشا • پل‌های موقت خشایارشا • نبرد ترموپیل • نبرد آرتمیزیوم • فتح آتن در زمان خشایارشا • نبرد سالامیس • نبرد پلاته • نبرد میکال سازه‌ها کاخ آپادانای تخت جمشید • کاخ تچر • کاخ هدیش • دروازه ملل سنگ‌نبشته‌ها سنگ‌نبشته کاخ دروازه کشورها • سنگ‌نبشته ایلامی و بابلی پلکان کاخ آپادانای تخت جمشید • سنگ‌نبشته خشایارشا در ترکیه مرتبط جنگ‌های ایران و یونان • اخشورش خویشاوندان سرشناس داریوش بزرگ (پدر) • آتوسا (مادر) • کوروش بزرگ (پدربزرگ مادری) • ویشتاسپ (پدربزرگ پدری) • آمستریس (همسر) • اردشیر یکم (پسر) • هخامنش (برادر) • ماسیشته (برادر) • ویشتاسپ (برادر) ن ب و شاهنشاهان هخامنشی کوروش بزرگ • کمبوجیه • بردیا • داریوش بزرگ • خشایارشا • اردشیر یکم • خشایارشای دوم • سغدیانه • داریوش دوم • اردشیر دوم • اردشیر سوم • اردشیر چهارم • داریوش سوم • اردشیر پنجم ن ب و فرعون‌ها تبارشناسی دودمان: ۴م • ۱۲م • ۱۸م • ۱۹م • ۲۰م • ۲۱م • ۲۵م • ۲۶م • ۲۷م • ۳۱م • بطلمیوسی دورهٔ پیش‌دودمانی (پیش از ۳۱۵۰ پ. م.) مصر سفلی سکیو • خیو • تیو • تش • نهب • وزنر مصر علیا شاه عقرب یکم • ایری هور • کا • شاه عقرب دوم • نارمر دورهٔ آغازین دودمانی (۲۸۶۶–۳۱۰۰ پ. م.) دودمان ۱ منس • هورآها • دجر • دجت • دِن • آنجیب • سمرخت • قاعا دودمان ۲ هوتپ سخموی • رانب • نینت جر • با • نوب نفر • وِنِگ نبتی • سنج • پریبسن • سخمیب • نفرکارع یکم • نفرکاسوکار • هوجفای یکم • خسه‌خموی پادشاهی کهن (۲۱۸۱–۲۶۸۶ پ. م.) دودمان ۳ ساناخت • جوزر • سخم‌خت • خبا • هونی دودمان ۴ سنفرو • خوفو • جدفرع • خفرع • منکورع • شپ‌سسکاف دودمان ۵ اوسرکاف • ساحورع • نفریرکارع کاکای • شپسس‌کارع • نفرفرع • نیوسررع • منکاوحور کایو • جدکارع • اوناس دودمان ۶ تتی • اوسرکارع • پپی یکم • مرنرع یکم • پپی دوم • مرنرع دوم • نیتیکرت♀ دورهٔ نخست میانی (۲۰۴۰–۲۱۸۱ پ. م.) دودمان‌های ۷ و ۸ نچرکارع • قاکارع ایبی دودمان ۹ و ۱۰ ختی یکم • مریکارع • ختی ششم پادشاهی میانه (۱۷۸۲–۲۰۴۰ پ. م.) دودمان ۱۱ منتوهوتپ یکم • اینتف یکم • اینتف دوم • اینتف سوم • منتوهوتپ دوم • منتوهوتپ سوم • منتوهوتپ چهارم دودمان ۱۲ آمنمهات یکم • سنوسرت یکم • آمنمهات دوم • سنوسرت دوم • سنوسرت سوم • آمنمهات سوم • آمنمهات چهارم • سوبک نفرو♀ دورهٔ دوم میانی (۱۵۷۰–۱۷۸۲ پ. م.) دودمان ۱۳ وگاف • آمنی اینتف چهارم • هور • سوبک‌هوتپ دوم • خنجر • سوبک‌هوتپ سوم • نفرهوتپ یکم • سوبک‌هوتپ چهارم • مرنفررع ای • نفرهوتپ دوم دودمان ۱۴ نهه‌سی • مرجفارع دودمان ۱۵ ششی ماعیبرع • یاکوب‌هر • خیان • آپوپی • خامودی دودمان ۱۶ چهوتی • نبیریو یکم • ددوموسه یکم دودمان ۱۷ سوبکم‌سف یکم • سوبکم‌سف دوم • اینتف هفتم • تائو یکم • تائو دوم • کاموسه پادشاهی نوین (۱۰۷۰–۱۵۷۰ پ. م.) دودمان ۱۸ اهمسه یکم • آمنهوتپ یکم • توتمس یکم • توتمس دوم • حتشپسوت♀ • توتمس سوم • آمنهوتپ دوم • توتمس چهارم • آمنهوتپ سوم • آخناتون • اسمنخ‌کارع • توت‌عنخ‌آمون • آیی • هرمهب دودمان ۱۹ رامسس یکم • ستی یکم • رامسس دوم • مرنپتاه • آمنمسس • ستی دوم • سیپتاه • تااوسرت♀ دودمان ۲۰ ست‌ناخت • رامسس سوم • رامسس چهارم • رامسس پنجم • رامسس ششم • رامسس هفتم • رامسس هشتم • رامسس نهم • رامسس دهم • رامسس یازدهم دورهٔ سوم میانی (۵۲۵–۱۰۶۹ پ. م.) دودمان ۲۱ اسمندس • آمنم‌نیسو • پسوسنس یکم • آمنم‌اوپه • اوسورکن ارشد • سی‌آمون • پسوسنس دوم دودمان ۲۲ ششونک یکم • اوسورکن یکم • ششونک دوم • تاکلوت یکم • اوسورکن دوم • تاکلوت دوم • ششونک سوم • پامی • ششونک پنجم • اوسورکن چهارم دودمان ۲۳ پدوباست • ششونک چهارم • اوسورکن سوم • تاکلوت سوم • رودامون • ایوپوت دودمان ۲۴ تفناخت • باکنرانف دودمان ۲۵ پیانخی • شاباکا • شبیتکو • تاهارکا • تانوت‌آمون دودمان ۲۶ پسامتیخ یکم • نخو • پسامتیخ دوم • وهیب‌رع • آماسیس دوم • پسامتیخ سوم دورهٔ پایانی (۵۲۵–۳۳۲ پ. م.) دودمان ۲۷ کمبوجیه دوم • داریوش بزرگ • خشایارشا • اردشیر یکم • داریوش دوم دودمان ۲۸ آمیرتائوس دودمان ۲۹ نفارود یکم • هاکور دودمان ۳۰ نک‌تانبو یکم • تئوس • نک‌تانبو دوم دودمان ۳۱ اردشیر سوم • اردشیر چهارم • داریوش سوم دوران بطلمیوسی (هلنی) (۳۳۲–۳۰ پ. م.) دودمان آرگید اسکندر مقدونی • فیلیپ سوم مقدونی • اسکندر چهارم دودمان بطلمیوسی بطلمیوس یکم • بطلمیوس دوم • بطلمیوس سوم • بطلمیوس چهارم • بطلمیوس پنجم • بطلمیوس ششم • بطلمیوس هفتم • بطلمیوس هشتم • بطلمیوس نهم • بطلمیوس دهم • بطلمیوس یازدهم • بطلمیوس دوازدهم • برنیس چهارم♀ • کلئوپاترای هفتم♀ • بطلمیوس پانزدهم ♀ فرعون مؤنث ن ب و تخت جمشید کاخ‌ها تَچَر • کاخ ه • آپادانا • هَدیش • صدستون • سه‌در • کاخ ملکه و موزه • کاخ ج • دروازه کشورها دیگر بخش‌ها تالار چهارستون • آرامگاه اردشیر دوم • آرامگاه اردشیر سوم • خیابان سپاهیان • پلکان‌ها • دیوارها و برج‌های پدافندی • حرمسرا • خزانه • دروازه نیمه تمام جغرافیای محل کوه چمگان (رحمت) • رود پلوار • دشت مرودشت سازندگان داریوش بزرگ • خشایارشا • اردشیر یکم سنگ‌نبشته‌ها کتیبه اردشیر یکم در تخت جمشید • کتیبه سلوک • کتیبه‌های پی‌بنای کاخ آپادانا تخت جمشید • کتیبه پی‌بنای دیوار جنوبی تخت جمشید • (پارسی یکم • پارسی دوم • بابلی • عیلامی) • کتیبه اردشیر یکم در تخت جمشید • سنگ‌نبشته پنجره کاخ تچر • سنگ‌نبشته درگاه کاخ تچر • کتیبه دروازه ملل • کتیبه کاخ هدیش • کتیبه‌های گنجینه تخت جمشید پژوهشگران هایدماری کخ • اریک فریدریش اشمیت • علیرضا شاپور شهبازی مرتبط آئین نوروزی در تخت جمشید • جشن‌های ۲۵۰۰ ساله • تنگه بلاغی • سد سیوند • لوح‌های گلی تخت جمشید • سنجش درازا و شمارگان در معماری تخت جمشید • کتاب راهنمای مستند تخت جمشید • موزه هخامنشی • خیک • معماری هخامنشیان • سنگ نبشته‌های هخامنشی • هنر دوره هخامنشیان رده داده‌های کتابخانه‌ای WorldCat Identities VIAF: 282770127 LCCN: n81070675 ISNI: 0000 0000 6300 8852 GND: 118808109 SELIBR: 259706 SUDOC: 050588400 BNF: cb150689088 (داده‌ها) ULAN: 500354810 NLA: 66228176 NKC: mzk2005313022 BNE: XX1153338 ن ب و حاکمان در قلمرو شاهنشاهی هخامنشی درخت خانوادگی - پادشاهی هخامنشیان شاه شاهان شاهنشاهی هخامنشیان هخامنش آریارمنه آرشام‎ چیش‌پیش کوروش یکم کمبوجیه یکم کوروش دوم کمبوجیه دوم بردیا گئومات داریوش یکم خشایارشا یکم اردشیر یکم خشایارشا دوم سغدیانه داریوش دوم اردشیر دوم اردشیر سوم اردشیر چهارم داریوش سوم اردشیر پنجم ساتراپ های لیدیه تابالوس مازارس هارپاگ Oroetus Bagaeus هوتن آرتافرنه یکم آرتافرنه دوم Pissuthnes تیسافرن کوروش کوچک تیسافرن تیثرئوستس تیروز استروتاس وادفرداد اسپیتریداتس ساتراپ های فریگیه هلسپونت Mitrobates Megabazus مگاباتس Oebares II اردوز Pharnabazus I فارناک دوم Pharnabazus II Ariobarzanes Artabazus II فره‌وز سوم آرسیتس ساتراپ های کاپادوکیه داتامش Ariamnes I Mithrobuzanes Ariarathes I حاکمان یونانی شهرهای آسیای کوچک میلتیاد Demaratus Gongylos Eurysthenes Prokles Histiaeus آریستاگوراس تمیستوکلس Archeptolis Aridolis Amyntas II Philiscus خاندان لیکیه Kheziga Kybernis Kuprilli Harpagus Teththiweibi Kheriga Kherei Arbinas Artembares Artumpara Mithrapata Perikle خاندان کاریا Lygdamis I آرتمیس یکم Pisindelis Lygdamis II Adusius (satrap) Hecatomnus ماسول Artemisia II Idrieus آدا پیکسوداروس اورونتوباتس آدا پادشاهان مقدونیه آمونتاس یکم مقدونی اسکندر یکم مقدونی kings of Tyre Mattan IV Boulomenus Abdemon Evagoras Eugoras Azemilcus Kings of Sidon Eshmunazar I Tabnit Queen Amoashtart Eshmunazar II Bodashtart Yatonmilk Anysos Tetramnestos Baalshillem I Baana Baalshillem II Abdashtart I Tennes Evagoras II Abdashtart II Abdashtart III ساتراپ های ارمنستان آرداشیر اروندی یرواند یکم داریوش سوم یرواند دوم ساتراپ های مصر آریاوندا Pherendates هخامنش آرشام Pherendates II ساباس ماسیشته ساتراپ های باختر ویشتاسپ دادارشی Masistes بسوس ساتراپ های ماد ویدرنه ویدرنه دوم آتروپات ساتراپ های کیلیکیه Syennesis Camisares Mazaeus آرشام سایر ساتراپ های شناخته شده Megabyzus, ابروکومس, Belesys (سوریه) وهوکه (ورکان) ساتی‌برزن (آریا) Atizyes (فریگیه) Phrataphernes (پارت) آریوبرزن (پارس) آبولیتس (شوش) Mazaeus (بابل) از سال ۳۳۰ پ.م در بیشتر مناطق، حاکمان هلنی جایگزین حاکمان هخامنشی شدند. برگرفته از «https://fa.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=خشایارشا&oldid=30938835» رده‌ها: ۵۱۸ (پیش از میلاد) اخشورش افراد جنگ ایران و یونان اهالی ایران در سده ۵ (پیش از میلاد) ایرانیان در جنگ‌های ایران و یونان پادشاهان ایرانی کشته‌شده پادشاهان شاهنشاهی ایران پادشاهان کتاب مقدس عبری جرم‌های ۴۶۵ (پیش از میلاد) جنگ ترموپیل حاکمان سده ۵ (پیش از میلاد) خانواده داریوش بزرگ خشایارشا یکم درگذشتگان ۴۶۵ (پیش از میلاد) دودمان بیست و هفتم مصر زادگان ۵۱۸ (پیش از میلاد) سیاستمداران ترورشده اهل ایران شاهان ایران شاهان مقتول شاهان مقتول سده ۵ (پیش از میلاد) شاهان هخامنشی فرعون‌های دودمان هخامنشی در مصر کتاب استر نام‌برده‌ها بدست هرودوت نبرد سالامیس رده‌های پنهان: مقاله‌هایی که تجمیع ارجاع در آن‌ها ممنوع است مقاله‌های دارای واژگان به زبان غیر فارسی مقالات دارای جعبه اطلاعات خطاهای یادکرد: شابک مقاله‌های دارای مستندات مقاله‌های ویکی‌پدیا همراه شناسه‌های VIAF مقاله‌های ویکی‌پدیا همراه شناسه‌های LCCN مقاله‌های ویکی‌پدیا همراه شناسه‌های ISNI مقاله‌های ویکی‌پدیا همراه شناسه‌های GND مقاله‌های ویکی‌پدیا همراه شناسه‌های SELIBR مقاله‌های ویکی‌پدیا همراه شناسه‌های BNF مقاله‌های ویکی‌پدیا همراه شناسه‌های ULAN مقاله‌های ویکی‌پدیا همراه شناسه‌های NLA ویکی‌سازی رباتیک این صفحه آخرین‌بار در ‏۲۱ ژانویهٔ ۲۰۲۱ ساعت ‏۱۳:۳۸ ویرایش شده‌است. همهٔ نوشته‌ها تحت مجوز Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike در دسترس است؛ برای جزئیات بیشتر شرایط استفاده را بخوانید. ویکی‌پدیا® علامتی تجاری متعلق به سازمان غیرانتفاعی بنیاد ویکی‌مدیا است. سیاست محرمانگی دربارهٔ ویکی‌پدیا تکذیب‌نامه‌ها نمای تلفن همراه توسعه‌دهندگان آمار اظهارنامهٔ کوکی 
foundation-wikimedia-org-3945	----	Terms of Use - Wikimedia Foundation Governance Wiki Terms of Use From the Wikimedia Foundation Governance Wiki < Terms of Use(Redirected from Terms of Use) Jump to navigation Jump to search In other languages English  · العربية · asturianu · български · বাংলা · català · čeština · Deutsch · English · español · suomi · français · galego · עברית · Bahasa Indonesia · italiano · 日本語 · 한국어 · македонски · മലയാളം · Nederlands · polski · português do Brasil · русский · ไทย · українська · Tiếng Việt This is a summary of the Terms of Use. To read the full terms, scroll down or click here. Terms of Use This is a human-readable summary of the Terms of Use. Disclaimer: This summary is not a part of the Terms of Use and is not a legal document. It is simply a handy reference for understanding the full terms. Think of it as the user-friendly interface to the legal language of our Terms of Use. Part of our mission is to: Empower and Engage people around the world to collect and develop educational content and either publish it under a free license or dedicate it to the public domain. Disseminate this content effectively and globally, free of charge. You are free to: Read and Print our articles and other media free of charge. Share and Reuse our articles and other media under free and open licenses. Contribute To and Edit our various sites or Projects. Under the following conditions: Responsibility – You take responsibility for your edits (since we only host your content). Civility – You support a civil environment and do not harass other users. Lawful Behavior – You do not violate copyright or other laws. No Harm – You do not harm our technology infrastructure. Terms of Use and Policies – You adhere to the below Terms of Use and to the applicable community policies when you visit our sites or participate in our communities. With the understanding that: You License Freely Your Contributions – you generally must license your contributions and edits to our sites or Projects under a free and open license (unless your contribution is in the public domain). No Professional Advice – the content of articles and other projects is for informational purposes only and does not constitute professional advice. Our Terms of Use Imagine a world in which every single human being can freely share in the sum of all knowledge. That's our commitment. – Our Vision Statement Welcome to Wikimedia! The Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. (“we” or “us”), is a nonprofit charitable organization whose mission is to empower and engage people around the world to collect and develop content under a free license or in the public domain, and to disseminate it effectively and globally, free of charge. To support our vibrant community, we provide the essential infrastructure and organizational framework for the development of multilingual wiki Projects and their editions (as explained here) and other endeavors which serve this mission. We strive to make and keep educational and informational content from the Projects available on the internet free of charge, in perpetuity. We welcome you (“you” or the “user”) as a reader, editor, author, or contributor of the Wikimedia Projects, and we encourage you to join the Wikimedia community. Before you participate, however, we ask that you please read and agree to the following Terms of Use (“Terms of Use”). Overview These Terms of Use tell you about our public services at the Wikimedia Foundation, our relationship to you as a user, and the rights and responsibilities that guide us both. We want you to know that we host an incredible quantity of educational and informational content, all of which is contributed and made possible by users like yourself. Generally we do not contribute, monitor, or delete content (with the rare exception of policies like these Terms of Use or legal compliance for DMCA notices). This means that editorial control is in the hands of you and your fellow users who create and manage the content. We merely host this content. The community – the network of users who are constantly building and using the various sites or Projects – are the principal means through which the goals of the mission are achieved. The community contributes to and helps govern our sites. The community undertakes the critical function of creating and enforcing policies for the specific Project editions (such as the different language editions for the Wikipedia Project or the Wikimedia Commons multi-lingual edition). You are welcome to join as a contributor, editor, or author, but you should follow the policies that govern each of the independent Project editions. The largest of our Projects is Wikipedia, but we host other Projects too, each with different objectives and work methods. Each Project edition has a team of contributors, editors or authors who work together to create and manage the content on that Project edition. You are welcome to join these teams and work with them to improve these Projects. Because we are dedicated to making content freely accessible to the public, we generally require that all content you contribute is available under a free license or in the public domain. Please be aware that you are legally responsible for all of your contributions, edits, and re-use of Wikimedia content under the laws of the United States of America and other applicable laws (which may include the laws where you live or where you view or edit content). This means it is important that you use caution when posting content. In light of this responsibility, we have some rules about what you cannot post, most of which is either for your own protection or for the protection of other users like yourself. Please keep in mind that the content we host is for general informational purposes only, so if you need expert advice for a particular question (such as medical, legal, or financial issues), you should seek the help of a licensed or qualified professional. We also include other important notices and disclaimers, so please read these Terms of Use in their entirety. For clarity, other organizations, such as local Wikimedia chapters and associations, that may share in the same mission are nevertheless legally independent and separate from the Wikimedia Foundation and have no responsibility for the operations of the website or its content. Contents 1 Our Terms of Use 2 Overview 3 1. Our Services 4 2. Privacy Policy 5 3. Content We Host 6 4. Refraining from Certain Activities 7 5. Password Security 8 6. Trademarks 9 7. Licensing of Content 10 8. DMCA Compliance 11 9. Third-party Websites and Resources 12 10. Management of Websites 13 11. Resolutions and Project Policies 14 12. Termination 15 13. Disputes and Jurisdiction 16 14. Disclaimers 17 15. Limitation on Liability 18 16. Modifications to these Terms of Use 19 17. Other Terms 20 Thank You! 1. Our Services The Wikimedia Foundation is dedicated to encouraging the growth, development and distribution of free multilingual content, and to hosting the full content of these wiki-based Projects for the public free of charge. Our role is to host some of the largest collaboratively edited reference Projects in the world, which can be found here. However, we act only as a hosting service, maintaining the infrastructure and organizational framework that allows our users to build the Wikimedia Projects by contributing and editing content themselves. Because of our unique role, there are a couple of things you should be aware of when considering our relationship to you, the Projects, and the other users: We do not take an editorial role: Because the Wikimedia Projects are collaboratively edited, all of the content that we host is provided by users like yourself, and we do not take an editorial role. This means that we generally do not monitor or edit the content of the Project websites, and we do not take any responsibility for this content. Similarly, we do not endorse any opinions expressed via our services, and we do not represent or guarantee the truthfulness, accuracy, or reliability of any submitted community content. Instead, we simply provide access to the content that your fellow users have contributed and edited. You are responsible for your own actions: You are legally responsible for your edits and contributions on Wikimedia Projects, so for your own protection you should exercise caution and avoid contributing any content that may result in criminal or civil liability under any applicable laws. For clarity, applicable law includes at least the laws of the United States of America. Although we may not agree with such actions, we warn editors and contributors that authorities may seek to apply other country laws to you, including local laws where you live or where you view or edit content. WMF generally cannot offer any protection, guarantee, immunity or indemnification. 2. Privacy Policy We ask that you review the terms of our Privacy Policy, so that you are aware of how we collect and use your information. Because our services are used by people all over the world, personal information that we collect may be stored and processed in the United States of America or any other country in which we or our agents maintain facilities. By using our services, you consent to any such transfer of information outside your country. 3. Content We Host You may find some material objectionable or erroneous: Because we provide a wide array of content that is produced or gathered by fellow users, you may encounter material that you find offensive, erroneous, misleading, mislabeled, or otherwise objectionable. We therefore ask that you use common sense and proper judgment when using our services. Our content is for general informational purposes only: Although we host a great deal of information that pertains to professional topics, including medical, legal, or financial issues, this content is presented for general informational purposes only. It should not be taken as professional advice. Please seek independent professional counseling from someone who is licensed or qualified in the applicable area in lieu of acting on any information, opinion, or advice contained in one of the Project websites. 4. Refraining from Certain Activities The Projects hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation only exist because of the vibrant community of users like you who collaborate to write, edit, and curate the content. We happily welcome your participation in this community. We encourage you to be civil and polite in your interactions with others in the community, to act in good faith, and to make edits and contributions aimed at furthering the mission of the shared Project. Certain activities, whether legal or illegal, may be harmful to other users and violate our rules, and some activities may also subject you to liability. Therefore, for your own protection and for that of other users, you may not engage in such activities on our sites. These activities include: Harassing and Abusing Others Engaging in harassment, threats, stalking, spamming, or vandalism; and Transmitting chain mail, junk mail, or spam to other users. Violating the Privacy of Others Infringing the privacy rights of others under the laws of the United States of America or other applicable laws (which may include the laws where you live or where you view or edit content); Soliciting personally identifiable information for purposes of harassment, exploitation, violation of privacy, or any promotional or commercial purpose not explicitly approved by the Wikimedia Foundation; and Soliciting personally identifiable information from anyone under the age of 18 for an illegal purpose or violating any applicable law regarding the health or well-being of minors. Engaging in False Statements, Impersonation, or Fraud Intentionally or knowingly posting content that constitutes libel or defamation; With the intent to deceive, posting content that is false or inaccurate; Attempting to impersonate another user or individual, misrepresenting your affiliation with any individual or entity, or using the username of another user with the intent to deceive; and Engaging in fraud. Committing Infringement Infringing copyrights, trademarks, patents, or other proprietary rights under applicable law. Misusing Our Services for Other Illegal Purposes Posting child pornography or any other content that violates applicable law concerning child pornography; Posting or trafficking in obscene material that is unlawful under applicable law; and Using the services in a manner that is inconsistent with applicable law. Engaging in Disruptive and Illegal Misuse of Facilities Posting or distributing content that contains any viruses, malware, worms, Trojan horses, malicious code, or other device that could harm our technical infrastructure or system or that of our users; Engaging in automated uses of the site that are abusive or disruptive of the services and have not been approved by the Wikimedia community; Disrupting the services by placing an undue burden on a Project website or the networks or servers connected with a Project website; Disrupting the services by inundating any of the Project websites with communications or other traffic that suggests no serious intent to use the Project website for its stated purpose; Knowingly accessing, tampering with, or using any of our non-public areas in our computer systems without authorization; and Probing, scanning, or testing the vulnerability of any of our technical systems or networks unless all the following conditions are met: such actions do not unduly abuse or disrupt our technical systems or networks; such actions are not for personal gain (except for credit for your work); you report any vulnerabilities to MediaWiki developers (or fix it yourself); and you do not undertake such actions with malicious or destructive intent. Paid contributions without disclosure These Terms of Use prohibit engaging in deceptive activities, including misrepresentation of affiliation, impersonation, and fraud. As part of these obligations, you must disclose your employer, client, and affiliation with respect to any contribution for which you receive, or expect to receive, compensation. You must make that disclosure in at least one of the following ways: a statement on your user page, a statement on the talk page accompanying any paid contributions, or a statement in the edit summary accompanying any paid contributions. Applicable law, or community and Foundation policies and guidelines, such as those addressing conflicts of interest, may further limit paid contributions or require more detailed disclosure. A Wikimedia Project community may adopt an alternative paid contribution disclosure policy. If a Project adopts an alternative disclosure policy, you may comply with that policy instead of the requirements in this section when contributing to that Project. An alternative paid contribution policy will only supersede these requirements if it is approved by the relevant Project community and listed in the alternative disclosure policy page. For more information, please read our FAQ on disclosure of paid contributions. We reserve the right to exercise our enforcement discretion with respect to the above terms. 5. Password Security You are responsible for safeguarding your own password and should never disclose it to any third party. 6. Trademarks Although you have considerable freedoms for re-use of the content on the Project websites, it is important that, at the Wikimedia Foundation, we protect our trademark rights so that we can protect our users from fraudulent impersonators. Because of this, we ask that you please respect our trademarks. All Wikimedia Foundation trademarks belong to the Wikimedia Foundation, and any use of our trade names, trademarks, service marks, logos, or domain names must be in compliance with these Terms of Use and in compliance with our Trademark Policy. 7. Licensing of Content To grow the commons of free knowledge and free culture, all users contributing to the Projects are required to grant broad permissions to the general public to re-distribute and re-use their contributions freely, so long as that use is properly attributed and the same freedom to re-use and re-distribute is granted to any derivative works. In keeping with our goal of providing free information to the widest possible audience, we require that when necessary all submitted content be licensed so that it is freely reusable by anyone who cares to access it. You agree to the following licensing requirements: Text to which you hold the copyright: When you submit text to which you hold the copyright, you agree to license it under: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License (“CC BY-SA”), and GNU Free Documentation License (“GFDL”) (unversioned, with no invariant sections, front-cover texts, or back-cover texts). (Re-users may comply with either license or both.) The only exception is if the Project edition or feature requires a different license. In that case, you agree to license any text you contribute under that particular license. For example, at the publication of this version of the Terms of Use, English Wikinews mandates that all text content is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Generic License (CC BY 2.5) and does not require a dual license with GFDL. Please note that these licenses do allow commercial uses of your contributions, as long as such uses are compliant with the terms. Attribution: Attribution is an important part of these licenses. We consider it giving credit where credit is due – to authors like yourself. When you contribute text, you agree to be attributed in any of the following fashions: Through hyperlink (where possible) or URL to the article to which you contributed (since each article has a history page that lists all authors and editors); Through hyperlink (where possible) or URL to an alternative, stable online copy that is freely accessible, which conforms with the license, and which provides credit to the authors in a manner equivalent to the credit given on the Project website; or Through a list of all authors (but please note that any list of authors may be filtered to exclude very small or irrelevant contributions). Importing text: You may import text that you have found elsewhere or that you have co-authored with others, but in such case you warrant that the text is available under terms that are compatible with the CC BY-SA 3.0 license (or, as explained above, another license when exceptionally required by the Project edition or feature)("CC BY-SA"). Content available only under GFDL is not permissible. You agree that, if you import text under a CC BY-SA license that requires attribution, you must credit the author(s) in a reasonable fashion. Where such credit is commonly given through page histories (such as Wikimedia-internal copying), it is sufficient to give attribution in the edit summary, which is recorded in the page history, when importing the text. The attribution requirements are sometimes too intrusive for particular circumstances (regardless of the license), and there may be instances where the Wikimedia community decides that imported text cannot be used for that reason. Non-text media: Non-text media on the Projects are available under a variety of different licenses that support the general goal of allowing unrestricted re-use and re-distribution. When you contribute non-text media, you agree to comply with the requirements for such licenses as described in our Licensing Policy, and also comply with the requirements of the specific Project edition or feature to which you are contributing. Also see the Wikimedia Commons Licensing Policy for more information on contributing non-text media to that Project. No revocation of license: Except as consistent with your license, you agree that you will not unilaterally revoke or seek invalidation of any license that you have granted under these Terms of Use for text content or non-text media contributed to the Wikimedia Projects or features, even if you terminate use of our services. Public domain content: Content that is in the public domain is welcome! It is important however that you confirm the public domain status of the content under the law of the United States of America as well as the laws of any other countries as required by the specific Project edition. When you contribute content that is in the public domain, you warrant that the material is actually in the public domain, and you agree to label it appropriately. Re-use: Re-use of content that we host is welcome, though exceptions exist for content contributed under "fair use" or similar exemptions under copyright law. Any re-use must comply with the underlying license(s). When you re-use or re-distribute a text page developed by the Wikimedia community, you agree to attribute the authors in any of the following fashions: Through hyperlink (where possible) or URL to the page or pages that you are re-using (since each page has a history page that lists all authors and editors); Through hyperlink (where possible) or URL to an alternative, stable online copy that is freely accessible, which conforms with the license, and which provides credit to the authors in a manner equivalent to the credit given on the Project website; or Through a list of all authors (but please note that any list of authors may be filtered to exclude very small or irrelevant contributions). If the text content was imported from another source, it is possible that the content is licensed under a compatible CC BY-SA license but not GFDL (as described in “Importing text,” above). In that case, you agree to comply with the compatible CC BY-SA license and do not have the option to re-license it under GFDL. To determine the license that applies to the content that you seek to re-use or re-distribute, you should review the page footer, page history, and discussion page. In addition, please be aware that text that originated from external sources and was imported into a Project may be under a license that attaches additional attribution requirements. Users agree to indicate these additional attribution requirements clearly. Depending on the Project, such requirements may appear for example in a banner or other notations pointing out that some or all of the content was originally published elsewhere. Where there are such visible notations, re-users should preserve them. For any non-text media, you agree to comply with whatever license under which the work has been made available (which can be discovered by clicking on the work and looking at the licensing section on its description page or reviewing an applicable source page for that work). When re-using any content that we host, you agree to comply with the relevant attribution requirements as they pertain to the underlying license or licenses. Modifications or additions to material that you re-use: When modifying or making additions to text that you have obtained from a Project website, you agree to license the modified or added content under CC BY-SA 3.0 or later (or, as explained above, another license when exceptionally required by the specific Project edition or feature). When modifying or making additions to any non-text media that you have obtained from a Project website, you agree to license the modified or added content in accordance with whatever license under which the work has been made available. With both text content and non-text media, you agree to clearly indicate that the original work has been modified. If you are re-using text content in a wiki, it is sufficient to indicate in the page history that you made a change to the imported text. For each copy or modified version that you distribute, you agree to include a licensing notice stating which license the work is released under, along with either a hyperlink or URL to the text of the license or a copy of the license itself. 8. DMCA Compliance The Wikimedia Foundation wants to ensure that the content that we host can be re-used by other users without fear of liability and that it is not infringing the proprietary rights of others. In fairness to our users, as well as to other creators and copyright holders, our policy is to respond to notices of alleged infringement that comply with the formalities of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA). Pursuant to the DMCA, we will terminate, in appropriate circumstances, users and account holders of our system and network who are repeat infringers. However, we also recognize that not every takedown notice is valid or in good faith. In such cases, we strongly encourage users to file counter-notifications when they appropriately believe a DMCA takedown demand is invalid or improper. For more information on what to do if you think a DMCA notice has been improperly filed, you may wish to consult the Chilling Effects website. If you are the owner of content that is being improperly used on one of the Projects without your permission, you may request that the content be removed under the DMCA. To make such a request, please email us at legalwikimedia.org or snail mail our designated agent at this address. Alternatively, you may make a request to our community, which often handles copyright issues faster and more effectively than prescribed under the DMCA. In that case, you can post a notice explaining your copyright concerns. For a non-exhaustive and non-authoritative list of the relevant processes for the different Project editions, look here. Before filing a DMCA claim, you also have the option of sending an email to the community at infowikimedia.org. 9. Third-party Websites and Resources You are solely responsible for your use of any third-party websites or resources. Although the Projects contain links to third-party websites and resources, we do not endorse and are not responsible or liable for their availability, accuracy, or the related content, products, or services (including, without limitation, any viruses or other disabling features), nor do we have any obligation to monitor such third-party content. 10. Management of Websites The community has the primary role in creating and enforcing policies applying to the different Project editions. At the Wikimedia Foundation, we rarely intervene in community decisions about policy and its enforcement. In an unusual case, the need may arise, or the community may ask us, to address an especially problematic user because of significant Project disturbance or dangerous behavior. In such cases, we reserve the right, but do not have the obligation to: Investigate your use of the service (a) to determine whether a violation of these Terms of Use, Project edition policy, or other applicable law or policy has occurred, or (b) to comply with any applicable law, legal process, or appropriate governmental request; Detect, prevent, or otherwise address fraud, security, or technical issues or respond to user support requests; Refuse, disable, or restrict access to the contribution of any user who violates these Terms of Use; Ban a user from editing or contributing or block a user's account or access for actions violating these Terms of Use, including repeat copyright infringement; Take legal action against users who violate these Terms of Use (including reports to law enforcement authorities); and Manage otherwise the Project websites in a manner designed to facilitate their proper functioning and protect the rights, property, and safety of ourselves and our users, licensors, partners, and the public. In the interests of our users and the Projects, in the extreme circumstance that any individual has had his or her account or access blocked under this provision, he or she is prohibited from creating or using another account on or seeking access to the same Project, unless we provide explicit permission. Without limiting the authority of the community, the Wikimedia Foundation itself will not ban a user from editing or contributing or block a user's account or access solely because of good faith criticism that does not result in actions otherwise violating these Terms of Use or community policies. The Wikimedia community and its members may also take action when so allowed by the community or Foundation policies applicable to the specific Project edition, including but not limited to warning, investigating, blocking, or banning users who violate those policies. You agree to comply with the final decisions of dispute resolution bodies that are established by the community for the specific Project editions (such as arbitration committees); these decisions may include sanctions as set out by the policy of the specific Project edition. Especially problematic users who have had accounts or access blocked on multiple Project editions may be subject to a ban from all of the Project editions, in accordance with the Global Ban Policy. In contrast to Board resolutions or these Terms of Use, policies established by the community, which may cover a single Project edition or multiple Projects editions (like the Global Ban Policy), may be modified by the relevant community according to its own procedures. The blocking of an account or access or the banning of a user under this provision shall be in accordance with Section 12 of these Terms of Use. 11. Resolutions and Project Policies The Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees releases official policies from time to time. Some of these policies may be mandatory for a particular Project or Project edition, and, when they are, you agree to abide by them as applicable. 12. Termination Though we hope you will stay and continue to contribute to the Projects, you can stop using our services any time. In certain (hopefully unlikely) circumstances it may be necessary for either ourselves or the Wikimedia community or its members (as described in Section 10) to terminate part or all of our services, terminate these Terms of Use, block your account or access, or ban you as a user. If your account or access is blocked or otherwise terminated for any reason, your public contributions will remain publicly available (subject to applicable policies), and, unless we notify you otherwise, you may still access our public pages for the sole purpose of reading publicly available content on the Projects. In such circumstances, however, you may not be able to access your account or settings. We reserve the right to suspend or end the services at any time, with or without cause, and with or without notice. Even after your use and participation are banned, blocked or otherwise suspended, these Terms of Use will remain in effect with respect to relevant provisions, including Sections 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9-15, and 17. 13. Disputes and Jurisdiction Highlighted for emphasis We hope that no serious disagreements arise involving you, but, in the event there is a dispute, we encourage you to seek resolution through the dispute resolution procedures or mechanisms provided by the Projects or Project editions and the Wikimedia Foundation. If you seek to file a legal claim against us, you agree to file and resolve it exclusively in a state or federal court located in San Francisco County, California. You also agree that the laws of the State of California and, to the extent applicable, the laws of the United States of America will govern these Terms of Use, as well as any legal claim that might arise between you and us (without reference to conflict of laws principles). You agree to submit to the personal jurisdiction of, and agree that venue is proper in, the courts located in San Francisco County, California, in any legal action or proceeding relating to us or these Terms of Use. To ensure that disputes are dealt with soon after they arise, you agree that regardless of any statute or law to the contrary, any claim or cause of action you might have arising out of or related to use of our services or these Terms of Use must be filed within the applicable statute of limitations or, if earlier, one (1) year after the pertinent facts underlying such claim or cause of action could have been discovered with reasonable diligence (or be forever barred). 14. Disclaimers Highlighted for emphasis At the Wikimedia Foundation, we do our best to provide educational and informational content to a very wide audience, but your use of our services is at your sole risk. We provide these services on an "as is" and "as available" basis, and we expressly disclaim all express or implied warranties of all kinds, including but not limited to the implied warranties of merchantability, fitness for a particular purpose, and non-infringement. We make no warranty that our services will meet your requirements, be safe, secure, uninterrupted, timely, accurate, or error-free, or that your information will be secure. We are not responsible for the content, data, or actions of third parties, and you release us, our directors, officers, employees, and agents from any claims and damages, known and unknown, arising out of or in any way connected with any claim you have against any such third parties. No advice or information, whether oral or written, obtained by you from us or through or from our services creates any warranty not expressly stated in these Terms of Use. Any material downloaded or otherwise obtained through your use of our services is done at your own discretion and risk, and you will be solely responsible for any damage to your computer system or loss of data that results from the download of any such material. You agree that we have no responsibility or liability for the deletion of, or the failure to store or to transmit, any content or communication maintained by the service. We retain the right to create limits on use and storage at our sole discretion at any time with or without notice. Some states or jurisdictions do not allow the types of disclaimers in this section, so they may not apply to you either in part or in full depending on the law. 15. Limitation on Liability Highlighted for emphasis The Wikimedia Foundation will not be liable to you or to any other party for any direct, indirect, incidental, special, consequential or exemplary damages, including but not limited to, damages for loss of profits, goodwill, use, data, or other intangible losses, regardless of whether we were advised of the possibility of such damage. In no event shall our liability exceed one thousand U.S. dollars (USD 1000.00) in aggregate. In the case that applicable law may not allow the limitation or exclusion of liability or incidental or consequential damages, the above limitation or exclusion may not apply to you, although our liability will be limited to the fullest extent permitted by applicable law. 16. Modifications to these Terms of Use Just as the Wikimedia community's input is essential for the growth and maintenance of the Projects, we believe that community input is essential for these Terms of Use to properly serve our users. It is also essential for a fair contract. Therefore, we will provide these Terms of Use, as well as any substantial future revisions of these Terms of Use, to the community for comment at least thirty (30) days before the end of the comment period. If a future proposed revision is substantial, we will provide an additional 30 days for comments after posting a translation of the proposed revision in at least three languages (selected at our discretion). The community will be encouraged to translate the proposed revision in other languages as appropriate. For changes for legal or administrative reasons, to correct an inaccurate statement, or changes in response to community comments, we will provide at least three (3) days' notice. Because it may be necessary to modify these Terms of Use from time to time, we will provide notice of such modifications and the opportunity to comment via the Project websites, and via a notification on WikimediaAnnounce-L. However, we ask that you please periodically review the most up-to-date version of these Terms of Use. Your continued use of our services after the new Terms of Use become official following the notice and review period constitutes an acceptance of these Terms of Use on your part. For the protection of the Wikimedia Foundation and other users like yourself, if you do not agree with our Terms of Use, you cannot use our services. 17. Other Terms These Terms of Use do not create an employment, agency, partnership, or joint venture relationship between you and us, the Wikimedia Foundation. If you have not signed a separate agreement with us, these Terms of Use are the entire agreement between you and us. If there is any conflict between these Terms of Use and a signed written agreement between you and us, the signed agreement will control. You agree that we may provide you with notices, including those regarding changes to the Terms of Use, by email, regular mail, or postings on Project websites. If in any circumstance, we do not apply or enforce any provision of these Terms of Use, it is not a waiver of that provision. You understand that, unless otherwise agreed to in writing by us, you have no expectation of compensation for any activity, contribution, or idea that you provide to us, the community, or the Wikimedia Projects or Project editions. Notwithstanding any provision to the contrary in these Terms of Use, we (the Wikimedia Foundation) and you agree not to modify the applicable terms and requirements of any free license that is employed on the Projects or Project editions when such free license is authorized by these Terms of Use. These Terms of Use were written in English (U.S.). While we hope that translations of these Terms of Use are accurate, in the event of any differences in meaning between the original English version and a translation, the original English version takes precedence. If any provision or part of a provision of these Terms of Use is found unlawful, void, or unenforceable, that provision or part of the provision is deemed severable from these Terms of Use and will be enforced to the maximum extent permissible, and all other provisions of these Terms of Use will remain in full force and effect. Thank You! We appreciate your taking the time to read these Terms of Use, and we are very happy to have you contributing to the Projects and using our services. Through your contributions, you are helping to build something really big – not only an important collection of collaboratively edited reference Projects that provides education and information to millions who might otherwise lack access, but also a vibrant community of like-minded and engaged peers, focused on a very noble goal. These Terms of Use went into effect on June 16, 2014. Previous versions of the terms: Terms of Use (2012–2014): effective from May 24, 2012 until June 16, 2014 Terms of Use (2009): effective from 2009 until May 24, 2012. In the event of any differences in meaning between the original English version and a translation, the original English version takes precedence. Retrieved from "https://foundation.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Terms_of_Use/en&oldid=123089" Categories: Terms of Use Policy Hidden category: Governance wiki Navigation menu Personal tools English Log in Namespaces Page Discussion Variants Views Read Feedback View history More Search About Wikimedia Home Official website Contact us Wikimedia Blog Questions for Wikimedia? Support Donate Volunteering Wikimedia Shop Corporate Bylaws Values Policies Resolutions Annual Report Financial reports and Form 990 Fundraising reports Movement affiliates Wiki Give feedback Recent changes Tools What links here Related changes Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version This page was last edited on 7 June 2019, at 19:07. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Privacy policy About Wikimedia Foundation Governance Wiki Disclaimers Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
foundation-wikimedia-org-4309	----	Privacy policy - Wikimedia Foundation Governance Wiki Privacy policy From the Wikimedia Foundation Governance Wiki Jump to navigation Jump to search العربية azərbaycanca تۆرکجه беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ български روچ کپتین بلوچی বাংলা bosanski català нохчийн کوردی čeština català Cymraeg Deutsch Deutsch (Sie-Form)‎ Zazaki Ελληνικά emiliàn e rumagnòl English Canadian English British English Esperanto español euskara فارسی suomi français Nordfriisk Frysk galego Avañe'ẽ עברית हिन्दी hrvatski magyar Bahasa Indonesia italiano 日本語 ქართული ភាសាខ្មែរ 한국어 Ripoarisch Кыргызча Lëtzebuergesch Ligure lietuvių Basa Banyumasan македонски മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ مازِرونی Napulitano norsk bokmål नेपाली Nederlands nl-formal Diné bizaad occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Plautdietsch polski پښتو português português do Brasil română русский Scots سنڌي ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး සිංහල Soomaaliga shqip српски / srpski svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் తెలుగు тоҷикӣ ไทย Türkçe удмурт українська اردو Tiếng Việt მარგალური ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 中文 中文（简体）‎ 中文（繁體）‎ This policy is approved by the Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees to apply to all Wikimedia projects. It may not be circumvented, eroded, or ignored by local policies. Want to help translate? Translate the missing messages. Privacy Policy This is a summary of the Privacy Policy. To read the full terms, scroll down or click here. Disclaimer: This summary is not a part of the Privacy Policy and is not a legal document. It is simply a handy reference for understanding the full Privacy Policy. Think of it as the user-friendly interface to our Privacy Policy. Because we believe that you shouldn’t have to provide personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement, you may: Read, edit, or use any Wikimedia Site without registering an account. Register for an account without providing an email address or real name. Because we want to understand how Wikimedia Sites are used so we can make them better for you, we collect some information when you: Make public contributions. Register an account or update your user page. Use the Wikimedia Sites. Send us emails or participate in a survey or give feedback. We are committed to: Describing how your information may be used or shared in this Privacy Policy. Using reasonable measures to keep your information secure. Never selling your information or sharing it with third parties for marketing purposes. Only sharing your information in limited circumstances, such as to improve the Wikimedia Sites, to comply with the law, or to protect you and others. Retaining your data for the shortest possible time that is consistent with maintaining, understanding, and improving the Wikimedia Sites, and our obligations under law. Be aware: Any content you add or any change that you make to a Wikimedia Site will be publicly and permanently available. If you add content or make a change to a Wikimedia Site without logging in, that content or change will be publicly and permanently archived in the public interest; your content or change will be attributed to the IP address used at the time rather than a username. Our community of volunteer editors and contributors is a self-policing body. Certain administrators of the Wikimedia Sites, who are chosen by the community, use tools that grant them limited access to nonpublic information about recent contributions so they may protect the Wikimedia Sites and enforce policies. This Privacy Policy does not apply to all sites and services run by the Wikimedia Foundation, such as sites or services that have their own privacy policy (like the Wikimedia Shop) or sites or services run by third parties (like third-party developer projects on Wikimedia Cloud Services). As part of our commitment to education and research around the world, we occasionally release public information and aggregated or non-personal information to the general public through data dumps and data sets. For the protection of the Wikimedia Foundation and other users, if you do not agree with this Privacy Policy, you may not use the Wikimedia Sites. Introduction Use of info Sharing Protection Important info Contents Contents 1 Introduction 1.1 Welcome! 1.1.1 Definitions 1.1.2 What This Privacy Policy Does & Doesn't Cover 2 Collection & Use of Info 2.1 Types of Information We Receive From You & How We Get It 2.1.1 Your Public Contributions 2.1.2 Account Information & Registration 2.1.3 Location Information 2.1.3.1 GPS & Other Location Technologies 2.1.3.2 Metadata 2.1.3.3 IP Addresses 2.2 Information Related to Your Use of the Wikimedia Sites 2.2.1 Information We Receive Automatically 2.2.2 Information We Collect 2.3 How We Use Information We Receive From You 2.4 Other 2.4.1 Location Information 2.4.1.1 GPS & Other Location Technologies 2.4.1.2 Metadata 2.4.1.3 IP Addresses 3 Sharing 3.1 When May We Share Your Information? 3.1.1 With Your Permission 3.1.2 For Legal Reasons 3.1.3 If the Organization is Transferred (Really Unlikely!) 3.1.4 To Protect You, Ourselves & Others 3.1.5 To Our Service Providers 3.1.6 To Understand & Experiment 3.1.7 Because You Made It Public 4 Protection 4.1 How Do We Protect Your Data? 4.2 How Long Do We Keep Your Data? 5 Important info 5.1 Where is the Foundation & What Does That Mean for Me? 5.2 Our Response to Do Not Track (DNT) signals 5.3 Changes to This Privacy Policy 5.4 Contact Us 5.5 Thank You! Introduction Welcome! The Wikimedia Foundation is the nonprofit organization that operates collaborative, free knowledge websites, like Wikipedia, Wikimedia Commons, and Wiktionary. This Policy explains how we collect, use, and share your personal information. We collect very little personal information about you. We do not rent or sell your information to third parties. By using Wikimedia Sites, you consent to this Policy. The Wikimedia movement is founded on a simple, but powerful principle: we can do more together than any of us can do alone. We cannot work collectively without gathering, sharing, and analyzing information about our users as we seek new ways to make the Wikimedia Sites more usable, safer, and more beneficial. We believe that information-gathering and use should go hand-in-hand with transparency. This Privacy Policy explains how the Wikimedia Foundation, the non-profit organization that hosts the Wikimedia Sites, like Wikipedia, collects, uses, and shares information we receive from you through your use of the Wikimedia Sites. It is essential to understand that, by using any of the Wikimedia Sites, you consent to the collection, transfer, processing, storage, disclosure, and use of your information as described in this Privacy Policy. That means that reading this Policy carefully is important. We believe that you shouldn't have to provide nonpublic personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement. You do not have to provide things like your real name, address, or date of birth to sign up for a standard account or contribute content to the Wikimedia Sites. We do not sell or rent your Personal Information, nor do we give it to others to sell you anything. We use it to figure out how to make the Wikimedia Sites more engaging and accessible, to see which ideas work, and to make learning and contributing more fun. Put simply: we use this information to make the Wikimedia Sites better for you. After all, it's people like you, the champions of free knowledge, who make it possible for the Wikimedia Sites to not only exist, but also grow and thrive. Definitions Back to top We recognize that only a minority of you are familiar with technical terms like “tracking pixels” and “cookies” used in the Privacy Policy. Whether you are brand new to privacy terminology or you are an expert who just wants a refresher, you might find our Glossary of Key Terms helpful. Because everyone (not just lawyers) should be able to easily understand how and why their information is collected and used, we use common language instead of more formal terms throughout this Policy. To help ensure your understanding of some particular key terms, here is a table of translations: When we say... ... we mean: "the Wikimedia Foundation" / "the Foundation" / "we" / "us" / "our" The Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., the non-profit organization that operates the Wikimedia Sites. "Wikimedia Sites" / "our services" Wikimedia websites and services (regardless of language), including our main projects, such as Wikipedia and Wikimedia Commons, as well as mobile applications, APIs, emails, and notifications; excluding, however, sites and services listed in the "What This Privacy Policy Doesn't Cover" section below. "you" / "your" / "me" You, regardless of whether you are an individual, group, or organization, and regardless of whether you are using the Wikimedia Sites or our services on behalf of yourself or someone else. "this Policy" / "this Privacy Policy" This document, entitled the "Wikimedia Foundation Privacy Policy". "contributions" Content you add or changes you make to any Wikimedia Sites. "personal information" Information you provide us or information we collect from you in the context of your use of the Wikimedia Sites that could be used to personally identify you. To be clear, while we do not necessarily collect all of the following types of information, we consider at least the following to be Personal Information if it can be used to identify you: (a) name, address, phone number, email address, username, password, identification number on government-issued ID, IP addresses, user-agent information, and credit card number; and; (b) when associated with an identifiable person, any sensitive data such as date of birth, gender, sexual orientation, racial or ethnic origins, marital or familial status, genetic and biometric data, medical conditions or disabilities, political affiliation, and religion. "third party" / "third parties" Individuals, entities, websites, services, products, and applications that are not controlled, managed, or operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. This includes other Wikimedia users and independent organizations or groups who help promote the Wikimedia movement such as Wikimedia chapters, thematic organizations, and user groups as well as volunteers, employees, directors, officers, grant recipients, and contractors of those organizations or groups. What This Privacy Policy Does & Doesn't Cover Except as explained below, this Privacy Policy applies to our collection and handling of information about you that we receive as a result of your use of any of the Wikimedia Sites. This Policy also applies to information that we receive from our partners or other third parties. To understand more about what this Privacy Policy covers, please see below. Examples of What This Privacy Policy Covers For the sake of clarity, this Privacy Policy covers, regardless of language: All of our major sites (found at list of major projects), such as Wikipedia, including user pages, discussion pages, and noticeboards. Our blogs and APIs (unless we have provided a separate policy for those services). Official Wikimedia Foundation mobile applications. Emails, SMS, and notifications from us or sent to us from you. This Privacy Policy, however, does not cover some situations where we may gather or process information. For example, some uses may be covered by separate privacy policies (like those of the Wikimedia Shop) or sites or services run by third parties (such as third-party developer projects on Wikimedia Cloud Services). To understand more about what this Privacy Policy does not cover, please see below. More on what this Privacy Policy doesn’t cover This section is part of the Privacy Policy and is meant to explain in detail which situations are not covered by our Privacy Policy. Wikimedia Sites and Tools with alternative policies Some Wikimedia Foundation websites or tools have alternative privacy policies or provisions that differ from this Privacy Policy. These websites include: Wikimedia Shop (covered by the shop's policy); donate.wikimedia.org, including the donation process, such as clicking on a donation banner (covered by the Donor Privacy Policy); and the Wikipedia Reading Lists Browser Extension, which is governed by a separate Privacy Policy. This separate policy will also be made available where the Extension can be downloaded. If a Wikimedia Foundation website is governed by an alternative privacy policy, it will link to such policy. When a Wikimedia Foundation tool is governed by an alternative privacy policy, the page where the tool may be downloaded or enabled will include a link to that policy. Community members The Wikimedia Sites are collaborative labors of love that are constantly maintained and updated by a global community of volunteers. As a result, some volunteers have access to certain Personal Information, and use of that Personal Information may not be governed by this Privacy Policy. Volunteers that have such access include: Administrative volunteers, such as CheckUsers or Stewards. These are volunteers who enforce Wikimedia Site policies and ensure the safety of the Wikimedia Sites. When these administrators access Personal Information that is nonpublic, they are required to comply with our Access to Nonpublic Information Policy, as well as other, tool-specific policies. Tool providers. Tool providers. We support platforms for third-party developers to experiment and develop new tools and sites, such as wmflabs.org. When you use one of the tools developed by these volunteers, you may transfer information to them. When these volunteers access nonpublic information or Personal Information, they are required to comply with the terms governing the particular platform the tool is available on. Other users. We provide several tools that allow users to communicate with each other. The communications may be covered by this Policy while they pass through our systems, but the users who receive these communications, and what they do with the communications once they receive them, are not covered by this Policy. Examples include: posting to Foundation-hosted email lists; requesting support from volunteers through our online ticketing system (email sent to info[at]wikimedia.org goes to this system); emailing other users through the Wikimedia Sites (for example, by using the "Email this user" feature); and chatting on IRC (such as on the #wikipedia channel). Third parties This Privacy Policy only covers the way the Wikimedia Foundation collects, uses and discloses Personal Information and does not address the practices of third parties. For example, this Privacy Policy does not address the practices of: Websites run by other organizations, like websites linked to from the “References” sections of Wikipedia, or run by Wikimedia chapters or other movement organizations. These organizations may receive information from you if you visit their websites after using one of the Wikimedia Sites. They are governed by their own privacy policies. Mobile applications provided by other organizations or individuals. These organizations or individuals may receive information from you if you use those applications to access the Wikimedia Sites or Wikimedia Site content. They are governed by their own privacy policies. Sometimes, volunteers may place a data-collecting tool, such as a script, gadget, tracking pixel, or share button, on a Wikimedia Site without our knowledge. This Policy does not cover how third parties handle the information they receive as a result of such a tool. If you come across such a third-party tool, and you believe it violates this Policy, you can remove the tool yourself, or report it to privacy[at]wikimedia.org so we can investigate. Where community policies govern information, such as the CheckUser policy, the relevant community may add to the rules and obligations set out in this Policy. However, they are not permitted to create new exceptions or otherwise reduce the protections offered by this Policy. Collection & Use of Info Types of Information We Receive From You & How We Get It Your Public Contributions Whatever you post on Wikimedia Sites can be seen and used by everyone. When you make a contribution to any Wikimedia Site, including on user or discussion pages, you are creating a permanent, public record of every piece of content added, removed, or altered by you. The page history will show when your contribution or deletion was made, as well as your username (if you are signed in) or your IP address (if you are not signed in). We may use your public contributions, either aggregated with the public contributions of others or individually, to create new features or data-related products for you or to learn more about how the Wikimedia Sites are used. Publicly Visible Information Unless this Policy says otherwise, you should assume that information that you actively contribute to the Wikimedia Sites, including Personal Information, is publicly visible and can be found by search engines. Like most things on the Internet, anything you share may be copied and redistributed throughout the Internet by other people. Please do not contribute any information that you are uncomfortable making permanently public, like revealing your real name or location in your contributions. You should be aware that specific data made public by you or aggregated data that is made public by us can be used by anyone for analysis and to infer further information, such as which country a user is from, political affiliation and gender. Back to top Account Information & Registration You do not need to create an account to use any Wikimedia Site. If you do create an account, you do not need to give us your name or email address. If you do not create an account, your contributions will be publicly attributed to your IP address. Want to create an account? Great! Don't want to create an account? No problem! You are not required to create an account to read or contribute to a Wikimedia Site, except under rare circumstances. However, if you contribute without signing in, your contribution will be publicly attributed to the IP address associated with your device. If you want to create a standard account, in most cases we require only a username and a password. More on Usernames Your username will be publicly visible, so please be careful about using your real name as your username. Your password is only used to verify that the account is yours. Your IP address is also automatically submitted to us, and we record it temporarily to help prevent abuse. No other personal information is required: no name, no email address, no date of birth, no credit card information. Once created, user accounts cannot be removed entirely (although you can usually hide the information on your user page if you choose to). This is because your public contributions must be associated with their author (you!). In some circumstances, the Wikimedia communities can assist users with removing additional information related to their account from the projects. To gain a better understanding of the demographics of our users, to localize our services and to learn how we can improve our services, we may ask you for more demographic information, such as gender or age, about yourself. We will tell you if such information is intended to be public or private, so that you can make an informed decision about whether you want to provide us with that information. Providing such information is always completely optional. If you don't want to, you don't have to—it's as simple as that. Back to top Location Information GPS & Other Location Technologies Some features we offer work better if we know what area you are in. If you consent, we can use GPS (and other technologies commonly used to determine location) to show you more relevant content. We keep information obtained by these technologies confidential, except as provided in this Policy. You can learn more by checking out the list of examples of how we use these technologies in our FAQ. Back to top Metadata Sometimes, we automatically receive location data from your device. For example, if you want to upload a photo on the Wikimedia Commons mobile app, we may receive metadata, such as the place and time you took the photo, automatically from your device. Please be aware that, unlike location information collected using GPS signals described above, the default setting on your mobile device typically includes the metadata in your photo or video upload to the Wikimedia Sites. If you do not want metadata sent to us and made public at the time of your upload, please change your settings on your device. Back to top IP Addresses Finally, when you visit any Wikimedia Site, we automatically receive the IP address of the device (or your proxy server) you are using to access the Internet, which could be used to infer your geographical location. Back to top Information Related to Your Use of the Wikimedia Sites We use certain technologies to collect information about how you use Wikimedia Sites. Like other websites, we receive some information about you automatically when you visit the Wikimedia Sites. We also use a variety of commonly-used technologies, like cookies, to collect information regarding how you use the Wikimedia Sites, make our services safer and easier to use, and to help create a better and more customizable experience for you. We want to make the Wikimedia Sites better for you by learning more about how you use them. Examples of this might include how often you visit the Wikimedia Sites, what you like, what you find helpful, how you get to the Wikimedia Sites, and whether you would use a helpful feature more if we explained it differently. We also want this Policy and our practices to reflect our community's values. For this reason, we keep information related to your use of the Wikimedia Sites confidential, except as provided in this Policy. Back to top Information We Receive Automatically Because of how browsers work, we receive some information automatically when you visit the Wikimedia Sites. This information includes the type of device you are using (possibly including unique device identification numbers, for some beta versions of our mobile applications), the type and version of your browser, your browser's language preference, the type and version of your device's operating system, in some cases the name of your internet service provider or mobile carrier, the website that referred you to the Wikimedia Sites, which pages you request and visit, and the date and time of each request you make to the Wikimedia Sites. Put simply, we use this information to enhance your experience with Wikimedia Sites. For example, we use this information to administer the sites, provide greater security, and fight vandalism; optimize mobile applications, customize content and set language preferences, test features to see what works, and improve performance; understand how users interact with the Wikimedia Sites, track and study use of various features, gain understanding about the demographics of the different Wikimedia Sites, and analyze trends. Back to top Information We Collect We use a variety of commonly-used technologies, like cookies, to understand how you use the Wikimedia Sites, make our services safer and easier to use, and to help create a better and more customizable experience for you. We actively collect some types of information with a variety of commonly-used technologies. These generally include tracking pixels, JavaScript, and a variety of "locally stored data" technologies, such as cookies and local storage. We realize that some of these technologies do not have the best reputation in town and can be used for less-than-noble purposes. So we want to be as clear as we can about why we use these methods and the type of information we collect with them. Depending on which technology we use, locally stored data can be anything from text, pictures, and whole articles (as we explain further below) to Personal Information (like your IP address) and information about your use of the Wikimedia Sites (like your username or the time of your visit). We use this information to make your experience with the Wikimedia Sites safer and better, to gain a greater understanding of user preferences and their interaction with the Wikimedia Sites, and to generally improve our services. We will never use third-party cookies, unless we get your permission to do so. If you ever come across a third-party data collection tool that has not been authorized by you (such as one that may have been mistakenly placed by another user or administrator), please report it to us at privacy@wikimedia.org. More on Locally Stored Data Locally stored data, JavaScript, and tracking pixels help us do things like: Provide you with a customizable experience, such as using cookies to know your language preference, to remember the user preferences you set so we can provide you with the customized look and feel that you want, and to tell you about interesting Wikimedia issues and events in your area. Deliver more relevant content to you faster. For example, we use local storage to store your most recently read articles directly on your device, so they can be retrieved quickly. Also, we use cookies to learn about the topics searched so that we can optimize the search results we deliver to you. Understand how you use the Wikimedia Sites, so that we know what works and what is useful. For example, we might use cookies to learn about the list of articles you are following on your watchlist so that we can recommend similar articles that you may be interested in. Understand how you use the Wikimedia Sites across different devices, so that we can make our varied Wikimedia Sites more efficient and effective for you. Make the Wikimedia Sites more convenient to use, such as by using cookies to maintain your session when you log in or to remember your username in the login field. Want to know even more? You can read more about some of the specific cookies we use, when they expire, and what we use them for in our FAQ. We believe this data collection helps improve your user experience, but you may remove or disable some or all locally stored data through your browser settings, depending on your browser. You can learn more about some options you have in our FAQ. While locally stored data may not be necessary to use our sites, some features will not function properly if you disable locally stored data. While the examples above concerning information about you collected through the use of data collection tools are kept confidential in accordance with this Policy, please note that some information about the actions taken by your username is made publicly available through public logs alongside actions taken by other users. For example, a public log may include the date your account was created on a Wikimedia Site along with the dates that other accounts were created on a Wikimedia Site. Back to top How We Use Information We Receive From You We and our service providers use your information for the legitimate purpose of pursuing our charitable mission, including: Operating the Wikimedia Sites, sharing your contributions and administering our Services. To help you share your knowledge with the world and add new features to our Services. To arrange access to your account and provide you with related service. To send administrative information to you, such as changes to our policies. To allow you to send messages to another person if you choose to do so. Direct communications between users (such as messages sent through the "Email this user" feature), to the extent such communications are nonpublic and stored in or in transit through Wikimedia Foundation systems, are kept confidential by us, except as provided in this Policy. We engage in these activities to manage our relationship with you, because we have a legitimate interest and/or to comply with our legal obligations. Providing customized Services. To provide to you custom content, notices and settings and to enhance your experience with the Wikimedia Sites. We will customize the Services, in some instances, at your direction; in all instances, in keeping with our legitimate charitable purpose of pursuing our mission. Sending emails with news updates, surveys and communications about items we believe may be of interest to you. To let you know about things that are happening with the Wikimedia Foundation, the Wikimedia Sites or the Wikimedia movement. To alert you when there has been a change to an article that you have decided to follow. We will send these types of emails to you only with your consent. We do not sell, rent, or use your email address to advertise third-party products or services to you. You can manage what kinds of notifications you receive and how often you receive them by going to your Notifications Preferences. You can learn more about email and notifications and how to change your preferences in our FAQ. Sending optional surveys and requesting feedback. We will always tell you, at the time we give you an opportunity to share your thoughts, how we plan on using your answers and any personal information you provide. Your responses to our surveys and feedback requests are always optional. We will email these types of requests to you only with your consent. You can manage what kinds of notifications you receive and how often you receive them by going to your Notifications Preferences. You can learn more about email and notifications and how to change your preferences in our FAQ. Improving the Wikimedia Sites and making your user experience safer and better. To use your public contributions, either aggregated with the public contributions of others or individually, to create new features or data-related products for you or to learn more about how the Wikimedia Sites are used. For research and analytics. To fight spam, identity theft, malware and other kinds of abuse. To optimize mobile and other applications. To test features to see what works, understand how users interact with the Wikimedia Sites, track and study use of various features, gain understanding about the demographics of the different Wikimedia Sites and analyze trends. We engage in these activities to further our legitimate charitable purpose and/or to comply with our legal obligations. Back to top Other Location Information GPS & Other Location Technologies As stated above, we can use commonly-used location technologies to show you more relevant content. For example, our mobile apps can identify articles from the Wikimedia sites about points of interest near your location. As a reminder, you can deactivate our access to these location technologies at any time, and still use the Wikimedia Sites. Back to top Metadata As stated above, we may automatically receive location data from your device. For example, if you upload a photo using the Wikimedia Commons mobile app, please be aware that the default setting on your mobile device typically results in the metadata associated with your photo being included in the upload. As a reminder, if you do not want metadata sent to us and made public at the time of your upload, please change your settings on your device. Back to top IP Addresses When you visit any Wikimedia Site, we automatically receive the IP address of the device (or your proxy server) you are using to access the Internet, which could be used to infer your geographical location. We keep IP addresses confidential, except as provided in this Policy. If you are visiting Wikimedia Sites with your mobile device, we may use your IP address to provide anonymized or aggregated information to service providers regarding the volume of usage in certain areas. We use this location information to make your experience with the Wikimedia Sites safer and better, to gain a greater understanding of user preferences and their interaction with the Wikimedia Sites, and to generally improve our services. For example, we use this information to provide greater security, optimize mobile applications, and learn how to expand and better support Wikimedia communities. We also use Personal Information in the manner described in the sections of this Policy titled "For Legal Reasons" and "To Protect You, Ourselves & Others." Back to top Sharing When May We Share Your Information? We may share your information when you give us specific permission to do so, for legal reasons, and in the other circumstances described below. With Your Permission We share your information when you give us specific permission to do so. We share your information for a particular purpose, if you agree. You can find more information in the list of examples in our FAQ. Back to top For Legal Reasons We will disclose your information in response to an official legal process only if we believe it to be legally valid. We will notify you of such requests when possible. We will access, use, preserve, and/or disclose your Personal Information if we reasonably believe it necessary to satisfy a valid and legally enforceable warrant, subpoena, court order, law or regulation, or other judicial or administrative order. However, if we believe that a particular request for disclosure of a user's information is legally invalid or an abuse of the legal system and the affected user does not intend to oppose the disclosure themselves, we will try our best to fight it. We are committed to notifying you via email at least ten (10) calendar days, when possible, before we disclose your Personal Information in response to a legal demand. However, we may only provide notice if we are not legally restrained from contacting you, there is no credible threat to life or limb that is created or increased by disclosing the request, and you have provided us with an email address. Nothing in this Privacy Policy is intended to limit any legal objections or defenses you may have to a third party's request (whether it be civil, criminal, or governmental) to disclose your information. We recommend seeking the advice of legal counsel immediately if such a request is made involving you. For more information, see our Subpoena FAQ. Back to top If the Organization is Transferred (Really Unlikely!) In the unlikely event that the ownership of the Foundation changes, we will provide you 30 days’ notice before any personal information is transferred to the new owners or becomes subject to a different privacy policy. In the extremely unlikely event that ownership of all or substantially all of the Foundation changes, or we go through a reorganization (such as a merger, consolidation, or acquisition), we will continue to keep your Personal Information confidential, except as provided in this Policy, and provide notice to you via the Wikimedia Sites and a notification on WikimediaAnnounce-L or similar mailing list at least thirty (30) calendar days before any Personal Information is transferred or becomes subject to a different privacy policy. Back to top To Protect You, Ourselves & Others We, or users with certain administrative rights, may disclose information that is reasonably necessary to: enforce or investigate potential violations of the Wikimedia Foundation or community-based policies; protect our organization, infrastructure, employees, contractors, or the public; or prevent imminent or serious bodily harm or death to a person. We, or particular users with certain administrative rights as described below, may need to share your Personal Information if it is reasonably believed to be necessary to enforce or investigate potential violations of our Terms of Use, this Privacy Policy, or any Wikimedia Foundation or user community-based policies. We may also need to access and share information to investigate and defend ourselves against legal threats or actions. Wikimedia Sites are collaborative, with users writing most of the policies and selecting from amongst themselves people to hold certain administrative rights. These rights may include access to limited amounts of otherwise nonpublic information about recent contributions and activity by other users. They use this access to help protect against vandalism and abuse, fight harassment of other users, and generally try to minimize disruptive behavior on the Wikimedia Sites. These various user-selected administrative groups have their own privacy and confidentiality guidelines, but all such groups are supposed to agree to follow our Access to Nonpublic Information Policy. These user-selected administrative groups are accountable to other users through checks and balances: users are selected through a community-driven process and overseen by their peers through a logged history of their actions. However, the legal names of these users are not known to the Wikimedia Foundation. We hope that this never comes up, but we may disclose your Personal Information if we believe that it's reasonably necessary to prevent imminent and serious bodily harm or death to a person, or to protect our organization, employees, contractors, users, or the public. We may also disclose your Personal Information if we reasonably believe it necessary to detect, prevent, or otherwise assess and address potential spam, malware, fraud, abuse, unlawful activity, and security or technical concerns. (Check out the list of examples in our FAQ for more information.) Back to top To Our Service Providers We may disclose personal information to our third party service providers or contractors to help run or improve the Wikimedia Sites and provide services in support of our mission. As hard as we may try, we can't do it all. So sometimes we use third-party service providers or contractors who help run or improve the Wikimedia Sites for you and other users. We give access to your Personal Information to these providers or contractors as needed to perform their services for us or to use their tools and services. We put requirements, such as confidentiality agreements, in place to help ensure that these service providers treat your information consistently with, and no less protective of your privacy than, the principles of this Policy. (Check out the list of examples in our FAQ.) If you are visiting Wikimedia Sites with your mobile device, we use your IP address to provide anonymized or aggregated information to service providers regarding the volume of usage in certain areas. Back to top To Understand & Experiment We give volunteer developers and researchers access to systems that contain your information to allow them to protect, develop, and contribute to the Wikimedia Sites. We also share non-Personal Information or aggregated information with third parties interested in studying the Wikimedia Sites. When we share information with third parties for these purposes, we put reasonable technical and contractual protections in place to protect your information consistent with this Policy. The open-source software that powers the Wikimedia Sites depends on the contributions of volunteer software developers, who spend time writing and testing code to help it improve and evolve with our users' needs. To facilitate their work, we give some developers limited access to systems that contain your Personal Information, but only as reasonably necessary for them to develop and contribute to the Wikimedia Sites. Similarly, we share non-Personal Information or aggregated information with researchers, scholars, academics, and other interested third parties who wish to study the Wikimedia Sites. Sharing this information helps them understand usage, viewing, and demographics statistics and patterns. They then can share their findings with us and our users so that we can all better understand and improve the Wikimedia Sites. When we give access to personal information to third-party developers or researchers, we put requirements, such as reasonable technical and contractual protections, in place to help ensure that these service providers treat your information consistently with the principles of this Policy and in accordance with our instructions. If these developers or researchers later publish their work or findings, we ask that they not disclose your personal information. Please note that, despite the obligations we impose on developers and researchers, we cannot guarantee that they will abide by our agreement, nor do we guarantee that we will regularly screen or audit their projects. (You can learn more about re-identification in our FAQ.) Back to top Because You Made It Public Information that you post is public and can been seen and used by everyone. Any information you post publicly on the Wikimedia Sites is just that – public. For example, if you put your mailing address on your talk page, that is public, and not protected by this Policy. And if you edit without registering or logging into your account, your IP address will be seen publicly. Please think carefully about your desired level of anonymity before you disclose Personal Information on your user page or elsewhere. Back to top Protection How Do We Protect Your Data? We use a variety of physical and technical measures, policies, and procedures to help protect your information from unauthorized access, use, or disclosure. We strive to protect your information from unauthorized access, use, or disclosure. We use a variety of physical and technical measures, policies, and procedures (such as access control procedures, network firewalls, and physical security) designed to protect our systems and your Personal Information. Unfortunately, there's no such thing as completely secure data transmission or storage, so we can't guarantee that our security will not be breached (by technical measures or through violation of our policies and procedures). We will never ask for your password by email (but may send you a temporary password via email if you have requested a password reset). If you ever receive an email that requests your password, please let us know by sending it to privacy@wikimedia.org, so we can investigate the source of the email. Back to top How Long Do We Keep Your Data? Except as otherwise stated in this policy, we only keep your Personal Information as long as necessary to maintain, understand and improve the Wikimedia Sites or to comply with U.S. law. Once we receive Personal Information from you, we keep it for the shortest possible time that is consistent with the maintenance, understanding, and improvement of the Wikimedia Sites, and our obligations under applicable U.S. law. Non-personal information may be retained indefinitely. (Check out the list of examples in our FAQ.) Please remember that certain information, such as your IP address (if you edit while not logged in) and any public contributions to the Wikimedia Sites, is archived and displayed indefinitely by design; the transparency of the projects’ contribution and revision histories is critical to their efficacy and trustworthiness. To learn more about our data retention practices, see our data retention guidelines. For further information about how you may request access to or deletion of your Personal Information, or other rights you may have with respect to your Personal Information, see our FAQ. Back to top Important info For the protection of the Wikimedia Foundation and other users, if you do not agree with this Privacy Policy, you may not use the Wikimedia Sites. Where is the Foundation & What Does That Mean for Me? The Wikimedia Foundation is a non-profit organization based in San Francisco, California, with servers and data centers located in the U.S. If you decide to use Wikimedia Sites, whether from inside or outside of the U.S., you understand that your Personal Information will be collected, transferred, stored, processed, disclosed and otherwise used in the U.S. as described in this Privacy Policy. You also understand that your information may be transferred by us from the U.S. to other countries, which may have different or less stringent data protection laws than your country, in connection with providing services to you. Back to top Our Response to Do Not Track (DNT) signals We do not allow tracking by third-party websites you have not visited. We do not share your data with third parties for marketing purposes. We are strongly committed to not sharing nonpublic information and Personal Information with third parties. In particular, we do not allow tracking by third-party websites you have not visited (including analytics services, advertising networks, and social platforms), nor do we share your Personal Information with any third parties for marketing purposes. Under this Policy, we may share your information only under particular situations, which you can learn more about in the “When May We Share Your Information” section of this Privacy Policy. Because we protect all users in this manner, we do not change our behavior in response to a web browser's "do not track" signal. For more information regarding Do Not Track signals and how we handle them, please visit our FAQ. Back to top Changes to This Privacy Policy Substantial changes to this Policy will not be made until after a public comment period of at least 30 days. Because things naturally change over time and we want to ensure our Privacy Policy accurately reflects our practices and the law, it may be necessary to modify this Privacy Policy from time to time. We reserve the right to do so in the following manner: In the event of substantial changes, we will provide the proposed changes to our users in at least three (3) languages (selected at our discretion) for open comment period lasting at least thirty (30) calendar days. Prior to the start of any comment period, we will provide notice of such changes and the opportunity to comment via the Wikimedia Sites, and via a notification on WikimediaAnnounce-L or a similar mailing list. For minor changes, such as grammatical fixes, administrative or legal changes, or corrections of inaccurate statements, we will post the changes and, when possible, provide at least three (3) calendar days' prior notice via WikimediaAnnounce-L or similar mailing list. We ask that you please review the most up-to-date version of our Privacy Policy. Your continued use of the Wikimedia Sites after this Privacy Policy becomes effective constitutes acceptance of this Privacy Policy on your part. Your continued use of the Wikimedia Sites after any subsequent version of this Privacy Policy becomes effective, following notice as outlined above, constitutes acceptance of that version of the Privacy Policy on your part. Contact Us If you have questions or suggestions about this Privacy Policy, or the information collected under this Privacy Policy, please email us at privacy@wikimedia.org or contact us directly. Depending on your jurisdiction, you also may have the right to lodge a complaint with a supervisory authority competent for your country or region. Thank You! Thank you for reading our Privacy Policy. We hope you enjoy using the Wikimedia Sites and appreciate your participation in creating, maintaining, and constantly working to improve the largest repository of free knowledge in the world. Please note that in the event of any differences in meaning or interpretation between the original English version of this Privacy Policy and a translation, the original English version takes precedence. Back to top This version was approved by Katherine Maher on May 17, 2018, pursuant to the Delegation of policy-making authority by the Board, and went into effect on May 24, 2018. Previous versions can be found below: Privacy policy (June 2014 - May 2018): effective from June 6, 2014 until May 24, 2018 Privacy policy (November 2008 - June 2014): effective from November 25, 2008 until June 6, 2014 Privacy policy (August 2008 - November 2008): effective from August 19, 2008 until November 25, 2008. Privacy policy (June 2006 - August 2008): effective from June 21, 2006 until August 19, 2008. Privacy policy (April 2005 to June 2006): effective from April 2005 until June 21, 2006 Please note that in the event of any differences in meaning or interpretation between the original English version of this Privacy Policy and a translation, the original English version takes precedence. ± Privacy-related pages Privacy policy · FAQ · Glossary of key terms · Wikimedia blog privacy policy · Subpoena FAQ · Access to nonpublic information · Data retention guidelines · Donor policy · Requests for user information Retrieved from "https://foundation.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Privacy_policy&oldid=123545" Categories: Privacy policy Policy Hidden category: Governance wiki Navigation menu Personal tools English Log in Namespaces Page Discussion Variants Views Read Feedback View history More Search About Wikimedia Home Official website Contact us Wikimedia Blog Questions for Wikimedia? Support Donate Volunteering Wikimedia Shop Corporate Bylaws Values Policies Resolutions Annual Report Financial reports and Form 990 Fundraising reports Movement affiliates Wiki Give feedback Recent changes Tools What links here Related changes Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version This page was last edited on 8 October 2020, at 00:45. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Privacy policy About Wikimedia Foundation Governance Wiki Disclaimers Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
foundation-wikimedia-org-4542	----	Cookie statement - Wikimedia Foundation Governance Wiki Cookie statement From the Wikimedia Foundation Governance Wiki Jump to navigation Jump to search As stated in our Privacy Policy, Wikimedia believes strongly in the values of privacy and transparency. To that end, we’ve created this Cookie Statement as a clear reference guide to the use of cookies on Wikimedia Sites. This Cookie Statement explains how we use cookies (and other locally stored data technologies), how we use third-party cookies, and how you can manage your cookie options. For more information on our privacy practices, please visit our Privacy Policy. The Wikimedia Foundation, the non-profit organization that hosts the Wikimedia Sites, actively collects some types of information with a variety of commonly-used technologies. These generally include tracking pixels, JavaScript, and a variety of "locally stored data" technologies, such as cookies and local storage. Contents 1 What is a cookie? 2 What types of cookies does Wikimedia use and for what purposes? 3 What are my cookie options? 4 Where can I find more information? What is a cookie? A “cookie” is a tiny data file that we transfer onto your computer, mobile phone, or any other device that you use to access the Wikimedia Sites, and is generally used for authentication and tracking. Every cookie expires after a certain period of time, but that period varies depending on what the cookie is used for and how your browser is configured. Cookies are often categorized based on how long they remain active before they expire. A “session” cookie is one that generally expires when you close your web browser or mobile application. A “persistent” cookie is one that remains in your device, even after you close your browser or mobile application.  A persistent cookie expires according to the duration set by us, or when you delete it manually. You can learn more about cookies on Wikipedia. You may remove or disable cookies through your browser settings. For more information on how to manage your cookie options, please see Section 3 of this Cookie Statement below. For more information on this and other key terms that may be relevant, please read through our Privacy Policy Glossary. What types of cookies does Wikimedia use and for what purposes? Cookies are not required in order to read or edit the Wikimedia Sites. We use the information we receive from cookies and other locally-stored data technologies to make your experience with the Wikimedia Sites safer and better, to gain a greater understanding of user preferences and interactions with the Wikimedia Sites, and to generally improve our services. Cookies are required in order to login and for your edits to be associated to a user account; without cookies, your edits will be anonymous and unassociated with an account. We use cookies, JavaScript, tracking pixels, and other locally-stored data technologies to accomplish different purposes. Below is a list of the categories of cookies we use and what they are used for. Functionality: These cookies help the Wikimedia Sites work and are essential in order to enable you to move around the Wikimedia site and use their features. These cookies are useful for remembering your username in the login field, maintaining your session and remembering previous actions, keeping you logged in (if selected), and more. Here are a few examples: Name Expires Category What does it do? centralauth_Token {$wgCookiePrefix}* Token 365 days, if the user chooses ‘Keep me logged in’. Otherwise omitted. Functionality Provides ‘Keep me logged in’ functionality. {$wgCookiePrefix}* UserID, UserName 365 days, if the user chooses ‘Keep me logged in’. Otherwise 30 days. Functionality Helps identify you to the wiki, and keeps you logged in. loginnotify_prevlogins 180 days Functionality Verifies that you are logging in from a known device. This affects the threshold for how many unsuccessful login attempts trigger a notification to the user. centralauth_Session {$wgCookiePrefix}* Session When user exits browser Functionality Manage sessions. Provides functionality such as logging in to Wikimedia Projects. Preferences: These cookies store your preferences, so that they can be remembered the next time you use the Wikimedia Sites, for a more customized experience.  These cookies are useful for recognizing and maintaining your language preference, remembering changes you have made to text size, fonts and other display preferences, so we can provide you with the look and feel that you want, and more.   Here are a few examples: Name Expires Category What does it do? stopMobileRedirect 30 days Preferences Tells us not to redirect to the mobile site if you don’t like that. uls-preferences Local Storage, not a cookie Preferences Allows you to set preferences for the Universal Language Selector functionality. hidewatchlistmessage- [watchlistMessageId] ● where watchlistMessageld is the Id of the message being hidden 28 days Preferences Allows a user to hide a watchlist message. userFontSize Local Storage, not a cookie Preferences Keeps track of your preferred font size on the mobile site. preferredEditor Local Storage, not a cookie Preferences Keeps track of your preferred editor on the mobile site. Performance and Analysis: These cookies count the number of visitors and collect information about how you use the Wikimedia Sites. This allows us to better understand your user experience on the Wikimedia Sites and helps us improve them for you and other users — for instance, by making sure users are finding what they need easily. Other examples include: remembering pages visited, and actions taken on the Wikimedia sites so we can optimize the pages; remembering if users get error messages from web pages; storing your most recently read articles directly on your device, so they can be retrieved quickly; remembering the topics searched so that we can optimize the search results we deliver to you; remembering the list of articles you are following on your watchlist so that we can recommend similar articles that you may be interested in. Here are a few examples: Name Expires Category What does it do? centralnotice_bucket 7 days Performance and Analysis Helps us understand the effectiveness of notices provided to users through the CentralNotice extension. For more details, see https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:CentralNotice ext.popups.core.previewCount Local Storage, not a cookie Performance and Analysis Helps us understand the effectiveness of Hovercards. WMF-Last-Access 30 days Performance and Analysis Helps us calculate Unique devices accessing our site. See: https://blog.wikimedia.org/2016/03/30/unique-devices-dataset/ Third-Party: We will never use third-party cookies on our wikis unless we get your permission to do so. These cookies would allow us to render services provided by third parties, such as “like” and “share” buttons. When a third party provides these kinds of services, they may require the use of a cookie in order to provide their services. If you ever come across a third-party cookie transferred to your device during your access of the Wikimedia wiki sites, where you did not take any action to authorize the use and/or transfer of that cookie  (such as one that may have been mistakenly placed by another user or administrator), please report that cookie to us at privacy@wikimedia.org. A note about Wikimedia sites hosted by WordPress: Some non-wiki Wikimedia Foundation sites are hosted by a third-party service provider, WordPress VIP. These sites may have the WordPress Stats module enabled. Stats is a service that allows us to understand how many visitors we get to our WordPress-hosted non-wiki sites, their location by country, and which pages, posts and links are the most popular. Only the Wikimedia Foundation and the service provider, Automattic/WordPress, have access to the raw Stats data, which is retained for a maximum of 30 days. For more information about Stats, see WordPress’ support page on the module. 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fr-wikipedia-org-6536	----	Xerxès Ier — Wikipédia Aller au contenu Afficher / masquer  la barre latérale Rechercher Outils personnels Non connecté Discussion Contributions Créer un compte Se connecter Navigation Accueil Portails thématiques Article au hasard Contact Contribuer Débuter sur Wikipédia Aide Communauté Modifications récentes Faire un don Outils Pages liées Suivi des pages liées Téléverser un fichier Pages spéciales Lien permanent Informations sur la page Citer cette page Élément Wikidata Imprimer / exporter Créer un livre Télécharger comme PDF Version imprimable Dans d’autres projets Wikimedia Commons Dans d’autres langues Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Modifier les liens Menu de navigation Espaces de noms Article Discussion Variantes Affichages Lire Modifier Modifier le code Voir l’historique Plus Xerxès Ier Un article de Wikipédia, l'encyclopédie libre. Pour les articles homonymes, voir Xerxès. Xerxès Ier le Grand Bas-relief en pierre de Xerxès Ier sur sa tombe à Naqsh-e Rostam. Titre Grand roi Achéménide, pharaon de l'Égypte antique 486 – 465 av. J.-C. Prédécesseur Darius Ier Successeur Artaxerxès Ier Biographie Dynastie Achéménides, XXVIIe dynastie (première domination perse) Date de naissance v. 519 av. J.-C. Date de décès v. 465 av. J.-C.[1] Père Darius Ier Mère Atossa Conjoint Amestris Enfants ♂ Artaxerxès ♂ Darius ♂ Hystaspès Artarius ♂ Thitraustès ♀ Rodogyne Dareiaia ♂ Achéménès (?) Amytis Ratashah modifier  Xerxès Ier (en vieux perse : 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠 / Xšayaṛša ; en persan : خشایارشا / Xašâyâršâ), né vers 519 av. J.-C. et mort en 465 av. J.-C.[1]), est un grand roi perse, membre de la dynastie des Achéménides qui régnèrent sur un empire s'étendant de l'Indus à la mer Égée et du Syr-Daria au golfe Persique et au Nil, incluant ainsi l'Égypte antique durant la XXVIIe dynastie. Manéthon l’appelle Xerxès le Grand et lui compte vingt-et-un ans de règne (Africanus, Eusebius). Sommaire 1 Généalogie 2 Règne 2.1 Campagne contre la Grèce 2.2 La campagne de Xerxès 3 Dans la culture 4 Notes et références 5 Annexes 5.1 Bibliographie 5.2 Article connexe 5.3 Lien externe Généalogie[modifier | modifier le code] Voir l’article annexe : Arbre généalogique des Achéménides. Règne[modifier | modifier le code] Tablette de l'époque de Xerxès. Campagne contre la Grèce[modifier | modifier le code] Roi de Perse de 485 à 465 av. J.-C., il est désigné par son père de préférence à Artobarzanès, son frère aîné. Par sa mère, Atossa, fille de Cyrus le Grand, il est le descendant direct du fondateur de l'Empire achéménide. À la mort de son père, Darius Ier, il participe à des campagnes en Égypte (484 av. J.-C.) et à Babylone (482 av. J.-C.). Il relance ensuite à nouveau le projet d'une campagne militaire dirigée contre la Grèce. Il soumet l'Égypte révoltée, puis reprend les desseins de son père contre la Grèce et déclenche la Deuxième guerre médique (-480). Il réalise des levées en masse, parvient à rassembler une immense armée pour l'époque[2], équipe en même temps une flotte de plus de 1 200 voiles, destinée à longer le littoral de la mer Égée, jette un pont de bateaux sur l'Hellespont pour franchir ce détroit et fait fouetter la mer pour la punir d'avoir rompu ce pont. Il crée un canal, dans la région d'Ouranopoli, en perçant l'isthme qui unissait le mont Athos au continent pour donner passage à sa flotte, reçoit la soumission de la Macédoine et de la Thessalie, est arrêté durant sept jours devant les Thermopyles que défend Léonidas et ne les franchit qu'après avoir perdu 20 000 hommes. Il prend Thèbes, Platées, Thespies, entre sans résistance dans Athènes, qu'il livre aux flammes, mais voit sa flotte anéantie par Thémistocle à la bataille de Salamine (480 av. J.-C.). Il regagne l'Asie et laisse le commandement de ses troupes à Mardonios. L'année suivante, ses troupes sont encore battues par les Grecs coalisés à Platées et à Mycale. Il se retire à Suse et ne participe plus aux combats ultérieurs. Il entame une politique de grands travaux. Les dernières années de son règne sont peu connues. Il est assassiné en -465 dans un complot dirigé par son ministre Artaban. Son fils Artaxerxès lui succède. Xerxès Ier, portrait imaginaire du XVIe siècle publié par Guillaume Rouillé. Xerxès Ier est assimilé par les historiens contemporains à l'Assuérus de la Bible, où il apparaît dans les livres d'Esther et d'Esdras. Sa sépulture est probablement située dans la falaise à Naqsh-e Rostam, à proximité géographique du palais achéménide de Persépolis et du tombeau de Cyrus II dit Cyrus le Grand à Pasargades. Il eut également une fille Amytis. La campagne de Xerxès[modifier | modifier le code] Six ans après la mort de son père Darius, Xerxès lance une offensive sur la Grèce pour se venger d'Athènes, connue sous le nom de deuxième guerre médique. Son armée (un million sept cent mille hommes selon Hérodote, plus vraisemblablement 250 000 hommes) passa l'hiver en Asie Mineure pour ensuite se diriger vers l'Hellespont. Arrivé en Thrace, il dirige son armée vers le sud. Il fait face à l'alliance des cités grecques dans le défilé des Thermopyles mais parvient à maintenir l'offensive et mène en 480 av. J.-C. le sac d'Athènes. C'est près des côtes athéniennes, dans le détroit de Salamine, qu'il connaît sa première déconvenue. Devant l'imposante flotte perse, les navires grecs simulent une retraite, confortée par une ruse de guerre menée à bien par Sicinnos à l'instigation de Thémistocle. Ils amènent ainsi l'armée de Xerxès dans le détroit de Salamine. Les navires qui empruntèrent ce chenal furent détruits par les navires grecs, plus maniables[3]. Dans la culture[modifier | modifier le code] Serse (Xerxès, HWV40) est un opéra de Georg Friedrich Haendel, créé à Londres le 15 avril 1738 Dans le film 300 de Zack Snyder réalisé en 2006 et sa suite, 300 : La Naissance d'un Empire de Noam Murro, sorti en 2014, Xerxès est joué par Rodrigo Santoro (VF : Bernard Gabay et VQ : Daniel Picard) La Bataille des Thermopyles de Rudolph Maté sorti en 1962 aux États-Unis. Xerxès est joué par David Farrar Les Perses téléfilm français de Jean Prat, réalisé en 1961, d'après la tragédie d'Eschyle. Xerxès est joué par Claude Martin Dans le jeu vidéo Assassin's Creed Origins, Xerxès est brièvement mentionné comme le premier tyran à avoir été assassiné avec une lame secrète, l'arme typique des Assassins. Il apparaît dans le jeu vidéo Assassin's Creed Odyssey Dans le manga Full Metal Alchemist et l'anime Fullmetal Alchemist Brotherhood, Xerxès est le nom d'une cité antique, située au centre du désert séparant les pays d'Amestris et de Xing. La légende raconte qu'elle fut vidée de ses habitants en une nuit. Le roi de Xerxès recherchait en effet l'immortalité et demanda ses services à Hohenheim (aidé par « le petit être dans la fiole » / Homonculus), ce qui causa la perte de la cité. Dans le manga Pandora Hearts, Xerxès est un personnage ayant un rôle important. Il obtient généralement ce qu'il veut, peu importe par quel moyen. Notes et références[modifier | modifier le code] ↑ a et b D'après d'autres sources, Xerxès serait mort en 475 av. J.-C. : « Nous avons vu que, d’après la chronologie de Thucydide, Xerxès mourut vers la fin de l’année 475 avant notre ère, et que, selon le même historien, Thémistocle est arrivé dans l’Asie Mineure peu de temps après l’avènement au trône d’Artaxerce Longue-main. » — Mémoires présentés par divers savants à l’Académie royale des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres de l’Institut de France « Il faut donc, conformément à la Chronique alexandrine, placer la mort de Xerxès en 475 après onze ans de règne. » — E. Levesque, Revue apologétique D'après Justin à l’époque du meurtre de Xerxès, Artaxerxès Ier, son fils, n'avait que seize ans. ↑ Selon Hérodote, 1 700 000 hommes, et selon les historiens, l'armée de Xerxès compte 40 000 à 200 000 hommes : un article de Kaveh Farrokh sur ghandchi.com ↑ Xerxès assista à la défaite de son armée du haut d'une colline de l'Attique, cf. Histoire sur l'Internaute. Annexes[modifier | modifier le code] Bibliographie[modifier | modifier le code] Henri Pigaillem, Salamine et les guerres médiques, Economica, 2004. Pierre Briant, Histoire de l’Empire perse, de Cyrus à Alexandre, 1996 [détail de l’édition] Maria Brosius (pt), Women in Ancient Persia, 559-33l.BC, Clarendon Press, Oxford, l.98. Article connexe[modifier | modifier le code] Guerres médiques Lien externe[modifier | modifier le code] Pour en savoir plus sur la deuxième guerre médique v · m Achéménides Grands rois (dans l’ordre de succession) Cyrus II (r. 559–529 av. J.-C.) · Cambyse II (r. 529–522 av. J.-C.) · Bardiya (r. 522 av. J.-C.) · Darius Ier (r. 522–486 av. J.-C.) · Xerxès Ier (r. 486–465 av. J.-C.) · Artaxerxès Ier (r. 465–424 av. J.-C.) · Xerxès II (r. 424 av. J.-C.) · Sogdianos (r. 424 av. J.-C.) · Darius II (r. 424–404 av. J.-C.) · Artaxerxès II (r. 404–359 av. J.-C.) · Artaxerxès III (r. 359–338 av. J.-C.) · Arsès (r. 338–336 av. J.-C.) · Darius III (r. 336–330 av. J.-C.) Capitales Anshan · Pasargades · Persépolis (Naqsh-e Rostam) · Suse · Ecbatane · Babylone Culture Religion · Ahura Mazda · Vieux perse · Cylindre de Cyrus · Inscription de Behistun v · m Chronologie des rois et pharaons Période prédynastique Dynastie zéro Horus au serekh Horus Ny-Hor Horus Hat-Hor Horus Pe-Hor Horus Hedj-Hor Horus Crocodile Horus Lion Horus Scorpion Ier Horus Scorpion II Iry-Hor Ka Shesh Ire ♀ Période thinite Ire dynastie Narmer Hor-Aha Atoti Djer Ouadji (ou Djet) Den Adjib Sémerkhet Qâ Sneferka Horus Oiseau IIe dynastie Hotepsekhemoui Nebrê Ninetjer Ouneg Sénedj Noubnefer Horus Ba Horus Sa Péribsen Sekhemib Khâsekhemoui Neferkarê Néferkasokar Houdjefa Ier Ancien Empire IIIe dynastie Djéser Sanakht Sekhemkhet Khaba Houni IVe dynastie Snéfrou Khéops Djédefrê Baka Khéphren Mykérinos Chepseskaf Djédefptah Ve dynastie Ouserkaf Sahourê Néferirkarê Kakaï Néferefrê Chepseskarê Niouserrê Menkaouhor Djedkarê Isési Ounas VIe dynastie Téti Ouserkarê Pépi Ier Mérenrê Ier Pépi II Mérenrê II Netjerkarê Menkarê Neferkarê Neferkarê Neby Première Période intermédiaire VIIe et VIIIe dynasties Djedkarê II Shemaï Neferkarê Khendou Mérenhor Néferkamin Ier Nykarê Neferkarê Térérou Néferkahor Néferkarê Pepiseneb Néferkamin Anou Qakarê Ibi Néferkaourê Néferkaouhor Ouadjkarê Néferirkarê II Pépi Sekhemkarê Ity Imhotep Hotep Isou Iytjenou Khoui IXe et Xe dynasties Meribrê Khety Nebkaourê Khety Ouahkarê Khety Merikarê Neferkarê XIe dynastie thébaine Montouhotep Ier Antef Ier Antef II Antef III Moyen Empire XIe dynastie thébaine Montouhotep II Montouhotep III Montouhotep IV XIIe dynastie Amenemhat Ier Sésostris Ier Amenemhat II Sésostris II Sésostris III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Néférousobek ♀ Deuxième Période intermédiaire XIIIe dynastie Sekhemrê-Khoutaouy Sobekhotep Ier Sekhemkarê Senebef Nerykarê Sekhemkarê Amenemhat V Ameny-Qemaou Hotepibrê Sahornedjheritef Ioufeni Sânkhibrê Amenemhat (ou Amenemhat VI) Semenkarê Nebnoun Sehotepibrê Sousekhtaouy Souadjkarê Nedjemibrê Reniseneb Aoutibrê Hor Ier Sekhemrê-Khoutaouy Khâbaou Horus Djedkheperou Seb Sebkay Sedjefakarê Amenemhat VII Khoutaouyrê Ougaf Ouserkarê Khendjer Smenkhkarê Imyramesha Sehotepkarê Antef IV Meribrê Seth Sekhemrê-Souadjtaouy Sobekhotep II Khâsekhemrê Neferhotep Ier Khâouadjrê Sahathor Khâneferrê Sobekhotep III Khâânkhrê Sobekhotep IV Merhoteprê Sobekhotep V Ouahibrê Ibiâou Merneferrê Aÿ Ier Khâhoteprê Sobekhotep VI Merhoteprê Ini Ier Sânkhenrê Souadjetou Mersekhemrê Ined Mersekhemrê Neferhotep II Souadjkarê Hori Merkaourê Sobekhotep VII Rois non classés Nebmaâtrê Merânkhrê Montouhotep V Mershepesrê Ini II Merikheperrê Merdjefarê Djedhoteprê Dedoumes Seneferibrê Senousert IV -maâtrê Ibi II Ousermontou Khouiker Seneferânkhrê Pépi III Maârê Sobekhotep IX Oubenrê Hor II Merkarê Âaqen Âby Khentykhentyemsaf XIVe dynastie Plusieurs rois, dont : Sekhâenrê Yakbemou Nebououserrê Yaâmmou Khâouserrê Qareh Aheteprê Âamou Maâibrê Sheshi Âasehrê Néhési Nebsenrê Sekheperenrê Sekhâenrê Sherek Merouserrê Yaqoub-Her XVe dynastie hyksôs Semqen Aper-Anat Sakir-Har (en) Khyan Apophis Ier Apophis II ? Khamoudy XVIe dynastie thébaine Sekhemrê-Sementaouy Djehouty Sekhemrê-Sousertaouy Sobekhotep VIII Sekhemrê-Sânhktaouy Neferhotep III (ou Iykherneferet) Sânkhenrê Montouhotepi Souadjenrê Nebiryraou Ier Nebiryraou II Semenrê Souserenrê Bebiânkh Souahenrê Senebmiou Soudjârê Montouhotep VI Sekhâenrê ...-es Seheqaenrê Sânkhptahi Sekhemrê-Ouahkhâou Râhotep Sekhemrê-Ouadjkhâou Sobekemsaf Ier Djedneferrê Dedoumes Djedânkhrê Montouemsaf Dynastie d'Abydos (ou XVIe dynastie) Menkhâourê Senââib Sekhemrê-Khoutaouy Paentjeny Sekhemrê-Neferkhâou Oupouaoutemsaf Ouseribrê Senebkay XVIIe dynastie thébaine Sekhemrê-Shedtaouy Sobekemsaf II Sekhemrê-Oupmaât Antef-Âa V Sekhemrê-Herouhermaât Antef VI Noubkheperrê Antef VII Senakhtenrê Iâhmes (ou Iâhmès) Seqenenrê Tâa Ouadjkheperrê Kames (ou Kamosis) Nouvel Empire XVIIIe dynastie Ahmes (ou Iâhmès) Amenhotep Ier Thoutmôsis Ier Thoutmôsis II Hatchepsout ♀ Thoutmôsis III Amenhotep II Thoutmôsis IV Amenhotep III Amenhotep IV / Akhenaton Ânkh-Khéperourê Néfernéférouaton ? Smenkhkarê Toutânkhaton puis Toutânkhamon Aÿ Horemheb XIXe dynastie ramesside Ramsès Ier Séthi Ier Ramsès II Mérenptah Séthi II Amenmes Siptah Taousert ♀ XXe dynastie ramesside Sethnakht Ramsès III Ramsès IV Ramsès V Ramsès VI Ramsès VII Ramsès VIII Ramsès IX Ramsès X Ramsès XI Troisième Période intermédiaire XXIe dynastie de Tanis Nesbanebdjed Ier (Smendès) Pinedjem Ier Amenemnesout Psousennès Ier Aménémopé Osorkon l'ancien Siamon Psousennès II XXIIe dynastie de Bubastis Sheshonq Ier Nimlot Ier Osorkon Ier Sheshonq II Takélot Ier Osorkon II Takélot II Sheshonq III Pimay Sheshonq IV Osorkon III Dynastie des grands prêtres d'Amon à Thèbes (parallèle aux XXIe et XXIIe dynasties) Hérihor Piânkh Masaharta Djedkhonsouefânkh Menkhéperrê Nesbanebdjed II Pinedjem II Psousennès III Ioupout Iouwelot Nesbanebdjed III Harsiesi Ier Nimlot II Osorkon Harsiesi II Takélot XXIIIe dynastie de Tanis Pétoubastis Ier Ioupout Ier Sheshonq V Osorkon IV Takélot III Roudamon Ioupout II Osorkon IV Gemenefkhonsoubak Pétoubastis II XXIVe dynastie saïte Tefnakht Bakenranef Ammeris Basse époque XXVe dynastie koushite Alara Kachta Piânkhy Chabaka Chabataka Taharqa Tanoutamon XXVIe dynastie saïte Ammeris Stephinates Néchepso Nékao Ier Psammétique Ier Nékao II Psammétique II Apriès Amasis Psammétique III XXVIIe dynastie perse Cambyse II Bardiya Darius Ier Xerxès Ier Artaxerxès Ier Xerxès II Sogdianos Darius II Artaxerxès II XXVIIIe dynastie Amyrtée XXIXe dynastie Néphéritès Ier Psammouthis Achôris Néphéritès II XXXe dynastie Nectanébo Ier Téos Nectanébo II XXXIe dynastie perse Artaxerxès III Arsès Darius III Période grecque Dynastie macédonienne (parfois appelée XXXIIe dynastie) Alexandre le Grand Philippe III Alexandre IV Dynastie lagide (parfois appelée XXXIIIe dynastie) Ptolémée Ier Sôter Ptolémée II Philadelphe Ptolémée III Évergète Ptolémée IV Philopator Ptolémée V Épiphane Ptolémée VI Philométor Ptolémée VII Néos Philopator Ptolémée VIII Évergète Tryphon (Physcon) Ptolémée IX Sôter Ptolémée X Alexandre Ptolémée IX Sôter Ptolémée XI Alexandre Ptolémée XII Néos Dionysos Bérénice IV ♀ Ptolémée XII Néos Dionysos Cléopâtre VII Théa Philopator ♀ Ptolémée XIII Théos Philopator Ptolémée XIV Philopator Ptolémée XV Césarion Suivent les périodes romaine et byzantine de l'Égypte. Voir aussi : Pharaons par ordre alphabétique rois de Napata rois de Méroé Chronologies comparées des dynasties égyptiennes v · m Livre d'Esther Personnages Esther · Mardochée · Assuérus (identifié à Xerxès Ier) · Vashti · Haman · Zeresh Lieu Suse Théâtre Aman, de la perfidie (Pierre Matthieu, 1589) · Esther (Jean Racine, 1689) Cinéma Esther (1913) · Esther et le Roi (1960) · Esther (1986) · Esther, reine de Perse (2006) Musique Esther (Georg Friedrich Haendel, 1732) Tradition juive Pourim · Crécelle · Oreilles d'Aman · Taanit Esther · Targoum Sheni · Meguila Portail de l’Iran et du monde iranien Portail de l’histoire militaire Portail du monde antique Portail du Proche-Orient ancien Portail de l’Égypte antique Ce document provient de « https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxès_Ier&oldid=178640598 ». Catégories : Grand roi achéménide Pharaon Décès en 465 av. J.-C. Personnalité des guerres médiques Souverain achéménide assassiné XXVIIe dynastie égyptienne Personnage dans les écrits de Hérodote Date de naissance incertaine (VIe siècle av. J.-C.) Catégories cachées : Article utilisant une Infobox Article contenant un appel à traduction en portugais Article contenant un appel à traduction en anglais Portail:Iran et monde iranien/Articles liés Portail:Asie/Articles liés Portail:Moyen-Orient/Articles liés Portail:Histoire militaire/Articles liés Portail:Histoire/Articles liés Portail:Monde antique/Articles liés Portail:Proche-Orient ancien/Articles liés Portail:Civilisations asiatiques/Articles liés Portail:Égypte antique/Articles liés Portail:Afrique/Articles liés Wikipédia:Article biographique Portail:Biographie/Articles liés/Politique Index égyptologique La dernière modification de cette page a été faite le 10 janvier 2021 à 17:33. 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gl-wikipedia-org-8533	----	Xerxes I - Wikipedia, a enciclopedia libre Xerxes I Na Galipedia, a Wikipedia en galego. Saltar ata a navegación Saltar á procura Xerxes I Nacemento 519 a.C.   Irán Falecemento 475 a.C.   Persia Soterrado Irán Nacionalidade Imperio Aqueménida Relixión Zoroastrismo Ocupación estadista Pai Darío I Nai Atossa Cónxuxe Vasti, Amestris e Ester Fillos Artaxerxes I, Amitis, Artabanus, sen etiquetar, Histaspes, Darius e Rodoguna Irmáns Artazostre, Gobryas, Arsames, Artobazanes, Ariamenes, Ariamenes, Abrocomes, Masistes, Aquemenes e Arsames [ editar datos en Wikidata ] v c e Moeda coa cara de Xerxes I Xerxes I (en persa خشایارشاه) (circa -519--465), rei aqueménida de Persia (-486--465), fillo de Darío I e de Atosa, filla de Ciro II o Grande. O seu nome Xerxes é unha transliteración ao grego do seu nome persa trala súa ascensión ao trono, Khshayarsha ou Khsha-yar-shan, que significa "gobernador de heroes". Na Biblia aparece citado como אחשורש (Aḥashverosh ou Ahasuerus transliterado ao grego, Axuero en versión galega). Índice 1 As revoltas de Exipto e Babilonia 2 A segunda guerra médica 3 Últimos anos 4 Xerxes na Biblia 5 Véxase tamén 5.1 Outros artigos As revoltas de Exipto e Babilonia[editar | editar a fonte] Darío I designou sucesor a Xerxes por diante de todos os seus medios irmáns, maiores ca el, e que naceran antes de Darío ascender ao trono. Tras ser coroado en outubro de -485, Xerxes enfrontouse vitoriosamente a unha rebelión no Exipto sometido, iniciada en -486, deixando ao seu irmán Aquemenes como sátrapa desta provincia, sobre a cal exerceu un control moi represivo. Os predecesores de Xerxes, especialmente o seu pai, non foron moi afortunados nos seus intentos de conciliar as antigas civilizacións sometidas co goberno persa. Esta foi probablemente a razón pola cal Xerxes decidise abolir definitivamente o reino de Babilonia en -484 e levarse a estatua dourada de Bel (Marduk ou Merodach, cuxas mans debía agarrar o lexítimo rei de Babilonia o primeiro día de cada ano), matando aos sacerdotes que trataron de impedirllo. Polo tanto, Xerxes non aparece usando o título de Rei de Babilonia nos textos babilónicos que datan do seu reinado, pero si o de Rei de Persia e Media, ou simplemente Rei de nacións (equivalente a Rei do mundo). Este proceder desencadeou dous rebelións, en -484 e en -479, que foron sufocadas enerxicamente. A segunda guerra médica[editar | editar a fonte] Unha vez sufocadas todas as revoltas, e alentado polo seu curmán Mardonio, tratou de vingar a derrota sufrida polo seu pai, Darío I, na batalla de Maratón, durante a primeira guerra médica (490 a.C.). Darío non puidera castigar aos atenienses pola súa intromisión na rebelión xónica en Asia Menor, polo que Xerxes planificou a operación de castigo con sumo coidado (-483). Desta forma, mandou escavar unha canle a través do istmo que comunicaba a península de Monte Athos co continente europeo; almacenáronse provisións en escalas ao longo da ruta que percorría Tracia; e erixíronse dúas pontes que atravesaban o Helesponto. Xerxes concluíu unha alianza con Cartago, o cal privou aos gregos helénicos do apoio dos gregos sicilianos de Agrigento e Siracusa, á vez que conseguiu gañar para a causa persa a varios estados gregos, como Tesalia, Macedonia, Tebas e Argos. Os persas lograron reunir para a ocasión unha gran frota (a maioría das naves procedían dos seus vasalos fenicios e chipriotas) e un poderoso exército (estimado polas fontes clásicas nuns dous millóns de combatentes, aínda que é moi probábel que non superase os cen mil efectivos). Desta forma, na primavera do ano -480, Xerxes abandonou Sardes á fronte do seu exército, desencadeando así a Segunda Guerra Médica contra a alianza grega de Atenas e Esparta. En principio o exército persa conseguiu importantes vitorias: a frota grega foi rexeitada no cabo Artemisión, e trala vitoria sobre Leónidas de Esparta e os seus 300 homes no desfiladeiro das Termópilas, os persas devastaron Beocia e o Ática, chegando ata Atenas. A cidade fora evacuada previamente por orde de Temístocles, refuxiándose os seus habitantes nas illas próximas, de maneira que o exército persa só tivo que se enfrontar á gornición da Acrópole, saqueando a continuación a cidade e incendiando e arrasando os templos da Acrópole, mentres as forzas espartanas e atenienses establecían a súa última liña de resistencia no istmo de Corinto e o golfo Sarónico. Con todo, Xerxes foi enganado por unha astuta mensaxe de Temístocles (contra a advertencia de Ártemis de Halicarnaso) para atacar a frota grega baixo condicións adversas, en lugar de enviar parte dos seus barcos ao Peloponeso e esperar simplemente a disolución do exército grego tras un prolongado asedio. A batalla naval librada en Salamina (-480), onde a frota grega se refuxiara no golfo entre a Ática e a illa de Salamina, foi gañada pola frota ateniense, ao mando de Euribíades, pero non foi máis que un pequeno revés nunha campaña vitoriosa para os persas ata ese momento. Perdida a comunicación por mar con Asia Menor, Xerxes decidiu retornar a Sardes; o exército que deixou en Grecia ao mando de Mardonio foi derrotado en -479 en Platea. A posterior derrota persa en Micala, ao norte de Mileto, supuxo a liberdade das cidades gregas de Asia Menor e a renuncia de Xerxes ás mesmas, deixando de se entremeter na política grega. A batalla de Atenas, que Xerxes dirixiu persoalmente, é a miúdo erroneamente interpretada como un enfrontamento entre gregos e persas, cando en verdade a intención de Xerxes era castigar aos atenienses pola pillaxe e a destrución causados polas súas forzas nas cidades xonias de Asia Menor, que estaban baixo o control persa. É de destacar que para esta empresa contou coa axuda doutras cidades gregas, e mesmo de Macedonia. Xerxes tomou Atenas, e logo dun breve período de tempo de ocupación, abandonouna, debido a que o seu interese non estaba na conquista da mesma, senón en castigar a aqueles que levaran a guerra contra outras cidades gregas na Asia Menor. O feito histórico a resaltar, xa que logo, é que Xerxes non combateu contra todos os gregos, nin contra Grecia entendida como país, senón contra unha alianza de cidades gregas, contra a cal conseguiu a axuda doutras cidades gregas da propia Hélade, aliadas co imperio persa, ou daquelas cidades gregas de Asia Menor que sufriron o ataque dos atenienses na revolta xonia, e que axudaron a Xerxes de bo grado. Últimos anos[editar | editar a fonte] Dos últimos anos do reinado de Xerxes pouco se sabe. Coñécese que enviou a Satapes a intentar a circunnavegación de África, pero a vitoria dos gregos na Segunda Guerra Médica supuxo a paulatina inmersión do Imperio persa nun estado de apatía, da cal non volvería espertar. O mesmo rei viuse involucrado en varias intrigas palacianas, dependendo en exceso dos seus cortesáns e eunucos. Deixou varias inscricións: en Van (Armenia), no Monte Elvend (preto de Ecbatana), e en Persépole, onde mandou engadir un novo e suntuoso palacio a aquel que deixara o seu pai Darío. En todos eses textos simplemente recolleu as palabras do seu pai. No ano -465 foi asasinado polo seu visir Artábano, quen promoveu o ascenso de Artaxerxes I ao trono do imperio. Xerxes na Biblia[editar | editar a fonte] No Libro de Ezra da Biblia, Xerxes é mencionado co nome Aḥashverosh (Ahasuerus en grego, אחשורש en hebreo). Durante o seu reinado, o do seu antecesor (Darío I) e o do seu sucesor (Artaxerxes I), moitos samaritanos pediron axuda ao Rei de Persia con acusacións contra os xudeus. Xerxes tamén se identifica co rei Ahasuerus no bíblico Libro de Ester. Neste libro, Asahuerus repudiou á súa raíña consorte Vashti, debido a que ela rexeitou obedecer a súa orde de aparecer como raíña do imperio nunha festa que o rei organizara en honor da súa princesa, e logo de enviar por todas as partes avisos para reunir a un considerábel número de mozas virxes de todo o imperio, escolleu finalmente á xudía Ester como a súa raíña. Haman o Agaxita (un pobo que foi destruído por mandato divino), un dos ministros do rei, sentiuse insultado por Mordecai, sobriño de Esther, debido a que este non se prostrou ante el, polo que convenceu ao rei Asahuerus para decretar a destrución de todos os xudeus do imperio persa, pero Mordecai e Esther conseguiron finalmente revocar esta decisión grazas á súa influencia sobre o rei. Na súa obra, Flavio Xosefo suxire que esta historia é real, e que tanto Esther como Vashti foron personaxes que existiron en verdade. Con todo, Heródoto desmente esta historia, sinalando que Xerxes tivo unha raíña consorte chamada Amestris, filla de Otanes. Véxase tamén[editar | editar a fonte] Outros artigos[editar | editar a fonte] Guerras Médicas Dinastía aqueménida Imperio Persa Segue a: Darío I Xerxes I(-486--465) Precede a: Artaxerxes I Dinastía aqueménida Control de autoridades : Q129165 WorldCat VIAF: 282770127 BLBNB: 000387462 BMT: 81784 BNE: XX1153338 BNF: 150689088 BRE: 2117239 CANTIC: a12318310 CERL: cnp00400914 DeutscheBio: 118808109 EBID: ID FAST: 1859099 GEC: 0072588 GND: 118808109 ISNI: 0000 0000 6300 8852 LCCN: n81070675 NKC: mzk2005313022 NLA: 66228176 NNDB: 000095657 NTA: 073636711 SELIBR: 259706 SUDOC: 050588400 ULAN: 500354810 Traído desde "https://gl.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&oldid=5615019" Categorías: Dinastía aqueménida Faraóns Vixésimo sétima dinastía de Exipto Categoría oculta: Wikipedia:Páxinas con propiedades de Wikidata sen etiqueta Menú de navegación Ferramentas persoais Non accedeu ao sistema Conversa Contribucións Crear unha conta Acceder ao sistema Espazos de nomes Artigo Conversa Variantes Vistas Ler Editar Editar a fonte Ver o historial Mais Procura Navegación Portada Portal da comunidade A Taberna Actualidade Cambios recentes Artigos de calidade Páxina aleatoria Axuda Doazóns Ferramentas Páxinas que ligan con esta Cambios relacionados Páxinas especiais Ligazón permanente Información da páxina Citar esta páxina Elemento de Wikidata Imprimir/exportar Crear un libro Descargar como PDF Versión para imprimir Noutros proxectos Wikimedia Commons Outras linguas Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Editar as ligazóns A última edición desta páxina foi o 4 de novembro de 2020 ás 19:41. 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he-wikipedia-org-552	----	חשיארש הראשון – ויקיפדיה לדלג לתוכן שינוי מצב סרגל צד חיפוש כלים אישיים לא בחשבון שיחה תרומות יצירת חשבון כניסה לחשבון ניווט עמוד ראשי ברוכים הבאים שינויים אחרונים ערכים מומלצים פורטלים ערך אקראי תרומה לוויקיפדיה קהילה שער הקהילה עזרה ייעוץ מזנון כיכר העיר חדשות לוח מודעות יצירת קשר ספר אורחים כלים דפים המקושרים לכאן שינויים בדפים המקושרים דפים מיוחדים קישור קבוע מידע על הדף ציטוט דף זה פריט ויקינתונים הדפסה/ייצוא יצירת ספר הורדה כ־PDF גרסה להדפסה במיזמים אחרים ויקישיתוף דף זה בשפות אחרות English Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 עריכת הקישורים תפריט ניווט מרחבי שם ערך שיחה גרסאות שפה צפיות קריאה עריכת קוד מקור עריכה גרסאות קודמות עוד חשיארש הראשון מתוך ויקיפדיה, האנציקלופדיה החופשית חשיארש הראשון Xšaya-ṛšā חשיארש הראשון מלך פרס לידה 519 לפנה"ס הממלכה האחמנית נרצח 465 לפנה"ס (בגיל 54 בערך) הממלכה האחמנית מדינה הממלכה האחמנית מקום קבורה איראן עיסוק מדינאי בת זוג אמסטריס שושלת הממלכה האחמנית תואר מלך אב דריווש הראשון אם אטוסה, בתו של כורש הגדול צאצאים ארתחששתא הראשון Amytis Artabanus Histaspes Darius Rodoguna בפסקה זו רשומה אחת נוספת שטרם תורגמה יורש העצר ארתחששתא הראשון מלך הממלכה האחמנית 485 לפנה"ס–465 לפנה"ס (כ־20 שנה) → דריווש הראשון ארתחששתא הראשון ← חְשְיָארְשָׁ הראשון,[1] מוכר גם בצורה היוונית של שמו - קסרקסס (Ξέρξης, Xerxes), היה מלך פרס האחמנית בשנים 485 עד 465 לפנה"ס. על פי סברה רווחת, עם חשיארש מזוהה המלך אחשוורוש ממגילת אסתר. אחת הראיות לכך היא כתיבת השם (ולא קריאתו) "אחשוורוש" בסוף מגילת אסתר: "וַיָּשֶׂם הַמֶּלֶךְ אחשרש מַס עַל הָאָרֶץ וְאִיֵּי הַיָּם".[2] בזמנו של חשיארש הגיעה הממלכה לשיא גודלה, וכללה את אסיה הקטנה, כל המזרח התיכון, פרס, באקטריה, סוגדיאנה, פארתיה, חלקים מהודו וחלקים מתראקיה. גם נתון זה תומך בזיהויו כאחשוורוש המקראי לאור התיאור מתחילת מגילת אסתר: "וַיְהִי בִּימֵי אֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹשׁ הוּא אֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹשׁ הַמֹּלֵךְ מֵהֹדּוּ וְעַד כּוּשׁ שֶׁבַע וְעֶשְׂרִים וּמֵאָה מְדִינָה".[3] תוכן עניינים 1 חייו 2 חשיארש באמנות 3 קישורים חיצוניים 4 הערות שוליים חייו[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] חשיארש היה בנם של דריווש הראשון ושל אטוסה, בתו של כורש הגדול. למרות שלא היה הבכור בין בני דריווש, התמנה ליורש העצר, כנראה משום שהיה הראשון שנולד לאחר עלייתו לשלטון של דריווש, או הראשון שנולד מאשתו אטוסה. פועלו הראשון כמלך היה דיכוי מרד שפרץ במצרים, ולהכפיף את מצרים לשלטון נוקשה ומחמיר יותר, בניגוד למדיניות הסובלנית יחסית שהנהיגו קודמיו. מדיניותו הנוקשה יותר התבטאה גם ביחסו לבבל, שפגע במידת העצמאות שלה. הוא הרס את מקדש אסגילה וניתץ את פסל מרדוך, האל־הפטרון של העיר ששכן במקדש, דבר שהוביל למספר התמרדויות שגם הן דוכאו ביד קשה. האירוע המרכזי בחייו היה היציאה למלחמה כנגד יוון, שבאה כתגובה למרד האיוני ולהפסד בקרב מרתון, שהתרחשו בימיו של אביו. ההיערכות למסע המלחמה החלה בשנת 483 לפנה"ס. לצורך העניין גויס אחד הצבאות הגדולים ביותר שידע העולם עד אז - לפי דיווחים מסוימים, הגיע גודלו עד לשני מיליון חיילים, אם כי על פי הערכות סבירות יותר, מספרם נע בין 200 ל-400 אלף. גודל הצי היה בין 400 לאלף אוניות. למרות ההכנות הקפדניות, המלחמה הייתה מפלה קשה לפרסים: הם אמנם ניצחו תחילה בקרב תרמופילאי, שנערך ב-11 באוגוסט 480 לפנה"ס, אבל ספגו בו אבדות קשות ביותר, הרבה מעבר למצופה. לאחר מכן נוצחו על ידי האתונאים בקרב סלמיס, וניגפו סופית לאחר תבוסתם בקרב פלטאיה ובקרב מיקאלה (479 לפנה"ס). לאחר תבוסתו שב חשיארש לפרס. המקורות היווניים מתארים אותו כמתמסר לאחר מכן לחיי הוללות ותאוות (בדומה לאופן שבו מתואר אחשוורוש במגילת אסתר). עם זאת, מדובר במקורות שנכתבו מנקודת מבט עוינת שביקשה להמעיט מערכו, ועל כן כנראה מגזימים בתיאוריהם. חשיארש מצא את מותו כשארטבון (אנ'), אחד מווזיריו, התנקש בו במיטתו. לאחר מותו עלה לשלטון בנו, ארתחששתא הראשון, אשר יש הסבורים שדווקא הוא היה אחשוורוש. במחוז המדאן נמצאה כתובת גנג'נאמה, שנכתבה על ידי חשיארש, ובה מתוארים הגנאלוגיה ומעשי המלך. חשיארש באמנות[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] המחזאי היווני אייסכילוס מציג את חשיארש כדמות במחזה "הפרסים", אשר מתאר את התגובה של החצר הפרסית לתבוסתו בידי היוונים (המחזה נותן את עיקר הקרדיט לאתונאים) ומסתיים בהגעתו לשושן. חשיארש מופיע גם כדמות הראשית באופרה "סרסה" של המלחין גאורג פרידריך הנדל, אם כי הקשר בין דמותו כפי שהיא מוצגת באופרה לבין דמותו ההיסטורית הוא קלוש ביותר. בסרט 300 משנת 2007, שהופק על ידי חברת האחים וורנר, המלך חשיארש (Xerxes - באנגלית) מגולם על ידי השחקן הברזילאי רודריגו סנטורו בתור ענק, קירח עם נטיות מגלומניות בעל עגילים מרובים ואיפור. הסרט, שמבוסס על הרומן הגרפי מאת פרנק מילר, מתייחס לקרב תרמופילאי שנערך בשנת 480 לפנה"ס, שבו מלך ספרטה, לאונידס, הוביל את צבאו נגד הפרסים המתקדמים. קישורים חיצוניים[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] מדיה וקבצים בנושא חשיארש הראשון בוויקישיתוף ביוגרפיה באתר שמוקדש להיסטוריה (באנגלית) חשיארש הראשון, באתר "Find a Grave" (באנגלית) חשיארש הראשון, באתר אנציקלופדיה בריטניקה (באנגלית) הערות שוליים[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] ^ הגיית שמו בפרסית עתיקה: x-š-y-a-r-š-a. ^ מגילת אסתר, פרק י', פסוק א' ^ מגילת אסתר, פרק א', פסוק א'. הקודם: דריווש הראשון השושלת האחמנית הבא: ארתחששתא הראשון בקרת זהויות BNE: XX1153338 BnF: cb150689088 (data) CANTIC: a12318310 GND: 118808109 ISNI: 0000 0000 6300 8852 LCCN: n81070675 LNB: 000054067 NKC: mzk2005313022 NLA: 66228176 NLI: 000437459 NTA: 073636711 SELIBR: 259706 SUDOC: 050588400 Trove: 1808084 ULAN: 500354810 VcBA: 495/27255 VIAF: 282770127 WorldCat: viaf-19983268 אוחזר מתוך "https://he.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=חשיארש_הראשון&oldid=29826904" קטגוריות: מלכי פרס קורבנות רציחות פוליטיות באסיה הממלכה האחמנית פרעוני השושלת ה-27 כורש הגדול מגילת אסתר אישים במגילת אסתר אישים בתנ"ך המוזכרים במקורות חיצוניים אישים שחיו במאה ה-5 לפנה"ס אישים שחיו במאה ה-6 לפנה"ס קטגוריות מוסתרות: ויקינתונים:ערכים חסרי תווית בעברית: צאצא ויקינתונים:ערכים חסרי תווית בעברית ויקינתונים - השוואת ערכים: מתאים ויקינתונים - השוואת ערכים: מתאים: אב ויקינתונים - השוואת ערכים: מתאים: אם ויקינתונים - השוואת ערכים: מתאים: אזרחות ויקינתונים - השוואת ערכים: מתאים: תאריך לידה ויקינתונים - השוואת ערכים: לא מתאים ויקינתונים - השוואת ערכים: לא מתאים: תאריך פטירה ויקינתונים - השוואת ערכים: לא מתאים: מקום לידה ויקינתונים - השוואת ערכים: לא מתאים: מקום פטירה ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה BNE ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה BNF ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה CANTIC ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה GND ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה ISNI ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה LCCN ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה LNB ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה NKC ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה NLA ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה NLI ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה NTA ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה SELIBR ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה SUDOC ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה Trove ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה ULAN ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה VcBA ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה VIAF ויקיפדיה: ערכים עם מזהה WORLDCATID דף זה נערך לאחרונה ב־04:31, 12 בנובמבר 2020. הטקסט מוגש בכפוף לרישיון Creative Commons ייחוס-שיתוף זהה 3.0; ייתכן שישנם תנאים נוספים. ר' את תנאי השימוש לפרטים. מדיניות הפרטיות אודות ויקיפדיה הבהרות משפטיות תצוגת מכשירים ניידים מפתחים סטטיסטיקות הצהרה על עוגיות 
hi-wikipedia-org-6569	----	क्षयार्षा - विकिपीडिया क्षयार्षा मुक्त ज्ञानकोश विकिपीडिया से Jump to navigation Jump to search क्षयार्षा की समाधि पर उसका उभरा-चित्र क्षयार्षा (ज़रक्सीज / Xerxes I of Persia / 519 BC-465 BC) फ़ारस (ईरान) नरेश दारयवौष (दारा प्रथम) का पुत्र और उत्तराधिकारी। वह फारस का का चौथा राजाधिराज (King of Kings) था। परिचय[संपादित करें] दारयवौष प्रथम की प्रथम पत्नी की तीन संतानें थी। उनमें ज्येष्ठ आर्तज़ेबीज़ो को उसने उत्तराधिकारी बनाया था। किंतु खब्बास के विद्रोह के समय उसकी दूसरी पत्नी अत्तोस्स (कुरूष की कन्या) ने अपने ज्येष्ठ पुत्र क्षयार्षा को उत्तराधिकारी मनोनीत करवा दिया। क्षयार्षा की नसों में कुरूष का भी राजरक्त था अत उसके उत्तराधिकारी होने में कोई कठिनाई नहीं हो सकी। दारयवौष के पश्चात् राज्यारोहण के समय वह किसी भी देश पर आक्रमण करने के पक्ष में नहीं था, किंतु प्रमुख राजपुरुषों ने उसे स्मरण दिलाया कि मराथन की पराजय का बदला अभी नहीं लिया जा सका है। उधर मिश्र में विद्रोह की आग भडक उठी थी। खब्बास ने उस विद्रोह का पूरा इंतजाम कर रखा था। निरंतर दो वर्षो तक डेल्टा तथा सीमावर्ती भाग पर मोर्चेबंदी की थी। क्षयार्षा को सर्वप्रथम इसी विद्रोह को दबाने के लिये प्रयास करना पड़ा। खब्बास का सारा प्रयास व्यर्थ सिद्ध हुआ। क्षयार्षा ने विद्रोह दबा दिया, पुजारियों को मुक्त कर दिया गया तथा उसके मंदिर का खजाना ले लिया गया। राजा का भाई आखमीनस वहाँ का क्षत्रप बनाया गया। खब्बास भाग निकला उसकी मृत्यु ना होने से क्षयार्षा को मिश्र की पूरी शक्ति नहीं प्राप्त हो सकी। अनुश्रुति है कि उसने एक बार पुन आकर खलदों को चौंका दिया। किंतु वह अपने मनचाहे नरेश को सिंहासन पर न बैठा सका। यदि जनश्रुति सत्य न भी हो तो भी प्रतीत होता है कि मिश्र में एक बार विद्रोह हुआ था। जोपरिस के पुत्र मेगाबीसस ने, जो वहाँ का आनुवंशिक क्षत्रप था, बड़ी निर्दयता से विद्रोह को शांत किया। बेलुश का मंदिर लूट लिया गया। देवता की मूर्ति निकाल ली गई। पुजारियों का वध कर दिया गया जनता को अंशत दास बना लिया गया। मिस्र से लौटने के पश्चात् क्षयार्षा ने एक विशाल सेना एकत्र की। हेरोदोतस के अनुसार इस सेना की संख्या, जिसको उसने अपने विशाल साम्राज्य के सभी प्रांतों से एकत्र किया था, बहुत बड़ी थी। वह इस सेना के साथ अपने पिता की मराथन की पराजय का बदला लेने के लिये चल पड़ा। इस अभियान की तिथि ४८० ई. पू. है। क्षयार्षा ने अपनी सेना को समुद्र के पथ से संचालित किया। तटवर्ती प्रदेश से जिस प्रकार इस विशाल सेना को रसद पहुँचाई गई उसकी प्रशंसा इतिहासकार करते हैं। क्षयार्षा स्वयं सैन्यसंचालन कर रहा था। इस संभावित युद्ध का पता यूनानियों को लग चुका था। वे सभी सम्मिलित रूप से फारसियों की सेना को रोकने के लिये प्रस्तुत हो गए। केवल वे ही उसमें सम्मिलित नहीं हो सके जो तब तक फारस के अधीन हो चुके थे। १४०१ वीर लियोदिनस के संरक्षण में थर्मापिली के तंग रास्ते पर आ डटे जो फारस की सेना के अवरोध के लिये सर्वोत्तम था। एक ओर गहरा समुद्र दूसरी ओर अभ्रंलिहाग्र पर्वतशृंखला और इन्हीं दोनों के बीच में थर्मापिली का तंग रास्ता। यूनानियों ने फारसियों के आक्रमण के पूर्व ही इस स्थान पर और सेना भेजना चाहा। किंतु फारसियों ने कुछ पहले ही आक्रमण कर दिया एक ओर असंख्य सेना दूसरी ओर केवल १४०० वीर। यूनानी कुछ घबड़ाए और लौटने का इरादा किया। किंतु वीर लियोदिनस ने कहा--यदि आप लोग चाहें तो लौटें पर हमें और स्पार्ता के इन वीरों को इस दर्रे पर अड़े रहना है, हम यहीं रहेंगे। एक भी न हटा। सभी अड़े रहे। घनघोर युद्ध हुआ और दो दिन तक अस्त्र शस्त्रों की खनखनाहट में यह निश्चित न हो पाया कि विजय किसकी होगी। विश्व के इतिहास में विश्वासघातियों का भी अपना स्थान रहा है। इतिहास के क्रम को बदलने में इन्होंने महत्वपूर्ण कार्य किए हैं। एफियाल्तीस नामक एक गड़ेरिए ने क्षयार्षा की सेना को भेड़ों का पहाड़ी रास्ता दिखा दिया। फलस्वरूप फारसियों की सेना के कुछ भाग ने पहाड़ियों को पारकर वीर लियोनिदस पर पीछे से आक्रमण किया। लियोनिदस ने तुरंत वीरों को छाँटकर मुकाबला करने के लिए भेजा और स्वयं स्पार्ता के केवल ३०० वीरों के साथ सामने से फारसियों का मुकाबला किया। पर थर्मापिली की रक्षा न हो सकी। सभी यूनानी वीर खेत रहे। फारसियों की सेना दर्रे से होकर यूनान में उमड़ पड़ी। थीब्ज ने बिना लड़े ही घुटने टेक दिए तथा फारसियों की शर्तें स्वीकार कर ली। एथेंसवासियों को आकाशवाणी से आदेश मिला कि उनकी रक्षा केवल एलामीज के काष्ठप्राचीरों के भीतर ही संभव है। सचमुच यहीं से यूनानियों का पासा पलटा। थेमिसथोक्लीज ने २० सितंबर सन् ४०० ई. को फारसियों को सलामीज की खाड़ी की राह लेने के लिए बाध्य कर दिया। यदि क्षयार्षा सलामीज पर विजय प्राप्त कर लेता तो पूरा ग्रीस उसके चरणों में होता। अत एथैंस की सेना का कप्तान कौंसिल से छिपाकर बाहर निकला और गुप्त रूप से क्षयार्षा के पास झूठा संदेश भेजा कि य़ूनानी सेना के आधे लोग भागने के पक्ष में हैं। यह खबर पाकर क्षयार्षा ने ठीक वही किया जैसा थेमिसथोक्लीज ने सोचा था। उसने जलडमरूमध्य के मुहाने से अपनी सेना के कुछ भाग को हट जाने का आदेश दिया। इस तरह चालाकी से और वीरता से यूनानी विजयी हुए। फारसियों की सेना बड़ी वीरता से लड़ी पर उनकी विशाल संख्या और उनके उत्साह तथा साहस ने उनकी सहायता न की। उनकी नौसेना बिखर गई। क्षयार्षा एग्लिओज के पर्वतशिखर पर सिंहासन पर बैठा फारसियों की इस पराजय को देखकर बौखला उठा और अपने वस्त्रों को फाड़ डाला। वह अपनी सेना के साथ सूसा वापस लौटा किंतु यूनान को इस अविजित स्थिति में छोड़ने से पूर्व उसने मार्दोनियस को उसकी प्रार्थना पर, बची हुई सेना के साथ युद्ध करने की आज्ञा दे दी। दोनों सेनाओं की भिड़ंत प्लातिया के मैदान पर हुई। हेरोदोतस के अनुसार यूनानियों की ओर १,१०,००० तथा फारसियों की ओर ३,००,००० आदमी थे। कई दिनों तक दोनों सेनाओं की मुठभेड़ें होती रहीं। मार्दोंनियस मारा गया। मकदुनिया के राजा ने विश्वासघात किया था। फारसियों की पराजय हुई। क्षयार्षा ने राजधानी लौटकर अपने अवशिष्ठ साहस और बुद्धिमत्ता को अंतपुर की स्त्रीपरायणता में खपा दिया। उसके जीवन के अंतिम दिनों में राज्य में विरोध तथा विद्रोह उठ खड़े हो रहे थे। उसकी अंगरक्षक सेना के कप्तान आर्तबानिस् ने ४६५ ई. पूर्व में उसका वध कर दिया। "https://hi.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=क्षयार्षा&oldid=4530819" से लिया गया श्रेणी: ईरान का इतिहास दिक्चालन सूची व्यक्तिगत उपकरण लॉग इन नहीं किया है वार्ता योगदान खाता बनाएँ लॉग इन नामस्थान लेख संवाद संस्करण दर्शाव पढ़ें सम्पादन इतिहास देखें और खोजें परिभ्रमण मुखपृष्ठ चौपाल हाल में हुए परिवर्तन हाल की घटनाएँ समाज मुखपृष्ठ निर्वाचित विषयवस्तु यादृच्छिक लेख योगदान प्रयोगपृष्ठ अनुरोध दान करें सहायता सहायता स्वशिक्षा अक्सर पूछे जाने वाले प्रश्न देवनागरी कैसे टाइप करें दूतावास (Embassy) उपकरण यहाँ क्या जुड़ता है पृष्ठ से जुड़े बदलाव फ़ाइल अपलोड करें विशेष पृष्ठ स्थायी कड़ी इस पृष्ठ पर जानकारी यह लेख उद्धृत करें छोटा यू॰आर॰एल Wikidata प्रविष्टि मुद्रण/निर्यात पुस्तक बनायें पीडीएफ़ रूप डाउनलोड करें प्रिन्ट करने लायक अन्य परियोजनाओं में विकिमीडिया कॉमन्स अन्य भाषाओं में Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 कड़ी संपादित करें अन्तिम परिवर्तन 09:23, 2 मार्च 2020। यह सामग्री क्रियेटिव कॉमन्स ऍट्रीब्यूशन/शेयर-अलाइक लाइसेंस के तहत उपलब्ध है; अन्य शर्ते लागू हो सकती हैं। विस्तार से जानकारी हेतु देखें उपयोग की शर्तें गोपनीयता नीति विकिपीडिया के बारे में अस्वीकरण मोबाइल दृश्य डेवेलपर्स Statistics कुकी का वर्णन 
hr-wikipedia-org-7828	----	Kserkso I. – Wikipedija Kserkso I. Izvor: Wikipedija Prijeđi na navigaciju Prijeđi na pretraživanje Ovo je glavno značenje pojma „Kserkso“. Za njegovog istoimenog unuka odnosno Artakserksova sina vidi članak: Kserkso II. Kserkso Veliki Reljef u Perzepolisu koji prikazuje Kserksa Velikog 'Veliki kralj Perzijskog Carstva' Vladavina rujan 486. - listopad 465. pr. Kr. (20 godina) Krunidba 486. pr. Kr. Prethodnik Darije I. Veliki Nasljednik Artakserkso I. Supruga Amestris Djeca Artakserkso I., Amitis, Darije, Histasp, Rodoguna, Artarije, Ratašah, itd. Puno ime Kserkso I. Veliki od Perzije Dinastija Ahemenidi Otac Darije I. Veliki Majka Atosa Rođenje 519. pr. Kr. Smrt 465. pr. Kr. Pokop Nakš-e Rustam Kserkso I. Veliki (vladao od 486. – 465. pr. Kr.[1]) bio je perzijski vladar iz iranske dinastije Ahemenida koji je vladao Perzijskim Carstvom. Rodio se 519. pr. Kr. kao sin kraljice Atose i kralja Darija I. Velikog. Sadržaj 1 Ime i etimologija 2 Pozadina i rani život 3 Politički život 3.1 Egipat i Babilon 3.2 Grčka 4 Kulturni značaj 5 U Starom zavjetu 6 Smrt 7 Djeca 8 Popularna kultura 9 Kronologija 10 Poveznice 11 Izvori 12 Vanjske poveznice Ime i etimologija[uredi | uredi kôd] Ime Kserkso (eng. Xerxes) je izvedenica latinskog i grčkog jezika od perzijske riječi Khšāyāršā. To ime se spominje u mnogim zapisima na raznim jezicima koji su govoreni diljem velikog Perzijskog Carstva; na perzijskom, elamitskom, babilonskom, egipatskom (demotskom), itd. Grčko ime je zabilježeno u Herodotovoj „Povijesti” i Diodorovoj „Bibliotheca historici”. Herodot u svojoj knjizi spominje kako Kserkso znači „Ratnik”, što uglavnom nije prihvaćeno kod modernih povjesničara prema kojima Kserkso znači „Vladar heroja”. Alternativno englesko ime Ahasuerus je izvedenica latinskog prijevoda biblijskog imena Áḥašweroš (אחשורוש), što je pak izvedenica babilonske riječi Acḫšiyaršu. Obje ove izvedenice uključujući i grčko ime Ξέρξης su izvedenice staroperzijske riječi Xšayāršā odnosno Khsayârshâ. Lingvističke promjene imena događale su je prilikom prijelaza iz jezika u jezik na putovanju iz Perzije prema zapadnom svijetu. Biblijski tekstovi na više mjesta spominju ime Ahasuerus kako ekvivalent Kserksu[2], a oba imena su izvedenica perzijske riječi Xšayāršā. Pozadina i rani život[uredi | uredi kôd] Nedugo nakon što je došao na prijestolje, Kserksov otac Darije I. Veliki (sin Histaspa) oženio se Atosom, kćeri Kira Velikog. Obojica su bili iz ahemendiske dinastije, no iz različitih obiteljskih pravaca. Ženidba Kirove kćeri ojačala je njegovu poziciju na tronu Perzijskog Carstva. Darije Veliki je bio aktivan vladar, zaokupljen graditeljskim projektima u Perzepolisu, Suzi, Egiptu, itd. Prilikom kraja njegove vladavine odlučio je kazniti Atenu zbog njene potpore jonskom ustanku, no nova pobuna u Egiptu koju je vjerojatno poveo perzijski satrap (namjesnik) odgodila je ekspediciju. Prema perzijskom zakonu, ahemenidski vladari morali su imenovati nasljednika uoči ozbiljnijih ekspedicija. Neposredno prije svoje smrti Darije je pripremio vlastitu grobnicu u Nakš-e Rustamu i imenovao je Kserksa, najstarijeg sina s Atosom, za svoga nasljednika. Darijevo loše zdravlje spriječilo ga je u planiranju novih pohoda, a kulminiralo je njegovom smrću 486. pr. Kr. Kserkso nije bio najstariji Darijev sin koji je prema iranskoj tradiciji trebao naslijediti velikog kralja, no bio je najstariji sin iz Darijevog braka s Atosom koja je potomak Kira Velikog, zbog čega je Kserkso proglašen perzijskim prijestolonasljednikom. Moderni povjesničari uglavnom se slažu kako je Darijev odabir Kserksa bio isključivo zbog povlaštene pozicije koje je imala Atosa kao Kirova kćer. Kserkso je okrunjen u periodu između listopada i prosinca 486. pr. Kr. kada je imao oko 33 godine. Prijenos političke moći na Kserksa protekao je glatko jer je preko majke vukao podrijetlo od Kira Velikog, pa se protiv njegova imenovanja nije bunio nitko iz Darijeve obitelji, te niti jedna od brojnih perzijskih provincija. Iako Herodotova „Povijesti” ne spominje koje je religije bio Kserkso, moderni povjesničari smatraju kako je bio sljedbenik zoroastrizma. Politički život[uredi | uredi kôd] Egipat i Babilon[uredi | uredi kôd] Nedugo nakon stupanja na prijestolje, Kserkso je ugušio pobune u Egiptu i Babilonu koje su izbile godinu dana ranije, i imenovao je brata Ahemena namjesnikom (satrapom, perz. khshathrapavan) u Egiptu. Godine 484. pr. Kr. ugušio je ustanak u Babilonu i Babilonce kaznio uništenjem zlatnog spomenika babilonskom bogu Marduku. To oskrvnuće nagnalo je Babilonce da se opet pobune 482. pr. Kr. i prema babilonskim zapisima Kserkso nije nazivan Kraljem Babilona već je rabio druge titule poput Veliki kralj Perzije i Medije, faraon Egipta, Kralj kraljeva (Šahanšah) ili Kralj naroda (svijeta). Grčka[uredi | uredi kôd] Glavni članak: Grčko-perzijski ratovi Kserkso je ostao upamćen najviše po svojoj ulozi u grčko-perzijskim ratovima. Njegov otac Darije I. Veliki ostavio mu je zadatak da kazni grčke polise Atenu i Ereterju, koji su napadali perzijske gradove u Joniji (istočna obala Egejskog mora), u Egiptu i na Cipru. Budući da je Darijeva pomorska kažnjenička ekspedicija protiv Atene završila neuspjehom u bitci kod Maratona 490. pr. Kr., Kserkso je sedam godina poslije odlučio poslati kombiniranu pomorsko-kopnenu ekspediciju[3]. Godine 480. pr. Kr. okupio je vojsku koja se prema modernim procijenama sastojala od 25-100 tisuća ljudi. Herodot je volio pretjerivati i rekao da je vojska bila sačinjena od 5 milijuna ljudi što je bilo nemoguće za održavanje. Perzijska vojska sastojala se od Perzijanaca i drugih iranskih naroda, te Asiraca, Feničana, Babilonaca, Indijaca, Egipćana, Židova, Arapa, čak i Grka, pa ju je Herodot volio nazivati „Vojskom tisuću naroda”. Reljef s perzijskim elitnim vojnicima, današnji Louvre Okosnica perzijske vojske bili su legendarni Perzijski besmrtnici, sastavljeni od 10 tisuća vojnika koje se često naziva najboljim vojnicima antike. Kserkso i Mardonije napravili su pontonski most preko Dardanela koji se smatra čudom antičkog inženjerstva, i preko njega prebacili vojsku iz Azije u Europu. Dolaskom Perzijanaca na grčki teritorij, mnogi grčki polisi poput Tesalije, Tebe i Arga stali su na stranu Perzije koja im je kao federacija jamčila ravnopravnost i sigurnost, te su se priključili savezu protiv hegemonističke Atene. S obzirom na česte oluje koje su uništavale perzijsku mornaricu, Kserkso je odlučio prokopati dvokilometarski kanal kroz poluotok Atos kako bi skratio put svojim brodovima. Prilikom dolaska do Termpilskih vrata, skupina od 8-11 tisuća Grka predvođenih s 2.000 Spartanaca pokušala im se suprostaviti u uskom prolazu Termopil misleći da perzijska brojčana prednost neće doći do izražaja, no Perzijanci ih s lakoćom pobjeđuju i nastavljaju napredovati prema jugu Grčke. Paralelno kopnenoj bitci, vodila se i pomorska bitka kod Artemizija u kojoj također pobjeđuju Perzijanci. Nakon bitke kod Termopila grčki povjesničari stvorili su mnoge mitove o borbi kako bi umanjili sramotu poraza. Ubrzo nakon bitke perzijska vojska dolazi do Atene i Eretreje te ih na nekarakterističan način perzijskim vladarima spaljuje kao znak odmazde za atensko spaljivanje grada Sarda na egejskoj obali. Atenjani su pobjedu protiv Perzijanaca ostvarili tek u pomorskoj bitci kod Salamine[4], kada je Temistoklo iskoristio prednosti plitkog i uskog zaljeva u kojem perzijska mornarica nije mogla manevrirati. Čuvši za nerede u perzijskoj federalnoj jedinici Babilonu, Kserkso i vojska odlaze iz Grčke, a kontrolu ostavljaju manjem dijelu vojske i svojim grčkim saveznicima na čelu s Mardonijem koji su poslije godinu dana Atenjani i Spartanci porazili u bitci kod Plateje. Službeno, rat između Perzijanaca i Grka okončan je Kalijinim mirom, 30 godina poslije velikih bitaka. Kulturni značaj[uredi | uredi kôd] Grobnica Kserksa Velikog, Nakš-e Rustam, Iran Kserkso je dovršio Perzepolis, remek djelo antičke arhitekture koje je započeo graditi njegov otac Darije I. Veliki. Vratarnica koju je sagradio Kserkso I. vodi prema jugu do Apadane (zgrade za prijeme), a prema istoku do drugog nedovršenog ulaza koji gleda na prijestolnu dvoranu (tzv. Dvoranu od tisuću stupova). Složeni portal u sredini dijeli te ceremonijalne zgrade od kraljevskih odaja s haremom koji okružuje otvoreno dvorište. Na jugoistoku se sigurno nalazila izolirana riznica. U Starom zavjetu[uredi | uredi kôd] Do današnjeg dana nije razjašnjeno je li Ahasuer (Ahasver) iz Knjige o Esteri (Stari zavjet) Kserkso I., ili se pak radi o kasnijim perzijskim velikim kraljevima Kserksu II., Artakserksu I. ili Artakserksu II. Smrt[uredi | uredi kôd] Kserkso I. je ubijen je 465. pr. Kr. Ubio ga je satrap Artaban koji je na prijestolje podigao Artakserksa I., Kserksova sina. Djeca[uredi | uredi kôd] Sa kraljicom Amestris: Amitis, žena Megabiza II. Artakserkso I. Darije Histasp Rodoguna Sa nepoznatim ženama: Artarije, babilonski satrap Ratašah Popularna kultura[uredi | uredi kôd] Kserkso je prikazan u mnogim filmovima, najčešće u kontekstu njegove uloge tokom grčko-perzijskih ratova odnosno bitke kod Termopila gdje je njegova perzijska vojska ratovala protiv Spartanaca i drugih grčkih vojnika. U filmu 300 Spartanaca iz 1962. Kserksa je tumačio engleski glumac David Farrar, dok ga je u Frank Millerovom filmu 300 iz 2007. tumačiobrazilski glumac Rodrigo Santoro. Potonji film je izazvao velike vrlo kontroverze zbog vrijeđanja perzijske kulture i prikazivanja Perzijanaca kao deformiranih krvožednih barbara, zbog čega su prosvjedovali Iranci diljem svijeta. Film prikazuje Kserksa kao ćelavog i gotovo golog, koji nosi samo remen, čizme i ogrtač. Tu su i upadljivi lanci koji vise preko njegove glave, grudi i tijela (pokušaj prikazivanja njegove tiranske i sadističke naravi), te mnogi piercinzi, igle, karike, naušnice, itd. Dugi crni nokti ga pokušavaju prikazati kao zvijer s velikim pandžama, dok ga pak šminka prikazuje kao homoseksualca[5]. Ipak, pravi Kserksov izgled baziran na perzijskih reljefima pokazuje čovjeka s dugom, bujnom i kovrčavom kosom te bradom[6]. Kronologija[uredi | uredi kôd] 519. pr. Kr. - rođen Kserkso I. kao sin kraljice Atose i kralja Darija I. Velikog. 486. pr. Kr. - smrt Darija I Velikog, krunidba Kserksa I. 484. pr. Kr. - Kserkso I. guši ustanak u Babilonu i kažnjava Babilonce. 482. pr. Kr. - još jedna pobuna u Babilonu. 480. pr. Kr. - okuplja se perzijska vojska i kreću u kažnjeničku ekspediciju prema Grčkoj. 480. pr. Kr. - u bitci kod Termopila perzijska vojska uništava grčki otpor i nastavlja napredovati prema Ateni, koja je sravnjena sa zemljom. 480. pr. Kr. - povratak perzijske vojske u Perziju zbog nereda u Babiloniji. 479. pr. Kr. - u bitci kod Plateje Atenjani i Spartanci pobijeđuju manji dio perzijske vojske na čelu s Mardonijem koji je ostao kontrolirati teritorij južne Grčke. 479. pr. Kr. - unatoč protivljenju Sparte, Atena obnavlja gradske zidine koje su uništili Perzijanci. 474. pr. Kr. - Kserkso Veliki uz asistenciju Mordekaja izdaje dokument koji priznaje Židovima pravo na obranu diljem Perzijskog Carstva. 465. pr. Kr. - umire Kserkso I. Veliki, a na tronu ga naslijeđuje njegov sin Artakserkso I. Poveznice[uredi | uredi kôd] Ahemenidsko Perzijsko Carstvo Kir Veliki Darije I. Veliki Grčko-perzijski ratovi Bitka kod Termopila Prethodnik: Veliki kralj Perzije (486. - 465. pr. Kr.) ____________________ Faraon Egipta (486. - 465. pr. Kr.) Nasljednik: Darije I. Veliki (522. - 486. pr. Kr.) Artakserkso I. (465. - 424. pr. Kr.) Izvori[uredi | uredi kôd] ↑ Kserkso I. (enciklopedija Britannica) ↑ Ahasureus (enciklopedija Iranica) ↑ Herodot o Kserksu I. (enciklopedija Iranica) ↑ Bitka kod Salamine (Livius.org) ↑ Dr. Kaveh Farrokh - film „300“: Činjenice i fantazije ↑ Perzepolis - Reljefi na apadani (Livius.org) Vanjske poveznice[uredi | uredi kôd] Kserkso Veliki (Livius.org) Kserkso Veliki (Iran Chamber) Britannica enciklopedija: Kserkso Veliki Kserkso (PersianEmpire.info) v • r • u Iranski vladari Stari vijek Medijska dinastija (728. - 550. pr. Kr.) Dejok • Fraort • Madije • Kijaksar • Astijag Ahemenidska dinastija (550. - 330. pr. Kr.) Ahemen • Teisp • Kir I. • Arijaramn • Arsam • Kambiz I. • Kir Veliki • Kambiz II. • Smerdis • Darije Veliki • Kserkso I. • Artakserkso I. • Kserkso II. • Sogdijan • Darije II. • Artakserkso II. • Artakserkso III. • Artakserkso IV. • Darije III. Strana vladavina (330. - 247. pr. Kr.) Vidi: Popis argeadskih i seleukidskih vladara Arsakidska dinastija (247. pr. Kr. - 224.) Arsak I. • Tiridat I. • Arsak II. • Frijapatije • Fraat I. • Mitridat I. • Fraat II. • Artaban I. • Mitridat II. • Gotarz I. • Orod I. • Sinatruk I. • Fraat III. • Mitridat III. • Orod II. • Pakor I. • Fraat IV. • Tiridat II. • Musa • Fraat V. • Orod III. • Vonon I. • Artaban II. • Tiridat III. • Gotarz II. • Vardan I. • Vonon II. • Vologaz I. • Vardan II. • Vologaz II. • Pakor II. • Artaban III. • Hozroje I. • Vologaz III. • Mitridat IV. • Partamaspat • Sinatruk II. • Vologaz IV. • Hozroje II. • Vologaz V. • Vologaz VI. • Artaban IV. Sasanidska dinastija (224. - 651.) Ardašir I. • Šapur I. • Hormizd I. • Bahram I. • Bahram II. • Bahram III. • Narseh • Hormizd II. • Šapur II. • Ardašir II. • Šapur III. • Bahram IV. • Jezdegerd I. • Bahram V. • Jezdegerd II. • Hormizd III. • Peroz I. • Balaš • Kavad I. • Zamasp • Hozroje I. • Hormizd IV. • Bahram Čobin • Hozroje II. • Kavad II. • Ardašir III. • Šahrabaraz • Boran • Azarmedukt • Hozroje III. • Hormizd V. • Hozroje IV. • Jezdegerd III. Srednji vijek Strana vladavina (651. - 821.) Vidi: Popis rašudinskih, omejidskih i abasidskih kalifa Tahiridska dinastija (821. - 873.) Tahir I. • Talha • Abdulah • Tahir II. • Muhamed Safaridska dinastija (861. - 1003.) Jakub • Amru I. • Tahir I. • Laith • Muhamed I. • Mufadal • Amru II. • Ahmed • Halaf Samanidska dinastija (819. - 999.) Saman Hoda • Asad • Nuh bin Asad • Jahja • Elijas • Ibrahim • Ahmed I. • Nasr I. • Ismail • Ahmed II. • Nasr II. • Nuh I. • Abdul Malik I. • Mansur I. • Nuh II. • Mansur II. • Ismail Muntasir • Abdul Malik II. Bujidska dinastija (934. - 1055.) Ali • Hasan • Ahmad • Adud • Iz • Faher • Muajad • Šaraf • Samsam • Šams • Abu Taleb Rostam • Baha • Mušarif • Sultan • Kavam • Sama • Abu Kalidžar • Džalal • Abu Nasr Hozroje Firuz • Abu Mansur Pulad Sutun Gaznavidska dinastija (963. - 1187.) Alp Tegin • Sabuk Tegin • Ismail I. • Mahmud • Muhamed • Masud • Mavdud Seldžučka dinastija (1037. - 1077.) Togrul I. • Alp Arslan • Malik-šah I. • Mahmud I. • Barkijaruk • Malik-šah II. • Muhamed I. • Ahmed Sandžar • Mahmud II. Guridska dinastija (1161. - 1206.) Saif • Gijas • Šahab Muhamed Horezmijska dinastija (1077. - 1231.) Anuštegin • Ekinči • Muhamed I. • Atsiz • Il-Arslan • Sultan-šah • Takeš • Muhamed II. • Džalal Strana vladavina (1231. - 1501.) Vidi: Popis mongolskih, ilhanidskih i timuridskih vladara Novi vijek Safavidska dinastija (1501. - 1736.) Ismail I. • Tahmasp I. • Ismail II. • Muhamed Hodabanda • Abas Veliki • Safi I. • Abas II. • Sulejman I. • Sultan Husain • Tahmasp II. • Abas III. Hotakijska dinastija (1709. - 1738.) Mir Vais • Abdul Aziz • Mahmud • Ašraf • Husein Afšaridska dinastija (1736. - 1796.) Nader-šah • Adel-šah • Ebrahim • Šaheroh Zandijska dinastija (1750. - 1794.) Karim-han • Muhamed Ali-han • Abol Fateh-han • Zaki-han • Sadek-han • Ali Morad-han • Džafar-han • Sajed Morad-han • Lotf Ali-han Kadžarska dinastija (1785. - 1925.) Muhamed-han • Fateh Ali-šah • Muhamed-šah • Mahd-e Olia • Nasrudin-šah • Mozafaradin-šah • Muhamed Ali-šah • Ahmed-šah Najnovije doba Pahlavijska dinastija (1925. - 1979.) Reza-šah Pahlavi • Mohammed Reza Pahlavi Uspostavljena Islamska Republika Iran (1979. - danas) Imam Homeini • Ali Hamenei v • r • u Popis faraona Preddinastijski i Ranodinastijski period 3150. pr. Kr. – 2686. pr. Kr. Faraoni Donjeg Egipta: Tiu • Teš • Hsekiu • Uazner • • • Faraoni Gornjeg Egipta: Škorpion I. • Iri-Horus • Ka • Škorpion II. • Narmer I. dinastija: Narmer • Hor-Aha • Džer • Džet • Merneit • Den • Anedžib • Semerket • Kaa II. dinastija: Hotepsekemui • Raneb • Ninečer • (Ueneg) • (Senedž) • Set-Peribsen • (Sendži) • (Neterka) • (Neferkara) • Sekemib-Perenmaat • (Kasekem) • Kasekemui Staro egipatsko kraljevstvo 2686. pr. Kr. – 2181. pr. Kr. III. dinastija: Sanakt • Džozer • Sekemket • Kaba • Huni • • • IV. dinastija: Snofru • Kufu • Džedefra • Kafra • Menkaura • Šepseskaf • • • V. dinastija: Userkaf • Sahure • Neferirkare Kakai • Shepseskare Isi • Neferefre • Nyuserre Ini • Menkauhor Kaiu • Djedkare Isesi • Unas • • • VI. dinastija: Teti • Pepi I. • Merenre Nemtyemsaf I • Pepi II. Prvi prijelazni period 2181. pr. Kr. – 2040. pr. Kr. VII. i VIII. dinastija: Wadj-ka-re • Qa-ka-re Iby IX. i X. dinastija: Mery-ib-re Khety • Mery-ka-re • Ka-nefer-re • Neb-kau-re Akh-toy Srednje egipatsko kraljevstvo 2040. pr. Kr. – 1782. pr. Kr. XI. dinastija: Intef I. • Intef II. • Intef III. • Mentuhotep I. • Mentuhotep II. • Mentuhotep III. XII. dinastija: Amenemhat I. • Sesostris I. • Amenemhat II. • Sesostris II. • Sesostris III. • Amenemhat III. • Amenenemhat IV. • Kraljica Sobeknefru Drugi prijelazni period 1782. pr. Kr. – 1570. pr. Kr. XIII. dinastija: Wegaf • Amenemhat V. • Hor • Sobekhotep II. • Khendjer • Sobekhotep III. • Neferhotep I. • Sobekhotep IV. • Aya • Neferhotep II. • • • XIV. dinastija: Nehesy • • • XV. dinastija: Sheshi • Yakubher • Khyan • Apepi I. • Apepi II. • • • XVI. dinastija: Anather • Yakobaam • • • XVII. dinastija: Sobekemsaf II. • Intef VII. • Taa I. • Taa II. • Kamose Novo egipatsko kraljevstvo 1570. pr. Kr. – 1070. pr. Kr. XVIII. dinastija: Amasis I. • Amenhotep I. • Tutmozis I. • Tutmozis II. • Hatšepsut • Tutmozis III. • Amenhotep II. • Tutmozis IV. • Amenhotep III. • Eknaton • Smenkara • Tutankamon • Aj • Horemheb • • • XIX. dinastija: Ramzes I. • Seti I. • Ramzes II. • Merenptah • Amen-messes • Seti II. • Siptah • Kraljica Tausret • • • XX. dinastija: Setnakht • Ramzes III. • Ramzes IV. • Ramzes V. • Ramzes VI. • Ramzes VII. • Ramzes VIII. • Ramzes IX. • Ramzes X. • Ramzes XI. Treći prijelazni period 1069. pr. Kr. – 525. pr. Kr. Veliki svećenici iz Tebe: Her-i-hor • Piankh • Pinudjem I. • Masaherta • Men-kheper-ra • Smendes II. • Pinudjem II. • Psusennes III. • • • XXI. dinastija: Smendes I. • Nefer-ka-re • Psusennes I. • Amenophthis • Osorkon stariji • Siamon • Psusennes II. • • • XXII. dinastija: Shishak I. • Osorkon I. • Sheshonq II. • Takelot • Osorkon II. • Harsiese • Takelot II. • Sheshonq III. • Pimay • Sheshonq V. • Osorkon IV. • • • XXIII. dinastija: Mery-amun • Sheshonq IV. • Osorkon III. • Takelot III. • Rudamon • Iuput • Nefer-ka-re • Nimlot • • • XXIV. dinastija: Tefnakht Shepses-re • Bakenref Wah-ka-re • • • XXV. dinastija: Piyi • Shabaka Nefer-ka-re • Shebitku Djed-ka-re • Taharqa Nefertem-khu-re • Tanutamun Ba-ka-re • • • XXVI. dinastija: Psamtik I. • Neko • Psamtik II. • Wah-ib-re Ha-a-ib-re • Amazis II. • Psamtik III. Kasni period i perzijska vlast 525. pr. Kr. – 332. pr. Kr. XXVII. dinastija: Kambiz II. • Darije I. Veliki • Kserkso I. • Artakserkso I. • Darije II. • • • XXVIII. dinastija: Amirtej II. • • • XXIX. dinastija: Nepheritis I. • Hakor • • • XXX. dinastija: Nektanebo I. • Djed-hor • Nektanebo II. • • • XXXI. dinastija: Artakserkso III. • Artakserkso IV. • Darije III. Helenističko-rimski period 332. pr. Kr. – 30. pr. Kr. Makedonski kraljevi: Aleksandar III. Veliki • Filip III. Makedonski • Aleksandar IV. • • • Ptolemejevići: Ptolemej I. • Ptolemej II. • Ptolemej III. • Ptolemej IV. • Ptolemej V. • Ptolemej VI. • Ptolemej VII. • Ptolemej VIII. • Ptolemej IX. • Ptolemej X. • Ptolemej XI. • Ptolemej XII. • Berenika IV. • Ptolemej XIII. • Ptolemej XIV. i Kleopatra VII. • Ptolemej XV. Cezar Kategorije: Faraoni • Egipatske kraljice • Egipatski prinčevi • Egipatske princeze Dobavljeno iz "https://hr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kserkso_I.&oldid=5439436" Kategorije: Ahemenidski vladari Faraoni Navigacijski izbornik Osobni alati Niste prijavljeni Razgovor Doprinosi Stvori račun Prijavi se Imenski prostori Stranica Razgovor Inačice Pogledi Čitaj Uredi Uredi kôd Vidi povijest Više Traži Orijentacija Glavna stranica Kafić Novosti Nedavne promjene Slučajna stranica Pomoć Donacije Pomagala Što vodi ovamo Povezane promjene Postavi datoteku Posebne stranice Trajna poveznica Podatci o stranici Citiraj ovu stranicu Stavka (Wikipodatci) Ispis/izvoz Stvori knjigu Preuzmi kao PDF Inačica za ispis Wikimedijini projekti Zajednički poslužitelj Drugi jezici Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Uredi međuwikije Ova stranica posljednji je put uređivana 2. veljače 2020. u 11:13. 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hu-wikipedia-org-2502	----	I. Khsajársá perzsa király – Wikipédia I. Khsajársá perzsa király A Wikipédiából, a szabad enciklopédiából Ez a közzétett változat, ellenőrizve: 2020. április 3. Pontosság ellenőrzött Ugrás a navigációhoz Ugrás a kereséshez A cikk ékírásos karaktereket tartalmaz. Speciális támogatás nélkül az ékjelek helyén négyszög, kérdőjel vagy más értelmetlen jel áll. I. Khsajársá Perzsia királya Uralkodási ideje Kr. e. 486 – Kr. e. 465 Koronázása Kr. e. 485 októbere Elődje I. Dárajavaus Utódja I. Artakhsaszjá Egyiptom fáraója Uralkodási ideje Kr. e. 486 – Kr. e. 465 Elődje I. Dárajavaus Utódja I. Artakhsaszjá Életrajzi adatok Uralkodóház Akhaimenida-ház Született Kr. e. 519 Irán Elhunyt Kr. e. 465. augusztus 4./8. (54 évesen) Thermapaly Nyughelye Irán Édesapja I. Dárajavaus Édesanyja Atossza Testvérei Artazostre Gobryas Arsames Artobazanes Ariamenes Ariabignes Abrocomes Masistes Achaemenes Arsáma Házastársa Vasti Amestris Eszter Gyermekei I. Artakhsaszjá perzsa király Amytis Artabanus Histaspes Darius Rodoguna A Wikimédia Commons tartalmaz I. Khsajársá témájú médiaállományokat. Xerxész egy napernyő alatt I. Khsajársá (𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎹 óperzsául xa-ša-ya-a-ra-ša-a, normalizált alakban Xšayāršā, ógörögül: Ξέρξης, azaz I. Xerxész, Kr. e. 519 – Kr. e. 465. augusztus 4. és 8. között[1]) perzsa király Kr. e. 486-tól haláláig az Akhaimenidák dinasztiájából. Tartalomjegyzék 1 Élete 1.1 Trónra lépése 1.2 A Birodalom rendbetétele 1.3 Görög háborúk 1.4 Utolsó évei 1.5 Xerxész mint Ahasvéros? 2 Jegyzetek 3 További információk Élete[szerkesztés] Trónra lépése[szerkesztés] Dárajavaus és Atossza (II. Kurus leánya) fiaként született.[2] Még édesatyja életében küzdelmeket folytatott a főhatalomért mostohatestvérével, Artabazanésszel, azonban Demarátosz segítségével felülkerekedett a küzdelemben.[3] A trónt édesanyja befolyása révén könnyűszerrel nyerte el.[2] A Birodalom rendbetétele[szerkesztés] Trónralépte után leverte a még Dárajavaus idejében kitört egyiptomi felkelést,[2] majd Babilóniában is megszilárdította hatalmát.[3] Görög háborúk[szerkesztés] Ezek után nagy előkészületeket tett a Hellász elleni háborúra, melyre sógora, Mardoniosz, néhány elűzött tirannosz-család, valamint álmok és jóslatok ösztökélték.[3] Kr. e. 480 tavaszán indult el – nem törődve nagybátyjának, Artabanosznak intelmeivel[2] – Szardeiszből óriási seregével.[2] Két hidat vert a Hellészpontoszon, és Therméig vonult (ma Szaloniki), ahol hajóhadával találkozott.[2] Hérodotosz igencsak szubjektíven, gyalogos haderejét 1 700 000 főre, lovasságát 80 000 lovasra, hajóhadát pedig 1200 háromevezősoros hajóra teszi, így embereinek száma a 5 000 000-t is meghaladhatta.[2] Más görög és perzsa történetírók, mint Ephorosz, Ktésziasz már „csak” 800 000 főre becsülték szárazföldi hadát.[2] A sereg Thesszálián keresztül egészen Attikáig nyomult előre.[2] Azonban a thermopülai és a szalamiszi csaták megváltoztatták a háború menetét.[2] Khsajársá ezek után seregének nagy részével visszafordult, és 45 nap után visszaért a Hellészpontoszhoz, innen aztán hazatért Szárdeiszbe.[2] A plataiai és mükaléi ütközetek után véglegesen lemondott a Hellász meghódításáról.[2] Utolsó évei[szerkesztés] A hátralévő 14 évét már csak az élvezetek hajszolásával és asszonyi intrikák között töltötte.[2] Alatta már egész határozottan megjelentek a Perzsa Birodalom romlásának jelei.[2] Bár a perszepoliszi fényűző építkezések és az Afrika körülhajózására küldött expedíció még arról tanúskodtak, hogy még van erő a perzsákban nagy vállalkozásokra.[2] Kr. e. 467-ben Xerxész túlélte az Eurümedón melletti vereséget. Oktalan kicsapongásai és felesleges kegyetlenségei gyűlöletessé tette népe előtt.[3] Kr. e. 465-ben Artabanosz, a testőrök vezére[2] az eunuch Mithridatésszel szövetkezve palotaforradalmat robbantott ki, és végzett Khsajársával.[3] A király elsőszülőtt fiát, Dárajavaust Artabanosz szintén megölette, de a második, Artakhsaszjá megelőzte a gyilkost és a belügyek terén erős kézzel ragadta meg a kormány gyeplőit.[3] Xerxész mint Ahasvéros?[szerkesztés] A Biblia szerint[4][5] Ahasvérus király eltaszította magától korábbi feleségét, Vastit (perzsául: وَ شتی آ), mivel az nem volt hajlandó az udvar előtt nyilvánosan „megmutatni szépségét” (értsd: felfedni bájait vagy táncolni), majd elvette a zsidó Mordecháj unokahúgát, Esztert. Hámán főminiszter "igyekezett elveszteni minden zsidót"[6] és ezért 10 000 tálentom ezüstöt ajánlott fel a királynak.[7][8] Eszter királyné és nagybátyja, Mordecháj (Márdokeus) közbenjárására a zsidók engedélyt kaptak a védekezésre, így megmenekültek a kiirtatástól. Ezek után a zsidók a bibliai Eszter könyve szerint a fővárosban, Szúzában 500, a birodalom többi részében kb. 75 000 ellenségüket ölték meg, „de zsákmányra nem tették rá kezöket”.[9] (lásd: Purim ünnepe a zsidóknál). Ezt követően a zsidók nagy befolyásra tettek szert. A bibliai Ahasvéros a kritika szerint nem lehet azonos Xerxésszel. Ha valóban Xerxészről lenne szó, érthetetlen, hogy Eszter könyve miért nem említi a Cirusz (II. Kürosz) általi hazaengedést, ami ekkor már hét évtizede megtörtént. Eszter ahelyett, hogy a már engedélyezett hazatelepülést szorgalmazná, a perzsa királlyal legyilkoltat 75000 perzsát. Ezdrással sem cseng össze a történet, mert Ezdrás szerint Artaxerxész király alkotott a zsidók pozitív diszkriminációjáról rendeletet, nem említi azonban, hogy ennek előtte honfitársai mekkora veszélybe kerültek volna, és hogy ennek nyomán Xerxész a zsidósággal foglalkozott volna. Erről az epizódról Eszter könyvén kívül nincs más ismert történeti említés. Eszter könyve eredetileg valószínűleg Asszíriáról szólhatott, mely korba beillik, tehát Szamaria elfoglalása után az onnan kitelepített zsidók kerültek esetleg veszélybe, s menekültek meg. Tóbiás, Judit, Ruth és Eszter könyvei a zsidók fogságával foglalkoznak, de mindegyikük történeti háttere elnagyolt, mivel a bennük leírt eseményeket több száz évvel azt követően jegyezték le. Ebből adódhatnak a perzsákra vonatkozó részletek. Jegyzetek[szerkesztés] ↑ Xerxes I (angol nyelven). Livius.org. (Hozzáférés: 2012. január 13.) ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Ókori lexikon I–II. Szerk. Pecz Vilmos. Budapest: Franklin Társulat. 1902–1904.   Xerxes (2) ↑ a b c d e f Bokor József (szerk.). Xerxes (1), A Pallas nagy lexikona. Arcanum: FolioNET (1893–1897, 1998.). ISBN 963 85923 2 X. Hozzáférés ideje: 2007. január 11.  ↑ Biblia, Ószövetség, Eszter könyve 1 ↑ Biblia, Ószövetség, Eszter könyve 2 ↑ Biblia, Ószövetség, Eszter könyve 3, 6 ↑ Biblia, Ószövetség, Eszter könyve 3, 9 ↑ Biblia, Ószövetség, Eszter könyve 3, 5-15 ↑ Biblia, Ószövetség, Eszter könyve 9, 5-16 További információk[szerkesztés] Hérodotosz: Kürosz ; Xerxész (MEK) Előző uralkodó: I. Dárajavaus Ó-Perzsia királya Kr. e. 486 – Kr. e. 465 Következő uralkodó: I. Artakhsaszjá Előző uralkodó: I. Dárajavaus Egyiptom uralkodója Kr. e. 486 – Kr. e. 465 Következő uralkodó: I. Artakhsaszjá Sablon:Óperzsa királyok m v sz Óperzsa uralkodók Korai idők (méd fennhatóság) Hakhámanis (Akhaimenész) · Csaispis (Teiszpész) · Vistászpa (Hüsztaszpész) Ansan és Pársza királyai I. Kurus (I. Kürosz) · Kabúdzsija (I. Kambüszész) · II. Kurus (II. Kürosz) · Kambúdzsija (II. Kambüszész) · Bardíja (Szmerdész) Akhaimenidák I. Dárajavaus (I. Dareiosz) · I. Khsajársá (I. Xerxész) · I. Artakhsaszjá (I. Artaxerxész) · II. Khsajársá (II. Xerxész) · Sogdianus (Szogdianosz) · II. Dárajavaus (II. Dareiosz) · II. Artakhsaszjá (II. Artaxerxész) · III. Artakhsaszjá (III. Artaxerxész) · IV. Artakhsaszjá (IV. Artaxerxész) · III. Dárajavaus (III. Dareiosz) · V. Artakhsaszjá (V. Artaxerxész Bésszosz)) Sablon:Egyiptomi dinasztiák navbox m v sz Egyiptomi dinasztiák Proto- és korai dinasztikus kor 0. dinasztia · I. dinasztia · II. dinasztia Óbirodalom III. dinasztia · IV. dinasztia · V. dinasztia · VI. dinasztia Első átmeneti kor VII. dinasztia · VIII. dinasztia · IX. dinasztia · X. dinasztia · XI. dinasztia Középbirodalom XI. dinasztia · XII. dinasztia · XIII. dinasztia · XIV. dinasztia Második átmeneti kor XV. dinasztia · XVI. dinasztia · XVII. dinasztia Újbirodalom XVIII. dinasztia · XIX. dinasztia · XX. dinasztia Harmadik átmeneti kor XXI. dinasztia · XXII. dinasztia · XXIII. dinasztia · XXIV. dinasztia · XXV. dinasztia · XXVI. dinasztia Későkor és hellenisztikus kor XXVII. dinasztia · XXVIII. dinasztia · XXIX. dinasztia · XXX. dinasztia · XXXI. dinasztia · Ptolemaida-dinasztia Nemzetközi katalógusok WorldCat VIAF: 282770127 LCCN: n81070675 ISNI: 0000 0000 6300 8852 GND: 118808109 LIBRIS: 259706 SUDOC: 050588400 NKCS: mzk2005313022 BNF: cb150689088 BNE: XX1153338 ULAN: 500354810 Ókorportál Zsidóságportál A lap eredeti címe: „https://hu.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=I._Khsajársá_perzsa_király&oldid=22437706” Kategória: Akhaimenidák Fáraók Ószövetségi személyek Görög–perzsa háborúk I. e. 519-ben született személyek I. e. 465-ben elhunyt személyek Meggyilkolt uralkodók Rejtett kategóriák: Wikipédia-szócikkek VIAF azonosítóval Wikipédia-szócikkek LCCN azonosítóval Wikipédia-szócikkek ISNI azonosítóval Wikipédia-szócikkek GND azonosítóval Wikipédia-szócikkek SELIBR azonosítóval Wikipédia-szócikkek BNF azonosítóval Wikipédia-szócikkek ULAN azonosítóval Navigációs menü Személyes eszközök Nem vagy bejelentkezve Vitalap Közreműködések Fiók létrehozása Bejelentkezés Névterek Szócikk Vitalap Változatok Nézetek Olvasás Szerkesztés Laptörténet Több Keresés Navigáció Kezdőlap Tartalom Kiemelt szócikkek Friss változtatások Lap találomra Tudakozó Részvétel Kezdőknek Segítség Közösségi portál Kapcsolatfelvétel Adományok Eszközök Mi hivatkozik erre? 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hy-wikipedia-org-9304	----	Քսերքսես I - Վիքիպեդիա՝ ազատ հանրագիտարան Քսերքսես I Վիքիպեդիայից՝ ազատ հանրագիտարանից Jump to navigation Jump to search Քսերքսես I خشایارشا Ξέρξης Աքեմենյան Պարսկաստանի թագավոր Եգիպտոսի փարավոն Իշխանություն մ.թ.ա. 486 - 465 Ծնվել է՝ մ. թ. ա. 519 Ծննդավայր Աքեմենյան պետություն Մահացել է՝ մ.թ.ա. 465 Վախճանի վայր Աքեմենյան պետություն Իրան Երկիր  Աքեմենյան պետություն Ազգություն պարսիկ Նախորդ Դարեհ I Որդիներ Արտաքսերքսես I Դարեհ Գիստասպ Հաջորդող Արտաքսերքսես I Ուղեկից Ամեստրիդա Տոհմ Աքեմենյաններ պետական գործիչ Հայր Դարեհ I Մեծ Մայր Աթոսա Երեխաներ Արտաքսերքսես I, Ամիթիս, Artabanus?, Q3507242?, Histaspes?, Darius? և Rodoguna? Հավատք Զրադաշտականություն Քսերքսես I (պարս․՝ خشایارشا, Xšayaršā, Խշայարշան, նշանակում է՝ «հերոսների թագավոր» կամ «Հերոս թագավորների մեջ», մ.թ.ա. 519, Աքեմենյան պետություն - Մ.թ.ա. 465, Աքեմենյան պետություն), Աքեմենյան տերության թագավոր և Հին Եգիպտոսի փարավոն: Եղել է Պարսկաստանի թագավոր Դարեհ I Մեծի և Կյուրոս Բ Մեծի դուստր Ատտոսի որդին, ով մ.թ.ա. 521 թվականին՝ հոր մահից հետո, զբաղեցրել է պարսից գահը[1]: Բովանդակություն 1 Նկարագիր 1.1 Հունական վարկած 1.2 Պարսկական վարկած 2 Կառավարման սկիզբ և նվաճումներ 2.1 Եգիպտոսի ապստամբություն 2.2 Բաբելոնյան ապստամբություն 3 Դեպի Հունաստան արշավանքներ 3.1 Նախապատմություն 3.2 Հունաստանի հակահարված 3.3 Թերմոպիլեի ճակատամարտ 3.4 Նավատորմի ներգործություն 3.5 Ծովամարտ Սալամին կղզում 4 Հույն-պարսկական պատերազմի ավարտ և Քսերքսեսի մահ 5 Ծննդաբանություն 6 Կերպարը ֆիլմերում 7 Ծանոթագրություններ 8 Գրականություն Նկարագիր[խմբագրել | խմբագրել կոդը] Հունական վարկած[խմբագրել | խմբագրել կոդը] Ըստ հնագույն լեգենդների՝ Քսերքսեսը եղել է ծույլ, կամազուրկ և ուրիշի ազդեցության տակ շուտ ընկնող անձնավորություն։ Սովորաբար աչքի էր ընկնում իր առանձնահատուկ գոռոզությամբ և փառամոլությամբ։ Քսերքսեսին մանրամասն կերպով նկարագրել է 3-րդ դարի նշանավոր հռոմեացի պատմիչ Մարկոս Յունիանուս Յուստինուսը իր Հին աշխարհի պատմությանը նվիրված աշխատությունում. Քսերքսեսին միշտ տեսնում էին առաջին փախչողների և վերջին մարտնչողների մեջ: Նա երկչոտ էր վտանգի ժամանակ և պարծենկոտ, երբ իրեն ոչինչ չէր սպառնում, նա, քանի դեռ չէր զգացել պատերազմի փոփոխականությունը, այնքան վստահ էր իր վրա, կարծես իշխանություն ուներ անգամ բնության նկատմամբ. նա տապալում էր լեռներն ու հարթեցնում ձորերը, որոշ ծովերի վրա կամուրջներ էր կապում, իսկ այլ ծովերում նավագնացության նպատակներով անցկացնում էր միջագետակներ, որոնք կարճացնում էին ճանապարհը:- Մարկ Յունիան Յուստին[2] Պարսկական վարկած[խմբագրել | խմբագրել կոդը] Քսերքսեսի թողած արձանագրությունը Հակասելով հունական աղբյուրներին՝ արևելյան և պարսկական աղբյուրները Քսերքսեսին ներկայացնում են բոլորովին այլ կերպար։ Պարսկական արձանագրությունները Քսերքսեսին ներկայացնում են իբրև իմաստուն և փորձառու պետական գործչի և հավերժացնում նրա հիշատակը։ Ինքը` Քսերքսեսը, Պերսեպոլիսում թողած իր միակ արձանագրության մեջ իրեն ներկայացնում է իբրև իմաստուն և եռանդուն անձնավորության` ճշմարտությունը գնահատող և անօրինությունը քննադատող։ Նա նշում է, որ մշտապես պաշտպանել է ուժեղների կողմից ճնշվող թույլերին և եղել է անարդարության նշանավոր քննադատներից և արդարության պաշտպաններից մեկը։ Նա կարողանում էր վերահսկել իր զգացմունքները, այլ ոչ թե շտապ և արագ որոշումներ կայացնել։ Նա կարողանում էր գնահատել յուրաքանչյուրին՝ ըստ արժանիքների և կանխել ապօրինությունը։ Վերջում հավելել է, որ նա եղել է բարձր ֆիզիկական հատկանիշներով աշխարհակալ մարտիկ։ Չնայած գոյություն ունեցող հակադրություններին՝ հունական և պարսկական աղբյուրները վկայում են, որ Քսերքսեսը եղել է բարձրահասակ, գեղեցիկ և հմայիչ տղամարդ։ Ակնհայտ են հունական և պարսկական աղբյուրների միջև եղած տարբերությունները, սակայն մեկը մյուսին լրացնելով ստեղծվել է Քսերքսեսի մասին այժմյան պատկերացումները[3]: Կառավարման սկիզբ և նվաճումներ[խմբագրել | խմբագրել կոդը] Եգիպտոսի ապստամբություն[խմբագրել | խմբագրել կոդը] Քսերքսես I թագավորի կիսանդրին Մ.թ.ա. 486 թվականին Քսերքսեսը դառնում է Աքեմենյան տերության թագավոր։ Կառավարման սկզբնական շրջանում՝ մ.թ.ա. 484 թվականին հունվարին, Եգիպտոսը կարողանում է հերթական անգամ ապստամբել։ Պարսկական բանակը Քսերքսեսի գլխավորության կարողանում է ճնշել դեռևս հոր՝ Դարեհ I Մեծի կառավարման տարիներին բռնկված ապստամբությունը։ Եգիպտոսը ենթարկվում էր անողոք բռնությունների, ինչպես նաև պարսիկները առգրավում են տաճարների գույքը։ Եգիպտոսի կառավարիչ Ֆերենդատանը ապստամբության ժամանակ զոհվում է և Քսերքսեսը Եգիպտոսի սատրապ է նշանակում իր եղբորը՝ Ախաեմենեսին։ Աքեմենյան տերության կողմից Եգիպտոսի նվաճումից ի վեր, եգիպտացիները զբաղեցնում էին միայն երկրի ցածր պաշտոնները, իսկ կարևոր պաշտոնյաները լինում էին դրածոներ։ Եգիպտացիները դժգոհում էին նաև այն հանգամանքից, որ Քսերքսեսը և նրան հաջորդող բոլոր պարսիկ թագավորները չէին հարգում եգիպտական աստվածներին և ավերում էին կրոնական տաճարները։ Ճիշտ է, խամամաթյան քարհանքներում հիերոգլիֆներով գրված է Քսերքսեսի անունը, բայց այդ թագավորը նյութն ավելացրել է ոչ թե եգիպտական տաճարների համար, այլ Պարսկատանում իր կառույցների համար, որոնք տեղափոխում էր ծովով[4][5]։ Բաբելոնյան ապստամբություն[խմբագրել | խմբագրել կոդը] Քսերքսես I-ի բանակը ուղևորվում է Դարդանել Եգիպտական ապստամբությունից հետո ապստամբում են բաբելոնացիները։ Ըստ հույն պատմիչ և արքունի բժիշկ Կտեսիաս Կնիդացու՝ բաբելոնացիները ապստամբություն են բարձրացրել իրենց կրոնական տաճարների ավերման և աստվածների հանդեպ անհարգալից վերաբերմունքի պատճառով։ Ապստամբությունը սրացավ այն բանից հետո, երբ Բաբելոնի գերագույն աստված Բելի գերեզմանը հայտնաբերվեց պղծված։ Այլ պատմիչները՝ Ստրաբոնը, Արիանոսը, Դիոդորոս Սիկիլիացին հավելում են նաև այն, որ Քսերքսեսը համարձակվել է հայհոյել բաբելոնյան տաճարում։ Արիանոսը փաստում է, որ այդ դեպքը եղել է այն ժամանակ, երբ Քսերքսեսը վերադառնում էր Հունաստանից[6]: Ամենայն հավանականությամբ ապստամբությունները եղել են մի քանիսը։ Առաջին ապստամբությունը եղել է Բելի գերեզմանի պղծումից ու թալանումից հետո, երբ ոտքի էր ելել ողջ Բաբելոնը։ Այդ ապստամբության առիթ դարձավ նաև այն հանգամանքը, որ պարսիկները խոշոր պարտություն էին կրել Մարաթոնի ճակատամարտում` հույների դեմ կռվում: Բաբելոնացի ապստամբներին հաջողվեց գրավել Բաբելոնի կենտրոնական տաճարը, ինչպես նաև Բորսիպպ և Դիլբաթ քաղաքները: Բորսիպպ քաղաքից հայտնաբերված սեպագիր երկու արձանագրությունները նվիրված էին «Բել-շիմաննիի թագավորության սկզբին և Բաբելոնի թագավորին»: Վկաները, ովքեր ստորագրեցին այդ պայմանագիրը, նույն այն վկաներն են, ովքեր հանդիպում էին Դարեհի կառավարման երկրորդ հատվածի և Քսերքսեսի առաջին տարվա փաստաթղթերում։ Ակնհայտ է, որ Բաբելոնը ապստամբեց Դարեհի դեմ և ընդունեց «երկրների արքա» հանդուգն տիտղոսը, որը չէին ստացել անգամ կեղծ նաբուգոդոնոսորականները։ Ապստամբությունից երկու շաբաթ անց՝ մ.թ.ա. 484 թվականի հուլիսին, Քսերքսեսի բանակը վերջնականապես ճնշեց բաբելոնյան ապստամբությունը։ Քսերքսես I-ը Բաբելոնում Մ.թ.ա. 482 թվականի օգոստոսին բաբելոնացիները հերթական անգամ ապստամբեցին։ Այս անգամ ապստամբությունը գլխավորում էր նշանավոր զորավար Շամաշ-Էրիբան։ Այս մասին վկայում է Եգիբի առևտրական կենտրոնի փաստաթուղթը, որը կազմվել է օգոստոսի 26-ին։ Ապստամբները պահանջում էին իրենց անկախությունը Քսերքսեսից[7]: Սակայն ապստամբությունը տևեց շատ ավելի կարճ քան նախատեսել էր Քսերքսեսը։ Քսերքսեսը ընդունեց մի օրենք, որի համաձայն պարսկական զորքը հեռանում էր Բաբելոնից և Բաբելոնի իշխանությունը ստանում էր կիսանկախ վիճակ։ Պարսկական խոշոր զինվորական կայազորները Բաբելոնից տեղափոխվեցին Փոքր Ասիա՝ մասնակցելու Հունաստանի պոլիսների դեմ մղվող նվաճողական և զավթողական պատերազմներին[8]: Բաբելոնի և Աքեմենյան Պարսկաստանի հարաբերությունները ծայրահեղ վատացան այն բանից հետո, երբ բաբելոնացի զինվորները հրաժարվեցին կռվելու Հունաստանի դեմ մղված պատերազմում։ Խախտելով իր կողմից գրված օրենքները, Քսերքսեսի հրամանով պարսիկները մտան Բաբելոնի կենտրոնական տաճար և կողոպտեցին 600 կգ կշռող Բել աստծո ոսկյա արձանը։ Հույն պատմաբան Հերոդոտոսը, Քսերքսեսի այս քայլը բնութագրում է, որպես ագահություն, քանի որ նշում է որ Քսերքսեսը արձանին ցանկացել է տիրանալ միայն նրա ոսկյա լինելու պատճառով[9]: Դեպի Հունաստան արշավանքներ[խմբագրել | խմբագրել կոդը] Հիմնական հոդված՝ Հույն-պարսկական պատերազմներ Նախապատմություն[խմբագրել | խմբագրել կոդը] Քսերքսեսը հրամայել է փորել ծովը 80-ական թվականների ավարտին իրավիճակը Աքեմենյան Պարսկաստանում հարաբերական կայունացավ և երկիրը բռնեց հզորացման ուղին։ Քսերքսեսը Եգեյան ծովի արևմտյան ափին հաստատվելու նպատակով նախապատրաստվեց դեպի Հունաստան արշավանքի։ Նա փորձում էր զավթել Հունաստանի տարածքը և միացնել Կյուրոս II Մեծի կողմից գրավված հունական պոլիսներին։ Քսերքսեսը արշավանք կազմակերպելիս նպատակ ուներ տիրել Եգեյան ծովի ավազանին և վերահսկել արևելամիջերկրածովյան առևտրական ճանապարհները։ Դեռևս մ.թ.ա. 492 թվականին պարսկական բանակը նպատակ ուներ գրավելու Հունաստանը։ Մարդոնիոսի գլխավորությամբ պարսկական բանակը անցնում է Հելլեսպոնտոսը՝ Հունաստան ներխուժելու համար, սակայն պարսկական նավատորմի մեծ մասը փոթորկից կործանվում է և Մարդոևիոսը ստիպված է լինում ետ վերադառևալ՝ գրավելով միայն Թրակիան[10][11]։ Հաշվի առնելով այս հանգամանքը, Քսերքսեսը կամուրջ է կառուցում Հունաստանի և Պարսկաստանի ծովային սահմանի վրա՝ հետագա ծովային արշավանքի ժամանակ անախորժություններից խուսափելու համար[12]: Շինարարության ավարտին Քսերքսեսի հրամանով ստեղծված կամուրջը արդեն հասնում էր 2 կմ-ի։ Քսերքսեսը վախենում էր հատկապես Սուրբ Աթոս լեռանից, որի շրջակայքում վերջին անգամ փոթորկի արդյունքում խորտակվել էր պարսկական նավատորմը[13]: Հույները գիտեին Քսերքսեսի մտադրության մասին և երկու երկրները դեսպաններ են ուղարկում այլ երկրներ օգնություն խնդրելու նպատակով։ Այդպես հունական և պարսկական պատվիրակները լինում են Կարթագենում, Սիցիլիայում[14][15], Կիպրոսում և այլ վայրերում։ Հունաստանի հակահարված[խմբագրել | խմբագրել կոդը] Գիտակցելով հայրենի Հունաստանին սպասվող վտանգը՝ Հունաստանի որոշ պոլիսներ միավորվում են և պատրաստվում երկարատև և դժվարին պայքարին։ Մ.թ.ա. 481 թվականին ժողովից հետո, որոշվում է միավորել պոլիսների բանակները և ստեղծել մեկ հզոր բանակ և նավատորմ, որի կենտրոնը կհանդիսանա Կորնթոսի գլխավորած Սպարտա քաղաք-պոլիսը[16]: Սպարտայի դեսպանությունը հանդիպելով Քսերքսեսի հետ չեն կարողանում ընդհանուր հայտարարի գալ և առաջանում են խիստ տարածքային վեճեր։ Գիտակցելով որ պատերազմը մոտ է, հույների մի մասը իրենց զորքերը կենտրոնացնում են Լեռնային Հունաստանում՝ ծովափնյա նեղ կիրճերի մոտ։ Հույները գիտեին, որ պարսիկները բացի ցամաքային զորքերը Հունաստան մտցնելուց կռվելու էին նաև ռազմածովային նավատորմի միջոցով[17]: Ի վերջո կազմվում է հունական ցամաքային բանակը, որտեղ կռվում էին Հունաստանի տարբեր պոլիսների զինվորներ։ Նրանց ընդհանուր թիվը կազմում էր 6,5 հազար մարդ։ Հունական զորքերի հրամանատար է ընտրվում Սպարտայի զորավար Լեոնիդաս I-ը[18][19]: Մ.թ.ա. 480 թվականի ամռանը Քսերքսեսը կատարում է իր ցամաքային զորքերի հաշվառումը։ Ժամանակակից պատմաբանները վկայում են, որ պարսկական բանակում այս ժամանակահատվածում ծառայել են 80.200 հազար մարդ, սակայն հույն պատմիչ Հերոդոտոսի հավաստմամբ, այստեղ կռվել են ֆանտաստիկ թվով 1,7 միլիոն հետևակ։ Որոշ ժամանակ անց Քսերքսեսը պաշտոնապես պատերազմ հայտարարեց Լեոնիդաս I-ին, քանի որ բանակցությունների ժամանակ վերջինս հրաժարվել էր ենթարկվել Պարսկաստանին և խոնարհվել Քսերքսեսի առաջ։ Պարսկական ծովային զորքերը անցան Դարդանելի նեղուցը և հասան Թերմոպիլեի կիրճ: Այստեղ հզոր փոթորիկ բռնկվեց և հերթական անգամ ցան ու ցրիվ արեց պարսկական նավերը։ Հույները մտածում են, որ հաճախ պռնկվող փոթորիկները արձակում է Զևսը, որը բարկացած է Քսերքսեսի և իր բանակի վրա։ Պարսկական զինվորների մեծ մասը խեղդվեց ծովում, իսկ մի ստվար զանգված փախուստի դիմեց դեպի Պարսկաստան։ Դեպի Հունաստան պարսկական առաջին արշավանքը ձախողվեց։ Զայրացած Քսերքսեսը հրամայեց գանակոծել ծովը և դուրս բերել կատաղի զինվորներ և մոլեգնած ռազմիկներ։ Քսերքսեսի գլխավորությամբ պարսկական նավատորմը երկրորդ անգամ հասնում է Թերմոպիլեի ափերի մոտ։ Այս անգամ նրա բանակում կռվում էին ոչ միայն պարսիկ արիացիներ, այլ նաև մարեր, լիդիացիներ, գիրկաններ, բաբելոնացիներ, բակտրիացիներ, սագարտներ, սաքեր, հնդիկներ, արիացիներ, սագդիցներ, գանդարիներ, կասպիներ, արաբներ, եթովպացիներ, լիբիացիներ, կիպրացիներ, եգիպտացիներ և այլազգիներ։ Հունական ռազմիկները հույն-պարսկական պատերազմի ժամանակ (ռեկոնստրուկցիա). ձախից` կրետական պարսատիկավոր ռազմիկ. աջից` գոպլիտներ` թրով և նիզակով կռվող Պարսկական բանակի զինվորները հույն-պարսկական պատերազմի ժամանակ։ Ռեկոնստրուկցիան Հերոդոտոսի նկարագրմամբ։ ձախից` պարսկական հեծելազորի դրոշակավոր զինվոր, աջից` հայկական և կապադովկիական զինվորներ Քսերքսեսի բանակում կռվող զինվորներ Թերմոպիլեի ճակատամարտում. ձախից աջ՝ քաղդեական հետևակներ, ովքեր կանգնում էին նավատորմի դիմային հատվածում, ասորական հետևակ` հզոր պաշտպանությամբ օժտված զինվորներ, փարթամ ձիավարսավոր զինվոր և պարսկական մոգեր Թերմոպիլեի ճակատամարտ[խմբագրել | խմբագրել կոդը] Հիմնական հոդված՝ Թերմոպիլեի ճակատամարտ Քսերքսես I-ը Պերսեպոլիսի պալատում, Աքեմենյան տերություն Մ.թ.ա. 480 թվականին պարսկական զորքերը Փոքր Ասիայից ներխուժեց Հունաստան: Հունական երկու նշանավոր պոլիսները՝ Սպարտան և Աթենքը միավորվում են՝ ստեղծելով համահունական միասնական պետություն և իշխանությունը կիսում երկուսի միջև հավասարապես։ Սպարտայի թագավոր Լեոնիդասը իր 300 մարտիկներով ամրանում է Թերմոպիլեի կիրճում՝ փակելով Քսերքսեսի գլխավորած զորքերի առաջխաղացումը դեպի Կենտրոնական և Արևմտյան Հունաստան։ Պատերազմի թեժ պահերին Սպարտացի զորքերին միացան նաև Աթենքի և այլ պոլիսներից ժամանած կամավոր զինվորները։ Պարսկական ռազմանավերը անզոր էին հունական նավատորմի դեմ և պարսիկները ծովից հանձնվեցին։ Քսերքսեսի բանակը մոտ չորս անգամ գերազանցում էր հունական բանակին, սակայն հզոր Աքեմենյան բանակին չէր հաջողվում գրավել նեղ կիրճը։ Ծովամարտի հաղթանակից շատ չանցած, սպարտացիները կարողցան վտարել պարսից բանակին հունական հողերից։ Թվում էր թե Քսերքսեսը պետք է արդեն հաշտություն խնդրի, բայց պատերազմի ամենավճռական պահին հույն վարձկանները բացեցին Աթենքի դարպասները և պարսկական զորքը մտավ Կենտրոնական Հունաստան։ Վճռական պատերազմում Սպարտայի զորավարը և իր 300 արտիկները զոհվեցին, սակայն կրետացիներին և աթենացիներին հաջողվեց դուրս բերել պարսից բանակը Հունաստանից։ Մեկ տարի անց պատերազմը ավարտվեց և հույները կարողացան ազատագրել մի շարք փոքրիկ պոլիսներ[20][21][22][23]։ Նավատորմի ներգործություն[խմբագրել | խմբագրել կոդը] Հիմնական հոդված՝ Արտեմիսի ճակատամարտ Դեռևս Թերմոպիլեի ճակատամարտի ընթացքում Պարսկաստանը իր ռազմածովային նավատորմը կենտրոնացրել էր Էվիա կղզում, սակայն այս կղզում բռնկված փոթորիկը լուրջ վնասներ հասցրեց պարսկական զորքերին. խորտակվեցին շատ նավեր և մահացան բացմահարյուրավոր մարդիկ։ Ավելի վատ իրավիճակ ստեղծվեց պարսիկների մոտ, երբ անվնաս մնացած նավերը Փոքր Ասիա տեղափոխվելու ժամանակ հանդիպեցին Աթենական ծովային նավատորմին: Քսերքսեսը նոր ուժեր ուղարկեց Արտեմիս կղզու մոտ, որտեղ բախվել էին երկու նավատորմերը, սակայն հերթական անգամ փոթորիկը ավերեց և խոշոր վնաս հասցրեց պարսիկներին։ Ըստ ավանդության, դա եղել է Օլիմպիական աստվածների անեծքը Քսերքսեսի և իր բանակի վրա։ Արդյունքում երկու կողմերն էլ ունեցան ծանր կորուստներ[24], սակայն առավել մեծ էր Քսերքսեսի բանակի ռազմածովային և ցամաքային կորուստները։ Բացի մարդկային կորուտներից, երկու երկրները օգտագործել էին նաև մեծ քանակությամբ սպառազինություն[25]: Լեոնիդասի մահից հետո հունական զորքերի զորահրամանատար է ընտրվում ազգությամբ աթենացի զորահրամանատար Թեմիստոկլեսը: Արտեմիսի ճակատամարտից շատ չանցած պարսիկ զինյալները հերթական անգամ ապաստակեցին Հունաստանի տարածքի արևելյան հատվածը[26]: Այսպիսով պարսիկները ազատ էին թելադրելու իրենց կամքը Աթենքում: Հունաստանում իրավիճակը սրվեց այն ժամանակ, երբ խռովություններ սկսվեցին նաև երկրի ներսում։ Հունաստանի պոլիսներից Բեոտիան սկսեց աջակցել Պարսկաստանին[27][28], քանի որ պարսիկները դաժանորեն ավերել էին պոլիսը և գերեվարել ողջ ժողովրդին։ Սպարտայի ցամաքային զորքերը զգալով վտանգը իրենց ուժերը կենտրոնացրեցին Պելոպոնես կղզում[29]: Պարսիկների հաջորդ զոհը դառնում է Աթենքը։ Պարսկական զորքերը Քսերքսեսի հրամանով ուղևորվում են Ակրոպոլիս, ավերում տաճարը, սակայն դիմադրության չեն հանդիպում, քանի որ տեղի 500 հույները ինքնակամ հանձնվում են։ Որոշ թանկարժեք արձաններ պարսիկները տեղափոխում են Աքեմենյան տերություն[30][31][32]: Ծովամարտ Սալամին կղզում[խմբագրել | խմբագրել կոդը] Հիմնական հոդված՝ Սալամինի ճակատամարտ Թերմոպիլեի և Արտեմիսի հաջողություններից հետո պարսկական բանակը հերթական անգամ զորքերը մտցնում է Հունաստան: Անվտանգության նկատառումներից դրդված, Ատտիկայի բնակիչների մի մասը տեղափոխվում է մոտակա Սալամին կղզի[33], սակայն այս քայլի մասին իմանում է Քսերքսեսը։ Պարսիկներին հաջողվեց ջախջախել աթենացիների և սպարտացիների զորքերին և ավերել ու թալանել Աթենքը[34] ։ Հաղթանակած Քսերքսեսը որոշեց ամբողջովին ոչնչացնել հունական նավատորմը։ Պարսկական նավերը ուղղությունը փոխեցին շարժվելով Սալամին կղզի։ Պարսկական ծանրաքաշ նավերը չէին կարողանում անցնել Սալամինի նեղ կիրճերի միջով։ Քսերքսեսը ինքը անձամբ հրաման է արձակում գերեվարել Աթենքի ծերերին, երեխաներին և կանանց և ինքը հետևում Սալամինում ընթացող դեպքերին և իրադարձություններին՝ չմասնակցելով կռվին։ Պարսկական նավերի առաջընթացը խոչընդոտեցին հունական նավերը։ Հույները սուր գործիքներ էին ամրացրել նավերի ծայրերին և կարողանում էին հեշտությամբ ջախջախել պարսկական ռազմանավերին։ Հույներին օգնեց նաև Միջերկրական ծովի ափին բռնկված քամին, որը ցանուցրիվ արեց պարսից ամբողջ նավատորմը։ Այս ծովամարտում հույները ջախջախիչ հաղթանակ տարան թշնամու նկատմամբ[35][36][37][38][39]։ Պարսկական մոտ 800-անոց նավատորմից հայրենիք վերադարձան մոտ 600-ը։ Քսերքսեսը ստիպված էր նահանջել։ Քսերքսեսը վերադարձավ Աքեմենյան տերություն, սակայն պարսկական զորքերը մնացին Հունաստանի արևելքում։ Ձմռան պատճառով պատերազմը կարճ ժամանակով դադարեց։ Պարսկաստանի արքա Քսերքսես I-ի միջինասիական զինվորներ։ Ձախից` Հոնիական հետևակ: Նրանք կրում էին հունական հագուստ, որը վերցված էր հույներից։ Աջից՝ բրոնզե սաղավարտով պարսիկ զինվոր Քսերքսեսի բանակի պարսիկ-նետահար և դիպուկահար զինվորներ։ Ռեկոնստրուկցիա՝ նկարագրված Հերոդոտոսի կողմից։ Ձախ մասում՝ եթովպացի նետահար։ Հույն-պարսկական պատերազմի մասնակից հույն զինվոր։ Հունաստանի կողմում կռվող զինվորների մեծ մասին ուղեկցում էին համապատասխան ձիավորները։ Հետևակները պահում էին ձիավորի թիկունքը։ Հույն-պարսկական պատերազմի ավարտ և Քսերքսեսի մահ[խմբագրել | խմբագրել կոդը] Սալամինի ծովամարտի հաջողությունները շարունակվեցին։ Քսերքսեսի բանակը համապատասխանաբար պարտություններ կրեց Պլատեայում, Միկալեում և այլ ճակատներում։ Կալլիասյան հաշտությամբ Քսերքսեսը զրկվում էր Էգեյան ծովի, Հելլեսպոնտոսի ու Բոսֆորի իր տիրույթներից և ճանաչում էր փոքրասիական հունական պոլիսների անկախությունը։ Հույների հաղթանակը պայմանավորված էր պարսիկների համեմատությամբ նրանց հասարակական-տնտեսական զարգացման առավել բարձր աստիճանով և հունական ազատների աշխարհազորի գերազանցությամբ՝ տարբեր ժողովուրդներից ու ցեղերից հավաքագրված պարսկական զորքի նկատմամբ։ Բացի այդ հույները մղում էին ազատագրական, արդարացի պատերազմ, Պարսկաստանը՝ զավթողական։ Հույն-պարսկական պատերազմներից հետո Հունաստանում ծաղկում ապրեց ստրկատիրական հասարակարգը։ Հույն-պարսկական պատերազմներից հետո Քսերքսեսը կորցրեց իր վերահսկողությունը Եվրոպայում: Քսերքսեսի պետությունը գնալով թուլացավ և նրա կազմից դուրս եկան մի շարք պետություններ։ Քսերքսեսը իր կյանքի վերջին տարիները նվիրել է թագավորական գվարդիայի աշխատանքներին։ Քսերքսեսը այդ ժամանակ մեծ ազդեցություն չուներ։ Այդ մասին վկայում է Պերսեպոլիսի փաստաթուղթը մ.թ.ա. 467 թվականին։ Քսերքսեսի մահը Աքեմենյան Պարսկաստանում հանգեցրեց խառնակ և քաոսային վիճակի առաջացման։ Պարսկաստանում Քսերքսեսի մահից հետո սով բռնկվեց և երկրում հացահատկի գները ֆանտաստիկ աճ գրանցեցին, աճելով մինչև յոթ անգամ։ Քսերքսեսի մահից հետո պետական մի շարք մարմինները և զորավարներ պաշտանաթող եղան և պարսից բանակը խիստ կրճատվեց։ Բացի այդ, ազգային ազատագրական պայքարներ բռնկվեց Մեծ Հայքում, Եգիպտոսում, Բաբելոնում և այլ երկրներում։ Ըստ հիմնական տվյալների, Քսերքսեսը սպանվել է երեկոյան իր ննջասենյակում։ Որևէ տեղ ստույգ չի նշվու թե ով է եղել Քսերքսեսին սպանողը։ Բաբելոնյան աղբյուրների համաձայն, Քսերքսեսը մահացել է դավադրության հետևանքով, սակայն եգիպտական աղբյուրների համաձայն նրան սպանել է իր ավագ որդին՝ Դարիուսը, գահին հասնելու համար։ Քսերքսես I-ը Աքեմենյան Պարսկաստանում կառավարել է ավելի քան 20 տարի և 8 ամիս՝ իր 54-ամյա կյանքի ընթացքում։ Քսերքսեսից մեզ հասել է մոտ 20 սեպագիր արձանագրություն՝ էլամերեն և բաբելոներեն լեզուներով։ Ծննդաբանություն[խմբագրել | խմբագրել կոդը]       ԱքեմենեսՊարսից թագավոր 705 - 675                                                                                         ԹեյսպՊարսից թագավոր 675 - 640                                                                                                     ԱրիարամնեսԱրքայազն   Կյուրոս IՊարսկաստանի արքա 640 - 600                                                                                   ԱրշամԱրքայազն   Կամբյուսես IՊարսկաստանի արքա 600 - 559                                                                                   ՎշտասպԱրքայազն   Կյուրոս II ՄեծՊարսկաստանի արքա 559 - 530/28                                                                                                                   Դարեհ I ՄեծՊարսից թագավոր Եգիպտոսի փարավոն 522 - 486   ԱթոսԱրքայադուստր Կամբյուսես IIՊարսից թագավոր 530 - 522 Եգիպտոսի փարավոն 525-522   ԲարդիաԱրքայազն (ինքնակոչ Գաումատա իշխել է որպես Սմերդիս) 522   ԱրթիստնԱրքայադուստր                                                           Քսերքսես I ՄեծՊարսից թագավոր Եգիպտոսի փարավոն 485 - 465                                                                 Արտաքսերքսես IՊարսից թագավոր Եգիպտոսի փարավոն 465 - 424                                                                                                                               Քսերքսես IIՊարսից թագավոր Եգիպտոսի փարավոն 424   ՍոգդիանոսՊարսից թագավոր Եգիպտոսի փարավոն 424 - 423   Դարեհ IIՊարսից թագավոր 423 - 404 Եգիպտոսի փարավոն 423-405   ԱրսիտեսԱրքայազն   ՓարիսադիսԱրքայադուստր   ԲագապայոսԱրքայազն                                                                                                         Արտաքսերքսես IIՊարսից թագավոր 404 - 358   ԱմեստրիսԱրքայադուստր   Կյուրոս ԿրտսերԱրքայազն   Կյուրոս (IV)Արքայազն         ՕսթանեսԱրքայազն                                                                                                                                                     Արտաքսերքսես IIIՊարսից մեծ արքա (շահ) 358 - 338 Եգպտոսի փարավոն 343-338   ՕչաԱրքայազն   ՌոդրոգունեԱրքայադուստր   ԱպամաԱրքայադուստր   ՍիսիգամբիսԱրքայադուստր   Արշամ (II)Արքայազն                                                                                       Արտաքսերքսես IV (Արսես) Պարսից թագավոր 338 - 336 Ստորին Եգիպտոսի փարավոն 338   Փարիստատիս II Արքայադուստր                   Դարեհ IIIՊարսից թագավոր 336 - 330 Եգիպտոսի փարավոն 336-332   ՕստանեսԱրքայազն                                                                                                   Արտաքսերքսես V (Բեսոս)Պարսից թագավոր 330 - 329                                                                                           Ստատիրա IIԱրքայադուստր   Ալեքսանդր ՄեծՄակեդոնիայի եւ Պարսկաստանի արքա 329 - 323         Կերպարը ֆիլմերում[խմբագրել | խմբագրել կոդը] Քսերքսես I-ը 300 սպարտացիներ ֆիլմում 300 սպարտացիներ - 1962 թվականին էկրանավորված պատմական ֆիլմ, որը նվիրված է հույն-պարսկական պատարազմներին: Դեպքերը տեղի են ունենում մ.թ.ա. 480 թվականից սկսած։ Ֆիլմը հատկապես յուրահատուկ կերպով նկարագրում է Քսերքսես I-ի գլխավորած Աքեմենյան Պարսկաստանի և Լեոնիդասի գլխավորած հունական բանակի մենամարտը։ Այս ֆիլմում ևս հույների հակառակորդ է ներկայացված Պարսկաստանի թագավոր Քսերքսես I-ը՝ նշանավոր զորահրամանատար Դարեհ I-ի որդին։ Ֆիլմում Քսերքսեսի դերը մարմնավորել է Դևիդ Ֆարրարը՝ անգլիացի դերասան։ 300 սպարտացիներ - Ֆիլմը կենտրոնացած է Մ.թ.ա. 480 թվականին տեղի ունեցած Թերմոպիլեի ճակատամարտի շուրջ։ Պարսից արքա Քսերքսեսի բանակը շարժվում է դեպի Հունաստան։ Սպարտայի թագավոր Լեոնիդասը վերցնում է իր 300 հոգուց կազմված ջոկատը և դիմավորում է պարսիկներին Թերմոպիլեի կիրճում։ Սպարտացիները ետ են մղում Քսերքսեսի բանակի բոլոր գրոհները, Քսերքսեսը նույնիսկ առաջարկում է Լեոնիդասին ամբողջ Հունաստանը՝ իր առջև խոնարհվելու դիմաց, սակայն Լեոնիդասը հրաժարվում է։ Քսերքսեսը ուղարկում է նրանց դեմ «Անմահների բանակը», սակայն դրանք նույնպես կոտորվում են։ Քսերքսեսը միայն սպարտացի Էֆիալտի դավաճանության օգնությամբ է կարողանում շրջապատել սպարտացիներին և նետահարել նրանց։ Քսերքսեսի դերը ֆիլմում կրկնօրինակել է բրազիլացի հայտնի դերասան և ռեժիսոր Ռոդրիգո Սանտոսը, ով նույն դերը տարել է նաև «300 սպարտացիներ. կայսրության ծաղկումը» ֆիլմում։ 300 սպարտացիներ. կայսրության ծաղկումը - 2014 թվականին ստեղծված ֆիլմ։ Ֆիլմում ցուցադրվում է հույն հրամանատար Թեմիստոկլեսի մտացածին պատմությունը, ով մ.թ.ա. 480 թվականին ղեկավարում էր հունական նավատորմը։ Արտեմիսի և Սալամինի պատմական ճակատամարտերում հունական նավատորմը բախվում է պարսիկների թագավոր Քսերքսեսի բանակի հետ։ Քսերքսեսի դերերում՝ Ռոդրիգո Սանտոս։ Ծանոթագրություններ[խմբագրել | խմբագրել կոդը] ↑ Дандамаев М. А. Политическая история Ахеменидской державы. - С. 135. ↑ Марк Юниан Юстин. Эпитома сочинения Помпея Трога «История Филиппа». Книга II, 10 ↑ Дандамаев М. А. Политическая история Ахеменидской державы. - С. 135-136, 175-176. ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VII «Полигимния», § 5, 7 ↑ Дандамаев М. А. Политическая история Ахеменидской державы. - С. 136. ↑ Ктесий Книдский в изложении Фотия. Персика. Книги XII-XIII, (26) ↑ Геродот. История. Книга I «Клио», § 183 ↑ Диодор Сицилийский. Историческая библиотека. Книга II, 9 (9) ↑ Дандамаев М. А. Политическая история Ахеменидской державы. - С. 136-139. ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VII «Полигимния», § 20-25, 32-37 ↑ Диодор Сицилийский. Историческая библиотека. Книга XI, 2 (4) ↑ Диодор Сицилийский. Историческая библиотека. Книга XI, 3 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VII «Полигимния», § 168-169 ↑ Диодор Сицилийский. Историческая библиотека. Книга XI, 1 (4) ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VII «Полигимния», § 157-167 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VII «Полигимния», § 187 ↑ Элиан. Пёстрые рассказы. Книга XIII, 3 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VII «Полигимния», § 175-177 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VII «Полигимния», § 202-204 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VII «Полигимния», § 206-233 ↑ Диодор Сицилийский. Историческая библиотека. Книга XI, 4-11 ↑ Марк Юниан Юстин. Эпитома сочинения Помпея Трога «История Филиппа». Книга II, 11 ↑ Ктесий Книдский в изложении Фотия. Персика. Книги XII-XIII, (27) ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VII «Полигимния», § 188-191 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VII «Полигимния», § 194 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VIII «Урания», § 40, 71 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VIII «Урания», § 51-53 ↑ Диодор Сицилийский. Историческая библиотека. Книга XI, 14 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VIII «Урания», § 34 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VIII «Урания», § 1-25 ↑ Диодор Сицилийский. Историческая библиотека. Книга XI, 12-13 ↑ Плутарх. Сравнительные жизнеописания. Фемистокл. 7-9 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VIII «Урания», § 56-64 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VIII «Урания», § 76, 78 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VIII «Урания», § 83-86 ↑ Диодор Сицилийский. Историческая библиотека. Книга XI, 15-19 ↑ Плутарх. Сравнительные жизнеописания. Фемистокл. 14-15 ↑ Марк Юниан Юстин. Эпитома сочинения Помпея Трога «История Филиппа». Книга II, 12 ↑ Ктесий Книдский в изложении Фотия. Персика. Книги XII-XIII, (30) Գրականություն[խմբագրել | խմբագրել կոդը] Վիքիքաղվածքն ունի քաղվածքների հավաքածու, որոնք վերաբերում են Քսերքսես I հոդվածին Глускина Л. М. Греко-персидские войны // История Древнего мира: в 3 т. / Ред. И. М. Дьяконова, В. Д. Нероновой, И. С. Свенцицкой. - Издание третье. - М.: Наука, 1989. - Т. 2. Расцвет Древних обществ. Дандамаев М. А. Политическая история Ахеменидской державы. - М.: Главная редакция восточной литературы издательства «Наука», 1985. - 319 с. - 10 000 экз. Дандамаев М. А. Мидия и Ахеменидская Персия // История древнего мира / Под редакцией И. М. Дьяконова, В. Д. Нероновой, И. С. Свенцицкой. - Изд. 3-е, испр. и доп. - М.: Главная редакция восточной литературы издательства «Наука», 1989. - Т. 2. Расцвет древних обществ. - 572 с. - 50 000 экз. - ISBN 5-02-016781-9. Древний Восток и античность. // Правители Мира. Хронологическо-генеалогические таблицы по всемирной истории в 4 тт. / Автор-составитель В. В. Эрлихман. - Т. 1. Хэммонд Н. Поход Ксеркса // Кембриджская история древнего мира. Т. IV: Персия, Греция и Западное Средиземноморье ок. 525-479 гг. до н. э. Под ред. Дж. Бордмэна и др. Пер. с англ. А. В. Зайкова. М.: Ладомир, 2011. С. 619-704. - ISBN 978-5-86218-496-9 Ստացված է «https://hy.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Քսերքսես_I&oldid=7259139» էջից Կատեգորիաներ: Մ. թ. ա. 519 ծնունդներ Աքեմենյան տոհմ Անձինք այբբենական կարգով Իրանում ծնվածներ Մ.թ.ա. 475 մահեր Աքեմենյան արքաներ Եգիպտոսի փարավոններ Սպանվածներ Թաքցված կատեգորիաներ: Վիքիպեդիա:Տեղեկաքարտի պատկերում վիքիկոդով հոդվածներ Վիքիպեդիա:Վիքիտվյալների արժեքների վերաձևակերպմամբ հոդվածներ Վիքիպեդիա:Հոդվածներ, որոնց ամսաթվերը ձեռքով են արված Վիքիպեդիա:Վիքիդատայի հայերեն չթարգմանված տարրեր պարունակող հոդվածներ Pages using ISBN magic links Նավարկման ցանկ Անձնական գործիքներ Դուք չեք մտել համակարգ Քննարկում Ներդրումներ Ստեղծել մասնակցային հաշիվ Մուտք գործել Անվանատարածքներ Հոդված Քննարկում Տարբերակներ Դիտումները Կարդալ Խմբագրել Խմբագրել կոդը Դիտել պատմությունը Ավելին Որոնել Նավարկում Գլխավոր էջ Կատեգորիաներ Պատահական հոդված Նոր էջեր Ընթացիկ իրադարձություններ Մասնակցել Էությունը Խորհրդարան Վերջին փոփոխություններ Օգնություն Նվիրաբերել Գործիքներ Այստեղ հղվող էջերը Կապված փոփոխություններ Սպասարկող էջեր Մշտական հղում Էջի վիճակագրություն Մեջբերել այս էջը Վիքիտվյալների տարր Տպել/արտահանել Ստեղծել գիրք Ներբեռնել որպես PDF Տպելու տարբերակ Այլ նախագծերում Վիքիպահեստ Վիքիքաղվածք Այլ լեզուներով Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Փոխել հղումները Այս էջը վերջին անգամ փոփոխվել է 1 Օգոստոսի 2020-ի ժամը 17:20-ին: Տեքստը հասանելի է Քրիեյթիվ Քոմոնս Հղման-Համանման տարածման թույլատրագրի ներքո, առանձին դեպքերում հնարավոր են հավելյալ պայմաններ։ Մանրամասնությունների համար այցելեք՝ Օգտագործման պայմաններ։ Գաղտնիության քաղաքականություն Վիքիպեդիայի մասին Հրաժարագրեր Տեսքը բջջայինով Ծրագրավորողներ Վիճակագրություն Cookie statement 
id-loc-gov-4925	----	Xerxes I, King of Persia, 519 B.C.-465 B.C. or 464 B.C. - LC Linked Data Service: Authorities and Vocabularies | Library of Congress skip navigation Library of Congress Search Everything Audio Recordings Books/Printed Material Films, Videos Legislation Manuscripts/Mixed Material Maps Notated Music Newspapers Periodicals Personal Narratives Photos, Prints, Drawings Software, E-Resources Archived Web Sites Web Pages 3D Objects Suggestions enabled. Search Search toggle menu Discover Services Visit Education Connect About Ask a Librarian Help Contact Search Online Catalog Copyright.gov Congress.gov The Library of Congress > Linked Data Service > LC Name Authority File (LCNAF) Xerxes I, King of Persia, 519 B.C.-465 B.C. or 464 B.C. URI(s) http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n81070675 Instance Of MADS/RDF PersonalName MADS/RDF Authority SKOS Concept Scheme Membership(s) Library of Congress Name Authority File Collection Membership(s) Names Collection - Authorized Headings LC Names Collection - General Collection Variants Aḥashṿerosh, King of Persia, 519 B.C.-465 B.C. or 464 B.C. Ahasuerus, King of Persia, 519 B.C.-465 B.C. or 464 B.C. Assuerus, King of Persia, 519 B.C.-465 B.C. or 464 B.C. Serse I, King of Persia, 519 B.C.-465 B.C. or 464 B.C. Xerxes I, King of Persia, 519-465 or 4 B.C. Additional Information http://id.loc.gov/rwo/agents/n81070675 Birth Date (edtf) -0518 Death Date (edtf) [-0464,-0463] Use For n50052611 Exact Matching Concepts from Other Schemes http://viaf.org/viaf/sourceID/LC%7Cn++81070675#skos:Concept Closely Matching Concepts from Other Schemes Xerxes I Label from public data source Wikidata Xerxes I, King of Persia Xerxes I, King of Persia, 519 B.C.-465 B.C. or 464 B.C. Xerxes I, King of Persia, 519-465 or 4 B.C. Earlier Established Forms Xerxes I, King of Persia, 519-465 or 4 B.C. Sources found: Goldfaden, A. Theater fon Kenig Aḥashwerosh, 1890. found: Assuerus und Esther am Burgunderhof, c1998. found: Bodei Giglioni, G. Erodoto e i sogni di Serse, c2002. Change Notes 1981-08-31: new 2013-03-08: revised Alternate Formats RDF/XML (MADS and SKOS) N-Triples (MADS and SKOS) JSON (MADS/RDF and SKOS/RDF) MADS - RDF/XML MADS - N-Triples MADS/RDF - JSON SKOS - RDF/XML SKOS - N-Triples SKOS - JSON MADS/XML MARC/XML Subject Of Works Looking for related works... Contributor To Works Looking for related works... Follow Us Email Facebook Twitter Youtube Pinterest Flickr Instagram iTunes Take our survey External Accessibility Legal Inspector General External Link Disclaimer USA.gov Careers Contact Media Donate Shop Congress.gov United States Copyright Office 
id-wikipedia-org-310	----	Ahasyweros I dari Persia - Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia, ensiklopedia bebas Ahasyweros I dari Persia Dari Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia, ensiklopedia bebas Ini adalah versi stabil, diperiksa pada tanggal 23 November 2017. Ada 2 perubahan tertunda menunggu peninjauan. Akurasi Terperiksa Loncat ke navigasi Loncat ke pencarian Ahasyweros I dari Persia Khshayathiya Khshayathiyanam "Raja segala raja" "Xerxes, King of Persia" lukisan Guillaume Rouille (1553 M) Masa kekuasaan 486 - 465 SM Dinobatkan Oktober 485 SM Lahir 519 BC Tempat lahir Persia Wafat 465 BC (usia 54) Tempat wafat Persia Pemakaman Persia Pendahulu Darius I Pengganti Artahsasta I dari Persia Pasangan Amestris Wangsa Akhemeniyah Ayah Darius I Ibu Atossa Agama Zoroastrianisme xerxes I dari Persia Ahasyweros I dari Persia, (bahasa Persia: خشایارشا Ḫšayāršā, Templat:IPA-ira, bahasa Ibrani: אֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹשׁ, Modern Aẖashverosh Tiberias ʼĂḥašwērôš, bahasa Inggris: Xerxes I of Persia bahasa Inggris: [ˈzɜrksiːz]), juga disebut sebagai Ahasyweros yang Agung adalah raja keempat (berkuasa dari tahun 485–465 SM) dari dinasti Akhemeniyah di Kekaisaran Persia. Xerxes adalah putra dari Darius yang Agung dan Atossa, putri Koresh yang Agung. Dia mencapai kemenangan pertamanya sebagai pemimpin militer dengan menekan pemberontakan di Mesir. Daftar isi 1 Perang Pertama dengan Yunani 2 Perang Kedua dengan Yunani 3 Purim 4 Pembangunan 5 Akhir hayat 6 Keturunan 6.1 Dari ratu Amestris 6.2 Dari istri-istri yang tidak disebut namanya 7 Referensi 8 Lihat pula 9 Daftar pustaka Perang Pertama dengan Yunani[sunting | sunting sumber] Dimulai di 483 SM Xerxes merencanakan kampanye darat dan laut untuk merebut Yunani. Pasukannya menggali kanal di semenanjung timur Yunani di dekat Gunung Athos, yang dibangun depot persediaan untuk baris berbaris, dan dibangun dua jembatan perahu di Hellespont (Dardanella). Pada 480 SM Xerxes meluncurkan serangan. Sejarawan Yunani Herodotus menyatakan bahwa Xerxes membawa hampir 2.000.000 pasukan tempur, termasuk unit unta dan 1.200 kapal angkatan laut. Sejarawan modern memperkirakan tentara yang dibawa berjumlah 250.000 dan armada kapal yang dibawa serta adalah 1.000 buah kapal, termasuk 600 kapal perang triremes (kapal perang dengan tiga bagian dari dayung). Dalam perang yang pertama itu ia mengalami kekalahan dan pulang ke negaranya. Menurut catatan Kitab Ester di Alkitab Ibrani dan Perjanjian Lama di Alkitab Kristen, Xerxes bersemayam di atas takhta kerajaannya di dalam benteng Susan.[1]. Di sana ia mengadakan pesta agung selama 180 hari untuk merayakan kebesarannya. Pesta itu juga untuk menggalang sekutu dan tentara guna melakukan penyerangan lagi ke Yunani. Di akhir pesta itu, ia membuang ratu Wasti, karena tidak mau datang memenuhi panggilannya. Setelah itu Xerxes pergi memimpin tentara Persia menyerang Yunani (482-479 SM) Perang Kedua dengan Yunani[sunting | sunting sumber] Tentara Persia mengalahkan orang-orang Yunani dalam Pertempuran Thermopylae dan menguasai Athena (480 SM). Penaklukan Yunani tampak dekat. Tapi, di bawah arahan Themistocles, angkatan laut Yunani memukul mundur armada Persia pada pertempuran Salamis sementara Xerxes mengawasi dari ketinggian tepi laut. Karena angkatan lautnya hancur, Xerxes mengundurkan diri ke Persia. Bala tentaranya pergi ke Yunani dan dikalahkan di Plataea pada tahun 479 SM. Sejarah Yunani mencatat bahwa setelah kekalahan ini, Xerxes mencari hiburan dengan tinggal bersama gundik-gundiknya. Dalam Kitab Ester dicatat bahwa pada tahun ke-7 pemerintahannya (479 SM), Xerxes memilih ratu pengganti Wasti dari antara anak-anak dara yang sudah dipersiapkan beberapa bulan lamanya. Setiap gadis itu masuk menghadap raja dari balai perempuan ke dalam istana raja. Pada waktu petang ia masuk dan pada waktu pagi ia kembali, tetapi sekali ini ke dalam balai perempuan yang kedua. Ia tidak diperkenankan masuk lagi menghadap raja, kecuali jikalau raja berkenan kepadanya dan ia dipanggil dengan disebutkan namanya.[2] Ester anak Abihail mendapat giliran untuk masuk menghadap raja Xerxes pada bulan yang ke-10 (Tebet) 479 SM. Ester dikasihi oleh baginda lebih daripada semua perempuan lain, dan ia beroleh sayang dan kasih baginda lebih daripada semua anak dara lain, sehingga baginda mengenakan mahkota kerajaan ke atas kepalanya dan mengangkat dia menjadi ratu ganti Wasti. Kemudian diadakanlah oleh baginda suatu perjamuan bagi semua pembesar dan pegawainya, yakni perjamuan karena Ester, dan baginda menitahkan kebebasan pajak bagi daerah-daerah serta mengaruniakan anugerah, sebagaimana layak bagi raja.[3] Purim[sunting | sunting sumber] Selanjutnya menurut Kitab Ester, Xerxes mengangkat Haman bin Hamedata, orang Agag, di atas semua pembesar yang ada di hadapan baginda.[4] Karena dendam pribadi terhadap Mordekhai, seorang Yahudi, Haman menghasut raja Xerxes untuk mengeluarkan perintah membasmi semua orang Yahudi dalam wilayah kekuasaannya, tanpa Xerxes mengetahui jelas mengenai suku ini. Perintah itu dikeluarkan tanggal 13 bulan ke-1 (Nisan) dalam tahun yang ke-12 (474 SM) pemerintahan Xerxes. Tanggal pembasmian ditentukan dengan membuang undi (bahasa Ibrani: pur) dan jatuh pada tanggal 13 bulan ke-12 (Adar, 473 SM).[5] Namun berkat campur tangan ratu Ester, rencana Haman terbongkar di depan raja Xerxes, dan Haman dihukum mati dengan digantung kemungkinan pada tanggal 17 bulan ke-1 (Nisan, 474 SM). Selanjutnya, Mordekhai diangkat menjadi perdana menteri menggantikan Haman. Pada tanggal 23 bulan yang ke-3 (bulan Siwan, 474 SM), Mordekhai menulis surat atas nama raja Xerxes dan dimeterai dengan cincin meterai raja, kepada orang Yahudi, dan kepada para wakil pemerintah, para bupati dan para pembesar daerah, dari India sampai ke Etiopia, 127 daerah, isinya: raja mengizinkan orang Yahudi di tiap-tiap kota untuk berkumpul dan mempertahankan nyawanya serta memunahkan, membunuh atau membinasakan segala tentara, bahkan anak-anak dan perempuan-perempuan, dari bangsa dan daerah yang hendak menyerang mereka, dan untuk merampas harta miliknya, pada hari yang sama di segala daerah raja Xerxes, pada tanggal 13 bulan ke-12 (Adar).[6] Pada tanggal 13-14 bulan ke-12 (Adar) 473 SM, orang-orang Yahudi mengalahkan musuh-musuh mereka, dan tanggal 14-15 Adar (~Maret) diperingati sebagai hari raya Purim sesuai ketetapan dari Mordekhai dan ratu Ester anak Abihail. Pembangunan[sunting | sunting sumber] Inskripsi raja Ahasyweros Agung dekat Benteng Van (sekarang di wilayah Turki). makam yang digali dari batu karang di Naqsh-e Rustam sebelah utara Persepolis, meniru makam Darius Agung, dianggap milik Ahasyweros Setelah kegagalan serangan ke Yunani dan kembali ke Persia, Xerxes menyelesaikan pembangunan yang dimulai oleh ayahnya di Susan dan Persepolis. Ia membangun "Gerbang Segala Bangsa" ("Gate of all Nations") dan "Balai Bertiang Seratus" ("Hall of a Hundred Columns") di Persepolis, yang merupakan bangunan terbesar dan termegah di istana. Ia merampungkan Apadana, istana raja Darius dan gudang harta yang dimulai oleh raja Darius, dan juga istananya sendiri yang dua kali lebih besar dari istana ayahnya. Seleranya dalam arsitektur mirip dengan raja Darius, meskipun dalam ukuran lebih besar.[7] Ia juga memelihara "Jalan Raya Kerajaan" ("Royal Road") yang dibangun ayahnya dan juga melengkapi gerbang Susan dan membuat istana di Susan.[8] Akhir hayat[sunting | sunting sumber] Pada bulan Agustus tahun ke-21 pemerintahannya (465 SM), Xerxes dibunuh oleh kapten pengawalnya, Artabanus, yang merupakan orang terkuat di istana sebagai komandan pasukan seribu (Hazarapat atau "commander of thousand"). Ia menjadi berkuasa karena popularitasnya di kalangan keagamaan istana dan berkat kasak-kusuk di kalangan istri-istri/harem raja. Ia menempatkan 7 putranya di posisi-posisi kunci serta berencana untuk menggulingkan wangsa Akhameniyah dari tahta.[9] Artabanus membunuh Xerxes dengan bantuan seorang sida-sida, Aspamitres. Sejarawan Yunani memberi catatan yang berlainan mengenai peristiwa ini. Menurut Ctesias (dalam Persica 20), Artabanus kemudian menuduh Putra Mahkota Darius, putra sulung Xerxes, membunuh ayahnya dan mendesak putra Xerxes yang lain, Artaxerxes atau Artahsasta, untuk membalas dendam kematian ayahnya dengan menghukum mati Darius. Sebaliknya, Aristoteles (dalam Politics 5.1311b) menulis bahwa Artabanus membunuh Darius terlebih dahulu dan kemudian Xerxes. Setelah Artaxerxes mengetahui pembunuhan itu, ia membunuh Artabanus dan putra-putranya.[10] Turut terlibat dalam kerusuhan itu adalah jenderal Megabyzus, yang beralih haluan mendukung wangsa Akhameniyah dan menyelamatkan kelanggengan tahta Persia bagi wangsa itu. Tahta Ahasyweros diteruskan oleh putranya, Artahsasta I. [11] Keturunan[sunting | sunting sumber] Dari ratu Amestris[sunting | sunting sumber] putri Amytis, istri Megabyzus putra Zopyres Artahsasta I, raja pengganti Ahasyweros Darius, putra sulung, dibunuh oleh Artabanus. Hystaspes, dibunuh oleh Artahsasta I. Achaemenes, dibunuh oleh orang Mesir putri Rhodogune Dari istri-istri yang tidak disebut namanya[sunting | sunting sumber] Artarius, satrap Babilon. Tithraustes Arsames atau Arsamenes atau Arxanes atau Sarsamas, satrap Mesir. putri Parysatis[12] putri Ratashah[13] Referensi[sunting | sunting sumber] ^ Ester 1:2 ^ Ester 2:12-14 ^ Ester 2:16-18 ^ Ester 3:1 ^ Ester 3:7 ^ Ester 8:9-14 ^ Ghirshman, Iran, p.172 ^ Herodotus VII.11 ^ Iran-e-Bastan/Pirnia book 1 p 873 ^ Dandamayev ^ History of Persian Empire-Olmstead p 289/90 ^ Ctesias ^ M. Brosius, Women in ancient Persia. Lihat pula[sunting | sunting sumber] Kitab Ester Kanon Ptolemaeus Daftar pustaka[sunting | sunting sumber] Wikimedia Commons memiliki media mengenai Xerxes I of Persia. Herodotus, The Persian Wars. Translated by George Rawlinson, Introduction by Francis R.B. Godolphin (1942 edition) A.T. Olmstead, 1948. History of the Persian Empire (University of Chicago Press) pp. 214ff. P. Briant, 2002. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Farrokh, Kaveh (2007). Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-84603-108-7. 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isni-org-4549	----	ISNI 0000000063008852 Aḥashṿerosh (King of Persia) ( 519 B.C.-465 B.C. or 464 B.C. ) Database copyright © ISNI-IA, powered by OCLCSearch | Results | Advanced | Terms of Use & Use of Cookies | Help | Privacy  User id: ISNI | log in | logout search [or] search [and] browse restrict enlarge except rerank Any Phrase (APH:) ISNI Number (ISN:) ORCID Identifier (ORCID:) Name Keyword (NW:) Name (NA:) Superseded Number (XN:) Pica Production Number (PPN:) sort by name relevance × less approximate search 1shortlisttitle datasearch history   results search [or] ISN:0000000063008852 | 1 hits labelssources datamarc21 Please help us improve this record If you have any supplemental information about the identity listed here, please click in this box to go to the contribution form. Thank you in advance! ISNI ISNI:  0000 0000 6300 8852 https://isni.org/isni/0000000063008852 Name Name:  Aḥashṿerosh (King of Persia) Ahasuersus (King of Persia) Ahasuerus (King of Persia) Assuerus (King of Persia) Khshayarsha Khshayarsha (I; roi des perses) Khshayarsha (roi des Perses) Serse (I; King of Persia) Xerxes Xerxes I Xerxes (I.; King of Persia) Xerxes I, King of Persia (Persian king, ca. 519-465/464 BCE) Xerxes I, King of the Persians Xerxes (I; kung av Persien) Xerxés (I.; perský král) Xerxes (I; re di Persia) Xerxès (I; roi des Perses) Xerxès (Ier; roi des Perses) Xerxes (koning van Perzië) Xerxes the Great אחשורוש (מלך פרס) Dates Dates:  519 B.C.-465 B.C. or 464 B.C. Creation class Creation class:  cre Creation role Creation role:  originator Notes Notes:  Sources Sources:  VIAF BAV JPG LC N6I NKC NLI SUDOC BNF ISNI NLS NTA 1 
it-wikipedia-org-5337	----	Serse I di Persia - Wikipedia Serse I di Persia Da Wikipedia, l'enciclopedia libera. Jump to navigation Jump to search Disambiguazione – "Serse" rimanda qui. Se stai cercando altri significati, vedi Serse (disambigua). Serse I Rilievo di Serse nella sua tomba a Naqsh-e Rustam Re dei Re Re di Persia e Media Gran Re Re di Grande Persia e delle nazioni In carica 485 a.C. – 465 a.C. Predecessore Dario I di Persia Successore Artabano Nome completo 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠 (Xšayaṛša in alfabeto latino) in Persiano antico Nascita 519 a.C. Morte 465 a.C. Dinastia Achemenide Padre Dario I di Persia Madre Atossa Consorte Amestris Religione Zoroastriana Serse I, soprannominato Serse Il Grande (in persiano antico 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠 Khashayaarashaa, traslitterato anche come Xšayāršā, lett. "sovrano sugli uomini"; in greco antico: Ξέρξης, Xérxēs; Iran, 519 a.C. – 465 a.C.), è stato re di Persia e di Egitto dal 485 a.C. al 465 a.C. Viene generalmente identificato con il re persiano Assuero nel libro biblico di Ester, una delle sue mogli. Indice 1 Biografia 1.1 Gioventù e ascesa al potere 1.2 Campagne 1.2.1 L'invasione della Grecia 1.2.2 Le Termopili ed Atene 1.2.3 Fine della guerra 1.3 Re dell'Egitto 1.4 Ultimi anni e morte 2 Progetti architettonici 3 Figli 4 Nella cultura di massa 5 Note 6 Bibliografia 7 Voci correlate 8 Altri progetti 9 Collegamenti esterni Biografia[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Gioventù e ascesa al potere[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Iscrizione trilingue (antico persiano, babilonese ed elamita) di Serse I. Subito dopo aver raggiunto il trono, Dario I di Persia, figlio di Istaspe, sposò Atossa, figlia di Ciro il Grande. Erano entrambi discendenti di Achemene attraverso diversi ceppi della famiglia degli Achemenidi. Il matrimonio di una figlia di Ciro rafforzò la posizione di Dario come re.[1] Dario fu un sovrano attivo, sempre impegnato con la costruzione di Persepoli e Susa, la riorganizzazione dell'Egitto e di altre zone. Verso la fine del suo regno cercò di punire Atene per il suo antico appoggio alla rivolta ionia e per la sconfitta subita dai Persiani a Maratona, ma scoppiò una nuova rivolta in Egitto, probabilmente guidata dal satrapo persiano della zona, che doveva essere soppressa. Secondo la legge persiana, i re achemenidi dovevano designare un successore prima di partire per spedizioni pericolose. Prima di partire, nel 487 a.C.,[2] Dario fece preparare la sua tomba a Naqsh-e Rostam e nominò Serse, il suo figlio maggiore avuto da Atossa, suo successore. A causa della salute precaria, Dario non riuscì a condurre la campagna[3] e morì nell'ottobre del 486 a.C.[3] Artabazane reclamò la corona, essendo il più vecchio di tutti i figli di Dario, mentre Serse, d'altro canto, sosteneva di essere nato da Atossa, figlia di Ciro, colui che aveva garantito ai Persiani la libertà. Alcuni studiosi moderni ritengono che la decisione di Dario di dare il trono a Serse derivi dalla grande considerazione che Dario aveva di Ciro e di sua figlia.[4] Artabazane nacque da Dario quando era un semplice suddito, mentre Serse era il primogenito nato quando Dario era al potere; la madre di Artabazane, inoltre, era una persona qualunque, mentre la madre di Serse era la figlia del fondatore dell'impero.[5] Inoltre, si dice che sia stato Demarato a suggerire a Serse di addurre tale argomento, in conformità con un uso spartano.[6] Serse I. Serse fu incoronato e successe al padre tra ottobre e dicembre del 486 a.C.,[7] quando aveva circa 36 anni.[2] La salita al potere di Serse non incontrò ostacoli grazie alla grande autorità di Atossa,[1] dal momento che la sua decisione, che voleva il figlio come re di Persia, non era contestata da nessuno a corte o in famiglia.[8] Quasi immediatamente Serse pose fine a rivolte in Egitto e a Babilonia, che erano scoppiate l'anno prima, e nominò suo fratello Achemene satrapo dell'Egitto. Nel 484 a.C. Serse confiscò e fuse la statua d'oro di Bel, o Marduk,[9] le cui mani dovevano essere strette ogni giorno di Capodanno dal legittimo re di Babilonia. Questo sacrilegio portò i Babilonesi alla ribellione, che si protrasse dal 484 a.C. al 482 a.C., e che fu così violenta da far rifiutare a Serse il titolo di Re di Babilonia, avuto in precedenza da suo padre, per essere chiamato Re di Persia e Media, Gran Re, Re dei Re (Shahanshah) e Re delle Nazioni (cioè del mondo). Questo deriva dal Daiva Iscrizioni di Serse Linee 6-13.[10] Anche se le informazioni fornite da Erodoto nelle sue Storie hanno dato origine ad alcune discordanze riguardanti il culto religioso di Serse, molti studiosi moderni lo considerano zoroastriano.[11][12] Campagne[modifica | modifica wikitesto] L'invasione della Grecia[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Seconda guerra persiana. Adrien Guignet, Serse sull'Ellesponto. Dario morì mentre si stava preparando un secondo esercito per invadere la Grecia, lasciando così al figlio il compito di punire Atene, Nasso ed Eretria per la loro attività nella rivolta ionia, per l'incendio di Sardi e la loro vittoria sui Persiani a Maratona. Dal 483 a.C. Serse iniziò ad allestire la sua spedizione. Fu scavato un canale attraverso l'istmo della penisola del Monte Athos, nella penisola calcidica, da Strimonikos al golfo Toronaico; era lungo circa due chilometri e mezzo ed era abbastanza ampio e profondo da permettere il passaggio di due triremi. Il canale impiegò circa tre anni per essere terminato. Questo, però, era considerato un'invenzione sia dagli antichi, sia da alcuni storici moderni. Giovenale lo presenta come esempio di "menzogna greca"[13] e Niebuhr lo vede come una cosa incomprensibile.[14] Altri storici sostengono, invece, che, dal momento che Erodoto ne dà una descrizione dettagliata,[15] l'esistenza del canale non deve essere messa in discussione, come scrive Lieutenant Wolfe in "Athos", nella Penny Cyclopaedia. Vennero predisposti poi posti di guardia e roccaforti lungo il percorso che l'esercito avrebbe effettuato in Tracia e furono costruiti due ponti di barche sull'Ellesponto, che collegavano Abido, in Asia, a Sesto e Madytos, in Europa.[16] Secondo lo storico greco Erodoto il primo tentativo di Serse di passare l'Ellesponto si concluse con un fallimento totale quando una tempesta distrusse i cavi di lino e di papiro dei ponti: Serse ordinò che lo stretto stesso fosse frustato trecento volte e che delle catene venissero gettate in acqua, mentre gli ingegneri che avevano progettato il ponte furono decapitati. Il secondo tentativo di passaggio, invece, ebbe successo.[17][18] Serse concluse un'alleanza con Cartagine, e così fece in modo che la Grecia non godesse del sostegno dei potenti sovrani di Siracusa e Agrigento. Molti stati greci più piccoli, inoltre, passarono dalla parte dei Persiani, soprattutto le città della Tessaglia e quelle di Tebe e Argo. Serse ottenne delle vittorie nelle prime battaglie. La flagellazione dell'Ellesponto. La spedizione iniziò nella primavera del 480 a.C. Arrivato nella pianura di Dorisco, Serse decise di contare i membri del suo esercito, facendo prima costruire un muro intorno ad un numero di diecimila soldati, poi facendo entrare in questa recinzione tutto l'esercito, giungendo così a 170 gruppi da 10 000. La fanteria, quindi, era rappresentata da 1 700 000 soldati, a cui erano affiancati 80 000 cavalieri e 20 000 cammellieri. Le truppe di terra, secondo Erodoto, provenivano da 46 nazioni, tra cui gli Assiri, i Fenici, i Babilonesi, gli Egizi e gli Ebrei;[19][20] la flotta era composta da 1 207 triremi e 3 000 imbarcazioni più piccole. Ogni trireme era equipaggiata con 200 rematori e 30 soldati e ciascuna delle navi da carico imbarcava 80 uomini: le truppe navali, così, dovevano ammontare a 517 610 uomini. In Tracia e in Macedonia Serse ricevette l'appoggio di 300 000 fanti e di 120 triremi, per un totale di 24 000 soldati. Quindi, secondo Erodoto, quando Serse giunse alle Termopili il suo esercito era composto da 2 641 610 uomini, escludendo gli schiavi e gli equipaggi delle navi da carico, che secondo lo storico greco erano in numero addirittura maggiore dei combattenti. Oltre a questi c'erano gli eunuchi, le concubine e i cuochi, insieme alle bestie da soma, ai bovini ed ai cani.[21] A questi grandi numeri è difficile credere, così che molti scrittori misero in discussione sia la veridicità che il buon senso dello storico. Le stime di Erodoto vengono respinte da Niebuhr in Vorträge über alte Geschichte, il quale afferma che è impossibile considerare il settimo libro di Erodoto come un attendibile rapporto storico, e lo considera fondato sul poema epico di Cherilo. Heeren, invece, accetta senza alcun dubbio i numeri di Erodoto, e George Grote sostiene che la descrizione data dallo storico greco dei fatti di Dorisco è così dettagliata da far pensare che derivi da testimonianze di prima mano. Anche per quanto riguarda il numero di triremi Grote è in accordo con Erodoto, basandosi sull'autore contemporaneo Eschilo, che, ne I Persiani, dice chiaramente che le navi presenti a Salamina erano 1 207: Erodoto, invece, ne fa combattere 527 in meno, ma è evidente che, nel darne il numero, non ha compiuto alcuna esagerazione; tuttalpiù si può rimproverare allo storico greco una inspiegabile svista. Il numero di 3 000 navi più piccole, però, e soprattutto di 1 700 000 fanti, è molto meno affidabile. Probabilmente questi dati vennero gonfiati sia per far piacere al re, sia per incoraggiare l'esercito; allo stesso modo la stima di Erodoto di 2 641 000 uomini alle Termopili è persino assurda. Tuttavia, considerando che questo esercito era il risultato di un grandissimo sforzo di tutto il vasto impero persiano e che le truppe erano state raccolte per ben tre anni prima della spedizione, è ragionevole credere che le truppe di Serse fossero le più numerose mai riunite nell'antichità. E dato che Tucidide, dice Grote, si trovò in difficoltà nello stimare il numero esatto dei combattenti dei piccoli eserciti greci che combatterono a Mantinea, non c'è di che stupirsi per non riuscire ad individuare la quantità di persiani a Dorisco.[22] Le stime più recenti concordano nell'affermare che le truppe persiane fossero di circa 60 000 uomini,[23] poiché in quel momento nessun territorio, specialmente le zone semidesertiche della Siria, Persia e Turchia, dove l'esercito si radunò, avrebbe potuto sostenere il foraggiamento di un numero così grande di soldati. Dopo aver fatto il punto sul suo esercito, Serse proseguì la sua marcia attraverso la Tracia dividendo le truppe in tre gruppi, che avanzavano per tre strade diverse. Alcune città che dovettero sostentare l'enorme esercito finirono sull'orlo della rovina: la città di Taso, per esempio, spese per questo scopo una somma di più di 400 talenti. Arrivato ad Acanto, nelle vicinanze dell'istmo dell'Athos, Serse si separò dalla sua flotta, che avrebbe dovuto attraversare il canale, doppiare le due penisole di Sithonia e Pallene e attendere l'arrivo del re a Therme, città che venne successivamente chiamata Tessalonica (oggi Salonicco), a est della foce del fiume Axios. Dopo il ricongiungimento con la flotta, Serse marciò attraverso la Migdonia e la Bottiea, fino alla foce dell'Haliacmon. Quindi entrò in Macedonia, il cui re gli si sottomise e si impegnò a combattere con lui. Le Termopili ed Atene[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Battaglia delle Termopili, Battaglia di Capo Artemisio e Battaglia di Salamina. Serse arrivò senza ostacoli con il suo esercito di terra alle Termopili, ma la flotta fu colpita da una violenta tempesta, in cui furono distrutte almeno quattrocento navi da guerra, così che i Greci presero coraggio per affrontarla presso l'Artemisio. Nel frattempo Serse aveva tentato di forzare il passo delle Termopili, ma aveva incontrato per tre giorni la resistenza degli Elleni guidati da Leonida. Il terzo giorno un pastore del luogo, Efialte, mostrò ai Persiani un passaggio sul monte Eta che permise loro di piombare inaspettatamente alle spalle dei Greci. Leonida, insieme ai 300 Spartiati, resistette valorosamente, ma alla fine fu sconfitto. Nello stesso tempo i Greci vinsero la battaglia navale dell'Artemisio, grazie a ripetute tempeste che avevano decimato la flotta persiana. Quando furono a conoscenza della vittoria di Serse alle Termopili, i comandanti della flotta greca, primo tra tutti Temistocle, scelsero di ritirarsi presso l'isola di Salamina, di fronte ad Atene. Militari persiani, probabilmente appartenenti al corpo degli Immortali. I Peloponnesiaci decisero di proteggere la loro terra con ogni mezzo e vi concentrarono tutte le truppe: solo alcune navi rimasero ad Atene, la cui popolazione fu evacuata a Salamina, Egina e Trezene. Nel frattempo Serse era entrato in Focide, devastandola completamente. A Panopeo inviò un reparto del suo esercito a saccheggiare Delfi, mentre lui marciava in Beozia con il grosso delle truppe. Tutti i Beoti gli si sottomisero, ad eccezione dei Tespiesi e dei Plateesi, che furono sterminati dall'esercito persiano. Così Serse poté raggiungere Atene senza incontrare alcuna resistenza. Le truppe mandate contro Delfi, però, furono pesantemente sconfitte: secondo la tradizione fu il dio Apollo stesso a difendere il santuario scagliando massi sugli invasori. Tuttora rimangono sconosciute le modalità con cui i Greci respinsero i Persiani. Quando Serse entrò ad Atene, la sua flotta arrivò nella baia del Falerio. Ingannato da una finta spia inviata da Temistocle, attaccò una battaglia navale con i Greci in posizione sfavorevole, anziché inviare, come aveva proposto Artemisia di Alicarnasso, una parte delle sue navi al Peloponneso attendendo della dissoluzione degli eserciti greci, così che fu sconfitto pesantemente. Il re assistette alla battaglia da un alto trono che è stato eretto per lui sulle pendici del monte Egaleo e, quindi, vide con i propri occhi la sconfitta e la dispersione del suo potente esercito. I Greci si aspettarono una ripresa della battaglia il giorno seguente, ma Serse si preoccupò di un eventuale peggioramento della situazione in Grecia e a Babilonia, dove erano in corso dei disordini, e decise di lasciare immediatamente la Grecia. Incaricò Mardonio di completare la conquista con 300 000 soldati e ordinò alla flotta di salpare per l'Ellesponto e presidiarlo fino a quando lui, con le truppe di terra, lo avrebbe riattraversato. Raggiunse lo stretto quarantacinque giorni dopo la sua partenza dall'Attica, insieme a 60 000 uomini della sua guardia personale sotto il comando di Artabazo. Molti soldati soffrirono la mancanza di riparo e rifugio e morirono di fame. Arrivato all'Ellesponto, Serse trovò il ponte di barche distrutte da una tempesta, così che fu costretto ad attraversarlo su imbarcazioni. Entrò a Sardi verso la fine dell'anno, nel 480 a.C., umiliato e sconfitto, dopo soli otto mesi dalla sua partenza. Fine della guerra[modifica | modifica wikitesto] L'anno seguente, il 479 a.C., la guerra in Grecia continuò, ma Mardonio fu sconfitto a Platea dalla fanteria greca, mentre nello stesso giorno gli Elleni conseguirono un'altra importante vittoria a Capo Micale, in Ionia. L'anno successivo i Persiani persero l'ultimo loro dominio in Europa, in seguito alla conquista di Sesto.[24] Re dell'Egitto[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Khsassa (forma egizia di Serse) fu il terzo (quarto se si considera anche Petubastis III) sovrano della XXVII dinastia egizia. Durante i suoi venti anni di regno (sia Sesto Africano che Eusebio di Cesarea gliene attribuiscono entrambi trentasei) Serse seguì una politica, ben diversa da quella paterna, imponendo pesanti tributi e trattando l'Egitto come una turbolenta ed insicura provincia. Appena salito al trono dovette reprimere, impiegando circa due anni, le rivolte scoppiate nella regione del delta del Nilo poco prima della morte del padre. Riportato l'ordine affidò la satrapia ad Achemene, suo fratello, e si dedicò allo scontro con la Grecia. Del periodo di governo di Serse rimangono scarsi documenti in lingua egizia in quanto i funzionari locali che avevano collaborato con l'amministrazione di Dario I si allontanarono, o furono allontanati, dall'amministrazione. Nel 480 a.C. una flotta egizia composta da circa 200 navi, al comando di Achemene, prese parte, sul fronte persiano, alla battaglia di Salamina. Titolatura Titolo Traslitterazione Significato Nome Traslitterazione Lettura (italiano) Significato ḥr Horo nbty (nebti) Le due Signore ḥr nbw Horo d'oro nsw bjty Colui che regna sul giunco e sull'ape s3 Rˁ Figlio di Ra ḫ s3 s s3 Khsassa Ultimi anni e morte[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Tomba di Serse I a Naqsh-i-Rustam Poco dopo il suo arrivo a Sardi Serse si innamorò della moglie di suo fratello Masiste, facendo pressione su di lui per ottenere la donna. Quindi fece sposare la figlia di lei, Artainte, al proprio figlio Dario, ma poco dopo spostò la sua attenzione dalla madre alla figlia. L'amore per Artainte venne scoperto da Amestris, la moglie di Serse, dal momento che questo aveva donato alla sua favorita un mantello che Amestris aveva tessuto per lui con le sue mani. La moglie di Serse escogitò una vendetta terribile. Fece mutilare la moglie di Masiste, il quale tentò di fuggire con i suoi figli in Battriana, di cui era satrapo, con l'intenzione di sollevare una rivolta contro il fratello; ma Serse, anticipandolo, inviò alcune truppe contro di lui e fece uccidere sia lui che i suoi figli.[25] Nel 465 a.C. Serse venne assassinato da Artabano, il comandante della guardia del corpo reale e il più potente funzionario della corte persiana. L'ascesa di quest'ultimo era dovuta principalmente alla popolarità di cui godeva negli affari religiosi e negli intrighi dell'harem. Mise i suoi sette figli in posizioni chiave nel governo del regno ed elaborò un piano per spodestare la famiglia degli Achemenidi. Nell'uccidere Serse Artabano venne aiutato dall'eunuco Aspamitre. Gli storici greci forniscono dei resoconti piuttosto contraddittori degli eventi. Secondo Ctesia di Cnido Artabano accusò dell'omicidio del sovrano il principe ereditario Dario, il figlio maggiore di Serse, e convinse un altro dei figli di Serse, Artaserse, a vendicare il parricidio uccidendo il fratello.[26] Invece secondo Aristotele Artabano uccise prima Dario e poi Serse.[27] Quando Artaserse venne a conoscenza dell'omicidio fece uccidere Artabano ed i suoi figli.[28][29] Probabilmente chi salvò la dinastia Achemenide fu il generale Megabizo, che prima appoggiò la congiura, poi passò dalla parte del sovrano. Erodoto parla di Serse come dell'uomo più alto e più bello di tutta la forza d'invasione che occupò la Grecia. Nel carattere, però, era peggiore della maggior parte dei monarchi persiani: secondo Erodoto era un codardo e un tiranno crudele.[30] Progetti architettonici[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Resti del palazzo reale di Serse, a Persepoli. Dopo la sconfitta in Grecia Serse tornò in Persia e diresse la realizzazione di numerosi progetti di costruzione lasciati incompiuti dal padre a Susa e a Persepoli. Supervisionò la costruzione della Porta delle Nazioni e la Sala delle Cento Colonne nel palazzo reale di Persepoli, le più grandi e imponenti strutture del complesso. Curò il completamento dell'Apadana, del Palazzo di Dario e della Sala del Tesoro, tutte iniziate da Dario, e raddoppiò la superficie del palazzo rispetto a quella pensata da Dario. Il suo gusto architettonico era simile a quella del padre, anche se tutto era riportato su una scala molto più imponente.[31] Mantenne in funzione la Strada Reale fatta costruire da Dario e completò, a Susa, la Porta e il Palazzo reale.[32] Figli[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Dalla regina Amestris: Amytis, moglie di Megabizo Artaserse I, suo successore Dario, il primogenito, ucciso da Artaserse I o da Artabano Istape, ucciso da Artaserse I Achemene, ucciso dai ribelli egiziani Rodogune Da altre mogli sconosciute: Artario, satrapo di Babilonia Titrauste Arsame o Arsamene o Arxane o Sarsamade, satrapo d'Egitto Parisatide Nella cultura di massa[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Serse è il protagonista della tragedia di Eschilo I Persiani. Serse è anche il protagonista dell'opera Serse del compositore anglo-tedesco Georg Friedrich Händel. La prima rappresentazione avvenne all'Her Majesty's Theatre di Londra il 15 aprile 1738. L'opera è aperta dalla famosa aria Ombra mai fu. L'assassinio di Serse da parte di Artabano, l'uccisione del principe Dario, la rivolta di Megabizo e la successiva salita al potere di Artaserse è stata raccontata dal poeta Metastasio in Artaserse, musicato da Leonardo Vinci e successivamente da altri compositori come Johann Adolf Hasse e Johann Christian Bach. L'ammirazione per l'antica Sparta, e in particolare la battaglia delle Termopili, ha messo in cattiva luce Serse, che nella cultura popolare è visto come antipatico e megalomane. Per esempio, nel film L'eroe di Sparta del 1962, è raffigurato come un crudele despota e un comandante inetto. Serse è presentato in questo modo anche nel fumetto 300 di Frank Miller, nell'omonimo adattamento cinematografico del 2007, e nel seguito L'alba di un impero, del 2014, dove viene dipinto come un gigantesco dio-re. Questa rappresentazione ha suscitato polemiche, soprattutto in Iran.[33] Dei riferimenti a Serse si trovano anche in altri campi che riguardano l'impero persiano, come il videogioco Assassin's Creed II, Assassin's Creed Odyssey e il film Una notte con il re (2006). Serse è il re dell'impero persiano nei videogiochi Civilization II e Civilization III, mentre in Civilization IV è sostituito da Ciro il Grande e Dario I. Gore Vidal, nel suo romanzo storico di fantascienza Creazione (1981), descrive dettagliatamente l'ascesa al potere degli Achemenidi, in particolare Dario I, e racconta la vita e la morte di Serse. Serse è presente anche nel film Il libro di Ester, del 2013, interpretato da Josh Smallbone. Note[modifica | modifica wikitesto] ^ a b (EN) R. Schmitt, Atossa, in Encyclopædia Iranica, 1982. ^ a b Dandamaev, p. 180. ^ a b (EN) A. Sh. Shahbazi, Dario I il Grande, in Encyclopædia Iranica, 1982. ^ Shabani, p. 15. ^ Olmstead. ^ Erodoto, VII, 3. ^ Gershevitch, p. 509. ^ Boardman, V, p. 72. ^ Ghirshman, p. 191. ^ Kent. ^ (EN) Mary Boyce, Achaemenid Religion, in Encyclopædia Iranica, 1982. ^ Boardman, IV, p. 101. ^ Giovenale, X, 174. ^ Niebuhr, pag. 403. ^ Erodoto, VII, 37. ^ 1963-2013 cinquant'anni dal vajont, su cafebabel.com, 2013. URL consultato il 4 marzo 2020. ^ Erodoto, VIII, 36. ^ Bailkey, Nels, p. 175. ^ Farrokh, p. 77. ^ Erodoto, VII, 61. ^ Erodoto, VII, 184-187. ^ Grote, pp. 46 sgg. ^ Barkworth, pp. 149-167. ^ La battaglia di Salamina e le conseguenze. ^ Erodoto, IX, 108-113. ^ Ctesia, 20. ^ Aristotele, Politica, V, 1311b: «Artapane si rivoltò a Serse temendo di essere da lui accusato di aver impiccato Dario senza suo ordine; cosa che aveva fatto nella convinzione di essere perdonato da Serse, che non sarebbe stato in grado di ricordare per via del banchetto». ^ (EN) M. A. Dandamayev, Artabano, in Encyclopædia Iranica, 1982. ^ Ctesia, 100, 29. ^ Erodoto, VII,187. ^ Ghirshman, p. 172. ^ Erodoto, VII, 11. ^ Frank Miller ritorna al campo di battaglia dei "300" con "Serse", in The Los Angeles Times, 1º giugno 2010. Bibliografia[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Fonti primarie Aristotele, Politica. Ctesia di Cnido, Persica. Erodoto, Le Storie. Giovenale, Satire. Fonti secondarie (EN) Bailkey, Nels, Readings in Ancient History, D.C. Heath and Co, 1992. (EN) Peter R. Barkworth, The Organization of Xerxes' Army, in Iranica Antiqua, n. 27, 1993. (EN) John Boardman, The Cambridge ancient history, n. 5, Cambridge University Press, 1988, ISBN 0-521-22804-2. (EN) M. A. Dandamaev, A political history of the Achaemenid empire, Brill Publishers, 1989, ISBN 90-04-09172-6. (EN) Kaveh Farrokh, Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War, Osprey Publishing, 2007, ISBN 978-1-84603-108-3. (EN) Ilya Gershevitch, William Bayne Fisher e J. A. Boyle, The Cambridge history of Iran, n. 2, Cambridge University Press, 1985, ISBN 0-521-20091-1. (EN) Roman Ghirshman, Iran: Parthians and Sassanians, Thames and Hudson, 1962. (EN) George Grote, History of Greece, 1856. (DE) Barthold Georg Niebuhr, Vorträge über alte Geschichte, G. Riemer, 1851. (EN) Albert T. E. Olmstead, History of the Persian Empire, University of Chicago Press, 1948, ISBN 978-0-226-62777-9. (FA) Reza Shabani, Khshayarsha (Serse). What do I know about Iran? No. 75, Cultural Research Burreau, 1386 (calendario persiano), ISBN 964-379-109-2. (EN) William Smith (a cura di), Xerxes I, in Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 1870. Voci correlate[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Guerre persiane Canale di Serse Flagellazione dell'Ellesponto Ponte di barche sull'Ellesponto I Persiani, tragedia di Eschilo Amestris Altri progetti[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Altri progetti Wikiquote Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote contiene citazioni di o su Serse I di Persia Wikimedia Commons contiene immagini o altri file su Serse I di Persia Collegamenti esterni[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Egitto, su geocities.com. URL consultato il 25 dicembre 2005 (archiviato dall'url originale il 26 ottobre 2009; seconda copia archiviata urlarchivio2 richiede dataarchivio2 (aiuto)). (EN) Digital Egypt for Universities, su digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk. (EN) The Ancient Egypt Site, su ancient-egypt.org. (EN) 115 Egyptian Gods, su nemo.nu. Predecessore Signore dell'Alto e del Basso Egitto Successore Dario I 486 – 465 a.C. Artabano V · D · M Sovrani achemenidi Sovrani mitici Achemene Sovrani attestati Teispe · Ciro I · Cambise I · Ciro II il Grande · Cambise II · Smerdi · Gaumata · Dario I · Serse I · Artaserse I · Serse II · Sogdiano · Dario II Nothus · Artaserse II Mnemone · Artaserse III Oco · Artaserse IV Arses · Dario III Codomano · Besso in corsivo gli usurpatori V · D · M Faraoni egizi del periodo tardo XXVI dinastia Ammeris[1] · Stephinates[1] · Nekaub[1] · Necao I · Psammetico I · Necao II · Psammetico II · Aprie · Amasi · Psammetico III XXVII dinastia Cambise II · Dario I · Serse I · Artabano · Artaserse I · Serse II · Sogdiano · Dario II · Artaserse II · Petubasti III[2] · Psammetico IV[2] XXVIII dinastia Amirteo XXIX dinastia Neferite I · Hernebkha · Psammuthis · Hakor · Neferite II XXX dinastia Nectanebo I · Teos · Nectanebo II XXXI dinastia Artaserse III · Artaserse IV · Khababash[2] · Dario III ^ a b c Regnante come governatore di Sais ^ a b c Ribelle alla dominazione Persiana Faraoni egizi del periodo tardo V · D · M Dinastia achemenide Dinastia achemenide Albero genealogico degli achemenidi (680-323 a.C.) Achemene Re di Persia (680-675 a.C.) Teispe di Ansan Re di Ansan (675-640 a.C.) Ariaramne Re di Persia Ciro I Re di Ansan (640-580 a.C.) Arsame Re di Persia Cambise I Re di Ansan (580-559 a.C.) Mandane Farnace I Re di Frigia Rodogune Istaspe Cassandane Ciro II il Grande Re di Persia (559-529 a.C.) Amytis Dinastia farnacide Artabano Artane Dario I il Grande Re di Persia (522-486 a.C.) Atossa Cambise II Re di Persia (529-522 a.C.) Smerdi Artistone Achemene Serse I Re di Persia (485-465 a.C.) Amestris Artozostra Mardonio Arsame Artario Dario Alogine di Babilonia Damaspia Artaserse I Re di Persia (464-425 a.C.) Cosmartidene di Babilonia Andia di Babilonia Amytis Megabizo Sogdiano Re di Persia (424 a.C.) Serse II Re di Persia (425-424 a.C.) Dario II Re di Persia (424-404 a.C.) Parisatide Artaserse II Re di Persia (405-358 a.C.) Statira Ciro il Giovane Ostane Farnabazo II Satrapo della Frigia ellespontina (413-378 a.C.) Apama Oronte I Satrapo di Sofene (401-344 a.C.) Rodogune Artaserse III Re di Persia (358-338 a.C.) Atossa II Arsame Sisigambi Artaserse IV Re di Persia (338-336 a.C.) Parisatide II Ossiatre Lisimaco Re di Macedonia (288-281 a.C.) Dario III Re di Persia (336-330 a.C.) Statira I Cratero Amastri Dionisio di Eraclea Alessandro Magno Re di Macedonia (336-323 a.C.) Statira II Dripetide Efestione Nota: la linea tratteggiata indica il matrimonio Controllo di autorità VIAF (EN) 282770127 · ISNI (EN) 0000 0000 6300 8852 · LCCN (EN) n81070675 · GND (DE) 118808109 · BNF (FR) cb150689088 (data) · BNE (ES) XX1153338 (data) · ULAN (EN) 500354810 · NLA (EN) 66228176 · BAV (EN) 495/27255 · CERL cnp00400914 · WorldCat Identities (EN) viaf-19983268 Portale Antico Egitto Portale Archeologia Portale Biografie Estratto da "https://it.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Serse_I_di_Persia&oldid=118157333" Categorie: Nati nel 519 a.C. Morti nel 465 a.C. Dinastia achemenide Re dei Re Re di Ansan Sovrani della XXVII dinastia egizia Categorie nascoste: BioBot Voci con modulo citazione e parametro coautore Errori del modulo citazione - pagine con errori in urlarchivio Voci con codice VIAF Voci con codice ISNI Voci con codice LCCN Voci con codice GND Voci con codice BNF Voci con codice BNE Voci con codice ULAN Voci con codice NLA Voci con codice BAV Voci con codice CERL Voci con codice WorldCat Identities Voci biografiche con codici di controllo di autorità Menu di navigazione Strumenti personali Accesso non effettuato discussioni contributi registrati entra Namespace Voce Discussione Varianti Visite Leggi Modifica Modifica wikitesto Cronologia Altro Ricerca Navigazione Pagina principale Ultime modifiche Una voce a caso Nelle vicinanze Vetrina Aiuto Sportello informazioni Comunità Portale Comunità Bar Il Wikipediano Fai una donazione Contatti Strumenti Puntano qui Modifiche correlate Pagine speciali Link permanente Informazioni pagina Cita questa voce Elemento Wikidata Stampa/esporta Crea un libro Scarica come PDF Versione stampabile In altri progetti Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote In altre lingue Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Modifica collegamenti Questa pagina è stata modificata per l'ultima volta il 22 gen 2021 alle 16:48. 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ja-wikipedia-org-4013	----	クセルクセス1世 - Wikipedia クセルクセス1世 出典: フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ナビゲーションに移動 検索に移動 クセルクセス1世 خشایارشا （khašāyāršā） ペルシア大王 在位 紀元前485年 - 紀元前465年 戴冠式 紀元前485年10月 別号 エジプト王（ファラオ） 出生 紀元前519年 死去 紀元前465年 配偶者 アメストリス 子女 ダレイオス アルタクセルクセス1世 ティトラウステス 王朝 アケメネス朝 父親 ダレイオス1世 母親 アトッサ 宗教 ゾロアスター教 テンプレートを表示 クセルクセス1世（古代ペルシア語: 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠 - Hašayārašā - ハシャヤーラシャー, 英語: Xerxes I）は、アケメネス朝ペルシアの王（在位：紀元前486年 - 紀元前465年）。 目次 1 名称 1.1 ハシャヤーラシャーに近い発音 1.2 クセルクセスに近い発音 1.3 アハシュエロスに近い発音 2 略歴 2.1 ペルシア戦争期 2.2 ペルシア戦争後 3 逸話 3.1 エステル記 4 関連する本など 4.1 本 4.2 音楽 4.3 映画 5 関連項目 名称[編集] ハシャヤーラシャーに近い発音[編集] 古代ペルシア語: 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠 - Hašayārašā - ハシャヤーラシャー、ペルシア語：خشایارشا （khašāyāršā）。 クセルクセスに近い発音[編集] 古代ギリシア語: Ξέρξης - Xerxēs - クセルクセス。 アハシュエロスに近い発音[編集] ラテン語：Ahasuerus、ヘブライ語：אֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹשׁ - Ăḫašwērôš - アハシュエロス。 略歴[編集] ナクシェ・ロスタムにあるクセルクセスの墓。 ダレイオス1世とアトッサの息子。 クセルクセス1世の在位期間に関しては、紀元前496年 - 紀元前475年ごろではないかとの説もある。これはペルセポリスから出土した銘文に父ダレイオス1世との共同統治期間が示唆されているためである。 バビロニア、エジプト地方に起きた反乱を武力鎮圧。 ペルシア戦争期[編集] 詳細は「ペルシア戦争」を参照 紀元前480年、海・陸の大軍を整えギリシア遠征を企てる。遠征の際、ヘレスポントス海峡に船橋を架け、アトス岬に運河をきり開いて遠征軍を進め、アルテミシオンの海戦（Artemision）でギリシア海軍と戦う。この戦いはヘロドトスの『歴史』によればギリシア海軍がやや優勢であったが、後述のテルモピュライの戦いでギリシア連合軍の陸軍が敗北したためギリシア海軍が自主的にサラミスへ撤退した。 同年8月、テルモピュライの戦いでスパルタ王レオニダス1世を敗死させる。9月、アッティカ地方を遠征したが、サラミスの海戦（Salamis）で敗れ、帰国。 翌 紀元前479年8月、マルドニオスの率いる陸軍はプラタイアの戦い（Plataiai）で敗北、敗残海軍はミュカレの戦い（Mykale）で撃滅され、ギリシア軍の反撃に苦しむ。 ギリシア遠征で大打撃を受けたクセルクセスは帰国し、事実上クセルクセスのギリシア遠征は失敗に終わった。その後、ペルシアは大規模なギリシア遠征を行うことも無かったが、ペルシア戦争自体は息子のアルタクセルクセス1世がカリアスの和約を結ぶまで継続している。 ペルシア戦争後[編集] 帰国後、有名な万国の門（英語版）（クセルクセス門とも）などの大規模な建築事業やユダヤ人の保護政策などを数多く行ったが、これにより国の財政がさらに圧迫され、次第に国力が衰えアケメネス朝の衰退を招くこととなる。 逸話[編集] クセルクセスはまた「性剛情」とされ、アフラマズダ神の崇拝を強行しようとしたといわれる。 またアフリカを周航させたともいわれる。 エステル記[編集] ウィキソースにエステル記(口語訳)の原文があります。 ウィキソースにエステル書(文語訳)の原文があります。 旧約聖書『エステル記』は、インドからクシュまでの127州を統べるペルシアまたメディアの王クセルクセスの時代を描いている。 この王は伝統的にクセルクセス1世と考えられており、かつての和訳ではアハシュエロスとされていた。 幼くして両親を失ったハダサと、彼女の父代わりの親族モルデカイは、ともにバビロン捕囚によって故国を追われたユダヤ人である。 クセルクセスは、酒宴への召し入れを拒んだワシュティ（英語版）に代わり、帝国全土選りすぐりの美貌をもつエステル (聖書)を新たに王妃に迎えた。 このワシュティは、ヘロドトスの伝える王妃アメストリスと同一人物であるか、あるいは一夫多妻の習慣があったものと考えられている。 ある時、悪代官ハマンに土下座をしようとしないモルデカイに憤ったハマンは、彼と同じユダヤ人を皆殺しにしようと企てた。 虐殺の日を決めるため、くじが引かれた。王もまた欺かれ、全土に勅令を発した。 しかしハマンは、王妃エステルがモルデカイの育てた少女ハダサであることを知らない。 新たにエステルの設けた酒宴ですべてが暴かれ、王の逆鱗に触れたハマンは処刑され、モルデカイが新首相に任ぜられ、こうしてユダヤ人たちは守られたのである。 これを記念するプーリーム(くじ)の祭りは、今なおユダヤ人の習わしとなっている。 関連する本など[編集] 本[編集] エステル記 歴史 (ヘロドトス) 音楽[編集] セルセ (ヘンデル) - オンブラ・マイ・フ 映画[編集] スパルタ総攻撃 - テルモピュライの戦いを描いた映画 300 〈スリーハンドレッド〉 - テルモピュライの戦いを描いた映画 300 〈スリーハンドレッド〉 〜帝国の進撃〜 - アルテミシオンの海戦を描いた映画 関連項目[編集] ウィキメディア・コモンズには、クセルクセス1世に関連するカテゴリがあります。 プーリーム 先代: ダレイオス1世 アケメネス朝の王 紀元前486年 - 紀元前465年 次代: アルタクセルクセス1世 先代: ダレイオス1世 古代エジプト王 197代：紀元前521 - 紀元前486 次代: アルタクセルクセス1世 この項目は、歴史に関連した書きかけの項目です。この項目を加筆・訂正などしてくださる協力者を求めています（P:歴史/P:歴史学/PJ歴史）。 「https://ja.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=クセルクセス1世&oldid=80964128」から取得 カテゴリ: クセルクセス1世 アケメネス朝の君主 ファラオ ダレイオス1世 暗殺された人物 紀元前465年没 隠しカテゴリ: プロジェクト王朝項目 歴史関連のスタブ項目 案内メニュー 個人用ツール ログインしていません トーク 投稿記録 アカウント作成 ログイン 名前空間 ページ ノート 変種 表示 閲覧 編集 履歴表示 その他 検索 案内 メインページ コミュニティ・ポータル 最近の出来事 新しいページ 最近の更新 おまかせ表示 練習用ページ アップロード (ウィキメディア・コモンズ) ヘルプ ヘルプ 井戸端 お知らせ バグの報告 寄付 ウィキペディアに関するお問い合わせ ツール リンク元 関連ページの更新状況 ファイルをアップロード 特別ページ この版への固定リンク ページ情報 このページを引用 ウィキデータ項目 印刷/書き出し ブックの新規作成 PDF 形式でダウンロード 印刷用バージョン 他のプロジェクト コモンズ 他言語版 Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 リンクを編集 最終更新 2020年12月21日 (月) 05:34 （日時は個人設定で未設定ならばUTC）。 テキストはクリエイティブ・コモンズ 表示-継承ライセンスの下で利用可能です。追加の条件が適用される場合があります。詳細は利用規約を参照してください。 プライバシー・ポリシー ウィキペディアについて 免責事項 モバイルビュー 開発者 統計 Cookieに関する声明 
kk-wikipedia-org-6950	----	Ксеркс — Уикипедия Ксеркс Уикипедия — ашық энциклопедиясынан алынған мәлімет Jump to navigation Jump to search Ксеркс (т.ж.б. – б.з.б. 465 ж.) – Ахемени әулетінен шыққан парсы патшасы ('б.з.б. 486 – 65). Б.з.б. 480 – 79 ж. Грецияға қарсы жорық жасады. Грекияның көпшілік бөлігін басып алғанымен елді толық бағындыра алмады. Гректер әсіресе теңізде басымдылық танытты. Осы жорыққа Ксеркс жағында парсыларға бағынышты болған Орта Азиялық сақ тайпалары да қатысты.[1]. Дереккөздер [өңдеу] ↑ "Қазақ энциклопедиясы" Бұл мақаланы Уикипедия сапа талаптарына лайықты болуы үшін уикилендіру қажет. Бұл мақалада еш сурет жоқ. Мақаланы жетілдіру үшін қажетті суретті енгізіп көмек беріңіз. Суретті қосқаннан кейін бұл үлгіні мақаладан аластаңыз. Суретті мыннан табуға болады: осы мақаланың тақырыбына байланысты сурет Ортақ қорда табылуы мүмкін; мақаланың өзге тіл уикилеріндегі нұсқаларын қарап көріңіз; өзіңіз жасаған суретті жүктеңіз (авторлық құқықпен қорғалған сурет қоспаңыз!). «https://kk.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ксеркс&oldid=2802405» бетінен алынған Санат: Тарих Жасырын санат: Уикилендіруі қажет мақалалар Еш медиа файлы жоқ мақалалар Бағыттау мәзірі Жеке құралдар Кірмегенсіз Талқылау Үлесім Тіркелу Кіру Есім кеңістіктері Мақала Талқылау disable disable Кирил Latın توتە disable disable disable Көрініс Оқу Өңдеу Өңделу тарихы More Іздеу Шарлау Басты бет Қауым порталы Жуықтағы өзгерістер Ең жаңа беттер Кездейсоқ бет А — Я тізімдеуі Анықтама Форум Талқылау легі Қателер туралы хабарлау Демеу беру Құралдар Мұнда сілтейтін беттер Қатысты өзгерістер Арнайы беттер Тұрақты сілтеме Мәлімет Беттен дәйексөз алу Уикидерек данасы Баспа/экспорт PDF ретінде жүктеп алу Басып шығару Басқа жобаларда Ортаққор Басқа тілдерде Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Сілтемелерді өңдеу Бұл беттің соңғы өзгертілген кезі: 19:41, 2020 ж. қыркүйектің 26. Мәтін Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike лицензиясы аясында қолжетімді; қосымша шарттар қолданылуы мүмкін. Бұл сайтты қолдану арқылы Қолдану шарты және Құпиялық саясатымен келісесіз. Wikipedia® Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. коммерциялық емес ұйымының тіркелген сауда маркасы. Құпиялық саясаты Уикипедия туралы Жауапкершіліктен бас тарту Мобайлды көрініс Жасақтаушылар Statistics Cookie statement 
kopkatalogs-lv-5045	----	Autoritatīvā DB - Full View of Record Latvijas Nacionālās bibliotēkas autoritatīvā datubāze Reģistrēties | Beigt darbu | Lietotājs | Datubāzes | Komentāri | Palīdzība     Pārlūkošana | Meklēšana | Rezultātu saraksts | Iepriekšējie meklējumi | Mans e-plaukts | English         Pievienot e-Plauktam  |  Saglabāt/Sūtīt  |    Pilns ieraksts Formāta izvēle: Standarta MARC Sistēmas nr.   000054067 Entītes veids   Persona Persona   Kserkss I, Persijas valdnieks, 519-465 vai 4. gs. pirms m.ē. Norāde   Xerxes I, Persijas valdnieks, 519-465 vai 4. gs. pirms m.ē.   Serse I, Persijas valdnieks, 519-465 vai 4. gs. pirms m.ē. Saist. ieraksts   Kserkss 519-465 vai 4. gs. pirms m.ē. [VIAF] http://viaf.org/viaf/305065028  Formāta izvēle: Standarta MARC Komentāri - Palīdzība - Pārlūkošana - Meklēšana - Rezultātu saraksts - Iepriekšējie meklējumi - Datubāzes © 2014 Ex Libris 
ko-wikipedia-org-7788	----	크세르크세스 1세 - 위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전 크세르크세스 1세 위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전. 둘러보기로 가기 검색하러 가기 크세르크세스 1세 또는 크세르크세스 대제(그리스어: Ξέρξης, 페르시아어: خشایارشا, 기원전 519년경 ~ 기원전 465년)은 페르시아 제국 아케메네스 왕조의 황제로 기원전 486년부터 기원전 465년까지 페르시아를 통치했다. "크세르크세스"라는 이름은 고대 페르시아의 왕위를 그리스식으로 표현한 것으로 그 뜻은 '영웅들의 지배자'라는 뜻이다. 개역개정 성경에서는 아하수에로라 한다. 목차 1 생애 1.1 그리스 침공 2 성경에 언급된 크세르크세스 3 외부 링크 생애[편집] 크세르크세스 1세는 다리우스 1세와 키루스 2세의 딸 아토사 사이에서 태어났다. 기원전 486년 10월 다리우스 1세가 죽자 뒤를 이어 즉위한 그는 곧바로 이집트에서 2년간 끌어오던 반란의 진압에 나섰다. 무자비하게 이집트의 반란을 진압하고 자신의 동생을 이집트 총독에 임명하고 혹독하게 다스렸다. 선왕의 다리우스의 유화책에 비해 그는 훨씬 더 강경한 정책으로 제국을 다스렸는데 특히 바빌로니아에서 일어난 반란을 진압할때는 신전을 파괴하고 바빌로니아 왕의 상징으로 간주되는 황금 신상인 마르둑을 파괴했는데 이것은 그가 바빌로니아의 왕의 지위를 거부하는 것을 의미한다. 그는 자신의 칭호를 "페르시아와 메디아의 왕"으로만 표현하고 이집트와 바빌로니아의 왕을 빼기도 했다. 영토내의 반란을 진압하고 평정을 되찾자 그는 선왕이 끝내 이루지 못한 그리스 정벌을 준비한다. 그는 다리우스가 생전에 마라톤 전투에서 그리스에게 패한 것을 복수하기 위한 전쟁준비에 들어갔다. 기원전 484년 부터 481년까지 그는 3년에 걸쳐 철저하게 전쟁을 준비했는데 모든 영토로부터 병력을 징발하고 해군 수송선단을 만들었다. 헤로도토스에 따르면 이때의 전쟁준비를 일찍이 볼 수 없었던 대규모의 것이었다고 하며, 헤로도토스는 이때 동원된 병력을 무려 500만에 달하는 것으로 기록했다. 그러나 역사학자들은 이를 지나치게 과장된 숫자라고 주장하며, 당시 동원된 병력의 수를 그리스군보다 오히려 적은 15,000명 정도로 추산하고 있다. 그리스 침공[편집] 이 부분의 본문은 그리스-페르시아 전쟁입니다. 기원전 480년 크세르크세스는 친히 대군을 이끌고 그리스를 침공했다. 헤로도토스의 기록에는 병력이 약 170만 명이라고 되어있지만 현대의 연구자들은 약 30만 명 정도라고 본다. 다르다넬스 해협을 건넌 육군은 트라키아와 마케도니아 왕국을 지나 남하하기 시작했고 테르모필레의 협곡에서 최초로 그리스 병사들과 전투가 벌어졌다. 이것이 스파르타의 정예병 300명·노예병 7000명과의 테르모필레 전투였다. 이 전투에서 승리한 크세르크세스는 아티카와 아테네까지 거침없이 정복했으나 테미스토클레스가 이끄는 그리스 해군에게 살라미스 해전에서 패했고 크세르크세스는 페르시아의 수사까지 후퇴했다. 이듬해 플라타이아 전투에서도 페르시아군은 그리스 연합군에게 패하여 철수하게 되었고 페르시아 전쟁은 기원전 478년에 끝났다. 페르시아로 철수한 크세르크세스는 이후에는 페르세폴리스에 기거하면서 방대한 건축사업을 벌였다. 선왕이 세운 궁전에 더하여 페르세폴리스에 자신의 궁전을 세우고 자신만의 보물 창고를 건설했다. 그의 말년에 대하여는 기록이 별로 없다. 기원전 465년 그의 아들과 아르타바누스 등의 신하들이 쿠데타를 일으켜 그를 처형하고 아르타크세르크세스 1세를 제위에 앉혔다. 성경에 언급된 크세르크세스[편집] 학자들은 구약성서의 에스더에 나오는 아하수에로스(히브리어: אֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹשׁ) 대왕이 바로 이 크세르크세스 1세라는 데 대체로 의견이 모이고 있다. 그러나 일부 유대인 학자들은 이 이론을 지지하지 않는다. 외부 링크[편집] 위키미디어 공용에 관련된 미디어 분류가 있습니다.크세르크세스 1세 아하수에로스에 대한 성서사전의 설명 전임 다리우스 1세 제4대 페르시아 제국 샤한샤 기원전 486년 - 기원전 465년 후임 크세르크세스 1세 v t e 페르시아 제국의 역대 샤한샤(황제) 메디아 제국 데이오케스 프라오르테스 스키타이의 마디우스 키악사레스 아스티아게스 아케메네스 왕조 아케메네스 테이스페스 키루스 1세 캄비세스 1세 키루스 2세 캄비세스 2세 다리우스 1세 크세르크세스 1세 아르타크세르크세스 1세 크세르크세스 2세 소그디아노스 다리우스 2세 아르타크세르크세스 2세 아르타크세르크세스 3세 아르타크세르크세스 4세 다리우스 3세 베소스 전거 통제 BNE: XX1153338 BNF: cb150689088 (data) CANTIC: a12318310 GND: 118808109 ISNI: 0000 0000 6300 8852 LCCN: n81070675 LNB: 000054067 NKC: mzk2005313022 NLA: 66228176 NLI: 000437459 NTA: 073636711 SELIBR: 259706 SUDOC: 050588400 Trove: 1808084 ULAN: 500354810 VcBA: 495/27255 VIAF: 282770127 WorldCat Identities: viaf-19983268 원본 주소 "https://ko.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=크세르크세스_1세&oldid=28231051" 분류: 크세르크세스 1세 기원전 518년 태어남 기원전 465년 죽음 아케메네스 제국의 샤한샤 이집트 제27왕조의 파라오 그리스-페르시아 전쟁 관련자 테르모필레 전투 살라미스 해전 기원전 5세기 이란 사람 기원전 5세기 통치자 다리우스 1세 기원전 5세기 파라오 살해된 기원전 5세기 군주 숨은 분류: 그리스어 표기를 포함한 문서 페르시아어 표기를 포함한 문서 히브리어 표기를 포함한 문서 BNE 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 BNF 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 CANTIC 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 GND 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 ISNI 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 LCCN 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 LNB 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 NKC 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 NLA 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 NLI 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 NTA 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 SELIBR 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 SUDOC 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 Trove 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 ULAN 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 VcBA 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 VIAF 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 WORLDCATID 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 둘러보기 메뉴 개인 도구 로그인하지 않음 토론 기여 계정 만들기 로그인 이름공간 문서 토론 변수 보기 읽기 편집 역사 보기 더 보기 검색 둘러보기 대문 최근 바뀜 요즘 화제 임의의 문서로 기부 사용자 모임 사랑방 사용자 모임 관리 요청 편집 안내 도움말 정책과 지침 질문방 도구 여기를 가리키는 문서 가리키는 글의 최근 바뀜 파일 올리기 특수 문서 목록 고유 링크 문서 정보 이 문서 인용하기 위키데이터 항목 인쇄/내보내기 책 만들기 PDF로 다운로드 인쇄용 판 다른 프로젝트 위키미디어 공용 다른 언어 Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 링크 편집 이 문서는 2020년 12월 12일 (토) 02:36에 마지막으로 편집되었습니다. 모든 문서는 크리에이티브 커먼즈 저작자표시-동일조건변경허락 3.0에 따라 사용할 수 있으며, 추가적인 조건이 적용될 수 있습니다. 자세한 내용은 이용 약관을 참고하십시오. Wikipedia®는 미국 및 다른 국가에 등록되어 있는 Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 소유의 등록 상표입니다. 개인정보처리방침 위키백과 소개 면책 조항 모바일 보기 개발자 통계 쿠키 정책 
ka-wikipedia-org-8132	----	ქსერქსე I - ვიკიპედია ქსერქსე I მასალა ვიკიპედიიდან — თავისუფალი ენციკლოპედია Jump to navigation Jump to search ქსერქსე I ძვ.-სპ. Xšayaršā, ბაბ. Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá/ši, ელამ. Ik-še-ir-(iš-)šá, არამ. Aḥašwērōš, ძვ. ბერძნ. Ξέρξης, ლათ. Xerxes აქემენიანთა სპარსეთის მე-5 მეფე მმართ. დასაწყისი: ძვ. წ. 486 მმართ. დასასრული: ძვ. წ. 465 წინამორბედი: დარიოს I მემკვიდრე: არტაქსერქსე I პირადი ცხოვრება დაბ. თარიღი: ძვ. წ. 521 ან ძვ. წ. 519 დაბ. ადგილი: ირანი გარდ. თარიღი: ძვ. წ. 465 მეუღლე: ამესტრისი ვაშტი (სადავო) ესთერი (სადავო) შვილები: დარიოსი,არტაქსერქსე I; ჰისტასპი დინასტია: აქემენიდები მამა: დარიოს I დედა: ატოსა რელიგია: ზოროასტრიზმი ქსერქსე I ვიკისაწყობში ქსერქსე I (ძვ.-სპ. ხშაიარშან, ითარგმნება როგორც გმირების მეფე) — სპარსი მეფე, რომელიც ირანს ძვ. წ. 486–465 წლებში მართავდა. მეფე დარიოს I-ისა და კიროს II დიდის ქალიშვილის, ატოსას შვილი. სამეფო ტახტზე ავიდა ძვ. წ. 486 წლის ნოემბერ-დეკემბერში, 36 წლის ასაკში. აქტიურად ებრძოდა ბერძნებს, მათთან გადაიტანა რამდენიმე მნიშვნელოვანი ბრძოლა, თერმოპილეს, სალამინის, პლატეას და მიკალეს ბრძოლები. ძველი ბერძენი ისტორიკოსის ქტესია კნიდოსელის მიხედვით სიცოცხლის ბოლო პერიოდში იმყოფებოდა სამეფო გვარდიის მთავარსარდლის არტაბანისა და საჭურის ასპამიტრის გავლენის ქვეშ. სავარაუდოდ, ქსერქსეს პოზიციები ამ პერიოდში შესუსტებული იქნებოდა. ყოველ შემთხვევაში, ცნობილია, რომ ძვ. წ. 467 წელს სპარსეთში შიმშილობა მეფობდა, სამეფო ხაზინა ცარიელი იყო, ხორბლის ფასი შვიდჯერ იყო გაძვირებული. ძვ. წ. 465 წელს არტაბანმა და ასპამიტრიმ საკუთარ საძინებელში მოკლეს 55 წლის მეფე ქსერქსე. ზოგიერთი წყაროს მიხედვით იგი მოკლეს თავის უფროს შვილ დარიოსთან ერთად. ქსერქსეს სიკვდილის შემდეგ იმპერია თანდათან დასუსტდა და ძვ. წ. 331 წელს ალექსანდრე მაკედონელმა სპარსეთი დაიპყრო. 1880—1890 წლებში ფრანგმა არქეოლოგებმა გათხარეს ქალაქი სუზა, სადაც ხდებოდა წიგნ „ესთერში“ აღწერილი მოვლენები. მათ აღმოაჩინეს ქსერქსეს სასახლე, რომელსაც დაახლოებით 1 ჰა ფართობი ეკავა. სასახლე სპარსეთის მეფეების ბრწყინვალებასა და დიდებულებაზე მეტყველებდა. ამ აღმოჩენებმა დაადასტურა წიგნ „ესთერში“ აღწერილი სპარსეთის სამეფოს მართვისა და სასახლის არქიტექტურასთან დაკავშირებული დეტალების სიზუსტე. პრაისი თავის წიგნში აღნიშნავს: „არ არსებობს ძველ აღთქმაში აღწერილი ამბავი, რომლის განვითარების ადგილის წარმოდგენაც ისე ცხადად და ზუსტად შეგვეძლოს გათხრების შემდეგ, როგორც შუშანის სასახლისა“ ლიტერატურა[რედაქტირება | წყაროს რედაქტირება] Dandamaev, M. A. (1989). A political history of the Achaemenid empire. Brill Publishers, გვ. 373. ISBN 90-04-09172-6.  Macaulay, G. C. (2004). The Histories. Spark Educational Publishing. ISBN 1-59308-102-2.  ხ • გ • რ აქემენიანთა იმპერიის მმართველები კიროს II დიდი კამბისე II გაუმატა/ბარდია დარიოს I ქსერქსე I არტაქსერქსე I ქსერქსე II სოგდიანე დარიოს II არტაქსერქსე II არტაქსერქსე III არსესი დარიოს III ხ • გ • რ ფარაონები პერიოდები დინასტიები ფარაონები (მამრობითი · მდედრობითი♀) · გაურკვეველი წინადინასტიური ძვ. წ. 3150 წლამდე ქვემო ეგვიპტე სეკა ხაიუ ტიუ თეში ნეჰები ვაზნერი მეხი ორმაგი შევარდენი ზემო ეგვიპტე სკორპიონ I ნიანგი (ფარაონი) ირი-ჰორი კა სკორპიონ II ნარმერი/მენესი ადრეული სამეფო ძვ. წ. 3150–2686 წწ. I დინასტია ნარმერი/მენესი ჰორ აჰა ჯერი ჯეტი მერნეიტი♀ დენი ანეჯიბი სემერხეტი კაა სენეფერკა ჰორუს-ბა II დინასტია ჰოტეპსეხემუი რანები ნინეჩერი ბა ნუბნეფერი ჰორუს-სა ვენეგი ვაჯენესი სენედი სეთ-პერიბსენი სეხემიბი ნეფერკარა I ნეფერკასოკარი ჰუჯეფა I ხასეხემუი ძველი სამეფო ძვ. წ. 2686–2181 წწ. III დინასტია ნებკა ჯოსერი სეხემხეტი სანახტი ხაბა ქაჰეჯეტი ჰუნი IV დინასტია სნეფრუ ხეოფსი ჯედეფრე ხეფრენი ბიხერისი მენკაურა შეპსესკაფი თამფთისი V დინასტია უსერკაფი საჰურა ნეფერირკარა კაკაი ნეფერეფრა შეპსესკარა ნიუსერა მენკაუჰორი ჯედკარა ისესი უნისი VI დინასტია ტეტი უსერკარა პეპი I მერენრა I პეპი II მერენრა II ნეჩერიკარა ნიტოკრისი♀ I გარდამავალი ძვ. წ. 2181–2040 წწ. VII და VIII დ. მენკარა ნეფერკარა II ნეფერკარა III ჯედკარა II ნეფერკარა IV მერენჰორი ნეფერკამინ I ნიკარა ნეფერკარა V ნეფერკაჰორი ნეფერკარა VI ნეფერკამინ II კაკაურა იბი ნეფერკაურა ნეფერკაუჰორი ნეფერირკარა ვაჯკარე ხუიკერი ხუი IX დინასტია ხეთი I ნეფერკარა VII ნებკაურა-ხეთი სეტუტი X დინასტია მერიჰათორი ნეფერკარა VIII ვაჰკარე ხეთი მერიკარა შუა სამეფო ძვ. წ. 2040–1802 წწ. XI დინასტია მენტუჰოტეპ I ინტეფ I ინტეფ II ინტეფ III მენტუჰოტეპ II მენტუჰოტეპ III მენტუჰოტეპ IV ნუბია სეგერსენი ქაკარე ინი აიაბხენტრა XII დინასტია ამენემჰეტ I სენუსერტ I ამენემჰეტ II სენუსერტ II სენუსერტ III ამენემჰეტ III ამენემჰეტ IV ნეფრუსებეკი♀ II გარდამავალი ძვ. წ. 1802–1550 წწ. XIII დინასტია სობეხოტეპ I სონბეფი ნერიკარა ამენემჰეტ V ამენი ქემაუ ჰოტეპიბრა იუფნი ამენემჰეტ VI სემენკარა სეჰეტეპიბრა სევაჯკარე I ნეჯემიბრა სობეხოტეპ II რენსენები ჰორი სეხემრეხუტაი ჯედეხეპერუ სებკი ამენემჰატ VII უგაფი ხენჯერი აიმირამეშაუ ინტეფ IV სეთ მერიბრა სობეხოტეპ III ნეფერჰოტეპ I სობეხოტეპ IV სობეხოტეპ V სობეხოტეპ VI ვაჰიბრა იბიაუ მერნოფერა აიბი მერჰოტეპრე ინი სანხენრა სევაჯტუ მერსეხემრა ინედი სევაჯკარე ჰორი სობეხოტეპ VII მერშეპსესრა ინი სონბმიუ მერხეპერა მერკარა მენტუჰოტეპ V სანხპტაჰი XIV დინასტია იაკბიმი იაამუ ქარეჰი აჰოტეპრა შეში ნეჰესი ხახერეუერე ნებეფაურა სეჰებრე მერჯეფარე სევაჯკარე III ნებჯეფარა უებენრა სეხეფერენრე ჯედხერეუერე ბებნუმი აპეპი ნიუია უაზადი შენეჰი შენშეკი ხამურე იაკარიბი იაკუბჰერი XV დინასტია სემქენი აპერანატი საკირჰერი ხიანი აპეპი ხამუდი XVI დინასტია ჯეჰუტი სობეხოტეპ VIII ნეფერჰოტეპ III მენტუჰოტეპ VI ნებერეაუ I ნებერეაუ II სემენრა ბებიანხი სეხემრე შედვასტი დედუმოს I დედუმოს II მონტემსაფი მენტუჰოტეპ VI სენუსერტ IV პეპი III აბიდოსი სენებკაი ვეპუავეტემსაპი პანტჯენი სნააიბი XVII დინასტია რაჰოტეპი ნებმაატრე სობეკემსაფ I სობეკემსაფ II ინტეფ V ნუბხეპერე ინტეფი სეხემრე-ჰერუჰირმაატ ინტეფი ტაა I ტაა II კამოსი ახალი სამეფო ძვ. წ. 1550–1070 წწ. XVIII დინასტია იაჰმეს I ამენჰოტეპ I თუტმოს I თუტმოს II თუტმოს III ჰატშეფსუტი ამენჰოტეპ II თუტმოს IV ამენჰოტეპ III ამენჰოტეპ IV სმენხკარა ნეფერნეფერუატენი♀ ტუტანხამონი ეიე ჰორემჰები XIX დინასტია რამსეს I სეთი I რამსეს II მერნეპტაჰი ამენმესი სეთი II საპტაჰი ტაუსერტი♀ XX დინასტია სეთნახტე რამსეს III რამსეს IV რამსეს V რამსეს VI რამსეს VII რამსეს VIII რამსეს IX რამსეს X რამსეს XI III გარდამავალი ძვ. წ. 1069–664 წწ. XXI დინასტია სმენდესი ამენემნისუ ფსუსენეს I ამენემოპე ოსორკონ უფროსი სიამონი ფსუსენეს II XXII დინასტია შეშონქ I ოსორკონ I შეშონქ II ტაკელოტ I ოსორკონ II შეშონქ III შეშონქ IV პამი შეშონქ V ოსორკონ IV XXIII დინასტია ჰარსიეს I ტაკელოტ II პედუბასტის I შეშონქ VI ოსორკონ III ტაკელოტ III რადამუნი ინი XXIV დინასტია ტეფნახტ I ბაკენრენეფი XXV დინასტია პიანხი შაბაკა შაბატკა ტაჰარქა ტანტამანი გვიანი ძვ. წ. 664–332 წწ. XXVI დინასტია ნეხო I ფსამეტიქ I ნეხო II ფსამეტიქ II აპრიესი ამასის II ფსამეტიქ III XXVII დინასტია კამბისე II პეტუბასტის III დარიოს I ქსერქსე I არტაქსერქსე I დარიოს II XXVIII დინასტია ამირტისი XXIX დინასტია ნეფერიტ I აჰორისი პსამუტი ნეფერიტ II XXX დინასტია ნექტანებ I ტახოსი ნექტანებ II XXXI დინასტია არტაქსერქსე III ხაბაში არსესი დარიოს III ელინისტური ძვ. წ. 332–30 წწ. არგეადები ალექსანდრე მაკედონელი ფილიპე III არიდაიოსი ალექსანდრე IV მაკედონელი პტოლემეები პტოლემე I პტოლემე II პტოლემე III პტოლემე IV პტოლემე V პტოლემე VI პტოლემე VII პტოლემე VIII პტოლემე IX პტოლემე X პტოლემე XI პტოლემე XII პტოლემე XIII პტოლემე XIV ბერენიკა IV♀ კლეოპატრა VII♀ პტოლემე XV ეგვიპტის ფარაონების სია მოძიებულია „https://ka.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ქსერქსე_I&oldid=3767998“-დან კატეგორია: აქემენიდები ეგვიპტის ოცდამეშვიდე დინასტიის ფარაონები სპარსეთის მოკლული მონარქები დამხობილი მონარქები დამალული კატეგორია: გვერდები, რომლებიც იყენებენ ISBN magic ბმულებს სანავიგაციო მენიუ პირადი ხელსაწყოები შესული არ ხართ განხილვა წვლილი ანგარიშის შექმნა შესვლა სახელთა სივრცე სტატია განხილვა ვარიანტები გადახედვა კითხვა რედაქტირება წყაროს რედაქტირება ისტორია მეტი ძიება ნავიგაცია მთავარი გვერდი თემატური ძიება რჩეული სტატიები შემთხვევითი გვერდი ახალი გვერდები მონაწილეობა ინფორმაცია დახმარება ფორუმი ბოლო ცვლილებები შემოწირულობები ხელსაწყოები ბმული გვერდზე დაკავშირებული ცვლილებები სპეციალური გვერდები მუდმივი ბმული გვერდის ინფორმაცია ამ გვერდის ციტირება ვიკიმონაცემები ელემენტი ბეჭდვა/ექსპორტი წიგნის შექმნა გადაწერა PDF ფორმატში დასაბეჭდი ვერსია სხვა პროექტებში ვიკისაწყობი სხვა ენებზე Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 ბმულების რედაქტირება ეს გვერდი ბოლოს დარედაქტირდა: 17:10, 6 დეკემბერი 2019. ტექსტი ვრცელდება Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike ლიცენზიით; და შესაძლოა არსებობდეს დამატებითი პირობები. იხილეთ გამოყენების პირობები დამატებითი ინფორმაციისთვის. ვიკიპედია® არის არამომგებიანი ორგანიზაცია Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.-ის რეგისტრირებული სავაჭრო ნიშანი. დაგვიკავშირდით კონფიდენციალურობის პოლიტიკა ვიკიპედიის შესახებ პასუხისმგებლობის უარყოფა მობილური ვერსია შემქმნელები Statistics Cookie statement 
ku-wikipedia-org-3280	----	Xeşeyerşa I - Wîkîpediya Xeşeyerşa I Ji Wîkîpediya, ensîklopediya azad. Jump to navigation Jump to search Xeşeyerşayê yekem li gorî Ernest Normand Xeşeyerşa I, ango Xeşeyerşayê yekem (z. 519 b.z. - m. 465 b.z.) şahekî mezin ê împeratoriya Farisî bû. Navê wî bi farisiya berê Hšayāŗšā tê mane "Serwerê gernasan" û bi yewnanî bû Xerxes[çavkanî pêwîst e]. Ceng û jiyan[biguherîne | çavkaniyê biguherîne] Shayar Shah lawê Daryûsê Mezin û Atossa, xwenga Kûruşê Mezin, bû. Dûv bavê xwe Daryûs I 486 b.z. de mir derbaza textê bû. Pêşin, serîhildanê li Babil û Misir de, 486 b.z.an de derketî û dema derbaza text bûyî de dom dikirî, di 485 b.z. de rawestand. Wê demê Persan bi yewnaniyên re dewamî, di Şerên Farisan de, ceng dikirin û Darius di amedeyiya seferberiyeke din de bû. Xeşeyerşa I derbaza textê bû şunda bi Kartaca ve tev di Thermopylen de şahê Spartaan Leonidas, gorî Herodot bi 2 milon leşkeran, bin xist. Lê paş re di cenga Şerê Derya yê Salamîs de di 28'ê rezberê 480 b.z. bi pêşengî padîşahî Themistokles, ji aliya komkeştiyên Atîna hat binxistin. Dûv binketiniya Şerê Derya yê Salamîs de Xeşeyerşa I vegeriya paytextê xwe Susa. Hin leşkeran li Yewnanistanê man jî di Cengê Plataeayê de di 479 b.z. de hat binxistin. Li ser Xeşeyerşa qalakê wiha heye: Dû pira, ji bo derbaz bû ne, bi keştiyan li ser Dardanellia re çê kirî helweşiya, derya bi 300 qemçiyan ceza kiri ye. Rast ne rast qalakê wiha tê gotin[çavkanî pêwîst e]. Xeşeyerşa I 465 b.z. de ji aliyê fermandarekî xwe Artabanos ve hat kuştîn[çavkanî pêwîst e]. Giredanê Web[biguherîne | çavkaniyê biguherîne] Xerxes I di Iran today de bi elmanî Ji "https://ku.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xeşeyerşa_I&oldid=725280" hatiye standin. Kategorî: Keyên Hexamenişî Menûya navîgasyonê Amûrên kesane Têneketî Gotûbêj Beşdariyên min Hesabekî çêke Têkeve Valahiya nav Gotar Gotûbêj Kurdî/کوردی Kurdî/کوردی Tîpên erebî Tîpên latînî Dîtin Bixwîne Biguherîne Çavkaniyê biguherîne Dîrokê bibîne Bêhtir Lêgerîn Navîgasyon Destpêk · Sereta Bûyerên rojane Rûpeleke ketober Beşdarî Portala komê Dîwana Wîkîpediyayê Guhartinên dawî Bexş bike Alîkarî Qutiya amûran Girêdanên li ser vê rûpelê Guhartinên têkildar Wêneyekî bar bike Rûpelên taybet Girêdana daîmî Agahiyên rûpelê Qalkirina rûpelê bibîne Hêmana Wîkîdane Çap bike/derxîne Wek PDF daxe Guhertoya çapkirinê Di projeyên din de Wikimedia Commons Bi zimanên din Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Girêdanan biguherîne Ev rûpel cara dawî 27 hezîran 2019, saet li 21:58an de hatiye guhartin. Nivîsar di bin lîsansa Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License de derbasdar e; heke tiştên din werin xwestin dikarin lê bên zêdekirin. Ji bo hûragahiyan li Mercên Bikaranînê binêre. Siyaseta veşarîtiyê Der barê Wîkîpediya de Ferexetname Xuyakirina mobîl Pêşdebir Statîstîk Agahiya kûkiyê (cookie) 
ky-wikipedia-org-105	----	Ксеркс - Wikipedia Ксеркс Wikipedia дан Jump to navigation Jump to search Ксеркс (байыркы фарсыча Хшаяршан – «падышалардын баатыры») (болжол менен б. з. ч. 522–465) – перс падышасы (б. з. ч. 486–465). Ахемениддер династиясынан чыккан Дарий Iнин уулу. 486–484-жылдары египеттиктердин перс бийлигине каршы чыккан көтөрүлүшүн баскан. 482-ж. Месопотамиядагы вавилондуктардын көтөрүлүшүн талкалап, 481-ж. Вавилон падышалыгын перс сатрапиясына айланткан. 481-ж. жазында Ксеркс Грекияга каршы жортуулга чыккан. 480-ж. августта Түндүк Грекияда Фермопилдеги ири салгылашууда Афиныны басып алган, бирок бир ай өткөн соң, Саламин деңиз салгылашында бириккен грек флоту перстерди талкалаган. Ушундан кийин Ксеркс согушту андан ары улантуу үчүн кол башчысы Мардонийди армиясы менен Фессалияга калтырып, өзү армиянын бир бөлүгүн алып, Сардыга (Лидиянын борбору) кайткан. 479-ж. Платеи шаарына жакын жердеги чечүүчү салгылашта перс армиясы талкаланып, кол башчысынан ажыраган. Натыйжада грек-перс согуштары (б. з. ч. 500–449) гректердин жеңиши менен аяктаган. 465-ж. августта Ксеркс хан сарайында өлтүрүлгөн. Ксеркстин бийлиги учурунда Персеполь, Суз жана Экбатанда хан сарайлар салынган. Ксеркстин башкаруу мезгилинен байыркы перс, элам жана вавилон тилдеринде 20га жакын клинопистик жазуулар сакталып калган. Колдонулган адабияттар[оңдоо | булагын оңдоо] “Кыргызстан” улуттук энциклопедиясы: 4-том. Башкы редактору Асанов Ү. А. К 97. Б.: Мамлекеттик тил жана энциклопедия борбору, 2012. 832 бет, илл. ISBN 978 9967-14-104 -9 "https://ky.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ксеркс&oldid=362657" булагынан алынды Категория: Инсандар Навигация менюсу Жеке аспаптар Сиз системге кире элексиз Бул IP-дарек үчүн талкуулоо Contributions Катталуу Кирүү Аталыштар мейкиндиги Макала Баарлаш Варианттар Кароолор Окуу Оңдоо Булагын оңдоо Тарыхын кароо More Издөө Багыттоо Башбарак Жамаат порталы Учурдагы окуялар Соңку өзгөрүүлөр Тушкелди макала Жардам Демөөр Аспап кутусу Жетелеме шилтемелер Байланыштуу өзгөрүүлөр Файл жүктөө Атайын барактар Туруктуу шилтеме Барак жөнүндө маалымат Бул макаланы цитаталоо Wikidata item Print/export Китеп түзүү PDF түрүндө көчүрүп алуу Басма үлгүсү In other projects Wikimedia Commons Башка тилдерде Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Шилтемелерди оңдоо Бул барак соңку жолу 26 Сентябрь (Аяк оона) 2020, 13:38 өзгөртүлгөн. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Купуялуулук саясаты Wikipedia тууралуу Жоопкерчиликтен баш тартуу Мобилдик көрүнүш Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
la-wikipedia-org-7977	----	Xerxes I (rex Persarum) - Vicipaedia Xerxes I (rex Persarum) E Vicipaedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Haec commentatio vicificanda est ut rationibus qualitatis propositis obtemperet. Quapropter rogamus ut corrigas praecipue introductionem, formam, nexusque extra et intra Vicipaediam. Darius I bellum novum adversus Graecos parabat. Cum decessit, Xerxes (lingua Persica antiqua Xšayaršā; Graece Ξέρξης), primus huius nominis, filius et successor Darii, patris incoepta persecutus est. Bellum et mari et terra per quinquennium instruxit, et tantas collegit copias, quantas neque antea, neque postea quisquam habuit. Eius enim classis mille et ducentarum navium longarum fuit, quam sequebantur duo millia onerariarum. Terrestres autem exercitus septingentorum millium peditum, equitum quadringentorum millium fuerunt. Diversissimae gentes, et innumeri populi sub signis Persarum militabant : Indi, Arabes, Chaldaei, Lydi, Aethiopes. Haec multitudo varia linguis, vestibus et armis, colluvio barbarorum erat, non justus exercitus. Ceterum tanto agmini dux deerat. Neque enim dux haberi poterat Xerxes, rex nullius virtutis aut prudentiae. In consilis stolide ferox, in periculis timidus erat ; et primus in fuga, postremus in proelio semper visus est. Vana superbia inflatus, non solum hominibus, sed etiam ipsi rerum naturae, velut dominus, imperare voluit. Montem Athon effosum ingenti labore mari aperuit, et pervium fecit suis navibus. Trajecturus copias ex Asia in Europam, injecerat super Hellespontum pontem ratibus impositum. Pons vero tempestate quassatus fuit, et fluctibus dissolutus. Rex amens ira, trecentos flagellorum ictus mari infligi jussit, et compedes dari. In libro Biblico Estheris Xerxes nominatur Hebraice "Ahashverosh", quod Latine in translatione Vulgata sonat Ahasuerus. Index 1 Pinacotheca 2 Fontes 3 Nexus externi 4 Nexus interni 5 Fontes Pinacotheca[recensere | fontem recensere] "Xerces, Persarum rex" a Gulielmo Rovillio anno 1553 fictus Xerxes Hellespontum fustigandum iubet, anno 1909 fictus Inscriptio Xerxis prope arcem ad lacum Thopitin scalpta Sepulchrum ad necropolim Persepolitanam (Naqš-e Rostam) saeculo fere V a.C.n. excavatum et Xerxi communiter adscriptum Fontes[recensere | fontem recensere] Herodotus: Historiae libri VII-IX passim Nexus externi[recensere | fontem recensere] Xerxes I in Ancient History Encyclopaedia Nexus interni Achaemenidae Imperium Persarum Fontes[recensere | fontem recensere] Haec pagina textum incorporat ex Henrici Lantoine Epitome Historiae Graecae (1892). Antecessor: Darius I Magnus Rex Persarum 486-465 Successor: Artaxerxes I Longimanus Receptum de "https://la.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I_(rex_Persarum)&oldid=3584235" Categoriae: Reges Persarum Nati 519 a.C.n. Mortui 465 a.C.n. Liber Esther Necati Pugna ad Thermopylas Categoriae celatae: Paginae vicificandae Paginae cum sectione nexuum internorum Tabula navigationis Instrumenta personalia Nomen nondum datum est Disputatio huius IP Conlationes Sibi nomen imponere Nomen dare Spatia nominalia Res Disputatio Variantes Visae Legere Recensere Fontem recensere Historiam inspicere More Quaerere Navigatio Pagina prima Novissima Pagina fortuita Categoriae Nuper mutata Communitas Invitatio Taberna Auxilium Donationes Instrumenta Nexus ad paginam Nuper mutata annexorum Fasciculum imponere Paginae speciales Nexus perpetuus De hac pagina Hanc paginam citare Res Wikidata Imprimere vel exportare Librum creare Paginam prehendere formá PDF Forma impressibilis Inceptis aliis Vicimedia Communia Linguis aliis Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Nexus recensere Novissima mutatio die 3 Decembris 2020 hora 12:01 facta. Nonobstantibus ceteris condicionibus hunc textum tractare licet secundum "Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License". Vide modos et condiciones. Consilium de secreto De Vicipaedia Repudiationes Pagina mobilis Elaboratores Statistics Cookie statement 
lb-wikipedia-org-2997	----	Xerxes I. – Wikipedia Xerxes I. Vu Wikipedia Op d'Navigatioun wiesselen Op d'Siche wiesselen Relief vum Xerxes bei engem Palais zu Persepolis. De Xerxes I. (persesch ‏خشایارشاه‎, alpersesch Hšayāŗšā, aramäesch Aḫšeweruš, hebräesch אחשורוש Achašweroš, griichesch Ξέρξης, laténgesch Xerses), gebuer ëm 519 v. Chr. a gestuerwen de 4. August 465 v. Chr., war en achemenidesche Grousskinnek an egyptische Pharao. Hie war mat der Amestris bestuet. De Xerxes koum als Bouf vum Pharao Darius I. a vun der Atossa, Duechter vum Kyros II., op d'Welt. Nofollger ass säi Bouf Artaxerxes I.. Virgänger Lëscht vun den Herrscher Nofollger Darius I. Lëscht vun de Pharaonen Artaxerxes I. Kuckt och[änneren | Quelltext änneren] Portal Egyptopedia – All d'Artikelen op der Wikipedia iwwer dat aalt Egypten.     Commons: Xerxes I. – Biller, Videoen oder Audiodateien Vun „https://lb.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I.&oldid=2247000“ Kategorien: Gebuer 519 v. Chr. Gestuerwen 465 v. Chr. Pharaonen Perserkricher Navigatiounsmenü Perséinlech Tools Net ageloggt Diskussioun Kontributiounen Benotzerkont opmaachen Aloggen Nummraim Säit Diskussioun Varianten Affichagen Liesen Änneren Quelltext änneren Versioune weisen Méi Sichen Navigatioun Haaptsäit Portaler Alles vun A-Z Zoufälleg Säit Matmaachen Communautéitssäit De Staminee Hëllef Rezent Ännerungen Biller eroplueden Kontakt Maacht en Don Geschierkëscht Linken op dës Säit Ännerungen op verlinkt Säiten Spezialsäiten Zitéierfäege Link Informatiounen iwwer d'Säit Dës Säit zitéieren Wikidataelement Drécken/exportéieren E Buch uleeën Als PDF eroflueden Drockversioun An anere Projeten Wikimedia Commons An anere Sproochen Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Malagasy मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча پنجابی پښتو Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Linken änneren Dës Säit gouf de(n) 12. Januar 2020 um 15:57 Auer fir d'lescht geännert. Ofruffstatistik Den Text ass disponibel ënner der Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike Lizenz; zousätzlech Bedingunge kënnen applicabel sinn. Kuckt Benotzungsbedingunge fir méi Detailer. Dateschutz Iwwer Wikipedia Impressum Mobil Vue Entwéckler Statistiken Stellungnahme zu Cookies 
login-wikimedia-org-6289	----	Wikimedia Login Wiki Main Page From Wikimedia Login Wiki Jump to navigation Jump to search Welcome to the Wikimedia log-in wiki. Please do not start editing this site. It is for technical use only. Sister projects Wikipedia | Wiktionary | Wikibooks | Wikinews | Wikiquote | Wikisource | Wikiversity | Wikivoyage | Wikidata | Wikispecies | Commons See Wikimedia's Meta-Wiki for the coordination of these projects. Retrieved from "https://login.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Main_Page&oldid=30" Navigation menu Personal tools Log in Namespaces Main page Discussion Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Community portal Current events Recent changes Random page Help Donate Tools What links here Related changes Special pages Permanent link Page information Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version This page was last edited on 29 March 2019, at 17:37. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Privacy policy About Wikimedia Login Wiki Disclaimers Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
lt-wikipedia-org-5666	----	Kserksas I – Vikipedija Kserksas I Straipsnis iš Vikipedijos, laisvosios enciklopedijos. Jump to navigation Jump to search Kserksas I Kserksas I Achemenidų dinastija Gimė 519 m. pr. m. e. Mirė 465 m. pr. m. e. Tėvas Darijus I Didysis Egipto faraonas Valdė 486 m. pr. m. e. – 465 m. pr. m. e. Pirmtakas Psametichas IV Įpėdinis Artakserksas I Persijos karalius Valdė 486 m. pr. m. e. – 465 m. pr. m. e. Pirmtakas Darijus I Įpėdinis Artakserksas I Vikiteka Kserksas IVikiteka Kserksas I (pers. خشیارشا, gr. Ξέρξης, lot. Xerses, 519 m. pr. m. e. – 465 m. pr. m. e.) – Persijos karalius. Biografija[redaguoti | redaguoti vikitekstą] Kilęs iš Achemenidų dinastijos, tėvas Darijus I Didysis, sūnus Artakserksas I Ilgarankis. 486–484 m. pr. m. e. numalšino egiptiečių sukilimą, devinto dešimtmečio antroje pusėje, numalšinęs babiloniečių sukilimą, Babilonijos karalystę pavertė Persijos satrapija (provincija). Tęsė graikų–persų karus (vyko 500–449 m. pr. m. e.). 480–479 m. pr. m. e. surengė žygį į Graikiją; persų kariuomenė nuniokojo Doridę, Fokidę, dalį Bojotijos, Atiką, sugriovė Atėnus, bet pralaimėjo jūrų mūšius 480 m. pr. m. e. prie Salaminos salos ir 479 m. pr. m. e. prie Mikalės kyšulio, 479 m. pr. m. e. sausumos kariuomenių mūšį prie Platajų. Kserksas, siekdamas sustabdyti Persijos imperijos silpnėjimą ir irimą, įvykdė kai kurias reformas, taip pat ir religinę; bandė uždrausti vietos dievų garbinimą ir įvesti vieno visų persų dievo kultą. Nužudytas per rūmų perversmą.[1] Šaltiniai[redaguoti | redaguoti vikitekstą] ↑ Kserksas I. Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija, T. XV (Mezas-Nagurskiai). – Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2009. 775 psl. Rodomas puslapis "https://lt.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kserksas_I&oldid=5578195" Kategorijos: Achemenidai Egipto faraonai Naršymo meniu Asmeniniai įrankiai Neprisijungęs Šio IP aptarimų puslapis Indėlis Sukurti paskyrą Prisijungti Vardų sritys Straipsnis Aptarimas Variantai Žiūrėti Skaityti Keisti Keisti vikitekstą Istorija Daugiau Paieška Naršymas Pagrindinis puslapis Bendruomenės portalas Forumas Naujausi keitimai Atsitiktinis straipsnis Pagalba Parama Įrankiai Susiję straipsniai Susiję keitimai Specialieji puslapiai Nuolatinė nuoroda Puslapio informacija Cituoti straipsnį Vikiduomenys įrašas Spausdinti/eksportuoti Kurti knygą Parsisiųsti kaip PDF Versija spausdinimui Kituose projektuose Vikiteka Kitomis kalbomis Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Keisti nuorodas Šis puslapis paskutinį kartą keistas 14 liepos 2019 00:18. Tekstas pateikiamas pagal Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike Licenciją; gali būti taikomos papildomos sąlygos. Detaliau – Terms of Use . Privatumo politika Apie Vikipediją Jokių garantijų Mobili peržiūra Kūrėjai Statistika Slapukų politika 
lv-wikipedia-org-6828	----	Kserkss I — Vikipēdija Kserkss I Vikipēdijas lapa Jump to navigation Jump to search Kserkss I Persijas karaļa Kserksa I cilnis pie Persepoles pils ieejas Ahemenīdu impērijas karalis Amatā 486. gads p.m.ē. — 465. gads p.m.ē. Priekštecis Dārijs I Pēctecis Artakserkss I Dzimšanas dati 519. gads p.m.ē. Ahemenīdu impērija Miršanas dati 465. gads p.m.ē. Ahemenīdu impērija Dinastija Ahemenīdu dinastija Reliģija zoroastrisms Kserkss I (senpersiešu: , Xšaya-ṛšā, izrunā: [xʃajaːrʃaː]; dzimis 519. gadā p.m.ē., miris 465. gadā p.m.ē.) bija ceturtais Ahemenīdu impērijas karalis. Viņš valdīja pār persiešiem no 486. gada p.m.ē. līdz nāvei. Šajā laikā viņam bija arī Ēģiptes faraona tituls. Termopilu kauja, kas bija viena no persiešu kaujām, iekarojot Senās Grieķijas pilsētvalstis, ir iegājusi vēsturē. Šajā kaujā mazskaitlīgā spartiešu armija spēja stāties pretim Kserksa I vadītajam pārspēkam. Kserkss I ir arī viens no tēliem kinofilmā "300: Termopilu kauja". Kserkss I bija iepriekšējā valdnieka Dārija I dēls. Viņa māte bija cita persiešu valdnieka Kīra Lielā meita. Viņš tika nogalināts 465. gadā p.m.ē. kopā ar vecāko dēlu Dāriju galma sazvērestībā, ko vadīja Artabans. Šis biogrāfiskais raksts ir nepilnīgs. Jūs varat dot savu ieguldījumu Vikipēdijā, papildinot to. s d l Šis ar Senajiem laikiem saistītais raksts ir nepilnīgs. Jūs varat dot savu ieguldījumu Vikipēdijā, papildinot to. s d l Autoritatīvā vadība WorldCat VIAF: 282770127 LNB: 000054067 LCCN: n81070675 ISNI: 0000 0000 6300 8852 GND: 118808109 SELIBR: 259706 SUDOC: 050588400 BNF: cb150689088 (data) ULAN: 500354810 NLA: 66228176 NKC: mzk2005313022 BNE: XX1153338 Saturs iegūts no "https://lv.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kserkss_I&oldid=2331281" Kategorijas: Nepabeigti raksti par cilvēkiem Nepabeigti raksti par Senajiem laikiem 519. gadā p.m.ē. dzimušie 465. gadā p.m.ē. mirušie Persijas monarhi Slēpta kategorija: Visi Vikipēdijas aizmetņi Navigācijas izvēlne Dalībnieka rīki Nav pieslēdzies Diskusijas Devums Izveidot jaunu Vikipēdijas kontu Ieiet Vikipēdijā Vārdtelpas Raksts Diskusija Varianti Apskates Skatīt Labot Labot pirmkodu Hronoloģija Vairāk Meklēt Navigācija Sākumlapa Kopienas portāls Aktualitātes Pēdējās izmaiņas Nejauša lapa Palīdzība Paziņot par kļūdu Ziedojumi Kontakti Rīki Norādes uz šo rakstu Saistītās izmaiņas Īpašās lapas Pastāvīgā saite Lapas informācija Atsauce uz šo lapu Ieraksts Vikidatos Drukāt/eksportēt Izveidot grāmatu Lejupielādēt kā PDF Drukājama versija Citos projektos Vikikrātuve Citās valodās Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Labot saites Šī lapa pēdējoreiz labota: 2015. gada 2. maijs plkst. 20.14. Teksts ir pieejams saskaņā ar Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike licenci; var pastāvēt papildu ierobežojumi. Plašākai informācijai skatīt lietošanas noteikumus. Privātuma politika Par Vikipēdiju Saistību atrunas Mobilais skats Izstrādātāji Statistika Sīkdatņu deklarācija 
medaillesetantiques-bnf-fr-4146	----	vase (inv.65.4695) - inv.65.4695 , BnF Médailles et Antiques de la Bibliothèque nationale de France   Médailles et Antiques de la Bibliothèque nationale de France > Notice d'oeuvre vase (inv.65.4695) Partager Adresse permanente de la notice Vous pouvez copier l'adresse suivante pour l'utiliser ensuite dans vos courriers électroniques : [Masquer] Adresse permanente de la notice   © BnF   © BnF   © BnF   © BnF   © BnF   © BnF Désignation générale :  vase Vase de Xerxès, vase des noces de Cana Création / Exécution :  Afrique du nord, Egypte (lieu de création) entre 485 av JC et 465 av JC Epoque/Style/Mouvement :  XXVIIe dynastie Lieu de découverte :  Egypte Matières et techniques :  albâtre Mesures :  H. 29.2 cm, D. 16 cm D’après Caylus : hauteur du vase : onze pouces huit lignes ; plus grand diamètre extérieur : six pouces quatre lignes ; plus petit diamètre au gouleau : trois pouces quatre lignes ; diamètre de l’ouverture : deux pouces une ligne ; diamètre du rebord : cinq pouces huit lignes ; le rebord excède l’ouverture d’un pouce trois lignes Description :  Vase en albâtre égyptien de forme cylindrique, plus large à la base. Le col est assez évasé. Deux petites anses flanquent les côtés. Ce vase dit « vase des noces de Cana » fait partie d’une série de vases sans doute façonnés en Égypte au nom de Xerxès Ier. Le nom de l’empereur est écrit en écriture cunéiforme (vieux perse, élamite, babylonien) et en hiéroglyphes égyptiens (titulature dans un cartouche). Ce type de vase était offert en cadeau diplomatique. Marques et inscriptions :  inscriptions hiéroglyphique et cunéiforme sur la panse (relevées par Legrain). Mode d'acquisition :  don Donateur(s), testateur(s) ou vendeur(s) :  Caylus, A.C de Tubières, comte de Date de l'acte d'acquisition :  entre 1752 et 1765 Ancienne(s) appartenance(s) :  Caylus, A.C de Tubières, comte de Numéro d'inventaire :  inv.65.4695 Autre(s) numéro(s) :  Caylus V, pl. XXX Legrain t. III p.824 Bibliographie :  Le Cabinet des médailles et antiques de la bibliothèque nationale. Les antiques et les objets d’art. Paris : Ernest Leroux, 1924, p.14. Marion du Mersan, Théophile. Histoire du Cabinet des Médailles, antiques et pierres gravées. Paris : 1838, p.28. Caylus, A.C de Tubières, comte de. Recueil d’ Antiquités égyptiennes, étrusques, grecques et romaines. Paris : Desaint et Saillant, entre 1752 et 1767, t.V pl.XXX 1-4 et p.79-83. Plan du site 
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mg-wikipedia-org-1151	----	Kserksesy I - Wikipedia Kserksesy I Avy amin'i Wikipedia Aller à la navigation Aller à la recherche Sary mivohitra amin'ny vato amin'ny fasan'i Kserksesy I I Kserksesy I dia mpanjaka isan'ny fianakavia-mpanjaka akemenida.izay nanapaka an'i Persia nanomboka tamin'ny taona 486 hatramin'ny 465 tal. J. K. Teraka tamin'ny taona 519 tal. J.K. sy maty tamin'ny taona 465 (na 475) tal. J.K. izy. I Kserksesy I dia nanjaka tamin'ny empira nivelatra hatrany amin'ny reniranon'i Indosy ka hatrany amin'ny Ranomasina Egea, hatrany amin'ny Sir-Daria kahatrany amin'ny Helodrano Persika sy any amin'ny renirano Nily, ka tafiditra ao i Egipta nandritra ny dinastia faha-27. I Dariosy I nonanjaka teo alohany ary i Artakserksesy I no nandimby azy teo amin'ny fanjakana. I Manetona dia miantso an'io mpanjaka io hoe Kserksesy Lehibe sady milaza fa nanjaka nandritra ny 21 taona izy. Amin'ny teny persiana taloha dia atao hoe Kshayarsha izy, amin'ny teny persàna dia خشایارشا / Ksashâyârshâ. Atao hoe Ahasoerosy na Asoerosy (hebreo: אֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹשׁ / Aʾhashverosh) izy ao amin'ny Bokin'i Estera ao amin'ny Baiboly. Zanak'i Dariosy I Lehibe sy i Atosa (zanaka vavin'i Kirosy Lehibe) i Kerksesy. I Amestrisy no anaram-badiny. Ireto avy ny zanany: Artakserksesy I, Histaspesy, Artariosy, Titraostesy, Rodogina (vavy), Dareiaia, Akemenesy, Amitisy, ary Ratasaha. Niakatra teo amin'ny fitondrana izy tamin'ny fahafatesan-drainy. Nanamontsana ny fikomiana tany Egipta i Kserksesy I tamin'ny taona 485 sy 464 tal. J.K. ary nampangina ny fikomiana tany Babilôna koa tamin'ny taona 482 tal. J.K. Nandritra izany fotoana izany dia nanomana fanafihana mitohy tany amin'ny Grika i Kserksesy nandritra ny telo taona. Nandresy an-drainy tamin'ny Ady Medika tamin'ny taona 499 - 490 tal. J.K. mantsy ireto Grika ireto. Araka an'i Herôdôtosy dia niisa 2 600 610 ny miaramilan'i Kserksesy I, an-tanety sy an-dranomasina. Niampita an'i Helespôntosy (Dardanela ankehitriny) i Kerksesy sy ny tafiny tamin'ny alalan'ny fanaovana tetezan-tsambo mirefy iray kilômetatra, ary nanao lavaka ambany tany namakivaky ny andilan-tanin'ny tendrombohitra Atosy (Athos). Nandritra ny lohataon'ny taona 480 tal. J.K. i Kserksesy dia niampita an'i Trakia sy i Tesalia ary i Lokrida niaraka tamin'ny tafiny. Tao Termofilesy, ny mpanjaka spartiata Leonidasy I sy ny tafiny dia niaro amin-kerimpo ny taniny ka nihemotra folo andro ny fananiham-bohitry ny tafika persiana. Tamin'ny ady tao Salamina tamin'ny volana Septambra dia resin'ny tafika an-dranomasin'ny Grika, izay vitsy sambo kokoa, ny tafika an-dranomasin'i Kserksesy I. Niverina tany Azia Minora i Kerksesy ka navelany tany Gresy (na Grisia) ny tafiny teo ambany fibaikoan'i Mardôniosy izay resy tao Platea tamin'ny taona manaraka (tamin'ny volana Septambra 479 tal. J.K.). Tamin'ny fiafaran'ny fanjakan'i Kserksesy I dia niatrika ny fikomiana tany Babilôna indray izy. Tamin'ny taona 465 tal. J.K. dia maty novonoin'i Artabanosy, mpitarika ny fiambenana ny mpanjaka, i Kserksesy I. Ny zanany Artakserksesy I no nandimby azy teo amin'ny fitondrana ny empira. Jereo koa[hanova | hanova ny fango] Ireo mpanjaka persiana akemenida: Akemenesy - Teispesy - Kirosy I - Ariaramnesy - Kambisesy I - Arsamesy - Kirosy II Lehibe - Kambisesy II - Bardià - Dariosy I - Kserksesy I - Artakserksesy I - Kserksesy II - Sôgdianosy - Dariosy II - Artakserksesy II - Artakserksesy III - Arsesy - Dariosy III. Hita tao amin'ny "https://mg.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kserksesy_I&oldid=978924" Meny fitetezana Fitaovana manokana Tsy tafiditra Pejin-dresaka Fandraisan'anjara Hamorona kaonty Hiditra Valam-pejy Lahatsoratra dinika Ny ''skin'' Voasintona Fijerena Hamaky Hanova Hanova ny fango Hijery ny tantara Plus Tadiavo Fikarohana Fandraisana Wikipedia finday Pejy rehetra Pejy vaovao Takelaka kisendra Fikambanana Toerana iraisana Toerana iombonana Non-malagasy speakers Handray anjara Fampidirana Fiovana farany Ny vaovao Handefa takelaka Fanomezana Kianjam-pasika Fanoroana sy fitsipika Renipejy Fototra dimy Fanamboarana takelaka Fitaovana Pejy mirohy eto Novaina Handefa rakitra Pejy manokana Rohy maharitra Fampahalalana mikasika ny pejy Hitanisa ity pejy ity Zavatra Wikidata Printiana/avoaka Hanorina boky Hampidina ho toa PDF Ny votoatiny azo atonta printy Amin'ny tetikasa hafa Wikimedia Commons Amin'ny tenim-pirenena hafa Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Hanova ny rohy Voaova farany tamin'ny 30 Desambra 2019 amin'ny 10:54 ity pejy ity. 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mr-wikipedia-org-7603	----	झेरेक्सिस पहिला - विकिपीडिया झेरेक्सिस पहिला विकिपीडिया, मुक्‍त ज्ञानकोशातून Jump to navigation Jump to search नक्श-ए-रुस्तम येथे कोरलेली खशायर शाहची प्रतिमा खशायर शाह (ग्रीक व इंग्लिश भाषा उच्चार: झेरेक्सिस) (इ.स.पू. ५१९ - इ.स.पू. ४६५) हा प्राचीन पर्शियाचा सम्राट होता. कृपया स्वत:च्या शब्दात परिच्छेद लेखन करून या लेखाचा / विभागाचा विस्तार करण्यास मदत करा. अधिक माहितीसाठी या लेखाचे चर्चा पान, विस्तार कसा करावा? किंवा इतर विस्तार विनंत्या पाहा. "https://mr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=झेरेक्सिस_पहिला&oldid=1670086" पासून हुडकले वर्ग: विस्तार विनंती इराणचा इतिहास इ.स.पू. ५१९ मधील जन्म इ.स.पू. ४६५ मधील मृत्यू लपविलेला वर्ग: पुरुष चरित्रलेख दिक्चालन यादी वैयक्तिक साधने आल्याची नोंद केलेली नाही(लॉग इन केलेले नाही) चर्चा पान योगदान नवीन खाते तयार करा प्रवेश करा(लॉग इन करा) नामविश्वे लेख चर्चा चले(व्हेरियंट्स) दृष्ये वाचा संपादन इतिहास पहा More शोध सुचालन मुखपृष्ठ धूळपाटी कार्यशाळा साहाय्य/मदतकेंद्र अलीकडील बदल अविशिष्ट लेख चावडी दूतावास (Embassy) ऑनलाइन शब्दकोश दान साधनपेटी येथे काय जोडले आहे या पृष्ठासंबंधीचे बदल संचिका चढवा विशेष पृष्ठे शाश्वत दुवा पानाबद्दलची माहिती लेखाचा संदर्भ द्या लघु यूआरएल(Short URL) विकिडाटा कलम छापा/ निर्यात करा ग्रंथ तयार करा PDF म्हणून उतरवा छापण्यायोग्य आवृत्ती इतर प्रकल्पात विकिमिडिया कॉमन्स इतर भाषांमध्ये Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 दुवे संपादा या पानातील शेवटचा बदल ६ मार्च २०१९ रोजी १३:३२ वाजता केला गेला. येथील मजकूर हा क्रियेटीव्ह कॉमन्स अट्रीब्युशन-शेअरअलाईक लायसन्स अंतर्गत उपलब्ध आहे; अतिरिक्त अटी लागू असू शकतात. हे संकेतस्थळ वापरुन आपण याच्या वापरण्याच्या अटी आणि गोपनीयता धोरणांचे पालन करण्यास आपली सहमती देत आहात. Wikipedia® हे Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. एक ना-नफा ना-तोटा संस्थेचे नोंदणीकृत ट्रेडमार्क आहे. गुप्तता नीती विकिपीडिया बद्दल उत्तरदायित्वास नकार भ्रमणध्वनी-दृश्य विकसक Statistics कुकिंचा तक्ता 
ms-wikipedia-org-4350	----	Xerxes I dari Parsi - Wikipedia Bahasa Melayu, ensiklopedia bebas Xerxes I dari Parsi Daripada Wikipedia, ensiklopedia bebas. Jump to navigation Jump to search Xerxes I Xerxes yang Agung, juga dijoloki dengan gelaran Xerxes I dari Parsi, (Parsi Purba: 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠; Xšayāršā) adalah Raja Parsi (berliasa dari tahun 485–465 SM) dari dinasti Akhemenid. Xerxes adalah putera kepada Darius I dari Parsi dan Atossa, puteri Cyrus yang Agung. Daftar pustaka[sunting | sunting sumber] Wikimedia Commons mempunyai media berkaitan Xerxes I dari Parsi Herodotus, The Persian Wars. Translated by George Rawlinson, Introduction by Francis R.B. Godolphin (1942 edition) A.T. Olmstead, 1948. History of the Persian Empire (University of Chicago Press) pp. 214ff. P. Briant, 2002. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Farrokh, Kaveh (2007). Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-84603-108-7. Xerxes Campaign on Lycurgus.org L b s Tokoh-tokoh penguasa bergelaran "yang Agung" Di Asia Sultan Agung  · Ramkhamhaeng · Naresuan · Narai · Taksin · Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke · Chulalongkorn · Bhumibol Adulyadej · Sejong yang Agung · Kangxi yang Agung · Asoka yang Agung · Kanishka · Mengrai · Akbar yang Agung · Yu yang Agung · Parākramabāhu I · Raja Raja Kola I · Gwanggaeto yang Agung · Anawrahta · Bayinnaung Di Eropah Konstantin yang Agung · Alfred yang Agung · Pyotr I dari Rusia · Yekaterina II dari Rusia · Frederich II dari Prusia · Alfonso III dari León · Henri IV dari Perancis · Herodes yang Agung · Kazimierz III dari Poland · Karel yang Agung · Tigranes yang Agung · Ștefan III dari Moldavia · Pedro III dari Aragon · Ivan III dari Rusia · João I dari Portugal · Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus · Justinianus I · Canute yang Agung · Fernando I dari León · Hugh yang Agung · Antiochus III yang Agung · Llywelyn yang Agung · Lajos I dari Hungary · Louis XIV dari Perancis · Theodosius I · Guillaume V dari Aquitaine · Boleslaw I dari Poland · Sancho III dari Navarre · Theodoric yang Agung · Gustavus Adolphus dari Swedia · Vytautas yang Agung Di Timur Tengah dan Afrika Ramses yang Agung · Alexander Agung · Kores yang Agung · Darius I dari Parsi · Xerxes I dari Parsi · Abbas yang Agung · Reza Shah · Mubarak Al-Sabah · Askia Mohammad I · Mithridates II dari Parthia · Shapur II · Timur yang Agung · Umar yang Agung Di Amerika Kamehameha I Rencana berkenaan biografi ini ialah rencana tunas. Anda boleh membantu Wikipedia dengan mengembangkannya. L b s Diambil daripada "https://ms.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I_dari_Parsi&oldid=4899804" Kategori: Rencana yang mengandungi teks bahasa Parsi Lama Tunas biografi Raja Parsi Raja Akhemenid Kematian 465 SM Kategori-kategori tersembunyi: Semua rencana tunas Laman menggunakan pautan ajaib ISBN Menu pandu arah Alat peribadi Belum log masuk Perbincangan Sumbangan Buka akaun Log masuk Ruang nama Rencana Perbincangan Kelainan Rupa Baca Sunting Sunting sumber Lihat sejarah Lagi Cari Pandu arah Laman Utama Tinjau Hal semasa Rencana rawak Perhubungan Tentang Wikipedia Portal masyarakat Perubahan terkini Hubungi kami Menderma Bantuan Kedai Kopi Peralatan Pautan ke laman ini Perubahan berkaitan Muat naik fail Laman khas Pautan kekal Maklumat laman Petik laman ini Butir Wikidata Cetak/eksport Cipta buku Muat turun sebagai PDF Versi boleh cetak Dalam projek lain Wikimedia Commons Dalam bahasa lain Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bahasa Indonesia Беларуская Bosanski Brezhoneg Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Кыргызча Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Malagasy मराठी مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча پنجابی پښتو Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Tiếng Việt Türkçe Українська اردو Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Sunting pautan Laman ini kali terakhir disunting pada 13:45, 26 September 2020. Teks disediakan dengan Lesen Creative Commons Pengiktirafan/Perkongsian Serupa; terma tambahan mungkin digunakan. Lihat Terma Penggunaan untuk butiran lanjut. Dasar privasi Perihal Wikipedia Penafian Paparan mudah alih Pembangun Statistik Kenyataan kuki 
nla-gov-au-1830	----	Xerxes I, King of Persia, 519 B.C.-465 B.C. or 464 B.C. - Full record view - Libraries Australia Search Please enable JavaScript. JavaScript is required to use most of the features of Libraries Australia. Skip to content National Library of Australia   Login Home Help Contact us Login     Libraries Australia Authorities - Full view Record ID: 66228176 (Libraries Australia Authorities) Authority type: Name. Description conventions: rda LC number: n 81070675 n 50052611 Heading: Xerxes I, King of Persia, 519 B.C.-465 B.C. or 464 B.C. Birth: -0518 Death: [-0464,-0463] Used for: Aḥashṿerosh, King of Persia, 519 B.C.-465 B.C. or 464 B.C. Ahasuerus, King of Persia, 519 B.C.-465 B.C. or 464 B.C. Assuerus, King of Persia, 519 B.C.-465 B.C. or 464 B.C. Serse I, King of Persia, 519 B.C.-465 B.C. or 464 B.C. Xerxes I, King of Persia, 519-465 or 4 B.C. Notes: Goldfaden, A. Theater fon Kenig Aḥashwerosh, 1890. Assuerus und Esther am Burgunderhof, c1998. Bodei Giglioni, G. Erodoto e i sogni di Serse, c2002. Local system number: (AuCNL)435809 Cataloguing source: DLC eng rda DLC NNFr DLC Quick links Australian Libraries Gateway Trove Help Fact sheets and user guides Manual (PDF) Training Privacy © National Library of Australia Version: 1.9.7 
nl-wikipedia-org-4799	----	Xerxes I - Wikipedia Xerxes I Uit Wikipedia, de vrije encyclopedie Naar navigatie springen Naar zoeken springen Xerxes I 485 - 465 v.Chr. "Xerxes, Koning van Perzië" door Guillaume Rouillé (1553) Sjahansjah van Perzië (Achaemeniden) Periode 485 - 465 v.Chr. Voorganger Darius I Opvolger Artaxerxes I Farao van Egypte (27e dynastie) Periode 485 - 465 v.Chr. Voorganger Darius I Opvolger Artaxerxes I Vader Darius I Moeder Atossa Xerxes I (Perzisch: خشایارشا) was koning van het Perzische Rijk van 485 - 465 v.Chr. tijdens de dynastie van de Achaemeniden. Xerxes (Ξέρξης) is de Griekse versie van zijn naam. Inhoud 1 Jeugd en troonsbestijging 2 Griekse oorlog 3 Latere regering 4 Xerxes in de Bijbel 5 Literatuur 6 Externe links 7 Voetnoten Jeugd en troonsbestijging[bewerken | brontekst bewerken] Xerxes I afgebeeld in Persepolis, staand achter de troon van zijn vader, Darius I Xerxes was de zoon van Darius I en Atossa uit het huis van de Achaemeniden. Voordat Xerxes in de tweede helft van november 485 v. Chr. op de troon kwam, was hij jarenlang onderkoning geweest in Babylon en zijn ervaring daar maakte hem tot een kundig bestuurder. In de, merendeels op Griekse bronnen gebaseerde, geschiedschrijving wordt hij vaak als zwakkeling voorgesteld, die door de eunuchen van het hof werd gedomineerd, hoewel Herodotus van Halicarnassus Xerxes ook een zekere koninklijke grandeur toeschreef. Zoals in het oude Nabije Oosten gebruikelijk ging de troonsbestijging vergezeld met opstanden. Eerst in Bactrië, waar zijn broer Ariamenes een revolte lijkt te hebben georganiseerd. Deze werd op een onbekend moment aan het begin van Xerxes' regering onderdrukt. Zijn broer mocht het leven behouden nadat hij Xerxes in het openbaar erkend had. Een opstand in Egypte leidde mogelijk tot moeilijkheden in Jeruzalem. Xerxes maakte persoonlijk een eind aan de Egyptische opstand in 481 v. Chr. Meer zekerheid is er over de opstand in Babylonië in 482 v.Chr.. In de zomer eiste Bel-shimani de troon van Babylon op en een maand later voegde Shamash-eriba zich bij hem. Volgens Herodotus werd de satraap Zopyrus bij deze opstand gedood; deze man wordt echter niet genoemd in het spijkerschriftmateriaal. Uiteindelijk werd de opstand in bloed gesmoord. Dat het merendeel van de archieven abrupt eindigt, bewijst de hardhandigheid van het optreden.[1] Griekse oorlog[bewerken | brontekst bewerken] Xerxes laat de Hellespont geselen, omdat deze zich niet aan hem onderwerpt. Hoewel Xerxes Ionië, de door Griekse kolonisten bewoonde kust van Klein-Azië, al onder zijn gezag had, was zijn vader er in de Eerste Perzische Oorlog niet in geslaagd om Griekenland zelf te onderwerpen. Xerxes trok in 480 v.Chr. met een leger door Klein-Azië naar de streek rond Troje, waar hij de Hellespont overbrugde en overstak. Dit markeerde het begin van de Tweede Perzische Oorlog. De Grieken besloten dat het Perzische leger alleen op de landengte van Korinthe tegen te houden zou zijn en trokken daar inderhaast hun legers samen. Zo trok Xerxes door Thessalië naar het zuiden en kreeg overal aarde en water aangeboden (een teken van onderwerping), behalve van het kleine Plataeae en Thespiae. De oorlog leek zo goed als gewonnen. Bij de bergpas van Thermopylae, nog ten noorden van Athene, kwam echter de eerste onaangename verrassing. Ongeveer 4.000 Grieken onder leiding van Leonidas hielden langer stand dan voorzien, al werden ze uiteindelijk na verraad onder de voet gelopen. Hetzelfde gold voor Artemisium, waar de Griekse vloot onverwacht lang stand hield. (Hoewel Herodotus duidelijk laat merken dat de Grieken het zwaar te verduren kregen, werd de driedaagse zeeslag later beschouwd als Griekse overwinning.) Eind september werd Athene ingenomen en geplunderd, maar op de 29e werd de Perzische vloot verslagen ten westen van Athene in de zeeslag bij Salamis. Omdat het enorme Perzische leger nu niet meer voldoende kon worden bevoorraad - daarvoor was een transportvloot noodzakelijk - trok Xerxes zijn troepen terug. Met de buit uit Athene kon Xerxes zijn gezicht redden en als triomfator terugkeren. Xerxes keerde dus terug naar Sardis in Klein-Azië. Een onbeantwoorde vraag is waarom hij zijn vloot, die nog altijd zeer talrijk was en kon worden opgekalefaterd, ontbond en veel troepen terugtrok. De slagen bij Thermopylae, Artemisium en Salamis, hoezeer die ook tot de verbeelding van het nageslacht hebben gesproken, waren namelijk niet strategisch doorslaggevend. De recentelijk herhaalde hypothese dat hij de troepen nodig had om een opstand te onderdrukken[2][3] is inmiddels op chronologische gronden weerlegd. Toch vormden deze confrontaties ter zee en te land een keerpunt in de oorlog. De Griekse stadstaten spraken namelijk af het niet langer alleen op te nemen tegen de Perzen, maar een gezamenlijk leger op te bouwen. Xerxes I had een van zijn bevelhebbers, Mardonius, de leiding gegeven over het veroverde gebied, en deze probeerde nu met diplomatieke middelen uit de impasse te komen. Mardonius verzocht via Alexander I van Macedonië de Atheners om een wapenstilstand. Dezen verwierpen dit aanbod en kregen hulp van de Spartanen. Wat volgde was de slag bij Plataeae (479 v. Chr) die, onder het bevel van Pausanias I (opvolger van de bij Thermopylae gesneuvelde koning Leonidas), werd gewonnen door de Grieken. Mardonius werd hierbij gedood. Korte tijd later vielen de Grieken de resten van de Perzische vloot aan op het Ionische schiereiland Mycale, doodden alle Perzen en vernietigden wat restte van de Perzische vloot. Latere regering[bewerken | brontekst bewerken] De Perzische archieven geven weinig informatie over de tijd na 484 v.Chr.. Wat duidelijk is, is dat er grootschalige bouwprojecten plaatsvonden, onder meer in Persepolis. Volgens Griekse bronnen ging het na de nederlaag tegen de Grieken bergafwaarts met Xerxes. Hij zou zijn interesse voor de politiek hebben verloren, zou in allerlei liefdesperikelen verstrikt zijn geraakt en liet het bestuur over aan de eunuch Aspamitres. Het is moeilijk uit te maken wat waar is van deze beweringen. De Grieken gingen in deze jaren in de aanval. Athene nam de leiding en Cimon zeilde in 466 v.Chr. naar Carië om de kust van Klein-Azië onder Atheense invloed te brengen. Bij de monding van de Eurymedon werden de Perzen opnieuw verslagen en dat kostte Xerxes vrijwel al zijn voormalige Griekse onderdanen. Het jaar daarop werd Xerxes in zijn slaapkamer vermoord door de bevelhebber van zijn lijfwacht Artabanus en Aspamitres. Ook de kroonprins Darius werd door Artebanus uit de weg geruimd. Hij probeerde tevens Darius' jongere broer Artaxerxes te doden maar deze wist zich te verdedigen en Artabanus te doden. Zo werd Artaxerxes koning van Perzië. Xerxes in de Bijbel[bewerken | brontekst bewerken] Over het algemeen wordt aangenomen dat koning Ahasveros in Ester, uit de Hebreeuwse Bijbel, Xerxes aanduidt. Literatuur[bewerken | brontekst bewerken] Pierre Briant, Historie de l' empire Perse. De Cyrus a Alexandre (1996 Paris) Peter Green, The Greco-Persian wars (1996, Berkeley) Externe links[bewerken | brontekst bewerken] Achaemenid Royal Inscriptions: Xerxes: Xerxes' inscripties Xerxes: Factsheet Voetnoten[bewerken | brontekst bewerken] ↑ C. Waarzeggers, 'The Babylonian Revolts Against Xerxes and the "End of Archives"' in: Archiv für Orientforschung 50 (2003/2004), 150-173. ↑ Tom Holland, Persian Fire (2005), waarin hij niet aangeeft wat zijn bron is ↑ P. Briant, La date des révoltes Babyloniennes contre Xerxès in: Studia Iranica 21 (1992) 7-20. Uit het onderzoek van Waerzeggers (zie boven) blijkt dat dit niet juist kan zijn. Voorganger: Darius I Koning van Perzië Opvolger: Artaxerxes I Voorganger: Darius I Farao van Egypte 27e dynastie van Egypte Opvolger: Artaxerxes I Sjahansjahs van Perzië en/of Iran Achaemeniden: Cyrus · Cambyses · Smerdis · Darius I · Xerxes I · Artaxerxes I · Darius II · Artaxerxes II · Artaxerxes III · Darius III Macedoniërs: Alexander de Grote · Philippos III Arridaios · Alexander IV Seleuciden: Seleucus I Nicator · Antiochus I Soter · Antiochus II Theos · Seleucus II Callinicus · Seleucus III Ceraunus · Antiochus III de Grote · Seleucus IV Philopator · Antiochus IV Epiphanes Parthen: Arsaces I · Arsaces II · Priapitius · Phraates I · Mithridates I de Grote · Phraates II · Artabanus I · Mithridates II de Grote · Gotarzes I · Orodes I · Sinatrukes · Phraates III · Mithridates III · Orodes II · Phraates IV · Tiridates II · Phraataces · Orodes III · Vonones I · Artabanus II · Tiridates III · Vardanes I · Gotarzes II · Sanabares · Vonones II · Vologases I · Vardanes II · Vologases II · Pacorus II · Artabanus III · Vologases III · Osroes I · Mithridates IV · Vologases IV · Osroes II · Vologases V · Vologases VI · Artabanus IV Sassaniden: Ardashir · Sjapoer I · Hormazd I · Bahram I · Bahram II · Bahram III · Narses · Hormazd II · Sjapoer II · Ardashir II · Sjapoer III · Bahram IV · Yazdagird I · Bahram V · Yazdagird II · Hormazd III · Peroz · Valash · Kavad I · Zamasp · Khusro I · Hormazd IV · Khusro II · Bahram VI · Kavad II · Ardashir III · Boran · Hormazd V · Yazdagird III Ghaznaviden: Alptigin · Sebük Tigin · Ismail · Mahmud · Mohammed · Mas'ud I Il-kans: Hulagu · Abaka · Teguder · Arghun · Geikhatu · Baidu · Ghazan · Öljeitü · Abu Sa'id · Arpa · Musa · Mohammed Timoeriden: Timoer Lenk · Pir Mohammed · Shahrukh Mirza · Abu'l-Qasim Bābar · Sjāh Mahmūd · Ibrāhim · Sultān Abu Sa'id Gūrgān · Yādgār Muhammad · Sultān Hussayn · Badi ul-Zamān · Muzaffar Hussayn Safawieden: Ismail I · Tahmasp I · Ismail II · Mohammad Khodabanda · Abbas I · Safi · Abbas II · Suleiman I · Soltan Hoseyn I · Tahmasp II · Abbas III · Suleiman II · Ismail III Afshariden: Nadir Sjah Afshar · Adil Sjah Afshar · Ebrahim Sjah Afshar · Shahrokh Sjah Afshar Zand: Karim Khan · Mohammad Ali Khan · Abol Fath Khan · Sadiq Khan · Ali Murad Khan · Jafar Khan · Lotf Ali Khan Kadjaren: Agha Mohammed Khan Kadjar · Fath'Ali Kadjar · Mohammad Sjah Kadjar · Ali · Hossein Ali Kadjar · Naser ed-Din Kadjar · Mozaffar ed-Din Kadjar · Mohammed Ali Kadjar · Soltan Ahmad Kadjar · Ali Reza Khan-e Kadjar · Nasir al-Mulk · Mohammed Hassan Mirza Pahlavi: Reza Pahlavi · Mohammad Reza Pahlavi Mediabestanden Zie de categorie Xerxes I van Wikimedia Commons voor mediabestanden over dit onderwerp. Overgenomen van "https://nl.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&oldid=57909854" Categorieën: Persoon uit de Hebreeuwse Bijbel Sjah van Perzië Achaemeniden Vermoord heerser Farao van de 27e Dynastie Persoon in de 5e eeuw v.Chr. 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nn-wikipedia-org-9559	----	Xerxes I av Persia – Wikipedia Xerxes I av Persia Frå Wikipedia – det frie oppslagsverket Hopp til navigering Hopp til søk Xerxes I av Persia Konge av Persia, farao av Egypt (486 f.Kr.-465 f.Kr.) Fødd 519 f.Kr. Fødestad Iran Død 475 f.Kr. Dødsstad Q3746183 Mor Atossa Far Dareios I av Persia Ektefelle Vasti, Amestris, Estér Barn Artaxerxes I av Persia, Amytis, Artabanus, Artario, Histaspes, Darius, Rodoguna Føregangar Dareios I den store Etterfølgjar Artaxerxes I Xerxes I var ein persisk konge av Akamenide-dynastiet som regjerte 485 f.Kr–465 f.Kr. «Xerxes» er den greske forma av det persiske tronenamnet Khshayarsha eller Khsha-yar-shan som tyder «herskar av heltar». I den hebraiske bibelen korresponderer truleg den persiske kong Ahasverus (אחשורש Aḥashverosh, Ahasuerus på gresk) med Xerxes I. Josefus, derimot, identifiserte Ahasverus med Artaxerxes I. Innhaldsliste 1 Politisk karriere 2 Dei manglande seinare åra 3 Kjelder 4 Bakgrunnsstoff Politisk karriere[endre | endre wikiteksten] Xerxes var son av Dareios I og Atossa, dotter til Kyros den store, og han vart oppnemnt som etterfølgjar av faren sin framfor dei eldre halvbrørne sine som vart fødde før Dareios vart konge. Etter at han fekk makta i oktober 485 f.Kr slo han ned opprøret i Egypt som hadde brote ut i 486 f.Kr. Han utnemnde broren sin Akamenes som satrap og førte Egypt under veldig strengt styre. Føregjengarane hans, særleg Dareios, hadde ikkje hatt suksess i forsøka sine på å konsolidere dei antikke sivilisasjonane. Dette var truleg grunnen til at Xerxes i 484 f.Kr avskaffa kongedømet i Babylon og tok vekk gullstatuen av Baal (Marduk, Merodach), som den legitime kongen i Babylon måtte ta i på den første dagen kvart år og drap prestane som freista å hindre dette. Difor ber ikkje Xerxes tittelen konge av Babylon i dei babylonske dokumenta som er datert frå styret hans, men konge av Persia og Media eller enno enklare konge av landa (dvs av verda). Dette førte til to opprør, truleg i 484 f.Kr og 479 f.Kr Dareios hadde etterlate oppgåva med å straffe grekarane for innblandinga deira i det joniske opprøret og sigeren ved Marathon til sonen sin. Frå 483 f.Kr klargjorde Xerxes ekspedisjonen sin med stort omhu. Ein kanal vart grave gjennom den smale landstripa på halvøya ved fjellet Áthos, forsyningar vart lagra i stasjonar langs vegen gjennom Thrakia og to bruer vart lagt over Hellespont. Xerxes fullførte ein allianse med Kartago og hindra dermed grekarane frå å få støtte frå dei mektige monarkane i Syrakus og Agrigentum. Mange mindre greske statar tok i tillegg persarane si side, særleg Thessalía, Theben (Thíva) og Argos. Ein stor flåte og ein talrik hær (nokre hevda at han var på over 2 millionar) vart samla. Våren 480 f.Kr sette Xerxes ut frå Sardis. I byrjinga sigra Xerxes overalt. Den greske flåten vart slått ved Artemisium, Thermopylae vart storma, Aten erobra og grekarane vart drivne tilbake til deira siste forsvarslinjer ved Korinth og i Saronicbukta. Men Xerxes vart overtydd av den slue meldinga til Themistokles (mot rådet til Artemisia av Halikarnassus) til å angripe den greske flåten under ufordelaktige tilhøve, i staden for å sende ein del av skipa sine til Peloponnes og avvente oppløysinga av dei greske våpna. Slaget ved Salamis 28. september 480 f.Kr avgjorde krigen. Etter å ha tapt sjøruta si til Asia, vart Xerxes tvinga til å trekkje seg tilbake til Sardis. Hæren han etterlét seg i Hellas under Mardonius vart i 479 f.Kr slått ved Plataea. Nederlaget til persarane ved Mycale vekte dei greske byane i Asia. Dei manglande seinare åra[endre | endre wikiteksten] Av dei siste åra til Xerxes er lite kjent. Han sende ut Satapes for å freiste å segle rundt Afrika, men sigrane til grekarane kasta imperiet inn i ein tilstand av sakte apati, som det aldri heilt klarte å kome seg ut av. Kongen sjølv vart involvert i intrigar i haremet og var avhengig av hoffet og evnukkar. Han etterlét inskripsjonar i Persepolis, der han bygde eit nytt palass i tillegg til Dareios sitt, ved Van i Armenia og på fjellet Elvend nær Ecbatana. I desse tekstene kopierer han stort sett orda til faren sin. I 465 f.Kr vart han myrda av visiren sin, Artabanus, som sette Artaxerxes I på trona. Kjelder[endre | endre wikiteksten] Denne artikkelen bygger på «Xerxes I av Persia» frå Wikipedia på bokmål, den 1. november 2010. Bakgrunnsstoff[endre | endre wikiteksten] Commons har multimedia som gjeld: Xerxes I av Persia Autoritetsdata WorldCat VIAF GND LCCN ISNI BNF BNF (data) LIBRIS SUDOC ULAN Henta frå «https://nn.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I_av_Persia&oldid=3213542» Kategoriar: Einskildmenn Akamenidane Persiske monarkar Faraoar Myrda monarkar Døde i 465 fvt. 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no-wikipedia-org-5854	----	Xerxes I av Persia – Wikipedia Xerxes I av Persia Fra Wikipedia, den frie encyklopedi Hopp til navigering Hopp til søk Xerxes I av PersiaKonge av Perserriket Bergrelieff av Xerxes ved hans grav i Naqsh-e Rustam Født 519 f.Kr. Iran Død 465 f.Kr. (54 år) Persia Gravlagt Iran Ektefelle Amestris og flere andre Far Dareios I av Persia Mor Atossa Søsken 10 oppføringer Artazostre, Gobryas, Arsames, Artobazanes, Ariamenes, Ariabignes, Abrocomes, Masistes, Achaemenes, Arsames av Persia Barn Artaxerxes I (med Amestris), og flere andre Beskjeftigelse Statsmann Nasjonalitet Akamenide-dynastiet Annet navn Khashâyârshâ Regjeringstid 486 - 465 f.Kr. Xerxes I av Persia på Commons Xerxes I av Persia (gammelpersisk: Khashâyârshâ i betydningen «hersker over helter»; nypersisk[1]: خشایارشا; gresk: Ξέρξης, ksérksɛːs;[2] hebraisk: אֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹשׁ), også omtalt med epitetet «den store» (født 519, død 465 f.Kr.), var den fjerde av kongenes konge i akamenidenes Perserriket. Han var sønn av Dareios I og Atossa, og ble far til Artaxerxes og farfar til Xerxes II. Xerxes er kjent for sin store invasjon av antikkens Hellas, men nederlaget i slaget ved Salamis i 480 f.Kr. forhindret videre erobring av Europa. Han er også sannsynligvis identifisert som Ahasverus i Esters bok i den hebraiske Bibelen (det gamle testamente). Den jødisk-romerske historikeren Josefus identifiserte derimot Ahasverus med Artaxerxes I.[3][4] Innhold 1 Liv og virke 1.1 Ungdom og vekst til makt 2 Felttog 2.1 Invasjon av det greske fastlandet 2.2 Thermopylene og Athen 3 Byggeprosjekter 4 Død 5 Xerxes' familie og barn 6 Kulturelle beskrivelser 7 Referanser 8 Litteratur Liv og virke[rediger | rediger kilde] Ungdom og vekst til makt[rediger | rediger kilde] Umiddelbart etter å ha tatt kongsmakten, giftet Dareios I av Persia (sønn av Hystaspes) seg med Atossa (datter av Kyros den store). De var begge etterkommere av akamenidedynastiet, men fra ulike slektsgrener. Ved å gifte seg med en datter av Kyros styrket Dareios sin posisjon som konge.[5] Dareios var en aktiv hersker, opptatt med store byggeprogram i Persepolis, Susa, Egypt, og andre steder. Mot slutten av sitt styre besluttet han å straffe den gresk polis Athen som hadde gitt hjelp til opprørere i Anatolia. Men det brøt ut et nytt opprør i Egypt, antagelig ledet av en persisk satrap (guvernør), som han måtte slå ned først. Under persisk lov måtte akamenidekongene først velge en etterfølger før de kunne dra ut på en slik alvorlig krigføring. Da han besluttet å dra (487–486 f.Kr.),[6] forberedte han sin grav ved det som i dag heter Naqsh-e Rostam og utpekte Xerxes, sin eldste sønn med Atossa, som sin etterfølger. Hans sviktende helse førte likevel til at han ikke kunne lede krigstoktet,[7] og han døde i oktober 486 f.Kr.[7] Artabazanes[8] krevde kronen som den eldste alle barna til den avdøde. Det var en etablert skikk over hele verden at den aller eldste hadde forrett. Xerxes, på den annen side, hevdet at han nedstammet fra Atossa, datter av selveste Kyros den store, og at det var Kyros som hadde gitt perserne deres frihet. En del moderne forskere har også vurdert den uvanlige beslutningen til Dareios å gi tronen til Xerxes som resultatet av hans vurdering av de unike posisjonene som Kyros og hans datter Atossa hadde hatt.[9] Broren Artobazan var født som «Dareios' undersått» mens Xerxes var den eldste sønn født i purpur etter Dareios selv hadde blitt hersker, og Artobazans mor var en ordinær kvinne mens Xerxes' mor var datteren av ingen ringere enn grunnleggeren av riket.[10] Xerxes ble kronet og etterfulgte sin far i oktober–desember 486 f.Kr.[11] da han var rundt 36 år gammel.[6] Overgangen til å bli hersker gikk glatt grunnet i stor grad den autoritet som Atossa hadde [5] og at hans tiltredelse til kongelig makt ikke ble utfordret av noen person ved hoffet eller hans familie.[12] Bortimot øyeblikkelig viste Xerxes seg som handlekraftig og nådeløs hersker ved å knuse opprør i Egypt og Babylon som hadde brutt ut året før. Han utpekte sin bror Akaimenes som satrap over Egypt. I 484 f.Kr. opprørte han babylonerne ved på brutalt vis å konfiskere og smelte ned gullstatuen av Ble (Marduk i akkadisk mytologi), hendene som den rettmessige konge av Babylon måtte omfavne på hver nyttårsdag.[13] Denne vanhelligelse førte til at babylonerne gjorde opprør i 484 og 482 f.Kr. og samtidige babylonske dokumenter viser at Xerxes avviste sin fars tittel som konge av Babylon og lot seg isteden navngi som konge av Persia og Media, storkonge, kongenes konge (sjah), og nasjonenes konge (det vil si av verden). Dette er vist i Daiva-inskripsjonene til Xerxes, linjene 6-13.[14] Selv om gresk Herodotos omtale i Historier har skapt debatt angående Xerxes' religiøse overbevisning, har moderne historikere forstått ham som troende i zoroastrismen.[15] Felttog[rediger | rediger kilde] Invasjon av det greske fastlandet[rediger | rediger kilde] Dareios døde mens han forberedte en andre stor hær for å invadere det greske fastlandet, og oppgaven å straffe Athen, Naxos, og Eretria ble overlatt til hans sønn Xerxes. Grunnen var at disse grekerne hadde blandet seg inn i det joniske opprøret, brent ned byen Sardis i Anatolia, og ikke minst deres seier over perserne ved Maraton. Fra 483 f.Kr. forberedte Xerxes sitt krigstokt: en kanal ble gravd gjennom landtangen på halvøya ved fjellet Athos i nordlige Hellas, provisjoner ble lagret ved stasjoner langs veien i Trakia, og to flytebroer ble bygd over Hellespont. Soldater av mange nasjonaliteter tjenestegjorde i hans hær, inkludert assyrere, fønikere, babylonere, egyptere og jøder.[16] I henhold til Herodotos var Xerxes' første forsøk på å bygge bro over Hellespont mislykket grunnet at en storm ødela tauene i bruene. Som gjengjeldelse beordret han at Hellespont (sundet i seg selv) skulle bli straffet ved at det ble pisket tre hundre ganger, og fikk fotlenker kastet i vannet. Hans andre forsøk på å legge bro over sundet var derimot vellykket.[17] Xerxes gjorde avtale om allianse med Kartago, og således fratok grekerne støtte fra de mektige greske monarkene i Siracusa og Akragas. Mange mindre greske stater lot seg overtale til å støtte perserne, særlig Thessalia, Theben og Argos. I de innledende kampene mellom perserne og grekerne var Xerxes seierrik. Xerxes satte ut våren 480 f.Kr. fra Sardis med en flåte og en hær som Herodot beregnet til bortimot på en million menn sammen med 10 000 elitesoldater kalt for de persiske udødelige. Moderne beregninger har dog beregnet den persiske styrken på rundt 60 000 kjempende.[18] For sikre seg lojalitet til hans person var mange av de øverste generalene beslektet med kongen og den kongelig familie. Eksempelvis var Mardonios (persisk: Mardoniye), en av de seks hærlederne, kongens svoger, og Masistes (Masistês) som var bror av Xerxes.[19] Thermopylene og Athen[rediger | rediger kilde] I slaget ved Thermopylene klarte en liten gresk styrke ledet av kong Leonidas I av Sparta å stå imot en langt større persisk styrke, men ble til sist nedkjempet. I henhold til Herodot, brøt perserne den spartanske falanks etter at en gresk mann ved navn Efialtes forrådte sitt land ved å fortelle perserne om en annen fjellovergang rundt fjellene. Etter Thermopylene ble Athen erobret og athenerne ble fordrevet tilbake til deres siste forsvarslinje ved Korinteidet og i Saroniabukta. Hva som skjedde deretter er preget av en del kontrovers. I henhold til Herodot, da perserne kom til Athen, som var forlatt og folketomt, lot Xerxes i et raseri som var lite karakteristisk selv for persiske konger, byen brenne ned i grunnen. Neste dag skal derimot ha angret seg og beordret gjenoppbygging. Imidlertid skal persiske forskere ha bestridt dette som gresk propaganda ved å argumentere at det var ikke Athen, men Sparta som var Xerxes' fremste fiende i hans angrep på det greske fastlandet, og at han ingenting på å vinne ved å ødelegge det fremste senteret for handel som Athen hadde vært. På samme tid var de antipersiske følelsene sterke blant grekerne, og ryktene om at Xerxes hadde ødelagt byen spredte seg raskt, selv om det er sannsynlig at brannen hadde startet da athenerne flyktet fra byen. At det også var en bevisst handling av «brent jord» for å frata Xerxes' hær byen som krigsbytte er også en mulighet. Ved Artemision i Euboia hadde store stormer ødelagt greske skip og slaget stoppet tidlig da grekerne mottok nyhetene om nederlaget ved Thermopylene, og de trakk seg tilbake mens perserne erobret Boiotia og Attika. Xerxes ble påvirket av beskjeden fra den athenske hærføreren Themistokles om at han nå stilte seg på persisk side, noe som var en psykologisk krigslist.[20] Xerxes ville angripe straks, ivrig etter en endelig seier over grekerne, men hans greske allierte Artemisia fra Halikarnassos, som selv hadde fem skip i den persiske flåten,[21] advarte imot det. Han overhørte hennes råd og beordret angrep på den greske flåten til tross for at forhold var ugunstige. En bedre strategi hadde vært å sende en del av sine skip til Peloponnes og vente på oppløsningen av den greske hæren. Slaget ved Salamis ble utkjempet i september 480 f.Kr. i sundet mellom det greske fastlandet og Salamis, en liten øy i Saroniabukta ved Pireus nær Athen. Selv om de greske allierte i stor grad var underlegen i antall, lot de seg overtale av Themistokles til å gå i kamp mot den persiske flåten på nytt i håp om at en mulig seier ville forhindre angrep på Peloponnes. Den persiske flåten seilte inn i stredet ved Salamis og forsøkte å blokkere begge ankomstene. I de trange forholdene til stredet var det store persiske antallet en aktiv hindring da skipene strevet med å manøvre og de ble uorganisert og kaotiske. Grekerne grep anledningen, dannet en linje og vant en avgjørende seier. Resultat av det persiske nederlaget var at Xerxes trakk seg tilbake til Asia med det meste av hæren og overlot til hærføreren Mardonios å fortsette erobringen av Hellas. En årsak på at han trakk seg tilbake var beskjeden om opprør i Babylon. Det påfølgende året ble den gjenværende persiske hæren avgjørende beseiret i slaget ved Plataiai og den persiske flåten gikk på et nytt nederlag i slaget ved Mykale. I tiden etter gjorde perserne ingen flere forsøk på å erobre det greske fastlandet. Disse slagene ved Salamis og Plataiai markerte et vendepunkt i krigene mellom Hellas og Persia; fra da av var de greske bystatene som ble den angripende part. Et antall historikere mener at en persisk seier ved Salamis ville ha ført til en lammelse av utviklingen av antikkens Hellas, og i forlengelsen også den vestlige sivilisasjon, og det har ført til konklusjonen at Salamis er et av de mest betydningsfulle sjøslag i historien.[22] Byggeprosjekter[rediger | rediger kilde] Etter de militære nederlagene i Hellas, var Xerxes tilbake i Persia. Tilbaketoget var preget av nederlag. I de regionene de reiste gjennom var det knapt med mat, og de ble tvunget til å spise bark, løv og gress. Soldatene var herjet av sykdom og mange døde av dysenteri, og da de krysset Hellespont og nådde Sardis var hæren allerede kraftig redusert.[23] Bitter av nederlaget, som moderne historikere betraktet som begynnelsen på nedgangen for akamenidedynastiet, trakk Xerxes seg tilbake til Susa og Persepolis. Fiendtlighetene mellom perserne og grekerne fortsatt i ytterligere tretten år, men Xerxes selv involverte seg i liten grad.[24] Xerxes engasjerte seg isteden i å overvåke og fullføre store byggeprosjekter som var etterlatt ufullført av hans far i Susa og Persepolis. Han fulgte byggingen av Nasjonenes port og den største og mest imponerende strukturene av palasset i Hallen av et hundre søyler, også kalt for Tronerommet, begge i Persepolis (70 km nordøst for den moderne byen Shiraz i Iran). For det sistnevnte greide han bare å fullføre brulegningen og fundamentet for veggene. Veggene og dekorasjonen av den store søylehallen ble fullført av hans etterkommer Artaxerxes.[23] Foruten et Skattekammer overvåket Xerxes fullførelsen av Apadana (audienshallen), kongens palass med en stor hall hvor det var plass til flere tusen. Kongens arkitekter arbeidet fra en forent plan med et stort omfang, som inkluderte Tripylon, en gigantisk terrasse. Disse bygningene markerte en utvikling mot det kolossale og en stil som var mer pretensiøs enn hva som var typisk under Dareios' styre. Hans estetiske og arkitektoniske smak var lik hans fars, bare i enormt større skala.[25] Han utbygget også den kongelig vei som hans far hadde bygd, og fullførte Porten i Susa og dessuten et storslagent palass der.[26] Dette ble gjort mulig ved å utnytte de enorme ressursene han hadde samlet ved mangfoldig beskatning. De enorme kostnadene i disse byggeprosjektene, som kom i tillegg til utgiftene til den feilslåtte invasjonen av det greske fastlandet, la store belastninger på hans undersåtter. Xerxes synes ikke å ha betraktet det som et problem og fortsatte å gjøre som han selv ønsket.[23] Død[rediger | rediger kilde] Lite er kjent om de siste årene av Xerxes' liv. Etter nederlaget i Hellas synes han ha trukket seg inn i seg selv og lot seg bli dratt inn i intriger hoffet og haremet hvor han selv ble en spillbrikke. Den greske historikeren Herodotos har kommet med en utledning av disse hvor han til slutt fjernet hele sin brors familie på krav fra dronningen, men i hvilken grad man kan stole på Herodotos' informanter for detaljer er uvisst da historikeren selv ikke kunne studere intrigene og politikken i Persepolis direkte. I henhold til Herodot lot Xerxes sine personlige vakter fungere som dronning Amestris' bødler, og de lemlestet hustruen til broren Masistes: «Hun [Amestris] skar av henne brystene og kastet dem til bikkjene, skar av henne nesen, ørene, leppene og tungen, og sendte henne deretter hjem, fullstendig skamfert.»[27] Uhyggeligheter av denne karakter var ikke ukjent for perserne. Også i Hellas var perserne villige til ytterliggående grusomheter, som halshogging og spidding av lik, kastrering av unge gutter, og i Xerxes' eget tilfelle, la en far bli flådd og deretter la skinnet bli strukket og dekke setet på den tronen han benyttet. Disse anekdotene sto i kontrast til de greske verdiene av selvbeherskelse, måtehold og rettferdighet.[28] Etter mishandlingen av hustruen forsøkte broren Masistes å gjøre opprør i Baktria, langt øst i riket, men Xerxes fanget ham inn og fikk ham drept sammen med hans sønner og de menn som deltok.[23] Xerxes' videre byggeplaner ble avbrutt da han selv ble drept i 465 f.Kr., myrdet av sin fremste minister Artabanos (ikke forveksles med Xerxes' onkel av samme navn), antagelig enten vesir eller kommandant av hans livvakter. I attentatet ble Xerxes' sønn Dareios drept.[23] Artabanos var en av de mektigste i hoffet, og hans framgang hadde tilsynelatende sin årsak i at han var populær i de religiøse delene av hoffet, og grunnet intrigene i haremet. Han plassert sju sønner i nøkkelposisjoner og planla å styrte akamenidedynastiet. Det ble forhindret da Xerxes' nest eldste sønn Artaxerxes drepte Artabanos (og antagelig også hele hans familie), tok tronen og overtok sin fars storslåtte byggeprogram i sitt eget navn og for sin egen ære. En annen variant av detaljene er at Xerxes ble drept av sin mektige vesir som deretter anklaget Xerxes' sønn Dareios for udåden, men Xerxes' andre sønn rykket inn og drepte både Dareios og Artabanos for selv å kunne ta tronen.[29] I henhold til Aristoteles[30] hadde Artabanos drept Dareios først og deretter Xerxes. Da Artaxerxes oppdaget mordene, fikk han drept Artabanos og hans sønner. Deltagende i disse intrigene var hærføreren Megabyzos, som ved å skifte side bidro til at akamenidedynastiet ikke tapte den persiske tronen.[31] Xerxes' familie og barn[rediger | rediger kilde] Med dronning Amestris: Amytis, hustru av Megabyzos (sønn av Zopyres), satrap av Babylon Dareios, den førstefødt, drept i kjølvannet av farens død Artaxerxes I, den andrefødte, tok tronen Hystaspes, den tredje sønnen, antagelig drept av broren Artaxerxes Achaemenes, drept av egyptere Rhodogune, datter Med ukjente hustruer: Artarios, satrap av Babylon. Tithraustes Arsames (eller Arsamenes eller Arxanes eller Sarsamas), satrap av Egypt. Parysatis, datter[32] Ratashah[33] Kulturelle beskrivelser[rediger | rediger kilde] Xerxes er en sentral figur i dramaet Perserne (472 f.Kr.) av Aiskhylos. Perserne fokuserer på det populære greske temaet hybris (overmot) ved å legge årsaken på Persias nederlag på stoltheten til landets konge.[34] Han er også hovedfigur i operaen Serse av den tysk-engelske barokkomponisten Georg Friedrich Händel. Det ble framført i King's Theatre i London den 15. april 1738. Mordet på Xerxes, henrettelsen av kronprinsen Dareios, og Artaxerxes som tok tronen, er romantisert av den italienske poeten Pietro Metastasio i hans operalibretto Artaserse som første gang fikk musikk av Leonardo Vinci (ikke til å forveksles med Leonardo da Vinci), og siden av andre komponister som Johann Adolf Hasse og Johann Christian Bach. Senere generasjoners fascinasjon med antikkens Sparta, og i særdeleshet slaget ved Thermopylene, har ført til at Xerxes har blitt portrettert i en rekke populærkulturelle verker, ofte i et negativt lys, fra usympatisk til fullstendig stormannsgal. Han ble eksempelvis framstilt av David Farrar i spillefilmen De 300 spartanere fra 1962 hvor han ble framstilt som en grusom, stormannsgal despot og dårlig hærfører. Den grafiske romanen eller tegneserien 300 (1998) av Frank Miller, og tilsvarende i filmatiseringen av denne i 300 (2007) hvor han ble framstilt av den brasilianske skuespilleren Rodrigo Santoro, var han portrettert som en mektig gudekonge. Dette portrettet var kontroversielt, særlig i Iran.[35] Gore Vidal, i hans historiske roman Creation (1981), beskrev framveksten til akamenidedynastiet, særlig Dareios I av Persia, og presenterte livet og døden til Xerxes. I Vidals versjon av perserkrigene skiller seg fra den tradisjonelle framstillingen til greske historikere, og er fortalt via den fiktive figuren Cyrus Spitama, halv gresk, halv persisk, og sønnesønn av profeten Zarathustra (eller Zoroaster). Takket være denne familieforbindelsen vokser han opp ved det persiske hoffet etter mordet på Zarathustra og blir barndomsvenn med Xerxes, og senere en diplomat som ble sendt til India og deretter til hellas, og som således har tilgang til mange av de ledende historiske figurene fra perioden.[36] Referanser[rediger | rediger kilde] ^ «Xerxes i. The Name», Encyclopædia Iranica. Iranicaonline.org ^ «Xerxes» er den greske utgaven av det persiske tronenavnet Khshayarsha eller Khsha-yar-shan som betyr «hersker av helter». ^ «Ahasuerus», JewishEncyclopedia.com ^ Law, George (2010): Identification of Darius the Mede, Ready Scribe Press. ISBN 9780982763100. s. 95 ^ a b Schmitt, R.: Atossa, Encyclopædia Iranica. ^ a b Dandamaev, M. A. (1989): A political history of the Achaemenid empire], s. 180. ^ a b Shahbazi, A. Sh.: «Darius I the Great» i: Encyclopædia Iranica. ^ «Artabazanes», Encyclopedia Iranica ^ Shabani, Reza (1386 AP): Khshayarsha (Xerxes). Kapittel I, s. 15 ^ Olmstead, Albert Ten Eyck (1948): The history of Persian empire (PDF), University of Chicago Press ^ Gershevitch, I. (1985): The Cambridge History of Iran Volume 2: The Median and Achaemenian Periods, Cambridge University Press, s. 509. ^ Gershevitch, I. (1985): Cambridge History of Iran, s. 72. ^ Ghirshman, R. et al (1985): The Cambridge history of Iran 2, s. 191 ^ Kent, Roland G.; Bolling, G. M. (mars 1934): Language, 10 (1), No. 1 (Mar., 1934), s. 40-52 ^ Boyce, M.: «Achaemenid Religion» i Encyclopædia Iranica. Se også Boardman, J.; et al. (1988): The Cambridge Ancient History Vol. IV (2 utg.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-22804-2. s. 101. ^ Farrokh, Kaveh (2007): Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War. Oxford, UK: Osprey. ISBN 1846031087. s. 77 ^ Bailkey, Nels, red. (1992): Readings in Ancient History, D.C. Heath and Co., USA. s. 175. ^ Barkworth, Peter R. (1993): «The Organization of Xerxes' Army» (PDF) i: Iranica Antiqua 27, s. 149-167 ^ Barkworth, Peter R. (1993): «The Organization of Xerxes' Army», s. 149 ^ Herodotos, VIII, 75 ^ «Artemisia of Halicarnassus», Livius.org ^ Hanson, Victor Davis (2001): Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise of Western Power. New York: DoubleDay, s. 12–60 ^ a b c d e «Xerxes I», Ancient History Encyclopedia ^ «Xerxes (reigned 486- 465 B.C.)», The Latin Library ^ Ghirshman, R. et al (1985): The Cambridge history of Iran 2, s. 172 ^ Herodotos, VII.11 ^ Herodotos, 9:112 ^ Fox, Robin Lane (2006): The Classical World. An Epic History of Greece and Rome, Penguin History, ISBN 978-0-14-102141-6, s. 107 ^ «Artaxerxes I», Jewish Encyclopededia ^ Aristoteles: Politikken, 5.1311b ^ Olmstead, A. T. (1948): History of Persian Empire (PDF), s. 289-290 ^ Ctesias ^ Brosius, Maria (2000): Women in ancient Persia. ^ Freeman, Charles (1999): The Greek Achievement: The Foundation of the Western World. New York: Viking Press. ISBN 0-670-88515-0, s. 244 ^ Boucher, Geoff (1. juni 2010): «Frank Miller returns to the '300' battlefield with 'Xerxes': 'I make no apologies whatsoever'», The Los Angeles Times ^ Gore Vidal (1981): Creation: A Novel, Random House. I 2002 utga forfatteren en revidert utgave av romanen som økte den med fire kapitler som den tidligere redaktøren hadde fjernet. Han la også til et kort forord som forklarte begrunnelsen for dette. Litteratur[rediger | rediger kilde] Antikke kilder The Sixth Book, Entitled Erato i Historier av Herodot. The Seventh Book, Entitled Polymnia i Historier av Herodot. Moderne kilder Barkworth, Peter R. (1993): «The Organization of Xerxes' Army» i: Iranica Antiqua 27, s. 149–167. doi:10.2143/ia.27.0.2002126. Boardman, John; al., et (1988): The Cambridge Ancient History V. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-22804-2. Boyce, Mary: «Achaemenid Religion» i: Encyclopaedia Iranica 1. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Dandamaev, M. A. (1989): A political history of the Achaemenid empire. Brill Publishers. s. 373. ISBN 90-04-09172-6. Dandamayev, M. A (1999): «Artabanus» i: Encyclopædia Iranica. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Frye, Richard N. (1963): The Heritage of Persia. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. s. 301. ISBN 0-297-16727-8. Gershevitch, Ilya; Bayne Fisher, William; A. Boyle, J. (1985): The Cambridge History of Iran 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-20091-1. Macaulay, G. C. (2004): The Histories. Spark Educational Publishing. ISBN 1-59308-102-2. McCullough, W. S.: «Ahasuerus» i: Encyclopaedia Iranica 1. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Schmeja, H. (1975): «Dareios, Xerxes, Artaxerxes. Drei persische Königsnamen in griechischer Deutung (Zu Herodot 6,98,3)» i: Die Sprache 21, s. 184–188. Schmitt, Rüdiger: «Achaemenid dynasty» i: Encyclopaedia Iranica 3. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Schmitt, Rüdiger: «Atossa» i: Encyclopaedia Iranica 3. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Shabani, Reza (1386 [Iransk kalender AP]): «Khshayarsha (Xerxes). What do I know about Iran?» No. 75 (på persisk). Cultural Research Burreau. s. 120. ISBN 964-379-109-2. Shahbazi, A. Sh.: «Darius I the Great» i: Encyclopaedia Iranica 7. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Forgjenger:  Dareios I den store  Konge av Persia (486 f.Kr.–465 f.Kr.) Etterfølger:  Artaxerxes I  Farao i Egypt (486 f.Kr.–465 f.Kr.) V • D • R Akamenide-dynastiet Akamenes · Teispes · Kyros I · Ariaramnes · Kambyses I · Arsames · Kyros II · Kambyses II · Smerdis · Dareios I · Xerxes I · Artaxerxes I · Xerxes II · Sogdianus · Dareios II · Artaxerxes II · Artaxerxes III · Arses · Dareios III Autoritetsdata Encyclopædia Britannica · Brockhaus Enzyklopädie · Deutsche Biographie · VIAF · VIAF · VIAF · VIAF · VIAF · VIAF · VIAF · VIAF · GND · LCCN · ISNI · BNF · BNF (data) · LIBRIS · SUDOC · ULAN · NLA · NKC · BNE Hentet fra «https://no.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I_av_Persia&oldid=20765582» Kategorier: Akamenidene Herskere på 400-tallet f.Kr. Fødsler i 519 f.Kr. Dødsfall i 465 f.Kr. 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oc-wikipedia-org-887	----	Xerxes Ier - Wikipèdia Xerxes Ier Un article de Wikipèdia, l'enciclopèdia liura. Salta a la navegació Salta a la cerca Xerxes Ier Representacion de Xerxes Ièr Biografia Naissença vèrs 519 abC N. a Decès 465 abC D. a Causa de decès Assassinat/ada per Luòc d'enterrament Lenga mairala Fogal ancestral País de nacionalitat Paire Maire Oncle Tanta Grands Bèlamaire Bèlpaire Fraire Sòrre Conjunt Companh/a Filh/a Religion Membre de Familha nòbla Membre de l'equipa esportiva posicion de jòc tir (esquèrra/drecha) grad dan/kyu Grop etnic Orientacion sexuala Profession Emplegaire Domeni d'activitat Escolaritat Diplòma Director de tèsi Estudiant de tèsi Foncion politica Residéncia oficiala Predecessor Successor Partit Tessitura Label discografic Lista de cançons Discografia Mission de l'astronauta Distincions e prèmis Branca militara Grad militar Etapa de canonizacion Familha nòbla Títol de noblesa Títol onorific Comandament Conflicte Jorn de la fèsta País: Empèri Aquemenida Epòca: Antiquitat Règne: 486 abC a 465 abC Davancièr: Darius Ièr Successor: Artaxerxes Ièr Xerxes Ièr (vèrs 519 - 465 avC), de còps dich Xerxes Ièr lo Grand, fuguèt sobeiran de l'Empèri Aquemenida de 486 a sa mòrt. Succediguèt a Darius Ièr (521-486 avC e fuguèt remplaçat per Artaxerxes Ièr (465-424 avC). Es famós per sa temptativa de conquista de Grècia que s'acabèt per una tièra de desfachas durant la Segonda Guèrra Medica (480-479 avC puei durant lei contraofensivas grègas per reconquistar lei ciutats d'Anatolia. Lo rèsta de son rèine es mens conegut, especialament lei darriereis annadas. Fuguèt assassinat per Artaban, lo cap de la garda reiala marcant lo començament dau periòde de declin deis Aquemenidas. Recuperada de « https://oc.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_Ier&oldid=2191920 » Categorias de la pagina : Empèri Aquemenida Sobeiran Aquemenida Cap d'estat dau sègle V avC Decès en -465 Categoria amagada : Paginas amb de proprietats pas resolgudas Menú de navigacion Aisinas personalas Vos sètz pas identificat(ada) Discussion Contribucions Crear un compte Se connectar Espacis de noms Article Discussion Variantas Afichatges Legir Modificar Modificar la font Veire l'istoric Mai Recercar Navigacion Acuèlh La tavèrna Portals tematics Indèx alfabetic Una pagina a l'azard contact Far un don Contribuir Ajuda Comunautat Darrièrs cambiaments Acuèlh dels novèls venguts Far un don Bóstia d'aisinas Paginas ligadas a aquesta Seguit dels ligams Importar un fichièr Paginas especialas Ligam permanent Informacion sus la pagina Citar aqueste article Element Wikidata Imprimir / exportar Crear un libre Telecargar coma PDF Version imprimibla Dins d'autres projèctes Wikimedia Commons Dins d'autras lengas Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Modificar los ligams Aquesta pagina es estada modificada pel darrièr còp lo 2 mai de 2020 a 16.23. Drech d'autor : Los tèxtes son disponibles jos licéncia Creative Commons paternitat pertatge a l’identic ; d’autras condicions se pòdon aplicar. Vejatz las condicions d’utilizacion per mai de detalhs, e mai los credits grafics. Wikipedia® es una marca depausada de la Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., organizacion de benfasença regida pel paragraf 501(c)(3) del còde fiscal dels Estats Units. Politica de confidencialitat Avertiments Afichatge mobil Desvolopaires Estatisticas Declaracion suls cookies 
openaccess-leidenuniv-nl-7001	----	Balancing Power and Space: a Spatial Analysis of the Akītu Festival in Babylon after 626 BCE | Student Repository Skip to main content Leiden University Student Repository Home Submit About Select Collection All collections This collection Archaeology Governance and Global Affairs Humanities Science Social and Behavioural Sciences Search box Persistent URL of this record https://hdl.handle.net/1887/42888 Download Research master thesis open access In Collections This item can be found in the following collections: Classics and Ancient Civilizations (research) (MA) Deloucas, Andrew (2016) Balancing Power and Space: a Spatial Analysis of the Akītu Festival in Babylon after 626 BCE Research master thesis | Classics and Ancient Civilizations (research) (MA) In this thesis, I analyze the Akītu festival for the purpose of understanding the socio-political landscape of the Neo- and Late-Babylonian periods in Babylon (626 BCE - 100 BCE). The history of the Akītu festival, known as the Mesopotamian New Year’s festival, spans several millennia, but was especially known in its 1st millennium form in Babylon. This analysis focuses on the relationship between kings, gods, and high priests of Babylon and their actions in an historical and social space with relation to this festival. The interaction between cult and state in this shared space is used to compare how each empire utilized the festival and gods in order to exert and subvert power over the other within both an historic context and a wider socio-political history. I show that the Akītu festival was a constantly developing festival that was as dependent on the ruling king as it was a defining factor of kingship in Babylon. Akītu Zizek Smith Babylon Festival Neo-Babylonian Empire Persian Achaemenid Seleucid Hellenistic Mesopotamia Kingship Power Spatial Analysis Chronicles Royal Inscriptions Author Deloucas, Andrew Issue date 2016-08-30 Faculty Faculty of Humanities Specialisation Assyriology Supervisors Waerzeggers, Caroline ECTS Credits 25 Language en ©2020 Leiden University A service provided by Leiden University Libraries 
pl-wikipedia-org-3510	----	Kserkses I – Wikipedia, wolna encyklopedia Kserkses I Z Wikipedii, wolnej encyklopedii Przejdź do nawigacji Przejdź do wyszukiwania Ten artykuł dotyczy Kserksesa I. Zobacz też: innych władców o tym imieniu. Kserkses I 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠 — Król królów, wielki król, król Persji, król Babilonu, faraon Egiptu — Relief skalny przedstawiający perskiego króla z dynastii Achemenidów, najprawdopodobniej Kserksesa I lub jego ojca Dariusza I Wielkiego, znajdujący się w Muzeum Narodowym Iranu Szachinszach Imperium Achemenidów Okres od 486 p.n.e. do 465 p.n.e. Poprzednik Dariusz I Wielki Następca Artakserkses I Dane biograficzne Dynastia Achemenidzi Data urodzenia 518 p.n.e. Data śmierci 465 p.n.e. Ojciec Dariusz I Wielki Matka Atossa Żona Amestris Dzieci Artakserkses I, Dariusz, Hystaspis, Amytis, Rodugune Cytaty w Wikicytatach Rzeźba przedstawiająca żołnierzy wywodzących się ze wszystkich narodów perskiego imperium na grobowcu Kserksesa I w Naghsz-e Rostam[1][2] Kserkses I (staroperski: 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠 Xšaya-ṛšā; ur. ok. 518 p.n.e., zm. 465 p.n.e.) – czwarty[3] szachinszach Imperium Achemenidów, rządzący w latach 486–465 p.n.e. Syn i następca Dariusza I Wielkiego. Najbardziej znany z dowodzenia w 480 p.n.e. drugą perską inwazją na Grecję, zakończoną ostatecznie klęską. Kserkses I jest identyfikowany z występującym w biblijnej Księdze Estery perskim królem Aswerusem[4]. Spis treści 1 Etymologia imienia 2 Życiorys 2.1 Młodość i objęcie tronu 2.2 Stłumienie buntów w Egipcie i Babilonie oraz umocnienie władzy królewskiej 2.3 Wojna przeciwko Grecji 2.4 Dalsze panowanie i śmierć 3 Życie prywatne i religia 4 Zobacz też 5 Przypisy 6 Bibliografia Etymologia imienia[edytuj | edytuj kod] Greckie Xérxēs (lub łacińskie Xerxes, Xerses) jest transliteracją staroperskiego Xšaya-ṛšā. Pierwsza część imienia xšaya, oznacza "rządzącego", natomiast ṛšā, to "bohater, człowiek"[5]. Życiorys[edytuj | edytuj kod] Młodość i objęcie tronu[edytuj | edytuj kod] Kserkses I urodził się ok. 518 p.n.e.[6] jako syn władcy perskiego Dariusza I Wielkiego[7][8] i jego małżonki królowej Atossy, córki Cyrusa II Wielkiego, założyciela Imperium Achemenidów[9]. Według przekazu Herodota starszy brat Kserksesa, Artabazan, przyszedł na świat przed objęciem rządów przez Dariusza i był zrodzony z młodszej żony, więc nie był brany pod uwagę jako przyszły król. Począwszy od ok. 498 p.n.e. Kserkses mieszkał w królewskim pałacu w Babilonie[10]. Podczas gdy Dariusz przygotowywał się do kolejnej wyprawy przeciwko Grecji, w 486 p.n.e. wybuchł bunt w Egipcie, spowodowany nałożeniem wysokich podatków i deportacją rzemieślników do budowy pałaców królewskich w Suzie i Persepolis. Dariusz przed wyruszeniem do Egiptu w celu stłumienia rebelii musiał wybrać swojego następcę, bowiem zgodnie z perską tradycją królowi nie wolno było opuścić kraju, pozostawiając go bez władcy. Na swojego sukcesora wyznaczył właśnie Kserksesa. Dariusz zmarł jeszcze w tym samym roku, przed wyruszeniem do Egiptu[10][11]. Stłumienie buntów w Egipcie i Babilonie oraz umocnienie władzy królewskiej[edytuj | edytuj kod] Po wstąpieniu Kserksesa na tron sytuacja w niektórych regionach perskiego imperium była napięta. Sam władca poprowadził armię do Egiptu, gdzie stłumił antyperskie powstanie. Następnie wyznaczył swojego brata Achemenesa na satrapę tego kraju[9]. W Mezopotamii także panował niepokój. Przynajmniej dwie rewolty w Babilonie skierowane były przeciwko panowaniu Kserksesa. Pierwszy bunt wybuchł w czerwcu lub lipcu 484 p.n.e. i był prowadzony przez człowieka o imieniu Bel-shimanni[12]. Bunt Bel-Shimmaniego był krótkotrwały, dokumenty babilońskie napisane podczas jego panowania dotyczą tylko okresu dwóch tygodni. Drugi bunt w Babilonie wybuchł dwa lata później pod przywództwem Szamasza-eriby. Począwszy od lata 482 p.n.e. buntownicy, poza samym Babilonem, przejęli kontrolę nad kilkoma pobliskimi miastami, takimi jak Borsippa i Dilbat. Powstanie zostało stłumione ostatecznie dopiero w marcu 481 p.n.e., po długim oblężeniu Babilonu[12]. Dokładna przyczyna niepokojów w Babilonie jest niepewna, mogło to być spowodowane prawdopodobnie podwyżką podatków[9][6]. We wcześniejszym okresie Babilon zajmował szczególną pozycję w Imperium Achemenidów. Po serii buntów Kserkses przestał tytułować się „królem Babilonu” i podzielił wcześniej dużą satrapię babilońską (obejmującą większość terytorium dawnego państwa nowobabilońskiego) na mniejsze podjednostki[10]. Według starożytnych autorów Kserkses zniszczył fortyfikacje i świątynie Babilonu. Ze świątyni E-sagila miał zabrał wykonany ze złota posąg boga Marduka i nakazać go przetopić, z czym nie zgadza się część współczesnych badaczy historii starożytnego Bliskiego Wschodu[13][14]. Wojna przeciwko Grecji[edytuj | edytuj kod]  Osobny artykuł: II wojna perska. Relief przedstawiający Kserksesa I w ruinach pałacu w Persepolis Od 483 p.n.e. Kserkses przygotowywał się i zbierał siły do kampanii przeciwko Grecji. W celu przeprowadzenia ogromnych wojsk zbudowano most pontonowy przez Hellespont. W wielonarodowej armii Kserksesa służyli żołnierze pochodzący ze wszystkich stron perskiego imperium, m.in.: Asyryjczycy, Fenicjanie, Babilończycy, Egipcjanie, Żydzi, Macedończycy, Trakowie, Hindusi, Kolchidyjczycy oraz Grecy z wybrzeży Azji Mniejszej i wysp Morza Egejskiego[15]. Wiosną 480 p.n.e. Kserkses wyruszył z Sardes z flotą i armią, wedle współczesnych szacunków liczącą kilkadziesiąt tysięcy ludzi. Po zwycięstwie w bitwie pod Termopilami wojska perskie zdobyły Ateny, które Kserkses nakazał spalić. W ten sposób Persowie przejęli kontrolę nad całą Grecją kontynentalną na północ od Przesmyku Korynckiego[16][17]. Wkrótce jednak flota perska poniosła dotkliwą klęskę w bitwie pod Salaminą. Wówczas Kserkses nakazał założyć swoim wojskom obóz zimowy w Tesalii. Według Herodota, Kserkses obawiając się, że Grecy mogą zaatakować mosty na Hellesponcie i uwięzić jego armię w Europie, postanowił wycofać się do Azji, zabierając ze sobą większą część wojsk. Inną przyczyną odwrotu mogły być ciągłe niepokoje w Babilonie[18]. Perski władca pozostawił w Grecji kontyngent pod dowództwem Mardoniusza, który w 479 p.n.e. poniósł klęskę w bitwie pod Platejami. Wizerunek Kserksesa I pochodzący z Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum Dalsze panowanie i śmierć[edytuj | edytuj kod] Po klęski poniesionej w Grecji Kserkses powrócił do Persji, gdzie nadzorował realizację wielu projektów budowlanych, rozpoczętych jeszcze podczas panowania jego ojca, w Suzie i Persepolis. W sierpniu 465 p.n.e. Kserkses został zamordowany. Zginął na skutek spisku pałacowego zawiązanego przez komendanta swojej straży przybocznej Artabanosa, marszałka dworu Aspamitresa i zięcia Megabyzosa, prawdopodobnie za wiedzą syna Artakserksesa[19]. Został pochowany w grobowcu królewskim w dolinie Naghsz-e Rostam. Życie prywatne i religia[edytuj | edytuj kod] Kserkses za żonę pojął Waszti, a po jej oddaleniu z dworu wybrał za żonę Esterę, opisaną w biblijnej Księdze Estery. Miał kilkoro dzieci z Amestris (utożsamianą z Esterą): syn Artakserkses I syn Dariusz syn Hystaspis córka Amytis córka Rodugune Chociaż nie ma ogólnego porozumienia badaczy w kwestii tego, czy Achemenidzi byli wyznawcami zaratusztrianizmu, dobrze wiadomo jednak, że Kserkses I, tak jak jego poprzednicy, wyznawał Ahura Mazdę, którego uważał za najwyższe bóstwo[20]. Zobacz też[edytuj | edytuj kod] Inskrypcja daiva Przypisy[edytuj | edytuj kod] ↑ Soldiers with names ↑ NAQŠ-E ROSTAM – Encyclopaedia Iranica, www.iranicaonline.org [dostęp 2020-07-08] . ↑ lub piąty, jeżeli liczyć samozwańczego władcę Persji Bardiję, panującego prawdopodobnie przez kilka miesięcy po śmierci Cyrusa II Wielkiego ↑ AHASUREUS – Encyclopaedia Iranica, www.iranicaonline.org [dostęp 2020-07-08] . ↑ XERXES i. The Name – Encyclopaedia Iranica, www.iranicaonline.org [dostęp 2020-07-08] . ↑ a b RichardR. Stoneman RichardR., Xerxes: A Persian Life, Yale University Press, 2015, ISBN 978-0-300-21604-2 [dostęp 2020-07-08]  (ang.). ↑ TourajT. Daryaee TourajT., King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE - 651 CE), Kb Studio, 2017, ISBN 978-0-692-86440-1 [dostęp 2020-07-08]  (ang.). ↑ MattM. Waters MattM., Darius and the Achaemenid Line [dostęp 2020-07-08]  (ang.). ↑ a b c PierreP. Briant PierreP., From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire, Eisenbrauns, 2002, ISBN 978-1-57506-120-7 [dostęp 2020-07-08]  (ang.).1 stycznia ↑ a b c M.A.M.A. Dandamaev M.A.M.A., A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire, BRILL, 1989, ISBN 978-90-04-09172-6 [dostęp 2020-07-10]  (ang.). ↑ Кембриджская история древнего мира, Т. 5, Персия, Греция и западное Средиземноморье ок. 525–479 гг. до н.э., ред. Дж. Бордмэн, s. 94. ↑ a b MuhammadM. Dandamayev MuhammadM., Xerxes and the Esagila Temple in Babylon, „Bulletin of the Asia Institute”, 7, 1993, s. 41-45, ISSN 0890-4464, JSTOR: 24048423 [dostęp 2020-07-10] . ↑ Balancing Power and Space: a Spatial Analysis of the Akītu Festival in Babylon after 626 BCE ↑ Xerxes and Babylonia: The Cuneiform Evidence ↑ KavehK. Farrokh KavehK., Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War, Osprey Publishing, 2009, ISBN 978-1-84603-473-2 [dostęp 2020-07-10]  (ang.). ↑ JoshuaJ. Allfree JoshuaJ., JohnJ. Cairns JohnJ., Brian ToddB.T. Carey Brian ToddB.T., Warfare in the Ancient World, Pen and Sword, 2006, ISBN 978-1-84884-630-2 [dostęp 2020-07-10]  (ang.). ↑ John FrancisJ.F. Lazenby John FrancisJ.F., The Defence of Greece, 490-479 B.C., Aris & Phillips, 1993, ISBN 978-0-85668-591-0 [dostęp 2020-07-10]  (ang.). ↑ Bêl-šimânni and Šamaš-eriba - Livius, www.livius.org [dostęp 2020-07-10] . ↑ Olmstead A. T., Dzieje imperium perskiego, PIW, Warszawa 1974, s. 278. ↑ ZOROASTRIANISM i. HISTORY TO THE ARAB CONQUEST – Encyclopaedia Iranica, www.iranicaonline.org [dostęp 2020-07-08] . Bibliografia[edytuj | edytuj kod] Кембриджская история древнего мира, Т. 5, Персия, Греция и западное Средиземноморье ок. 525–479 гг. до н.э., ред. Дж. Бордмэн, Москва 2011. ​ISBN 978-5-86218-467-9​. p • d • e Władcy starożytnego Iranu Królowie Medów Dejokes Fraortes Kyaksares Astyages Achemenidzi Cyrus II Kambyzes II Dariusz I Kserkses I Artakserkses I Kserkses II Sogdianos Dariusz II Artakserkses II Artakserkses III Arses Dariusz III Argeadzi Aleksander Macedoński Filip Arridajos Aleksander IV Seleukidzi Seleukos I Antioch I Antioch II Seleukos II Seleukos III Antioch III Seleukos IV Antioch IV Antioch V Demetriusz I Aleksander I Demetriusz II Antioch VII Arsakidzi Arsakes I Arsakes II Priapatius Fraates I Mitrydates I Fraates II Artabanus I Mitrydates II Gotarzes I Orodes I Sinatruces Fraates III Mitrydates III Orodes II Pakorus I Fraates IV Tiridates I Fraates V Orodes III Wonones I Artabanus II Tiridates II Wardanes Gotarzes II Wonones II Wologazes I Wologazes II Artabanus III Pakorus II Wologazes III Osroes Mitrydates IV Wologazes IV Wologazes V Wologazes VI Artabanus IV Sasanidzi Ardaszir I Szapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narses Hormizd II Szapur II Ardaszir II Szapur III Bahram IV Jazdgird I Bahram V Jazdgird II Hormizd III Peroz Balasz Kawad I Zamasp Chosrow I Hormizd IV Chosrow II Parwiz Bahram Czobin Kawad II Ardaszir III Szahrbaraz Chosrow III Boran Azarmigducht Hormizd V Chosrow IV Jazdgird III Kontrola autorytatywna (osoba): ISNI: 0000 0000 6300 8852 VIAF: 282770127, 84647018, 19983268, 545159474208227661770, 852159474197427661164, 835154381042230292043, 305065028, 230159474179227661365 ULAN: 500354810 LCCN: n81070675 GND: 118808109 LIBRIS: b8nqtgdv3kb1ftb BnF: 150689088 SUDOC: 050588400 NLA: 66228176 NKC: mzk2005313022 BNE: XX1153338 NTA: 073636711 NUKAT: n2006124654 NLI: 000437459 CANTIC: a12318310 LNB: 000054067 BLBNB: 000387462 LIH: LNB:V*273585;=BQ WorldCat: viaf-19983268 Źródło: „https://pl.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kserkses_I&oldid=60391695” Kategorie: Władcy Persji Achemenidzcy władcy Egiptu Achemenidzi Starożytni Persowie Urodzeni w VI wieku p.n.e. 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pnb-wikipedia-org-2287	----	خشیارشا اول - وکیپیڈیا خشیارشا اول آزاد انسائیکلوپیڈیا، وکیپیڈیا توں Jump to navigation Jump to search خشیارشا اول خشیارشا اول معیاد عہدہ 486 تا 465 ق م پیشرو دارا یوش اول جانشین اردشیردرازدست خاندان حخمانیشی سلطنت والد دارا یوش اول والدہ آتوسا پیدائش 518 ق مپرشیا وفات 465 ق م (عمر 54)پرشیا تدفین پرشیا مذہب زرتشتیت خشیارشا اول یا خشایارشا اول یا خشیارشا اعظم یا خشایارشا اعظم، (ایرانی زبان وچ : خشايارشا، انگریزی زبان وچ : Xerxes I of Persia، یونانی زبان وچ : Ξέρξης، عبرانی زبان وچ : אֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹשׁ) (پیدائش: 519 ق م - وفات: 465 ق م،[۱] پیدائش: 422 ق م - وفات: 485 ق م[۲]) حخمانیشی سلطنت دا چوتھا بادشاہ سی۔ حوالہ[لکھو] ↑ Xerxes I – Wikipedia ↑ ایران د‏‏ی تریخ، پروفیسر مقبول بیگ بدخشانی، ج- ا، ص- 119 وکیمیڈیا کامنز چ مورتاں: خشیارشا اول "https://pnb.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=خشیارشا_اول&oldid=558397" توں لیا ۲۲ گٹھاں: Pages using duplicate arguments in template calls 465 ق م 518 ق م 518 ق م دیاں پیدائشاں ایران شاہی حکمران بادشاہان ایران بادشاہان عبرانی بائبل پنجويں صدی ق م دے جرائم پنجويں صدی ق م دے حکمران تاریخی شخصیتاں تخت جمشید حخمانیشی بادشاہان کتاب آستر مصر دا ستائیسواں شاہی سلسلہ مصری ہخامنشی سلطنت دے فراعنہ مقالے جنہاں وچ فارسی بولی دا متن اے مقتول ایرانی حکمران کامنز گٹھ جس دا ربط ویکی ڈیٹا اُتے اے 465 ق م دیاں موتاں 510 ق م دی دہائی دی پیدائشاں بادشاہ کھوج پتر ذاتی اوزار لاگ ان نئیں ہوۓ او گل بات حصےداری کھاتہ کھولو لاگ ان ہوو ناں تھانواں: صفحہ گل بات قسماں وکھالے پڑھو لِکھو تریخ دیکھو ہور کھوج کھوج پہلا صفہ رلے ملے صفحے نواں آرٹیکل لِکھو سارے صفحے سریع لسٹ اج کل دیاں خبراں عطیہ دیو تعامل مدد بیٹھک حالیہ تبدیلیاں فائل اپلوڈ رابطہ کرو سَند ایتھے کِس دا جوڑ اے رلدیاں ملدیاں تبدیلیاں فائل چڑھاؤ خاص صفحے پکا جوڑ صفحہ جانکاری ایس صفحے دا اتہ پتہ دیو ویکی ڈیٹا آئیٹم چھاپو/اگے بھیجو کتاب بناؤ ڈاؤنلوڈ بشکل پی ڈی ایف PDF چھپن جوگا صفحہ ہور منصوبےآں وچ ویکیمیڈیا کامنز دوجیاں بولیاں وچ Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 جوڑ لکھو اس صفحے نوں آخری واری ۲۶ ستمبر ۲۰۲۰ تریخ نوں ۱۵:۰۵ وجے بدلیا گیا۔ لکھت کریئیٹیو کامنز انتساب/ اکوجہے-شراکت لائسنس دے ہیٹھ دستیاب اے، ہور شرطاں وی لاگو ہوسکدیاں نیں۔ ویروے لئی ورتن شرطاں دیکھو۔ ویکیپیڈیا® اک غیر منافع بخش تنظیم ویکیمیڈیا فاؤنڈیشن انکارپوریشن دا تجارتی مارکہ اے۔ پرائیویسی پالیسی وکیپیڈیا بارے وچ لاتعلقی اظہار موبائیل سائٹ ترقی دین والے آنکڑے کوکیز تفصیلاں 
ps-wikipedia-org-1658	----	خشايارشا - ويکيپېډيا خشايارشا د ويکيپېډيا، وړیا پوهنغونډ له خوا و اصلی برخی ته ورشی د پلټنې ځای ته ورټوپ کړی خشایارشا زېږېدنه ۵۱۹ عیسوی مخکی مړينه ۴۶۵ عیسوی مخکی کوړنی د هخامنشیانو کوړنی پلار داریوش ۱ پیرو اردشیر ۱ خشایارشا (په مېخي ليکدود:، په یونانی ژبه:Xerxés - Ξέρξης ) (زېږېدنه:۵۱۹ عیسوی کال مخکی، مړینه:۴۶۵ عیسوی کال مخکی) د هخامنشیانو د کوړنۍ څخه یو حکمران وو چی د داریوش ۱ تر وفات وروسته د هخامنشیانو حکمران سو. پلار یی داریوش ۱ وو او مور یی چی نوم یی اټوسا وله د کوروش ۲ لور وله. د هېرودوت په نظر چی مشهور یونانی تاریخ پوه وو، د خشایارشا نوم په پخوانی پارسی کی د اتلانو حکمران معنی لری. سرچینی ترجمه Livius Klíma, O.: Sláva a pád starého Íránu, Praha 1977. "https://ps.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=خشايارشا&oldid=147772" نه اخيستل شوی وېشنيزه: د هخامنشیانو حکمرانان گرځښت غورنۍ شخصي اوزار غونډال کې نه ياست ننوتي خبرې اترې ونډې گڼون جوړول ننوتل نوم-تشيالونه مخ خبرې اترې ډولونه کتنې لوستل سرچينه کتل پېښليک کتل More پلټنه گرځښت لومړی مخ جرګه اوسنۍ پېښې وروستي بدلونونه ناټاکلی مخ لارښود مرسته وکړئ اوزارونه د دې مخ تړنې اړونده بدلونونه دوتنه پورته کول ځانگړي مخونه تلپاتې تړنه د مخ مالومات د دې مخ اخځ ويکيډاټا توکی چاپول/صادرول يو کتاب جوړول د PDF په بڼه ښکته کول چاپي بڼه په نورو پروژو کې ويکيمېډيا کامنز په نورو ژبو کې Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 تړنې سمول دا مخ وروستی ځل په ۱۶:۵۳، ۸ مارچ ۲۰۱۳ بدلون موندلی. دا متن د کريټيف کامنز ورته-شريکېدنې-اړوندتيا منښتليک له مخې خپور شوی؛ اضافه شرطونه به هم کارېدلي وي. د لا تفصيل لپاره د کارولو شرطونه وگورئ. د پټنتيا تگلاره د ويکيپېډيا په اړه ردادعاليکونه د موبايل په بڼې کتل پرمختگگران: Statistics د کوکيز ويناليک 
pt-wikipedia-org-4631	----	Xerxes I – Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre Xerxes I Origem: Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre. Saltar para a navegação Saltar para a pesquisa Esta página cita fontes confiáveis, mas que não cobrem todo o conteúdo. Ajude a inserir referências. Conteúdo não verificável poderá ser removido.—Encontre fontes: Google (notícias, livros e acadêmico) (Janeiro de 2011) Xerxes I Reinado 486 a 465 a.C. Antecessor(a) Dario I Sucessor(a) Artaxerxes I Casa Aquemênida Nascimento 519 a.C. Morte 465 a.C. (54 anos) Pai Dario I Mãe Atossa Xerxes (em farsi: خشایارشاه, pronunciado "Kshaiarsha";[1] 518 — 465 a.C.[2]) foi o xá aquemênida de 486 a.C. até a data do seu assassinato[3] em 465 a.C.[2] Era filho de Dario I e neto de Histaspes e de Ciro, O Grande.[4] Seu nome, Xerxes, é uma transliteração para o grego de seu nome persa depois de sua ascensão, Jshāyār Shah, que significa "governante de heróis". Na Bíblia é mencionado como "Assuero" אחשורש (Axashverosh Assuero transliterado em grego). Índice 1 Bibliografia 1.1 Família, reinado e batalhas 2 Árvore genealógica 3 Representação na cultura 3.1 Cinema 3.2 Teledramaturgia 4 Ver também 5 Referências Bibliografia[editar | editar código-fonte] Família, reinado e batalhas[editar | editar código-fonte] Ver artigos principais: Guerras Médicas, Batalha de Termópilas e Batalha de Maratona Xerxes era filho de Dario I e Atossa, filha de Ciro II, que se casaram após Dario ter se tornado rei dos reis (título que se dava ao xá).[5] Apesar de Ariâmenes ser o primogênito de Dario, foi Xerxes quem o sucedeu dado que era neto de Ciro II.[5] Outro irmão foi o sátrapa Aquêmenes, filho de Dario[6] e de Atossa.[7] Xerxes foi casado com Vasti e, em seguida, com Ester, de origem judaica.[8] Xerxes herdou o trono por designação do pai, apesar de não ser o primogênito. Continuou a guerra contra os gregos, conhecida como Guerras Médicas, como forma de vingança, pois seu pai havia perdido a Batalha de Maratona em 490 a.C. Tablete atribuído a Xerxes Xerxes mandou construir um canal que atravessava a península de Atos, o que facilitou a passagem da frota. Após derrotar o exército de Leônidas I, vencendo a Batalha das Termópilas, que teve como palco o desfiladeiro de mesmo nome, Xerxes saqueou a Ática e, ao tomar Atenas, arrasou os santuários da Acrópole. Fragmento de vaso cerâmico com a inscrição Xerxes Sua frota foi destruída na Salamina por Temístocles, em consequência dos graves erros táticos que cometeu, retornando à Pérsia. Ele nunca chegou a se recuperar dessa derrota e em seguida abandonou as ambições militares.[9] Mais tarde morreria assassinado por seu ministro Artabano, em 465 a.C. Nos últimos anos de reinado, Xerxes dedicou-se à construção de palácios e monumentos que contribuíram para o embelezamento de Persépolis.[10] Artapano e o eunuco Aspamitres, conselheiros de Xerxes, o assassinaram, e convenceram Artaxerxes I de que Dario, seu irmão, havia assassinado o próprio pai; Dario foi levado ao palácio de Artaxerxes e, mesmo negando o crime, foi executado.[3] Árvore genealógica[editar | editar código-fonte] Árvore genealógica (incompleta) baseada em outros artigos: Dario I Atossa Onofas Xerxes I Ester (Hadassa) Dario Histaspes Artaxerxes Rodogine Amitis Representação na cultura[editar | editar código-fonte] Cinema[editar | editar código-fonte] Em 300 e 300: Rise of an Empire, vivido por Rodrigo Santoro. Na paródia Meet the Spartans, Ken Davitian é Xerxes. Em Uma noite com o Rei, de 2006, Xerxes é vivido pelo ator Luke Goss. Teledramaturgia[editar | editar código-fonte] Foi retratado na minissérie A História de Ester, nas versões de 1998 e de 2010. Ver também[editar | editar código-fonte] Inscrição de Xerxes Referências ↑ «Xerxes - Wiktionary». en.wiktionary.org (em inglês). Consultado em 11 de junho de 2017  ↑ a b Cláudio Ptolomeu (compilador), Cânone de Ptolomeu, Os reis dos persas [em linha] ↑ a b Ctésias de Cnido, Pérsica, texto em epítome por Fócio, Biblioteca de Fócio, 33 [em linha] ↑ Heródoto, Histórias, Livro I, Clio, 183 [pt] [el] [el/en] [ael/fr] [en] [en] [en] [es] ↑ a b Plutarco, Morália, Sobre o amor entre irmãos, 18 ↑ Diodoro Sículo, Biblioteca Histórica, Livro XI, 74.1 ↑ Heródoto, Histórias, Livro VII, Polímnia, 97 [pt] [el] [el/en] [ael/fr] [en] [en] [en] [es] ↑ Ester, Bíblia ↑ History of Persian Empire-Olmstead p 289/90 ↑ «Cópia arquivada». Consultado em 8 de janeiro de 2012. Arquivado do original em 23 de janeiro de 2012  Precedido por: Dario I xá aquemênida 486 — 475 a.C. Sucedido por: Artaxerxes I Faraó (486 — 466 a.C.) 27ª Dinastia Este artigo sobre História ou um(a) historiador(a) é um esboço relacionado ao Projeto História. Você pode ajudar a Wikipédia expandindo-o. v d e v d e Faraós do Egito Faraós (masculino • feminino ♀) • incerto/regente Protodinastia até 1.º Período Intermediário (c.–3150 a.C.) Protodinastia (3500–3150 a.C.) Baixo Egito Hessequiu Caau Tiu Texe Neebe Uazner Mequete Rei A Uaxe Alto Egito Rei de Gebeleim Rei de Hieracômpolis Órix Concha Peixe Elefante Touro (Touro I e Touro II?) Boi I Cegonha Canídeo Boi II Escorpião I Falcão I Mim Falcão II Leão Falcão Duplo Iri-Hor Rei B Hate-Hor Ni-Hor Hedju-Hor Cá Escorpião II Crocodilo Narmer/Menés Época Tinita (3150–2686 a.C.) I dinastia Narmer/Menés Atótis Quenquenés Uenefés Merneite♀ Usafedo Miebido Semempsés Bienequés II dinastia Boco Queco Binótris Hórus Bá Nubenefer Hórus Pássaro Hórus Sá Uenegue Tlas Setenés Peribessene Sequemibe Neferquerés I Sesócris Hudjefa I Quenerés Império Antigo (2686–2181 a.C.) III dinastia Nequerofrés Djoser Tireis Mesócris Huni IV dinastia Seneferu Quéops Diedefré Quéfren Biqueris Miquerinos Seberquerés V dinastia Userquerés Sefrés Neferircaré I Sisires Neferefré Raturés Menquerés Tanquerés Unas VI dinastia Teti Usercaré Pepi I Merenré I Pepi II Merenré II Nitócris♀ 1.º Período Intermediário (2181–2040 a.C.) VII/VIII dinastias Mencaré Neferquerés II Neferquerés III Diedecaré Xemai Neferquerés IV Merenor Nefercamim I Nicaré I Neferquerés V Nefercaor Neferquerés VI Nefercamim II Cacaré Ibi Nefercauré Nefercauor Neferircaré II IX dinastia Actoés I Neferquerés VII Actoés II Seném Actoés III Actoés IV Xede Hu X dinastia Actoés V Meri Actoés VI Actoés VII Actoés VIII Mericaré Império Médio até 2.º Período Intermediário (2040–1550 a.C.) Império Médio (2040–1802 a.C.) XI dinastia Mentuotepe I Antefe I Antefe II Antefe III Mentuotepe II Mentuotepe III Mentuotepe IV Núbia Seguerseni Cacaré Ini Iibequentré XII dinastia Amenemés I Sesóstris I Amenemés II Sesóstris II Sesóstris III Amenemés III Amenemés IV Neferusobeque 2.º Período Intermediário (1802–1550 a.C.) XIII dinastia Ugafe Amenemés V Ameni Quemau Seetepibré Iufeni Amenemés VI Sombefe Nericaré Hotepibré Seaudicaré Nediemibré Sebecotepe I Renisenebe Hor I Amenemés VII Sebecotepe II Quendier Imiremexau Antefe IV Sebecotepe III Neferotepe I Sebecotepe IV Sebecotepe V Sebecotepe VI Ibiau Aí I Ini I Seauditu Neferotepe II Hor I Sebecotepe VII Dedumesiu Ibi II Hor II Secaré Senebemiu Secaenré Meriqueperré Sesóstris IV Mentuensafe Neferotepe III Mentuotepe V Usermontu Sebecotepe VIII Ini II Mentuotepe VI Senaibe Upuautensafe XIV dinastia Aaotepré Xexi Neesi Catiré Nebfauré Seebré Merdjefaré Seaudjcaré III Nebdjefaré Uebenré Sequedjefaré Djedecuebenré Autibré Heribré Nebsenré Sequeperenré Djequeruré Seanquibré Canefertemeré Sequenré Caquemuré Neferibré Caré Ancaré Semenré Djedecaré Hepu Anati Bebnem XV dinastia Salites Apopi I Camudi Secaenré II Xexi Iacube-Hor Apopi II Camudi XVI dinastia Senebecai Anater Useranate Senquém Uasa Zaquete Car Pepi III Bebanque Nebemaré Nicaré II Aotepré Aneteriré Nubanqueré Nubuserré Causerré Iacube-Baal Iaquebam Ioam Amu XVII dinastia Antefe V Raotepe Sebequensafe I Mentuotepe VII Nebirau I Nebirau II Semenenra Sebequensafe II Antefe VI Antefe VII Tao I Tao II Camés Império Novo até 3.º Período Intermediário (1550–664 a.C.) Império Novo (1550–1070 a.C.) XVIII dinastia Amósis I Amenófis I Tutemés I Tutemés II Hatexepsute♀ Tutemés III Amenófis II Tutemés IV Amenófis III Aquenáton Semencaré Tutancâmon Aí Horemebe XIX dinastia Ramessés I Seti I Ramessés II Merneptá Amenemessés Seti II Siptá Tausserte XX dinastia Setenaquete Ramessés III Ramessés IV Ramessés V Ramessés VI Ramessés VII Ramessés VIII Ramessés IX Ramessés X Ramessés XI 3.º Período Intermediário (1069–664 a.C.) XXI dinastia Esmendes Amenemnesu Psusenés I Amenemopé Osocor, o Velho Siamom Psusenés II XXII dinastia Sisaque I Osocor I Sisaque II Taquelote I Osocor II Sisaque III Sisaque IV Pami Sisaque V Osocor IV Taquelote II XXIII dinastia Padibastete Sisaque VI Osocor III Taquelote III Rudamom Iupute Pefetjaubastete Ninlote XXIV dinastia Tefenacte Bócoris XXV dinastia Piiê Xabaca Xabataca Taraca Tanutamon Época Baixa até Período Ptolemaico (664–30 a.C.) Época Baixa (664–332 a.C.) XXVI dinastia Necao I Psamético I Necao II Psamético II Apriés Amósis II Psamético III XXVII dinastia Cambises Dario I Xerxes I Artaxerxes I Dario II XXVIII dinastia Amirteu XXIX dinastia Neferités I Psamutis Acoris Neferites II XXX dinastia Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI dinastia Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Dario III Época greco-romana (332–30 a.C.) Dinastia macedônica Alexandre, o Grande Filipe Alexandre II Dinastia ptolemaica † Ptolemeu I Berenice I♀ Ptolemeu II Arsínoe I♀ Arsínoe II♀ Ptolemeu III Berenice II♀ Ptolemeu IV Arsínoe III♀ Ptolemeu V Cleópatra I♀ Ptolemeu VI Cleópatra II♀ Ptolemeu VIII Ptolemeu VII Cleópatra III♀ Ptolemeu IX Cleópatra IV♀ Ptolemeu X Berenice III♀ Ptolemeu XII Cleópatra V♀ Cleópatra VI♀ Berenice IV♀ Ptolemeu XII Cleópatra VII♀ Ptolemeu XIII Arsínoe IV Ptolemeu XIV Ptolemeu XV † Na dinastia ptolemaica, as mulheres dos faraós governavam junto com seus maridos. Portal do Antigo Egito Controle de autoridade : Q129165 WorldCat VIAF: 282770127 BMT: 81784 BNE: XX1153338 BNF: 150689088 BRE: 2117239 CANTIC: a12318310 CERL: cnp00400914 EBID: ID FAST: 1859099 GEC: 0072588 GND: 118808109 Find a Grave: 8153452 ISNI: ID LCCN: n81070675 NKC: mzk2005313022 NLA: 66228176 NNDB: 000095657 NTA: 073636711 NUKAT: n2006124654 SELIBR: 259706 SUDOC: 050588400 ULAN: 500354810 NLI: 000437459 Obtida de "https://pt.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&oldid=60250073" Categorias: Nascidos em 519 a.C. Mortos em 465 a.C. 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repository-brynmawr-edu-7497	----	The Achaemenid Empire in South Asia and Recent Excavations in Akra in Northwest Pakistan Bryn Mawr College Scholarship, Research, and Creative Work at Bryn Mawr College Classical and Near Eastern Archaeology Faculty Research and Scholarship Classical and Near Eastern Archaeology 2005 The Achaemenid Empire in South Asia and Recent Excavations in Akra in Northwest Pakistan Peter Magee Bryn Mawr College, pmagee@brynmawr.edu Cameron Petrie Robert Knox Farid Khan Ken Thomas Let us know how access to this document benefits you. Follow this and additional works at: http://repository.brynmawr.edu/arch_pubs Part of the Classical Archaeology and Art History Commons, and the History of Art, Architecture, and Archaeology Commons This paper is posted at Scholarship, Research, and Creative Work at Bryn Mawr College. http://repository.brynmawr.edu/arch_pubs/82 For more information, please contact repository@brynmawr.edu. Custom Citation Magee, Peter, Cameron Petrie, Richard Knox, Farid Khan, and Ken Thomas. 2005. The Achaemenid Empire in South Asia and Recent Excavations in Akra in Northwest Pakistan. American Journal of Archaeology 109:711-741. http://repository.brynmawr.edu?utm_source=repository.brynmawr.edu%2Farch_pubs%2F82&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages http://repository.brynmawr.edu?utm_source=repository.brynmawr.edu%2Farch_pubs%2F82&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages http://repository.brynmawr.edu/arch_pubs?utm_source=repository.brynmawr.edu%2Farch_pubs%2F82&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages http://repository.brynmawr.edu/arch_pubs?utm_source=repository.brynmawr.edu%2Farch_pubs%2F82&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages http://repository.brynmawr.edu/archaeology?utm_source=repository.brynmawr.edu%2Farch_pubs%2F82&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages http://repository.brynmawr.edu/open-access-feedback.html http://repository.brynmawr.edu/arch_pubs?utm_source=repository.brynmawr.edu%2Farch_pubs%2F82&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages http://network.bepress.com/hgg/discipline/450?utm_source=repository.brynmawr.edu%2Farch_pubs%2F82&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages http://network.bepress.com/hgg/discipline/510?utm_source=repository.brynmawr.edu%2Farch_pubs%2F82&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages http://network.bepress.com/hgg/discipline/510?utm_source=repository.brynmawr.edu%2Farch_pubs%2F82&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages http://repository.brynmawr.edu/arch_pubs/82 mailto:repository@brynmawr.edu The Achaemenid Empire in South Asia and Recent Excavations in Akra in Northwest Pakistan PETER MAGEE, CAMERON PETRIE, ROBERT KNOX, FARID KHAN, AND KEN THOMAS Abstract The impact of the Achaemenid annexation of north- western Pakistan has remained a focus for archaeological research for more than a century. A lack of well-stratified settlements and a focus on artifacts that are not necessar- ily appropriate for assessing the effects of imperial control have until now obfuscated our understanding of this issue. In this article, we present the results of three seasons of excavations at Akra located in the North West Frontier Province of Pakistan. Although research was cut short in 2001 by global events, our preliminary results indicate that the relationship between urbanism, trade, and the Achaemenid annexation was considerably more complex than previously argued by scholars. Akra experienced rapid growth in settlement at the beginning of the first millen- nium B.C., several centuries before the Achaemenids ruled this area, and exhibited contacts with regions in both peninsular India and Central Asia during this time. When we are able to return to Pakistan, we hope to investigate further the causes of this settlement expansion and trade.* INTRODUCTION The Achaemenid capitals at Pasargadae, Perse- polis, and Susa have traditionally provided the ba- sis of our understanding of the archaeology of the Achaemenid empire. However, in recent decades archaeologists and historians alike have turned their attention to the peripheries of the empire in search of evidence of how the Achaemenids ruled * The authors would like to thank the following scholars who read over drafts of this paper and made many useful comments and corrections; any errors that remain are the responsibility of the authors: Professor Dan Potts (Sydney), Professor James Wright (Bryn Mawr), Professor Stephanie Dalley (Oxford) , and Professor Derek Kennet (Durham) . The fieldwork that provided the data on which this paper is based would not have been possible without the financial assistance of the Australian Research Council, British Museum, Society for South Asian Studies (British Academy) , Australian Institute of Nuclear Science and Engineering, and the University of Sydney. Without the assistance of numerous officials in Paki- stan, fieldwork in Bannu would not have been possible. We would like to thank current and previous directors-general of archaeology and the many government officials in Bannu who facilitated our stay there. subject peoples. A significant proportion of this research has been carried out on the regions that border the classical world, in particular Anatolia,1 the Levant,2 and Egypt.3 In contrast, the far eastern extent of the empire, which is encompassed by the borders of modern-day Pakistan and Afghanistan, has received less attention. In this paper, we present data from new excavations in northwest Pakistan that provide fresh insight into indigenous settle- ments in this region during and also prior to the period of Achaemenid annexation (fig. 1 ) . Royal inscriptions, edicts, and administrative texts dating from the reign of Darius onward indi- cate that there were three provinces located along the eastern frontier of the Achaemenid empire in what is today South Asia: Gandara, Thatagus, and Hindush.4 Toponyms, derivatives, and derivative ethnic designations also appear in the descriptions of the empire and its inhabitants recorded by a num- ber of contemporary and later classical authors, in- cluding Herodotus, Arrian, and Quintus Curtius.5 The commemorative Behistun inscription, which was carved between ca. 520 and 518 B.C.,6 lists Gandara and Thatagus among the provinces that Darius inherited when he seized the throne in 522 B.C.7 Thatagus also is listed as one of the provinces that rose up against the new king8 and was the loca- ^.g^Sancisi-WeerdenburgandKuhrt^ljSummers^S, 85-108; Dusinberre 1999, 73-102. 2 E.g., Stern 1982. 3 E.g., Sancisi-Weerdenburg and Kuhrt 1991. 4Vogelsang 1990, 97-102. For a comprehensive review, see Vogelsang 1992, 94-179. 5 E.g., Sattagydia and India in Herodotus (3.89-95 [de Selincourt 1972]); India in Arrian (Anabasis 3.8.3-4, 3.28.1, and Indica [Brunt 2000, 2004] ) , and Quintus Curtius (4.12.9, 9.7.14 [Rolfe 1976]); Sattagydians, Gandharians, and Indians in Herodotus (3.98-105, 7.61 ff. [de Selincourt 1972]); and various types of Indians in Arrian (3.8.3-4. 3.28.1 [Brunt 2004] ) and Quintus Curtius (4.12.9, 9.7.14 [Rolfe 1976] ) . For a comprehensive review of the relevant classical sources, see Vogelsang 1992, 180-244. 6 Schmidt 1990, 299-300. 7 Inscription of Darius I at Bisutum (hereafter DB) , sec. 6, 1.12-17; Kent 1953, 117-9; Lecoq 1997, 187-214. This dat- ing for Darius' accession follows the chronology outlined in Vogelsang 1986, 130; 1992, 122; 1998, 197. 8DB, sec. 20, 2.5-8, Kent 1953, 121-3. The details of Darius' accession have been extensively discussed; for recent assess- ments, see Vogelsang (1998, with references). For a provoca- tive assessment of the ethnicity of Cyrus, see Potts (forthcoming) . American Journal of Archaeology 109 (2005) 711-41 711 712 PETER MAGEE ET AL. [AJA109 Fig. 1. Map of the Near East and South Asia. (Archaeological Computing Laboratory, University of Sydney) tion of one of the three battles in the ensuing cam- paign against rebellious forces in the eastern prov- inces of the empire.9 However, the date of the initial annexation of Gandara and Thatagus is not certain. Recent assessments of the classical sources that relate Cyrus' expedition to Central Asia agree that he marched through Arachosia in southern Afghani- stan, destroyed the city of Capisa (modern Begram) , and then campaigned into Bactria between 539 and 530 B.C., when he died somewhere in the north- east of his newly expanded empire.10 The arrange- ment of the provinces in a number of Darius' royal inscriptions has been taken to indicate close relationships between Baxtrish (Bactria) and Gandara,11 and between Harauvatish (Arachosia) and Thatagus,12 which might mean that Gandara and Thatagus were annexed when Cyrus secured Arachosia and Bactria. Whether or not this is the case, Darius considered them to be part of his em- pire in 522 B.C. It is generally supposed that Hindush is analo- gous with modern Sind,13 although there are no excavated remains that support this suggestion.14 This province is not mentioned in the Behistun inscription, but it does appear on all but one of Darius' other surviving inscriptions,15 including two 9Fleming 1982; Bivar 1988, 200; Vogelsang 1990, 100; 1992, 127-9. Discussed further below. 10 Particularly Herodotus (1.169, 1.201-16 [de Selincourt 1972]) butalso Pliny (6,24.92 [Rackhaml989]),Arrian (3.27.4 [Brunt 2004] ) , and Quintus Curtius (7.3.1 [Rolfe 1976] ) . See Francfort (1988, 170), Bivar (1988, 198-90), and Vogelsang (1992, 1 87-9) , who list other sources. In contrast, Briant (2002, 38-40) maintains the order presented by Herodotus, imply- ing that Cyrus campaigned to Central Asia before and after his victory in Babylon in 539 B.C. 11 Vogelsang 1990, 99-100. Discussed further below. 12Vogelsang 1985, 79-80; 1990, 100; 1992, 110-5, 129. Discussed further below. 13Reviewed in Bivar (1988, 202-4), where Taxila is proposed as a possible alternative, although the route of Scylax that is reconstructed does not pass Taxila. See also Vogelsang 1990, 101-2. 14 Although there are significant Iron Age remains at Pirak in Baluchistan, the latest occupation phase (period III) has been dated to ca. 1100-800 B.C. (Jarrige and Santoni 1979, 12-3; Vogelsang 1985, 75-7). 15 Kent 1953, DH 147, DNa 137-138, DPe 136, DPh 136- 2005] THE ACHAEMENID EMPIRE IN SOUTH ASIA 713 of the so-called foundation charters from Susa that do not mention either Gandara or Thatagus.16 Hindush appears with Thatagus among the 24 "for- tress cartouches" inscribed on either side of the base of a statue of Darius, recovered at Susa in 1972, 17 and both are also represented on the so- called canal stelae from Egypt.18 Bivar has suggested that Hindush was annexed in 515 B.C., following the reconnaissance of the Indus River by Scylax of Caryanda undertaken in 517 B.C.19 The names for eastern provinces and their related ethnic designations also appear in several of the ration disbursement documents in the Persepolis Fortification (PF) text corpus (509-496 B.C.), which among other things typically lists the name of the traveler, the route, and the person who autho- rized the payment.20 The most regularly appearing toponyms from the eastern empire are Harauvatish (Arachosia) and Hindush, while Gandara is listed twice and Thatagus is completely absent.21 The one documented journey from Gandara to Susa (PF1358) was made via Harauvatish under the au- thority of an official there named Bakabadush who also authorized journeys from other areas.22 This has led to the suggestion that a route from Gandara to southwest Iran via the oasis of modern Kandahar was in common use.23 Although there are 16 sepa- rate documents that mention Hindush and/or In- dians,24 only one relating to travel originating in Hindush was authorized by an official who may have resided there (PF1552).25 Significantly, none of the journeys to or from Hindush appears to have been authorized in Harauvatish, suggesting that they may have been made via another route, possibly east through Baluchistan to Carmania.26 While this group of documents as a whole provides an often intimate view of the movement of individuals and groups to and from the east of the Achaemenid empire and of the routes that were being used, it is difficult to establish the significance of the paucity of documents related to Gandara and Thatagus. It may indicate that there was little movement between these two eastern provinces and the western cen- ters at this time, but it could also reflect differential document survival. Representatives of Gandara, Thatagus, and/or Hindush are depicted as delegates bringing gifts to the king on the Apadana staircases, and as throne/ dais bearers on the Tripylon and Hall of One Hundred Columns reliefs at Persepolis.27 They also appear on the reliefs that decorate the exte- rior facades of the tombs of Darius and of each sub- sequent Achaemenid king at Naqsh-i Rustam and Persepolis,28 with the exception of the tomb of Darius III, which was unfinished when he was de- feated by Alexander at Gaugamela in 331 B.C., and remained so after his death.29 The representatives of Gandara, Thatagus, and Hindush in each in- stance are characterized by their loincloths, sandals, and exposed upper body, which distinguish them from the representatives of other eastern provinces such as Bactria and Arachosia.30 137, DSe 141-142, DSf 142-144, DSm 145; also Lecoq 1997, DH 218-219, DNa 219-221, DNe 225-226, DPe 228, DPh 230, DSe 232-234, DSf 234-237, DSm 239, DSv 242, DSz 243-245. 16 Specifically DSf, Kent 1953, 142-4; Lecoq 1997, 234-7; DSz, Lecoq 1997, 243-5. These foundation charters list Hindush and Arachosia as suppliers of ivory, and because elephants are not known in historical Arachosia, Vogelsang has suggested that it acted as an emporium for the Indian ivory trade (Vogelsang 1985, 81; 1987, 186; 1992, 132). 17Stronach 1972, 241-3; Roaf 1974, 116, 145-7. There is no cartouche for Gandara. 18 Roaf 1974, 79-84; Vogelsang 1992, 105. 19 Bivar 1988, 201-3 (after Herodotus 4.44). See also Vogelsang 1990, 101-4. 20 Vogelsang 1990, 101 (after Hallock 1969, 6). Bivar makes the assumption that authority to travel was being given by the satraps of the provinces in which thejourneys originated (Bivar 1988, 206-7) . In the instance where the journey from Gandara was authorized by the satrap of Arachosia (PF1358), he sug- gests that the permit was being renewed (Bivar 1988, 205). 21 Vogelsang 1990, 101. The lack of documents that men- tion Thatagus is only somewhat ameliorated by three texts that refer to Sa-da-ku-is, "the Sattagydian" (PF789, 2018, 2020) , who was responsible for distributing agricultural produce at Shiraz (Bivar 1988, 208 [after Hallock 1969, 233, 622-4]). 22 Bakabadush authorized travel from Arachosia, Gandara, and Barrikana, also in southern Afghanistan (Vogelsang 1990, 101). Bivar (1988, 205) suggests he was the satrap of Arachosia. 23Vogelsang 1985, 82-7; 1990, 101. 24 Summarized in Vogelsang 1992, 167-9, table 12. 25 This official was named Parnaka (Hallock 1969, 434; Vogelsang 1992, 167). PF1425 and 1529 refer to Indians be- ing authorized by a certain Irdubama, who also authorized three other journeys (PF1362, 1491, 2051) leading Bivar to suggest that he was satrap of Hindush (Bivar 1988, 206-7). 26 Vogelsang 1990, 102. This is noteworthy in light of the suggestion that Arachosia acted as an emporium for the In- dian ivory trade (see supra n. 16; Vogelsang 1985, 81; 1987, 186; 1992, 132). 27 Schmidt 1953, 82-90, 116-20, 134-7; Roaf 1974, 84-92; 1983, 1-164. The ethnic identification of the individuals and groups from the east is reviewed in Vogelsang ( 1992, 147-51 ) . It is notable that at least one Indian representative or delega- tion is not depicted in each instance. 28 Schmidt 1970, 77-118, pls. 39-52. The ethnic identifica- tion of individuals and groups from the east is reviewed in Vogelsang (1992, 135-43). Representatives of Gandara, Thatagus, and Hindush are shown on each tomb. 29 Schmidt 1970, 107, pls. 76-79. 30 Reviewed in Vogelsang 1992, 140-3; 1990, 98. The del- egates from Maka will not be discussed here. 714 PETER MAGEE ET AL. [AJA109 The appearance of the representatives of Gandara, Thatagus, and Hindush on each royal tomb relief up to Artaxerxes III indicates that these provinces continued to be a part of the royal concep- tion of the empire until at least 338 B.C., less than 10 years before Alexander's victory at Gaugamela. The maintenance of fealty with the Achaemenid king beyond this date is suggested by Arrian's description of the army of Darius III at Gaugamela, where the king is said to have "obtained the help of those Indians who bordered on the Bactrians, to- gether with the Bactrians and Sogdianians them- selves, all under the command of Bessus, the satrap of Bactria."31 Arrian then notes, "Barsentes, satrap of the Arachotians, led both the Arachotians and the Indian hill-men, as they were called."32 Al- though Arrian does not use the more specific eth- nic determiners used by Herodotus, if the evidence of a relationship between Bactria and Gandara is taken into consideration, then it is likely that the Indians bordering the Bactrians at Gaugamela were troops from Gandara.33 The Indian hill-men were thus presumably from either Thatagus or Hindush, depending on the perceived boundaries of those provinces. There has been some debate about the nature of Achaemenid administration over the eastern prov- inces, using Achaemenid and classical sources. What is clear is that both are harmonious in refer- ring to the existence of satraps in Bactria and Arachosia (Harauvatish), whereas at no point does either refer to satraps in Gandara, Thatagus, or Hindush.34 However, the chroniclers of Alexander make it clear that there were rulers and/ or official personages in the far eastern provinces in the late fourth century B.C.35 Vogelsang has argued that the sources indicate the existence of a stepped admin- istration with four levels of control: the king, the provincial governor, the local potentate, and the local masses.36 As such, Arachosia appears to have been an important administrative center, with a sa- trap who had influence over the neighboring prov- inces to the east, particularly Thatagus.37 A similar situation appears to have existed between Bactria and Gandara,38 which is supported by the fact that there are no clear references to Achaemenid offi- cials in the Indus Valley in the ancient Indian lit- erature, but there are references to Bactrians and Kambojas.39 The satraps in Bactria and Arachosia are first mentioned in the Behistun inscription, suggesting that this system operated at least from 520-518 B.C.,40 and the description of the army of Darius III indicates that it was maintained until the empire was subsumed by Alexander in 330 B.C.41 From the commencement of archaeological re- search in what is today modern Pakistan, attempts were made to discover Achaemenid occupation in the region and to identify relevant place-names mentioned in the Achaemenid and classical sources. This was particularly so for the province of Gandara, due to its importance in both the Achaemenid and the later Kushan periods. As early as 1863, Sir Alexander Cunningham proposed that Charsadda, which is situated in the Peshawar Valley, was the location of ancient Pushkalavati (fig. 2).42 This Sanskrit name became the Greek Peukelaotis, Peukelaitis, and Peukala used by Arrian, Strabo, and Pliny, respectively.43 Sir John Marshall confirmed Cunningham's identification in 1903 when he re- covered an inscription from Ghaz Dheri, 1.6 km from Charsadda, which contained the phrase "Puskhala visae" or "in the district of Puskala."44 The signifi- cance of Cunningham's pioneering identification is emphasized by the fact that it was made nearly 60 31 Arrian Anabasis 3.8.3 [Brunt 2004] ; Vogelsang 1992, 221- 3; Briant 2002, 756. 32 Arrian Anabasis 3.8.4 [Brunt 2004] ; Vogelsang 1992, 221- 3; Briant 2002, 756. 33 Vogelsang 1992, 222-3. 34 E.g., DB, sec. 38, 3.10-19, sec. 45, 3.54-64; Kent 1953; Arrian 3.8.3-4, 3.25.8 (Brunt 2004) . See also the discussion in Vogelsang 1992, 169-73. 35 E.g., when Alexander marches toward India, he is met by Taxiles' and the Indian hyparchs (unapxoi), or princes west of the Indus (Arrian 4.22.6 [Brunt 2004] ) , who are considered both rulers in their own right and de facto subjects of the Great King (Bosworth 1995, 147-8; Vogelsang 1992, 236; Briant2002, 748, 756-7) . The use of the title "hyparchs" has the connota- tion of subordination, and could emphasize both Alexander's perceived selfjustification and provide an indication of the na- ture of their relationship to the Achaemenid king (Bosworth 1995, 147-8). Bosworth has suggested that when Alexander seized control of the Achaemenid empire, he may have con- sidered the Indian rulers to be, by right, his subjects; and in his invasion, he was effectively reaffirming control over his proper vassals. In apparent contrast to his Achaemenid predecessors, he made a point of appointing satraps throughout the con- quered Indian territories, either making new appointments, or reappointing previous rulers (e.g., Arrian 5.29.4, 6.16.3 [Brunt 2004]). 36Vogelsang 1985, 87-91; 1992, 227, and esp. 313-5. 37Vogelsang 1985, 87-91; 1990, 100; 1992, 172-3, 227, 313-5. 38Vogelsang 1985, 87-91; 1990, 99-100; 1992, 178-9, 313- 5; Briant 2002, 746. 39 Vogelsang 1987, 187 (after Witzel 1980); Bivar 1988, 199. 40 E.g., DB, sec. 38, 3.10-19, sec. 45, 3.54-64; Kent 1953. 41 Arrian 3.8.3-4 (Brunt 2004); Vogelsang 1992, 314. 42 Cunningham 1871,89. 43 Arrian Anabasis 4.22, 4.28, and Indica 4.11 (Brunt 2000, 2004); Strabo 15.1.27 (Jones 1976); Pliny 4.21.62 (after Wheeler 1962, 3). 44 Marshall 1904, 176. 2005] THE ACHAEMENID EMPIRE IN SOUTH ASIA 715 Fig. 2. Map of Pakistan, northern India, and Afghanistan, showing main Iron Age sites years before the publication of H. Weissbach's mag- isterial Keilinschriften der Achdmeniden of 1911, which led to so much research on the territories and pro- vincial administration of the empire. Since the 1950s, archaeological teams have con- ducted more systematic excavations at sites in north- west Pakistan that are relevant to the time frame of the Achaemenid conquest. Sir Mortimer Wheeler's excavations at the Bala Hissar at Charsadda in 1958 provided the first well-stratified archaeological se- quence in the region.45 Although he initially pro- posed that there was no substantial occupation at the site before the Achaemenid period, reanalysis of Wheeler's sequence46 and renewed excavations at the site47 have shown that it was actually founded in the mid second millennium B.C., and that it is the only site in the Peshawar Valley with an unbro- ken sequence of occupation from ca. 1400 to 50 45 Wheeler 1962, 13, 33. 46Dittmann 1984, 155-93. 47Alietal. 1998, 1-34. 716 PETER MAGEE ET AL. [AJA109 B.C.48 Recent excavations at the Bala Hissar have aimed at confirming the timing of the site's foun- dation49 and have produced little in the way of new results that are directly relevant to the Achaemenid period. To the north of Charsadda, in the Swat Valley, Italian and Pakistani archaeologists have been con- ducting research since the late 1950s. The excava- tions at a number of necropoleis, including Kherai,50 Loebanr, Katelai, Butkara,51 and Timargarha,52 have revealed a sequence of cultural material that the Italians have organized into numbered phases (Swat 1-7). 53 Dani has labeled this assemblage the Gandharan Grave Culture.54 The investigation of affiliated settlement sites such as Aligrama and Ghaligai55 has contextualized this grave sequence by revealing associated domestic assemblages. There is general agreement that the Swat/ Gandharan grave sequence as a whole can be dated from the mid to late second millennium to the end of the first millennium B.C. However, there is con- troversy over the relative dating of the phases and the absolute dating of the entire sequence, and no single site has been excavated that provides a com- plete sequence.56 The excavations at the site of Bir-kot-ghwandai had the potential to anchor the Swat sequence in a specific Achaemenid historical context. Sir Aurel Stein was the first to identify Bir-kot-ghwandai as Bazira,57 a city that, according to Arrian, was cap- tured and fortified by the Macedonians during Alexander's conquest of Swat.58 Excavations began at the site with the aim of establishing the validity of Stein's identification,59 and Callieri thought he was initially able to provide validation due to the dis- covery of a fortification wall during excavations.60 However, on the basis of numismatic finds, it has been established that this wall could not have been constructed until the Indo-Greek period in the second to first centuries B.C.61 In fact, Olivieri has gone so far as to say, "the information provided by the excavation to date is not yet sufficient to prove categorically that the archaeological site of Bir-kot- ghwandai actually corresponds to the Bazira men- tioned by Alexander's historians."62 As such, the excavations at settlement sites and cemeteries in northwest Pakistan have exposed se- quences of material remains that can be dated from the mid to late second millennium to the late first millennium B.C. However, while the question of the Achaemenid and/or Hellenistic presence has remained one of the main foci of this research, there is little doubt that we are no closer to understand- ing the impact of these imperial powers than we were 40 years ago. In the first instance, the identifi- cation of Achaemenid archaeological horizons at sites in northwest Pakistan has been significantly affected by the unstratified nature of many of the cemetery excavations in the Swat Valley; the lack of consensus over the relative sequence of the mate- rial from the settlements and graves; and the prob- lems associated with the absolute chronology of the sequence at Charsadda. The dearth of comparative Achaemenid-period material in areas immediately to the west has exacerbated this problem. The only major excavated site in Afghanistan with evidence for Achaemenid occupation is Kandahar, which is situated almost 500 km to the east of the Indus River, and has been proposed as the possible location of the capital of the Achaemenid province of Arachosia (fig. 2).63 Even at this major site, however, there are conflicting interpretations of the chronology of the Iron Age and Achaemenid-period deposits.64 Schol- ars have acknowledged these problems. The most comprehensive review of these issues led Dittmann to conclude, "what is perfectly clear is that the se- quence of the 1st millennium B.C. in northern Pa- kistan needs much more study. . . . My hope is that, in the future, Pakistan archaeology will follow the pioneering work of Wheeler, Dani and Stacul in order to elucidate one of the most interesting peri- ods in Pakistan's history, namely the Iron Age."65 In the absence of any clearly defined archaeo- logical contexts that can be positioned in relation 48 Dittmann 1984, 159, 193. 49 Ali et al. 1998, 1-34. 50 Stacul 1966b, 261-74. 51Salvatori 1975,333-51. 52 Dani 1967,22-40. 53Tusa 1979,675-90. 54 Dani 1967,22-40. 55 Stacul 1967,9-43. 56 Cf. Stacul 1966a, 37-79; Dani 1967, 24-40. 57 Stein 1929b, 40, 47. 58 Arrian 4.27-8 (Brunt 2000) . 59Filigenzi and Stacul 1985, 436. ^Callieri 1990, 676; Callieri et al. 1990, 164; see also Callieri et al. 1992. 61 Olivieri 1996, 50. 62 Olivieri 1996,50. 63McNicoll and Ball (1996, 392-4) indicate that Mundigak (period IV) is another possible candidate, while Helms (1997, 91-2) argues that there is cause to doubt that Kandahar is the capital. ME.g., compare the chronology and conclusions presented in McNicoll and Ball (1996, xvii, 392-4) with those in Helms (1997,91-2). 65 Dittmann 1984, 191. 2005] THE ACHAEMENID EMPIRE IN SOUTH ASIA 717 to the historical narrative, interpretations of the effects of Achaemenid annexation, therefore, have relied on either generalized theories concerning the beneficial impacts of colonial or imperial activ- ity in South Asia or the identification of artifacts that might confirm a physical Persian presence. For an example of the former approach we need not look any further than Wheeler's introduction to his volume on Charsadda, where he says: From the decline of the prehistoric Indus Civilisation of the third and second millennia until the advent of the Achaemenid kings in the middle of the sixth cen- tury B.C., it may be inferred and assumed that these regions were the battlefields of jealous local regimes; a condition which in the time of Alexander still sub- sisted in some measure east of the Indus. To the worst abuses of this inter-regional rivalry the strong arm of the Persian Empire set a term. Safe communications were amongst the Imperial blessings and long-distance trafficking became at last secure and profitable. Com- mercial cities such as those just mentioned were the economic response, whether newly founded or newly enlarged. There is in fact no hint that Begram or Charsad(d)a or Taxila existed appreciably before the extension of Persian power across the Hindu Rush in early Achaemenid times.66 Wheeler had few external indicators for the chro- nology of the Bala Hissar, and so the assumptions concerning the benefits of empire undoubtedly played a significant part in his interpretation of the site's history. Furthermore, given the critical role that he played in the colonial authority in South Asia,67 it is also arguable that Wheeler's interpreta- tion was as reflective of his perceptions of the ben- efits of British rule in South Asia as it was an important reading of the archaeological record. Attempts to identify classes of objects that may serve as verification of an actual Persian military or bureaucratic presence have further obfuscated an understanding of the impact of imperial control. For example, the appearance of punch-marked coins at Taxila,68 the recognition of Aramaic as a known language in post-Achaemenid Mauryan in- scriptions,69 and the influence of Achaemenid monumental sculpture on Mauryan palatial archi- tecture70 all have at various times been emphasized as testimony to the influence of the Achaemenids. Such evidence is of questionable relevance in ex- amining ancient imperialism because it provides no insight into indigenous responses to imperial strategies of control. More important, as noted by Sancisi-Weerdenburg,71 when such evidence is ab- sent the empire is prone to be interpreted as weak, a possibly erroneous conclusion that takes no ac- count of the multiplicity of strategies that centers can employ to subjugate and integrate subject prov- inces.72 An alternative and more productive avenue is to examine the indigenous (and foreign) ar- chaeological evidence that dates before and after such a conquest, to determine whether changing patterns of social and economic behavior coincide with imperial episodes. Many Old and New World studies have been characterized by such an ap- proach. For example, the Upper Mantaro Archaeo- logical Project in Peru focused on the manner in which production and subsistence was altered with the incorporation of this region into the Inca em- pire in the Wanka III period. By examining changes in technology, ceramic production, and alterations in subsistence strategies,73 the effects of imperial conquest were discernible. Similarly, Morrison and Sinopoli's analysis of agricultural production and tribute in the Vijayanagara empire in India illumi- nated the varied strategies employed in provincial areas to satisfy imperial economic policy.74 The project that forms the basis of this article has as its aim the elucidation of changes in economic and social structures across the time period in which northwest Pakistan is incorporated into the Achaemenid empire. We had hoped to focus on this issue by examining changes in settlement size and distribution, subsistence strategies, and shifts in ceramic production using compositional analy- sis; but recent global events have meant that the continued collection of data in the field has been temporarily suspended. Nonetheless, three seasons of excavation have provided fresh evidence for the chronology and socioeconomic configuration of settlement before and, to a lesser extent, during the Achaemenid annexation. The data suggest a 66 Wheeler 1962, 5. 67 Boast 2002, 165-70. 68 E.g., Allchin (1995, 131), where it is commented that punch-marked coins "may be seen as almost the only substan- tial evidence of an Achaemenid presence in the early Bhir mound." Such an argument is indeed questionable given that there is no evidence to indicate that Taxila was necessarily part of the Achaemenid administrative network at this time. This is further emphasized in the most recent analysis of punch- marked coinage by Cribb (1985, 549) , in which he argues that this coinage is not to be associated with the Achaemenids. 69 Allchin 1995, 132-3. 70 For the questionable influence of Achaemenid art on Mauryan palatial architecture, see Chakrabati 1997, 190-1. 71 Sancisi-Weerdenburg 1990, 264. 72Sinopoli 1994, 169-72. 73Costinetal. 1989, 1 07-39; D'Altroy and Bishop 1990, 120- 38; Hastorf 1990, 262-90. 74 Morrison and Sinopoli 1992, 335-52. 718 PETER MAGEE ET AL. [AJA109 much more complex trajectory for settlement pat- terns in this part of South Asia than is implied in Wheeler's analysis. In particular, it is evident based on our excavations at Akra and surrounding sites in the Bannu Basin that the emergence of urban- ism in this region was in no way linked to imperial episodes. We present this new evidence in the hope that it may both methodologically and substantively contribute to our understanding of the archaeol- ogy of the Achaemenid empire and late prehistoric South Asia. AKRA AND THE IRON AGE IN THE BANNU BASIN Since 1986, a research team currently made up of members from Bryn Mawr College, the British Museum, the Institute of Archaeology (University College London), the Pakistan Heritage Society, and the University of Oxford has been conducting archaeological research in the Bannu Basin, which lies south of Peshawar in the North West Frontier Province (fig. 3). The basin is a small, topographi- cally defined region to the east of the Sulaiman Range, and is separated from the Gomal Plain in the south and the Indus River and plain to the east by a series of substantial ranges.75 This is a climati- cally marginal area, between western winter and eastern summer precipitation zones, and does not receive regular rainfall from either. It is, however, fed by a number of ephemeral streams that flow out of the various ranges, and by two perennial rivers, the Kurram and the Tochi, which flow from the Sulaiman Range and have created passes through the mountains between the eastern low- and west- ern highlands. The ancient and modern settle- ments are concentrated in the northwestern part of the basin, in the area between the two perennial rivers.76 From 1986 until 1995 the Bannu Archaeological Project (BAP) focused on the survey, excavation, and analysis of a number of prehistoric sites that range in date from the Neolithic period to the Bronze Age, the most notable being Sheri Khan Tarakai.77 The research of the BAP has shown that local environmental conditions have had a particu- lar effect on prehistoric subsistence strategies and the social and settlement systems in the region.78 Throughout the history of occupation, there are material signs of continuous contact with the hill areas to the west, and there are also indications of variable and intermittent contact with areas as di- verse as Baluchistan, the Gomal, and the Indus to the south and east, and with various parts of Cen- tral Asia to the northwest and west.79 In 1995 the project turned its attention to the site of Ter Kala Dheri, located about 5 km to the south of Bannu city on the banks of an ephemeral stream known locally as the Lohra nullah (or stream).80 This settlement appears to have once been quite large, and while it may have originally stretched along the bank of the nullah at a width of 400 m, it is now almost entirely ruined by erosion and intentional destruction.81 Of the six trenches that were excavated, only two contained intact oc- cupation deposits: trenches TKD-N and TKD-S2. Each of these revealed a distinct phase of occupa- tion; TKD-N presented surface and pit deposits with an associated Neolithic ceramic assemblage comparable to material from Sheri Khan Tarakai. TKD-S2 revealed in situ floor deposits associated with a previously unknown assemblage of hand- made ceramic forms, characterized by black-on-red geometric decoration on a brown ground.82 This distinctive ceramic material was aptly labeled Bannu black-on-red ware, and two radiocarbon determina- tions from the stratified layers containing this new assemblage indicated a possible date in the early first millennium B.C.83 The ceramic assemblage draws its closest parallels to the Iron Age assem- blage from Margiana in Central Asia, and the exca- vations at Ter Kala Dheri were the first in the Bannu region with material dating to this period. Despite the significance of the finding, there were major limitations with the excavations at the site, particu- larly that it has been heavily disturbed and that the two preserved phases of occupation are separated by a considerable gap in time, indicating that there may not be an intact sequence of continuous occu- pation preserved at the site. However, the discovery of deposits containing the hitherto unknown phase of occupation drew the project's attention to the imposing mounds of Akra, located approximately 7 km south of Ter Kala Dheri and about 12 km south of Bannu. Previous surface surveys at Akra had 75Hemphill and Kidwai 1973, pl. 5. 76 Thomas and Knox 1994, 97. 77Forreportsonthiswork, see Khan etal. 1986,83-90; 1987, 83-90; 1988, 99-148; 1989, 281-91; 1990, 241-7; 1991a; 1991b, 111-27; 1991c, 156-74; 2000d; Thomas and Knox 1994, 89-104; Thomas et al. 1997, 237-51. 78 E.g., Thomas 1986, 26-7. 79 Thomas and Knox 1994. 80 Khan et al. 2000d, 81-100. 81 Khan etal. 2000d, 81. 82 Khan et al. 2000d, 83, 86-9. 83Stuiver et al. 1998; Khan et al. 2000d, 89-91. 2005] THE ACHAEMENID EMPIRE IN SOUTH ASIA 719 Fig. 3. Map of Bannu Basin, showing main Early Historic sites shown that fragments of the newly observed Bannu black-on-red ware liberally covered the surface of parts of the site. Akra is physically the most prominent site in the Bannu region and has been known to European visitors and scholars for more than 150 years. It at- tracted the attention of a number of military offic- ers stationed in the district during the late 19th and early 20th centuries A.D., including Sir Herbert Edwardes and S.S. Thorburn.84 Sir Aurel Stein vis- ited and photographed the site in 1905, 85 and Raverty, Gordon, Dani, and Khan86 all have de- scribed the site and/or aspects of its history. The discovery of coins and numerous fine art objects there during the 19th century in particular sug- gested to these scholars that the site was most im- portant during the Historic period (ca. 250 B.C. to A.D. 1000). These discoveries coupled with the site's size led Stein to argue that Akra was the an- cient capital of Bannu, and he drew attention to the records of the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims Faxian and Xuanzang who visited the Bannu re- gion on their travels through the subcontinent in the fifth and seventh centuries A.D., respectively.87 Stein also made the prescient observation that the ample irrigation and remarkable fertility in the north- 84 Edwardes 1851; Thorburn 1876. 85 Stein 1905. 86 Raverty 1883; Gordon 1943, 136-95; Dani 1968, 250-64; Khan 1986, 183-95. 87 Stein 1905, 7-10; 1929a, 14; Liu 1994, 196. 720 PETER MAGEE ET AL. [AJA109 west of the Bannu Basin bore a resemblance to the typical oases of eastern and western Turkestan in Central Asia.88 The preserved area of Akra now stands as a series of occupation mounds with interspersed agricul- tural fields. The mounds themselves are divided into two groups of unequal size by the Lohra nullah, which also flows past Ter Kala Dheri (fig. 4). That this stream is an ancient topographical feature is suggested by the immense alluvial deposits on ei- ther bank. Freshwater springs are found below the large mound on the right bank of the nullah and serve as important sources of water for modern in- habitants. It is probable that these are also an an- cient feature of the landscape, and the abundant freshwater supply and the extremely rich alluvial soils would have provided an ideal environment for cereal and other cultivation. These ideas will be tested by continued paleoenvironmental studies that will be an integral part of our research pro- gram when we are able to renew our work at Akra. Surveys Between 1995 and 1998 three separate topo- graphic surveys were carried out at Akra, covering the main mounded area of the site as well as other mounds in the surrounding area. In 1995 a brief theodolite survey revealed that at least 31.7 ha (78 acres) of the main mounded area were still pre- served on both sides of the Lohra nullah.89 In 1996 this initial theodolite survey was extended beyond the main mounded area to the north, along the course of the nullah. It showed that an additional 48 ha of mounds and material scatters are still pre- served on the right bank of the nullah, indicating that the total preserved area of Akra might be around 80 ha (fig. 5).90 While there can be no cer- tainty about the precise chronological relationship between the outer mounds and the main mounded area, it is likely that at the time of its maximum Historic-period occupation, Akra was a sprawling urban site. To further investigate the topography of the mounds, and to highlight areas that may be worthy of excavation, the entire main mounded area was surveyed three-dimensionally in 1998, using a Sokkia Set 5A Total Station and SDR 31 data log- ger. This survey included the establishment of a site datum and a precise site grid aligned to mag- netic north. In total, 7,297 data points with abso- lute heights were measured relative to an arbitrary site datum,91 which was used in the absence of a reliable survey benchmark at the site. The data ob- tained in the 1998 survey were converted into a digital elevation model that could be rotated and manipulated three-dimensionally, and was used to gain a clearer understanding of site formation pro- cesses, the extant archaeological remains, and the natural features of the site (fig. 6) . For ease of identification we have delineated two main archaeological zones at Akra, using the Lohra nullah as an arbitrary boundary. Area A, on the east side of the nullah, consists of a large mound that has been extensively damaged by modern digging (see fig. 4). The upper surface is now predomi- nantly flat, but it is punctuated by several outcrops of deposits, the largest of which rises about 15 m above the preserved mound surface and about 35 m above the surrounding plain. On the west bank of the stream, the terrain consists of several mounds that have been damaged by leveling for modern fields and erosion caused by the course of the nul- lah (fig. 6) . These mounds vary in size and height, and rise between 14 and 20 m above the surround- ing plain. Excavations and Methodology In the initial reconnaissance of Akra in 1995, it was observed that fragments of the distinctive Bannu black-on-red ware like those found at Ter Kala Dheri were also visible on the surface of the mounds on the west bank of the nullah (area B). Between 1996 and 2000 excavations were carried out on three different mounds in area B with the aims of con- firming the early first millennium B.C. dates sug- gested for Bannu black-on-red ware at Ter Kala Dheri; defining the stratigraphic position of this ware in relation to other occupation at the site; and providing some data on the extent and size of the settlement during the first millennium B.C. (fig. 7). The excavations that have been carried out in- clude a shallow sounding (Chigkamar mound [here- after CGK]), a deep stratigraphic probe (Lohra mound), and an open area excavation (Hussaini Boi Ziarat Dherai [hereafter HBZD]). In each area, excavations proceeded with the identification, delimitation, and removal of discrete stratigraphic units or loci, which were allocated unique locus numbers. Each locus was recorded on a separate data sheet, where the nature of the 88 Stein 1905,6. 89Khanetal. 2000d, 46. 90Khanetal. 2000d, 46. 91 Set at 1,000 m above sea level. 2005] THE ACHAEMENID EMPIRE IN SOUTH ASIA 721 Fig. 4. View toward west of citadel in area A. Lohra nullah is in the foreground. deposit was defined through the selection of rel- evant tick boxes and a written description. The lo- cation and extent of each locus was also drawn in plan, and digital photographs were taken of spe- cific deposits. From floor surfaces, pits, and collapse debris, 10 or 20 soil samples were collected for flo- tation. All deposits below the surface topsoil were sieved with a 10-mm screen, which is the only gauge locally available. All cultural material recovered from the sieve was collected, and the remaining soil matrix was discarded. Ceramic fragments, ani- mal bone, small finds, and carbonized material were separated on site and were placed in clean plastic bags and labeled with the date, trench number, lo- cus number, and a brief description. This cultural material was returned to the dig house, where the ceramic fragments were cleaned and sorted into diagnostic and nondiagnostic fragments, and reg- istration was conducted. A considerable quantity of carbonized material was recovered, and readily vis- ible pieces were removed using a cleaned trowel and placed into a new Ziploc® plastic bag, which was then labeled with an indelible pen. At the completion of excavations, groups of individual loci that relate to specific structural features, or could otherwise be shown to be contemporaneous, were attributed to individual phases. CGK Mound Sounding. The surface of most of area B is littered with fragments of Bannu black-on-red ware. In 1996 a 4 x 4 m trench (trench 2) was posi- tioned on the slope of a large mound at the north- ern edge of area B. Excavations revealed a hard- ened earth/mud floor approximately 45 cm below the present ground surface. Above this floor thick habitation deposits, including many ash lenses, were preserved. A complete vessel with one functional fan spout and one false fan spout was recovered sitting on the earth/ mud floor, along with fragments of Bannu black-on-red ware vessels (fig. 8). No other architectural features were observed, and excava- tions were halted at this point. Lohra Mound. This significant mound, which lies in ^he south of area B, was excavated in 1996, 1998, and 2000. In 1996 trench 1 was opened across an area stretching from the highest point of the mound to the edge of its flattened upper surface, and re- vealed two boulder-constructed buildings: one structure visibly extended from the west baulk and another was evident in the south baulk. Although badly damaged in some places, the walls were clearly constructed from large river boulders, the upper courses of which were laid as "stretchers" while the lowest courses were "headers" (fig. 9). The stone- faced walls were filled with small pebbles and packed clay. Characteristic of these walls are the mudbricks underneath the lowest course of stones. The mudbricks had clearly been compacted by the stones in the wall but appear to be rectangular in shape. The 1998 excavations at the Lohra mound fo- cused on clarifying the layout of the boulder-con- structed building extending from the west baulk 722 PETER MAGEE ET AL. [AJA109 Fig. 5. Topographical plan of Akra, showing main mounds of trench 1 (fig. 10). To achieve this, a new trench, trench 3, was opened adjacent to trench 1, in accor- dance with the visible line of the wall. Unfortunately, the recent destruction wrought upon this area of the site has meant that all the upper features of trench 3 were destroyed. However, substantial ar- chitecture in the south of trench 3 marked the con- tinuation and return of the stone and mudbrick wall found in trench 1. Excavations between the wall return and the western baulk of trench 3 in 2000 revealed a series of tightly compacted floor levels, many of which were plastered (fig. 11). These ran up to the wall and several courses of mudbrick underneath. Also in 2000, excavations in the north of trench 3 revealed remnants of substantial stone and mudbrick architecture that had been heavily disturbed both by its proximity to the surface and by visible modern disturbance in this area of the mound (fig. 12). In the Lohra mound excavation two basic mate- rial culture phases could be discerned. Bannu black-on-red ware and fan-spouted vessels akin to thet one discovered in the Chigkamar (CGK) sound- ing were found associated with the stone and mudbrick-constructed buildings, and also in the underlying deposits. Due to its stratigraphic posi- tioning on the Lohra mound, this assemblage has been referred to as assemblage 2. Overlying these deposits was a series of habitation surfaces and pits that contained a completely different ceramic assemblage. This group of material includes a num- ber of vessel forms that are considered distinctively Achaemenid in date, and has been referred to col- lectively as assemblage 1. The HBZD Mound. To the southwest of the Lohra mound lies the HBZD mound. Of all the mounds at Akra, it appears to have been the least disturbed by modern activity; it has a flat upper surface, is roughly rectangular in shape, and covers an area of approximately 0.63 ha. A series of connected trenches was opened along the top of the eastern slope in a perpendicular line toward the center of 2005] THE ACHAEMENID EMPIRE IN SOUTH ASIA 723 Fig. 6. Three-dimensional topographical plan of Akra looking to the south the mound in 2000 (fig. 13) to obtain a broad hori- zontal exposure, and the remains of three major structural phases were revealed. The two uppermost structural phases and an in- tervening pit phase displayed a homogenous as- semblage of cultural material. A combination of AMS radiocarbon determinations and relative ceramic parallels has been used to suggest that these two phases date to the late first and early second mil- lennia A.D.92 The lower of these structural phases consisted of a substantial river-stone wall and asso- ciated semicircular bastion, while the upper phase includes a rebuilding of the river-stone wall and a series of mudbrick structures. Beneath these later Historic phases, a phase of stone and mud architecture and associated occu- pation deposits were revealed, with walls oriented on a different alignment (fig. 14). These walls were constructed by the same technique found on the Lohra mound, using a combination of packed mud, large river stones aligned to form a wall face, and smaller pebbles used as packing. The alignments of four walls were delineated, consisting of two dis- crete rooms, one in the eastern and one in the west- ern areas of the excavation. In the eastern room, an occupation surface was isolated and a complete spouted vessel was found in situ, embedded in the floor. The ceramic assemblage contained most of the other elements of assemblage 2, as defined in thq Lohra mound excavations, including many frag- ments of Bannu black-on-red ware. Ceramics From these three excavated areas two distinctive ceramic assemblages were isolated on the basis of stratigraphic and architectural phasing. Each con- tains unique forms, wares, and fabrics, which we review separately. Assemblage 1. This assemblage was isolated to the upper levels of the Lohra mound, and is character- ized by fine, well-levigated wheel-made wares. Three pastes can be defined on the basis of varying densi- ties of mineral temper, mica, and chaff. In addi- tion, a cooking-pot coarse ware characterized by elongated pieces of mica up to 4 cm in length was recovered. Open vessels, especially bowls, are of- 92 Petrie (forthcoming a and b) . 724 PETER MAGEE ET AL. [AJA109 Fig. 7. Topographical plan of area B, Akra ten decorated with a very smooth, sometimes bur- nished, red-orange slip. 1. Bowls with offset vertical rim (fig. 15a-c). The examples recovered at Akra often have a burnished red-brown slip. They bear some re- semblance to examples from Charsadda I layer 36b dated by Wheeler to the fourth-third cen- turies B.C.93 but convincingly redated by Dittmann to the early sixth century B.C.94 In Afghanistan, examples from Mundigak (pe- riod V)95 and Kandahar (site H)96 are "slipped or self slipped mostly plain . . . generally smoothed, especially on the upper part of the exterior."97 Further west, the form is found in southeast Iran, at Tepe Yahya, in a burnished red-brown slip and is well dated on the basis of radiocarbon and artifactual evidence from 600 B.C. onward.98 It is also found in the Iron Age III period (ca. 600-300 B.C.)99 in south- eastern Arabia and the Gulf, specifically at Rumeilah,100 Tell Abraq,101 and at Qala'at al Bahrain.102 2. Banded beakers (fig. 15d, e). This is an un- usual form for which few parallels are found in Iron Age Pakistan. It is characterized by a slightly thickened internal lip and bands of black paint on an orange ground. Although it is more frequently made in the well-levigated wares that are common in assemblage 1, some examples are found in the coarser wares typi- cal of assemblage 2. Some examples have deco- rative elements such as wavy painted lines on the exterior that resemble, to some extent, the decorative schemes found on Bannu black-on- red ware, suggesting that it may represent the continuation of earlier traditions. 3. S-carinated rim bowls (fig. 16a, b). Bowls with an S-carinated rim are common in assemblage 93Wheeler 1962, figs. 16.58-16.59. 94 Dittmann 1984, table 5. 95 E.g., Casal 1961, 2:fig. 116.605. 96McNicoll and Ball 1996, figs. 192.14, 194.54. 97Vogelsang 1985, 65-6, fig. 1; 1992, 258-9, fig. 12. 98Magee2004, fig. 5.35. "Magee 1996,240-52. 100Boucharlat and Lombard 1985, pls. 57-58. 101 Magee 1995, fig. 4.9. 1O2H0jlund and Andersen 1994, nos. 1164-1165. 2005] THE ACHAEMENID EMPIRE IN SOUTH ASIA 725 Fig. 8. View of complete fan-spouted vessel in CGK excavation 1 at Akra and are frequently decorated with a thick red, often burnished, slip. This type is known from Charsadda, where it is common in layer 27, 103 which Dittman dates prior to the end of the fourth century B.C.104 North of Charsadda, in the Swat Valley, examples are also known from Aligrama,105 Kalako-deray,106 Bir- kot-ghwandai,107 and Ghaligai.108 To the west, examples have been reported from Kandahar109 and Tepe Yahya110 and from Tal-i Zohak in the Fasa Plain from where Hansman describes examples as "red/brown, fine; surface same, burnished."111 At all these sites a dating from the sixth to the fourth centuries B.C. has been suggested - a chronology in accord with the recovery of similar shapes at the Achaemenid capitals of Persepolis112 and Pasargadae.113 4. Tulip bowls (fig. 16c, d). Many examples of this shape, often smoothed or self-slipped, were discovered in assemblage 1 deposits. In Paki- stan the shape is found at Charsadda layers 22- 28, where it is described as an "abundant but not ungraceful drinking-bowl."114 Wheeler's date for these layers of the third to second cen- turies B.C. was corrected to the fourth century B.C. by Dittmann. This date accords perfectly with the examples found at Persepolis,115 Pasargadae,116 and Tol-e Spid117 in Fars, as well as surface collections from sites in the Marv Dasht.118 Good parallels are also known from the Achaemenid-period levels at Susa119 and Tal-i Ghazir on the Ram Hormuz Plain.120 Assemblage 2. This assemblage was found in each of the excavated areas and is characterized by a 103 Wheeler 1962, 40. 104 Dittman 1984, table 5. 105Stacul and Tusa 1977, fig. 14j-k. 106Stacul (1993, fig. I7o), although this example is more shallow than most. 107Stacul 1980, fig. 5.1. Similar examples are known from other sites in the Swat Valley, some of which are burnished in a very similar fashion to those from Akra. See also Stacul 1997. 108 Stacul 1969, fie. 13c. 109McNicoll and Ball 1996, fies. 113.4, 80.12. 110 Magee 2004, fig. 5.5. 111 Hansman 1979, figs. 3.3, 4. 112 Schmidt 1954, pl. 74.1. 113 Where this form was recovered from Achaemenid and post-Achaemenid deposits (Stronach 1978, fig. 107.8-10). 114Wheeler 1962, 40, fig. 10.11. 115 Schmidt 1954, pls. 67.3, 72.1, 89.8. 116 Stronach 1978, pls. 106.1-13. 117Petrie et al. (forthcoming), fig. 5.93, TS 439, 495. 118Sumner 1986, fig. Ill 2.A-J. 119 De Miroschedji et al. 1987, fig. 7.7. 120 Carter (1994, fig. 14.3) suggests these are comparable to examples from Nippur. 726 PETER MAGEE ET AL. [AJA109 Fig. 9. View of Lohra mound toward northwest, showing stone-constructed buildings, mudbrick substructure, and deep sounding in the foreground chaff- and mineral-tempered ware. Analysis on a macroscopic level suggests that in terms of temper it is unrelated to the wares of assemblage 1, although that does not necessarily mean that its clay comes from a different geological source. Bannu black-on- red ware is the most typical feature of this assem- blage. It is hand-made, often wet-smoothed, and characterized by black-on-red geometric decoration on a brown ground. Other wares in this assemblage include a brown, grog-tempered, coarse hand-made ware and a hard burnished gray ware. Only a few sherds, most of which were nondiagnostic, of the latter two wares were found. A few fragments of a hard, gray-black, highly burnished ceramic were also found, and these have tentatively been identi- fied as northern black polished ware. 1. Bannu black-on-red ware (figs. 17, 18). The standard form of this ware is a simple bowl with a straight wall and a slightly thickened inte- rior rim or an incurving rim. Decoration con- sists of diagonal lines, bands, and wavy lies or hatched triangles. Although Iron Age painted pottery is not unknown in Pakistan, the shapes and decorative schemes found on Bannu black-on-red ware seem largely unrelated to local developments. There are general paral- lels between Bannu black-on-red ware and the painted forms from Pirak (period III),121 Mundigak (period V),122 and Sorkh Dagh at Nad-i-Ali (period I),123 but far more convinc- ing parallels can be found in the ceramic cor- pus common in South-Central Asia in the early Iron Age. This pottery, which has been studied in depth by Sarianidi,124 has a wide distribution throughout southern Turkmenistan and Af- ghanistan and was found at Yaz Depe I,125 as well as Kuchuk Tepe and Chust and Dalverzin in the Ferghana Valley.126 The examples from Tillya Tepe illustrated by Sarianidi include the same decorative motifs on the same forms that occur on the Akra examples.127 The only differ- ence is that the Akra examples are on a red or brown ground whereas the Tillya Tepe ex- amples are on a buff or undecorated ground. Examples have also been published from the Atrek Valley in the northeast of Iran where they are described as "hand-made, of fairly course clay and painted with geometric figures (rhom- boid and triangular) in brown, black, or wine- red on a red or, more often, a buff surface."128 This description and the forms illustrated by Venco-Ricciardi129 closely parallel examples found at Akra. In the Atrek Valley this mate- rial is dated following the Yaz Depe I/Tillya Tepe I-II chronology of 1000-650 B.C. 2. Fan-spouts (figs. 8, 19). A unique form present at Akra is the fan-spout. These are found on the shoulders of vessels and consist of both functional spouts and false spouts. Judging by the complete vessel found in area B, trench 2, the combination of both these forms of spouts may have been used as a handle and a spout on pouring vessels. As with Bannu black-on- red ware, there are few local parallels for this form. Although Iron Age Iran, with its noted 125Masson 1959,29-50. 121 Enault 1979, figs. 64, 70, 77. 122Casal 1961, figs. 107-115. 123 Dales 1977, pls. 15.1-15.5, 28.1-28.8, 30.1-30.7. 124 Summarized in English in Sarianidi 1985, 4-23. 129Venco Ricciardi 1980, fig. d. 126 Zadneprovsky 1962. 127 Sarianidi 1989a, pls. IV-XXVIII. 128Venco Ricciardi 1980, 58. 2005] THE ACHAEMENID EMPIRE IN SOUTH ASIA 727 Fig. 10. Plan showing architectural remains in trenches 1 and 3, Lohra mound tradition of spouted vessels, appears as the possible source for such a shape, a caveat is necessary. Our knowledge of Iron Age Iranian ceramics is heavily reliant on the western Iran sequences, in particular those provided by the sites of Tepe Sialk and Hasanlu. Spouted ves- sels are common at both these sites and are not unknown in Luristan and Fars.130 However, moving to the east and southeast they become much less common.131 Vessels with spouts were recovered from pre-Achaemenid Iron Age deposits at Pirak (period III) 132 and Mundigak (period V),133 but these examples are all mor- phologically different from those of Akra. More accurate parallels for the Akra fan-spouts can be found in South-Central Asia alongside the painted pottery shapes discussed above. Although examples are limited, comparable spouts are known at sites such as Tillya Tepe.134 Small Finds Forty-six pieces of iron were found in the first three seasons of excavation at Akra, the majority from area B and many from layers containing as- semblage 2 ceramics. Most were nondiagnostic arti- facts, while some were likely waste from iron working and smelting, including small pieces of slag. Beads of terracotta, carnelian, and other semi-precious stones were also common in assemblage 1 and 2 deposits. CHRONOLOGY There is a variety of evidence available that per- mits a broad reconstruction of when Akra was occu- pied. At present it appears that the site was inhabited from as early as ca. 2000 B.C. and up to as late as ca. A.D. 1200, including two distinct phases of Iron Age occupation. There are three seals from Akra now in the col- lections of the British Museum that provide clues as to when the site might first have been occupied. One of these is a small, lenticular button seal with a bird of prey attacking a snake on one side and a prancing quadruped on the other, which is similar in shape to Late Harappan Jhukar seals from sites such as Chanhu-Daro in Sind.135 The other two seals 130 E.g., Overlaet 1997, fig. 4. This vessel, which belongs to Taimuran I phase, differs considerably from the type of spouts found in the Akra assemblage. 131 E.g., they are virtually unknown in the Iron Age corpus at Tepe Yahya in southeastern Iran; see Magee 2004. 132Enault 1979, figs. 66.343, 72.395, 76.416, 76.418, 79.432, 79.434. 133Casal 1961, figs. 113, 563-563a. 134Sarianidi 1989a, pls. XL.6, XLI.7. 135 Khan et al. 2000d, 54-5 n. 58 (after Lambert 1986). Illustrated in both publications. 728 PETER MAGEE ET AL. [AJA109 Fig. 11. Deep sounding along stone-constructed wall. Laminated floor levels are evident in the west and south baulk. appear to be of Central Asian origin and are related to seal types found in the so-called Bactria Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC). One is a stamp cylinder seal of Murghab type, which has a suspen- sion loop at one end, a repeating motif of a bird of prey attacking a snake on the vertical surface, and an identical snake shown alone on the base.136 This seal is similar in form to seals and impressions from Togolok 1 and Taip-depe 1 in Margiana,137 and is also morphologically similar to seals that have been found in graves at Sibri and Mehrgarh in Baluchi- stan.138 The other Central Asian seal is a stepped- cross pendant made of soapstone with a fish incised on one side.139 Similar pendant seals are known from Togolok 21 and Gonur I,140 and an example with a bird on one side was found at Harappa.141 Taken together, the three seals indicate that the earliest occupation at Akra could date to the first two centuries of the second millennium B.C.,142 which is contemporaneous with the fragmentation of the Mature Harappan civilization in the Indus Valley, and the expansion of the BMAC from Cen- tral Asia. BMAC material is widespread in the Cen- tral Asian oases, but it is also known from sites in southwestern, northern, and southeastern Iran, northern Afghanistan, and Baluchistan.143 In seek- ing to explain the appearance of clusters of BMAC material at sites in Iran and Pakistan in a context of completely different local material cultures, Hiebert has suggested this is evidence of the move- ment of Central Asian people who were searching for resources through conquest or trade.144 Thus far, there has been no stratified occupation con- taining contemporary material isolated at Akra, so there is no context for establishing the nature of the relationship between the BMAC and the Bannu 136 Lambert 1986; Knox 1994, 377. Illustrated in both pub- lications. 137 E.g., Hiebert 1994, fig. 9.16 (after Sarianidi 1989b, fig. 5);Masimovl981,211. 138Santoni 1984, 56, fig. 8.4A; Tarrige and Hassan 1989, 150. 139 Khan et al. 2000d, 55, 174-6. 140 Sarianidi 1981, 232-3, figs. 7, 8; see also Hiebert 1994, fig. 9.14-9.16. 141 Vats 1940, 319, pls. 91, 255. 142 Khan etal. 2000d, 55. 143 Summarized in Hiebert 1994, 163-4, 178. 144 Hiebert 1994, 163-4, 177-8, fig. 10.8. 2005] THE ACHAEMENID EMPIRE IN SOUTH ASIA 729 Fig. 12. View of trench 3, Lohra mound, showing destruction of wall region. However, at the least, the discovery of the early second millennium B.C. BMAC seals at Akra implies that there was interaction between the Bannu region and Central Asia at this time. On the basis of the stratigraphic and radiocar- bon evidence, the earliest in situ levels at Akra are those associated with Bannu black-on-red ware and fan spouts (assemblage 2). In the three excavations conducted in area B, Bannu black-on-red ware was very common, and it remains the most common surface material across this part of the site. As noted above, preliminary information on the chronology of the Bannu black-on-red ware horizon was pro- vided by two radiocarbon dates from Ter Kala Dheri.145 The radiocarbon ages and the probability distributions for each are shown in table 1 . Of the two samples, OxA 6239 was recovered from an up- per floor and BM 2979 from a lower floor, although it should be pointed out that these surfaces were not separated by a significant depth of deposit. It is important to note that OxA 6239 intercepts the calibration curve at a plateau, which results in a wide probability range for any samples with calen- dar ages between ca. 750 and 400 B.C. Irrespective of this proviso, the two dates from Ter Kala Dheri suggest that the Bannu black-on-red ware horizon at that site dates from the early to mid first millen- nium B.C. To further investigate this, an intensive program of C14 dating was undertaken at Akra. From Akra CGK mound, one sample was obtained on the floor on which rested the large spouted ves- sel (table 2). The probability distribution for this sample falls predominantly before the large pla- teau on the calibration curve, which starts at ca. 750 B.C., indicating that there is a high likelihood that the floor was in use after 930 B.C. The excavations on the Lohra mound have been the most extensive, and it is from here that the larg- est number of radiometric assays was obtained (table 3). From trench 1, two samples were analyzed - one from deposits associated with the stone-constructed building that contains assemblage 2 material, and one from the deposits just below this structure. Al- though Beta 129791 comes from a deposit immedi- ately underlying the structure, both it and NZA 10990 are statistically the same.146 It is, therefore, possible that NZA 10990 has been incorporated into the habitation deposits from an immediately prior 145 These and all the other dates presented in this paper have been calibrated using OxCal 3.8, which utilizes the IntCal98 calibration curve. 146T=1.87x2 (0.5)=3.84. 730 PETER MAGEE ET AL. [AJA109 Fig. 13. View of HBZD mound after 2000 season of excavation Fig. 14. Plan of Iron Age and Historic architecture in HBZD mound 2005] THE ACHAEMENID EMPIRE IN SOUTH ASIA 731 event such as a clearing fire for the construction of the building. The other samples from the Lohra mound were obtained in the deep sounding exca- vated into the hardened floor levels between the stone and mudbrick wall return and the western baulk in trench 3. On the basis of stratigraphy the earliest floor level is Locus 3112 for which a date was obtained suggesting a terminus post quern of ca. 900 B.C. The sequence of floor levels above this provided further chronometric assays that indicate continued occupation into the ninth century B.C. The latest sampled floor (Locus 3100) has a termi- nus post quern of ca. 800 B.C., suggesting that the building still stood into the eighth century B.C. Two radiocarbon determinations were obtained from the HBZD mound, one from the fill deposits associated with the river-stone and mud walls to the west of the excavated area (OZF 094) and the other from a collapse deposit overlying the occupation surface with the intact fan-spouted storage vessel to the east (OZF 093) (table 4). Interpretations of these two dates are slightly hampered by the un- usually high error in OZF 093. Nonetheless, the upper limit of this sample suggests that the Iron Age occupation of this part of the site has a termi- nus post quern of ca. 900 B.C. The probability range for OZF 094 suggests that the occupation of the two mudbrick and stone-constructed buildings contin- ued into the eighth century B.C. On the basis of these numerous radiocarbon samples, two important conclusions can be made regarding the chronology of Iron Age occupation at Akra. The first concerns the relationship between Akra and the Ter Kala Dheri mound. The earliest date from Ter Kala Dheri (BM 2979: 1000-760 B.C.) and the earliest date from Akra (OZF 092: 920-800 B.C.) are statistically the same and suggest that the settlement of Ter Kala Dheri was part of a contem- porary hinterland to the main occupation at Akra. Second, and most important, dates obtained from the three excavation areas in area B are remarkably similar in their radiocarbon and calendar ranges. They all suggest a terminus post quern of ca. 900 B.C. for the occupation of area B. The subsequent dates from the HBZD mound and the Lohra mound suggest that the occupation continued into the eighth century B.C. Although one must move cau- tiously from this observation to conclusions concern- ing the size of settlement during this period, the chronological evidence for the contemporaneous nature of occupation in these areas permits a mini- mum occupation area to be calculated. Even if we were to take the three areas as the very boundaries of occupation in this period, our observations con- cerning the abundance of Bannu black-on-red and later wares on the surface suggest that from ca. 900 B.C. onward the settlement covered most of what we have defined as area B, or approximately 20 ha of settlement. Only further excavations could provide this most cautious estimate with a more solid basis. No radiocarbon assays were obtained from the deposits containing assemblage 1 ceramics. How- ever, the parallels presented above are unanimous in suggesting that this assemblage dates between ca. 600 and 300 B.C., or the period that coincides with the Achaemenid annexation of northwestern South Asia. Determining the extent of occupation at Akra during this period is made difficult by the lack of preservation in area B and the lack of sys- tematic excavation in area A. Nevertheless, there is evidence that suggests that Akra continued to be occupied extensively in the final centuries B.C. and the first centuries A.D. The most telling evidence for the exact chronology of the settlement at this time is available from the many coins that have been found on the surface and those that have been ex- cavated since 1996. While their definitive publica- tion is not yet complete, it is sufficient to state that collections of coins from the site currently held in the British Museum, Ashmolean Museum, and Peshawar Museum include those of the Indo- Greek kings Apollodotus, Hermaeus, Demetrius, Strato, Atimachus, Menander, the Parthian king Gondophases, the Skythian kings Maues and Azes, the Kushan king Kidara Kushan, as well as those of Hepthalite rulers, Hindu Shahi rulers, and a lone silver coin of Mahmud of Ghazni, dating to the 11th century A.D.147 Furthermore, excavations on the HBZD mound have indicated that the settlement continued to be occupied into the 12th century A.D.148 It would seem unlikely, therefore, given the evidence for the Iron Age and Historic period (ca. 250 B.C. to 12th century A.D.) occupation through- out the site, that the settlement did not also witness considerable occupation in the period between 600 and 300 B.C. discussion: the significance of akra Akra is clearly one of the few sites in northwest- ern Pakistan that may contain a material culture sequence from at least ca. 1000 B.C. to ca. A.D. 1000. The majority of our evidence so far relates to the 147 Khan 1986, 184. 148 Petrie (forthcoming a and b) . 732 PETER MAGEE ET AL. [AJA109 Fig. 15. Assemblage 1 ceramics. Lohra mound. Bowls with offset vertical rims and banded beakers. Scale in cm. Fig. 16. Assemblage 1 ceramics. Lohra mound. Bowls with S- carinated rims and tulip bowls. Scale in cm. first millennium B.C., and it is to that period that we will limit the following discussion. It is clear that the remains of this period hold the potential to provide information on one of the outstanding and unresolved questions in South Asian archaeology: the archaeology of the Achaemenid annexation of this region in the sixth century B.C. Akra - Capital of Thatagus? While Thatagus is mentioned in Achaemenid royal inscriptions of Darius, Xerxes, and Artaxerxes II,149 and its inhabitants have been identified on royal reliefs at Persepolis and Naqsh-i Rustam,150 there is no real consensus on the issue of where it is located. As mentioned above, there are indications that Thatagus was administratively associated with Arachosia,151 but proposals on its specific geographi- cal location have ranged from the suggestion that it lay in the area to the south or southeast of Kabul,152 to the more precise suggestion of the region around the Gomal River in North West Frontier Province,153 or the area of Multan in the Punjab.154 However, thus far, no convincing archaeological evidence has been found that supports any of these suggestions. In 1982 Fleming suggested that the capital of Thatagus was located in the Bannu Basin and that 149 Kent 1953, 187: Vallat 1993, 240. 150 Schmidt 1970, 85, 107, pls. 25, 76-79; Bivar 1988, 208- 10; Hachmann 1997, 195-224, and references. 151 Vogelsang 1990, 100; 1992, 110-4, 129. 152Vogelsang 1992, 129. 153Dani 1971, 1; Bivar 1988, 200. 154 Vogelsang 1985, 80-1; 1990, 100. Although Vogelsang has now modified this (1992, 129) , he does maintain that there were specific connections with the lower Punjab and Aracho- sia (1992, 227-8). 2005] THE ACHAEMENID EMPIRE IN SOUTH ASIA 733 Akra was the most likely candidate,155 basing his argument on the testimony of the Behistun inscrip- tion and a reconstruction of the campaigns and battles between the lieutenant of the Persian rebel named Vayazadata and the loyal satrap of Arachosia, Vivana.156 Bivar has rightly pointed out that Fleming's suggestion was based on geographical and histori- cal data alone and that the terrain around Bannu had been insufficiently explored for this interpre- tation to carry weight,157 while Vogelsang objected to Fleming's identification on the basis that it would mean that Thatagus was too close to the satrapy of Gandhara,158 which is centered in the Peshawar Val- ley and might also include the upper reaches of the Kabul River Valley. While there is little distance between Bannu and Peshawar as the crow flies (ca. 150 km), the two regions are separated by a section of the Salt range that has acted as a cultural barrier since the Neolithic period. There is also some ad- ditional evidence from the classical sources that indicates the importance of a small district to the west of the Indus, which might be the Bannu Basin. In describing Alexander's march toward Drangi- ana, Arrian notes that Barsentes, satrap of the Dran- gians and Arachosians, flees to "the Indians on this side of the Indus."159 Following the conquest of Ara- chosia and while on his way north to Parapomis- adae (Kabul/Begram), Alexander is said to have approached "the Indians who lived nearest to the Arachosians."160 It is not possible to establish wheth- er "the Indians on this side of the Indus" and "the Indians who lived nearest to the Arachosians" are actually the same group inhabiting the same re- gion, but geographically they both must lie some- where to the east and north of Kandahar and to the south and southeast of Kabul.161 The terms used by Arrian also bring to mind a relationship between Harauvatish and Thatagus that is evidenced in the Achaemenid royal inscriptions. Furthermore, ac- cording to Quintus Curtius, while Alexander was later staying in Taxila, Barsentes was handed over in chains, along with Samaxus, who was "the king of a small district of India who had allied himself with Fig. 17. Assemblage 2 ceramics. Lohra, CGK, and HBZD mounds. Bannu black-on-red ware. Scale in cm. Barsentes."162 Although it is not possible to identify the precise location of this "small" territory, it pre- sumably was south of both the Peshawar region and the areas near the Indus that were traversed by Al- 155 Fleming 1982, 102-22. 156 In DB, Darius claims that Vivana was both the satrap of Arachosia and a Persian (DB, sec. 45, 3.55-56; Kent 1953, 126- 7). Vogelsang (1998, 218) has argued that this attribution might well be a post-facto simplification, and that Vivana and Dadarshish, the other satrap named in DB, might have been Bactrians who only subsequently sided with Darius. 157 Bivar 1988, 200. 158Vogelsang 1985, 80-1; 1992, 129. 159 Arrian 3.25.8 (Brunt 2004); Vogelsang 1992, 227; also Quintus Curtius 6.6.36 (Rolfe 1976); Briant 2002, 757. 160 Arrian 3.28.1 (Brunt 2004) ; Vogelsang 1992, 227. Could Alexander have been pursuing Barsentes? 161 Although Briant (2002) does not discuss this issue, he includes a map that shows the area visited by Alexander at this time to be the Quetta/Pishin area of Baluchistan (Briant 2002, 755, map 7). 162 Quintus Curtius 8.13.3-5 (Rolfe 1976); Vogelsang 1992, 227; Bosworth 1995, 260; Briant 2002, 757. 734 PETER MAGEE ET AL. [AJA109 Fig. 18. Assemblage 2 ceramics. Lohra, CGK, and HBZD mounds. Bannu black-on-red ware. Scale in cm. exander and his men on their route to Taxila, as these regions had different named rulers.163 It is tempting to presume that in escaping to the land of the Indians on this side of the Indus, Barsentes fled to Thatagus and its local ruler (in this case Samax- us), who had previously been his subordinate. Now that work has begun at Akra, it is clear that there is a significant Achaemenid-period compo- nent, and our topographic survey has shown that it is the largest site and the only one in the Bannu region that definitely contains such occupation. If we accept that the Achaemenid-period occupation was contiguous to that of the Iron Age throughout area B, then the size of Akra is on par with provin- cial capitals like Kandahar and Charsadda and the case for the identification of Akra as capital of Thatagus is strengthened.164 The location of the Bannu Basin also fits the geographical requirement of being both close to Arachosia and on the west of the Indus, indicating that it is entirely plausible that in fleeing from Alexander, Barsentes might have gone to the Bannu basin, where his subordi- nate Samaxus was king. However, until further field- work is conducted, this suggestion must remain within the realm of conjecture. In any case, the iden- tification of pre-Achaemenid deposits at Akra has perhaps greater implications for our understand- ing of the effects of the Achaemenid empire in the east than the historical identification of the settle- ment, and it is to this issue that we will now turn. Akra and the Benefits of Empire In the quotation from Wheeler cited in the in- troduction (see page 7), much emphasis was placed on the advent of empire to explain the emergence of urban entities in northern South Asia. The exca- vations at Akra have shown that this was not the case. By sometime in the early first millennium B.C., Akra was already a large, and possibly urban, center. The correlation of radiocarbon dates from within the settlement leaves little doubt that at least area B, or Fig. 19. Assemblage 2 ceramics. HBZD mound. Fan-spouted vessel. Compare similar example from CGK mound (fig. 8) . Scale in cm. 163 These regions were previously ruled by Astis (Peucelao- tis) and Cophaeus and Assagetes (regions close to the Indus); Arrian 4.22.8, 4.28.49 (Brunt 2004). 164Coningham (1995, 58) records the following site sizes: Hastinpaura (ca. 1100-800 B.C.) 6.5 ha; Kausambi (ca. 1000- 600 B.C.) 10 ha; Pirak (ca. 1600-800 B.C.) 9 ha; Anuradhupura 2005] THE ACHAEMENID EMPIRE IN SOUTH ASIA 735 Table 1. Radiocarbon Dates for Bannu Black-on-Red Ware from Ter Kala Dheri Probability Sample Provenience 14C Age Distribution 95.4% Relative % OxA 6239 TKD95/S2 upper floor 2470 ±60 b.p. 780-400 B.C. 95.4% BM 2979 TKD95/S2 lower floor 2680 ±60 b.p. 1000-760 B.C. 95.4% Table 2. Radiocarbon Dates for Bannu Black-on-Red Ware from CGK Mound, Akra Probability Sample Provenience 14C Age Distribution 95.4% Relative % NZA 19089 layer 3 2463 ±60 b.p. 930-750 B.C. 85.8% (44 cm below surface) 690-660 B.C. 2.6% 650-540 B.C. 7.0% about 20 ha of the present site, was already occu- pied from 900 B.C. onward. This would make the Iron Age settlement of Akra one of the largest within this time frame in South Asia. The dates from Ter Kala Dheri suggest that there was also an important hinterland for which Akra was the central place. In future research it will be critical to investigate the cause of this settlement intensification, in particu- lar its agriculture and irrigation base. However, there is little doubt that the settlement system of the early first millennium B.C. in the Bannu Basin is markedly different from that which existed be- fore. The position of Akra alongside a seasonal wa- terway that provides both water and communication routes is analogous with the emerging settlement system found in Bactria and Margiana at this time.165 It is notable that in assessing the impact of Achae- menid rule in Central Asia, Francfort and Briant both have stressed that the Achaemenids were not responsible for introducing irrigation, urban de- velopment, and "civilization" to Central Asia, but rather all these things existed in the earlier Iron Age.166 The possibility that climatic factors may be responsible for the emergence of such systems has been suggested for other parts of the Indo-Iranian borderlands,167 but only continuing fieldwork at Akra will illuminate what local environmental or techno- logical factors account for the sudden emergence of such large settlements with all that that entails in terms of political and economic organization. In Wheeler's summary of the effects of imperial control, he surmised that interregional trade was a benefit of Achaemenid annexation. According to him, this was attributed to the increased security brought about by the emergence of cities. Indeed, the many parallels that can be drawn between as- semblage 1 at Akra and sites within South Asia (e.g., Charsadda), in eastern areas of the empire (e.g., Dahan-i Ghulaman), and in the Iranian heartland itself (e.g., Persepolis, Pasargadae, Tol-e Spid) would seem to indicate that this is a period of un- precedented interaction and trade over long dis- tances. However, the evidence from Akra suggests that large, possibly urban, entities with local econo- mies and extensive trade and exchange networks were already in existence in this region from ca. 900 B.C. The parallels that can be drawn between Bannu black-on red ware and the Yaz Depe I cul- ture suggest that interaction and long-distance, over- land trade were already occurring. In fact, the BMAC seals found at Akra emphasize that the evolving cultures of Central Asia had a protracted interest in the frontier regions along the western edge of South Asia from at least the second millennium B.C. While resource extraction and long-distance trade using established routes may indeed have (ca. 600-450 B.C.) 18 ha; BalaHissar (Charsadda) 13ha;Taxila 13 ha; Inamgaon (ca. 1600-700 B.C.) 5 ha; Daimabad 30 ha. 165Biscione 1981, 203-13; Francfort 1988, 169, 181-93; Briant 2002, 752-3. As noted, the similarity between the Cen- tral Asian environmental conditions and those in the northwest Bannu Basin were initially commented on by Stein (1905, 6). 166Francfort (1988, esp. 169), where he aptly notes, "The Achaemenids did not found Bactra, they did not invent irriga- tion, they did not create the civilization of Central Asia, but they coveted its riches when their time came" (Briant 2002, 752-3). 167Magee 2004, 76-9. 736 PETER MAGEE ET AL. [AJA109 Table 3. Radiocarbon Dates for Bannu Black-on-Red Ware from Lohra Mound, Akra Probability Sample Provenience 14C Age Distribution 95.4% Relative % NZA 10990 trench 1, layer 15 (floor 2546 ±70 b.p. 820-480 B.C. 88.9% assoc. with stone building) 470-410 B.C. 6.5% Beta 129791 trench 1 (charcoal-rich 2660 ±40 b.p 900-790 B.C. 95.4% layer below stone building) OZF 088 trench 3, locus 3100 2569 ±36 b.p. 820-750 B.C. 53.8% 700-540 B.C. 41.6% OZF 090 trench 3, locus 3105 2690 ±33 b.p. 905-800 B.C. 95.4% OZF 091 trench 3, locus 3106 2577 ±38 b.p. 830-750 B.C. 58.9% 700-540 B.C. 36.5% OZF 092 trench 3, locus 3112 2710 ±31 b.p. 920-800 B.C. 95.4% Table 4. Radiocarbon Dates for Bannu Black-on-Red Ware from HBZD, Akra Probability Sample Provenience 14C Age Distribution 95.4% Relative % OZF 093 locus 4078 2491 ±112 b.p. 900-350 B.C. 95.4% OZF 094 locus 4074 2564 ±36 b.p 820-750 B.C. 48.5% 7100-540 B.C. 46.9% been extended during the Achaemenid period because of the security brought about by empire, the desire for foreign or foreign-emulation goods must, in the first instance, be explained as a reflec- tion of changing social configurations during this time. Most of the ceramics from Akra that are paral- leled in the west are highly burnished drinking bowls or tulip cups. Not only may these copy metal vessels but, as Dusinberre argued in her recent paper on Achaemenid bowls in Sardis, the presence of such vessels may indicate the emulation of banqueting and feasting practices that were a powerful symbol of authority in the Achaemenid center.168 Such prac- tices would make an ideal political strategy to bal- ance imperial demands for ideological conformity while legitimizing indigenous authority in an out- lying satrapy. Sadly, the architectural remains from Akra do not permit us to provide more contextual information on where these vessels were recovered, and we have yet to complete a program of composi- tional analysis that indicates where they were made. Nonetheless, we would default to the argument that such vessels are not evidence for the presence of Persians per se but rather potentially indicate shifts in social and political structure brought around by changing geopolitical circumstance. To Wheeler and other scholars, any economic and social change in South Asia was, fundamen- tally, the result of a west-to-east movement. How- ever, to the east of Bannu lies the Punjab and, across the Indo-Gangetic Plains, the mighty Ganges. The question of the emergence of large, urban cities in the Ganges doab and their effects on regions to the northwest has remained largely unaddressed. The chronology of large cities like Ujjain (see fig. 2), Kausambi, Mathura, Hastinapura, Atranjikhera, and others remains tied to the vexatious question of the dating of painted gray ware169 and northern black polished ware, a ceramic that Wheeler initially dated to the fifth century B.C. because it was found 168Dusinberre 1999, 73-102. 169Magee 2005, 37-44. 2005] THE ACHAEMENID EMPIRE IN SOUTH ASIA 737 with iron, which he believed erroneously to have been introduced by the Achaemenids.170 Recent excavations at Gotihawa in Nepal have suggested, however, an earlier dating of this ceramic assem- blage and, by inference, opened the possibility that many of the Gangetic cities may date earlier than 500 B.C.171 The presence at Akra of carnelian (al- most certainly from Gujarat), a small number of sherds of northern black polished ware, and figu- rine fragments that find ready parallels in northern India indicate that Gangetic cities might have played an economic role in developments outside the doab just as they did only centuries later with the emer- gence of the Mauryan empire. The assumptions of Wheeler and others concerning the primal agency of "the West" has for too long, therefore, prevented a more nuanced approach that emphasizes this re- gion as not simply on the periphery of western-based empires but part of a larger mosaic of interaction that linked South, Central, and western Asia. CONCLUSION On the basis of our present work, it is clear that Akra is a key site for understanding the Late Prehis- toric and Early Historic periods in the Asian subcon- tinent. At the least, the site unequivocally attests to processes of settlement and economic growth that are not the result of foreign annexation and control. Our excavations and survey have, however, only touched upon the many facets of human occupa- tion in this region. There are many outstanding re- search issues that will guide our future work at Akra. Excavations in area A will hopefully provide data on the Bannu region during the existence of the vari- ous states and empires that held sway after the con- quests of Alexander the Great in the fourth century B.C. Examination of the pre-Iron Age levels, if they can be located, will also yield data on how the Bannu region reacted to the fundamental changes that were occurring throughout South and Central Asia dur- ing the late third and early second millennium B.C. We look forward to the day when it will be possible to return to Bannu, recommence collaboration with our Pakistani colleagues, and continue our research. 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Tauris. Rackham, H., trans. 1989. Natural History Books III-VII, by Pliny. Loeb Classical Library edition. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Raverty, H.G. 1883. Notes on Afghanistan and Parts of Beluchistan, Geographical, Ethnographical, and Historical. London: Eyre and Spottiswoode. Reprint, Quetta: Nisa Traders, 1982. Roaf, M. 1974. "The Subject Peoples on the Base of the Statue of Darius." Cahiers de la Delegation Archeologie Francaise en Iran 4:73-160. . 1983. "Sculptures and Sculptors at Persepolis." Iran 21:1-164. RolfeJ.C, trans. 1976. The History of Alexander, by Quintus Curtius Rufus. Loeb Classical Library edition. Cam- bridge: Harvard University Press. Salvatori, G. 1975. Analysis of the Association of Types in the Protohistoric Graveyards of the Swat Valley (Loebanr I, Katelai I, Butkara II)." East and West 25:333-51. Sancisi-Weerdenburg, H. 1990. "The Quest for an Elusive Empire." In Achaemenid History. Vol. 4, Centre and Pe- riphery. Proceedings of the Groningen 1 986 Achaemenid His- tory Workshop, edited by H. Sancisi-Weerdenburg and A. Kuhrt, 263-74. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten. Sancisi-Weerdenburg, H., and A. Kuhrt, eds. 1991. Achaemenid History. 6, Asia Minor and Egypt: Old Cultures in a New Empire: Proceedings of the Groningen 1 988 Achaemenid History Workshop. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten. Santoni, M. 1984. "Sibri and the South Cemetery of Mehrgarh: Third Millennium Connections Between the Northern Kachi Plain (Pakistan) and Central Asia." In South Asian Archaeology 1981: Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference of the Association of South Asian Archaeologists in Western Europe Held in Cambridge University, 5-10 July 1981, edited by B. Allchin, 52-60. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sarianidi, V 1981. "Seal Amulets of the Murghab Style." In The Bronze Age Civilisation of Central Asia: Recent So- viet Discoveries, edited by PL. Kohl, 221-55. New York: M.E. Sharpe. . 1985. "Early Iron Age Painted Ware Culture of South-Western Asia." Information Bulletin (International Association for the Study of the Cultures of Central Asia) 9:4-23. . 1989a. Khram I nekropoli Tilly a Tepe. Moscow: Nauka. . 1989b. "Siro-khettskie bozhestva v Baktriisko- Margianskom panteone." Sovietskaya Arkheologiya 1989(4):17-24. Schmidt, E.F. 1953. Persepolis 1. Structures, Reliefs, Inscrip- tions. Oriental Institute Publications no. 68. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. . 1954. Persepolis 2. The Contents of the Treasury. Ori- ental Institute Publications 69. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. . 1970. Persepolis 3. The Royal Tombs and Other Monu- ments. Oriental Institute Publications 70. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Schmidt, R. 1990. "III. Darius Inscriptions. Encyclopcedia Iranica 4:299-305. London and New York: Routledge. de Selincourt, A., trans. 1972. Historiae, by Herodotus. London: Penguin. Sinopoli, CM. 1994. "The Archaeology of Empires." Annual Revue of Anthropology 23:159-80. Stacul, G. 1966a. "Preliminary Report on the Pre-Bud- dhist Necropolises in Swat (W. Pakistan)." East and W^ 16:37-79. . 1966b. "Notes on the Discovery of a Necropolis near Kherai in the Gorband Valley (Swat, Pakistan) ." East and West 16:261-74. . 1967. "Excavations in a Rock Shelter near Ghaligai (Swat, Pakistan)." East and West 17:185-219. .1969. "Excavation near Ghaligai (1968) and Chronological Sequence of Protohistorical Cultures in the Swat Valley." East and West 19:9-43. .1980. "Bir-Kot-ghundai (Swat, Pakistan): 1978 Excavation Report." East and West 30:55-65. . 1993. "Kalako-deray, Swat. 1989-1991 Excava- tion Report." East and West 43:69-94. . 1997. "The Late Gandharan Grave Complex and the Following Stage." Paper presented at the 14th In- ternational Conference of the European Association of South Asian Archaeologists, 10 July 1997, Rome. Stacul, G., and S. Tusa. 1977. "Report on the Excava- tions at Aligrama (Swat, Pakistan)." East and West 27:151-205. Stein, M.A. 1905. Report of Archaeological Survey Work in the North-West Frontier Province and Baluchistan, for the Period from January 2nd, 1904 to March 31, 1905. Peshawar: NWFP Government Press. . 1929a. An Archaeological Tour of Waziristan and Northern Baluchistan. Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India 37. Calcutta: Government of India Central Publication Office. . 1929b. On Alexander's Track to the Indus: Personal Narrative of Explorations on the North-West Frontier of In- dia. London: Macmillan and Co. Reprint, London: Phoenix Press, 2001. Stern, E. 1982. Material Culture of the Land of the Bible in the Persian Period, 538-332 B. C.Jerusalem: Israel Explora- tion Society. Stronach, D. 1972. "Une statue de Darius decouverte a Suse - Description and Comment." Journale Asiatique 260:235-66. . 1978. Pasargadae: A Report of the Excavations Con- ducted by the British Institute of Persian Studies from 1961 to 1963. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Stuiver, M., PJ. Reimer, E. Bard, J.W. Beck, G.S. Burr, KA. Hughen, B. Kromer, EG. McCormac, J. v.d. Plicht, and M. Spurk. 1998. "INTCAL98 Radiocarbon Age Calibration, 24,000-0 cal BP." Radiocarbon 40: 1041-83. Summers, G.D. 1993. "Archaeological Evidence for the Achaemenid Period in Eastern Turkey." Anatolian Studies 43:85-108. Sumner, W.M. 1986. "Achaemenid Settlement in the Persepolis Plain." AJA 90(l):3-31. Thomas, K.D. 1986. Environment and Subsistence in the Bannu Basin." In Lewan and the Bannu Basin: Ex- cavation and Survey of Sites and Environments in North West Pakistan, edited by F.R. Allchin, B. Allchin, F.A. Durrani, and M.F. Khan, 13-33. BAR-IS 310. Oxford: 2005] THE ACHAEMENID EMPIRE IN SOUTH ASIA 741 British Archaeological Reports. Thomas, K.D., andJ.R. Knox. 1994. "Routes of Passage: Later Prehistoric Settlement and Exploitation of a Frontier Region in Northwestern Pakistan." Bulletin of the Institute of Archaeology, University College London 31:89-104. Thomas, K.D., J.R. Knox, and F. Khan. 1997. "Technol- ogy Transfer and Culture Change: An Example from Northwest Pakistan." In South Asian Archaeology 1995: Proceedings of the 13th Conference of the European Associa- tion of South Asian Archaeologists, Cambridge, 5-9 July 1 995, edited by R. Allchin and B. Allchin, 237-51 . New Delhi: Oxford University Press and IBH. Thorburn, S.S. 1876. Bannu; or Our Afghan Frontier. Lon- don: Trubner and Co. Tusa, S. 1979. "The Swat Valley in the 2nd and 1st Millen- nium B.C.: A Question of Marginality." In South Asian Archaeology 4, 2:675-90. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer. Vallat, F. 1993. Les noms geographique des sources suso-elamites. Repertoire geographique des textes cuneiforms. Weisbaden: Reichhert. Vats, M.S. 1940. Excavations atHarappa: Being an Account of Archaeological Excavations atHarappa Carried Out Be- tween the Years 1920-21 and 1933-34. Delhi: Manager of Publications, The Archaeological Survey of India. Venco Ricciardi, R. 1980. "Survey in the Upper Atrek Valley." Mesopotamia 15:51-72. Verardi, G. 2002. Excavations at Gotihawa and a Territorial Survey in Kapilvastu District of Nepal: A Preliminary Re- port. Occasional Paper 2. Lumbini, Nepal: Lumbini International Research Institute. Vogelsang, W. 1985. "Early Historical Arochosia in South- east Afghanistan. Meeting-Place Between East and West." Iranica Antiqua 20:55-99. . 1986. "Four Short Notes on the Bisutun Text and Monument." Iranica Antiqua 21:121-40. . 1987. "Some Remarks on Eastern Iran in the Late-Achaemenid Period." In Achaemenid History I. Sources, Structures and Synthesis, edited by H. Sancisi- Weerdenburg, 183-9. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten. . 1990. 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Bryn Mawr College Scholarship, Research, and Creative Work at Bryn Mawr College 2005 The Achaemenid Empire in South Asia and Recent Excavations in Akra in Northwest Pakistan Peter Magee Cameron Petrie Robert Knox Farid Khan Ken Thomas Custom Citation 
ro-wikipedia-org-7236	----	Xerxes I - Wikipedia Xerxes I De la Wikipedia, enciclopedia liberă Sari la navigare Sari la căutare Acest articol sau această secțiune are bibliografia incompletă sau inexistentă. Puteți contribui prin adăugarea de referințe în vederea susținerii bibliografice a afirmațiilor pe care le conține. Xerxes I de Persia Khașayathiya Khșayathiyanam, Regele Regilor Xerxes I Date personale Născut 519 î.Hr. Persia Decedat 465 î.Hr. (la 54 ani) Persia Înmormântat Iran Părinți Darius I Atossa[*]​ Frați și surori Artazostre[*]​ Gobryas[*]​ Arsames[*]​ Artobazanes[*]​ Ariamenes[*]​ Ariabignes[*]​ Abrocomes[*]​ Masistes[*]​ Achaemenes[*]​ Arsames[*]​ Căsătorit cu Vasti[*]​ Amestris[*]​ Estera Copii Artaxerxes I Amytis[*]​ Artabanus[*]​ Q3507242[*]​ Histaspes[*]​ Darius[*]​ Rodoguna[*]​ Cetățenie Imperiul Ahemenid Religie Zoroastrism Ocupație om de stat Apartenență nobiliară Titluri Faraon al Egiptului Familie nobiliară Ahemenidă, Domnie Domnie 486 î.Hr – 465 î.Hr. (21 ani) Încoronare Octombrie 485 î.Hr. Predecesor Darius cel Mare Succesor Artaxerxes I Modifică date / text  Xerxes I (Khșayareș, scriere persană modernă: خشایارشاه), fiul lui Darius cel Mare și al Atossei, s-a născut în jurul anului 520 î.Hr. Domnea peste o sută douăzeci și șapte de țări, de la India până în Etiopia.[necesită citare] Devine suveran al Imperiului Persan în 486, la moartea tatălui său. Reprimă cu brutalitate răscoalele Egiptului (486) și Babilonului (482). În 480 pornește într-o expediție care urmărea cucerirea Greciei. Armata sa, care după unele surse număra peste două milioane de oameni, forțează cu pierderi grele trecerea prin defileul Termopile apărat de trei sute de spartani („Cei trei sute”) conduși de Leonidas, regele Spartei. Transformă Atena, părăsită de locuitori, în ruine. Înfrânt la Salamina, își părăsește armata, care va fi zdrobită la Plateea (479) și se retrage în Asia, unde mai târziu moare asasinat (465 î.Hr.). Xerxes a fost identificat cu regele fictiv Ahașveroș în Cartea Esterei.[1] Acea carte este considerată pe larg drept fictivă.[2][3][4] Cuprins 1 Anecdotă (după Herodot) 2 Note 3 Bibliografie 4 Vezi și Anecdotă (după Herodot)[modificare | modificare sursă] În timpul traversării strâmtorii Hellespont (Dardanele), Xerxes a ordonat ca marea să fie pedepsită cu 300 de lovituri de bici și să fie blestemată, pentru că o furtună întârziase îmbarcarea spre Europa.[5] Basorelief reprezentându-l pe Xerxes, la o poartă a palatului său din Persepolis Note[modificare | modificare sursă] ^ Stoneman 2015, p. 9. ^ McCullough, W. S. (28 iulie 2011) [15 December 1984]. „AHASUREUS – Encyclopaedia Iranica”. Encyclopædia Iranica. Accesat în 3 aprilie 2020. There may be some factual nucleus behind the Esther narrative, but the book in its present form displays such inaccuracies and inconsistencies that it must be described as a piece of historical fiction.  ^ Meyers, Carol (2007). Barton, John; Muddiman, John, ed. The Oxford Bible Commentary (în engleză). Oxford University Press. p. 325. ISBN 9780199277186. Like the Joseph story in Genesis and the book of Daniel, it is a fictional piece of prose writing involving the interaction between foreigners and Hebrews/Jews.  ^ Hirsch, Emil G.; Dyneley Prince, John; Schechter, Solomon (1906). Singer, Isidor; Adler, Cyrus, ed. „ESTHER”. JewishEncyclopedia.com. Accesat în 25 aprilie 2020. The vast majority of modern expositors have reached the conclusion that the book is a piece of pure fiction, although some writers qualify their criticism by an attempt to treat it as a historical romance.  ^ en The History by Herodotus, translated by George Rawlinson, eBooks@Adelaide, The University of Adelaide Library, South Australia, 2012. The Seventh Book: "So when Xerxes heard of it he was full of wrath, and straightway gave orders that the Hellespont should receive three hundred lashes, and that a pair of fetters should be cast into it." Bibliografie[modificare | modificare sursă] Stoneman, Richard (2015). Xerxes: A Persian Life. Yale University Press. pp. 1–288. ISBN 9781575061207.  Vezi și[modificare | modificare sursă] Bătălia de la Termopile Bătălia de la Salamina Bătălia de la Plateea Xerxes I Dinastia Ahemenidă Naștere: 519 î.Hr. Deces: 465 î.Hr. Predecesor: Darius I cel Mare Mare Rege al Persiei 485 î.Hr.–465 î.Hr. Succesor: Artaxerxes I al Persiei Faraoni al Egiptului 485 î.Hr. – 465 î.Hr. Informații bibliotecare BNE: XX1153338 BNF: cb150689088 (data) GND: 118808109 ISNI: 0000 0000 6300 8852 LCCN: n81070675 LNB: 000054067 NKC: mzk2005313022 NLA: 66228176 SELIBR: 259706 SUDOC: 050588400 ULAN: 500354810 VIAF: 282770127 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 282770127 Adus de la https://ro.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&oldid=13586649 Categorii: Nașteri în anii 520 î.Hr. Decese în 465 î.Hr. 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ru-wikipedia-org-8576	----	Ксеркс I — Википедия Ксеркс I Материал из Википедии — свободной энциклопедии Перейти к навигации Перейти к поиску Запрос «Ксеркс» перенаправляется сюда; см. также другие значения. Ксеркс I др.-перс. *Xšayaršā (x-š-y-a-r-š-a); аккад. Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá/ši, Ḫi-ši-(i-)ar-ši/šú, Aḫ-ši-ia-ar-šú, Ak-ši-ia-ar-šú, Ak-ši-ia-mar-šú; эламск. Ik-še-ir-(iš-)šá; арам. Aḥašwērōš (ḥšyʾrš, ḥšyrš, ʾḥšyrš), др.-греч. Ξέρξης, лат. Xerxes, Xerses Барельеф с изображением персидского царя (возможно, Ксеркса). Царский дворец в Персеполе. царь Ахеменидской державы фараон Египта 486 — 465 до н. э. Предшественник Дарий I Преемник Артаксеркс I Рождение 519 до н. э.(-519) Персия Смерть 465 до н. э.(-465) Персия[d] Место погребения Персия Род Ахемениды Отец Дарий I Мать Атосса Супруга Аместрида Дети сыновья: Дарий, Артаксеркс I, Гистасп Отношение к религии зороастризм[1]  Медиафайлы на Викискладе Ксеркс I (др.-перс. 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠 Xšayāršā, что означает «Царь героев» или «Герой среди царей») — персидский царь, правил в 486—465 годах до н. э., из династии Ахеменидов. Сын Дария I и Атоссы, дочери Кира II. Содержание 1 Характеристика Ксеркса I 2 Начало правления. Покорение восставших народов 2.1 Восстание в Египте 2.2 Восстания вавилонян 3 Поход в Грецию 3.1 Подготовка к походу 3.2 Греки готовятся дать отпор 3.3 Переправа через Геллеспонт 3.4 Сражение у Фермопил 3.5 Действия флотов 3.6 Разорение Аттики 3.7 Морской бой у острова Саламин 3.8 Греки готовятся к решающему сражению 3.9 Битва при Платеях 4 Продолжение военных действий на территории персов 4.1 Битва при Микале 4.2 Осада Сеста 4.3 Греки образуют Делосский морской союз 4.4 Битва при Эвримедонте 5 Обстановка в Державе 6 Убийство Ксеркса в результате заговора 7 Жёны и дети 8 В массовой культуре 8.1 Литература 8.2 Опера 8.3 Кинематограф 9 Примечания 10 Литература Характеристика Ксеркса I[править | править код] Вступил на престол в ноябре/декабре 486 года до н. э. в возрасте около 36 лет.[2] По мнению греков (и римлян), Ксеркс был вял, недалёк, бесхарактерен, легко подчинялся чужому влиянию, но отличался самоуверенностью и тщеславием. Вот характеристика, данная ему Юстином: «Самого же Ксеркса всегда видели первым в бегстве, последним в сражении; он был робок в опасности и хвастлив, когда ему ничто не угрожало; он, пока не испытал превратностей войны, был так самоуверен, как будто был владыкой над самой природой: он срывал горы и выравнивал овраги, некоторые моря перекрывал мостами, на других в целях судоходства устраивал протоки, сокращавшие путь»[3]. Восточные источники изображают совершенно другую личность. Они изображают Ксеркса мудрым государственным деятелем и опытным воином. Сам Ксеркс в надписи, найденной около Персеполя (впрочем, по существу, являющейся лишь копией надписи Дария I), заявляет, что он мудр и деятелен, друг правде и враг беззаконию, защищает слабого от притеснений сильного, но и сильного оберегает от несправедливости со стороны слабого, умеет владеть своими чувствами и не принимает поспешных решений, наказывает и вознаграждает каждого в соответствии с его проступками и заслугами. Он также говорит о своих высоких физических качествах воина; по крайней мере эта часть его апологии не находится в противоречии с сообщением Геродота о том, что Ксеркс, когда он стал царём, был высоким, статным, красивым человеком в расцвете лет[4]. Очевидно, и греческие и персидские источники тенденциозны и субъективны, но тем не менее они взаимно дополняют друг друга[5]. Начало правления. Покорение восставших народов[править | править код] Восстание в Египте[править | править код] Имена Ксеркса как царя Египта Тип имени Иероглифическое написание Транслитерация — Русскоязычная огласовка — Перевод «Личное имя» (как сын Ра) ḫšjrš — Хшаярша (перс.) — Ксеркс идентично предыдущему идентично предыдущему ḫ³šš³ — Хшашша — Ксеркс В январе 484 года до н. э. Ксерксу удалось подавить возглавляемое Псамметихом IV восстание в Египте, которое началось ещё при жизни его отца[6]. Египет подвергся безжалостной расправе, имущество многих храмов было конфисковано. Взамен Ферендата, по-видимому, погибшего во время восстания, Ксеркс назначил сатрапом Египта своего брата Ахемена. Согласно Геродоту, Египет подвергся ещё большему игу, чем раньше. С этих пор участие коренных жителей в управлении страны ещё более ограничивается — их допускают только на низшие должности; и Ксеркс, и последующие персидские цари не удостаивают вниманием египетских богов. Правда, в хаммаматских каменоломнях начертано иероглифами имя Ксеркса, но материал этот царь добывал не для египетских храмов, а для своих построек в Персии, доставляя его по морю. В отличие от своих предшественников, Ксеркс и последующие за ним цари не считали нужным принимать фараоновские титулы — до нас дошли только написанные иероглифами в картушах их персидские имена[7][8]. Восстания вавилонян[править | править код] Затем пришлось усмирять Вавилон, снова решившийся на восстание. Ктесий сообщает, что это восстание вспыхнуло в начале царствования и было вызвано кощунственным открытием гробницы некоего Белитана (Элиан говорит, что это была гробница Бэла[9]), а затем усмирено Мегабизом, зятем Ксеркса и отцом Зопира[10]. Страбон, Арриан, Диодор говорят также о святотатствах Ксеркса в вавилонских храмах, причём Арриан датирует их временем после возвращения Ксеркса из Греции. По всей вероятности восстаний было несколько. Первоначально вавилоняне восстали под предводительством Бел-шиманни. Возможно, что это восстание началось ещё при Дарии, под влиянием поражения персов при Марафоне. Восставшие захватили, кроме Вавилона, города Борсиппу и Дильбат. В двух клинописных документах найденных в Борсиппе, датированных «началом царствования Бел-шиманни, царя Вавилона и Стран». Свидетели, подписавшиеся на этом контракте, те же, что встречаются на документах второй половины царствования Дария и первого года Ксеркса. Очевидно, Бел-шиманни восстал против Дария и принял дерзновенный титул «царя Стран», на который не посягали ещё лже-Навуходоносоры. Но через две недели, в июле 484 года до н. э., это восстание было подавлено. В августе 482 года до н. э. вавилоняне восстали вновь. Теперь мятеж возглавил Шамаш-эриба. О этом восстании свидетельствует один вавилонский документ — контракт торгового банка Эгиби, датированный 22 ташриту (26 октября), года вступления на царствование царя Шамаш-эриба, «царя Вавилона и Стран», причём свидетели сделки те же, что упоминаются в документах времён Дария; сын одного из них упоминается уже под 1-м годом Ксеркса. Во всяком случае, восстание не было продолжительным — это видно уже из наличия одного документа от «начала царствования». Мятежники добились крупных успехов, захватив Вавилон, Борсиппу, Дильбат и другие города, поскольку большая часть воинских гарнизонов, размещённых в Вавилоне, была переправлена в Малую Азию, для участия в предстоящем походе против Греции. Подавление восстания было поручено зятю Ксеркса Мегабизу. Осада Вавилона длилась несколько месяцев и завершилась, по-видимому, в марте 481 года до н. э. суровой расправой. Городские и другие укрепления были срыты. Даже течение реки было отведено и Евфрат, по крайней мере, на время отделил жилую часть города от его святилищ. Часть жрецов была казнена, главный храм Эсагила и зиккурат Этеменанки тоже сильно пострадали. Не знает о нём ничего и Геродот, но сообщает, сам того не подозревая, интересное сведение, что Ксеркс увёз из храма Бела (Эсагилы) колоссальную, весом 20 талантов (ок. 600 кг), золотую статую бога, убив охранявшего жреца[11]. Конечно, греческий историк полагал, что причина — корыстолюбие. На самом деле она, как мы знаем, более глубока. Усмирение бунта повлекло за собой крайние меры: разрушение храма и увезение многих предметов сокровищницы этого храма в Персеполь; туда же была отправлена и золотая статуя бога Мардука, где её, вероятно, переплавили. Тем самым Ксеркс не только фактически, но и формально ликвидировал Вавилонское царство, превратив его в обычную сатрапию. Лишив Вавилон статуи Мардука, Ксеркс сделал появление в нём царей невозможным. Ведь царскую власть претендент должен был получать «из рук» бога. С этих пор изменяется и титулатура царя на вавилонских документах: на датированных «годом вступления» Ксеркс называется ещё «царём Вавилона, царём Стран»; на происходящих из первых четырёх лет его царствования — «царём Персии и Мидии, царём Вавилона и Стран»; наконец, с 5-го года (480—479) начинается обозначение «царь Стран», которое остаётся за всеми преемниками Ксеркса. Диодор отмечает[12], что после мятежа лишь незначительная часть Вавилона была обитаема, а большую часть города отвели под посевы[13]. Поход в Грецию[править | править код] Основная статья: Греко-персидская война (480—479 до н. э.) Подготовка к походу[править | править код] Высохшее русло «Ксерксова канала» Ксеркс приказывает высечь море К концу 80-х годов ситуация в Персии стабилизировалась, и Ксеркс стал энергично готовиться к новому походу против Греции. В течение нескольких лет велись работы по сооружению канала (длиной 12 стадий, более 2 км) через перешеек на Халкидике, чтобы избежать обхода Афонского мыса, где погиб флот Мардония. Также был построен мост и через реку Стримон. На строительство согнали многочисленных работников из Азии и прилегающего побережья. Вдоль берегов Фракии создали продовольственные склады, через Геллеспонт переброшены два понтонных моста длиной по 7 стадиев (около 1300 м) каждый[14][15]. Велась и дипломатическая подготовка к походу; послы и агенты Ксеркса были направлены в различные государства Балканской Греции и даже в Карфаген, которому следовало военными действиями отвлечь греков Сицилии от участия в войне с Персией[16][17]. К подготовке похода Ксеркс привлёк находившихся при его дворце видных греческих беглецов. Аргос и Фессалия изъявили покорность Персии[18]. Во многих греческих городах, не исключая и Афины, имелись сильные проперсидские группировки[19]. Жители Крита отказались помогать эллинам, а жители Керкиры заняли выжидательную позицию[20][21]. Греки готовятся дать отпор[править | править код] Греческие воины времён греко-персидских войн (реконструкция). Слева — критский пращник. Справа — гоплиты, у левого щит снабжён особой занавеской, защищающей от стрел. Ряд греческих государств готовились к борьбе. В 481 году до н. э. был создан общеэллинский союз с центром в Коринфе, возглавляемый Спартой. Встретить персов было решено на границе Северной и Средней Греции, у Фермопил. Горы в этом месте близко подходят к морскому берегу, и узкий проход было легче защищать. Одновременно к действиям сухопутной армии, планировалась операция флота у острова Эвбея, чтобы персы не могли прорваться через пролив Эврип и оказаться в тылу у греков[22]. Поскольку позиция у Фермопил была оборонительной, греки решили туда направить небольшую часть объединённой греческой армии, всего примерно 6 с половиной тысяч человек во главе со спартанским царём Леонидом I[23][24]. Переправа через Геллеспонт[править | править код] Воины армии Ксеркса. (Реконструкция по описанию Геродота, археологическим находкам и рисункам на греческих вазах). Слева направо: персидский штандартоносец, армянский и каппадокийский воины. Воины армии Ксеркса. Слева направо: халдейские пехотинцы составляли первый ряд персидской фаланги лучников; вавилонский лучник; ассирийский пехотинец. На воинах надеты стёганные куртки, набитые конским волосом — характерный тип восточного доспеха того времени. Воины армии Ксеркса из Малой Азии. Слева — гоплит из Ионии, вооружение которого напоминает греческое, но на нём надет мягкий стёганный панцирь, широко распространённый у азиатских народов (в данном случае греческого покроя); справа — лидийский гоплит в бронзовой кирасе и своеобразном каркасном шлеме. Летом 480 года до н. э. персидская армия, насчитывающая согласно исследованиям современных историков от 80 до 200 тысяч воинов (Геродот же приводит совершенно фантастические цифры в 1 миллион 700 тысяч человек[25]) начала переправляться через Геллеспонт. Налетевшая в это время буря разметала понтонные мосты, и некоторое количество персидских воинов утонуло в море. Разгневанный Ксеркс приказал сечь море плетьми и кидать в него цепи, чтобы усмирить разбушевавшуюся стихию, а надзирателям над работами — отсечь головы[26]. Принятые меры помогли, и через семь дней войско Ксеркса благополучно переправилось на европейский берег[27]. Дальнейшее продвижение персидской армии к Фермопилам прошло без затруднений и в августе 480 года до н. э. персы подошли к Фермопильскому ущелью. По морю персидскую армию сопровождал сильный флот. Кроме персов, участие в походе Ксеркса принимали все подвластные ему народы: мидяне, лидийцы, киссии, гирканы, вавилоняне, армяне, бактрийцы, сагартии, саки, индийцы, арии, парфяне, хорасмии, согдийцы, гандарии, дадики, каспии, саранги, пактии, утии, мики, парикании, арабы, эфиопы из Африки, восточные эфиопы (гедросии), ливийцы, пафлагонцы, лигии, матиены, мариандины, фригийцы, мисийцы, вифинцы, писидийцы, кабалии, милии, мосхи, тибарены, макроны, моссиники, мары, колхи, племена с островов Персидского залива. Во флоте служили: финикийцы, сирийцы, египтяне, киприоты, памфилы, ликийцы, азиатские дорийцы, карийцы, ионийцы, эолийцы, и жители Геллеспонта[28][29]. Сражение у Фермопил[править | править код] Основная статья: Фермопильское сражение Позиция у Фермопил давала возможность грекам надолго задержать наступавшего врага, но кроме прохода через ущелье на юг вела ещё одна горная дорога, известная местным жителям и, возможно, персидской разведке. Леонид, на всякий случай, послал туда отряд в 1000 фокидян. Когда несколько попыток персов пробиться через Фермопильское ущелье было отбито, отборный отряд, включая персидскую гвардию, двинулся в обход по горной дороге; предатель из местных жителей вызвался быть проводником. Застигнутые врасплох фокидяне под градом стрел бежали, а персы, не обращая на них более внимания, продолжили свой марш и зашли в тыл грекам. Когда Леонид узнал о случившемся, он отпустил большую часть своего отряда, а сам со спартанцами, феспийцами и некоторыми другими греками остался на месте, прикрывать их отход. Леонид и все оставшиеся с ним погибли, но, задержав наступление персов, они дали возможность провести мобилизацию греческих сил, подтянув их к Истму, и эвакуировать Аттику[30][31][32][33][34]. Действия флотов[править | править код] Основная статья: Битва при Артемисии Одновременно со сражением у Фермопил происходили активные действия флота у острова Эвбеи. Шторм причинил значительный урон персидскому флоту, стоявшему на якоре у плохо защищённого побережья Магнесии. Несколько сотен кораблей затонуло, погибло много людей.[35] Во время перехода персидского флота от побережья Малой Азии к проливу Эврип, афиняне захватили 15 отставших от основных сил персидских кораблей[36]. Чтобы отрезать грекам путь к отступлению, персы послали 200 кораблей вдоль восточного побережья острова Эвбеи, но налетевший внезапно шторм разметал эту эскадру; много кораблей затонуло. Столкновение морских сил в сражении у Артемисия велось с переменным успехом. Силы сторон были приблизительно равны, так как персы не смогли развернуть весь свой флот. Обе стороны понесли значительные потери. При получении вести о гибели отряда Леонида, дальнейшее пребывание греческого флота здесь теряло смысл, и он отошёл на юг, к Сароническому заливу[37][38][39][40]. Разорение Аттики[править | править код] Теперь персы могли беспрепятственно двинуться в Аттику. Беотия подчинилась персам, и в дальнейшем Фивы оказывали им активную поддержку[41]. Сухопутная армия греков стояла на перешейке Истм, и Спарта настаивала на создании здесь укреплённой оборонительной линии для защиты Пелопоннеса. Афинский политический деятель, создатель афинского флота Фемистокл считал, что необходимо дать персам морской бой у побережья Аттики. Защищать Афины в тот момент, несомненно, не представлялось возможным[42]. Через несколько дней после Фермопильской битвы, персидская армия вступила на почти пустую землю Аттики. Часть афинян укрылась в Акрополе и оказала персам отчаянное сопротивление. Их, по-видимому, было не так мало, так как 500 человек было взято персами в плен. Афины были разграблены, храмы Акрополя разрушены, некоторые памятники увезены в Персию[43][44][45]. Морской бой у острова Саламин[править | править код] Основная статья: Битва при Саламине После долгих дебатов на военном совете греков, было принято новое предложение, дать бой персидскому флоту в Саламинском проливе[46]. 28 сентября 480 года до н. э. произошла решающая битва. Ночью персидские суда окружили остров Саламин и блокировали греческому флоту выход из пролива[47] .На рассвете началось сражение. Ксеркс лично наблюдал за битвой с высокого места на побережье Аттики, с другого берега, с острова Саламин за сражением зорко следили женщины, старики и дети эвакуированной Аттики, которых в случае поражения греков ждали рабство и смерть. Персидские суда, вошедшие в пролив, не имели возможности использовать своё численное превосходство и маневрировать, так как сзади их теснили собственные корабли. Греки же могли постепенно вводить в бой свои резервы, стоявшие в заливе у северо-западного побережья Аттики и в начале не замеченные персами. К тому же поднялся ветер неблагоприятный для персидского флота. Персидские суда гибли не только от вражеских ударов, но и наталкиваясь друг на друга. Греки одержали полную победу[48][49][50][51][52][53]. Сначала удавалось персам сдерживать Напор. Когда же в узком месте множество Судов скопилось, никому никто помочь Не мог, и клювы направляли медные Свои в своих же, весла и гребцов круша… …моря видно не было Из-за обломков, из-за опрокинутых Судов и бездыханных тел… Найти спасенье в бегстве беспорядочном Весь уцелевший варварский пытался флот, Но греки персов, словно рыбаки тунцов, Кто чем попало, досками, обломками Судов и вёсел били… — Эсхил. «Персы»[54] Греки готовятся к решающему сражению[править | править код] Воины армии Ксеркса. (Реконструкция по описанию Геродота и археологических находкам). Слева направо: эфиопский воин, вооружённый мощным луком, половина его тела выкрашена в белый цвет; пехотинец из Хорезма, бактрийский пехотинец; арианский кавалерист. Хотя персидский флот во главе с Ксерксом, после поражения покинул пределы Греции, на Балканском полуострове оставлена была сухопутная армия под командованием полководца Мардония, зятя Дария I. Не имея возможности прокормить себя и свою конницу в Аттике, персы ушли на север. Афиняне получили возможность временно вернуться домой[55]. В следующем 479 году до н. э. персы снова вторглись в Аттику и опустошили её поля[56]. Мардоний, при посредничестве македонского царя Александра, тщетно пытался склонить Афины к сепаратному миру[57]. Спарта, которую Саламинская победа освободила от непосредственной опасности, медлила с продолжением активных военных действий против Мардония, предлагая досаждать ему морскими вылазками во Фракии и у побережья Малой Азии, а на Балканском полуострове удерживать линию обороны на Истме. Афинам Спарта обещала компенсацию за потери урожая, средства на содержание женщин, детей и стариков, но не военную помощь[58][59][60]. Однако, и в самой Спарте были сторонники более активных действий (например, Павсаний, регент при малолетнем царе, сыне Леонида), и, когда по настоянию Афин было принято решение дать бой Мардонию, мобилизация войск в Пелопоннесе и их продвижение к Истму были проведены так быстро, что враждебный Спарте Аргос, обещавший Мардонию задержать спартанцев, ничего не смог предпринять. Вовремя предупреждённый Мардоний, находившийся в это время в Аттике, отступил в Беотию, оставив позади себя дымящиеся руины. Персам нужна была для сражения равнина, где можно было развернуть их многочисленную и сильную конницу. К тому же, дружественные персам Фивы обеспечивали тыл их армии[61][62][63]. Походы Ксеркса в Грецию Битва при Платеях[править | править код] Греческие воины времён греко-персидских войн (реконструкция). Фессалийский кавалерист и легковооружённый воин с дротиками и сумкой для камней. Основная статья: Битва при Платеях В 479 году до н. э. у города Платеи, на границе Аттики и Беотии, состоялась последняя, решающая битва греков с персидской армией, вторгшейся на Балканский полуостров. Греческой армией командовал спартанец Павсаний. Более недели 30-тысячная греческая армия и персидская армия, насчитывающая примерно 60—70 тыс. человек, стояли друг против друга, не вступая в бой. Пока пехота бездействовала, персидская конница частыми рейдами тревожила греков и, наконец, захватила и засыпала основной источник их снабжения водой. Греческая армия по приказу Павсания отступила. Мардоний, решив, что греки струсили, перевёл свою армию через полувысохшую речку, разделяющую противников и стал подниматься в гору, навстречу напавшим на них спартанцам. Афиняне и мегаряне отбили натиск беотийских и фессалийских гоплитов (союзников Персии), поддержанных персидской конницей, и стали теснить персидских стрелков. Те всё же держались, пока был жив Мардоний, сражающийся на белом коне. Но вскоре он был убит, и персы оставили поле боя спартанцам. Греки добились победы и в столкновении с выдвинувшимися вперёд флангами персидской армии. Командующий её центром Артабаз начал поспешное отступление на север и, в конце концов, на лодках переправился в Малую Азию. Ксеркс одобрил его действия[64][65][66][67][68]. Сакские воины армии Ксеркса. Реконструкция по описанию Геродота и археологическим находкам. Слева — пеший лучник; справа — конный лучник, вооружённый кроме характерного скифского лука в горите и копья, ещё и чеканом — оружием ближнего боя, предназначенным для пробивания доспехов. Оставшиеся в Беотии персы пытались укрыться в своих укреплениях. Но греки ворвались туда, разграбили лагерь персов, захватив огромную добычу. Пленных не брали. По свидетельству греческих историков спастись удалось только 43 тысячам персов, из них 40 000 бежавших с Артабазом[69]. Данные вероятно преувеличены, а сведения об убитых греках явно преуменьшены — 1360 воинов[70]. Видимо, здесь учтены только гоплиты, чьи имена были перечислены на памятниках в честь павших. Платеям, на территории которых была одержана победа, греки обещали «вечную» благодарность. Фивы за предательство понесли умеренное наказание. Были казнены выданные осаждённым городом лидеры персофильской группировки, но угроза разрушить город не была выполнена[71][72][73]. Продолжение военных действий на территории персов[править | править код] Битва при Микале[править | править код] Основная статья: Битва при Микале По преданию, Фемистокл предложил сразу же после Саламинского боя направить флот к Геллеспонту, чтобы уничтожить построенные там Ксерксом мосты и, таким образом, отрезать персам путь к отступлению[74]. Этот план был отвергнут, однако вскоре греческий флот начал операции против островов Кикладского архипелага, сотрудничавших с персами[75]. К командующему греческим флотом явились тайные послы от жителей острова Самос, ещё оставшихся под контролем персов, с призывом поддержать готовящееся восстание ионийских греков[76]. Самосцы освободили 500 афинских пленных, увезённых персами[77]. В августе 479 года до н. э. греческий флот подошёл к мысу Микале невдалеке от Милета. Греки высадились на берег и часть их стала продвигаться вглубь страны. Командовавший персидским 15-тысячным корпусом Тигран напал на половину греческой армии, оставшуюся на берегу, но потерпел поражение и сам погиб в этом сражении. Ионяне — самосцы и милетяне, находившиеся в рядах персов, активно помогали своим соплеменникам. Победив на суше, греки уничтожили стоявший поблизости персидский флот; все корабли были сожжены, после того как добычу предварительно вынесли на берег. По преданию битва при Микале произошла в тот же день когда греки разбили персов при Платеях. Битва при Микале, хотя и была не столь грандиозной, как предшествовавшие ей, но она освободила Эгейское море для действий греческого флота. В общегреческий союз были приняты Самос, Хиос, Лесбос и некоторые другие острова, жители которых принесли клятву верности общему делу[67][78][79][80]. Осада Сеста[править | править код] Основная статья: Осада Сеста После победы при Микале греческий флот направился к Геллеспонту. Оказалось, что построенные по приказу Ксеркса мосты уже разрушены самими персами. Спартанцы отправились домой, а афиняне и союзные греки Малой Азии, под командованием Ксантиппа осадили город Сест, где укрепились персы. Весной 478 года до н. э. Сест был захвачен греками, а руководивший его обороной персидский сатрап Артаикт предан казни. После афиняне тоже отплыли домой[81][82][83]. Греки образуют Делосский морской союз[править | править код] После 479 года до н. э. Персия более не грозила Балканской Греции. Греческие государства сами перешли в наступление. Но дальнейшие военные успехи взорвали временно сложившееся единство греков. Всё явственнее стали противоречия, особенно между Афинами и Спартой, обострилась временно приглушённая борьба между политическими группировками отдельных государств[84][85][86]. Между тем морские операции против Персии продолжались успешно. Греками был освобождён пролив Геллеспонт и возобновлена торговля с Северным Причерноморьем. В 478—477 годах до н. э. по предложению союзников верховное командование было передано Афинам. Поскольку отныне война велась на море, а самым сильным флотом располагали афиняне, это было вполне закономерно. Под руководством Афин был образован так называемый Делосский морской союз, в который входили приморские и островные греческие государства[87][88][89]. Битва при Эвримедонте[править | править код] Основная статья: Битва при Эвримедонте После отстранения спартанцев от командования военные действия продолжались, прежде всего, по очищению от персов Фракии. В эти годы выдвинулся Кимон, сын Мильтиада, возглавивший действия афинского и союзного флотов. Под его командованием греки взяли крепость, охранявшую стратегически важные мосты через реку Стримон и ряд других пунктов на Фракийском побережье. В 468 году до н. э. Кимон направил свой флот к южному побережью Малой Азии, к устью реки Эвримедонт. Здесь произошло последнее, крупное столкновение с новым персидским флотом. Греки одержали двойную победу, разгромив силы персов на море и на суше, как и в битве при Микале. После этого персидский флот уже не отваживался выплывать в Эгейское море[90][91][92][93]. Обстановка в Державе[править | править код] Предполагаемая гробница Ксеркса I в скалах Накше-Рустам Эти неудачи в греко-персидских войнах усилили процесс распада державы Ахеменидов. Уже при Ксерксе появились опасные для существования державы симптомы — мятежи сатрапов. Так, его собственный брат Масиста бежал из Суз в свою сатрапию Бактрию с целью поднять там восстание, но по дороге преданные царю воины догнали Масисту и убили вместе со всеми сыновьями, сопровождавшими его (ок. 478 года до н. э.). Геродот рассказывает жуткую легенду о его гибели. Ксеркс воспылал страстью к супруге Масисты, но не смог добиться от неё взаимности. Тогда он устроил свадьбу своего сына Дария и дочери Масисты, надеясь, что это даст ему возможность сблизиться с её матерью. Но затем он влюбился в дочь Масисты, свою невестку, которая согласилась на сожительство. Об этом узнала жена Ксеркса Аместрида и во время пира, который устраивался раз в году, а именно в день рождения царя, когда можно было попросить у последнего любой подарок, потребовала себе жену Масисты, считая её виновницей всех своих бед, и затем зверски расправилась с нею. После этого Ксеркс вызвал к себе Масисту и сказал ему, что взамен изувеченной жены он выдаст за него свою дочь. Однако Масиста предпочёл бежать в Бактрию[94] . Несмотря на поражения в Греции и в бассейне Эгейского моря, Персия продолжала активную внешнюю политику; в частности, было покорено сакское племя дахов, обитавшее к востоку от Каспийского моря. Это племя впервые упоминается в списках покорённых народов при Ксерксе. Последний продолжал завоевания также на крайнем востоке, захватив горную область Акауфака на теперешней границе между Афганистаном и Пакистаном. При Ксерксе велось интенсивное строительство в Персеполе, Сузах, Тушпе, на горе Эльвенд близ Экбатаны и в других местах. Для укрепления государственной централизации он провел религиозную реформу, сводившуюся к запрещению почитания местных родоплеменных богов и усилению культа общеиранского бога Ахурамазды. При Ксерксе персы прекратили поддержку местных храмов (в Египте, в Вавилонии и др.) и захватили многие храмовые сокровища[95]. Убийство Ксеркса в результате заговора[править | править код] По свидетельству Ктесия, к концу своей жизни Ксеркс находился под сильным влиянием начальника царской гвардии Артабана и евнуха Аспамитры (у Диодора он назван Митридатом). Вероятно, положение Ксеркса в это время было не очень прочным. Во всяком случае, из персепольских документов нам известно, что в 467 году до н. э., то есть за 2 года до убийства Ксеркса, в Персии царил голод, царские амбары были пусты, а цены на зерно повысились в семь раз по сравнению с обычными. Чтобы как-то успокоить недовольных, Ксеркс в течение года сместил около ста государственных чиновников, начиная с самых высокопоставленных. В августе 465 года до н. э. Артабан и Аспамитра, по-видимому, не без происков Артаксеркса, младшего сына Ксеркса, убили царя ночью в его спальне[96][97][98]. Точная дата этого заговора зафиксирована в одном астрономическом тексте из Вавилонии. В другом тексте из Египта говорится, что он был убит вместе со своим старшим сыном Дарием. Ксеркс находился у власти 20 лет и 8 месяцев и был убит на 54 году своей жизни. От времени правления Ксеркса сохранилось около 20 клинописных надписей на древне-персидском, эламском и вавилонском языках[99]. Жёны и дети[править | править код] Царица Аместрида[100] (согласно Ктесию это была Аместрис, дочь Онофа[101]) Дарий Гистасп, сатрап Бактрии Артаксеркс I Неизвестные жёны Артарий, сатрап Вавилона[102] Раташап Тифравст, внебрачный сын Ксеркса[103] Ксеркс женился на дочери Онофа Аместрис, от которой у него был сын по имени Дарий, а два года спустя родился второй, получивший имя Гистаспа, затем третий, названный Артаксерксом. Кроме того, он имел двух дочерей, одна из которых была названа Амитис (по имени бабушки), а другая — Родогуна. Ахемениды Предшественник: Дарий I персидский царь ок. 486 — 465 до н. э. (правил 21 год) Преемник: Артаксеркс I фараон Египта ок. 486 — 465 до н. э. В массовой культуре[править | править код] Литература[править | править код] Образ Ксеркса и война персов с греками были отражены в эпической поэме Херила «Персика», написанной гекзаметром. Этой же теме посвящены романы Уильяма Дэвиса "Саламин", Луи Куперуса "Надменный". Опера[править | править код] Образ Ксеркса и его переправа через Гелеспонт легли в основу либретто оперы Генделя «Ксеркс», первое представление которой состоялось 15 апреля 1738 года, Лондон. Кинематограф[править | править код] «300 спартанцев» — фильм 1962 года. Роль Ксеркса исполняет актёр Дэвид Фаррар. «300 спартанцев» — фильм 2006 года, экранизация графического романа Фрэнка Миллера «300», рассказывающего о Фермопильском сражении в сентябре 480 года до н. э. в ходе греко-персидской войны[104]. Роль Ксеркса исполняет бразильский актёр Родриго Санторо. 300 спартанцев: Расцвет империи — фильм 2014 года. Роль Ксеркса исполняет бразильский актёр Родриго Санторо. Примечания[править | править код] ↑ Boyce, Mary (1989). A History of Zoroastrianism: The early period, p. 141. ↑ Дандамаев М. А. Политическая история Ахеменидской державы. — С. 135. ↑ Марк Юниан Юстин. Эпитома сочинения Помпея Трога «История Филиппа». Книга II, 10 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VII «Полигимния», § 187 ↑ Дандамаев М. А. Политическая история Ахеменидской державы. — С. 135—136, 175—176. ↑ Leo Depuydt. Saite and Persian Egypt, 664 BC — 332 BC / Эрик Хорнунг (англ.), Rolf Krauss and David A. Warburton. (= Handbook of Oriental studies. Section One. The Near and Middle East, Том 83). — Ancient Egyptian Chronology. — Leiden, Boston: Brill, 2006. — С. 282. ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VII «Полигимния», § 5, 7 ↑ Дандамаев М. А. Политическая история Ахеменидской державы. — С. 136. ↑ Элиан. Пёстрые рассказы. Книга XIII, 3 ↑ Ктесий Книдский в изложении Фотия. Персика. Книги XII—XIII, (26) (неопр.) (недоступная ссылка). Дата обращения: 19 марта 2013. Архивировано 1 августа 2013 года. ↑ Геродот. История. Книга I «Клио», § 183 ↑ Диодор Сицилийский. Историческая библиотека. Книга II, 9 (9) ↑ Дандамаев М. А. Политическая история Ахеменидской державы. — С. 136—139. ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VII «Полигимния», § 20—25, 32—37 ↑ Диодор Сицилийский. Историческая библиотека. Книга XI, 2 (4) ↑ Диодор Сицилийский. Историческая библиотека. Книга XI, 1 (4) ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VII «Полигимния», § 157—167 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VII «Полигимния», § 148—152, 172—174 ↑ Диодор Сицилийский. Историческая библиотека. Книга XI, 3 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VII «Полигимния», § 168—169 ↑ Дандамаев М. А. Политическая история Ахеменидской державы. — С. 139—140, 142—143. ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VII «Полигимния», § 175—177 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VII «Полигимния», § 202—204 ↑ Дандамаев М. А. Политическая история Ахеменидской державы. — С. 140—141, 147—148. ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VII «Полигимния», § 60 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VII «Полигимния», § 34—35 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VII «Полигимния», § 56 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VII «Полигимния», § 61—99 ↑ Дандамаев М. А. Политическая история Ахеменидской державы. — С. 143—148. ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VII «Полигимния», § 206—233 ↑ Диодор Сицилийский. Историческая библиотека. Книга XI, 4—11 ↑ Марк Юниан Юстин. Эпитома сочинения Помпея Трога «История Филиппа». Книга II, 11 ↑ Ктесий Книдский в изложении Фотия. Персика. Книги XII—XIII, (27) (неопр.) (недоступная ссылка). Дата обращения: 19 марта 2013. Архивировано 1 августа 2013 года. ↑ Дандамаев М. А. Политическая история Ахеменидской державы. — С. 148—151. ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VII «Полигимния», § 188—191 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VII «Полигимния», § 194 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VIII «Урания», § 1—25 ↑ Диодор Сицилийский. Историческая библиотека. Книга XI, 12—13 ↑ Плутарх. Сравнительные жизнеописания. Фемистокл. 7—9 ↑ Дандамаев М. А. Политическая история Ахеменидской державы. — С. 151—153. ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VIII «Урания», § 34 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VIII «Урания», § 40, 71 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VIII «Урания», § 51—53 ↑ Диодор Сицилийский. Историческая библиотека. Книга XI, 14 ↑ Дандамаев М. А. Политическая история Ахеменидской державы. — С. 153—155. ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VIII «Урания», § 56—64 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VIII «Урания», § 76, 78 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VIII «Урания», § 83—86 ↑ Диодор Сицилийский. Историческая библиотека. Книга XI, 15—19 ↑ Плутарх. Сравнительные жизнеописания. Фемистокл. 14—15 ↑ Марк Юниан Юстин. Эпитома сочинения Помпея Трога «История Филиппа». Книга II, 12 ↑ Ктесий Книдский в изложении Фотия. Персика. Книги XII—XIII, (30) (неопр.) (недоступная ссылка). Дата обращения: 19 марта 2013. Архивировано 1 августа 2013 года. ↑ Дандамаев М. А. Политическая история Ахеменидской державы. — С. 155—159. ↑ Эсхил. Персы; 410—430 ↑ Марк Юниан Юстин. Эпитома сочинения Помпея Трога «История Филиппа». Книга II, 13 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга IX «Каллиопа», § 1, 3 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VIII «Урания», § 136, 144 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VIII «Урания», § 142 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга IX «Каллиопа», § 7, 8 ↑ Плутарх. Сравнительные жизнеописания. Аристид. 10 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга IX «Каллиопа», § 10—13 ↑ Диодор Сицилийский. Историческая библиотека. Книга XI, 28—29 ↑ Дандамаев М. А. Политическая история Ахеменидской державы. — С. 159—163. ↑ Геродот. История. Книга IX «Каллиопа», § 28—32, 49—66 ↑ Диодор Сицилийский. Историческая библиотека. Книга XI, 30—31 ↑ Плутарх. Сравнительные жизнеописания. Аристид. 14—19 ↑ 1 2 Марк Юниан Юстин. Эпитома сочинения Помпея Трога «История Филиппа». Книга II, 14 ↑ Ктесий Книдский в изложении Фотия. Персика. Книги XII—XIII, (28) (неопр.) (недоступная ссылка). Дата обращения: 19 марта 2013. Архивировано 1 августа 2013 года. ↑ Геродот. История. Книга IX «Каллиопа», § 70 ↑ Плутарх. Сравнительные жизнеописания. Аристид. 19 ↑ Диодор Сицилийский. Историческая библиотека. Книга XI, 32—33 ↑ Плутарх. Сравнительные жизнеописания. Аристид. 20—21 ↑ Дандамаев М. А. Политическая история Ахеменидской державы. — С. 163—167. ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VIII «Урания», § 108 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VIII «Урания», § 111—112 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга IX «Каллиопа», § 90—92 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга IX «Каллиопа», § 99 ↑ Геродот. История. Книга IX «Каллиопа», § 96—106 ↑ Диодор Сицилийский. Историческая библиотека. Книга XI, 34—37 ↑ Дандамаев М. А. Политическая история Ахеменидской державы. — С. 167—168. ↑ Геродот. История. Книга IX «Каллиопа», § 114—121 ↑ Диодор Сицилийский. Историческая библиотека. Книга XI, 37 (4—5) ↑ Дандамаев М. А. Политическая история Ахеменидской державы. — С. 168. ↑ Диодор Сицилийский. Историческая библиотека. Книга XI, 39—40 ↑ Фукидид. История. Книга I. § 89—90 ↑ Марк Юниан Юстин. Эпитома сочинения Помпея Трога «История Филиппа». Книга II, 15 ↑ Диодор Сицилийский. Историческая библиотека. Книга XI, 47 ↑ Фукидид. История. Книга I. § 96—99 ↑ Дандамаев М. А. Политическая история Ахеменидской державы. — С. 171—173. ↑ Диодор Сицилийский. Историческая библиотека. Книга XI, 60—62 ↑ Фукидид. История. Книга I. § 100 ↑ Плутарх. Сравнительные жизнеописания. Кимон. 11—13 ↑ Дандамаев М. А. Политическая история Ахеменидской державы. — С. 173—175. ↑ Геродот. История. Книга IX «Каллиопа», § 108—113 ↑ Дандамаев М. А. Политическая история Ахеменидской державы. — С. 175—176. ↑ Диодор Сицилийский. Историческая библиотека. Книга XI, 69 ↑ Марк Юниан Юстин. Эпитома сочинения Помпея Трога «История Филиппа». Книга III, 1 ↑ Ктесий Книдский в изложении Фотия. Персика. Книги XII—XIII, (33) (неопр.) (недоступная ссылка). Дата обращения: 19 марта 2013. Архивировано 1 августа 2013 года. ↑ Дандамаев М. А. Политическая история Ахеменидской державы. — С. 176—177. ↑ Геродот. История. Книга VII «Полигимния», § 61 ↑ Ктесий Книдский в изложении Фотия. Персика. Книги XII—XIII, (24) (неопр.) (недоступная ссылка). Дата обращения: 19 марта 2013. Архивировано 1 августа 2013 года. ↑ Ктесий Книдский в изложении Фотия. Персика. Книги XIV—XVII, (42) (неопр.) (недоступная ссылка). Дата обращения: 19 марта 2013. Архивировано 1 августа 2013 года. ↑ Диодор Сицилийский. Историческая библиотека. Книга XI, 60 ↑ Рецензия Алекса Экслера. (неопр.). сайт exler.ru (2007). Дата обращения: 20 августа 2011. Литература[править | править код] Ксеркс I // Энциклопедический словарь Брокгауза и Ефрона : в 86 т. (82 т. и 4 доп.). — СПб., 1890—1907. Ксеркс I (англ.). — в Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Энциклопедия Ираника: Ксеркс I Глускина Л. М. Греко-персидские войны // История Древнего мира: в 3 т. / Ред. И. М. Дьяконова, В. Д. Нероновой, И. С. Свенцицкой. — Издание третье. — М.: Наука, 1989. — Т. 2. Расцвет Древних обществ. Дандамаев М. А. Политическая история Ахеменидской державы. — М.: Главная редакция восточной литературы издательства «Наука», 1985. — 319 с. — 10 000 экз. Дандамаев М. А. Мидия и Ахеменидская Персия // История Древнего мира / Под редакцией И. М. Дьяконова, В. Д. Нероновой, И. С. Свенцицкой. — Изд. 3-е, испр. и доп. — М.: Главная редакция восточной литературы издательства «Наука», 1989. — Т. 2. Расцвет древних обществ. — 572 с. — 50 000 экз. — ISBN 5-02-016781-9. Тураев Б. А. История Древнего Востока / Под редакцией Струве В. В. и Снегирёва И. Л. — 2-е стереот. изд. — Л.: Соцэкгиз, 1935. — Т. 2. — 15 250 экз. Древний Восток и античность. // Правители Мира. Хронологическо-генеалогические таблицы по всемирной истории в 4 тт. / Автор-составитель В. В. Эрлихман. — Т. 1. Jürgen von Beckerath. Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen. — München: Deutscher Kunstverlag, 1984. — 314 p. — (Münchner ägyptologische Studien). — ISBN 3422008322. Хэммонд Н. Поход Ксеркса // Кембриджская история Древнего мира. — Т. IV: Персия, Греция и Западное Средиземноморье ок. 525—479 гг. до н. э. / Под ред. Дж. Бордмэна и др. Пер. с англ. А. В. Зайкова. — М.: Ладомир, 2011. — С. 619—704. — ISBN 978-5-86218-496-9 Ахемениды Предшественник: Дарий I персидский царь 486—465 до н. э. Преемник: Артаксеркс I фараон Египта 486—465 до н. э.     Словари и энциклопедии Большая каталанская · Большая российская · Брокгауза и Ефрона · Еврейская Брокгауза и Ефрона · Малый Брокгауза и Ефрона · Реальный словарь классических древностей · Britannica (онлайн) · Brockhaus · Infernal (6e éd.) · Notable Names Database Генеалогия и некрополистика Find a Grave Нормативный контроль BNC: a12318310 · BNE: XX1153338 · BNF: 150689088 · GND: 118808109 · ISNI: 0000 0000 6300 8852 · LCCN: n81070675 · LNB: 000054067 · NKC: mzk2005313022 · NLA: 66228176 · NTA: 073636711 · NUKAT: n2006124654 · LIBRIS: 259706 · SUDOC: 050588400 · VIAF: 282770127, 84647018, 19983268, 545159474208227661770, 852159474197427661164, 835154381042230292043, 305065028, 230159474179227661365 · ULAN: 500354810 · WorldCat VIAF: 282770127, 84647018, 19983268, 545159474208227661770, 852159474197427661164, 835154381042230292043, 305065028, 230159474179227661365 Ахемениды Предки династии Персей Перс Цари Парсы и Парсумаша—Аншана (705(?)—640 годы до н. э.) Ахемен Теисп Цари Парсы (640—550 годы до н. э.) Ариарамна Аршама Цари Парсумаша—Аншана (640—549 годы до н. э.) Кир I Камбис I Кир II Великий Цари Державы Ахеменидов (549—329 годы до н. э.) Кир II Великий Камбис II Гаумата (Лжебардия) Дарий I Великий Ксеркс I Артаксеркс I Макрохейр (Лонгиман) Ксеркс II Согдиан Дарий II Нот Артаксеркс II Мнемон Артаксеркс III Ох Артаксеркс IV Арсес Дарий III Кодоман Артаксеркс V (Бесс) курсивом отмечены персоны, в отношении которых нет достоверных свидетельств существования, могут быть легендарными персонажами Шахиншахи Ирана Ахемениды Кир II Великий Камбис II Дарий I Ксеркс I Артаксеркс I Ксеркс II Секудиан Дарий II Артаксеркс II Артаксеркс III Арсес Дарий III Аршакиды Митридат I Фраат II Артабан II Митридат II Готарз I Ород I Санатрук Фраат III Ород II Митридат III Пакор I Фраат IV Фраат V Муза Парфянская Ород III Вонон I Артабан III Тиридат III Вардан I Готарз II Вонон II Вологез I Вологез II Вологез III Хосрой (Ороз) Митридат IV Вологез IV Вологез V Вологез VI Артабан V Сасаниды Ардашир Папакан Пероз I Шапур I Ормизд I Бахрам I Бахрам II Бахрам III Нарсе Ормизд II Шапур II Арташир II Шапур III Бахрам IV Йездегерд I Бахрам V Йездегерд II Ормизд III Пероз Балаш Кавад I Замасп Хосров I Ануширван Ормизд IV Бахрам Чубин Хосров II Парвиз Кавад II Арташир III Фаррухан Шахрвараз Борандохт Азармедохт Хосров V Йездегерд III Сефевиды Исмаил I Тахмасп I Исмаил II Мухаммад Худабенде Аббас I Великий Сефи I Аббас II Солейман Сефи Солтан Хусейн I Тахмасп II Аббас III Сулейман II Исмаил III Хотаки Мир Махмуд Мир Ашраф Афшариды Надир Али Адил Солтан Ибрахим Шахрох Зенды Али Мурад Джафар Лотф Али Каджары Ага Мохаммед Фетх Али Мохаммед Насреддин Мозафереддин Мохаммад Али Султан Ахмад Пехлеви Реза Великий Мохаммед Реза Источник — https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ксеркс_I&oldid=111147420 Категории: Родившиеся в 519 году до н. э. Родившиеся в Иране Умершие в 465 году до н. э. Похороненные в Иране Персоналии по алфавиту Фараоны по алфавиту Фараоны XXVII династии Монархи державы Ахеменидов Правители Азии V века до н. э. Правители Африки V века до н. э. 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sco-wikipedia-org-457	----	Xerxes I - Wikipedia Xerxes I Frae Wikipedia, the free beuk o knawledge Jump to navigation Jump to search The "Scots" that wis uised in this airticle wis written bi a body that's mither tongue isna Scots. Please impruive this airticle gin ye can. (December 2020) Xerxes I Keeng o Keengs o Persie Xerxes I, frae Hadish Palace at Persepolis. Ring 486 - 465 BC Coronation October 486 BC Predecessor Darius I Successor Artaxerxes I Born 518 BC Persie Dee'd 465 BC (aged 54) Persie Buirial Persie Hoose Persia Dynasty Achaemenid Empire Faither Darius I Mither Atossa Releegion Zoroastrianism Xerxes I o Persie (/ˈzɜːrksiːz/; Auld Persie: [Xšaya-ṛšā] error: {{lang}}: text has italic markup (help) IPA: [xʃajaːrʃaː] meanin "rulin ower heroes";New Persie: خشایارشا ;[1] Greek: Ξέρξης [ksérksɛːs]; Ebreu: אֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹשׁ‬, Modren Aẖashverosh, Tiberian ʼĂḥašwērôš), forby kent as Xerxes the Great (519–465 BC), wis the fowerth o the keengs o Achaemenid Empire. Xerxes I is mair nor likely the Persie king identified as Ahasuerus in the biblical beuk o Esther.[2][3][4] References[eedit | eedit soorce] ↑ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/xerxes-1-name ↑ http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/967-ahasuerus ↑ [1] ↑ [2] This airticle is a stub. Ye can help Wikipaedia bi expandin it. v t e Taen frae "https://sco.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&oldid=817350" Categeries: Lang an lang-xx template errors 465 BC daiths 465 BC crimes Monarchs o Persie Pharaohs o the Achaemenid dynasty o Egyp Monarchs o the Hebrew Bible Battle o Thermopylae Battle o Salamis Murthert Persie monarchs Beuk o Esther Achaemenid keengs 5t-century BC rulers Persie fowk o the Greco-Persie Wars 518 BC births Chairacters in Herodotus 5t-century BC Iranian fowk Stubs Skauk't categeries: Pages that wis written by a body that's mither tongue isna Scots Aw pages needin cleanup Airticles conteenin Greek-leid text Aw stub airticles Navigâtion menu Personal tuils No loggit in Collogue for this IP Contreibutions Mak accoont Log in Namespaces Airticle Collogue Variants Views Read Eedit Eedit soorce See histerie More Rake Navigation Main page Commonty Yett Mercat Cross Recent chynges Wale page allevolie Help Propines Tuilkist Whit airts tae here Relatit chynges Uplaid file Byordinar pages Permanent airtin Page information Cite this airticle Wikidata item Prent/export Create a beuk Dounload as PDF Prent version In ither projects Wikimedia Commons In ither leids Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Eedit airtins This page wis last eeditit on 13 December 2020, at 15:16. Text is available unner the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms mey apply. See Terms o Uise for details. Preevacie policie Aboot Wikipedia Disclamation Mobile view Deveelopers Statistics Cookie statement 
sh-wikipedia-org-6604	----	Kserks I - Wikipedia Kserks I Iz Wikipedije, slobodne enciklopedije Idi na navigaciju Idi na pretragu Za ostale osobe s imenom Kserks, v. Kserks (razvrstavanje). Kserks I Reljef u Perzepolisu koji prikazuje Kserksa Veliki kralj Perzije Vladavina septembar 486. - oktobar 465. pne. (20 godina) Krunidba 486. pne. Prethodnik Darije I Veliki Nasljednik Artakserks I Supruga Amestrija Djeca Artakserks I, Amitis, Darije, Histasp, Rodoginije, Artarije, Ratašah, itd. Puno ime Kserks I Veliki od Perzije Dinastija Ahemenidi Otac Darije I Veliki Majka Atosa Rođenje 519. pne. Smrt 465. pne. Perzepolis Pokop Nakš-e Rustam Kserks (Kserkso) I (vladao od 486. – 465. pne.[1]) bio je perzijski vladar iz iranske dinastije Ahemenida koji je vladao Perzijskom Monarhijom. Rodio se 519. pne. kao sin kraljice Atose i velikog kralja Darija I Velikog. Sadržaj/Садржај 1 Ime i etimologija 2 Pozadina i rani život 3 Politički život 3.1 Egipat i Babilon 3.2 Grčka 4 Kulturni značaj 5 U Starom zavjetu 6 Smrt 7 Djeca 8 Popularna kultura 9 Kronologija 10 Veze 11 Izvori 12 Vanjske veze Ime i etimologija[uredi - уреди | uredi izvor] Ime Kserks (eng. Xerxes) je izvedenica latinskog i grčkog jezika od perzijske riječi Hšājāršā. To ime se spominje u mnogim zapisima na raznim jezicima koji su govoreni diljem velike Perzijske Monarhije; na perzijskom, elamitskom, babilonskom, egipatskom (demotskom), itd. Grčko ime je zabilježeno u Herodotovoj Historiji i Diodorovoj Historijskoj biblioteci. Herodot u svojoj knjizi spominje kako Kserks znači „Ratnik”, što uglavnom nije prihvaćeno kod modernih historičara prema kojima Kserks znači „Vladar heroja”. Alternativno englesko ime Ahasuerus je izvedenica latinskog prijevoda biblijskog imena Áḥašweroš (אחשורוש), što je pak izvedenica babilonske riječi Acḫšiyaršu. Obje ove izvedenice uključujući i grčko ime Ξέρξης su izvedenice staroperzijske riječi Xšayāršā odnosno Khsayârshâ. Lingvističke promjene imena događale su je prilikom prijelaza iz jezika u jezik na putovanju iz Perzije prema zapadnom svijetu. Biblijski tekstovi na više mjesta spominju ime Ahasuerus kako ekvivalent Kserksu[2], a oba imena su izvedenica perzijske riječi Hšajāršā. Pozadina i rani život[uredi - уреди | uredi izvor] Nedugo nakon što je došao na prijestolje, Kserksov otac Darije I Veliki (sin Histaspa) oženio se Atosom, kćeri Kira Velikog. Obojica su bili iz ahemendiske dinastije, no iz različitih obiteljskih pravaca. Ženidba Kirove kćeri ojačala je njegovu poziciju na tronu Perzijske Monarhije. Darije Veliki je bio aktivan vladar, zaokupljen graditeljskim projektima u Perzepolisu, Suzi, Egiptu, itd. Prilikom kraja njegove vladavine odlučio je kazniti Atenu zbog njene potpore jonskom ustanku, no nova pobuna u Egiptu koju je vjerojatno poveo perzijski satrap (namjesnik) odgodila je ekspediciju. Prema perzijskom zakonu, ahemenidski vladari morali su imenovati nasljednika uoči ozbiljnijih ekspedicija. Neposredno prije svoje smrti Darije je pripremio vlastitu grobnicu u Nakš-e Rustamu i imenovao je Kserksa, najstarijeg sina s Atosom, za svoga nasljednika. Darijevo loše zdravlje spriječilo ga je u planiranju novih pohoda, a kulminiralo je njegovom smrću 486. pne. Kserks nije bio najstariji Darijev sin koji je prema iranskoj tradiciji trebao naslijediti velikog kralja, no bio je najstariji sin iz Darijevog braka s Atosom koja je potomak Kira Velikog, zbog čega je Kserks proglašen perzijskim prijestolonasljednikom. Moderni historičari uglavnom se slažu kako je Darijev odabir Kserksa bio isključivo zbog povlaštene pozicije koje je imala Atosa kao Kirova kćer. Kserks je okrunjen u periodu između listopada i prosinca 486. pne. kada je imao oko 33 godine. Prijenos političke moći na Kserksa protekao je glatko budući da je preko majke vukao podrijetlo od Kira Velikog, pa se protiv njegova imenovanja nije bunio nitko iz Darijeve obitelji, te niti jedna od brojnih perzijskih provincija. Iako Herodotova Historija ne spominje koje je religije bio Kserks, moderni historičari smatraju kako je bio sljedbenik zoroastrizma. Politički život[uredi - уреди | uredi izvor] Egipat i Babilon[uredi - уреди | uredi izvor] Nedugo nakon stupanja na prijestolje, Kserks je ugušio pobune u Egiptu i Babilonu koje su izbile godinu dana ranije, i imenovao je brata Ahemena namjesnikom (satrapom, perz. khshathrapavan) u Egiptu. Godine 484. pne. ugušio je ustanak u Babilonu i Babilonce kaznio uništenjem zlatnog spomenika babilonskom bogu Marduku. To oskrvnuće nagnalo je Babilonce da se opet pobune 482. pne. i prema babilonskim zapisima Kserks nije nazivan Kraljem Babilona već je rabio druge titule poput Veliki kralj Perzije i Medije, faraon Egipta, Kralj kraljeva (Šahanšah) ili Kralj naroda (svijeta). Grčka[uredi - уреди | uredi izvor] Glavni članak: Grčko-perzijski ratovi Reljef s perzijskim elitnim vojnicima, Louvre Kserks je ostao upamćen najviše po svojoj ulozi u grčko-perzijskim ratovima. Njegov otac Darije I Veliki ostavio mu je zadatak da kazni grčke polise Atenu i Ereterju, koji su napadali perzijske gradove u Joniji (istočna obala Egejskog mora), u Egiptu i na Cipru. Budući da je pomorska kažnjenička ekspedicija protiv Atene koju je poslao Darije završila neuspjehom u bitci kod Maratona 490. pne., Kserks je sedam godina poslije odlučio poslati kombiniranu pomorsko-kopnenu ekspediciju[3]. Godine 480. pne. okupio je vojsku koja se prema modernim procijenama sastojala od 25 – 100 tisuća ljudi. Herodot je volio pretjerivati i rekao da je vojska bila sačinjena od 5,2 milijuna ljudi što je bilo nemoguće za održavanje. Perzijska vojska sastojala se od Perzijanaca i drugih iranskih naroda, te Asiraca, Feničana, Babilonaca, Indijaca, Egipćana, Židova, Arapa, čak i Grka, pa ju je Herodot volio nazivati „Vojskom tisuću naroda”. Ilustracija legende o Kserksovom „bičevanju mora“ Okosnica perzijske vojske bili su legendarni Perzijski besmrtnici, sastavljeni od 10.000 vojnika koje se često naziva najkvalitetnijim vojnicima starog vijeka. Kserks i Mardonije napravili su pontonski most preko Dardanela koji se smatra čudom starovjekovnog inženjerstva, i preko njega prebacili vojsku iz Azije u Evropu. Herodot pripovjeda da je prilikom prelaska iz Azije oluja uništila dio mornarice zbog čega je Kserks naredio „bičevanje mora“, a moderni historičari smatraju da se ta grčka legenda temelji na perzijskom postavljanju ogromnih konopa u more koji su kasnije pridržavali pontonski most sastavljen od serije brodova. Dolaskom Perzijanaca na grčki teritorij, mnogi grčki polisi poput Tesalije, Tebe i Arga stali su na stranu Perzije koja im je kao federacija jamčila ravnopravnost i sigurnost, te su se priključili savezu protiv hegemonističke Atene. S obzirom na česte oluje koje su uništavale perzijsku mornaricu, Kserks je odlučio prokopati dvokilometarski kanal kroz poluotok Atos kako bi skratio put svojim brodovima. Prilikom dolaska do Termpilskih vrata, skupina od 8 – 11 tisuća Grka predvođenih s 2000 Spartanaca pokušala im se suprostaviti u uskom prolazu Termopil misleći da perzijska brojčana prednost neće doći do izražaja, no Perzijanci ih pobjeđuju i nastavljaju napredovati prema jugu Grčke. Paralelno kopnenoj bitci, vodila se i pomorska bitka kod Artemizija u kojoj također pobjeđuju Perzijanci. Nakon bitke kod Termopila grčki historičari stvorili su mnoge mitove o borbi kako bi umanjili sramotu poraza. Ubrzo nakon bitke perzijska vojska dolazi do Atene i Eretreje te ih na nekarakterističan način perzijskim vladarima spaljuje kao znak odmazde za atensko spaljivanje grada Sarda na egejskoj obali. Atenjani su pobjedu protiv Perzijanaca ostvarili tek u pomorskoj bitci kod Salamine[4], kada je Temistoklo iskoristio prednosti plitkog i uskog zaljeva u kojem perzijska mornarica nije mogla manevrirati. Čuvši za nerede u perzijskoj federalnoj jedinici Babiloniji, Kserks i vojska odlaze iz Grčke, a kontrolu ostavljaju manjem dijelu vojske i svojim grčkim saveznicima na čelu s Mardonijem koji su poslije godinu dana Atenjani i Spartanci porazili u bitci kod Plateje. Službeno, rat između Perzijanaca i Grka okončan je Kalijinim mirom, 30 godina poslije velikih bitaka. Kulturni značaj[uredi - уреди | uredi izvor] Kserksova vrata (ili Vrata svih naroda) u Perzepolisu, Iran Kserks je dovršio Perzepolis, remek-djelo starovjekovne arhitekture koje je započeo graditi njegov otac Darije I Veliki. Vratarnica koju je sagradio Kserks I vodi prema jugu do apadane (zgrade za prijeme), a prema istoku do drugog nedovršenog ulaza koji gleda na prijestolnu dvoranu (tzv. Dvoranu od tisuću stupova). Složeni portal u sredini dijeli te ceremonijalne zgrade od kraljevskih odaja s kraljičinim koji okružuje otvoreno dvorište. Na jugoistoku se sigurno nalazila izolirana riznica. U Starom zavjetu[uredi - уреди | uredi izvor] Do današnjeg dana nije razjašnjeno je li Ahasuer (Ahasver) iz Knjige o Esteri (Stari zavjet) Kserks I, ili se pak radi o kasnijim perzijskim velikim kraljevima Kserksu II, Artakserksu I ili Artakserksu II. Smrt[uredi - уреди | uredi izvor] Kserks I je ubijen 465. pne. Ubio ga je satrap Artaban koji je na prijestolje podigao Artakserksa I, Kserksova sina. Djeca[uredi - уреди | uredi izvor] Sa kraljicom Amestrijom Amitis, žena Megabiza II Artakserks I Darije Histasp Rodoginije Sa nepoznatim ženama Artarije, babilonski satrap Ratašah Popularna kultura[uredi - уреди | uredi izvor] Kserks je prikazan u mnogim filmovima, najčešće u kontekstu njegove uloge tokom grčko-perzijskih ratova odnosno bitke kod Termopila gdje je njegova perzijska vojska ratovala protiv Spartanaca i drugih grčkih vojnika. U filmu 300 Spartanaca iz 1962. Kserksa je tumačio engleski glumac David Farrar, dok ga je u Frank Millerovom filmu 300 iz 2007. tumačio brazilski glumac Rodrigo Santoro. Potonji film je izazvao velike vrlo kontroverze zbog vrijeđanja perzijske kulture i prikazivanja Perzijanaca kao deformiranih krvožednih barbara, zbog čega su prosvjedovali Iranci diljem svijeta. Film prikazuje Kserksa kao ćelavog i gotovo golog, koji nosi samo remen, čizme i ogrtač. Tu su i upadljivi lanci koji vise preko njegove glave, grudi i tijela (pokušaj prikazivanja njegove tiranske i sadističke naravi), te mnogi piercinzi, igle, karike, naušnice, itd. Dugi crni nokti ga pokušavaju prikazati kao zvijer s velikim pandžama, dok ga pak šminka prikazuje kao homoseksualca[5]. Ipak, pravi Kserksov izgled baziran na perzijskih reljefima pokazuje čovjeka s dugom, bujnom i kovrčavom kosom te bradom[6]. Kronologija[uredi - уреди | uredi izvor] Grobnica Kserksa Velikog u Nakš-e Rustamu, Iran 519. pne. - rođen Kserks I kao sin kraljice Atose i kralja Darija I Velikog. 486. pne. - smrt Darija I Velikog, krunidba Kserksa I 484. pne. - Kserks I guši ustanak u Babilonu i kažnjava Babilonce. 482. pne. - još jedna pobuna u Babilonu. 480. pne. - okuplja se perzijska vojska i kreću u kažnjeničku ekspediciju prema Grčkoj. 480. pne. - u bitci kod Termopila perzijska vojska uništava grčki otpor i nastavlja napredovati prema Ateni, koja je sravnjena sa zemljom. 480. pne. - povratak perzijske vojske u Perziju zbog nereda u Babiloniji. 479. pne. - u bitci kod Plateje Atenjani i Spartanci pobijeđuju manji dio perzijske vojske na čelu s Mardonijem koji je ostao kontrolirati teritorij južne Grčke. 479. pne. - unatoč protivljenju Sparte, Atena obnavlja gradske zidine koje su uništili Perzijanci. 474. pne. - Kserks Veliki uz asistenciju Mordekaja izdaje dokument koji priznaje Židovima pravo na obranu diljem Perzijske Monarhije. 465. pne. - umire Kserks I Veliki, a na tronu ga naslijeđuje njegov sin Artakserks I Veze[uredi - уреди | uredi izvor] Perzijska Monarhija Kir Veliki Darije I Veliki Grčko-perzijski ratovi Prethodnik: Veliki kralj Perzije (486. - 465. pne.) ____________________ Faraon Egipta (486. - 465. pne.) Nasljednik: Darije I Veliki (522. - 486. pne.) Artakserks I (465. - 424. pne.) Izvori[uredi - уреди | uredi izvor] ↑ Xerxes I (Britannica) ↑ Ahasureus (enciklopedija Iranica) ↑ Herodot o Kserksu I (enciklopedija Iranica) ↑ Bitka kod Salamine (Livius.org) ↑ Dr. Kaveh Farrokh: The 300 Movie: Separating Fact from Fiction ↑ Persepolis: Apadana, North Stairs Relief (Livius.org) Vanjske veze[uredi - уреди | uredi izvor] Kserks I na Wikimedijinoj ostavi Xerxes I (Livius.org) Xerxes (Khashayar Shah) (Iran Chamber) Xerxes I (Britannica) Xerxes (PersianEmpire.info) v r u Iranski vladari Stari vijek Medijska dinastija (728. – 550. pne.) Dejok • Fraort • Madije • Kijaksar • Astijag Ahemenidska dinastija (550. – 330. pne.) Ahemen • Teisp • Kir I • Arijaramno • Arsam • Kambiz I • Kir Veliki • Kambiz II • Smerdis • Darije I Veliki • Kserks I • Artakserks I • Kserks II • Sogdijan • Darije II • Artakserks II • Artakserks III • Artakserks IV • Darije III Strana vladavina (330. – 247. pne.) Vidi: Argeadski i seleukidski vladari Arsakidska dinastija (247. pne. – 224.) Arsak I • Tiridat I • Arsak II • Frijapatije • Fraat I • Mitridat I • Fraat II • Artaban I • Mitridat II • Gotarz I • Orod I • Sanatruk I • Fraat III • Mitridat III • Orod II • Pakor I • Fraat IV • Tiridat II • Musa • Fraat V • Orod III • Vonon I • Artaban II • Tiridat III • Gotarz II • Vardan I • Vonon II • Vologas I • Vardan II • Vologas II • Pakor II • Artaban III • Hozroje I • Vologas III • Mitridat IV • Partamaspat • Sanatruk II • Vologas IV • Hozroje II • Vologas V • Vologas VI • Artaban IV Sasanidska dinastija (224. – 651.) Ardašir I • Šapur I • Hormizd I • Bahram I • Bahram II • Bahram III • Narzeh • Hormizd II • Šapur II • Ardašir II • Šapur III • Bahram IV • Jezdegerd I • Bahram V • Jezdegerd II • Hormizd III • Peroz I • Balaš • Kavad I • Zamasp • Hozroje I • Hormizd IV • Bahram Čobin • Hozroje II • Kavad II • Ardašir III • Šahrabaraz • Boran • Azarmedukt • Hozroje III • Hormizd V • Hozroje IV • Jezdegerd III Srednji vijek Strana vladavina (651. – 821.) Vidi: rašidunski, omejadski i abasidski vladari Tahiridska dinastija (821. – 873.) Tahir I • Talha • Abdulah • Tahir II • Muhamed Safaridska dinastija (861. – 1003.) Jakub • Amr I • Tahir I • Laith • Muhamed I • Mufadal • Amr II • Ahmed • Halaf Samanidska dinastija (819. – 999.) Saman Hoda • Asad • Nuh bin Asad • Jahja • Elijas • Ibrahim • Ahmed I • Nasr I • Ismail • Ahmed II • Nasr II • Nuh I • Abdul Malik I • Mansur I • Nuh II • Mansur II • Ismail Muntasir • Abdul Malik II Bujidska dinastija (934. – 1055.) Ali • Hasan • Ahmad • Adud • Iz • Faher • Muajid • Šaraf • Samsam • Šams • Abu-Taleb Rustam • Baha • Kavam • Sultan • Mušarif • Sama • Abu Kalidžar • Džalal • Malik Rahim • Abu Mansur Gaznavidska dinastija (963. – 1187.) Alp-Tegin • Sebuk-Tegin • Ismail • Mahmud • Muhamed • Masud • Mavdud Seldžučka dinastija (1037. – 1077.) Togrul • Alp-Arslan • Malik-šah I • Mahmud I • Barkijaruk • Malik-šah II • Muhamed I • Ahmad Sandžar • Mahmud II Guridska dinastija (1161. – 1206.) Saif • Gijas • Šahab Muhamed Horezmijska dinastija (1077. – 1231.) Anuštegin • Ekinči • Muhamed I • Atsiz • Il-Arslan • Sultan-šah • Takeš • Muhamed II • Džalal Strana vladavina (1231. – 1501.) Vidi: mongolski, ilhanidski i timuridski vladari Novi vijek Safavidska dinastija (1501. – 1736.) Ismail I • Tahmasp I • Ismail II • Muhamed Hodabanda • Abas Veliki • Safi I • Abas II • Sulejman I • Sultan Husain • Tahmasp II • Abas III Hotakijska dinastija (1709. – 1738.) Mir Vais • Abdul Aziz • Mahmud • Ašraf • Husein Afšaridska dinastija (1736. – 1796.) Nader-šah • Adel-šah • Ibrahim • Šaheroh Zandijska dinastija (1750. – 1794.) Karim-han • Muhamed Ali-han • Abol Fateh-han • Zaki-han • Sadek-han • Ali Morad-han • Džafar-han • Sajed Morad-han • Lotf Ali-han Kadžarska dinastija (1785. – 1925.) Muhamed-han • Fateh Ali-šah • Muhamed-šah • Mahd-e Olia • Nasrudin-šah • Mozafaradin-šah • Muhamed Ali-šah • Ahmed-šah Najnovije doba Pahlavijska dinastija (1925. – 1979.) Reza-šah Pahlavi • Muhamed-Reza Pahlavi Uspostavljena I. R. 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simple-wikipedia-org-7451	----	Xerxes - Simple English Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Xerxes From Simple English Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Xerxes I King of Persia and Media Great King King of Kings King of Nations Pharaoh of Egypt Rock relief of Xerxes at his tomb in Naqsh-e Rustam King of Persia Reign 486–465 BC Coronation October 486 BC Predecessor Darius I Successor Artaxerxes I Born 519 BC Persia Died August 465 BC (aged 53 or 54) Persia Burial Persia Spouse Amestris, (disputed: Vashti and Queen Esther) Issue Darius Hystaspes Artaxerxes I Arsames Amytis Dynasty Achaemenid Father Darius I Mother Atossa Religion Zoroastrianism[1] Xerxes the Great was a Shah of Iran (485–465 BC) of Achaemenid Empire. Xerxes was son of Darius I and Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus the Great. After Darius died, Xerxes became the Shah of Iran. At the Battle of Thermopylae, Xerxes defeated Greek warriors. After winning at Thermopylae, Xerxes then took control of Athens with his army. Finally, Greek warriors won the Battle of Salamis against Xerxes in 480 BC. The movie 300 is based on Xerxes. References[change | change source] ↑ Xerxes made human sacrifice. See Boyce, Mary (1989). A History of Zoroastrianism: The early period, p. 141. Ancient sources[change | change source] The Sixth Book, Entitled Erato in History of Herodotus. The Seventh Book, Entitled Polymnia in History of Herodotus. Other websites[change | change source] Media related to Xerxes I at Wikimedia Commons Xerxes Achaemenid dynasty Born: 519 BC Died: 465 BC Preceded by Darius I King of Kings of Persia 485 BC – 465 BC Succeeded by Artaxerxes I Pharaoh of Egypt 485 BC – 465 BC This short article about a person or group of people can be made longer. You can help Wikipedia by adding to it. Persondata Name Xerxes I of Persia Alternative names Khshayathiya Khshayathiyanam Short description Ancient Persian king Date of birth 519 BC Place of birth Persia Date of death 465 BC Place of death Persia Retrieved from "https://simple.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes&oldid=6250588" Category: Shahs of Iran Hidden category: People stubs Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Page Talk Variants Views Read Change Change source View history More Search Getting around Main page Simple start Simple talk New changes Show any page Help Contact us Give to Wikipedia About Wikipedia Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Make a book Download as PDF Page for printing In other projects Wikimedia Commons In other languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Malagasy मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча پنجابی پښتو Polski Português Română Русский Scots Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Change links This page was last changed on 13 September 2018, at 05:02. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License and the GFDL; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
sk-wikipedia-org-7683	----	Xerxes I. – Wikipédia Xerxes I. z Wikipédie, slobodnej encyklopédie Skočit na navigaci Skočit na vyhledávání Portrét perzského vládcu Xerxes I. alebo Xerxés I. (2. pád Xerxa; خشایارشاه) bol perzský veľkokráľ z rodu Achajmenovcov vládnúci v rokoch 485–465 pred Kr. Slovo „Xerxes“ (Xerxés) je gréckou transliteráciou pôvodného perzského trónneho mena Chšájaršá, ktoré znamená „vládca hrdinov“. V hebrejskej biblii je to pravdepodobne perzský kráľ אחשורש Achašveroš (Ahasueros v gréčtine). Viedol vojny proti Grékom. Obsah 1 Politická kariéra 2 Záver vlády 3 V Biblii 4 Pozri aj Politická kariéra[upraviť | upraviť kód] Xerxes I., syn Dareia I. a Atossy, dcéry Kýra Veľkého, bol vybraný otcom za nástupcu, aj keď mal nevlastných starších bratov – ich nároky však neboli uznané za dostatočné, lebo sa narodili skôr, ako sa Dareios stal kráľom. Po svojom nástupe v októbri 485 pred Kr. potlačil Xerxes revoltu v Egypte, ktorá vypukla už v roku 486 pred Kr. Vymenoval svojho brata Achaimena za satrapa Egypta a krajinu dôkladne spacifikoval. Tiež vzbura v Babylonii bola potlačená, v roku 484 pred Kr. rozkázal Xerxes zničiť Babylon a odviesť preč zlatú sochu boha Marduka, ktorého ruky mal právoplatný babylonský kráľ uchopiť vždy prvý deň nového roka. Zabil tiež kňaza, ktorý sochu bránil. To je tiež dôvod, prečo Xerxes v babylonských dokumentoch nie je uvádzaný ako kráľ Babylonu, ale ako perzský a médsky kráľ alebo zjednodušene ako kráľ zeme (teda kráľ sveta). V roku 479 pred Kr. museli Peržania potlačiť v južnej Mezopotámii ďalšiu revoltu. Dareios I. zanechal svojmu synovi úlohu potrestať Aténčanov za ich miešanie sa do iónskeho povstania a víťazstvo v bitke pri Maratóne. Xerxes svoju výpravu dôkladne pripravoval už od roku 483 pred Kr. Bol vykopaný kanál cez hrdlo polostrova Athos. Pozdĺž cesty v Trákii dal vybudovať sieť staníc so zásobami, cez Helespont nechal postaviť dva mosty. Uzavrel tiež alianciu s Kartágom a pripravil Grécko o podporu mocných vládcov Syrakúz a Agrigenta. Navyše sa veľa malých gréckych štátikov pridalo na stranu Peržanov – najmä Tesália, Téby a Argos. Bola zhromaždená rozsiahla flotila a početná pozemná armáda (Herodotos tvrdí, že tam bolo viac ako dva milióny vojakov, skutočný počet však dosahoval maximálne dvestopäťdesiattisíc). Na jar roku 480 pred Kr. vyrazil Xerxes so svojimi silami zo Sárd, hlavného mesta Lýdie. Spočiatku sa mu vojensky pomerne darilo. Grécka flotila bola porazená v bitke pri Artemisione, Peržania zvíťazili v bitke pri Termopylách, dobyli Atény a zatlačili Atéňanov a Sparťanov na ich poslednú líniu odporu pri korintskom Istme a Saronskom zálive. Xerxes sa ale dal zlákať Themistoklovou pascou (napriek radám Artemisie z Halikarnasu) a zaútočil na grécku flotilu v nevýhodných podmienkach, namiesto toho, aby poslal časť svojho loďstva na Peloponéz a počkal na rozklad gréckej armády. V bitke pri Salamíne (28. september 480 pred Kr.) zvíťazili Aténčania, hoci vojnu ako celok vyhral Xerxes. Strata námorného spojenia s Áziou ho hneď nato prinútila k návratu do Sárd. Jeho armáda bola ponechaná v Grécku pod velením Mardonia a bola porazená roku 479 pred Kr. v bitke pri Platajách. Porážka Peržanov v bitke pri Mykalé povzbudila k odporu grécke mestá v Ázii. Xerxove boje s Aténčanmi sa často pokladajú za konflikt medzi Grékmi a Peržanmi, pravda je však taká, že Xerxes prišiel, aby potrestal Atény za vyrabovanie a zničenie gréckych miest v Anatólii, ktoré boli vtedy pod perzskou kontrolou. Počas tejto kampane mal podporu niekoľkých ďalších gréckych miest a macedónskeho kráľovstva. Xerxes obsadil Atény a po krátkom období ich zase opustil. Nebolo v jeho záujme toto mesto trvalo okupovať, ale potrestať miestnych vodcov za predchádzajúcu vojnu proti gréckym obciam na perzskom území. Je potrebné mať neustále na pamäti, že Peržania nikdy nebojovali s Gréckom ako takým, ale iba s premenlivými koalíciami gréckych mestských štátov, keďže Grécko nebolo zjednotenou krajinou. Medzi spojencov Peržanov patrilo aj veľa Grékov, napríklad práve anatólske mestá, s ktorými Aténčaania bojovali. Záver vlády[upraviť | upraviť kód] O neskorších Xerxových rokoch je toho málo známe. Vie sa, že na jeho príkaz sa Satapes (Satapés) pokúsil oboplávať Afriku, ale víťazstvo Grékov uvrhlo celé impérium do stavu určitej apatie, z ktorého sa spamätávalo iba s ťažkosťami. Kráľ sa osobne angažoval v háremových intrigách a jeho rozhodovanie sa tak stalo závislým od dvoranov a eunuchov. Zanechal záznamy v meste Perzepolis, kde pristaval nový palác k Dareiovmu, vo Vane v Arménsku a na hore Elvand blízko Ekbatan. V roku 465 pred Kr. bol zavraždený svojim vezírom Artabanom, ktorý hneď potom dosadil na trón jeho syna Artaxerxa I. V Biblii[upraviť | upraviť kód] V biblickej knihe Ezdráš sa Xerxes spomína pod menom אחשורש Achašveroš (po grécky Ahasueros). Počas jeho vlády a vlády jeho predchodcu Dareia a následníka Artaxerxa vznášalo veľa Samaritánov obvinenia proti Židom. Zvyčajne je kráľ Achašveroš z biblickej Knihy Ester stotožňovaný s Xerxom. V tejto knihe Achašveroš zavrhne svoju kráľovskú manželku Vašti, pretože odmietne uposlúchnuť jeho príkaz, aby vystupovala ako 'kráľovná impéria' na slávnosti usporiadanej pre princov. Následne je vraj vydaný rozkaz, aby boli zhromaždené všetky nepoškvrnené panny z celej ríše. Za novú kráľovnú si Achašveroš vyberie židovské dievča Ester. Kráľovský minister Haman, rodom Amalek (národ, ktorý Boh prikázal zničiť), sa cíti byť ponížený Esteriným bratrancom Mordechajom, ktorý sa pred ním odmieta pokloniť. Presvedčí Achašvera, aby rozkázal zničiť celý židovský národ v perzskej ríši, no Mordechaj a Ester tento zámer prekazia vďaka svojmu vplyvu na kráľa. Práce Flavia Iosepha vzbuzujú dojem, že Vašti a Ester existovali. Na druhej strane Hérodotos tvrdí, že Xerxes mal manželku, ktorá sa volala Amestris a bola dcérou veľmoža Otana. Pozri aj[upraviť | upraviť kód] Grécko-perzské vojny Xerxes I. Achajmenovci Vladárske tituly Predchodca Dareios I. kráľ 485 – 465 Nástupca Artaxerxes I. Xerxes I. 1. perzská dynastia Vladárske tituly Predchodca Dareios I. kráľ 485 – 465 Nástupca Artaxerxes I. Zdroj: „https://sk.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I.&oldid=6650318“ Kategórie: Achajmenovci Vládcovia starovekého Egypta Vládcovia Perzie Grécko-perzské vojny Navigačné menu Osobné nástroje Neprihlásený/á Diskusia Príspevky Vytvoriť účet Prihlásiť sa Menné priestory Stránka Diskusia Varianty Zobrazenia Čítať Upraviť Upraviť kód Zobraziť históriu Více Hľadať Navigácia Hlavná stránka Portál komunity Kaviareň Posledné úpravy Náhodná stránka Pomoc Prispieť Nástroje Odkazy na túto stránku Súvisiace úpravy Nahrať súbor Špeciálne stránky Trvalý odkaz Informácie o stránke Citovať túto stránku Dátová položka Tlačiť/exportovať Vytvoriť knihu Stiahnuť ako PDF Verzia na tlač V iných projektoch Wikimedia Commons V iných jazykoch Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Upraviť odkazy Čas poslednej úpravy tejto stránky je 00:17, 2. apríl 2018. 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sl-wikipedia-org-1332	----	Kserks I. - Wikipedija, prosta enciklopedija Kserks I. Iz Wikipedije, proste enciklopedije Jump to navigation Jump to search Kserks I. Kralj Perzije in Medije Veliki kralj Kalj kraljev Kralj narodov Faraon Egipta Relief Kserksesa na njegovi grobnici v Naqsh-e Rustamu Kralj Perzije Obdobje vladanja 486–465 pr. n. št. Kronanje oktober 486 pr. n. št. Predhodnik Darej I. Naslednik Artakserks I. Potomci Amitis Histasp Artakserks I. Arsam, satrap Egipta Vladarska hiša Ahemenidi Oče Darej I. Mati Atosa Rojstvo 519 pr. n. št. Iran Smrt 475 pr. n. št.[1] Perzija[d] Pokop Perzija Vera Zoroastrstvo Kserks I. ali Kserks Veliki (staroperzijsko 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠, x-š-y-a-r-š-a , Hašajarša, vladar herojev,[2] perzijsko خشایارشاه, Khashâyâr Shâh, grško Ξέρξης, Kserkses) je bil četrti kralj iz Ahemenidske dinastije perzijskih vladarjev, ki je vladal od leta 486 do 465 pr. n. št., ko ga je umoril poveljnik kraljeve telesne straže Artaban, * 518 pr. n. št., † 465 pr. n. št. Kserks je zelo verjetno perzijski kralj Ahasver (hebrejsko אֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹשׁ, Axašweroš) iz Esterine knjige[3][4][5][6] V grški zgodovini je znan po neuspeli invaziji na Grčijo leta 480 pr. n. št. Njegova vojska preplavila Grčijo do Korintske ožine[7][8] in bila nato v bitkah pri Salamini in Patajah odločilno poražena. Leto kasneje se je druga perzijska invazija na Grčijo končala. Kserks je takoj po prihodu na prestol zadušil upor v Egiptu in Babiloniji in nadziral zaključna dela različnih gradenj v Suzi in Perzepolisu. Sklici[uredi | uredi kodo] ↑ http://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1200003447 ↑ XERXES i. The Name, Encyclopaedia Iranica. ↑ Estera 1, 1-22. BIBLIJA.net. ↑ "Ahasuerus". JewishEncyclopedia.com. Pridobljeno dne 2014-07-25. ↑ Encyclopaedia perthensis, or, Universal dictionary of the arts, sciences, literature, etc.: intended to supersede the use of other books of reference. Google Books. 1816. Pridobljeno dne 2014-07-25. ↑ Law, George (2010-06-04). Identification of Darius the Mede. Google Books. ISBN 9780982763100. Pridobljeno dne 2014-07-25. ↑ Lazenby, J.F. (1993). The Defence of Greece, 490-479 B.C. Aris & Phillips. ISBN 9780856685910. Pridobljeno dne 2016-09-07. ↑ Brian Todd Carey, Joshua Allfree, John Cairns. Warfare in the Ancient World Pen and Sword, 19 jan. 2006 ISBN 1848846304 Kserks I. Ahemenidska dinastija Rojen: 519 pr. n. št. Predhodnik:  Darej I. Kralj kraljev Perzije 485 pr. n. št. – 465 pr. n. št. Naslednik:  Artakserks I. Faraon Egipta 485 pr. n. št. – 465 pr. n. št. Normativna kontrola WorldCat Identities VIAF: 282770127 LCCN: n81070675 ISNI: 0000 0000 6300 8852 GND: 118808109 SELIBR: 259706 SUDOC: 050588400 BNF: cb150689088 (data) ULAN: 500354810 NLA: 66228176 NKC: mzk2005313022 BNE: XX1153338 Vzpostavljeno iz »https://sl.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kserks_I.&oldid=4981100« Kategorije: Rojeni leta 519 pr. n. št. Umrli leta 475 pr. n. št. Ahemenidi Perzijski kralji Faraoni Ahemenidske dinastije v Egiptu Umorjeni ljudje Skrite kategorije: Strani, ki uporabljajo čarobne povezave ISBN Brez lokalne slike, slika je v Wikipodatkih Članki z viri iz Wikipodatkov Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji VIAF Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji LCCN Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji ISNI Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji GND Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji SELIBR Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji SUDOC Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji BNF Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji ULAN Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji NLA Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji NKC Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji BNE Navigacijski meni Osebna orodja Niste prijavljeni Pogovorna stran Prispevki Ustvari račun Prijava Imenski prostori Stran Pogovor Različice Pogled Preberi Uredi Uredi kodo Zgodovina Več Iskanje Navigacija Glavna stran Dobrodošli Izbrani članki Naključni članek Zadnje spremembe Občestvo Portal občestva Pod lipo Kontaktna stran Pomoč Denarni prispevki Orodja Kaj se povezuje sem Sorodne spremembe Posebne strani Trajna povezava Podatki o strani Navedba članka Predmet v Wikipodatkih Tiskanje/izvoz Ustvari e-knjigo Prenesi kot PDF Različica za tisk V drugih projektih Wikimedijina zbirka V drugih jezikih Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Uredi povezave Čas zadnje spremembe strani: 16:00, 16. april 2018. 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sr-wikipedia-org-6992	----	Ксеркс I — Википедија Ксеркс I С Википедије, слободне енциклопедије Пређи на навигацију Пређи на претрагу Ксеркс I Рељеф Ксеркса I на уласку у његову палату у Персеполису Датум рођења 519. п. н. е. Место рођења Персија Датум смрти 465. п. н. е. Место смрти Персија Династија Ахемениди Отац Дарије Велики Мајка Атоса Супружник Аместрис Потомство Артаксеркс I, Amytis, Artabanus Период 486. п. н. е. — 465. п. н. е. Претходник Дарије Велики Наследник Артаксеркс I Ксеркс I је био персијски цар од 486. до 465. п. н. е. и владар Персије од 486. до 465. п. н. е.. За разлику од својих претходника Дарија Великог и Кира Великог није показивао разумевање и толеранцију за друге културе и религије, па је тиме ослабио царство. После сукоба са Грцима долази ново раздобље када доминантна светска сила престаје бити једна азијска држава.[1][2] Садржај 1 Престрог владар 2 Припрема за кажњавање и освајање Грчке 3 Бичевање мора 4 Грчко-персијски ратови 5 Касније године 6 У Библији 7 Види још 8 Референце 9 Спољашње везе Престрог владар[уреди | уреди извор] Био је син Дарија Великог и Атосе, кђерке Кира Великог. Постао је краљ октобра 485. п. н. е. Након гушења побуне у Египту 486. п. н. е., поставља свог брата Ахамена као сатрапа Египта и тиме заводи у Египту строгу владавину. Из Вавилона односи златни кип Мардука, топи тај кип и убија свештеника, који је чувао кип. Руке тог кипа требало је да додирне законити краљ Вавилона сваког почетка нове године. Од тренутка одношења тог кипа више не носи титулу краља Вавилона, него краља Персије, Медије и једноставно краља земаља (тј света). Тај Ксерксов поступак је изазвао две побуне од 484. п. н. е. до 479. п. н. е. Вавилон је укључен у Асирску сатрапију, која је обавезна да даје 1000 талената сребра и 500 дечака за еунухе.[3][4] Забрањује чак и име Вавилон. Припрема за кажњавање и освајање Грчке[уреди | уреди извор] Ксеркс бичује море Дарије је оставио свом сину Ксерксу задатак кажњавања Атињана за њихово учешће у Јонском устанку и победи на Маратону. Од 483. п. н. е. Ксеркс се пажљиво припремао за експедицију. Дуж Тракије је похранио залихе. Закључио је споразум са Картагином и тиме је спречио Грке да добијају помоћ од Сиракузе и Агригента. Многе мале грчке државице прешле су на страну Персијанаца, а од посебног значаја је био прелазак Тесалије, Тебе и Аргоса на страну Персије. Огромна флота и армија се спремила на поход. Херодот је тврдио да их је било 2 милиона, али вероватније је да је било највише 250.000. Бичевање мора[уреди | уреди извор] Детаљније: Бичевање мора Да би могао из Мале Азије доћи до Грчке требало је прећи Хелеспонт (Дарданеле). Звао је најбоље градитеље мостова из свих делова свог царства да премосте Хелеспонт. Таман кад су премостили Хелеспонт, велика олуја је срушила те мостове. Ксеркс је био толико љут, јер сматрао се свемоћним, да наређује бичевање мора са 300 удараца бичем. Да би му војска прешла Хелеспонт он користи уместо правих мостова, понтонске мостове од бродова. Поређао је толико бродова преко Хелеспонта, да га је премостио. Грчко-персијски ратови[уреди | уреди извор] Детаљније: Грчко-персијски ратови У пролеће 480. п. н. е. Ксеркс креће из Сарда. У почетку Ксеркс свуда побеђује. Грчка флота је потучена код Артемизија, Термопилски кланац је пао и поред отпора Леонидиних Спартанаца, Атина је освојена и разорена, а Спарта је сведена на задњу линију одбране. Након освајања Атине и кад је довољно казнио одговорне за претходни Јонски устанак повукао се из града. У морској бици кад Саламине 28. септембра 480. п. н. е.. Грци побеђују, па се Ксеркс повлачи јер губи комуникацију морем. Персијску армију у Грчкој даље предводи Мардоније, који бива поражен код Платеје. Пораз Персијанаца у Микали, подигао је на ноге грчке градове Азије. Касније године[уреди | уреди извор] Покушавао је да пошаље морнаре, који ће обићи Африку. Победа Грка је довела царство у стање споре апатије, од чега се нису опоравили. Убијен је у дворској интриги 465. п. н. е. . У Библији[уреди | уреди извор] У Библији, Ксеркс се спомиње под именом Ахазеур. Током његове владавине, те његовог претходника (Дарија) и наследника Артаксеркса, многи Самарићани се жале персијском краљу на Јевреје. Веровало се да је Ксеркс такође Ахазерус, краљ у Библијској “Књизи о Јестири”, иако је ова идентификација предложена од стране јеврејских научника. Јеврејски историчар Јосиф Флавије је узео историјски постојање Ваштија и Естер као чињеницу, кроз радове Херодота је предложио да је Ксеркс имао краљицу, проглашену таквом током венчања Аместрис, кћерку Отанеса. Ово име специфично није проблем расправе, пошто се реч Естер може разумети и као “скривен” у хебрејском. Њено име је такође преведено и као Мидраш (Јеврејски библијски коментари), где пише да је Естер крила своју националност и наслеђе по Мордекајевом савету. Види још[уреди | уреди извор] Грчко-персијски ратови Ахеменидско краљевство Дарије I Ахемениди Референце[уреди | уреди извор] ^ „Xerxes I king of Persia”. Britannica. Приступљено 21. 1. 2021. (језик: енглески) ^ „Xerxes I”. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Приступљено 21. 1. 2021. (језик: енглески) ^ „Xerxes I”. Livius. Приступљено 21. 1. 2021. (језик: енглески) ^ „Xerxes I”. Hellenica World. Приступљено 21. 1. 2021. (језик: енглески) Спољашње везе[уреди | уреди извор] Портал Биографија Портал Историја Ксеркс I на Викимедијиној остави. Историјска библиотека: Бичевање мора п р у Староегипатски владари Прото династички период Доњи Египат Хсекију Кхају Тију Теш Нехеб Вазнер Мек Дју Горњи Египат Шкорпион I Ири-Хор Ка Краљ Шкорпион Нармер / Менес Рани династички период I династија Нармер / Менес Хор-Аха Џер Џет Мернеит Ден Аџиб Семерхет Ка’а Снеферка Хорус-Ба II династија Хотепсехемуи Ранеб Нинечер Ба Нубнефер Хорус Са Венег Вадјенес Сенед Перибсен Секхемиб-Перенмат Неферкара I Неферкасокар Худјефа I Хасехемви Старо краљевство III династија Небка Џосер Секемкет Санакт Каба Кахедјет Хуни IV династија Снефру Кеопс Џедеф Ре Кефрен Бихерис Микерен Шепсескаф Тамфтис V династија Усеркаф Сахуре Нефериркаре Какај Шепсескаре Иси Неферефре Ниусере Ини Менкаухор Кају Дједкаре Исеси Унис VI династија Тети Усеркаре Пепи I Меренре Немтијемсаф I Пепи II Први прелазни период VII и VIII династија Неферкаре Неби Неферкаре Кхенду Неферкахор Неферкара Пеписнеб Неферкамин Ану Вадјакаре Какаре Иби IX и X династија Мерyибре Кхети Неферкаре III Небкауре Кхети Мерихатор Неферкаре IV Вахкаре Кхети Мерикаре XI династија (само Теба) Ментухотеп I Интеф I Интеф II Интеф III Средње краљевство XI династија (цео Египат) Ментухотеп II Ментухотеп III Ментухотеп IV XII династија Аменемхет I Сесострис II Аменемхет II Сесострис II Сесострис III Аменемхет III Аменемхет IV Собекнеферу XIII династија Секхемре Кхутави Собекхотеп Сонбеф Нерикаре Секхемкаре Аменy Кемау Хотепибре Иуфни Аменемхет VI Семенкаре Небнуни Сехетепибре Севадјкаре Недјемибре Кханкхре Собекхотеп Ренсенеб Хор Секхемрекхутави Кхабав Дједкхеперев Себкаy Седјефакаре Вегаф Кхендјер Имyремесхав Сехетепкаре Интеф Сетх Мерибре Собекхотеп III Неферхотеп I Сихатхор Собекхотеп IV Мерхотепре Собекхотеп Собекхотеп VI Вахибре Ибиау Мернефере Аy Мерхотепре Ини Санкхенре Севадјту Мерсекхемре Инед Севадјкаре Хори Меркавре Собекхотеп Мерсхепсесре Ини II Севахенре Сенебмиу Меркхепере Меркаре Севадјаре Ментухотеп Сехекенре Санкхптахи XIV династија Јакбим Секхаенре Карех Кхавосере Аму Ахотепре Мејбре Шеши Нехеси Вазад Мердјефаре Севадјакаре III Шекенпернере Јакуб-Хар Други прелазни период XV династија Сакир-Хар Хиан Апепи Кхамуди XVI династија Дјехути Собекхотеп VIII Неферхотеп III Ментухотепи Небирирав I Небириау II Семенре Бебианк Секхемре Шедваст Дудимосе I Дудимосе II Монтемсаф Меранкхре Ментухотеп Сенусрет IV Пепи III XVII династија Рахотеп Небматре Собекемсаф I Собекемсаф II Интеф V Интеф VII Сенактенре Ахмосе Секененре Тао II Камос Ново краљевство XVIII династија Ахмосе I Аменхотеп I Тутмос I Тутмос II Хатшепсут Тутмос III Аменхотеп II Тутмос IV Аменхотеп III Ехнатон Сменкхара Тутанкамон Ај Хоремхеб XIX Династија Рамзес I Сети I Рамзес II Мернептах Аменмес Сети II Сипта Твосрет XX династија Сетнат Рамзес III Рамзес IV Рамзес V Рамзес VI Рамзес VII Рамзес VIII Рамзес IX Рамзес X Рамзес XI Трећи прелазни период XXI династија Смендес I Аменемнису Псусенес I Аменемоп Осоркон Старији Сиамон Псусенес II XXII династија Шошенк I Оскорон I Шошенк II Такелот I Оскорн II Шошенк III Шошенк IV Пимаy Шошенк V Оскорон IV XXIII династија Харсиес А Такелот II Педубаст I Шошенк VI Осоркон III Такелот III Рудамун Ини XXIV династија Тефнакхт Бакенранеф XXV династија Пије Шабатака Шебитку Тахарка Тантамани Касни период XXVI династија Нехо I Псамтик I Нехо II Псамтик II Апријес Амазис II Псамтик III XXVII династија Камбиз II Дарије I Ксеркс I Артаксеркс I Дарије II Артаксеркс II XXVIII династија Амиртеј XXIX династија Неферит I Акорис Хакор Псамут Хакор Неферит II XXX династија Нектанеб I Теос Нектанеб II XXXI династија Артаксеркс III Артаксеркс IV Дарије III Грчко-римски период Македонски краљеви Александар III Филип III Александар IV Птолемејиди Птолемеј I Птолемеј II Птолемеј III Птолемеј IV Птолемеј V Птолемеј VI Птолемеј VIII Птолемеј IX Птолемеј X Береника III Птолемеј XI Птолемеј XII Клеопатра V Клеопатра VI Береника IV Птолемеј XIII Птолемеј XIV Клеопатра VII Цезарион Нормативна контрола WorldCat VIAF: 282770127 LCCN: n81070675 ISNI: 0000 0000 6300 8852 GND: 118808109 SELIBR: 259706 SUDOC: 050588400 BNF: cb150689088 (подаци) ULAN: 500354810 NLA: 66228176 NKC: mzk2005313022 BNE: XX1153338 Преузето из „https://sr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ксеркс_I&oldid=23559380” Категорије: Рођени 519. п. н. е. Умрли 465. п. н. е. Ахемениди Фараони Личности Грчко-персијских ратова Персијски владари Сакривене категорије: Категорија на Остави са локалним линком истим као на Википодацима Википедијски чланци са VIAF идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са LCCN идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са ISNI идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са GND идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са SELIBR идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са BNF идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са ULAN идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са NLA идентификаторима Мени за навигацију Личне алатке Нисте пријављени Разговор Доприноси Отвори налог Пријави ме Именски простори Чланак Разговор Ћир./lat. Ћир./lat. 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Текст је доступан под лиценцом Creative Commons Ауторство—Делити под истим условима; могући су и додатни услови. Погледајте услове коришћења за детаље. Политика приватности О Википедији Одрицање одговорности Мобилни приказ За програмере Статистика Изјава о колачићима 
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sv-wikipedia-org-9286	----	Xerxes I – Wikipedia Xerxes I Från Wikipedia Hoppa till navigering Hoppa till sök Xerxes I Klipprelief av Xerxes, vid hans grav i Naqsh-e Rustam Konungarnas Konung Kung av Persien Farao av Egypten Regeringstid 486–465 f.Kr. Företrädare Dareios I Efterträdare Artaxerxes I Gemål Amestris Barn Artaxerxes I Ätt Akamenidisk Far Dareios I Mor Atossa Född 519 f.Kr. Död 465 f.Kr. Xerxes I, (fornpersiska Khshayārsha, grekiska Ξέρξης Xerxēs, hebreiska Aḥashwerosh), född 519 f.Kr., död 465 f.Kr., var en persisk storkonung som tillhörde den akemenidiska dynastin. Han regerade mellan 486 och 465 f.Kr. Xerxes var son till Dareios I och Kyros II dotter Atossa.[1][2] Xerxes var den av Dareios söner som föddes först efter hans trontillträde och Dareios utropade honom till sin efterträdare istället för den äldre brodern Artabazanes.[2] Xerxes fick börja sin regering med att kuva en revolt i Egypten genom att angripa via deltat. Även i Babylonien pågick revolter genom att befästningar revs, tempel plundrades och Marduks staty förstördes. I och med detta avsade han sig titlarna "kung av Babylonien" och "kung av Egypten" och titulerade sig enbart "kung av Persien och Medien".[2] Efter att ha kuvat revolter i Egypten och Babylonien tog Xerxes upp sin faders krigsplaner mot Grekland. Kriget skulle denna gång utkämpas både till lands och sjöss, och 480 f.Kr. lyckades han efter slaget vid Thermopyle inta Aten, men drog sig tillbaka till Mindre Asien efter ett flottnederlag vid slaget vid Salamis. 479 f.Kr. besegrades den kvarlämnade armén vid Plataiai och flottan vid Mykale.[1] Dessa nederlag markerar enligt vissa historiker början på den akemenidiska dynastins nedgång, vilket är tvivelaktigt då riket bevarade sin stabilitet i knappt 150 år.[2] Trots nederlagen tillskansade sig Xerxes stort inflytande i Grekland och inom det persiska riket stärkte han den kejserliga traditionen med både nya byggnader och påkostade ceremonier inom hovet.[1] Xerxes såg till att slutföra faderns byggnadsprojekt och påbörja egna i huvudstaden Persepolis.[2] Xerxes föll offer för en palatsrevolution och hans son Artaxerxes I efterträdde honom.[1] Källor[redigera | redigera wikitext] ^ [a b c d] ”Xerxes I”. Nationalencyklopedin. http://www.ne.se/uppslagsverk/encyklopedi/l%C3%A5ng/xerxes-i. Läst 6 februari 2016.  ^ [a b c d e] ”Xerxes I, king of Persia”. Encyclopedia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/biography/Xerxes-I. Läst 6 februari 2016.  Företrädare: Dareios I Persiska storkungar 486–465 f.Kr. Efterträdare: Artaxerxes I Farao tjugosjunde dynastin 486–465 f.Kr. Hämtad från "https://sv.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I&oldid=47114531" Kategorier: Iranistik Akemenidiska härskare Män Födda 519 f.Kr. Avlidna 465 f.Kr. Kungligheter som blivit mördade Dold kategori: Artiklar med successionsbox som bör uppdateras Navigeringsmeny Personliga verktyg Inte inloggad Diskussion Bidrag Skapa konto Logga in Namnrymder Artikel Diskussion Varianter Visningar Läs Redigera Redigera wikitext Visa historik Mer Sök Navigering Huvudsida Introduktion Deltagarportalen Bybrunnen Senaste ändringarna Slumpartikel Ladda upp filer Stöd Wikipedia Kontakta Wikipedia Hjälp På andra projekt Commons Skriv ut/exportera Skapa en bok Ladda ner som PDF Utskriftsvänlig version Verktyg Sidor som länkar hit Relaterade ändringar Specialsidor Permanent länk Sidinformation Använd denna sida som referens Wikidata-objekt Språk Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Malagasy मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча پنجابی پښتو Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Redigera länkar Sidan redigerades senast den 11 januari 2020 kl. 17.00. Wikipedias text är tillgänglig under licensen Creative Commons Erkännande-dela-lika 3.0 Unported. För bilder, se respektive bildsida (klicka på bilden). Se vidare Wikipedia:Upphovsrätt och användarvillkor. Wikimedias integritetspolicy Om Wikipedia Förbehåll Mobil vy Utvecklare Statistik Information om kakor 
tl-wikipedia-org-1225	----	Xerxes I ng Persia - Wikipedia, ang malayang ensiklopedya Xerxes I ng Persia Mula sa Wikipedia, ang malayang ensiklopedya Jump to navigation Jump to search Asuero I ng Persiya Jerjes I ng Persiya Khshayathiya Khshayathiyanam, Hari ng mga Hari Jerjes, Hari ng Persiya Paghahari 486 - 465 BK Koronasyon Oktubre 485 BK Kapanganakan 519 BK Lugar ng kapanganakan Susa, Imperyong Persa (Persian) Kamatayan 465 BK (54 edad) Lugar ng kamatayan Persiya Pinaglibingan Susa, Imperyong Persa (Persian) Sinundan Dario ang Dakila Kahalili Artajerjes I Konsorte Amestris Bahay Maharlika Akemenida Ama Dario ang Dakila Ina Atossa Mga paniniwalang relihiyoso Zoroastrianismo Si Xerxes o Asuero (Persa (Persian): Khshayarsha; Ebreo: אֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹשׁ, Ahashwerosh) (c. 519 - 465 BC), kilala din bilang Jerjes I ng Persiya ('Asuero I ng Persiya) at Asuero ang Dakila o (Ingles: Xerxes the Great), ay isang pinunong Persa (Persian). Siya ang ikaapat na hari ng Imperyong Persa (Persian) sa ilalim ng dinastiyang Akemenida. Sa pamamahala niya, ipinagpatuloy niya ang gawain ng kanyang ama na si Dario I na sakupin ang kalahatan ng Gresya sa pamamagitan ng pagsanay ng pinakamalaking hukbong sandatahan sa sinaunang panahon na umabot sa 300,000 - 2,600,000 (base sa mga kasulatan ni Herodoto tungkol sa kasaysayan) subalit natapos sa isang trahedya noong nagkasagupaan ang mga hukbong-dagat ng mga Griyego sa Salamis at winasak nila ang mga natitirang sundalong Persa (Persian) sa pamumuno ni Pausanias sa labanan sa Plataea. Dahil sa galit ng ibang opisyal sa nangyari sa Gresya, pinatay siya ni Artabano, isang kapitan ng mga guwardiya sa palasyo doon sa Susa. Xerxes I ng Persia Dinastiyang Akemenida Kapanganakan: 519 BCE Kamatayan: 465 BCE Inunahan ni: Dario I ang Dakila Hari ng mga Hari ng Persia 485 BCE – 465 BCE Sinundan ni: Artaxerxes I Paraon ng Ehipto 485 BCE – 465 BCE t u b Mga haring Median at Akemenida Punong pamilyang Akemenida Imperyong Median (728 BCE – 550 BCE) Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares the Great Astyages Imperyong Akemenida (550 BCE – 330 BCE) Achaemenes† Ariaramnes† Arsames† Teispes Cyrus I Cambyses I Cyrus II, the Great Cambyses II Smerdis Darius I, the Great Xerxes I Artaxerxes I Longimanus Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Nothus Artaxerxes II Mnemon Artaxerxes III Ochus Artaxerxes IV Arses Darius III Codomannus † not directly attested, possibly legendary t u b Mga Paraon (tala) Mga henealohiyang dinastiko: Ika-4 12 18 19 20 21 25 26 27 31 Ptolemaiko Panahong Protodinastiko (bago ang 3150 BCE) Mababang Ehipto Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Mekh Doubleng Falcon Itaas na Ehipto Scorpion I Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer Panahong Simulang Dinastiko (3150–2686 BCE) Dinastiyang I Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Ibong Horus Dinastiyang II Hotepsekhemwy Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Lumang Kaharian (2686–2181 BC) Dinastiyang III Nebka Djoser Sanakht Sekhemkhet Khaba Qahedjet Huni Dinastiyang IV Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Dinastiyang V Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Shepseskare Neferefre Niuserre Menkauhor Djedkare Unas Dinastiyang VI Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Pepi II |Ika-1 Panahong Pagitan (2181–2040 BCE) Mga Dinastiyang VII at VIII Wadjkare Qakare Iby Mga Dinastiyang IX & X Wakhare Khety I Meryibre Khety Merykare Kaneferre Nebkaure Akhtoy Gitnang Kaharian ng Ehipto (2040–1782 BCE) Dinastiyang XI Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Dinastiyang XII Amenemhet I Senusret I Amenemhet II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhet III Amenemhet IV Sobeknefru♀ Ika-2 Panahong Pagitan (1782–1570 BCE) Dinastiyang XIII Wegaf Ameny Intef IV Hor Sobekhotep II Khendjer Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sobekhotep IV Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Dinastiyang XIV Nehesy Yaqub-Har Dinastiyang XV Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi I Khamudi Dinastiyang XVI Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotep VI Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dinastiyang XVII Rahotep Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Intef V Intef VII Senakhtenre Tao Kamose Bagong Kaharian ng Ehipto (1570–1070 BC) Dinastiyang XVIII Ahmose I Amenhotep I Tuthmosis I Tuthmosis II Tuthmosis III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Tuthmosis IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Dinastiyang XIX Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesse Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Dinastiyang XX Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Ika-3 Panahong Pagitan (1069–525 BCE) Dinastiyang XXI Smendes I Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Dinastiyang XXII Sheshonq I Osorkon I Sheshonq II Takelot I Osorkon II Takelot II Sheshonq III Pami Sheshonq V Osorkon IV Dinastiyang XXIII Pedibastet Sheshonq IV Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamon Iuput Dinastiyang XXIV Tefnakht Bakenrenef Dinastiyang XXV Piankhi Shabaka Shebitku Taharqa Tanutamun Dinastiyang XXVI Psamtik I Nekau Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Panahong Huli (525–332 BCE) Dinastiyang XXVII Cambyses II Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Dinastiyang XXVIII Amyrtaeus Dinastiyang XXIX Nefaarud I Hakor Dinastiyang XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II Dinastiyang XXXI Artaxerxes III Arses Darius III Panahong Hellenistiko (332–30 BCE) Dinastiyang Argead(XXXII) Dakilang Alexander Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Dinastiyang Ptolemaiko Ptolomeo I Soter I Ptolomeo II Philadelphus Ptolomeo III Euergetes I Ptolomeo IV Philopator Ptolomeo V Epiphanes Ptolomeo VI Philometor Ptolomeo VII Neos Philopator Ptolomeo VIII Euergetes II Ptolomeo IX Soter II Ptolomeo X Alexander I Ptolomeo XI Alexander II Ptolomeo XII Neos Dionysos Berenice IV♀ Cleopatra VII♀ Ptolomeo XV Caesarion ♀ nagpapahiwatig na ang paraon ay babae Ang lathalaing ito na tungkol sa Tao, Kasaysayan at Iran ay isang usbong. 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Jump to navigation Jump to search முதலாம் செர்கஸ் பாரசீகம் மற்றும் மீடியாவின் அரசர் பேரரசர் மன்னர்களின் மன்னன் எகிப்தின் பார்வோன் முதலாம் செர்கசின் பாறைச் சிற்பம், பெர்சப்பொலிஸ் பாரசீக மன்னர் ஆட்சி கிமு 486 – கிமு 465 முடிசூட்டு விழா அக்டோபர், கிமு 486 முன்னிருந்தவர் முதலாம் டேரியஸ் பின்வந்தவர் அர்தசெர்க்கஸ் எகிப்தின் பார்வோன் அரசுப்பிரதிநிதி கிமு 486 - 465 முடிசூட்டு விழா அக்டோபர், கிமு 486 முன்னிருந்தவர் முதலாம் டேரியஸ் பின்வந்தவர் முதலாம் அர்தசெர்க்கஸ் ஆசியாவின் தலைவர் ஆட்சிக்காலம் கிமு 486- கிமு 465 முடிசூட்டு விழா அக்டோபர் கிமு 486 முன்னிருந்தவர் முதலாம் டேரியஸ் பின்வந்தவர் முதலாம் அர்தசெர்க்கஸ் துணைவர் அமெஸ்டிரிஸ், வாஸ்தி, எஸ்தர் வாரிசு(கள்) டேரியஸ் ஹைஸ்டேஸ்பெஸ் அர்தசெர்கஸ் ஆர்சேம்சு அமெடிஸ் அரச குலம் அகாமனிசிய வம்சம் தந்தை முதலாம் டேரியஸ் தாய் அதோஸ்சா பிறப்பு கிமு 519 பாரசீகம் இறப்பு கிமு 465 பாரசீகம் அடக்கம் பாரசீகம் சமயம் சொராட்டிரிய நெறி[1] முதலாம் செர்கஸ் (பிறப்பு:கிமு 519 – இறப்பு: கிமு 465) (Xerxes I) மகா செர்கஸ் என்றும் அழைக்கப்படும் இவர் முதலாம் டேரியசின் மகன் ஆவார். அகாமனிசிய பேரரசின் ஐந்தாம் பேரரசர் ஆவார். இவர் அகாமனிசியப் பேரரசை கிமு 486 முதல் கிமு 465 வரை ஆண்டார். இவரது தலைநகரம் பெர்சப்பொலிஸ் ஆகும். யூதர்களின் பழைய எற்பாட்டின் எஸ்தர் நூலில் இப்பேரரசரை அகாசுரர்ஸ் எனக்குறிப்பிட்டுள்ளது. மேலும் இவரது யூத மனைவி எஸ்தர் ஆவார். ஒரு பாரசீகப் படைத்தலைவரிடமிருந்து, யூத மக்களை காப்பாற்றிய பெருமை எஸ்தரை சாரும்.[2][3][4] அகாமனிசியப் பேரரசுக்கு எதிராக கிரேக்கர்கள், பண்டைய எகிப்து மற்றும் பபிலோனியா பகுதிகளில் நடைபெற்ற கலவரங்களை பேரரசர் செர்கஸ் ஒடுக்கினார்.[5] இவரது ஆட்சியில் சூசா மற்றும் பெர்சப்பொலிஸ் நகரங்கள் கட்டி முடிக்கப்பட்டது. இவரது ஆட்சிக்கு பின் படிப்படியாக அகாமனிசியப் பேரரசு வீழ்ச்சியடைத் துவங்கியது. பொருளடக்கம் 1 படக்காட்சிகள் 2 அகாமனிசியப் பேரரசர்கள் 3 இதனையும் காண்க 4 மேற்கோள்கள் 5 ஆதார நூற்பட்டியல் 5.1 தொன்ம ஆதாரங்கள் 5.2 வரலாற்று ஆதாரங்கள் 6 வெளி இணைப்புகள் படக்காட்சிகள்[தொகு] பட்டத்து இளவரசன் செர்கஸ் செர்க்கசின் படைவீரர்கள் [6][7][8] கிரேக்கர்களால் அகாமனிசியப் பேரரசர் கொல்லப்படும் காட்சி கிமு 480-இல் பாரசீகர்களால் அழிக்கப்பட்ட ஏதன்சின் பண்டையக் கோயில் செர்க்கசின் பாறைச் சிற்பம், பெர்சப்பொலிஸ் செர்க்கசின் அரண்மனை, பெர்சப்பொலிஸ், கிமு 480 -470 பட்டத்து இளவரசன் செர்க்கஸ் செர்க்கசின் கல்வெட்டுக்கள் பேரரசர் செர்க்கசின் யூத இராணி எஸ்தர் சித்திரம் அகாமனிசியப் பேரரசர்கள்[தொகு] சைரசு முதலாம் சைரஸ் முதலாம் டேரியஸ் மூன்றாம் அர்தசெராக்சஸ் மூன்றாம் டேரியஸ் இரண்டாம் காம்பிசெஸ் இதனையும் காண்க[தொகு] எஸ்தர் பாரோக்களின் பட்டியல் பண்டைய எகிப்திய அரசமரபுகள் மேற்கோள்கள்[தொகு] ↑ Xerxes made human sacrifice. See Boyce, Mary (1989). A History of Zoroastrianism: The early period, p. 141. ↑ "Ahasuerus". JewishEncyclopedia.com. பார்த்த நாள் 2014-07-25. ↑ Encyclopaedia perthensis, or, Universal dictionary of the arts, sciences, literature, etc.: intended to supersede the use of other books of reference. Google Books. 1816. https://books.google.com/?id=S1cKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA82. பார்த்த நாள்: 2014-07-25.  ↑ Law, George (2010-06-04). Identification of Darius the Mede. Google Books. பன்னாட்டுத் தரப்புத்தக எண்:9780982763100. https://books.google.com/?id=vpEOkDk-gc8C&pg=PA95. பார்த்த நாள்: 2014-07-25.  ↑ Roman Ghirshman, Iran (1954), Penguin Books, p 191. ↑ Soldiers with names, after Walser ↑ The Achaemenid Empire in South Asia and Recent Excavations in Akra in Northwest Pakistan Peter Magee, Cameron Petrie, Robert Knox, Farid Khan, Ken Thomas p.713 ↑ (in en) NAQŠ-E ROSTAM – Encyclopaedia Iranica. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/naqs-e-rostam.  ஆதார நூற்பட்டியல்[தொகு] தொன்ம ஆதாரங்கள்[தொகு] The Sixth Book, Entitled Erato in History of Herodotus. The Seventh Book, Entitled Polymnia in History of Herodotus. வரலாற்று ஆதாரங்கள்[தொகு] Barkworth, Peter R. (1993). "The Organization of Xerxes' Army". Iranica Antiqua 27: 149–167. doi:10.2143/ia.27.0.2002126.  Boardman, John (1988). The Cambridge Ancient History. V. Cambridge University Press. பன்னாட்டுத் தரப்புத்தக எண்:0-521-22804-2.  Boyce, Mary. "Achaemenid Religion". Encyclopaedia Iranica. vol. 1. Routledge & Kegan Paul. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-religion.  Bridges, Emma (2014). Imagining Xerxes: Ancient Perspectives on a Persian King. Bloomsbury. ISBN 9781472511379 Dandamayev, M. A. (1999). "Artabanus". Encyclopædia Iranica. Routledge & Kegan Pau. அணுகப்பட்டது 2009-02-25.  Dandamaev (1989), A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire Frye, Richard N. (1963). The Heritage of Persia. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. பக். 301. பன்னாட்டுத் தரப்புத்தக எண்:0-297-16727-8.  Gershevitch, Ilya; Bayne Fisher, William; A. Boyle, J. (1985). The Cambridge history of Iran. 2. Cambridge University Press. பன்னாட்டுத் தரப்புத்தக எண்:0-521-20091-1.  Holland, Tom (2005). Persian Fire. London: Abacus (ISBN 978-0-349-11717-1). Macaulay, G. C. (2004). The Histories. Spark Educational Publishing. பன்னாட்டுத் தரப்புத்தக எண்:1-59308-102-2.  McCullough, W. S. "Ahasuerus". Encyclopaedia Iranica. vol. 1. Routledge & Kegan Paul. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ahasureus.  Schmeja, H. (1975). "Dareios, Xerxes, Artaxerxes. Drei persische Königsnamen in griechischer Deutung (Zu Herodot 6,98,3)". Die Sprache 21: 184–88.  Schmitt, Rüdiger. "Achaemenid dynasty". Encyclopaedia Iranica. vol. 3. Routledge & Kegan Paul. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-dynasty.  Schmitt, Rüdiger. "Atossa". Encyclopaedia Iranica. vol. 3. Routledge & Kegan Paul. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/atossa-achaemenid-queen.  Shabani, Reza (2007) (in Persian). Khshayarsha (Xerxes). What do I know about Iran? No. 75. Cultural Research Bureau. பக். 120. பன்னாட்டுத் தரப்புத்தக எண்:964-379-109-2.  Shahbazi, A. Sh.. "Darius I the Great". Encyclopaedia Iranica. vol. 7. Routledge & Kegan Paul. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/darius-iii.  Stoneman, Richard (2015). Xerxes: A Persian Life. Yale University Press. பன்னாட்டுத் தரப்புத்தக எண்:9780300216042. https://books.google.com/books?id=WqtJCgAAQBAJ.  Olmstead, A.T. (1979). History of the Persian Empire. University of Chicago Press. பன்னாட்டுத் தரப்புத்தக எண்:9780226497648.  வெளி இணைப்புகள்[தொகு] Xerxes I, KING OF PERSIA பா பே தொ எகிப்திய பார்வோன்கள் பா பே தொ வரலாற்றுக்கு முந்தைய காலம் முதல் - முதலாம் இடைநிலைக் காலம் வரை  (<(கிமு 6,000 – 2040) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female{{{1}}}) uncertain வரலாற்றுக்கு முந்தைய எகிப்து (கிமு 6,000 - கிமு 3150)) கீழ் எகிப்து Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Deutsch (de) Mekh Double Falcon Deutsch (de) மேல் எகிப்து Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II நார்மெர் / மெனஸ் துவக்க கால அரசமரபுகள் (கிமு 3150–2686) எகிப்தின் முதல் வம்சம் நார்மெர் / மெனஸ் Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith{{{1}}} டென் (பாரோ) Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird எகிப்தின் இரண்டாம் வம்சம் Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy பழைய எகிப்து இராச்சியம் (கிமு 2686–2181) எகிப்தின் மூன்றாம் வம்சம் Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni எகிப்தின் நான்காம் வம்சம் சினெபெரு கூபு ஜெதெப்பிரே காப்ரா Bikheris மென்கௌரே Shepseskaf Thamphthis எகிப்தின் ஐந்தாம் வம்சம் யுசர்காப் சகுரா Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas எகிப்தின் ஆறாம் வம்சம் தேத்தி Userkare முதலாம் பெப்பி Merenre Nemtyemsaf I இரண்டாம் பெப்பி Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah முதல் இடைநிலைக் காலம் (கிமு 2181–2040) எகிப்தின் ஏழாம் வம்சம்/எகிப்தின் எட்டாம் வம்சம் Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui எகிப்தின் ஒன்பதாம் வம்சம் Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut எகிப்தின் பத்தாம் வம்சம் Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare பா பே தொ மத்தியகால இராச்சியம் மற்றும் இரண்டாம் இடைநிலைக்காலம்  (கிமு 2040–1550) காலம் வம்சம் பார்வோன்கள்   (male female{{{1}}}) uncertain எகிப்தின் மத்தியகால இராச்சியம் (கிமு 2040–1802) எகிப்தின் பதினொன்றாம் வம்சம் Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III இரண்டாம் மெண்டுகொதேப் மூன்றாம் மெண்டுகொதேப் Mentuhotep IV நூபியா Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre எகிப்தின் பனிரெண்டாம் வம்சம் முதலாம் அமெனம்ஹத் முதலாம் செனுஸ்ரெத் இரண்டாம் அமெனம்ஹத் Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu பெண் இராணி இரண்டாம் இடைநிலைக்காலம் (கிமு 1802–1550) எகிப்தின் பதிமூன்றாம் வம்சம் Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi எகிப்தின் பதிநான்காம் வம்சம் Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har எகிப்தின் பதினைந்தாம் வம்சம் Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi காமுடி எகிப்தின் பதினாறாம் வம்சம் Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III அபிதோஸ் வம்சம் Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib எகிப்தின் பதினேழாம் வம்சம் Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose பா பே தொ புது எகிப்து இராச்சியம் மற்றும் மூன்றாம் இடைநிலைக்காலம்  (கிமு 1550–664) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female{{{1}}}) uncertain புது எகிப்து இராச்சியம் (கிமு 1550–1070) எகிப்தின் பதினெட்டாம் வம்சம் முதலாம் அக்மோஸ் Amenhotep I முதலாம் தூத்மோஸ் Thutmose II மூன்றாம் தூத்மோஸ் ஆட்செப்சுட்டு{{{1}}} இரண்டாம் அமென்கோதேப் Thutmose IV மூன்றாம் அமென்கோதேப் அக்கெனதென் Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten{{{1}}} துட்டன்காமன் Ay Horemheb எகிப்தின் பத்தொன்பதாம் வம்சம் முதலாம் ராமேசஸ் முதலாம் சேத்தி இரண்டாம் ராமேசஸ் Merneptah Amenmesses இரண்டாம் சேத்தி Siptah Twosret{{{1}}} எகிப்தின் இருபதாம் வம்சம் செத்னக்தே மூன்றாம் ராமேசஸ் நான்காம் ராமேசஸ் ஐந்தாம் ராமேசஸ் Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI மூன்றாம் இடைநிலைக் காலம் (கிமு 1069–664) எகிப்தின் இருபத்தொன்றாம் வம்சம் Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II எகிப்தின் இருபத்தி இரண்டாம் வம்சம் Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV எகிப்தின் இருபத்தி மூன்றாம் வம்சம் Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini எகிப்தின் இருபத்தி நான்காம் வம்சம் Tefnakht Bakenranef எகிப்தின் இருபத்தி ஐந்தாம் வம்சம் Piye Shebitku Shabaka தகர்க்கா Tanutamun பா பே தொ பிந்தைய காலம் மற்றும் தாலமி வம்சம்  (கிமு 664–30) Period Dynasty Pharaohs   (male female{{{1}}}) uncertain பிந்தைய காலம் (கிமு 664–332) எகிப்தின் இருபத்தி ஆறாம் வம்சம் Necho I முதலாம் சாம்திக் Necho II இரண்டாம் சாம்திக் Wahibre Ahmose II மூன்றாம் சாம்திக் எகிப்தின் இருபத்தி ஏழாம் வம்சம் இரண்டாம் காம்பிசெஸ் Petubastis III முதலாம் டேரியஸ் முதலாம் செர்கஸ் Artaxerxes I இரண்டாம் டேரியஸ் எகிப்தின் இருபத்தி எட்டாம் வம்சம் Amyrtaeus எகிப்தின் இருபத்தி ஒன்பதாம் வம்சம் Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II எகிப்தின் முப்பதாம் வம்சம் Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II எகிப்தின் முப்பத்தி ஒன்றாம் வம்சம் மூன்றாம் அர்தசெராக்சஸ் Khabash Arses மூன்றாம் டேரியஸ் ஹெலனிய காலம் முதல் தாலமி வம்சம் வரை (கிமு 332–30) மாசிடோனியாவின் கிரேக்கர்கள் பேரரசர் அலெக்சாந்தர் மூன்றாம் பிலிப்பு நான்காம் அலெக்சாண்டர் தாலமி வம்சம் தாலமி சோத்தர் இரண்டாம் தாலமி Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Ptolemy IX Soter Ptolemy X Alexander I Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Berenice IV ♀ ஏழாம் கிளியோபாற்றா ♀ சிசேரியன் பா பே தொ பண்டைய எகிப்திய அரசமரபுகள் 1{{{1}}} 2{{{1}}} 3{{{1}}} 4{{{1}}} 11{{{1}}} 12{{{1}}} 18{{{1}}} 19{{{1}}} எகிப்தின் இருபதாம் வம்சம் 21{{{1}}} to 23{{{1}}} எகிப்தின் இருபத்தி நான்காம் வம்சம் 25{{{1}}} 26{{{1}}} 27{{{1}}} எகிப்தின் முப்பதாம் வம்சம் 31{{{1}}} தாலமி வம்சம் பாரோக்களின் பட்டியல் பா பே தொ மெசொப்பொத்தேமியா புவியியல் தற்காலம் மெசொப்பொத்தேமியாவின் புவியியல் மெசொப்பொத்தேமியா மேல் மெசொப்பொத்தேமியா கீழ் மெசொப்பொத்தேமியா வளமான பிறை பிரதேசம் யூப்ரடீஸ் ஆறு டைகிரிஸ் ஆறு காபூர் ஆறு சாட் அல் அராப் ஆறு காருன் ஆறு சதுப்பு நிலங்கள் பாரசீக வளைகுடா சிரிய பாலைவனம் தாரசு மலைத்தொடர் சிஞ்சார் மலைகள் சக்ரோசு மலைத்தொடர் பண்டையக் காலம் பண்டைய அண்மை கிழக்கு சுமேரியா அசிரியா பாபிலோனியா அக்காத் சால்டியா ஈலாம் இட்டைட்டு மீடியா மித்தானி அரராத்து பண்டைய நகரங்கள் எரிது உரூக் அக்காத் நினிவே அசூர் உம்மா எசுன்னா பாபிலோன் போர்சிப்பா சிப்பர் சூசா நிம்ருத் பெர்சப்பொலிஸ் ஈலாம் நிப்பூர் லார்சா லகாசு ஊர் இசின் மாரி எப்லா கிஷ் நகர் அல்-றக்கா ஹமா டமாஸ்கஸ் அலெப்போ எருசலேம் கானான் எகபடனா தீபை மெம்பிசு கீசா அமர்னா சாமர்ரா டிராய் எரிக்கோ அம்மான் சிதோன் பைப்லோஸ் டயர் வரலாறு முன் வரலாறு தழும்பழி Mousterian Trialetian Zarzian நூத்துப்பியம் Nemrikian Khiamian மட்பாண்டத்திற்கு முந்தைய புதிய கற்காலம் மட்பாண்டத்திற்கு முந்தைய புதிய கற்காலம் (அ) மட்பாண்டத்திற்கு முந்தைய புதிய கற்காலம் (ஆ) மட்பாண்ட புதிய கற்காலம் உபைதுகள் உரூக் கிஷ் ஹுரியம் ஹலாப் சமார்ரா அசுன்னா செம்தேத் நசிர் வரலாறு மெசொப்பொத்தேமியாவின் வரலாறு துவக்க வம்ச காலம் அக்காடிய வம்சம் இட்டைட்டு பேரரசு எப்லா இராச்சியம் மாரி இராச்சியம் பண்டைய அசிரியா பழைய அசிரியப் பேரரசு மத்திய அசிரியப் பேரரசு புது அசிரியப் பேரரசு 3-ஆம் ஊர் வம்சம் போனீசியா முதல் பாபிலோனியப் பேரரசு புது பாபிலோனியப் பேரரசு அரராத்து இராச்சியம் அகாமனிசியப் பேரரசு ஆர்மீனிய இராச்சியம் செலூக்கியப் பேரரசு பார்த்தியப் பேரரசு சாசானியப் பேரரசு மீடியாப் பேரரசு Roman மெசொப்பொத்தேமியாவின் காலக்கோடுகள் அசிரியப் பேரரசின் காலக்கோடுகள் அரசர்கள் கில்கமெஷ் ஊர்-நம்மு சர்கோன் குடியா ஊர்-நிங்கிர்சு என்ஹெடுவானா அம்முராபி முதலாம் நெபுகத்நேசர் நபோபலசார் இரண்டாம் நெபுகாத்நேசர் நான்காம் நெபுகத்நேசர் சாலமோன் முதலாம் சைரஸ் இரண்டாம் காம்பிசெஸ் முதலாம் டேரியஸ் முதலாம் செர்கஸ் இரண்டாம் டேரியஸ் மூன்றாம் அர்தசெராக்சஸ் மூன்றாம் டேரியஸ் செலூக்கஸ் நிக்காத்தர் மக்கள், சமயம் & பண்பாடு நத்தூபியப் பண்பாடு உபைதுகள் பண்பாடு உரூக் பண்பாடு கிஷ் பண்பாடு ஹுரியப் பண்பாடு ஹலாப் பண்பாடு சமார்ரா பண்பாடு அசுன்னா பண்பாடு அசிரியர்கள் பிலிஸ்தியர்கள் இட்டைட்டுகள் ஹுரியத் மக்கள் காசிட்டுகள் அமோரிட்டுகள் சால்டியர்கள் Architecture Art அனு ஆதாத் உது என்லில் இஷ்தர் சுமேரிய கடவுள்கள் சுமேரியர்களின் மதம் சுமேரியக் கட்டிடக்கலை Akkadian literature Sumerian literature கில்கமெஷ் காப்பியம் Music Religion தொல்லியல் தொல்லியல் மேடு ஹலாப் தொல்லியல் மேடு பெருவயிறு மலை டெல் பராக் செம்தேத் நசிர் ஊரின் சிகூரட் ஊரின் 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اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 இணைப்புக்களைத் தொகு இப்பக்கத்தைக் கடைசியாக 14 திசம்பர் 2020, 10:02 மணிக்குத் திருத்தினோம். அனைத்துப் பக்கங்களும் படைப்பாக்கப் பொதுமங்கள் அனுமதியுடன் பகிரப்பட்டுள்ளன; கூடுதலான கட்டுப்பாடுகளுக்கு உட்படலாம். தகவல் பாதுகாப்பு விக்கிப்பீடியா பற்றி பொறுப்புத் துறப்புகள் கைபேசிப் பார்வை உருவாக்குனர்கள் புள்ளிவிவரங்கள் நினைவி அறிக்கை 
th-wikipedia-org-1296	----	เซิร์กซีสที่ 1 - วิกิพีเดีย เซิร์กซีสที่ 1 จากวิกิพีเดีย สารานุกรมเสรี ไปยังการนำทาง ไปยังการค้นหา บทความนี้ใช้ระบบคริสต์ศักราช เพราะอ้างอิงคริสต์ศักราชและคริสต์ศตวรรษ หรืออย่างใดอย่างหนึ่ง เซิร์กซีสที่ 1 [[|263px]] พระปรมาภิไธย จักรพรรดิเซิร์กซีสที่ 1 แห่งเปอร์เซีย พระอิสริยยศ จักรพรรดิแห่งเปอร์เซีย ฟาโรห์แห่งอียิปต์ ราชวงศ์ ราชวงศ์อะคีเมนิด ครองราชย์ 486–465 ก่อนคริสต์ศักราช รัชกาลก่อน จักรพรรดิดาไรอัสมหาราช รัชกาลถัดไป จักรพรรดิอาร์ตาเซิร์กซีสที่ 1 ข้อมูลส่วนพระองค์ พระราชสมภพ 519 ปีก่อนคริสต์ศักราช เปอร์เซีย สวรรคต 465 ปีก่อนคริสต์ศักราช เปอร์เซีย พระราชบิดา จักรพรรดิดาไรอัสมหาราช พระราชมารดา จักรพรรดินีอาทอสซา พระมเหสี จักรพรรดินีอาเมสทริส พระราชบุตร 11 พระองค์ จักรพรรดิเซิร์กซีสมหาราช (อังกฤษ: Xerxes the Great) หรือ จักรพรรดิเซิร์กซีสที่ 1 (อังกฤษ: Xerxes I; 519 – 465 ปีก่อนคริสตกาล) เป็นพระราชโอรสในจักรพรรดิดาไรอัสมหาราช เมื่อพระราชบิดาสวรรคตเมื่อ 486 ปีก่อน ค.ศ. พระองค์จึงขึ้นครองราชย์เมื่อเดือนตุลาคม 486 ปีก่อน ค.ศ. ขณะพระชนม์ได้ 34 พรรษา ตลอด 20 ปีในรัชกาล จักรพรรดิเซิร์กซีสทรงสืบสานปณิธานของพระราชบิดาทุกอย่างจนบ้านเมืองเจริญรุ่งเรืองและเข้มแข็งอย่างมาก พระองค์เสด็จสวรรคตเมื่อ 465 ปีก่อน ค.ศ. ขณะพระชนม์ได้ 54 พรรษา พระราชโอรสที่ประสูติแต่พระราชินีอาเมสทริส จึงขึ้นครองราชย์สืบต่อมาเป็นจักรพรรดิอาร์ตาเซิร์กซีสที่ 1 ก่อนหน้า เซิร์กซีสที่ 1 ถัดไป จักรพรรดิดาไรอัสมหาราช กษัตริย์เปอร์เซีย (486 ปีก่อนคริสตกาล - 465 ปีก่อนคริสตกาล) จักรพรรดิอาร์ตาเซิร์กซีสที่ 1 จักรพรรดิดาไรอัสมหาราช ฟาโรห์แห่งอียิปต์ (486 ปีก่อนคริสตกาล - 465 ปีก่อนคริสตกาล) จักรพรรดิอาร์ตาเซิร์กซีสที่ 1 ด ค ก พระมหากษัตริย์ที่ได้รับสมัญญานามมหาราช ทวีปเอเชีย พระเจ้าพรหมมหาราช • พ่อขุนรามคำแหงมหาราช • สมเด็จพระนเรศวรมหาราช • สมเด็จพระนารายณ์มหาราช • สมเด็จพระเจ้าตากสินมหาราช • พระบาทสมเด็จพระพุทธยอดฟ้าจุฬาโลกมหาราช • พระบาทสมเด็จพระจอมเกล้าเจ้าอยู่หัว • พระบาทสมเด็จพระจุลจอมเกล้าเจ้าอยู่หัว • พระบาทสมเด็จพระมหาภูมิพลอดุลยเดชมหาราช • พระเจ้าควังแกโทมหาราช • พระเจ้าเซจงมหาราช • พระเจ้าอโศกมหาราช • พระเจ้าอโนรธามังช่อมหาราช • พระเจ้าบุเรงนองมหาราช • พระเจ้าอลองพญามหาราช • จักรพรรดิเฉียนหลง • จิ๋นซีฮ่องเต้ • เจงกีสข่านมหาราช • จักรพรรดิฮั่นอู่ • จักรพรรดิคังซี • พระเจ้ากนิษกะ • พระเจ้าจันทรคุปต์ที่ 2 • พระเจ้าสุริยวรมันที่ 2 • พระเจ้าชัยวรมันที่ 7 • พระเจ้าฟ้างุ้มมหาราช • พระเจ้าไชยเชษฐามหาราช • พระเจ้าราชราช โจฬะที่ 1 • จักรพรรดิอักบัร • พระเจ้าอวี่ • มานูเอลมหาราช • ไซรัสแห่งเปอร์เซีย ทวีปยุโรป อเล็กซานเดอร์มหาราช • นโปเลียนมหาราช • พระเจ้าอัลเฟรดมหาราช • แคทเธอรีนมหาราชินี • ฟรีดริชมหาราช • ปีเตอร์มหาราช • พระเจ้าคนุตมหาราช • พระเจ้าอ็องรีมหาราช • พระเจ้าไทกราเนสมหาราช • เจ้าชายอีวานมหาราช • วลาดีมีร์มหาราช • คอนสแตนตินมหาราช • ธีโอโดเซียสมหาราช • จัสติเนียนมหาราช • ธีโอดอริคมหาราช • อ็อทโทมหาราช ทวีปแอฟริกา ฟาโรห์แรเมซีสมหาราช • แอสเกียมหาราช • ราดามามหาราช ตะวันออกกลาง เฮโรดมหาราช • ไซรัสมหาราช • ดาไรอัสมหาราช • แอนทิโอคัสมหาราช • มิทริเดทีสมหาราช • ซาปูร์มหาราช • อับบาสมหาราช • เซิร์กซีสมหาราช • กาหลิบอูมัวร์ • สุลัยมานมหาราช • ชาห์กะรีมข่านมหาราช • ชาห์เรซามหาราช ทวีปอเมริกาเหนือ ม็อคเตซูมามหาราช • พาคัลมหาราช ทวีปอเมริกาใต้ พาชาคูติมหาราช ทวีปโอเชียเนีย คาเมฮาเมฮามหาราช ด ค ก ฟาโรห์ ยุคก่อนราชวงศ์ ถึง ช่วงต่อระยะที่หนึ่ง  (<3150–2040 ปีก่อน ค.ศ.) ยุค ราชวงศ์ ฟาโรห์  (ชาย หญิง ) ไม่ทราบ ก่อนราชวงศ์ (ก่อน 3150 ปีก่อน ค.ศ.) อียิปต์ใต้ เซคา คายู ตีอู เธช เนเฮบ วาสเนอร์ เมค ดับเบิลฟอลคอน อียิปต์เหนือ สกอร์เปียนที่ 1 ค็อกโคได ไอรี-ฮอร์ กา สกอร์เปียนที่ 2 นาร์เมอร์ / เมเนส ราชวงศ์ต้น (3150–2686 ปีก่อน ค.ศ.) I นาร์เมอร์ / เมเนส ฮอร์อาฮา ดเจอร์ ดเจต Merneith เดน อเนดจิบ เซเมอร์เคต กาอา Sneferka ฮอรัส เบิร์ด II โฮเทปเซเคมวี เนบรา นิเนทเจอร์ Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa เวเนก-เนบตี Wadjenes เซเนดจ์ Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat เนเฟอร์คาเรที่ 1 เนเฟอร์คาโซคาร์ ฮูดเจฟาที่ 1 คาเซเคมวี ราชอาณาจักรเก่า (2686–2181 ปีก่อน ค.ศ.) III Nebka โจเซอร์ เซเคมเค็ต ซานาคท์ คาบา Qahedjet ฮูนิ IV สเนฟรู คูฟู เจดีเฟร คาเฟร บากา เมนเคอเร เชปซีสกาฟ ทัมฟิส V ยูเซอร์คาฟ ซาฮูเร เนเฟออิร์คาเร เนเฟเรเฟร เชปเซสคาเร นูเซอร์เร ไออิน เมนเคาฮอร์ เจดคาเร อูนัส VI เตติ ยูเซอร์คาเร เปปิที่ 1 เมเรนเรที่ 1 เปปิที่ 2 เมเรนเรที่ 2 เนทเจอร์คาเร ซิ'พทาห์ ช่วงต่อระยะที่หนึ่ง (2181–2040 ปีก่อน ค.ศ.) VII VIII เมนกาเร เนเฟอร์เคาเรที่ 2 ‎เนเฟอร์เคาเรที่ 3 ดเจดคาเร เซไม เนเฟอร์เคาเรที่ 4 เมเรนฮอร์ เนเฟอร์คามิน ไนคาเร เนเฟอร์เคาเรที่ 5 Neferkahor เนเฟอร์เคาเรที่ 6 เนเฟอร์คามิน อนู คากาเร เนเฟอร์คาอูเร เนเฟอร์เคาฮอร์ เนเฟอร์ไอร์คาเร Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui IX เคตีที่ 1 เนเฟอร์เคาเรที่ 7 เคตีที่ 2 เซทุต X เมริฮาจฮอร์ เนเฟอร์เคาเรที่ 8 เคตีที่ 3 เมรีคาเร ราชอาณาจักรกลาง และ ช่วงต่อระยะที่สอง  (2040–1550 ปีก่อน ค.ศ) ยุค ราชวงศ์ ฟาโรห์  (ชาย หญิง ) ไม่ทราบ ราชอาณาจักรกลาง (2040–1802 ปีก่อน ค.ศ) XI เมนทูโฮเตปที่ 1 อินโยเตฟที่ 1 อินโยเตฟที่ 2 อินโยเตฟที่ 3 เมนทูโฮเตปที่ 2 เมนทูโฮเตปที่ 3 เมนทูโฮเตปที่ 4 นูเบีย เซเกอเซนิ Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre XII อเมเนมเฮตที่ 1 เซนุสเรตที่ 1 อเมเนมเฮตที่ 2 เซนุสเรตที่ 2 เซนุสเรตที่ 3 อเมเนมเฮตที่ 3 อเมเนมเฮตที่ 4 โซเบกเนเฟรู ช่วงต่อระยะที่สอง (1802–1550 ปีก่อน ค.ศ) XIII เซเคมเร คูทาวี เซเบคโฮเตป โซนเบฟ เนไรคาเร อเมเนมเฮตที่ 5 อเมนีกีเมา โฮเทปอิบเร รูฟอิน อเมเนมเฮตที่ 6 เนบนูนิ เซเฮเทปอิบเร เซวัดจ์คาเร เนบเจมอิบเร เซเบคโฮเตปที่ 2 เรนเซเนบ ฮอร์ คาบาว ดเจดเคเปอร์เร เซบคาย เจบเซคาฟาเร เวกาฟ เคนด์เจอร์ อิมย์เรเมสชาว อินโยเทฟที่ 4 เมริบเร เซเบคโฮเตปที่ 3 เนเฟอร์โฮเตปที่ 1 ซิฮาเธอร์ เซเบคโฮเตปที่ 4 เมอร์โฮเทปเร โซเบคโฮเทปที่ 5 คาร์โฮเทปเร โซเบคโฮเทปที่ 6 ไอบิอายู อัยย์ เมอร์โฮเทปเร ไออิน เซวัดจ์ตู ไอเนด โฮริ เมอร์คาวเร โซเบคโฮเทป เมอร์เซฟเสสเร ไออิน ซวาเฮนเร เซเนบมิอู เมอร์เคปเปอร์เร เมอร์คาเร เซวัตจ์เร เมนทูโฮเตป เซเฮเควนเร เซนค์พตาร์ไฮ XIV ยากคิม เซเคมเร นูบวอเซอร์เร ยาอัมมู คาเรห์ คาวอเซอร์เร อัมมู เอโฮเทปเร มาอัยย์เบร เชชิ เนเฮซี คาเคเรวเร เนเบฟาว์เร เซเฮบเร เมอร์ดเจฟาเร เซวัดจ์คาเรที่ 3 เนบดเจฟาเร Webenre เนบเซนเร เซเคเปอร์เอนเร Djedkherewre เบบนุม เอเปปิ นูยา วาซาส เชเนฮ์ เซนเซก คามูเร ยากาเรบ ยาคุบ-ฮาร์ XV เซมเคน เอเปอร์-อนัท ซาคิร์-ฮาร์ คยาน อเปปิ คามูดิ XVI ดเจฮูติ เซเบคโฮเตปที่ 8 เนเฟอร์โฮเตปที่ 3 เมนทูโฮเทไป เนบิไรรอที่ 1 เนบิไรรอที่ 2 เซเมนเร เบไบอังค์ เชดวาสท์ เดดูโมสที่ 1 เดดูโมสที่ 2 มอนตูเอมซาฟ เมอร์อังค์เร เมนทูโฮเตป เซนุตเรสที่ 4 เปปิที่ 3 อไบดอส เซเนบคาย เวปวาเวทเอมซาฟ พันน์เจนี สนาอิบ XVII ราโฮเทป Nebmaatre เซเบคเอมซาฟที่ 1 เซเบคเอมซาฟที่ 2 เซเคมเร เวปมาต อินเตฟ นูเคอร์เปอร์เร อินเตฟ เซเคมเร เฮรูเฮอร์มาต อินเตฟ เซนัคท์เอนเร อาโมส เซเคนเอนเร ทาโอ คาโมส ราชอาณาจักรใหม่ และ ช่วงต่อระยะที่สาม  (1550–664 ปีก่อน ค.ศ.) ยุค ราชวงศ์ ฟาโรห์  (ชาย หญิง ) ไม่ทราบ ราชอาณาจักรใหม่ (1550–1070 ปีก่อน ค.ศ.) XVIII อาโมสที่ 1 อเมนโฮเตปที่ 1 ทุตโมสที่ 1 ทุตโมสที่ 2 ทุตโมสที่ 3 แฮตเชปซุต แอเมนโฮเทปที่ 2 ทุตโมสที่ 4 แอเมนโฮเทปที่ 3 แอเคนาเทน สเมงห์คาเร Neferneferuaten ทุตอังค์อามุน ไอย์ โฮเรมเฮบ XIX แรเมซีสที่ 1 เซติที่ 1 แรเมซีสที่ 2 เมร์เนปทาห์ อเมนเมสเซ เซติที่ 2 ซิพตาห์ ทวอสเรต XX เซทนัคห์เต แรเมซีสที่ 3 แรเมซีสที่ 4 แรเมซีสที่ 5 แรเมซีสที่ 6 แรเมซีสที่ 7 แรเมซีสที่ 8 แรเมซีสที่ 9 แรเมซีสที่ 10 แรเมซีสที่ 11 ช่วงต่อระยะที่สาม (1069–664 ปีก่อน ค.ศ) XXI สเมนเดส อเมเนมนิซู ซูเซนเนสที่ 1 อเมเนมโอเป โอซอร์คอน ผู้อาวุโส ซิอามุน ซูเซนเนสที่ 2 XXII โชเชงค์ที่ 1 โอซอร์คอนที่ 1 โชเชงค์ที่ 2 ทาเคลอตที่ 1 โอซอร์คอนที่ 2 โชเชงค์ที่ 3 โชเชงค์ที่ 4 ปามิ โชเชงค์ที่ 5 โอซอร์คอนที่ 4 XXIII ฮาร์เซียเซ ทาเคลอตที่ 2 เปดูบาสท์ที่ 1 โชเชงค์ที่ 6 โอซอร์คอนที่ 3 ทาเคลอตที่ 3 Rudamun Menkheperre Ini XXIV Tefnakht Bakenranef XXV ปิเย Shabaka Shebitku ทาฮาร์กา Tanutamun ยุคปลาย และ ยุคกรีก-โรมัน  (664–30 ปีก่อน ค.ศ) ยุค ราชวงศ์ ฟาโรห์  (ชาย หญิง ) ไม่ทราบ ยุคปลาย (664–332 ปีก่อน ค.ศ) XXVI Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III XXVII Cambyses II Petubastis III ดาไรอัสที่ 1 เซิร์กซีส Artaxerxes I Darius II XXVIII Amyrtaeus XXIX Nepherites I Hakor พซัมมูธิส Nepherites II XXX Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II XXXI Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses ดาไรอัสที่ 3 ยุคกรีก-โรมัน (332–30 ปีก่อน ค.ศ) Argead อเล็กซานเดอร์มหาราช ฟิลิปที่ 3 แอร์ริดีอัส อเล็กซานเดอร์ที่ 4 ทอเลมี ทอเลมีที่ 1 ทอเลมีที่ 2 ทอเลมีที่ 3 ทอเลมีที่ 4 ทอเลมีที่ 5 ทอเลมีที่ 6 ทอเลมีที่ 7 ทอเลมีที่ 8 ทอเลมีที่ 9 ทอเลมีที่ 10 ทอเลมีที่ 11 ทอเลมีที่ 12 เบเรนิซที่ 4 คลีโอพัตรา ทอเลมีที่ 15 ลำดับราชวงศ์และฟาโรห์แห่งอียิปต์โบราณ บทความเกี่ยวกับชีวประวัตินี้ยังเป็นโครง คุณสามารถช่วยวิกิพีเดียได้โดยเพิ่มข้อมูล เข้าถึงจาก "https://th.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=เซิร์กซีสที่_1&oldid=8262945" หมวดหมู่: พระมหากษัตริย์เปอร์เซีย มหาราช จักรวรรดิเปอร์เซีย ฟาโรห์ยุคราชวงศ์อาร์เคเมนิด บุคคลในศตวรรษที่ 5 ก่อนคริสตกาล บุคคลที่เกิด 519 ปีก่อนคริสตกาล บุคคลที่เกิดในปี พ.ศ. 24 บุคคลที่เสียชีวิต 465 ปีก่อนคริสตกาล บุคคลที่เสียชีวิตในปี พ.ศ. 78 บทความเกี่ยวกับ ชีวประวัติ ที่ยังไม่สมบูรณ์ รายการนำทางไซต์ เครื่องมือส่วนตัว ยังไม่ได้เข้าสู่ระบบ คุย ส่วนร่วม สร้างบัญชี เข้าสู่ระบบ เนมสเปซ บทความ อภิปราย สิ่งที่แตกต่าง ดู เนื้อหา แก้ไข ประวัติ เพิ่มเติม ค้นหา การนำทาง หน้าหลัก ถามคำถาม เหตุการณ์ปัจจุบัน สุ่มบทความ เกี่ยวกับวิกิพีเดีย ติดต่อเรา บริจาคให้วิกิพีเดีย มีส่วนร่วม คำอธิบาย เริ่มต้นเขียน ศาลาประชาคม เปลี่ยนแปลงล่าสุด ดิสคอร์ด เครื่องมือ หน้าที่ลิงก์มา การเปลี่ยนแปลงที่เกี่ยวโยง อัปโหลดไฟล์ หน้าพิเศษ ลิงก์ถาวร สารสนเทศหน้า อ้างอิงบทความนี้ สิ่งนี้ใน วิกิสนเทศ พิมพ์/ส่งออก สร้างหนังสือ ดาวน์โหลดเป็น PDF รุ่นพร้อมพิมพ์ ในโครงการอื่น วิกิมีเดียคอมมอนส์ ภาษาอื่น Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 แก้ไขลิงก์ หน้านี้แก้ไขล่าสุดเมื่อวันที่ 3 พฤษภาคม 2562 เวลา 15:06 น. อนุญาตให้เผยแพร่ภายใต้สัญญาอนุญาตครีเอทีฟคอมมอนส์ แบบแสดงที่มา-อนุญาตแบบเดียวกัน และอาจมีเงื่อนไขเพิ่มเติม ดูรายละเอียดที่ ข้อกำหนดการใช้งาน Wikipedia® เป็นเครื่องหมายการค้าจดทะเบียนของมูลนิธิวิกิมีเดีย องค์กรไม่แสวงผลกำไร ติดต่อเรา นโยบายความเป็นส่วนตัว เกี่ยวกับวิกิพีเดีย ข้อปฏิเสธความรับผิดชอบ มุมมองสำหรับอุปกรณ์เคลื่อนที่ ผู้พัฒนา สถิติ นโยบายการใช้คุกกี้ 
tr-wikipedia-org-5094	----	I. Serhas - Vikipedi I. Serhas Vikipedi, özgür ansiklopedi Gezinti kısmına atla Arama kısmına atla Serhas (Xerxes) Büyük Pers kralı Serhas İran kralı Hüküm süresi MÖ 485-465 Taç giymesi MÖ Ekim 485 Önce gelen I. Darius Sonra gelen I. Artaserhas Eş(leri) Amestris Hanedan Ahameniş Babası I. Darius Annesi Atossa Doğum MÖ 519 İran Ölüm MÖ 465 İran I. Serhas veya Kserkses (Farsça: Haşayarşa)(خشايارشا)‎[1])(hükümdarlık: MÖ 486 – 465[2]) Ahameniş İmparatorluğu'nun Pers kralıydı. Yunanca Eski Pers hükümdar adlarından Xšayāršā (Hşayarşa) sözcüğünden gelen Serhas, "kahramanlar kralı" anlamına gelmektedir.[3] Pers kralı I. Serhas, yıllardan bu yana babası Darius'un Yunanlara karşı başlattığı savaşı sürdürmek için hazırlanıyordu. Atina'ya karşı büyük orduyla sefere çıktı. MÖ 484'te Serhas komutasındaki ordu Anadolu'ya vardı ve Çanakkale'de, Çanakkale Boğazı (Dardanel)'in karşı kıyısında yer alan Abidos'a gemilerden bir köprü yapıp askerlerini boğazdan karşıya geçirdi. Herodot, Serhas'ın beş milyondan fazla adamı olduğunu söylese de, ozan Simonides bu sayının üç milyon dolayında olduğunu belirtir. Herodot, ordunun içerek ırmakları kuruttuğunu ve koca kentlerin erzağını tükettiğini de öne sürmektedir. Bu betimlemeler çok abartılmış olsa da kesin olan, Perslerin Yunanlardan sayıca üstün olduklarıdır. Kaynakça[değiştir | kaynağı değiştir] I. Serhas yazıtı (Van Kalesi) ^ Ghias Abadi, R. M. (2004). Achaemenid Inscriptions (کتیبه‌های هخامنشی)‎ (Farsça) (2nd edition bas.). Tahran: Shiraz Navid Publications. ss. page 107. ISBN 964-358-015-6. KB1 bakım: Fazladan yazı (link) ^ History Workshop - Chronological Tables ^ Strauss, Barry S., The Battle of Salamis: The Naval Encounter That Saved Greece - and Western Civilization, p. 36. Simon & Schuster, New York, 2004. I. Serhas Ahameniş Hanedanı Doğumu: MÖ 519 Ölümü: MÖ 465 Önce gelen I. Darius Pers Kralı (Şah) MÖ 485–MÖ 465 Sonra gelen I. Artaserhas Mısır Firavunu MÖ 485–MÖ 465 g t d Firavunlar İlk Hanedan Dönemi (MÖ 3150 öncesi) Aşağı Mısır Hsekiu • Khayu • Tiu • Thesh • Neheb • Wazner • Mekh Yukarı Mısır I. Akrep • Iry-Hor • Ka • II. Akrep • Narmer Erken Hanedan Dönemi (MÖ 3150–2686) 1. Hanedan Menes • Hor-Aha • Djer • Djet • Den • Anedjib • Semerkhet • Qa'a 2. Hanedan Hotepsekhemwy • Raneb • Nynetjer • Seth-Peribsen • Khasekhemwy Eski Krallık (MÖ 2686–2181) 3. Hanedan Sanakhte • Zoser • Sekhemkhet • Khaba • Huni 4. Hanedan Snefru • Khufu • Djedefre • Khafre • Menkaure • Shepseskaf 5. Hanedan Userkaf • Sahure • Neferirkare Kakai • Shepseskare • Neferefre • Niuserre • Menkauhor • Djedkare • Unas 6. Hanedan Teti • I. Pepi • Merenre • II. Pepi Birinci Ara Dönem (MÖ 2181–2040) 7. ve 8. Hanedan Wadjkare • Qakare Iby 9. & 10. Hanedan Meryibre Khety • Merykare • Kaneferre • Nebkaure Akhtoy Orta Krallık (MÖ 2040–1782) 11. Hanedan I. Mentuhotep • I. Intef • II. Intef • III. Intef • II. Mentuhotep • III. Mentuhotep • IV. Mentuhotep 12. Hanedan I. Amenemhet • I. Senusret • II. Amenemhet • II. Senusret • III. Senusret • III. Amenemhet • IV. Amenemhet • Sobeknefru♀ İkinci Ara Dönem (MÖ 1782–1570) 13. Hanedan Wegaf • VI. Amenemhet • Hor • II. Sobekhotep • Khendjer • III. Sobekhotep • I. Neferhotep • IV. Sobekhotep • Merneferre Ay • II. Neferhotep 14. Hanedan Nehesy 15. Hanedan Sheshi • Yakubher • Khyan • I. Apepi • II. Apepi 16. Hanedan Anather • Yakobaam 17. Hanedan I. Sobekemsaf • II. Sobekemsaf • VII. Intef • I. Tao • II. Tao • Kamose Yeni Krallık (MÖ 1570–1070) 18. Hanedan I. Ahmose • I. Amenhotep • I. Tuthmosis • II. Tuthmosis • Hatşepsut♀ • III. Tuthmosis • II. Amenhotep • IV Tuthmosis • III. Amenhotep • Akhenaton • Smenkh Ka-Re • Neferneferuaten♀ • Tutankhamun • Kheperkheprure Ay • Horemheb 19. Hanedan I. Ramses • I. Seti • II. Ramses • Merneptah • Amenmesses • II. Seti • Siptah • Twosret♀ 20. Hanedan Setnakhte • III. Ramses • IV. Ramses • V. Ramses • VI. Ramses • VII. Ramses • VIII. Ramses • IX. Ramses • X. Ramses • XI. Ramses Üçüncü Ara Dönem (MÖ 1069–525) 21. Hanedan I. Smendes • Amenemnisu • I. Psusennes • Amenemope • Yaşlı Osorkon • Siamun • II. Psusennes 22. Hanedan I. Şeşonk • I. Osorkon • II. Şeşonk • I. Takelot • II. Osorkon • II. Takelot • III. Şeşonk • Pami • V. Şeşonk • IV. Osorkon 23. Hanedan Pedibastet • VI. Sheshonq • III. Osorkon • III. Takelot • Rudamon • Iuput 24. Hanedan Tefnakht • Bakenrenef 25. Hanedan Piankhi • Shabaka • Shebitku • Taharqa • Tanutamun 26. Hanedan I. Psamtik • II. Neko • II. Psamtik • Wahibre • II. Ahmose • III. Psamtik Geç Dönem (MÖ 525–332) 27. Hanedan II. Kambises • I. Darius • Serhas • I. Artaserhas • II. Darius 28. Hanedan Amyrtaeus 29. Hanedan I. Nefaarud • Hakor 30. Hanedan I. Nektanebo • Teos • II. Nektanebo 31. Hanedan III. Artaserhas • Arses • III. Darius Helenistik Dönem (MÖ 332–30) Ptolemaios Hanedanı Büyük İskender • III. Philip Arrhidaeus • IV. Alexanderos Argead Hanedanı I. Ptolemaios Soter • II. Ptolemaios Filedelfos • III. Ptolemaios Euergetes • IV. Ptolemaios Filopator • V. Ptolemaios Epifanes • VI. Ptolemaios Filometor • VII. Ptolemaios Neos Filopator • VIII. Ptolemaios Euergetes • IX. Ptolemaios II. Soter • X. Ptolemaios. Alexander • XI. Ptolemaios Aleksander • XII. Ptolemaios Neos Dionysos • IV. Berenice♀ • VII. Kleopatra♀ • XV. Ptolemaios Caesarion ♀ sembolü kadın firavunu işaret eder İranlı bir hükümdarın veya kraliyet ailesinin bir üyesi ile ilgili bu madde taslak seviyesindedir. Madde içeriğini genişleterek Vikipedi'ye katkı sağlayabilirsiniz. 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uk-wikipedia-org-9171	----	Ксеркс I — Вікіпедія Ксеркс I Матеріал з Вікіпедії — вільної енциклопедії. Перейти до навігації Перейти до пошуку Ксеркс I Народився 519 до н. е. Іран Помер 475 до н. е.[1] Персія[d] Поховання Іран Країна  Імперія Ахеменідів Діяльність державний діяч Титул Фараон Посада цар царів[d] і Фараон Конфесія Зороастризм Рід Ахеменіди Батько Дарій I Великий Мати Атосса Брати, сестри список:  • Artazostred, Gobryasd, Arsamesd, Artobazanesd, Ariamenesd, Ariabignesd, Abrocomesd, Masistesd, Achaemenesd і Арсам Перський У шлюбі з Vastid, Аместрисаd і Естер Діти Артаксеркс I, Амітісd, Артабан[d], Артарійd, Histaspesd, Dariusd і Родогунаd  Медіафайли у Вікісховищі Ксеркс (староперс. Xšayāršā, перс. خشایارشا‎, дав.-гр. Ξέρξης, івр. חשיארש הראשון‎) — іранський шах і давньоєгипетський фараон, син Дарія І, правив з 485 до н. е. до своєї смерті 465 до н. е.). Зміст 1 Життєпис 2 Пам'ять 3 Примітки 4 Джерела Життєпис[ред. | ред. код] На початку свого правління мусив придушити повстання у Єгипті й Вавилоні, де зруйнував храми і статую бога Мардука. Після того, у 480 до н. е. зібрав у Малій Азії велике військо чисельністю, за різними джерелами, від 150 до 360 тисяч вояків. Збудованим мостом через Дарданелли, за підтримки флоту з 800 кораблів, вирушив у напрямку Греції. Біля Фермопілів його зустріло 6-тисячне військо під командою спартанського царя Леоніда. Лише через зраду Ксерксу вдалось подолати мужніх оборонців Еллади, але пізніше перський флот був на його очах знищений греками у морській битві при Саламіні. Втративши перспективи перемоги, Ксеркс мусив повертати до Малої Азії. Після повернення до Парси, продовжив адміністративну діяльність у стилі свого батька, але був вбитий заколотниками з числа власної охорони. Пам'ять[ред. | ред. код] На його честь названо астероїд 7211 Ксеркс. Примітки[ред. | ред. код] ↑ http://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1200003447 Джерела[ред. | ред. код] Энциклопедический словарь Брокгауза и Ефрона : в 86 т. (82 т. и 4 доп.). — СПб. : Брокгауз-Ефрон, 1890—1907. Ксеркс I. (у Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.)(англ.) Енциклопедія Іраніка: Ксеркс I Це незавершена стаття про монарха, династію чи її представника. Ви можете допомогти проєкту, виправивши або дописавши її. п о р Фараони Міфічний період Династія богів Пта • Ра • Шу • Ґеб • Осіріс • Сет • Гор • Тот • Маат♀ Додинастичний Єгипет (до 3150 до н. е.) Нижній Єгипет: 00 династія 0 династія Сека • Іуха • Тіу • Ітієш • Нігеб • Унегбу • Іміхет • Подвійний Сокіл Верхній Єгипет: 00 династія 0 династія Пен-Абу • Бик • Скорпіон I • Геджу-Гор • Ні-Гор • Ні-Нейт • Гат-Гор • Шендет • Ірі-Гор • Ka • Скорпіон II • Нармер Ранньодинастичний період (3150—2686 до н. е.) I династія Менес • Нармер • Хор-Аха • Теті I • Джер • Уаджі • Мернейт♀ • Ден • Аджіб • Семерхет • Птах • Каа • Сенеферка II династія Хотепсехемуї • Ранеб • Нінечер • Венег • Сехет • Перібсен • Сехеміб • Сенед • Нубнефер • Неферкара I • Неферкасокар • Гуджефа I • Хасехемуї • Са Стародавнє царство (2686–2181 до н. е.) III династія Небка • Джосер • Сехемхет • Гуджефа II • Хаба • Небкара • Неферкаре • Гуні • Кагеджет IV династія Снофру • Хуфу • Джедефра • Хафра • Бака • Мікерин • Шепсескаф • Джедефптах V династія Усеркаф • Сахура • Неферірікара I • Шепсескара • Неферефра • Ніусерра • Менкаухор • Джедкара Ісесі • Уніс VI династія Теті II • Усеркара • Пепі I • Меренра I • Пепі II • Меренра II • Нітокріс♀? VII династія вважається помилковою або незаконною 1-й перехідний період (2181–2040 до н. е.) VIII династія Нечерікара • Менкара • Неферкара II • Неферкара III Небі • Джедкара II Шемаї • Неферкара IV Хенду • Меренгор • Неферкамін • Нікара I • Неферкара V Тереру • Неферкагор • Неферкара VI Піопі-сенеб • Неферкамін II Ану • Какаура Ібі I • Неферкаура • Неферкаугор • Неферіркара II IX династія Хеті I • Неферкара VII • Хеті II • Сетут • Хеті III • Хеті IV X династія Хеті V • Хеті VI • Хеті VII • Мерікара Середнє царство (2040–1782 до н. е.) XI династія Ментухотеп I • Ініотеф I • Ініотеф II • Ініотеф III • Ментухотеп II • Ментухотеп III • Ментухотеп IV XII династія Аменемхет I • Сенусерт I • Аменемхет II • Сенусерт II • Сенусерт III • Аменемхет III • Аменемхет IV • Нефрусебек♀ 2-й перехідний період (1782–1570 до н. е.) XIII династія Схотепібра • Угаф • Аменемхет Сенебеф • Сехемра • Аменемхет V • Амені Кемау • Іуфні • Аменемхет VI • Семенхкара • Хорнеджеф-Хоріотеф • Суаджкара • Сенеджемібра • Себекхотеп I • Ренсенеб • Гор • Аменемхет VII • Себекхотеп II • Хенджер • Імірамеша • Ініотеф IV • Сутех IV • Себекхотеп III • Неферхотеп I • Сагатор • Себекхотеп IV • Себекхотеп V • Яїб • Мернофера Аїб • Іні I • Санхенра Суаджту • Неферхотеп II • Гор II • Себекхотеп VII • Дудімос • Іні II XIV династія Негесі • Небефаура • Меріджефара • Небджефара • Убенра XV династія Салітіс • Шеші • Якубхер • Хіан • Апопі I • Апопі II • Хамуді XVI династія Джехуті • Небереау I • Небереау II • Семенра • Бебіанх Абідосська династія Вепуаветемсаф • Пентіні • Сенааїб • Сенебкай XVII династія Рахотеп • Себекемсаф I • Ініотеф VI • Ініотеф VII • Ініотеф VIII • Таа I Снахтенра • Таа II Секененра • Камос Нове царство (1570–1070 до н. е.) XVIII династія Яхмос I • Аменхотеп I • Тутмос I • Тутмос II • Тутмос III • Хатшепсут♀ • Аменхотеп II • Тутмос IV • Аменхотеп III • Ехнатон • Сменхкара • Тутанхамон • Еє • Хоремхеб XIX династія Рамсес I • Сеті I • Рамсес II • Мернептах • Аменмес • Сеті II • Саптах • Таусерт♀ XX династія Сетнахт • Рамсес III • Рамсес IV • Рамсес V • Рамсес VI • Рамсес VII • Рамсес VIII • Рамсес IX • Рамсес X • Рамсес XI 3-й перехідний період (1069–525 до н. е.) XXI династія Смендес • Аменемнісу • Псусеннес I • Аменемопет • Осоркон Старший • Сіамон • Псусеннес II XXII династія Шешонк I • Осоркон I • Шешонк II • Такелот I • Осоркон II • Такелот II • Шешонк III • Памі • Шешонк V • Петубастіс II • Осоркон IV XXIII династія Іупут I • Петубастіс I • Шешонк IV • Осоркон III • Такелот III • Рудамон • Іні XXIV династія Тефнахт I • Бокхоріс XXV династія Алара • Кашта • Піанхі • Шабака • Шабатака • Тахарка • Танутамон Пізній період (525–332 до н. е.) XXVI династія Амеріс • Тефнахт II • Некауба • Нехо I • Псамметіх I • Нехо II • Псамметіх II • Апрій • Яхмос II • Псамметіх III XXVII династія Камбіс II • Бардія • Дарій I • Ксеркс I • Артаксеркс I • Ксеркс II • Согдіан • Дарій II XXVIII династія Аміртей II XXIX династія Неферіт I • Псаммут • Ахоріс • Неферіт II XXX династія Нектанеб I • Тахос • Нектанеб II XXXI династія Артаксеркс III • Арсес • Хабабаш • Дарій III Елліністичний період (332—30 до н. е.) Аргеади Александр Великий • Філіпп III Аррідей • Олександр IV Птолемеї Птолемей I Сотер • Птолемей II Філадельф • Птолемей III Евергет • Птолемей IV Філопатор • Птолемей V Епіфан • Птолемей VI Філометор • Птолемей VII Неос • Птолемей VIII Фіскон • Птолемей IX • Птолемей X Александр • Птолемей XI Александр • Птолемей XII • Береніка Епіфанія♀ • Архелай • Птолемей XIII Теос Філопатор • Клеопатра Філопатор♀ • Птолемей XIV Неотерос • Птолемей XV Цезаріон ♀ вказує на жінок-фараонів; ? — існування фараона під питанням п о р Шахиншахи Ірану Ахеменіди Кир I • Камбіс І • Кир II • Камбіс II • Бардія • Дарій I • Ксеркс I • Артаксеркс I • Ксеркс II • Согдіан • Дарій II • Артаксеркс II • Артаксеркс III • Артаксеркс IV • Дарій III Аргеади Александр Македонський • Філіпп III Аррідей • Александр IV Македонський Селевкіди Селевк I Нікатор • Антіох I Сотер • Антіох II • Селевк II • Селевк III • Антіох III Великий • Селевк IV • Антіох IV • Антіох V Евпатор • Деметрій I Сотер • Александр I Балас • Деметрій II Нікатор • Антіох VII Аршакіди Аршак I/Тірідат I • Аршак II • Фріяпатій (Пріапат) • Фраат I • Мітрідат I • Фраат II • Артабан II • Мітрідат II • Готарз I • Ород I • Невідомі правителі Парфії • Санатрук Парфянський • Фраат III • Ород II • Мітрідат III Парфянський • Фраат IV • Тірідат II • Фраат V • Муза Парфянська • Ород III • Вонон I • Артабан III • Тірідат III • Вардан I • Готарз II • Вонон II • Вологез I • Вологез II • Пакор II • Артабан IV • Вологез II • Хосрой (Ороз) • Мітрідат IV • Вологез III • Вологез IV • Вологез V • Артабан V • Вологез VI Сасаніди Сасан • Папак • Ардашир І • Шапур I • Ормізд I • Бахрам I • Бахрам II • Бахрам III • Нарсе • Ормізд II • Шапур II • Ардашир II • Шапур III • Бахрам IV • Єздигерд I • Бахрам V • Єздигерд II • Ормізд III • Пероз • Балаш • Кавад I • Замасп • Хосров I Ануширван • Ормізд IV • Бахрам VI • Хосров II Парвіз • Кавад II • Арташир III • Фаррухан Шахрвараз • Борандохт • Азармедохт • Єздигерд III Газневіди Себук-Тегін • Ісмаїл ібн Себук-Тегін • Наср ібн Себук-Тегін • Бограчук • Махмуд Газневі • Мухаммад ібн Махмуд • Масуд I • Маудуді ібн Масуд • Масуд II ібн Маудуді • Алі ібн Масуд • Абд ар-Рашид ібн Махмуд • Тогрул • Фаррухзад ібн Масуд • Ібрахім ібн Масуд • Масуд III ібн Ібрахім • Ширзад ібн Ібрахім • Арслан-шах ібн Масуд • Бахрам-шах ібн Масуд • Хосров-шах ібн Арслан-шах • Хосров Малік ібн Хосров-шах Ільхани Хулагу • Абага • Текудер • Аргун • Гайхату • Байду • Газан • Олджейту • Абу Саїд Сефевіди Ісмаїл I • Тахмасп I • Ісмаїл II • Мухаммад Худабенде • Аббас I Великий • Сефі I • Аббас II • Солейман Сефі • Солтан Хусейн I • Тахмасп II • Аббас III • Солейман II • Ісмаїл III • Мохаммад Хосейн • Солтан Хусейн II • Мохаммад II Хотакі Мір Махмуд Шах • Мір Ашраф Шах Афшариди Надир • Аділь-шах • Солтан Ібрагім • Шахрох Занди Карім Хан Занд • Мохаммад Алі Хан Занд • Аболь-Фатх Хан Занд • Садек Хан Занд • Алі Мурад • Джафар • Сайєд Мурад Хан • Лотфі Алі Каджари Ага Мохаммед • Фетх Алі • Мохаммед • Насреддін • Мозафереддін • Мухаммед Алі • Ахмад Шах Каджар Пахлаві Реза Шах Пахлаві • Мохаммед Реза Пахлаві Портал «Біографії» Портал «Іран» Портал «Єгипет»   Тематичні сайти NNDB · Find a Grave · Quora Словники та енциклопедії Велика каталонська · Britannica (онлайн) Нормативний контроль BNC: a12318310 · BNE: XX1153338 · BNF: 150689088 · GND: 118808109 · ISNI: 0000 0000 6300 8852 · LCCN: n81070675 · LNB: 000054067 · NKC: mzk2005313022 · NLA: 1808084 · NTA: 073636711 · NUKAT: n2006124654 · LIBRIS: 259706 · SUDOC: 050588400 · VIAF: 282770127, 84647018, 19983268, 545159474208227661770, 852159474197427661164, 835154381042230292043, 305065028, 230159474179227661365 · ULAN: 500354810 Отримано з https://uk.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ксеркс_I&oldid=29662907 Категорії: Народились 519 до н. е. Уродженці Ірану Померли 475 до н. е. Поховані в Ірані Ахеменіди Монархи Персії Учасники греко-перських воєн Скинуті монархи Люди, на честь яких названо астероїд Померли 465 до н. е. Фараони за алфавітом Приховані категорії: Вікіпедія:P19:використовується Статті з джерелами з Вікіданих Вікіпедія:P20:використовується Вікіпедія:P373:використовується Персоналії за алфавітом Незавершені статті про монархів і представників династій Навігаційне меню Особисті інструменти Ви не увійшли до системи Обговорення Внесок Створити обліковий запис Увійти Простори назв Стаття Обговорення Варіанти Перегляди Читати Редагувати Редагувати код Переглянути історію Більше Пошук Навігація Головна сторінка Поточні події Нові редагування Нові сторінки Випадкова стаття Участь Портал спільноти Кнайпа Довідка Пожертвувати Інструменти Посилання сюди Пов'язані редагування Спеціальні сторінки Постійне посилання Інформація про сторінку Цитувати сторінку Елемент Вікіданих Друк/експорт Створити книгу Завантажити як PDF Версія до друку В інших проектах Вікісховище Іншими мовами Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Редагувати посилання Цю сторінку востаннє відредаговано о 10:07, 28 вересня 2020. Текст доступний на умовах ліцензії Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike; також можуть діяти додаткові умови. Детальніше див. Умови використання. Політика конфіденційності Про Вікіпедію Відмова від відповідальності Зворотний зв'язок Мобільний вигляд Розробники Статистика Куки 
uli-nli-org-il-3791	----	NLI AUT MultiLang - Full View of Record National Library of Israel Names and Subjects Authority File Basic Advanced Recent Search Previous Searches e-Shelf Other Catalogs Help Quit   Record View Full Record View Short Record View Catalog Card Name Tags MARC Tags Save/Email Add to My e-Shelf   Sys. no.   000437459 Personal Name    Xerxes I, King of Persia, 519 B.C.-465 B.C. or 464 B.C.   ‫  אחשורוש, מלך פרס ‬ S.F. Pers. Name    Xerxes I, King of Persia, 519-465 or 4 B.C.    Xerxes, 519-465 or 4 B.C.    Ahasuerus, King of Persia, 519-465 or 4 B.C.    Aḥashṿerosh, King of Persia, 519-465 or 4 B.C.    Assuerus, King of Persia, 519-465 or 4 B.C.    Serse I, King of Persia, 519-465 or 4 B.C. Source Data Found   Goldfaden, A. Theater fon Kenig Aḥashwerosh, 1890.   Assuerus und Esther am Burgunderhof, c1998.   Bodei Giglioni, G. Erodoto e i sogni di Serse, c2002. © The National Library of Israel 
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ur-wikipedia-org-4198	----	خشیارشا اول - آزاد دائرۃ المعارف، ویکیپیڈیا خشیارشا اول آزاد دائرۃ المعارف، ویکیپیڈیا سے Jump to navigation Jump to search خشیارشا اول خشیارشا اول معیاد عہدہ 486 تا 465 ق م پیشرو دارا یوش اول جانشین اردشیردرازدست خاندان حخمانیشی سلطنت والد دارا یوش اول والدہ آتوسا پیدائش 518 ق م پرشیا وفات 465 ق م (عمر 54) پرشیا تدفین پرشیا مذہب زرتشتیت خشیارشا اول یا خشایارشا اول یا خشیارشا اعظم یا خشایارشا اعظم، (ایرانی زبان میں: خشايارشا، انگریزی زبان میں: Xerxes I of Persia، یونانی زبان میں: Ξέρξης، عبرانی زبان میں: אֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹשׁ) (پیدائش: 519 ق م - وفات: 465 ق م،[1] پیدائش: 422 ق م - وفات: 485 ق م[2]) حخمانیشی سلطنت کا چوتھا بادشاہ تھا۔ حوالہ[ترمیم] ↑ Xerxes I - Wikipedia ↑ تاریخ ایران، پروفیسر مقبول بیگ بدخشانی، ج- ا، ص- 119 ویکی کومنز پر خشیارشا اول سے متعلق سمعی و بصری مواد ملاحظہ کریں۔ اخذ کردہ از «https://ur.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=خشیارشا_اول&oldid=4220125» زمرہ جات: 465 ق م 518 ق م 518 ق م کی پیدائشیں ایران شاہی حکمران بادشاہان ایران بادشاہان عبرانی بائبل پانچویں صدی ق م کے جرائم پانچویں صدی ق م کے حکمران تاریخی شخصیات تخت جمشید حخمانیشی بادشاہان کتاب آستر مصر کا ستائیسواں شاہی سلسلہ مصری ہخامنشی سلطنت کے فراعنہ مقتول ایرانی حکمران 465 ق م کی وفیات 510 ق م کی دہائی کی پیدائشیں پوشیدہ زمرہ جات: سانچے میں دوہرے آرگومنٹ کے حامل صفحات تصویر کا متروک پیرامیٹر استعمال کرنے والے صفحات مقالے جن میں فارسی زبان کا متن ہے کامنز زمرہ جس کا ربط ویکی ڈیٹا پر ہے فہرست رہنمائی ذاتی آلات داخل نہیں تبادلۂ خیال شراکتیں کھاتہ بنائیں داخل ہوں فضائے نام صفحہ تبادلۂ خیال متغیرات مشاہدات مطالعہ ترمیم تاریخچہ مزید تلاش رہنمائی صفحۂ اول جستہ جستہ مطالعہ نیا مضمون تحریر کریں رابطہ کریں تعامل ویکیپیڈیا پر آغاز کریں معاونت دیوان عام حالیہ تبدیلیاں مشاہدات اعلیٰ تعداد ناظرین عطیہ دیجیے اپلوڈ تصویر آلات مربوط صفحات متعلقہ تبدیلیاں خصوصی صفحات مستقل ربط معلومات صفحہ مضمون کا حوالہ دیں مختصر یوآرایل ڈیٹا آئٹم طباعت/برآمد تخلیق کتاب ڈاؤنلوڈ بشکلPDF قابل طبع نسخہ دیگر منصوبے ویکیمیڈیا العام دیگر زبانیں العربية فارسی English Afrikaans Alemannisch Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Malagasy मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча پنجابی پښتو Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 ترمیم روابط اس صفحہ میں آخری بار مورخہ 20 اگست 2020ء کو 05:47 بجے ترمیم کی گئی۔ تمام متن کریئیٹیو کامنز انتساب / یکساں-شراکت اجازت نامہ کے تحت دستیاب ہے، اضافی شرائط بھی عائد ہوسکتی ہیں۔ تفصیل کے لیے استعمال کی شرائط ملاحظہ فرمائیں۔ ویکیپیڈیا® ایک غیر منفعت بخش تنظیم ویکیمیڈیا فاؤنڈیشن انکارپوریشن کا تجارتی مارکہ ہے۔ اخفائے راز کے اصول ویکیپیڈیا کا تعارف عمومی اظہار لاتعلقی موبائل سائٹ ترقی دہندگان شماریات کوکیز کی تفصیلات 
uz-wikipedia-org-1147	----	Kserks I - Vikipediya Kserks I Vikipediya, ochiq ensiklopediya Jump to navigation Jump to search Kserks I (qad. forscha Xshayarshan) (?— miloddan avvalgi465) — axomaniylar sulolasiga mansub qad. Eron shohi (486—465). Doro I va Kir //ning qizi Atossaning oʻgʻli. Axomaniylarga tobe misrliklar qoʻzgʻoloni (486—484)ni bostirgan. 482 yil bobilliklar qoʻzgʻolon koʻtargach, Bobilni vayron qilgan, Bobil shohi degan unvondan voz kechish bilan rasman va amalda Bobil davlatini yoʻq qilib, uni oddiy bir satrapiyata aylantirgan. 480 yil Yunonistonga yurish qilgan. Ammo 479 yil forslar floti ham, quruqlikdagi qoʻshini ham tor-mor keltirilgan. Bu magʻlubiyatlar Axomaniylar davlati tanazzuli jarayonini kuchaytirgan. K. mamlakat yaxlitligini saqlab qolish maqsadida diniy islohot oʻtkazgan — mahalliy urugʻ-qabila maʼbudlariga sigʻinishni taqiqlab, Axuramazdaga topinishni joriy etgan. U saroy ahli uyushtirgan fitnada oʻldirilgan.[1] Manbalar[tahrir] ↑ OʻzME. Birinchi jild. Toshkent, 2000-yil Ushbu maqolada Oʻzbekiston milliy ensiklopediyasi (2000-2005) maʼlumotlaridan foydalanilgan. Ushbu maqola chaladir. Siz uni boyitib, Vikipediyaga yordam berishingiz mumkin. v t e Bu andozani aniqrogʻiga almashtirish kerak. "https://uz.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kserks_I&oldid=2130985" dan olindi Turkum: Chala maqolalar Yashirin turkum: Oʻzbekiston milliy ensiklopediyasi maqolalari Barcha chala maqolalar Navigatsiya Shaxsiy uskunalar Siz tizimga kirmagansiz Ushbu IP-manzil munozarasi Qoʻshilgan hissa Hisob yaratish Kirish Nomfazolar Maqola Munozara lotin/кирилл lotin/кирилл lotin кирилл Koʻrinishlar<!--Views--> Mutolaa Tahrirlash Tarix Yana Qidiruv navigatsiya Bosh sahifa Tanlangan maqolalar Yangi sahifalar Tasodifiy maqola Maqolalar indeksi Loyihaga koʻmak Ishtirok Xato haqida xabar berish Yangi oʻzgarishlar Jamoa portali Qoidalar Yordam Forum Aloqa Asboblar Bu yerga ishoratlar Bogʻliq oʻzgarishlar Maxsus sahifalar Doimiy havola Sahifa haqida maʼlumot Sahifadan matn parchasi ajratish Vikimaʼlumotlar bandi Nashr/eksport qilish PDF sifatida yuklash Bosma uchun versiya Boshqa loyihalarda Vikiombor Boshqa tillarda Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Ishoratlarni tahrirla Bu sahifa oxirgi marta 26-Sentabr 2020, 13:42 da tahrir qilingan. Matn Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike litsenziyasi boʻyicha ommalashtirilmoqda, alohida holatlarda qoʻshimcha shartlar amal qilishi mumkin (batafsil). Maxfiylik siyosati Vikipediya haqida Masʼuliyatdan voz kechish Mobil versiya Dasturchilar Statistics Cookie bayonoti 
viaf-org-8220	----	282770127 VIAF Virtual International Authority File Search Select Field: All Fields All Headings Corporate Names Geographic Names Personal Names Works Expressions Preferred Headings Exact Heading Bibliographic Titles Select Index: All VIAF Argentina Australia Belgium (Flemish) Brazil Canada Catalunya Chile Croatia Czech Denmark (DBC) Egypt Estonia FAST France (BnF) France (Sudoc) Germany Getty (ULAN) Greece Hispánica Hungary Iceland Ireland ISNI Israel Italy Japan (NDL) Japan (NII) Korea Latvia Lebanon LC (NACO) Lithuania Luxembourg Morocco Netherlands Norway (BIBSYS) Norway (National Library) Iceland Perseus Poland (National Library) Poland (NUKAT) Portugal Québec RISM Russia Singapore Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Swiss (National Library) Swiss (RERO) Syriac Taiwan Vatican Wikipedia xA xR Search Terms: Ahasveros Xerxès I, 0519-0465 av. J.-C., roi des Perses Xerxès 0519-0465 av. J.-C. roi des Perses I Xerxes I, rei de Pèrsia, 519 aC-465 aC o 464 aC Xerxes I, Rei da Pérsia, 519-465 ou 4 AC. VIAF ID: 282770127 (Personal) Permalink: http://viaf.org/viaf/282770127 Preferred Forms 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Ahasveros‏ 100 1 _ ‎‡a  Xerxes‏ ‎‡b  I,‏ ‎‡c  Rei da Pérsia,‏ ‎‡d  519-465 ou 4 AC.‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Xerxes‏ ‎‡b  I,‏ ‎‡c  rei de Pèrsia,‏ ‎‡d  519 aC-465 aC o 464 aC‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Xerxès‏ ‎‡b  I,‏ ‎‡d  0519-0465 av. J.-C.,‏ ‎‡c  roi des Perses‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Xerxès‏ ‎‡d  0519-0465 av. J.-C.‏ ‎‡c  roi des Perses‏ ‎‡b  I‏         4xx's: Alternate Name Forms (95) 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Ahasuersus‏ ‎‡d  519-465 or 4 B.C.‏ ‎‡c  King of Persia‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Ahasuerus, King of Persia‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Ahasuerus‏ ‎‡d  519 B.C.-465 B.C. or 464 B.C.‏ ‎‡c  King of Persia‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Ahasuerus‏ ‎‡d  519-465 or 4 B.C.‏ ‎‡c  King of Persia‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Ahasuerus‏ ‎‡d  519-465 př. Kr‏ ‎‡c  King of Persia‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Ahasuerus‏ ‎‡b  I,‏ ‎‡c  rei de Pèrsia,‏ ‎‡d  519 aC-465 aC o 464 aC‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Ahasyweros I dari Persia‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Assuerus, King of Persia‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Assuerus‏ ‎‡d  519 B.C.-465 B.C. or 464 B.C.‏ ‎‡c  King of Persia‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Assuerus‏ ‎‡d  519-465 or 4 B.C.‏ ‎‡c  King of Persia‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Assuerus‏ ‎‡d  519-465 př. Kr‏ ‎‡c  King of Persia‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Assuerus‏ ‎‡b  I,‏ ‎‡c  rei de Pèrsia,‏ ‎‡d  519 aC-465 aC o 464 aC‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Aḥashṿerosh, King of Persia‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Aḥashṿerosh‏ ‎‡d  519 B.C.-465 B.C. or 464 B.C.‏ ‎‡c  King of Persia‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Aḥashṿerosh‏ ‎‡d  519-465 or 4 B.C.‏ ‎‡c  King of Persia‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  I Kserks‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  I. Khsajársá perzsa király‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  I. Serhas‏ ‎‡c  Ahameniş İmparatorluğu'nun beşinci kralı‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Jerjes I‏ ‎‡c  Quinto Gran Rey del Imperio Aqueménida‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Khshayarsha‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Khshayarsha‏ ‎‡b  I,‏ ‎‡c  roi des perses‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Khshayarsha‏ ‎‡c  roi des Perses‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Khshayarsha‏ ‎‡c  roi des perses‏ ‎‡b  I‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Kserks I‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Kserks I od Perzije‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Kserksas I‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Kserkses I‏ ‎‡c  Persian kuningas (485–465 eaa.)‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Kserkses I‏ ‎‡c  król perski‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Kserksesy I‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Kserkso I.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Kserkso la 1-a‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Kserkss I‏ ‎‡c  Ahemenīdu impērijas (Senās Persijas) valdnieks‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Kserses Iañ‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Serse I di Persia‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Serse I, King of Persia‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Serse‏ ‎‡d  519 B.C.-465 B.C. or 464 B.C.‏ ‎‡c  King of Persia‏ ‎‡b  I‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Serse‏ ‎‡d  519-465 or 4 B.C.‏ ‎‡c  King of Persia‏ ‎‡b  I‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Serse‏ ‎‡b  I,‏ ‎‡c  rei de Pèrsia,‏ ‎‡d  519 aC-465 aC o 464 aC‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Xerxes‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Xerxes 1. af Persien‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Xerxes 1k Pẹ́rsíà‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Xerxes I‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Xerxes I av Persia‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Xerxes I của Ba Tư‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Xerxes I da Pérsia‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Xerxes I dari Parsi‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Xerxes I de Persia‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Xerxes I de Pèrsia‏ ‎‡c  El Rei xerxes‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Xerxes I han Persia‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Xerxes I ng Persia‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Xerxes I, King of the Persians‏ 400 1 _ ‎‡a  Xerxes I, brenin Persia‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Xerxes I.a Persiakoa‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Xerxes I.‏ ‎‡c  persischer Großkönig‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Xerxes I‏ ‎‡c  O rei Xerxes I‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Xerxes I‏ ‎‡c  Xerxes I al Persiei‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Xerxes I‏ ‎‡c  kung av Persien 486–465 f.Kr.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Xerxes I‏ ‎‡c  staatsman uit Achaemenidrijk (519v Chr-475v Chr)‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Xerxes the Great‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Xerxes the great‏ ‎‡c  Ancient Persian king‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Xerxes‏ ‎‡d  519-465 or 4 B.C.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Xerxes‏ ‎‡d  519-465 or 4 B.C.‏ ‎‡c  King of Persia‏ ‎‡b  I‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Xerxes‏ ‎‡d  519-465 př. Kr‏ ‎‡c  King of Persia‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Xerxes‏ ‎‡d  519-465 v. Chr‏ ‎‡c  koning van Perzië‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Xerxes‏ ‎‡d  519-465/4 a. C.‏ ‎‡c  re di Persia‏ ‎‡b  I‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Xerxes‏ ‎‡b  I,‏ ‎‡c  rei de Pèrsia,‏ ‎‡d  519 aC-465 aC o 464 aC‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Xerxes‏ ‎‡b  I,‏ ‎‡c  rei de Pèrsia,‏ ‎‡d  519? aC-465 aC‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Xerxès Ier‏ ‎‡c  roi de la Perse achéménide entre -485 et -465 avant J.-C.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Xerxès‏ ‎‡d  0519-0465 av. J.-C.‏ ‎‡c  roi des Perses‏ ‎‡b  I‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Xerxés I.‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Xerxés‏ ‎‡d  519-465 př. Kr‏ ‎‡c  perský král‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Xeşeyerşa‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Ξέρξης Α' της Περσίας‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Ксеркс‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Ксеркс I‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Ксеркс I‏ ‎‡c  персидский царь‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Ксеркс І‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Ксэркс І‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Քսերքսես I‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  אחשורוש‏ ‎‡c  מלך פרס‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  חשיארש הראשון‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  خشايارشا‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  خشايارشا الأول‏ ‎‡c  ملك فارسي‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  خشایارشا‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  خشایارشا‏ ‎‡c  پنجمین شاهنشاه هخامنشی‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  خشیارشا اول‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  خەشەیەرشا‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  क्षयार्षा‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  झेरेक्सिस पहिला‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  செர்கஸ்‏ ‎‡c  பாரசீகத்தின் பழங்கால மன்னர்‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  จักรพรรดิเซอร์ซีสมหาราช‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  ქსერქსე I‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  クセルクセス1世‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  薛西斯一世‏ 400 0 _ ‎‡a  크세르크세스 1세‏ 5xx's: Related Names (1) 551 _ _ ‎‡a  Iran‏ ‎‡y  550-330 av. J.-C. (Achéménides)‏ Selected Titles Publication Statistics Publication History 600 | | 700 About Personal Information Gender: Male Nationality or associated country: Achaemenid Empire - External Links Wikipedia - https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahasveros Wikipedia - https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_I. Wikipedia - https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/خشايارشا_الأول Wikipedia - https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/خشايارشا_الاول Wikipedia - https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_I_de_Persia Wikipedia - https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Kserks Wikipedia - https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/خشایارشا Wikipedia - https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ксеркс_I Wikipedia - https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ксеркс_I Wikipedia - https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kserses_Iañ Wikipedia - https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kserks_I_od_Perzije Wikipedia - https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_I_de_Pèrsia Wikipedia - https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxés_I. Wikipedia - https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_I,_brenin_Persia Wikipedia - https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_1._af_Persien Wikipedia - https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_I. Wikipedia - https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ξέρξης_Α΄_της_Περσίας Wikipedia - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_I Wikipedia - https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kserkso_la_1-a_(Persio) Wikipedia - https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerjes_I Wikipedia - https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_I Wikipedia - https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_I.a Wikipedia - https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/خشایارشا Wikipedia - https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kserkses_I Wikipedia - https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxès_Ier Wikipedia - https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_I Wikipedia - https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/חשיארש_הראשון Wikipedia - https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/क्षयार्षा Wikipedia - https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kserkso_I. Wikipedia - https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/I._Khsajársá_perzsa_király Wikipedia - https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Քսերքսես_I Wikipedia - https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahasyweros_I_dari_Persia Wikipedia - https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serse_I_di_Persia Wikipedia - https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/クセルクセス1世 Wikipedia - https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/ქსერქსე_I Wikipedia - https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ксеркс Wikipedia - https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/크세르크세스_1세 Wikipedia - https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xeşeyerşa_I Wikipedia - https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ксеркс Wikipedia - https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_I_(rex_Persarum) Wikipedia - https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_I. Wikipedia - https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kserksas_I Wikipedia - https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kserkss_I Wikipedia - https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kserksesy_I Wikipedia - https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/झेरेक्सिस_पहिला Wikipedia - https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_I_dari_Parsi Wikipedia - https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_I Wikipedia - https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_I_av_Persia Wikipedia - https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_I_av_Persia Wikipedia - https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_Ier Wikipedia - https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kserkses_I Wikipedia - https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/خشیارشا_اول Wikipedia - https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/خشايارشا Wikipedia - https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_I Wikipedia - https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_I Wikipedia - https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ксеркс_I Wikipedia - https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_I Wikipedia - https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kserks_I Wikipedia - https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes Wikipedia - https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_I. Wikipedia - https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kserks_I. Wikipedia - https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ксеркс_I Wikipedia - https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_I Wikipedia - https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/முதலாம்_செர்கஸ் Wikipedia - https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/เซิร์กซีสที่_1 Wikipedia - https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_I_ng_Persia Wikipedia - https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/I._Serhas Wikipedia - https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ксеркс_I Wikipedia - https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/خشیارشا_اول Wikipedia - https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kserks_I Wikipedia - https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_I Wikipedia - https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_I_han_Persia Wikipedia - https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/薛西斯一世 Wikipedia - https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_1k_Pẹ́rsíà Wikipedia - https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/薛西斯一世 WorldCat Identities - viaf-282770127 ISNI - 0000 0000 6300 8852 Record Views MARC-21 record VIAF Cluster in XML RDF record Just Links in JSON History of VIAF ID:282770127 (15) Record ID Action Time SUDOC|050588400 add 2013-11-23T21:33:28+00:00 ISNI|0000000063008852 add 2014-10-21T12:48:43+00:00 BAV|ADV10276326 delete 2016-05-30T07:13:22.064454+00:00 JPG|500354810 delete 2016-05-30T07:13:22.101117+00:00 LC|n 81070675 delete 2016-05-30T07:13:22.114515+00:00 BNC|a12318310 add 2016-06-06T06:00:20.255904+00:00 N6I|vtls001149527 delete 2016-06-06T07:00:32.271124+00:00 NLI|000437459 delete 2016-06-06T07:03:29.067203+00:00 NTA|073636711 delete 2019-03-24T10:26:19.669404+00:00 BAV|ADV10285812 delete 2020-07-14T11:42:41.849941+00:00 WKP|Q129165 add 2020-08-23T09:00:58.800288+00:00 BLBNB|000387462 add 2020-08-23T09:00:58.811804+00:00 BNF|15068908 delete 2020-08-23T09:49:58.656923+00:00 NKC|mzk2005313022 delete 2020-08-23T09:49:58.660378+00:00 SELIBR|259706 delete 2020-08-23T09:49:58.663773+00:00 © 2010-2020 OCLC Privacy policy Cookie Notice Cookie Settings Hosted by OCLC About the dataset Send us a comment. About VIAF 
vi-wikipedia-org-9111	----	Xerxes I – Wikipedia tiếng Việt Xerxes I Bách khoa toàn thư mở Wikipedia Bước tới điều hướng Bước tới tìm kiếm Xerxes I Đại đế Hoàng đế Ba Tư vĩ đại (Shah), Pharaong của Ai Cập Chân dung của Xerxes I Tại vị 485 TCN - 465 TCN Đăng quang Tháng 10 485 TCN Tiền nhiệm Darius I Kế nhiệm Artaxerxes I Thông tin chung Phối ngẫu Amestris Hoàng tộc Nhà Achaemenid Thân phụ Darius I (Đại đế) Thân mẫu Atossa Sinh 519 TCN Ba Tư Mất 465 TCN (tuổi 54) Ba Tư (bị ám sát) An táng Ba Tư Khsayarsha/Xerxes I của Ba Tư (trong tiếng Ba Tư: Khashayarsha (خشایارشا) ‎[1])) là một vị vua Ba Tư (trị vì:485-465 TCN), thuộc nhà Achaemenid. Xérxēs (Ξέρξης) là dạng từ tiếng Hy Lạp của tên niên hiệu Xšayāršā, trong tiếng Ba Tư cổ có nghĩa là vua của các anh hùng".[2] Xerxes cũng được biết đến như Xerxes Đại đế. Mục lục 1 Sự nghiệp chính trị 1.1 Cuộc viễn chinh Hy Lạp 2 Trong Kinh Thánh 3 Con cái 4 Trong văn học hiện đại 5 Hình ảnh 6 Xem thêm 7 Chú thích 8 Tham khảo 9 Liên kết ngoài Sự nghiệp chính trị[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] Xerxes là con của Darius Đại đế và Atossa, con gái của Cyrus Đại đế.[3] Sau lễ đăng quang của ông vào tháng 10 năm 485 TCN, ông đã đàn áp cuộc khởi nghĩa ở Ai Cập[4] và Babylon[5] nổ ra trước đó và chỉ định em trai ông, Achaemenes là tỉnh trưởng (satrap) của Ai Cập (tiếng Ba Tư cổ: khshathrapavan). Năm 484 TCN, ông lấy từ Babylon bức tượng vàng của Bel (Marduk, Merodach), hai tay của bức tượng mà mọi vị vua hợp pháp của Babylon phải cầm lấy vào ngày thứ nhất trong mỗi năm, và ông đã giết chết vị thầy tế cố ngăn ông lại. Cho nên Xerxes không mang hiệu vua của người Babylon trong triều đại ông, nhưng mang danh hiệu Vua Ba Tư và Media hay đơn giản vua của các quốc gia (nghĩa bóng là của cả thế giới). Hành động này của Xerxes dẫn đến 2 cuộc nổi loạn, có thể trong 484 TCN và 479 TCN. Cuộc viễn chinh Hy Lạp[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] Bài chi tiết: Chiến tranh Hy Lạp-Ba Tư 483 TCN:Xerxes chuẩn bị xâm lược Hy Lạp. 482 TCN:Thành lập một kênh đào trải dài đến bán đảo núi Athos 481 TCN:Tiếp tục việc chuẩn bị xâm lược Hy Lạp. Mùa xuân năm 480 TCN:Sau khi được chuẩn bị chu đáo, quân đội Ba Tư đổ bộ lên lãnh thổ Hy Lạp. Họ chiến thắng trong trận chiến tại Thermopylae, Artemisium và Athenia. Mùa thu năm 480 TCN:Sau thất bại thảm hại tại Salamis, Xerxes cho rút quân về nước. Đạo quân của tướng Mardonius - anh rể Xerxes vẫn đóng trên đất Hy Lạp. 479 TCN:Trận Plataea:Quân Ba Tư do Mardonius chỉ huy bị đánh bại. Mardonius tử thương. Từ đó, Xerxes vùi đầu vào trụy lạc trong chốn tam cung lục viện[6] Cho đến năm 465 TCN ông bị vệ binh trong cung điện đâm chết. Trong Kinh Thánh[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] Mộ của Xerxes tại Naqsh Rostam Con cái[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] Con của Amestris Amytis, vợ của Megabyzus Artaxerxes I Darius, con trai trưởng, bị Artaxerxes và Artabanus ám hại. Hystaspes, bị Artaxerxes giết. Rodogyne Con của những cung phi vô danh Artarius, satrap của Babylon Ratashah[7] Trong văn học hiện đại[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] Hình ảnh[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] Xerxes trong trận Salamis ngoài khơi (480 TCN) Nữ hoàng Esther trong Kinh thánh. Là vợ của hoàng đế Ahasuerus, người được tin là Xerxes I (hoặc còn có thể là Artaxerxes I, Xerxes II hay Artaxerxes II) Xem thêm[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] Xerse, an opera by Francesco Cavalli loosely based on Xerxes Serse, an opera by George Frideric Handel with a similar libretto to that set by Cavalli. Chú thích[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] ^ Ghias Abadi, R. M. (2004). Achaemenid Inscriptions (کتیبه‌های هخامنشی)‎ (bằng tiếng Ba Tư) (ấn bản 2). Tehran: Shiraz Navid Publications. tr. page 107. ISBN 964-358-015-6.  Bảo trì CS1: Văn bản dư (link) ^ Strauss, Barry S., The Battle of Salamis: The Naval Encounter That Saved Greece - and Western Civilization, p. 36. Simon & Schuster, New York, 2004. ^ Vị sáng lập Đế quốc Ba Tư ^ Thuộc địa Ba Tư ở châu Phi ^ Thuộc địa Ba Tư ở châu Á, nay là Iraq ^ Tiểu sử của Xerxes ^ M.Brosius, Phụ nữ Ba Tư cổ đại Tham khảo[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] Herodotus, The Persian War. Translated by George Rawlinson, Introduction by Francis R.B. Godolphin (1942 edition) A.T. Olmstead, 1948. History of the Persian Empire (University of Chicago Press) pp. 214ff. P. Briant, 2002. From Cyrus to Alexander: The History of the Persian Empire. Farrokh, Kaveh (2007). Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1846031087. Heritage History Liên kết ngoài[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] Wikimedia Commons có thêm hình ảnh và phương tiện truyền tải về Xerxes I. x t s Các vị vua của Ba Tư Đế quốc Mada Deioces • Phraortes • Madius • Cyaxares • Astyages Nhà Achaemenes Achaemenes • Teispes • Ariaramnes • Cyrus I • Arsames • Cambyses I • Cyrus II · Cambyses II · Smerdis · Darius I · Xerxes I · Artaxerxes I · Xerxes II · Sogdianus · Darius II · Artaxerxes II · Artaxerxes III · Arses · Darius III Thuộc Macedonia Alexandros Đại đế · Philippos III · Alexandros IV Nhà Seleukos Seleukos I Nikator · Antiochos I Soter · Antiochos II Theos · Seleukos II Kallinikos · Seleukos III Keraunos · Antiochos III Đại đế · Seleukos IV Philopator · Antiochos IV Epiphanes · Antiochos V · Demetrios I Soter · Alexandros Balas · Demetrios II Nikator Nhà Arsaces Arsaces I · Tiridates I · Arsaces II · Phriapatius · Phraates I · Mithridates I · Phraates II · Artabanus I · Mithridates II · Gotarzes I · Orodes I · Sanatruces · Phraates III · Mithridates 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war-wikipedia-org-8749	----	Xerxes I han Persia - Wikipedia Xerxes I han Persia Tikang ha Wikipedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Mayda impormasyon hini nga artikulo nga aada han Iningles nga bersyon nga angay ighubad ha Winaray Xerxes I Hadi hin mga Hadi Dungganan nga Hadi Hadi han Persia Faraon han Ehipto Hadi hin mga Nasod Rock relief ni Xerxes ha iya lubnganan ha Naqsh-e Rustam Hadi hin mga Hadi han Imperyo Akhaemenida Paghadì 486–465 BC Pagkoronar Oktubre 486 BC Nag-uná Darius I Nagsunod Artaxerxes I Faraon han Ehipto Paghadì 486–465 UC Pagkoronar Oktubre 486 UC Nag-uná Darius I Nagsunod Artaxerxes I Natawo 519 UC Persia Namatay Agosto 465 UC (panuigon 53 o 54) Persia Paglubong Persia Inasaw-an Amestris, (gindebatehan: Vashti ngan Reyna Esther) Anak Darius Hystaspes Artaxerxes I Arsames Amytis Dinastiya Akhaemenida Amay Darius I Iroy Atossa Relihiyon Zoroastrianismo[1] Hi Jerjes I o kundi man Xerxes I (kaluwas ha Ininglis: /ˈzɜːrksiːz/; Old Persian: 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠 Xšayaṛša ( Khshāyarsha (bulig·info)) [2] "naghahadi hin mga bayani",[3] Greek Ξέρξης Xérxēs [ksérksɛːs]; 519–465 BC), nga tinatawag gihapon nga Xerxes nga Harangdon, amo an ikalima nga hadi hin mga hadi han Akhaemenida nga dinastiya han Persia. Sugad han iya amay ngan nag-uná ha iya nga hadi nga hi Darius I, naghadi hiyá han imperyo han panahon nga nakapot ini han gidako-i nga teritoryo han kaagi hiní. Naghadi hiyá tikang han 486 UC kutob han pag-asasinar ha iya han 465 BC ni Artabanus, an komandante han magbarantay han hadi. Hi Xerxes I kuno an Persiano nga hadi nga hi Axašweroš (אֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹשׁ; Ahasuerus o Ahasuero; ha Kinatsila ngan nahig-araan nga Winaray: Asuero) dida han Bibliya nga mga Barasahon han Esther ngan Barasahon han Ezra.[4][5][6] Kilalado gihapon hiyá han kaagi han Katundan tungod han iya waray magmalinamposon nga pag-invadir han Gresya han 480 BC. An iya mga puwersa temporaryo nga nakalupig han mainland nga Gresya ha amihan han Isthmus han Corinth[7][8] kutob han mga pagkapirde ha Salamis ngan ha sunod nga tuig an pagkapirde ha Plataea nagwara hini nga mga pagdaog ngan nagtapos han ikaduha nga pag-invadir hin permanente. Bisan pa man, malinamposon hi Xerxes nga naglupig han mga pagrebelde ha Ehipto ngan ha Babilonia. Siring ni Roman Ghirshman nga, "Katapos hiní waray na hiya gumamit han titulo nga 'hadi han Babilonia', ngan nagtawag na la hiya han iya kalugaringon nga 'hadi han mga Persiahanon ngan mga Mediahanon'."[9] Gindumara ni Xerxes an pagtima hin mga dirudilain nga mga proyekto hin konstruksyon ha Susa ngan Persepolis. Mga pinambasaran[igliwat | Igliwat an wikitext] ↑ Hi Xerxes naghimo hin halad nga tawo. See Boyce, Mary (1989). A History of Zoroastrianism: The early period, p. 141. ↑ Allesandro Bausani (1971). "Chapter 1: The Aryans on the Iranian Plateau: The Achaemenian Empire". The Persians. St. Martin's Press. p. 27.  ↑ "Xeres I. The Name – Encyclopaedia Iranica". Iranicaonline.org. 2011-09-30. Ginkuhà 2014-07-25. ↑ "Ahasuerus". JewishEncyclopedia.com. Ginkuhà 2014-07-25. ↑ Encyclopaedia perthensis, or, Universal dictionary of the arts, sciences, literature, etc.: intended to supersede the use of other books of reference. 1816. https://books.google.com/?id=S1cKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA82. Ginkuhà 2014-07-25.  ↑ Law, George (2010-06-04). Identification of Darius the Mede. ISBN 978-0982763100. https://books.google.com/?id=vpEOkDk-gc8C&pg=PA95. Ginkuhà 2014-07-25.  ↑ Lazenby, J.F. (1993). The Defence of Greece, 490–479 B.C.. Aris & Phillips. ISBN 978-0856685910. https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mVRwQgAACAAJ. Ginkuhà 2016-09-07.  ↑ Brian Todd Carey, Joshua Allfree, John Cairns. Warfare in the Ancient World Pen and Sword, 19 Jan. 2006 ISBN 1848846304 ↑ Roman Ghirshman, Iran (1954), Penguin Books, p. 191.  Usa ka turók ini nga barasahon. Dako it imo maibubulig ha Wikipedia pinaagi han pagparabong hini. An Wikimedia Commons mayda media nga nahahanungod han: Xerxes I han Persia Ginkuha tikang ha "https://war.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_I_han_Persia&oldid=6253056" Mga kaarangay: Angay ighubad Mga barasahon nga mayda Old Persian-nga pinulongan nga sinurat Mga barasahon nga mayda Kahadto nga Griniyego-nga pinulongan nga sinurat Mga turók Biyograpiya Politika Iran Imperyo Akemenida Menu hit nabigasyon Mga pankalugaringon nga garamiton Diri naka-log in Hiruhimangraw Mga amot Himo-a an akawnt Sakob Mga ngaran-lat'ang Barasahon Hiruhimangraw Mga pagkadirudilain Mga paglantaw Basaha Igliwat Igliwat an wikitext Kitaa an kaagi More Bilnga paglayag Syahan nga Pakli Ganghaan han Komunidad Mga panhitabo Mga kabag-ohan Bisan ano nga pakli Bulig Mga Donasyon Garamiton Mga nasumpay dinhi Mga may kalabotan nga binag-o Pagkarga hin file Mga pinaurog nga pakli Sumpay nga unob Impormasyon han pakli Ig-cite ini nga pakli Wikidata item Pagpatika/pag-ambit Paghimo hin libro Igkarga-paubos komo PDF Maipapatik nga bersyon Ha iba nga mga proyekto Wikimedia Commons Ha iba nga mga yinaknan Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt 吴语 Yorùbá 中文 Igliwat an mga sumpay Ini nga pakli kataposan nga ginliwat dida han 02:13, 26 Oktubre 2019. An teksto in available ha ilarom han Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; kadugangan nga terms in puyde mag-apply. Kitaa anMga Terms of Use para han mga detalye. Polisiya hin pribasidad Bahin han Wikipedia Mga Disclaimer Mobile view Mga developer Statistics Cookie statement 
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wuu-wikipedia-org-8962	----	薛西斯一世 - 维基百科 薛西斯一世 吴语维基百科，自由个百科全书 跳到导航 跳到搜索 薛西斯一世（古波斯语：𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠 Khshāyarsha ；现代波斯语：خشایارشا‎，古希腊语：Ξερξης Xérxēs；约前519年－前465年），是阿契美尼德王朝国王（前485年—前465年在位）。渠可能是圣经中提到个波斯国王亚哈随鲁。 取自“https://wuu.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=薛西斯一世&oldid=269470” 导航菜单 私人家伙 呒不登录 讲张 贡献 建账号 登录 名字空间 文章 讨论 变量 视图 阅读 编辑 望历史 更多 搜寻 导航 封面 社区门堂 近段辰光个事体 近段辰光个改动 随机页面 帮忙 捐款 家生 链进来点啥 搭界个改动 上传文件 特别页面 老世链接 页面信息 引用该篇文章 维基数据项 打印/导出 创建书本 作为PDF下载 打印版 别个项目里向 维基共享资源 别样闲话版本 Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray Yorùbá 中文 编辑链接 箇只页面阿末趟编辑来拉2020年4月23号 (四) 21:26。 文字内容采用知识共享“署名-相同方式共享”许可协议授权；作兴会应用附加条款。详情见使用条款。 隐私政策 有关维基百科 免责声明 手机版视图 开发者 统计 Cookie声明 
www-academia-edu-5485	----	(PDF) Darius and the Achaemenid Line | Matt Waters - Academia.edu Skip to main content Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer. To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to upgrade your browser. Log In Sign Up Log In Sign Up more  Job Board About Press Blog People Papers Terms Privacy Copyright  We're Hiring!  Help Center less  Download Free PDF Download Free PDF Darius and the Achaemenid Line Matt Waters Download with GoogleDownload with Facebookor Create a free account to download Download Full PDF PackageThis paper A short summary of this paper 13 Full PDFs related to this paper READ PAPER Darius and the Achaemenid Line Download Darius and the Achaemenid Line Matt Waters Loading Preview Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. You can download the paper by clicking the button above. Download pdf ×CloseLog In Log In with Facebook Log In with Google   Sign Up with Apple or Email: Password: Remember me on this computer or reset password Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link. Need an account? Click here to sign up About Press Blog People Papers Job Board Advertise  We're Hiring!  Help Center Find new research papers in: Physics Chemistry Biology Health Sciences Ecology Earth Sciences Cognitive Science Mathematics Computer Science Terms Privacy Copyright Academia ©2021 
www-bibliotheek-nl-3640	----	Xerxes, of De hoogmoed - Louis Couperus | gedrukt boek | Bibliotheek.nl Ga direct naar de inhoud, het zoekveld of het hoofdmenu. home collectie in de Bibliotheek nu in de Bibliotheek bronnen voor thuis digi-taalhuis meer van de bieb jeugd & jongeren word lid Zoeken in de catalogus Zoeken binnen de site Zoekopdracht Vind Louis Couperus Xerxes, of De hoogmoed Gedrukt boek Een fantasie op het historisch verhaal van de tocht van de Perzische koning Xerxes tegen de Grieken, 480 v. Chr., met bedekte toespelingen op en parallellen tussen de aanvallen der Duitsers op België en Frankrijk. Genre Historische roman, Fictie Onderwerpen Proza (romans/novellen), Perzische Rijk, Xerxes (koning van Perzië), romans en novellen ; oorspr. - Nederlands Taal Nederlands Beschikbare vertalingen Engels, Duits, Spaans; Castiliaans Ook beschikbaar als Gesproken boek Je leent dit boek bij je eigen Bibliotheek. Vul de vier cijfers van je postcode in en vind je Bibliotheek. Postcode: Vind mijn Bibliotheek Versies Herdr Uitgever Goossens, Rijswijk Verschenen 1993 ISBN 9065510133 Kenmerken 205 pagina's, 20 cm Aantekening 1e dr.: Rotterdam : Nijgh & Van Ditmar, 1919 Xerxes, of De hoogmoed Uitgever Veen, Amsterdam [etc.] Verschenen 1993 ISBN 9025401007 Kenmerken 234 pagina's, 21 cm Aantekening [verzorgd door H.T.M. van Vliet ... et al.] Oorspr. uitg.: Rotterdam : Nijgh & Van Ditmar, 1919 6e dr Uitgever Nijgh & Van Ditmar, 's-Gravenhage Verschenen 1981 ISBN 9023655095 Kenmerken 210 pagina's, 20 cm Aantekening 1e uitg.: Rotterdam : Nijgh & Van Ditmar, 1919 5e dr Uitgever Nijgh & Van Ditmar, 's-Gravenhage [etc.] Verschenen 1970 ISBN 9023652665 Kenmerken 209 pagina's, 20 cm Aantekening 1e uitg.: Rotterdam : Nijgh & Van Ditmar, 1919 4e dr Uitgever Nijgh & Van Ditmar, 's-Gravenhage [etc.] Verschenen 1966 Kenmerken 209 pagina's, 20 cm Aantekening 1e dr.: Rotterdam : Nijgh & Van Ditmar, 1919 Omslagtitel: Xerxes 3e dr Uitgever Nijgh & Van Ditmar : Stols, 's-Gravenhage Verschenen 1960 Kenmerken 209 pagina's, 21 cm Aantekening 1e dr.: Rotterdam : Nijgh & Van Ditmar, 1919 Omslagtitel: Xerxes 3e dr Uitgever Nijgh & Van Ditmar, s̕-Gravenhage Verschenen 1954 Kenmerken 209 pagina's, 21 cm [1e dr.] Uitgever Nijgh & Van Ditmar, Rotterdam Verschenen 1919 Kenmerken 261 pagina's, 21 cm Recensies We hebben 2 recensie(s) voor je gevonden op LiteRom.nl. Je kunt LiteRom bekijken via de computers in je lokale Biblio­theek. Met je biblio­theek­pas kun je ook thuis inloggen. Biografie van Couperus na 50 jaar herdrukt Brabants Nieuwsblad | 26 februari 1982 | Piet Keijsers Het Vaderland | 13 maart 1920 | Delpher Bekijk in Delpher Praat mee op Facebook Twitter Pinterest Instagram de Bibliotheek Lid worden Bibliotheek zoeken Over deze site Contact Website­voorwaarden Toegankelijkheid 
www-britannica-com-1087	----	Johann Adolph Hasse | German composer | Britannica Browse Search Quizzes Games On This Day Login Subscribe  Now Entertainment & Pop Culture Geography & Travel Health & Medicine Lifestyles & Social Issues Literature Philosophy & Religion Politics, Law & Government Science Sports & Recreation Technology Visual Arts World History Quizzes Games Podcasts On This Day Biographies Week In Review Topic Summaries Infographics Demystified Lists #WTFact Companions Image Galleries Spotlight Entertainment & Pop Culture Geography & Travel Health & Medicine Lifestyles & Social Issues Literature Philosophy & Religion Politics, Law & Government Science Sports & Recreation Technology Visual Arts World History Britannica Classics Check out these retro videos from Encyclopedia Britannica’s archives. Britannica Explains In these videos, Britannica explains a variety of topics and answers frequently asked questions. This Time in History In these videos, find out what happened this month (or any month!) in history. #WTFact Videos In #WTFact Britannica shares some of the most bizarre facts we can find. Demystified Videos In Demystified, Britannica has all the answers to your burning questions. Johann Adolph Hasse Article Media Additional Info Home Entertainment & Pop Culture Music, Classical Johann Adolph Hasse German composer Print Cite verified Cite While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. Select Citation Style MLA APA Chicago Manual of Style Copy Citation Share Share Share to social media Facebook Twitter URL https://www.britannica.com/biography/Johann-Adolph-Hasse More Give Feedback External Websites Feedback Corrections? Updates? Omissions? Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Feedback Type Select a type (Required) Factual Correction Spelling/Grammar Correction Link Correction Additional Information Other Your Feedback Submit Feedback Thank you for your feedback Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work! External Websites Bach Cantatas Website - Biography of Johann Adolf Hasse Classical Net - Biography of Johann Adolf Hasse AllMusic - Biography of Johann Adolf Hasse WRITTEN BY The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree.... Last Updated: Dec 12, 2020 See Article History Alternative Title: Il Sassone Johann Adolph Hasse, byname Il Sassone, (born March 25, 1699, Bergedorf, near Hamburg—died Dec. 16, 1783, Venice), outstanding composer of operas in the Italian style that dominated late Baroque opera. Hasse began his career as a singer and made his debut as a composer in 1721 with the opera Antioco. He went to Italy, where he studied with Nicola Porpora and with Alessandro Scarlatti and where his opera seria Sesostrate (1726) established his reputation; in Italy he became known as “il Sassone” (“the Saxon”). After spending several years in Venice, where he married the celebrated mezzo-soprano Faustina Bordoni (c. 1700–81), he became music director of the Dresden Opera (1731). He resided in Dresden from 1739 to 1763, when he retired and went to Vienna. His last work for the stage was Ruggiero (1771), written for the wedding of the archduke Ferdinand at Milan. Hasse’s compositions include more than 60 operas, many of them to librettos by Pietro Metastasio, and nearly a dozen intermezzos, as well as oratorios, masses, and instrumental works. His music was enormously popular during his lifetime; its chief characteristics were melodic beauty and formal balance. His operatic overtures had considerable influence on the development of the symphony, especially in northern Germany. Learn More in these related Britannica articles: opera: Early opera in Germany and Austria …almost wholly Italianate by disposition, Johann Adolph Hasse spent most of his career working for the Saxon court at Dresden, although he became one of the most successful and popular composers in Europe around the middle of the 18th century. He promoted the traditions of opera seria in some 80… cantata Johann Hasse, a German pupil of Scarlatti, took the chamber cantata to Dresden; and George Frideric Handel, among others, wrote cantatas in the Italian manner. The early 18th century saw a similar trend in French music, notably in the works of Louis Clérambault, Jean-Baptiste Morin, and… Venice Venice, city, major seaport, and capital of both the provincia (province) of Venezia and the regione (region) of Veneto, northern Italy. An island city, it was once the centre of a maritime republic. It was the greatest seaport in late medieval Europe and the continent’s commercial and cultural… History at your fingertips Sign up here to see what happened On This Day, every day in your inbox! Email address By signing up, you agree to our Privacy Notice. Thank you for subscribing! Be on the lookout for your Britannica newsletter to get trusted stories delivered right to your inbox. Johann Adolph Hasse Quick Facts born March 25, 1699 Bergedorf, Germany died December 16, 1783 (aged 84) Venice, Italy Inspire your inbox – Sign up for daily fun facts about this day in history, updates, and special offers. 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www-getty-edu-978	----	ULAN Full Record Display (Getty Research) Research Home Tools Union List of Artist Names Full Record Display Click the icon to view the hierarchy.   Semantic View (JSON, JSONLD, RDF, N3/Turtle, N-Triples) ID: 500354810 Page Link: http://vocab.getty.edu/page/ulan/500354810   Record Type: Person Xerxes I, King of Persia (Persian king, ca. 519-465/464 BCE) Note: Of the Achaemenid Empire; son of Darius I and Atossa. Xerxes I is most likely the Persian king identified as Ahasuerus in the biblical book of Esther. Names: Xerxes I, King of Persia (preferred,V,display,LC,English-P,NA,U) Xerxes I, King of the Persians (V) Xerxès I, roi des Perses (V,French,NA,U) Xerxes I (V) Xerxes the Great (V) Serse I, King of Persia (V) Ahasuerus, King of Persia (V) Aḥashṿerosh, King of Persia (V) Assuerus, King of Persia (V) Xerxes, koning van Persië (V,Dutch,NA,U) Khshayarsha (V) Xerxes (V) אחשורוש, מלך פרס (V,Hebrew,NA,U) خشایارشا (V,Persian-Farsi,NA,U) Ξέρξης (V,Greek,NA,U) Nationalities: Persian (preferred) Roles: king (preferred) Gender: male Birth and Death Places: Died:  Takht-e Jamshīd (Fārs, Iran) (deserted settlement) Events: reign:   486-465 BCE  Persia (Asia) (historical region) Related People or Corporate Bodies: child of ....  Darius I, King of Persia   ..............  (Persian king, 550-486 BCE) [500116533] List/Hierarchical Position:  ....  Non-Artists  ........  Xerxes I, King of Persia (I,U) Biographies: (Persian king, ca. 519-465/464 BCE) ..... [VP Preferred] Additional Names: Sources and Contributors: אחשורוש, מלך פרס ........  [VP] ..............................  VIAF: Virtual International Authority File [online] (2009-) National Library of Israel خشایارشا ........  [VP] ..................  Archaeology Magazine [online] (2000-) Ξέρξης ........  [VP] ..............  Archaeology Magazine [online] (2000-) Aḥashṿerosh, King of Persia ........  [VP] .....................................................  Library of Congress Authorities database (n.d.) n 81070675; accessed 1 November 2012 Ahasuerus, King of Persia ........  [VP] .................................................  Library of Congress Authorities database (n.d.) n 81070675; accessed 1 November 2012 Assuerus, King of Persia ........  [VP] ...............................................  Library of Congress Authorities database (n.d.) n 81070675; accessed 1 November 2012 Khshayarsha ........  [VP] .........................  Encyclopedia Britannica Online (2002-) accessed 1 November 2012 Serse I, King of Persia ........  [VP] ............................................  Library of Congress Authorities database (n.d.) n 81070675; accessed 1 November 2012 Xerxes ........  [VP] ...............  Library of Congress Authorities database (n.d.) n 81070675; accessed 1 November 2012 Xerxes I ........  [VP] ..................  Encyclopedia Britannica Online (2002-) accessed 1 November 2012 ..................  J. Paul Getty Museum, collections online (2000-) http://www.getty.edu/art/gettyguide/artObjectDetails?artobj=112338; accessed 1 November 2012 Xerxes I, King of Persia ........  [VP Preferred] ..............................................  Library of Congress Authorities database (n.d.) n 81070675; accessed 1 November 2012 Xerxes I, King of the Persians ........  [JPGM Preferred, VP] ........................................................  J. Paul Getty Museum, collections online (2000-) http://www.getty.edu/art/gettyguide/artObjectDetails?artobj=112338; accessed 1 November 2012 Xerxès I, roi des Perses ........  [VP] ...............................................  VIAF: Virtual International Authority File [online] (2009-) National Library of France Xerxes, koning van Persië ........  [VP] ................................................  VIAF: Virtual International Authority File [online] (2009-) National Library of the Netherlands Xerxes the Great ........  [VP] ................................  Encyclopedia Britannica Online (2002-) accessed 1 November 2012 Subject: ........  [Gallery Systems, JPGM, VP] ....................  Encyclopedia Britannica Online (2002-) accessed 1 November 2012 ....................  Gallery Systems (2000-) LOC ID: n81070675 ....................  J. Paul Getty Museum, collections online (2000-) http://www.getty.edu/art/gettyguide/artObjectDetails?artobj=112338; accessed 1 November 2012 ....................  Library of Congress Authorities database (n.d.) n 81070675; accessed 1 November 2012   Note: English ..........  [VP] ..........  Encyclopedia Britannica Online (2002-) The J. Paul Getty Trust © 2004 J. Paul Getty Trust Terms of Use / Privacy Policy / Contact Us   
www-idref-fr-7709	----	Xerxès I (roi des Perses ; 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) paprika.idref.fr data.idref.fr Documentation Bonjour , Bienvenue sur IdRef, Identifiants et référentiels pour l'Enseignement supérieur et la Recherche. Xerxès I (roi des Perses ; 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) Paprika Export bibliographique Exporter en XML Exporter en RDF Améliorer la notice Signaler une erreur Identifiant IdRef : 050588400 Notice de type Personne Point d'accès autorisé Xerxès I (roi des Perses ; 0519-0465 av. J.-C.) Variante de point d'accès Khshayarsha I (roi des perses) [Nom de personne] Information (par souci de protection des données à caractère personnel, le jour et le mois de naissance peuvent ne pas être affichés) Date de naissance : -  0519 Date de mort : -  0465 Notices d'autorité liées   Iran , 550-330 av. J.-C. (Achéménides) Autres identifiants Identifiant BNF : FRBNF126509685 Identifiant VIAF : http://viaf.org/viaf/282770127 Identifiant ISNI : 0000000063008852 Utilisation dans Rameau Le point d'accès peut être employé dans un point d'accès sujet Le point d'accès ne peut s'employer qu'en élément initial Equivalent dans un autre référentiel Informations sur la notice Identifiant de la notice : 050588400 Dernière modification : 08-04-2020 à 21 h 43 ... Références liées : ... IdRef - Identifiants et Référentiels pour l'ESR L'interface publique IdRef permet la consultation des notices d'autorités produites par les établissements membres des réseaux documentaires de l'ESR (Sudoc, Calames, Star). IdRef est à la disposition des usagers professionnels habilités à créer/corriger/enrichir les notices d'autorité (authentification requise). A partir d'IdRef, une gamme de services (triple store data.idref.fr, entrepôt OAI-PMH, APIs) est disponible en accès libre pour faciliter la réutilisation des données. Pour les développeurs Documentation IdRef APIs et web services data.idref.fr OAI-PMH IdRef GitHub Abes Utilisation des données Libre et gratuite sous licence Etalab GitHub Etalab Assistance Guichet AbesSTP A propos | Partenaires | Données Personnelles | CGU | Mentions Légales 
www-iranculturestudies-com-5749	----	脂肪を用いた方法 - 胸が大きくなる？脂肪豊胸注入について Skip to content 胸が大きくなる？脂肪豊胸注入について Search for: 脂肪を用いた方法 Posted on 2020-09-072020-10-20 胸を大きくするための手術方法は主に3種類挙げられます。 しかし、特に体に負担の少ない手術方法には脂肪注入豊胸が適していると言えるでしょう。胸を手術で大きくしたいと望む方の中には何かを注入するという方法であるため、怖いと思っている方もいます。 確かに豊胸手術はリスクの想定が必要になります。だからこそ手術を受けるにあたって、具体的な手術の詳細を知る必要もあると言えるでしょう。 では、自分の脂肪を使っての豊胸手術である脂肪注入豊胸の利点にはどんな点があるのか把握しておきましょう。 脂肪注入豊胸の最大の利点は自分が太いと気になっている部分の脂肪を同時に吸引できるところが挙げられるでしょう。 人にもよりますが、スタイルを良くするために胸を大きくするという方もます。 そのため胸を大きくするのと同時に、スリムアップを図れる脂肪注入豊胸はおすすめであると言えます。また、他の施術に比べて術後の胸のさわり心地が自然であるとも言われており、ここも特徴の1つです。 同時にスリムアップも望める脂肪注入方法ですが、受ける前に知っておいた方がいいことがあります。それは手術にかかる金額が高い傾向にあることです。したがって選ぶ病院にもよりますが、予算もかなり必要になってくるでしょう。 加えて、この豊胸術は自身の脂肪を使用して胸を大きくするため最初から細身で脂肪が少ないという方は手術を受けるのが困難な場合もあります。 このようなこともあり、脂肪注入豊胸を受けたいという方は、事前に病院で相談しておくことが大切です。 関連：豊胸の手術法とは NEWENTRY 脂肪を用いた方法 豊胸の手術法とは 
www-jewishencyclopedia-com-3350	----	ESTHER - JewishEncyclopedia.com JewishEncyclopedia.com The unedited full-text of the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia - Phrase search: "names of god" - Exclude terms: "names of god" -zerah - Volume/Page: v9 p419 - Diacritics optional: Ḥanukkah or hanukkah - Search by Author: altruism author:Hirsch search tips & recommendations A AACH - ABDI ABDI - ABRA ABRA - ABRA ABRA - ADLE ADLE - AINM AIRE - ALGA ALGE - AMOR AMOS - ANTU ANTW - ARTA ARTA - ASSE ASSE - AZZU B BAAL - BAKH BAKI - BARN BARN - BEAB BERA - BELM BELM - BENJ BENJ - BERN BERN - BIED BIEG - BLUM BLUM - BORN BORO - BROD BROD - BYZA C CABA - CANS CANS - CARP CARP - CEME CENS - CHAS CHAT - CHRI CHRI - COHE COHE - COLO COLO - CORD CORD - CREM CREM - CZYN D DABB - DANO DANO - DAVI DAVI - DAVI DAVI - DEDE DEDI - DENM DENV - DEUT DEUT - DIES DIET - DLUG DLUG - DOSA DOSA - DUAL DUAR - DYVI E EAGL - EFES EFOD - EJEC EKAH - ELEA ELEA - ELIE ELIE - ELIJ ELIJ - ELTE ELVI - ENGE ENGE - EPIC EPIG - ESTE ESTE - EVIL EVIL - EZRA F FABL - FARH FARH - FELB FELD - FEUE FEUS - FISC FISC - FLEX FLIS - FORG FORG - FRAN FRAN - FRAN FRAN - FRID FRIE - FROH FROH - FURT G GABB - GAMA GAMA - GEDA GEDA - GERM GERM - GHIR GHIR - GLOG GLOG - GOLD GOLD - GORD GORD - GRAZ GRAZ - GUAR GUAR - GYMN H HAAR - HAIN HAIR - HAMN HAMN - HARA HARA - HAUS HAUS - HAZZ HAZZ - HEKS HELA - HERR HERS - HILL HILL - HOCH HOCH - HORO HORS - HYSS I I - IBNM IBNM - IBNY IBNY - ILLE ILLI - INDI INDI - INTE INTE - ISAA ISAA - ISAA ISAA - ISAB ISAI - ISPA ISRA - ISRA ISRA - ISRA ISRA - IZRA J JAAR - JACO JACO - JAFF JAGE - JEHO JEHO - JEWI JEWI - JOD JOEL - JONA JONA - JOSE JOSE - JOSE JOSE - JUDA JUDA - JUDE JUDE - JUWE K KAB - KALI KALI - KANA KANI - KASA KASH - KEMP KEMP - KIEV KIHA - KITE KITT - KNOT KNOX - KOKE KOLB - KOSM KOSS - KROC KRON - KUTT L LAPE - LAND LAND - LAZA LAZA - LEMO LEMU - LEVI LEVI - LEVI LEVI - LEWI LEWI - LILI LILI - LIVE LIVE - LOND LONG - LOWY LOWY - LYSI M MAAC - MALA MALA - MARK MARK - MEAS MEAT - MENA MENA - METE METH - MILL MILM - MOND MONE - MOSE MOSE - MOSE MOSE - MYST N NAAM - NAHU NAHU - NASI NASI - NATH NATH - NEBU NECH - NESE NESV - NEUZ NEVA - NICH NICH - NISS NISS - NOSE NOSS - NYON O OAKA - OHOL OHOL - OPFE OPHE - OREG OREN - OSTR OSTR - OZER P PABL - PAPP PAPP - PATT PAUL - PENI PENN - PESI PESS - PHIN PHIN - PINS PINS - POLA POLA - PORG PORG - PREG PREM - PROV PROV - PYKE Q QUAD - QUOR R RAAB - RABI RABI - RAME RAMI - RAUS RAVE - REGG REGG - REPT RESC - RIBA RIBA - RITT RITT - ROMI ROMI - ROSE ROSE - ROTH ROTH - RYSS S SAAD - SAMB SAMB - SAND SAND - SCHM SCHM - SELA SELA - SHAT SHAV - SHUS SHUS - SIMH SIMH - SOLO SOLO - SPIE SPIE - STRA STRA - SZOL T TAAM - TALM TALM - TARR TARR - TEHI TEHI - TENN TENT - THEB THEB - TIBE TIBE - TOBI TOBI - TORT TORT - TREB TREB - TRIW TROK - TYRO U UBAL - UNGA UNGE - URI URIB - UZZI V VAEZ - VANS VANC - VELL VEND - VERS VERV - VINE VINE - VIZH VOCA - VULT W WAAD - WALL WALL - WATE WATE - WEIG WEIL - WEIS WEIS - WESS WEST - WIEN WIEN - WILL WILL - WISE WISM - WOLF WOLF - WOOL WOOL - WYSB X XABI - XYST Y YAAB - YARH YARM - YEVR YEZE - YIZH YIZH - YOMK YOMT - YUSU Z ZABA - ZALI ZALM - ZARF ZARF - ZEBI ZEBI - ZEDE ZEDE - ZEIT ZEIT - ZEPH ZERA - ZIMM ZIMR - ZODI ZOHA - ZUKE ZUKU - ZWEI ESTHER (Hebrew, ; Greek, Εσθήρ): Tweet By: Emil G. Hirsch, John Dyneley Prince, Solomon Schechter Table of Contents —Biblical Data: Haman and Mordecai. —In Rabbinical Literature: The Rabbinic Account. Mordecai and Esther. Esther Before Ahasuerus. —Critical View: Improbabilities of the Story. Probable Date. Name of the chief character in the Book of Esther, derived, according to some authorities, from the Persian "stara" (star); but regarded by others as a modification of "Ishtar," the name of the Babylonian goddess (see below). —Biblical Data: The story of Esther, as given in the book bearing her name, is as follows: The King of Persia, Ahasuerus, had deposed his queen Vashti because she refused, during a festival, toshow at his command her charms before the assembled princes of the realm (i. 10). Many beautiful maidens were then brought before the king in order that he might choose a successor to the unruly Vashti. He selected Esther as by far the most comely. The heroine is represented as an orphan daughter of the tribe of Benjamin, who had spent her life among the Jewish exiles in Persia (ii. 5), where she lived under the protection of her cousin Mordecai. The grand vizier, Haman the Agagite, commanded Mordecai to do obeisance to him. Upon Mordecai's refusal to prostrate himself, Haman informed the king that the Jews were a useless and turbulent people and inclined to disloyalty, and he promised to pay 10,000 silver talents into the royal treasury for the permission to pillage and exterminate this alien race. The king then issued a proclamation ordering the confiscation of Jewish property and a general extermination of all the Jews within the empire. Haman set by lot the day for this outrage (iii. 6), but Mordecai persuaded Esther to undertake the deliverance of her compatriots. Haman and Mordecai. After a three days' fast observed by the entire Jewish community, the queen, at great personal risk, decided to go before the king and beg him to rescind his decree (iv. 16). Ahasuerus, delighted with her appearance, held out to her his scepter in token of clemency, and promised to dine with her in her own apartments on two successive nights (v. 2-8). On the night before the second banquet, when Esther intended to make her petition, the king, being sleepless, commanded that the national records be read to, him. The part which was read touched upon the valuable services of Mordecai (vi. 1 et seq.), who some time before had discovered and revealed to the queen a plot against the king's life devised by two of the chamberlains (ii. 23). For this, by some unexplained oversight, Mordecai had received no reward. In the meantime the queen had invited the grand vizier to the banquet. When Haman, who was much pleased at the unusual honor shown him by the queen, appeared before the king to ask permission to execute Mordecai at once, Ahasuerus asked him, "What shall be done to the man whom the king delighteth to honor?" Haman, thinking that the allusion was to himself, suggested a magnificent pageant, at which one of the great nobles should serve as attendant (vi. 9). The king immediately adopted the suggestion, and ordered Haman to act as chief follower in a procession in honor of Mordecai (vi. 10). The next day at the banquet, when Esther preferred her request, both the king and the grand vizier learned for the first time that the queen was a Jewess. Ahasuerus granted her petition at once and ordered that Haman be hanged on the gibbet which the latter had prepared for his adversary Mordecai (vii.). Mordecai was then made grand vizier, and through his and Esther's intervention another edict was issued granting to the Jews the power to pillage and to slay their enemies. Before the day set for the slaughter arrived a great number of persons, in order to avoid the impending disaster, became Jewish proselytes, and a great terror of the Jews spread all over Persia (viii. 17). Traditional Tomb of Esther and Mordecai. (From Flandin and Coste, "Voyage en Perse.")The Jews, assisted by the royal officers, who feared the king, were eminently successful in slaying their enemies (ix. 11), but refused to avail themselves of their right to plunder (ix. 16). The queen, not content with a single day's slaughter, then requested the king to grant to her people a second day of vengeance, and begged that the bodies of Haman's ten sons, who had been slain in the fray, be hanged on the gibbet (ix. 13). Esther and Mordecai, acting with "all authority" (ix. 29), then founded the yearly feast of Purim, held on the fourteenth and fifteenth of Adar as a joyous commemoration of the deliverance of their race. E. G. H. J. D. P.—In Rabbinical Literature: The story of Esther—typical in many regards of the perennial fate of the Jews, and recalled even more vividly by their daily experience than by the annual reading of theMegillah at Purim—invited, both by the brevity of some parts of the narrative and by the associations of its events with the bitter lot of Israel, amplifications readily supplied by popular fancy and the artificial interpretation of Biblical verse. The additions to Esther in the (Greek) Apocrypha have their counterparts in the post-Biblical literature of the Jews, and while it is certain that the old assumption of a Hebrew original for the additions in the Greek Book of Esther is not tenable (see Kautzsch, "Die Apocryphen und Pseudepigraphen des Alten Testaments," i. 194), it is not clear that the later Jewish amplifications are adaptations of Greek originals. The following post-Biblical writings have to be considered: (1) The first Targum. The Antwerp and Paris polyglots give a different and longer text than the London. The best edition is by De Lagarde (reprinted from the first Venice Bible) in "Hagiographa Chaldaice," Leipsic, 1873. The date of the first Targum is about 700 (see S. Posner, "Das Targum Rishon," Breslau, 1896). (2) Targum Sheni (the second; date about 800), containing material not germane to the Esther story. This may be characterized as a genuine and exuberant midrash. Edited by De Lagarde (in "Hagiographa Chaldaice," Berlin, 1873) and by P. Cassel ("Aus Literatur und Geschichte," Berlin and Leipsic, 1885, and "Das Buch Esther," Berlin, 1891, Ger. transl.). (3) Babylonian Talmud, Meg. 10b-14a. (4) Pirḳe R. El. 49a, 50 (8th cent.). (5) Yosippon (beginning of 10th cent.; see Zunz, "G. V." pp. 264 et seq.). (6) Midr. R. to Esther (probably 11th cent.). (7) Midr. Leḳaḥ Ṭob (Buber, "Sifre di-Agadta," Wilna, 1880). (8) Midr. Abba Gorion (Buber, l.c.; Jellinek, "B. H." i. 1-18). (9) Midr. Teh. to Ps. xxii. (10) Midr. Megillat Esther (ed. by Horwitz in his "Sammlung Kleiner Midrashim," Berlin, 1881). (11) Ḥelma de Mordekai (Aramaic: Jellinek, "B. H." v. 1-8; De Lagarde, l.c. pp. 362-365; Ad. Merx, "Chrestomathia Targumica," 1888, pp. 154 et seq.). (12) Yalḳ. Shim'oni to Esther. The Rabbinic Account. With the omission of what more properly belongs under Ahasuerus, Haman, and Mordecai, the following is briefly the story of Esther's life as elaborated by these various midrashim: A foundling or an orphan, her father dying before her birth, her mother at her birth, Esther was reared in the house of Mordecai, her cousin, to whom, according to some accounts, she was even married (the word , Esth. ii. 7, being equal to = "house," which is frequently used for "wife" in rabbinic literature). Her original name was "Hadassah" (myrtle), that of "Esther" being given her by the star-worshipers, as reflecting her sweet character and the comeliness of her person. When the edict of the king was promulgated, and his eunuchs scoured the country in search of a new wife for the monarch, Esther, acting on her own judgment or upon the order of Mordecai, hid herself so as not to be seen of men, and remained in seclusion for four years, until even God's voice urged her to repair to the king's palace, where her absence had been noticed. Her appearance among the candidates for the queen's vacant place causes a commotion, all feeling that with her charms none can compete; her rivals even make haste to adorn her. She spurns the usual resources for enhancing her beauty, so that the keeper of the harem becomes alarmed lest he be accused of neglect. He therefore showers attentions upon her, and places at her disposal riches never given to others. But she will not be tempted to use the king's goods, nor will she eat of the king's food, being a faithful Jewess; together with her maids (seven, according to the number of the week-days and of the planets) she continues her modest mode of living. When her turn comes to be ushered into the royal presence, Median and Persian women flank her on both sides, but her beauty is such that the decision in her favor is at once assured. The king has been in the habit of comparing the charms of the applicants with a picture of Vashti suspended over his couch, and up to the time when Esther approaches him none has eclipsed the beauty of his beheaded spouse. But at the sight of Esther he at once removes the picture. Esther, true to Mordecai's injunction, conceals her birth from her royal consort. Mordecai was prompted to give her this command by the desire not to win favors as Esther's cousin. The king, of course, is very desirous of learning all about her antecedents, but Esther, after vouchsafing him the information that she, too, is of princely blood, turns the conversation, by a few happy counter-questions regarding Vashti, in a way to leave the king's curiosity unsatisfied. Mordecai and Esther. Still Ahasuerus will not be baffled. Consulting Mordecai, he endeavors to arouse Esther's jealousy—thinking that this will loosen her tongue—by again gathering maidens in his courtyard, as though he is ready to mete out to her the fate of her unfortunate predecessor. But even under this provocation Esther preserves her silence. Mordecai's daily visits to the courtyard are for the purpose of ascertaining whether Esther has remained true to the precepts of her religion. She had not eaten forbidden food, preferring a diet of vegetables, and had otherwise scrupulously observed the Law. When the crisis came Mordecai—who had, by his refusal to bow to Haman or, rather, to the image of an idol ostentatiously displayed on his breast (Pirḳe R. El. lxix.), brought calamity upon the Jews—appeared in his mourning garments, and Esther, frightened, gave birth to a still-born child. To avoid gossip she sent Hatach instead of going herself to ascertain the cause of the trouble. This Hatach was afterward met by Haman and slain. Still Mordecai had been able to tell Hatach his dream, that Esther would be the little rill of water separating the two fighting monsters, and that the rill would grow to be a large stream flooding the earth—a dream he had often related to her in her youth. Esther Before Ahasuerus. Mordecai called upon her to pray for her people and then intercede with the king. Though Pesaḥ was near, and the provision of Megillat Ta'anit forbidding fasting during this time could not be observed without disregarding Mordecai's plea, she overcame her cousin's scruples by a very apt counter-question, and at her request all the Jews "that had on that day already partaken of food" observed a rigid fast, in spite of (Esth. iv. 17) the feast-day (Pesaḥ), while Mordecai prayed and summoned the children and obliged even them to abstain from food, so that they cried out with loud voices. Esther in the meantime put aside her jewels and rich dresses, loosenedher hair, fasted, and prayed that she might be successful in her dangerous errand. On the third day, with serene mien she passed on to the inner court, arraying herself (or arrayed by the "Holy Ghost," Esth. Rabbah) in her best, and taking her two maids, upon one of whom, according to court etiquette, she leaned, while the other carried her train. As soon as she came abreast with the idols (perhaps an anti-Christian insinuation) the "Holy Ghost" departed from her, so that she exclaimed, "My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?" (Ps. xxii. 1); thereupon, repenting having called the enemy "dog," she now named him "lion," and was accompanied by three angels to the king. Ahasuerus attempted to ignore her, and turned his face away, but an angel forced him to look at her. She, however, fainted at the sight of his flushed face and burning eyes, and leaned her head on her handmaid, expecting to hear her doom pronounced; but God increased her beauty to such an extent that Ahasuerus could not resist. An angel lengthened the scepter so that Esther might touch it: she invited the king to her banquet. Why Haman was invited the Rabbis explain in various ways. She desired to make the king jealous by playing the lover to Haman, which she did at the feast, planning to have him killed even though she should share his fate. At the supreme moment, when she denounced Haman, it was an angel that threw Haman on the couch, though he intended to kneel before the queen; so that the king, suspecting an attempt upon the virtue and life of his queen, forthwith ordered him to be hanged. To the Rabbis Esther is one of the four most beautiful women ever created. She remained eternally young; when she married Ahasuerus she was at least forty years of age, or even, according to some, eighty years (ה = 5, ם = 60, ד = 4, ה = 5 = 74 years; hence her name "Hadassah"). She is also counted among the prophetesses of Israel. Scrolls Of Esther In Silver Cases. (In the United States National Museum, Washington, D. C.)S. S. E. G. H.—Critical View: As to the historical value of the foregoing data, opinions differ. Comparatively few modern scholars of note consider the narrative of Esther to rest on an historical foundation. The most important names among the more recent defenders of the historicity of the book are perhaps Hävernick, Keil, Oppert, and Orelli. The vast majority of modern expositors have reached the conclusionthat the book is a piece of pure fiction, although some writers qualify their criticism by an attempt to treat it as a historical romance. The following are the chief arguments showing the impossibility of the story of Esther: Improbabilities of the Story. 1. It is now generally recognized that the Ahasuerus (), mentioned in Esther, in Ezra iv. 6, and in Dan. ix. 1, is identical with the Persian king known as Xerxes (Ξέρζης, "Khshayarha"), who reigned from 485 to 464 B.C.; but it is impossible to find any historical parallel for a Jewish consort to this king. Some critics formerly identified Esther with Amastris (Ionic, "Amestris"), who is mentioned by Herodotus (viii. 114, ix. 110; compare Ctesias, 20) as the queen of Xerxes at the time when Esther, according to Esth. ii. 6, became the wife of Ahasuerus. Amastris, however, was the daughter of a Persian general and, therefore, not a Jewess. Furthermore, the facts of Amastris' reign do not agree with the Biblical story of Esther. Besides all this, it is impossible to connect the two names etymologically. M'Clymont (Hastings, "Dict. Bible," i. 772) thinks it possible that Esther and Vashti may have been merely the chief favorites of the harem, and are consequently not mentioned in parallel historical accounts.It is very doubtful whether the haughty Persian aristocracy, always highly influential with the monarch, would have tolerated the choice of a Jewish queen and a Jewish prime minister (Mordecai), to the exclusion of their own class—not to speak of the improbability of the prime ministry of Haman the Agagite, who preceded Mordecai. "Agagite" can only be interpreted here as synonymous with "Amalekite" (compare "Agag," king of the Amalekites, the foe of Saul, I Sam. xv. 8, 20, 32; Num. xxiv. 7; see Agag). Oppert's attempt to connect the term "Agagite" with "Agaz," a Median tribe mentioned by Sargon, can not be taken seriously. The term, as applied to Haman, is a gross anachronism; and the author of Esther no doubt used it intentionally as a fitting name for an enemy of Israel. In the Greek version of Esther, Haman is called a Macedonian. 2. Perhaps the most striking point against the historical value of the Book of Esther is the remarkable decree permitting the Jews to massacre their enemies and fellow subjects during a period of two days. If such an extraordinary event had actually taken place, should not some confirmation of the Biblical account have been found in other records? Again, could the king have withstood the attitude of the native nobles, who would hardly have looked upon such an occurrence without offering armed resistance to their feeble and capricious sovereign? A similar objection may be made against the probability of the first edict permitting Haman the Amalekite to massacre all the Jews. Would there not be some confirmation of it in parallel records? This whole section bears the stamp of free invention. 3. Extraordinary also is the statement that Esther did not reveal her Jewish origin when she was chosen queen (ii. 10), although it was known that she came from the house of Mordecai, who was a professing Jew (iii. 4), and that she maintained a constant communication with him from the harem (iv. 4-17). 4. Hardly less striking is the description of the Jews by Haman as being "dispersed among the people in all provinces of thy kingdom" and as disobedient "to the king's laws" (iii. 8). This certainly applies more to the Greek than to the Persian period, in which the Diaspora had not yet begun and during which there is no record of rebellious tendencies on the part of the Jews against the royal authority. 5. Finally, in this connection, the author's knowledge of Persian customs is not in keeping with contemporary records. The chief conflicting points are as follows: (a) Mordecai was permitted free access to his cousin in the harem, a state of affairs wholly at variance with Oriental usage, both ancient and modern. (b) The queen could not send a message to her own husband (!). (c) The division of the empire into 127 provinces contrasts strangely with the twenty historical Persian satrapies. (d) The fact that Haman tolerated for a long time Mordecai's refusal to do obeisance is hardly in accordance with the customs of the East. Any native venturing to stand in the presence of a Turkish grand vizier would certainly be severely dealt with without delay. (e) This very refusal of Mordecai to prostrate himself belongs rather to the Greek than to the earlier Oriental period, when such an act would have involved no personal degradation (compare Gen. xxiii. 7, xxxiii. 3; Herodotus, vii. 136). (f) Most of the proper names in Esther which are given as Persian appear to be rather of Semitic than of Iranian origin, in spite of Oppert's attempt to explain many of them from the Persian (compare, however, Scheftelowitz, "Arisches im Alten Testament," 1901, i.). Probable Date. In view of all the evidence the authority of the Book of Esther as a historical record must be definitely rejected. Its position in the canon among the Hagiographa or "Ketubim" is the only thing which has induced Orthodox scholars to defend its historical character at all. Even the Jews of the first and second centuries of the common era questioned its right to be included among the canonical books of the Bible (compare Meg. 7a). The author makes no mention whatever of God, to whom, in all the other books of the Old Testament, the deliverance of Israel is ascribed. The only allusion in Esther to religion is the mention of fasting (iv. 16, ix. 31). All this agrees with the theory of a late origin for the book, as it is known, for example, from Ecclesiastes, that the religious spirit had degenerated even in Judea in the Greek period, to which Esther, like Daniel, in all probability belongs. Esther could hardly have been written by a contemporary of the Persian empire, because (1) of the exaggerated way in which not only the splendor of the court, but all the events described, are treated (compare the twelve months spent by the maidens in adorning themselves for the king; the feasts of 187 days, etc., all of which point rather to the past than to a contemporary state of affairs); (2) the uncomplimentary details given about a great Persian king, who is mentioned by name, would not have appeared during his dynasty. It is difficult to go so far as Grätz, who assignsEsther to an adherent of the Maccabean party in the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes. The vast difference in religious and moral tone between Esther and Daniel—the latter a true product of Antiochus' reign—seems to make such a theory impossible. Nor is the view of Jensen, followed by Nöldeke, more convincing to the unprejudiced mind. He endeavors to prove that the origin of the whole story lies in a Babylonian-Elamitic myth. He identifies Esther with the Babylonian goddess Ishtar (Aphrodite); Mordecai with Marduk, the tutelary deity of Babylon; and Haman with Hamman or Humman, the chief god of the Elamites, in whose capital, Susa, the scene is laid; while Vashti is also supposed to be an Elamite deity. Jensen considers that the Feast of Purim, which is the climax of the book, may have been adapted from a similar Babylonian festival by the Jews, who Hebraized the original Babylonian legend regarding the origin of the ceremonies. The great objection to such a theory is that no Babylonian festival corresponding with the full moon of the twelfth month is known. The object of Esther is undoubtedly to give an explanation of and to exalt the Feast of Purim, of whose real origin little or nothing is known. See Megillah; Purim. Bibliography: Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the O. T. pp. 449 et seq.; Cheyne, Esther, in Encyc. Brit. 1878; Founders of Old Testament Criticism, pp. 359 et seq.; Kuenen, Onderzoek, iii. 551 et seq.; Lagarde, Purim, in Abhandlungen, der Königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, Göttingen, 1887; Wildeboer, Esther, in Nowack's Handkommentar zum Alten Testament; Toy, Esther as a Babylonian Goddess, in New World, vi. 130-145; Nöldeke, Esther, in Cheyne and Black, Encyc. Bibl. ii. 1400-1407; M'Clymont, in Hastings, Dict. Bible, pp. 772-776; Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., iii. 153, 157, 158. E. G. H. J. D. P. 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www-perseus-tufts-edu-1814	----	Herodotus, The Histories, Book 1, chapter 1, section 0 Herodotus, The Histories A. D. Godley, Ed. ("Agamemnon", "Hom. Od. 9.1", "denarius") All Search Options [view abbreviations] Home Collections/Texts Perseus Catalog Research Grants Open Source About Help Hide browse bar Your current position in the text is marked in blue. 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section 4 chapter 9section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 10section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 11section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 12section 1 section 2 chapter 13section 1 section 2 chapter 14section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 15section 1 chapter 16section 1 section 2 chapter 17section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 18section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 19section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 20section 1 chapter 21section 1 section 2 chapter 22section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 23section 1 chapter 24section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 25section 1 section 2 chapter 26section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 27section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 28section 1 chapter 29section 1 section 2 chapter 30section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 31section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 32section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 33section 1 chapter 34section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 35section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 36section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 37section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 38section 1 section 2 chapter 39section 1 section 2 chapter 40section 1 chapter 41section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 42section 1 section 2 chapter 43section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 44section 1 section 2 chapter 45section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 46section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 47section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 48section 1 section 2 chapter 49section 1 chapter 50section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 51section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 52section 1 chapter 53section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 54section 1 section 2 chapter 55section 1 section 2 chapter 56section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 57section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 58section 1 chapter 59section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 60section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 61section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 62section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 63section 1 section 2 chapter 64section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 65section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 66section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 67section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 68section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 69section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 70section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 71section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 72section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 73section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 74section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 6 chapter 75section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 76section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 77section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 78section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 79section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 80section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 81section 1 chapter 82section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 83section 1 chapter 84section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 85section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 86section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 87section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 88section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 89section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 90section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 91section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 92section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 93section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 94section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 95section 1 section 2 chapter 96section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 97section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 98section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 99section 1 section 2 chapter 100section 1 section 2 chapter 101section 1 chapter 102section 1 section 2 chapter 103section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 104section 1 section 2 chapter 105section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 106section 1 section 2 chapter 107section 1 section 2 chapter 108section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 109section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 110section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 111section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 112section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 113section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 114section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 115section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 116section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 117section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 118section 1 section 2 chapter 119section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 120section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 121section 1 chapter 122section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 123section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 124section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 125section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 126section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 127section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 128section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 129section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 130section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 131section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 132section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 133section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 134section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 135section 1 chapter 136section 1 section 2 chapter 137section 1 section 2 chapter 138section 1 section 2 chapter 139section 1 chapter 140section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 141section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 142section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 143section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 144section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 145section 1 chapter 146section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 147section 1 section 2 chapter 148section 1 section 2 chapter 149section 1 section 2 chapter 150section 1 section 2 chapter 151section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 152section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 153section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 154section 1 chapter 155section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 156section 1 section 2 chapter 157section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 158section 1 section 2 chapter 159section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 160section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 161section 1 chapter 162section 1 section 2 chapter 163section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 164section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 165section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 166section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 167section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 168section 1 chapter 169section 1 section 2 chapter 170section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 171section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 172section 1 section 2 chapter 173section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 174section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 175section 1 chapter 176section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 177section 1 chapter 178section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 179section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 180section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 181section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 182section 1 section 2 chapter 183section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 184section 1 chapter 185section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 186section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 187section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 188section 1 section 2 chapter 189section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 190section 1 section 2 chapter 191section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 192section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 193section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 194section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 195section 1 section 2 chapter 196section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 197section 1 chapter 198section 1 chapter 199section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 200section 1 chapter 201section 1 chapter 202section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 203section 1 section 2 chapter 204section 1 section 2 chapter 205section 1 section 2 chapter 206section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 207section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 208section 1 chapter 209section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 210section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 211section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 212section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 213section 1 chapter 214section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 215section 1 section 2 chapter 216section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 book 2chapter 1section 1 section 2 chapter 2section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 3section 1 section 2 chapter 4section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 5section 1 section 2 chapter 6section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 7section 1 section 2 chapter 8section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 9section 1 section 2 chapter 10section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 11section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 12section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 13section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 14section 1 section 2 chapter 15section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 16section 1 section 2 chapter 17section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 18section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 19section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 20section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 21section 1 chapter 22section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 23section 1 chapter 24section 1 section 2 chapter 25section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 26section 1 section 2 chapter 27section 1 chapter 28section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 29section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 30section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 31section 1 chapter 32section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 33section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 34section 1 section 2 chapter 35section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 36section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 37section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 38section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 39section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 40section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 41section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 42section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 43section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 44section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 45section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 46section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 47section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 48section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 49section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 50section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 51section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 52section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 53section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 54section 1 section 2 chapter 55section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 56section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 57section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 58section 1 chapter 59section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 60section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 61section 1 section 2 chapter 62section 1 section 2 chapter 63section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 64section 1 section 2 chapter 65section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 66section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 67section 1 section 2 chapter 68section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 69section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 70section 1 section 2 chapter 71section 1 chapter 72section 1 chapter 73section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 74section 1 chapter 75section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 76section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 77section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 78section 1 chapter 79section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 80section 1 section 2 chapter 81section 1 section 2 chapter 82section 1 section 2 chapter 83section 1 chapter 84section 1 chapter 85section 1 section 2 chapter 86section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 87section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 88section 1 chapter 89section 1 section 2 chapter 90section 1 section 2 chapter 91section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 92section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 93section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 94section 1 section 2 chapter 95section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 96section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 97section 1 section 2 chapter 98section 1 section 2 chapter 99section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 100section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 101section 1 section 2 chapter 102section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 103section 1 section 2 chapter 104section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 105section 1 chapter 106section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 107section 1 section 2 chapter 108section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 109section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 110section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 111section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 112section 1 section 2 chapter 113section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 114section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 115section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 116section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 117section 1 chapter 118section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 119section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 120section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 121section 1 chapter 121Asection 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 121Bsection 1 section 2 chapter 121Csection 1 section 2 chapter 121Dsection 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 121Esection 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 121Fsection 1 section 2 chapter 122section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 123section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 124section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 125section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 126section 1 section 2 chapter 127section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 128section 1 chapter 129section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 130section 1 section 2 chapter 131section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 132section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 133section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 134section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 135section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 136section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 137section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 138section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 139section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 140section 1 section 2 chapter 141section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 142section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 143section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 144section 1 section 2 chapter 145section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 146section 1 section 2 chapter 147section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 148section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 149section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 150section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 151section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 152section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 153section 1 chapter 154section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 155section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 156section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 157section 1 chapter 158section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 159section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 160section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 161section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 162section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 163section 1 section 2 chapter 164section 1 section 2 chapter 165section 1 chapter 166section 1 section 2 chapter 167section 1 section 2 chapter 168section 1 section 2 chapter 169section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 170section 1 section 2 chapter 171section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 172section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 173section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 174section 1 section 2 chapter 175section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 176section 1 section 2 chapter 177section 1 section 2 chapter 178section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 179section 1 chapter 180section 1 section 2 chapter 181section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 182section 1 section 2 book 3chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 2section 1 section 2 chapter 3section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 4section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 6section 1 section 2 chapter 7section 1 section 2 chapter 8section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 9section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 10section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 11section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 12section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 13section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 14section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 15section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 16section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 17section 1 section 2 chapter 18section 1 chapter 19section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 20section 1 section 2 chapter 21section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 22section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 23section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 24section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 25section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 26section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 27section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 28section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 29section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 30section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 31section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 32section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 33section 1 chapter 34section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 35section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 36section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 37section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 38section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 39section 1 section 2 section 2 section 4 chapter 40section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 41section 1 section 2 chapter 42section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 43section 1 section 2 chapter 44section 1 section 2 chapter 45section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 46section 1 section 2 chapter 47section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 48section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 49section 1 section 2 chapter 50section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 51section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 52section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 53section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 54section 1 section 2 chapter 55section 1 section 2 chapter 56section 1 section 2 chapter 57section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 58section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 59section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 60section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 61section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 62section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 63section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 64section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 65section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 66section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 67section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 68section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 69section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 70section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 71section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 72section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 73section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 74section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 75section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 76section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 77section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 78section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 79section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 80section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 81section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 82section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 83section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 84section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 85section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 86section 1 section 2 chapter 87section 1 chapter 88section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 89section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 90section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 91section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 92section 1 section 2 chapter 93section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 94section 1 section 2 chapter 95section 1 section 2 chapter 96section 1 section 2 chapter 97section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 98section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 99section 1 section 2 chapter 100section 1 chapter 101section 1 section 2 chapter 102section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 103section 1 chapter 104section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 105section 1 section 2 chapter 106section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 107section 1 section 2 chapter 108section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 109section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 110section 1 chapter 111section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 112section 1 chapter 113section 1 section 2 chapter 114section 1 chapter 115section 1 section 2 chapter 116section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 117section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 118section 1 section 2 chapter 119section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 120section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 121section 1 section 2 chapter 122section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 123section 1 section 2 chapter 124section 1 section 2 chapter 125section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 126section 1 section 2 chapter 127section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 128section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 129section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 130section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 131section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 132section 1 section 2 chapter 133section 1 section 2 chapter 134section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 135section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 136section 1 section 2 chapter 137section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 138section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 139section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 140section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 141section 1 chapter 142section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 143section 1 section 2 chapter 144section 1 chapter 145section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 146section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 147section 1 section 2 chapter 148section 1 section 2 chapter 149section 1 chapter 150section 1 section 2 chapter 151section 1 section 2 chapter 152section 1 chapter 153section 1 section 2 chapter 154section 1 section 2 chapter 155section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 156section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 157section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 158section 1 section 2 chapter 159section 1 section 2 chapter 160section 1 section 2 book 4chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 2section 1 section 2 chapter 3section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 4section 1 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 6section 1 section 2 chapter 7section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 8section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 9section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 10section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 11section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 12section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 13section 1 section 2 chapter 14section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 15section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 16section 1 section 2 chapter 17section 1 section 2 chapter 18section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 19section 1 chapter 20section 1 section 2 chapter 21section 1 chapter 22section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 23section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 24section 1 chapter 25section 1 section 2 chapter 26section 1 section 2 chapter 27section 1 chapter 28section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 29section 1 chapter 30section 1 section 2 chapter 31section 1 section 2 chapter 32section 1 chapter 33section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 34section 1 section 2 chapter 35section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 36section 1 section 2 chapter 37section 1 chapter 38section 1 section 2 chapter 39section 1 section 2 chapter 40section 1 section 2 chapter 41section 1 chapter 42section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 43section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 44section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 45section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 46section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 47section 1 section 2 chapter 48section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 49section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 50section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 51section 1 chapter 52section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 53section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 54section 1 chapter 55section 1 chapter 56section 1 chapter 57section 1 chapter 58section 1 chapter 59section 1 section 2 chapter 60section 1 section 2 chapter 61section 1 section 2 chapter 62section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 63section 1 chapter 64section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 65section 1 section 2 chapter 66section 1 chapter 67section 1 section 2 chapter 68section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 69section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 70section 1 chapter 71section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 72section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 73section 1 section 2 chapter 74section 1 chapter 75section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 76section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 77section 1 section 2 chapter 78section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 79section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 80section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 81section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 82section 1 chapter 83section 1 section 2 chapter 84section 1 section 2 chapter 85section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 86section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 87section 1 section 2 chapter 88section 1 section 2 chapter 89section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 90section 1 section 2 chapter 91section 1 section 2 chapter 92section 1 chapter 93section 1 chapter 94section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 95section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 96section 1 section 2 chapter 97section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 98section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 99section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 100section 1 section 2 chapter 101section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 102section 1 section 2 chapter 103section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 104section 1 chapter 105section 1 section 2 chapter 106section 1 chapter 107section 1 chapter 108section 1 section 2 chapter 109section 1 section 2 chapter 110section 1 section 2 chapter 111section 1 section 2 chapter 112section 1 chapter 113section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 114section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 115section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 116section 1 section 2 chapter 117section 1 chapter 118section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 119section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 120section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 121section 1 chapter 122section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 123section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 124section 1 section 2 chapter 125section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 126section 1 chapter 127section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 128section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 129section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 130section 1 chapter 131section 1 section 2 chapter 132section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 133section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 134section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 135section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 136section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 137section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 138section 1 section 2 chapter 139section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 140section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 141section 1 chapter 142section 1 chapter 143section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 144section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 145section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 146section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 147section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 148section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 149section 1 section 2 chapter 150section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 151section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 152section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 153section 1 chapter 154section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 155section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 156section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 157section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 158section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 159section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 160section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 161section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 162section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 163section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 164section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 165section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 166section 1 section 2 chapter 167section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 168section 1 section 2 chapter 169section 1 section 2 chapter 170section 1 chapter 171section 1 chapter 172section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 173section 1 chapter 174section 1 chapter 175section 1 section 2 chapter 176section 1 chapter 177section 1 chapter 178section 1 chapter 179section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 180section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 181section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 182section 1 chapter 183section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 184section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 185section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 186section 1 section 2 chapter 187section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 188section 1 chapter 189section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 190section 1 chapter 191section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 192section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 193section 1 chapter 194section 1 chapter 195section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 196section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 197section 1 section 2 chapter 198section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 199section 1 section 2 chapter 200section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 201section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 202section 1 section 2 chapter 203section 1 section 2 section 1 section 4 chapter 204section 1 chapter 205section 1 book 5chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 2section 1 section 2 chapter 3section 1 section 2 chapter 4section 1 section 2 chapter 5section 1 chapter 6section 1 section 2 chapter 7section 1 chapter 8section 1 chapter 9section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 10section 1 chapter 11section 1 section 2 chapter 12section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 13section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 14section 1 section 2 chapter 15section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 16section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 17section 1 section 2 chapter 18section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 19section 1 section 2 chapter 20section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 21section 1 section 2 chapter 22section 1 section 2 chapter 23section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 24section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 25section 1 section 2 chapter 26section 1 chapter 27section 1 section 2 chapter 28section 1 chapter 29section 1 section 2 chapter 30section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 31section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 32section 1 chapter 33section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 34section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 35section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 36section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 37section 1 section 2 chapter 38section 1 section 2 chapter 39section 1 section 2 chapter 40section 1 section 2 chapter 41section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 42section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 43section 1 chapter 44section 1 section 2 chapter 45section 1 section 2 chapter 46section 1 section 2 chapter 47section 1 section 2 chapter 48section 1 chapter 49section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 50section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 51section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 52section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 53section 1 chapter 54section 1 section 2 chapter 55section 1 chapter 56section 1 section 2 chapter 57section 1 section 2 chapter 58section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 59section 1 chapter 60section 1 chapter 61section 1 section 2 chapter 62section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 63section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 64section 1 section 2 chapter 65section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 66section 1 section 2 chapter 67section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 68section 1 section 2 chapter 69section 1 section 2 chapter 70section 1 section 2 chapter 71section 1 section 2 chapter 72section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 73section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 74section 1 section 2 chapter 75section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 76section 1 chapter 77section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 78section 1 chapter 79section 1 section 2 chapter 80section 1 section 2 chapter 81section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 82section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 83section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 84section 1 section 2 chapter 85section 1 section 2 chapter 86section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 87section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 88section 1 section 2 chapter 89section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 90section 1 section 2 chapter 91section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 92section 1 chapter 92Asection 1 section 2 chapter 92Bsection 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 92Csection 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 92Dsection 1 section 2 chapter 92Esection 1 section 2 chapter 92Fsection 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 92Gsection 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 93section 1 section 2 chapter 94section 1 section 2 chapter 95section 1 section 2 chapter 96section 1 section 2 chapter 97section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 98section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 99section 1 section 2 chapter 100section 1 chapter 101section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 102section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 103section 1 section 2 chapter 104section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 105section 1 section 2 chapter 106section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 107section 1 chapter 108section 1 section 2 chapter 109section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 110section 1 chapter 111section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 112section 1 section 2 chapter 113section 1 section 2 chapter 114section 1 section 2 chapter 115section 1 section 2 chapter 116section 1 chapter 117section 1 chapter 118section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 119section 1 section 2 chapter 120section 1 chapter 121section 1 chapter 122section 1 section 2 chapter 123section 1 chapter 124section 1 section 2 chapter 125section 1 chapter 126section 1 section 2 book 6chapter 1section 1 section 2 chapter 2section 1 section 2 chapter 3section 1 chapter 4section 1 section 2 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 6section 1 chapter 7section 1 chapter 8section 1 section 2 chapter 9section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 10section 1 chapter 11section 1 section 2 section 4 chapter 12section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 13section 1 section 2 chapter 14section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 15section 1 section 2 chapter 16section 1 section 2 chapter 17section 1 chapter 18section 1 chapter 19section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 20section 1 chapter 21section 1 section 2 chapter 22section 1 section 2 chapter 23section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 24section 1 section 2 chapter 25section 1 section 2 chapter 26section 1 section 2 chapter 27section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 28section 1 section 2 chapter 29section 1 section 2 chapter 30section 1 section 2 chapter 31section 1 section 2 chapter 32section 1 chapter 33section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 34section 1 section 2 chapter 35section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 36section 1 section 2 chapter 37section 1 section 2 chapter 38section 1 section 2 chapter 39section 1 section 2 chapter 40section 1 section 2 chapter 41section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 42section 1 section 2 chapter 43section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 44section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 45section 1 section 2 chapter 46section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 47section 1 section 2 chapter 48section 1 section 2 chapter 49section 1 section 3 chapter 50section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 51section 1 chapter 52section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 53section 1 section 2 chapter 54section 1 chapter 55section 1 chapter 56section 1 chapter 57section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 58section 1 section 2 section 6 chapter 59section 1 chapter 60section 1 chapter 61section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 62section 1 section 2 chapter 63section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 64section 1 chapter 65section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 66section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 67section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 68section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 69section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 70section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 71section 1 section 2 chapter 72section 1 section 2 chapter 73section 1 section 2 chapter 74section 1 section 2 chapter 75section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 76section 1 section 2 chapter 77section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 78section 1 section 2 chapter 79section 1 section 2 chapter 80section 1 chapter 81section 1 chapter 82section 1 section 2 chapter 83section 1 section 2 chapter 84section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 85section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 86section 1 chapter 86Asection 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 86Bsection 1 section 2 chapter 86Csection 1 section 2 chapter 86Dsection 1 chapter 87section 1 chapter 88section 1 chapter 89section 1 chapter 90section 1 chapter 91section 1 section 2 chapter 92section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 93section 1 chapter 94section 1 section 2 chapter 95section 1 section 2 chapter 96section 1 chapter 97section 1 section 2 chapter 98section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 99section 1 section 2 chapter 100section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 101section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 102section 1 chapter 103section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 104section 1 section 2 chapter 105section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 106section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 107section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 108section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 109section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 110section 1 chapter 111section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 112section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 113section 1 section 2 chapter 114section 1 chapter 115section 1 chapter 116section 1 chapter 117section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 118section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 119section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 120section 1 chapter 121section 1 section 2 chapter 122section 1 section 2 chapter 123section 1 section 2 chapter 124section 1 section 2 chapter 125section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 126section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 127section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 128section 1 section 2 chapter 129section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 130section 1 section 2 chapter 131section 1 section 2 chapter 132section 1 chapter 133section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 134section 1 section 2 chapter 135section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 136section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 137section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 138section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 139section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 140section 1 section 2 book 7chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 2section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 3section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 4section 1 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 6section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 7section 1 chapter 8section 1 chapter 8Asection 1 section 2 chapter 8Bsection 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 8Csection 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 8Dsection 1 section 2 chapter 9section 1 section 2 chapter 9Asection 1 section 2 chapter 9Bsection 1 section 2 chapter 9Csection 1 chapter 10section 1 chapter 10Asection 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 10Bsection 1 section 2 chapter 10Csection 1 section 2 chapter 10Dsection 1 section 2 chapter 10Esection 1 chapter 10Fsection 1 chapter 10Gsection 1 section 2 chapter 10Hsection 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 11section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 12section 1 section 2 chapter 13section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 14section 1 chapter 15section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 16section 1 chapter 16Asection 1 section 2 chapter 16Bsection 1 section 2 chapter 16Csection 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 17section 1 section 2 chapter 18section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 19section 1 section 3 chapter 20section 1 section 2 chapter 21section 1 section 2 chapter 22section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 23section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 24section 1 chapter 25section 1 section 2 chapter 26section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 27section 1 section 2 chapter 28section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 29section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 30section 1 section 2 chapter 31section 1 chapter 32section 1 chapter 33section 1 chapter 34section 1 chapter 35section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 36section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 37section 1 section 2 section 4 chapter 38section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 39section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 40section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 41section 1 section 3 chapter 42section 1 section 2 chapter 43section 1 section 2 chapter 44section 1 chapter 45section 1 chapter 46section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 47section 1 section 2 chapter 48section 1 chapter 49section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 50section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 51section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 52section 1 section 2 chapter 53section 1 section 2 chapter 54section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 55section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 56section 1 section 2 chapter 57section 1 section 2 chapter 58section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 59section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 60section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 61section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 62section 1 section 2 chapter 63section 1 chapter 64section 1 section 2 chapter 65section 1 chapter 66section 1 section 2 chapter 67section 1 section 3 chapter 68section 1 chapter 69section 1 section 2 chapter 70section 1 section 2 chapter 71section 1 chapter 72section 1 section 2 chapter 73section 1 chapter 74section 1 section 2 chapter 75section 1 section 2 chapter 76section 1 chapter 77section 1 chapter 78section 1 chapter 79section 1 chapter 80section 1 chapter 81section 1 chapter 82section 1 chapter 83section 1 section 3 chapter 84section 1 chapter 85section 1 section 2 chapter 86section 1 section 2 chapter 87section 1 chapter 88section 1 section 2 chapter 89section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 90section 1 chapter 91section 1 chapter 92section 1 chapter 93section 1 chapter 94section 1 chapter 95section 1 section 2 chapter 96section 1 section 2 chapter 97section 1 chapter 98section 1 chapter 99section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 100section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 101section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 102section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 103section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 104section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 105section 1 chapter 106section 1 section 2 chapter 107section 1 section 2 chapter 108section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 109section 1 section 2 chapter 110section 1 chapter 111section 1 section 2 chapter 112section 1 chapter 113section 1 section 2 chapter 114section 1 section 2 chapter 115section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 116section 1 chapter 117section 1 section 2 chapter 118section 1 chapter 119section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 120section 1 section 2 chapter 121section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 122section 1 chapter 123section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 124section 1 chapter 125section 1 chapter 126section 1 chapter 127section 1 section 2 chapter 128section 1 section 2 chapter 129section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 130section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 131section 1 chapter 132section 1 section 2 chapter 133section 1 section 2 chapter 134section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 135section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 136section 1 section 2 chapter 137section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 138section 1 section 2 chapter 139section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 140section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 141section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 142section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 143section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 144section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 145section 1 section 2 chapter 146section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 147section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 148section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 149section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 150section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 151section 1 chapter 152section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 153section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 154section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 155section 1 section 2 chapter 156section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 157section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 158section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 159section 1 chapter 160section 1 section 2 chapter 161section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 162section 1 section 2 chapter 163section 1 section 2 chapter 164section 1 section 2 chapter 165section 1 chapter 166section 1 chapter 167section 1 section 2 chapter 168section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 169section 1 section 2 chapter 170section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 171section 1 section 2 chapter 172section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 173section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 174section 1 chapter 175section 1 section 2 chapter 176section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 177section 1 chapter 178section 1 section 2 chapter 179section 1 chapter 180section 1 chapter 181section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 182section 1 chapter 183section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 184section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 185section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 186section 1 section 2 chapter 187section 1 section 2 chapter 188section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 189section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 190section 1 chapter 191section 1 section 2 chapter 192section 1 section 2 chapter 193section 1 section 2 chapter 194section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 195section 1 chapter 196section 1 chapter 197section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 198section 1 section 2 chapter 199section 1 chapter 200section 1 section 2 chapter 201section 1 chapter 202section 1 chapter 203section 1 section 2 chapter 204section 1 chapter 205section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 206section 1 section 2 chapter 207section 1 chapter 208section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 209section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 210section 1 section 2 chapter 211section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 212section 1 section 2 chapter 213section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 214section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 215section 1 chapter 216section 1 chapter 217section 1 section 2 chapter 218section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 219section 1 section 2 chapter 220section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 221section 1 chapter 222section 1 chapter 223section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 224section 1 section 2 chapter 225section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 226section 1 section 2 chapter 227section 1 chapter 228section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 229section 1 section 2 chapter 230section 1 chapter 231section 1 chapter 232section 1 chapter 233section 1 section 2 chapter 234section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 235section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 236section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 237section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 238section 1 section 2 chapter 239section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 book 8chapter 1section 1 section 2 chapter 2section 1 section 2 chapter 3section 1 section 2 chapter 4section 1 section 2 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 6section 1 section 2 chapter 7section 1 section 2 chapter 8section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 9section 1 chapter 10section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 11section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 12section 1 section 2 chapter 13section 1 chapter 14section 1 section 2 chapter 15section 1 section 2 chapter 16section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 17section 1 chapter 18section 1 chapter 19section 1 section 2 chapter 20section 1 section 2 chapter 21section 1 section 2 chapter 22section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 23section 1 chapter 24section 1 section 2 chapter 25section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 26section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 27section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 28section 1 chapter 29section 1 section 2 chapter 30section 1 section 2 chapter 31section 1 chapter 32section 1 section 2 chapter 33section 1 chapter 34section 1 chapter 35section 1 section 2 chapter 36section 1 section 2 chapter 37section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 38section 1 chapter 39section 1 section 2 chapter 40section 1 section 2 chapter 41section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 42section 1 section 2 chapter 43section 1 chapter 44section 1 section 2 chapter 45section 1 chapter 46section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 47section 1 chapter 48section 1 chapter 49section 1 section 2 chapter 50section 1 section 2 chapter 51section 1 section 2 chapter 52section 1 section 2 chapter 53section 1 section 2 chapter 54section 1 chapter 55section 1 chapter 56section 1 chapter 57section 1 section 2 chapter 58section 1 section 2 chapter 59section 1 chapter 60section 1 chapter 60Asection 1 chapter 60Bsection 1 chapter 60Csection 1 chapter 61section 1 section 2 chapter 62section 1 section 2 chapter 63section 1 chapter 64section 1 section 2 chapter 65section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 66section 1 section 2 chapter 67section 1 section 2 chapter 68section 1 chapter 68Asection 1 section 2 chapter 68Bsection 1 section 2 chapter 68Csection 1 chapter 69section 1 section 2 chapter 70section 1 section 2 chapter 71section 1 section 2 chapter 72section 1 chapter 73section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 74section 1 section 2 chapter 75section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 76section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 77section 1 section 2 chapter 78section 1 chapter 79section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 80section 1 section 2 chapter 81section 1 chapter 82section 1 section 2 chapter 83section 1 section 2 chapter 84section 1 section 2 chapter 85section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 86section 1 chapter 87section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 88section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 89section 1 section 2 chapter 90section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 91section 1 chapter 92section 1 section 2 chapter 93section 1 section 2 chapter 94section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 95section 1 chapter 96section 1 section 2 chapter 97section 1 section 2 chapter 98section 1 section 2 chapter 99section 1 section 2 chapter 100section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 101section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 102section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 103section 1 chapter 104section 1 chapter 105section 1 section 2 chapter 106section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 107section 1 section 2 chapter 108section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 109section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 110section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 111section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 112section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 113section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 114section 1 section 2 chapter 115section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 116section 1 section 2 chapter 117section 1 section 2 chapter 118section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 119section 1 chapter 120section 1 chapter 121section 1 section 2 chapter 122section 1 chapter 123section 1 section 2 chapter 124section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 125section 1 section 2 chapter 126section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 127section 1 chapter 128section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 129section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 130section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 131section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 132section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 133section 1 chapter 134section 1 section 2 chapter 135section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 136section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 137section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 138section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 139section 1 chapter 140Asection 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 140Bsection 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 141section 1 section 2 chapter 142section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 143section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 144section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 book 9chapter 1section 1 chapter 2section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 3section 1 section 2 chapter 4section 1 section 2 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 6section 1 chapter 7section 1 chapter 7Asection 1 section 2 chapter 7Bsection 1 section 2 chapter 8section 1 section 2 chapter 9section 1 section 2 chapter 10section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 11section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 12section 1 section 2 chapter 13section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 14section 1 chapter 15section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 16section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 17section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 18section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 19section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 20section 1 chapter 21section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 22section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 23section 1 section 2 chapter 24section 1 chapter 25section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 26section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 27section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 28section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 29section 1 section 2 chapter 30section 1 chapter 31section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 32section 1 section 2 chapter 33section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 34section 1 section 2 chapter 35section 1 section 2 chapter 36section 1 chapter 37section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 38section 1 section 2 chapter 39section 1 section 2 chapter 40section 1 chapter 41section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 42section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 43section 1 section 2 chapter 44section 1 section 2 chapter 45section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 46section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 47section 1 chapter 48section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 49section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 50section 1 chapter 51section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 52section 1 chapter 53section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 54section 1 section 2 chapter 55section 1 section 2 chapter 56section 1 section 2 chapter 57section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 58section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 59section 1 section 2 chapter 60section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 61section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 62section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 63section 1 section 2 chapter 64section 1 section 2 chapter 65section 1 section 2 chapter 66section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 67section 1 chapter 68section 1 chapter 69section 1 section 2 chapter 70section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 71section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 72section 1 section 2 chapter 73section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 74section 1 section 2 chapter 75section 1 chapter 76section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 77section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 78section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 79section 1 section 2 chapter 80section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 81section 1 section 2 chapter 82section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 83section 1 section 2 chapter 84section 1 section 2 chapter 85section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 86section 1 section 2 chapter 87section 1 section 2 chapter 88section 1 chapter 89section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 90section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 91section 1 section 2 chapter 92section 1 section 2 chapter 93section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 94section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 95section 1 chapter 96section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 97section 1 chapter 98section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 99section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 100section 1 section 2 chapter 101section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 102section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 103section 1 section 2 chapter 104section 1 chapter 105section 1 chapter 106section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 107section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 108section 1 section 2 chapter 109section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 110section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 111section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 112section 1 chapter 113section 1 section 2 chapter 114section 1 section 2 chapter 115section 1 chapter 116section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 117section 1 chapter 118section 1 section 2 chapter 119section 1 section 2 chapter 120section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 121section 1 chapter 122section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 Current location in this text. Enter a Perseus citation to go to another section or work. Full search options are on the right side and top of the page. [0] This is the display of the inquiry of Herodotus of Halicarnassus, so that things done by man not be forgotten in time, and that great and marvelous deeds, some displayed by the Hellenes, some by the barbarians, not lose their glory, including among others what was the cause of their waging war on each other. Herodotus, with an English translation by A. D. Godley. Cambridge. Harvard University Press. 1920. The Annenberg CPB/Project provided support for entering this text. Purchase a copy of this text (not necessarily the same edition) from Amazon.com This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 United States License. An XML version of this text is available for download, with the additional restriction that you offer Perseus any modifications you make. 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More search options Limit Search to:  The Histories (this document) hideStable Identifiers Citation URI: http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0016.tlg001.perseus-eng1:1.1.0 Text URI: http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0016.tlg001.perseus-eng1 Work URI: http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0016.tlg001 Catalog Record URI: http://data.perseus.org/catalog/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0016.tlg001.perseus-eng1 hide Display Preferences Greek Display: Unicode (precombined) Unicode (combining diacriticals) Beta Code SPIonic SGreek GreekKeys Latin transliteration Arabic Display: Unicode Buckwalter transliteration View by Default: Original Language Translation Browse Bar: Show by default Hide by default 
www-wikidata-org-4116	----	Xerxes I - Wikidata Xerxes I (Q129165) From Wikidata Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Persian king Xerxes I of Persia Xerxes the Great God King edit Language Label Description Also known as English Xerxes I Ancient Persian king Xerxes I of Persia Xerxes the Great God King Statements instance of human 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Russian Wikipedia image Xerxes Image.png 378 × 568; 485 KB 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Slovene Wikipedia sex or gender male 2 references imported from Wikimedia project Swedish Wikipedia imported from Wikimedia project Italian Wikipedia country of citizenship Achaemenid Empire 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Persian Wikipedia given name Xerxes 0 references noble title pharaoh 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project French Wikipedia date of birth 519 BCEGregorian instance of statement with Gregorian date earlier than 1584 0 references place of birth Iran 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Persian Wikipedia date of death 475 BCE 1 reference reference URL http://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1200003447 place of death Q3746183 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Spanish Wikipedia killed by Artabanus of Persia 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project English Wikipedia place of burial Iran 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project English Wikipedia father Darius I of Persia 0 references mother Atossa 0 references sibling Artazostre 0 references Gobryas 0 references Arsames 0 references Artobazanes 0 references Ariamenes 0 references Ariabignes 0 references Abrocomes 0 references Masistes 0 references Achaemenes 0 references Arsames 0 references spouse Vasti 0 references Amestris 1 reference inferred from Amestris Ester ID ester Esther 0 references child Artaxerxes I of Persia 0 references Amytis 0 references Artabanus 1 reference inferred from Artabanus Q3507242 1 reference inferred from Q3507242 Histaspes 1 reference inferred from Histaspes Darius 0 references Rodoguna 1 reference inferred from Rodoguna family Achaemenid dynasty 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project English Wikipedia occupation statesperson 0 references position held King of the Kings replaces Darius I of Persia replaced by Artaxerxes I of Persia start time 485 BCE end time 465 BCE end cause attempted murder 0 references pharaoh 0 references religion Zoroastrianism 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Russian Wikipedia time period Ancient Egypt 0 references described by source Infernal Dictionary, 6th ed. statement is subject of Q20970887 0 references Small Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary statement is subject of Q20990959 0 references Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary statement is subject of Q20990958 0 references Jewish Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron statement is subject of Q25050504 0 references Real'nyj slovar' klassicheskih drevnostej po Ljubkeru statement is subject of Q45191539 0 references said to be the same as Ahasuerus 0 references Commons category Xerxes I 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Russian Wikipedia topic's main category Category:Xerxes I 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project German Wikipedia Identifiers VIAF ID 282770127 0 references 84647018 0 references 19983268 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 19983268 retrieved 7 October 2018 545159474208227661770 0 references 852159474197427661164 0 references 835154381042230292043 0 references 305065028 0 references 230159474179227661365 0 references ISNI 0000 0000 6300 8852 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 282770127 retrieved 22 July 2020 Vatican Library VcBA ID 495/27255 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 230159474179227661365 retrieved 22 July 2020 National Library of Brazil ID 000387462 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 246150323689309971972 retrieved 22 July 2020 CANTIC ID a12318310 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 282770127 retrieved 22 July 2020 Biblioteca Nacional de España ID XX1153338 0 references Bibliothèque nationale de France ID 150689088 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 282770127 retrieved 22 July 2020 Canadiana NCF ID ncf10681939 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 545159474208227661770 retrieved 22 July 2020 ncf11266488 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 852159474197427661164 retrieved 22 July 2020 GND ID 118808109 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project German Wikipedia Deutsche Biographie ID 118808109 0 references FAST ID 1859099 0 references National Library of Israel J9U ID 987007276639005171 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 84647018 retrieved 22 July 2020 Union List of Artist Names ID 500354810 0 references Library of Congress authority ID n81070675 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 84647018 retrieved 22 July 2020 National Library of Lithuania ID LNB:V*273585;=BQ 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 835154381042230292043 retrieved 22 July 2020 LNB ID 000054067 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 305065028 retrieved 22 July 2020 NKCR AUT ID mzk2005313022 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 282770127 retrieved 22 July 2020 Libraries Australia ID 66228176 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 84647018 retrieved 22 July 2020 Nationale Thesaurus voor Auteurs ID 073636711 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 84647018 retrieved 22 July 2020 NUKAT ID n2006124654 0 references Libris-URI b8nqtgdv3kb1ftb 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 282770127 retrieved 22 July 2020 SELIBR ID 259706 0 references IdRef ID 050588400 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 282770127 retrieved 22 July 2020 WorldCat Identities ID viaf-19983268 1 reference VIAF ID 19983268 British Museum person or institution ID 81784 0 references Brockhaus Enzyklopädie online ID xerxes-i 0 references CERL Thesaurus ID cnp00400914 1 reference stated in CERL Thesaurus Comic Vine ID 4005-20966 0 references De Agostini ID Sèrse+I 0 references Encyclopædia Britannica Online ID biography/Xerxes-I 0 references Joconde epoch ID T93-482 0 references Find A Grave memorial ID 8153452 0 references Freebase ID /m/0cjm1 1 reference stated in Freebase Data Dumps publication date 28 October 2013 genealogics.org person ID I00736406 0 references Geni.com profile ID 6000000006078785713 0 references Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana ID 0072588 0 references Great Russian Encyclopedia Online ID 2117239 0 references Hrvatska enciklopedija ID 34349 0 references ILI ID i97507 0 references LBT person ID Xerxe465 0 references National Library of Israel ID 000437459 0 references NLA Trove ID 1808084 0 references NNDB people ID 942/000095657 0 references PACTOLS thesaurus ID pcrtDcwmFMcnFB 0 references Quora topic ID Xerxes 1 reference stated in Quora Saint Louis Art Museum person ID 31364 0 references Sandrart.net person ID 306 0 references Treccani's Dizionario di Storia ID serse-i 0 references University of Barcelona authority ID a1383222 0 references French Vikidia ID Xerxès 0 references Wolfram Language entity code Entity["Concept", "XerxesI::5nvrv"] 0 references Proleksis enciklopedija ID 32994 0 references Ancient History Encyclopedia ID Xerxes_I 0 references Museo Galileo authority ID 78988 0 references   Sitelinks Wikipedia(75 entries) edit afwiki Ahasveros alswiki Xerxes I. arwiki خشايارشا الأول arzwiki خشايارشا الاول astwiki Xerxes I de Persia azbwiki خشایارشا azwiki I Kserks bewiki Ксеркс I bgwiki Ксеркс I brwiki Kserses Iañ bswiki Kserks I od Perzije cawiki Xerxes I de Pèrsia cswiki Xerxés I. cywiki Xerxes I, brenin Persia dawiki Xerxes 1. af Persien dewiki Xerxes I. elwiki Ξέρξης Α΄ της Περσίας enwiki Xerxes I eowiki Kserkso la 1-a (Persio) eswiki Jerjes I etwiki Xerxes I euwiki Xerxes I.a fawiki خشایارشا fiwiki Kserkses I frwiki Xerxès Ier glwiki Xerxes I hewiki חשיארש הראשון hiwiki क्षयार्षा hrwiki Kserkso I. huwiki I. Khsajársá perzsa király hywiki Քսերքսես I idwiki Ahasyweros I dari Persia itwiki Serse I di Persia jawiki クセルクセス1世 kawiki ქსერქსე I kkwiki Ксеркс kowiki 크세르크세스 1세 kuwiki Xeşeyerşa I kywiki Ксеркс lawiki Xerxes I (rex Persarum) lbwiki Xerxes I. ltwiki Kserksas I lvwiki Kserkss I mgwiki Kserksesy I mrwiki झेरेक्सिस पहिला mswiki Xerxes I dari Parsi nlwiki Xerxes I nnwiki Xerxes I av Persia nowiki Xerxes I av Persia ocwiki Xerxes Ier plwiki Kserkses I pnbwiki خشیارشا اول pswiki خشايارشا ptwiki Xerxes I rowiki Xerxes I ruwiki Ксеркс I scowiki Xerxes I shwiki Kserks I simplewiki Xerxes skwiki Xerxes I. slwiki Kserks I. srwiki Ксеркс I svwiki Xerxes I tawiki முதலாம் செர்கஸ் thwiki เซิร์กซีสที่ 1 tlwiki Xerxes I ng Persia trwiki I. Serhas ukwiki Ксеркс I urwiki خشیارشا اول uzwiki Kserks I viwiki Xerxes I warwiki Xerxes I han Persia wuuwiki 薛西斯一世 yowiki Xerxes 1k Pẹ́rsíà zhwiki 薛西斯一世 Wikibooks(0 entries) edit Wikinews(0 entries) edit Wikiquote(4 entries) edit dewikiquote Xerxes I. hywikiquote Քսերքսես I itwikiquote Serse I di Persia plwikiquote Kserkses Wikisource(0 entries) edit Wikiversity(0 entries) edit Wikivoyage(0 entries) edit Wiktionary(0 entries) edit Multilingual sites(0 entries) edit Retrieved from "https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q129165&oldid=1347255207" Navigation menu Personal tools English Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Item Discussion Variants Views Read View history More Search Navigation Main page Community portal Project chat Create a new Item Recent changes Random Item Query Service Nearby Help Donate Lexicographical data Create a new Lexeme Recent changes Random Lexeme Tools What links here Related changes Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Concept URI Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 10:01. All structured data from the main, Property, Lexeme, and EntitySchema namespaces is available under the Creative Commons CC0 License; text in the other namespaces is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Privacy policy About Wikidata Disclaimers Mobile view Data access Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
www-wikidata-org-5153	----	Xerxes I - Wikidata Xerxes I (Q129165) From Wikidata Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Persian king Xerxes I of Persia Xerxes the Great God King edit Language Label Description Also known as English Xerxes I Ancient Persian king Xerxes I of Persia Xerxes the Great God King Statements instance of human 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Russian Wikipedia image Xerxes Image.png 378 × 568; 485 KB 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Slovene Wikipedia sex or gender male 2 references imported from Wikimedia project Swedish Wikipedia imported from Wikimedia project Italian Wikipedia country of citizenship Achaemenid Empire 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Persian Wikipedia given name Xerxes 0 references noble title pharaoh 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project French Wikipedia date of birth 519 BCEGregorian instance of statement with Gregorian date earlier than 1584 0 references place of birth Iran 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Persian Wikipedia date of death 475 BCE 1 reference reference URL http://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1200003447 place of death Q3746183 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Spanish Wikipedia killed by Artabanus of Persia 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project English Wikipedia place of burial Iran 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project English Wikipedia father Darius I of Persia 0 references mother Atossa 0 references sibling Artazostre 0 references Gobryas 0 references Arsames 0 references Artobazanes 0 references Ariamenes 0 references Ariabignes 0 references Abrocomes 0 references Masistes 0 references Achaemenes 0 references Arsames 0 references spouse Vasti 0 references Amestris 1 reference inferred from Amestris Ester ID ester Esther 0 references child Artaxerxes I of Persia 0 references Amytis 0 references Artabanus 1 reference inferred from Artabanus Q3507242 1 reference inferred from Q3507242 Histaspes 1 reference inferred from Histaspes Darius 0 references Rodoguna 1 reference inferred from Rodoguna family Achaemenid dynasty 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project English Wikipedia occupation statesperson 0 references position held King of the Kings replaces Darius I of Persia replaced by Artaxerxes I of Persia start time 485 BCE end time 465 BCE end cause attempted murder 0 references pharaoh 0 references religion Zoroastrianism 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Russian Wikipedia time period Ancient Egypt 0 references described by source Infernal Dictionary, 6th ed. statement is subject of Q20970887 0 references Small Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary statement is subject of Q20990959 0 references Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary statement is subject of Q20990958 0 references Jewish Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron statement is subject of Q25050504 0 references Real'nyj slovar' klassicheskih drevnostej po Ljubkeru statement is subject of Q45191539 0 references said to be the same as Ahasuerus 0 references Commons category Xerxes I 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Russian Wikipedia topic's main category Category:Xerxes I 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project German Wikipedia Identifiers VIAF ID 282770127 0 references 84647018 0 references 19983268 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 19983268 retrieved 7 October 2018 545159474208227661770 0 references 852159474197427661164 0 references 835154381042230292043 0 references 305065028 0 references 230159474179227661365 0 references ISNI 0000 0000 6300 8852 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 282770127 retrieved 22 July 2020 Vatican Library VcBA ID 495/27255 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 230159474179227661365 retrieved 22 July 2020 National Library of Brazil ID 000387462 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 246150323689309971972 retrieved 22 July 2020 CANTIC ID a12318310 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 282770127 retrieved 22 July 2020 Biblioteca Nacional de España ID XX1153338 0 references Bibliothèque nationale de France ID 150689088 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 282770127 retrieved 22 July 2020 Canadiana NCF ID ncf10681939 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 545159474208227661770 retrieved 22 July 2020 ncf11266488 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 852159474197427661164 retrieved 22 July 2020 GND ID 118808109 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project German Wikipedia Deutsche Biographie ID 118808109 0 references FAST ID 1859099 0 references National Library of Israel J9U ID 987007276639005171 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 84647018 retrieved 22 July 2020 Union List of Artist Names ID 500354810 0 references Library of Congress authority ID n81070675 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 84647018 retrieved 22 July 2020 National Library of Lithuania ID LNB:V*273585;=BQ 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 835154381042230292043 retrieved 22 July 2020 LNB ID 000054067 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 305065028 retrieved 22 July 2020 NKCR AUT ID mzk2005313022 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 282770127 retrieved 22 July 2020 Libraries Australia ID 66228176 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 84647018 retrieved 22 July 2020 Nationale Thesaurus voor Auteurs ID 073636711 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 84647018 retrieved 22 July 2020 NUKAT ID n2006124654 0 references Libris-URI b8nqtgdv3kb1ftb 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 282770127 retrieved 22 July 2020 SELIBR ID 259706 0 references IdRef ID 050588400 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 282770127 retrieved 22 July 2020 WorldCat Identities ID viaf-19983268 1 reference VIAF ID 19983268 British Museum person or institution ID 81784 0 references Brockhaus Enzyklopädie online ID xerxes-i 0 references CERL Thesaurus ID cnp00400914 1 reference stated in CERL Thesaurus Comic Vine ID 4005-20966 0 references De Agostini ID Sèrse+I 0 references Encyclopædia Britannica Online ID biography/Xerxes-I 0 references Joconde epoch ID T93-482 0 references Find A Grave memorial ID 8153452 0 references Freebase ID /m/0cjm1 1 reference stated in Freebase Data Dumps publication date 28 October 2013 genealogics.org person ID I00736406 0 references Geni.com profile ID 6000000006078785713 0 references Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana ID 0072588 0 references Great Russian Encyclopedia Online ID 2117239 0 references Hrvatska enciklopedija ID 34349 0 references ILI ID i97507 0 references LBT person ID Xerxe465 0 references National Library of Israel ID 000437459 0 references NLA Trove ID 1808084 0 references NNDB people ID 942/000095657 0 references PACTOLS thesaurus ID pcrtDcwmFMcnFB 0 references Quora topic ID Xerxes 1 reference stated in Quora Saint Louis Art Museum person ID 31364 0 references Sandrart.net person ID 306 0 references Treccani's Dizionario di Storia ID serse-i 0 references University of Barcelona authority ID a1383222 0 references French Vikidia ID Xerxès 0 references Wolfram Language entity code Entity["Concept", "XerxesI::5nvrv"] 0 references Proleksis enciklopedija ID 32994 0 references Ancient History Encyclopedia ID Xerxes_I 0 references Museo Galileo authority ID 78988 0 references   Sitelinks Wikipedia(75 entries) edit afwiki Ahasveros alswiki Xerxes I. arwiki خشايارشا الأول arzwiki خشايارشا الاول astwiki Xerxes I de Persia azbwiki خشایارشا azwiki I Kserks bewiki Ксеркс I bgwiki Ксеркс I brwiki Kserses Iañ bswiki Kserks I od Perzije cawiki Xerxes I de Pèrsia cswiki Xerxés I. cywiki Xerxes I, brenin Persia dawiki Xerxes 1. af Persien dewiki Xerxes I. elwiki Ξέρξης Α΄ της Περσίας enwiki Xerxes I eowiki Kserkso la 1-a (Persio) eswiki Jerjes I etwiki Xerxes I euwiki Xerxes I.a fawiki خشایارشا fiwiki Kserkses I frwiki Xerxès Ier glwiki Xerxes I hewiki חשיארש הראשון hiwiki क्षयार्षा hrwiki Kserkso I. huwiki I. Khsajársá perzsa király hywiki Քսերքսես I idwiki Ahasyweros I dari Persia itwiki Serse I di Persia jawiki クセルクセス1世 kawiki ქსერქსე I kkwiki Ксеркс kowiki 크세르크세스 1세 kuwiki Xeşeyerşa I kywiki Ксеркс lawiki Xerxes I (rex Persarum) lbwiki Xerxes I. ltwiki Kserksas I lvwiki Kserkss I mgwiki Kserksesy I mrwiki झेरेक्सिस पहिला mswiki Xerxes I dari Parsi nlwiki Xerxes I nnwiki Xerxes I av Persia nowiki Xerxes I av Persia ocwiki Xerxes Ier plwiki Kserkses I pnbwiki خشیارشا اول pswiki خشايارشا ptwiki Xerxes I rowiki Xerxes I ruwiki Ксеркс I scowiki Xerxes I shwiki Kserks I simplewiki Xerxes skwiki Xerxes I. slwiki Kserks I. srwiki Ксеркс I svwiki Xerxes I tawiki முதலாம் செர்கஸ் thwiki เซิร์กซีสที่ 1 tlwiki Xerxes I ng Persia trwiki I. Serhas ukwiki Ксеркс I urwiki خشیارشا اول uzwiki Kserks I viwiki Xerxes I warwiki Xerxes I han Persia wuuwiki 薛西斯一世 yowiki Xerxes 1k Pẹ́rsíà zhwiki 薛西斯一世 Wikibooks(0 entries) edit Wikinews(0 entries) edit Wikiquote(4 entries) edit dewikiquote Xerxes I. hywikiquote Քսերքսես I itwikiquote Serse I di Persia plwikiquote Kserkses Wikisource(0 entries) edit Wikiversity(0 entries) edit Wikivoyage(0 entries) edit Wiktionary(0 entries) edit Multilingual sites(0 entries) edit Retrieved from "https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q129165&oldid=1347255207" Navigation menu Personal tools English Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Item Discussion Variants Views Read View history More Search Navigation Main page Community portal Project chat Create a new Item Recent changes Random Item Query Service Nearby Help Donate Lexicographical data Create a new Lexeme Recent changes Random Lexeme Tools What links here Related changes Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Concept URI Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 10:01. All structured data from the main, Property, Lexeme, and EntitySchema namespaces is available under the Creative Commons CC0 License; text in the other namespaces is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Privacy policy About Wikidata Disclaimers Mobile view Data access Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
www-wikidata-org-6237	----	Xerxes I - Wikidata Xerxes I (Q129165) From Wikidata Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Persian king Xerxes I of Persia Xerxes the Great God King edit Language Label Description Also known as English Xerxes I Ancient Persian king Xerxes I of Persia Xerxes the Great God King Statements instance of human 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Russian Wikipedia image Xerxes Image.png 378 × 568; 485 KB 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Slovene Wikipedia sex or gender male 2 references imported from Wikimedia project Swedish Wikipedia imported from Wikimedia project Italian Wikipedia country of citizenship Achaemenid Empire 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Persian Wikipedia given name Xerxes 0 references noble title pharaoh 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project French Wikipedia date of birth 519 BCEGregorian instance of statement with Gregorian date earlier than 1584 0 references place of birth Iran 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Persian Wikipedia date of death 475 BCE 1 reference reference URL http://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1200003447 place of death Q3746183 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Spanish Wikipedia killed by Artabanus of Persia 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project English Wikipedia place of burial Iran 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project English Wikipedia father Darius I of Persia 0 references mother Atossa 0 references sibling Artazostre 0 references Gobryas 0 references Arsames 0 references Artobazanes 0 references Ariamenes 0 references Ariabignes 0 references Abrocomes 0 references Masistes 0 references Achaemenes 0 references Arsames 0 references spouse Vasti 0 references Amestris 1 reference inferred from Amestris Ester ID ester Esther 0 references child Artaxerxes I of Persia 0 references Amytis 0 references Artabanus 1 reference inferred from Artabanus Q3507242 1 reference inferred from Q3507242 Histaspes 1 reference inferred from Histaspes Darius 0 references Rodoguna 1 reference inferred from Rodoguna family Achaemenid dynasty 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project English Wikipedia occupation statesperson 0 references position held King of the Kings replaces Darius I of Persia replaced by Artaxerxes I of Persia start time 485 BCE end time 465 BCE end cause attempted murder 0 references pharaoh 0 references religion Zoroastrianism 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Russian Wikipedia time period Ancient Egypt 0 references described by source Infernal Dictionary, 6th ed. statement is subject of Q20970887 0 references Small Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary statement is subject of Q20990959 0 references Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary statement is subject of Q20990958 0 references Jewish Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron statement is subject of Q25050504 0 references Real'nyj slovar' klassicheskih drevnostej po Ljubkeru statement is subject of Q45191539 0 references said to be the same as Ahasuerus 0 references Commons category Xerxes I 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Russian Wikipedia topic's main category Category:Xerxes I 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project German Wikipedia Identifiers VIAF ID 282770127 0 references 84647018 0 references 19983268 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 19983268 retrieved 7 October 2018 545159474208227661770 0 references 852159474197427661164 0 references 835154381042230292043 0 references 305065028 0 references 230159474179227661365 0 references ISNI 0000 0000 6300 8852 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 282770127 retrieved 22 July 2020 Vatican Library VcBA ID 495/27255 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 230159474179227661365 retrieved 22 July 2020 National Library of Brazil ID 000387462 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 246150323689309971972 retrieved 22 July 2020 CANTIC ID a12318310 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 282770127 retrieved 22 July 2020 Biblioteca Nacional de España ID XX1153338 0 references Bibliothèque nationale de France ID 150689088 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 282770127 retrieved 22 July 2020 Canadiana NCF ID ncf10681939 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 545159474208227661770 retrieved 22 July 2020 ncf11266488 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 852159474197427661164 retrieved 22 July 2020 GND ID 118808109 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project German Wikipedia Deutsche Biographie ID 118808109 0 references FAST ID 1859099 0 references National Library of Israel J9U ID 987007276639005171 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 84647018 retrieved 22 July 2020 Union List of Artist Names ID 500354810 0 references Library of Congress authority ID n81070675 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 84647018 retrieved 22 July 2020 National Library of Lithuania ID LNB:V*273585;=BQ 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 835154381042230292043 retrieved 22 July 2020 LNB ID 000054067 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 305065028 retrieved 22 July 2020 NKCR AUT ID mzk2005313022 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 282770127 retrieved 22 July 2020 Libraries Australia ID 66228176 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 84647018 retrieved 22 July 2020 Nationale Thesaurus voor Auteurs ID 073636711 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 84647018 retrieved 22 July 2020 NUKAT ID n2006124654 0 references Libris-URI b8nqtgdv3kb1ftb 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 282770127 retrieved 22 July 2020 SELIBR ID 259706 0 references IdRef ID 050588400 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 282770127 retrieved 22 July 2020 WorldCat Identities ID viaf-19983268 1 reference VIAF ID 19983268 British Museum person or institution ID 81784 0 references Brockhaus Enzyklopädie online ID xerxes-i 0 references CERL Thesaurus ID cnp00400914 1 reference stated in CERL Thesaurus Comic Vine ID 4005-20966 0 references De Agostini ID Sèrse+I 0 references Encyclopædia Britannica Online ID biography/Xerxes-I 0 references Joconde epoch ID T93-482 0 references Find A Grave memorial ID 8153452 0 references Freebase ID /m/0cjm1 1 reference stated in Freebase Data Dumps publication date 28 October 2013 genealogics.org person ID I00736406 0 references Geni.com profile ID 6000000006078785713 0 references Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana ID 0072588 0 references Great Russian Encyclopedia Online ID 2117239 0 references Hrvatska enciklopedija ID 34349 0 references ILI ID i97507 0 references LBT person ID Xerxe465 0 references National Library of Israel ID 000437459 0 references NLA Trove ID 1808084 0 references NNDB people ID 942/000095657 0 references PACTOLS thesaurus ID pcrtDcwmFMcnFB 0 references Quora topic ID Xerxes 1 reference stated in Quora Saint Louis Art Museum person ID 31364 0 references Sandrart.net person ID 306 0 references Treccani's Dizionario di Storia ID serse-i 0 references University of Barcelona authority ID a1383222 0 references French Vikidia ID Xerxès 0 references Wolfram Language entity code Entity["Concept", "XerxesI::5nvrv"] 0 references Proleksis enciklopedija ID 32994 0 references Ancient History Encyclopedia ID Xerxes_I 0 references Museo Galileo authority ID 78988 0 references   Sitelinks Wikipedia(75 entries) edit afwiki Ahasveros alswiki Xerxes I. arwiki خشايارشا الأول arzwiki خشايارشا الاول astwiki Xerxes I de Persia azbwiki خشایارشا azwiki I Kserks bewiki Ксеркс I bgwiki Ксеркс I brwiki Kserses Iañ bswiki Kserks I od Perzije cawiki Xerxes I de Pèrsia cswiki Xerxés I. cywiki Xerxes I, brenin Persia dawiki Xerxes 1. af Persien dewiki Xerxes I. elwiki Ξέρξης Α΄ της Περσίας enwiki Xerxes I eowiki Kserkso la 1-a (Persio) eswiki Jerjes I etwiki Xerxes I euwiki Xerxes I.a fawiki خشایارشا fiwiki Kserkses I frwiki Xerxès Ier glwiki Xerxes I hewiki חשיארש הראשון hiwiki क्षयार्षा hrwiki Kserkso I. huwiki I. Khsajársá perzsa király hywiki Քսերքսես I idwiki Ahasyweros I dari Persia itwiki Serse I di Persia jawiki クセルクセス1世 kawiki ქსერქსე I kkwiki Ксеркс kowiki 크세르크세스 1세 kuwiki Xeşeyerşa I kywiki Ксеркс lawiki Xerxes I (rex Persarum) lbwiki Xerxes I. ltwiki Kserksas I lvwiki Kserkss I mgwiki Kserksesy I mrwiki झेरेक्सिस पहिला mswiki Xerxes I dari Parsi nlwiki Xerxes I nnwiki Xerxes I av Persia nowiki Xerxes I av Persia ocwiki Xerxes Ier plwiki Kserkses I pnbwiki خشیارشا اول pswiki خشايارشا ptwiki Xerxes I rowiki Xerxes I ruwiki Ксеркс I scowiki Xerxes I shwiki Kserks I simplewiki Xerxes skwiki Xerxes I. slwiki Kserks I. srwiki Ксеркс I svwiki Xerxes I tawiki முதலாம் செர்கஸ் thwiki เซิร์กซีสที่ 1 tlwiki Xerxes I ng Persia trwiki I. Serhas ukwiki Ксеркс I urwiki خشیارشا اول uzwiki Kserks I viwiki Xerxes I warwiki Xerxes I han Persia wuuwiki 薛西斯一世 yowiki Xerxes 1k Pẹ́rsíà zhwiki 薛西斯一世 Wikibooks(0 entries) edit Wikinews(0 entries) edit Wikiquote(4 entries) edit dewikiquote Xerxes I. hywikiquote Քսերքսես I itwikiquote Serse I di Persia plwikiquote Kserkses Wikisource(0 entries) edit Wikiversity(0 entries) edit Wikivoyage(0 entries) edit Wiktionary(0 entries) edit Multilingual sites(0 entries) edit Retrieved from "https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q129165&oldid=1347255207" Navigation menu Personal tools English Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Item Discussion Variants Views Read View history More Search Navigation Main page Community portal Project chat Create a new Item Recent changes Random Item Query Service Nearby Help Donate Lexicographical data Create a new Lexeme Recent changes Random Lexeme Tools What links here Related changes Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Concept URI Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 10:01. 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www-worldcat-org-7588	----	Xerxes I King of Persia B.C. 519-465 or 466 [WorldCat Identities] Xerxes I King of Persia B.C. 519-465 or 466 Overview Works: 3 works in 4 publications in 2 languages and 6 library holdings Roles: Other Publication Timeline . Most widely held works about Xerxes Xerxes : King of Persia by Jacob Abbott( Book ) Xerxes : König der Könige by Manfred Mayrhofer( Book )   Most widely held works by Xerxes Remarque über Ein dreyfaches Gala Oder Freuden-Fest In dem Geburts- Nahmens- und Vorbildungs-Tage Der holdseeligsten Königin Esther, Des Frommmen, Gerechten und Grossen Königs Ahasveri Gemahlin Præsent Pro Majo 1709.( Book ) 2 editions published in 1709 in German and held by 2 WorldCat member libraries worldwide   Audience Level 0 1   Kids General Special   Audience level: 0.54 (from 0.17 for Xerxes : K ... to 0.94 for Xerxes : K ...) Related Identities Abbott, Jacob 1803-1879 Author Liebpert, Ulrich Printer Esther Königin Other Mayrhofer, Manfred 1926-2011 Author Useful Links Virtual International Authority File. Associated Subjects Iran Alternative Names Xerxes Achämenidenreich, König I. -v465 Xerxes Epistolographus -v465 Xerxes I. Persia, Rex -v465 Xerxes I. Persien, König -v465 Languages German (3) English (1) © 2020 OCLC, Inc.   WorldCat Identities is covered by the OCLC ResearchWorks Terms and Conditions OCLC 6565 Kilgour Place, Dublin OH USA 43017 Cookie Notice Project Page | Feedback | Known Problems 
yo-wikipedia-org-8728	----	Xerxes 1k Pẹ́rsíà - Wikipedia, ìwé-ìmọ̀ ọ̀fẹ́ Xerxes 1k Pẹ́rsíà Lát'ọwọ́ Wikipedia, ìwé ìmọ̀ ọ̀fẹ́ Jump to navigation Jump to search Xerxes I Xerxes 1k Pẹ́rsíà jẹ́ Fáráò ni Ẹ́gíptì Ayéijọ́un. Àyọkà yìí tàbí apá rẹ̀ únfẹ́ àtúnṣe sí. Ẹ le fẹ̀ jù báyìí lọ tàbí kí ẹ ṣàtúnṣe rẹ̀ lọ́nà tí yíò mu kúnrẹ́rẹ́. Ẹ ran Wikipedia lọ́wọ́ láti fẹ̀ẹ́ jù báyìí lọ. Itokasi[àtúnṣe | àtúnṣe àmìọ̀rọ̀] w ọ a Median and Achaemenid kings Achaemenid family tree Median Empire (728 – 550 BC) Deioces · Phraortes · Madius · Cyaxares · Astyages Achaemenid Empire (550 – 330 BC) Achaemenes† · Ariaramnes† · Arsames† · Teispes · Cyrus I · Cambyses I · Cyrus II, the Great · Cambyses II · Smerdis · Dáríù 1k, Ẹníúnlá · Xerxes I · Artaxerxes I Longimanus · Xerxes II · Sogdianus · Darius II Nothus · Artaxerxes II Mnemon · Artaxerxes III Ochus · Artaxerxes IV Arses · Darius III Codomannus † not directly attested, possibly legendary w ọ a Àwọn Fáráò (àtòjọ) Dynastic Genealogies: 4th • 12th • 18th • 19th • 20th • 21st • 25th • 26th • 27th • 31st • Ptolemaic Protodynastic Period (prior to 3150 BC) Lower Egypt Hsekiu • Khayu • Tiu • Thesh • Neheb • Wazner • Mekh Upper Egypt Scorpion I • Iry-Hor • Ka • Scorpion II • Narmer Early Dynastic Period (3150–2686 BC) Dynasty 1 Menes • Hor-Aha • Djer • Djet • Den • Anedjib • Semerkhet • Qa'a Dynasty 2 Hotepsekhemwy • Raneb • Nynetjer • Seth-Peribsen • Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) Dynasty 3 Sanakhte • Djoser • Sekhemkhet • Khaba • Huni Dynasty 4 Snefru • Khufu • Djedefre • Khafre • Menkaure • Shepseskaf Dynasty 5 Userkaf • Sahure • Neferirkare Kakai • Shepseskare • Neferefre • Niuserre • Menkauhor • Djedkare • Unas Dynasty 6 Teti • Pepi I • Merenre • Pepi II 1st Intermediate Period (2181–2040 BC) Dynasties 7 & 8 Wadjkare • Qakare Iby Dynasties 9 & 10 Meryibre Khety • Merykare • Kaneferre • Nebkaure Akhtoy Middle Kingdom (2040–1782 BC) Dynasty 11 Mentuhotep I • Intef I • Intef II • Intef III • Mentuhotep II • Mentuhotep III • Mentuhotep IV Dynasty 12 Amenemhet I • Senusret I • Amenemhet II • Senusret II • Senusret III • Amenemhet III • Amenemhet IV • Sobeknefru♀ 2nd Intermediate Period (1782–1570 BC) Dynasty 13 Wegaf • Ameny Intef IV • Hor • Sobekhotep II • Khendjer • Sobekhotep III • Neferhotep I • Sobekhotep IV • Merneferre Ay • Neferhotep II Dynasty 14 Nehesy Dynasty 15 Sheshi • Yakubher • Khyan • Apepi I • Apepi II Dynasty 16 Anather • Yakobaam Dynasty 17 Sobekemsaf I • Sobekemsaf II • Intef VII • Tao I • Tao II • Kamose New Kingdom (1570–1070 BC) Dynasty 18 Ahmose I • Amenhotep I • Tuthmosis I • Tuthmosis II • Tuthmosis III • Hatshepsut♀ • Amenhotep II • Tuthmosis IV • Amenhotep III • Akhenaten • Smenkhkare • Tutankhamun • Ay • Horemheb Dynasty 19 Ramesses I • Seti I • Ramesses II • Merneptah • Amenmesses • Seti II • Siptah • Twosret♀ Dynasty 20 Setnakhte • Ramesses III • Ramesses IV • Ramesses V • Ramesses VI • Ramesses VII • Ramesses VIII • Ramesses IX • Ramesses X • Ramesses XI 3rd Intermediate Period (1069–525 BC) Dynasty 21 Smendes I • Amenemnisu • Psusennes I • Amenemope • Osorkon the Elder • Siamun • Psusennes II Dynasty 22 Sheshonq I • Osorkon I • Sheshonq II • Takelot I • Osorkon II • Takelot II • Sheshonq III • Pami • Sheshonq V • Osorkon IV Dynasty 23 Pedibastet • Sheshonq IV • Osorkon III • Takelot III • Rudamon • Iuput Dynasty 24 Tefnakht • Bakenrenef Dynasty 25 Piankhi • Shabaka • Shebitku • Taharqa • Tanutamun Dynasty 26 Psamtik I • Nekau • Psamtik II • Wahibre • Ahmose II • Psamtik III Late Period (525–332 BC) Dynasty 27 Cambyses II • Dáríù 1k • Xerxes • Artaxerxes I • Darius II Dynasty 28 Amyrtaeus Dynasty 29 Nefaarud I • Hakor Dynasty 30 Nectanebo I • Teos • Nectanebo II Dynasty 31 Artaxerxes III • Arses • Darius III Hellenistic Period (332–30 BC) Argead Dynasty Alexander the Great • Philip III Arrhidaeus • Alexander IV Ptolemaic Dynasty Ptolemy I Soter I • Ptolemy II Philadelphus • Ptolemy III Euergetes I • Ptolemy IV Philopator • Ptolemy V Epiphanes • Ptolemy VI Philometor • Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator • Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II • Ptolemy IX Soter II • Ptolemy X Alexander I • Ptolemy XI Alexander II • Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos • Berenice IV♀ • Cleopatra VII♀ • Ptolemy XV Caesarion ♀ indicates female pharaoh Jẹ́ kíkójáde láti "https://yo.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerxes_1k_Pẹ́rsíà&oldid=540111" Àwọn ẹ̀ka: Pages using 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zh-wikipedia-org-5944	----	薛西斯一世 - 维基百科，自由的百科全书 薛西斯一世 维基百科，自由的百科全书 跳到导航 跳到搜索 薛西斯一世 萬王之王 大王 波斯國王 巴比倫國王 埃及法老 萬國之王 薛西斯一世像 統治 前485年 – 前465年 加冕 公元前486年10月 前任 大流士一世 繼任 阿尔塔薛西斯一世 出生 公元前519年 逝世 公元前465年 全名 "Xšaya-ṛšā" 王朝 阿契美尼德王朝 父親 大流士一世 母親 阿托莎 本页面包含特殊字符，部分操作系统及浏览器需要特殊字母与符号支持才能正確显示，否则可能出现乱码、问号、空格等其它符号。 薛西斯一世（古波斯語：𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠 Khshāyarsha 帮助·信息 [1]；现代波斯语：خشایارشا‎，古希臘語：Ξερξης Xérxēs；约前519年－前465年）， 又译澤克西斯一世或泽尔士一世，是阿契美尼德王朝的国王（前485年—前465年在位）。他可能是圣经中提到的波斯国王亚哈随鲁[2]。 薛西斯一世是大流士一世与居鲁士大帝之女阿托莎的儿子。其名字在波斯语中意思是“战士之王”。 他在即位后不久镇压了一次埃及的暴乱（前484年），埃及人极其反对波斯帝国的统治。 薛西斯一世继续进行与希臘的战争（参见：希波战争）。他率大军入侵希腊，洗劫了雅典，摧毀了雅典衛城。但在萨拉米海战中被打败。晚年薛西斯一世縱情於酒色，親信小人，導致波斯帝國內亂。 薛西斯一世死于宫廷政变。他的宰相阿尔达班谋杀了他，并拥立他的儿子阿尔塔薛西斯一世为国王。 目录 1 家庭 2 參考 3 大眾文化 3.1 電影 家庭[编辑] 子女： 阿米缇斯（Amytis），阿美斯提（Amestris）之女 希斯塔斯普 阿尔塔薛西斯一世 阿萨米斯 參考[编辑] ^ Allesandro Bausani. Chapter 1: The Aryans on the Iranian Plateau: The Achaemenian Empire. The Persians. St. Martin's Press. 1971: 27.  ^ 見《舊約全書‧以斯拉記》四章第6節 大眾文化[编辑] 電影[编辑] 斯巴达三百勇士 (Rodrigo Santoro 飾) 這不是斯巴達 (肯恩大衛提夫飾) 前任： 大流士一世 波斯国王 继任： 阿尔塔薛西斯一世 前任： 大流士一世 埃及法老 继任： 阿尔塔薛西斯一世 查 论 编 米底王国與阿契美尼德王朝君主 世系圖（英语：Achaemenid family tree） 米底王国（公元前728年－550年） 迪奧塞斯 弗拉歐爾特斯 馬地奧斯 基亞克薩雷斯 阿斯提阿格斯 阿契美尼德王朝（公元前550年－330年） 阿契美尼斯§ 阿里亚拉玛纳§ 阿爾薩米斯（英语：Arsames）§ 铁伊斯佩斯 居鲁士一世 冈比西斯一世 居鲁士二世 冈比西斯二世 高墨达 大流士一世 薛西斯一世 阿爾塔薛西斯一世 薛西斯二世 塞基狄亚努斯 大流士二世 阿尔塔薛西斯二世 阿尔塔薛西斯三世 阿尔塞斯 大流士三世 貝蘇斯 §傳說中的君主，未能肯定其為真實存在的歷史人物 查 论 编 古埃及法老（列表） 王朝系譜：4 12 18 19 20 21 25 26 27 31 托勒密 前王朝時期 (前3150年以前) 下埃及 胡瑟庫 卡胡 调 哲思 尼赫布 瓦澤奈 梅赫扎林 达布尔-福尔肯 上埃及 蝎子王一世 艾拉-荷尔 卡 蝎子王二世 美尼斯 早王朝時期 (前3150年–前2686年) 第一王朝 那尔迈 荷尔-阿哈 哲尔 杰特 美麗奈茨♀ 登 阿涅德吉布 瑟莫赫特 卡 斯内弗卡拉 荷鲁斯鸟 第二王朝 霍特普塞海姆威 拉内布 尼内特吉 巴 努布涅弗 荷鲁斯-萨 温内格 瓦吉尼斯 塞涅德 伯里布森 塞克赫米布-匹壬马特 内弗卡拉一世 内弗卡瑟卡 胡吉伐一世 卡塞凯姆威 古王國時期 (前2686年–前2181年) 第三王朝 内布卡一世 左塞尔 塞汉赫特 萨纳赫特 胡吉伐二世 胡尼 第四王朝 斯尼夫鲁 胡夫 迪德夫拉 卡夫拉 内布卡二世 孟卡拉 谢普塞斯卡弗 德德夫普塔 第五王朝 乌瑟卡夫 萨胡拉 内弗尔卡拉一世 谢普塞斯卡拉 兰尼弗雷夫 纽塞拉 门卡霍尔 杰德卡拉 乌尼斯 第六王朝 特提 乌瑟卡拉 佩皮一世 奈姆蒂姆萨夫一世 佩皮二世 奈姆蒂姆萨夫二世 西普塔一世 第一中间时期 (前2181年–前2040年) 第七王朝和第八王朝 蔓卡拉 内弗尔卡拉二世 内弗尔卡拉三世 吉德卡拉·舍迈 内弗尔卡拉四世 迈伦霍尔 内弗尔卡敏·辛内弗尔卡 尼卡拉 内弗尔卡拉五世 内弗尔卡霍尔 内弗尔卡拉六世 内弗尔卡敏·安努 卡卡拉·伊比 内弗尔考拉 内弗尔卡霍尔·胡威海普 内弗利尔卡拉 瓦吉卡拉 第九王朝 和 第十王朝 赫提一世 内弗尔卡拉七世 赫提二世 内弗尔卡拉八世 赫提三世 梅利卡拉 中王国时期 (前2040年–前1782年) 第十一王朝 曼图霍特普一世 伊里奥特弗一世 伊里奥特弗二世 伊里奥特弗三世 曼图霍特普二世 曼图霍特普三世 曼图霍特普四世 第十二王朝 阿蒙涅姆赫特一世 辛努塞尔特一世 阿蒙涅姆赫特二世 辛努塞尔特二世 辛努塞尔特三世 阿蒙涅姆赫特三世 阿蒙涅姆赫特四世 塞贝克涅弗鲁♀ 第二中间时期 (前1782年–前1550年) 第十三王朝 索贝克霍特普二世 塞黑卡拉 阿蒙涅姆赫特五世 辛纳耶布 塞赫特普拉一世 伊乌夫尼 伊里奥特弗四世 辛内布米乌 塞瓦吉卡拉 内杰米布拉 索贝克霍特普一世 伦塞内布 荷尔 塞杰法卡拉 威格夫 肯杰尔 伊米雷迈沙乌 伊里奥特弗五世 塞特 索贝克霍特普三世 内弗尔霍特普一世 希哈特霍尔 索貝克霍特普四世 索贝克霍特普五世 索贝克霍特普六世 伊比阿乌 美尔奈弗拉·阿依 迈尔赫特普拉-伊尼一世 塞瓦德杰乌 伊内德 霍里 索贝克霍特普七世 迈尔赫特普拉-伊尼二世 曼图霍特普五世 索克霍特赫 第十四王朝 奈赫西 迈尔杰法拉 第十五王朝 谢希 雅库布赫 希安 阿波比一世 哈姆迪 第十六王朝 杰胡提 索贝克霍特普八世 内弗尔霍特普三世 曼图霍特皮 内比利劳一世 内比利劳二世 塞黑拉 贝比安赫 塞赫姆雷·谢德瓦塞特 杜迪摩斯一世 杜迪摩斯二世 塞姆肯 曼图霍特普六世 辛努塞尔特四世 佩皮三世 第十七王朝 拉霍特普 索贝克艾姆萨夫一世 索贝克艾姆萨夫二世 伊里奥特弗六世 伊里奥特弗七世 伊里奥特弗八世 陶一世 陶二世 卡梅斯 新王國時期 (前1550年–前1070年) 第十八王朝 雅赫摩斯一世 阿蒙霍特普一世 图特摩斯一世 图特摩斯二世 图特摩斯三世 哈特谢普苏特♀ 阿蒙霍特普二世 图特摩斯四世 阿蒙霍特普三世 埃赫那顿 斯門卡瑞 妮斐妮斐鲁阿頓♀ 图坦卡門 阿伊 霍朗赫布 第十九王朝 拉美西斯一世 塞提一世 拉美西斯二世 麦伦普塔 阿蒙麦西斯 塞提二世 西普塔 塔沃斯塔♀ 第二十王朝 塞特纳赫特 拉美西斯三世 拉美西斯四世 拉美西斯五世 拉美西斯六世 拉美西斯七世 拉美西斯八世 拉美西斯九世 拉美西斯十世 拉美西斯十一世 第三中間時期 (前1069年–前525年) 第二十一王朝 斯門代斯一世 阿蒙涅姆尼苏 普苏森尼斯一世 阿蒙涅莫普 奥索爾孔 西阿蒙 普苏森尼斯二世 第二十二王朝 舍顺克一世 奥索尔孔一世 舍顺克二世 塔克洛特一世 奥索尔孔二世 舍顺克三世 帕米 舍顺克五世 奥索尔孔四世 第二十三王朝 哈尔西斯 塔克洛特二世 伊乌普特一世 舍顺克六世 奥索尔孔三世 塔克洛特三世 伊乌普特二世 第二十四王朝 特夫納克特 波克霍利斯 第二十五王朝 皮安希 沙巴卡 沙巴塔卡 塔哈尔卡 坦沃塔玛尼 第二十六王朝 尼科一世 普萨美提克一世 尼科二世 普萨美提克二世 阿普里斯 雅赫摩斯二世 普萨美提克三世 古埃及晚期 (前525年–前332年) 第二十七王朝 冈比西斯二世 巴尔迪亚 大流士一世 薛西斯一世 阿尔塔薛西斯一世 大流士二世 第二十八王朝 阿米尔塔尼乌斯 第二十九王朝 内菲里帝斯一世 哈科尔 普撒穆提斯 内菲里帝斯二世 第三十王朝 内克塔内布一世 提奥斯 内克塔内布二世 第三十一王朝 阿尔塔薛西斯三世 阿尔塞斯 大流士三世 附：希臘化時代 (前332年–30年) 第三十二王朝 亚历山大三世 阿里达乌斯 亚历山大四世 托勒密王朝 托勒密一世 托勒密二世 托勒密三世 托勒密四世 托勒密五世 托勒密六世 托勒密七世 托勒密八世 托勒密九世 托勒密十世 托勒密十一世 托勒密十二世 贝勒尼基四世♀ 克娄巴特拉七世♀ 托勒密十五世 ♀ 表示女性君主 规范控制 WorldCat Identities BNE: XX1153338 BNF: cb150689088 (data) FAST: 1859099 GND: 118808109 ISNI: 0000 0000 6300 8852 LCCN: n81070675 LNB: 000054067 NKC: mzk2005313022 NLA: 66228176 NNL: 000437459 SELIBR: 259706 SUDOC: 050588400 ULAN: 500354810 VIAF: 282770127 取自“https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=薛西斯一世&oldid=62420573” 分类： 前519年出生 前465年逝世 聖經人物 法老 阿契美尼德王朝君主 遇刺身亡的君主 隐藏分类： 含有古波斯語的條目 嵌入hAudio微格式的條目 含有波斯語的條目 含有古希臘語的條目 包含BNE标识符的维基百科条目 包含BNF标识符的维基百科条目 包含FAST标识符的维基百科条目 包含GND标识符的维基百科条目 包含ISNI标识符的维基百科条目 包含LCCN标识符的维基百科条目 包含LNB标识符的维基百科条目 包含NKC标识符的维基百科条目 包含NLA标识符的维基百科条目 包含NNL标识符的维基百科条目 包含SELIBR标识符的维基百科条目 包含SUDOC标识符的维基百科条目 包含ULAN标识符的维基百科条目 包含VIAF标识符的维基百科条目 包含14元素的规范控制 导航菜单 个人工具 没有登录 讨论 贡献 创建账户 登录 名字空间 条目 讨论 不转换 不转换 简体 繁體 大陆简体 香港繁體 澳門繁體 大马简体 新加坡简体 臺灣正體 视图 阅读 编辑 查看历史 更多 搜索 导航 首页 分类索引 特色内容 新闻动态 最近更改 随机条目 资助维基百科 帮助 帮助 维基社群 方针与指引 互助客栈 知识问答 字词转换 IRC即时聊天 联络我们 关于维基百科 工具 链入页面 相关更改 上传文件 特殊页面 固定链接 页面信息 引用本页 维基数据项 打印/导出 下载为PDF 打印页面 在其他项目中 维基共享资源 其他语言 Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 编辑链接 本页面最后修订于2020年10月17日 (星期六) 12:29。 本站的全部文字在知识共享 署名-相同方式共享 3.0协议之条款下提供，附加条款亦可能应用。（请参阅使用条款） Wikipedia®和维基百科标志是维基媒体基金会的注册商标；维基™是维基媒体基金会的商标。 维基媒体基金会是按美国国內稅收法501(c)(3)登记的非营利慈善机构。 隐私政策 关于维基百科 免责声明 手机版视图 开发者 统计 Cookie声明 
www-peeters-leuven-be-2674	----	Xerxes and Babylonia O R I E N TA L I A L OVA N I E N S I A A N A L E C TA P E E T E R S Xerxes and Babylonia The Cuneiform Evidence edited by CAROLINE WAERZEGGERS and MAARJA SEIRE XERXES AND BABYLONIA: THE CUNEIFORM EVIDENCE ORIENTALIA LOVANIENSIA ANALECTA ————— 277 ————— XERXES AND BABYLONIA The Cuneiform Evidence edited by CAROLINE WAERZEGGERS and MAARJA SEIRE PEETERS LEUVEN – PARIS – BRISTOL, CT 2018 A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. © 2018, Peeters Publishers, Bondgenotenlaan 153, B-3000 Leuven/Louvain (Belgium) This is an open access version of the publication distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs licence (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which permits non-commercial reproduction and distribution of the work, in any medium, provided the original work is not altered or transformed in any way, and that the work is properly cited. ISBN 978-90-429-3670-6 eISBN 978-90-429-3809-0 D/2018/0602/119 TABLE OF CONTENTS ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII CAROLINE WAERZEGGERS Introduction: Debating Xerxes’ Rule in Babylonia . . . . . 1 REINHARD PIRNGRUBER Towards a Framework for Interpreting Social and Economic Change in Babylonia During the Long 6th Century BCE . . . . . . . 19 MAŁGORZATA SANDOWICZ Before Xerxes: The Role of the Governor of Babylonia in the Administration of Justice Under the First Achaemenids . . . . 35 MICHAEL JURSA Xerxes: The Case of Sippar and the Ebabbar Temple . . . . . 63 KARLHEINZ KESSLER Uruk: The Fate of the Eanna Archive, the Gimil-Nanāya B Archive, and Their Archaeological Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . 73 CAROLINE WAERZEGGERS The Network of Resistance: Archives and Political Action in Baby- lonia Before 484 BCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 MATHIEU OSSENDRIJVER Babylonian Scholarship and the Calendar During the Reign of Xerxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 JOHANNES HACKL The Esangila Temple During the Late Achaemenid Period and the Impact of Xerxes’ Reprisals on the Northern Babylonian Temple Households . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 PAUL-ALAIN BEAULIEU Uruk Before and After Xerxes: The Onomastic and Institutional Rise of the God Anu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 ABBREVIATIONS ADOG Abhandlungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft ADRT 1 A.J. Sachs and H. Hunger, Astronomical�Diaries�and�Related�Texts�from� Babylonia,�Vol.�I:�Diaries�from�652�B.C.�to�262�B.C.�(ADRT 1), Vienna 1988. ADRT 2 A.J. Sachs and H. Hunger, Astronomical�Diaries�and�Related�Texts�from� Babylonia,�Vol.�II:�Diaries�from�261�B.C.�to�165�B.C. (ADRT 2), Vienna 1989. ADRT 5 H. Hunger, Astronomical� Diaries� and� Related� Texts� from� Babylonia,� Vol.�V:�Lunar�and�Planetary�Texts�(ADRT 5), Vienna 2001. ADRT 6 H. Hunger, Astronomical� Diaries� and� Related� Texts� from� Babylonia,� Vol.�VI:�Goal-Year�Texts�(ADRT 6), Vienna 2006. AfO� Archiv�für�Orientforschung AHES Archive�for�History�of�Exact�Sciences AJSL� American�Journal�of�Semitic�Languages�and�Literatures AMI� Archäologische�Mitteilungen�aus�Iran Amherst A. Ungnad, “Neubabylonische Privaturkunden aus der Sammlung Amherst”, AfO 19 (1959–1960), 74–82. AnOr Analecta Orientalia AnOr 8 P.A. Pohl, Neubabylonische�Rechtsurkunden�aus�den�Berliner�Staatlichen� Museen�(AnOr 8), Rome 1933. AOAT Alter Orient und Altes Testament AoF� Altorientalische�Forschungen ArOr� Archiv�Orientální ARTA� Achaemenid�Research�on�Texts�and�Archaeology ASSF Acta Societatis Scientiarum Fennicae AUWE Ausgrabungen in Uruk-Warka, Endberichte AUWE 5 E. Gehlken, Uruk:� Spätbabylonische� Wirtschaftstexte� aus� dem� Eanna- Archiv,�Teil�I:�Texte�verschiedenen�Inhalts (AUWE 5), Mainz 1990. AUWE 11 E. Gehlken, Uruk:� Spätbabylonische� Wirtschaftstexte� aus� dem� Eanna- Archiv, Teil II:�Texte�verschiedenen�Inhalts (AUWE 11), Mainz 1996. BaAr Babylonische Archive BagM� Baghdader�Mitteilungen BASOR� Bulletin�of�the�American�Schools�of�Oriental�Research BBSt L.W. King, Babylonian� Boundary� Stones� and� Memorial-Tablets� in� the� British�Museum, London 1912. BE The Babylonian Expedition of the University of Pennsylvania: Series A. Cuneiform Texts BE 8 A.T. Clay, Legal� and� Commercial� Transactions� Dated� in� the� Assyrian,� Neo-Babylonian�and�Persian�Periods,�Chiefly�from�Nippur�(BE 8), Phil- adelphia 1908. BE 9 A.T. Clay, Business�Documents�of�Murashû�Sons�of�Nippur�Dated�in�the� Reign�of�Artaxerxes�I�(464–424�B.C.) (BE 9), Philadelphia 1898. BE 10 A.T. Clay, Business�Documents�of�Murashû�Sons�of�Nippur�Dated�in�the� Reign�of�Darius�II�(424–404�B.C.) (BE 10), Philadelphia 1904. VIII ABBREVIATIONS BIN Babylonian Inscriptions in the Collection of James B. Nies BIN 1 C. E. Keiser, Babylonian�Inscriptions�in�the�Collection�of�James�B.�Nies.� I:� Letters� and� Contracts� from� Erech� Written� in� the� Neo-Babylonian� Period�(BIN 1), New Haven 1919. BIN 2 J.B. Nies and C.E. Keiser, Historical,�Religious�and�Economic�Texts�and� Antiquities�(BIN 2), New Haven and London 1920. BiOr� Bibliotheca�Orientalis BOR� The�Babylonian�&�Oriental�Record:�A�Monthly�Magazine�of�the�Antiqui- ties�of�the�East BOR 4 T.G. Pinches, “A Babylonian Tablet Dated in the Reign of Aspasinē”, BOR 4 (1889–1890), 131–135. BRM Babylonian Records in the Library of J. Pierpont Morgan, 1–4 BWL W.G. Lambert, Babylonian�Wisdom�Literature, Oxford 1960. BZAW Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft CAD The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago Camb. J.N. Strassmaier, Inschriften�von�Cambyses,�König�von�Babylon�(529–521� v.�Chr.)�(Babylonische Texte 8–9), Leipzig 1890. CDOG Colloquien der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft CHANE� Culture and History of the Ancient Near East CleO Classica et Orientalia CM Cuneiform Monographs CT Cuneiform Texts from Babylonian Tablets in the British Museum CTMMA Cuneiform Texts in the Metropolitan Museum of Art CTMMA 4 I. Spar and M. Jursa, The�Ebabbar�Temple�Archive�and�Other�Texts�from the� Fourth� to� the� First� Millennium� B.C. (CTMMA 4), New York and Winona Lake 2014. CUSAS Cornell University Studies in Assyriology and Sumerology Cyr. J.N. Strassmaier, Inschriften�von�Cyrus,�König�von�Babylon�(538–529�v.� Chr.) (Babylonische Texte 7), Leipzig 1890. Dar. J.N. Strassmaier, Inschriften� von� Darius,� König� von� Babylon� (521–485� v.�Chr.)�(Babylonische Texte 10–12), Leipzig 1892–1897. DMOA Documenta et monumenta Orientis antiqui FAOS Freiburger altorientalische Studien FuB� Forschungen�und�Berichte,�Staatliche�Museen�zu�Berlin GCCI Goucher College Cuneiform Inscriptions GCCI 1 R.P. Dougherty, Archives� from� Erech� 1:� Time� of� Nebuchadnezzar� and� Nabonidus�(GCCI 1), New Haven and London 1923. GCCI 2 R.P. Dougherty, Archives� from� Erech� 2:� Neo-Babylonian� and� Persian� Periods (GCCI 2), New Haven and London 1933. GMTR Guides to the Mesopotamian Textual Record GMTR 1 M. Jursa, Neo-Babylonian�Legal�and�Administrative�Documents:�Typol- ogy,�Contents�and�Archives (GMTR 1), Münster 2005. HANE/M History of the Ancient Near East Monographs ICDOG Internationales Colloquium der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft IOS� Israel�Oriental�Studies Iraq 43 G.J.P. McEwan, “Arsacid temple records”, Iraq 43 (1981), 131–143. JAOS� Journal�of�the�American�Oriental�Society JCS� Journal�of�Cuneiform�Studies JEA� Journal�of�Egyptian�Archaeology ABBREVIATIONS IX JESHO� Journal�of�the�Economic�and�Social�History�of�the�Orient JNES� Journal�of�Near�Eastern�Studies JRAS� Journal�of�the�Royal�Asiatic�Society JTS� Journal�of�Theological�Studies LBAT A.J. Sachs, T.G. Pinches and J.N. Strassmaier, Late� Babylonian� Astro- nomical�and�Related�Texts,�Providence 1955. LKU A. Falkenstein, Literarische�Keilschrifttexte�aus�Uruk, Berlin 1931. MC Mesopotamian Civilizations MR C. Waerzeggers, Marduk-rēmanni:�Local�Networks�and�Imperial�Politics� in�Achaemenid�Babylonia (OLA 233), Leuven 2014. NABU� Nouvelles�Assyriologiques�Brèves�et�Utilitaires Nbk. J.N. Strassmaier, Inschriften� von� Nabuchodonosor,� König� von� Babylon� (604–561�v.�Chr.)�(Babylonische Texte 5–6), Leipzig 1889. Nbn. J.N. Strassmaier, Inschriften� von� Nabonidus,� König� von� Babylon� (555– 538�v.�Chr.)�(Babylonische Texte 1–4), Leipzig 1889. OECT Oxford Editions of Cuneiform Texts OECT 10 G.J.P. McEwan, Late�Babylonian�Texts�in�the�Ashmolean�Museum�(OECT 10), Oxford 1984. OIP Oriental Institute Publications OIP 114 S.W. Cole, Nippur� IV:� The� Early� Neo-Babylonian� Governorʼs� Archive� from�Nippur (OIP 114), Chicago 1996. OIP 122 D.B. Weisberg, Neo-Babylonian�Texts�in�the�Oriental�Institute�Collection� (OIP 122), Chicago 2003. OLA Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta OLP� Orientalia�Lovaniensia�Periodica PBS Publications of the Babylonian Section, University of Pennsylvania PBS 2/1 A.T. Clay, Business�Documents�of�Murashu�Sons�of�Nippur:�Dated�in�the� Reign�of�Darius�II (PBS 2/1), Philadelphia 1912. PCPS Proceedings�of�the�Cambridge�Philological�Society PD56 R.A. Parker and W.H. Dubberstein, Babylonian� Chronology,� 626� B.C.– A.D.�75 (Brown University Studies 19), Providence 1956. PIHANS Publications de l’Institut historique et archéologique néerlandais de Stam- boul RA� Revue�d’assyriologie�et�d’archéologie�orientale RAI Rencontre assyriologique internationale RGTC Répertoire Géographique des Textes Cunéiformes RIAA�� L. Speleers, Recueil� des� inscriptions� de� l’Asie� antérieure� des� Musées� Royaux� du� Cinquantenaire� à� Bruxelles:� Textes� sumériens,� babyloniens� et�assyriens, Brussels 1925. RlA� Reallexikon�der�Assyriologie RMA R.C. Thompson, The�Reports�of�the�Magicians�and�Astrologers�of�Nine- veh�and�Babylon�in�the�British�Museum,�Vol.�1–2, London 1900. ROMCT Royal Ontario Museum, Cuneiform Texts ROMCT 2 G.J.P. McEwan, The� Late� Babylonian� Tablets� in� the� Royal� Ontario� Museum (ROMCT 2), Toronto 1982. SAA State Archives of Assyria SAA 8 H. Hunger, Astrological� Reports� to� Assyrian� Kings (SAA 8), Helsinki 1992. SAA 10 S. Parpola, Letters� from� Assyrian� and� Babylonian� Scholars� (SAA 10), Helsinki 1993. X ABBREVIATIONS SAOC Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization SBLANEM Society of Biblical Literature Ancient Near Eastern Monographs SCIAMVS Sources and Commentaries in Exact Sciences SCT C.H. Gordon, Smith�College�Tablets:�110�Cuneiform�Texts�Selected�from� the�College�Collection (Smith College Studies in History 38), Northamp- ton 1952. SPAW� Sitzungsberichte� der� Königlich� Preußischen� Akademie� der� Wissen- schaften SpTU 4 E. von Weiher, Uruk: Spätbabylonische� Texte� aus� dem� Planquadrat� U� 18,�Teil�IV�(AUWE 12), Mainz 1993. SpTU 5 E. von Weiher, Uruk: Spätbabylonische� Texte� aus� dem� Planquadrat� U� 18,�Teil�V�(AUWE 13), Mainz 1998. StIr� Studia�Iranica SWU H. Freydank, Spätbabylonische�Wirtschaftstexte�aus�Uruk, Berlin 1971. TAPS� Transactions�of�the�American�Philosophical�Society TBER J.-M. Durand, Textes� babyloniens� d’époque� récente:� Études� assyriolo- giques�(Recherche sur les grandes civilisations, Cahier 6), Paris 1981. TCL Textes cunéiformes. Musée du Louvre, Département des Antiquités Orientales TCL 9 G. Contenau, Contrats�et�lettres�d’Assyrie�et�de�Babylonie:�Contrats�de� Kerkouk,� contrats� kassites,� contrats� et� lettres� d’Assyrie,� lettres� néo- babyloniennes�(TCL 9), Paris 1926. TCL 12 G. Contenau, Contrats� néo-babyloniens,� I: De� Téglath-phalasar� III� à� Nabonide�(TCL 12), Paris 1927. TCL 13 G. Contenau, Contrats� néo-babyloniens,� II:� Achéménides� et� Séleucides� (TCL 13), Paris 1929. TCS Texts from Cuneiform Sources TUAT Texte aus der Umwelt des Alten Testaments TuM Texte und Materialien der Frau Professor Hilprecht Collection of Baby- lonian Antiquities im Eigentum der Universität Jena TuM 2/3 O. Krückmann, Neubabylonische�Rechts-�und�Verwaltungstexte autogra- phiert�und�mit�Inventarverzeichnis�und�Namenlisten�versehen (TuM 2/3), Leipzig 1933. UCP University of California Publications in Semitic Philology UCP 9/1–2 H.F. Lutz, Neo-Babylonian�Administrative�Documents�from�Erech,�Part� 1�and�2 (UCP 9/1–2), Berkeley 1927. UET 4 H.H. Figulla, Business� Documents� of� the� New-Babylonian� Period (Ur Excavation Texts 4), London 1949. UVB 12–13 H. Lenzen, Zwölfter/Dreizehnter� vorläufiger� Bericht� über� die� von� der� Deutschen�Forschungsgemeinschaft�in�Uruk-Warka�unternommenen�Aus- grabungen, Berlin 1956. VS Vorderasiatische Schriftdenkmäler der Königlichen Museen zu Berlin 1–16; N.F.: Vorderasiatische Schriftdenkmäler der Staatlichen Museen zu Berlin VS 3–6 A. Ungnad, Vorderasiatische� Schriftdenkmäler� der� königlichen� Museen� zu�Berlin, Vols.�3–6, Leipzig 1907–1908. VS 20 L. Jakob-Rost and H. Freydank, Spätbabylonische� Rechtsurkunden� und� Wirtschaftstexte�aus�Uruk,�Vol.�20�(N.F. 4), Berlin 1978. WVDOG Wissenschaftliche Veröffentlichungen der Deutschen Orientgesellschaft WZKM� Wiener�Zeitschrift�für�die�Kunde�des�Morgenlandes ABBREVIATIONS XI WZKM 86 A.A. Ambros and M. Köhbach (eds.), Festschrift� für� Hans� Hirsch� zum� 65.� Geburtstag� gewidmet� von� seinen� Freunden,� Kollegen� und� Schülern� (WZKM 86), Vienna 1996. WZKM�97� M. Köhbach, S. Procházka, G.J. Selz and R. Lohlker (eds.), Festschrift� für�Hermann�Hunger�zum�65.�Geburtstag�gewidmet�von�seinen�Freunden,� Kollegen�und�Schülern (WZKM 97), Vienna 2007. YOS Yale Oriental Series, Babylonian Texts YOS 3 A.T. Clay, Neo-Babylonian�Letters�from�Erech (YOS 3),�New Haven and London 1919. YOS 6 R.P. Dougherty, Records�from�Erech,�Time�of�Nabonidus�(555–538�B.C.)� (YOS 6), New Haven and London 1920. YOS 7 A. Tremayne, Records�from�Erech,�Time�of�Cyrus�and�Cambyses (YOS 7), New Haven and London 1925. YOS 17 D.B. Weisberg, Texts�from�the�Time�of�Nebuchadnezzar�(YOS 17), New Haven and London 1980. YOS 19 P.-A. Beaulieu, Legal�and�Administrative�Texts�from�the�Reign�of�Nabo- nidus�(YOS 19), New Haven and London 2000. YOS 21 E. Frahm and M. Jursa, Neo-Babylonian�Letters�and�Contracts�from�the� Eanna�Archive�(YOS 21), New Haven and London 2011. YOSR Yale Oriental Series, Researches ZA� Zeitschrift�für�Assyriologie ZA 3� N.J. Strassmaier, “Arsaciden-Inschriften”, ZA 3 (1988), 129–158. ZAR� Zeitschrift�für�Altorientalische�und�Biblische�Rechtsgeschichte Non-bibliographic abbreviations Art Artaxerxes Cyr Cyrus Dar Darius Nbn Nabonidus Nbp Nabopolassar Še Šamaš-erība Xer Xerxes Museum collections AB siglum of tablets in the Bodleian Library (Oxford) AH Abu Habba Collection (British Museum, London) AO Antiquités orientales (Louvre Museum, Paris) BM British Museum (London) Bu E.A. Wallis Budge Collection (British Museum, London) CBS Collection of the Babylonian Section (University Museum, Philadelphia) EAH E.A. Hoffman Collection (Yale Babylonian Collection, New Haven) Erm. siglum�of the tablets in The State Hermitage Museum (Saint Petersburg) D Dailem Collection (British Museum, London) FLP Free Library of Philadelphia HSM Harvard Semitic Museum MM Museu Biblíc of the Monastery of Montserrat XII ABBREVIATIONS NBC Nies Babylonian Collection (Yale University, New Haven) NCBT Newell Collection of Babylonian Tablets (Yale University, New Haven) Ni Nippur (Archaeological Museum of Istanbul) PTS Princeton Theological Seminary Rm Rassam Collection (British Museum, London) YBC Yale Babylonian Collection W Uruk-Warka (Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft) Other * collated reading c. circa DN divine name dupl. duplicate EAE Enūma Anu Enlil l litre n/a not attested pl plate PN personal name SE Seleucid Era unpubl. unpublished INTRODUCTION: DEBATING XERXES’ RULE IN BABYLONIA Caroline WAERZEGGERS (Leiden University)* In the course of its two hundred years of existence, the Persian Empire (c. 550–330 BCE) met many forms of resistance from its subject populations.1 The present collection of essays focuses on a particular moment of violent contestation in the empire and examines mostly, but not exclusively, its textual evidence: the Babylonian revolts against Xerxes in his second regnal year (484 BCE), as seen in cuneiform sources. Which considerations inform the particular focus of this volume? In certain respects, the revolts of 484 BCE were unremarkable. The Babylo- nians had revolted against Persian rule before, once in 522 BCE and again shortly later in 521 BCE. These earlier revolts had been part of an empire-wide wave of dissent after the deaths of Cambyses and Bardia, a multi-front chal- lenge that was overcome only with great effort and that led to extensive acts of commemoration widely displayed and received.2 The revolts of 484 BCE were more limited in scale and more hushed in reception. While also in this case the local rebels (Šamaš-erība and Bēl-šimânni) acted upon dissent else- where in the empire,3 resistance did not spread as widely as it did in the 520s nor was it commemorated as intensively. As far as we know, Xerxes did not explicitly advertise his Babylonian victory in texts or monuments, local chroni- clers did not record the events of that year, later generations of Babylonians did not reflect on the revolts in writing, and Greek historians seem to have lacked specific knowledge of what happened in Babylonia in 484 BCE.4 * This Introduction was written within the framework of ERC CoG Persia� and� Babylonia (682241). I am grateful to Uzume Z. Wijnsma for suggestions and critical remarks. 1 Recent discussions of resistance in the Persian Empire, and of its footprint in archaeological, literary and documentary sources, include Berquist 2008, Ruzicka 2012, Khatchadourian 2012, Kaper 2015, Nielsen 2015, Dusinberre 2016, Lee 2016a, and Waters 2016. 2 For the Babylonian revolts of 522 and 521 BCE, see Lorenz 2008, Beaulieu 2014, Bloch 2015, Waerzeggers 2016; for the wider crisis that affected the empire at that time, see Briant 2002, 107–138 and Kuhrt 2007, 135–177; for the commemoration of these events at Bisitun and the spread and reception of its message, see Root 2013; Waters 2014, 59–76; Rollinger 2014a, 196–200; Na’aman 2015; Mitchell 2017. 3 A revolt had taken place in Egypt slightly earlier in 486–485 BCE (Pestman 1984). 4 The Daiva inscription, with its reference to a rebellion in an unspecified country at the time of Xerxes’ accession, is not usually read historiographically anymore (e.g. Rollinger 2014a, 201). Late Achaemenid and Hellenistic cuneiform literature may contain memories of the revolts under 2 C. WAERZEGGERS However, the Babylonian revolts of 484 BCE stand out for a number of reasons. First, they were more than a passing interruption of Persian rule: Bab- ylonian society and political institutions changed significantly in their after- math, which raises questions about the processes through which the Persian state restored its grip on this key region. Second, because the revolts happened at the end of a long stretch of exceptionally well documented local history, they offer a rare occasion for contextualizing an instance of armed resistance within its local community. Too often, such events are afforded only passing reference in documentary evidence or historiographical accounts, with no opportunity to study how power became contested, why, and by whom. Third, in recent dec- ades a discussion has crystallized around the Babylonian revolts against Xerxes that reflects a wider debate in Persian–Achaemenid scholarship between spe- cialists of different disciplinary backgrounds. This renders the topic useful as a prism through which to explore changing scholarly perceptions of the history of the Persian Empire. How did the debate about Xerxes’ Babylonian policy develop? The ortho- doxy, most clearly expressed by Cameron (1941) and de Liagre Böhl (1962), held that Xerxes punished Babylon severely after the uprisings of Šamaš-erība and Bēl-šimânni, by taking away the statue of Marduk from its sanctuary, by preventing further celebration of the Akitu (or new year) festival, by destroying the city, by eliminating the element ‘King of Babylon’ from his official titula- ture, and by splitting the satrapy of Babylon-and-across-the-River into two smaller units.5 Other renderings, for instance by Hansjörg Schmid (1981, 132– 135; 1995, 78–87), added details of Babylon’s supposed destruction, such as the diversion of the Euphrates and the demolition of its ziggurat. Furthermore, the Daiva inscription was used as evidence of Xerxes’ supposed policy of intolerance,6 and the dwindling amounts of Babylonian clay tablets in his reign were presented as proof of decline after his violent suppression of the revolts.7 In 1987, Amélie Kuhrt and Susan Sherwin-White argued that Böhl’s account “was based on a careless reading of Herodotus combined with incomplete Babylonian evidence and an implicit wish to make very disparate types of material harmonize with a presumed “knowledge” of Xerxes’ actions, policies, Xerxes or their aftermath: the Kedor-Laomer texts, for instance, have been explained as a literary reaction to repression in the later Persian period (Foster 2005, 369). A memory of a Babylonian uprising against Xerxes is preserved in Ctesias (Tuplin 1997, 397; Lenfant 2004, 124; Kuhrt 2014, 167) and echoes may be contained in Herodotus’ account of Xerxes’ sacrileges in Babylon (1.183; Tolini 2011, 447 ‘echo déformé’) and in the Zopyros episode (Rollinger 1998, 347–348; but see Rollinger 2003, 257). Otherwise, Greek accounts are either oblivious of the revolts or they preserve garbled recollections at best; see Kuhrt 2010 and 2014. 5 Böhl 1962, 111 and 113. 6 Sancisi-Weerdenburg 1980, 1–47. 7 Joannès 1989a, 126; van Driel 1992, 40; Dandamaev 1993, 42. INTRODUCTION: DEBATING XERXES’ RULE IN BABYLONIA 3 and character.”8 The supporters of the earlier orthodoxy had misinterpreted several clues: the passage in Herodotus about Xerxes’ removal of a statue from the temple of Babylon concerns the statue of a man rather than of Marduk; by Xerxes’ time the Akitu festival had long been suspended so that Xerxes could not have been responsible for any change of program; the shortening of his titulature happened gradually, not abruptly; and the element ‘King of Babylon’ continued to be used occasionally even into the reign of Artaxerxes I.9 These insights led to a reconsideration of Xerxes’ actions in the 1980s and 1990s, against the backdrop of post-colonialism. In these decades, ‘New Achae- menid’ historians questioned the cultural stereotypes that informed popular renderings of the Persian Empire as the epitome of Oriental despotism, identi- fying ancient Greek accounts as the mainspring of such prejudices.10 They� argued that ancient Persia should be evaluated on its own terms by using sources internal to it and weighing external ones with great care. Among the aims of New Achaemenid historians was to ‘dehellenise and decolonialise Per- sian history’ (Sancisi-Weerdenburg 1987, 131) and in this context Xerxes’ reign took on special relevance. The orthodoxy had evaluated Xerxes particu- larly negatively in the light of classical texts (and their Orientalist readings), holding him responsible for setting the empire on a downward slope towards decline by reversing the enlightened tolerance that had characterized his pre- decessors’ attitudes towards indigenous cults.11 New-school historians used ideas about Xerxes’ punishment of Babylon to illustrate how shallow and mis- taken such negative portrayals had been. In this way, Böhl’s account of Xerxes’ Babylonian policy came to serve as a sample case where traditional scholarship was put to the test, with implications for the study of the Persian Empire more generally. In the words of John Lee “the much-discussed Babylonian revolts […] are a crux in any assessment of Xerxes” (2016b, 1343). By the mid-1990s, Xerxes as the destroyer of Babylonian temples had been ‘laid to rest.’12 The image had been deconstructed as a ‘chimaera without substance’,13 conjured up by the uncritical acceptance and misreading of clas- sical sources and by the attempt to force Babylonian evidence into these notions. A number of studies re-evaluated the archaeological record and con- cluded that the sites of Babylonia’s major cities do not show evidence of 8 The quote is from Kuhrt 2014, 166 where she reflects on the 1987 article with Sherwin- White. 9 See Kuhrt and Sherwin-White 1987. 10 This collective designation has appeared recently in publications looking back on the achievements of a group of scholars associated with the Achaemenid History Workshops of the 1980s and early 1990s (e.g. Harrisson 2010). See McCaskie 2012 and Imanpour 2015 for discussions of the intellectual origins of this school. 11 Kuhrt 1988, 66–68; Sancisi-Weerdenburg 1989; Wiesehöfer 2002, 37. 12 Kuhrt 1997, 302. 13 Kuhrt 1988, 68. 4 C. WAERZEGGERS destruction under Xerxes, as previously claimed by Schmid and others.14 Other studies decried the uncertainty, or even misuse, of Babylonian sources in earlier scholarship. Newly published texts revealed that the element ‘King of Babylon’ had not been removed abruptly from Xerxes’ royal titulature: it remained in use, albeit irregularly, in the post-revolt era and even into the reign of Xerxes’ successor Artaxerxes I.15 The continued use of the title, it was argued, did not fit a scenario of instant retribution but rather pointed to gradual cultural change as the empire stabilized into ‘an ever more integrated political unit’ where the need to emphasise its discrete entities was no longer felt.16 Similarly, the dearth of clay tablets from Xerxes’ reign was seen as caused no longer by oppression but by the interplay of a number of incidental factors, such as the spread of Aramaic, possible changes in the use of writing technologies and record- keeping, and accidents of preservation and publication.17 With Babylonian evidence for Xerxes’ alleged destructions being revised, some ancient historians questioned whether the revolts had taken place under Xerxes at all. Amélie Kuhrt (1997) and Robert Rollinger (1998, 366–367) both argued that the revolts of Šamaš-erība and Bēl-šimânni could have happened in the late reign of Darius and that Böhl’s dating to 484 and 482 (1962, 111– 112) was based only on the pervasive image of Xerxes as destroyer of sanctuar- ies. Pierre Briant (1992) contemplated a date later in the reign of Xerxes. While these suggestions were quickly dismissed by Oelsner for contradicting sound cuneiform evidence (Oelsner 1999/2000, 377), these speculations further increased suspicion that testimony from cuneiform texts had been bent in order to comply with pre-existing notions about Xerxes’ alleged reprisals against Babylonia. In the mid-00s the discussion about Xerxes’ Babylonian policy took a new turn. Significant progress in Neo-Babylonian studies since the 1980s allowed better access to the massive text corpus from the long sixth century BCE. Michael Jursa’s 2005 guidebook of the Neo-Babylonian legal and administra- tive documents exemplifies the potential for corpus-wide research presenting itself at the time. In 2004 two independent studies simultaneously argued that traces of repressive measures could be observed in cuneiform records dating to the time of the revolts against Xerxes. Karlheinz Kessler (2004) showed that Babylon-bred families, who had dominated city politics at Uruk for genera- tions, were ousted and replaced by a new local faction under Xerxes, a shift that led to new dynamics in Uruk’s social and cultural fabric. In the same year, Caroline Waerzeggers (2003/2004) argued that the widespread abandonment of 14 Rollinger 1993, 214–226; Rollinger 1998; Wiesehöfer 2002, 39–40; Wiesehöfer 2007. 15 Stolper 1985, 9; Joannès 1989b; Rollinger 1998 and 1999. 16 Kuhrt 2002, 490. 17 Stolper 1985, 9; MacGinnis 1994; Joannès 1995. INTRODUCTION: DEBATING XERXES’ RULE IN BABYLONIA 5 archives in 484 BCE should be seen as a by-product of targeted reprisals against supporters of the rebellions in northern and central Babylonian cities. Since then the discussion develops in two directions. Assyriologists discover more evidence in cuneiform materials that qualifies the year 484 BCE as a turn- ing point in late Babylonian history;18 ancient historians and archaeologists continue to stress that there is no evidence for destruction of Babylonian cities and temples in the wake of the revolts.19 While these two positions are not mutu- ally exclusive, a certain tension exists between them. The latter position is defended with tenacity, as can be seen in the number of publications appearing on the subject, often restating opinions multiple times in co-written articles.20 The intensity of this discussion is due to the fact that it touches upon some of the central tenets of the New Achaemenid History school as outlined above. In this literature there is a tendency to eulogize Xerxes’ response to the revolts: he is presented as the ‘architect of a stable empire’ (Kuhrt 2014, 169), praised for ‘successfully’ managing the Babylonian crisis with purely administrative measures, in a rational way, as a ‘radical reformer of bureaucracy’.21 Not coin- cidentally, such qualifications invert the Orientalist image of Xerxes as an ‘unstable, unrestrained, hubristic, and revengeful tyrant’ (Müller 2016, 178). XERXES AND BABYLONIA: THE CUNEIFORM EVIDENCE In light of these tensions, most assyriological research on the Babylonian revolts against Xerxes since 2004 has moved away from the specific question of violent retribution, towards other areas of interest that are better suited for a text-based approach.22 The first area deals with the sequence and nature of 18 The literature is reviewed below in the next section. 19 Kuhrt 2010; Kuhrt 2014; Rollinger 2008, 493–497; Rollinger 2014b, 166; Rollinger 2014c, 162–171; Heinsch and Kuntner 2011; Heinsch, Kuntner and Rollinger 2011; Kuntner and Heinsch 2013; Kuntner, Heinsch and Allinger-Csollisch 2011; Allinger-Csollich 2011; Henkelman, Kuhrt, Rollinger, Wiesehöfer 2011. 20 See the references in the previous footnote. E.g. at the end of their co-authored 2011 article Wouter Henkelman, Amélie Kuhrt, Robert Rollinger, and Josef Wiesehöfer discredit with a shared authoritative voice any future engagement as a return to the prejudiced default: “We have not the slightest doubt that the picture of Xerxes as the destroyer of Babylonian temples, with its supposed repercussions for the cult, for the theologically global position of Babylon, and for the city itself will continue to resurface time and again. The suggestive power of the tradition and the historical image it transmits will ensure so much.” 21 Rollinger 2014b, 166 (“Xerxes’ I. erfolgreiche Reaktion auf die Erhebungen”); Rollinger 2014c, 166 (“Das Bild, das sich hier von Xerxes und seinen Maßnahmen darbietet, ist weniger das eines Tempelzerstörers, als vielmehr das eines radikalen Verwaltungsreformers”); Rollinger 2008, 496. 22 George (2005/2006 and 2010) took up the subject of the alleged destruction of the ziggurrat of Babylon by Xerxes and Waerzeggers 2010 (p. 9) considered possible destructions in Borsippa; 6 C. WAERZEGGERS events in the year 484 BCE itself. Joachim Oelsner (2007) and Heather Baker (2008) adduced more evidence for a sudden break in the cuneiform text corpus at that time; both also pointed towards possible traces of disturbance in one of the houses (N12; Baker 2008, 104–105) where an archive was abandoned after the uprisings, an interpretation later dismissed for being too uncertain by Heinsch, Kuntner and Rollinger (2011). Michael Jursa (2011) studied the archi- val and administrative procedures followed by administrators of the Ebabbar temple when closing off their institution’s archive after the revolts. A newly published tablet from the Metropolitan Museum of Art, dated to Šamaš-erība ‘King of Babylon and of the lands’, supplied a welcome addition to the slim corpus of texts written during the rebellion, extending the duration of Šamaš- erība’s revolt with twelve days, well into the eighth month of Xerxes’ second regnal year (Spar and Jursa 2014 no. 140). A second area of interest relates to the nature of Babylonian dissatisfaction with Persian rule. Letters from Borsippa, dated shortly before 484 BCE, reveal a worried, even panicked, atmosphere in the city when priestly families found that the income of their temple offices had been withdrawn by state officials without explanation (Jursa 2013). This unwelcome interference by the imperial authorities may well have ignited anti-Persian sentiments among the priests of Borsippa, who rallied behind the rebels in large numbers (Waerzeggers 2010). It remains to be seen whether the events in Borsippa were part of a larger, nation-wide policy.23 But certainly there were longer and wider transformations that affected Babylonia’s relationship to the Persian state. Jursa has argued that mounting tax pressures and the over-exploitation of Babylonian resources, especially since the reign of Darius I, were among the factors that contributed to dissatisfaction with Persian rule and the outbreak of overt revolt in 484 BCE (Jursa 2007, 90–91 and 2009, 266; Jursa 2015, 96, 103). A third area of interest concerns the long-term impact of Persian counter- insurgency on Babylonian society, economy, and culture. The on-going explo- ration of the cuneiform evidence from the later fifth and fourth centuries BCE reveals deep-rooted, structural changes in the post-revolt era. These changes affected different population groups in different ways, so describing these devel- opments as either negative or positive is misleading. The elite shift in Uruk implies a combination of both experiences: the dismissal of old, Babylon-based families allowed new groups to assert themselves in the city and to design and implement their own cultural program (Kessler 2004; Berlejung 2009). The responses were formulated by Allinger-Csollich 2011; Henkelman, Kuhrt, Rollinger and Wiesehöfer 2011; Henkelman 2010; Rollinger 2014a, 202. 23 In Sippar, Inbāya’s difficulty to secure a stable contract for the performance of her prebends could be indicative of uncertainties surrounding the prebendary system there (Waerzeggers 2014). The occasional shortages of staples in Sippar’s temple economy also point to irregularities (Jursa, this volume). INTRODUCTION: DEBATING XERXES’ RULE IN BABYLONIA 7 Eanna temple was dismantled in due course and replaced with a new place of worship, based on a local theology entirely different from the Babylon-oriented ideas that had prevailed previously. While this shift inaugurated the ascent of one group, it meant the dramatic end of another (Baker 2014). Such micro- historical studies reveal the real-life impact of Xerxes’ counterinsurgency measures. There is also evidence of broader, structural change. Hackl and Pirn- gruber (2015) explain price volatility on the agricultural market in the fifth and fourth centuries as a result of changes in the institutional framework of agri- culture after 484 BCE: the introduction of more direct forms of state control of temple lands, the confiscation of private land in favour of state officials and protégés, and the redirection of agricultural management away from temples and into the hands of entrepreneurs (Jursa 2014). The state’s reliance on large- scale agricultural entrepreneurs in the post-484 BCE era “entailed an impover- ishment of a larger section of the rural population and a comparative instability of prices for basic goods” (Pirngruber 2017, 66). Other discontinuities are observed in the area of temple management. In Babylonia’s principal temple, the Esangila of Babylon, the centuries-old prebend system was abolished after the revolts and replaced with a ration-based system of remuneration — a meas- ure that undermined the autonomy and internal hierarchy of the existing priest- hoods (Hackl 2013, 392). Priests formed tight-knit communities based on their prebendary titles; any change in the prebend system would have had effects on the social and economic organization of entire communities (Still 2016). At the same time, rationed astronomers at Esangila booked great advances in science under the new system and continued the long-running project of the Astronomi- cal Diaries (Beaulieu 2006; Ossendrijver, this volume). Qualifying the impact of Xerxes’ Babylonian policy requires a contextualized approach in order to prevent levelling out the variety of experiences and outcomes. THIS VOLUME The goal of this volume is to contribute to the debate about Xerxes’ reign in Babylonia by further exploring the evidence from contemporary cuneiform sources. In doing so, it answers the familiar call to emancipate our appreciation of the Persian Empire from Greek narratives by studying it from within. The contributions address topics relating to each of the three areas outlined above: the pre-history of the revolts, the revolts themselves, and their short- and long-term impact on Babylonian culture, economy, and society. Reinhard Pirngruber, in a critique of current scholarship, seeks to understand Babylo- nia’s malaise with Persian rule from long-term structural developments rather than from Xerxes’ particular personality or individual agency. Contrary to the popular narrative about the seamless integration of Babylonia in Cyrus’ 8 C. WAERZEGGERS emergent empire, Pirngruber argues that the take-over of 539 BCE had immedi- ate and wide-felt repercussions for Babylonia’s population. These repercussions are visible in rapidly increasing prices: by the middle of Darius I’s reign prices had soared to unprecedented heights and the pressure on people’s lives had become palpable. According to Pirngruber, a combination of mutually enforc- ing factors caused this effect; some of these were directly tied to Persian impe- rial governance while others were longer in the making. The dislocation of the imperial centre to Iran and its lavish suppliance (from newly built infrastructure to court celebrations) drained state resources from Babylonia’s economy, par- ticularly in the reign of Darius I but also already during the reigns of his pre- decessors. At the same time, a process of increasing bureaucratization since the Neo-Babylonian empire had already started to yield diminishing returns when Cyrus came to power. Like Pirngruber, Małgorzata Sandowicz questions the validity of the tradi- tional narrative of continuity from Nabonidus to the first Persian emperors. Her evidence is taken not from price data but from prosopography, particularly the role of the governor of Babylonia (aka ‘satrap’) and his personnel in the admin- istration of justice. Based on a study of legal texts dated to the reigns of the first Persian kings (some hitherto unpublished), she argues that while it is cor- rect that the new rulers did not change Babylonia’s court system, they did introduce new people — often of non-Babylonian descent — into this system. In this way, Sandowicz demonstrates that the installation of Persian rule brought about perceptible administrative changes already under Cyrus, and that the more radical transformations under Xerxes and his successors should be evaluated against the backdrop of these longer-term developments. Michael Jursa turns our attention from the long-term to the short-term: which circumstantial factors interacted with structural ones (i.e. economic dis- tress) to trigger the revolts in 484 BCE? Continuing his earlier reflections on this topic (2013), Jursa finds indications in the evidence from the city of Sippar that the state was losing control of the Babylonian temples in the years leading up to the revolts. Positions or activities that had previously been reserved for royal protégés were now being appropriated by members of Babylonia’s native priestly families. Such negligence, Jursa argues, was likely a factor in the out- break of the rebellions shortly after Darius I’s death. The prosopography of the position of the qīpu, not just in Sippar but also in several other cities, is par- ticularly indicative of the state’s inability to maintain its established preroga- tives in Babylonian temple administration in the years before the revolts. In the second part of his contribution, Jursa revisits an earlier paper (Jursa 2004) and re-examines the structure of the Ebabbar archive as a testimony of the circum- stances surrounding its storage in Xer 2. In contrast to his earlier conclusions, he sees little evidence of an active management taking charge of Ebabbar’s archival production in the wake of the revolts. Based on a comparison with the INTRODUCTION: DEBATING XERXES’ RULE IN BABYLONIA 9 structure of the Eanna archive, which was stored following an institutional re- organisation in Dar 2, he suggests that the majority of the Ebabbar archive as known to us, had been stored long before the outbreak of the revolts (in c. Dar 20). In Xer 2, a relatively small sample of ephemeral texts were added to this discarded material. Remarkably, a large percentage of these abandoned texts pertain to the sacrificial economy, which invites speculation about the fate of Ebabbar’s cult after the revolts. Karlheinz Kessler invites us to take a closer look at the storage of three tablet assemblages in Uruk as a reflection of counterinsurgency measures in the south of Babylonia: the Eanna archive, the archive of the Egibi family, and the Gimil-Nanāya B archive. Based on available archaeological evidence about the find contexts of the Eanna archive, Kessler speculates that the final abandonment of the Eanna cult complex as well as the disturbances of the Eanna archives may well be due to interventions by the Persian administration under Xerxes, even though there is no evidence for any archival text production at Eanna after Dar 29, the date of the last-recorded transaction known so far. The Egibi and Gimil-Nanāya B archives illustrate the divergent fates that befell Uruk’s community around the time of the revolts. The Egibi family was part of the Babylon-based elite which fell victim to the social changes after the revolts. An archive associated with several members of this family, occupying high priestly positions in the Eanna temple, was found near the temple precinct in an area that was to become deserted in the later Achaemenid period. Kessler finds traces of the family’s orientation towards Babylon until the very last documented generation, only a few years before the revolts broke out. Spanning until Dar 33, the archive does not survive into the post-revolt era. Kessler sug- gests that the residents of the entire area west of Eanna left their homes never to return. The Gimil-Nanāya family, by contrast, was able to maintain its archive across the time of unrest. This family lived in a different section of town and also belonged to a different stratum of Uruk’s priesthood compared to the Egibis. Caroline Waerzeggers reflects on the effects of Xerxes’ intervention in Babylonia on the shape and structure of the overall text corpus of the long sixth century BCE. Processes of archive production had taken place in a decentral- ized and organic fashion until 484 BCE but they became politicized and homogenized during the corpus’ final moments of formation. By reading the corpus ‘backwards’, as a residue of the social networks that had formed in Babylonia in the decades prior to the revolts, Waerzeggers shows that the struc- tural features of the corpus can be used to study the social fault lines of (anti- imperial) political action as it unfolded. Mathieu Ossendrijver takes us into the post-revolt era with a study of the fate of Babylonian scholarship under Xerxes. At first sight, the dearth of schol- arly texts dated to his reign could be taken as a sign that Babylon’s scholars 10 C. WAERZEGGERS suffered the same disruption as other elites in the aftermath of the revolts, but Ossendrijver warns us that the reality was more complex. First of all, evidence from Uruk and Babylon dated in the late Persian and Hellenistic period shows that the astral sciences were continued much in the same way and at the same level as before. The long-running project of the Astronomical Diaries at Baby- lon’s Esangila temple is a good case in point: while no Diaries are known that date to Xerxes’ reign, there is ample evidence from his successors that the project continued with the same practices of observation and record-keeping that had been in place long before the advent of the Persian Empire. Second, Ossendrijver shows that Babylon’s astronomers were able to create or maintain a beneficial relationship with the imperial authorities in the time after the revolts. This can be seen from the fact that their system of intercalation was adopted for use throughout the empire, probably from Xerxes’ tenth regnal year onwards. Moreover, they continued to perform their divinatory practices in the service or at least in reference to the Persian king. This leads to the conclusion that the astronomers did not only survive the time of the uprisings but also found a new modus operandi with the imperial government that led to new opportunities, professionally and socially. But not all members of Babylon’s temple community shared in this fate. Based on a study of the Late Achaemenid and Early Hellenistic Esangila archive Johannes Hackl shows that the chief temple of Babylon underwent a thorough restructuring of its top-level as well as of its intermediate manage- ment positions. Based on circumstantial evidence, he proposes to date this pro- cess of re-organization to the reign of Xerxes’ successor at the latest. The most fundamental change at Esangila compared to the pre-revolt period relates, in Hackl’s opinion, to the organization of the priesthood. The operation of a ration system with an egalitarian standard of remuneration (based on age, rank and profession) is completely at odds with the principles of the prebend system that had supported the priesthood of northern Babylonian temples in the sixth cen- tury and earlier. Hackl finds no evidence whatsoever that the prebend system was still in place in Esangila and Ezida (in Borsippa) in the post-Xerxes period. The fact that the familiar system did survive in Uruk, where a new faction had been allowed to establish a new theology focused on Anu and the Rēš temple, is evidence for the targeted nature of Persia’s responses to the revolts. Paul-Alain Beaulieu studies the developments at Uruk more closely. He adduces new evidence, partly from unpublished texts, which dates the transfor- mation of Uruk’s civic religion more closely to the reign of Xerxes than previ- ously possible. By c. 440 BCE, the city’s favour had shifted away from Ištar and the pantheon that had been associated with her and the Eanna temple for centuries. Anu now enjoyed the highest favour, not only in the people’s hearts (as can be seen in their enthusiastic embrace of Anu-names) but also in the city’s institutionalized religion. However, while Anu’s ascent can be dated to INTRODUCTION: DEBATING XERXES’ RULE IN BABYLONIA 11 the post-revolt era, Beaulieu shows that this deity’s popularity had been stead- ily on the rise already since the reign of Nabonidus, particularly among families with deep local roots such as Ekur-zakir and Hunzû. This leads to the conclu- sion that Anu’s rising popularity may have originated in a counter-movement against the centralizing claims of the Babylonian Empire, which had enforced the cults of its imperial heartland, centred on Marduk and Nabû, in Uruk. After the revolts, such local responses received the support of the Persian authorities who recognized the benefit of promoting local identities over those that could potentially unite larger territories, such as the former Babylonian Empire. From these studies, the revolts of 484 BCE emerge as a critical moment in the history of Persian Babylonia when local and imperial interests clashed with effects that were both immediate and long-term, widespread and localized. Baby- lonian culture indeed persisted ‘in a vital continuity’ (Heinsch, Kuntner and Roll- inger 2011, 472) but such optimistic qualifications require the necessary modifi- cations in order to do justice to the variety of experiences and outcomes. TIMELINE OF THE REVOLTS The sequence of events in 484 BCE can be reconstructed from archival texts written during the revolts.24 These are accidental testimonies at best, with no or little reference to what was happening on the political stage, but they are useful for establishing a chronology of the rebellions. Babylonian notarial prac- tice required scribes to append to each legal contract the name of the town where the transaction took place, as well as the day, month and year of the reigning king. In this way, we learn on what day and in which city Bēl-šimânni and Šamaš-erība were recognized as highest legal authority in the land. How- ever, because the cuneiform date only refers to the year of a king’s reign and not to an absolute point in time, we need to use other data to determine when a reign took place. Because Bēl-šimânni and Šamaš-erība are not included in the known king lists, it took Assyriologists a long time to fix their reigns in absolute terms. The first step in this direction was made by Ungnad (1907, 466–467), who understood that the lifespans of the people mentioned in the contracts provided a rough time indication, suggesting the late reign of Darius I or the early reign of Xerxes. San Nicolò (1934, 336) subsequently fixed the date for the revolt of Bēl-šimânni in the second year of Xerxes, based on infor- mation contained in one of the texts dated in his reign. Šamaš-erība’s revolt remained unfixed much longer. External evidence was brought to bear on the question: Cameron (1941, 323–324) suggested Xer 4 because of Xerxes’ drop- ping of the element ‘King of Babylon’ from his royal titulature as (putative) 24 See Waerzeggers 2003/2004. 12 C. WAERZEGGERS symbolic punishment for disobedience. Briant (1992, 13) later suggested that Xer 6 would be a better fit because a Babylonian uprising in that year would explain Persian mismanagement of the Greek front. Waerzeggers (2003/2004) placed Šamaš-erība’s revolt in 484 BCE, the same year as Bēl-šimânni’s, based partly on internal evidence from previously unpublished cuneiform tablets and partly on the archival context of the contracts dated to Šamaš-erība. This pro- posal was scrutinized by Oelsner (2007) and has since been accepted in the literature. With both rebels dated to the same year, the following outline of events presents itself (see Waerzeggers 2003/2004). After the death of Darius I, Xerxes seems to have gained acceptance in Babylonia immediately, despite the unrest that was going on in Egypt at the time. Trouble began in the fourth month of his second year, the summer of 484 BCE, when citizens of Sippar declared Šamaš-erība, a man of uncertain origin, ‘King of Babylon’ in a first act of open rebellion since Nebuchadnezzar IV’s failed attempt to end Persian rule in 521 BCE. The earliest text that recognizes Šamaš-erība as king was written on the 4th day of month V. Ten days later (14/15-V), evidence for a second rebel, Bēl- šimânni, emerges in Borsippa and Dilbat, cities to the south of Sippar. With Šamaš-erība still recognized in Sippar, Babylonia was now caught up in a double-headed revolt: both rebels fought against Persian imperial rule and per- haps also against each other. Šamaš-erība emerged victorious from this conflict and went on to face Xerxes as sole contender. By the second half of the sixth month, he enjoyed support in Sippar, Babylon, Borsippa, Kiš, and presumably also in Dilbat where Bēl-šimânni had previously been active. There is no evi- dence that the south ever participated directly in the rebellion, but this can be due to poor documentation; Uruk’s inhabitants certainly felt the effects of Per- sia’s counter-insurgency (Oelsner 2007, 296; Kessler 2004; and see Kessler and Beaulieu, both in this volume). The last tablet written during Šamaš-erība’s rebellion dates to day 11 of the eighth month (Spar and Jursa 2014 no. 140). After this text, the cuneiform documentation from Babylonia suddenly falls silent. The first Xerxes-dated tablet after the revolts dates to day 18 of the tenth month (N18: 29, written in Babylon; see Oelsner 2007, 295). The lack of writ- ten sources from the time of the counter-insurgency contributes to the persistent uncertainties about the timing and nature of Xerxes’ response. BIBLIOGRAPHY Allinger-Csollich, W. 2011: “Die Ziqqurrat von Babylon nach dem archäologischen Befund: Auch ein Beitrag zu Herodots Babylonischen Logos”, in R. Rollinger, B. Truschnegg and R. Bichler (eds.), Herodot� und� das� Persische� Weltreich� /� Herodotus�and�the�Persian�Empire (CleO 3), Wiesbaden, 531–556. INTRODUCTION: DEBATING XERXES’ RULE IN BABYLONIA 13 Böhl, F.M.T. de Liagre 1962: “Die babylonischen Prätendenten zur Zeit des Xerxes”, BiOr 19, 110–114. Baker, H.D. 2008: “Babylon in 484 BC: The Excavated Archival Tablets as a Source for Urban History”, ZA 98, 100–116. 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TOWARDS A FRAMEWORK FOR INTERPRETING SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE IN BABYLONIA DURING THE LONG 6th CENTURY BCE1 Reinhard PIRNGRUBER (University of Vienna) In a recent contribution, the present author discussed the significant develop- ments in the social fabric of Neo-Babylonian and Achaemenid Babylonia, con- trasting the ‘long 6th century’ — the period between Nabopolassar’s establish- ment of the Chaldean dynasty in 6262 and the putting down of the revolts against Xerxes in 484 — with the Late Achaemenid period, that is, the decades between 484 and the Macedonian conquest of Babylonia in 331.3 In order to integrate the results in the wider discourse on the exercise of state power in the pre-industrial world, a framework suggested by economist Douglass North (North et al. 2009) was employed that puts the focus on the composition of those wielding power on a local level and their strategies of regulating inclu- sion into and exclusion from their ranks (‘limited access’), as well as the way these politically dominant elites create economic privileges for themselves (‘rent creation’). As a complement to the above-mentioned analysis, we shall in the following pages attempt to cast light on socio-economic and political developments and changes in Babylonia in the decades leading up to the year 484. Again, we shall adopt an approach focussing on impersonal forces — social structures and the dynamics of state governance — which also has the methodological advantage of shifting the focus of attention away from the person of Xerxes, whose response to the revolts can hardly be characterized as atypical. After all, puni- tive measures taken by kings against insubordinate populations rank among the most banal occurrences in ancient (Near Eastern) history and beyond. Suffice it here to briefly refer to two well-known examples from the empires immedi- ately preceding and following the Achaemenid Empire. In 587 the Judeans 1 This article was written within the framework of the research network “Imperium”� and� “Officium”�— Comparative�Studies�in�Ancient�Bureaucracy�and�Officialdom, funded by the FWF — Fonds zur Förderung der wissenschaftlichen Forschung (Vienna). All dates are BCE. 2 We follow here the argumentation of Jursa 2007a. The most recent discussion of the genesis of the Neo-Babylonian Empire (with a focus on chronology) is found in Fuchs 2014. 3 Pirngruber, forthcoming. Also Jursa 2014a is relevant here, discussing the changes in the institutional framework after 484 and the concomitant developments in factor markets for land, labour and capital. For the year 484 as crucial turning point in the history of Achaemenid rule over Babylonia, see Waerzeggers 2003/2004, Kessler 2004 and Baker 2008. 20 R. PIRNGRUBER under king Zedekiah revolted in vain against their Neo-Babylonian overlords, with devastating consequences. In Jerusalem, the royal palace, the temple and even residential quarters were burnt to the ground, and a large share of the population, and in particular the king and his retinue, was deported to Babylon.4 Even more gruesome was the fate of the inhabitants of the city of Tyre in 332, having barred Alexander the Great from entering their city after his victory over the Persian forces at Issus: when the city fell after a prolonged siege, women and children were sold into slavery whereas all men of military age were put to death by crucifixion.5 In the light of these and similar examples also dating to the Achaemenid period — one can think of the deportation of the Milesians after the city was captured by Persian forces in Darius’ response to the Ionian revolt6 — it should be clear that more insight is to be gained from an approach that attempts to locate the events of 484 in their wider political and socio- economic framework rather than from vilifying (or, on the contrary, overly apologetic) narratives centred on the person of the Great King that separate the revolts as well as their run-up and aftermath from their overarching context.7 This modest contribution is intended as a first step towards such an analysis. Our starting point is the rich price data from Babylonia in the last six centuries or so of the first millennium. A SHORT PRICE HISTORY OF BABYLONIA IN THE ACHAEMENID PERIOD While acknowledging the biased nature of documents such as the famous Cyrus Cylinder and the Verse Account of Nabonidus, glorifying Cyrus’ con- quest of Babylonia as liberation from the oppressive reign of the last king of the Neo-Babylonian dynasty,8 recent scholarship emphasizes the rather seam- less integration of Babylonia and its local organisations into the wider 4 See the detailed account in Lipschits 2005, especially 68–97 for a summary of the events and 210–223 for the archaeological evidence. 5 For modern accounts of the siege and references see, e.g. Bosworth 1988, 65–67 and Heckel 2008, 67–69. 6 Herodotus, Histories 6.20; but see the critical analysis of Cawkwell 2005, 78–79. 7 In the light of the examples listed above, the depiction of Xerxes as merely a ‘radikaler Verwaltungsreformer’ by Rollinger 2014, 166 clearly underestimates the amount of violence with which rebellious populations were confronted in antiquity and afterwards. Also, contrast the pos- tulated ‘gedeihliche Weiterentwicklung’ (Rollinger 2014, 159) of Babylonia under the later Achaemenids with the findings of Jursa 2014a or Pirngruber 2017, 47–70. 8 An edition of these and related documents is provided by Schaudig 2001. For a recent discus- sion see, e.g. van der Spek 2014; note also the important comments of Kuhrt 1990, 124 on com- mon elements in the narratives of the conquests of Babylonia by Sargon II, Cyrus and Alexander the Great. The actual conquest is discussed in Tolini 2005. INTERPRETING SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE IN BABYLONIA 21 Achaemenid imperial apparatus.9 One point that received particular attention in such discussion is the evident continuity both in institutions such as the prebendary system in Borsippa (Waerzeggers 2010a) and in the highest ranks of local administration (Jursa 2007b for an overview). While fully endorsing the notion that the year 484 constitutes indeed the major break in the relations between the Babylonians and their Persian over- lords (see literature quoted under footnote 3), it is likewise notable that from the perspective of price data this year is unexceptional. It is true that the 30 years or so immediately after the suppression of the revolts are not covered by any price data at all. It is hence impossible to gauge the direct impact of the suppression of the revolts of Šamaš-erība and Bēl-šimânni, or to tackle the question whether these events were comparable to the havoc wrought upon Babylonia by the constant warfare between the diadochi� in the aftermath of Alexander the Great’s death.10 However, when prices re-appear in the later 5th century, they are at about the same level as in the decades preceding the revolts, in spite of the fundamentally changed institutional framework alluded to above in the introduction. Indeed, a comparison of the mean barley price displays hardly any variation at all between the two (unequal) halves of Achaemenid rule over Babylonia, 9 Exemplarily Briant 2002, 70–76; also Jursa 2007b. 10 Pirngruber 2017, 107–122; for a detailed political history of Babylonia during the last quarter of the 4th century see, e.g. Boiy 2004, 117–137. Graph 1: Barley prices from 1st millennium Babylonia 22 R. PIRNGRUBER 539–484 and 484–331, amounting to 4.39 and 4.59 shekels/kurru respective- ly.11 Moreover, as prices tended to decline in the last years before the uprisings, a straightforward interpretation of the events of 484 as a kind of hunger revolt is untenable, especially in the light of the fact that wages caught up fairly quickly during these years (see Figure 25 in Jursa 2010, 679). Thus, applying conventional historical dividing lines, the entire Achaemenid period emerges as an era of fairly high barley prices in Babylonia compared to mean prices obtained for the ‘long 6th century’ (2.56 shekels/kurru) and the Seleucid period (2.09 shekels/kurru). Especially the contrast to the decades immediately pre- ceding the Achaemenid conquest is striking: between the second half of the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II and the end of the reign of Nabonidus, the mean barley price amounts to merely 1.04 shekels/kurru. In addition to a higher overall level, barley prices also were more volatile during the Achaemenid period, at least on an absolute level.12 On a side note, prices of other commodi- ties, including dates, sesame, sheep and slaves, generally follow the pattern established by the barley prices, albeit often in a less pronounced manner. The main reason for this phenomenon is that the price of barley was more sensitive to external influences because of the very low elasticity of its demand: contrary to commodities of secondary importance, e.g. wool, the demand for barley did not decline with rising prices (or at least declines to a much lower degree) as it was the country’s preferred staple food. Figure 1: Mean barley prices from 1st millennium Babylonia Period Mean price Standard deviation Achaemenid (539–331) 4.51 2.90 539–484 4.39 3.15 484–331 4.59 2.77 ‘Long 6th century’ (620–480) 2.56 2.53 573–539 1.04 0.45 Seleucid (300–140) 2.09 1.35 Hence, as regards the movement of prices, the conquest of Babylonia by Cyrus the Great in 539 is indicative of a greater break with the preceding dec- ades than has been assumed in recent scholarship. Prices after that point in time no longer oscillated around the benchmark of one shekel per kurru of barley as was the case since the 570s, with repeated low prices of 0.4 shekels/kurru late 11 Both Graph 1 and Figure 1 are based on the price data contained in Jursa 2010, 443–451 and the data from the Astronomical Diaries discussed, e.g. in Pirngruber 2017. 12 The coefficient of variation — that is, the standard deviation divided by the mean price — is roughly equal (c. 0.65) for the Achaemenid and Seleucid periods, but lower for the decades of the apogee of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, 573–539 (0.43). INTERPRETING SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE IN BABYLONIA 23 in the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II but fluctuated first between 2 and 3 shekels/ kurru during the reigns of Cyrus and Cambyses, rose to unprecedented heights of c. 10 shekels/kurru�in the reign of Darius I before stabilizing at a price level between 3 and 4 shekels/kurru�late in that king’s reign. This ties in well with the data from the Late Achaemenid period, when the mean barley price amounted to 3.37 shekels/kurru in the years between 400 and 330 according to the evidence from the Astronomical Diaries, with even higher prices prevailing in the 5th century as far as the scanty evidence allows us to see.13 The rich Babylonian price data from the long 6th century and its trend-line have been explained convincingly by M. Jursa in terms of an on-going com- mercialisation of the Babylonian economy.14 According to his interpretation, Babylonia experienced a phase of intensive economic growth especially from the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II onwards, which was triggered by an interplay of several factors including demographic growth, increasing urbanization and division of labour, agricultural intensification, and government spending on both prestigious building projects (e.g. the North Palace in the city of Babylon) and the country’s agrarian infrastructure, especially the all-important canals, with the nār� šarri (‘royal canal’) connecting the Euphrates with the Tigris being the most prominent example. An important consequence of these devel- opments was a significant expansion of the market as a mode of economic integration and a concomitant monetization of the economy. The inflation- ary peak prices — and not only of barley but for a broad variety of different goods — during the reign of Darius I, i.e. roughly the last quarter of the 6th cen- tury, should then be ascribed to the characteristics of Persian taxation which altered to a significant extent the relationship between silver money in circula- tion and the quantity of commodities and the amount of labour power availa- ble: “goods and labour, much more than cash resources, were requisitioned in various ways and employed in western Iran, especially in and around Susa” (Jursa 2015a, 96; for a description of the Achaemenid taxation system see Jursa 2009 and 2011). There is thus a clear connection between the Babylonian peak prices around 510 and the extensive building works undertaken in Susa under Darius I who expanded the city into one of the Empire’s capitals. This is corroborated by archival data, which is clearly bearing witness to the important contributions of Babylonian households, both private and institutional, to the construction of Darius’ palace in Susa and other projects.15 Again, it would be misleading to focus exclusively on the person of Darius I, who according to Herodotus (3.89) 13 For the Late Achaemenid barley prices recorded in the Astronomical Diaries see Pirngruber 2017, 95–106. The price data of the 5th century is discussed in Hackl and Pirngruber 2015. 14 See especially Jursa 2010, 783–800; also 745–753 and 780–783. 15 Tolini 2011, 275–334 provides a discussion of the pertinent documents, especially 275–286 on the palace. See also Waerzeggers 2010b. 24 R. PIRNGRUBER was a kapēlos, a petty trader, at heart, who would willingly sacrifice institu- tional stability for short-term gain.16 For the time being, suffice it here to refer back to the price rise that started already with Cyrus’ takeover (see Table 49 in Jursa 2010, 443–447). As a recent study by G. Tolini has brought to light, there is clear evidence in the Babylonian documentation that already before Darius I the stream of commodities and labour once directed into the capital city of Babylon was increasingly diverted towards other regions, mainly west- ern Iran. The regions benefiting most from the new lay of the land were amongst other the Gulf region and, not surprisingly, the Fars, homeland of the Achaemenid dynasty. Larger scale building works with significant contribu- tions of Babylonian households were carried out in Humadešu, Matnanu and Taokè in the reigns of Cyrus and Cambyses.17 The text TCL 13 85 from the Eanna archive provides a fitting illustration of the significant quantities of com- modities the temple had to deliver to Humadešu in order to maintain its work- force there: in a single year, the 37 workmen whom the temple had to muster were provided with a grand total of 222 kurru of barley, corresponding to almost 40 hectolitres of barley, which translates to 24.8 metric tons, 222 kurru of dates (about 32 metric tons), 444 shekels of silver as well as several addi- tional foodstuffs (sesame oil, cress) and various other items (shoes and clothing).18 It seems thus clear that already under the Persian rulers preceding Darius I, the same mechanisms that led to unprecedented inflation during his reign were at work: as in the Neo-Babylonian period, Babylonian temple and private households were charged with mustering workforces and provide them with commodities, but government spending now shifted slowly but inexorably from Babylonia to the East. To conclude this brief price history of the region, it should also be pointed out that of course not all price rises can mechanically be attributed to political interventions. A case in point seems to be the series of high barley prices early in the reign of Cambyses which have been attributed to a sequence of harvest failures by K. Kleber (2012). The bulk of the letter corpus (YOS 3 33, 79 and 81) records prices of 2.5 shekels of silver (and sometimes more) for the second 16 See the analysis of Kurke 1999, 80–89. 17 Tolini 2011, 73–95. On Babylonian workers in Matnanu see also Henkelman and Kleber 2007. The lands to the east of the Tigris also became the focus of military building activity, the most prominent outpost being Lahīru (Tolini 2011, 97–105). As Tolini emphasizes at several points in his excellent study, the (also geographical) integration of Babylonia with Iran was a main concern of early Achaemenid rulers. 18 A partial translation of TCL 13 85 is provided by Tolini 2011, 82–83. For the conversion rates of litres to kilos see Jursa 2010, 48–53, especially footnotes 202 and 209. To get a better idea of the magnitude of the above numbers, according to the hypothetical balance sheet calcu- lated by Jursa 2010, 572–575, the Ebabbar temple in Sippar, a comparatively small household with respect to the Eanna, disposed of a yearly gross income of c. 6.000 kurru of barley, half of which was destined for sacrifices to the gods and rations for temple personnel ‘of the inner city’ (ša�qabalti�āli), craftsmen and the like (see Bongenaar 1997, 296–422 and 425, Table 9). INTERPRETING SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE IN BABYLONIA 25 year of Cambyses, which is more than twice the level that prevailed under Nabonidus a decade earlier.19 While Kleber’s overall argument and her chrono- logical reconstruction of the epistolographic dossier concerning the activities of Innin-aḫḫē-iddin, an overseer-of-serfs (rab�širki) of the Eanna active in the early Achaemenid period, are convincing, a consideration of the overall politi- cal and economic circumstances at the time when these letters were written provides us with some interesting additional details. Especially the sojourn of the itinerant Persian court at the palace of Abanu in southern Babylonia during Cambyses’ second year (528/7) may have contributed more than previously acknowledged to the scarcity of goods. The Babylonian temples’ duty to provi- sion the palace in this period must have been an additional burden in an already strained supply situation.20 Comparative evidence from Hellenistic Babylonia helps to elucidate the often considerable impact of increased demand on the supply situation of various foodstuffs.21 TOWARDS COLLAPSE IN BABYLONIA IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 6th CENTURY BC It hardly comes as a surprise that the relegation of Babylonia from imperial capital of the Neo-Babylonian Empire to (privileged) tributary province of the Achaemenid Empire22 played a key role in the development of commodity prices, which display a steady increase from immediately after the conquest and a distinct peak during the reign of Darius I. However, as pointed out 19 The reign of Cyrus yields hardly any price data, see Jursa 2010, 446, Table 49. The fact that the highest barley prices of Cambyses’ reign date to his first year and hence precede the peak of the famine in his second and third years may suggest a harvest failure in his first year, with the supply situation hardly improving in the second and third years due to the phenomenon of autocorrelation and the ‘aggravating factor’ (Kleber 2012, 223 n. 13) of Cambyses’ presence. The very dramatic tone of some of these letters, especially MM 504 (first published in Stolper 2003) in which officials subordinate to Innin-aḫḫē-iddin complain that from the troops under their super- vision “40 workers had been taken away and 50 had died because of the lack of foodstuff” (see Kleber 2012, 228–229) needs not to be taken at face value, compare the similar dramatizing expressions in, e.g. TCL 9 12: 20–21 (“See, we will die if we don’t receive 2 talents of silver”), and BIN 1 92: 13–14, 17 (“We are, as you can see, dying here; we will not guarantee for the work … We are, as you can see, perishing here.”). I thank Y. Levavi (Tel Aviv) for providing these references. 20 See now Tolini 2011, 151–175; also Kleber 2008, 85–94. 21 Pirngruber 2017, especially 205–208 and 210–211. In those latter instance the increase in demand did not manifest itself as supply duties towards the royal court but in a more decentralized manner — often triggered by army soldiers present in the city due to convocation or also in the context of military operations (not necessarily in Babylon). 22 On Babylonia’s peculiar status see, e.g. Jursa 2010, 61: “It would be misleading however to consider Babylonia as part of the imperial ‘periphery’ at the end of our period: it had to make substantial resources of goods and labour available to the Great Kings, but it also remained a central part of their realm.” 26 R. PIRNGRUBER explicitly by M. Jursa (2010, 745), prices started to rise already before the Persian conquest, during the 540s. We are thus well advised to search for addi- tional factors that prevented the stabilization of the commodity prices at the low levels prevailing during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II and early in the reign of Nabonidus, when the standard of living soared to unprecedented heights (Jursa 2010, 806–816). A fruitful approach to assess the question of socio-economic and political developments in Babylonia throughout the long 6th century is provided by J. Tainter’s application of the economists’ law of diminishing returns to the socio-political structures overarching society.23 According to his theory, the main reason for state collapse — Tainter’s primary scientific concern — is that ever larger investments in crucial areas of governance yield ever lower returns. In principle, his approach lends itself also to analysing developments on a provincial level, but unfortunately, the dearth of sources following the ‘end of archives’ in 484 precludes in-depth analysis of the question whether Babylonia truly experienced a collapse of state institutions early in the reign of Xerxes.24 The Late Achaemenid documentation points in any case to a significantly altered pattern in the organization of local power, the most noticeable develop- ment being the abolishment of the offices of šatammu and qīpu (Hackl, this volume). However, the abundant documentation from the long 6th century should allow us to highlight some of the institutional malaises prevailing in Babylonia during the Chaldean and Achaemenid Empires, which in the longer run led to increasing pressures on the subjected population and consequently constituted an important factor in the repeated attempts at secession from the Empire already under Darius I and then again under his son and successor Xerxes. Among the pillars of a given society that are generally affected by diminishing returns, Tainter (1988, 93) lists agriculture and resource production as well as overall economic productivity, but also social and political control and bureau- cratic specialization. It is on this final aspect that I shall focus in the following paragraphs. The main reasons for decreasing returns in the sphere of adminis- tration and control are, according to Tainter (1988, 115–117), the increasing size and specialization of the bureaucracy, to which the cumulative nature of organizational measures contributes. In order to cover the rising expenses, an 23 Tainter 1988. According to the Oxford Dictionary of Economics, “as the amount of any given variable input increases, beyond some point each additional unit of the variable input results in smaller and smaller increases in output”; also Tainter 1988, 92–94. The case studies to which he applied this theory comprise cultures as diverse as the western Roman and the Maya Empires. 24 With collapse, Tainter refers to any situation when “established complexity rapidly, notice- ably, and significantly declines” (Tainter 1988, 31). On state collapse in a Mesopotamian context and with a focus on the 2nd millennium and Alexander’s conquest see Yoffee 2005, 131–160; his definition of collapse, viz., a “drastic restructuring of social institutions” (Yoffee 2005, 138) is quite similar to Tainter’s. INTERPRETING SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE IN BABYLONIA 27 increase in taxation and other state demands is a likely consequence. Addition- ally, ever higher costs of legitimizing activities on part of the ruler as well as the need to maintain internal stability and to fend off external threats have to be accounted for. I shall now consider how these building blocks of Tainter’s theory apply to Babylonia in the long 6th century. From its inception, the Neo-Babylonian Empire was characterized by a costly ‘double administrative structure’ (Jursa 2014b, 131), whereby a royal official, usually bearing the title of qīpu, acted alongside the highest representa- tive of the local community, in larger cities (e.g. Babylon and Uruk) the šatammu and in smaller cities such as Sippar the šangû.25 This general structure and the precise hierarchies between these officials were of course subject to local and chronological variations. It is especially in the Eanna temple of Uruk that the trend towards an increasing bureaucratization is well discernible; the developments there seem to be grosso� modo applicable also to other temples such as the Sipparean Ebabbar.26 Already in the later reign of Nebuchadnez- zar II, a more numerous presence of royal courtiers (ša�rēš�šarri) in the temple administration can be noted. These people had no social ties to the local elites but were outsiders, often dispatched by the crown to the respective temples from the capital city of Babylon. In some cases, we are dealing with people of (North-) West Semitic extraction. Also in the case of the alphabet scribes (sepīru) active in the temples, who are again increasingly attested since the later years of Nebuchadnezzar II, the crown showed no hesitation in inserting Ara- means into the conservative temple sphere, dedicated to cultivating the time- honoured Babylonian culture.27 This trend of burdening the temples with addi- tional personnel owing its loyalty to the king still increases during the reign of Nabonidus and continues in the period of Persian rule which witnessed an even more pronounced influx of lower-level administrators of foreign extraction, in particular Egyptians after the country was conquered by Cambyses (Hackl and Jursa 2015, 165–172). Under Nabonidus, a further proliferation of high ranking offices staffed with courtiers and persons from the sphere of the crown is in evidence (Kleber 2008, 46). Already in his first regnal year, the newly created position of ša�rēš�šarri� bēl� piqitti (maybe best rendered as ‘royal commissioner’) became the highest office in the Eanna, while the ša�rēš�šarri�ša�ina�muhhi�quppi�ša�šarri (‘royal 25 And note that it was already in place during the period of Assyrian rule over Babylonia, at least since the reign of Esarhaddon as is clear from letters such as SAA 10 349 (especially line 28). 26 A detailed overview of the administration of the Eanna under due consideration of the developments over time (such as the temporary abolition of the office of the šatammu under Nabonidus) is given by Kleber 2008, 5–30. On the role of courtiers in the Ebabbar see Bongenaar 1997, especially 99–112. 27 Jursa 2015b provides a more detailed study of royal officials based on the onomastic evi- dence. On the sepīrus see Jursa 2012. 28 R. PIRNGRUBER official in charge of the cashbox of the king’) was put in charge of the king’s revenues in the temple. In the light of these changes, it is likely not by chance that also the office of zazakku�(‘royal secretary’ Jursa 2007b, 80–81), an even higher-ranking royal official in charge of the temple affairs and finances throughout Babylonia is best attested under Nabonidus.28 Curiously, and against the tendency of offices to persist under later kings, the zazakku disappears after the reign of Nabonidus (see the careful remarks of Joannès 1994), but in gen- eral, the Achaemenids retained the new bureaucratic landscape created by Nabonidus. It is thus especially with regard to the aspect of a growing bureau- cracy that Tainter’s approach is illuminating because it is able to account for the fundamental administrative continuity characterizing the transition from the Neo-Babylonian to the Achaemenid Empire. In the latter period, the available documentation attests to further increases in administrative specialization, such as the promotion of the royal sepīru-scribe and his integration on a permanent basis into the highest echelon of the temple’s administration (Jursa 2012, 393; Bongenaar 1997, 46) and the appointment of a deputy (šanû) to the qīpu in the reign of Darius I.29 Modern scholarship agrees that many of these newly created administrative posts served the purpose of tightening the state’s grip on the temples and their economic assets, to enhance the efficiency of taxation, and similar purposes, but without additional value for the temples themselves.30 Hence, the expanding bureaucratic apparatus must have grown increasingly costly to maintain — of which it is reasonable to assume that the temple bore the brunt — while at the same time it diverted the temples’ resources towards the sphere of the crown. In addition to this expansion of the local bureaucracy, we also see the crown establishing various devices in an attempt to increase the country’s production and its own share therein by different means. One institution to that purpose may have been the rent farm, also in all likelihood introduced late in the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II.31 Rent farm contracts were demonstrably concluded 28 On the zazakku see Dandamaev 1994. 29 Bongenaar 1997, 41 surmises that this official may have replaced the rab� širki, in which case his introduction still constitutes an intensification of the bureaucracy in the sense that it would be tantamount to a strengthening of the royal element in the local administration. 30 According to Jursa 2012, 393 (see also Kleber 2008, 30), the institutionalization of the sepīru “[sei] mit dem Wunsch der königlichen Verwaltung zu begründen, über eine bessere Kon- trolle des Mediums der Notation der Güterflüsse innerhalb der Tempelverwaltungen zu einem präziseren Überblick über diese Güterflüsse selbst zu gelangen (und diese gegebenenfalls effi- zienter besteuern zu können).” Kleber 2008, 17 states that the reforms of Nabonidus effectively brought the temples under firm control of royal officials; she also speaks of a “sehr weitreichende und detaillierte Kontrolle der wirtschaftlichen Vorgänge im Tempel durch die königliche Ver- waltung” during the reign of Cyrus (Kleber 2008, 58). 31 Jursa 1995, 85–116 discusses the rent farm in Sippar; Janković 2013, 145–264 gives an up-to-date overview of the institution in Uruk. Both also provide a brief forschungsgeschichtlichen overview of the term in Assyriology. INTERPRETING SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE IN BABYLONIA 29 under royal supervision and sometimes even upon royal instigation (Jursa 1995, 86). They essentially entailed the renting out of large tracts of temple lands — and sometimes even entire types of cultivation, e.g. in the case of Ana-amat- Bēl-atkal, who was in charge of the entire date horticulture of the Ebabbar early in the reign of Nabonidus (Jursa 1995, 87–95) — as well as the means of cultivating the land to individual entrepreneurs against a lump sum payment. It was then left to the rent farmer to oversee the cultivation and exact fees and harvest shares from the actual cultivators to have his (substantial) investment yield a profit. The advantage for the temple treasury was at least twofold: first, it produced a predictable annual income while passing the risk of financial loss in case of harvest failures on to the contractors. Secondly, the fact that rent farmers usually invested additional funds of their own meant an enlargement of the area under cultivation and agricultural intensification — hence, increased productivity. We can assume with M. Jursa that the crown played a pivotal role in promoting this system which was, according to him, “expanded with royal backing, sometimes perhaps to the benefit of royal protégés, certainly to the (direct or indirect) benefit of the king’s coffers — through taxation, and gener- ally through the exploitation of the temples’ resources, the crown had a direct interest in an increased efficiency of temple agriculture” (Jursa 2010, 195). The reference to royal protégés — the background of Šumu-ukīn is an illuminating example32 — is particularly relevant, as it calls to mind the concept of ‘rent creation’ brought forward by North et al. 2009, briefly alluded to in the intro- duction of this paper: the rent farm system created an opportunity for a diver- sion of the temple’s revenue stream to the detriment of potential local benefi- ciaries and towards royal minions, while strengthening the crown’s control over temple land and its produce by placing loyal servants in key positions.33 Also other means of creating rent for the king and his immediate entourage were employed, the most straightforward being the introduction of new taxes. In the Achaemenid period, to which the majority of the pertinent source mate- rial dates, this involved primarily the mobilization of manpower and deliveries of foodstuffs, rather than silver (cash) payments (see, e.g. Jursa 2011). A trans- port obligation introduced in the Achaemenid period is the kanšu. First attested in the reign of Cambyses is the flour tax (qēmu), and under Darius I the obligation to transport foodstuffs designated as upiyātu (a Persian loanword) to 32 See Hackl, Janković and Jursa 2011, especially 188–190 for his ties to the crown. Janković 2013, 158–185 gives a detailed overview of his career. 33 In the end, the institution does not seem to have been particularly lucrative for the rent farmers themselves, as both Šumu-ukīn and his nephew and successor as rent farmer Kalbāya struggled to meet their obligations vis-à-vis the Eanna. This may also explain why in the Achae- menid period, often temple dependants (širkus) were active as rent farmers: the institution may have come to be perceived as an “onerous duty conceived as ‘liturgy’” rather than “a ‘freely’ undertaken entrepreneurial activity” (Jursa 2010, 292 n. 1751), imposed by the actual beneficiar- ies, the temples. 30 R. PIRNGRUBER the royal court becomes prominent.34 What can be witnessed further in particu- lar during the reign of Darius I is not only a standardization in the terminology of taxation, but also a likely not coincidental peak in the attestations of taxes and obligations, which will have played an instrumental role in feeding the discontent of the taxed subjects — the Babylonian local elites — in the run-up to the revolts under Darius’ son and successor Xerxes (Jursa 2009, 265–266). The background to the rise in taxation under Darius can thus be related to the aspect of Tainter’s framework that has not yet received attention, namely royal legitimizing activities. It comes hardly as a surprise that it was the usurper Darius who set out for the most ambitious building project since Nebuchadnez- zar’s II rebuilding of the city of Babylon. Also, the aforementioned upiyātu�was likely destined to cover expenses of court festivities of some sort.35 The perni- cious impact on Babylonian prices of the enormous enterprise that accompa- nied the additional demands of the royal administration has been discussed in the preceding section. CONCLUSION The aim of the preceding pages has been to show that beginning in the reign of Nabonidus (but with roots reaching back into the later years of Nebuchadn- ezzar II) and increasingly in the Achaemenid period with a distinct peak under Darius I, Babylonia suffered growing socio-economic pressures. In that pro- cess, the dislocation of the imperial core that was once centred on the city of Babylon to lands east of the Zagros, in particular the Susiana and the Persis, and the relegation of Babylonia to a provincial status (albeit a privileged one) played a key role. The impact of the Achaemenid conquest has been down- played in recent years, yet the consistent increase in commodity prices already discernible in the sources dating to the reign of Cyrus points to rather immedi- ate repercussions. The second aspect discussed concerns the relationship between local powers and the crown. Theories on state collapse focussing on inflated bureaucracies and rising tax pressures to pay for this apparatus as well as for the king’s investment in his own prestige shed light on hitherto neglected aspects of the strains put on Babylonia’s local communities under Persian rule. Taking these approaches together, it becomes increasingly clear that any expla- nation of the revolts should abandon traditional narratives focussing on the person of the king. 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Bramanti (eds.), Tradition� and� Innovation� in� the� Ancient� Near� East:� Proceedings� of� the� 57th� Rencontre� Assyriologique� Internationale� at� Rome,� 4–8� July� 2011, Winona Lake. Kessler, K. 2004: “Urukäische Familien versus babylonische Familien: Die Namen- gebung in Uruk, die Degradierung der Kulte von Eanna und der Aufstieg des Gottes Anu”, AoF 31, 237–262. Kleber, K. 2008: Tempel�und�Palast:�Die�Beziehungen�zwischen�dem�König�und�dem� Eanna-Tempel�im�spätbabylonischen�Uruk�(AOAT 358), Münster. Kleber, K. 2012: “Famine in Babylonia: A Microhistorical Approach to an Agricul- tural Crisis in 528–526 BC”, ZA 102, 219–244. Kuhrt, A. 1990: “Alexander and Babylon”, in H. Sancisi-Weerdenburg and J. W. Drijvers (eds.), The�Roots�of�the�European�Tradition (Achaemenid History 5), Leiden, 121– 130. Kurke, L. 1999: Coins,�Bodies,�Games,�and�Gold:�The�Politics�of�Meaning�in�Ancient� Greece, Princeton. Lipschits, O. 2005: The� Fall� and� Rise� of� Jerusalem:� Judah� Under� Babylonian� Rule, Winona lake. North, D.C., J.J. Wallis and B.R. Weingast 2009: Violence�and�Social�Orders:�A�Con- ceptual�Framework�for�Interpreting�Recorded�Human�History, Cambridge. Pirngruber, R. 2017: The�Economy�of�Late�Achaemenid�and�Seleucid�Babylonia, Cam- bridge. Pirngruber, R. forthcoming: “Land and Power in a Northian Perspective: State Build- ing and Its Reflection in Private Archives from 1st Millennium BC Babylonia”, in S. Procházka and S. Tost (eds.), Land�and�Power�in�the�Ancient�and�Post-Ancient� World:�Proceedings�of�the�3rd�International�Conference�of�the�Research�Network� INTERPRETING SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE IN BABYLONIA 33 Imperium� and� Officium, Vienna. Preliminary version available at: http://iowp. univie.ac.at/?q=node/340. Rollinger, R. 2014: “Von Kyros bis Xerxes: Babylon in persischer Zeit und die Frage der Bewertung des herodoteischen Geschichtswerkes – eine Nachlese”, in M. Krebernik und H. Neumann (eds.), Babylonien� und� seine� Nachbarn� in� neu-� und� spätbabylonischer� Zeit:� Wissenschafltiches� Kolloquium� aus� Anlass� des� 75.� Geburtstags� von� Joachim� Oelsner,� Jena,� 2.� und� 3.� März� 2007 (AOAT 369), Münster, 147–194. Schaudig H. 2001: Die�Inschriften�Nabonids�von�Babylon�und�Kyros’�des�Großen�samt� den� ihrem� Umfeld� entstandenen� Tendenzschriften,� Textausgabe� und� Grammatik (AOAT 256), Münster. van der Spek, R.J. 2014: “Cyrus the Great, Exiles, and Foreign Gods: A Comparison of Assyrian and Persian Policies on Subject Nations”, in M. Kozuh et al. (eds.), Extraction�&�Control:�Studies�in�Honor�of�Matthew�W.�Stolper (SAOC 68), Chi- cago, 233–264. van der Spek, R.J., B. van Leeuwen and J.L. van Zanden (eds.) 2015: A� History� of� Market� Performance� from� Ancient� Babylonia� to� the� Modern� World, London and New York. Stolper, M.W. 2003: ““No-One Has Exact Information Except for You”: Communi- cation Between Babylon and Uruk in the First Achaemenid Reigns”, in W. Henkelman and A. Kuhrt (eds.), A�Persian�Perspective:�Essays�in�Memory�of� H.�Sancisi-Weerdenburg (Achaemenid History 13), Leiden, 265–287. Tainter, J. 1988: The� Collapse� of� Complex� Societies (New studies in archaeology), Cambridge. Tolini, G. 2005: “Quelques éléments concernant la prise de Babylon par Cyrus (octo- bre 539 av. J.-C.)”, ARTA 2005/003. Tolini, G. 2011: La� Babylonie� et� l’Iran:� Les� relations� d’un� province� avec� le� cœur� de� l’empire� achéménide� (539–331� avant� notre� ère). PhD Dissertation, Université Paris I, Panthéon-Sorbonne. Waerzeggers, C. 2003/2004: “The Babylonian Revolts Against Xerxes and the ‘End of Archives’”, AfO 50, 150–173. Waerzeggers, C. 2010a: The� Ezida� Temple� of� Borsippa:� Priesthood,� Cult,� Archives (Achaemenid History 15), Leiden. Waerzeggers, C. 2010b: “Babylonians in Susa: The Travels of Babylonian “Business- men” to Susa Reconsidered”, in B. Jacobs and R. Rollinger (eds.), Der�Achäme- nidenhof�/�The�Achaemenid�Court�(CleO�2), Wiesbaden, 777–813. Yoffee, N. 2005: Myths� of� the� Archaic� State:� Evolution� of� the� Earliest� Cities,� States� and�Civilizations, Cambridge. BEFORE XERXES: THE ROLE OF THE GOVERNOR OF BABYLONIA IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE UNDER THE FIRST ACHAEMENIDS Małgorzata SANDOWICZ (University of Warsaw)1 It is widely accepted that the Persians began their rule of Babylonia master- fully, changing very little with regard to the monarch’s role, temple policy and, more characteristically, the country’s administration. The only major adminis- trative change implemented shortly after the regime change was possibly the abolishment of the office of the country governor (šakin�māti) and the conse- quent introduction of the office of the governor of Babylonia (pāḫāt� Bābili).2 Some departures from this policy occurred under Darius I, but the watershed came with the revolts against Xerxes in the second year of his rule, to which the king responded by deposing the urban elites of northern Babylonia. Cunei- form evidence from the period immediately following these events is extremely scarce. Sources that re-appear some thirty years later reveal a changed picture. Members of the old Babylonian aristocracy no longer dominate the bureau- cracy, while the Persian presence is much more distinct on various levels of administration: the number of Iranian officials is higher and the involvement of Persian nobles and their entourage in the administrative system more promi- nent.3 Moreover, Iranian offices become markedly more common.4 These changes could be seen as part of a drastic re-arrangement of the Babylonian political and administrative scene that took place in the aftermath of the revolts.5 But was the overturning of the bureaucratic structure actually so sudden? Was the Late Achaemenid system indeed created with a flick of an angry royal hand? 1 This article is an extension of a part of the paper read at the Leiden meeting. The Trustees of the British Museum are acknowledged for permission to publish texts from the collection under their care. My research in the Museum was made possible by a grant from the Polish National Science Centre (DEC-2012/07/B/HS3/01126). I am grateful to Stefan Zawadzki for reading and commenting on the paper and to Jeanette Fincke for her photographic assistance. 2 San Nicolò 1941, 61–62. For a different interpretation of the function of the šakin�māti�(i.e. his possible identification with the šakin�tâmti, governor of the Sealand), see Kleber 2008, 311– 326. 3 Zadok 1977, 89–107. 4 Cf. Eilers 1940; and see Hackl, this volume. 5 On the revolts and their consequences, see Waerzeggers 2003/2004 and Kessler 2004. 36 M. SANDOWICZ This paper will demonstrate that this was not the case. It will show that the first signs of a process that led to the reconfiguration of the administrative structure in the later period (484–331 BCE) can be found already in Early Achaemenid (539–485 BCE) sources. In order to trace these signs, a case sam- ple of documents revealing judicial activities at the top of the system will be scrutinized, with special focus on the governor of Babylonia and his personnel.6 This material seems to fit the purpose particularly well, as it was produced to an extent by institutions and people from outside of the temple milieu, which — even for reasons of cultic purity only — was less open to reforms. Before examining the Early Achaemenid material, a look at the position of the governor in the justice system of the Later Achaemenid period seems in order. Dispute documents from Xerxes’ rule onwards are rare, yet they permit to establish that the governor’s involvement in the administration of justice was two-tiered.7 Firstly, he could be approached directly by litigants, as follows from a clause in which parties guarantee that “PN will not bring charges before the king, the satrap or a judge” (PBS 2/1 21: 7–8, Dar II 0).8 This path was accessible not only in principle. TBER no. 6 ([Dar II 8+x]) recounts that a man accused of theft in Dilbat escaped to Babylon in order to seek justice from the governor (who then transferred him to the assembly of Esangila).9 Donbaz and Stolper 1997 no. 105 (Dar II 0) records a claim brought before a Persian prince, a satrap, and at least three other men bearing Iranian names; the case was later referred to a local Nippurean body. Secondly, substantial evidence attests to governors acting through their officials: judges (dayyānu), law officers (dātabara), court interrogators (mitiprasu) and Aramaic scribes (sepīru).10 Early Achaemenid sources show this two-level system of justice administra- tion at an early stage of development and in greater detail. The material not only permits to establish the place of the governor in the system, but it also, 6 Early Achaemenid texts from Babylonia use the term pī/āḫātu� (lúnam) and bēl� pī/āḫāti (lúen.nam) ‘governor’ rather than aḫšadrapanu� ‘satrap’ (cf. Stolper 1989, 291); this distinction will be followed in translation. 7 On the judicial duties of Persian satraps in general, see Klinkott 2005, 141–148. 8 la�šu-mu-du�šá�PN a-na�lugal lúáḫ-šá-ad-ra-pa-nu�u�lúdi.ku5. 9 Stolper 1992b, 123–125, Joannès 2000a, 209–211. 10 See dayyānu� (ša)� ina� pāni� Gūbaru (PBS 2/1 105: 13, Stolper 1985 no. 32: 4”), dayyānu� ša�bābi�ša�Gūbaru�(BE 10 84: 11 and lower edge, BE 10 128: 14 and upper edge, PBS 2/1 133: 20 and lower edge, PBS 2/1 224: 9’); dātabara� ša� ina� p[āni� Gūbaru] (Stolper 1992a, 75: rev. 7’), dātabara�ša�Artareme (BE 9 82 and its duplicate Donbaz and Stolper 1997 no. 54: left edge, BE 9 83: 18 and right edge, BE 9 84 and its duplicate TuM 2/3 202: 11 and lower edge, BM 85207: [51], PBS 2/1 185: 15, Stolper 1985 no. 55, left edge); mitiprasu�ša�ina�pāni�Gūbaru (BE 10 97: 17 and lower edge); sepīru�ša�ina�pāni�Gūbaru (BE 10 101: 25, Stolper 1992a, 75: rev. 6’, Stolper 1985 no. 111: rev.), sepīru�ša�bābi�ša�Gūbaru (BE 10 128: upper edge), sepīru� ša� Gūbaru (BE 10 128: 18, PBS 2/1 70: 15 and lower edge, PBS 2/1 72: 12 and lower edge, PBS 2/1 133: 23 and upper edge). For dātabara�‘law officer’, see Dandamaev 1992, 41–42, Jursa and Stolper 2007, 263, Tavernier 2007, 418–419 (list of attestations). For mitiprasu�‘interrogator’, see McEwan 1982, 49 and Tavernier 2007, 435. BEFORE XERXES 37 more interestingly, discloses a process of gradual infiltration of his men into traditional judicial bodies. The respective evidence is particularly rich with reference to the governor Gūbaru and his subordinates. 1. THE GOVERNOR AS JUDGE Gūbaru (Old Persian ‘Gaubaruva’, Greek ‘Gobryas’) was appointed as gov- ernor of Babylonia and Across-the-River in the former part of Cyrus’ rule. His administrative activity — supervision over the work assignments and rations of temple oblates, the backlogs of temple herdsmen, and other temple affairs — has been extensively studied.11 His judicial capacities, on the other hand, have received less attention. Numerous penalty clauses announce administrative offences to fall under ḫīṭu� ša� Gūbari� ‘the penalty of Gūbaru’,12 suggestively parallel to the former and contemporary ḫīṭu�ša�šarri�‘the penalty of the king’. According to Kristin Kleber, these ḫīṭu-clauses put potential offenders under the jurisdiction of the governor or the king.13 Whether immediate or appellate, such jurisdiction implies the existence of a system within which cases could be heard by the king or his representatives. The evidence on the Persian king’s role in the execution of justice is only circumstantial,14 but Gūbaru’s capacity in this field can be demonstrated beyond doubt. 1.1 Collecting evidence before questioning by Gūbaru Indirect evidence of Gūbaru’s involvement in court proceedings may be drawn from BM 61522 (Jursa 1996, 198–200), written in Akkad in the seventh year of Cyrus. The text records the call of the assembly of the Eulmaš temple 11 See especially San Nicolò 1941, 54–64, Dandamaev 1992, 72–79, Stolper 1989, 290–291, Stolper 2003. For a list of Gūbaru’s attestations, see Tavernier 2007, 57, and add Scheil 1914 (Millard and Jursa 1997/1998), Stolper 2003, 272–276 (MM 504), UCP 9/2 38 and its duplicate 39 (see n. 64 below for collations), Zadok 2002 no. D.2 (p. 883), BM 26643 (a deposition quoting an utterance, in which the name of Gūbaru appears in a broken context) and BM 66816 (a rental of a boat of (?) Gūbaru to the Ebabbar temple). 12 The overwhelming majority of known clauses comes from Uruk: AnOr 8 45 and 46, BIN 2 114, GCCI 2 103 and 120, Stigers 1976 no. 43, TCL 13 142, 150, 152 and 168, YOS 7 56, 92, 127, 160, 168, 172, 177 and 178. For Sippar, see BM 67874 and MacGinnis 1998 no. 3 (cf. Sandowicz 2012, O.84 for emendation). The penalty of the next governor, Uštanu, is mentioned in Waerzeggers 2014 no. 22 and BM 54069. 13 Kleber 2008, 68–71. A comprehensive study of this institution has been announced by F.R. Magdalene, B. Wells and C. Wunsch. 14 In BE 10 118, king Darius II is addressed by a group of Judeans with a claim pertaining to land and houses. The text published in MacGinnis 2008 mentions a message conveyed to the authorities of the Ebabbar temple, saying that Darius I has reached a decision (ṭēmu) in a case concerning silver. 38 M. SANDOWICZ of Akkad for a formal hearing (maš’altu) of a group of craftsmen; the offence under scrutiny was probably the mishandling or theft of sacred jewellery. With the transcript of the hearing in hand, the representatives of the assembly were to go to Gūbaru, who was expected to issue a verdict based on the evidence provided.15 The course of proceedings is striking, as under Cyrus similar cases are known still to have been heard locally.16 However, this case may hardly be treated as a sign of the growing centralisation of the court system, since the evidence is isolated and details of the offence are unknown. The nature or the gravity of the theft could have influenced the decision to bring the case before the governor. 1.2 Dispatch of culprits to Gūbaru Evidence of Gūbaru’s judicial duties emerges further from several docu- ments calling upon individuals from provincial centres to appear before him. AnOr 8 45 and AnOr 8 46, both written in the fourth year of Cyrus, summon men from Uruk to go to Babylon to Gūbaru along with temple officials. It has been suggested that these documents constituted summonses to audiences linked to audits carried out by the central administration.17 Since the reason for appearing before the governor is not given explicitly in either text, this possibil- ity cannot be excluded. An alternative is to treat these documents together with summonses naming litigation before judges — or the sartennu and judges — as the purpose of going to Babylon.18 Admittedly, neither AnOr 8 45 nor AnOr 8 46 mentions the expected court procedure, but a hitherto unpublished text from Akkad offers a parallel that allows to consider such a possibility. Text 1 is a guarantee, not a summons, but both formularies often worked to a similar effect. Text 1. BM 65339 + BM 68761 (82-9-18, 5324 + 82-9-18, 8760) 5.6 × 4.6 cm 1. pu-ut�˹gìrII˺�šá�Imu-˹dnà˺ a-šú�šá�Imu-ra-nu 2. [a] ˹Ie˺-gi-bi�Iba-šá-a�a-šú�šá� 3. [Is]ag.gil-numun-dù a Idù-dingir 4. [ina�šuII] ˹Iki-lugal-igiII-ia�lúqí-i-pi˺ 5. [u I]˹mu-dnà�lú˺sanga ˹a.ga.dèki˺ na-ši 6. [ina�qí]-i[t i]tigu4 ˹ib˺-ba-kám-ma 7. [ana�Igu-ba]-˹ri˺�lúnam ˹tin.tir˺ki ˹e-bir�íd˺ 15 As suggested by Jursa 1996, 210. 16 Cf. YOS 7 7, the ‘Monstreprozeß’ of Gimillu in Uruk (San Nicolò 1933). 17 Kleber 2008, 62. 18 Discussed in Sandowicz, forthcoming. BEFORE XERXES 39 1 5 10 15 20 Text 1. BM 65339 + BM 68761 40 M. SANDOWICZ 8. [i-nam-din�ki-i�l]a�˹i˺-tab-ka 9. [la�it-tan-na�ḫ]i-ṭu�ša�lugal l.e. 10. [i-šad-da-ad] u�tab-ba-la-nu�˹šu-ú˺ rev. 11. [lúmu-kin-nu Ida]-nu-ni-tu4-lugal-ùru 12. [a-šú�šá�Idn]à-mu-˹ùru a lú˺sanga a-kadki 13. [Idu.gur-ina-sù]ḫ-sur a-šú�šá�Iri-mut-<dme.me>�a lúsanga ˹a-kad˺[ki] 14. [Id]˹amar.utu˺-sur ˹a˺-šú�˹šá˺�Id˹nà˺-mu-ùru a lú˹sanga˺ a-kad˹ki˺ 15. [I]˹ri-mut-den a-šú�šá�Idnà-šeš.me-mu a lúsanga a-kad˺[ki] 16. [In]i-din-tu4 a-šú�šá� Inumun-dù a Iši-gu-ú-a 17. ˹Iba-la-ṭu˺�lúumbisag a-šú�˹šá˺�Id˹amar.utu-ba?˺-[šá?] 18. ˹a˺ Itin-su-d˹amar.utu˺ a-kadki itigu4 19. u4.28.kám mu.7.kám 20. ˹Iku˺-raš�lugal ˹eki˺ lugal ˹kur˺.kur Ll. 1–5 Literally: ‘guarantees for the foot of Iddin-Nabû’. L. 10 The last sign is only partly visible. The traces do not support the reconstruction ‘nu’. Iqīšāya, son of [S]angila-zēru-ibni, descendant of Ibni-ili, guarantees [to] Itti- šarru-īnīya, the (royal) resident, [and] Iddin-Nabû, the high priest of Akkad, that Iddin-Nabû, son of Murānu, [descendant] of Egibi, will not run away. [In the en]d of ayyaru he will bring (him) and [give (him) to Gūbar]u, the governor of Babylon and Across the River. [Should he n]ot bring [and give (him), he will bear the pe]nalty of the king and he will be (considered) thief. [Witnesses: A]nunītu-šarru-uṣur, [son of N]abû-šumu-uṣur, descendant of Šangû-Akkad, [Nergal-ina-tē]šê-ēṭir, son of Rēmūt-<Gula>, descendant of Šangû- Akkad, Marduk-ēṭir, son of Nabû-šumu-uṣur, descendant of Šangû-Akkad, Rēmūt-Bēl, son of Nabû-aḫḫē-iddin, descendant of Šangû-Akkad, [N]idintu, son of Zēru-ibni, descendant of Šigûa. Scribe: Balāṭu, son of Marduk-iq[īša?], descendant of Uballiṭsu-Marduk. Akkad, 28th of ayyaru, the seventh year of Cyrus, king of Babylon, king of the Lands. Guarantees of this kind are common in the Neo-Babylonian material. They were used, among other purposes, to secure the return of people released tem- porarily from prisons or of rented slaves and oblates. In the case of Text 1, however, the deadline of delivery is remarkably close: Iddin-Nabû was to be handed to Gūbaru within two days. It is therefore reasonable to assume that the guarantor was responsible merely for bringing Iddin-Nabû before the governor. A good parallel to this contract is provided by YOS 7 137, which records the entrusting of a group of five enchained prisoners to two oblates, who were to BEFORE XERXES 41 deliver them in Babylon to Nabūgu, the son of Gūbaru. Should they have failed to bring the prisoners to Babylon, the oblates were to bear a penalty of the king. The guarantor Iqīšāya, son of (E)sangila-zēru-ibni of the Ibni-ili family, is listed among members of the Akkad temple elite in Stigers 1976 no. 6 (line 13) written three years earlier. The identity of Iddin-Nabû — the man who was to be handed in to Gūbaru — is unknown, but it might be speculated upon based on the link of Text 1 to BM 61522 (Jursa 1996, 198–200). There is a chrono- logical and prosopographical overlap between these two documents: they were possibly written in the same year and all witnesses of Text 1 appear in BM 61522.19 As mentioned above, BM 61522 records a request by a temple assembly that the royal resident and the administrator of the Eulmaš temple hold a hearing of temple craftsmen who dealt with divine jewellery; a record of this hearing was later to be taken to Gūbaru. Iddin-Nabû could have been one of those craftsmen who were suspected of mishandling paraphernalia in the course of the preliminary investigation and who were sent to the gover- nor in Babylon for trial. One more tablet that in all likelihood belongs to this dossier is BM 62534 (Cyr [x]), drafted in the course of an inquiry into the embezzlement of gold belonging to the Eulmaš temple. The final clause of Text 1 mentions a twofold punishment that would apply in case Iddin-Nabû were not to be brought before Gūbaru: the penalty of the king and the penalty of being (considered) a thief. The phrasing of the clause leaves it unclear who exactly fell under these penalties: the suspect or his guarantor. The latter possibility seems more likely on grammatical grounds: there is no clear change of the subject between the first part of the operative section and the penalty clauses. Also, comparison with similar guarantee con- tracts makes this interpretation more plausible.20 Particularly instructive is BM 65784, which records the entrusting of a group of men to a certain Ardia, who was to bring them to the high priest of Akkad. Should he fail to do so, he (sg.) would bear the penalty of the king and be considered a thief. By this paral- lel, it seems probable that if Iqīšāya would fail to deliver Iddin-Nabû to the governor, he himself would face theft charges. 19 Jursa suggests year 8 (2+2[+4]), but his copy allows the reconstruction [3]+2+2, parallel to the (admittedly atypical) writing in Text 1. The witnesses are: Anunītu-šarru-uṣur, an aḫu� rabû (BM 61522 [Jursa 1996, 198–200]: 10, cf. Jursa 1996, 204); Nergal-ina-tēšê-ēṭir, a temple enterer (BM 61522: 11, cf. BM 62561 [Jursa 1997, 101–103]: 23, Stigers 1976 no. 6: 6, CT 57 10: 12); Rēmūt-Bēl, an overseer of the temple brewers (BM 61522: 18, cf. Jursa 1996, 204); Marduk-ēṭir, a temple enterer (BM 61522: 12); Nidintu (=Nidinti-Bēl), a brewer (BM 61522: 21). 20 Cf. PBS 2/1 23, UCP 9/2 2, YOS 7 137. 42 M. SANDOWICZ 1.3 Gūbaru hearing cases The texts discussed so far provide only circumstantial evidence of Gūbaru’s judicial functions. One of his successors in the governor’s post is known as a member of a judicial body: Zadok 2002 no. D.4 (pp. 885–886), written after the twenty-eighth year of Darius I in an unknown locality, deals with a testi- mony to be made before “Baga-pānu, the governor of Babylon, Balāṭu the mašennu, [and] his colleagues, the judges of the king.”21 Text 2 published below provides conclusive proof that also Gūbaru sat as judge. Text 2. BM 47479 (D 81-11-3, 184) 6.5 × 5.1 cm 1. Iši-it-˹ra˺-šá-˹ri-di-it lú˺ba-a[ḫ-tar-a-a] 2. a-na�I˹gu-bar-ri nam˺ tin.˹tirki ù�e˺-[bir�íd iq-bi] 3. um-ma�I˹mu˺-še-zib-d˹nà dumu˺-šú�˹šá˺�Idnà-numun-˹sum.na˺ 4. ul-˹tu�mu.5˺.kam Ikam-bu-zi-ía�lugal ˹tin.tirki˺ [u�kur.kur] 5. ˹a-na˺ mi-riš-tu4 i-ri-˹iš˺-an-[ni]-˹ma a-di i-na˺-[an-na] 6. ˹anšekunga la�ú-ter˺-ri�I˹gu-bar-ri˺ nam tin.t[irki] 7. ù�˹e-bir�íd˺ I˹mu˺-še-zib-˹dnà˺ d[umu]-˹šú˺ [šá] ˹Idnà˺-numun-s[um.na] 8. i-šá-˹al-ma�e-li�ra-ma˺-[ni-šú�ú-k]i-i[n] 9. um-ma�˹anšekunga ul-tu˺ m[u.5.ká]m 10. Ikam-˹bu-zi˺-ia�lugal ˹tin.tirki lugal˺ kur.kur ˹a˺-[na] 11. mi-riš-tu4 ul-tu�pa-˹ni� Iši-it˺-[ra-šá-ri-di-it] 12. ˹a?-bu?-uk?˺-ma�˹a-di�i˺-[na-an-na] 13. [la ú]-˹ter?-ra?˺-[šú x x x x x] (several lines missing) Rev. 1’. ˹I˺ [x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x] 2’. ˹a˺-n[a? x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x] 3’. i-na�˹ma-ḫar�Ita?-ar?-ga-am-mu�x˺[x x] 4’. I˹mu˺-še-zib-den di.ku5 dumu Išeš-dù-˹i˺ 5’. Idutu-a-˹a˺�en ṭè-˹e-mu˺ dumu-šú�šá�Iden-˹ba?˺-[šá] 6’. ù�Iáš-tak!-˹ka˺-a’�˹x x x x x˺ [x x] 7’. Idnà-tin-˹iṭ˺�dub.sar dumu Id˹x˺ [x x x] 8’. ˹bir-ta˺�rad-di-bu�šá�˹kur˺e-b[ir�íd?] 9’. iti˹kin˺ u4.29.˹kam mu˺.[6–8.kam] 10’. Ikam-bu-˹zi˺-ía�lugal ˹tin˺.[tirki lugal kur.kur] L. 1 The name Šitrašaridit is Median (Čiθtra-čar-dāta ‘Given by the one who makes brilliant’; see Tavernier 2007, 157 who quotes its Aramaic form Štršrdt). Consequently, it is tempting to read the gentilic at the end of the line as lú.ma-d[a-a-a]. However, the 21 Lines 30–31: Iba-ga-pi-an-nu� lúnam tin.tirki Iba-la-ṭu� lúigi.dub [ù] lúki-na-[a]t-ta-šú� lúda-a- a-nu.meš šá�lugal. BEFORE XERXES 43 Text 2. BM 47479 1 5 10 1’ 5’ 10’ 44 M. SANDOWICZ traces do not conform with this reading, unless the second sign was written on an erasure. Ll. 2, 6, 4’, 5’ A characteristic of this scribe’s style is skipping the determina- tive lú before professional titles (nam, ll. 2, 6; di.ku5, l. 4’; en ṭè-e-mu, l. 5’). Such orthography is customary down to the Mid- dle Babylonian period but unusual for Neo-Babylonian legal and administrative texts, with very few exceptions (e.g. dub.sar). It becomes again more common in Late Babylonian, especially from the reign of Darius I on. For similar orthography, see, e.g. Moore 1939 no. 89: 41 (en ṭè-e-mu is not preceded by lú, in contrast to other titles), BM 54205 (Eilers 1940, 107–15): 14–17 (neither di.ku5 is preceded by lú, in contrast to other titles), VS 4 87 and its duplicate VS 4 88: 11 (di.ku5 is the only professional title not preceded by lú). L. 4 Year ˹6˺ cannot be excluded. L. 7’ The patronymic of the scribe may also begin with An- (e.g. Andaḫar). L. 8’ The reconstruction kure-l[a-mu] cannot be excluded, but E[bir Nāri] is preferred in view of the mention of mirištu� ‘merchan- dise’, often found in the context of Across-the-River. L. 9’ The defendant is charged with keeping the mule since the fifth year; the lawsuit must have taken place in the following year at the earliest. Šitrašaridit the Bac[trian said] as follows to Gūbaru, the governor of Babylon and Ac[ross-the-River]: “After Mušēzib-Nabû, the son of Nabû-zēru-iddin, had asked me (for help) in (transporting) merchandise in the ˹fifth˺ year of Cam- byses, king of Babylon [and Lands], until n[ow], he has not returned the mule.” Gūbaru, the governor of Bab[ylon] and Across-the-River questioned Mušēzib-Nabû, the s[on] of Nabû-zēru-id[din]. He confessed as follows: “After ˹I had taken?˺ from Šitra[šaridit] the mule for (transporting) merchandise [in the fifth ye]ar of Cambyses, king of Babylon, king of the Lands, […] until n[ow, I have not re]turned [it…]. […] T[o? …] Before: ˹Targammu?˺ […], Mušēzib-Bēl the judge, descendant of Aḫu-bāni, Šamšāya the bēl�ṭēmi, son of Bēl-iqīš[a?], and Aštakka’ … […]. Scribe: Nabû-uballiṭ, descendant of […]. Birta Raddibu of A[cross-the-River], twenty-ninth of ulūlu, [sixth-eighth] year of Cambyses, king of Bab[ylon, king of the Lands]. The latest hitherto known attestation of Gūbaru as governor was in the fifth year of Cambyses (TCL 13 168, Camb 27-VI-5). Text 2 thus extends his period BEFORE XERXES 45 of office by at least one year. The tablet was drafted in an otherwise unknown locality Birta Raddibu (or: Raddipu). The reading of this toponym is tentative. It is neither introduced nor followed by a determinative (e.g. uru or ki) and the apposition ‘of A[cross-the-River]’ suggests that it must have been a minor site, whose location had to be specified. Birta is an Aramaic equivalent of Babylo- nian birtu ‘citadel, fort, land protected by fortified outposts around the city’;22 in both languages this word appears as an element of toponyms.23 Birta Rad- dibu cannot be identified with any town attested in Akkadian or Aramaic sources. Its link to Ar-Ruḍâb in the vicinity of Resafa, where several centuries later a Sasanian garrison was located,24 is possible, but not provable. The museum context does not provide any information on the place of the tablet’s discovery. The 1881-11-03 collection to which Text 2 belongs is not coherent with regard to its provenance; most of its tablets come from Dilbat and Babylon. The formulary of Text 2 is characteristic of a transcript of a trial: a formal address by a plaintiff is followed by the questioning of the defendant by the judge and the defendant’s confession. The broken lines that follow expectedly contained the sentence. The trial was held in the presence of four men, includ- ing one judge. The name of the first man — hence the most important one — is partly damaged, just like his function, provided it was given at all. His filiation seems to have been skipped, which could indicate that he was a man of high standing, whose identity was obvious. The second person in the list, the judge Mušēzib-Bēl of the Aḫu-bāni family is, to my knowledge, unattested elsewhere in the published contemporary court documents. Judges Rēmūt-bēl-ilāni (active under Neriglissar in Babylon), and Nabû-rā’im-šarri (attested in Nabonidus’ second year in Tapsuḫu) were members of the same clan and since judicial functions were often passed in families, Mušēzib-Bēl’s link to one of them appears plausible.25 The fourth man present at the trial was Aštakka’, whose name is non-Babylonian. It is, however, the third person in the list, Šamšāya, who is the most intriguing member of the panel. Šamšāya’s function bēl�ṭēmi�(‘bearer of the report, chancellor’) is extremely rare in Neo- and Late Babylonian material. Holders of this title are found in only three cuneiform texts from the Persian period; two of them were drafted in circles close to Persian governors. The earliest known bēl�ṭēmi�appears on a list of silver allotments issued to over eighty men engaged in the preparation of a visit of Cambyses in southern Babylonia in the second year of his reign 22 CAD B, 261–263. 23 For Aramaic, see Lemaire and Lozahmeur 1987, for Neo-Babylonian, see Zadok 1985, 76–77. 24 Cf. Musil 1927, 313. 25 For Rēmūt-bēl-ilāni, see Wunsch 2000, 586, for Nabû-rā’im-šarri, see TBER no. 58 and its duplicate 59: 27. 46 M. SANDOWICZ (Moore 1939 no. 89).26 The official’s name is damaged, but he is described as “a Median, bēl� ṭēmi, who discussed the issue of sheep with Gūbaru.”27 He received a large sum of silver (0.5 mina), exceeding by far the allotments of other men. The second attestation of this title comes from Stolper 1989 no. 1 (BM 74554), a receipt for barley issued at the order of the governor of Babylon and Across-the-River, and Libluṭ and Gadalâma, two men described as sepīru bēl�ṭēmi (‘Aramaic scribe [and] chancellor’). The third attestation comes from a fragmentary tablet BM 67669 drafted during the reign of Darius I, where bēl� ṭēmi appears next to members of the board of the Ebabbar temple of Sippar. Bēl� ṭēmi is possibly a Neo-Assyrian term that entered Aramaic and conse- quently Persian chancellery parlance.28 It is found in the Arsames correspond- ence from Egypt, where similarly to Stolper 1989 no. 1 (BM 74554), concur- rent use of the titles bēl�ṭēmi and sepīru (b῾l�ṭ῾m spr᾿ ‘chancellor [and] scribe’) is attested.29 In Egyptian and Bactrian Aramaic letter subscripts, b῾l�ṭ῾m is paral- leled by a title yd῾�ṭ῾m᾿�znh ‘(PN) knows this order’, which in Bactrian letters is, again, borne by scribes (spr᾿).30 Similar correspondence may also be traced in Persepolis tablets.31 In Egypt, b῾l� ṭ῾m was a member of the satrap’s entou- rage, in charge of official correspondence.32 A notable attestation of bēl� ṭēmi� comes from Ezra 4: 8–9, 23, which quotes a letter sent to king Artaxerxes by Rehum b῾l� ṭ῾m and Shimshai spr᾿ together with “their colleagues the judges� [knwthwn�dyny᾿], legates�[᾿prstky᾿], officials [ṭrply᾿],33�Persians, men of Erech, Babylonians, men of Susa, that is Elamites.”34 The Septuagint’s rendering of the names of the two first officials as Raoumos and Samsaios suggests the original reading of the second one as Shamshai (rather than Shimshai). The patronymic of Šamšāya, son of Bēl-iqīša, is Babylonian, but his own name is less straightforward. It is uncommon in Babylonian sources. It may be interpreted as a Kosename�‘My sun’35 or a hypocorism of a longer name com- prising the theophoric element Šamaš. Alternatively, it may be a West Semitic 26 For the context of the text, see Tolini 2009. 27 I˹x˺[x x]˹x˺ lúma-da-a-a� en ṭè-e-mu� šá� a-na� muḫ-ḫi� udu.níta a-na� Igu-ba-ru� iq-bu-ú (lines 41–42). 28 Stolper 1989, 301, Schwiderski 2000, 191. 29 Porten 1968, 56, Porten et al. 1996, 121 n. 74. Schwiderski’s proposition (2000, 190–193 and 358–359) to distinguish between a title�(spr᾿) and an ad hoc function (b῾l�ṭ῾m) is problematic in view of the occurence of bēl�ṭēmi as name apposition, parallel to the title ‘judge’, in BM 47479. Also his argument that bēl�ṭēmi is never preceded by the determinative lú (2000, 192–193) is no longer standing: such writing (lúen ṭè-mu) is found in BM 67669. 30 Tuplin 2013, 128–130. 31 Tavernier 2008, 73. 32 Porten 1968, 55. For a possible correspondence between the b῾l�ṭ῾m and the Demotic senti, see Vittmann 2009, 102. 33 Or: ‘men from (Syrian) Tripoli’ (Koehler, Baumgartner and Stamm 2000, 1886b). 34 The translation follows Blenkinsopp 1988, 109. 35 Stamm 1939, 242. BEFORE XERXES 47 appellative of a similar meaning. The only eminent bearers of this name were the royal resident of the Ebabbar temple at Sippar, attested in the twenty-sixth year of Darius I,36 and the son of Tattenai, the governor of Accross-the-River in the latter part of Darius I’s rule.37 No connection between these namesakes and the bēl�ṭēmi of Text 2 can be established. It is much more inviting to identify Šamšāya with Shimshai the spr᾿, the colleague of Rehum b῾l�ṭ῾m of Ezra 4. Their names bear striking resemblance. Their titles admittedly vary (Šamšāya is called bēl�ṭēmi, while Shimshai a spr᾿), but both Stolper 1989 no. 1 (BM 74554) and the Aramaic material show that the two titles were occasionally combined. Also, a shift of titles between two protagonists of Ezra 4: 8–9, 23 in the course of the editorial process could be assumed. Both Šamšāya and Shimshai belonged to the elite of local Persian administration: Šamšāya stood close to the governor of Babylon and Across- the-River, while Shimshai, along with his colleague Rehum, addressed the king directly and implemented his orders. Both of them are listed next to judges. Furthermore, Ezra 4 contains many elements that reveal its editor’s acquaint- ance with the Persian-Babylonian administration and legal parlance.38 An obvious difficulty that this identification involves is a gap of over sixty years between Text 2 and the events set by Ezra-Nehemiah in the times of Artaxerxes (I). The authenticity of this so-called Artaxerxes correspondence in Ezra is a matter of dispute. According to extreme opinions, it was either a product of a Hellenistic author,39 or a compilation put together by an editor who had original sources from the Persian period at his disposal.40 If we accept the latter possibility, we may also allow that the editor of Ezra-Nehemiah has placed Rehum and Shimshai in the times of Artaxerxes I for reasons of narra- tive or ideological consistency, or simply by mistake. A possibility may thus be considered that Šamšāya bēl� ṭēmi,� a high official in the satrapy of 36 Bongenaar 1997, 50. 37 Jursa and Stolper 2007, 249. 38 Especially line 9 is strongly influenced by Persian-Babylonian legal phraseology. The word knt ‘colleague, companion’ is commonly regarded as a borrowing from Akkadian (Porten et al. 1996, 159 n. 15, Koehler, Baumgartner and Stamm 2000, 1900a). Its only biblical occurrences are found in Ezra 4, 5 and 6; all of them refer to the companions of the opponents of the Jewish returnees (Rehum and Shimshai, Tattenai and Shethar-bozenai). Not only the word, but also the practice of combining it with professional titles might be traced to Akkadian (for references, see CAD K, 382). See especially the constructions parallel to knwthwn�dyny’�‘(Shimshai and Rehum and) their colleagues the judges’: PN u�kinattēšu�dayyānē�(ša�šarri)�‘PN and his colleagues the (royal) judges’ (BM 30957: 8–9, BM 62918: 2, Dar. 410: 5, MacGinnis 2008, 88–89: 1–2, Zadok 2002 no. D.4: 31, cf. Jursa, Paszkowiak and Waerzeggers 2003/2004 no. 1: 14). Similar practice of combining the Aramaic equivalent of the word kinattu with professional titles is found in Elephantine papyri (Porten et al. 1996, 159). 39 E.g. Schwiderski 2000, 381–382, Wright 2005, 39–43. 40 E.g. Grabbe 2006, 562–563, Williamson 2008, 52. 48 M. SANDOWICZ Across-the-River under Cambyses, served as a model for Shimshai/Shamshai of Ezra-Nehemiah. The high position of the adjudicator and the officials who assisted him stands in contrast with the low-profile subject matter of the dispute (one mule). This discrepancy reminds vividly of BE 10 118, where the Persian king is addressed with a claim regarding a plot of land and houses. Text 2 cannot be put in proper context, since the identity of the litigants is impossible to determine. The name of the defendant is Neo-Babylonian; its commonness makes the identification of its bearer difficult, especially since his patronymic is very popular as well. The plaintiff was an Iranian from Bactria. Perhaps his descent granted him easier access to the governor, but it cannot be excluded that circumstances of time and place decided that the case was heard by such a court. The composi- tion of the adjudicating body is unusual from the perspective of Babylonian dispute documents, but, imaginably, it could be representative of trial proceed- ings elsewhere in Transeuphratene. It is much more remarkable that the tran- script of the trial was written in cuneiform — even if, as may be assumed, an Aramaic copy was concurrently made. 2. THE GOVERNOR’S CLOSE ASSOCIATES IN JUDICIAL CAPACITIES The scope of Gūbaru’s personal involvement in the court activities is impos- sible to assess, but he certainly did not concentrate all the duties in his hands: part of them were delegated to his close associates. Text 3. BM 16996 (91-7-9, 112) 6.1 × 4.2 cm 1. ˹a-di˺�u4.20.kám šá� iti˹du6˺ Išar-za-ab-˹ad˺-di 2. ˹a˺-šú�šá�Iáš-šu-bu-˹u’˺ u�Iar-ra-bi�a-šú�šá 3. [I]˹dnà-lugal-ùru˺ a-˹na˺�tin.tirki a-na�pa-ni 4. [Ipa-ár-na-ku i]l-la-ku-u’�di-i-ni 5. [x x šá Iza]b?-˹di˺-ia�a-šú�šá�Išu!-ma-a-a 6. [a-na�Ia]r-˹ra˺-bi�a-šú�šá�Idnà-lugal-ùru 7. [ik-nu-u]k?-ku-ma�id-din-nu�it-ti�˹a-ḫa-meš˺ 8. [ina�ig]i Ipa-ár-na-ku�i-dab-bu-ub-[bu] 9. [ki-i�Iš]ar-za-ab-ad-di�la�it-tal-ku Lo. E. 10. [x x ina�i]gi Iar-ra-˹bi�ú-maš?-šar?-ru?˺ Rev. 11. [x x Ia]r-ra-˹bi˺�i-ni-[iṭ-ṭir] 12. [ù ki-i�Ia]r-ra-bi�la�˹it˺-[tal-ku] 13. [x x ina] ˹igi I˺šar-za-ab-ad-di�˹ú-maš?-šar?˺ BEFORE XERXES 49 1 5 10 15 20 Text 3. BM 16996 50 M. SANDOWICZ 14. [lú]˹mu-kin˺-ni�Iden.líl-tab-nu-ùru a-šú�šá�Iur- dnin.tin.ug5.ga 15. [Ide]n.líl-mu-˹mu˺ a-šú�šá�Iki-dutu-tin Iden.líl-mu-dù 16. ˹a-šú�šá˺�Iur(over erasure)-d˹nin˺.<tin>.ug5.ga <<lú>> 17. Iden.líl-ba-šá�˹lú(over erasure)umbisag a˺-šú�šá�Id30-kar-ir 18. a Ia.˹ba-d˺ninnu-da.˹ri˺�en.líl.ki itidu6 19. [u4.x].˹kám << kám/mu >> mu˺.5[+x].kám Ikur-ra-áš 20. [lugal tin.tir]˹ki˺ u kur.kur L.1–2 Šar-zabaddi (‘Šahr has given’) is West Semitic (cf. Zadok 1979, 4). The theophoric element Š/Ta(h)r often appears without the divine determinative, e.g. Itir-za-ba-du ‘Śahr has given’ (Zadok 1998, 1.1.1), Išar-ra-ḫi�‘Šahr is well-disposed’ (BE 8 108: 11), Išá-ra-᾿-ilu ‘Šahr is the god’ (ROMCT 2 40: 7). Aššubū’ is perhaps close to IA-šab-ba (OIP 114 126: rev. 25). L. 5 The object of the litigation cannot be confidently restored. The phrase ina� pāni� …� muššuru is usually used to describe pledge release, but it might also denote the final transfer of an acquired property. Cf. Nbk. 246: (1)a.šà�(…)�šá�PN�šá it-ti�PN2 (…) (7)im-ḫur� ina�MN [PN] (8)kù.babbar�i-na-áš-šá-am-ma�a-na�PN2 (9)i-nam-din- ma�PN2 a.šà.meš�ina�igi�PN ú-maš-šar�“(Concerning) the field (…) that PN bought from PN2 (…): in month abu [PN] will bring the silver and he will give it to PN2. PN2 will (then) release the fields to PN.” L. 14 For Kalbi-Nintinugga, see the appendix to this contribution. L. 15 Enlil-šumu-iddin/Itti-Šamaš-balāṭu from BE 8 54: 7 (a receipt for barley written in Nippur in Nbn 16) might be identical with the second witness. L. 15–16 Enlil-šumu-ibni/Kalbi-Nintinugga is presumably identical with a temple musician who appears in the apprentice contract BE 8 98: 2. Jursa apud Hackl 2007–2010, 92 suggests the reading Iur- dnin.š[i.kù], but the analogy to the present text allows the recon- struction Iur-dnin.˹tin˺.[ug5.ga]. L. 17 The scribe belonged to a family that claimed its descent from a renowned scholar. According to a Seleucid list of ummānus, Aba- Ninnu-dari was the chief scholar under Esarhaddon, whom the Ara- means called Aḫḫ’aqari (Ahiqar); cf. Parpola 1983, 449. Several other members of the family are attested in Neo-Babylonian docu- ments from Nippur, i.a. Aqar-apli/Nādin/Aba-Ninnu-dari, always listed as the first witness (PBS 2/1 175: 11 and 202: 12, TuM 2/3 189: 18 and Stolper 2001 no. 7: 12); Ninurta-šumu-iddin/Šubši-zēri/ Aba-Ninnu-dari (BE 8 58: 38); Ninurta-aḫu-[…]/Ninurta-aḫu-šubši/ Aba-Ninnu-dari (BE 8 88: 2); […]/Aba-Ninnu-dari (BE 8 81: 7). By the twentieth of tašrītu Šar-zabaddi, son of Aššubū’, and Arrabi, son of ˹Nabû-šarru-uṣur˺, will go to Babylon before [Parnaka]. They will litigate with each other [befor]e Parnaka the case [of? … that Zab]dia?, son of Šumāya, gave [under se]al? [to A]rrabi, son of Nabû-šarru-uṣur. [Should Š]ar-zabaddi not go, he will rele[ase? … t]o Arrabi and [A]rra- bi’s […] will be [(considered) paid? (…)]. BEFORE XERXES 51 [Should A]rrabi not g[o], he will release [… t]o Šar-zabaddi. Witnesses: Enlil-tabni-uṣur, son of Kalbi-Nintinugga, Enlil-šumu-iddin, son of Itti-Šamaš-balāṭu, Enlil-šumu-ibni, son of Kalbi-Nintinugga. Scribe: Enlil-iqīša, son of Sîn-ēṭir, descendant of Aba-Ninnu-dari. Nippur, [xth]day of tašrītu, the 5+[x]th year of Cyrus, [king of Babylon] and the Lands. BM 16996 calls upon two parties to go to Babylon to Parnaka and argue their case before him. The adjudicating authority is assumingly Pharnakes, a paternal uncle of the future king Darius I. Under this king, Parnaka became the head of the Persepolis administration.41 Even before the coup�d’etat of Darius, Parnaka held important functions, both in Persia and in Babylonia.42 There is a gap of over thirty years between Babylonian and Persian evidence,43 so he must have been a young man while holding office in Babylon. Evidence of Parnaka’s judicial authority comes further from an unpublished Hermitage text, Erm. 15539 (Cyr 6), concerning the receipt by the Uruk assem- bly of his message pertaining to the investigation into theft of temple gold.44 While this text shows Parnaka’s interest in temple property, Text 3 deals, it seems, with a private property case, the parties being, as suggested by their names, an Aramean and a Babylonian. It thus confirms the readiness of top officials of the governor’s administration to deal with disputes of little gravity, unrestricted to people of a particular status. Another collaborator of Gūbaru engaged in the administration of justice was his son Nabūgu.45 YOS 7 137 records the dispatch to him of five shackled men who, while sitting in prison, became hearsay witnesses to an utterance criticiz- ing the king.46 This document confirms Nabūgu’s judicial authority, yet it has to be treated as exceptional, as it deals with the charge of lèse-majesté, a case that would fall within the jurisdiction of high authority anyway. 41 For Parnaka, see Briant 2002, 353, 425, 810–811 and Stolper 2003, 275–276; for a list of his attestations, see Tavernier 2007, 178–179. Note, however, the reservations of Briant (2002, 810–811) and Stolper (2003, 275–276) regarding the identification of Parnaka of Persepolis with his Babylonian namesake. 42 Note especially YOS 7 128 (Camb 2), where he is mentioned next to Gobryas. This proto- col recounts that a man strangled another one saying “in this way Gūbaru and Parnaka break the people’s back” (cf. Joannès apud Briant 2002, 810–811 and 1040), referring assumingly to the economic oppression that the Babylonians suffered under Persian rule (Briant 2002, 811). 43 He is attested in Persepolis in 506–497 BCE (Briant 2002, 425). 44 Dandamaev 1992, 108. 45 Or Napūgu (Tavernier 2007, 256). See Dandamaev 1992, 103–104. 46 Cf. Joannès 2000b, 205. 52 M. SANDOWICZ 3. THE GOVERNOR APPOINTING JUDGES? Summonses to argue cases before Gūbaru, Parnaka, and Nabūgu correspond to documents from the Chaldean period that call individuals to come to Baby- lon to a courthouse or to the sukkallu,�sartennu�and/or judges.47 Did the appear- ance of new top functionaries in the system result from — or bring about — the overturning of the old structures? The answer to this question is negative. The high judicial officials sartennu and sukkallu are attested as late as the twenty- fourth year of Darius I.48 They are found in documents from most major cities, which means that any alleged reform of the system of justice administration under the first Achaemenids neither brought about the abolishment of their offices, nor restricted their jurisdiction.49 Not unexpectedly, also judges continue to appear in Babylonian sources from this period. They are recruited from the same social group to which judges of Nabonidus and earlier kings belonged. Throughout the reigns of Cyrus and Cambyses, their ethnicity appears to be consistently Babylonian.50 Judges bear- ing Iranian names are first found under Darius I.51 Even then, however, they were not numerous; it is true even in the case of a small group of documents from Susa, in which judges appear as witnesses.52 This stands in contrast to Egypt, where under Darius almost exclusively Persian judges operated.53 However, even though the characteristic title ‘judges of the king’ continues to be used,54 a possibility may be considered that judges were no longer appointed by the monarch, but rather by a local governor. There exists no explicit cuneiform evidence pertaining to the investiture of judges in this period, but one document gives food for thought. BIN 2 134, drafted in the fourth year of Cyrus, records a case brought before a country governor (šakin� māti), then referred to a city governor (šākin� ṭēmi) and judges of the country governor. Throughout the Chaldean period, the king was the only person who had the authority to assign judges; they were titled ‘judges of the king’ or 47 Sandowicz, forthcoming. 48 Sartennu and sukkallu appear in Cyr. 312 (Babylon, Cyr 8); note also the sepīru of a sukallu in HSM 1895-1-12, mentioned by Zadok and Zadok 2004, 649 n. 10 (Borsippa, Dar I 24). Both officials are mentioned in Cyr. 128 (Borsippa, Cyr 3) and the sartennu alone in VS 6 99 (Sippar, Cyr 6),� AnOr 8 74 (Uruk, Camb 4), VS 4 87 and its duplicate VS 4 88 (Babylon, Dar I 1) and Dar. 53 (Babylon, Dar I 2). 49 See Olmstead 1935 and Frei 1995 (republished in English as Frei 2001) for a proposed law reform under Darius I. 50 Fried’s claim that “[a]fter the Achaemenid occupation of Babylon, local judges were replaced by Persians” (2004, 33, cf. p. 47) is absolutely unsubstantiated. 51 To my knowledge, the first judge of Iranian name is Bagā’in (BE 8 107: 19, drafted in Babylon in the sixth year of Darius I). 52 Abraham 1997, 79–80 (BM 33936), Dar. 417, Dar. 435, TCL 13 193, Zawadzki 2000 no. 11. 53 Porten et al. 1996, 136 n. 19. The only non-Persian name is Babylonian. 54 Holtz 2010. BEFORE XERXES 53 ‘judges of [royal name]’. The unusual appearance of the judges of the šakin� māti at the very beginning of Persian rule may suggest that from the very outset part of the king’s juridical duties were delegated to local officials� and conse- quently to their Persian successors.55 4. ENVOYS OF THE GOVERNOR While the early take-over of power at the top of the judiciary may not come as a surprise, the presence of Gūbaru’s subordinates of lesser rank in various legal bodies shortly after the regime change is noteworthy. It shows that also lower-level administration was affected by changes early on. Sepīrus (‘Aramaic scribes’) were part of the royal administration already under the Chaldean rulers, but with the coming of the Persians their role grew in importance.56 In the sixth year of Cambyses, a sepīru joined the College of Scribes of the Ebabbar temple of Sippar and thus formally became a member of the temple’s top management.57 Similarly, in the Eanna temple of Uruk the sepīru gained in importance under this king.58 The infiltration of sepīrus may be traced also in the case of judicial bodies. In Uruk, this process can be pin- pointed already at the end of Cyrus’ reign, when the sepīru appears in a panel known from five Eanna texts. Text Year Panel members OIP 122 38 Cyr 9 Bā’u-ēreš dayyānu Ilē’’i-Marduk ṭupšarru� Bā’u-ēreš sepīru YOS 7 137 Camb 3 Rēmūtu dayyānu Bā’u-ēreš dayyānu YOS 7 151 Camb 3 Rēmūtu dayyānu� Ilē’’i-Marduk ṭupšarru� Bā’u-ēreš sepīru YOS 7 159 Camb 3 Rēmūtu dayyānu� Ilē’’i-Marduk ṭupšarru (PN, sepīru) YOS 7 161 Camb 3 Rēmūtu dayyānu� Bā’u-ēreš dayyānu 55 Such practice would have a parallel in Achaemenid Egypt, where high priests, previously appointed by the pharaoh, were nominated by satraps after the Persian conquest (Vittmann 2009, 91). 56 I follow the conventional translation of the appellative for the sake of convenience and in consideration of the fact that the primary duty of the sepīru was the handling of Aramaic docu- ments; ‘secretary’, ‘chancellor’ or ‘clerk’ render his function perhaps more precisely. For sepīrus in the Neo-Babylonian period, see especially Pearce 1999 and Jursa 2012. 57 Bongenaar 1997, 59–60. 58 Kleber 2008, 30. 54 M. SANDOWICZ The panel comprised two judges, one cuneiform scribe (ṭupšarru) and one sepīru, who appear in various configurations. The ṭupšarru�Ilē’’i-Marduk was not a local scribe of the Eanna temple, but an outsider.59 He is almost certainly identical with the scribe of a judicial panel from Bīt-šar-Bābili, attested in several documents from the latter part of Nabonidus’ reign.60 According to OIP 122 38, functionaries of this panel were linked to the governor Gūbaru. The passage that specifies the nature of this link is broken, but it may be reconstructed based on its parallel with AnOr 8 61 (Cyr 8): OIP 122 3861 (Cyr 9) Idba-ú-uru4-eš�˹ lúdi.ku5˺�šá* ˹lugal*˺ (47)Ida-damar.utu dub.sar a I˹dù-eš˺-[dingir] (48)u� Idba-ú-ùru-eš� [lú]˹se˺-pi-ri l[ú*.a.kin.(meš)] (49)šá� Igu-ba-ri lúnam t[in.ti]rki ù� e-[bir íd] “the royal judge Bā’u-ereš, the cuneiform scribe Ile’’i-Marduk of the Eppēš-[ilī] family and Bā’u-ereš the sepīru, the [envoy(s)] of Gūbaru, the governor of B[aby] lon and Ac[ross-the-River]” AnOr 8 61 (Cyr 8) (11)Id30-na-din-numun lúumbisag u�Idmu-den (12)lúse-pir�lúa.kin.meš šá�Igu-ba-ru (13) lúnam tin.tirki u�e-bir�íd “the cuneiform scribe Sîn-nādin-zēri and the sepīru Iddin-Nabû, the envoys of Gūbaru, the governor of Babylon and Across-the-River” The phrasing of OIP 122 38 makes it uncertain to whom exactly the appel- lative ‘envoy(s)’ refers: the sepīru alone, the ṭupšarru and the sepīru, or all three functionaries. A comparison with AnOr 8 61 speaks against the first pos- sibility. Either the cuneiform scribe and the sepīru, or all three officials were Gūbaru’s men. The Uruk panel heard testimonies (YOS 7 137 and 159) and issued verdicts (OIP 122 38, YOS 7 161) and regulations regarding the purchase of fish for offerings (YOS 7 151). All the hitherto known cases heard by its members concern temple property. In the texts recording the activities of the panel, the sepīru is always listed last, so his role must have been inferior to that of the judges and the ṭupšarru. His lower status is perceivable also in YOS 7 159, where he acts as a messenger for other members of the panel.62 59 Kleber 2008, 73. 60 Holtz 2008, Sandowicz and Tarasewicz 2014, 82. 61 Collated from a photo in OIP 122, plate 21. 62 (1)PN (…) šá� ina� ma-ḫar� Ire-mut� lúdi.ku5 lugal (3)ù� Ida-damar.utu lúumbisag iq-bu-ú� um-ma (4-6)(…) (7)lúdi.ku5.me lúse-pi-ri�a-na�muḫ-ḫi�PN2�iš-pu-ru-ma� (8)la�in-na-mir�iḫ-liq “(As for) PN, who before Rēmūtu, a royal judge, and Ilē’’i-Marduk, a ṭupšarru, said as follows: (testimony regarding PN2). The judges sent sepīru for PN2, but he (PN2) was not found; he had run away.” The term ‘judges’ in line 7 seems to refer to both Rēmūtu the judge and Ilē’’i-Marduk the cunei- form scribe. BEFORE XERXES 55 Judicial bodies of this kind are admittedly uncommon in sources from the Achaemenid period. A similar panel including a sepīru is attested in BE 8 107 written in Babylon in the sixth year of Darius I. This promissory note for silver resulting from litigation was witnessed by seven judges (Nabû-nādin-aḫi, Bēlšunu, Bagā’in, Nādin, Sîn-udammiq, Aplāya, Nabû-napištī-uṣur), a sepīru (Iddin-Nabû) and two cuneiform scribes (Nabû-kāṣir, descendant of Nabunnāya, and�Ea-iddin, descendant of Arrabtu). Characteristically, the only members of this body whose ancestry is given are the ṭupšarrū. Filiation is usually skipped in the case of known, public figures. Clearly the identity of the judges and the sepīru was well known and did not need to be specified any further. Such a change in the composition of hierarchical judicial bodies could hardly have resulted from the decisions of their members; it must have been prompted by the Achaemenid administration. Indeed, the presence of sepīrus and other envoys of governors and people from their entourage may be detected else- where in Early and Late Achaemenid sources from Babylonia: 63 64 65 Envoys Amurru-šēzib mār�šipri (lúa.kin) of�Gūbaru (Uruk, Camb 2)63 Moore 1939 no. 89: 44 Dadāparna, the Choresmian mār�šipri (lúkin.gi4.a) of� Gūbaru Bīt-Zabzab, Cyr 5 UCP 9/2 38 and its duplicate 39: 7–864 Ḫašdāya// Nūr-Šamaš [mār�šip]ri? ([lúa.ki]n)65 of� Gūbaru (Sippar), Camb 1 Camb. 96: 3 anonymous mār�šipri�of the governor (lúdumu šip-ri�šá�lúnam) –, Dar I 2 Dar. 58: 4 anonymous mār�šipri�of the governor (lúkin.gi4.a šá�lúnam) (Borsippa?, Xer?) VS 6 303: 5–6 63 For date and origin, see Tolini 2011, 107–108. 64 Lines 7–8: I*da*-da-a-pa-ar-na� ˹lúḫur-zi*-ma-a-a˺ lúkin.gi4.a [šá� I]˹gu*˺-bar-ri* ip-qí-du.� Collated from photos posted at http://www.cdli.ucla.edu/dl/photo/P248263 and http://www.cdli. ucla.edu/dl/photo/P248261, both accessed June 13, 2017. 65 The reconstruction [lúse-pi-r]u�is also possible. 56 M. SANDOWICZ Sepīrus Gadalâma/Banna-Ea sepīru�bēl�ṭēmi�of Huta[…]’, son of Pagakanna, the governor Babylon, Dar I 36 Stolper 1989 no. 1: 4 Libluṭ, brother of Adad-ibni sepīru�bēl�ṭēmi�of Huta[…]’, son of Pagakanna, the governor Babylon, Dar I 36 Stolper 1989 no. 1: 3 Libluṭ sepīru�(listed among Uštanu’s assistants) –, (c. Xer 0–2)66 Ungnad 1959/1960, Amherst 258: 6 Marduka sepīru of Uštanu –, (c. Xer 0–2)67 Ungnad 1959/1960, Amherst 258: 9, 14 Nabû-zēru-i[bni?] [sepī]ru68�of Gūbaru Sippar, Cyr [x] BM 66816: 22 66 67 68 Those mārē�šipri did not act as simple messengers, people transferring orders or letters from the governor to various addressees. The fact that they constituted part of the legal bodies indicates that they were actual decision-makers. Among them were a Persian (Dadāparna) and West Semites (Amurru-šēzib, Gadalâma); West Semitic background may further be assumed for most sepīrus, even the bearers of Babylonian names. Based on this small sample, a careful hypothesis may be formulated: while developing a new administrative network, the Per- sians relied on their own people (Iranians) and on Arameans rather than on the members of local Babylonian families. Such policy would not be surprising. Arameans, not being embedded in old Babylonian traditions (or at least not to the same extent as prebendaries and other social groups claiming ancient Baby- lonian descent), could have been the group on which the new Persian overlords based their power in general. CONCLUSIONS For centuries, the king stood at the head of the Babylonian judiciary. After the Persian conquest, this role was taken on by new rulers, but from the outset a number of royal judicial duties were entrusted to the new monarch’s local representatives. In accord with the coherent Persian policy towards conquered countries, at first no structural reforms and no major personal changes were introduced in Babylonia’s administrative system. This line of conduct is well observable in the court system: dispute documents produced under the first 66 For date, see Tolini 2011, 335–348. 67 See note above. 68 [lúse-pi-r]i�šá�Igu-bar-r[i]. An alternative reconstruction is [lúdumu šip-r]i. BEFORE XERXES 57 Persian rulers show a continuity of Babylonian judicial institutions and docu- ment formularies. However, this persistence of the traditional justice apparatus stands in contrast with the process of penetration of new people into the system. These individuals did not yet replace members of the local Babylonian elite as high court officials or judges, but merely assisted them, or took over only part of their duties. Not all aspects of the discussed cases are known and the sample of relevant documents is still too small to assess the scale and the exact nature of these changes, but they are certainly discernible in sources from the middle of Cyrus’ reign onward. This process could have been prompted by decisions taken around Cyrus’ fourth year, but it could as well have started immediately or shortly after the regime change, with its first stage not reflected in the extant sources. In either case, the ground began to be prepared for more radical changes carried out by Xerxes and his followers. APPENDIX: NINTINUGGA IN NIPPUR ONOMASTICON Two witnesses of Text 3 claimed their descent from an ancestor called Iur-dnin.tin.ug5.ga. The uncommon theophoric element of this name is known from yet another proper name from Nippur fdnin.tin.ug5.ga-i-lat (TuM 2/3 225: 6). It is perhaps to be emended also in Wunsch 2003 no. 19 (rev. 20’ and 22’). The name is damaged and restored by the editor as Iur-dbēlet (nin)-dēri!(bàd)˹ki˺, but the emendation to dnin.<tin>.ug5.˹ga˺ seems plausible based on the analogy with the name from Text 3 and the presumed provenance of Wunsch 2003 no. 19. Its place of issuance is damaged, but the onomasticon of the individuals present at the transaction suggests Nippur: four witnesses have Gula-names and the fifth one comes from the Šangû-Enamtila family.69 Ur-Nintinugga appears in Cassite onomasticon,70 but it must have sounded familiar to Neo-Babylonian scribes chiefly due to Ludlul�bēl�nēmeqi, in which a mašmaššu of Marduk by this name appears.71 In the Sumerian-Babylonian Ancestors’�Name�List, Ur-Nintinugga is rendered as Amēl-Gula.72 The deity Nintinugga is well attested in the third and early second millen- nium BCE.73 Her major cult centre was Isin, but her links to Nippur were 69 The Enamtila temple was probably part of the Nippurean Ekur (George 1993, 130). 70 Cf. BBSt no. 3, passim and Clay 1912, 143. 71 Ludlul�III 39 (BWL 50–51). For the place of Ludlul in the second stage of the Neo-Baby- lonian scribal education, see Gesche 2001, 173 and 183. 72 Lambert 1957, 12, line 9. 73 Edzard 1998–2001, Böck 2014, 10–11. Add the appearance of Nintinugga in Nabonidus’ dream in the Istanbul�Stela�(Schaudig 2001, 3.3a [Babylon-Stele], VII 11’–21’). 58 M. SANDOWICZ always strong. In the votive inscription known as Dog�for�Nintinugga, written by a scribe from Nippur,�she is called ‘the stewardess of Enlil’.74 In the Letter� from�Inanaka�to�the�goddess�Nintinugga she is addressed as ‘the reliable stew- ardess of the Ekur’.75 A temple enterer of Nintinugga appears as witness in Durand 1982 no. 276, plate 89: 6–7, written in Nippur in the third year of Cyrus. In the first millennium BCE, Nintinugga merged with other goddesses of medicine: Gula and Bā’u. Her identification with Gula is noticeable in Nippur: as follows from the Nippur�Compendium, Gula was worshipped as Nintinugga in the local temple Eurusagga.76 However, while this identification is certain, its impact on the spelling of Nintinugga’s name is less so. Some of the family names written in Sumerian were also read in this language,77 but was it also the case with personal names? In Wunsch 2003 no. 19 only one name is spelled with dnin.<tin>.ug5.ga, while in eight ones the simple dGu-la�appears. TuM 2/3 225 is a simple memorandum, a formulary usually kept as short as possible. It is reasonable to assume that if the scribes of these texts had an alternative, they would have chosen the syllabic spelling dGu-la�or dme.me. This assump- tion strengthens the hypothesis that Nintinugga was the actual reading rather than an esoteric spelling of Gula’s name. The interpretation of the element ur in Iur-dnin.tin.ug5.ga is not free of dif- ficulties either. In the Ancestors’�Name�List the word ur is translated as amēl-, but since some of the entries in this list are clearly artificially constructed,78 it is not to be taken as a reading, but rather as a rough rendering of the name. Moreover, amēlu in Neo-Babylonian names is consistently written with lú. The reading ur(.gi7) = kalbu in onomastics is, on the other hand, certain, 79 and both elements were used interchangeably.80 Thus, considering the lack of evidence for the Sumerian reading of ur in private names, the reading Kalbi-Nintinugga seems preferable.81 74 http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/etcsl.cgi?text=t.5.7.2# last modified June 1, 2003, accessed June 13, 2017. 75 http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/etcsl.cgi?text=t.3.3.10# last modified July 1, 2005, accessed June 13, 2017. 76 IV 2 dnin.tin.ug5.ga dgu-la. See George 1992, 156, 455, cf. Beaulieu 1995, 91. 77 See Iaš.gan.du7 in Tallqvist 1902, 16 ( Iaš/áš-kan/ga-an-du/da/dù, Aramaic ašgnd’). Also the filiation apil Iab.sum.mu šumerî ‘descendant of Absummu, the Sumerian’ attested in Nippur (Joannès 1992, 88 n. 14 and 89 n. 20) shows that scribes were aware and proud of the Sumerian origins of their ancestors. 78 Lambert 1957, 7. 79 Lambert 1981. Note that Neo-Babylonian Kalbāya is spelled both syllabically and Iur-a� (Tallqvist 1902, 86). 80 Cf. YOS 6 175: Iur-dba-ú (line 3) and Ikal-ba-dba-ú�(line 7). 81 One cannot escape the impression that Nippurean scribes were particularly sophisticated when rendering names in general. See, e.g. the private name Enlil-uballiṭ spelled Idninnu-ba.ti.la (BE 8 67: 11 and Donbaz and Stolper 1997 no. 108: 21). BEFORE XERXES 59 BIBLIOGRAPHY Abraham, K. 1997: “Šušan in the Egibi Texts from the Time of Marduk-nāṣir-apli”, OLP 28, 55–85. Beaulieu, P.-A. 1995: “The Brewers of Nippur”, JCS 47, 85–96. Blenkinsopp, J. 1988: Ezra-Nehemiah:�A�Commentary, Philadelphia. Bongenaar, A.C.V.M. 1997: The� Neo-Babylonian� Ebabbar� Temple� at� Sippar:� Its� Administration�and�its�Prosopography (PIHANS 80), Leiden. Böck, B. 2014: The� Healing� Goddess� Gula:� Towards� an� Understanding� of� Ancient� Babylonian�Medicine�(CHANE 67), Leiden and Boston. 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(eds.), Variatio� Delectat:� Iran� und� der�Westen:�Gedenkschrift�für�Peter�Calmeyer (AOAT 272), Münster, 723–744. XERXES: THE CASE OF SIPPAR AND THE EBABBAR TEMPLE Michael JURSA (University of Vienna)1 This paper is based on the Sipparean textual record for the last regnal years of Darius I and the first two regnal years of Xerxes. It takes as its point of departure the fact that economic difficulties and the heavy burden placed by the Achaemenid government on the Babylonian elites contributed to triggering the revolts against Xerxes in 484 BCE (but they hardly were their structural cause). Given the absence of specific evidence from Sippar for crisis phenom- ena, the paper will point to a certain loosening of royal control over temple institutions before the revolts. Regarding the aftermath of the rebellion, the structure of the Ebabbar archive in its final phase will be discussed. On this basis it is possible, at least in part, to develop an hypothesis for the circum- stances under which the Ebabbar archive came to an end, as well as for the intentions of those who brought this deposition of the archive about. In this respect, the deposition of the Eanna archive in the second year of Darius I will serve as comparandum.2 1. CRISIS OR BUSINESS AS USUAL IN EBABBAR AND ITS ADMINISTRATION BEFORE THE OUTBREAK OF THE REBELLIONS? Epistolographic evidence from Borsippa shows that prebend- and cult-related payments to priests were in doubt, or were actually in the course of being sus- pended, in the final months preceding the rebellion against Xerxes (Jursa 2013). This fact undoubtedly contributed to the discontent of the Borsippean elites who then supported the rebellions. Sippar data do not offer any such excep- tional insight into the motivations of the actors of the events of 484 BCE, and the available documentation does not suggest that the very financial base of the cult was threatened, as apparently was the case in Borsippa. The letter order Stigers 1976 no. 51 and the receipt BM 79542 show that, at least up to half-way through Xerxes’ first year, payments related to the cult were not reduced with 1 This paper was written under the auspices of the project “The Priesthood of Uruk in Late First Millennium BCE Babylonia” funded by the Fritz Thyssen Stiftung (Az. 10.15.1.011AA). 2 For the deposition of the Eanna archive see Kessler in this volume. 64 M. JURSA respect to earlier years.3 Nevertheless, more than occasional shortages of food- stuffs may lie behind the substitutions of one commodity by another that occur in lists and receipts for disbursements made by Ebabbar from the final years of the archive,4 and there is also some evidence for difficulties in extracting rents (MacGinnis 1995 no. 80). In any case, the Ebabbar temple and its priesthood were certainly subject to the same general forces that arguably were pushing Babylonian elites elsewhere towards rebellion. The soaring prices from the second decade of Darius I’s reign affected them just as every other agent in the Babylonian economy.5 The increasing taxation-related demands made by the Persian administration since the reign of Darius I6 weighed on them just as they did on their colleagues in Babylon or Borsippa, and they were just as likely to be forced into indebtedness or even lose their priestly office on this account:7 tensions in the temple com- munity that were owed to economic difficulties are a given. The prosopography of the highest echelons of the temple administration could be taken to suggest a certain degree of unrest: between Dar 29 and the rebellions, three different men held the office of High Priest of Sippar (šangû� Sippar), and the office reverted to a local family after having been held by the powerful and well-connected Ša-nāšišu clan for a long period (Waerzeggers 2014, 132).�Upheavals in the socio-economic fabric of the temple community can be traced through the evidence for the prebendary gardeners (rab� banê). Numerous of their allotments changed hands in the Achaemenid period, sug- gesting a change in fortune to the worse for many families of long standing. Among the profiteers of this change, a certain Ubār of the Isinnāya family stands out (Waerzeggers 2014, 167). This man is known as a priest and has been also identified as tax collector or tax farmer (Waerzeggers 2010b, 790), but his career deserves closer attention for what it can teach about the inter- weaving of ‘community politics’ within the temple and the relations of the temple community with the Persian administration. 3 Stigers 1976 no. 51 suggests that 545 litres of barley were paid daily to the brewers for the preparation of the regular food offerings, which is in line with similar data from earlier years (Jursa 1999, 24). According to BM 79542, the daily payment for the bakers amounted to 450 lit- ers of barley per day, which is close to the upper end of the attested range of such payments (Jursa 1999, 57–59). 4 E.g. MacGinnis 1995 no. 75 (Dar 23-VIII-33: dates instead of barley given to the bakers), BM 79539 (Xer 30-XII-1: brewers receive dates, rather than the obligatory barley). Many of the cases in which silver is issued instead of staples may also belong here (e.g. Nbk. 270, <Dar> 34). 5 For the prices in this period see Jursa 2010a, passim and see Pirngruber, this volume. 6 See, e.g. Jursa and Waerzeggers 2009, Jursa 2010b, Waezeggers 2010a, 345–352, and Jursa 2011. The taxes included, i.a. various corvée duties, as well as a fee that was levied on priestly initiation (Waerzeggers and Jursa 2008) and duties such as (paying for) grinding flour (e.g. BM 63158, Xer 2). 7 For tax-related priestly indebtedness in this period in general and in Sippar in particular, see Waerzeggers 2010a, 352 and 2014, 104. XERXES : THE CASE OF SIPPAR AND THE EBABBAR TEMPLE 65 Ubār was a prebendary gardener and a prebendary brewer,8 and on several occasions between Dar 10+ and Dar 35 we find him doing business, often prebend-related, with his priestly peers.9 His generation of his branch of the family was well-established in priestly circles in Sippar — several brothers of Ubār are also known as priests, but the preceding generation cannot be identi- fied with certainty.10 The evidence for Ubār’s engagement with taxes and the royal sphere in general is as follows: he receives an ilku�payment from another priest in Dar 19 (SCT 95); in Dar 20, he is responsible for a work gang financed by Sipparean priests for service in Elam. He is in that country again in Dar 31, certainly on official business (Waerzeggers 2014 no. 159).11 From one remark- able text we can deduce that he was chosen to present what must have been an exceptional sheep to king Darius in Dar 29 — this implies another visit to Susa.12 Ubār is not entirely atypical for his time and place. Contrary to the general trend in the Late Babylonian period, according to which priestly families are distinguished by a rentier mentality and are rarely involved in volatile activities related to trade, taxes and the royal administration (Jursa 2010a, 282–286), the end of the sixth and the early fifth century, and especially the reign of Darius I, did see the rise of a number of exceptions to this rule: priests deeply engaged in business, including tax and income farming and local and supra-local admin- istration beyond the cult. The family of the Sipparean priest, Marduk-rēmanni, is a case in point (Waerzeggers 2014), but we find similar phenomena also in Uruk, where what little information is available for the Eanna temple in the late reign of Darius I suggests that the bishop (šatammu) of Eanna also had taken over the business of rent-farming13 — the very task that had been so conten- tious as to cause major administrative reform in the second year of Darius I in this temple (Frahm and Jursa 2011, 27–28). Rent, and generally income farm- ing in the realm of the temple administrations, had essentially been a domain or ‘privilege’ of royal protégées under the Neo-Babylonian kings, but men who had their roots in the temple administrations increasingly managed to make inroads in this area under Persian rule, which would suggest a slackening of 8 Prebendary gardener in Jursa 1995, 67 and 79; prebendary brewer in Jursa 1999, 264–265. 9 See, e.g. the indices in Jursa 1999 and Waerzeggers 2014. 10 Bongenaar 1997, 227 (including a possible reference to Ubār’s father as a prebendary brewer); Waerzeggers 2014, 460, Jursa 1999, 159 (BM 42363) and HSM 1891-11-68 for his brother and fellow brewer Šamaš-erība; a third brother, Nabû-nāṣir, is known to have bought a house plot in Sippar (BM 74679, Dar 29) and have done prebend-related business (BM 79116, Jursa 1999, 250–251). Nabû-nāṣir’s son Šamaš-ēṭer is also active as a priest (Waerzeggers 2014 no. 156 and 399 [Index]). Finally, there is a fourth brother, Bēl-iddin, about whom little is known but the fact that also he moved in priestly circles (Jursa 1999, 277). 11 Three months after the drafting of this text, he was still travelling as we find him in Opis in BM 74636 (Dar 2-IV-31). 12 In BM 61594 he receives 15 shekels of silver for the purpose of acquiring this animal. 13 According to PTS 2180, published in Kessler 2004. 66 M. JURSA royal control over temple affairs.14 The clearest evidence for a royal disengage- ment with temple management, however, comes from several temple adminis- trations in which during the late reign of Darius I the office of royal resident (qīpu), which up to this point had been universally in the hand of non-priestly outsiders with a base in the royal administration, were in fact recruited from among priestly families (Jursa 2015, 602–603; see also Hackl, this volume). This priestly appropriation of one of the two most important temple offices, an office that was crucial for the balance between royal and local interests,15 is known, among other cities, for Esangila of Babylon and Ezida of Borsippa, two of the most important temples in Babylonia. For Sippar, such a development cannot be demonstrated, owing to the relative lack of evidence in general for the royal resident in the final years of the archive — which is by itself an indi- cation for a decline of the office’s importance.16 Significantly, there is also next to no evidence for courtiers (ša� rēši) in the Ebabbar temple in the final years of the archive, from Dar 25 onwards. This is another indication for what would seem to have been a lapse of royal vigilance in the realm of temple administra- tions. Taken jointly with what is known about the difficult economic macro- conditions, as suggested by the price data and with the occasional evidence for shortages of staples in the temple administration, this royal ‘negligence’ is likely to have been a factor in the outbreak of the rebellions against Xerxes in 484 BCE. 2. THE END OF THE EBABBAR ARCHIVE AND THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE REBELLIONS AND THE PERSIAN REPRISALS As is well known, there is no Ebabbar text that post-dates the outbreak and crushing of the rebellions in Xerxes’ second year: the archive comes to a defin- itive end at this point.17 An hypothesis about the reasons and immediate cir- cumstances of its deposition, and the fate of the Ebabbar temple thereafter, can only be based on an analysis of the structure of the documentation from the final phase of the archive, with a view towards perceiving through it the moti- vations of those who deposited (or simply left) these texts in the temple. The distribution of texts per year, as well as the distribution of the files that are represented in the last phase of the archive, show beyond doubt that the archive Rassam found was not the ‘live’ archive of a working temple. Rather, 14 Jursa 1995, 85–116 for Sipparean rent farming, see Janković 2013 for Uruk. 15 E.g. Bongenaar 1997, 34–35, Kleber 2008, 26–27. 16 For qīpus in Sippar in this period, see Bongenaar 1997, 50. One might be tempted to iden- tify the possible qīpu� Ubār cited by Bongenaar with the priest and tax farmer Ubār discussed earlier, but there is contrasting evidence (Waerzeggers 2014, 348). 17 See, e.g. Bongenaar 1997, 3–4 and Jursa 2004, 193. XERXES : THE CASE OF SIPPAR AND THE EBABBAR TEMPLE 67 it is the result of selection: a dead or at least inactive archive.18 Text numbers decrease in the final years of the archive, suggesting that active files were removed or have never been part of the lot known today as ‘Ebabbar archive’. The distribution of files represented in the documentation is as follows: 18 See on this topic also Waerzeggers, this volume. Figure 1: The temporal distribution of Ebabbar tablets from Dar 28 to Xer 2. 29 13 14 2 7 7 4 1 23 letter orders silver file staples (cult) staples (non-cultic) wool animals secondary records contracts private (\MR, BR) Figure 2: Text types in the Ebabbar archive, Dar 28 to Xer 2 (the numbers indicate the share in per cent of the text group in question). Note: in the segment ‘private’, the records from the Bēl-rēmanni and Marduk-rēmanni archives (Jursa 1999 and Waerzeggers 2014, respectively) have not been included. 68 M. JURSA The bulk of the administrative material included in the archive is highly ephemeral. There are very few legal records, if one excludes the private docu- ments, and even fewer settlements of accounts or summary lists referring to book-keeping procedures beyond the primary documentation of certain transac- tions. The great majority of the records deal with expenditure for cultic pur- poses. These were effected either from the central storehouses or in a decentral- ized manner, through letter orders directed to rent farmers and the like. Many files, well-attested in earlier phases of the archive, are missing: conspicuously so, the documentation for the temple’s non-prebendary craftsmen and most of the agricultural accounts. These dossiers break off in the course of the first half of the third decade of Darius I’s reign. In an appendix to an earlier study, I argued based on a somewhat smaller text corpus, that clearly important files were missing in the preserved documen- tation and that the archive had been carefully sifted for the purpose of removing key records. This could be taken as suggesting a “clean-up of the archives under a new administration which definitely intended to continue its work” (Jursa 2004, 193). The purpose of the present paper is to investigate this further by drawing on the possible parallel case of the Eanna archive in the second year of Darius I. There, the political upheavals of the period and temple-internal difficulties relating to the rent farmer Gimillu and his activities led to admin- istrative reform on multiple levels, almost certainly with royal consent and/or at royal instigation. Several officials were deposed and others were appointed from within the temple. These changes were accompanied by a general settle- ment of accounts, which involved placing old files into storage and moving the working archive elsewhere. None of these measures, however, led to the com- plete interruption of the temple’s economic and cultic activities.19 If this were to be a model for what happened in Ebabbar in 484 BCE, then one would assume that the structure of the archives should be the same or at least similar in their respective final years. This, however, is not the case. The following graph compares the chronological distribution of the Ebabbar and Eanna archives in their final years. The Eanna archive does not show the petering out of tablet numbers that we have seen in Sippar; instead, we see an increase of material in the very last two years of the period under investigation. 19 The discussion is summarized in Frahm and Jursa 2011, 19. XERXES : THE CASE OF SIPPAR AND THE EBABBAR TEMPLE 69 The Eanna pattern can be explained quite readily referring to the accumula- tion of material related to the settlement of the Gimillu affair (e.g. Frahm and Jursa 2011, 24–25; Janković 2013, 235–245): the orderly and systematic pro- cess of closing open files and accounts, apparently aiming at a clean slate for the new administration, produced a recognizable ‘paper trail’ that was dis- carded subsequent to the closure of the process. Nothing like this is present in the Sippar files. The typological distribution of the Uruk texts is as follows: 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 Ebabbar Eanna Figure 3: The chronological distribution of Ebabbar and Eanna texts in their final phase (last year = year 0). 6 2 7 1 7 2 2 73 disbursements various disbursements cult agricultural income personnel animals silver and metals wool contracts Figure 4: Files in the final years of the Eanna archive (with their share given in percentage points, Camb 3–Dar 2). 70 M. JURSA The most striking difference here, in comparison to the Sippar material, is the high percentage of legal texts, i.e. contracts, over the administrative mate- rial. From roughly the reign of Nabonidus onwards, the Eanna texts consist- ently include more contracts than the Ebabbar files, but the trend increases significantly in the final years of the two archives. This emphasizes the ephem- eral nature of the Sippar material. But there are differences also when only the administrative files are taken into consideration. The range of topics in the Eanna archive is wider, even though in absolute numbers there are less admin- istrative texts in this sample than there are from the Ebabbar archive. In addi- tion to this, we do not observe the same preponderance of material dealing with the cult that is so obvious for Ebabbar. 3. CONCLUSION What is known to have happened in Eanna in Dar 2 does not give us a sat- isfactory model for reconstructing the events in Sippar in Xer 2. The Ebabbar temple did probably not experience a similarly systematic process of account- ing and reorganization as did the Eanna temple a few decades earlier. There is no explicit evidence for a settlement of accounts, and there is also no numerical build-up of tablets right at the end, similar to what we see in Uruk, which could be taken as a reflex of more intensive administrative activities in this phase. Even more significantly, the evidence is not consistent with the hypothesis that we have the main Ebabbar temple archive minus a few files that were consid- ered crucial in the second year of Xerxes. If this were the case, one would expect a more variegated typology of material to be preserved, including evi- dence for non-prebendary craftsmen and ration lists, similar to what is the case in Eanna. One might advance the hypothesis that the bulk of the Ebabbar archive was discarded around Dar 20 and that some ephemeral material continued to be added unsystematically to this lot until the second year of Xerxes. If this were the case, nothing could be deduced from the structure of the extant data regard- ing the fate of Ebabbar after Xer 2.20 However, this hypothesis leaves one particularity unaccounted for: the preponderance among the ‘late’ administra- tive material of ephemeral documentation related to the cult and the preparation of the food offerings. This bias within the available texts is too pronounced to be considered to be of no account: it is certainly absent among the ‘late’ Eanna files. As this Sipparean documentation for cult-related activities was found in the context of a discarded lot of tablets, this might be taken to suggest that there was less interest in the cult than in other aspects of the Ebabbar’s activities after 20 See Waerzeggers, this volume, for a similar conclusion. XERXES : THE CASE OF SIPPAR AND THE EBABBAR TEMPLE 71 Xer 2: does this imply that the offering cycles were suspended, at least tempo- rarily? In absence of additional explicit information this cannot be proven, but as a minimum, it does seem certain that the administrative ‘fate’ of the sector of the Ebabbar administration which dealt with the cult differed from that of other ‘departments’ within the temple: the pertinent documentation was set apart from the rest of the archive. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bongenaar, A.C.V.M. 1997: The� Neo-Babylonian� Ebabbar� Temple� at� Sippar:� Its� Administration�and�its�Prosopography�(PIHANS 80), Leiden. Frahm, E. and M. Jursa 2011: Neo-Babylonian�Letters�and�Contracts�from�the�Eanna� Archive (YOS 21), New Haven and London. Janković, B. 2013: Aspects� of� Urukean� Agriculture� in� the� First� Millennium� BC. PhD dissertation, University of Vienna. Jursa, M. 1995: Die� Landwirtschaft� in� Sippar� in� neubabylonischer� Zeit (AfO� Beiheft� 25), Vienna. Jursa, M. 1999: Das�Archiv�des�Bēl-rēmanni�(PIHANS 86), Leiden. Jursa, M. 2004: “Accounting in Neo-Babylonian Institutional Archives: Structure, Usage, Implications”, in M. Hudson and C. Wunsch (eds.), Creating� Economic� Order:� Record-keeping,� Standardization,� and� the� Development� of� Accounting� in� the�Ancient�Near�East, Bethesda, 145–198. Jursa, M. 2010a: Aspects� of� the� Economic� History� of� Babylonia� in� the� First� Millen- nium� BC:� Economic� Geography,� Economic� Mentalities,� Agriculture,� the� Use� of� Money� and� the� Problem� of� Economic� Growth� (with contributions by J. Hackl, B. Janković, K. Kleber, E.E. Payne, C. Waerzeggers and M. Weszeli; AOAT 377), Münster. Jursa, M. 2010b: “Taxation and Service Obligations in Babylonia from Nebuchadnez- zar to Darius and the Evidence for Darius’ Tax Reform”, in R. Rollinger, B. Truschnegg and R. Bichler (eds.), Herodot�und�das�Persische�Weltreich�/�Hero- dotus�and�the�Persian�Empire�(Classica et Orientalia 3), Wiesbaden, 431–448. Jursa, M. 2011: “Steuer. D. Spätbabylonisch”, RlA 13/1, 168–175. Jursa, M. 2013: “Epistolographic Evidence for the Trips to Susa by Borsippean Priests and for the Crisis in Borsippa at the Beginning of Xerxes’ Reign”, ARTA 2013/003. Jursa, M. 2015: “Families, Officialdom, and Families of Royal Officials in Chaldean and Achaemenid Babylonia”, in A. Archi (ed.), Tradition� and� Innovation� in� the� Ancient�Near�East, Winona Lake, 597–606. Jursa, M. with contributions by C. Waerzeggers 2009: “On Aspects of Taxation in Achaemenid Babylonia: New Evidence from Borsippa”, in P. Briant and M. Chauveau (eds.), Organisation�des�pouvoirs�et�contacts�culturels�dans�les�pays� de�l’empire�achéménide�(Persika 14), Paris, 237–269. Kessler, K. 2004: “Urukäische Familien versus babylonische Familien: Die Namen- gebung in Uruk, die Degradierung der Kulte von Eanna und der Aufstieg des Gottes Anu”, AoF�31, 237–262. Kleber, K. 2008: Tempel�und�Palast:�Die�Beziehungen�zwischen�dem�König�und�dem� Eanna-Tempel�im�spätbabylonischen�Uruk�(AOAT 358), Münster. 72 M. JURSA MacGinnis, J. 1995: Letter� Orders� from� Sippar� and� the� Administration� of� the� Ebab- bara�in�the�Late-Babylonian�Period,�Poznań. Stigers, H.G. 1976: “Neo- and Late Babylonian Business Documents from the John Frederick Lewis Collection”, JCS 28, 3–59. Waerzeggers, C. 2010a: The� Ezida� Temple� of� Borsippa:� Priesthood,� Cult,� Archives (Achaemenid History 15), Leiden. Waerzeggers, C. 2010b: “Babylonians in Susa: The Travels of Babylonian “Business- men” to Susa Reconsidered”, in B. Jacobs and R. Rollinger (eds.), Der�Achäme- nidenhof�/�The�Achaemenid�Court�(Classica et Orientalia�2), Wiesbaden, 777–813. Waerzeggers, C. 2014: Marduk-rēmanni:� Local� Networks� and� Imperial� Politics� in� Achaemenid�Babylonia (OLA 233), Leuven. Waerzeggers, C. with a contribution by M. Jursa 2008: “On the Initiation of Babylo- nian Priests”, ZAR 14, 1–38. URUK: THE FATE OF THE EANNA ARCHIVE, THE GIMIL-NANĀYA B ARCHIVE, AND THEIR ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE Karlheinz KESSLER (University of Würzburg) It is clear that the scanty remains of clay tablets from Uruk (Warka) do not provide answers to all questions concerning Xerxes’ reign in Babylonia. A solution, if possible, can only be achieved by a comparison with other Babylo- nian cities. However, Uruk is the only city in Mesopotamia that, thanks to the ongoing archaeological exploration of over one hundred years, helps to under- stand the fate of some urban areas affected by the change after the second regnal year of Xerxes. Uruk was, with Ur and Eridu, the most southern town of Babylonia. The scholarship has dealt with many of the approximately 8,000 cuneiform texts and fragments from Uruk, but large numbers of these sources still remain unpublished. Those available to us are mostly connected to the Eanna temple and its various cults. Some private archives have also been preserved, predomi- nantly from families connected to Eanna. In this contribution, I will examine the archaeological evidence for both types of clay tablets in the reigns of Darius I and Xerxes. THE EANNA ARCHIVE The flow of texts from the Eanna archive decreases suddenly in the second year of Darius I, with only a few texts still written until his 29th year, or pos- sibly even later. Our main source, the Eanna temple archive, was deliberately sorted out. To pin down the substantial Eanna archive in more detail, however, is a laborious task. Thousands of texts, among them the most complete tablets, derive from clandestine excavations and were sold and dispersed all over the world before the German excavations had even started. Unfortunately, the observations made during the regular excavation campaigns give no hints as to the origin of the illegal texts. At first sight, these illicitly excavated texts and the ones unearthed by the German excavators seem to belong to the same bulk of tablets, but it is possible that they were unearthed at slightly different find-spots. 74 K. KESSLER The Eanna archive was studied in detail by G. van Driel (1998) and was recently investigated in YOS 21 for the time of Darius I by E. Frahm and M. Jursa (2011). E. Gehlken (1990 and 1996) can be taken as a forerunner, since he looked closer into the matter of where the tablets were found in regular excavations, with the intention of drawing up a map of the locations. On this basis he began his publication of texts, but it was inevitable that he had to give up in the end: “Da sich das Problem, exakte Aussagen über Anzahl und Ver- bleib der Tontafeln zu bekommen, leider auf Schritt and Tritt stellt, mußte der ursprüngliche Plan, einen Katalog aller zum Eanna-Archiv gehörenden Urkun- den mit Angabe des Ortes der Veröffentlichung zu erstellen, aufgegeben wer- den” (Gehlken 1990, 6–7). This negative result of Gehlken’s undertaking, which was also stressed by van Driel in his review article (van Driel 1998, 61), is simply due to the insuf- ficient, or to put it more frankly, inadequate dealings with Late Babylonian cuneiform tablets during the German excavations. Epigraphists had to work as archaeologists on this particular site, without being able to master the flood of tablets surfacing. As a result, find-spots were incompletely registered. This situ- ation lasted up to the seventies of the last century. The optimistic view of van Driel, that “this archaeological information will hopefully be forthcoming” (van Driel 1998, 62), is in my eyes a hope in vain. The excavation reports do not make any distinction between the individual tablet groups. This would normally have been the task of an experienced expert of clay tablets during the excavations. It does appear from the field reports, however, that the texts derive from two slightly different sites or two concentra- tions of textual finds. First, tablets were found in the so-called building K, which corresponds to 400 square meters (Qa/b XIV 4/5), and which was labelled a ‘Wirtschaftsarchiv’ by the excavator H. Lenzen (1956, 17). Second, according to UVB 1 we can trace a concentration of textual finds in room 133 (former room 11a) and room M (former room 12) within the area of the so- called ‘Zingelmauer’. The texts found in 1928–1929 and those of the post-war campaigns were numbered as AUWE 12 and 13. Hundreds of clay tablets were unearthed here, deliberately smashed and discovered as such ‘in situ’. Addi- tionally, Lenzen reports the presence of water basins and canals in order to maintain the humidity required to preserve clay tablets. This is also the case in room 11b SW and in the so-called ‘Gartenhof’ (atrium). O. Pedersén (1998, 208) prepared a map of these find-spots. Most of these texts seem to belong to the period of Nebuchadnezzar II and earlier. This is at least true for the bulk of the tablets that were finally entrusted to Gehlken for publication (Gehlken 1990 and 1996). Still mysterious is A. Falkenstein’s remark on the fragments of literary texts published in LKU (Falkenstein 1931, 1): “Die hier vorgelegten 133 Keilschrift- texte aus Warka, die in der Grabung des Jahres 1928/29 zusammen mit URUK: THE FATE OF THE EANNA AND GIMIL-NANĀYA B ARCHIVES 75 schätzungsweise 6000 Tontafelbruckstücken wirtschaftlichen Inhalts gefunden worden sind, stellen eine Auswahl aus den ca. 250 darunter festgestellten Tex- ten literarischen Inhalts dar.” Unfortunately, there is no clear evidence for the actual find-spot of these fragments and it is still an open question whether they were found during clandestine ‘excavations’ or whether they were just lying on the floors together with the other economic texts. One can conceive a private temple library belonging to a priest comparable to the famous Sippar library, which contained a number of sign lists. In my opinion, for the moment it is better to include these texts under the general label ‘Eanna archive’, as was done by Pedersén (1998, 206). Robbers made quite a number of pits which concentrate around the same areas. The details from the excavation reports are not very useful, as the infor- mation provided does not help to locate the pits on the archaeological maps. It is unclear how to interpret the report that altogether 38 tablets, registered as W 18230, originate from Qb XIV 4 ‘im Schutt eines Raubloches’, or the reg- istration of 100 tablets under W 18213 assigned to Qa XIV 4, the so-called second ‘Raubloch’ (see the Grabungsinventar in Gehlken 1990, 151). Depend- ing on the capability of the supervising person, one occasionally finds more detailed notes such as, for example, that 73 tablets, with the excavation number W 18239, were found in the same area of 400 square metres, that is, Qa XIV 5, in a ‘Raubloch im Zungenmauerwerk’ (Gehlken 1990, 152). And the descrip- tion continues in that manner. All possibilities to attribute the single textual finds to coherent groups, as well as to establish connections between finds, seem to be obliterated by these insufficient entries. The date of Darius I year 2 has given rise to manifold theories concerning the fate of the Eanna archive. Among the scholars who developed these theories were, for example, van Driel (1998, 70–71) and especially M. Jursa, who sug- gested “that in all likelihood it [the date] is to be connected with a rearrange- ment of the archive undertaken in the aftermath of the investigations in the affairs of the corrupt temple slave Gimillu” (Jursa 2005, 138). This implies that the rearrangement would be a continuation of the archive from the year Dar 2 onwards and that the earlier tablets form a dead archive. Does it make sense, however, that this supposedly dead archive had been partly smashed and its debris left on the spot for at least another 25 years? If this was the case, what would have happened with the water installations, which were assumingly used for writing clay tablets after Dar 2? At present, only about three dozen texts dating to the period after Dar 2 have been retrieved. Concerning these tablets, Jursa suggested that all of them were deposited together with the earlier tablets (Jursa 2005, 138–139). It is also pos- sible that a rather coincidental amount of later texts remains, known by pure chance since they were integrated in the mass of texts dating before Dar 2. It may also be due to the fact that the tablets were taken in great haste from 76 K. KESSLER different shelves on which they had been stored, probably in a very systematic order. It is evident that the tablets from the regular excavations and those unearthed earlier during illegal diggings belong together. Without going into details, one can follow this up for single text groups in the lists provided by van Driel (1998, 74–79) and by Frahm and Jursa (2011, 24–29). It is only necessary to refer to examples for the time after Dar 2 and to add some further comments. 1) At least four long lists of bakers exist concerning maššartu dating to Dar 29 (PTS 2180; PTS 2101, see Kessler 2004, 253–258; YOS 21 201; YBC 4021, see Kleber 2008, 50–52). These are comparable to similar lists of certain goods delivered during Cambyses’ reign; cf. YOS 7, 56 and YOS 7, 197. Based on this evidence, there is no decrease in the number of bakers in the reign of Darius I. 2) Some letter orders belonging to the Tattannu dossier and the Ḫabaṣīru dossier also date to the period after Dar 2 (Frahm and Jursa 2011, 25). Some of the tablets from the Tattannu archive (Dar 11–12) stem from regular excava- tions. Unfortunately, the owner bears a very common name. Nevertheless, it seems conceivable that Tattannu was not only a private entrepreneur, as Frahm and Jursa (2011, 28) see him. It may well be that he was the mašennu (i.e. a high official) mentioned in text W 20000,52,8 (= 128,8) from the Egibi house. Ḫabaṣīru, son of Balāṭu, who is mentioned in a number of other documents (Dar 9–22), bears the official title rab� kāri� (‘harbour master’). However,� this does not mean that he had the same social status as Marduk-nāṣir-apli from the Egibi family from Babylon (see Abraham 2004). He is never attested with a family name in Uruk and it is even possible that he was a ša� rēši or a širku, which would connect him to the spheres of the king and/or the temple. 3) A letter order with two seals, written by Sūqāya and Libluṭ to Nanāya- uṣalli (PTS 2704, Dar 16). The senders are documented also in the private archive of the Egibi house: W 20000,36 (Dar 19) is a letter order sent by both of them to Lâbâši to handle wool in exchange for makkasu-dates with Murašû, son of Arad-Bēl of the Egibi house. Sūqāya and Libluṭ were both probably ṭupšar� Eanna� (‘scribe of Eanna’). This can be demonstrated on the basis of the seals in combination with tablets of Libluṭ (for the argumentation, see the author’s forthcoming edition of the Egibi archive in AUWE 28). 4) Some economic texts with expenditures, for example VS 20 17 with grain deliveries belonging to the qīpu�(‘royal resident’), are dated to Dar 22. In this case the tablet comes from regular excavations. 5) Some texts dealing with wool or textiles, e.g. PTS 2359, are dated to Dar 25. 6) In Jursa’s listing described as ‘fodder’ for animals, only AUWE 11 169 with the date Dar 7 is mentioned (Frahm and Jursa 2011, 26). It is significant, as van Driel correctly noted, that this is a closed part of the archive (‘dead fowl URUK: THE FATE OF THE EANNA AND GIMIL-NANĀYA B ARCHIVES 77 file’; van Driel 1998, 62). There are at least seventeen small tablets (Gehlken 1990, 51), one still unpublished (W 18131n), with a date in Dar 11. One has to emphasize the following points. It is indisputable that the Eanna temple continued functioning until the end of the reign of Darius I. The com- plete Eanna archive, as it has become known to us, was disposed of, or thrown away, not before the year Dar 29, and perhaps even after Xerxes 2. It seems evident that some later texts were intentionally mixed with tablets dating to the period before Dar 2. The year Dar 2 may be explained by the turmoil in the Gimillu affair, but there might exist other solutions as well. I am not really convinced that this event was so fateful as to explain the disposal of all earlier tablets within this one year. The early reign of Darius I could have been a good time for a rearrangement of the temple administration, which to some extent was always controlled by the king. The Eanna archive had been partly regis- tered on wooden boards, and this practice may have continued after Dar 2. It would not be a surprise if the later šatammu Šullumu was involved, but there are indications of a more direct influence of the state on the management of the Uruk cult already much earlier. One cannot escape the impression that such administrative shifts could not be managed without the interference of the Per- sian royal administration. The Eanna archive was not an internal matter of the temple alone. It may also be that the change, which reveals itself in the year Dar 2, had to do with some political reconsideration and with Darius I’s shifts in attitude compared to his predecessors. Whereas it is safe to conclude that the Eanna archive and temple continued to function in the usual way after Dar 2, one can only speculate about what happened with the Eanna cults after Dar 29. Only E. Gehlken (1990, 92) and M. Dandamaev (1992, 171) pay particular attention to an isolated text from the Eanna archive with a date referring to a year 33, but unfortunately lacking the king’s name. This text comes from the regular excavations (AUWE 5 108). If this document really would be dated to Dar 33 and not to Nebuchadnezzar II 33 — Gehlken leaves this question unanswered, but Dandamaev argues for Darius I — the consequences would be essential for the matter of the end of the Eanna archive. The archive would still have been active until the last years of Darius I. Furthermore, this would be a strong argument for the assumption that it was Xerxes who closed the cultic business of the Eanna and was respon- sible for the disturbance. A remarkable feature of this text is a monumental seal impressed on the backside. This already indicates that the scribe of this text had to be a very high official of the administration. Only those officials were entitled to have such seals. In addition to this, the number of talents for salt is uncommonly high. In any case, this is not a document describing a normal delivery of products within the Eanna temple, but a distribution of 15 talents of salt for a group of persons called lúÉRIN.ME ša� ḫal-pu. In general, the Aramaic designation ḫalpu is 78 K. KESSLER translated as ‘substitute’. One can surely place these persons outside of Uruk, probably working there for a longer period of time, for instance as soldiers stationed in a place far off or as builders in connection with building projects. Gehlken’s reading Nabû-kiširru-iddin for the reverse line 2 seems far-fetched (1990, 92). The name should certainly be read Nabû- or Bēl-kēšir, and the verbal form i-din at the end of the line undoubtedly speaks for a kind of letter order within the administration. Against the dating to Dar 33 speaks the fact that we have a few dated sealed administrative orders of the Nebuchadnezzar II period (GCCI 1 73; NCBT 1111). The seal corresponds to Ehrenberg 1999 nos. 100–101. AUWE 5 108 was found among a group of tablets in square Qa XIV 5, in a spot unclearly described as ‘im Verfallschutt’ (Gehlken 1990, 151). Judging from the published tablets and assuming that no later texts are among the yet unpublished material, all these tablets belong to the period from before Nabonidus. So, it is advisable not to attach too much importance to the date of Dar 33 and to exclude AUWE 5 108 from the discussion about the exact end of the Eanna archive. To rely only on philological arguments, as is normally done, would be a mere play of thoughts. How do the archaeological facts fit into this assumed scenario? Do they support those ideas? And can one trust the observations of H. Lenzen? The available reports, sometimes lacking detail, are a real obstacle. Nevertheless, it seems probable that most of the tablets from before Dar 2 were left where they were originally placed and that no one took care of them any longer. This part of the Eanna was simply waiting for the shelves to collapse and when this finally happened, the debris of the surrounding walls partially covered the tablets. Lenzen writes in his report UVB 12–13 (Lenzen 1956, 18) about building K, of which only a third was preserved: “Die ganzen Tontafeln lagen … in Fundlage, aber nicht in einer bestimmten Ordnung, sondern gehäuft in der Westecke und an der Steinwand zwischen ersten und zweiten Raum” (these are now rooms 132 and 133). Based on building technique, he dated it to the early Achaemenid period, from Cyrus until the early reign of Darius I. Lenzen was not aware of the fact that the Eanna archive did not end in Dar 2, and argued for the end of the Eanna built by the earliest Achaemenid kings, but he stressed that all destructions came “bei der Plünderung und Zerstörung des Gebäudes”. Much more important is the observation made during the 11th campaign of 1938–1939 with regard to an Achaemenid room (room 123) nearby: “Als diese Tafeln bei der Beschreibung erwähnt wurden, wurde nicht gesagt, daß sich ein Teil der Tontafeln in der Bodenscherbe eines größeren Gefäßes befand” ( Lenzen 1956, 18, quoting Lenzen and Nöldeke 1940, 15). One can assume that this was the original method how tablets were normally handled before being stored in the archives. URUK: THE FATE OF THE EANNA AND GIMIL-NANĀYA B ARCHIVES 79 That only a third of building K was preserved may not be unimportant for understanding the fate of the tablets originally housed there. The same can also be said about the small room 123, which points to the fact that the archive was partly located in a sequence of very badly destroyed rooms. Some of them might even be remains of another Persian building. How this influenced the loss of clay tablets from the Achaemenid period, either in quantity or with regard to certain dossiers, seems to be a matter of pure speculation. It may be that the extent of the archive was much larger than the accidental remnants revealed. Over the centuries, both the condition of the soil and the destructive impact of the water may have been responsible for a considerable loss of clay tablets in this area, especially for tablets not covered by collapsed walls provid- ing some protection against the soil and water. That the enormous amount of tablets within this building was originally kept in a systematic way, essential for an effective administration maintained over generations, seems indisputable, as there are clear indications of certain tablets being grouped together. Can it be assumed that the majority of the tablets from the time of Darius I onwards were therefore not preserved anymore? The final disturbances might have led to an irreversible disappearance of certain types of tablets. The situation of the tablets found near the ‘Zingelwall’, where some original rooms were apparently used to store the slightly older material up to Nebuchad- nezzar II, was similar. In the open space of the so-called ‘Gartenhof’, one part of the collection of tablets was found smashed in a corner of a wall, the other part was found around a water basin. This water basin and its surrounding installations — described by Kose (2008) as having a lot of smaller walls and supposed canals, similar to building K — were not used anymore and faced the same fate as the archive. All this leads to the idea that an inspection of tablets was implemented hastily at the end, without taking real care of the tablet mate- rial itself. Without regular repairs of the walls a collapse would have been imminent within a few years. Lenzen referred to the whole area, with water running between small walls of c. 60 cm high, as a kind of installation for regu- lating humidity. What could have been the reason to leave a dead archive in such disorder and to transport an undisturbed Eanna archive to another, intact part of the temple? A. Kose, a specialist in Seleucid and Parthian architecture of the Eanna pre- cinct, doubted the conclusions of Lenzen. In a short article (Kose 2008) he compared the installations in building K with rooms A and D of building P in Middle Assyrian Tell Šēḫ Ḥamad, where residues of barley were found. In room A, the normal brick floor was overlaid with a kind of wooden floor. In the adjoining room D, three small canals served as drains for the water. He comes to the conclusion that building K functioned also as storehouse and its many parallel canals were not intended to keep its contents moist, but on the 80 K. KESSLER contrary to serve as drainage. Since he recognised that also clay tablets were found there, he concluded “Vermutlich wurden hier neben den Tontafeln ursprünglich vor allem Nahrungsmittel gelagert, ich denke dabei hauptsächlich an Getreide wie in Gebäude P” (Kose 2008, 201). To compare the installations within building K with Roman horrea, which one automatically conceives to adjoin it, seems doubtful, however. The purpose for such storehouses, at least in classical antiquity, was to circulate fresh air around the pillars, which would not be possible by horizontal small walls. The idea that wooden planks rested on top of the small and not very durable walls consisting of unbaked clay bricks is problematic in itself. How could this func- tion for more than a few years? And this is also the case for the rooms directly within the ‘Zingelwall’, i.e. room 157. How was it possible to repair these narrow supporting walls? In this area, there are no traces of wood, nor any residues of grain. This lack cannot just be explained by the former excavation methods. A few meters away the excavators registered very meticulously some ‘Heuhalme’ in a small room, which they interpreted as a donkey stable from the time of Nabonidus (Lenzen 1956, 15). There must be some interrelation between the clay tablets from rooms 132–133, which some philologists con- ceived to belong to a more or less entirely dead archive ending mostly with Dar 2, and the function of the rest of the building as kind of storehouse. But business dealings with barley or other cereals in building K would be expected at least for the whole period of Darius I. Why should this end with Dar 2? Kose did not consider this matter. And what about room M of the former ‘Kläranlage’? A water canal, leading through the ‘Zingelwall’, divides this room, which then could also be described as a storeroom for goods. In exactly this large part of the Eanna archive, how- ever, tablets were found in the rubble above this room, mostly deliberately destroyed (Jordan 1930, 20). If Kose’s conclusions are correct and building K would be primarily a large storeroom for goods, then this would be an area, preserved on at least three sides (the expected fourth side in direction of the main temple is not preserved), with archive rooms and buildings used for eco- nomic purposes at the same time. The original size of building K with its Eanna tablets and the surrounding tablets within the reach of the Eanna precinct speak in favour of Lenzen’s assumptions that we are indeed dealing with installations associated with the writing of clay tablets and their storage. The numerous symmetric and very long ‘canals’ in building K would fit an archive building. Kose noticed that the 40–50 cm space between the various small walls with a height of c. 65–90 cm is indeed too small for busy transactions with goods going in and out, but for an archive to store tablets on wooden shelves, with limited access for the person in charge, it would be quite fitting and comparable to modern ‘Ablagearchive’ (Kose 2008, 200). URUK: THE FATE OF THE EANNA AND GIMIL-NANĀYA B ARCHIVES 81 The assumption of the availability of water, and the fact that according to Lenzen traces of water were observed between the small walls, cannot be sim- ply dismissed. Lenzen’s argument, that without water the preservation of unburned clay tablets could not be ensured over the generations, is still valid. To avoid the natural moisture of the soil, which is destructive for clay tablets, or any sudden inundations of the surface, by means of such ‘canals’ with a considerable height seems rather strange. For instance, the 5 m to 7 m long ‘canals’ in room 157 do not seem to have transported the water straight out of the room. The water was directed horizontally to the ‘Zingelwall’ and finally by a vertical wall outside the building. I cannot think of any other reason for the existence of this huge building K, especially when all three sides of the surrounding ‘Zingelwall’ seem to have something to do with the writing and archiving of tablets. It cannot be that an archive was piled up and left there by accident. There is no reason to assume that tablets were later transferred to another location within the temple. But let me propose an undoubtedly rather uncommon hypothesis concerning the fate of the Eanna archive. Is it possible that all the Eanna tablets dating from the second year of Darius I onwards, running at least to year Dar 29 or even later, came accidently into the hands of a completely different institution? Could this have happened by the order of Xerxes after he had suppressed all resistance against him in his second year? One could then suggest a scenario as follows. The final abandonment of the huge Eanna complex and all the disturbances of the archives and their buildings may well be due to the Persian administration under Xerxes. All the more important tablets after Dar 2 and of course also a few earlier ones from Cyrus and Cambyses could have been taken away. The rest was left, and in part intentionally destroyed. This does not only apply to some of the economic tablets, but also to the literary texts of the tem- ple itself belonging to a high-ranking person responsible for this collection, which also seem to have been smashed. Was this done on behalf of the admin- istration of the king? One should consider the possibility that some information on these tablets would have been significant for Xerxes, perhaps in order to identify those respon- sible for the revolts or those in league with the insurgents. The economic value of the Eanna tablets could also have been important, as the royal administration would have been interested to know whether financial resources of the Eanna were being withheld from the empire. These and other considerations could be the reason for the royal administration to act in this way. One could imagine that there were many questions the Achaemenid administration was eager to answer before closing the temple precinct completely. One may suspect a similar proce- dure with the archives that Hammurabi or his administration found at Mari. In my opinion, the archaeological results would not speak against the idea of an obvious destruction of the Eanna archive. As a result, the abandoning of 82 K. KESSLER the tablets dating earlier, to Dar 2, and the removal of an unknown number of tablets was finally done under Xerxes. THE ARCHIVE OF THE EGIBI FAMILY Let me leave the Eanna archive and move on to the so-called private texts. Nearly all of them belong to families whose livelihoods were more or less dependent on the Eanna. The last dated clay tablets from Uruk date from Dar 34–35. The loan of barley YOS 21 204 (Dar 24), Stigers 1976 no. 55 (Dar 34), and eventually FLP 1436 (Dar 35, unpublished) may belong to one archive. Jursa defined them as ‘private archive’ (Frahm and Jursa 2011, 29–30), but that does not exclude the Eanna archive as storage place. More information on the last years of Darius I comes from the still unpub- lished archive of the Egibi family. One has to emphasise that this is the only major private archive from Uruk, which nearly covers the whole reign of Darius I (Jursa 2005, 147). It was found in a private building west of the Eanna together with some texts lying scattered around in the private house, which demonstrate that relatives of the owner were living nearby or in the same building. The main sources refer to Nabû-ēṭir-napšāti and some earlier texts are from his father Arad-Marduk, both ērib�bītis (‘temple enterers’) and preb- endary bakers of the temple, well-known from some of the earlier Eanna documents. The archive mainly comprises private loan texts, but also some texts listing private consumption or recording expenditures of the temple. Many texts deal with business transactions among relatives, but also with people within the range of the Eanna temple, often with families of similar status. There are not many Eanna texts among the whole lot, but in contrast to Jursa’s statement (2005, 147) some documents found in the private house are clearly connected to Eanna business. See for example W 20000,164, a text which refers to a prebendary service similar to certain SWU texts; W 20000,80, where one finds the accounts of different bakers; W 20000,50, a text which deals with sheep offered at certain days in different months. The smaller part of the archive, about 22 texts, including some without dates, refers to the years Dar 30–33, nearly 3 years after Nabû-ēṭir-napšāti’s death. Those last archive holders are Šellibi, son of Arad-Bēl of the Egibi family, and his son Bibānu, who worked together with a certain Bēl-ittannu, son of Bēl- ēreš, with the family name lúmandidi. The Šellibi/Bibānu group consists of altogether different types of documents: mainly accounts, imittu texts and house rents, but only a few loans. The latest documents are nos. 89 and 90 (W 20000,89–90) which date to the 9th and the 13th of Nisan Dar 33 and belong to Bēl-ittannu. URUK: THE FATE OF THE EANNA AND GIMIL-NANĀYA B ARCHIVES 83 Šellibi is undoubtedly a distant relative of the first two archive holders. He is probably identical with a baker mentioned in the year Dar 29 within the Eanna baker lists (see above). But his name and the name of his son are never mentioned in the numerous tablets of the predecessor Nabû-ēṭir-napšāti, although many names of other relatives are listed in the archive. Some of them must have been active for some years in the capital Babylon. Nevertheless, Šellibi was also by law the successor of Nabû-ēṭir-napšāti. With W 20000,19 and W 20000,82 one possesses two business transactions of his forerunner, still much too important not to integrate them into his own archive. Also the letter W 20000,21 (Dar 32) belongs to the archive of Šellibi of the Egibi family. According to this letter our Šellibi receives maššartu by order of another Šellibi. The latter Šellibi must have had a higher office within the administra- tion of the Eanna, possibly that of bēl�piqitti�Eanna, as he is the sender of the sealed letter order for the distribution of grain. His letter to Balāṭu, whom he addresses as his aḫu�(‘brother’) and who is probably identical with the ša�muḫḫi� quppi� (‘official in charge of the cash box’) in GCCI 2 130 (Dar 22) and pos- sibly also with the ša�muḫḫi�Eanna�(‘official in charge of Eanna’) in YOS 21 16 (Dar 19), refers to the gods Marduk and Ṣarpanitum. For Uruk the reference to these two deities is rather uncommon and points to Šellibi’s background. Could this tendency towards Babylon be one of the reasons which led to a kind of split between the interests of families oriented towards Babylon and those clinging more to the local traditions of Uruk? THE GIMIL-NANĀYA B ARCHIVE The investigation of the change in royal politics and cult at Uruk between the long reign of Darius I and the 13 years of Xerxes is simply hampered by the lack of sources. Only one small private archive is available, the so-called Gimil-Nanāya B archive (Jursa 2005, 147–148), which includes at least five tablets dated up to the year Dar 24. Surprisingly, two clay tablets are found with dates referring to the years Xerxes 6 and 9, but also mentioning the third year of Xerxes. The archive was found in Uruk in square U 18, but the excavators and the epigraphist, who published the texts as SpTU 5 286–287, 291–292, 299–301, 312 (von Weiher 1998) and SpTU 4 22 (von Weiher 1993), registered the texts among others as ‘Sammelfund’ W 23293. Von Weiher combined these texts with the later archive of Ubāru, son of Anu-aḫḫē-iqīša, starting in year 37 of Artaxerxes I. It is better, however, to keep the two archives separate. It is quite remarkable that the Gimil-Nanāya B archive was found in a com- pletely different context than other private texts at Uruk, which were based mostly within various private houses west of the ‘Zingelwall’ of the Eanna 84 K. KESSLER temple. The Gimil-Nanāya B archive leads us to a completely different area in the sphere of the rab�banês and the gardens of the rab�banês near the east gate of the city. Also the content of the texts is quite different. We are dealing here with some property texts and marriage contracts, in contrast to the private texts usually available from Uruk, which record loans and related matters but very seldom family affairs. But apart from this, one has to bear in mind that these are not the original documents but copies. It seems that the archive contains the most important family documents of Erība(ya), son of Kināya, of the Gimil- Nanāya family. It comes as a surprise that one text shows a closer connection between Erība of the Gimil-Nanāya family and the archive of the Egibi house discussed before. In W 20000,50 our Šellibi, son of Arad-Bēl of the Egibi family, is mentioned as creditor, handling 15 šekels of silver of nuḫḫutu quality and 2 kurru and 2 pānu and 3 sūtu of dates to Erība, son of Kināya of the Gimil- Nanāya family. In this case the date is lost, as is also the list of witnesses and some other information. The silver amount seems to have been due by the month of Addaru. The most unusual feature is the security by which Erība has to guarantee the repayment of the mixed loan, namely, one sheep of the temple of Aššur, explicitly mentioned as his prebend (isiqšu). This is the only case where one meets both a high-ranking official who undoubtedly belonged to the hierarchy of the Eanna temple and was expelled some years later from the city by Xerxes, and a member of a family that survived this far-reaching event. It may be that our Erība, as owner of rab�banê gardens with a small prebendary income not from Eanna, belonged to the stratum of inhabitants of Uruk who had better chances of surviving the events of Xerxes year 2 than Šellibi, to whom he was clearly inferior in rank. From the reign of Xerxes, apart from the two texts mentioned, we have no documents at all. The documentation in Uruk starts again with the reign of Artaxerxes I. By then, the onomasticon had changed considerably, having turned to names with the theophoric elements Anu or Šamaš, although there were still a lot of traditional family names around, which were known from the reign of Darius I. I have dealt with this phenomenon in two of my previous articles (Kessler 2003; Kessler 2004), but there I mainly concentrated on the prosopography of Uruk. Without repeating my arguments, the shift in the nomenclature within the city of Uruk seems to have happened quickly. Just by referring to the only two available documents from the reign of Xerxes, one has to consider the possibility that the families belonged to a different religious stratum. In the year Xerxes 6 one already detects predominantly names com- posed with Anu and with Šamaš of Larsa. This could be explained by the fact that the cultic centre of the city had been transferred to Anu early in the reign of Xerxes. This issue and the questions about the establishment of a new cult place of Anu will be dealt with by Beaulieu’s paper in this volume. URUK: THE FATE OF THE EANNA AND GIMIL-NANĀYA B ARCHIVES 85 CONCLUSIONS Many questions remain in need of an answer. First, the archaeological evi- dence must be reconsidered. What was the fate of the houses west of the Eanna? What was the later situation of the whole area? What became of the inhabitants? To close the cults of the Eanna temple, or to withdraw the protective hand of the king from the Eanna, was one thing, but what was the effect for Uruk on the whole? Seen from the royal point of view, how could Xerxes maintain his power over the city of Uruk and at the same time continue exploiting the resources of the temples for his advantage and his court? Was this even the aim of Xerxes at all? The archaeological maps show a rather clear result. The whole area west of the Eanna, where most private archives were found, was completely deserted at the time of Xerxes’ ascent to power. All the houses, which up to the time of Darius I were predominantly inhabited by families dependent on the Eanna temple, mainly prebendaries and other functionaries, seem to have been aban- doned. The Egibi house, whose archive’s end is dated to Dar 33, might have been left by its inhabitants, along with other houses nearby. But their family documents and important business documents, which we lack completely, seem to have been removed along with the withdrawal of their owners. This would explain the scarcity of late tablet finds in the whole area. The archaeological finds do not give the slightest hint to the erection of any new building at this spot until more than two centuries later, in the Seleucid period, when a wall was built across the area, running directly over the Egibi house in Nd XVI 5. To explain this emptiness with the erosion of debris alone is not very convincing. The archaeological evidence clearly speaks for a complete and sudden aban- don of major areas of the city, which were never inhabited again. This can best be explained by disturbances in Uruk after the revolts against Xerxes and by an exodus of a whole segment of the population. The cultic administrative measures by Xerxes in Uruk did not lead to an end of the worship of the gods involved, but in reality, it led to a factual end of the whole Eanna precinct. The consequences would have been a major blow to the city, at least for one or two generations. If the diverse cults of the Eanna were cut off, then there would not have been any income for many families. This would have had a significant impact not only on the more prominent families, originally coming from the Babylon area, but also on the numerous ranks of temple servants attached to the different cults, with their duty of keeping up the transport of goods, sup- porting the staff of officials, or simply working for the temple. Most of the širku slaves were under royal control and could easily be withdrawn. In this respect, the archaeological and the textual evidence for private texts seem to go together. 86 K. KESSLER Xerxes’ motives for closing the Eanna seem to follow his neglect of the national gods of the Babylonians, Marduk and Nabû, and his actions may speak of a deliberate attempt to severe the close ties that existed between the various Babylonian cities based on their common worship of these gods. It could also be that the importance of Uruk for the royal administration and the palace economy had already begun to decrease in the time of Darius I, since no major royal investments were made in the temple and some business activities were taken over by some leading officials of the Eanna, all of them bound to Baby- lon and Borsippa (see Frame and Jursa 2011, 29 n. 135). But more important seems Xerxes’ political and economic revenge on Marduk and Nabû and their claims of supremacy over all Babylonian gods, which was completely erased for centuries except for a short moment in history when Alexander the Great and the priests of the Esangila tried to revive this idea. BIBLIOGRAPHY Abraham, K. 2004: Business� and� Politics� Under� the� Persian� Empire:� The� Financial� Dealings�of�Marduk-nāṣir-apli�of�the�House�of�Egibi�(521�–487�BCE), Bethesda. Dandamaev, M. 1992: “Was Eanna Destroyed by Darius I?”, AMI�25, 169–172. van Driel, G. 1998: “The Eanna Archive”, BiOr 55, 59–79. Ehrenberg, E. 1999: Uruk:� Late� Babylonian� Seal� Impressions� on� Eanna-Tablets (AUWE 18), Mainz. Falkenstein, A. 1931: Literarische�Keilschrifttexte�aus�Uruk, Berlin. Frahm, E. and M. Jursa 2011: Neo-Babylonian�Letters�and�Contracts�from�the�Eanna� Archive (YOS 21), New Haven and London. Gehlken, E. 1990: Uruk:� Spätbabylonische� Wirtschaftstexte� aus� den� Eanna-Archiv,� Teil�I:�Texte�verschiedenen�Inhalts (AUWE 5), Mainz. Gehlken, E. 1996: Uruk:� Spätbabylonische� Wirtschaftstexte� aus� den� Eanna-Archiv,� Teil�II:�Texte�verschiedenen�Inhalts�(AUWE 11), Mainz. 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(eds.), Fundstellen:� Gesammelte� Schriften� zur� Archäologie� und� Geschichte� Vorderasiens�ad�honorem�Hartmut�Kühne, Wiesbaden, 197–206. URUK: THE FATE OF THE EANNA AND GIMIL-NANĀYA B ARCHIVES 87 Lenzen, H. and A. Nöldeke 1940: Elfter�vorläufiger�Bericht�über�die�von�der�Deutschen� Forschungsgemeinschaft� in� Uruk-Warka� unternommenen� Ausgrabungen� (UVB 11), Berlin. Lenzen, H. 1956: Zwölfter/Dreizehnter�vorläufiger�Bericht�über�die�von�der�Deutschen� Forschungsgemeinschaft� in� Uruk-Warka� unternommenen� Ausgrabungen� (UVB 12–13), Berlin. Pedersén, O. 1998: Archives� and� Libraries� in� the� Ancient� Near� East� 1500–300� B.C., Bethesda. Stigers, H.G. 1976: “Neo- and Late Babylonian Business Documents from the John Frederick Lewis Collection”, JCS 28, 3–59. von Weiher, E. 1993: Uruk:� Spätbabylonische� Texte� aus� dem� Planquadrat� U� 18,� Teil�4 (AUWE 12; SpTU 4), Mainz. von Weiher, E. 1998: Uruk:� Spätbabylonische� Texte� aus� dem� Planquadrat� U� 18,� Teil�5�(AUWE 13; SpTU 5), Mainz. THE NETWORK OF RESISTANCE: ARCHIVES AND POLITICAL ACTION IN BABYLONIA BEFORE 484 BCE Caroline WAERZEGGERS (Leiden University)1 The Neo-Babylonian text corpus is a copious and varied source of documen- tary evidence on many aspects of Babylonia’s history under Assyrian, Babylo- nian, and Persian rule. What is often not realized, however, is that two-thirds of this rich corpus was created in a single year (484 BCE)2 by a single interven- tion, and that as a result of this intervention processes of archive production, that had taken place in a decentralized and organic fashion until 484 BCE, became politicized and homogenized during the corpus’ final moments of formation. The political nature of this intervention was discussed in my article on the Babylonian revolts against Xerxes (2003/2004). I argued that in the autumn of 484 BCE, in the immediate aftermath of the revolts of Šamaš-erība and Bēl- šimânni, individuals and temples in cities throughout central and northern Babylonia abandoned or otherwise deposited their archives. The scale and con- certed nature of these acts of storage led to the production of two-thirds of the corpus that we today associate with the long sixth century. As these acts of disposal happened in the very specific context of counter-insurgency, it may be surmised on the basis of synchronicity that the ‘end of archives’ was a phe- nomenon tied to state intervention in the wake of the uprisings. While concur- rence implies a connection, it is, however, a second quality that bears out the politicized nature of this phenomenon. Certain individuals were able to carry their tablet collections across 484 BCE. These people were local clients of Persia’s governing elite in Babylonia; individuals who had been co-opted or recruited into the empire through direct ties of mutual dependence, for instance as caretakers or managers of estates 1 This paper was written in the framework of ERC CoG project 682241 (Persia and Babylo- nia). The evidence for the inter-city network of Nabû-ittannu from Dilbat, presented below (2.4.2), was gathered by Bastian Still; I wish to thank him for allowing me to publish it here. I also wish to thank the Trustees of the British Museum for providing access to the study room of the Middle East Department and for permission to cite from unpublished cuneiform texts from their collec- tions. 2 To be clear, with ‘created’ I do not mean ‘written’ or ‘composed’, but deposited in such a way that the tablets could be found and retrieved in modern times, in the 19th and 20th centuries. 90 C. WAERZEGGERS owned by absentee Persian landlords, or as entrepreneurs providing services to such estates. The patron-client hierarchies tying these Babylonian individuals to the imperial state were short-stretched and anchored in the countryside; these men connected the highest levels of state to Babylonia’s rural populations. The Yaḫudu archival complex, which mostly came to light after 2004, fits this general typology: the archival control of deported communities in Babylonia’s rural south-east was maintained across the crucial year of 484 BCE.3 An entirely different profile emerges from a social analysis of the persons who deposited their archives in the aftermath of the revolts. These men and women were city-dwellers, anchored in different types of patron-client networks. Their orientations were not centred primarily around Persian elites but around urban institutions with deep roots in Babylonian political tradition: the temples and the city governorships. These institutions had been established long before the advent of the Persian Empire and were run by limited numbers of families tightly connected through marriage, residence, education, employment and status. These contrasting profiles suggest that in the context of counter-insurgency, the fates of archives in 484 BCE Babylonia were decided along lines of politi- cal allegiance. Individuals affiliated to temples and city governorships, i.e. the urban elites of mostly northern and central Babylonian cities, abandoned their tablet collections (or parts thereof), whereas those closely associated with the Persian state and its systems of land tenure maintained and continued their archival production. Based on these contrasting profiles and behaviours, I argued in 2003/2004 that the latter group should be considered a pro-state faction in Babylonian society at the time of the revolts against Xerxes, while the former group should be seen as a pro-insurgency faction that eventually fell ‘victim’ to the Persian state’s counter-insurgency. The simultaneous disappear- ance, in Babylonia’s south, of elite families with roots in the city of Babylon, suggests that Xerxes’ punitive measures tracked down social networks that reached beyond the area of unrest.4 Scholars contest the nature of this group’s ‘victimhood’. Historians of the Persian Empire stress the efficiency and measuredness of Xerxes’ policy.5 Archaeologists emphasize the lack of evidence for violent destruction in the 3 Pearce and Wunsch 2014, 4. 4 See Kessler 2004; Baker 2014, 192–193; and Beaulieu, this volume, for the replacement of Babylon-based elites with local ones in Uruk, at the time of the revolts in the north. Note that it is possible that Uruk’s participation in the revolts has gone unrecorded so far. The Egibi archive from Uruk could fit in such a scenario; see 1.5 below and Kessler, this volume. 5 See among others Rollinger 2008; Henkelman et al. 2011; Kuhrt 2014 (“Xerxes is emerging, more and more, as one of the most important architects of a stable and successful Persian empire”, 169). THE NETWORK OF RESISTANCE 91 wake of the revolts.6 Assyriologists are sensitive to the short-term effects on the lives of the individuals and families involved as well as to the longer-term signs of change in Babylonia’s society and religion following the revolts.7 Despite these disagreements, there is a common ground in this debate. First, the closure of archives in 484 BCE is accepted as a consequence of targeted actions against those who participated or supported the insurgency of Šamaš- erība and Bēl-šimânni. Second, these actions are thought to have had repercus- sions in the lives of these people beyond the management of their archives. In the broadest sense, these repercussions may be described as a removal from privileges enjoyed previously. The elite shift in Uruk offers one well-docu- mented scenario that we may use to fill out the blanks, but individual fates were doubtlessly diverse and ultimately remain beyond our grasp. The aim of this paper is to reflect, not on the nature of Xerxes’ reprisals, but on the effects of this intervention on the shape and structure of the corpus of the long sixth century BCE. As a product of a particular event, the Neo- Babylonian text corpus needs to be historicized: whose records does it contain and why? Thinking about these issues leads us, on the one hand, to a recogni- tion of structural restrictions inherent in the corpus because it was shaped through a process of homogenization. On the other hand, we also learn to look out for hints of diversity that are present, even if marginalized. Historicizing the corpus, therefore, does not only entail thinking about restrictions, but also about reorientations and possibilities. I will argue that we can read the corpus ‘backwards’ as a residue of the social networks that had formed in Babylonia in the decades prior to the revolts and that enabled (anti-imperial) political action in 484 BCE. In this way, we can use the limitations of the corpus to our advantage. My approach in this paper is indebted to the ‘archival turn’ in the humanities and in history in particular.8 Since the early 1990s, historians have increasingly turned their attention to archives as objects to be interrogated and studied in their own right, rather than as repositories of data where answers to historical questions can be discovered in a straightforward manner. This shift is driven by the insight that the archive is not simply a place where knowledge is pre- served but also the place where knowledge is produced and shaped by power 6 Heinsch, Kuntner and Rollinger 2011 stress the lively continuation of Babylonian culture (p. 472: “Vielmehr ist von einem lebendigen Fortbestehen der babylonischen Kultur auszugehen (…)”); see also Heinsch and Kuntner 2011; Kuntner and Heinsch 2013. 7 The social implications of re-organizing the Babylonian cults are discussed by Jursa 2013 and Baker 2014; see also Kessler 2004, Berlejung 2009. Abolishment of the prebend system in northern Babylonia: Hackl 2013 and Hackl, this volume. Changes in officialdom: Hackl and Jursa 2015. See also the Introduction to the present volume. 8 See among others Burton 2005; Burns 2010. For a general introduction into the history, nature, and objectives of the archival turn see King 2016 and de Vivo 2013, 460–462. 92 C. WAERZEGGERS relations current at the time.9 Ann Laura Stoler, among many others, urged historians to study colonial archives as tools of domination, reflective of the operations of the state itself.10 While this focus on state authority is less suitable for studying the Babylonian archives of the long sixth century, which mostly derive from private and temple contexts, it is no less essential for us to direct our attention from the ‘archive-as-source’ to the ‘archive-as-subject’. Because the Babylonian corpus was shaped (to a large extent) by a single event, histori- cizing it as an artefact of that particular event is a necessary step in our thought process concerning the corpus. Moreover, as this intervention was initiated by the state during an operation of counter-insurgency, we might, even if only in an indirect way, be able to read refractions of state power in the shape of the corpus. Another reorientation that I want to propose in this contribution is a shift away from the aftermath of the revolts to their prelude. Discussions about the events in Babylonia in 484 BCE have focused mostly on Xerxes’ punishment of Babylonia and its intensity. Was his response measured or was it violent? Did it have punctual or long-lasting effects on Babylonian society? This debate is conditioned by earlier discussions that have taken place in ancient history since the 1980s.11 While it is important to ask questions about the exact nature of the punishment(s) suffered by his Babylonian opponents, Xerxes’ reactions remain hard to judge in view of the decline of written sources at the very moment when his response takes effect and in view of the inconclusive- ness of the archaeological evidence. New pathways into the events of 484 BCE present themselves when we look at the genesis and prehistory of the revolts rather than at their aftermath. There are several aspects of this prelude that require our attention, for instance, the question of why the Babylonians revolted, what they hoped to achieve by re-establishing an independent mon- archy in Babylon, and how they had experienced Persian rule since 539 BCE.12 Another aspect that has been ignored so far is the question of how Šamaš-erība and Bēl-šimânni mobilized support among the Babylonian citizens. Which channels were available to them as a basis for collective action? How did people in different cities organize themselves in opposition to the state? In this paper, I am concerned with this latter set of questions, relating to the social anatomy of the revolts. 9 Steedman 2002, 2. 10 Stoler 2002 and 2009; Dirks 2002. 11 See the introduction to this volume. 12 See the contributions of Pirngruber and Sandowicz in this volume. THE NETWORK OF RESISTANCE 93 1. THE SHAPE OF THE CORPUS The end-of-archives in 484 BCE can be imagined in two contrasting ways. On the one hand, we can describe it as an end point, when archives that had been long in the making were abandoned or stored by their owners. On the other hand, we can picture it as a moment of generation and production, when much of the corpus of the long sixth century came into being. The events of 484 BCE, while no doubt disruptive for the people involved, thus had the effect of preserving archives for posterity. The end-of-archives is, in that sense, also the beginning of our�(present-day) corpus. In this section, I will examine how the events of 484 BCE shaped the corpus that has come down to us, on various levels: its size, its structure, its content, and its social orientation. 1.1. Size. First, in terms of size, the intervention of 484 BCE led to the deposit of as much as two-thirds of the tablets that we today associate with the long sixth century. This figure, which will be explained below, is no more than an educated guess because neither the then-existing part of the corpus nor the part generated through new deposits in 484 BCE can be measured exactly. In part, this is due to the corpus’ incomplete state of publication and recovery, but there are other problems involved that preclude exact assessments. A major difficulty is establishing the date of an archive’s disposal from its contents. The moment of storage does not necessarily approximate, let alone coincide with, the date of the last dated record contained in the archive deposited. If owners removed the most valuable items from their tablet collections before depositing them in 484 BCE, as is generally assumed, many recent documents will be missing. There is, therefore, a very real possibility of disjunction between the break-off point of the archive and the date of its storage. Another problem relates to the identification of ‘archives’ in Neo-Babylonian tablet collections, which mostly lack archaeological provenance. Following accepted practice in the field, ‘archives’ will be defined here as collections of tablets that were produced during activities, intellectual, legal, or administrative, by an institu- tion, person, or family and that were, with reasonable certainty, deposited together. In view of the lack of archaeological context, the former criterion, which builds on prosopography, dominates in most cases. Even the excavated tablets from Babylon are difficult to sort into clear-cut archives.13 The figure of two-thirds that I presented above is arrived at by splitting the surviving Neo-Babylonian archives in groups.14 The first group consists of 13 Pedersén 2005; Baker 2008. 14 This study uses 136 archives of the Neo-Babylonian text corpus: archives deposited prior to 484 BCE, in 484 BCE, and spanning 484 BCE. Late Achaemenid and Hellenistic archives are not considered here; Hackl discusses several of these in his contribution to this volume. Most archives are described in Jursa’s guidebook (2005a). Added to these are the small archives from 94 C. WAERZEGGERS archives that had already been closed off by the time of the revolts. The cut-off point is arbitrarily fixed at Dar 14 for an archive’s last dated record. This date is sufficiently removed from 484 BCE to eliminate most effects of the disjunc- tion described earlier. Archives in this group are labelled ‘A’ in the table below. Into the second group I have selected archives that were stored, with reasonable certainty, in 484 BCE. This includes archives that stretch into the time of unrest itself, but also archives that terminate up to a few years earlier, between Dar 35–Xer 2.15 In the table below, these archives are labelled ‘B’. A third, in- between, category (labelled ‘A–B’) consists of uncertain contenders for the end-of-archives scenario. Archives that terminate in the period between Dar 15 and Dar 34 may have been deposited in 484 BCE after extensive removal of the most recent materials, in which case they belong to the end-of-archives phenomenon, but it is also possible that they had already been stored at that moment.16 In any case, the classification of the corpus that I suggest here is merely a heuristic tool; the labels A, B and A–B may be contested in specific cases, but they do reveal a general trend.17 Together, groups A, B, and A–B count c. 51.000 tablets; a substantial major- ity (67%) of these were deposited in or shortly before 484 BCE. This effect is largely caused by the Ebabbar archive, which dominates group B with its c. 30.000 tablets. But also in group A there are archives that are disproportion- ately large, notably the Eanna archive (c. 8.000 tablets) and the early Ebabbar archive (c. 5.000). In order to minimize distortions caused by such exceptional finds, we may opt to proceed with a minor corpus that excludes uncommonly large archives. In this minor corpus, the A–B group (with c. 1.630 tablets) gains more weight: c. 1.930 tablets remain in group A and c. 4.320 tablets remain in B. These figures suggest that of the minor corpus only 25% had been formed by Nippur identified by Zadok (1986), the Ir’anni archive from Babylon (Jursa 1999, 5 and Wunsch 2005, 366), the well-stratified tablet finds from Babylon (Pedersén 2005; Baker 2008), the small archive excavated at Babylon in a house west to the temple of Ištar of Akkad (Baker 2008, 105), and the Yaḫudu archive and associated texts (Pearce and Wunsch 2014). Note that stray finds and incoherent text groups from the Babylon excavations are not included in this study (Pedersén 2005; for the archival coherence of this material, see Baker 2008). Several hundred unassigned tablets from Borsippa and the Sippar temple library have also been left out. The total number of tablets in the Neo-Babylonian text corpus is therefore larger than what I work with in this paper. All data can be found in the table appended to this paper. 15 To the list in Waerzeggers 2003/2004, 156–157 can be added the following archives. From Babylon: Ea-eppēš-ilī A from Homera Mitte (Jursa 2005a, 62–63; Baker 2008, 106–107); N9c from house XVII in the Merkes district (Pedersén 2005, 194, 196–198; Oelsner 2007, 292; Baker 2008, 106); N12 from the same district in Babylon (Pedersén 2005, 208–217; Baker 2008, 105). From Borsippa: the Aḫiya’ūtu archive, Ibnāya B-C-D archive, the Mār-bīti temple file, the tablets of Nabû-aplu-iddin of the Ea-ilūtu-bāni family (Waerzeggers 2010, 367, 526–527; Waerzeggers 2005, 363 and 357). From Sippar: the Maštuk archive (Jursa 2005a, 130–131) and probably the archive of Bēl-aplu-iddin from the same archival cluster (Jursa 2005a, 130), but by ending in Dar 34 the latter does not formally fall within this category. 16 See also 1.5 (below) on the A–B archives. 17 The table in the appendix provides one more category, C, consisting of archives that extend across 484 BCE, belonging to the pro-Persian faction discussed in the introduction of this paper. THE NETWORK OF RESISTANCE 95 the start of Dar 15. The extent to which the events of 484 BCE impacted the minor corpus depends on the status of the uncertain A–B archives. In one extreme scenario, if all of them should have to be attributed to the end-of- archives phenomenon, 75% of the minor corpus would have been generated in 484 BCE. In the other extreme scenario, if all of them had already been depos- ited by Dar 35, then 45% of the minor corpus was generated in 484 BCE. In reality, a figure somewhere in-between these extremes will probably be correct (see also 1.5 below). This means that c. two-thirds of the corpus of the long sixth century, as known today, was produced by a single intervention at the very end of its his- tory of formation. Of the minor corpus (discounting the large and potentially distorting archives from Sippar and Uruk), perhaps as much as 75% but cer- tainly not less than 45% resulted from this event in 484 BCE. 1.2. Multi-archive�clusters. The majority of archives deposited in 484 BCE were stored collectively, in close proximity to each other or in clusters. Earlier storage practices had yielded more atomized, better-delineated archival units without extensive interconnections. How should we interpret this contrast? Let us start by examining the nature and extent of clustering more closely. Multi-archive assemblages are in evidence in the major cities affected by the end-of-archives phenomenon, especially in Sippar and Borsippa where the effect is most striking. Almost all archives that were deposited in these two cities in 484 BCE were stored collectively, in multiple clusters of varying size. The largest cluster, comprising several tens of thousands of records, comes from Sippar. It is made up of the (late) Ebabbar archive and a mix of private materials, including the archive of Marduk-rēmanni with its seven smaller sat- ellite archives. All these tablets seem to stem from only two rooms in the Ebabbar temple complex.18 While a rough classification of these texts in archi- val groupings can be produced, at a finer level it is hard to assign tablets to particular owners because the protagonists entertained such close relationships with each other. For instance, Marduk-rēmanni, as a College Scribe of Ebabbar, was deeply involved in the temple’s record production; he may have kept his private texts in the temple archive, or vice� versa, certain temple records may have ended up in his personal archive. He also shared multiple professional and social networks with the protagonists of the satellite archives. As I argued elsewhere, these individuals were all part of an extensive patronage network gathered around the powerful family of city governors, Ša-nāšišu, in the reign of Darius I.19 18 On Rassam’s excavations at Sippar in 1881–1882, see Walker and Collon 1980; De Meyer and Gasche 1980; Reade 1986; Pedersén 1998, 193–194; Bongenaar 2000; Jursa 2011. On the archive of Marduk-rēmanni and its satellite archives, see Waerzeggers 2014. 19 Waerzeggers 2014, 14, 22, 137. 96 C. WAERZEGGERS There are several other instances of collective storage associated with 484 BCE, including at least two more from Sippar. The Maštuk group is a cluster of three archives deposited in 484 BCE.20 Discovered separately from the late Ebabbar cluster, it represents a distinct storage unit. As in the former case, strong social ties connect the protagonists of the Maštuk group’s sub-archives: the Maštuk and Ṣāḫit-ginê families were members of an émigré community from Babylon living in Sippar, and the Ṣāḫit-ginês and Bēl-aplu-iddin operated interlinked business enterprises.21 Again, we are dealing not just with a physical assemblage of archives, randomly deposited in close proximity to each other, but with a social unit. A third instance of clustering from Sippar involves the two small archives of fAqūba and Šamaš-iddin, deposited in 484 BCE and constituting a separate find; the protagonists do not seem to share a specific social network, but they do share their modest social origins and business interests.22 With at least fourteen archives closed off in 484 BCE, Borsippa was as deeply affected by the end-of-archives phenomenon as Sippar. Here too, the majority of archives were deposited collectively, in clusters.23 The largest clus- ter contains over one thousand tablets, of which 91% can be assigned to par- ticular archives (based on prosopography) while the remainder is unclassified.24 Again, we observe multiple social connections between the principals of these records. The majority are priests of the Ezida temple and their families; one file derives directly from the temple administration itself.25 There is a prepon- derance of brewers’ archives in this cluster. Worthy of note is the admixture of older archives: while five of its archives were deposited in 484 BCE, several others had (long) been out-dated by that year. This could indicate that an old depot was being re-used, or that residues of older archives had survived among the records of later people. A similar observation applies to the satellite archives of Marduk-rēmanni, some of which had also been idle for several decades by 484 BCE (see 2.6 below). 20 The combined Maštuk and Balīḫu archives reach up to Dar 35; the Ṣāḫit-ginê B archive stretches to Xer 1; and the archive of Bēl-aplu-iddin ends in Dar 34. In total, over 70 tablets are involved. See Waerzeggers 2014, 22–23, 148; Jursa 2005a, 129–132. The Arkât-ili archive from Elammu may also belong to this cluster (7 or 8 tablets; dated in mid-Nabonidus; cf. Jursa 2005a, 149–150). 21 Waerzeggers 2014. 22 A fourth possible cluster from Sippar is composed of the archive of Bel-rēmanni, with its medicinal component, and the cache of Ile’i-Marduk tablets, which entertains an unknown rela- tionship to the former two groups. Jursa 1999, 3; Jursa 2011, 200. 23 The exception is the small archive of fInṣabtu, which seems to have had a unique dispersal history; Waerzeggers 2000. 24 This is the so-called Rē’i-alpi group; Waerzeggers 2005. 25 Records in the iškaru file keep track of the daily production of flour for the sacrificial meals of Nabû and his divine household; Waerzeggers 2010, 214–223. THE NETWORK OF RESISTANCE 97 The second cluster from Borsippa is with c. 680 texts somewhat smaller but structurally very comparable.26 Here too, we find strong professional associa- tions between the principals in these texts, this time centred on the ranks of Ezida’s bakers and butchers. It also contains an admixture of older collections that had been idle for a while by 484 BCE. As in the previous instance, a dos- sier straight from the temple’s administration found its way into this cluster (the so-called ‘DAR’ group), alongside the varied materials from private archives of priests. The third and smallest cluster from Borsippa consists of four archives, all deposited in 484 BCE and all heavily interconnected through Ezida’s association of brewers.27 The extent of clustering in evidence at Sippar and Borsippa is unparalleled in other cities, where fewer archives were deposited in 484 BCE, or where fewer such archives were retrieved in modern times. In Babylon, the Šangû-Ninurta archive with its admixture of records from a seemingly unrelated minor archive may constitute an instance of clustering associated with the year 484 BCE.28 Other Babylon archives associated with 484 BCE survive in reasonably well- stratified contexts and seem to represent single finds. The Egibi archive was reportedly found in sealed jars; the N12 and N9c archives were each dug up in a house; the Ea-eppēš-ilī A archive is associated with a particular trench; the Nappāḫu archive’s museum distribution pattern is unique enough to suggest a distinct provenance.29 In Dilbat, the Dābibī archive contains contracts from the Eimbianu temple archive; this can be another instance of clustering. Dābibī’s protagonist was a College Scribe at this temple — a similar set-up as with the late Ebabbar and Marduk-rēmanni cluster at Sippar. In Kiš, the only archive (known) that was stored in 484 BCE seems to represent an individual deposit. How do these findings compare with earlier storage practices? Archives deposited prior to Dar 15 (group A) seldomly survive in clusters. The so-called ‘small archives’ from Nippur, including the archive of Nergal-iddin, may rep- resent the only known instance: this mixed group of records was probably found in close proximity to each other and exhibits strong internal links, for instance, through the activity of scribes.30 But with only c. 60 tablets this cluster is very modest in size compared to those generated in 484 BCE.31 On the whole, clustering does not happen with the same frequency and intensity in 26 The Bēliya’u group; Waerzeggers 2005, 358–360. 27 This is the so-called Mannu-gērûšu cluster; Waerzeggers 2005. 28 Wunsch 2005, 366; Jursa 1999, 5. 29 On the Egibi jars, see Wunsch 2000, 1. On N9c (house XVII) and N12, see Pedersén 2005, 194, 208–211. On Ea-eppēš-ilī A, see Baker 2008, 106–107 (N23). On the Nappāḫu archive, see Baker 2004. 30 See the chart in Zadok 1986, 286. Jursa (2005a, 115) proposes to unite several of the archives that Zadok delineated in this cluster. The archive of the sons of Līšir may have a differ- ent provenance profile than the rest of this cluster. 31 Zadok 1986, 283–285. 98 C. WAERZEGGERS group A as it does in B. Archives in group A generally constitute identifiable, atomized entities linked to a particular origin, documented in excavation or museum stratigraphy. In Nippur, for instance, except for the cluster just described, A archives constitute distinct text groups with reasonably clear phys- ical and social boundaries: an 8th century BCE letter archive was found in a pit next to a girl’s coffin (128 tablets),32 a 7th century archive was excavated in the courtyard of a house (Ninurta-uballiṭ, 28 tablets),33 the archive of Bēl-eṭēri- Šamaš (38 tablets) and the Carian dossier (8 tablets) have distinct distribution patterns in present-day museums which suggest separate origins.34 Similar observations pertain to A archives from other sites. In Dilbat, for instance, all A archives have distinct distribution patterns. What conclusions can be drawn from this overview? The picture is not black and white: some clustering occurs among earlier archives (A) and some archives deposited in 484 BCE (B) were stored individually. Nevertheless, a tendency for clustering is apparent in the latter group, and for individual storage in the former. Because both bodies of clay tablets derive to a large extent from uncontrolled or poorly recorded diggings, we can rule out the possibility that clustering resulted from modern excavation practices. It seems more satisfac- tory to explain the structural contrast as a result of ancient storage. The patterns that we observe in group A are suggestive of decentralized, uncoordinated acts of storage — acts that were informed by individual circumstances and deci- sions. In 484 BCE, by contrast, collective storage strategies were at play: not only did many people decide to store their archives at the same time, they also stored them in close proximity, especially in Borsippa and Sippar. The high social cohesion between records deposited in this way indicates that the tablet owners were linked through pre-existing social networks. In other words, the multi-archive clusters are no random collections of texts, deposited by strangers in some accidental fashion. They pertain to collectivities that shared profes- sional affiliations to temple priesthoods and administrations; in the case of the Marduk-rēmanni cluster, ties of patronage to the Ša-nāšišu family, who sup- plied several Governors of Babylon in the reign of Darius I, also played a role. 1.3. Archive�typology. When looking at the shape, structure and composition of the archives deposited in 484 BCE, as compared to those discarded at earlier occasions, we notice that certain types of archives were involved more than others. It seems possible, therefore, that these archival shapes reflect conditions that surrounded their disposal in 484 BCE. Several typologies yield meaningful patterns. 32 Cole 1996, 1. 33 Pedersén 1998, 198–201; Jursa 2005a, 115. 34 Jursa 2005a, 112 –113. THE NETWORK OF RESISTANCE 99 1.3.1. Dead�or�semi-discarded? A common typology used in Neo-Babylonian studies distinguishes between dead and living archives.35 This refers to the usage of the archive at the time of its disposal:36 a dead archive was no longer relevant to its owner at storage, while a living archive still possessed actuality. The former type of archive is thought to have come about through practices of archival management: inactive files that had been accumulating in a running archive were removed in order to maintain its functionality.37 Discoveries of living archives, by contrast, are usually thought of as resulting from unforeseen events that impacted on the archive holder’s life: nobody would voluntarily leave behind documents of value. One problem with this classification is that the separation between dead and living archives is made on the basis of two different kinds of variables that can lead to opposite results. It is important to discuss this problem at some length here, because the notion of ‘dead archive’ has been cited repeatedly in discussions about the end-of-archives as an important indication for the nature of the Persian response to the revolts. In Neo-Babylonian studies, the distinction between dead and living archives is usually based on the absence or presence of tablets that have current and/or lasting value to their final owners.38 Dead archives lack recent property deeds of real estate, as well as active business files such as tablets documenting out- standing credits or accountancy texts. They rather consist of outdated texts with little or no relevance to ongoing affairs or property claims. Based on these internal criteria, archives deposited in 484 BCE have often been classified as dead archives. Recent title deeds are indeed mostly absent and a drop in the number of preserved texts can usually be observed in the very last years before storage, in particular running accounts and ongoing administration.39 A number of conclusions are drawn from these features. One is that the active or living parts of these archives must have been moved elsewhere and that, consequently, the owners had time to organize their tablet collections in the aftermath of the revolts. This, in turn, suggests that a measured or administrative response by the Persian authorities is a more likely scenario than one involving instant 35 Another typology refers to the nature of the archive-producing entity and distinguishes between private and official (or between family, temple, and palace) archives, distinctions that are often blurred (e.g. Veenhof 1986, 10, van Driel 2000, Brosius 2003, 11). For an extensive discussion of Neo-Babylonian archival typology in institutional archives, see Jursa 2004. 36 These terms are used inconsistently in the various subfields of Assyriology, see Brosius 2003 for an overview. 37 Van Driel 1992, 40–42; Veenhof 1986. 38 Van Driel 1987, 168 and 1989, 203–204; Jursa 2005a, 58; more recently adopted by Lauinger for the study of tablets from Alalaḫ (2011). 39 Ea-ilūtu-bāni: van Driel 1992, 42; von Dassow 1994, 110. The Ebabbar archive as a dead archive: Bongenaar 2000, 74; Jursa 2004, 164–170, 193; Jursa, this volume. 100 C. WAERZEGGERS punishment.40 While I was among those who formulated this conclusion, I now think that the appreciation of these matters needs some more nuance. Let it be clear, however, that in no way do I intend to resuscitate the old paradigm of Xerxes’ destruction of Babylonian temples.41 First, the idea that owners needed time to sort out their archives in 484 BCE is based on the assumption that they kept their tablet collections in a disorgan- ized state. Such an assumption is difficult to substantiate because we know very little about practices of archive-keeping. Would owners have maintained no order in their tablet collections? Given the size of some of the archives involved, this seems unlikely. It is worthwhile to recall Heather Baker’s reser- vations in this regard: “[…], it cannot be excluded that archival practices involved a continuing process of tablet sorting for the sake of storage. If valuable documents such as title deeds were kept physically separate from those of short-term interest, then the archive- holder need only have grabbed the former and fled if necessary. Therefore the act of sorting need not have been precipitated by events but may rather have been routine.” (Baker 2008, 109 n. 13) Archives were indeed subject to regular care and clearing. This is suggested by traces of multiple life cycles found in some better studied archives.42 Moreo- ver, the example of the Egibi archive from Uruk, found in� situ in an undis- turbed context,43 shows that idle collections of tablets could be stored in such a way that they were still accessible to their owners. The Ingallēa archive, which was found in two pots — one focused on business activities and the other on the documentation of ownership rights — actually attests to such a set-up.44 In how far this reflects standard archival practice is difficult to say. What is clear, however, is that we do not, and can not, know how much time archive keepers would have needed to separate their active files from their inactive files in the aftermath of the revolts, as duly pointed out by Heather Baker (above). It is therefore difficult to infer the nature of the Persian response from the ‘deadness’ of these archives. Second, the typology of dead and living archives is poorly defined and con- ceptualized. In current definitions, the presence or absence of property deeds is considered a key criterion for classification of private archives. However, archaeological evidence sometimes cross-cuts the classifications that are 40 Jursa 2004, 193; Waerzeggers 2003/2004. Note that Jursa, this volume, also comes to a more nuanced appreciation of the storage actvities and selection processes that were involved in creating the Ebabbar archive as deposited in 484 BCE. 41 E.g. Heinsch, Kuntner, and Rollinger 2011, 472. 42 Joannès 1989, 119–126; Waerzeggers 2014, 18–19. See also Jursa, this volume, for the complex history of the Ebabbar archive in its final years of existence. 43 Castel 1995, 127. 44 Pedersén 2005, 203–205. THE NETWORK OF RESISTANCE 101 obtained through this internal feature. In 1995, Corinne Castel proposed a typology of first millennium BCE private archives based on their find context. Archives found in�situ in undisturbed contexts are considered ‘vivantes’ because they were accessible to residents; those discarded, buried or re-used as fill are ‘mortes’. At least one archive in her latter category would, on internal grounds, have been labelled ‘living’ by Neo-Babylonian Assyriologists. The Šigûa archive, excavated in the Merkes district of Babylon in a house where it had been re-used mostly as floor fill, contains a large number of title deeds, includ- ing from the final generation.45 The archaeological context makes it clear that the archive had been discarded despite it still possessing value as proof of property. The Egibi archive from Uruk constitutes a similar case: based on internal criteria, the classification ‘dead’ would apply to this archive, but its archaeological context suggests that it was ‘alive’ (Castel 1995, 127). Third, the assertion that the tablets deposited in 484 BCE no longer had any value for their last owners is incorrect. It is true that recent property deeds of real estate were mostly not left behind,46 but many of the discarded tablets would still have had currency. In 1992, G. van Driel used the word ‘semi- discarded’ to describe the mixed status of the Ea-ilūtu-bāni archive, one of the many private archives deposited in Borsippa in 484 BCE.47 It seems to me that this description has a major advantage because it invites a more nuanced evalu- ation of the issue of pertinence and does not enforce a binary typology between dead and living. Among the tablets left behind in 484 BCE we find a significant number of so-called ēpišānūtu contracts dated to the revolts or only a few months or years earlier. In total, six archives from three different cities contain such material.48 Ēpišānūtu contracts are at the core of record-keeping in priestly archives. Cultic continuity was a matter of deep concern closely monitored by temple authorities and ēpišānūtu contracts were designed to allocate responsi- bility in the case of ritual failure. The fact that such contracts became obsolete in the wake of the revolts — not just in one archive, but in a string of archives across several Babylonian cities — could indicate that either the sacrificial cult, the prebendary system regulating it, or the agreements of cooperation and exchange between priests had fallen in disarray.49 Another element that is 45 Castel 1995, 127; Pedersén 2005, 198–199. 46 But there are exceptions; for instance, the Dābibī archive from Dilbat contains several recent property deeds (Jursa 2005a, 99) and the Rē’i-alpi archive from Borsippa contains one (BM 26501, Waerzeggers 2010 no. 205). 47 Van Driel 1992, 42. 48 Sippar, Bēl-rēmanni archive: VS 5 109 (Jursa 1999, 264–265). Marduk-rēmanni archive: Waerzeggers 2010 nos. 173, 178, 179, 180 and perhaps 181. Ša-nāšišu A archive: BM 74570. Dilbat, Dābibī archive: VS 5 110 and VS 6 331, the latter written during the revolt of Bēl-šimânni. Borsippa, Bēliya’u archive: BM 29234. Lā-kuppuru archive: VS 6 182. 49 Such ruptures may already have started before the outbreak of the revolts, as can be seen in the panicked correspondence of Borsippean families about non-payment of their prebendary 102 C. WAERZEGGERS difficult to reconcile with the idea of ‘dead’ archive, is the fact that among the discards of 484 BCE we find remains of running accounts of active administra- tions. One of these attests to the work of a bureau overseeing the tasks of cultic bakers of Ezida, another contains the private accounting of a brewer of Ezida.50 The N12 Egibi archive from Babylon’s Merkes district displays a concentra- tion, rather than the expected drop, of tablets in its very last years.51 Another striking feature shared by archives deposited in 484 BCE is that they often count rent contracts among their very last tablets, stipulating work and rent obligations of third parties,52 business agreements,53 or even very recent slave sale contracts.54 These texts were not outdated by the end of the revolts, unless these families had lost their houses, gardens and flocks, or could no longer rely on the services of their tenants, gardeners, herdsmen and business partners. To sum up, the binary typology of dead vs. living archives seems too restricted to capture the complex and mixed features of archives deposited in 484 BCE. While these archives are devoid of recent property deeds and, in most cases, of active administrations, they do display elements of actuality that we would not expect if they had lost all value to their present owners. With regard to the amount of time that owners would have needed to sort out their archives, we should keep in mind that record-keeping practices are too poorly understood to give a reliable sense of the state these archives were in before the outbreak of the revolts. dues shortly before the rebellions (Jursa 2013). Not only in private archives, but also in the Ebab- bar archive a larger quantity of cult-related files is in evidence in the archive’s final years (Jursa, this volume). 50 The former is the so-called iškaru file (n. 25 above); the latter is found in the Ilšu-abūšu A archive (Hackl in Jursa 2010, 637). See also van Driel 1992, 40 on the actuality of the latter file. 51 According to the catalogue compiled by Pedersén 2005, seventeen of the archive’s 163 tablets date from Xer 1, three date from Xer 0 and one dates from Xer 2. N12 was identified by Baker 2008 and Oelsner 2007, 292 as part of the end-of-archives phenomenon. 52 Bēliya’u archive from Borsippa: BM 29020 (cultivation contract, dated in Xer 2), VS 5 117 (contract for building reparations with a duration of four years, dated in Xer 0). Mannu-gērûšu from Borsippa: Ungnad 1959/1960 no. 24 (cultivation contract, dated in Xer 0). Egibi archive: ZA 3, 157 (house rent contract, dated during the revolt of Šamaš-erība), BM 33980 Bertin 2851 (house rent contract, dated in Xer 1). Ea-eppēš-ilī A archive from Babylon: BE 8 119 (laundry contract, dated in Xer 1). Marduk-rēmanni: Waerzeggers 2014 no. 176 (house rent contract, dated in Xer 1) and no. 182 (house rent contract, dated during the revolt of Šamaš-erība). Gurney 1982 no. 3 is a boat rental contract written in Babylon in Xer 2, but apparently found in Kiš; it is unas- signed as far as I am aware. Unassigned from Borsippa: BM 26653 and BRM 1 85 (both are house rent contracts and date to Xer 2 shortly before the revolts), BM 26615 (a lease contract of a flock of sheep, dated in Xer 1). Unassigned from Sippar’s Maštuk group: FLP 1482 (lease of a heifer, dated in Xer 1; Stolper 1990, 588). 53 Bēliya’u archive from Borsippa: BM 29005 and duplicate BM 96201 (Borsippa, Xer 1). 54 BM 28877 (Xer 1; slave bought by archive holder, Borsippa); NBC 6156 (Xer 1; idem, Sippar); Stigers 1976 no. 58 (Dar 29; idem; Sippar). VS 5 116 (Še 0; Borsippa, unassigned slave sale contract). THE NETWORK OF RESISTANCE 103 1.3.2. Densities�and�lengths The typology of Neo-Babylonian archives has received little attention beyond the basic distinctions between dead and living archives, and between private, temple, and state archives. When looking at the corpus in the aggregate, several additional sets of properties yield meaningful patterns that suggest structural differences between archives deposited in 484 BCE (group B) and those depos- ited at earlier occasions (group A). One of these relates to the density and length of private archives. The majority of private archives that were deposited before 484 BCE (group A) have low tablet densities. They usually do not contain more than one tablet for every active year; half contain even less than 0.5.55 The distribution of tablets within these archives can be shallow overall (when the entire length of the archive is poorly populated) or it can be imbalanced (when the archive is unpopulated for long stretches of time but more concentrated in a specific period). The Dullupu archive from Babylon is a good example of a long archive of the latter type. It covers a period of 101 years but it is empty during much of this time; most tablets pertain to the last generation of the family with only a few older tablets. The Esagilāya archive, also from Babylon, is similar. The Ḫuṣābu archive from Borsippa is overall shallow: it covers three generations at a rate of only 0.1 tablets per year on average. The Ea-qarrād-ilī archive from Dilbat is short but still only sparsely populated (0.4 tablets for each of its 35 years). Only a minority of private archives deposited before 484 BCE dis- play higher densities.56 On the whole, we can conclude that under normal cir- cumstances private people tended to store thin collections of tablets. Private archives deposited in 484 BCE tend to be more densely populated, with rates of 3.0 and more tablets per year being no exception.57 Another fea- ture of this group, correlated with high density, is the long coverage that some of these archives achieve over multiple generations. Among the deposits of 484 BCE, we find several archives that contain uninterrupted documentation across 55 Of private archives deposited prior to 484 BCE, 42 have a density ratio of one tablet per year or less, 27 have a ratio of half a tablet per year or less. Only six private archives have larger densities. Note that very small archives with only a handful of tablets, such as those from Nippur, have been left out of consideration here. 56 Six out of 51, to know: Itti-Šamaš-balāṭu from Larsa (3.33), Bēl-eṭēri-Šamaš from Nippur (2.0), Arkât-ili (4.0), Sîn-uballiṭ from Ur (8.6), Bēl-aplu-uṣur from Uruk (3.24), Bēl-eṭēri from Sippar (2). 57 Of 30 archives in group B, 14 have densities of 1.0 and up; nine are considerably more populated: a much higher percentage of the total find compared to the A group (previous note): N9c (3.1), N12 (5.4), Egibi with Nūr-Sîn (13.9), Nappāḫu (3.3), Bēliya’u (5.5), Ilšu-abūšu A (8.3), Rē’i-alpi (2.9), Marduk-rēmanni (2.9), Bēl-rēmanni (3.2 with the medicinal archive included, or 2.2 if only the archival material is counted). 104 C. WAERZEGGERS three, four, five, and even six generations.58 Such well-stocked multi-generation archives are absent in group A.59 The differences in density and length between groups A and B are tenden- cies; these features are not mutually exclusive: some exceptions can be found on either side. However, in general, we do notice that private archives depos- ited in 484 BCE tended to be bulkier in size and more historical in depth than the collections that were stored at earlier occasions. 1.3.3. Uniform�vs.�varied In terms of content, archives in the A group are often homogenous and punctual: they tend to consist of a particular type of text or to relate to a spe- cific kind or period of activity. Many of the tablet groups found in the palace of Babylon, for instance, are focused on day-to-day personnel management in a particular period. The malt file from Borsippa is also topical in nature. As for private archives, we can point to the Šigûa archive (N10) with its many prop- erty deeds. Even more homogenous are the Sîn-uballiṭ archive from Ur, the Nippur letter archive, and Bēl-aplu-uṣur’s baker archive from Uruk. Many more examples can be cited, including modest ones such as the Šumāya archive from Babylon and the Akkad-ēreš archive from Cutha, each containing about a dozen tablets focused on trade.60 In comparison, the archives in group B are more varied in content. Most of them hold a mix of text types, both ephemeral and longer-lasting, notarial and administrative, recent and historical,61 reflective of the full range of activities that the owners engaged in.62 The inventory of texts represented in the Nappāḫu archive from Babylon is exemplary: family documents about dowries and adoptions; property documents about purchases (land, houses, prebends, slaves) and inheritance divisions; business documents consisting of promissory notes, receipts, leases, and work contracts; texts relating to litigations; inventories and internal administrative texts.63 This list of text types can be applied wholesale 58 E.g. Nappāḫu: three generations; Ṣāḫit-ginê A: three; Ea-eppēš-ilī A of Babylon: three; Aḫiya’ūtu: three; Šangû-Ninurta: three; Atkuppu: four; Rē’i-alpi: five: Egibi: five; Maštuk: five; Ea-ilūtu-bāni: six. 59 The Itti-Šamaš-balāṭu archive from Larsa, with three generations covered, is an exception; however, most tablets of this archive relate to one generation only. 60 Of 65 archives (private and institutional), 24 have uniform or topical contents. 61 Of 33 archives, only three have homogenous contents: the Ilšu-abūšu A archive, the iškaru file and the Mār-bīti file. 62 See Jursa 1999, 31 who explicitly argues in favour of the representativeness of the contents of Bēl-rēmanni’s archive. 63 Baker 2004, 9–10. THE NETWORK OF RESISTANCE 105 to nearly all private archives abandoned in 484 BCE, sometimes in addition to letters, school texts, and other genres.64 I suggest that these differences in uniformity are related to differences in storage practice. Compared to earlier deposits, the tablet collections stored in 484 BCE had not been subject to thorough selection. Their contents closely reflect the mother archive (Stammarchiv), from which only the most valuable documentation had been retrieved. This is also in keeping with my observations in 1.3.1, where I suggested that far from being closed-off ‘dead’ entities, the archives deposited in 484 BCE were ‘semi-discarded’ and still possessed some actuality. 1.4. Social�background. The men and women who abandoned their archives in 484 BCE belonged to a specific layer of society.65 As members of the tradi- tional Babylonian elite, their families had dominated the religious life and civic administration of Babylonian cities for many generations. In view of the scale of their deposits in 484 BCE (see 1.1), this group disproportionately left its mark on the corpus of the long sixth century. In part, this is a natural outcome of their dominant role in society: as property owners, priests, investors, lessors, etc. they participated in transactions that made the recourse to cuneiform writ- ing and archival documentation necessary or desirable. But the conditions of 484 BCE significantly contributed to their homogenizing effect on the corpus. This can be appreciated if we compare the social background of archives depos- ited in 484 BCE (group B) with that of archives stored earlier (group A). Seventy per cent of archives deposited in 484 BCE have a temple back- ground, either originating in the administration of temples or in the milieu of the priesthood. The other archives stored that year belong to people who were connected through patronage to the temples or to the city governorships, par- ticularly that of Babylon. Apart from sharing resource portfolios and patronage networks, these people enjoyed the same levels of literacy and adhered to the same cultural and social norms (as seen, for instance, in their use of family names). They also shared the same geographical space and city-based environ- ment in the metropolitan area around Babylon. Group A yields a more varied picture. Here too, many archives belong to temples or priests, but their proportion (c. 40%) is significantly smaller than in group B. In A, we also encounter people with different resource portfolios, e.g. rural colonists, traders, and craftsmen. The social and linguistic backgrounds in A are also more varied. While several archive-keepers were city dwellers 64 For letters from Neo-Babylonian private archives, many originating in deposits from 484 BCE, see Hackl, Jursa and Schmidl 2014. Two examples of private archives that include school texts (besides other varied content) are Bēl-rēmanni (Jursa 1999, 12–31) and the Ea-eppēš-ilī A archive from Babylon (Pedersén 2005, 287–288). 65 Waerzeggers 2003/2004, 160. 106 C. WAERZEGGERS who spoke Babylonian and bore family names, others lived in villages, spoke Aramaic or other languages, and did not advance genealogical affiliations. In terms of institutional affiliation, we also find more variation in group A, which includes palace archives besides temple administrations. In short, while priests and temples dominate the Neo-Babylonian text corpus as a whole, alternative ‘voices’ can be heard particularly in archives whose stor- age was not triggered at the time of the counter-insurgency of 484 BCE. An awareness of this diversity might help to correct certain strains in our perception of Babylonian society. Much research capital is being invested in the study of the groups affected by the events of 484 BCE. This interest is a consequence of the historical importance of this group, but it is also conditioned by the shape of the corpus, as it is this group’s documentation that is the most extensive in size (see 1.1), the most varied in content (1.3.3), the longest-living in tempo- ral scope, and the best in coverage of the Neo-Babylonian text corpus (1.3.2). 1.5. The� A–B� archives. Having identified a number of tendencies, in form and content, in archives deposited in 484 BCE, I now turn to the middle group of archives (A–B). The end points of these archives are close to the time of the revolts but not close enough to attribute their disposal to these events on the basis of synchronicity alone. However, based on their formal characteris- tics, several of these archives may be considered more likely contenders of the end-of-archives phenomenon than others. The Ea-eppēš-ilī B and Sîn-ilī archives from Babylon display the clustered storage practice, the high density, the long coverage, the tight social enmeshing (through marriage), and the tem- ple connection that we have identified as recurring features of archives depos- ited during Xerxes’ counter-insurgency measures.66 The Ilia archives from Borsippa are similarly deep in historical length (five generations), with a high annual average of tablets (2.26), mixed ‘semi-discarded’ contents, and clustered storage conditions shared with the large Rē’i-alpi cluster. With two exceptions, the A–B archives from Sippar are satellites of the Marduk-rēmanni archive, and therefore part of the huge cluster made up of late Ebabbar materials. They probably survive as out-dated files within the deposits of 484 BCE. Running ahead of the discussion in 2.3 and 2.4 below, the two exceptions, Ea-eppēš-ilī A and B, exhibit links to archives from the B group, respectively in Babylon and Sippar, and therefore fit the networked nature of archives deposited in 484 BCE. A last contender is from Uruk, a city which was affected by the aftermath of the revolts without directly participating in the revolts, as far as we know.67 66 See Baker 2011 for the connections and shared find-spot of these archives. The connections to the Nappāḫu archive (a deposit of 484 BCE) also fit the scenario of the ‘network of resistance’ presented in part 2 of this paper. See Baker 2004, 13 for these connections. 67 See n. 4 above. THE NETWORK OF RESISTANCE 107 The Egibi archive excavated there ends in Dar 33 but it displays the high den- sity measure and mixed contents that we often find in deposits made in Xer 2. Moreover, as a Babylon family in Uruk, its keepers were probably among those who negatively experienced the elite shift in this city following the revolts. 2. THE NETWORK OF RESISTANCE How were Šamaš-erība and Bēl-šimânni able to mount their rebellion and recruit support in Babylonia’s northern and central cities? This question has remained unresolved, even unasked, so far. The lack of engagement with this matter can in part be explained from the fact that we know so little about the rebel leaders. Who were Šamaš-erība and Bēl-šimânni? Governors? Army officers? Religious leaders? We know that they bore Babylonian names and we know that they aspired the Babylonian throne, but beyond that we are igno- rant of their origins, motivations, or aims. Equally unclear is their relationship to each other. They coordinated the timing of their insurgence and in that sense, they may be considered comrades. But, almost certainly, they also competed against each other. They started out in their own territories, Šamaš-erība in Sippar and Bēl-šimânni to the south of Babylon, but after a few weeks the latter gave up and Šamaš-erība extended his influence southwards until the Persians regained control of the situation not long afterwards.68 While the rebel leaders remain elusive, we are better informed about the supporters of their movement. Among their supporters figured the men and women who, in the aftermath of the revolts, fell ‘victim’ (69) to Persian reprisals and abandoned their archives (group B). As I will show in this section, we can use their archives to investigate the processes that united these individuals into a political faction. Before setting out, it bears repeating that I am not concerned with the motivations or ideologies that inspired the insurgency, but with the conduits, pathways, and channels that made the insurgency possible. 2.1. Connections. While each of the 33 archives deposited in 484 BCE pertains to a single family, individual, or institution, there is considerable over- lap in the prosopographies of these archives. This indicates that the people who were punished for their anti-imperial sympathies in 484 BCE, were previ- ously acquainted and had had the opportunity to share ideas and aspirations with each other. Contact between these individuals is documented in multiple ways. First, there is evidence of interpersonal contact. These personal 68 A timeline of the revolts is provided in the Introduction to this volume. 69 See my comments in the introduction to this chapter on the restricted meaning of this word in the present context. 108 C. WAERZEGGERS networks can be traced at the local level within cities (2.2–2.3) and at the regional level across cities (2.4). The intersection of highly-connected local networks with more sparsely populated interregional networks provided oppor- tunities for local groups to reach out to each other across distances. Second, there is evidence of what may be called person-place-person relationships: these are connections that are implied by the fact that individuals regularly visited the same place (2.5). Such relationships are only significant if the per- sons appear in places that are not part of their daily movement routines. Third, at a more general level, the people represented in group B shared similar worldviews, cultural identities, resource portfolios, etc., which would have made it easy to mobilize them for the same course. The social cohesion of this group was discussed earlier in this paper (1.4), and will not be brought up again in this section. It is, however, important to keep this aspect in mind, as it provides a baseline on which sympathies could have been built during the insurgency. Fourth, I will use the archives in group A as a control group in order to evaluate the significance of the interconnections that are attested between archives deposited in 484 BCE (2.6). 2.2. Clusters� as� evidence� of� deep� local� networks. In 1.2, I have shown that many archives deposited in 484 BCE were stored collectively. These clusters exhibit strong interpersonal connections. In some cases, the owners of such archives had been in almost daily contact with each other, e.g. as colleagues working in the same priestly collegium, as cousins, in-laws, neighbours, etc. The prosopographical overlaps are such that it is often difficult to delineate one archival group from the other, a sign of intensely interwoven networks. If we look at how these networks are structured, we discern two types. In Borsippa, the clustered archives of brewers, bakers and butchers indicate that employment in priestly colleges provided a strong common ground. In Sippar, we find a similar pattern. Bēl-rēmanni, Marduk-rēmanni, and the owners of several of the latter’s satellite archives, were prebendaries of the Ebabbar temple. There is also a second type of network at play in Sippar, one stretching to a different, though closely related, institution — the governor (šākin�ṭēmi) of the province of Babylon. Marduk-rēmanni and the owners of several of his satellite archives were clients of the powerful Ša-nāšišu family (Waerzeggers 2014). This family controlled the top offices in the civic and religious administration of the Sippar- Babylon area in Darius the Great’s reign. As we will see below, the Ša-nāšišu family’s patronage network extended not only among Šamaš-erība’s supporters in Sippar but also among those in Babylon; in this way, it could well have served as a conduit for marshalling dissent across cities. 2.3. Inner-city�contacts�across�archival�boundaries. Extending from the deep networks attested within archive clusters, we may consider the evidence for THE NETWORK OF RESISTANCE 109 interpersonal contact between clusters, or between archives that were stored independently but at the same site in 484 BCE. In Babylon, most archives deposited after the revolts were stored individually (1.2), but the owners were nevertheless closely connected. The protagonist of the Ea-eppēš-ilī A archive wrote two tablets for Itti-Marduk-balāṭu, head of the Egibi family, on a journey to Humadēšu in Iran.70 As travel companions in a distant city, they must have known each other well. There is further evidence for contact between these two archives.71 The excavated Egibi archive from Babylon (N12) is unpublished so far, except for Pedersén’s brief notes and catalogue; based on this information, Heather Baker detected multiple contact points with the well-known archive produced by Nabû-aḫḫē-iddin’s branch of the Egibi family.72 She showed that the two branches were probably related and that direct and indirect contacts between them are attested from the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II into the Persian period, indicating a long and stable history of acquaintance. Contacts between the Nappāḫu and Egibi archives have also been attested.73 In Borsippa, the three main clusters overlap substantially in prosopography. The Mannu-gērûšu cluster has close ties with the Rē’i-alpi group,74 the Rē’i- alpi group is tied through marriage and property investments with the Bēliya’u group,75 and there are countless instances of scribes, witnesses, and protago- nists criss-crossing all of these clusters. The evidence from the Bēliya’u archive may serve as an example of these intricate patterns. It shares a creditor and a debtor with the Rē’i-alpi archive,76 and a lessor of prebendary income with Ibnāya B.77 Three baker colleagues of Šaddinnu//Bēliya’u appear in three other archives,78 and the relatives of at least two men from whom Šaddinnu bought houses, are known from the Rē’i-alpi archive.79 Other archives from Borsippa 70 Camb. 388 and Hecker 1966 no. 47; see Tolini 2011, 223–224. 71 Jursa 2010, 253–254. 72 Pedersén 2005, 208–217; Baker 2008, 111–112. 73 Baker 2004, 12. 74 Waerzeggers 2005, 351. E.g. Nabû-ana-mēreḫti//Aḫiya’ūtu (Rē’i-alpi cluster) and Nabû- aḫu-ittannu/Kalbā/Mannu-gērûšu (the protagonist of the Mannu-gērûšu archive) regularly appear in each other’s tablets as witnesses. 75 The Ilia A and Bēliya’u families were connected through marriage (BM 26483, Dar 14); they also owned property in the same villages around Borsippa. 76 Bēl-iddin/Tabnēa/Ibnāya: BM 96150 (Dar 21); BM 26650 and duplicate BM 27857 (Dar 13); BM 82742 (date lost); VS 4 141 (Dar 15). Mušēzib-Bēl/Sîn-aplu-iddin/Iddinā: BM 17665 (Dar 16); BM 29487 (Dar 12); BM 96168 (Dar 9); BM 29484 and duplicate BM 29448 (Dar 12). 77 Waerzeggers 2010 nos. 94 and 122. 78 Lâbâši/Rēmūtu/Kidin-Sîn: see Waerzeggers 2010, 239 for attestations in the Bēliya’u archive, with BM 82724 (Rē’i-alpi) and BM 85562 Dar 22 (Iddin-Papsukkal B). Gimillu/Tabnēa/ Kidin-Sîn: e.g. BM 28925 (Dar 12) and BM 82754 (Dar 1); the latter from the Rē’i-alpi archive. Nabû-bēl-šumāti/ Marduk-nāṣir/Šēpê-ilia: e.g. BM 29400 (Dar 5) and VS 4 174 (Dar 28; Atkuppu archive). 79 Murašû/Libluṭ/Imbu-īnia: VS 6 150 (Dar 27); BM 29019 (Dar 6?). Mušēzib-Marduk/ Taqīš-[x]/Sāmu: BM 96143 (Dar 20); BM 26572 (Dar 10); BM 26652 (Nbn 16); YOS 6 157 (Nbn 9); BE 8 35 (Ner 1). 110 C. WAERZEGGERS exhibit the same level of interconnectedness. The platform enabling these links is the Ezida temple, where all these families held prebendary offices. In Sippar, we find a similarly tight web of relationships between clusters. Archives in the Maštuk cluster pertain to people who were closely linked to Marduk-rēmanni and his patrons of the Ša-nāšišu family. The Maštuks belonged to the same community of Babylon immigrants living in Sippar as Marduk- rēmanni and the Ša-nāšišus. The Ṣāḫit-ginê B archive belongs to cousins of Marduk-rēmanni, and Bēl-aplu-iddin was a trader who carried out his business activities in close proximity to Marduk-rēmanni on the quay of Sippar. The archive of Bēl-rēmanni exhibits multiple connections to both the Marduk-rēmanni and Maštuk clusters. As in Borsippa, the ties between these latter archives are based on their owners’ common associations with the Ebabbar temple of Sippar, where they or their in-laws held priestly charges. In addition to Ebabbar, the powerful Ša-nāšišu family tied several of these groups together.80 2.4. Inter-city�contacts. In the years leading up to the revolts, the people who would eventually rally behind Šamaš-erība and Bēl-šimânni were already inte- grated in a regional network that enabled interaction and communication across cities. It would be worthwhile to map and quantify the emergence of this net- work over time as this would allow us to seek answers to several pertinent questions, e.g. how did this network come into being and did activity within the network intensify towards the outbreak of the revolts? A quantitative approach is unfortunately impossible at present because the prosopographical data necessary for such a task are unavailable. But we may approach the topic more impressionistically for the time being, by reviewing the evidence that is so far available for this inter-city network and by identifying the occasions that brought these people into contact with each other. 2.4.1.�Sippar-Babylon�contacts Despite the fact that only one Egibi tablet was written in Sippar,81 there is plenty of evidence that the Egibis of Babylon were in regular contact with Marduk-rēmanni and members of his social circle in Sippar.82 The history of these contacts can be traced back to the earlier sixth century BCE when Marduk-rēmanni’s ancestors first moved to Sippar from Babylon together with other families, like the Ša-nāšišus. The community of immigrants that formed in Sippar as a result of these relocations was tight-knit and its members 80 For the interconnections between the archive of Marduk-rēmanni and the other archives from Sippar, see Waerzeggers 2014. For the central role of the Ša-nāšišu family, see Waerzeggers 2016. 81 Jursa 2010, 122 n. 687. 82 This section summarizes the findings presented in Waerzeggers 2014, 24, 99–101. THE NETWORK OF RESISTANCE 111 maintained regular contact with relatives and acquaintances who had remained in Babylon. Such contacts were kept alive from one generation to the next. Marduk-rēmanni was still closely connected to the Egibis several generations after his ancestor moved to Sippar. Although we have no evidence that Marduk- rēmanni ever met Marduk-nāṣir-apli (his contemporary at the head of the Egibi family) in person, this seems likely. Not only did Marduk-rēmanni occasionally meet Marduk-nāṣir-apli’s father-in-law, several of Marduk-rēmanni’s relatives can also be linked to this man, including his father, sister and uncle; moreover, Marduk-rēmanni selected as future daughter-in-law a girl who lived in a neigh- bourhood frequented by the Egibis. In addition, Marduk-rēmanni and the Egibis shared a close connection to the Ša-nāšišu brothers, who governed the province of Babylon during much of the reign of Darius I. Marduk-rēmanni’s career at the Ebabbar temple of Sippar had propelled thanks to the protection of this family, and Marduk-nāṣir-apli too depended on the Ša-nāšišus for lucrative tax-farming contracts.83 In brief, the contacts between Marduk-rēmanni and the Egibis were built partly on common historical roots, partly on the re-activation of these roots through new connections, and partly on common ties to the Ša-nāšišu family. There are other ways to map Sippar-Babylon contacts besides through per- sonal networks.84 The fact that the career paths of the Ša-nāšišu brothers and of Marduk-rēmanni and his son Bēl-bullissu evolved in the same direction is certainly important. They moved from posts with local responsibilities in Sip- par (šangû, College Scribe) to posts with provincial (šākin� ṭēmi of Babylon) and ‘national’ responsibilities (šatammu of Esangila, retinue of qīpu of Esang- ila; Waerzeggers 2014). This movement implies not only a greater command of resources, but also a greater potential to mobilize people in a wide area. 2.4.2.�Dilbat-Babylon-Borsippa-Sippar�contacts In the years before the revolts, Nabû-ittannu of the Dābibī family, who was to deposit his archive in the city of Dilbat in 484 BCE, was in contact with various other individuals who would rally behind Šamaš-erība and Bēl-šimânni, including the Egibis and Nappāḫus of Babylon and Marduk-rēmanni from Sip- par.85 Moreover, as a College Scribe of Eimbianu, he must have been involved 83 Abraham 2004, 135. 84 In addition to the links between Marduk-rēmanni and the Egibis, we can also point to the connection between the Ea-eppēš-ilī A archive from Babylon and the like-named Ea-eppēš-ilī A archive from Sippar: CT 55 117 places the protagonists of both archives in Bīt-šar-Bābili at the end of Nabonidus’ reign (Jursa 2005a, 64 n. 398). Note, however, that the Sippar Ea-eppēš-ilī A archive belongs to the A–B group of archives that cannot be firmly tied to the end-of-archives phenomenon (see 1.5 above). 85 All evidence, which is presented in the next paragraph, was generously provided by Bastian Still. 112 C. WAERZEGGERS in setting up the kind of collaboration between the temples of Dilbat, Babylon, and Borsippa that is mentioned in a newly published letter sent during the revolt of Šamaš-erība.86 The network built up around this man thus straddles the entire area that attempted to break free of Persian rule. Contacts with the Egibis of Babylon can be established through several mid- dlemen. (1) Sūqāya/Bēl-zēri/Burāqu witnessed two tablets of the Egibi archive in Babylon and one tablet of Nabû-ittannu in Dilbat; he also acted as guarantor for a debt due to the Eimbianu temple which was administered by Nabû-ittannu. These contacts took place in the latter part of Darius’ reign.87 (2) Zēria/Bēl-zēri/ Egibi similarly acted as a witness both for the Egibis and Nabû-ittannu,88 as did (3) Bēl-rēmanni/Tāqiš-Gula/Ṭābiḫ-kāri, (4) Zēria/Iqīšāya/Šigûa, and (5) Bulṭā/Ibnā/Saggillāya.89 Nabû-ittannu can also be linked to the Nappāḫu family of Babylon, through (6) Iddin-Nabû/Pir᾿u/Nannûtu.90 (7) Bēl-iddin/ Bēl-nipšaru/Šarru-arazu supplies a triple connection between the Egibis, Marduk-rēmanni and Nabû-ittannu, that is, between Babylon, Sippar and Dilbat.91 (8) Bēl-ibni/Rēmūtu/Bābūtu connects Nabû-ittannu with the Nappāḫus of Babylon and with the Ilia family of Borsippa.92 This latter contact was recorded in Susa, where Bēl-ibni may have been present to attend one of the regularly held court ceremonials. 2.4.3.�Inclusions�and�exclusions In network theory, the absence of ties is as important as the presence of ties, as it is the combination of both that determines the flow of information within the network. The dominant actors in the network that emerges from the data presented above are the Egibis of Babylon and Marduk-rēmanni and his son Bēl-bullissu of Sippar. Although this network can only be a very rough approx- imation of the complex interactions that must have accompanied the insurrec- tion, these individuals can be identified as being ideally positioned to facilitate coordinated action. For instance, a man like Bēl-rēmanni, who was recruited in 86 Spar and Jursa 2014 no. 140. 87 Egibi tablets: Dar. 342 (Abraham 2004 no. 111; Dar 12), Dar. 491 (Wunsch 2000 no. 186; Dar 19); Dilbat tablets: VS 5 108 (Dar 35) and BM 77411 (Dar 26). 88 Egibi: Dar. 382 (Wunsch 2000 no. 231; Dar 14). Dābibī: VS 5 108 (Dar 35). 89 For Bēl-rēmanni, see Egibi: Dar. 171 (Wunsch 2000 no. 157; after Dar 5); Dābibī: VS 6 171 (Dar [x]). For Zēria, see Egibi: Dar. 509 (Abraham 2004 no. 129; Dar 20); Dābibī: VS 5 74 and duplicate VS 5 75 (Dar 11). For Bulṭā, see Egibi: Dar. 449 (Dar 17); Dābibī: BM 77411 (Dar 26). 90 Dābibī: VS 5 76 (Dar 13) and VS 5 105 (Dar 32). Nappāḫu: Baker 2004 nos. 51, 113, 116, 118, 171, 187, 221 (Cyr 8?–Dar 5). 91 Egibi: Cyr. 264 (Wunsch 2000 no. 71; Cyr 7). Marduk-rēmanni: Waerzeggers 2014 no. 86. Dābibī: VS 5 74 and duplicate VS 5 75 (Dar 11). 92 Ilia C archive: VS 6 155 (Dar 29); Dilbat: VS 5 104 (Dar 31) and VS 5 105 (Dar 32); Nappāḫu: Baker 2004 nos. 174 (Dar 29) and 229 (Dar 23). THE NETWORK OF RESISTANCE 113 the anti-imperial movement of Šamaš-erība, had little occasion to meet like- minded people outside his hometown of Sippar, but through his connection with Marduk-rēmanni, he was only one step removed from the Egibis and other individuals in Babylon and the metropolitan area. This means that he was well- placed to receive information about collective actions from Marduk-rēmanni but less so to spread it; Bēl-rēmanni was unlikely to have played a fundamental role in the unfolding of the revolts. The Nappāḫus of Babylon are located at a similar position in the margins of the network.93 2.5. Person-place-person� relationships. Šamaš-erība and Bēl-šimânni recruited support in the major cities of Babylon’s metropolitan area based on pre-existing networks. These networks do not only materialize in interpersonal contacts, but also in the shared movements of people. One city in particular stands out for having drawn many of the key supporters together. Surprisingly perhaps, this city was not Babylon or one of its sister-cities in Mesopotamia’s heartland; it was the Empire’s capital in Elam, Susa. Darius I began using the old Elamite capital of Susa as a venue for regular court ceremonials not long after he came to power. These events were attended by delegations from all over lower Mesopotamia.94 Many of the persons, who would later support the revolts of Šamaš-erība and Bēl-šimânni, had been at Darius’ court as part of such delegations. Of the archive-owners, who (or whose sons) eventually deposited their archives in 484 BCE, the following are attested in Susa: Marduk-šumu-ibni and Iddin-Bēl of Borsippa’s Ilia archives,95 Marduk-nāṣir-apli of the Egibi family, Marduk-rēmanni and several members of his family from Sippar, and Rēmūt-Bēl of the Ilšu-abūšu A archive from Borsippa. Many other dignitaries visited Susa in the course of Darius’ reign, including the governors (šākin�ṭēmi) of Babylonian cities, the heads of temples (i.e. šangû, šatammu, qīpu, šāpiru, bēl�piqitti, College Scribes), members of the priesthoods (e.g. temple enterers, bakers, etc.), tax collectors and tax farmers, and judges.96 The regularity of these gatherings created a stable and predictable context in which highly placed officials from all over Babylonia could meet, get to know each other, and exchange ideas. Several of these people were also in touch with each other back home in Babylonia, but the court ceremonials at Susa provided a more concentrated occasion for interaction on a larger scale. 2.6. The levels of connectivity that are seen in archives of the B group are lacking in the A group. In fact, based on my knowledge of their contents, which 93 On the Nappāḫu family’s limited spheres of movement, see Baker 2014, 185. 94 Waerzeggers 2010a and 2014, 102; Tolini 2011. 95 Ilia A and Ilia D. Note that these archives belong to the A-B group. Its likely membership to the end-of-archives dynamic was discussed in 1.5 above. 96 Waerzeggers 2010a, 797–798. 114 C. WAERZEGGERS is far from exhaustive, there is no evidence of contact between the various archive-keepers within this group. However, we do find some prosopographical overlap between A group and B group archives. This happens mostly in the old admixtures that are found in the clusters from Sippar and Borsippa. In those cases, the older files probably survive as part of later deposits. For instance, the Banê-ša-ilia archive is closely connected to the Atkuppu archive, deposited in 484 BCE; it may be a sub-archive of the latter. Similarly, the Ḫuṣābu archive, dated between 590 and 536 BCE, may be a sub-file of the Ea-ilūtu-bāni archive, which stretches into 485 BCE and was in all likelihood closed off in 484 BCE. The small dossier of the sons of Nabû-zēru-iqīša probably survives within the Ilia A archive. Outside of these clustered formations, we find little evidence of contact between A and B group archives. The connection between the Dullupu and Nappāḫu archives from Babylon constitutes a rare exception.97 3. CONCLUSION The revolts of 484 BCE had a major impact on the surviving text corpus of the long sixth century. Its size, composition and structure were determined by the large-scale, often collective acts of archival storage that happened in the course of counter-insurgency. In this paper, I have argued that the archives abandoned in 484 BCE can be used to reconstruct the emergence of a network of resistance that served as a conduit for coordinated action under the leader- ship of Šamaš-erība and Bēl-šimânni. Reading the testimony of the archives ‘backwards’, it becomes clear that in the decades prior to the revolts, those individuals who would eventually support the rebels were increasingly being drawn together in a cross-regional network. The members of this network of resistance shared social capital, cultural backgrounds, economic behaviour, patronage networks, and very likely aspirations and frustrations; they also had the opportunity to connect with each other, exchange ideas, and commit to concerted action. The regular gatherings at the palace of Susa initiated by Dar- ius I could well have played a role in bringing people from all over Babylonia together and in supplying them with a reliable and predictable meeting schedule. 97 Baker 2004, 12. THE NETWORK OF RESISTANCE 115 A PP EN D IX : TA B LE O F A R C H IV ES U SE D IN T H IS S TU D Y c o lu m n 1 : in te rn a l n u m b e ri n g c o lu m n 2 : c u st o m a ry n a m e o f th e a rc h iv e c o lu m n 3 : p e ri o d c o v e re d b y t h e a rc h iv e ( d a te s a re a p p ro x im a te ) c o lu m n 4 : n u m b e r o f ta b le ts c u rr e n tl y a tt ri b u te d t o t h e a rc h iv e c o lu m n 5 : a v e ra g e n u m b e r o f ta b le ts p e r y e a r c o lu m n 6 : h o m o g e n o u s o r v a ri e d c o n te n ts ( ‘- ’ si g n if ie s a l a c k o f in si g h t in to t h e c o n te n ts o f th e a rc h iv e i n q u e st io n ) c o lu m n 7 : so c ia l b a c k g ro u n d c o lu m n 8 : a tt e st e d g e n e ra ti o n s o f a rc h iv e -k e e p in g f a m il y ( o n ly i n p ri v a te a rc h iv e s) c o lu m n 9 : a d d it io n a l re m a rk s, i n c lu d in g k e y p u b li c a ti o n A g r o u p ( a r c h iv e s e n d in g b e fo r e D a r 1 5 ) B a b y lo n �9 8 9 9 a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 1 [N 1 ] S o u th p a la c e , v a u lt e d b u il d in g 5 9 5 – 5 7 1 ( 2 4 y r) 3 0 3 1 2 .6 h p a la c e P e d e rs é n 2 0 0 5 , 1 1 1 – 1 2 7 2 [N 2 ] Iš ta r g a te 5 9 7 – 5 9 3 ( 4 y r) 2 5 6 .2 5 h p a la c e P e d e rs é n 2 0 0 5 , 1 2 8 – 1 2 9 ; p e rh a p s p a rt o f N 1 ( B a k e r 2 0 0 8 , 1 0 3 ) 3 [N 3 ] S o u th p a la c e , g a te 6 0 2 – 5 9 2 ( 1 0 y r) 9 8 4 1 1 .8 h p a la c e P e d e rs é n 2 0 0 5 , 1 3 0 – 1 3 2 ; th e fi n d -s p o ts o f in d iv id u a l ta b le ts a re u n c e rt a in ( B a k e r 2 0 0 8 , 1 0 2 ) 4 [N 5 ] N in m a ḫ t e m p le 6 0 1 – 5 6 1 ( 4 0 y r) 1 2 8 9 9 3 .2 h te m p le P e d e rs é n 2 0 0 5 , 1 3 5 – 1 4 3 ; th re e d is ti n c t g ro u p s fo u n d i n t h re e r o o m s, e a c h d is p la y in g h ig h i n te rn a l c o h e re n c e 9 8 T h is d a te r a n g e r e la te s to t h e f in d s m a d e s o u th o f th e g a te o n ly . 9 9 T h is f ig u re e x c lu d e s th e m is c e ll a n e o u s fi n d s th a t w e re m a d e i n t h e E m a h t e m p le ( P e d e rs é n 2 0 0 5 , 1 3 7 ). 116 C. WAERZEGGERS a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 5 [N 1 0 ] Š ig û a c . 6 6 3 – 5 8 0 ( 8 3 y r) 3 6 0 .4 h 1 0 0 p ri v a te , te m p le b re w e rs m o st ly 2 P e d e rs é n 2 0 0 5 , 1 9 8 – 2 0 2 6 [N 1 1 ] In g a ll ē a 6 9 0 – 6 2 8 ( 6 2 y r) 4 9 0 .8 h p ri v a te , te m p le b a rb e rs p ro b a b ly 2 P e d e rs é n 2 0 0 5 , 2 0 3 – 2 0 8 ; fo u n d i n t w o ja rs , e a c h w it h i ts o w n f o c u s 7 D u ll u p u 6 4 1 – 5 4 0 ( 1 0 1 y r) 4 0 0 .4 v p ri v a te , a rt is a n s m o st ly 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 6 2 8 E sa g il ā y a 6 2 0 – 5 1 8 ( 1 0 2 y r) 7 0 0 .6 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 2 S a n d o w ic z 2 0 0 9 9 Š u m ā y a 6 6 1 – 6 5 1 ( 1 0 y r) 1 1 1 .0 h p ri v a te , tr a d e 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 7 2 B o rs ip p a 1 0 0 a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 1 0 Ḫ u ṣā b u 5 9 0 – 5 3 6 ( 5 4 y r) 8 0 .1 5 v p ri v a te , te m p le b re w e rs 3 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 7 9 1 1 B a n ê -š a -i li a 6 7 6 – 5 8 8 ( 8 8 y r) 1 1 0 .1 2 v p ri v a te , n o t te m p le re la te d 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 8 0 1 2 G a ll ā b u 5 7 0 – 5 0 7 ( 6 3 y r) 5 9 0 .9 4 v p ri v a te , n o t te m p le re la te d 4 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 8 2 1 3 Ib n ā y a A 5 7 3 – 5 3 2 ( 4 1 y r) 4 2 1 v p ri v a te , te m p le b u tc h e rs 4 W a e rz e g g e rs 2 0 1 0 , 5 2 5 – 5 2 7 1 4 so n s o f N a b û -z ē ru -i q īš a 5 4 9 – 5 2 4 ( 2 5 y r) 6 0 .2 4 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly ? 1 W a e rz e g g e rs 2 0 0 5 , 3 5 8 1 5 K u d u rr ā n u A 6 3 0 – 5 1 7 ( 1 2 3 y r) 3 5 0 .3 v p ri v a te , te m p le b re w e rs 5 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 9 0 1 6 K u d u rr ā n u B 6 2 9 – 5 8 8 ( 4 1 y r) 6 0 .1 5 v p ri v a te , tr a d e 2 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 3 6 0 1 7 m a lt f il e 5 5 1 – c . 5 3 5 ( c . 1 5 ) 1 0 + c . 1 h in st it u ti o n a l W a e rz e g g e rs 2 0 0 5 , 3 6 3 1 0 0 T h e a rc h iv e c o n ta in s a l ib ra ry s e c ti o n , a n d i n t h a t se n se , it i s ‘v a ri e d ’. H o w e v e r, i ts a rc h iv a l se c ti o n i s q u it e h o m o g e n o u s in b e in g f o c u se d o n a c q u i- si ti o n s o f la n d e d e st a te s a n d p re b e n d s. THE NETWORK OF RESISTANCE 117 C u th a �1 0 1 a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 1 8 A k k a d -ē re š1 0 1 5 5 5 – 5 2 2 ( 3 3 y r) c . 1 2 c . 0 .3 5 h p ri v a te , tr a d e 2 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 4 9 D il b a t a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 1 9 E a -q a rr ā d -i lī 5 8 0 – 5 4 5 ( 3 5 y r) 1 5 0 .4 v p ri v a te , a g ri c u lt u ra l e n tr e p re n e u r 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 9 9 2 0 E g ib i o f D il b a t 7 0 1 – c . 6 2 6 ( c . 7 5 y r) 1 7 0 .2 h p ri v a te , p ri e st ly m o st ly 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 0 0 2 1 Š a n g û D il b a t 6 5 5 – 6 5 1 ( 4 y r) 4 1 - p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 0 1 2 2 U p ā q u 6 8 0 – 6 6 6 ( 1 4 y r) 5 0 .3 5 - p ri v a te 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 0 1 E la m m u a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 2 3 A rk â t- il i 5 4 9 – 5 4 8 ( 2 y r) 8 4 h p ri v a te , a rt is a n 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 4 9 ; m a y b e p a rt o f S ip p a r’ s M a št u k c lu st e r Is in a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 2 4 S il im -B ē l/ A rr a b i 5 0 8 – 5 0 3 ( 5 y r) 4 0 .8 h p ri v a te , re n t fa rm e r 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 0 2 1 0 1 A c c o rd in g t o J u rs a ( 2 0 0 5 a , 1 4 9 ) th is a rc h iv e m a y c o m e f ro m B o rs ip p a b u t it m e n ti o n s C u th a o ft e n . 118 C. WAERZEGGERS K iš a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 2 5 G a ḫ a l 6 3 5 – 5 3 1 ( 1 0 4 y r) 4 0 0 .4 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly a s w e ll a s e n tr e p re n e u ri a l 3 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 0 5 2 6 P a ḫ ḫ ā ru 5 9 4 – 5 5 6 ( 3 8 y r) 3 0 0 .7 9 v p ri v a te , tr a d e m o st ly 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 0 7 L a rs a a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 2 7 It ti -Š a m a š- b a lā ṭu 5 8 8 – 5 2 8 ( 6 0 y r) c . 2 0 0 3 .3 3 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly a s w e ll a s e n tr e p re n e u ri a l 3 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 0 8 – 1 0 9 N ip p u r1 0 2 a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 2 8 G o v e rn o r’ s a rc h iv e c . se c o n d h a lf o f 8 th c e n tu ry 1 2 8 ? h in st it u ti o n a l? ? C o le 1 9 9 6 2 9 B ē l- e ṭē ri -Š a m a š 5 5 0 – 5 2 9 ( 2 1 y r) 3 8 o r 4 2 1 0 2 c . 2 h p ri v a te , e n tr e p re n e u r 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 b 3 0 C a ri a n a rc h iv e 5 2 7 – 5 2 1 ( 6 y r) 8 1 .3 h st a te o r p ri v a te ? , c o lo n is ts o n s ta te la n d 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 1 3 3 1 N e rg a l- id d in 5 7 7 – 5 2 5 ( 5 2 y r) 1 4 0 .2 7 v p ri v a te , e n tr e p re n e u ri a l 3 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 1 4 a n d Z a d o k 1 9 8 6 , 2 8 6 1 0 2 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 b , 1 9 7 ; Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 1 2 . THE NETWORK OF RESISTANCE 119 a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 3 2 N in u rt a -u b a ll iṭ 7 0 2 – 6 2 6 ( 7 6 y r) 2 8 0 .3 4 v p ri v a te 2 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 1 5 3 3 N in u rt a -u ša ll im , so n o f N a b û -u si p p i 6 3 5 – 6 1 8 ( 1 7 y r) 5 0 .3 v p ri v a te 1 Z a d o k 1 9 8 6 , 2 8 3 3 4 L ib lu ṭ, s o n o f N in u rt a -i b n i 6 0 2 – 5 9 7 ( 5 y r) 4 0 .8 v p ri v a te 1 Z a d o k 1 9 8 6 , 2 8 3 3 5 d a u g h te r o f S în -z ē ru -l īš ir c . 5 7 9 2 ? - p ri v a te 1 Z a d o k 1 9 8 6 , 2 8 3 3 6 u n n a m e d 6 0 6 – 6 0 2 ( 4 y r) 3 0 .7 5 - p ri v a te 1 Z a d o k 1 9 8 6 , 2 8 3 3 7 so n s o f Š a m a š- šu m u -l īš ir 5 7 5 – 5 5 5 ( 2 0 y r) 1 1 0 .5 5 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 1 th is a rc h iv e i s li st e d a s tw o s e p a ra te o n e s b y Z a d o k 1 9 8 6 , 2 8 3 – 2 8 4 ; Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 1 5 c o n si d e rs i t a s a s in g le a rc h iv e 3 8 so n o f U sā tu 5 6 9 – 5 5 0 ( 1 9 y r) 3 0 .1 6 - p ri v a te 1 Z a d o k 1 9 8 6 , 2 8 4 3 9 Z ē ru -u k īn s o n o f P ir ’u , a n d h is s o n L â b â ši 5 6 7 – 5 2 5 ( 4 2 y r) 8 0 .2 h p ri v a te o r st a te ? , m il it a ry c o m m a n d e r 2 th is a rc h iv e i s li st e d a s tw o s e p a ra te o n e s b y Z a d o k 1 9 8 6 , 2 8 4 – 2 8 5 ; Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 1 5 c o n si d e rs i t a s a s in g le a rc h iv e 4 0 so n s o f L īš ir 5 3 4 – p o st 5 2 2 ( m in . 1 2 y r) 6 < 0 .5 h st a te o r p ri v a te ? 1 th is a rc h iv e i s li st e d a s tw o s e p a ra te o n e s b y Z a d o k 1 9 8 6 , 2 8 4 – 2 8 5 ; Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 1 5 c o n si d e rs i t a s a s in g le a rc h iv e ; th is i s p ro b a b ly n o t p a rt o f th e s a m e c lu st e r a s th e o th e r sm a ll a rc h iv e s fr o m N ip p u r 4 1 A p lā y a s o n o f N in u rt a -u b a ll iṭ c . 5 2 9 3 - - p ri v a te ? 1 Z a d o k 1 9 8 6 , 2 8 4 4 2 N in u rt a -m u tē r- g im il li 5 4 1 – 5 3 4 ( 1 7 y r) 5 0 .3 v p ri v a te 1 Z a d o k 1 9 8 6 , 2 8 4 ; Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 1 6 120 C. WAERZEGGERS S ip p a r a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 4 3 e a rl y E b a b b a r c . 6 4 0 – 5 8 0 (c . 6 0 y r) c . 5 ,0 0 0 c . 8 0 v te m p le D a R iv a 2 0 0 2 4 4 A d a d -š a m ê 5 7 4 – 5 3 2 ( 4 2 y r) 1 8 0 .4 v p ri v a te , tr a d e 2 sa te ll it e o f M a rd u k -r ē m a n n i a rc h iv e (W a e rz e g g e rs 2 0 1 4 , 1 9 – 2 2 ); i n t h e se c o n d g e n e ra ti o n , B ē l- u ša ll im w o rk e d a s a s c ri b e f o r th e t e m p le 4 5 B ē l- e ṭē ri 6 1 1 – 6 0 3 ( 8 y r) 1 6 2 h p ri v a te , tr a d e 1 p a rt o f e a rl y E b a b b a r a rc h iv e ( Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 2 2 ); a rc h iv e -k e e p e r w o rk e d a s sc ri b e f o r th e t e m p le 4 6 R ē ’i -s is ê 5 4 6 – 5 1 9 ( 2 7 y r) 9 0 .3 v p ri v a te 1 sa te ll it e o f M a rd u k -r ē m a n n i a rc h iv e (W a e rz e g g e rs 2 0 1 4 , 1 9 – 2 2 ); J u rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 2 4 – 1 2 5 4 7 M u šē z ib 5 3 6 – 5 2 0 ( 1 6 y r) 4 0 .2 5 v p ri v a te , fe m a le o w n e r, p ri e st ly 1 w id o w o f a r a b �b a n ê p ri e st o f E b a b b a r; J u rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 3 1 U r a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 4 8 D a m q ia 7 th c e n tu ry 3 - h p ri v a te 2 p ro p e rt y d e e d s; J u rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 3 3 4 9 S în -u b a ll iṭ 6 2 4 – 6 1 7 ( 7 y r) 6 0 8 .6 h p ri v a te , m il it a ry su p p li e r 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 3 5 – 1 3 6 5 0 e a rl y N e o -B a b y lo n ia n a rc h iv e f ro m U r 6 5 8 – 6 4 8 ( 1 0 y r) 3 0 .3 h p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 2 p ro p e rt y d e e d s; J u rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 3 7 THE NETWORK OF RESISTANCE 121 U ru k a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 5 1 E a n n a c . N b p t o D a r 2 (w it h s o m e l a te r te x ts ) c . 8 ,0 0 0 > 6 0 v te m p le Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 3 8 ; n o te t h a t th e b re a k in D a r 2 i s n o t a b so lu te , b u t u n ti l D a r 2 9 f e w e r te x ts a re p re se rv e d 5 2 B a si a 5 8 8 – 5 4 9 ( 3 9 y r) 4 0 1 h p ri v a te , re n t fa rm e r o f te m p le 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 4 1 c o n si d e rs t h is p a rt o f th e E a n n a a rc h iv e 5 3 D a m iq u 5 6 7 – 5 4 6 ( 2 1 y r) 1 0 0 .5 v p ri v a te , te m p le c le rk 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 4 2 c o n si d e rs t h is p a rt o f th e E a n n a a rc h iv e 5 4 G im il -N a n ā y a 5 9 7 – 5 8 3 ( 1 4 y r) 3 0 .2 v p ri v a te 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 4 2 – 1 4 3 ; a rc h iv e o f a c a tt le b re e d e r w it h b u si n e ss c o n ta c ts t o th e E a n n a t e m p le 5 5 K u rī A 6 1 0 – 5 8 5 ( 2 5 y r) 8 0 .3 2 v p ri v a te , e n tr e p re n e u ri a l 2 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 4 3 ; n o o b v io u s c o n n e c ti o n t o E a n n a 5 6 N a b û -a ḫ ḫ ē -b u ll iṭ 5 7 8 – 5 5 3 ( 2 5 y r) 3 0 .1 2 h p ri v a te , te m p le sc ri b e , sl a v e t ra d e 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 4 4 5 7 N ū r- S în 6 1 0 – 5 8 6 ( 2 4 y r) 2 4 1 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 2 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 4 4 ; ša ta m m u o f E a n n a 5 8 R īm -A n u 6 0 2 – 5 6 0 ( 4 2 y r) 1 5 0 .3 5 v p ri v a te , e n tr e p re n e u ri a l 2 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 4 5 ; a n im a l h u sb a n d ry w it h c o n n e c ti o n t o E a n n a 5 9 S în -l e q e -u n n in n ī A 5 7 0 – 5 4 4 ( 2 6 y r) 2 6 1 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly a n d tr a d e 2 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 4 5 – 1 4 6 ; p ro b a b ly p a rt o f E a n n a a rc h iv e 6 0 M u šē z ib -M a rd u k o f th e S în -n ā ṣi r fa m il y 6 7 8 – 6 3 3 ( 4 5 y r) 3 2 0 .7 h p ri v a te 1 F ra m e 2 0 1 3 ; p ro p e rt y d e e d s 6 1 B ē l- a p lu -u ṣu r 5 5 4 – 5 2 9 ( 2 5 y r) 8 1 3 .2 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 1 K e ss le r 1 9 9 1 6 2 K u rī C 6 4 6 – 6 0 1 ( 4 5 y r) 7 0 .2 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 1 K e ss le r 1 9 9 1 6 3 Š a m šē a 7 0 0 – 5 9 3 ( 1 0 7 y r) 3 2 0 .3 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 3 K e ss le r 1 9 9 1 122 C. WAERZEGGERS V a ri a a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 6 4 N a n ā y a t e m p le 8 th c . 3 0 - - te m p le Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 5 0 6 5 N e ir a b 5 6 5 – c . 5 1 5 ( c . 5 0 y r) 2 7 0 .5 v p ri v a te ? , c o lo n is ts o n st a te l a n d 2 T o li n i 2 0 1 5 B g r o u p ( a r c h iv e s e n d in g b e tw e e n D a r 3 5 a n d X e r 2 ) B a b y lo n �1 0 3 �1 0 4 a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 6 6 E a -e p p ē š- il ī A [ p a rt ly N 2 3 ] 5 7 4 – 4 8 5 ( 8 9 y r) 7 1 0 .8 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly a n d e n tr e p re n e u ri a l 3 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 6 2 ; P e d e rs é n 2 0 0 5 , 2 8 7 – 2 8 8 ; B a k e r 2 0 0 8 , 1 0 6 – 1 0 7 6 7 [N 9 c ] h o u se X V II i n M e rk e s 4 9 3 – 4 8 5 ( 8 y r) 2 5 3 .1 v p ri v a te 1 P e d e rs é n 2 0 0 5 , 1 9 4 6 8 [N 1 2 ] E g ib i 5 1 4 – 4 8 4 ( 3 0 y r) (D a r 8 1 0 3 – X e r 2 ) 1 6 3 5 .4 v p ri v a te 1 P e d e rs é n 2 0 0 5 , 2 0 8 – 2 1 7 6 9 E g ib i a n d N ū r- S în 6 0 6 – 4 8 4 ( 1 2 2 y r) c . 1 7 0 0 c . 1 4 v p ri v a te , e n tr e p re n e u ri a l 5 a .o . W u n sc h 2 0 0 0 7 0 N a p p ā ḫ u 5 7 3 – 4 8 5 ( 8 8 y r) 2 9 1 3 .3 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 3 B a k e r 2 0 0 4 7 1 Š a n g û -N in u rt a c . 5 7 5 1 0 4 – 4 8 5 ( c . 9 0 y r) 9 0 c . 1 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 3 W u n sc h 2 0 0 5 ; Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 7 1 – 7 2 1 0 3 O n e t a b le t is d a te d m u c h e a rl ie r, i n C a m b 5 ; w it h t h is t a b le t in c lu d e d , th e t o ta l ti m e s p a n o f th e a rc h iv e i s 4 1 y e a rs , a n d t h e a v e ra g e n u m b e r o f ta b le ts p e r y e a r is 4 .0 . 1 0 4 T h e r e g n a l y e a r o f N e b u c h a d n e z z a r II , w h e n t h e a rc h iv e s ta rt s, h a s n o t y e t b e e n m e n ti o n e d i n t h e l it e ra tu re . THE NETWORK OF RESISTANCE 123 a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 7 2 K it ti a // Ir ’a n n i 5 1 0 – 4 8 7 ( 2 3 y r) a t le a st 7 0 .3 - p ri v a te - W u n sc h 2 0 0 5 ; se e m s to c lu st e r w it h th e Š a n g û -N in u rt a a rc h iv e B o rs ip p a � a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 7 3 E a -i lū tu -b ā n i 6 8 3 – 4 8 5 ( 1 9 9 y r) 3 2 5 1 .6 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 6 Jo a n n è s 1 9 8 9 ; te m p le g o ld sm it h s a n d te m p le e n te re rs 7 4 A ḫ iy a ’ū tu 5 4 1 – 4 8 4 ( 5 7 y r) 1 6 0 .2 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 3 W a e rz e g g e rs 2 0 1 0 , 3 6 7 ; te m p le b re w e rs 7 5 A rd ū tu 5 0 0 – 4 8 5 ( 1 5 y r) 7 0 .5 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 7 9 ; te m p le b re w e rs 7 6 A tk u p p u 6 0 7 – 4 8 5 ( 1 2 2 y r) 1 1 0 0 .9 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 4 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 8 0 ; te m p le r e e d w o rk e rs 7 7 B ē li y a ’u 5 5 2 – 4 8 4 ( 6 8 y r) 3 7 5 5 .5 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 2 W a e rz e g g e rs 2 0 1 0 , 4 7 5 – 4 8 1 ; te m p le b a k e r 7 8 Ib n ā y a B – C – D 5 3 3 – 4 8 7 ( 4 6 y r) 2 6 0 .6 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 2 W a e rz e g g e rs 2 0 1 0 , 5 2 5 – 5 2 7 ; te m p le b u tc h e rs 7 9 Il šu -a b ū šu A 4 8 7 – 4 8 4 ( 3 y r) 2 5 8 .3 h p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 8 8 – 8 9 ; te m p le b re w e rs 8 0 iš k a ru 4 9 9 – 4 8 4 ( 1 5 y r) 5 6 3 .7 h te m p le W a e rz e g g e rs 2 0 1 0 , 2 1 4 – 2 2 3 8 1 M ā r- b īt i te m p le 4 8 7 – 4 8 6 ( 2 y r) 1 1 5 .5 h te m p le W a e rz e g g e rs 2 0 0 5 , 3 6 3 8 2 L ā -k u p p u ru 5 0 6 – 4 8 4 ( 2 2 y r) 3 0 1 .4 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 2 W a e rz e g g e rs 2 0 1 0 , 4 5 7 – 4 5 8 ; te m p le b re w e rs 8 3 M a n n u -g ē rû šu 5 0 2 – 4 8 4 ( 1 8 y r) 3 0 1 .7 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 1 W a e rz e g g e rs 2 0 1 0 , 4 6 0 – 4 6 1 ; te m p le b re w e rs 8 4 In ṣa b tu 5 1 2 – 4 8 5 ( 3 7 y r) 1 6 0 .5 v p ri v a te , fe m a le o w n e r 1 W a e rz e g g e rs 2 0 0 0 8 5 R ē ’i -a lp i 6 2 2 – 4 8 4 ( 1 3 8 y r) 4 0 0 2 .9 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 5 W a e rz e g g e rs 2 0 1 0 , 5 5 3 – 5 6 6 ; te m p le o x h e rd s 124 C. WAERZEGGERS a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 8 6 N a b û -a p lu -i d d in , fa m il y E a -i lū tu -b ā n i 4 9 9 – 4 8 6 ( 1 3 y r) 5 0 .4 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 1 W a e rz e g g e rs 2 0 0 5 , 3 5 7 D il b a t a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 8 7 D ā b ib ī 5 5 4 – 4 8 4 ( 7 0 y r) 3 0 0 .4 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 9 8 – 9 9 ; te m p le s c ri b e a n d g a rd e n e r (r a b �b a n ê ) K iš a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 8 8 B ē l- a n a -m ē re ḫ ti a n d N e rg a l- a ḫ u -i d d in 4 9 7 – 4 8 4 ( 1 3 y r) 7 0 .5 v p ri v a te , e n tr e p re n e u r in t e m p le e c o n o m y 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 0 4 S ip p a r a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 8 9 la te E b a b b a r c . 5 7 0 – 4 8 4 ( c . 8 6 y r) c . 3 0 ,0 0 0 c . 3 5 0 v te m p le Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 1 8 – 1 2 0 ; Ju rs a 2 0 1 0 9 0 M a rd u k -r ē m a n n i (Ṣ ā ḫ it -g in ê A ) 5 4 8 – 4 8 4 ( 6 4 y r) 1 8 7 2 .9 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly a n d e n tr e p re n e u ri a l 3 W a e rz e g g e rs 2 0 1 4 9 1 Ṣ ā ḫ it -g in ê B 5 1 2 – 4 8 5 ( 2 7 y r) 2 1 0 .7 8 v p ri v a te , tr a d e 1 W a e rz e g g e rs 2 0 1 4 9 2 Š a -n ā ši šu A 5 3 2 – 4 8 7 ( 4 5 y r) 6 0 .1 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly a n d e n tr e p re n e u ri a l 2 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 2 6 ; W a e rz e g g e rs 2 0 1 4 (s a te ll it e o f th e M a rd u k -r ē m a n n i a rc h iv e ); t e m p le b re w e rs THE NETWORK OF RESISTANCE 125 a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 9 3 B ē l- rē m a n n i (Š a n g û -Š a m a š A ) 5 7 0 – 4 8 5 ( 8 5 y r) 1 8 4 1 0 5 2 .2 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 1 Ju rs a 1 9 9 9 9 4 Š a n g û -Š a m a š B 6 0 4 – 4 8 6 ( 1 1 8 y r) 3 3 0 .2 8 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 4 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 2 8 – 1 2 9 ; te m p le e n te re rs , b re w e rs , ra b �b a n ê 9 5 A q ū b a 4 9 5 – 4 8 7 ( 8 y r) 1 6 2 v p ri v a te 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 2 9 – 1 3 0 9 6 Š a m a š- id d in s o n o f R ē m ū tu 5 2 9 – 4 8 7 ( 4 2 y r) 8 0 .2 v p ri v a te 2 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 2 9 – 1 3 0 9 7 B ē l- a p lu -i d d in 4 9 8 – 4 8 8 1 0 6 ( 1 0 y r) 6 0 .6 v p ri v a te , tr a d e 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 3 0 9 8 M a št u k 6 1 8 – 4 8 7 ( 1 3 1 y r) 4 7 0 .3 6 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly a n d e n tr e p re n e u ri a l 5 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 3 0 – 1 3 1 A – B g r o u p ( a r c h iv e s e n d in g i n t h e p e r io d b e tw e e n D a r 1 5 a n d D a r 3 4 )� 1 0 5 �1 0 6 B a b y lo n a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 9 9 [N 8 ] E m a šd a ri d a te s m e n ti o n e d : D a r 1 5 , N b n 8 , K a n d 1 6 4 4 - v te m p le P e d e rs é n 2 0 0 5 , 1 8 8 – 1 9 2 1 0 0 E a -e p p ē š- il ī B 5 4 8 – 4 9 0 ( 5 8 y r) 1 8 0 .3 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 4 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 6 4 – 6 5 ; B a k e r 2 0 1 1 ; c lu st e re d w it h S în -i lī a rc h iv e 1 0 5 T h is f ig u re d o e s n o t in c lu d e t h e m e d ic in a l ta b le ts t h a t w e re p ro b a b ly p a rt o f th e a rc h iv e ( Ju rs a 1 9 9 9 ). 1 0 6 T h is a rc h iv e e n d s in D a r 3 4 , o n e y e a r b e fo re t h e c u t- o ff p o in t fo r a rc h iv e s o f th e B g ro u p ; I c o u n t it w it h t h is g ro u p b e c a u se i t is c lu st e re d w it h t h e M a št u k a n d Ṣ ā ḫ it -g in ê B a rc h iv e s ( W a e rz e g g e rs 2 0 1 4 , 1 4 8 ). 126 C. WAERZEGGERS a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 1 0 1 [N 1 4 ] S în -i lī 5 9 9 – 5 0 4 ( 9 5 y r) c . 5 5 0 5 .8 v p ri v a te , e n tr e p re n e u ri a l 3 P e d e rs é n 2 0 0 5 , 2 2 8 – 2 4 7 ; c lu st e re d w it h E a -e p p ē š- il ī B ; n o te t h a t th e N 1 4 ta b le t d a te d t o X e rx e s (P e d e rs é n 2 0 0 5 , 2 3 0 ) w a s fo u n d i n a d u m p a n d a p p e a rs to b e e x tr a n e o u s to t h e m a in a rc h iv e (B a k e r 2 0 0 8 , 1 0 6 ) 1 0 2 [N 9 b ] h o u se X V II I in M e rk e s; a rc h iv e o f N a b û -i tt a n n u 5 1 9 – 4 9 7 ( 2 2 y rs ) 1 2 0 .5 v p ri v a te - P e d e rs é n 2 0 0 5 , 1 9 2 – 1 9 4 1 0 3 G a ḫ a l 5 2 0 – 4 9 9 ( 2 1 y r) 1 5 0 .7 h p ri v a te 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 6 7 – 6 8 1 0 4 R a b â -š a -N in u rt a 5 5 2 – 4 9 6 ( 5 6 y r) 1 6 0 .3 v p ri v a te 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 6 9 1 0 5 Š u m u -i d d in s o n o f A p lā y a c . 5 2 5 – 5 0 1 ( c . 2 4 y r) 1 9 c . 0 .8 - p ri v a te 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 7 2 1 0 6 ta b le ts f o u n d i n a h o u se to t h e w e st o f th e t e m p le o f Iš ta r o f A k k a d 4 8 9 – 4 8 8 ( 2 y r) 4 2 - p ri v a te - B a k e r 2 0 0 8 , 1 0 5 B o rs ip p a a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 1 0 7 D A R 4 9 7 – 4 9 4 ( 3 y r) 1 8 0 6 0 h te m p le Z a d o k 2 0 0 5 1 0 8 Id d in -P a p su k k a l A 5 4 0 – 4 9 2 ( 4 8 y r) 2 1 0 .4 4 v p ri v a te 2 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 8 4 – 8 5 1 0 9 Id d in -P a p su k k a l B 5 0 7 – 4 9 1 ( 1 6 y r) 8 0 .5 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 8 5 ; te m p le e n te re r 1 1 0 Il ia A 5 8 7 – 4 8 9 ( 1 1 9 y r) 2 6 9 2 .2 6 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 5 W a e rz e g g e rs 2 0 1 0 , 3 7 2 – 4 3 4 ; te m p le b re w e rs 1 1 1 Il ia C 4 9 3 – 4 9 0 ( 3 /4 y r) 4 1 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 1 W a e rz e g g e rs 2 0 0 5 , 3 5 5 – 3 5 6 1 1 2 Il ia D c . 5 7 5 – 5 0 0 ( c . 7 5 y r) 5 6 c . 0 .7 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 4 W a e rz e g g e rs 2 0 1 0 , 4 3 4 – 4 3 5 ; te m p le b re w e rs THE NETWORK OF RESISTANCE 127 a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 1 1 3 B a lā ṭu , sl a v e o f R ē m ū t- B ē l 5 1 5 – 4 9 1 ( 2 4 y r) 1 9 0 .8 h p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 1 W a e rz e g g e rs 2 0 1 0 , 4 3 7 – 4 3 8 1 1 4 Il šu -a b ū šu B 5 3 9 – 5 0 2 ( 3 7 y r) 1 6 0 .4 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 1 W a e rz e g g e rs 2 0 1 0 , 4 4 1 – 4 4 2 1 1 5 B ā ’i ru 5 0 9 – 4 9 9 ( 1 0 y r) 8 0 .8 v p ri v a te , e n tr e p re n e u ri a l 1 W a e rz e g g e rs 2 0 0 5 , 3 5 7 K is si k a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 1 1 6 N in g a l te m p le c . 5 0 3 – 5 0 0 ( 3 y r) c . 3 - - te m p le Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 0 2 K iš a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 1 1 7 E p p ē š- il ī 5 2 1 – 4 9 0 ( 3 1 y r) 7 0 .2 v p ri v a te , e n tr e p re n e u ri a l 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 0 4 1 1 8 R ē ’i -a lp i 5 0 8 – 5 0 6 [ 4 ] 4 1 .2 5 v p ri v a te 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 0 7 N ip p u r a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 1 1 9 E k u r te m p le ( e a rl y a rc h iv e ) 5 6 8 – 4 9 0 ( 7 8 y r) 4 0 0 .5 v te m p le Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 1 0 – 1 1 1 S ip p a r a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 1 2 0 E a -e p p ē š- il ī A 5 3 9 – 4 8 8 ( 5 1 y r) 1 8 0 .3 5 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 3 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 2 2 – 1 2 3 ; te m p le b re w e rs 128 C. WAERZEGGERS a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 1 2 1 B a lī ḫ u 5 1 0 – 4 8 8 ( 2 2 y r) 1 9 0 .8 6 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 2 1 ; te m p le b re w e rs ; sa te ll it e o f M a rd u k -r ē m a n n i a rc h iv e 1 2 2 E a -e p p ē š- il ī B 5 0 9 – 4 9 0 ( 1 9 y r) 5 0 .2 6 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 2 3 ; te m p le b re w e rs 1 2 3 Iš ša r- ta rī b i 5 2 2 – 4 9 9 ( 2 3 y r) 2 5 1 v p ri v a te , tr a d e 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 2 4 ; sa te ll it e o f M a rd u k -r ē m a n n i a rc h iv e 1 2 4 R ē ’i -s is ê 5 4 6 – 5 1 9 ( 2 7 y r) 9 0 .3 v p ri v a te 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 2 4 – 1 2 5 ; sa te ll it e o f M a rd u k -r ē m a n n i a rc h iv e 1 2 5 Š a -n ā ši šu B 5 0 8 – 4 9 2 ( 1 6 y r) 5 0 .3 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 2 6 – 1 2 7 ; te m p le b re w e rs ; sa te ll it e o f M a rd u k -r ē m a n n i a rc h iv e 1 2 6 Š a n g û -I št a r- B ā b il i 5 4 1 – 5 0 4 ( 3 7 y r) 9 0 .2 4 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 3 2 – 1 3 3 U r a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 1 2 7 Im b ia 5 1 4 – 4 9 8 ( 1 6 y r) 4 0 .2 5 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 3 7 n o te s th a t th is a rc h iv e p o ss ib ly c o n ta in s e ig h t a d d it io n a l a d m in is tr a ti v e t e x ts f ro m a te m p le a rc h iv e U ru k a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 1 2 8 A tû 5 9 3 – 5 0 0 ( 9 3 y r) 1 8 0 .2 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 3 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 4 0 – 1 4 1 1 2 9 E g ib i o f U ru k 5 5 0 – 4 8 9 ( 6 1 y r) 2 0 5 3 .3 6 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 2 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 , 1 4 7 ; K e ss le r, t h is v o lu m e THE NETWORK OF RESISTANCE 129 C g r o u p ( a r c h iv e s r e a c h in g a c r o ss 4 8 4 B C E ) B a b y lo n 1 0 7 1 0 8 a r c h iv e ti m e sp a n si z e a v e r a g e h /v b a c k g r o u n d g e n e r a ti o n s r e m a r k s 1 3 0 [N 6 ] K a sr ( B a b y lo n ) 5 9 6 – 4 0 0 ( 1 9 6 y r) 1 0 2 2 5 .2 v p ri v a te a n d /o r st a te ? - 1 0 7 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 6 1 1 3 1 T a tt a n n u ( B o rs ip p a ) 5 0 6 – 3 8 6 ( 1 2 0 y r) 6 9 0 .6 v p ri v a te a n d /o r st a te ? 4 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 9 4 – 9 7 1 3 2 Š a n g û -I št a r- B ā b il i (C u th a ) re tr o a c ts f ro m D a r 1 6 ( 5 0 6 B C E ) o n w a rd s; t h e m a in a rc h iv e d a te s b e tw e e n 4 5 9 – 4 3 5 (2 4 y r) 2 5 - v p ri v a te 2 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 9 8 1 3 3 G a ll ā b u ( U r) 5 7 6 – 3 3 2 ( 2 4 4 y r) 5 1 0 .2 3 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 7 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 3 3 – 1 3 4 1 3 4 S în -i lī ( U r) 5 1 7 – 4 8 2 ( 3 5 y r) 1 1 0 .3 v p ri v a te 2 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 3 5 1 3 5 G im il -N a n ā y a B ( U ru k ) 5 1 0 – 4 7 7 ( 3 3 y r) 7 0 .2 v p ri v a te , p ri e st ly 1 Ju rs a 2 0 0 5 a , 1 4 2 ; B e a u li e u , th is v o lu m e 1 3 6 Y a ḫ u d u c lu st e r 5 7 2 – 4 7 7 ( 9 5 y r) c . 2 6 0 ? c . 2 .7 v p ri v a te a n d /o r st a te ? -1 0 8 P e a rc e a n d W u n sc h 2 0 1 4 1 0 7 S e v e ra l fa m il y u n it s a re r e p re se n te d i n t h is c o m p o si te a rc h iv e . 1 0 8 S e v e ra l fa m il y u n it s a re r e p re se n te d i n t h is c o m p o si te a rc h iv e . 130 C. 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Jursa (eds.), Approaching�the�Babylonian�Economy:�Proceedings�of�the�START�Project� Symposium�Held�in�Vienna,�1–3�July�2004 (AOAT 330), Münster, 197–268. Jursa, M. 2010: Aspects�of�the�Economic�History�of�Babylonia�in�the�First�Millennium� BC:�Economic�Geography,�Economic�Mentalities,�Agriculture,�the�Use�of�Money� and� the� Problem� of� Economic� Growth (with contributions by J. Hackl, B. Janković, K. Kleber, E.E. Payne, C. Waerzeggers and M. Weszeli; AOAT 377), Münster. Jursa, M. 2011: “Cuneiform Writing in Neo-Babylonian Temple Communities”, in K. Radner and E. Robson (eds.), The� Oxford� Handbook� of� Cuneiform� Culture, Oxford, 184–204. Jursa, M. 2013: “Epistolographic Evidence for the Trips to Susa by Borsippean Priests and for the Crisis in Borsippa at the Beginning of Xerxes’ Reign”, ARTA 2013/003. 132 C. 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BABYLONIAN SCHOLARSHIP AND THE CALENDAR DURING THE REIGN OF XERXES Mathieu OSSENDRIJVER (Humboldt University of Berlin / Excellence Cluster TOPOI)1 The Persian era (539–330 BCE) was a period of remarkable achievements in Babylonian science, as witnessed by large numbers of scholarly tablets exca- vated in Babylon, Uruk, and elsewhere. However, the Early Persian era (c. 539–400 BCE) is badly represented in these texts, and the reign of Xerxes (485/4–465/4 BCE) comes across as a particularly fruitless period, since not one scholarly tablet has been found that was definitely written in that time.2 By contrast, a trickle of tablets date to earlier rulers and to his successor Artax- erxes I (464/3–424/3 BCE).3 It is tempting to correlate this lack of scholarly tablets from the reign of Xerxes with the well-known end of the Babylonian archives in year 2 of his reign. This disruption of the cuneiform documentation most plausibly reflects punitive measures taken in the aftermath of two revolts against his rule (Waerzeggers 2003/2004).4 In Babylon and elsewhere, elites which had thus far dominated the temples, the economy and some realms of intellectual life disappeared from the record, their places being taken by previ- ously inconspicuous families that were not affected by the suppression. At first sight, the textual evidence might suggest that the Babylonian scholars shared in the demise of the suppressed elites. However, the reality turns out to be more complex. In this contribution, the fate of Babylonian scholarship under Xerxes is assessed by compiling information from various scholarly and non-scholarly 1 I want to thank C.B.F. Walker for making available the latest version of his catalogue of Mesopotamian intercalations and a transliteration of BM 33809, and for offering numerous valu- able comments I also want to thank J. Steele. The Trustees of the British Museum are acknowl- edged for their permission to study several tablets. 2 The following publications were consulted for references to Babylonian scholarly tablets from the reign of Xerxes: Hunger 1968; Sachs and Hunger 1988; Clancier 2009; Frahm 2011; Pedersén 2005; ADRT 1 (Sachs and Hunger 1988), ADRT 5 (Hunger 2001), ADRT 6 (Hunger 2006). 3 Artaxerxes I: ADRT 1 -463, diary for year 1; IM 76846 (Hunger 2015), astronomical reports for years 2–4; ADRT 1 -453, diary for year 11; ADRT 1 -440, diary for year 24 Artaxerxes I/II/ III: BM 47447, astrological commentary (Rochberg-Halton 1988, 285–290; see below); BM 47494, astrological geography (Hunger 2004); BM 47529+47685, astrological commentary (Wee 2016); BM 47938, excerpt from Šumma ālu T. 72 (CT 39 26–27, quoted by Wee 2016, 161 n. 242); BM 47463, astrological commentary (Livingstone 1986, 259). For further tablets that were probably written by the same scribe, see Jiménez 2016. 4 These findings were confirmed by a subsequent investigation of the tablets excavated in Babylon by R. Koldewey (Baker 2008). 136 M. OSSENDRIJVER sources. The aim is to identify areas of continuity, disruption and development in Babylonian scholarship that can be dated or traced back to his reign. Possible implications for the position of the Babylonian scholars and their interactions with the Achaemenid authorities are explored. COLLECTIONS AND LIBRARIES WITH SCHOLARLY TABLETS FROM THE REIGN OF XERXES The investigation is hampered by the fact that a significant fraction of the extant Late Babylonian scholarly tablets are unprovenanced and cannot be dated to any precision. For those contained in the important Babylon-Sippar collection of the British Museum, provenance and date can sometimes be inferred from their content and colophons. None of these colophons is known to mention a date from the time of Xerxes. Moreover, since many of the tablets are copies of originals composed in earlier times, their content does not provide any significant clues about the date of writing. While some may have been written in the time of Xerxes, there is no way of knowing this. In principle, historiographical texts can be dated, but none of the extant Babylonian chroni- cles date to Xerxes, nor do they report any events from his reign.5 Conse- quently, astronomical tablets — a sizeable portion of the Babylon-Sippar col- lection — play a disproportionate role in the present investigation, because their content can often be dated. Although equally unprovenanced, there is a consensus that they were largely written in Babylon by scholars connected to its main temple, Esangila. Further scholarly tablets were excavated in Babylon by Robert Koldewey, but none mentions a date from the reign of Xerxes either. Some were found in more or less coherent private or institutional archives consisting mainly of economic documentation.6 Since most of these archives terminate near Xerxes year 2, the intermixed scholarly tablets were most likely written before that year. Hence the events of year 2 did affect some loci of scholarship, but the possible repercussions for the astronomers and other schol- ars who were connected to Esangila cannot be gauged from these archives. 5 For the Babylonian chronicles see Grayson 1975; Glassner 2004. 6 According to Pedersén 2005, the following archives excavated by Koldewey contain docu- ments from the reign of Xerxes along with scholarly tablets: N9, private archives of Nabû-ittannu and others, containing about 100 documents dating mainly up to Xerxes year 1 and some 13 schol- arly tablets; N14, archives of Ṭābiya and others, excavated in the Ninurta temple, containing 328 documents dating between Nebukadnezzar II year 6 and Xerxes year 3, and 32 scholarly and school tablets, to which are added 190 further tablets from the Vorderasiatisches Museum (Berlin) acquired at the antiquities market (Pedersén 2005, 228); N18, remains of archives, containing 22 documents dating between Nabonidus year 11 and Alexander year 1, including 1 contract from year Xerxes 2, along with 9 scholarly and school tablets. Baker 2008, 106, has argued that the tablet from Xerxes year 3 does not belong to the archive of Ṭābiya, as it was found in a dump. BABYLONIAN SCHOLARSHIP AND THE CALENDAR 137 In Uruk, the only library known to overlap with the reign of Xerxes is that of Eanna, temple of Ištar. None of the scholarly tablets from that library pre- serves a date. Beyond that, a few reports on astronomical phenomena dating before and shortly after Xerxes were found in later libraries (Ossendrijver, in press). Even though the suppression of the Babylonian elites in Xerxes year 2 did not affect Uruk as strongly as Babylon and Sippar (Waerzeggers 2003/2004, 157), its scholarly community had to cope with the permanent loss of the main temple Eanna in these years (Kessler and Beaulieu, both in this volume). Since the Eanna archives end near Darius I year 28 (493 BCE), this need not be related to measures taken by Xerxes. In any case, the scholarly literature that has survived from later private and temple libraries gives an overall impression of continuity, as is true for Babylon.7 Very little is known about scholars in other Babylonian cities around that time. It is usually difficult to determine the provenance or date of non-astronomical scholarly tablets in the Babylon-Sippar collection. If not from Babylon, they might originate from Sippar, Borsippa, or elsewhere. Those from Sippar were probably written before Xerxes year 2, when many archives ended there, too (Frahm 2011, 287). BABYLONIAN SCHOLARSHIP BEFORE AND AFTER XERXES The new varieties of astral science that emerged in the course of the first millennium BCE provide a useful chronological framework for assessing the development of scholarship under Xerxes. Astronomical diaries and related reports8 are not extant for his reign, but when they resume, their format and content are essentially unchanged, suggesting a continuity of observational and reporting practices. The predictive Goal-Year methods associated with the dia- ries probably emerged near 600 BCE and continued to be used after Xerxes.9 It is significant that a scholarly program as complex and labour intensive as the astronomical observations was, apparently, continued or resumed in identical form. It suggests that the scholars involved were not removed, or at least not all of them. Other innovations of the astral sciences are securely dated to later times. Near the end of the fifth century BCE the zodiac was invented and shortly thereafter mathematical astronomy emerged, along with new types of 7 Note that the library of the scholar Anu-ikṣur (c. 385–445 BCE) includes two deeds of sale from Xerxes years 6 and 9 (SpTU 5 299 and 300), suggesting that this library also included scholarly tablets from that time. 8 Eclipse reports probably began in the time of Nabonassar (c. 747 BCE), see ADRT 1 12; Steele 2000a. The earliest known diary, ADRT 1 -651, dates to Šamaš-šumu-ukīn year 16 (652/1 BCE), and their numbers remain small until Artaxerxes II year 20 (385/4 BCE). 9 For these methods see Steele 2011; for evidence that they emerged near 600 BCE see Huber and Steele 2007. 138 M. OSSENDRIJVER astrology. The textual evidence suggests that most, if not all of these innova- tions were initiated and pursued primarily in Babylon, the main centre of Baby- lonian astral science.10 Subsequently, the new textual genres also appear in Uruk and some in Nippur, with little evidence for any further dispersion. It is more difficult to date developments in other realms of science. One area of innovation is the commentary literature, exemplified by new compositions from the Achaemenid and Seleucid eras, but none can be dated specifically to Xerxes.11 In terms of scholarship, the reign of Xerxes might therefore, at first sight, be characterized as one of inconspicuous continuity, because major developments occurred either before or after it. The texts to be discussed in the following sections confirm the continuity of the astral sciences, primarily in Babylon and Uruk, but they also contain evidence for innovations that can be dated to his reign, albeit with different degrees of certainty. XERXES AND THE ONSET OF THE 19-YEAR INTERCALATION CYCLE The calendar is one area of Babylonian scholarship in which a significant change occurred during the reign of Xerxes. Recall that the Babylonian month began with the first appearance of the lunar crescent. As a consequence, the duration of the month varied irregularly between 29 and 30 days, the long-term average being 29.53 days. Hence twelve months, which define the lunar year, amount to about 354.4 days, some 10.9 days less than the solar year. If no measures would have been taken to adjust the calendar, the lunar year would have drifted through the seasons. In Babylonia this was prevented by occasion- ally inserting an intercalary month — a practice that can be traced back to the Old-Babylonian era and probably long before that. By the 7th century BCE, only a second Ulūlu (VIb) or a second Addaru (XIIb) were used as intercalary months. In Babylonian documents, the former is usually called ITU.KIN.2.(KAM), ‘second Ulūlu’, or KIN.DIRI, ‘extra Ulūlu’, less often ITU.KIN arkû, ‘second Ulūlu’; the latter ITU.ŠE.DIRI, ITU. DIRI.ŠE.KIN.KUD, ‘extra Addaru’, less often ITU.ŠE arkû, ‘second Addaru’. Some Neo-Babylonian documents suggest that the ‘extra Addaru’ could pre- cede the regular Addaru,12 but this is not attested for the Persian and Seleucid periods. Even if an intercalary month is not explicitly mentioned, its existence can occasionally be inferred. Firstly, in administrative documents, the month preceding an intercalary month is sometimes labelled ‘first’, i.e. ITU.KIN maḫrû, 10 On the question of whether astronomical diaries were produced in Uruk, see Steele 2016; Steele, in press; Ossendrijver, in press. 11 Frahm 2011, 332–338; see below. 12 See the references quoted in Kleber 2008, 267 n. 752. BABYLONIAN SCHOLARSHIP AND THE CALENDAR 139 ‘first Ulūlu’, or ITU.ŠE maḫrû, ‘first Addaru’. Secondly, information about the number of months that passed between two Babylonian dates may reveal the presence or absence of an intercalary month. Thirdly, texts mentioning a datable astronomical phenomenon and a Babylonian calendar date can provide clues about the presence or absence of an intercalary month before that date. By collecting these data, a sequence of historical intercalations can be recon- structed. To this day, the most comprehensive compilation remains Parker and Dubberstein (1956), henceforth referred to as PD56. As is well known, the pattern of intercalations remained irregular until the sixth century BCE. Near the time of Xerxes, a 19-year cycle was introduced, with an extra month inserted in 7 out of 19 years, resulting in a total of 235 months. Due to a scar- city of documents, PD56 could not reconstruct a complete sequence of histori- cal intercalations for the reigns of Darius I, Xerxes, and Artaxerxes I, and some of the evidence was ambiguous. However, on average seven intercalary months were inserted every 19 years, irrespective of whether the 19-year cycle was known or not, because only then could the lunar year remain in sync with the seasons as accurately as it did throughout the Persian period (see below). PD56 therefore added several unattested intercalary months, e.g. in Xerxes year 7. Since then, Porten (1990) has compiled new evidence for the use of the Baby- lonian calendar in Achaemenid Egypt and Walker (1997) has presented addi- tional Babylonian evidence for the reigns of Darius I, Xerxes, and Artaxerxes I, resulting in several corrections to PD56. Britton (2007) reinvestigated the onset of the 19-year cycle, but he did not incorporate all of these corrections.13 In the meantime, additional tablets from the reigns of Darius I, Xerxes, and Artaxerxes I have been edited or mentioned in publications.14 Furthermore, C.B.F. Walker has compiled a list of attestations of intercalary months, includ- ing evidence from unpublished tablets.15 A new investigation of the history of the 19-year cycle therefore seems war- ranted.16 Table 1 shows the attested or inferred intercalations between year 27 of Darius I and year 23 of Artaxerxes II, a period covering six intervals of 19 years.17 For reasons that are explained further below, the 19-year cycles are numbered here starting from Xerxes year 10. In its final form, shown in the last column, the cycle included one instance of VIb in year 12 and six instances of 13 Britton (2007) does not mention the source of his corrections to PD56. For the reigns of Darius I and Xerxes they are a subset of the ones listed by Walker (1997). 14 Donbaz and Stolper 1997; Jursa 1999; Wunsch 2000; Pedersén 2005; Waerzeggers 2010; Pearce and Wunsch 2014; Hunger 2015. As far as known, no additional attestations of intercalary months from the reign of Xerxes are mentioned in these publications. 15 A version of this list was kindly provided to me by C.B.F. Walker (January 2017). 16 In the final proofing stage of this paper I was made aware of Sacha Stern’s recent analysis of the Babylonian calendar in chapter 2 of Stern 2012. I have incorporated his findings as far as possible at this stage. 17 For the continuation of this table see Britton 2007, 121–123. 140 M. OSSENDRIJVER XIIb distributed according to a fixed pattern. All intercalations in Table 1 that are not marked with an asterisk are relatively securely attested in at least three documents and are not discussed here.18 Table 1. Attested and inferred intercalations between Darius I year 27 and Artaxerxes II year 23. The second row contains the Julian equivalent of the first year in each column. Compiled from PD56, Walker 1997, Britton 2007, and C.B.F. Walker’s unpublished list of intercalations (2017). The underlined ones are uncertain because attested only once or for other reasons. The asterisks point to comments (see below). cycle 1 cycle 2 cycle 3 cycle 4 cycle 5 final pattern495/4 BCE 476/5 BCE 457/6 BCE 438/7 BCE 419/8 BCE 400/399 BCE Dar I 27 XIIb Xer 10 XIIb* Art I 8 XIIb* Art I 27 XIIb* Dar II 5 XIIb Art II 5 XIIb* 1 XIIb 28 11 9 28 6 6 2 29 12 XIIb* 10 XIIb 29 XIIb 7 XIIb* 7 XIIb* 3 XIIb 30 VIb* 13 11 30 8 8 4 31 14 12 31 9 9 5 32 XIIb 15 XIIb* 13 XIIb 32 XIIb 10 XIIb 10 XIIb* 6 XIIb 33 16 14 33 11 11 7 34 17 15 34 12 12 8 35 XIIb 18 VIb* 16 XIIb* 35 XIIb 13 XIIb* 13 XIIb* 9 XIIb 36 19 17 36 14 14 10 Xer 1 20 18 37 15 15 11 2 VIb* 21 VIb* 19 XIIb* 38 XIIb* 16 VIb* 16 VIb* 12 VIb 3 Art I 1 20 39 17 17 13 4 XIIb* 2 XIIb* 21 XIIb* 40 XIIb 18 XIIb* 18 XIIb* 14 XIIb 5 3 22 41 19 19 15 6 4 23 Dar II 1 Art II 1 20 XIIb* 16 7 5 XIIb* 24 XIIb* 2 XIIb 2 XIIb* 21 * 17 XIIb 8 VIb* 6 25 3 3 22 18 9 7 26 4 4 23 19 18 For the intercalations in Table 1 without an asterisk C.B.F. Walker’s list offers the follow- ing attestations, excluding uncertain ones: Dar I 27 XIIb, Babylonia: BM 79528 (MacGinnis 1995 no. 51), BM 94722 (unpubl.), BM 114761 (unpubl.), Persepolis: PF 864 (Hallock 1969, 248); Dar I 32 XIIb, Babylonia: VS 4 179, BM 72734 (unpubl.), BM 74330 (unpubl.), BM 36910+ (Aaboe et al. 1991, Text A), BM 26471 (unpubl.), Persepolis: Cameron 1948 no. 2; Dar I 35 XIIb, Babylonia: BM 46710 (unpubl.), BM 74609 (unpubl.), L 1634 (Joannès 1989, 236–237); Art I 10 XIIb, Babylonia: BM 92692 (CT 12 8–9), BM 92693 (CT 12 1), BM 36910+, BM 37044 (Aaboe et al. 1991, Text B); Art I 13 XIIb, Babylonia: BM 36910+, ADRT 5 56, George 1979 no. 49; Art I 29 XIIb, Babylonia: BM 36910+, ADRT 5 56, YBC 11629 (unpubl.); Art I 32 XIIb, Babylonia: CBS 5394 (BE 9 32), BM 36910+; Art I 35 XIIb, Babylonia: Ni 537 (unpubl.), BM 36910+; Art I 40 XIIb, Babylonia: CBS 5322 (BE 9 73), BM 36910+, FLP 1484 (Stigers 1976 no. 47); Dar II 2 XIIb, Babylonia: CBS 5319 (BE 10 63), ADRT 5 58; Dar II 5 XIIb, Babylonia: CBS 5372 (BE 10 104), ADRT 5 58, BM 36910+, ADRT 1 -418, CBS 12849 (PBS 2/1 113), CBS 5201 (PBS 2/1 114), CBS 5508 (PBS 2/1 129); Dar II 10 XIIb, Babylonia: FuB 14 no. 4, VS 4 196, BM 36910+, ADRT 5 58. BABYLONIAN SCHOLARSHIP AND THE CALENDAR 141 Darius� I� year� 30,� VIb. This intercalation was unknown to PD56. To the single attestation from Persepolis reported in Walker (1997, 23), which was not taken into account by Britton (2007), three from Babylonia can be added.19 PD56 had tentatively reconstructed a XIIb in year 29, which can be ruled out. Xerxes�year�2,�VIb. Two secure attestations from Persepolis20 and a tentative one from Babylonia were mentioned in PD56. The latter has since then been refuted (see the remarks on Xerxes year 8). Secure Babylonian evidence for a VIb in Xerxes year 2 is therefore still lacking. Waerzeggers (2003/2004) has proposed that this intercalation may have been skipped in (parts of) Babylonia, perhaps a consequence of the unstable political situation. If true, then from year 2 month VII onwards, the calendar in Babylon was one month ahead of the calendar in Persepolis. Later on, this anomaly must have been eliminated by inserting an extra intercalary month that was not adopted in Persepolis. If so, then this presumably happened before Xerxes year 3 month VIII, because the Babylonian astronomical text BM 32234, to be discussed further below, mentions a lunar eclipse during that month, which should otherwise have been reported for month IX. Furthermore, it is difficult to imagine that the anomaly could persist for many months. However, there is currently no independent evidence that the calendars in Babylon and Persepolis were temporarily out of sync or that an anomalous intercalary month was adopted in Babylonia in these years. While such evidence might have been overlooked, it seems more plau- sible, for the moment, that Xerxes year 2 contained a VIb both in Persepolis and in Babylonia. Xerxes�year�4,�XIIb. This intercalation, mentioned in PD56, Walker (1997), and Britton (2007), is not attested with complete certainty. The sole textual evidence is the Babylonian tablet VS 6 265, which mentions a XIIb. The royal name and year number are broken, and the attribution to Xerxes year 4 was inferred through elimination.21 This intercalation agrees with the final pattern (Table 1), whereas this pattern was not followed in Xerxes years 7 and 8. Xerxes�year�8,�VIb. This intercalation was unknown to Parker and Dubber- stein, who tentatively reconstructed a XIIb in year 7 (PD56, 31; thus also Brit- ton 2007). The sole evidence for it is the Babylonian document VS 5 118, which mentions Xerxes, a damaged year number resembling an 8, and month 19 Persepolis: Pers. 1963:19 (Cameron 1965, 181). Babylonia (quoted in C.B.F. Walker’s list): BM 46604 (unpubl.), BM 26613 (unpubl.), BM 64552 (MacGinnis 1995 no. 60). See also Stern 2012, 108. 20 Walker 1997, 23 lists three attestations of VIb from Persepolis, because one of the two tablets also includes a reference to the month preceding VIb as the ‘first VI’. 21 PD56, 4 n. 10. 142 M. OSSENDRIJVER VIb. While PD56 followed Cameron (1941) in reading this as year 2 of Xerxes, A. Kuhrt has subsequently suggested that the correct reading is 8 after all.22 Hence the XIIb in Xerxes year 7 is provisionally discarded in favour of a VIb in year 8 (Walker 1997). Xerxes�year�10�(cycle�1,�year�1),�XIIb. Reconstructed by PD56 on the basis of the Babylonian astronomical text BM 36910+36998+37036,23 which pre- serves part of a list of lunar eclipse possibilities between Darius I year 13 (509/8 BCE) and Artaxerxes II year 30 (375/4 BCE). They are dated by regnal year and month, and intercalary years are explicitly marked with the sign DIRI (XIIb) or 2.KAM (VIb). Each column covers one saros period of 18 years comprising 38 eclipse possibilities, which are separated by either 5 or 6 months according to a known pattern. The columns for Xerxes are partly damaged, but the preserved month names and the eclipse pattern are sufficient to conclude that the text reported one intercalary month between year 10 month X and year 11 month III, in all likelihood a XIIb in year 10, which is the solution adopted by PD65, Aaboe et al. (1991), Walker (1997), and Britton (2007). However, the reliability of BM 36910+36998+37036 is questionable, because it was written after Artaxerxes II year 30, perhaps much later. Although it cor- rectly reports at least one anomalous intercalation, the XIIb in Artaxerxes I year 38, the compiler of this text might not have possessed a complete list of inter- calations for earlier periods. It is therefore conceivable that some intercalations during the reign of Xerxes were extrapolated backwards, especially if they agree with the final pattern, which is true for the present one. Xerxes� year� 12� (cycle� 1,� year� 3),� XIIb. Attested in a single document from Persepolis, as mentioned in PD56, Walker (1997), Britton (2007), and Stern (2012). Xerxes� year� 15� (cycle� 1,� year� 6),� XIIb. Attested in the eclipse text BM 36910+36998+37036, as mentioned in PD56, Walker (1997), and Britton (2007). As mentioned above, this attestation is of questionable reliability. Xerxes� year� 18� (cycle� 1,� year� 9),� VIb� or� XIIb? A XIIb is attested in the eclipse text BM 36910+36998+37036, as mentioned in PD56, Walker (1997), and Britton (2007). Again, the reliability of this attestation is questionable, because it might be an extrapolation from a later period. Indeed, another 22 Kuhrt and Sherwin-White 1987, 72–73; see also the discussion in Jursa and Stolper 2002, 249 n. 14. A new collation might resolve this matter. 23 This text, also mentioned as LBAT *1422, *1423 and *1424, was published as Aaboe et al. 1991, Text A. BABYLONIAN SCHOLARSHIP AND THE CALENDAR 143 Babylonian astronomical tablet, Text S (see below), suggests a VIb instead of a XIIb.24 It is unclear how to reconcile the conflicting evidence, but since Text S may include observational data and it is probably older, a VIb is provi- sionally assumed to be more probable. Xerxes� year� 21� (cycle� 1,� year� 12),� VIb. As reported by PD56 and Walker (1997), this intercalation is securely attested in the Babylonian astronomical text BM 32234, to be discussed further below. The eclipse text BM 36910+36998+37036 is broken between Xerxes year 21 month III and Artax- erxes I year 4 month VI. By reconstructing the intermediate eclipse possibili- ties, using the known distribution of 5 and 6-month intervals, the presence of two intercalations somewhere in between these dates can be deduced. Simi- larly, Text S (see below) is broken between Xerxes year 20 month IX and Artaxerxes I year 1 month II. Similar considerations yield that one intercalation occurred somewhere in between these dates. Both findings are compatible with a VIb in year 21. If one were to reject the VIb in Xerxes year 21, then the astronomical diary ADRT 1 -463, which includes data for Artaxerxes I year 1 month I, implies that the intercalation that replaces it must have occurred before that month, i.e. during Xerxes year 21 or before it. Artaxerxes� I� year� 2� (cycle� 1,� year� 14),� XIIb. As mentioned in PD56 and Walker (1997), this intercalation is attested in a Babylonian compilation of Venus observations covering at least Artaxerxes I year 2 until Artaxerxes II year 12 (463/2–393/2 BCE), which was subsequently published as ADRT 5 56.25 A second attestation occurs in SpTU 5 268, a tablet from Uruk with astro- nomical observations for Artaxerxes I years 2–4 (Hunger 2015). Note that this tablet also mentions a XIIb in Artaxerxes I years 3 and 4. As pointed out by H. Hunger this must be a mistake, because it contradicts the astronomical data reported in the text and there can only have been one intercalation in these years. Artaxerxes�I�year�5�(cycle�1,�year�17),�XIIb.�As reported in PD56 and Walker (1997), this intercalation is attested in a tablet from Persepolis, in the eclipse text BM 36910+36998+37036 and in the Venus text ADRT 5 56. However, an Aramaic document from Elephantine with Egyptian and Babylonian double dates suggests that it was skipped there and not compensated by another inter- calation at least until month VIII of year 6, because the document refers to that 24 This follows from the fact that Text S lists eclipse possibilities in months V and IX that should be separated by 5 months. Collation of obv. 35 on the relevant fragment (BM 47912) has confirmed the reading GAN (month IX). 25 Quoted in PD56 as BM 45674 (LBAT 1387) (+) BM 32299 (LBAT *1388) (+) BM 42083 (LBAT 1486). 144 M. OSSENDRIJVER month as month IX.26 Since later documents from Elephantine employ correct Babylonian months, an anomalous intercalation that was not adopted in Baby- lon must have been inserted some time after that month. Artaxerxes� I� year� 8� (cycle� 2,� year� 1),� XIIb. This intercalation is not yet attested in texts. PD56 reconstructed it by extrapolating the later cycle pattern. The eclipse text BM 36910+36998+37036 is broken between Artaxerxes I year 8 month X and Artaxerxes I year 10 month VIII. By reconstructing the inter- mediate eclipse possibilities, using the known distribution of 5 and 6 month intervals, it follows that one intercalation must be inserted in between these dates, in agreement with the assumption of a XIIb in year 8. Artaxerxes�I�year�16�(cycle�2,�year�9),�XIIb. This intercalation is attested in the eclipse text BM 36910+36998+37036, as reported in PD56. An Aramaic document from Elephantine with an Egyptian date and a corresponding Baby- lonian date in month VII confirms that this year did not contain a month VIb.27 Artaxerxes� I� year� 19� (cycle� 2,� year� 12),� XIIb. As reported in PD56, this intercalation is attested in an unpublished Babylonian document. An Aramaic papyrus from Elephantine with an Egyptian date and a corresponding Babylo- nian date in month IX confirms that this year did not contain a VIb.28 Artaxerxes� I� year� 21� (cycle� 2,� year� 14),� XIIb. As remarked by PD56, this intercalation is attested in the eclipse text BM 36910+36998+37036 and in the Venus tablet ADRT 5 56. The latter attestation is the more reliable one, since it occurs within a contemporary report. Artaxerxes� I� year� 24� (cycle� 2,� year� 17),� XIIb. As reported by PD56 this intercalation is attested in the eclipse text BM 36910+36998+37036 and in the astronomical diary ADRT 1 -440. The latter attestation is the more reliable one, since it occurs within a contemporary report. Artaxerxes� I� year� 27� (cycle� 3,� year� 1),� XIIb. This intercalation is not yet attested. 26 The papyrus in question exists in two duplicates, Cowley 1923 nos. 8 and 9. For a discus- sion see Stern 2000, 167–168 (C8–9). 27 For this papyrus, Cowley 1923 no. 15, see C15 in Porten 1990, 21–22, and Stern 2000, Table 1. 28 The unpublished Babylonian tablet from the Free Library of Philadelphia was first men- tioned in Sachs 1952, 114 n. 20, and has been tentatively identified as FLP 0645 (CDLI P459604) by C.B.F. Walker. For the Aramaic papyrus see Cowley 1923 no. 13, Horn and Wood 1954, 19–20, and C13 in Porten 1990, 23, and Stern 2000. BABYLONIAN SCHOLARSHIP AND THE CALENDAR 145 Artaxerxes� I� year� 38� (cycle� 3,� year� 12),� XIIb. As reported in PD56 and Walker (1997), this intercalation is attested in the aforementioned astronomical text ADRT 5 56. A second attestation occurs in the eclipse text BM 36910+36998+37036. While the reliability of this text is questionable for ear- lier periods, the present intercalation is unlikely to have been extrapolated back- wards, because it deviates from the final pattern. An unusual source of information about intercalations is ADRT 5 58, a Bab- ylonian tablet with astronomical reports covering Darius II year 2 until Artax- erxes I year 5. On the edge of the tablet there is a damaged list of intercalations, of which the following ones are preserved: Darius II year 10 XIIb, 13 XIIb, 16 VIb, 18 XIIb, Artaxerxes I year 2 XIIb, and 5 XIIb. The list must have begun with Darius II year 2 XIIb, 5 XIIb, and 7 XIIb, because they are also mentioned in the reports. Darius�II�year�7�(cycle�4,�year�3),�XIIb.�As reported in PD56, this intercala- tion is attested in an unpublished Babylonian document, the eclipse text BM 36910+36998+37036 and the astronomical text ADRT 5 58. An Aramaic docu- ment from Elephantine with Egyptian and Babylonian double dates implies that it was omitted there and not compensated at least until month VI of year 8 of the Babylonian calendar, because the document refers to that month as month VII.29 Since later documents with double dates between Darius II year 9 month IX and Artaxerxes II year 3 employ the correct Babylonian month names, an anomalous intercalation that was not adopted in Babylon must have been inserted in Elephantine between year 8 month VI and year 9 month IX. Darius�II�year�13�(cycle�4,�year�9),�XIIb. This intercalation is attested only in the astronomical text ADRT 5 58. Darius� II� year� 16� (cycle� 4,� year� 12),� VIb. Two Babylonian attestations are listed in PD56: the eclipse text BM 36910+36998+37036 and an administrative document (UET 4 93). A third attestation occurs in the astronomical text ADRT 5 58. Another Babylonian astronomical text has been quoted as evidence for a XIIb, but the interpretation of the relevant passages is very uncertain.30 Hence the VIb is more plausible. 29 For the papyrus in question see Kraeling 1953 no. 8, and Stern 2000, 167–168 (K8). 30 ADRT 5 9 (BM 34684, 34787 = LBAT 1426, 1427), quoted in C.B.F. Walker’s list. The tablet reports lunar eclipse possibilities, presumably separated by 6 months, in months II and VIII of year 16 (?) of Artaxerxes I (?), which would imply that there was no VIb. However, the dates of the eclipses are uncertain, since the royal name and the year number are broken. See also Stern 2012, 112 footnote a. 146 M. OSSENDRIJVER Darius�II�year�18�(cycle�4,�year�14),�XIIb. As reported in PD56, this inter- calation is attested in the astronomical text ADRT 5 58. Artaxerxes�II�year�2�(cycle�4,�year�17),�XIIb. As reported in PD56, this inter- calation is attested in the astronomical text ADRT 5 58. Artaxerxes�II�year�5�(cycle�5,�year�1),�XIIb. As reported in PD56, this inter- calation is attested in the astronomical text ADRT 5 58 and in the eclipse text BM 36910+36998+37036. Artaxerxes�II�year�7�(cycle�5,�year�3),�XIIb. As reported in PD56, this inter- calation is attested in two astronomical texts, ADRT 5 3 and 58. Artaxerxes�II�year�10�(cycle�5,�year�6),�XIIb. As reported in PD56, this inter- calation is attested only in the eclipse text BM 36910+36998+37036. The reli- ability of this text is questionable for earlier periods, but see the discussion of Artaxerxes I year 38. Artaxerxes� II� year� 13� (cycle� 5,� year� 9),� XIIb. This intercalation was recon- structed by PD56 without any textual evidence. It is now attested in the astro- nomical diary ADRT 1 -391, which dates to year 13 of a king Artaxerxes, most likely no. II. Artaxerxes� II� year� 16� (cycle� 5,� year� 12),� VIb. As reported in PD56, this intercalation is attested in the eclipse text BM 36910+36998+37036. Two more attestations occur in a Babylonian economic document and an astrological report from Borsippa.31 Artaxerxes�II�year�18�(cycle�5,�year�14),�XIIb. This intercalation was recon- structed by PD56 and is now attested in the astronomical report ADRT 5 60. Artaxerxes�II�year�20�(cycle�5,�year�16),�XIIb. Two Babylonian astronomical texts contain evidence of a XIIb in year 20: ADRT 5 60,32 a compilation of Jupiter observations, and ADRT 1 -384, a diary.33 Two other Babylonian astro- nomical texts imply a XIIb in year 21, while excluding a XIIb in year 20: the 31 BM 50731 (Stolper 1999) and BM 53282 (Hunger 1999), as reported in C.B.F. Walker’s list. Both of these attestations were not yet listed in Stern 2012. 32 BM 34750+34832+35117(+)35328 = LBAT 1394(+)1395+1399+1400, a compilation of Jupiter observations. Mentioned in PD56 as LBAT 1394. 33 Lower edge: “[Diary] from month VII until the end of month XIIb of year 20 of Ar[ses …]”. The section for month XIIb should have occupied the end of the reverse, but the tablet is not preserved beyond month XII. BABYLONIAN SCHOLARSHIP AND THE CALENDAR 147 Saros Canon and the so-called Text L.34 Since only one of the intercalary months can be correct, one pair of texts must be plainly wrong. According to the final 19-year pattern the intercalation should have happened in year 21. As far as known, a XIIb in year 20 would be the only intercalation since Xerxes year 10 to occur in an anomalous year. For this reason, it was discarded by Aaboe et al. (1991) and Britton (2007, 122). However, the principle of lectio� difficilior should lead to the opposite conclusion, that there was an anomalous intercalation in year 20. The nature of the texts supports this conclusion. ADRT 1 -384 and ADRT 5 60 are observational reports written not long after the phenomena, while the other texts are computed (Text L) or guided by theoreti- cal considerations and written long after the reign of Artaxerxes II (Saros Canon).35 Hence the XIIb in year 21 may have arisen because the final pattern of the 19-year cycle was extrapolated backwards.36 In summary, the anomalous intercalation in year 20 is probably historical, while the one in year 21 is not.37 In this connection it should be noted that the unpublished Babylonian tablet BM 3380938 lists successive years, all separated by 19 years, that are supposed to have contained a VIb, starting from year 2 of Nabû-nādin-zēri (732/1 BCE) and ending with year 94 of the Seleucid Era (218/7 BCE).39 The list was obvi- ously produced in the Seleucid Era, probably near SE 94, by extrapolating the final 19-year pattern to earlier times. Since some of the years, e.g. Nabopolassar year 9, Nebukadnezzar year 27, and Artaxerxes I years 19 and 38, are definitely known to have contained a XIIb and not a VIb, the list is not a report of histori- cal intercalations and must be ignored here. HISTORY OF THE 19-YEAR CYCLE With the additional evidence compiled in Table 1, the history of the 19-year cycle can be traced more accurately than was previously possible. The transi- tion from irregular to fully regular, cyclical intercalations proceeded through several stages. In the decades before Xerxes year 10, the intercalations form 34 Saros Canon: BM 34597 = LBAT 1428 (Aaboe et al. 1991, Text C), rev. I: 37–38 (see the comments on pages 14–16); Text L: BM 36651+36719+37032+37053 (+) 37162 (Aaboe et al.� 1991, Text E), rev. IIa: 32, 34; IIb: 31, 33 (see the comments on page 37). 35 The Saros Canon was compiled after the adoption of the Seleucid Era, i.e. at least 90 years after Artaxerxes II year 20, probably near its final year, SE 40 (272/1 BCE). 36 Unfortunately, the preserved portions of the Saros Canon and Text L do not cover the time before Darius II. If they would, this might have proven that the underlying calendar was computed backwards using the final 19-year pattern. 37 The same conclusion was reached by Stern 2012, 112 (footnote c). 38 A transliteration of BM 33809 was kindly provided to me by C.B.F. Walker. The tablet was previously mentioned by Boiy (2000) and will be published by W. Monroe. 39 The entries for Xerxes years 2 and 21 are broken but can be restored at the bottom of the obverse and the top of the reverse, respectively. 148 M. OSSENDRIJVER partly repeating patterns, but it is difficult to say whether they result from the use of a cycle. Since this issue is beyond the scope of the present investigation, it will not be pursued any further here.40 For the reign of Xerxes only prelimi- nary conclusions can be drawn from the scarce textual evidence, some of which is of questionable reliability. Cycle 1, which begins in Xerxes year 10, is the earliest identifiable interval of 19 years in which the final sequence of interca- lary years (1, 3, 6, 9, 12, 14, 17) may have been fully implemented, including the single instance of VIb in year 12 (Table 1; see also Stern 2012, 107). The preceding intercalation, in Xerxes year 8, probably deviated from that pattern. Hence the 19-year cycle probably did not begin in Xerxes year 2, as suggested by some,41 but year 10 of his reign. In cycle 1, year 9 (Xerxes year 18) may have contained a VIb instead of a XIIb. In cycles 2 and 3, year 12 contained a XIIb instead of a VIb. The other intercalations probably agreed with the later pattern.42 From Darius II year 16 (cycle 4) onwards there was always a VIb in year 12 of the cycle. Nevertheless, the final pattern was violated once more — as far as known for the last time — by an anomalous intercalation in Artax- erxes II year 20 (cycle 5). This unique deviation still calls for an explanation.43 In summary, the 19-year cycle may have been effective from Xerxes year 10 (cycle 1) onwards, but there were three subsequent anomalies, in cycles 2, 3 and 5, before it became fully permanent in cycle 6 (Artaxerxes II year 24).44 In order to assess the extent to which the introduction of the 19-year cycle reflects developments of Babylonian science, it is worthwhile to briefly explore its astronomical significance. Several suggestions have been made as to an astronomical criterion that the scholars may have intended to satisfy by intro- ducing the cycle. According to Neugebauer (1946) it was construed in such a way that the Sun was always located in Libra on day 1 of month VII. This idea was refuted by Sachs (1952), who proposed that, instead, the heliacal rising of Sirius was meant to occur around day 15 of month IV. Whatever criterion was used, the intercalations had the effect that day 1 of month I occurred near the vernal equinox. During the centuries before Xerxes, when the 19-year cycle was not yet in place, the deviations could exceed 1 month and they exhibited 40 For Babylonian intercalation practices in the centuries before Xerxes see Sachs 1952; PD56, 1–3; van der Waerden 1965, 32, 111–113; Neugebauer 1975, 354–357; Donbaz and Koch 1995, 67; Britton 2007, 119–124. Van der Waerden, Britton, and Donbaz and Koch suggest that an 8-year cycle was used, but this has been contested (Neugebauer 1975, 355). See also Stern 2012, 103 –104. 41 E.g. Britton 1993 and 2007; Donbaz and Koch 1995, 67. 42 The same conclusion can be drawn from Britton 2007, 123 (Fig. 7). 43 Divinatory considerations might explain the anomalous XIIb. By moving the XIIb from year 21 to year 20, the eclipse possibilities in year 21 are shifted by 1 month, which affects their interpretation as omens. However, there is no evidence to support this scenario. 44 This result was also implied by PD56, but no longer by Britton (2007), who rejected the VIb in Darius II year 16 in favour of a XIIb. BABYLONIAN SCHOLARSHIP AND THE CALENDAR 149 a slow, systematic drift (Britton 2007). After the introduction of the cycle the drift stopped virtually completely45 and day 1 of month I always occurred about 15 days after the vernal equinox, with a variation of at most some 15 days in either direction.46 Consequently, the Babylonian date of the vernal equinox fell on day 15 of month XII, or XIIb in an intercalary year, with deviations of about 15 days in either direction. As pointed out by Britton (2007), day 15 of month XII is the ideal date of the vernal equinox as stipulated in some schematic calendars from the scholarly literature.47 It may nevertheless be a stretch to interpret this agreement as the result of a conscious decision to abandon a sup- posedly Assyrian convention for the vernal equinox in favour of a native Baby- lonian one, as proposed by Britton. Whatever the underlying considerations of the Babylonian scholars may have been, the introduction of the cycle does, in any case, reflect increasingly accurate and verifiable knowledge of period rela- tions connecting the lunar and solar year. When exactly the 19-year cycle was discovered and formally incorporated in the civil calendar is less clear. It has been suggested that intercalations were previously governed by an earlier version of the 19-year cycle that merely prescribed the insertion of 7 extra months within this period (PD56, 1).48 Due to the irregularity of the intercalations it is probably impossible to decide between that hypothesis and the alternatives, e.g. that intercalation was gov- erned by an empirical criterion or by a shorter cycle. A tablet from Uruk with a partly preserved list of computed solstices for the period between 626 and 531 BCE has also been cited as possible evidence that the 19-year cycle was known by the sixth century BCE.49 That interpretation must be discarded, because the tablet belongs to a library that is dated to about 445–385 BCE50 and the table was most likely computed backwards from that time. In summary, there is currently no reliable evidence that any version of the 19-year cycle was known in Babylonia before the reign of Xerxes. Neither have any ancient docu- ments come to light that could inform us about the formal introduction of the cycle. All that can be said is that this was presumably decided between Xerxes year 8, after the last intercalation that precedes cycle 1, and Artaxerxes I year 8, when cycle 2 began. 45 The astronomical reason for this is that 235 synodic months are an extremely good approx- imation of 19 solar years (Neugebauer 1975, 355). 46 Around the time of Xerxes, the vernal equinox fell on 26 March in the Julian calendar. 47 In particular, the schematic calendars contained in EAE Tablet 14 and in the Old Babylonian tablet BM 17175 (Britton 2007). By contrast, the schematic calendar of MUL.APIN places the vernal equinox on day 15 of month I. However, the latter convention is not necessarily of Assyr- ian origin, as claimed by Britton. 48 On this ‘loose 19-year cycle’ see also Stern 2012, 106. 49 SpTU 4 169, quoted as W 22801 in Britton 2007, 127. The dates of the solstices are expressed in a calendar based on the 19-year cycle. 50 The library of Anu-ikṣur of the Šangû-Ninurta clan (Clancier 2009; Ossendrijver, in press). 150 M. OSSENDRIJVER The introduction of the 19-year cycle also has implications for the relation- ship between the Babylonian scholars and the Achaemenid authorities. In this connection it is important to note that the Babylonian calendar had already spread to other parts of the Persian Empire before the onset of the 19-year cycle.51 When exactly this happened cannot be answered with certainty yet. The earliest known secure evidence for use of the Babylonian calendar outside of Babylonia dates to Darius I, which must be viewed as a terminus� ante� quem. Babylonian dates from his reign are mentioned in the Behistun inscription,52 the Persepolis Fortification Texts (Hallock 1969), and the Persepolis Treasury Texts (Cameron 1948). Aramaic papyri from Elephantine, which date between Xerxes and Artaxerxes I, and other inscriptions from Egypt complement the evidence from the Persian heartland. As shown by Porten (1990, 31), Babylo- nian and Egyptian double dating is attested in Egypt from Xerxes year 15, perhaps 13, until Artaxerxes II year 3, while documents and inscriptions written before Xerxes year 4 have Egyptian dates only. Hence there is currently no evidence that the Babylonian calendar was used in Egypt before the reign of Xerxes.53 All of these texts employ some translated version of the Babylonian calendar in which the Babylonian month names were replaced by equivalents in the local language, i.e. Old Persian, Elamite (Behistun, Persepolis) or Ara- maic (Elephantine).54 As far as known, the intercalations in these calendars agree, by and large, with those in Babylonia, both before and after the onset of the 19-year cycle. Out of 21 Babylonian and Egyptian double dates attested in the Aramaic papyri from Elephantine only two employ a wrong Babylonian month, as discussed above in connection with Xerxes year 10 and Artaxerxes I year 5. The respon- sible scribes thus only rarely erred in applying Babylonian intercalations, but the two examples indicate that it could take many months before the error was corrected (Stern 2000, 168). Before the Persian conquest of Babylon (539 BCE), intercalary months were officially proclaimed by the Babylonian king; subsequently that task was apparently fulfilled by high officials in Babylon.55 However, this information now had to be communicated across a vast empire — a practical inconvenience which the authorities may have wished to overcome. It seems possible that the Babylonian scholars, recognizing an opportunity to serve their king, devised the 19-year cycle as a more convenient intercalation procedure, if they were 51 See, for instance, Bickerman 1968, 24–25. 52 For a translation of the Behistun inscription see Borger and Hinz 1982–1985, 419–450. 53 See also Depuydt 1995a, 1995b. 54 For the Old Persian and Elamite month names, see Cameron 1948, 44; Hallock 1969, 74; for the Aramaic month names, which are loans from the Babylonian ones, see Horn and Wood 1954, 5–6. 55 See PD56, 1–2; Kleber 2008, 267–268 n. 753; Beaulieu 1993. BABYLONIAN SCHOLARSHIP AND THE CALENDAR 151 not simply instructed to do so.56 Since the new procedure could be implemented anywhere without further communication with Babylon, once the cycle was explained to local officials, it could indeed have solved the communication problem. As an innovation of the calendar, a central instrument of administration, the introduction of the 19-year cycle affected scribal, accounting, and cultic prac- tices throughout the Empire. Irrespective of why this reform was carried out, it can only have happened with the support of the highest authorities (Walker 1997, 22–24). Moreover, it must have involved prolonged and coordinated interactions with the Babylonian scholars, who had apparently succeeded in maintaining, perhaps even intensifying, a beneficial relationship with high Achaemenid officials, presumably from about Xerxes year 10 onwards. Para- doxically, the introduction of the cycle brought to an end their role in determin- ing intercalations (Stern 2012, 99). On the other hand, evidence presented in the next sections suggests that their interactions with the Achaemenid rulers continued in other areas of astral science. Moreover, the introduction of the 19-year cycle did leave a role for scholars in determining the beginning of the month, which was defined by the appearance of the first crescent. For Babylo- nia this was done in Babylon, from where the first day of the month was com- municated to other cities. Elsewhere in the Persian Empire, especially in remote locations such as Elephantine, the beginning of the month cannot have been communicated monthly from Babylon, because it would take too long for the message to arrive (Stern 2000, 165–166). Indeed, the Aramaic documents from Elephantine with Egyptian and Babylonian double dates prove that the Baby- lonian month began 1–2 days earlier in that city than in Babylon, which implies that it was determined locally. However, the underlying method remains unclear (Stern 2000, 163–164). ASTRONOMICAL TEXTS WITH DATA PERTAINING TO THE REIGN OF XERXES Even though no astronomical tablets have been uncovered that were written during the reign of Xerxes, two tablets from a later date may contain astronomi- cal data pertaining to his reign: BM 32234 and Text S. 56 A similar point was made by Olmstead 1948, 199–200, 328–330, who suggested that Darius I was behind the reform of the calendar. For administrative reforms introduced by Darius I and Xerxes see Briant 2002, 484–486, 543, 549. 152 M. OSSENDRIJVER BM�32234�—�a�compilation�of�reports�on�lunar�eclipse�possibilities BM 32234 (Walker 1997)57 is a small fragment of a so-called Saros Text, a tabular compilation of lunar eclipse reports arranged in saros cycles of 223 months, each comprising 38 eclipse possibilities. The preserved reports date between year 17 of Nabopolassar (609/8 BCE) and year 18 of Artaxerxes II (447/6 BCE); hence the tablet was written after the latter year, possibly much later. The following three reports from the reign of Xerxes are partly preserved (rev. II’–III’): a.� Xerxes�year�3,�month�VIII,�day�13 Month VIII, (day) 13, it began on the south side. I did not watch the maxi- mal phase. It set eclipsed. During the eclipse, Venus was present, the remaining planets were not present. 10 UŠ before sunrise. b.� Xerxes�year�21,�month�III,�day�14 [Month III, (day) 14, …] at 18 (UŠ), […] 40 nindanu (= [x]; 40 UŠ) max[imal phase, then it cleared.] The ‘garment of the sky’ was present. It was eclipsed in the region of the Four Rear Stars of Pabilsag.58 (There was a) month VIb. Month V, (day) 14, Xerxes: his son killed him. c.� Xerxes�year�21,�month�VIII,�day�14 Month VIII, (day) 14, 13 (UŠ) after sunset, (the Moon) came out of a cloud, one fourth of the disk on the […] and west side was covered. 8 (UŠ) [onset? and] clearing … […] Before discussing these reports, note that there is nothing really remarkable about them, in the sense that they are similar to other eclipse reports.59 Time and duration of the eclipse are expressed in UŠ (time degrees), where 1 UŠ (= 60 nindanu) corresponds to 4 modern minutes. Astronomical observations apparently continued in Babylon during the reign of Xerxes as they had been conducted since the Neo-Babylonian era, even in year 3, shortly after the upris- ings. Since the descriptions roughly agree with modern computations there is no reason to doubt that all three are reports of actual eclipses, most likely writ- ten in Babylon. Report a) concerns the eclipse of 19 November 483 BCE; report c) that of 29 November 465 BCE. 57 The fragment, listed as LBAT *1419, was subsequently edited by Hunger (ADRT 5 4) and discussed by J. Steele in ADRT 5, 390–399, and by Huber and De Meis 2004, 96–97. 58 This group of stars is not among the commonly used so-called Normal Stars (ADRT 1, 17–19). They must be part of the constellation Sagittarius, but a definite identification has not been established. According to Roughton, Steele and Walker 2004: ν1, ν2, ξ1 and ξ2 Sgr; Jones 2004: σ, τ, ξ and φ Sgr. 59 For Babylonian eclipse reports see ADRT 5; Steele 2000b; Huber and De Meis 2004. Modern computations of the circumstances of the present eclipses are provided by Huber and De Meis 2004, 96–97. BABYLONIAN SCHOLARSHIP AND THE CALENDAR 153 The more elaborate report b) concerns the lunar eclipse of year 21, month III, day 14 (5 June 465 BCE) and is of special interest because it mentions the subsequent murder of Xerxes by his own son on day 14 of month V.60 The mere fact of its inclusion in the report suggests that the Babylonian scholars consid- ered this event to have been announced by the eclipse, presumably in agree- ment with the omen tradition. Tablets 16–22 of the celestial omen series Enūma� Anu� Enlil (EAE) and related texts provide considerable support for such an interpretation of this eclipse. For instance, EAE Tablet 20 includes the follow- ing omen:61 DIŠ ina ITI.SIG4 U4.14.KAM AN.MI GAR LUGAL ga-me-ru� ša2 MU TUK UŠ2-ma DUMU-šu2� ša2� ana� NAM.LUGAL ‹NU› zak-ru AŠ.TE DIB-ma MI2. KUR2 GAL2 : UŠ2.MEŠ GAL2.MEŠ “If an eclipse occurs in month III, day 14: a powerful king who won renown will die and his son, who was ‹not› named for the kingship, will seize the throne and there will be hostilities, variant: pestilence.” The four extant Neo-Assyrian astrological reports in which the present omen is quoted unanimously state that day 14 refers to Elam.62 If the Babylonian scholars applied the same reasoning, they could interpret this as a reference to their Persian king. Further omens featuring an eclipse on day 14 of month III as a sign for the death of the king and the seizure of the throne by his son can be found elsewhere in EAE and in the hemerological series Iqqur�īpuš.63 Seven omens from EAE Tablet 16 predict other kinds of adverse consequences from an eclipse on that date.64 Yet another indication that a lunar eclipse in month III signified a crisis between the king and his son is contained in the so-called Eclipse Hemerology, preserved in one Late Babylonian copy from Nippur ( Livingstone 2013, 195–198, obv. 11–13): “If in month III, ditto (i.e. on day 12, 13, or 14 there is an eclipse of the Moon) he should curse his heir and he should not talk with his son. He should ritually pour out offering flour for Sîn. There should be a dazed silence and he should not speak in command. He should pray to Ninurta. You should release a bird. He will have greatness and grow old.” 60 For a discussion of the events surrounding the death of Xerxes see Briant 2002, 562–567. 61 82-5-22, 77 (EAE Tablet 20 Text g), obv. 10 (Rochberg-Halton 1988, 224). The omen is also quoted in the reports SAA 8 4 (RMA 271), 300 (Rm 193), 316 (RMA 268), 336 (RMA 270). 62 SAA 8 4, obv. 10; 300, rev. 15; 316, obv. 6–7; 336, rev. 11. 63 EAE Tablet 17 Text D, ii 37 (Rochberg-Halton 1988, 129 n. 16); EAE 17 Text g, i 5’–6’ (Rochberg-Halton 1988, 136); EAE 20 III A, B (Rochberg-Halton 1988, 189–192); EAE 21 III, 1 (Rochberg-Halton 1988, 236); Iqqur�īpuš�§74, 7–9 (Labat 1965, 150–151). 64 EAE Tablet 16 E, 1–7 (Rochberg-Halton 1988, 89–90). 154 M. OSSENDRIJVER It is interesting to note that the ‘cursing of the heir’ is prescribed only for eclipses in month III.65 As far as known, omens explicitly stating that the king will be killed by his own son are not extant for eclipses on day 14 of month III, but they are available for eclipses on days 15 and 20 in month VI.66 Since the divinatory corpus is only partly preserved there might be other omens in EAE or elsewhere in which that prediction is attached to an eclipse on day 14 of month III. If not, some substitution, as they are attested in commentaries, might have enabled the scholars to arrive at such an interpretation. Explicit evidence of a renewed Babylonian scholarly interest in the ominous significance of lunar eclipses during the Achaemenid era is provided by BM 47447, a learned com- mentary on EAE Tablets 16–20.67 The commentary was written by Iprāya68 of the Ēṭiru clan, most likely in Babylon or Borsippa, in year 19 of a king Artaxerxes, which, depending on his identity (I, II or III), corresponds to 445/4, 385/4 or 339/8 BCE. It does, accidentally, include an omen for an eclipse on day 14 of month III (rev. 15), but with a different apodosis than the one from EAE Tablet 20 quoted above. In summary, the series EAE and related divinatory texts offered the Baby- lonian scholars ample opportunities for construing the lunar eclipse mentioned in report b) as a sign for the killing of Xerxes by his own son. It should be noted that they need not have come to that conclusion before his death. While they had almost certainly predicted the eclipse using their saros-based methods (Steele 2000a and 2000b), its interpretation as a sign for the death of Xerxes was more plausibly revealed a posteriori in an attempt to rationalise this event in the framework of their divinatory tradition. Had they not only predicted the eclipse, but also established that interpretation while Xerxes was still alive, they could have initiated the substitute king ritual in order to divert the omen away from him. There is evidence that this Mesopotamian ritual was occasionally performed after 539 BCE, e.g. shortly before Alexander the Great’s death in 323 BCE,69 presumably on the occasion of a predicted lunar eclipse. No ancient source suggests that Xerxes was ever subjected to it, but it may be noted that elements of the ritual have been identified in a famous passage from Herodotus (7.12–18) in which Xerxes orders his uncle Artabanus to take his seat upon the royal throne (Huber 2005, 357–362). 65 An instruction not to ‘speak with his heir’ occurs in the omen for lunar eclipses in month XII (rev. 10–15). 66 EAE Tablet 21 VI, 2 (Rochberg-Halton 1988, 241); EAE 22 I VI, 4 (Rochberg-Halton 1988, 258): “The son of the king will kill his father and take the throne”. 67 For an edition see Rochberg-Halton 1988, 284–290. The commentary, labelled ‘lemmata and oral explanations’, is of the ‘cola’ type (Frahm 2011, 52, 144, 307). 68 Formerly read Šemāya or Sebāya (see Jiménez 2016, 218, n. 53 and reference therein). 69 See van der Spek 2003, Huber 2005. BABYLONIAN SCHOLARSHIP AND THE CALENDAR 155 Report b) also mentions that the year contained an intercalary month VIb, which suggests that this was interpreted as an accompanying sign. As proposed by Britton (2007), this might explain why month VIb was omitted in the fol- lowing two 19-year cycles (2–3), before being reinstated as a permanent fea- ture in cycle 4 (Table 1). Clearly, if the king’s life was under threat in a year with a VIb, that sign could be removed by replacing the VIb with a XIIb. However, the extant divinatory and hemerological tablets do not appear to contain any evidence that a year with a VIb was considered ominous. The ‘garment of the sky’ mentioned in report b) is also known from other eclipse reports, astronomical diaries, always in connection with the Moon.70 Whatever the underlying phenomenon — perhaps clouds — not much is known about its ominous significance.71 Text�S�—�a�computed�table�including�reports�of�solar�eclipse�possibilities Further astronomical activities during the reign of Xerxes may be implied by the so-called Text S.72 This unusual table contains both computed and, at first sight, observational data pertaining to 38 solar eclipse possibilities from Xerxes year 11 month VIII to Artaxerxes I year 8 month IV, comprising one saros cycle. As it turns out, it is difficult to identify which elements of the text, if any, date back to that period. Text S is partly preserved in two duplicates, most likely originating from Babylon and obviously written after the final date of the table (approx. July 457 BCE). Column V contains the zodiacal position of the Moon and the Sun at conjunction, which suggests a date of writing after about 400 BCE, the estimated date of invention of the zodiac (Britton 2010), at least six decades after the reign of Xerxes. The orthography, terminology, layout and the nature of the algorithms point to a date before 330 BCE.73 Hence columns I–V were probably computed backwards from a date between 400 and 330 BCE, using algorithms known from or related to mathematical astronomy.74 For the present purpose, column VI is the most interesting part of 70 CAD N I, 200, translates nalbaš�šamê�(TUG2 AN or AN.MA), lit. ‘garment of the sky’, in astronomical contexts as ‘clouds’; see also Huber and De Meis 2004, 15 (‘overcast’). Attestations in eclipse reports: ADRT 5 37 (Artaxerxes I year 24, month XI; year 41, month VI), ADRT 5 13 (Artaxerxes II year 7, month XIIb); in diaries: ADRT 2 (Sachs and Hunger 1989), -247, -238. 71 The only known omen mentioning this phenomenon is EAE 1 §58 (Verderame 2002, 7, 12, 17, 31–32, 206–207). A divinatory connection between eclipses and garments is also suggested in the Eclipse Hemerology, which includes an instruction for the diviner to “hang a garment of crimson wool (TUG2 SIG2.ḪE2.ME.DA) on the gate on the day of the eclipse” in case of a lunar eclipse in month I (Livingstone 2013, 195–198). 72 For an edition and discussion of this text, named Text S by J.P. Britton, see Aaboe and Sachs 1969, 11–22 (Texts B–D); Britton 1989, 29–46; Aaboe et al. 1991, 69–71 (Text G). See also Steele 2000a, 442–443. 73 See Aaboe and Sachs 1969, 20. 74 For the algorithms see Aaboe et al. 1991, 69–71; Britton 1989. 156 M. OSSENDRIJVER Text S. It contains 38 solar eclipse reports, 22 of which pertain to the reign of Xerxes:75 obv.3(Year 11) month VIII, […] of the night; 5 months (since the preceding eclipse possibility). 5(Year 12) month II, which passes by; 1½ fingers. 7(Year 12) month VIII, (day) 28, it occurs at 40 (UŠ) after sunrise; I did not watch. 9(Year 13) month I, (day) 29, it occurs at sunrise; I did not watch; at 30 (UŠ) of the night. 11(Year 13) month VII, total, it passes by. 13(Year 14) month I, (day) 29, it occurs at 1,10 (UŠ) to sunset; I did not watch. 15(Year 14) month VII, total, it passes by. 18(Year 14) month I (error for XII), total, it passes by. 20(Year 15) month VI, 1½ [fingers], it passes by; 5 months (since the pre- ceding eclipse possibility). 22(Year 15) month XII, which passes by, 1½ fingers […] 24(Year 16) month V, […] 26(Year 16) month XI, […] 28(Year 17) month V, […] 30(Year 17) month XI, […] 32(Year 18) month V, […] 35(Year 18) month IX, […; 5 months (since the preceding eclipse possibil- ity).] 37(Year 19) month III, which passes by, […] 39(Year 19) month IX, total, it passes by, […] 41(Year 20) month III, […] 43(Year 20) [month IX, …] rev. 1(Year 21) [month III, …] 3(Year 21) [month VIII, …] The column continues with 16 eclipse possibilities from Artaxerxes I years 1–8. These are the earliest known reports of Babylonian solar eclipse possibili- ties phrased in the manner of the astronomical diaries and related texts. All 38 eclipse possibilities are separated by 5 or 6 months. As was commonly done in such tables, only the 5-month intervals were explicitly marked.76 They are 75 Translation based on Aaboe and Sachs 1969, 11–22; Britton 1989, 30–31. 76 As pointed out by Aaboe and Sachs (1969), 21 n. 17, the other data in obv. 18 (not shown here) imply that month I (of Xerxes year 15) is an error for month XII (of Xerxes year 14). Since BABYLONIAN SCHOLARSHIP AND THE CALENDAR 157 distributed according to a pattern similar to the one underlying the so-called Solar Saros, a table of regnal years and months of solar eclipse possibilities from Artaxerxes III year 10 month XI (348 BCE) to SE 53 (259/8 BCE).77 Each report includes a phrase indicating whether the eclipse was expected to ‘pass by’ or, more rarely, ‘happen’, depending on the outcome of a computation.78 Some reports include predictions of the magnitude and time of the eclipse, expressed in fingers and UŠ (time degrees), respectively.79 As appears to be typical for such reports, observational remarks are included only when the eclipse was expected to occur.80 Later examples contained in diaries and related texts frequently include the remark ‘when I watched I did not see it’ (ki PAP NU IGI), which implies an actual observation. By contrast, the four remarks about such eclipses preserved in Text S (Xerxes year 12 month VIII, 13 I, 14 I, Artaxerxes I year 7 month IV) only mention ‘I did not watch’ (NU URU3/ PAP), i.e. no one had watched out for the expected eclipse. Hence Text S does not preserve a single actual observation.81 It cannot be completely excluded that actual observations were reported in the missing parts of column VI, but it seems more likely that there were none in Text S. Before discussing the possible implications of this finding, note that unlike lunar eclipse possibilities, only few of the solar eclipse possibilities materialize as observable eclipses in Babylon. According to modern computations, seven partial and no total solar eclipses were visible in Babylon during the reign of Xerxes.82 Most must have gone unnoticed except to a trained astronomer who was watching out for them. All three partial eclipses that were visible between years 11 and 21 — in year 15 month XII (20 March 470 BCE), year 20 month III (2 July 466 BCE), and year 20 month IX (26 December 466 BCE) — appear as predicted eclipse possibilities in Text S. However, the eclipse of year 15 month XII was expected to pass by according to Text S; the reports about the other two eclipses are broken away. Conversely, the solar eclipse possibilities that were expected to happen according to Text S were, in fact, all invisible in Babylon. Xerxes years 13 and 14 were not intercalary (Table 1), the remark ‘5 months’ in line obv. 20 should have been written in obv. 18. 77 Aaboe et al. 1991, 25–31 (Text D); see also Britton 1989, 26–29; Steele 2000a, 443. 78 The ‘passing by’ of a lunar eclipse was presumably inferred from computations of the Moon’s distance from the ecliptic or the time of the eclipse. Several eclipses in Text S are said to be ‘total’ and nevertheless ‘pass by’, probably because the Moon was predicted to be below the horizon (Steele 2000a, 449–451). 79 For the predictions that are contained in Babylonian eclipse reports and the methods by which they were obtained see Steele 2000a, 431–432, 449–450. 80 See Huber and De Meis 2004, 7. 81 This was also pointed out by Britton 1989, 32. 82 See Steele 2000a, Table 4 (in boldface those visible in Babylon) or Huber and De Meis 2004, 210. 158 M. OSSENDRIJVER The absence of actual observations from Text S raises the question of what this text might tell us about Babylonian astronomy in the time of Xerxes. Can column VI, perhaps, be taken to imply that Babylonian astronomers were using a saros-based method for predicting solar eclipse possibilities during his reign? For lunar eclipse possibilities that method was in place no later than the 6th cen- tury BCE,83 but the adaptation to solar eclipse possibilities is of a later date. Apart from Text S, the earliest known example of a predicted solar eclipse possibility is that of day 28, month VII, Artaxerxes I year 40 (23 October 425 BCE), which is said to ‘pass by’ according to an observational excerpt from Nippur (ADRT 5 57). The next example is the solar eclipse possibility in month III, Artaxerxes II year 23 (3 July 382 BCE), which is reported in the astronomi- cal diary ADRT 1 -381B, using the phrase ‘when I watched I did not see it’.84 If column VI of Text S was compiled from similar reports from the reigns of Xerxes and Artaxerxes I, this would imply that a saros-based method for predicting solar eclipse possibilities existed already by Xerxes year 11 (475/4 BCE). However, one would expect at least some of the entries to include the phrase ‘when I watched I did not see it’, or some other description of the actual event. Apparently, the author of Text S did not have access to such reports, either because they were lost or they never existed in the first place. Since observations might have been interrupted for some reason, both options allow for the admittedly speculative possibility that a saros-based predictive scheme for solar eclipse possibilities was known, perhaps even invented, during the reign of Xerxes. It is tempting to identify the initial date of Text S, Xerxes year 11 month VIII, with the beginning of saros-based predictions of solar eclipse possibilities, even if the observations were subsequently lost and the data in column VI were reconstructed only later, probably between 400 BCE and 330 BCE, along with the other columns. Note that exactly 6 saros intervals of 38 eclipse possibilities (108 years) fit between the end of Text S and the beginning of the aforementioned Solar Saros, implying that both saros schemes are somehow connected.85 However, the dis- tribution of the 5-month intervals is different in both texts (Steele 2000a, 443). This may be taken to indicate that the eclipse predictions in Text S were not extrapolated backwards from the scheme attested in the Solar Saros, but made at an earlier stage, perhaps during the reign of Xerxes. For the moment this is only a hypothetical possibility that requires further confirmation. 83 See Steele 2000a, 432–433. 84 See Britton 1989, 26; Steele 2000a, 442–443; Huber and De Meis 2004, 154. 85 Text S covers saros cycle 1 and the Solar Saros cycles 8–12 of Steele 2000a, Table 4. BABYLONIAN SCHOLARSHIP AND THE CALENDAR 159 Other�tablets The Babylonian tablet BM 34576 (ADRT 5 34), also known as the Saros Tablet, is a list of regnal years tabulated at intervals of 18 years between Nebu- kadnezzar II year 18 (567/6 BCE) and SE 213 (99/8 BCE).86 Among the listed regnal years is Xerxes year 9. The tablet was obviously written after the final date. The purpose of the text is unclear, but it is most probably connected to lunar eclipses, because the years coincide with the initial years of the columns of the lunar Saros Texts (see ADRT 5, Appendix). CONCLUSIONS Even though only few textual sources inform us directly about Babylonian science during the reign of Xerxes, a number of conclusions can be drawn from the available material, some necessarily tentative. The dominant impression conveyed by tablets from Babylon and Uruk written before his reign and those written after it is one of continuity across all realms of science. At Babylon, traditional forms of scholarship such as divination and more recently estab- lished practices, in particular the production of astronomical reports and associ- ated predictive techniques, continued to be pursued, or were fully resumed at some stage. The astronomers who wrote these reports, most likely priests asso- ciated with Esangila, stand out as a community that was, apparently, able to continue its modus operandi and relations with the Achaemenid authorities. Their eclipse reports and other texts also suggest a continued interest in celes- tial divination, perhaps reflecting a desire to provide Xerxes and other Persian rulers with astrological advice. Other scholars at Babylon may have been affected by the suppression of the elites near Xerxes year 2, because some of the archives that ended by that time include a scholarly component. It seems reasonable to assume that the scholars of Sippar and Borsippa were also affected. In Uruk, the loss of Eanna near the end of the reign of Darius I must constitute a significant disruption, but there is no evidence that the scholars of Uruk were suppressed during the reign of Xerxes. Two innovations of the astral sciences can, with different degrees of certainty, be dated to his reign. First, from Xerxes year 10 onwards, intercalations were probably governed by the 19-year cycle, which must have been formally introduced between Xerxes year 8 and Artaxerxes I year 8. Second, Text S suggests that saros-based predictions of solar eclipse possibilities might have begun in Xerxes year 11. It is 86 For a discussion of the Saros Tablet see ADRT 5, Appendix (by J. Steele), 394. See also Steele 2000a, Table 2. 160 M. OSSENDRIJVER interesting to note that both innovations fall within a narrow range of years, but the significance of that finding remains unclear. BIBLIOGRAPHY Aaboe, A., J.P. Britton, J.A. Henderson, O. Neugebauer and A.J. 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THE ESANGILA TEMPLE DURING THE LATE ACHAEMENID PERIOD AND THE IMPACT OF XERXES’ REPRISALS ON THE NORTHERN BABYLONIAN TEMPLE HOUSEHOLDS Johannes HACKL (Leipzig University)1 To�Joachim�Oelsner,� on�his�eighty-fifth�birthday Institutional archives rank among the most important sources for the social, economic and political history of Babylonia in the first millennium BCE. In the period after the Assyrian domination, almost all known institutional archives from Babylonia are temple archives; the only exception is the mostly unpub- lished ‘Palace Archive’ of Nebuchadnezzar.2 The administration of Ebabbar (Sippar) and Eanna (Uruk) yielded the largest temple archives of that time. They provide us with a plethora of information that is indispensable for the reconstruction of the Babylonian temple households, but also of the political landscape in which these economic entities are embedded. After the watershed formed by the Babylonian revolts against Xerxes in 484 BCE, the number of tablets falls back sharply. This abrupt decline in archival (and other) sources — what Assyriology has come to call the ‘end of archives’ phenomenon3 — applies to private archives, but even more so to institutional archives of this period. Thus, only a very small number of tablets with an institutional origin have come down to us from the fifth century BCE. Most of them belong to the 1 Research for the present paper was conducted in the context of a project entitled Official� Epistolography� in� Babylonia� in� the� First� Millennium� BC (S 10803–G18) as part of a National Research Network “Imperium”�and�“Officium”�—�Comparative�Studies�in�Ancient�Bureaucracy� and�Officialdom funded by the Fonds zur Förderung der Wissenschaftlichen Forschung (Austria) and directed by M. Jursa at the University of Vienna. A more detailed treatment of the subject of this paper can be found in my dissertation (Hackl 2013, I 272–285, 290–315 and 380–393) on which the following sections are based. Unpublished texts from the British Museum are cited with the kind permission of the Trustees of the British Museum. Editions of the Esangila texts dis- cussed in this paper will be presented elsewhere (see preliminary Hackl 2013, II 5–52 and 133– 218). I am indebted to C.B.F. Walker and Y. Levavi for factual information, discussions and suggestions; to J. Monerie for bringing BM 105195 to my attention; to E.E. Payne who took upon herself the task of improving my English. Responsibility for errors is mine. 2 Pedersén 2005a, 111–127 (archive N1) and 128–129 (archive N2) and Jursa 2010a, 68–69 (see also Pedersén 2005b). 3 Waerzeggers 2003/2004. 166 J. HACKL Zababa temple archive from Kiš/Ḫursagkalamma (reign of Artaxerxes I, c. 30 texts).4 In addition, there are a few institutional texts from the reign of Darius II that can be attributed to the Late Achaemenid and Early Hellenistic Esangila archive (see below). The bulk of the Esangila material, however, dates from the fourth century BCE, as does the brewers’ archive from Borsippa which originated in the administration of Ezida. From later centuries, most of the pertinent material comes from the so-called ‘Hellenistic Rēš temple archives’ (Uruk), although the overwhelming majority of the tablets belonging here are in fact private documents.5 The Late Hellenistic institutional material from Northern Babylonia cannot be divided into coherent groups. The archive of the astrologers of the Mušēzib family6 and that of Raḫimesu7 are, despite their close ties to the administration of Esangila, private in origin. In this paper, I will survey the Late Achaemenid and Early Hellenistic Esangila archive, the largest institutional archive from Late Achaemenid Baby- lonia, and address the question of whether the effects of the political events in the fifth and fourth centuries BCE are visible in the sources. In addition, I will draw on the smaller Zababa temple and brewers’ archives from the fifth and fourth centuries BCE to provide a broader perspective. Owing to the nature of the sources, the administration and remuneration of the temple personnel of Esangila stand at the centre of the following discussion. Other aspects of the temple household, e.g. the realm of temple agriculture, cannot be studied in great detail with the data available. Before discussing the temple administration and remuneration system, a general outline of the Late Achaemenid and Early Hellenistic Esangila archive will be given. THE TEMPLE ARCHIVE The name of the archive, Esangila, was dubbed by P.-A. Beaulieu after he had identified a group of texts originating in the administration of Babylon’s principal temple when cataloguing Late Babylonian texts in the Nies Babylo- nian Collection.8 It is important to note that these texts (as well as others assigned to the archive so far9) represent only a single phase of the known part 4 On the archive see Jursa 2005, 103 and Hackl 2013, I 541–543 and II 104–107 and 218–225 with text editions. 5 Jursa 2005, 140. Institutional texts from Late Achaemenid and Hellenistic Larsa are still mostly unpublished (see preliminarily Hackl 2017, 70–75); a small dossier found in the Ebabbar complex has been studied by Joannès 2001. 6 Hackl 2013, I 461–472 and II 90–96 with text editions and the pertinent bibliography. 7 See van der Spek 1998 for a full edition of the archive. See also Jursa 2005, 75–76; Hackl 2013, I 472–475; and Hackl 2016 for additional texts. 8 Beaulieu 1994, 6. 9 See Jursa 2005, 73–75 and Hackl 2013, I 272–273. THE ESANGILA TEMPLE DURING THE LATE ACHAEMENID PERIOD 167 of the archive.10 For the sake of clarity, it thus seems necessary to label the archive more precisely by adding the periods from which this particular group of texts dates, hence Late Achaemenid and Early Hellenistic Esangila archive.11 From earlier and later periods, the Esangila material at our disposal cannot be divided into coherent groups. What little we know about the organisation and personnel of Esangila in the sixth century BCE is largely based on indirect information gleaned from contemporary institutional (Ebabbar, Eanna) and pri- vate archives. The same holds true for the period after the end of the Late Achaemenid and Early Hellenistic Esangila archive, although there is a small number of texts preserved12 that seems to belong to the latest phase of the temple archive proper.13 The most important information, however, can be culled from three private archives, the protagonists of which maintained close (business) relations with Esangila: the Abu-ul-īde archive,14 the archive of the astrologers of the Mušēzib family and the Raḫimesu archive. While the earliest text of the Abu-ul-īde archive post-dates the end of the Late Achaemenid and Early Hellenistic Esangila archive by only four years, the latter are markedly later dating from the late second and early first centuries BCE. In addition, the dossiers of Nabû-balāssu-iqbi, son of Nabû-šumu-līšir (SE 36–42), and Itti- Marduk-balāṭu, son of Nabû-balāssu-iqbi (SE 59–85), should be mentioned here, as both individuals were engaged in the same type of business as the holders of the Abu-ul-īde archive.15 With currently c. 285 texts, the Late Achaemenid and Early Hellenistic Esangila archive is one of the largest archives from Late Period Babylonia. The archival attribution of these texts strongly suggests that they were stored within the temple precinct as part of the administrative archive, before they were removed from the active files (see below). Their exact find-spot, however, remains unknown, as all of them were unearthed by clandestine diggers and 10 This is corroborated by the lack of prosopographical links, the variation in text types and especially the ‘museum-archaeological’ argument (see below). 11 See also Jursa 2005, 73. This is the group of texts that Clancier 2009, 198 refers to as “archives administratives de l’Esagil 1, IVème–IIIème siècles”. For a more exact life span of the archive see below. 12 E.g. BM 34210 (SE 220), a letter addressed to the assembly of the jewellers of the Esangila, and CT 49 149 (SE 185), a fragmentary protocol of deliberation of the temple assembly of the Esangila similar to those attributed to the archive of the astrologers of the Mušēzib family (BOR 4, 132, CT 49 144 and 186+). 13 Clancier 2009, 189 uses the label “archives administratives de l’Esagil 2, IIème–Ier siècles” for this group of texts. The private character of at least some of these texts (e.g. the letters of the astrologers: CT 49 142 and 191, Iraq 43, 139 [AB 247]), however, leaves it thoroughly unclear whether the entire group can be attributed to the administrative archive of Esangila. See also note 17. 14 See Jursa 2006 with a full edition of the archive. See also Jursa 2005, 73 and Hackl 2013, I 445–456 and II 81–87 with additional texts. 15 A description of these dossiers, including a discussion of the possibility that they belong to the same archive, can be found in Hackl 2013, I 456–459. 168 J. HACKL acquired on the antiquities market. As a consequence, the reconstruction of the archive rests on circumstantial evidence, primarily on prosopography, and ‘museum-archaeological’ observations. The texts in the holdings of the British Museum are used as a point of departure because they constitute the bulk of the Esangila material and illustrate through which antiquities dealers they made their way into the various collections. Table 1: Collections of the British Museum containing Esangila material Collection BM number(s) Number of texts Bu 1888-5-12 78172–78814 14 Bu 1889-4-26 78941–79458 35 1889-9-30 79459 1 Bu 1891-5-9 80149–82541 5 1892-5-16 16465–16884 34 1892-7-9 16885–17286 44 1893-10-14 82549–82598 3 1894-1-15 17289–17596c 2 1896-4-9 21896–22411 2 1898-7-11 27736–27993 1 1898-10-13 28668–28794 1 1899-4-17 85981–86258 2 1900-10-13 87221–87382 33 1901-10-12 95479–95809 4 1913-4-16 105169–108484 1 1958-4-12 132267–132295 2 1985-12-14 140648 1 The numbers given in Table 1 above show that the vast majority of texts can be found in five collections which were acquired in 1888–1889, 1892 and 1900, respectively. The first Esangila texts to be registered in the British Museum (Bu 1888-5-12 and 1889-4-26) were purchased by E.A. Wallis Budge during his travels to various Iraqi sites in 1887–1891 prior to his appointment as Assis- tant Keeper of the Department of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities in the British Museum. The other collections containing larger amounts of Esangila texts came to the British Museum from the dealers Selim Homsy & Co (1892- 5-16 and 1892-7-9) and Djemi & Thomas Adbulkarim (1900-10-13). Two of the remaining collections were also acquired by or from the said individuals: Bu 1891-5-9 by Budge and 1894-1-15 from Selim Homsy & Co. The remaining Esangila texts in the British Museum are strays in other collections which come from other dealers (1889-9-30, 1893-10-14, 1896-4-9, 1898-10-13, 1899-4-17, THE ESANGILA TEMPLE DURING THE LATE ACHAEMENID PERIOD 169 1901-10-12 and 1913-4-16), donations (1958-4-12) or dispersed collections sold on the antiquities market (1985-12-14). The registration numbers of the British Museum’s collections above show that the Esangila material was dispersed through the antiquities market during the last decade of the nineteenth century. The bulk of the material was acquired by western museums, most notably the British Museum, but also by private collectors. In some instances, the collections of the latter (or at least parts thereof) ended up in the possession of museums as well, as is demonstrated by the British Museum’s 1958-4-12 (ex Estate of E.W.B. Chappelow) and 1985- 12-14 (ex Amherst via Charles Ede Ltd.) collections. In addition to circumstan- tial evidence, the ‘museum-archaeological’ argument, i.e. registration numbers of the collections listed above (especially Bu 1888-5-12, 1889-4-26, 1892-5-16, 1892-7-9 and 1900-10-13), is the most important aid in assigning texts to the Late Achaemenid and Early Hellenistic Esangila archive. Issues related to this kind of archival reconstruction can be illustrated on the basis of the following texts. The operative section of BM 82549, a wet-nursing contract, provides no evidence for a possible connection to the temple archive.16 However, the men- tion of temple personnel in the witness list, including serfs (širku) of Marduk, and the registration number (1893-10-14) suggest that this record belongs to a ‘satellite’ dossier, if not the temple archive proper.17 It is thus plausible to assume that we are dealing with a private legal transaction among members of the temple household. BM 87250 may have a similar background: its connec- tion to the temple archive is based on BM 87228, a lease contract from the Late Achaemenid and Early Hellenistic Esangila archive, in which two witnesses mentioned in BM 87250 are parties to the contract. Also worth noting is BM 65435 in the AH 1882-9-18 collection. At first glance, the fact that it bears the same seal impression as the Esangila text BM 17123 (1892-7-9, 239)18 argues for an attribution to the archive. However, circumstantial evidence19 and the fact that the BM 65435 comes from Hormuzd Rassam’s excavations20 (unlike the rest of the archive) may indicate that it, too, belongs to a ‘satellite’ dossi- er.21 In numerous other cases, however, in which pertinent circumstantial evi- dence of the kind described above is lacking, we remain in the dark with regard 16 The parties to the contract are otherwise unknown and do not help in this respect. 17 There is no evident way of telling whether texts like BM 82549 belonged to deposited private (family) archives or whether they are copies drafted for purposes of safe-keeping, account- ing or taxation — unless, of course, one subscribes to the notion that archival copies have no seals. 18 See Altavilla and Walker 2016, 54 no. 264 (I owe this observation to C.B.F. Walker). 19 Most notably the type of transaction. 20 See in general Walker and Collon 1980 and Reade 1986, xiii–xxxvi. 21 Note that BM 65435 mentions the overseer of the serfs (šaknu� ša� širkē) in the operative section of the document. 170 J. HACKL to the attribution to the temple archive, even though the sources are in fact readily accessible. The archival reconstruction based on the Esangila material from the British Museum offers a good impression of the overall composition of the archive, or rather, the archival fragment (prosopography, principal text types and their extrinsic aspects etc.) and thus allows for an identification of Esangila texts in other museums and collections. Currently, c. 80 texts from the collections listed in Table 2 below can be added to the archive.22 23 Table 2: Additional collections containing Esangila material Collection Number of texts IVe Section de l’École pratique des Hautes Études 4 Ashmolean Museum22 2 Birmingham Museums and Art Gallery 5 Chicago Oriental Institute 11 Columbia University Library 5 De Liagre Böhl collection 2 Harvard Semitic Museum 17 Louvre 26 Metropolitan Museum of Art 3 Royal Museums of Art and History in Brussels 2 Vorderasiatisches Museum 6 Yale Babylonian Collection23 18 Documented but current location unknown 1 An analysis of the make-up of the archive shows that it consists almost entirely of ephemeral records of temporary value, such as ration lists, admin- istrative notes and so forth (see Figure 1 below), i.e. text types generated by the primary or secondary documentation of the temple household. With the exception of the sale contract BM 8723224 and the donations BM 17040 and RIAA 289, title deeds are completely absent and even common ephemeral records, such as debt notes and receipts, are not well represented in the archive. This observation allows us to draw the conclusion that the Late Achaemenid and Early Hellenistic Esangila archive is a dead archive. Given the overall poor 22 These texts were formerly housed in the Bodleian Library. 23 Including tablets from the E.A. Hoffman Collection (EAH), Nies Babylonian Collection (NBC) and Newell Collection of Babylonian Tablets (NCBT), all of which are currently housed in the Yale Babylonian Collection (New Haven). 24 The absence of sealings and finger-nail marks suggests that this record is in fact an archival copy. THE ESANGILA TEMPLE DURING THE LATE ACHAEMENID PERIOD 171 preservation of the tablets, it also seems reasonable to assume that they were not simply removed from the active archive, but discarded and possibly put to secondary use as fill or the like. If this is correct it may explain why these tablets were not found together with those of the latest phase of the Esangila archive (including the astronomical and literary material)25 and the three private archives mentioned above which belong in the same context.26 27 The exact chronological range of the Late Achaemenid and Early Hellenistic Esangila archive is difficult to establish, as there are numerous texts without secure archival attribution. Moreover, many of the texts that can be securely assigned to the archive, date to the reign of an Artaxerxes, and more often than not there is no indication which of the three kings of that name is meant. These shortcomings notwithstanding, it is clear that the bulk of the Esangila material dates to the period from the second half of Artaxerxes’ II reign to the end of the reign of Alexander IV. The core of the archive formed by these texts is supplemented by a few temporal outliers dating to the second half of the reign of Darius II and the first decades of the Seleucid period, respectively; the earli- est text is BM 16582 (Dar II 11), the latest BM 105195 (SE 32). The fact that the Abu-ul-īde archive is only slightly later (SE 35–59) and represented in the 25 The learned texts attributed to the Esangila library of the Late Period are surveyed in Clan- cier 2009, 190–195 and 200–213. 26 This is suggested by the British Museum’s registration numbers, which show that the tablets of the latter group were sold on the antiquities’ market much earlier. The clear-cut chronological range of the two groups dismisses the possibility that part of the material was intentionally held back by the dealers. 27 Ex�votos are terse and stereotyped receipts which record votive offerings to Bēl (and Bēltia) in the form of silver, animals or luxury goods (Hackl 2013, I 259–262 and 410–413). Figure 1: Distribution of text types in the Late Achaemenid and Early Hellenistic Esangila archive27 172 J. HACKL British Museum’s collections also containing the material from the latest phase of the Esangila archive may suggest that the tablets of the earlier phase were removed from the active archive at that time (i.e. at the beginning of the reign of Antiochus I Soter). THE TEMPLE ADMINISTRATION The archive, with its strong focus on terse ration lists and other ephemeral administrative texts, is not very informative on the members of the temple administration and the organisation of the temple household as a whole. How- ever, several letters and legal records in which temple officials and representa- tives of other temple professions are sender or party to the contract allow for a comparison with the abundant information on the administration of the Baby- lonian temples in the preceding period. Most of the pertinent information about the preceding period comes from the archives of Eanna and Ebabbar.28 Regional differences and temporal changes notwithstanding, the members of the highest echelons within the temple admin- istration in the sixth century BCE included local representatives recruited from the ranks of prominent priestly families and royal officials who came from outside the temple household. Below this level, there were hierarchically organ- ised strata of other members of the temple household. They consisted on the one hand of prebendaries and priests who constituted the temple assembly (kiništu or the variant kinaltu), and on the other of ordinary craftsmen, unfree serfs and other professions who were required for the upkeep of the temples and the offering system. In addition, royal courtiers (ša�rēš�šarri) were present supervising the temples’ activities on behalf of the crown.29 Depending on the actual size of the temple household, the highest level within the temple admin- istration was either staffed with a ‘high priest’ (šangû) or a ‘bishop’ (šatammu) and a royal resident (qīpu). The former structure is typical for the administra- tion of smaller sanctuaries, e.g. Ebabbar in Sippar and Eulmaš in Akkad, where the ‘high priest’ also seems to have exercised some form of judicial and admin- istrative power over the city itself.30 The latter is attested for various larger sanctuaries including Eanna in Uruk, Ezida in Borsippa and Emeslam in Cutha. Here, the civil administration is in the hands of a city governor (šākin� ṭēmi). As a rule, the bishop and royal resident were assisted by temple scribes or 28 Comprehensive treatments are Bongenaar 1997, chapter 2 (Ebabbar) and Kleber 2008, chap- ter 2 (Eanna). 29 On the courtiers see most recently Jursa 2010a, 87–88 and 2011 with the pertinent bibliography. 30 Jursa 1996, 202 n. 11. THE ESANGILA TEMPLE DURING THE LATE ACHAEMENID PERIOD 173 ‘clerks’ (ṭupšarrū�bīti) and high-ranking royal officials (e.g. the ša�rēš�šarri�bēl� piqitti�ajakki of Eanna). Despite the fact that we are missing the Esangila archive fragment of the sixth century BCE, it is clear from indirect evidence that Esangila had the same administrative structure as other large sanctuaries at that time. The chronologi- cal range of these references stretches from the last years of Nebuchadnezzar II’s reign to the beginning of the reign of Xerxes (but note that those for the royal resident are concentrated in the reign of Darius I).31 The lack of evidence from earlier decades is probably simply a matter of coincidence and does not necessarily imply that the administrative structure of Esangila differed in the early years of Nebuchadnezzar II from what we see later in his reign. Before turning to the high-ranking temple officials as documented in the Late Achaemenid period, some remarks on the holders of the office of the royal resident are in order. As stated above, these officials came from outside the temple household and had no kinship ties to the well-established priestly fami- lies of the Babylonian cities. However, towards the end of the reign of Darius I this prerequisite, intended to strengthen their loyalty towards the crown, seems to have been gradually discarded. This is suggested by a number of royal resi- dents belonging to Babylonian, Borsippean and Dilbatean priestly families documented at that time.32 We will return to this matter below. After the Babylonian revolts against Xerxes in 484 BCE, almost all references for high-ranking officials, or, to use a more neutral term, functionaries in the administration of Northern Babylonian temples come from the Late Achaemenid and Early Hellenistic Esangila archive. They appear in legal and court records, letters and various administrative texts and, judging from these texts, performed the same official duties as their predecessors in the sixth century BCE.33 In all instances in which these functionaries act on behalf of the temple, they are referred to as ṭupšarrū�u�bēl�piqnēti�ša�Esangila (without giving their names)34 31 Bishops of Esangila are, e.g. mentioned in GCCI 1 220 and 235 (both Nbk 38), CT 55 351 (Nbn 2, Bēl-aḫḫē-iddin), TCL 12 120 (Nbn 17, Zēria, also mentioned without title in the letter YOS 3 196, see Kleber 2008, 268), Cyr. 263 (Cyr 7) and Baker 2004 no. 71 (date lost, assigned to the period between the end of the reign of Dar I and Xer 1 on prosopographic grounds). Royal residents of Esangila are mentioned in Abraham 2004 no. 85 (Dar I 5), Waerzeggers 2010 no. 214 (Dar I 25), VS 6 155 (Dar I 29) and BM 68777(+)63570 (no date, edited in MacGinnis 1993 and 2006, on the dating see MacGinnis 2006, 132). Other high officials of Esangila attested in con- temporary sources are the commissioner of the treasurer (bēl�piqitti�ša�muḫḫi�quppi, Baker 2004 no. 71, on the dating see above) and the royal commissioner of Esangila (ša�rēš�šarri bēl�piqitti� Esangila, TCL 13 193, Dar I 16). 32 See Waerzeggers 2010, 42 n. 220 and 253 n. 892; Jursa 2015, 604–605 with additional references and Jursa, this volume. 33 Hackl 2013, I 295–298 argues this in greater detail. 34 Legal records which were actually drafted by the temple scribes themselves exempt this rule, e.g. BM 87245. The names follow the list of witnesses (usually without filiation but compare VS 5 119) and sometimes have the title ṭupšarrū�Esangila added. 174 J. HACKL or simply as the assembly (kiništu).35 The members of the second group, the bēl� piqnētis, appear to be representatives of the different professional groups within the temple household who, together with the temple scribes (ṭupšarrū), consti- tute the highest level of Esangila’s administration in the Late Achaemenid period. This is well illustrated by BM 87285, a letter from the bēl� piqnētis of the smiths’ house (bīt� nappāḫē, on which see below) to the ṭupšarrū� u� bēl� piqnēti�ša�Esangila: the letter writers are representatives of one particular pro- fessional group, whereas the bēl� piqnētis of Esangila represent the entirety of the temple’s professional groups with board members drawn from the individual groups. Royal officials, the second main constituent of the temple administration in the sixth century BCE, are mentioned very rarely in the sources from the later period. They, too, are nearly exclusively attested in the Late Achaemenid and Early Hellenistic Esangila archive.36 In all instances, they act in the capacity of witnesses, obviously to oversee the activities of the ṭupšarrū� u� bēl� piqnēti� ša� Esangila when concluding legal transactions.37 This begs the question of how to account for the near-absence of royal officials in the Late Achaemenid period and the fact that they never actively perform official duties. One plausible explanation is the shift in terminology (Akkadian > Iranian) occurring after the Babylonian revolts against Xerxes (e.g. ša�rēši > ustarbaru and ša�rēš�šarri�bēl� piqitti > dātabarra)38 which may mask their actual numbers. However, a sifting of the available sources dismisses this idea: the titles of Persian officials are likewise rarely mentioned in the documentation from Northern Babylonia in the Late Achaemenid and Early Hellenistic Esangila archive; they are not attested before the Hellenistic period. If one takes into account that not only royal officials in general but also royal residents and bishops are conspicuously (almost) absent throughout the entire Late Achaemenid period, one may arrive at a different interpretation. Given the events of political unrest in 484 BCE, it seems reasonable to assume that the (near-)absence of high-ranking temple officials reflects a process of restructuring that aimed to degrade the (Northern) Babylonian temples and deprive them of their power. Regarding the bishops, this comes as no surprise. As members of the Babylonian urban elites and chief administrators of the temples that had been the main supporters of the rebel pretenders, they were certainly held accountable for the role they played during 35 This is always the case with court records, e.g. BM 87242 and Jursa 1997 no. 52. On the supposition that here kiništu� is a collective term for the high-ranking temple functionaries, see the discussion in Hackl 2013, I 298–299. 36 The only exceptions are two texts from private archives: the apprenticeship contract Hackl 2011 no. 8 (Xer 4) and BM 42387 ([Xer –]), presumably a settlement of a dispute. 37 E.g. in the apprenticeship contract BM 87245 (i.a. witnessed by three bēl�piqittis) and the sale contract BM 87232 (i.a. witnessed by two bēl�piqittis). 38 Jursa 2011, 167–168 with further examples. THE ESANGILA TEMPLE DURING THE LATE ACHAEMENID PERIOD 175 the uprisings. A similar picture emerges for the royal residents. While origi- nally appointed to protect the interests of the crown, they may well have found themselves with increasingly divided loyalties towards the king on account of their close ties to the local ‘aristocracy’ by the end of the sixth century BCE (see above and Jursa, this volume). The only two attestations of a bishop of Esangila in Late Achaemenid times fit this interpretation well, as they date from the very end of this period and thus hint at an extended vacancy of this office.39 Moreover, they suggest that the administration of Esangila underwent a further restructuring during the reign of Darius III (or Artaxerxes IV) which saw the reintroduction of the office of the bishop, i.e. the highest temple official throughout the entire Hellenistic period.40 Given the life span of the Late Achaemenid and Early Hellenistic Esangila archive with its strong focus on the fourth century BCE, one might argue that the chronological range of these sources does not allow us to establish a causal link between the events in 484 BCE and the restructuring of Esangila’s admin- istration presented above. However, there are other arguments to support this assumption. Private archives which bridge the watershed formed by the Baby- lonian revolts against Xerxes,41 and other slightly later archives likewise do not contain any references to high-ranking temple officials known from the preced- ing period. A second argument that can be marshalled in favour of a restructur- ing at that time is furnished by OECT 10 231, a lease contract from the Zababa temple archive from Kiš/Ḫursagkalamma. This text, which is considerably ear- lier (Art I […]), mentions the same temple functionaries as documented in the later texts from the Late Achaemenid and Early Hellenistic Esangila archive (i.e. the ṭupšarrū� u� bēl� piqnēti� of Edubba)42, and hence corroborates that the Northern Babylonian temple administrations underwent restructuring in the reign of Artaxerxes I, at the latest. At the moment, however, it cannot be deter- mined with absolute certainty whether these changes occurred shortly after the revolts had been scotched, or only after Artaxerxes’ I rise to power. Below the level of the highest-ranking temple functionaries, there is evi- dence for further administrative changes. In the sixth century BCE, the mem- bers of the priestly class were organised in clans based on actual or perceived kinship bonds and common descent. Among these groups, only the ‘purveying 39 BM 87249 (presumably Art IV 1; see the discussion in Hackl and Oelsner in press), a rental of a boat; BM 82556 (Dar III 1), a letter written by the assembly of the scribes to the bishop of Esangila. 40 See in general van der Spek 2000. An updated prosopography of the bishops can be found in Hackl 2013, I 309–310. On the question of who may have been responsible for cultic matters during this long period of sede�vacante, see the remarks in Hackl 2013, I 295. 41 Waerzeggers 2003/2004, 156–157 gives a list of the pertinent archives; for updates see also Waerzeggers, this volume. 42 A collation of the original establishes clearly that line three reads [lúumbisagmeš u enmeš lúpiq]-˹né˺-e-ti�šá é*.dub*.busic. 176 J. HACKL trades’, such as brewers, bakers and butchers, had overseers (šāpiru) who, among other things, represented them to the highest level of the temple admin- istration. Judging from a group of letters from the Late Achaemenid and Hel- lenistic periods, the organisation of this stratum, too, underwent a major restructuring during the fifth century BCE. Several professional groups are now represented by their own professional assemblies (kiništu, see Table 3 below).43 Table 3: Assemblies of different professional groups within the household of Esangila (non-epistolary texts have an asterisk added) Assembly of Text(s) Lamentation priests (kalû) BM 86056 (c. Dar II or Art II) Exorcists (āšipu) BM 95597 (c. Art II 33) BM 16687 (c. Dar III 1) Carpenters (naggāru) EPHE 447 (c. Art II 39) Scribes (ṭupšarru) BM 82556 (Dar III 1) Astrologers (ṭupšar�Enūma�Anu�Enlil) BM 87301 (Phi 6) CT 49 192 (c. SE 151–197) Weavers (išparu) CT 49 190* (SE 20+) Butchers (ṭābiḫu) BM 105195* (SE 32) Jewellers (kabšarru) BM 34210 (SE 220) Too little is known about these professional assemblies to offer a compre- hensive description. Only BM 82556, a letter written by the assembly of the scribes in the first year of Darius III, gives us a glimpse of the make-up of such an assembly. The number of board members, while not mentioned in the letter, can be deduced from the seals impressed and captioned on the reverse; we thus arrive at fourteen members, which of course, does not account for the possibil- ity that some of the scribes did not feel obliged to impress their seals. The activities of such assemblies are also documented by BM 105195, an adminis- trative note regarding the purchase of offering sheep. In essence, it records a settlement of accounts between the assembly of the butchers and the temple assembly of the Esangila — a scenario which is reminiscent of the overseers’ (šāpiru) activities in the sixth century BCE. There are good reasons to assume that the restructuring of lower organisa- tional structures aimed to delegate managerial tasks to the various professional assemblies that did not require the specialised expertise of high-ranking temple functionaries. It is also possible that creating these assemblies brought the pro- fessional groups a higher degree of autonomy which is also borne out by the 43 Note that the bēl� minde of the Late Period is engaged in the same range of activities (see the discussion in Hackl 2013, I 497–500). THE ESANGILA TEMPLE DURING THE LATE ACHAEMENID PERIOD 177 fact that at least some of them had their own ‘guild houses’ (a term used faute� de�mieux): the bīt�nappāḫē, the ‘guild house’ of the smiths44, the bīt�nārē, the ‘guild house’ of the singers45, the bīt�sirāšê, the ‘guild house’ of the brewers46, and the bīt� išparē, the ‘guild house’ of the weavers47. While both arguments have their merits, it is likely that these changes, too, were initially prompted by the events after the revolts against Xerxes. An analysis of the make-up of the temple personnel and the remuneration system of Esangila (and other Northern Babylonian temples), presented below, strongly suggests a collapse of the priestly ‘clan system’, apparently because the members of this class were deprived of their property (and ousted from the cities?) at that time (see the following section). The subsequent disruptions and the abrupt lack of temple personnel must have required the integration of outsiders, which in turn shaped new organisational structures. THE REMUNERATION OF TEMPLE PERSONNEL The evidence for the remuneration system of the Babylonian temples in the sixth century BCE is very rich. Through this documentation the underlying economic mechanisms and the interaction between the social agents involved can be reconstructed in great detail. Prebendaries, i.e. members of the priestly class who held different types of income rights (isqu), received prebendary income (pappasu) in return for performing specific cultic services and duties at specific times (manzaltu). In the case of the particularly well-documented ‘purveying trades’ (see above), this income consisted of the remainder of regu- lar allotments of working materials (maššartu, but also payments under the heading sattukku or ginû) which were to be used for the preparation of the regular food offerings (sattukku or ginû).48 The members of the temple house- hold outside the prebendary sphere, i.e. non-prebendary craftsmen, unfree serfs and other temple dependants, were issued food rations (kurummatu) instead, which are better understood as salaries paid in kind at that time.49 This duality of the remuneration system is one of the fundamental structural characteristics of Babylonian temple households in the sixth century BCE (Eanna, Ebabbar, Ezida). The fact that the same holds true for the Bīt Rēš temple in Hellenistic 44 BM 87285 (c. Art II 34?). 45 TBER 89 (AO 26770, date lost, but to be dated to the fourth century BCE on the basis of circumstantial evidence). 46 CT 44 76 (Art III 1). 47 BRM 1 99 (c. SE 218). 48 A synthesis of the Babylonian prebendary system can be found in van Driel 2002, 33–151. Additional evidence from the archives of the Borsippean priesthood is presented in Waerzeggers 2010, 77–102. 49 Jursa 2010b, 297. 178 J. HACKL Uruk,50 where it is, i.a. reflected in numerous contracts recording transactions of both isqu and kurummatu income rights,51 can be seen as establishing a link of continuity with earlier periods. It has thus been assumed that this system was also in place in the Late Achaemenid period, even though the principal text types (prebend sales, service contracts, lists of maššartu� deliveries etc.)52 and the traditional terminology53 are missing in this period.54 This lack of informa- tion was explained by administrative changes and shifts in terminology (or rather, a conflation in terminology55) which are considered likely candidates to mask the system as it is known from the preceding period. Studies based on the ration lists of the Late Achaemenid and Early Hellenistic Esangila archive aimed to confirm this assumption by identifying differing service periods (man- zaltu) behind the large variation of quantities recorded in these lists.56 A different approach in the analysis of the quantities allows for a re-assess- ment of the ration lists’ contribution in this respect. The principal points can be summarised as follows. When amounts are listed against groups of recipi- ents, they are not to be divided by the number of recipients (i.e. to arrive at the arithmetic mean), but by a combination of certain standards for rations; as a rule, the latter can be deduced from what is given out to single recipients. This is demonstrated by the ration lists of the reed workers in Table 4 below.57 50 On the prebendary system in Hellenistic Uruk see Corò 2005 and Pirngruber and Waerzeggers 2011, 112–121. 51 Oelsner 1995, 110. 52 A survey of the principal text types can be found in Waerzeggers 2010, 173–180. 53 Van Driel 2002, 92–93. 54 Jursa 2008, 417. 55 In the Late Period, all payments (in kind or silver) to temple personnel are subsumed under the heading kurummatu, literally ‘rations’. 56 Jursa 2008, 416–419 and Hackl and Pirngruber 2014, 115–117. 57 Prosopographical connections make it clear that BM 95530 (c. Art III 20), Boiy 2002 no. 3 (c. Alx III 0), CTMMA 4 164 (c. Phi III), BM 16894 (c. Alx III 8) and BM 17283 (date unclear) also belong with these ration lists. With the exception of Boiy 2002 no. 3 (the column containing the quantities is lost), they record monthly payments of barley, dates and wool to the wives (BM 95530) and sons (CTMMA 4 164, BM 16894 and BM 17283) of the reed workers. THE ESANGILA TEMPLE DURING THE LATE ACHAEMENID PERIOD 179 Table 4: Monthly barley rations (in litres) issued to reed workers (atkuppu) Text Date Recipient(s) Ration Standards BM 87230 c. Art III 8 1 (× 2) 1 + 1 brother (× 2) 54 l 120 l 54 l 60 l + 60 l EAH 241 c. Art III 12 1 1 1 + 2 sons 1 + 4 sons 1 + 1 brother 60 l 180 l 270 l 240 l 120 l 60 l 180 l 180 l + 2 × 45 l 60 l + 4 × 45 l 60 l + 60 l BM 78998 c. Art III 16 1 1 1 + 2 sons 1 + 3 sons 1 + 4 sons 1 + 1 brother 1 + 2 brothers 45 l 60 l 270 l 315 l 255 l 120 l 180 l 45 l 60 l 180 l + 2 × 45 l 180 l + 3 × 45 l 75 l + 4 × 45 l 60 l + 60 l 60 l + 2 × 60 l CT 44 80 c. Art III 17 1 1 (× 2) 1 + 1 son 1 + 3 sons (× 2) 1 + 4 sons 1 + 1 brother 1 + 2 brothers 45 l 60 l 105 l 315 l 255 l 120 l 180 l 45 l 60 l 60 l + 45 l 180 l + 3 × 45 l 75 l + 4 × 45 l 60 l + 60 l 60 l + 2 × 60 l Secondly, the size of monthly rations does not change over time. Exceptions to this rule are rare; they are obviously caused when individuals move between age groups (e.g. the reed worker Tanitti-Bēl/Bēlšunu in Table 5 below). But it should be noted that unlike in the sixth century BCE,58 age is but one distinc- tion to which significant differences in the size of rations are owed. The data presented in Table 6 clearly show that profession and rank likewise have a strong bearing on the amounts issued to the individual members of the temple household.59 58 Jursa 2008, 408 and 2010b, 670. 59 This is best illustrated by BM 78957, a ration list regarding monthly payments of barley to millers (ranging between 54 l and 240 l). Among the recipients, only the miller designated as ummânu ‘craftsman, expert’ receives 240 l. 180 J. HACKL Table 5: Ration lists recording monthly barley rations issued to the same group of reed workers (x = not listed) Name BM 87230 (c. Art III 8) EAH 241 (c. Art III 12) BM 78998 (c. Art III 16) CT 44 80 (c. Art III 17) Bēl-aplu-iddin/ Nabû-uṣuršu x x 60 l 60 l Bēl-bullissu/ Aḫūšunu […] 270 l (+ 2 sons) 315 l (+ 3 sons) 315 l (+ 3 sons) Bēl-ittannu/ Libluṭ x x 180 l (+ 2 brothers) 180 l (+ 2 brothers) Bēl-uṣuršu/ Bēl-bullissu x […] 45 l 45 l Ea-ibni/ Bēl-ana-bītišu 120 l (+ 1 brother) 120 l (+ 1 brother) 120 l (+ 1 brother) 120 l (+ 1 brother) Ina-dulli-Bēl- lilbir/Aḫūšunu x 180 l 270 l (+ 2 sons) 315 l (+ 3 sons) Marduk-šumu- iddin/ Ea-tabtanâ-uṣur 120 l (+ 1 brother) 60 l […] 60 l Tanitti-Bēl/ Bēlšunu […] 240 l (+ 4 sons) 255 l (+ 4 sons) 255 l (+ 4 sons) Table 6: Monthly barley rations issued to different professional groups Profession untrained/ adolescent fully trained/ adult expert Astrologer (ṭupšar�Enūma�Anu�Enlil) n/a 180 l n/a Exorcist (āšipu)60 90 l 90 l 270 l Lamentation priest (kalû)61 n/a 90 l n/a Baker (nuḫatimmu) 90 l 90 l 90 l Diviner (bārû) 60 l 90 l n/a Miller (ararru) 60 l 90 l 240 l62 Gardener (rab�banê) 60 l 60 l 90 l Reed worker (atkuppu) 45 l 60 l 180 l 60 61 62 60 In addition to ration lists, monthly barley rations issued to exorcists are also mentioned in two letter orders: 60 l in BM 95597 and 90 l in BM 16687. 61 The size of the monthly rations can be deduced from the letter order BM 86056, the writers of which request 270 l of barley to be issued to a lamentation priest as rations for three months. 62 See note 59. THE ESANGILA TEMPLE DURING THE LATE ACHAEMENID PERIOD 181 Thirdly, the number of standards for rations is very small: 45 l, 60 l, 90 l or 180 l for men, 45 l for women. Again, exceptions are rare. They include 54 l, 75 l, 240 l and 270 l for men and 75 l for women. The distribution of the stand- ards recorded in the ration lists for male temple staff is illustrated by Figure 2 below. The very fact that we are dealing with standards for rations which do not change over time, dismisses the idea of differing service periods being reflected in the Esangila ration lists. Rather, they suggest that we have here a ration system similar to that used for the remuneration of non-prebendary personnel of Ebabbar and Eanna in the sixth century BCE.63 The difference in the most common standards — 90 l in Esangila, but, e.g. 180 l in Ebabbar — can be explained from temporary fluctuations,64 and even more importantly, from the fact that in the Late Period women are integrated in the system and receive rations of their own. The absence of processed goods in the ration lists,65 such as flour, beer and oil, and the issued quantities (which clearly exceeded con- sumption needs of individuals) indicate that here, too, the temple personnel received salaries paid in kind.66 Silver wages, on the other hand, were very unusual. This is by and large in line with what we see in the Ebabbar and Eanna 63 See also Beaulieu 2006, 8–9. 64 Fluctuations of this kind are also documented in the Eanna archive, see the table in Jursa 2008, 404. 65 The only exception being wool in the form of garments, e.g. recorded in the ration lists CT 44 84 and CT 49 27. The same is true for the remuneration system of Ebabbar and Eanna in the sixth century BCE (Jursa 2008, 390) and Ezida in the fourth century BCE (Hackl 2013, I 502–506 Table 100). 66 On institutional salaries paid in kind in the sixth century BCE, see Jursa 2008, 410–415. Figure 2: Distribution of standards for rations 182 J. HACKL archives where silver is predominantly used for exchanging goods with the outside world or for hiring free labour.67 What are the implications of these findings with regard to the organisation of the temple household in the Late Achaemenid period? Firstly, it has to be noted that typical prebendary professions, such as the ‘purveying trades’, are also integrated in the ration system. If one subscribes to the possibility that, despite their professions, they do not belong to the circle of the clergy, this is what is expected. However, this explanation is ruled out by two ration lists that have not been taken into account thus far. BM 16585 and BM 16804 are dif- ferent from the other lists in that they record monthly date rations, ranging between 1080 l and 2880 l. Since these large amounts are issued to single recipients, it becomes clear that these payments are not intended as salaries paid in kind.68 Rather, they must be the working material given to members of indi- vidual professional groups who were jointly responsible for the upkeep of the cult. This dual flow of commodities — barley for salaries paid in kind and dates for working materials — is not restricted to the remuneration system of Esang- ila. As can be seen in the brewers’ archive from Borsippa (late fourth century BCE), also the brewers of Ezida received barley as rations but large amounts of dates to fulfil their cultic services.69 Thus, if one accepts the premise that the individuals mentioned in the ration lists (with their slightly differentiated wages) were also directly involved in the cult, this evidence points to a fundamental structural change within the remu- neration system of temple households. In the sixth century BCE, the three main groups of temple dependants (prebendaries, non-prebendary personnel and unfree serfs) were remunerated through a dual system (i.e. differentiating preb- endary income from fixed allowances), whereas in the Late Achaemenid period, the entire temple personnel received fixed allowances. The possibility that we are merely dealing with terminological shifts70 can be excluded, as standard rations cannot be reconciled with the mechanisms behind the concept of preb- ends. Moreover, it is improbable that the highly differentiated flows of com- modities, typical of the modus� operandi of the prebendary system, were sud- denly discontinued in favour of the existing remuneration system, intended to provide other social groups with standard rations. A different explanation can be offered when reviewing the evidence pertain- ing to prebends and prebendary activities in general. Professions typically 67 Jursa 2008, 412. 68 Two possible exceptions are recorded in the atypical ration list BM 27767 and the letter order VS 3 192, on which see the discussion in Hackl 2013, I 391 n. 1111; both texts belong to the Late Achaemenid and Early Hellenistic Esangila archive. 69 Jursa 2008, 420. A detailed discussion can be found in Hackl 2013, I 501–517. 70 See note 55. THE ESANGILA TEMPLE DURING THE LATE ACHAEMENID PERIOD 183 involved in cultic matters,71 allotments of working material, and regular offer- ings and ceremonies that are frequently mentioned in the textual record of the Late Period clearly attest to the continuation of the cult in Esangila. However, there is no clear evidence for an existing prebendary system according to the model of the sixth century BCE.72 This is also true for private archives of that time, which, unlike those from the sixth century BCE, do not contain informa- tion on the prebendary sphere.73 On the basis of these observations, we can rule out as highly unlikely the assumption that the institutional sources present us with a fundamentally skewed picture. Rather, the absence of pertinent informa- tion on prebends and the radical changes in the remuneration system described above strongly suggest that the prebendary system as such had been abolished in Northern Babylonian temples during the Late Achaemenid period. Otherwise it would be difficult to explain why representatives of typical prebendary pro- fessions and other temple dependants, who in the sixth century BCE did not belong to the exclusive circle of prebendaries, were remunerated in the same way. If this is correct, we are dealing with a fairly homogeneous social group whose members are no longer stratified into a ‘caste-like’ structure.74 The rea- sons for this restructuring may be manifold (e.g. class struggles). However, regarding the magnitude of these changes, the events after the Babylonian revolts in 484 BCE are again a likely candidate to account for a collapse of the prebendary system. In addition to real estate, prebends constituted an important source of income for the Babylonian urban elites, i.e. the main supporters of the rebel pretenders. It is therefore not surprising that Xerxes’ reprisals were also geared towards a disruption of the prebendary system. The fact that it continued to exist in Southern Babylonia (Uruk, Larsa, Ur),75 a region known to have abstained from participating in the revolts,76 can be marshalled in sup- port of this assumption. 71 Canonical texts from Hellenistic Babylon are the most important source on these matters, see Linssen 2004. 72 The term kalûtu mentioned in the ration lists BM 78948, BM 78989, BM 132271 and CT 44 84 does not contradict this general statement, as it primarily refers to the lamentation priest’s profession in general, and only secondarily to the corresponding prebend. The same is true for the term mubannûtu (‘profession of the table setter’) mentioned in CT 49 150, a list of income and expenditures belonging to the Raḫimesu archive. However, on the basis of other evidence in (the context of) this archive (most notably the lease contract CT 49 160), one could argue that the situation had changed in the Late Hellenistic period (see Hackl 2013, I 391–392 n. 1113). 73 In the sixth century BCE, roughly 50 per cent of the holders of private archives exhibit an active involvement in the prebendary economy (Jursa 2010b, 157). 74 This is of course not the case for the temple dependents on the lowest social rungs, i.e. unfree serfs (širku) and semi-free workers (šušānu). On the latter see Dandamaev 1984, 637–638, Boiy 2004, 273–274, Weszeli 2003–2005, 474–475 and 2010, 414–418. 75 Surveys of the available sources from the Late Achaemenid period can be found in Jursa 2005, 133–134 and 137, Oelsner 2006, 79–87 (both Ur) and Hackl 2017, 59 (Uruk, Larsa). 76 Waerzeggers 2003/2004, 157–160. 184 J. HACKL CONCLUSIONS The evidence presented above makes it clear that the organisation of the Esangila temple household underwent significant changes in the Late Achae- menid period. Owing to the nature of the sources, the temple’s administration and remuneration system stood at the centre of the discussion. In the realm of the temple administration, the most important changes can be summarised as follows. The offices of the royal resident (qīpu) and bishop (šatammu) vanished soon after 484 BCE either completely or for an extended period of time,77 which prompted restructuring of the highest level of the temple administration. The newly appointed board of temple administrators consisted of temple scribes (ṭupšarrū�ša�Esangila) and representatives of the different professional groups within the temple household (bēl�piqnēti�ša�Esangila). The latter also had their own professional assemblies (kiništu) and ‘guild houses’ which may well indi- cate a higher degree of autonomy. Royal commissioners and courtiers are very rarely mentioned. In the realm of the remuneration of temple personnel it can be shown that in the Late Achaemenid period all members of the temple house- hold are remunerated in the same way, i.e. through a system based on standard rations. The prebendary system, on the other hand, is no longer operative. This is not to say that the typical prebendary professions of the sixth BCE century which are of paramount importance for the upkeep of the cult have disappeared. However, the shift from prebendary income to fixed allowances within the remuneration system of Esangila undoubtedly reflects a dissolution of social and legal boundaries between prebendaries and non-prebendaries. This in turn must be a response to social upheavals and/or royal intervention. Otherwise it is difficult to explain why the members of the priestly class would consent to the abolishment of the prebendary system which provided them with an impor- tant source of income, prestige and autonomy. I have argued above that these changes are a consequence of Xerxes’ sup- pression of the Babylonian revolts in 484 BCE, even though the Late Achae- menid and Early Hellenistic Esangila archive post-dates these events by several decades. This hypothesis is strengthened by the fact that we are dealing with far-reaching shifts, since similar changes are also visible in other (slightly ear- lier) institutional archives from Northern Babylonia: (1) According to the Zababa temple archive from Kiš/Ḫursagkalamma, the restructured board of temple administrators is active in Edubba in the reign of Artaxerxes I, at the latest; (2) The remuneration of typical prebendary professions through a system based on standard rations is also attested in the Early Hellenistic brewers’ archive from Borsippa. Moreover, the onomasticon preserved in the Late Achaemenid and Early Hellenistic Esangila, Zababa temple and brewers’ 77 The office of the bishop was reintroduced in the reign of Darius III. THE ESANGILA TEMPLE DURING THE LATE ACHAEMENID PERIOD 185 archives demonstrates that the traditional urban elites were removed from all major temples of Northern Babylonia and replaced by individuals of different social strata.78 This falls in line with what we see in Uruk, where the local Northern Babylonian families were also deprived of their economic means (and ousted from the city?) at that time.79 However, here the division of families along the lines of origin, kinship bonds, descent and most importantly alle- giance to the Persian king, allowed the Urukean families, whose names can be traced back into the sixth century BCE, to maintain close ties to the temple economy.80 Despite the degradation of the cults of Eanna, this guaranteed a continuation of the prebendary system into the Late Hellenistic period.81 BIBLIOGRAPHY Abraham, K. 2004: Business� and� Politics� Under� the� Persian� Empire:� The� Financial� Dealings�of�Marduk-nāṣir-apli�of�the�House�of�Egibi�(521–487�B.C.E.), Bethesda. 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Rollinger (eds.), Der�Achämenidenhof�/�The�Achaemenid�Court (CleO 2), Wiesbaden, 67–106. Jursa, M. 2010b: Aspects�of�the�Economic�History�of�Babylonia�in�the�First�Millennium� BC:� Economic� Geography,� Economic� Mentalities,� Agriculture,� the� Use� of� Money� and�the�Problem�of�Economic�Growth�(with contributions by J. Hackl, B. Janković, K. Kleber, E.E. Payne, C. Waerzeggers and M. Weszeli; AOAT 377), Münster. Jursa, M. 2011: “«Höflinge» (ša� rēši,� ša� rēš� šarri,� ustarbaru) in babylonischen Quellen des ersten Jahrtausends”, in J. Wiesehöfer, R. Rollinger and G.B. Lan- franchi (eds.), Ktesias’�Welt�/�Ctesias’�World (CleO 1), Wiesbaden, 159–173. Jursa, M. 2015: “Families, Officialdom, and Families of Royal Officials in Chaldean and Achaemenid Babylonia”, in A. Archi (ed.), Tradition� and� Innovation� in� the� Ancient�Near�East: Proceedings�of�the�57th�Rencontre�Assyriologique�Internatio- nale�at�Rome,�4–8�July�2011, Winona Lake, 599–608. 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Feyel et al. (eds.), Communautés� locales� et� pouvoir�central�dans�l’Orient�hellénistique�et�romain, Paris, 327– 352. Oelsner, J. 1995: “Recht im hellenistischen Babylonien: Tempel–Sklaven– Schuldrecht–allgemeine Charakterisierung”, in M.J. Geller and H. Maehler (eds.), Legal�Documents�of�the�Hellenistic�World, London, 106–148. Oelsner, J. 2006: “Zu spätbabylonischen Urkunden aus Ur und dem Archiv der Fami- lie gallâbu�„Barbier“ ”, in J. Hengstl and U. Sick (eds.),�Recht�gestern�und�heute:� Festschrift�zum�85.�Geburtstag�von�Richard�Haase, Wiesbaden, 75–87. Pedersén, O. 2005a: Archive�und�Bibliotheken�in�Babylon:�Die�Tontafeln�der�Grabung� Robert�Koldeweys�1899–1917 (WVDOG 25), Saarbrücken. Pedersén, O. 2005b: “Foreign Professionals in Babylon: Evidence from the Archive in the Palace of Nebuchadnezzar II”, in W.H. van Soldt (ed.), Ethnicity� in� Ancient� Mesopotamia:� Papers� Read� at� the� 48th� Rencontre� Assyriologique� Internationale,� Leiden�1–4�July�2002, Leiden, 267–272. Pirngruber, R. and C. Waerzeggers 2011: “Prebend Prices in First-Millennium B.C. Babylonia”, JCS 63, 111–144. Reade, J.E. 1986: “Introduction. Rassam’s Babylonian Collection: The Excavations and the Archives”, in E. Leichty (ed.), Catalogue�of�the�Babylonian�Tablets�in�the� British�Museum,�Vol. 6:�Tablets�from�Sippar�1, London, xii–xxxvi. van der Spek, R.J. 1998: “Cuneiform Documents on Parthian History: The Raḫimesu Archive. Materials for the Study of the Standard of Living”, in J. Wiesehöfer (ed.), Das�Partherreich�und�seine�Zeugnisse, Stuttgart, 205–258. van der Spek, R.J. 2000: “The Šatammus of Esagila in the Seleucid and Arsacid Peri- ods”, in J. Mahrzahn and H. Neumann (eds.), Assyriologica� et� Semitica:� Fest- schrift� für� Joachim� Oelsner� anläßlich� seines� 65.� Geburtstages� am� 18.� Februar� 1997 (AOAT 252), Münster, 437–446. Walker, C.B.F. and D. Collon 1980: “Hormuzd Rassam’s Excavations for the British Museum at Sippar in 1881–1882”, in L. De Meyer (ed.), Tell� ed-Dēr:� Sounding� at�Abū�Ḥabbah�(Sippar), Leuven, 93–114. Waerzeggers, C. 2003/2004: “The Babylonian Revolts Against Xerxes and the ‘End of Archives’”, AfO 50, 150–173. Waerzeggers, C. 2010: The� Ezida� Temple� of� Borsippa:� Priesthood,� Cult,� Archives (Achaemenid History 15), Leiden. Weszeli, M. 2003–2005: “Pferd A. I.”, RlA 10, 469–481. Weszeli, M. 2010: “Die Stallungen des Ebabbar von Sippar in neubabylonischer Zeit”, in W. Arnold et al. (eds.), Philologisches� und� Historisches� zwischen� Anatolien� und�Sokotra:�Analecta�Semitica�in�Memoriam�Alexander�Sima, Wiesbaden, 441– 445. URUK BEFORE AND AFTER XERXES: THE ONOMASTIC AND INSTITUTIONAL RISE OF THE GOD ANU Paul-Alain BEAULIEU (University of Toronto)1 Research conducted over the past three decades has enhanced our under- standing of the political and cultural context of the Babylonian revolts against Achaemenid rule in the early part of the reign of Xerxes. C. Waerzeggers has convincingly argued that the two rebel leaders Bēl-šimânni and Šamaš-erība rose simultaneously in northern Babylonia and were defeated a few months later, all events happening in the second year of Xerxes.2 Their defeat coincides with the end of entire segments of Babylonian documentation, especially at Babylon, Borsippa and Sippar, the main insurrectionist centres. Cuneiform sources dating after the second year of Xerxes and for the balance of Achae- menid rule are significantly fewer in number and they attest that something had changed in Babylonia, although we cannot always tell the degree to which these transformations resulted from the imposition of new rules by Achaemenid authorities after the suppression of the revolts. Uruk is a case in point, because the extent of the changes which took place after the crushing of the Babylonian revolts seems, as far as we know, unparalleled in other centres. Uruk also pro- vides rich evidence for assessing these transformations in the framework of a historical longue�durée. Indeed, Uruk and Babylon are the only two sites which have produced a significant corpus of cuneiform sources spanning the long era from Sargonid Assyria in the 8th and 7th centuries until the late Seleucid period in the 2nd century. One fact has stood at the core of discussions on the changes which occurred at Uruk during the Achaemenid era: the rise of the god Anu to the top of the local pantheon and the reorganization of the civic religion of Uruk around the near hegemonic cult of that god. The rise of Anu can be appraised mainly from two sets of data: onomastic, namely, the shift to patterns of name giving which favoured the god Anu as main theophoric element in personal names, 1 I wish to thank Caroline Waerzeggers for the invitation to participate in the Symposium and publish my contribution in the proceedings. I must also thank Elizabeth Payne of the Yale Baby- lonian Collection who sent me detailed photographs of the tablet YBC 11632, and Matthew Stolper who authorized me to publish and discuss this important text previously assigned to him. 2 The main study is Waerzeggers 2003/2004, to which one may add the summary on the Livius website: http://www.livius.org/saa-san/samas-eriba/samas-eriba.html. Last modified July 30, 2015, accessed June 6, 2017. 190 P.-A. BEAULIEU and institutional, that is to say, the replacement of the goddesses Ištar and Nanāya by the god Anu as notional owner of the main temples of Uruk and their estates. ONOMASTIC CHANGE The extent of this onomastic revolution became evident a century ago with the publication of the first archival and scholarly texts from Uruk dating to the Hellenistic period. The near exclusive predominance of names formed with the god Anu in texts from that era contrasted markedly with the earlier and far more abundant sources from Uruk dating to the 7th and 6th centuries. These earlier sources show a predominance of names honouring the local goddesses Ištar, Innin and Nanāya, as well as the dynastic gods of the Babylonian empire, Marduk (often under the name Bēl) and Nabû, and to a lesser degree Nergal. For a long time, the chronology and historical background of these changes remained obscure because of the break in our source material between the reign of Darius I and the onset of the Seleucid era two centuries later. In the past three decades, however, the discovery and publication of new texts from Uruk dating to the late Achaemenid period has filled the gap to some degree, and we can now begin to chronicle the ascent of the god Anu with greater precision. In 1990 M. Stolper published an important group of such texts, made up of twenty-two tablets belonging with one exception to American museums and collections and all acquired from the antiquities market in the first half of the 20th century (Stolper 1990). Most of the texts date from the reigns of rulers named Artaxerxes and Darius. A few have date formulas that are lost. Eight tablets are dated to a king named Artaxerxes, and in all cases but one the high year numbers exclude Artaxerxes III (358–338), who reigned only 21 years. However, the assignment of the documents to either Artaxerxes I (464–424) or Artaxerxes II (404–359) remains uncertain in all cases except one.3 The ten tablets dated to a king named Darius can almost certainly be assigned to Dar- ius II rather than Darius I because of the absence of the title šar� Bābili ‘king of Babylon’, although this is not an absolute argument since that title is also omitted on some Darius I tablets.4 All in all, however, the Darius tablets display the same general features as other late Achaemenid tablets from Uruk in respect 3 The one exception is Stolper 1990 no. 3, dated to year 41 of Artaxerxes, who must be Arta- xerxes I since the document shows prosopographic interconnections with nos. 1 and 2 dated to the 3rd and 6th years of Darius II respectively (Stolper 1990, 562). 4 Assignment of these texts to Darius III is excluded in most cases because of the high year number. In the three cases where the year number is five or less (nos. 1, 6 and 21), prosopographic interconnections with other texts dated to Darius II ensure a dating to the latter (Stolper 1990, 561). URUK BEFORE AND AFTER XERXES 191 to shape, palaeography and contents. Therefore, the optimal chronological lim- its of the entire group must fall between 433 and 366, with only one text pos- sibly exceeding this time frame (Stolper 1990 no. 17).5 All the texts display patterns of name giving with clear predominance of the god Anu, therefore much closer to the onomasticon of the Seleucid period at Uruk than to the onomasticon of the Eanna archive in the 6th century. This led M. Stolper to conclude that “the ascendancy of Anu in personal names, and therefore in the religious life of Uruk, must have developed by the late fifth century, during the interval c. 485–420 B.C.” (Stolper 1990, 562). These conclusions are supported by additional texts published in SpTU� 5 (von Weiher 1998). Two archives are included in this volume. The archive of Ubāru, son of Anu-aḫḫē-iqīša, comprises at least seven tablets, and possibly more, dated between year 37 of Artaxerxes I and year 8 of Darius II, that is to say, between 428 and 416 (Jursa 2005, 149). The participants in the transac- tions of the Ubāru archive also bear names with overwhelming predominance of Anu as theophoric element. This provides confirmation that the onomastic shift had taken place by the last quarter of the 5th century. The other group of texts in SpTU 5 is known as the Gimil-Nanāya B archive, which also includes some items published earlier in SpTU 4 (von Weiher 1993). The Gimil-Nanāya B archive extends from year 12 of Darius I to year 9 of Xerxes (510 to 477), one of the rare archives which includes documents dating before and after the rebellions of Bēl-šimânni and Šamaš-erība and their suppression in 484 (Jursa 2005, 147–148). Two texts in that archive, SpTU 5 299 and 300, date from the 6th and 9th year of Xerxes respectively, only a few years after the Babylonian revolts. They record affidavits of witnesses for a transaction in real estate and a sale of slave. In both cases a certain Erība, son of Kīnāya, is the buyer. None of the parties in the transactions have a name in Anu. However, text no. 299 includes seven witnesses with two-tiered filiations as well as the scribe; three witnesses have a theophoric name with Anu, and so does the father of another witness. Text no. 300 also includes seven witnesses, three of whom have Anu names plus one whose father has an Anu name. The only other god who enjoys a significant onomastic presence in these two texts is Šamaš, and this is also true of other texts from Uruk dated to the late Achaemenid era. The god Šamaš in these cases is Šamaš of Larsa and his presence in the Uruk onomasticon must be explained by the close administrative and cultic connections between Uruk and Larsa which are very well documented in the Eanna archive in the 6th cen- tury (Beaulieu 1991). Indeed, one text published by M. Stolper suggests that 5 This text is dated to the reign of Artaxerxes but the year number is almost entirely lost, the traces allowing us to read perhaps 7 or 8. Stolper (1990, 582) suggests 8 with a question mark, and if we adopt this reading the text would date to the year 456 (Artaxerxes I), 396 (Artaxerxes II) or 350 (Artaxerxes III). 192 P.-A. BEAULIEU Larsa still belonged to the hinterland of Uruk in the latter part of the 5th centu- ry.6 To conclude, SpTU 5 299 and 300 suggest that patterns of name giving had already changed noticeably at Uruk not very long after the rebellions of the second year of Xerxes, indicating a trend towards a more dominant place for the god Anu. INSTITUTIONAL CHANGE The shift to Anu in personal names reflects not only a change in religious sensibility or preference for a god, but also a restructuring of the civic religion of Uruk and its institutions. This revisionary process led eventually to the crea- tion of new temples, the Rēš and the Irigal (or Ešgal), well documented in sources from the Seleucid era. To which degree these institutional develop- ments had already taken place in the 5th century cannot easily be determined. However, some clues can be found in a group of six texts found in a clay jar and possibly discarded from a larger family archive (Kessler 1984; Jursa 2005, 146 n. 1140). One of the texts and its duplicate deal with the rent of a date orchard owed to ‘the property of the god Anu’ (NÍG.GA da-nu�= makkūr�Anu). Here is the conflated edition of the two texts: W 19276 + 19134 obverse 1. 22 GUR ZÚ.LUM.MA ZAG A.ŠÀ 2. NÍG.GA da-nu�šá�ŠU.MIN Id60-TIN-su-E DUMU šá�IEN-NUMUN 3. A IÉ.SAG.GIL-a-a�ina�muḫ-ḫi� 4. ISILIM-TIN.TIRki A IMU-dNÀ 5. ina�ITI DU6 ZÚ.LUM.MA a4 22 GUR 6. ina�gišma-ši-ḫu�šá�da-nu�ina�ḫa-ṣa-ri 7. ina-an-din reverse 8. lúmu-kin7 Id60-GI DUMU šá�Id[o o o] 9. IdUTU-ŠEŠ-MU DUMU šá�Ika-ṣir�A L[Ú o o] 10. Id60-DU-A DUMU šá�Id60-mu-SIG5 A I˹x x˺ 11. IdUTU-SUR DUMU šá�ITIN A Ilu-uš-tam-m[ar-dI]M 12. Id60-EN-šú-nu�lúUMBISAG DUMU šá�INÍG.BA-d60 A ˹Ix˺-d60 13. UNUGki ITI KIN UD 13-KAM MU 33-KAM 14. Iár-taḫ-šá-as-su�LUGAL ˹KUR.KUR˺ 6 The parties and witnesses in text no. 20 bear in their majority names in Anu and Nanāya. The transaction, however, was drafted at Larsa, and repayment of the barley must be effected by the measure of the god Šamaš in Larsa. The scribe, Šamaš-nādin-zēri, son of Bunene-ibni, also appears as witness in text no. 12, the other transaction drafted at Larsa (Stolper 1990). URUK BEFORE AND AFTER XERXES 193 Twenty-two kurrus of dates, the estimated rent of an orchard, property of the god Anu, through the agency of Anu-balāssu-iqbi, son of Bēl-zēri, descendant of Saggilāyû, are owed by Šulum-Bābili, son of Iddin-Nabû. He will repay those dates, namely twenty-two kurrus, in the month of Tašrītu, in the enclosure, by the measuring standard of the god Anu. Witnesses: Anu-ušallim, son of [o o o]; Šamaš-aḫu-iddin, son of Kāṣir, descendant of the [o o o]; Anu-mukīn-apli, son of Anu-mudammiq, descendant of x x; Šamaš-ēṭir, son of Balāṭu, descendant of Luštamm[ar-Ad]ad; the scribe is Anu-bēlšunu, son of Qīšti-Anu, descendant of x-Anu. Uruk, month of Ulūlu, 13th day, 33rd year of Artaxerxes, king of the lands. The designation makkūr Anu is common in the Seleucid period, signifying that the god Anu had then become the notional owner of the temples of Uruk and their estates. During that period makkūr�Anu had completely replaced the earlier designations makkūr�Ištar�ša�Uruk�u�Nanāya�‘property of Ištar-of-Uruk and Nanāya’ and its variants found in records from the Eanna archive in the 7th and 6th century.7 The six texts found in the clay jar date between years 24 and 35 of Artaxerxes. However, as pointed out by Kessler (1984), it is impos- sible to assign them with certainty to either Artaxerxes I (465–424) or Artax- erxes II (404–359). In one text (W 19164a) Artaxerxes bears the title ‘King of Persia, of Media, of Babylon and of the lands’, an innovation of Xerxes which is rarely seen after his reign. This should plead in favour of Artaxerxes I rather than II since he is closer in time to Xerxes, in which case the archive would range between 441 and 430 rather than 381 and 370, and the text that mentions ‘the property of the god Anu’ (makkūr� Anu) would date, not to the year 372, but to the year 432, bringing us only fifty years after the suppression of the Babylonian rebellions by Xerxes. However, this earlier dating cannot be estab- lished as certain. YBC 11632, a previously unpublished text in the Yale Babylonian Collec- tion, contains similar data and terminology. YBC 11632 obverse 1. [3 M]E DIŠ+ŠU GUR ŠE.˹BAR˺ ŠE.BAL šá�ŠE.BAR 2. [NÍG.G]A da-nu�šá�ŠU.MIN Id60-DU-A DUMU šá�IdUTU-MU 3. [A I]ḫu-un-zu-u�IdUTU-KÁD DUMU�šá�INUMUN-ia 4. [A I] ˹é˺-kur-za-kir�ù�Ini-din-tu4- d60 DUMU šá 7 McEwan 1981, 121–122 discusses the use of makkūr� DN in Hellenistic Uruk. The term makkūr�Anu�occurs in administrative and economic context and was the general term for temple property, while makkūr�Anu�u�Antu�‘property of the gods Anu and Antu’ is preferred in colophons of scholarly tablets (Hunger 1968, nos. 87–88). McEwan also notes the occurrence of an isolated makkūr�Bēlti�ša�Uruk�‘property of the Lady-of-Uruk (i.e. Ištar)’ in TCL 13 234: 7, dated to the sixth year of Antigonos Monophtalmos (written Iar-[ti-gu]-ú-nu� on line 35), but he argues this designation should be considered residual. The same text does mention the makkūr�Anu, however (e.g. line 4 and 7). 194 P.-A. BEAULIEU 5. I˹d60˺-ik-ṣur�A Ié-kur-za-kir�ina�muḫ-ḫi 6. I˹dEN˺-it-tan-nu�DUMU�šá�IdNÀ-ḫi-im-mi-i’ 7. lú˹ÌR˺ šá�Itat-tan-nu�˹DUMU˺ šá�Inap-sa-a-nu 8. ina�˹ITI˺GU4 ŠE.BAR a4 3 ME DIŠ+ŠU GUR NÍG.˹GA˺ da-nu 9. ina�gišma-ši-ḫu�šá�da-nu�ina�˹UNUGki˺ 10. ina�muḫ-ḫi�ÍD LUGAL ina-an-˹din˺ reverse 11. [lúmu-kin-nu o o o o o o] 12. [o o o o o o o o o o o o] 13. IÌR-d[30 o o o o o o o o] 14. IKAR?-d˹x˺ [o o o o o o o] 15. Id60-EN-˹šú-nu˺ [o o o o o o] 16. INÍG.BA-d60 [o o o o o o o] 17. I˹ni-din˺-[tu4 o o o] ˹ dx˺ [o o o] 18. I[o o o o] ˹dna-na-a�x x x x MEŠ˺ 19. [o o o o o o I]˹nap-sa-a-nu˺ 20. [o o o o o o I]tat-tan-nu�DUMU šá Inap-sa-a-nu 21. [Io o lúUMBISAG DUMU šá I]˹ÌR-ia˺A IMU.MEŠ 22. [UNUGki ITI] ˹AB˺ UD 5-KAM 23. [MU x-KAM Iar-taḫ-šá]-˹si˺-iš LUGAL KUR.KUR left edge Seal Impression (faint: standing male figure with a cap in front of altar/symbol) NA4 KIŠIB IÌR-d30 upper edge Seal Impression (standing male figure in front of scorpion birdman) Disconnected signs with a clear d+EN [Three hund]red and sixty kurrus of barley, the replacement for barley [which is the propert]y of the god Anu, through the agency of Anu-mukīn-apli, son of Šamaš-iddin, [descendant of] Ḫunzû, Šamaš-kāṣir, son of Zērīya, [descendant of] Ekur-zakir, and Nidintu-Anu, son of Anu-ikṣur, descendant of Ekur-zakir, are owed by Bēl-ittannu, son of Nabû-ḫimmî, a slave of Tattannu, son of Napsānu. He will repay that barley, namely 360 kurrus, the property of the god Anu, in the month Ayyāru in Uruk at the Royal Canal by the measuring standard of the god Anu. [Witnesses o o o o o o] Arad-[Sîn o o o o o] Mušēzib?-[o o o o o] Anu- bēlšunu [o o o o o o] Qīšti-Anu [o o o o o o] Nidin[tu o o o o o o] Nanāya [o o o o o] Napsānu [o o o o] Tattannu, son of Napsānu, [and the scribe is x, son of] Ardiya, descendant of Šumāti. [Uruk, month of] Ṭebētu, 5th day, [xth year of Artaxer]xes (I), king of the lands. YBC 11632 belongs to the so-called Tattannu archive from Borsippa,8 although the transaction was probably drafted at Uruk given its particulars.9 It 8 As pointed out by Jursa and Stolper 2007, 249–250, the archive should rather be known as the Napsānu archive since it was generated by a household named ‘the house of Napsānu’ (bīt� Napsānu), which was in fact an estate located in the town of Harru-ša-Arad-Ea near Borsippa. 9 The Tattannu (i.e. Napsānu) archive is given a general description by Jursa 2005, 94–97, with references to previous literature. The archive will be reconstructed and published in its entirety by Andrew Dix. I wish to express my thanks to him and to Matthew Stolper for permis- sion to include YBC 11632 in my contribution to this volume. My gratitude also extends to Prof. URUK BEFORE AND AFTER XERXES 195 records a promissory note on a large quantity of barley (360 kurrus) described as ‘the property of the god Anu’ (line 2 and 8: makkūr�Anu) and owed by one Bēl-ittannu, a slave of Tattannu, son of Napsānu. The barley must be repaid at a fixed date in Uruk according to ‘the measuring standard of the god Anu’ (line 9: mašīḫu�ša�Anu). The date is severely damaged; only the month (Ṭebētu) and the day (5th day) remain, the year is broken, and only two signs forming the end of the royal name are fully preserved, followed by the title šar�mātāti. These last two signs are si-iš. This allows us to restore almost certainly [Artaḫšas]siš as a writing for Artaxerxes.10 The Tattannu archive, about half of which is still unpublished, extends from the middle of the reign of Darius I until at least the early years of Artaxerxes II. Tattannu, son of Napsānu (= Nabû- šarru-uṣur), one of the participants by proxy in the transaction, is attested from years 7 to 32 of Artaxerxes I, therefore between 458 and 433 (Jursa and Stolper 2007, 249; Oelsner 2007). This means that YBC 11632 falls almost certainly within those years, providing a terminus� ante� quem in the year 433 for the institutional shift to the god Anu as notional owner of the temple resources of Uruk. The people acting on behalf of the temple (the barley is described as ša� qāti� PN1 PN2 u� PN3) bear theophoric names with Anu and Šamaš. Therefore, the onomastic evidence from the text agrees with other late Achaemenid texts from Uruk. The importance of YBC 11632 does not stem exclusively from the earliest mention it provides of the property and other institutions of the god Anu. It also bears witness to the range of activities of the descendants and servants of Tat- tannu, furnishing the first, and probably only evidence of their business inter- ests in the agricultural economy of Uruk. Even more important is the fact that the three representatives of the god Anu in this transaction come from the Ḫunzû and Ekur-zakir families. These two influential families belonged to the small, tightly knit elite of Seleucid Uruk. They staffed the upper echelons of the temple, including the office of high priest. Both families had ancient roots in Uruk and are attested already in the Neo-Babylonian documentation of the 6th century, with some of their members belonging to the higher echelons of the temple staff (Kümmel 1979, 130–131). They survived the crisis of the early years of Xerxes, contrary to families of prebendaries of northern Babylo- nian origin such as the Egibi and Šigûa families who disappeared from Uruk at that time and lost their leading position in the cultic affairs of the Eanna temple and the administration of its estates. Therefore, YBC 11632 provides us with a vivid reflection of the new conditions prevailing in Achaemenid Benjamin Foster as well as to Ulla Kasten and Elizabeth Payne for allowing me to publish the text and facilitating its study. 10 Examples of the name Artaxerxes being rendered in cuneiform as Artaḫšasiš�(Iar-taḫ-šá-siš) rather than the usual Artaḫšassu�or Artakšassu�are listed in Stolper 1985, 286. 196 P.-A. BEAULIEU Babylonia in the fifth century. At the macro-economic level, we see a promi- nent business family extend its activities over a significant geographic range, and at the local level we see that business firm interact with families that weathered the troubled circumstances of the Babylonian rebellions and their aftermath. These families may even have assisted in shaping the new political configuration. THE CULT OF ANU UNTIL THE EARLY SIXTH CENTURY Next, we must consider the status of Anu at Uruk before the reign of Xerxes. Anu had very ancient roots at Uruk and formed with Inanna/Ištar the leading group of patron deities of the city, with the addition of Nanāya in the Old Babylonian period. Inanna/Ištar, however, always enjoyed higher status, and it seems in fact that Anu’s position gradually declined throughout the second and early first millennia. In the 7th and 6th centuries the temple of Anu formed a sanctuary of secondary importance that was probably housed in a building separate from the Eanna temple complex. It is mentioned in the Eanna archive always in connection with the temple of Enlil (Beaulieu 2003, 330). All refer- ences to the two temples occur in a group of texts recording deliveries of barley to the bakers and brewers of the Eanna temple to fulfil their cultic duties in these smaller sanctuaries, which were designated collectively as ekurrātu.11 We know that Anu and Enlil had a long cultic association at Uruk in the first mil- lennium since they occur together in the kudurru of Ibni-Ištar, dating to the 9th century. Ibni-Ištar was a priest and prebendary in Eanna and the kudurru records the granting of various privileges to him, including the offerings of bread and beer before Anu and Enlil (Paulus 2014, 667: I 24). Outside these few references, the god Anu appears in 7th and 6th century texts from Uruk mostly in personal names and in the salutation formulas of letters. As we will now see, the onomastic and epistolary material indicates that the position of Anu in the religious feelings of Urukeans did not remain static throughout the Neo-Babylonian and early Achaemenid periods but reflects an increasing devo- tion to the god at that time.12 11 The texts were published in Freydank 1971 and the list of the smaller temples (ekurrātu) can be found on pages 147–148. 12 The following survey is based on a perusal of indices of personal names in the most impor- tant publications of Neo-Babylonian texts from Uruk. It does not intend to be exhaustive. Also, it does not consider the unpublished material. However, the number of texts included is large enough to be considered representative statistically. When a complete prosopography of Neo- Babylonian Uruk becomes available we will be able to refine to a considerable degree the provi- sional conclusions offered here. URUK BEFORE AND AFTER XERXES 197 First, the near complete absence of Anu in personal names in the 7th and early 6th century seems remarkable. The 32 texts from the archive of Nabû- ušallim, found in a private house southwest of the Eanna temple precinct in 1960, are a case in point (Hunger 1970). The archive extends from 700 to 593, but texts are concentrated mostly in the early years of Nabopolassar and between 610 and 593. The texts are all legal transactions and contain numerous personal names. Only one Anu name is attested, that of the governor of Uruk, Anu-aḫu-iddin. Remarkably, the texts contain few names in Ištar, Innin and Nanāya, but names with Nabû, Marduk and Bēl are numerous, with Nabû names easily forming the most important single group. A similar picture emerges from a survey of the earlier strata of the Eanna archive that are coeval with the reigns of Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar. GCCI 2 includes 78 texts from the reign of Nabopolassar, none of which contain a name formed with Anu (Dougherty 1933). The Yale Babylonian Collection still holds more than two hundred unpublished texts dated to the reign of Nabopolassar, most of them from Uruk. According to Laurie Pearce, who is in charge of their publica- tion, of the 936 personal names she has compiled in her database, Anu-aḫu- iddin is the only Anu name attested so far.13 Anu names remain very scarce during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II. YOS 17 includes 369 texts mostly from Uruk dating from the first half of the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II (years 0 to 23) and a number from the reigns of the insurgent rulers Nebuchadnezzar III and IV (Weisberg 1980). The name index to YOS 17 lists one full column of Anu names, but most of these names occur in texts from the reign of the Baby- lonian pretender Nebuchadnezzar IV, and only two of them can be assigned to the first half of the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II: Anu-aḫu-iddin, father of one Marduk-šumu-uṣur,14 and one Anu-useppi, a member of the Šangû-parakki family. GCCI 1 includes 262 texts dated to the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II, the majority from the second half of his reign, and only one Anu name occurs in them (Dougherty 1923). A similar picture emerges from the 240 administrative texts published in AUWE 5 and 11 (Gehlken 1990 and 1996). Most of them 13 I wish to thank Laurie Pearce for sharing information from her database with me. In one text, NCBT 343, Anu-aḫu-iddin is specifically listed as governor of Uruk and descendant of Ḫunzû. In two other texts, NBC 4514 and YBC 4090, he appears without title, filiation or ances- try, but in a position of authority which suggests that he is the same high official as the governor of Uruk. In NCBT 854, however, Anu-aḫu-iddin son of Bēl-ēreš is probably another individual. The dates of Anu-aḫu-iddin’s tenure as šākin�ṭēmi�of Uruk are compiled in Kleber 2008, 38. 14 It is uncertain whether this Anu-aḫu-iddin is the same as the governor of Uruk during the reign of Nabopolassar. The text, YOS 17 29, records that somebody had assumed guarantee for his son Marduk-šumu-uṣur, a fugitive. A recently published letter from the Eanna archive (YOS 21 1) alludes to the same event and shows royal concern for the matter (the letter was probably sent by Nebuchadnezzar II to the authorities of Eanna; see Frahm and Jursa 2011, 16). 198 P.-A. BEAULIEU date to the reigns of Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar, some later. Very few Anu names (five at most) occur in these texts, all of them except one in texts which have broken dates. THE CULT OF ANU DURING THE LONG SIXTH CENTURY Texts from the reign of Nabonidus show some increase in the presence of Anu. The indices of YOS 6 include at least 19 (and possibly 21) different indi- viduals with Anu names,15 and those of YOS 19 at least 11 Anu names with a possibility of a couple more.16 As we move into the early Achaemenid period, Anu names become even more common in spite of the noticeable decrease in the number of texts. The indices to YOS 7 (texts from the reigns of Cyrus and Cambyses) include no fewer than 37 discrete individuals with Anu names and possibly several others who cannot be ascertained (for lack of paternal or ancestral identification).17 Texts from Yale dated to the reign of Barziya, Darius I, and the Babylonian pretender Nebuchadnezzar IV, recently published in YOS 21, confirm the general picture of a growing fashion for Anu. Among this relatively small group of administrative and legal transactions, 24 in total (nos. 196–219), we find 22 discrete individuals bearing Anu names, with a possibility of a couple more.18 The god Anu is also invoked in the salutation formulas of twelve letters from the Eanna archive, and prosopographical analy- sis shows that most of the letters belong to early Achaemenid period, between 539 and 520.19 These constitute fairly strong indications that Anu had become the object of renewed attention at that time, although it seems difficult to ascribe this trend solely to the change of political regime. Indeed, the spread of Anu names is already noticeable under Nabonidus, and of course all the indi- viduals attested with Anu names between 539 and 520 were born and named under Nabonidus or before. To be sure, one should entertain the possibility that some people changed their name after the fall of Babylon, but thus far there is no evidence for a wave of name changes to Anu at that time. 15 The texts were published by Dougherty 1920; the survey of indices yields names beginning with Anu, and one name where Anu is the middle component (Itti-Anu-balāṭu). 16 The texts were published by Beaulieu 2000; the survey of indices yields only names begin- ning with Anu. 17 The texts were published in Tremayne 1925; the survey of indices yields names beginning with Anu, as well as the name Itti-Anu-balāṭu. 18 The texts are published by Frahm and Jursa 2011; the survey of indices yields names begin- ning with Anu, as well as the names Arad-Anu, Erība-Anu, Mārat-Anu-aqar and Nidintu-Anu. 19 The texts are listed and briefly discussed by Beaulieu 2003, 330 n. 30. Frahm and Jursa 2011, 9 n. 49 have noted that these letters all date probably (some certainly) to the early Achae- menid period, adding weight to the theory of a renewed focus on Anu in that period. URUK BEFORE AND AFTER XERXES 199 Only a restricted number of texts from the Eanna archive date after the sec- ond year of Darius I. The latest ones are YOS 21 202 and PTS 2180 (Kessler 2004, 253–255), both from his 29th year. They record deliveries of barley (PTS 2180) and dates (YOS 21 202) to the bakers for the offerings in the Eanna temple. These few texts are supplemented by the archive of the Uruk branch of the Egibi family to be published in AUWE 28, and the much smaller archive of the Atû (‘Doorkeeper’) family preserved in the British Museum (Jursa 2005, 140–141). The onomastic and prosopographical data from the Uruk Egibi archive has been summarized in Kessler 2004. The bulk of the archive dates from the reign of Darius I, extending until his 33rd year, which brings us only three years before the accession of Xerxes. As demonstrated by Kessler, among the eight families that are attested in the archive, a clear division can be drawn between families of northern Babylonian origin and those claiming local roots at Uruk. The former included the descendants of Egibi, Bēl-aplu-uṣur, and Šigûa, and their onomasticon shows uniform adherence to the ruling gods of the Babylonian monarchy: Bēl, Marduk, Nabû and Nergal. Remarkably absent from their repertory are typical Uruk deities such as Ištar, Innin, Nanāya, and also Anu. The families from Uruk include the descendants of Ekur-zakir, Gimil-Nanāya, Ḫunzû, Kidin-Marduk and Šangû-Ninurta. These families not only show a predominance of Uruk deities in their names, but in the case of three families (Ekur-zakir, Gimil-Nanāya, Šangû-Ninurta) Anu is clearly the preferred deity, in one other case (Kidin-Marduk) we see Uruk and Larsa (Šamaš) deities but with Anu not being necessarily predominant, while one family (Ḫunzû) shows a preference for northern Babylonian deities but still includes two individuals with names honouring Anu and Nanāya. Therefore, these texts provide us with fairly clear evidence that the rise of Anu in the onomasticon continued throughout the reign of Darius I and also that the change was not uniform but promoted mainly by families of Urukean ori- gin. In spite of the increased devotion to Anu, however, the gods Bēl, Marduk, Nabû and Nergal continued to occupy a dominant place together with Ištar, Innin and Nanāya in the onomasticon of Uruk until the end of the reign of Darius I. As argued by Kessler, the major transformation occurred during the reign of Xerxes. Babylon had been the heart of the rebellion and the repression which followed entailed the removal from Uruk of families of northern Baby- lonian origin who staffed important offices in the Eanna temple, such as the baker’s and brewer’s prebends, and who made up a substantial part of its priestly collegium (ērib� bīti). These families disappeared from Uruk forever, leaving in charge a small compact of old Uruk families who sponsored the reorganization of the civic religion of Uruk in the 5th century and propelled their god Anu to the top of the pantheon. YBC 11632 from the Tattannu archive now provides additional evidence for this local religious revolution. 200 P.-A. BEAULIEU THE PANTHEON OF URUK In order to clarify further the historical and religious transformation which took place at Uruk, we must now consider in more detail the pantheon of the city both in the cult and in the onomasticon. Mesopotamian pantheons, by which we understand hierarchies of gods reflected in a particular type of source, have been the subject of renewed study in the past generation. Several studies have noted that pantheons differed widely in typology, scope and function, affecting their value as sources for the study of religious devotion and prefer- ences.20 The pantheons found in god lists result from systematic theological orderings which reflect the speculations of scribes and clerics. Royal inscrip- tions and state treaties contain enumerations of gods, but their function is clearly to propagate an official view of the systematized pantheon, one pro- moted by the monarchy and political elites. Offerings lists provide us with more reliable evidence of actual religious practice, especially when they represent the civic cult. This is often the case for offering lists originating in temple archives. Finally, theophoric personal names constitute a relatively reliable indicator of religious inclination among specific groups, although one must still be cautious in handling such data since name preferences can be dictated by fashion in a number of individual cases and have little to do with actual wor- ship. Ideally, onomastic data must be corroborated by other evidence. The documentation from Uruk lends itself admirably to the study of the local pantheon both diachronically and synchronically. The Neo-Babylonian docu- mentation from the Eanna archive contains a large number of texts dealing with the cult, including lists of offerings. The thousands of records from the archive also provide us with a wealth of personal names numbering in the thousands. Thus, we are able to compare the official hierarchy of gods in the civic cult with expressions of personal worship reflected in the onomasticon. The results are outlined in Table 1. Column I enumerates the gods in the same hierarchical sequence as they appear in the theologically ordered offering lists (‘Group A’ in Beaulieu 2003, 73). Column II lists the main gods appearing in personal names.21 Two facts emerge from a comparison of both columns. First, the majority of gods who appear in the offering lists also enjoyed widespread popularity in personal names. The main exceptions are the deities Bēltu-ša-Rēš, Uṣur-amāssu and Bēlet-Eanna, who never appear in the onomasticon, and Urkâyītu, who appears only a few times. Their names consisted mostly of deified epithets of Ištar (e.g. 20 The proceedings of the XXIe RAI in Rome in 1976, published in Orientalia� 45 (1976) 1–226 as “Études sur le Panthéon systématique et les Panthéons locaux”, contain a number of interesting communications in this respect. A more recent survey is Sallaberger 2003–2005. 21 The sample of personal names considered here is derived from a survey of indices in the same publications of texts discussed above for the growth of Anu names. URUK BEFORE AND AFTER XERXES 201 dUrkâyītu ‘the Urukean goddess’, dBēlet-Eanna ‘the Divine Lady-of-Eanna’), and they were present in the temple as objects of cultic devotion essentially as aspects of Ištar-of-Uruk (‘Götterspaltung’). The widespread occurrence in per- sonal names of the theophoric elements Ištar and Innin amply sufficed to express devotions to the great goddess of Uruk. The deity Innin forms an inter- esting converse case, as she is widely attested in the onomasticon but did not receive a distinct cult in the temple. The other fact which deserves notice is that the gods of the Babylonian monarchy occupy a prominent role in both columns. Marduk was present in the Eanna temple as the ‘symbol of Bēl’, worshipped in conjunction with Ištar-of-Uruk, and in his own sanctuary known as the ‘tem- ple of Marduk’, listed just after the three main goddesses of Uruk in the local hierarchy. Nabû occupies the second position in the list with Nanāya, and Ner- gal, the third god in importance for the monarchy, also enjoyed a solid presence under various forms (dIGI.DU and dU.GUR). As for the god Šamaš, his pres- ence in the offering lists and the personal names must be explained by the close institutional relations between Uruk and Larsa. Gula, Ninurta and Nusku appear sometimes in personal names but did not enjoy much popularity, not noticeably more than many other gods who appear in the onomasticon but are absent from the offering lists of group A. We may now turn to the source material from the Seleucid era at Uruk. We do not have comparable offering lists from that period, but we find a consistent hierarchy of the main gods worshiped in the Rēš and Irigal temples in sales of Table 1: The Neo-Babylonian Pantheon of Uruk Hierarchy of gods in offering lists (Group A) Main deities in personal names The Symbol of Bēl, and Ištar-(of-Uruk) Bēl, Marduk, Nabû The Symbol of Nabû, and Nanāya Ištar, Innin, Nanāya Bēltu-ša-Rēš Nergal, Šamaš Temple of Marduk Uṣur-amāssu and Urkâyītu Gula dIGI.DU Bēlet-Eanna and dIGI.DU of Udannu The Divine Chariot The bīt-ḫilṣi Temple of Nergal (dU.GUR) Temple of Ninurta Nusku Šamaš and Aya of Larsa 202 P.-A. BEAULIEU prebends which name the deities before whom service must be performed.22 Most of the documentation dates to the third century. The reconstructed list has long been known (Schroeder 1916) and is reproduced here in Table 2, column 1. In the second column are listed the gods who commonly appear in personal names. Table 2: The Seleucid Pantheon of Uruk Hierarchy of gods in lists of prebends Main deities in personal names Anu Anu (overwhelming majority of names) Antu Ištar, Nanāya, Šamaš Enlil Ea Sîn Šamaš Adad Marduk Papsukkal Amasagnudi Ištar Bēlet-ṣēri Nanāya Bēltu-ša-Rēš Šarraḫītu A comparison of the two columns shows that the correspondence between the official cultic hierarchy and theophoric personal names is less evident than it was three centuries earlier. The cultic pantheon underwent an important revi- sionary process while the onomasticon dropped many previously popular divine names and promoted Anu to the top. In fact, Anu becomes so predominant in Uruk personal names during the Seleucid period that one is almost justified in speaking of a monolatric religion. The other striking fact is that Ištar, Nanāya and Šamaš, who occupy a distant second rank in the onomasticon, do not neces- sarily enjoy the highest rank in the hierarchy reconstructed from lists of preb- ends. Many other gods that occur in these lists hardly if ever make an appear- ance in personal names. Such discrepancies can easily be explained by the academic nature of this cultic pantheon, which did not originate from a long history of religious accretions but was very likely manufactured by local clerics 22 The pantheon of these prebendary lists and its significance are discussed in Beaulieu 1992, while the prebendary system is studied by Corò 2005. URUK BEFORE AND AFTER XERXES 203 at some indeterminate point after the suppression of the Babylonian revolts by Xerxes and the departure of Babylonian families from Uruk. We do not know when these theological reforms came to fruition. We see mostly the end result of this process. The main purpose of the reforming clerics was to bring the god Anu, a deity previously of secondary cultic importance at Uruk, to the summit of the civic pantheon. In order to justify this, they had at their disposal a num- ber of traditional scholarly texts, and more important, god lists which put Anu at the top of the overall hierarchy of Mesopotamian gods. The main god list which inspired them was probably An = Anum, which was still copied at Uruk during the Hellenistic period. Indeed, the hierarchy of the great gods in the list reproduces almost exactly their relative order in An = Anum and also in the related list An = Anu ša amēli (Beaulieu 1992, 57–60). Therefore, the cultic pantheon of that period displays the characteristics of a scholarly pantheon, familiar to a restricted scribal elite but bearing a distant relation to the religious devotion of the population. Only the names of the four main deities of Uruk (Anu, Ištar and Nanāya) and Larsa (Šamaš) appear with any frequency in the onomasticon and the overall number of personal names we have is more restricted than in the Neo-Babylonian period. Most individuals appearing in the cuneiform texts from Seleucid Uruk formed a small, endogamous compact of families who controlled the life of the temple and claimed descent from a few common ancestors. How can one explain such renewed interest in Anu? The answer must neces- sarily be conjectural, because no ancient literary or historical narrative reflects on this process. A possible answer is Persian influence, which might have encouraged a syncretism between Anu and the god Ahura Mazda. However, as we have seen, the rise of Anu in personal names is already perceptible under Nabonidus. A more compelling explanation is local pride and identity. Uruk had been forced to acknowledge the theological dominance of Babylon during the time of the Babylonian empire and probably even before. The main expres- sion of this dominance was the introduction in the Eanna temple of the symbols of the gods Bēl and Nabû. They occur in offering lists alongside the cultic images of Ištar and Nanāya, in effect placing each of the two gods in a shared position at the summit of the local pantheon (Table 1). These symbols are first attested during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II, who may have introduced them in the temple when he returned the legitimate cultic image of the goddess Ištar, the Lady-of-Uruk, to the Eanna temple.23 This, however, is an argument a� silentio�and the symbols may already have been present in the temple prior to his reign.� A tradition represented in several sources attributed the removal of the legitimate image of Ištar either to Erība-Marduk or to Nabû-šumu-iškun, two Chaldean rulers of the middle of the 8th century. A number of texts from 23 The historical background of these changes is discussed in Beaulieu 2003, 129–138. 204 P.-A. BEAULIEU the Eanna archive dated to the 7th century give the name Bēltiya to the cultic image of the goddess Ištar. Bēltiya was basically a deified epithet of the god- dess Zarpanītu, the consort of Marduk, a goddess often syncretized with Ištar- of-Babylon, and this could indicate that the Chaldean rulers of the 8th century introduced a form of Ištar-of-Babylon in the Eanna temple, possibly as an effort to bring the religion of Uruk in line with the capital, in sum, an attempt at religious centralization. It is perhaps at that time that families of prebendaries from Babylon and other northern cities began to migrate to Uruk. After Nebu- chadnezzar II returned the legitimate image of Ištar to the Eanna temple, the designation Bēltiya disappears from our documentation, although the pairing of Ištar-of-Uruk with the god Bēl, and of Nanāya with the god Nabû, continued, together with the dominance of Babylon families among the Eanna priesthood. The reign of Xerxes marks the end of that dominance and a return to the hegemony of local gods, but under a new guise. CONCLUSION Anu was an old city god of Uruk, but he was also the ancestral head of the common Mesopotamian pantheon. Therefore, I am inclined to think that his rising popularity in the onomasticon of Uruk families in the 6th century helped to reassert symbolically the pivotal nature of Uruk as religious centre and thus to counter the centralizing claims of Babylon. The syncretism between Anu and Nabû, which is well documented in theological texts from the first millennium, may also have provided additional stimulus for the rise of Anu (Beaulieu 2014, 29). Nabû had become the most important Babylonian god by the 6th century, and the one most commonly attested in Uruk personal names at that time. Nabû often took precedence over Marduk in various formulas, a reflection of the precedence that Anu enjoyed over Enlil, who was still equated with Marduk in that period. Also, there are some clues suggesting that the clerics of Uruk viewed their reorganized civic cult and especially its main temple, the Rēš, as a counterpart of Babylon and the Esangila temple. They collected texts describ- ing the Esangila,24 and the rituals of the god Anu at Uruk may have been directly influenced by those of Marduk at Babylon.25 Even the name of the new 24 One well-known example is the Esangila tablet, which gives the measurements of the Esangila temple; the main manuscript is from Hellenistic Uruk (edition in George 1992, 109– 119). Another example was published in SpTU 5 220, a text which describes the proportions of various parts of a temple which appears to be the Esangila since the goddess Bēltīya (= Zarpanītu) is mentioned as well as the KÁ-dLAMMA-RA.BI, a well-known component of the Esangila. George 1995 argues that the temple complex described here might well be Esangila in Babylon. 25 In this respect the edition of the rituals of Uruk and Babylon dated to the Hellenistic period published by M.J.H. Linssen is quite informative. It seems hardly coincidental that both Uruk and Babylon had akītu� festivals twice a year in Nisannu and Tašrītu, and that their most important URUK BEFORE AND AFTER XERXES 205 temple of Anu, É.SAG, looks like a truncated form of É.SAG.ÍL. Although the name É.SAG was read Rēš or Bīt Rēš, the resemblance between É.SAG and É.SAG.ÍL certainly did not escape the notice of scribes. After the suppression of the Babylonian revolts by Xerxes, Achaemenid authorities probably began to view the god Anu favourably as a symbolic counterweight to the religious hegemony of Babylon. They may have tacitly encouraged the elite families of Uruk in the creation of a renewed civic religion that was independent from Baby- lon and could even pose as competitor. 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WILLEMS (eds.), Egyptian Religion. The Last Thousand Years. 86. U. VERMEULEN, J.M. VAN REETH (eds.), Law, Christianity and Modernism in Islamic Society. 87. U. VERMEULEN, D. DE SMET (eds.), Philosophy and Arts in the Islamic World. 88. S. CAUVILLE, Dendara II. Traduction. 89. G.J. REININK, A.C. KLUGKIST (eds.), After Bardaisan. Studies on Continuity and Change in Syriac Christianity in Honour of Professor Han J.W. Drijvers. 90. C.R. KRAHMALKOV, Phoenician-Punic Dictionary. 91. M. TAHTAH, Entre pragmatisme, réformisme et modernisme. Le rôle politico- religieux des Khattabi dans le Rif (Maroc) jusqu’à 1926. 92. K. CIGGAAR, H. TEULE (eds.), East and West in the Crusader States. Context – Contacts – Confrontations II. 93. A.C.J. VERHEIJ, Bits, Bytes, and Binyanim. A Quantitative Study of Verbal Lexeme Formations in the Hebrew Bible. 94. W.M. CALLEWAERT, D. TAILLIEU, F. LALEMAN, A Descriptive Bibliography of Allama Muhammad Iqbal (1877-1938). 95. S. CAUVILLE, Dendara III. Traduction. 96. 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BOUD’HORS (eds.), Actes du huitième congrès international d’études coptes. Paris, 28 juin - 3 juillet 2004. 164. A. BERLEJUNG, P. VAN HECKE (eds.), The Language of Qohelet in Its Context. Essays in Honour of Prof. A. Schoors on the Occasion of his Seventieth Birthday. 165. A.G.C. SAVVIDES, Byzantino-Normannica. The Norman Capture of Italy and the First Two Invasions in Byzantium. 166. H.T. DAVIES, Yusuf al-􀆴irbīnī’s Brains Confounded by the Ode of Abu 􀆴aduf Expounded (Kitab Hazz al-Quhuf bi-􀆴arh Qasīd Abī 􀆴aduf). Volume II: English translation, introduction and notes. 167. S. ARGUILLÈRE, Profusion de la vaste sphère. Klong-chen rab-’byams (Tibet, 1308-1364). Sa vie, son œuvre, sa doctrine. 168. D. DE SMET, Les Épîtres sacrées des Druzes. Rasa᾿il al-Hikma.�Volumes 1 et 2. 169. U. VERMEULEN, K. D’HULSTER (eds.), Egypt and Syria in the Fatimid, Ayyubid and Mamluk Eras V. 170. W.J. VAN BEKKUM, J.W. DRIJVERS, A.C. KLUGKIST (eds.), Syriac Polemics. Studies in Honour of Gerrit Jan Reinink. 171. K. D’HULSTER, J. VAN STEENBERGEN (eds.), Continuity and Change in the Realms of Islam. Studies in Honour of Professor Urbain Vermeulen. 172. B. MIDANT-REYNES, Y. TRISTANT, J. ROWLAND, S. HENDRICKX (eds.), Egypt at its Origins 2. 173. J.H.F. DIJKSTRA, Philae and the End of Ancient Egyptian Religion. A Regional Study of Religious Transformation (298-642 CE). 174. I. UYTTERHOEVEN, Hawara in the Graeco-Roman Period. Life and Death in a Fayum Village. 175. P. KOUSOULIS (ed.), Ancient Egyptian Demonology. Studies on the Boundaries between the Demonic and the Divine in Egyptian Magic. 176. A. KARAHAN, Byzantine Holy Images – Transcendence and Immanence. The Theological Background of the Iconography and Aesthetics of the Chora Church. 177. J. NAWAS (ed.), ‘Abbasid Studies II. Occasional Papers of the School of ‘Abbasid Studies, Leuven, 28 June - 1 July 2004. 178. S. CAUVILLE, Dendara. Le temple d’Isis. Volume I: Traduction. 179. S. 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WORTHINGTON (eds.), Narratives of Egypt and the Ancient Near East. Literary and Linguistic Approaches. 190. V. VAN DER STEDE, Les pratiques de stockage au Proche-Orient ancien du Natoufien à la première moitié du troisième millénaire avant notre ère. 191. W. CLAES, H. DE MEULENAERE, S. HENDRICKX (eds.), Elkab and Beyond. Studies in Honour of Luc Limme. 192. M. MARÉE (ed.), The Second Intermediate Period (Thirteenth-Seventeenth Dynasties). Current Research, Future Prospects. 193. I. JACOBS, Aesthetic Maintenance of Civic Space. The ‘Classical’ City from the 4th to the 7th c. AD. 194. H. KNUF, C. LEITZ, D. VON RECKLINGHAUSEN (eds.), Honi soit qui mal y pense. Studien zum pharaonischen, griechisch-römischen und spätantiken Ägypten zu Ehren von Heinz-Josef Thissen. 195. I. REGULSKI, A Palaeographic Study of Early Writing in Egypt. 196. S. CAUVILLE, Dendara XIII. Traduction. Le pronaos du temple d’Hathor: Façade et colonnes. 197. M. KUHN, Koptische liturgische Melodien. Die Relation zwischen Text und Musik in der koptischen Psalmodia. 198. B. SNELDERS, Identity and Christian-Muslim Interaction. Medieval Art of the Syrian Orthodox from the Mosul Area. 199. K. CIGGAAR, V. VAN AALST (eds.), East and West in the Medieval Eastern Mediterranean II. 200. E. LIPIŃSKI, Studies in Aramaic Inscriptions and Onomastics III. 201. S. CAUVILLE, Dendara XIV. Traduction. Le pronaos du temple d’Hathor: Parois intérieures. 202. K. DUISTERMAAT, I. REGULSKI (eds.), Intercultural Contacts in the Ancient Mediterranean. 203. F.S. JONES, Pseudoclementina Elchasaiticaque inter Judaeochristiana. Collected Studies. 204. D. ASTON, B. BADER, C. GALLORINI, P. NICHOLSON, S. BUCKINGHAM (eds.), Under the Potter’s Tree. Studies on Ancient Egypt Presented to Janine Bourriau on the Occasion of her 70th Birthday. 205. R.F. FRIEDMAN, P.N. FISKE (eds.), Egypt at its Origins 3. 206. S. DORPMUELLER (ed.), Fictionalizing the Past: Historical Characters in Arabic Popular Epic. 207. G. 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Local Networks and Imperial Politics in Achaemenid Babylonia. 234. M. SOKOLOFF, A Dictionary of Christian Palestinian Aramaic. 235. M. SOKOLOFF, Texts of Various Contents in Christian Palestinian Aramaic. 236. R.A. FAZZINI, J. VAN DIJK (eds.), The First Pylon of the Mut Temple, South Karnak: Architecture, Decoration, Inscriptions. 237. E. LIPIŃSKI, Peuples de la Mer, Phéniciens, Puniques. Études d’épigraphie et d’histoire méditerranéenne. 238. S. CAUVILLE, Dendara. Harsomtous. 239. A.S. LA LOGGIA, Engineering and Construction in Egypt’s Early Dynastic Period. 240. A.H. PRIES (ed.), Die Variation der Tradition. Modalitäten der Ritualadaption im Alten Ägypten. 241. P. KOUSOULIS, N. LAZARIDIS (eds.), Proceedings of the Tenth International Congress of Egyptologists, University of the Aegean, Rhodes, 22-29 May 2008. 242. P. COLLOMBERT, D. LEFÈVRE, S. POLIS, J. WINAND (eds.), Aere perennius. Mélanges égyptologiques en l’honneur de Pascal Vernus. 243. A. BINGGELI, A. BOUD’HORS, M. 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MINIACI, M. BETRÒ, S. QUIRKE (eds.), Company of Images: Modelling the Imaginary World of Middle Kingdom Egypt (2000-1500 BC). 263. D. BRAKKE, S.J. DAVIS, S. EMMEL (eds.), From Gnostics to Monastics. Studies in Coptic and Early Christianity in Honor of Bentley Layton. 264. R. DEKKER, Episcopal Networks and Authority in Late Antique Egypt. Bishops of the Theban Region at Work. 265. C. JURMAN, B. BADER, D. ASTON (eds.), A True Scribe of Abydos. Essays on First Millennium Egypt in Honour of Anthony Leahy. 266. M. WISSA (ed.), Scribal Practices and the Social Construction of Knowledge in Antiquity, Late Antiquity and Medieval Islam. 267. E. LIPIŃSKI, Toponymes et gentilices bibliques face à l’histoire. 268. A. BATMAZ, G. BEDIANASHVILI, A. MICHALEWICZ, A. ROBINSON (eds.), Context and Connection. Essays on the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East in Honour of Antonio Sagona. 269. K. CIGGAAR, V. VAN AALST (eds.), East and West in the Medieval Eastern Mediterranean III. 270. K. LEVRIE, Jean Pédiasimos, Essai sur les douze travaux d’Héraclès. Édition critique, traduction et introduction. 271. M. PIASENTIN, F. PONTANI, Cristoforo Kondoleon, Scritti Omerici. 272. A. HILKENS, The Anonymous Syriac Chronicle of 1234 and its Sources. 273. M. HONEGGER (ed.), Nubian Archaeology in the XXIst Century. 274. M. ABOU-ABDALLAH, L’histoire du royaume de Byblos à l’âge du Fer, 1080-333. 275. E. LIPIŃSKI, A History of the Kingdom of Israel. PRINTED ON PERMANENT PAPER • IMPRIME SUR PAPIER PERMANENT • GEDRUKT OP DUURZAAM PAPIER - ISO 9706 N.V. PEETERS S.A., WAROTSTRAAT 50, B-3020 HERENT